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DICTIONARY 


()  r 


.4  II  T  S     AMD     S  C  I  E  JV  C  E  S. 


BY  G.  GREGORY,  D.D. 

DOCTOR   IN   PHILOSOPHY   AND  THE  ARTS,  AND    HONORARY  MEMBER   OP  THE   IMPERIAL   UNIVLRSITV   OF  UlLVA  ;     MEM8EU   Oi 

THE  MANCHESTER   AND  NEWCASTLE    LITERARY    AND     PHILOSOPHICAL   SOCIETIES  ;    HONOKAKY  MEMBER  OF  THE 

BOAHI)    OF    AORICULTUHE;    DOMESTIC    CHAl'LAIN    TO    THE    LORD    BISHOP    OF    LLANDAFFJ 

AUTHOR    OP    ESSXYS    HISTORICAL    AN'D    MORAL,    THE    ECONOMY    OF   NATURE. 

6,c.  cSr. 


IN  TWO  VOLUMES. 
VOL.  II. 


LONDON: 
FRINTLD    rOR    RICHARD    PHILLIPS, 

NO.  6,  BRIDGE-STREET,  BL.\CKIRIARS. 


T.  Gillet,  Printer,  Wild-Court. 


DICTIONARY 


OF 


A  R  T  S   AND   SCI  E  N  C  £  S. 


J  A  C 

T  the  niiilli  letter  of  tlie  alphabet,  ii5C(l  as 
•*-)  a  niincral,  sigjiilie-!  no  mare  than  one, 
and  stau.ls  t'orSo  many  iniits  as  it  i-;  repeated 
tiin-s:  thus,  I,  one;  11,  two;  III,  three, 
Sec.  and  when  put  before  a  highi-r  nume- 
ral, it  <nt)tract7i  itself,  as  IV,  four;  IK,  nine, 
Sec.  but  when  set  after  it,  so  many  are  added 
to  the  hi^hiM-  nu.neral,  as  there  are  I's  added; 
tluis  VI  is  5  +  !,  or  six;  VII,  5  +  2,  or 
sev  n;  VIII,  5  +  3,  or  eight.  The  antient 
Roiir.Mi-i  lil<ewise  used  If)  for  500,  Clf)  for 
1000,  If)f)  for  5000,  CCIfjf)  for  10,000, 
If),-),-)  for  50,000,  and  CCCl '-),'),')  for  100, 
000.  Farther  than  this,  as  I'liny  observes, 
they  did  nut  a,o  in  their  notation  ;  liut  when 
necessirv,  repeated  the  hist  number,  a> 
CCCT^")-),  CCCIj-),-)  for  200,000  ;  CCC- 
I,T")").^'^^t:i,l.D!).  t;t;CIo.').f)  for300,000  ; 
and  so  on. 

JACK,  in  rtierhanics,  an  instrument  in 
common  use  for  raising  heavy  timber,  or 
very  cjreat  weii^hts  of  any  kind,  being  a  pow- 
erful combination  of  teeth  an(l  pinions,  and 
the  whole  inclosed  in  a  strong  wooden  slock 
or  frame  IK',  and  moved  by  a  winch  or  han- 
dle UP;  the  outside  appearing  as  in  Pi.ile 
Miscel.  tig.  131.  In  lig.  132,  the  wheel  or 
rack  work  is  shewn,  being  the  view  of  the 
inside  when  ihe  stock  is  removed.  T.hougli 
it  is  not  drawn  in  the  just  proportions  and 
dimensions,  for  the  rack  Ali  must  be  sup- 
posed at  least  four  times  as  long  in  proportion 
to  the  wheel  Q,  as  the  figure  represents  it; 
and  the  teeth,  which  will  be  then  four  times 
more  in  number,  to  have  about  three  in  the 
inch.  Now  if  the  handle  UP  is  seven  inches 
long,  the  circumference  of  this  radius  will  be 
44  inches,  which  is  the  distanctj  or  space  the 
power  moves  through  in  one  revolution  of 
the  h.mdle  ;  but  as  the  pinion  of  the  handle 
has  but  four  leaves,  and  the  wlieel  Q  suppose 
20  teeth,  or  five  times  the  number,  there- 
fore to  make  one  revolution  of  the  wheel  (^, 
it  requires  live  turns  of  the  handle,  in  which 
case  it  passes  through  5  thnes  44  or  220 
inch'-s ;  but  the  wheel  having  a  pinion  K  of 
tliree  leaves,  these  will  raise  the  rack  tliree 
teeth,  or  one  inch,  in  the  same  space. 
Uence,  then,  the  handle  or  jjower  moving 
220  times  as  fast  as  the  weight,  will  raise  or 
balance  a  weight  of  220  times  its  own  energy. 

\  OL.  II. 


J  A  C 

And  if  this  is  the  hand  of  a  man  who  can  sus- 
tain 50  pounds  weight,  he  will,  by  the  help 
of  this  jack,  be  able  to  raise  or  sustain  a 
weight  or  force  of  11000  pounds,  or  about 
five  tons  weight. 

This  machine  is  sometimes  open  behind 
from  tlie  bottom  almost  up  to  the  wheel  Q,  to 
let  the  lower  claw,  which  in  that  case  is  turne<I 
up  as  at  B,  draw  up  any  weight.  When  the 
weight  is  drawn  oi  pushed  sufficiently  high, 
it  is  kept  from  going  back  by  hanging  the 
end  of  the  hook  S,  fisj-d  to  a  staple,  over 
the  curved  part  of  tlie  handle  at  h. 

The  Society  of  Arts  rewarded  Mr.  Mo- 
cock  of  Southwark,  with  a  premium  of  20 
aiiineas,  for  his  contrivance  to  prevent  a  jack 
from  taking  a  retrograde  course  whenever 
the  wtight  bv  any  accidental  circumstance 
overbalances  the  power.  The  improved 
jack  only  dill'ers  from  those  in  common  use 
in  this  respect,  that  it  has  a  pall  or  clock,  and 
ratchet,  applied  in  such  manner  as  to  stop 
tlie  motion  of  the  machine  as  soon  as  it  be- 
gins to  run  back  again.  As  the  dillVrencc 
in  the  mechanism  is  very  triding,  tlie  im- 
provement may  be  easily  applied  to  any 
common  jacks  already  made. 

Jack  is  also  the  naine  of  a  well-knowa 
engine,in  tlie  kitchen,  used  for  turning  a  spit. 
Here  the  weight  is  the  power  applied,  acting 
by  a  set  of  pulleys  ;  the  friction  of  the  parts, 
and  the  weight  with  which  the  spit  is  charged, 
are  the  forces  to  be  overcome  ;  and  a  steady 
uniform  motion  is  maintained  bv  means  of  a 
rty. 

The  commtin  worm-jack  is  represented  at 
Plate  Miscel.  fig.  130.  A(5C  is  the  barrel 
round  which  the  cord  QU  is  wound  ;  KL 
the  main  wdieel,  commonly  containing  Co 
teeth  ;  N  tlie  worm-wheel  of  about  thirty 
teeth,  <  ut  obliquely;  LM  the  pinion,  of 
about  15  ;  ()  the  worm  or  endless  screw,  con- 
sisting of  two  spiral  threads,  making  an  angle 
of  sixty  or  seventy  degrees  with  its  axis;  X 
the  stud,  and  Z  the  loop  of  the  w  orm-spindle  ; 
P  a  heavy  wheel  or  fly,  connected  with  the 
spindle  ol  the  endless  screw  to  make  the  mo- 
tion uniform;  DG  th.e  struck  wheel  fixed 
to  the  axis  FI) ;  S,S,S,  are  holes  in  the  frame, 
by  which  it  may  be  nailed  to  a  board,  and 
thence  to  any  wall,  the  end  I)  being  per- 
A 


J  A  C 

milted  to  pass  tlirough  it;  III  the  handle 
going  upon  the  axis  E'V,  to  wind  up  tiie 
weight  when  it  lias  run  down.  K  is  a  box 
of  fixed  pullirvs,  and  \'  a  corrcs)ionding  one 
of  moveable '  pulleys  carrying  the  weight. 
The  axis  ICT  is  lixed  in  the  barrel  AC',v,lii(h 
axis  being  hollow,  both  it  and  the  barrel 
turn  round  upon  the  axis  FD,  which  is  fixed 
to  the  wheel  KL,  w  hen  it  turns  in  the  order 
BTA  ;  but  cannot  turn  the  contrary  way,  by- 
reason  of  a  catch  nailed  to  the  end  AB,  wlili  h 
lays  hold  of  the  cross-bars  in  the  wheel  LK. 

'I'he  weight  by  means  of  the  cord  QH,  in 
consequence  of  its  descent,  ca;rits  about  tho 
barrel  AB,  which  by  the  action  of  the  catcli 
carries  the-  wheel  Kj^,  and  this  moves  the 
pinion  L.\I  and  wheel  N,  the  latter  moving- 
tbe  jvorm  ()  and  the  ily  1'.  Also  the  wheei 
I-M  c;irries  the  axis  FD  with  the  wheel  DG, 
which  carriis  the  cord  or  chain  that  goes 
abont  the  wheel  or  pulley  at  the  liead  of  the. 
spit.  But  when  the  handle  H  gives  motion 
to  the  axis  in  a  contrary  order  to  that  giveu 
by  the  weight,  tlu'  catch  is  depressed  ;  so  that 
although  the  barrel  BC  moves  and  winds  the. 
cord  upon  it,  the  wheel  DG  contuiues  at  rest. 
The  time  which  the  jack  will  continue  ia 
motion  depends  upon  the  number  of  pulleys 
at  B  and  V:  and  as  these  increase  or  de- 
crease, so  must  the  weight  which  communi- 
cates the  motion,  in  order  to  perform  the 
same  work  in  the  same  thne. 

Jack,  intake,  is  an  engine  used  for  the 
same  purpose  as  tlie  common  jack;  and  is  so 
called  from  its  being  moved  by  means  of 
the  smoke,  or  rarefied  air,  ascending  the 
chinmey,  an^  .striking  against  the  sails  of 
the  horizontal  wheel  AB  (Plate  Miscel.  fig. 
129);  which  being  inclined  to  the  horizon,  is 
moved  about  the  axis  of  the  wheel,  together 
with  the  pinion  C,  which  carries  the  wheels 
D  and  E;  and  E  carries  the  chain  F,  which 
turns  the  spit.  The  wheel  AB  should  be 
placed  in  the  narrow  part  of  the  chimr.cv 
where  the  motion  of  the  smoke  is  sv\iftrst 
and  where  also  the  greatest  part  of  it  must 
strike  upon  the  sails.  The  lorce  of  this  ma- 
chine depends  upon  thi'  draught  of  the  cbim-' 
ney,  and  the  strength  of  the  lire. 

Smoke-jacks    are    somcttmes   uiaved    by 
mwns  of  spiral  llyers  toiling  abo;:l  a  verticii 


J  A  M 


JAP 


axle ;  and  at  other  times  by  a  vertical  wheeli  infantry,  reputed  the  grand  si^'nior's  guards, 


with  sails  like  the  lloat-boiiTi's  of  a  mill  ;  l)Ut 
the  above  is  the  more  customary  construc- 
tion. 

JACK-FlaG,  in  a  sliip,  that  hoiited  up  at 
the  sprit-sail  top-uva^l  he^id. 
JACKAl.L.     SeeCAN-i?. 
JACOiVs  STAFF,  a  niatiu'matical   instru- 
ment olhtrwiae  cslled  cross-statT.  SccCross. 
JACOBITFS,  in  church  history,  a  sect  of 
chiistians   in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia;     so 
calliid  either  from  Jacob,  a  Syrian,  wlio  lived 
in  the  icign  of  the  emperor  Mauricius  ;  or 
(rom  OiieJai'jb,  a  monk,  wiio  liourishcd  in 
the  ye.tr  5jn. 

JACOBL'S,  an  antient  gold  coin  worth 
iHeiity-live  shillings. 

JACQL'INIA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  hexandria  class  of  plants  ;  and 
ill  the  natural  method  ranking  with  liioseof 
vhich  tlie  order  is  doubtful.  'I'iu'  corolla  is 
decenilid  ;  tlie  stamina  inserted  into  the  re- 
ceptacle; ttie  berry  monospermous.  There 
are  four  species,  sin  ubs  of  South  America. 

JADE-STON'E,  lapis  nephriticus,  or  Jaspa- 
chates,  a  genus  of  S:liceous  earths.  It  gives 
fire  with  steel,  and  is  semitranspareiit  like 
flint.  It  does  not  harden  in  the  lire,  but 
melts  in  tlie  focus  of  a  burning-glass  into  a 
t»ansparent  green  glass  with  some  Imbbies. 
A  kind  brought  from  the  river  of  the  Ama- 
2-)ns  in  America,  and  called  circoncision 
ftone,  nieits  more  easily  in  the  focus  into  a 
l)ro\vn  o|)ac[ue  glass,  far  less  hard  than  the 
stone  it^t-lt.  The  jade-stone  is  unctuous  to 
ttie  touch;  whence  Mr.  Kirwan  seems  to 
suspect,  that  it  contains  a  portion  of  argil- 
laceous earth,  or  rather  magnesia.  The  .spe- 
cific gravity  is  from  i,'.970  to  3.3S9  ;  the  tex- 
iure  granukir,  with  a  greasy  look,  but  exceed- 
ingly hard,  lieing  superior  in  this  respect  even 
to  quartz  itsell.  It  is  iufu^ible  in  the  tire, 
uor  tan  it  bf  dissolved  in  acid»  without  a 
particular  management  ;  though  M.  Saus- 
sure  seems  to  have  extracted  iron  from  it. 
Soinetime-,  it  is  met  with  of  a  whitish  mi'ky 
rolour  horn  China  ;  but  mostly  of  a  deep  or 
pale  green  front  America.  Tlie  coiuirinn 
lapis  nephriticus  i^  of  a  grey,  )ellowi>h,  or 
vlive  colour.  It  has  its  name  from  a  suppo- 
si'ioii  of  its  being  capable  of  giving  ease  in 
uepliritic  pains,  by  being  applied  externally 
\o.  the  loins.  It  may  be  distinguished  froiii 
all -other  stones  by  its  hardiicsi,  semipellu- 
Vldily,  and  specific  giTivity. 
Acc'jRlijig  to  Jloepfner  it  is  composed  of, 

47  silica 

38  carl?onat  of  magnesia 

9  iron 

4altnnina 

2  carboiiat  of  lime 


WO. 

JA.f.AP,Jalap(i,  in  bot^.u^,  a  plant  of  the 
penlandria  moi.ogynia  class.'  See  Convol- 
vui.i-s,  and  Materia  Mkdica. 

l/VMI>U.;,  ill  aiu-ient  poetry,  a  sort  of 
Terse,  sd  lallwl  fi-om  its  consisting,  either 
wlioHv  or  ill  great  pari,  of  iambuses. 

LV>Ilil.'S,  in  aiili<'iil  poetry,  a.  simple- foot 
toii'-i'iling  of  a  ■;hort  and  a  long  sylljiblp. 

JA.MI'.S,  ariiuii/ilnojM  ./i/wmv  a  military 
ord-r  in  S|x.un,  lir^l  instil+itid  about  the  year 
1170,  by  t'crUiiiaini  11.  kiiig  of  Leon  aiul 
Gidicia. 

JANlilMUE^,  au  ordet  of  '.k- TmUsh 


and  the  main  strength  of  the  Ottoman  army. 

J.-VNSF.NISTS,  in  church-history,  a  sect 

of  the  Roman  catholics  in  France,  who  fol- 

lo-.v    the   opinions    of    Jaiisenius,    bishop   of 

I  Ypres,  and  doctor  of  divinity  of  the  univer- 

si  ies  of  Louvain  and  Douiiy,  nearly  those  of 

Calvin,  in  relation  tograce  and  predestination. 

JAPANNING  is  properly  the  art  of  var- 

nWiing  -and  painting  ornaments  on  wood,  in 

the  same  manner  as  is  done  by  the  natives  of 

Jajjaii  in  the  East  Indies. 

The  substances  whicli  admit  of  being  ja- 
panned are  almost  every  kind  that  are  dry 
snd  rigid,  or  not  loo  llexible ;  as  wood,  me- 
tals, leatlier,  and  paper,  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

Wood  and  metals  do  not  require  any  other 
preparation,  but  to  have  then-  surfaces  per- 
fectlv  even  and  clean  ;  but  leather  should  be 
securely  strained,  either  on  frames  or  on 
boards  ;  as  its  bending,  or  forming  folds, 
would  otherwise  craik  and  force  olf  the  coats 
of  varnish.  Paper  should  be  tre.ited  in  the 
same  manner,  and  have  a  previous  strong 
coat  of  some  kind  of  size ;  but  it  is  rarely 
■m.ide  the  subject  of  japanning  till  it  is  con- 
verted into  papier  mache,  or  wrought  bv 
other  means  into  such  farm,  that  its  original 
state,  particularly  witli  respect  to  llexibility, 
is  changed. 

One  principal  variation  from  the  method 
formerly  used  in  japanning  is,  the  omitting 
any  priming,  or  undercoat,  on  the  work  to 
he  jaiianned.  In  the  older  practice,  such  a 
priming  was  always  used;  the  use  of  which 
was  to  save  in  the  (luanlity  of  varnish,  bv 
tilling  up  the  ineiivialities  iii  the  surface  of 
the  substance  to  be  varnished.  Hut  there  is 
a  great  inconveuience  arising  from  the  use 
of  it,  that  the  Japan  coats  are  constantly  li- 
able to  be  cracked,  and  peeled  off,  by  any 
violence,  and  will  not  endure  near  so  long 
as  the  aiticles  which  arc  japanned  without 
any  such  priming, 

OJ'  tilt  nature  of  .fiqiaii  i^rounds. — When 
a  [iriniing  is  used,  the  work  should  hrst  be 
prepared  by  being  well  suiocrfhed  with  tish- 
skiii  or  gla^s-paper,  and  being  made  tho- 
roughly clean,  --lioulcl  lie  brushed  over  once 
or  twice  with  hot  size,  diluted  with  two- 
thirds  water,  if  it  is  of  the  c;ommon  strength. 
'I'lie  priming  should  tlien  lae  laid  on  as  even 
as  possiblo,  ami  should  be  formed  of  a  si^ie, 
of  a  consistency  between  the  counnon  kind 
and  glue,  mixed  with  as  much  whiting  as  will 
give  it  a  sufllcicnt  body  of  colour  to.  hide  the 
surface  of  whatever  it  is  laid  upon,  but  not 
more.  This  must  be  repeated  till  the  iiu^ 
(|U:tlities  are  conrpletely  tilled  up,  and  I  hen 
the  work  must  be  cleaned  off  with  Dutch 
rushes,  and  poli,-.hed  with  a  wet  rag. 

When  wood  or  leather  is  to  be  japannert, 
and  no  iriniing  is  used,  the  best  preparation 
is  to  kiy  two  or  three  coals  of  coarse  var- 
nish, composed  in  thofollowing  manner. 

Take  of  rectified  spirit  of  wine  one  pint, 
atul  of  coarse  seed-lac  and  resin  each  two 
ounces;  dissolve  the  seed-lac  and  resin  in  the 
spirit,  and  then  strain  off  the  varni>h. 

This  v:u-ii  sh,  as  well  as  all  others  formed 
of  ii|«rit  of  wine,  must  be  laid  on  in  a  warm 
|>lace  ;  un(\  if  il  can  be  (tonveuienlly  mana- 
ged, (he  piece  of  work  to  be  varnished  sliould 
be  mack-  warm  likewise  ;  and  for  the  same 
reajon^all  (taiiipiiess  should  be  avoided;  for 
citUcs  cold  or  moisture  diills  liiis  kind  of 


JAP 

vaniisii,  and  prevents  its  taking  proper  Iiold 
of  tiie  substance  on  which  it  is  laid. 

When  tlie  work  is  so  prepared,  or  by  the 
priming  with  the  composition  of  size  and 
whiting  above  described,  the  proper  jajjaii 
ground  must  be  laid  on,  which  is  much  the 
best  lormed  of  shell-lac  varnish,  and  the  co- 
lour desired,  except  white,  w  liicli  requires  a 
peculiar  treatment ;  and  if  brightness  ,ii 
wanted,  then  also  other  means  must  be  pilr- 
sued. 

'I'he  colours  used  with  the  shell-lac  varnish 
may  be  any  pigments  whatever,  which  gue 
the  tint  of  the  ground  desired. 

As  metals  never  reciuiie  to  be  uiKler-coated 
with  wliiting,  they  may  be  tix-ated  in  the 
same  manner  as  wood  or  leather. 

Method  of  pointing  Japan  vjork. — Japan 
work  ought  properly  to  be  i)ainted  with  co- 
lours in  varnish  ;  though,  for  the  greater  dis- 
liatcli,  and  in  some  very  nice  work  in  small, 
lor  the  freer  use  of  the  pencil,  the  colours 
are  sometimes  tempered  in  oil  ;  which  should 
previously  have  a  touith  part  of  its  weight 
oi  gum  animi  dissolved  in  it ;  or  in  default 
of  that,  gum  sandarach,  or  gum  mastich. 
W  iien  the  oil  is  thus  used,  it  sliould  be  well 
diluted  with  oil  of  turpentine,  tliat  the  co- 
lours may  lie  more  evenly  and  thin  ;  by  which 
means  tewer  of  the  poiishing  or  upper  coats 
of  varnish  become  necessary. 

In  some  instances,  water-colours  are  laid 
on  grounds  of  gold,  in  the  manner  of  other 
paintings;  and  are  best,  when  so  used  in. 
their  proper  ap[)earance,  without  any  varnish 
over  them;  aud  tliey  are  also  sometimes  so 
managed  as  to  have  the  eli'ect  of  embossed 
work.  The  colours  employed  in  this  way, 
for  painting,  are  best  prepared  by  means  of 
isinglass  size,  corrected  by  honey  or  sugar- 
candy.  'I'he  body,  of  which  tlie  embossed 
work  is  raised,  need  not,  however,  be  tinged 
with  the  exterior  colour,  but  may  be  best 
formed  of  very  strong  gum-water,'thickened 
to  a  proper  consistence  Ly  bole  armcnian  and 
whiting  in  icpial  parts;'  wliicli  being  laid  on 
the  proper  figure,  and  repaired  when  dry, 
may  be  then  painted  w  ith  the  proper  co- 
lours, tempered  with  tlie  isinglass  size,  or,  in 
the  usual  manner,  with  shell-lac  varnish, 

Monntr  ofj-arnisliing  Japan  vjnrk. — The 
linisliing  of  japan-work  depends  on  the  laving 
on,  ami  polishing,  the  outer  coats  of  varnish 
which  are  necessary,  as  well  in  the  pieces 
that  have  only  one  simple  ground  of  colour,. 
as  with  those  that  are  painted.  I'his  is  iu 
general  done  best  with  common  seid-lac 
varnish,  eNcejit  in  the  instances,  and  on  those 
occasions,  where  jiartic  ular  methods  are 
deemed  to  be  more  expedient;  and  the 
same  reasons  which  decide  as  to  the  fit- 
ness or  impropriety  of  the  variii>lies,  with_ 
respect  to  the  colciurs  of  the  ground,  bold 
ec|ually  with  rc-gard  to  those  of  the  ])ainting. 
For  \vliere  brightness  is  the  most  material 
point,  and  a  tinge  of  yellow  will  injure  it, 
secd-lac  must  give  way  to  the  whitei-  gums  ^ 
but  where  hardness  and  a  greater  tcMiacity 
are  most  essimtial,  it  must  be  adhered  to  v 
and  whcie  both  arc  so  necessary,  that  it  is 
proper  one  should  give  way  to  the  other  in 
a  certain  di-gree  reciprocally,  a  mixed  var- 
nish must  be  adopted. 

ThLs  mixed  varnish,  as  we  have  already 
observed,  should  U:  made  of  the  picked 
sccd-lac.     The  coinniou  sced-lac   -^ai-uisb.,. 


JAP 

wliirli  ii  the  mo<;t  viscful  prpparntiiiti  nf  the 
kiiiil  hillierto  iiivoiil.-<l,  iii;i.v  l)'?  tlii'<  "lailf. 

'laki"  of  si'Pil-lai-  tliri'i-  ounces,  ami  put  it 
iiiti)  walfjr,  to  frei'  it  from  tin-  sticks  and  lillli  j 
that  are  frpiiiiciilly  iiitoniiiNcfl  willi  it;  ai;il  J 
vliicii  must  !).■  (loiic  l)y  stirring  it  al>i)ul,  ami 
tlieii  pnuriiii;  off  t lie  water,  r.nd  addius;  Ircsli 
ipiaiilitii's  in  order  to  repeat  the  opirration, 
fill  it  i-;  freed  from  all  impurities,  as  is  very 
t'irecliiallv  done  by  lliis  mi'ans.  Dry  ittlien, 
find  poMiK-r  it  crossly,  and  put  it,  w'vU  a  pint 
of  rectified  spirit  of  wine,  into  a  holtle,  of 
vhicli  it  will  not  fill  above  two-tliirds.  Shak>; 
the  mixture  wi-ll  toc;etlier,  and  pl.ici!  tlie 
bottle- in  a  c;eiitli-  heat,  till  the  secd-lar  ap- 
pears to  be  dissolved  ;  the:  sliakins;  being  in 
Ihi-  mean  time  repeated  as  often  as  may  be 
convenient;  and  then  pour  otV  all  that  can 
be  obtahie  1  clear  by  this  mi-thod,  and  strain 
the  remainder  throuj^h  a  coarse  cloth.  The 
varnish  thus  pri'pari'd,  must  be  kept  for  ir-e 
in  a  bottle  well  stopped. 

When  the  spirit  of  wine  is  very  stronjj;,  it 
will  dissolve  a  gn/ater  proportion  of  tliesecd- 
lac;  but  this  (piantily  will  saturate  the  com- 
mon, wliich  is  seldoiii  of  a  strength  suflici- 
ent  to  make  varnishes  in  perfection.  As  the 
chilling,  which  is  the  most  inconvenient  ac- 
cident attending  varnishes  of  this  kind,  is 
prevented  or  produced  more  freipiently, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  spirit  ;  we 
shall  therefore  take  this  o])portunity  of  shew- 
ino:  ti  method  by  which  weaker  rectilied 
Spirits  may  with  great  ease  at  any  time  be 
freed  from'  the  phlegm,  and  rendered  of  the 
fir^t  degree  of  strength. 

"^I'ake  a  pint  of  th  •  common  rectilied  spirit 
ol  wine,  and  put  it  into  a  bottle,  of  wliich  it 
will  not  till  above  three  parts ;  add  to  it  half 
an  ounce  of  pearl-ashes,  salt  of  tartar,  or  any 
other  alkaline  salt,  heated  red-hot,  and  pow- 
deri-d  as  well  as  it  can  be  withjut  much  loss 
of  its  heat.  Shake  the  mixture  fretpiently 
for  the  space  of  half  an  hour  ;  b'fore  which 
time,  a  great  part  of  the  phlegm  will  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  spirit,  and  will  appear,  toge- 
ther with  the  undissolved  part  of  the  salts, 
in  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  Let  the  spirit 
be  poured  oil',  or  freed  from  the  phlegm  and 
the  salts,  by  means  of  a  tritoriuni,  or  separat- 
ing funnel ;  and  let  half  an  ounce  of  the 
pearl-ashes,  heated  and  powdered  as  before, 
be  added  to  it,  and  the  same  treatment  re- 
peated. This  may  be  done  a  lhir<l  time,  if 
the  (juantily  of  phlegm  separateil  by  the  ad- 
dition of  the  pearl-ashes  appears  considerable. 
An  ounce  of  aUnn  reduced  to  jjowder,  and 
made  hot,  but  not  burnt,  must  then  be  put 
into  the  spirit,  and  suffered  to  remain  some 
llours,  the  bottle  being  frecpiently  shaken; 
afier  which  the  spirit,  being  pour«d  oif  from 
it,  will  be  lit  for  use. 

The  addition  of  the  alum  is  necessary  to 
iievitralize  the  remains  of  the  alkaline  salt, 
whii  h  would  otherwise  greatly  deprave  the 
jpirit,  with  respect  to  varnishes  and  lacquiT 
where  vegetable  colours  are  concerned,  and 
must  conseipiently  render  another  distilla- 
tion necessary. 

The  manner  of  using  the  seed-lac,  or  white 
■varnish,  is  the  same,  except  with  regard  to 
the  substance  used  in  polishing:  which, 
where  a  piu'e  white  of  a  great  clearness  of 
other  colours  is  in  question,  should  be  itself 
white;  whereas  the  browner  sorts  of  polish- 
■  iiig-dust,  as  being  cheaper,  and  doing  their 


J  A  9 

bunlne^*  Willi  (jrcaler  di!.j)uli  h,  may  he  »ti| 
in  ofher  ca^-ci.,  'lite  piecei  ol  woik  lo  be 
variuslied,  >-lK)iild  be  phueil  miir  a  fire,  or 
in  a  room  whrre  there  is  a  sIonc,  aiul  made 
perlirily  dry;  and  then  the  vainisii  may  bn 
rubbi-d  over  lliein  by  the  picper  lirii'sbes 
inad<' lor  that  purpose,  beginning  hi  liie  niid- 
dle,  and  passing  the  brush  lo  one  end,  an<l 
then  with  anoiher  stroke  from  the  niiddlr, 
pa  sing  It  t)  the  other,  lint  no  part  should 
be  cron-^ed,  or  twice  p.  s^ed  over,  m  forming 
one  coat,  wli  re  it  can  be-  possibly  avoided. 
\\  hen  one  coat  is  dry,  anoiher  mu>t  b.;  laid 
oviT  it ;  and  this  niust  be  continued  at  K-ast 
live  or  six  tinies,  or  more,  il  on  rial,  there 
is  not  suflicieiit  thickne-s  of  van.isli  lo  bear 
tlic  polish,  without  laying  bare  the  pahitilig 
or  ground-colour  miderijcath. 

When  a  suliii  ient  number  of  coats  Is  thus 
laid  on,  the  work  is  fit  to  be  polished;  whicli 
must  be  done,  in  common  ca-.es,  by  rubbing 
it  with  a  rag  di|)ped  in  tripuli,  or  rollenstone, 
lini;ly  powdered  ;  but,  towards  ihe  end  of  the 
nibbing,  a  little  oil  of  any  kind  should  be 
used  along  will  the  powder;  and  when  the 
work  appears  ^uliicii  iitlj  bright  and  glossy, 
it  should  be  well  rubbeil  with  the  oil  alone, 
to  clean  it  from  the  powder,  and  give  it  a 
still  brighter  lustre. 

J.MUiOX.     SeeZiRcov. 

JA.SIONK,  a  genus  of  tlie  monogamia 
order,  in  the  syngenesia  class  of  plants,  and 
in  the  natural  nietliod  ranking  under  the  4<Jtli 
order,  campaiiacex.  'I'he  comnmn  calyx  is 
ten-leaved ;  and  the  corolla  has  live  regular 
iH'tals;  the  capsule  beneath,  two-celled. 
I'here  are  four  species,  shrubs  of  the  West 
Indies. 

J.-VSMINl'M,  Jasmine,  or  Jf.ssamive- 
TKf:E,  a  genus  of  the  monogvnia  order,  in 
the  diandria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  na- 
tural method  ranking  under  the  44th  order, 
sepiari;e.  The  corolla  is  salver-shaped,  the 
berry  dic^ccous  ;  the  seeds  arillated,  tin- an- 
thera'  within  the  tube.  There  are  17  species. 
Tlie  most  remarkable  are:  I.  '1  he  ollicinalis, 
or  common  white  jasmine,  with  shrubby  long 
slender  stalks  and  branches,  rising  upon  su])- 
ports  15  or  20  feet  high,  with  numerous  while 
tlowersfrom  the  joints  and  ends,  of  a  verv 
fragrant  odour.  There  is  a  variety  with 
white-striped,  and  another  with  yellow-striped 
leaves.  2.  The  fruticans,  or  shrubby  yellow- 
jasmine,  has  shrubby,  angular,  trailing  stalks 
and  braiu-hes,  rising  upon  support  eight  or 
ten  feet  high;  trifoliate  and  -iniple  alternate- 
leaves;  with  yello-.v  llowers  from  the  sides 
and  ends  of  the  branches,  appearing  in.hine; 
frequently  jiroducing  berries  of  a  black  co- 
lour, 'i'liis  species  is  remarkable  for  sending 
up  many  suckers  from  its  roots,  often  so 
piiMitifully  as  to  overspread  the  ground,  if  not 
taken  up  annually.  .?.  The  huniilis,  or  dwarf 
yellow  jasmine,  has  shrubby  linn  stalks,  and 
angular  branches,  of  low,  somewhat  robust 
and  bushy  growth  ;  broad,  trifoliate,  and  pin- 
nated leaves;  and  large  yellow  llowers  in 
July,  sometimes  succeeded  bv  berries.  4.T!ie 
grandillornni,  or  greal-llowered  C'atalouian 
jasmine,  has  a  shrubby,  linn,  upright  stem, 
branching  out  into  a  spreading  head  from 
about  three  to  six  or  ei-.jht  feet  high,  with 
large  llowers  of  a  blueisli-red  colour  with- 
out, and  white  within,  appearing  iViim  July 
to  November.  t)f  this  there  is  a  varietv  with 
semidotible  flowers,  having  two  series  of  pe- 
tals.   5.  The  azoricuin,  or  azoriau  wliilejas- 


J  AT  * 

nun',  ho*  nlmibby,  long,  flondcr  (talki  m;d 
brant  lies,  rihiiii;  upon  supports  15  or  "0  feet 
high,  with  pietty  large  liowirs  of  a  fniro 
white  colour,  cuin'ng  oiil  in  loi>-e  bunclien 
lioni  the  eiiiK  ot. the  bi.inchee,  and  appearing 
most  part  of  the  summer  and  auluinu.  6.  '^  It" 
odoiaiieinimn,  or  most  swcet-ncftited  yel- 
low liidi:in  jasmine,  has  a  shrubby  upnpht 
stalk  blanching  ered,  wjllioul  sniipoit',  kix  or 
eiglil  feel  liii^li,  with  brigi.l  )ellow  fl-nu-m  in 
bunclii-5, -fri;ni  Hie  ends  of  the  br-iicliti; 
(lowering  fioiii  July  (ill  October,  and  einil- 
tinga  iniM  fragrant  odour. 

■j  he  lirst  three  species  are  suflicieiitly 
hardy  to  thrive  in  lliis  climate  without  any 
sh(Jter.  'I  he  other  three  species,  which  are 
lender,  iii:.y  be  increased  by  layeM  or  seeiis, 
or  by  gialliiiR  and  budding  them  u|)un  tlx! 
connnun  white  and  blirubby  yellow  jaininie. 
'1  hey  require  shelter  in  a  gremhouoe  ia 
winter,  and  iherefoie  imisl  alwa)S  be  kept  in 
poll  lo  ino\e  iheiii  out  and  in  occasion.iUv- 

JAS1'|!;K.  'J  his  stone  is  an  inprediciii  lit 
Ihe  composition  of  inanv  nioinitams.  It  oc- 
curs usually  in  large  amorphous  masses, 
sometimes  in  roiinded  or  annular  pieii-s.  Ut 
fracture  is  com  hoidal.  iipecili(-  gravity  fro:n 
'J.3  to  2.7.  lis  colours  are  various.  W  hen 
heated,  it  does  not  decrepitate.  Il  ia  usually 
divided  into  4  subspecic*. 

1 .  /•■g'//)//H;i  ptblilf.  This  variety  is  found 
chiellv  111  Kgypt.  It  usually  has  a  spheroidal 
or  llal-roundeil  figure,  ami  is  enveloped  in  a 
coarse  rough  crust.  Specific  gravilv  2.j64 
lo  J.G.  It  is  chietly  disiinguiilied  by  the 
variety  of  colours  which  alway-.  exist  in  the 
same  specimen,  in  concentric  Stripes  or  layers. 
Tlie->t  colours  are  dilfeieut  browns  and  yel- 
lows, gre.-ns,  &c. 

2.  filriped  jasper.  This  variety  is  also 
disting-.iisiied  by  concentric  stnpe.->  or  layers 
of  dillerent  colours:  these colom-s are  yidlow, 
biown;sh-red,  and  green.  It  is  distinguished 
Iroin  the  last  variety  bv  its  occurring  in  largi; 
amorphous  masses,  anil  by  the  disposition  of 
its  stripes. 

3.  Porcelain  jnxper.  So  called  because  itn 
fracture  presents  the  appearance  of  porce- 
lain. Its  colours  are  var.ous  shades  of  grey, 
vellow,  red,  brown,  green,  mi.xed  logetlier. 
Vound  in  mass,  and  in  rounded  pieces.  Grea- 
sy. Kracture  imperfectly  conciioi<lal :  opaque: 
brittle.     Acc-oroins  lo  Rose  it  is  coinposeU  of 

<i0.75  silica 
27.L'j  alumina 

.5.(10  magnesia 

2.J0  oxide  of  iron 

3.t)0  potabs 

07.10 
Found  in  the  neighbourhood  ofpseudo  vol- 
canoes, supposed  to  have  been  altered  by  tha 
action  of  lire. 

4.  Common  janper.  Specific  gravity  from 
3.  j3  to  2.7.  Its  colours  are  diiierent  shades 
of  white,  yellow,  red,  brown,  and  green ;  oitcn 
variegated,  spotted,  or  veined,  with  sevei-al 
colours. 

JATROPIIA,  the  cassada  plant,  a  genas 
of  the  nionadelphia  order,  in  the  monocci.-i 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  tlie  3Sth  order,  tricocca. 
There  is  no  male  calyx;  the  Corolla  is  monc- 
petalous,  and  funnei-shaped;  there  are  ten 
stamina,  one  alternately  longer  tnan  llie  oilier. 
There  is  no  female  calyx;  the  corolla  is  pfu- 
tapetalous  and  patent ;  there  are  three  bi&d 


^1 


J  A  T 


^tvles:  the  capsule  is  trilucular,  «iili  on?  seed 
in  each  cell.  There  are  niiie  species,  of 
\vhic:i  the  mo5t  remarkable  are  :  1.  Tlu-  cur- 
•-ii--,  or  iMigli'ih  physic-iuit,  with  leaves  cor- 
ilatP  Jind  angular,  is  a  kno';v  shrub  growing 
bout  10  or  Vi  feet  hijli.  The  extremlUcs 
ot'tlis  branches  ".re  covered  with  leaves;  and 
the  lloivcrs,  which  are  ol  a  green  lierbaceous 
kind,  areset-on  in  an  umbel  tashion  round  the 
csfremities  of  t'le  branches,  but  especially 
the  Rijin  stalks.  These  are  succeeded  by  as 
many  nuts,  whose  outward  tegument  is  green 
and  husky,  which  bsin^  peeled  oil"  discovers 
the  nut,  whose  shell  is  black,  and  easily  crack- 
ed ;  this  contains  an  ahnand-like  kernel,  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  betweed  which  seinra- 
t;on  lif:  two  miik-while  ihin  menibranJceous 
leaves,  ea=ily  sepava!)!e  from  each  oilier. 
These  have  not  onlv  a  bare  resemblance  o; 
perfect  leaves,  but  have  in  particular  every 
part,  the  stalk,  the  njidille'rib,  ami  transverse 
ones,  as  visible  as  any  leaf  whatsoever.  2.  The 
f^ossypilb'ia,  cotton-leaved  jatropha,  or  belly- 
ache bush,  the  leaves  of  which  are  cjuinque- 
partite,  with  lobes  ovate  and  entire,  and  gian- 
dular  branchy  bristles.  'I'iie  stem,  which  is 
covered  with"  a  light-greyish  bark,  grows  to 
.-.bout  three  or  four  feet  high,  soon  dividing 
into  several  wide-extended  branches.  From 
among  these  rise  several  small  deep-red  pen- 
tapetalous  flowers,  the  pistil  of  each  being 
t'lJck-set  at  the  top  with  yellow  farinaceous 
<i'.ist,  which  bl,)ws  off  Wiien  ripe.  These 
flowers  are  succeeded  by  hexagonal  husky 
blackish  berries,  wliich,  when  ripe,  open  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  emitting  a  great  ninny 
small  dark-coloured  seeds,  which  serve  as 
food  for  ground  doves.  3.  Themultifida,  or 
French  physic-nut,  with  leaves  many-parted 
nnd  polished.  The  llowers  of  this  grow  in 
liunches,. umbel  fashion,  upon  the  extremi- 
ties of  each  large  slalk,  verv  much  resem- 
bling, at  their  lirst  ap]>earance,  a  bunch  of 
red  coral:  these  afterwards  open  into  small 
i;ve-leaved  purple  flowers,  and  are  succeeded 
by  nuts,  which  resemble  those  of  the  first 
species.  4.  The  manihot,  or  bitter  cassada, 
has  palmated  leaves;  tlie  lobes  lanceolate, 
very  entire,  and  polished.  5.  The  janiplia, 
or  sweet  cassada,  has  palmated  leaves,  wilh 
lobes  very  entire;  the  intermediate  leaves 
Jobed  with  a  sinus  on  both  sides.  6.  The  elas- 
tica,  with  ternate  leaves,  elliptic,  very  entire, 
hoary  underneath,  and  longly  petioled.  .See 
ligures  of  the  two  last  in  plate  22,  which  ren- 
ders a  more  particular  description  unneces- 
sary. 

The  root  of  bitter  cassada  has  no  fibrous 
or  woody  filaments  in  the  Jieart,  and  neither 
li'.ii's  nor  .'•oasts  soft.  The  sweet  cassada  has 
alt  the  opposite  qualities.  The  bitter,  how- 
ever, may  be  deprived  of  its  noxious  quali- 
ties (which  reside  in  thi' Juice),  by  heat.  Cas- 
sadi  bread,  therefore,  is  made  of  both  the 
bitter  and  sweet,  thus:  the  loots  are  washed 
and  scraped  ck-an,  thi;n  grated  into  a  tub  or 
trough;  after  this  thry  are  jiut  into  a  liair 
bag,  and  strongly  pressed  with  a  view  to 
>«|ueeze  out  the  juice,  and  the  meal  or  farina 
is  dried  in  a  hot  stone  bason  over  the  fire  ;  it 
is  then  made  into  cakes.  It  also  makes  ex- 
cellent pntldings,  equal  to  millet.  The  scrap- 
ings of  fresh  'bilter  cassada  are  successfully 
applied  to  ill-ilisposed  ulcers.  Cassada  roots 
yield  a  great  (|uantitv  of  starch,  which  the 
Rrasilians  export  in  [itile  lumps  under  the 
■|».iiiic  of  tapiOca.    According  to  father  La- 


I  C  H 

bat,  the  smallest  bits  of  manioc  wliich  have 
escaped  the  grater,  and  the  clods  w  hich  have 
not  passed  the  sieve,  are  not  iisel'ss.  They 
are  ilried  in  the  stove  after  the  Hour  is  roast- 
ed, and  then  pounded  in  a  mortar  to  a  fine 
white  powder,  with  which  they  make  souj). 
It  is  likewise  used  for  making  a  kind  of  thick 
coarse  cassada,  which  is  roasted  till  almost 
burnt;  of  this,  fermented  with  melasses  and 
West  India  potatoes,  they  prepare  a  much 
esleenied  drink  or  beverage  called  ouycou. 
Tills  liquor,  the  favourite  drink  of  the  na- 
tives, is  sometimes  made  extremely  strong, 
especially  on  any  great  occasion,  as  a  feast : 
witii  this'jhey  get  intoxicated,  and  remem- 
bering tlieir  old  quarrels,  massacre  and  imir- 
dor  each  oilier.  Such  of  the  inhabitants  and 
workmen,  as  have  not  wine,  drink  ouycou. 
It  is  of  a  red  colour,  strong,  nourishing,  re- 
freshing, ami  easilv  inebriate-i  the  inhabi- 
taats,  who  soon  accustom  themselves  to  it  as 
easily  as  beer. 

The  6th  species  is  tlie  lievea  aui;inensis  of 
Aublet,  or  tree  whicli  yields  tl.e  elastic  resin 
call<-d  c.ioutchouc,  or  India  rubber:  forajjai- 
ticular  account  of  which  see  Caoutchouc. 
The  figure  we  have  given  is  copied  fioin 
Aublet's  tab.  335,  ;md  not  from  the  erroneous 
piate  given  i^;  the  Acta  Parisiaiia. 

JAU-HAIA.     See  Kajania. 

JAUNDICE.     See  Medicike. 

JAW.     See  Anatomy. 

IBIiHIS,  sr(Vrfica  cresses,  or  aindjj-tiift,  a 
genus  of  the  siliquosa  order,  in  the  tetradyna- 
mia  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  uiethod 
ranking  under  the  3yih  order,  siliquusgs.  The 
corolla  is  regular ;  the  two  exterior  petals 
larger  than  the  interior  ones;  the  silicula 
polvsptrmous,  emargiuated.  There  are  14 
species.  'J'he  uiost  remaikable  are:  1.  The 
umbellata,  or  common  candv-tuft,  a  well- 
known  annual.  2.  The  amara,  or  bitter 
candy-tuft.  3.  The  sempervirens,  commonly 
called  tree  candy-tuft.  4.  The  sempei- 
fioreiis,  with  white  llowers  in  umbels  at  the 
ends  of  the  branches,  appearing  at  all  times 
of  the  year. 

IBEX,  in  zoology.     See  Capra. 

IBIS.    See  Tantalus. 

ICK.  See  Water,  and  Cold. 

Ice-house,  a  building  contrived  to  pre- 
serve ice  for  the  use  of  a  family  in  the  sum- 
mer season.  It  is  generally  sunk  some  feet 
in  the  ground  in  a  very  shady  situation,  and 
coven'd  with  thatcli. 

ICKI.AND-AG.Arr.,  a  precious  stone 
met  with  in  the  islands  of  Iceland  and  Ascen- 
sion, employed  by  the  jewellers  as  an  agate, 
though  too  soft  for  the 'purpose.  Itissup- 
posetl  to  be  a  volcanic  product ;  being  solid, 
black,  and  of  a  glassy  texture.  When  held 
between  the  eye  and  tl|e  light,  it  is  seniitrans- 
pareiit,  and  greenish,  like  the  gl.iss  bottles 
which  contain  much  iron.  In  the  islands 
which  produce  it,  such  large  pieces  are  met 
with  that  they  cannot  be  equalled  in  any  glass- 
house. 

ICIIXEI'MON  .//(/,  the  name  of  a  genus 
of  (lies  of  the  hymenoptcra  order.  The  ge- 
neric character  is,  nimith  with  jaws,  without 
tongue;  antemuc  with  more  than  thirty 
joints;  abiloinen  in  most  species  footstalked; 
piercer  CNseited,  with  a  cylindric  bivalve 
sheath.  The  animals  of  this  genus  provide 
for  the  mpport  of  lluir  ollspTiiig,  in  a  manner 
liiglily  extraordinary,  depositing  tiieir  eggs  in 


ICO 

the  bodies  of  other  living  insects,  and  gene- 
rally in  those  of  caterpillars.  These  eggs  in 
-a  few  days  hatch,  and  the  young  larv:c,  which 
resemble  minute  vhite  maggots,  nouiish 
themselves  w  illi  the  juices  of  tlie  unfortunate 
animal,  which  however  continues  to  iiiose 
about  and  feed  t.U  near  tlie  time  of  its  change 
to  a  chrysalis,  wlien  the  young  brood  of  icli- 
ncnmon-iarv;K  creep  out  by  perloiatiiig  the 
skin  ill  various  places  -md  each  spinniiig  it- 
self up  ill  a  small  oval  silken  case,  changes 
into  a  clirysalis,  the  wliole  nunibei;  forming  a 
groupe  on  tlie  shrivelled  body  of  the  culer- 
pillar  which  had  atUirded  them  iiourijluiient ; 
and  after  a  certain  perii.d  emerge  in  the  state 
of  complete  iciiiieunions. 

It  was  the  want  of  an  exact  knowledge  of 
the  genus  ichneumon  that  proved  so  conside- 
rable an  embarrassment  to  the  older  enlcmo- 
logists,w  ho  having  seen  a  brood  ol  ichneuiuons 
])roceed  Irom  the  clirv salis  of  a  buttertly,  could 
not  but  conclude  that  the  production  ol  insects 
was  rather  a  variable  and  uiiceitain  operation 
of  nature  than  a  regular  continuation  of  the 
same  species,  'i  he  observations  however  of 
bw  amnierdam,  Malplngi,  Huesel,  and  others, 
have  long  since  removed  the  ddiicuUies 
which  fcruieily  obscured  the  history  of  the 
insect  tribe.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  iigs.  23'J, 
233.  It  is  said  there  are  no  less  than  415 
species  of  this  insect. 

ICIiNOGHAPHY,  in  perspective,  the 
view  ot  any  thing  cut  olf  by  a  plane  parallel 
to  the  horizon,  just  at  the  base  of  it.  Among 
painters  it  sigr.uies  a  description  of  images, 
or  of  antient  statues  of  marble  and  copper,  of 
busts  and  semi-busts,  of  paintings  in  fresco, 
mosaic  works,  and  antieiil  pieces  of  minia- 
ture. 

IcHXOGRArHY.     See  Architecture. 

ICinilYUCOLLA.  See  Accipenser, 
and  Gelatin  A. 

ICII'1'IIYOLITIIUS,  in  natural  history, 
the  body  or  parts  of  a  fish  changed  into  a  fos- 
sil substance.  Four  species  aie  (numerated. 
'I'he  iiiger  is  found  in  a  black  slate  in  die 
island  oi  Sheppey ,  and  various  parts  of  Wales, 
in  the  mountains  ot  Swit/eiiand,  Silesia, 
Germany,  &c.  impregnated  with  bitumen, 
p\  ritac.eous  matter,  or  oxide  of  copper.  The 
iislies  resemble  the  eel,  swordlish,  cod,  (lat 
fish,  perch,  roach,  dace,  iiunkrel,  mullet, 
carp,  lie.  Tlie  albidus  is  found  in  various 
parts  of  England,  on  mount  Libanus  in  Pa- 
lestine, in  the  ecclesiastical  territories  of  Italy, 
in  Switzerland,  Bavaria,  &c.  'I'lii'  fishes  are 
rarely  of  the  sea  kind,  but  usually  those  that 
inhabit  the  fresh  water.  They  are  seldom 
found  whole,  but  in  diiferent  parts,  as  the 
head,. gill-covers,  and  other  bones,  fins,  tails, 
tendrils,  or  scales,  in  a  grey  slaty  swinestone, 
or  impressed  on  shistose  marble,  and  some- 
times penetrated  with  bitumen. 

ICHTHYOLOGY,  ix^«o\o-^i^,  the  science 
of  fishes,  or  that  branch  ot  zoology  which 
treats  of  lishes.  See  Fish,  and  Comparative 
Anatomy. 

ICONOCLASTS,  in  church  history,  an 
apiiellation  given  to  lho>e  persons  who  in  the 
eighth  century  opposed  image-worship,  and 
still  given  by  the  church  of  Koine  to  all  chris- 
tians who  reject  the  use  of  images  in  religious 
matters. 

ICOSAIIEDRON,  in  geometry,  a  regular 
solid,  consisting  of  i.'0  triangular"  p_\  ramids. 


J  K  I, 

who'.c  vciticos  inec't  in  tlio  i-ODfro  of  a 
s|i!wi>!,  sU|)i)osccl  to  circiiiiisciilx'  il,  and 
tlu'ic'foii-  luivc  llii;ir  lii'i((lit  and  basts  rqtial; 
vlicicloii-  tin"  solidily  ot  ono;  ol  llio-^u  pyra- 
mid, nuilliplicd  l)_v  'ji),  tlio  nuinlicr  of  bases, 
(•i.istlii-  '<iilid  cDiitiMilof  llic  ico>al)fr|run. 

Ifli^.  l-'7,  I'iaU.'  Misi-i-l.  be  nicely  drawn 
on  |i.isUboavJ,  cut  liiif  ihroneli,  and  then 
(oM<'\  n|)  ncally  logclli-r,  it  will  n'ljrescnt 
an  i(0-ali.(hon.   Soc  lie.  13S. 

To  fuiiii  an  ico^alicdron,  doscribi-  njion 
card  |)a;)cr  '-it)  etniilUcral  triangb-s;  cut  It  oiil 
by  tbi- i"\liL'nii-  i-dge<,  and  entail  tin;  other 
lines  11  ill-tlirongb  ;  llien  fold  i)|)  by  tbese 
cd'jcs  and  tbe  solid  will  be  termed.  'I  be 
linear  ed;;i,-  ol  the  kosabedron  being  A,  llieli 
the  surface  will   be  SA'x/li  =  f^OiiO  A',  ami 

the  solidity!  A'  ^/ ii^-^=  2.1«n  A\ 

ICOSAN'DKIA.froni  (.bot,  "twenty," and 
i«yr,|i,  "  a  man  or  hn-b.md ;'  tbe  name  of  tlie 
l-'tn  ells.,  ill  l.inn.ens's  suxnal  in'elli'jd,  con- 
si'ling  of  l)hiiits  wall  lierniapbrodile  llowers, 
wliitb  are  liirnisbeil  wilii  20  or  more  staiiiina, 
lliat  are  inserted  into  tin;  inner  side  of  llie 
calyx  or  petals.     See  Ho  TAN  Y. 

IDKS, /(/«»,  in  tbe  amieiit  Uoinan  calen- 
dar, were  eiglit  days  in  eaeli  inontli,  tlu  lirst 
ofwbicb  fell  on  the  15th  of  Mareb,  May, 
July,  and  October,  aivl  on  tbe  13'b  day  of 
otii'er  montlis.  '1  bey  were  reckoned  back- 
wards: tluis  they  called  tbe  l4ili  day  of 
Warcli,  May,  July,  and  October,  and  the 
liilii  of  tbeotber' niontris,  tbe  pridie  idiis, 
or  tlie  day  before  the  itlos;  tbe  next  preced- 
ing ilay,  t'luy  culled  tlie  teriio  idus  ;  and  so 
on,  reck.miiig  always  backwards,  till  tliey 
came  to  the  nones.  '  This  method  of  reckon- 
ing lime  is  blill  retained  in  tlie  chancery  of 
Rome,  and  in  the  calendar  of  the  breviary. 

IDlO'l',  is  a  fool  Ol-  madman  from  bis  na- 
tivity.    Hy  the  &ld  cuimnon  law  there  is  a 
vritde   idiota    iiujuirendo,   directed  to  the 
sherilV,  to  inquire  by  a  jury  whether  the  party 
is  an  idiot  or  not ;  and  if  lliey  lind  him  a  per- 
fect  idiot,  the  prolits  of  liis  lands  and  tlie 
custody  ol  his  person  belong  to  the  king,  ac- 
coiilingto  the  stilt.  17  Kd.  11.  c.  9.  by  which 
it  is  enacted,  that  tbe  king  shall  have  the  cns- 
todv  1)1  the  lands  of  natural  foo'.s,  taking  the 
prolits  ot  them  witiiont  waste  or  destruction, 
and  shall  lind  them  necessaries,  of  w  hose  fee 
soe\er  the  land  shall  be  bo:den.     And  alter 
the  death  of  such  idiots,  be  shall  render  il  to 
the  right  heir,  so  that  such  idiots  shall  not 
alien,   nor  their  heirs  be  disinherited.     But 
il  seldom  happens  that  a  jury  lindsa  man  an 
idiot  from  his  nativity,  but  only  non  co  i  pos 
nientis  from  some  particular  time,  which  iias 
an  operation  very  ilifferent  in  point  of  law ; 
for  in  this  case  he  comes  under  the  denomi- 
nation of  a  lunatic,  in  which  respect  llie  king 
shall  not  have  the  prolits  of  bis  lands,  but  is 
accountable  for  the  same  to  the  lunUic  when 
Jie  comes  to  his  right  mind,  or  otherwise  to 
his  executors  or  admini-trators.  1  Black.  303. 
JEliK,  ir  Jef.r-kopi;,  in  a  ship,  is  a  large 
rope  reeved  through  double  or  treble  blocks, 
lasheil  at  the  mast  head,  and  on  the  yard,  in 
.  order  to  hoist  or  lower  the  yards. 
jr.jrM^\l.     See  Anatomy. 
JUI.I.V,  in  chemistry.  If  we  press  out  the 
juice  of  ripe  blackberries,  currants,  and  inanv 
other  fruits,  and  allow  it  to  remain  for  some 
lime  ill  a  stale  of  rest,  it  panly  coagulates  into 


J  E  W 

a  tretntiloiis  soft  si.bslaiice,  we  1  known  by  tbo 
name  ol  ^ellv.  II  we  pour  off  ihi:  iincoami- 
lated  parts.'and  w.i>li  the  coaguliim  with  a 
simdl  (piantity  of  wat.^,  we  oUain  jelly  ap- 
proacliing  to  a  slate  oT  purity. 

In  this  stale  it  is  n-arlv  colourless,  iinluss 
tinged  by  the  peculiar  'colonriiif;  msiltor  ol 
llii'lruit;  it  has  a  pleasant  taste,  and  a  Irt- 
nmloiis  consistency.  Il  is  scarcely  soUible  in 
cold  water,  Uit  very  soluble  in  hot  waif  r; 
and  when  the  solution  cools,  il  ugaiii  coagu- 
lates into  the  form  of  a  jelly.  When  long 
boiletl,  il  loses  the  properly  of  g-laliniziiig 
by  cooling,  and  becomes  analogous  to  inuci- 
la'g.:.  Tliis  is  llie  reason  lliat  in  making  cur- 
rant-jelly, or  any  other  Jelly,  wlion  tbe  <iuan- 
titv  of  sugar  adi'led  is  not  suliicienl  lo  absorb 
alftlie  watery  paits  of  the  hull,  and  cunse- 
(|U  i.tly  il  is  necessary  to  concentrate  the 
hiiuid  by  long  boiling,  the  .^ixlure  often  loses 
tbe  property  of  coagulating,  and  ibe  jelly,  of 
course,  is  spoiled.  _  . 

Jelly  combines  readily  with  alkalies.  Nitric 
acid  converts  it  into  o.xabc  acid,  without  se- 
parating any  azotic  gas.  When  dried  it  be- 
comes transparent.  A\  ben  distilled  il  allords 
a  great  deal,  of  pyronuicous  acid,  a  sin.;ll 
4uaiitily  of  oil,  and  scarcely  any  ammonia. 

Jelly'  exists  in  all  acid  fruits,  as  oranges, 
lemons,    gooseberries,   &c.     If  the  juice  of 
these  fruits  is  allowed  to  gelatinize,  and  then 
poured  upon  a  seiuce,  the  acid  gradually  iil- 
tres  through,   and   leaves  the  oilier;   whitb 
'  may  be  washed  with  a  little  cold  water,  and 
llowed  to  dry.   Its  bulk  gradually  diminishes, 
and  il  concre'les  into  a  luid  transparent  brittle 
mass,  wiiicb  possesses  most  of  tbe  properties 
of  gum.     Teriiaps,  then,  jelly  is  merely  gum 
combined  with  vegetable  acid. 
Jf.i.i.y,  animal.    See  (Jei-atine. 
JEsLTTS,  or  the  society  of  Jesus,  a  most 
famous  religions  order  in  llie  Htjiiiish  duirch, 
founded  by  Ignatius  I.oyc  la,  a  natu'e  ol  Gui- 
])nscoa  in  Spain,  who  in  the  year  173S  assem- 
bled ten  of  his  companions  at  Ron.e,  princi- 
paliy  chosen  out  ot  the  uiiiversily  of  Paris, 
and'niade  a  proposal  to  them  to  form  a  new 
order;  when,  alter  many  deliberations,  il  was 
agreed  lo  add  to  tbe  th'ree  ordinary  vows  ot 
rhastily,  poverty,  and  obedience,  a   fourth, 
wi.ich  was,  to  gi)   into  all  countries  whither 
the  pope  siioiild  please  lo  Stiid  ihem,  in  order 
lo  make  converts   to   the  Komi-.h    chu:cli. 
Two  \  ears  after,  pope  Paul  ill.  gave  them  a 
bull,  by  which  he  approved  this  new  order, 
giving  them  a  pow.  r  to  make  sucii  slatiiles 
as  they  should  judge  convenient;  on  which, 
Ignatius  was  created  general  of  the  order, 
wliich  in  a   short  ti:ne  spread  over  all  the 
countries  of  tbe  world,  lo  which  Ignatius  sent 
liis   companions,   while   he  staid  at   Rome, 
whence  be  governed  the  whole  society,     'i  lie 
order  was  abolished  by  pope  Clement  Xl\'. 
((;ang;me!!i)in  1773.  'S^e  Gregory's  Church 
lii-tory,  vol.  ii. 

iF.sviT'i-burk.  SeeCixcHOSA,  and  Phar- 
macy. 
JET.   See  Coal. 
Jet  d'kau.     See  Hydraulics. 
JETSON,  Jetsen,  or  Jetsa.m,  inlaw,  is 
used  for  any  thing  thrown  out  of  a  ship  or 
ve<>el  that  i>'in  danger  of  Ining  a  wreck,  and 
which  is  diiven  by  llie  waves  on  shore. 

JEWS.  In  England  in  former  times,  tbe 
Jews  and  all  Ibeir'noods  belonged  lo  thechiel 
lord,  whei;e  they  ii.vcd.    I'.y  slat.  Ed.  I.  the 


I  L  E  5 

I  Jew,  to  liie  nuiiibtr  of  15,000,  were  baiiisli- 
e(\  out  of  Knglaiid,  and  never  nUiriied  till 
Oliver  Cromwell  reaflmilt<-d  them. 

V\  believer  any  Jew  yinill  |)reseiil  liiinsilf  lo 
lakelheoalli  ot  abjurjiioi;,in  pursuance  of  the 
lOtieo.  III.  c.  10.  ill*  words,  upon  the  IriiB 
faitli  of  a  chrisr.ai),  shall  bi-  omitted  out  of 
the  >aidoatb  in  adininisleriiig  it  lo  "iicli  per- 
sons; and  the  taking  the  said  oalli  by  person, 
professing  the  Jiwisli  religion,  wiiliout  Ihe 
said  words,  in  l.ke  inainier  as  Jews  art  ad- 
iiiilled  lo  give  evidence  in  courts  of  juslice, 
shall  be  deemed  a  suf!ici"-iil  taking  of  it. 

KJN.VriA,  a  genus  of  ibe  moiiogvnia 
order,  ill  the  pcntaiidiia  class  of  plant^.  1  Iw 
calyx  is  five-toolhed;  the  corolla  is  long:  llie 
fruit  an  unilocular  plum,  with  many  seed*. 
There  are  two  'pede.,,  the  principal  of  which 
is  Ibe  aniara,  a  native  of  India.  '1  be  fruit  of 
this  tree  contains  the  seeds  called  St.  Iglia- 
tius's  bi  ans.  According  lo  some,  it  is  troin 
Ibis  phuil  that  the  culiiii.bo  root  is  obtained. 

KiNlS  l'ATUi'S,a  ccmmonmeleor,  diidly 
seen  in  dark  nights  about  meadows,  niaishes, 
and  oilier  moist  place  ,  as  aUo  in  Inirying- 
grmnids,  and  near  dung-bi'.ls.  It  is  known 
among  the  people  by  tiie  appellations,  \\  ill  ■ 
with  a  wisp,  and  Jack  with  a  lai.lern.  See 
Meteors. 

IGMTiON.  See  Caloric,  and  Che- 
mistry. 

lGNOR.\MUS,  was  formerly  indorsed  by 
the  ftraiid  jury  on  the  back  of  a  bill,  for  which 
they  did  not  lind  suliicienl  evidence;  but 
now',  since  tbe  proceedings  were  in  English, 
llu-y  Indorse  "  no  bill,"  or  "  not  a  true  bill/' 
or  'which  is  the  better  way,  "  not  lound."  4 
305. 

IGUANA.  See  Lacerta. 
JIB,  the  foremost  sail  of  a  ship,  being  a. 
large  sta\-slad  extended  from  the  outer  end 
of  ?lie  bowsprit  prolonged  by  the  jib-lioom. 
towards  the  fore-toi)-mast-head.  See  Sail.. 
}iB-l>ootii,  a  boom  run  out  Iroiii  iheexlre- 
milyoftbe  bowsprit,  parallel  to  its  length, 
and  serving  to  extend  the  bo'.tom  of  the  jib, 
and  the  stay  of  the  fore-lop-gallant-mast. 

ILEX,  //if  holm  or  li:iil;i  "vc,  a  genus  of 
the  telragviiia  order,  in  the  tetrandria  class 
of  plants  iind  in  the  nulural  nuthod  ranking 
under  tiie  43ii  order,  ^iulnosa^.  'I  be  calyx  is 
ciuadiideiitalcd  ;  the  corolla  rolaceous  ;  there 
is  no  style;  the  berry  is  inonospeimous. 
There  are  1 6  species  of  this  genus  ;  but  the 
most  remarkable  is  tbe  aipaiioliuin,  or  com- 
mon holly.  Of  this  there  are  a  great  num- 
ber of  "yariclic-s  with  variegated  leaves, 
which  are  propagated  by  the  nursery  gar- 
deners for  sale.  The  be»t  of  these  varieties 
are  the  painted-ladv  holly,  British  holly, 
Bradley's  best  holly,  phvllis  or  cream  holly, 
miikm'aid  holly,  Prilchel's  best  ho.ly,  gold- 
edged  hedgehog  holly,  Chynev'.  hoi  y,  gloiy- 
of-Uie-wesi  bohy,  I  roadericks  holly,  Par- 
tri.ke's  bully,  '  llerefoixWhire  white  huHv, 
Blind  s  cream  hoUv,  Longstatt  s  holly  Kales  s 
holly  ,ilver-edged  hedgehog  holly.  M\  these 
vari'eties  areprojiagated  by  budding  or  graft- 
ing Ihein  upon  stocks  of  the  common  green 

hollv.  ,.  1     -il. 

Siieep  in  the  winter  are  fed  \nth  croppitigs 
of  hollv.  Birds  eat  tbe  bvrries  Ihe  ba.k 
lerinetited,  and  afterwards  washed  rom  the 
woodv  fibres,  makes  the  common  birdbire. 
The  i')lant  nu.kes  an  impenetrable  fence,  ar.d 
bears  cropping;  liowcver,  it  is  not  icuii^  lu 


6  1MB 

"all  respects  to  answer  for  this  purpose  pqiially 
well  wilii  the  hawtliorn.  The  wood  is  iiseil 
ill  liiieering,  and  is  sometimes  stained  black 
to  imitite  ebony.  Handles  fur  knivL-,  and 
coiis  for  mill-whefls,  are  made  of  it.  Wr. 
Miller  says,  he  has  seen  the  lloor  of  a  room 
laid  w-jtli  compartments  of  lioll_\  and  nia- 
hptjany,  uliich  had  a  very  pretty  ell'ect. 

ILIAC  Passion.  See'MEDiciNE. 

ILLECESKl'M,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
jiia  order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  nietiiod  ranking  under 
the  12th  ord-r,  holoracea-.  The  cal\x  is 
pcntaphyllous,  and  cartilaghions  ;  there  is  no 
corolla;  the  stigma  is  simple;  the  capsule 
quinquevalved,  and  monospermons.  'Ihere 
are  'Jl  species,  of  which  the  most  remarjvable 
are  the  paronvchia  and  thecjpilalimi.  Both 
th.se  have  trailing  stalks  near  two  feet  long, 
■which  spread  on  tlie  ground,  furnishi-d  with 
small  leaves  like  those  of  knot-gra-.s.  Tlie 
heads  of  the  tiowers  come  out  from  the  joints 
of  the  stalk<,  having  neat  silvery  bractea- 
surrounding  them,  which  make  a  pretty  ap- 
pearance. Their  llowers  appear  in  }uni',  and 
there  is  generallv  a  succession  of  them  for  ;U 
least  two  months;  and  when  the  autumn 
proves  warnij  they  will  ripen  their  seeds  in 
October. 

ILLICU'M,  a  genus  of  the  pi  ntagynia 
order,  in  the  dodecandria  class  of  plants,  and 
in  the  natural  method  r.inking  with  tiiose  of 
which  the  order  is  doulitlul.  The  cal_\x  is 
telraphyllous,  and  di^ciduous;  there  are  eight 
petals,  and  eight  petaloid  suliulated  nectaria. 
There  are  IG  stamina  with  bilid  anlhene;  the 
capsules  are  ovate,  compressed,  and  mono- 
spermons. Tlu-re  are  two  species,  \\a. 
1.  The  floridanum,  with  red  llowers,  and  wry 
odorous  fruit.  It  is  a  native  of  China.  2.  The 
anisatum,  a  native  of  the  woods  of  China  and 
Japan.  The  Hrstis  a  very  ornamental  plant, 
and  now  common  in  our  greenhouses. 

UJA'MINATING,  a  kind  of  miniature- 
painting,  antienlly  nnich  practised  for  illus- 
trating and  adorning  books.  Besides  the 
writers  of  books,  there  were  artists  whose 
profession  was  to  ornament  and  paint  manu- 
scripts, who  were  called  illuminators:  the 
writers  of  books  tirst  finished  tiieir  part,  and 
the  illuminators  embellished  them  with  or- 
namented letters  an<i  paintings.  We  fre- 
quently find  blanks  left  in  manuscripts  for  the 
illuminators,  which  were  never  lilied  up. 
Some  of  the  antient  manuscripts  are  gilt  and 
hurnished  in  a  st\le  superior  to  later  limes. 
Their  colours  were  e.\cellint,  and  their  skill 
in  preparing  them  must  have  been  very 
great. 

I.M.VM-,  a  name  applied  by  the  Mahomet- 
ans to  him  who  is  head  of  the  conjregation 
in  their  mosques ;  and  by  way  of  eminence  to 
him  who  has  the  supreme  authority  both  in 
respect  to  spirituals  and  temporals. 

IMBKZLK,  signilies  to  steal,  pilfer,  or  pur- 
loin, and  a;so  to  waste  or  diminish  goods,  &c. 
entruste<l  to  a  person's  charge  and  care.  Im- 
be/lers  of  wool  f  irfeit  d<ml)le  damages,  and 
may  be  committed  to  the  house  of  correction 
till  paid;  ami  servants  imbezling  their  mas- 
ters" gootls  to  the  value  of  40x.  are  deemed 
guilty  of  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy. 

IMBRICATI'll),  among  botanists,  an  ap- 
pellation given  to  such  leaves  of  plants,  as  are 
|)laced  over  one  another  like  the  tiles  of  a 
lioustf.   'i'lic  term  is  likewise  aj)plied  to  some 


1  M  V 

of  the  henrt-shells,  from  their  being  ridged 
transversely  in  the  same  nianner. 

IMMKSlOlUAL-.in  a  ie:;al  sense,  u  thing 
issairl  to  be  of  time  inimeniorial,  or  lime  m:l 
of  mind,  tliat  was  belore  the  reign  of  kini: 
Edward  If. 

IMMICUSION.  in  astronoiTiy,  is-  when  a 
star  or  planet  is  so  near  the  suii  with  regard 
to  om-  observations,  that  we  cannot  see  it  ; 
being  enveloped  and  hid  in  the  ra\s  of  that 
lumiViary.  It  also  denotes  the  beginning  of 
an  eclipse  of  the  moon,  or  that  moment  when 
the  moon  beg  ns  U)  be  darkened,  and  to  enti  r 
into  die  shadow  of  the  earth;  and  the  same 
term  is  also  used  with  ri.-g  rd  to  an  eclipse  of 
the  sun,  when  the  disk  of  the  moon  begins  to 
cover  it.  In  this  sense  emersion  stands  up- 
posed  to  immersion,  arid  signifies  the  momeiit 
wherein  the  moon  begins  to  come  out  ot  the 
shadow  of  the  earth,  or  the  sun  begins  to 
shew  the  parts  of  his  disk  which  w  ere  hid  be- 
fore. Inunersion  is  frequently  applied  to  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  especially  to  the 
first  satellite;  thi;  observation  of  which  is  of 
so  much  Use  for  discovering  the  lougituile. 
The  immersion  of  thai  satellite  is  the  inoment 
in  which  it  appears  to  enter  within  the  disk 
of  Jupiter,  and  its  emersion  the  inoment 
when  it  a])pears  to  come  out.  The  immer- 
sions are  ob-erved  from  tlie  time  of  the  con- 
junction of  Jupiter  witli  the  sun,  to  the  time 
ot  his  opposition  ;  and  thi;  emersions  front  the 
time  of  his  opposition  to  liis  conjimctioii. 

I.MPALKL),  in  heraldry:  when  the  coats 
of  a  man  and  his  wife  who  is  not  an  heiress 
are  borne  in  the  same  escutcheon,  lliey  must 
be  marshalled  in  pale  ;  the  husband's  on  the 
right  side,  and  the  wife's  on  the  leit :  and  this 
the  heralds  call  baron  and  feme,  two  coats 
impaled.    See  Heraldry. 

IMPAULANCi:,  in  law,  a  petition  in 
court  for  a  day  to  consider  or  ailvise  uliat 
answer  the  defendant  shall  make  to  the  plain- 
tilf's  action,  and  is  the  continuance  of  the 
cause  till  another  day,  or  a  longer  time  given 
by  the  comt. 

An  imparlance  is  general  or  special;  gene- 
ral is  when  it  is  entered  in  general  terms, 
without  any  special  clause  tlierein;  special  is 
where  the  dci'entlant  desires  a  further  day  to 
answer.  And  this  last  im|)arlance  is  of  use 
to  plead  some  matters,  which  cannot  be 
pleaded  after  a  general  imparlance. 

It  is  said  that  imparlance  was  formerly 
from  day  lo  day,  but  now  it  is  from  one  term 
to  amtlier.  In  case  the  plaintiff  amends  his 
declaration  after  the  saine  is  delivered  or 
filed,  the  delendaiit  may  in  course  imparl  to 
the  next  term  allerwards,  unless  the  plaintilf 
pavs  coats;  but  if  he  does,  ami  they  are  ac- 
cepied,  the  defendant  may  not  have  an  iui- 
parl.uice.  Likewise  the  not  delivering  a  de- 
claration ill  time  is  sometimes  the  cause  of 
imparlance;  and  wjien  the  plaintiff  declaies, 
yet  does  not  proceed  in  three  terms  after,  in 
such  case  the  defendant  may  Hii])arl  to  the 
next  succeeding  term.  But  there  are  divers 
cases  wherein  ini|)arlances  are  not  lo  be 
given  :  as  where  a  person  is  sued  by  an  at- 
torney or  any  other  privileged  person  of  the 
court,  in  an  assize,  one  may  not  imparl,  ex- 
cept good  cause  be  given;  nor  shall  there  be 
imparlance  in  action  of  special  clausum  fre- 
git,  .'ire. 

I.MPATllvNS,  the  common  halslm,  or 
noli  me  taiigere,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der syngeiiesia  monogamia.     Tlie  calyx  is 


I  M  P 

Iwo-leaved  ;  eoroUu  five-petalled,    irrepilar, 

with  a  cowled  nectarium  ;  capsule  superior, 
live-vahed.  )  here  arc  12  species,  all  an- 
nuals. The  noli  me  tangere  is  indigenous  to 
Britain,  and  ha^  its  specific  name  Irom  the 
capsule  shooting  tiiriii  its  seeds  lo  a  great 
distance  when  touched. 

IMPEACli.MKN  T,  is  the  accusation  and 
prosecntioiiuta  person  in  parliament,  for  trea- 
son or  other  crime  and  misdemeanor.  An  Im- 
peachment before  the  lords  liv  the  commons 
of  Great  Britain,  is  a  presentn'ient  lolhe  most 
high  and  supteme  court  of  criminal  jurisdic- 
tion, by  the  most  solemn,  grand  inquest  of 
the  whole  kingdom.  A  commoner  cannot 
be  impeached  belore  tlie  lords  for  any  capital 
offence,  but  only  for  high  misdeuieanurs  ;  but 
a  pe;T  may  be  impeached  for  any  crime. 
1  he  articles  of  impeachment  are  a"  kind  of 
bill  of  iiidiitment,  loiiiid  by  the  house  of 
commons,  aiul  afterwards  tried  bv  the  lords, 
who  are  in  cases  of  misdemeanors  considered 
not  only  as  their  own  peers,  but  as  tlie  peers 
of  the  whole  nation.  By  slat.  12  and  13  \V. 
c.  2.  no  pardon  under  the  great  seal  shall  be 
pleadable  to  an  inipeai  liment  by  the  cgm- 
mons  in  parliament.     4  Black.  259. 

In  the  case  of  Warfeii  Hastings,  in  tJie  year 
1791,  it  was  solemnly  determined  that  im- 
peachments do  not  abate  by  a  dissolution  of 
pailiauieiit. 

i.MPEACHMENT  of  u'ustc,  signifies  a  re- 
straint irom  committing  of  waste  upon  lands 
and  tenements;  and  therefore  he  that  has  a 
lease  without  impeachment  of  waste,  has  by 
that  a  property  or  interest  given  him  in  the 
houses  and  trees,  and  niav  make  waste  in 
them  without  being  impeached  for  it,  thai  is, 
without  being  questioned  or  demanded  any 
rccompence  for  the  waste  done.  1 1  Kep. 
S2. 

IMPEDIMENTS  in  law.  Persons  un- 
der inipedir.-:ents  are  those  within  age,  under 
coverture,  nun  compos  mentis,  in  prison,  or 
beyond  seas,  who,  by  a  saving  in  our  laws, 
have  time  lo  claim  and  prosecute  the  right, 
alter  the  ini|)e(liments  removed,  in  case  of 
fines  levied,  &;c. 

IMPEKAllVE,  one  of  the  moods  of  a 
verb,  usi-d  wlien  we  would  command,  entreat, 
or  advise. 

IMPICPATORIA,  mastcrxvnrt,  a  genus  of 
the  digMiia  order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  45th  order,  umbellata;.  The  fruit 
is  roundish,  compressed  in  the  middle,  gib- 
bous, and  surrounded  with  a  border;  the 
petals  are  inllexo-emarginaled.  There  is  but 
one  spe(i;-s,  viz.  the  oslruthiiim,  a  native  of 
the  Austrian  and  Stythian  .\\\if,  and  other 
mountainous  places  of  Italy.  'I'lie  plant  is 
cultivated  in  ganlens  for  the  sake  of  its  roots, 
which  are  used  in  medicine.  The  root  has  a 
flavour  similar  lo  that  of  angelica,  and  is 
esteemed  a  good  su<lorific.  ^'here  are  in- 
stances of  its  having  cured  the  ague  when 
the  bark  had  failed.  It  should  be  dug  up  in 
winter,  and  a  strong  infusion  made  in  wine. 

I.MPERFECT, 'something  tliat  is  defec- 
tive, or  that  wants  some  ot  the  properties 
found  in  other  beings  of  the  same  kind:  thus 
mosses  are  called  imperfect  plains,  because 
almost  all  thi!  parts  of  fructification  are  want- 
ing in  them  ;  and  for  the  like  reason  is  the 
a))pellation  imperfect  given  to  ihe  fungi  and 
submarine  plants,     tjce  ]Moss,  I'l'XGi,  and 

blIBMARI^fE. 


I  M  P 

ImPEP.'-ECT     FI.OWt.HR, 


tliDso    otherwise 


culled  staniineoiis. 

iMrERI'KCT    ^'UMBKUS,    S\lrll    ullO^e    ali- 

linot  part^,  taki^n  to!^i'!h'-r,  do  eith>-r  exeee<l 
or  fall  ^hort  of  Hut  whole  numhi-r  ol  wliicli 
tliev  are  parts;  tln-y  are  either  abundant  or 
deluieiit. 

IMI'KRSONAL  VERB,    in    grammar,   a 
verb  to  \vb;eh  llie  nominative  of  any  eerlain 
person  cannot  be  pn-lixed  ;  or, 
line  it,  ;>  vfrl)  destitute  of  the 


as  otiiers  lie- 
two  lirsl  and 


prnnary  persons. 

l.Ml'l'' ITS,  in  nierhanies,  the  force  with 
wliicli  one  boilv  impels  or  strikc-s  another. 

IMI'I,K.'Afl(>N,is  wheretlie  law  implies 
something  that  is  not  declared  by  parties  in 
tlieir  deeds  and  atjreenients ;  and  when  our 
law  gives  any  tiling  to  a  man,  it  ijives  impli- 
citly whatsoever  is  necessary  for  enjoying  the 
same.     4  P.lack.  200. 

An  implied  contract  is  such,  where  llu- 
terms  of  agrei'uienl  are  not  expressly  set  fori;i 
in  words,  "but  are  sneli  as  reason  and  justice 
dictate,  and  which  llierefori'  the  law  (ircsumes 
that  cvc-rv  man  undertakes  to  perform.      Id. 

An  implicatiin  cannot  be  intended  by 
deed,  unless  there  are  apt  words,  but  other- 
wise in  a  will.     Brownl.  153. 

IMrOUlATION,   the   act   of  brlngin;T 
poods  into  a  comitry  from  foreign  parts.     It 
tui^  cenerally  been  cou'-idered,  that  for  any 
j-ountrv  to  eurrv  on  a  profitable  tnde,  it  is 
necessary  tliat  tlie  value  of  the  goods  sent  out 
ofitsluii'dd  be  greater  than  that  of  tlie  ar- 
ticles imoorted:  this,  however,  is  a  very  er- 
roneous axiom,  unle,s  it  is  understood  with 
great  limit.ilions.     All  articles  of  merclian- 
tlize,    imported    merely  for   re-e.x])orlation, 
and  also  sucli  as  are  vised  or  worked  up  in 
eur  own  manufactures,  are  far  from  U-ing 
hurtful  to  our  commerce;  and  may  even,  in 
many  respects,   be  deemed  of  eiiual  profit 
witb   ouf  own    u.ilive   connnoditles.      It    is 
therefore   a,n    excess   of    such   importations 
alone  as  are  either  for  iiu're  luxury  or  mere 
necessity,  or  for  both  toiji  tlier,  which  is  dis- 
advantagecAis  ttt  the  country,  and  not  such 
importations  as,  like  many  of  ours,  consist  ot 
raw   silk,   Spanish   wool,"  cotton    wool    and 
y.arn,  mohair,  flax  and  hemp,  oils,  potasses, 
.dyeing  stulTs,  luival  stores,  &c.  either  used  in 
oiir  ship-building,  or  worked  up  in  our  ma- 
nufactures, a  pihieipal  part  of  which  are  for 
exportation:   neither  cm  onr  importations  ol 
East  lirlia  goods  and  colonial  produce,  whicli 
are  chielly  designed  to  be  afterwards  export- 
ed, be  tleemed  u'lprofitable,  but  are,  on  the 
contrarv,  some  of  the  most  lucrative  branches 
©four  foreign  trade. 

The  following  s(ateiTh>nt  of  tlve  total  value 
©f  the  imports  of  Kitgland,  in  the  year  1354, 
fmnishes  a  curious  comparison  witli  their 
present  magnitude. 
1831  line  cl  ilhs,  at  li/.  percloth, 
which,  with  the  customs,  X.  f.  d. 
come  to  -  -        1 1,083  12     0 

397J  hundred  weight  of  wax,  at 
40.«.  per  hundred  weight,. 
which,  with  the  customs, 
come  to  -  -  815     7     5 

182^1  tais  of  wbe,  at  40t.  per 
ton,  which,  wiSrii  the  customs, 
come  to  -  -        3,841   19     0 

l.inen-dotli,  mercery,  ^ocery, 

and  all  otber  wares         -        22,943     0  10 
©!i which  tlia  customs  were  285  18     3 


I   ^f   P 

At  this  period,  and  for  a  Inn^  time  after, 
foreiiiners  wi'ie  flu- '  principal  nnpoilers  ot 
goods  in  this  country  ;  and  as  it  was  lliouglit 
inal  inanv  of  them,  after  disposiny  of  tlie-ir 
merchandise  lure,  r.  turned  with  the  value 
in  money  to  their  ow  n  com. try,  wliicii  was 
deemed" a  serious  injury,  many  laws  were 
made  against  carrying  out  of  tlie  realm  iuiy 
gold  or  silver,  eillier  ill  coin,  plate,  or  bullion; 
and  mercliant  strani;ers  were  compelled  to 
give  srcniity  tliat  tliey  would  lay  out  ail  the 
iiioiu-v  tliev  recei\(.-d  lor  tile  wares  they  im- 
porteil,  in  luiglisli  merchandize  lobe  export- 
ed. These  injudicious  restrictions  lia\e  been 
lontj  since  done  away  ;  and  exci-pting  the 
proliibition  of  soiiu:  foreign  manufactures, 
llie  import  trade  of  tliis  country  is  probal)ly 
as  free  as  the  regulations  necessary  to  secure 
the  pa\menl  of  heavy  duties  on  almost  cvery 
artide  of  trade  will  admit. 

Tof  il  ollicial  value  of  the  imports  of  Great 
Hrilain  in  the  year  ISOO. 


Port  of  I.ondou 
1  lie  oulports 

I'.ngland 
Scotland 


,i:  18,843, 1 72 
<).5l4,f)42 


28,357,814 
2,212,790 


14 
II 


East  Indies  and  China, 
n   1801         a  5,4.74,441 

1502  5,794,906 

1503  0,348,887 
1804            5,214,021 
1S05 

The  oflicial  value  of  the 

30,570,605     6     4 
All  other  parls. 
^  27,371,115 
25,047,412 
21,043,577 
23,9S0,8(i9 
24,273,451 
irr.norts  of  Ireland 

Total 


38,&7a    3    & 


in  the  year  1805,  was  5,982,194/.  19s.  9(i. 

IMPOSSIBI.K   ROOTS,  in  algebra.      To 
discover  how  many  ini|)0ssiblc  roots  are  con- 
tained in  any  prop"o-e(l  e(|uation,  sir  I.  New- 
ton gave  this  rule,  in  bis  .-Mgebra,  viz. :   Con- 
stitute a  series  of  fractions,  whose  denomjna- 
lors  are  the  series  of  natural  numbers  1,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  .S.C.  rontimied  to  the  number  shewing 
the  index  or  exponent  of  the  highest  term  of 
the  e<iuatioiis,  i.ml  thc-ir  numerators  the  same 
series  of  numbers  in  the  contrary  order;  and  j 
divide  each  of  these  fractions  by  that  next 
before  it,  and  place  the  resulting  (|iiot"unts 
over  the  intermediate  terms  of  the  eipiation  ; 
then  under  each  of  the  intermediate  terms,  if 
its  square  niulti))lied  by  the  fraction  over  it, 
be  greater  than  the  prcxluct  of  the  terms  on 
each  side  of  it,  place  the  sign  -f;  but  if  not, 
tin-  sign  — ;  and  under  the  lir>^t  and  last  term 
place  the  sign  4--     'Ilieii  will  the  ecpiation 
liavt;  as  many  imaginary  roots  as  there  are 
changes  of  tlie  underwritten  signs  from  -f-  to 
— ,  and  from  —  to  -|-     S"  for  *'>«  ecpiation 
J-' 4.r2  +  4r  —  0  =  0,  the  series  of  frac- 
tions is  i.,  .=-,  -t;  then  the  seiTond  divided  by 
the  first  giyes  2.  or  .'.,  and  the  third  divided 
by  the  second  givt-s  ^  also  ;  hence  these  quo- 
tients placed  over  the  intermediate  terms,  the 
wliule  will  stand  tlm.s, . 

4  T 

ji  _  4.,''  +  4x  —  &. 

+  +  -  + 
Xow  bec.iuse  the  sciuare  of  the  second 
term  multiplied  by  its  sapi;rscribed  fraction, 
is  ^4x*,  wliicli  is 'greater  than  4j%  the,-  pro- 
duct of  the  two  adjacent  terms,  thcirefore  the 
siorii  -}-  is  set  below  the  second  term;  and  be- 
cause the  ^cui  ire  of  the- third  term  multiplied 
by  its  overwritten  trattioii,  ii^^.i%  which  is  less 


I  ^r  p  7 

than  24i',  the  prodiH  ol  the  tenns  on  each 
side  of  il,  Iherelore  the  sign —  is  placed  un- 
der thai  term  ;  also  the  sign  4-  is  set  under 
the  liist  and   last  ti  rins.      lleme  the  two 

changes  ol  the  underwritten  signs  +  -| 

+,  the  one  from  -|-  to  — ,  and  the  oilier  fnini 
—  to  +,  shew  that  the  given  eciuatioii  lias 
two  impossible  rocjts. 

VV'lien  two  or  more  tenm  are  wanting  (o- 
gcflher,  under  the  place  of  the  fir-t  ol  the 
delicleiit  terms  write  tlnr  sign  — ,  under 
the  second  the  sign  -f,  under  the  third — , 
and  so  on,  always  varying  llie  signs,  except 
that  iincK-r  tin:  last  of  the  clelicient  termi 
must  always  be  set  the  sign  -j-,  wlien  the 
adjacent  terms  on  both  sides  ol  the  delicient 
terms  have  contrary  signs.  As  in  the  ecjua- 
lioji, 

x'-  -f  a.v'  .     ,     ,    +  ■»   =  0, 

+         +-+-       + 
which  bus  four  imaginary  roots. 

'I  he  atitlior  remarks,  thai  this  rule  will 
sometimes  fail  of  discovering  all  the  inipo*- 
sible  roots  of  au  ecjuation,  for  some  eqiiatioiii 
may  have  more  of  such  roots  than  can  be 
found  by  this  rule,  though  this  seldom  liaj>- 
peiis. 

Mr.  Maclauriji  has  given  a  demonstration 
oflliis  rule  of  Newton's,  together  with  one 
of  his  own,  that  will  never  fail.  And  the 
same  has  also  been  done  by  Mr.  Campbell. 
See  Piiil.  Trans,  vols.  34  and  35. 

'i'iie  real  and  imaginary  rools  of  equations 
may  be  found  from  tlie  method  of  tjuxions, 
applied  to  the  doctrine  of  maxima  and  mi- 
nima ;  that  is,  to  lind  sucli  a  value  of  x  in  an 
eciuation,  c;xpressing  the  nature  of  a  curve. 


made  eCjUal  to  y,  an  abscissa  which  torrc- 
spoiids  to  the  greatest  and  least  ordinate, 
liut  when  the  equation  is  above  three  dimen- 
sions, the  computation  is  very  laborious.  Sec 
Stirling's  Treatise  on  the  Lines  of  the  Third 
Order. 

IMPOSTIIU.ME,  the  same  with  abscess. 
See  SvRCERY. 

IMPRESSING  ME.v.  The  power  of  im- 
pressing seamen  for  the  sea  service,  by  the 
king's  commi-sion,  has  been  a  matter  of  some 
dispute,  and  submitted  to  with  great  reluc- 
tance, though  it  has  very  learnedly  been 
argued  by  sir  Michael  l-'orster,  that  the  prac- 
tice of  unpressing,  and  granting  power  to 
the  admiraUy  for  that  purpose,  is  of  very  an- 
tient  date,  and  has  bc-en  continued  by  a  re- 
gular Series  of  prec  edeiits  to  the  pre.-tnt  time, 
whence  he  concludes  it  to  be  part  of  the 
common  law.  The  difficulty  arises  hence, 
that  no  statute  has  expressly  declared  this 
power  to  be  in  the  crown,  though  many  of 
them  very  strongly  imply  it.  'I'he  stat.  2 
R.  II.  c.  4.  speaks  of  manners  being  arrested 
and  retained  for  the  king's  service,  as  of  a 
thing  well  kiiow  n  and  practised  without  dis- 
pute, and  provides  a  remedy  against  the  run- 
ning away. 

By  Stat  2  and  3  P.  and  M.  c.  16,  if  a:iy 
waterman  who  uses  tlie  river  Tiiames,  shall 
hide  himseh  during  the  execution  of  any 
commission  for  pressing  for  hi-  majesty's  ser- 
vice, he  is  liable  to  heavy  penalties.  By  stat. 
5  Eliz.  c.  (>.  no  tislierman  shall  be  taken  by 
the  qvieen's  commission  to  serve  as  a  mari- 
ner; but  the  commission  shal:  be  first  brought 
to  two  justices  of  the  peace,  inhabiting  near 
the  sea-coast  where  tlie  mariners  are  to  be 
takeii,  to  the  liitent  that  the  justices  majr 


5  IXC 

choose  o'.it  and  return  siicli  a  mim!)pr  of  aLIe- 
bodied  men  as  in  tiic  commission  are  con- 
i  lined  to  serve  her  maiisty.  And  by  sfat. 
7  and  8  \V.  c.  21.;  2  Ai.ne,  c.  0.;  4'and  5 
Ainie,  c.  1!).;  13  (i.o.  II.  c.  I".;  especial 
pr>>t;iti;)ns are  allowed  to  seamen  in  parlicu- 
lar  cirenmslancr.^,  to  prevent  llieni  from 
being  impressed.  All  wliieli  certainly  imply 
a  power  of  impressing  to  reside  somewhere; 
and  if  anv  wiiere,  it  jimst,  from  the  spirit  of 
our  constiUil'on,  as  well  as  from  thefreipicnt 
mention  of  the  king's  romniission,  reside  in 
the  crown  alcni-.      I   Rlaek.  419. 

l.MPRISOXMENT,  is  the  restraint  of  a 
man's  liberty  under  the  custody  of  ar.otiier, 
and  extends  not  or.ly  to  a  gaol,  but  a  house, 
slocks,  or  where  a  man  is  held  in  tlie  street, 
or  any  other  place;  for,  in  all  these  cases, 
tlie  party  so  restrained  is  said  to  be  a  prisoner 
so  long  as  he  has  not  his  liberty  freely  to  go 
about  his  business  as  at  other  times. 

None  shall  be  impri-oned  but  by  the  law- 
ful iudgineiit  ot  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the 
land.    'Magna  Charta. 

lMPRisox.MEN'T./;;/?f.  To  constitute  the 
injury  of  false  imprisonmen.t,  two  points  are 
necessary  :  tlie  detention  of  the  person,  and 
the  unlawfulness  of  such  detention.  Every 
confinement  of  the  person  is  imprisonment, 
whether  it  is  in  a  cimimort  prison,  or  in  a 
private  house,  or  in  the  stocks,  or  even  by 
forcibly  detaining  one  in  the  streets.  2  Inst. 
589. 

By  Magna  Charta,  no  freeman  shall  be 
taken  and  iniprisoned,  but  by  the  lawful 
judgment  of  his  equals,  or  by  the  law  of  the 
land:  and  by  the  petition  of  right,  3  C.  I. 
no  freeman  shall  be  inijjrisoned  or  detained 
without  caiise  shewn,  to  which  ho  may  make 
answer  according  to  law.  And  by  the  l6 
C.  I.  c.  to.  if  any  person  is  restrained  of  his 
liberty,  lie  may,  upon  application  by  his 
counsel,  have  a  writ  of  liabeas  corpus,  to 
bring  him  before  the  C!)'n  t  of  kini;'s  bench  or 
common  pleas,  who  shnll  determine  whether 
the  cause, of  his  commitment  is  just,  and 
thereupon  do  as  to  jihtice  appertains. 

For  false  imprisonmeiit  the  law  has  not 
only  decreed  a  punishment  bv  line  and  im- 
prisonment, as  a  heinovs  public  crime,  but 
has  also  given  a  priv:ttp  reparation  to  the 
party  by  action  at  law,  wherein  he  shall 
recover  damages  for  the  loss  of  his  time  and 
liberty.  3  Black.  127. 
IM'pROPRR  fractioxs.     See  Arith- 

"METIC,  and  Al.GKBRA. 

IMPKOPRIATIOX,  is  proper'y  so  called 
when  a  beiulicc  ecclesiastical  is  in' the  hands 
of  a  layman;  and  appropriation  when  in  the 
hands  of  a  bishop,  college,  or  religious  house, 
though  sometimes  these  terms  arc  confound- 
ed. It  is  said  there  are  3845  impropriations 
.in  Fngland. 

I.MPULSF,,  or  I.mpui.sive  Force,  the 
same  wilh impetus.     See  Mechanics. 
.     IX/VHCIi  I NG,  in  gardening.  See  Craft- 
ing. 

IN'CA,  or  Y.sTA,  a  naine  given  by  the 
natives  of  Peni-to  their  kings,  and  the  princes 
■of  the  l)hx)<l. 

IXCAPACrrV,  in  the  rannn  law,  is  of 
two  kinds;  I.  'I'he  want  of  a  <li-ipensation  for 
:i>^e  in  a  minor,  for  legitimation  in  a  bastard, 
nnd  (ho  like:  this  renders  the  provisio;i  of  a 
■licne/ice  void  in  its  original,     2.  Crimes  and 


I  N  C 


heinous  offences,  wliich  amiul  provisions  al 

iirst  valid. 

IXCH,  a  well-known  measure  of  lencth, 

beii'.g  the  twelfth  part  of  a  foot,  and  equal  to 

three  barleycorns  in  length. 

IXCiUENCi'!,  in  mechanics,  denotes  the 

direction  in  which  one  body  strikes  on  ano- 
ther.    See  Mhchanics,  and  Optics. 
INCLINATION,   is  a   word   fre<iuently 

used   by   muthematicians,  and    siguilies  the 

mutual   ajjproach,  tendency,  or  leaning,  of 

two  lines  or  two  planes  towards  each  otijer, 

,so  as  to  make  an  angle. 

Inclination  of  a  light  line  to  a  plane,  is  the 

acute  angle  which  that  line  makes  with  ano- 

llier  right  line  drawn  in  the  plane  through  the 

point   where   the  inclined  line  intersects  it, 

and  through  the  point  where  it  is  also  cut  bv 

a  perpendicular  draw  n  from  any  point  of  the 

niclined  plane. 

Inclination  of  llie  axis  of  the  earth,  is  the 

angle  which  it  miikes  with  the  plane  of  the 

ecliptic;  or  the  angle  contained  between  the 

planes  of  the  equator  and  ccliijtic 

Inciiiiation  of  a  planet,  is  an  arch  of  the  cir- 
cle of  inclination  conijirehend.  d  betweer.  the 
ecliptic  and  tlie  plane  of  a  planet  in  its  orbit. 
See  Astronomy. 

The  greatest  inclination  of  Saturn,  accord- 
ing to  Kep-ler,  is  2°  32';  of  Jupit-r,  1»20';  of 
Niars,  1°  50'  30";  of^'einis,  3"  22';  of  Mer- 
cury, 6°  54'.  According  to  de  la  Hire,  the 
greatest  inclin;:tion  of  Saturn  is  2"  33'  30";  of 
.Kipiter,  1°  19' 20"  ;  of  Mars,  l^Sl';  of  Venus, 
3°  2.-)'  5";  of  Mercury,  &>  52'. 

Inclination  of  a  plane,  in  dialling,  is  the 
arch  of  a  veilic:'.l  circle,  perpendicular  both 
to  the  plane  and  the  hnr'zon,  and  intercepted 
lietM-eeii  them.  To  find  this,  let  yVB  (see  Piate 
Misc.  tig.  13.))  be  a  piane  inclined  to  tiie  ho-  I  through  which  the  parclnnent  was  cut,  either 


I  K  n 

they  ineaiit  that  after  and  from  the  time  he 
s\as  (ormed  in  the  womb  of  his  holy  mother, 
lie  was  not  susceptible  of  any  change  or  alter- 
ation, not  even  of  any  natnrai  and  innocent 
passions,  as  hunger,  thirst,  &c.  so  that  lie  ate 
without  any  occasion  before  his  death,  as 
well  as  after  liis  resurrection. 

INCUBUS,  or  Night-mare.  See  Me- 
dicine. 

INCUMBENT,  a  clerk  or  minister  who 
is  resident  on  his  benehce:  he  is  called  iji- 
cunilieut,  because  he  does,  or  at  least  ought, 
to  bend  his  whole  study  to  discharge  the  cure 
of  his  cliurch. 

INCUKVATION  of  the  rays  of  light, 
their  bending  out  of  a  rectilinear  or  straight 
course,  occasioned  by  refraction. 

INDE.MNITY,  in  law,  the  saving  harm- 
less; or,  a  writing  to  secure  one  from  all  da- 
mage and  danger  tiiat  may  ensue  from  any 
act.  An  indemnity  in  regard  to  estates  is 
called  a  warranty. 

INDENlTid,  in  heraldry,  is  when  the 
outline  of  an  ordinary  is  notched  like  the 
teeth  oi  a  saw. 

Indented  line,  in  fortification, -the  same 
with  what  the  French  engiiicers  call  redent ; 
being  a  trench  and  parapet  runnhig  out  and 
in,  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw,  and  much  used 
in  irregukir  iortiiication. 

INlJEN'iUKE,  is  a  writing  containing  a 
conveyance  between  two  or  more,  ijidcnled 
or  cut  unevenly,  or  in  and  out,  on  the  lop 
or  side,  answerable  to  another  writing  that 
htvcwise  comprehends  the  same  words.  For- 
n:erly  when  deeds  w  ere  more  concise  than  at 
present,  it  was  usual  to  write  both  parts  on 
the  same  piece  of  parchment,  with  some 
words    or    letters    w.iften    between    tliem. 


rizon  IIR  ;  apply  to  the  plane  ABa  ipiadrant 
DCF,  so  that  the  pUimnut  CEmay  cut  off 
any  number  of  degreeson  llie  limb,  asliF:  then 
the  arch  DEislhe  measure  of  tlie  ancle  of 
inclination  .^RII-  fijr  draw  RG  perpendicu- 
lar to  II  K,  then  because  CE  is  p  rallel.to 
B(;.  the  angle  EC F  is  equal  to  CBG:  but 
DCF  is  e(iua!  to  GBH,  bcinc;  both  right  an- 
gles, therefore  the  angle  DCF—  ECh',  is 
e(pial  to  the  ansle  GBII  — CBG;  that  is, 
DCEisef|ual  AlUI. 

INCLINED  PLANE,  in  mechanics,  one 
tliLit  makes  an  oblique  angle  with  the  horizon. 
See  Mechanics. 

JNCO.MMKNSURABLE,  a  term  in  geo- 
metry, used  where  two  lines,  when  comp.ired 
to  each  other,  have  no  coninion  measure,  how 
small  soever,  that  will  exactly  measure  thein 
both.  And  in  general,  two  <|uantities  are 
said  to  be  inconimensurable,  when  no  third 
quantity  can  be  found  that  is  an  aliquot  part 
of  boili' 

Such  are  the  diagonal  and  side  of  a  square; 
for  though  each  of  those  lines  lias  inlinite 
a!i<iuot  parts,  as  the  half,  the  third,  S.c,  yet 
not  any  part  of  the  one,  be  it  ever  so  little, 
can  possibly  measure  the  other,  as  is  demon- 
strated by  Eucliil. 

iNCOMMENsuKAnLK  NUMBERS,  are' such 
as  liave  no  common  divisor  that  will  divide 
them  both  e(|uallv. 

INCORRUnMniLES,  or  Incorrvpti- 
COL.-E,  ill  church  history,  heretics  which  had 
their  original  at  .Mexandria,  in  the  time  of 
the  emperor  Justinian.  Their  distinguishing 
tenet  was,  that  the  body  of  .'esus  Christ  was 
incorruiilible  from  his  coiiceplion,  by  which 


n  a  straight  or  indented  I'ne,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  leave  half  the  word  on  one  part,  and 
iialf  on  the  other:  and  this  custom  is  still  pre- 
served in  iiiakin^g  out  the  iudeniures  of  a  (me. 
But  at  last,  indenting  only  lias  come  into 
use  \vithoul  cutting  through  any  letters  at  all ; 
and  it  seems  .d  present  to  serve  for  little 
other  purpose  than  to  give  name  to  the  spe- 
cies ot  the  deed.     2  Black.  294. 

INDEPENDENTS,  a  sect  of  protestants 
ill  England  and  Holltuid,  so  called  from  their 
indi-pendency  on  other  cl.n:'clies,  and  their 
maiutaining.lliat  each  church  or  congregation 
has  suflicient  power  to  act  and  perform  every 
thing  relating  to  religious  govcri.meiit  within 
itself,  and  is  no  way  subject  cr  accountable  to 
other  churches  or  their  ile])uties. 

Tiie  present  independents  differ  from  the 
presbyterians  only  in  their  church  "overn- 
meut,  in  being  generally  more  attached  »o 
tlie  doctrines distinguiihi  d  by  the  tenii  ortho- 
doxy,suchas  original  sin, elect  ion  reprobation, 
&c.  and  in  administering  the  Lord's  supper 
at  the  close  of  the  afternoon's  service.  '1  he 
sever;d  sects  of  baptists  are  all  independents 
with  respect  to  churcK-guvernment;  aud, 
like  them,  adm'nister  the  Lord's  supper  in 
tlie  evening,  whereas  the  presbvterians  admi- 
nisler  it  alter  the  fortuoi/iis  service. 

INDErERMIN.VTE  puohi.km,  in  alge- 
bra, one  which  is  capable  o;  an  indelinitc 
number  of  solutions. 

INDEX,  in  arithmetic  and  ;ilgel)ra,  shews 
to  what  power  any  quantity  is  involved,  and 
is  otherwise  called  exponent. 

Is DEx  of  a  logarithm,  that  which  shews 
of  how  many  places  the  absolute  number  be- 
3 


T  N  » 

3on!»n'g  to  a  Idsaiitlim  consi'^ls,  and  of  what 
jvituri*  il  is,  wIrIIut  ;iii  inti-Rcr  oi'  (r;ic- 
l;()i:.  'lliiis,  ill  lliis  lugaritlmi  -'.j.'34,'l,  (In- 
iiiiiuljcr  'J  slamling  on  the  Idt  hand  ol  (he 
point  is  calh'il  the  index;  bucausc'  il  slicws 
tJial  thi;  al)S()liitc  numboi',  aiiswiMing  lo  the 
above  h)(^anlliui,  coniixts  of  three  phices:  for 
Iho  nnnilMT  is  always  one  more  than  the  in- 
.di'x.  It'  th(!  aljsoliite  number  is  a  fraelion, 
-then  liie  index  of  the  logarithm  has  a  nega- 
tive viirn  marked  thus  i;.5'J34-l. 

Indrx  (>f(iE,hhr,{he  little  style  or  cno- 
iiion,  wliieh  being  lixed  on  Ihe  pole  ot  the 
globe,  and  turning  ronnd  with  il^  points  out 
the  hours  upon  the  honr-tireh-.    See  (iLOiiK. 

INDIAN'  b:;rkv,  in  conimerce,  kc.    See 

COCULLS. 

INDICATIVF.,  in  grammar,  the  nr>t 
mood  or  manner  of  conjugating  a  verb,  by 
which  we  simply  alUrm,  deny,  or  ask  some- 
thing ;  as,  aiimni,  they  love ;  nnn  amunt, 
they  do  not  love  ;  umuiitnc,  do  th<"y  love? 

IN  DICTION,  in  chronology,  a  cycle  of 
\j  years.  The  Roman  or  paj>al  indiclion, 
which  is  that  used  in  the  [jojie's  liuUs,  begins 
on  tin;  1st  of  January;  and  by  it  the  popes 
liave  dated  tlieir  acts  ever  sinc^-C'harleinagnc 
made  them  sovereigns.  I5ul  besides  this, 
there  are  other  two  kinds  of  indiction  men- 
tioned by  authors,  viz.  that  of  Constanti- 
nople, beginning  on  the  1st  of  September; 
and  the  imperial  or  C;esarian  indiction,  wbicli 
commenced  ou  tlie  l4tU  of  September.  See 
Cyclk. 

T.N  DICTION  is  also  used  for  the  convoking 
an  ecclesiastical  council  or  assembly. 

INDIC  TMKN  1',  is  a  wiitlen  accusation 
of  one  or  more  |)ersons  of  a  crime  or  misde- 
meanor, preferred  lo,  and  presented  on  oath 
bv,  a  grand  i<uv.     4  Black.  30'.'. 

.\n  iiidiclm<;nt  may  be  found  on  the  oath 
/)f  one  witness  onlv,  unless  it  is  for  high  trea- 
son, which  retpiires  two  witnesses  ;  and  lui- 
Jess  in  anv  instance  it  is  othcnvise  specially 
directed  bv  acts  of  parliament.    'J  flaw. 

The  slierilT  of  every  county  In  bouiul  lo  re- 
turn to  every  session  of  the  |)eace,  and  every 
coiumission  of  over  and  terminer,  and  of 
general  gaol-deliverv,  -4  good  and  lawful 
jueu,  of  the  county,  some  out  of  every  hun- 
<l;ed,  to  enquire,  present,  do,  and  execute, 
all  ihose  things  which  on  the  part  of  our  lord 
.the  king,  shall  then  and  there  be  commanded 
therein.  As  many  as  appear  upon  this  pan- 
jiel  are  sworn  of  the  grand  jury,  to  the 
amount  of  twelve  at  the  least,  and  not  more 
than  twenty-three,  that  twelvi.-  may  be  a  ma- 
joiilv.  'i'liis  grand  jury  is  previo\isly  in- 
slrucled  in  the  articles  of  their  eni]uiry,  by  a 
charge  from  the  judge  on  the  bench.  'I'hey 
then  w  itlulraw  from  court  to  sit  and  receive 
indictments,  which  are  preferred  to  them  in 
the  name  of  tlie  king,  but  at  the  suit  of  any 
private  prosecutor;  and  lliey  are  only  lo 
liear  evidence  on  behalf  of  the  prosecution: 
for  the  finding  an  indictment  is  only  in  the 
nature  of  an  enquiry  or  accusation,  which  is 
afterwards  lo  be  tried  and  determined;  and 
the  grand  jury  are  only  lo  enquire  upon  llieir 
oaths  whether  there  is  sufi'icienl  cause  to  call 
upon  the  p.irly  to  answer  il. 

Il  seenis  generally  agreed,  that  the  grand 
jury  may  not  hnd  part  of  an  indictment  true 
and  |)art  false;  but  must  cither  lind  a  true 
l)ill  or  ignoramus  for  the  whole;  and  if  thev 
take  upon  them  to  lind  it  speciailv  or  coiidi- 
Voi,.  II. 


I  N  I> 

tion.illy,  or  lo  be  true  for  part  only  and  not 
for  lliere-il,  the  whole  is  void,  and  the  paily 
cainiot  be  tried  iijion  il,  but  ought  lo  be  in- 
dicted anew.     :.'  /law.  L'ft). 

All  ca])ital  criiinrs  whatever,  and  all  kinds 
of  inferior  crimes  which  are  of  a  public  na- 
ture, as  inispri.-.ions,  conteiujjls,  dislurbances 
of  the  peace,  oppressions,  and  all  oth<-r  mis- 
ilemeanors  whatever  of  a  public  evil  ex- 
ample against  the  common  law,  may  be  in- 
dicled,  i)ul  no  injuriirs  of  a  private  nature, 
unless  they  in  some  degree  conccMa  the  king. 
And  generally  where  a  statute  prohibits  a 
mailer  of  public  grievance  lo  llii;  lilierties  and 
security  of  a  subject,  or  commands  a  matter 
of  pubtic  con\eniencc,  as  the  i^'pairing  of  the 
common  streets  of  the  town,  &:c.  every  dis- 
obedience of  such  statute  is  jjunisUable,  not 
onlv  at  the  Mill  of  the  party  grieved,  but  also 
by  way  of  indiilmenl,  for  contempt  <>[  the 
slalule,  unless  such  method  of  proceeding 
shall  manifesllv  appear  to  be  excluded  by  it. 
Yet  if  the  parly  otf'ending  has  been  fined  in 
an  action  brought  by  the  parly  (as  it  is  said 
lie  uiav  in  every  action  for  doing  a  thing  ino- 
hibiled  by  slatiitr),  such  fine  is  a  good  b.ir  lo 
the  indiciment,  because  by  the  fine  the  end 
of  flu-  stalute  is  satisfied;  otherwise  he  would 
be  liable  to  a  second  line  for  the  same  of- 
fence.    2  Inst.  55. 

If  several  offenders  commit  the  same  of- 
fence, thougli  in  law  they  are  several  offences 
in  relation  to  Ihtf  several  ollenders,  yet  they 
may  be  joined  in  one  indiciment;  as  if  seve- 
ral commit  a  robbery,  or  burglary,  or  mur- 
der.    2H.  11.  173.     ' 

No  indictment  for  high  treason,  or  mis- 
prision thereof  (except  indictments  for  coun- 
tedeiling  the  king's  coin,  seal,  sign,  or  signet), 
nor  any  process  or  return  thereupon,  shall  be 
(plashed  for  mis-reciting,  mis-spelling,  false 
or  im|)roper  Latin,  unless  exceiition  concern- 
ing Ihc  same  is  taken  and  made  in  the  respect- 
ive court  where  the  trial  shall  be,  by  the  |)ri- 
souer  or  his  counsel  assigned,  before  any  evi- 
dence given  in  o])en  court  on  such  indictment ; 
nor  shall  any  such  mis-reciting,  mis-spelling, 
false  or  impro|)er  Latin,  after  conviction  on 
such  indictment,  be  any  cause  or  slay,  or 
arrest  of  judgment ;  but  nevertheless,  any 
judgment  on  such  indictment  sliall  be  liable 
to  be  reversed  on  writof  error  as  formerly. 

An  indictment  accusing  a  man  in  general 
terms,  without  ascertaining  the  particular  fact 
laid  to  his  charge,  is  insuflicicnt ;  for  no  one 
<'an  know  what  defence  \.o  make  to  a  charge 
which  is  unceitain,  nor  can  plead  it  in  bar  or 
abatement  of  a  subsequent  prosecution;  nei- 
tliercan  it  appear  that  llie  facts  given  in  evi- 
dence against  a  defendant  on  such  a  general 
accusation,  are  llie  same  of  which  the  in- 
didors  have  accused  him ;  nor  can  it  judi- 
cially appear  to  the  court  what  punishment 
is  iiroper  for  an  otlence  so  loosely  expressed. 
'-Mlaw.  26d. 

It  is  therefore  best  to  lay  all  the  facts  in  the 
indictment  as  near  to  the  truth  as  possible ; 
and  not  to  say,  iii  an  inJictment  for  a  small 
assaidt  (for  instance)  wherein  the  person  as- 
saulted received  little  or  no  bodily  iuirt,  that 
such  a  one,  with  swords,  slaves,  and  pistols, 
beat,  bruised,  and  wounded  him,  so  that  his 
life  was  greatly  despaired  of;  not  to  say  in  an 
iniliclment  for  a  highway  being  obstructed, 
that  the  king's  subjects  cannot  go  thereon 
without  mamfest  danger  of  tlieir  lives,  and 
the  like:  which  kind  of  words  not  beics  ne- 
B 


I  xV  1)  5 

rrssarf,  n-ay  stagger  an  honest  man  u^'m 
his  oath  to  find  (he  lad  as  so  |.;id. 

No  indiciment  can  be  good  vtilliout  ex- 
pressly shewing  some  place  wherein  the  of- 
fence was  coiiimilled,  which  nm  t  appi-ar  lo 
have  been  within  jurisdiction  of  tlie  court. 
2  Haw.  23G. 

There  are  several  emphatical  wordi 
which  the  law  has  appropriated  for  thi-  de- 
scription of  an  offence,  which  no  circumioi  u- 
lion  will  supjily  ;  as  J'vlnninunly,  in  the  ii;- 
dictnienl  of  any  felony;  Ijiiri^lniiounlif,  in  fn 
indictment  of  burglarv,  and  the  like.  2  11.  IL 
184. 

An  indiciment  on  the  black  act  for  shooting 
at  any  |)ersoii  must  charge  that  the  ofleuce 
was  done  wilfully  and  maliciously. 

By  ID  and  W.  c.  23,  it  is  enacted,  that  no 
<:lerk  of  assize,  ( lerk  of  llie  peace,  or  other 
person,  shall  take  any  money  of  any  pervui 
bound  over  to  give  evidence  against  a  traitor 
or  li-lon  for  th<;  discharge  of  his  recognizance, 
nor  take  more  than  2.y.  for  drawing  any  bill 
of  indictment  against  any  such  felon,  on  pain 
of  5/.  lo  the  parlv  grieved,  with  full  cos|-. 
And  if  ho  shall  draw  a  defe-ctive  bill,  he  shall 
dr:iw  a  new  one  gratis  on  the  like  penally. 

With  respect  to  drawing  indictments  for 
other  misdemeanors,  not  being  treason  or 
felony,  no  fee  is  limited  by  the  statute  ;  tin" 
same,  therefore,  depends  on  the  custom  and 
antient  usage. 

Every  person  charged  with  any  felony  or 
other  crhne,  who  shall  on  his  trial  be  acquit- 
ted, or  against  whom  no  indictment  shall  be 
found  by  the  grand  jury,  or  who  shall  be  dis- 
charged by  proclamation  for  want  of  prose- 
cution, shall  be  immediately  set  at  large  in 
open  court,  without  payment  of  any  fee  to 
the  sherilf  or  gaoler ;  but  in  lieu  thereof,  the 
treasurer,  on  a  certificate  signed  by  one  of 
the  judges  or  justices  before  whom  such  pri- 
soner shall  have  been  discharged,  shall  pay 
out  of  the  general  rate  of  the  county  or  dif- 
Iricl,  such  sum  as  has  been  usually  paiil,  not 
exceeding  13?.  4rf. 

I5ut  an  action  cannot  be  brought  by  the 
person  acquitted  against  the  iirosecutorof  the 
indictment,  without  obtaining  a  copy  of  the; 
record  of  his  indiclinent  and  acquittal;'  which 
in  prosecutions  for  felony  it  is  not  usual  to 
giant,  if  there  is  the  least  probalde  cause  to 
found  such  prosecution  upon.  For  it  would 
be  a  very  great  discouragement  lo  th.e  public 
justice  of  the  kingdom,  if  prosecutors  who 
had  a  tolerable  ground  of  suspicion  were 
liable  to  be  suedat  law  whenevi;r  their  in- 
dictnii-nts  miscarried.  15ut  an  action  on  the 
c-ase  for  a  malicious  prosei  ulion  may  be 
foinuled  on  such  an  indictmcuit  whereon  no 
acipiitlal  can  be,  as  if  it  is  rejected  by  the 
grand  jurv,  or  is  coram  non  judice,  or  is  in- 
sulticientlv  drawn  ;  for  it  is  not  the  danger  of 
the  plaintilt",  but  the  sc-andal,  vexation,  and 
expence,  upon  which  this  action  is  founded. 
However,  anv  probable  cause-  for  preferring  it 
is  sullicienttci  justify  the  defendant,  provided 
it  does  not  appear  that  the  proscsrutioii  was 
malicious.     3  lilack.  I'.'fi. 

INDIGOFIi;R.\,  thr  !i,c!rj:f)  plant,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  decar.dria  order,  hi  the  dijdelpliia 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  niclhod 
rankiug  under  the  32d  order,  papilionaceic-. 
The  calyx  is  patent;  the  carina  of  the  co- 
rolla furnished  with  a  subulated  pauiloui 
spur  on  each  side;    the  legiimen  is  linear. 


10 

"here  are  35  species,  the  inost  remarkable 
of  wiiich  is  the  tijictori;i,  a  native  of  tin;  warm 
parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.     Ifiis 
plant  requires  a  ricii  soil,  well  tilled,  and  not 
too  dry.    The  seed  of  if,  which,  as  to  figure 
iind  coloar,  resembles  gunpowdtr,  is  sown  in 
little  furrows  that  are  about  the  breadth  of 
the  hoe,  two  or  three  inches  deep,  at  a  foot 
(listance  from  each  other,  and  in  ;is  straight  a 
line  as  possible.     C'jntiniial  attention  is  re- 
tjuirrrf  to  pluck  up  the  weeds,  which  would 
soon  choke  the  plant.     Though  it  may  be 
sown  in  all  seasons,  the  spring  is  commonly 
preferred.      Moisture   causes  this   plant  to 
shoot  above  the  surface  in  three  or  four  (lavs. 
It  is  ripe  at  the  end  of  two  months.     When 
it  be]»ins  to  flower,  it  is  cut  with  pruniug- 
knives ;  and  cut  again  at  the  end  of  every 
six  weeks,  if  the  weather  is  a  little  rainv.     It 
lasts  about  two  years,  after  which  term  it  de- 
generates :  it  is  then  plucked  up,  and  planted 
afresh.     As  this  plant  soon  exhausts  the  soil, 
because  it  does  not  absorb  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  air  and  dew  to  moisten  the  earth,  it  is 
of  advantage  to  the  planter  to  have  a  vast 
space  which  may  remain  covered  with  trees, 
till  it  becomes  necessary  to  fell  tiiem  in  order 
to  make  room  for  the  indigo. 

The  valuable  dye-stutT  called  indigo  bears 
some  faint  resemblance  to  starch;  but  its 
properties  are  sufficiently  peculiar  to  distin- 
guish it  from  all  other  substances,  and  its  hu- 
portance  entitles  it  to  a  distinguished  place 
among  vegetable  princijiles.  It  is  commonly 
procured  by  the  following  process  : 

When  t!ie  plant  has  been  cut  down,  it  is 
placed  in  strata  in  a  large  wooden  vessel,  and 
covered  with  water.  In  this  situation  it  can- 
not reinaiii  long  in  these  warm  climates  witii- 
out  und?rgoing  some  change.  Piitrefiiction, 
accordingly,  very  soon  conuneiices,  or  rather 
a  kind  of  fermentation,  which  goes  on  best  at 
the  temperature  of  80°.  The  water  soon  be- 
comes opaque,  and  assumes  a  green  colour  ; 
a  smell  resembling  that  oi_volatile  aikali  is 
e.\lnled,  and  bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  are 
emitted.  When  the  feniienlation  has  conti- 
nu>-d  iong  enough,  which  ii  judged  of  bv  the 
paleness  of  the  leaves,  and  wliich  requires 
from  six  to  twenty-four  hours  according  to 
the  temperatureof  theair  and  the  state  of  the 
plant,  the  liquid  is  decanted  off  the  plants 
into  large  flat  vessels,  whi-re  it  is  constantly 
agitalecltill  blue  iioculi  begin  to  make  their  , 
appearance  ;  water  is  now  poured  in,  which  I 
causes  the  blue  Hakes  to  precipitate.  The  \ 
yellow  liqiful  is  d  canted  oil",  and  the  blue 
sediment  poured  into  linen  bags.  When 
the  water  has  drained  from  it  sufficiently,  it 
is  formed  into  sm:ill  lumps,  and  dried  in  the 
shade.  In  that  state  it  is  imported  into  Eu- 
rope, and  sold  under  the  name  of  indigo. 

The  leaves  of  the  indigofera  yield  a  green 
infusion  to  hot  water,  and  a  green  powder 
may  be  precipitated  from  it ;  but  unless  a 
fermentation  has  taken  place,  neither  the 
colour  nor  properties  of  it  have  any  resem- 
blanci;  to  indigo. 

Indigo  may"  be  obtained  from  the  meriom 
tinclorium,  and  the  isatis  tinctoria  or  woad ; 
a  plant  commonly  enough  cultivate<l  in  Bri- 
taiH,  anri  even  foind  wild  in  Kngland  When 
arrivrd  at  maturity,  this  |)lanl  is  cut  down, 
■wadhed,  dried  h.istily  in  the  sun,  ground  in  a 


INDIGO. 

each  other,  and  exposed  to  the  whid  and  5iin.  I  I-ime-wnler  liM  scarcely  any  edect  iipo« 
In  this  state  they  become  hot,  and  exhale  a  indigo  in  its  usual  •■late  ;  but  it  readily  dis- 
putrid  annnoniucal  smell.  1  he  fermentation  solves  precipitated  indigo.  Thesolution  is  at 
is  promoted,  if  necessary,  by  sprinkling  the  first  green,  but  bcoines  gradi^ally  vellow. 
balls  with  water.  'When  it  has  continued  for  Wiien  the  solution  is  exposed  to  the  air,  a 
a  sufficient  time,  the  woad  is  allowed  to  fall  slight  green  colour  returns,  as  happens  to  the 
to  a  coarse  powder;  in  wliich  state  it  is  sold  soldion  of  iixiigo  in  auunonia;  but  it  soon 
as  a  dye-stulf.  By  treating  woad  nearly  in  I  disappears.  The  eHect  of  the  otlier  alkaline 
tlie  same  manner  with  the  intligofera,  indigo  earths  upon  indigo  hi.s  not  hitherto  been 
has  beeii  olitaiiied  from  it  by  cliflerent  die-    tried ;    but  it  cannot  be  doubled   that  Ihev 


mists. 

Indigo  is  a  fine  light  friable  substance,  of  a 
deep-blue  colour.  Its  texture  is  very  com- 
pact, and  the  shade  of  its  surface  varies  ac- 
cording to  tlie  manner  in  wliich  it  has  been 
prepared.  The  principal  tints  are  copper, 
violet,  and  blue;  llie  lightest  indigo  is  the 
best :  but  it  is  always  more  or  less  mixed  with 
foreign  substances,"  partly  owing,  doubtless, 
to  the  carelessness  of  the  preparation,  and 
partly  to  the  bodies  which  the  plant  contain- 
ing indigo  yields  to  water.  From  the  analy- 
sis of  Rergman,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  fur 
one  of  tlie  most  caiiiplete  treatises  on  tlie 
propertiesof  indigo  which  bus  yet  appeared, 
the  purest  indigo  which  lie  could  procure, 
was  composed  of  tlie  following  constituents: 
47  pure  indigo 

12  gum 
6  resin 

22  eartli. 

13  oxide  of  iron 

100. 
The  earth  consisted  of, 
10.2  barvtes 
10.0  iime 
I.S  silica 


22.0 


woukl  act  nearly  as  lime-water,  but  with  mori; 
energy.  The  jlher  earths  seem  to  have  but 
little  action  on  india,o  in  any  st^te. 

The  action  of  the  aJds  U|,on  indigo  has 
been  examined  with  most  attention,  and  it 
certainly  exhibits  the  most  important  phen©- 
mena. 

When  tliliited  sulphuric  acid  is  digested 
over  indigo,  it  produce.^  no  eflect,  t.xcept 
that  of  dissolving  tlie  impurities,  but  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  uis.->oives  it  readilv. 
One  part  of  indigo,  when  mixed  with  eight 
]>arts  of  sulpliuric  acid,  evolves  heat,  and  is 
dissolved  in  about  24  hours.  .'According  tg 
Haussman,  some  sulphurous  acid  and  hy- 
drogen giis  are  evolved  during  the  sohition. 
If  so,  we  are  to  ascribe  them  to  the  mucilage 
and  resin,  which  are  doubtless  destroyed  by 
the  action  of  the  concentrated  acid,  'i'he 
solution  of  indigo  is  well  known  in  this  coun- 
try by  the  name  of  liquid  blue.  Bancroft 
calls  it  sulphat  of  indigo.  While  coiicentrat- 
ed  ft  is  opaque  and  black  ;  but«hen  dilutee! 
it  assume,  a  tine  deep-blue  colour;  ami  its 
intensity  is  such,  that  a  single  drop  of  the 
concentrated  sulphat  is  sufficient  to  give  a 
blue  colour  to  many  pounds  of  water.  Berg-  ■ 
man  ascertained  the  effect   of  different   re. 


agents  on  this  solution  with  great  precision. 
His  experiments  threw  light,  not  only  on  the 
,  jjroperties  of  indigo,  but  upon  the  piienome- 
But  in  all  probability  the  earth  differs  in    na  that  take  place  when  it  is  used  as  a  dye- 
''■"■"■■'   "• — ■ '--  " ' '■       '  stulf".     The  following  is  lire  sum  of  these  ex- 

periments : 

Dropt  into  sulphurous  acid.  Colour  at 
first  blue,  then  green,  and  very  speedily  de- 
stroyed.— In  weak  tartaric  acid.  Ijecomes 
giadual'y  green,  and  in  144  hours  had  as- 
sumed ii  very  pale  yellow  coiour.  Colour 
not  restored  by  alkalies. — In  vinegar.  Be- 
comes green,  and  in  four  weeks  the  colour 
disappeared. In  weak  potass.     Becomes 


diliferent  specimens  ;  for  Proust. found  mag- 
nesia in  considerable  quantity  in  the  speci- 
mens whicli.  he  examined.  The  forty-seven 
parts  of  blue  pigment  are  alone  entitled  to 
the  name  of  indigo;  and  to  tlieni  therefore 
we  sliail  conliiie  our  attention. 

Indigo  is  a  soft  powder,  of  a  deep  blue, 
without  either  taste  or  smell.  It  untlergoes 
no  change,  though  kept  exposed  to  tlie  air. 
Water  does  not  dissolve  any  part  of  it,  nor 


heat  is  applied  to  indigo,  it  emits  a  bluis.. 
red  smoki;,  and  at  last  burns  away  «ith  a 
verv  faint  white  llame,  leaving  behind  it  the 
earlny  parts  in  the  state  of  ashes. 

Neither  oxygen  nor  the  simple  combus- 
tibles have  any  effect  upon  indigo,  except  it 
is  in  a  state  of  solution;  and  the  same  re- 
mark a|)plies  to  the  metallic  boilies. 

The  (ixed  alkaline  solutions  have  no  action 
on  indigo,  except  it  is  newly  precipitati'd 
from  a  state  of  solution.  In  that  case  they 
dissolve  it  with  facility.  The  solution  has  at 
first  a  green  colour,  which  gradually  disap- 
pears, and  the  natural  colour  of  the  indigo 
cannot  be  again  restored.  Hence  we  sec 
that  the  alkalies  when  concentrated  decom- 
pose indigo.     Pure  liquid   .immonia  acts   in 

.  I  the  same  wav.      Kven  carbonat  of  ammo- 

niill,  pkiced  in  heaps,  and  allowed  to  ferment  nia  dissolves  pVecipilated  indigo,  and  de^trovs 
for  a  foriiiight.  It  is  then  well  mixed,  and  its  colour;  but  the  iised  alkaline  carbona'ts 
■»adc  up  into  balls,  whitli  arc  piled  upon   have  jxo  such  etfect.. 


produce   any   change   upon    it!      Bergman,    greeii,  and  then  colourless. In  weak  (jar- 

however,  found  that  indigo,  when  kept  long  bonat  of  potass.  The  same  changes,  but  more 

under  water,  underwent  a  kind  of  putiefac-  '      '         "    '        '     '      '                  '     '' 
tion,  or  at  least  exh  ded  a  fetid  odour.    \Ahen 


slowly.  If  the  solution  is  very  weak,  the  co- 
!  lour  of  the  indigo  is  not  destroyed. — In  am- 
monia and  its  carbonat.  Colour  becomes 
green,  and  then  disappears. In  a  weak  so- 
lution of  sulphat  of  soda.     Colour  after  some 

weeks  becomes  green. In  tartrat  of  potass. 

Became  green,  and  then  colourless. In  a 

solution  of  sugar.  Became  green,  and  at  last 
yellowish. In  sulphat  ot  iron.  Colour  be- 
came green,  and  in  three  weeks  disappeared.' 
— In  tlie  sulphurets.  Colour  destroyed  in  a 
few  hours. — liealgar,  white  oxide  of  arsenic, 
and  orpiment,  produced  no  chaage.— Black 
oxide  of  manganese  destroyed   the    colour 

completely. In  the  infusion  of  madder. 

Colour  became  green,  and  at  last  \ellow.— . 
In  the  infusion  ot  woad,  the  same  changes, 
but  more  speedily. 

I'^rom  these  experiments  it  is  obvious  that 
all  tliose  substances  which  have  a  very  strong 
affinity  for  ox\gen  give  a  green  colour  to  in- 
digo, and  at  last  destroy  it.  Hence  it  is  ex- 
tremely probable  tliat  iudigo  becomes  grceii 


I  N  » 

by  giving;  o»(  oxygen.  Of  course  ilowM  ilf 
bliio  colour  to  tlial  piiiiciple.  'I'liis  llicoiy 
was  (jrst  siiggcslcil  \>y  Mr.  Ilinissiiian,  and 
jtill  fardicr  i-oiilirjiii-d  by  HerllioUet.  'Now 
it  i-i  only  wUvn  (^rcni  that  it  is  in  a  state  ca- 
naille of  Ix'iiig  held  ill  solution  by  liiiK;,  al- 
kalies, &c.  ill  which  stale  it  is  ajiplird  a;  a 
dye  to  clolli.  The  doth  whfii  dipt  into  the 
via  tontainiiif;  it  thus  dissolved,  coiiibiiiLS 
with  it.  and  the  blue  colour  is  restored  by  ex- 
posure to  tile  aliiiosplu're.  It  may  In;  re- 
stored eipially  by  plunging  the  ciotli  into' 
<)\v-niuriatie  acid.  Hence  the  restoration 
cannot  but  be  ascribed  to  oxygen.  Hence, 
then,  the  reason  tliat  sulphurous  acid,  the  ve- 
getable acid.i,  sul|)liat  of  iron,  give  sulpliat  of 
indiiTo  a  green  colour. 

I'roni  these  cNperinienU  we  see  also  that 
the  colour  of  indii;o  is  destroyed  by  the  addi- 
tion cf  those  substances  which  part  with  oxy- 
gen very  readily,  as  the  black  oxide  of  man- 
ganese. In  that  case  the  indigo  is  destroyed, 
for  its  colour  cannot  be  again  restored. 

Nitric  acid  attacks  indigo  with  great  vio- 
lence, the  evolution  of  abundance  of  lieat, 
and  nitrous  gas.  When  of  the  specilic  gra- 
vity 1.5.',  it  even  sets  hre  to  indigo.  Wlien 
the  acid  is  diluted  the  in.ligo  becomes  brown, 
and  crystals  make  their  appearance,  doubt- 
less consisting  of  oxalic  arid.  What  remains 
behind  is  a  brow  n  viscid  substance  of  a  very 
bitter  taste,  probably  analogous  to  the  yellow 
bitter  principle  of  Welter. 

Muriatic  acid  does  not  act  upon  indigo  in 
its  conuiinn  state,  but  it  readily  dissolves  in- 
iligo  precipitated  from  tlie  sulpliat,  and  firms 
»  blue  coloured  solution.  The  same  pheno- 
mena are  exhibited  by  the  pliosphoric,  acel-c, 
tartaric  acids,  and  probably  by  all,  except  the 
acid  supporters. 

Oxymtiriatic  acid  destroys  the  colour  of. 
indigo  as  readily  as  nitric  acid,  and  obviouily 
for  the  same  reason. 

Indigo  is  not  acted  upon  by  alcohol,  ether, 
nor  oils.  Tlie  two  first  soUents,  indeed,  ac- 
quire a  yellow  colour  when  digested  on  com- 
mon indigo  by  dissolving  its  re^in. 

Wlien  indigo  is  mixed  up  with  bran,  woad, 
ami  other  similar  substances,  which  readily 
undergo  fermentation,  it  assumes  a  green  co- 
lour during  the  fermentation,  and  is  then  ea- 
sily dissolved  by  lime  or  potass.  It  is  by  this 
process  that  it  is  usually  rendered  proper  for 
dyeing. 

When  indigo  is  distilled,  it  yields  products 
different  from  any  other  vegetable  substance, 
it  the  accuracy  of  Bergman,  who  alone  has 
made  the  experiment,  is  to  be  trusted.  He' 
distilled  576  grains  in  a  small  retort  connect- 
ed with  a  pneumatic  apparatus.  He  obtained 
the  following  products : 

i9  grains  carbonic  acid  gas 
J73 of  a  yellow  acid  lio_uid,  contain- 
ing ammonia 

'3 oil 

331 charcoal 

4  TO. 

INDIVISIBLES,  in  geometry,  the  elc- 
nieiits  or  principles  into  which  any  body  or 
ligure  may  be  ultimately  resolved;  whicli'ele- 
iiier.ts  are  su.iposad  intinitelv  small:  thus  a 
line  may  be  said  to  consist  of  points,  a  sur- 
face of  panillel  linei,  and  a  solid  of  parallel 
and  similar  surfaces;  and  then,  because  each 
ot  these  elements  is  supposed  indivisible,  if 


1  K  9 

in  any  figure  a  line  be  drawn  tliioiigli  the  eli:- 
meiils  perpendicularly,  the  number  of  points 
in  lliat  line  will  lie  the  .same  as  the  iiiitiiber 
of  the  elements;  whence  we  may  see  that  u 
patallelogram,  prism,  or  cvlinder,  ii  ntolva- 
l)le  into  eieiii-nts  or  indivisiiiles,  all  equal  to 
each  other,  jiarallel  and  like  to  the  base  ;  a 
triangle  into  lines  parallel  to  the  base,  but  de- 
creasing in  arilhmelical  piopurlioii;  and  so 
are  the  circles  which  constitute  the  parabolic 
conoid,  and  those  which  constitute  tiie  plane 
of  a  circl<!,  or  surface  of  an  iso>celeB  cone. 

A  cylinder  miy  be  resolved  into  cylindri- 
cal curve  surfaces,  having  all  the  same  height, 
and  continually  decreasing  inwards,  as  the 
circles  of  the  base  do  on  which  they  insist. 

The  method  of  indivisibles  is  only  the  an- 
tient  method  of  axhaustioiis,  a  little  disguised 
and  contracted.  It  is  fouiid  of  great  use  in 
shortening  mathematical  demonstrations,  of 
which  take  the  following  instance  in  tiie  fa- 
mous proposition  of  Aieliiinedef,'  viz.  that  a 
sphere  is  two-thirds  of  a  cylinder  circum- 
scribing it.  1 

Suppose  a  cylinder,  a  hemispliere,  and  an 
inverted  cone  (Plate  Miscel.  fig.  13.3)  to  have 
the  same  base  and  altitude,  and  to  be  cut  bv 
infinite  planes  all  parallel  to  the  base,  of  which 
f/ij-  is  one.  It  is  plain  the  square  of  dli  will  be 
every  where  equal  to  the  square  of  Ac  (the  ra- 
dius of  the  sphere)  ;  and  r  onsequently,  since 
circles  are  to  one  another  as  the  squares  of  the 
radii,  all  the  circles  of  the  hemisphere  will  be 
equal  to  all  those  of  the  cylinder,  deducting 
thence  all  those  of  the  cone  :  wherefore  the 
cylinder,  deducting  the  cone,  is  equal  to  the 
hemispliere ;  but  it  is  known  that  the  cone  is 
one-third  of  the  cylinder,  and  consequently 
the  sphere  must  be  two-tliirds  of  it. 

INDORSE.MENT,  in  law,  any  thing 
written  on  the  back  of  a  di,ed,  as  a  receipt  for 
monev  received.  See  Bills  of  Exchakcse. 
INDUCEMENT,  in  law,  what  is  alledg- 
cd  as  a  motive  or  incitement  to  a  thing,  and 
is  used  specially  in  many  cases ;  as,  there  is 
an  inducement  in  actions,  to  a  traverse  hi 
pleadings,  a  fact  or  olTence  committed,  &c. 

Inducements  to  acticins  need  not  have  so 
much  certainty  as  in  other  cases :  a  general 
indebitatus  is  not  suHicient  where  it  is  the 
ground  of  the  action  ;  but  where  it  is  the  in- 
ducement to  -the  action,  as  in  consideration 
of  forbearing  a  debt  till  such  a  day  (for  that 
the  [jarties  are  agreed  upon  the  debt),  tjiis 
being  but  a  collateral  promise,  is  good  with- 
out shewing  how  due.  2  Mod.  70.  An  in- 
ducement to  a  traverse  must  be  such  matter 
as  is  good  and  justifiable  in  law.  There  is  an 
inducement  to  a  justification  when  what  is 
alledged  against  it  is  not  the  substance  of  the 
plea.     Moor.  847. 

I N  DUCTION,  in  law,  is  the  giving  a  clerk 
instituted  to  a  benefice  the  actual  possession 
of  the  temporalities  thereof,  in  the  nature  of 
livery  of  seisin.  It  is  performed  by  a  man- 
dr.te"from  the  bishop  to  the  archdeacon,  who 
commonly  issues  out  a  precept  to  some  otlit.r 
clerg\nian  to  perform  it  for  thein.;  which 
being'  done,  the  clergyman  who  inducts  liim 
indorses  a  certificate  of  his  induction  on  the 
archdeacon's  mandate,  and  they  who  were 
present  testify  the  same  under  their  hands, 
and  by  this  the  person  inducted  is  in  full  and 
complete  possession  of  all  the  temporalities  of 
his  church. 
JNDUI.T,  in  the  church  «f  Rome,  ike 


I  N  P 


11 


,•  <",,■. 


I,  ,1  I. 


power  of  presentin)?  to  b^ 

certain  per.-ons  by  lli' 

the  iiidult  of  kings  an  ,  -      i 

llie  Koniish  coiiiimniioii,  anci  mat  ol  ii 

liaijieiil  of  ['aiis  granted  by  several   ; 

I5y  the  concordat   for  the  abolition  of  liie 

I'ragmatic  sanction,  made  between  Kranri'-  f. 

aiid  Leo  X.  in  ijlO,  the  It- 

power  of  nominating  to  bisi 

coiLsistoi lal    benefices,  withe    i  .    i"..  ::..     A{, 

the  same  time,  by  a  particular  bull,  the  popq 

granted  him  the  privilege  ol  nomiiiatiiig  to 

the  churches  of  llritlany  and  Trovcnce. 

INEKTl'.    '  :'rER,inj;'  •        '       ^^ 

definetl  by  -wtoii  to 

principle  b;  ■■    •■  ■■  ■  '  .  .',■ 

lion  or  re>>i.  '.  >ii  to 

the  force  11:  ,     , •"li  as 

they  are  resi.led.  It  is  also  delined  by  the 
same  auilior  to  be  a  power  ijii|)laiited  in  all 
numer,  whereby  it  resists  any  cliangt;  endea- 
voured to  be  made  in  its  state,  tiec  Me- 
chanics. 

INl'AM Y,  which  extends  to  forgery,  per- 
jury, gross  cheats,  &c.  disables  a  man  to  be 
a  witness  or  a  juror ;  but  a  pardon  of  crimt* 
restores  a  pers<in's  credit  to  make  him  a  good 
evidence.     2  Haw.  4.3'J. 

INFANCY,  jiuina^ement  and  discate-i  of. 
We  have  been  induced  to  treat  of  those  di5-' 
orders  which  are  peculiar  to  infancy  sepa- 
rately from  other  alfections,  partly  by  the 
difference  of  character  whicli  su'.li  ailmeuw 
assume  from  tl^ose  of  the  adult  periods  of 
life,  and  partly  by  the  opportunity  the  sub- 
ject will  allord"  ot  introducing  some  prelimi- 
nary observations  on  the  management  of  in- 
fants ;  observations  w  liich  we  shall  end^aN  our 
to  make  familiar  and  inlelligible  to  the  heads 
of  families,  or  those  engaged  in  con<luctiug' 
the  human  frame  through  its  more  tender  and 
dependant  states  of  existence. 

It  would  be  altogether  superfluous  to  urpc 
the  importance  of  this  subject,  ft  has  been 
calculated  that  more  lliaii  a  fourth  part  of  the 
human  race  die  in  the  lirst  year  after  birth  ; 
and  we  have  nearly  the  same  evidence  tliat 
this  remarkable  mortality  originates  not  ia 
the  unchingcaBle  dispositions  of  nature,  but 
(jiincipally  from  erroneous  aud perverted lua- 
na"ement ! 

In  the  first  division  of  this  article  v;e  pro- 
pose, therefore,  to  suggest  a  few  hints  re- 
spi  ctiag  infantile  diet ;  the  regulation  of  tem- 
perature, or  external  heat;  clotliiDg;  air, and 
exercise. 

PART  I. 

Sect.  I. — Diet  of  infants. 

In  the  proper  nourishment  of  children  we 
are  faitiifullv  instructed  by  the  almost  unerr- 
ing counsels  of  Eature.  \V;i;.re  luijthers  are 
capable  of  suckling  their  oifspruig,  thi* 
ought,  in  no  instance,  to  be  0!i  i>"  ■  ^i  !^■. 
uideed,  equally  a  cause  of  astoi  1 

i  regiet  tint  such  an  obvious  a.;,  ,;t 

principle  could  at  any  time  be  neglected  or 
questioned.  "  See  the  infant  (says  a  modem 
I  writer,  while  addressing  hiuiselt'to  rootliers) 
I  nourishe<l  by  youp  lluids,  and  brought  to  a 
certain  degree  of  perfeclion  while  yet  in  liie 
womb.  Sec  him  separated  froin.it,  an.l  ilieB 
see  his  nourishment  ilowing  in  a; 
nel.     Seethe  secretion  aiul  pre;'  o 

inilk,  tjie  iuueajing  ii«c  o!  lue  ii.^^  iiO-i 


]3 

tlie  uirmation  of  tlic  nipples.  Eel-.oUI  (lie 
ffonoMiV  of  llu-  ii.far.l  li'insdf ;  see  him  in- 
ftinctivi-iy  taught  to  seaixli  for  the  br.-u^t,  and 
to  jiick  the  breast;  to  draw  his  iumn'^hini'ut 
lra:ii  a  new  source,  \ct  ^till  from  your  body, 
and  from  your  thiid's.  Did  you  see  this  cosi- 
iiectioii  suflicieiitly,  yoti  would  neither  give 
iiiui  over  to  the  suckling  of  another  womau, 
nor  would  vou  feed  hiiu  with  any  other  s\ib- 
ftyiR-e  thaii  your  own  milk."  Dr.  ilerdmaiv 
on  Infancy. 

Dr.  Buchan  givpi  it  as  his  opinion,  th;'.t  not 
one  in  a  hundred  of  those  children  sur\  ives 
wiio  are  abaudoried  by  their  mothers,  a.id 
committed  to  the  diarize  of  foster-parents  in 
the  e;:r!iest  stages  of  liYe  ;  and  although  we 
may  deem  this  statement  in  some  measure 
exggcrated,  the  retieclion  of  its  ajjproach 
to  U-uLh  ought  to  be  a  sufiicient  inolemer.t 
f  jr  the  appoiiitefi  and  jjrofessed  guardians  of 
tlie  health  and  wed-lxing  of  society  to  enttr 
a  severe  and  unbiassed  protest  against  tlie 
custom  to  which  we  now  refer. 

For  the  first  two  or  tliree  months  the  tnitri- 
mciil  of  the  infant  ought  to  be  received  en- 
tirely from  the  breast  of  its  mother.  During 
the  whole  ol  this  thne  its  wants  are  almost 
coniiried  to  nourishment  and  sleep.  It  is, 
however,  to  be  confessed  that  there  are  some, 
although  but  comparatively  few,  instances  of 
inability  on  the  part'of  the  parent  to  furnish 
jnilk  in  due  quantity  or  suitable  quality  to  the 
requisitions  of  lier  offspring.  "  'lo  the  puny 
progeny  of  a  ])uny  consumptively-dispo~ed 
mother  I  would  forbid  (says  Dr.  Beddocs) 
the  mother's  breast.''  No'w,  although  we 
are  inclined  to  suppose  that  the  author  just 
tpioted  has  admitted  too  nuich  in  favour  of 
what  is  termed  rearing  by  liand  (for  capa- 
city of  bearing  is  commonly  connected  with 
a  rapacity  of  nursing  children),  yet,  where 
circumstances  necessarily  deprive  the  child 
of  its  regular  and  more  salutary  nutriment, 
it  becomes  a  question  of  moment.  What  is  to 
be  substituted  in  its  place  ?  Not  by  any 
means  what  tiie  generality  of  hired  attendants 
<lirect.  As  saon  as  an  infant  by  its  cries  de- 
notes Jmnger,  the  nurse  has,  for  the  most 
part,  instant  recourse  to  a  mixture  of  bread 
and  water  (pa|)),  which  is  perhaps  spiced,  or 
ciualiftedwith  a  little  brandy.  To  attempt  the 
union  of  oil  and  water  woidd  be  scarcely  less 
incongruous :  it  is  not  luizariling  any  thing  to 
assert,  that  the  major  part  of  infantile  ail- 
ments are  to  be  attributed  to  the  hcterogene- 
tjus  compounds  that  are  early  given  to  chil- 
dren ;  and  the  spicy  or  spirituous  ingredients 
which  are  added,  in  order  to  force  an  artiii- 
cial  digestion.  'J  he  necessity  of  the  latter 
bears  decided  evidence  against  the  propriety 
of  the  former,  in  no  period  of  life,  during 
health,  ought  food  to  be  of  such  a  cpiallty  as 
to  recpiire  the  assistance  of  condiments  or 
spirits;  which  last  are  especially  injurious  to 
the  assimilating  organs  of  a  new-born  infant. 

About  half  a  tea-cu|)ful  of  cow's  milk, 
gently  warmed,  W  the  only  food  that  ought 
to  be  giv(-n  to  a  child  at  its  birth,  after  which 
it  will  frequently  sleep  for  ten  hours ;  a  sjin- 
jitom  which,  although  oCten  alarming  to  the 
obtrusive  ignorance  of  nurses,  is  io  be  re- 
garded as  a  demonstration  of  the  proper  na- 
ture of  the  food  that  has  been  given,  and  an 
indiralion  of  future  health. 

'Io  this  plan  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
have  recourse,  even  w1jo:i  il  is  the  iijtcution 


IXF.VNCY. 

of  the  tnoiiiei-  to  suck'.o  her  cli'.ld,  as  women 
who  have  had  many  chi!(!ren  iVetjticnlly  have 
r.o  proper  secretion  of  milk  f.ni.l-  alter  the 
second  or  third  day  from  delivery. 

Before  quitting  this  part  of  th.;  subject  it 
is  proper  to  i.bserve,  that  the  custom  of  im- 
mediately i)ouring  down  purgatives,  as  if  to 
prove  lo'die  hltle  stranger  that  it  has  arrived 
in  a  woddof  physic  and  of  evils,  is,  although 
very  generally  "adopted,  highly  hijudicious. 
The  bowels  do  not,  in  general,  require  lo  be 
Uius  artificially  cleansed. 

With  respect  to  the  quantity  and  limes  of 
administering  food,  mothers  and  nurses  are 
accustomed  to  err.  Nothing  can  be  more 
improper  than  lo  suckle  or  feed  an  infant  two 
or  three  times  in  the  course  of  an  hour.  A 
child  judiciously  regulated  does  not  demand 
nourishment,  even  duririg  the  first  months, 
mure  than  once  in  three  or  four  hours;  as  il 
advances  it  requires  feeding  even  less  fre- 
quently, and  less  sleep  during  the  day. 

It  has  already  been  slated  tlial,  with  the 
exceptions  pointed  out,  the  mother's  breast 
ought,  at  least  during  the  first  two  or  three 
mcmths,  to  be  the  sole  repo.>itory  and  entire 
source  of  infantile  nutriment.  Ifthechikl  is 
brought  up  by  h.and,  cow's  milk  gently 
warmed  is  all  the  food  that  will  be  necessary 
lijr  the  first  foiu-  or  five  months.  After  these 
times  milk  may  be  alternated,  not  by  moist 
bread,  biscuit,  cakes,  sugar,  panadas,  and 
gruel,  but  bv  ground  rice  or  fiour  well  baked ; 
the  gravy  of  boiled  meat,  which  last  will 
■generally  be  taken  with  avidity  ;  small  quan- 
tities of  beef-tea,  or  veal-jelly,  and  other  sul>- 
stanc«s  of  the  like  nature;  still  avoiding,  un- 
less during  the  actual  existence  of  dis<-ase, 
and  under  professional  direction,  every  article 
in  the  long  list  of  fermented,  fermenting, 
spicy,  and  spirituous  materials;  the  with- 
holding of  which,  however  it  may  offend  and 
alarm  the  mu'se,  w  ill  be  of  incalculable  bene- 
fit to  the  child. 

The  time  of  weaning  must  be  regulated 
entirely  by  circvunstances.  The  process 
should  not  be  abrupt,  but  gradual.  It  is  very 
seldom  advisable  to  refuse  the  breast  entirely 
before  the  ninth  or  tenth  month. 

We  liave  partictdarly  insisted  on  the  ne- 
cessity of  excluding  those  substances  from 
the  diet  of  infants  which  are  disposed  to  fer- 
ment, or  turn  sour.  A  general  acquaintance 
with  the  laws  which  regulate  the  existence 
and  decomposition  of  such  substances  may 
be  acquired  w  ith  less  labour  than  woidd  be  re- 
quisite lo  retain  in  the  memory,  without  the 
aid  of  some  connecting  principle,  all  the  in- 
divitlual  articles  winch  are  prescribed  or  ad- 
mitted as  })art  of  the  diet  in  childhood  and 
youth  ;  and  in  conssquence  of  such  pleasing 
and  easy  acquisition,  we  shotild  lind  know- 
ledge and  hmnanilyjohiing  issue  in  the  joy- 
ous task  of  averting  the  artificial  evils  winch 
ignorance  and  vrror  hive  made  to  attach  to 
the  extremely  susceptible,  though  not  natu- 
rally unhealthy,  stale  of  the  primary  periods 
of  existence.  Whence  does  the  perversity 
of  nurses  respecting  the  treatment  of  chil- 
dren arise?  ."solely  from  ignorance.  Were 
they  convinced  •that  the  plaas  which  are 
ad'ipted  prove  ultimately  subversive  of  their 
intended  object,  they  would  readily  consent 
to  abandon  them.  "  Obedience  will  always 
be  more  clieerhil  and  steady  after  a  reasona- 
ble cxpl  inailoii."    "  I  Ivave  heard  a  variety 


of  mothers  (^aj^'Dr.  Beddjts)  compfain  UrJi 
sugar,  biscuit,'  and  cakes,  disa.;reed  in  the 
mo-,t  evident  manner ;  and  yet  that  it  was 
i:-.ipossible,  by  any  injunctions,  to  prevent  tl;c 
one  froni  being  made  a  jjart  of  the  food,  and 
the  other  (sugar)  from  being  given  to  stop  the 
hiccups,  or  produce  a  sensation  that  should 
suspend  crying  for  a  moment.  Now  it  is- 
well  known  that  perpetually  recurring  com- 
plaints in  the  stomacli  and  bowels  arise  from 
mere  sourness  ;  and  the  parlies,  by  whose- 
mistaken  kindness,  or  by  wliose  delicacv  of 
ear  they  are  occasioned,  arc  pert'ectlv  inform- 
ed so  far.  It  remains  only  t)  carry  their 
knowledge  a  step  hirlher.  '  Respecting  the 
juice  of  the  sugar-cane,  il  is  a  very  strikinq; 
particular,  that  the  ])oorest  sort  wil'l  scarcely 
keep  a  cjuarter  of  an  liour  in  the  receiver 
■without  turning  sour.  TIjis  can  only  be  Inltl: 
The  acescent  nature  of  bread,  of  sugar,  and 
of  the  various  compositions  into  which  breati 
and  sugar  enter,  may  be  .ilim/i.  I'tn-  this 
purpose  it  is  only  necessary  that  a  solution  o£ 
sugar  and  w  atcr  should  be  made  into  vinegar.- 
In  like  manner  bread  and  sw'eet  cake  should 
be  placed  in  a  heat  nearly  equal  to  that  oC 
tiie  human  body,  and  the  servant  be  put  to 
taste  the  infusion  when  il  becomes  arid.  B',- 
an  address  suited  to  the  object  in  view,  there 
H'U  surely  be  small  difiiculty  in  giving  these 
simple  experiments  all  the  effect  that  can  be 
desired. 

"  I  shall  very  contentedly  allow  the  chikK 
less  wit  to  laugh  at  me  for  the  wlumsical  idea- 
of  tutoring  nurse-maids  in  chemistry.  I  have 
a  balm  at  hand  for  any  wound  the  sliafts  of  rl"- 
tficule  may  inliicl.  Considerate  parents  wiH 
avail  themselves  of  so  practicable  an  expedi- 
ent, and  many  little  sut'ferers  will  escape  the 
consequences  of  an  improper  regimen.  And 
these  are  probably  (the  author  might  have 
said  certaiidii)  far  more  serious,  even  in  re^ 
sped  to  the  future  than  the  present.  For  it 
clearly  results  from  a  contemplation  of  the 
manner  in  which  human  feelings  and  ideas 
gain  their  connection,  tliat  frequent  disconr- 
posure  of  the  stomach  in  the  morning  of  lii'e 
may  be  instrumental  in  overcasting  its  meri- 
dian and  its  close  with  a  cloud  of  misery,  such- 
as  neither  skill  nor  fortune  can  disperse." 
Beddoes'  Ilygeia.  For  further  information 
on  the  subject  of  diet,  consult  the  article 
M.VTERIA  Medica,  section  Dietetics. 

Skct.  II. — 0/  temperature,  including  re- 
marks on  the  clothing,  and  tike'ii:iic  on  itx 
washing  or  btitliing,  of  iiiJUnls. 

The  remarkable  success  with  which  tlie- 
subject  of  animal  temperature  has  been  re- 
cently invesligaled,  and  the  application  of 
f.icts,  deduced  frt^m  a  developement  of  its 
law's,  lo  the  living  system,  both  in  its  healthy 
and  disordered  state,  constitute  perhaps  the 
most  material  improvements  in  modern  phy- 
siology and  medical  practice. 

Respecting  the  generation  and  adjustment 
of  annual  heat,  it  is  not  the  business  of  this 
article  toenquire  (see  Physiologv,  and  Mb- 
DiciNii);  our  present  plan  extends  no  fur- 
ther than  the  statement  of  a  few  practical 
rules  on  the  subject  of  lieat  and  cold,  absiv 
lutely  necessary  lobe  attended  to  by  all  who 
undertake  the  guardianship  of  inlanry  and 
chililhood;  "for  the  management  of  tempera- 
ture is  of  high  imporlaiice  in  the  treatment  of 
the  infant.  It  runs  through,  and  is  connected 
wiU),  every  part  of  his  general  treatment.    IX 


h  To  be  rOMsiJcrcil  In  111';  i1r«s,  in  liis  coreriii;^ 
wliili;  iiilrrj),  in  liis  l):ill)irig  or  w;i»liiMg,  in  Ins 
trralnifMl  fn  tin!  house  as  well  ;h  out  of  it,  in 
J)i<  air  anri  cNerci-ii'.  In  sliorl,  witli  a  conipc- 
Tciit  kiiDwlcilgo  of  tlic  ni.maij'MiK'Mt  of  ti.-ni- 
j)i;raliii"i-,  a  nursir  tan  srarci'ly  ;.•/)  wrong  in 
any  pari  of  llip  g'-ni^ral  (rialnicnl  of  an  in- 
Cant."  Hcnlnian.  It  must  hi-  ol)vioiis  to 
every  oiw  tliat  lln"  infant  at  liirtli  necessarily 
iniilcr:;ofS  a  suiM"n  and  nialcrial  alleration  ni 
lln>  tcniiK-ralnri!  of  llu!  nn-iliinn  l>y  whicli. 
without  clothing,  it  in  surroundeil.  The  i-f- 
I'fcts  which  would  result  otherwise  from  this 
r.'inarkalilc  chani^e,  with  ri-specl  to  cNtemal 
uarn(<.  h,  are  in  soini-  measure  obviated  bv  the 
immediate  commenccm<;nl  of  respiration. 
'I'his,  however,  is  not  suOicienl  of  itself  to 
supply  Ihi;  defect  of  external  heat.  The 
chani;e  then  must  be  artidcially  rendered 
as  gradual  anil  imperceptible  as  possible;  and 
tlie  infant,  durini;  the  first  niontti,  ought 
icavtely  to  be  e\po.ed  to  any  sensil)le  de- 
gree of  cold,  even  for  the  shortest  period.  It 
lias  been  wi^h  many  miclwivei  a  common 
practice  to  direct  that  the  new-born  child  be 
immediately  vvaihed  willi  cold  water,  and 
other  irritating  substances,  in  order  to  cleanse 
the  surface  of  the  body  [jievionslv  to  its  be- 
ing covered  with  clofhing.  All  that  is  neces- 
sary, or  oven  |)roj)er,  is  the  use  of  warm  wa- 
ter and  sponge,  witiiout  any  further  friction, 
after  washing,  than  what  is  necessary  com- 
pletely to  dry  tiie  skin  ;  indeed  tiie  propriety 
of  washing:;,  or  in  any  way  cleansing,  theskiii 
of  an  infant  at  binli,  has  lately  been  denied 
by  an  author  whom  we  iiave  already  quoted; 
but  we  think  that  tlK>  use  of  te|)id  water,  ap- 
plied with  geutlMU-v!,  and  without  any  sub- 
setiuent  violence  of  friction,  can  in  no  case  be 
objectionable,  hut  ought  always  to  be  had. 
recourse  to. 

As  soon  as  this  process  is  completed,  the 
infant  is  to  be  imm.-diately  clothed  ;  and  now 
let  the  habits  of  thj  common  routine  of 
nurses  and  of  Iriends  be  as  sedulously  watch- 
fd,  and  as  .nirnestly  opposed,  as  in  relation  to 
its  diet  1 1  the  customiry  mode  of  feeding 
infants  has  inducetl  a  long  train  of  present 
and  permanent  evils,  the  manner  of  ;lressing, 
(and  which,  till  of  very  late  years,  has  been 
persisted  in  with  all  the  cruel  pertinacity  of 
contumacious  ignorance),  has  also  been  pro- 
ductive of  incalculable  miscliief.  The  evil  is 
now  diminished,  Init  is  not  bv  any  meaus  de- 
stroy eil.  It  has  happened  in  this,  as  on  every 
other  occasion  where  the  clamour  of  sense- 
li'ss  conceits  lias  been  made  to  silence  the 
simple  and  artless  dictates  of  nature,  that  the 
most  preposterous  customs  have  obtained. 
'•  Physicians  speculated  abo\it  the  infant's 
iniperiecl  structure  at  birth,  about  the  imper- 
fect structure  of  his  bines,  the  «!\apeless 
forms  of  his  iiead,  and  the  injuries  he  might 
sustain  in  birth  ;  about  injuries  and  distortions 
from  hurtful  motions  and  unnatural  positions. 
'I'liey  thought  l!ie  infant's  body  unable  to  sup- 
port itself,  and  that  even  its  oun  motions 
might  destroy  it.  Then  in  came  tlie  mid- 
wivi;s  for  their  share  of  the  concern.  Tlie 
task  was  theirs  to  model  the  head,  and  to 
straighten  the  limbs ;  tti  improve  upon  na- 
ture ;  and  to  support  their  improve- 
ments by  the  application  of  hllets,  rollers, 
and  swaiidling-bands.  They  vied  with  each 
other  willi  should  work  the  work  most 
cunningly;  for,  strange  to  tell,  dexterity 
iu  workuig  this  work  of  cruelty  was  reckoned 


KsTAXC'/. 

<!>;ir  of  tiieir  most  ueeesinry   ami  im;/ertaiit 
<[ualilica(ions."     Dr.  Herihnan. 

In  clolhing,  then,  nothing  further  i<i  re<|ui- 
slli- than  to  guaril  against  the  variationii  of 
external  temperature,  and  to  preser\c  a  ge- 
nial warmth  torlh.'  maintenance  of  function^; 
the  (illets,  rollers,  and  bandages,  of  the  iiiir- 
scry  an-  not  useless  merely,  but  be) oud  mea- 
sure dangerous.  They  ;ire  to  be  entirely 
laid  a-ide,  as  implements  of  torture  and  de- 
itiui  tioii.  No  pn-ssure  on  any  part  is  to  be 
employeil.  AUoad  strip  of  llanni'l  or  cotton 
loosely  folded  round  (he  l)o<ly  ii  all  llial  Is  re- 
(liiisite,  even  as  a  bandage  for  the  navel.  A 
thin  -iingle  lap  is  the  wliolu  of  the  covering 
th.it  the  head  re(|uirei  or  should  receive.  The 
body  should  be  envelopevl  with  a  sliirl  of  line 
collon,  made  loose  and  easy,  over  which 
should  be  a  covering  ofllannel :  and  in  a  word, 
the  dress  is  to  be  so  constructed,  that  the  ra- 
pid motion  of  the  circulating  lluids  may  be 
preserved  without  the  smalle-t  impediment. 
It  may  be  necessary,  before  quilting  this  sub- 
ject, to  state,  that  the  w liter's  exi)erien,'e  has 
convinced  him  of  Ihe  propriety  and  import- 
ance of  the  above  regulations  in  regard  to 
dress  and  diet,  even  where  relationship  has 
ensured  an  attentive  and  un(>iejudiced  scru- 
tinv  into  particulars. 

I5iit  it  is  not  as  it  regards  clothing  merely 
that  the  medium  to  wliich  a  young  infant  is 
exposed  demand?  assiduous  attention  ;  mu<:h 
care  ought  to  be  taken  in  providing  likewise 
"  a  lit  habitation  for  the  ex])ected  little  vi- 
sitor." The  apartment  devoted  to  the  rear- 
ing of  infants,  during  the  first  months  espe- 
cially, ought  to  be  so  constructed  and  si- 
tuated as  to  ensure  a  steady,  ecjuable,  and 
mild  temperature.  Small  conlined  nur- 
seric}3,  where  it  is  possible,  .ought  to  be 
avoided.  In  such  apartments  it  i.^  dilVicult  to 
guard  against  the  extremes  of  either  heat  or 
cold.  An  ex|)Osure  to  a  stream  or  current  of 
air,  occasioned  by  an  unsuspected  breach  in 
ths  window,  directed  on  the  body  of  a  sleep- 
ing infant,  has  often  been  productive  of  se- 
rious injury.  Dr.  Beddoes  directs  t!;at  the 
air  of  tlie  nursery  be  never  sulVered  to  fall  be- 
low lifty  degrees  ;  and  it  is  always  to  be  care- 
fully retained  in  the  memory,  that  the  deh- 
cieiicies  occasioned  by  ill-constructed  build- 
ings can  never  be  compensated  by  heaping 
coals  on  the  lire  ;  by  this  custom  indeed  not 
only  is  the  air  rendered  impure,  but  the  tem- 
perature of  the  room  is  made  still  more  irre- 
gular, and  the  danger  of  colds  consequently 
increased. 

There  is  one  caution  which  is  especially 
necessary  with  respect  to  the  management 
and  economy  of  nurseries.  All  occasions  and 
sources  of  rfiimp  should  most  assiduously  be 
guarded  against.  This  caution  is  the  more 
needful,  because  the  danger  from  this  source 
appears  to  be  the  least  understood  or  sus- 
pected. It  is  not  uncommon  to  observe  that 
parents  and  nurses  who  would  dread  the 
opeiiingof  a  sash-window,  at  the  same  time 
unwittingly  expose  themselves  and  their 
charge  to  a  much  greater  degree  of  cold  by 
permitting  the  suspension  of  wet  clothis,  in 
order  to  dry,  about  dilferent  parts  of  tlie 
apartment,  and  even  by  carelessness  respect- 
ing the  washing  of  the  ttoor.  The  process  of 
drying  is  the  process  of  producing  cold,  and 
tiiat  too  of  the  most  noxious  kind;  ("or  cold, 
when  comtjined  with  moisture,  has  been  prov- 
ed, in  an  e.xcejsive  degree,  iiiiiuical  to  the 


animal  r<«!,oniy.  Damp  t<  enually  insidious 
and  detiiiiuMilal.  ^^  e  are  fu'Iy  persiuidi-ij 
that  from  tiiii>  cause  originate  siuny  wrrophiv 
lous  and  other  iiiianiile  uiliiient's  »o  pecu- 
liarly prevalent  in  the  lirilisli  isles ;  aiirl  that 
uhere  the  dis'-asei  have  been  fancifully  atlri- 
bulcd  to  deleterious  impregnations  in  i.ie  wa- 
tei's  we  drink,  and  various  other  source,.  ISy 
every  individual,  but  move  especially  by  the 
parents  and  guardians  uf  infancy  and  yui.Ui. 
freedom  from  damj)  should  be  Ihe  lir^t  ai.d 
great  rcqubile  in  tlie  choice  uf  apartment* 
and  li^Aises. 

I'.ut  to  return  to  the  infant's  Jres-.  'Hie 
covering  which  \\v  lia»c  recominendeil  ought 
to  be  continued  lor  the  nrttsixur  seven  v^eeks 
of  inlancy  ;  during  this  period,  as  we  have 
already  observed,  nouri^hnieiit,  warnilli,  and 
repose,  are  almost  its  only  ri'iiui.>iti».  Alter 
this  time,  liowe\er,  or  towards  tiie  closC  of 
the  second  iiioiilh,  llu;  infant  economy  bi  gin* 
to  change  ;  vascular  acti<;n  eon.es  now  to  be 
rouiiected  with  voluntary  muscular  motion  ; 
the  percij)ient  faculty  is  gradually  deve'iopcc! ; 
and  Ihe  whole  organization  appears  to  under- 
go a  change.  '1  be  t>ody  is  now  waniicd  iii  a. 
greater  degree  and  more  regularmanrier,  by 
actions  of  its  own  production,  and  heat  of  ju 
own  fori.Mlion.  E.Merior  warmth  is  <lady  lesi 
necessary ;  and  that  quantity  and  kind  of 
clothing,  w  bich  befoi  e  were  proper  and  genial, 
now  become  irksome  and  debilitating.  If 
with  this  progress  oi  growth  the  suinir.ei' 
months  are  at  the  same  lime  about  to  appear, 
the  covering  of  the  child  may,  in  a  short 
time,  be  reduced  even  to  a  shirt  and  single 
external  garment:  the  utility  of  this  light 
clothing  will  be  reiideretl  evident  by  the  feel- 
ings and  expressions  of  the  infant.  It  is  al- 
most unnecessary  to  observe,  that  general 
precepts  arc  incapable  of  mideviatiiig  and  in- 
discriminate application.  'Ihe  changes  of  the 
weather,  the  season  of  the  year,  and  the  de- 
licacy or  robustness  of  the  constitution,  will 
interfere  with  every  rule,  and  ^ivc  exercise  to 
the  inclependant  judgment  ot  every  parent. 
Providence,  however,  has  so  ordained  il, 
that  in  this,  as  in  every  other  respect,  ti:e 
dictates  of  nature,  whicli  are  communicated 
by  the  desire  and  aversion  of  the  infant,  fur- 
nish the  most  faithful  directories  with  reelect 
to  its  management ;  aiul  these  are  ccnveyetl 
witli  such  distinctness  and  precision  as  to  be 
generally  .intelligible.  It  is  only  by  disobey- 
ing natures  laws  that,  in  tlie  treatment  of  in- 
I'ancv,  we  have  wandered  wide  of  the  path  of - 
rectitude,  and  are  under  the  necessity  of  re- 
tr.  cing  our  steps. 

We  now  close  the  present  section  by  a  few- 
additional  remarks  on  the  much-contested 
ipiestion  of  bathing.  It  has  already  been  ob- 
served, that  an  infant,  upon  its  first  entrance 
into  the  world,  should  be  immediately  wasli- 
ed  with  tepid  or  warm  water.  Others  recom- 
mend immersion  rather  ilian  ablution.  "  For 
a  new-born  infant  (say»  Dr.  IJeddoes)  I 
should  prefer  instant  immersion  in  water  at 
eighty  degrees  to  washing."  It  is  perhajis 
immaterial  to  which  mode  of  cleansing  we 
liave  recpusse,,  unless  the  latter  may  be 
deemed  objectionable  on  account  of  the  un- 
necessarj-  shock  it  may  occasion  to  the  tender 
Irame^  'it  is  likewise  to  be  observed,  that 
conveniences  for  tlie  former  are  procured 
with  more  facility  than  the  latter;  and  that  it 
is  not  every  nursery  that  can,  without  ditT^- 
culty,  be  furniib'jil  witii  a  "  proper  vejstl  lis. 


u 

i  warm  batli."  'Hie  r[u>slioii,  liowevw,  now 
to  be  resolved  is,  in  wiiat  mode,  aiuliU  what 
tem,)eratiire,  balhiiig  ur  washing  should  be 
continued  through  the  period  of  chilJIioocl. 
This  question,  lil.e  others,  is  incapable  of  de- 
cision by  an  appeal  to  separate  principl'S. 
Bv  one  writer,  daily  immersion  in,  or  ablu- 
tion with,  cold  water,  for  llie  lirst  two  or 
tlireeyearsof  life,  is  earnestly  recoininended; 
by  an'ollier,  it  is  condemned  as  an  unneccs- 
?;irv  piece  of  cr\K'lty,  while  tepid  washing  is 
directed  to  supply  its  place.  Like  the  dif- 
ferent decisions  past  on  tlie  cameleon's  hue, 
these  precepts,  although  opposite,  may  each 
be  equally  just.  The  weakly  infant  shall  he 
washed  "'with  cold  water  into  irrecoverable 
d-'bility,"  into  convulsions  and  dealii ;  while 
to  the  robust  and  hardy  child  the  same  ele- 
ment at  the  same  temperature  shall  be  con- 
genial, and  by  its  use  he  will  be  prepared  for 
the  variations  of  cold  and  heat,  to  which  he 
will  in  the  course  of  life  be  exposed.  In  a 
popular  treatise  on  consumption,  recently 
published  by  Dr.  Reid,  we  meet  with  the  fol- 
lowingjudicious  regulations  on  the  subject  of 
bathing:  "  It  may  be  proper  lo  premise  (^ays 
•ur  author),  that  by  the  cold  bath  is  under- 
itood  water  at  an  inferior  standard  to  eighty 
degrees  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  Be- 
tween this  point  and  that  of  90  degrees  the 
bath  may  be  termed  temperate  ;  and  it  is  only 
be\ond  this  last  degree  of  heat  that  llie  epi- 
thet warm  can  with  propriety  be  applied. 
From  neglecting  accurately  to  observe  these 
ilistinctions,  which  are  of  very  material  im- 
portance, a  want  of  precision  has  often  con- 
nected itself  with  dinxtions  for  th<;  employ- 
ment of  both  warm  and  cold  bathing. 

"  Immersion  in  cold  water,  during  the  pe- 
riod of  infancy,  has  been  very  generally  re- 
commended, and  too  often  had  recourse  to, 
in  an  indiscriminate  manner,  to  preserve 
health,  and  ensure  hardiness.  Tlie  author 
li  IS  remarked  several  instances  where  sensi- 
ble, and  cometimes  considerable,  injury  has 
arisen  from  neglecting  to  observe  the  precau- 
tions necessary  to  regulate  the  emjjioymcnt 
cf  this  important  agent  in  very  early  years. 
in  infancy  danger  to  the  lungs  from  coid 
batliing  has  been  stated  to  exist  in  a  very  in- 
ferior degree;  and  by  the  practice  of  dipping 
children  in  cold  water,  susceptibility  to  the 
injurious  impression  of  cold,  in  succeeding 
years,  has  been  tliought  to  be  materially  di- 
niinished.  This  principle,  in  the  abstract,  is 
iiiidoubtedly  correct ;  iind,  with  the  excep- 
tions and  precautions  now  lo  be  mentioned, 
may  be  pursued  with  propriety  and  ailvan- 
tage.  Two  infants  may  be  supposed  of  one 
family,  of  reverse  constitutions.  In  the  one 
a  general  torpor,  debility,  and  great  susceiiti- 
bifity  to  the  impression  of  cold,  shall  pre- 
rail:  in  the  other  comparative  vigour,  acti- 
vity, and  warmth.  That  degree  of  cold 
which  would  refresh  and  invigorate  the  one, 
would  confnni  debility  and  augment  torpor 
ill  the  other.  A  bath  which  is  not  coUl  to  the 
sensations  must,  in  the  first  instance;  at  least, 
be  resorted  to  for  the  weaker  infant ;  and  in 
neitiicr  case  should  immersion  in  cold  water 
be  practised  when  the  external  warmth  of  the 
body  is  inferior  in  d"gree  to  its  general 
vtandird  ;  when  after  immersion  the  body 
appears  lo  be  chilled,  or  when  returning  heat 
is  attended  with  febrile  languor,  instead  of 
UiR  grateful  and  genial  warmth  cliara'  leristic 
•f  the  a])propriate  actiou  of  exciting  iiowers. 


INFANCY. 

If  the  practice  of  immersion  is  guided  by  a 
cautious  observance  of  these  particulars,  it 
may  be  adopted  with  safety,  and  will  be  at- 
tended with  success ;  but  a  total  neglect  of 
bathing  would  be  greatly  preferable  to  the  se- 
vere and  incautious  manner  in  which  infants 
are  frequently  exposedlothe.se  violentand  ra- 
pid changes  in  temperature."-  It  ought  lo  be 
added,  that  whdiier  washing  or  immersion  is 
employed,  much  care  should  be  taken  in  dry- 
ing the  skin,  particularly  in  those  parts  in 
which  it  is  loosely  situated,  as  about  the 
groinj  and  in  the  arm-pits. 

It  may  be  necessary  likewise  to  observe, 
that  the  breast  ought  on  no  account  to  be 
given  to  tiie  child  wliile  being  washed  and 
dressed.  A  perseverance  in  this  respect  will 
ultimately  prove  of  essential  advantage, 
■^riie  habits  of  the  child  are  greatly  under  the 
command  of  the  parent  or  nurse.  At  the  ex- 
pence  of  a  few  temporary  teurs  permanent 
comfort  may  be  attained. 

■  Sect.  III. — Jir  and  exercise. 

It  has  recently  been  conjectured  that  the 
air  we  breathe  contributes  equally,  and  nearly 
in  the  same  manner,  to  tlie  nourishment  of 
the  body,  with  the  aliment  that  is  taken  into 
the  stomach  :  respecting  the  grounds  of  this 
o|>inion  it  would  not  be  in  place,  in  the  pre- 
sent article,  to  institute  any  enquiry.  (See 
Physiology;  and  Materia  Medica, 
section  Dietetics).  We  have  liere  only  to 
impress  the  necessity  of  a  constant  and  un- 
remitting regard  to  ventilation,  in  order  to 
ensure  a  healthful  condition  in  the  infantile 
economy. 

Both  the  truth  and  importance  of  this 
principle-  would  seem  too  obvious  even  to 
require  notice  by  a  writer  on  regiincn,  had  he 
not  daily  opportunities  of  witnessing  the  mis- 
chief arising  from  neglecting  its  application. 
Tiie  public  mind,  however,  appears  to  be  at 
length  awakening  from  a  long  lethargy  of  pre- 
judice and  error.  Wo  at  leni^th  begin  to 
breathe  and  to  live.  Even  among  li.e  poorer 
and  least  informed  classes  of  society,  cleanli- 
ness and  ventilation  come  to  be  acknowledg- 
ed as  the  surest  barriers  against  the  invasion 
of  disease.  Although,  however,  on  this  sub- 
ject modern  science  has  muc'i  to  boast,  much 
likewise  remains  to  be  accomplished ;  and 
even  in  the  present  day  exainpiescamiot  be 
too  frecjuently  pressed  upon  public  observa- 
tion of  the  injurious  tendency,  especially  in 
the  susceptible  and  delicate  period  of  in- 
fancy^ of  neglected  ventilation.  "  There  is 
reasoii  to  suppose  that,  from  the  inattention 
of  our  ancestors  to  fresh  air,  multitudes  must 
have  perished  in  the  very  dawn  of  existence. 
In  our  times  grown  persons  have  been  dan- 
gerously aliVcled  by  such  a  deficiency  of  this 
necessary  of  life,  ;is  did  not  even  produce  im- 
mediate uneasiness.  Infmits  hate  pcrislitd 
in  great  nnmhers  b:/  a  .v/om  suffocation,  t<r- 
mina/ing  in  cnnvulsinns.  As  soon  as  the 
want  of  ventilation  was  observed  the  morta- 
lity has  ceased.''  I'eddoes.  A  fact,  of  which 
the  following  relation  furnishes  irrefi-agabic 
evidence,  in  the  lying-in  hospital  at  Dublin 
3,944  infants,  out  of  7,t5jO,  died  in  the  year 
I7«2,  within  the  first  fortnigiil  from  their 
birth:  Ihey  almost  all  ex))ired  in  convulsions; 
many  foamed  at  the  mouth,  their  thumbs 
were  drawn  into  the  palms  of  their  hands, 
their  jaws  were  locked,  their  faces  swelled. 


1 


and  they  prpsenteci,  in  a  greater  or  inferinr 
degree,  every  appearance  of  sulTocaliuii. 
This  last  circumstance  at  length  induced  an 
enquiry  whether  the  rooms  were  not  too 
close,  and  insufficiently  ventilated.  The 
apartmep.ts  of  the  hospital  were  rendered 
mure  airy  ;  and  the  consecjuence  has  been, 
that  the  proportion  of  deaths,  according  to 
the  register  of  the  succeeding  years,  is  dimi- 
nished from  three  to  one. 

Such  facts  as  these  cannot  be  too  often 
made  to  pass  under  review.  By  the  parent 
anxious  for  the  well-being  of  her  oflspring 
they  ought  constantly  to  be  enforced  upon 
tlie  minds  of  servants  and  nurses,  whose  su.« 
pineness  in  respect  to  proper  ventilation  is 
often  only  to  be  equalled  by  tlieir  misma- 
nagement in  other  particulars.  This  indo- 
lence is  often  by  servants  carried  lo  sue  h  an 
extent  as  very  materially  to  injure  their  own 
health.  "  In  a  largu  family  (says  Dr.  Dar- 
win) many  female  servants  slept  in  one  room, 
which  they  had  contrived  to  render  inacces- 
sible to  every  blast  of  air.  1  saw  four  who 
were  thus  seized  with  convulsions.  They 
were  removed  into  more  airy  apartments,  but 
were  some  weeks  before  they  all  regained 
their  health."  Had  infants  unfortunately 
been  confined  in  the  same  tainted  atmo- 
sphere, convulsions  in  these  would  have  been 
more  readily  induc:eil,  and  might  perhaps 
have  proved  fatal!  A  child  then  ought  ne- 
ver, if  it  can  be  avoided,  to  be  pennitted  to 
sleep  with  many  individuals  in  the  same 
apartment.  It  should  not  be  lulled  to  rest  iir 
its  nurse's  arms,  ^^'hen  put  to  sleep  in  the 
couch  or  cradle  the  face  must  not  be  cover- 
ed ;  at  night  the  clothes  should  be  entirely 
changed  ;  after,  the  first  or  second  month  it 
should  be  daily  taken  out  in  the  open  air, 
when  the  weather  is  not  cold  or  damp  :  this 
is  best  done  in  the  forenoon,  immediately 
upon  Ijcing  washed  and  dressed  ;  care  being 
taken  that  the  infant  is  not  carried.too  much 
in  one  position,  and  that  it  does  not  sutler 
from  cold.  Every  impediment  to  the  purity 
of  the  air  within  doors  is  to  be  as  speedily  at 
possible  removed ;  and  when  the  skin  is  pre- 
lernaturally  hot,  or  the  little  patient  becomes 
restless  and  febrile,  the  fires  of  the  nursery 
are  to  be  extinguished,  the  windows  thrown 
open,  or  the  apartments  changed. 

To  the  lull  eifjoyiiient  of  the  atmosphere 
the  free  use  of  the  limbs  must  likewise  be 
added.  On  exercise  scarcely  any  thing 
remains,  to  be  said.  Freedom  trom  aU 
constraint  is  implied  in  the'inode  of  dn;ss 
above  recommended.  To  those,  however, 
who  imagine  tliat  nature  can  be  assisted  by 
the  contrivances  of  ait,  or  that  symmetry 
of  form  is  to  be  ensured  by  unnatural  re- 
striction, it  may  not  be  i^nproper  to  observe, 
that  defoimities  are  only  known  in  those 
countries  where  mechanical  dexterity  has 
been  called  upon  to  prevent  them'.  "  The 
infants  of  the  (.'afCres  (says  the  author  of  Tra- 
vels into  the  interior  of  Southern  Africa^, 
soon  after  birth,  are  suil'ered  to  crawl  about 
•perfectly  naketl;  and  at  six  orsev.n  months 
they  are  able  to  rwn.  A  cripple  or  deformed 
person  is  never  seen.  In  Egypt,  again,  the 
iaaram  is  the  cradle  or  school  iM  niiancy. 
The  new-born  feeble  being  is  not  there  swad- 
dled and  filleted  up  in  a  swathe,  the  source 
of  a  thousand  disease's.  Laid  naked  on  a 
mat,  exposed  in  a  vast  chamber  to  the  pure 
air,  lie  breathes  freely,  and  with  his  dehcat^ 


linilis  ^pr.wl';  at  plrav.in".  'Hit;  nrw  i  Icmeiit 
ill  wliicli  lie  is  to  live  is  mil  oiitcjcJ  willi  pain 
and  li;ars.  Uuily  Ijallirtl  bciicalii  his  mo- 
tlii-i's  eye  lu^.ifrmva  iipace.  I'Vee  load  lie 
Iriis  liis  cumin;?  iiuwers  ;  mils,  crawls,  rises, 
tiiid,  slioiilil  lie  lull,  i;aiiiiot  im;cliliuii  liiniielf 
OH  llio  caipel  or  mat  that  covers  tlie  lloor." 

I'AU  T  ri. 

DISEASES    OK    INFANCY. 

Sec.  I. — Mesfnleric  alroph'i  (Tabes  nicscn- 
ttrica,  Alrojiliia  iiilanlili^). 

This  i<,  in  a  great  measure,  the  origin  and 
root  of  llio  iiiajiir  part  of  infaulile  tliseases. 
An  aDeelion  of  the  niesqnteric  glaiuls  in  chil- 
dren IS  often  <onnccte<l  with,  is  nol  ininsiially 
the  ocva-ioii  of,  and  is  still  more  frequently 
inislaU'ii  lor,  worms ;  it  is  the  medium 
Ihronnh  whieli  rickets  are  produced;  it  is,  in 
jjeiieial,  the  more  immediate  cause  of  diarr- 
liieiis,  and  other  howcl  coiii])!aints ;  and  in 
feveral  iustaiices  has  hecn  the  "forerunner, 
if  not  the  cause,  of  liy  droccphulus,  or  dropsy 
in  til  ■  hrain." 

'I  haii  this  no  comjilaint  beare  more  evident 
cii.a.icturs.  I'ne  pliysiciaii  who  has  been  ac- 
customed to  the  general  aspi'cl  of  infantile 
disorders,  will  most  cominoiily  coninn-nce 
bis  eiKjiiiries  by  an  inspeelion  of  the  abdo- 
Ini'ii.  It  lie  perceives  a  fulness  and  tenseness 
about  the  n:<vel,  and  a  general  protuberance 
and  hardness  about  the  bidly,  attended  soine- 
lliiies  with  a  knotty  irregularity,  indicating 
glandular  tunielaction ;  and  if,  combined 
with  this  symptom,  a  tendency  to  atrophy, 
or,  as  It  is  called,  tailing  away  in  (le>li  and 
St  length,  is  observed ;  a  greater  or  inferior  de- 
gree of  mesenteric  consiiinption  is  present. 
Such  then  are  lUe  never -iV.iling  attendants  of 
the  disorder  now  under  notice ;  they  are  its 
distinct  and  prominent  features.  A  variety, 
however,  of  other  adjunctive  symptoms,  for 
the  nlo^t  part,  display  themselves,  and  con- 
jtitute  part  of  the  malady,  yometimes  an 
universal  languor  and  listlfssness  will  be  con- 
nected with  aversion  to  food  ;  at  others  an 
ino-rdinate  appetite  is  present.  The  bowels 
are  at  times  costive,  but  at  others  the  con- 
trary ;  the  evacuations  are  discoloured,  aiid 
nnhealthy  in  their  appearance  ;  they-  are,  for 
the  most  part,  slimy,  or  viscid  in  their  con- 
sistence, but  are  discharged,  both  with  re- 
spect to  quantity  and  quality,  w  ith  the  utmost 
irregularity  :  the  countenance  is  pale,  "  ex- 
cept when  the  hectic  tUish  prints  its  deceitful 
ami  ill-omened  animation  on  the  cheek  :"  the 
features  are,  for  the  most  [jart,  full  and  tuinid : 
the  eye  is  dull:  the  breathing  is  oppres^ed, 
and  spasmodic :  the  pulse  is  invariably  feeble, 
but  is  sometimes  slow,  and  at  others' inordi- 
nately accelerated.  In  the  advanced  stages 
swellings  of  the  feet  and  ancles  are  sometimes 
observed.  The  little  sufferer  generally  moitiis 
])iteously  ;  and  this,  if  the  disorder  has  ar- 
rived to  any  considerable  extent,  is  almost 
the  only  sign  which  is  given  of  consciousness 
cr  feeling. 

CiiHscs. — Nf  esenteric  atrophy  is  most  prc- 
■vaUiit  among  the  children  of  the  poor,  espe- 
cially in  large  cities,  and  in  dirty  confined 
situations.  "  The  noxious  powers  protKicing 
it,"  in  the  language  of  Dr.  Brown,  (see 
Bri'N'onian  System,  vol. I. p. 274)  "are the 
same  with  those  of  every  other  asthenia. 
They  are  want  of  food,  or  diet  of  watery 
Miatlcr  and  bread ;  cold  aiid  moisture,  the 
il 


INFANCY, 

i  latter  increasing  (he  effects  of  llic  former ;  loo 
I  litlle  nursing  (gcMationis  justo  minus);  ha- 
I  bltual  vomiting  and  jnnging;  irregularities  in 
the  times  of  slei  p,  meais,  and  ev<  ry  other 
jiartof  infantile  management;  liltli ;  'impiire 
air;  an  inattention  to  the  instincts  of  nature 
ill  the  treatment  of  children."  Elcincnia  Me- 
dicina".  '/'o  these  causes  Dr.  Hrown  ought 
to  have  added  the  practice  of  giving  chil^iren 
f'rmeiited  or  spirituous  liquors,  an<l  those 
other  artilicial  stimuli,  to  which  we  have  re- 
ferred ill  the  former  part  of  the  jiresent  es- 
say. This  custuin  is  extremely  prevalent  in 
the  inferior  classes  of  society ;  aii<l  hence,  in 
pari,  the  freqtieiicy  of  m.seiiteric  atiojihy 
among  llieolKpring  of  the  poor. 

Imiiifdiati-  cause  of,  and  conslilulinns  most 
nhnoiitius  t'>,  Mciiiitt'ric  cnii.iniitjilioii.s. — 
Tlie  unusual  bulk  of  the  abdomen,  which  is 
so  characteristic  of  this  disease,  obviously  de- 
pends upon  a  deranged  state  of  the  mesenteric 
glands.  The  tnmelattion,  however,  does 
not  arise  from  the  source  to  which  it  is  vul- 
garly referred,  "  the  presence  of  tough,  ropv 
humours,  causing  an  obstruction  in  the  tiime- 
(jed  jiarts."  'I  he  tlieoi7  of  mechanical  ob- 
struction is  indeed  totally  founded  in  error. 
It  is  inconsistent  v.ilh  the  laws  of  the  animal 
economy.  It  is  incompatible  with  living  ac- 
tion ;  and,  as  we  shall  immediately  have 
occasion  to  observe,  has  been  the  cause  of 
much  and  serious  mischief,  bOth  in  the  do- 
mestic, and  even  the  professional  treatment, 
of  this  and  other  ailments.  "  The  idea  of  at- 
lemiating  liumotirs,  purifying  blood,  and 
clearing  passages,  rests  upon  a  wrong  prin- 
ciple." So  far  indeed  from  the  glands  of  the 
mesentery  being  less  permeable  under  dis- 
ease ih.in  when  in  a  state  of  health,  the  exact 
contrary  is  the  fact ;  and  not  only  is  their 
area  enlarged,  but  new  vessels  are  often  at 
the  same  time  formed ;  and  hence  the  morbid 
increase  of  bulk. 

The  attendant  atrophy  is  easv  of  explana- 
tion. The  deranged  action  of  the  glands  in 
question  interferes  with  the  due  preparation 
of  the  chyle,  the  w  hole  of  which  has  to  un- 
dergo a  |)reparation  in  these  organs.  The 
chyle  is  the  linid  from,  which  the  blood  is 
formed:  on  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
blood  depend  health,  growth,  and  life ;  by 
its  deficiency,  or  want  of  due  proportion  in 
its  component  principles,  del/ility,  disease, 
and  atrophy,  are  produced. 

The  attendant  symptoms  are  not  difficult 
to  account  for  ;  the  torjiid  and  irregular  slate 
of  the  bowels  is  partly  ow  iiig  to  the  general 
inactivity  in  the  lymiihatics  of  the  liver ; 
hence  the  thinner  portions  of  the  bile  remain 
uuabsorbed,  and  Ihis  fluid  is  in  consequence 
too  diluted  to  afford  a  due  excitation  to  the  in- 
testinal libre.  The  sliminess  and  viscidity  of 
the  fa:ces  arise  from  the  disordered  slate  of 
the  glandsof  the  intestines;  and  the  oidenia- 
lous  swellings  of  the  feet  are  evidences  of  a 
general  inactivity,  or  deiicient  excitement, 
pervadhig  the  whole  Ivinphatic  system. 

The  constitutions  in  v/liich  tabes  niisente- 
rica  mo>t  readily  makes  its  appearance,  are 
those  which  are  denominated  scropluilous. 
The  marks  of  scrophala  we  shall  not  here 
etiumerate;  it  miy  be  sufficient  to  observe, 
that  in  habits  of  this  description  the  lympha- 
tic and  glandular  systems  are  especially  prone 
to  sulfer  from  the  exciting  causes  ot  disease. 
This  indeed  is  more  or  li;ss  the  case  in  every 
individual  during  growUi,  as,  at  this  period  of 


13 

existence,  the  office  whicli  tliese  yeireeli  per. 
form  ill  the  aniiiia!  economy,  is  more  im- 
portant  and  complicated  lliaii  in  Uic  succitd- 
ing  stages  of  lile. 

n-unmciit. — 'I'iic  most  eth-ctual  rcmcdie* 
are  necessarily  the  convervc  of  Ihwe  which 
occasioned  tin;  dinea-e.  'I  liese  we  iiliall  likt- 
wise  cnunierate  fpjin  the  IvIeinenUi  of  Dr. 
Brow  n  :  "  iiourishiiig  exiiting  milk  ;  ih.  ee  or 
four  meals  in  the  course  of  liie  day,  coinpc-ed 
chieHy  of  Warm  miik;  jiure  animal,  and  by  n« 
means  weak,  soup-,  mixed  with  wheaten  I'iour 
or  bread  ;  a  due  temperature,  so  that  a  go 
nial  warmth  may  be  jireserved,  withoMt  pro- 
ducing irritation,  or  occasioning  too  copious 
sweat;  avoiding  every  speiies  ot  evacuation  ; 
good  nursing;  a  proper  regulation  of  the 
times  of  sleep,  food,  aiul  every  other  circuin- 
stance-coniiected  with  tlic  management  of  lii« 
susceptible  and  tender  condition  of  infancy  ; 
cleanliness;  tepid  bathing  in-inoderately cold 
weather,  and  cohl  bathing  in  warm  ;  pure  air'; 
being  sent  out  of  doors  as  much  as  possible, 
excepting  w  en  the  weatlier  is  damp  ;  and, 
linnlly,  a  judicious  attention  to  desires  ami 
propensities  ;  this  ought  to  be  carried  to  siicit 
an  extent  as  to  obviate,  if  possible,  the  most 
tritling  local  irritaiion,  as  by  the  scratching  of 
a  part  that  itches." 

The  above  are  necessarily  adapfd  to  the 
milder  forms  of  the  complaint.  When  the 
disorder  has  arrived  to  a  certain  extent,  me- 
dicinal is  now  retjuired  in  aid  of  domestic 
treatment :  for  altliougli  the  mes'i.leric  atro- 
phy, unless  it  is  a  consequence  of  de  eclive 
structure,  may  at  all  times  be  prevented,  and 
in  its  earlier  stages  with  facility  combated, 
without  the  aid  of  drugs ;  these,  at  length, 
come  to  be  absolutely  indispensable.  It 
ought,  however,  to  be  impressed  on  the  pub- 
lic mind,  that  pharmacy,  although  it  may 
correct  the  errors,  can  in  no  wise  become  a 
substitute  for,  or  supply  the  deficiencies  of, 
regimen. 

The  oiijccts  of  the  medical  practitioner,  in 
the  treatment  of  the  disease  in  question,  will 
be  twofold.  1st.  'J'hat  of  immediately  and 
forcibly  stimulating  the  lacleals  and  mesen- 
teric glands  ;  and,  2dly,  the  preservation  of 
a  due  and  equable  excitement  in  order  to 
obviate  the  recurrence  of  the  disorder. 

[N.  B.  For  the  explanation  of  i;ny  terms 
that  may  not  be  familiar,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  tl'.e  articles  Anatomy,  Physio- 
LOGY,  and  Medici.ve.] 

The  iirst  of  the  above  intentions  is  most 
speedily  !md  elTectually  accomplished  by 
mercurial  purgatives ;  and  of  these  calomel 
(submiirias  hydrargyri)  is  generally  to  be 
preferred.  The  beiieht  which  iias  oiten  re- 
sulted from  preparations  of  mercury,  parti- 
cularly in  the  form  of  calomel,  has  frecpient- 
ly  been  accounted  for  upon  very  erroneous 
principles.  It  is  custouiary  to  attribute  every 
complaint  of  chiidhoo<i,  where  the  stomach 
and  intestines  shew  marks  of  derangement, 
to  worms.  With  the  signs  of  the  actual  ex- 
istence of  these  anima'cuhr,  we  have  already 
remarked  those  of  tabes  mesenterica  are, 
from  their  aHinity,  often  coiil.,unded.  Ad- 
vertisements of  infdlible  cures  for  worms,  as 
indeed  for  every  other  ni3la<ly,  are  comtant- 
ly  before  the  public :  tiiese,  for  the  most 
part,  contain  mercury,  as  l!ie  cnly  agent  of 
coiisecjuence  in  their  co.npo^'tion  ;  and  from 
the  oper..tion  of  this  medicine  upon  the  dis- 
eased glauds,  provided,  by  accident,  the  qu»ii- 


16 

i;tv  taken  is  ^ppon\o^^<■,\  t,.  Ibe  aac  ?.u'\ 
consliluiiou  oi  til.-  rivipk-iit,  iinim-cli.ite,  aiul 
teir.uorarv  rt-liL-l  is  peici-plibk'.  W  onus  arc 
sunpobi-a'to  1..^  ex|>elU-d  ti.e  sysU-ni,  and  the 
u.laUible  mcdicin.?  is  ii.clir.cnniinatclv,  and 
olleu  fatally,  circulated  among  lUf  i>ul>lic. 

A  f\i:  tlicr  error  with  respect  to  tlic  ageiicv 
cf  calomel  in  nie-enteric  alVections,  is  that  ot 
attributing  its  ellVcts  solely  to  its  pm-galiye 
ciualltv.  This  last  error  is  not  conhned  to 
the  luiprofessional.  Ill-founded  notions,  as 
ve  have  above  iiinted,  are  still  too  f>,e'"-nil 
in  re^wd  to  obstructing  Imn-.ours ;  and  the 
curc^'of  this  disorder,  with  all  others  which 
are  conjectured  t.)  arise  from  obstrucLion,  is 
conse<iuentlv  imagined  to  be  performed  by 
evacuating  medicinrs.  We  are  disposed  to 
believe  that  a  recent  publication,  aKIiough  in 
the  main  eNtremelv  useful,  has,  by  liie  un- 
qualil'.ed  rccoinmeiulation  ot  jnirgatives, 
given  too  much  cnCouragcmct  to  this  mis- 
taken principle. 

Dr  Hamilton,  the  author  of  the  work  to 
which  we  allude,  has  classed,  under  the  title 
the  asthenic  affections  wliich 
sous,  and  of  which 


I-N  FANCY. 


1" 


ot  marasmus 

are  common  to  vouug  peis 
the  disorder  now  under  consideration  is  one 
of  the  most  general ;  and  tliese  aliections  he 
"  is  convinced  have  oiten  been  removed  by 
the  diligent   exhibition  of  purgative   medi- 
cines."    Now  we  are  fulU   i)ersuaded,  al- 
though actu.il,  and  even  repealed,  purgations 
-are  iii  mauv  casi-a  indispensable  ;  that  lor  tlie 
jiiost  part,"  espeddUv  in  "  incipient  maras- 
mus," such  a  qualihcatiou  in  the  dose  of  ca- 
thartics is  to  be  preferred  as  ma)'  ensure  an 
excitation  of  the  glandular,  lacteal,  and  lym- 
phatic  organs  (the  organs  principally  cou- 
-  ccrncd  in  the  production  of  the  complaints  in 
cuiestioii),  witliout  copiously  evacuating  the 
contents  of  the  bowels.     For  this  persuasion 
we  have  the  authority  of  experience.     1'  ur- 
tlier,  it  is  to  be  remarked,  even  wliere  large 
and  repeated  evacuations,  in  these  diseases  ot 
debihiy  especially,    have  been  followed  by 
beneficial  cliecls,  that,  even  then,  the  evacua- 
tion itself  has  constituted  but  a  share  in  tlie 
,rocess  of  rccoverv.     This  ijiinciple  may  be 
evidenced  in  the  example  of  cither  vomiting 
or  purging.     Let  a  case  be  snjiposed  ot  me- 
senteric affection  caiTied  to  such  an  extent, 
that  the  torpid  condition  of  llie  tacleal  glands 
has  extended  itself  to  the  hepatic  and  biliary 
organs  ;  where  even  dropsical  effusions  liave 
ta^eii  \)lace,  and  contributed  to  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  belly;  and  where  this  abdominal 
ijrotuberance  is'  contrasted,   in  a   most  dis- 
tre,ssin!»  tlegree,  with  the  emaciation  of  the 
liiiibs.'^  Uniler  these  circumstances  (and  the 
writer  of  the  present  article   lias  witnessed 
them  in  the  full  extent  described),  if  either  a 
<iuantity  of  ipecacuana,  emetic  tartar,  or  any 
otlier  e'inelic  drug,  is  given   suffn-ient  to  oc- 
<asioii  vomiting,  or  such  a  dose  of  calomel  as 
alone,  or  in  combination,  may  produce  a  co- 
l>ioas  alvine  discharge  :  the  immediate  result 
will  prove,  that  the  principal  <)art  of  the  medi- 
cinal agencv  has  been  constituted  by  a  snd- 
(Icrn  and  powerful  impulse  communicated  to 
the  glandular  and  absorbent  vessels.     The 
liver' shall  commence  a  regular  secretion  of 
bile,  the  fa;ces  in  consequence  assume  a  pro- 
per colour  and   consi.slence,  tin-  skin   shall 
lostt  suddenly  its  sallow  sickly  hue,  the  size 
ot  the  abdon'ien  be   lessened,  and  even  llie 
sudlings  of  the  ancles  be   diminished;  all 


evincing,   in  the  most  unequivocal  msnnrv, 
an  increased  action  in  the  alisorbent  system. 

By  those  who  are  aware  of  the  importance 
of  acquiring  correct  notions  in  respect  to  me- 
dicinal agencv,  the  above  remarks,  although 
perhaps  in  some  measure  irregularly  nitro- 
ductd,  will  noi  be  deemed  misplaced.  'I  hey 
will,  it  i,  hoped,  facililate  the  conceiition, 
aiuUerve  to  curtail  tlie  discussion,  of  the  re- 
maining disorders  that  are  to  be  treated  of  in 
this  article. 

^\■e  now  recur  to  the  more  inmiediate  sub- 
ject of  the  present  section. 

We  have  observed,  -that  the  first  object  of 
the  physician,  in  cases  of  deeply  rooted  me- 
senleric  disorder,  is  to  produce  an  immediate 
and  forcible  excitement  in  the  lacteal  glands  ; 
the  manner  in  wliich  this  object  is  to  be  at- 
tained mav  be  gathered  from  the  jtreceding 
remarks.  'Either  calomel  purgatives,  ci)-  eme- 
tic substances,  arc  to  be  employed,  accord- 
ing to  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  or  the 
inclinafion  of  the  practitioner;  and  now  the 
indicious  regulations  ofclietiuid  regimen  pre- 
"scribeil  by  Brown,  are  to  be  assisted  by  me- 
ciicin-es,  i'li  -ordi-r  to  accomplish  the  second 
purpose,  that  of  preserving  a  due  exGitemer.t 
to  secure  against  the  recurrence  of  the  dis- 
ease. 

The  physician  will  be  careful  to  keep  in 
view,  that  "ihe, absorbent  system  is  principally 
concerned  in  this,  as  well  as  hi  the  oth.er  as- 
thenia  of  infants.     It  is  to   this  part  of  tlie 
frame  that  remedies  arc  especially  to  be  di- 
rected.    Among  the  various  stimuli,  those 
therefore  are  to  be  ])referred,   the  influence 
of  which  appears  in  an  especial  manner  to 
be  directed  to  this  part  of  the  organi/ation. 
Clialvbeates  have  tliis  j)roperty  in  a  remark- 
able 'degree ;  and  accordingly  one  or  otlier 
of  the  various  pre[)arations  of  steel  lias  been 
iudiciously  and  successfully  had  recourse  to 
"in  tabes  liiesenterica ;  thes"e  arc  to  be  con- 
joined with  pure  air,  and  due  exercise,  with- 
out which   tlie  most  appropriate  medicines 
will  be  in  vain  administered.     The  continued 
use  of  small  doses  of  calomel,  or  other  mer- 
curial  preparations,    eitlier    in    conjunction 
with,  and  sometimes    to  the  exclusion  of, 
steel,  will  prove  highly  useful  in  restoring  a 
due  energy  and   action  to  the  absorbents. 
These,  like  all  other  active  medicinals,  re- 
cjuire  much   address    and  discrimination  in 
their  employment.     It  is  from  the  presence 
of  mcnurv,"  as  above  hinted,  that  both  the 
utility  and  dangerous  tendency  of  quack  me- 
dicines arc  for  the  most  partderived. 

In  the  practice  of  the  writer  of  this  article, 
extremely  small,  and  very  gradually  aug- 
mented, doses  of  digitalis  ha\  e  appeared  to 
restore,  in  a  remarkable  degree,  tlie  wonted 
V  igour  of  the  lacteal  vessels.  The  free  \is«  of 
this  very  important  and  active  medicine  has 
long  been  admitted  in  dropsy,  an  allection  of 
the  highest  debility.  In  taljes  mesenterica 
we  believe  its  employment  is  novel ;  but  we 
are,  at  the  same  time,  persuaded,  from  the 
result  of  several  cases  ol  this  and  other  niudi- 
fications  of  infantile  asthenia,  that  foxglove 
might  be  made,  under  due  regulation,  a  very 
successful  agent  in  the  treatment  of  these 
complaints.  Under  these  circui'.istances,  on 
account  of  the  comparative  minuteness  of  the 
dose,  the  digitalis  Ls  best  given  in  the  form  of 
tincture:  a  preparation  wliich  has  not  hither- 
to been  received  iiiio  the   London  I'harma- 


copiia.  See  Matbria'M£dica,  and  I'hak* 

M  A  c  Y. 


(Ilydrocc- 


Sect.  II. — Water  in  the  head. 
plialus.) 
The  discriminating  characters  of  this  dis- 
ease demand  assiduous  attention  from  the 
medical  practilii.ner.  It  cannot  be  doubled 
tliat  a  great  number  of  children  are  con- 
stantly destroyed  b\  water  in  the  brain,  where 
the  nature  of  the  malady  has  becM  entirely 
misunderstood,  and  the  symptoms  referred  (o 
other  sources,  most  comnionh  worms  ;  while, 
on  the  other  haiul,  hydrocephalus  has  been 
very  irequenlly  susix'ctcd..  and  the  evtnt  has 
proved  tiiat  the  suspicion  was  destitute  of  any 
proper  foundation. 

llydrocephaUis  is  generally  divided  by  au- 
thors int«  tlie  internal,  or  that  in  w  hicli  the 
fluid  is  contained  in  the  vejitriclcs  of  the 
brain  ;  and  external,  where  the  disease  is  ex- 
terior to  the  substance  of  this  organ,  and  the 
water  is  found  in  its  investing  nieinbraiiCs. 
The  tirst  species  has  likewise  been  denomi- 
nated acute,  the  second  chronic.  This  di\  i- 
sion,  however,  is  calculated  to  mislead  ;  not 
merely  on  account  of  the  frecpient  connec- 
tion between  the  two  species  (internal  and 
external)  of  hydrocephalus,  but  because  the 
former,  as  well  as  the  latter,  is  oftentimes 
chronic,  and  by  no  means  necessarily  pre- 
ceded by  an  iiillammatoi'v  allection  ot  the 
parts  concerned  in  its  proJuction. 

The  chronic  internal,  chronic  external,  and 
the  acute,  species  of  hydrocephalus,  would 
constitute  a  clasjification  of  the  disei.se,  a])- 
proaching  nearer  to  accuracy  than  that  w  hit  h 
lias  been  hitherto  adopted  :  and  we  shall  pro- 
ceed to  give  a  brief  description  of  each,  re- 
questing the  reader  to  lecolUct  that  tlie  dif- 
tereiit  kinds  arc  often  mixed,  and  conse- 
(piently  exhibit  characters  in  an  almost  eml- 
less  variety. 

CJironic   internal. — This,  although    over- 
looked In  the  ordinary  division,  is  perhaps  the 
most  usual  form  in  which  the  afleclion  pre- 
sents itself;  it  arises  from  the  same  disposi- 
tion in  the  habit,  and  is  oftentimes  combined 
with  the  disease  treated  of  in  the  preceding 
section.     More  commonly,  however,  it  is  in 
a  manner  vicarious  of  this  last;  and  the  same 
causes  may,  perhaps  from  aci  ideiital  circum- 
stances, at  one  time  occasion  tabes  mesente- 
rica, which  would  at  anotl'.cr  have  produced 
hydroieplialus.      Its  symptoms  are  less   de- 
cided than  those  of  the  otlier  species.  When, 
however,  in  children  of  a  sluggish  habit,  or 
scrophulous  constitution,  an  unusual  drowsi- 
ness or  stupor  is  present,  the  child  gradually 
loses  his  vivacity  and  spirits,  is  indisposed 
to  make  any  exertion  of  his  limbs,  is  iiiui- 
sually  fretful  aii<l  peevish,  complains  or  exhi- 
bits signs  of  an  uneasiness  in  the  head,  is  af- 
fect; d  with  convulsive  fits  without  any  ajjpa- 
renl  cause,  has  an  unusually  tardy  pulse,  and 
more  especially  if  the  pupil  of  the  eve  ij  not 
fcjuiid   to    contract  upon    the  application   of 
lighl,  there  is  rea>on  to  suspect  the  presence 
ot  water  in  the  brain,  althoughthereniay  beno 
syinptoins  of  external  tlisease,  and  no  preter- 
natural inlargenieiit  of  the  head,  except  what 
is  Usually  met  w  ith  in  young  persons  of  a  tor- 
pid scro])liulous  habit  ;  and  the  suspicion  has 
been  loo  often  confirmed  by  disseilion,  even 
where  a  fatal  termination  has  happeneii,  with- 
out being  preceded,  during  any  period  ol  the 
malady,  by  llie  sjmptoiiis  imiirjdiately  to  ue 


iiii'iitiiinpil,  rliaraclrrislicof  till*  nctile  e))i'cii's. 
'Mii»  lir.l  kiii'l  111'  liyili(jcc|)halii^  is  succiiK  lly 
dc'M.Til):'il  l)V  l)r,  llrliiTilcMi,  in  tin-  tollouiii^ 
words:  "  (  a|)itis  (li>l()rP5,  maims  ail  ccipiil 
rirl)!!)  ndniul^i',  clamorif.  suhili,  ilisli-iisio 
iiLTVoiiiiii,  stupor,  iiu-iitis  prrturlialio,  motiis 
veiiaruiii  IcntiH,  po-tn-mo  ca'citas."  lie 
»(Ms,  "  Jiislam  Jiiijus  niorl>i  siispicinnciii  iii- 
jiriiint  liaT  syiiiptoinala  cli.iiiisi  capitis  iiijIl-k 
non  liicril  aiicta." 

Chrnnic  fxtcrniil. — The  Iicad  of  an  infant 
at,  or  so  in  afti'r.  tin'  j) -nod  ot  liirtli  i'.\liii)its 
a  preternatural  i\/y  and  toriii ;  llu-  nvMilar 
process  of  ossiliailion  docs  iiol  (aki;  ji'.aciv, 
but  till'  pniu-ipal  part  ol  tin-  cNluriial  suriace 
of  till'  rraiiiinn  coiilir.iu's  soil  :iiid  yielding, 
while  not  iuilre<nienlly,  in  llie  |)rogress  of  tiie 
eoinplaint,  an  iindiilaliim  of  a  lliiid  iii.iy  be 
pcici'ived  l)v  applying;  llie  liand  lo  tlie  sii- 
uires  of  tlie  skull.  As  tin;  disease  coiilimies 
lo  advaiK-e,  lliir  signs  of  its  existtince  be- 
lOine  sliortly  obvious  to  llii'  most  supcrlleial 
observation  ;  not  onlv  does  Uie  head  increase 
to  an  enormous  size,  but  llie  growth  ot  oilier 
pans  is  in  a  proporlionatt;  ratio  defective  ; 
the  limbs  do  not  often  ac(piire  aimich  greater 
bulk  than  at  birth  ;  at  the  ordinary  period  of 
teething  no  teeth  present  tliemsclves ;  the 
percipient  faculty  is  not  (gradually  unloldi-d, 
as  in  other  iiifanis ;  and,  indeed,  althouj;h  vi- 
tality is  preserved,  it  apjiears  to  be  a  vitality 
alnio>l  entirely  unconnected  with  feeling.  In 
tliis  state  of  torpid  c;\i,tence  lite  hoH<;ver  is, 
in  jouie  instancis,  prolonged  for  four,  six,  or 
even  a  greater  luiniber  of  years.  In  tliR 
Conimonlaries  of  \',m  Swieten,  we  have  the 
relation  of  life  being  maintained  under  thii 
malady  for  thirty  years  :  this,  however,  is  an 
anomaly  ;  and  indeed  the  hydrocephalic  pa- 
tient seldom  survives  the  second  year. 

Jctitf  hi/drnctplialiix. — The  acute,  i)lire- 
nitic,  intlammatory,  or,  as  it  has  been  termed 
by  some  writers,  apoplectic  hy<lrocephalus, 
is  not,  like  the  other  species,  entirely  conlined 
to  am  ciiistitulioii.  Although  most  trcc|uent 
in  children  under  twelve  years,  it  is  sometimes 
observed  in  adults.  It  has  been  divided  by 
Dr.  Whytt,  and  others  who  have  followed 
him,  into  three  distinct  stages :  the  lirst  of 
uhich  is  invariably  characterised  by  a  |)ulse 
of  much  celerity  and  comparative  strength  ; 
in  the  second  tlie  pulsations  become  slower, 
and  more  feeble  ;  In  the  third  and  last  period 
their  r.ipid'tty  is  increased  even  bevoiid  that 
ot  the  primary  stage;  hut  this  increased  ac- 
tion is  now  connecli'd  with  extreme  debility. 
'^he^e  diit'erent  changes  in  the  <Mrculatio;i  are 
not,  however,  alwa\  s  lo  be  traced  even  in  the 
acute  species  ot  hydrocephalus,  in  that  or- 
tler  which  the  observations  of  Dr.  Whytt 
would  lead  us  to  suppo>e. 

Obscure  alTections  of  the  stomach,  a  ge- 
neral feeling  of  lassitude,  with  sometimes  a 
kind  of  palsy  of  the  limbs,  or  .tn  all'ection  of 
them,  in  some  measure  similar  to  that  ob- 
served in  St.  Vitus's  dance,  if  the  child 
has  previously  been  able  to  walk,  some- 
times present  themselves  as  precursors  of  the 
first,  or  the  iutianuuatory  stage;  at  other 
times  the  tVverish  stale,  intolerance  of  light, 
violent  pains  in  the  heail,  and  voiuiling,  are 
the  llrst  signs  of  <risorder  that  are  noticed. 
ThcM'  symptoms  are  in  some  cases  connect- 
ed, according  lo  the  observations  of  Dr. 
l^ush,  with  an  impatience  of  sound  ;  the  pain 
of  the  head  U  otlen  conlined  to  oue  side . 

Vol.  II. 


INFANCV. 

and  in  proportion  to  its  intensity  the  nausea 
and  vomiting  become  less  urgent,  while-  with 
the  remission  of  the  pain  these  ali'eclions  of 
the  stomach  are  disposed  to  recur.  Kespira- 
tioii  at  this  time  is  spasmodic  and  irregular  ; 
till-  bowels  are  gen<  rally  so  costive  a-,  to  re- 
quire viry  drastic  purgatives,  in  order  to  pro- 
duce I'v.i'i  uat.ons.  'i  his  stage  of  the  com- 
plaint continues  sometimes  lor  several  days, 
but  is  more  usually  in  a  shorter  period  sui  - 
ceeded  by  the  second,  which  commences  by 
a  sudden  reduction  of  the  pulse,  and  other 
symptoms  of  irritation.  '1  he  pain  of  the 
head  now  bei  omes  less  urgent,  torpor  suc- 
ceeds to  walchtnlness,  the  infant  lifts  his 
hands  to  his  head,  and  frc(|uently  utters 
pien  ing  screams  (clamores  subtti)  ;  a  degree 
of  strabismus  take?  place  of  the  previously 
morbid  susceptibility  ot  light  ;  llie  little  pa- 
tient lies  in  an  horizontal  posture,  with  the 
head  low,  ami  shows  an  indisposition  to  be 
taken  up;  the  bowek  sli|:  continue  lorjjid  ; 
the  urine  not  uiitre(|U<-ntly  deposits  a  thick 
si:<limenl ;  and  after  these  symptoms  have 
lasted  from  seven  to  fourteen  days,  the  com- 
plaint sometimes  appears  suddenly  to  de- 
cline, 'i'his  semblance  of  returning  health 
is,  however,  deceitlul,  and  is  but  a  prelude  to 
the  linal  period  of  the  complaint :  it  is  now 
that  the  pulse  increases  in  frequency,  and 
olientiiiies  so  tjuick  as  not  to  be  counted. 
Dr.  \\  hytt  informs  us  that  in  some  children 
he  has  lieen  able  to  number  ^  10  puUations 
in  the  spice  of  a  minute;  this  extraordinary 
rapidity,  however,  does  nol  last  through  the 
wlio^;  ot  the  day  ;  it  comes  on  and  declines 
with  the  accessions  and  remissions  of  the 
hectic  llush  in  the  cheek.  The  eyes  at 
length  become  insensible  to  the  strongest 
light,  convulsions  come  on,  and  life  is  ter- 
minated. The  duration  of  this  last  period, 
like  that  of  the  others,  is  irregular.  Some- 
times the  patient  is  carried  olf  in  less  than  a 
week  from  its  commencement ;  at  other  times 
the  child  lingers  in  a  hectic  state  for  three, 
four,  or  six  weeks;  and  Dr.  Monro  has  in- 
formed us,  that  the  last  s1age  has  been  known 
to  be  protracted  e\en  to  the  fourth  month. 

Cdiisfs. — The  two  fust  species  ol  the  coiu'- 
plainl  are  decidedly  of  a  scnipluilous  nature. 
I'hev  generally  come  on  without  any  evident 
exciting  cause,  and,  like  other  asthenic  aft'ec- 
tions,  in  the  early  periods  of  life,  originate 
from  lymphatic  d<-bility,  without  previous 
excitcinent  in  the  vessels  of  the  brain  to  pro- 
duce the  ellusion  :  the  last  species  is  perhaps 
always  preceded  by  an  inllammation  in  the 
internal  vessels  of  tlie  brain.  The  immediate 
cause  of  this  irritation  is  nut,  lio»ever,  in 
every  instance  to  be  detected;  il  may  arise 
in  subjects  predisposed,  in  common  wuii  all 
other  inllammations,  from  the  sudden  alterna- 
tions of  cold  and  beat.  It  has  been  observed 
to  supervene  upon  the  contagious  eruptive 
affections,  especially  when  these  have  been 
unusually  violent  ;'and  Dr.  Beddoes,  in  a 
letter  toDr.  Darwin,  enquires  "  whether  it 
may  not  happen  more  freipiently  Ihau  has 
been  suspected  from  external  injury  •"  Zoo- 
nomia. 

TrcatJtii-nt. — Evacuations  of  every  kind, 
viz.  cathartics,  sudorilics,  emetics,  general 
ami  local  blood-letlmg,  as  well  as  the  exter- 
nal api)!ication  of  cold,  and  of  blisters  to  the 
scalp,  with  due  alteniion  to  the  erect  position 
of  the  head,  had  all,  in  conjunction  or  sepa- 
rately, been  tried  iu  the  acute  species  of  hy- 
C 


17 

«1rocepIiaIu<,  but,  acrovding  to  the  general 
rejiort  ot  physician*,  williiut  elFect. 

In  coiise<|uiMice,  therefore,  of  the  ill  siir- 
ress  that  had  attended  the  common  routine 
of  treatment  in  hydrocephalus.  Dr.  Uobson, 
of  Liverpool,  was  induced  to  make  trial  of 
Miercnnal-,  with  an  intention  of  cM.'ttinK  (lie 
absorbenls  of  the  brain,  and  in  this  iViamuT 
removing  the  extravasated  lluid.  '1  he  event 
appeared  lo  Jusiilv  his  llicory;  and  we  have 
several  cases  rei ordeil  by  lliis  )>liytiician  and 
by  others,  in  which  mercury,  canied  lo  the 
extent  of  salivation,  acconipliniied  a  speedy  an'l 
eirectiial  cure.  'I  lie  follow  ing  case  is  (Mm 
Dr.  I'ercival :  "  (Jne  of  my  own  cliiUlien, 
a  girl,  agc'd  three  years  and  three  inoiilli«, 
has  lately  been  a  seven-  suflercr  under  tliii; 
alarming  malady.  As  soon  as  the  charac- 
teristic symptoms  of  the  disease  cf  a  ly  mani- 
fested themselves,  I  laid  ?.ide  ail  o'.'her  re- 
medies, convinced  by  ri'peated  observalioii 
of  their  iiisuliiciency,  and  trusted  soleb , 
though  with  much  Mili<itude,  to  the  internal 
and  external  use  of  mercmy.  In  forly-eiglil 
hours,  signs  f>f  amendment  aj)piarwU,  and 
her  recovery  was  perfected  m  six  clayi. 
During  this  space  of  lime,  thirteen  grains' of 
calomel  were  administered,  and  si-ven 
scruples  of  unguentum  mercuriale  fortiu* 
carelully  rubbed  into  the  legs." 

With  the  same  ilesign  of  exciting  the  al>- 
sorbents,  digitalis  has  recently  been  employ- 
ed. "  In  oue  chihl,"  says  Dr.  Darwin,  "  I 
tried  the  foXL'love  in  tincture,  but  it  was 
given  with  too  timid  a  hand  and  loo  lale  iit 
the  disease  to  determine  its  etlects."  In  the 
work  of  Dr.  Kc-id,  to  which  we  referred  in  a 
former  part  of  this  article,  we  meet  with  the 
following  observations:  "  'i'he  universality  of 
lymphatic  absorbents  is  rather  conceived  than 
actually  demoiritrated.  Dissection  has  hi- 
therto not  been  able  to  detect  these  vessels 
in  the  brain;  analogy,  however,  favours  ih* 
supposition  of  Iheir  existence.  If  that  fre- 
quent and  too  fatal  disease  of  young  j)ersons, 
w  ater  in  tlie  brain,  admits  of  cun-,  the  reme- 
dies which  elfect  it,  must  necessarily  operate 
liv  proih'crng  an  absorption  of  the  eiruseci 
Iliiiil.  The  author  imagines  be  has  witne-sed 
the  cure  of  hydrocephalus  by  means  of  fox- 
glove. The  symptoms,  however,  of  worms 
and  other  infantile  alf'ections,  so  otlen  resem- 
ble tiiose  indicative  of  water  in  the  ventricUs 
of  the  brain,  that  it  is  scarcely  jJosiiible  to  de- 
cide  with  absolute  certainty  on  the  interesting 
(luestioH  of  the  inevitable  fatality  or  reme- 
diable nature  of  hydrocephalus." 

lffox:{love  shoulil  be  proved  by  future  expe- 
rience to  succeed  as  a  remedy  for  this  alarming 
malady,  its  modi)>.  operandi  must  be  referred 
to  the'  exlraordinary  faculty  which  it  pos- 
se3>es  of  repressing  the  arterial,  while  it  sti- 
mulates the  absorlient  system.  Both  in  the 
a-  lite  and  chronic  hydrocephalus,  it  appears 
to  be  deserving  of  a  m<ire  extensive  trial. 
I'o  the  earlier  stages  of  the  lormer  we  should, 
(I  jiriiiri,  be  ilisposed  to  conceive  it  more 
applicable  than  even  mercury. 

Skct.  III. — U'grm.i.    (Vermes.) 

The  mar'ks  by  which  the  presence  of  womtf 
is  indicated  are  confessedly  at  times,  both  io 
tiie  infant  and  adult,  <ilxscure  and  equivocal. 
In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  the  pheno. 
meiia  which  thev  present  reipiire  only  lor 
Iheir  detection  u  careful  and  diicerning 'scru- 
tiny. 


rs 

In  persons  aflected  with  worms,  the  couii- ' 
tenanee  in  general  lias  a  peculiarly  livid  and 
dirty  kjnd'of  appearance,  very  difiorent  from 
Ihat.'wi'.ich  characterizes  mere  lymphatic  de- 
.  li-''f-,  as  in  tabes  meseuterica,  and  hydrocc- 
'  .'  '.^!  The  eyes  become  dull,  the  pepil 
i:.Lt;-.:i!,  but  not  averse  to  light,  as  inliydro- 
<i!|)ii>ius,  the  upper  lip  swelled,  the  sides  of 
,the  ji'ostrils  enlarged,  and  there  is  almost 
conkantlv  a  violent  itching  of  tlieir  inleruai 
inesibraiis.  The  breatl)  is  remarkaljly  oi- 
ftnsive,  saliva  is  secreted  in  unusual  abun- 
dance; during  sleep  there  is  most  generally 
some  grinding  "of  the  teeth,  and  epileptic 
atitectioiis  are  bv  no  means  unc:onunon ;  tlie 
jiuke  is  intermittent,  the  febrile  irritation  is 
.not  always  of  the  hectic  kind,  the  appetite  is 
often  voracious,  lancinating  pains  are  coni- 
.plaiued  pf  in  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and 
tenesmus,  atteiidcd  v.itii  a  distressing  irrita- 
tion aljout  the. anus,  is,  e-pccially  from  some 
species .  of  worms,  exceedingly  frequent. 
Cough  is  not  imcommon.  These  last,  liow- 
cver,  are  more,  frequent  symptoms  in  the 
. adult' tl;3n  in  ths; c!)i!d.  See  Medicine. 
■ ,  Causes. — •'  The  luii^d  belly,  bloated  coim 
tenanee,  and  swelled  upper  lip,"  says  Dr. 
Darwin,  "  arc  concomituit  circumstances 
atter:ding  the  general  iniiL'tivity  of  the  absor- 
.bent  system,  wnich  is  thcrefore'to  be  esteem- 
ed tlie  re.note  cause  of  ti'.e  generation  of 
•  worms."'  Worms,  however,  are  often  pro- 
duced through  the  medium  of  iritestinal  vis- 
cidities, independantly  of  the  absorbejit  ves- 
se!s.  'hie  immediately  , exciting  causes  are 
some  of  those  already  mentioneel  as  produc- 
■  live  of  me>enteric  atrophy,  more  especially 
the  reception  into  the  stomaclv  of  indigestible 
substances.  Dr.  Darwin,  indeed,  supposes, 
that  not  merely  tlie  nidus  of  worms  is  thus 
formed  from  aliment  incapable  of  assimila- 
tion, but  that  these  animalcula:  are  actually 
received  from  without:  for  this  opinion, 
however,  there  'does  not  appear  any  foun- 
dation. Worms  are  actually  engendered  in 
the  alimentary  passage.  ^_, 

Treatment.^  E:nel\ci;  mercurial  purga- 
tives; chalybeates;  vegetable  bitters;  avoid- 
ing indigestible  aliment.  For  an  account  of 
the  did'erent  kinds  of  worms,  and  specific  an- 
thelmintics, consult  the  articles  Medicine, 
.iind  Materia  Medica. 

St.ci::W.— nickels.     (Kacliites.    Atrophia 
infantilis.) 

This  is  likewise  an  affection  of  the  lym- 
phatic system.  Every  one  knows  the  cha- 
ractera  by  which  it  is'  marked.-  An  infant 
v/ith  a  large  head,  protuberant  forehead, 
swellings  in  the  smaller  joints,  -depressed 
llatleile'd  ribs,  emaciatvd  limbs,  and  tu- 
mid abdoni'-n,  is  decidedly  rickety.  These 
symptoms,  ill  common  with  the  other  asthe- 
nic of  infants,  usually  make  their  appearance 
before  the  secjjjjit  yi-'ar.  The  (irst  indication 
of  a  rickety  t<»B<lt-ncy  U  a  remarkable  llacci- 
dily  of  the  muscular  fibre ;  ilisinclination  to 
exertion  follows ;  aiiTl  the  irregularities  above 
enumerated  shortly  supervene,  followed  by 
h'-'ctic,  cough,  confirmed  .atrophy,  .death,  or 
permanently  di-itorlcd  limb!. 

CiKvs.-r^Dibility,  most  cpmmonly  of  an 
hered-.liiy  nature,  constitutes  the  predispo- 
sition to  r'nkets.  Bad  air,  bad  nursing,  im- 
prr,;.  ■  1  -I,  iiMcIeanliness,  anddamp,  are 
it.  ;  PS.     Holli-ian  describes  the 


!'• 


(■  to  be  a 


INFANCY. 

■ACrvo'M  influence  to  the  spinal  'malTOW,  pre- 
A-cnting  the  due  nutrition  of  parts.  Dr. 
Culleu  supposes,  a  deticiency  ^f  bciny  matter 
in  the  fluids  constitutes  the  disease.  A  more 
correct  account,  however,  of  the  essentials  of 
rickets,  would  make  it  to  consist  in  deficient 
excitement  or  power  in  those  vessels,  by  the 
action  of  which  osseous  matter  is  thrown  out, 
and  bone  constituted. 

Trmtinent. — Indication  1st.  To  cleanse 
the  first  i>assages  from  obstructions.  Metho- 
dus  medendi:  emetics,  cathartics,  calomel. 

Indication  2d.  To  restore  due  energy  to 
the  secretory  vessels  of  the  bones.  >1.  M. 
thalybeales,  exeicise,  bathing. 

Sect.  X .-r-Disordcr  in  the  boads.  (Di- 
arrhcca  infantilis.) 
Among  the  morbi  infanules  in  the  yearly 
catalogue  of  every  medica!  practitioner,  di- 
arrlma  occupies  a  conspicuous  situation.  Tlie 
griping,  green  and  otherwise  discoloured 
t;eci;s,  pains  in  tlie  abdomen,  wit'i  drawing 
up  of  the  knees  towards  the  stoniatdi,  severe 
crying,  febrile  irritation,  and  a  greater  or  less 
degree  of  actual  convulsion,  are  perhaps  tiie 
most  common  among  the  diseases  of  infancy. 
Ciiiises. — These  affections,  as  we  have  al- 
ready observed,  are  almost  invariably  occa- 
sioned by  improper  diet.  Dr.  Darwin  gives 
us  the  followinf;  relation:"  Acliild  of  a  week 
old,  which  had  been  taken  from  the  breast  of 
its  dying  mother,  and  had  by  some  uncom- 
mon error  been  siiil'ereil  to  lake  no  food  but 
water-gruel,  became  sick  and  griped  in  24 
hours,  was  convulsed  on  the  second  day,  and 
.died  oh  the  third !''  He  adds,  "  That  among 
the  poor  children  of  Derby  who  are  thus  fed 
hundreds  are  starved  into  scropliula,  and 
either  perish  or  live  in  a  state  of  wretched 
debility."     Zoonomia. 

Trentment. — C'alomel,  with  rhubarb,  is  to 
be  iminedialelv  given,  which  is  to  be  followed 
by  antacids,  such  as  prepared ,  chalk  and 
magnesia.  \\'ith  these  are  to  be  connected, 
according 'to  the  violence  of  the  distirder, 
aromatics  and  stimulants,  such  as  cinnamon, 
nutmeg,  and  opium.  Sometimes  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  an  emetic.  In  all  cases  indiges- 
tible food  is  to  be  avoided. 
Sect.  VI. — ^4lTe(:tio!is  occasioned  bj  teeth- 
j«^.  (Dentitio.) 
Pains  in  the  head,  convulsions,  frequent 
and  sudden  startings,  more  especially  in 
sleep,  eruptions  on  the  skin,  disorders  of  the 
sto;iiach  and  bowels,  cough,  and  hectic  fe- 
ver, are  not  unfrequentlv  occasioned  by  the 
process  of  toothirig.  Dr.  Darwin  conjec- 
tures, that  "  the  pain  of  toothing  often  be- 
gins much  earlier  than  is  suspected;"  and 
that]  the  apparent  .cause  of  the  disease  is  in 
reality  its  cure,  as  the  convulsions,  which  are 
oftentimes  the  most  violent  and  then  by  far 
the  most  alarming  of  (he  above  symptoms, 
are  comn'ionly  relieved  when  "  the  gum 
swells  and  becomes  inflamed;  at  other  t:m?'? 
a  diarrlioca  supervenes,  which  i- 
esteemed  a' favourable  circumstaii 

In  dilTicuIt  dentition,  the  pains  in  the  liead, 
convulsions,  vomiting,  and  hectic,  sometimes 
give  rise  to  the  suspicion  of  hydrocephalus : 
(rom  this,  however,  the  disease  in  question 
may  generally  hi;  dist^iiguislied  with  facility 
by  the  ease  with  which,  in  tlie  last  case,  the 
bowels  ar^;  evacuated ;  by  the  inllamnialory 
redness  of  the  gum,  anil  by  the-piipil  of  the 
deliciciit  suppfy  of  j  eye  being  dilated  in  aa  obscuie,  alul- con- 


tracted in  a  vivid  li.glit,  (he  contrary  of  whicFi 
takes  place  in  hvdrureplialus. 

Treatment. — Freejuent  doses  of  rhubarb, 
with  magnesia,  will  often  allay  the  intestinal 
irritation,  and  mitigate  the  teething  coiigii. 
The  gums  are  to  be  lanced  in  all  taxs  w here 
the  redness  and  swelling  are  consideiable. 
Tills  practice  can  indeed  never  be  objection- 
able. Antispasmodics  for  the  convulsions 
are  inefficacious  while  the  cause  remain.>. 

Sect.  VII. — Croup.     (Cynanciie  trachealis.) 

The  characteristics,  or  pathognomic  svrap- 
toms  of  this  disease  are,  difticult  respiralio;i, 
loud  and  str'nlulous  cough,  with  the  emission 
of  a  sound  of  a  peculiar  nature,  whicli  has 
been  compared  to  the  crow  of  a  young  cock. 
M'hese  ■  symptoms  i  sometimes  supervene 
upon  the  common  precursors  of  violent  iii- 
llammation ;  at  other  times  tlie  disease  is 
formed  without  previous  warning,  and  has 
been  known  to  prove  fatal  in  a  very  few 
liours  from  its  apparent  commencement.  If 
life  is  not  speedily  terminated  in  this  man- 
ner, the  disorder  frequently  runs  on  for  the 
space  of  six  days,  and  terminates  for  the 
most  part  by  crisis,  with  the  evacuation  of 
much  pale  urine. 

Causes. — 1'he  croup  is  an  inflammation 
of  .the  upper  part,  as  the  peripneumony  is 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  same  organ,  viz.  the 
trachea  or  windpipe.  It  originates  from  tl;e 
same  sources  as  other  inflammation.  T'-e 
circumstance  of  its  frequent  occurrence  i'.w\ 
fatal  tendency  in  infants,  appears  to  be  ov.-in:;,- 
to  the  extremely  disproportionate  smal!nc:,s 
of  the  glottis  at  this  period  of  life,  'i'he 
cause  of  death,  when  it  happens  suddenly, 
is  a  deposition  of  concreted  mucus  .(conse- 
(pient  upon  the  inllammation),  which  lines 
the  trachea,  and  fills  up  tlie  bronchial  cavi- 
ties. Independantly,  however,  of  this  cir- 
cumstance, sudden  death  may  be  occasioned 
by  the  great  loss  of  |)Ower  in  the  muscular 
fibres  ot  the  glottis,  induced  by  the  previous- 
ly high  excitement,  "  infantes  enim  miram 
incitationis  vicLssitudiiiem,  brevissimis  tempo- 
rum,  spatiis,  experiunUir." 

Treatment. — This,  to  be  eflfectual,  must  ba 
speedy  and  decisive.  Emetics ;  copiou.s 
bleeiiin.g  by  leeches,  applied  near  to  the  part 
allected ;  blisters  ;  warm  b.-.th  ;  antimoni.-rls. 
Recently,  calomel  in  large  doses  has  been 
tried,  and  w'ith  success.  iMight  not  digitalis 
prove  useful  in  consequence  of  its  extraor- 
dinary power  in  rapidly,  reducing  arterial  ex- 
citement? 

N.  B.  Croup,  in  soirje  instances,  assumes 
more  of  the  asthenic  than  of  the  intlamnia- 
tory  nature ;  ajid  in  this  case  the  disorder  of 
the  glottis  is  often  protracted  to  a  longer 
period.  Thfe  treatnient  in.  tills  latter  species 
requires  to  be  stimulating.  Calomel ;  opiates; 
blisters;  volatile  embrocations  to  the  throat';, 
nourishing  diet.  •  ' 

For  those  diseases  of  young  persons  which 
often  require  local,  in  connection  with  gene- 
ral treatment,  such  as  distortions  of  the  spine, 
alfections  of  the  eves,  scropliulous  swellings 
of  lymphatic  glands,  &c.  consult  the  article 
Surgery.   '  '      '  ' 

For  eruptive  and  contagious  diseases,  se« 
Mkdicin'k. 

INFANT.     From  the  observations  daily 

made  on  the  actions  of  infan(s,as  to  their  arri  v- 

hig:;t  discretion,  the  laws  and  customs  of  every 

couiUrv  have  fixed  upon  parlieulur  periods, 

i 


T  X  F 

■on  wliUli  tlipy  art'  iiicr.umc.i  chpablc' of  act- 
111!^  willi  ri-ason  uiid  iii!iv.-i('tioii :  in  our  law 
tl»'  full  uge  of  man  or  woman  \i  21  years. 
3  Hac.  Abr.  113. 

'lilt!  ages  oi  mnle  an«l  feiiiaV  arft  diiTorent 
for  jlilTeienl  purposes:  a  male  at  la  yexn  r,i 
agi?  may  take  llic  oath  of  allegiaiRi? ;  at  1 4 
is  at  (liKcrelioii,  aial  llierefort;  nuiy  con  leiit  or 
illsaerci;  lomarria!?c,  may  cliowehis  guardian, 
and'if  his  (li.-icrction  is  a'cUKilly  proved,  mUy 
make  liis  testamen'  of  liis  personal  cstati.' ;  at 
17  he  may  be  a  procurator  or  an  executor ; 
and  at  21  is  at  his  own  disposal,  and  may 
alien  his  lands,  goods,  and  thaftels.  A  le- 
male  at  seven  >eais  of  age  may  be  betrothed 
or  given  in  marriage ;  at  nine  is  entitled  to 
dower ;  and  at  12  is  of  years  of  maturity,  and 
therefore  may  consent  or  disagree  to  niar- 
vi.ige^and  if  proved  t  >  havesufhrient  discre- 
tion may  bcipieutli  her  personal  estate ;  at 
14  is  at  years  of  legal  discretion,  and  niay 
clioose  a  guardian  ;  at  17  miy  be  exeeutrix; 
and  at  21  may  dispose  of  herself  and  lier 
lands.     1  I51acl<.4fi3. 

An  infant  is  capable  of  inheriting,  for  the 
la'v  pre.vmies  him  capable  of  projjeily ;  also 
an  infant  may  purchase.',  because  it  is  intend- 
ed for  his  benelit,  and  the  freehold  is  in  him 
till  he  disagrees  thereto,  because  an  agree- 
ment is  presumed,  it  being  for  his  beiu-lit, 
and  because  the  Ireehold  cannot  be  in  the 
grantor  contrary  to  his, own  act,  nor  can  be 
j'n  abeyance,  for  then  a  stranger  would  not 
know  against  v.liom  to  demand  hisriglit  ;  and 
if  at  his  full  age  tlie  infont  agrees  to  the  pur- 
cliase,  lie  cannot  afterwards  avoid  it ;  but  if 
'  lie  dies  during  his  minority  his  heirs  uiay 
avoid  it,  for  they  shall  not'be  bound  by  the 
contracts  of  a  piVson  who  wanted  capacity  to 
contract.     Co.  l.itt.  2. 

As  to  infant-,  being  witnesses,  there  seems 
to  be  no  (ixed  time  at  which  children  are  ex- 
cluded iVom  giving  evidence;  but  it  will  de- 
))end  in  a  great  measure  on  the  sense  and  un- 
derstanding of  the  children,  as  it  shall  appear 
On  examination  in  court.     Bull.  N.  P.  2o3. 

And  whore  they  are  admitted,  concurrent 
testiinonv  seems  peculiarly  desirable'.  4  Bla. 
814. 

All  infant  is  not  bound  by  his  contract  to 
deliver  a  thing ;  so  if  one  deliver  goods  to  an 
infant  upon  a  contract,  &c.  knowing  him  to 
he  an  i^ifant,  he  shall  not  be  chargeable  in 
trovi'r  and  conver^on,  or  any  other  action 
for  them  ;  for  the  infant  is  not  capable  of  aiiy 
contract  but  for  necessaries,  therefore  such 
delivery  is  a  gift  to  the  infant ;  but  if  an  in- 
fant, without  any  contract,  wilfully  takes  away 
the  goods  o!  another,  trover  lies  against  him; 
also  It  is  said,  that  if  het;ikes"the  goods  under 
pretence  that  he  is  of  full  age,  trover  lies,  be- 
cause it  is  a  wilful  and  traudulent  trespass.  1 
Sid.  I'J'.I. 

Infants  are  disabled  to  contract  for  any 
thing  but  necessaries  for  their  person,  suit- 
able to  their  degree  and  quality  ;  and  what  is 
nece^sarv  must  be  left  to  the  jurv.  Co.  Litt. 
172. 

An  infant,  knowing  of  a  fraud,  shall  be  as 
much  bound  as  if  of  age.  13  Vin.  Abr.  !i36. 
liiit^t  is  held  that  this  rule  is  confined  to 
Ruch  acts  only  as  are  voidable;  an  I  that  a 
warr;mt  of  attorney  given  by  an  infant  being 
absolutely  void,  the  court  w  ill  not  confirm  it, 
though  tlie  infant  appeared  to  have  given  it, 
knowinu;  it  vvas  not  good,  and  for  the  purpose 
ot'collusion. 


J-  .\    I- 

As  to  acts  of  iiitiinls  bring  void,  or  only 
void;ible,  there  is  a  diversity  between  an  i'.lr- 
tual  ilelivery  of  fla-  thing  contracted  for,  and 
a  bare  agre'iiient  fb  deliver  it ;  tli^  lir.-it  is 
veid-l-Ir,  b':t'lhr  lj:,l  r.b  o'lifelyvoid. 

■■.lie  are  rie- 

.•  for  lliein, 

un!i_.'-.-.  piow^l',  .1  bi.i(  r>   ui;ir;.:-:;;e  ;  in   which 

case  lie  is  not  answerable,  lliomjli  she  wore 

thorn  ni  ■      1  Str.  I'J.S. 

An  ,o  liable  for  the  nursing  of 

his  lav.iin  (  ..H...  ' 

V.  Iiere  i;oods  arc  furnished  to  the  son,  he  is 
himaelf  liatjle  if  thev  are  neees-sarien.  If  trades- 
men deal  with  him",  and  he  undertakes  to  pay 
them,  thev  must  ri.':')it  to  him  for  p,iyment  ; 
but  if  they  furnished  the  infant  on  llie  credit 
of  his  fullier,  the  father  only  ii  liable.  '2  Esp. 
471. 

WFth  respect  to  education,  &c.  hiiants  may 
bechai'ged,  where  the. credit  was  tHven  Ixuia 
fide  to  them,  iiut  where  theinfanf  is  under 
the  ptucnt's  power,  and  living  in  the  house 
with  them,  he  shall  not  be  liable  even  for  nc- 
cessariifs.     2  Black.  Uep.  1325. 

If  a  taylor  trust's  a  joung  man,  under  age, 
for  clothes  to  an  extiuvagant  degree,  he  can- 
not recover;  and  he  is  bound  to  know  whe- 
ther he  deaU  at  the  same  time  with  aiiy  other 
taylor,     1  Ksp.  Rep.  212. 

If  one  lends  money  to  an  infant  to  pay  a 
debt  for  necessaries,  and  he  pays  it,  al- 
though he  is  not  bound  in  law,  it  is  said  he  is 
in  equity  ;  but  if  the  infant  misapplies  the 
money  it  is  at  the  i;eri!  of  the  lender. 

A  promissory  note  given  by  an  infant  for 
board  and  lodging,  and  for  teaching  him  a 
trade,  is  valid,  anil  v\ill  support  an  Action  for 
the  money.     1  T.  K.  41. 

And  debts  contracted  during  infancy  are 
good  considerations  to  support  a  promise 
made  to  them  when  a  person  is  of  full  age  ; 
but  the  promise  must  be  express. 

A  bond  without  a  penalty  for  necessaries 
will  bind  an  infant,  but  not  a  bond  with  a  pe- 
nalty.    Ksp.  Hep.  U)4. 

Legacies  to  iiiianLs  cannot  be  paid  either 
to  them  or  their  parents. 

An  infant  cannot  b-  a  juror,  neither  can  he 
be  an  attorney,  baililf",  factor,  or  receiver. 
Co.  Lit.  172.        . 

Ily  the  custom  of  I,x)ndon  an  infant  unmarri- 
ed, and  above  the  age  of  1 4,  if  under  2 1 ,  may 
bind  himself  apprentice  to  a  freeman  of  Ijjii- 
don,  by  indenture  with  proper  covenants, 
which  covenants,  by  the  custom  of  London, 
will  be  as  binding  as  if  of  age. 

If  an  infant  draws  a  bill  of  exchange,  yet  he 
shall  not  be  liable  on  the  custom  of  mer- 
chants ;  but  he  may  plead  infancy  in  the 
same  manner  as  he  may  to  aay  other  con- 
tract. . 

.All  infant  cannot  be  sued  but  under  the 
protection  and  joining  the  name  of  his  guar- 
dian ;  but  he  may  sue  either  by  his  guardian, 
or  his  next  friend,  who  is  not  his  guardian. 
Co.  Lit.  135. 

An  action  on.an  account  stated  will  not  lie 
against  an  infant,  though  it  should  be  for  ne- 
cessaries.    Co.  Lit.  172. 

INFINITE,  or  INFINITKLV  ORF.ATilN'E, 

in  geometry,  denotes  only  an  indeiinile  or  in- 
determinate line,  to  which  no  certain  bounds, 
or  limit-,  are  prescribed. 
I      INFlNTrESIMALS,  among  mathemati- 
C   2 


I  N  F 


Kj 


^iaiij,  are  definud  tp  be  iiif>r.:td}'  :~,w'i  qt^au- 

litiia.      "  •  .  ...        . 

■  III  the  method  sf  in(init/"<iiT!als,  the  cle- 
ment, by  which  any  c|U2'  ■'.!«- 
encase;,;  is  siipp'  '■f(\  ••  all,- 
and  is  gener.i  ■  i  in-ir:; 
terms,  sinie  ■  los  lh:.n 
the  re^t,  •  '  ■  im- 
purtane  i;i 

tailed  I 

tily.     The  i 

niaiKHT.  :■     i; 

ol 

in  ' 

datioii,  Ol  tlie  e''ii 

illiinilely  'in:;l!  ''e 

ge, 

pr 

de> 

lu: 

fe; 

C.L'  ' 

ioi 
ii: 
tie- 

even  an  innnitelv  smalt  error,  •re- 

cisely  with  those  that  are  dcdi.  I  me- 

thod by  11  uxions. 

I'or  exaiiiple  (see  Plate  Miscel.  fie;.  136); 
when  DCJ,  the  increment  of  the  baf-e  Al>,  of 
the  triangle  ADE,  is  supjjosed  to  become  in- 
linitely  little,  the  trapezmni  I''^  "  '  '  •  «i- 
imillanco',!s  iiicreiiM-nl  ol  then  isti 

of  two  parts,  tlie  parallelogram  l.v^,  .1,-1  l!-,i? 
triangle  El  II  ;  the  latter  of  which  U  infi- 
nitely less  than  the  fonner,  their  ratio  being 
tiiat  of  one-half  DC/  to  AD:  thereiore,  ac- 
cording to  this  method  in  fluxions,  the  part 
EIH  is  neglected,  and  the  remaining  paiij, 
viz.  the  parallelogram  EG,  is  the  diliijrence 
of  the  triangle  ADE.  Now  it  might  be  shewit, 
that  EG  is  precisely  that  (jart  of  the  incre- 
ment of  the  triangle  ADE  which  is  g.enerated 
by  the  motion  with  which  this  triangle  llo'.rs, 
and  that  EIH  is  the  part  of  the  same  incre- 
ment which  is  generated  in  consequence  of 
the  acceleration  of  this  motion,  white  the 
base,  by  flowing  unilonnly,  acquires  the  aug- 
ment DG,  wjiellier  DG  be  supposed  liuile 
or  infinitely  less. 

Example  2.  Tl'.e  i,^crement  DELMHG 
(fig.  137)  of'  '^AE,  consists  of  the 

parallclograii:  .  ,  and  1/j ;  the  last  of 

which,  ill,  be-coiiies  iiiliriitely  less  tha:-.  EG, 
or  EM,  w  hen  D'^  and  LM,  the  increments 
of  the  f  .;iosed  intiiiitely  small ;  be- 

cause i'  .  to  be  to  EG  as  LM  to  AL, 

afid  to  E>i  -  i^w  to  .\D;  therefore,  l/i  be- 
infr  neglected,  tb.e  se.m  of  the  paraflelcgranis 
EG  and  EM  is  tiie  diiftrenre  of  the  rect- 
angle AE:  and  the  siiiii  of  EG  and  EM  is 
tiie  space  that  would  have  been  geni;rBted  by 
the  motion  wilii  which  tJie  rectangle  A  E  tiows 
continued  uniiormly,  but  that  1/j  is  the  part 
of  the  iffi:remeiit  of  the  rectangle  which  isge- 
iieraled  in  conse^jueuee  01  il;e  acceleration  of 
this  motion,  in  the  time  that  AD  and  AL, 
by  flowing  uniformly,  actiuire  the  ausment's 
IDG  and  LM.  .The  same  niuv  be  observed 
in  propositions  wherein  the  fluxions  of  ouan- 
titiisi  are  deteiinined  ;  and  thus  t' 
of  investigating  the  dili'ir  iie«s, 
of  quantities,  in  the  methoa  <{  inii...  .  -  .ii,-..>, 
may  be  deduced  from  tut  principles  of  the 
melhotl  of  fluxions.  For  uHtc  id  of  neglect- 
ing EIH  because  it  is  intiuitrly  less  'tliari 
EG,   (according  to  the  usual  maiiner  of  rea- 


20 


I  X  F 


soning  in  that  method),  we  may  reject  it ;  be- 
cause we  may  thence  conclude,  that  it  is  not 
produced  in'  consequence  of  the  generating 
notion  DG,  but  of  ihe  subsequent  variations 
of  this  motion.  And  it  appears  why  the 
conclusion!,  in  the  method  of  infinitesimals 
are  not  to  be  represented  us  if  they  wereonly 
near  tiie  truth,  but  are  to  be  held  as  accu- 
rately true. 

In  or<ler  to  render  the  application  of  this 
method  ea^v,  some  analogous  principles  are 
admitted,  as  that  the  iiiiinitely  small  elements 
of  a  curve  are  right  lines,  or  that  a  curve  is  a 
polygon  of  an  inlinite  number  of  sides,  which 
beiiiij  produced,  give  the  tangents  of  the 
curve;  and  bv  their  inclination  to  each  other 
measure  the "  curvature.  Tliis  is  as  if  we 
should  suppose,  when  the  base  (lows  uni- 
formly, tlie  ordinate  flows  with  a  motion 
which  is  uniform  for  every  infinitely  small 
part  of  time,  and  increases  or  decreases  by  in- 
linilely  small  dilfereuces  at  the  end  of  every 
such  time. 

But  however  convenient  this  principle  may 
be,  it  must  be  applied  with  caution  and  art  on 
various  occasions.  It  is  tnual  therefore,  in 
manv  cases,  to  resolve  the  element  of  the 
curve  into  two  or  more  infinitely  small  right 
Tines ;  and  sometimes  it  is  necessary,  if  we 
would  avoid  error,  to  resolve  it  into  an  itifi- 
-nite  number  of  such  right  lines,  which  are  in- 
finitesimals of  the  secolid  order.  In  general. 
It  is  a  postulatum  in  this  method,  that  we 
may  descend  to  the  infinitesimals  of  any  or- 
der wliatever,  as  we  find  it  neces';ary;  by 
which  means  any  error  that  might  arise  in 
the  apj>lication  of  it  may  be  discovered  and 
corrected  by  a  proper  use  of  this  method  it- 
self. For  an  e.Nanipie  of  this,  see  Maclau- 
rin's  Fluxions. 

INFL.'\MMABILITY,  that  property  of 
bodies  wliicli  dispose-i  them  to  kindle  or  catch 
tire.     See  Caloric,  Chemistry,  &e. 

INFLAMMATION.  See  Surgery,  and 
Mkpicine. 

INFLECTION,  or  point  of  infliction,  in 
the  hjgher  geometry,  is  the  point  where  a 
•  iirve  begins  to  bend  a  contrary  way.  See 
Flexure. 

To  determine  the  point  of  inflection  in  curves, 
whose  semi-ordlnates  CM,  Cm  (PI.  Miscel.  fi(j. 
134)  ?.re  drawn  from  the  fixed  point  C;  sup])ose 
CM  to  be  infinitclv  near  Cot,  and  make  otH  =: 
*,!»«  ;  let  Tot  touch  the  curve  in  M.  Now  the 
angles  CwT,  CMw,  are  cqnal ;  and  so  the  angle 
CVH,  while  the  scml-ordinatcs  increase,  does 
decrease,  if  the  curve  is  concave  towards  the 
centre  C.  and  increase*  if  the  convexitv  turns 
towards  it.  Whence  this  angle,  or,  which  is  the 
same,  its  measure,  will  be  a  minimum  or  maxi- 
mum, ifthe  curve  has  a  point  of  inflection  or 
retrogression  ;  and  so  may  be  found,  if  the  arch 
TH,  or  fluxion  of  it,  be  made  ei|iial  to  O,  or  In- 
finitv.  And  in  order  to  find  the  arcli  TH,  draw 
ikL,'80  that  the  angle  TmL  he  equal  toraCl.; 

then  if  Cot  :=.y,mr  :=  x,  m'V  z=  /,  wc  shall  have 


(  •   — 

y 


Again,  draw  the  arcli  HO  to 


the  radius  CH  ;  then  the  small  right  lines  mr, 
OH  are  parallel;  and  fo  the  triangles  Oi.H, 
mLr.  arc  similar;  but  because  HI  is  also  per- 
pendicular to  mL,  the  triangles  LHl,  mLr,  arc 


also  similar :  whence  i  '.  x  '.',  y  ', 


thiit    is, 


I  N  F 

the  quanrities  i.iT,  kL,  are  equal.  But  HL  is 
the  lluxiou  of  Hr,  which  is  the  distance  of  Cot 
=  v;  and  IW  is  a  negative  qomtity,  because 
while  the  ordinate  CM  increases,  tlieir  ditVcrence 
i  rH  decreases;  whence  .va--{-  \y  —  vv  ^O,  which 
is  a  general  equation  for  finding  the  point  of  in- 
flection, or  rctrogradation.     See  Flu-XIOns. 

INFOR>rATI0N,  in  law.  An  information 
mav  be  delincd  an  accusation  or  conq)laiiit 
exhibited  against  a  person  for  some  criminal 
oli'ence,  either  immediately  against  the  king, 
or  against  a  private  person,  which,  from  its 
enormilv  or  dangerous  tendency,  the  public 
good  retjuires  should  be  restiained  and  pu- 
nished. It  differs  principally  from  an  indict- 
ment in  this,  that  an  indictment  is  an  accusa- 
tion found  by  th.e  0:1th  of  12  men,  but  an  in- 
formatinii  is  only  the  allegation  of  the  olliccr 
who  exhibits  it.     3  Bac.  Abr.  Iti4. 

Informations  are  of  two  kinds:  first,  those 
which  are  partly  at  the  siut  of  the  king,  and 
partly  at  the  suit  of  a  subject  ;  and,  secondly, 
such  as  are  only  in  the  name  of  the  king:  the 
former  are  usually  brought  upon  penal  sta- 
tutes, which  inllict  a  j)enalty  on  conviction  of 
the  olfender.  One  pv.rt  to  the  use  of  the  king, 
and  another  to  the  use  of  the  informer  ;  and 
are  called  qui  tani,  or  popular  ai  lions,  only 
carried  on  by  a  criminal  insteatl  of  a  civil 
process. 

Informations  that  are  exhibited  in  the  name 
of  the  king  alone  are  also  of  Iw  o  kinds  :  lirst, 
those  which  are  Irulv  and  properly  his  own 
suits,  and  liled  ex  ofhcio  by  his  own  innne- 
diate  officer,  the  attorney-general ;  secondly, 
those  in  which,  though  the  kiiig  is  the  nomi- 
ilal  prosecutor,  \et  it  is  at  the  relation  of 
some  private  person,  or  conunon  informer; 
and  they  are  filed  by  the  master  of  the  crown 
ollice,  imder  the  espress  direction  of  the 
court.  The  objects  of  the  king's  own  prose- 
cutions, filed  ex  officio  by  the  alto.ney-gene- 
lal,  are  properly  such  enormous  misdemean- 
ours as  peculiarly  tend  to  disturb  or  endanger 
the  government,  'ihe  objects  of  the  other 
species  of  informations,  filed  by  the  master 
of  the  crown  office,  upon  the  complaint  or 
relation  of  a  private  subject,  are  any  gross 
and  notorious  misdemeanors,  riots,  batteries, 
libels,  or  other  immoralities,  of  an  atrocious 
kind,  not  peculiarly  lending  to  disturb  the 
government,  but  which,  oji  accomit  of  their 
magnitude  or  pernicious  example,  deserve 
the  most  public  animadversion.  And  when 
an  infornnitiin  is  tiled  either  thus,  or  bv  the 
attorni'\ -general  ex  officio,  it  must  be  tried 
by  a  pelt v  jury  of  the  county  where  the  of- 
fence arises  ;  after  which,  ifthe  defendant  is 
found  guilty,  liC  must  resort  to  tlic  court  of 
king's  bench  for  his  punishment.  4  Black. 
30S. 

If  a  common  informer  should  willingly  de- 
lay his  suit,  or  d'scoiitinue,  or  be  nonsuit,  or 
sh:ill  have  a  verdict  or  judgment  against  him, 
he  shall  pay  costs  to  the  <lelendant.  IS  ICl.z. 
c.  5. 

And  in  the  court  of  king's  bench,  particu- 
larly it  the  defendant  shall  ap()ear  and  plead 
to  issue,  and  the  prosecutor  shall  not  at  h  s 
own  co^ts,  within  a  y.'ar  alter  issue  joined, 
procure  the  same  lobe  tried;  or  if  a  verdiit 
pass  for  the  defenilant,  or  the  informer  pr.  - 
( II  e  a  noli  prosequi  to  be  entered  ;  the  saitl 
CO  rt  of  king  s  ben  h  may  award  the  tU'leiid- 
aiit  his  costs,  unless  the  judge  sliah  cerl:l\ 
that  there  was  a  reasoiuible  cause  for  exlabii- 


I  N  H 

ing  such  information  ;  ami  if  the  informer 
shall  not,  in  three  months  after  such  cosij 
taxed,  and  demand  made,  pay  the  same,  the 
defendant  shall  have  the  benefit  of  the  rccog- 
ni/ance,  to  compel  him  thereunto.  4  and 
3  W.  c.  18. 

INFRALAPSARIANS,  in  church  history, 
an  appellation  given  to  such  predestinarians 
as  think  liie  decrees  of  God,  in  regard  to  the 
salvation  and  daimiation  of  mankind,  were 
formed  in  consequence  of  Adam's  fall. 

INFUSION,  a  method  of  obtaining  the 
virtues  of  plants,  roots,  &:c.  by  steeping  them 
in  a  hot  or  cold  litinid. 

INFUSORIA,  in  natural  history,  minute 
simple  animalcules,  seldom  visible  to  the 
naked  eu".  \\  hen  water  is  examined  with 
the  microscope,  particularly  that  which  has 
long  been  stagnant,  and  has  vegetable  matter 
growing  in  it,  or  water  in  which  vegetables 
have  l)i-en  infused,  thousands  of  minute  ani- 
mals liave  been  discovered,  which  have  becu 
arranged  together  in  this  order.  \V  htn  wheat 
that  IS  richety  is  infused  in  water,  small  eel- 
shaped  worms  are  discovered,  which  were  the 
cause  ot  the  disease.  Wheat  thus  injured  is 
very  dill'erent  from  smutty  wheal.  The 
grains  are  brown,  shrivelled,  and  of  irregular 
lorin  ;  each  conlains  orie  or  more  of  tiiese 
worms,  which  lie  dormant  as  long  as  the 
grahi  is  dry  ;  but  as  soon  as  it  is  moistened 
by  being  sown,  or  otherwise,  the  worms  are 
revivined,  feed  on  the  flour,  and  lay  their 
eggs.  It  such  grain  vegetates,  the  young, 
as  soon  as  they  are  hatched,  eat  their  way  up 
the  stem,  and  bury  tjiemselves  in  the  young 
sticculent  ear. 

INGRKSS,  in  astronomy,  signifies  the 
sun's  entering  the  first  scruple  ol  one  of  the 
four  cardinal  signs,  especially  Aries. 

IN  GROSS  FR.     See  Ioresxalling. 

INHALER,  in  medicine,  a  machine  for 
steaming  the  lungs  with  warm  water,  recom- 
mended by  Mr.  iVluilge  in  the  cure  of  the  ca- 
larrhous  cough.  'Ihe  body  of  the  instrument 
resembles  a  porter-pot,  holds  about  a  pint, 
and  the  handle,  which  is  fixed  to  the  side  of 
it,  is  hollow .  In  the  lower  pa  I  of  the  vessel, 
where  it  is  soldered  to  the  handle,  is  a  hole, 
by  means  of  which  and  three  others  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  handle,  the  water,  when  it 
is  poured  into  ihe  inhaler,  will  rise  to  the 
same  level  in  both.  To  the  miildle  of  the 
cover  a  ilexible  leathern  lube,  about  six  or  se- 
ven inches  long,  is  fi.xetl,  with  a  mouth-piece 
of  wood  or  ivory.  In  the  cover  there  is  a 
vahe  fixed,  which  opens  and  shuts  the  com- 
muuicatioif  between  the  upper  and  internal 
])art  of  the  inhaler  and  the  ixternal  air.  This 
valve  is  exlieinel\  simple  :  being  formed  only 
of  a  short  lube  desceuding  inw.uds  f  om  the 
cover,  and  having  beneath  a  small  hole  upon 
which  a  ball  of  cork  pla\s.  \A  iicn  the  mouth 
is  applietl  to  the  end  ol  the  tube  in  the  act 
of  inspiration,  the  air  rushes  in  o  the  handle, 
and  up  througli  the  body  ol  warm  water,  and 
the  lungs  become,  consequently,  filled  wilU 
hot  vapour.  In  e.sspiration,  the  mouth  being 
still  fixed  to  tile  tulie,  the  breath,  together 
«  ith  the  steam  on  the  smiace  ot  the  water  in 
the  inli.lcr,  is  forced  up  through  the  valve  iu 
the  cover. 

INHKRirANCE,  is  a  perpetuity  in 
lands  or  lenenieiits  to  a  man  and  his  heirs  ; 
and  the  woril  iuheritiuice  is  not  onlv  intended 
where  a  iiiau  has  lands  or  tcnciiieiits  by  lig. 


fuj.iit 


F!(].ipi3 


I  N  J 

scrnf,  but  also  every  fee-simple,  or  fee-fail, 
wliuh  a  PLT5011  hu-i  by  piirtliubi-,  may  l)e 
s.iiil  to  be  ail  Miiieritancc,  because  his  lieiis 
m^iy  iulieiit  it.     Jil.  s.  y. 

InlRiiUuKes  are  cuipoieal  or  incorporeal. 
Corpurcal  iulieritaiit-e^  relate  to  liousi-s  and 
l.uul>  wliii  li  may  be  louc:lie<l  or  liaiulled  ;  and 
incoipore.d  hcreilitaineiits  are  riglits  issuin}; 
out  ol,  ai)ne.\ed  lo,  or  exercised  witli,  corpo- 
real inlierilances  ;  as  advc)WM)ns,  litlie?,  an- 
nuities, nllice'i,  commons,  franchises,  privi- 
leges, and -.ervici-s.      I  lii^t.  ''l!». 

There  are  several  rules  of  iniieritances  of 
lands,  according  to  which  ivstales  are  Ir.ms- 
iniUed  from  ancestor  to  heir,  viz.  1.  'I'lut  in- 
iieritances siiall  lineally  descend  to  the  issue 
of  tile  per-^on  last  ac  tually  seized,  in  iiilini- 
tuiii,  bill  sliall  never  line.illy  asceud.  2.  'I'he 
male  issue  sii.ill  be  admitted  before  the  fe- 
male, i.  Where  there  are  two  or  more 
males  in  e.|iial  dei^ree  the  eldest  only  nIuII  in- 
IkmII  ;  but  the  feiiial"s  all  together.  4.  The 
lineal  descendants,  in  inlinilum,  of  any  i)ei- 
Soii  deceased  shall  represent  their  ancestor  ; 
that  is,  >liall  stand  in  the  s.jiie  place  as  the 
person  hiiiiself  would  have  done  had  he  been 
living:  thus  the  ihild,  grandchild,  or  great- 
craiidchild  (eitlier  male  or  female),  of  the 
eldest  son,  succeeds  before  the  younger  son, 
and  so  in  iniinilnm.  5.  On  failure  of  issue  of 
the  person  last  seized,  the  inheritance  shall 
descend  to  the  blood  of  the  lirst  pnrciiascr. 
(j.  The  collateral  heir  of  the  jtcrson  last  seiz- 
ed most  be  his  next  coll.:!i-r,il  kinsman  of  the 
wlio!e  bloo  I.  7.  In  collateral  inherit. uu'es 
the  male  stocks  sliall  be  prdi-i  red  to  the  fe- 
male, unless  where  lands  are  descended  trom 
a  fem.ile:  tliiis  tiu:  relations  on  the  tathei-'s 
side  are  admitted  in  inlinitnm  before  those  on 
the  mother's  side  are  admitted  at  all;  and  the 
relations  of  the  l.ither's  lather  belore  those  of 
the  father's  mother,  and  so  on.  '2  Black,  c. 
14. 

INHIBITION,  a  writ  to  inhibit  or  forbid  a 
judge  from  farther  proceedings  in  the  cause 
depending  bef  ire  him.      F.  N.  15.  .3t). 

1NJI'NCTU).N.  An  injnnction  is  a  pro- 
hibitory writ,  restraining  a  person  from  com- 
mitting or  doing  a  thing  whi<h  appears  to  be 
against  equity  and  conscience.  3  I5ac.  Abr. 
17'J. 

An  injunction  is  usually  granted  for  the 
ptirpjse  of  preserving  properly  in  dispute 
pending  a  suit ;  as  to  restrain  the  defendant 
irom  procedings  at  the  common  law  against 
the  plaintiff,  or  Irom  committing  waste,  or  do- 
ing any  injurious  act.  Milf.  Treat.  Chan. 
Plead. 

Injunctions  issue  out  of  the  courts  of  equity 
in  several  instances.  I  he  most  usual  injunc- 
tion is  to  stay  pioceeilings  at  law;  as,  if  one 
inan  brings  an  action  at  law  against  another. 
and  a  bill  is  brought  to  be  ri-lieved  either 
against  a  penalty,  or  to  stav  proceedings  at 
law,  or  some  equitable  circumstances,  of 
which  the  party  cannot  have  the  beneiit  at 
law.  In  such  case  the  plaintiff  in  equity  may 
niuve  for  an  injunction  either  upon  an  att.icli- 
nieijt,  or  praying  a  de<linuis,  or  \)raying  a  far- 
ther time  to  answer;  hirit  being  suggested  in 
the  bill  that  tlie  suit  is  against  conscience,  il 
the  <lelendant  is  in  conti-mpt  tor  not  an- 
swering, or  prays  time  to  answer.it  is  coiitrarv 
to  consciem  e  ti  pro  eed  at  law  in  the  mean 
time;  and  thi'ielure  an  injunction  is  granted 
ot  course:  but  th's  iniuiuiion  01  Iv  st,l^sexe 
•uliou  toi.ch.U;i  the  matter  in  question  j  and 


I  N  K 

llierc  Is  always  a  clause  giving  jibcrly  to  call 
lor  a  plea  to  jjioceed  to  tiial,  and  lor  want  of 
it  lo  obtain  juflgiiient ;  but  execution  is  stay- 
ed till  answer,  or  farther  order.  3  IJac.  Abr. 
173. 

When  a  bill  in  chancery  is  filed  in  the  of- 
fice of  the  six  clerks,  if  an  injunction  is  pray- 
ed therein,  it  may  be  had,  at  various  stages 
of  the  cause,  according  to  thi-  circumstances 
of  the  case.  If  the  bill  is  to  stay  e,\<cutio!j 
upon  an  oppressive  judgment,  and  the  de- 
lend ant  doi-s  not  put  ui  his  aii.wer  within  the 
time  allowed  by  tlie  rules  of  the  court,  an  in- 
junction will  issue  of  course  ;  and  when  Ihe 
ansvver  conies  in,  the  injuiiction  can  only  be 
eonruiued  upon  a  sullicient  ground  appearing 
Irom  the  answer  itself,  lint  if  an  injunction 
is  wanted  to  stav  waste,  or  other  injuries  of 
ail  equally  unjust  nature,  then  upon  the  liling 
of  the  bill,  ;ind  a  proper  Ciise  supptirled  by 
aflidavits,  the  <ourt  will  grant  an  injunction 
immediately  ;  to  continue  till  ihi-  di-dndant 
has  put  in  his  answer,  and  till  tine  court 
sliall  maki:  so:iie  further  order  concerning  it ; 
and  when  the  answer  comes  in  whether  it 
shall  then  be  dissolved,  or  coiilinue<l  lill  the 
hearing  ol  the  cause,  is  determined  by  the 
court  upon  argument,  drawn  from  consider- 
ing the  answer  and  alfidavits  together.  3  Bla. 
443. 

The  methods  of  dissolving  injunctions  are 
various;  when  tlie  answer  comes  in,  and  the 
])arty  has  cleared  his  contempt  by  paying 
the  costs  of  the  attachment,  if  there  is  one, 
lie  obtains  an  order  to  dissolvi;  nisi,  and  serves 
it  on  the  p'aiiitill's  clerk  in  court :  tiiis  order 
takes  notice  of  the  defendant's  having  hilly 
answered  the  bill,  and  thereby  denied  the 
whole  equity  thereof,  and  being  regularly 
siTved,  the  plaintiff  must  shew  cause  at  the 
day  ;  or  the  delendanl's  counsel,  where  there 
is  no  probabililv  of  sliewing  cause,  may  move 
to  make  the  order  absolnle,  unless  cause,  sit- 
ting the  court.     3  Hac.  Abr.  177. 

if  the  plaintilT  who  has  an  injunction  die 
pending  the  suit,  in  strictness  the  whole  pro- 
(  eedings  are  ab;ited,  and  the  injunction  with 
them;  but  even  in  this  case  the  party  shall 
not  take  out  execution  without  special  leave 
of  the  court;  he  must  mi>ve  the  court  for 
the  plaintiff  to  revive  his  suit  within  a  limite<l 
time,  or  the  injnnction  to  stand  dissolved; 
.ind  as  this  is  never  denied,  so  if  the  suit  is 
not  revived,  the  party  takes  out  execution. 
There  are  some  instances  where  a  plaiiitilT 
may  move  to  revive  his  injunction  ;  but  as 
that  ra.c'y  happens,  so  it  is  rarely  granted, 
especially  where  the  iiijunclion  has  been 
before  dissolved  :  but  w  here  a  bill  is  dismiss- 
ed, the  injunction  and  every  thing  else  are 
2;one,  and  exiculion  mav  be  taken  out  the 
next  day.     3  Hac.  .Vbr.  J78. 

INJl  UY,  a  wrong  or  diunage  to  a  man's 
person  or  goods.  'Tlie  law  will  sutler  a  pri- 
vate injury  r.ulier  than  a  public  evil ;  and  the 
ac  t  of  Cioil  or  the  law  does  injury  to  none. 
4  liep.  1'.'4. 

INK.  There  are  two  principal  kinds  of 
ink,  writing  ;ind  printing  ink. 

If'rilhr^-ink.  W  lien  to  an  infusion  of  gall- 
nuts  some  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  (green 
copperas)  is  added,  a  veiy  dark-blue  precipi- 
tate takes  place.  'This  precipitate  is  the  gal- 
l.c  acid  ol  the  galls  united  to  the  iron  of  the 
green  vitriol,  forming  gallat  of  iron,  which  is 
ti  e  basis  of  wri:ing-ink.  It  galls  and  sul- 
phate ot  iron  only  were  used,  the  precipitate 


I  N  K 


21 


would  fall  down,  leaving  the  water  rolour- 
less  ;  and  in  ordi-r  lo  keej;  it  ^us|)i-nded  in 
the  water,  forming  a  perniaiicntly  black,  or 
rather  very  dark  l)lue  ihiid,  gum  arable  if 
added,  whicli,  by  its  viscid  nature,  prevent* 
llie  precipitate  from  falliiiC  down. 

Various  reciipts  have  bi  en  given  for  the 
composition  of  writing-ink,  but  very  few  havt 
been  founded  upon  a  knowledge  of  its  real 
nature.  'The  receipt  gi\en  by  M-  Hibaiirourt 
is  as  follows:  'Take  eight  ounce,  of  Alepro 
galls,  in  coarse  powder;  f<<ur  omices  ol  lo^- 
wooil,  in  thin  chips  ;  four  ounces  of  sn'pliate 
of  iron  (green  copi)er;is)  ;  three  oum fs  of 
gum  arable,  in  powder;  one  ounce  of  <tu!- 
ph:ite  of  copper  (Line  vitriu);  and  cmeource 
of  sugar-cauily.  Uoil  the  galls  an<l  logvvood 
togethi-r  in  twelve  pounds  of  water  lor  one 
hour,  or  till  half  the  licpiid  li;is  been  evapo- 
rated. Strain  the  decoclion  through  a  hair 
sieve,  or  linen  cloth,  and  th<  n  add  the  other 
ingredients.  Stir  the  mixture  till  the  whole 
is  di  solved,  more  espi'i  ially  th.-gum;  alter 
which  leave  it  to  subside  lor  Ji  hours.  'Then 
de(  ant  the  ink,  and  pre-erve  it  in  bottles  of 
glass  or  stone  ware,  well  corked. 

The  lo'lowing  will  aUo  make  a  good  ink  : 
To  one  quart  of  sol't  water  add  four  ounces 
of  galls,  one  ounce  of  copperas  roughly 
brni-ed,  and  two  ounces  of  gum  arable,  llet 
the  whole  be  k'pt  near  the  fire  a  few  days, 
and  occasionally  well  shaken. 

lii il  writiiiii-inlc  ii  made  in  the  following 
manner:  'Take  of  the  raspings  of  ISr:izit 
wood  a  (luarter  ot  a  pound,  ami  infuse  them 
two  or  three  days  in  vinegar.  Bod  the  infu- 
sion for  :in  hour  omt  a  gentle  (ire,  and  after- 
wanls  lllire  it  wliih-  hot.  Put  it  again  over 
the  lire,  and  dissolve  in  it.  first,  half  an  ounce 
of  gum  arable;  and  atterw  aids  of  alum  and 
white  sugar,  each  half  an  ounce. 

Pihtltir^-ink  is  a  black  paint,  compo-ed  of 
lanip-bl.ick  and  linseed  or  snet  oil  bo  led,  so  as 
to  acquire  considerable  consistence  pnd  tena- 
city. 'The  art  of  preparing  it  is  kept  a  se- 
cret;  but  the  obtaining  good  lamp -black  ap- 
pears to  be  the  chief  dilhcully  in  making  it. 

'The  ink  used  by  copper-plate  printers  (lif- 
ters from  the  last  only  in  the  oil  not  being  so 
much  boiled,  and  the  black  which  is  used  be- 
ing I'Vaiiklort  black. 

StimiHdIulic  inks  are  such  as  do  not  appear 
after  thev  are  written  with,  but  which  may  be 
made  to  appear  at  pleasure,  by  certain  nu  ans 
to  be  Used  for  that  purpose.  A  variety  of 
substances  have  been  used  for  this  purpose. 
We  shall  describe  the  best  of  them. 

1.  Dissolve  so.ne  siitjar  of  leail  in  water, 
and  write  with  tlie  si,Uit  on.  When  dry.  no 
writing  will  be  visible.  When  you  want  to 
make  it  appear,  wet  the  paper  with  a  solution 
of  alkaline  sulpluiret  (liver  of  sulphur),  and 
tlie  letters  will  immediately  appear  of  a  brown 
colour,  liven  exposing  the  writing  to  the 
vapours  of  these  solutions  will  render  it  ap- 
parent. 

'2.  Write  with  a  solution  of  gold  in  aqua 
regia,  and  let  the  paper  dry  gentiy  in  the 
shade.  Nothing  will  appear;  but  draw  a 
sponge  over  it  wetted  wiiii  a  solution  of  tin  in  , 
aqua  regia,  the  writ.iig  will  inanediately  ap- 
pear of  a  purple  colour. 

3.  Write  with  an  infusion  of  galls,  and  when 
you  wish  the  writing  to  ;ippe..r,  dip  it  into  a 
s.lution  of  green  vitriol  ;  the  letters  will  ap- 
pear black. 

4,  Write  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  and  > 


22  INN 

iiotliiiig  will  be  visihlo.  To  render  il  so,  lic'.il 
it  to  the  (ire,  and  the  letters  will  instantly  ap- 
pear black 


I  X  TC 


Jiiiteo;    era" 

■ior.iac,  gre  • 


•■-,  a  solution  of 
I,  ^cc.  will  answer 
piirptjse,  though  not  so  easily,  nor 
v.!i;i  -•)  iitticheat. 

6.  Green  svnipatlietic  ink.  Dissolve  co- 
balt ill  nitrom'urialic  acid,  and  write  witli  the 
solution.  Tiie  letters  will  be  invisible  till 
iield  t)  the  tire,  when  thev  will  appear  green, 
and  will  disappear  conijiletely  attain  when  re- 
moved into  t'iie  cold.  It>  this  manner  tliey 
way  be  made  to  appear  and  disappear  at 

pleasure.  •    .  -■  ,  ■    .  ■    i  • 

A  veiv  pleasant  experiment  of  this  Kind  is 
to  make  a  drawing  representing  a  winter 
scene,  in'  whicb  the  trees  appear  void  of 
leaves,  and  to  put  the  .leaves  on  with  this 
syilipathetic  ir.iv ;  then,  upon  holding  the 
drawing  near  to-  the  lire,  the  leaves  will  begin 
to  appear  in  all  the  verdure  oi  spring,  and 
will  very  much  surprise  those  who  are  not  in 
the  secret. 

7.  Bine  sympathetic  ink.  Dissolve  cobalt 
in  nitric  acid;  precipitate  the  cobalt  by 
potass;  dissolve  liiis  precipitated  oxide  of 
coball  in  acetic  acid,  and  add'to  tlie  solution 
one-eighth  of  conv.non  salt.  Tliis  will  iorni' 
a  svmiJathetic  ink,  that,  when  cold,  will  be 
invisible,  but  will  appear  blue  by  heat. 

\sK,  removing  stains  of.  The  stains  of 
ink  on  cloth,  paper,  or  wood,  may  be  re- 
moved l)y  almost,  all  acids  ;  but  tlio>e  acids 
are  to  be  preferred  which  are  least  hkely  toi 
injure  the  texture  of  ti;e  stained  substance. 
'Hie  muriatic  acid,  diluted  with  live  or  si.\ 
times  its  weight  of  water,  may  be  appli.-d  to 
the  spot,  and,  after  a  minute  or  two,  may  be 
washed  otT,  rejieating  t!ie  application  as  often 
as  ra^^y  be  found  necessary.  Cut  tlie  veget- 
able acids  are  attended  with  less  risk,  and  are 
equally  elfeclual.  A  solution  of  the  oxalic, 
citric  (.acid  of  lemons),  or  tartareous  acids,  in 
water,'  may  be  applied  to  tlie  most  delicate 
fabrics  without  any  danger  of  injuring  tliem; 
and  tlie  same  solutions  will  discliarge  writing, 
but. not  printing-ink.  PJence  they  may  be 
employed  in  cleaning  books  which  have  been 
defaced  by  writing  on  the  margin,  without 
impairing  the  text.  Lemon-juice,  and  the 
juice  of  sorrel,  will  also  remove  ink-stains, 
but  not  so  easily  as  the  concrete  acid  of  le- 
mons, or  citric  acid. 

INNS  AND  INNKEEPERS.  Common 
inns  were  instituted  for  passengers  ;  and  the 
duty  of  iniike.pers  extends  chietly  to  the  en- 
t:-n'aining.«aii(l  harbouring  of  travellers,  hiid- 
iiig  them  vitttials  and  lodging,  and  securing 
the  goods  and  elft-ctsof  their  guests;  and 
Iheretbre  if  one  w  ho  keeps  a  comiiioii  inn  re- 
fuses either  to  receive  a  traveller 'as  a  guest 
into  liis  house,  or  to  fnid  him  victuals  or  hxlg- 
ing,  upon  iiis  tendering  a  reasonable  price  for 
the  same,  he  h  not  o'lly  liable  to  render 
damages  for. the  injury  in  an  action  on  the 
case,  at  the  suit  ol  the  party  grieved,  but  also 
may  be  indicteil  and  lined  at  the  suit  of  the 
king.     Dyer,  IjS. 

In  return  for  such  responsibility  the  law 
allows  him  to  retain  the  horse  ot  his  guest 
lyntil  paid  ft)r  liiske?p;  but  he  cannot  retain 
Mich  hot^e  for  the  bill  of  the  owikt,  although 


he  ^oa^'  ri'tain  his  goods  for  such  bill ;  neither 
(•.iu.hel  detain  one  htirse  for  tlie  food  oi  An- 
clher.     )  HuIst.20/,917.  -   ' 


An  innkeeper,  however,  is  not  bound  to  re- 
ceive the  ho.'se,  unless  the  master  lodge  there 
also.     2  Brown,  2.")4.  ^ 

Neither  is  a  landlord  bound  to  furni-h  pro- 
visions unless  paid  bel'otehand.     9<-o.  S7. 

If  an  innkeeper  makes  out  iinreasonable 
bills,  he  may  be  indicted  .tor  -cxtovtion  ;  and' 
if  either  he  'or  any  of  his  servants  kiiov;ingly 
sell  bad  wine  or  bad  provisions,  they  will  be 
responsible  in  an  action  of  deceit. 

Any  person  may  set  up  a  new  inn,  unless 
it  is  inconvenient  to  the  public,  in  respect  of 
its  situation,  or  to  its  increasing  tlie  iuniiberof 
inns,  uotciily  to  the  prejudice  of  the  public, 
but  also  to  the  hindrance  and  prejudice  of 
otiier  antient  and  well-governed  inns :  for  the 
keeping  of  an  inn  is  no  franchise,  but  a  law- 
ful trade,  open  to  every  subject,  and  there- 
fore there  is  no  need  ot  any  iicence  from  the 
king  for  that  purpose.     2  fioll.  Abf.  84.' 

iVn  innkeeper  Is  distinguished  from  other 
trades  in  that  he  cannot  be  a  bankrupt;  tor 
though  he  buys  provisions  to  be  spent  in  his 
house,- yet  he  doe^  not  properly  sell  thcni, 
but  utter  them  at  such  rates  as  he  thinks  rea- 
sonable ;  and  the  attendance  of  his  servants, 
furniture  of  his  house,  &c.  are  to  be  consi- 
dered ;  and  the  statutes  of  bankruptcy  only 
mention  inrrchants  that  use  to  buy  and  sell 
in  gross,  or  buy  retail,  and  such  as  get  tlieir 
living-  by  buying  and  selling ;  but  the  con- 
tracts wltli  innkeepers  are  not  for  any  com- 
modities in  specie,  but  they  are  contracts  for 
house-room,  trouble,  attendance,  lodging,  and 
necessaries,  and  theicfore  cannot  come  within 
the  de  igii  of  such  words,  since  there  is  no 
trade  carried  on  by  buying- and  bartering 
commodities.      1  Jones,  4.37. 

But  where  an  innkeeper  is  a  chapman  also, 
and  buys  and  sells,  he  may,  on  that  account, 
be  a  bankrupt,  though  not  barely  asan  inn- 
keeper, and  tnis  has  been  frequently  seen.  7 
Vin.  Abr.  57.     .  '  . 

Innkeepers  are  clearly  chargeable  for  the 
goods  oi  guests  stolen  or  lost  out  of  their  inns, 
and  this  without  any  contract  or  agreement 
for  that  purpose ;  "for  the  law  makes  them 
liable  in  respect  of  the  reward,  as  also  in  re- 
spect of  their  being  places  appointed  and  al- 
lowed bv  law,  for' the  benefit  and  security  of 
traders  and  travellers,     l^yer,  266. 

But  if  a  person  comes  to  an  innkeeper,  and 
desires  to  be  entertained  by  him,  which  the 
innkeeper  refuses,  because  his  house  is  al- 
ready full ;  whereupon  the  party  says  he  will 
shift  among  the  rest  of  his  guests,  and  there 
he  is  robbed,  the  host  shall  not  be  charged. 
Dyer,  158. 

If  a  man  comes  to  a  common  inn  to  liar- 
bour,  and  desires  that  his  horse  may  be  put  to 
grass,  and  the  host  put  him  to  gra'ss  accord- 
Higly,  and  the  horse  is  stolen,  the  host  shull 
nrtbe  charged;  because  by  law  the  host  is 
not  bound  to  answer  for  any  th.ng  out  of  his 
inn,  but  only  for  those  that  are  infra  ho.spi- 
tium.     8  Co.  32  b. 

Innkeepei-s  may  detain  the  person  of  the 
guest  who  cats,  or  the  horse  which  eats,  till 
payment,  and  this  he  may  do  without  any 
agreement  for  that  purpose  ;  for  men  that 
get  their  livelihood  by  entertainment  of  others, 
cannot  annex  such.disobliging  conditions, 
that  they  should  retain  the"  party's  propert) 
in  case  (if  nou-paymcnt,  nor  make  such  dis- 
advantag.eous  and  impudent  a  supposition, 
thai  they  sliall  not  be  paid ;  and  therefore  the 


1  N  Q 

lav  annexed  such  a  condition  wiUiout  the 
agreement  of  the  parlies.     Roll.  Abr.  85. 

By  the  custom  of  London  ?!>''  T-"-  ■  I'-r.  if:ii 
man  commits  a  hoi>ie  to  a  Iv  ■:  i 

out  die  price  of  his  lieaj,  lli  ,■ '.  .-. ; 

him  as  his  own,  u. 
ment  of  lour  ot  h.- 

keeper  has  no  power  lo  sail  tijc  lioi.ic,  by 
the  general  custom  of  the  whole  kingdom. 
Moor.  ?76.     3Btilst.271. 

But  it  has  been  held,  that  though  an  inn- 
keeper in  l.^ndon  may,  after  long  keeping, 
have  tile  liorse  appraised,  and  sell  him  ;  yet 
when  he  has,  in  sucli  <  in  apprais- 

ed, he  cannot  justify  l  i  to  hiiu- 


selt,  at  the  price  it  was  ..|, ,..„...,>.  „i.     I  \'m. 
Abr.  233.  . 

Inns  of  court,  are  so  called,  because 
the  students  tlieiein  study  the  law,  to  enable 
ihciii  lo  practise  in  the  courts  at  \\  estinin- 
ster,  or  elsewhere  ;  and  also  because  they  use 
all  other  gentle  exercises,  as  may  render 
them  better  qualilied  to  serve  the  king  in  his 
court.    Fortesq.  c.  49. 

INN0MIN.4TA  OSSA.  See  Anatomy. 

INNUENDO,  is  a  word  used  in  declarar 
tions  and  law  proceedings,  to  ascertain  a.j;er- 
son  or  thing  which  was  named  before ;  as  to 
say  he  (innuendo  the  plaintiff;  did  so  and 
so,  when  there  was  mention  before  of  another, 
person.  ', 

Innuendo  may  serve  for  mi  explanation 
where  there  is  precedent  matter,  but  never 
for  a  new  charge ;  it  may  apjjly  wl'.al  is  al- 
ready expressed,  but  cannot  add  or  enlarge 
the  imixirtance  of  it.     2  Salk.  513. 

INOCULATION.     See  iMedicine. 

Inoculation,  or  II adding.   See  (jRaft- 

ING. 

INOLITIIUS,  in  mineralogy,  a  stone  con- 
sisting of  carbonate  of  lime,  carbonic  acid 
gas,  and  a  httle  iron ;  entirely  soluble  in  ni- 
tric aciil  with  ellervescence  ;  librous,  parasi- 
tic, soft,  lightish,  breaking  into  indeterminate  ' 
fragments.  There  are  several  species;  of 
the  hlamentosius  there  are  thiee  varieties'; 
the  satin  spar,  so  called  fiom  its  rich  satiny  • 
lustre,  is  found  in  Russia,  Poland,  Germany^ 
Saxony,  and  Bohemia,  with  the  libres  straight 
and  a  little  curved.  It  is  found  also  aDout  a 
mile  from  Alston  in  Cumberland,  washed  by 
the  river  Tyiie,  near  the  level  of  its  bed  ;  co-' 
lour  white,  with  sometimes  a  rosy  tinge  from 
a  diluted  oxide  of  iron,  -and  transmits  light 
from  the  edges,  or  in  thinner -pieces :  frac- 
ture in  the  direction  of  the  stria.'  fibrous, 
straight  or  curved  ;•  specitic  graivity  about 
2.71,  contains  carbonic  acid  47,  carbonate  of 
lime  50,  water  of  cry  stalliza'tion  2,  and  a  small 
portion  of  iron. 

INOKDINATE  rROPORTiox,  is  where 
there  are  three  magnitudes  in  one  rank,  and 
three  otiiers  propo.lional'to  thrm  in  another, 
and  you  compare  them  in  a  diilerent  order. 
I'lius  suppose  the  numbers  in  one  rank  to  be 
2,3,9;  and  those  of  the  other  rank  8,  24,  36; 
which  are  compared  in  a  diltcreut  order,  viz. 
2  ;  3  :  :  24  :  36;  and  3  :  9  :  :  8  :  24.  'Hien 
rejecting  the  mean  terms  of  each  I'aiik,  you 
conclude  2  :  9  :  :  8  :  36. 

INtJUEST,  ill  law,  signifies  an  enquiry 
made  by  a  jury,  in  a  civil  or  criminal  cause 
by  examining   witnesses.     Tlierc  is  also  an 
inquest  of  office,  used  for  the  satisfaction  of 
the  judges,  and  sometiiii«  to  make  an  en- 


I  N  R 

•ijiilry  wlu'tlid'  a  criniiiKiI  is  ■  a  liinntir  or 
rol ;  upon  wliicli  iiicjueat,  if  it  is  fVnind  that 
Hie  criminal  only  feimis  liimsclfto  bi- a  luna- 
tic, and  at  the  samL-linic-  rpl'iiscs  to  iijcad.lie 
may  be  dealt  with  as  oni;  standing  hhiIi-. 
Wlii're  a  jx'isun  is  attainted  ot  Iclony,  and 
escapes,  and  aftiTwards,  on  beiiii;  n-taUen, 
denies  tliat  be  is  llie  same  man,  in<nicst  iiuist 
be  made  into  (lie  identity  of  the  person  by  a 
jury,  lu'fore  lieean.be  executed. 

r.N'QriSI'l'lON,  in  law,  a  manner  of  pro- 
ceeding by  way  of  search  or  examination  used 
on  tlio  kind's  behalf,  incases  of  outlawry, 
treason,  felony,  self-murder,  &c.  to  discover 
hinds,  goods,  and  the  like,  forfeited  to  the 
cpiun.  Inquisition  is  also  hail  upon  extents 
of  lands,  tenements,  &c.  writs  ol  elegit,  ami 
V'liere  judgment  being  had  by  default,  da- 
nias;<"S  and  costs  are  recuvercd. 

l;.'<iVisn'ioN,  in  the  church  of  Home,  a 
tribun.il  in  several  Konian-catholic  countries, 
erecteil  by  the  popes  for  the  examination  and 
punishment  of  heretics. 

Tills  court  was  founded  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury by  lather  Dominic  and  his  followers, 
vho  wen:  sent  by  pope  Innoirent  111.  with  or- 
(ilers  to  excite  the  catholic  princes  and  people 
t»  extirpate  heretics,  to  search  into  tlieir 
number  and  (]ualily,  and  to  transmil  a  laitii- 
tid  account  thereof  to  Home.  Hence  they 
\veie  called  inquisitors;  and  this  gave  birth 
to  the  formidable  tribunal  of  the  inquisition, 
which  was  received  in  all  Italy,  and  tiie  do- 
minions of  Spain,  except  the  kingdom  of 
Najjles,  and  the  I_^)w-couixtiies.  See  Act 
OF  Faith. 

INROU.MENT,  in  law,  is  the  register- 
ing, recording,  or  entering  in  tlie  rolls  of  the 
chancery,  king's-bcnch,  coinmon-pleus,  or 
e.<chequer,  or  by  the  clerk  of  the  peace  in 
the  records  of  the  quarter-sessions,  of  any 
lawful  act ;  a  statute  or  recognizance  ackn.:)w- 
ledges  a  deed  of  bargain  and  sale  of  lands, 
and  the  like  ;  but  the  inroUinga  deed  does 
not  make  it  a  record,  though  it  thereby  be- 
comes a  deed  recorded  ;  for  there  is  a  dilfer- 
ciice  between  a  matter  of  record,  and  a  thin^ 
recoriled  to  be  kept  in  memory  ;  a  record 
being  the  entrv  in  parchment  of  judicial  mat- 
tere  controverted  in  a  court  of  record,  and 
whereof  the  court  takes  notice,  whereas  an 
imoUmcntof  a  deed  is  a  private  act  of  t!;e 
parties  concerned,  of  which  the  court  lakes 
no  cognizance  at  tlie  time  of  doing  it,  al- 
though the  court  permits  it.  2  Lil).  .Abr. 
c.  9. 

By  Stat.  27  H.  VIII.  c.  16,  no  lands  shall 
pass,  whereby  any  estate  of  !i?lieritance  or 
freeKold  shall  take  eifeit,  or  any  use  thereof 
be  made,  by  reason  only  of  any  bargain  aucl 
sale  thereof,  except  the  bargain  and  sale  is 
maJe  by  writing  indented,  seale<l,  and  within 
jix  months  in  oiled  in  one  of  the  king's  courts 
of  record  at  Westminster  ;  or  else  within  the 
county  where  the  lands  lie,  b,>fore  the  clerk 
<of  the  peace,  and  one  or  more  justices. 

i!ut  by  5  Eii/.  c.  26,  in  the  counties  pala- 
tine, liiey  may  be  inrolied  at  the  respective 
.courts  there,  or  at  the  assizes. 

Kverj  (Iced  before  it  is  inrolied  is  to  be  ac- 
knowledged to  be  tae  deed  of  the  party,  be- 
jbre  a-  master  of  chancery,  or  a  judge  of  the 
court  wherein  it  is  inrolied,  which  is  the  otli- 
jCer's  warrant  for  inrolling  the  same  ;  and  ihe 
.inroUmeiit  of  a  deed,  it  it  is  acknowled.ged 
by  the  grantor,  will  be  a  good,  proof  of  the 
'deed  itsifif  upon  trial.     2  Lill.  A-br.  69. 


J  N  ^ 

But  a  dec()  may  be  inrolied  without  the 
examination  of  the  party  himself;  (of  it  in 
siillicient  if  oath  is  made  of  the  execution, 
'If  two  are  parties,  and  the  deed  is  acknow- 
Icdgi'd  by  one,  Ihe  other  is  fKJiind  by  it.  And 
if  :t  man  lives  abroad,  and  would  jiass  lands 
here  in  I'.iigland,  a  nominal  person  may  be 
joined  with  him  in  the  deed,  who  may  acknow- 
ledge it  here,  and  it  will  be  binding.  1  .Salk. 
.3S9. 

INSCKIBK.D,  in  geometry.  A  figure  is 
said  to  be  insc.riljed  in  another  when  all  its 
angles  touch  llie  sides  or  planes  of  the  other 
ligure. 

INSECTS.    See  EvTOMoi.ocy. 

LN.SOLATION,  in  chemistry,  a  term 
made  use  of  to  denote  an  e■.po^ure  to  the 
sun,  to  promote  Ihc-  chemical  action  of  one 
substance  upon  another. 

Ils'.STALLMENT,  the  instating  or  estab- 
11  liing  a  person  in  some  dignilv.  This  word 
is  chiefly  used  for  the  induction  of  a  dean, 
prebenclary,  or  other  ecclesiastical  dignituv, 
into  the  po-isession  of  his  stall,  or  other  pro- 
per seat  in  the  citliedral  to  which  1—  belongs. 
It  is  aisu  used  for  the  ceremony  whereby  the 
knights  of  the  garter  are  placed  in  their  rank 
in  the  chapel  ol  bt.  George  at  Windsor,  and 
on  ni.iny  other  like  occasions.  It  is  sometimes 
termed  installation. 

INSTITUTES,  in  literary  history,  a  book 
containing  the  elements  of  llie  Roman  law, 
and  constituting  ih  kist  part  of  the  civil  Law. 
The  institutes  are  divided  into  four  books, 
and  contain  an  abridgment  of  the  whole  body 
of  the  civil  law,  being  designed  for  the  use  of 
students. 

IN.STITl'TION,  in  general,  signifies  the 
establishing  or  founding  something. 

In  the  canon  and  coi.nmon  law  it  signifies 
the  investing  a  clerk  with  the  spirituaYities  of 
a  rectory,  kc.  which  is  done  by  the  bislwp, 
who  uses  the  formula,  "  I  institute  you  rector 
of  such  a  church,  with  cure  of  souls,  and  re- 
ceive your  care  and  mine."  This  makes  liim 
a  complete  parson  a^  to  spirilualitv,  but  not 
as  to  temporality,  which  depends  on  induc- 
tion. The  term  institutions  is  also  used,  in  a 
literary  sense,  for  a  book  containim;  the  ele- 
ments of  any  art  or  science :  such  are  institn- 
tions  of  medicine,  institutions  of  rlietoric, 
&c. 

INSTRUMENT,  in  law,  some  public  act 
or  authentic  deed,  by  which  any  truth  is 
made  apparent,  or  any  right  or  title  estiblish- 
ed  in  a  courl  of  justice.     See  Deed. 

Instruments,  in  music,  are  either  played 
on  by  means  of  wind,  as  the  organ,  &c. ;  or  by 
strings,  as  the  viorei,  &c.  . 
•  INSTRUMENTS,  astro;jomical.  We 
shall,  under  the  word  Obse-ivatory,  give 
an  account  of  Ihe  several  instruments  made 
use  of  in  practical  astronomy. 

Instruments,  malliemrUical.  A  pock- 
et case  of  niatliematical  instruments  con- 
tains the  following  particulars,  viz.  1.  \  pair 
of  plain  compasses.  2.  A  pair  of  drawing 
compasses,  with  its  several  parts.  3.  .\ 
drawing-pen  and  pointer.  4.  A  protractor, 
in  form  of  a  semicircle,  or  sometiines  of  a 
parallelogram.  5.  A  parallel  ruler.  6.  A 
plain  scale.  7.  A  sector,  b  'sides  t'le  black- 
lead  penci'  for  drawing  lines.  The  "eneral 
uses  of  the  above,ni5truinents  are  as  lollow  : 
se«  Plate  MatiiematicaHnslrmueuts. 


I  N  S 


23 


'V-S.      (5.)  T.  .,iy,.k 

arches,  &c.     (i,  ;  'I'o  lay 
niveii  (juanlity   imnn  ari 
'.'•  line  of  i': 
rcli  or  :ni 
;    I  o  constru 
lotting  or  ma! 


Tl.e,e 


m 


.  I  Of  tJir  pifit'n  cnmp/iniini.  Fie;.  1 .  'I'lie 
iis(-  61  llur  r  luiiKin  or  ])lahi  compasses'  i<., 
(I.)  to  draw  a  b'ai.k  line  A  \'.,  by  tin;  i-d-e  of 
a  ruler,  tlnougii  any  given  point  or  points 
C  I),  &c.  (9..)  Tate  any  extei.t  or  U-nnlli 
between  th"  points  of  (he  c^i  '  ■., 

set  it  oil',  or  apply  it  su've- 
line,  as  from  l'  lo  I),  (ig.  2.  ,.  ■  ,.,  ij..: 
any  proposed  hue  C  ])  bi-iween  the  points, 
and,  by  upplving  it  to  the  projier  vale,  to 
find  its  1.1  ..th.  (4.)  To  set  oli'  equal  dis- 
lances  upon  a  given  line,  bv  n  :.!.'ie  a  dot 
with  the  point 'at   eaeii,  tin  ',   <„ 

draw  panJle' 
circji',  i' 
otY  an 
arch  of  a  i/ 
(7.)  To  mi 
the  chords, .'. 
posed  fi'/un- 
Sec.  by   ';■■.<■ 
and  ai 

use  of  I  

of  practical  matiierrratics. 

II.  Of  the  drrnviit)>-cr>mpauis. 
compasses  are  chiefly  designed  for  drawing 
circles,  and  circular  arches ;  and  it  is  often 
necessary  they  should  be  drawn  with  differ- 
ent materials ;  and  therefore  this  pair  of 
comp.isses  has,  in  one  of  its  legs,  atrianiiular 
socket,  an,d  screw,  to  receive  and  f,  ■(.•n"*  ('le 
following  parts  or  points  (or  th  ,; 
VIZ.  (I.)  A  steel  point,  which  be; 
the  sock(;t,  makes  thi;  compasses  uea  i.,;t  a 
plain  pair,  and  lias  a'l  tli,e  same  uses  as  just 
now  described  iu  drawing  blank  circles,  set- 
ling  off  lines,  &c.  (2.)  A  port-crayon  with 
a  black-lead  pencil,  cut  to  a  fine  point,  for 
drawir^  lines  that  may  be  easily  rubbed  out 
again,  if  not  right.  A  piece  of  shu-pencil 
niay  also  be  used  in  this  part  for  drawiii.:  on 
siate.  (3.)  The  dotiing-point,  or  dotling- 
pen,  with,  a  small  roWel,  or  indented  wlieel 
at  the  end,  moving  very  freely ;  and  rpceiv- 
i  ing  ink  from  the  brass  peir  over  it,  communi- 
cates  the  same  in  equal  and  regular  do's  upon 
;  the  paper,  wljere  dotted  lines  are  cliostn. 
i  (4.)  Tlie  stcei  pen  or  point,  (or  drawing  and 
[describing  black  lines  with  ink  ;  for  this  pur- 
pose the  two  parts  or  Sides  of  the  pen  are 
opened  or  closed  with  an  adjusting  screw,. 
I  that  the  line  drawn  may  b^  as  fine  or  as 
coaKe  as  you  please. 

j      In  the  port-crayon,  dotter,  and  steel  pen, 

;  there  is  a  joint,  Ivy  wl.ich  you  can  set  the 

1  lower  part  always  perpendiciiUr  to  the  paper, 

I  which  is  necessary  for  I'.iawing  aline  well, 

in  every  extent  or  opening  of  tiie  compasses. 

I      lu  soiae  of  the  better  sjrt  of  inslrunieuts, 

tiieso  points  slide  into  the  socket,  and .  ara 

kept  tight  by  a  spring  on  the  iiiside  that  is 

;  not  sean. 

The  steel  point  is  sometimes  made  with  a 
I  joint,  and  luriusl'.e'"  "■  ■  ■    -  •  •      s,^i 

■  strew;  by  which. 

I  compa^.spsiuarly  :  ..^ 

I  can,  by    tiirmug  tiie  srrev/,  move  tiie  point 
!  to  the  true  extent  as  it  were,  tj   a  liairs 

brea<ith.  which  is  the  reason  tnese  ate  called 

hair-CD.iipasses. 

The  cpnmion  compasses,  .  ■  ■  not 

altogether  so  well  a  lapted  for  -  i  «  ; 

and  Ihv'reforc  a  small  s:)rt  c.  .  arc 

contrived  to  :vnswer  all  -u.-li  .  '..-v 
consist  only  ot  a  sie.l  point  a;  ■ 

with  a  joint,  and  of  a  small  _ 


very  small  circles  m.iy  be  nicely  ihav^'ii  with 
tliei'n,  as  they  arc  lo  be  conveniently  moved 
and  turned  about  in  the  hand,  by  a  sliort 
item  or  sh^i't. 

III.  Of  the  dreniing  pen  and  pencil.  The 
tlrawing-pcii  is  only  the  common  steel  pen 
at  the  end  of  a  brass  rod,  or  shaft,  of  a  con- 
venient lensth,  to  be  lield  in  the  hand  for 
drawing  air  kinds  of  straight  black  Imes  by 
the  edge  of  a  nile.  The  shaft  or  liandle  has 
a  screw  in  the  middle  part  ;  and,  when  un- 
screwed, there  is  a  fine  steel  round  pin  or 
point,  by  wliich  you  make  as  n-ce  a  mark 
or  dot  upon  the  paper  as  you  please,  lor 
terminating  vour  lines  in  curious  dr.iughts. 

1  he  black-lead  pencil,  if  good,  is  of  fre- 
quent use  for  drawing  straight  lines,  and  tor 
supplyini?  the  place  of  the  drawing-pen,  where 
lines  of  ink  are  not  necessary  ;  it  is  also  otten 
substituted  for  the  common  pen  in  writing, 
li"uring,  ic.  Because  in  all  cases,  if  what 
be  drawn  with  it  be  not  right,  or  does  not 
please,  it  may  be  very  easily  rubbed  out  with 
a  piece  of  crumb-bread,  and  the  whole  new- 
drawn. 

IV.  Of  (he  prnlractor.  The  protractor 
is  a  semicircle  of  brass,  A  D  B,  divided  into 
ISO  de"rees,  and  numbered  each  way  from 
end  to  t^id  of  the  s.Miiicircle  by  10°,  20°,  30°, 
&c.  The  central  line  is  the  external  e<lge 
of  the  protractor's  diameter,  or  straight  side, 
sloped  down  to  di.-  under  side,  and  is  gene- 
rally called  a  fiducial  edge ;  in  the  middle  of 
which  is  a  small  line  or  line  notch  in  the 
vers'  edge,  for  the  centre  of  the  protractor. 
'Hie  uses  of  the  protractor  are  two:  (1.)  To 
measure  any  angle  proposed.  {2.)  To  lay 
down  any  angle  required. 

For  example;  suppose  it  re(iuired  to  tind 
wlr,'.t  number  of  di-gri-es  are  contained  in 
th'  angle  ACB  (lig.  4)  ;  you  place  thect-ntre 
of  the  protractor  upon  t'he  angular  point  C, 
and  till-  liducial  edge  exactly  upon  the  line 
C  .\  :  then  observe  what  number  of  degrees 
the  litie  C  B  cuts  upon  the  graduated  limb 
•f  the  protractor,  and  that  will  be  the  mea- 
sure of  the  angle  A  C  15  as  required. 

Secondly,  suppose  it  required  to  protract 
or  lav  off  from  the  line  A  ^  <  an  angle  A  C  B, 
equal' to  35  degrees.  To  Ao  tiiis,  yuu  place 
the  centre  of  the  protractor  upon  the  given 
point  C,  and  the  straight  edge  upon  A  C 
very  exactly  ;  then  make  a  line  point  or  dot 
at  3.5  degrees  on  the  limb  at  B,  and  the  pro- 
tractor being  removed,  you  ilraw  through  B 
the  straiglit  line  C  15,  and  it  will  make  the 
angle  A  C  B  required. 

Protractors  ill  form  of  a  parallelogram,  or 
long  sijuaiv,  as  a  V.  V  li  lig.  3,  are  usually 
made  in  ivorv  or  brass;  are  more  exact 
than  the  common  semicircular  ones,  for 
angles  to  4i)  or  .io  degrees,  because  at  and 
about  each  eni\,  the  divisions  (being  farther 
from  the  centre)  are  larger. 

\ .  Of  till-  pitraUd  ruler.  'l"he  parallel 
ruler  is  so  called,  because  as  it  consists  of 
rwo  straight  rules,  connected  together  by 
two  brass  bars,  vet  so  as  to  admit  a  very  free 
motion  to  each':  the  one  ruler  must  always 
move  parallel-wise  to  the  other,  that  is,  one 
rule  will  be  everv  where  eqiiidistanf  from  the 
other,  aii<l  by  this  means  it  oeconies  iiaiurally 
jilted  for  drawing  one  or  more  lines  parallel 
to,  orecp.iallv  distant  from,  any  liiK;  proposed. 
Tlie  manner  of  doing  wliich  is  thus: 

Let  it  be  required  lo  draw  a  straight  line 
narallel  to  a  given  line  A  B,  and  at  the  dis- 


INSTRIIMKNTS. 

tance  AC,  from  it.  (lig.  5.)  I'ifsl  open  the 
rulers  to  a  greater  distance  than  .'VC,  and 
place  the  edge  of  the  rulers  exactly  on  the 
line  A  B  ;  then  holding  the  odier  rule  (or 
side)hnnlvon  the  paper,  you  move  the  up- 
per rule  down  from  A  to  the  |)oinl  C,  by 
which  (holding  it  fast)  you  draw  the  line 
C  D,  which  will  be  parallel  to  the  given  line 
A  B  as  required. 

Many  very  useful  problems  in  the  mathe- 
matics are  performed  by  this  instrument,  of 
which  the  following  are  examples.  ] 

Let  it  be  required  to   find   ;i  fourtli   pro-  j 
portional    to  three   right   lines    given,   A  B, 
li  C,  ami  A  D  (tig.  (5).  'I'o  do  this,  draw  the  ' 
lines  AC,  A  K,  making  any   angle  at  plea- , 
sure.     I'pon  A  C  with  the  compasses  set  olT 
the  lines  A  15  and  BC  ;     and  upon  A  F.  set  ' 
of  the  line  A  1)  ;  join   1)  B,  and  parallel  to 
it  draw    E  C,  then   will   I)  F  be  the  fourth 
proportional    required.     For  AB  :  B  C   :  :  ; 
A  D  :  D  E. 

Again,  suppose  it  required  to  divide  any  1 
line,  A  B,  as  another  line  A  C  is  divided  ' 
(lig.  7).  To  do  this,  join  the  extremities  of 
each  line  C  B,  and  jjarallel  to  C  B  draw 
El,  Ell  D  G,  through  the  given  points 
D  E  F  in  the  line  .\  C,  ;  and  by  these  lines 
Uie  line  A  B  will  be  divideil  exactly  similar 
to  the  line  A  C.  | 

The  parallel  ruler  is  seUloni  put  into  a 
case  of  instruments,  but  those  of  the  larger 
and  better  sort ;  being  gem-rally  sold  by 
itself  of  various  sizes,  from  f>  inches  to  2  feet 
in  length. 

Of  the  plain  scale.  The  lines  generally 
drawn  on  the  plain  scale,  are  these  following: 

Marked 


I.  Lines  of  equal  parts.  K.  P. 

II. Chords.  Cho. 

III. Rhumbs.  Ru. 

IV.  -  Sines.  Sin. 

V. Tangents.  Tan. 

VI. Secants.  Sec. 

VII, Half-Tangents.  S   T. 

VIII.  — — —  Longitude.  Long. 

IX. Latitude.  Lat. 

X. Hours.  Mf). 

XI. Inclinations.  In.  Mer. 

Oftlieline.i  nf  equal  parts.  Lines  of  e(|ual 
parts  are  of  two  sorts,  viz.  simply  divided, 
and  diagonally  divided,  Plate  b. 

1.  .SimpK  divided.  Draw  three  lines  pa- 
rallel to  one  another,  at  nnctpial  distances 
(tig.  8),  and  of  any  convenient  length  ;  di- 
viiie  tliis  length  into  what  number  of  eepial 
parts  is  thought  necessaiy,  allowing  some 
certain  number  of  these  parts  to  an  inch,  such 
as  2,  24,  3,  3 1,  4,  41,  &c.  which  divisions 
distinguish  by  liiu's  drawn  across  (lie  three 
parallels.  Divide  the  leh-liiuid  dirisioii  into 
10  equal  parts,  wliich  distinguish  by  lines 
drawn  across  the  hnver  parallels  only;  but 
for  distinction's  sake,  let  tlie  fifth  division  be 
somew  hat  longer  than  the  others  :  and  it  may 
not  be  inconvenient  to  divide  the  same  h-ft 
hand  division  into  12  equal  part-,  which  are 
laid  down  on  the  upper  parallel  line,  having 
the  third,  sixth,  and  ninth  divisions  distin- 
guished by  longer  strokes  than  the  rest, 
whereof  that  at  tlie  sixth  ilivisiou  make  the 
longest. 

There  are,  for  the  most  part,  several  of 
these  simply  divided  scales  put  on  rulers, 
one  above  the  other,  with  numbers  ou  the 
left  hand,  shewing  in  each  scale,  liow  many 
iHjual  parts  an  inch  is  divided  into;  such  as 


20,  25,  30,  33,  40,  45,  &c.  and  are  several!/ 
used,  as  the  plan  lo  be  expressed  should  be 
larger  or  smaller. 

The  Use  ol  tliese  lines  of  equal  parts,  is  to 
lay  down  any  line  expressed  by  a  number  of 
two  places  or  denominations,  whether  deci- 
mally or  duodecimally  divided ;  as  leagues, 
miles,  chains,  poles,  yards,  feet,  inches,  &c. 
and  their  tenth  parts,  or  twelfth  parts  ;  thus, 
il  each  of  the  divisions  be  reckoned  I,  as  1 
league,  mile,  chain,  &c.  then  each  of  the 
subdivisions  wiU  express  -i^  part  thereof ; 
and  if  each  of  the  large  (hvisions  be  called 
10,  then  each  small  one  will  be  1  ;  and  if  the 
large  divisons  be  100,  then  each  small  one 
will  be  10,  &c. 

Tlierefore  to  lay  oil"  a  line  8-'^,  87,   or 
870  parts,  let  them  be  leagues,  miles,  chains, 
&c.  set  one   point  of  the  compasses   on   the 
Sih  of  the  large  divisions,  counting  from  the 
I  lelt   hand   towards   the  right,  and   open   the 
compasses,  till  the  other   point   falls  on  the 
!  7th  of  the  small  divisions,  counting  from  the 
right  hand   towards  the    lett,    then   are  the 
compasses  opened  to  express  a  line   of  3_'^ 
87,   or  870   leagues,   miles,   chains,  &c.  and 
bears  such  proportion  in  tlie  plan,  as  the  line 
measured  does  to  the  thing  represented. 
j      But  if  a  leiiL'tli  of  feet  and  inches  was  to  be 
!  expressed,   the  same  large  divrsions  may  re- 
present the  feet,  but  the  inches  must  be  t  .ken 
'  from   the   upper  part  of  the  first   division, 
j  which  (as  be:ore  noted)  is  divided  into  twelve 
ecpial  parts. 

Thus  if  a  line  of  7  feet  5  inches  was  to  be 
laid  down,  set  one  point  of  the  compasses  on 
tlie,liftli  division  among  tiie  twelve,  counting 
from  the  right  hand  towards  the  left,  and 
extend  the  other  to  7,  among  the  large  di- 
visions; and  that  distance  laid  down  in  the 
plan,  shall  express  a  line  of  7  feet  i  inches; 
and  the  like  is  to  be  understood  of  any  other 
dimensions. 

2.  Diagonally  divided.  Draw  eleven 
lines  parallel  to  each  other,  and  at  equal 
distances;  divide  the  upper  of  these  lines 
into  such  a  number  of  equal  parts,  as  the  scale 
to  be  expressed  is  intended  to  contain ;  and 
from  each  of  these  divisions  draw  perjien- 
diculars  through  the  eleven  parallels  (lig.  9) : 
subdivide  the  first  of  tiiese  divisions  into  10 
eipial  parts,  both  in  the  upper  and  lower 
lines;  th^n  eacli  of  these  subdivisions  may 
be  alsr>  subdivided  into  ten  equal  parts,  by 
drawing  diagonal  lines;  viz.  irum  the  lOtti 
below,  to  the  ninth  above;  from  the  ninth 
below  to  the  eighth  above;  from  the  eighth 
below  to  the  sevi-nth  above,  &c.  till  Irom  the 
first  below  to  the  0th  above,  so  that  by  these 
means  one  of  the  primary  divisions  on  the 
scale  will  be  divided  into  lOO  equal  parts. 

There  are  genera  ly  two  diagonal  scales 
laid  on  the  same  p'ane  or  face  of  the  ruler, 
one  being  commonly  half  the  other  (lig.  y). 

'I  he  use  of  the  thagonal  scab-  is  much  the 
same  with  tlie  simple  sca'e;  all  the  difference 
is,  th.ita  plan  may  he  laid  down  more  iiccM- 
ralely  by  it;  bei  ause  in  this,  a  hue  may  be 
taken  ol  three  denominations,  whereas  Irom 
the  former,  only  two  could  be  taken. 

Now  iVom  this  construi  tion  it  is  plain,  if 
eiu  h  ol  the  primary  divisions  represent  1,  eadj 
of  the  fii-st  sub<livisions  will  express  -ly  of  1  ; 
and  each  of  the  second  subdivisions  (whiclj 
are  taken  on  tlie  diagonal  lines,  counting 
Irom  the  top  downwards)  will  express  -'^  Jf 


llie  former  subdlvislmi'.  or  ft  lOOlh  of  tho 
iiriiiMiv  divisions;  and  if  eacli  of  llie  |)ii- 
mary  Jivivioiis  cxprcsi  10,  llicii  each  of  llic 
liist  subdivisions  will  cx|)n;i»  1,  and  ciicli  of 
the  2d,  Yij ;  »!"'  "  '-■^^''  "'  ""'  l""'ii"'y  <''■ 
visions  rqn-i'SiMit  iho,  llien  each  of  tlic  lirsl 
bul)'livi«ions  willbe  10,  and  eiidi  of  llio  2d 
will  bo  1,  iii.: 

'riu-relbri!  lo  lay  down  a  line,  whose  lenRlli 
isesprcssi^d  by  347,  34  ^'^  or  3  ^«7_y,wlu;Ui<r 
kMii^iii^s, miles,  cliains,  &i;. 

On  l\w.  dianonal  Inie,  joined  to  tlir  4lh  of 
thr  tirsl  subdivisions,  count  7  downwards, 
reckoning  llic  distance  of  eacli  parallel  1  ; 
-llu-rir  set  one  point  of  llii-  conipassc  ,  and  ex- 
t<tiul  llio  oilier,  till  it  falls  on  tlic  intersection 
of  till'  tli'i'd  primary  (livisiitn  with  llir;  same 
parallel  in  wbicli  the  otlur  foot  rests,  and 
rhe  compasses  will  then  be  opened  lo  express 
a  hne  o!  347,  34  -,-'c.  •>'•  •^■nrV-  ^<'- 

Those  who  liAve  frequent  occasion  to  u-,e 
scales,  perhaps  will  liiui,  that  a  ruler  with  tiu; 
20  fcjli(Avini;  scales  un  it,  viz.  10  on  each  face, 
will  suit  more  purpuses  than  any  set  of  sim[)ly 
diviihrd  scales  hitherto  made  public,  on  one 
ruler. 

One  Side. — ^The  divisions  to  an  inch. 

10,  11,  1'^,  l!ii,  ir,,  lO'l,  18,  20,  '.'2,  tin. 

Other  Side — ^I'he  divisions  to  an  inch. 

28,  sy,  a<),  K),  4,';,  ,to,  so,  70,  «5,  ItX). 
The  left-hand   primary  division,  to  be  di- 
vided into  10  and  I'J  and  8  parts;  for  these 
subdivisions  are  of  i;reat  use  in  drawing  the 
parts  »f  a  fortress,  ai'nl  of  a  piece  of  cannon. 

It  will  here  be  convenient  to  shew,  how 
any  plan  exi>rcss(nl  by  right  lines  and  angles, 
may  be  delineated  by  the  s<ales  of  equal 
parts,  and  the  protractor.  Suppose  three 
adjacent  things  In  any  right-lined  triangle 
bein"  given,  lo  form  the  plan  thereof. 

EKomplc.  Let  ABC  (fijr-  10,)  be  a  triangular 
field,  the  side  AB  =  3J7  yards  ;  AC  =  208 
yards ;  and  the  angle  at  A  =  i-i'^  degrees. 

Cons!  met  ion.  Draw  a  line  A 15  at  plea- 
sure ;  then  from  the  diagonal  scale  take  j_'7 
between  the  points  of  the  compasses,  and 
lay  it  from  A  lo  B;  set  the  ciitre  of  llie 
protractor  to  the  point  A,  lay  olf  44^  degrees, 
and  by  that  mark  draw  A  C  ;  take  with  the 
compasses  from  the  same  scale  208,  lay  it 
fnini  A  to  C,  and  join  C  15;  so  shall  the  parts 
of  the  triangle  A  15  C,  in  the  plan,  bear  the 
same  proi)ortion  to  each  other,  as  the  real 
parts  in  the  lield  do. 

The  side  C  15  may  he  measured  on  the 
same  scale  from  whicli  the  sides  A  15,  AC!, 
were  taken;  and  the  angles  at  15  and  C  may 
be  measured  by  ajjplying  the  protractor  lo 
them. 

If  two  angles  and  the  side  contained  be- 
tween them  were  given. 

Draw  a  line  to  express  the  side  (as  be- 
fore) ;  at  the  ends  of  that  line,  point  oif  the 
angles,  as  observed  in  the  helcl ;  lines  drawn 
from  the  ends  of  the  given  line  tiirough  those 
marks,  shall  form  a  triangle  siimlar  to  that 
of  the  field. 

Five  adjacent  things,  sides  and  angles,  in 
a  right-lined  (|nadiilateral,  being  given,,  to 
tiy  down  the  plan  tlu^reof,  fig.  1 1. 

Example.  Given  Z.  A  =  70  ;  AB  =  215 
links;  ^13=  lU'i  BC  =  iutj  huk:. ;  £.  C  = 

.    Vol..  11. 


IN.?TRUMRXTS. 

Construe  lion.  Draw  A  D  at  lOca'iirp ; 
from  A  draw  A  15,  so  as  lo  make  svitli  A  \) 
an  angle  of  70';  make  .AHrsJli  (taken  lioiii 
the  scales);  from  15,  draw  15  C,  lo  iiKike%vilh 
Allan  angle  of  lli";  make  15  C  =.:i'M'>; 
from  C,  draw  C  J),  to  make  with  C  15  an 
angle  of  II ■■I";  and  by  the  interseclioii  of 
C  ])  with  A  D,  a  quadnlateral  will  be  formed 
similar  to  the  (igiire  in  which  such  measures 
could  be  taken  as  are  expressed  in  tlic  ex- 
ample. 

If  three  of  the  things  were  sides,  the  plan 
might  be  formed  with  equal  ease. 

Following  the  same  method,  a  figure  of 
many  more  sides  may  be  delineated  ;  and  in 
tliis  manner,  or  some  other  like  lo  it,  survey- 
ors make  their  plans  or  surveys. 

The  remaining  lines  of  the  plain  scale  are 
thus  constructed. 

Describe  a  circumference  with  any  con- 
venient radius,  and  draw  the  diametei's  (ig.  I'-' 
A  15,  I)  K,  at  right  angles  to  each  other; 
continue  15  .\  at  plea^UJ•c  towards  f  ;  through 
D,  draw  D  G  parallel  to  15  V  ;  and  draw  the 
chords  15  D,  BK,  AD,  At'..  Circumscribe 
the  circle  with  the  scpiare  liMN,  whose 
sides  II  M,  iM  N,  shall  be  parallel  to  A  15, 
V.  D. 

1.  To  construct  the  line  ofelyjids.  Di- 
vide the  arc  A  D  into  90  equal  parts:  mark 
the  10th  divisions  with  the  figures  10,  20, 
30,  40,  50,  Co,  70,  SO,  90  ;  on  D,  as  a  cen- 
tre, with  the  compasses,  transfer  the  several 
divisions  of  the  quadrantal  arc,  to  the  chord 
A  D,  which  marked  with  the  figures  corre- 
sponding, will  become  a  line  of  chords. 

Note.  In  the  construction  of  this,  and  the 
following  scales,  only  the  primary  divisions 
are  drawn  ;  the  intermediate  ones  are  omit- 
ted, that  the  figure  may  not  appear  too  much 
crowded. 

2.  The  line  of  rliirnih.i.  Divide  the  arc 
15Einto8  eijual  parts,  which  mark  with  the 
figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  divide  each 
of  those  parts  into  »]uarters ;  on  B,  as  a  cen- 
tre, transfer  the  divisions  of  the  arc  to  the 
cliord  15  K,  which  marked  with  the  corre- 
sponding figures,  will  be  a  line  of  rhumbs. 

3.  The  line  of  sines.  Through  each  of 
the  divisions  of  the  arc  A  D,  draw  right  lines 
parallel  to  the  radius  AC  ;  and  C  D  will  be 
divided  into  a  line  of  sines  which  are  lo  be 
niimbeied  from  C  to  D  tor  the  right  sines, 
and  from  D  to  C  for  the  versed  sines.  The 
versed  sines  mav  be  conlinned  to  1 80  degrees 
by  laving  the  divisions  of  the  radius  C  D, 
from  C  to  E. 

4.  The  line  of  tanp^cnt.t.  A  ruler  on  C, 
and  the  several  divisions  of  the  arc  A  D, 
will  intersect  the  line  DG,  which  will  be- 
come a  line  of  tangents,  and  is  to  be  figure<l 
from  D  lo  G,  wiln'^10,  20,  30,  40,  &c. 

5.  The  line  of  .lecunls.  The  distances 
from  the  centre  C  to  the  divisions  on  the 
line  of  tangents  being  transferred  to  the  line 
C  V  from  the  centre  C",  will  give  the  di- 
visions of  the  line  of  secants  ;  which  must  be 
numbered  from  A  towai'ds  i'',  w ith  10,  20, 
.30,  &c. 

tj.  The  line  ofluilf-ta)ts;euts  (or  the  ian^^cnts 
ofhtilftkearcs).      A  rider  on   E,   and  the 
several  divisions  of  the  arc  A  D,  w  ill  inter- 
sect the  radius  CA,  in  the  divisioiis  ol  tlie 
D 


1% 

BPtni  or  !ialf  tanRpnLi;    mark  Ihesp.  with  liie 
corifi-pouding  figures  of  the  arc  A  D. 

'Ihe  semilaii'.'  Ills  on  the  plane  scidc-s  ar« 
generally  coi.lmued  as  (ar  :ti  llie  length  of 
the  ruler  they  are  laid  on  will  admit ;  llii:  di- 
visions bcyoixJ  90'  are  found  by  dividing  the 
arc  A  /•;  like  the  arc  AD,  then  laying  a  ruler 
by  E  and  these  divisions  of  the  arc  A  K, 
llie  divisions  of  the  semilangents  above  90 
degrees  will  be  obtained  on  the  line  C  A  con- 
tinued. 

7.  The  line  of  longitude.  Divide  A  H 
into  60  eijual  i.arts ;  fhrougli  e.icli  of^  lli'rw 
divisions,  parallels  to  llie  rad.us  A  G,  will 
intersect  llie  arc  A  K,  in  as  many  points; 
from  Kasa  cenlri.',  the  divisions  of  the  arc 
E  A,  being  transferred  to  the  chord  E  A,  wul 
give  the  divisions  of  the  line  of  liMigilude. 

The  points  thus  found  on  the  quadrantal 
arc,  taken  from  A  to  L,  belong  to  Hie  sines 
of  the  equally  increasing  sexagenary  parts  of 
the  radius  ;  and  those  arcs  reckoned  \wm\  E, 
belong  to  the  cos'ines  of  thobC  sexagenarj- 
parts. 

8.  The  line  of  latitude.  A  ruler  on  A, 
and  the  several  divisions  of  the  sines  on  C  f), 
will  intersect  the  arc  BD,  in  as  many  points; 
on  15  as  a  centre,  transfer  the  intersections  of 
the  arc  BD,  to  the  right  line  BD;  number' 
the  divisions  from  B  to  D,  with  10,  30,  .50, 
&c.  to  90  ;  an<l  B  D  will  be  a  line  of  latitude. 

9.  The  line  of  hour's  Bisect  the  quadrant- 
al arcs  B  D,  15  E,  in  a,  b ;  divide  the  qua- 
drantal arc  ah  into  6  equal  parts  (which  gives 
15  degrees  for  each  hour)  ;'and  each  of  tinse 
into  4  others  (which  will  give  the  quarters). 
A  ruler  on  C,  and  the  several  divisions  of  the 
arc  ah,  will  intersect  the  line  MN  in  the  hour, 
&c.  points,  which  are  to  be  marked  as  io 
the  figure. 

10.  The  line  of  inclinationi  of  meridian*. 
Bisect  the  arc  EA  in  c;  divide  the  quadran- 
tal arc  he  into  90  equal  parts  ;  lay  a  rii'.er  on 
C  and  the  several  divisions  of  the  arc  he,  and 
the  intersections  of  the  line  HM  will  be  the 
rlivisions  of  a  line  of  inclinations  of  m';ridians. 

Oflhc  sector.  A  sector  is  a  figxire  formed 
by  "two  radii  of  a  circle,  and  that  part  of 
the  circumference  comprehended  between 
the  two  radii. 

The  instrument  called  a  sei-tor,  consists  of 
two  Hat  rulers  moveable  round  an  axis  or 
ioint;  and  from  the  centre  of  this  joint  ^i^ 
"veral  scales  are  drawn  on  Uie  faces  of  the 
rulers. 

The  two  mlers  are  called  leg«,  and  repre-" 
sent  the  radii  of  a  circle  ;  and  tJie  micklle  of 
the  joint  expresses  the  ceiiue. 

The  scales  generally  put  on  sectors,  way 
be  distinguished  into  s'ingle,  and  double. 

The  single  scales  are  such  as  are  common- 
ly put  on  plain  scales,  and  from  whence  di* 
n'lensions  or  distances  arc  taken,  as  have  been 
already  directed. 

'Ihe double  scales  are  tisose  which  proceed 
froiii  the  ceiitie;  each  scde  is  laid  twice  on 
tiie  same  face  of  the  instrument,  viz.  once 
on  each  lees:  from  these  scales,  dimensions 
or  dislances^are  lo  be  taken,  when  the  legs  of 
the  instrument  are  in  an  acgular  poiitiou,  as 
wiU  be  shewn  hereafter. 


2,9 


Single 


INSTRUMENTS, 

77v-  ScALis  aminmly  put  on  the  hat  Sectors,  ate 

'Inches,  each  Inch  divided  into  8  and  10  parts. 
Decimals,  containing  100  parts. 


■  r 

.J 

4 

5 

6 

a 

8 
9 

■    line 
of 

10 

11 

12 

13 

J-K 

Double 


a 
line 
of 


Chords, 

-Cho. 

Sines, 

Sm. 

Tangents, 

Tang. 

Rhumbs, 

Rum. 

Latitude, 

Lat. 

Hours, 
I>on;^tude, 

•  marked  . 

Hou. 
Lon. 

IncUn.  Merid. 

In.  Me 

the      T  Numbers, 

Num. 

Loga-    i  Sines, 

Sin. 

rithms    f  Versed  Sines, 

V.  Sin, 

uf       3  laugents, 

_Tan, 

"Lines,  or  of  equal  parts. 

'Lin. 

Chords, 

Cho. 

Sines, 

Sin. 

Tangents  to  45* 

■  marked  < 

Taiu 

Secants, 

Sec. 

Tangents  above  45° 

Tan. 

^Polygons,                           ^ 

.PoL 

'liie  scales  of  lines,  chords,  sine?,  tangents, 
rhumbs,  latitudes,  hour?,  longitude,  incl. 
merid.  may  be  used,  wiiether  the  instniment 
is  shut  or  open,  each  ol  these  scales  being 
contained  on  one  of  tl\e  legs  only.  The 
scales  of  inches,  decimals,  log.  numbers,  log. 
sines,  log.  versed  smes,  and  log.  tangents,  are 
to  be  used  with  the  sector  quite  opened,  part 
of  each  scale  lying  on  both  legs. 

The  double  scales  of  lines,  chords,  sines, 
and  lower  tangents,  or  tangents  under  45  de- 
grees, are  all  of  tlie  same  radius  or  length ; 
they  begin  at  the  centre  of  the  instrimieiit, 
and  are  terminated  near  the  other  extremity 
of  each  leg;  viz.  the  lines  at  the  division  10, 
the  chords  at  60,  the  sines  at  90,  and  the 
tangents  at  45  ;  the  remainder  of  the  tan- 
gents, or  those  above  45  degrees,  are  on  other 
scales  bei^inning  at  5  of  the  length  of  the 
former,  coimted  from  the  centre,  where  they 
are  marked  with  45,  and  run  to  about  76". 
The  secants  also  begin  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  centre,  where  they  are  marked 
with  0,  and  are  from  thence  continued  to  as 
many  degrees  as  the  length  of  the  sector  will 
allow,  which  is  about  75  degrees. 

Each  double  scale,  one  being  on  each  leg 
and  proceeding  from  the  centre,  make  an 
angle;  and  in  an  e<[ual  angular  j)Osition  are 
all  the  double  scales,  whetner  of^ lines,  or  of 
chords,  or  of  sines,  or  of  tangents  to  45  de- 
grees. 

And  the  angles  made  by  the  scales  of  upper 
tangents,  and  of  secants,  are  also  (  qual ;  and 
sometimes  these  angles  are  made  ec[ual  to 
tliose  made-  by  the  other  double  scales. 

Tlie  scales  of  polygons  are  put  near  the 
inner  edge  of  the  legs :  their  beginning  is  not 
so  far  removed  Iroiu  the  centre,  as  the  60  on 
the  chords  is:  «  here  these  scliU-s  begin,  thev 
are  marked  with  4,  and  from  thence  are  h- 
gurcd  backwards,  or  towards  the  centre,  to 
12. 

I'Vom  this  disposition  of  the  double  scales, 
it  is  plain,  that  those  angles  wliicli  were  equal 
to  each  other,  while  the  legs  of  the  sector 
were  close,  will  still  continue  to  be  equal, 
although  the  sector  be  openeil  to  any  distance 
it  will  u'Inut  of. 

We  shall  now  illustrate  the  nature  of  this 
iiistrunjenl  by  examples. 

I.el  CI,,  CL,  (lig.  13)  be  the  two  lines  of 
lines  upon  the  sector,  opened  to  an  angle 
LCL;  join  the  divisious  4  aud  4,  7  and  7, 


10  and  10,  bv  the  dotted  lines  a,  h,  r,  d,  LL. 
Then  by  the  nature  of  similar  triangles,  it  is 
CL  to  C  i,  as  LL  to  a6  ;  and  CL  to  C  d, 
as  L L  to  c  d;  and  therefore  a i  is  the  same 
part  of  L  L  as  C  6  is  of  C  L.  Conseciuent- 
ly,  if  LL  be  10,  then  a  b  will  be  4,  and  c  d 
will  be  7  of  the  same  parts. 

And  hence,  tiiough  the  luteral  scale  C  L 
be  lixed,  vet  a  parallel  scale  LL,  is  obtain- 
able at  pleasure ;  and  therefore  though  the 
lateral  radius  is  of  a  determined  length  in  the 
lines  of  chords,  sines,  tangents  and  secants, 
yet  the  parallel  radius  may  be  had  of  any  size 
you  want,  by  means  of  the  sector,  as  far  as 
its  length  will  admit ;  and  all  the  parallel 
sines  &c.  peculiar  to  it ;  as  will  be  evident 
bv  the  following  examples  in  each  pair  of 
lines. 

Ex.  I.  In  the  lines  nf  equal  parts.  Hav- 
ing 3  numbers  given,  4,  7,  16,  to  find  out  a 
4th  proportional.  I'o  do  this,  take  tlie  late- 
ral extent  of  I6  in  the  line  C  L,  and  apply 
it  parallel-wise,  from  4  to  4,  by  a  proper 
opening  of  the  sector;  then  take  the  parallel 
distance  from  7  to  7  in  your  compasses,  and 
applying  one  foot  in  C,  the  other  will  fall  on 
'iS  in  the  line  of  lines  C  L,  and  is  the  number 
required;  for  4:  7::   I6:  28. 

Ex.  2.  Ill  the  lines  of  chords.  Su[5pose 
it  retiuired  to  lay  off  an  angle  AC  B,  (fig.  ■'}) 
etpial  to  35  degrei's  ;  then  with  any  conveni- 
ent opening  of  the  sector,  take  the  extent 
from  60  to  60,  and  with  it  (as  radius)  on  the 
point  C  describe  the  arch  X  D  indefinitely  ; 
then  in  the  s.mie  opening  of  the  sector  take 
the  parallel  tlistance  from  35  degrees  to  35 
degrees,  and  set  it  fro  1  A  to  B  in  the  arch 
A  1)  and  draw  A  iJ,  and  it  makes  the  angle 
at  C  req  ired. 

Ex.  3.  In  the  tines  nf  sines.  The  lines 
of  sines,  tangents,  and  secants,  are  used  in 
conjunction  with  the  lines  of  lines  in  the  so- 
lution of  all  the  cases  of  plain  trigonometry  ; 
thus  let  tliere  be  given  in  the  triangle  A  B  C, 
(tig.  14)  the  side  A  li  =  230  ;  and  the  angle 
AIJ  C  =  36"  30';  to  find  the  side  .\  C.- 
Here the  angle  at  C  is  53'  30'.  Then  take 
the  lateral  distance  230,  from  th'  line  of 
lines,  and  make  it  a  parallel  from  53"  30'  lo 
53" 30'  in  the  line  of  sines;  then  the  parallel 
distance  between  36°  30'  in  tlie  same  lines, 
will  reach  laterally  from  the  centre  to  170, 
19  in  the  Hue  of  lines  lor  the  side  A  C  re- 
quired. 


Ex.4.  InthcUnes  nftans,ents.  If  instead 
of  making  the  side  15  C  radius  (as  before) 
\ou  make  A  B  radius ;  then  A  C  which  before 
was  a  sine,  is  nov/  the  tangent  of  the  angle 
B  ;  and  therefore  to  find  it,  you  use  the  rmes 
of  tangents,  thus: 

Take  the  lateral  distance  230  from  the  line 
of  lines,  and  make  it  a  parallel  distance  on 
the  tangent  radius,  viz.  from  45"  to  45",  then 
the  parallel  tangent  from  36"  30',  to  36'  30', 
will  measure  laterally  on  the  line  of  line* 
170,  19,  as  before,  for  the. side  .\  C. 

Ex.  5.  In  the  lines  of  secants.  In  the 
same  triangle,  in  the  base  A  B,  and  the  an- 
gles at  B  and  C  given,  as  before,  to  find  the 
side  or  hypothenuse  B  C.  Here  B  C  is  tluj 
secant  of  the  angle  B. 

Take  the  lateral  distance  230  from  tlie  line 
of  lines,  and  make  it  a  parallel  distance  on  liie 
tangent  ra  lius  or  beginnings  of  the  lines  of 
secants  ;  then  the  parallel  secant  of  60"30'  will 
measure  laterally  on  the  line  of  lines  287,  12, 
for  the  length  of  B  C  as  required. 

Ex.  6.  //(  the  lines  nf  sims  and  tangents 
conjointli/.  In  the  solution  of  spherical  trian- 
gles, you  use  the  line  of  sines  and  tangents 
only,  as  in  the  following  example.  In  the  sphe- 
rical triangle  A  B  C(fig.  15)  right-angled  at  .A, 
then-  are  given  the  side  .-V  B  =  36°  1 5',  and  the 
adjacent  angle  B  =  42"  34',  to  find  the  side 
A  C.  '1  he  analogy  is  radius:  sine  of  A  B  :  : 
tangent  of  B :  tangent  of  A  C  ;  therefore 
make  the  lateral  sine  of  36°  15'  a  parallel  at 
radius,  or  between  90  and  90  ;  then  the  pa- 
rallel tangent  of  42°  34'  will  give  the  lateral 
tangent  of  28"  30'  for  the  side  AC 

Ex.  7.  In  the  lines  of  poli/i^ons.  It  has 
been  observeil  that  tlie  chord  of  60  degrees 
is  equal  to  radius  ;  and  60"  is  the  si.xth  part  of 
360° ;  therefore  such  a  chord  is  the  side  of 
a  hexagon,  inscribed  in  a  circle :  so  that  in 
the  line  of  polygons,  if  you  make  the  pa- 
rallel distance  "between  6  and  6,  the  radius 
of  a  circle,  as  A  C  (fig.  I6),  then  if  you  lake 
the  parallel  distance  between  5  and  5,  and 
place  it  from  .A.  to  B,  the  line  A  B  will  be  the 
side  of  a  pentagon  A  B  D  E  E,  inscribed  iix 
the  circle;  in  the  same  manner  may  any 
other  polygon,  from  4  to  12  sides,  be  inscrib- 
ed in  a  circle,  or  upon  any  given  line  A  B. 

Ex.  8.  Of  Gunter's  lines.  Wc  have  now- 
shewn  the  use  of  all  that  are  properly  called 
sectoral  lines,  or  that  are  to  be  used  sector- 
wise  ;  but  there  is  another  set  of  lines  usually 
put  U|!Oii  the  sector,  that  wiU  in  a  more  ready 
and  simple  manner  give  the  answers  to  the 
quesliiuis  in  the  above  exanijiles,  and  these 
ate  cafed  artificial  lines  of  numbers,  sines, 
and  tangents:  because  thi-y  are  only  the 
logarithms  of  the  natural  numbers,  sines,  and 
tau'^ents,  laid  upon  lines  of  scales,  which 
iiietiiod  was  first  invented  by  Mr.  Ediiinnd 
Gur.ter,  ami  is  the  reason  why  they  have  ever 
since  been  called  Gunter's  lines,  or  the  Guii- 
ter. 

Logarithms  are  only  the  ratios  of  numbers, 
and  tne  ratios  of  all  proportional  numbers 
are  ociual.  Now  all  questions  in  multipli- 
c.ition,  division,  the  rule  of  three,  and  the 
anali-igies  of  plain  and  spherical  trigonometry, 
arc  all  stated  in  proportional  numbers  or 
terms;  lliereiore,  if  in  the  compasses  you  take 
the  extent  (oi-  ratio)  between  the  (iist  and 
second  terms,  t!iat  will  always  be  etpial  to 
the  extent  (or  ratio)  between'  the  third  and 
fourth  terms  j  and  couseiiuejitly,  if  with  tbc 


1  N  S 

•stent  bctwcon  tlic  fust  and  soroiid  Icrms, 
you  |)1;kc  out-  foot  of  Ihu  coiDpus'ci  on  lliir 
third  tcnii,  llii'ii  tiiiiiinf;  tlic  coiiiiiiisi'i's  about, 
tlie  otlitr  (uol  will  lail  on  llic  lourlh  Icrin 
ijought. 

'Iluis  in  c\an>i)le  I,  of  the  three  given 
miniliiMS  4,  7,  and  l(j,  if  you  lake  tlie  ex- 
triil  from  4  to  7  in  Ihi'  coni'pa^sus,  and  plate 
<piie  fool  in  H>,  the  othi'r  will  fall  on  '^8  tlie 
answer,  in  tin:  line  of  luunhers  niarkeil  il. 

Again,  till'  artilici.:!  lines  of  nuujhers  and 
sines,  are  used  together  in  plain  Irii^ononie- 
trv,  as  in  examples,  where  tlie  two  angles 
iiand  C,  and  the  side  yVU are  given  ;  for  here 
if  yon  take  the  extent  of  the  two  angles  53° 
3()'and  3ti°  3U'  in  the  line  of  sines  marked  *, 
(hen  placing  one  fool  upon  230  in  the  line 
of  numbers  ii,  the  other  will  reach  to  170, 
ly  the  answer. 

Also  the  lines  of  numbers  and  tangents  are 
used  conjointly,  as  in  the  example  4,  for  take 
in  the  line  of  tangents  t,  the  extent  from  A->" 
(lailins)  to  3()"  ji-V  ;  tiial  will  reach  from  '^30 
lo  17t),  ly  the  answer  as  belore. 

Lastly,  the  artilieial  lines  of  sines  and  tan- 
gents are  used  together  in  the  analogies  of 
sj)lierical  triangles. 

Thus  example  6  is  solved  by  taking  in  the 
line  of  sines  ,s,  tlie  extent  from  fW"  (radius) 
to  3()°  Ij',  then  that  in  the  line  of  tangents  /, 
will  reach  from  4'J"  34'  to  L'S"  30',  the  answer 
required. 

We  shall  only  further  observe  that  each  pair 
of  sectoral  lines  contain  the  same  angle,  viz. 
<j  degrees  in  the  common  ()-ineh  sector ; 
therefore  to  open  thi-se  lines  to  any  given 
angle,  as  3.")'  for  instance,  you  have  only  to 
take  35'^  Literally  from  the  line  of  chords, 
and  apply  it  parallelwise  from  6()°  lo  ()0'  in 
the  sani-  lines,  and  they  will  all  be  opened 
to  tlie  given  ungle  of  3j°. 

If  to  the  angle  35°  you  add  the  angle  6°, 
wliich  tiie)  contain,  the  simi  is  41":  then 
take  41"  laterally  from  tlie  line  of  choi-ds,  and 
applv  it  paral  elwise,  irom  60  to  00,  then  will 
Ihe  sides  or  edges  of  the  sector  contain  tlie 
■same  angle  of  33  degrees.* 

OJ  pritjinr'ioiial  compasses.  Though  this 
sort  of  compasses  does  not  pertain  lo  a  com- 
mon case  ot  inslrumeiits,  ytl  a  short  account 
of  their  nature  and  use  may  not  be  uuaccept- 
al)le  to  llvjse  who  are  not  acciiiainted  with 
them.  Thi'V  consist  of  two  parts  or  sides  of 
brass,  whi<'h  lie  upon  each  olhtr,  so  nicely 
as  to  appear  but  one  when  tliev  are  shut. 
These  sides  easily  open, and  move, ibout  a  cen- 
tre, which  is  itself  moveable  in  a  hoU  nv  canal 
cut  through  the  greatest  part  oi  their  length. 
To  this  centre  on  each  side  is  aflixed  a  sliding 
piece  of  a  small  length,  with  a  line  line  drawn 
on  It  serying  as  an  index,  to  be  set  against 
other  lines  or  divisions  placed  upon  the  com- 
passes on  both  sides.  'I'hese  lines  are:  I.  A 
line  of  lines.  2.  A  line  of  snperlicieri,  areas, 
or  plans.  3.  A  line  of  sohds.  4.  A  line  of 
rircles,  or  rather  of  polygons  to  be  inscribed 
in  circles. 

These  lines  are  all  unecpially  divided,  the 
three  lirst  from  1  t<s  10,  the  last  from  6  to 
i!0;  their  uses  are  as  follow: 

By  the  line  of  lines  yuu  divide  a  given 
line  into  any  number  of  equal  parts;  for  by 
placing  the  index  against  1,  and  screwing 
it  fast,  if  you  open  the  compasses,  then  the 
distance  between  the  [xVnits  at  each  end 
will  be  equal.  If  you  place  the  index  against 
2,  and  open  the  compasses,  the  distance  be- 


I  N  3 

Iween  (he  points  of  the  longer  1eg»  will  be 
twice  the  (lislance  between  (lie  shorter  onen  ; 
and  thus  a  line  is  bisected,  or  divided  into 
twi)  equal  parts.  If  the  inde^  be  placed 
against  3,  and  the  cbniiiafses  opeiii'd,  the 
distances  between  the  points  will  be  as  3  tr) 
l,an<lBoa  line  is  divided  into  thrteeqiial 
parts ;  and  so  you  proceed  for  any  other 
luiuiber  of  parts  under  10. 

'i  he  lamibers  of  the  line  of  plans  aiiower  to 
the  squares  of  those  in  the  line  of  lines  ;  for 
because  .superficies  or  plans  are  to  each  other, 
as  the  squares  of  their  like  sides,  therefore 
if  the  inrlex  be  placed  against  2  in  the  line  of 
plans;  then  the  distance  between  the  small 
|)oints  will  be  the  side  of  a  plan  whose  area  is 
I  ;  but  the  distance  of  the  larger  points  will 
be   the  like   side   of  a  plan  whose  area  is 

2,  or  twice  as  big.     If  the  index  be  placed  at 

3,  and  the  compasses  opened,  the  distances 
between  the  points  at  each  end  will  be  the 
like  sides  of  plans,  whose  areas  are  1  to  3,  and. 
so  of  others. 

The  numbers  of  tiie  line  of  solids  answer 
to  the  cubes  of  those  in  the  line  of  lines;  be- 
cause all  solids  are  to  each  other  as  Ihe  cubes 
of  their  like  sides  or  diameters  ;  therefore,  if 
the  index  be  placed  to  No.  2,  3,  4,  &cc.  in 
the  line  of  solids,  the  distances  between  the 
lesser  and  larger  points  will  be  the  like  sides 
of  solids,  which  are  to  each  other  as  1  to  2, 
1  to  3,  1  to  4,  &c.  For  example,  if  the  in- 
dex be  placed  at  10,  and  the  compasses  be 
opened,  so  that  the  small  points  may  lake  the 
diameter  of  a  bullet  weighing  1  ounce,  then 
the  distance  between  the  larger  points  will 
be  the  diameter  of  a  bullet  or  globe  of  10 
ounces,  or  which  is  10  times  as  big. 

Lastly  the  numbers  in  the  line  of  circles  are 
the  sides  of  polygons  to  be  inscribed   in  a 
given  circle,  or  by  wliich  a  circle  may  be  di- 
vided into  those  equal  parts  from  tj  to  20. 
I  Thus  if  the  index  be  placed  a(  6,  the  points 
I  of  the  compasses  at  cither  end,  when  opened 
I  to  the  radius  of  a  giv(;n  circle,  will  contain 
j  the  side  of  a  hexagon,  or  divide  the  circle 
into  6  e(;ual  parts.      If  the  index  be  placed 
against  7,  and  the  compasses  opened,  so  ihal 
the  larger  points  may  take  in  the  radius  of 
tlie  circle;  tli.n  the  shorter  points  will  di- 
vide the  circle  into  7  equal  parts  for  inscrib- 
ing a  heptagon.     Again,  placing  the  index 
to  8,  and  opening  the  comp:!S5e5,  the  larger 
points  will  contain  the  radius,  and  the  lesser 
paints  divide  tlie  circle  into  8  equal   parts, 
for  inscribing  an  octagon  or  square.     And 
thus  you  proceed  (or  others. 

IxsTRuMENTs,  .?K);g/f«/.  A  cascof  pocket 
instruments  for  surgeons,  which  they  ought 
always  to  carry  about  with  them,  contains  lan- 
cets of  dilferent  sizes ;  scissars  lit  for  several 
uses  ;  forceps,  plain  and  furnished  with  teeth ; 
incision-knives,  straight  and  crooked  ;  a  spa- 
tula, prob(>s,  needles,  &c.     See  Sl'KGF.RY. 

INSIKANC  IC,  LAWS  OF.  Insurance  is 
regarded  by  the  law  as  a  contract  betwi'en  two 
or  more  parties  ;  that  on  one  paving  a  certain 
premium  he  shall  be  indemnified  or  insured 
against  certain  risks  ^et  forth  in  tlie  policy. 
This  is  extremely  convenient  in  commerce, 
bnt  was  made  use  of  as  a  kind  of  gambling 
till  the  statute  14  Geo.  HI.  c.  4S,  that  no 
insurance  shall  be  made  on  lives,  or  on  any 
other  event,  whereiu  the  party  insured  hatli 
no  interest ;  that  in  all  policies  the  name  of 
such  interested  party  shall  be  inserted,  and 
nothing  more  shall  be  recovered  thereon  than 
D2 


I  N  T 


27 


the  amount  of  (he  interest  of  the  insured. 
'1  bis,  liowever,  does  not  extend  lo  marine  in- 
suruiices.  Hut  as  it  wan  a  i  oimiion  practice 
ol  insulin?  large  sums  without  liavnig  pru- 
perlj  on  board,  and  which  were  called  wae<fr 
policii.'s  or  insurances,  interest  or  no  inlcrfst, 
and  of  insuring  the  fame  goods  si'veral  limes 
over,  il  vas  enacled,  that  all  insuraiKes,  in- 
terest or  no  interest,  or  without  furlh<  r  jir'jof 
of  the  ihteiest  than  Ihi-  polity,  or  by  way  of 
pining,  or  without  beneiil  ot  salvage  l</tli« 
insurer,  should  be  void,  except  on  privalcerH,_ 
or  on  ships  or  goods  from  the  ^)pa^lil>h  or 
Portuguese  dominions  ;  aiul  tliat  no  re-awu- 
rance  shall  be  legal,  unless  the  former  insurer 
be  insolvent  </r  dead  ;  and  that  in  the  Kast 
India  trade  the  lender  of  money  on  bo  tomry, 
or  at  refpondcnlia,  shall  alone  have  a  riglit  lo 
be  insured  for  the  money  lent ;  and  the  bor- 
rower shall  recover  no  more  upon  any  insu- 
rance than  the  surplus  of  his  Iwtloinry  or 
respondentia  bond.  No  insurance  can  be 
made  on  any  illegal  voyage. 

It  is  generally  slipiilated  in  iKilicies  that  the 
insurer  shall  not  be  answerable  for  any  partial 
loss  on  certain  arlicles,  but  on  others  less  dif- 
licull  to  be  [>reserved  at  sea,  but  liable  to 
partial  injuries,  shall  be  liable  for  any  partial 
loss  above  live  per  tent. ;  and  as  to  all  other 
good.s,  an<l  the  ship  and  freight,  he  shall  only 
be  liable  for  such  losses  above  three  per  cent- 
Hut  he  is  liable  on  all  losses,  however  small, 
called  general  average  or  losses  occasioned 
by  the  siiip  stranding  ;  but  this  loss  must  be 
an  immediate,  not  a  remote,  consequence  of 
the  stianding. 

The  commencement  of  the  risk  on  the  ship 
varies  in  most  cases,  and  usually  continues  till 
the  ship  has  been  24  hours  at  safe  anchor. 
Upon  goods  it  commences  when  they  are  on 
board,  and  continues  till  they  are  removed  or 
landed.  The  ship  insured  must  be  sound, 
and  in  every  respect  lit  to  bear  the  sea,  and 
perform  the  voyage  ;  and  if  she  deviates  from 
the  usual  course,  and  stops  at  places  not  usu- 
ally stopped  at,  without  a  proper  cause,  the 
contract  is  void. 

liisurance  upon  life  is  a  contract  bv  which 
the  insurer,  for  a  certain  sum  jiroportioned  to 
the  age,  health,  and  profession  ot  the  person 
whose  life  is  to  be  insured,  engages  that  the 
person  shall  not  die  within  a  certain  period, 
or  if  he  do,  the  undenvriter  will  pay  a  sum 
of  money  to  the  person  to  whom  the  policy 
is  "ranted. 

Insurance  ag-ainst  fire.  The  insurer  un- 
dertakes, in  consideration  of  a  [.reniium,  to 
indemnify  the  insured  against  all  losses  by 
lire  wliich  he  may  sustain  in  his  house  or 
goods  during  the  time  mentioned  in  the  po- 
licy. ^ 

INTAGLIOS,  precious  stones  on  wliich 
are  engraven  the  lieads  of  great  men,  inscrip- 
tions, and  the  like ;  such  as  we  frequently  see 
set  in  rings,  seals,  &c. 

INTECJER,  in  arithmetic,  a  whole  num- 
ber, in  contradistinction  to  a  fraction. 

INTERVaL-MIY,  in  chronology-.  See 
Bissextile,  &:c. 

IN  TERCO.MMOXING,  in  law,  is  when 
the  commons  of  two  manors  lie  together, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  botii  have,  lime  out  of 
mind,  caused  their  caltie  lo  feed  promiscu- 
ously on  I  hem. 

IN  lEUCOSTAL.    See  An.*tomt. 
INTERDICT,  an  ecclesiastical  censure, 


.as 

by  wliicli  the  cimrcli  ot  Uoaie  foi'bids  tlie  per- 
foimaiice  of  divine  service  in  a  kiiigdjm, 
province,  town,  &c.  TJiis  censure  liai  been 
trcciuemiy  executed  in  I'raiice,  Italy,  and 
Geniiaiiy  ;  and  in  tlie  year  1 ITO  pope  Alex- 
ander III.  put  all  England  under  an  interdict, 
forbidding  llie  clergy  to  perforin  any  part  ot 
divine  service,  except  baptising  of  infants, 
faking  confessions,  and  giving  absolution  to 
dying  penitents. 

IN'lERKSr,  a   sum  of  money,  paid  or 
allowed  for  the  loan  or  use   of  some  other 
sum,  lent   for  a  certain   time,  according  to 
some  fixed   rate    or   proportion.     The  sum 
lent,  and  on  which  the  interest  is  reckoned, 
is  called  the  principal ;  and  in  any  case  where 
there  is  hazard  ot  the  loss  or  dnninution  of 
the  principal,  a  proportionately  greater  in- 
terest i<  usually  paid.     The  current  rate  of 
interest  is  generally  considered  as  the  baro- 
meter of  public  credit ;  and   its  lowness  is  a 
sign  almost  intallible  of  the  tlourishing  condi- 
tion of  a  state;  it  proves  the  increase  of  in- 
dustry,  and  liie  free   ci.ctilation  of  wealth, 
little  injerior  to  a  demonstration.     In  order 
to  prevent  iiidivitluals  from  taking  unjust  ad- 
vantages of  tlie  necessities  of  others,  it  has 
been  iound  necessary   in   most  countries  to 
establish  by  law  a  tixed  rate  of  interest  for 
the  use  of  money :  this  however  must,  in  a 
great  measure,  depend  on  the  current  rate  of 
interest  in  the  country  ;  for  if  it  is  attempted 
fo  reduce  by  law   the  common  rate  of  in- 
terest below  tile  lowest  ordinary  market  rate, 
the  restriction  will   be  sure  to  be  evaded. 
This  was  the  case  in  JFrance  in   1766,  when, 
although  the  legaf   rate  of  interest  was  re- 
duced from  five  to  four  per  cent.^  money 
continuecl  to  be  lent  at  five  per  cent. 

The  first  act  of  parliament  for  regulating 
the  interest  for  money  lent  in  England  was 
.37  Hen.  VTIl.  c.  9,   by  which   interest  was 
fixed  at  10  per  cent.;  befoxe  that  time  in- 
terest had  usually  been  taken  at  higher  rates. 
In  1552  an  act  was  [jassed  against  usury,  or 
taking  any  interest  vviiatever  tor  money  lent: 
the  impolicy  and  oi>pressioB  of  this  measure 
soon  became  evident;  and  in  1571  the  sta- 
tute of  Henry  VIII.  which  fixed  interest  at 
10  per  cent.,  was  revived.     As  the   increase 
of  coiimierce  brought  wealth  into  the  coun- 
try,   the  rate  of   interest  lowered ;    and  in 
16?5  it  was,  bj-  21  James  I.  c.  17,  reduced  to 
eight  per  cent.     The  first  positive  law  made 
in  Scotland  for  fixing  the  rate  of  interest  was 
ill  1587,  when  an  act  was  passed,  by  which 
the  rate  of  interest  was  not  for  the  future  to 
exceed   10  per  cent.     In   France,  in  1601, 
Henry  IV.  issued  an  edict  for  reducing  the 
public  or  national  interest  of  money  in  that 
liijigdom  to  six  and  a  tpiarter  per  cent.     In 
It^jl  the  interest  of  money  in  several  parts 
beyond  sea  be-ing  lower  ihaii  the  legal  interest 
in  Eugiand,  the  Rump-parliament  reduced  the 
legal  rale  from  eight  to  six  per  cent.  ;  and 
upon  the  Restoration  it  was  contirmed  by   I'J 
Cha.  II.  c.  13.     The   last  act  of  parliamcnl 
for  regulating  the  Interest  of  money  was   11' 
Ann.  St.  t'.c.  l6,  by  which  it  was  fixed  alfive 
per  cent,  per  anmun,  (he  present  legal  rate. 
But  ailliough  this  is  the  utmost  interest  wliii  h 
can  he  taken  for  money  lent  in  Great  Hritain, 
yet  If  a  coiitr.ict  which  carries  interest  was 
made  in  a  fon.-ign  country,   our  courts  will 
direct  the  payment  of  interest  accord  iig  t-i 
the  laws  o.  the  country  in  which  tl  econiraii 
was  nude:  thus  American,  I'uikish,  and  In 


50 

0 

0 

43 

6 

8 

45 

0 

0 

1.5 

0 

0 

10 

0 

0 

12 

0 

0 

10 

0 

0 

U 

IC 

0 

6 

0 

0 

fi 

0 

0 

C 

0 

0 

7 

S 

fi 

7 

10 

0 

G 

0 

0 

5 

0 

0 

INTEIIEST. 

dian  interest  have  been  allowed,  to  the  amount 
of  even  12  per  cent. 

The  various  rates  which  have  been  paid  in 
Great  Britain  at  different  periods, as  the  current 
interest  for  money,  are  as  follows  : 

P.r  cfnf.  per  aim. 
In  1255  -  -         - 

12^;:!,  %i-  a- week  for  1/. 
i270  to  1J07 
14i>'_>  to  It 70 
1545  restricted  to 
155:J  to  1558 
1571   restricted  to 
15i4  to  lf>04,  about      • 
1G25  reduced  to 
1645  to  \mO 
1660  reduced  to 
1660  to  1690 
161)0  to  1697 
1697  to   1706 
1714  reduced  to 
111  the  United  States  of  America,  the  lawful 
interest  of  money  is  6  per  cent,  in  most  of  the 
States ;  in  a  few  it  is  7  per  cent. ;  in  one  it  is  5 
per  cent.     In  Greece,  the  mean  rate  of  interest 
is  20  per  cent  ,  and  in  the  other  parts  of  Tur- 
key nearly  the  sam^  ;  in   Persia  25  per  cent  ; 
and  in  the  A'logul  Empire  ilO  per  cent.   In  the.-e 
countries  there  is  no  fixed  rate  of  interest,  and 
the  usual  high  rate  arises  chiefly  from  the  inse- 
curity of  lending^.      In  Sydney  and   the  other 
Enghsh  settlements  in   New  South   Wales,  the 
rate  of  interest  is  fixed  by  an  ordinance,  dated 
14th  June,  1804,  at  8  per  cent,  per  annum. 
Interest  is  distinguished  into  Simple  Interest  and 

Cow  pound  Interest. 

Interest,  Simple,  is  that  which  is  reckoned 
on  the  principal  only,  at  a  certain  rate  for  a 
year,and  at  a  proportionately  greater  or  less  sum 
for  a  greater  or  less  time;  tlius,  if  51.  is  the  rate 
of  interest  of  100/.  for  a  year,  10/.  is  the  interest 
for  two  years,  15/.  for  three  years,  &c.  In  most 
computations  of  interest  the  work  is  much 
shortened  if  the  interest  of  1/.  for  a  given  term 
is  known,  as  the  interest  of  any  other  sum  for 
the  same  term  will  then  be  found  by  only  mul- 
tiplying by  the  given  sum.  The  interest  of  1/. 
for  a  year  must  be  in  the  same  proportion  as  the 
interest  of  100/.  to  its  principal ;  therefore,  at 
5  per  cent.,  as  100  '  5  * '  1  '  _1—  =  ,05 :  and 
thus: — 
Tlie  interest  of  One  Pound  for  One  Year, 


£■ 

at  0  per  cent. 

4 

14        - 


£■ 

,0:! 

,o:i,5 

,0t 

,01,5 

,0,5 

,0,s5 


The  interest  of  Oi.e  Pound  for  any  number  of 
years. 


Years 


I  S  per 
Cent. 


10 

L'O 

;iO 
•io 
so 

60 
70 
80 
BO 
100 


,3 

■9 
1,2 
I,,-) 
1,H 
'J,\ 
2,1 
2,7 
3,0 


,1i  per 
Cent, 


4  per 
Cent. 


,3,5 

,4 

,7 

,8 

1,05 

1,2 

1,4 

l,'l 

1,75 

2,0 

2,1 

2,4 

2,i5 

2,8 

2.8 

3,2 

.■5,15 

3,6 

3,5 

4,0 

H-  per 
Cent 


,■15 

i» 

1,:)5 
1,8 
2,25 
-',7 
3,15 
3,0 
4,05 
4,5 


5  per 
Cent. 


1,0 
1,5 
2,0 
2,5 
3,0 
3,5 
4,0 
t,5 
5,0 


Although  the  law  forbids  any  person  lending 
money  to  lake  more  tli:;!!  5/.  tor  the  interest  t)t 
['■O/,  tor  , 'I  year  ;  yet  by  allowing  the  propor- 
,ii)imti:  pari  of  5/.  to  he  taken  lor  part  ot  a  yc.ir. 
i'  peiniiti  any  one  vvho  lendi,  nioiiey  tor  u  lest 


term  than  a  ye,ir,  to  receive  more  th.in  he  ought 
ii  he  were  to  make  only  5  per  cent,  per  annum 
of  his  money  ;  for,  if  lie  lends  100/.  for  six 
months,  he  receives  I0'2/.  lO/.,  and  this  l)eing 
lent  again  for  the  remaining  six  months, amounts 
to  105/.  Is.  :•</  ;  if  the  time  is  less  tlian  six 
months  the  difference  must  be  still  greater.  The 
letter  of  the  law  is  however  the  rule  in  prac- 
tice, and  therefore  the  SGSth  part  of  the  yearly 
interest  is  always  considered  as  the  proper  in- 
terest for  a  day,  and  its  multiples  as  the  interest 
for  any  nuniber  of  days. 

The  Interest  of  One  Pound  for  One  Day, 


I- 

At  3  per  cent,  is 
35- 


5  J 
fi' 


£■ 

P00O8219 
P0009589 
,00010959 

,0001 '2329 
,0001 3G99 
,0<X)I.50R9 
,00016438 


As  tables  of  .Simple  Interest  are  cliiedy  re- 
ferred to,  in  order  to  find  the  interest  or  dis- 
count on  bills  of  exchange,  and  as  by  far  tlie 
greater  number  of  bills  which  are  discounted 
have  less  tlian  ItX)  days  to  run,  the  following 
table  will  answer  most  useful  purposes ;  but 
those  who  have  constant  occasion  to  make  such 
computations,  will  derive  much  assistance  froiu 
the  extensive  tables  which  have  been  computed 
by  Smart,  Thomson,  King,  Reid,  and  others. 
See  also  Discou.-^r. 

TABLE 

Shewing  the  Simple  Interest  of  One  Pound,  for 
any  number  of  days,  not  exceeding  100,  at 
5  per  Cent 


davsj  Amount. 


days 


1 

,0001369 

35 

2 

,0002739 

36 

3 

,0004109 

37 

4 

,0005479 

38 

5 

,0006849 

39 

6 

,0008219 

40 

7 

,0009589 

41 

8 

,0010958 

42 

9 

,0012328 

43 

10 

,0013698 

44 

11 

,0015068 

45 

12 

,0016438 

46 

13 

,0017808 

47 

14 

,0019178 

48 

15 

,0020547 

49 

16 

,0021917 

50 

17 

,0023287 

51 

18 

,0024657 

52 

19 

,0026027 

53 

20 

,(X)27:i97 

54 

21 

,0028767 

55 

22 

,0030137 

5G 

23 

,0031,506 

57 

24 

,0032876 

58 

25 

,0031246 

59 

26 

,003.5616 

60 

27 

,0036986 

61 

28 

,0038356 

62 

29 

,0039726 

63 

30 

,00-11095 

64 

31 

,004'2165 

65 

32 

,0043835 

(SG 

33 

,0045205 

67 

34 

,0046575 

68 

Amount. 


,0047945 
,0049315 
,0050684 
,00520.54 
,0053424 
,0054794 
,0056164 
,0057534 
,0058904 
,0060274 
,0061643 
,00i;3013 
,0064383 
,0065753 
,0067123 
,0068493 
,0069863 
,0071232 
,0072602 
,0073972 
,0075342 
,0076712 
,a)7S082 
,0079452 
,0080821 
,(X1S2191 
,0083561 
,0034931 
,0086301 
,008767  1 
,(X)S9041 
,tX)fl0411 
,0091780 
1 ,0093150 


days  I  Amount, 


69 
70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
88 
84 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 
91 
92 
93 
94 
95 
96 
97 
98 
99 
UX) 


,0094520 

,0095890 

,0097260 

,0098630 

,0100(X)0 

,0101369 

,0102739 

,0104109 

,0105479 

,0106849 

,0108219 

,0109589 

,0110958 

,0112328 

,0113698 

,0115068 

,0116438 

,0117808 

,0119178 

,0120547 

,0121917 

,0123287 

,0124657 

,0126027 

,0127397 

,0128767 

.01301,37 

,0131506 

,013'2876 

,0134246 

,013.5616 

,0136986 


The  interest  of  any  sum  for  any  number  (if 
days  contained  in  the  table,  is  found  bv  vi\ly 
nuiliiplying  the  figures  corresponding  with  the 
number  of  days  by  the  sum  :  thus,  if  the  interest 
of  150/.  for  61  days  is  required,  the  interest  of 
one  pound  for  61  days  i.s,  by  the  tabic,  ,0083561, 
which  multiplied  by  150,  gives  1/.  5.'.  O^,/.  if 
the  given  .sum  contains  shillings  and  pence,  they 
iniuit  be  reduced  to  the  decimal  of  a  pound. 


MATH  !•',  MA'I'l  CM,     I  >' ST  U  I     M  !■,  ^"I'.S  , 


////.   J, 


■7,-. 


ii 13 J-l 


-4^-^ 


/■at.  .i. 


r.^,-^ 

'1     -1      H      i     'i      >1     ^ 

*i    i"  t    t  'L  1'  ^t^   '!"'  '•'   1''  f 

to 

—^ — ^ — ^ — 4 — '-] — A- 

— ^ — ^ 4^-^ — '1'     'i'     4>     -1.-.     'K     ^? 

X> 

iiiilrrnl 

-A 4 -1 H 4- 

-^ ^1 ^ i^-^^ '-^ 4^^^ 4^ 

so 

Iinllllll 

-^J ^ -A ^ ^ 

_^ ^ .^ 4_^^ $ $ 

!•, 

in  iliTiT  1 

—4 '4 s\ ^ 

^ ^ ^ ^ a *: 

SO 

] 1 

'1            H            ^i 

i             ■-]              1              '-I             ''I 

1 

Jf?       />        ■'' 


r  __        3 2 i. 


ii 


U9 


J^W.  .0. 


al-lifhf.i  .'^iC t  itlt't<  A(-  fi.J/itUipil  /'rutyt-  Sirt^t  fMa.-ictyiorf  I^-nJor, 


INTEREST. 


29 


Tlie  intcreit  for  uny  giealor  numhtr  of  dayi 
tluii  are  cont;iitiuil  in  iIjc  tabic,  i»  easily  found 
by  me'ini  of  it ;  t[iu4,  if  it  is  rctjtiired  to  liiid 
the  iiitei-c«  of  100'.  for  I6j  d:iys,  l!ie  iHtcrcil  tor 
loo  duys  by  tbc  table  is  Ui'i'Jiid,  aod  for  dj 
flays  ,K;)On,  which  two  sums  added  to;jjM  !h_t, 
make  'J,2(iO-'7,  or  M.  .'j/.  '-'•/.  lint,  allboci(;li  it  is 
most  convenient  in  common  niartice  to  make 
Use  of  tabic*  for  finding  the  interest  for  days, 
the  interest  of  any  sum  for  any  numUer  of  days 
may  be  correctly  and  expeoitionsly  obtained 
without  the  use  of  any  tabic,  by  the  following 
rule : 

"  Multiply  the  given  snm  by  the  number  of 
days,  and  divide  by  7;iO0." 

Example  1.  What  is  the  interest  of  3567.  for 
112  days? 

3,5G  multiplied  by  111.',  and  dlvidcd'by  T.'iOO, 
gives  5,lGlil,  or  Si.  <■^s  i\d. 

Example  a.  What  is  the  interest  of  l.i7/.  18..  for 
97  days  .' 

137,9  multiplied  by  97,  and  divided  by  7:;oo, 
gives  J,83'i;i,  or  1/.  Uw.  1  y. 

The  amount  of  a  piven  sum  in  any  time  may 
be  found  by  multiplying  the  Principal,  Time, 
and  Rate  toKCthcr  ;  and  adding  the  product  to 
the  principal. 

Ex.imjil.-  1.  What  sum  will  ,'i7/.  lOj.  amount  to 
in  3  years  and  140  days,  M  4  per  cent,  per 
annum .' 

37,5  multiplied  by  3,4,  and  the  product  mul- 
tiplied by  ,01,  gives  5,1  ;  which  added  to  37,5, 
makes  'l'.',G,  or  42/.  12.. 

Examplt  2.    What  sum  will  One  Penny  amount 

to  in  ISOa  years,  at  5  per  cent,  per  annum? 

,004 UJG  multiplied  by  1806,  and  the  product 
multiplied  by  ,05,  s;ives  ,37(i25,  which,  added 
to  the  principal,  makes  ,3804 IG,  or  Is.  l\il. 

This  example  sets  the  dilVerence  between  sim- 
ple and  compound  interest  in  a  most  striking 
point  of  view  ;  it  appears  that  one  penny  put 
out  to  interest  at  the  birth  of  Christ,  would  (at 
5  per  cent,  simple  interest)  have  amounted  at 
the  present  time  to  7i.  7^^'.,  but  at  compt)und 
interest,  it  would  have  increasi-d  in  the  same 
period  to  a  greater  sum  than  wtiuld  be  con- 
tained iu  six  hundred  millions  of  globe-;,  each 
c'lual  to  the  earth  in  magnitude,  and  all  solid 
gold. 

Interest,  compound,  is  that  which  is  reckoned 
on  the  principal  and  its  interest  put  toge:her, 
as  the  interest   becomes  due,  so  as  to   form  a 
new  cai)ital  from  each  period   at  which  the  in- 
terest is  payable:  it  is  sometimes  called  interest 
tipon  interest.     It  is  ntJt  lawful  to  lend  money 
at  compound  interest ;  but   in  the  granting  or 
purchasing  of  annuities,  leases,  or  reversions,  it 
is  usual  tt>  allow  the  purchaser  compound  in- 
terest for  his  money  ;  and  the  difference  from 
si,mple  interest  is  so  great,  in  all  cases  in  which 
the  period  of  time  is  considerable,  that  almost  all 
computations  relating   to   annual   payments  of 
money  for  a  number  of  years,  are  made  at  com- 
pound interest,  unless  it  is  otherwise  agreed. 
l,et  r  =  the  amount  of    1/.  in  one   year,  viz. 
principal  and  interest, 
n  =■  the  number  of  years,  in  which 
p  =  t!ic  principal,  increases  to 
a  =:  the  amount : 
then  \  '.  r  W  r  \  r'  the  amount  of  1/.  in  2  years 
1  \  r  \\  r^  \  r^  the  amount  of  1/.  in  3  years 
1  *  r  *  ■  r'  '  (■'  the  amoiuit  of  1/.  in  4  years, 
"&c';* 

therefore  r  ,  or  »•  raised  to  the  power  whose 
exponent  is  the  number  of  years,  will  be  the 
.•miouat  of  1/.  in  those  years ;  and  as 

1/.  •  ,"  ',',  p  \  «,  the  amount  of  a  given  princi- 
pal'iu  tl;c  same  time.    Thus, 


Theo.  1 . 


Amount  ? 
py.r"  =.«. 


If  Pn/idpal,  Time,  ami  Pair,  are  given,  li  fni  ihc  [  •''/!  """"  ^^  Tffars  l)y  the  sum,  and  the  product 

will  be  the  antwer. 

Example.  To  wliat  «um  will  .CO/,  increase  in  69 
years,  at  5  per  cent,  compound  intcrnt  ? 

'J'hc  numiicr  in  liic  table  corresponding  v/ith 
G9  years  i.  2H.97754S,  which  multiplied  by  50, 
gives  H-18.H774,  or  H48/.  17j.  (,V. 

1  he  number  of  years  in  which  a  given  «um 


Tf  Amount,   Time,  aiid   Ji.ite,    are  given,    to  finj  the 
Priiuipfil  /' 


Thco, 


=p. 


Tf  Piin:ip<it,  Amount,  and  Time, 
the  jR,:te? 


arc  given,  1 9  find 


Thco,  3. 


Tf  Pri 


u-ipiil.  Amount,  and  Sale,    are  given,  to  find 
the  Time  T 


Thco.  4. 


—  =  r  ,  therefore  -   -  bc- 

.!•      .  .  t 

mg  divided  by  r  till  nothing 

remains,  the  number  ojf  di- 
visions will  =;  n. 
Cut  for  greater  convenience  in  practice,  these 
theorems  may  be   expressed  in  logarithms,  as 
follows  : 

I.      log  p  -f-  «  X   log.  r   =  log.  a. 
2-     log.  a  —  «  X  log.  r  ■=.  \og.p. 

3.  ''"^•"-'"g-^^log... 

n 

log.  a  -  log./  _ 

4.      j —  n, 

log.  r 

On  these  principles  all  tables  of  Compound 
Interest  are  formcdi,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  most  useful. 

TABLE   r. 

Shewing  the  .Sum  to  which  I/.  Principal  will  in- 
crease at  5  per  Cent.  Compound  Interest,  in 
any  number  of  years  not  exceeding  a  hundred. 


Yrs. 

Anrount. 

Yrs. 

Amount.  1  Yrs. 

Amount. 

1 

1.05 

35 

5.516015 

69 

28.977548 

2 

1.1025 

36 

5.79I8I6 

70 

30.426425 

3 

1.157625 

37 

6081406 

71 

31.947746 

4 

1  21.5506 

38 

6.385477 

72 

33.545134 

5 

I.2762S1 

39 

6.70-17511  73 

35  222390 

C 

1 .340095 

40 

7.039988 

74 

36.9S.3510 

7 

1.-107100 

41 

7.391988 

75 

38.S32685 

8 

1 .477455 

42 

7.761587 

76 

40.774320 

9 

1.551328 

43 

8.149566 

77 

42.81.3036 

10 

1.628894 

44 

8.5571. TO 

78 

44.953688 

n 

1.710,339 

45 

8.985007 

79 

47.201372 

12 

1.795856 

46 

9.4342,58 

80 

49.561441 

13 

1 .885649 

47 

9905971 

81 

52.039513 

14 

1.979931 

48 

10  401269'  82 

54.641488 

15 

2.078928 

49 

10.921333  83 

57373563 

u; 

2.182874 

50 

11.467399  84 

60J242241 

17 

2.292018 

51 

12.040769  85 

6.3.254353 

18 

2.406619 

52 

12.642808 

86 

66.417071 

19 

2.526950 

53 

13.274948 

87 

69.737924 

20 

2.623297 

54 

13  93RC96 

88 

73.224820 

21 

2.785962 

53 

14J635630 

89 

76.886061 

22 

2.925260 

56 

15.367412 

90 

80.7.30365 

23 

3  071523 

57 

16.135783 

91 

84.766883 

24 

3.225099 

58 

16.942572 

92 

89.005227 

25 

3.386354 

59 

17.789700 

93 

93.455488 

26 

3.555672 

60 

18.679185 

94 

98.128263 

27- ■ 

3.733456 

61 

19.613145 

95 

103.034676 

28 

3.920129 

62 

2OJ9.3802 

96 

108.186410 

29 

4.116135 

63 

21.623492 

97 

1 13.595730 

30 

4.'321942 

64 

22.704667 

98 

119.27.-517 

31 

4.5380S9 

63 

23.839900 

99 

125.239293 

32 

4.764941 

66 

25.031895  100 

131.501257 

33 

5,003138 

67 

26.2S3490 

34 

5.253347 

68 

27.597664 

.^ 

In  order  to  find  what  any  sum  will  amount  ti 
iu  a  given  number  of  years,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  multiply  the  eumber  iu  the  'I'able  opposite  to 


will  iiicicase  10  another  given  sum  in  conse- 
ijuence  of  being  improved  al  interest,  is  Tound 
by  dividing  the  latter  sum  by  the  former,  and 
the  sum  in  tb«  table  which  ij>  nearest  to  the  quo* 
lient  will  shew  the  term  required. 

Example.  In  what  time  will  100/.  increaw  to 
.500/.,  if  improved  at  5  per  cent.? 

Divide  .'AH)  by  100,  and  the  number  in  the 
table  nearest  to  5  the  quotient,  is  5,(X)3188', 
which  thews  tliat  .')3  years  is  the  answer. 

TABLE  II. 

Shewing  the  present  Value  of  I/,  to  be  received 
at  the  end  of  any  number  of  years,  not  ex- 
ceeding 100;  discounting  at  5  per  Cent.  Cora- 
pound  Interest, 


Yrs. 

Value. 

Yrs, 

Value. 

Yrs. 

Value. 

1 

.952381 

35 

.181290 

69 

X).M50'* 

2 

.907029 

36 

.172657 

70 

.032865 

3 

.863838 

37 

.164436 

71 

.031301 

4 

.822702 

38 

.156605 

72 

.029811 

5 

.783526 

39 

.149148 

73 

X)28391 

6 

.746215 

40 

.142046 

74 

.02703» 

7 

.710681 

41 

.135282 

75 

.02575* 

8 

.676839 

42 

.128840 

76 

X)2452.5 

9 

.644609 

43 

.122704 

77 

.023357 

10 

.613913 

44 

.116861 

78 

.02224  .t 

U 

-584679 

45 

.111297 

79 

.021  ISC 

12 

.556837 

46 

.105997 

80 

.020177 

13 

.530321 

47 

.100949 

81 

.019216 

14 

.5050()8 

48 

.096142 

82 

X)  18301 

15 

.481017 

49 

.091564 

83 

.0174.30 

16 

.458112 

50 

.087204 

84 

.016600 

17 

.436297 

51 

.083051 

85 

.015809 

18 

.415521 

52 

J079O96 

86 

.015056 

19 

.395734 

53 

.075330 

87 

.014239 

20 

.376889 

54 

X)75743 

88 

.013657 

21 

.358942 

35 

.068326 

89 

.013006 

22 

.341850 

36 

.065073 

90 

.012.387 

23 

.325571 

57 

.061974 

91 

.011797 

24 

.310068 

53 

.059023 

92 

.01 1235 

25 

.295303 

59 

.056212 

93 

.010700 

26 

.281241 

60 

.053536 

94 

.010191 

27 

.267848 

61 

.050986 

95 

.009705 

28 

.255094 

62 

.048558 

96 

.009243 

29 

.242946 

63 

.0-16246 

97 

.008803 

30 

.231377 

64 

.0440-M 

98 

.003384- 

31 

.220359 

65 

.041946 

99 

.007935 

32 

.209866 

66 

.039949 

100 

.007604 

33 

.199873 

67 

.038047 

34 

.190355 

68 

.036235 

In  order  to  find  the  present  worth  of  anv  siirn 
which  is  to  be  received  at  the  end  of  a  certain 
number  of  years,  niultiply  the  number  in  the 
table  opposite  to  the  term  of  years,  by  the  sum, 
and  the  product  will  be  the  answer. 

Example  What  is  the  prenir.  value  of  ,500/.  to 
be  received  at  the  expiration  of  14  years? 

The  number  iu  the  table  corresponding  with 
14  years,  is  .50.5068,  which  multiplied  by  500, 
gives  252,534,  or  252/.  lOi.  fid. 

For  the  present  value  or  aniouDt  of  annuzt 
payments,  as  Annuities,  Pensions,  Leases,  &c. 
at  Compoond  Interest,  see  Ansuities. 

Intere-st,  in  law,  is  generally  taken  for  a 
tliattel  real,  or  a  lease~tor  years,  &c.  but 
ijiore  for  a  fiiturf  term. 

An  estate  in  lands.  Sec.  is  better  than  a 
have  interest  therein  ;  vet,  according  to  the 
legal  sense  of  the  word,  an  iuterest  exteuds  10 


30 


I  N  T 


estates  and  titles  which  a  person  l-.a=  in  or  out 
of  lands,  &c.  ^  (or  bv  grant  of  a  person  s 
wlfele  interest  in  land,  a  reversion,  as  well 
as  possession,  in  fee-simple,  passes. 

INTERJECTION,  in  grammar,  an  inde- 
clinable part  ofspeecii,  signiiyingsome  pas- 
sion or  emotion  oi  the  mind. 

INTEULOCUTORY  order,  in  law,  an 
order  that  does  not  decide  the  catne,  but  only 
some  matter  incident  to  it,  which  happens  be- 
tween the  beginning  and  end  of  a  cause  ;  as 
when,  in  chancery  or  exchequer,  the  pUuntilf 
obtains  an  order  for  an  injunction  until  tin- 
hearing  of  the  cause;  whicli  order,  not  being 
final,  is  called  interlocutory. 

INTERMlTTEN'r,  or  Inteemitting 
Fevers.     See  Medicine. 

INTERNAL,  in  general,  signifies  what- 
ever is  within  a  thing. 

Euclid  proves  that  the  sum  of  the  three 
internal  angles  of  every  triangle  is  equal 
to  two  riglit  angles;  whence  he  deduces 
several  useful  corollaries.  He  likewise 
adduces,  from  the  same  proposition,  this 
theorem,  viz.  that  the  sum  of  the  angles 
of  every  rectilinear  figure,  is  equal  to  twice 
as  many  riglit  angles,  as  the  figure  hath  sides, 
excepting  or  subtracting  four. 

INTERROGATORIES,  areqnestions  ex- 
hibited in  writing  to  be  asiied  witnesses  or 
contenmors  to  be  examined.  Those  interro- 
gatories are  in  the  nature  of  a  charge  or  accu- 
sation; and  if  any  of  them  is  improper,  the 
defendant  mav  refuse  to  answer  it,  and  move 
the  court  to  liave  it  struclv  out.     Str.  444. 

INTERSECTION,  in  the  mathematics, 
s'.gnihes  tlie  cutting  of  one  line  or  plane  by 
another  :  thus  we  say,  tliat  the  mutual  inter- 
section of  two  planes  is  a  right  line. 

INTERVAL-,  in  music,  the  difference  in 
point  of  gravity  or  acnteness  between  any 
two  soinuls.  Taking  the  word  in  its  more 
general  sense,  we  must  allow  that  the  possible 
intervals  of  sound  are  infinite,  but  we  only 
speak  of  those  intervals  which  exist  between 
the  different  tones  of  any  established  system. 
The  autieiit>  divided  tiie  intervals  into  sim- 
ple, or  uncomposlte,  which  they  call  dia- 
stems,  and  composite  intervals,  wiiich  tliey 
call  systems.  The  least  of  all  the  intervals  in 
the  G'reek  music  was,  according  to  Bacchius, 
the  enharmonic  diesis,  or  fourth  of  a  tone ; 
but  our  scale  does  not  notice  so  small  a  divi- 
sion, since  all  our  tones  concur  in  conso- 
nances, to  which  ordi-r  only  one  of  the  tluee 
anticnt  genera,  viz.  the  diatonic,  was  accom- 
modated. Modern  musicians  consider  the 
S'-milone  as  a  simple  interval,  and  only  call 
those  composite  which  consist  of  two  or  more 
semitones:  thus  from  B  t.)  C  is  a  semitone,  or 
simple  interval,  but  from  C  to  D  is  two  half- 
tones, or  a  compound  interval. 

IN  TESTATES.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
intestates  ;  one  that  makes  no  will  at  all  ;  and 
another  that  makes  a  will,  and  nominates  exe- 
cutors, but  they  refuse;  in  which  case  he  dies 
an  intestate,  and  the  ordinary  commits  admi- 
jiistration.     2  Par.  Inst.  397. 

.  The  ordinary  by  special  acts  of  parliament 
is  required  to  grant  administration  of  the  ef- 
fects of  the  deceased  to  the  widow  or  next  of 
kin,  who  shall  first  pay  the  debts  of  the  de- 
ceased, and  then  distribute  the  surplus  among 
the  kindred,  in  the  manner  and  according  to 


I  N  V 

the  proportions  directed  by  22  and  ?3  Car. 
11.  c.  10. 

INTESTINA,  in  natural  lr.d:ory,  an  order 
of  vermes.  The  individuals  of  this  orderare 
ot  a  lormation  the  most  simple,  and  live 
some  of  them  within  other  animals,  some  in 
waters,  and  a  few  in  the  eartli.  'I  he  gordius 
perforates  clay  to  give  a  passage  to  springs 
and  water  ;  tlie  lumbrlcus  pierces  the  earth, 
that  it  may  be  exposeil  to  the  action  of  the 
air  and  iiioisture:  in  like  manner  the  teredo 
penetrates  wood  ;  and  the  phloas  and  mytil- 
lus  rocks,  to  effect  their  dissolution. 

INTESTINES.  See  Ay/.ToMy,  and 
Physiology. 

INTRUSION,  in  law,  is  when  the  an- 
cestor dies  seised  of  any  estate  of  inheritance, 
expectant  upon  an  estate  for  life  ;  and  then 
the  tenant  for  life  dies,  between  whose  death, 
and  the  entry  of  the  heir,  a  stranger  intrudes. 

IN'VECTED,  in  heraldry,  denotes  a  thing 
fluted  or  furrowed.     See  Tl  erai.dry. 

INVENTION.     See  Painting. 

INVESTH  URE,  inlaw,  is  the  giving  pos- 
session of  lands  by  actual  seisin.  T  lie  ancient 
feudal  investiture  was,  where  the  vassal  on  des- 
cent of  l.iiul  was  admitted  into  the  lord's  court, 
and  there  received  his  seisin,  in  the  nature  of 
a  renewal  of  his  ancestor's  grant,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  rest  of  the  tenants:  but  in  after- 
times,  entering  on  any  part  of  the  lands,  or 
other  notorious  possession,  was  admitted  to  be 
eqiiivalent  to  the  formal  grant  of  sei^in  and 
investiture.     52  Black.  209. 

The  manner  of  grant  was  by  words  of  pure 
donation,  "  have  given  and  granted:"  which 
are  still  the  operative  words  in  our  modern 
infeodations  or  deeds  of  feoirment.  This  was 
perfected  by  tlie  ceremony  of  corporal  in- 
vestiture, or  open  and  notorious  delivery  of 
possession  in  tiie  presence  of  the  other  vas- 
sals. 

But  a  corporal  investiture  being  sometimes 
inconvenient,  a  symbolical  delivery  of  pos- 
session was  in  many  cases  anciently  allowed 
of;  by  transferring  something  near  at  hand, 
in  the  presence  of  credible  witnesses,  which 
by  agreement  should  serve  to  represent  the 
very  thing  designed  to  be  conveyed;  and  an 
occupancy  of  this  sign  or  symbol  was  per- 
mitted as  equivalent  to  the  occupancy  of  the 
land  itself.  And  to  this  day,  the  conveyance 
of  many  of  our  copyhold  estates  is  made  from 
the  seller  to  the  lord,  or  his  stewanl,  by  deli- 
vering a  rod  or  verge,  and  then  from  the 
lord  to  tlie  purchaser,  by  a  re-delivery  of  the 
same,  in  the  presence  of  a  jury  of  tenants. 
2  Black.  313.  . 

1NUL.\,  fleabane,  a  genus  of  the  synge- 
nesia  polygamia-superllua  class  of  plants,  with 
radiated  (lowers:  the  receptacle  is  naked; 
the  down  is  simple;  and  the  anlliera- termi- 
nate in  seta-  at  their  bases.  There  are  tliirty- 
four  si)ecies,  of  no  note. 

IN\'01CI'".,  an  account  in  wriiing  of  the 
partictdars  of  merchandise,  with  their  value, 
custom,  charges,  &c.  transmitted  by  one  mer- 
chant to  another  in  a  distant  country. 

One  copy  of  every  invoice  is  to  be  inserted 
verbatim  in  the  invoice-book,  for  the  mer- 
chant's private  use;  and  another  copy  must, 
immediately  upon  shii)ping  off  tlir  goods,  be 
dispatched  by  post,  or  otherwise,  to  the  cor- 
respondent. '1  Ills  copy  is  commonly  drawn 
out  u])on  a  sheet  of  large  post-paj:  -r,  to  the 
end  of  which  is  subjoined  a  letter  of  advice. 


J  O  I 

INVOLIICRUM.     See  Rotany. 

1N\  OLl^i  iON.     See  Algebr.\. 

JOINT  ACTIONS:  in  personal  actioin, 
several  wrongs  may  be  joined  in  one  wri'  ; 
but  actions  louiuled  upon  a  tort  and  a  ecu- 
tract  cannot  be  joined,  for  they  require  dif- 
ferent pleas  and  different  process.  1  Vent. 
33t). 

Joint  and  several:  an  interest  cannot 
be  gi  anted  jointly  and  severally;  as  if  a  man 
gi'antsthe  next  advowson,  or  makes  a  le.ise  tor 
years,  to  two  jointly  ami  severally;  these 
words  (severally)  are  void,  and  they  are  joint 
tenants.     5  Rep.  19. 

Joint  lives  :  lease  for  years  to  husband 
and  wile,  if  they  or  any  issue  of  their  bodies 
should  so  long  live,  has  been  adjudged  so 
long  as  either  the  husband,  wife,  or  any  of 
their  issue,  should  live;  and  not  only  so  long 
as  the  husband  and  wife,  &c.  should  jointly 
live.     Moor,  539. 

Joint  tln.^nts,  are  those  that  come  to, 
and  hold  lands  or  tenements  by  one  title  pro 
indiviso,  or  witliout  partition. 

These  are  distinguished  from  sole  or  seve- 
ral tenants,  from  parceners,  and  fi'om  tenants 
in  common:  and  they  must  jointly  im])leiid, 
and  jointly  be  impleaded  by  others,  which 
piojjerly  is  comivion  between  tliem  and  co- 
parceners; but  joint  tenants  have  a  sole  qua- 
lily  of  survivorship,  which  coparceners  have 
not ;  for  if  there  are  two  or  three  joint  tenants, 
and  one  has  issue  and  dies,  then  he  or  those 
joint  tenants  th:it  survive,  shall  have  the  whole 
by  survivorship.     Cowel. 

The  creation  of  an  estate  in  joint  tenantcy 
depends  on  the  wording  of  the  deed  or  devise, 
by  whicli  the  tenant  claims  title ;  for  this 
estate  can  only  arise  by  purchase  or  grant, 
that  is,  bv  tlie  act  ot  the  parties ;  and  never 
by  the  mere  act  of  law.  Now  if  any  estate 
is  given  to  a  plurality  of  persons,  witiiout 
aildiug  any  restrictive,  exclusive,  or  explana- 
tory words,  as  if  an  estate  is  granted  to  A  and 
B  and  their  heirs,  this  makes  them  immedi- 
ately joint  tenants  hi  fee  of  the  lands  ;  for  the 
law  interprets  tlie  grant,  so  as  to  make  all 
parts  of  it  take  ellect,  which  can  only  be  done 
by  creating  an  equal  estate  in  them  both.  As 
therefore  the  grantor  has  thus  united  their 
names,  the  law  gives  them  d  thorough  union 
in  all  other  respects.     2  Black.  1  SO. 

If  there  are  two  joint  tenants,  and  one  re- 
leases the  other,  tliis  passes  a  fee  without 
the  word  heirs,  because  it  refers  to  the  whole 
fee,  which  they  jointly  took,  and  are  possessed 
ot  by  force  ot  the  nrst  conveyance  ;  but  the 
tenants  in  common  cannot  release  to  each 
other,  tor  a  release  supposes  the  parly  to 
have  the  thing  in  demand,  but  tenants  in 
common  have  several  distinct  freeholds, 
which  they  cannot  transfer  otherwise  tinvn  ;is 
persons  who  arc  sole  seized.     Co.  Lit.  9. 

Although  joint  tenants  arc  seized  per  niie 
et  per  tout,  yet  to  divers  purposes  each  of 
them  has  but  a  right  to  a  moiety ;  as  to  en- 
feoli',  give,  or  deniisi-,  or  to  forfeit  or  lose  by 
il(;fault  in  a  pr.ecipe;  and  iheretore  where 
there  are  two  or  more  joint  tenanls,  and  they 
all  join  in  a  feolTment,  or  each  of  them  in 
judgment  gives  but  his  part.     Co.  (.it.  18fi. 

'The  right  of  survivorship  shall  take  place 
immediately  upon  the  death  of  the  joint  te- 
iKiiit,  whether  it  is  a  natural  or  civil  death; 
as  if  there  are  two  joint  tenants,  and  one  of 


J  O  I 

tlirm  eiUcr-i  iulo  reli^oii,  tliH  smvivov  shall 
liuvc  llic  wliole.     Co.  Lit.  181. 

At  ciHnmnii  l.iw,  joint  tenants  in  common 
wiM'r  not  compcllablf  to  make  |);iitition,  ex- 
cf|>l  l)y  tli(!  custom  of  soini;  cities  and  bo- 
jo\iglis.     Co.  J.it.  1H7. 

But  now  joint  tenants  Mia\  niak<'  parlition; 
llu!  oni;  party  may  coinpi^l  llif  otiii-r  to  make 
paititioii,  wliicii  nuisl  be  l>y  deed  :  111  it  is  to 
to  say,  all  the  parlies  must  by  deed  artnally 
convey  and  asiuie  to  each  other  the  several 
tfatati'S,  which  they  are  to  lake  and  iMijoy  se- 
verally and  sep:irately.     -  lila;k.  .324. 

Joint  tenants  being  seized  per  niie  ct  per 
tout,  and  derivini^  by  one  and  the  same  lith-, 
iinisl  jointly  inipleail,  and  be  jointly  implead- 
ed with  others.    Co.  Lit.  ISO. 

If  one  joint  tenant  refuses  to  join  in  action, 
lie  may  be  summoned  and  severed ;  but 
herein  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  if  the  person 
severed  dies,  the  writ  abates,  because  the 
survivor  then  cjoes  for  the  whole,  which  he 
canno;  do  on  tiiatwrit,  where  on  the  summons 
and  severance  he  went  only  for  a  moiety  be- 
fore;  for  the  writ  cannot  have  a  double  cll'ect, 
to  w't,  for  a  moiety  in  case  of  suuimons  and 
severance,  and  for  the  whole  in  case  of  sur-  ; 
vivorship.     Co.  Lit.   183. 

But  in  personal  and  mixed  actions  where 
there  is  -iiimiions  and  severance,  and  yet  af- 
ter such  summons  and  severance  the  plauitilV 
goes  on  for  the  whole,  there  if  one  of  them 
die-,  yet  the  writ  -hal!  not  abate,  because  they 
go  on  for  the  whole  after  summons  and  se- 
verance; and  it  they  were  to  have  a  new 
writ,  it  would  only  give  the  court  authority 
to  go  on  for  the  whole.     Co.  Lit.  197. 

JOIN'ITRE.  A  jointure  strictly  speaking, 
signilies  a  joint  estate,  limited  to  both  husband 
and  wife;  but  in  common  acceptation,  it  ex- 
tends also  to  a  Sole  estate,  limited  to  the  wife 
only,  and  may  be  thus  defined,  vi/.  a  compe- 
tent livelihood  of  freehold  for  the  wife  of 
l.iiuls  and  tenements,  to  take  elTect,  in  prolit 
or  possession,  presee.tly  after  the  ileath  of  the 
husband;  for  the  life  of  the  wife  at  least. 
•2  Black.  137. 

By  the  stati.te  of  the  27tli  FL  VIIL  c.  10. 
if  a  jointure  is  made  to  the  wife,  it  is  a  bar  of 
her  <lower,  so  that  she  shall  not  have  both  join- 
ture and  dower.  And  to  the  making  of  a 
perfect  jointure  within  that  statute  si.x  things 
are  obscr.ved:  1.  Her  jointure  is  to  take  elfect 
presently  after  her  husband's  decease.  2.  It 
jiiust  be  for  the  tern  of  her  own  life,  orgrcatcr 
estate.  3.  It  shouhl  be  made  to  herself.  4. 
It  must  be  made  m  satisfaction  of  her  whole 
dower,  and  not  of  p  rt  of  her  dower.  5.  It 
iiuist  either  oe  e.xpiessed  or  averred  to  be  in 
satisfaction  of  her  dower.  6.  It  should  be 
made  during  tiie  coverture.     1  Inst.  32. 

The  estate  mu--t  take  etlect  presently  after 
her  husband'*  decease ;  therelore  if  an  estate 
is  made  to  thehu-band  for  life,  remaiiuler  to 
another  person  for  life,  remainder  to  the  wile 
for  hev  jointure,  this  is  no  good  jointure,  for 
it  is  not  w  ithin  the  words  or  intent  ot  the  sta- 
tute .  for  the  statute  designed  nothing  as  a  sa- 
tisiai  tion  tor  dowei,  but  that  which  came  in 
the  same  place,  and  is  oi  the  same  use  to  the 
■wife;  and  though  tlie  other  pei"son  dies  during 
the  life  ot  the  hu>banil,  )et  tins  is  not  good; 
for  every  interest  not  ciniiviilent  to  dower  not 
being  within  the  statute,  is  a  void  liniitatiouto 
deprive  the  wife  of  her  dower.  4  Co.  3. 
8 


I  r  o 

The  oitatf  must  be  for  (enn  of  the  wife's 
life,  or  a  greater  estate;  therefore  if  an  estate 
is  ma(l«  for  the  life  or  lives  of  many  others, 
this  is  no  good  jointure;  (<jr  if  she  survives 
such  lives,  as  she  may,  then  it  would  be  no 
competent  provision  during  her  life,  as  every 
j.Vmtiiri;  within  the  statute  ought  to  be.  Co. 
"Lit.  30.     • 

The  estate  should  be  made  to  herself;  but 
as  tlie  intention  of  the  statute  was  to  secure 
the  wie  a  competent  provision,  and  also  to 
exclude  her  from  claiming  dower,  and  like- 
wise her  settlement,  it  seems  that  a  provision 
or  settlement  on  the  wife,  though  by  way  of 
trust,  il  iy  other  respects  it  answers  the  inten- 
tion of  the  statute',  will  be  inforced  in  a  court 
of  eipiity. 

'I'ho  estate  must  be  in  satisfaction  of  tin- 
whole  dower  ;  the  reason  hereof  is,  that  if  it 
is  made  in  satisfaction  of  part  only,  it  is  un- 
certain for  what  part  it  is  in  satisfaction  of  her 
dower,  and  therefore  void  in  the  whole.  Co. 
Lit.  3(i. 

The  estiite  must  be  expressed  or  averred  to 
be  in  satisfaction  of  her  dower.  Lord  Coke 
says,  that  it  nunt  be  expressed  or  averred 
to  be  in  satisfaction  of  her  dower;  but  (pi.Tre, 
for  this  does  not  seem  rei|nisite  either  within 
the  words  or  intention  ot  the  statute.  Co. 
Lit.  36. 

It  should  be  made  during  the  coverture; 
this  the  very  words  of  the  act  of  parliament 
recjuire:  and  therefore  if  a  jointure  is  made 
to  a  wo  nan  during  her  coverture  in  satisfac- 
tion of  dower,  she  may  wave  it  after  her  hus- 
band's dealii  ;  but  if  she  enters  and  agrees 
tliereto,  she  is  cor.cluded ;  for  though  a  wo- 
man is  not  bound  by  any  act  when  she  is  not 
at  her  ov,  ii  disposal,  yet  if  she  agrees  to  it  when 
she  is  at  liberty,  it  is  her  own  act,  and  she 
cannot  avoid  it.     Co.  Lit.  36.     4  Co.  3. 

JOISLS,  or  JoYSTS.  See  Architec- 
ture. 

JONXQin':TIA,  a  genus  of  the  decandria 
tetragynia  class  and  order.  The  cal.  is  five- 
leaved;  pet.  five  and  spreading;  filaments 
growing  to  a  glandule;  styles  none;  caps, 
sub-globular,  one-celled,  five-valved,  tive- 
seeded.  There  is  one  species,  a  large  tree  of 
Guiana. 

IONIC  ORDER.     See  Architecture. 

JONK,  or  JoNdUE,  in  naval  affairs,  is  a 
kind  of  small  ship,  very  common  in  the  East 
Indies:  these  vessels  are  about  the  bigness  of 
our  fly-boats,  and  dilVer  in  the  form  of  their 
building,  ai-cording  to  the  dilVerent  methods 
of  naval  architecture  used  by  the  nations  to 
which  tnev  belong.  Their  sails  are  frequent- 
ly made  of  mats,  and  their  anchors  are  made 
of  wood. 

JOl'RNAL,  at  sea.    SeeNAvicATioM. 

IPECACUANHA.     See  Materia  Me- 

DICA. 

ll'OMKA,  qnamncJit,  or  scarlet  convol- 
vulus, a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  in  the 
pentandna  cla^sot  pUuits ;  and  in  the  nauiral 
method  ranking  under  the  29th  order,  canipa- 
nacea'.  The  corolla  is  funnel-shaped  ;  tlie 
stigma  round-headed  ;  the  capsule  triiocular. 
There  are  tw  enty-seven  species ;  but  not 
more  than  one  (the  coccinea)  cultivated  in 
our  gardens.  This  has  long,  slender,  twin- 
ing stalks,  rising  upon  support  six  or  seven 
feet  high,  from  the  sides  of  which  arise  many 
slender  footstalks,  each  supporting  several 
large  and  beautiful  lunnel-shaped  aud  scarlet 


I  II  O 


31 


flowcrn.  There  is  a  variety  with  orapgc- 
coloured  fl.iwers.  Both  of  tlicni  are  annual. 
I  U I '.LAN  I).  By  statutes  39  and  40  Ceo. 
III.  c.  07.  the  kingdom)  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  shall,  upon  tlie  first  day  of  Jan.  1801, 
and  for  ever  after,  be  united,  bv  the  name  of 
the  United  Kingdom  ot  (jreat  lirilaJn  and  Ire- 

1  ind  ;  and  the  royal  styh:  and  tillei  afiper- 
(aining  to  the  imperial  crow  n  of  the  kaid  unil- 
e<l  kingdom  and  its  dependancies,  and  alio 
the  e-nsigns  armorial,  hags  and  banners  thereof, 
sliall  be  such  as  his  majesty,  by  his  royal  pro- 
clamation under  the  great  seal  of  the  tiuited 
kingdom,  shall  be  pleased  to  appoint. 

Where  a  debt  isconlracted  in  England,  and 
a  bond  is  taken  for  it  in  Ireland,  it  sliall  carry 
Irish  interest;  for  it  must  be  considered  as 
relcrable  to  the  place  w  here  il  is  made :  but 
if  it  was  a  simple-contract  debt  only,  it 
ouglit  to  carry  English  interest,  the  variation 
of  place  in  this  case  making  no  difference. 

2  Atk.  3S2. 

I R  ESI  NE,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria  order, 
in  the  dio-cia  class  ot  plants  ;  and  in  the  na- 
tural method  ranking  under  the  54tli  order, 
miscellanea-.  The  male  calyx  is  diphyllous, 
the  corolla  penlapeta'ous,  and  there  are  live 
nectaria.  The  female  calyx  is  chphyllous, 
the  corolla  pentapetalous  ;  there  are  two  ses- 
sile stigmata,  and  a  capsule  with  flocky  seeds. 
There  is  one  species,  a  herb  of  Jamaica. 

IRllJIU.M,  a  n;w  metal  latelv  discovered 
by  Mr.  Tennant  in  the  ore  of  platina.  It  is 
of  a  white  colour,  and  perfectly  infusible.  It 
does  not  combine  wilii  su'phur  or  arsenic. 
Lead  unites  with  it,  but  may  be  separated 
by  cupellation.  Cojiper,  silver,  and  gold, 
are  found  to  combine  with  it. 

IRIS,  the  flower-de-luce,  or  flag-flower, 
&c. ;  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order  in  the 
triandria  class  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  sixth  order,  en- 
sata-.  The  corolla  is  divided  into  six  parts  ; 
the  petals  alternately  reflexed;  the  stigmata 
resembling  petals. 

There  are  filty  species,  all  herbaceous 
flowering  perennials,  botii  of  the  fibrous,  tu- 
berous, and  bulbous-rooted  kind,  producing 
thick  annual  stalks  from  three  or  four  inches 
to  a  yard  hi,gh,  terminated  by  large  hexapeta- 
lous  dowers,  having  three  of  the  petals  re- 
flexed  ([uite  back,  and  three  erect;  most  of 
which  are  very  ornamental,  appearing  in 
May,  June,  anii  July.  All  the  species  are 
easily  propagated  by  olTsets  frim  ihe  roots, 
which  should  be  plai.ted  in  .September,  Oc- 
tober, or  November,  though  almost  any  time 
from  September  to  March  will  do.  They 
niav  also  be  raised  from  seed,  which  is  the 
best  method  for  procuring  varieties.  It  is  to 
be  sown  in  autumn,  soon  afitr  it  ripens,  in  a 
bed  or  border  ot  common  earth,  and  raked 
in.  The  plants  will  rise  in  the  spring,  and 
are  to  be  trauspk.nted  next  autumn. 

IRON,  tiio  most  abundant,  and  the  most 
usehil  of  all  metals,  was  neither  known  so 
early,  norwrou:;ht  so  easily  as  gold,  silver, 
and  cop,  cr. 

Iron  is  of  a  bluish  white  colour;  and  when 
polished,  has  a  gr^at  de^l  of  brilliancy.  It 
h-s  a  sty,  t:c  t;;ste,  and  emits  a  smell  when 
rubbed.'  Its  specific  gravity  varies  from  7.Q 
to  7.8.  It  is  attracted  by  the  magnet  oc 
loadstone,  and  is  itself  tiie  substance  which 
constitutes  the  loadstone.  But  when  iron  is 
perlectly  pure,  it  retains  the  magnetic  vir- 


32 

tt;«  a  Terv  >hort  lime.  Tl  is  m;0!..'aMe  in 
every  U-Hipc-rjture,  and  its  n:a'.leahility  in- 
creases in  proportion  as  tlif-  temperature 
auq:ments;  l)ut  it  cannot  be  liamnierod  out 
nearly  so  tliiii  as  gol.l  or  silver,  or  even  cop- 
\>sr.  Jts  ductility,  however,  is  luori:  piTtVct; 
ior  it  may  l>e  drawn  cut  into  wire  as  rii;e  at 
least  as  a  liuiuiiii  liair.  Its  tenacity  is  sucli, 
tiial  an  iron  wire  0O7S«fan  inrli  in  diame- 
ter is  capable  of  supporting  549.23  lbs.  avoir- 
dupois uitliout  breaking.  When  heated  to 
about  i.58^  V\'e<!gc\vood,  it  melts.  This 
-temperature  baing  nearly  the  highest  to 
which  it  can  be  raised,  it  has  been  impossible 
to  asi  ertain  the  point  at  which  tliis  melted 
metal  begins  to  boil  and  to  evaporate.  Nei- 
ther lias  the  form  oi  its  crystals  been  ex- 
amined :  but  it  is  well  known  that  the  texture 
of  iron  is  iibroiis ;  that  is,  it  appears  when 
broken  to  be  composed  of  a  number  of  libies 
or  slrintjs  bundled  logetlier. 

Vlu-n  exposed  to  the  air,  its  surface  is 
soon  tarnislied,  and  it  is  gradually  chanjfcd 
into  a  b.own  or  ycilaw  powder,  well  knov.n  | 
untler  the  name  of  rust.  This  change  takes 
place  more  rapidly  if  the  atmosphere  is 
moist.  It  is  occasioned  by  the  2;radual  coni- 
biualiou  of  the  iron  with  the  ox\gen  of  tire 
atmosphere,  ior  which  it  has  a  very  strong 
affiiiily. 

When  iron  tilings  are  kept  in  water,  pro- 
•\-idcd  the  temperature  is  not  untler  70',  they 
are  gradually  coiuerted  into  a  black  'powder, 
while  a  quantity  of  hy<!rogen  gas  is  emitted. 
This  it  occa>ioned  bv  tiie  slow  deconlpo^ition 
of  the  water.  'I'he  ii'ou  combines  with  its  I 
owgen,  whiJe  the  hydrogen  makes  its  escape  j 
iimler  the  form  of  gas. 

If  the  steam  of  water  is  made  t^o  pass  ! 
.through  a  red-hot  iron  tube,  it  is  deioni-  | 
posed  instantly.  The  oxygen  combines  with 
.t1ie  iron,  ;nid  the  hydrogen  ^as  passes  through 
the  tube,  and  may  be  collec-t.d  in  proper 
vessels.  '1  his  is  one  of  the  easiest  methods  of 
procuring  pure  Indrogen  gas. 

'I'hese  tacts  are  suflicient  to  show  that  iron 
has  a  strong  affinity  for  oxygen,  since  it  is 
capable  of  taking  it  from  air  and  water.  It  is 
caj)able  also  of  taking  lire  and  burning  with 
great  rapidity.  Twist  a  small  iron  wire  into 
t-lie  form  ot  a  cork-screw,  by  rolling  it  round  a 
cylinder;  lix  one  end  of  it  into  a  curk,  and 
attach  to  the  otiur  a  small  bit  of  cotton  thn^ad 
dipt  in  melted  tallow.  .Set  lire  to  tlie  cotton, 
aid  pluiii;e  it  while  burning  into  a  jar  Idled 
*  ith  oxvgcn  gas.  The  wire  catches  tin;  from 
the  cotton,  and  burns  with  great  brilliancy, 
emitting  very  vivid  sparks  in  all  directions. 
For  thii  very  splendid  experiment  we  are  in- 
debted to  Or.  lugenhousz.  During  tiiis 
combustion  the  iron  -combines  with  oxygen, 
and  is  converted  into  an  oxide.  .Mr.  Proust 
has  proved  that  there  are  only  two  oxides 
of  iron ;  the  protoxide  has  usually  a  black 
colour,  but  the  peroxide  is  red. 

The  protoxide  of  iron  may  be  obtained  hv 
diur  dill'erent  processes.  I.  By  keeping  iron 
tilings  a  snlllcienl  time  in  water  at  the  teuipe- 
»alureuf70".  'I'he  oxide  thus  formed  is  a 
b1a<k  powder,  formerly  much  used  in  medi- 
cine under  the  name  of  martial  etliiops,  and 
teems  to  have  licen  first  examined  l)y  l.e- 
iiieri ;  but  ii  better  process  is  that  of  De 
Hoover,  lie  exposes  a  paste  formed  of  iron 
fdiijgs  and  water  to  the  open  air,  in  a  stone- 
•i*.arc  vessel ;  the  puble  becomes  liot,  uud  the 


IRON. 

water  disappears.  It  is  then  moi-jV-ned 
again,  and  the  process  repeated  till  the  whole 
is'oxydized.  '1  he  mass  is  tlic'> pounded,  and 
the  powder  is  heated  in  an  iron  vessel  till  it  is 
pertectiy  dry,  stirrnig  it  constantly.  2.  By 
making"  steam  ))ass  through  a  red-hot.  iron 
tube,  the  iron  is  changed  into  a  brilliant 
black  brittle  substance,  which,  when  pounded, 
assumes  llie  appearanc-e  of  inarti-al  ethiops. 
This  experiment  was  fir^t  made  by  Lavoisier. 
3.  Bv  burning  iron  wire  in  oxygen  ga«.  The 
wire  as  it  burns  is  melted,  and  talis  in  drops 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  wliich  ought  to 
be  covered  with  water,  and  to  be  of  copper. 
These  metallic  drops  are  brittle,  very  hard, 
and  blackish,  but  retain  the  metallic  lustre. 
They  were  examined  by  Lavoisier,  and  found 
precisely  the  same  with  marthial  ethiops. 
They  owe  their  lustre  to  the  fusion  which 
they  underwent.  By  dissolviiig  iron  in  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  pouring  potass  into  the  so- 
lution. 4.  A  green  po'.vder  falls  to  the  bottom, 
which  assumes  the  ap]jeaiance  of  martial 
ethiops  when  dried  quickly  in  close  vessels. 
This  lirst  oxide  of  iron,  however  formed,  is 
always  composed  of  73  parts  of  iron  and  27  of 
oxygen,  as  Lavoisier  and  Proust  have  de- 
monstrated. It  is  attracted  by  the  magnet, 
and  is  often  it.seif  magnetic.  It  is  capable  of 
crvstall'izing,  and  is  otten  found  native  in  that 
state.- 

Tlie  peroxide  or  red  oxide  of  iron  may  be 
formed  by  keeping  iron  tilings  red-hot  in  an 
op;n  vessel,  and  agitating  ihem  constantly  till 
they  are  converted  into  a  dark-red  powilcr. 
1  his  oxide  was  formerly  called  saffron  of  Mars. 
Common  rust  of  iron  is  merely  this  oxide 
coinbiuf-d  wi-h  carbonic  acid  gas.  '1  he  red 
oxide  may  be  obtained  also  by  exposing  lor  a 
long  time  a  diluted  solution  of  iron  in  sulpiiu- 
ric  acid  to  the  afmosphi-re,  ar.d  then  dropping 
into  it  an  alkali ,  by  which  the  oxide  is  preci- 
pitatetl.  This  oxide  is  also  found  native  in 
great  abundance.  Proust  proved  it  to  be 
comjjosed  of  48  parts  of  oxygen  and  52  of 
iron.  Conseiiucntly  the  protoxide,  when 
converted  into  red  oxide,  absorbs  0.40  of 
oxygen ;  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  the 
red  oxide  is  composed  off)6.5  part^  of  black 
oxide  and  3.5.5  [jarts  of  oxyg -u.  One  hun- 
dretl  parts  of  iron,  when  conveitetl  into  a  pro- 
toxide, absorb  37  parts  of  oxygen,  and  the 
oxide  weighs  137  ;  when  conveite<l  into  jjer- 
oxidif,  it  absorbs  52  additional  parts  of  oxv- 
^en,  and  the  oxide  weighs  1«9. 

The  peroxide  cannot  be  decomposed  by 
heat;  but  when  heated  along  with  its  own 
weight  of  iron  tilings,  the  whole,  as  A'aiKjue- 
lin  jirst  observed,  is  converted  into  black  ox- 
ide. The  reason  of  this  conversion  is  evi- 
dent: The  100  jjarts  of  jjeroxicle  are  com- 
posed of  52  parts  of  iron,  combiiied  with  two 
dilferent  doses  of  oxygen  :  .  1.  With  14  parts, 
which,  with  the  iron,  make  66  of  protoxide  : 
2.  With  34  parts,  which,  with  the  protoxide, 
make  up  the  100  parts  of  peroxide.  Now, 
ii\e  first  of  these  dnses  has  a  mucii  greater  at- 
linity  for  the  iron  than  the  second  lu  s.  C.'on- 
seijuently  the  34  parts  of  oxygen,  whit  h  con- 
stitute the  second  dose,  being  retaiui'd  by  a 
weak  allinity,  are  easily  abstracted  by  the 
100  parts  ot  pure  iron;  and  combiiiiug  with 
the  iron,  tlu'  whoh'  almost  is  converted  into 
black  oxide:  for  100  parts  of  iron,  to  be  con- 
verted into  black  oxide,  reipiire  only  37  parts 
of  oxygen. 

'I'he  i)eio.\ide  of  iioii  is  iu)t  magnetic.     If 


is  converted  into  Wack  oxide  liy  sulpluirolcl 
hydrogen  gas  and  many  other  substances ; 
wiiich  deprive  it  of  the  second  dose  of  oxy- 
gen, for  which  they  have  a  stronger  aflinity, 
though  they  are  incapable  of  decomposing 
the  protoxirle.  Iron  is  capable  of  combining 
with  all  the  simple  combustible  bodies. 

A  small  mixture  of  it  constitutes  that  par- 
ticular kind  of  iron,  known  by  the  nam-.:  of 
cold  short  iron,  because  it  is  brittle  when 
cold,  though  it  is  malleable  when  hot. 

Rinman  lias  shewn  that  the  brittleness  and 
bad  qualities  of  cold  short  iron  may  be  re- 
moved iiy  healing  it  strongly  with  liinestoiie, 
and  Willi  this  the  experiments  of  Levavasseur 
correspond. 

There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  iron, 
wl-.ich  artists  distinguisl'.  by  particular  names  ; 
but  all  of  them  may  be  re<luced  under  one  of 
other  of  tlie  three  following  classes:  cast 
iron;  wrought  or  soft  iron;  and  st(  el. 

Cast  iron,  or  pig  iron,  is  the  name  of  tlie 
metal  when  lirst  extracted  from  its  oies. 
Tiie  ores  from  which  iron  is  usually  obtained 
are  composed  of  oxide  of  iron  and  clay.  The 
object  of  ^he  maHulacturer  is  to  reduce  the 
oxide  to  the  metallic  state,  and  to  separate 
all  tlie  clay  with  which  it  is  combined.  These 
two  objects  are  accomplished  at  once,  by 
mixing  the-  ore  reduced  to  small  pieces  with  a 
certain  portion  of  limestone  and  of  charcoal, 
and  subjecting  the  whole  to  a  verv  violent 
ileal  in  furnaces  constructed  for  the  purpose. 
The  charcoal  absorbs  the  oxigenof  the  oxide, 
iiies  off  in  the  state  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and 
leaves  the  iron  in  the  metp.llic  state;  tlu; 
lime  combines  with  the  clay,  and  bol4i  toge- 
j  ther  run  into  fusion,  and  form  a  kind  of  lluid 
;  glass;  the  iron  is  also  melted  by  the  violence 
of  the  heat,  and  being  heavier  liian  the  glass, 
falls  down,  and  is  co'liected  at  the  bottom  of 
the  furnace.  'I'hus  the  contents  of  the  fur- 
nace are  separated  into  tv.o  portions;  the 
glass  swims  at  the  surface,  and  the  iron  rests 
at  the  bottom.  A  hole  at  the  lower  part  of 
the  furnace  is  now  opened,  ami  the  iron  al- 
lowed to  flow  out  into  moulds  prepared  for  its 
reception. 

The  cast  iron  thus  obtained  is  distinguished 
by  tlie  following  properlii's :  It  is  scaicely 
malleable  at  any  temperature.  It  is  generally 
so  h.'.rd  as  to  resist  the  file.  It  can  neither 
be  Ir.u-dened  nor  softened  by  ignition  and 
cooling.  It  is  exceedingly  brittle.  It  melts 
at  130°  Wedgewood.  It  is  more  sonorous 
than  steel.  I'or  the  most  part  it  is  of  a  dark- 
grey  or  blackish  colour;  but  sometimes  it  is 
whitish,  and  then  it  contains  a  <iuanlity  of 
phospluiret  of  iron,  v.hich  considerably"  im- 
pairs its  tpialitics.  A  great  number  of  uten- 
sils are  formed  of  iron  in  this  sl;i(e. 

To  convert  it  into  wrought  iron,  it  is  put 
into  a  furnace,  and  kept  melted,  by  means  of 
the  llame  of  tlie  combustibles,  which  is  made 
to  pby  upon  its  surface.  A\'hile  melted,  it  is 
constantly  stirred  by  a  workman,  that  every 
part  of  it  may  be"  exposed  to  the  air.  In 
about  an  hour  the  liottest  part  of  the  mass 
begiiiu  to  heave  and  swi-ll,  and  to  emit  a  1am- 
beul  blue  llame.  This  continues  nearlv  an 
iiour ;  and  by  that  time  the  conversion  is 
completed.  The  heaving  is  evidently  pro 
duced  by  the  emi'-sion  of  ;m  elastic  llui"d.  As 
the  process  advances,  the  iron  graduallvuc- 
(piires  more  consistency;  and  at  last,"ji()t- 
witii»i.iuidiug  the  continuance  of  the  heat,  it 

10 


r  R  () 

«5ilgr>als  nil  tontllicr.  Jt  is  ihrn  lakdi  wliilr 
hoi,  aiii-l  liaiiiinrrrd  violi'iiliy.  Ijy  ilican»  of  a 
liravy  liaiiiiu'i-  (liivcii  by  iiiacliiiUTy.  'I'lii'^ 
not  only  makes  liif  paiticlcs  oliroii  approat  li 
ncanfi-  cacli  otlu-r,  Init  druoit  away  several 
iiii|)urilies  wliicli  woiil'l  ollierwise  coiitiiiue 
allachedLo  tile  iron. 

Ill  lliis  sUUe  it  is  tlie  siiMancc  described 
under  (lie  name  of  iron.  As  it  lias  never  yet 
lieen  deeoin|)i)Sed,  it  is  considered  at  jiresent, 
when  [Mire,  as  a  simple  liody  ;  l)iit  il  lias  sel- 
dom or  never  lieen  loiind  witlionl  some  small 
iniNture  ol  foreign  snlislaiues.  These  snlj- 
slances  are  either  some  of  the  oilier  nielals, 
or  oxygen,  carbon,  or  phosjiliorns. 

When  sma  1  pieces  of  iron  are  stratified  in 
a  close  craoible,  with  a  suliicieiit  tjnaiitity  of 
charcoal-powder,  and  kept  in  a  strong  red 
heat  lor  eight  or  ten  hours,  tliry  are  convert- 
ed into  steel,  wliicli  is  distinguislieU  from  iron 
by  the  tbllowing  properties. 

Il  IS  so  hard  as  to  be  on  nalleable  while 
cold,  or  al  lea-t  it  ae([inres  this  property  by 
b  'inij  immersed  while  ignited  into  a  cold  li- 
<piid:  lor  this  immersion,  though  it  lias  no 
tlfect  upon  iron,  adds  greatly  to  ilie  hardness 
of  steel. 

It  is  brittle,  resists  the  file,  cuts  glass,  af- 
fords sparks  with  llinl,  and  retains  the  mag- 
netic virtue  for  an\  length  of  tniie.  It  loses 
this  hardness  b\  being  ignited  and  cooli-d 
very  slowly,  it  melts  at  above  1.30^  We<lge- 
wood.  It  is  malleable  when  red-hot,  but 
scarcely  so  when  r.iised  to  a  white  heat.  It 
may  be  hammered  out  into  much  thinner 
plates  than  iron.  It  is  more  sonorous;  and 
its  specific  gravily,  w  hen  hanimered,  is  greater 
than  that  of  iron. 

I5y  being  repeatedly  ignited  in  an  open 
■vessel,  ami  hammered,  it  becomes  wrought 
iron,  which  is  a  simple  substance,  and  if 
p<-ifectly  [Hire  would  contain  nothing  but 
iron. 

Steel  is  iron  combined  w  itli  a  small  portion 
of  carbon,  and  has  been  for  that  reason  calli'd 
carbureted  iron.  The  proporlion  of  carbon 
has  not  been  ascertained  with  mncli  preci- 
^ion.  From  the  analysis  of  Vau(|iielni,  it 
amounts,  at  an  averagi",  to  -j-|_  part.  >Ir. 
Clouet  seems  to  afl'irm  that  it  amounts  to 
..I-  part ;  but  he  has  not  published  the  e.\pe- 
rimcnts  which  led  him  to  a  pro|)Ortion,  which 
so  far  exceeds  what  has  been  obtained  bv 
other  chemists. 

'I'liat  steel  is  composed  of  iron  combined 
with  pure  carbon,  and  not  with  charcoal,  lias 
been  demonstrated  by  Morveau,  who  formed 
steel  by  combining  together  directlv  iron  and 
tlianiond.  At  the  suggestion  of  (.'louet,  he 
inclosed  a  diamond  in  a  small  crucible  of 
pure  ir.jn,  and  exposeil  it  compleielv  covered 
up  in  a  common  crucible  to  a  snilieieni  heat. 

The  diamond  disappe..red,  and  tlie  iron 
was  converted  into  steel.  The  diamond 
weighed  !)07  parts,  the  iron  57SO(l,  and  the 
steel  obt.iMiwl  56384;  so  that  'JJl.i  parts  of 
the  iron  had  been  lost  in  the  operation. 
From  this  eN])  rimmit  it  follows,  that  steel 
contains  about  _ty  of  its  weight  of  carbon. 
This  exper,  lent  was  objected  to  by  Mr. 
Mushet,  but  in-  ..bji-etions  were  fully  refuted 
by  sn  (ieorge  M'Kenzie. 

Unini  n,  long  ago,  pointed  out  a  method 
by  which  steel  may  be  distinguished  from 
iron.     \V  hen  a  iitt'.e  diluted  nitric  acid  is 

Vol..  II. 


I  11  (■» 

dr.i|)t  ii]ion  a  plate  of  steel,  aIlowe<i  (o  remain 
a  tew  minutes,  iind  then  washed  olT,  it  leaves 
behind  il  a  blaik  »|)ot ;  whereas  the  spot 
loriiied  by  nitric  acid  on  iron  is  whitish-grei-n. 
\\  e  can  «;asilv  see  (he  reason  of  Ihe  black 
spot  :  it  is  owing  to  I  hi!  carbon  of  the  iron 
which  is  converted  into  cliarco;il  bvlheacid. 
This  experiment  shows  us,  lliat  caibon  is 
much  more  readily  oxidaleil  v.  lien  combined 
with  iron  than  when  cryslallizeil  in  the  dia- 
mond. 

C'ast  iron,  is  iron  combined  wilh  a  sliU 
greater  proportion  of  carbon  than  is  necessary 
lor  forming  steel.  The  quantity  ban  not  yet 
been  ascertained  with  jirecision  :  Mr.  Clouet 
makes  it  amount  to  |.  of  the  iron.  The 
blackness  of  the  colour,  and  the  fusibility  of 
cast  iron,  are  proportional  to  the  ()'iaiilitv  of 
carbon  which  it  contains.  Cast  iron  is  almost 
always  < ontaminated  with  foreign  ingredi- 
ents :  these  are  chielly  oxide  of  iron,  phos- 
pliuiet  of  iron,  and  silica. 

It  is  easy  to  see  why  iron  is  obtained  from 
its  ore  in  the  state  of  cast  iron.  The  (inan- 
tity  of  charcoal,  along  with  whirh  the  ore  is 
fused,  is  so  great,  that  the  iron  has  an  oppor- 
tunity of  saturating  itself  with  it. 

The  conversion  of  cast  iron  into  wrought 
iron  is  effected  by  burning  away  the  char- 
coal, and  depriving  the  iron  wholly  of  oxygen: 
this  is  accomplished  by  heating  it  violentiv 
while  exposed  to  the  air.  Mr.  Clouet  has 
found,  that  when  cast  iron  is  mixed  with  A 
of  its  weight  of  black  oxide  of  iron,  and  heal- 
ed violently,  it  is  equally  converted  into  pure 
iron.  The  oxygen  of  the  oxide,  and  the  car- 
bon of  the  cast  iron,  combine,  and  leave  the 
iron  in  a  state  of  purity. 

The  conversion  of  iron  into  steel  is  elTected 
by  combining  it  with  carbon.  This  combi- 
nation is  performed  in  the  large  way  bv 
three  dilfereiit  processes,  and  the  products 
are  distinguished  by  the  names  of  natural 
steel,  steel  of  cementation,  and  cast  steel. 

Natural  steel  is  obtained  from  the  ore  by 
converting  it  first  into  cast  iron,  and  thou  ex- 
posing the  cast  iron  to  a  violent  heat  in  a  fur- 
nace while  its  surface  is  covered  with  a  mass 
of  melted  scoria-  five  or  six  inches  deep. 
Part  of  the  carbon  combines  with  the  oxygen 
which  cast  iron  always  contains,  and  tlies  oil 
in  the  state  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  I'lie  re- 
mainder combines  with  the  pure  iron,  and 
constitutes  it  steel.  This  steel  is  inferior  to 
the  other  species;  its  ()uality  is  not  the  same 
throughout  ;  it  is  softer,  and  not  so  apt  to 
bre.k;  and  as  the  processes  by  w  liicli  it  is 
obtained  are  less  exjiensive,  it  is  sold  at  a  low- 
er price  than  the  other  species. 

It  is  obvious  that  iron  and  carbon  are  ca- 
pable of  combining  together  in  a  variety  of 
dillerent  proportions.  When  the  carbon  ex- 
ceeds, ihc  compound  is  carburet  of  iron,  or 
plumbago.  When  the  iron  exceeds,  the 
compound  is  steel  cr  cast  iron  in  various 
slates,  according  to  the  proportion.  All  these 
compounds  mav  be  considered  as  suhcarbu- 
rei^  el  iron.  'I  he  hardness  of  iron  increases 
wall  the  proporlion  of  charcoal  with  which 
it  combines,  till  the  carbon  amounts  to  about 
-Xf  of  the  whole  mass.  The  hardness  is  then 
a  maximum;  the  metal  ac<iuires  the  colour 
of  silver,  loses  its  granulated  ap|)earance, 
and  assumes  a  crystallized  form.  If  more 
carbon  ie  udjed  to  the  comp«ui;d,  thj;  hjrd- 


/  .S  O 


31 


lie;;   ilitiiininlies  in  proportion  to  its  quan- 
tity. 

The  artinities  of  iron,  and  its  oxidw,  are 
arranged  by  liergmaii  as  in  the  follow  iii^ 
table : 

Ikon.  Oxide  of  Irov. 


Nickel, 
(  oball. 


Oxalic  aj.id. 
Tartaric, 


Maneanese,         Caniiihorii:, 
nlphi 


ArseiiK  , 

Copper, 

(Jold, 

.Silver, 

Tin, 

Antimony, 

I'latiiium, 

Hisniuth, 

I.,  ad, 

Mercury. 


Sulphuric, 

Saclalic, 

Muriatic, 

Nitric. 

I'liosphorir, 

Arsenic, 

Fluoric, 

Succinic, 

Citric, 

l-'.<:tic, 

Aietic, 

Boracic, 

Pnissic, 

Carlionic. 

Iron-sick,  in  the  sea-language,  is  said  of 
a  ship  or  boat,  when  her  bolts  or  nails  are  so- 
ealcMi  with  rust,  and  so  worn  away,  that  they 
occasion  hollows  in  the  planks,  whereby  the 
vessel  is  rendered  leaky. 

IRH.ATIONAL,  an  appellation  given  to 
surd  numbers  and  c|uanKtics.  See  Alge- 
bra. 

IKREGULAR,  in  graminar,  such  in- 
flections of  words  as  vary  from  the  general 
rules;  thus  we  say,  irregular  nouns,  irregular 
verbs. 

ISATIS,  woad;  a  genus  of  the  siliquosa 
order,  in  the  tetradynamiu  class  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
30th  order,  the  siliipiosa.  'ITie  siliqua  is  lan- 
ceolaled,  unilocular,  mouospennous,  bivalv- 
ed,  and  deciduous ;  the  valves  navicular  or 
canoe-shaped.  There  are  four  species;  but 
the  only  one  worthy  of  notice  is  the  liiictoria, 
or  common  woad,  which  is  cultivated  in  seve- 
ral parts  of  Hritain  for  the  purposes  of  dve- 
ing,  being  used  as  a  foundation  for  iiiauy'  of 
the  dark  colours.     See  UvtiNC. 

ISCILFMl'M,  a  genus  of  the  monoecia 
order,  in  the  polygamia  class  of  plants ;  and 
in  till-  natural  method  r.inking  under  the  4t|> 
order,  gramina.  The  calyx  of  the  her- 
maphrodite is  a  biilorons  glume ;  tlie  corolla 
bivalved  ;  there  are  three  stamina,  two  styles, 
and  one  seed.  The  calyx  and  corolla  ot  th« 
male,  as  in  the  former,  with  Uiree  stamina. 
There  are  eight  species. 

ISCriUKY.     See  Medicikb. 

ISF.RTI.'V,  a  genus  of  the  he.xandria  ino- 
nogynia  class  and  order ;  the  cal.  is  coloured, 
tour  or  six  toothed  ;  cor.  six-cleft,  funnel- 
form  ;  pome  subglobular,  si.x-celled.  There 
is  one  species,  a  tree  of  Cayenne. 

ISIXGr.ASS,  in  the  materia  medica.  Sec. 
See  AcciPEKSER. 

ISNARDIA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynla 
order,  in  the  tetrandria  ( lass  of  plants ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  imderthe  ITtli 
order,  calycanthemi.  ThiTc  is  no  corolla  ; 
the  calyx  is  quadrifid  ;  tlie  capsule  quadrilo- 
cular,  and  girt  with  the  calyx.  There  is  onf 
species,  an  aquatic  and  anneal. 

ISOCFLES  Triangle,  in  geometrv,  cn«j 
tliat  has  two  equal  sides. 

ISgCURONAL.    Jsochro.xe",  m  [so- 


94 


I  S  S 


J  U  D 


JUG 


CHROMOus,  is  applied  to  such . vibrations  cf  a 
p-ndulum,  as  are  performed  in  the  same  space 
of  time  ;  as  al!  the  vibrations  or  swings  ot  the 
same  pendulum  are,  whetlicr  the  arches  it 
describes  are  lor.jcr  or  siiorter:  for  when  it 
describes  a  shorle"r  arch,  it  moves  so  much 
the  flower,  and  when  a  long  one  propor- 
tionably  faster. 

IsocHRO.VAL  LINE,  that  in  which  a  heavy 
body  is  supposed  to  descend  without  any  ac- 
cek-ration. 

ISOETES,'a  genus  of  the  natural  order  of 
filice-,  belonging  to  tiie  cryptoganiia  class  of 
plants.  'Ihe  an'thera;  of  llie  male  ilower  are 
within  tile  base  of  tlie  frc ns  or  leaf.  'I'he  cap- 
sule of  the  female  ilower  is  bilocular,  and 
withiu  the  base  of  the  leaf.  Tliere  are  two 
species. 

ISOPER [METRICAL  Figures,  in  ge- 
ometrv,  are  such  as  have  et[ual  i7erimcter.=,  or 
circumferences. 

1.  Of.isoperimt-trical  ligiiros,  that  is  the 
greatest  that  contains  tiie  i{reatest  number  of 
sides,  or  the  most  angles,  and  consequently  a 
circle  is  the  greatest  of  all  Hgures  that  have 
the  same  ambit  as  it  has. 

2.  Of  two  isoperimetrical  triangles,  hav- 
ing the  same  base,  whereof  two  sides  of  one 
are  equal,  and  of  the  other  luiMiual,  that  is 
the  greater  whose  two  sitles  arc  equal. 

3.  Of  isoperimetrical  figures,  whose  sides  are 
equal  in  number,  that  is  the  .greatest  which  is 
equilateral  and  equiangular.  From  hence  fol- 
lows that  common  problem  of  making  the  hedg- 
ing or  walling  that  will  wall  in  one  acre,  or 
C'.-en  any  determinate  number  of  acres,  a,  fence 
or  wall  in  any  greater  number  of  acres  what- 
ever b.  In  order  to  the  solution  of  this  problem, 
let  the  greater  number  b  be  supposed  a  square. 
Let  .V  be  one  side  of  an  oblong,  whose  area  is  .j; 

then  will  —  be  the  other  side  ;  and  2 \-  2x 

X  >  X 

will  be  the  ambit  of  the  oblong,  which  must  be 
equal  to  four  times  the  sijuare-root  of  i ;  that 

\s,   '2 y  2.V  ^  i  ,y  b.     Whence  tlie  value  of 

X  may  be  easily  had,  and  you  may  make  infinite 
numbers  of  stjuares  and  oblongs  that  have  the 
same  ambit,  and  yet  shall  have  different  given 
areas,  thus 


it  being  sometimes  taken  for  the  children  be- 1  dependant  of  the  king,  his  ministers,  or  hi» 
gotten  between  a  inan  and  liis  wife;  some-     ■-■ 


Let  ^i  =  d, 
^,          2a  +  4v-v 
Then,  -— 1^ = 


M 


a  +  2  y;>-  =  2dx 
^xx  —  %lx  ==  — 

XX  —     dx  ■=.   — 


OCX-    dx  -\- idd  =r  —  -^ -{■  IdJ 


■  +  i''>  +  ¥- 


Tims,  if  one  side  of  the  square  be  10;  .and 
•ne  side  of  an  oblong  be  1 9,  and  the  other  1  ; 
tlicn  will  the  ambits  uf  that  square  and  oblong 
be  equal,  viz.  each  40,  and  yet  the  area  of  the 
3(juare  will  be  100,  and  of  the  oblong  but  19. 

ISOPYRUM,  in  botany  ;  a  genus  of  the 
polygynia  order,  in  the  polyandria  class  of 
plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  2fith  order,  multisili((ua;.  'I'iiere  is 
no  calyx,  but  five  petals ;  the  nectaria  trilid 
;ind  tubular ;  the  ca))sules  recurved  and  po- 
lyspermous.  There  are  two  species,  of  no 
note. 

ISSUE,  iu  law,  has  several  sigiiiiicalions, 


times  for  profits  arising  from  amerc  enients 
and  lines  ;  and  sonielinies  (or  tin-  prolits  issu- 
ing out  of  lands  or  tenements;  ()ut  this  word 
generally  signities  tlie  conclusion,  or  [joint  oi 
matter,  "that  issues  from  the  allegalion^  and 
pleasotthe  plaintiff  and  defendant  in  a  cause 
to  be  tried  by  a  jury  or  court. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  issues  in  relation  to 
causes,  that  upon  a  matter  of  facl,  and  that 
upon  a  matter  of  law:  that  of  facl  is  where 
the  plaintiff  and  defendant  have  lixed  upon  a 
point  to  be  tried  by  a  jury  :  and  that  in  kw 
is  where  there  are  a  demurrer  to  a  declara- 
tion, &c.  and  a  joinder  in  demurrer,  which  is 
determinable  only  by  the  judges.  Issues  of 
fact  are  either  general  or  special;  they  are 
general,  when  it  is  left  to  the  jury  to  Jinil 
whether  the  defendant  has  done  any  such 
thing  as  the  plaintiff  lias  alleged  against  him ; 
and  special,  where  some  special  matter,  or 
material  point  alleged  by  the  defendant  in 
his  defence,  is  to  be  tried.  General  issue 
also  siguilies  a  plea  in  which  the  defendant  is 
allowed  to  give  the  special  matter  in  evidence, 
by  way  ut  excuse  or  jusliflcation ;  tliis  is 
granted  by  several  statutes,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent a  prolixity  in  pleading,  by  allowing  the 
defendant  to  give  any  tiling  in  evidence,  to 
prove  that  the  plainti'lf  had  no  cause  for  his 
action. 

Issues  on  aheriifs,  are  such  amercements 
and  lines  la  the  crovvn,  as  are  levied  out  ot 
the  issues  and  prohLs  of  the  lands  of  sheriffs, 
for  their  faults  and  neglects:  but  these  issues, 
on  shewing  a  good  and  sufficient  cause,  may 
be  taken  oif  before  they  are  estreated  into  the 
exchequer. 

Issues.  See  Surgery- 
ITEA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  in 
the  pentandria  class  of  plants ;  and  in  tlie  na- 
tural m-lhod  ranknig  with  tliose  of  which  the 
order  Is  doubtful.  Tne  petals  are  long,  and 
inserted  into  the  calyx;  the  cap  ule  unilocu- 
lar and  bivalved.  _  There  are  two  species,  na- 
tives of  North  America. 

IV A,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria  order,  in 
the  monoicia  class  of  plants;  and' in  the  natu- 
ral method  ranking  mider  the  49lii  order, 
composttce.  The  male  calyx  is  common  and 
tripuyllous;  the  florets  of  the  disc  monopeta- 
lous  and  quinquelid;  the  receptiicle  divided 
by  smal  hairs.  Ihere  is  no  female  calyx 
nor  corolla;  but  five  liorets  in  the  radius; 
two  long  st\les;  and  one  naked  and  obtu^; 
seed.  There  are  two  species,  natives  of 
America. 

JUDGE.  The  judges  are  the  chief  ma- 
gistrates in  the  law,  to  try  civil  and  criminal 
causes.  Of  these  there  "are  twelve  in  Eng- 
land, viz.  the  lords  cliief  justices  of  the  courts 
of  king's-bench  and  common-pleas;  the  lord 
chief  baron  of  the  exchequer;  the  tliree 
puisne  or  inferior  judges  uf  the  two  former 
courts,  and  the  tliree  puisne  barons  of  the 
latter. 

By  Stat.  1  Geo.  HI.  c.  23.  the  judges  are 
to  continue  in  their  offices  during  their  good 
behaviour,  notwilhstandiug  any  demise  of  the 
crown  (wliich  was  formerlv  held  immediat<'ly 
to  vacate  their  seats),  and  their  full  salaries 
are  absolutely  secured  to  them  during  the 
1  continuance  of  their  commissions,  by  which 
means  tlicjudges  are  rendered  completely  iii- 


successor-i, 

A  juslge  at  his  creation  takes  an  oatli,  that 
he  will  servo  the  king,  and  indill'erently  ad- 
minister justice  to  all  men,  uithoul  respi'ct  of 
persons,  take  no  bribe,  give  n./counse.  where 
he  is  a  (liu'ty,  nor  deny  right  to  any,  though 
the  king  or' any  other,  by  letters,  or  by  ex- 
pressed words,  coimnaiid  the  coritnir_\ ,  Sec. 
and  in  default  of  duty,  to  be  answ  erable  to  the 
king  in  body,  land,  and  goods. 

Where  a  judge  has  ;.n  mterest,  neither  he 
nor  his  deputy  can  determine  a  cause,  or  sit 
in  cou.'t ;  and  if  he  does,  a  prohibition  lies, 
ilardw.  503. 

Judges  are  punishable  for  wilful  olTences, 
against  the  duty  of  their  situations;  instances 
of  winch  happily  live  only  in  remembrance. 
There  are  ancient  precedents  of  judges  who 
were  lined  wlien  they  transgl•es^ed  the  laws, 
Ihoug'.i  commanded  by  warrants  irom  the 
king. 

Judge  is  not  answerable  to  the  king,  or  the 
party,  lor  mistakes  or  errors  oi  his  judgment, 
in  a"  matter  of  which  he  has  juiisdiction.  I 
Salk.  3'J7. 

JUDGMENT.  The  opinion  of  the  jtidges 
is  so  called,  and  is  the  very  voice  and  final 
doom  of  the  law,  and  therefore  is  always 
taken  for  unquestionable  truth;  or  it  is  the 
sentence  ol  the  law  pronoum  ed  by  the  court, 
upon  the  matter  contained  m  the  record. 

Judgments  are  of  four  sorts,  viz.  1. 
Where  the  tacts  are  confessed  b\  the  p  rties, 
and  the  law  determined  by  the  court,  which 
Is  termed  judgment  bj  demurrer. 

2.  Where  the  law  is  admitted  by  the  par- 
ties, and  the  facts  only  are  disputed,  as  in' 
judgment  upon  a  demurrer. 

3.  Where  both  the  fact  and  the  law  arising 
thereon  are  admitted  by  the  defendant,  as  iu 
case  ol  judgment  by  confession  or  detault. 

4.  Where  the  plaintilTis  convinced  that  fact 
or  law,  or  botli,  are  insufficient  to  support 
Ins  action,  and  therefore  abandons  or  with- 
draws his  prosecution,  as  in  case  of  judgment 
upon  a  nonsuit  or  retraxit.  See  Warrant 
OF  Attorney. 

Judgments  are  either  interlocutory  or 
final. 

Interlocutory  judgments  are  such  as  arc 
given  in  the  middle  of  a  cause,  upon  some 
plea,  proceeding,  or  default,  which  is  only 
intermediate,  and  does  not  finally  deternihie 
or  complete  the  suit;  as  upon  dilatory  pleas, 
when  tlie  judgment  in  many  cases  is,  that 
the  defendant  shall  answer  over  ;  that  is,  put 
in  a  more  substantial  iilea. 

Final  judgments,  are  such  as  at  once  put 
an  end  to  the  action,  by  declaring  that  the 
|)laintilT  has  either  entitled  hinisili,  or  has 
not,  to  recover  the  remedy  he  sues  for.  3 
Black.  39S. 

JUGERUM,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
s<iuare  of  120  Roman  feet ;  its  proportion  to 
the  English  acre  being  as  10,000  to  1(),097. 

JUGLANS,  the  walnut,  a  genus  of  the 
monrccia  class,  and  pol>andria  order  of 
plants;  and  in  llie  natuiai  method  ruuKing 
under  the  jOlli  order,  anientacea-.  Tlie 
male  calyx  is  monopliyllous,  and  squami- 
form ;  the  corolla  divided  into  six  parts; 
there  are  18  lilanienls:  tlie  fema.e  calyx  is 
(piadrilid,  super  or;  the  corolla  (|uadripar- 
titc;  there  are  two  stales,  and  tlie  Iriiii  is  a 


J  U  I, 

yilum  with  a  furrowed  kerne!.     Tlirro  are  R  I 
Speii'S,  the  mosl  reinarkaljli'  ofwliicli  is  t\\i- 
icgia  or  coiiiiiinii  waliuil.     (Hlier  two  spe- 
cies, called  llie  nigra  and  alba,  or  1)1, ick  and 
wlile  \n-;^iiiian  ualniil,  are  also  cnltivaled  in 
tliis  country,  tliont:,h  lliev  are  les>  proper  lor 
fruit.  Iiavini;  very  small  kernels. 
JlU;ri,.'\R.     See  Anatomy. 
Jl'Gri-.VKICS,  ill  tlie  l.innaan  system, 
is  the  name  of  an  order  or  division  of  fish, 
the  general  character  of  « hich  is  that  lln_\ 
have  ventral  tins.     See  t'lSH. 
Jl'JlMJICS.    See.  Materia  Medica. 
JUI,1:P.     See  Pharmacy. 
JULIAN   I'latlOl).  .See Chronology. 
Jl'LUS,  a  genus  of  insects,  of  the  order 
aptcra.     'I  he  (generic  character  is,  anteinuc 
iiionilifonn  ;  feelers  two,  joiiit''d;  body  suh- 
cvlindric ;  leps  numerous,  twice  as  many  on 
«','ich  side  as  the  sei^meiits  of  the  body.     'I'he 
juli  are  very  nearly  allied  to  the  scolopen- 
dne  or  centipedes,  but  their  body,  instead  of 
being  llattened,  as  in  those  insects,  is  iieaily 
cylindrical;  and  every  joint   or  seajinent  is 
fiMiiished  with  two  pair  of  feet,  the  numlxr  on 
c.icli   side   doubling  .that    of  the  segments, 
whereas  in   the  sculopendra-  the  number  of 
ioiiits  and  of  feet  is  e(]ual  on  each  side.     The 
eyes  of  the  juU  are  composed  of  numerous 
hexagonal  convexities,  as   in  the  major  part 
of  the  insect  tribe,  and  the  mouth  is  furnish- 
ed with  a  i)aii"  of  denticulated  j,iws.     These 
animals,  when  disturbed,  mil  themselves  up 
in  a  liat  spiral:  their  general  motion  is  rather 
slow   and   undulatory.     The  most  common 
species,  the  juUis  sabulosus,  is  often  seen  in 
similar  situations  with  the  onisci  and  srolo- 
pendix,  and  usually  measures  about  an  inch 
and  ipiarter  in  length :  its  colour  is  a  polished 
brownish  black,  e.\cept  the   legs,  which  are 
pile   or  whitish:  it  is  an  oviparous  animal, 
and  th"  young,  vlien  fust  hatched,  are  very 
small,  o^a  whitish  colour,  and  are  furni.^hed 
only  with  three  pair  of  legs,  which  are  situ- 
ated on  each  side  the  superior  part,  or  near 
the  head;  the  remaining  pairs  not  making 
thtir  appearance  till  some  days  after,  when 
about  .seven  on  a  side  become  visible:  the 
rest  are  gradually  acquired  till  the  number  is 
complete,  which  usually  amounts,  according 
to   Linna-ns,  to  a  hundred  and   twenty  on 


5  I'  N" 


J  IJ  11 


35 


ments  on  eacli  side,   it  is  more  properly  re- 1  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit,  hke  the  former 


ferred  by  Dcgecr,  Scopoli,  aiifl  otiiers,  to  the 
present  geiiii.s.  in  lact  It  may  be  allowed, 
like  the  juhis  complanalus,  anotlu'r  slightly 
(lalti-ned  species,  to  form  a  kind  ol  connect- 
ing link  between  the  two  genera.  'I  he  julus 
terrestris  has  100  legs  on  each  side:  the  body 
is  a  polished  black,  it  inhabits  most  parts  of 
Kiirope,  under  stones  an<i  in  the  carlli.  See 
Plate  Nat.  Ili.H.  (ig.  1'34. 

JlJNCl'S,  the  rush,  a  genus  of  the  inono- 
gynia  order,  in  the  hexandria  class  of  plants; 

and  in  the  natural  method  r;inkiiig  imder  the 

jth  order,  lripetaloide:c.     Thecalyx  is  hexa- 

phyllinis;  there  is  no  corolla;  the  cajisiile  is 

unilocular.     Tliere  are  29  species,   univer- 
sally known,  being  very  troublesome  weeds, 

and  (hllicult  to  be  eradicated.     The  pith  of 

two  kinds,  called  the  coiigloineratus  :iid  ef- 

fusus,  or  round-headed  and  soft  ru-lies,  is 

usi-d  for  wicks  to  lamps  and  rushhglil-.    'Ihe 

conglomeralus,  and  aculus  or  nnirine  rush, 

are  planted  with  great  care  on  the  banks  of 

the  sea  in  Holland,  in  order  to  prevent  the 

water  from  washing  away  the  eart'i ;  which 

woukl  otherwise  be  removed  every  tide,  if  it 

was  not  f<5r  the  roots  of  those  rushes,  which 

fasten  very  deep   in  tlie   ground,  and  mat 

themselves  near  the  surface  in  such  a  manner 

as  to  hold  the  earth  closely  together.     In  the 

sumuier-liine    when    the    rushes    are    tully 

grown,  they  are  cut  and  tied  up  in  bundles, 

whi(h  are  dried,  and  afterwards  carried  into 

the  larger  towns  and  cities,  where  they  are    leading  features  of  the  Magna  Charta, is  com 


2.  The  ox\c<:<lrus,  or  Spanish  juniper,  risiat 
from  ten  to  litieen  fe<a  liigli,  cloiely  braiitlied 
from   bottom    to    lop;    having    short,    awl- 
shaped,  sprea<liiig    leaves    by    threes,    and 
small  <lia-cioiis  ilowers,  succeeded  by   large 
reddinh-bfowii  berries.     3.  Tlie  thuraera,  or 
blue-berried   Span. si)  juirnjer,  grows  Iwcuty 
feet  high  or  more.     4.  '1  lie  Virgiiiiaiia,   or 
Virginia  cedar,    grows  thirty  or   lorty   feet 
high,  brantiiiiig  from  bottom  to  top  in  a  coiiio 
iii.inner.     5.  The  l^ycia,   Lyciaii  cedar,  or 
olibanum  tree,  grow's  twenty  feul  liigh.    ti. 
T'lie  Phtciiicia,  or  Phctnician  cedar,  grow* 
about  twenty   feet  high.     It  is  a  ni'.live  of 
i'ortiigal.     7.  The  lieriniidiaiia,  or  P,<rmu- 
diaii  cedar,  grows  twenty  or  thirty  feet  hign. 
8.  The  sabina,  or  savin  "tree;  of  which  there 
are  three  varieties,  the  spreading,  upright, 
and  variegated  savin.    T  lie  proi>3galioii  cf 
all  the  jumpers  is  by  seed,  and  ot  i\u:  savinb 
by  lay  ers  and  cuttings. 

Juniper-berries  have  a  strong,  not  disa- 
greeable smell ;  and  a  warm,  pungent,  sweel 
taste,  which,  if  they  are  long  chewed,  or  pre- 
viously well  bruised,  is  (ollov;ed  by  a  bittc-risli 
one.  J'he  pungency  seems  to  reside  in  the. 
bark;  the  sweet  in  the  juice;  the  aromatic 
flavour  ill  oily  vesicles  spread  through  the 
substance  of  'the  pulp,  and  distinguishable 
even  bv  the  eve  ;  and  the  bitter  in  The  seeds. 
JUKY.  This  strong  tower  of  defence  of 
the  Pirilish  constitution,  which  is  one  of  the 


wrought  into  baskets,  and  several  other 
useful  things,  which  are  frc(|ijentW  sent  into 
Kngland.  These  sorts  do  not  grow  so  strong 
in  lliis  country  as  on  the  Maese,  where  they 
sometimes  arrive  at  the  height  of  four  feet 
and  upwards. 

JUNGEKMANNIA,  a  genus  of  the  na- 
tural order  of  alg.r,  in  the  cryptogamia  class 
of  i)hints.  'I'he  male  llower  is  pedunculated, 
and  naked;  the  authera  quadrivalved :  the 
female  llower  is  sessile,  naked,  with  roundish 
seeds.  There  are  48  species,  all  natives  of 
Britain,  growing  in  woods,  shady  places,  by 
the  sides  of  ditches,  &c.  Many  of  them  are 
beaiilii'iil  objects  for  the  microscope. 

JUNGIA,  a  genus  of  the  polygamia  se- 

gregata    order,   in   the   syngemsia   class   of 

each  side:  so  long  as  this  species  continues     p\ants:  the   common  recepUich-   is  clialVy ; 


in  its  young  or  growing  state,  it  is  of  a  pale 
colour,  with  a  dark-red  spot  on  each  side  of 
r very  segment:  in  this  st.ite  it  mav  sometimes 
be  found  in  the  soft  mould  of  hollow  trees. 

Jah.is  Ii'.dus,  or  great  Indian  julus,  bears  ati 
extreme  resemblance  to  t'.ie  former,  but  is  of 
such  a  si/.e;ts  to  measure  six  or  seven  inches 
in  length  :  its  colour  is  similar  to  that  of  tlie 
preceu^ilg.  It  is  fouiul  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  Ash  and  America,  inhabiting  woods  and 
!■  !"r retired  places:  thj  numb.>r  of  legs,  ac- 
ini-din's- to  Linnani'?,  is  a  hundred  and  <if- 
te.-ii  on  each  side,  but  this  seems  to  be  a  va- 
riable character. 

Juhis  lagurus,  or  hare-tailL-d  julus,  is  a  very 
minute  and  singular  sp-Aies,  not  exceeding, 
when  at  full  growth,  the  eighth  of  an  inch  in 
leiigtli.  its  colour  is  pale-brown,  and  its 
siiapc  rather  broad,  and  llattish.  T'h's  insecl 
is  by  no  means  uncommf  n,  being  seen  dur- 
ing the  summer  months  creeping  about  tlie 
barks  of  trees,  walls,  &.'c.  It  is  considered 
by  Linii'ius  as  ;i  species  of  scolop-,\ulra,  but 
as  the  legs  are  djiible  tlie  number  the  seg- 


tlie  periantliiuni  three-flowered ;  the  florets 
tubular,  two-lipped;  the  exterior  lip  ligii- 
late ;  ti.e  interior  one  Iwpartite.  Tlicre  is 
one  species,  a  native  of  S.  .America. 

JUNTPF.RUS,  the  juniper  tree;  a  genus 
of  the  monadelphia  order,  in  the  mona:cia 
class  of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  j'.st  order,  couifcrip.  The 
male  ameutiim  is  a  caly.x  of  scales;  there  is 
no  corolla;  three  stamina:  the  female  calyx 
tripartite;  there  are  three  petals,  and  as 
many  styles;  the  beri-y  is  trispermous,  and 
equal,  by  means  of  three  tubercles  of  the 
indurated  calyx  adhering  to  it.  There  are 
12  sjjecies ;  the  most  remarkable  are,  1. 
T"he  communis,  or  common  juniper,  grows 
naluiailv  in  manv  p.'.rts  of  Britain  upon  dry 
barren  commons,  vVheie  it  seldom  rises  above 
the  height  of  alow  shrub,  which  grows  na- 
turally only  in  dry,  chalky,  or  sandy  land. 
Of  tills  species  there  is  a  variety  called 
Swedish  juniper,  which  grows  ten  or  twelve 
feet  high,  very  branchy  the  wiiole  length, 
with  the  brajiches  grownic  more  efect,  and 


posed  of  a  certain  number  of  persons  swo-.-tV 
to  enquire  of,  and  try  some  fact,  and  declare 
the  truth  upon  the  evidence  brought  bc-lorc 
them. 

In  criminal  cases  juries  are  divided  into 
grand  and  petty.  T  he  grand  jury  must  be 
all  fieeholde-r,,  'but  it  does  not  appear  that 
anv  specific  e-tate  has  been  determined  to  be 
necessary ;  before  them  the  chiirge  is  laid, 
and  unless  twelve  or  more  of  them  are  of 
opinion  that  it  is  well  founded,  the  accusation 
is  dismissed ;  which  they  call  not  finding  a 
true  bill.  If  they  find  a'true  bill,  it  niu»t  af- 
terwards be  confi'rmed  by  the  unanimous  suf- 
frage of  a  petty  jury  of  12  men  upon  wiiom 
no  suspicion  of  partiality  can  possibly  rest. 

In  civil  cases  juries  are  divided  into  com- 
mon and  special.  The  latter  a:e  generally 
employed  in  ca-.e5  w  here  any  dithcuilies  witli 
respect  to  commercial  t.-ansactions  arise, 
and  are  best  decided  by  a  special  jury  of 
merchants. 

To  obtain  a  special  jury,  a  motion  is  made 
in  court,  and  rule  granted,  for  the  slicriti'  to 
attend  the  master,  prothonotary,  or  oilier 
proper  ollicer,  with  his  freeholders'  book,  in 
the  presence  of  the  attorneys  on  both  sides, 
and  to  take  indilVerently  'fort>-eiglit  free- 
holders, when  eacJi  party  strikes  off  twelve, 
and  the  remaining  twenty-four  are  returned 
upon  the  pannel. 

A  common  jury  is  one  returned  by  the 
sherill" according  to  tlie  directions  of  3  Geo. 
II.  c.  2:1.  which  appoints  that  the  sheriff  sh;.!! 
not  return  a  separate  pannel  for  every  cause, 
but  the  same  for  every  cause  to  be  tried  at 
the  same  assizes,  containing  not  less  than 
forty-eight,  nor  more  than  seventy-tvvo ;  and 
that  their  names  being  written  on  tickets, 
shall  be  put  into  a  box,  and  when  the  cau-e 
is  called,  twelve  whose  names  shall  be  tirst 
drawn  shall  be  sworn,  unless  abseut/ ckU- 


.36  J  U  It  'JUS 

A  iiiry  when  either  party  is  an  alicii-born, 
shall  be  luill  di-nixciis,  and  the  otlier  ahens 
(ii  there  are  so  many  in  tlie  place) ;  hut  when 
both  parlies  are  aliens,  it  is  presumed  there  is 
no  more  partiality  lor  the  one  than  th;  other, 
and  iherelore  it  was  resolved  the  jury  shall 
all  be  di'iiizens. 

If  a  juror  receives  a  bribe  from  either 
party,  he  shall  forfeit  ten  times  as  much  as  he 
has  taken,  half  to  the  king,  and  halt  to  him 
v.-ho  sues. 

A  man  who  threatens  or  assaults  a  juror 
for  giving  a  verdict  against  him,  is  punish- 
able by  tine  and  imprisonment;  and  if  he 
strikes  him  in  court  in  the  ])resente  of  the 
>,s  want  of  a  sufficient  estate,  which  is  now  ten  judge,  he  shall  lose  his  hand  and  his  goods, 
pounds  per  annum  in  England,  and  si\  pounds  1  and  the  profits  of  his  land  during  life,  and 
in  Wales,  of  freehold  or  copyhold  lands  ;  and  ,  suffer  perpetual  imprisomiient. 
■Jmy  leaseholder  for  the  term  of  live  hundred  j  I\'()HY,  ebur,  in  natural  hi.-tory,  S:c.  a 
years,  or  anv  term  determinable  upon  life  or  '  hard,  solid,  and  linn  substance,  of  a  white 
Jives  of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  twenty  colour,  and  capable  of  a  very  good  polish. 
pounds  per  annum  above  the  rent,  is  qua-  j  It  is  the  tusk  ot  the  elephant,  and  is  hollow 


lenged,  or  *NXiised.  They  arc  thfn  sworn 
to  give  a  true  verdict  according  to  the  evi- 
dence, unless  they  are  challenged. 

Challenges  are  of  two  kinds:  challenges  to 
the  array,  and.challenges  to  the  poll.  Chal- 
Jcnges  to  the  array  are  an  exception  to  the 
w  hole  pannel.  Challenges  to  the  poll  are  ex- 
ceptions (o  particular  jurors,  and  are  reduced 
to  four  heads  by  sir  Edward  Coke. 

1.  Propter  honoris  respectum;  as  a  lord 
<if  parliament  may  be  challenged  by  both 
parties,  or  challenge  himself. 

2.  Propter  defectum.  If  a  juryman  is  an 
alien-born,  or  if  he  is  a  slave  or  bondman, 
tliev  are  defects;  but  the  principal  deficiency 


from  the  base  to  a  certain  height,  the  ca\  ily 
being  filled  up  with  a  compact  medullary 
sub-lance,  sCeming  to  have  a  great  number 
of  glands  in  it.     it  is  observed  tiiat  the  Cev- 


liljed. 

3.  Propter  affectiun.     ^^■hen   the  juror 
may  be  suspected  of  partialit;,-. 

4.  Propter  delictum.     Fur  some  crime  or 
misdemeanor  that  affects  the  juror's  credit,  j  Ion  ivory,  ami  Ihaloi  the  island  of  Achem,  do 
and  renders  h'un  infamous.  !  not  become   yellow   in  the  wearing,  as  all 

The  service  of  jurvmen  is  also  sometimes  i  other  ivory  do'es;  for  this  reason  the  teeth  of 
excused;  as  sick  and  d'ecrepid  persons,  persons  ;  t'lese  places  bear  a  larger  price  than  those  of 
not  comniorant  in  the  countv,  men  above  se- 


venty vcars  old,  and  infants ;  ph\sicians,  coun- 
sel, attorneys,  officers  of  the  courts,  and  the 
like.  Clergvmen  are  also  usually  excused, 
but  are  liable  in  respect  of  tlieir  lay  fees,  un- 
less they  are  in  the  service  of  the  king,  or 
some  bishop. 


j  the  coast  of  Guinea. 

t  To  soften  ivory  and  other  bones,  lay  them 
for  twelve  hours  in  aipia  fortis,  and  then  three 
davs  in  the  juice  of  beets,  and  they  will  be- 
come so  soft  that  they  may  be  worked  into 
anv  form.  To  harden  them  again,  lay  tlieiu 
in  strong  vinegar.     Dioscorides  says,  that  by 


In  criminal  cases,  when  the  prisoner  has  i  ''oil'"?  '^'"O'  l"''  th^  ^Pa*^"^  «'  "'^  '"^ ^"'^  ^^^'^ 
put  himself  upon  the  country,  the  sheriff  'I'e  ""oot  of  mandragoras,  it  will  become  so 
returns  a  pannel  of  unexceptionable  freehold-  '  soft  that  it  may  be  managed  as  one  pleases. 

■  ■       -        ■  '      IvoRY-Wacv  is  the  coal  of  ivory  or  bone 

formed  bv  great  heat,  while  deprived  of  all 
access  of  air. 

JUPlTEK,    in   astronomy,    one  of    the 
uperior  planets,    remarkable  for   its   great 


the  fact   is  com- 


<.TS  of  the   county   when 
initted. 

In   these   cases,  at  least  in  capital  ones, 
'liallenges  may  be  made  not  only  on  the  ac- 
counts before  mentioned,  both  to  the  array  i  ,   >  ,.        -     i.       >,.,„„,.„,,„ 
,    ,     ,,         ,,        ,,          ,      r  .<     ,  ■  -1    bri!{htness.     bee  .Astronomy. 

cr  to  the  polls  on  the  parts  of  the  king  and  i       P  i    t         •       ,        •  r 

■  '      .         .       ' P  ,     .1      Jury-mast,  wfiatever  is  set  up  m  room  of 

a  mast  that  has  been  lost  in  a  storm  or  in  an 


prisoner,  but  the  prisoner  is  allowed  a  kind  of 
pereniiJtory  challenge  (which  is  now  limited 
to  twenty  persons),  without  shewing  any 
cause  at  all.  This  privilege  is  denied  to  the 
king,  who  must  assign  a  reason  for  the  chal- 
lenge. 

If  by  reason  of  challenges,  or  in  default  of 
the  jurors,  a  sutlicient  number  cannot  be  had 
of  theoriguial  pannel,  a  tales  may  be  awarded 
both  in  civil  and  criminal  cases,  that  is,  a  suf- 
<icient  number  ot  peisons  present  in  court 
to  be  joined  to  the  other  jurors,  who  are 
however  liable  to  the  same  challenges  as  the 
principal  jurors. 

The  jury,  after  the  proof-)  are  summed  up, 
im|p>5  the  case  is  very  clear,  retire  to  coll- 
ider, and  are  ki-pt  without  nie  it,  drink,  lire, 
or  candle,  till  they  are  unanimously  agreed. 
If  the  jury  eat  or  drink,  or  have  victuals 
about  them,  without  the  consent  of  the 
court,  before  the  verdict,  it  is  finable  ;  and  if 
(licy  do  it  at  the  charge  of  him  for  whom  they 
find,  the  verdict  will  be  set  aside.  Also  if 
they  speak  with  either  of  the  parties,  or  tlieir 
agents,  after  they  are  gone  from  the  bar,  or  if 
the)  receive  anv  fresh  evidence,  or  cast  lots 
10  prevent  dispute,  the  veidict  is  bad. 

When  the  jury  have  deli  vere.l  their  verdict, 
and  it  is  recorded  in  court,  they  are  dis- 
missed. 


engagement,  and  to  which  a  lesser  yard, 
ropes,  and  sails,  are  fixed. 

JUSSL'KA,  a  genus  of  the  inonogynia  or- 
der, in  the  decandria  class  of  plants;  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  17ih 
order,  calycaiuhema-.  The  calyx  is  tpiadri- 
partite,  or  ciuinijueparlite  superior;  there  are 
four  or  five  pelaU ;  the  cjpsule  quadrilocu- 
lar  or  (luinciuelocular,  oblong,  opening  at  the 
angles :  the  seeds  are  numerous  and  small. 
There  are  1 1  species,  mostly  herbaceous 
plants  of  the  W.  Indies. 

JUSTICK,  in  a  legal  sense,  a  person  de- 
puted by  the  king  to  administer  justice  to  his 
subjects,  whose  authority  arises  from  his  de- 
putation, and  not  by  right  of  magistracy. 

Ill  the  com  ts  of  king's  bench  and  common 
pleas  there  are  two  judges  styled  chief  jus- 
tices, each  of  whom  retains  the  title  of  lord 
during  the  time  of  his  continuing  in  office. 
The  hrst  of  these,  who  is  styled  lord  chief 
justice  of  England,  has  a  very  extensive 
power  and  jurisdiction  in  pleas  of  the  crown. 
He  hears  all  pleas  in  civil  causes  bronchi  be- 
fore him  in  tlie  court  of  king's  bench,  and 
also  the  ])leas  of  the  crown;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  thii  lord  chief  justice  of  Ihe  com- 
mon i)leas  has  the  hearing  of  all  civil  causes 
betw  een  conunon  persons,    tssidcs  the  lords 


1  X  I 

chief  justices,  there  are  in  oacli  of  tlip  above 
courts  three  puisne  justices;  there  are  aho 
several  other  justices  appointed  by  the  king 
for  the  execution  of  the  laws;  such  as  tlie 
lords  justices  in  eyre  of  the  forests,  wlio  are 
two  justices  appointed  to  determine  all  of- 
fences committed  in  the  king's  forests;  jus- 
tices of  assize,  of  oyer  and  terminer,  of  gaol- 
delivery,  &c.  They  are  also  called  justices 
of  nisi  prills,  and  so  denominated  from  the 
words  used  in  a  common  fo.ni  of  adjourn- 
ment oi  a  cause  in  the  court  of  co..  moii 
pleas.  See  Nisi  Prius,  Oyer  and  Ter- 
miner, Common  1'le\s,  and  Kings 
Bench. 

JrsTiCF.s  of  the  Ptace.     See  Peace. 

JL'.^  1  ICIARY,  or  court  ot  Justiciary, 
in  Scotland,  a  court  ot  supreme  jurisdiction 
in  all  cnnrnal  case-. 

This  court  came  in  place  of  the  justice- 
eyre  or  justice-general,  which  la^t  was  taken 
away  by  parliament  in  167  i,  and  was  erected 
into  a  justice  or  criminal  cor.rl,  consisting  of 
a  justice-general  alterable  at  the  monarch's 
pleasure,  justice  clerk,  and  live  other  judges, 
who  are  lords  of  session. 

This  court  commonly  sits  upon  Mondays, 
and  has  an  oidinary  clerk,  who  has  his  com- 
mission trim  the  justice-clerk.  They  have 
four  macers,  and  a  dooinster  appointed  by 
the  lords  of  the  session. 

The  form  of  the  process  is  this:  the  clerk 
raises  a  libel  or  indictment  upon  a  bill  passed 
by  any  of  tile  lords  of  that  court,  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  pursuer,  against  the  defendant 
or  criminal,  w  ho  is  immediately  committed  to 
prison  alter  citation.  When  the  partv,  wit- 
nesses, great  assize,  or  jury  of  forty-five  men, 
are  cited,  the  day  of  compearance  being 
come,  fifteen  of  the  great  assize  are  chosen  to 
be  liieassi/.e  ujion  the  pannel.  or  prisoner  at 
the  bar.  The  assize  sits  with  the  judges  to 
hear  the  libel  read,  witnesses  examined,  and 
the  debates  on  both  sides,  which  are  written 
verbatim  in  the  adjournal  books.  The  king's 
advocate  pleads  for  the  pursuer,  being  the 
king's  cause,  and  other  advocates  tor  the  pan- 
nel. The  debates  being  closed,  the  judges 
find  the  hbel  or  indictinent  either  non-rele- 
vant, in  which  case  they  desert  the  diet,  and 
assoil  or  absolve  the  party  accused;  or,  if  re- 
levant, then  the  assize  or  jury  of  Ulteen  is  re- 
moved into  a  closer  room,  none  being  pre- 
sent with  them,  where  they  choose  their  chan- 
cellor and  ckrk,  and  consider  the  libel,  depo- 
sition, and  debates;  and  bring  in  their  ver- 
dict ol  the  |)aiinel  sealed,  guilty  or  not  guilty: 
if  not  guiltv,  the  lords  absolve;  if  guilty,  they 
condeinn  and  declare  tiieir  sentence  of  con- 
demnation, and  command  the  sentence  to  be 
pronounced  against  the  pannel  by  a  maccr 
anil  the  mouth  ol  Ihe  dooinster.  The  lords 
of  the  justiciary  likewise  go  circuits  twice  a 
year  into  the  country.  See  the  article  Cir- 
cuit. 

JCSTICIES,  a  writ  directed  to  a  sheriff, 
by  virtue  of  which  he  is  empowered  to  hold  a 
plea  of  debt  in  his  county-court  for  a  sum 
above  40.v.  though  by  his  ordinary  power  he 
has  oniv  cognizance  of  sums  under  -iO.?. 

JUSTIFICATION,  in  bw.  is  an  affirm- 
ing or  shew  ing  good  reason  in  court,  why 
one  does  such  a  thing  as  lie  is  called  to  an- 
swer: a>  to  justify  in  a  cause  of  a  replevin. 

\\\.     See  Ukdeka. 

1X1  A,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order, 
in  the  Iriandria  cKiss  of  plauts;  and  in  the 


K  A  L 

natmal  method  ranking  nnrlrr  tlii"  ^ixtli  or- 
der, en;ut.i'.  'I  hi;  romlla  is  hcvapclalou-;, 
pati-nt,  aiiil  rqiial ;  there  ar<- three  ^ti^^lata, 
a  little  upright  aiil  pctaloir..  There  are 
fifly-Ciur  sijeeies,  crjiisisliiiff  of  hrrhaceoiis, 
tuberous,  and  luiUioiis-rooleil  llow(-ry  pe- 
rennials, from  OIK'  to  two  feet  liigli.  Ifrnii- 
iiatcd  by  hexapetalous  (lowers  of  dilllrciit 
colours. '  They  are  propacated  by  oH^ets, 
which  'hoiild  i)e  taken  off  in  summer  at  the 
cli'cay  of  the  leaves:  but  as  all  the  plants  of 
this  genii-i  an;  natives  of  warm  climates,  few 
ol  them  ciii  bear  the  open  air  of  this  country 
in  wiiiler. 

IXOIiA,  a  ireiuis  of  the  tetrandria  mono- 
pvnia  cla-s  ol  plants.  'I'he  corolla  consists  of 
a  siiich-  ji'lal;  the  tube  is  cyliiidric,  very 
{(.nir  and  sltnder;  tin;  limb  is  plane,  and  di- 
vided into  lour  oval  segments;  tlie  fruit  is  a 
berry  of  a  roundish  li;r,ure,  with  only  one 
cell ;  tlie  seeds  are  four  in  number, convex  on 
one  side,  and  angular  on  Hie  otli.T.  Tliere 
are  nine  species,  vi;iy  ornanienlal  siirubs  for 
the  ilove. 


K    V.   E 

Jl'STICTA,  Malabar  nut;  a  genus  of  the 
inono)!\iiia  order,  in  the  diandria  class  ol 
plants;'aiid  in  the  natural  nii-tliod  raiikinj^ 
under  tin;  -inth  order,  iiersoiiata-.  'I  lie  co- 
rolla is  ringent;  the  capsule  bilocular,  [lart- 
in'^  with  an  elastic  spring  at  the  heel;  the 
stamina  have  only  one  aiithera.  '^I'liere  are 
eighty  species,  most  of  them  natives  of  the 
Kasl  Indic-s,  growing  ni.my  feet  high;  some 
adorned  with  line  large  leaves,  others  with 
small  narrow  ones,  and  all  of  tliern  with  mo- 
nopetalousriiigenl  (lowers.  Only  two  spei-ies 
areconimonly  cultivated  in  our  gardens,  vi/. 
the  adhaloda,  or  c'liinnon  Malabar  nut,  and 
the  liysso|)ifolia  or  snap-tree.  The  first  grows 
ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  with  a  strong  woody 
stiMii ;  an<l  frotn  the  <;n<ls  of  the  branches 
short  spil.es  of  white  flowers,  with  diirk  spots, 
having  llii;  helmet  of  the  corolla  concave. 
The  second  has  a  shrubby  stem,  and  white 
llowers,  connnonly  by  thr<'es,  from  the  sides 
of  the  branehes;  succeeded  by  capsuli'S, 
which  burst  open  with  elastic  force  for  the 


K  K  I 


37 


discharge  of  the  seeds ;  whence  flie  name  of 

snap-liei-. 

JYNX,  the  wrvneck,  a  genus  of  birds  be- 
longing to  the  order  of  pi<;a; ;  the  cliaractiTS 
of  which  are,  th.it  the  bill  is  slender,  round, 
and  ))ointed;  the  nostrils  arc  concave  ami 
naked;  the  tongue  is  v<-ry  long,  very  sleiKfer, 
c)lindric,  and  terminated  by  a  hard  point ; 
and  the  feet  arc  formed  for  chnibiiig.  T'her« 
is  oidy  one  species,  viz.  the  lorquilla. 
The  colours  of  this  bird  are  elegantly 
pencilled,  though  its  p'umage  is  mark- 
ed with  the  plainest  colours.  'I'lie  wryneck, 
Mr.  Pennant  apprehends,  h  a  bird  of  pas- 
sage, appearing  with  us  in  the  spring  before 
the  CUCKOO.  Its  note  i«  like  that  of  the  kes- 
tril,  a  (jiiii  k-repp'ated  stjueak;  its  eggs  are 
whiti',  with  a  very  thin  siiell;  it  build-  in  th« 
hollows  of  trees,  ir.akine  its  nest  of  dry  grass. 
It  bin  a  very  whimsical  way  of  turning  anil 
twisting  its  neck  about,  and  bringing  its  head 
over  its  sluailders,  whence  it  had  its  I^itin 
name  torquilla,  and  its  Kngliili  one  of  wry- 
I  neck. 


K. 


T'  or  k,  the  tenth  letter  of  our  alphabet; 
-'■^  ?  as  a  nunier.d,  denotes  _'jU;  and  with  a 
line  over  it,  K,  'JjiHiOU. 

K.'EMPl  KKIA,  tcdoar;;,  a  genus  of  the 
nionoavnia  order,  in  the  iiumandria  class  of 
jilaiits,  and  in  tiip  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  eiglilli  order,  seitaminea;.  The  co- 
rolla is  sexpartitc,  with  three  of  the  segments 
larger  than  tiie  rest,  patulous;  and  one  only 
bipa.tite.  'I'he  sjiecies  are,  1.  Th(;  galanga, 
common  galaiigal,  or  1*,  >g  zedoary.  -.  1  he 
roluiida,  or  round  zedoary.  Botli  are  peren- 
nial in  root ;  but  the  lea>es  rise  anmiady  in 
spring,  and  decay  in  winter.  The\  flower  in 
summer ;  each  llower  is  of  one  |)elal,  tnbu- 
loiis  below,  but  jilani  above,  and  divided  into 
six  parts;  they  continue  time  or  tour  weeks 
ill  beauty,  but  are  never  succeeded  by  seeds 
in  tills  country.  Roth  these  plants  must  be 
potted  in  light  ricii  mould,  and  always  kept 
111  the  hot-hoi.se. 

KALI,  a  genus  of  marine  plants,  which  are 
burnt  to  procure  miiii'r.il  alkali. 

KALMIA,  a  genus  of  tho  monogvnia  or- 
der, in  the  decindria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  ff-th 
order,  bicorncs.  'I'he  ca'.yx  is  (luiiniuepar- 
tite  ;  the  corolla  sal  er-sii'aped,  formed  with 
live  nectariferous  Imrin  on  tl,e  under  or  outer 
side;  the  capsule  quiiiquelocul.ir.  Of  this 
genus  there  are  four  species.  Those  chiefly 
in  cultivation  wiih  us  are, 

1.  The  iatifolia,  a  most  beautiful  shrub, 
which  rises  usually  to  the  height  of  five  or 
six  teet,  and  someli.ncs  twice  that  height  in 
its  native  plai  es.  The  flowers  grow  in 
bunches  on  the  tops  of  the  branches  to  foot- 
stalks thiye  inches  long;  they  are  white, 
stained  with  purplish  re-.l,  consisting  of  one 
P'tal  in  form  of  a  cup,  divided  at  the  verge 
into  live  sections;  in  the  inuldle  areastvlus 
and  12  stamina,  which,  w;ieii  the  floiver  first 
opens,  appear  lung  close  to  the  siiU^s  of  the 
Clip  ;.i  ecpnl  .hsiances,  their  apices  being 
loil-cd  in  10  little  hollow  cells,  wliich  being 


prommeiil  on  the  outside,  appear  as  so  many 
little  tubercles.  '1  liis  |)laiit  is  a  native  of 
Carolina,  \  irginia,  and  other  parts  of  the 
northern  coiitiHent  of  America,  yet  is  not 
common,  but  found  only  in  particular  places; 
it  grows  on  rocks  hanging  over  rivulets 
and  running  streams,  and  on  the  sitles  of 
barren  hilU. 

2.  The  angustifolia,  rises  to  the  height  of 
about  16  feet;  with  evergreen  leaves.  The 
llowers  grow  in  clusters,  and  when  blown, 
aj.pear  white  ;  but  on  a  near  view,  are  of  a 
taint  bhieish  colour,  which  as  the  llower  de- 
cays grows  paler. 

KAOLIN,  the  name  of  an  earth  which  is 
used  as  one  of  the  two  ingredients  in  oriental 
porcelain.  See  PoRCiiLAiN. 

KICCKLL,  or  Kkckling,  in  the  sea  lan- 
guage, is  the  winding  of  old  ropes  about 
cables,  to  prevent  them  from  galling. 

Ml'^DCilNC;,  in  the  sea-language,  is  when 
a  ship  is  brought  up  or  down  a  narrow  river 
bv  means  of  the  title,  the  wind  being  contrary. 
KlilCL,  the  lowest  piece  of  timber  in  a 
ship,  running  her  whole  length  from  the 
lower  |)art  of  her  stem  to  the  lower  part  of 
her  stern-post.  Into  it  are  all  the  low  er  fut- 
locks  f  istened  ;  and  under  part  of  it,  a  false 
keel  is  often  used. 

KKKL-ON,  a  principal  timber  in  a  ship, 
fayed  uiiliinsuie  cross  all  the  iloor-limbers; 
and  being  adjusted  to  the  keel  with  suitable 
scarfs,  it  serves  to  strengthen  the  bottom  of 
the  ship. 

KK1''.P,  in  anficnt  military  history,  a  kind 
of  strong  tow  er  which  was  built  in  the  centre 
of  a  castle  or  fort,  to  which  the  besieged  re- 
treated, and  made  their  last  eifortsot  defence. 
Of  this  clesciipiiou  is  t!ie  keep  ef  Windsor 
castle. 

KKEPER  of  I  lie  srrnt  seal,  is  a  lord  by 
his  oflice,  is  styled  lord-keeper  of  the  creat 
seal  of  Great  Britain,  and  is  always  one  of 
the  privy  council.  .V'.l  grants,  charters,  and 
commissions  ol  the  ITuig  under  the  great  seal, 


pass  through  the  hands  of  the  lord-keeper, 
for  without  that  seal  many  of  those  grants, 
.Vc.  would  be  of  no  force,  the  king  beuig, 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  law,  a  corporation, 
and  therefore  passing  nothing  but  by  tisegreal 
seal,  which  is  also  tald  1o  be  the  public  faith 
ol  th<-  kingdom,  being  in  the  highest  esteem 
and  reputation.  Whenever  there  is  a  lord- 
keeper,  he  is  invested  with  the  same  plate, 
authority,  pre-eminence,  jurisdiction,  or  f\e- 
cutioii  of  laws,  as  the  lord  chancellor  of  G.'^cat 
Britain  is  vested  with. 

KEEPfcR  of  the  privj  seal.  See  Piiiv  v 
Seal. 

KLISELSCHIEFER.  This  mineral  oc- 
curs usually  in  blocks  and  amorphous  masses 
of  dilVerent  sizes;  very  often  in  the  beds  of 
rivers:  colour  various  shades  of  grey:  struc- 
ture slatv:  usually  opaque:  brittle:  specific 
gravity  from  2.8sil  to  i.'.4i5:  infusible  per  se. 
'Ihis  species  is  divided  into  twosubspeciis 

Keiselschiefer,  common:   colour  blackish 
grey  or  greenish:  olten  traversed  by  veins 
of  quartz  :     surface  smooth  :    texture    com- 
pact: fracture  splintery,  or  iniperfec  ly  con- 
choidal:  compo-ed  according  lo\V  ic-glcb  of 
75.00  silica 
10. OU  lime 
4.58  magnesia 
3..">4  iron 
5.02  iuflaminable  matter 


98.14 

Lvdian  stone  is  another  species  of  keisel- 
schiefer: commonly  intersected  by  veins  of 
cjuartz:  fracture  even:  sometimes  inclining lo 
conchoidal:  specific  gravity  2.596:  powder 
black :  colour  greyish  black. 

This,  or  a  stone'  similar  to  it,  was  used  by 
the  anlieats  as  a  toucnstone  They  drew 
the  metal  to  be  examined  along  the  stone, 
and  judged  of  its  purity  by  t>ie  colo'ir  of  the 
metallic  streak.  On  this  account  they  called 
it  gMoxot,  "  the  frier,"  They  c-alled  it  also 
Lj  Uiuii  btoae,  because,   as  '1  lieophrastus  in- 


33 


K  1  F 


fornis  us,  it  was  found  mosl  abundantly  in  tlie 
river  Tnioliis  in  Lydia. 

KELl*,  ill  the  glass  trade,  a  term  used  for 
a  sort  of  potass  made  use  of  in  many  of  liie 
g'ass  works,  particularly  for  the  green  glass. 
It  is  the  calcined  ashes  of  a  plant  called  by  the 
same  name  ;  and  in  some  places  of  sea-tangs 
or  laces,  a  sort  of  thick-leaved  fucus  or  sea- 
wrack:  This  plant  is  tlirown  i5n  the  rocks 
and  shores  in  great  abundance,  and  in  tiie 
summer  months  is  raked  together  and  dried 
2S  hay  in  the  sun  and  wind,  and  afterwards 
burned  to  the  ashes  called  kelp. 

KE^iO,  a  shell  found  on  tiie  coast  of  Su- 
matra; it  is  sometimes  three  or  four  feet  in 
diameter,  as  white  as  ivory.  See  Marsden's 
Hist,  of  Sumatra. 

KEN'KS,  in  the  sea-language,  doublings  in 
a  rope  or  cable,  when  handed  in  and  out,  so 
that  it  does  not  run  easy ;  or  when  any  rope 
makes  turns  or  twists,  and  does  not  I'un  free 
in  the  block. 

KF.KATOPHYTL'M,  in  natural  history. 
See  Corallines. 

KERMES.     See  Coccus. 

Ker.mes  mineral,  a  compound  of  sul- 
phuri-l  of  antunony  and  potass. 

KETCH,  in  naval  architecture,  a  vessel 
with  two  masts,  usually  applied  to  one  carry- 
ing bombs,  or  rather  mortars. 

KLV  EL,  in  ship-building,  a  piece  of  plank 
fayed  against  the  (luickv.orl^  on  the  quartei- 
deck,  in  the  shape  of  a  semicircle ;  about 
which  the  running  rigging  is  belaid. 

KEY,  in  music,  a  fundamental  ncte  or  tone 
to  which  the  whole  of  a  movement  has  a  cer- 
tain relation  orbeaiing,  to  which  all  its  modu- 
lations are  referred  and  accommodated,  and  ii 
which  it  both  begins  and  ends.  There  are 
but  two  species  of  keys,  one  of  the  major, 
and  one  of  the  minor  mode  ;  all  the  keys  in 
wliicli  we  employ  sharps  or  liats  being  dedu- 
ced from  the  natural  keys  of  C  major,  and  A 
minor,  of  which  indeed  they  are  only  trans- 
positions. 

Key-stone.     See  Architecture. 

kE\  S.  See  Organ,  Harpsichord,  &:c 

KIDNAPPING,  is  the  forcible  taking  and 
carrying  away  a  man,  woman,  or  cliild,  from 
their  own  country,  and  sendina;  them  to  an- 
otlier.  This  is  an  oifencc  at  common  law, 
and  punisliable  by  line,  imprisonment,  and 
pillory. 

Hy  Stat.  1 1  and  \2  VV.  III.  c.  7,  if  anv  cap- 
tain of  a  merchant  vessel  shall  during  his 
being  abroad  force  any  person  on  shore,  and 
wilfully  leave  them  behind,  or  refuse  to  bring 
home  all  such  men  as  he  carried  out,  if  able 
and  desirous  to  return,  he  shall  suffer  three 
moiilhs  imprisonment.  Exclusive  of  the  above 
puiiisiimeiU  for  this  as  a  criminal  oifeace,  the 
paily  may  recover  ujion  an  action  for  com- 
pensation in  damages  for  tlieci\Ll  iiuurv. 

KIDNEYS.  See  Anatomy. 

KIEl'  EKIL.  This  mineral  is  dug  up  near 
Konie  in  Natolia,  and  is  emploved  In  foiijiing 
the  bowls  of  'I'urkish  tobacco-pipes.  The 
sale  of  it  supports  a  monastery  of  dervises 
I'stablisfied  near  the  place  where  it  is  dug. 
it  is  ioiind  in  a  large  fissure  six  feet  wide,  in 
grey  calcareous  emtli.  The  workmen  assert 
that  it  grovis  again  in  the  fissure,  and  puffs 
lUelt  up  like  froth.  This  mineral,  when  fresh 
dug,  is  ol  the  consistence  of  wax ;  it  feels  soft 
and  greasy;  its  colour  is  yellow;  its  specific 
gravity  1.600:  when  thrown  on  the  fire  it 


K  I  N 

swe.its,  emits  a  fetid  vapour,  becomes  hard, 
and  perleet'.y  while. 

.Vccording  to  tii<'  analysis  of  Ivlaprodi,  it 
is  composed  of  j0..50  silica 

17.'-'5  magnesia 
25.00  water 
5.00  carbonic  acid 
.50  lime. 


9S.25 

KIGGEEAKIA,  a  genus  of  the  decandria 
ordrr,  in  tlie  ditecia  class  of  plants,  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  37th  order, 
columnifera-.  Themaie  cal\x  is  quimiuepar- 
tite;  the  corolla  pentapetalous;  there  are  live 
trilobous  glandules;  the  anthene  are  perfo- 
rated at  top;  the  female  caly\  and  corolla  as 
in  the  male;  there  are  live  styles;  the  capsule 
unilocular,  qiiiiic|uevalved,  and  polyspermous. 
'Ihere  is  but  one  species,  viz.  the  Afriaina. 
As  this  is  a  native  of  warm  climates,  it  must 
be  constantly  kept  in  a  stove  in  this  country. 
It  is  propagated  by  seeds,  layers,  or  cutting-, 
though  most  readily  by  seeds. 

KILDERKIN,  a  liquid  measure  contain- 
ing two  firkins,  or  IS  gallons. 

KINDRED.     SeeDEscENT. 

KING,  signilics  him  who  has  the  highest 
power  and  absolute  rule  over  the  wjiole  land; 
and  therefore  the  king  is,  in  intendment  of 
law,  cleared  of  those  defects  which  common 
jjersons  are  subject  to ;  for  he  is  always  sup- 
posed to  be  of  full  age,  though  ever  so  young, 
lie  p  .rdoiis  lite  and  limb  to  oiil'enders  against 
the  crown  and  dignity,  except  suchas  he  binds 
himself  by  oath  not  to  forgive.  The  law 
ascribes  to  his  majesty,  in  his  political  capa- 
city, an  absolute  immortality.  The  king 
never  dies.  Fot  imuiediatelv  on  the  decease 
of  the  reigning  prince  in  his  natural  capa-itv, 
his  imperial  dignity,  by  act  of  law,  wilhoiit 
any  interregnum  or  interval,  is  vested  at 
once  in  his  heir,  who  is  eo  instaiUi  king  to  all 
intents  and  purposes.  And  so  tender  is  the 
law  of  supposing  even  a  possibility  of  liis 
death,  that  his  natural  dissolution  is  gi-nerally 
called  his  demise,  an  expression  signifving 
merely  a  transfer  of  property.  Plowd.  177. 

Ry  the  articles  of  tlie  union  of  the  two 
kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland,  all  pa- 
pists, and  persons  marrying  papists,  are  for 
ever  excluded  from  the  imperial  crown  of 
Great  Britain  ;  and  hi  such  case,  the  crown 
shall  descend  to  such  person  being  a  protes- 
tant,  as  should  have  inherited  the  same,  in 
case  such  papist,  or  person  marrying  a  pa- 
pist, was  naturally  dead.  .'>  Anne,  c.  S. 

King's  hexch.  The  king's  bj-nch  is  the 
supreme  conrt  of  common  law  in  tin- king- 
doni,  and  is  so  called  because  the  king  used 
to  sit  there  in  person ;  it  consists  of  a  chief 
justice,  and  three  puisne  justices,  who  are  by 
their  office  the  sovereign  conservators  of  the 
peace,  and  supreme  coroners  of  the  land.- 

This  court  has  a  peculiar  jurisdiction,  not 
oiily  over  all  capital  offences,  but  aUo  over 
all  olher  misdemeanours  of  a  public  nature, 
reixling  either  to  a  breach  of  the  peace,  or  to 
oj)pr/ssion,  or  fiction,  or  any  manner  of  mis- 
govenunent.  It  has  a  discretionary  power 
of  inllicling  exein|)lary  punishment  on  of- 
fenders, either  by  line,  imprisjiimeiit,  or 
other  infamous  imiiishment,  as  the  nature  of 
the  crime,  considered  in  all  its  circumstances, 
siiall  require. 

The  jurisdiction  of  this  court  is  so  Iran- 
scendant,  that  it  keeps  all  inferior  jurisdictions 


K  1  N" 

within  the  bounds  of  their  authorify;  and  it 
nuiy  either  remove  tlvir  proceedings  to  be 
determined  here,  or  prohibit  their  progress 
below:  it  superintends  all  civil  corporaiioni 
in  the  kingdom;  commands  magistrates-  and 
others  to  do  what  their  duty  requires,  in 
every  case  where  there  is  no  specilic  remedy; 
protects  the  liberty  of  the  subject,  by  speedy 
and  summary  interposition;  fakes  cognizance 
both  of  ci-iminal  and  civil  causes;  the  former 
ill  what  is  called  the  crown  side,  or  cmwn  of- 
fice ;  the  latter  in  the  plea  side  of  the  court. 

This  court  has  cognizance  on  tlie  plea  side 
of  all  actions  of  trespass,  or  olher  hijury  al- 
leged to  be  committed  vi  et  arinis;  of  ac- 
tions for  forgery  of  deeds,  maintenance,  <ron- 
spiracy,  deceit,  ai,d  actions  on  the  case  which 
allege  any  falsity  or  fraud. 

In  proceedings  in  tins  court,  the  defendant 
is  arrested  for  a  supposed  trespass,  which  in 
reality  he  has  never  committed;  and  be  ng 
thus  in  the  custody  of  the  marshal  of  this 
court,  the  plaintilf  is  at  liberty  to  proceed 
against  him  for  any  other  personal  injury, 
which  surmise  of  being  in  the  custpdy  of  the 
marshal,  tiie  defendant  is  not  at  liberty  to  dis- 
pute. 

This  court  is  likewise  a  court  of  appeal^ 
into  wliich  may  be  removed,  by  writ  of  er- 
ror, all  determinations  of  the  court  of  com- 
mon pleas,  and  of  all  inferior  courts  of  record 
in  England. 

King's  bench  prison.  King's  bench 
new  rules.  East.  30  G.  III.  it  is  ordered  by 
the  court,  that  from  and  after  the  first  day  of 
Trinity  term  next,  the  rule  made  in  the  sixth 
year  of  die  reign  of  king  George  F.  and  all 
oilier  rules  for  establishing  the  ruk'S  of  the 
king's  bench  prison,  shall  be,  and  the  same 
are  hereby,  repealed.  xViid  it  is  further  or- 
dered, that  from  and  after  the  said  lii'st  day 
of  Truiity  term  ne:nt,  the  rules  of  the  king's 
t)ench  prison  shall  be  comprized  within  the 
bounds  following,  exclusive  of  the  public 
houses  hereinafter  mentioned ;  that  is  to  say, 
fiom  Gi-eat  Cumber-court  in  the  parish  of 
St.  George  the  Martyr,  in  the  county  of  Sur- 
ry, along  the  north  sid'  of  Dirty-lane,  and 
\Ielaiicholy-walk,  to  Blackfriar^'-road,  along 
the  western  side  of'the  said  road  to  the  obe- 
lisk, and  thenoe  along  the  south-west  side  of 
the  Londoii-road,  round  the  diiection  post  in 
the  ceulre  ofklie  roads,  near  the  p'.iblic  house 
known  bv  the  sign  of  the  Elephant  andCastle, 
and  thence  along  Uie  eastern  side  of  Newing- 
tou  causeway  to  Great  Cumber-court  afore- 
said: and  it  is  also  ordered,  that  the  new  gaol 
.Southwark,  and  the  highway,  exclusive  of 
the  houses  on  each  side  of  it,  leading  from 
the  king's  bench-prison  to  the  said  new  gaol, 
shall  be  within  and  part  of  the  said  rules. 
And  it  is  lastly  ordered,  that  all  taverns,  vic- 
tualling-houses, ale-houses,  and  wine-vaults, 
and  houses  or  places  hcensed  to  sell  gin,  or 
other  spirituous  Iquors,  shall  be  excluded' 
out  ol,  and  deemed  no  part  of  the  said  rules. 
It  is  ordereil,  that  from  and  alter  the  first  day 
of  Trinity  term  iiexl,  no  prisoner  in  the  kings 
beiicii  prison,  or  within  the  rule-,  (hereof, 
shall  have,  or  be  entitled  to  have,  day  rules 
above  three  days  in  each  term.  And  it  is 
iurlh.'r  ordered,  that  every  such  prisinier, 
having  a  day  rule,  sli:ill  return  within  the 
walls  or  rules  of  the  said  prison,  at  or  before 
nine  o'cio  k  in  the  evening  of  the  day  ftn 
which  such  rule  shall  be  granted. 

King's  p.^lace.    The  limits  of  the  king's 


LAB 

palace  at  '\Vfstmin'-t"r  cxtrntl  from  Cliarinn- 
C  us-i  lo  Wt■^llni^';t(■|•-ll:lll,  and  sliall  havi' 
Siicli  priviletjcs  as  tin-  aiitieiU  ijalacos.  '2H  11. 
Vlll.c.  12. 

KiNc'sr.'SHKu.  See  Alceuo. 
Kl.lNGij  I'MIN;  lliis  mineral  composes 
wliuK-  mouiilaiiis.  'I'lifyaiP  usually  iiisiilalcil; 
aixl  like  basalt,  slicw  a  ti-iulfncy  lo  assiiiin' 
tile  lonii  of  loiii-siilml  prisms.  Us  colour  is 
usually  <liM-p  grey,  of  various  sliaHcs;  but 
iiii>,t  coiiuiiDulv  gr<'i'iiisli.  .SoiiiLli[ii''S  various 
bhatli's  a|jpc.!r  ti)i',(;llu'r,  wliicli  gives  it  Ihi- 
appc.u'aiHi-  of  bfiug  s|)iitlr(l.  Kouiid  /lot 
(inly  constituting  iiioiinla  ns.  but  also  in  glo- 
bular masses,  ,i;c.  Inti-nial  lustre  arises 
cliii'liy  from  sonic  crystals  of  liornliU'iKle  am! 
felspar  wliicli  it  contains.  Strucluic  slaty. 
'lV\ture  compact.  Kiacturc  usually  splintery; 
sometimes  conclioidal.  llrittle.  Gives  a  dear 
sound  wlii-n  struck  witli  a  lianinier.  Specific 
gravity  'J..')7.>.  I'owder  lij^lit  grey.  Melts 
<"a>ily  into  a  g'ass.  A  si)eeinieii  analysed  by 
hlaprotli  yielded  57. 'ij  silica 

iJ.j.jO  alumina 
2.7j  lime 
3.25  o.\ide  of  iron 
0.  J5  oxide  of  manganese 
8.10  soda 
3.00  water. 


9H.10 

KLEINIIOVI.\,  a  a;enus  of  the  class  and 
order  gvnandriadecaudria:  tlie  cidyx  is  five- 
leaved;  corolla  live-petalletl ;  nect.  b"ll-s!iap- 
eil;  laps.  milaled,  five-lobed.  There  is  one 
species,  a  tree  of  Java. 

KNAI'SACK,  a  rough  leather  or  canvas 
bag,  which  is  strappeil  lo  an  inlantry  soldier's 
ba(  k  when  he  marches,  and  which  contains 
his  ncce-sar.es.  Square  knaps;icks  arc  sup- 
posed to  l)e  nio.t  eonvenient.  They  should 
lie  made  w.th  a  division  to  hold  the  shoes, 
blacking-balls,  and  brushes,  separate  from 
the  linen.  White  i^oat-skins  are  sometimes 
used,  but  we  do  not  conceive  them  to  be 
rcpial  to  the  painted  canvas  ones.  Soldiers 
are  put  ujuler  stoppages  for  the  payment  of 
their  knapsacks,  wliich  after  six  years  become 
tiieir  property. 


L  A  B 

!  KKAUTIA,  a  cenus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  tetrantlria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  r.nikin!;  under  the  4S(li 
order,  ag[jre^at:e.  The  common  calyx  is  ob- 
long, ainipi'-,  (piinqiiellorous;  the  proper  one 
siin|4e,  superior;  the  (lorels  irregular;  the  re- 
ceptacle naked.  There  are  tour  species, 
ciiii-lly  annuals  of  the  l^-vant. 

K  N I ■'.  v..    Sec-  A  s'  ATo  .M  v. 

K  N  i:  n,  in  a  ship,  a  crooked  piece  of  limber, 
bent  like  a  knee,  ued  to  bind  Ihe  beams  and 
fultocks  together,  by  beiti;;  boiled  fast  into 
them  both.  These  arc  used  about  all  the 
decks. 

KNKKS,  rtirlin'^,  in  a  ship,  those  timbers 
which  extend  from  the  sides  lo  the  hatch- 
way, and  bear  up  the  deck  on  both  sides. 

KNIGHT,  properly  sijjnilies  a  person, 
who,  for  his  virtue  and  martial  prowess,  is  by 
the  kinc;  raised  above  th-  rank  of  ■'enlliman 
into  a  higher  class  of  dignity  and  honour. 
The  ceremonies  at  the  creation  of  knights 
have  been  various ;  the  principal  was  a  box 
on  the  ear,  ancl  a  stroke  with  a  sword  on 
the  shoulder;  they  put  on  him  a  shoulder- 
belt,  and  a  gilt  sword,  spurs,  and  other  mili- 
tary accoutrements;  after  which,  being  arm- 
ed as  a  kniglil,  he  was  led  to  the  church  in 
great  p,)mp.  Camden  describes  the  manner 
ol  m  iking  a  knight-bachelor  among  us, 
which  is  the  lowest,  though  Ihe  most  antient 
order  of  knighthood,  to  be  thus:  the  person 
kneeling  was  gently  struck  on  the  shoulder 
by  the  prince,  and  accosted  in  these  words, 
'•  rise,'  or  "  be  a  knight  in  the  name  of 
God."  For  the  several  kinds  of  knights 
among  us,  see  IUnneuet,  Haron'et, 
Bath,  Garter,  &c. 

KNIGHTS  (;/'  the  shire,  or  Knights  nf 
parliiDiunt,  in  the  British  polity,  are  two 
knights  or  gentlemen  of  estate,  who  are  elect- 
ed, on  tiie  king's  writ,  by  the  freeholders  of 
every  county,  to  represent  them  in  parlia- 
ment. The  (luaihication  of  a  knight  of  the 
shire  is  to  be  possessed  of  fiOO/.  per  ami.  in  a 
freehold  estate.  Their  ex|)ences  during  their 
sittings  were  by  a  statute  of  Henry  \'III.  to 
be  defrayed  bv  the  county;  but  tl'iis  is  now 
never  reijuirea. 


LAB  39 

KKiGHT-MAaSHAt,  an  ofTicer  in  the  kii'ij's 
houscnoij,  who  has  jurisdiction  and  cogni- 
zance of  any  transgression  within  (lie  king** 
household  and  verge;  as  also  of  contract"* 
made  there,  whertol  OHe  of  llie  house  it 
party. 

Kn'igkts,  in  a  ship,  Iwothick  short  piece* 
of  vi<»od,  connnonly  carved  like  a  man's  head, 
having  four  shivers  in  each,  three  for  the 
lialyards,  and  one  for  the  lop-topes  to  run  iu ; 
one  of  I  hem  stands  fa^t  bolted  on  Ihe  beami 
abaft  the  foremasi,  andjs  therefore  called  the 
fore-knight;  an^  liic  other,  standing abalt  the 
niuininasl,  is  called  the  main-knight. 

KNOXIA,  a  genu-:  of  liie  class  and  order 
lelrandrla  monogyniu.  The  corolla  is  one- 
pi.-talled,  funnel  -  iorin ;  seeds  two-grooved. 
1  here  Ls  one  species,  a  herb  of  C'e\  lo.i. 

KGKNiGlA,  a  genus  of  the  Iricynia  order, 
belonging  to  Ihe  triandria  class  ol  plants.  'Ihe 
lalyx  is  triphyllous;  Ihere  is  no  corolla,  anii 
but  one  o>-ate  and  naked  seed. 

KOllAN.     See  A1.CORAS. 

KUPKKKXICKEL,  is  a  sulphurct  of 
nickel,  and  is  generally  'coivpoundcd  oi 
nickel,  arsenic,  and  sulphuret  of  iron. 

KLRTL'S,  a  genus  of  lislies  of  the  order 
jugnlares;  the  generic  character  of  which  is, 
body  broiKi,  carinatcd  both  above  and  below, 
with  greatly  elevated  back;  gill-menibraue 
two-rayed.  The  genus  kuitus,  instituted  by 
Dr.  Bloch,  consists  at  present  of  a  single  spe- 
cies only.  This  is  a  native  of  the  Indian  seas; 
and  is  supposed  to  feed  on  shell-fish,  small 
cancri,  and  other  sea  insects,  the  remains  of 
which  were  ob-^erved  in  the  stomach  cf  the 
specimen  examined  by  Dr.  Bloch.  The 
length  of  this  fi-.h  w-:s  about  ten  inches,  in- 
cluding the  tail,  and  ils  greatest  breadth 
something  more  than  four  inches;  ils  shape  is 
deep  or  b.oad,  tlie  sides  being  much  com- 
pressed, an<l  the  back  rising  very  high  in  the 
middle.  The  colour  of  the  whole  body  is 
silvery,  as  if  covered  with  foil,  without 'aiiv 
appearance  of  scales;  the  back  is  tinged  with 
gold-colour  and  marked  by  three  or  four 
black  spots  on  its  ridge,  and  the  fms  have,  a  . 
reddish  cast. 


L. 


T  or  1,  the  eleyenth  letter  of  our  alpha- 
*-'?  bet,  as  ajiumeral,  denotes  50  ;  and  w ith 
over  it,  thus,  L,  50000. 

^  L.'V,  in  music,  the  syllable  by  which 
(iuido  denoted  the  last  sound  of  each  hex- 
achord:  if  it  begins  in  C,  it  answers  to  our 
4  ;  if  in  G  to  E ;  ■  and  if  in  F  to  D. 

L.VBAUUM,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the 
standard  borne  before  the  Roman  emperors ; 
being  a  rich  purple  streamer,  supported  by 
a  spear. 

LABDANUiM,  or  Kidanum.  This  re- 
sin  is  obtained  troin  the  cystus  cretirus,  a 
shrub  whicli  grows  in  Syria'iUid  the  Grecian 
islands.  Tne  surface  of  llie  shrub  is  covered 
with  a  viscid  juice,  which,  when  concreted 
11 


forms  ladanum.  It  is  collected  while  moist 
by  drawing  over  it  a, kind  of  rake  with  thongs 
fixed  to  It  ;  from  these  it  is  afterwards 
scraped  with  a  knife.  The  best  is  in  masses 
almost  black,  and  very  soft,  having  a  fra- 
grant ,odour  and  a  buterish  taste.  When 
dissolved  in  alcohol,  it  leaves  behind  it  a 
little  gum.  The  specitic  gravity  of  tliis 
resin  is  about  1.13.     See  RtsiN'S. 

LABEL,  in  heraldry,  a  hllet  usually 
placed  in  the  middle  along  the  ch.ef  of  the 
coat,  without  touching  its  extremities. 

Label  of  a  circumferenlor,  a  long  thin 
brass  ruler,  with  a  sight  at  one  end,  and  a 
centre-hole  at  the  other;  chieHy  used  with 
a  tangent  line  to  tak-e  altitudes. 

LABORiVTOllY    and  Apparatus,  che- 


mical. A  chemicid  laboratory-,  thousrh  ex 
tremcly  useful,  and  even  cs'sential  ^lo  all 
who  embark  extensively  in  the  piaclire  of 
chemistry,  either  as  an  art,  or  as  a  branch 
of  liberal  knowledge,  is  by  no  means  re- 
(juired  for  tiie  pertormauce'of  those  simple 
experiments  which  lurnish  ihe  evidence  of 
the  fundamental  truths  of  the  science.  A 
room  that  is  well  lighted,  easily  ventilated,, 
and  destilule  of  any  valuable  furniture,  is 
all  that  is  absolutely  necessary  tor  the  pur- 
pose. It  is  even  advisable  that  the  con- 
struction of  a  regular  laborator\  si.ould  be 
deferred  till  the  student  has  made  some 
progress  in  the  science  ;  for  he  will  then  be 
belter  qualilie<l  to  accommoddte  ils  plan  lo 
his  own  peculiar  views  and  couvenience. 


4Q 

It  lA  scarrHv  possililc  (o  olTer  the  plan  of 
a  1;ib.)ratorv,  wiiicli  will  be  suitable  to  evcrj- 
pi'i'soii,  and  to  all  situations;  or  to  siis';^est 
any  ihinu,  iiiore  than  a  few  rules  that  siiouUl 
he  g-uerallv  observed.  Diilerent apartments 
are  required  for  the  various  classes  of  che- 
mical operations.  The  principal  one  may 
be  on  the  ground  Hoor  ;  twenty-live  feet  long, 
fourteen  or  sixteen  feet  wide,  and  open  to 
the  roof,  in  which  there  should  bj  contriv- 
ances for  allowing  the  occasional  escape  of 
sull'ocaling  vapours.  'J'his  will  be  destined 
cbietiy  for  containing  furnaces,  both  li\ed 
and  portable.  It  should  be  amply  furnished 
with  shelves  and  drawers,  and  with  a  Ijvs^e 
table  in  the  centre,  the  best  form  of  which 
is  that  of  u  double  cross.  Another  apartment 
juav  be  appropriated  to  the  minuter  opera- 
tions of  cliei7iistr_\  ",  such  as  those  of  preci- 
pitation on  a  small  scale,  the  processes  that 
rt'quire  merelv  the  heat  of  a  lamp,  and  e.\- 
j)eriments  on  the  gases.  In  a  third,  of 
smaller  size,  may  be  de|)Osited  accurate  ba- 
lances, and  Other  instruments  ot  considerable 
nicety,  which  would  be  mjured  by  the  acid 
fumes  that  are  constantly  spread  throLigh  a 
iaboratory.     ' 

The  following  are  the  principal  instru- 
Iiieiit.-.  that  are  required  in  chemical  investi- 
a;atioMS  ;  but  it  is  impossible,  williout  enter- 
ing into  very  tedious  details,  to  enumerate 
all  that  should  be  in  the  possession  of  a  prac- 
tical chemist. 

-  1.  Furnaces.  These  may  either  be  form- 
ed of  solid  brick-work,  or  of  such  materials 
as  admit  of  their  removal  from  place  to 
place.     See  Furnace,  and  Che.mistiiy. 

2.  For  containing  the  materials,  which  are 
to  be  submitted  to  the  action  of  heat  in  a 
wind  furnace,  vessels  called  crucibles  are 
e;iiployed.  They  are  most  commonly  made 
of  a  mixture  of  lire-clay  and  sand,  occasion- 
ally with  the  addition  of  plumbago,  or  black 
lc;.d.  The  Hessian  crucibles  are  be>t  adapt- 
ni  .for  Mipporting  an  intense  heat  witiiout 
melting;  but  tliey  are  liable  to  crack  when 
suddenly  heated  or  cooled.  'I'he  porcelain 
r,iies  nude  by  Messrs.  W<-dgewood,  are  of 
ir.ufh  purer  materials,  but  are  still  more  apt 
to  crack  on  Midden  chaiigi's  of  temperature ; 
and  when  used,  they  should  tlu-relbre  be 
yjlaced  in  a  common  crucible  ot  larger  size, 
the  interval  being  filled  with  sand.  The 
black-lead  crucibles  resist  very  sudden 
changes  of  temperature,  and  may  be  re- 
peatedly used;  but  they  are  destroyed  when 
some  saline  substances  (such  as  nitre)  are 
melted  in  them,  and  are  consumed  by  a 
current  of  air.  For  certain  purposes  cru- 
cibles are  formed  of  pure  silver  or  plalina. 
Tlieii  form  varies  considejably  ;  but  it  is  ne- 
cessarv,  in  all  cases,  to  raise  them  from  the 
bars  ot  the  grate,  by  a  stand.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  submitting  siibiitances  to  the  con- 
tinued action  of  a  i^d  h-at,  and  with  a  con- 
siderable burlace  exposed  to  the  air,  a  hol- 
low arihecl  vessel,  w  ith  a  tlat  bottom,  termed 
a  muliie,  is  commoul.y  used.  Sec  Che- 
mistry. 

3.  ICvaporatiiig  vessel  should  always  be 
of  a  flat  sjnpe  so  a.  to  ■  xpose  them  exl<'n- 
sively  to  the  action  of  h  at.  'I  hey  are  form- 
ed ol  glass,  of  eaithcn.vare,  and  of  various 
metals.  Tho~(;  of  glass  are  with  diriiciilly 
made  suUicientlj  thin,  and  are  otten  broken 
by  changes  ol  temperature  ;  but  they  liave 
A    great  advantage    in    the   sniootliiiess   of 


.  LABORATORY. 

their  surface,  and  in  resisting  tlic  action  "f  r  bear,  without  losing  ils  Ipnacity,  with  the 
most  acid  and  corrosive  substances.  Iv^-  addition  of  cut  tow,  or  o(  horse-dung,  and  a 
poraling  vessels  of  porcelain,  Ol  vVedgwood's  j  pro|)er  quantity  oi  water,  lurn'.shes  a  goud 
ware,  are  next  in  utility,  are  less  costly,  ■■.ml 


less  liable  to  be  cracked.  They  are  made 
both  of  glazed-  and  unglazed  wure.  I'or 
ordinary  purposes,  i.ie  foimcr  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred :"  but  the  unglaxed  shijukl  be  employ- 
ed when  great  accur.icy  is  required,  since 
the  glazing  is  acted  on  by  several  chemical 
substances.  Evaporating  vessels  of  glass,  or 
porcelain,  an- generally  bedded  up  to  their 
edge  in  sand  ;  but  those  of  various  metals 
are  placed  immediately  over  the  naked  nre. 
\V  hen  tiie  glass  or  porcelain  vessel  is  very 
thin,  and  of  small  size,  il  may  be  safely 
Ijlaced  on  the  ring  of  a  brass  stand,  and  the 


lute,  which  has  the  advantage  ot  resisting  a 
considerable  heat,  and  is  applicable  in  cases 
where  the  fat  lute  would  be  melted  or  de- 
stroyed. Various  oUier  lutes  are  recom- 
mended by  chemical  writers  ;  but  the  fev» 
that  have  been  enumerated  are  tound  to  be 
amply  sufiicient  lor  every  purpose.  See 
Lute. 

On  some  occasions,  it  is  necessary  to  pro- 
tect the  retort  from  too  sudden  changes  of 
temperatuie  by  a  proper  coating.  For  glass 
retort^,  a  mi;vlure  of  common  clay  or  loam 
witii  sand,  and  cut  shreds  of  tlax,  may  be 
emploved.     It   the  distili.ition   is  performed 


llaiueof  an  Argand's  lamp,  cautiously  vegu- 1  by  a  >iinil  heat,  the  coating  needs  not  to  be 


lated,  may  be  applied  beneath  it.  A  lamp 
thus  supported,  so  as  to  be  raised  or  lowered 
at  pleasure,  on  an  upright  pillar,  to  which 
rings  of  various  dianu-teis  aie  adapted,  will 
be  found  extremely  useful ;  and  wiieii  a 
strong  heat  is  recpured,  it  is  advisable  to 
employ  a  lamp  provided  with  double  con- 
centric wicks. 

4.  In  the  process  of  evaiwration,  the  va- 
pour for  the  most  part  is  allowed  to  escape  ; 
but  in  certain   chemical  processes,   the  col- 


ection  ot  the  volatile  portion  is  the  [tniicipal 


1 
object.  This  process  is  termed  distillation. 
See  DisTiLL.\TioN. 

The  common  still,  however,  can  only  be 
eiU])loyed  for  volatilizing  substances  that  do 
not  act  on  copper,  or  other  metals,  and  is, 
therefore,  limited  to  very  lew  operations,  and 
on  that  account  alembics  and  retorts  aie  ne- 
cessary.    See  Chemistry. 

In  several  instanc.  s,  the  substance  raised 
by  distillation,  is  partly  a  coiulensible  litiuid, 
and  partlv  a  gas,  which  is  not  condensed  till 
it  is  brought  into  contact  with  water.  To 
effect  this  doul)le  purpose,  a  series  of  receiv- 
ers t>  rmed  \\'oulfe's  apparatus  is  employed. 
See  Chemistry. 

AVhen  a  volatile  substance  is  submitleil  to 
distillation,  it  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  es- 
cape of  the  vapour  through  the  junctiiies  of 
the  vessels  ;  ami  this  is  accom|i'.ished  by  the 
application  of  lutes.  The  most  simple  me- 
thod of  confining  the  v. .pour,  it  is  obvious, 
would  be  to  connect  the  places  of  jumt. ire 
accurately  together  by  grinding;  and  ac- 
cordiuglv'the  neck  of  the  retort  is  sometimes 
ground  to  the  mouth  of  the  receiver.  This, 
however,  adds  too  much  to  the  expence  of 
apparatus  to  be  generally  practised. 

When  the  dl-tilled  Uquid  has  no  cor- 
rosive property,  (such  as  water,  alcohol, 
ether,  &.c.)  slips  of  moistened  bladdir,  or 
of  paper  or  linen  spread  with  flour  paste, 
while  of  egg,  or  mucilage  of  gum  Arabic, 
siifliciently  answer  the  purpose.  The  sub- 
stance which  remains,  after  expressing  the 
oil  from  bitter  almouils,  and  which  is  sold 
und.r  the  name  of  almond  meal  or  Hour, 
forms  a  useful  lute,  wlien  mixed  to  the  con- 
sist'-iicy  of  glaziers'  putty,  with  water  or  mu- 
cilage. 

I'or  confining  the  vapour  of  acid  or  highlv 
corrosive  substances,  the  fat  lute  is  well 
adapted.  It  is  l,)rmed  by  beating  perfectlx 
dry  and  finely  sifted  tobaixo-pipe  clay  with 
painters"  (lr\  im^-oil,  to  such  a  consistence  that 
il  may  be  motilded  bv  the  hand.  The  same 
chiy,  beaten  up  with  as  much  sand  as  it  wil, 

J 


applied  higher  than  that  part  of  the  retort 
vvh.ich  is  bedded  in  sand  ;  but  if  the  process 
is  pertbruied  in  a  wind  funiace,  the  whole 
bod)  of  the  retort,  and  that  part  ol  the  neck 
aiso  which  is  exposed  to  heat,  must  be  care- 
fully coated.  lo  this  kind  of  distillation, 
however,  earth'-ii  retorts  are  better  adapted ; 
and  they  may  be  covced  with  a  composition 
ori-riually  recommended  by  Mr.  Willis. 
Two  ounces  ot  bor^ix  are  to  be  dissolved  in 
a  pint  of  boiling  water,  and  a  sufficient  quan- 
litv  of  slaked  lime  added  to  give  it  the 
thiVkiiess  of  cream.  1  his  is  to  be  applied 
by  a  painter's  brush,  and  allowed  to  dry. 
Over  this  a  thin  paste  is  afterwards  to  fie 
applied,  formed  of  slaked  lime  nd  common 
linseed-oil,  well  mixed  and  perfectly  plastic. 
In  a  dav  or  two,  the  coating  will  be  suf- 
ficiently "dry  to  allow  the  use  ol  the  retort. 

For  joining  together  the  parts  of  iron 
vessels  used  in  distillation,  a  mixture  of  the 
fine^t  China  clay,  with  solution  of  borax, 
is  well  adafjted. "  In  all  cases,  the  dill'erent 
parts  ot  any  apparatus  made  of  iron  should 
be  accurately  fitted  by  boring  and  grinding, 
and  the  above  lute  is  to  be  applieo  to  the 
part  whii'h  is  received  into  an  aperture. 
This  will  generally  be  sulficieut  without  any 
exterior  luting  ;  otherwise  the  lute  of  clay, 
sand,  and  liax,  already  described,  may  be 
used. 

In  every  instance,  where  a  lute  or  coat- 
ing is  applied,  it  is  adv  s.ible  to  allow  it  to 
dry  betore  the  distillation  is  L.egun ;  and 
even  the  fat  hue,  by  exposure  to  the  air 
during  one  or  two  days  alter  its  ap;)lication, 
is  much  improved  in  its  ipiality.  The  clay 
and  saiul  lute  is  perfectly  useless,  except  it 
is  previously  tpiile  dry.  In  applying  a 
lull-,  the  part  immediaiely  o\er  the  junc- 
ture should  swell  outwards,  and  its  diameter 
should  be  gr.idually  diminished  on  each  side. 

I'esides  the  apparatus  already  described, 
a  variety  of  vessels  and  in>irunients  are  ne- 
cessary, having  little  resemblance  to  each 
other  in  the  purposes  to  which  they  are 
ad,ii)ti',l.  (Jlass  vessels  are  rcipiireil  for  ef- 
fecting solution,  which  olten  requires  the 
ap|,lication  of  heat,  and  sometimes  for  a 
considerable  durat'on.  In  the  latter  case  it 
is  termed  digestion,  and  the  ves-sel  called  a 
mattrass  is  the  most  proper  for  perfornung 
it.  W  lieu  solution  is  (piickly  ell'ected,  a 
bott'e,  with  a  rounded  boitom,  ma\  be 
used,  or  a  com  <  on  Fiorence-oil  tlask  servs 
th  ■  >:ime  purpose  extremely  well,  and  be  rs 
without  crai  kmg,  sudden  changes  of  teui- 
perature.  (ilass  rods,  of  various  length, 
and  s])ooiis  ol  the  same  material,  or  of  por- 


LAC 

celaln,  are  iHcful  for  stiri-iiiD;  acUl  aiul  col-- 
rosive  liiiui'ls;  yiul  ;i  stock  ol  cyliii<lvic;!l 
tube'!  of  various  sizos,  is  rn([uirL'd  for  occa^ 
sioiial  ()iiriJos('s.  It  is  mcessary  also  to  btf 
provided  with  a  si-ries  of  glass  mcasiirL's, 
graduali'd  into  draclnns,  omn-cs,  and  pints. 

Accurate  beams  ami  scales,  of  various 
sizes,  with  corresponding  weights,  some  ot 
which  are  capable  of  weiglMiii»  several  poiuuls, 
while  the  smaller  size  ascertain  a  minute 
fraction  of  a  grain,  are  essential  instruments 
in  the  chemical  laboratory.  fSo  also  are 
mortars  of  diflercnt  materials,  sucli  as  of  i^lass, 
porcelain,  agate,  and  metal.  \\'ooden  stands 
of  various  kinds  t()r  supporting  receivers, 
should  be  |)rovided.  I'or  purposes  of  this 
sort,  and  lor  occasionally  raising  to  a  proper 
height  any  article  of  apparatus,  a  series  of 
blocks,  nunle  of  well-seasoned  wood,  eight 
inches  (or  any  other  number)  square,  and 
re^pectivelv  eight,  four,  two,  vine,  and  half 
an  inch  in  thickness,  will  be  found  extremely 
useful ;  sijice  by  combining  them  in  dilfer- 
ent  ways,  no  less  than  thirty-one  dilfereul 
heights  may  be  attained. 

The  blowpipe  is  an  instrument  of  much 
utility  in  chemical  researches.  A  small  one, 
invented  by  NCr.  I'epys,  with  a  flat  cylindri- 
cal b  jx  fur  condensing  the  vapour  of  the 
breath,  and  for  containing  caps,  to  be  oc- 
casionally applied  w  ith  apertures-  of  various 
sizes,  is  perhaps,  the  most  commodious 
form.  A  blowpipe,  vfhich  is  supplied  with 
air  from  a  pair  of  double  bellows,  worked 
by  the  foot)  may  be  applied  to  purposes 
tliat  require  both  "hands  to  be  left  at  liberty; 
and  will  be  found  useful  in  blowing  glass, 
and  in  bending  tubes.  'I'he  latter  pur|)ose, 
however,  may  be  accomplished  by  holding 
them  over  aa  Argand's  lamp  with  double 
wicks. 

L.VBORATORY,  signifies  also  in  military 
affairs,  that  place  where  all  sorts  of  tire-works 
are  prepared  both  for  actual  service,  and  for 
pleasure,  viz.  quick  matches,  fusees,  portfires, 
grapC'shot,  case-shot,  carcases,  hand-gre- 
nades, cartridges,  shells  lilletl  and  fusees 
Ji.ved,  wads,  &c. 

LABRUS,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  tlio  order 
tlioracici :  the  generic  character  is,  teeth  strong 
and  subacute:  the  grinders  sometimes,  as  in 
the  spari,  convex  and  crowded;  lips  thick 
and  doubled ;  rays  of  the  dorsal  fin,  in  some 
species,  elongated  into  soft  processes.  Gill- 
covers  unarnieil  and  scaly. 

I-abrus  hepatus,  snout  rather  pointed : 
teeth  small :  palate  furnished  with  a  rougli 
bone.  Native  of  the  Mediterranean,  some- 
times wandering  into  rivers.  There  are  4l 
species  belonging  to  this  genus,  all  of  which 
are  but  imperlectly  understood. 

LABOURER.  See  .NLwter  and  Ser- 
va.vt. 

LABYRINTH,  in  gardening,  a  winding 
mazy  walk  between  hedges,  through  a  wood 
or  wilderness.  The  chief  ahu  is  to  make 
the  walks  so  |)erplexed  and  intricate,  that  a 
person  may  lose  himself  iu  them,  and  meet 
with  as  great  a  number  of  disappointments 
as  possible.  They  are  rarely  to  be  met 
with,  except  in  great  gardens  ;  as  \'ersaille9, 
llauiptoH-court,  &c. 

L.\C",  an  appellation  given  to  several  che- 
mical preparations. 

Lac.    This  resia  exudes  from  tlie  tree 
'"JL.  II. 


7.  A  C 

elilled  the  rroton  laccil'crum,  uliPn  ptmrtm-rd 
by  an  inse(  t.  I'or  the  history  of  its  forma- 
tion, and  the  uses  to  which  it  is  applied  by 
Iht;  insects,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
article  Gum,  &:c.  It  is  a  substance  of  a 
deeji-red  colour  verging  on  brown,  and 
scmitransparent,  and  distinguished  by  various 
names  according  to  its  purity.  It  possesses 
tlie  properties  of  a  resin,  and  is  the  basis  oi 
many  varnishes,  and  of  the  liucsl  kinds  of 
sealing-wax. 

Lac  .lul/jliuris,  is  obtained  by  precipitating 
sulphur,  when  in  combination  :  it  is  com- 
pose<l  of  -uljjliur  united  to  a  little  water. 

LA(;iIi;[iNAI.lA,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  order  hexandria  monogynia.  Tlie  cor. 
is  six-parted,  tliree  outer  petals  difform ; 
caps,  three-winged  ;  cells  niarty-seeded ; 
seeds  globular,  aliixed  to  the  recept.  There 
are  twelve  species,  chiefly  bulbs  of  the 
C'aj)e. 

LACTATS,  in  chemistry,  a  genus  of  salts 
but  little  know  n.  1 .  Lactal  of  potass,  a  de- 
liquescent salt  soluble  in  alcohol.  2.  Lactat 
of  soda.  This  salt  does  not  crystallize.  It 
is  soluble  in  alcohol.  3.  LacLiit  of  ammonia. 
Crystals  which  deli<|Uesce.  Heat  separates 
a  great  part  of  tin;  ammonia  before  destroy- 
ing the  acid.  4.  Lactat  of  barytes ;  lime ; 
alumina  ;  all  delitpiesce. 

LACCIG  acid.  About  the  year  178G, 
Dr.  Anderson  of  Madras  mentioned,  in  a 
letter  to  tlie  governor  and  council  of  that 
place,  that  nests  of  insects,  resembling  small 
cowry  shells,  had  been  brought  to  him  from 
tlie  woods  by  the  natives,  who  ate  them  with 
avidity.  These  supposed  nests  he  soon  af- 
terwards discovered  to  be  the  coverings  of 
the  females  of  an  undescribed  speeies  of  coc- 
cus, which  he  shortly  found  means  to  propa- 
gate with  great  facility  on  several  of  the  trees 
and  shrubs  growing  in  his  neighbourhood. 

tin  examining  this  sulxstance,  which  he 
called  white  lac,  he  observed  in  it  a  very 
considerable  resemblance  to  bees'  wax;  he 
noticed  also,  that  the  animal  which  secretes 
it  provides  itself  by  some  means  or  other 
with  a  small  quantity  of  honey,  resembling 
that  produced  by  our  bee^;  and  in  one  of 
his  letters  he  complains,  that  tliC  children 
whom  he  employed  to  gather  it  were  tempt- 
ed by  its  sweetness  to  eat  so  much  of  it,  as 
materially  to  reduce  tin'  produce  of  his  Crop. 
Small  ipiantities  of  this  matter  were  sent 
into  Europe  in  17*9,  both  in  its  natiu-.il 
state  and  melted  into  cakes;  and  in  179.3 
Dr.  Pearson,  at  the  request  of  sir  Joseph 
Banks,  undertook  a  chemical  examination  of 
its  qualities,  and  his  experiments  were  pub- 
lished in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for 
1 794. 

A  piece  of  white  lar,  from  3  to  13  grains 
in  weight,  is  probably  produced  by  eail\  in- 
sect. These  pieces  are  of  a  grey  colour, 
opa(iue,  rougli,  and  roundish.  When  white 
lac  was  purified  by  being  strained  through 
muslin,  it  was  of  a  brown  colour,  brittle, 
hard,  and  had  a  bitterish  taste.  It  melted  hi 
alcohol,  and  in  water  of  the  temperature  of 
1 45°.  In  many  of  its  properties  it  resembles 
bees'  wax,  though  it  differs  in  others;  and 
Dr.  Pearson  supposes  that  both  substances 
are  composed  ot  the  same  ingredients,  but 
in  different  proportions. 

I.  Two  thousand  grams  of  white  lac  were 
exposed  in  such  a  degree  of  heat  as  was  just 
sufficient  to  niclt  them.    As  they  grew  soft 


L  A  O 


41 


and  fluid,  tlieic  oozetf  out  5.50  grahis  of  a 
reddish  Watery  li<]uid,  which  smelled  like 
newly  baken  bread.  To  this  liquid  Or, 
I'lMison  has  given  the  name  of  laccic  acid. 
'J.  It  possesses  the  following  properties : 
It  turns  paper  stained  with  turnsole  to  a 
red  colour. 

After  being  filtred,  it  has  a  slightly  saltisK 
taste  wil'i  bitterness,  but  h'h  not  atafl  sour.  .■ 
A\'lien    heated,    it  smells   precisely    like 
newly  baken  hot  bread. 

On  standing,  it  grows  somev.liat  turbid, 
and  deposits  a  small  quantity  of  sediment. 

Its  specific  gravity  at  the  temjjeralure  ot 
6u"is  l.n'iy. 

A  little  of  it  liaving  been  cvaporaled  till 
it  grew  verv  turbid,  afforded  on  standing 
sniall  needle-shaped  crystals  in  mucilaginous 
matter. 

Two  hundred  and  ilfly  griins  of  it  were 
poun  <1  into  a  very  small  retort  and  distilled. 
As  the  li<|uor  grew  warm,  inucilagt-like 
clouds  appeared ;  bu(  as  the  heat  increased 
they  disappeared  again.  At  the  temperature 
of  i.'l)0°  liie  liquor  thstilled  over  very  fast : 
a  small  quantity  of  e.xtractive  matter  remain- 
ed beliind.  I'lie  distilled  li<jUor  while  hot 
smelled  like  newly  baken  bread,  and  was 
perter:tly  transpare.it  and  yellowijh.  A  shred 
of  paper  stained  witli  turnsole,  which  had 
been  put  into  the  receiver,  was  not  redden- 
ed ;  nor  did  another  which  had  been  im- 
mersed hi  a  solution  of  sulpliat  of  iron,  and 
also  placed  in  the  receiver,  turn  to  a  blue 
colour  upon  being  moistened  with  the  solu- 
tion of  potass. 

Aljout  100  grains  of  this  distilled  liquid 
being  evaporated  till  it  grew  turbid,  after 
being  set  by  for  a  night,  alTbrded  acicular 
crystals,  which  under  a  lens  appeared  in  a 
group  not  unlike  tlie  umbel  of  parsley.  The 
whole  of  them  ditl  not  amount  to  the  quarter 
of  a  grain.     Tliey  tasted  only  bitterish. 

Another  100  grains  being  evaporated  to 
dry  ness  in  a  very  low  temperature,  a  black'- 
ish  matter  was  left  behind,  which  did  not  en- 
tirely disappear  on  heating  the  spoon  con- 
taining it  very  hot  in  the  naked  lire  ;  but  on 
heiiting  oxalic  acid  to  a  much  less  degree, 
it  evaporated  and  left  not  a  trace  behind. 

Carbonat  of  lime  dissolved  in  this  distilled 
liquid  widi  efVervescence.  The  solution 
tasted  billeriah,  did  not  turn  paper  stained 
with  turnsole  red,  and  on  adding  to  it  car- 
bonat of  potass  a  copious  precipitation  en- 
^ued.  A  little  of  this  solution  of  lime  and  of 
alkali  being  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the 
residuum  made  red-hot,  nothing  remaine-i 
but  carbonat  of  lime,  and  carbonat  of  pola.s5. 
This  liquid  did  not  render  nitrat  of  lime 
turbid,  but  it  produced  turbidness  in  nitrat 
and  nairiat  of  barytes. 

To  500  grains  of  the  reddish-coloured  li- 
qtior  obtained  by  melting  white  lac,  carbonat 
of  soda  \ras  added  till  the  elfervescenca 
ceased,  and  the  mixture  was  neutralized  ; 
for  which  purpose  tlu-ee  grains  of  the  car- 
bonat were  necessary.  During  this  combi- 
nation a  quantity  of  mucilaginous  matter, 
with  a  little  carbonat  of  lime,  was  precipi- 
tated. The  saturated  solution  being  filtrated 
and  evaporated  to  the  due  dejpee,  afforded 
on  standing  deliquescent  cryst^Os,  which  on 
exposure  to  fire,  left  only  a  residuum  of  car- 
bonat of  soda. 

Lime-water  being  added  to  this  reddisb- 
coloiireii    liquor  produced   a,   light  purple 


42 


LAG 


turbid  appearance ;    and  on  standing  there 
were  clouds  just  perceptilile. 

Sidplmret  of  lime  occasioned  a  white  pre- 
cipitation, but  no  sulpliiirctcd  hydrogen  ga> 
was  perctptjble  by  the  smell. 

Tincture  of  galls  produced  a  green  pre- 
ci])!tation. 

Sulphat  of  iron  produced  a  purplish  colour, 
but  no  precipitation  ;  nor  was  any  precipitate 
fornieil  by  the  addition  tirst  of  a  little  vinegar 
and  then  of  a  little  potass  to  the  mixture. 

Acc-tat  of  load  occasioned  a  reddish  prc- 
cijjitation,  wliich  redissolved  on  adding  a 
little  nitric  acid. 

Nitrat  of  mercury  produced  a  whitish  tur- 
bid htpior. 

0\a!ic  acid  produced  immediately  the 
precipitation  of  white  acicular  crystals  owing 
probably  to  the  presence  of  a  little  lime  in 
the  liquid. 

Tartrat  of  potass  produced  a  precipitation 
not  unlike  what  takes  place  on  adding  t.ir- 
taric  acid  to  tartrat  of  potass;  but  it  did  not 
dissolve  again  on  adding  potass. 

LACE,  in  commerce,  a  work  composed  of 
many  tlireads  of  gold,  silver,  or  silk,  inter- 
woven one  with  the  other,  and  worked  upon 
a  pillow  with  spindles,  according  to  the  pat- 
tern designed;  the  open  work  being  formed 
T^•ith  pins,  which  are  placed  and  displaced  ;is 
the  spindles  are  moved. 

Mdhodof  denning  sold-lace  and  emhrni- 
thnj  vchen  tarnishtd. — For  this  purpose  alka- 
line liquors  are  by  no  means  to  be  used ;  for 
while  they  clean  the  gold  they  corrode  the 
silk,  and  change  or  discharge  its  colour.  Soap 
also  alters  the  shade,  and  even  the  species  of 
certain  colour,?.  Kut  spirit  of  wine  maybe 
used  without  any  danger  of  its  injuring  either 
the  colour  or  qnalit}-  of  the  subject ;  and  in 
many  cases  proves  as  eft'ectual  for  restoring 
the  lustre  of  the  gold  as  the  corrosiv'e  deter- 
ments. 

But  though  spirit  of  wine  is  the  most  inno- 
cent n)aterial  tliat  can  be  enqiloyed  for  this 
purpose,  it  is  not  in  all  cases  proper.  'I'he 
golden  covering  mav  be  in  some  parts  worn 
off;  or  the  base  nurtal,  with  which  it  has  been 
jniquitously  alloyed,  may  be  corroded  by  the 
air,  so  as  to  leave  the  particles  of  the  gold 
disunited  ;  while  the  silver  underneath,  tar- 
nished to  a  yellow  hue,  may  continue  a  to- 
lerable colour  to  the  whole:  in  which  cases 
it  is  apparent  that  the  removal  of  the  tarnish 
v-ould  be  prejudicial  to  (he  colour,  and  make 
the  lace  or  embroidery  less  like  gold  than  it 
•\vAs  before. 

Lace,  hnne,  a  lace  made  of  fine  linen 
thrt-ad  or  silk,  much  in  the  same  manner  as 
that  of  gold  and  silver.  'I'he  pattern  of  the 
lace  is  fixed  uj'on  a  large  round  pillow,  ajid 
pins  being  stuck  into  tire  holes  or  o|)enings  in 
the  pattern,  the  threads  are  interwoven  by 
means  of  a  number  of  bobins,  made  of  bone 
or  ivory,  each  of  which  contains  a  small 
«|uantity  of  line  thread,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  make  tlie  lace  exactly  resemble  the  pat- 
tern. There  are  several  towns  in  England, 
and  particularly  in  Buckinghamshire,  that 
<:arry  on  thifi  manufacture  ;  but  vast  quanti- 
ties of  the  fmest  laces  have  been  imported 
from  Flanders. 

IJVCKKTA,  Hzfird,  a  genus  of  (he  am- 
phibia class,  and  of  (lie  order  of  reptiles  :  the 
generic  i-haracter  h,  body  four-footed,  elon- 
gated, tailed;  witiujut  any  secondary  integu- 
wicut. 


LAC 

This  numerous  genus  may  be  divided  into 
the  following  sections,  viz. 

1.  Crocodiles,  furnished  with  rery  strong 
scales. 

2.  Guanas,  and  other  lizards,  either  with 
serrated  or  carinated  backs  and  tails. 

3.  Cordyles,  with  denticulated,  and  some- 
times spiny  scales,  either  on  the  body  or  tail, 
or  both. 

4.  Lizards  proper,  smooth,  and  the  greater 
mnnber  furnished  with  broad  square  scalesor 
plates  on  the  abdomen. 

5.  Chaina-lv>ons,  with  granulated  skin,  large 
head,  long  missile  tongue,  and  cylindric  tail. 

6.  Geckos,  with  granulated  or  tuberculated 
skin,  and  Idbated  feet,  v.ith  the  toes  lamcl- 
Lited  beneath. 

7.  Scinks,  with  smooth,  fish-like,  scales. 

8.  Salaniand'Ts,  newts,  or  etts,  with  soft 
skins,  and  of  which  some  are  water-lizards. 

9.  Snake-li/ards,  with  extremely  long  bo- 
dies, very  short  legs,  and  minute  feet. 

The  above  divisions  neither  are,  nor  can 
be,  perfectly  precise  ^  since  species  may  oc- 
cur which  mav,  with  almost  equal  proprietv', 
be  referred  to  either  of  the  neighbouring  sec- 
tions ;  but,  in  general,  they  will  be  found 
useful  in  the  investigation  of  the  species.  The 
following  are  the  most  noted  : 

1.  Lacerta  crocotlilus,  or  crocodile.  The 
crocodile,  so  remarkable  for  its  size  and  pow- 
ers of  destruction,  has  in  all  ages  been  r^'- 
garded  as  one  of  the  most  formidable  ani- 
mals of  the  warmer  regions.  It  is  a  native 
of  Asia  and  Africa,  but  seeins  to  be  most  com- 
mon in  the  latter;  inhabiting  large  rivers,  as 
the  Nile  (see  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  237),  the 
Niger,  &c.  and  preving  principally  on  fish, 
but  occasionally  seizing  on  almost  every  ani- 
mal which  happens  to  be  exposed  to  its  rapa- 
city. The  size  to  which  the  crocodile  some- 
times arrives  is  prodigious  ;  specimens  being 
frequently  seen  of  20  feet  in  length,  and  in- 
stances are  commemorated  of  some  which 
have  exceeded  the  length  of  30  feet.  The 
armour  with  which  the  upper  part  of  the 
b.idy  is  covered  may  be  numbered  among  the 
mo^t  elaborate  pieces  of  nature's  mechanism. 
In  the  full-grown  animal  it  is  so  strong  and 
thick  as  easily  to  repel  a  musket-ball ;  on  the 
lower  parts  it  is  much  thinner,  and  of  a  more 
pliable  nature:  the  whole  animal  appears  as 
if  covered  with  the  most  rcgnlar  and  curious 
carved  work  :  the  colour  of  a  full-grovn  cro- 
codile is  blackish-brown  above,  an<l  yellow- 
ish-white beneath  ;  the  upper  parts  of  the 
legs  and  the  sides  varied  with  deep  yellow, 
and  in  some  parts  tinged  with  green.  In  the 
younger  animals  the  colour  on  the  upper 
parts  is  a  mixture  of  brown  and  pale  yellow, 
the  under  parts  being  nearly  white:  the  eyes 
are  piovided  with  a  nictitating  membvaiu',  or 
transparent  moveable  pellicle,  as  in  birds  : 
the  mouth  is  of  vast  wiilth,  the  rictus  or  ga])e 
having  a  somewhat  llexuous  outline,  and  both 
jaws  being  furnished  with  very  numerous 
sh.trp-pointed  teeth,  of  which  those  about  the 
middle  part  of  each  jaw  considerably  exceed 
the  rest  in  size,  and  seem  analogous  to  the 
canine  teeth  in  the  viviparous  (luadrupeds  or 
mammalia:  the  number  of  teelli  hi  each  jaw- 
is  3(1,  or  more ;  and  they  are  so  ilisposed  as 
to  alternate  with  each  oilier  when  the  mouth 
is  Hosed:  on  taking  out  (he  tiedi  and  ex- 
amining the  alveoli,  it  has  been  found  that 
small  teeth  were  forming  beneath,  in  order 
to  supply  the  loss  ot  the  utliers  wlieu  shed: 


LAC 

the  auditory  foramhia  are  situated  on  the  top 
of  the  head,  above  the  eye-,  and  are  niodi'- 
rately  large,  oval,  ( oveivd  by  a  membrane, 
liaving  a  lungitudinal  slit  or  oix-ning,  and 
thus  ill  some  degree  resembling  a  pair  of 
closed  eyes:  the  legs  are  short,  but  strong 
and  muscular:  the  ton-  feet  iiave  five  toc^, 
and  are  unwebbed  :  the  hind  feet  have  only- 
four  toe?,  w-liiih  are  united  touards  their  base 
by  a  strong  web :  the  two  interior  toes  on 
eacli  of  the  fore  feet,  and  the  interior  one  of  the 
hind  feet,  are  destitute  of  claws :  on  tiie  other 
toes  arestrong,  short, andfurvedclaws:  t|ie(ail 
is  very  lonn,.  of  a  laterally  coinprer.sed  form, 
and  furnislu_-d  above  with  an  upright  process, 
iornied  by  the  gradmil  approximation  of  two 
elevated  crests  procec-ding  from  the  lower 
pan  of  tlic  back. 

The  crocodile  in  a  young  state  is  by  no 
means  to  be  dreaded',  its  small  size  and  weakr 
ness  preventing  it  from  beiii:;  able  to  injure 
any  of  the  larger  animals  :  it  therefore  con- 
tents itself  with  fish  and  other  small  prev;. 
and  such  as  have  occasionally  been  brou!>'ht 
to  Europe  are  so  far  from  being  formidable 
or  ferocious,  that  they  may  be  gentrally 
haiKlled  with  impunity,  and  either  from  weak- 
ness, or  the  elfect  of  a  cold  climate,  seein 
much  inclined  to  torpidity  ;  but  in  tlie  glow- 
ing regions  of  .'\frica,  w  here  it  arrives  at  its 
tnll  strength  and  power,  it  is  justly  regarded- 
a^  the  most  formidable  iniiabilant  of  the- 
rivers.  It  lies  in  wait  near  the  banks,  and 
snatches  dogs  and  other  animals,  swallowing 
them  iustantlv,  and  then  plunging  into  the 
flood,  and  seeking  some  retired  part,  where 
it  may  lie  conceaL-d  liil  hunger  again  invites 
it  to  its  jirey.  In  its  manner  of  attack  it  is 
exactly  imitated  by  the  Gommon  lacerta  pa- 
histris,  or  w-ater-newt,  whichj  though  not 
more  than  four  or  t\\e  inches  long,  w  ill  wiih^ 
the  greatest  ease  swallow  an  insect  of  more- 
than  an  inch  in  length  ;  and  that  at  one  siis- 
gle  ehoil,  and  with  a  motion  so  quick,  tli.at 
the  e\  e  can  scarcely  follow  it.  It  poises  it- 
sell  in  the  water,  and  having  gained  a  conve- 
nient distance,  springs  with  the  utmost-  C(-le- 
rity  on  the  insect,  and  swallows  it.  If,  (hero- 
fore,  a  Hnall  lizar<l  of  four  or. live  inches  only 
in  li'ngth  can  thus  instantiuieouslv  swallow  an 
animal  of  a  (burtli  part  of  its  own  length,  we 
need  not  wond'-r  that  a  crocodile  of  18,  L'0> 
or  L'j,  feet  long,  should-  suddenly  ingorge  a 
dog  or  other  ([uadruped. 

C'rocodiltrs,  like  the  rest  of  the  lacerta-,  are- 
oviparous:  tliev  deposit  their  eggs  in  (he 
saml  or  mud  near  or  on  the  banks  of  (he 
rivers  they  frequi-nt,  and  the  young  when 
hatched  immediately  proceed  to  the  water  ; 
but  the  major  pait  are  said  to  be  commonly- 
devoured  by  other  animals,  as  ichneunionsy. 
birds,  &c.  The  egg  of  the  common  nilotic 
crocodile  is  not  n-iuch  larger  than  that  of  a- 
goose,  and  in  external  appearance  bears  a 
niOit  perfect  resemblance  to  that  of  a  bird  ; 
beini;- covered  with  a  calcareous  shell,  under 
which  is  a  membrane.  ^^  hen  the  young  arc 
first  exehnled  the  head  bears  a  much  larger 
i>ro|)Oi-tion  to  tiie  body  than  when  full-grown, 
riie  eggs,  as  well  as  the  llesli  ofthe  crocodile 
its(  If,  are  numbered  among  the  delic;u-ies  of 
some  of  the  African  nations,  and  are  said  to 
lorm  one  of  their  favourite  repasts. 

In  the  large  rivers  of  Africa  crocodiles  are 
said  lobe  sometimes  seen  swimming  toge- 
ther in  vast  shoals,  aiid  resembling  the  trunks 
of  so  inan\  large  trees  liuat'uig  oji  the  water. 


Til''  nfgmc-!  will  snmctlincs  attncl;  ami  kill  a 
single  rrocodilc,  l>y  blal)bi]ig  it  iiiidi-r  tlic 
belly,  "Ikti-  tin-  skill,  at  tlic^  iii(<M'-.lii-i'^  ol'llu- 
sciilfs,  i>  suit,  and  lU.'xiblc.  It  is  also,  in  soinc 
rouiitnc^,  (111"  custom  to  liuiit  the  i  rocodili; 
by  means  ()t\lronn  dugs,  propcM'ly  Iraiin-d  to 
llu- purpose,  and  armed  with  spiked  collar.^. 
It  is  likewise  pivleiuled,  that  m  somi;  parts  of 
Africa  cioeoiiiles  are  oecasioiially  tamed ; 
and  it  is  said  that  they  form  an  article  ofj 
royal  iiiagiiirKence  with  tiie  iiioiiarciis  ofi 
those  regions,  heing  kept  in  lai'p,c  ponds  or  * 
lakes  apiJiopriated  to  their  resideiue.  We 
lii.iy  add,  that  the  aiitieiU  Uomans  exhibited 
these  animals  in  their  public  spectacles  and 
trinnijihs.  Scannis,  chiring  his  a'dileship, 
treated  the  people  with  a  sight  of  live  croco- 
diles, e\liibite(!' ill  a  temporary  lake;  ami 
Augustus  introiluced  one  into  his  triumph 
over  Cleopatra,  as  well  as  several  others,  tor 
the  enteitaiument  of  the  people. 

2.  l.acerta  alligator.  So  very  great  is  the 
general  resemblance  between  this  animal  and 
the  crocodile,  thai  many  naturalists  have 
beeii  strongly  inclined  to  consider  it  as  u 
mere  variety,  rath<-r  than  u  distinct  species. 
The  more  accurate  discrimination,  however, 
of  IShimenbach  and  some  others  seems  in  re- 
ality to  prove  that  the  alligator  or  American 
crocodile  is  specilicallv  di  tiiict  from  the  id- 
iotic, though  the  dilVeience  is  not  such  as 
immediately  to  strike  a  general  observer. 
The  leading  dillerence,  if  it  be  allowed  to 
constitute  a  di-.tiiiCLion  of  species,  seems  to 
be,  that  the  head  of  the  alligator  is  rather 
smooth  on  the  up|)er  part  llian  marked  with 
those  very  strong  rugosities  and  hard  cari- 
iiated  scales  which  appear  on  that  of  the  cro- 
codile; and  that  tlic  snout  is  considerably 
flatter  and  wider,  as  well  as  more  rounded  at 
tlie  extremity.  The  alligator  arrives  at  a  size 
not  nnich  inferior  to  that  of  the  crocodile,  { 
specimens  luivii  g  been  often  seen  of  ISorj 
'JO,  feet  in  length.  | 

"  Though  the  largest  and  greatest  numbers 
of  alligators,"   says   Cate~by,  "   inhabit  the 
torrid  zone,  the  continent  abounds  uith  them  | 
10  degrees  more  north,  particularly  as  far  as  : 
the  river  Neus  in  Nortli  Carolina,  in  the  lati-  i 
tude   of  ab  Kit  33  degrees,  beyond  which    I  : 
have   never    heard    of  any,  which    latitude  i 
nemly  answers  to  the  northernmo^  parts  of 
Africa,  where  they  are  likewise  found.  They  , 
fre^l'ient  not'oiily  salt    rivers  near  tlie  sea,  1 
but  slivams  of  fresh  water  in  tin-  upper  parts 
of  the  country,  and  in  lake^  of  salt  and  fresh 
water,  on  the  !).inks  of  which  they  he  lurking 
ainohg  ree<ls,   to  surprise   cattle  and  other  , 
animals,     bi  Jamaica,  ai  d  many  )>arts  of  the 
^•ontinent,  they  are  found  about    .0   feet  in 
length  :,  they  cannot  be  more  terrible  in  their 
aspect  than    they   are  fenuidable  and  mis- 
chievous in  their  natures,  sparing  neiilicr  man 
nor  beast  they  call   sur|)rise,   pulling    them 
•lowii  underwater,  that  being  dead,  they  may  J 
with  greater  facility,  and  without  struggle  or 
resistance, devour  them.     As  ((uadrupeds  do  ( 
not  so  often  come   in  llieir  way,  they  almost 
subsist  on   lish  ;  but   as   rrovideiice,    fur  the 
preservation,  or  to  prevent  tlie  extinction  of 
»lel'enceless  creatures,  has  in  manv   instances 
ri'^traini'd   the  devouring  appetites  of  vora- 
cious animals,  by  some  impedinient  or  other,  i 
so  this  4e-tructive  monster,  bv  the  close  con- 
nexion of  his  vertebr.e,  can  neither  swim  nor  , 
run  any  other  way  than  straight  forward,  and  I 
is  consequently  JiiableU  frum  turning  witli 


LACERTA. 

tliat  ngilily  requisite  to  catch  his  prey  by 
pursuit:  therefore  they  do  it  by  surprise  in 
the  water  as  well  as  by  land;  for  effecting 
which  nature  seems  in  some  measure  to  have 
recom[)ensed  their  want  of  agility,  by  giving 
them  a  power  of  deceiving  and  catching  their 
prey  by  a  sagacity  peculiar  to  them,  as  well 
as  by  the  outer  for'm  and  colour  of  their  body, 
w  Inch  on  land  resembles  an  old  dirty  log  or 
tree,  and  in  the  water  frciiuently  lies  lloating 
on  th(r  surface,  and  there  has  the  like  ap- 
])earance,  bv  which,  and  his  silent  artifice, 
lish,  fowl,  ti'irtle,  and  all  other  animals,  are 
deceived,  suddenly  catched,  and  devoured. 

"  In  Carolina  they  lie  torpid  from  about 
October  to  March,  in'caverns  and  hollows  in 
the  banks  of  rivers,  and  at  their  coming  out 
in  the  spring  make  an  hideou',  bellowing 
noise.  The  hind  |)art  of  their  belly  and  tail 
are  eaten  Uvllie  Indians.  The  llesh  is  deli- 
cately white',  but  has  so  perfumed  a  taste  and 
smell  that  I  never  could  relish  it  with  plea- 
sure."      , 

3.  I.acerta  gangetica.  The  gaugetic  cro- 
codile is  so  strikingly  distinguished  i)oth  from 
the  nilotic  and  the' alligator  by  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  mouth,  that  it  is  hardly  possible, 
even  on  a  cursory  view,  to  confound  it  with 
either  of  the  former  ;  the  jaw<  being  remark- 
ably long,  narrow,  and  perfectly  straight,  and 
the  upper  mandible  terminated  above  an  ele- 
vated tubercle.  In"  a  very  young  state  the 
length  and  narrowness  of  the  snout  are  still 
more  conspicuous  than  in  the  full-grown  ani- 
mal. The  teeth  are  nrarly  double  the  num- 
ber of  those  of  the  common  crocodile,  and 
are  of  ecpial  size  throughout  the  w  hole  length 
of  the  jaws.  This  s])ecies  is  a  native  of  In- 
dia, and  is  ])rincipally  seen  in  the  (Ganges, 
where  it  arrives  at  a  size  at  least  equal  to  the 
nilotic  crocodile. 

4.  Lacerta  iguana.  Though  the  lizard 
tribe  alVords  numerous  examples  of  strange 
and  peculiar  form,  yet  few  s|)ecies  are  perhaps 
more  eminent  in  this  respect  than  the  guana, 
whicli  grows  to  a  very  considerable  size,  and 
is  often  seen  of  the  leiigth  of  three,  four,  and 
even  live  feet.  It  is  a  native  of  many  parts 
of  America  and  the  West  Indian  islands,  and 
is  also  said  to  occur  in  some  parts  of  the  Kast 
Indies.  Its  general  colour  is  green,  but  with 
much  variation  in  the  tinge  of  dill'erent  indi- 
viduals: it  is  generally  shaded  with  brown  in 
some  parts  of'tlie  body,  and  sometimes  this 
is  even  the  predominating  colour.  'I  he  back 
of  the  guana  is  very  stioiigly  serrated;  and 
this,  together  w ith  the  guUir'pouch,  which  it 
has  the])ower  of  extending  or  iullating  occa- 
sionallv  to  a  great  degree,  gives  a  formidable 
appearance  to  an  animal  otherwise  harmless. 
It  inhabitsrocky  and  woody  places,  awd  feeds 
on  insects  and  vegetables.  It  is  itself  reck- 
oned an  excellent  food,  being  extremely  Nou- 
rishing and  delicat<' ;  but  it  is  observed  to  dis- 
agree with  :sonie  constitutions,  'ilie  common 
method  of  catching  it  is  by  casting  a  noose 
over  its  head,  and  thus  drawing  it  from  its 
situation;  for  it  seldom  makes  an  effort  to 
escape,  but  stands  looking  intently  at  its  dis- 
coverer, intlating  its  throat  at  the  same  time 
in  an  extraordinary  manner. 

The  guana  may  be  easily  tamed  Vhile 
vouiig,  and  is  both  an  innocent  and  beautiful 
creature  in  that  st;ite. 

5.  Lacerta  basiliscus.  The  basilisk  of  the 
antient-,  supposed  to  be  the  j»»sl  iiialUuaut 


43 

of  all  poisonous  animals,  and  of  which  the 
very  aspect  was  said  to  be  (irtal,  is  a  fabulous 
existence,  to  be  found  only  in  the  representa- 
tions of  ])ainters  and  i)oets. 

lint  the  animal  known  in  modern  natural 
history  by  this  name  is  a  species  of  lizard,  of  a 
very  singular  shape,  and  which  is  ])articularly 
distingiiislied  by  a  long  anil  broad  wing-like 
process  or  expansion  continued  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  back,  aiul  to  a  very  con- 
siderable distance  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
tail,  and  furnished  at  certain  distances  with 
internal  radii  analogous  to  tlio^e  in  the  (ins  of 
.Ishes,  and  still  more  so  to  those  in  the  wings 
of  the  draco  volaiis,  or  llying  lizard.  This 
process  is  of  dill'erent  elevation  in  different 
parts,  so  as  to  appear  strongly  sinuated  and 
indented,  and  is  capable  of  being  either  di- 
lated or  contracted  at  the  pleasure  of  the  ani- 
mal. The  occi|)Ut  or  hind  part  of  the  head 
is  elevated  into  a  very  conspicuous  pointed 
hood  or  hollow  cicA. 

Notwithstanding  its  formidable  appearance 
the  basilisk  is  a  perfectly  Iiarmless  animal, 
and,  like  many  other  of  the  lizard  tribe,  re- 
sides principally  among  trees,  where  it  feeds 
on  insects,  &c.  The  colour  of  the  ba- 
silisk is  a  pale  cinereous  brown,  with  some 
darker  variegations  towards  the  upper 
part  of  the  body.  It  is  principally  found  hi 
Soul  h  .\merica,  and  sometimes  considerabiT 
exceeds  the  length  before  mentioned,  mea- 
suriiif^  three  feet,  or  even  more,  from  the 
nose  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  It  is  said 
to  be  an  animal  of  great  agility,  and  is  capa- 
ble of  swimming  occasionally  with  perfect 
ease,  as  well  as  of  springing  from  tree  to  tree 
by  the  help  of  its  dorsal  cre^t,  which  it  ex- 
pands in  order  to  support  its  flight. 

(S.  Lacerta  calotes.     This  species  is  consi- 
derably allied  to  the  common  guana  in  liabit 
or  general  appearance  ;  but  is  of  much  smaller 
I  size,  rarely  exceeding  the  length   of  a  foot 
j  and  a  half  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  ex- 
I  treinity  of  the  tail.     It  is  also  destitute  of  the 
I  very  large  giilar  pouch,  so  conspicuous  in 
'  that  animal ;  instead  of  «hich  it  has  merely  a 
'  slight   inllalion  or  enlargement  on  that  part. 
'.  In  colour  it  occasionally  varies,  like  most  of 
I  this  tribe;  but  it  is  commonly  of  an  elegant 
!  bright  blue,  variegated  by  several  broad,  and 
somewhat  irregular  white  or   whitish  trans- 
verse bands  on  each  side  of  the  body  and 
tail.     It  is  a  native   of  the  warmer  regions 
both  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  is  found  in  many 
of  the  Indian  islands,  and  particularly  in  Cey- 
lon, ill  which  it  is  coiumon.     According  tu 
the  count  de  Cepede  it  is  also  found  in  Spain, 
&c.  and  is   said  by  that  autlior   to  wander 
about  the  tops  of  houses  in  ciuestof  spiders; 
and  h«  observes,  that  it  is  even  reported  to 
prey  on  rats,  and  to  tight  with  small  serpents 
in  the  manner  of  the  common  green  lizard 
andsome  others.     J>ee  Tlate  Nat.  Hist,  fig, 
2Jtj. 

7.  Lacerta  monitor.  Tlie  monitor,  or 
monitorv  li>!ard,  is  one  of  tlie  most  beautiful 
of  the  wliuJe  trit«',  and  is  also  one  of  tJie 
largest;  sometimes  measuring  not  less  than 
four  or  five  feet  from  the  nose  to  the  tip  of 
the  tail.  Its  slia|)e  is  slender  and  elegant,  the 
bead  being *mail,  the  snout  gradually  tapej- 
ins,  the  j'imbs  moderately  slender,  the  tail 
lateralK-  compressed,  and  insensibly  decreas- 
ing towards  the  tij).  "  Inch  is  veiy  slender  and 
dZqi.    'thuugh  tlK  colours  of  tl;is  Ihtaid  are 


u 

Vimple,  yet  such  is  their  disposition,  that  it  is  ' 
impossible  to  survey  their  general  effect 
witMout  adiuiralion.  In  this  respect,  how- 
ever, llie  animal  varies  perhaps  more  than 
«io4  others  of  its  tribe.  It  is  commonly 
black,  with  the  abdomen  white,  the  latter  co- 
lour extending  to  some  distance  up  the  sides, 
in  the  tiirm  ot'seveval  pointed  bands  besides 
which  the  wliole  body  is  generally  ornament- 
ed by  several  transverse  ha-.;ds  consisting  of 
white  amiular  spot'^,  while  the  head  is  marked 
with  various  streaks  of  the  ^ame  colour,  the 
limbs  with  very  numerous  roimd  spots,  and 
the  tail  with  broad,  distant,  transver:,e  bands. 
It  is  a  native  of  South  America,  where  it  tre- 
quents  woody  and  watery  places;  and,  if 
credit  may  be  given  t»  the  reports  of  some 
autnors,  is  of  a  disposition  ?.s  gentle  as  its  ap- 
pearance is  beautilul.  It  lias  even  gained  the 
title  of  monitor,  salvaguarda,  &c.  from  Us 
pretended  attachment  to  the  human  race, 
and  it  lias  been  said  that  it  warns  mankind  ot 
the  approach  of  the  alligator  by  a  loud  and 
shrill  whistle. 

Cordi/le.^,  zdth  either  denticulated  or  spin'j 
scaler  on  tin  body  or  tail,  or  both. 

8.  Lacerta  pelluiiia,  is  one  of  the  middle- 
sized  lizards ;  the  total  length  being  nearly 
two  feet,  and  the  length  of  the  body  and  tail 
nearly  equal.  It  is  a  native  of  Chili,  where 
it  is  said  to  inhabit  h  )llows  under  ground.  It 
is  covered  on  the  upper  parts  with  very  mi- 
nute scales,  and  is  beautifully  variegated  with 
green,  yellow,  blue,  and  black:  the  under 
parts  are  of  a  glossy  yellowish-green  :  the  tail 
long  and  verticillated  by  rows  of  rhomboid 
scales.  Tlie  skin  of  this  lizard  is  said  to  be 
used  by  the  Chilians  for  the  purpose  of  a 
purse. 

9.  Lacerta  stellio,  is  remarkable  for  the 
unusually  rotigh  or  iiispid  appearance  of  its 
whole  upper  surface;  both  body,  limbs,  and 
tail,  b'ing  covered  with  pointed  scnles,  pro- 
iectiii"'  here  and  there  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance'beyond  the  surface,  so  that  it  appears 
murieated  with  spines:  the  tail  is  rather 
short  than  long,  and  is  verticillated  with  rows 
of  pointed  scales.  The  general  colour  of  the 
animal  is  a  pale  blueish-brown,  with  a  few 
deeper  and  lighter  transverse  variegations: 
Its  general  lengtli  is  about  eight  inches.  It  is 
a  native  of  many  parts  of  Africa. 

■Lizurdi  proper,  smooth,  mid  the  greater 
numher  furnished  mth  broad  square  plates 
or  scales  on  the  abdomen. 


LACERTA. 

whlcli  reason  it  is  considered  as  a  favourite 
anim.il  in  many  of  the  warme-  parts  of  Eu- 
rope. It  apjiears  to  run  into  numerous  va- 
rieties both  as  to  size  and  colour ;  btrt  in  all 
these  states  the  particular  characteristics  of 
the  speciM  arc  easily  ascertained. 

11.  Lacerta  bullaris,  red-throat  lizard. 
This,  accordme  to  Catesby,  is  usually  six 
inches  long,  and  of  a  shining  grass-green  co- 
lour. It  is  common  in  Jamaica,  fre(iuenting 
hedges  and  trees,  but  is  not  seen  in  houses : 
when  approaihed  it  swells  its  throat  into  a 
globular  form,  the  protruded  skin  on  that 
part  appearing  of  a  bright-red  colour,  which 
disappears  in  its  withdrawn  or  contracted 
state :  this  action  is  supposed  to  be  a  kind  of 
menace,  in  order  to  deter  lU  enemy  ;  but  it  is 
incapable  of  doing  anv  miicliief  by  its  bite  or 
otherwise.     See  tlate  Nat.  IIi»t.  lig.  ^35. 


10.  Lacerta  agilis,  green  lizard,  is  found 
in  all  the  warmer  p.irts  of  ICurope,  and  seems 
pretty  generally  diffuso;d  over  the  antient 
continent.  It  sometimes  arrives  at  a  very 
considerable  size,  measuring  more  than  two 
feet  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail :  its  more 
•eeneral  length,  however,  is  from  U)  to  Ij 
incnes.  In  its  colours  it  is  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  the  European  lacerlx,  exhibiting  a  rich 
and  varied  mixture  of  darker  and  lighter 
green,  interspersed  with  specks  ami  marks  of 
yellow,  brown,  blackish,  and  even  sometimes 
red.  The  green  lizard  is  found  in  various  si- 
lu.fions,  in  gardens,  about  warm  walls, 
Jjuildings,  &c.  and  is  an  extreinely  aclive 
animal,  pursuing  with  great  i  elerity  itsifiscct 
prey,  and  escaping  with  great  readini'ss  from 
pursuit  wlif-n  disturbed.  If  taken,  however, 
jt  is  soon  observed  to  become  familiar,  and 
may  even  be  tamod  to  a  cert.dii  degree  ;  for  | 


ChamekoM,  ■u.ith  gramik'ed  skin,  missile 
tongue,  Sf^c. 
i;.     Lacerta  chamaleon.      Few    animals 
have  been  more  celebrated  by  natural  histo- 
rians than  the  chameleon,   wliich   has  been 
sometimes  said  to  possess  the  |)ower  ot  chan- 
ging its  colour  a*  pleasure,  and  of  assimilating 
!l  to  that  of  any  particular  object  or  situa- 
tion.     This,    however,   must   be    received 
with  verv  great  limitations  ;  the  change  of 
colour   which  the    animal  exhibits    varying 
in    degree    according     to   circumstances  of 
health,   temperature^  of    the    weather,  and 
many  other  causes,  and  consisting  chiefly  in 
a  sort  of  alteration  of  shades  from  the  na- 
tural greenish   or  blueish  grey  of  the  skin 
into  pale  yellowish,  with  irreg'ular  spots  or 
patches  of  dull  red. 

It  is  also  to  be  observed,  that  the  natural 
or  usual  colour  of  chameleons  varies  very 
considerably  ;  some  being  much  darker  than 
others,  and' it  has  even  been  seen  api>roach- 
ing  to  a  blackish  tinge.  An  occasional 
chan'^e  of  colour  is  likewise  observable, 
though  in  a  less  striking  degree,  in  some 
other  lizards. 

The   general    length    of  the  chameleon, 
from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  beginning  of 
the  tail,  is  about  ten  inches,  and  the  tail  is 
of  nearly  similar  length,  but  the  animal   is 
found  of  various  sizes,  and  sometimes  ex- 
ceeds the  length  above  mentioned.     It  is  a 
creature  of  a  harmless  nature,  and   supports 
itself  bv  feeding  on  insects;  for  which  pur- 
pose the  structure  of  the  tongue  is  hnely 
adapted,  consisting  of  a  long,  missile  body, 
furnished  with  a  dilatt:d   and  somewhat  tu- 
bular tip,  bv  means  of  which  the  animal  seizes 
insects    witli    great    ease,    darting    out    hs 
tongue  in  the  manner  of  a  woodpecker,  and 
retracting  it  instantaneously  with  the   prey 
secured  on  hs   tip.     It  <:an  also  support  a 
lone  abstinence,  and  hence  ;;rose  the  popu- 
lar id.ea  of  the  ch.imeleon   being  nouvished 
by  air  alone.     It  is  fomid  in  many  parts  cf 
the    world,    and    particularly    in   India    and 
Africa.      It   is  also  souutinies  seen   in   the 
warmer  parts  of  Spain  aiui  Portugal. 

The  general  or  usual  changes  of  colour  in 
the  chameleon,  are  from  a  blueish  ash-co- 
lour, (its  natural  tinge)  to  a  green  :ind  some- 
times \ellowi.-,li  colour,  .spotted  uue<iually 
with  r-"d.  If  the  animal  is  exposed  to  a  lull 
sunshine,  the  uniiluniinated  side  generally 
a|)pears,  within  the  space  of  some  minutes, 
of  a  pale  y<;l!u.v,  with  liirge  rowudish  j^atches 


or  spots  of  red-browti.  On  reversing  the 
situation  of  the  animal,  the  same  change 
takes  place  in  an  opposite  direction  ;  the 
side  which  was  before  in  the  shade  now  be- 
coming either  brown  or  ash-colour,  while 
the  other  side  becomes  yellow  and  red;  but 
these  changes  are  subject  to  much  variety 
both  as  to  intensity  ot  colours  and  disposition 
of  spots. 

Lesides  the  common  chameleon,  different 
races  appear  to  exist,  which  are  principally 
distinguished  by  their  colour,  an<l  the  more 
or  less  elevated  state  of  the  angular  or  crest- 
ed part  of  the  head.  These,  which  Liniueus 
was  content  to  consider  as  varieties,  are  no\T 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  species,  and  are 
so  distinguished  in  the  Gmelinian  edition 
of  the  Systema  NaturK. 

Geckos,  tilth  granulated  or  tuherciduted 
skin,  lobated  feet,  and  toes  lumellated 
beneath. 

13.  Lacerta  gecko.  The  gecko,  said  to 
be  so  named  from  the  sound  of  its  voice, 
which  resemble^  the  above  word  uttered  in  a 
shrill  tone,  is  a  native  of  many  parts  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  as  \\  ell  as  of  some  of  the  warmer 
regions  of  Europe.  It  is  one  of  the  middle- 
sized  lizards,  measuring,  in  general,  about 
a  foot  in  length,  or  rather  more.  It  is  of  a 
tliicker  and  stouter  form  than  most  other  li- 
zards, having  a  large  and  somewhat  triangu- 
lar flatlish  head,  covered  with  small  scales, 
a  wide  mouth,  large  eyes,  minute  teeth,  aiiJ 
a  broad  flat  tongue.  The  limbs  are  of  mo- 
derate length,  and  the  feet  are  of  a  broader 
form  than  the  rest  of  the  genus. 

The  gecko  inhabits  obscure  recesses,  ca* 
verns,  old  walls,  trees,  &c.  and  wanders 
about  chieflv  on  the  approach  of  rain.  It  is 
considered  as  of  a  poisonous  nature,  a  highly 
acrimonious  kind  of  fluid  exuding  from  the 
lamellx  ofthe  feet,  which  remahnng  on  the 
surface  of  fruit  or  any  other  edible  substance 
is  often  productive 'of  troublesome  symp- 
toms to  those  who  happen  to  swallow  it. 
From  the  peculiar  structure  of  its  feel,  tlie 
gecko  can  readily  adhere  to  the  smoothest 
surfaces.  The  gi-neral  colour  of  the  animal 
is  pale  brown,  with  a  few  irregular  diisky  or 
blueish  variegations;  but  in  those  which  in- 
habit the  warmer  regions  of  the  globe,  this 
colour  seems  to  be  exalted  into  a  much  more 
brilliant  appearance. 

14.  Lacerta  funbriata.     This  remarkable 
species  seems  to  have  been  first  described  by 
the  count  de  Cepede,  who  informs  us  that  it 
aj)pears  in  some  degree  to  connect  the  cha- 
meleon, the   gecko,  and  the   water-newts  ; 
the  head,  skin,  and  general  form  of  the  body, 
resembling   those    of   the    tliameleon ;   the 
tail  that  of  the  water-newts,  being  of  u  coiu- 
jjressed  form,  though  in  a  dill'erent  manner 
(not  vertically   but    horizontally  flattened), 
while  the  feet  resemble  those   of  the  gecko. 
The   largest    specimen    examined    by    the 
count    lie    Cepede    measured   abo\it  eight- 
inches  and  six  lines  in   length,  of  which  the 
tail  measured  two  inches  and  four  lines. 

The  colour  of  this  animal  is  not  constant 
or  permanent,  as  in  most  lizards,  but  vari- 
able, as  in  the  chameleon,  presenting  suc- 
cessively dill'erent  shades  of  red,  yellow, 
green,  and  bhn-.  This  vari;itiou  of  colour 
Ts,  however,  confined  to  the  upper  surface 
of  the  animal;  the  lower  aKvajs  continuing 
of  a  bi  ighl  yellow.    These  changes,  wc  ar« 


22  7 


FAl-TUmAJL  Hll^rORY, 


22« 


ZW 


i 


^ 


ti^iu.'ia,  a/m 


12fi 


2.32 


iycAyTiea^m^m    fooi^Z^/ 


230 


J^Vua^'uc  oiufi^^ 


134 


lauta  ZtA^,iiAt^ 


237 


BiaA  J-- 


L  A  6 

infnnnpcl,  hn'-c  been  observed  in  the  liviiiR 
siiiiiul  by  Mons.  Bruyrrcs,  in  liis  native 
couiilry,  vi/.  Ma'bjrascar,  wlicre  it  is  not 
very  m'toinmon,  and  v.lipie,  tliougli  a  liarjn- 
Ii'ss";iiiini;il,  it  is  lu-ld  in  srtat  abliorrencc  by 
Dif  native's,  who  consider  it  as  of  a  poison- 
ous natui-e,  and  tly  from  it  witli  j)rt'ci|)ilation  ; 
pretending  tbat  it'  darts  on  tlieir  breast,  and 
adiieres  witli  s\ich  force  by  its  fringed  mem- 
brane, tbat  it  cannot  hr  separated  from  the 
skin  witlioul  tl>e  assistance  of  a  razor.  The 
principtl  cause  of  this  popular  dread  of  tlie 
animal,  is  its  hal)it  of  ruinjins;  open-mouthed 
towards  tlie  spectator,  instead  of  attempting 
to  escape  wlien  discovered.  Its  cliiet  resi- 
dence is  on  the  branches  of  trees,  where  it 
Jives  on  insects,  liolding  itself  secure  by 
coiling  its  tail,  short  as  it  is,  half  round  the 
twii;  on  which  it  sits.  It  chielly  appears  iii 
rainy  weather,  when  it  moves  with  consider- 
able agility,  often  springing  from  bough  to 
hougli.  On  the  ground  it  walks  but  slowly, 
the  fore  legs  being  shorter  than  the  hinder. 

ScinliS,  ii'i  Ii  rnund  fish-like  scales. 
15.  I.Acerta  scincns,  or  ofliciniJ  scink.  The 
scink  is  one  of  the  middle-si/ed  or  smaller 
li/ards,  and  is  a  native  of  many,  of  the  east- 
ern parts  of  the  world.    It  abound  .  in  Lybia, 
Svria,  Kgvpt,  and  Arabia,  frc([vienting  mode- 
rately dry  ajid  sandy   soils,  and  growing   to 
the  length  of  six  or  seven  inches,  or  even 
sometimes  more.     The  head  of  the  scink  is 
rather  small  than  large,   the  body  thick  and 
round,    the    tail    in     general    considerably 
shorter  than  the  body.     The  whole  animal 
is  of  a  pale  vellowish-brown  colour,  with  a 
few  broad,  dusky,  transverse  undulations  or 
zones,  and  is  uniformly  covered  with  mode- 
rately large  orlish-likc  scales,  lying  extreme- 
ly close  and  smooth,  so  that  the  surface  has 
a  glossy  or  oily  appearance.     It  is  an  animal 
©f  harndess  manners,  and,  like  most  other 
Tizards,  supports  itself  on  the  various  insects 
which  wander   about  the   regions   it  inha- 
bits. I 
'I'his  animal  was  once  in  high  estimation 
as  an  article  in  the  materia  niedica,  and  tlie 
flesh,  i)articularlv  of  the  bellv,  was  supposed 
to  be  diuretic,  alexipharmic,  restorative,  and 
tisetul  in  leprous  and  many  other  cases  ;  but 
whatever  virtues  it   may  possess  when  nsed 
fresh,  it  is  not  considered  as  of  any  import- 
ance when   in  its  dried  or  impoitrd  state, 
and  while  it  continued  to  be  used  in  practice 
served  oidy  to  increase  the  number  of  ingre- 
dients in  that  curious  remnant  of  what  Dr. 
Lewis  happily  terms  the  wild  exuberance  of 
xnedical  superstition  in  former  ages,  the  ce- 
lebrated confectio  damocratis,  or  mithridate. 

Salatnanders,  A'mis,  or  Efts. 
If).  Lacerta  salamandra.  The  salamander, 
so  long  the  subject  of  popular  error,  and  of 
which  so  man)-  idle  tales  have  been  recited 
by  the  more  antient  naturalists,  is  an  inha- 
bitant of  many  parts  of  Germany,  Italv, 
France,  &c.  but  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  discovered  in  England.  It  delights  in 
moist  and  shady  places,  woods,  ice.  and  is 
chielly  seen  during  a  rainy  season.  In  the 
winter  it  lies  concealed  in  the  hollows  about 
the  roots  of  old  trees,  in  subterraneous  re- 
eess^s,  or  in  the  cavities  of  old  walls,  .ic. 
The  salamander  is  easily  distinguished  by  its 
colours;  being  of  a  deep  shining  Llack,  v,"irie- 
gated  with  large,  oblong,  auJ  wther  irregu- 


r  A  c 

lar  pat<he5  of  bright  orange-yellow,  whicli, 
on  each  side  of  the  back,  are  commonly  so 
disposed  as  to  form  a  pair  of  interrupted 
longitudinal  ^tiipes  :  the  sides  are  marked  by 
many  large  transverse  wrinkles,  tiie  inter- 
mediate spaces  rising  into  strongly  marked 
convexities  ;  and  the  sides  of  the  tail  often 
exhibit  a  similar  appearance  :  on  each  side  of 
the  back  of  the  head  are  situated  a  pair  of 
large  tubercles,  which  are  in  reality  the  paro- 
tid glands  :  and  are  thus  protuberant  not  only 
ill  some  others  of  the  lizard  tribe,  but  in  a 
remarkable  manner  ui  the  genus  rana  :  these 
parts,  as  well  as  the  back  and  sides  of  the 
body,  are  beset  in  the  salamander  with  several 
large  open  pores  or  foramina,  through  which 
exudes  a  peculiar  liuid,  serving  to  lubricate 
the  skin,  and  which,  on  any  irritation,  is  se- 
creted in  a  more  sudden  and  copious  manner 
under  the  lorm  of  a  whitish  gluten,  of  a 
slightly  acrimonious  nature;  and  from  the 
readiness  with  which  the  annual,  when  dis- 
turbed, appears  to  evacuate  it,  and  that  even 
occasionally  to  some  distance,  has  arisen  tlie 
long-continued  popular  error  of  the  salaman- 
der's being  enabled  to  live  uninjured  in  the 
lire,  whicli  it  has  been  supposed  capable  of 
extinguisliiiig  by  its  natural  cohlness  and 
moisture  :  the  real  fact  is,  that  like  any  of  the 
coUl  and  glutinous  animals,  us  snails,  &c.  it, 
of  course,  is  not  (piite  so  instantaneously  de- 
stroyed by  tlie  force  of  lire  as  an  animal  of  a 
drier  nature  would  be.  The  general  length 
of  the  salamander  is  about  seven  or  eight 
inches,  thougli  it  sometimes  arrives  at  a  much 
larger  size.  It  is  capable  of  living  in  water 
as  well  as  on  land,  and  is  sometimes  found  in 
stagnant  pools,  &c.  Its  general  pace  is  slow, 
and  its  manners  torpid. 

A  strange  error  appears  to  have  prevailed 
relative  to  the  supposed  poisonous  nature  of 
-this-animal ;  and  the  malignity  of  its  venom 
has  even  been  considered  as  scarcely  admit- 
ting a  remedy.  It  may  be  sullicient  to  ob- 
serve, that  the  salamander  is  pi-rfectly  in- 
noxious, and  incapable  of  inllicting  either 
wound  or  poison  on  any  ot  the  larger  ani- 
inals,  though  it  appears,  from  the  experi- 
ments of  Laurenti,  tliat  the  common  small 
grey  lizard  (L.  agil.  var.)  is  poisoned  by  bit- 
ing a  salamander,  and  thus  swallowing  the 
secreted  tluid  of  the  skin ;  becoming  almost 
immediatelv  convulsed,  and  dying  in  a  very 
short  time  afterwards. 

The  salamander  is  a  ^iviparous  species; 
producing  its  young  perfectly  formed,  having 
lieen  tirst  hatched  troin  internal  eggs,  as  in 
the  vipiT,  and  some  other  amphibia.  It  is 
said  to  retire  to  the  water  in  order  to  deposit 
its  young,  wliich,  at  the  f.rst  exclusion,  are 
furnished  with  ramified  branchial  tins  or  pro- 
cesses on  each  side  the  neck,  and  which  be- 
ing merely  temporary  organs,  are  afterwards 
obhterateil,  as  in  the  young  of  frogs  and  wa- 
ter-newts. The  number  of  young  produced 
at  one  birth  by  the  salam^mder  is  said  some- 
times to  amount  to  30  or  40. 

17.  Lacerta  vulgaris.  This,  which  is  the 
smallest  of  the  British  lizards,  is  altogether  a 
terrestrial  species.  It  is  commonly  seen  in 
gardens,  and  not  unfreijnentlv  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  dunghills,  &c.  It  .also  occa- 
sionally makes  its  way  into  cellars  in  the 
manner  of  the  slug,  the  toad,  &ix. 

18.  Lacerta  aciuatica.  This,  which  in  Eng- 
land occurs  almost  in  every  stagnant  wa- 
ter, is  a  sm.Tl]  species.    Its  general  length 

8 


LAC  45 

is  about  three  inclies  and  a  half,  and  it  very 
rarely  exceeds  that  of  four  inches  at  most. 

The  water-newts  are  remarkable  for  a  high 
degree  of  reproductive  pow  er,  and  have  been 
known  to  exliibit  the  restoration  of  their  I(,-gs, 
tails,  and  even,  according  to  Dr.  IJlunien- 
bach,  of  the  eyes  tliems-elves,  after  having 
been  deprived  of  them  by  cutting. 

Snalce  lizards,  uith  cxlremely  long  bodies 
and  short  leers. 
19.  Lacerta  chalcides.  The  chalcides  is  3, 
native  of  many  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, as  well  as  of  Africa,  and  is  tound  of  dif- 
ferent sizes,  from  the  length  of  a  few  inches  to 
that  of  a  foot,  or  even  more.  Its  general 
length,  however,  seems  to  be  eight  or  nine 
inclies.  'i'he  chalcides  is  an  animal  of  a 
harmless  nature,  frequenting  moist  shady 
places,  moving  rather  slowly,  and  feeding  on 
insects,  small  worms,  &c.  It  is  a  viviparous 
species,  and  is  said  to  produce  a  great  many 
young.  The  serpents  to  which  it  bears  the 
nearest  alliance  in  point  of  fomi,  are  those 
of  the  genus  anguis,  and  particularly  the  A. 
tragilis,  or  common  slow-w  orni. 

-'0.  Lacerta  apus.  A  still  nearer  approach 
is  made  to  the  snake  tribe  by  tliis  large  and 
singular  lizard  than  even  by  the  chalcides.  It 
is  a  native  of  Greece,  the  southern  parts  of 
Siberia,  an<l  <loiibtless  of  many  other  parts  of 
Europe  and  A^ia,  though  it  seems  to  have 
been  hut  recently  known  to  naturalists.  It  is 
found  of  the  length  of  nearly  three  feet,  and  so 
perfectly  resembles  the  general  form  of  a 
large  snake,  that  it  is  not  without  a  near  in- 
spection that  it  is  ascertained  to  belong  to  the 
race  of  lizards ;  being  furnished  merely  with 
a  pair  of  very  short  and  somewhat  acuminat- 
ed processes  by  way  of  feet,  situated  at  a, 
vast  distance  from  the  fore  parts  of  the  body, 
nearly  on  each  side  the  vent :  the  processes 
have  no  divisions  or  toes,  but  seem  to  form 
one  simjile  projection,  with  a  slight  indenture 
only.  The  animal  frequents  moist  and  shady 
places,  and  appears  to  be  of  a  harmless  cha- 
racter. 

LACHNEA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  octandria  cla-s  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  31st 
order,  veprecula".  There  is  no  cal_\x;  the 
corolla  is  quadritld,  with  the  limb  unequal ; 
there  is  one  seed  a  little  resembling  a  berry. 
There  are  two  species,  shrubs  of  tli.-  Cai^e. 

LACHRYMALIS,  fistula.  See  Sur- 
gery. 

LACHKYMATORY,  in  antiquity,  a  ves- 
sel wherein  were  collecti.-d  the  tears  of  a  de- 
ceased person's  friends,  and  preserved  along 
w  ith  the  ashes  and  urn. 

LAC'1>  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order  po- 
lyandria  digynia.  There  is  no  calyx  or  co- 
r  lla.  The  lilaments  are  winged  on  both 
sifles  below  ;  the  recejAacle  is  girt  with  12 
spines ;  capsules  ovate.  There  is  one  spe- 
cies, an  aquatic  of  Guiana. 

LAClSriMA,  a  genus  of  the  monandria 
digynia  class  and  order.  The  calyx  is  the 
scale  of  the  ament ;  corolla  four-parted  ;  lila- 
inents  bifid;  berry  pedicelled,  one-seeded. 
There  is  one  s'.iecies,  a  shrub  of  Jamaica. 

L.\CK  OF  RUPH-ts,  is  100,000  rupees; 
which,  supposinf;  them  standard,  orsiccas, at 
Qs.  ad.  amounts  to  12,500/.  sterling. 

L.\CQUERS,  are  varnishes  applied  upon 
tin,  brass,  and  other  metals,  to  preserve  them 
from  tarnisliing,  aud  to  imjiroye  their  co- 


46 


I,  A  C 


lour.  Tlie  bssis  of  lacquers  is  a  solution  of 
tlie  resinous  substance  called  seed-lac  in  spi- 
rit of  wine.  l"lie  spirit  ought  to  be  very 
niucli  concentrated,  in  order  to  dissohe  much 
oftheiac.  For  this  purpose,  some  autliors 
direct  diy  potass  to  be  thrown  into  the  spiiit. 
'i'his  alkah  attracts  the  water,  with  which  il 
forms  a  lic|uid  that  subsides  distinctly  from  the 
spirit  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  From  this 
Jupiid  the  spirit  may  be  separated  by  decan- 
tation.  By  tliis  method  the  spirit  is  mtich 
toiicentr.ited ;  but^  at  the  same  time,  it  bi'- 
■comes  impregnated  with  part  of  the  alkali, 
which  depraves  its  colour,  and  comnnmicates 
a  property  to  the  lacquer  of  imbibing  mois- 
ture from  the  air.  These  inconveniences  may 
be  prevented  by  distilling  the  spirit ;  or,  if 
the  artist  has  not  an  opportunity  of  perform- 
ing that  process,  he  may  cleanse  the  ^pirit,  in 
a  great  measure,  from  the  alkali,  by  addinif 
to  it  some  calcined  aluin  ;  the  acid  of  which 
uniting  with  the  alkali  re.naining  in  the  spirit, 
forms  wUh  it  a  vitriolated  tartar,  which,  not 
tieing  soluble  in  spirit  of  wine,  falls  to  the 
bottom  together  with  the  earth  of  the  decom- 
posed alum.  To  a  pint  of  the  purilied  spirit, 
about  three  ounces  of  powdered  shcll-lac  are 
to  be  added  ;  and  the  mixture  to  be  digested 
during  the  same  dav  with  a  moderate  heat. 
Tiie  liquor  ought  then  to  be  poured  oft,  strain- 
-ed,  and  ctean-d  by  settling.  T  his  clear  11- 
*]Uor  rs  iio%v  fit  to  receive  tlic  reqtiircd  colour 
from  certain  ri'>inous  colouring  sub>*.ances, 
the  principal  of  whicli  arc  gamboge  and  an- 
notto;  the  former  of  which  gives  a  yellow, 
and  the  latter  an  orange  colour.  In  order  to 
give  a  golden  colour,  two  parts  of  gamboge 
are  added  to  one  of  annotto;  but  these  co-  | 
louring  substances  ntay  be  separately  dissolv-  j 
ed  in  the  thuture  of  lac,  and  the  colour  re- 
quired may  be  adjusted  by  mixing  the  two 
fOlntions  in  diii'eient  proportions.  When  sil- 
ver leaf  or  tin  is  to  be  laccjuered,  a  larger 
iiuantity  of  the  colouring  nuteri.ils  is  re(|ui- 
site  than  when  the  lacquer  is  intended  to  be 
laid  on  brass. 

LACTEAL  VESSELS.     See  An-.^tomy. 

l^^CTIC  ACID.  If  milk  be  kept  for  some 
time  it  becomes  sour.  The  a<id  which  then 
appears  in  it  was  first  examined  by  Scheele, 
-and  fouwl  by  him  to  have  peculiar  properties. 
Il  is  called  ladir  arid.  Li  the  wiiev  of  milk 
this  acid  is  ini\ed  with  a  little  curd,  some 
phosph;:t  of  llnie,  sugar  of  nulk,  and  muci- 
lagp.  All  these  must  be  separated  before  the 
acid  can  be  examined.  Schetle  accomplish- 
ed this  by  the  follow  ing  pr<x:ess : 

Lvaporale  a  <juantity  of  sour  whey  to  an 
♦•Ighth  part,  and  tlien  iiltrate  it :  tins  sepa- 
rates the  cheesy  parts.  Saturat<-  the  li(iuid 
vith  lime-water,  and  the  pliospT.at  of  lin\e 
precipitates.  J-'iltrate  again,  and  dilute  the 
liquid  with  threi'  fiuies  itsoun  bulk  of  water  ; 
then  let  fall  into  it  oxalic  acid,  drop  by  drop, 
to  precipitate  thp  lime  which  it  has  di'-solved 
from  the  lime-water;  then  add  a  very  small 
quantity  of  lime-water,  to  see  whether  too 
much  oxalic  avid  has  been  added.  If  there 
has,  "«alat  of  lime  immediately  preripiUites. 
Kvaporate  the  solution  to  the  consistence  of 
honey,  pour  iii  a  snillcient  quantity  of  ak  o- 
hohol,  and  Iiltrate  again ;  the  acid  passes 
through  dissolved  in  the  alcohol,  but  the  su- 
gar <ii  milk  and  every  other  5ub»tancr  n-main 
behind.  Add  to  the  solution  a  small  (|uan- 
J.iti  of  v.aler,  and  distil  with  a  jiuall  heat,  the 


•LAC 

alcohol  passes  over,   and  leaves  behind  the 
lactic  acid  dissolved  in  water. 

This  acid  is  hicapablc  of  crystallizing; 
when  evaporated  to  dryness,  it  deliquesces 
again  in  the  air.  \\'hen  distilli-d,  water  coines 
over  first,  then  a  weak  acid  resembling  the 
tartaric,  thi-n  an  empyreumalic  oil  mixed 
w  ith  more  of  the  same  acid,  and,  lastly,  car- 
bonic acid  and  carbureted  kyclrt>geu  gas : 
there  remains  behind  a,  small  quantity  ol 
charcoal. 

The  combinaliona  which  this  acid  forms 
with  alkalies,  earths,  and  melallic  oxides,  are 
called  lactats,  which  see. 

All  that  is  know  11  concerning  these  salts  are 
the  following  facts,  ascertained  by  Scheele. 
When  .ir.turated  with  lixed  alkalies,  it  gave 
salts  which  were  deliquescent  and  soluble  in 
sjjirit  of  wine.  It  formed  deliquescent  salts 
with  anmionia,  with  barytes,  with  lime,  and 
alumina;  hut  with  magnesia  it  formed  small 
i:rysta!s,  which  however  at  length  deliquesced. 
This  acid  had  no  ell'ect  on  bismuth,  cobalt, 
antimony,  tin,  mercury,  silver,  and  gold.  It 
dissolved  zinc  and  iron ;  and  it .  produced 
with  these  metals  Irydrogen  gas.  Zinc  was 
the  only  metal  with  which  it  crystallized. 
Copper  ri_-ndered  this  acid  first  slightly  blue, 
then  green,  and  lastly  a  deep  bine;  but  no 
(  rystals  were  formed.  Digested  iqwn  lead  it 
became  sweet,  but  did  not  crystallize. 

LACTUC.V,  the  lettuce,' a  genus  of  the 
polygamia  a-qualis  order,  in  the  syngenesia 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  49th  order,  c.omposit;r. 
aiie  rece])taclc  is  naked ;  the  calyx  imbri- 
cated, cylindrical,  with  a  m  inbranaceous 
margin ;  the  pappus  is  simple:,  slipated,  or 
stalked.  There  are  1 1  species,  most  of  which 
are  jjlants  of  no  use,  and  never  cultivateil  but 
ill  botanic  gardens  for  variety.  'Fhat  com- 
monly cultivated  in  the  kitchen-garden  is  the 
sative,  wliich  includes  the  following  varieties: 
I.  The  common  or  garden  lettuce.  -.  Cab- 
bage lettuce.  3.  Silesia  lettuce.  4.  Dutch 
brown  lettuce,  j.  ."Meppo,  or  sperm  lettuce, 
ti.  Imperial  lettuce.  7.  Green  capuchin  let- 
tuce. 8.  Versailles,  or  ujjright  white  cos  let- 
tuce. 9.  Black  COS.  10.  H'eil  cos.  11.  Ked 
capuchin  lettuce.  IC.  Bonian  lettuce.  1.5. 
Prince  lettuce.  I4.  Royal  lettuce.  15.  Egyp- 
tian cos  lettuce. 

The  first  of  these  sorts  is  very  common  in 
all  gardens,  and  is  commonly  sown  for  cutting 
very  young,  to  mix  with  other  salad  herbs  in 
spring  ;  and  the  second,  or  cabbage  lettuce, 
is  only  this  mended  bv  culture.  The  first 
crop  should  be  sown  in  I'ebrtiary,  in  an  o[ien 
situation  ;  the  others  at  three  weeks  distance  ; 
but  the  later  ones  under  covert,  but  not  un- 
der the  drippings  of  trees.  The  Silesia,  im- 
perial, royal,  black,  white,  and  upright  cos 
lettuces,  may  be  first  sown  in  the  latter  part 
of  February  or  the  beginning  of  .March,  on  a 
warm  light  soil,  and  in  an  open  situation: 
when  the  plants  are  come,  up,  they  must  be 
thinned  to  1 'i  inches  distance  every  way; 
they  will  then  re<iuire  no  furihcr  care  than 
the  kei-|>ing  them  clear  of  weeds ;  and  the 
]  black  cos,  as  it  «rows  large,  should  have  ils 
haves  li.:d  together  to  whiten  the  inner  part. 
Succeeding  croijs  of  lliijse  should  be  sown  in 
April,  May,  and  .Uiiie  ;  and  towards  the  latter 
part  of  .•Vugust  they  may  be  sown  for  a  winter 
croi),  to  be  preserved  undiT  glasses,  or  in  a 
bed  arched  over  with  Imops  and  coveretl  with 
I  mats.     I'iie  most  valuable  of  ail  the  Eni^lish 


L  A  E 

lellut-esare  the  white  (os,  or  the  Versaillrfl; 
the  .Silesia ;  and  the  Egyptian  cos.  The 
brown  Dutch  and  the  green  cafHichin  are  very 
hardy,  and  may  be  sown  late  under  walls, 
where  they  will  stand  the  winter,  and  be  va- 
luable when  no  others  are  to  be  had.  The 
red  capuchin,  Koman,  and  priiu  e  lettuce,  are 
very  eaily  kinds,  and  are  sown  (or  v.iriety  ; 
as  are  also  the  Aleppo  ones  for  the  beauty  of 
their  spotted  leaves. 

Tlie  several  sorts  of  garden  lettuces  are 
very  wholesome,  emollient,  cooling  salad 
herbs,  easy  of  digestion,  and  somewhat  loos- 
ening the  belly.  Most  w  riters  suppose  that 
they  liave  a  narcotic  quality  ;  and  indeed  in 
many  cases  they  cpnlriljute  to  procure  rest ; 
this  they  effect  by  abating  heat,  and  relaxnig 
the  fibres.  The  seeds  are  in  the  mimber  of 
the  four  lesser  cold  seeds. 

LACUNAU.     See  Architectcre. 

LADDERS,  scaling,  in  the  military  art, 
are  used  in  scaling  .when  a  place  is  to  be 
taken  by  surprise.  They  yre  made  several 
way*  ;  here  we  make  them  of  flat  staves,,  so 
that  they  may  move  about  their  pins,  and 
shut  like  a  parallel  ruler,  for  conveniently 
carrying  tliem  ;  the  French  make  them  of  se- 
veral pieces,  si)  as  to  be  joiiic.l  together,  and 
to  be  made  of  any  necessary  length  :  some- 
times they  are  made  of  single  ropi-s,  knotted 
at  proper  distances,  w  ith  iron  hooks  at  each 
end,  one  to  lasten  them  ujiou  the  wall  above, 
and  the  other  in  the  ground  ;  and  sometimes 
tlu  y  are  made  with  two  ropes,  and  staves  be- 
tween them,  to  keep  the  roj>es  at  a  proper 
di.stance,  and  to  tread  upon.  When  they  are 
used  in  the  action  of  scaling  walls,  tlu'y  ought 
to  be  rather  too  long  than  too  short,  and  to 
be  given  in  charge  only  to  the  stoutest  of  the 
detachment.  The  soldiers  should  carry  these 
ladders  with  the  left-arm  passed  through  the 
second  stt]),  taking  care  to  liold  Ihein  up- 
right close  to  their  sides,  and  vi-ry  short  be- 
low, to  prevent  any  accident  in  leaping  into 
the  ditch. 

The  first  rank  of  each  division,  provided 
with  ladders,  should  set  out  with  the  rest  at 
the  signal,  marching  resolutely  with  their fi;e- 
locks  slung,  to  jump  into  the  ilitcli :  when 
they  are  arrived  they  should  apply  their  lail- 
ders  against  the  parapet,  observing  to  place 
them  towards  the  salient  angles  rather  than 
the  middle  of  the  curtin,  because  flie  enemy 
have  less  force  thi-re.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  place  the  ladders  within  a  foot  of  each 
other,  and  not  to  give  them  too  much  or  too 
little  slope,  so  that  they  may  not  be  oviT- 
turned  or  broken  with  the  weight  of  the  sol- 
diers mounting  U|)ou  them. 

The  ladders  being  applied,  those  who  have 
carried  them,  and  those  udio  come  after, 
should  niounl  up,  ami  rush  upon  the  enemy 
sword  in  hand:  if  he  who  goes  first  happen^ 
to  be  overturned,  the  next  s|iould  take  care 
not  to  be  thrown  down  by  his  comrade  :  but, 
OH  the  contrary,  immediately  nioiiiit  himself, 
so  as  not  to  give  the  enemy  time  to  load  his 
piece. 

As  the  soldiiTS  who  mount  first  niav  be 
easily  tumbled  over,  and  their  fall  may  cause 
the  attai-k  to  fail,  it  would  pcihaps  be  rigiit 
to  protect  their  breasts  with  the  fore  parts  of 
cuirasses  ;  because  if  they  can  penetrate  the 
rest  may  easily  follow. 

L.MiV'S    S.MOCK.      See  C.\KI>FMI\K., 
I.ADYs  si.li'PER.     See  C^  l'Rin;i)iUiM. 
LAEl'IA,  a  geiius  of  the  iiioiKig^ jiia  or- 
11 


LAM 

<1er,  in  tlie  polvaiidria  class  of  i>Iants,  and  in 
tin-  n;itiiral  method  ranking  witli  those  ot 
whicli  the  ortlcT  is  ilonbtfuh  The  corollu  is 
prnlapetalotis,  or  none;  the  calyx  is  peiitu- 
j)hvlloiis;  the  iVtiit  is  uniU.rular  anil  tri^jonal ; 
the  seeds  have  a  pnlp)'  ai  illus  or  coat.  Then.' 
are  tour  species,  natives  ol'  America.  One  ot 
them,  the  apetala,  or  gmn-wood.  Dr.  \\riftlit 
inloniis  us,  is  very  conimoii  in  Ui>;  woodlands 
and  copses  of  Jaiiuiica,  where  it  rises  to  a 
con^iderahle  height  and  thickness.  I'iece-  ol 
the  trunk  or  l)ranclies,  suspended  in  the  heat 
of  the  smi,  clischa..;e  a  clear  turpeiijine  or 
bals.im,  which  concretes  into  a  white  resiu, 
and  which  seeuis  to  be  the  same  as  i^uni  sau- 
tlaracli.  Pounce  is  there  made  of  it  ;  and 
our  author  is  of  opinion  that  it  niii;ht  hr  use- 
ful iii  medicine  like  other  gmns  ui  the  same 
nature. 

L.VGKHS  TROKMI.'V,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogvnia  order,  in  the  polyaudria  class  of 
plants.  'The  corolla  is  hexapetalous,  and 
<  in-led;  the  calyx  sexUd,  and  campanulated; 
there  are  many  stamina,  and  ot  these  the  six 
«-\lerior  ones  thicker  than  the  re>.t,  and  long- 
trthan  the  petals.  There  are  lour  species, 
tteet  of  the  Kast  Indies. 

I,.\GOI'"CI.\,  ageiius  of  the  niono^ynia 
crder,  in  the  peiitandria  class  of  plants.  1  he 
involucvuni  is  universal  and  partial  ;  the  pe- 
tals bifid ;  the  seeds  solitary,  inferior.  'I'liere 
is  one  species,  wild  emimiin,  an  annual,  ol  the 
Leviuit. 

I-AGUNEA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der monadelphia  p'olyandria.  The  calyx  is 
simple,  live-cusi)ed ;  style  simple;  stigma 
peltated ;  capsule  live-celled,  live-valved. 
There  are  three  species,  shrubs  of  the  East 
Tiidifs  and  Surinam. 

T.AGl'Kl'S,  a  genns  of  the  digynia  or- 
der, in  llie  triaiidna  class  of  plants,  and  iu 
the  n.itnral  method  ranking  under  the  fourth 


LAM 

LAMrXiT:,  in  physiology,  the  thin  plates 
of  which  many  substances  consist. 

LAMll'iM,  daid-mtllf,  a  Kf-nns  of  the 
gymnospcrmia  order,  in  Ihejdiclynamia  class 
ol  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking; 
under  the  4'.'d  order,  verticillata'.  The  upper 
lip  of  the  corolla  is  entire,  arched,  the  under 
lip  bilobous;  the  throat  with  a  dent  or  tooth 
on  each  sidi;  of  the  margin.  Tliere  are  13 
species,  of  which  only  two,  viz.  the  album, 
while  archangel  or  dead-nettle,  and  the  pur- 
])nreuni,  or  red  archangel,  deserve  notice. 
I'he  flowers  of  the  fir^t,  wif.eh  appear  lu 
Aj;ril  and  May,  have  been  particularly  cele- 
brated ill  uterine  llnors,  and  other  female 
weaknesses,  ami  also  in  disorders  of  the  lung> ; 
but  they  a])pear  to  be  of  very  weak  virtue. 
Tiie  young  leaves  of  both  species  are  boiled 
and  eaten  in  some  places  like  greens. 

l.AMl',  a  vessel  containing  oil,  with  a 
lighted  wick;  of  which  tluTc  an  indelinite 
number  made  of  various  constructions  for  va- 
rious purposes.  We  shall  particularly  notice 
Argand's  lamp,  and  an  improvement  made 
U|>oa  it. 

Argand's  lamp  is  a  very  ingenious  contriv- 
ance, and  is  the  invention  of  a  citizen  of  (Ge- 
neva. 'I'he  principle  on  which  the  superiority 
of  Ihe  lam|)  depends,  is  the  admission  of  a 
larger  (piantity  of  air  to  the  tiame  than  can 
be  done  in  the  common  way.  This  is  ac- 
coui|)lislied  by  making  the  wick  of  a  circular 
form,  bv  which  means  a  cui  rent  of  air  ruslns 
through  the  cylinder  on  which  it  is  placed, 
with  great  force  ;  and,  along  with  that  which 
has  access  to  the  outside,  excites  the  llame  to 
such  a  degree  that  tlie  smoke  is  entirely  con- 
sumed. 'I'hus  both  the  light  and  heat  are 
prodigiously  increased,  at  the  same  time  that 
there  is  a  very  considerable  saving  in  the  ex- 
pence  of  oil,  the  consumption  of  th.e  inllam- 
mable  m.itter  being  exceedingly  au'^mented 
by  the  quaiitily  of  air  admitted  to  the  (lame  ; 


LAM 


47 


order,  gramina.     The  calyx  is  bivalvcd  with    so  that  what  in  common   lamps  is  dissipated 


a  villous  awn,  the  exterior  petal  of  the  co- 
rolla terminated  by  two  awns  with  a  third  on 
its  b  ick  retorted.  'I'here  is  one  species,  a 
grass  of  the  soiitii  of  Europf. 

LAKE^,  certain  colours  made  by  com- 
binini;  t!ie  colouring  matter  of  cochineal,   or- 
of  certain    vegetables,   witli    pure  alumiue, 
or  with  oxide  of  tin,  zinc,  Sec. 

LAM.V,  llie  sovereign  pontiff,  or  rather 
god,  of  the  Asiatic  Tartars,  inhabiting  the 
country  of  liarantola.  The  lama  is  not  only 
adored  bv  the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  but 
aKo  bv  the  kings  of  Tarfary,  who  send  him 
rich  presents,  and  go  in  pilgrimage  to  pay 
liiin  adoration,  calling  him  lania-congiu,  i.  e. 
God  the  everlasting  father  of  heaven.  I!e  is 
uever  to  be  seen  but  in  a  secret  i)lace  of  his 
palace,  amidst  a  great  number  of  lamps,  sil- 
ling cross-legged  upon  a  cushion,  and  adorned 
all  overw-ilh  gold  and  precious  stones ;  w  here, 
at  a  distance,  they  p;ostrale  themselves  be- 
f<)re  him,  it  not  being  lawftil  for  aay  to  kiss 
even  his  feet.  He  is  called  the  great  lama, 
or  lama  of  lamas,  that  is,  priest  of  priests. 
And  to  persuaxle  the  people  that  he  is  iiur 
mortal,  the  infecior  priests,  when  he  dies, 
substitute  another  in  his  stead,  and  so  conti- 
uue  to  cheat  from,  generation  to  generation. 
These  priests  persuade  the  peojile  that  the 
lama  was  raised  from  death  many  hundred 
years  ago,  that  he  has  lived  ever  since;  and  will 
toutinue  to  live  ior-  evert 


m  smoke  is  here  conveited  into  a  brilliant 
flame. 

This  lamp  is  now  very  much  in  use,  and  is 
consequently  y^ell  known. 

We  shall  now  describe  an  improvement  of 
this  neat  invention.     See  Plate  Lamp,  &c. 

The  up])er  compartment  of  the  Plate  repre- 
sents an  improved  construction  of  Argand's 
lamp.  A^  fig.  1,  is  the  reservoir  for  tlie  oil,, 
which  unscrews  at  B;  in  order  to  till  it  the 
oil  is  poured  in  at  a  hole  n,  tig.  4,  in  Hie 
lower  end  of  the  reservoir,  wliich  is  covered, 
when  the  lamp  is  not  burning,  by  a  sliding 
collar,  b,  drawn  up  by  a  handle,  d,  which 
comics  through  a  hole  in  the  screw  e,  by 
whiL'h  the  reservoir  is  screwed  in  the  short 
tube,  E,  tig.  1  :  there  being  no  vent-hoh'S  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  reservoir.  A,  to  admit 
the  air  as  the  oil  runs  out,  a  bubble  of  air 
must  enter  the  hole  a,  tig.  4,  to  supply  the 
place  of  every  drop  of  oil  that  comes  out, 
when  the  reservoir.  A,  is  screwed  to  the  tube, 
E;  the  collar,  /;,  being  down,  the  oil  runs 
out  (the  air  being  admitted  from  without 
through  a  small  hole,^'),  till  E  is  lilled  above 
the  level  of  the  hole,  u,  which  prevents  more 
air  getting  in  ;  it  remains  in  this  state  till  by 
the  burning  of  the  lamp  the  oil  is^lrawn  dowii 
beneath  the  hoi'e  a,  when  it  is  tilled  ag;iin  as 
before;  by  tiiis  ireans  the  iiimp  is  always  well 
supplied,  but  never  overstocked  \\';th  oil. 
From  the  l)Oltom  of  the  tube,  E,  lig.  1,  the 
oil  i.  conveyed  b}'  a  i)ipe,  D,  to  the  lamp. 


the  constitution  of  which  is  best  explained  in 
(ig.  2  ;   El''  is  the'  external  tube  of  bra.ss,  v.  hich 
is  supplied  with  oil  by   the  pipeD;  in  the 
ci-iun,- of  this  another  tube,  GG,  is  soldered, 
whicli  is  ojien  at  both  ends :  belw een   theso 
lubes  is  a  cylinder  of  slightly  wove  cotton, 
,1,'t,',  called  Ihe  wick  ;  tiiis  is  (astened  to  a  small 
cylinder  of  brass,  kli  (shewn  separately  in  lig, 
3),  which  can  be  moved  down  and  up  as  the 
wick  burns.     'J'hc  wick  is  low<?red  or  raised 
by  tnrning  round  the  cylinder,  UII  (shewn 
separately  in  ligs.  5},  by  nn  ans  of  its  rim,  11, 
fastened  to  the  cylinder,  1111,  by  three  small 
rods,  ii  ;  the  cj  lluder,  I  111,  lig.  5,  has  a  spi- 
ral groove,  kk,   cut   obliquely  round  it:  the- 
cylinder,  hli,  ligs.  2  and  3,  which  goes  within 
(he  cylinder,    IJIl,  has  a  small  .stub,  /,  pro- 
jecting from  it,  which  works  into  the  groove, 
kk,  lig.  j ;  the  leaf,  /,  is  long  enough  to  pro- 
ject a  small  distance  througli  the  groove,  kk, 
and  when  in   its  place  takes  against  a  small 
bead,  a,  lig.  3,  fixed  withinside  the  cylinder, 
I'F,  so  as  to  i)ievent  its  turning,  wlien  II 11  iS' 
turned  by  its  rim,  IL    IJy  the  aljove  arrange- 
ment it  is  evident,  that  when  the  cylinder^ 
nil,  fig.  5,  is  turned  round,  and  k  is  pre- 
vented from  turning,  the  sides  of  llie  groove^ 
k,  will  act  as  an  inclined  ])lane  against  the 
stub,  /,  and  raise  the  cylinder  /(  down  or  up, 
and  the  cotton  wick.-g-tf,  witli  it.  The  rim>  II, 
ligs.  1,2,  and,'),  has  an  ornamented  border,  L, 
round  it,  which  serves  to  secure  the  glass 
cliimney,    o,  from    being    overthrown.     To 
prevent  the  cyliuder,  1111,  from  being  lifted' 
out  by  accident,  it  has'a  rim,  o,  figs.  '2  and  5,. 
at  the  lower  end,  cut  through  in  one  place  to- 
ailow  it  to  pass  down  by  the  beail,   n  ;  wlierii 
il  is  below  the  end  of  the  bead  it  cannot  be 
raised.  Unless  the  notch  in  the   rim,   o,   cor- 
responds with  the  bead.     When  the   wick, 
y:!i,  ligs.  !  and  5,.  is  lighted,  it  rarefies  the  air 
in  the  glass  chimney.  (),  and  caus«>s  a  draught 
through  the  tube,  GCJ,  to  suppl\  the  inside  of 
the  wick,  and  al-o  under,  the  edge  of  the  glass 
chimney  to  supply  the  outside:  as   the  wick, 
burns   down    it  can  be  raised  from  time  to 
time  by  tiirni'ig  the  rim,  I,  as  before  describ- 
ed.    'Ihe  tube,    FF,   is  always  nearly  full  of 
oil,  brought  by  the  pipe,  D.   "When  it  is  re- 
(pjired  to  put  in  a  new  wick,  thi-  glass  chim- 
ney, O,  is   lifted  olf ;  the  tube,  lih,  is  screw- 
ed up  to  the  top;  by  turning  the  rim,  II,  the 
tube,  fig.  3,  is  then  taken  out,  the  old  wick 
pulled  off,  and  a  new  one  is  put  round  the 
small  part,  m,  of  the  tube,  unich  is  then  put 
in  again,   and  screwed  down  to  the  proper 
depth  for  lighting  the  wick. 

Rolliits-l.AMF,  a  machine,  AB  (see PI.  M is- 
cel.  fig.  I4j.)  with  two  moveable  circles,  ' 
DF^,  F'G,  within ;  whose  common  centre 
of  motion  and  gravity  is  at  K,  wJiere  their  axes- 
of  motion  cross  one  another,  if  the  lamp, 
KC,  made  pretty  heavy,  and  moveable  about 
itsaxis.  111,  and  wliose  centre  of  gravity  is  at 
C,  be  fitted  within  the  inner  circle,  tlie  ccm- 
mon  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  machina 
will  fall  between  K  and  C  ;  and  by  reason  of 
the  pivots  A,  B,  1),  E,  FI,  i,  will  be  always 
at  libeity  to  de-(^<ml :_  hence,  though  the 
whole  machine  be  rolled  along  the  ground,  or 
moved  in  any.  manner,  the  (iauie  wfll  always 
be  uppermost,  and  the  oil  cannot  spill. 

It  is  in  tliis  manner  they  hang  the  com- 
pass at  sea;  and  I  hits  should  all  the  moon- 
lanterns  be  made  tiiat  arc  carrii^J  befor*. 
coaches,  chaists^.mid  fheljkc. 


■48 


LAM 


Lamp-black,  among  colounncn.  Sef 
Black. 

LAMPREY.     See  Petromvzon. 

LAMPVKIS,  g/o:;'-t:())-;;i,  a  gpiuis  of  in- 
sects of  Uie  order  ooluoptera :  the  generic 
cliaracter  is,  aiitcnna>  liiiform;  u'ing-sheaths 
llexile;  thorax  llat,  semiorbicular,  concealing 
and  surrounding  the  head;  abdomen  with  the 
sides  pleated  into  papilke ;  female  (in  most 
species)  wingless.  The  lanipxris  noctiluca, 
or  common  glow-worm,  is  a  highly  curiou^ 
and  interesting  animal.  It  i';  seeri  Jnring  the 
summer  months  as  late  as  tlie  close  of  Aug. 
if  the  season  is  mild,  on  dry  banks,  about 
rvoods,  pastures,  and  hedgeway?,  exhibiting, 
Its  soon  as  the  dusk  of  the  evening  com- 
mences, the  most  vivid  and  beautiful  phos- 
phoric splendom-,  in  form  of  a  round  spot  of 
considerable  size.  'J'lie  animal  itself,  which 
is  the  female  insect,  measures  about  three 
quarters  or  an  inch  in  lengtli,  and  is  of  a  dull 
earthy  brown  colour  on  the  upper  parts,  and 
beneath,  more  or  less  tinged  with  rose-colour, 
with  the  two  or  three  last  joints  of  the  body 
of  a  pale  or  w  hitish  sulphur-colour.  It  is 
from  these  parts  tliat  the  phosphoric  light 
abovementioned  proceeds,  which  is  of  a  yel- 
low colour,  with  a  very  slight  cast  of  green: 
the  body,  exclusive  of  the  thorax,  consists  of 
ten  joints  or  divisions.  The  larva,  pupa,  and 
complete  female  insect,  scarcely  differ  per- 
ceptibly from  each  other  in  general  appear- 
ance, but  the  phosphoric  liglit  is  stronge>t  in 
the  complete  animal.  The  glow-worm  is  a 
slow-moving  insect,  and  in  its  manner  of 
valking  frequently  seems  to  drag  itscU  on  by 
starts,  or  slight  elforts.  The  male  is  smaller 
than  the  female,  and  is  provided  both  with 
■wings  and  wing-sheaths;  and  it  is  but  rarely 
seen. 

It  is  certain,  that  in  some  species  of  this 
genus  the  male,  as  well  as  the  female,  is  lu- 
minous ;  as  in  the  lampyris  Italica,  which 
{•eems  to  be  a  native  of  our  own  island  also, 
though  less  common  here  than  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  Europe.  Aldrovamlus  describes  the 
xvinged  glow-worm  as  having  its  wing-^hells 
of  a  dusky  colour,  and  at  the  end  of  the  body 
two  brilliant  fiery  spots  like  the  llame  of  sul- 
phur.    See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  figs.  'J3S,  '339. 

In  the  Phil(/<ophical  Transactions  for  the 
year  16S4,  we  find  a  paper  by  a  Mr.  Waller, 
ae»;  ribing  the  English  living  glow-worm  as  of 
a  dark  colour,  with  tlie  tail  ,)art  very  lumi- 
nous, lie  maintains  that  both  male  and  fe- 
male of  this  species  are  wiiiged,  and  that  the 
female  is  larger  than  the  male:  tl'e  light  of 
fills  insect  was  very  vivid,  so  as  to  be  plainly 
perceived  even  when  a  candle  was  in  the 
rO')m.  Mr.  Waller  observed  this  species  at 
Is'orthaw,  in  Hertfordshire.  Erom  the  figure 
civeii  by  this  writer  it  appears  to  be  about 
half  an  inch  in  length,  which  is  much  smaller 
than  the  common  female  glow-worm; 

111  Italy  this  Hying  glow-worm  is  extremely 
plentiful ;  and  we  are  informed  by  Dr.  Sniitli 
and  other  travellers,  that  it  is  a  very  common 
practice  for  the  ladies  to  stick  them  by  way 
of  ornami-nt  in  different  parts  of  their  lieail- 
dress  during  the  evening  hours. 

The  common  or  w  ingless  glow-w  orm  may 
be  very  siiecessfnlly  kept,  if  properly  sup- 
plied with  moist  turf,  grass,  moss,  &c.  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time;  and  as  soon  as 
thii  evening  commences,  will  regularly  exhi- 


I.  A  N 

I  bit  its  beautiful  eft'ulgence,  illuminating  every 
object  within  a  small  space  around  it,  anil 
sometimes  the  light  is  so  vivi  J  as  to  be  per- 
ceived througli  tlie  box  in  which  it  is  kept. 
This  insect  deposits  its  eggs,  which  are  small 
2nd  yellowish,  on  the  leaves  of  grass,  &c. 
There  are  18  species  of  the  lampyris. 

LAND,  in  the  sea  language,  makes  part  of 
several  compound  terms ;  tliu^  lami-ltiid,  or 
to  lay  the  land,  is  just  to  lose  sight  of  it. 
Land-locked,  is  when  land  lies  all  round  the 
ship,  so  that  no  point  of  the  compass  is  open 
to  tiie  sea :  if  she  is  at  anchor  in  such  a 
place,  she  is  said  to  ride  land-locked,  and  is 
therefore  concluded  to  ride  safe  from  the 
violence  of  winds  and  tides.  Land-mark, 
any  mountain,  rock,  steeple,  tree,  &cc.  that 
may  serve  to  make  the  land  known  at  sea. 
Lund  is  shut  in,  a  term  used  to  signify  that 
another  point  of  land  hinders  the  sight  of 
that  the  ship  came  from.  Lund  to,  or  the 
ship  lies  land  to,  that  is,  she  is  so  far  from 
shore  that  it  can  only  be  just  discerned. 
Land-turn,  is  a  wind  tliat  in  almost  all  hot 
countries  blows  at  certain  tini'-s  from  the 
shore  in  the  night.  To  sei  the  land,  tliat  is, 
to  see  by  the  compass  how  it  bears. 

LANDSCAPE.  See  Pai.sting. 
Land-tax,  an  anticnt  branch  of  the 
public  revenue,  the  origin  of  which  may  be 
traced  to  the  lines  or  conmuit;itions  tor  mili- 
tary service,  levied  during  the  feudal  system 
under  the  name  of  scutages.  These  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  at  first  mere  arbitrary 
compositions,  as  the  king  and  the  persons 
liable  could  agree  ;  but  the  practice  having 
been  much  abused,  it  was  declared  by  Magna 
Charta,  and  afterwards  repeatedly  confirmed 
by  acts  of  parliament,  that  no  scutage  should 
be  imposed  without  the  consent  of  the  great 
men  and  commons,  in  parliament  assem- 
bled. This  tax  was  sometimes  exacted  un- 
der the  name  of  hydage,  or  carrucage  ;  but 
taxes  on  land  came  aftenvards  to  be  generally 
denominated  subsidies,  or  assessments.  Du- 
ring the  Commonwealth,  taxes  on  land  were 
levied  by  monthly  assessments;  and  com- 
missioners were  appointed  in  each  county  for 
rating  the  individuals.  ThesQ  assessments 
varied  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the 
times,  from  3i,b00/.  to  1  CO, 000/.  a  month  ; 
the  assessments  in  Scotland  were  commonly 
(iOOO/.  but  sometimes  1000/.  a  month;  in 
Ireland  9000/.  a  month.  This  mode  of  raising 
money  was  found  so  j)roductive,  tliat,  wilii 
some  little  variations,  it  has  under  the  deno- 
mination of  land-tax  ever  since  formed  aii 
iiii|>ortant  branch  of  the  revenue. 

The  land-tax,  till  lately,  dilfered  from  all 
the  other  branches  of  the  public  revenue 
(except  j)arl  of  the  dutif's  on  malt),  in  being 
imposed  annually,  whereas  other  taxes  have 
been  granted  either  for  a  term  of  years,  or, 
more  commonly  of  late  years,  for  ever  ;  but 
though  granted  for  only  one  year  at  a  time, 
it  has  been  ri'gularly  continued  from  year  to 
year  since  the  He\olutioii,  having  never  been 
wholly  taken  oil;  but  it  has  varied  with  re- 
spect to  the  rale  at  which  it  has  been  imposed, 
liaving  been  usually  reduced  during  pe;ice, 
and  increased  again  in  time  of  war,  to  an- 
swer, in  pari,  the  increased  expenditure.  In 
U)t)3  it  was  first  raised  to  four  shillings  in  the 
pound,  upon  a  vaUiatioa  given  in  in  the  pre- 
c<dii»g  year,  and  according  to  which  it  has 
continued  to  be  raised  to  llie  preseal  lime,  at 
the  following  rules ; 


LAN 


In  169S  and  1699, 

at  3.1. 

1700, 

at  2.S. 

1701, 

at  3f. 

1702  to  iric. 

at  49. 

1713   to  1715, 

at  2.9. 

1716, 

at  4$. 

l7ir   to  1721, 

at  3.9. 

1722  to  17J6, 

at  ?»■. 

17^7, 

at  4.9. 

1728  and  171?a, 

at  3.9. 

1730  and  1731, 

at  2j. 

1732  and  1733, 

at  Is. 

1734  to    1739, 

at  2.9. 

1740   to   1749, 

at  4.9. 

1750   to   1752, 

at  3.5. 

1753  to   1755, 

at  2.9. 

1756  to   1766, 

at  4.9. 

1767   to  l770. 

at  3.9. 

1771, 

at  4.9. 

1773   to  1775, 

at  3s. 

1776  to  1798, 

at  4.9. 

The  sums  to  be  raised  at  4?.  in  the 
pound  were  stated,  in  the  annual  act,  at 
!,9S9,073/.  7.9.  10i(f.  for  England,  and 
47,954/.  Is.  2(/.  for  Scotland,  making  to- 
gether 2,037,6J7/.  99.  0\d. ;  and  upon  cre-« 
dit  of  this  assessment  2,000,000/.  was  annually 
borrowed  of  the  Bank  in  anticipation  of  the 
tax,  for  which  sum  exclicquer-bills  were 
given  them,  v.  liich  were  to  be  discharged  out 
of  the  produce  of  the  tax  as  it  came  in  ;  but 
the  full  amount  of  the  assessment  was  sel- 
dom, if  ever,  collected,  so  that  the  nett  pay- 
ments into  the  exchc(iuer  always  fell  short  of 
the  sum  borrowed  on  tlie  credit  thereof,  ex- 
clusive of  interest  on  the  bills ;  and  the  defi- 
ciency was  made  g^od  out  of  the  supplies  for 
tlie  next  year. 

In  179S  the  current  value  of  the  jiublic 
funds  having  been  unusually  depressed  lor 
some  time  past,  and  apprehensions  being  en- 
tertained that  the  further  increase  ot  the 
funded  debt  would  be  attended  with  peculiar 
inconvenience,  unless  some  mode  was  disco- 
vered of  counteracting  its  elfects,  a  project 
was  adopted  of  offering  the  land-tax  for  re- 
demption or  sale.  \\  ith  this  view  an  act 
was  passed,  making  the  land-tax  a  perpetual 
tax,  from  25th  March,  1799;  and  being  thus 
converted  into  a  permanent  annuity,  it  was 
olTered  for  sale  to  the  proprietors  of  the  lands 
upon  whicli  it  was  charged ;  or  if  they  de- 
clined it,  to  any  other  person  w  ho  chose  to 
become  a  purchaser.  In  the  first  case  it  was 
considered  as  a  redemption  of  the  tax,  th« 
estate  becoming  in  future  wholly  freed  from 
it ;  in  the  latter  case  the  purchaser  became 
entitled  to  receive  the  land-tax  regularly  from 
the  receiver-general,  half-yearly,  on  the  l6tli 
of  March  and  20tb  of  Septeinber  in  every 
year.  The  consideration  to  be  given  in  citlier 
case  was  not  to  be  in  money,  but  stock, 
either  in  the  three  per  cent,  consols.,  or  three 
per  cent,  nduced,  to  be  transferred  to  the 
commissioners  for  the  redfiction  of  the  na- 
tional debt.  Till'  (luantity  of  stock  to  be 
transferred  for  redemption  of  the  lax  by  per- 
sons interested  in  the  land  on  which  it  was 
<-harged,  was  so  much  capital  as  yielded  an 
annuity  or  <rividend  exceeding  the  amount 
of  the  tax  to  be  redeemed  by  one-tenth  part 
thereof;  and  the  slock  to  be  transferreii  f.ir 
purchase  of  the  tax  by  perstuis  not  interested 
in  the  land,  was  so  much  capital  as  yielded  an 
aimuilv  or  dividend  exceeding  the  tax  to  be 
purtliiiseU  b^'  olic-lillh  jiart  Ikereof.    Thus 


I.  A  N 


the  aniount  of  tlirei;  pi-r  cent,  slock  to  he 
translerrc-d  for  lU/.  piT  annum  tiix  was 
3o6/.  I.3.V.  Ad.  for  rcdeiiiptioii,  or  400/.  for 
purcliiise. 

'1  his  scheme  was  adopted  wilh  the  view  of 
facilitjtini;  the  raising  (jf  money  on  loan,  by 
a'.)^orl)ing  a  large  qnanlity  of  lioating  stock, 
and  lliiis  raising  the  current  price;  wliile  at 
the  same  time  it  would  be  attended  with  an 
increase  of  revenue.  'I'hi-i  at  least  was  the 
avowed  object  of  the  mca^urp,  which  it  was 
estimated  would  be  the  means  of  redeeming 
or  taking  out  of  the  market  about  80,000,000/. 
of:.tock;  the  advantages  offered  by  it  were 
li;nvever,  by  no  means  such  as  to  induce  a 
general  approval  of  it,  many  persons  subject 
to  the  tax  dec'ined  redeeming  it,  and  but 
few  were  inclined  to  b^'come  purchasers.  The 
lieriod  lirst  limited  was  several  times  extend- 
ed, but  the  plan  succeeded  very  inipertectly, 
and  on  the  1st  February,  1S0,5,  the  otal 
amount  of  3  per  cent,  stock,  whicii  had  been 
iransferred  lor  the  redemption  of  land  tax, 
was  only  -'l,7y4,307/.  I'.s.  3d. 

LAN  ICKI.^,  a  genus  of  the  hexandria  mo- 
iiogynia  class  and  order.  'J'he  corolla  is  su- 
perior, woolly ;  tlie  caps,  three-celled.  There 
is  one  species,  a  herb  of  the  Cape. 

LANGAYA,  a  genus  of  serpents:  the  ge- 
neric character  is,  abdominal  plates ;  caudal 
rings;  terminal  scales. 

Langaya  nasuta,  snouted  langaya.  The 
genus  langaya,  consisting  of  a  single  species 
only,  differs  Irom  all  the  rest  of  the  serpent 
iribe  in  having  the  upper  part  or  beginning  of 
tile  tail  marked  into  complete  rings  or  cir- 
cular divisions  resembling  those  on  the  body 
of  the  ampliisbena,  while  the  extreme  or  ter- 
minal, part  is  covered  with  small  scales,  as  in 
the  genus  anguis. 

'I'he  langaya  nasuta,  or  long-snouted  lan- 
gaya, is  ill  length  about  two  leet  ei^ht  inches, 
and  its  greatest  diameter  abftut  seven  lines: 
the  head  is  covered  with  large  scales,  but  the 
snout,  which  is  extremely  long  and  sharp, 
projecting  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond 
the  lower  jaw,  is  covered  with  very  small 
scales;  the  teeth,  in  shape  and  disposition, 
resemble  those  of  a  viper.  The  natives  of 
Madagascar  are  said  to  hold  the  langaya  in 
great  dread,  considering  it  as  a  highly  poison- 
ous serpent. 

LANGUED,  in  heraldry,  expresses  such 
animals  whose  tongue  appearing  out  of  the 
mouth,  is  borne  of  a  dilfereut  colour  from 
that  ot  the  body. 

LANIUS,  the  shrike,  or  butcher-bird;  a 
genus  belonging  to  the  order  of  accipitres, 
the  characters  of  which  are  these :  the  beak  is 
somewhat  straight,  with  a  tooth  on  each  side 
towards  the  apex,  and  naked  at  the  base; 
and  the  tongue  is  lacerated. 

I.  The  excubitor,  great  cinereous  shrike, 
or  greater  butcher-bird,  is  in  length  10  inches. 
7'he  |)lumagc  on  the  upper  |)aits  is  of  a  pale 
ash-colour;  the  under,  while;  through  the 
eyes  there  is  a  black  stripe;  llie  scapulars  are 
white;  the  base  of  the  greater  quills  is  white, 
the  rest  black.  The  method  of  killing  its 
prey  is  singular,  and  its  manner  of  devouring: 
it  not  less  extraordinary :  sniail  birds  it  will 
seize  by  the  throat,  and  strangle;  and  which 
probably  is  the  reason  the  Germans  also  call 
this  bird  wurchangel,  or  the  suffocating  angel. 
It  feeds  on  small  birds,  voung  lle^tlin^s, 
beetles,  and  caterpillars.  \Vhen  it  has  killed 
Vol.  II. 


LAN 

the  prev,  it  fixes  them  on  some  tliorn,  and 
when  tliiis  spitted,  ]n>\U  them  to  pieces  with 
its  bill.  When  conlincd  in  a  cagi-,  they  w  II 
ofien  treat  their  food  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner, sticking  it  against  the  wires  before  they 
devour  it. "  This  bird  inhabits  many  parts 
of  Kurcpe  and  North  America.  'i  he  fe- 
male makes  its  nest  with  heath  and  moss, 
lining  it  with  wool  and  gossamer,  and  lays 
six  eggs,  about  as  liig  as  those  of  a  thrush,  ot 
a  dull  olive-green,  spotted  at  the  thickest  end 
with  black.  In  spring  and  summer  it  imitates 
the  voices  of  other  birds,  by  way  of  decoying 
thi'iii  within  reach,  that  it  may  destroy  them  ; 
but  bevond  this  the  natural  note  is  the  same 
throughout  all  seasons.  In  countries  where 
they  are  plenty,  the  husbandmen  value  them, 
on  supposition"  of  their  destroying  rats,  mice, 
and  other  vermin.  'I'hey  are  supposed  to  Rve 
live  or  six  years;  and  are  often  trained  up  for 
catchin 


L  A  r 


A  (4 


2.  'I 


g  siiiall  birds  in  Russia, 
le  collnrio,  or  lesser  butcher-bird,  is 


seven  inches  and  a  half  in  length.  '1  his  bird 
is  much  more  common  than  the  former  spe- 
cies. Mr.  J>;itham  suspects  its  being  a  bird 
of  passage-,  never  having  seen  it  in  winter.  It 
lays  six  white  eggs,  marked  with  a  rufous 
brown  circle  towards  the  large  end.  The  nest 
is  generally  in  a  hedge  or  low  bush,  near 
which,  it  IS  said,  no  small  bird  chooses  to 
build  ;  for  it  not  only  feeds  on  insects,  but  also 
on  the  young  of  other  birds  in  the  nest,  taking 
hold  of  them  by  the  neck,  and  strangling 
them,  beginning  to  eat  them  lirst  at  the  brain 
and  eyes.  It  is  fonder  of  grasshoppers  and 
beetles  than  of  other  insects,  which  it  eats  by 
morsels,  and  when  satislied,  sticks  the  re- 
mainder on  a  thorn:  when  kept  in  a  cage,  it 
does  the  same  against  the  wires  of  it,  like  the 
former  species. 

3.  The  infaustus,  or  rock  shrike,  is  in  length 
seven  inches  and  three  quarters.  The  bill  is 
about  an  inch  long,  and  blackish;  the  head 
and  nee  k  are  of  a  dark  ash-colour,  marked 
with  small  rufous  spots;  the  up|)er  part  of  the 
back  is  a  dark  brown;  the  lower  much  paler, 
inclining  to  ash,  especially  towards  the  tall; 
the  (piills  and  w  ing-coverts  are  dusky,  with 
palemargin^;  the  breast,and  under  parts  of  the 
body,  are  orange,  marked  with  small  spots, 
some  wlnle  and  oth'-rs  brown.  This  species 
is  met  with  hi  many  parts  of  Europe,  from 
Italy  on  the  one  hand,  to  Russia  on  the 
other;  and  is  found  in  some  parts  of  Germa- 
ny, the  Alpine  mountains,  those  of  Tyrol,  and 
such-like  places.  The  manners  of  this  bird 
seem  disputed.  It  has  an  agreeable  note  of 
its  own,  approaching  to  that  of  the  hedge 
sparrow  ;  and  will  also  learn  to  imitate  that 
of  others.  It  makes  the  nest  among  the 
holes  of  ih<t  rocks,  &c.  hiding  it  wilh  great 
art;  and  lays  three  or  four  eggs,  feeding  the 
\oung  with  worms  and  insects,  on  which  it 
also  feeds  itself.  It  may  be  taken  young  from 
the  nest,  and  brought  up  as  the  nightingale. 

4.  The  faustus,  or  white-wreathed  shrike, 
is  about  the  size  of  a  common  thrush.  Its 
bill  is  pale  ;  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  are 
grey;  the  under  ferruginous;  from  the  eves 
to  the  hind  head  there  passes  a  whitish  line, 
composed  of  numerous  white  feathers,  ren- 
dering it  tiuly  characteristic;  the  wings  are 
rounded;  the  quills  brownish,  with  grey 
edges,  which  are  crossed  with  numerous 
slender  brown  lines;  the  tail  is  rounded, 
brown,  and  crossed  with  numerous  bars  of 
darker  brown  ;  tlie  legs  are  pale.    This  ele 


ganl  species  inhabits  China,  where  it  isknov.n 
by  the  name  of  whommaj.  It  may  be  observ- 
ed, among  others,  in  Cliinese  paper-hang- 
ings, where  the  white  line  seems  to  encom- 
pass the  back  part  of  the  head  like  a  wreath. 

5.  The  tyrannus,  or  tyrant  shrike,  is  about 
the  size  of 'a  thrush.     Its  liill  is  a  blackish 
brown,  beset  with  bristles  at  the  base;   ih- 
irides  are  brown;  the  iqiper  parts  of  the  plu-' 
mage   grey   brown;  the   under  white;   the 
brca  t   inclines   to  ash-colour;  the   head  i.= 
blackish  on  the  upper  part;  the  base  of  the 
feathers  on  that  part  in  the  male  is  orange, 
but  seldom  visible  except  it  erects  the  lea- 
thers, when  tiiere  appears  a  streak  of  orange, 
down  the  mickile  ol  the  crown.     It  inhabits 
\'iraiula.    There  is  a  variety  which  inhaljits 
St.   Domingo    and   Jamaica.     'I  hese  birds 
are  called  titiri,  pipiri,  or  quiquiri,  from  their 
cry,  wlii(  h  resembles  those  words.     All  au- 
thors agree  in  the  manners  of  these  bird.', 
whicii  are  ferocious  to  a  great  degice  white 
the  hf-n  is  sitting ;  no  bird  w  hatever  dare  ap- 
proach their  nest;  they  will  attack  the  I'irst 
which  comes  near,  without  reserve,  and  usu- 
ally come  oil' conquerors. 

'Many  species  of  this  genus  are  found  in 
Cavenne,  and  other  hot  countries,  as  the 
lanius  varius.  .See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  tig.  240. 
LANNIEUS,  or  I.anniakds,  in  asiiip, 
are  small  ropes  reeved  into  tlie  dead-maii's- 
eyes  of  all  shrowds,  either  to  slacken  them  or. 
to  set  themtawt;  the  stays  ol  all  masts  are 
also  set  tawt  by  lanniers. 

LANTANA,  or  Ikdian  Sage,   a  genus 
of  the  angiospermia  order,  in  the  didynamia 
class  of  plants,  and  in   the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  40th  order,    personata-. 
.The  calyx  is  indistinctly  quadri<lentated;  the 
stigma  broken,  and  turned  back  like  a  hoot ; 
the  fruit  is  a  plum  wilh  a  bilocular  kernel. 
There  are   19  species,  consisting  of  shrubby 
exiilics  from  Africa   and  America  for    the 
greenhouse  or   stove,  growing  to  the  height 
ot  a  yard  or  two,  and  adorned  with  oblong, 
oval,'aiid  roundish  simple  leaves,  with  moiio- 
pelaious,  tubular,   four-parted  tiowers  of  dif- 
ferent colours.     They  njay   be   propagated 
eitliir  by  seeds  or  cuttings.     1.  T  he  camara, 
or  wild  sage,  is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of 
its  flowers,  which  are  yellow,  tinged  with  red. 
2.  The  involucrata,  or  sea-side  sage,  has  small 
ash-coloured  leaves   and  a   most  agreeable- 
smell.     They  are  both  natives  of  the  \Ve«t 
Indies,  tlie  lormer  growing  wild  among  the 
bushes,  and  the  latter  being  tbiind  r.ear  the 
sea.     Iheir  leaves,  particularly  those  cf  tlie 
sea-side  sage,  are  used  by  the  black  people 
in  teas  for  colds  and  complaints  of  the  sto- 
mach.    3.  The  aculeata  is  a  beautiful  stove 
])laiit,   remarkable  for  its  flowers  changing 
from  yellow  to  red.   See  Plate  Nat.  Ilist.  tig. 
243. 

LANTERN,  Magic,  an  optic  machine, 
whereby  little  painted  images  are  represented 
so  much  magnitied,  as  to  be  acconi)te<l  the 
elfect  of  magVc  by  the  ignorant.  See  Optics. 

L.ANTF.RN.    See  ARCHITf  CTVRi;. 

LAPIDARY.  There  are  vaiious  macliincs 
employed  in  tlie  cutting  of  jirecious  stones, 
according  to  llie quality:  the  diamond,  which 
is  extremely  hard,  is  <  iit  on  a  wheel  of  soft 
steel,  turned  by  a  mill,  with  diamoml-dust, 
tempered  with'olive-oil,  which  also  serves  to 
polish  it. 

The  Orienlal  ruby,  sapphire,  and  topaz,  are 


50 


L  A  P 


cut  on  a  copper  wheel  witii  cliamo>ul-iKist, 
tempered  with  olive-oil,  and  are  poli-hed  on 
another  copper  wheel  with  tripoli  and  water. 
The  hyacinth,  emerald,  amethyst,  garnets, 
-a*ates,  and  other  stones,  not  of  an  equal  d(^ 
gree  of  hardness  with  the  other,  are  cut  on  a 
leaden  wheel  with  smalt  and  water,  and  po- 
liihed  on  a  tin  wheel  wiih  tripoli.  Tlie  Uir- 
tnioisofthe  old  and  new  rock,  girasol,  and 
«')pal,  are  cut  and  polished  on  a  wootlen 
wheel  with  tripoli  al;o. 

LAPIS,  in  general,  is  used  to  denote  a  stone 
of  any  kind.  See  Mineralogy. 

'  Lapis  calcedoni us,  a  genus  of  stones  con- 
sisting of  silica,  a  small  quantity  of  ahnnina, 
with  about  one-tenth  of  lime,  and  a  slight 
trace  of  oxide  of  iron:  hard,  lightish,  shining 
«itKin,  breaking  into  tragmcnts  with  sharp 
edges;  compact,  not  mouldering  in  the  air; 
of  a  more  or  less  perfectly  conchoidal  texture; 
never  opake,  tough,  admitting  of  a  high  po- 
lish, and  generally  of  a  common  form ;  not 
melting  before  Uie  blowpipe.  See  Plate-Nat. 
Hist.  i\f.  241. 

L.\PLYS1A,  or  Sea-hare,  a  genusof  ma- 
rine insect.s  belonging  tj  the  order  of  vermes 
moUusca.  See  Plate.  The  body  is  covered 
with  membranes  reflected.  It  has  a  shield- 
.  like  membrane  on  the  back,  a  lateral  pore 
on  the  right  side,  tlie  anus  on  the  extremity 
of  the  back,  with  four  feelers  resembling  ears. 
The  figure  ri-presents  the  depilans  minor, 
whicli  grows  to  two  inches  and  a  half  in  length, 
and  to  more  tk.n  an  inch  in  diameter;  its 
body  approaches  to  an  oval  figure,  and  is  soft, 
punctated,  of  a  kind  of  gelatinous  substance, 
and  of  a  pale  lead-colour;  from  the  larger 
extremity  there  arise  four  oblong  and  thick 
protuberances:  these  are  the  tentacuU;  two 
of  thi;m  stand  nearly  erect,  two  are  thrown 
backward.  It  is  not  uncommon  about  our 
shores,  especially  off  Anglesea.  It  causes, 
by  its  poisonous' juice,  the  hair  to  fall  oli' 
the  hands  of  those  that  touch  it;  and  is  so 
extremely  fetid  as  to  create  sickness  at  the 
stomach.'  The  major,  or  greater  sea-hare, 
grows  to  the  length  of  eight  inches. 

LAPPAGO,  a  genus  of  the  triandiia  di- 
gynia  class  and  order.  'I  here  is  one  species, 
a  grass. 

"LAPSAN.\,  nipplewort,  a  genus  of  the 
polvgamia  a.-quaris  order,  in  the  syngenesia 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  mefliod 
ranking  uuder  the  49th  order,  compi)sit;c. 
The  receptacle  is  naked  ;  the  calyx  calicu- 
lated,  with  all  tl>e  inferior  scales  canaliculated 
or  fiiK-ly  channelled.  There  arc  five  species 
which  grow  commonly  as  weeds  by  tlie  side,i 
of  ditches.  The  young  leaves  of  the  com- 
mon kind,  called  dock-cresses,  have  the  taste  of 
radishes,  and  are  eaten  raw  at  Constantinople 
as  a  sallad.  In  some  parts  of  England  the 
common  people  boil  them  as  greens,  but 
thejr  have  a  bitter  and  disagreeable  taste. 

LAP.SE,  the  omission  of  a  patron  to  pre- 
sent to  a  church,  within  six  months  after 
voidable ;  by  which  neglect  title  is  given  to 
the  ordinary  to  collate  to  such  church  :  and 
in  such  ca^;e,  the  patronage  devolves  from  the 
patron  to  the  bishop,  from  the  bisho|>tothe 
archbishop,  and  from  the  archbishop  to  the 
king.  A  donative  does  not  go  in  lapse  ;  but 
the  ordinary  may  compel  the  patron  by  ec- 
clesiastical censures  to  fill  up  the  vacancy. 
Bulif  the  donative  has  been  augm  nted  by 
the  governors  of  queen  Anne's  bounty,  it  will 
lapse  in  like  manner  as  presentativc  livings. 


I.  A  R 

LAPSED  LEGACY,  is  where  the  legatee 
dies  before  the  testator;  or  whero  a  legacy  is 
given  upon  a  future  contingency,  and  the  le- 
gatee dies  before  the  contingency  happens. 
As  if  a  lega<-y  is  given  to  a  person  when  he 
attains  the  ag'e  of  In  years,  and  the  legatee 
dies  before  that  age;  in  this  rase  the  legacy 
is  a  lost  or  lapsed  legacy,  and  shall  sink  into 
the  residuum  of  the  personal  estate.  2  Black. 
013. 

LARBOARD,  among  seamen,  the  left 
hand  side  of  the  sliip,  when  you  stand  with 
your  face  towards  the  head. 

LARCENY,  is  the  felonious  and  fraudu- 
lent taking  away  of  the  personal  goods  oi  an- 
other ;  whicli  g'oods,  if  they  are  above  the 
value  of  12j.  it  is  called  grand  larceny  ;  if  of 
that  value  or  under,  it  is  petit  larceny ;  which 
two  species  are  distinguished  in  llicir  punish- 
ment, but  not  ollierwise.  4  Black.  229. 

The  mind  only  makes  tlie  taking  of  an- 
other's goods  to  be  felony,  or  a  bare  trespass 
only  ;  but  as  the  variety  of  circumstances  is 
so  great,  and  the  complications  thereof  so 
mingled,  it  is  impossible  to  prescribe  all  the 
circumstances  evincing  a  felonious  intent, 
or  the  contrary;  it  must  therefore  be  left  to 
the  due  and  atteuuve  consideration  of  the 
judge  and  jurv,  wherein  the  best  rule  is;  in 
doubtful  matters,  rather  to  incline  to  acquit- 
tal, than  conviction.  But  in  general  it  may 
be  observed,  that  the  ordinary  disc-overy  of  a 
felonious  intent,  is,  if  the  party  do  it  secretly, 
or  being  cliarged  with  the  goods  deny  it.  I  li. 
H.  509. 

As  all  felonv  includes  trespass,  every  in- 
dictment must"  have  the  words  feloniously 
took,  as  well  as  carried  away  ;  whence  it  fol- 
lows, that  if  the  party  be  gu'-l'tv  of  no  trespass 
in  taking  the  goods,  he  cannot  be  guilty  o) 
felony  in  carrying  them  av.'ay.      1  Haw.  89. 

With  re-pe'ct  to  what  shafi  be  considered  a 
sufficient  carrying  away,  to  constitute  the 
offence  of  larceny  ;  it  seems  that  any  the  least 
removing  of  the 'thing  taken,  from  the  place 
where  it  was  before,  is  suificient  for  this  jjur- 
pose,  thougli  it  be  not  quite  carried  oil.  iHaw. 

93. 

As  grand  larceny  is  a  felonious  and  fraudu- 
lent taking  of  the  'mere  personal  gooils  of  an- 
other above  the  value  of  \'2d.  so  it  is  petit 
larceny,  where  tlie  thing  stolen  is  but  of  the 
value  of  1 2d.  or  under.  In  the  several  other 
particulara  above-mentioned,  petit  larceny 
agrees  with  grand  larceny.   1  Haw.  95. 

In  petit  larceny  tlie.e  'can  be  no  accessaries 
either  before  or  atXer.   1  U.  H.  530. 

Larctmj  from  the  pemnn.  If  larceny  from 
the  person  be  done  privily  without  his  know- 
ledge, by  picking  of  pockets  or  otherwise,  it 
is  excluded  from  the  benefit  of  clergy  by 
8  liliz.  c.  4,  provided  the  thing  stolen  be 
above  the  value  of  )'2d.   2  H.  H.  .S3b. 

But  if  done  openly  and  avowedly  before 
his  face,  it  is  within  'llie  benefit  of  clergy.  1 
Haw.  97. 

I.arcem/  from  the  house.  Every  person 
who  shall  be  convicte<l  of  the  feloniously  tak- 
ing away  in  the  day-time,  any  money  or  goods 
of  the  v'alue  of  :>.*■.'  in  any  dwelling-house,  or 
out-house  thereunto  belonging,  and  used  to 
and  vrith  the  same,  though  no  person  be  there- 
in, shall  be  guilty  of  felony,  v  itiiout  benefit  of 
clerijv.  39  Kliz.  c.  15. 

UVceiving  stolen  goods.     Any  person  who 
shall  buy  or  receive  any  stolen  goods,  know- 
U 


L  A  R 

ing  them  to  be  stolen;  or  shall  receive,  har- 
bour, or  conceal  any  felons  or  thieves,  know- 
ing tliem  to  be  so  ;  shall  be  deemed  accessary 
to  the  felony  :  and  being  convicted  on  the 
testimony  of  one  witness,  shall  suffer  death 
as  a  felon  convict;  but  he  shall  be  entitled 
to  his  clergy.     SAniiec.  31. 

An\  person  convicted  of  receiving  or  buy- 
ing stolen  goods,  knowing  them  to  be  stolen, 
may  be  transported  for  fourteen  years.  4 
Geo.  I.  c.  11. 

Where  the  principal  felon  is  found  guilty 
to  the  value  of  lOrf.  tliat  h,  of  'petit  larceny 
onlv,  the  receiver,  knowing  the  goods  to  have 
been  stolen,  cannot  be  transported  for  four- 
teen years,  and  ought  not  to  be  put  upon  his 
trial ;  for  th.e  acts  which  make  receivers  of 
stolen  goods  knowingly,  accessaries  to  the 
felonv,  must  be  understood  to  make  them 
accessaries  in  such  cases  only,  where  by  law 
an  accessary  may  be;  and  there  can  be  no 
accessary  to  petit  larceny.     Fost.  74. 

Every  person  who  shall  apj)rehend  any 
one  guilty  of  breaking  open  houses  ui  a  fe- 
lonious manner,  or  of  privately  and  feloni- 
ously stealing  goods,  wares,  or  merchan- 
dizes, of  the  value  of  5*.  in  any  shop,  ware- 
house, coach-house,  or  stable,  though  it  is 
not  broken  open,  and  though  no  person  is 
therein  to  be  put  in  fear,  and  shall  prosecute 
him  to  conviction,  shall  have  a  certificate 
without  fee,  under  the  hand  of  the  judge, 
certifying  such  conviction,  and  within  what 
parish  or  place  the  telony  was  committed, 
and  also  that  such  felon  was  discovered  and 
taken,  or  discovered  or  taken,  by  the  person 
so  discovering  or  apprehending  ;  and  if  any 
dispute  arise  between  several  persons  so  dis- 
covering or  apprehending,  the  judge  shall 
appoint  the  certificate  into  so  many  shares, 
to  be  divided  among  the  persons  concerned, 
as  to  him  shall  seem  just  and  reasonable. 
Leache's  Cro.  Law,  307.  See  Burglary. 
LAUK.  See  Alauda. 
LAl^KSrUR.  See  Delphinium. 
LARV.'V,  in  natural  history,  a  name  given 
bv  Linnanis  to  insects  in  that  state,  called 
by  oth<r  writers  eruca,  or  caterpilar. 

LAUUS,  the  gull,  a  genus  in  the  order  of 
anseres,  the  characters  of  which  are  :  the  bill 
is  straight,  cultrated,  a  little  crooked  at  the 
point,  and  without  teeth;  the  inferior  man- 
dible is  gibbous  below  the  apex  ;  the  nostrils 
are  linear,  a  little  broader  before,  and  situated 
in  the  midd!e  of  the  beak.  'I'he  different 
species  are  piincipally  distinguished  by  their 
eolour.     The  most  remarkable  are, 

1.  The  marinns,  or  black-backed  gull,  in 
length  29  inches,  in  breadth  five  feet  nine. 
The  bill  is  very  strong  and  thick,  and  almost 
four  inchds  long ;  the  colour  a  pale  yellow; 
the  head,  neck,  whole  under-side,  tail,  and 
lower  part  of  the  back,  are  white;  the  upper 
])art  of  the  back  and  wings  are  black ;  the 
quill-feathers  tipt  with  white;  the  legs  of  a 
pale  (Icsh-colour.  It  inhabits  several  parti 
of  England,  and  breeds  on  the  highest  cliffs. 
The  eag  is  blunt  at  each  end,  of  a  dusky 
olive-colour,  (piite  bhuk  at  the  greater  end, 
and  the  rest  of  it  Ihiuly  marked  "with  dusky 
spots.  It  is  also  common  on  most  of  the 
northern  coasts  of  Europe.  It  frequents 
Greenland,  but  chiefly  iiiliabils  the  distant 
rocks.  It  lays  there  eggs  in  May,  jilacing 
them  on  the  heaps  of  dung  which  the  birds 
leave  there  from  time  to  time.  It  is  said  to 
attack  other  birds,  and  to  be  particularly  au 


L  A  R 

ciipmy  to  llio  filler  duck.  It  very  greedily 
«li'V(mrs  cairioii,  lliougli  its  iiio^l  gciiLTiil 
food  i>  lisli.  It  is  coiiiiiioii  also  in  Amciica, 
as  low  :is  soutii  Caroliiui,  where  it  is  called 
tiie  od  wile. 

2.  The  tataiacLes,  or  Skua  gull,  is  in 
kngdi  Iwo  (eel ;  liie  e\tei)l  lour  lect  and  a 
hull;  tile  vveiglit  lliree -pouuds;  tlie  lealliers 
on  tlie  hi'ad,  neck,  back,  ocainilars,  and  co- 
ve.'ls  1)1  tlie  wwys,  are  of  a  dtep  Iji'ohh,  mark- 
ed uiih  rusl-coiour  (tirighU'st  in  tlie  male). 
Tlie  breasl,  bslly,  and  venl  are  ferruginous, 
tinged  will!  ash-colour.  '1  his  bud  iaiiabits 
Norway,  the  Ferroe  isles,  biiethnd,  and  the 
iiole.l  rock  I'uula  a  little  west  of  tliem.  It  is 
also  a  native  of  the  .South  !Sea.  It  is  tlie  most 
formidable  of  the  gulls;  its  prey  being  not 
only  h,^lJ,  but  what  is  wonderlul  in  a  web- 
fjotod  bird,  all  the  lesser  sort  of  water-fowl, 
such  as  teal,  &c.  Mr.  Schroter,  a  surgeon  in 
liie  Ferroe  isles,  relates  that  it  likewise  preys 
on  ducks,  poultry,  and  even  young  lambs. 
The  natives  oi  the  Orkneys  are  ottcn  very 
rudely  treated  by  tliein  while  they  are  at- 
tending their  sheep  on  the  hills,  and  are 
obliged  to  guard  their  heads  by  holding  up 
their  sticks,  on  which  the  birds  often  kill 
themselves.  In  Foula  it  is  a  privileged  bird, 
because  it  defe.ids  the  flocks  trom  the  eagle, 
w'liich  it  beats  and  pursues  with  great  fury ; 
so  th.it  even  lliat  rapacious  bird  seldom  ven- 
tures near  its  quarters. 

3.  'I'he  parasiticus,  or  dung-hunter,  is  in 
length  2 1  inches  :  tiie  upper  parts  of  the  body, 
wings,  and  tail,  are  black ;  the  base  of  the 
quills  white  on  the  inner  webs;  and  the  two 
middle  fcalheis  of  the  tail  are  near  four 
inches  longer  than  the  rest.  Tiiis  is  a  norUi- 
erii  specie.s,  and  very  comnion  in  the  lie- 
brides,  where  it  breeds  on  iieath.  ll  comes 
ill  May,  and  retires  in  August;  and  if  disturb- 
ed dies  about  like  tlie  lapwing,  but  soon 
alights.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Oikneys;  and 
on  the  coasts  of  Yorkshire,  where  it  is  called 
the  leaser.  This  bird  does  not  often  swim, 
and  liies  generally  in  a  slow  manner,  except 
ill  pursuit  of  other  birds,  which  it  often  at- 
tacks, in  order  to  make  them  disgorge  the 
li-h  or  other  food  which  this  common  plun- 
derer greedily  catches  up. 

4.  '1  he  canus,  or  comuion  gull,  is  in  length 
16  or  17  inches;  m  breadth  36  ;  weight  one 
pound.  The  bill  is  yellow;  the  head,  neck, 
under  parts  of  the  b 'dy  and  tail  are  white  ; 
the  back  and  wings  pale-grey.  It  is  a  tame 
species,  and  may  be  seen  by  hundreds  on  the 
shores  of  the  Thames  and  other  rivers,  in  the 
winter  and  .sprirg,  at  low  tides,  picking  up 
the  various  worms  and  small  tish  lelt  by  the 
tides ;  and  will  often  follow  the  plough  in  the 
fields  contiguous,  for  the  sake  of  worms  and 
insects  which  are  turned  up  ;  particularly  the 
cockchaier  or  dorbeetle  in^  its  larva  state, 
whicii  it  joins  witli  the  rooks  in  devouring 
most  greedily. 

5.  The  tridactylus,  or  tarrock,  is  in  length 
14  inches,  breadth  30;  weight  seven  oimces. 
Tli.^  head,  neck,  and  under  parts,  are  white  ; 
near  each  ear,  and  under  the  throat,  there  is 
a  black  spot :  and  at  the  hind  part  of  the  neck 
a  crescent  of  black;  the  back  and  scapulars 
are  blneish-grey;tlie  wing-coveits  dusky  edg- 
ed with  grey,  some  of  the  larger  wholly  grev. 
This  Species  breeds  in  ijcotland,  and  inliabits 
other  parts  of  northern  Europe,  quite  to  Ice- 
land and  Spitzbergen.  It  is  observed  fre- 
quently to  attend  the  whales  and  seals,  for 


r,  A  s 

llie  sake  of  the  fish  whicli  the  Ui't  drive  be- 
lore  them  into  tlie  shallows,  •when  these  birds 
dart  into  the  water  suddenly,  and  make  them 
their  prey. 

().  'I  he  j-idibundus,  peewit,  or  black-head 
gull,  is  in  length  15  inches,  breadth  three 
Feet ;  weight  ten  ounces ;  the  back  and  wings 
are  of  an  ash-colour;  the  neck,  all  the  under 
parts,  and  tail,  are  white;  the  lirst  ten  quills 
arc  white,  margined,  and  more  or  less  tipped 
with  black  ;  the  others  of  an  ash-coloi:r.  This 
species  breeds  on  the  shores  of  some  of  our 
rucr-i;  but  full  as  often  in  the  inland  fens  of 
Lincolnshire,  Cambridgeshire,  and  other 
parts  of  England.  They  make  their  nest 
on  the  ground,  with  rushes,  dead  gi'ass,  &c. 
and  la\'  three  eggs  of  a  greenish  brown,  mark- 
ed with  red-brown  blotches.  After  the  breed- 
ing season,  they  again  disperse  to  the  sea- 
coasts.  The  young  birds  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Thames  are  thought  good  eating, 
and  are  called  the  red  legs.  Tliey  were  for- 
merly more  esteemed,  and  numbers  were 
annually  taken  and  fattened  fjr  the  tab'e. 
VVhiteiock,  in  his  annals,  nieiuions  a  piece 
of  ground  near  Portsmouth,  which  produced 
to  the  owner  40/.  a  year  by  the  sale  of  peewits, 
or  this  species  of  gull.  'I  hese  are  the  se4- 
gulls  that  in  old  times  were  admitted  to  the 
noblemen's  tables.  The  note  of  these  gulls 
is  like  a  hoarse  laugh. 

7.  The  atricilla,  or  laughing  gull,  is  in 
length  18  inches,  breadth  three  feet.  It  is 
found  in  Kussia  on  the  river  Don,  particu- 
larly about  Tscherca^k.  l"he  note  resembles 
a  coarse  laugh,  whence  the  name  of  the  bird. 
It  is  met  with  also  in  different  parts  of  the 
continent  of  America,  and  is  very  numerous 
hi  the  Bahama  islands. 

There  are  l4or  1.5  other  species  of  this 
genus.  ■  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  24a. 

LARYNX.     See  Anatomy. 

LASH,  or  Lace,  in  the  sea  language,  sig- 
nifies to  bind  and  make  fast. 

LASEKPITIUM,  l(iZ((r-u;ort,  a  genus  of 
the  digynia  order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  nietliod  ranking 
uiuler  the  4itli  onler,  umbellala;.  The  fniit 
is  oblong,  with  eight  memlij-anaceous  angles; 
the  petals  inllexed,  emaiginaled,  and  patent. 
There  are  15  species,  none  of  whicli  are  at 
all  remarkable  for  their  beauty,  so  are  onlv 
preserved  in  botanic  gardens  for  the  sake  of 
variety.    , 

LASIOSTOMA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  tetrandriamonogynia:  the  calyx  is  very 
short,  five-petalled  ;  corolla  funnel-form,  fonr- 
cleft;  caps,  orbiculate,  one-celled,  two-seed- 
ed.    I'here  is  one  species,  a  shrub  of  Guiana. 

LASKETS,  small  lines,  like  loops,  sewed 
to  the  bonnets  and  drablers  of  a  ship,  to  lash 
or  lace  the  bonnets  to  the  courses,  or  the 
drablers  to  the  bonnets. 

L ASKING,  at  sea,  is  much  the  same  with 
going  large,  or  veering,  that  is,  going  with  a 
quarterly  wind. 

,  LASr,  in  general,  signifies  the  burden  or 
load  of  a  ship.  It  signihes  also  a  certain  mea- 
sure ofhsh,  corn,  wool,  leather,  &c.  A  last 
of  codfiih,  white  herrings,  meal,  and  ashes  for 
soap,  is  V2  barrels;  of  corn  or  rapeseed,  10 
quarters;  of  gunpow-der  24  barrels;  of  red- 
herrings  20  cades  ;  of  bides  12  dozen  ;  of  lea- 
ther 20  dickers  ;  of  pitch  and  tar  1 4  barrels ; 
of  wool  12  sacks ;  of  stock-fish  1000;  of  flax 
or  feathers  1700  pounds. 
G2 


L  A  T 


;i 


LATH,  in  building,  a  long,  lliiii,  and  nar- 
row slip  of  wood,  nailed  to  the  rafters  of  a, 
roof  or  ceiling,  in  order  to  sustain  the  co- 
vering. These  are  distinguished  into  three 
kind:,,  according  to  the  diliL-ient  kinds  of 
wood  of  which  they  arc  made,  viz.  heart  of 
oak,  sap-laths,  aiul  deal-lath-;  of  which  tlie 
last  two  are  u=ed  for  ceilings  and  partitions, 
and  tl:e  first  lor  tiling  only.  I^lhs  arc  also 
distinguished  according  to  their  length,  into 
live- feet, 'four- feet,  and  thre;;-feet  laths, 
though  the  statute  allows  but  of  two  lengths, 
those  of  iive  and  liiose  of  tliree  feel,  each  of 
wliicli  ought  to  be  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
breadth,  and  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  but 
they  arc  commonly  less. 

LA'IHE,  a  very  useful  engine  for  the  turn- 
ing of  wood,  ivory,  metals,  and  other  mate- 
rials. 'Fhe  invention  of  the  lathe  is  very  an- 
tient ;  Diodoriis  Siciilus  says,  the  lirst  who 
used  it  was  a  grandson  of  Da-dalus,  named 
Talus.  Pliny  ascribes  it  to  Theodore  of  Sa- 
mos,  and  iirei. lions  one  Thericles,  who  ren- 
dered himself  very  famous  by  his  dextery  m 
managing  the  lathe.  With  this  instrument 
the  antients  turned  all  kinds  of  vases,  many 
whereof  they  enriche<l  with  figures  and  orna- 
ments in  basso  relievo.  Thus  Virgil:  "  Lenta. 
(luibus  lorno  facili  supcraddila  vitis."  The 
<  jreek  and  Latin  authors  make  frequent  men- 
tion of  the  lathe;  and  Cicero  calls  the  work- 
men who  used  it  vascularii.  It  was  a  proverb 
among  the  antients,  to  say  a  thing  was  formed 
in  the  lathe,  to  express  its  delicacy  and  just- 
ness. 

'I  he  lathe  is  composed  of  two  wooden 
cheeks  or  sides,  parallel  to  the  iiorizon,  hav- 
ing a  groove  or  opening  between;  perpendi- 
cular to  these  are  two  other  pieces  called 
puppets,  made  to  slide  between  the  cheeks, 
and  to  be  fixed  down  at  any  point  at  plea- 
sure. 7'hese  have  two  points,  bet«  ecn  w  hich 
the  piece  to  be  turned  is  sustained  ;  the  piece 
is  turned  round,  backwards  and  foiwards,  by 
means  of  a  string  put  round  it,  and  fastenecl 
above  to  the  end  of  a  pliable  pole,  and  un- 
derneath to  a  treadle  or  board  moved  with 
the  ibol'.  There  is  also  a  rest  w  hich  bears 
up  the  tool,  and  keeps  it  steady. 

The  most  simple  kind  of  lathe  is  too  well 
known  to  require  a  niore  ample  description. 
\\  e  shall  therefore  give  a  figure  of  an  im- 
proved lathe  manufactured  by  Mr.  Maudslay 
of  Margaret-street.  A  (  Plate  Miscel.  fig. 
138.)  is  the  great  wheel,  with  four  grooves 
on  the  rim:  it  is  worked  by  a  crank  B  and 
treadle  C,  in  the  common  way  ;  the  catgut 
which  goes  round  this  wheel  passes  also 
round  a  smaller  wheel  D,  called  the  mandrel, 
which  has  four  grooves  on  its  circumference" 
of  different  diameters  for  giving  it  different 
velocities,  corresponding  with  the  four  grooves 
on  the  great  wheel  A.  In  order  to  make  the 
same  band  suit  when  applied  to  all  the  dif- 
ferent grooves  on  the  mandrel  D,  the  v. h'cl 
A  can  be  elevated  or  depressed  by  a  screw  a, 
and  another  at  the  other  end  of  the  axle;  and 
the  connecting  rod  C  can  be  lengthened  or 
shortened  by  screwing  tii':  hooks  at  each  end 
of  it  further  out  of,  or  into  it.  The  end  M, 
tig.  139-  of  the  spindle  of  tlie  mandrel  D,  h 
pointed,  and  works  in  a  hole  in  the  end  of  a 
screw,  put  through  the  standard  E,  tig.  138.; 
the  oilier  end  ot  the  bearing  F,  fig.  13'J.  i« 
conical,  and  works  iii  a  conical  socketvjn 
the  standard,  so  tliat  by  tightening  up  the 


.52  L  A  T 

screw  in  E.  t'le  conical  end  V  may  at  at)y 
time  be  niade  to  111  its  socket:  the  puppet  G 
lias  a  cvliudric  hole  through  its  lop  to  receive 
the  poli^lied  pointed  rod  j,  which  is  moved 
by  the  screw  e',  asid  fixed  by  the  screw,/';  tlie 
w'iiole  puppet  is  fixed  on  the  triangular  [>ris- 
niatic  baril,by  a  clamp  fig.  143.  liie  two  ends 
of  wliicl),  a,  b,  are  put  through  holes  6,  in  the 
bottom  of  the  puppet  under  the  bar,  and  the 
whole  is  fixed  by  the  screw  r  pressing  against 
it :  by  this  means  the  puijpet  can  be  taken 
ort'  the  bar  witliout  first  taking  off  the  stand- 
ard I,  as  in  the  connnon  latlses ;  and  the  tri- 
angular bar  is  found  to  be  far  preferable  to 
the  double  rectangular  one  in  common  use. 
The  rest  J  is  a  similar  contrivance;  it  is  in  3 
pieces;seelig,s.l40,l41,l4..'.  Kig.l4i  isajjiece, 
the  opening  («,  b,  c)  in  whicli  is  laid  upon  the 
bar  IJ,  [ip;.  13S.;  tlie  four  legs  dddd  of  fig. 
142.  are  then  put  up  under  the  bar  (into  the 
recesses  in  fig.  141.  which  are  made  to  re- 
ceive them),  so  that  the  notches  in  dddd 
may  be  level  with  the  top  of  fig.  141 .:  the  two 
beads  ef  in  fig.  140.  are  then  slid  into  the 
notches  in  the  top  of  dddd,  to  keep  the 
whole  together ;  the  groove  i  is  to  receive 
a  correspoi'.ding  piece  on  e  f,  fig.  140.,  to 
steady  it;  the  whole  of  fig.  140.  has  a  metallic 
cover,  to  keep  tlie  chips  out  of  the  grooves. 
It  is  plain,  that  by  tightening  the  screw/;  in  the 
bottom  of  figs.  138.  and  Ul;.,  the  whole  will 
be  fixed  and  prevented  from  sliding  along  the 
barH,  and  fig.  140.  from  sliding  in  a  direction 
perpendicular  to  the  bar;  the  piece  /,  on 
wliich  the  tool  is  laid,  can  be  raised  or  low  ered 
at  pleasure,  and  fixed  by  tlie  screw  m.  On 
the  end  n  of  the  spindie  P,  figs.  13S.  and 
139.,  is.  screwed  occasionally  an  universal 
chuck  for  holding  any  kind  of  work  which  is 
to  be  turned  (fig.  144.).  A  is  the  female  screw- 
to  receive  the  screw  n,  fig.  138.;  nearthe  bot- 
tom of  the  screw  A  is  another  BB,  which  is 
prevented  from  moving  endways  by  a  collar 
in  the  middle  of  it  fixed  to  tlie  screw  A :  one 
end  of  the  screw  BB  is  cut  right-handed,  and 
the  other  left-handed,  so  that  by  turning  the 
screw  one  way,  the  two  nuts  EF  will  recede 
from  each  other,  or  by  turning  it  the  contrary 
way,  they  will  advance  towards  each  other ; 
liie'  two  nuts  EF  pass  through  an  opening  in 
the  plate  C,  and  project  beyond  the  same, 
carrying  jaws  like  those  of  a  vice,  by  which 
the  subject  lobe  turned  is  held. 

The  large  lathes  whicli  Mr.  Maudslay  uses 
in  his  niaimfactory,  inst.ad  of  being  worked 
bv  the  foot,  as  "represented  in  ng.  138., 
are  worked  by  hand  ;  the  wheel  and  liy-wlieel 
which  the  men  turn  w^ork  by  a  strap  on  an- 
other wheel,  fixed  to  the  ceiling  directly  over 
it ;  on  the  axis  of  this  wheel  is  a  larger  one, 
which  turns  another  small  wheel  or  pulley, 
ii.sed  to  the  ceiling,  directly  over  the  man- 
drel of  the  lathe;  and  this  last  has  on  its  axis 
a  larger  one  which  works  the  mandrel  D,  by 
a  band  of  catgut.  These  latter  wheels  are 
*  fixed  in  a  frame  of  cast  iron,  moveable  on  a 
joint;  and  this  frame  has  always  a  strong  leii- 
<lency  to  rise  up,  in  consequence  of  the  ac- 
tion of  a  heavy  weight ;  the  rope  from  which, 
afler  passing  over  a  pulley,  is  fasli'ned  to  the 
frame.  This  weight  not  only  oper.iles  to  keep 
the  mandrill-band  tight,  wlien  applied  to  any 
of  the  grooves  therein,  but  always  makes  the 
strap  between  the  two  wheels  on  the  ceiling 
fit.  As  it  is  necessary  that  tlie  workman 
should  be  able  to  stop  liis  lathe,  without  the 
men  stopping  wlio    are  turning  the  great 


L  A  T 

wheel,  there  are  two  pulleys,  or  rollers,  (on 
tlie  axis  of  t!ie  wheel  over  "the  'athe)  for  the 
strap  coming  from  the  otlier  wheel,  on  the 
ceihiig;  one  of  these  pulleys,  calleti  the  dead 
pulley,  is  fixed  to  the  axis,  and  turns  with  it ; 
and  the  other  which  slips  round  it,  is  called 
the  live  pulley:  these  pulleys  are  put  close 
to  each  other",  so  that  by  slipping  the  strap 
upon  the  live  pulley,  it  will  not  turn  Ihe  axis; 
but  if  it  is  slipped  on  the  other,  it  will 
turn  with  it:  this  is  effected  by  an  horizontal 
bar,  with  two  upright  pins  in  it,  between 
wliicli  the  strap  passes.  This  bar  is  moved  in 
such  a  direction  as  will  throw  the  strap  upon 
the  live  pulley,  by  means  of  a  strong  bell- 
spring  ;  and  in  a  contrary  direction  it  is  moved 
bv  u  cord  fastened  to  it,  which  passes  over  a 
pulky,  and  hangs  tlown  within  n-ach  of  the 
workiiian's  buid:  to  this  cord  is  fastened  a 
weight,  heavy  enough  to  counteract  the  bell- 
spring,  and  bring  the  strap  up  to  the  dead 
pulley,  to  turn  the  lathe;  but  when  the 
weight  is  laid  upon  a  little  shelf,  prepared  for 
the  purpose,  the  spring  will  act  and  stop  it. 

The    following   is    a    description   of   Mr. 
Smart's  newly  inveated  lathe  tor  turning  cy- 
linders of  w-ood  for  the  purpose  of  tent-poles, 
pickets,  handles  for  tools,  &c.  &:c.  the  opera- 
lions  of  which  are  so  readily  performed,  that 
fron-i  octagonal  bars  of  yellow  deal,  5^  feet 
long  (previously  prepared  by  means  of  a  cir- 
cular saw)  one  man,  besides  two  labourers 
to  turn  the  w-heel,  will  turn  out  600  perfectly 
cylindrical  poles,  in  the  space  of  12  hours. 
AA,  fig.  6.,  (Plate  Smart's  lathe)  represents 
the  standards  for  supporting  the  great  wheel, 
that  gives  motion  to  the  latlie;  these  are  sup- 
ported by  pieces  of  board  BB  spiked  to  the 
ceiling  or  joists  above,    and   by  others  CC 
allixed  to  the  floor  of  the  workshop.     The 
great  w-lieel  DD  is  grooved  round  the  edge 
for  receiving  the  endless  screw  B  and  E,  E,  and 
is  put  in  motion   by   the  winch-handle  F  F. 
G  and  H  are  the  standards  of  the  lathe,  firmly 
fixed  to  the  floor,  and  carrying  the  side-pieces 
or  bed  II ;  the  standard  G  is  tall  enough  to 
act  as  a  fixed   puppet,  and  has   a  screw  o 
working  through  it,   for  supporting  the  end 
of  the  mandrel  or  spindle  of  this  lathe,  as  in 
the  common  lathe.  K,  L,  and  M,  are  three 
other  puppets  that  can  be  fixed  in  any  place 
desired,  bv  wedges  beneath  the  bed  as  usual. 
To  the  pujjpet  K.  is  screwed  a  thick  iron  plate 
h,  w  hich  has  a  conical  socket,  nicely  turned 
and  polished,  for  receiving  the  mandnl:  this 
puppet    is    furlher    steadied  by   a  brace  N, 
screwed  to  it,  and  to  the  Hour  of  the  shop.  To 
the  puppet  K  and  L  two  bars  oo  are  fixed 
by  screws,  and  the  same  are  further  supi>ort- 
edand  steadied  by  three  short  puppets  P  PP. 
'I'he  mandrel,  and  its  pulley  Q,  are  nearly  of 
the  common  construction,  except  that   the 
end  c  has  a  steel  point  in  its  centre,  and  two 
shorter  points  lor  preventing  the  octagonal 
piece  of  wood  intended  to  be  turned  l^roni 
slipping  or  turning  without  the  mandrel.  The 
])uppet  L  has  a  si|uarepoiiiled  bar  d   fitted 
to  It  ;and  the  imppet  M  has  a  screw,  worked 
by  its  handle  c,  which  by  means  of  a  collar 
advances  or  draws  back  the  bar  </.     R  is  a 
piece  of  wood,  lixed  to  the  bed  and  to  the 
lloor,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  a  pulley ./j 
whose  use  is  to  prevent  the  wheel-band  EE 
from  wearing  by  friction  at  the  place  when- 
it  crosses.  Figs.  7.  and  S.  represent  the  gouge 
and  plane,  successively   used  instead  ot  the 
common  turner's  chisel.  Sec. :  the  pieces  of 


I,  A  T 

hoard  ati  are  screwed  lo  the  block  h,  just  at 
tlie  proper  distance  of  the   outsides  ol  the 
bars  »o,  (ig.  1 .,  so  that  when  the  tools,  figs. 
7.  and  ii.  are  placed  on  Iheni,  they  can  be  slid 
along  steatlily,  between  the  piippt-ls  K and  L ; 
the  holes  cc  being  so  adapted  as  to  suit  the, 
mandrel  and  bar  c  and  d  as  centres,  and  their 
diameters  are  sufficient  to  let  the  octagonal 
bar  intended  to  be  turned  pass  through  llu-m, 
without   touching;   d,   fig.  7.,   is  a  piece  of 
tempered    steel,    iornied   as   a  gouge,    and 
screwed  fast  to   the  side   of  the  block,    in 
the  projier  position  for  'roughing    oti'   the 
angles  of  the  octagonal  bar,  as  ft  advances, 
and  turns  through  the  hole  c.    c  tig.  7.,  is  a 
flat  piece  of  steel,  like  a  plane-iron  (shewn 
separately  aif),  v.  hich  is  so  fixed  by  a  screw , 
that  it  may  smooth  or  complete  the  c\hn- 
drical  surface  of  a  pole,  already  gougetl  as 
above,  which  is  advanced,  and  turned  through 
it.      The  operation   is  thus  performed  :  The 
two  tools  figs.  7  and  8,  are  placed  on  the  bar 
on,  fig.  6,  and  shoved  close  up  lo  the  puppet 
1 ;  the  square  bar  being  long  enough  tor  its 
point  d,  then  lo  project  through  the  centres 
of  the  holes  cc,  figs.  7  and  8.   'Tlie  workman 
then    takes    an    octagonal   pole,    enters  the 
centre  pin  of  the  mandrel  c  into  the  centre  of 
its  end,  and  the  point  d  into  the  centre  of  the 
other  end,  turning  the  handle  e  sulliciently 
to  allow  the  pole  to  be  steadily  turned:  the 
w  heel  D  is  then  set  in  motion  ;  the  workman 
pushes  the  gouge-tool,  fig.  8.,  forwards,  to- 
w-ards  the  puppet   K,  which,  as  it  advances 
(piickly,  strikes  olf  the  angles  of  the  pole  in  lu 
rough  or  screw-like  tbrm.     \V  hen  the  gouge- 
tool,  fig.  8.,  has  advanced  to  the  end  of  the 
pole,  Uie  finishing-tool,  fig.  7.,  is  in  like  man- 
ner shoved  forwards  by  the  workman  ;  and  a& 
it  advances,  the  pole  is  turned  into  a  com- 
plete and  smooth  cylinder.     The  piojectiori 
of  the  mandrel  lie,  fig.  6,  is  sufficient  to  admit 
the  gouge  and  plane  tools,  to  advance  so  as 
lo  clear  the  end  of  the  pole;  and  by  turning 
back  the  handle  c,  the  same  can  be  taken  out 
of  the  lathe  as  soon  as  it  is  stopped.     The 
velocity  of  the  mandrel  Q  is  such,  as  to  make 
upwards  of  1200  turns  per  minute. 

LATHK/EA,  a  genus  of  tlie  angiospermia 
order,  in  the  didyuamia  class  of  plants,  anci- 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  40tb 
order,  personatLV.  '1  he  calyx  is  tpiadrifid  ; 
tliere  is  a  depressed  glanduh-  at  the  base  of 
the  suture  of  the  germeii.  The  capsule  is 
unilocular.     There  are  tour  species. 

J^.-\THS,  clearing  of.  The  lath-cleavers 
having  cut  their  tiniiieis  into  lengths,  cleave 
each  piece  with  wedges  into  8,  12,  or  16,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  their  limber;  these 
pieces  are  called  bolls:  this  is  done  by  the 
fell-grain,  whiili  is  llial  grain  which  is  seen  to 
run  round  in  rings  at  the  end  of  a  piece  of  a 
tree.  Thus  they  are  cut  out  for  the  breadth 
of  the  laths,  and  this  work  is  called  felting. 
Afterwards  they  cleave  the  laths  into  their 
proper  thicknesses  with  their  chit,  by  the 
(luarler-nrain,  which  is  that  which  runs  in 
straight  lines  towards  the  pith. 

l..\TTTYRl'S,  c/iiclcliuir  velcpo,  a  genus 
of  the  decandria  order,  in  the  di.idelphia 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  32d  order,  papilionaceu'. 
The  si_\his  is  plain,  villous  above,  towards 
the  ind  broader  ;  the  upper  tsvo  segments  of 
the  cal)  X  are  shorter  than  the  rest. 

Tlur   species  are  23,   among  which  are: 
1.  The  latifoUus,  or  everlasting  pea.    2.  Th« 
U 


\l 


•4raMid  ui/rnA  . 


^^^itju  fvr^Mmnof    iMumjuuad   fiM&). 


f# 


aiipRiniiiiiiMiiMiiiimiii|iiiiiflii)iia!iDiiii(iiiiiiiWiiipiiir  iiiinniitiimi  -i-ij!jL("j|jL*j,  Uiiiiiitilliti 


'  farejrJ'jJX  dd. 


Trvtted  Jep.  2-1^06.  ferr  'Rihara  EBBip  i,  JTtytf  Bn'd^e.  Jt-iloAfriars . 


J  Fffrt^Jt 


L  A  V 

oiloiats,  or  swoet-sccnled  pi.a.  3.  The  (:m- 
pii;iiiiis,  or  I'aiigK.r  prai  also  an  annual,  and 
well  known. 

LATITAT,  a  writ  wlicrcby  all  men  in  per- 
sonal actions  are  caUfd  originally  to  llie  kind's 
IhmkIi.     I',  N.  15.  78. 

A  latitat  may  be  considered  eiliier  as  the 
coiiimcncemiMit  of  tlie  aclion,  or  only  as  a 
process  to  brini;  llie  defenflant  into  conrt,  at 
tlie  election  of  tlie  plaintilK    Rul,  N.  P.  l.")l. 

ff  it  is  slated  as  tlie  conimt-ncement  of  llie 
action  to  avoid  a  lender,  tlie  defendant  may 
deny  tlinl  the  plaintiff  had  anv  i-ansc  of  action 
at  the  lime  of  snina;  itont.   1  Wils.  l4l. 

Or  if  it  is  replied  to  a  plea  of  the  statnte  of 
limitations,  the  defendanl,  in  order  to  main- 
tain lii~  plea,  may  aver  the  real  time  of  suinr; 
ii  out,  in  oppo-iilion  to  tin;  test.  2  I'lurr.  930. 
See  lni|)ey's  15.  U.  and  C.  15.  Practice. 

LATH'UDE.  See  Geography. 

Latitude.     See  Astronomy. 

L.Vl  TICN  denotes  iron  plates  tinned  over, 
of  which  tea-canisters  are  made. 

Latten-brass,  plates  of  milled  brass,  re- 
ducL'<l  to  different  thickness,  according  to 
the  uses  it  is  inteniled  for. 

LATUS  REC  TUM,  in  conic  sections,  tlie 
same  with  parameter.  See  Conic  Sec- 
tions. 

Latus  transversom,  in  the  hyperhnla, 
that  part  of  the  transverse  diameter,  inter- 
cepted between  the  vertices  of  the  two  oppo- 
site sections. 

LAVANDULA,  hivcnder  :  a  genns  of  the 
anui..ispermia  order,  in  the  didvnamia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  rankinp; 
under  the  42d  order,  verticiliatx*.  The  calyx 
is  ovate,  and  a  little  dentated,  supported  by 
a  bractea  or  tioral  leaf;  the  corolla  is  resupi- 
nated  ;  the  stamina  within  the  tube. 

The  species  are  seven  in  number,  among 
which  are:  1.  The  spiea,  or  spike  lavender, 
has  a  short  shrubby  stalk.  'I'he  varieties  of 
this  are  :  common  narrow-leaved  lavender, 
with  blue  flowers,  and  with  white  ilowers ; 
broad-leaved  lavender  ;  dwarf  lavender  :  all 
of  them  Iki-.veving  in  July.  This  species  is 
the  common  lavender;  but  the  narrow-leaved 
variety,  with  blue  ilowers,  is  the  sort  com- 
monly cultivated  for  its  tl;)\V!-rs  for  medicine. 
■!.  l"he  stoci-has,  or  French  lavender,  has  a 
>hrubby  very  branchy  stalk,  rising  two  or 
three  teet  hii;!i ;  very  narrow,  spear-shaped, 
pointed,  hoary  leaves,  opposite;  and  all  (he 
branches  termi:iated  by  short  bushy  spikes 
ol  purple  flowers  in  June  and  .luly,  succeed- 
ed by  seeds  in  August.  There  is  a  variety 
with  white  flowers.  3.  The  dentata,  or  den- 
tate-leaved sto'chas,  has  a  woody  stalk, 
branching  on  every  side  three  or  four  feet 
high ;  leaves  deeply  indented  in  a  pinnated 
manner;  and  the  branches  terminated  by 
scaly  four-cornered  spikes  of  flowers,  appear- 
ing most  part  of  summer. 

The  first  two  species  are  proper  for  the 
kitchen-garden,  and  for  medicinal  and  other 
family  uses,  and  to  plant  in  the  pleasure- 
ground  to  adorn  the  front  of  small  shrubbery 
compartments,  where  they  will  increase  the 
variety  very  agreeably  ;  and  arc  finely  scent- 
esi  aromaties,  both  when  growing,  and  their 
flowers  when  gathered;  especially  those  of 
the  first  species,  which  are  in  great  esteem 
for  putting  among  clothes,  and  for  distilling, 
and  other  economical  ii^es.  The  Ilowers  of 
the  first  sort  are  gathered  (or  use  in  July. 


L  A  U 

7.AVATEKA,  a  genns  of  the  poly.nndria 
oriler,  in  the  jKilydelphia  c.iss  of  plants,  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  37th 
order,  coluninifer.T.  'I  hi-  exterior  caly-V  is 
double  and  trilid  ;  the  ariUi  or  seed-coats  are 
vcrv  many  and  monospermous.     There  are 

9  species,"  most  of  them  herbaceous  llowery 
animals,  or  shrubby  perennial,  growing  erect 
from  two  or  three  to  eight  or  ten  feel  high. 
They  are  easily  propagated  by  seed  in  tiie 
open  ground  in  the  spring,  and  thrive  best 
wlien' sown  where  they  are  designed  to  re- 
main. 

LAUD.VNUM.  See  Pharmacy. 

L.-\UGE1UA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  pcntandria  class  of  plants,  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  among  those 
of  which  the  order  is  doubtiul.  The  corolla 
is  (luinquelid  ;  the  fruit  is  a  plum  with  a  quin- 
(pielocular  kernel.  There  are  two  species, 
snrubs  of  the  West  Indies. 

L.VrXCIl,  in  llie  sea-language,  signifies 

10  put  out:  as,  launch  the  ship,  that  is,  put 
her  out  of  the  dock;  launch  aft,  or  forv.ard, 
speaking  of  thingsthat  are  slowed  in  the  hold, 
is,  put  th.-m  more  forward;  launch,  ho!  is  a 
term  used  when  a  yard  is  lioisted  high  enough, 
and  sigiiiiies  hoist  no  more. 

LAUN  D  EK,  among  miners,  a  place  where 
they  wash  the  powdei  ed  ore. 

LAUREATION,  in  the  universities  of 
Scotland,  signifies  the  act  of  taking  the  degree 
of  master  of  arts,  which  the  students  are  per- 
mitted to  do  after  four  years  study. 

L.VrUUS,  the  haii-tree,  a  genus  of  the 
monogvnia  order,  in  the  enneandria  class  of 
plants, 'and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  12th  order,  holoracea;.  There  is  no 
calyx;  the  corolla  is  calycine,  or  serving  in 
place  of  the  ca!yx,  and  sexpartite:  the  nec- 
'tarium  with  three  glandules,  each  terminated 
bv  two  bristles  surroundine;  the  germen.  The 
interior  filaments  furnished  with  glandules  at 
the  base;  the  fruit  a  monospermous  plum. 
There  are  3'2  species,  of  which  the  most 
noted  are:  1 .  The  nobilis,  or  evergreen  bay- 
tree,  a  native  of  Italy,  and  has  an  nprigiit 
trunk  branching  on  every  side  from  the  bot- 
tom upward,  with  spear-shaped,  nervous, 
stiff,  evergreen  leaves,  three  inchss  long,  and 
two  broad;  and  small,  yellowish,  tpiailrifid, 
dioecious  ilowers,  succeeded  by  red  berries  in 
autumn  and  winter.  Of  this  species  there 
are  varieties,  with  broad,  narrow,  striped,  or 
waved  leaves.  2.  The  sstivalis,  or  deci- 
duous bay,  grows  naturally  in  North  Ame- 
rica. It  rises  with  an  upright  stem,  covered 
with  a  purplish  bark,  having  oblong,  oval, 
acuminated,  veined,  deciduous  leaves,  two  or 
three  inches  long,  and  half  as  broad,  growing 
opposite,  with  small  white  flowers  succeeded 
bv  red  berries.  3.  The  benzoin,  or  benjaiuin 
tree,  is  also  a  native  of  North  America ; 
grows  15  or  20  feet  high,  divided  into  a  very 
branchy  head,  with  oval,  acute,  deciduous 
leaves,  three  or  foiu' inches  long,  and  half  as 
broad ;  and  small  yellowish  flowers,  not  suc- 
ceeded by  berries  in  this  country.  This,  it  is 
to  be  remarked,  is  not  the  tree  which  bears 
the  gum  benzoin,  that  being  a  species  of  h\- 
rax.  4.  The  sassafras  is  a  native  of  the  san-ie 
countrv.  it  has  a  shrub-like  straight  stem, 
with  both  oval  and  three-lobed,  shining,  deci- 
duous leaves,  of  dilTerent  sizes,  from  three  to 
6  inches  long,  and  nearly  as  broad,  with  small 
yellowish  flowers  succeeded  by  blackish  ber- 


L  A  U 


5S 


ries,  but  not  in  this  country.  "S.  The  indica, 
or  Indian  bay-tree,  rises  with  an  upright 
slraight  trunk,"  branching  regularly  20  or  30 
feelliigh,  adorned  with  very  large,  spear- 
sliaped,  plane,  nervous,  evergreen  leaves  on 
reddish  footstalks;  and  bur.ches  of  small 
whitish-green  Ilowers,  succeeded  by  large  oval 
black  berries,  which  do  not  ripen  in  this 
country,  (i.  The  barbonia,  or  Carolina  red 
bay-tiee,  rises  with  an  upright  straight  stem, 
branching  13  or  20  feel  high;  with  large, 
spear-shaped,  evergreen  leaves,  transversidy 
veined  ;  and  long  bunches  of  Ilowers  on  red 
footstalks,  succeeded  by  large  blue  berries 
sitting  in  red  cups.  7."  '1  he  caniphora,  or 
camphor-tree,  grows  naturally  in  the  woods 
of  the  western  parts  of  Japan,  and  in  the  ad- 
jacent islands.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  244. 
The  root  smells  stronger  of  camphor  than 
any  of  the  other  parts,  and  yields  it  in  greater 
plenty.  The  bark  oi  the  s'talk  is  outwardly 
somewhat  rough;  but  in  the  inner  surface 
smooth  ami  mucous,  and  therefore  easily  se- 
parated from  the  wood,  which  is  dry,  and  of 
a  white  colour.  The  flowers  are  produced' 
on  the  tops  of  footstalks,  which  proceed  from 
the  armpits  of  the  leaves;  but  not  till  the 
tree  has  attained  considerable  age  and  size. 
The  ilower-slalks  are  slender,  branched  at 
the  top,  and  divided  into  very  short  pedicles, 
each  sujjporting  a  single  flower.  These 
Ilowers  arc.-  white,  and  consist  of  six  petals, 
w  Inch  are  succeeded  by  a  purple  and  shining 
berry  of  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  in  figure 
somewhat  top-shaped.  It  is  composed  of  a 
soft  pulpy  substance,  that  is  purple,  and  has 
the  taste  of  cloves  and  camphor;  and  of  a 
nucleus  or  kernel  of  the  size  of  a  pepper, 
which  is  covered  with  a  black,  shining,  ofly 
corticle,  of  an  insipid  taste.  S.  The  ciii- 
namomum,  or  cinnamon-tree,  is  a  native  of 
Cevlou.  It  has  a  large  root,  and  divides  into 
several  branches,  covered  with  a  bark,  which 
on  the  outer  side  is  of  a  greyish  brown,  and 
on  the  inside  has  a  reddish  cast.  The  wood 
of  the  root  is  hard,  while,  and  has  no  smell. 
The  body  of  the  tree,  which  grows  to  the 
height  of  20  or  30  feet,  is  covered,  as  well  as 
its  numerous  branches,  with  a  bark  which  at 
first  is  green  and  afterwards  red. .  The  leaf  is 
longer,  and  narrower  than  the  common  bay' 
tree :  and  it  is  three-nerved,  the  nerves  va- 
nishing towards  the  top.  \\'hea  first  un- 
folded, it  is  of  a  flame-colour ;  but  after  it  has 
been  for  some  time  exposed  to  the  air,  and 
grows  .dry,  it  changes  to  a  deep  green  on . 
the  upper  surface,  and  to  a  lighter  on  the 
lower.  The  flowers  are  small  and  white, 
and  grow  in  large  bunches  at  the  extremity 
of  the  branches:  they  have  an  agreeable 
snudl,  something  like  that  of  tlie  lily  of  the 
valfey.  The  fruit  is  shaped  like  an"  acorn, 
but  is  not  so  large.  9-  'I'he  cassia,  or  base 
cinnamon,  has  lanceolated  leaves,  triple- 
nerved.  10.  The  persea,  avocado-pear  tree, . 
or  alligator  pear,  rises  to  a  considerable 
height,  with  a  straight  trunk,  of  which  the 
bark  and  wood  are  of  a  gre\ ish  colour.  The 
leaves  are  long,  ov.al,  pointed,  of  a  substance 
like  leather,  and  of  a  beautiful  green  colour. 
The  flowei-s  are  produced  in  large  knots  or 
clusters  at  the  extremities  of  the  branches, . 
and  consist  each  of  six  petals  disposed  in  the 
form  of  a  star,  and  of  a  dirty-white  or  yellovtr. 
colour,  with  an  agreeable  od.our.  which  dif~- 
luses  itself  to  a  considerable  distance.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  We;,t  Indies.    The  persea  ber 


Si 


L  A  W 


giii-i  to  bear  two  years  ;;ud  a  l.alt',  or  al  most 
tlir?e  Years,  aiter  b^iiig  planted ;  and  like 
most  of  the  trees  in  warm  cliinatoi,  bears 
twice  a  year. 

LAW.  Laws  of  England  are  divided  into 
lex  noii  scripla,  or  tlie  conimbii  law;  and  lex 
scripta,  or  statute  law. 

'i  he  lex  lion  scripta  is  not  so  called  from 
its  being  co..\'eyed  down  froin,  lornier  ages. 
bv  word  oi  niouth,  but  because  the  original 
authority  of  laese  laws  is  not  set  down  in  writ- 
ing, and  they  receive  their  force  by  long 
usage,  and  by  their  universal  reception 
throughout  the  kingdom;  and  it  is  curious  to 
observe,  that  these  rude  maxims  of  our  an- 
cestors, of  wliich  no  person  knows  clearly  the 
origin,  exceed  in  clearness,  brevity,  and  au- 
thority, all  that  the  united  wisdom  of  the 
most  enlightened  men  have  produced  in  later 
ages. 

Ihe  common  law  is  divided  into: 

1st.  General  custom,  which  is  the  universal 
rule  of  the  whole  kingdom,  and  is  the  law  by 
which  proceedings  and  determinations  in  tiie 
courts  of  i'.islice  are  ordinarily  d  rected. 
This  for  the  most  pajt  settles  the  course  of  in- 
heritance, tlie  manner  and  form  of  acquiring 
and  transferring  property,  the  solemnities  and 
obligations  of  contracts,  the  rules  of  expoimd- 
ing  wills,  deeds,  and  acts  of  parliament ;  the 
remedies  of  civil  injurie.-,  the  difterent  kinds 
of  eriences  with  the  puni^hmenls  allotted  to 
each  ;  the  institution  of  four  superior  courts 
of  reconi ;  and  many  other  particulars  wiiicli 
<liffuse  themselves  as  extensively  as  the  dis- 
tribution of  common  justice  reijuires,  all  of 
which  are  not  enacted  by  any  particular  sta- 
tutes (tiiough  they  are  acknowledged  by  all) 
but  depend  entirely  upon  the  common  law. 

2J!y.  Paiticular  customs  which  concern 
the   nihabitants   of  .some  particular  district. 

3dly.  The  third  branch  are  those  laws 
which  are  adopted  by  certain  courts  and  ju- 
risdictions, as  the  civil  and  canon  laws. 

The  civil  law  is  understood  to  signify  the 
civil  law  of  the  Roman  empire.  '1  lie  canon 
law  is  a  body  of  Roman  ecclesiastical  law  re- 
lating to  matters  over  wliieh  the  church  ex- 
ercises a  jurisdiction.  I'he  civil  law  is  used 
in  four  courts  under  certain  restrictions,  viz. 
the  archbishops'  and  bisliops'  courts,  usually 
styled  curia;  christianitatis  ;  the  courts  mar- 
tial, the  courts  of  admiralty,  and  the  courts 
of  the  two  universities. 

The  second  division  of  the  laws  of  England 
are  the  statutes  made  by  the  king,  lords,  and 
commons,  assembled  in  parliament.  The 
oldest  statnle  extant  is  the  celebrated  Magn.i 
Cliarta,  9  Hen.  3  ;  though,  doubtless,  tlie  re- 
cords of  many  antecedent  to  that  have  been 
lost,  and  the  maxims  received  as  common 
law.  ' 

Statutes  are  general  or  special,  public  or 
private:  general  or  public  acts  are  those 
which  concern  the  wholcnation  ;  of  tliese  the 
judges  are  obliged  to  take  notice,  though 
they  should  not  be  form  dly  pleaded  by  tlie 
party  who  claims  an  advantage  under  them. 
Special  or  private  acts  are  such  as  operate  on 
private  persons  and  concerns,  which  must  be 
formally  set  forth  by  the  party,  or  the  judges 
are  not  obliged  to  notice  them. 

Statut(;s  are  either  declaratory  of  the  com- 
mon law,  wliere  it  is  become  disreputable,  or 
fallen  into  disuse ;  or  remedial,  when  made  to 
uijjjAy  the  defects,  or  abridge  the  suiierlhii- 


L  A  T 

ties  of  the  common  lav.-.  These  latter  are 
subdivided  into  en'arging  and  ii^ilraiuing  sta- 
tutes, by  enlarging  the  common  law  where  it 
was  too  circumscribed,  and  restraniing  it 
where  it  was  too  luxuriant. 

There  is  besides  those  grounds  of  the  laws 
of  England,  a  court  of  equity  to  nioderateand 
explain  them.  (See  Equity.)  The  courts  of 
equity  are,  however,  only  had  recourse  to  in 
matters  of  property;  for  our 'constiUition 
will  not  permit,  that  in  criminal  ca~es  any 
judi.>e  should  have  the  power  of  construing 
the  law  otherwise  than  according  to  the  let- 
ter. This  caul  ion,  while  it  protects  tiie  public 
liberty,  can  never  oppress  the  individual. 
A  man  cannot  suiter  more  punishment  than 
the  law  directs,  but  lie  may  suffer  less.  The 
laws  cannot  be  strained  to  inflict  a  pen.ilty 
beyond  what  the  letter  warrants,  but  in  cases 
where  tlie  letter  induces  any  apparent  hard- 
ship, the  crown  has  power  to  pardon. 

In  treating  of  the  laws,  the  best  mode,  and 
which  has  been  adopted  by  sirWilliain  Black- 
stone  in  his  excellent  Commentaries,  after 
the  example  of  \food  in  his  Institutes,  is-  to 
divide  them,  1st,  into  the  rights  of  persons, 
or  the  rights  as  to  personal  security,  personal 
liberty,  and  private  property.  2nd,  The 
rights  of  things,  or  the  rights  which  a  man 
may  acquire  in  and  to  such  external  things 
as  are  unconnected  with  his  person.  3rd. 
Private  wrongs,  or  such  as  are  the  infringe- 
ment of  the  private  rights  of  individuals:  and 
4th.  public  wrongs,  or  such  as  are  a  violation 
the  public  rights,  and  aii'ect  the  whole  com- 
munity. 

It  is  of  course  unnecessary,  and  perhaps  in 
a  work  of  this  nature  irrelevant,  to  recommend 
the  study  of  the  law;  it  is  sufticient  to  add 
tlie  words  of  the  great  judge  Blackstone  on 
this  subject.  "  It  is  incumbent  (says  ht) 
upon  every  man  to  be  acquainted  with  thi- 
I4WS,  lest  he  incur  the  censure  as  well  as  the 
inconvenience  of  living  in  society  without 
knowing  the  obligations  it  lays  him  under. ' 

LAVENIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
syngenesia  polygamia  aqualis.  The  calyx  is 
nearly  regular;  style  bifid;  down  three-awn- 
ed  ;  r-'cept.  naked.  There  are  two  species, 
herbs  of  tlie  East  and  West  Indies. 

LAWSONIA,  Ei^'iptitm  privet,  a  genus  of 
the  iiionogynia  order,  in  the  octandria  class 
of  plants,  and  in  th^  natural  method  ranking 
with  those  of  which  the  order  is  doublful. 
The  calyx  is  quadrifid  ;  the  petals  four;  the 
stamina  four,  in  pairs  ;  the  caiisule  isquadnlo- 
cular  and  [lolyspermous.  There  are  four 
species,  all  natives  of  Jndia.  Some  authors 
take  the  inermis  to  be  the  plant  termed  by 
the  Arabians  henna  or  alhenna,  the  pulveris- 
ed leaves  of  which  are  inuch  used  by  the 
Eastern  nations  for  dyeing  their.nails  yellow  ; 
but  others.  Dr.  i  assekiuist  in  particular,  at- 
tribute that  effect  to  the  leaves  of  the  other 
species  of  Egyptian  privet  which  bears  prickly 
branches.  It  is  probable  that  neither  set  of 
writers  are  mistaken,  and  that  the  shrub  in 
question  is  a  variety  only  of  the  thorny  law- 
sonia,  rendered  mild  by  culture. 

LAY-RRO  TMERS,"  among  the  Roman- 
ists, those  pious,  but  illiterate  persons,  who 
devote  themselves,  in  sonic  convent,  to  the 
service  of  the.  religious.  They  wear  a  dif- 
ferent habit  from  that  of  the  religious,  but 
never  enter  into  the  choir,  nor  are  present  at 
the  chapters;  nor  do  they  make  any  otlier 


L  A  Z 

vow,  except  of  constancy  and  obedience.    In 
nunn-.'ries  there  are  also  iay.sisters. 

Lay-man,  anions;  painters,  a  small  statue 
eitlier  of  wax  or  wood,  whose  joints  are  so 
formed,  that  it  may  be  put  into  any  attitude 
or  posture.  Its  p.incipal  use  is  lor  adjusting 
the  drapery  in  cioliiing  of  ligures. 

LAYERS,  in  gardening,  are  tender  shoots 
or  twigs  of  trees,  laid  or  buried  in  the  ground, 
till,  having  struck  root,  they  are  separated 
from  tiie  parent  tree,  and  become  distinct 
plants.  T  he  jiropagating  trees  by  layers  is 
done  in  the  following  niaiiner:  the  branches 
of  the  trees  are  to  be  slit  a  little  way,  and  laid 
under  tlie  mould  for  about  half  a  foot:  the 
ground  should  be  tirst  made  very  light,  and 
aiter  they  are  laid  they  should  be  gently  wa- 
tered. If  they  will  not  remain  easily  in  the 
position  they  are  put  in,  they  must  be  pegged 
down  with  wooden  hooks:  the  best  season  for 
doing  this  is,  for  evergreens,  toward  the  end 
of  August,  and  for  other  trees  in  the  begin- 
ning 01  Feb.  If  they  are  found  to  have  taken 
root,  Ihev  are  to  be  cut  oft  from  the  maia 
(blant  the  succeeding  winter,  and  planted  out. 
if  the  branch  is  too  high  from  the  ground,  a 
tub  of  earth  is  to  be  raised  to  a  proper  height 
for  it.  Some  pare  off  the  rind,  and  others 
twist  the  branch  b'efore  they  lay  it:  but  this  is 
not  necessary.  Tlie  end  of  the  layer  should 
be  about  a  toot  out  of  the  ground;  and  the 
branch  may  be  either  ti  d  tight  round  with  a 
wire,  or  cut  upwards  from  a  joint,  or  cut 
round  for  an  inch  or  two  at  the  place,  and  it 
is  a  good  method  to  pierce  several  holes 
through  it  with  an  awl  above  the  part  tied 
with  the  wire. 

LAZAR-IIOUSE,  or  Lazaretto,  a 
public  building,  in  the  nature  of  an  hospital, 
to  receive  the  poor  and  those  alllicted  with 
contagious  distempers:  in  some  places  laza- 
rettos are  appointed  for  the  performance  of 
quarantine  ;  in  which  case,  those  are  obliged 
to  be  conhned  in  them  who  are  suspected  to 
have  come  from  places  infected  with  the 
plague.  This  is  usually  a  large  building,  at 
some  distance  from  a  city,  whose  apartments 
stand  detached  from  each  other,  where  ves- 
sels are  unladen,  and  the  crew  shut  u|)  for 
about  4()  days,  more  or  less,  according  to  the 
time  and  place  of  their  departure.  Tiie  laza- 
retto of  Milan  is  esteemed  one  of  the  finest 
hospitals  in  Italy. 

LAZULITE.  This  stone,  which  is  found 
chielly  in  theiiortliern  parts  of  Asia,  was  long 
known  to  mineralogists  by  the  name  of  lapis 
lazitli. 

Lazulite  is  always  amorphous.  Its  texture 
is  earthy.  Its  fracture  uneven.  Lustre  0. 
Opaque,  or  nearly  so.  Hardness  8  to  t).  Spe- 
cilic  gravity  2.76  to  2. 945.  Colour  blue  ;  of- 
ten spotted  white  from  specks  of  quartz,  and 
y  cllow  from  particles  of  pyrites. 

It  retains  its  colour  at  1  oo"  Wedgewood ; 
in  a  higher  heat  it  intumesces,  and  melts  into 
a  yellowish-bl.'.ck  mass.  Witli  acids  it  ellcr- 
vesces  a  little,  and  if  previously  calcined, 
forms  with  tliem  a  jelly.     , 

Margrair  published  an  analysis  of  lazulite 
in  the  Berlin   Memoirs  for    1758.     His  ana- 
lysis has  since  been  conlirined  by  Klaproth, 
who  found  a  si)ecimen  of  it  to  contain 
4fi.O  silica 
]4.5  alumina 
28.0  carbonal  of  lime 
t).5  sulphat  of  lime 


LEAD, 


55 


30  o\i<le  of  !roB 
2.0  water 


100.0 


From  the  experiments  of  Morveau,  it  ap- 
pears that  llie  colouring  matter  ot  lazulite  is 
siilplmret  ot  iroii. 

1J'',AI),  one  of  tlio  perfect  metals,  appears 
to  have  been  very  early  known.  It  i»  men- 
tioned several  times  by  Moses.  Tlie  antieiits 
seem  to  have  considered  it  as  nearly  related 
to  tin.  It  is  of  a  bUieish-white  colour;  and 
when  newly  melted  is  very  bright,  but  it 
soon  becomes  tarnished  by  exposure  to  the 
aif.  it  has  scarcely  any  taste,  but  emit^  on 
friction  a  peculiar  smell.  It  stains  paper  or 
the  hngers  of  a  bhief^h  colour.  When  taken 
internally,  it  acts  as  a  poison.  Its  hardue^s 
is  3-J;  its  specilic  gravity  is  11. 33'23.  Its 
specilic  gravity  is  not  increased  by  hammer- 
ing, neiilier  does  it  become  harder,  as  is  the 
case  with  other  metals  ;  a  proot  that  the  hard- 
ness which  metals  assume  under  the  hammer 
is  in  consequence  of  an  increase  of  density. 
It  is  very  malleable,  and  may  be  reduced  lo 
very  thin  plates  by  the  ha-.nmer ;  it  may  be 
also  drawn  out  into  wire,  but  its  ductility  is 
not  fereat.  Its  tenacity  is  such,  that  a  lead 
wire"  only  —J—  inch  diameter  is  capable  of 
siipp.)rUng  IS  pounds  without  breaking.  It 
inelti,  according  to  sir  Isaac  Newton,  when 
heated  to  tiie  temperature  of  540°  Fahren- 
heit:  but  Morveau  makes  its  fusing  point  as 
high  as  594°.  When  a  very  strong  heat  is  ap- 
plied, the  metal  boils  and  evaporates.  If  it  is 
c.ioled  slowlv,  it  crystallizes.  The  abbe 
Mon^ez  obtained  it  in  quadrangular  pyra- 
mids, King  on  one  of  their  sides.  Each  py- 
ramid was  composed  apparently  of  three 
lavers.  I'ajot  obtained  it  in  the  form  of  a 
piilyhedron  with  32  t,idv.'s,  formed  by  the  con- 
course of  six  quadrangular  pyramids. 

When  exposed  to  the  air,  it  soon  loses  its 
lustre,  and  acquires  first  a  dirty-grey  colour, 
and  at  last  its  surface  becomes  almost  white. 
This  is  owing  to  its  gratlual  combination  with 
oxygen,  and  conversion  hito  an  oxide;  but 
(his  conversion  is  exceedingly  slow  ;  the  ex- 
ternal I  rust  of  oxide,  wtich  forms  first,  pre- 
serving the  rest  of  the  metal  for  a  long  time 
from  the  action  of  the  air. 

Water  has  no  direct  action  upon  lead  ;  but 
it  facilitates  the  action  of  the  external  air. 
For  when  lead  is  exposed  to  the  air,  and  kept 
constantly  wet,  it  is  oxidated  much  more  ra- 
pidly than  it  otherwise  would  be.  Hence  the 
reason  of  the  white  crust  which  ap;>ears  upon 
the  sides  of  leaden  vessels  containing  water, 
just  at  the  place  where  the  upper  surface  o! 
the  water  usually  terminates. 

No  less  than  four  ditferent  combinations 
of  lead  with  oxygen  are  at  present  known, 
though  some  of  them  have  not  been  examin- 
ed with  much  attention. 

1.  ^riie  protoxide,  or  first  oxide  of  lead, 
may  be  obtained  by  dissolving  lead  in  nitric 
acid,  and  boiling  the  crystals  which  that  solu- 
tion yields  by  concentration  along  witli 
pieces  of  metallic  lead.  The  consequence  is 
the  formation  of  scaly  crystals"of  a  yellow  co- 
lour, brilliant,  and  very  soluble  in  water. 
'I'hese  crystals  are  composed  ol  the  protoxide 
of  lead  combined  with  nitric  acid.  The  pro- 
toxide may  be  precipitated  by  means  ot  po- 
tass.  Its  properties  have  not  hitherto  been 
examined.  It  contains  but  a  small  propor- 
tion of  oxygen. 


2.  The  deiitoxide  of  lead  may  l)f'  fonncd 
by  dissolving  llie  metal  m  nitric  acid,  and 
p(.iiring  potass  into  the  solution.  A  yellow- 
i  olrniied  powder  is  obtained,  whch  is  the 
(kuioxideof  lead.  'I  his  oxide  is  composed 
ol  yi  parts  of  lead,  and  9  of  oxygen.  V>  hen 
lead  is  kejjt  melted  in  an  open  vessel,  its  Fur- 
face  is  soon  covered  with  a  grey-coloured 
pellicle.  When  tliis  pellicle  is  removed, 
another  succeeds  it;  and  by  continuing  the 
heat,  the  whole  of  the  lead  may  soon  be  con- 
verted into  this  substance.  If  these  pellicles 
are  heated  and  agitated  for  a  short  time  in  an 
open  vessel,  they  assume  the  form  of  a  green- 
ish-grey powder,  ftfr.  Proust  has  shewn  that 
this  powder  is  a  mixture  of  dculoxide,  and  a 
poition  of  lead  in  the  metallic  state.  It  owes 
Its  green  colour  to  the  blue  and  yellow  pow- 
ders which  are  mixed  in  it.  It  we  coniinue 
to  expose  this  powder  to  licat  /or  some  time 
longer  in  an  open  vessel,  it  absorbs  more 
oxygen,  assumes  a  yellow  colour,  and  is  then 
known  in  commerce  by  the  niune  of  massi- 
cot. The  reason  of  this  change  is  obvious. 
Tiie  metallic  portion  of  the  jwwder  gradually 
absorbs  oxygen,  and  the  whole  of  course  is 
converted  ii.to  deutoxide. 

When  thin  plates  of  lead  are  exposed  to 
the  vapour  of  warm  vinegar,  they  are  gradu- 
ally corroded,  and  converted  into  a  heavy 
white  powder,  used  as  a  paint,  and  called 
white  lead.  1  his  powder  used  formerly  to 
be  consideix'd  as  a  peculiar  oxide  of  lead  ;  i 
kut  it  is  now  known  that  it  is  a  ccmipound  of 
the  deutoxide  and  carbonic  acid. 

3.  If  massicot  ground  to  a  line  powder  is 
put  into  a  furnace,  and  constantly  stirred 
while  the  llame  of  the  burning  coals  plays 
against  its  surface,  it  is  in  about  48  hours 
converted  into  a  beaulihil  red  powder,  known 
by  the  name  of  minium,  or  red  lead.  This 
powder,  which  is  likewise  used  as  a  paint, 
and  for  various  other  puiposes,  is  the  tritoxide 
or  red  oxide  of  lead, 

4.  If  nitric  acid,  of  the  specific  gravity 
1.260,  is  poured  upon  the  red-coloured  oxide 
of  lead,  ISj  parts  of  the  oxide  are  dissolved; 
but  15  parts  remain  in  the  state  of  a  black,  or 
rather  deep-brown,  powder.  This  is  the  per- 
oxide, or  brown  oxide  of  lead,  hrst  discover- 
ed by  Sciieele.  The  best  method  of  prepar- 
ing it  is  the  following,  which  was  pointed  out 
by  Proust,  and  afterwards  still  farther  im- 
proved by  Vau<|uelin.  Put  a  quantity  of  red 
oxide  of  lead  into  a  vessel  partly  hlled  with 
water,  and  make  oxymuriatic  acid  gas  pass 
into  it.  The  oxide  becomes  deeper  and 
deeper  coloured,  and  is  at  last  dissolved. 
Pour  potass  into  the  solution,  and  the  brown 
oxide  of  leatl  precipitates.  By  this  process 
68  parts  of  brown  oxide  may  be  obtained  for 
every  100  of  red  oxide  employed.  This 
oxide  is  comj)o3ed  of  about  79  parts  of  lead 
and  21  of  oxygen.  It  is  of  a  brilliant  flea- 
brown  colour.  When  heated  it  emits  ox\  gen 
gas,  becomes  yellow,  and  melts  into  a  kind 
of  glass.  Wlien  rubbed  along  with  sulphur  in 
a  mortar,  it  sets  tiie  sulphur  on  hre,  and 
causes  it  to  burn  with  a  brilliant  llame.  When 
heated  on  burning  coals  the  lead  is  reduced. 
All  the  oxiiles  of  lead  are  very  easily  con- 
verted into  glass  ;  and  in  that  state  tliey  oxi- 
dize and  combine  with  almost  all  the  other  i 
metals  except  gold,  platinum,  and  silver. 
This  property  renders  lead  exceedingly  use- 
ful in  separating  gold  and  silver  from  the 
baser  metals  witli  wiiich  they  luippen  to  be 


contaminated.  The  gold  or  silver  to  be  pu- 
rified is  melted  along  with  lead,  and  kept  for 
some  time  in  that  slate  in  a  flat  cup,  called  a 
cujiel,  made  of  burnt  bones,  or  th.e  aslus  of 
wood.  'J  lie  lead  is  gradually  vitritied.  and 
sinks  into  the  cnpel,  carryiiig  aloi.g  with  it 
all  the  inetals  which  were  mixed  with  the 
silver  and  gold,  and  leaving  these  metals  on 
the  cupel  in  a  state  of  i)urity.  This  process 
is  called  cupellation.  1  he  lead  employed  is 
afterwards  e\tracte<l  from  the  cupe!?,  and  is 
known  in  commerce  by  the  name  of  litharge. 
It  is  a  half-vilrified  substance,  of  a  high  red 
colour,  and  composed  of  scales.  It  is  merely 
an  oxide  of  lead  more  or  less  contaminated 
with  the  oxidts  of  other  metals.  But  the 
best  litharge  is  made  by  oxidizing  lead  di- 
rectly, and  then  increasing  the  heat  till  the 
oxide  is  fused.  'I'he  more  violent  the  fusing 
heat,  the  whiter  is  the  litharge. 

Lead  has  not  yet  been  combined  with  car- 
bon, Hor  hydrogen;  but  it  combines  readily 
with  sulphur  and  phosphorus. 

1.  Sulphuret  of  lead  may  be  formed  either 
by  stiatitying  its  two  com|)onent  parts,  and 
melting  them  in  a  crucible,  or  by  dropping 
sulphur  at  intervals  on  melted  lead.  Tlie 
siili)huret  of  lead  is  brittle,  brilliant,  of  a  deep 
blue-grev  colour,  and  much  less  fusible  tlian 
lead.  These  two  substances  are  often  found 
naturally  combined;  the  compound  is  then 
called  galena,  and  is  usually  crystallized  in 
cubes.  Sulphuret  of  lead  is  composed,  ac- 
cording to  the  experiment  of  Wenzel,  of 
86.8  parts  of  lead  and  13.2  of  sulphur. 

2.  Phosphuret  of  lead  may  be  formed  by- 
mixing  together  equal  parts  of  filings  of  lead 
and  imosphoric  glass,  and  then  fusing  them 
in  a  crucible.  It  may  be  cut  with  a  knite, 
but  se))arates  into  plates  when  hammered.  It 
is  of  a  sdver-white  colour  with  a  shade  of 
blue,  but  it  soon  tarnishes  when  exposed  to 
the  air.  This  phosphuret  may  aUo  be  form- 
ed by  dropping  phosphorus  into  melt  dlead. 
It  is  composed  of  about  12  parts  of  phospho- 
rus, and  88  of  lead. 

Lead  does  not  combine  with  azotic  gas. 
Muriatic  acid  gradually  corrodes  it,  and  con- 
verts it  into  a  white-coloured  oxide. 

Lead  is  capable  of  combining  with  most  of 
the  metals. 

1 .  Lead  may  be  easily  alloyed  with  gold 
by  fusion.  The  colour  of  the  gold  is  injured, 
and  its  ductility  diminished.  'I'his  alloy  is  of 
no  use;  but  it  is  often  formed  in  order  to  pu- 
rify gold  by  cupellation. 

2.  Platinum  and  lead  unite  in  a  strong 
heat :  the  alloy  is  brittle,  of  a  purplish  colour, 
and  soon  changes  on  exposure  to  the  air. 
Many  experiments  have  been  made  with  this 
alloy,  in  order,  if  possible,  to  purify  platinum 
froin  other  metals  by  cupeHa'ion,  as  is  done 
successfully  with  silver-  and  gold :  but  scarcely 
any  of  tlie  experiments  have  succeeded  ;  be- 
cause platinum  requires  a  much  more  violent 
lieat  to  keep  it  in  fusion  than  can  be  easily 
given. 

3.  Silver  is  often  alloyed  with  lead  in  order 
to  purify  it  bv  cupellation.  This  alloy  is 
very  fusible,  much  softer  than  silver,  and  has 
much  less  tenacity,  elasticity,  and  sonorous- 
ness ;  jts  colour  is  nearly  that  of  lead,  and  its 
specihc  gravity  greater  than  tliij  mean  density 
of  the  metals  alloyed. 

4.  Mercury  amalgamates  readily  with  lead 
in  any  proportion,  either  by  triturating  it  willv 
lead  tilings,  or  by   pouring  it  upon  melted 


50 


LEA 


LEA 


le.\d.  The  amalgam  U  wliite  and  biilWant, 
and  when  Un-  quuiitily  of  lead  is  sullicient, 
assumes  a  solid  form.  It  is  capable  of  ci-}S- 
tallizing.  Tlie  crystals  are  composed  oi  one 
part  of  lead  and  one  and  a  half  oi  mercury. 

5.  Copper  and  lead  may  be  easily  com- 
bined bv  fusion.  When  the  lead  exceeds, 
the  alloy  is  of  a  grev  colour,  and  ductile 
while  cold,  but  brittle  when  hot.  It  is  em- 
ploved  sometimes  for  the  purpose  of  making 
pn.'iter's  types  for  very  large  ciiaracters. 

6.  It  was  formerly  suppo-^cd  that  lead  does 
not  combuie  with  iron;  but  the  experiments 
of  Guylou  Morveau  have  proved,  that  wh'-n 
the  two  metals  are  melleJ  togetlier,  two  dis- 
tinct alloys  are  formed.  At  the  bottom  is 
found  a  button  of  lead  coutainiag  a  little  iron ; 
above  is  the  iron  combined  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  lead. 

7.  Lead  a.id  tin  may  be  combined  m  any 
proportion  by  fusion. "  This  alloy  is  harder, 
and  possesses  much  more  tenacity,  than  tin. 
Muschenbroeck  informs  us  that  these  quali- 
ties are  a  maximum  when  the  alloy  is  com- 
posed of  three  parts  of  tin  and  one  of  lead. 
What  is  called  in  this  country  ley  pewter  is 
often  scarcely  anv  thing  else  than  this  alloy. 
Tin  foil  too  almok  always  is  a  compound  of 
tin  and  lead.  This  alloy,  in  the  proportion 
of  two  parts  of  lead  and  one  of  tin,  is  more 
soluble  thau  either  of  the  metals  separately. 
It  is  accordingly  used  by  plumbers  as  a 
solder. 

'I'he  affinities  of  lead  and  of  its  oxides  are 
as  follow: 

OXJDE  OF  Lf..\d. 


Le.4d. 


Gold,  S\ilpliuric  acid. 

Silver,  Saclactic, 

Copper,         .O.xalic, 
Mercury,        Arsenic, 
Bismuth,        Tartaric, 
1'in,  Muriatic, 

Antimony,  Phosphoric, 
Platinum',  Sulphurous, 
Arsenic,  Suberic, 

Zinc,  Nitric, 

Nickel,  Fluoric, 

Iron,  Citric, 

Sulphur.         Lactic, 
Acetif, 
Roracic, 
Prussic, 
Carbonic. 
Lr,.\D,  orca  of.  Ores  of  lead  occur  in  great 
abundance  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world. 
They  are  generally   in  veins ;  sometimes  in 
siliceous     rocks,    sometimes     in    calcareous 
rocks. 

The  following  table  exhibits  a  view  of  the 
dirt'erent  stales  in  which  this  mineral  has 
hitherto  been  observed. 

1.  SULPHURETS.  Ill 

1.  Galena,  1 

'2.  I51ue  lead  ore, 
3.  Black  ore  of  lead. 


Salts. 
Carbonat, 

2.  Muriocarljonat, 

3.  Sulphat, 

4.  I'liospluit, 

5.  Molybdat, 

6.  Arseniat? 


II.  Oxides. 

1 .  Earthy  ore  of  lead, 

2.  Arseniated  protox- 
ide. 7.  Arseniophospliat? 

3.  Arseniated  perox- 
ide, 8.  Chromat. 

Of  these  the  first  species  is  by  far  the  most 
conunon.  From  it  nideed  almost  the  whole 
of  thfc  lead  of  commerce  is  extracted. 


LEAF.  SeePoTANY. 
Leaf-gold.  Sec  Aurum,  Gold,  Gild- 
ing, &c. 

Leaf.     See  Architecture. 
Leaf,  in  clocks  and  watches,  an  appel- 
lation given  to  the  notches  of  their  pinions. 
See  Clockwork. 

LEAGUE,  a  measure  of  length,  contain- 
ing more  or  less  geometrical  paces,  accord- 
ing to  the  dillereiit  usages  and  customs  oi 
countries.  A  league  at  sea,  where  it  is 
chieiiy  used  by  us,  being  a  land-measure 
mostly  peculiar  to  the  French  and  Germans, 
contains  three  thousand  geometiical  paces, 
or  three  English  miles.  'I'he  French  league 
sometimes  contains  the  same  measure,  and 
in  r,onie  parts  of  France  it  consists  oi  three 
thousand  live  hundred  paces:  the  mean  or 
counnon  league  consists  of  two  thou-and  four 
hundred  paces,  and  the  little  league  of  two 
thousand.  The  Spanish  leagues  are  larger 
thau  the  French,  seventeen  Spanish  leagues 
making  a  degree,  or  twenty  French  leagui-s. 
or  sixty -nine  and  a  half' English  statute 
miles.  '  Tlie  Dutch  and  German  leagues 
contain  each  four  geographical  miles.  The 
Persian  leagues  are  pretty  near  of  the  same 
extent  witli  the  Spanish;  that  is,  they  are 
equal  to  four  Italian  miles,  which  is  pretty 
near  to  \\liat  Herodotus  calls  the  length  ol 
the  Persian  paiasang,  which  contained  thirty 
stadia,  eight  of  which,  according  to  Strabo", 
make  a  mile. 

LEAK,  among  seamen,  is  a  hole  in  the 
ship  tlirough  which  the  water  comes  in.  To 
spring  a  le'ak  is  said  of  a  ship  that  begins  to 
leak ;  to  stop  a  lea'v,  is  to  lill  it  with  a  plug 
wrapt  in  oakum  and  well  tarred  ;  or  put- 
ting in  a  tarpaulin  clout,  to  keep  the  water 
out ;  or  nailing  a  piece  of  sheet-lead  upon 
the  place. 

LEAKAGE,  the  state  of  a  vessel  that 
leaks,  or  lets  water,  or  other  liquid,  ooze  in 
or  out.  See  the  preceding  article.  Leak- 
age, in  connnerce,  is  an  allowance  of  \2 
per  cent,  in  the  customs,  allowed  to  import- 
ers of  wines  for  the  waste  and  damage  it  is 
supposed  to  have  received  in  the  passage; 
an  allowance  of  two  barrels  in  twenty-two  is 
also  made  to  the  brewers  of  ale  and  beer,  by 
the  excise-oflice. 

LEAP,  in  music.  This  word  is  jjroperly 
applicable  to  any  disjunct  degree,  but  is 
generally  used  to  signify  a  distance  consisting 
of  several  intermediate  intervals. 
Leap-year.  See  Bissextile. 
LE.VSE,  a  conveyance  of  lands,  generally 
in  consideration  of  rent  or  other  annual  re- 
compence  made  for  life,  for  years,  or  at  will, 
but  always  lor  a  shorter  terin  than  the  lessor 
has  in  tlie  premises,  otherwise  it  partakes 
more  of  the  nature  of  an  as>igmnent. 

By  the  common  law,  all  persons  seized  ot 
an  estate  might  grant  leases  for  any  period 
less  than  their  interest  lasted;  but  statutes 
have  been  since  made,  some  to  enlarge  and 
some  to  restrict  it.  'Phey  are  divided  into 
enabling  and  restricthig  statutes  ;  by  the  en- 
abling Stat.  Z'l  Henry  VIll.  c.28.  a  tenant  in 
tail  may  make  leases  to  ensure  for  twenty- 
one  years  or  three  lives  to  bind  his  issue  in 
tail,  but  not  those  in  remainder  or  reversion. 
Husbands  seized  in  right  of  their  wives  niay 
inak('  leases  for  the  same  period,  provided 
the  wife  join  in  it.  All  persons  seized  of  an 
estate  of  fee-simple  in  right  of  their  churclirs, 
except  parsons  or  vicars,  may  bind  their  suc- 


L  E  A 

cessors  under  certain  restrictions.  1.  The 
lease  must  be  by  indenture  ;  2.  It  nmst 
begin  from  the  day  of  making ;  3.  All  old 
leases  must  be  suirendered  or  be  within  a 
year  of  expiring  ;  4.  It  must  be  tor  three 
lives  or  twenty-one  years,  not  both ;  5.  It 
may  be  for  a  shorter  term,  but  niusl  not  ex- 
ceed twenty-one  years;  6.  It  imirt  be  of 
lands  and  tenements  most  commonly  let  for 
twenty  years  past;  7.  The  most  usual  rent 
for  thai  lime  must  be  reserved ;  8.  Such 
leases  cannot  be  made  without  impeachmeiit 
of  waste.  It  was  also  specilied  that  the  lease 
must  be  of  corporeal  hereditaments,  that  the 
lessor  might  resort  to  them  to  distrain ;  but 
by  Stat.  5  Geo.  111.  c.  17,  a  lease  of  lilhes  or 
oiher  incorporeal  hereditaments  may  be 
granted,  and  the  successor  shall  have  his 
remedy  by  an  action  of  debt. 

From  the  disabling  statutes,  we  find  that 
all  colleges,  cathedrals,  and  other  ecclesi- 
astical or  eleemosynary  corporations,  and  all 
parsons  and  vicars,  are  restrained  from  mak- 
ing leases  unless  under  the  ioUowing  regu- 
lations: 1.  They  must  not  exceed  3  lives  or 
21  years:  2.  'I he  accustomed  rent  must  at 
least  be  reserved  thereon:  3.  Houses  in 
corporations  or  inaiket-towns  may  be  let  for 
40  )ear5,  provided  they  are  not  the  mansion- 
houses  ot  the  lessors,  or  have  not  more  than 
10  acres  of  ground  belonging  to  them;  and 
provided  the  lessee  agrees  to  keep  Ihein  in 
repair,  and  they  may  be  aliened  in  tee-simple 
lor  lands  of  equal  value  in  recompence;  4. 
If  there  is  an  old  lease  which  has  more  than 
3  years  to  lun,  i.o  new  lease  shall  be  made: 
3.  No  lease  shall  he  mude  without  impeach- 
ment of  waste:  6.  All  l)onds  and  covenants 
tending  to  frustrate  the  provisions  of  the  sta- 
tutes ol  13  and  IS  Eliz.  sliall  be  void. 

Two  observations  seem  to  present  them- 
selves concerning  these  statutes:  I.  That 
tliey  do  not  enable  any  persons  to  make  such 
leases  as  they  are  by  common  law  restrained 
from  making ;  therefore,  a  parson  or  vicar, 
though  he  is  restrained  trom  making  longer 
leases  than  for  21  years  or  3  lives,  even  with 
the  consent  of  the  patron  or  ordinary,  yet  is 
not  enabled  to  make  any  lease  at  all,  to  bind 
his  successor  without  such  consent.  2. 
Though  leases  contrary  to  these  acts  are  void. 


vet  they  are  good  against  the  lessor  dur 
iiis  life,  if  he  is  a  sole  corporation  ;  and  il  it  is 
an  aggregate  corporation,  as  long  as  the  head 
lives  :  for  iheacl  was  intended  ior  the  bcneht 
of  the  successor  alone,  and  it  is  a  maxim  of 
law  that  no  man  shall  take  advantage  of  his 
o\\  n  wrong.  With  regard  to  college  leases, 
one-third  of  the  old  rer.l  nnist  be  reserved  iu 
wheat  or  malt,  reserving  a  quarter  of  wheat 
for  every  6,v.  8t/.  and  -a  quarter  of  malt  for 
every  5*'.  ;  or  the  lessees  must  pay  for  the 
same,  at  tlie  price  of  the  market  nearest  the 
respective  colleges  on  the  market-day  be- 
fore tlie  rent  is  due. 

There  are  further  restraining  statutes  which 
direct  that  if  any  benrliced  clergyman  is  ab- 
sent from  his  benehce  above  SO  days  in  the 
year,  all  leases  ;ind  agreeinenis  made  by  him 
of  the  prolils  of  his  cure  shall  be  void,  except 
in  tlie  case  of  licensed  phiralists  ;  who  are  al- 
lowed to  demise  the  living  to  the  curate,  if  he 
is  not  absent  more  than  40  days  in  the  \ear. 
See  13  Eliz.  c.  20.  14  Eliz.  c.'ll.  ISEliz.  c. 
1  1,  and  43  Eliz.  c.  S). 
All  leases  except  such  as  do  not  exceed 


S  years  fr»n  llie  making,  wliefciipon  tlio'  it • 
fcrvetl  r<-]it  iinistbi'  al  least  Iwo-lliirds  ol  llic 
iiiipi'ovi'tl  \alu(-',  must  be  in  writing,  tliou;^li 
jio  |);ii-liciilar  IVriii  of  words  is  necessary  to 
conslJtule  a  good  l<ase. 

They  mu-l  be  niado  to  nalural-born  siili- 
j«  ts  ot  ibis  realm,  or  sucb  as  have  been  natn- 
ralized,  or  to  dcjiizons,  for  all  leases  made  to 
aliens  shall  be  void;  and  there  is  even  a  sta- 
tute in  force,  32  lien.  \'I1I.  c.  16,  which 
imposts  a  penalty  of  jl.  on  the  lessor  and 
lessee.  It  bus  however  been  held  that  an 
alien  mertiiant  may  take  a  bouse  for  hiii  own 
residence,  but  it  shall  not  go  to  his  executors  ; 
the  reasons  for  these  laws,  are  evidently  to 
jircvent  foreigners  getting  too  firm  a  footing 
in  the  kingdom. 

Lkase  and  ;'c/c«i-f  is  a  conve^-ance  which 
lince  the  stat,  27  lien.  ^  Ill.c.  10,  comnion- 
Jy  railed  tlie'statiite  of  uses,  has  taken  place 
of  the  dee<l  of  feolliiient,  as  it  su])plies  the 
iieeil  of  livery  and  seisiji.  It  is  made  thus: 
A  lease  or  bargain  and  sale  for  one  year, 
from  the  tenant  to  the  lessee,  is  first  prepared, 
v.bereby  the  lessee  becomes  actually  pos- 
sessed of  the  lands,  then  by  the  above-men- 
tioned statute  the  lessee  is  enabled  to  lake  a 
grant  of  the  lands  intended  to  be  conveyed  to 
Mm  and  bis  heirs  for  ever;  accordingly  a 
release  is  made,  reciting  the  lease  and  de- 
claring the  usL's.  In  tlie  lease,  a  pepper- 
corn is  a  good  consideration  to  make  the 
lessee  capable  of  receiving  a  release.  This 
mode  of  conveyance  is  become  so  usual,  that 
it  merits  peculiar  attention.  See  this  mat- 
ter very  ably  discussed  by  the  annolator  of 
the  latter  part  of  Coke's  Commentaries,  p. 
sri.No.  I. 

LEASES,  lalue  of.  'I'he  purchaser  of  a 
lease  may  be  considered  as  the  purchaser  of 
an  annuity  ecjual  to  the  rack-rent  of  the 
estate;  and  the  same  principles,  from  which 
are  deduced  the  present  value  of  annuities 
to  continue  during  any  given  term,  will  ap- 
ply to  the  valui;  of  leases.  The  sum  paid 
down  for  the  grant  of  a  lease  is  so  much 
money  paid  in  advance  for  the  annual  rents, 
as  they  may  become  due  ;  or,  it  niay  be  con- 
sidered as  a  sum  which  put  out  to  interest, 
,  will  enable  the  lessor  to  repay  himself  the 
rack-rent  of  the  estate,  or  the  yearly  value 
of  his  interest  thereiu,  during  the  given 
term ;  therefore  no  more  money  shoukl  be 
demanded  by  the  lessor,  for  the  grant  of  the 
lease,  than  will  enable  him  to  do  this  at  a 
given  rate  of  interest.  In  or.der  to  iind  what 
this  sum  should  be  it  would  be  necessarv  to 
ascertaiir  separiitely  the  present  value  of  each 
anmial  rciit,  or  the  sum  which,  put  out  to 
interest  at  the  given  rate,  will  enable  the  land- 
lord to  repay  himself  the  several  yearly  rents 
as  they  become  due.  Thus,  if  a  person  has 
too/,  due  to  him  a  twelvemonth  hence,  and 
he  wishes  tiT  have  the  value  of  the  same  ad- 
vanced immediately,  the  smn  that  ought  to 
bi?  given  as  an  equivalent  thereto,  allowing 
5  per  cent,  interest,  is  95/.  As.  S^d. ;  for  this 
is  the  sum  which,  put  out  to  interest  at  the 
rate  of  5  per  cent.,  will,  at  the  end  of  the 
Vear,  amount  to  100/.  So  also,  if  a  person 
hsrs'lOO/.  due  to  him  at  the  end  of  two  years, 
and  he  wishes  to  have  the  value  advanced 
immediately,  the  sum  that  ought  to  be  given 
as  an  equivalent  thereto,  is  yb/.  14?.  -irf.  for 
this  is  the  sum  which  put  out  at  the  same 
raie  of  interest,  will,  at  the  end  of  two  years 
amount  to   100/.     In  the  sam«  manner,  ii' a 

Vol..  11.     ■  .  ■         ' 


LEASES. 

person  lins  100/.  due  to  him,  at  the  end  of 
three  years,  and  he  wishes  to  haul  the  value 
of  the  same  imn)ediately,  the  sum  that  ought 
to  be  given  as  an  equivalent  thereto,  is  hbl. 
7s.  Hd.  for  this  is  the  smn  which  put  out  at 
the  same  rate  of  interest,  will,  at  the  end  of 
three  years,  amount  to  100/.  And  if  these 
three  values  are  added  together,  they  aniuunt 
to  272/.  fi.T.  6(7.  which  is'the  sum  that  ought 
to  be  paid  down  for  the  lease  </f  an  estate  for 
three  years,  of  the  annual  rent  of  1 00/.  Had 
the  rate  of  interest  been  6  ])er  cent,  or  any 
higher  rate,  the  answer  would  have  come  out 
less  than  the  value  above  given;  or,  had  it 
been  4  per  cent,  or  any  lower  rate,  tlie  an- 
swer woultl  have  come  out  more  than  sucli 
value;  whence  it  is  obvious,  that,  in  pur- 
chases of  this  kind,  .wc  ought  previously  to 
determine  the  rate  of  interest  at  which'  we 
are  tlisposed  to  lay  out  our  money.  'I'he 
value  of  leases  at  j  per  cent,  compound  in- 
terest, may  be  found  from  table  2,  article 
Annuities  ;  but  as  most  persons  in  purclias- 
ing  leases  e.\pect  to  make  somewhat  more 
than  5  per  cent,  interest  of  their  money,  the 
following  table  is  more  api)licable  to  this 
purpose. 

TABLE, 
Shewing  the  Number  of  Ye.-iri  Purchase  that 
ought  to  be  given  for  a  Lease,  for  any  Num- 
ber of  Years  not  exceeding  100,  at  6,  7,  and 
8  per  Cent.  Interest. 


57 


Year' 

G  per  Cent. 

7  per  Cent. 

8  per  Cent. 

1 

.9433 

.9345 

.9259 

o 

1.8333 

1.80S0 

1.7832 

3 

S.67.30 

2.6243' 

9.5770 

4 

3.4651 

8.3872 

3.3121 

5 

4.2123 

4.1001 

8.9927 

6 

4.9173 

4.7665 

4.6228 

7 

5.5823 

5.3892 

5.20G3 

8 

6.2097 

5.9712 

5.7466 

9 

6.80  IG 

6  5152 

6.2468 

10 

7.SG0O 

7.0235 . 

6.7100 

11 

7.88G8 

7.4986 

7.1389 

12 

8.3838 

7.9426 

7.5360 

l.T 

8.85  2G 

8.3576 

7.9037 

14 

9.2949 

8.7454 

S.2442 

15 

9.7122 

9.1079 

8.5594 

IG 

10.1058 

9.4466 

8.8513 

17 

10.4772 

9.7632 

9.1216 

18 

10.8276 

10.0590 

9.3713 

19 

11.1531 

10.3355 

9.G035 

SO 

11.4699 

10.5940 

9.S181 

21 

11.7640 

10.8355 

10.0168 

0'2 

12.0415      ' 

11.0612 

10.2007 

e;i 

12.3033 

11.2721 

10.3710 

24 

12.,5.503 

11.4693 

10.5287 

25 

12.7833 

11.6535 

10.6747 

20 

13.0031 

11.8257 

10,8099 

27 

13.2105 

11.9867 

10.9351 

28 

13.40G1 

12.1371 

11.0510 

29 

13.5907 

12.2776 

11.1584 

30 

13.76  !.S 

12.1090 

11.2577 

31 

13.9290 

12.5318 

11.3497 

82 

14.0810 

12  6465 

11.4319 

33 

14.2302 

12.7537 

11.5138 

34 

14.3681 

12.8540 

11.5869 

3.7 

14.49S2 

12.9476 

11.6545 

36 

14.6209 

13  0352 

11.7171 

37 

14.7367 

13.1170 

11.7751 

38 

14.8460 

13.1934 

11.8288 

39 

14.9490 

13.2649 

11.8785 

40 

15.0462 

13.3317 

11  9246 

41 

15.1380 

13.3941 

11.9672 

42 

l.i.2245 

13.4524 

12.0066 

43 

15.3061 

13..5069 

12.0432 

44 

15.3831 

13.5.779 

12.0770 

45 

15.4558 

13.6055 

12.K)84 

4t» 

15.5243      . 

13.6*00 

H 

12.1874 

TABI.n   {cuiii'inurj). 

• 

Years 

6  per  C«nt. 

7  per  Cent. 

8  jier  Cent. 

47 

15.5890 

13.6916 

12.1642 

4f; 

1,5.6.500 

13.7304 

12.1R91 

49 

15.7075 

13.7667 

12.2121 

50 

15.7618 

13.8007 

12.2334' 

51 

15.8130 

1.3.8324 

12.2532 

52 

15.8613 

13.8621 

12.2715 

53 

15.;K)69 

13.S89S 

12.2884 

54 

15.949.9 

1.3.9157 

12.3041 

55 

15.9905 

13.9399 

12.31SG 

56 

16.0288 

13.9625 

12.3320 

57 

16.0649 

13.9837 

12.3; -14 

53 

16.09S9 

14.0034 

12.3560 

59 

16,1311 

14.0210 

12.366a 

60 

16.1614 

14.0391 

I2.S7C3 

61 

16.1.900 

14.0353   - 

12.38.56. 

62 

162170 

14.0703 

12.39-iI 

63 

16.2424 

1 4  0344 

12.4O20. 

64 

16.2664 

14.0976 

12  4092 

<s.-, 

16.2891 

14.1099 

12.4159 

G6 

16.3104 

14.1214 

12,4222 

67 

16  3306 

14.1321 

!2.427!> 

68 

16.8496 

14.1422 

12.4333 

69 

IG.367G 

14.1516 

12  4.382 

70 

I6.3R45 

14.1603 

12  4128 

71 

16.4005 

14.1685 

12.4470 

72 

16.4155 

14.1762 

12,4509  • 

73 

16.4297 

14.1834 

12.4545 

74 

16.4431 

14.1901 

12.4579 

75 

16.4558 

14.1963 

12.4610 

76 

16.4677 

14.2022 

12.4639 

77 

16.4790 

14.2076 

12,4665' 

73 

16.4896 

14.2127 

12.4G91 

79 

16.499S      ■ 

14.2175 

12.47  IS 

80 

16.,509I 

14  2220 

12.4735- 

81 

16.5KKO 

14.2261 

12.4754 

82 

1G.,72«4 

14.2300 

12.4778. 

83 

16.5343 

14.2337 

12.4789 

84 

16.5418 

14.2371 

12.480S 

85 

16.5489 

14.2402 

12.4819 

86 

16.5556 

14.2132 

12,483  J 

87 

16..5618 

14.2460 

12,4845 

88 

16.5678 

14.2486 

12.485S 

89 

16.5734 

,14.2510 

12.4867 

90 

16.5787 

14.2533 

12.4S77 

91 

16.5836 

14.2554 

viA»sa 

92 

16.588.^ 

14.2574  . 

12.4Se+ 

93 

16.5928 

14.2592 

12,4902 

94 

16.5969 

14.2610 

12-4909 

,  95 

16.6009 

14.2626 

12.49  la 

9G 

16.6046 

142641 

12,4922 

97 

16.6081 

14.2655 

12.4  9  2S 

98 

16.6114 

142668 

12.4933 

99 

1G.6145 

14.2680 

12.4938  • 

100 

16.6175 

14.2699 

12.4943 

In  order  to  find  the  value  of  a  lease,  it  is 
lirst  necessary  to  ascertain  the  true  rack- 
rent  of  the  estate,  or  the  annual  Talue  that  it 
may  be  justly  estimated  to  be  worth  ;  other- 
wise it  will  be  impossible  to  determine,  with 
iiny  degree  of  accuracy,  the  real  sum  which 
ought  to  be  gi^en  for  the  purchase  of  the 
same.  On  this  point  difficulties  will  some- 
times arise;  for,  the  value  of  an  estate  de- 
pending very  often  on  some  real  or  supposed 
advantages,'  or  on  some  local  or  personal 
recommendations,  will,  in  many  in^tances, 
occasion  a  difference  of  opinion  ;  and  in  most 
cases,  be  a  matter  of  some  uncertainty. 
However,  when  all  these  circumstances  have 
been  taken  into  consideration,  some  annual 
rent  equivalent  thereto  must  be  assumed,  and 
when  this  is  settled  the  value  of  the  lease 
will  be  easily  found  ;  thus,  if  an  estate  is 
worth  150/.  yearly  rent,  the  Value  of  a  lea'je 
thereof  for  sixty-nine  years,  allowing  the  pur- 
chaser 6  per  cent  interest  for  his  iiMinov,  js 
lG,3C7o  (the  number  in  the  tabic)  mullij)!!*! 


58 


L  E  A 


by  1 J3,  or  ?4j  j/.  2v.  9  I.  In  nnnv  iiisl.inrps, 
tKo  rent  of  th-;  estate  iiitpml.'d  to  be  It-aicd 
V-i  charged  witli  some  aninial  cxin-iice,  such 
8s  a  reservetl  or  unit  rent,  the  payment  of 
an  aiinHitv,  taxes,  ami  the  like  ;  in  such  cases 
the  niiniher  of  years  purchase  found  in  the 
table  ought  to  bL-  multiplied  by  the  ihft'erence 
only  be' ween  such  annual  exp.'uce  and  the 
wliuie  estimated  rent  of  the  estate  ;  thu;  it  a 
person  possesses  an  uiv'xpired  term  of  sixty 
years  in  a  leas",  for  which  he  pays  100/.  ]jrr 
annum  rent,  but  which  is  n  )w  worth  ]'iOl. 
per  annum,  the  gross  sum  which  lie  otight  to 
receive  for  the  grant  of  such  lease,  will  be 
equal  to  the  present  value  of  50.'.  per  annum, 
for  the  given  term;  or  l(i,lt)l4  (the  number 
in  the  table  correspoiidiu!;  with  ()0  years,  at 
6  per  cent.)  multiplied  by  50,  which  gives 
WHt.  1 V.  4 J. 

In  order  to  find  the  amuud  rent  coiTe- 
srponding  to  any  %\\cn  sum  paid  for  a  lease, 
divide  the  sum  paid  by  tin;  number  of.years 
purchase  that  are  foiind  against  llie  given 
term  in  the  t.<ble,  and  the  ciuotient  will  be 
tiie  annual  rent  required.  Example :  A 
person  lias  given  lOOU,'.  for  the  lease  of  an 
estate  for  IC  years,  what  annual  rent  is  equi- 
valent thereto  in  order  to  allosv  the  pur- 
chaser 7  per  cent,  interest  for  his  money  ?  In 
the  table  aganst  r6  years,  and  under  7  per 
cent,  we  shall  find  the  number  ofvears  pur- 
chase to  bs  9.4466:  therefore  lOob  divided 
by  9.446o  gives  105/.  I7j-.  for  the  annual 
rent  required. 

The  values  in  the  table  are  calculated  on 
the  supposition  that  the  payments  of  the  se- 
veral rents  of  the  estate  are  made  yearly  ;  if 
however  the  payments  are  made  hall-yearly 
or  quarterly,  and  the  purchaser  can  put  out 
his  money  at  the  same  rate,  so  as  to  receive 
his  ■  intere't  half-yearly  or  quarterly,  which 
mav  commo.ily  be  done;  the  values  will,  in 
such  cases,  be  somewhat  more  than  those 
given  in  tlie  table.  The  difference,  however, 
IS  not  very  great,  but  if  the  exai  t  value  is 
retpiired,  it  may  in  many  cases  be  obtained 
by  attending  to  tlie  fo'.lo.ving  reir.aiks,  viz. 
that  "  the  value  of  a  lease,  the  rent  of  which 
is  |)avable  half-yearly,  is  e(|ual  to  half  the 
value'  of  the  same  lease  payable  yearly,  cal- 
culated at  half  the  given  rate  of  interest,  and 
to  c.onlinu"'  double  the  number  of  years;  and 
tliat  the  value  of  a  lease  the  rent  of  which  is 
payable  quarterly,  is  equal  to  on-  quarter  the 
value  of  ill;;  sanie  lca-,e  payable  yearly,  cal- 
culated at  a  ([uarler  of  the'given  rfile  of  in- 
terest, and  to  continue  four  times  the  num- 
ber of  yeais." 

It  freriuenlly  hap|>;'ns  that  a  long  Ic.isp  is 
jiot  to  be  eutv;'red  on  or  enjoyed  till  after  the 
e.xpiraliosi  of  a  shvrt  lease,  or  till  the  end  of 
a  piren  numb^T  of  years  ;  in  such  ca^e-;,  de- 
«liictthe  vr.hio  of  the  short  lease,  or  the  value 
set  ag.iinsl  the  given  nuiuber  of  jears  in  th- 
tiibhj,  fro:n  the  /alueof  the  longer  lease,  anil 
tir;  <'ifferonce  will  give  the  true  present  value 
of  the  lodger  lease.  Example:  What  sum 
biig!it  to  be  giv;  n  for  the  remainder  of  the 
lease  of  an  estate  for  56  years,  alter  th.;  next 
seven  years,  all.iwing  the  purchaser  0  per 
cent,  interest  for  his  money,  tlie  clear  rent 
bei'i}?  reckoned  at  7o/.  per  anmiin?  In  the 
titble  agjinst  :")(">  vear".,  and  under  (i  piT  cent. 
we  linl  Ifi.O'JSS,  uud  in  the  same  cohimn 
aMinst  7  years  we  (ind  5.58?3;  the  latter 
valu.:   hublractid    from    tlie  forme*-    leaves 


I,  F,  E 

10.4  ifi"),     which    multipli'-d     by    70    r,ives 
731 .255  or  731/.  5v.  \(l.  for  the  sum  rcqiuied. 

Leases  are  freiiuently  granted  during  a 
life,  or  for  a  spe  ilied  term  of  years  siibject 
to  tc-rmination,  if  a  given  life  or  lives  slinuUI 
fail  er  become  extinct  within  such  term  ; 
somet'mes  they  depend  on  the  lo;igest  ol 
two  ortliree  lives,  with  liberty  on  the  failure 
of  one  or  more  of  the  lives  to  nominate  others 
on  payment  of  a  line.  The  values  of  such 
lea?cs  ai-e  given  in  a  very  useful  collection  of 
tables  for  the  purchasing  and  renewing  of 
leases  by  F.  iSaily,  and  may  in  most  cases  be 
found  from  the  tables  inserted  under  the 
article  Life  Annuities. 

LKATHEU.    See  Cuti.s,  andTANXKVG. 

I,EA^'F.N.     See  FERMEXTAnox-. 

LECIKK.V,  a  gemis  of  the  triandria  tii- 
gynia  clas;  and  order.  The  calyx  is  three- 
leaved:  petals,  three-linear:  capsules,  three- 
celled,  three-valve<l,  seeds  solitary..  There 
are  three  species,  herbaceous  plajits  of  Ame- 
rica and  C'hina. 

LECYTIIIS,  a  genus  of  the  polyandria 
monogynia  class  ami  order.  The  calyx  is 
six-leaved;  corolla,  six-pelallcd;  nectarine. 
Ungulate,  staminiferous ;  peric.  circumcised, 
many-seeded.  There  are  six  species,  trees 
or  shrubs  c.if  Guiana. 

I.EDC!ER.  the  jirincipal  book  wherein 
merchants  enter  their  accounts.  See  Book- 
keeping. 

LEDGES,  in  a  ship,  are  small  pieces  of 
t'uiher  King  athw.art  from  the  wa^te-trees  to 
the  roof-trees :  tacy  serve  to  bear  up  the 
gratings  or  nettings  over  the  half-deck.  See 
Ship-euildikg. 

LEDLM.  marsli  clstus,  or  wild  rosemary; 
a  genus  of  t'lc  monogynia  order,  in  the  de- 
candria  class  of  plants;  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  ISth  order,  bi- 
cornes.  The  calyx  is  (luinquefid;  the  co- 
rolla plain  and  quinquepaitite;  the  capsule 
quinquelocular,  and  opening  at  the  base. 
There  are  three  species:  'I'he  palustre  with 
very  narrow  leaves,  grows  naturally  upon 
bogs  and  Ujotses  in  many  parts  of  "^'orksiiir.', 
Cheshire,  and  Lancashire.  The  flowers  are 
produced  in  small  clusters  at  the  end  of  the 
branches,  and  are  shaped  like  those  of  the 
strawberrv-tree,  hut  spread  ojvmi  wider  at 
top.  These  are  of  a  reddish  colour,  and  in 
the  natural  places  of  their  growth  are  suc- 
ceerled  by  seed-vesiels  filled  with  small  seeds 
which  ripen  in  autumn. 

I.EE,  in  the  se.i-language,  a  word  of  vari- 
ous signitications,  though  if  is  generally 
i:nderstood  to  mean  the  part  opposite  to  the 
wind.  Thus  lee-shore,  is  that  shore  agiinst 
which  the  wind  blows.  Lee-hi'di,  or  have  a 
care  of  the  lee-latch,  is,  take  care  that  tin- 
ship  don't  go  to  the  leeward,  or  too  near  the 
sh'ire;  a  lee  the  helm,  put  it  to  the  leeward 
side  of  the  ship;  to  lie  by  the  lee,  or  to  com.- 
upto  the  lee,  is  to  bring  the  ship  so,  that  rill 
her  sails  mav  lie  ilat  against  her  imisis  and 
shrouds,  and  that  the  wind  may  come  right 
upon  her  broadside. 

Lee-f.vnc,  is  3  rope  ceeved  into  ti;e  crin- 
gles of  the  courses,  to  hale  in  the  bottom  of 
the  sail,  that  the  bonnets  may  be  laced  on, 
or  the  sail  taken  ii». 

J,ee-way,   is  the  angle  that  the  rlun-nb- 
line  upon  which  the  ih'p  endeavours  to  sail, 
111  ikes  with  the  rhumb  ujjrin  \>liicli  she  really 
,  sails.     See  NwiCATioN. 


LKF.A,  a  genus  of  the  ch.fl^  and  order 
jientandria  monogynia.  The  calyx  is  oiie- 
petnlled;  nect.  on  the  side  of  the  corolla, 
upright,  five-deft ;  berry,  live-seeded.  There 
are  three  species,  trees  of  the  Ea-t  Indies. 

LEECH.     SeelliRUDO. 

LF.l-.K.     See  Allicm. 

IT'.ERSIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
triandria  dig\  nia.  Calyx  none ;  gitinie, 
two-valved,  closed.  'l"here  are  three  spe- 
cies, grasses  of  America. 

LEE  1  ,  a  little  court  held  within  a  ma- 
nor, and  called  the  king's  court,  on  account 
that  its  authority  to  ]jiui-sli  ofl'euces  origi- 
nally belonged  to  the  ciown,  whence  it  is  de- 
rived tKV  inferior  persons.     Sc-e  Coi'RT. 

Ll-",ET(-'!l-;,iNEs,  small  ropes  made  fa-^t 
to  the  leeicli  of  the  topsails,  to  which  they 
belong,  and  reeved  into  a'  bli/ck  at  the  varcl 
close  by  the  tO[is,ii!-Lies.  'I'hey  serve  to  hale- 
in  the  kvtch  ot  the  sail  when  'die  topsails  are 
to  be  tak'-n  in. 

Ll'.GAC  Y,  a  bcqnest  of  a  snm^  of  monev, 
or  any  personal  eifectsof  a  te:-tator;  and  these 
are  to  be  paid  by  his  representative,  after  alf 
the  debts  of  the  deceased  are  discliarged,  as 
far  as  the  assijts  will  exfeud. 

All  the  goods  and  chattel ;  of  the  deceased; 
are  by  law  vested  in  the  rejiresentative,  whL> 
is  bomid  to  see  whether  there  be  left  a  suf- 
licicnl  fund  to  pay  the  debts  of  the  testator, 
and  if  it  should  prove  iiiadi-ipiate,  the  pe- 
cuniary legacies  must  proportionately  abate; 
a  stiecilic  legacy,  however,  is  not  to  abate 
unless  there  be  insuflicienf  without  it. 

If  the  legatee  die  before  the  testator,  such 
will  in  gener.il  be  termed  a  la[)sed  legacy, 
and  fall  into  the  general  fund  ;  m  here  how- 
ever, from  the  general  import  of  the  will,  it 
can  be  collected  that  the  testator  intcnderf 
such  a  vested  legacy,  it  will  in  such  case  go 
to  the  representative  of  the  deceaseil  legatc-e. 

If  a  bequest  be  nude  to  a  person,  if  or 
when  he  atlainsa  certain  age,  the  legacy 
will  be  lapsed.,  if  he  <lie  U-fore  he  attain  that! 
agj;  but  if  such  legacy  may  be  made  pa\- 
able  at  that  age,  and  the  legatee  die  bet'ore 
that  age,  such  legacy  w-ill  be  vested  iii  lus 
represcutativc. 

If  in  the  latter  case,  the  testator  devise 
interest  to  Iw  paid  in  the  mean  time,  it  viU 
nevertheless  be  a  vested  legacy. 

\Vlu-re  a  legicy  is  biiineathed  over  to 
amolher,  in  case  the  first  legatee  die  under 
a  certain  age,  or  the  like,  the  legacy  will  be 
payable  immediately  on  the  death  of  the 
Iir^l  legatee;  and  though  such  legacy  be  not 
becpu-athed  over,  yet  il  it  carry  interest,  the 
representative  will  become  immediately  en- 
titl,.-d  to  it. 

Ill  case  of  a  vested  legacy  due  iinmediate- 
Iv,  au<l  charged  on  land,  or  money  in  the 
fiindswhich  yields  an  immediate- profit,  inter- 
est shall  be  p.iy;ible  from  the  (ic;ith  of  the 
testator;  but  if  it  Ix-  cluirgevl  on  tiie  perional 
estate  only  of  tl-.e  testator,  which  cannot  be 
colli-ctnl  ill,  it  will  carry  interest  oiilv  from- 
the  (-ad of  the  jear  aa'tei;  "the  death  of  the  tes- 
tator. 

If  a  bequi  st  be  S>r  ntxessiuies,  an(i  of  small 
amount,  the  executor  will  be  iu^lilied  tii 
advancing  a  part  of  the  principal ;  but  this 
should  be  done  under  very  particular  cii^ 
cumspcclion,  as  th-_"  executor  mav  be  com- 
pt-lledto  i)ay  tiu-  full  legacy  on  the  infant's 
attaining  his  majority,  without  deducting  th* 
si.iii  [ircvioutly  advanced. 


L  E  M 

^YI.l.■l\  all  the  cK-btj  and  particulai-  I(?!?acfM 
are  (li^c-hiirgcil,  tlu'  residue  or  surplus  uui-.l 
bf  [y.ild  lo  Oie  rc.si<lii:iry  legatee,  if  any  i>c  so 
appuiiilt'il  in  the  will  ;  but  if  tliL-ri;  In;  none 
appoinlcil  or  intended,  it  will  go  to  tlie  exe- 
cutor or  next  of  kin. 

AVhen  thirt  residue  dn(!i  not  go  to  the  execu- 
tor, it  is  lo  be  -listribuLed  anionjfthe  intestate's 
next  of  kii),  according  to  the  statute  of  dialri- 
bntions  ;  except  the  Inne  is  otherwise  dispoa- 
abf,-,  bv  piirticular  customs,  an  those  of  Lon- 
don, S Ork,  &c.  See  Kxecutok. 

LI'dATK,  a  cardinal  or  bishop,  whom 
the  pope  sends  as  his  ambassador  to  sove- 
reign ])rinccs. 

There  are  three  kind;  of  legate?,  viz.  le- 
gates a  latere,  legates  de  latere,  ;ind  lei^ates 
by  oflice,  or  legali  nati  ;  of  Ihuse  the  most 
con-.iJerable  are  the  legates  a  latere,  the  next 
are  llie  legates  de  latere. 

lA'gatesby  office  are  those  who  have  not 
any  particular  legation  given  them,  but  who 
by'  virtue  of  the.r  dignity  and  rank  in  the 
church,  become  legates  ;  such  are  the  arch- 
bishops of  Ulieims  and  Aries ;  but  the  au- 
thority of  theie  legates  is  much  interior  to 
that  of  the  IcKales  a  latere. 

I.EGAl  US,  in  Homan  anlicpiity,  a  mili- 
tary oftioer  who  commanded  as  deputy  of 
Ihe  chief  general. 

LKCrEK-LiNK,  in  music',  one  added  to 
the  stall' of  tive  lines,  wilen  the  ascending  or 
ciesccntling  notes  run  very  high  or  low. 

I.KCilON,  in  Roman  anticpiity,  a  body  of 
foot  which  consisted  of  ten  cohorts. 

Tlie  exact  number  contained  in  a  legion, 
\vas  li.xed  by  Romulus  at  three  thousand  ; 
though  Plutarch  assures  lis,  that  after  the 
reception  of  tlie  Sabiiies  into  Rome,  he  in- 
creased it  to  six  thousand.  The  common 
number  afterwards,  in  the  first  times  of  the 
free  state,  was  four  thousand;  but  in  tlie  war 
'ttitli  Hannibal,  it  arose  to  live  thousand,  an<l 
after  this  it  is  probable  that  it  ?nnk  again  to 
four  thousand,  or  four  thousand  two  hundred, 
which  was  the  mimber  in  the  time  of  Po- 
Jybins. 

LEC; NOTTS,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  polyandria  moiiog^nia.  The  calyx 
is  live-cleft;  pet.  5  ;  caps.  3-c(llcd.  There  are 
two  species,  trees  of  Jamaica  and  Guiana. 

I.KMMA,  in  mathematics,  a  proposition 
which  serves  previously  to  pre[)are  the  way 
for  the  more  easy  apprehension  of  the  de- 
iiionstration  of  some  theorem,  or  construc- 
tion of  some_problem. 

l.E.MN'A,  a  genus  of  the  monrecia  di- 
andri.i  class  and  order.  'I'he  male  cal.  is 
One-leaved;  cor.  none:  female,  cal.  one- 
leaved;  cor.  none;  style  one;  caps,  one- 
telled.  There  are  six  species,  known  bv 
the  name  of  dnck-weed,  or  duck-meat. 

LEMNI.SKA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  polyandria  monogynia.  The  cal.  is  j- 
toothcd ;  cor.  6-pelaUeil,  recurved ;  nect.  cap- 
*haped,  girding ;  the  germ.  per.  5-celled, 
Seeds  solitary.  There  is  1  species,  a  tree  of 
Cniana. 

LE.MON.  See  Citrus. 
I.EMON,  salt  nf.  See  Ox.ilat  nf  pnUn.i. 
LEMUR,  M.^CAUco,  a  genus  of  quadru- 
peds ot  the  order  ])riniates:  the  generic  cha- 
racter is,  front-teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  four; 
die  intermediate  ones  remote  :  in  the  lower 
jaw,  six ;  Iwiger,  stretched  forwards,  com- 
pressed, parallel,  apprwximated.  Canine- 
tK'th  solitary,  approximated ;   grinders  se- 


L  E  M 

Tpral,  sublobated;    the  foremost  somewhat' 
longer  and  shaiper. 

'1  lie  genus  lemur  or  macaurt)  consists  of 
animals  aipproai:liing  to  monkeys  in  the  lorin 
of  tlieir  ieet,  which,  in  most  s|)ecies)  are  tur- 
iiished  willi  ll.it  nails;  but  diifering  in  their 
manni-rs,  and  void  uf  tint  mischicvoiiK  and 
petuh'iit  disposition  wiiic  h  so  iiuich  dislin- 
guislies  the  nioiikey  trib,!  from  other  tiuadru- 
peds.     _  ^ 

In  this,  as  in  the  former  genus,  we  nu'et 
with  some  species  willioiil  a  tail,  wliile  others 
liave  that  pai  t  extremely  long.  Of  the  tail- 
less species  the  most  lemarkable  is  the 

1.  Lemur  tardigiadus,  alow  lemur.  It  is 
about  the  size  of  a  fiiiall  cat,  mi.'asuring  six.- 
teen  inches  in  length  ;  its  colour  is  an  ele- 
gant pale-brow  11  or  mouse-colour ;  the  face 
fialtish;  the  nose  inclining  to  a  sliar|)eiied 
form;  the  eves  yellow-brown,  large,  and 
extremely  jirotuberant,  sci  as  to  appear  in 
liie  living  animal  like  perfect  hemispheres. 
They  are  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  dark 
brown,  vihich  also  runs  down  the  back  of  the 
animal.  'Ibis  species  is  very  slow  in  its 
motions,  and  from  this  circumstance  has  actu- 
ally been  ranked  bv  some  naturalists  among 
the  slotlis ;  though  in  no  other  rcspifl  re- 
sembling them.  It  is  a  nocturnal  animal, 
and  sleeps,  or  at  least  lies  motionless,  during 
Ibe  greatest  part  of  the  day  ;  its  voice  is  shrdl 
and  plaintive. 

2.  Ix-nuir  iiidri.  This  is  a  very  large 
species ;  it  is  entirely  of  a  black  colour,  ex- 
cept on  the  face,  which  is  Greyish  ;  a  greyish 
cast  also  prevails  towards  the  lower  part  of 
the  abdomen,  and  the  rump  is  vhite.  The 
face  is  of  a  lengthened  or  dog-like  form  ;  the 
cars  shortish  and  slightly  tutted  ;  the  hair  or 
fur  is  silky  and  thick,  and  in  some  parts  of  a 
curly  or  cri-ped  appearance ;  it  is  the  lar- 
gest animal  of  this  genus,  and  is  said  by 
Nlons.  Sonnerat,  its  first  describer,  to  be 
thfee  feet  and  a  half  high;  it  is  said  to  be  a 
gentle  and  docile  animal,  and  to  be  trained, 
when  taken  \oung,  for  ehaee,  in  the  manner 
of  a  do*.  Its  voice  resembles  the  crying  of 
an  infant.  It  is  a  native  of  Madagascar, 
where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  Indri,  which 
is  said  to  sigiiifv  tlie  man  of  tiie  wood.  The 
nails  in  this  species  are  Hat,  but  pointed  at 
the  ends ;  and  there  is  no  appearance  of  a  tail. 

3.  Lemur  macaco,  ruffed  lemur.  Tliis  is 
the  species  described  by  the  count  de  Ruf- 
fon,  under  the  name  of  the  vari,  its  colours 
often  consisting  of  a  patched  distribution  of 
black  and  white ;  though  its  real  or  natural 
colour  is  supposed  to  be  entirely  black.  In 
size  it  exceeds  the  inongos,  or  brown  lemur.> 
It  is  said  to  be  a  tierce  and  almost  untameable 
animal :  it  inhabits  the  woods  of  Madagascar 
and  some  of  the  Indian  islands;  and  is  said 
to  exert  a  voice  so  loud  and  powerful  as  to 
strike  astonishment  into  those  who  hear  it, 
resembling,  in  this  respect,  the  howling 
monkey  orS.  Pelzebub,  which  hlls  the  woods 
of  IJrasil  and  Guiana  with  its  dreadful  cries. 
When  in  a  state  of  captivity,  however,  it 
seems  to  become  as  gentle  as  some  others 
of  this  genus. 

The  astonishing  strength  of  voice  in  this 
animal,  depends,  according  to  the  count  de 
liufl'on,  on  the  pec  uliar  structure  of  the 
larynx,  which  widens,  immediately  after  its 
divarication,  into  a  large  cavity  before  enter- 
ing the  lungs. 

4.  Lemur  tarsier.    This  anLmal  is  distin- 
11^ 


1.  E  O 


»9 


giiished  by  the  >.;reat  length  of  its  liind  leg?. 
Us- general  lenglii  from  (he  nose  lo  tic  (ail 
is  almost  six  inches  ;  and  from  the.  nc  st  li» 
the  hind  toes  eliven  inches  and  a  bait;  the 
tail  nine  inches  and  a  lialf.  Tiie  f.-.ce  is  sharjj 
or  pointed ;  the  e\;es  very  large  and  full ; 
the  ears  upr^lit,  broud,  naked,  and  round- 
ed, lielwein  the  ears  on  the  top  of  the  head 
is  a  lull  of  long  hairs.  'I  he  <  olour  of  this 
species  is  :;rev-brown  or  mouse-colour,  paler 
beneath.  It  is  a  native  of  Aniboiiia  and  some 
other  Hast  Indian  i.lands. 

5.  Lemur  psilodactylus,  long-fingered  le- 
mur. This  highly  singular  sperjcs  has  aa 
much  the  general  appearance  of  a  squirrel, 
that  it  has  been  referred  to  that  genus  t>oth 
by  Mr.  Pennant  in  the  last  edition  of  his 
History  of  (iuudnipods,  and  by  (jineliii  in 
his  enlarged  edition  of  tin;  Syslpma  Natur« 
of  Linni'us:  Tho  account,  liowever,  given 
by  Mons.  Sonnerat,  its  hr^t  des(  riber,  seem* 
to  prove  it  a  species  of  lemur.  It  measftrt^ 
iVoin  fourteen  to  eigiiteen  inches  from  the 
iiosc  to  the  tail,  which  is  about  tho  saintf 
length.  The  general  colour  of  the  ariimal 
is  a  pale  ferruginous-brown,  mixed  with  black 
and  grey ;  «n  tin'  headi  round  the  eyes,  and 
on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body,  the  ferrugi' 
nous  brown  i.re\ails,  with  a  blackish  cast  oit 
tlie  back  and  limbs;  the  tail  is  entirely  black; 
the  sides  of  the  head,  the  neck,  the  lower  jaw, 
and  the  belly,  arc  greyish.  There  are  also  a 
kind  of  woolly  hairs  of  this  colour,  and  of 
two  or  three  inches  in  length,  scattered  over 
the  whole  body;  the  thighs  and  legs  have  a 
reddish  cast ;  the  black  prevails  on  the  feet, 
which  are  covered  with  short  hairs  of  that 
colour  ;  the  hea«l  is  shaped  like  that  of  a 
squirrel  ;  and  there  are  two  cutting-teeth  in 
front  of  each  jaw  ;  the  ears  are  large,  round, 
and  naked,  resembliVig  those  of  a  bat, 
and  of  a  black  colour.  The  feet  are  long, 
and  somewhat  resemble  those  ot  the  Tarsier; 
the  thumbs  or  interior  toes  of  the  hind  feet 
are  short,  and  furnished  with  Hat  round  nails, 
as  in  the  macaucos ;  but  the  principal  cha* 
racier  of  the  animal  consists  in  the  extra- 
ordinal'^-  structure  of  the  fore-feet,  whicli 
have  the  two  middle  toes  of  an  uncommon 
length,  most  extremely  thin,  .-ind  perfectly 
naked,  except  at  their  base;  all  the  claws  on 
the  fore-feet  are  sharp  and  crooked.  It  is  a 
timid  animal,  and  can  scarcely  see  distinctly 
by  dav  ;  and  its  eyes,  which  are  of  an  ochre 
colour,  re-emble  those  of  an  owl. 

This  spec.cs  is  a  native  ot  Madagascar, 
w  here  it  inhabits  w  oods  ;  it  is  extremely  rare, 
and  is  supposed  to  teed  on  fruits,  insects 
&c. :  it  is  tond  of  wannth,  and  has  the  same 
slow  motion  as  the  lemur  tardigradus.  Its 
native  name  is  aye-aye,  which  is  said  to  be 
taken  from  its  natural  voice  or  cry,  whick 
resembles  a  feeble  scream. 

0.  Lemur  volans,  flying  niacauco,  inhabiti 
Guzurat,  tlie  Philippine  a:id  Molucca  isles, 
is  giei»arious,  nocturnal,  feeds  on  fruits.  See 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  tig.  249. 

LEKS,  in  dioptrics,  properly  signifies  a 
small  roundish  glass,  of  the  hgure  of  a  lentil  ; 
but  is  extended  to  any  optic  glass,  not  very 
thick,  which  either  collects  the  rays  of  ligli 
into  a  point,  in  their  passage  through  it,  or 
disperses  them  further  apart,  according  to 
the  law  s  of  refraction.     S^e  Optics. 

LEO,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the  twelve  signs 
of  the  ?odiac,  tlie  tifth  m  order  ;  containing 
according  to  Ptolemy,  thirty-two  stars",  n^ 


GO 


LEO 


cqrding  1o  Tycho,  Ihirly-seven  ;  and  in  the 

Britannic  catalogue,  iliere  are  no  less  than 

■     jiineiy-toiir.     Tiie  stai-  called  the  Iton's-hcart, 

':   cor  leonis,  regiitus,">aiid  basiliciH,  is  a  lixed 

.star  of  the  firsl  magnitude. 

LEONXICE,  Halt's  laif;  a  genus  of  the 
■.nionegyaia  ordtT,  in  the -hexandria  class  of 
.plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  24th  order,  corydales.  Tlic  co- 
rolla is  hexapelaloiis ;  the 'nectariuui  hexa- 
phyllous,  standing  on  the  heels  of  the  co- 
Tolla,  with  its  linii)  patent;  the  'calvx  hexa- 
ph\1Jous,  and  dccidn'ous.  There  a"re  three 
sjjecies,  natives  of  the  southern  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, two  gf  which  are  sometimes  cultivated 
iu  this  country.  Tliese  are,_  1.  The  chry- 
sogonum  with  winged  lea\cs";  and  2.  T  he 
■  Jeontopetahnn  with  decompounded  leaves. 
.  But  those  plants  are  natives  of  the  Archipe- 
lago islands,  and  al-o  grow  in  the  corn-lields  | 
about  Alejjpi)  in  Swia,  where  they  flower 
Soouaittr  Christnia-'.'  | 

lAlOW\ODO^,(laiidiUon:  a  genus  ofj 
tlie  polygamia  a.'qualis  order,  in  the  svngc- 
nesia  class  of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  me- 
thod  tanking  under  the  49th  order,  coniposi- 
ta;.     The  receptacle  is  naked;  the  calvx  im- 
bricated, V.  ith  the  scales  somewhat  loose ;  the 
pappus   feathery.     There   are   four  species,  ' 
of  which  the  only  remarkable  one  is  the  ta-  ! 
raxacum,  or  connnon   dandelion,  found  on  ! 
the  road  sides,  in  pastures',  and  on  the  banks  ' 
©f  ditches.     Early  in   the  spring,  the  leaves  ; 
whilst  yet  white  and  liardly  unfolded  are  an 
excellent  ingredient  in  sallads.  -The  French  ' 
eat  the  roots  and  tender  leaves  with  bread  and 
butler.     Children  that  eat  it  in  the  evening  I 
experience  its  diuretic  effects   in  the  night^  ■ 
winch  is  the  reason  lijr  its  vulgar  appellation.  I 
When  a  swarm  of  locusts  had  destroyed  the  ' 
•harvest  in  the  island  of  Minorca,  niany  of 
the    inhabitants  subsisted   upon   this   plant.  ' 
The  expressed  juice  has  been  given  to  the  ' 
quantity  of  four  ounces  three  or  four  times  : 
a  day ;  and  Boerhaave  had  a  great  opinion 
of  the   utility  of  this   and   other   lactescent 
plants  in  visceral  obstructions.      Goats  eat' 
it;  swine  devour  it  greedily ;  sheep  and  cows 
are  not  fond  ol  it,  and  horse's  refuse  it.     Small 
birds  are  fond  of  the  seeds. 

LEOXLUrS,  lion's  tail;  a  genus  of  the 
gymnospermia  order,  in  the  didvnamia  class 
of, plants:  and  ni  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  A'inA  order,  verticillata?.  Tise  an- 
therx  are  jiowderetl  with  shining  points,  or 
siiiall  elevatcxl  globular  particles. 
.  'Ihe  species  are:  1.  The  Africana,  with 
spear-shaped  leaves,  a  native  of  Ethiopia. 
'I  he  flowers  are  produced  in  whorls,  each  of 
t)ie  branches  having  two  or  three  of  these 
%yhorls  towards  tiieir  ends.  Tliey  are  of  the 
lip-kind,  shaped  somewhat  like  those  of  the 
dead-nettle;  but  are  much  longer,  and  co- 
vered'w'ith  short  hairs.  They  are  of  a  golden 
scarlet  colour,  so  make  a  line  ap()eaVance. 
'2.  The  nepetafolia,  w  ith  oval  leaves,  a  native 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Tiie  flowers 
co;ne  out  In  whorls  like  those  of.  the  former 
sort,  but  are  not  so  long  nor  so  dee|)-co- 
loured.  They  appear  at  the  same  season  with, 
the  first,  and  continue  as  long  in  beauty. 
'I'here  are  three  other  species,  but  the  above 
arc  tlie  most  reinarkabie. 

I'oth  sorts  are  propagated  by  cuttings, 
wiiich  should  be  exposed  to  the  air  long 
enough  to  harden  the  shoots,  ai>.l  planted  in 
the  beginning  of  July,  after  which  they  will 
tike  root  very  freely.  They  should  be  planl- 


L  E  P 

pd  in  a  loamy  border  to  an  eastern  aspect ; 
and  if  they  are  covered  closely'with  a  bell  or 
hand  glass  to  exclude  the  air,  and  shaded 
from  the  ?ini,  it  will  forward  their  putting 
forth  roots.  As  soon  as  they  have  taken 
good  root,  they  should  be  taken  up  and 
planted  each  in  a  separate  pot  llUed  with  solt 
io.nny  earth,  and  placed  in  the  shade  tiUthev 
have  taken  new  root.  In  October  they  must 
be  removed  into  the  greenhouse. 
LEOI'ARO.  SeeFELis. 
Leopard's  hane.  See  Doronicum. 
LEPAS,  a  genus  of  vermes  testacea:  the 
animal  a  triton,  shell  affixed  at  the  base,  and 
consinthig  of  many  unequal  erect  valves.  The 
lepas  antifera,  or  duck-bernacle,  has  the  shell 
compressed,  live-valved,  smooth,  seate<l  on 
a  bernacle.  It  inhabits  most  seas,  and  is 
found  fixed  in  clusters  to  the  bottom  of 
vessels,  and  old  pieces  of  floating  timber, 
generally  w-hitish  with  a  blue  cast,  the  mar- 
gins of  the  valves  yellow;  sometimes  marked 
with  black;  peduncle  long,  coriaceous, 
black,  and  much  wrinkled  towards  the  shell, 
and  growing  [)aler  and  pellucid  towards  the 
base.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  243. 

LEPIDIUM,  DiTTANDER,  Or  pejjper- 
li-ort:  a  genus  of  the  siliculosx  order,  in  the 
tetradynamia  class  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  na- 
tural method  ranking  under  the  39th  order, 
siliquosx.  The  silii  ula  is  ema.ginated,  cor- 
dated,  and  polyspennous,  with  the  valves 
cartnated  contrary  or  broader  than  the  par- 
tition. There  are  23  species,  of  which  the 
only  remarkable  one  is  the  lat.fohum  orcom- 
mnn  dittandi'r.  This  is  a  native  of  many 
parts  of  England.  The  whole  pl.:it  has  a 
hot  biting  la-te  like  pepper  ;  and  tiie  leaves 
have  been  often  used  bv  the  country -people 
to  give  a  relish  to  their  viands  instead  of  that 
spice,  whence  the  plant  has  got  the  appel- 
lation of  poor  man's  pepper.  Jt  is  reckoned 
an  antiscorbutic,  and  was  formerly  used  in- 
tead  of  tha  horseradish  scurvv-gr.iss. 
LEITDOLITE.  See  Lilalite. 
LEl'lDOFEERA,  in  zojlo^'y,  an  order 
of  insects  with  four  wings,  which  are  covered 
with  imbricated  stpiamulx :  add  to  this  that 
the  mouth  is  commonly  spiral. 

Under  this  order  are  coinprehended  the 
phal;ena,  sphinx,  and  papilio  genera. 

LEPISMA,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  in- 
sects of  the  order  aptera.  The  generic 
character  is,  legs  six,  formed  for  running  ; 
mouth  yvith  two  setaceous  and  two  headed 
feelers;  body  imbricated  with  two  minute 
scales  ;  tail  furnished  with  extended  brislles. 

The  Linnxau  genus  lepisma  is  far  from 
extensive,  tliose  enumerated  by  Linna."us 
himself  in  the  twelfth  edition  of  the  Svstema 
Natura;  amounting  to  no  more  than  three 
species. 

Of  these  the  chiefis  the  lepisma  saccha- 
rina  (See  Plate  Nat.  Ilist.  rig.  245),  fre- 
quently called  in  our  own  country,  from  its 
peculiar  colour  and  tapering  foaii,  by  the 
name  of  the  wood-lish.  This  is  an  insect  of 
great  elegance.  Its  general  len:!;lh,  exclu- 
sive of  the  caudal  bristles,  is  about  half  an 
inch,  and  its  colour  a  bright  silvery  grey, 
resembling  that  of  pearls';  this  colour  'is 
owing  ■  to  a  covering  of  extremely  minute 
oval  scales,  which  are  semitransparent,  very 
easily  detached  from  the  animal  by  a  sliglit 
touch;  the  head  and  thorax  together  form  a 
rounded  outline,  the  remainder  of  the  body 
gradually  lesscnijig- lothe  tail,  which  tcrnii"- 


L  E  P 

'  nalci  in  three  long  bristles,  of  similar  appear- 
j  ance  with  the  aulennE.      The  motions   oC 
I  this  animal  are  remarkably  quick,  and  it  is 
j  often  observed  among  various  domestic  ar- 
ticles, particularly  sugar.     It  plso  occui-s  nut 
unl'reipiently  among  old  books  a!id  papers, 
which  it  is  suppo^ed  often   to  injure.     It  is 
said  to  be  originally  an  American  animal, 
and    to   have   been   imported   into    Eurojje 
among  sugars,  &c.     Dr.  Browne,  in  his  His- 
tory of  Jamaica,  represents  it  as  "  extremely 
destructi\  e  to  books  and  all  manner  of  wool- 
len clothes." 

Eepisma  polypus  Lin.  is  of  a  dusky  or 
brownish  cast,  and  has  a  springing  or  leaping 
motion  when  disturbed.  It  is  found  about 
thesea-coast  of  many  northern  regions,  under 
stones,  iscc. 

LEPUq.SY.  See  Medicine. 
LEPTURA,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  in- 
sects of  the  order  coleoptera :  the  generic 
character  is,  antenna;  setaceous  ;  wing-sheaths 
attenuated  towards  the  tip  ;  thorax  siib- 
cylindric.  The  genus  leptura,  greatly  al- 
lied to  that  of  cerambyx,  contains  several 
species  of  considerable  beauty;  among  which 
may  be  reckoned  the  leptura  arcuata,  of  a 
biack  colour,  with  tlie  w  iiig-sheaths  marked 
by  transverse,  yellow,  lunated  bands  pointing 
backwards ;  it  is  found  in  woods  during  the 
summer  months,  and  generally  measures 
about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  length.  ■ 

Leptura  arietis  is  of  nearly  similar  appear- 
^anoE,  but  the  second  band  of  the  wing-sheaths 
i  is  directed  forwards  ;  both  the  above  insects 
;  areb}-  some  referred  to  the  genus  cerambvx. 
[      Leptura   aquatica    is  so   named   irom   its 
i  being  p:rticuiarly   found  in  the  nclghbour- 
iiood  of  waters,  tre()uenting  the  plants  which 
grow  near  tlie  water's  edge.     It  is  about  half 
:  an  inc:.  in  ie;  gtli,  and  ot  a  golden  green-co- 
;  lour,  sometimes  varying  into  copj-er-colour, 
;  purple,  or  blue,  and  is  distinguished  by  hav- 
:  ing  a  tooth  or  process  on  the  thiahs  of  the 
hind  :egs. 
The  larva;  of  th;  loiturx   in  general  are 
I  probably  allied  to  those  of  the  cerambyces^ 
but  they  are  at  present  little  knawn. 
LEPUS,  hare,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of 
I  the  order  glires.     The  generic   character  is,, 
front-teeth  two  both   aboie  and  below,  the 
upper  i)air  duplicate  ;  two  small  interior  ones 
standing  behind   the  exterior.     This  genus, 
when  considered, with  anatomical  exactness, 
exhibits  particularities  of  structure,  deviating 
somewhat  from  th.it  of  the  gliies,  and  making 
an  indistinct  approach  to  the  pecora  or  rumi- 
nants.    It  has  even  been  supposctl  that  the 
common  hare  actually  ruminates  ;  an  opi- 
nion owing  not  only  to  the  peculiar  motions 
of  the  mouth,  whicli  present  an  oljscure  ap- 
pearance of  ruminal  ion,  but  to  the  structui'd- 
of  the  stomach,  which   is   marked  into  two 
regions  by  a  particular  fold  or  ridge.     Other 
singularities    relative    to   internal  formation 
may  be  met  with  in  the  works  of  comparative 
anatomists.  The  most  remarkable  species  are,, 
1.  Lepus   tmiidus,  common   hare.     The 
hare  is  an  animal  so  familiarly  known  as  to 
supersede  the  necessity  of  any  very  minute 
description.     It  is  a  native  not  only  of  every 
part  of  JCurojic,  but  of  almost  every  pait  of" 
the  old  continent.     It  may  perhaps  be  doubt- 
ed whether  it  is  an  aboriginal  native  of  any 
part  of  .\merica. 

The  favourite  residence  of  the  hare  is  in 
rich  antl  somewhat  dry  and  flat  grounds,  and 
it  is  rarely  discovered  in  very  hilly  or  mouii- 


taininis  eitunitiona.  It  feeds  priiKl|);iny  b;, 
niglit,  ami  riiii  lins  c-juccyilcd  during  tlir 
day  in  its  I'unn,  l;encath  sonic  bubli,  or  blight 
slielltT. 

'1  In:  swiftness  of  tliis  animal  is  proverbial, 
and  on  acconnl  of  llie  confornuition  of  its 
1l-!5«,  ihc  hinder  of  wliicli  are  longer  (lian  the 
fore,  it  is  observed  to  run  to  most  advantage 
on  sliglitiy  ascending  ground. 

Tlic  hare  is  a  very  prolillc  animal,  gene- 
rally produeine;  three  or  four  youni^  at  a 
time,  and  breeding  several  times  in  a  year. 
The  \oung  rec)uire  the  assistaneo  of  the  pa- 
rent but  for  a  sliort  time,  and  in  about  three 
weeks  are  able  to  provide-  for  themselves ; 
they  do  not  remove  to  any  great  distance 
from  each  other,  but  continue  in  the  same 
neighbourhood  for  a  eonsiderable  time.  The 
liare  feeds  on  various  vegetables,  but  is  ob- 
served to  prefer  those  of  a  milky  and  sueeulent 
quality.  It  ;ilso  occasionally  feeds  on  the  bark 
ot  trees,  as  well  as  on  the  young  shoots  of 
various  shrubs,  &c. 

The  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  the  h're 
resides  and  feeds,  is  observed  to  inihicni-e  in 
a  considerable  degree  th-  colour  nm\  consti- 
tution of  the  animal.  Those  wliich  feed  in 
elevated  situations  are  larger  and  darker 
than  those  whicli  reside  in  the  j)lains. 

Th.-  hare  is  an  animal  provi-rbially  timid, 
and  Hies,  if  disturbed  when  fi-edhig  by  the 
slightest  alarm  ;  but  when  seated  in  Hs  "form,  i 
will  allow  itself  to  be  approacm-d  s-j  mar  as 
to  be  rea<  lied  by  a  ^tick ;  seeming  to  be 
fascinated  bv  fear,  aii(linst>ad  of  eiideavom- 
ing  to  lly.  continumg  to  scpial  immoveable, 
with  its  eyes  h.\ed  on  its  enemy.  It  is  ne- 
cessai-y,  however,  in  order  to  conduct  this 
manu'uvre,  to  approacli  in  a  gradual  and  ' 
circling  manner.  , 

The  hare,   though  so  nearly  allied  to  the  I 
rabbit   as  to  make   the  general   descriptive 
distinction  not  very  easy,  is  yet  of  differpiit 
habits  and  propen  uties,  and  never  asr  oeiates  : 
.with  the  latter  animal,     [f  taken  very  young,  j 
the  hare  may  be  successfully  tameii,  and  in  ' 
that  state  shews  a  considerable  degree  of  at-  ,' 
tachmeut  to  its  benefactors,  though   it  con-  ^ 
timies  shy  to  those  whose  presence  it  lia?  not 
been   accustomed   to.      Mr.  White,   in   his 
liislorv  of  SeUioiirne,   relates   an   instance 
which  hapi)ened  in  that  village,  of  a  young 
leveret  suckled  and  nursed  by  a  cat,  which 
received  it  very  "arly  nndet  her  prot.^ction, 
and  continued  to   guard  it  with  maternal  so- 
licitude till   it  was  grown  to  a  considerable 
size. 

A  most  singular  variety  of  this  animal  is 
sometimes  found,  which  is  furnished  with 
rpMgKand  slightly  branched  horns,  bearing  a 
considerable  resemblance  to  those  of  a  roe- 
buck. This  particularity,  as  strange  as  it  is 
tnicominon,  seems  to  imply  a  kind  of  indis- 
tinct approach  in  this  animal  to  the  order 
pecora.  , 

The  hare  is  a  short-lived  animal,  and  is 
supposed  rarely  to  exceed  the  term  of  seven 
er  eight  years. 

It  may  be  proper  to  add,  that  in  very  se- 
vere winters,  and  especially  in  those  of  the 
more  nortlu^rn  regions,  the  hare  becomes 
'entirely  white,  in  which  state  it  is  liable  to  be 
Miistaken  for  the  foHowing  species. 

y.   Lepns  variabilis,   varying  hare.     This 
sp'v-cies  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  loftiest  alpine 
Kacts  in  the  uorthem  regions  of  the  globe ; 
3 


TlEPUS, 

orcin-ring  in  Norway,  Lapland,  Tlussia,'Si- 
beri.i,  and  Kaintsclialka ;  and  in  our  own 
island  on  the  alps  of  SJcotUmd.  The  same 
species  is  also  found  to  extend  to  America, 
appearing  in  some  parts  of  Canada.  In  its 
general  appearance  it  bears  an  extreme  je- 
semblance  to  the  common  hare,  but  is  of 
smaller  size,  and  has  shovtcr  ears  and  more 
slender  legs.  Its  colour ,  in  summer  is  a 
tawny  grev  ;  in  winter  entirely  white,  except 
the  tips  of  the  ears,  which  are  black;  the 
soles  of  the  feet  are  also  black,  but  are  very 
thickly  covered  with  a  yellowish  fur.  This 
animal  is  observed  to  conline  itself  altogether 
to  elevated  situations,  and  never  to  descend 
into  the  plains,  or  to  mix  w  Itli  the  common 
liari-.  T  he  (-hange  of  colour  commences  in 
the  month  of  September,  and  the  prey  or 
sunmier  coat  reappears  in  April;  but  in  the 
verv  severe  climate  of  Silieria  it  continues 
white  all  the  year  round.  It  lias  been  nr.\vt- 
times  found"  entirely  coal-black,  a  variety 
which  is  als-i  known  to  take  place  occasion- 
ally in  the  common  hare.  The  varying  hare 
sometimes  migrates  in  order  to  obtain  food 
in  severe  seasons.  Trooj)s  of  five-  or  six 
hundred  have  been  seen  to  quit  in  this  man- 
ner the  fro/en  hills  of  Siberia,  and  to  descend 
inld  the  plains  and  woody  districts,  from 
wliich  tl'.ey  again  return  in  sjjring  to  the 
mountains. 

3.  Lepus  Americanus,  American  hare. 
Tins  animal  is  not  mu-h  superior  in  size  to 
a  rabbit,  measuring  about  eighteen  inches. 
Its  colour  neariy  resembles  that  of  the  com- 
mon hare,  to  which  it  seems  much  allied : 
but  the  fore  legs  arc;  shorter,  and  the  hind 
ones  longer  in  proportion.-  'I'he  belly  is 
white ;  the-  tail  black  above  and  w-hite  be- 
neath; the  ears  tipped  with  grey,  ami  the 
legs  of  a  pale-ferruginous  colour.  It  is  said 
to  inliablt  all  parts  of  North  America;  and 
in  the  more  te-.yiperaie  regions  retains  its  co- 
lour all  the  year  round,  but  in  the  colder 
parts  becomes  white  in  winter,  when  the  fur 
grows  extremely  long  and  silvery;  the  edges 
of  the  ears  alo'ne  retaining  tlieir  former  co- 
lour. It  is  said  to  be  extremely  common  at 
Iludon's  Bay,  where  it  is  considered  as  a 
highly  useful  article  of  food.  It  breeds  once 
or  twice  a  year,  producing  from  live  to  seven 
at  a  time.  It  is  not  of  a  mlgratery  n-cture, 
but  always  continues  to  haunt  t'le  same  places, 
tiiking  occasional  refuge  iin;:er  the  roots  of 
trees,  or  in  the  hollows  near  iheir  roots. 

4.  Lepus  cunicnlus.  rabbit.  The  rabbit 
bears  a  very  strong  genera!  resemblance  to 
the  hare,  but  is  considerably  smaller,  and 
its  fore  feet  are  furnished  with  sharper  and 
longer  claws  in  proportio'n ;  thus  enabling 
it  to  burrow  in  the  ground,  and  to  form  con- 
venient retreats,  in  wh'ch  it  conceals  by  day. 
and  like  the  hare,  comes  otit  chiefly  by  night 
and  during  the  early  part  of  the  morning  to 
feed.  Its  colour,  in  the  wild  state,  is  a  dusky 
brown,  paler  or  whitish  on  the  under  parts, 
and  the  tail  is  black  above  and  white  below-. 
In  a  domestic  state  the  animal  varies  into 
black,  black-and-white,  silver-grey,  perfectly 
white,  &c. 

The  rabbit  is  a  native  of  most  of  tlie  tem- 
perate and  warmer  parts  of  the  old  continent, 
but  is  not  found  in  the  northern  regions,  and 
is  not  origiiiallv  a  nativeof  Britain,  but  was 
ihtroduced  from  other  countries.  Its  general 
residence  is  in  dry,  chalky,  or  gravelly  soils, 
in  which  it  can  couveniently  burrow.    It  is 


so  pfolific  an  animal  thr.t  it  has  b«r-n  known 
to  breed  se-;en  times  in  a  year,  and  to  |iro- 
duc.e  no  leis  than  eight  young  each  time. 
It  is  therefore  not  surprising,  that  In  some 
countries  it  has  been  considered  as  a  kirid  of 
calamity,  ami  that  various  arts  of  exlirpatioa 
have  been  practised  against  it. 

a.  I.epuii  viscaccia.  This  species  is 
said  to  have  the  general  apj)earjnce  of  a 
rabbit,  Irjt  has  a  long  bushy  and  bri-,tW  tail, 
like  that  of  a  fox,  wjiich  the  auinral  also  re- 
sembles in  colour;  the  fur  on  all  parts,  ex- 
(;e])t  the  tail,  is  soft,  and  is  used  by  the  Pe- 
ruvians in  the  manufacture  of  hsts ;  it  was 
also  used  by  the  ancient  Peruvians  for  the 
fabric  of  garments,  worn  only  by  persons  of 
distinction.  In  its  manners  this  animal  re- 
sembles the  rabb.t,  burrowing  under  ground, 
and  Ibrming  a  do-iible  man-ion,  in  the  upper 
of  which  it  deposits  its  provisions,  and  sleeps 
in  the  other.  It  appears  chielly  ijy  night, 
and  is  said  to  defend  itself  when  atUicked  by- 
striking  with  its  tail. 

6.  Le|)ii5  alpinus,  alpine  hare.  This  is  .-l 
verv  different  species  from  the  alpine  hare 
described  by  Mr.  Pennant  in  the  15ritish 
Zoology,  which  is  no  other  than  the  varying: 
hare.  The  alpine  hare  is  a  far  smaller  ani- 
mal, scarcely  exceeding  a  guinea-pig  (cavia-. 
cobaya)  in  size,  and  measuring  only  nine 
inches  in  length.  Its  colour  is  a  bright  fer- 
ruginous grey,  ;jaler  beneath;  the  head  is- 
long,  and  the  ears  short,  broad,  and  rounded.. 
See" Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  '2iC>.  It  appears  to. 
have  been  first  described  by  Dr.  Pallas,  who 
informs  us  that  it  is  a  native  of  the  Altaic 
mountains,  and  extends  to  the  Lake  Baikal, 
and  even  to  Kamtschatka,  iniiabiting  rough, 
woody  tracts  amidst  rocks  and  cataracts,  and- 
forming  burrows  beneath  the  rocks,  or  in- 
habiting the  natural  tissures,  and  dwelling 
sometimes  singly,  and  sometimes  tw-o  or  tht^pe 
together.  In  theif  manners  they  greatly 
resemble  some  of ;  he  marmots  or  hamsters  \- 
preparing,  during  the  autumn,  a  plentilul  as- 
sortment of  the  finest  herbs  and  grasses,  wliiclr 
they  collect  in  company,  and  after  drying 
with  great  care  in  the  sun,  dispose  into  heaps 
of  very  considerable  size,  for  their  winter 
support.;  and  wijich  may  ;dways  be  distin- 
guished, even  through  the  deep  snow,  having 
the  appearance  of  so  many  hay-ricks  in  ininia.- 
ture,  and  being  often  severaffeet  in  height 
and  breadth.  The  alpine  hare  varies  in- 
size  according  to  the  Jirt'erent  regions  iu 
which  it  is  found,  being  largest  about  the 
Altaic  mountains,  and  smaller  about  Lake 
Baikal,  &c. 

7.  Le'pus  ogotnna,  ogotona  hare.  This 
animal,  says  Dr.  Pallas,  is  called  by  the  Mon- 
golians by  the  name  of  ogotona,  and  is  an 
inhabitant  of  rocky  mountains,  or  sandy- 
plains,  burrowing  under  the  soil,  or-i-onceal- 
ing  itself  under  lieaps  of  stones,  and  forming 
a  soft  nest  at  no  great  depth  from  the  sur- 
face. It  wanders  about  chielly  by  night,  and. 
sometimes  appears  by  day,  especially  in 
cloudy  weatlier.  In  autumn  it  collects  heaps 
of  various  vegetables  tor  its  winter  fotxl,  in 
the  same  maimer  as  the  alpine  hare  before 
described,  disposing  them  into  neat  hemi- 
spherical heaps  of  about  a  foot  in  <liameter, 
IJiese  heaps  arc  prepared  in  the  month  of 
September,  and  arc  entirely  consumed  by 
the  end  of  winter. 

The  ogotona  hare  is  about   six  inches  or 
somewhat  more  i»  length,  and  is  of  a  palii- 


62 


LET 


brovvn  colour  above,  and  white  bcncalli;  on 
the  nose  is  a  yellowish  spot,  and  the  oiit,ide- 
of  the  limbs  and  s})acf  about  the  rump  are  of 
the  same  colour.  It  ii  t'litircly  destitute  of 
a  tail.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  247. 

8.  Lepus  pusillus,  calling  hare.  In  its 
form  this  species  e.xtremely  resembles  the 
ogotona  hare,  but  is  smaller,  measuring  near 
six  inches,  bat  weighinc;  only  from  three 
onnces  and  a  quarter  lo  four  and  a  half,  and 
in  winter  two  and  a  half.  It  is  an  inhabitant 
of  the  south-east  parts  »f  Russia,  ajul  about 
all  the  ridge  of  hill;  spreading  southward 
from  the  L  ralian  chain ;  as  well  as  about 
the  Irtish,  and  t.he  we^t  [xirt  of  tlie  Altaic 
chain.  It  is  an  animal  of  a  solitary  dispo- 
sition, and  is  very  rarely  to  be  seen,  even  in 
the  places  it  most  fVeciuents. 

Lepus,  in  astronomy,  a  constellation  of 
the  southern  hemisphere,  comprehending  \'2 
stars  according  to  Ptolemy ;  thirleen,  ac- 
cording to  Tycho;  and  nineteen  in  the  Bri- 
tannic catalogue. 

LERCHE.V,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
erder  monadelphia  pentandria.  The  cal. 
is  live-toothed  ;  cor.  funnel-form,  five-deft ; 
anthers,  five  ;  style,  one  ;  caps,  three-celled, 
many-seeded.  There  is  one  species,  a  shrub 
of  the  East  Indies. 

LERNEA,  in  zoology  ;  a  genu:i  of  insects 
of  the  order  of  vermes  mollnsca,  the  charac- 
ters of  which  are :  tiie  body  fixes  itself  bv  its 
tentacula,  is  oblong,  and  ratlier  tapering ; 
there  are  two  ovaries  like  tails,  and  the  ten- 
tacula are  shaped  like  arms.  The  cyprinacea 
has  four  tentacula,  two  of  which  are  lunulated 
at  the  top.  It  is  a  small  species,  about 
half  an  inch  long,  and  of  the  thickness  of  a 
small  str.iw.  It  is  found  on  the  sides  of  the 
bream,  ^arp,  and  roach,  in  many  of  our 
ponds  and  rivers,  in  great  abundance.  _. 
The  salmonea,  or  salmon-louse,  has  an  ovat- 
ed  body,  cordated  thorav,  and  two  linear 
arms,  approaching  nearly  to  each  other.  3. 
Tiie  asellina,  has  a  lunated  body  and  cordated 
thorax  ;  and  inhabits  the  gills  of  the  cod-fish 
and  ling  of  the  northern  ocean. 

LESKIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
crypfogamia  musci ;  a  moss  of  little  note. 

LESSOR  and  Lessee,  in  law.  See 
Lease. 

LET  Fall,  a  word  of  command  at  sea,  to 
put  out  a  sail  when  the  yard  is  aloft,  and  the 
sail  is  to  come  or  fall  down  from  the  yard ; 
but,  in  strictness,  only  applied  to  the  main 
and  fore  courses,  when  their  yards  are  hoist- 
ed up. 

LE  ITER.  A  servant  of  the  post^ofUcc  is 
within  the  penalty  of  5  CJeo.  III.  c.  2i,  which 
makes  it  a  capital  felony  to  secrete  a  letter 
containing  any  bank-note,  though  he  has  not 
taken  the  oath  required  by  9  Anne  c.  10. 
But  to  secrete  a  letter  containing  money,  is 
not  an  offence  within  the  -tatutes  concerning 
the  servants  of  the  post-olfice. 

T.ETTER  ofcridit,  is  where  a  merchant  or 
roiTe>'pondent  writes  a  letter  to  another,  re- 
questing him  to  credit  the  bearer  with  a  cer- 
tain sum  of  money. 

Letter  of  licence,  is  a  written  permission 
granted  to  a  person  under  embarrassment, 
allowing  him  to  conduct  his  alfairs  for  a  cer- 
tain lime  without  being  molested.  Smh  in- 
Btrument  will  bind  all  the  creditors  by  whom 
it  is  executed,  and  il  generally  contains  cer- 
tain stipulations  to  bu  observed  by  all  par- 
ti e«. 


L  K  T 

Letter,  nf  dllni-nri/,  is  an  lll^trum■,'nt 
giving  t«  a  second  person  the  authority  to  do 
any  lawful  act  i\i  the  stead  of  the  maker. 
They  are  sometimes  revokablc  and  sohie* 
times  not ;  in  the  latter  case  the  *ord  irre- 
vocable is  inserted.  The  authority  must  be 
strictly  pursued:  and  if  the  attorney  does 
less  than  the  power  it  shall  be  void  ;  it  more, 
it  shall  be  goo;l  as  far  as  the  power  goes,  and 
void  as  to  the  rest ;  but  Iwth  these  rules  have 
many  exceptions.     See  1  lust.  C58. 

LETfERS.  The  rate  of  postage  of  ge- 
neral-post letler^  is  regulated  by  cnslancC  in 
the  following  proportions : 

l'"or  everv  letter  not  exceeding  15  miles, 
3cl,  30  miles,  4J,  50  miles,  5(/,  80  miles,  6rf, 
120  miles,  7f/,  180  miles,  8(i, 'J30  miles,  Orf, 
300  miles,  lOif  \Vhere  the  distance  is  under 
or  above  100  miles,  and  more  than  300  miles, 
ail  additional  Irf,  and  so  on  for  every  further 
100  miles;  and  all  letter.;  loand  from  Ireland 
conveyed  bv  packet-boats  shall  be  paid  -(/ 
.ab.ive  all  other  rates :  for  a-I  letters  to  or  from 
Portugal,  or  the  Britisii  dominions  in  America, 
Is ;  and  to  any  places  witho.it  the  king's  do- 
minions, ill  additional ;  and  all  foreign  let- 
ters must  be  charged  with  the  full  inland  rates 
of  postage. 

No  letter  shall  be  rated  higher  than  as  a 
treble  letter,  if  les^  than  1  oz.  in  weight,  and  if 
an  o/..  than  as  four  single  letters  ;  and  so  in 
proportion  of  -J  of  an  oz.  as  a  letter.  These 
rates  were  settled  by  41  Geo.  lU.  c.  7. 

AH  letters  on  his  majesty's  business  are 
free  ;  also  all  peers  and  members  of  the  house 
of  commons  may  send  daily  10  letters  free 
and  receive  15,  not  exceeding  1  oz.  each  in 
weight,  provided  the  franked  letters  sent  by 
them  shall  be  indorsed  with  their  nnme,  and 
the  date  when  the  letters  arc  put  in  written 
at  full  length,  and  the  whole  direction  to  be 
in  the  hand-writing  of  such  member  of  parlia- 
ment. Also,  provided  such  member  of  par- 
liament shall  be  within  20  miles  of  the  post 
town,  where  letters  are  put  in  franked  by 
him,  or  where  letters  are  received  directeti 
to  him.     43  Geo.  III.  c.  31. 

Letters,  tlirciilniiiig.  To  send  letters 
threatening  to  accuse  a  person  of  any  crime 
punishable  with  death  or  any  infamous  pu- 
nishment, and  knowingly  to  send  any  ano- 
nymous or  fictitious  letter  threatening  to  kill 
any  one,  or  set  fire  to  their  tenements  or  pro- 
perty, with  a  view  of  extorting  money  or 
valuables  from  them,  is  in  the  first  instance 
punishable  with  fine,  imprisonment,  pillory, 
whipping,  or  transportation  for  seven  years, 
and  in  the  other  instance  is  felony  without 
benefit  of  clergv. 

Letters  putent.  See  Patents,  and 
Exemplification  of  Patents. 

Letters,  close,  are  grants  of  the  king 
specially  distinguished  from  letters  patent, 
in  that  the  letters  close,  being  not  of  public 
concern,  but  directed  to  particular  persons, 
are  closed  up  and  sealed. 

Letters  of  marque,  are  extraordinary 
commis-ions,  granted  to  captains  or  mer- 
chants for  reprisals,  in  order  lo  make  a  repa- 
ration for  those  damages  they  have  sustained, 
or  the  goods  they  have  been  deprived  of  by 
strangers  at  sea. 

These  appear  to  be  always  joined  to  those 
of  re[irise,  for  the  reparation   of  a   private 
injury  ;  but  under  a  declared  war  the  fofiiier 
onlv  are  required. 
LETIIaUgY.    SecMEDictNE. 


LEV 

•  T.I'V  AKI  FACIA6,  is  a  wi'it  directed  loth* 
sheriff  for  levying  a  certain  ?iini  of  money 
ujjon  tlw  lands,  &c.  of  a  persOM  who  has  for- 
feited his  recognizance. 

I-EUCI  IE.  This  stone  is  usually  found 
in  volcanic  productions,  and  is  very  abnli- 
dant  in  llie  neighbourhood  of  'I'esuvius.  It 
is  always  cr_\  stallized.  The  primitiveform  of 
its  crystals  is  either  a  cube  or  a  rhouiboidal 
dodecahedron,  and  its  integrant  molecules 
are  tetrahedrons;  but  the  varieties  hitherto' 
observed  are  all  polvhedrons.  The  most 
common  has  a  spheroidal  figure,  and  is 
bounded  by  "i  equal  and  similar  trapezoids  ; 
sometimes  the  faces  are  12,  IS,  3(),  54,  and 
triangular,  pentagonal,  &c.  The  crystais 
vary  fro. n  the  size  of  a  pin's  head  to  Ihat'of  an 
incii. 

'I'hc  texture  of  theleucite  is  foliated;  its 
fracture  somewhat  conclioidal ;  specilic  gra- 
vity from  2.455  to  2i4C)0;  colour  white^  of 
greyish  white.  Its  powder  causes  syrup  of 
violets  to  assume  a  green  co'our.  Infusible 
by  the  blow  pipe.  Gives  a  wliite  transparent 
glass  with  borax.  It  is  composed,  ai  Kla- 
prolh  has  bhewn,  of 

54  silica 

23  alumina 

22  potass 

99. 

It  was  by  analysing  this  stone  that  Klrt- 
proth  discovered  the  jiresence  of  potass  in 
the  mineral  kingdom,  which  is  not  the  least 
im|>oitant  of  the  numerous  discoveries  of  that 
accurate  and  illustrious  chemist. 

Leucite  is  found  sometimes  in  rocks  wliich 
have  never  been  exposed  to  volcanic  fire; 
and  .Mr.  Dolomieu  has  rendered  it  prob;.ble, 
from  the  substances  in  which  it  is  found,  that 
the  leucite  of  volcanoes  has  not  been  formed 
by  volcanic  fire,  but  that  it  existed  previous* 
ly  in  the  rocks  upon  which  the  volcanoes  have 
acted,  and  that  it  was  flirown  out  unaltered 
in  fragments  of  these  rocks. 

LEUCOJUM,  grcf// .5;io:r-r/rrtp,  a  genu* 
of  the  monogynia  order,  in  the  hexandria 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  nintli  order,  spathace:e. 
The  corolla  is  campanulatcd,  sexpartite,  the 
segments  increased  at  the  points,  the  stigma 
simple.  The  species  are,  1.  Tlie  vcrnum, 
or  spring  leucojnm,  has  an  oblong  bulbous 
root,  sending  up  a  naked  stalk,  about  a  foot 
iiigh,  terminated  by  aspatha,  protruding  one 
or  two  white  flowers,  appearing  in  March. 
2.  Thca'stivum,  or  sunniier  leucojum,  has 
a  large  oblong  bulbous  root,  an  upright  stalk, 
15  or  IS  inches  high,  terminated  by  inanV 
white  fiowers  in  Nlay.  3.  The  autumnale 
has  a  large  oblong  bulbous  root,  narrow 
leaves,  an  upright  stalk,  terminated  by  white 
(lowers  in  autumn.  4.  The  shnmosnm,  witll 
flowers  white  within,  purplish  without. 

LEIXOMA.     See  Siugeky. 

LE^'EL,  an  instrument  used  to  make  a 
line  [larallel  to  the  horizon,  and  to  continue 
it  cull  .at  pli'asure  ;  and  by  this  means  to  find 
the  true  level,  or  the  diliirence  of  ascent  or 
descent,  between  fwoor  more  places,  for  con* 
veving  water,  <lraining  fens,  &.(■> 

I'here  are  several  instruments,  of  dilTerent 
contrivance  and  matter,  invented  tor  the  per- 
fection of  levelling;  but  they  may  l>e  iv- 
dliceil  lo  the  following  kinds  : 

//((/(/•-Level,  thl  which  slwws  tliv  liori- 


zniitul  liiip  bv  uH-ans  of  a  sur'acff  of  water  of 
olIiLT  tliiiil,  'foiiiidfd  on  tins  principlt',  tliat 
\v;i'.i.'r  ;iKv4_ys  plnccs  ils^.'ir  level  or  liorizoiit^il. 

'1  lie  most  sinipU-  kind  is  made  of  a  long 
vood.-n  trougli  or  r;in.il,  vliicli  lieing  eqnully 
(illfd  will)  waU-r,  ils  snrt'd<.c  siiows  the  line  of 

kVfl. 

'I'lii-  watt-r-levi-l  i<  also  made  with  two  cups 
filled  to  the  two  I'nds  o!  d  >trai[!lit  pipe,  about 
an  iucli  diameter,  and  lliree  or  lour  feet  long, 
bv  iiieuiis  of  wliicli  tlie  water  coninumicites 
f/oni  the  one:  cuj)  to  the  other ;  and  thi-;  pipe 
beint;  moveable  on  its  starid  by  means  of  a 
ball  and  socket,  wlien  the  two  cupi  shew 
ocHiullv  full  of  vsater,  their  two  smiaces  mark 
tlu'  Ink,'  of  level. 

'Ihis  instimnent,  instead  of  cu|)s,  may  also 
be  made  witli  two  short  cylinders  of  glass 
three  or  four  inches  loiij;,  fastened  to  each 
exlreuiilv  of  the  pi|)e  with  wax  or  nia-tic. 
The  pipe  ia  tilled  with  conmioii  or  coloured 
water,  which  shews  it.^elf  through  the  cylin- 
ders, by  means  of  which  the  line  of  level  is 
(leternuncd;  the  height  of  the  water,  with 
re.-pi'ct  to  the  centre  of  tin-  earth,  bein^  al- 
wa\s  the  sani  '  in  bolii  i-ylindeis.  'I'his  level, 
tho'njji  very  si'iiple,  is  yet  very  commodious 
for  levelling  small  ilislances. 

^/'/■-Levei.,  that  which  shews  the  line  of 
level  bv  means  of  a  bubble  of  air  inclosed 
with  some  lluid  in  a  glass  tube  of  an  indeter- 
minate length  and  thickr.ess,  and  having  its 
two  ends  hermetically  sealed.  When  the 
bubble  tixes  itself  at  a  certain  mark,  made 
«xaclly  in  the  middle  of  the  tube,  the  case  or 
niler  in  whieli  it  is  lixed  is  then  level.  W'iien 
it  is  not  level,  tlie  bubble  will  rise  to  one  end. 
This  glass  tube  may  be  set  in  another  ol 
brass,  having  an  ap.;rtare  in  tlie  middle, 
where  tho  bubble  of  air  may  be  observed.  It 
should  be  tilled  with  a  livpiid  not  liable  to 
freeze  nor  evaporate. 

Tiiere  is  one  of  these  iiHtrumciits  with 
sights,  being  an  iniprovenient  upon  tliat  last 
described,  which,  by  the  adilition  of  other 
apparatus,  becomes  more  exact  and  commo- 
dious. It  consists  of  an  air-level  (Plate 
Miscel.  fig.  I4ij;  aboiit  eight  inches  long, 
and  about  two-tliirds  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
set  iii  a  brass  tube  U,  having  an  aperture  in 
the  middle  C.  The  tubes  are  carried  iu  a 
straight  ruler,  of  a  foot  long;  at  the  ends  of 
which  are  lixed  two  sights  3,  3,  exactly  per- 
pendicular to  tlic  tubes,  aud  of  an  equal 
fieighl,  havin;5  ascpiare  hole,  formed  by  two 
lillels  of  brass  crossing  each  other  at  right 
augles ;  in  the  middle  of  this  is  drilled  a 
verv  small  hole,  tlirough  wliich  a  point  on  a 
level  witii  the  instrument  is  seen.  The  brass 
tube  is  fastened  to  the  ruler  by  means  of  tw  o 
screws;  t'le  one  of  which,  marivcd  4,  serves 
to  raise  or  depress  the  tube  at  pleasure,  for 
bringing  it  towards  a  level.  The  top  of  the 
ball  ami  socket  is  rivetted  to  a  small  ruler 
tliat  springs,  one  end  of  which  is  fasteiiod 
with  sprinns  to  the  great  ruler,  and  at  the 
other  end  is  a  screw  j,  serving  to  raise  and 
depress  tlie  instrument  when  nearly  level. 

But  thi-i  inslnimeiil  is  still  less  commoilious 
th.ui  the  following  one:  for  though  the  holes 
are  ever  so  small,  yet  they  will  stilt  take  in 
too  great  a  space  to  determine  the  point  of 
level  precisely. 

Fig.  147.  IS  a  level  with  telescopic  sights, 
first  luvciued  by  Mr.  Huygens.  It  is  like 
the  last,  with  this  difference,  that  instead  of 
plain  sights  it  carnes  a  telescope  to  deter- 


IJ.VEL. 

mint-  exactly  a  point  of  level  td  v.  cor.^idcr- 
able  distance.  '1  lie  :'crew  3,  is  for  raising  or 
lowering  a  little  fork  for  carrying  the  hair, 
and  making  it  iigree  with  the  bubble  of  air 
wheii  (lie  instrument  is  level;  and  the  scre<v 
4  is  for  making  the  bubble  of  air,  D  or  K, 
agree  with  the  telescope.  'I'he  wliole  is  til- 
ted to  a  ball  and  s  icket,  or  otherwise  moved 
by  joints  and  screws.  It  may  be  observed,  i 
thai  a  tele;c<ipe  mav  l)e  added  to  any  kind  of  i 
level,  by  applying  it  upon,  or  parallel  to,  the 
base  or  ruler,  when  there  is  occasion  to  take 
the  level  of  remote  objects;  and  it  possesses 
tliis  advantage',  tliat  it  may  be  inverted  by 
turning  the  rul<  r  and  telescope  half-round; 
and  if  then  the  hair  cut  the  same  jKMiit  that  it 
did  before,  the  ojieration  is  just.  Many  va- 
rieties and  iiii|)roveiiients  of  this  instrument 
have  been  made  by  the  more  modeni  ojni- 
cians. 

Dr.  Desaguliers  proposed  a  machine  for 
taking  the  dilf:-ren'-e  of  level,  which  contain- 
(;J  the  principles  both  of  a  barometer  and 
thermometer;  but  it  is  not  accurate  in  prac- 
tice. 

R'-Jhctiir^  Level,  that  made  by  means  of 
a  pretty  long  surface  of  water,  representing 
the  same  object  inverted,  which  we  see  erect 
by  the  eye;  so  that  the  point  where  these 
two  objects  appear  to  meet,  is  on  a  level  with 
the  place  where  the  surface  of  the  water  is 
found. 

Tliere  is  another  reflecting  level,  consist- 
ing of  a  polished  metal  mirror,  placed  a 
little  before  the  object-glass  of  a  telescope, 
snsi)ended  ])e!peiidicul:irlv.  This  mirror 
must  be  set  at  an  angle  of  4:>  degrees ;  in 
which  case  the  perpendicular  line  of  the  te- 
lescope becomes  a  horizontal  line,  or  a  line 
of  level :  which  is  the  invention  of  M.  Cas- 
sint. 

Aiiitltru  Foot-l^EVEi.,  is  in  form  of  a 
s(niare  (lig.  14S.),  having  its  two  legs  or 
branches  of  an  equal  length;  at  the  junction 
of  which  is  a  small  hole,  by  which  hangs  a 
plummet  playing  on  a  perpendicular  line  in 
the  middle  of  a  quadrant,  which  is  dividird 
both  ways  from  that  point  into  43  degrees. 

This  instrument  may  be  used  on  other  oc- 
casions bv  placing  the  ends  of  its  two  branches 
on  a  plane;  for  when  the  plummet  plays  per- 
pendicularly over  the  middle  division  of  the 
([uadrant,  the  plane  is  then  level. 

'1  o  use  it  in  gunnery,  place  the  two  ends 
on  the  piece  of  artilhry,  which  may  be  raised 
to  any  proposed  lieight  by  means  of  the  plum- 
met, which  will  cut  llie  ilegree  above  the  le- 
vel. But  this  supposes  the  outside  of  the 
cannon  is  parallel  to  its  axis,  which  is  not 
always  the  case  ;  and  therefore  thev  use  ano- 
ther instrument  now,  either  to  set  the  piece 
level,  or  elevate  it  at  any  angle;  namelv  a 
small  quadrant,  with  one  of  its  radii  conti- 
nued out  prettv  long,  which  being  put  into 
the  inside  of  the  cylindrical  bore,  the  plum- 
met shews  the  angle  of  elevation,  or  the  line 
of  level. 

Carpenter's,  Bricklm/er's,  or  Tarior's  Le- 
vel, consists  of  a  long  ruler,  in  the  middle  of 
whiwh  is  titled  at  riglil  angles  another  bnxider 
piece,  at  the  to[)  ot  which  is  fastened  a  plum- 
met, wiiich  when  it  hangs  over  the  rhiddle 
line  of  the  second  or  u])ri!;ht  piece,  shews 
that  the  base  or  long  ruler  is  horizontal  or 
level.    Fig.  149. 

Mri.inii'.s  Level,  is  composed  of  three 
rulersj  so  jointed  as  to  form  an  isosceles  tri- 


(53 

angle,  •orifvl.at  like  a  Ilonian  A ;  from  t'le 
vertex  of  whch  is  suspended  a  p!i;n.mcl, 
which  hangs  directly  over  a  mark  in  the 
middle  of  the  base,  when  this  is  horizontal  or 
level. 

J'hiiii  ir  Pinthihiin  I.EvrL,  said  to  be  in- 
vented by  M.  I'icard,  (ig.  1  jfi.  This  shews 
the  horizontal  line  by  means  of  ariothcr  Ihie 
perpendicular  to  that  described  by  a  p'liin- 
met  or  pendulum.  This  level  consists  of 
two  legs  or  br.u.i-hes,  ji;ined  at  right  angles, 
the  one  of  which,  ol  about  18  iiiches  long, 
carries  a  thread  and  plummet;  the  thread 
being  hung  near  the  lop  of  the  branch,  at  the 
point  'J.  The  middle  of  the  branch  where 
the  thread  passes  is  hollow,  so  that  it  may 
hang  free  every  where:  but  towards  (he 
bottom,  where  there  is  a  small  blade  of  sil- 
ver, on  which  a  line  is  drawn  |)crpeiidicular 
to  the  telescope,  the  said  caviiy  is  covered 
bv  two  pieces  of  brass,  with  a  ])iece  of  glass 
CJ,  to  see  tile  )>Iummet  through,  forming  a 
kind  of  case,  to  prevent  the  wind  from  agi- 
tating the  thread.  The  telescope,  of  a  pro- 
per length,  is  fixed  to  the  other  leg  cf  the  iii- 
struinent,  at  right  angles  to  the  perpendicu- 
lar, and  having  a  hair  stretched  horizontally 
across  the  focus  of  the  object-glass,  wliicij 
deti-rniines  the  point  of  level,  wlicj;  the  string 
of  the  plummet  hangs  against  the  line  on  the- 
silver  blade.  The  v\hole  is  lixed  by  a  ball 
and  socket  to  its  stand. 

Fig.  I  Jl.  is  a  Balance  Level,  which  being 
suspended  by  the  ring,  the  two  siglits,  when 
in  equilibrio,"  will  be  horizontal,  oiMn  a  level. 

But  the  most  complete  level  is  the  Spirils 
Levei,  invented  bv  the  late  Mr.  Kamsden. 
See  Plate  Spirits  Level.  ABD,  fig.  7.  are 
the  three  legs  upon  whicli  it  is  placed  ;  wlieij 
shut  up,  they  form  one  round  rod,  and  are 
kept  together  by  three  rings;  these  legs  are 
jointed  to  a  brass  frame  K,  on  the  top  of 
w  hich  is  a  male  screw,  screwing  into  a  fi.mali: 
screw  within  the  projection  a  of  the  plate  F. 
\Vithin  the  top  of  a,  figs.  4  and  7,  is  a  he- 
mispherical cavity  to  contain  the  spherical 
ball,  lig.  3  :  this  ball  has  a  male  screw  il  on 
its  top,  which  screws  into  a  female  screw  /;, 
fig.  (),  in  the  plate  C,  fig.  7  and  fig.  ti,  the 
ball  is  put  up  through  an  opening c,  fig.  4,"aud 
screwed  to  tin-  plate,  fig.  (j  ;  so  that  the  upiier 
plate  G  c?n  move  in  any  direction  within 
certain  limits  by  the  jilay'of  the  ball  in  its 
socket;  to  confine  the  upper  plate  G  when  it 
is  set  in  any  direction,  four  screws,  HHllll, 
fins.  4  and  7,  are  employed;  they  work  in 
tubes  firmly  lixed  to  the  plate  i',  and  are 
turn.-d  by  their  milled  heads;  the  upper  end* 
of  these  screws  act  against  the  under  side  of 
the  plate,  fig.  G,  as  shewn  in  fig.  7;  so  that 
when  the  ])late  G  is  required  to  be  moved  in 
any  direction,  it  is  done  by  screwing  ui)  one 
screw  and  screwing  down  tiie  opposite  till  it; 
is  brought  to  the  jiropi  r  inclination ;  then  by 
screwing  up  both  together,  the  plate  is  firmly 
fixed.  The  ball,  fig.  5,  has  a  conical  hole  / 
tlirough  it,  to  receive  an  axis  w  bicli  is  screwed 
fast  to  the  bottom  of  the  coinpass-box  I,  fig. 
7;  a  screw  screwed  into  the  end  of  this  axis 
prevents  its  Ix-ing  lifted  oiit,  and  at  the  same 
time  leaves  it  at  liberty  to  turn  round  inde- 
pendant  of  the  ball,  fig.  5.  On  each  side  of 
the  coinpass-box  I,  is  a  bar  KK,  on  the  end 
of  which  are  fixed  two  forked  pieces  I(), 
called  the  Y's  (from  their  reseml.ilance  to- 
that  letter),  earning  the  telescope  M.  (  ue 
of  these  (O)  is  capable  of  being  laiscU  as 


64 


LEV 


lowered  bv  means  of  a  milleil-headed  screw 
N,  wliicli'wurks  thiougU  a  collar  in  the  lower 
end  of  the  tube  g ;  the  re^t  of  the  tube  has  a 
triangular  hole  through  il,  iu  which  slides  a 
bar  /c,  which  is  part  of  the  Y;  O  the  female 
screw  is  cut  within  this  bar,  and  the  sc!e\v 
works  ir.to  it,   so  that  bv  turning  the  milled 
head  one  way,  th.e  Y  is"  raised,  and  by  re- 
versing the  inotion,  it  is  lowered.     The  axis 
vhich    connects   the   compass-box  and   the 
other  apparatus,  has  a  collar  upon  it  just 
above  v.here  it  enters  the  ball,  lig.  5,  which 
is  embraced  bv  a  clamp  V,  lig.  6,  which  is 
closed  bv  a  screw  C,  so  as  to  hold  tire  collar 
of  the  ax'is  tiuite  tight ;  and  wl-.en  the  screw  is. 
turned  back,  its  own  elastirity  opens  it  so  as 
to  allow  the  axis  of  the  compas^box  t()  turn 
round  uvely  within  it ;  on  the  opposite  side  of 
-the  clamp  is  a  projecting  arm  /,. carrying  the 
r.ut  m  of  the  screw  Q,  wiiich  screw  wor(iS  in  a 
stud  n,  fixed  to  the  upper  plate  G,  ligs.  7  and 
0;  by  this  means,  when  G  is  loosened,  the 
telescope   can  be  turned  quite  '  round,  but 
vhen  il  is  fastened,  if  can  only  be  moved  by 
turning  the  screw  Q.     The  level-tube  Z  is 
fastened  to  the  under  side  of  the  telescope 
by  a  screw,  q  at  one  end  and  a  bar  r  at  tlie 
other:  the  use  of  these  are  to  adjust  it  so 
that  it  shall  be  exactly  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
.tlie  tclescope-ti'.bc     The  level,  as  best  ex- 
plained in  the  .section,  fig.    1,   is  a  tube  of 
gjass  ss,  nearly  filled  with  spirits  of  wine,  but 
*o  as  to  leave  a  bubbfe  of  air  in  il ;  if  the  tube 
is  ot  exactly  the  same  diameter  iu  every  •part, 
the  bubble 'w  ill -rest  in  the  middle  of  the  tube 
when  it  is  level.     In  some  of  the-  best  levels 
made  by  Ramsilen,  the  inside  of  the  lube  is 
bent  into  a  segment  of  a  circle,  100  feet  dia- 
tncter,  and  the  inside  is  ground,  whicli  causes 
the  bubble  to  adhere  together;  if  the  tube  is 
stralglit,   it  is  l.able  to   divide   into  several 
-small  on«s.     The  internal  parts  of  the  tele- 
scope are  exphined  in  lig.  1 :  HR  is  the  e.x- 
tcrnal  lube  of  brass  plate ;  within  this  slides 
another  tube  .5* ;    it  has  two  glasses  r,  iv, 
screwed  into  tlie  outer  end,  called   object- 
glasses,  and  it  has  two  divisions  x;  y,  called 
tiiaphagram,  with  small  holes  in  them  ;  their 
use    is  to  collect    the  prismatic    rays  with 
which  the  objects  would  otherwise  be  ti^nged; 
:tlie  tube  ii  lias  a  rack,  t  fixed  nearly  in  the 
middle  of  it,  which  lakes  into  a  pinion  on 
flie  axis  of  the  nii'.lcd  head  T,  figs.  1  and  7  ; 
bv  turning  this,    the  glasses  v,  u-,    can   be 
jiioved  nearly  to,  or  farther  from,  the  e)e  to 
a<liust  the  focus ;  to  the  tube  R  at  ;•  are  fixed 
the  cross  wires,  whose  inlersection  is  exactly 
ill  the  centre  of  the  tube.     The  manner  of 
fixing  these  is  explained  in  fig.  3:    A  is  a 
brass  box,  which  fits  into  the  end  of  the  tele- 
scope-tube, and  is  held  there  by  four  small 
screws;    witliin  this  box  is   i)laced  a   brass 
plate  \\  carrying  tl";  wires,  which  are  fasten- 
ed by  screwing  tour  screws  down  upon  their 
ends;  wh(;n  the  plate  B  is  in  the  box,  a  ring 
.()  is  screwed  in  upon  it,  which   prevents  its 
falling  out,  but  at  the  same  time  leaves  it  at 
liberty  to  move  about  in  the  box;  the  sides 
of  the  box,  and  also  the  telescope-lube,  has 
four  rectangular  holes  in  it,  through  wliidi 
four  screws  are  passed  into  the  edges  ol  the 
piece  P),  so  as  to  hold  it  in  any   position: 
these  screws  come  through  tlie  exl'ernal  tube, 
and  have  square  heads,  to  be  turned  by  a 
Jcey,  so  as  to  adjust  the  interactions   in  the 
centre:  the  box  A  has  a  female  screw  in  the 
front,  iflto  which  is  screwed  Die  eye-piece 


L  E  V 

\V  ;  3  is  Ihe  tube  which  is  screwed  to  the  te- 
lescope ;  witiiin  this  slides  a  tube,  containing 
two  glasses  4,  5  ;  by  sliding  the  glasbcs  in  or 
out  of  the  tube  3,  they  can  be  adjusted  so  as 
to  adaj.t  tlieir  focus  to  the  cross  wires.     This 
eye-piecc   is  convenient  on   account  of  its 
shortness;  but  as  it  reverses  the  objects,  it  is 
sometimes  more  convenient  io  use  the  eye- 
piece  fig.  2,  which  is  much  longer,  but  does 
not  reve"i-,se  objects,     a  is  the  tube  which  is 
screwed  to  the  telescope;  within  this  slides 
another  tube  hb,  having  at  one  end  a  tube 
(Id,  containing  two  glasses  ef,  and  a  diapha- 
gra.i!  e,  and  at  the  oilier  end  a  tube  hli,  con- 
taining two  glasses  ik,  and  a  diaphagram  : 
m  is  a  cap  wrewed  on  to  the  end  to  preveiit 
the  tubes  coming  out.     A\  hen  the  instrument 
is  to  be  carried,  Ihe  level  is  unscrewed  from 
the  legs  and  packed  in  a  case ;  the  legs  are 
shut  up  and  kept  so  by  the  rings,  as  before 
described.     1  he  manner  of  using  this  instru- 
ment is  as  follows:  When  the  diirerence  of 
level  between  any  two  places  is  required,  the 
observer  witli  the  level  goes  to  die  highest  ot 
the  two,  and  his  assistant  goes  to  the  lowest 
with  the  target,  wdiicli  is  a  long  pole  of  wood 
with  a  groove  in  it,  in  w  hich  slides  a  small  rod 
carrying  a  round    piece  of  wood,  called   a  j 
siijli't,  which  is  to  be  observed  thiough  the  , 
telescope;  the  oljscrver  opens  the  legs  of  the 
iuitrument,  and  sets  them  on  the  ground ; 
the  level  is  next  screwed  to  them  at  E,  as 
shewn  in  fig.  7  ;  the  telescope  is  then  bronglu 
nearly  to  a  level  by  the  screws  HHIill,  as 
before  described  ;  the  screw  c  is  then  turned 
so  as  to  release  the  clamp  P,  fig.  6 ;  and  the 
telescope  is  turned  about,  so  as  to  point  to 
the  target;  the  clamp  Pis  then  closed,   the 
observer  looks  through  the  telescope,  and  by 
turning  the  nut  '1",  the  focus  is  adjusted  : .  the 
screw  Q  is  then  turned  till  the  cross  wires  are 
brought  to  coinciile  whh  the  object,  in  an 
horizontal  plane  ;  he  then  takes  his  eye  from 
the  telescope,  and  works  the  screw  N  till  he 
brings  the  bubble  of  air  in  the  level-tube  ex- 
actly in  the  middle,  which  shews  that  llie  te- 
lescope is  perfectly  horizontal;  the  observer 
then  makes  signals  to  the  assistant  to  raise  or 
lower  the  sight  on  the  slider  of  the  target,  till 
it  is  brought  to  coincide  with  the  intersection 
of  the  cross  wive,  which  shews  that  the  tele- 
scope and  the  sight  of  the  target  are  on  the 
same  level  ;   the  height  which  the  sight  is 
from  the  grounil  where  the  target  stands,  de- 
ducted from  the  height  the  telescope  stands 
from  the  ground,  is  the  dilVerence  of  level 
required. 

LEVIiLLlNG,  the  art  or  act  of  finding  a 
line  parallel  to  the  horizon  at  one  or  more 
stations,  to  determine  the  height  or  depth  of 
one  place  with  respect  to  another;  for  laying 
out  grounds  even,  regulating  descents,  drain- 
ing.morasses,  conducthig  water,  &c. 

'I'wo  or  more  places  are  on  a  true  level 
when  they  are  e([iially  distant  from  the  centre 
of  the  earth.  Also  o'ne  place  is  higher  than 
another,  or  out  of  level  with  it,  when  it  is  tai- 
therlVom  the  centre  of  the  earth;  and  a  line 
ecpiallv  distant  Irom  that  centre  in  all  its 
points',  is  called  tile  line  of  true  level.  Hem  e, 
because  the  earth  is  round,  that  line  must  be 
a  curve,  and  make  a  part  of  Ihe  carlirs  cir- 
cumference, or  at  least  parallel  to  it,  or  con- 
centrical  with  it;  as  the  line  P.C'l''G  (I'late 
Misc.  fig.  Ij2),  which  has  all  its  points  I'qu.ill) 
distant  from  A,  the  centre  of  the  earth,  con- 
sidering il  as  a  perfect  globe. 


LEV 

Rut  the  line  of  sight  RDE,  &c.  given  bjr 
the  operations  of  levels,  is  a  tangent,  or  a 
right  line  iierpendicular  to  the  semidiameler 
ot  the  earth  at  the  point  of  contact  B,  rising 
alv.ays  higher  above  the  true  line  of  level, 
the  tarthcr  the  distance  is,  is  called  the  appa- 
rent line  of  level.  Thus,  Ct)  is  the  liciglit 
of  the  apparent  level  above  the  true  level, 
at  the  distance  liC  or  liD  ;  also  HI''  is  the 
excess  of  height  at  F,  and  Gil  at  G,  &c.- 
The  difference,  it  is  evident,  is  always  equal 
to  the  excess  of  the  secant  of  the  arch  of  dis- 
tance above  the  radius  of  the  earth. 

The  common  methods  of  levelling  are  suf- 
ficient for  laying  pavements  of  walks,  or  tor 
conveying  water  to  small  distances,  &c. ;  but 
ill  niore  extensive  opcnitions;  as  in  levelling 
the  bottoms  of  canals,  which  are  to  convey 
water  to  iJie  distance  of  many  miles,  and  such 
like,  the  difference  between  the  true  and  the 
a])parent  level  must  be  taken  into  the  ac- 
count. 

Now  the  diirerence  CD  between  the  true  and 

app.ii  ent  level,  at  any  distance  EC  or  BD,  may 

be  found  thus ;    By  a  well-known  property  of 

the  circle,  i-'AC   -\-  CD  ;  BD  ; ;  BD  ;  CD  ;  or 

because  the  diameter  of  the  earth  is  so  great 

wilh  respect  to  the  hne   CD  at  all  distances  to 

wliich  an  operation  of  levelling  commonly  ex-. 

tends,  that  2AC   may  be  safclv  taken  for  2AC. 

-|-  CD  in  that  proportion  without  any  sensible 

error,  it  will  be  '.'AC  ;  BD  ; ;  BD  ;  CD,  which 

,        /•        ■  ^°^  Bc^  ,         ■       .      , 

therefore  is  =; ,  or ne.^rly ;  that  is,  the 

Sag  2ac  •' 

difference  between  tlie  true  and  apparent  level,. 

is  eijual  to  the  square  of  the  distauce  between 

the  i)laces, divided  by  the  diameter  of  the  earth; 

and  conse^iuently  it  is  always  proportional  to 

tlie  square  of  the  distance. 

Now  the  diameter  of  the  earth  being  nearly 

7958  nnles  ;  if  we  first  take  EC  :=  1  mile,  the.a 

BC^  1 

the  excess  becomes of  a  rode,  which. 

2ac  79J8 

is  7.9C2  inches, or  almost  8  inches,  for  the  height 
of  the  apparent  above  the  true  level  at  the  dis-" 
tance  of  one  mile.  Hence,  proportioning  the 
excesses  in  altitude  according  to  the  sijuares  of' 
the  distances,  the  following  Table  is  obtained,' 
shewing  the  height  of  the  apparent  above  ttie 
true  level  for  every  100  yards  of  distance  on 
the  one  hand,  and  for  every  mile  on  the  other. 


Dist.      Dif.  of  Level, 
or  BC.  !       or  CD. 


Dlst. 

Dif.  of  Level, 

or  BC. 

or  CD. 

Yards. 

Inches. 

100 

0.026 

200 

0.103 

r,oo 

0.231 

400 

0.411 

."JOO 

O.'HS 

coo 

0  92,5 

700 

1.J60 

8(X) 

1.645 

900 

2.081 

looo 

2..'370 

1 100 

IJ.llO 

1200 

3701 

1:100 

4.:i44 

MOO 

5.038 

i:,QO 

5.784 

](.'«) 

6.580 

1700 

7.425 

lies. 

Feet.  Inc. 

I 

A- 

0    Oi 

\ 

0     2" 

4 

0     4i 

1 

0     8 

2 

2     8 

3 

6     0 

4 

10     7 

5 

16     7 

6 

23  11 

7 

32     C 

S 

42     6 

9 

53     9 

U) 

66     4 

11 

SO     S 

12 

95     1 

13 

112     2 

M 

130     1 

Bv  means  of  tallies  of  reductions,  we 
can  now  le\el  to  almost  any  distance  at  one 
operation,  wlii<'h  the  anlient^  could  not  do 
but  by  a  great  multitude;  for,  being  unac- 
(|uainted  wilh  the  correction  answering  to 
any  distance,  they  only  levelled  from  one  20 


L  K  \' 

■yards  to  anotlii.T,  when  they  Iiad  ocrasioii  (o 
CDi.liiuii;  ll'.e  work  to  somu  considerable'  ex- 
tent. 

This  table  will  answer  several  useful  j5iir- 
poses.  Thus,  lirst,  to  lind  the  heii;ht  ot  the 
apparent  level  above  the  tru  ',  at  an\  clislance. 
Il  tin-  gi\en  disUnue  is  in  the  table,  the  cor- 
rection of  level  is  f'onnd  on  the  same  line 
witli  it:  thys  at  the  distance  ol' 1000  yards, 
the  correction  is  'J-j7,  or  two  inches  and  a 
hair  nearly;  and  at  the  distance  of  10  miles, 
it  is  (56  feet  4  inches.  But  if  the  exact  dis- 
tance is  not  foinid  in  the  table,  then  multiply 
the  scjuare  of  the  distance  in  yards  by  2'j7, 
and  divide  by  1,000,000,  or  cut  off  six  places 
on  the  right  lor  ilecinia's  ;  the  rot  are  inches: 
or  niulliply  the  s(|uare  of  tlie  distance  in  nnles 
l)\  fii)  fei'l  4  ineaes,  and  di\ide  bv  100. 

2dly,  To  lind  the  extent  of  the  visible  ho- 
rizon, or  how  far  can  bir  seen  from  any  given 
lieinlil,  on  a  horizontal  plane,  as  at  sea,  ^c. 
Suppose  the  eye  ol  ari  observer,  on  the  to]) 
of  ;i  ship's  mast  at  sea,  is  at  the  lieight  of  1,50 
feet  above  the  water,  he  will  then  see  about 
1  4  miles  all  around,  ('r  from  the  top  of  a 
<l,il  by  the  sea-side,  the  lieight  of  which  is  66 
Icet,  a  person  may  see  to  the  distance  of  near 
10  miles  on  the  surface  of  the  sea.  .iMso, 
when  the  top  of  a  hill,  or  the  light  in  a  light- 
Jionse,  or  such  like,  whose  height  is  130  feet, 
liist  comes  into  tin;  view  of  an  e_^  e  on  board 
;i  ship,  tl'.e  table  shews  that  the  distance  of 
tile  ship  from  it  is  14  miles,  if  the  eye  is  at 
the  surface  of  the  water;  but  if  tiie  height  of 
the  eye  in  the  ship  is  SO  feet,  tlien  the  dis- 
timce  will  be  increased  by  near  11  miles, 
making  in  all  about  23  miles  distance. 

odly,  Suppose  a  spring  to  be  on  one  side 
of  a  lull,  and  a  house  on  an  opposite  hill,  witk 
a  valli-y  between  tliem,  and  that  the  spring 
seen  from  the  house  a|)pears  by  a  levelling 
instrument  to  be  on  a  leyel  with  the  fc.inida- 
ti  in  of  the  house,  which  suppose  is  at  a  mile 
tlistance  from  it;  then  is  the  spring  eight 
inches  above  the  true  level  of  the  house  ;  and 
this  dilfereiice  would  be  barely  suflicieiit  for 
the  water  to  be  brought  in  pipes  from  the 
.spring  to  the  house,  the  pipes  being  laid  all 
the  way  in  the  ground. 

4'h,  If  the  height  or  distance  exceed  the 
limits  of  the  table,  then,  hrst,  if  the  distance 
be  given,  divide  it  by  2,  or  bv  3,  or  b^  4, 
in:c.  till  the  (juotieiit  come  within  the  dis- 
tances in  the  table  ;  then  lake  out  the  height 
answering  to  the  (piolient,  and  multi|)ly  it  bv 
the  S(ji:are  of  the  divisor,  that  is,  bv  4,  or  9, 
or  Jii,  &c.  for  the  height  recjuired:  so  if  the 
top  of  a  hill  is  just  seen  at  the  distance  of  40 
miles,  then  40  divided  bv  4  gives  10,  to 
which  in  tiie  table  answer  Cfii  feet,  which 
being  nniltiplied  by  16,  the  square  of  4,  gives 
lOtifltVet  for  the  height  of  the  lull.  But 
when  the  heiglit  is  given,  divide  it  by  one  of 
these  sqiiaie  numbers  4,  9,  16,  25,  &c.  till 
the  quotient  come  within  the  limits  of  the 
table,  and  inulliply  the  quotient  by  the 
square  root  of  ilie  divisor,  that  is  bv  2,'or  3, 
or  4,  or  5,  &c.  for  tiie  distance  sought :  so 
when  the  top  of  the  peak  of  ']  enerifle,  said 
to  be  almost  3  miles,  or  1;)840  feet  high,  just 
comes  into  view  at  sea,  divide  l.iS4o  by  225, 
or  the  square  of  1.'.,  and  the  quotient  is  70 
nearly ;  to  which  in  the  table  answers  bv  pro- 
portion nearly  lo^mile^;  then  multijiKing 
10|.by  15,  gives  154  miles  and  .J.,  for  the 
tlisiame  of  the  hill. 

Vol.  II. 


L  R  V 

The  operation  of  levelling  is  as  follows : 
Swppose  the  height  of  the' ])oint  A  (I'iate 
.Miscel.  fig.  153.)  on  the  top  of  a  mounta.n, 
above  that  of  li  at  the  lotit  of  il,  is  recjuired. 
IMace  the  level  about  the  middle  distance  at 
1),  and  set  up  jjiekets,  poles,  or  staffs  at  A 
and  li,  where  peisons  must  attend  with  sig- 
nals for  rai>ing  and  lowering,  on  the  said 
poles,  little  marks  of  pasteboard  or  other 
mailer.  'J  he  level  having  been  placed  ho- 
rizontally by  the  bubble,  lVc.  look,  towards 
the  stalf  AK,  aud  cause  the  person  there  to 
raise  or  lower  the  mark  till  it  appears  through 
the  telescojie  or  sights,  &c.  at  l\:  then  nn'-a- 
sure  exadly  the  perpendicular  height  of  the 
point  K  above  the  point  A,  which  suppose 
5  leet  8  inches,  and  set  it  down  in  your  book. 
Then  turn  your  view  the  other  way  towards 
the  pole  li,  and  cause  the  person'  there  tp 
raise  or  lower  his  mark,  till  it  ajjpears  in  the 
visual  hue  as  before  at  C;  and  measuring 
the  height  of  C  above  I'>,  wliieh  suppose  15 
feet  fj  niches,  set  this  down  in  \our  book 
also,  immediately  above  the  nuinber  of  the 
hrst  observation.  'I'hen  subtract  the  one 
from  the  other,  and  the  remainder  0  feet  10 
inches  uill  be  the  difference  of  level  between 
A  and  15,  or  the  height  of  the  point  A  above 
the  point  B. 

if  the  i>oint  D,  where  the  instrument  is 
fixed,  is  exactly  in  the  middle  between  the 
points  A  and  B,  there  will  be  no  necessity  for 
reducing  the  apparent  level  to  tlie  (rue'one, 
the  visual  ray  on  both  sides  being  raised 
equally  above  the  true  level.  liul  if  not, 
each  heiglit  must  be  corrected  or  reduced 
according  to  its  distance,  before  the  one  cor- 
rected height  is  subtracted. from  the  other. 

When  the  distance  is  very  considerable  or 
irregular,  so  that  the  operation  cannot  be 
effected  at  once  placing  of  the  level,  or  when 
it  is  required  to  know  if  there  is  a  suflicient 
descent  for  conveying  water  from  the  spring 
A  to  the  point  B  (lig.  154.),  this  must  be 
performed  at  several  operations.  Having 
chosen  a  proper  place  for  the  lirst  station^ 
as  at  I,  li\  a  pole  at  the  point  A  near  the 
spring,  with  a  proper  mark  to  slide  up  and 
down  it,  as  L;  and  measure  the  distance 
from  A  to  I.  Then  the  level  being  adjusted 
in  the  point  T,  let  the  mark  L  be  raised  or 
lowered  till  it  is  seen  through  the  telescope  or 
sights  of  the  level,  and  nieasure  the  height 
AL.  Then  having  fixed  another  pole  at  H, 
direct  the  level  to  it,  and  cau^e  the  mark  G  to 
be  moved  up  or  down  till  it  appears  throush 
the  instrument ;  then  measure  the  height 
GH,  and  the  distance  from  I  to  II,  notmg 
them  down  in  the  book.  'J'his  done,  remove 
the  level  forwards  to  some  other  eminence  as 
E,  trom  whence  the  pole  H  may  be  \iewed,  as 
also  another  pole  at  D;  then  having  adjusted 
the  level  in  the  point  E,  look  back  to  the  pole 
II ;  and  managing  the  mark  as  before,  the 
visual  ray  will  give  the  j5oii<t  !■";  then  mea- 
suring the  distance  HE  and  the  height  HE, 
note  them  down  in  the  book.  Then,  turning 
the  level  to  look  at  the  next  pole  I),  the 
visual  ray  will  give  the  point  D;  there  mea- 
sure the  height  of  D,  and  the  distance  EB, 
entering  them  in  the  book  as  before.  And 
thus  proceed  from  one  station  to  another  tid 
the  whole  is  complrted. 

But  all  these  heights  must  be  corrected  or 
reduced  by  tiie  foregoing  table,  according  to 
their  respective  distances;  and  the  whole, 
both  distances  and  heights,  with  their  coriec- 


L  E  Y 


65 


tions,  entered  in  the  book  in  the  following 
manner: 


« 

oc-: 

-  1 

0 

U 

c  -r  CM 

-11 

„ 

Cl        oc 

^ 

wi 

.S  "-T  — 

0 

0 

zi     0 

^ 

h 

«j 

•  tr.  X 

i- 

ta      -< 

tm 

r 

M 

t,-    -H 

-I 

C(         Cl 

w 

S2q 

u 

ffiw 

0 

0 

l£< 

2 

g 

^ 

_1J  JJ 

2 

C'l 

s 

1- 

Q 

Eg 

5 

^ 

"  -A^ 

c  0  ■» 

OJ 

0 

.£  '~  ^ 

ci 

0 

71 

OS 

V. 

«i 

■S  "  '" 

0  Cl 

d 

c 

S 

^  —  0 

^ 

^ 

«*,  «  _ 

c» 

CJ 

1 

^  u- 

0 

<  = 

< 

« 

■^.9  3 

0 

trt 

•^'f-. 

<N 

Q 

<5 

Having  summed  up  all  the  columns,  add 
those  of  tiie  distances  together,  and  the  whole 
distance  from  A  to  B  is  4755  yards,  or  two 
miles  and  three  quarters  nearly.  Then  the 
sums  of  the  corrections  taken  from  the  sum« 
of  the  apparent  heights,  leave  the  two  cor- 
rected heights  ;  the  one  of  h  hich  being  takea 
from  the  other,  leaves  5  feel  11-1  intdies  for 
the  true  difference  of  level  sought  between 
the  two  places  A  an<l  B,  wliieh  is  at  the  rate 
of  an  inch  and  a  half  nearly  to  every  100 
yards,  a  quiintity  more  than  sufficient  to 
cause  the  water  to  run  from  the  spring  to  the 
house. 

Or  the  operation  may  be  otherwise  per- 
formed, thus:  Instead 'of  placinj  the  levtl 
between  every  two  poles,  and  taking  both 
b.ick-sights  and  fove-sighls,  plant  it  hrst  at 
the  spring  A,  and  from  thence  observe  tiie 
level  to  the  hrst  pole ;  then  remove  it  to  this 
pole,  and  ob'er\e  the  second  pole;  next 
move  it  to  the  second  pole,  and  observe  the 
third  pole;  and  so  on,  from  one  pole  to  ano- 
tiier,  always  taking  fon-ward  sights  or  obser- 
vations only.  And  then  at  the  last,  add  all 
the  corrected  heights  together,  and  the  sum 
will  be  the  whole  dilference  of  level  sought. 

Levelling-staves,  instruments  used  in 
levelling,  serving  to  carry  the  marks  to  be 
observed,  and  at  the  same  time  to  measuie 
the  heights  of  those  marks  fro.n  the  ground. 
They  usually  coujist  each  of  two  long  wooden 
rulers,  made  to  sli4e  over  one  another,  and 
divide  into  feet,  inches,  &c. 

l.EVER.     See  Mechanics. 

LEVIGATiON.     See  Tharmacv. 

LEVISANUS,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  pentandria  monogynia.  The  flowers 
are  aggregate ;  corolla  one-leafed,  superior, 
live-cleft;  hiaments  inserted  into  the  base  of 
the  perianthium  ;  styles  two,  conjoined ;  seeds 
live  or  six.  Tiiere  are  five  species,  shrubs  of 
the  Cape. 

LE^  DEN  PHIAL.    See  Ei.ecteicity. 

LEYSEBA,  a  genus  of  the  polvgamia 
sn|)erllua  order,  in  the  synger.esia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
unilcr  the  49th  order,  composite.  The  re- 
ceptacle is  naked;  the  p.ippus  paleaceous; 


66 


L  I  B 


that  of  tlie  disc  pUimy ;  tlie  calyx  scarioiis. 
Tiiere  are  tliree  species,  sliriibs  of  tlie  Cape. 
LIAl'RIS,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
syngene>ia  polygamia  a;(|iialis.  'Ibe  calyx 
is  oblong,  imbricate,  awnless,  coloured  down, 
featliered  coloured ;  receptacle  naked,  hol- 
low, dulted.  'J'liere  are  eight  species,  herbs 
of  America. 

LIHEL,  injurious  reproaches  or  accusa- 
tions written  ar.<l  publislied  against  the  me- 
mory of  one  wlio  is  dead,  or  the  rt-putation  of 
one  who  is  alive,  and  thereby  exposing  him  to 
public  hatred,  contempt,  and  ridicule. 

^^  ith  regard  to  libels  in  general,  there  are, 
as  in  maiiy  other  cases,  two  remedies ;  one 
by  indictment  or  information,  and  the  other 
by  action.  The  former  for  a  public  of- 
fence; (or  every  libel  has  a  tendency  to  the 
breach  of  the  peace,  by  provoking  the  per- 
son libelled  to  break  it;  which  olfence  is 
said  to  be  the  same  in  point  of  law,  whether 
the  matter  contained  is  true  or  false;  and 
therefore  it  is  that  the  defendant  on  an  in- 
dictment for  publishing  a  libei,  is  not  allowed 
to  allei'.e  the  truth  of  it  by  way  of  justifica- 
tion. But  in  the  remedy  by  action  on  the 
case,  wiiich  is  to  repair  the  party  in  ilamages 
for  llie  injury  done  him,  the  defendant  may, 
as  for  words  spoken,  justify  the  truth  of  the 
facts,  and  shew  that  the  plaintiff  has  received 
no  injury  at  all.  The  ciiief  excellence  there- 
fore of  a  civil  action  for  a  libel  consists  in 
tills,  that  it  nt)t  only  affords  a  reparation  for 
the  injury  sustained,  but  it  is  a  full  vindica- 
tion of  the  innocence  of  the  person  traduced. 
3  Black.  125. 

By  a  late  statute,  the  jury  are  acknow- 
ledged to  be  judges  both  of  tii'e  law  and  the 
fact. 

Libel,  in  the  ecclesiastical  court,  is  the 
declaration  or  charge  drawn  up  in  writing, 
on  the  part  of  the  plaintiff,  to  whicli  the  de- 
fendant is  obliged  to  answer. 

Libel,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  signifies  an 
jndictment. 

LIBELLL'LA,  dra^on-Jhi,  a  genus  of  in- 
sects of  the  oaler  nenroptera.  '1  he  generic 
i:haracter  is;  moulh  furnished  wifh  several 
jaws;  antenna;  very  short;  wings  four,  ex- 
tended ;  tail  (in  the  male)  hook-foreipated. 

'I'he  libellulie,  or  dragon-flies,  sametimes 
called  by  the  very  impruper  title  of  horse- 
stingers,  exhibit  an  instance  scarcely  les^ 
striking  than  the  bulterlly  of 'hat  strange  dis- 
sinulitude  in  point  of  form  uniler  wiiich  one 
and  the  sime  animal  is  desfined  to  appear  in 
till-  different  periods  of  its  existence.  I'er- 
liaps  few  persons  not  particularly  conversant 
in  the  history  of  insect-;,  would  imagine  that 
these  higWy'  brilliant  ami  lively  animals. 
which  may  Ije  seen  flyii^g  wifh  such  strength 
and  rapidity  round  the  meadows,  and  pursu 
ing  the  smaller  insects  with  the  velocity  of « 
hawk,  had  once  been  inhabitants  of  the  wa- 
ter, and  that  they  had  resided  for  a  verj 
long  space  of  tiu'ie  in  that  element  before 
they  assumed  their  flying  form.  Of  the  li- 
belliike  there  are  many  different  species, 
both  native  afid  exotic.  The  most  remark- 
able of  the  English  species  is  the  libelluki 
varia,  or  great  variegated  libellula.  Thii  in- 
sect makes  its  appearance  princip;illy  loward'- 
the  decline  of  summer,  and  is  an  animal  of 
singular  beauty,  its  general  lengMi  is  about 
tluiv  inches  from  head  lo  tail,  and  the  wings, 
wh'  II  expanded,  measure  near  four  inche- 
feum  tip  to  tip ;  the  licid  is  very  large,  and 


L  I  B 

affixed  to  the  thorax  by  an  extremely  slender 
neck;  the  eyes  occupy  by  far  the' greatest 
part  of  the  head,  and  are  of  a  pearly  blue- 
grey  cast,  with  a  varying  lustre  ;  the  front  is 
greenish  yellow  ;  the  thorax  of  the  same  co- 
lour, but  marked  by  longitudinal  black 
slreaks;  the  body,  which  is  very  long,  slen- 
der, and  subcvhndrical,  is  black,  with  rich 
variegations  of  bright  blue,  and  deep  grass- 
green  ;  the  wings  are  perfectly  transparent, 
strengthened  by  yery  numerous  black  reti- 
cular fibres,  and  exhibit  a  strongly  irides- 
C(;nt  appearance,  according  to  the  various 
inflexions  of  light ;  each  is  marked  near  the 
tip  by  a  small  oblong  square  black  sjiot  on 
the  outer  edge  ;  the  legs  are  black,  and  the 
tail  is  terminated  by  a  pair  of  black  forci- 
pated  processes,  with  an  intermediate  sliorler 
one  of  similar  colour.  Sometimes  this  insect 
varies ;  the  spots  or  marks  on  the  abdomen 
and  thorax  being  red  or  red-brown  instead  of 
green. 

The  female  librUuIa  deposits  or  drops  her 
eggs  into  the  water,  which  sinking  to  tlie  bot- 
tom, are  hatched,  after  a  certain  period,  into 
hexapode  flatfish  larva;  or  calerpiil.u-s,  of  a 
very  singular  and  disagreeable  aspect.     They 
cast  their  skins  several  times  before  they  ar- 
rive at  their  full  size,  and  are  of  a  dusky 
brown  colour.     The  rudiments  of  the  future 
wings  appear  on  the  back  of  such  as  are  ad- 
vanced  to  what  may  be  called  the  pupa  or 
chrysalis  state,  in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  oblong 
scales  or  processes,  and  the  head  is  armed 
with  a  most   singular  organ  for   seizing   its 
prey,  viz.  a  kind  of  proboscis,  of  a  flattened 
form,  and  furnished  with  a  joint  in  the  mid- 
dle, the  end  being  much  dilated,  and  armed 
with  a  pair  of  strung  hooks  or  prongs.     This 
proboscis,  wlien  the  animal  is  al  rest,  is  fold- 
ed or  turned  up  in  such  a  manner  as  to  lap 
over  the  face  like  a  mask;    but  when  the 
creature  sees  any  insect  which  it  means  to 
attack,  it  springs  suddenly  forwards,  and  by 
stretching  forth  the  jointed  proboscis,  readily 
obtains  its  prey.     They  confiiuie  in  this  their 
larva  and  pupa  state  for  two  years,  when, 
having  attained  their  full  si/e,  they  prepare 
for  their' ultimate  change;  and  creeping  up 
the  stem  of  some  waler-plant,  and  grasping 
it  with  their  feet,  they  make  an  eflbrt,  by 
which  the  skin  of  the  back  and  head  is  forced 
open,   and  the  inclosed    libellula   gradually 
emerges.     The  wings,  at  this  early  period  of 
e.xclusion,  like  those  of  butterflies,  are  very 
short,  tender,  and  contracted,  all  the  rami- 
fications or  fibres  having  bfen  <;ompressed 
within  the  small  compass  of  the  oblong  scales 
on  the  back  of  the  larva,  or  pupa;  but  in  the 
space  of  about  half  an  hour,  they  are  fully 
expanded,  and  have  aajuired  the  solidity  and 
;trenath  neces-ary  for  flight.     This  curious 
process  of  the  evolution  or  birth  of  the  libel- 
lula generally  takes  place  in  the  morning,  and 
during  a  clear  sunshine.    The  remaining  part 
of  the  aninLil's  life  is  but  short  in  comparison 
with  that  which  it  passed  in  its  aquatic  state, 
the  fi-osfs  of  the  close  of  autumn  destroying 
the  whole  race.     They  are  also  the  prey  of 
several  sorts  of  birds. 

The  libellula  depressa  is  a  smaller  or 
shorter  species  than  llie  preceding,  though 
with  a  considerably  broader  body  in  piopor- 
lion.  The  male  is  of  a  bright  sky-blue,  with 
the  sides  of  the  body  yellow  ;  the  female  of 
■a  line  brown  or  bay,  with  yellow  sid<'S  also. 
The  wings  iii  both  se.xeo  are  Iraiibparciit,  cx- 
6 


L  I  15  I 

cept  at  the  shoulders,  where  they  are  eac 
marked  by  a  broad  bed  or  patch  of  broun 
with  a  stripe  of  yellow;  the  lips  of  each  « ing 
liave  also  a  small  oblong-square  bla  k  spot 
on  the  outer  margin.  '1  lie  larva  of  this  >pc-- 
cics  is  of  a  shorter  form  than  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  is  of  a  greenish-brown  colour. 

The  libellula  virgo  is  one  of  the  most  ele- 
gant of  the  European  insects.  It  is  much 
smaller  than  the  libellula  varia,  and  is  distin- 
guished by  its  very  slender,  long,  cylindric 
body,  which,  as  well  as  the  head  and  thorax, 
is  usually  either  of  a  bright  but  deep  golden 
green,  "or  else  of  a  deep  giUh  <T  blue.  '1  he 
wings  are  transparent  at  the  base  and  tips, 
but  are  each  marked  in  the  middle  by  a  very 
large  oval  patch  or  bed  of  deep  blackish  or 
violet  blue,  accompanied  with  iridescent 
hues  according  to  the  direction  of  the  light: 
sonietinies  the  wings  are  entirely  violet-black, 
without  the  least  appearance  ot  transparency 
either  at  the  base  or  tips;  and  sometimes 
they  are  aUogether  transparent,  without  any 
appearance  of  the  violet-black  patch  which 
distinguishes  the  maj.irity  of  specimens;  and 
lastly  the  insect  sometimes  appears  wifh 
transparent  wings,  but  shaded  v  Ith  a  strong 
cast  of  gilded  greeoish  brown,  ea<-h  being 
marked  by  a  small  while  speck  at  the  exte- 
rior edge,  near  the  tip. 

A  much  smaller  species  than  the  preced- 
ing, and  equally  common,  is  the  libellula 
puella  of  Linnsus.  This  varies  much  in  co- 
lour, but  is  generally  of  a  bright  and  beauti- 
ful skv-blue,  variegated  with  black  bars  on 
the  joints,  and  with  the  thorax  marked  by 
black  longitudinal  stripes.  The  wings  are 
transparent,  and  each  marked  near  the  tip 
with  a  small  oblong-square  blac-k  marginal 
spot. 

The  exotic  libelluUc  are  very  numerous^ 
Among  the  most  remarkable  may  be  num- 
bered Ihe  L.  Incretia.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  is  distinguished  by 
the  excessive  length  of  its  slender  body,, 
which  measure  noi  less  than  five  inches  and 
a  half  111  length,  though  scarcely  exceeding 
the  tenth  of  an  inch  in  tliaineter.  The  wings 
are  transp.-.rent,  of  a  slender  or  narrow  shape, 
as  in  the  L.  puella,  to  which  this  species  is 
allied  in  lorm,  and  measure  five  inches  and 
a  half  in  extent  from  tip  lo  tip.  1  he  coloui: 
of  the  head  and  thorax  is  brown,  with  a  yel- 
lowish stripe  on  each  side,  and  the  body  is  of 
a diep  mazarine-blue.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist, 
ligs.  250,  i.'51. 

LIBERTUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  pep- 
son  who  from  being  a  slave,  had  obtained  his 
freedom.  The  diiferencc  between  the  ii- 
berti  and  liiiertini  was  ihis:  tlie  liberti  were 
such  as  had  been  actually  made  free  them- 
selves, and  the  libertini  were  the  children  of 
such  persons. 

I.IBR.V,  the  balance,  in  astronomy,  one  of 
the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac,  the"  sixth  iu 
Older;  so  called  because  when  the  sun  enters 
it,  the  days  and  nighls  are  equal,  as  if  weighed 
ill  a  balance. 

Authors  enumerate  from  ten  to  forty-nine 
stars  in  this  sign. 

Libra,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  pound 
weight ;  also  a  coin,  ctpial  m  value  to  twenty 
denarii. 

iJBHATiON,  in  astronomy,  an  apparent 
irregularity  of  the  moon's  motion,  w.'iereby 
she  seems  lo  librale  about  her  axis,  some- 
times from  the  cast  lo  Uic  west,  auU  now.  aud 


I^A'Tl^RAL  HiSTOmY, 


141 


J'rntfd^'''''n'^-'-'-rTcLci\3jiTinSiifi.Nst<-Brui^i-St.B!3d3S%arj-. 


I,  I  c 

l^-icnfiom  l!ie  west  lo  llic  fast;  so  llial  the 
])Luts  in  tlie  western  limb  or  margin  of  tiie 
moon  sometinies  recede  from  llie  eenire  of 
(lie  disk,  ajid  sometimes  move  towards  it,  by 
wliicii  means  thev  l)ceome  alteniatelv  visible 
ruid  invisible  to  tlTe  iniiabitanls  of  tiie  earth. 

I.IBRATION  of  tlir  earth,  is  sometimes  used 
to  denote  the  paralleli -ni  of  the  cartii's  axis, 
in  every  part  of  its  orbit  ronnd  the  sun. 

LICKNCE,  in  law,  an  authority  given  to 
a  person  to  do  som.;  lawful  act. 

A  licence  is  a  personal  power,  and  there- 
fore cannot  be  transferred  to  another.  If  tlie 
person  licensed  abuse  tlie  power  ^iven  him, 
ill  tiiat  case  he  becomes  a  trespasser. 

LICENTIATE,  one  who  has  obtained  tlie 
de;;ree  of  a  licence.  The  !;reatest  niniiber  of 
the  oilicers  of  justice  in  Spain  are  distinguish- 
ed by  no  other  title  but  that  of  licentiate.  In 
orilcr  to  pass  licentiate  in  common  law,  civil 
law,  and  physic,  tiiey  must  have  studied 
seven  years;  and  in  divinity,  ten.  Among 
us,  a  licentiate  usually  m"ans  a  physician 
who  has  a  licence  to  practise,  f;raiited  by  the 
college  of  physicians,  or  the  bislioj)  ol  ihe 
diocese. 

I^ICHEN,  lii-crziort,  a  genus  of  the  na- 
tural order  of  alga?,  m  the  cryptogamia  class 
of  plants.  The  male  receptacle  is  roundish, 
somewhat  plain  and  shining.  In  the  female 
the  leaves  have  a  farina  or  mealy  substance 
scattered  over  them.  There  are  alwut  2l6 
species,  all  found  in  Britain.  Among  the 
most  remnkable  are  the  following: 

1.  The  geographicus;  it  is  tVequent  in 
rocks,  and  may  be  readily  distinguished  at  a 
distance.  The  crust  or  ground  is  of  a  bright 
greenish-yellow  colour,  sprinkled  over  with 
juimerous  plain  lilack  tubercles;  wliicli  fre- 
cjnently  run  into  one  another,  and  form  hues 
resembling  the  rivers  in  a  map,  from  wliich 
last  circumstance  it  lakes  it  name. 

'J.  The  calcarious,  or  black-nobbed  dyer's 
lichen,  is  frequent  on  calcarious  rocks;  and 
lias  a  hard,  smooth,  wliite,  stony,  or  tar- 
tareous  crust,  cracked  or  tessclated  on  the 
surface,  uitii  black  tuliercles.  Dillenius  re- 
lates, that  tliis  species  is  used  hi  dyeing,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  tartareus  alter-inen- 
tioned. 

3.  The  ventosns,  or  red  spangled  tartare- 
ous  lichen,  lias  a  hard  tartareous  crust,  crack- 
ed and  tesselated  on  the  surlat;e,  of.a  jndc 
yellow  colour  when  fre^h,  and  a  hght  olive 
■when  dry.  The  tubercles  are  of  a  blood-red 
colour  at  top,  their  margin  and  base  of  tlie 
same  colour  as  the  crust.  The  texture  and 
appearance  of  this  (according  lo  Mr.  Light- 
fool)  indicate  that  it  would  answer  the  pur- 
Jioses  of  dyeing  as  well  as  some  others  of  tliis 
tribe,  if  proper  experiments  were  made. 

4.  The  candelarius,  or  yellow  farinaceous 
lichen,  is  common  upon  walls,  rocks,  boards, 
and  old  pales.  Tliere  are  two  varieties. 
The  first  has  a  farinaceous  crust  of  no  regular 
figure,  covered  with  numereus  small  green- 
ish-yellow or  olive  shields,  and  grows  com- 
nionlv  upon  old  boards.  The  other  has  a 
smooth,  hard,  circular  crust,  wrinkled  and 
Jobed  at  the  circumference,  wliich  adheres 
closely  to  rocks  and  stones.  In  llie  centre 
are  numerous  shields  of  a  deeper  yellow  or 
orange  colour,  which,  as  they  grow  old, 
sw^ell  in  the  middle,  and  as.;ume  the  figure  of 
tubercles.  The  inhabitants  of  Smakind  in 
Sweden  scrape  this  lichen  from  the  rocks, 


L  I  C 

and  mix  it  with  their  tallow,  to  make  golden 
candles  lo  burn  on  festival  days. 

£.  The  tartareus,  or  large  yellow-Baiicered 
dyer's  liclien,  is  fr<r|uent  on  rocks,  both  in 
the  Highlands  and  Lowlands  of  Scotlaml. 
The  crust  is  tliick  and  tough,  cither  while  or 
greenish  while,  and  iias  a  rotigli  waned  sur- 
tace.  The  shields  are  yellow  or  buff-colour- 
ed, of  various  sizes,  from  that  of  a  pin's  lie^d 
to  the  diameter  of  a  silver  penny.  Their 
margins  are  of  the  same  colom-  as  the  crust. 
This  lichen  is  much  used  by  liie  Highlandei-s 
for  dyeing  a  line  claret  or  pomi)adour  colour. 
For  tills  piupose,  after  scraping  it  from  the 
rocks,  and  cleaning  it,  they  stec|)  it  in  urine 
tor  a  ipiarter  of  a  year.  'I'hen  taking  it  out, 
they  make  it  into  cakes,  and  hang  them  up  in 
bags  to  dry.  These  cak'sare  afterwards  pul- 
verised, and  the  pow  tier  is  used  to  impart  the 
colour  with  an  addition  of  alum. 

6.  The  parellus,  or  crawlish-eye  lichen, 
grows  upon  walls  and  rocks,  but  is  not  very 
common.  The  crusts  sp'.'ad  closely  upoii 
the  place  where  they  grow,  and  cover  them 
to  a  considerable  extent.  They  are  rough, 
tartareous,  and  ash-coloured,  ot  a  tough  cori- 
aceous substance.  The  shields  are  numerous 
and  crowded,  having  white  or  ash-coloured, 
shallow,  plain  discs,  with  obtuse  margins. 
This  is  used  by  the  French  for  dyeing  a  red 
colour. 

7.  TliesaxatiUs,  or  grey -blue  pitted  lichen, 
is  very  common  upon  trunks  of  trees,  ro:ks, 
tiles,  and  old  wood.  It  forms  a  circle  two  or 
three  inches  diameter.  The  Ujiper  surface  is 
of  a  blue  grey,  and  sometimes  of  a  whitish 
ash-colour,  uneven,  and  full  of  mmierous 
squall  pits  or  cavities;  the  under  side  is  black, 
and  covered  all  over,  even  to  the  edges,  with 
short  simple  hairs  or  radicles.  A  variety 
sometimes  occurs  with  leaves  tinged  of  a  red 
or  purple  colour.  This  is  used^by  (inches 
and  other  small  birds  in  constructing' the  out- 
side of  their  curiously  foirned  nests. 

8.  The  omphalodes,  or  dark-coloured 
dyer's  lichen,  is  fre(|uent  upon  rocks.  It 
forms  a  thi;k  widely  expanded  crust  of  no  re- 
gular figure,  composed  of  numerous  imbri- 
cated leaves  of  a  brov.-n  or  dark-purple  co- 
lour, divided  into  small  segments.  The  mar- 
gins of  the  shields  are  a  litile  crisped  and 
turned  inwards,  and  their  out'-ide  ash-colour- 
ed. ''J'his  lichen  is  much  used  by  the  High- 
landers in  dyeing  a  reddish-brown  colour. 
I'hey  steep  it  in  urine  for  a  considerable  time, 
till  it  becomes  soft  and  like  a  paste;  then, 
forming  the  paste  into  cakes,  they  dry  them 
in  the  sun,  and  preserve  them  for  use  in  the 
manner  already  related  of  the  tartareus. 

9.  The  ))arietinus,  or  cojunion  yellow 
wall-lichen,  is  very  common  upon  walls, 
rocks,  tiles  of  houses,  and  trunks  of  trees.  It 
generally  spreads  itself  in  circles  of  two  or 
three  inches  diameter,  and  is  said  to  dye  a 
good  yellow  or  orange-colour  with  alum. 

10.  The  Islandicus,  or  eatable  Iceland 
lichen,  grows  on  many  mountains  both  of  the 
Highlands  and  Lowlands  of  Scotland.  It 
consists  of  nearly  erect  leaves  about  two 
inches  high,  of  a  stiff  substance  when  dry, 
but  soft  and  jilianl  when  moist,  variouslv  di- 
vided without  order  into  broad  distant  seg- 
ments, bifid  or  trifid  at  the  extremities.  The 
upper  or  interior  surface  of  the  leave<  is  con- 
cave, chesnut-colour,  smooth,  and  shining, 
but  red  at  the  base;  the  under  or  exterior 

12 


Lie  e^ 

surface  is  smooth  and  wlnlish,  a  little  pitted, 
and  sprinkled  with  very  minute  black  warts. 
The  margins  of  the  leaves  and  all  the  ieg- 
nients  from  bottom  to  top,  are  ciliated  witU 
small,  short,  stiff,  hair-like  spii.ules,  ot  a  dark 
che.snut-colour,  turning  towards  the  upper 
side.  The  shiehls  are  verv  ranMv  produced. 
Made  into  broi'  d  to  be  very 

serviceable  in  <  iptions;  anil, 

according  to  Ijai.M-  ;.;.i  .>;■.. po'li,  is  mucli 
used  ill  these  complaints  in  Vienna. 

1 1 .  The  pulmonarius,  or  lung-wort  lichen, 
grows  in  shady  woods  upon  the  trunks  of  old 
trees.  The  leaves  are  as  broad  as  a  man's 
hand,  of  a  kind  of  leatl.er-like  substance, 
lianging  loose  from  the  trunk  on  which  it 
grows,  and  laciniuted-  into  wide  angular  seg- 
ments. Their  natural  colour,  when  fresh,  is 
gi-ecn;  but  in  drying,  they  turn  first  lo  a 
glaucous  and  afterwarcis  to  a  fuscous  colour. 
It  has  an  astringent,  bitter  taste;  and,  ac- 
cording lo  Gmelni,  is  boiled  in  ale  in  Siberia, 
instead  of  hops.  I'he  antients  used  it  in 
couahs  and  aslinnas.  Sic.  but  it  is  not  used  iu 
modern  practice. 

12.  Tliecalicaris,  or  beaked  lichen,  grows 
sometimes  upon  trees,  but  more  freq.i:enlly 
upon  rocks,  especially  on  the  sea-coasts,  but 
is  not  very  common.  It  is  suTooth,  glossy, 
and  whitish,  producing  flat  or  convex  shields, 
of  the  same  colour  as  tlie  leaves,  very  near 
tlie  summits  of  the  segments,  which  are  acute 
and  rigid,  and,  being  often  retlected  from  the 
peqiendictdar  by  the  growth  of  the  shields, 
appear  from  inuler  their  limbs  like  a  hooked 
beak.  This  will  dye  a  red  colour;  and  pro- 
mises, in  that  intention,  to  rival  the  famous 
lichen  rocolla  or  argol,  w  liicli  is  brought  from 
the  Canary  Islands,  and  sometimes  soUl  at  the 
price  of  80/.  per  ton.  It  was  formerly  used 
instead  of  starch  to  make  hair-powder. 

13.  'I  he  prujiastri,  or  common  ragged 
hoary  lichen,  grows  upon  all  sorts  of  trees  ; 
but  it  is  generally  most  white  and  hoary  on 
the  sloe  and  old  palm  trees,  or  U|.on  old 
pales.  'This  is  the  most  variable  of  the  whole 
tribe  of  lichens,  appearing  different  in  figure, 
magnitude,  and  colour,  according  to  its  age, 
place  of  grow  th,  and  sex.  The  yoi:n"  plants 
are  of  a  glaucous  colour,  slightly  divided  into 
small  acute  crested  segments.  As  thev  grow 
older,  they  are  divided  like  a  stag's  horn,  irito 
more  and  deeper  segments,  somewhat  broad, 
tlat,  soft,  and  pilled  on  both  sides,  the  upper 
surface  of  a  glaucous  colour,  the  under  one 
while  and  hoary.  The  male  plants,  as  Lin- 
naeus terms  ihe'm,  are  shoit,  seldom  more 
than  an  inch  high,  not  hoary  on  the  under 
side;  and  have  pale  glaucous  shields  situated 
at  the  extremities  of  the  segments,  standing 
on  sliort  peduncles,  which  are  only  sinall 
slilf  portions  of  the  leaf  produced.  The  fe- 
male specimens  have  numerous  farinaceous 
tubercles  both  on  the  edge.s  of  their  leaves, 
and  the  wrinkles  of  tiieir  furnace.  The  pul- 
verised leaves  have  been  used  as  a  |)0wder 
for  the  hair,  and  also  in  dyeing  yarn  of  a  red 
colour. 

14.  The  juniperinus,  or  common  yellow 
tree-licben.  is  common  upon  the  trunks  and 
branches  of  elms  and  many  other  trees.  Lin- 
na;us  says  it  is  very  common  upon  the  juni- 
per. The  Gothland  Sv^cdes  dye  their  yam 
of  a  yellow  colour  with  it,  and  give  it  as  a 
specific  in  the  jaundice. 

15.  The  caninus,  or  ash-coloured  ground 
liverwort,   grows  upon  the  ground  among 


68 


tic 


L  I  E 


moss,  at  the  roots  of  trees  in  sliacly  woods, 
and  is  fiequeiit  also  in  lioalhs  and  stony  places. 
Tlu'  leaves  are  large,  gradually  dilated  to- 
wards til."  extremities,  and  divided  into 
roinidisli  elevated  lobes.  Tueir  upper  side, 
in  dry  weather,  is  a^h-coloured ;  in  rainy 
weatlier,  of  a  dull  fuscous  ureen  colour;  their 
iinder-^ide  wliite  and  hoary,  having  many 
thick  downy  nerves,  from  which  descend  nu- 
merous long,  white,  pencil-like  radicles.  The 
pelta;,  or  shields,  grjw  at  the  extreinities  of 
the  elevated  lobes,  shaped  like  the  lunnan 
nail;  of  a  roundi<h  nval  form,  convex  above, 
and  concave  beneath ;  of  a  chocolate  colour 
on  the  upper  side,  and  the  same  colour  with 
the  leaves  on  the  under.  There  are  two  va- 
rieties, the  one  i  ailed  reddish,  and  the  other 
many-tingered,  groun<l-liverwort.  The  for- 
mer is  more  common  tlian  the  other.  This 
species  has  l)een  rendered  famou^  bv  the  ce- 
lebrated Dr.  .Mead,  who  asserted  tliat  it  wa^ 
an  in.alhble  preventative  of  the  dreadUil 
consequences  attending  the  bite  of  a  mad 
dog. 

16.  The  aphthosus,  or  green  i^rounddlver- 
wort  with  black  warts,  grows  upon  the 
ground  at  the  roots  of  trees  in  woods,  and 
other  stony  and  mos^v  places.  It  dilfers  very 
lillle  from  the  luregoing,  and  according  to 
some  i^  only  a  varietv  of  it.  Linnaeus  in- 
forms us,  that  till"  country-people  of  I'pland 
in  Sweden  give  an  in'u^ion  of  tliis  lichen  in 
milk  to  children  that  are  troubled  with  the 
disorder  called  the  thrush  or  aphtha',  which 
induced  that  ingenious  uaturali^t  to  be-tow 
upon  it  the  trivial  name  of  aphthostis.  The 
same  writer  also  tells  us,  that  a  decoction  of 
it  in  water  purges  upwards  and  do^^nwards, 
and  will  destroy  worms. 

17.  'I"he  cocciferus,  or  scarlet-tipped  cup- 
lichen,  is  frequent  in  moors  and  heaths.  It 
has  in  the  first  state  a  granulated  crust  for  its 
ground,  which  is  afterwards  turned  into  small 
laeinialed  leaves,  green  above,  and  hoary  nn- 
derneath.  The  plant  assumes  a  very  dili'erent 
aspect,  according  to  the  age,  situation,  and 
other  accidents  of  its  growth;  but  may  be  in 
general  readily  distinguished  by  its  fructih- 
cations,  which  are  fungous  tubercles  of  a  line 
scarlet  colour,  placed  on  the  rim  of  the  cup. 
Of  on  the  top  of  the  stalk.  These  tubercles, 
steepeil  in  an  alcaline  lixivium,  are  said  to 
dye  a  line  durable  red  colour. 

18.  The  rangiferinus,  or  rein-deer  lichen, 
is  frequent  in  woods,  heaths,  and  mountain- 
ous I  laces.  Its  general  height,  when  full- 
grown,  is  about  two  inches,  i'he  stalk  is  hol- 
low, and  very  much  branched  from  bottom 
to  t  )p  :  the  branches  are  divirled  and  subdi- 
vided, and  at  last  terminated  by  two,  three, 
four,  or  five  very  line,  short,  nodding  horns. 
The  axilla;  of  the  branches  are  often  perfo- 
rated. The  whole  plant  is  of  a  ho  iry  white 
or  grey  colour,  covered  with  while  farina- 
ceous particles,  light  and  brittle  when  dry, 
soft  and  elastic  when  moist.  The  fructilica- 
tions  arc  very  minute,  round,  fuscous,  or 
reddi-ili-brown  tubercles,  which  grow  on  the 
very  extremities  of  the  iinest  branches;  but 
these  tubercles  are  very  seldom  found.  I'he 
plant  seems  to  liave  no  fohaeeeiis  groinid  for 
the  base,  nor  scarcely  any  visible  roots. 
Linnaeus  tells  us,  th.it  in  Lapland  this  moss 
grows  -o  luxuriant  that  it  is  sometimes  fotnid 
a  foot  high.  TliiTe  are  many  varieties  of  this 
species,  of  whii-h  the  i)rincipal  is  ihe  syl»ali 
ous,  or  browiiiiiJl  icm-dtfer  lichen,     The 


most  remarkable  difference  between  them 
is,  that  the  sylvaticus  turns  fuscous  by  age, 
while  the  other  always  continues  white, 

19.  Theplieatus,  or  officinal  stringy  liciien, 
grows  on  the  branches  of  old  trees,  biit  is  not 
very  common.  The  stalk-  are  a  foot  or  more 
in  length,  cylindrical,  ligid,  and  string- 
shaped,  very  irregularly  branched,  the 
branches  entangled  together,  of  a  cinereous 
or  ash-colour,  biittle  and  stringy  if  doubled 
short,  otherwise  tough  and  pliant,  and  hang 
pendant  Irom  the  trees  on  which  they  grow. 
The  shields  grow  generally  at  the  extrL<»iii- 
ties  of  the  branches,  are  nearly  Hat,  orslight- 
ly  concave,  thin,  a^h-coloured  above,  pale- 
brown  underneath,  and  radiated  witli  tine 
rigid  libres.  As  the  plant  grows  old,  the 
branches  become  covered  with  a  white, 
rough,  warty  crust;  but  the  young  ones  are 
desdtute  of  it.  It  uas  formerly  used  in  the 
shops  as  an  astringent  to  slop  hicmorrhages, 
and  to  cure  ruptures;  but  is  out  of  the  mo- 
dern practice.  Linna"us  informs  us,  that  the 
Laplamlers  apply  it  to  their  feet  to  relieve 
the  excoriations  occasioned  by  much  walk- 
ing. 

20.  The  barbatus,  or  bearded  lichen, 
grows  upon  the  branches  of  old  trees  in  thick 
woods  and  pine-lorests.  Tlie  stalks  or  strings 
are  slightly  branched  and  peiurnlous,  from 
lialf  a  foot  to  two  feet  in  length,  little  biggi'r 
than  a  taylor's  common  sewiug-thread  ;  cy- 
lindrically  jointed  towards  the  base;  but  sur- 
roundeil  every  where  else  with  numerous  ho- 
rizontal capillary  fibres,  either  simple  or 
slightly  branched.  Their  colour  is  a  whitish 
green.  This  has  an  astringent  quality  like 
the  preceding.  When  steeped  in  water,  it 
ac(|uires an  orange  colour;  and,  according  to 
DiUenius,  is  used  in  Pennsylvania  for  dyehig 
that  colour. 

21.  Thg  vulpinus,  or  gold  wiry  lichen, 
grows  upon  the  trunks  of  old  trees,  but  is  not 
Very  common.  It  is  produced  in  erect  tufts, 
Irom  half  an  inch  to  two  inches  in  height,  of  a 
line  yellow  or  lemon-colour,  which  readily 
discovers  it.  The  hlaments  which  compose 
it  are  not  cylindrical,  but  a  little  compressed 
and  uneven  in  the  surface,  variously  branched, 
ihe  angles  obtuse,  and  the  branches  straggling 
and  entangled  one  with  another.  Linnaus 
informs  us,  that  the  inhabitants  of  Smaland  in 
.Sweden  dye  their  yarn  of  ^  jellow  colour 
with  this  lichen;  and  that  the  Norwegians 
destroy  wolves  by  stuffing  dead  carcases  with 
this  moss  reduced  to  powder,  and  mixed 
with  pounded  glass,  and  so  exposing  them  in 
the  winter-season  to  be  devoured  by  those 
animals. 

LICONIA,  in  botany;  a  genus  of  the  di- 
gyiiia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  class 
of  plants.  There  are  live  petals  inlaid  in  the 
pit  of  the  nectariuin  at  its  base;  the  capsule 
is  bilocular  and  seed-bearing. 

I.ICUAI.A,  a  genus  of  the  nat.  order  of 
palina".  The  llowers  are  all  henuaphrodile; 
cal.  and  cor.  three-parted  ;  nect.  sertiform 
drupe.     There  is  one  species. 

LIEUTENANTS,  Lords,  of  countirs, 
are  ollicers  who,  upon  any  invasion  or  rebel- 
lion, have  power  to  raise  the  milit;a,  aiul  to 
give  commissions  to  colonels  and  other  olli- 
cers, to  arm  and  form  them  into  regiments, 
troops,  and  companies.  I'lider  the  lord-- 
lii'ulenants,  are  deputy  lieutenant-,  ylio  h.ive 
the  iiaiiie  power ;  these  are  chuscu  by  the 


L  I  F 

lords-lieutenants,  out  of  the  principal  gentle- 
men of  each  county,  and  presented  to  the 
kuig  for  his  approbation. 

LIFE  ANKi  ITIES,    annual  payments, 
to  conlimie   durins;  any  given  hie  or  lives. 
The  present  value  of  a  liie  annuity  is  t:ie  sum 
wliicli  would  be  sufticient  (aliouiiig  tor  ihe 
chance  of  the  lile  failing)  to  pay  the  annuity 
without  loss ;  and   supposing  money  to  bear 
no  interest,  the  value  of  an  annuity  oi   1/.  is 
equal  to  the  espectation  of  the  life.     '1  lius  it 
will  be  found  bv   the  taole  given  under  the 
article  Expect.\tion  of  like.  Ilia:  the  ex- 
pectation of  a  lite  aged  forty,  is  tvienly-tiiree 
years  ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  a  set  of  liv^s 
at   this  age,  will,  one  witii  another,   enjoy 
twenty-three  years  each  of  existence,  some 
of  them  eiijov  iiig  a  duration  as  niiicli  longer 
as  others  fall  short  ot   it.     '1  herelore,  sup- 
posing  money   te   bear  no  inleresi,    231.   iti 
hand  lor  each  lile  would  be  suliicient   to  pay 
to  any  number  of  such  livc-i   W.  per  annum, 
fijr  their  whole  duration  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
~3l.  is,  on  this  supposition,  the  value  ol  a  life 
aged  forty.     But  ilany  iuipiovement  is  made 
of  money  by  putting  it  out   to  interest,   the 
sum  just  mentioned  will  be  more  than  the  va- 
lue, because  it  will  be  more  than  sufficient  to 
pay    the  annuity  ;  and  it   will    be  as  much 
more  than  sufficient  as  the  impiovemcnt  or 
the  interest  is  greater.     If,  for  instance,  mo- 
ney may  be  so  improved  by  being  put  out  to 
interest,  at  5/.  percent,  as  to  double  itself  in 
fourteen  years,  the  seller  ot  such  an  annuity, 
on  putting  out  halj  the  purehase  money  to 
interest,  will  at  the  end  of  fourteen  years  lind 
himself  in  possession  of  201.  10s.  or  of  11/. 
1 0.5.  more  than  is  sufficient  to  pay  the  re- 
mainder of  the  annuities,  though  he  should 
make  no  further  improvement  of  the  pur- 
chase money.     At  whatever  rate  of  interest 
the  money  is  improved,  there  must  be  a  sur- 
plus;  and  if  it  is  fully  improved  at  5/.  per 
cent.,  it  will  be  found  that   I  1/.  l6s.  Sil.  for 
each  annuity,  will  be  sufficient  (instead  of 
231.)  to  make  all  the  annual  payments;  or,  if 
money  can  be  improved  at  ti/.   per  cent., 
10/.  l'4s.  !(/.  will  be  suliicient. 

Many  persons  have  fallen  into  an  error 
with  resi)ect  to  the  value  of  life-annuities,  by 
considering  it  the  same  as  the  value  of  an  an- 
nuity certain  for  a  term  of  years  equal  to  the 
expectation  of  the  life.  The  inaccuracy  of 
this  mode  of  computation  arises  from  the  dif- 
ference between  the  value  of  a  certain  num- 
ber of  payments  to  be  made  every  year  regu- 
larly till  the  terra  is  completetl,  and  the  va- 
lue of  the  same  number  of  payments  to  be 
made  at  greater  distances  of  time  from  one 
another,  and  not  to  be  all  made  till  many 
years  after  the  expiration  of  the  term  equal 
to  Ihe  expectation. 

The  true  mffthod  of  computing  'he  values  of 
life-.innuities  cannot  be  more  clenrly  expressed 
than  as  it  is  given  in  "  The  Doctrine  of  Annui- 
ties antl  Assurances  on  Lives  and  Survivorships,'* 
by  William  Morgan. — "  Was  it  certain  that  a 
person  of  a  given  age  would  live  to  the  end  of  a 
year,  the  value  of  an  annuity  of  I/,  on  such  a 
life  would  be  the  present  sum  that  would  in- 
crease in  a  year  to  the  value  of  a  life  one  year 
older,  together  with  the  value  of  the  single  pay- 
ment of  \t.  to  be  made  at  the  end  of  a  year  ; 
lh.it  Is,  it  would  be  I/,  ttigether  with  the  value 
of  a  life  avrcd  one  vcar  older  than  the  ;;ivon  life, 
multiplied  by  the  value  of  1/.  p-ivable  at  the 
end  of  a  year.  Call  the  v.iluc  of  a  life  one  year 
older  thaa  the  given  Win  N,  and  the  value  of  1/. 
6 


nny.iMf  at  the  end  of  a  year  ;  then  will  the 
value  of  an  annuity  on  the  given  lite,  on  the 
supposition  of  a  certainty,  be  -{-  x  N  =: 
J 


X  1  -J-  N.  But  the  fact  is,  that  it  is  uncer- 
tain whether  the  given  life  will  exist  to  the  end 
of  the  year  or  not .  this  last  value  therefore, 
must  be  fliminished  in  the  proportion  of  this 
uncertainty;  that  is,  it  must  be  multipl'ed  by 
the  probability  that  the  given  lite  will  survive 

one  year,  or  supposing  —  to  express  this  pro- 


/, 


Ld 


babilitv,  it  will  be  —  x   1  +  N.    In  the  same 

'  iir 

manner  the  values  of  annuities  nn  tlie  ioitit  cr,r,~ 
ti'tujiice  of  lives  may  be  found  :  Call  the  value  of 
any  two  joint  lives  M,  the  prubabiliiy  that  two 

lives  one  year  younger  will  exist  a  year 

and         as  above,  the  value  of  II.,  payable  at 

r 
the  end  of  the  year.     Then,  by  reasoning  as  bc- 
foie,  the  value  of  the  joint  continuance  ,f  two 
lives  one   vear  younger  will   be  expressed  by 

J-'L  X  T+-M." 

acr 

By  these  theorems,  tables  mav  be  calculated 
of  the  values  of  single  or  joint  lives,  according 
to  anv  table  of  the  probabilities  of  life,  and  by 
the  use  of  loijariihms,  and  computing-  upwards, 
from  the  okiest  to  the  youngest  life,  the  labour 
ot  forming  such  tables  is  not  very  great;  few 
persons,  however,  have  occasion  to  undertake  it, 
as  the  tables  published  by  Dr.  Price,  Mr.  Mor- 
and  Mr  Maseres,  shew  the  values  of  life- 
an.iuities  as  accurately  as  the  present  kn  wledge 
of  the  decrements  and  duration  of  liuman  lite 
will  admit,  and  are  suftlcient  for  almost  every 
useful  purpose. 

TABLE  I. 
Shewing  the  Value  of  an  Annuity  of  £.1  on  a 
Single  Lite  at  every  Age  ^aci.o  ding  to  the 
probabilities  of  the  duration  of  Human  Life 
at  Northampton,  reckoning  Interest  at  5  per 
Cent. 


S 


Ages. 

Value. 

Age 

Value. 

Age. 

Value. 

Birth. 

8.663 

33 

12.740 

GG 

7.034 

lyear 
•J 

1 1  .jG3 

34 

12  623 

67 

6.787 

13.420 

35 

12.502 

68 

6.536 

a 

14.135 

3G 

12  377 

69 

6.2H1 

4 

I4.G13 

37 

12..49 

70 

6  023 

5 

14.827 

38 

12.116 

71 

5.764 

6 

15.041 

39 

11.979 

72 

5.504 

7 

15.IG6 

40 

11.837 

73 

5.245 

8 

15  226 

41 

1 1.695 

74 

4.990 

9 

15.210 

42 

11.551 

75 

4.744 

10 

15.139 

43 

11.407 

76 

4.511 

11 

15  043 

44 

lIJ-'58 

77 

4  277 

12 

14.n37 

45 

11.105 

78 

4.035 

13 

14.826 

46 

10.947 

79 

3  776 

14 

14.710 

47 

10.784 

80 

3.515 

15 

14.;88 

48 

10.616 

81 

3.263 

Ifi 

UA60 

49 

10.443 

82 

3.020 

17 

14.334 

50 

10.269 

HJ 

2.797 

IS 

14.217 

51 

10.097 

84 

2.627 

19 

14  108 

52 

9.925 

85 

2  471 

20 

14.007 

53 

9.743 

86 

2  328 

21 

13  917 

54 

9.567 

87 

2.193 

22 

13  8.33 

55 

9.382 

88 

2.0SO 

23 

13.746 

56 

9.193 

89 

1924 

24 

13.658 

57 

8.999 

90 

1.723 

£5 

13.5G7 

58 

8.S0I 

91 

1.447 

26 

13.473 

59 

8.599 

92 

1.153 

27 

13.377 

60 

8.392 

93 

0.8  IG 

28 

13.278 

61 

8.181 

94 

0  524 

£9 

13.177 

62 

7.966 

95 

0  233 

30 

13.072 

G3 

7.742 

96 

0.000 

31 

12.9fi5 

64 

7.514 

S2 

UMi 

65 

7.276 

i.irr;  annuities. 

These  values  suppose  the  payment.s  to  be 
made  •(•'■'"•'v,  and  to  begin  at  the  end  of  the  first 
year  ;  if  the  payments  are  to  be  made  /ju!/-yeariy, 
the  value  in  the  table  will  be  increased  about 
one-fifth  of  a  year's  purchase. 

In  order  to  hud  the  present  value  of  an  an- 
nuity during  ;iny  given  life,  it  is  only  nect-ssary 
to  multiply  the  value  in  the  table  corresponding 
with  tlie  age,  by  the  given  annuity. 

Kxattif'lf.  What  should  a  person,  aged  45.  give, 
to  purchase  an  annuity  of  50  .  during  his  life  .? 

'The  value  in  the  lable  against  45  j'cars  is 
1 1.105,  which  multiplied  by  50,  gives  the  answer 
5551.  5/. 

TABLE  II. 
.Shewing  the  Value  of  an    .Annuity  during  the 
joint  continiunce  of  Two  Live*,  according  to 
the  probabilities  of   Lile   at    Northampton; 
reckoning  Interest  at  5  per  Cent. 


Ases. 


5-5 

5-10 

5-15 

5-20 

5-25 

5-.30 

5-35 

5-40 

5-45 

5-50 

5-55 

5-CO 

5-65 

5-70 

5-75 

S-SO 

10-10 

10-15 

10-20 

10-25 

10-30 

10-35 

10-40 

10-45 

10-50 

10-55 

10-60 

10-65 

10-70 

10-75 

10-80 

15-15 

15-20 

15-25 

15-30 

15-35 

15-40 

15-45 

15-50 

15-55 

15-GO 

15-65 

15-70 

15-75 

15-80 

20-20 


Val 


uc. 


11.984 

12.315 

11.954 

11.561 

11.281 

10959 

10.572 

10.102 

9.;71 

8.941 

8.25^; 

7.466 

6.546 

5.472 

4.362 

3.23H 

12  665 

12.302 

11  !)06 

1 1  627 

1 1  .304 

10.916 

10.442 

9.900 

9.260 

8  5CO 

7.750 

6.803 

5.700 

4.522 

3.395 

11.960 

11.585 

11.3-'4 

11.021 

10.655 

10.205 

9.6"  90 

9.076 

a  403 

7.G22 

6.705 

5.631 

4.495 

3.372 

1 1 .232 


Ases. 


20-30 

.0-3, 

L«-40 

20-4 

2()-".<) 

20-: 

2;i-6a 

20- 

L:0-70 

20-7, 

20-80 

25- 

25-30 

25-35 

25-40 

25-45 

25-."0 

25- 

25-riO 

2.-6 

25-70 

25-' 

25-80 

.30-30 

30-35 

30-40 

30-4.' 

30-50 

30-55 

30-60 

30-65 

30-70 

30-75 

30-80 

35-35 

35-40 

35-45 

35-50 

35-. 

35-60 

35-65 

35-70 

35-75 

35-80 

40-40 


Value. 


10.989 
10.707 
10.363 
9.937 
9.443 
8.861 
8.216 
7.46.3 
6.576 
5. .532 
4.424 
3.325 
10.764 
10.499 
10.175 
9.771 
9  304 
8.739 
8.116 
7.383 
6.515 
5.48'i 
4  39> 
3.30:-: 
10.25.^: 
9  954 
9.576 
9  135 
8596 
7.999 
7.292 
6.447 
5.442 
4.365 
3.290 
9.680 
9.331 
8  921 
8.415 
7  849 
7.174 
6  360 
5.382 
4.327 
3  268 
9.016 


Ao-cs    Value. 


40-4 

40-50 

40- 

40-60 

40-65 

4O-70 

40- 

40-80 

45-4 

45-50 

45-55 

45-';o 

45-(i 

45-70 

45- 

45-80 

50-50 

50-55 

50-60 

50-65 

50-70 

.'0-7 

50-80 

55-55 

5  3-60 

55 -R.; 

55-70 

55—15 

55-80 

60-';o 

60-' 

60-' 

60-' 

60->C, 

65-G 

65-70 

65-75 

65-80 

70-70 

70-75 

70-80 

75-75 

75-80: 

80-80 

85-85 

90-90 


8.G43 
8.177 
7.651 
7.015 
6.240 
5.298 
4.272 
3.236 
8..'!  12 
7.891 
7.411 
6.822 
6.094 
5.195 
4.206 
3.197 
7.522 
7.098 
6.568 
5.897 
5.054 
4.112 
3.140 
6.735 
6.272 
5.671 
4.ii9:i 
4.006 
3.076 
.5.888 
5.372 
4.680 
3.866 
2.992 
4.960 
4.37S 
3  665 
2.873 
3.9:i0 
3.347 
2.675 
2.917 
2  381 
2.018 
1.2.5G 
0.909 


It  is  unnecessary  to  insert  a  Table  of  the 
values  of  tliL'  longe,-,t  ot  two  lives,  as  it  ma)  be 
easily  loiiiid  from  the  values  given  in  Ihe 
above  tables  by  the  following  general  rues: 

"  From  the  sum  of  the  values  of  the  single 
lives  subtract  the  value  of  an  anuiiity  on  the 
joint  lives,  and  the  remainder  will  give  the 
value  of  aa  annuity  on  the  continuance  of  the 
longest  of  two  sucli  lives." 

E.tninplc.  Wliat  is  the  value  of  an  annuity 
on  the  longest  of  two  lives  whose  ages  are 
thirty  and  lorty  ? 

By  Table  I.  tlie  value  of  a  smgle  life  of  30 


<5i 

is  13.072,  nnd  by  ihe  same  Table  the  value 
of  a  single  life  of  4o  is  ll.B.'57.  1  licit  sum^ 
therefore  is  24.909,  from  which  9  jT6  (llio 
valiieof  the  joint  lives  of  30  and  40  by  Table 
II.)  being  siiljiractod,  gives  15.333  for  the 
number  of  years  purchase  recjuiicd. 

The  value  of  an  annuity  on  three  joint 
lives  may  be  found  from  the  preceding  tables, 
by  the  following  rule:  , 

"  [.et  A  be  the  youngest,  and  C  tlie 
oldesl  of  the  three  jiroposed  lives.  Take  tlie 
value  of  the  two  joint  lives  15  and  C,  and  find 
the  age  of  a  single  life  D  of  Ihe  same  value. 
Then  lind  the  value  of  the  joint  lives  A  and 
1),  which  will  be  the  answer." 

Kramplc.  Tet  Ihe  three  given  lives  be 
20, 30,  and  40.  Tiie  value  of  the  two  oldest 
joint  hves  H  and  C  will  (by  Table  II.)  be 
i).:>7i),  ai.swering  in  Table  l.'to  a  single  life 
I)  of  54  years;  and  the  vaUie  of  tiie joint 
lives  A  an'd  ]),  or  the  ages  in  li;e  Table  which 
tome  neare,-.l  to  tliem,  gives  8.216  for  tiie 
value  sought. 

'I'he  value  of  three  joint  lives  being 
known,  the  value  of  the  longest  of  any  three 
lives  may  he  computed  by  tiie  following 
rule: 

"  I'lom  the  sum  of  the  values  of  all  the 
single  lives,  suliiract  the  sum  ol  the  values  of 
all  the  joint  lives  combined  two  and  two. 
Then  to  tlij  remainder  add  the  value  oi  tin; 
three  joint  lives:  and  tliis  last  sum  will  be 
the  valiie  of  the  longest  of  tlie  three  lives.' 

Exaniplr.  '1  he  sum  of  the  valuer  of  three 
single  lives  whose  ages  are  2J,  30,  and  40,  is 
(liy  lable  I.)  38,916.  The  value  of  Iwg 
joMit  lives,  whose  ages  are  20  and  30,  is  (by 
'J'able  II.)  10.707  ;  of  two  joint  lives  wliosc 
ages  are  20  and  40,  is9  937,  andiwojointlives 
wliose  ages  are  30  and  4o  is  9.57'i;  the  sum  of 
these  three  values  is  30.220.  This  sum  siil>- 
tractedfrom  3S.916,  leaves  S.696,  wluth  re- 
mainder added  to  8.216  (the  value  of  the 
tnree  joint  lives  in  the  last  example),  gives 
16.912,  tlie  value  of  the  longest  of  the  three 
lives.  The  answers  in  this  and  tlie  preceding 
e.\aniple  are  not  quite  exact,  in  conseqiienci; 
of  the  table  of  joint  lives  being  confined  ta 
the  combinations  of  every  fifth  year  o-  _ge; 
those  who  have  occasion  to  make  such  com- 
putations, will  lind  more  extensive  tables  of 
the  values  of  joint  lives  in  Dr.  Pi  ice's  excel- 
lent Treatise  on  Heversionary  pa_\ments;  but 
a  general  table  of  the  values  of  two  joint  lives 
j  for  everv  possible  difference  of  age,  at  dif- 
ferent rates  of  interest,  has  long  been  very 
desirable. 

The  solutions  of  the  following  Problems,  in 
addition  to  the  rules  already  given,  will  com- 
prehend all  the  cases  which  most  commonly 
occur  relating  to  the  values  of  annuities  on 
lives  or  sur\ivnrship. 

Prob.  I.  To  detemine  the  value  of  au  an- 
luiity  on  a  given  life  for  any  number  of  years. 

Solution.  Find  the  value  of  a  life  as  many 
years  older  than  the  given  life  as  are  equal  to 
the  term  for  which  the  annuity  is  proposed. 
Multiply  this  value  by  1/.,  payable  at  Ihe 
end  of  tliisterni,  and  also  by  the  probability 
that  the  life  will  continue  so  long.  Subtract 
the  product  from  the  present  value  of  the 
given  life,  and  the  remainder  inultiplied  by 
the  annuity  will  be  the  answer. 

Er ample.  Let  the  annuity  be  30/.  the 
age  of  tlie  given  life  35  years,  and  the  term 
jiroposed  14  years.  The  value  of  a  lite  aged. 
49  years  (or'  14  years  older  than  the  given 


70 


L  I  F 


life),  appears  by  Table  I.  to  be  10.443.  The 
vakir  of  1^  pa)able  at  the  end  of  14  years 
(see  CiiMFCuND  Interest),  is  .50:)068,  and 
ilie  probabihty  that  tlie  Ufa  will  exist  so  Ion?, 
(See  Expectation  of  Life)  is  f^l-- 
These  three  values  multiplied  into  each  other 
are  equal  to  3.S6l,which  being  subtracted 
from  12.502  (tlie  present  value  of  the  given 
life  by  Table  I.),  we  have  8.f)41,  and  this  re- 
mainder intiitiplied  by  20,  gives  162/.  I6,i-.  4d. 
lor  tlic  value  required. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  value  of  an  an- 
nuitv  for  any  given  term,  I'.pon  two  joint 
lives,  mav  bs  determined. 

Prob.'II.  Toiind  the  value  of  an  annuity 
certain  for  a  given  term  after  the  e.vtinction  of 
anv  given  life  or  lives. 

ioltttinii.  Subtract  the  vaUn:  of  the  life  or 
lives  from  the  perpetuity,  and  reserve  tl;e  re- 
mainder. Then  say,  as' the  perpetuity,  is  to 
the  pri.sent  value  oi'  the  annuity  certain,  so  is 
the  said  reserved  remainder,  to  a  fourth  pro- 
portional, which  will  be  the  nuiuber  of  years 
purchase  required. 

Example.  A  and  his  heirs  are  entitled  to 
an  annuitv  certain  for  14  years,  to  commence 
at  flie  death  of  B,  aged  3.).  What  is  the 
present  value  of  A's  interest  in  this  annuity? 

Bv  Table  I.  the  value  of  the  life  of  15  is 
12.502,  which  subtracted  from  20,  the  .per- 
petuilv,  leaves  7.498  for  the  remainder  to  be 
reservi'-d.  Then,  as  20,  is  to  9.898  (the  value 
of  an  annuity  certain  for  14  years),  so  is 
7.49S  (the  reserved  remainder),  to  3.7107,  the 
numl)er  of  years  purchase  required. 

pROB.  lil.  To  (ind  the  vaUie  of  an  annuity 
for  a  term  certain,  and  also  forwhat  may  h.ip- 
pen  to  remain  of  a  given  life  or  lives  after 
the  expiration  of  this  term. 

SoluHon.  Find  tlie  valu'-  of  a  life  or  lives 
as  manv  vears  older  than  the  given  hfe  or 
Jives  as"  are  e<\ual  to  tlie  term  for  which  the 
annuitv  certain  is  proposed.  Multiply  this 
■value  by  1/.  payable  at  the  end  of  the  given 
term,  and  also" by  tlie  probability  that  the 
given  life  or  liveswill  continue  so  Kmg.  Add 
the  product  to  the  value  of  the  annuily  cer- 
tain for  the  given  tonn,  and  liie  sum  will  be 
the  answer. 

Example.  Let  the  value  be  required  of  an 
annuity  certain  for  14  years,  and  also  for  the 
remainder  of  a-life  now  aged  35  after  the  ex- 
piration of  this  term.  P.y  Table  T.  the  value 
of  a  life  aged  49  (or  14  years  older  than  the 
given  life)  is  10.443.  'I  he  value  of  [/.pay- 
able at  the  end  of  14  years,  is  .505068,  and 
the  probability  that  the  life  will  exist  so  long 
u  .^iii.  '^riiese  three  numbers  mulliiilieil 
into  each  olher,  produce  3.861,  whicli  being 
added  to  9.S98,  the  "value  of  an  annuity  cer- 
tain for  14  years  (see  Annuities),  becomes 
equal  t«  13'759,  the  number  of  years  pur- 
chase reijuired. 

Prob.  IV.  To  defermiii'?  what  annuity 
any  giver,  sum  will  purchase  during  the  joint 
jiv'ei  of  two  persons  of  given  ages,  and  also 
during  the  life  of  the  survivor,  on  condition 
that  the  annuity  shall  be  reduced  one-half  at 
the  extinction  of  the  joint  lives. 

Sdlulion.  Let  twi'je  the  given  sum  be  di- 
vided by  the  sum  of  the  two  single  lives,  and 
the  quotient  will  s;ive  the  annuily  to  be  paid 
during  the  joint  lives;  one-half  of  which  is 
theretore  the  annuity  to  be  paid  during  the 
remaindw  of  the  surviving  life. 

Exampb:  A  a^ed  27,  and  B  aged  35, 
»re  dw'ifous  of  sinking  1000/.  in  order  to  re- 


L  1   P 

ceive  an  annuity  during  their joiNf  lives,  and 
ahso  another  annuity  of  half  the  value  during 
the  remainder  of  the  surviving  life.  It  is 
required  to  di-termine  what  annuities  should 
be  granted  tlicm  under  those  circumstances. 
15y  Table  I.  tl;e  value  of  a  life  of  27  is  1 3.377, 
and  the  value  of  a  life  of  35  is  12.502. 
2000,'.  (or  twice  the  given  sum)  being  divid-d 
by  25.879  (the  sum  of  the  values  of  the  two 
lives),  gives  77.2S2/.  for  the  annuity  to  be 
gi'anled  during  the  joint  cnntinuance  of  the 
lives;  and  its  half,  or  38.641/.  is  the  annuity 
to  be  paid  during  the  lite  of  the  survivor. 

1'rob.  V.  R,  who  is  of  a  given  age,  will, 
if  he  lives  till  the  decease  of  \,  whose  age  is 
also  given,  become  possessed  of  a  perpetu.il 
ailiiuitv,  or  of  an  estate  of  a  given  yearly  va- 
lue; to  fin<l  the  worth  of  his  expectation  in 
present  money. 

Solutinn.  V'm<\  the  value  of  an  annuity  on 
two  equal  joint  lives  whose  common  age  is 
equal  to  the  age  of  the  oldest  of  llie  two  pro- 
posed lives,  which  value  subtract  from  the 
perpetuity,  and  take  half  the  remainder : 
then  say,  as  the  expectation  of  duration  of 
the  younger  of  the  two  lives,  is  to  that  of  the 
older,  so  is  the  said  half  remainder,  to  a  four' >. 
proportional;  which  will  be  the  number  of 
years  purchase  required  when  the  life  of  I?  in 
expectation  is  the  older  of  the  two :  but  if  B 
be  the  younger,  then  add  the  v.duc  so  found 
to  that  of  the  John  lives  A  and  B,  and  let  the 
sum  be  subtracted  from  the  perpetuity,  and 
you  will  also  iiave  the  answer  in  tiiis  case. 

Example.  Suppose  the  age  of  B  to  be  30, 
and  that  of  A  20  years,  and  the  value  of  the 
estate  50/.  per  annum.  Then  the  value  of 
two  equal  j.iiiit  lives,  aged  30,  is,  by  Table  II. 
10,255,  and  the  perpetuity  being  20,  the  dif- 
feivnce  will  be  9.745,  the  half  of  wliich  is 
4.872.  Therefore  as  33.43,  the  expectation 
ot,A,  is  to  2S.27,  the  expectation  of  B,  so  is 
4.S72,  to  4. 1 19,  which  being  multiplied  by  50,, 
the  given  annuity,  we  have  205.95/.  for  the 
required  value  of  ii's  expectation. 

If  the  age  of  B  had  been  20,  and  that  of  A 
30  years,  then  to  4.1 19,  (he  value  just  found, 
add  the  value  of  the  joint  lives,  which,  by 
Table  II.  is  10.707,  and  the  sum  is  14,826, 
which  subtracted  from  20,  the  [lerpetuilv, 
and  the  remainder  mi',ti|)lied  by  50,  gives 
258.7/.  for  tiii:  re--|uireil  value  in  this  case. 

LllTC  ESTATICS  are  of  two  kinds,  sucli 
as  are  created  by  the  act  of  the  parties,  or 
such  as  are  created  by  the  op'  ration  of  the 
law,  as  estates  by  curtesy  or  dower,  2  Black. 
120. 

KsUites  for  life,  created  by  deed  or  grant, 
are,  where  a  lease  is  made  of  lauds  or  tene- 
ments to  a  man,  to  hold  for  the  term  of  his 
own  life,  or  lor  that  of  another  person,  or  for 
more  lives  than  one;  in  any  of  which  cases, 
he  is  called  tenant  for  life:  only  when  he 
holds  the  estate  by  the  life  of  another,  he  is 
usually  termed  tenant  pur  auier  vie,  for 
anolher's  life. 

Estates  for  life  may  be  created  not  only 
by  the  express  terms  betbre-m<'nlJoned,  but 
aho  by  a  general  grant,  williou'  detiningor 
limiting  any  specific  estate.     2  Black.  121. 

If  such  persons,  for  whose  life  any  estate 
shall  be  granted,  shall  absent  themselves  se- 
ven year-,  and  no  proof  made  of  t'le  lives  of 
such  persons,  in  any  action  commenced  for 
the  recovery  of  such  tene..in_-nls  by  the  les- 
sors or  reversioners,  the  persons  ujion  whose 


L  I  L 

lives  such  estate  depended,  shall  be  account- 
ed as  dead;  and  the  judges  siiall  direct  tlie 
jury  to  give  their  verdict  as  if  the  person  ab- 
seiiling  himself  was  dead.     19  Car.  U.  c.  6. 

LIGAMENT.     See  Anatomy. 

LIGATUKE.     See  Surgery. 

LIGHT.     See  Optics. 

LIGHTS  ;  stopping  lights  of  any  house  is 
a  nuisance,  for  which  an  action  will  lie,  if  the 
house  is  an  antient  house,  and  the  lights  an- 
tient  lights:  but  stopping  a  jirospect  is  not, 
being  only  matter  of  delight,  not  of  necessity  ; 
and  a  person  may  have  eitlier  an  assize  of 
nuisance  against  the  persons  erecting  any 
such  nuisance,  or  he  may  stand  on  liis  own 
ground  and  abate  it.     2  Sulk.  247. 

LIG  HTFdOTI A,  a  genus  of  (he  class 
and  order  polygainia  dioecla.  Tiie  cal.  is 
four-leaved ;  cor.  none ;  fern,  and  her.  stig- 
ma sessile;  berry  umbilicated.  There  are 
three  species,  shrubs  of  the  E.  Indies. 

LIGHPNING.     See  Electricity. 

LIGUSTICU.M,  lovage;  a  genus  of  the 
digynia  order,  in  the  pentaiuu-ia  class  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  (he  45lh  order,  umbellata;.  1  he  fruit 
is  oblong,  and  quinquesuicated  on  each  side; 
the  florets  are  equal;  the  petals  involuted  or 
rolled  inwards,  and  entire.  There  are  eight 
species,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  are, 
the  levisiicum,  or  common,  and  the  Scoti- 
cum,  or  Scots,  lovage.  The  fii>t  is  a  native 
of  the  Appenine  momitaiiis  in  Italy.  The 
second  is  a  native  of  Scotland,  and  grows 
near  the  sea  in  various  parts  of  the  countiy. 

The  root  of  the  first  species  agrees  nearly 
in  quality  with  that  of  angelica  :  the  princi- 
pal difference  is,  that  the  lovage-root  has  a 
stronger  smell,  and  a  s  anewhat  less  pungent 
taste,  accompanied  with  a  more  durable 
sweetness,  the  seeds  being  rather  warmer 
than  the  root;  but  although  certainly  capa- 
ble of  being  applied  to  useful  purposes,  this 
root  is  not  regarded  in  the  |)reseiit  practice. 
The  leaves  of  the  second  are  sometimes  eaten 
raw  as  a  salad,  or  boiled  as  greens,  by  the  in- 
habitants of  the'llebrides.  Thoy  give  an  in- 
fusion of  the  leaves  in  whey  to  calves,  to 
purge  them. 

LIGUSTRUM,  priret,  a  genus  of  tl.e 
nionogynia  order,  in  the  diandria  class  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranl^ing 
under  the  44th  order,  sepiaria?.  The  corolla 
is  quadrifid  ;  thi-  berry  letraspermous.  There 
are  three  species ;  of  the  common  there  arc 
two  varieties,  the  deciduous  and  the  ever- 
green. They  are  hardy  plants,  rising  from 
(en  (o  fifteen  feet  high.  Thev  are  easily 
propag  ted  by  seed,  layers,  suckei's,  or  cut- 
tings. They  are  used  for  making  hedges. 
The  purple  colour  upon  cards  is  prepared 
from  the  berries.  With  the  addition  of  alum, 
these  berries  an;  said  to  dye  wool  and  silk  of 
a  good  and  ihirable  green;  for  which  pur- 
pose they  must  be  gathered  as  soon  as  thev 
are  ripe.  The  leaves  are  bitter  and  slightly 
astringent.  Oxen,  goats,  and  sheep,  eat  the 
plant ;  horses  refuse  it. 

LIKE,  in  geometry,  kc.  denotes  the  same 
with  similar.     See  Similar. 

1..IL-\C,  in  botaii),  a  genus  of  trees,  other- 
wise called  syringa.     See  SyriNga. 

LIL.VLITE.  This  stone  appears  to  jiavc 
been  first  observed  by  the  ;  bbu  Poda,  and 
(<i  have  been  then  described  by  De  Horn. 
Hitherto  it  kis  oulv  been  found  hi  M'.iravia 


I,  I  L 


L  I  M 


L  I  iM 


ri 


in  Germany,  nnd  Siulcniwiiia  in  S'.vodi'ii. 
Tliere  it  i^  iiiixed  with  granite  in  largi-  aiiior- 
jjlious  musses.  It  is  coiiiposcdof  tuin  platL-s, 
easily  sfparaled,  and  not  unlike  llione  oi 
mica.  Ncit  t-asily  piilveiisi'd.  Specilic  gra- 
vity C, 85-19.  Colour  of  tlie  mass,  violet- 
bK;i-';  ol  the  thin  i)!ates,  silvery  white. 
Pouder  white,  with  a  tint  of  rod.  iiet'ore  the 
blowpipe,  it  tVctliS,  and  melts  easily  into  a 
white  semitransparent  enamel,  full  ol' bubbles. 
Dissolves  in  borax  with  efftrveseence,  and 
tommuMicaies  no  colour  to  it.  Kl'lervesces 
slightly  with  soda,  anil  melts  into  a  mass 
spotted  with  red.  With  initroeosuiic  salts 
it  gives  a  pearl-coloured  globule. 

'i  ills  slone  was  lirst  tailed  lilalite  from  its 
colour,  that  of  the  lily.     Klaproth,  who  dis- 
covered  its  component   parts,  gave   it  the 
name  of  lepidolite. 
it  is  cumposcd  of    53  silica 

HO  aUunina 
.     ■  i8  potass 

5  iluat  of  lime 

3  oxide  of  manganese 

1  oxide  of  iron 


100. 


LILTl^M,  the  lifif,  a  genus  of  the  niono- 
gvnia  order,  in  the  hexandriu  class  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  raiikins  under  the 
10th  order,  coronaria;.  The  corolla  is  hexa- 
pelalons,  and  campanulated,  with  a  longitudi- 
nal nectariferous  line  or  furrow;  the  capsules 
connected  by  small  caucellatect  hairs.  I'here 
are  eleven  species;  all  ot  them  bulbous- 
rooted,  herbaceous,  tlowery  perennials,  ri- 
sing with  erect  annual  stalks  tliree  or  four 
feel  iiigli,  garnished  with  long  narrow  leaves, 
and  terminated  by  line  clusters  of  large,  bell- 
shaped,  hexapf-iaious  flowers  of  greal  bfauty, 
of  white,  red,  scarlet,  orange,  purple,  and 
yellow  colours. 

All  the  species  are  propagated  by  sowing 
the  seeds;  and  if  care  is  taken  to  preserve 
these  .seetls  from  good  liowers,  very  beautiful 
varieiiis  are  often  produjcd. 

The  roots  of  the  white  lily  are  emollient, 
uialurating,  and  suppurative,  and  are  used 
externaHy  ia  cataplasms  for  these  purposes 
with  sncce.s.s.  The  common  ioini  of  apply- 
ing them  is,  boiled  and  bruised.  Gerard  re- 
commends them  internally  against  dropsies. 

The  Kamtscnatence,  or  Kamtschatka  lily, 
called  thi-re  sar.mne,  makes  a  principal  part 
of  the  food  of  Kamtschatkans.  Its  roots  are 
gathered  by  the  women  in  August,  dried  in 
the  sun,  and  laid  up  lor  use :  they  are  the 
best  bread  of  the  country;  aiid  alter  being 
baked  are  reduced  to  powder,  and  serve  in- 
stead of  liour  in  soups  and  several  dishes. 
They  are  sometiui  s  washed,  an!l  eaten  as 
potatoes;  are  extremely  nouri;-i.ing,  and 
have  a  plea^ant  bitter  taste.  Our  navigators 
boiled  and  ate  them  with  their  meat.  The 
natives  often  parboil,  and  beat  it  up  with  se- 
veral sorts  of  berries,  so  as  to  form  of  it  a 
very  agreeable  confection.  Providentially  it 
is  an  universal  plant  there,  and  all  the  grounds 
bloom  with  its  llower  during  the  season. 
Another  hoppines.  remarked  there  is,  that 
while fi  h  are  scarce,  the  saraime  is  plentiful; 
an  I  when  there  is  a  d.earth  of  this,  the  rivers 
pour  in  tl.eir  piovisions  with  rediubied  pro- 
fii>ion.  It  '.s  not  to  die  la!-.ours  of  the  females 
alone  that  the  Kamt,-<chatkans  are  indebted 
for  these  roots.    A  species  of  mouse  saves 


them  a  great  deal  of  trtjuble.  The  saranne 
forms  part  o(  the  winter  provi'-ions  ot  that 
little  animal :  they  not  only  gather  them  in 
the  )iroper  season,  and  lay  them  up  in  their 
magazine's,  but  at  tiiues  have  the  instinct  of 
bringing  thi-m  out  in  sunny  weatljer  to  dry 
them.  Jest  they  should  decay.  1  he  natives 
searcli  lor  their  hoards;  but  with  prudent 
tenderness  leave  part  for  the  owners,  being 
unwilling  to  suffer  such  useful  caterers  to 
perish. 

LI  .MAX.  tlie  ,v/«g-,  or  naked  snail;  a  ge- 
nus of  insects  belonging  to  the  order  of 
vermes  mollusca.  The  body  is  oblong,  fitted 
for  crawling,  with  a  kiiul  of  muscular  coat  on 
the"  upper  par!,  and  the  belly  is  plain.  'I'hey 
have  tour  tentiscula,  or  horns,  situated  above 
the  mouth,  which  they  extend  or  relract  at 
pleasure.  This  reptije  is  always  destitute  of 
shell ;  but  besides  that  its  skin  is  more  clam- 
my, and  of  a  greater  consistency,  than  that  of 
the  snail,  the  black  naked  slug  has  a  furrowed 
cloak,  almost  as  thick  and  as  hard  as  lei'ther, 
under  w  hich  it  withdraws  its  he.id  a.s  wltliin  a 
shell.  .The  head  is  distinguished  from  the 
breast  by  a  black  line.  It  is  in  its  head  and 
back  that  the  snail-stone  is  found;  which  is  a 
small  pearled  and  sandy  stone,  of  tlie  nature 
of  limestones:  according  to  a^popular  opi- 
nion, it  cures  the  tertian  ague,  if  tastened  to 
the  patient's  arm.  These  slugs  move  on 
slowly,-  leaving  every  where  clammy  raid 
shining  marks  of  tiieir  passage.  They  de- 
posit their  eggs  in  the  earth.  There  are 
eight  species,  distinguished  entirely  by  tlie'ir 
colon.  ;  as  tlie  black  slug,  the  white  slug,  the 
reddish  slug,  the  ash-colourfid  slug,  &c.  The 
black  slug  is  hermaphrodite.  A  black  slug, 
powdered  over  with  snuff,  sail,  or  sugar,  falls 
into  convulsions,  casts  forth  all  its  foam,  and 
dies. 

LIME,  one  of  those  earthy  substances, 
which  exist  in  every  part  of  the  known 
world.  It  is  found  puiest'  in  limestone, 
marble,  and  chalk.  None  of  these  substances 
are  lime,  but  are  capa'jle  of  becoming  so  by 
burning  in  a  white  lie:,t. 

Lime  may  be  also  obtained  perfet-tly  pure 
by  burnin::;  those  crystallized  limestones  call- 
ed calcareous  spars,  winch  are  perfectly 
white  and  transparent,  and  also  by  burning 
some  pure  white  marbles.  !t  may  be  pro- 
cured also  in  a  state  of  purity  bv  dissolving 
oyster-shells  in  muriatic  acid,  liitrmg  the 
solution,  nuxing  it  with  ammonia  as  long  as 
a  white  powder  continues  to  fall,  and  lil- 
tring  again.  The  liquid  is  now  to  be  mixed 
with  a  soluiioii  ofcarbonat  of  soda:  the  pow- 
der which  lalls  being  washed  and  dried,  and 
heated  violently  in  a  platinum  crucdjle,  is 
pure  lime. 

Pure  lime  15  of  a  white  colour,  moderately 
hard,  bui  easily  reduced  to  a  po^uler.  ft 
has  a  hot  burning  taste,  and  in  soni-.'  mea- 
sure corrodes  and  destroys  the  texture  of 
those  animal  bodies  to  which  it  is  applied.  Its 
s|)ecific  gravity  is  '2.3.  It  tinges  vgetable 
blues  green,  and  at  last  converts  them  to 
yellow. 

If  water  be  poured  on  ue"'ly  burnt  lime, 
it  swells  and  tails  to  pieces,  and  is  soon  re- 
duced to  a  very  line  powder,  hi  the  mean 
time  so  much  heat  is  produced,  that  part 
of  the  water  tlies  off  in  vapour.  If  the  cpiac- 
tity  of  lime  slacked  (as  this  process  is  term- 
ed; be  great,,  the  heal  produced  is  sufficient 


I  to  set  (ire  to  r ombustibles.     In  this  manner, 
vessels    loi.ded   v  uli   lime    have  soinetiiues 
j  been  burnt.     W  hen  great  quantities  ol  lime 
I  are  slacked  in  a  dark  place,   not  only   heat 
but  light  also  is  emiHed,  as  Mr.  rdletier  lias 
I  observed.     Vhe:.   slai  ked  lime  is  weighed, 
;  it  is  found  to  be  heavier  than  it  was  before. 
I  This  addilional  weight  is  owing  to  the  coni- 
'  bination  ol  ]jait  of  th.e  water  with  the  lime; 
which  water  may  be  separated  again  by  the 
application  of  a  red  heat;  and  by  this  pro- 
'  cess  the  lime  bfcomc-^just  what  it  was  be- 
•  fore  being  sl.icked.      lleiice  the   reason  of 
the  heat  evolved  during  the  slacking  of  lime. 
i  Part  of  the  water  combines  with  Th*  lime, 
;  and  thus  becomes  solid;  of  course  it  paits 
:  with  its  caloric  of  lluidity,  and  probably  also 
with  a  considerable  (juantity  of  caloric,  which 
i  exists  in  water  even  when  in  tilie  slate  of  ice: 
I  for  when  two  p-rts  of  lime  and  one  part  of 
j  ice  (each  at  33")  are  nixed,  they   combine 
I  rapidly,  and  their  temperature  is  elevaied  to 
!  212°.     The  elevation  of  temperature  during 
the  slacking  of  barytes  and  stroutiau  is  ow- 
ing to  tiie  same  cause. 

The  smell  perceived  during  the  slacking 

'  of  lime  is  owing  to  a  part  of  that  earth  being 
elevated  along  with  the  vapour  of  the  wa- 
ter ;  as  evidently  appears  from  this  circum- 
stance, that  vegetable  blues  exposed  to  this 
vapour  are  converted  to  green. 

;      Limestone  and  chalk,  though  Ihev  are  ca- 

:  pable  of  being  converted  into  lime  by  bi.rii- 
ing,  posesses  hardly  any  of  the  pioperties  of 
that  active  substance.  .  They  are  tasteless, 
scarcely  soluble  in  water,  and  do  not  per- 
ceptibly act  on  animal  bodies.  Now,  tcv 
what  are  the  new  properties  of  lime  ow  ing  ? 
^^'hat  alteration  does  it  undergo  in  the  fire .' 

It  had  been  long  known,  that  limestone 
loses  a  good  deal  oi  weight  by  being  burned 
or  calcined.  It  was  natural  to  suppose, 
therefore,  that  something  is  separated'  from 
it  during  calcination.     Dr.   Black,  of  Edin- 

-  burgh,  published  in   1-756,  those  celebrated 

I  experiments  on  this  subject,  which  forn;  so- 
brilliant  an  era  in  tiie  history  of  chemistry. 
He  fir^t  ascertained,  tha'  "the  quanlity  of 
water  separated  Irom   limestone   dur.iig  its 

'  calcination  is  not  nearl-  equal  to  the  weight 
which  it  lost.  lie  concluded  in  cnseqiience, 
that  it  must  have  lost  soiuething  else  than- 
mere  water.  What  this  could  be,  he  was  at 
first  at  a  loss  to  conceive ;  but  recollecting 
that  Dr.  Hales  had  proved,  that  iimestoiie,. 
during   its  solution   in   acids,  emits  a  great 

:  quantity  of  air,  he  conjectured  tiiat  this 
might  probably  be  w  hat  it  lost  during  cal- 
cinalioii.  He  calcined  it  accordmijlv,  and 
applied  a  pneumatic  aiiparalus  to  receive 
the  product.  He  found  his  conjecture  veri- 
fied ;  and  that  the  air  and  w,;ter  which  se- 
parated from  the  lime  were  together  pre- 
cisely equal  to  the  loss  of  'veiglit  which  it  had 
sustained.  Lime,  thertlore,  owes  its  new 
properties  to  the  loss  of  air  ;  and  lime-tone 
dilfers  from  lime  merely  in  being  combined 
with  a  certain  quantitv  of  air:  t.ir  he  found 

;  that,  by  restoring  again  the  same  cpiantity  of 
air  to  lime,  it  was  converted  into  limestone. 
This  air,  because  it  existed  in  lime  in  a  lixed 
state,  he  called  fixed  air.     It  wa-  afterwards 

.  examineii  by  Dr.  Priestley  and  other  phi- 
losophers ;  found  to  possess  ;  eculiar  proper- 

j  ties,  :)nd  to  be  that  species  o;  gas  now  knowa 
by  the  name  of  carbonic  acid  gas,    Liine 


72 


L  1  M 


then  is  a  simple  substance,  and  limestone  is 
composed  ot  carbonic  acict  and  lime.  Heat 
separates  llie  carbonic  acid,  and  leaves  llie 
lime  in  a  state  of  purity.     See  AiR. 

\\  lien  lime  is  exposed  to  the  open  air,  it 
gradually  attracts  moisture,  and  falls  to  pow- 
der ;  alter  which  it  soon  becomes  satmated 
with  carbonic  acid,  and  is  again  converted 
hito  carbonat  of  lime  orimburnl  limestone. 

Water,  at  the  common  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere,  dissolves  about  0.(102  i)arts  of 
its  weight  of  lime.  This  solution  is  called 
lime-water.  It  is  limpid,  has  an  acrid  taste, 
and  changes  vegetable  blue  colours  to  green. 
One  ounce  troy  of  lime-water  contains  about 
one  grain  of  lime.  It  is  usually  lornicd  by 
throw mg  a  quantity  of  Iniie  in  powder  into 
pure  water,  allowing  it  to  remam  for  some 
time  in  a  close  vessel,  and  then  decanting 
the  transparent  solution  from  the  undissolved 
lime.  When  lime-water  is  exposed  to  the 
uir,  a  stony  crust  soon  forms  on  its  surface, 
composed" of  carbonat  of  lime;  when  this 
crust  is  broken  it  kills  to  the  bottom  and 
another  succeeds  it ;  and  in  this  manner  the 
whole  of  the  lime  is  soon  precipitated,  by 
absorbing  carbonic  acid  from  the  air. 

I/me  is  not  acted  on  by  light,  neither  docs 
it  tonibine  with  oxygen.  Sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus are  the  only  simple  conibubtibles 
with  which  it  unites. 

Sulphuret  of  lime  may  be  formed  by  mix- 
ing its  two  component  parts,  reduced  to  a 
powder,  and  heating  them  in  a  crucible. 
They  undergo  a  commencement  of  fu- 
sion, and  form  an  acrid  taste.  When  it 
U  exposed  to  the  air,  or  moistened  with  wa- 
ter, Its  colour  becoming  greenish-yellow, 
sulphurated  hydrogen  is  formed,  and  the 
kulphuret  is  con\erled  into  a  hydrogcn.Ueil 
sulphuret,  which  exhales  a  very  fetid  odour 
of  snlpliureled  hydrogen  gas.  This  hydro- 
genatc'.l  sulphuret  may  be  formed  also  by 
Ijoiling  a  mixture  of  lime  and  sulphur  in 
about  ten  times  it.-,  weight  of  water,  or  by 
sprinkling  quicklnne  with  sulphur  and  then 
moistening  it:  the  heat  occasioned  by  the 
blacking  of  the  lime  is  suHicient  to  form  the 
rombiy.ation.  When  this  hyclrogi'iiated  juI- 
pliuret  is  exposed  to  llie  air,  it  imbibes  oxy- 
gt.-n;  which  combines  at  lirst  with  the  hydro- 
ijen,  and  afterwards  with  the  sulphur,  and 
•converts  the  compound  into  sulphat  of  lime. 

Pliosphuret  of  lime  may  be  formed  by  the 
following  process:  put  into  the  bottom  of  a 
glass  tube,  close  at  one  end,  one  part  of 
phosphorus;  and,  holding  the  tube  horizon- 
tally, introduce  live  parts  of  lime  in  small 
lumps,  so  that  they  shall  be  about  two  inches 
above  the  pho«phorns.  Then  place  the  tube 
horizontally  among  burning  coals,  so  that 
the  part  of  it  which  contains  the  lime  iniiy 
b"  made  red-hot,  while  the  bottom  of  IIk; 
tube  containing  the  phosphorus  remains  cold. 
When  the  lime  becomes  red-hot,  raise  the 
tube,  and  draw  it  along  the  coals  till  that 
l)art  of  it  which  contains  the  phosphorus  is 
I'xposed  to  a  red  heat.  The  [jhusjjhorus  is 
inimi'djatelv  volatilized,  and  passing  through 
the  hot  hme  combines  with  it.  During  the 
tonibination  the  mass  becomes  of  a  glowing 
red  heat,  and  u  cjuantily  of  phosphuraled 
hvd  ogeii  gas  is  emitted,  which  takes  hie 
vheii  It  conies  into  the  air. 

Lime  does  not  combuie  with  a/ote ;  but 


L  1  M 

it  unites  readily  with  muriatic  acid,  and  forms 
muiiat  of  lime.  It  facilitates  the  oxidize- 
ment  of  several  of  the  metal',  and  it  com- 
bines with  several  of  the  nietallic  oxides,  and 
forms  salts  which  have  not  hitherto  been 
e.xaniined,  if  we  except  the  compounds  which 
it  forms  with  the  oxides  of  mercury  and 
lead,  which  have  be(;n  described  by  Ber- 
thollet. 

Tiie  red  oxide  of  niercurv,  boiled  with 
lime-water,  is  partly  dissolveil,  and  the  solu- 
tion yields  by  evaporation  small  transparent 
yellow  crystals.  This  compound  has  been 
called  by  some  mercuriat  ol  lime. 

Lime-water  also  dissolves  the  red  oxide 
of  lead,  and  (still  better)  litharge.  This  so- 
lution, evaporated  in  a  retort,  gives  verv 
small  transpaniit  crystals,  fonning  prismatic 
colours,  and  not  more  soluble  in  water  than 
lime.  It  is  decomposed  bv  all  tlie  alkaline 
sulphats,  and  by  sulphuretcd  hydrogen  gas. 
I  lie  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids  preci|)ita1e 
the  lead,  'i'his  coni|)Ound  blackens  wool,  the 
nails,  the  hair,  and  white  of  eggs  ;  but  it  does 
not  affect  the  colour  of  silk,  the  skin,  the 
yolk  of  egg,  nor  animal  oil.  It  is  the  lead 
which  is  precipitated  on  these  coloured  sub- 
stances in  the  state  of  oxide  ;  for  all  acids 
can  dissolve  it.  The  simple  mixture  of  lime 
and  oNide  of  lead  blackens  these  substances  ; 
a  proof  that  tlie  salt  is  easily  formed. 

Lime  does  not  combine  with  alkalies.  The 
aflinities  of  lime  are  arranged  by  Bergman  in 
the  following  order : 


Oxalic  acid 

Sulphuric 

Tartaric 

Succinic 

Phosphoric 

Saclactic 

IS'itric 

Muriatic 

Suberic 

Fluoric 


Arsenic 

Lactic 

Citric 

Benzoic 

Sulphurous 

Acetic 

Koracic 

(-'arbonic 

Prussio 


One  of  the  most  important  uses  of  lime  is, 
in  the  -formation  of  mortar  as  a  cement  in 
buihling.  Mortar  is  composed  of  quicklime 
and  sand  reduced  to  a  paste  with  water. 
When  dry  it  becomes  as  iiard  as  stone,  and 
as  durabie ;  and  adhering  very  strongly  to 
the  surlaces  of  the  stones  which  it  is  employ- 
ed to  cement,  the  whole  wall  becomes  in 
fad  nothing  else  than  one  single  stone.  But 
this  effect  is  produced  very  imperfectly  un- 
less the  mortar  is  very  well  prepared. 

The  hme  ought  to  be  pure,  completely 
free  from  carbonic  acid,  and  in  the  state  of  a 
very  line  powder;  the  sand  should  be  free 
from  clay,  and  partly  in  the  state  of  line 
sand,  partly  in  that  of  gravel :  the  water 
sIkiuUI  be  pure ;  and  if  previously  saturated 
with  lime,  so  much  the  better.  Tlie  best 
proiwrtions,  according  to  the  experiments 
of  Dr.  lliggins,  are  three  parts  of  hue  sand, 
four  parts  of  coarse  sand,  o!ie  part  of  ciuick- 
lime  recently  slacked,  and  as  little  water  as 
pyssible. 

'I'lie  stony  consistence  which  mortar  ac- 
quires, is  owing  partly  to  the  absorption  of 
carbonic  acid,  but  pruuipally  to  the  conibi- 
iMtion  of  (lart  of  ti^e  water  with  the  lime, 
riiis  last  circumstance  is  the  reason  (hat  if 
to  common  mortar  one-louith  part  of  lime, 


1,  I  M 

reduced  to  powder  without  hejng  slacked, 
is  added,  the  mortar,  when  drv,  ac  mires 
much  greater  solidity  than  it  otherwise 
would  do.  This  was  lirst  proposed  by  Lo- 
riot  ;  and  a  miinber  of  experiments  were 
afterwards  made  by  Mor\eau.  '1  he  pro- 
portions whicli  this  philosopher  found  to 
answer  best  arc  the  follow  nig  : 

Line  sand  -         -  0..3 

Cement  of  well-baked  bricks  0.3 
Slacked  lime  -         -         0.2 

Uublacked  lime     -        -        0  2 

l.D 
The  same  advantages  may  be  attained  by 
using  as  little  water  as  ])os»ible  in  slacking 
the  lime. 

Higgins  found  that  the  addition  of  burnt 
bones  improved  mortar  by  giving  it  tena- 
city, and  rendering  it  less  apt  to  crack  in 
drying;  but  they  ought  ne-er  to  exceed 
one-fourth  of  the  lime  ein|)ioyed. 

When  a  little  manganese  is  added  to  mor- 
tar, it  acquiies  the  impoitant  property  of 
hardening  under  water  ;  so  that  it  jiiay  be 
employed  in  constructing  those  edilices 
which  are  constantly  e.sposed  to  the  action 
of  water.  Limestone  is  often  condjined 
with  manganese:  in  that  case  it  becomes 
brown  b^  calcination. 

Ll.MESl  OiS'K.     See  Sm-ts,  calcaremis. 

l^iMEiTom:, primitive  and  secondary.  See 
Rocks. 

LIMEUM,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  onler 
heptandria  digynia.  The  cab  is  iive-leaved  ; 
pet.  live,  ecpial ;  caps,  glolu'.lar,  two-celled. 
There  are  three  species,  herbaceous  plants 
of  the  Cape. 

LIMTl',  in  a  restrained  sense,  is  used  by 
mathematicians  for  a  determinate  quai  tity 
to  which  a  variable  one  contjiually  ap- 
proaches; in  which  sense  tlie  circle  may  be 
said  to  be  the  limit  of  its  circumscribecl  and 
iiiscribeil  polyf;rins.  In  algebra,  the  term 
limits  is  ap|)iied  to  two  quantities,  one  of 
«hich  is  greater,  and  the  other  less,  than 
another  (luantity  ;  and  in  this  sense  it  is  used 
in  speaking  of  the  limits  of  e(juations,  where- 
by their  solution  is  much  facilitated. 

Let  any  equation,  as  .v'  —  fx^  x  ?v  —  rz=0 
be  proposed  ;  and  transform  it  into  the  follow- 
ing equation: 

—  Pr  - 


+ 


9y  +  r  \l 


where  the  values  of  y  are  less  than  the  respec- 
tive values  of  .v,  by  the  diilerence  e.  If  '.'ou 
suppose  f  to  he  taken  such  as  to  make  all  the 
co-etHcients  of  the  equation  of  y  positive,  viz. 
e'  —  fc'  -j-  yf  —  r,  a,-'  —  -Jfe  -|-  y,  :i<  —  f,  then 
there  being  no  variation  of  the  sijjns  in  the 
equation,  all  the  values  v(  y  must  he  nc<);ative; 
and  consequently  the  t}uaiitity  r,  by  which  the 
v:ihies  of  x  arc  diminisiicd.  imist  be  jrreatcr 
than  tlie  greatest  positive  value  vf  v  :  and,  ci-n- 
fieqiiently,  must  be  the  limit  of  the  roots  of  tiie 
equation   v'  —  />x'  -\-  yv  —  r  =  0. 

It  is  sufficient,  therefore,  in  order  to  find  the 
limit,  to  enquire  what  (piantily  substituted  for 
.\,  in  each  of  these  expressions  x'  —  ^.v'  -|-  ex 
—  r,  Sx'  —  2y>  V  -|-  y,  3a  —  /,  will  jrive  them 
all  positive;  for  the  quantity  will  be  the  limit  re- 
{juired. 

Having  found  the  limit  that  surpasses  the 
greatest  positive  root,  call  it  iiu  And  if  you 
assume  jp  =i  m  —  x,  and  for  .i  subslilute  m  —  y, 


L  I  M 

t^ie  *Tuat!on  tliat  will  arise  will  have  nil  ito  ront« 
noslrivc ;  because  w  is  sii[>posecl  to  surpass  all 
the  values  of  .v,  and  consequently  "i  —  -v  (r=  v) 
riust  alwavs  be  afiirmativc-  And,  by  this  meaxis, 
:diy  equation  may  be  changed  into  one  that  shall 
have  ail  its  roots  afiirinative. 

Or,  if  —  n  represent  tlio  limit  of  the  negative 
ftiots,  then  by  assuming  y  =  .v  -f-  «,  the  pro- 
posed equation  shidl  be  transformed  into  one 
that  shall  have  all  its  roots  athrmative ;  for,  -{-  n 
bt'ing  greater  than  any  negative  value  of  .v,  it 
follows  that  J  =  »■  —  ti  must  be  always  positive. 
.  What  is  here  said  of  the  above  culiic  C(jua- 
flon,  may  be  eabilv  applied  to  others  ;  and  of  all 
«nch  equations,  two  hmitsare  easily  discovered, 
viz.  0,  whicli  is  less  than  the  least ;  and  ?,  found 
'I,  above,  v/hicii  surpasses  the  greatest  root  of 
the  equation.  But  besides  these,  other  limits 
itill  nearer  the  roots  may  be  found  ;  for  the 
method  of  doing  which,  the  reader  may  consult 
Maclauriu's  Algebra. 

LlMri'A'I'lON,  a  certaia  time  prejcribcd 
by  stoUite,  within  whicli  an  action  must  be 
l);ought.  'rhe  lime  of  limitation  is  twofold  ; 
liist  in  writs,  by  divers  acts  of  parliament ; 
seiondly  to  make  a  t.tle  to  any  inlieritance, 
■and  that  is  by  the  common  law. 

Jjimitatioii  on  penal  statute*. — All  actions, 
suits,  bills,  indictments,  or  inloDuations, 
which  shall  be  brought  tor  any  forlViUire  upon 
■any  statute  penal,  made  or  to  be  made, 
vheroby  the  forlcitore  is  or  shall  be  limited 
to  the  <iuPen,  her  heirs  or  successors  only, 
ihall  be  bv,)ught  within  two  years  after  the 
ort'cnce  comm.tted,  and  not  after  two  years  ; 
ami  all  actions,  suits,  bills,  or  informa- 
tions, which  shall  be  brought  for  any  for- 
,ii'iUn-e  upon  any  penal  statute,  made  or  to  be 
made,  except  the  statutes  of  tillage,  the  be- 
jielit  and  suit  whereof  is  or  shall  be  by  the 
k.ud  statute  limited  to  the  queen,  her  heirs 
or  successors,  and  to  any  other  that  shall 
prosecute  in  that  behalf,  shall  be  brought  by 
any  person  that  may«  lawlully  sue  tor  tlie 
same,  within  one  year  next  after  tlie  oi'li-nce 
committed;  and  in  default  of  such  purstiit, 
tlien  the  same  shall  be  hrouglit  for  the 
queen's  majesty,  her  heirs  or  successors,  any 
lime  within  the  two  \ears,  alter  that  year  is 
ended:  and  it  is  provided,  lliat  where  a 
shorter  time  is  limited  by  any  penal  statute, 
I  lie  prosecution  must  be  witlim  tliat  time. 
31  Eliz.  c.  j. 

Liniilalion  in  regard  to  personal  actions  of 
assault  and  battery,  and  actions  arising  upon 
contract  and  trespass. 

All  actions  of  trespass,  of  assault,  battery, 
wounding,  imprisonment,  or  any  of  theii'i, 
'Shall  be  cominiiiced  and  sued  within  four 
years  next  after  the  cause  of  such  actions  or 
suits,  ajid  not  aller.     21  Jac.  I.  c.  16. 

Actions  of  account,  &c. — All  actions  of 
trespass  quare  clausum  tVegit,  all  actions  of 
tie  pass,  detinue,  trover,  and  replevin,  all 
actions  of  account,  and  upon  tlie  case  (other 
than  such  accounts  as  concern  tiie  trade  of 
iiierchtindize,  between  merchant  and  mei- 
cii.mt),  all  actions  of  debt  grounded  upon  anv 
lending,  or  contract  without  siieciaitv,  (that 
,  js,  not  being  by  deed  or  under  seal)  all  actions 
iof  debt  for  arre.rages  of  rent,  antl  all  actions 
ofassatrlt,  leenace,  battery,  wounding,  and 
imprisonment,  shall  be  commenced  witnin 
the  time  and  limitation  as  foliowetli,  and  not 
after;  that  is  lo  say,  the  said  actions  upon  the 
rase  (other  (lian  ior  slander),  and  tiie  said  ac- 
tions for  trespass,  debt,  detinue,  and  reple- 
vin, and  the  said  actions  for  trespass,  debt, 

Vol.11. 


I.  I  .M 

dptimie,  and  replevin,  ant)  tlie  said  acts 
fur  trespass  quare  clausum  fregit,  witiiin  six 
3  ears,  after  the  cause  of  such  action.  21  Jac. 
c   16. 

Exception  in  relation  lo  infants. — It  has 
been  liolden,  that  if  an  intant  during  his  iji- 
tanry,  by  his  guartlian  bring  an  action,  the 
defendant  cannot  i)lead  the  >latute  o(  limita- 
tion, although  the  cause  of  action  accrued 
six  years  before;  and  the  words  of  the  statute 
are,  that  after  his  coming  of  age,  &c. 

Exception  in  relation  to  merchants'  ac- 
counts.— As  to  this  exception,  it  has  been 
niatt-er  of  much  controversy,  whether  it  ex- 
tends to  all  actions  aud  accounts  relating  lo 
merchants  and  merchandize,  or  to  actions  of 
aci  Mint  open  and  current  only,  tint  it  is 
now  settled,  tliat  accounts  open  and  current 
only  are  within  the  sUitute ;  aad  that  there- 
fore, if  an  accoinit  bt;  stated  and  settled  be- 
tween merchant  and  merchant,  and  a  sum 
certain  agreed  to  be  due  to  one  of  them,  if  in 
sucli  case,  he  to  whom  the  money  is  due,  do 
not  bring  his  action  witl.in  the  limited  lime, 
lie  is  barred  by  the  statute.     2  Mod.  312. 

Exception  in  relation  to  persons  beyond 
sea. — It  seems  to  have  been  agreed  that  the 
exception  as  to  persons  being  beyond  sea, 
exteiuU  only  where  the  crethtors  or  plain- 
tili's  are  so  absent,  and  not  to  debtors  or  de- 
fendants, because  the  lirsl  only  are  mentioned 
in  the  statute;  and  this  consliuction  has  the 
rather  jirevailed,  because  it  was  reputed  the 
creditoi-'s  folly,  thai  lie  did  not  lilc  an  origi- 
nal, and  outlaw  the  debtor,  which  would  have 
prevented  the  bar  of  the  statutes. 

Executor  or  administrator. — If  A  receives 
money  belonging  to  ;i  ]}erson  who  afterwards 
died  intestate,  and  to  whom  15  takes  out  ad- 
mini-lration,  and  brings  an  action  against  A, 
to  which  he  pleads  the  stafnte  of  limitations, 
and  the  plaiiitiii' replies,  and  shews  that  ad- 
ministration was  committed  to  liim  such  a 
year,  which  was  within  six  \ears ;  though  six 
years  are  expired  since  tlie  receipt  of  the 
money,  yet  not  being  so  since  the  adn;iiiis- 
tration  committed,  the  action  is  not  barred  by 
the  statute.     ISalk.  4'^1. 

Where  a  debt  barred  bv  the  statute  shatl 
be  revived  — Any  acknowledgment  of  the 
existence  of  the  debt,  however  slight,  will 
take  it  out  of  the  statute,  and  the  limitation 
will  then  run  from  that  time:-  and  where  an 
expression  is  ambiguous,  it  shall  be  left  to  Ihe 
consider.ition  of  the  jury,  wiietlier  it  amounts 
or  not  to  such  ackiiov.lcdgnicnt.  2  Durnf. 
&  I':a5t,  760. 

It  is  clearly  agreed,  that  if  after  the  six 
years,  the  debtor  acknow  ledges  the  debt,  and 
promise  payment,  that  this  revives  it,  and 
brings  it  out  of  the  statute:  as  if  a  debtor  bv 
promis-ory  note,  or  simple  contract,  promises 
w  ilhiii  six  years  of  the  action  brought,  that 
he  will  pay  the  debt;  though  this  was  barred 
by  the  statute,  yet  it  is  revivefl  by  tlu'  pro- 
mise; for  as  the"  note  itself  was  at  lirst  but  an 
evidence  of  the  debt,  so  thai  ?)eing  barred  the 
acknowledgment  and  promise  is  a  new  evi- 
dence of  the  debt,  a, id  being  proved,  will 
maintain  an  assumpsit  for  recovery  of  it.  I 
Sa!k.  'JS. 

Limits  of  a  planet,  its  grcntesl  excursion 
from  tiie  ecliptic,  or  wjiicli  is  tiie  same  thing, 
the  points  ol  its  greate.-.t  latitude. 

LLMITED  I'.iOBi.EM,  a  problem  that  ad- 
mits but  of  one  sohilion,  as  to  make  a  circle 


L  I  N  7^ 

pass  through  three  given  points,  not  Ijii.ig  in 
the  same  right  line. 

LIM0;-SELL.\,  a  genus  of  the  didynaniia 
angiospermia  class  of  planis :  the  flower  coi:- 
sists  of  one  erect  petal,  divided  into  five  seg- 
ments; fruit  is  an  unilocular  capsule,  with  a 
great  many  seeds.  I'wo  species,  annual* 
of  the  Cajje. 

LI.ViOOORUM,  a  genus  of  the  gynan- 
dria  diandria  class  of  plants,  the  flower  of 
which  consists  of  five  oblong  petals,  and  the 
nectaiium  hollow,  and  formed  of  a  single 
leaf:  the  fruit  is  a  columnar  unilocular  cap- 
sule, containing  a  great  number  of  very 
small  seeds.  There  are  t])irtc£u  species, 
bulbs  of  America,  S;c. 

LI.VION'IA,  a  genus  of  the  decandria  mo- 
nogynia  class  and  order.  The  cal.  is  iive- 
pai  led  ;  pet.  five-berry,  three-celled.  .Seeds 
solitary.  Tliere  are  seven  species,  trees  of 
the  East  Indies,  &c. 

LINCONI.A,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  pentandria  digynia.  The  pet.  are 
live  ;  caps,  two-celled.  There  is  one  species, 
a  shrub  of  the  Cape. 

LiNDEliA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  hexandria  monogynia.  The  cor.  is 
six-pctalled  ;  caps.  There  is  one  species,  a 
shrub  of  Japan. 

LINDEUNLV,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  didynamia  angiospermia.  The  cal.  is 
live-iiartecl;  caps,  one-celled.  There  arc 
tiiree  species,  annuals  of  America. 

LINE,  in  geometry,  a  quantity  extend- 
ed in  length  only,  without  any  bieadth  or 
thickness.  It  is  fomied  by  tlie  faix  or  nio- 
tion  of  a  point:  see  Fluxion,  and  Geo- 
metry. Right  lines  are  all  of  the  same 
species,  but  curves  arc  of  an  iniinitc  number 
of  dilferent  species.  AVe  may  tonceLve  as 
many  as  there  may  be  dilfeient  ratios  be- 
tween their  ordinates  and  abscisses. 

Curve  lines  are  usually  divided  into  geo- 
metrical and  mechanical ;  the  forintr  are 
those  which  may  be  found  exactly  in  all 
their  points ;  the  latter  are  those,  sofne  or 
all  of  H  hose  points  are  not  to  be  found  pre- 
cisely, bvit  only  tentatively,  er  iiearly. 

Curve  lines  are  also  divided  into  the  first 
oi-der,  secoild  order,  third' order,  S^c.  See 
Curve.  •         '    / 

Lines  considered  as  tp  their  positions,  are 
either  parallel,  perpendicular,  or  .objique, 
the  constructi;)!!  and  properties  wliereof  jee 
under  P.vRALLEL,  Sec. 

Euclid's  s.;cond  book  treats  mosllv  of 
lines,  and  of  tlie  cft'ects  of  their  bdng  divid- 
ed and  again  multiplied  into  one  another. 

Lines,  in  perspective,  are,  1.  Geometri- 
cal line,  which  is  a  right  line  drawn  in  any 
manner  on  the  geometric:d  plane.  2.  Ter- 
restrial line,  or  fundamental  line,  is  a  right 
line  wherchi  the  geometrical  plane,  and  that 
of  the  picture  or  draugiit,  intersect  one  ano- 
ther.    See  Perspective. 

Lines.     See  Dialling. 

Line  of  direction  on  the  earth's  axis,  in 
tlie  Pythagorean  system  of  astronomy,  the' 
line  connecting  the  two  poles  of  the  ecliptic 
and  of  tlie  equator,  when  they  are  projected 
on  the  plane  of  the  former. 

Line  of  direction.     See  Mechanics; 

Line  of  gravitation  of  any  heavy  bod\-,  a 
line  drawn  through  its  cei.tre  of  gravitv, 
and  ticcoiding  to  vvhich  it  tends  dowiiwdrds. 

Line  of  the  sv.iftest  descent  of  a  heavy 
body,  is  the  cycloid.     See  CYCLOlDt 


71 


L  I  N 


T.iSES  on  fhe  plain  scale,  are  thw  linp  of 
chorJi,  iiue  of  >inps,  lia.:  of  UingeiiU,  line  of 
secants,  line  of  semitan^cnts,  line  of  leac^ue-j ; 
t!ie  construction  and  applicitiim  of  wliidi 
st-e  nntler  the  words  Scale,  Sailing,  In- 
struments, &c. 

Lines  on  Gniiter's  scale.  See  Gux- 
TF. x's  Scale. 

Lines     of   the    sector.      See    I.vstru- 

MENTS. 

I-INES,  in  fortification,  arc  those  of  ap- 
proach, capital,  defence,  circiunvallation, 
contravnUatioii  of  the  base,  &c. 

To  Line  a  work,  signihei  to  strengthen  a 
rampart  with  a  firm  wall ;  or  to  encompass 
a  parapet  or  moat  with  good  tvn'f,  &c. 

Lin'e,  in  the  art  of  war,  is  understood 
of  the  disposition  of  an  army,  ranged  in 
order  of  battle,  with  the  front  extended  as 
far  as  may  be,  that  it  may  not  be  flanked. 

Line  of  batlU-,  is  also  nnderstood  of  the 
dispoiilion  of  a  lleet  on  the  day  of  engage- 
ment. 

Ship  of  tlie  Line,  a  vessel  large  enough  to 
be  tlrawn  up  in  the  Une,  and  to  have  a  place 
in  a  soa-light. 

Line,  aUo  denotes  a  French  measure, 
cont  lining  the  twelfth  part  of  an  inch,  or  the 
hundred  and  forty-fourth  part  of  a  foot. 
Creometricians  conceive  the  line  subdivided 
into  six  points.  The  Frencli  line  auswers  to 
the  F.nslish  barleycorn. 

LINEAR  NtJMBEr.s,  in  mathematics, 
such  as  have  relation  to  length  only  ;  such 
is  a  number  which  represents  ene  side  of  a 
p'ane  ligure.  If  the  plane  figure  be  a 
si.juare,  tne  linear  number  is  called  a  rojt. 

Linear  problem,  that  which  may  be 
solved  geometricallv,  bv  the  intersection  of 
two  right  lines.  This  is  called  a  simple 
problem,  and  is  capable  hut  of  one  solution. 

LINEM,  in  commerce,  a  well-known  kind 
of  clith,  chielly  made  of  llax.  See  Linum, 
ajid  Weaving. 

LING.     See  Gadus. 

LlNi.MRNT.     See  1'h.vrmacy. 

LINN.EA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
didvuamia  aiigiospermia.  Tlie  cal.  is  double; 
the  cor.  bell-shaped ;  the  berry  dry,  thre.'- 
fe;led.  There  is  one  species,  a  herb  of 
Sweden. 

LINNET.    See  pRiNGiLLiA. 

LINSEED,  the  seed  of  the  plant  linum. 
See  LiNUiM. 

LINSPINS,  in  the  military  art,  small  pins 
of  iron,  whicli  keep  the  wheel  of  a  cannon 
or  waggon  on  the  axletree ;  for  when  the 
end  of  the  axletree  is  put  through  the  nave, 
tiie  linspin  is  put  in,  to  keep  the  wlieel  from 
tailing  oil". 

LIN  r,  the  scrapings  of  linen  ;  which  is 
used  in  dre  sing  w./unds,  and  is  made  up  in 
vari'AH  forms,  as  tents,  dossils,  pledgets. 
Sec.     See  Surgery. 

LINUM,  flax;  a  genus  of  the  penta- 
gynia  order,  in  the  pmtaudria  class  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  melhoil  ranking 
under  the  l4ili  order,  grmnales.  'I'he  calyx 
is  peiitaphylious  ;  tne  petals  are  five  :  the 
capsule  IS  c|umqucvalved  and  decemlocular  ; 
and  the  seeds  are  solitary.  'I  here  are  '2j 
species,  of  which  the  most  remarkab'e  are, 

I.  The  usitatissimum,  or  conunon  aimual 
flax.  2.  The  perennc;,  or  perennial  Siberian 
flax,  with  uml)e  late  clusters  of  large  blue 
flowers.  3.  I'liif  calharlicuni,  or  purging 
fttx,  a  very  siiiall  plant,  Jiot  above  four  oi' 
it 


L  I  N 

five   inches  high  ;  found   wild   upon  eiialky 
hills  and  in  dry  pleasure-gromids. 

The  first  species  is  culfivpteil  in  t!ie  fields 
for  the  use  of  the  manufacturers.  The  se- 
cond sort  is  chielly  ornamental.  The  vir- 
tue of  the  third  species  is  expressed  in  its 
title:  an  infusion  in  water  or  whey  of  a 
handful  of  the  fresh  leaves,  or  a  dram  of 
them  in  substance  when  dried,  is  said  to 
purge  w;tliout  inconvenience. 

Ofthr  cuHivatioii  of  flax.  A  skilful  (lax- 
raiser  always  prefers  a  iree,  open,  deep  loam  ; 
and  all  grounds  that  produced  the  preceding 
year  a  good  crop  of  turnips,  cabbages,  pota- 
toes, barley,  or  broad  clover  ;  or  have  been 
formerly  laid  down  rich,  and  kept  lor  some 
years  in  pasture. 

If  the  linseed  is  sown  early,  and  the  flax 
not  allosved  to  stand  for  seed,  a  crop  of  tur- 
nips may  be  got  after  the  flux  that  very 
year;  the  scconti  year  a  crop  of  rye  or  bar- 
ley may  be  taken  ;  and  the  third  year,  grass- 
sei'ds  are  sometimes  sown  aloiig  with  the 
linseed.  Of  precedisig  crops,  potatoes  and 
hemp  are  the  best  preparation  for  flax,  if 
tlie  ground  is  free  and  open,  it  should  be  but 
once  ploughed,  and  that  as  shallow  as  pos- 
sible, not  deeper  than  two  and  a  half  indies. 
It  should  be  laid  flat,  reduced  to  a  fine  gar- 
den mould  by  good  harrowing,  and  all 
stones  and  sods  should  be  carried  olT.  Ex- 
cept a  little  pigeon's  dung  for  cold  or  sour 
ground,  no  other  dung  should  be  used  pre- 
paratory for  flax  ;  because  it  produces  too 
many  weeds,  and  throws  up  the  flax  thin 
and  poor  upon  the  stalk.  Before  sowing, 
tile  bulky  clods  should  be  broken,  or  carried 
off  tlie  ground  ;  and  stones,  quickenings,  and 
every  other  thing  that  may  lunder  the 
growth  of  the  flax,  should  be  carefully  taken 
away.  Tie  brighter  in  colour,  and  heavier 
the  seed  is,  so  much  the  better;  that  which 
when  bruised  apjjeai-s  of  a  light  or  Nellowish 
green,  and  fresli  in  the  heart,  oily,  and  not 
dry,  and  smells  and  tastes  sweet,  and  not 
fiBty,  may  be  depended  upon.  Dutch  seed 
of  the  preceding  >  ear's  growth,  for  the  most 
part,  answers  best ;  but  it  seldom  se.cceeds 
if  kept  another  year,  it  ripens  sooner  than 
any  other  foreign  seed.  Piuladelphia  seed 
produces  fine  Imt  and  few  bolls,  because 
sown  thick,  and  answers  beat  in  wet  cold 
soils. 

'1  he  (piantity  of  linseed  sown  should  be 
proportioned  to  the  condition  of  the  soil  ; 
tor  if  the  ground  is  in  good  heart,  and  the 
seed  sown  thick,  tlie  crop  will  be  in  danger 
of  falling  before  it  is  ready  for  pulling.  'l"he 
time  for  sowing  linseed  is  from  the  middle 
of  March  to  the  end  of  April,  as  the  ground 
and  season  answer;  but  the  earlier  t!ie  seed 
is  sown,  the  less  the  crop  interferes  witli  the 
corn  harvest.  l^atcsown  Jinseed  may  grow- 
long,  but  the  flax  upon  the  stalk  will  be 
thin  and  poor. 

Flax  ought  to  be  weeded,  when  tlve  crop 
is  about  four  inches  long.  If  longer  defer- 
red, the  weeders  will  also  much,  break  and 
bend  the  stalks,  and  they  will  perhaps  never 
recover  their  slraightness  again ;  and  when 
the  llax  grmvs  crooked,  it  is  more  liable  to 
be  hurt  in  the  rippling  and  swingling.  Quick- 
en grass  siiould  be  taken  up;  lor,  being 
strongly  rooted,  the  pulling  of  it  always 
loosens  a  great  deal  of  the  lint.  If  tliere  is 
an  appearance  of  a  settled  drought,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  4efcr  the  weeding,  than  by  that  opcra- 


L  I  N 

tlon  to  expose  the  tender  ruDts  of  the  fla.x  t* 

the  drouglit. 

When  the  crop  grow3  so  short  and  \)i?\\i\\y 
as  to  appear  more  seed  than  flax,  it  ought 
not  to  be  pulled  before  ;t  is  thoroughly  r.pe; 
but  if  it  grows   long  and   not   biancny,   the 
seed  shouUl  be  disregarded,  and  all  the  at- 
tention given  to  the  llax.     In  the  lait  ca-i; 
it  ouglit  to   be   pulleil    after   the  bloom    has 
fallen,  when  the  stalk  begins  to  turn  y;  low, 
and  before  the  leaves  fall,  and  the  bolls  turn 
hard  and  sharp-pointed.     When  the  stalk  is 
small,  and  carries  few  bolls,  the  flax  is  line; 
but  the   stalk  of  coarse  flax   is   gross,   rank, 
branchy,  and  cariies  many  bolls.     When  the 
flax  has  fallen,  and  lies,  such  as  lies  ought 
to   be    immediately  pulled,  whether   it   lu's 
grown  enough   or  not,  as  otherwise  it  will 
rot  altogellier.      When   parts   of  the  same 
fiidd  grow  unequally,  s)  that  some  parts  are 
ready   for  pulling  before  other  parts,    only 
what  is  readv  should  :;e  pulled,  and  the  rest 
should  be  suifered  to  stand  till  it  ripens.    The 
flax-raiser  ought  to  be  at  pains  to  pull  and 
keep   by  itself,  each   dilVerent   kind   of  lint 
which  he  rinds  in  his  field  ;  what  is  both  lung 
and  line,  by   itseil;  what  is  both  long  and 
coarse,   by  itself;    what  is  both  short   and 
fine,  by  itself;  what  is  both  short  and  coane 
by  itself;  and   in  like  manner  every   othiT 
kind  by  itself  that  is  of  the  same  size  and 
(juality. 

If  the  flax  is  more  valuable  than  the  seed, 
it  ought  by  no  means  to  be  slacked  up  ;  for 
Its  own  natural  juice  assists  it  greatly  in  the 
watering  ;  whereas,  if  kept  long  unwalered, 
it  loses  that  jiuce,  and  the  harie  aflherrs  so 
much  to  the  boon,  that  it  requires  longer 
time  to  water,  and  even  the  quality  of  the 
flax  becomes  harsher  and  coarser.  Besides, 
the  flax  stacked  up  is  in  great  danger  from 
vermin  and  other  accidents ;  the  water  in 
spring  is  not  so  soft  #  id  warm  as  in  harvest-; 
and  near  a  year  is  lost  of  the  use  of  the  lint-; 
but  if  the  flax  is  so  short  and  branchy  as  to- 
appear  most  valuable  for  seed,  it  ought,  after 
pulling,  to  be  stacked  and  dried  upon  the 
held,  as  is  doiu.-  with  corn  ;  then  stacked  up. 
for  winter, ,  riiipled  in  spring;  and.  the  seed, 
should  be  well  cleaned  from  bad  seeds,  &c. 

If  the  flax  is  to  be  regariled  more  than  the 
seed,  it  should,  after  jjulling,  be  allowed  to 
he  some  hours  upon  the  ground  to  dry  a- 
little,  and  so  gain  some  firmness,  to  prevent 
the  slvin  or  harle,  which  is  the  flax,  from 
rubbing  off  in  the  rippling ;  an  operation 
which  ought  by  no  means  to  be  neglected, 
as  the  bolls,  if  put  into  the  water  along  with 
the  llax,  breed  vermin  there,  and  otiierwise 
spoil  the  water.  The  bolis  also  prove  very 
inconvenient  in  the  grassing  and  breaking. 
The  handhjls  for  rippling  should  not  l;e 
great,  as  that  endange.s  the  lint  in  the  rip- 
pling comb.  After  rippling,  the  flax-rai>er 
will  perceive,  that  he  is  able  to  assort  each 
size  and  quality  of  the  flax  by  itself  more 
exactly  than  he  could  before. 

In  watering,  a  running  stream  wastes  the 
lint,  makes  it  white,  and  frecpiently  carrie.i 
it  away.  Lochs,  by  the  grciit  quantity  and 
motion  of  the  water,  also  waste  and  wliitrn 
the  flax,  though  not  so  much  as  runnuig 
streams.  Both  rivers  and  lochs  water  the 
flax  quicker  than  canals.  The  greater  way 
the  river  or  brook  has  run,  the  softer,  and 
therefore  the  better,  will  the  water  be. 
Springs,  or  short  runs  froOT  hills,  are  too  cold. 


L  I  N 

M'i'.fsJ  tlic  walpr  is  allowed  (o  slarnl  long  in 
t'li-  canal.  Water  tVom  coal  or  iron  is  \fr\ 
;>  I'l  lor  lla\.  A  lillle  ot  tlir  iiowder  of  khIn 
lluinvn  into  a  i^la^s  ol  walt-r  will  discover  il 
it  comes  trom  mincr.iU  ol  that  kiiul,  by  tiirii- 
ini;  it  into  a  dark  colour,  more  or  less 
lingetl  ill  pruportion  to  the  (inantitv  of  metal 
it  contains.  \\  hen  tnc  water  is  hrouglil  to 
a  proper  lieat,  snijll  plants  will  be  i'i>ing 
(luickly  in  it,  nnmbers  of  small  insects  antl 
ri  ptilei  will  be  (jejieraliny;  there,  and  Inibbles 
I'l  air  risinj;  on  the  surface.  If  no  such  signs 
.1  ipear,  the  watijr  is  scarcely  warm  enough, 
or  is  otherwise  unlit  for  lla\.  Moss-holes, 
«  hen  neither  too  deep  nor  too  sliallow,  fre- 
(luently  answer  wi-ll  for  watering  lia>;,  sslien 
the  w.iter  is  proper,  as  before  described, 
liie  proprr  season  for  watering  (lax  is  from 
tlie  end  of  July  to  the  end  of  August.  The 
djiiig  this  as  s'oon  as  possible  after  pulling  is 
very  advantageous.  I'iie  ilax  beiiii;  sorted 
after  rippling,  as  before  mentioned,  should 
next  be  put  in  beets,  never  larger  than  a 
man  can  grasp  with  both  his  lianJs,  and  tied 
very  slack  with  a  band  of  a  te\v  stalks. 
Dried  rushes  answer  exceedingly  well  for 
binding  Ilax,  as  they  do  not  rot  in  the  wa- 
ter, and  may  be  dried  and  kept  for  use 
again.  The  i)eets  should  be  put  into  the 
canals  sUipe-ways,  or  half-standing  upon  end, 
the  root  end  nppi-rmost.  I'pou  the  crop 
ends,  when  uppermost,  vermin  freipient  y 
breed,  d.sSructive  of  tiie  Ilax,  which  are  et- 
fectnally  presented  by  putting  the  crop  end 
downmost.  The  whole  tlax  in  the  canal 
ought  to  be  cavefuUy  covered  from  the  suu 
with  ilivots  ;  the  grassy  side  of  uliich  should 
■be  next  the  Ilax,  to  keep  it  clean.  If  it  is  not 
thus  covered,  the  sun  will  discolour  the 
flax,  though  quite  covered  with  water.  If  the 
divots  are  nut  weighty  enough  to  keep  the 
flax  entirely  underwater,  a  tew  stones  might 
be  laid  above  ti\em  ;  but  the  Ilax  should  not 
be  pressed  to  the  bottom. 

When  the  (lax  is  suft'icienlly  watered,  it 
feels  soft  to  the  gripe,  and  the  harle  parts 
easily  with  the  boon  or  sliow,  which  last  is 
then"  become  brittle,  and  looks  whitisli. 
When  these  signs  are  found,  the  tlax  should 
b,;  taken  out  of  the  water,  beet  after  beet; 
each  gently  rinsed  in  the  water,  to  cleanse 
it  of  the  tilth  which  has  gathered  about 
it  in  the  canal ;  and  as  the  lint  is  then  very 
tender,  and  the  beet  shirkly  tied,  it  must  be 
carefully  and  gently  handled.  Great  care 
ought  to  be  taken  that  no  part  be  overdone: 
and  as  the  coarsest  waters  soonest,  if  dill'erent 
kinds  are  mixed  together,  a  part  will  be 
rotted,  when  the  rest  is  not  sufticieiUly  wa- 
tered. When  lint  taken  out  of  the  canal  is 
not  found  iufllciei'itly  watered,  it  may  be 
laid  ill  a  neap  for  twelve,  eighteen,  or 
twenty-four  hours,  which  will  have  an  el'l'eet 
like  more  watering ;  but  this  operation  is 
nice,  and  mav  prove  dangerous  in  unskilful 
lu*nJs.  After  the  tlax  is  taken  out  of  the 
canal,  fresh  lint  should  not  be  put  a  second 
time  into  il.  until  the  toriuer  water  is  run  off, 
aad  the  canal  clean,  d,  and  suppVu'd  with  a 
Iresli  quaiiiity  of  v/ater. 

S.iort  he;.th  is  tae  best  field  for  grassing 
flax  ;  as,  when  wet,  it  fastens  to  the  heath, 
and  is  there!>y  prevented  from  being  blown 
away  by  tiie  wind.  The  heath  also  keeps  it 
a  little  aboi-e  the  earth,  and  so  exposes  it 
jnore  ecpially  to  the  weather.  When  such 
lieatli  is  not  tj  be  got,  hnks  or  clean  oW  lea- 


I.  I  « 

ground  is  tlic  next  best.  Long-gras?  ground* 
should  be  avoided,  as  the  j^rass  growing 
Ihrough  the  lint  Iretpu.iitly  spots,  tenders,  or 
rots  it;  and  grounds  exposed  to  viohnt 
winds  slinuld  also  be  avoided.  'j'lie  Ilax, 
when  taken  out  ot  the  water,  must  be  sjiread 
very  thin  upon  the  ground  ;  and  being  then 
very  tender,  it  must  l)e  gentlv  handled.  The 
thinner  it  is  spread  the  better,  aiit  is  then 
more  equally  exposed  to  the  weather.  liut 
il  ought  never  to  be  spread  during  a  heavy 
shower,  as  that  would  wash  and  waste  tlie 
harle  loo  nuH-h,  which  is  then  excessively 
lender,  but  soon  alter  becomes  firm  enough 
lo  bear  the  rains,  wliieh,  with  the  open  air 
and  sunshine,  cleans,  softens,  andpurilies  the 
harle  to  the  degree  wanted,  ami  ni'akes  it 
blister  from  the  boon.  In  short,  alter  the 
Ilax  has  got  a  litlle  iirmness  by  being  a  fi:w 
hours  spread  in  dry  weather,  the  more  rain 
and  sunsiiiiie  it  gels  the  better.  If  there  is 
litlle  danger  of  high  winds  carrying  off  the 
(lax,  it  will  be  much  the  better  for  being 
turned  about  once  a  week.  If  it  is  not  to  l)e 
turned,  it  ought  to  be  very  thin  spread.  The 
spreading  of  IUlx  and  lu-mi),  which  requires 
a  great  deal  of  ground,  enriches  it  greatly. 
Tlie  (lax-raiser  should  spread  his  (irst  row  of 
Ilax  at  the  end  of  the  lield  opposite  to  the 
point  « henrc  the  most  yiolent  wind  com- 
monly comes,  placing  the  root  ends  fore- 
most. He  makes  tlie  root  ends  of  every 
other  row  overlap  the  crop  ends  of  the  torni- 
er  row  three  or  four  inches,  and  binds  down 
tiie  last  row  with  a  rope;  by  which  means 
the  wind  does  not  easily  get  below  the  lint 
to  blow  it  away  ;  and  as  the  crop  ends  are 
seldom  so  fully  watered  as  the  root  ends,  the 
overlapping  has  an  effect  like  giving  the  crop 
ends  mure  «  aleriiig. 

A  dry  day  ought  to  be  chosen  for  taking 
op  the  Ilax  ;  and  if  there  is  no  appearance 
of  higli  wind,  it  should  be  loosed  from  the 
heath  or  grass,  and  left  loose  for  some  hoars, 
to  make  it  thoroughly  dry. 

As  a  great  ((uantity  of  tlax  can  scarcely  be 
all  equally  watered  and  grasse<l,  and  as  the 
dill'erent  qualities  will  best  ajipear  at  lifting 
the  flax  off  the  grass  ;  therefore  at  that  time 
each  different  kind  should  be  gathered  to- 
gether, aiirl  kept  by  itself;  that  is,  all  of  the 
same  colour,  length,  and  quality. 

The  smaller  the  beets  lint  is  made  up  in, 
the  belter  for  drying,  and  the  more  conveni- 
ent for  stacking,  housing.  Sec.  and  in  making 
op  these  beets,  as  in  every  other  operation 
upon  tlax,  it  is  of  gi-eat  consequence  that  the 
lint  be  laid  together  as  it  grew,  the  root 
ends  together,  and  the  crop  ends  together. 
The  profit  on  five  acres  of  tlax  raised  in 
Shropshire,  was  46/.  4?.  5d. 
Llt)N.     See  Feus 

I,!P.\RtA,  a  genus  of  the  diadelphia  de- 
candiia  class  and  order.  The  cal.  is  tive- 
cleft  ;  cor.  wings  two  lobed,  below;  slam, 
the  larger,  with  tliree  shorter  teeth  ;  legume 
ovate.  There  are  four  species,  shrubs  of  the 
Cape. 

LIPPIA,  a  genus  of  the  didynamia  gyin- 
nospermia  class  and  order.  The  cal.  is  four- 
toothed  ;  the  caps,  one-celled,  three-valved, 
two-seeded  ;  seed  one,  two-celled.  'Ihere  are 
live  species,  shrubs  of  America. 

LIQUKFAC  riON.     See  Fluidity. 

LIQUIDS,  expansion  of.  See  ix man- 
sion. 

K2 


L  I 


73 


MQUIDAMBAK,  Sweet-cvm  trf.k,  a 
genus  of  the  polvandria  order,  in  the  iiio- 
ntvcia  che*  of  plants;  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  ..itli  (hose  of  which  the  order 
is  doublliil.  'I  lie  male  calyx  is  common  ami 
tri|)li\  Hulls;  there  is  no  corolla,  but  numer- 
ous lilaineiits  ;  the  male  calyces  are  collect- 
ed into  a  spherical  Ibrm,  and  tetraphyllous  ; 
there  is  no  corolla  ;  but  seven  slyies,  aiiii 
many  bivalved  and  monuspermous  capsules, 
collected  into  a  sphere.  There  are  only 
two  species,  both  deciduons,  viz.  1.  'I'lie  sty- 
racidua,  or  (he  \  iiginia  or  maple-leaved  lir 
quidambar  ;  a  native  of  the  rich  moist  jiarts 
of  Virginia  and  Mexico.  It  will  shoot  in  a 
regular  manner  to  thirty  or  forty  feet  liigh, 
having  its  youn»  twigs  covered  with  a  sniooih 
light-brown  bark,  while  those  of  the  older 
ari'  of  a  darker  colour.  'J'he  flowers  are  of 
a  kind  of  salfron-colour:  they  are  proiVicerl 
at  tlie  ends  of  the  branches  the  beginning  of 
April,  and  sometimes  sooner;  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  large  round  brown  frtiit,  which 
looks  singular,  but  is  tliought  bv  many  to 
be  no  ornament  to  the  tree,  3. The  pere- 
grinum,  Canada  liquidambar,  or  spleenwort- 
leaved  gale,  is  a  native  of  Canada  and  IViin- 
sylvania.  The  young  branches  of  this  spe- 
cies are  slender,  tough,  and  hardy.  'I'hc 
flowers  come  out  (roni  the  sides  of  the 
branches,  like  the  former;  and  they  arc  suc- 
ceeded by  small  roundish  fruit,  which  seldom 
ripens  in  Kngland.  These  may  be  propa- 
gated either  by  seeds  or  layers. 

The  leaves  of  this  tree  emit  their  odori- 
ferous particles  in  such  plenty  as  to  perfume 
the  circumambient  air  ;  nay,  the  wliole  tree 
exudes  such  a  fragrant  transparent  resin,  as 
to  have  given  occ-asion  to  its  being  taken 
for  the  sweet  storax.  (Sec  Stykax.)  These 
trees,  therefore,  are  very  [iroper  to  be  plant- 
ed singly  in  large  opens,  that  they  may 
amply  display  their  fine  pyramidal  growth, 
or  lo  be  set  in  places  near  seats,  pavilions, 
&c.  The  resin  was  formerly  of  great  use 
as  a  perfume,  and  is  at  present  no  stranger 
in  the  shops. 

LU^UORICK.  Sec  Glycirrhiza,  and 
.Materi.\  Medico. 

JJRlOnEXDKOX,  theTui.ip-TRFF,  a 
grmis  of  the  poly,';ynia  order,  in  the  pu'.)- 
andria  class  of  plants  ;  and    in  the  natural 
method  ranking  uiuler  the  52d  order,  coadu- 
natx'.     The  ca!\x  is    Iriphyllous  ;  there  are 
nine    petals ;    and    the   teecjs   imbricaicd   itt 
such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  cone.     'I'hcre 
are  two  species  ;  the  tulipfera,  is  best  known 
here,  ami  is  a  deciduous  tree,  native  of  most 
part  of  America.     It  rises  with  a  large  u]>- 
right  trunk,    branching  forty   or   fifty    feet 
high.     The  trunk,   wliich  often   attahis  to  a 
circumferenc<:  of  thirty  feel  high,  is  covered 
with  a  grey  bark.      '1  he  leaves  grow  irre- 
gularly on  the  branches,  on  long  footstalks. 
They   are  of  a   particular  slrnctnre,   being 
composed  of  three  lobc-s,  the  middlemost  ot 
w  hich  is  siiortcned  in  such  a  manner  Uiat  it 
appears  as  if  it  liad  been  cut  oil' and  hollow- 
ed   at    the    middle.      The   two  others  arc* 
rounded  ott'.     Ihcy  are  about  four  or  (ivc 
inches  long,  and  a^  many  broad.     The  flow- 
ers are  jjroduced  with  us  in   July,  at  the 
ends  of  tlie  branches.     The  numberof  pe- 
tals of  which  eacli  is  composed,  like  those  c{ 
the  tulip,  is  six  ;  and  tliese  are  spotted  witit 
jrecu,  red,  white,  and  jellon.     The  liowere 


?Q 


L  I  V 


are  succeeded  by  large  cones,  which  never 
ripen  in  Enaland. 

LISiANTIIL'S,  a  genus  of  the^  pentan- 
dria  inoiiogvnia  class  and  order,  'llie  cal. 
is  keeled  ;  cor.  witli  vejitricose  tube  and  re- 
curved division  ;  stigma  two-plated  ;  caps, 
two-valved,  iwo-celled.  lliereareQ  species, 
herbs  of  the  West  Indies. 

LllA,  a  genus  of tlie  class  and  order  pen- 
tandria  nionogynia.  Tiie  cal.  is  five-cleft  ; 
r  or.  salver-shaped,  long  lube,  five-clett  ; 
caps.  ortf"-celled,  two-valved ;  seeds  numer- 
ous. Tliere  are  two  species,  lierbs  ot 
Guiana. 

LlTHOPrilL.V,  a  genus  of  the  diandria 
monogynia  class  and  order,  'llie  cal.  is 
three-leaved ;  cor.  tliree-petailed ;  ncct. 
t-.vo-leaved.  There  is  one  species,  of  no 
note. 

I.ITIIAKGE,  an  oxide  of  lead.  See 
Lead. 

i.lTHOPIIYTA,  the  name  of  Linnx-us's 
tliird  order  of  vermes. 

LITIIOSPERMUM,  gromwell:  a  ge- 
niig  of  tfie  monogynia  order,  in  the  pentan- 
<iria  class  of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural  me- 
lliod  ranking  under  tlie  4lst  order,  a<prri- 
folise.  '1  he  corolla  is  funnel-shaped,  Witli  the 
throat  perforated  and  naked  ;  the  calyx  ([uih- 
tpieparlite.  'i  iiere  are  12  species  ;  but  the 
only  remarkable  ones  are  the  officinale  or 
common  groniwell,  and  the  arvense  or  bas- 
tard alkanet.  Both  tbese  are  natives  of  Bri- 
tain ;  the  former  gro-.ving  in  dry  gravelly  soil, 
the  latter  in  corn-fields. 

LITHOTOMY.  See  Surgery. 
LITTORELL.'^,  a  genus  of  the  monoecia 
tetrandria  class  and  ordir.  The  male  cal.  is 
four-leaved  ;  cor.  four-cleft ;  stain,  long.  No 
female  cal.;  cor.  four-cleft ;  seed  a  nut.  There 
is  one  species. 

J>1VER.  See  Anatomy. 
LIVERY  of  seisin,  in  law,  signifies  deli- 
Trering  the  possession  of  lands,  &c.  to  him 
■who  has  a  right  to  them.  'J'here  are  two 
kxids  of  livery  and  seisin;  livery  in  law, 
where  the  feoffi.'r  being  in  view  of  tlie  land, 
house,  or  other  thing  granted,  says  to  the 
fooll'ee,  on  delivery  of  liie  deed,  "  \  give 
to  you  yonder  land,  &c.  to  hold  to  you  and 
•to  yoirr  heirs,  so  go  into  tlie  same,  and  take 
possessbn  accordingly."  And  livery  hi 
deed,  is  where  the  parties,  or  the  attorneys 
by  tiicSn  autiiorised,  coming  to  the  door  of 
the  house,  or  uijon  some  part  of  the  land,  de- 
clare the  occasion  of  tlieir  meeting  before 
witnesses,  read  tlu?  deed,  or  its  contents, 
and  in  case  it  be  made  by  attorney,  the  let- 
ter of  ;rloniey  is  also  read,  alter  which,  if 
the  delivery  is  of  a  house,  the  grantor,  or 
fiis  attorney,  takes  the  ring,  key,  or  latch 
belonging  to  the  door,  or  if  it  be  a  land,  a 
turf,  or  clod  of  e.arlli,  and  a  tw  ig  of  one  of 
llie  trees,  and  delivering  them  with  the  deed 
to  the  grantee  or  his  attorney,  says,  "  I 
A.  U.  do  hereby  deliver  to  you  possession 
and  seisin  oif  this  messuage  or  tenement,  &c. 
to  hold  to  you,  your  heirs  and  assigns,  ac- 
cording to  the  purport,  true  intent,  and 
ini'aning  of  this  indenture,  or  deed  of  fcotl- 
inent."  y\fter  which  the  grantee  enters  first 
alone,  and  shutting  the  door,  and  then  open- 
in,-;  it,  lets  in  others. 

Since  the  nuking  the  statute  of  uses,  li- 
V(;ry  and  seisin  are  not  so  much  u^ed  as  for- 
merly ;  for  a  lease  and  release;  a  bargain 
aad  sale  by  deed  iiuolled,  ate  sufficient  to 


L  O  A 

vest  the  grantee  with  possession,  without  tlie 
fornialitv  of  livery. 

Ll\  JiRYMEN  of  London,  are  a  number 
of  men  selected  from  among  tlie  freemen  of 
each  company.  Out  of  this  body,  llie  com- 
mon council,  sheriif,  and  other  superior  of- 
ficers (or  tlie  government  of  the  city  are 
elt-cted,  and  they  alone  have  the  privilege 
of  giving  their  voles  for  members  of  parlia- 
ment ;  from  wliicli  the  rest  of  the  citizens 
are  e-xcluded. 

LI\  ES,  or  insurance  of  Lives.  See 
L;suRANCE,  and  Life. 

LIXIVU'.\L     See  Pharmacy. 

LIZ.VRD.     See  Lacerta. 

i^OAD,  or  Lode,  in  mining,  a  word  used 
especially  in  the- tin-mines,  for  any  regular 
vein  or  course,  wliether  inelallic  or  not ;  but 
most  commonly  load  means  a  metallic  vein. 
It  is  to  be  ub--.Tved,  that  mines  in  general 
are  veins  willii:!  the  earth,  whose  sides  re- 
ceding from  or  api)roaching  to  each  other, 
make  them  of  unecjual  breadths  in  different 
places,  sometimes  forming  large  spaces, 
which  are  called  holes  ;  these  holes  are  filled 
like  die  rest  with  substances,  which,  whether 
metallic,  or  of  ;iny  other  nature,  are  called 
loads.  W'iien  the  substances  forming  these 
loads  are  reducible  to  metal,  the  loads  are 
by  the  English  miners  said  to  be  alive,  other- 
wise they  are  termed  dead  loads. 

'llie  load  is  fre(|ueiitlv  intercepted  by  the 
crossing  of  a  vein  of  earth  or  stone,  or  some 
other  metalline  substance  ;  in  which  case  it 
generally  happens,  that  one  part  of  the  load 
is  moved  to  a  considerable  distance  on 
one  side.  "^I'his  load  is  by  the  miners  term- 
ed a  flooking,  and  the  part  of  the  load 
which  is  moved,  is  by  them  said  to  be  heav- 
ed. This  fracture  or  heave  of  a  load,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Price,  is  produced  by  a  sub- 
sidence of  the  strata  from  their  primary  po- 
sitions, which  he  supposes  to  have  been  ho- 
rizontal or  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  therelore  should  more  projierly 
be  called  a  depression  than  a  heave.  This 
heaving  of  the  load  would  be  an  inexpressi- 
ble loss  to  the  miner,  did  not  experience 
teach  him  that  as  the  loads  always  run  on 
the  sides  of  the  hills,  so  the  part  heaved  is 
always  moved  toward  the  descent  of  the  hill ; 
so  that  the  miner,  working  toward  the  as- 
cent of  the  hill,  and  meeting  a  llooking,  con- 
siders himself  as  working  in  the  heaved  part ; 
wherefore,  cutting  through  the  flooking,  he 
works  upon  its  back  up  ti.e  ascent  of  tiie  hill, 
till  he  recovers  the  load,  and  vice  versa. 

LO.AMS.     See  I  i  use  ax  dry. 

LOANS,  in  |)olitical  economy,  sums  of 
money,  generally  of  large  amount,  borrow- 
ed from  individuals  or  public  bodies,  for  the 
service  of  the  state.  1  hey  are  either  com- 
pulsory, in  which  case  they  may  be  more 
properly  termed  requisitions  ;  or  voluntary, 
which  is  tiie  only  mode  that  can  be  fre- 
quently resorted  to  with  advantage.  Loans 
are  sometimes  furniihed  by  public  compa- 
nies as  a  consideration  for  peculiar  privi- 
leges secured  to  them  ;  but  are  much  more 
commonly  advanced  by  individuals  on  a  cer- 
tain interest  being  allowed  for  the  use  of 
the  money,  either  tor  a  term  of  years,  or  un- 
til the  priiieipal  shall  be  repaid. 

The  practice  of  borrowing  money,  for 
defraying  part  of  the  extraordinary  expences 
ill  lime  of  war,  had  been  adopted  in  other 
C'juntriss  long  before  it  was  iiiUroduced  into 


L  O  .\ 

Great  Uritaln  ;  but  it  has  been  carried  to  a 
far  greater  extent  here  tiian  by  any  other 
state:  and  the  facility  willi  which  the  go- 
vernment Ijas  been  enabled  to  laise  llie 
largest  sums,  has  arisen  entirely  from  the 
strict  pmicluallty  with  which  it  has  constant- 
ly madi-  good  all  pecuniary  engagements. 
The  chancellor  of  the  exchei|ner  is  the  of- 
ficer who  usually  conducts  negotiations  of 
this  kind  on  the  part  of  the  government,  and 
the  agreement  is  afterward  confirmed  by 
parliament;  the  governor  and  company  of 
the  bank  of  England,  have  of  late  years  been 
usually  appointed  receivers  of  the  contribu- 
tions,'for  which  they  have  an  allowance, 
at  a  certain  rate  per  million  ;  and  llie  sums 
received  by  them  are  paid  into  the  exche- 
quer in  the  name  of  the  chief  cashier  of  the 
bank.  The  money  appropriated  to  pay  the 
interest  or  annuities,  is  issued  at  tlie  receipt 
of  the  exchetiuer  to  tiie  chief  cashier  of  tha, 
bank  upon  account,  and  he  is  enjoined  to  • 
pay  the  annuities,  and  render  his  account  in 
due  cotuse.  The  bank  detain  their  allows 
ance  for  receiving  tlie  contributions  out  of 
the  sum  received,  and  likewise  what  they 
have  allowed  as  discount  to  those  subscrib- 
ers who  advanced  their  money  before  the 
times  fixed  for  the  several  inslalinenls. 

When  the  parliament  has  voted  the  sup- 
plies, and  the  extent  of  the  loan  found  ne- 
cessary is  determined,  a  communication  is 
usually  made  to  the  bank  or  stock  exchange 
stating  the  particular  stock  on  which  the 
loan  is  to  be  made,  and  lixing  a  day  for  those 
who  intend  to  bid  for  it  to  wait  on  the  mir 
nisler  with  their  proposals  ;  in  the  mean  time 
each  person  forms  his  list  of  friends  who  are 
to  take  difiijrent  proportions  with  him  in  case 
he  succeeds.  A\  hen  the  day  comes,  each 
party  otters  as  low  as  he  thinks  he  can  ven- 
turtf  witli  a  fair  prospect  of  profit,  and  the 
lowest  offer  is  generally  accepted.  The 
only  step  to  be  taken  by  those  who  are  not 
of  tl'.e  number  just  mentioned,  and  who  may- 
wish  to  take  a  share  in  the  transaction,  is  to 
apply  to  one  of  the  subscribers  for  a  part  of 
his  subscription,  which  at  first  may  some- 
tinurs  be  had  without  any  premium,  or  for  a 
very  small  one,  lor  it  cannot  be  presunn'd 
that  any  small  number  of  men,  who  have 
subscribed  for  the  whole  siinj  to  be  raided, 
intend,  or  can  keep  it,  but  that  they  pro- 
pose to  include  in  their  subscriptions  a  great 
number  of  their  connections  and  acquaint- 
ance. Sometimes  the  subscription  lies  open 
to  the  iHiblic  at  he  bank,  as  in  the  instance 
of  the  loan  of  eighteen  millions  for  the  ser- 
vice of  the  year  179",  and  then  every  person 
is  at  liberty  to  subscribe  what  he  thinks  pro- 
per ;  and  if  upon  casting  up  tlie  whole, 
there  is  a  surplus  subscribed,  which  has  ge- 
nerally been  the  case,  the  sum  each  person 
has  subscribed,  is  reduced  in  an  equal  pro- 
portion, so  as  to  make  in  the  whole  the 
sum   fixed  by  parliament. 

As  soon  as  conveniently  may  be,  after  the 
subscription  is  closed,  receipts  are  made 
out,  and  delivered  to  the  subscribers,  for  the 
several  sums  by  them  subscribed ;  and  for 
the  convniiency  of  sale,  every  suiiscriber  of 
a  conslderabk-  sum  has  sundry  receipts  for 
diiferent  proportions  of  his  whole  sum,  by 
which  means  he  can  readily  part  with  what  sum 
he  thinks  proper  ;  and  a  form  of  assignment 
is  drawn  upon  the  back  of  tin ■  receipt,  which 
being  signed    and  witnesscti,    trausters  ths 


proticitr  to  any  pnnliasci-.  Tlip  deposit 
IS  gi'iit'rally  ten  por  cc-iit.  and  is  made 
at  or  about  tlic  time  of  subscribing  ;  llie 
second  payment  is  about  a  montb  after,  and 
so  on  till  die  wliole  is  paid  in,  each  instal- 
mr-nt  being  Uiuaily  eitini-  len  or  iifteeii  per 
cent.  Tl'.ose  subscribers  w  lio  elioose  to  ])ay 
the  whole  sum  before  tlio  a|ipoinled  days  of 
payment,  are  allowed  diseounl  at  an  agreed 
rate  per  cent,  on  the  sun\  paid  in  advance, 
from  the  time  of  such  i)ayment  to  tlie  period 
y.\\eu  the  whole  is  reijnired  to  be  paid  in  by 
instalments.  Those  who  do  not  complete 
the  payment  of  the  smu  they  havesubserib- 
td  for,'forfeit  tlie  part  they  have  paid;  and 
this  is  the  case  according  to  tlie  acts  of 
parliament,  if  the  money  is  not  paid  by  the 
davs  appointed ;  but  payments  are  soine- 
tiines  received  after  the  a]>pointed  days  on 
paying  certain  fees  to  the  clerli. 

Loans  are  usually  raised  upon  cither  re- 
(leeniabls  or  irredeemable  annuities.  The 
former  afe  those  which  according  to  the 
conditions  of  the  acts  by  wliicli  they  are 
created,  government  may  redeem  without 
the  consent  of  the  proprietors,  by  dischar- 
ging the  debt  at  par;  the  latter  are  such  as 
being  granted  for  specilic  teriiTS,  cannot  be 
redeemed  without  the  consent  of  the  pro- 
priitors.  The  various  debts  that  liave  been 
incurred  at  different  periods  by  loans  on 
either  of  these  species  of  annuities,  constitute 
the  funded  debt  of  tlie  nation  ;  that  is,  the 
debt  which  has  been  secured  upon  certain 
funds,  created  by  parliament,  and  appropri- 
ated to  the  payment  of  ,the  annual  interest 
on  the  sums  borrowed.  The  constant  liope 
of  being  able  at  a  future  period  to  redeem 
the  debts  contracted,  has  induced  the  go- 
vernment generally  to  prefer  raising  money 
on  annuities  redeemable  at  par;  and  tlie 
disadvantage  which  might  arise  to  the  stock- 
holder from  being  paid  olf  at  par,  if  his 
principal  bore  a  mgh  rate  of  interest,  has 
,  always  made  those  who  advance  money  on 
loans  prefer  a  large  capital  bearing  a  low 
rate  per  cent,  though  it  may  actually 
produce  a  somewhat  less  annual  interest  than 
would  have  been  given  on  a  capital  equal 
to  the  sum  advanced  :  the  great  speculations 
which  are  carried  on  in  the  public  funds  are 
also  a  strong  inducement  to  prefer  advancing 
money  on  these  conditions,  which  have  con- 
tributed so  much  to  increase  the  nominal 
magnitude  of  the  national  debt. 

The  terms  of  all  the  public  loans  which 
have  been  raised  from  the  commencement 
ef  the  funding  system,  have  been  collected 
'by  Mr.  J.  J.  Grellier,  who  observes,  that 
"  the  economy  or  extravagance  of  every 
transaction  of  this  kind  depeiuSs  on  its  cor- 
resDondence  or  disagreement  with  the  price 
of  the  public  funds,  and  the  current  rate  of 
interest  at  which  money  coukl  be  obtained  on 
good  security  at  the  tune  the  bargain  was  con- 
cluded; and  consequently,  a  loan  on  wliich  the 
higliest  interest  is  paid,  may  have  been  ob- 
tained on  the  be^l  terms  that  could  possibly 
be  made  at  the  time  it  was  jregotiated."  The 
interest  paid,  however,  forms  the  leal  bur- 
■  then  of  each  ioan  to  the  c  juntry,  and  is  the 
circumstance  to  be  chieily  attended  to  in 
all  comparisons  of  the  adi'antage  or  disad- 
vantage' of  the  terms  on  which  the  public 
debts  have  been  contracted  at  ditfcrejit  pe- 
jiods. 


LOANS, 

Trom  the  diflerem c  in  the  terms  of  the 
loan,  witii  respect  to  the  capital  creatid,  the 
rate  of  interest  it  bears,  and  the  diflcreiil 
periods  of  the;  terminable  annuities  which 
have  been  granted  with  most  of  tiie  loans,  it 
is  evident," that  in  order  to  form  a  proper 
comparison  of  the  rate  of  interest  paid  lor  the 
money  borrowed  at  dill'erent  periods,  the 
various  conditions  iiiu.^t  be  brought  into  some 
degree  of  uniformity  ;  and  the  most  obvious 
mode  of  doing  this  is,  by  convorting  that 
part  of  the  interest  which  consist-s  of  termi- 
nable annuities  into  equivalent  perpetual  an- 
nuities ;  that  is,  into  liie  additional  interest, 
whicli  must  liave  been  paid  in  lieu  of  such 
terminable  annuities. 

The  rate  of  interest  at  which  such  conver- 
sion is  made  ali'i;cls  the  resuit  in  some  in- 
stances very  materially  ;  thus,  tlie  perpetual 
annuity,  which  is  equal  to  an  auliuity  of 
U)/.  for  21  years,  is,  at  3  per  cent.  4/.  'l2.v. 
bd.  but  at  5  per  cent,  6/.  84-.  2cl. ;  and  the 
perpetual  annuity  equal  to  an  annuity  of 
10/.  for  60  years,  which,  at  3  per  cent, 
is  8/.  C«.  is  at  5  per  cent.  9/.  9-5.  3d. 
from  which  it  is  evident,  that,  if  the  termi- 
nable anntiities,  granted  at  different  periods, 
are  all  valued  at  tlie  same  rate  of  interest, 
the  conqjarison  will  by  no  means  be  just ; 
for  if  a  high  rate  is  adopted,  the  loans  which 
have  been  obtained  at  the  lowest  interest 
will  be  set  in  an  unfavourable  view  ;  and  if, 
on  the  contrary,  lliey  are  all  valued  at  a 
low  rate,  the  iliarge  01  tho^e  loans,  for  which 
the  highest  interest  is  jiaid,  will  appear  less 
than  it  really  is.  Nor  is  a  medium  or  aver- 
age rate  more  proper  for  exhibiting  the  real 
ditCerence  in  the  teems  on  which  the  several 
loans  have  been  obtained.  The  least  ob- 
jectioiial)le  mode  appears  to  be  to  convert 
the  terminable  annuitie--  into  perpetual  an- 
nuities, according  to  the  current  rate  of  in- 
terest at  the  time  when  the  annuities  were 
granted,  as  it  is  upon  the  rate  of  interest  that 
the  proportionate  value  of  an  annuity  for  a 
certain  term  to  the  perpett.ity  depends  ;  and 
in  forming  the  fo'lowing  statements,  the 
conversion  has  been  made  at  the  interest  pro- 
duced by  money  invested  in  the  three  per 
cents,  according  to  the  price  of  this  stock 
at  the  times  when  the  terms  of  the  respec- 
tive loans  were  settled :  for,  though  by  this 
means,  the  rate  is,  in  each  case,  rather 
lower  than  it  would,  have  been  had  the  in- 
terest produced  by  4  or  5  per  cent,  stock 
been  adopted,  it  i^  uiost  probable,  from  the 
nature  of  the  principal  loans,  that  the  stock 
which  must  h.ive  been  given  in  lieu  of  a  long 
annuity,  « ould  chietly  have  been  three  per 
cents.  ;  and,  tiierefore,  tht  interest  equiva- 
lent to  the  long  annuity  should  be  fotmd  ac- 
cording to  the  interest  produced  by  this 
stock.  It  mav  also  be  proper  to  remark, 
that,  as  the  terminable  annuities  have  mostly 
been  granted  for  a  long  term,  and  form  but 
a  small  part  of  the  whole  interest,  particu- 
larly on  the  loans  of  the  last  war,  the  dill'er- 
ence  of  a  quarter  or  even  half  per  cent,  in 
the  rate  at  which  they  are  valued  has  in  ge- 
neral but  little  effect  on  the  whole  rate  per 
cent,  of  the  loan.  Thus,  if  the  long  annuity 
of  the  loan  of  l4,j00,000/.,  in  17y7,  is  va- 
lued at  G  per  cent,  (being  the  interest  pro- 
duced by  3  per  cents,  at  that  time)  it  makes 
the  whole  rate  per  cent.  6,'.  6.s.  \0d.  ;  but, 
if  the  long  annuity  is  valued  at  5^  per  cent, 
it  wiJl  be  Qt.  i^i.Jild.-y  at,  j;|  ..per  cent. 


77 

61.  Ov.  91J, ;  and,  at  5  per  cent.  6/.  6*.  sy. 
On  the  lean  of  1798,  the  difference  would 
be  still  less. 

1  i  1  the  last  war,  the  lottery  g  nerally 
formed  part  of  the  terms  of  the  loan  ;  every 
.-ubscribi  r  of  a  certain  sum  towards  the  lat- 
ter beieg  entitled  to  a  certain  number  of 
tickets,  at  10/.  each,  the  price  at  which  the 
lottery-scheme  is  usually  forjned.  As  the 
whole  prolits  of  tlie  lotteries  were  tluis  given, 
up  to  the  subscribers,  a  part  of  Ihp  money 
advanced  must  be  considered  as.  equlvaient 
to  the  Slim  wlsich  government  would  other- 
wise have  received  for  the  lottery,  and  is 
therefore  to  be  deducted  from  the  whole 
sum  advanced  on  the  loan,  'i'liis  profit  is 
variable,  but  has  generally  been  taken  at  the 
average  of  2/.  l()y.  per  ticket;  making,  ou 
a  lottery  of  .50,000  tickets,  I'Jj.OOO/.  to.be 
deducted  from  the  sum  advanced,  in  estimat- 
hig  the  rate  of  interest  paid  thereon. 

There  are  some  other  circuir.stances  which 
artect  the  interest  paid:  sudi  as  the  tliscount 
allowed  for  prompt  payment,  the  differint 
periods  of  tlie  instalments,  and  the  times  troiu 
which  the  annuities  commence;  but  as  these 
drawbacks  do  not  in  general  amount  to  any 
considerable  sum,  in  conqjarisoii  with  the 
whole  amount  of  the  loan,  lliey  do  not  mate- 
rially augment  the  rate  of  interest;  and  as 
they  more  or  less  affect  all  the  loans,  they 
are  of  still  less  importance  in  a  comparative 
view.  In  the  following  statement,  however,  a 
deduction  is  made  on  the  loans  of  1 8,000,000/. 
in  1796  and  1797,  on  account  of  the  advan- 
tage allowed  with  respect  to  the  time  from 
which  the  annuities  commenced,  being  greater 
than  usual. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  a  particular 
investigation  of  the  interest  paid  for  the  mo- 
ney borrowed  in  the  infancy  of  the  funding, 
system,  as  the  first  loans  differed  materially 
from  those  of  subsequent  periods,  in  being 
raised  wholly  on  terminable  ann.uities,  and  in 
having  a  particular  fund  assigjied  tor  each 
loan,  by  the  supposed  adequateness  or  insuf- 
liciency  of  wliich  the  inter-,st  required  by  the 
lenders  was  freciuently  iiithienced,  as  well  as 
by  other  causes,  which  have  since  ceased  to 
exist. 

During  the  reign  of  queen  Anne,  loans 
were  chiefly  raised  on  annuities  ior  99  vear.s, 
till  1711,  when,  by  the  establishment  ot  the- 
South  Sea  coir.pfmy,  a  variety  of  debts  were 
consolidated  and  made  a  permanent  capital, 
bearing  6  per  cent,  interest.  About  this  pe- 
riod lotteries  were  also  frequently  adopted 
for  raising  money  for  the  nubile  S'.-rvicc,  un- 
der which  form  a  considerable  premium  was 
given,  in  addition  to  a  hiyh  rate  of  interest. 
This  mode  of  raisins  money  was  followed  io.^ 
1712,  1713,  and  17:4.  In  the  latter  year, 
though  the  interest  paid  was  equal  to  only 
5/.  7v  '2d.  per  cent,  on  the  sum  bonowed,  the 
premium  allowed  was  upwards  of  34/.  per 
cent. ;  ,btt  as  peace  was  restored,  and  the 
legal  rate  of  interest  had  been  reduced  to  5 
per  cent,  it  seems  that  a  larger  premium  was 
allowed,  for  tie  s:^ke  of  appearing  to  borrow 
at  a  moderate  rate  ot  interest.  , 

In  the  reign  of  George  I.  the  iBtexest  on  a 
considerable  part  of  the  public  debts  was  re- 
duced to  5  per  cent,  and  tiie  fevr  loans  that 
were  i'aised  were  comjjar.itivelv  of  small 
anioiM't;  thit  ot  the  year  1750  w,:s  obtained 
at  little  ^lore  than  4  per  cent,  interest. 


73 


t,  ()  n 


A'«'.)ut  17.10  (he  c'.iiTi-Dt  rate  of  iiilfrcst 
was  3^  ))iT  cent. ;  and  in  173(},  govcniiiitnt 
ivas  (niui)led  to  borrow  at  3  per  cent,  jjcr  an- 
num, riie  extraorciiiiary  siinis  iiet-essary 
for  (k-fraying  the  e>:;ieiice3  of  the  war  which 
b^s;an  in  1739.  wcrs  at  first  obtained  from  the 
"iinkini;  fund  and  tlic  salt  duties;  a  pavnieut 
from  tlie  bank,  in  174'?,  rendered  only  a 
small  loan  nece-^sary  in  ihit  year,  which  was 
obtained  at  little  more  than  3  per  cent,  inte- 
rest. In  the  succeeding  years  the  following 
sums  were  raised  by  loans: 

Sum  borrowed.       Interest. 


1743 

- 

.£1,800.000 

.£•3     8 

4 

1744 

- 

1,800,000 

- 

3     6 

10 

1745 

- 

•2,000,000 

- 

4    0 

7 

1745 

- 

L',500,000 

- 

5      5 

1 

1747 

- 

4,000,000 

- 

4     3 

0 

174S 

- 

0,300,000 

- 

4     8 

0 

Loans  of  the  seven  ye 

ars 

war. 

17.56 

. 

5,000,000 

- 

3   13 

0 

1757 

- 

3,000,000 

- 

3   14 

3 

1 753 

- 

5,000,000 

- 

3     6 

5 

1759 

- 

6,600,000 

- 

3   10 

9 

1760 

- 

8,000,000 

- 

3   13 

/ 

1761 

- 

12,000,000 

- 

4     1 

11 

1762 

-' 

1  '■2,000,000 

- 

4  10 

9 

1763 

- 

3,500,000 

- 

4    4 

2 

Loans  ©f  the  American  war. 

177() 

-  - 

2,000,000 

- 

3    9 

8 

1777 

- 

5,000,000 

. 

4    5 

2 

1778 

- 

6,000,000 

- 

4  18 

7 

1779 

- 

7,000,000 

- 

5    18 

10 

17S0 

- 

12,000,000 

- 

5    16 

8 

1781 

- 

12,000,000 

- 

5   11 

1 

1789 

- 

13,500,000 

- 

5    18 

1 

1783 

- 

12,000,000 

- 

4  13 

9 

1784 

- 

6,000,000 

- 

5     6 

11 

Loans  of  the 

war  witli  the  French  repii 

jlic 

1793 

- 

4,500,000 

- 

4    3 

4 

17«J4 

- 

11,000,000 

- 

4  10 

7 

1795 

- 

18,000,000 

- 

4  15 

8 

1796 

- 

18,000,000 

- 

4  14 

9 

1796 

- 

7,500,000 

. 

4  12 

2 

1797' 

- 

18,000,000 

- 

5   14 

1 

1797 

- 

14,500,000 

- 

6    6 

10 

179S 

. 

17,000,000 

- 

6     4 

9 

1 7<.)9 

. 

3,000,000 

- 

5   12 

5 

1799 

- 

15,500,000 

- 

5     5 

0 

I  HOC) 

- 

20,500,000 

- 

4  14 

'2 

ISO  I 

- 

28,000,000 

- 

5     5 

^ 

Loans  of  the  war  witli  the  J'rench  cinpire. 

1803  -        12,000,000       -      5     2     0 

1804  -       14,500,000       -     5     9     2 

1805  -       22,500,000       -      5     3     2 

1806  -       20,000,000       -      4    19     7 
I^O.'VSA,  a  genus  of  the  polyandi  ia  nisno- 

j;ynia  class  and  order.  The  cal.  is  live- 
leaved  ;  cor.  five-petalled  ;  nect.  live-leaved ; 
caps,  turbinate,  one-celled,  three-valved, 
many-seeded.  'I'h.cre  is  one  species,  an  an- 
imal of  South  America. 

LOl'K.     See  Anatomy. 

IX)I!KLI.\,  CARDINAL-FLOWER,  a  gcnus 
of  the  monogamia  order,  in  the  syngenesia 
cla'<s  of  pl.nnts,  and  in  the  natural  method 
Tanking  under  the  ?9th  order,  canipanace;e. 
The  calyx  is  ipiinciuelid;  the  corolla  mono- 
pfitalous  and  irregular;  the  capsule  inferior, 
biloculai"  or  Irilocular.  Thcie  are  42  spe- 
cies, but  only  four  of  them  are  cultivated  in 
our  g.irdens,  two  of  which  are  hardy  herba- 
ceous plauls  lor  the  open  ground,  and  two 


L  O  C 

shrubby  pbnls  for  the  ptovc.  Tliey  are  all 
ribruus-'rooled  perennials,  rising  with  er'.-ct 
stalks  from  two  to  five  or  six  leet  high,  orna- 
mented with  o!)long,  oval,  spear-sli.sped, 
simple  leaves,  and  spikes  of  beaulilul  mono- 
petalous,  somewhat  ringent,  (ive-parled  tiow- 
ers,  of  scarUt,  blue,  and  violet  coloiu's.  'i'hcy 
are  easily  propagated  by  seeds,  ol'fsets,  and 
cuttings  ot  their  stalks.  '1  he  tender  kinds 
require  tlie  common  treatment  of  other  ex- 
otics. They  are  natives  of  America,  from 
winch  their  seeds  must  be  procured. 

The  root  of  the  species  called  the  syphili- 
tica (see  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  lig.  252.)  is  an  ar- 
ticle of  the  materia  medica.  I'his  species  grows 
in  most  places  in  \'irginia,  and  bears  our  win- 
ters. It  is  perennial,  has  an  erect  stalk  three 
or  lour  feet  high,  blue  llowers,  a  mi'ky  juice, 
and  a  rank  smell.  The  root  consists  o!  white 
libres  about  two  inches  long,  resembles  to- 
bacco in  taste,  which  remains  on  the  tongue, 
and  is  apt  to  excite  vo.niting.  It  is  used  by 
the  North  American  Indians  as  a  specific  in 
the  venereal  disease.  'I'he  bcnelit,  however, 
to  be  derived  from  this  article  has  not,  as  far 
as  we  know,  been  conhrmed  eitlier  in  Britain 
or  by  the  practitioners  in  N'irginia. 

LOCAL,  in  law,  something  fixed  to  the 
tieehold,  or  tied  to  a  certain  place:  thus,  real 
actions  are  local,  .-iiice  they  must  be  brought 
in  the  country  where  they  lie,  and  local  cus- 
toms are  those  peculiar  to  certain  countries 
and  places. 

Local  problem,  among  malliem:ilicians, 
~iich  a  one  as  is  capable  ot  an  inlinit.;  num- 
ber of  diil'erent  solutions,  by  reason  that  the 
point  wliich  is  to  resolve  the  problem  ma\ 
be  indillerently  taken  within  a  certain  extent, 
as  suppose  any  where  within  such  a  line, 
within  such  a  plane  hgure,  &:c.  which  is  called 
a  geometric  locu^,  ami  the  problem  is  said  to 
be  a  local  or  indetermined  one. 

A  local  problem  may  be  either  simple, 
when  the  point  sought  is  in  a  right  light; 
plane,  when  the  point  sought  is  in  the  circum- 
teience  of  a  circle;  solid,  when  the  point  re- 
(juired  is  in  the  circiiiiifi:rence  of  a  conic  sec- 
tion; or  la4ly,  sursolid,  when  the  point  is  in 
the  perimeter  of  a  line  of  the  second  gender, 
or  of  a  h:gher  kind,  as  geometers  call  it. 

LOCHIA.     See  .Midwifery. 

IvOCK,  a  well-known  instrument,  and 
reckoned  the  masterpiece  in  smitlierv ;  a 
great  deal  of  aft  and  delicacy  being  required 
in  contriving  and  varving  the  w;ird<,  springs, 
bolts,  {jCC.  and  adjusting  them  to  the  places 
wheie  they  are  to  be  used,  and  lo  the  varicus 
occasions  of  using  them.  From  the  various 
structure  of  lovks,  accommodated  to  their 
different  intentions,  they  acquire  various 
names.  Tho'-e  placed  on  outer  doors  are 
called  stock-locks ;  those  on  cluimbiT-doors, 
spring-locks;  those  on  trunks,  tniiik-locks, 
padlocks,  &c.  Of  these  the  spring-lock  is 
the  most  considerable,  both  for  its  ffequemy 
and  the  curiosity  of  its  structure. 

A  treatise  upon  this  subject  has  been  pub- 
lisheil  by  .Mr.  .lo-eph  Ih'am.ih,  who  beuins 
with  observing,  th;it  the  principle  on  which 
all  locks  depend,  is  the  iipplication  of  a  lever 
to  an  interior  bolt,  bv  means  ol  a  communi- 
cation from  without;  so  that,  by  means  of 
the  latter,  the  lever  acts  upon  tlie  bolt,  and 
Mioves  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure  the 
lid  or  door  tiom  being  opened  by  any  pull  or 
push  from  without.     '1  lie  security  ot  locks  iu 


L  O  C 

general,  therefore,  depends  on  the  nunibiT 
of  impedimeiils  we  can  interpose  betwixt  the 
lever  (the  key)  and  the  bolt  v\hich  securti 
the  door;  and  these  impediments  are  well 
known  bv  the  n;uiie  ot  wards,  the  number 
and  iiitricacv  of  wliich  alone  are  supposed  to 
disiingui-h  a  good  lock  from  a  bad  one.  If 
these  wards,  however,  do  not  in  an  effectual 
manner  preclude  t!ie  access  of  all  ether  in- 
struments besides  the  proper  key,  it  is  still 
possible  tor  a  mechanic  ol  equal  skill  with  the 
lock -maker  to  open  it  without  the  key,  and 
thus  lo  elude  the  labour  of  the  plhor.  "  As 
nothing  (savs  Mr.  liramah)  can  be  more  op- 
posite in  principle  to  lived  wards  than  a  lock 
which  derives  its  properties  from  the  motion 
of  all  its  |)arts,  I  determined  that  the  con- 
struction of  such  a  lock  should  be  the  subject 
of  my  experiment."  In  the  prosecution  of 
this  Lxperiment,  he  had  the  satisfaction  to 
hnd  that  the  le.ist  perfect  of  all  his  models 
fully  ascertained  the  truth  and  certainty  of 
his  principle.  The  exclusion  of  wards  mad,; 
it  necessary  to  cut  olTall  coinmunication  be- 
tween the  key  and  the  bolt;  as  the  same 
passage  which  (in  a  lock  simply  constructed) 
would  admit  the  key,  migiit  give  admission 
likewise  to  other  mstiuments.  The  office, 
therefore,  which  in  other  locks  is  performed 
by  the  extreme  point  of  the  key,  i»  here  as- 
signed to  a  lever,  which  cannot  approach  the 
bolt  till  every  part  of  the  luck  has  undergone 
a  change  of  position.  'I'he  necessity  of  this 
change  to  the  purposes  of  the  lock,  and  the 
absolute  impossibility  of  eliecting  it  other- 
wise than  with  the  proper  key,  are  the  points 
to  be  ascert.nined. 

Plate  Lock  and  Loom,  fig.  4,  re|)re3Cnts  a 
mortice  lock,  made  under  the  patent  which 
Mr.  Slansburytook  out  in  1 805,  for  various  im- 
provements in  locks,  iu  which  A  is  the  spring- 
latch,  as  in  common;  the  end  B  of  this  is 
bent,  and  has  a  frame  D  screwed  to  it,  carry- 
ing a  roller  E;  against  this  roller  a  wedge  F 
called  a  pusher,  shewn  sepurately  in  lig.  5, 
acts;  the  spindle  G  on  which  this  pusher  is 
lixed,  slides  through  holes  in  the  side-plate  of 
the  lock,  so  as  to  have  no  shake,  and  on  eacli 
end  is  fastened  a  handle ;  by  tliis  arrange- 
ment it  is  plain  that  when  the  liandle  of  the 
wedge  is  pushed  from  without  the  door,  iti 
wedge  K  will  act  against  the  roller  E,  tig.  4, 
draw  back  the  bolt  A,  and  release  tlie  door ; 
a  continuation  of  the  same  motion  opens  it. 
'I'he  operations  from  within  the  rocmi  are  the 
same,  except  that  die  handle  of  the  pusher 
must  be  pulled  instead  ot  pushed  ;  but  as  it 
is  on  thi'  other  end  of  the  spindle,  the  opera- 
lion  on  the  weilge  and  boll  is  the  same.  For 
the  convenience  of  per-ons  not  acquainted 
ivilh  the  new  method,  liie  bolt  msy  be  drawn 
back  by  turning  the  handle,  as  in  the  com- 
mon lock.  IJ  is  a  piece  of  metal,  tigs,  4  and 
5,  which  has  a  round  collar  a  above,  and 
another  /)  beneath,  which  work  in  holes  in 
the  two  side-platt-s  nf  the  lock,  so  as  to  turn 
easily  round;  this  piece  has  a  hole  through 
it,  large  enough  to  admit  the  pusher  to  move 
up  and  down;  and  an  n|)ening  in  one  side 
thereof  admits  the  wedge  F ;  so  that  when  the 
spindle  is  tnriied  round,  one  ol  the  two  arms 
d  r  of  this  piece,  acts  against  the  arm  I!  of 
the  bolt  A,  lig.  4,  and  draws  bac  k  the  bolt 
when  the  handle  is  turned,  as  in  the  comii;oii 
wav.  In  oixler  to  reduce  the  friction  against 
the  boll,  in  shutting  the  door,  a  SNiall  roller 
u,  lig.  1,  is  applied  lo  it.     Iu  lieu  of  the  shpt 


L  O  C 

bolt  of  coininon  Kuk-,  Mr.  SUiv-'.A'ry  ii«M  a 

f>ifCf  1,  nliich  has  a  ^mlMe  guing  tliri>c.?;li 

till-  [ilalf  ot  the  liK  k,  an. I  projecting  lio;n  the 

door  with  a  liamlli.-  on  it,  by  whir'li  its  ;iNn 

,/\-an  be  moved  iipaiid  down,  wlien  tin-  door 

'is  to  be  bolted  ;  this  handle  is  Inrned  so  that 

the  knob  ft  on  the  anil/ may  tail  in  the  nokh 

cut  in  the  bolt  to  receive  it ;  thi^  prevents  the 

boll  benit!  moved  back  by  tin--  pusher,  till 

tlie  anil/ is  lirst  removed.     Tlieie  isasprii.i^ 

at  the  back  ol  this  arm,  v\hi<l!  pre^bing  ai^aiiist 

the  p'ate  of  the  lot  k,  by  it^  friction  ke.ps  it 

(rom  falling  by  acridenl.     K  i^  the  main  bolt 

of  the  lock;  I'l  is  kept  steady  by  a  vect.niH.ii- 

lur  openina;,  thruUjjh  which  a  serew  pa^ses. 

'J"he  bolt  is  moved   by   a  ciici:lur  iron  pl.ile, 

moving  romul  a  pni  /»,  which  is  riveted  into 

a  circular  bridge  N,  screwed  to  the  plate 

shewn  separatefy  in  !ii;.  3;  this  bricLe  has  a 

circular  opening  i  in  it,  through  which  a  pin 

r,  riveted  to  the  plate  L,   moves;  this  pin 

takes  into  a  notch  in  the  bolt,  so  as  to  move 

it  backwards  and  foraards,  when  the  plate  is 

turned  round  its  centre.     The  locking  part 

is  perfomied  tiius:  the  wheel  L  has  a  c-ertain 

Lumber  of  holes  drilled  in  it,  as  at  m  ;  ihe 

bridge  has  the  same  number  of  siinihr  holes 

in  it,  and  in  the  same   position;  each  hole  in 

the  bridge   has  a  small  pin   in   it,  which  is 

jMished   in  by  a  slight  spring  ?!  n  ii,  tig.  3; 

when  the  holes  in  t\v:  plate  coiiu  ide  v.itn  the 

holes  in  the  bridge,  the  springs  ;/  n  n  pu.^h  up 

the  puis  thrcngh  the  plate,  and  lock  them 

both  together,     llie  key,  fig.  '2,  has  the  same 

number  ol  pins  projecting  Ironi  its  lower  end, 

as  the  pin-holes  in   the   bridge,  and  in  the 

same  position ;  the  length  ol  tiie  pins  is  the 

tame  as  the  thickness  of  the  jdate  L,  lig.  4. 

When  it  ia  to  be  unlocked,   the  key  is  intio- 

dnced,  and  as  it  is  turned  round,  it  is  pushed 

gently  forward  against  the  plate;  when  the 

pins  and    key  come  oppos.te  the  pin-holes 

and  pins,  the  force  applied  overcomes  the 

resistance  of  the  springs  n  n  n,  the   pins  are 

inishcd  out,  and  the  key  gets  holil  of  tiie  plate 
L,  wlieii  being  tnined  round,  it  draws  the 
bolt  back  by  the  pin  /;,  lig.  3. 

LOCUS  GEOMETRicus,  denotes  a  line 
by  which  a  local  or  iiideterminate  problem  is 
solved. 

A  locus  is  a  line,  any  point  of  wliich  may 
Cfiuallv  solve  an  indeterminate  problem.  Thu*;, 
if  a  right  line  sutfice  for  the  construction  of  the 
eiiualioii,  it  is  ciied  locui  od  rectunt\  if  a  circle, 
hctii  ad c'iTcuUim\  if  a  parabola,  hem  ad purai-Aiim  *^ 
if  an  ellipsis,  loc:!^  ad  eUil>nn  ;  and  so  of  the  rest  of 
the  conic  sections,  Tlie  loci  of  such  ecjuations 
as  are  right  lines,  or  circle^,  the  aii'^ients  called 
place  loci ;  and  of  those  that  are  parabolas,  hy- 
perbolas, &c.  solid  loci  But  VVolil-js,  and  others 
among  the  moderns,  divide  the  loci  more  com- 
modiously  into  orders,  according  to  the  number 
of  dimensions  to  which  the  indeternnnaLC  quan- 
tities rise.     'I'hus,  it  will  be  a  locus  of  the  first 

order,  if  the  equation  is  .v  =  —  ;  a  locus  of  the 

second  or  quadratic  order,  if  v'  =  "■*■>  or  y'  =r 
a'  —  x' ;  a  locus  of  the  third  or  cul»ic  order,  if 
ji'  =.  a'x,  or  v'  :=  ix'  —  -v',  &c. 

All  cquatioas  whose  loci  are  of  the  first  or- 
der, may  be  reduceci  to  some  one  of  the  four 

ix                iv    , 
following  formulas :    l.ji=:  — .  2.  jr  := \-c. 


L  O  E 

the  other  unknown  quantity  v,  to  be  reduced 

to  this  exprcisicn  ■     ,  and  all  the  known  terms 
a 

to  c. 

All  loc'  of  the  second  degree  are  conic  sec- 
tions, viz.  either  the  parabola,  the  circle,  el- 
lipsis, or  in  perbola :  if  a«  tviiiatioii,  theretore, 
is  gi\c'n,  whose  locus  is  of  the  second  degree, 
and  it  is  recjiiired  to  draw  the  conic  teetion 
whicli  is  the  locus  thtreof,  iirst  draw  a  para- 
bola, ellipsis,  or  hvpeibola,  so  as  that  the 
eciualions  expressing  the  natures  thereot  may 
be  as  compound  a-)  jiossible,  in  order  tc)  get 
general  equ.ilions  or  lormulas,  by  examining 
the  peculiar  properties  whereof  we  may 
know  which  of  tliese  fonmilas  the  given 
ecpiation  ought  to  have  legard  to;  that  is, 
which  of  the  ionic  sections  w  ill  be  the  locus 
oi^^  llu'  proposed  equation.  This  known,  com- 
pare all  the  terms  of  the  proposed  etiuation 
with  the  terms  of  the  general  lormula  ot  that 
conic  section,  which  \ou  have  found  will  be 
Ihe  locus  of  t 


means  voi 


S.;f: 


—  c,  4.  ^  =  c  ■ 


where  the  un- 


known quantity  y,  is  supposed  always  to  be  freed 
from  fractions,  and  tfie  fraction  that  multiplies 


iveii   equation ;  by  which 
)U  will  lind  how  lo  draw   the  section 
which  is  the  locus  ot  the  cqMalion  given. 

1.  an  eiiualioii,  whose  locus  is  a  conic  sec- 
ti<in,  is  given,  and  the  particular  section 
■Vi'hereof  it  is  the  locus  is  required ;  all  the 
terms  of  the  given  equation  being  brought 
over  to  one  side,  so  that  the  other  is  equal  to 
nothing,  there  will  be  two  cases. 

Case  I.  Winn  the  rectangle  .ry  is  not  in 
the  given  equati  n.  I.  If  either  // //  or  xx 
is  in  the  same  equation,  the  locus  will  be  a 
parabola.  2.  It  both  ,i  .v  and  ?/ v  are  in  the 
ecpiation  with  the  same  signs,  the  locus  will  | 
be  an  ellipsis  or  a  circle.  3.  If  x  x  and  ;/ // 
have  dillerent  signs,  the  locus  will  be  an  fi\- 
|)erbola,  or  the  opposite  sections  regarding 
their  diameters. 

Case  11.  When  the  rectangle  x  i/  is  in  the 
given  eciuation.  1.  If  neither  of  the  st|uares 
X  X  or  !/ 1/,  or  only  one  of  them,  is  in  the 
same,  the  Ulcus  ot  it  will  be  an  hyperbola 
between  the  asymptotes.  3.  If  tj  i/  and  .r  x 
is  therein,  having  (hft'erent  signs,  the  locus 
will  be  an  h\  [icniola  regarduig  its  diameters. 
3.  If  both  tiie  squares  J. r  ami;/!/ are  in  the 
eiiuutiou,  having  the  same  signs,  you  must 
free  the  scpuire  ?/;/ from  fractions  ;  and  then 
the  locus  will  be  an  hyperbola,  when  the 
square  of  i  the  fraction  multiplying  x  >;,  is 
equal  to  the  fraction  multiplying  a  .r  ;  an  el- 
lipsis, or  circle,  when  the  same  is  less ;  and 
an  hvperbola,  or  the  opposite  sections,  re- 
garding their  diameters,  when  greater. 

LOCUST.     See  GRyLi.u,s. 

LODGMENT,  in  military  affairs,  is  a 
work  raised  with  earth,  gabions,  fascines, 
woolpacks,  or  mantelets,  to  cover  the  be- 
siegers from  the  enemy's  fire,  and  to  prevent 
their  liising  a  (dace  which  they  have  gained, 
and  are  resolved,  if  possible,  to  keep.  For 
this  purpose,  when  a  lodgment  is  to  be  made 
on  tlie  glacis,  covered  way,  or  in  the  breach, 
there  must  be  great  piovision  made  of  fas- 
cine-, sand-bags,  &c.  in  the  trenches;  and 
during  the  action,  the  pioneers  with  fascines, 
sand-bags,  &c.  should  be  making  the  lodg- 
uifnt,  in  order  to  form  a  covering  in  a,  ad- 
vantageous a  manrier  as  possible  from  the 
opjiosite  bastion,  or  the  place  inost  to  be 
teared. 

LOEFLINGLV,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  tvian  Iria  monogvnia.      Tlie   calyx   is 


LOR  79 

onr-celled,  three-valved.     There  it  one  spe- 
cies, an  annual  ol  Spain. 

LOlvSKLIA,  a  ginus  of  tiie  didynamia 
aiigiospermia  class  of  plants,  (he  flower  ot 
wliich  is  inoiiopetalous  and  ((ulnqtirlKl  at  the 
limb;  the  fiuit  is  a  Irilocular  capsule,  with  se- 
veral angulated  seeds  in  i-acli  cell.  '1  here  is 
dne  species,  a  herb  of  South  America. 

L(J(;,  in  naval  affairs,  is  a  llat  piece  of 
wood,  shaped  somewhat  like  a  llounder,  witii 
a  piece  of  lead  fastened  lo  its  bottom,  which 
makes  it  stand  or  swim  upright  in  the  v/ater. 
To  this  log  is  fastened  a  long  line,  called  the 
logdine;  and  this  is  commonly  divided  into 
certain  sjjaees  50  feet  in  length  by  knots, 
which  are  pieces  of  knotted  twine  mreevcd 
between  the  strands  of  the  line ;  which  shew, 
by  means  of  a  half-miniile  glass,  how  many 
of  these  spaces  or  knots  are  iiin  out  in  halt  a 
minute.  'I  hey  commonly  be^iii  to  be  count- 
ed at  the  distance  of-abo'ut  10  fathoms  or  tiu 
feet  hom  the  log;  so  that  the  lug,  when  it  i« 
hoven  overboard,  may  be  out  ot  the  eddy  of 
the  ship's  wake  before  they  begin  lo  count : 
and  for  the  ready  discovery  of  this  point  of 
coiiimencehienl, 'there  is*comnionly  tasleiied 


at  it  a  red  rag. 

'I'he  log  being  thus  prepared,  and  hoveu 
overboarcf  from  tlie  poop,  and  tiie  line  veered 
out  by  the  help  of  a  reel,  as  fast  as  the  ship 
sails  "irom  it,  will  shew  how  far  the  ship  has 
run  in  a  given  lime,  an.d  consCqLM-.tly  her 
rate  of  saiiii'g. 

Hence  it  is  evident,  that  as  tiie  clistance  o'l' 
the  knots  hiais  the  same  proportion  to  a  mile 
as  halt  a  minute  docs  to  an  iiour,  wiiatever 
number  Ol  knots  the  ship  runs  in  half  a  mi- 
nute, the  same  ntiniber  of  miles  slie  will  run 
in  an  hour,  supposing  her  to  run  with  the 
same  degree  of  velocity  during  that  time; 
and  therefore,  in  order  to  know  her  rate  of 
sailing,  it  is  the  general  way  to  heave  the  log 
every  hour ;  but  if  the  force  or  direction  of 
the  wind  varies,  and  does  not  continue  Ihe 
same  during  the  whole  hour,  or  if  there  has 
been  more  sail  set,  or  any  sail  handed  in,  by 
which  the  ship  has  sailed  taster  or  slower  than 
she  did  at  the  time  of  heaving  the  lug,  there 
must  tlien  be  an  allowance  made  lor  it  ac- 
cordingly. 

Loc-Lo.4RD,  a  table  generally  divided 
into  live  columns,  in  the  first  of  which  is  en- 
tered the  hour  of  the  day  ;  in  the  second  the 
course  steered;  in  the  tiiiid,  the  number  of 
knots  run  olf  the  reel  each  time  cf  heaving 
the  log;  in  the  fourth,  from  what  point  the 
wind  blows;  and  in  the  tiflh,  observations  ou 
the  weather,  variation  of  the  compass,  &c. 

Log-book,  a  book  ruled  in  c-olumns  like 
the  log-board,  into  which  the  account  on  the 
log-bo;ird  is  transcribed  every  day  at  noon  ; 
whence,  after  it  is  corrected,  &.C.  it  is  entered 
into  Ihe  journal.     See  Navigation. 

Log-wood,  in  commerce.     See  H5:m.4- 

TOXYLUM. 

Logwood  is  used  by  dyers  for  dying  blacks 
and  blues. 

LOGARITHMIC,  in  general,  something 
belonging  to  logarithms.    See  Logarithms. 

Logarithmic  curvs.  If  on  the  I'uie 
AN  (Plate  Miscel.,-tig.  1 55.)  both  ways  in- 
definitelv  extended,  be  taken,  AC,  CE,  EG, 
Gl,  IL,'ou  t}.cright  hand,  and  A  g,  ff  P, 
&c.  on  the  left,  all  ecjual  to  one  another, 
and  it  at  the  points  P,  ,g.  A,  C,  L,  G.  I,  L, 
bi-  erected  to  the  right  line  AN,  the  perpen- 


c-leaved  ;     corolla  llve-petalled ;    ca'psule    dicular*  PS,  gd,  Al>,    CD,  Ej^,  GiJ,  IK, 


S3  LOG 

^  ..  .ihich  li?t  Ita  coiit\nu:i\ly  propoitional, 
aii'l  repre>i'iil  numljei's,  \iz.  AC,  1  ;  CD,  19", 
EF,  lOO,  Sec.  then  shall  we  have  two  pro- 
gi-esaioiis  ol  liiifs,  arithmetical  and  geometri- 
cal: tor  the  lines  AC,  AE,  AG,  &:c.  are  in 
arithmetical  progression,  or  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
&c.  an;l  so  represent  the  logarithm?  to  which 
the  geometrical  lines  AB,  CD,  EF,  &c.  do 
correspond.  For  since  AG  is  triple  of  llie 
right  hne  AC,  the  number  GH  shall  be  in 
tiie  third  place  from  unitv,  if  CD  is  in  tlie 
first ;  so  likewise  shall  LSI  he  in  the  fifth 
place,  since  AL  =  5  AC.  If  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  proportionals  rf,  d,  B,  D,  F.  &c. 
are  joined  by  right  lines,  the  iignry  SBML 
will  become  a  polygon,  consisting  of  more  or 
less  sides,  according  as  there  are  more  or  less 
terms  in  the  procression. ' 

If  tiie  parts  AC,  CE,  EG,  &c.  are  bisected 
in  the  points  c,  r,  ,u,  i,  I,  and  there  are  again 
raised  tlie  perpendicnhirs  erf,  cf,  g/',  z'/i', //«, 
wliic!)  are  mean  pronortiouals  between  .\B, 
CD;  CD,  EF,  &c. 'then  there  will  arise  a 
new  series  of  proportionals,  whose  terms  b'-- 
ginn-ng  from  that  which  innHediately  follows 
iliiity,  are  tloubic  of  those  in  the  lirst  series, 
and  the  dilTcrence  of  the  terms  is  become 
le^s,  and  a;)proach-:'S  nearer  to  a  ratio  of  equa- 
lity, than  b..'lbre.  Likewise,  in  this  new  se- 
ries, the  right  lines  AL,  Ac,  express  the  dis- 
tances o;  the  terms  LM,  cd,  from  unity,  viz. 
since  AL  is  ten  times  greater  than  Ac,  LM 
shall  be  tlie  tcntli  term  of  the  series  h'om 
unity;  and  because  A-  is  three  times  greater 
than  Ac,  (/will  be  the  third  term  of  the  se- 
ries if  cd  is  the  tir>t,  and  there  shall  be  two 
mean  proportionals  between  AR  and  rf;  and 
between  AB  and  LM  there  will  be  nine  mean 
proportionals.  And  if  the  extremities  of  the 
lines  B.'/,  1)/;  Vli,  &c.  are  joined  by  right 
lines,  then-  will  be  a  new  polygon  made, 
(oiisisting  of  more  but  shorter  sides  than  the 
last. 

If.  in  this  manner,  mean  proportionals  are 
tontinually  placed  between  every  two  terms, 
the  niimber  of  terms  at  last  will  be  made  so 
great,  as  also  the  number  of  the  sides  of  the 
polygon,  as  to  be  greater  tlian  any  given 
•number,  or  to  be  inhnite;  and  every  sitle  of 
tlie  polygon  so  lessened,  as  to  become  less 
than  any  given  right  line;  and  consequently 
the  polxgou  will  be  changed  into  a  curve- 
Lined  ligiM'e:  for  any  curve-lined  ligure  may 
be  con(  eivetl  as  a  polvgon  whose  sides  are 
inlin.tely  small  and  iniinite  in  number.  A 
curve  described  alter  this  manner,  is  calle<l 
logarithmical. 

it  is  manilest,  from  this  description  of  the 
logarithmic  curve,  that  all  numbers  at  equal 
flistances  are  cont'nually  proportional.  It 
is  also  plain,  that  if  there  are  four  numbers, 
A  B,  C  D,  1  K,  L  M,  such  that  the  dis- 
tance between  the  fnst  and  second,  is  equal 
to  the  distance  between  the  tliird  and  fourth, 
let  the  di«tance  from  the  second  to  the  third 
te  what  it  will,  tht>se  number;  will  be  pro- 
jjorlioiial.  For  b' cause  the  distances  AC, 
I  L,  are  equal,  A  B  sh.iil  be  to  the  increment 
D  »,  as  I  W  is  to  the  increment  M  'W  Where- 
fore, by  composition,  AB  :  DC  :  :  IK: 
M  ]>.  And  contrariwise,  if  four  numbers 
are  proportional,  the  distance  between  the 
first  :uil  second  shall  be  e(]ual  to  the  distance 
between  the  third  and  fourth. 

'I'he  di->tanee  between  any  two  numbers, 
is  called  the  logariihm  of  tlw  ratio  of  those 
iiunibers ;  and,  indeed,  docs  not  measure  the 


L  O  G 

ratio  itself,  but  the  number  of  terms  in  a 
given  series  of  geometrical  proportionals, 
proceedmg  from  OL\e  number  to  another,  and 
delines  the  innnber  of  ecjual  r.itios  by  tlie 
composition  whereof  the  ratios  of  numbers 
are  known. 

LOGARITHMS  are  numbers  so  contrived 
and  adapted  to  otlier  numbers,  that  the  siims 
and  difFercnccs  of  the  former  shall  correspond 
to,  and  shew,  the  products  and  quotients  of  the 
latter. 

Or,  more  generally,  logarithms  are  the  nume- 
rical exponents  of  ratios  ;  or  a  series  of  numbers 
in  arithmetical  progression,  answering  to  anotliei" 
series  of  numbers  in  geometrical  progression. 
Thus, 

0,1,2,3,    4,    5,  Indices,  or  logarithms. 

1,  2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  Geometric  progression. 
Or, 

0,1,2,    3,    4,      5,  Indices,  or  lorrarithms. 

1,  3,  9,  27,  81 , 2'13,  Geometric  progression. 
Or, 

0,  1 ,      2,        3,  4,  5,         Ind.  or  log. 

1,  10,  100,  ICO),  10000,  lOOCOO,  Geo.  prog. 
Where  it  is  evident  that  the  same  indices  serve 

equally  for  any  geometric  scries;*  and  conse- 
quently there  may  be  an  endless  variety  of  sys- 
tems of  logarithms  to  the  same  common  num- 
bers, by  only  changing  the  second  term,  2,  3,  or 
10,  &c.  of  the  geometrical  series. 

It  is  also  apparent,  fro:n  the  nature  of  these 
series,  that  if  any  two  indicts  be  added  together, 
their  sum  will  he  the  index  pf  that  number 
which  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  two  terms, 
in  the  geometric  progression,  to  which  those  in- 
dices belong. 

Thus,  the  indices  2  and  3,  being  added  to- 
gether, are  =  5 ;  and  the  numbers  4  and  8,  or 
the  terms  corre-ponding  wiih  tht^se  indices,  be- 
ing multiplied  together,  are  =;  :52,  which  is  the 
number  answering  to  the  index  5. 

And,  in  like  manner,  if  any  one  index  be  sub- 
tracted from  anoth.er,  the  dilTerence  will  be  the 
index  of  that  number,  w^hicli  is  equ:d  to  the 
quotient  of  the  two  terms  to  which  those  in- 
dices belong. 

Thus  the  index  6,  minus  the  Index  4,  is  =7  2; 
and  tlie  terms  corresponding  to  those  indices  are 
fi4  and  16,  whose  quotieut  is  =  4  ;  which  is  the 
number  answering  to  the  index  2. 

For  the  same  reason,  if  the  logarithm  of  any 
number  s'.re  multiplied  by  theindcx  of  its  power, 
the  product  will  be  equal  to  the  logarithm  of 
that  power. 

Thus,  the  index  or  logarithm  of  4,  in  the 
above  series,  is  2;  and  if  this  uimibcr  is  multi- 
plied by  3,  tlie  product  will  be  z=;  f> ;  which  is 
the  logarithm  of  6-1,  or  tlie  third  power  of  4. 

And,  if  tlie  logarithm  of  any  number  is  di- 
vided by  the  index  of  its  root,  the  cjuoticnt  will 
be  equal  to  the  logarithm  of  that  root. 

Thus,  the  index  or  logarithm  of  64  is  6  ;  and 
if  this  number  is  divided  by  2,  the  quotient  will 
be  =  3  ;  which  is  the  logarithm  of  S,  or  the 
square  root  of  it-i. 

The  logarithms  mo.st  convenient  for  practice 
are  such  as  are  adapted  to  a  geometric  scries 
increasing  in  a  tenfold  proportion,  as  in  the  last 
of  the  above  forms  j  and  are  those  which  are  to 
be  found,  at  present,  in  most  of  the  common 
tables  iiiKin  this  suViject. 

The  distinguishing  mark  of  this  system  of  lo- 
garitlims  is,  that  the  index,  or  logarithm,  of  1 
is  0;  that  o"  10,  1  that  of  100,  2;  that  of 
10(X):  3,  &c.  And  indecimals  the  logarithm  of 
.1  is  —  1;  thatof  .01,  —  2;  that  of  Ooi,  —  :i,&t-. 

I'Vom  whence  it  follows  that  the  logarithm  of 
any  number  between  1  .and  10  must  be  o  and 
some  fractional  parts,  and  that  of  a  number  be- 
tween 10  and  1C.0  will  be  1  and  some  fractional 
jiarts;  and  .so  on  for  any  other  number  whatever. 
'And  since  the  integral  jiarl  of  a  logarithm  is 
always  thus  readily  found,  it  is  usually  called  the 
4 


LOG 

ihdex,  Pr  characteristic ;  and  is  commonlv  omit- 
ted in  the  tables ;  being  left  to  be  supidied  by 
the  operator  himself,  as  occa«ion  requires. 

0/  the  Mating  cf  Lofrnrilhtiis.   Whatever  arlth., 
metical  progression  we  apply  to  a  geometrical 
one,  the  terms  of  it  are  logarithms  only  to  that 
series  to  which  wc  apply  them,  and  ar.swer  the 
I  end  proposed  only  for  those  ]>articul,ar  num- 
I  bers  ;  so  that  if  we  had  logarithms  adapted  only 
j  to  particular  geometrical  series,  they  would  be 
I  but  of  little  use.     The  great  end  and  design  of 
i  these  nundjers  is  the  ease  and  expedition  which 
i  they  atlbrd  in  long  calcul.atiotis,  by  saving  the 
'  laborious  work  of  multiplication,  division,  land 
!  the  extraction  of  roots  :  biit  this  end  would  ne- 
ver be  completely  answered,  unless  logarithms 
coidd  be  adapted  to  the  whole  system  of  num- 
bers, 1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.      And  as  here  lie  the  chief 
excellence  and  merit  of  the  contrivance,  so  also 
the  dilliculty.     For  the  natural  system  of  num- 
i  bers,  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.  being  an  arithmetical,  and 
I  not  a  geometrical  series,  seems  rather  tit   to  be 
'  made  logarithms  of.  than   to  have  logarithmtj 
applied  to  it.     But  tiiis  difiiculty  may  be  easily 
removed,  by  considering. 

That  though   the  -whole    system  of  natural 

numbers,  1,  2,  :>,  4,  &c.  is  not  in  geometrical 

i  progression,  and  cannot,  by  any  means,  be  made 

[  to    agree    with    such    a  series,  vet  it  may  be 

;  brought  so  near  it,  as  to  be  within  any  assign- 

]  able  degree  of  approximation  ;  which  may  be 

conceived,  in  general,  thus;  suppose  a_ fraction 

indefinitely  small  to  be  represented  by  x^  and  a 

geometrical  series  ariUng  from  1,  in  the  ratio  of 

1    to    1-f  .V,t0bC    I,  (1-1- .,)',(!+;,.)',  (1    -fx)', 

(1  -|-.\')',  &c.  Then  some  of  these  terms  mu;t 
comeindefn't&ly  nearto  all  the  natural  numbers, 
1,  2,  3,  4,  S:c. ;  because,  amongst  numbers  which 
arise  bv  extremely  small  increments,  some  of 
them  must  exceed,  or  f.dl  short  of,  any  deter- 
minate number,  bv  lui  indefinitely  little  excess 
I  or  defect. 

I      If,  therefore,  in   the  places   of  the   terms  of 
1  this  series,  which  approach  indefinitely  near  to 
!  any  of  the  natural  numbers,  we  sujijiose  these 
natural  numbers   themselves  to  be  substituted, 
I  then  will  this  series  be  in  geometrical  progres- 
sion, to  an  exactness  which  mav  be  callad  inde- 
;  finite  ;  because  the  aoproximation  of  its  terms 
to  the  natural  numbers  can  never  end    but  goes 

on  in  't!iji::i'^::r:. 

And  since  this  imagined  geometric  series  com- 
prehends, indefinitely  near,  tlie  whole  system  of 
,  natural  numbers,  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.  so  the  indices 
I  of  its  terms  comprehend  a  ■whole  system  of  lo- 
'  garithms,  which  are   adapted  to  this  system  of 
numbers,  and  mav  be  extended  to  any  length 
j  we  please.     For  though    the  natural  system  of 
numbers  make  not,  by  themselves,  a  complete 
I  geometrical  series,  yet  thev  are  conceived  as  a 
1  part  of  such  a  series,  and  their  logarithms  are 
the  indices  of  their  distances  from  unity  in  that 
scries ;    or,  more  generally,   they  are  the  cor- 
1  respon<)ing  terms  of  an  arithmetical  series  ap- 
!  plied  to  that  geometrical  one. 

But,  ag:dn,  it  must  be  observed,  that  an  inde- 
finitely small  fraction  cannot  be  assignevl :  and, 
therefore,  in  the  actual  construction  of  loga- 
rithms, we  must  be  content  with  a  detenninate 
degree  of  approximation.  \\"heuce,  according  as 
we  take  .v,  in  the  series  I,  (1  -j-i)',  (1  -|- .v)', 
(l-j- .%■)',  (1  -f-.)',  &c.  the  approxhnation  of 
its  terms  to  the  natural  numbers  will  be  in  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  exactness  ;  for  the  less  .v  is,  the 
nearer  will  be  the  ai>proximat!on  ;  but  then  the 
more  are  the  number  of  involutions  of  1  -)-.v, 
necessary  to  come  within  anv  determinate  de- 
gree of  ne.irness  to  the  natural  number  assigned. 
Thus  then  we  inay  conceive  the  possibility  of 
making  logarithms  to  ail  the  natural  mimhers, 
1.  2,  3,  4,  ^c.  to  any  determinate  degree  of 
exactness;  viz.  by  assigning  a  very  small  frac- 
tion for  ,v,  axid  actually  raising  a  series,  in  th« 
ratio  of  1  to  I  -[-  .v,  and  taking  for  tlic  natural 


Miimbjis  such  terms  of  tliat  serias  as  arc  nearest 
to  them,  and  their  indices  for  tlia  liig.iritlims. 
B-Jt  then,  to  construct  K)i,'Lirithm3  in  this  man- 
ner, to  such  an  exieut  of  numbers,  and  dejjree 
of  exactness,  as  \vv>uld  be  necessary  to  make 
them  of  any  considor^We  use,  is  next  to  impos- 
s'lble,  becuisc  of  the  ain-.ost  i.ifinite  labour  and 
time  it  wo'.iU  reijuire.  This,  however,  is  an  in- 
troduction for  understanding  ihe  method  of  the 
noble  inventor,  who  undoubte^Uy  first  took  the 
hint  of  making  logarithms  from  the  coasidcra- 
tioii  of  the  indices  of  a  geometrical  series;  and 
by  means  of  the  principles  and  known  proper- 
ties of  these  prO';-~essions  he  first  formed  his 
tables,  and  adapted  ihem  to  the  pracLical  pur- 
poses intendid. 

To  find  ths  hgarit  ':pi  of  any  of  the  n:iiural  ntimbcti-t 
1,  2,  .1,  4,  [ifc.  accord'r.^  to  t'j,:  j,7f//iij</o/N,\I'IER. — 
1.  T.ike  the  (geometrical  series,  I,  10,  103,  10  )0, 
10,030,  &.C  and  apply  to  it  the  arithmetical  se- 
ries 1,  '2,  S,  4,  &c.  as  logarithms.  3.  Find  a  geo- 
metric mean  be'.ween  1  and  10,  10  and  103,  or 
any  other  two  adjacent  terir.s  of  the  series  be- 
twTxt  which  the  number  proposed  lies.  3.  Ue- 
twecn  the  mean,  thus  found,  and  the  nearest 
extreme,  find  another  geometrical  mean,  in  tlie 
same  manner ;  sr.d  so  on,  till  you  are  arrived 
within  the  proposed  limit  of  the  number  wluise 
logarithm  is  ssuy,ht.  4.  Find  as  many  arithme- 
tical means,  in  the  same  order  as  you  found  the 
geometrical  ones,  and  the  last  of  tliese  will  be 
the  logarithm  answering  to  the  number  re- 
quired. 

■Examples.  Let  it  be  required  to  find  the  loga- 
rithm of  9. 

Here  tlie  numbers  between  which  9  lies  are 
1  and  10. 

First,  then,  the  log.  of  10  is  1,  and  the  lo^.  of 
1-t-O 


1  is  0  ;  therefore 


'  =r.5  is  the  arithmetical 


mean,  and  ^{l  X  10)  =  ■y/lO  =  n.l622777  = 
geometric  mean :  whence  the  Icigarithm  of 
3.1G2J777  is  .5. 

Secondly,  the  log.  of  10  is  1,  and  the  hig.  of 
1  _j_  .5 
3.1622777  is  .5;  therefore  — ~ —  =  .75=r arith- 
metical mean,  and  ,^/  (10  X  3.1622777)  = 
5.6'2r>4132  =  geometric  mean  :  whence  the  log. 
of  o.62.'241S2  is  .75. 

Thirdly,  the  log.  of  10  is  I,  and  the  log.  of 

1-1-75 
S.G234132  is  .75;  therefore  -^- —  =  .875  = 

arithmetical  mean,  and  v'ClO-  X  5.6234132)  =: 
7.4989421  =  geometric  mean  :  whence  the  log. 
of  7.4989421  is  .875. 

Fourthly,  the  log.  of  10  is  1,  and  the  log.  of 

7.49R9421  is  .875  ;  therefore  — '— —  .9375 

=:  arithmetical  mean,  and  ^(10  x  7.4989421) 

=:  8.6596431  =  geometric  mean  :  whence  the 

log.  of  8.6596131  is  .9375. 

Fithlv,  the  log.  of  10  is    1,  and  the  log.  of 

1  -i-  -0375 
8.6595431    is   .9375;  therefore '— = 

.96875  =:  arithmetical  mean,  and  ^/  (10  x 
8.659S43I)  =  9.3057204  =  geo.nietric  mean: 
whence  the  log.  of  9.305720-4  is  .96875. 

Sixthly,  the  log.  of  8.659(J43!   is  .9375,  and 
the    log!    of    a  3057204    is    .96575 ;    therefore 


.9375  -j-  .96S75 


-  =:  .953125  =  arith. 


and 


2 

v'  (8.6596431  X  9.3057204)  =  8.9768713  = 
georaetric  mean:  whence  the  log.  of  8.9768713 
is  .953125. 

And,  proceeding  in  this  manner,  after  25  ex- 
tractions, the  logarithm  of  8.9999998  will  be 
found  to  be  .9542425 ;  which  may  be  taken  for 
the  logaritlmi  of  9,  because  it   dilFcrs  from  it 

only  by 1 and  is  therefore  sufficiently 

«iact  for  all  practical  ourposes. 

Vol.  II. 


LOGARITHM?. 

And  in  l!ie  s.amc  manner  the  Ioj>;aiithmi  of 
almost  all  the.  prime  nimibcrs  were  found ;  a 
work  so  incredibly  laborious,  that  the  unre- 
mitted industry  of  several  years  was  scarcely 
sufficient  for  its  accomplishment. 

To  Jehrmine  tie  h\perbo*'u  logarithm  (Ij)  of  any 
given  numk-r  (N).  The  hyperbolic  logarithm  of 
any  number  is  the  index  of  that  term  of  the  lo- 
garithmic progression,  whicli  agrees  with  the 
proposed  number  multiplied  by  the  excess  of 
the  common  ratio  above  unity. 

Let,  therefore,  (1  -)-  ■)'  be  that  term  of  the 
logarithmical  progression,  1,  (I  -J-  a)',  (1  -|-i)', 
(1  -I-  .v)',  (1  4- a)';  &c.  which  is  equal  to  the 
required  number  (N). 

Then  will  (I  +  .v)"  =  N,  and  1  -|-  .v  =  N ■'; 
and  if  1  -}-jr  be  put  =:  N,  and   m  :=  — ,  we 


shall  have  1  -i-  a- 

OT—   1 


m   X 


Ts"  ^  [I  +y)  m  =  1  ->f-»,y 
,    ,  m  —  1         m  —  2 

y  +  '•■•  X  — r-  X 


And,  consequently, 


:  tny  -f  m  X 


-ji',&c. 
•1     , 


-  jr',  &c.  where  m  being 

rejected  in  the  factors  »/. —  1,  w;  —  2,  m  —  3, 
<S;c.  being  indefinitely  small  in  comparison  of 
1,  2,  3,  &.C.  the  equation  will  become  x  ^  my 


my-       my 
2    +   3 


■  ■,    6.C. 

4 


Hence  —  («-v  =r  I.) 


_  y_<  y y_ 

2    "'",3  4 

-|-  — ,.  &c.  =:  hyperbolic  logarithm  of  N,  as 

was  required. 

TLe  hyperbolic  logarithm   (L)  of  a  number  being 
given,  to  find  the  number  (N)  itself  ivhich  ansivers  to 

it.  Let  (1  -|-  x)  be  that  term  of  the  loga- 
rithmic jjrogression,  1,  (1  -)-  .v)',  (I  -|-  .v)-, 
(1  -j-  A-)\  (1  4-  x)',  &c.  which  is  equal  to  the 
required  number  N. 

Then,  because  (1  -}-  .v)    is  universally  =:!-{- 
n  —  1     ,    ,            «  —  1         «  —  2      , 
-l-«  X  -— —  X  r--  A- 


■  +  "X  ^- 


"  X 


+  «  X 
■',  &c.  —  N. 


3 

n—  1 


+ 


&c.  we  shall  have  1  -}- 

-  1        n  — 

2-  ^  -3 

But  since  «,  from  the  nature  of  the  logarithms, 
is  here  supposed  indefinitely  great,  it  is  evident 
that  the  numbers  connected  to  it  by  the  sign  — 
may  all  be  rejected,'  as  far  as  any  assigned  num- 
ber of  terms. 

For  as  1,2,  3,  &c.  are  indefinitely  .small  in 
comparison  to  »,  the  rejecting  of  those  numbers 
can  very  little  affect  the  values  to  wliich  they 
belong. 

If,  therefore,  1,  2,  3,  &c.  be  thrown  out  of 
„_1«— 2«— 3„ 
the  factors ,    — : — ,   — : — i  «c.  we  shall 


3     '        4 
^^2       "^   2.3         : 


.3.4 


,  &c. 


have      1    -|- 

=:N. 

But  iix  {=.  L)  is  the  hyperbolic  logarithm  of 

( 1  _[-  .v)    ,  or  N,  by  what  has  been  before  spe- 

cifieu ;  and  therefore  \  -^-V,  -\-  ~ [-  -j—   -j- 

T  4  .  ' 

,  ^c.  :=  N  ^  number  required. 


2.3.4 

Of  the  Method  q/  using  a  Table  of  Logaiithvu. — 
Hiiving  explained  the  method  of  making  a  table 
of  the  rogarlthms  of  numbers  greater  than  unity 


the  next  thing  to  be  done  i.s,  to  shew  how  the 
logaritlims  of  fractional  qur-.ntities  may  be  found. 
And,  iif  order  tt)  this,  it  may  be  observed,  that 
as  we  have  hitherto  supijofcd  a  geoinelric  series 
to  increase  from  an  unit  on  the  right  hand,  so 
we  may  now  suppose  it  to  decrease  from  an  unit 
towar'is  the  left ;  and' the  indices,  in  this  case, 
being  made  negative,  will  still  exhibit  the  loga- 
rithms of  the  terms, to  which  they  belong. 
Thus  Log.  —  3  — 2  —  lO-l-l  -f-2  -f-3,  &c 
Num.  _J_^     <  _  _<_  1      10   100  1000,  &c 

I OOO    1  Jo     1  o  • 

whence  -f-  1  is  the  log,arithm  of  10,  and  —  I, 
the  logarithm  of  _'_;  -^  2  the  log.arithm  of  103, 
and  —  2  the  logarithm  of  _.J,-j,  &c. 

-'.:■  i  from  hence  it  appears  that  all  numbers, 
CO.  ,i  ring  of  the  same  figures,  whether  they  be 
integral,  fractional,  or  mixed,  will  have  the  de- 
cimal parts  of  their  logarithms  the  same. 

Thus,  the  logarithm  of  5874  being  3.7689339, 
the  logarithm  of  ttt,  rj-^s,  ^p'oo'  &c.  part  of 
it  will  be  as  f^;llo^^-s : 

Num.  'arithms. 

5  H  7  ;  S  9  3  3  !> 

58  7  ; H  9  3  3  9 

567i  :.;893  3  9 

5.8  74    I        07689339 
.5874    I  —  1.7  6  8  9  3  3  9 
.0  5874    I  —  2.7  689339 
.0  05874    I  —  3.7  689339 
From  this  it  also  appears,  that  the  index,  or 
characteristic,  of  any  logarithm,  ii  always  one 
les?  than  the  number  of  figures  which  the  na- 
tural number  consists  of:  and  this  index  is  con- 
stantly to  be  placed  on  the  left  hand  of  the  de- 
cimal part  of  the  logarithm. 

When  there  are  integers  in  the  given  number, 
the  index  is  always  affirmative;  but  when  there 
are  no  integers,  the  index  is  negative,  and  is  to 
be  marked  bv  a  line  drawn  before  it,  like  a  ne- 
gative quantuy  in  algebra. 

Thus,  a  number  having  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  &c.  in- 
teger places,  the  index  of  its  log.  is  O,  I,  2,  3,  4, 
&c.  And  a  fraction  having  a  digit  in  the  place 
of  priir.cs,^ seconds,  thirds,  fourths,  &c.  the  index 
of  its  logarithm  will  be  —  1,  —  2,  —  3,  —  4,  &c. 
It  may  also  be  observed,  that  though  the  in- 
dices of  fractional  quantities  are  negative,  yet 
the  decimal  parts  of  their  logarithms  are  alwavs 
affirmative  ;  and  all  operations  are  to  be  per- 
formed by  them  in  the  same  manner  as  by  ne- 
gative and  affirmative  quantities  in  algebra. 

In  taking  out  of  a  table  the  logarithm  of  any 
number  not  exceeding  lOCOO,  we  have  the  de- 
cimal part  by  inspection  ;  .and  if  to  this  the  pro- 
per characteristic  be  affixed,  it  will  give  the 
complete  logarith.m  required. 

But  if  the  number,  whose  logarithm  is  re- 
quired, be  above  10000,  then  find  the  logaritlim 
of  the  two  nciu-est  numbers  to  it  that  can  be 
found  iu  the  table,  and  say,  as  their  difference  I 
the  diffisrcnce  of  their  logarithms  ; ;  the  differ- 
ence of  the  nearest  number  and  that  whose  lo- 
garithm is  required  '  the  difference  of  their 
logarithms,  nearly ;  and  this  difference  bei:;g 
added  to,  or  subtr:;,-ted  from,  the  nearest  loga- 
rithm, according  as  it  is  greater  or  less  than  the 
required  one,  will  give  the  logarithm  required, 
nearly. 

Thus,  let  it  be  required  to  fir^l  the  logarithm 
ofS671R2. 

'Ihe  decimal  part  of  3671  is  by  the  table 
.5647844 ;  and  of  3672  is  .5649027  ; 

.-.  The    5   36730O  is  5.5647844   7 
log.  of   i   367200  is  5.5649C27   i  . 

Their  diff.       lOO  .C00118S  diff 

Nearest     No. 
Given       No. 

IS  diff. 
Thereforp  100  ;  .00011S3  :;  18  ;  .(X)0O-_T 


o.   C  3672C0 
0.    L  367 1S2 


sa 


],  O  G 


And  5.5649027  -  .0000212  =  ,5.5C-18S1J  = 
loo^.ritliin  of  .i'i7182,  nearly. 

If  the  number  coinisl^  both  of  inteijcrs  and 
fractions,  or  is  entirely  fr?.ction:il,  find  the  de- 
ci.nal  part  of  the  lojTaritiini  :>5  if  all  its  ligures 
«xae  inievr:il ;  snd  llils,  being  prcfned  to  the 
j.ropcr  cinractcrisiic,  will  give  the  logarithm 
required.  . 

And  if  the  <fiven  number  is  .t  proper  fraction, 
-.ibtract  the  lo^Hvillmi  of  the  dcQominator  Irom 
tha  lot^ariihm  of  the  numerator,  and  l!ie  re- 
mainder -sviU  be  the  logarithm  sought ;  which, 
being  that  of  a  decimal  fraction,  must  always 
have  a  negative  index. 
-  And,  if  it  is  a  mixed  numbc  r,  reduce  it  to  an 
improper  fraction,  and  find  the  difference  of 
the  loejarithms  of  the  numerator  and  denomina- 
tor, in  the  same  manner  as  before. 

In  findine-  the  number  answering  to  any  given 
lpo-arithm,1he  index,  if  affirmative,  v/ili  a. vvays 
sliew  how  many  integral  places  the  required 
mimber  consists  of;  and,  if  negative,  in  wliat 
place  of  decimals  the  first,  or  significant  figure, 
stands;  so  that,  if  the  logarithm  can  be  found 
in  the  table,  the  number  ansv.-ering  to  it  will 
always  be  h.ad  by  inspection. 

Bat,  if  the  logarithm  cannot  be  exactly  found 
in  the  table,  find  the  nest  greater,  and  tl-.e  next 
less,  and  then  sav.  As  the  difference  of  these  two 
logarithms  •  the'  difference  of  the  numbers  an- 
swerino-  to  them  ; ;  the  difference  of  the  given 
lo-rarithm,  and  the  nearest  tabular  logarithm  ;  a 
fourth  number ;  wliich  added  to,  or  subtracted 
from,  the  natural  number  answering  to  the 
nearest  tabular  logarithm,  according  as  that  lo- 
garithm is  less  or  greater  than  the  given  one, 
will  <nve  the  number  required,  nearly. 

Thus,  let  it  be  required  to  find  the  natural 
number  answering  to  the  logarithm  S.56'48815. 

The  next  less  and  greater  logarithms,  in  the 

table,  are  ,         ,  » 

5j647S14'^  The  numbers  C  367 100 
5.36490-7  i      answering    i3673 

■  diff.  ~ 


•JOG 


•j-heirdiff.     .0001153  100 

And  5.W49027  -  .5.5648aiJ  =  .0000212. 

Therefore  .0001 1S3  :  100  : ;  .0000212  :  18 
nearly. 

Whence  367200  —  18  =  377182  =  number 
required. 

Th  Uicand  AppUcathn  of  Logarithms. — It  is  evi- 
dent, from  what  has  been  said  of  the  construc- 
tion of  logarithms,  that  addition  of  loijarithms 
must  be  the  same  thing  as  multiplication  in  com- 
mon arithmetic  ;  and  subtraction  in  logarithms 
the  same  as  division  ;  therefore,  in  multiplica- 
tion by  logarithms,  add  the  logarithms  of  the 
multiplicand  and  multiplier  together,  their  sum 
is  the  logarithm  of  the  product, 
num. 

CxumjtU.  Mulliplicand         8..5 
Multiplier  10 


logarithms. 
0.9294189 
1.0000000 


^     L  O  G 

To  r^tst  Po-ium  tiy  Lcr-u-itl-K!. — Multiply  tlic 
log.irithm  of  the  number  given,  by  the  index  of 
the  pov/er  required,  the  product  will  be  the 
loTOritl'.m  of  the  power  sought. 

'  Esiimlylc.  Let  the  cube  of  32  be  required  by 
logarithms.  The  logarithm  of  32  =  1  ..505 1  iOO, 
which  multiphcd  by  3,  is  4.51J4;)00,  the  loga- 
rithm of  327C8,  the  cube  of  32.  But  in  raising 
powers,  viz.  squiring,  cubing,  &c  of  any  deci- 
n.al  fraction  bv  logarithms,  it  must  be  observed, 
that  the  first  significant  figure  of  the  po\yer  be 
put  so  many  places  below  the  place  of  units,  as 
the  index  of  its  logarithm  wants  of  10,  100,  &c. 
multiplied  by  the  index  of  the  power. 

To   txlrart'thc  K'jotz  of  Po'rjcri    ty  Lor'arillms.^ — 

Divide  the  logarithm  of  the  number  by  the  in- 
dex of  the  pov/er,  the  quotient  is  the  logarithm 
of  the  root  sought. 

To  find  Mian  Proporlwnab  L-tii-rcn  any  tii'O  num- 
i^.,.j._:_Sub;ract  the  logarithm  of  the  least  term 
from  the  logarithm  of  the  greatest,  and  divide 
the  remainder  by  a  number  more  by  one  than 
the  number  of  means  desired ;  then  add  the 
quotient  to  the  logarithm  of  the  least  term  (or 
subtract  it  from  the  logarithm  of  the  greates,) 
continually,  and  it  will  give  the  logarithms  of 
all  the  me;m  proportionals  required. 

EwimpU.    Let  three -mean   proportionals   be 
sought,  between  106  and  100. 
Logarithm  of  lOo  =  2.02S30.-;9 
Logarithm  of  100  =  2.0000000 

Divide  by       4)O.O2.)30J9(O.006S264.7j 

Loff.  of  the  least  term  100  added       2.0000000 


Product  -         8.'         1.9294189 

And  in  division,  subtract  the  logarithm  of  tlie 
divisor  from  the  logarithm  of  the  dividend,  the 
remainder  is  the  logarithm  of  the  quotient. 

num.         logarithms. 

Example.  Dividend         9712.8         3.9373444 

Divisor  456  2  6.589648 

Quotient  21.3         1.3283796 

To  find  tin  Coi'pUmtnl  of  a  Logarithm. — Begin  at 
the  hft  hand,  and  w-rite  down  what  each  figure 
v/ants  of  9,  only  what  the  last  significant  figure 
wants  of  10;  so  the  complement  of  the  logarithm 
of  456,  viz.  2.6589648,  is  7.3410352. 

In  the  Rule  of  Three.  Add  the  logarithms  of 
the  second  and  third  terms  together,  a.nd  from 
the  sum  subtract  the  logarithm  of  the  first,  the 
remainder  is  the  logarithm  of  the  lourth.  Or, 
instead  of  subtracting  a  logarithm,  .".dd  its  com- 
plement, and  the  result  will  be  the  same. 

..3 


Loo-,  of  the  1st  mean     101.4673S46  2.O0632G4.75 
Log.  of  the  2d  mean     102  9563014  2.01265?9i; 
Log.  of  the  3d  mean     104.4670483  2.0189794.25 
Log.ofthegreatesttermlOe.  2.0253059. 

LOGIC.  The  professed  business  of  logic- 
is  to  explain  the  nature  of  tlie  hmnan  mind, 
and  the  proper  manner  of  conducting  its 
several  powers,  in  order  to  the  attainment  ol 
truth  and  knowledge. 

Those,  therefore,  who  liave  treated  ex- 
pressly of  this  subject,  liave  endeavoured 
lirst  to  define  and  describe  the  several  facul- 
ties and  operations  of  the  human  mind,  as 
perception,  judgment,  memory,  invention, 
&c.  They  next  proceed  lo  lay  down  rules  for 
correct  reasoning  and  argument.  Every  act 
of  the  jtidgmcnt  they  term  a  proposition,  and 
all  propositions  are  either  affirmative  or  ne- 
gative. All  questions  or  arguments  they  re- 
duce to  syllogisms,  that  is,  from  two  axioms 
or  propos"itions  (called  terms,  in  the  techni- 
cal language)  laid  down,  they  deduce  a  third, 
or  conclusion,  and  the  previous  propositions 
tliey  divide  into  major  and  minor.  Thus, 
let  the  question  be,"  ll'itdhtr  God  is  an  in- 
tdligent  being  ?  Here  the  major  or  princi))al 
proposition  iiroceeds  from  the  word  intelli- 
gent, and  the  minor  respects  God.  They 
would  then  arrange  the  syllogism  as  follows: 
Maj.  'i"o  dispose  things  in  right  and  per- 
fect order  is  the  work  of  an  intel- 
ligent Being: 
Min.  PiUt  God  has  disposed   creation  in 

right  and  perfect  order  ; 
Conclusion.  Therefore  God  is  an  intelli- 
gent Being. 
They  next   class    or    arrange    the    diffe- 
rent  kinds  of  syllogisms   according   to   the 
nature  of  them.     Propositions  are  not  only 
affirmative  and  negative,  but  tht7  are  also 
particular  or   universal.      Hence  syllogisins 
will  vary  not  only  as  the  major  or  minor  pro- 
position is  negative  or  adlrmativc,    but    as 
either  is  an  universal  or  particular  allirmative, 


\,  O  I. 

S;c.  Ilonce  tliey  disptj-.e  the  several  kinds 
of  propositions  into  modes,  and  the  syllo- 
gisms into  ligures,  according  as  they  affect 
the  subject  or  the  predicate.  The  modi  s 
are  indicated" by  the  letters  a,  e,  i,  o,  as  they 
are  allirmative  or  negative,  universal  or  par- 
ticular. 1  here  are  nineteen  modes  ;.nd  lour 
ligures.  The  lirst  figure  is  when  the  middle 
term  is-tlie  subject  of  the  njajor,  and  tl-.e  pre- 
dicate of  the  mii;or :  as, 
No  work  of  God  is  bad  : 
Btit  the  natural  passions  and  appetites  of 

men  are  the  work  of  God ; 
Tlierefore  they  are  not  bad. 
This  figure  includes  four  modes,  denoted 
bv  the  words, 

"  (rarbara,  celarent,  Darii,  fcrio  ;" 
referring  to  tiie  vowels  winch  each  syllabic 
contains. 

The  second  fig-i.re  is  when  the  middle  term 
is  tlie  predicate  of  both  major  ami  minor:  as, 
WlK'.tever  is  bad  is  not  the  work  of  God: 
But  the  natural  passions,  &:c.  are  tlic  vvoik 

of  God; 
Therefore  they  are  not  bad. 
This  figure  includes  four  modes,  denoted 
bv  the  words, 

"  Ca'sare,  camestres,  festino,  baroco." 
The  third  figure  is  when  the  middle  term 
is  the  subject  of  both  major  and  minor,  as. 
All  Africans  are  black: 
But  all  Africans  are  men; 
Therefore  some  men  are  black. 
This  figure  uicludes  six  modes,  denoted  by 
the  words, 

"  Darapti,  felapton,  disamis,  datisi,  bocardo, 
ferison." 
In  the  fourth  figure  it  is  the  ])redicale  of 
the  major,  and  the  subject  of  the  minor,  as. 
The  only  being  who  ouglit  to  be  worship- 
ped is  the  Creator  of  the  world: 
But  the  Creator  of  the  world  is  God; 
Therefore  God  is  the  only  being  who  ought 

to  be  worshipped. 
There  are  five  modes  of  this  figure  denoted 
by  the  words, 

"  Barbari,  Calenles,  Dibatis,  fessaino,  fre- 
sisom." 
Such  is  the  scheme  i)roposed  by  the  school- 
men -as  the  only  guide  to  truth  and  wisdom  ; 
but  how  little  it  has  been  able  to  elTect  may 
be  seen  from  the  ialxiurs  of  those  who  have 
practised  it  niosl,  those  very  schoolmen 
themselves.  The  truth  is,  if  logic  is  the  art 
of  reasoning,  the  best  materials  lo  form  a  lo- 
gi<  ian,  that  is  a  reasoner,  are  a  sound  under- 
standing, an  extensive  and  accurale  know- 
ledge of  facts,  and  an  unprejudiced  disposi- 
tion ;  and  every  attempt  lo  reihice  the  ope- 
rations of  the  human  mind  to  mechanical' 
rules,  to  bring  genius  to  a  level  with  dulness, 
must  be  futile  and  vain.  The  various  terms 
and  figures  of  logic  will  be  found  in  their  re- 
si)ective  pl.ices.     See  Mode. 

I.OLIUM,  ihiritfl-griiss,  a  genus  of  tlie 
digvnia  order,  in  the  Iriandria  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  uncler  the 
4(h  order,  gramina.  The  calyx  is  mono- 
phyllous,  fixed,  and  nnitlorous.  There  are 
\\\e  sjjecies.     The  most  remarkable  are, 

1.  The  percnne,  red  darnel,  or  lyc-grass^ 
This  is  very  common  in  roads  and  dry  i>as- 
Uires.      It 'makes  excellent  hay   upon  dry^ 


MISCEJLJLANIES  , 


J39 


^     -L     1       I      I      C      II     Z      e      C     c     X 
Lriuirithniir   Curve 


Jhn/fti  /I'r  R±i-hi\rd  nulhns.  .\>»  if/v/Z/^c  .I'mv^  TTJa-'klnnrs , 


L  (>  N 

iluilky,  or  sandy  soils.  It  is  .I'lvantageousK 
<-ul)ivali'(l  aloni?  vvilli  clover,  and  spriiips  cai'- 
licr  tli.m  ollirr  grasses,  siipplyiiii;  (o-jd  lor 
faille  at  a  lime  wlicii  it  is  iiio.st  diflicult  to  bi^ 
olitaincd.  Cows,  horses,  and  sheep,  eat  it ; 
goats  are  not  fond  of  it. 

'2.  'Iheteiniilenltim,  or  white  darnel,  (;rows 
spontaneously  in  ploughed  fields.  If  the 
seeds  of  this  species  are  malted  with  barley, 
the  ale  soon  occasions  drnnkenness  ;  ini.\ed 
with  bread-corn,  they  produce  init  little  ef- 
fect, inile-:s  the  bread  is  eaten  hot. 

LONCHniS,  splccnzcnrt,  a  genus  of  the 
cry|)toganiia  filices  class  of  plants,  the  friicti- 
lication^  of  which  are  arranged  into  Uuiiilated 
series,  and  disposed  separately  under  the  si- 
nuses of  the  leaves.  1  here  are  live  species. 
The  leaves  of  this  plant  are  of  use  in  healinc; 
wounds,  and  in  preventing  i'.itlannnations  of 
(hem:  they  are  also  used  against  the  spleen. 
'J'lieroot  is  aperient  and  diuretic. 

LONGEVITY,  long  life.  The  duration 
of  human  life  is  a  subjec;  so  universally  in- 
teresting, tliut  instances  of  persons  who  have 
cunsiderably  exceeded  llw  usual  term  of  life 
have  at  all  times  attractetl  notice,  altliough 
veiy  few  attempts  have  been  made  to  ascer- 
tain the  circumstances  muler  which  life  may 
be  prolonged  to  its  greatest  extent.  lUitibn, 
Halhr,  Dr.  V'olhergill,  Dr.  Barton,  Dr. 
Ilufeland,  and  a  few  others  who  have  noticed 
this  subject,  appear  to  have  considered  but 
a  very  small  mmiber  of  the  instances  of  lon- 
gevity which  have  occurred.  Mr.  J.  Easton, 
ill  order  to  supply  better  materials  for  others, 
published,  a  few  years  since,  a  much  greater 
collection  of  instances  of  this  kind,  though 
probably  but  a  small  part  of  what  have  actu- 
ally occurred.  His  list  consists  of  1712  per- 
sons, who  are  stated  to  have  died  at  the  fol- 
lowing ages: 

Ages.  Persons. 

From  1 00  to  U  n  years  1310 

110  to  120  277 

J20  to  130  84 

130  to  14()  26- 

140  to  iriO  7 

150  to  160  3 

160  to  170  2 

170  to  185  3 

1712 
Such  a  inimber  of  instances  would  furnish 
many  useful  conclusions  ;  but  most  accounts 
of  this  kind  contain  little  more  than  the  name, 
age,  anil  place  of  the  death  of  the  person 
iiK-ntione<l,  from  which  of  course  litde  infor- 
mation can  be  gained.  .Sir  J.  Sinclair,  in  an 
Essay  on  Longevity,  has  endeavoured  to  ex- 
cite a  more  general  interest  on  this  subject, 
which  has  by  no  means  been  investigated  with 
the  attention  it  deserves. 

That  longe^ily  depends  principally  on  con- 
formity of  conduct  to  the  laws  of  nature,  ap- 
pears an  indisputable  fact;  but  from  all  tiie 
observations  which  have  been  made,  it  like- 
wise appears,  t!iat  there  are  other  circum- 
stances Wiiich  have  considerable  influence  : 
of  these  perhaps  the  most  certain  is  descent 
from  long-lived  ancestors.  Dr  Rush,  of  I'hi- 
ladelptiia,  remarks,  that  he  has  not  found  a 
sin^e  instance  of  a  person  who  had  lived  to 
be  80  yeare  old,  of  whom  this  was  not  the 
case;  and  the  accounts  collected  by  others 
strongly  confirm  this  observation. 
The  climate  of  some  countries  luis  been 


L  O  N 

supposed  to  be  much  more  favourable  to 
longevity  than  others:  thus  Mr.  White- 
hnrst  asserted,  that  Englishmen  in  gener.il 
were  longer-lived  than  North  Americaris; 
and  Mr.  W.  Barton  has  since  endeavoured 
to  prove  the  contrary:  but  whatever  infer- 
ences of  this  kind  national  p-artiality  may 
attempt  to  support,  more  extensive  observa- 
tions will  in  general  conlirm  the  conclusion, 
that  although  longi.'vity  evidently  prevails 
more  in  certain  districts  than  in  othei'S,  and 
those  regions  which  lie  within  the  temperate 
zones  are  best  adapted  to  promote  long  life, 
yet  it  is  by  no  means  conliiied  to  any  (yarli- 
cular  nation  or  climate,  as  remarkable-  in- 
stances of  it  may  be  produced  both  from 
very  hot  and  very  cold  countries.  It  is 
highly  probable  thiit  the  human  frame  is  so 
constituted  as  to  adiipt  itself  easily  to  the  at- 
mosphere and  peculiarities  of  the  country  in 
which  it  receives  life,  or  even  into  which  it 
is  afterwards  removed.  Thus  France  and 
Sweden  are  countries  differing  materially  iu 
soil  and  climate:  the  general  mode  of  life  of 
the  inhabitants  is  likewise  very  diflcrent ; 
yet  the  usual  rate  of  mortality  has'  been  found 
nearly  the  same  in  both.  Men  can  live 
e(iually  well  under  very  different  circnm- 
slances.  It  is  sudden  changes  that  are  inju- 
rious ;  and  temperate  climates  being  less 
liableito  such  changes,  are  found  to  be  most 
favourable  to  the  continuance  of  life.  There 
are,  however,  in  almost  every  country,  par- 
ticular districts  more  favourable  to  the'health 
of  the  inliabitants  than  others;  and  the  cause 
of  tills  superiority  is  chiellv  a  free  circulation 
of  air,  uncontaminated  with  the  noxious  va- 
pours and  exhalations  which  destroy  its  pu- 
rity in  other  parts ;  thus  hilly  districts  are 
almost  universally  found  more  healtliy  than 
low  and  marshy  places,  or  than  close  and 
crowdeil  cities. 

From  a  list  of  1 45  persons  who  are  record- 
ed to  have  lived  to  tlie  age  of  120  years  and 
U|)wards,  it  appears,  that  more  than  half 
were  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain,  riz. 

63  of  England  and  Wales, 

23  of  Scotland, 

29  of  Ireland, 

30  of  other  countries. 

The  number  of  instances  in  Scotland,  com- 
pared with  those  of  England,  appears  by  this 
account  to  have  bei'n  more  than  twice  the 
jn'oporlion  of  the  population,  vvhiih  certainly 
seems  to  shew  that  the  climate  of  the  former 
is  very  favourable  to  long  life.  The  great 
proportion  of  inliabitants  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  though  perhaps  arising  in  some  mea- 
sure from  instances  of  great  age  not  being 
so  generally  uoticedand  recorded  in  other 
places,  at  least  shews,  that  lliese  countries 
are  not  unfavourable  to  longevity. 

It  is  a  fiict  pretty  well  established,  that 
more  males  are  born  than  females;  it  is  also 
well  known,  that  iu  ahnost  every  form  which 
animal  life  assumes,  the  male  appears  to  j)OS- 
sess  a  somewhat  superior  degree  of  bodily 
strength  to  the  female.  From  thes;-  circum- 
stances it  might  be  expected  that  tli:;  nun\- 
ber  of  males  living  would  be  found  greater 
than  that  of  the  females,  and  that  in  general 
they  woidd  enjoy  a  greater  duration  of  life  ; 
the  contrary,  however,  has  been  asserteil, 
and  evidence  produced  which  appeared  to 
justify'  such  an  opinion  ;  but  it  seems  pro- 
bable, that  iu  forming  tlw  accounts  from 
L8 


I,  (J  N" 


S-i 


whiih  llie  niiijihcr  of  females  living  appeared 
greater  than  that  of  the  males,  suliicieiit  at- 
iention  was  not  paid  to  the  number  of  males- 
e!igaged  chiefly  abioad  in  the  arniv  aod 
navy,  and  of  the  emigrations  to  foreign  paits 
being  ( hielly  of  males.  That  the  male  con- 
stitution is  naturally  more  durable  than  thai 
of  females,  may  be  inferred  from  the  li-t 
before  referred  to  of  145  jjcrsons,  who  ha\o 
attained  unusually  great  age,  more  than  (w!;- 
tlnrds  of  the  number  being'  males,  i'):. 
Ili.'feland  remarks,  that  the  et)uilibriuin  and 
pliability  of  ti.e  female  body  seems,  for  a  cer- 
tain lime,  to  give  it  more  durabi  ity,  and  to' 
r<'nder  it  less  susce|)t.ble  of  injury  from  de- 
stiuctive  influences  than  that  of_  men ;  but 
that  male  strength  !<,  without  doubt,  neces- 
sary to  arrive  at  a  vejy  great  age.  More  ' 
women,  therefore,  bccon.e  old,  but  fewer 
very  old  ;  and  if  the  registers  of  mortality, 
from  which  tables  of  the  probability  of  the 
duration  of  human  life  are  formed,  were  mor^- 
exlensive,  and  comprehended  a  greater  num- 
ber of  years,  so  as  to  include  the  in'^tance* 
of  great  longevity,  the  dill'ercnce  between 
the  value  ot  niafe  and  female  lives  would 
appear  less  than  it;  is  supposed  to  be,  and 
probably  the  sum  of  life  of  the  whole  of 
each  sex  ap))roac!ies  very  nearly  to  equality. 

The  form  of  the  individual  appears  to  be 
of  considerable  importance:  moderate-sized 
and  well-proportioned  pei-sons have  certainly 
the  best  ciiance  of  Icng  life.  'Ihere  are,  how- 
ever, a  few  instances  of  persons  of  a  different 
descri])tion  having  attained  considerable  age. 
Mary  Jones,  who  died  in  17S3,  at  V.'ern,  iu 
Shropshire,  aged  100  years,  was  only  two 
feet  eight  inches  in  height,  very  deformed  and 
lame;  and  James  M'Donald,  wlio.died  near 
Cork  in  the  year  1760,  aged  1 17,  was  seveu 
ieet  six  inches  high. 

Matrimony,  if  not  entered  hito  too  early, 
appears  to  be  very  conducive  to  health  and 
long  life,  the  propoi  tion  of  unmarried  persons 
attaining  great  age,  being  r^inirkably  small ; 
Dr.  Rush  says,  that  in  the  course  of  his  en- 
quiries, he  met  with  only  one  person  beyond 
eii^hty  years  of  age,  who  had  never  been  mar- 
ried. I'his  is  a  very  limited  remark;  Mrs. 
Maltoii,  who  died  in  1733,  aged  105;  Ann 
Keriiey,  who  died  the  same  year,  aged  110; 
Manila  Dunridge,  who  died  in  1752,  in  the 
1  Outli  year  of  her  age  ;  and  Mrs.  \Varren, 
who  died  in  1753,  aged  104,  had  never  been 
married  :  and  in  the  list  prefixed  to  sir  John 
Sinclair's, Essay  on  Longevity,  of  pensioneri 
in  Cjreenwich  hospital,  who  were  upwards  of 
eighty  years  of  age,  there  are  ^!ixtecn  vylio 
never  were  married  :  the  same  list,  however, 
contains  five  times  as  many  persons  who  had 
been  married,  and  other  accouiits  aie  in  a. 
still  greater  proportion. 

The  Chinese  erect  triumphal  or  honorary 
arches  to  the  memory  of  persons  who  have 
lived  a  centurv,  thinking,  that  without  a  so- 
b^,T  and  virtuous  life  it  is  impossible  to  attain 
so  great  an  age.  Temperance  is  certainly 
the  best  security  of  heallli;  and  no  man  can 
reasonably  expect  to  live  long  who  impairs 
tiie  vital  powers  by  excess,  Vr'hich  converts 
the  most  natural  and  bcnelicial  enjoyments 
into  the  most  certain  means  of  destruction. 
The  few  instances  of  individuals  who,  not- 
withstanding their  licentir)us  mode  of  life, 
have  attained  considerable  age'  cannot  be 
put  in  comparison  w  itli  the  immense  number 
whose  lives  have  been  materially  shortened 


St 

In-  svich  i!i(lv!l^?ncps.  Dr.  FothprgUI  ob- 
serves, Ihut  "  the  due  ro^u  atioii  oi  tiu?  piiS- 
^ions  perhaps  coiilributes  more  to  liea'.lli  and 
lon'.yvity  tlian  any  of  the  other  nOnnatiiraU." 
'i  u.-  clieor;ul  anil  coiilente<l  are  Cv.-iiair.l_v 
more  likely  to  enjoy  good  health  aiu\  long 
life  than  persons  of  irritable  and  fretful  dis- 
positions; therefore  whatever  tends  to  pro- 
mote good  humour  and  innocent  hilarity, 
must  liave  a  beneficial  iniliience  in  this  re- 
fpect";  and  persons  whose  attention  is  much 
engaged  on  serious  subjects  should  endea- 
vo.,r  to  preserve  a  relish  for  clif  erful  recrea- 
tions. 

LONGITUDE '/a  .it:tr,  in  astronomy, 
a  1  arch  of  the  ecliptic,  intercepted  betwee;! 
t!»-  b'.-ginidng  of  Aries  and  tlie  point  of  the 
ecliptic  cut  by  the  star's  circle  of  longitude. 

Longitude  of  a  pUce.  See  Geogr.v- 
vnv. 

Longitude,  in-'navigation,  the  distance 
of  a  sliip  or  place,  east  or  we;:t,  from  another, 
reckoned  in  degrees  of  the  equator. 

As  the  discovery  of  a  inethod  to  find  the 
lo.gitude  would  render  voyages  safe  and  ex- 
peditious, and  also  preserve  ship!    and  tiie 
lives  of  men,  the  following  re=.vards  have  been 
OiTered  as  an    encouragement  to   any  per- 
son  who  shall   discover    a  proper    method 
for  finding  it  out :— In  the  year  1714,  the 
British  parliament  offered  a  reward  for  the 
discovery   of  the    longitude :    the    sum    of 
JO,000/."if  the  method  determined  the  lon- 
gitude tq  1°  of  a  great  circle,  or  to  60  geo- 
graphical miles;  of  15,000^  if  it  deter  nined 
it  to  40  miles;  and  of  '20,000/.   if  it  deter- 
mined it  to  30  miles ;  witii  this  proviso,  that 
if  any  such  method  extend  no  further  than 
30  niiles  adjoining  to  the  coast,  the  proposer 
should  have  no  more  than  half  the  rewards. 
The  act  also  appoints  the  first  lord  of  the  ad- 
miralty, the  speaker  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons,'the  first  commissioner  of  trade,  the 
admirals  of  the  red,  white,  and  blue  stpiad- 
rons,  the  master  of  the  Trinity-house,  tlie  pre- 
sidi-nt  of  the  royal  society,  the  royal  astrono- 
mer at  Greenwich,  the  t\vo  Savilian  profess- 
ors at  Oxford,  and  the  L'lcasian  and  Plu- 
inian  professors  at  Cambridge,  with  several 
other  persons,  as  commissioners  for  the  lon- 
gitude at  sea.     The  Lowndian  professor  at 
Cambridge  was  afterwards  added.     After  this 
act  of  parliament,  several  other  acts  pas?ed 
in  the  reigns  of  George  II.  and  111.  for  the 
encouragement  of  finding  the  longitude.     At 
list,  in    1774,  an  act  passed,  repealing  all 
other  acts,  and  offering  separate  rewards  to 
anv  person  who  should  disco^•e^  the  longi- 
tude, either  l)y  the  watch  keeping  true  time 
within  certain  limits,  or  by  the  lunar  method, 
or  bv  any  other  means.    The  act  proposes  as 
a  reward'  for  a  timekeeper,  the  sum  of  3000/. 
if  it  determine  the  longitude  to  1"  or  60  geo- 
graphical miles ;  the  sum  of  7.')00/.  if  it  de- 
Sennine   it   to  40  miles;    and    the   sum   of 
1 0,000/.  if  it  determine  it  to  30  miles,  after 
jjroper  trials  specified  in  the  act.     If  the  me- 
thod is  by  improved  solar  and  lunar  tables, 
constructed  upon  sir  Isaac  Newton's  theory 
of  gravitation,  the  author  shall  be  entitled  to 
5000/.  if  such  tables  shall  show  the  distance 
of  the  moon  from  the  sun  and  stars,  within 
fifteen  seconds  of  a  .degree,  an;vvering  to 
about  seven  minutes  of  longitude,  after  allow- 
ing half  a  degree  for  the  errors  of  observa- 
tion.   And  for  any  other  method,  the  same 


LONGITDDE. 

re^Tards  are  offered  as  those  for  tiinekci'per?, 
provided  it  gives  the  longitude  true  within 
the  same  limits,  and  is  practicable  at  sea. 
The  commissioners  have  also  a  power  of  giv- 
ing smaller  rewards,  as  they  shall  judge  pro- 
per, to  any  one  who  shall  make  any  disco- 
very for  finding  tlie  loligilude  at  sea,  tiiough 
not  within  the  above  limits;  provided,  how- 
ever,- that  if  sucli  person  or  persons  shall 
afterwards  make  any  further  discovery  as  to 
come  within  tiie  above-mentioned  limits, 
such  sum  or  sums  as  they  may  have  received 
shall  be  coiisidi-red  as  part  of  such  greater 
reward,  and  deducted  therefrom  accort!^ 
ingly. 

To  find  the  longitude  hy  a  time-keeper. 
Tlie  sun  appears  to  move  round  the  earth 
from  east  to  west,  or  to  describe  360°,  in  24 
hours,  and  therefore  he  appears  to  move  15° 
in  an  hour.  If  thereiore  the  meridians  pf 
two  jjlaces  r.iake  an  angle  of  15° With  each 
otii-.-r,  or  if  the  two  places  dilt'er  15°  in  lon- 
gitude, the  sun  will  come  to  the  eastern  me- 
ridian ouL.'  hour  before  he  comes  to  tiie  west- 
ern meririian,  and  therefvU'e  wlien  it  is  twelve 
o'clock  at  the  former  place,  it  is  only  eleven 
at  the  latter;  and  in  general,  the  difference 
between  the  times  by  the  clock  at  any  two 
places,  will  be  the  difference  of  their  longi- 
tudes, converted  into  time  at  the  rale  of  15° 
for.  an  hour,  the  time  at  the  eastern  p'ace 
being  the  fbrwardest.  If,  tlierefoiv,  we  can 
tell  W'hat  o'clock  it  is  at  any  two  places  at 
the  same  instant  of  time,  we  can  find  the  dif- 
ference of  their  longitudes,  by  allowing  15° 
for  every  hour  that  tiie  clocks  differ. 

Let,   therefore,    the   timekeeper   be  well 
regulated  and  set  to  the  time  at  Greenwich, 
that  being  the  place  from  which  we  reckon 
our  longitude ;  then  if  the  watch  neither  gains 
nor  loses,  it  will  always  show  the  time  at 
Gnenwicli,  wherever  vou  may  be.     Now  to 
find  the  time  by  the  clock  at  any  other  place, 
take  the  sun's  altitude,  and  thence  find  the 
time ;  now  the  time  thus  found  is  apparent 
time,  or  that  found  by  the  sun,  which  differs 
from  the  time  shown  by  the  clock   by  the 
equation  of  time.    AVe  must,  therefore,  apply 
the  equation  of  time  to  the  time  found  by 
the  sun,  and  we  shall  get  the  time  by  tlie 
clock;  and  the  difference  between  the  time 
by  the  clock  so  found,  and  the  time  by  the 
timekeeper,  or  the  time  at  Greenwich,  con- 
verted into  degrees  at  the  rate  of  15°  for  an 
hour,  gives  the  longitude  of  the  place  from 
Greenwich.     For  example  ■-  let  the  time  by 
the  timekeeper,  when  the  sun's  altitude  was 
taken,  be  6h.  19',  and  let  the  time  deduced 
from  the  sun's  altitude  be  9h.  27',  and  sup- 
pose at  that  time  the  equation  of  time  to  be 
7',  showing  how  much  th(;  sun  is  that  day 
behind  the  clock,  then  the  time  by  the  clock 
is  9li.  34',  the  difference  between  which  and. 
6h.  19',  is  3h.  15';  and  this  converted  into 
degrees,  at  the  rate  of  15°  for  1  hour,  gives 
4S°  45',  the    longitude  of  tlie    place   from 
Greenwich;    and   as  the  time   is  forwarder 
than  that  at  Greenwich,  the  place  lies  to  the 
east    of   Greenwich.      Thus   the   longitude 
could    be    very   easily   determined,   if   you 
could  depend  upon  the  timekeeper.     But  as 
a  watch  w.ll  always  gain  or  lose,  before  the 
timekeeper  is  £ent  out,  its  gaining  or  losing 
every  day  for  some  time,  a  month  for  in- 
stance, is  observed  ;  this  is  called  the  rate  of 
going  of  llie   watch,  and  from   thence  the 
mean  rate  of  going  is  thus  found;. 


Suppof  e  1  examine  the  rate  of  a  vratch  for 
30  dajs;  on  some  of  those  days  I  liiid  it  has 
sained,  and  on  s;^me  it  has  lost ;  add  tosfc- 
ther  all  tlie  quant  ties  it  has  gained,  and  sup- 
pose they  amount  to  17";  add  together  all 
liie  quantities  it  has  lost,  and  suppose  they 
amount  to  i3";  then  upon  the  whole,  it  has 
gained  4"  in  30  days;  and  this  is  called  the 
mean  rate  for  that  time  ;  and  tliis  divided  bv 
30,  gives  0",1 33  for  the  mean  daily  rate  of 
ga'uing;  so  tliat  if  the  watch  had  gained  re- 
gularly 0",  133  every  day,  at  the  end  of  the 
30  djys  it  would  have  gaine<l  just  as  nnich 
as  it  really  did  gain,  by  some!  mes  gaining 
and  sometimes  losing.  Or  y)u  ma\  get  the 
mean  daily  rate  thus:  Take- the  (liilerence 
between  wiial  the  clock  was  too  fast  or  loo 
slow  on  tlie  first  and  last  ilays  of  observation, 
if  it  be  too  fast  or  too  slow  on  each  day;  but 
take  the  sum,  if  it  is  too  fast  on  one  day  and 
too  slow  on  the  other,  and  divide  by  the 
numbcH-  of  days  between  the  observations, 
and  you  get  the  mean  daily  rate.  Tiius,  if 
the  watch  was  too  fast  on  the  first  day  IS', 
and  too  fast  on  the  last  day  32",  the  diffe- 
rence 14"  divided  by  30,  gives  0'',40G,  the 
mean  daily  rate  of  gaining.  But  if  the  watch 
was  too  fast  on  the  first  day  7'',  and  too  siow 
on  the  last  dav  10",  the  sum  17"  divided  by 
30,  gives  0",56t),  the  mean  diily  rate  of  los- 
ing. After  l;aving  thus  got  the  mean  daily 
rate  of  gaining  or  losing,  and  knowing  how 
mucli  the  watch  was  too  fast  or  too  slow  at 
first,  you  can  tell,  according  to  that  rate  of 
going,  how  much  it  is  too  fast  or  too  sloiv  at 
any  other  time.  In  the  first  case,  for  in- 
stance, let  the  watch  have  been  1'  17"  too  fa?t 
at  first,  and  I  want  to  know  how  much  it  is 
too  fast  50  davs  after  that  time:  now  it  gains 
0",  1 33  every  day  ;  if  tliis  is  multij^lied  by  50, 
it  gives  6",65  for  the  whole  'gain  in  50  days ; 
therefore,  at  theend  of  that  time,  the  watdi 
would  be  1'.  23",65  too  fast.  This  would  be 
the  error,  if  the  watch  .continued  to  gain  at 
the  above  rate  ;  and  although,  from  the  dif- 
ferent temperatures  of  the  air,  and  the  im- 
perfection of  the  workmanship,  this  cannot 
be  expected,  yet  the  probable  error  wid  by 
this  means  be  diminished,  and  it  is  the  best 
method  we  have  to  depefid  upon.  In  watche? 
which  are  under  trial  at  the  Koyal  Observa- 
tory at  Greenwich,  as  candidates  for  the  re- 
wards, this  allowance  of  a  mean  rate  is  ad- 
mitted, although  it  is  not  mentioned  in  (he 
apt  of  parliament :  the  commissioners,  ho%v- 
ever,  are  so  indulgent  as  to  grant  it,  which 
is  undoubtedly  favourable  to  the  watches. 

As  the  rate  of  going  of  a  watch  is  subject 
to  vary  from  so  many  circunist3nces,,tlie  ob- 
server, wfienever  he  goes  ashore,  and  has  suf- 
ficient time,  should  compare  his  watch  for 
several  days  with  the  true  time  found  by  tl-.e 
sun,  by  which  he  will  be  abie  to  lind  its  rate 
of  going.  And  when  he  conies  to  a  place 
whose  longitude  is  known,  he  may  then  set 
his  watch  to  Grecnw  ich  time ;  for  when  the 
longitude  of  a  place  is  known,  you  know  the 
difference  between  the  time  thine  and  at 
Greenwich.  For  histance,  if  he  go  to  a 
place  known  to  be  30°  east  longitude  from 
Greenwidi,  his  watch  should  be  two  hours 
slower  than  tlie  time  at  that  place.  Find 
therefore  the  true  time  at  that  place,  by  the 
sun,  and  if  the  watth  is  two  hours  slower,  it 
is  right;  if  not,  correct  it  by  the  ditterence, 
and  it  again  gives  Greenwich  time. 
In  the  year  172t),  iMr.  John  Harrison  pro- 


tiiice.l  a  timelieeper   of  his  o.vii   coiritnic- 
tii);i,  wliicli  did  not  err  above  one  second  in  a 
month  f;>r  ton  years  toE;ellicr;  and  intlie  year 
J.7JG  lie  liad  a  niucliine  tried  in  a  voyagv  to 
and  from   J.ishoji,  wliirli  was  tlie  means  of 
toirecting  an  error  of  almost  a  degree  ajul  a 
liair  in  til-  compntation  of  tiie  ship's  reckon- 
ir.^.      In  conf.e<iiience  of  this  success,  Mr. 
1  iarrison  received   pnblic  eneouragoment  (o 
[jro-.-ced,  and    lie   made    three   other   time- 
keepers, each  more  acciirale  than  the  for- 
mer, uliich  were  fniished  successively  in  the 
years   1739,    1758,  and    17oI  ;    the    last   of 
vhich  proved  so  much  to  his  own  satisfac- 
tion, that  li^  applied  to  tlv'  commissioners  of 
the-  lorigitude  to  have  this  instrument  tried  in 
a  voyage  to  ?ome  ])ort  in  tlie  West  indies, 
according  to  the  directions  of  the  statute  of 
tlie  l-tii  of  Anne  above  cited.     Accordingly, 
Mr.  William  Harrison,  son  of  tlie  inventor, 
enibarUed  in  November  1781,  on  a  voyage 
for  Jamaica,  with  this  fourth  timekeeper  or 
watch;  and  on  his  arrival  there,  the  longi- 
tude, as  shewn  by  the  timekeeper,  differed 
but  one  geographical  mile  and  a  quarter  from 
the  true  longitude,  deduced  from  astrono- 
mical observations.      The  same  gentleman 
returned  to  England  with  the  timekeeper,  in 
March  I76'i,  when  he  found  that  it  had  erri-d 
in  the  four  months,  no  more  than  1'  54"^  in 
time,  or  asf  minutes  of  longitude ;  whereas 
the  act  requires  no  greater  exactness  than  30 
Seographical  miles,  or  minutes  of  a  great 
circle,  in  such  a  voyage.     Mr.  Harrison  now 
claimed  tlie  whole  reward  (-f  90,000/.  ofi'ered 
liy  tiie  said  act:  but  some  doubts  arising  in 
the  minds  of  the  commissioners  concerning 
the  true  situation  of  the  island  of  Jamaica, 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  time  at  that 
place  had  been  found,  as  well  as  at  Ports- 
mouth ;    and  it  being  farther  suggested   bv 
some,    that   although   the  timekeeper   hap"- 
pcned  to  be  right  at  Jamaica,  and  after  its 
return  to   England,  it  was  by  no  means  a 
proof  that  it  had  been  always  so  in  the  inter- 
mediate lime;    another  trial  was  therefore 
proposed,  in  a  voyage  to  the  island  of  I5ar- 
badoes,   in  which  precautions  were  taken  to 
obviate  as  many  of  these  objections  as  pos- 
silile.     Accordingly  the  commissioners  pre- 
vious'.y   sent    out   prop.-.r  persons  to    make 
astronomical    observations    on    tliat    island, 
which,   when  compared   with   other   corre- 
sponding ones  made  in  England,  would  de- 
tL-rmine,  beyond  a  doubt,  its  true  situation; 
and  Mr.  William  Harrison  again  set  out  with 
liis  father's  timekeeper,  in  March  1764,  tlie 
watch  having  been  compared  with  equal  al- 
titudes at  Portsmouth  b_-fore  he  set  out,  and 
he  arrived  at  Barbadoes  about  the  middle  of 
May;  where,  on  comparing  it  again  by  etpial 
altitudes  of  the  sun,  it  was  found  to  shew  the 
difference  of  longitude   between  Portsmouih 
and  Barbadoes  to  be  3h.  55m.  3s. ;  the  true 
dill'ereaie  of  longitude  between  these  places, 
by  astronomical  ob-ervations,  being  3h.  54m. 
20s. ;  so  that  the  error  of  the  watch  was  433., 
or  10' 45'' of  longitude.     In  consequence  of 
this  and  the  former  trials,   Mr.  lian-ison  re- 
ceived one  moiety  of  the  reward  offered  by 
the  12th  of  queen  Anne,  after  e.\plainhig  the 
principles  on  which  his  watch  was  construct- 
ed, and  delivering  this,  as  well  as  the  three 
former,  to  the  commissioners  of  the  longi- 
tude for  the  use  of  the  public:  and  he  was 
promised   the  other  moiety  of  the  reward, 
when  other  timekeepers  should  be  made  on 


LONGITUDE. 

the  same  pnncipieSj  either  by  hhiiself  or 
othirs,  perlbrmiiig  equally  veil  with  that 
which  he  had  last  made.  In  the  mean  time, 
this  last  tini'-keeper  was  serit  down  to  the 
Koyal  (^bservatcry  at  Greenwich,  to  be  tried 
there  under  the  direc  tion  of  the  ]\ev.  Dr. 
.Maskelyne,  the  astror.onier-roval.  I'ut  it 
did  not  appear,  during  tiiis  trial,  that  the 
watch  went  with  the  regularitv  that  was  ex- 
pected ;  from  which  it  was  apjirehciided  that 
the  perl'irmanee  even  of  the  same  watch  was 
not  at  all  times  equal ;  and  conseciuently  that 
little  certainty  could  be  expected  in  the  per- 
formance of  different  ones.  Moreover  thi; 
watch  was  now  found  to  go  faster  than  dur- 
ing the  voyage  to  and  fnjni  Harbadoes  by  18 
or  19  seconds  in  24  hours;  but  this  cireum- 
stance  was  accounted  for  by  Mr.  Harrison, 
who  informs  us  th,it  he  had  altered  the  rale 
of  its  going  by  trying  some  experiments, 
which  lie  had  not  time  to  finish  belore  he  was 
ordered  lo  deliver  up  the  watch  to  the  board. 
Soon  after  this  trial,  the  commissioners  of 
longitude  agreed  with  Mr.  Kendal,  one  of 
the  watch-makers  appointed  by  them  to  re- 
ceive Mr.  Harrison's  discoveries,  to  make 
another  watch  on  the  same  construction  with 
this,  to  determine  whether  such  watches 
cnuld  be  made  from  the  account  which  Mr. 
Harrison  had  given,  Ivy  other  persons  as  well 
as  himself.  Tlie  event  proved  the  aflh'ma- 
tive ;  for  the  watch  produced  by  Mr.  Kendal, 
in  consequence  of  this  agreement,  went  con- 
siderably better  than  ^Ir.  Harrison's  did. 
Mr.  Kendal's  watch  was  sent  out  with  captain 
Cook,  in  his  second  voyage  towards  the  south 
pole  and  round  the  globe,  in  the  years  1772, 
1773,  1774,  and  1775;  when  the  only  fault 
found  in  the  watch  was,  that  its  rate  of  going 
was  continually  accelerated;  though  in  this 
trial  of  three'  years  and  a  half  it  never 
amounted  to  14''-|  a  day.  The  consequence 
was,  that  tlie  house  of  commons,  in  1774,  to 
whom  an  appeal  had  been  made,  were  pleas- 
ed to  order  the  second  moiety  of  the  reward 
to  be  given  to  Mr.  Harrison,  and  to  pass  the 
act  above-ms-ntioned.  Mr.  Harrison  had  also 
at  dii'ferent  times  received  some  other  sums 
of  money,  as  encouragements  to  him  to  con- 
tinue his  endeavours,  from  the  board  of  lon- 
gitude, and  from  the  India  company,  as  well 
as  li'oni  many  individuals.  Mr.  Arnold  and 
some  otiier  persons  have  since  also  made  se- 
vei'al  very  good  watches  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, and  have  been  remunerated  for  their 
skill  and  labour. 

Others  have  proposed  various  astronomical 
methods  for  finding  the  longitude.  These 
methods  chiefly  depend  on  having  an  ephe- 
meris  or  almanac  suited  to  the  meridian  of 
some  place,  as  Greenwich  for  instance,  to 
which  the  Nautical  Almanac  is  adapted, 
which  shall  contain  for  every  day  computa- 
tions of  the  times  of  all  remarkable  celestial 
motiojis  and  appearances,  as  adapted  to  that 
meridian.  So  that  if  the  hour  and  minute  is 
known  when  any  of  the  same  phenomena  are 
observed  in  any  other  place  whose  longitude 
is  desired,  the  difference  between  this  time 
and  that  to  which  tlie  time  of  the  said  phe- 
nomenon was  calculated  and  set  down  in  the 
almanac,  will  be  known,  and  consequently 
the  dilference  of  longitude  also  becomes 
khown  between  that  place  and  Greenwich, 
allowing  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  degrees  to  an 
hour. 

Now  it  is  easy  to  find  the  time  at  any 


place,  by  mfans  of  the  altitude  or  nzimulh 
of  the  sun  or  star-,  wliich  lime  '  uT 

to  (ir.d  by  such  means,  both  i;  co- 

mical modes  of  determining  i.i-  i- )i;j:a:de, 
and  in  the  former  by  a  timekeeper;  and  it 
is  tlir;  difference  between  that  lime,  so  de- 
lermined,  and  the  time  at  Grtenv^ich,  known 
cither  by  the  timekeeper  or  by  the  astroncj- 
mical  observations  of  celcsl'a'l  phenomena, 
which  gives  tlie  dilference  of  longitude  at  the 
rate  above-mentioned.  Now  the  diff  cully 
in  these  methods  lies  in  the  fewness  of  proper 
phenomena,  capable  of  being  thus  observed  ; 
lor  all  slow  motions,  such  as  belong  lo  the 
planet  Saturn,  for  instance,  are  quite  exclud- 
ed, as  afibrding  loo  small  a  difference,  in  a 
considerable  space  of  lime,  to  be  properly 
observed ;  and  it  appears  tliat  there  are  no 
phenomena  in  the  heavens  proper  for  this 
])urpose,  except  the  eclipses  or  motions  of 
Jupiter's  satellites,  and  the  eclipses  or  mo- 
tions of  the  moon,  viz.  such  as  her  distance 
from  the  sun  or  certain  fixed  stars.lying  near 
her  path,  or  her  longitude  or  jilace  in  tlie  zo- 
diac, &c.     Now  of  these  methods, 

1st.  That  by  the  eclipses  of  the  mnon  is 
very  easy,  and"  sulTicienUy  accurate,  if  they 
did  but  happen  often,  as"  every  night.  For 
at  the  moment  when  the  beginnin;;  or  middle 
or  end  of  an  eclipse  is  observed  by  a  tele- 
scope, there  is  no  more  lo  be  done  but  to 
determine  the  time  by  observing  the  altitude 
or  a/imuth  of  some  known  star;  which  time 
being  compared  with  that  in  the  tables,  set 
down  for  the'  happening  of  the  same  pheno- 
menon at  Greenwich,  gives  the  difference  in 
time,  and  consequently  of  longitude  sought. 
But  as  the  beginning  or  end  of  an  eclipse  of 
the  moon  cannot  generally  be  observed  nearer 
.llian  one  minute,  and  sometimes  two  or  three 
minutes  of  time,  the  longitude  cannot  cer- 
tainly be  determined  by  this  method,  from  a 
single  observation,  nearer  than  one  degree  of 
longitude.  However,  by  two  or  more  obser- 
vations, as  of  the  beginning  and  end,  &;c.  a 
much  greater  degree  of  exactness  may  be 
attained. 

2d.  The  moon's  place  in  the  zodiac  is  a 
phenomenon  more  frequent  than  her  eclipses ; 
\  but  then  the  observation  of  it  is  difficult,  and 
the  calculus  perplexed  and  intricate,  by  rear 
son  of  two  parallaxes;  so  that  it  is  hardly 
practicable  to  any  tolerable  degree  of  accu- 
racy. 

3d.  But  the  moon's  distances  from  the  sun 
or  certain  fixed  stars,  are  phenomena  to  be. 
observed  many  times  in  almost  every  night, 
and  afford  a  good  practical  method  of  deter- 
mining the  longitude  of  a  ship  at  almost  any 
time;  either  by  computing  from  thence  the 
moon's  true  place,  to  comjiare  with  the  same 
in  the  almanac;  or  by  comparing  her  ob- 
served distance  itself  with  the  same  as  there 
set  down. 

From  the  great  improvements  niadc  by 
Newton  in  the  theoi-y  of  the  moon,  anymore 
lately  by  Euler  and  others  on  his  principles, 
professor  Mayer,  of  Gottingen,  was  enabled 
to  calculate  lunar  tables  more  correct  than 
any  former  ones  ;  having  so  far  succeeded  as 
lo  give  the  moon's  place  within  one  minute 
of  the  truth,  as  has  been  proved  by  a  compa- 
rison of  the  tables  witii  the  olwrvations 
made  at  the  Greenwich  observatory  by  Dr. 
Bradlev,  and  by  Dr.  Maskelyne,  the  late 
astronomer-royal ;  and  the  same  have  beeiv 


to  L  O  N 

still  farlhrr  inipiovcd  uiifler  his  iliicclioii,  by 
the  late  Mr.  Charles  Mason,  by  several  new 
i-quat:ons,  and  the  whole  computed  to  tenths 
of  a  second.  These  tables,  when  com- 
pared with  tlie  above-mentioned  series  of  ob- 
servations, a  jiroper  allowance  being  made  Kr 
the  unavoidable  error  of  observation,  seem  to 
give  always  the  moon's  longitude  in  ilie  hea- 
vens correctly  within  30  seconds  of  a  degree; 
which  greatest  error,  added  to  a  possible 
<Tror  oi  one  minute  in  taking  the  moon's 
ilistance  from  the  sun  or  a  star  at  sea,  will  at 
a  medium  onlv  produce  an  error  of  42  mi- 
nutes of  longiliide.  To  facilitate  tiie  use  of 
the  tables.  Dr.  Maskelyne  proposed  a  nau- 
tical ej)liemeris,  the  scheme  of  which  was 
adopted  by  tiie  commissioners  of  longitude, 
and  lirst  e.\ecuted  in  the  year  1767,  since 
which  time  it  has  been  regularly  continued. 
But  as  the  rules  that  were  giveu  in  the  ap- 
pendix to  one  of  those  publications,  for  cor- 
recting the  elfects  of  retraction  aiid  parallax, 
v-ere  thouglit  too  diflicult  for  general  use, 
tiiey  have  been  reduced  to  tables.  So  that, 
by  the  help  of  the  ephemeris,  these  tables, 
aiid  others  that  are  also  pnnided  by  the 
i)oard  of  longitude,  the  calculations  relating 
to  the  longitude,  which  could  not  be  per- 
formed h\  the  most  expert  mathematician 
hi  less  than  four  hours,  may  now  be  com- 
pleted witli  great  ease  and  accuracy  in  half 
an  hour. 

As  this  method  of  determining  the  longi- 
tude depends  on  the  use  of  tlie  tables  an- 
iniallv  published  for  this  purpose,  those  who 
wisii  for  farther  information  are  rcfciTed  to 
the  instructions  that  accompany  them,  and 
particularly  to  tliose  that  are  annexed  to  the 
tables  requisite  to  be  used  with  the  Astro- 
nomical aiid  Nautical  Ephemeris. 

4th.  The  phenomena  of  Jupiter's  satellite; 
have  commonly  been  preferred  to  those  of 
tlie  moon,  for  lindirjg  tiie  longitude  ;  because 
thev  are  less  liable  to  parallaxes  than  these 
«rei  and  besides  they  alibrd  a  very  commo- 
dious observation  whenever  the  jilanet  is 
above  liie  horizon.  Their  motion  is  very 
swift,- and  must  be  calculated  for  every  hour. 

Now,  to  liml  the  longitude  by  tliese  satel- 
lites: with  a  good  telescope  observe  some  of 
their  phenomena,  as  the  conjumfion  of  two 
ot  them,  or  of  one  of  thern  with  Jupiter,  &c. 
and  at  the  same  time  hml  the  hoiir  and  mi- 
nute, from  the  altitudes  of  the  stars,  or  by 
means  of  a  clock  or  watch,  previously  regu- 
lated for  the  place  of  observation;  then,  con- 
Milting  tables  of  the  satellite's,  observe  the 
time  when  the  same  appearance  happens  in 
the  meridian  of  the  place  forwhich  the  tabl.-s 
are  calculated;  and  liie  difference  of  time,  as 
before,  will  give  the  longitude. 

The  eclipses  of  the  lirst  and  second  of  Ju- 
pitei-'s  satellites  are  ti.o  most  pr:)pcr  for  this 
jnirpose;  and  as  they  happen  ahno-t  daily, 
they  aflbrd  areudy  means  of  determinin,;  the 
longitude  of  places  at  land,  having  in  leed 
contributed  much  to  the  modem  miprove- 
ments  in  geography;  and  if  it  were  possible 
to  observe  them  with  proper  telescopes,  in 
a  ship  'viider  sail,  they  would  be  of  great  ser- 
vice m  iscertaining  its  longitude  from  time 
to  tmii.  To  obviate  the  inconvenien<-e  to 
which  these  observatio.is  are  liable  from  the 
motions  of  the  ship,  Mr.  Irwin  invented 
what  he  called  a  marine  chair:  this  was  tried 
by  Dr.  MaskelvE:,  in  his  voyag.io  rnrbi- 


L  O  O 

doer,  when  it  was  found  that  no  ber.efit 
could  be  derived  from  the  use  of  it.  And 
indeed,  considering  the  great  power  requi- 
site in  a  telescope  proper  for  these  observa- 
tions, and  the  violence  as  well  as  irregulari- 
ties rn  the  motion  of  a  ship,  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  the  complete  management  of  a  telescope 
on  shipboard  will  always  remani  among  the 
d.  siderala  in  this  pprl  of  niutical  science. 
-\nd  farther,  since  all  methods  that  depend 
on  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens,  have  also 
this  other  defect,  that  they  cannot  be  ob- 
served at  all  limes,  this  renders  the  improve- 
ment of  timekeepers  of  the  greater  impor- 
tance. 

LONICERA,  honei/suckle,  a  genus  of  tiie 
monogynia  order,  in  the  pentandria  class  ot 
plants.  'J"he  corolla  is  nionopetalous  and  ir- 
regular; the  berry  polyspernious,  bilocular, 
,ind  ini'ericr.  There  arc  19  species,  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  are, 

1.  The  alpigena,  or  upright  red-berried 
honeysuckle,  rises  with  a  shrubby,  short,  up- 
right stem,  four  or  five  feet  high. 

'2.  The  ca?ru!ea,  or  blue-berried  lioir-y- 
suckle,  with  a  shrubby  upright  stem,  tluee 
or  four  feet  high,  and  many  white  ilowers 
proceeding  from  the  sides  of  the  branches. 

3.  The  nigra,  or  black-berried  upright 
honeysuckle,  witii  a  shrubby  stem  three  o;- 
four  feet  high,  and  white  ilowers  succeeded 
by  siiigle  and  distinct  black  b'rries. 

4.  '1  he  tarlarica,  or  Tartarian  honeysuckle, 
with  a  shrubby  upright  stem,  three  or  four 
feet  high,  heart-shaped  opposite  leaves,  and 
whitish  erect  flowers  succeeded  by  red  ber- 
ries, sometimes  distinct,  and  sometimes 
double. 

5.  The  diervilla,  or  yellow-flowered  Arca- 
cadian  honevsuekle,  wilh  slirubby  upright 
stalks,  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet, 
and  clusters  of  pale  yellow  flowers,  ap- 
pearing in  Mav  and  June,  and  sometimes 
continuing  till  autumn,  but  rarely  ripening 
seeds  here. 

(5.  The  xylosteum,  or  fly  honeysuckle, 
with  a  strong  shrubby  stem,  brandling  erect 
to  the  height  of  seven  or  eight  feel,  and  erect 
white  flowers  proceeding  irom  the  sides  of 
the  branches. 

7.  The  symphoricarpos,  or  shrubby  St. 
Peter's-wort,  with  a  shrubby  rough  stem, 
four  or  five  feet  fiigh,  and  small  greenish 
flowers. 

8.  The  periclymenum,  or  common  climb- 
ing honeysuckle,  has  two  principal  varieties, 
viz.  the  English  wild  honeysuckle,  or  wood- 
bine of  our  woods  and  hi-dge~,  and  the  Dutch 
or  (jerman  honeysuckle,  wilh  a  shrubby  de- 
cimated stalk,  ai;d  long  trailing  purplish 
branches,  furnishing  large  beautiful  red  Ilow- 
ers of  a  fragrant  odour,  appearing  in  Juile 
and  Julv. 

y.  'I'he  caprifolium,  or  Italian  honeysuckle, 
wrtii  shrubby  declinaled  stalks,  sending  out 
long  slender  trailing  branrlies,  terminated  by 
vorlicillate  or  whorhcl  hunches  of  close-sit- 
ting flowers,  very  fragrant,  and  white,  red, 
aiid'yellow  colours. 

10.  The  sempervirens,  or  evergreen  trum- 
pet-llowered  houevsuckle,  with  a  shrubby 
declinaled  stalk,  sending  out  long  slender 
I  ailing  branches,  termin.ted  by  naked  ver- 
tiiillate  spikes,  of  long,  unrellexed,  deep- 
scarlet  flower.s,  very  beautiful,  but  of  little 
fragrance. 

LOOF,  in  tiie  sea  language,  is  a  term  used 


LOO 

hi  various  senses;  thus  the  loof  of  a  ship  is 
that  part  of  her  alolt  which  lies  just  before 
tiie  cheL-t-tree;  hence  the  guns  which  lie 
there  are  culled  luof-pieces:  keep  your  lool, 
sigiiiiies,  keep  the  ship  near  to  the  wind:  to 
loof  into  a  harbour,  is  to  sail  into  it  close  by 
tlie  wind:  loof  up,  is  to  keep  nearer  liie 
wind:  to  spring  the  loof  is  when  a  ship  that 
was  going  large  before  the  wind,  is  brought 
close  by  the  wind. 

LooF-TACKLE,  is  a  tackle  in  a  ship  which 
serves  to  lift  goods  of  small  weight  in  or  out 
of  lier. 

EOOKING-GLASSES.     See  Optics. 

LOOM,  the  weaver's  frame,  a  machine 
whereby  several  rKstinct  threads  are  woven 
into  one  piece.  Looms  are  of  various  struc- 
tures, accommoduted  to  the  various  kinds  of 
materials  to  be  woven,  and  the  various  man- 
ner of  weaving  them,  viz.  for  woollens,  biiks, 
linens,  cottons,  cloths  of  gold,  and  other 
woiks,  as  tajiestry,  riband.s,  stockings,  &:c. 
See  Weaving. 

The  weaver's  loom-engine, otherwise  called 
the  Dutch  loom-engine,  was  brought  into  Uae 
from  Holl.'.nd  to  LoikIuh,  in  or  about  the 
year  1676. 

The  lower  compartment  of  Plate  Lock  and 
Loom,  represents  a  loom  for  weaving  silks  or 
other  plain  work.  A,  (ig.  6,  is  a  roll  called  the 
cloth-beam,  on  which  tlie  cloth  is  wound  as  it 
is  v.ove;  at  one  end  it  has  a  racket-wheel  a, 
and  a  click  to  prevent  its  running  back ;  at 
the  same  end  it  has  also  four  iioles  in  it,  and 
is  turned  by  putting  a  stick  in  these  holes:  at 
the  oilier  v.nd  of  tlie  loom  is  another  roll  H, 
on  which  the  yarn  is  wound;  this  has  two 
small  cords  bh  wr.ipped  round  il,  the  ends  of 
which  are  attached  to  a  bar  d,  which  lias  a 
w  eight  D  hung  to  it ;  by  this  means  a  fric- 
tion is  caused,  which  prevents  the  roll  H  turn- 
ing by  accident.  EF  are  called  Luubs;  they 
are  composed  of  two  sticks  t-f/ii,  betvvceii 
which  are  fastene<l  a  great  number  ut  threads ; 
to  the  b.ir  e  are  fastened  two  cords  g/(,  which 
pass  over  pulleys,  and  are  fastened  to  the  bar 
Il  of  tlie  lamb  F ;  the  lower  bars  of  each  lamb 
are  connected  by  cords  uith  the  treadles  G  H  ; 
the  workman  sits  on  the  seat  K,  and  places 
his  feet  upon  these  treadles;  as  they  are  con- 
nected together  by  the  cords  g)i,  wli.-n  he 
presses  down  one,  It  will  raise  the  other,  and 
lh<!  lambs  with  them;  a  great  number  of 
thread-,  according  to  the  width  of  the  cloth, 
are  wound  round  the  yarn-beam  !3,  and  are 
streli  lied  to  the  cloth-beam  A;  the  middle 
of  the  threads  which  compose  the  lanii)  EF, 
have  loops  (called  e\es)  in  them,  ihroush 
which  the  tliivads  between  the  rolls  AIJ, 
uhichare  called  the  warp,  are  piissed;  the 
lirst  thread  of  the  warp  goes  through  the 
loops  of  the  lambs  E,  the  next,  attached  to 
tlie  lamb  F,  and  so  on  altcniatelv;  by  this 
UK.ans,  when  the  weaver  presses  down  one  of 
the  treadles  wilh  his  foot,  and  raises  tiie 
o  her,  one  lamb  draws  up  every  other  thread, 
and  the  other  sinks  all  the  rest,  so  as  to  make 
an  opening  between  the  sets  of  thread:  LL 
is  a  frame  moving  on  a  centre  at  tlie  top  of 
the  Iranie  of  the  loom;  the  lower  part  of 
this  frame  is  shewn  in  /ig.  8;  LL  are  the  two 
uprights  of  the  frame,  /  is  the  bar  that  con- 
nects them,  M  is  a  frame  carr\  ing  a  great 
number  of  pieces  of  split  reed  or  sometimes  fine 
wire  at  e<]ual  distances;  between  these  tlie 
thieads  of  the  warp  are  passed  ;  the  frame  i\I 
is  supported  by  a  piece  of  wood  m  called  tlie 


LOP 

shvittle-mcp,  wliicli  is  fastened  into  tlie  front 
of  the  pieces  LL;  each  eiui  of  this  piece  1ms 
boards  nailevi  to  the  siiles,  so  as  to  f'lnn 
troughs  NO;  at  a  small  <list;'.nce  above  these 
are  (ixed  two  very  smooth  wires  no;  their 
use  is  to  guide  tlie  two  pieces  pq,  call- 
peckers  or  ihivers  ;  to  each  of  these  pi.-ces 
a  strins;  is  fa-tened,  and  tli-se  strings  are 
tied  to  a  piece  of  wood  1',  Mh;ch  the 
weaver  holds  in  his  hand,  an  1  l)y  snatcliin^ 
the  stii.k  to  either  side,  dr.uvs  the  jjeckcr  for- 
wards very  quick,  and  gives  the  shuttle,  lii;. 
7.  (uhich'is  t,)  belaid  in  the  Irongh  before 
the  pecker)  a  smart  blow,  and  ilrives  it  along 
arross  the  race  m  into  the  other  lr«)ugh, 
whe.e  it  pushes  the  pecker  along  to  the  e.id 
ol' the  wire,  readj  for  the  next  stroke  which 
throws  it  back  again,  and  soon.  I'lg.  7.  repre- 
sents tile  under  side  of  the  shuttle  on  a  larger 
scale;  its  ends'  are  poiirled  with  iron;  it  has 
a  large  mortise  througli  the  middle  of  it,  in 
which  is  placed  a  (piili  a  containing  the  yarn  ; 
b  is  a  piece  ol  gla;s,  called  the  eye  of  the 
shuttle,  vviih  a  hole  in  it,  through  which 
conies  the  end  of  the  thread;  dd  are  two 
small  wheels  to  make  it  run  easily  on  the 
race.  The  operations  are  as  follow :  the 
workman  sitting  upon  the  seat  K,  holds  the 
slick  1'  in  his  riglit  hand,  and  takes  hold  of 
one  of  the  bars  of  the  frame  LL  wilh  his  left ; 
presses  his  foot  on  one  of  the  tr<'adles  GM, 
which  by  means  of  the  lambs  Ei",  as  before 
described,  divides  the  warp;  he  then  snatches 
the  stick  P,  and  by  that  means  throws  the 
shuttle,  fig.  7,  which  unwinds  the  thread  in  it, 
and  leaves  it  lying  in  between  the  tlireads 
of  the  warp;  he  then  relieves  the  treadle  he 
before  kept  down,  and  presses  down  the 
other  ;  while  he  is  doing  this,  he  with  his  le't 
hand  draws  the  frame  LL  towards  him,  and 
then  returns  it.  'I'he  use  of  this  is  to  beat 
the  last  thread  thro\\-n  by  the  shuttle  close 
up  to  the  one  thai  was  thrown  before  it  by 
the  split  reeds  M,  lig.  8.  A»  soon  as  he  has 
brought  the  frame  LL  back  to  its  original 
position,  and  again  divided  t'le  warp  by  the 
treadle,  he  throws  the  shuttle  again:  when 
he  has  in  this  manner  fini?,hed  about  12  or  ]  4 
inches  of  cloth,  he  winds  it  up  by  turning 
the  roil  A  with  the  stick,  as  before  described. 
Some  very  expert  weavers  will  throw  the 
shuttle  and  peiforiii  the  other  operations  at 
the  rale  of  120  tunes  per  minute. 

Loom,  in  the  sea  language.  When  a  ship 
appears  big  when  seen  at  a  distance,  thev  say 
she  looms. 

Loom-gale,  a  gentle  easy  gale  of  wind, 
in  which  a  ship  can  carry  lier  topsails  atrip. 

LOOP,  in  the  iron  works,  denote^  a  part 
of  a  sow  or  block  of  cast  iron,  iiroken  or  melt- 
ed off  from  the  rest. 

LOPHIUS,  Jishing-frog,  tnad-Jish,  or  sea- 
devil,  a  genus  of  the  branchiostegioiis  order 
of  fishes,  whose  head  is  in  size  equal  to  all 
the  rest  of  the  body.  There  are  three  spe- 
cies, the  most  remarkab'e  of  which  is  the  pis- 
catoriiis,  or  common  fishing-frog,  an  inluilii- 
•tant  of  the  British,  seas.  This  singul-..r  fish 
grows  to  a  large  size,  some  being  b -tween 
four  and  five  feet  in  length;  and  Mr.  Pen- 
nant mentions  one  taken  near  Scarborough, 
whose  mouth  was  a  vard  wide.  The  risher- 
men  on  that  coast  have  a  great  regard  for 
this  fish,  from  a  supposition  that  it  is  a  great 
enemy  to  the  dog-lish ;  and  whenever  they 
take  it  with  their  lines,  set  it  at  liberty.  The 
head  ol  this  fish  is  much^laraer  than  tlie  whole 


L  O  T 

body,  is  round  at  the  circumference,  and  flat 
above;  the  mouth  of  a  prodigious  widenesi. 
The  under  jaw  is  nnicii  longer  ihiin  the  up- 
per ;  the  jaws  are  full  of  slender  sharp  teeth  ; 
in  th;>  roof  of  the  mouih  are  two  or  three  rows 
of  tiie  same.  On  each  side  the  iipjjcr  jaw- 
are  two  sharp  spines,  and  others  are  scatter.vl 
about  the  upper  part  of  the  head.  The  body 
grows  slender  near  the  tail,  the  end  of  which 
is  (juiie  even.  'I'he  colour  of  the  Ujiper  pirt 
of  this  fish  is  dusky;  the  lower  part  white; 
tlie  skin  smooth. 

LOUAN'IIIUS,  a  genus  of  the  monogv- 
nia  order,  in  tlie  liexandria  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  uiicL-r  the 
43lh  order,  aggregata-.  'I'he  ger'men  is  infe- 
rior ;  ihi-re  is  no  calyx;  the  corolla  is  sexlid 
and  revoluted;  the  ^lamina  are  at  the  tops  of 
the  petals;  the  berry  is  moiiospermous. 
There  are  IS  species,  natives  of  America. 

LOUD.    See  Peer. 

LORD'S  DAY.  All  persons  not  having 
a  reason;ible  excuse,  shall  resort  to  their  pa- 
rish church  or  chapel  (or  some  congreg.ition 
of  ru'igious  worship  allowed  by  tlu'  iuleVation 
act)  on  every  Sunday,  en  pain  of  punishment 
by  the  censures  of  the  church,  and  of  forfeit- 
ing l.«.  to  the  poor  for  every  oflence ;  to  be 
levied  by  the  churchwardens  by  distress,  bv 
warrant  of  one  justice. 

The  hundred  shall  not  be  answerable  for 
any  robbery  committed  on  the  Lord's  day. 

No  carrier  shall  travel,  or  drover  drive 
cattle,  on  the  Lord's  dav,  under  the  penalty 
of  20/.  ■  ■        ■ 

No  person  upon  the  Lord's  day  shall  serve 
or  execute  any  wrt,  process,  waiTant,  order, 
judgment,  or  decree  (except  in  cases  of  trea- 
son, felony,  or  breach  of  the  peace),  l^ut  the 
service  thereof  shall  be  void. 

LO'ITERIES  are  declared  to  be  public 
nuisances,  5  Geo.  L  c.  9. ;  but  for  the  public 
service  of  the  government,  lotteries  are  fre- 
quently e.tahlished  by  particular  statutes, 
?nd  managed  by  special  ofiicers  and  persons 
appointed. 

By  Stat.  42  Geo.  IFF.  c.  54,  lolteiy-oftice 
keepers  are  to  pay  50/.  for  every  licence  in 
London,  Edinburgh,  ;)nd  Dublin,  or  within 
20  miles  of  either,  and  10,'.  for  every  licence 
for  every  other  oliice;  and  licensed' persons 
shall  de'posit  30  tickets  with  the  receiver- 
general  of  the  stamp-duties,  or  licence  to  be 
void. 

By  Stat.  22  Geo.  II!.  c.  47,  lottery-office 
keepers  must  take  out  a  licence  ;  and  offices 
are  to  be  open  only  from  eight  in  the  morn- 
ing to  eight  in  the  eveuing,  except  the  Sa- 
turday evening  preceding  the  drawing.  The 
sale  of  chances  and  shares  of  tickets,  by  per- 
sons not  being  proprietors  thereof,  is  pro- 
hibited under  penary  of  50/. ;  and  by  42  Geo. 
III.  c.  1  li),  ail  games  or  lotteries  ca'led  itiile 
goi:i-,  are  declared  public  nuisances,  and  all 
persons  keeping  any  office  or  place  for  anv 
game  or  lottery,  not  authorized  by  law,  shall 
ioifeit  jOO/.  and  be  deemed  rogues  and  va- 
gabonds. The  proprietor  of  a  whole  ticket 
may  neverthidess  insure  it  for  its  value  only, 
witli  any  licensed  otVice  for  the  whole  time  of 
drawing  from  the  tune  of  insurance,  under  a 
bona  fide  agreement  without  a  stamp. 

LOTUS,  or  bird'.s-Jhol  tr.-Jr/l,  a  genus  of 
the  decandria  order,  in  the  diade'phia  class 
of  plants,  and  in  the  uatural  method  ranking 


L  ()  X 


sr 


under  llic  35d  order,  papilionace*.  The  le- 
gumen  is  cylindrical,  .  nd  very  erect,  the 
ala;  closing  upwards  longitudinally  ;  the  cal\.\ 
is  tubulated.  There  are  23  species,  but  oiily 
live  or^ix  arc  usually  cultivated  in  our  gar- 
dens. 

1.  The  siliquosus,  or  winged  pea.  has  trail- 
ing, slender,  branchy  stalks,  about  a  foot 
long,  Willi  trifoliate  oval  leaves,  and  from  the 
axillas  of  the  branches,  large,  papilionaceous, 
red  flowers,  one  on  each  Ibolslalk,  succeed- 
ed by  tetragonous  solitary  potis,  having  a 
membranous  wing  or  lobe,  running  lom'itu- 
(linally  at  each  comer.-  It  flowers  in  June 
and  July,  and  the  seeds  ripen  in  autumn.  2. 
The  creticus,  or  Cretan  s.lvery  loliis.  3.  The 
Jacobxus,  or  black  lotus  of  St'.  James's  island. 
4.  The  hirsutus,  or  hairy  Italian  lotus.  5. 
The  dorcynium,  white  Austrian  lotus,  or 
shrnb  trefoil  of  Montpelier.  6.  The  edulis,. 
wilh  yeilow  flowers. 

The  first  species  is  a  hardy  annual.  The 
other  species  may  be  propag'ated  either  by 
seeds  or  cutings,  but  require  to  be  kept  ilv 
pjts  in  the  greenhouse  during  the  winter 
season. 

LOl'IS,  or  Knights  op  St.  Louis,  the 
name  of  a  military  order  m  Frarxe,  in-,titutcii 
by  Louis  XIV.  in  l&ji. 

LOl'SE.     See  Pediculus. 

LOXIA,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order  of 
passeres,  the  distinguishing  character  of 
which  are:  the  bill  is  strong,  convex  above 
and  below,  and  very  thick  at  the  ba^e ;  the 
nostrils  are  small  and  round;  tiie  tongue  is  as 
if  cut  off  at  the  end  ;  t!ie  toes  are  four,  placed 
three  before  and  one  behind,  excepting  one 
species,  which  has  oniy  two  toes  before  and 
one  beliind.     The  most  remarkable  are: 

1.  The  cnrvirostra,  or  common  cro/is-bill, 
is  about  the  size  of  a  lark,  is  known  by  the- 
singularity  of  its  bill,  both  mandibles  of  wliick 
curve  opposite   ways  and  cross  each  other r 
the  general  colour  of  the  plumage  in  the  male 
is  oi  a  red-lead,  inclining  to  ro.^e-colour,  and 
more  or  less  mixed  with  brow  n ;  the  wings, 
and  tail  are  brown  ;  the  legs  bl.ick.     The  fe- 
male is  of  a  green  colour,  more  or  less  mbced 
with  brown  in  those  parts  where  the  male  ii 
red.     This  species  is  a  constant  inhabitant  of 
Sweden, Germany,  Poland,  Switze. land,  Rus- 
si;i,  and  Siberia,   wiiere  it  breeds;   but  mi- 
grates so;iietimesinvast  llocksintvjothercoun- 
tries,  as  is  nciw  and  then  the  case  hi  respect  to 
England  ;  for  though  in  some  years  a  few  are- 
met  with,  yet  in  others  it  has  been  known  to 
visit  us  by  thousands,  fixing  on  such  spots  as. 
are  planted  witli  pinej;,  for  the  sake  of  liie 
seeds,  which  are  its  n:Uural  food  :  it  is  observ- 
ed to  hold  the  coiie  in  one  claw  like  the  par- 
rot, and  to  liave  all  the  actions  of  thai  bird 
when  kept  in  a  cage.     It  is  also  found  in 
North  America  and  Greenland;  and  is  said 
to  make  its  nest   in  the  higke;t  parts  of  the 
fir-trees,,  fastening  it  to  tiie  liranch   with  the 
resinous  matter  which  exsudes  from  tlie  trees. 
2.  The  coccothraustes,  or  hawfineh,  is  in 
length  seven  inches.     This  species  is  ranked 
among  the  British  birds ;  bet  cnlv  visits  these 
kingdoms  occasionally,  and  for  the  most  part 
in  winter,  and  is  never  known  to  i.reed  here. 
It   is  more  plenty  in  France.     It  feeds  or 
berries,    kernels,    &c.  and    from  the  great 
strength  of  the  bill,  i-.  cracks  the  stones  of  the 
fruit  of  the  iiaws,.  cherries,  &c.  with  the  great- 
est ease. 


h'i 


L  O  X 


3.  Tlse  jiyrihula,  or  buUfindi,  is  so  gene- 
rally kr.owii' as  alm-st  to  supersede  cle^cr:p- 
tioh.  Tills  species  is  coniRion  in  inoit  parts 
of  the  continent  of  F,i;rope,  an;l  llirougl.Oat 

'-  .  .  ml  Siberia,  at  whicli  last  places  it  is 
or  the  table.  In  winter  it  approaches 
j;,.L  I.,  .o  and  orchards,  and  has  been  generally 
stigmatised  for  making  havock  aniujig  the 
buds  o!  trees.  Fioni  some  l.>te  observations, 
ho.vever,  it  would  api;oar,  that  -the  object  of 
these  birds  is  not  the  bud,  but  "  the  worm  in 
fi;e  bud ;"  and  that  this  species,  in  conjunc- 
tion will)  various  other  species  of  small  birds, 
:;re  the  frequent  means  of  defending  the  em- 
bryo fruits,,  and  thence  promoting  their 
growth  to  maturity,  for  the  warmth  that 
swells  the  buds,  not" only  hatches  eggs  of  un- 
numbered tribes  or"  insacts,  « liose  parent  flies, 
liv  an  unerring  instinct,  laid  them  there,  but 
brings  forward  a  numerous  race  already  in  a 
cxterp-lar  state,  that  now  issue  from  their 
concealments,  and  make  their  excursion 
along  the  budding  branches,  and  would  pro- 
bably destroy  every  hope  of  fruitage,  but  for 
tho/e  useful  instrumenu  for  its  preservatiou, 
whose  young  are  principally  fed  by  eating 
caterpillars.  'I"he  buUfmch,  in  its  wild  state, 
has  only  a  plain  note ;  but  when  tamed,  it  be- 
comes remarkably  docile,  and  may  be  taught 
any  tune  after  a  pipe,  or  to  whistle  any  notes 
in  the  best  manner ;  it  seldom  forgets  what  it 
h.;3  learned;  and  will  become  so  tame  as  to 
come  at  call,  perch  on  its  master's  shoulders, 
and  (at  command)  go  through  a  dilficuit  mu- 
sical le-ison.  They  may  be  also  taught  to 
speak,  and  some  thus  instructed  are  annually 
brought  to  London  from  Germany. 

4.  The  cardinalis,  or  cardinal  grossbeak,  is 
near  eight  inches  in  length.  The  bill-  is 
stout,  and  of  a  pale-red  colour;  the  irides  are 
hazel;  the  head  is  greatly  crested,  the  fea- 
thers rising  up  to  a  point  wh^n  erect;  round 
the  bill,  and  on  the  throat,  the  colour  is  black : 
the  rest  of  the  bird  of  a  fire-red.  The  female 
differs  from  the  male,  being  mostly  of  a  red- 
dish brown.  This  species  is  met  with  in  se- 
veral parts  of  Noilh  America,  and  has  attain- 
ed the  name  of  Virginia  nightingale,  fr.mi  the 
fineness  of  its  song,  the  note  of  which  re- 
sembles that  of  the  nightingale. 

5.  The  ori.\',  or  grenadier  grossbeak,  is 
about  the  size  of  a  house-sparrow.  Tlie  fore- 
head, sides  of  the  head,  and  chin,  are  black; 
the  breast  and  belly  the  same;  the  \Vings  are 
brown,  with  pale  edges;  and  the  rest  of  the 
body  of  a  beautiful  red  colour.  These  birds 
are  inhabitants  of  Saint  Helena  ;  they  are  also 
in  plenty  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where 
they  fre(|uent  watery  places  that  abound  with 
reeds,  and  among  which  they  are  supposed 
to  make  their  nest.  If,  as  is  supposed,  this 
is  the  same  with  Kolben's  finch,  he  saysthat 
the  nest  is  of  a  peculiar  contrivance,  made 
with  small  twigs,  interwoven  very  closely  and 
tightly  with  cotton,  and  divided  into  two 
apait.nenls  with  but  one  entranci-,  the  upper 
for  the  nr.de,  the  lower  for  the  female,  and  is 
sa  tight  as  not  to  be  penetrated  by  any  wea- 
ther. He  adds,  that  the  bird  is  scarlet  only 
insummer.being  in  the  winter  wholly  ash-co- 
loured. These  birds,  seen  among  the  green 
reeds,  are  said  to  have  a  wonderful  elf'ect : 
/or,  from  the  brightneis  of  their  colours,  they 
appear  like  so  many  scarlet  lilies.  See  Plate 
Nut.  Ili^t.  I'ls,.  233, 

6.  The  pen-ihs,  or  pensile  grossbeak,  (the 
loUdy-biid  of  Fryer)  is  about  the  size  of  the 


L  O  X 

house-fparrow :  the  bill  is  black ;  the  irides 
are  yello.w  ;  tlie  head,  throat,  and  fore-part  of 
the  neck",  the  sa:v.e;  from  the  nostrils  springs 
a  duil  ftietn  stripe,  which  p-asses  thrfiugh  the 
eve  and  ixvo.id  it,  where  it  is  broadi-r;  the 
h"ind  part  of  the  head  and  neck,  tlie  ba.k, 
1  amp,' and  wing-coverts,  are  of  the  same  co- 
lour; tlie  qtnl's'are black,  edged  with  green; 
the  belh  is  deep  grey,  ayd  the  veiit  ot  a  ni- 
fous'  red ;  the  tail  and  legs  are  black.  This 
species  is  found  at  Madagascar;  and  fabri- 
cates a  nest  of  a  curioiss  construction,  com- 
posed of  straw  and  reeds  interwoven  in  shape 
of  a  bag,  the  opening  beneath.  It  is  fastened 
above  to  a  twig  of  some  tree  ;  mostly  to  those 
growing  on  the  borders  of  streams.  On  one 
side  of  this,  within,  is  the  true  nest.  The 
bird  does  not  form  a  new  nest  ^very  year, 
but  fastens  a  new  one  to  the  end  of  the  last ; 
and, often  as  far  as  live  in  numb.er,  one  hang- 
ing from  another.  These  build  in  society, 
like  rooks,  often  five  or  six  hundred  being 
seen  yn  one  tree.  They  have  three  young 
at  each  hatcn.  See  Plate  Kat.  Hist.  lig. 
254.  ■ 

7.  The  bengalensis,  or  Bengal  gros..beak, 
is  a  trifle  bigger  than  a  house-sparrow.  The 
female  lays  three  or  four  egg";. 

S.  The  socia,  or  sociable  grossbeak,  is 
about  the  size  of  a  bullfinch;  the  general  co- 
lour of  the  body  -ahnve  is  a  rufous  brown,  the 
under  parts  yellowish.  It  iiihah'its  the  inte- 
rior country  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
where  it  was  tliscovered  by  colonel  Paterson. 
These  birds,  according  to  our  author,  live  to- 
gether in  large  societies,  and  their  mode  of 
nidificalion  is  extremely  uncommon.  They 
build  in  a  species  of  mimosa  which  grows  to 
an  uncommon  size.  In  one  described  by  col. 
Paterr-on,  there  could  be  no  less  a  number 
than  from  800  to  1000  residing  under  the 
same  roof.  He  calls  it  a  root,  becaiise  it 
perR-etly  resembles  that  of  a  tlratched  house; 
liiid  the  ridge  forms  an  angle  so  acute  and 
so  smooth,  projecting  over  the  entrance  of 
the  nest  below,  that  it  is  impossible  for  any 
reptile  to  approach  them.  The  industry  of 
these  birds  "  seems  almost  ecjual  (says  our 
author)  to  that  of  the  bee :  througliout  the 
day  they  ap|iear  to  be  busily  employed  in 
carrying  a  hue  species  of  grass,  which  is  the 
principal  material  they  employ  for  the  pur- 
|)0se  of  erecting  this  extraordinary  work,  as 
well  as  for  additions  and  repairs.  I'hough 
my  short  stay  in  the  country  was  not  suffi- 
cient to  satisfy  me  by  ocular  proofs,  that 
tliey  added  to  their  nest  as  they  annually  in- 
creased in  numbers,  still  from  the  many  trees 
which  I  have  seen  bot'ue  down  with  the 
weight,  and  others  wliich  I  have  observed 
with  their  boughs  completely  covered  over, 
it  would  appear  that  this  is  really  the  case. 
When  the  tree  which  is  the  support  of  this 
aerial  city  is  obliged  to  give  way  to  the  in- 
crease of  weight,  it  is  obvious  that  they  are 
no  longer  pj-otected,  aiul  are  under  tlic  ne- 
cessity of  rebuilding  in  other  trees.  One  of 
these  deserted  nests  I  had  the  curiosity  to 
break  down,  so  as  to  infinri  myself  of  the  in- 
ternal structure  of  it,  and  found  it  equally 
ingenious  with  that  of  the  external,  'rhere 
are  many  entrances,  each  of  w  hich  forms  a 
regular  street,  with  nests  on  both  sides,  at 
about  two  inches  distant  from  each  other. 

9.  The  tridactyla,  or  three-toed  grossbeak, 
(the  guil'so  balito  of  IJul'fon)  has  only  three 
toes,  two  before  and  one  beliind.    'I'Uc  bill  is 


LUC 

toothed  on  the  edges ;  the  head,  throat,  and 
fore-part  of  the  neck,  are  of  a  beautiful  red  ; 
the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  back,  and  tail,  are 
bl;-.ck;  the  wing-coverts  brown,  edged  with  ■ 
white;  (juills  brown,  with  grecni  h  edges; 
and  legs  a  duil  red;  the  wings  reach  h^li-Wov 
^on  the  tail.  '1  his  species  inhabits  Abyssinia, 
whet  e  it.  frequents  woods,  and  is  a  solitary 
.qjecies. 

According  to  Linnxus  there  are  48  species 
of  the  loxia. 

.  LOZENGE,  LozAKGE,  rliomhiis,  in  geo- 
metry, a  quadrilateral  figure,  consisting  of 
four  equal  and  parallel  sides,  two  of  w  liose 
o|)posiie  angles  are  acute,  and  tlie  other  two 
obtuse  ;  the  distance  between  the  two  obtuse 
ones  being  ahvvays  equal  to  the  length  ot*  o;;e 
side :  when  the  sides  are  unequal,  this  ligure 
is- called  a  rliomboides. 

Lozenge,    in   heraldry,  a  rhombus,   or 
fit  lire  of  equal  sides,  but  unequal  angles. 

Lo-^ENGE,  in  pliarmacy,  the  same  with 
what  is  otherwise  called  troche. 

LUCANUS,  stag  dinjjer,  a  genus  of  in- 
sects of  the  .01  der  coleoptera :  "the  generic 
character  is,  anleni.a:  clavated,  with  com- 
])iessed  tip,  divided  into  lamella  on  the  iniu r 
s.de;  jaws  stretched  forwards,  cxsi-rted,  and 
toothed.  The  principal  species  is  the  lucam.s 
cervus,  commonly  knownby  the, name  of  the 
stag-beetle,  or  stag-chalfer.  It  is  the  largest 
of  all  the  European  coleopterous  inserts, 
sometimes  measuring  nearly  two  inches  and 
a  half  in  length,  from  the  tips  of  the  jaws  to 
the  end  of  the  body.  Its  general  colour  is  a 
deep  chesnut,  with  the  thorax  and  head, 
which  is  of  a  squarish  form,  of  a  blacker  cast ; 
aufl  the  jaws  are  often  of  a  brighter  or  redder 
chesnut-colour  than  the  wing-shells;  the  legs 
and  uiider-parts  are  coal-black,  and  the 
wings,  which,  except  during  flight,  are  con- 
cealed under  the  shells,  are  large,  and  of  a 
tine  pale  yellowish-brown.  This  remarkable 
insect  is  chiefly  found  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  oak-!i-e;s,  delighting  in  the  sweet  exsuda- 
tion  or  honey-dew  .so  frequently  observed  on 
the  leaves.  Its  larva,  which  perfectly  resem- 
bles that  of  the  genuine  bL-etles,  is  also  found 
in  the  hollows  of  oak-trees,  residing  in  the 
fine  vegetable  mould  usually  seen  in  such  ca- 
vities, and  feeding  on  the  softer  parts  of  the 
decayed  wood.  It  is  of  very  considerable 
size,  of  a  pale-yellowish  or  whitish-brown  co- 
lour ;  and  when  stretched  out  at  full  length, 
measures  nearly  four  inches.  "When  arrived 
at  its  full  size,  wliich,  according  to  some,  is 
hardly  sooner  than  the  fifth  or  sixth  year,  it 
forms,  by  frcxiuinlly  turning  itself,  and  moist- 
ening it  with  its  glutinous  saliva,  a  smooth 
oval  hollow  in  the  earth,  in  which  it  li.s,  and 
afterwards  remaining  perfectly  still  for  the 
space  of  near  a  month,  divests  itself  of  its 
skin,  and  commences  pupa  or  chrysalis.  It 
is  now  of  a.  shorter  form  than  before,  of  a  ra- 
ther tieeper  colour,  and  exhibits  in  a  striking 
manner  the  rudiments  of  the  large  extended 
jaws  and  broad  head  so  conspicuous  in  the 
perfect  insect:  the  legs  are  also  proportion- 
ally larger  and  longer  tlitni  in  the  larva  state. 
The  ball  of  earth  in  which  this  chrysalis  is 
contained  is  considerably  larger  than  a  hen's 
egg,  and  of  a  rough  exterior  surface,  but  per- 
fectly smooth  and  polished  within.  The" 
chrysalis  lii's  abyut  three  months  before  it 
gives  birth  to  the  complete  insect,  which  usu- 
ally emergi's  in  the  months  of  July  and  Au- 
gust.    I'he   time,  however,  of  this  insects 


} 


LOCK     and     LOO 
M''  Sliin.fburys  patent  T.cck 


J.Far^'  Jiai  ''del ' 


L  u  i\r 

growth  nu(i  .ippearaiice  in  all  ils  statM  varies 
much,  according;  to  tlie  dilil-rencf  of  srasoiis 
It  is  not  |Vf  ry  uiicoamion  in  many  parts  of 
En<^laiul. 

T  he  commonly  supposed  female  differs  so 
much  in  appearance  from  the  male,  tliat  it 
has  by  some  ai.tliors  heen  considered  as  a  dis- 
tinct species.  It  is  not  only  smaller  than  tlie 
farmer,  but  totally  destitute  of  the  long  aiul 
large  ramified  jaws,  instead  of  whicli  il  has  a 
pair  of  very  short  curved  ones,  slif;litly  den- 
ticulated on  their  iniier  side:  the  head  is  also 
of  considerably  smaller  diameter  lium  the 
tliorax.  In  point  of  colour  it  resembles  the 
former. 

The  exotic  species  of  this  genus  are  niostly 
natives  of  America,  and  one  in  particular,  fre- 
([ueBtly  found  in  Virginia,  is  so  nearly  a!lie<l 
to  the  F.nglish  stag-beetle  as  liardly  to  dufi-r, 
except  in  having  tewer  denticuUitiuns  or  divi- 
sions on  the  ja-,vs. 

A  liigh'.y  descant  sp:'cies  has  lately  been 
discovi-red  in  New  Holland.  This  differs 
from  the  rest  in  being  entirely  of  a  beautiful 
golden-greea  colour,  with  shoil,  sharp-point- 
ed, denticulated  jaws  of  a  brilliant  copper- 
colour.  The  wh.ilc  length  of  the  insect  is 
rather  more  than  an  inch.  There  are  seven 
species  of  the  lucaiius. 

LUCID  A,  in  astronomy,  an  appellation 
given  fo  Several  lixcd  stars  on  account  of 
their  superior  brightness;  as  tlie  lucida  coro- 
n«e,  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude  in  the 
northern  croJin ;  the  lucida  hydr:e,  or  cor 
hydra.-;  and  the  lucida  lyra-,  a  star  of  the  lirst 
ina;-;nifude  in  tl.at  constellation. 

I.UDWIGIA,  a  iier.ns  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  tetrandiia  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  unilcr  tlie  17th 
order,  c;ilycanthcma\  ']"iie  corolla  is  letra- 
pelalous;  ihe  calyx  quadripartite,  superior; 
the  capsule  tetragonal,  quadrilocular,  inferi- 
or, and  polyspernious.  I'liere  are  four  spe- 
vies,  annuals  of  the  West  Indies. 

LUES.  See  INIedicike, 

LU.MBAGO.  See  Medicine. 

I.UMBHICUS,  Ihe  zvonn,  in  zoology;  a 
genus  of  insects  belonging  to  the  order  of 
Vermes  intestina.  The  body  is  cylindrical, 
snnulaled,  with  an  elevated  belt  "near  the 
middle,  and  a  vent-hole  on  its  side.  There 
•are  two  species  of  this  animal :  1 .  Lumbricus 
terrestris,  tlie  earth  or  dew  worm,  Mr.  llar- 
but  observes,  differs  extremely  in  colour  and 
eNt.rmil  appearance  in  the  different  jicriods 
of  its  growth,  which  has  occasioned  people 
little  actpuiinted  with  the  variations  of  this 
kind  of  animals  to  make  four  or  live  different 
species  of  them.  The  general  colour  is  a 
dusky  red.  ^I'lu  y  live  under  gromid,  never 
(piilting  the  earth  but  after  heavy  rains,  or  at 
the  approach  of  storms.  'J"he  method  to 
force  them  out  is,  eidicr  to  water  the  ground 
with  intusions  of  bitter  jilants,  or  to  tram))le 
-on  it.  The  bare  motion  on  the  surface  of  the 
soil  drives  them  up,  in  fear  of  being  surprised 
by  their  formidable  enemy,  the  mole.  'I'he 
wiinling  progression  of  the  worm  is  f.ifilitated 
by  the  inequalities  of  its  bod\,  arnudwilh 
small,  stilf,  sharp-iiointed  bristles:  when  it 
means  to  insinuate  itself  into  the  earth,  there 
oozes  from  its  body  a  clammy  li<|Uor,  by 
means  of  which  it  slides  down.  It  never  da- 
mages the  routs  of  vegetables.  Its  food  is  a 
small  poition of  eartli,  whiih  it  has  the  faculty 
iBf  digA'<tiiig.  The  Hiperriuity  is  ejected  by 
wav  of  excrement,  under  a  VLrmicular  an- 

Vol.  U.  ^    i 


L  U  3 

perjTOce.  Eartli-worniS  are  luermaplirodilGs. 
2.  The  Hiarnius,  marine  worm,  or  lug,  (sec 
Plate  Nat.  liksl.  fig,  L'55.)  is  of  a  pale  fed  co- 
lour, and  the  body  is  composed  of  a  number 
of  annular  joints;  the  skin  is  scabrous,  and  all 
the  rings  or  joints  arc  covered  with  little 
]noniinences,  which  render  il  e.Ntremely  rough 
to  the  touch.  Il  i*  an  inhabitant  of  the  inud 
ab.iut  the  se;i-shoies,  and  serves  for  tood  to 
many  kinds  of  (ish.  The  iishe.jiiea  bail  their 
hooks  and  nets  with  it. 


L  U  T 


B9 


LUNAH  c.\usT!c.  >  See  Silver,  Cke- 

Ll'NA  c 
Df'.iinalins, 


Ll'NA  COHNIiA.       j  MISTK.Y,  andSAfiS, 


LUNAKIA,  Satin- FLOWER,  Moon- 
wort,  or  Honesty,  a  genus  of  the  silicu- 
losa  order,  in  the  tetradynamia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
luider  the  3fMh  order,  silicpios.T.  Thesilicnla 
is  entire,  ellii)lic:il,  compresicd-plane,  and 
pedicellaled;  with  the  valves  ecjual  to  the 
])artition,i)r.ralKl,  and  plane;  the  leaves  of  the 
cal_\  \  arealteriialel)  fritted  at  the  base,  'i'here 
are  three  spec  ies.  Tliis  plant  is  famous  in 
some  parts  of  the  kingdom  for  its  medicinal 
virtues,  though  it  ha-,  not  the  fortune  to  be 
received  in  llie  s!i<;ps.  The  people  in  the 
northern  countries  dry  the  whole  ])lant  in  an 
oven,  and  give  as  much  as  will  he  on  a  shilling 
for  a  dose  twice  a  day  in  hemorrhages  of  all 
kinds,  and  with  great  success.  '1  he  Welsh, 
among  whom  it  is  not  uncoiinnon.  Or.  Need- 
ham  informs  us,  make  an  ointment  of  il, 
which  they  use  externally,  and  pretend  il 
cures  dysenteries. 

LrNATIC.  See  IdioIt. 

LUNGS.   See  Anatomy,  and  Physio- 

LOGY. 

LU  I'lNUS,  lupin,  a  genus  of  the  decandria 
order,  in  thediadelphia  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  utider  the  32d 
order,  papilionacca\  The  calyx  is  bilabial- 
ed ;  there  are  five  oblong  and  live  roundish 
anthera-;  the  legumen  is  coriaceous.  There 
are  ten  species,  cinetly  hardy  herbaceous 
flowery  annuals,  rising  with  upright  stalks 
from  one  to  three  or  four  feet  high,  orna- 
mented with  digitate  or  hngered  leaves,  and 
terminated  by  long  whorled  spikes  of  papilio- 
naceous llowers,  white,  blue,  yellow,  and 
rose-coloureil.  They  are  all  easily  raised 
from  seed,  and  succeed  in  any  open  borders, 
where  tliev  make  a  line  variety. 

lATT  S,  in  astronomy,  a  southern  con- 
stellation, consisting  of  19,.  or,  according  to 
t'lanistced,  ol  'J4  stars. 

Ll'STKATIOX,  in  anticpiity,  sacrillces  or 
ceremonies  by  which  the  antients  purilied 
their  cities,  field-,  armies,  or  [R-ople,  deliled 
by  any  crime  or  hnpurity. 

LI  S  TRE,  a  term  signifying  the  gloss  or 
brightness  which  appears  on  the  external  sur- 
face of  a  mineral,  or  on  the  internal  surface 
v.\wn  newly  broken.  The  first  is  called  the 
exteriKil,  the  sccwnd  internal  lustre.  Two 
l).irticnlars  respecting  lustre  r  -quire  atli.-n- 
lion,  »i/.  llie  degree,  and  the  kind. 

].  W  illi  rcjpect  to  degree.  Dr.  Thomson 
gives  live  terms  of  coinjjarisoii,  \'\z.  l.vcry 
brilliant;  '.?.  brilliant;  3.  siib-brillimit;  4. 
glimmering,  that  is,  having  only  certain 
parts  brilliant ;  .").  dull,  or  w  iihout  lii~tre. 

'2.  With  respect  to  kind,  the  lu^tre  is  either 
metallic  or  common.  'I'lie  common  lustre  is 
subdivided  into  vitreous  or  glossy,  silky, 
waxy  or  greasy,  mother  of  pearl,  iliamoml, 
and  icnii-nietallic.  i 

M 


l.UTE,  a  stringed  instrument  formerly 
iiiutii  in  use;  anliently  containing  onlyliie 
rows  of  strings,  but  to' winch  si,\,  or  more, 
were  afterwards  added.  'Ihe  lute  consists  of 
four  parts,  viz.  the  table ;  the  body,  whicii 
has  nine  or  ten  sides;  the  neck,  'which  has  as 
many  slops  or  divisions;  and  the  head,  or 
cio^s,  in  whicli  screws  for  tuning  it  are  in- 
serted. Ill  playing  this  hislrument,  the  per- 
tdrmer  strikes  the  strimjs  with  the  lingers  of 
the  right  liand,  and  regulates  the  sounds  with 
those  of  the  left  hand.  'i"he  origin  of  this  in- 
striinient  is  not  known,  though  generally  be- 
lieved to  be  of  very  early  dale. '  Indeed,  au- 
thors aj-e  not  agreed  a\  to  the  connlry  to 
which  we  are  indebted  for  its  invention. 
Some  give  it  to  (iermany,  and  derive  its 
name  from  ll.e  German  word  latuc,  which 
signilies  the  same  thing,  while  others  ascribe 
il  to  the  Arabians,  and  trace  its  name  from 
Uie  .\rabic  alland. 

LUTES.  In  many  clicmical  operations 
tile  vessels  must  be  covered  with  aoinelhieg 
to  preserve  them,  from  the  violence  of  the 
lire,  from  being  broken  or  melted  ;  and  also 
to  close  exactly  their  joinings  to  each  other, 
in  order  to  retain  the  substances  which  they 
contain,  wlien  they  are  volatile,  and  reduced 
to  vapour. 

The  coating  used  for  retorls,  &c.  to  defend 
them  from  the  action  of  the  lire,  is  usually 
composed  of  iieaily  equal  parts  of  coarse 
sand,  and  refractory  clay.  These  matters 
ought  to  be  well  mixed'  with  water  and  a 
little  hair,  so  as  to  form  a  liquid  paste,  witli 
which  the  vessels  arc  eovered,  layer-  upon 
layer,  till  it  is  of  the  required  ibickn'ess.  The 
sand  mixed  with  the  clay  is  necessary  to  pre? 
vent  the  cracks  which  are  occasioned  by  the 
contracting  of  the  clay  during  its  drung, 
wliichil  always  does  when  ])iire.  'I'he  hair 
serves  also  to  bind  the  parts  of  the  lute,  and 
to  keep  it  ap[)lied  to  the  vessel;  for,  nutwilii- 
slanding  the  sand  wliiih  is  introduced  into  it, 
some  cracks  are  always  formed,  which  w  oulj 
occasion  pieces  of  it  to  fall  olT. 

The  lutes  with  whicli  th'<  joinings  of  ves- 
sels are  closed,  are  of  dilferent  kinds,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  intended  operations, 
and  of  the  substances  to  be  distilled  in  these 
vessels. 

When  vapours  of  watery  liijiiors,  and  such 
as  are  not  corrosive,  are  to  be  contained,  it  is 
suliicienl  to  surround  the  joining  of  the  re- 
ceiver, to  the  nose  of  the  alembic,  or  of  the 
retort,  with  slips  of  paper  or  linrn,  covered 
with  Hour  pa-te.  In  such  cases  also,  slips  of 
wet  bladder  are  very  conveniently  used. 

^\  hen  more  penetrating  and  dissolving  va- 
pours are  tw  be  contained,  a  lute  is  to  be  em- 
ployed of  quii  k-lime,  slacked  in  air,  and 
beaten  into  a  li([uid  paste  with  whites  of  eggs. 
I  his  pa^te  is  to  be  spread  upon  linen  slips, 
which  are  to  be  applied  exactly  to  the  ioining 
of  the  vessel.  This  lute  is  very  convenient, 
easily  dries,  becomes  solid,  and  sul'kienlly 
hrm. 

Lastly,  when  saline,  acid,  and  corrosive 
vapours  are  to  be  contained,  we  must  then 
have  recourse  to  the  lute  called  lat-liite. 
This  lute  is  made  by  forming  into  a  paste 
some  dried  clay  hnely  powdered,  silted 
through  a  silken  scarce,  and  moistened  with 
water  ;  and  then,  by  beating  this  pa>tew-cll  in 
a  mortar  with  boiled  linseed-oil,  thai  is,  oH 
whi<-h  has  been  reiidcr(-d  dry  by  litharge  dis- 
solved in  il,  Uiis  lule  easily  takes  and  retains 


OO 


.  I,  Y  C 


the  form  given  to  it.  It  is  smerolly  voilic! 
into  cyliiuieis  of  a  convenient  size.  1  iiese 
are  to  be  applied,  by  Hatteni.iij  them,  to  tiie 
j<,«iiingsof  tiie  vessels,  which  oiigiit  to  be  per- 
feeliy  dry ;  bj'ci^iise  the  least  moiature  ttould 
preierit  tile  hite  from  adhering.  A't'hen  Ihe 
j^iiirmgs  are  closed  with  this  fat-lute,  the 
wJiole  is  to  be  covered  wilh  slips  of  linen 
spread  with  a  lute  of  lime  and  whites  af  eggs, 
'i'hese  slips  are  to  be  fastened  with  pack- 
thread. '1  he  second  Uite  is  necessary  to  keep 
on  the  lat-liitQs  because  the  latter  remains 
^oft,  and  does  not  become  solid  enough  to 
stick  on  alone. 

Ground  linseed  made  into  a  paste  with 
water  makes  also  a  very  useful  lute  for  most 
occasions. 

LUTHER.-VNS,  the  christians  who  follow 
the  opinions  of  Murtiii   Luther,   one  of  (he 
principal  reloriners  of  the  church  in  the  six- 
teenth century.    See  Gregory's  Ciiurcli  His- 
tory, vol.  ii. 
LUX.ATION.  See  Surgery. 
L\  CHNI8,  campion,  -d  genus  of  tlie  p>n- 
tas;ynia  order,    in   the    pentan^ria    class   of 
phiiits,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  -'2d  order,    caryoplnllea-.     The 
calyx  is  nionopliyllous,  oblong,  and  smooth  ; 
there  are  five  unguiculated  petals,  with  the 
segment;;  of  tiie  limbs  almost  biHd;thecap- 
^uJe  (.luiriquelocular.     There  are  12  species, 
the  principal  are,    l.The  chalccdonica,  or 
clulcedonian  scarlet.    Of  this  there  are  varie- 
ties, wilh  single  scarlet  flowers,  with   large 
donble  scarlet  llowers  of  exceeding  be;fnty 
and  elegance,  with  pale  red  flowers,  and  with 
v/lute  ilawers.     Of  these  varieties  the  double 
scarlet  lychnis  is  superior  to  all  for  size  and 
elegance,  the  tloweis  being  large,  very  dou- 
ble, ami  collected  into  a  "very  large  bunch, 
exhibit  a  charming  appearance;  the   single 
•carlet  kind    is  also  very    pretty,    and    the 
others  effect  an   agreeable  varietv  with  tlie 
scarlet  kinds.     2.  'Jhe  dimna:  the  varieties 
are,  the  common  single  red-flowered  bacli- 
clor's  button,  double  'red,  double  white,  and 
single   whife-tlowered.      The  double   varie- 
ties   are    exceedingly  ornamental    in    their 
bloom ;  the  (lowers  large,  very  double,  and 
contimie  long  in  blow ;  the  single  red  sort 
grow.1.  wild  by  ditch-sides  and  other  moist 
places  in  many  parts  of  r.ngland  ;  from  which 
the  doubles  were  accidentally  obtained  by 
culture  ill  gardens.     3.  The  viscaria,  or  vis- 
cous   Geunan    lychnis,    commonly    called 
catch-fly.     Of  this  also  there  are   varieties 
with    single    red    (lowers,  with   double  red 
ilowers,  and  wilh  white  (lowers.     The  double 
variety  is  considerably  the  most  eligible  for 
general  culture,  and  is  propagated  in  plenty 
liy  parting  the  roots.  All  the  varieties  of  this 
species  emitting  a  glutinous    liquid    matter 
from  their  stalks,  flies   happening  to   light 
on  them  sometimes  stick  and  entangle  them- 
selves,  whence   the  plant  obtains  the  name 
catch-fly.  ^  4.  The  flos  cuculi,  cuckoo-flwwer 
lychnis.     The    flowers    having    each    petal 
dec-ply  qiiadrifid   in  a  torn   or  ragged-like 
manner,  the  p'ant  obtained  the  name  of  ra"- 
ged  robin.     'I'lierc  a;e   varieties  wilh  siiigfe 
and  double  flowers.     The  double  sort  is  a 
Jargp  (lo.ver;  it  is  an  improved  variety  of  the 
single,  which  crows  wild  in  most  of  our  moist 
ineadows,  and  is  rarely  cultivated;   but  the 
«lini')l  •,  b(Mng  very  ornameulal,  merits  cul- 
tun:  111  every  garcfen. 
LiClU.M,  a  ^eiiusof  tlie  inonogyniaor- 


L  Y  C 

der,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  pl;u;t«,  and  in 
the  iiati.ral  mtthod  ranking  under  the  'JH'.h 
order,  lurid;e.  '1  he  loroUa  istabular,  ha\Mg 
its  tlii-oat  closed  upwitiithe  b^.rd. ot  the  lila- 
ments;  the  berry  is  bilocular.  '1  here  are 
eiglit  species,  natives  of  various  coiuilnes,  and 
chieflv  shrubs. 

LVCOl'liUDON,  a  genus  of  the  natural 
order  of  fungi,  belonging  to  the  cryploga- 
mia  tla^s  of  plants.    'I  he  tuilgus  is  roundish, 
and  full  of  farinaceous  seeds.  Dr.  Withering 
reckons  '^5  species,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  most  remarkable:   1.  The  tuber,  trutljes, 
or  siibferianeous  puff-balls,   is   a   native  of 
woods  both  in  England  and  Scotland.    It  is  a 
subterraneous   fungus,   growing  generally  in 
clusters  3  or  4  inches  under  ground,  without 
any  visible  root.     The  figure  of  it  is  nearly 
spkerical,  the  size  that  of  a  potaloe;  ihe  exte- 
rior coat  at  first  while,  afterwards  bfick,  and 
studded  with  pyramidical  or  polyhedrons  tu- 
bercles ;  the  internal  substance  solid  and  cal- 
lous,   of   a   dirty-white  or   pale-brown   co- 
lour, grained  like  a  nutmeg  with  serpentine 
lines;   in  which,  according   to   Micheli,  are 
imbedded  minute  oval  capsules,  contiining 
each  from  2  to  4  round  warled  seeds.     'J  he 
truflles  of  Great  l>rit ain  seldom  exceed  3  or  4 
ounces   in   weight;   but   in   Italy,  and  some 
other  parts  of  the  conUiient,  they  are  said  to 
have  been  found  of  the  enormous  size  of  S, 
and  even   14  pounds.     They  have  a  volatile 
and  somewhat  urinous  smell,  and  are  reputed 
tobe  aplirodisiacal.     2.  1'hebovista,  or  com- 
mon |-uf(-ball,   is  frecpient  in  meadows  and 
pastures  in  the  autumn.  It  varies  exceedingly 
in  size,  figure,  superficies,  and. colour.     In 
general,  it  con.sists  of  a  sack  or  bag,  having  a 
root  at -its  base,  and  the  bag  composed  of  3 
membranes,  an  epidermis,  a  tougii  white  skin, 
and  an  interior  coat  which  adheres  closely  to 
the  central  pith.  The  pith  in  the  young  plants 
•is  of  a  yellowish  colour,  at  first  firm  and  solid, 
but  soon  changes  into  a  cellular  spongy  sub- 
stance,fullof  a  dark  dull-green  powder,  which 
disfe-hargcs  itself  through  an  aperture  at  the 
top  of  the  fungus,  which  aperi\ire  is  formed  of 
lacerated  segments,  in  some  varieties  retlex- 
ed.     The  powder  is  believed  to  be  the  seeds, 
which  through  a  microscope  appear  of  a  sphe- 
rical form,  and  to  be  annexed  to  elastic  hairs. 
LYC0PODIUM,orCLun-Moss,  a  genus 
of  the  natural  order  of  musci,  belonging  to  the 
cryptogainia  class   of  plants.     The  anlhera: 
are  bivalved  and  sessile;  there  are  no  calvp- 
tra.     There  are  29  species,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing are    the  most  remarkable:     I.   The 
clavatuni,  or  common  club-moss,  is  common 
in  dry  and  mountainous  places,  and  in  fir  fo-" 
rests.     The  stalk  is  prostrate,  In'anclied,  and 
creeping  from  a  foot  to  two  or  three  yards 
long ;   the  radicles  woody.     The  leaves  are 
numerous,  narrow,  lanceolated,  acute,  often 
incurved  at  the  extremity,  terminated  with  a 
long  white  hair,  and  every  where  surround 
the  stalk.     '1  tie  peduncles  are  erect,  firm,  and 
naked,  (except  being  thinly  set  with  lauceo- 
let  scah^),   and  ari»e  from  the  ends  of  the 
branches.     They  are  generally  two  or  three 
inches  long,  and  terminated  with  two  cylin- 
drical yellowish  spikes,  imbricated  wilh  oval- 
acute  scales',  finely    lacerated  on  the  edges, 
ami  ending  with  a  liair.     In  the  ala  or  bosom 
of  the  scale  is  a  kidney-shaped  capsule,  which 
bursts  with  elasticity  when  ripe,  and  throws 
out  a,  light-yellow  powder,  which,  blown  into 
the  flame  of  a  candle,  flashes  williau  explosion. 


I,  Y  T 

L"j'rGFSIS,  a  genus  of  the  monogyula 
order,  in  ihe  pentandria  class  of  plai.ts,  and 
in  the  natural  mttlipd  ranging  um'.ur  liie  4l.st 
order,  asperifblia-.  The  ( oiollu  has  an  inciu- 
vated  tube.  '1  here  are  eight  species,  chiefly 
amiuaU. 

L\  COl'US,  a  genus  of  the  monogyhia 
order,  belonging  to  the  diandria  class  of 
plants,  and  in  ilic  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  42d  order,  verticillalx.  The  co- 
rolla is.  quadrifid,  with  one  of  the  segments 
emarginaled;  iha  stamina  standi.'ig  asunder, 
wilh  lour  letuse  seeds.  '1  here  are  three  spe- 
cies, of  wiiich  the  water-horehound  niiunt 
piob.sbly  be  of  iis-e  in  dyeing. 

lAGEUM,  a  genus  of  the  mOnogyiiia  or- 
der, ill  the  trianjria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the' 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  fourth  or- 
der, gramina.  The  spatha  or  sheath  is  mono- 
phyllous;  there  area  pair  of  coroUx  upon  the 
same  germen ';  the  nut  is  bilocular.  'liiere  is 
one  species,  a  grass  of  Spain. 

L\  DIAN  srONE,  in  mineralogy,  isc:  in- 
monly  intersected  by  veins  of  quartz.  Erac- 
ture  even,  and  sometimes  inclining  to  con- 
ehoidal.  Specific  gravity  2.6  nearly.  Powder 
black,  or  greyish  black.  'I'his  stone,  or  one 
similar  to  it,  was  used  by  the  aiitients  as  <i 
touchstone.  They  drew  the  metal  to  be  ex- 
amined along  the  stone,  and  judged  of  its  pu- 
rity by  the  colour  of  the  metallic  streak.  On 
this  account  it  was  called  Baiavoj,  the  trier. 
It  was  called  the  Lydiaii  stone,  as  being  found 
in  the  river  Tmolus  in  Lydia. 

LYMPH.  See  Anato.my,  and  Physio- 
logy. 

LYNX.  SeeFELis. 

LY  RE,  Lyra,  a  musical  instrument  of  the 
string  kind,  much  used  by  the  ai.tients. 

Lyre,  lijia,  in  astronomy,  a  constellation 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  number  of 
whose  st.irs,  in  Ptoloniy's  and  Tycho's  cala- 
logues,  are  only  10,  but  ^9  in  Uie  Britannic 
catalogue. 

LYUIC.     See  Poetry. 

LYSIMACHiA,  tuoststrife,  a  genus  of 
the  monogyiiia  order,  in  the  penlamlria  class 
of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  20tl!  order,  rotacea.  The  corolla 
is  rotaceous;  the  capsule  globular,  beaked, 
and  ten-valved.  Ihere  are  12  species,  but 
only  four  are  commonly  cultivated  in  gardens. 
These  are  liardy  herbaceous  perennials  an'd 
biennials,  rising  '•.\ith  erect  stalks  Ifom  IS 
inches  to  two  or  three  feet  high,  and  termi- 
nated by  spikes  and  clusters  of  monopetalous^ 
rotated,  live-parted  spreading  flowers  of 
while  and  yellow  colours.  The  nummulana, 
or  yellow  moneywort,  or  herbjevoperee,  is 
particularly  beautiful. 

'  hYTHliVhi,  purplcloosestrife,  a  genus 
of  the  monogyiiia  order,  in  the  dccandria 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  melhcd 
ranking  under  the  17th  order,  calycanliiemK. 
The  calyx  is  cleft  in  12  parts;  and  there  are 
six  petals  inserted  into  it ;  the  capsule  is  bilo- 
cular and  polyspermous.  There  are  18  spe- 
cies, of  which  the  most  remarkable  are,  1.  '1  he 
salicaria,  or  common  pur])l<:  loosestrife,  w  ilh 
oblong  leaves,  is  a  native  oi  Britain,  and  grows 
naturally  by  the  sides  of  ditches  and  rivers. 
2.  The  Jiispanum,  or  Spanish  lo.isesi  rife,  wilh 
a. hyssop  leaf,  grows  naturally  in  Spain  and 
Portugal.  The  flowers  are  larger  than  those 
of  the  common  sort,  and  make  a  fine  ap- 
pearance in  the  moutli  of  Jyly,  wheii  they 
arc  ill  beauty. 


r.i  A  c 


M  A  C 


ri 


M. 


'  T  the  t-.v.'Ktli  letter  of  our  alplv.ibef.''  As  a ' 
■^'-*-5  numeral  it  stands  for  mil]e_.  a  thousand ; 
ai  d  with  a  dash  over  it,  thus  IM,  for  a  lliou- 
s.'.i.'il  liinei  a  tlioiis  .ud,  or  1000000.  ^I'sed  as 
an  abbreviat\ireM.sigiiilies  Manliu^,  Marcus, 
M:u-t;us,  Mijcius;  and  M.Manius;  M,  B. 
iiii-dier  bona;  Mag.  Eq.  magisler  equituur, 
Mas-  Mil.  magistcr  mililum  ;  M.  M.  1'.  ma- 
nu  maiicipio  [wleitatc  ;  M.  A.  miigiitcr  ar- 
tie.m;  MS.  manuscript,  and  ^I.SS.  nr.inu- 
scri|)ts,  ill  the  [.'hiral  In  the  prescriptions  of 
j'hvsicians,  M.  stands  for  manipnlur-,,  a  hand- 
ful'; and  sometimes  for  misce,  or  mi.\tura. 

M.'VBA,  a  genus  of  the  triandria  order,  in 
the  dioecia  class  of  plants.  The  perianthiuni 
of  the  maleis  trifid;  that  of  the  female  is  as  in 
th,-  male  ;  the  fruit  is  a  plum  two-celled,  su- 
perior. There  is  one  species,  a  tree  of  the 
Friendly  islands. 

^JAI5E.V,  a  genus  of  tlie  monoecia  poly- 
andria  ^l.iss  and  order.  'I'he  calyx  is  one- 
leaved;  corolla  none.  There  are  two  species, 
called  jiipe-vood.  sJirubs  of  the  West  Indies. 

TkT.VCAIlONIC,  or  MAC.\RONr.iN,  an  ap- 
pellation given  to  a  burlesque  kind  of  poetry, 
made  vip  of  a  jumble  of  words  of  dilferent 
languages,  and  wo.ds  of  the  vulgar  tongue 
latinized. 

MACIi,  the  second  coat  or  covering  of 
the  kernel  of  the  mil  meg,  is  a  thin  and  mem- 
branaceous substance,  of  an  ol'"aginous  na- 
ture and  a  yellowish  colour:  being  met  with, 
in  llakes  of  an  inch  and  more  in  length,  which 
are  divided  into  a  multitusle  of  ramifications. 
It  is  of  an  extremely  fragraul,  aromatic,  and 
agr'^eable  tiavour,  and  of  a  pleasant,  but 
acrid  and  oleaginous  taste.  See  Mvristica. 
M.VCERAllON,  in  pharmacy,  is  an  in- 
fusion of,  or  soaking  ingredients  in,  water,  or 
any  other  iluid,  in  order  either  to  soften  them 
or  draw  out  their  virtues. 

MACniXK.  See  Mechanics. 
M.\('KRKL.  See  Scomber. 
MACUOCXE.VION,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  order  pentandria  luonogynia.  The  cor. 
is  bell-shaped;  the  capsule  two-celled,  two- 
valved;  seeds  iir.bricate.  There  are  three 
fpecies,  small  trees  of  the  West  Indies. 

.M.'VCROLOP.IU.M,  a  genus  of  the  class 
a:!d  ordt'r  triandria  monog_\nia.  The  calyx 
is  double,  pet.  five,  germ,  pedicelled  legume. 
Tliere  are  three  spLc'es,  trees  of  Guiana. 

M.YCUL.E,  in  a'-tionomy,  are  darl^  spots 
appearing  on  the  luminous  surfaces  of  the  sun 
•  and  moon,  and  even  some  of  the  planets. 
The  solar  macula;  are  dark  spots  of  an  irre- 
gular and  changeable  figure,  observed  in  the 
tace  of  the  sun.  Th<'se  were  iirsl  observed 
in  November  and  December  of  the  year 
16!0,  by  Gidileo  in  Italy,  and  Harriot  in  Eng- 
land, unknown  to,  and  indepeiulant  of,  each 
other,  soon  after  they  had  made  or  procurec-i 
telescopes. 

There  have  been  various  observations  made 
oflhe  phenomena  of  th<;  solsr  rnacula:,  and 
brpothcses    invented    for    explaining   ihcai. 


Many  of  these  macula"  appear  to  consist  of  he- 
terogeneous parts;  the  darker  and  denser 
being  called,  by  Hevelius,  nuclei,  which  are 
encompassed  as  it  were  with  atmospheres, 
somewhat  rarer  and  less  obscure ;  but  the 
(igure,  both  of  the  nuclei  and  entire  maculx, 
is  variable,  'i'liese  macula"  are  often  subjecr 
to  sudden  mutations.  In  1644  IlcTelius  ob- 
served a  small  thin  macida,  which  in  two 
days  time  grew  to  ten  times  its  bu'k,  appear- 
ing also  much  darker,  and  having  a  larger 
nucleus:  the  nucleus  began  to  (ail  sensibly 
before  (he  spot  disappeared;  and  b.^fore  it 
quite  vanished,  it  broke  into  four,  which  re- 
united again  two  davs  after.  Some  niaculx 
have  lasted  '2,  3, 10,  15, '-'0,  30,  but  seldom40 
days;  though  Kirchius  observed  one  in  IGSI, 
that  was  visible  from  -April  HCth  to  the  I7th 
of  July.  It  is  found  tliat  the  spots  move 
over  t'lie  sun's  dis:  with  a  motion  somewhat 
slacker  near  the  edge  than  in  the  middle 
parts;  that  they  contract  themselves  near  the 
imib,  and  in  the  middle  appear  larger  ;  that 
they  often  run  into  one  in  the  di^c,  though 
separ.ited  near  the  centre  ;  that  nianv  of  them 
lirst  appear  in  the  middle,  and  many  disap- 
pear lIvTC;  but  that  none  of  them  deviate 
irom  their  path  near  the  horizon;  whereas 
Hevelius,  observing  Mercury  in  the  sun  near 
the  horizon,  foimd  him  too  low,  being  depress- 
ed 27"  beneath  his  former  path. 

From  these  phenomena  are  collected  tlie 
follow  ins;  consequences: 

1.  That  since  Mi'reury's  depression  below 
his  path  arises  from  his  parallax,  the  macuI.T, , 
having  no  parallax  from   the  sun,  are  nuich 
nearer  him  than  that  planet. 

2»  That  since  they  rise  and  disappear  again 
in  the  middle  of  the  snn's  disc,  and  undergo 
various  alterations  with  regard  both  to  bulk, 
ligure,  and  density,  they  nuist  be  formed  de 
novo,  and  again  dissolved  about  the  sun;  and 
hence  some  have  inferred,  that  they  are  a 
kind  of  solar  clouds,  formed  out  of  his  exha- 
lations ;  and  if  so,  the  sun  ii.ust  have  an  at- 
mosphere. 

3.  Since  tlie  spots  appear  to  move  very 
regularly  about  the  sun,  it  is  her.cc  inferred, 
that  it  is  not  th.at  they  really  move,  but  that 
the  sun  revolves  round  his  axis,  and  the  spots 
accompany  him,  in  the  space  of  27  days,  12 
hours,  l;o  minutes. 

4.  Since  the  sun  appears  with  a  circular 
disc  in  every  situation,  his  figure,  as  to  sense, 
must  be  sjiherical. 

The  magnitude  cf  the  surface  of  a  spot  may 
be  estimated  by  the  time  of  its  transit  over  a 
hair  in  a  fixed  telescope.  Galileo  estimates 
some  spots  as  larger  than  both  Asia  and  ^\fri- 
ca  put  logetlicr ;  but  if  he  had  know  n  more 
exactly  the  sun's  parallax  and  distance,  as 
they  are  known  now ,  lie  would  have  found 
some  of  liiosc  spots  much  larger  than  the 
whole  surface  of  the  earth.  For  in  I6l2  he 
observed  a  spot  so  large  as  to  be  plainly  visib'.e 


to  the  nan.cd  eve. 


and  therefore  it  suUteudcd 
M2 


all  angle  of  about  n  niinile.  liut  flic  partli, 
seen  at  the  distai.ce  of  the  sun,  woiikl  sub- 
tend an  angle  of  only  about  t"'' ;  therefore 
the  diameter  of  the  spot  was  to  the  diameter 
of  the  earth,  as  Co  to  17,  or  3i  to  1  nearly; 
and  consequently  the  surface  of  the  spot,  if 
circular,  to  a  great  circle  (f  the  earth,  as  12-J 
to  1,  and  to  tlie  whole  surface  of  the  earth, 
as  I'ii  lo  4,  or  nearly  3  to  1.  Gassendus 
observed  a  spot  whose  breadth  was  ^V  of  the 
sun's  diameter,  and  which  therefore  subtend- 
ed an  angle  at  the  eye  of  above  a  mijiute  and 
a  hall',  and  consequently  its  surface  was  above 
seven  times  larger  than  the  surface  of  the 
whole  earth,  lie  says  he  observed  above 
40  spots  at  once,  thougli  without  sensibly  di- 
minishing the  ligf.t  of  tire  sun. 

In  the  year  1779  there  was  a  spot  on  the 
sun  which  was  large  enough  to  be  seen  by  the 
naked  eve.     It  was  divided  into  two  parts, 
and  must  have  been  50,000  miles  in  diameter. 
Various  ojjinions  have  been  formed  con- 
cerning the  nature,  origin,  and  situation  of 
the  solar  spots ;  but  the  most  probable  siems 
to  be  that  of  Dr.  Wilson,  professor  of  prac- 
tical astronomy  in  the  university  of  (Glasgow. 
By  attending   particularly    to   the   different 
phases'  pr(;senteil   by  the   umbra,  or  shacly 
zone,  of  a  spot  of  an  extraordinary  size  that 
appeared  on  the  sun,  in  the  montJi  of  No- 
vember 1769,  during  its  progress  over  the 
solar  disc.   Dr.  Wilson   was  led   to  form  a 
new  and   singular  conjecture  on  the  nature 
of  these  app.eaiances;  which  he  afterwards 
g.tatly  strengthened  by   repeated   observa- 
tions.    The  results  of  these  observations  are, 
that  the  solar  macula-  are  cavities  in  the  body 
ofthe  sun;  that  the  nucleus,.as  the  middle  or 
dark  part  has  ll^u;:l!y  been  called,  is  tiie  bot- 
tom of  the  excavations;  and  that  the  umbra, 
or  shady  zone  surrounding  it,  is  the  shelving 
sides  of  tin:   cavity.     Dr.   AVilson,    besides 
having  satisfactorily  ascertained  the  reality  of 
these  immen-e  excavations  in  thebody  of  the 
sun,  has  aUo  pointed  cut  a  method  of  mea- 
suring the  depth  of  them.     lie  estimates,  in 
particular,  that  the  nucleus  or  bottom  of  the 
large  spot  above-mentioned,  was  not  less  th?n 
a  semidiameter  of  tlie  eartii,  or  about  4000 
miles  below  ihe  level  of  the  sun's  surface; 
while  its.  other  dimension^  were  of  a  ir.uch 
larger  extent.     He  observed  that  a  spot  near 
the  middle  of  the   sun's  disc  is  surrouniiej 
equally  on  all  sides  with  its  umbra  ;  but  tliat 
when,  by  its  apparent  motion  over  the  sun's 
disc,  it  "comes  near  the  western  liu.b,  that 
part   of  the  umbra  which  is  next  the  sun's 
centre  gradually   diminishes  in    breadth,  tiil 
near  the  edge  of  the  limb   it  totally  disap- 
pears;  whii-t  the  umbra  on  the  other  side  of 
it  is  little  or  nothing  altered.   AfleV  a  semi- re- 
volution of  the  sun  on  his  axi-,  if  tlie  spot  ap- 
pear aga  n,  it  will  be'on  the  oppositq  sidi-  of 
the  disc,  or  on  the  left  hand,  and  the  prrt  of 
the  umbra  which  had  before  uisi.pireauil  is 
now  plainly  to  be  seen;  while  iht  umbra  oi! 


92 


MAD 


tiie  otiicr  «i(!e  of  the  spot  seems  to  hive  va- 
nished iii  ils  turn,  bfin!^  hid  troin  the  view  by 
tlie  upper  edge  of  llij  excavation,  from  the 
oIiliqii<;  position  of  its  sloping  sides  with  re- 
spect to  the  eve.  Kiit  as  tl»e  sput  advances 
on  the  snn's  disc,  this  iniibra,  or  side  of  the 
cavity,  comes  in  sight;  at  I'lrst  appearing  nar- 
row, but  afterwards  gradually  increasing  in 
bri'adth,  as  the  spot  ni-ivus  towards  the  mid- 
dle of  the  disc.  These  appearances  per- 
fectly agree  w  ith  the  phases  ttiatare  exhibited 
bv  an  excavation  in  a  splierical  body,  re- 
volving on  its  a\is  ;  the  bottom  of  the  cavity 
being  painted  black,  and  the  sides  lightly 
shaded. 

Dr.  llerschel  supposes  that  the  spots  in 
the  SUV  are  mountains  on  its  surface,  which 
considering  the  great  attraction  exerted  by 
the  sun  upon  bodies  placed  at  its  surface,  and 
the  slow  revolution  it  has  about  its  axis,  he 
thinks  may  be  more  than  .300  miles  high. 
He  savs,  t'lat  in  August  i7yj  he  cNamnn-d 
the  sun  witli  several  powers,  from  '.O  to  iOO; 
and  it  ajjpewed  that  the  black  spots  are  the 
opaque  ground  or  body  o:  the  sun,  and  that 
the  luminous  part  is  an  atmosphere  which 
being  broken,  gives  a  glimpse  of  the  sun  it- 
self." 

MADDER.  See  Ruew. 
M.-\DN'ESS.  Sec  Medicine. 

MADREPOEA,  in  natural  history,  the 
lUimc  of  a  genus  of  submarine  substances,  the 
characters  of  which  are,  thai  thev  are  almost 
of  a  stony  hardness,  resembling  the  corals, 
and  are  usually  divided  into  branches,  and 
pervious  by  many  holes  or  cavities,  which  are 
frequently  of  a  stellar  figure. 

In  the  Linnsan  system,  this  is  a  genus  of 
lithophyla:  the  animal  that  inhabits  it  is  a 
m:-(li'.5a  ;  it  comprehends  39  species.  Ac- 
cording to  Donali,  the  madrepora  is  like  the 
coral  as  to  its  hardness,  which  is  ecjual  to  bone 
or  marble;  the  colour  is  white  when  polished; 
ft-isuriaceis  lightly  wrinkled,  and  the  wrinkles 
run  hngthwise  of  the  branches;  in  the  centre 
there  is  a  sort  of  cylinder,  which  is  often 
pierced  throiigh  its  whole  length  by  two  or 
three  holes.  From  this  cylinder  are  detached 
about  1 7  lamina-,  which  run  to  the  circum- 
ference in  straight  lines;  and  are  traiisversely 
ijiterscctt'd  by  other  lamina:,  forming  many 
irreg'dar  cavities;  the  cellu!e.-;,whicii  are  com- 
posed of  tiiesi;  lanrna;  ranged  into  a  circle, 
are  the  habitations  of  little  |)olype.s,  whicii  are 
extremely  tender  atfunals,  generally  transpa- 
rent, and  v;\riegated  with  beautiful  colours. 
M.  de  Peyssonel  observes,  that  those  writers 
who  only  considered  the  figures  of  submarine 
substances,  denominated  that  class  of  tlieui 
which  <ieemed  pierced  with  holes,  para;  and 
those  the  holes  of  which  were  large  they  call- 
ed madrepora.  He  defines  them  to  ba  all 
th;)se  marine  bodies  which  are  of  a  stonv 
sitbslancc,  without  either  bark  or  crust,  and 
which  iiavcbut  one  apparent  opening  at  each 
extremity,  furnished  with  rays  that  proce;'d 
from  the-  centre  to  the  circumference.  Me 
ob.serves  that  the  body  of  the  aninial  of  the 
madrepora,  vyhose  Ik'sh  is  so  soft  that  it  di- 
vides upon  the  gentlest  touch,  fills  the  centre  ; 
foe  head  is  placed  in  (he  middle,  and  sur- 
rounded by  several  feet  or  claws,  which  fill 
tlie  intervals  of  the  partitions  observed  in 
this  substance,  and  are  at  pleasure  brought  to 
itshead,  and  are  furuished  with  yellow  papilla'. 


M  A  G 

He  di-corfrcd  that  its  head  or  centre  was 
iilted  up  occasionally  above  the  surface,  and 
often  contracted  and  dilated  itself  like  the 
pupil  of  the  eye:  he  saw  all  its  claws  moved, 
as  well  as  its  head  or  centre.  ^Vhen  the 
animals  of  the  madrepora  are  destroyed,  its 
extremities  become  white.  In  the  madrepora, 
he  savs,  the  animal  occupies  the  extreniilv, 
and  llie  substance  is  of  a  stony  but  more  loose 
texture  than  the  coral.  'I'his  is  formed,  like 
other  substances  of  the  same  nature,  of  a 
liipior  which  the  animal  discharges:  ajid  he 
fartlier  add-,,  that  there  are  some  species  ot 
tlic  polype  of  the  madrepora  which  are  pro- 
duced singly,  and  others  in  clusters.  See 
Plate  Nat.  I'list.  ligs.  256  and  25/";  and  Zoo- 
phytes. 

.M.ADREPORITE,  a  nfineral  found  in  the 
valley  of  Russback  in  Salzburg,  and  w  hich  ob- 
tained its  nami'  from  its  resemblance  to  ma- 
drepore. Colour  in  some  parts  black,  in  others 
d.uk-grey.  I'oiMid  in  large  round  masses. 
Eractiire  even  passing  to  the  conchoidal. 
Lustre  greasv,  passijig  to  the  silky.  Brittle: 
moderately  heavy.  Streak  grey  ;  it  is  com- 
posed of  03.00  carbonat  of  lime 

0.:J0  carl)onat  of  magneiia 

7.'J,'>  carbonat  of  iron 

0.50  charcoal 

4.50  silica  in  sand. 

99.75 

NLVDRIER,  in  the  military  art,  a  long 
and  broad  plank  of  wood,  used  for  support- 
ing the  earth  in  mining  and  carrying  on  a 
sap,  and  in  making  coffers,  caponiers,  galle- 
ries, and  for  many  other  uses  at  a  siege.  Ma- 
driers  are  also  used  to  cover  the  mouths  of 
petards  alter  they  are  loaded,  and  are  fixed 
with  the  petards  to  the  gates  or  other  pLices 
designed  to  be  forced  open. 

Myl'iMACTERION,  the  fourth  month  of 
the  Athenian  year,  consisting  of  only  29  d.iys, 
and  answering  to  the  latter  part  of  September 
and  the  beginning  of  October. 

MAGAZINE,  a  pliice  in  which  stores  are 
kept,  or  arms,  aminunition,  provisions.  Sec. 
Every  fortified  to'.vn  ought  to  be  furnished 
with  a  large  magazine,  which  should  contain 
storeys  of  all  kinds,  sufficient  to  enable  the 
garrison  and  inhabitants  to  liold  out  a  long 
siege,  and  in  wliieh  smiths,  carpenters,  wheel- 
wrights, bakers,  &c.  may  be  employed  in 
milking  every  thing  belonging  to  tlie  artillery, 
as  carriages,  waggons,  &c. 

Magazine,  imiudcr,  is  that  p'ace  where 
the  powder  is  kepi  in  very  large  ijuantities. 
Autiioi's  di'fer  gre.itly  both  in  regard  to  situa- 
tion and  construction ;  but  all  agree,  that 
they  ought  to  be  arched,  and  bomb-proof. 
In  fortifications  iliev  are  frequently  placed  in 
tlie  rampart;  but  ot'late  they  have  b,-en  built 
in  different  parts  of  the  town.  The  lir.^t 
powder-magazines  we.e  made  with  Gothic 
arches;  but  i\I.  Vaubitn,  linding  th.'in  too 
weak,  constructed  them  in  asemicircular  form, 
whose  dimensions  are  tjO  fret  long  w  ithin,  -:i 
bro::d;  the  foundations  are  eight  or  nine  feet 
thick,  and  eight  fei't  high  from  t!ie  tbimda- 
tion  to  the  spring  of  the  arch ;  the  tloor  is  two 
fei't  from  the  ground,  ^vhich  keeps  it  from 
dampness. 

One  of  our  engineers  of  great  i-xperience, 
some  time  since,  had  observed,  fliat  after 
the  centres  of  seiiiicircuUir  arches  are  struck, 
they  settle  at  the  crown,  and  risi   up  at  the 


MAG 

hatmchcs,  even  with  a  straight  horizontal  ex- 
trados ;  and  still  much  more  so  in  powder- 
magazines,  wliese  outside  at  top  is  formed 
like  the  roof  of  a  house,  by  two  inclined 
planes  joining  in  an  angle  over  the  loj)  of 
the  arch,  to  give  aproper  descent  to  the  rain  ; 
which  effects  are  exactly  what  might  be  ex- 
pected agreeable  to  the  true  theory  of  arclits; 
Now,  as  this  shrinking  of  the  arches  must  bi; 
attended  with  very  ill  conseipieiu  es,  by  break- 
uig  the  texture  of  the  cement  after  it  has 
been  in  ^ome  degree  dried,  and  also  by  open- 
ing the  joints  ol  tile  voiissoirs  at  one  end, 
so  a  remedy  is  provided'  for  tiiis  inconve- 
nience, with  regard  to  bridges,  bv  thcarch  of 
equilibration  in  Dr.  Huttan's  book  on  bridge.s; 
but  as  the  ill  effect  is  much  greater  in  [jow  der- 
maga/ines,  the  same  ingenious  gentleman 
proposed  to  find  an  arch  of  equilibration  for 
them  also,  and  to  construct  it  when  the  span 
is  20  feet,  the  pitch  or  height  10  (which  are 
the  same  dimensions  as  the  semicircle),  the 
inclined  exterior  walls  at  top  forming  an 
angle  of  113  degree^,  and  the  iieight  ot  their 
aifgular  ijoint  above  the  top  of  the  arch 
ecpial  to  seven  fVet. 

AL\GI,  or  Magians,  an  antient  religiotis 
sect  in  I'ersia,  and  other  Eastern  countries, 
who  maintained,  that  there  were  two  prin- 
ciples, the  one  the  cause  of  all  good,  the 
other  the  cause  of  all  evil ;  and  abominating 
the  adoration  of  images,  worshipped  God 
only  by  fire,  which  they  looked  upon  as  the 
brightest  and  most  glorious  symbol  of  Oto- 
masdes,  or  the  good  God:  as  darkness  is  the 
truest  symbol  ot  Arimanius,  or  the  evil  God. 
This  religion  was  reformed  by  Zoroaster. 
The  sect  still  subsists  in  Persia,  under  the 
denomination  of  gaurs. 

M.\GIC  Laktern.     See  Optics. 

Magic  Square,  in  arithmetic,  a  s(iuare 
figure  made  up  of  numbers  in  arithmetical 
proportion,  so  disposed  in  jjarallel  and  cqiiiJ 
ranks,  that  the  sums  of  each  row,  taken  either 
per|)eiidicularly,.  horizontally,  or  tliagonally^ 
are  equal  :  thus. 


Natural  square, 

7 


Magic  square:. 


2 

7 

6 

f) 

5 

1 

4 

;i 

« 

to     h;ii 


been 


Magic   squares    seem 
called,  from  their  being  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  talismans. 

MAGNA  CIIAiriA,  the  great  charter 
of  the  liberties  of  England,  and  the  basis  of 
our  laws  and  privileges. 

'I'his  charter  may  b;*  said  to  iletive  its  ori- 
gin from  king  Edward  the  Confessor,  who 
granted  several  privileges  to  the  churcli  and 
state,  by  charter;  these  liberties  and  j«uvi- 
leges  were  also  granted  and  confii'med  by 
king  Henry  ].,  by  a  celebrated  gr.  at  charter 
now  lost;  l)Ut  which  was  confirii'ied  m  re- 
elected by  king  He:iry  II.  and  king  John. 
Henry  HI.,  the  suvCessor  of  this  last  prince, 
after  having  caused  twelve  men  to  make- 
enquiry  into  the  liberties  of  England  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.,  granted  a  new  charter, 
which  w;is  the  same  as  the  present  Magn.i 
Charlu  ;  this  he  several  limes  confirmed,  and 
as  often  broke;  till  in  the  thirty-seventh  year 
vTf  his  reign,  lie  went  to  Westminster-liall, 
and  there,  in  the  pn-^ence  of  the  iiobiHtv  and 
bisliops,  who  held  lighted  candles  in  their 
hands,  Ma^uaCharta  was  rc.id,  the  king  all 
I 


M  A  G 

t'lc  w'i'ile  hol.ling  his  hand  to  feis  breast,  r.nrl 
at  last  so>m!ily  s.veiriiiL;  taithf'.illy  and  iii- 
violal)ly  to  obsci've  all  tli«  tilings  tliereiii 
roiUaiiicd,  &C. ;  llieii  thr;  l);slioi)S  cxtin:;nis!i- 
in^  the  caiullos,  and  llirotvin!;;  tlicni  on  tho 
ground,  rrifd  out,  "  Tims  kn  liini  be  extin- 
(iii^uislied,  and  stink  in  lirll,  w'no  violates 
(liii  cli.ulcr."  It  is  obsorvod,  tliat  nolwitli- 
ftandinu;  tin-  soleiiinitv  of  this  coniinuatian, 
kin;^  Itrni-y,  the  vi'ry  next  year,  again  ni- 
vaded  tiie  rights  of  his  pfO|)U',  till  the  barons 
I'ntered  into  a  war  a;;ainst  hini  ;  when,  atit-r 
various  succfss,  he  a)inirni:'il  this  cliarti^r, 
and  till,'  charier  of  tli>  fort-st,  in  tlie  tiitv- 
second  year  of  his  r<'is;n.  'I'iiis  excellent 
charU-r,  so  equitable  and  benelicial  to  tl»e 
snbject,  is  tlic  most  antient  written  law  in  tli(> 
kingdom :  f)y  the  '2j  EcKv.  I.  it  is  ordained, 
that  it  s!mI1  be  taken  as  the  common  law; 
and  by  the  4?  Kdw.  III.  all  statutes  made 
against  it  are  declared  to  be  void. 

iMAON'KSl.A.  About  the  beginning  of 
the  eigliteentli  ceiitnrv,  a  Roman  canon  ex- 
posed a  white  powder  to  sale  at  Rome  as 
a-  cure  for  ail  diseases.  This  powder  hi- 
palled  magnesia  alba,  lie  kept  l!ie  manner 
of  i)repari]i;j;it  a  profound  secret ;  but  in  1707 
\'alLaitini  iii'ormed  the  public  t!iat  it  miglit 
be  obtained  by  calcining  tlie  lixivium  which 
remains  after  the  prep.iration  of  nitre  ;  and 
two  years  after,  Slevogt  discovered  that  it 
niiglit  be  precipitated  bv  potass  from  the 
motiier-!ey  of  nitre.  'J'his  |)0wder  was  gene- 
rally sujjposed  to  be  lime,  till  Frederic  Hoff- 
man observed  that  it  forinerl  very  dil'ferent 
combinations  witli other  bodies.  15nt  little  was 
known  concerning  its  nature,  and  it  was  even 
confounded  with  lime  bv  most  chemists,  till 
Dr.  Black  made  his  celebrated  e.x^jerimenis 
on  it  in  17.')  j.  Margral'f  published  a  disser- 
tation on  it  in  17.59,  and  Bergman  another  in 
1773,  in  which  he  collected  the  observations 
of  these  two  [)hilosopliers,  and  which  he  e[i- 
riched  also  with  many  additions  of  his  own. 
Bntini  of  Geneva  likewise  |)ublished  a  valu- 
able dissertation  on  it  in  1779. 

As  magnesia  has  never  yet  been  fomid 
native  in  a  state  of  purity,  it  may  be  pre- 
pared in  the  following  manner:  sulphat  of 
magnesia,  a  salt  composed  of  this  earth  and 
sulphuric  acid,  exists  in  sea-water,  and  m 
many  springs,  particularly  in  soiie  about 
Epsom;  from  which  circumstance  it  was  for- 
iTi'-lv  ca'led  I'^pso  n  salt.  This  salt  is  to  be 
tlissolvel  in  water,  and  half  its  weight  of  jiot- 
ass  ad(le:l.  The  magnesia  is  immediately 
precipitated,  because  potass  has  a  stronger 
alFinily  for  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  then  to  be 
washed  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water, 
anil  dried. 

Magnesia  thus  obtained  is  a  very  soft  white 
powder,  which  has  very  little  taste,  and  is 
totally  destitute  of  smell.  Itsspecilic  gravity 
is  about  2.3.  It  converts  delicate  vegetable 
bines  (paper  for  instance,  stained  with  the 
pet  lis  of  the  mallow)  to  green. 

It  is  not  melted  by  the  strongest  heat  v\l)ich 
it  Ikis  been  p.issible  to  apply  ;  but  M.  Darcet 
observed  that,  in  a  very  high  temperature, 
it  became  somewhat  ac;glutinated.  \\  hen 
formed  into  a  cake  witii  water,  and  then  ex- 
posed to  a  violent  heat,  the  water  is  gradually 
driven  off",  and  the  magnesia  contracts  in  its 
dimension  ;  at  the  same  time,  it  acquires  the 
propertv  of  shining  in  the  dark  when  rubbed 
\jpoa  allot  iron  plate. 

It  is  almost  iiiiokible  in  water  ;    for,  ac- 


M  A  G 

cordi:i5  to  Mr.  Kirwan,  it  requires  7P0O 
limes  its  weight  of  water  at  the  temperature 
of  do"  to  dissolve  it,  It  is  caiiabie,  iiowevcr, 
of  combining  with  water  in  a  solid  stale  ;  for 
100  parts  of  magnesia,  thrown  into  water, 
r.nd  then  dried,  are  incre.afpd  in  weight  to 
118  parts.  Even  when  combined  with  car- 
bonic acid  (for  which  it  has  a  strong  allinity) 
it  is  capable  of  absorbing  and  retaining  ij 
times  ks  own  weight  of  water  without  leltin,g 
go  a  drop;  but  on  exposure  to  the  air,  this 
water  evaporates,  though  more  slowly  than 
it  would  from  lime. 

Magnesia  has  j.ever  yet  been  obtained  in 
a  crystallized  form. 

\Vhen  e.xposed  to  the  air,  it  attracts  car- 
bonic acid  gas  and  water  ;  but  exceeding- 
ly slowly.  Bulini  left  a  quantity  of  it  for  two 
years  in  a  porcelain  cup  merely  coveri'il  with 
paper ;  its  weight  was  only  increase<l  -^^ 
part . 

Magnesia  does  ml  combine  with  oxygen; 
nor  is  it  altered  by  any  of  the  compounds 
into  which  owgen  enters.  The  only  one  of 
t'le  simple  combustibles  with  whicii  it  can 
be  united  is  sulphur.  No  perwn  has  hiiiierto 
succeeded  in  forming  a  phosphurel  of  mag- 
nesia. The  sulpliuret  of  magnesia  may  l)e 
formed  by  exposing  a  mixture  of  two  parts 
of  magnesia  and  one  part  of  sulphur,  to  a 
gentle  heat  in  a  crucible.  The  result  is  a 
yullow  powder,  slightly  agglutinated,  which 
emits  very  little  sulphureted  hydrogen  gas, 
when  thrown  into  water.  A  moderate  heat 
issufhcient  to  drive  ofl'lhe  sulphur. 

Magnesia  does  not  combine  with  azote, 
but  it  unites  with  muriatic  acid,  and  forms  a 
compound  called  muriat  of  magnesia.  It 
has  no  action  upon  the  metals  :  nor  does  it 
combine,  as  far  as  is  known  at  present,  with 
the  metallic  oxides,  unless  some  intermediate 
substance  is  present.  It  does  not  co  iibine 
with  the  fixed  alkalies,  neither  are  its  proper- 
ties altered  by  these  bodies;  but  it  has  a 
strong  propensity  to  enter  into  triple  com- 
pouiuls  with  ammonia. 

There  seems  to  be  little  affinity  between 
niagHesta  and  barytes;  at  least  no  mixture 
of  tiie  two  earths  is  fusible  in  the  strongest 
heat  which  it  has  been  possible  to  apply. 

Mr.  Kirwan  h-s  shown  that  there  is  but 
little  afiiuitv  between  strontian  and  magnesia. 
Tliey  do  not  mett  when  exposed  to  a  strong 
heat,  at  le.ast  when  the  strontian  exceeds 
or  etjuals  the  magnesia. 

Equal  parts  of  lime  and  magnesia,  mixed 
together,  and  exposed  by  Lavoisier  to  a 
very  violent  heat,  diil  not  melt;  nvither  did 
they  melt  when  Mr.  Kirwan  placed  theiu  in 
the  temperature  of  150"  Wedgewood. 

The  aflinities  of  magnei,ia,  according  to 
Bergman,  are  as  follows: 

Oxalic  acid.  Tartaric, 

Phosphoric,  Citric^ 

Sulphuric,  Lactid, 

Fluoric,  Benzoic, 

Ars  nic.  Acetic, 

Saclactic,  Boracic, 

Succinic,  Sulphurons, 

Nitric,  Carbonic, 

Muriatic,  Pruosic. 

Magnesia  is  used  in  medicine,  to  remove 
acidities. 

MAGNETISM.  The  natural  magnet,  or 
loadstone,  is  a  hard  mineral  body  of  a  dark 
blown,   or   almost  black  colour,  and  when 


M  A   G 


93 


cxaniiritd,  is  found  to  be  an  ore  of  iron, 
it  is  i;iet  witil  in  various  countries,  generally 
iu  iron  mines,  and  ot  all  sizes  and  forms. 

'I'his  singular  substance  was  known  to  the 
antients  ;  and  they  had  remarked  its  peculiar- 
property  of  attracting  iron,  though  it  does 
not  appear  that  they  were  acquainted  with 
tiie  wondeniil property  whicli  it  also  has,  of 
turning  to  the  jiide  when  suspended,  and  left 
at  liberty  to  move  iieely. 

l"l)on  this  remarkable  circumstance  tlie 
marinei-'s  compass  depends,  an  instrument 
which  gives  us  s.uch  inlinite  advantages  over- 
the  aiitie.it.s.  It  is  thi,  which  enables  the 
mariners  to  onduct  their  vessels  througli 
vast  oceans  out  of  the  sight  of  land,  in  any 
given  direction;  and  this  directive  propeily 
also  guides  the  miners  in  their  siibterran."an 
excavations,  and  the  traveller  through  de- 
serts otherwise  impassable. 

It  is  not  precisely  known  when  and  bv 
whom  this  directive  property  of  the  uiagnet 
was  discovered.  '1  lie  most  probable  ac- 
counts seem  to  prove,  that  it  was  known 
early  in  the  lith  century;  and  that  tiie  per- 
son who  first  made  mariner's  compas»<!s,  at 
least  in  Europe,  was  a  Neapolitan  of  Iho 
name  of  Flavio,  or  John  de  G  .oga,  or  Giova, 
or  (jira. 

The  natural  loadstone  has  also  the  qiia- 
litv  of  communicating  its  pn^ierties  to  iron 
and  steel ;  and  when  pieces  of  steel  properly 
prepared  are  touched,  as  it  is  called,  by  the 
loadstone,  they  are  deni<miiialed  artiiicial 
magnets. 

'riiese  artificial  magnels  are  even  capable 
of  being  made  more  powciiul  than  the  mir- 
tural  ones  ;  and  as  they  can  be  made  of  any 
form,  and  are  more  convenient,  they  are 
now  universally  used,  so  that  the  loadstone ■ 
or  natural  magnet  is  onlv  kept  as  a  curiosity. 

All  magnets,  whether  natural  or  arliiicial, 
are  distinguished  Irmn  other  bodies  by  t!ic 
loUowing  characteristics,  which  ajipear  to  be 
inseparable  from  their  nature;  so  that  no 
boJy  can  be  called  a  magnet,  unless  it  is 
possessed  of  all  these  propeilies  : 

1.  A  magnet  attracts  iron. 

2.  W'h.eii  a  magnet  is  placed  so  as  to  be 
at  liberty  to  move  freely  in  every  direction, 
its  ends  point  towards  the  poles  ot  the  earth, 
or  very  nearly  so  ;  aiKl  each  end  alwavs 
points  to  the  same  pole.  This  is  called  the 
po'arity  of  the  magnet ;  the  ends  of  tlie  man- 
net  are  called  poles ;  and  they  are  called 
north  and  south  poles  of  the  magnet,  accord- 
ing as  they  point  to  the  north  or  south  pole 
of  the  earth.  AVhen  a  magnet  places  itself: 
in  this  direction,  it  is  said  to  traverse. 

3.  When  the  north  pole  of  one  magnet  is 
presented  to  the  south  of  another  magnet, 
these  ends  attract  each  other ;  but  if  the 
south  pole  of  one  magnet  is  presented  to  the 
south  pole  of  anotlier,  or  the  north  pole  of. 
one  to  the  iioitli  pole  of  another,  these  ends 
will  repel  each  other. 

Fi<jiii  Uiese  cri  cria,  it  is  easy  to  determine- 
the  names  of  the  poles  of  a  magiietical  bar, 
by  applying  it  near  a  suspended  luaguet  whaso 
poles  arc  known. 

4.  AVhen  a  magnet  is  situated  so  as  to  be 
at  liberty  to  move  itself  vith  suflicieu-t  free- 
dom, its  two  poles  do  not  lie  in  a  hori/.onial 
direction,  but  it   generally   inclines   one  of. 
them  towards  the  horizoB,  and  of  course  it,v 
elevates  thi;   other  pi>le- auuve  i(.     Tljis  is- 


9* 

■called  the  inclination  or  ijipping  of  tV.c  mag- 

n-t- 

5.  Any  magnets  mav,  by  proper  metliods, 

bo  madeto  impart  those  properties  to  iron  or 

'steL'l. 

A  plane  perpendicular  to  the  liorizon,  and 
pa-sir.g  through  the  poles  of  a  magnet  when 
standing. in  tlieir  natural  direction,  is  called 
the  magnetic  meridian  ;  and  the  angle  whic'i 
t!-e  inigiT^lic;  meridian  makes  with  the  me- 
Tidian  of  the  plane  where  the  magnet  staiids 
■is  called  the  decUnatioa  of  the  magnet  at  that 
place. 

Of  m:igneHc  atlraction  and,  repulsion.— 
When  a  piece  of  iron  is  brought  witliin  a  cer- 
tain distance  of  one  of  the  poles  of  a  magnet, 
it  is  attracted  by  it;  and  if  the  iron  is,  at  li- 
berty to  move,  it  adii^res  to  tiie  magnet,  and 
cannot  be  separated  without  some  force.  It 
appeai-s  at  first  sight,  that  the  attraction  lies 
only  in  the  magnet,  but  experiment  proves 
t;i:sat!ractio,i  to  be  mutual ;  the  iron  attract- 
ing the  magnet  as  much  as  the  miignet  at- 
tracts the  iron.  Place  the  magnet  and  tlie 
iron  upon  tsvo  separate  pieces  of  cork,  or 
wood,  lioaling  up')n  water,  at  a  little  distance 
from  each  other,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the 
iron  moves  to.v.u'ds  the  magnet,  as  well  as  the 
magnet  to-.\  ar<ls  the  iron  ;  but  if  the  iroii  is 
kept  steady,  the  m  ignet  will  movetoivards  it. 

'i'iiis  attraction  is  strongest  at  the  poles  of 
3  magnet,  and  diminishes  in  proportion  to 
the  distan;c  of  any  part  from  the  poles,  so 
tlut  in  the  mid-.Ue'  between  the  poles  t.iere 
is  no  attraction.  This  may  be  easily  pe.- 
ceived  bv  presenting  a  pitce  of  iron  to  vari- 
ous parts'  of  the  surface  of  a  magnet. 

The  intensity  of  the  attractive  power  ili- 
minishes  also,  according  tj  tae  di  tance  from 
the  magnet.  If  the  magnet  and  iron  touch 
each  othar,  it  reciuires  a  certain  degree  of 
force  to  separate  them  ;  if  the  iron  is  re- 
moved a  little  way  fro.ii  the  magnet,  an  at- 
traction will  be  plainly  perceived,  but  not  so 
powerful ;  and  by  increasing  this  distance 
the  attraction  will  be  much  diminished. 

'l"he  law  of  diminution  of  this  attraction 
is  not  yet  known.  Some  have  imagined  that 
it  dimin'.shes  in  proportion  to  the  square  of 
the  distance,  others  as  the  cube  of  the  dis- 
tance. But  either  from  the  difliculty  of  the 
stibject,  or  on  account  o'f  the  experiments 
having  been  made  without  sufiicient  accu- 
racy, the  questio'n  remains  yet  undecided; 
it  is  only  known  that  the  attractive  force 
decreases  faster  tlian  the  simple  ratio  of  the 
dist^ces. 

As  magnetic  atlraction  takes  place  only 
between  poles  of  di'i'erent  names  of  dili'ereiit 
magnets  ;  that  is,  the  noith  pole  of  one  mag- 
p;?t  attracts  the  south  pole  of  another;  conse- 
quently magnetic  repulsion  acts  only  between 
poles  of  the  same  name  of  diff  rent  magnets. 
Thus,  if  the  north  pole  of  one  magnet  is  op- 
posed to  the  nortii  p  le  of  another  magnet, 
or  if  the  south  pol.;  be  opposed  to  the  south 
poll-  of  the  other,  then  those  magnets  will 
repel  escli  other,  and  tl\at  nearly  with  as 
much  force  as  the  jio'es  of  dilVerent  names 
woidd  attract  each  other. 

IjuI  it  frequently  liappe  s,  that  though  mag- 
nets are  placed  with  the  sanv  p  >le^  towards 
ea'  h  otii  T,  yet  (hey  either  attract  i-ach  other, 
or  shew  a  perfect  indifference.  .  i  his,  at  in-,t, 
seems  to  conlratlict  the  above-. nentioned 
g.,-neral  law;  but  this  Hillicnity  is  removed 
by  tne  following  considerations : 


MAGNETISM, 

I  IVhen  a  piece  of  iron  is  brought  within  a 
I  certain  distance  of  a  magnet,  it  becomes,  in 
!  fact,  itself  a  magnet,  having  tho,poiarity,  the 
attractive  and  repulsive  properties  tor  other 
iron,  S;c. ;  that  part  of  it  wiiicii  is  nearest  to 
the  south  pole  of  the  maguet,  becoming  a 
north  poll.-,  and  tire  opposite  part  a  s;)uth 
pole,  or  vice  versa,  according  to  the  end  of 
the  magnet  pre.sented.  Thus  if  AB,  l^iate 
iVlagRetisiH,  hg.  1,  be  an  oblong  piece  of 
iron,  and  be  brought  near  the  norm  ])o!e 
N  of  the  magnet  N  i,  then  tins  piece  ol  irwn 
while  standing  within  the  magiiei's  spiiere  of 
action,  wiil  have  all  the  properties  o;  a  real 
magnet,  and  its  end  A  will  be  foimd  to  be  a 
south  pole,  while  the  end  B  is  a  north  pole. 

Soil  iron,  when  placed  williin  the  imiueiice 
of  a  magnet,  easily  acquires  these  propLiliei; 
but  they  la-.t  only  while  the  iron  remains  in 
that  situation,  and  when  it  is  removed  its 
magnetism  vanishes  iinmedialeiy.  But  with 
iron  containing  carbon,  and  particularly  witli 
steel,  the  case  is  very  dili'ereiit ;  andtlic  liarder 
the  iron  or  the  steel  is,  the  more  permanent  is 
the  magnetism  which  it  acqviires  from  the 
iulluence  of  a  magnet ;  but  it  will  be  in  the 
same  proportion  more  diiiicult  to  reader  it 
magnetic. 

ll  a  piece  of  soft  iron,  and  a  piece  of  hard 
steel,  both  of  the  same  shape  and  size,  are 
brought  witliin  tire  influence  of  a  magnet  at 
the  same  distance,  it  will  be  found  liiat  the 
iron  is  attracted  more  forcibly,  ami  appears 
more  poiverfully  magnetic,  tnaii  tire  steel  ; 
but  if  the  magnet  is  removed,  the  soft  iron 
will  instantly  lose  its  acquired  properties, 
wliereas  the  hard  steel  will  preserve  the.n  fora 
lon.gtiine,  having  becomean  artificial  magnet. 

Neither  the  magnetic  attraction  nor  re- 
pulsion IS  in  the  least  dimiiiislied,  or  at  all 
aifected,  by  the  interposition  ot  any  sort  of 
bod.es,  except  i.on,  or  sucli  bodies  as  contain 
iron. 

Thepropertiesoftlie  magnet  arc  not  affect- 
ed either  by  the  presence  or  by  the  absence 
of  air.  Heat  weakens 'the  power  of  a  mag-c 
net,  and  subsequent  cooling  restores  it,  but 
not  quite  to  its  former  degree.  A  wliite 
heat  destroys  it  entirely,  or  very  nearly  so; 
and  hence  it  appears,  that  the  powers  of 
magnets  must  be  varying  continually.  Ca- 
vallo  observes,  that  iron  in  a  full  red  he;.', 
or  white  heat,  is  not  attracteil  by  the  mag- 
net ;  but  the  attraction  commewces  as  soon 
as  the  redness  begins  to  appea*. 

'I'he  attruclive  'power  of  a  nrignet  may  be 
considerably  improved  by  suspending  a 
w  eight  of  iron  to  it  by  its  power  of  attraction, 
which  may  be  gradually  increased  ;  and  also 
by  keeping  it  in  a  proper  situation,  viz.  with 
it's  north  pole  towarcis  the  north,  and  its 
south  pole,  conse(|uently,  towards  the  south. 
On  the  contrary,  this  power  is  fliminished  by 
an  improper  situation,  and  by  keeping  too 
small  a  pie.e  of  iron,  or  no  iron  at  all,  ap- 
pended to  it. 

In  these  northern  parts  of  the  world,  the 
north  poie  of  a  magnet  has  more  power  than 
its  south  pole;  whereas,  tlie  contrary  elfect 
has  been  said  to  take  place  in  the  southern 
|)arts. 

Amongst  the  natural  magnx'ts,  the  smallest 
generally  possess  a  gn-ater  ..ttraclive  power 
in  piojjortion  to  their  sizj  than  those  of  a 
larger  size. 

ft  frequently  happens,  that  a  nalural  mag- 
net, cAit  oil  from  a  larger  Wtlslone,  will  be 


able,  to  lift  a  grca'.er  weiglit  of  iron  t'.icn  the 
original  loadstone  itself. 

As  both  magnetic  poles  together  attract  i 
much  greater  weiehi  than  a  single  pole;  an. I 
■as  the  two  poles  of  a  magnet  generally  are 
inoppositt;  parts  of  its  suriace,  in  which  ca  e 
if  is  abnosl  impossible  to  adapt  the  same 
piece  of  iron  to  tiiem  both  at  the  same  time  ; 
therefore  it  has  been  commonly  practised  to 
adapt  two  broad  pieces  of  soft  iroil  to  tlje 
pores  of  the  stone,  anil  to  let  them  proje<  t 
on  one  side  of  llie  sfoiie ;  ti)r  those  pieces 
bei  ome  themselves  magnetic  while  thus  situ' 
ateci,  and  to  tiiem  the  piece  of  iron  or  weight 
may  be  easily  adapted.  Tliose  two  pieces 
of  iron  are  generally  fastened  upon  the  stone 
by  means  of  a  brass  or  silver  box.  'i'lie 
m'agnetiii  this  case  is  said  to  be  armed,  an. I 
the  two  pieces  of  iron  are  called  the  armature. 

Kig.  2.  •re))resents  an  armed  magnet, 
where  A  B  is  the  loadstone;  C  D,  C  D,  are 
the  armature,  or  the  two  pieci?s  of  soft  iron, 
to  the  projections  cf  which  D 1)  the  iron 
weigiil  K  is  to  be  applied.  The  dots  EC  1) 
C  D  represent  the  brass  box,  with  a  ring  at 
K,  by  wiiich  the  armed  magnet  may  be  sus- 
peniied. 

Arlilicial  masnets,  wlien  straight,  are 
sometimes  armed  in  the  same  manner;  hut 
they  are  frequently  made  in  the  shape  of  a 
horse-shoe,  having  their  poles  at  the  trun- 
cated extremities,  as  at  N  and  S,  lig.  3,  in 
wliich  shape  it  is  evident  that  they  want  no 
armature. 

Most  probifljly  the  magnet  attracts  iron 
only ;  but  wiien  it  is  considered  how  uni- 
versally iron  is  dispersed  tiiroughcut  nature, 
it  is  evident  tliat  a  vast  number  of  bodies 
must  on  that  account  be  attracted  by  the 
magnet  more  or  less  forcibly,  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  iiiju  they 
contain.  Indeed,  it  is  wonderful  to  observe 
what  a  small  portion  of  iron  will  render  a  body 
sui)Jecl  to  the  influence  of  the  magnet. 

'flit  pryiarit'j  nj  tlie  niagntt. — Every  mag- 
net has  a  south  and  a  north  pole,  which  are 
at  opposite  ends;  and  a  line  drawn  from  »>ne 
end  to  the  other,  passes  through  the  centre  of 
the  magnet.  Here  it  must  not  be  understood, 
that  the  polarity  of  a  magnet  resides  only 
in  two  points  of  its  surface;  for  in  realitv, 
it  is  the  one  lialf  of  the  magnet  that  is  pos- 
sessed of  one  kind  of  polarity,  and  the  otlier 
half  of  die  other  kintl  of  poarity ;  the  pole', 
then,  are  those  points  in  whicli  tiiat  power 
is  the  strongest. 

The  line  drawn  from  one  pole  to  the  other, 
is  called  the  axis  of  the  magnet  ;  and  a  line 
f.srnied  all  round  the  surface  of  the  magnet, 
by  a  plane  whicli  divides  the  axis  into  two 
equal  parts,  anil  is  perpendicular  to  it,  is 
called  the  equator  of  the  magnet. 

It  is  the  polarity  of  the  magnet  that  renders 
it  so  uselul  to  navigators.  When  a  magnet 
is  kept  suspended  freely,  so  that  it  inav  turn 
north  and  south,  thepnot,  by  looking  at  the; 
position  of  it,  can  steer  his  course  in  any  re- 
quired direction.  Thus,  if  a  vessel  is  steered 
towards  a  certain  place  which  lies  exactly 
westward  of  tliat  from  which  it  set  out,  the 
navigator  must  direct  it  so,  that  its  course 
may  be  always  at  right  tingles  with  the  di- 
rection of  the  magnet, c  needle  of  his  com- 
[lass,  keeping  the  north  end  of  the  magnet 
on  the  riglit-hand  side,  and  of  course,  the 
south  end  on  the  left-hand  s*ide  of  the  vrs- 
ticl ;  t^rasllie  needle  poaitsiurlii  and  »ouiii. 


s-nrthf"  (lirectio;)  is  onst  an  1  \v-«t,  lli"^  in- 
t<-]i(ie.l  course  of  tlie.vejsi;!  i<  exiictiy  livrpcn- 
flii;ular  to  tlie  ixxitioii  uf  l!u?  m:ii;ii.:r.  A 
Inile  velicrtion  will  sln-\v  liow  tlie  ws'Si.'l  luav 
bf  steered  in  any  otiicr  direclion. 

An  artilicial  liiagriet  lilted  iip  in  a  proper 
l)o\,  Tar  tlie  pur')!)^!,-  of  nuidiiii?  tiic  direelion 
of  a  Iraveller,  is  called  a  nia--;iietic  nee  lie, 
:iiiil  llie  whole  together  is  called  the  mariner's 
compass. 

Although  tlie  north  |irile  of  the  magnet  in 
every  part  of  tiie  world,  when  suspended, 
points  toward*  the  northern  parts,  and  the 
south  pole  towards  the  southern  parts,  yet 
its  ends  seldom  point  CNactly  towards  the 
poles  of  tiieeaith.  'i"he  anide  in  which  it 
deviates  from  ilue  no.th  and  south,  is  called 
the  aii'^le  of  decliaati;)n,  or  the  declination 
of  the  magnetic  needle,  or  the  variition  of 
the  compass  ;  and  this  declinition  is  said  to 
he  east  or  west,  acconlri^  as  the  nortli  pole 
ot'the  needle  is  eastward  or  west.vard  uf  the 
a^trono.nital  meridian  of  the  place. 

'I'his  devi;ition  from  the  m-ridian  is  mt 
the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  hut  is  dif- 
tireat  in  diilVreiit  places,  and  it  is  even  con- 
tinnallv  varying  in  the  same  pi  ce.  For  in- 
itanre,  this  declination  is  not  the  sain,'  in 
Lonilon  as  at  Paris,  or  as  in  in<lia ;  and  the 
d>-clinatio.i  in  London,  or  in  a  ly  other  place, 
is  not  the  same  at  this  time  as  it  was  some 
years  ago.  This  declination  from  the  me- 
ridian is  so  variahle,  that  it  may  be  observed 
to  chinp^e,  even  in  one  or  two  hours  time  ; 
and  this  is  not  owing  to  the  construction  of 
the  nuiijuetic  needle  ;  for  in  the  same  place, 
and  at  the  same  time,  all  true  magnetic 
nee<lles  point  the  same  way. 

The  decimation  from  the  meridian,  and 
the  variatDii  of  tnis  ui~tlilieivnt  parts  of  the 
\vorld,are  very  uncertain,  and  cannot  be  fore- 
told; actual  tr;a!  is  the  only  method  of  ascer- 
tainina;  them.  This  circumstance  forms  a  great 
impediment  to  the  improvement  of  naviga- 
tion. It  is  true,  that  great  pains  have  been 
talien  by  navigators  anti  oth  -r  observers,  to 
ascertain  the  d.-clination  in  various  parts  of 
the  world,  and  such  declinations  have  been 
injrked  in  maps,  charts,  books,  eVc.  ;  but 
still,  on  accomit  of  the  constant  change  to 
which  tliis  variation  is  liable,  these  can  only 
serve  for  a  few  years;  nor  has  ti'.e  law  of  tins 
variation  or  liuctuation  been  yet  discovered, 
though  various  hypotiieses  h  ive  been  farmed 
for  that  purpose.  When  the  variation  was 
tirst  observed,  the  north  pole  of  the  magnetic 
needle  declined  eastward  of  the  meridian  of 
London;  but  it  has  since  lliat  tin:e  been 
changing  continual  y  (owards  the  west;  so 
that  in  the  year  ni57  the  magnetic  needle 
pointed  <lue  north  and  south.  At  present,  it 
declines  about  24\'  westward,  and  it  seems 
to  be  still  advancing  towards  the  west. 

Before  volcanic  eruptions  and  earthquakes, 
the  magnetic  needle  is  o.teu  subject  to  very 
extraordinary  movements. 

It  is  also  agitated  before  and  after  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  aurora  b.jreaiis. 

Tlie  mnfynelic  iiwliimtioii,  or  dip  of  th:- 
needif. — If  a  lieedle  which  is  ;'.ccura(elv  ba- 
lanced, and  suspended  so  as  to  turn  freelv  in 
a  vertical  plane,  is  rendered  niagnetical, 
the  iivH'tli  pole  will  be  depressed,  and  the 
soutli  pole  elevated  above  the  horizon  ;  this 
prop.Mty  is  called  tiie  incHnation,  or  dip  of 
the  needle,  and  was  discovered  by  Robert 
Kornian,  about  the  year  1  j/ii. 


RrAGXETlS.'vr. 

Ta!.e  3  globular  magnet,  or,  which  is  more 
easily  iirocurcd,  an  oblong  one,  like  S  N, 
lig.  4;  the  cNtremity  N  of  which  is  the  north 
pole,  the  other  e\tie'mity  S  is  the  south  pole, 
and  A  is  its  middle  or  et[uator  ;  place  it  hori- 
zontally upon  a  table  C  D:  then  take  another 
^muU  oblong  magnet  ;i  s  (viz.  a  bit  of  steel 
wire,  or  a  small  sewing-m  edlc  magnetized) 
and  suspend  it  by  means  of  a  fine  thread  tied 
to  its  middU;,  so  as  to  remain  in  an  horizontal 
position,  when  not  disturbeil  by  the  vicinity 
of  iron,  or  other  magnet.  N'o\v*if  the  same 
small  magnet,  being  held  by  the  upper  part 
of  the  tlirca  1,  be  brought  ju-t  over  the  mid- 
dle of  the  large  magnet,  within  two  or  three 
inches  of  it,  the  former  will  turn  its  south 
|)ole  .5,  towards  the  north  pile,  N,  of  the 
large  magnet;  audits  north  pole  7),  towards 
the  south  pole,  S,  of  the  lari;e  one.  h.will 
be  farther  observed,  that  the  small  magnet, 
whilst  kept  just  over  the  middle  A  ol"  the 
large  one,  will  remain  parallel  to  it ;  ior 
since  the  poles  of  the  small  niagnrt  are 
equally  distant  from  the  contrary  poles  of  the 
large  'magnet,  they  are  equally  attracted. 
But  if  the  small  magnet  be  moved  a  little 
nearer  to  one  end  than  to  the  other  of  the 
large  magnet,  then  one  of  its  poles,  namely, 
that  which  is  nearest  to  the  contrary  pole  "of 
the  large  magnet,  will  be  inclined  down- 
wards, and  of' course  the  other  pole  will  be 
elevated  above  the  horizon.  It  is  evident 
that  this  inclination  must  increase  according 
as  t!ie  small  magnet  is  placed  ne.rer  to  one 
of  the  poles  of  the  large  one,  because  the  at- 
traction of  the  nearest  pole  will  have  more 
power  n])on  it.  If  the  small  magnet  be 
brought  just  opposite  to  one  of  the  poles  of 
the  large"  magnet,  it  will  turn  the  contrary 
pole  towards  it,  and  will  place  itself  hi  the 
same  straight  line  with  the  axis  of  the  large 
magnet. 

'Ihis  simple  experiment  will  enable  the 
re.tder  to  comprehend  easily  the  plu  iiomena 
of  the  magnetic  inclination,"or  of  tiie  dipping 
needle,  unon  the  surface  of  the  earth;  for 
it  is  only  necessary  to  imagine  that  the  earth 
is  a  large  magnet  (as  in  fjct  in  appears  to  be), 
and  that  anv  magnet,  or  magnetic  needle, 
com  nonly  used,  is  tlie  small  magnet  employ- 
ed in  the  abuve-meiitioned  experiment;  for, 
supposing  that  the  norlii  pole  of  the  e^rth  is 
possessed  of  a  soutii  magnetic  polarity,  and 
that  t!ie  opposite  pole  is  possessed  of  a  north 
magnetic  polarity,  it  appears  evident,  and  it 
is  coniirmrd  by  actual  experience,  that  when 
a  magnet,  or"  magnetic  iieedle„  properly 
shaped  amf  suspended,  is  kept  near  tiie  e(]ua- 
tor  of  the  earth  (since  neither  the  magnetic 
equator,  nor  the  magnetic  poles  of  the  t-arth, 
coincide  with  its  real  equator  and  poles),  it 
must  remain  in  a  horizontal  situ.-.tion:  if 
the  magnet  is  removed  nearer  to  one  of  the 
magnetic  poles  of  the  earth,  it  must  incline 
to  one  of  its  extremities,  namely,  that  which 
is  possessed  of  the  contrary  polarity  ;  and 
this  inclination  must  increase  in  proportion 
as  the  needle  recedes  from  the  magnetic 
equator  of  the  earth.  Lastly,  when  the  nee- 
dle is  brought  e\;»ctly  over  one  of  the  mag- 
netic poles  of  the  earth,  it  must  stand  per- 
pendicular to  the  horizon  of  that  idacc; 

A  magnetic  needle  constructed  for  the' 
purpisj  of  shewing  this  property^is  called  a 
dipping-needle,  and  its  direction  in  any  place 
is  called  the  magnetical  line.  When  it  was 
said,    that    tht  "north    pole    of    thu  ^earth 


possessed  south  polarity,  it  was  only  meant 
that  it  had  a  polarity  contrary  to  that  end  of 
the  magnetic  needle  which  is  directed  Uj- 
wards  it. 

If  tiie  geographical  poles  of  the  earth  (that 
is,  the  ends  ol  its  a.xis),  coiiu  ided  with  its 
magnetic  poles ;  or  even  if  the  magnetic 
poles  were  constantly  at  the  same  distance 
irom  them  ;  the  inclination  of  the  needle,  as 
well  as  its  declination,  would  always  be  the 
same ;  and  hence,  by  observing  the  direc- 
tion of  the  magnetic  lieetile  in  any  particular 
place,  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  that 
place  might  be  ascertained;  b.it  tiiis  is  not 
the  case,  tor  the  magnetic  poles  of  the  earth 
do  not  coincide  with  its  real  poles,  and  they 
are  also  constantly  shifting  their  situations  ; 
hence  the  magnetic  needle  changes  contiiiu- 
allv  and  irrrgiilaily,  not  only  in  its  horizontal 
direction,  but  likewise  in  us  inclination,  ac- 
cording as  it  is  removed  from  one  place  to 
aiiwther,  and  also  while  it  remains  in  the  very 
same  place. 

This  change'  of  the  dip  in  the  same 
place,  however,  is  very  small.  In  London, 
about  lo'lj,  the  north'  ])ole  of  tlie  dipping 
needle  stood  71°  .iO'  below  the  horizon  ;  and 
hi  1775,  it  stood  at  72"  3';  the  whole  change 
of  inclination,  during  so  many  years,  amomit- 
ing  to  le-s  than  a  ipiarter  of  a  degree. 

There  are  various  methods  ot  giving  the 
magnetic  property  to  steel  or  iron.  In  some 
cases,  it  appears  "to  be  acquired  without  the 
use  of  anotner  magnet. 

If  you  take  a  bar  of  iron  three  or  foi;r- 
feet  long,  ;;nd  hold  it  in  a  vertical  po- 
sition, you  will  find  that  the  bar  is  magr- 
net ic,  a'nd  will  act  upon  another  magnet; 
the  lower  extremity  of  the  bar  attracting  the 
south  pole,  and  repelling  the  north  pole. 
If  you  invert  the  bar,  the  polarity  will  be 
instantly  re\ersii;  the  extremity  which  is- 
now  lowest,  will  be  found  to  be  a  north  pole, 
and  the  other  extremity  will  be  a  soudi  pole. 

A  bar  of  hard  iron,  or  steel,   will  not  an-  ^ 
suer  for  the  above  experiment,  the  magnet—  • 
ism  of  the  earth  not  being  sufficient  to  mag- 
netise it. 

Bars  of  iron  that  have  stood  i;i  a  perpen- 
dicular position,  are  generally  found  to  be 
magnetical;  as  fire-irons,  bars  ot  windows,. 
&c. 

If  a  long  piece  of  hard  iron  is  made  red- 
hot,  and  then  left  to  co.d  in  the  direction  of 
the  magnetical  line,  it  becomes  magnetical. 

Striking  an  iron  bar  with  a  hammer,  or^ 
rubbing  it  with  a  file,   while  held  in,  this  di- 
rection, likewise  reiiders.it  magnetical.     An 
electric  shock  produces  the  sunie  etl'ect ;  and 
lightning  often  rcnderairoa  magnetic. 

A  magnet  cannot  communicate  a  degree 
of  magnetism  stronger  than  that  which  itself 
possesses  ;  but  .two  or  more  magnets,  joined 
togetaer,  may  communicate  a  greater  power 
to  a  piece  of  steel,  thaa  either  of  .them  pos- 
sesses singly:  hence  we  have  a  method  of 
con  tiiicting  very  powerful  magnets,, by,  first 
constructing  several  weak  aitiiicial  magnets, 
and  then  j.)iuing  them  togeth.er  to  form  a 
compound  magnet,  and  to  act  more  power- 
iiilly  noon  a  piece  of  steel. 

I.  Place  two  magnetic  bars.  A,  B,  fig.  5. 
in  a  line  with  the  north,  or  marked  end  of 
one,  opposed  to  the  south,  or  uiima  ked  end 
of  the  other;  but  at  such  a  dblance  irom  each 
other,  thai  the  magnet  to  be  touchetl  may 
rest  with  its  marked  end  on  the  uiunarkuii. 
•J 


9(3 

end  of  A.  ami  U-  amnartved  end  on  lliff  mark- 
ed end  of  U ;  tlien  apiily  Uie  iiovtli  end  of 
the  magnet  E,  and  the  sonth  end  of  I>,  to  the 
iniddle^of  the  barC,  the  opposite  ends  being 
clevattd  as  in  the  lignre;  draw  E  and  D 
asunder  along  the  bar  C,  one  towards  A,  tlie 
other  towards  B,  preserving  the  same  ele- 
vation ;  remove  E  and  D  a  foot  or  tvio  from 
the  bar  wiien  they  are  off  the  ei:ds,  then 
•bring  the  north  und  sotith  poles  of  tliese 
magnet- io;ellier,  and  apply  them  again  to 
the'midule  of  tlie  bar  C  a,  before  :  repeat  the 
same  process  live  or  six  tinier,  tlien  turn  the 
bar,  and  touch  the  opposite  surface  in  the 
same  manner,  and  afterwards  the  two  re- 
maining M'.rfaees :  by  this  means  the  bar  will 
acquire  a  strong  tixeci  magnetism. 

'J.  Place  the  two  bars"  which  are  to  be 
touched  parallel  to  each  other  ;  and  tlicn  unite 
the  ends  by  two  pieces  of  soft  iron,  called 
supporters,' in  order  to  preserve,  during  the 
•operation,  the  circulation  of  the  magnetic 
ji'iatter  ;  the  bars  are  to  he  placed  so  that  the 
marked  end  D  (lig.  6\  mav  be  opposite  the 
inmiarked  end  B;  then  place  the  two  al- 
"tracting  poles  G  and  I  on  the  middle  of  one 
of  the  bars  to  be  touched,  raising  the  ends,  so 
that  the  bars  may  forlnan  obtuse  angle  of  K)(> 
or  IL'O  degrees ;' the  ends  G  and  I  of  the 
bars  are  to  be  separated  two  or  three  tenths 
of  an  inch  inmi  each  other.  Keeping  the 
bars  in  this  position,  move  them  slowly  over 
the  bar  A  1$,  irom  one  end  to  tlie  other,  going 
from  end  to  end  about  fifteen  times.  Hav- 
ing done  this,  change  the  poles  of  the  bars 
(i.e.  tlie  marked  end  of  one  is  always  to  be 
■ac-ainst  the  unmarked  end  of  the  other), 
and  repeat  the  s..nu-  operation  on  the  bar 
C  J5,  and  then  on  liie  opposite  faces  of  the 
"bars.  ')"!ie  toucli  thus  communicated  may 
'be  further  increased,  by  rubbing  the  different 
■faces  of  the  bars  with  sets  of  magnetic  bars, 
tlisoosed  as  in  fig.  7. 

Jn  these  operations  all  the  pieces  should 
be  well  polisaed,  the  sides  and  ends  made 
ijuite  llat,  aiid  the  angles  ([uite  sc)nare. 

A  magnet  bent  so  that  the  two  ends  almost 
Tnee',  is  called  a  hor.-e-shoe  magnet,  lig.  3. 
To  n-nder  it  magnetic,  place  a  pair  of  mag- 
■^ilic  bars  against  the  ends  ot  the  horse-shoe, 
with  the  stailh  end  of  the  bar   against  that 
-of  the  horse-shoe  which  is  iutrndi-d  to  be 
the  north,  and  tlie  north  end  of  the  bar  to 
that  which  is  to^)e  the  south ;  the  contact, 
or  lilt,  r  of  soft  iron,  to  be  placed  at  the  other 
end  of  the  b.ws.     Abp  rub  the  surfaces  of 
Hie  horse-shoe  with  a  pair  of  bars  placed  in 
■the  fomi  of  a  comp;u>s,  or  with  another  liorse- 
iihoe  magnet,  turning  the  poles  properly  to 
the  poles  of  the  horie-shoe  magnet;  being 
careful  that  these  bars  never  touch  the  ends 
of  the  straight  bars.     If  the  bars  are  sepa- 
rated suddenly  from  the  hor.-.e->hoc  magnet, 
its   force  will   be    cousidi'rably   diminished  ; 
■to  prevent  this,  slip  on  the  litter,  or  suiiport, 
K)  the  end  of  the  horse-shoe  magnet,  liut  in 
«uch   a  manner,  liowever,  that  it  may  not 
touch  the  bars  ;  the  bars  may  then  \k  taken 
awav,  and  thesu))port  slid  to  its  p'ace. 

Majnetism  is  best  communicated  to  coiu- 
pass-neecUes  by  the  twoloilowing  methods-* 

Procure  a  pair  of  magnetic  bars,  not  less 
than  si.x  inch','-,  in  length.  Fasten  the  needlc 
tlown  ou  a  boaid,  and  with  a  magnet  in  each 
hand  draw  them  from  the  centre  upon  the 
needle  outwards;  then  raise  the  bars  to  a 
ooii.-iderablc  distance  from  tin-  nccdU:,  anil 


MAGNETlSiM. 

bring  tiicm  perpendicularly  down  upon  the 
centre,  and  draw  them  over  again.  '1  his 
operation  repeated  about  twe'Hy  times  will 
magnetize  the  needle,  and  its  ends  will  point 
to  the  poles  contrary  to  those  that  touclied 
them. 

Over  one  end  of  a  combined  horse-shoe 
magnet,  ot  at  least  two  in  number,  and  si.\ 
inciies  in  length,  draw  from  its  centre  that 
half  of  the  needle  which  is  to  have  the  con- 
trary pole  to  the  end  ol  the  magnet:  raise 
the  needle  to  a  considerable  di-tance,  and 
draw  it  over  the  magnet  again  ;  this  rein-ated 
about  twenty  times  at  least,  and  the  same  for 
the  other  half,  will  sufiieienlly  comtiiunicate 
the  power. 

A  set  of  bars  are  exceedingly  useful  for 
magnetizing  other  bars,  or  nei-Ules  of  com- 
jjasses,  Sec.  their  power  may  also  be  increas- 
ed when  lost  or  impaired  by  mismanagement, 
&c.  A  set  of  such  bars,  viz.  six  bars  and 
the  two  iron  conductors,  may  be  preserved 
in  a  box  ;  taking  care  to  place  the  north 
pole  ot  one  contiguous  to  the  soiilli  pole-  of 
llie  next,  and  that  contig'uous  to  the  north 
pole  of  the  third,  &c.  as  shewn  in  lig.  8. 

After  what  has  been  said  above,  we  need 
not  describe  how  a  kniie.  Or  any  p  ece  of 
steel,  &.C.  may  be  rendered  magnetic,  or  in 
what  manner  a  weak  magnet  may  be  render- 
ed more  powerltil.  But  it  may  periiaps  be 
necessary  to  say  something  concerning  the 
communication  of  magnetism  to  crool>ed 
bars  like  A  UC,  lig.  9. 

Place  the  crooked  bar  flat  upon  a  table, 
and  to  its  extremities  apply  the  magnetic  ba-s 
I)  F,  EG;  ioi-iiing  then-  extremities  F  G, 
w  ith  the  conductor  or  piece  of  soft  iron  F  G  ; 
then  to  its  middle  apply  the  magnetic  bais 
placed  at  an  angle:  or  you  may  Use  two  bars 
only,  placed  as  shewn  in  lig.  9,  and  stroke  the 
crooked  bar  with  them  irom  end  to  end,  fol- 
lowing the  direction  of  that  bent  bar  ;  so  that 
on  one  side  of  it  the  magiuitic  bars  may  slanel 
iiithe  direction  of  the  dotted  represeiiUition 
],K.  In  this  manner,  when  the  piece  of 
steel  A  B  C  has  been  rubbed  a  suflicieiit  num- 
ber of  times  on  one  side,  it  must  be  turned 
with  the  other  side  upward:!,  &c. 

In  communicating  magne*ism,  it  is  best  to 
u>e  weak  magnets  nrst,  and  those  that  are 
stronger  afterwards ;  but  you  must  be  very 
careful  not  to  use  weak  after  strong  magnets. 
A  magnet  loses  nothing  of  its  own  power 
by  cjimnunicatiiig  to  other  substances,  but 
is  rather  improvetl. 

Every  kind  of  violent  percussion  weakens 
the  power  of  a  mai'net.  A  stiong  jnagnet 
has  been  entirely  deprived  of  its  virtue,  by 
receuing  st  veral  smart  strokes  of  a  hammer; 
indeed,  wliatever  deranges  or  disturbs  the 
internal  p  res  of  a  magnet  wiUlnjure  its  mag- 
netic force. 

l-'iil  a  small  dry  glass  tube  with  iron  firnigs, 
pre^s  tijem  in  rather  close,  and  tiien  tuiK-li 
the  tube  as  if  it  was  a  steel  bar,  and  the  tube- 
will  attract  alight  needle;  shake  the  tube,  so 
that  the  sitnallon  of  the  tilings  may  be  dia- 
lurbed,  and  the  m,  guetic  virtue  wrh  v.;uisli. 
Magnets  should  never  be  left  with  two 
north  or  two  south  |>oles  logetlu  r  ;  lor  w hen 
tiiey  are  thus  pl.iced,  they  diminish  and  de- 
stroy eacli  other's  power.  Magnetic  bars 
should  thfcefore  be  always  left  with  the  op- 
posite |Milri>  laid  against  each  other,  or  by 
(-unnei  ting  Ijieir  opposite  jjoles  by  a  bar  of 
iron,    'I'he  power  ot  a  -magnet  is  increased 


by  letting  a  piece  of  iron  remain  attSchCil  to 
one  or  both  of  its  poles,  \  single  niaguet 
shoulii  tl:r-refore  be  always  thus  left. 

I  he  dillerence  of  ste«'l  in  ieci:ivir.g  mag- 
netism io  very  great,  as  is  easily  proved  l-y 
touching  in  the  same  manner,  and  willi  the 
>ame  bars,  two  pieces  of  steel  of  equal  size, 
but  of  different  kinds.  With  some  sorts  of 
steel,  a  few  strokes  are  sniiicicnt  to  impart 
to  them  all  tlie  power  they  are  capable  of 
receiving;  other  sorts  require  a  longer  ope- 
ration ;  sometimes  it  i-^  impossible  to  give 
th'  111  more  than  a  small  degree  of  luagnet- 
ism. 

A  piece  of  spring-tempered  steel  will  not 
retain  as  much  magnetism  as  hard  steel ;  soft 
steel  still  less,  and  iron  retains  scarcely  any. 
Iron  when  oxy dated  loses  its  magnetism. 

The  construction  and  the  use  of  the  prin- 
cipal magnetical  insLrumeiits,  &c. — The  mag- 
nelical  instrum-v-nts  may  be  reduced  to  three 
principal  lieads ;  viz.  1st.  the  magnets  Or 
magnetic  bars,  vhich  are  necessary  to  mag- 
netize needles  of  compa.-ses,  or  such  pieces 
of  steel,  iron,  Skc.  as  may  be  necessary  for 
divers  experiments ;  and  w  liich  have  al- 
ready been  suilicicntly  explained  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages  :  2dly,  the  compasses,  such  as 
are  us^-d  in  navigation,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses, which  are  only  magnetic  needles 
justly  suspended  in  boxes,  and  which,  ac- 
corihng  to  the  purposes  for  wliich  they  ara 
l-aiticularly  employed,  have  several  appen- 
d.ages,  or  differ  in  size,  and  in  accuracy  of 
divisions,  &c.  whence  tliev  derive  the  dif- 
ferent names  of  pocket  compasses,  steering 
lompasseii,  variation  compasses,  and  azimuth 
compasses:  and  3dly,  the  dipping-needle. 

The  magnetic  needles  which  are  com- 
monly used  at  sea,  are  between  four  and  six 
inches  long ;  but  those  which  are  used  for 
observing  the  daily  variation,  are  made  a 
little  longi-r,  and  their  extremities  point  the 
va.iation  upon  an  arch  or  circle  properly  di- 
vided and  aliLxed  to  the  box. 

The  best  shape  of  a  ivjagnetio  needle  is 
represented  in  tigs.  10  and  1 1  ;  the  first  of 
which  shews  the  upper  side,  and  the  second 
shews  a  kiteral  view  of  the  needle,  which  is 
ol  steel,  having  a  pretty  large  hole  in  the 
middle,  to  whitli  a  conical  piei-e  of  agate  is 
a<!;;pted  bv  means  ot  a  brass  piece  O,  into 
w  hich  the  agate-cap  (as  it  is  called)  is  fastened. 
Then  the  ajiex  of  this  hollow  cap  rests  upon 
the  point  ol  a  pin  1-',  which  is  fixed  in  the 
centre  of  the  box,  and  upon  which  the  nee- 
dle, being  properly  balanced,  turns  very 
nimblv.  For  common  |iurposes,  those  nee- 
dles have  a  conical  peiloralion  maile  in  the 
steel  itself,  or  ill  a  |)iece  ol  brass  which  I9 
fasteiie<l  in  the  middle  of  the  needle. 

A  mariiici's  compass,  or  compass  generally 
used  on  board  of  shiiis,  is  represented  in  lig. 
12.  The  box,  which  contains  the  card  or 
llv  wilii  the  neetlU-,  is  made  of  a  circular 
form,  and  either  of  wood,  or  brass,  or  cop- 
per. It  is  suspended  within  a  square  wocxlen 
box,  by  means  of  two  concentric  circles, 
called  gimbahl-^,  so  tixed  by  cross  axes  a,  ii, 
a,  a,  to  the  IW'i  boxes  (see  the  plan,  lig.  l,J), 
that  the  inner  one,  or  compass-box,  shall  re- 
tain a  horizontal  position  in  all  motions  of 
the  ship,  whilst  the  outer  or  S(|uarcr  box  is 
fixed  with  respect  to  the  ship,  'ihe  lompass 
box  is  i-overed  with  a  pane  of  glass,  in  order 
that  the  inolKiu  of  the  card  mav  not  be  dis- 
turbed by  the   wind.       What  Is  called   the 


^r  A  ri 

ravtl  (li;?-  1  i),  is  a  ciiTiilar  \>U:ce  «f  papcf, 
wliii-li  is  ruslencd  upon  the  nL-t'dli-,  aiul 
moves  with  it.  So.ncliim-s  tlierp  is  a  sIl'ikUt 
rim  of  brass,  whicti  is  taslifiicil  to  the  t-x- 
ti'oniilios  ot  the  neetlle,  ami  serves  to  keep 
the  card  slivtchctl.  'I  he  outer  edge  of  tliis 
card  is  divided  into  3fiO  ctnial  parts  or  de- 
grees-, and  within  the  circle  of  those  divisions 
it  is  again  divided  into  3'i  e  ]iial  parts,  or 
arcs,  which  are  called  the  points  of  tlie  com- 
pass, or  rluimbs,  each  of  which  is  often  sub- 
divided into  quartei-s.  The  initial  letters  N, 
N  K,  &c.  are  aiuiexed  to  those  rhniiibs,  to 
den  ite  the  north,  north-i-ast,  &<:  'I'he  niid- 
dleniost  part  of  the  card  is  senerally  painted 
with  a  sort  of  star,  whose  rays  terminate  in 
the  above-mentioned  divisions.  'I'o  avoid 
confusion  those  letters,  i;cc.  are  not  drawn  in 
tlie  ligure. 

Tlie  azimuth  comi)ass  is  nothing;  more  than 
the  abttve-menlioned  ■  ompass,  to  which  two 
sights  are  adapted,  through  which  the  sun  is 
to  be  seen,  in  onler  to  find  its  aziinuth,  and 
from  thence  to  ascertain  the  dei  linalion  of 
the  magnetic  needle  at  the  place  of  observa- 
tion ;  see  (ig.  IT).  The  particulars  in  which 
it  dillers  from  the  usual  <ompass,  are  the 
sights  I'",  G  ;  in  one  of  which,  CJ,  there  is  an 
oblong  aperture  with  a  perpendicular  thread 
or  wire  stretched  through  its  middle  ;  and 
in  the  other  sight  [•',  there  is  a  narrow  per- 
pendicular slit.  The  thread  or  wire  II  I  is 
stretched  from  one  edge  of  the  box  to  the 
opposite.  The  ring  A  15  of  the  gimbalds  rests 
with  its  pivots  on  the  semicircle  C  D,  the 
foot  E  of  which  turns  in  a  socket;  so  that 
whilst  the  box  K  L  M  is  kept  steady,  the 
compass  may  be  turned  round,  in  order  to 
place  the  sights  V,  G,  in  the  direction  of  the 
sun. 

The  pivots  of  the  gimbalds  of  this,  as  well 
as  »f  the  common  sort  of  compasses,  should 
lie  in  the  same  plane  with  the  point  of  sus- 
pension of  the  needle,  in  order  to  avoid  as 
much  as  possible  the  irregularity  of  tlie  vi- 
brations. 

There  are,  on  the  inside  of  the  box,  two 
lines  drawn  perpendicularly  along  the  sides 
of  the  box,  just  froni  the  points  where  tlie 
thread  H  I  touches  the  edge  of  the  box. 
These  lines  serve  to  shew  how  manv  degrees 
the  north  or  south  pole  of  the  needle  is  dis- 
tant from  the  azimuth  of  tlie  sun;  for  which 
purpose,  the  middle  of  the  apertures  of  the 
sights  F,  G,  the  thread  III,  and  the  said 
lines,  must  be  exactly  in  tlie  same  vi-rtical 
plane.  The  u^e  of  the  thread  II  1,  which  is 
often  omitted  m  instruments  of  tliis  sort,  is 
likewise  to  shew  the  <legrees  between  the 
magnetic  meridian  and  tlie  azimuth,  wlien 
the  eye  of  the  observer  stands  p'-rpendicu- 
Urly  over  it.  On  the  side  of  the  box  of  this 
sort  of  conipas<e-^,  there  generally  is  a  nut  or 
stop,  which,  when  pushed  in,  bears  against  the 
card  and  stops  it,  in  order  that  the  divisions 
of  the  card  wliich  coincide  with  the  lines  in 
the  box,  may  be  more  coiuniodiously  read 

oir. 

The  dipiiing-needle,  though  of  late  much 
improved,  is  however  still  far  from  perfec- 
tion. The  general  mode  of  constructing 
it  is  to  pass  an  axis  quite  through  the  nee- 
dle, to  let  the  extre.nitie^  of  tliis  axis,  like 
tliose  of  the  beam  of  a  hal'nce,  rest  upon 
its  supports,  so  th.it  the  ni^edle  may  move 
itself  veitica'ly  round,  and  when  situated  in 
the  nv-i^^netio  meridian,  it  miy    pl..c«    itsell 

Vol.  11. 


-M    A  G 

in  tlii*  mngnetic  line.  Tiic  decrees  of  ittc'i- 
nalionare  shewn  upon  a  divided  cirrle,  in 
the  centre  of  which  the  jieedle  is  suspend- 
ed. Fig.  1<3  r<!pivsenls  a  dippiii.'J-nced'e  of 
the  simplest  construction ;  .V  li  is  the  needle, 
the  axis  of  which  F  K  rests  upon  the  middle 
of  two  lateral  bars  C  I),  C'  IJ,  which  are 
made  fast  to  the  frame  that  contains  the  di- 
vided circle  A  1 1)  K.  This  niacliine  is  lixed 
on  a  sfan<lG;  but,  wlien  usi d  at  sea,  it  is 
suspended  by  a  ring  U,  so  as  to  hang  per- 
pi  ndicularlv.  When  the  iii>trument  is  fur- 
nished '-^ilh'  a  stand,  a  spirit-level  O  is  gene- 
rally annexed  to  it,  and  the  stand  has  three 
screws,  by  which  the  iTistrument  is  situated 
so  that  the  centre  of  motion  of  the  needle, 
and  the  division  of  90°  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  divided  circle,  may  be  exactly  in  the 
same  line,  perpendicular  to  the  horuon.  bee 
Li;vEi,. 

The  few  experiments  wliich  follow,  are 
principally  intended  to  illustrate  the  theory. 

Ex.  !.  The  method  of  discovering  whether 
a  body  is  attractable  by  the  magnet  or  not, 
and  whether  it  has  any  ])olarity  or  not,  or 
which  is  its  south,  and  which  its  north  pole, 
ii  so  easily  performed  as  not  to  require  many 
words  ;  for  by  approacliin.;;  a  magnet  to  the 
body  in  que>'tion  (which,  if  necessary,  may 
be  set  to  swim  upon  water),  or  by  presenting 
the  body  in  question  to  either  extremity  of 
a  suspended  magnetic  ncedJe,  the  desired 
object  may  be  obtained. 

Ex.  2.  Tie  two  pieces  of  soft  iron  wire, 
A  B,  A  1?,  tig.  17  and  18,  each  to  a  separate 
thread,  A  C,  A  C,  which  join  at  top,  and 
forming  them  into  a  loop,  suspend  Ihem  so 
as  to  hang  freely.  Then  bring  the  marked 
end  D  lig.  19,  which  is  the  irortli,  of  a  mag- 
netic bar  just  under  them,  and  the  wires  will 
immediately  repel  each  other,  as  shewn  in 
lig.  IS;  and  this  divergency  will  increase  to 
a  certain  limit,  according  as  the  magnet  is 
brought  nearer,  and  vice  versa.  1  he  rea- 
son of  this  phenomenon  i=,  that  by  the  action 
of  the  north  magnetic  pole  D,  both  the  ex- 
tremities 1!,  B,  of  the  w  ires,  acquire  the  -.ame, 
viz.  the  south  polarity  ;  consequently  thev 
repel  each  other;  and  the  extremities.  A,  A, 
acquire  the  north  polarity,  in  consequence 
of  which  thev  also  repel  each  other. 

If  instead  of  the  north  jjole  D,  you  present 
the  south  pole  of  the  magnetic  bar,  the  re- 
pulsion will  take  place  as  before  ;  but  now 
the  extremities  R,  13,  acipiire  the  north,  and 
the  extremities  A,  A,  acquire  the  south  po- 
larity. 

On  removing  the  magnet,  the  wires,  if  of 
soft  iron,  will  soon  collapse,  having  lost  all 
their  magnetic  power ;  but  if  steel  wires, 
or  common  sewing-needles  be  used,  they 
will  continue  to  repel  each  other  after  the 
removal  of  the  magnet;  the  inagijetic  power 
being  retained  by  >teel. 

E\'.  3.  Lay  a  sheet  of  paper  flat  upon  a 
table,  strew  some  iron  filings  upon  the  paper, 
place  a  small  magnet  among  them  ;  then  give 
a  few  gentle  knocks  to  the  table,  so  as  to 
shake  the  filings,  and  you  will  find  that  thev 
dispose  themselves  about  the  magnet  N  >'. 
as  shewn  in  lig.  20 ;  the  particles  of  iron 
clinging  to  one  another,  and  forming  them- 
selves into  lines,  which  at  tlic  very  poles  N,  S, 
are  in  tlie  same  direction  with  the  axis  of 
the  magnet;  a  little  sideway  of  the  poles 
tlie^  begin  to  bend,  and  Ihca  lijey  form 
N 


M'  A  G 


0 


ronip!ele  arches,  reaching  from  some  point 
in  the  northern  half  of  the  magnet,  to  some 
other  ))oint  ill  the  soutlierii  halt 

ICx.  4.  Place  a  magnetic  bar  A  [5,  lli^.  21, 
so  that  one  of  its  pol<-s  may  project  a  slioit 
way  beyond  the  table,  and  ajiply  an  iron 
weight  C  to  ii ;  then  take  another  inagnelii; 
bar,  D  Ii,  lil.e  the  fbnner,  and  bring  it  pa- 
rallel to,  and  just  over  the  other,  at  a  little 
distance,  and  with  the  contrary  poI<-s  towards 
each  oth'-r;  in  consequence  of  which  the 
attraction  of  Ii  will  be  diminished,  and  the 
iron  C,  it  MiHicieiitly  heavy,  will  drop  oiV, 
the  magnet  A\i  being  then  only  abb-  to  sup- 
port a  Miiallcr  piece  of  iron.  Ky  bringing 
the  magnets  still  nearer  to  each  other,  the 
attraction  of  15  will  be  diminished  still  farther  ; 
and,  when. the  two  iiiacnets  come  quite  into 
contact  (provided  they  are  eejual  in  power), 
the  attraction  between  ]i  and  C  will  vanish 
entirely  ;  but  if  the  experiment  be  repeated 
with  tliis  dilference,  viz.  tliat  the  homologous 
poles  of  the  uuigiiets  be  brought  towards  each 
other,  then  the  attraction  between  Hand  C,  in-- 
stead  of  being  diminislicd,  will  be  increased. 

MAGNI'l  L'DE,  whatever  is  made  up  of 
paits  locally  extended,  or  that  has  several 
dimensions;  as  a  line,  surface,  solid,  &c. 
The  apparent  magnitude  of  a  body  is  that 
measured  by  the  visual  angle,  formed  by 
ravs  drawn  from  its  extremes  to  the  centre 
of  the  eye  ;  so  that  whatever  things  are  seen 
under  the  same  or  equal  angles,  appear  equal ; 
and  vice  versa. 

MAGNOLIA,  a  genus  of  the  polygynia 
order,  belonging  to  the  polyandria  cla-s  of 
plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  j2nd  order,  coadnatx'.  '1  he  calyx 
is  triphvllous;  there  arc  nine  petals;  the 
capsules  bivalved  ami  imbricated  ;  the  seeds 
pendulous,  and  in  the  form  of  a  berry. 
There  are  seven  species  :   the  principal  are, 

1.  riie  glauca,  or  small  magnolia,  a  native 
qf  Virginia,  Carolina,  and  other  parts  of 
North  America.  In  moist  jilaces  it  rises 
fron  seven  or  eight  to  fifteen  or  sixteen  feet 
high,  with  a  slender  stem.  The  wood  i.s 
wl.ite  and  spongv,  the  liowers  are  produced 
at  the  extremities  of  the  branches,  are  white, 
composed  of  six  concave  petals,  and  have  art 
agreeable  scent.  2.  The  grandillora,  or 
great  magnolia,  Ls  a  native  of  Florida  and 
South  Carolina.  It  rises,  to  the  height 
of  eighty  feet  or  more,  with  a  Straight  trunk 
upwards"  of  two  feet  diameter,  having  u 
regular  heail.  '1  he  l(»)ve3  resemble  those 
of  the  laurel,  but  are  larger,  and  continue 
green  throughout  the  year.  The  flower* 
are  produced  at  the  ends  of  the  branches, 
and  are  of  a  purplish-white  colour.  3.  The 
tripetala,  or  umbr<;lla  tree,  is  a-  native  of 
Carolina ;  it  rises,  with  a  slender  trunk,  ti» 
the  height  of  sixteen  or  twenty  feet;  the 
wood  is  soft  and  si>ongy  ;  the  leaves  remark- 
ably large,  and  produced  in  horizontal  cir- 
( les  soniewiiat  resembling  an  umbrella, 
whence  the  inhabitants  of  those  countrie-. 
have  given  it  this  name.  The  flowers  are 
composed  of  ten  or  eleven  white  petals,  that 
hang  down  without  any  order.  'I'he  leaves 
drop  off  lU  the  beginning  of  winter.  4.  The 
acuminata,  with  oval,  spear-sliap.'d,  pointed 
leaves,  is  a  native  of  the  inland  parts  of 
North  America.  The  leaves  are  near  eight 
inches  long,  and  five  broad,  en<hng  in  a 
point.  Tfie  flowers  come  out  early  ii»  the 
spring,  aad  are  composed  of  twolxc  wl«t-« 


98 


M  A  L 


pct:il5;  the  wood  is  of  a  fine  grain,  and  an 
orange  colour. 

MAiiKRXrA,  a  genus  of  the  cla=s  and 
ordt-r  pentandria  pentagvnia.  The  cal.  is 
5- toothed:  petals  5;  nect.  5  obcurdate, 
])laced  under  the  filaments ;  caps.  S-relled. 
There  are  tliren  species,  shrubs  of  the  Cape. 
The  inclsa  is  a  beautiful  little  shrub  lor  the 
greenhouse, 

MAIL,  or  cnat  of  Mail,  a  piece  of  d<-- 
fensive  armour  for  the  body,  made  of  small 
iron  rings,  interwoven  in  the  maimer  of  a 
net. 

MAIM,  M.4IHEM,  or  Mayhem,  in  law. 
It  is  enarted,  b_v  the  statute  of  22  and  23 
Car.  If.  that  if  any  person  from  malice  afore- 
thought, shall  disable  any  limb  or  ni'-mber 
of  any  of  the  kir;g's  subjects  with  an  intent 
to  dislijnire  liim,  the  offender,  with  his  aiders 
and  abettors,  shall  be  t^n-ltv  of  felonv  without 
benerit  of  clergy;  tiiough  no  such  attainder 
si'.all  corrnpt  the  blood,  or  occasion  forfeiture 
of  lands,  &c. 

If  a  man  attack  another  with  an  hitent  to 
ruirder  him,  and  he  does  not  nitir<ler  the 
in:ui,  but  only  maim  him,  the  olfence  is 
Dcvertheless  within  the  statute  22  and  2.3 
Car.  II.  .c.  1,  usually  called  the  Coventry 
act.     1  Haw.  112. 

MAINPRISK,  the  taking  or  receiving  a 
man  into  friendly  custody,  tliat  otlierwise  is 
cr  migl'.t  be  comiritted  to  prison,  upon  se- 
curity given  for  his  forthcoming  at  a  day 
assigned.     See  Bail  Bokd. 

MAINTENANCE,  istlie  unlawful  taking 
in  hand,  or  upholding,  of  a  cause  or  person- 
Ihis  offence  bears  a  near  resembhmce  to 
barratry,  being  a  person's  intermeddling  in 
the  suit  of  another,  bv  '.naintaining  or  assist- 
ing him  with  money,  or  otherwise,  to  prose- 
cute or  defend  it.  A  man  may  maintain  the 
suit  of  his  neai-  kinsman,  servant,  or  poor 
neighbour,  out  of  charity  or  compassimi, 
wiihoiit  being  guilty  of  maintenance.  Bv 
tiie  common  law,  persons  guiltv  of  mainte- 
uance  may  be  prosecuted  by  indictment, 
2nd  be  fuiedaiuliuiprisoned,  or  be  compelled 
to  make  satisfaction  by  action,  &c. ;  and  a 
court  of.record  may  commit  a  man  tor  an  act 
of  maintenance  done  in  the  face  of  the  court. 
1)  Inst.  3l)S. 

MAJOR,  ill  logic,  the  first  proposition  of 
a.  syilogism. 

Major  and  Minor,  in  music,  signify 
imperfect  concords,  which  dilfer  from  carlr 
oilier  bv  a  se?n;tonefcinor. 

MALaCHOUENDRUM,  a  genus  of 
tilt  class  and  order  monadelphia  polvandria. 
The  cal.  is  simple  ;  germ,  pear-shaped,  pen- 
tigonal :  styles,  5;  caps.  5,  buc-seeded: 
cue  spi'cits,  of  no  note. 

M.'\LACIK)A,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  monadelphia  polyandria.  The  cal.  is 
fommon,  3-!eaved,  m:my-flowered,  longer ; 
arils  !j,  1 -seeded.  There  are  five  species, 
hi-rb?  of  tlie  West  Indies. 

MAI. . vein  TE,  green  cai;lK)nat  of  cop- 
per. I'his  ore  is  often  ainorplious,  but  often 
crvstalliiicd  in  long  slender  needhs. 

Colourgreen.  Bnttle.  Specific  gravity  3.571 
to-3.6i3.  E!f!-rvesccs  with  nitric  acid,  and 
gives  a  blue  colour  to  ammonia.  Before  the 
blowppe  it  decrepitates  and  blackens,  but 
does  iiot  welt.  Tinges  borax  yellowish 
green.     Tihges  flame  green. 

Variety  \.  Fibrous  mulachit--. — Texture 
jibroiis.      ();>aqitt:  when   acuofphous ;  when 


M  A  t 

cry<!talli/ed   it    is  partly  transparent  is   3. 
Co'onr  generally  grass-green. 

A'ariety  2.  Compact  malacli'.ie.- — ^Texture 
compact.  Opaque.  Colour  varies  from  the 
dark  emerald-green  to  blackish  green. 

A  specimen  of  uiahichite  from  Siberia, 
anaUsedby  Klapioth,  contained 

5S.0  copjier 

18.0  carbonic  acid 

12.5  oxygen 

1 1.5  water 

100. 

Tiiis  species  is  sometimes  mixed  wilh  clay, 
chalk,  and  gypsum,  in  various  proportions ;  it 
is  then  known  by  the  name  ol  common  moun- 
tain-green. Its  colour  is  verdigris-green, 
liriitle.  Texture  earthy.  Effervesces  feeblv 
with  acids.  Before  the  blowpipe  it  exhibits 
the  same  phenomena  as  malacliite. 

A  comparison  of  the  aiial_\  sis  of  Klaproth 
witli  that  of  Pelletier  sceins  to  prove  that 
malachite  contains  copper  oxidized  to  a 
greater  degree  than  blue  copper  ore. 

MALACOLITE.     This  mineral  was  first 
observed   in   Sweden  in  the  silver-mine  of 
.Sahla  in  Westermania ;  aflcrwar<,ls   in  Nor- 
way.    Colour   green.      Found  massive  and 
crystallized  in  six-jJidcd  prisms,  having  two 
opposite  edges  truncated.     Waxy-     Texturf 
lainelluted.      Eeel     soft.      Specilic    gravity 
3.2307.     Melts  before  the  blowpipe   mto  a 
porous  glass.     According  to  the  analysis  ol 
Vauquelin,  it  is  composed  of 
S3  silica 
20  lime 
19  magnesia 

3  alumina 

4  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese 

9<). 

Mala  IS,  in  chemistry.  Tliis  genus 
of  salts  is  almost  unkno\ni,  owing  chielly  to 
the  difliculty  of  procuring  pure  malic  acid. 
The  following  are  the  only  facts  hitherto  as- 
certained. 

Mulat   of  potass. 
Alalat  of  noda. 
Malat  of  ammonia. 

These  salts  wei«  formed  by  Scheele.  They 
are  deliquescent  and  very  soluble. 

Malat  of  baryles.  Wlicn  malic  acid  is 
dropt  into  barytes  water,  a  while  powder 
precip'-tates,  which  is  malat  of  barytes.  Ac- 
cording to,  Schcele,  the  properties  of  this 
salt  resemble  those  of  malat  of  lime. 

Malat  ol  strontian.  Malic  acid  occasions 
no  precipitate  iii  strontian  water.  Hence 
it  follows,  that  malat  of  strontian  is  more 
soluble  than  malat  of  barytes. 

Wlien  malic  acid  is  neutralized  wilh 
luiic,  it  forms  a  salt  scarcely  soluble  in  water, 
.which  may  be  obtained  in  crystals,  by  allow- 
ing the  supermalat  of  lime  to  evaporate 
Bpon(aneo\isly.  Crvstals  of  neutial  malat 
aie  formed  iiv<he  solution.  But  this  acid  has 
a  strong  tendency  to  combine  in  excess  with 
lime,  and  lo  lorm  a  supermalat  of  lime.  This 
salt  is  formed  when  carbonat  of  lime  is  thrown 
into  malic  acid,  or  into  any  liquid  Containing 
it.  This  supersalt  exists  in  various  vege- 
tables, especially  the  sempervivum  tectorum, 
and  some  of  the  srdums. 

Supermalat  of  lime  has  an  acid  taste.  It 
yields  a  precipitate  with  alkalies,  sulphuric 
acid,  and  oxalic  acid.  Lime-water  satu- 
rates the  e\cc«s,cf  acid,  aitd  thrrws  dowu  n 


M  A  L 

precipllatc  of  malat  of  Ihne.  When  tli» 
bUpermalat  of  lime  is  evaporated  to  dryness, 
ii  assumes  exactly  the  appearance  of  gum 
arabic;  and  if  it  has  been  spread  thin  upon 
the  nail  or  wood,  it  forms  a  varnish.  It  is 
not  so  soluble  in  water  as  gum  arabic,  and  the 
taste  re-adily  distinguishes  the  two.  Super- 
malat of  lime  is  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

Malat  of  magnesia.  This  salt  is  very  so. 
lubie  iu  water,  and  when  exposed  to  the  air 
deliquesces. 

Malat  of  alumina,.  This  salt  is  almost  in- 
soluble in  water.  Of  course  it  precipitates 
when  mal'.c  acid  is  dropt  into  a  solution  con- 
taining alumina.  Mr.  Ciiciievix  has  pro- 
jiosed  this  acid  to  s'parate  alumina  trom 
magnesia;  which  earth-,  as  is  well  known, 
have  a  strong  affinity  for  each  other. 

MA  LAXIS,  a  genus  ol  the  class  and  order 
gyiiaudna  diandria.  The  nect.  is  one-leaved, 
concave,  cordate ;  acumma,  pale,  bind  in 
front.  There  are  two  species,  bulbs  of  Ja- 
maica. 

M.ALIC  acid,  obtained  from  the  juice  of 
apples  ;  it  is  also  extracted  from  the  juice  of 
common  house-leek,  wiiere  it  exists  combinpd 
with  lime.  The  process  is  as  follows;  To  the 
juice  of  the  house-leek  add  acetat  of  lead  as 
long  iis  any  precipitate  takes  place.  W  avli 
the  precipitate,  and  decompose  it  by  means 
of  di;uted  ^ulphuric  acid  in  the  iiKinncr  di- 
rected by  Scheele. 

Malic  acid  may  be  formed  also  by  the  ac- 
tion of  nitric  acid  or  sugar.  If  nitric  acid  is 
distilled  with  an  equal  quantity  of  sugar,  till 
the  mixture  assumes  a  brown  colour  (which 
is  a  sig.n  that  all  the  nitric  acid  bas  bren  abs- 
tracted from  it),  tills  substance  will  be  found 
of  an  acid  taste;  and  alter  all  the  oxalic  acid 
whicli  may  have  been  lormed  is  separated 
by  lime-water,  tl'.erc  remains  another  acid, 
which  may  be  obtained  by  the  following  pro- 
cess: saturate  it  with  liiiiie,  and  fi.tre  the  so- 
lution ;  then  pour  upon  it  a  quantity  of  al- 
cohol, and  a  coagulalion  takes  place.  This 
coagulum  is  the  acid  combined  with  lime. 
Separate  it  by  liltralion,  and  edulcorate  it 
wilh  fresh  alcohol ;  then  dissolve  it  iu  distilled 
^ater,  and  pour  in  acetat  of  lead  till  no  more 
piv-cipitalion  ensues.  The  precipitate  is  the 
acid  combined  with  lead,  from  which  it  may 
be  separated  by  diluted  sulphuric  acid. 

Malic  acid,  thus  obtained,  is  a  liquid  of 
a  reddish-brown  colour  and  a  very  acid  taste. 
\\'hen  evaporated  it  becomes  thick  and  viscid 
like  a  mucilage  or  syrup,  but  it  does  not 
crystallize,  ^\'hen  exposed  to  a  dry  atmo- 
sphere iu  thin  layers,  it  (hies altogether.  aiLd 
assumes  tiie  ap|)earance  of  varnish.  AVhen 
heated  in  the  open  fire  it  becomes  black, 
swells  uj),  exhales  an  acrid  iume,  and  leaves 
behind  it  a  very  voluminous  coal.  \\  hen 
distilled,  the  products  are  ^n  acid  water,  a 
little  carbureted  hydrogen  gas,  and  a  large 
proportion  of  carbonic  acid.  It  is  very  so 
iuble  in  water.  -  It  gradually  decor<.poses 
spontaneously,  by  undergoing  a  kind  ot  fer- 
mentation iu  the  vessels  in  wiiich  it  is  kept. 
Sulphuric  acid  chars  it,  and  nitric  acid  con- 
verts it  into  oxalic  acid.  Hence -it  is  evi- 
dent tli.it  it  is  composed  of  oxygen,  hydro- 
gen, anrl  carlion,  lliongh  the  proportions  of 
these  Substances  have  not  been  asctrtainrd. 

Malic  acid  combines  wilh  alkalies,  earths, 
and  metallic  oxides,  and  forms  salts  known 
by  the  nam^of  Malats,  which  see.. 

Its  allmitieii  bavc  not  ^  ct  been  ascertaiiied 


y\  iKGwy,  '1'  1  ^5  M.. 


/•/./  / 


/■}/?. ;'. 


/-><?.  /. 


-s         n 


-n 
D 


/&. 


■.X.^ 


-y.'^^^y,.;,-'.'j-,-.,^^..'yA 


I '  i'     ill      ■    , 


'/■■■M, 


■lllli.,  ,-. 

jJUliljjjLU. 


■   ■!' 


'illj;;;;: 

Fio.  12. 


Fia.  15. 


hibli.'h.-,l    l,i.in.'l   :■  i/l,>ti  At    /{  rhillif-*  liri.t,tr  StiY.t  ni,l.-hh„r.i  f..;ul.'t. 


\l  A  L 

'Hii-  acid  Iifirs  a  strong  resPiiihlanco  lo  tlic 
»(lric,  bat  dili'oi's  lr-.)ni  it  in  the  following  |)ar- 
ticulai-s :  I.  The  citric  acid  shoots  inlu  line 
crystals,  hut  this  acid  docs  not  crys'allizo.  ?. 
The  salt  formed  from  the  citric  acid  with  lime 
is  almost  ini()lul>lc  in  boiling;  water;  whereas 
the  salt  n)ade  with  malic  arid  and  the  same 
basis  is  readily  soluble  by  boilinif  water.  ^. 
iNtalic  acid  proci))itates  mercury,  lead,  and 
jilver,  from  the  nitrous  acid,  and  also  the  so- 
lution of  gold  wlien  diluted  with  water; 
H'hereas  citric  acid  does  notidter  any  of  these 
solutions.  4.  Malic  arid  seems  to  have  a  less 
aOinitv  than  citric  acid  for  lime ;  for  when  a 
(iolutii'm  of  lime  in  the  t'ormer  is  boiled  a  mi- 
nute, with  a  salt  formed  from  volatile  alkali 
and  citric  acid,  a  di'composition  fakes  place, 
and  the,  latter  acid  combines  with  the  lime, 
■and  is  precipitated. 

.M.VLLKABLl'".,  a  property  of  metals, 
whereby  they  are  capable  of  being  extended 
«nder  the  hauniier. 

AIALOVR,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
luniiadelphia  polyandria.  The  calyx  is  dou- 
ble, outer  three-leaved;  arils  glomerate,  one- 
si.'eded.  There  are  two  sjjecies,  licrbs  of 
Tuscany,  Sec. 

M.\Ll'I(jl£l,\,  n/irbacl'ii'.i  chcrn/,  X  i^eiuis 
ef  the  Irigynia  order,  in  the  decandria  class 
uf  plajits,  and  in  the  natural  method  rankini» 
under  the  C'3il  order,  trihil.ita".  The  calyx  is 
pent.iphyllous,  with  melliCerous  pores  on  the 
oHtiide  at  tiie  base.  There  are  live  petals, 
roundish  and  nii:iuiculated':  the  berrv  uni- 
locular ami  trispi-rmou'.  There  arc  IS  spe- 
pies,  all  of  them  shrubby  evergreens  of  the 
w.irm  parts  of  Aim-rica,  rising  with  branchy 
stems  i'roai  8  or  10  to  15  or  '20  feet  high,  or- 
namented with  oval  and  lanceolate  entire 
leaves,  and  large  pentapefalous  flowers,  suc- 
ceeded by  red,  cherry-shaped,  eatable  ber- 
ries, of  an  acid  and  palatable  Havotn*;  and 
which  in  the  West  Indies,  where  they  grow 
naturally,  are  used  instead  of  cherries.  Three 
nf  the  ■^pi:!cies  are  reared  in  our  gardens,  and 
make  a  line  variety  in  the  stove.  1  hev  re- 
tain their  leave^  all  the  year  round;  and  be- 
gin to  flower  about  the  end  of  autumn,  con- 
tinuing in  constant  succession  till  the  spring  ; 
after  which  they  frequently  produce  ancl 
ripen  their  fruit,  which  commonly  equals  the 
size  of  a  small  cherry.  The  liowers  are  of  a 
pale-red  or  purple  colour. 

M.VLT,  is  barley  prepared,  to  lit  it  for 
making  a  potable  li<iuor  called  beer,  or  ale, 
by  ^topp■ng  it  short  at  die  beginning  of  vege- 
tation. 

In  making  mnlt  from  barlev,  th.-  usual  me- 
thod is  to  steep  the  grain  in  a  suliicient  quan- 
tity of  water,  fur  two  or  three  davs,  till  it 
swells,  becomes  plump,  .somewhat  tender, 
.lUil  tinges  the  waier  of  a  bright-brown,  or 
ret!'  iish  colour.  Then  this  water  being  drain- 
ed away,  the  barley  is  rcnov^ed  from  the 
stee;)ing  cistern  to  the  lloor,  whrre  it  is  thrown 
iiiio  what  is  called  tliewet  couch  ;  that  ii,  an 
even  heap,  rising  to  the  height  of  about  two 
feet.  In  this  wet  conch  the  capital  part  of 
the  operation  is  performeil ;  for  here  the  1)  ir- 
)(?y  spontaneously  heats,  and  begins  to  R;ro<v, 
.shooting  out  lirst  the  radicle  ;  and  if  sull'ered 
to  continue,  then  the  ])l-nne.  spire,  or  blade. 
But  the  process  is  to  be  stopped  short  at  the 
eruption  of  tl;e  radicle,  oll-erwise'  ths  malt 
wouhl  be  spoiled.  In  order  to  slop  it,  tliev 
spread  the  wet  couch  thin  cer  a  iu-ge  i'.oor. 


M  A  M 

and  keep  turning  it  once  in  four  or  five 
hours,  for  the  space  of  two  days,  la\ing  it 
somewhat  thicker  each  time.  After  this,  it 
is  again  tlirown  into  a  large  heap,  and  there 
suffered  to  grow  sensibly  hot  to  the  hand,  as 
it  usually  will  in  20  or  30  hours  time  ;  then 
being  spread  again,  and  cooled,  it  is  thrown 
upon  the  kiln,  lo  be  dried  crisp  \\ithout 
scorching. 

MALT.\,  KKiGHT.'i  OF,  otherwise  called 
hospitalers  nf  St.  John  of  Jtrusaltm,  a  reli- 
gious military  order,  wdiose  residence  is  in 
t!ie  island  of  Malta.  The  order  consists  of 
lhre<' estates,  the  knig'its,  chaplains,  and  ser- 
\ants  at  arms :  there  are  also  priests  wlio  of- 
li(  late  in  the  churches,  friar-servants  who  as- 
sist at  the  offices,  and  donnes  or  demicrosses  ; 
but  these  are  not  reckoned  constituent  paits 
of  the  body :  the  government  of  the  older 
is  mixt,  being  partly  inonarcliical,  and  partly 
aristocratical :  the  grand  master  is  sovereign. 
The  knights  formerly  consisted  of  eight  dif- 
ferent languages,  but  now  only  seven,  the 
English  having  withdrawn  themselves.  None 
are  admitted  into  this  order  but  such  as  are 
of  noble  birth  :  the  knights  are  of  two  sorts, 
those  who  have  a  right  to  be  candidates  for 
the  dignily  of  grand-ma^.ter,  called  grand- 
crosses,  <ind  tho'-e  who  are  only  knights  as- 
sistants :  tliey  never  marry.  'I'hc  knights 
are  received  into  this  order,  either  by  under- 
going the  trials  prescribed^by  statutes,  or  by 
dispensation. 

W.ALTFIA,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  ce- 
ment of  which  there  w ere  two  sorts,  native 
and  factilions;  one  of  the  latter  sort,  mucli 
in  use,  consisted  of  pilch,  wax,  plaisler,  and 
grease.  .Vnolher  kind  used  by  the  Ponians 
in  their  acpieducts,  was  made  of  lime  slacked 
in  wine,  incorporated  with  melted" pitch,  and 
fresh  figs.  Is'atural  maltha  is  a  kind  of  bitu- 
men, witii  which  the  Asiatics  plaister  their 
walls  ;  and  which  being  once  set  on  lire,  water 
makes  it  burn  more  liercely.  See  Hitumen. 
MALV.\,  the  niallmv,  a  genes  of  the  po- 
lyandria order,  in  the  monadelphia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  melhod  ranking  un- 
der the  .?7th  order,  columnifera-.  Tiie  ca- 
lyx is  double;  the  exterior  one  triiihyllons; 
the  arilli  numerous  and  niono>pi  rinou<. 
There  are  34  species,  consisting  of  lierbace- 
ous  perennials,  biennials,  and  annuals,  for 
medical,  economical,  and  ornamental  n-.es. 

The  leaves  of  the  connncn  mallow  are 
reckoned  the  lirst  of  the  four  emollient 
herbs :  they  were  formerly  in  some  esteem 
as  food  ;  at  present  decoctions  of  them  are 
sometimes  employed  in  d\senteries,  heat, 
and  sharpness  of  urine,  and  in  general  for 
obtunding  acrimonious  humjurs:  their  prin- 
cipal use  is  in  emollient  glysters,  cataplasm-", 
and  fomentations.  The  leaves  enter  tlie  of- 
ricinal  decoction  for  glysters,  and  a  conserve 
is  pri'pared  from  the  llo.vers.  Several  pieces 
ot  nialva,  macerated  like  hemp,  afford  a 
thread  superior  to  hemp  for  ■'piiming,  and 
which  is  said  to  make  more  beautiful  cloths 
and  stulfs  than  even  llax.  These  species  are 
th  .■  crispa,  Prruviaua,  and  .Manrisiana.  From 
tl-.e  former,  which  altiirds  stronger  and  longer 
tihres,  cords  and  t«ine  have  also  been  made. 
From  the  malv;e  likew"isc  a  new  sort  of  paper 
lias  been  fabricated  by  ^J.  de  lisle. 

M.AM.M.E,  in  anatomy,  the  breasts  of  a 
female. 

MAMMALIA,  in  natural  historv,  tiie  lirst 
N  2 


M  A  N 


99r 


c'.iss  of  animals  in  the  l-innaran  system,  di- 
vided inio  seven  orders,     bee  Zoology. 

.MAMMK.\,  itt:,i!iini-r-irc/-,  a  j^enns  of  (lie 
monogynia  order,  in  the  pulyaiidria  class  of 
l)lanls,  and  in  the  natural  nietliod  ranking 
with  those  of  which  the  ordi  r  is  doubtful. 
The  corolla  is  lelrapetaloiis ;  the  calyx  di- 
phyllous  ;  the  berry  very  targe  and  letra- 
spermocs.  There."  is  one  species,  a  large  ever- 
green tree  of  the  hot  parts  of  America  aul 
Asia,  and  retained  here  m  hot-honses  f(  r  va- 
riety ;  lulorned  with  large,  oval,  oblong,  .si ilf 
leaves,  and  large  qnadripetalou-.  tfjv.-ers,  suc- 
ceeded by  large,  round,  eatable  fruit,  of  a 
most  exquisitely  rich  llavour.  They  are  pro- 
pagated by  seeil,  whicli  is  to  be  sowed  ii» 
small  pots  of  light  earth.and  kept  in  the  stove. 

MA.\!.Mli,LAliY.     .See  Anatomy. 

MANATI,  in  zoology.    See  Trk  heciis. 

MANC'A,  was  a  s(]uaie  piece  iif  gold  coin, 
commonly  \aluedat  JOpc'iiec;  and  mancusa 
was  as  much  as  a  mark  of  silver,  having  its 
name  from  manu  cusa,  being  coined  with  the 
hand  (Leg.  C'aiiul  ).  But  the  niaiica  and 
mancusa  were  not  always  of  that  ^alue;  for 
■.ometinies  thr  former  was  valued  at  six  shil- 
lings, and  the  latter,  as  used  by  the  English 
Saxons,  was  equal  in  value  to  our  half-crown. 

M.\ND.\Ml  S,  is  a  writ  issuing  in  the 
king's  name  out  of  the  court  of  king'.-,  bench, 
and  directed  to  any  person,  corporation,  or 
inferior  court  of  judicature,  commanding  lo 
some  particular  tiling  therein  s|iecilicd,  a« 
appertaining  to  their  ollice  and  duly. 

A  writ  ot  mandamns  is  a  high  prerogative 
writ,  of  a  most  e\tenbive, remedial  nature, 
and  may  be  issued  in  some  cases  where  the 
injiircd  party  has  al.so  another  more  ttxlious 
method  of  redre>s,  as  in  the  case  of  admission 
or  restitution  to  an  ofiice  ;  but  it  issues  in  ail 
cases  where  the  party  has  a  right  to  have  any 
thing  done,  and  luis  no  other  specific  means 
of  compelling  its  performance.  3  Black. 
lUO. 

And  this  general  inrisdiction  and  superin- 
tendance  of  the  king's  bencli  over  all  inierior 
courts  to  restrain  them  within  their  bonnd% 
and  lo  compel  iheni  lo  execute  their  jurisdic- 
tion, whether  such  jurisdiction  arises  from  a 
modern  charier,  suljsints  by  custom,  or  \i 
created  by  act  of  parliament,  yet  'rfeing  in"sul>-» 
sidinni  ju^titia•,  has  of  late  been  e.-icrcised  in 
a  variety  of  instances. 

.Mandamns  was  also  a  writ  that  lay  after  tl-.e 
year  and  a  day  (v,"here,  in  ihe  mean  time,  the 
writ  called  clleni  clausit  extremuni  had  not 
been  sent  out)  to  the  es<healor,  commanding 
him  to  en(iuire  of  what  lands  holden  by 
knight-service  the  tenant  died  seized,  ice. 
F.  N.B.  501. 

M;mdam\i3  was  also  a  v.  rit  t,o  charge  the 
sherid'to  take  into  the  king's -hands  all  the 
lands  and  tenements  of  the  king's  widow, 
who,  against  her  oalh  formerly  given,  mar- 
ries without  ilic  king's  consent.     Ueg.  595. 

.M.VNl'.l  ri.\,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  tetrandria  monogynia.  The  calyx  i.s 
eight-leaved  ;  corolla  tour-deft ;  capsule  in- 
ferior, two-valved,  one-celled  ;  .seeds  imbri- 
cate, unilocular.  There  are  three  species, 
shrubs  of  the  West  Indies. 

M.VNGANESF.      i.  The  dark-grey  or 

brown  mineral   cahed    mangane.se  has  been 

long  known  and  used  in  the   maniil.wture  of 

ylass.     A  mine  of  it  was  discovered  in  Eng- 

j  land  by  Mr.  Boyle.     A  few  experimen(rriere 

I  made  upon  this  mineral  by  Glauber  in  Ui5U, 


100  MA  i\^. 

4iul  bv  M'ait2  in  1705  ;  but  cliemisfs  in  g«-  ' 
;ierarsi;c-iii  la  liavv.-  paid  but  very  little  atten- 
tion to  it.  Tlie  gic-ater  nu.uber  of  minera- 
logists, ti>ou;>!i  much  puzzled  what  to  make 
et  Jt,  agreed  in  placing  it  among  iron  ores: 
hilt  Villi,  who  publislied  ihe  tirst  chcmieal 
examination  of  this  mineral  in  1740,  having 
a-cerUnncu  that  it  often  contains  scarcely  any- 
iron,  CronsLedt,  in  his  System  of  Mineralogy, 
>fthic:i  ap;)eare<.l  in  i75S,  assigned  it  a  place 
of  its  own,  on  the  sujiposition  that  it  consist- 
ed chieilv  of  a  peculiar  earth,  llinr.ian  ex- 
amined li  anew  in  17Gj;  and  in  the  year 
J 770  Kaim  pul;Ush"d  at  ^"ienna  a  set  ol  ex- 
periments, in  order  to  prove  that  a  peculiar 
metal  miglit  be  extracled  Irom  it.  The  same 
idea  had  struck  Bergman  about  the  same 
time,  and  induced  him  to  request  ol  licheele, 
ill  177!,  to  undertalveaji examination  of  man- 
ganese. Scheele'i  dissertation  on  it,  whicli 
appeared  in  1774,  is  a  masterpiece  of  analy- 
sis, and  contams  some  of  the  most  important 
discoveries  of  modern  chemistry.  Bergman 
jiimself  published  a  dissertation  on  it  tiie  same 
year  ;  in  which  he  demonstrates  that  the  mi- 
neral, then  called  manganese,  is  a  metallic 
oxide.  He  accordingly  made  several  at- 
tempts to  reduce  it,  but  without  success  ;  the 
whole  mass  either  assuming  the  form  of  sco- 
VI.C,  or  yielding  only  small  separate  globules 
attracted  by  the  magnet.  This  dilliculty  of 
fusion  led  "him  to  suspect  that  the  metal  he 
was  in  quest  of  bore  a  strong  analogy  to  plati- 
num. In  the  mean  time  Dr.  Galni,  who  was 
making  experiments  on  the  same  mineral,  ac- 
tually succeeded  in  reducing  it  by  the  follow- 
ing process:  he  lured  a  crucible  with  charcoal- 
powder  m j!stened  with  water,  put  into  it  some 
cf  the  mineral  formed  into  a  ball  by  means  of 
oil,  then  Idled  up  t!ie  crucible  with  charcoal- 
jjowdei",  luted  another  crucible  over  it,  and 
cx])Osed  tiie  whole  for  about  an  hour  to  a  very 
intense  heat.  At  the  bottom  of  the  crucible 
was  found  a  metallic  button,  or  rather  a  num- 
ber of  small  metallic  globules,  equal  in  weight 
to  one-third  of  the  iniEieral  employed.  It  is 
easy  to  see  by  what  means  this  reduction  was 
accomplished.  The  charcoal  attracted  the 
■oxygen  from  the  oxide,  and  the  metal  re- 
mained behind.  The  metal  obtained,  which 
is  called  manganese,  was  farther  examined  by 
Jlseman  in  1782,  Hielm  in  l7Sj,  and  Buid- 
lieim  in  17S9. 

Manganese,  when  pure,  is  of  a  greyish- 
white  lolour,  and  has  a  good  deal  of  bril- 
liancy. Its  texture  is  ifranular.  It  has  nei- 
t:ier  taste  ;ior  smell.  Its  hardness  is  etpial  to 
that  of  iron.  Its  specilic  gravity  is  7.000. 
It  is  very  brittle ;  of  course  it  can  neither  be 
l)animered,  nor  drawn  out  into  wire.  Its  te- 
nacity is  unknown.  It  reiiuires,  according  to 
Mofveau,  the  temperature  of  1()0°  W'edge- 
v.ood  to  melt  it ;  so  lli:il,  platinum  excepted, 
it  is  the  most  infusiljle  of  all  the  metals. 
When  reduced  to  powder  it  is  attracted  by 
Iheniagnel,  owing  )n-obably  to  a  small  por- 
tion of  iron  from  which  it  can  with  dilliculty 
be  parted. 

11.  Manganese,  when  exposed  to  the  air, 
attracts  oxygen  more  rapidly  than  any  other 
body,  phosphorus  excepted.  It  loses  its 
lustre  almost  instantly,  becomes  grey,  violet, 
brown,  and  at  last  black.  These  changes 
take  place  still  more  rapidly  if  the  nietaf  is 
itated  in  an  open  vessel. 

1««  i  metal  seems  capable  of  combining 
Wjtfe  three  dilTeient  proportigjis  ol'  cxygeii, 


3vl  .\  N 

and   of  forming   three  diffirent  oxides,  the 
white,  the  ;c-d,  and  the  black. 

The  protoxide  or  white  oxidt  may  be  ob 
tained  by  dissolving  the  black  oxide  of  man- 
ganese in  nitric  acid  by  adding  a  little  sugar. 
I  he  sugar  a'- tracts  ox\  gen  from  the  black  ox- 
ide, and  converts  it  into  the  white,  which  is 
dissolved  by  tlie  acid,  into  the  solution  pour 
a  (piantity  of  potass;  the  protoxide  precipi- 
tates in  the  Ibrm  of  a  white  powder.  It  is 
composed,  according  to  Bergman,  of  80 
parts  of  manganese  and  20  of  oxygen.  When 
exposed  to  the  air  it  soon  attracts  oxygen, 
and  is  converted  into  the  black  oxide. 

The  dcutoxide  or  red  oxide  may  be  ob- 
tained by  dissolving  the  black  oxide  in  sul- 
phuric acid,  without  the  addition  of  any  com- 
bustible substance.  ^Vhen  black  oxide  of 
manganese,  made  into  a  paste  with  sulphuric 
acid,  is  healed  in  a  retort,  a  great  ([uantity  of 
oxygen  gas  comes  over,  while  (he  oxide, 
thus  deprived  of  part  of  its  oxvgen,  dissolves 
in  the  acid.  Distil  to  drvness,  and  pour  wa- 
ter upon  the  residuum,  and  pass  it  through  a 
liltre.  A  red-roloured  solution  is  obtained, 
con>isting  of  the  sulphal  of  manganese  dis- 
soU  efl  in  water.  On  the  addition  of  an  al- 
kali a  red  substance  precipitates,  which  is  the 
red  oxide  of  manganese.  According  to  Berg- 
man it  is  composed  of  74  parts  of  manganese 
and  So  of  oxvgen.  This  oxide  likewise  at- 
tracts ox_\gen  when  exposed  to  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  is  converted  into  the  black 
oxide. 

The  peroxide  of  black  oxide  of  manganese 
exists  abundantly  in  nature  ;  indeed  it  is  al- 
most always  in  this  state  that  manganese  is 
found.  It  was  to  the  black  oxide  that  the 
appellation  manganese  itself  was  originally 
applied.  It  ma\~ be  formed  very  soon  by  ex- 
posing the  metal  to  the  air.  This  o.xide,  ac- 
cording to  Fourcrov,  is  conijjosed  of  60 
parts  of  manganese  and  40  of  oxygen.  When 
heated  to  redness  in  an  earthen  retort  it  gives 
out  abundance  of  oxygen  gas,  which  may  be 
collected  in  proper  vessels.  By  this  operation 
it  is  reduced  nearly  to  the  state  of  red  oxide. 
If  it  is  exposed  to  the  air,  and  moistened  oc- 
casionally, it  absorbs  a  new  dose  of  oxygen  ; 
and  thus  the  same  process  may  again  be  re- 
peated. No  oxygen  gas  can  be  obtained 
Irom  the  white  oxide:  a  proof  that  its  oxy- 
gen is  retained  by  a  stronger  aftinity  than  the 
additional  dose  of  oxygen  which  constitutes 
the  black  oxide.  Segviin  has  observed,  that 
in  some  cases  the  black  oxide  of  manganese 
emits,  before  it  becomes  red,  a  quantity  of 
azotic  gas.  When  long  exposed  to  a  strong 
heat  it  assumes  a  green  colour.  In  that  state 
it  is  whitened  bv  sulphuric  acid,  but  not  dis- 
solved. A  very  violent  heat  fuses  this  oxide, 
and  converts  it  into  a  green-coloured  glass. 

in.  Manganese  does  not  coinbine  with  hy- 
drogen. ^^'hen  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid  a 
black  spongy  mass  of  carburet  of  iron  is  left 
behind.  Hence  it  has  been  supposed  capa- 
ble of  combining  with  carbon  ;  but  it  is  more 
probable  that  the  carbon  is  combined  with 
the  iron,  which  is  almost  always  present  in 
manganese.  It  seems  pretty  clear,  however, 
that  c;'rbiirel  of  iron  is  capable  of  combining 
with  this  metal,  and  that  it  always  forms  a 
part  of  steel. 

Bergman  did  not  succeed  in  his  attempt  to 
combine  manganese  with  sulphur;  but  he 
formed  a  sulphureted  oxide  of  manganese, 
by  combiaing  tight  pavu  of  the  blaclv  oxide 


M  A  N 

viilh  tliree  jiartsof  sulphur.  It  is  of  a  qrcrn 
colour,  and  gives  out  sulphureted  Iiydroptn 
gas  when  acted  on  by  ai  ids.  It  cannot  be 
doubled,  however,  that  sulphur  is  capable  of 
combining  with  manganese;  for  I'roust  liaS 
louiid  native  sulphuret  of  manganese  in  that 
ore  ol  telluiium  which  is  known  bv  tiie  i:anie 


of  gold  ore  of  Nagyag. 
I'hospiii 


lorus  may  be  combined  with  manga- 
nese by  meUiiig  together  etjual  parts  of  the 
metal  and  of  phosphoric  glass;  or  by  drop- 
ping phosph(jrus  upon  red-hot  manganese. 
The  plioopluiret  of  manganese  is  of  a  white 
colour,  brittle,  graiuilated,  dispiwed  to  cry- 
stallize, not  altered  by  expcsnre  to  the  ai'r, 
and  more  fusible  than  manganese.  When 
heated  the  phosphorus  burns,  and  the  metal 
is  oxidized. 

IV.  Manganese  does  not  combine  with  ei- 
ther of  the  simple  combustibles. 

V.  Manganese  combines  with  many  of  the 
metals,  and  forms  with  them  alloys  which 
have  been  but  very  imperfectly  examined. 

It  unites  readily   widi  copper.     'Ihe  com- 

I  pound,  according  to  Bergman,  is  very  mal- 

I  leable,  its  colour  is  red,  and  it  sometimes  be- 

;  comes  gieen  by  age.     Gmelin  made  a  num- 

I  ber  of  expcrimenls  to  see  whether  this  al!oy 

!  could  be  formed  by  fusing  the  black  oxide  of 

manganese  along  with  copper.     He  partly 

succeeded,  and   proposed  to  substitute  this 

alloy  instead  of  the  alloy  of  copper  and  arse- 

j  nic,  which  is  used  in  the  arts. 

It  combines  readily  wiUi  iron ;  indeed  it 
has  scarcely  ever  been  found  quite  free  from 
I  some  mixture  of  that  metal.  Manganese 
I  gives  iron  a  white  colour,  and  renders  it 
I  brittle.  It  combines  also  with  tin,  but  scarcely 
I  with  zinc. 

I      It  docs  not   combine  with   rsercury  nor 
;  with  bisnmtli.      Gmelin  found  that  manga- 
'  iiese  cannot  be  allowed  with  bismuth  without 
great  dilliculty  ;  and  that  it  unites  to  anti- 
mony yery  imperfectly.     Chemists  have  not 
attempted  to  combine  it  with  gold,  platinum, 
j  silver,  nickel,  nor  cobalt. 

VI.  The  altinities  of  manganese,  and  of  its 
I  white  and  rod  oxides,  are,  according  to  Berg- 
man, as  follows : 


Umgancse. 

Oxide  of  manganese. 

Copper, 

Oxalic  acid. 

Iron, 

Citric, 

(iold, 

Phosphoric, 

Silver, 

Tartaric, 

Tin. 

Fluoric, 

Muriatic, 

Sulphuric, 

Ts'itric, 

Saclactic, 

Succinic, 

Tartaric, 

Lactic, 

Acetic, 

Prussic, 

Carbonic. 

MANGIFER.\,  the  mangn-trce,  s.  ^enxit. 
of  the  monogynia  order,  in  the  peiitandria 
class  of  pl.mts,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  with  those  of  which  the  order  i» 
doubtful.  The  corolla  is  pentapetalous  ;  tlie 
plum  kidney-shaped.  There  are  three  spe- 
cies, the  principal  of  whieli  is  a  native  of 
many  parts  of  the  Kast  Indies,  whence  it  h;ts 
been  transplanted  to  Brazil,  and  other  warm 
pans  of  America.     It  gr.-ws  to  a  large  size ; 


MAI* 

Ibe  wood  is  briCl'e  ;  tlic  bark  rou:;h  v.hoii 
nlil ;  llie  leaves  are  seviMi  or  ciglit  iiithts 
long,  ami  more  lliaii  two  inches  broad.  The 
flowers  are  produced  in  loose  paiiiiles  at  the 
ends  of  the  liranchcsi  and  are  sixceeded  by 
large  oblonjj  kidnev-sliaped  plums.  'I'his 
iruit,  when  lully  ripe,  is  grc-ally  (;sleeined  in 
1))e  countries  where  it  grows ;  but  in  Kurope 
we  have  only  the  unripe  tiiiit  broui^ht  o\er  in 
jiirkle.  All  attempts  to  prop.igale  the  plant 
iiave  hlthi.-ito  proved  inetlectual;  and  .Mr. 
Millar  is  ot  opinion  that  the  stones  will  not 
veget.ite  unless  they  are  planted  soon  atler 
they  are  ripe. 

MANICIIKF.S,  in  eliurch  history,  a  sect 
of  christian  h;"retics  in  the  Uiird  century,  the 
lollowers  of  Manes,  who  made  his  ap|)earanee 
ill  the  reign  of  the  eiv.peror  I'robiis ;  pre- 
tending to  be  the  Comforter,  whom  our  S.i- 
\iour  promi  ed  to  send  into  the  world.  He 
laught  that  llieVe  are  two  principles,  or  gods, 
coelirjial  and  independant  on  each  other  ;  the 
omb  the  author  ot  ail  evil,  and  tlie  other  of  all 
good  :  a  doctrine  ■vhich  be  borroW'-d  from 
the  Persian  ma^i.  lie  jield  that  our  souls 
were  madi;  by  the  good  prin  iple,  and  oui' 
bo  lies  by  the  evil  one  ;  and  that  I  lie  souls  of 
Jiis  tollowers  piissed  through  the  element'^  to 
the  moon,  and  from  thence  to  the  smi,  where 
being  ])urilie(l,  they  then  went  to  God,  and 
I)eca'ne  united  with  his  essence;  but  as  for 
the  souls  oi  other  men,  they  either  weiit  to 
liell,  or  were  united  to  other  bodies. 

M.AXJLLl'j,  in  commerce,  a  lar'.;e  brass 
ring,  in  the  form  of  a  bracelet,  either  plain 
or  engraven,  :iat  or  round.  Mandles  are  tin? 
principal  commotlities  which  the  Europeans 
carry  to  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  exchange 
with  the  natives  for  slaves.  'I'hese  people 
wear  them  as  ornaments  on  the  •imall  of  the 
leg,  and  on  the  tiiick  part  of  the  arm  above 
the  elbow.  The  great  men  wear  manilles  of 
gold  and  silver,  but  these  are  made  in  the 
country  by  the  natives  themselves. 

MANIPULUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
body  of  infantry,  consisting  of  200  men,  and 
constituting  the  third  part  of  a  cohort.  S^t 
Cohort. 

MAJLIS,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the  or- 
«]er  of  bruta.  'the  generic  character  is,  teeth 
none  ;  tongue  cylindric  and  extensile  ;  niouth 
narrowed  int)  a  snout ;  body  covered  with 
scales.  The  genus  manis  presents  an  ap- 
pearance not  less  .extraordinary  than  th.at  of 
<lasyi)us  or  armadillo ;  being  covered  on 
every  part,  except  on  the  belly,  with  cx- 
tremelv  strong^  and  large  horny  scales,  con- 
stituting a  suit  of  armour  still  more  powerful 
than  in  the  following  genus,  and  capable  of 
defending  the  animals,  when  rolled  up,  from 
the  assaults  of  the  mo  t  ferocious  enemies. 
■^I'his  external  covering,  together  witiithe  un- 
common length  of  the  body  and  tall,  gives  an 
aspect  so  much  resembling  that  of  a  lizard, 
that  these  creatures  are  commonly  known  bv 
the  title  of  scaly  lizards:  tluy  inuy  be  allow- 
ed, however,  in  a  general  view  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  to  form  a  kind  of  shade  or  li.^k  of 
approximation  between  the  proper  viviparous 
ijuadrupeds  and  the  lizards. 

They  are  animals  of  a  harmless  nature, 
and  feed  in  the  same  manixr  as  the  ant-;^t- 
crs,  by  thrustin>{  out  tii'/ir  very  long  tongue 
into  the  nests  of  ants  aid  other  insects,  and 
swallo.ving  their  p.-ey  by  suddenly  retracting 
it,  having  no  teeth,  and  dill'enng  Ivoin  the 


MAN 

ant  eaters  in  scarfelyany  other  ciroum<.tance 
than  that  of  their  scaly  integument.  They  are 
found  in  India  and  the  Indian  islands. 

I.  ?>Ianis  teiradactyla,  long-tailed  manis. 
'I  his  animal,  known  in  India  by  the  name  of 
the  phalagen,  is  of  a  veiy  long  and  slender 
form  :  th  •  hi.-ad  is  small  ;  the  snout  narrow  ; 
the  whole  bodv,  except  beni.ath,  covered 
with  broad,  but  sharp-pointed,  stales,  which 
are  striated  throughout  their  whole  length  : 
the  tail  is  more  than  twice  the  length  of  the 
body,  and  tapers  gradually  to  the  lip.  The 
legs  are  very  short,  scaled  like  the  body,  and 
on  each  of  the  feet  are  four  ckius,  of  which 
those  on  the  fore  feet  are  stronger  than  those 
of  the  hind,  'i'he  colour  of  the  whole  animal 
is  an  uniform  deep-brown,  with  a  cast  of  yel- 
low ish,  and  with  a  ulo^ssy  or  polished  surface.' 
'I'he  manis  tetradactyla  grows  to  the  length 
of  live  feet,  measuring  from  the  tip  of  the 
nose  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail. 

2.  Manis  pentadactvla,  short-tailed  manis, 
diiCers  from  the  former,  in  being  of  a  much 
thicker  and  shorter  form;  the  tail,  in  particu- 
lar, dill'ers  greatly  in  projjortion  from  that  of 
the  preceding,  being  not  so  long  as  the  l)ody, 
very  thick  at  llie  base,  and  thence  gradually 
tapering,  but  terminating  very  obtusely. 
The  head  is  small  as  in  the  foriniT  ;  the  ears 
small  and  rounded  ;  the  feet  furnishe  I  with 
live  toes  each,  of  which  those  on  the  fore  feet 
are  extremely  strong,  except  llie  exterior 
one,  which  is  much  .smaller  than  the  rest. 
'I'he  whole  animal  is  c  ivered  with  most  ex- 
trem;ly  thick,  strong,  and  large  scales,  which 
in  the  lull-grown  specimens  are  perfectly 
smooth,  but  in  those  which  are  siualler  are 
slightly  striated  about  halfway  from  the  base. 
Sometimes  a  tew  bristles  appear  between  tin; 
scales,  but  in  others  this  is  not  observable. 
The  scales  dilfer  in  shape  from  those  of  the 
preceding,  beiug  much  wider  and  larger  in 
proportion  to  the  body  and  tail.  The  colour 
of  the  whole  animal  is  a  very  jiale  yellow- 
brown,  and  the  surface  is  glossy,  as  in  the 
former  species.  In  India  it  is  called  the  pan- 
goelling.  In  the  neighbourhood  ot  Bengal  it 
is  named  vajracite,  or  the  tluinTlerboU  rep- 
tile, from  the  excessive  hardn.ss  of  the  scales, 
which  are  said  to  be  capable  even  of  -.triking 
lire  like  a  (lint.  It  is  said  to  walk  slowly  ; 
bii^,  wiien  pursued,  rolls  itself  up,  and  is 
then  so  securely  armed,  that  even  a  leopard 
attacks  it  in  vain.  It  is  also  said  sometimes 
to  destroy  the  elephant,  bv  twisting  itself 
round  the  trunk,  and  thus  comprissing  that 
tender  and  sensible  organ  w  itii  its  hard  scales. 
We  are  told  in  the  Asiatic  lie^i-arches  tijal 
tlie  Maiabar  name  of  this  animal  is  alungu  ; 
and  that  the  natives  of  Bahar  cU  it  bajar-cit, 
or  the  stone  vermin ;  and  in  the  stomach  of 
the  one  examined  and  described  in  the  above 
work  was  found  about  a  teacupful  of  small 
stOiies,  which  it  is  supposed  to  have  swallow- 
ed for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  digestion. 
It  was  only  34  inches  long  from  the  nose  to 
the  end  of  the  tail ;  and  a  young  one  was 
found  in  it. 

Specimens  of  the  manis  pentadactvla  have 
sometimes  been  seen  of  the  length  of  six  feet 
from  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail.  See  PI. 
Nat.  Hist.  fig.  258. 

A1,\NNA,  in  natural  history.  This  sub- 
stance exudes  from  the  fraxinus  ornus,  in  the 
months  of  June  and  Jidy,  from  the  stein  and 
branches.  It  is  at  lirsi  liquid,  but  graduallv 
liecomes  solid.     It  is  collected  in  Sicily  and 


MAN 


jOI 


the  soiithern  parts  of  Italy.  It  i«  In  form  of 
oblong  globules  of  a  v.lnlish-yellow  colour, 
am!  somewhat  transpaient.  It  is  vry  light. 
Its  taste  is  sweet,  an<l  it  leaver  a  nauseous 
bitter  impression  in  the  mouth.  Its  proper- 
Lies  have  not  been  examined  by  chemists.  It 
acts  as  a  mild  cathartic,     bee  Matki  ia 

MtDlCA. 

MANO.MF.TRH,  or  Makoscote,  an  in- 
strument to  shew  or  measure  the  alterations 
in  the  rarity  or  density  of  the  air.  The  ma- 
nometer dill'ers  from  the  barometer  in  thfs, 
that  the  latter  only  serves  to  measure  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere,  or  of  the  column 
of  air  over  it,  but  (he  former  the  <l-.nsity  of 
air  In  which  it  is  found;  which  density  de- 
pends iK/t  only  on  the  weight  of  tin;  atmo- 
sphere, but  also  on  the  action  of  heat  and 
cold,  Ike.  Authors,  however,  generally  con- 
found the  two  together  ;  and  Mr.  Boyle  hun- 
sell  gives  us  a  very  good  inanoineler  of  his 
contrivance,  under  the  name  of  a  statical  ba- 
rometer, consisting  of  a  bubble  of  thin  glass, 
about  the  size  ot  an  orange,  which,  being 
counterpoised  when  the  air  was  in  a  nieau 
state  of  density,  by  means  of  a  nice  pair  of 
scales,  sunk  when  the  atmosphere  became 
l.ghter,  and  rose  as  it  grew  heavier.    See  Me- 

TKOROLOGY. 

MANOK,  was  a  district  of  ground  held  by 
lords  or  great  personages,  who  kept  in  their 
own  hands  so  niucb  Luul  as  was  necessary  lor 
the  use  of  their  families,  which  were  called 
terne  dominicales,  or  demesne  lands,  being 
occu|)ied  by  the  lord,  or  dominus  manerii, 
and  his  servants.  The  other  lands  they  dis- 
tributed among  their  tenants,  which  the  ten- 
ants held  under  divers  services.  The  residue 
of  the  manor  being  uncultivated  wa^  termed 
the  lord's  waste,  and  served  for  common  of 
pasture  to  tlie  lord  and  his  tenants.  .AH 
mar.ors  existing  at  this  day  must  have  existed 
as  early  as  king  Edward  the  Eirst.  2  Black. 
90.     See  CovKT  Bakon. 

MANSLAUGH'I  EH,  is  unlawfully  kill- 
ing a  man  without  any  malice  prepense,  or 
forethought.  'I  he  English  law  vers  liunianc  ly 
makes  a  distinction  between  a  hasty  and  dif- 
liberate  act :  as  when  two  persons  on  a  sud- 
den quarrel,  lisht,  and  one  is  killed  ;  yet  as  it 
is  (lone  in  a  sudden  hea,  of  passion,  and  not 
with  any  pn'uieditated  malice,  it  is  man- 
slaughter, and  not  murder.     See  Murder. 

This  crime  may  be  either  vohintary,  as  on 
a  sudden  loss  of  temper ;  as  if  a  man  is 
gre.atly  provoked,  and  kills  the  aggressor,  it 
is  maiislaughtiM- ;  but  it  it  appears  that  there 
was  a  sutlicii  nt  cooling  time  flir  the  heat  of 
anger  to  subside,  this  shews  deiiberate  re- 
venge, and  amounts  to  murder.  Or  it  may 
be  involuntary,  but  in  the  commission  of 
some  unlawful  act ;  in  which  latter  respect  it 
diiiers  from  homicide  per  intbnunium  :  as  if 
one  shoots  olf  a  gun  in  a  highway,  and  where 
peojile  olten  meet,  and  kills  a  man  ;  or  if  he 
is  shooting  at  game,  and  is  not  qualified  or 
licensed,  and  kills  another,  it  is  manslaughter. 
And,  in  general,  when  an  involuntary  kilhiig 
happens,  in  conse(|Uence  of  an  unlawful  act, 
it  will  be  murder  or  manslaughter,  accoru- 
ing  to  the  act  which  occasioned  it. 

It  is  evident  from  the  nature  of  this  crime 
that  there  can  be  no  accessaries,  because  it 
must  be  done  without  preineditat.on  ;  but 
when  two  men  once  fell  out,  and  mimediately 
fought,  and  the  sword  of  one  was  broken,  anti 
hi-  friend  lent  hiin  another,  witU  whitb  tw 


i'f)2 


!vr  A  N 


killel  hi'!  aiitagoni>l,U\vasiiiaJo  nia;i?!aiigliter 
ill  botli.  Agiiiii  :  there  were  tv.o  na-n  in  a 
room  qiiai'reliiig  f  a  brother  uf  one  of  them 
standing"  at  the  door,  wWo  could  not  gel  in, 
tried  out  to  his  lirothcr  lo  ni::ke  liini  sure, 
and  the  brother  killed  his  antagonist :  it  was 
likewise  manfUinghter  in  both. 

But  if  any  pi-rson  shall  stab  another,  not 
having  Win  weapon  drawn,  or  not  slruckeu 
lir.-.t,  so  that  he  d.es  witliin  si\  months,  ai- 
tliough  it  be  not  of  malice  aforethonghl,  it  is 
felony  without  benelit  of  clergy. 

'J'liis  crime,  though  felony,  is  w  ithin  benefit 
of  clergy  ;  and  tl^e  offender  shall  be  burnt  in 
the  hand,  and  forfeit  all  his  goods  and  chat- 
tels; but  by  >tat.  !9  G.-o.  ill.  c.  74,  it  is 
made  lawful  for  the  court  to  conimnte  this 
punishment  for  a  moderate  line  and  inijiri- 
soument. 

MANl  F.I.KTS,  in  the  art  of  war,  a  kind 
of  moveable  parapt'ts,  made  of  planks  about 
three  inches  thick,  nailed  one  over  another, 
to  the  height  of  almost  six  feet,  generally 
fased  with  tin,  and  set  upon  little  wheels,  so 
that  in  a  siege  they  may  be  driven  before  the 
pioneers,  and  serve  as  blinls  to  slielter  them 
tioni  the  eneniy's  small  shot. 

MAX'l'lS,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
hemiptera.  '1  lie  generic  character  is,  head 
unsteady,  armed  with  jaws,  and  furnished 
with  palpi  or  feelers;  antenna'  setaceous; 
thorax  linear;  wings  four,  membranaceous, 
■convoluted,  the  lower  pair  pleated ;  fore 
legs,  ill  most  species,  compressed,  seriated 
beneath,  and  armed  witli  a  single  claw  and  a 
setaceous,  lateral,  jointed  foot;  hind  legs 
smooth,  formed  for  wa  king.  This  is  one  of 
the  most  singular  genera  in  the  whole  cla*s  of 
'insects ;  and  inrigination  itself  can  hardly 
conceive  shapes  more  strange  than  those  ex- 
hibited by  some  particular  species.  See  PI. 
Nat.  Hist.  lig.  'J,^9. 

The  chief  K'uopean  kind  is  the  mantis  ora- 
toria  of  l.iii.ia'us,  or  caincl  cricket,  as  it  is 
often  called.  This  insect,  which  is  a  stranger 
to  th.'  I'tilitii  isies,  i^  found  in  most  of  the 
warmer  pans  of  Europe,  and  is  entirely  of  a 
j)  auiiful  green  colour.  It  is  nearly  three 
inches  in  length,  of  a  slender  shape,  and  in  its 
general  sitting  posture  is  observed  to  hold  np 
the  tv,o  uire  legs,  slightly  bent,  as  if  in  an  at- 
titude of  prayer :  for  this  reason  the  super- 
stition of  the  vulgar  has  conferred  upon  it  the 
reputation  of  a  sacred  animal ;  and  a  pojjular 
notion  has  often  prevailed,  that  a  cliild  or 
traveller  having  lost  his  w.ay  would  be  safely 
dir.'cled  by  oiiserving  the  quarter  to  whicii 
the  animal  i)ointed  w  lien  taken  Inlo  the  hand. 
In  its  real  (i-sp.-)sition  it  is  very  far  trom  sanc- 
tity, preying  wilh  great  rapacity  on  any  of  the 
smaller  insecl»  which  fall  in  its  way,  and  for 
which  it  lies  in  wait  with  anxious  assiduity  in 
the  posture  at  lir^t  mentioned,  seizing  tueni 
wilfi  a  sudden  spring  when  within  its  reach, 
an  I  devouring  them.  It  is  als  >  of  a  very 
pugnacion*  nature;  and  wh"ii  kept  with 
o'^liers  ot  its  o-.vn  species  in  a  state  of  capti- 
vity, will  attack  its  neiii^hbourwith  the  utmost 
-viol'-ive,  till  one  or  the  oilier  is  destroyed  in 
the  contest. 

."^monft  the  Chinese  this  fiuarre'some  pro- 
perly ill  liie  genus  mantis  is  turned  into  a  si- 
"mllar  entertainment  with  that  afforded  by 
Jighting  cocks  and  quails. 
>  The  mantii  pveearia  is  a  native  of  many 
•part*  .if  A-{rica,  and  !•*  the  supposed  idol  of  the 


M   A   P 

Ilollenlots,  which  those  supurst'li""'  people 
are  reported  to  hold  in  the  highest  venera- 
tion, the  per-on  on  w  hom  the  jdorc-d  insect 
happens  to  light  being  considered  as  favoured 
bv  the  distinction  of  a  celestial  visitant,  and 
regarded  ever  after  in  the  light  of  a  saint. 
This  species  is  of  the  same  general  size  and 
shape  with  the  M.  oraUjria,  and  is  of  a  beau- 
tiful green  colour,  witli  the  thorax  ciliated 
or  spmcd  oir  each  side,  and  the  upper  wings 
ea<h  marked  in  the  midille  by  a  seniitrans- 
pareiit  spot. 

Of  all  the  mantes  perhaps  the  most  singular 
in  its  appearance  is  the  mantis  gongylodes  of 
Linna-us,  which,  from  its  thin  limbs,  and  the 
grotes(jue  form  of  its  body,  especially  in  its 
dried  staff,  seems  to  resemble  the  conjunc- 
tion of  several  fragments  of  witliered  stalks. 
There  are  14  species  of  this  genus. 

MANTLE,  or  M.vntt.tng,  in  heraldry, 
that  appearance  of  folding  of'cloth,  nourish- 
ing, or  drapery,  that  is  in  any  achievmnenl 
drawn  about  the  coat  of  ar  ns. 

M.VNUUK,  any  thing  used  for  fattening 
and  improving  land.     See  Husban'Ijrv. 

MA!',  a  jdane  ligure,  representing  the  sur- 
face of  tiij  earth,  or  a  part  thereof. 

In  maps  these  tiiree  things  are  essentially 
ri"<|uisite.     l.That  all  places  have  the  same 
'  situation  and   di-.tance  from  the  great  circles 
thi-rein,  as  on  the  globe,  to  shew  their  paral- 
I  lels,  longitudes,    zones,  climates,   and  other 
'  celestial  a'ppearances.     2.  That   their  magni- 
tudes be  proportionable  to  their   rc-al  magni- 
tudes on  the  globe.     J.    I  hat  all  jilaces  have 
the  same  situation,  bearing,  and  distance,  as 
on  the  ear'h  itself. 
j      The  true  chart  performs  the  first  and  last 
of  these  very  exactly,  but  fail.;  extravagantly 
in  the  second;  and  indeed  no  kind  ol  pro- 
jection yet  fouii.l  can  exhibit  more  than  two 
,  of    tliem    at  once,  by  reason  of    the  great 
'  diCrerence between  a  plane  and  conve.x '..uper- 
licies. 

Maps  are  not  always  to  be  used  as  they  lie 
before  us,  fbr  sometimes  any  part  is  upper- 
mo-t;  but,  gem  rally,  the  top  is  the  north 
part,  the  bottom  the  south,  the  right  hand 
the  ea-t,  and  the  left  hand  tiie  west,  and  mark- 
ed with  tliese 'words,  or  Latin  ones  of  the 
same  import.  There  is  also  inscribed  a  coni- 
pa-s,  pointing  to  all  the  (|uarters  of  theworld, 
the  north  one  being  marked  with  a  flower-de- 
luce. 

The  degrees  of  longitude  are  alwa\s  num- 
beri-il  at  top  and  bottom,  and  the  degrees  of 
latitude  on  the  east  and  we^t  sides.  In  all 
riglit  lined  and  general  circular  maps,  except 
tho<e  of  Wright's  projectkin,  the  degrees  of 
latitude  on  the  sides  are  of  an  ecpial  breadth  ; 
and  in  all  circular  and  right-lined  maps,  Ox- 
<  ept  the  sa;d  Wright's,  and  the  plane  charts, 
the  degrees  of  longitude  are  iine<|iial. 
,  In  general  maps  tile  circles  corresponding 
to  those  in  the  heavens  are  inscribed,  viz.  tlie 
eiiuatpr  is  expressed  by  a  straight  east  and 
we.tline;  and  the  lirst  meridian,  the  polar 
circles,  the  tropics,  and  the  other  meridians 
j  and  parallels,  which  are  drawn  at  e.very  five 
or  ten  degrees,  intersect  each  other  at  right 
angles. 

The  liiost  natural  methoil  of  representing 
a  sphere  upon  a  plane  seems  to  be,  lo  divide 
it  into  two  etpial  parts,  and  inscribe  «'ach  of 
them  in  a  circle  :  but  ;ls  the  equator,  and  the 
polar >xis,  whicli  iiilericcti  that  circle  at  right 


M  A  P 

angles,  and  makes  one  of  the  meritliaiw, 
must  be  supposed  equal  in  length  lo  the  half 
of  the  periuherv  (which  is  not  quite  two- 
thirds),  it  follows  of  course,  that  the  countries 
delineated  upon,  or  near,  these  lines,  must  be 
reduced  to  somewhat  less  than  two-thirds  of 
the  size  of  the  countries  of  ecjual  extent, 
which  lie  at  the  extremity  of  the  circle;  and 
that  the  lines  drawn  to  measure  the  latitude, 
which  are  parallel  lo  each  other,  or  nearly  so, 
must,  in  order  to  preserve  as  nearly  as  possi-_ 
ble  their  proportional  augh's  at  the  pohils  of 
intersection  with  the  meridians,  form  seg- 
ments of  circles,  of  which  no  two  are  parallel 
or  concentric. 

There  may  be  as  many  ditTereiit  projec- 
tions as  there  aie  points  of  view  in  which  a 
globe  ci'.n  be  seen,  but  geographers  have  ue- 
lierally  chosen  lho^e  which  represent  the 
lioles'at  the  top  and  bjttom  of  the  map; 
these,  from  the  delineation  of  the  hues  of  lati- 
tude and  longitude,  are  called  the  stereogra- 
phic,  orthosraphic,  and  globular  projections. 

We  d)  iiot  propose  to  detain  llie  reader 
with  a  description  of  ail  the  projections,  some 
of  which  are  so  erroneous  (tor  the  purpose  of 
constructing  of  maps)  as  to  deserve  being 
consigned  entirely  to  obUvion.  15nt  as  the 
projection  of  maps  i.-  a  pleasing  and  instruc- 
tive exercise,  and  indeed  indispensably  ne- 
cessary lo  the  right  understanding  of  geo- 
graphy to  studeii'ts,  we  shaU  d.  scribe  the 
manner  of  constructing  the  map  of  the  world. 
With  regard  lo  the  stereographic  projection 
it  may  be  obsi-rved,  that  among  the  various 
positions  assignable  to  the  eye  4here  are 
chieHy  two  that  have  been  adopted,  wherein 
the  eve  is  placed  either  in  the  points  D,  tig. 
I ,  or  removed  to  an  intinile  distance ;  and 
hence  this  projection  is  liable  to  the^reat  er- 
ror of  distorting  the  form  of  the  countries  re- 
presented upon  it  much  more  than  is  neces- 
sary. The  only  advantage  is,  that  the  lines  of 
lali'tude  and  longitude  interseit  each  other  at 
rigiit  angles. 

This  being  observed  by  that  excellent  as- 
trononer,  M.  de  la  Hire,  he  invented  a  re- 
medy for  the  inioiiveiiience,  by  assigning  lo 
the  eve  a  position  at  the  point  l),  lig.  1,  the 
distanc-  of  which  frcmi  the  globe  at  1)  is  etjual 
to  the  light  sine  of  4.")  di'grees;  and  henc.e 
the  riglU  line  GC,  which  bisects  the  qua- 
drant HC,  also  bisects  the  radius  F-C,  and 
produces  the  similar  triangles  GFC;,  and 
OVA  ;  and  thus  the  other  parts  of  the  qua- 
drant nC,  and  in  like  manner  of  the  whole 
semii-ircle  AliC,  are  represented  in  the  prc- 
jection  nearly  pro])ortionable  to  each  other, 
and  to  sense"  perlectly  so.  'I  he  delineath  ii 
of  the  earth  and  S'-a  ujion  tins  projection 
(which,  as  coming  ihe  nearest  to  a  Uue  re])rc- 
senlalion  cif  the  globe,  is  called  the  globular 
projection),  is  eiinal  to  the  stereographic  in 
poii  I  of  facility,  and  vastly  superior  to  it  in 
point  of  truth. 

(riiimctricttl  conslruction  of  the  globular 
prn/tcicii. — From  ihe  centre  C,  tig.  2,  with 
any  radius,  as  CB,  describe  a  circle;  draw 
the  di.imeters  .\I5,  and  itO,  yO,  at  perfect 
right  angles  to  one  another,  and  divide  them 
iiito  nine  equal  parts;  likewise  divide  each 
<|uadiaiit  inlo  nine  ecitial  parts,  eaih  ofwhich_ 
conlaius  ten  tlegrees;  if  the  seal.' admits  yl" 
it,  every  one  ot  these  divisions  iijay  be  sub- 
'divided'inlo  degrees:  nest,  to  draw  the  luc- 
riihans,  suppose  the  jiyridian  SO"  W.  of 
Greei.wicli,  we  have  given  tin;  two  poles  iic, 


^rAr', 


«>!i,  atitl  the  point  80  in  tl\c  rcioalor,  or  dia- 
mi'tcr  A15;  di-sciibf  u  ciiule  u>  pabS  tlirouf^li 
tlii'  throe  givcMi  points  as  follows:  with  the 
radius  90  s"i-t  one  foot  of  tiie  compuases  on 
thi;  point  90,  au'l  describe  the  semicircles 
XX.  and  Z/,  then  remove  the  compasses  to 
the  point  80  on  the  ccjnator,  ami  describe 
the  arts  1,  1,  and  2,  2  ;  where  they  intersect 
the  seniicircU:  make  the  point,  as  ill  I  and  3, 
and  draw  lines  from  2  through  the  point  1  till 
they  intersect  the  diameter  iiA  continued  in 
i', :"  llicn  will  E  lie  the  centre  from  wlieuce 
llie  meridian  90.  80,  90,  must  be  ilrawn,  and 
will  <xpr<->s  the  nn-ridian  of  SO"  \Y.  loii'^^ilude 
from  (ireenuich;  liie  same  radius  will  draw 
tlie  meridian  eNpre>sing  I-iO"  W.  lonL;i(iide, 
in  like  maimer  :  draw  the  next  meridian  w'th 
the  radius  C  B,  set  Oiie  foot  ol  tlie  co.npasses 
in  tlie  point  d,  and  descr-be  the  arcs  aa  and 
bb,  tlirii  draw  lines  as  belore,  which  will  give 
the  point  1"),  the  centre  of  90-  W.  longitude; 
so  of  all  the  rest. 

The  parallels  of  latitude  arc  drawn  in  the 
game  manner,  with  this  dilVerence,  tl-.at  the 
semicirih.-s  XX  and  Z/  must  be  drawn  fiom 
tlie  points  A  and  B,  the  extremities  of  the 
cquatt)r. 

(n  the  manntT  above  describe  d,  v.ilh  great 
labour  and  exactness,  Mr.  Ar^owsmitb,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  a  part  oi  this  ar- 
ticle, drew  all  th.'  meridians  and  paralli-ls  of 
latitude  to  every  dei<ree  on  two  hemispheres, 
which  laid  the  tound.itionof  his  excellent  maj) 
of  the  world. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  shew  how  the 
same  thing  may  IJe  done  mechanically,  both 
wilh  regard  to  tlie  globular  and  stcreogr.iphic 
projection. 

(1)    TI)f  GUl-.tlar  Projection  of  the  Sphere  on  tic  Plane 
tf  a  Meridian. 

T5raw  the  circle  WNES,  fig.  3,  draw  the  two 
diameters  NS  and  WE  at  right  angles  with  each 
crher. 

Divide  the  arc  of  each  quadrant  into  nine 
eiiual  parts. 

Divide  the  radii  also  in  the  same  manner  into 
ninety  etjua!  parts  e.ich. 

'i'he  diameter  NS  is  the  meridian,  and  the  dia- 
meter WE  is  the  equator. 

The  other  meridians  are  arcs  of  circles,  for 
each  of  whuch,  as  we  have  seen,  there  are  three 
given  points  through  which  it  must  pass,  and 
thoie  are  the  two  poles  N.S,  and  a  division 'on 
the  scmi-diam&ter  WC,  viz.  either  a,  i,  c,  rf,  c, /, 
jr,  or  h.  l"lle  centres  for  these  arcs  wilt  be  m 
the  line  CE  produced;  and  the  centres  for  those 
•n  the  other  side,  v.iU  be  on  the  line  C'.V  pro- 
duced. 

For  the  arc  S.jN.  the  radius  .7i!:=    no.'Jl")  "S  § 

—  S4N.  —  lib=    Trifi'i 

—  Ri-N.  —  cc  —.    !)7,t3i 

—  Si/N',  —  «■</=:  106    - 

—  f;.-N.  —  ec  r=  121,1 
_  S/N.  —  /fz=\A3,l 

—  Si;N.  —  fi=215,G 

—  S'iN.  —  'ci  =  4IO,7jo 

And  for  each  of  the  arcs  representing  the  pa- 
Fatlels  otlat  also  there  are  three  given  points  ;  viz. 
one  of  the  divis'ons  I,  I,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  or  r.  upon 
the  meridian  SN,  and  the  two  corresponding 
divisions  of  the  circumference.  'I'he  centres  for 
theie  arcs  will  fall  on  the  line  SN,  produced 
Vwth  v/ays.  and  the  foliowicg  table  shews  the 
Un^th  ofth<r  r.uiinsof  each  equal  part,  in  c<)ua- 
IQflal  degrees,  as  in  tba  former  case. 

■fc. 


For  the  arff 
«()  T  80 
70  ij  70 
f,>i\c\.m\ 
60  p  60 
50  »  iO 
40  »  40 
30  m  30 
23{-  T.  23i 
20  /  '.?0 
10     t  10 


—  If     ~ 

• —     A.  Antic  ;= 


the  radius  rr  =  18,-14 
39.7.5 
48,1 9 

G.:;3 

97,71 

•m     =  143 

mm    =210 

T.7V»/'/V=2.Sl,4 

II    =337,5 

U    =703,5 


C-^  k 


^•-3 


lo 


"'S 


(2)   Tli^' Slercograli'^icP,  ■Allien  of  tlje  sphere  on  tic 
Plane  of  a  Al^-ridian. 
Draw  a  circle  NF.SW,  fig.  4,  and  the  two  dia- 
meters of  it  at  right  an.gle;  with  each  other. 

Divide  the  arc  of  each  (juadrant  into  nine 
equal  parts. 

From  the  point  E,  draw  dotted  lines  to  each 
point  of  division  on  the  arc  WN. 

Ti.e  intersections  in  ide  hv  this  means  on  the 
semidiameler  CN,  maik  a  h'nc  of  semitahgents, 
which  must  also  l)e  set  off  on  the  other  three 
semldiameters,  CS,  CW,  and  CE. 

Draw  likewise  two  dotted  lines  from  E  to  23-1'' 
and  Gii^'  for  the  tropic  and  polar  arcs,  which 
must  als.o  l)e  set  off  on  the  scmi-diamcter  CS, 

Each  po'iit  of  ini'irscction  on  CN,  and  the 
correspon.iiug  divisions  on  the  arcs  WN  and 
I',N,are  tlie  tlirce  points  throuirii  which  the  a-cs 
of  latitude  must  pass ;  and  their  centres  wUl  be 
in  the  line  NS  produced. 

Take  the  radius  of  the  same  circle  for  a  scale  j 
divide  it  into  nine  equal  parts,  and  each  of  those 
parts  into  ten  other  parts,  as  hefore. 

The    following  table   exhibits  t!ie  length   in 
those  parts  of  the  radius,  which  must  be  taken 
to  describe  each  respective  arc. 
For  the  arc 

«0     r  HO    the  radius    rr     = 

70     s   70         —  IS      zz: 

—     A.  Arctic  -dzi 


C.15 


IPs 

■r-i:  c 


=    15,S7 

=    32,75 

GfiiAOG^       —     A.Arctic=i    39, li) 

fio    t  ao'     —  «    =  aisc, 

50     It  50  —  vj    =    75,52 

40    iu  40  —  tuio  =  107,3 

30     .V  30         —  .v.v  =:  155,9 

23.tT.23^       —     T.r«/.v=207 
20     y    20  —  \y    =  247,3  .     .^ 

10     s    U>  —  ki    =510,4     Lo  *  " 

The  two  polar  points  N,  .S,  and  the  semitan- 
gents*  on  CE,  iii.irk  the  three  given  points 
through  which  each  meridian  line  must  pass. 

The  following  t.-dile  exhibits  the  len^t.H  of 
each  radius  to  describe  the  meridian  arcs. 


For  the  arc  N.7.S.  the  radius  aa  =    91 ,4 

fo  1 

— 

NiS. 

— 

tl>=    95,78 

"■S 

— 

NrS. 

N./S. 

— 

cc  =  104 
</./=  117,5 

— 

N.-S. 

— 

,■.■=140       1    11  -  S 

— 

N/S. 
No-S. 

— 

//=1S0 

.e.ir  =  2fi3 

— 

NA.S. 

— 

M  =  518,3 

Lo^s 

(3)  The 

G.' 

ch.cl.ir  Pro/ 

ection 

of  tne  Sphere  on 

the  Plane 

of  the   Eqvaior. 

On  the  centre  P,  fig.  5,  draw  the  circle  WN 
ES.  to  rei>resent  the  equator. 

Draw  the  two  diameters;  WE  and  Ni,- at 
right  angles  with  each  other. 

Divide  the  arcs  of  the  four  quadrants  into 
nine  equal  parts  ;  each  of  the  parts  will  be  equal 
to  ten  degrees. 

Number  thera  fromN  towards  P,  10,  20,  30, 
4a,  50,-  &c. 

On  the  centre  P  draw  circles  passing  throijgh 
thos^  points  of  division,  which  will  be  the  cir- 
cles of  latitude. 

For  the  arctic  circle,  set  off  2'i\'  from  P  to- 
wards N  ;  do  the  same  at  N  towards  P,  for  the 
tropic  circle. 

Through  each  of  tliose  points  draw  an  ob- 
scure circle. 

Iftraw  diameters   from  the  divisions  on  one 


103 

half  of  the  circumference  to  the  ccrrcspondirj 
divisions  on  the  opposite  one,  to  represent  the 
meridians,  iind  ihij  will  complete  the  projection. 

(4)  Tie  St.rcographic  Projection  of  the  Sphere  on  the 
Plane  of  the  Eijuutor, 
Draw  the  circle  N,  W,  S,  E.fig.  6,  and  the  twij 
diameters  at  right  angles  v/ith  each  other. 

Divide  the  arcs  of  each  of  the  four  quadrantt 
into  nine  equal  parts;  subdivide  each  of  those 
parts  into  10  degrees;  number  those  degrees  10, 
20,  30,  &c. 

Draw  diameters  from  the  divi'^icns  on  one  sido 
of  iho  circumference  to  the  rorrcspt^nding  divi- 
sions on  the  other,  which  vviU  represent  the  me- 
ridians. 

For  the  parallels  of  latitude,  project  a  line  of 
scmitangcnts  as  directed  in  the  2d  c::se. 

On  the  centre  P  describe  circles  passing 
through  the  temitangcnls,  which  will  complete 
the  diagram.  t 

Note.  The  foregoing  methods  of  projecting 
the  sphere  are  the  best.  There  is  another  me- 
thod sometimes  u?ed,  viz.  the  projection  en  the 
plane  of  the  horizon  when  aey  assumed  place 
i.s  con.sidered  as  the  centre  ;  but  as  this  method 
is  rarely  used,  it  need  not  be  elucidated. 

The  orthographic  projection  is  in  fact  so  er- 
roneous, that  it  ought  to  be  entirely  rejected  for 
lh.it  purpose,  and  applied  only  to  dialling. 

The  gnomonical  piojcction  is  only  applicable 
to  dialling. 

We  sli..ll  now  p.^int  out  the  advantage  and 
disadvantage  of  Mercator's  projection. 

A  melliod  has  been  found  to  obviate  some 
of  the  dillitiiltics  atteuding  all  the  circular 
.projertioiis  by  one,  which,  Irom  the  person 
who  lirst  used  it  (though  not  the  inventor),  is 
called  Mercator's  projection.  In  this  there 
are  none  but  rigid  lines :  all  the  meridians  are 
eipiidistaMt,  and  continue  .  so  through  the. 
whole  extent;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  in  or- 
der to  obtain  the  true  bearing,  so  tliat  the 
conipas  may  be  applied  to  the  map  (or 
chait)  for  the  purpose  of  navigation,  the 
spaces  between  the  parallels  of  lat.tudes 
(which  in  truth  are  e^ual,  or  nearly  so)  are 
made  to  increase  as  they  recede  from  the 
ecjuator  in  a  proportion  which,  in  the  high  la- 
titudes, becomes  prodigiously,  gn-at. 

The  great  advantages  peculiar  to  this  pro^ 
jection  are,  that  every  place  drawn  upou  it 
r.-tains  its  true  bearing  with  respect  to  all' 
other  places  ;  the  distances  may  be  measured. 
with  the  nicest  exactness  by  proper  scales, 
and  ail  the  lines  drawn  upou  it  are  right  lines i . 
for  these  reasons  it  is  the  only  projection  in . 
drawing  maps  or  charts  for  tiie  use  of  naviga- 
tors.    \\'e  shall  shew  the  method  of  this  kind  . 
of  projection. 

Mercator's    or    irrii^ht'.i    projertion    of 
n'.fip.'!. — Draw  the  line  A!!,  fig.  7,  and  divide 
it  intc  as  many  degrees  as  your  map.  is  to  ■ 
coIlUil^  iu   longitude,  suppose  90".     At  the 
extremities  A  and  B  raise  perjjendiculars,  to  -■ 
v.hioh  draw  parallel  lines  at  every  singh;,  htlh, 
or  tenth  degree  of  the  equator,  for  the  meri- 
dians ;  as  in  the  figure,  where  they  are  drawn  • 
.:t  every  tenth  degree.     Tiiis  done,  put  one  ' 
loot  cf  the  compasses  in  the  point  A,  and  e.x- 
temiing  thtrother  to  ti.e  point  in  the  tir-t  ine- 
ridian  in  the  equator  G  ;  or.  tor  greater  e\— < 
actne.ss,  to  some  more  distant  point,  as  B  90  ; 
describe  the  qtiadrant  F'*,  which  divide  into- 
nine  equal  parts,  and  drawn  lines  from  A  to 
each  point  of  the  division :  or,  to  avoid  scor- 
ing the  paper,  only  mark  where  a  ruler  cuts 
the  first  meridian  GH,  at  every  tenth  degree's  ■ 
distance.     Lastly,   because  tiie  distances  of. 
the  paiaileli  from  oiie  auothcr  are  marked. 


T-04 


M  A  P 


M  A  R 


bv  tills  nirans,  in  the  V,ne  C,U,  vmi  must 
t)anst'cr  thorn  from  that  hiif  to  the  suit;  lines 
AC,  HI),  ailer  tin-  following  niannfr:  I.  S<-t 
one  foot  of  the  eomp;issi-5  in  A,  and  extend- 
ing the  other  to  the  lir>t  point  above  G, 
marked  1,  tr;ni':fer  tliis  distance,  vi/..  A  1,  to 
the  lines  AC,  BD,  and  draw  a  line  paraHel  to 
the  e(|uator  AB,  lor  the  tenth  parallel,  2. Next 
transler  the  distance  A -'  into  the  lines  AC, 
BD,  from  the  10th  parallel  to  the  20th,  which 
is  to  be  drawn.  3.  In  the  same  manner  the 
distances  A  3,  A  4,  A  5,  &c.  laid  otif  upon  the 
lines  AC,  UU,  from  the  innnedialely  preced- 
ing parallels,  vi/.  20,  30,  40,  &c.  will  suc- 
cessivetv  point  out  where  the  parallels  30,  40, 
SO,  &c.  are  to  be  drawn. 

'i'hii  is  the  geometrical  projection,  which 
mav  also  be  laid  down  by  means  of  a  scale 
or  table  of  meridional  parts,  by  the  line  of  se- 
cants, &iC. 

This  projection  supposes  the  earth,  instead 
of  a  globular,  to  have  a  cyluulncal  liguie ; 
ill  conseipience  of  which,  ti'e  degrees  i,f  lon- 
gitude become  of  an  ecpial  length  throughout 
the  whole  surface,  and  are  marked  oi.t  on 
the  map  by  parallel  lines.  The  circles  of 
;1  ititude  also  are  represei,ted  by  lines  cross- 
ing the  firmer  at  right  angles,  but  at  unequal 
,rii>tan<es.  The  further  we  remove  from  the 
eiiuator,  the  longer  the  degrees  of  latitude  be- 
comi'  in  proportion  to  lliose  of  longitude,  and 
tliat  in  no  le^s  a  degree  than  as  the  secant  of 
an  arch  to  the  radius  of  the  circle;  that  is,  if 
we  make  one  degi'ee  of  longitude  at  the  equator 
the  radius  of  a'circle.;  at  one  <legree  di>t;iiit 
from  theciiuator,  a  degree  of  latitude  will  be 
expressed  by  the  secant  of  one-degree  ;  at  ten 
degrees  distance,  bv  the  secant  of  ten  de- ' 
grees,  and  so  on.  A  map  of  tlie  world,  there- 
fore, cannot  be  delineated  upon  this  projection, 
witliout  distirting  the  shape  of  the  countries 
in  an  extraordinary  manner.  The  projection 
itself  is,  ho.vever,  as  we  have  already  observ- 
ed, very  useful  in  navigation,  as  it  sliows  the 
■dilferent  bearings  with  perfect  accuracy, 
wiiich  cannot  be  done  upon  any  other  map. 

We  shall  now  add  a  more  exact  me- 
thod of  projecting  particular  maps,  where- 
in the  stiuares  are  so  projected  as  to  form 
•equal  diagonals  throughout, 

0/  Ike  prnjicl/on  of  maps  of  pnrtindcir 
farts  of  the  wirtd. — There  are  several  me- 
thods of  prelecting  particular  parts  of  the 
Tvorld,  we  shall  notice  only  two.  I'irst,  when 
the  meridians  and  parallels  of  latitude  are 
right  lines. 

To  pr(>j<'cf  a  map  of  England  after  this 
methotl. — I'aiglaiid  is  situated  between  2°  K. 
and  6"  20'  \V.  from  Greenwich,  and  between 
50''and..56°N.  lat. 

Draw  a  base  liwe  AB,  fig.  8,  in  the  middle 
of  which  erect  the  perpendicular  CD. 

Assume  a  distance  for  a  degree  of  l.it.  and 
set  off  as  many  degrees  on  C I )  as  are  w  anted, 
•which  in  this  instance  are  <S;  but  as  a  little 
•space  beyond  the  Iniiits  of  the  country  is  ge- 
•7)erall)  loft,  set  off  7. 

'I'hrough  these  points  draw  lines  parallel  to 
AB,  which  will  be  narallels  of  latitude. 

Keipecting  the  deg-ces  of  longitude  it  must 
f>e  observed,  that  on  the  etpiator  they  would 
he  of  tlie  same  length  as  they  are  on  a  meri- 
•Hian,  but  must  gradually  decrease  from  thence 
to  0  at  tlie  poles. 

"^I'lie  following  table  exhibits  tlie  length  in 

J;cograph''  ,:1  miles,  o!  a  degree  of  lonjjiiudc^ 
'<jf  every  degree  of  latitude. 


Des 

Geo^rap, 

Deg 

Geo^rap. 

'Deg 

Geograj-*. 

Lat. 

Miles. 

L^t. 

Miles. 

1  ^' 

MilBS. 

0 

(50,00 

31 

51,43 

~29,09~ 

1 

.59,99 

32 

50,88 

62 

28,17 

2 

59  9(; 

33. 

50;)3 

63 

27,24 

3 

59.92 

34 

49,74 

64 

2S,30 

4 

5i),».', 

.■^5 

49,15 

1     65 

25,36 

5 

59,77 

36 

48,.34 

66 

24,41 

C 

59,67 

37 

47,<)2 

67 

23,44 

»t 

59,36 

38 

47,28 

6S 

22,48 

8 

59,-12 

39 

46,03 

69 

21.50 

9 

59,23 

40 

45,95 

70 

20,52 

10 

59,09 

41 

45,23 

71 

19,53 

11 

58,90 

42 

44,59 

72 

18,54 

\2 

5K,G9 

43 

43,SS 

73 

17,,54 

13 

S.S,-l(i 

44 

43,16 

74 

16,.53 

14 

58,22 

45 

42,43 

75 

15,53 

15 

57,95 

46 

41,68 

76 

14,52 

Ifi 

,  57,li"7 

47 

40,92 

77 

13,50 

17 

57,38 

43 

40,15 

78 

12,47 

18 

57,0') 

49 

39,36 

79 

11,45 

19 

56,73 

50 

31,57 

80 

10,-12 

20 

oH^H 

51 

38,76 

81 

9,38 

21 

56.02 

52 

36,94 

82 

8,34 

22 

55,C3 

53 

36,1 1 

83 

7,31 

23 

55,23 

54 

35,27 

84 

6,27 

24 

54,S1 

53 

34,41 

85 

5,23 

2.3 

54,38 

56 

33,55 

86 

4,18 

2')- 

53,93 

57 

32,68 

87 

3,1-1 

27 

53,16 

58 

31,79 

9^ 

2,09 

2S 

5-',97 

59 

30,90 

tT9 

1,01 

2!) 

52,17 

60 

30,00 

90 

0,00 

SO 

51,96 

To  use  this  table,  divide  the  assiim -d  de- 
gi'ee  into  sixty  parts  by  a  diagonal  line,  lig.  9  : 
look  for  the  number  of  miles  ansv  ering  to  tiie 
degree  of  lat.  49,  whicii  is  39,  36,  say  394, 
wiiich  lake  off  tlie.vcale,  fig.  9,  at  «,  and  set 
off  four  times  from  C  towards  A,  and  the 
same  from  C  towards  B.  The  top  meridian 
is  .")6'  of  lat.  opposite  which,  in  the  table,  is 
33,  55,  say  33^,  which  take  from  the  scale, 
lig.  9,  at  h,  and  set  olf  four  times  from  D  to- 
wards Er  and  the  same  from  1)  towards  V. 
Draw  the  meridian  lines  to  the  corresponding 
divisions  at  top  and  bottom,  of  which  0  0  is 
tlie  meridian  of  Loudon. 

Second.  When  the  meridians  and  paral- 
lels are  curved  lines. 

To  project  a  map  of  Europe  by  this  method. 
— Draw  abase  line Cj  11,  rig.  10,  in  themiddle 
of  whicli  erect  the  perpendicular  J  F,  and  as- 
sume any  distance  for  10°  of  latitude. 

Eui-ope  extends  from  36°  to  72*  X.  lat. 

Let  the  point  .1  be  30°,  from  whicli  set  off 
six  of  the  assumed  distances  to  P,  which  will 
be  the  N.  pole. 

Number  the  distances  40,  50,  60,  &-c. 

On  the  centre  B,  describe  arcs  passing 
through  the  points  of  division  on  the  line  J  I', 
which  w  ill  be  paialh'ls  of  latitude. 

Divide  the  space  assumed  for  10"  of  lat. 
into  60  parts  by  a  diagonal  line,  fig.  1 1. 

Look  into  the  foregoing  table  for  the  num- 
ber of  miles  answering  to  30",  w  hich  is  5 1 ,96, 
say  52,  which  take  from  the  scale,  fig.  1 1,  at 
b.' 

Set  this  di-tance  oir  on  the  arc  30,  30, 
from  the  centre  line  .'P  botfi  wnvs. 

Do  the  same  for  4u',  50",  60",  lS^c. 
Tluongh  the  corresponding  divisions,  on 
all  the  arcs,  draw  curve  lines;  whicli  will  re- 
jiresent  the  meridians. 

Number  llie  degrees  of  lat.  and  Ion.,  which 
will  complete  the  diagram. 

.\r.\K.VNT.\,  ftiiliifi  tirrnzi-rnot,  a  genus 
I   of  the  monogyiiia   wider,  in   the   munandria 


M  A  R 

cU«»  of  plants,  aiul  iu  tlie  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  eighth  order,  scitaniineu'. 
'liiecoiolla  is  ringenl  and  <piincjuelid,  will 
two  segments  alternately  patent.  There  are 
five  species,  all  of  them  lierlR.ceous  [lerennial 
e.\otics  of  the  Indies,  kept  lieie  in  hot-hoiisei 
for  curiosity  :  they  have  thick,  knotty,  creep- 
ing :oot-,  crowned  with  long,  broad,  arundi- 
naccous  leaves,  ending  in  points,  and  upright 
stalksjhalt  a  yard  high, terminated  by  bunches 
of  inonopetalous,  ringent,  fi\e-parted  flow- 
ers. 'I'he  root  of  the  galanga  is  used  bv  the 
Indians  to  extract  the  virus  communicated  by 
their  poi--oned  arrows  :  whence  it  has  derived 
its  iiau.e  of  arrow-root.  I'he  arundinacea, 
or  starch  plant,  rises  to  two  feet,  has  broad 
pointed  leaves,  small  white  flowers,  and  one 
seed.  It  IS  cultivated  in  gardens  and  in  pro- 
vision grounds  in  the  West  Indies;  and  the 
starch  is  obtained  trom  it  i)y  the  following 
process:  '1  he  roots  wlicn  a  yiar  old  are  dug 
I'.p,  well  washed  in  \»at  r,  and  tli.-n  beaten  in 
large  deep  wooden  mortars  to  a  pulp.  Thit 
IS  thrown  into  a  large  tub  of  clean  water. 
1  lie  whole  is  then  well  stirred,  and  the  fibrous 
part  wrung  out  by  the  haniis,  and  thrown 
away,  i'he  milky  lnjuor  b.-iiig  passed  ilirough 
a  hair-sieve,  or  coar.^e  cloili,  is  siihered  to 
settle,  and  the  clear  water  is  dra  iied  oil.  At 
llie  bottom  of  tlie  vessel  is  a  wii.te  mass, 
which  is  again  mix.;d  with  clean  water,  and 
dr;.ined :  lastly,  the  mass  is  dried  on  sheets 
in  the  sun,  and  is  pure  starch. 

AiAUATl  lA,  a  genus  of  the  cryptosamia 
hlices.  The  capsules  areovai,  a;;,'-!  •»  oiigi- 
tudiiially  at  top,  with  several  ceils  on  each 
side.      There  are  three  foreign  species. 

MARBLE,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of 
fossils,  composed  chiefly  of  lime ;  being 
bright  and  beautiful  stones,  moderately  hard, 
not  giving  fie  with  steel,  fermenting  with, 
and  soluble  in,  acid  menstrua,  and  calcining 
in  a  slight  fire.  The  word  comes  from  tlie 
French  marbre,  and  that  from  the  Latin 
mariiior,  of  the  Cireek  /n«f^aif(,y,  to  shine, 
or  glitter.     See  Lime. 

The  colours  by  w  hich  marbles  are  distin- 
guished are  almost  innumerable;  but  the 
most  rc-'inarkable  are,  1.  The  black  inarblt; 
of  Flanders.  2.  Plain  yellow.  3.  Yel'pw 
with  some  white  veins.  4.  Yellow  with 
black  dendrites.  5.  Yellow  with  brown  fi- 
gures resembling  ruins.  6.  Black  and  vcl« 
low.  7.  Black  and  white.  8.  Bale  yellow, 
with  s])ots  of  a  blackish  grey  colour.  9.  Yel- 
low, white,  and  red.  U).  "Pale  yellow.  U. 
Olive-colour,  with  dee|)er-coli  aired  cross 
lines,  a'ld  ileiidnles.  12.  HrcWMsh-red.  13. 
l''lesli  coloured  and  yellow.  14.  Common 
red  marble.  15.  Crimson,  white,  and  grey. 
16.  Heddisli-brown  lumps,  on  a  whitish 
ground.  17.  Blueish  grey.  IS.  Snowv- 
whilo. 

The  li^le^t  solid  modern  marbles  are  those 
of  It.ily,  Blankenbiiig,  France,  and  Flanders. 
It  has  also  been  lately  discovered  that  very 
fine  marble  is  c  ontaiiied  in  some  of  the  west- 
ern islands  of  Scotland.  Those  of  Cierinanv, 
Norw.iy  and  Sweden,  are  of  an  inlerior  kind, 
being  mixed  with  a  kind  of  scalv  limestone- 
ami  even  seviral  of  those  above-mentioned 
arepirtly  iinxed  with  this  substance,  though 
in  an  inleri^^r  degree.  Croiistedt,  however 
mentions  a  new  ipiarry  of  white  marble  in 
Sweden,  which,  from  the  specimens  he  had 
seen,  promised  to  be  excellent. 

'I'Ue  specific   gravity  of   marble  is  from 


Map  s 


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M  A  n 

J700to5«ft0;  tliat  of  CarriilM,  !»  vi-ry  fine 
Intliiiii  mailjli',  is  2717.  Hliuk  inurbli;  ovvTi 
itb  cylour  to  u  sliglil  iiiixturi'  of  iron,  Mr, 
BaxL'ii  foiiiid  soiiii;  wliiili  (oiikiiiieil  iWi' per 
cent,  oftlif  inital ;  notwillislaiiiiing  which  llie 
liim*  prepareil  from  it  was  wliito,  Init  in  time 
it  ac(iuir«l  an  ocliry,  or  rodilish-yi-'lluw  to- 
loi^r. 

Marble,  polixlii/ig  of,  h  performed  by 
first  nibbing  il  well  with  a  I'rcestoiit!,  or 
sjnd,  till  tlu'  strokes  of  tlie  a\e  are  worn  orf, 
then  Willi  p'nuice-slo.ie,  and  aiterwards  witli 
emery. 

MAllBLING,  in  jreneral,  tlie  painting 
any  tliine  with  veins  and  cloud*,  so  as  to  re- 
proipnt  tliose  of  marble. 

Marbling  ol  books  or  paper  is  perform- 
ed llui-i:  Diisulvo  four  ounces  of  gmn- 
arabic  into  two  ipiarts  ol  tair  svater ;  then 
provide  several  colours  mixed  with  water  in 
puts  or  shells,  and  willi  pi-ncils  peculiar  to 
each  colour,  sprinkk'  them  by  way  of  iiiter- 
mi.\lure  upon  the  gnni-waler,  wliicli  mu^t  be 
put  into  a  trough,  or  some  broad  vessel  ;  then 
with  a  stick  curl  them,  or  draw  them  out  in 
streaks,  to  as  much  variety  as  may  be  done, 
llavini^  done  this,  hold  yo.ir  book  or  books 
close  together,  and  only  <li|>  the  edges  in,  on 
the  top  of  the  water  and  coluurs,  very  lit;htlv  ; 
which  done,  take  them  oil',  and  the  plain  im- 
pression of  the  colours  in  niiivture  will  be 
upon  the  leaves  ;  doing  as  well  the  ends  as 
the  Iront  of  the  book  in  the  like  manner. 

Marbling  books  on  Ihe  covers  is  performed 
by  forming  clouds  with  aquafortis,  or  spirit  of 
vitriol  mixed  with  ink,  and  afterwards  glazing 
the  covers. 

MARCGR.WIA,  a  genus  of  the  polvan- 
dria  monogynia  class  of  plants,  the  corolla 
whereof  consists  of  a  single  jietal,  of  a  coni- 
co-oval  figure ;  and  its  fruit  is  a  globose 
berry,  with  a  single  cell,  containing  a  great 
number  of  very  small  seeds.  There  is  one 
species,  a  shrnb  of  the  West  Indies. 

MAIJCHANTIA,  a  genus  of  the  cryypto- 
gamia  class  of  plants,  the  corolla  of  which  is 
monopelalous,  tiiibinated,  and  shorter  than 
the  cup;  in  the  lower  cavity  of  wliich  there 
are  contained  several  naked  seeds,  of  a 
roundish  but  compressed  rigure.  There  are 
seven  species,  live  of  them  British. 

MARCIONI  TES,  christians  in  the  second 
century,  thus  denominated  from  their  leader 
Marcion,  who  maintained  that  there  were  two 
princi|)les  or  goils,  a  good  and  a  bad  one. 

MARCOSIANS,  a  sect  of  christians  in  the 
second  century,  so  called  from  their  leader 
Marcus,  who  represeuted  the  supreme  Ciod 
as  consisting  not  of  a  trinity,  but  a  cjuaternity, 
viz.  the  iiieliable,  silence,  the  father,  and 
truth. 

MARE.     See  Eqvus. 

MARGARI  I'ERIA,  a  genus  of  the  dice- 
cia  octandria  class  and  order.  'J'lie  male  ca- 
lyx is  four-toothed;  corolla  four-petalled. 
Female  calyx  and  corolla  as  above;  styles 
four  or  live.  There  is  one  species,  a  native 
of  Surinam. 

M.\RIC'A,  a  genus  of  the  trigynia  monogy- 
nia  class  and  order.  The  calyx  is  six-parted ; 
stigma  petal-foim,  trilid  ;  capsule  three-cell- 
ed, inferior.  There  is  one  species,  a  fleshy 
bulb  of  Guiana. 

MABILL.V,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
polyandria  monogynia.  The  c;ilyx  is  live- 
leaved  ;  corolla  five-petalled ;  capsule  four- 

Vot.  II. 


MAR 

ceMi'd,  nmny-spedad  ;  stigma  .shiipl'v    Ther" 
:%  Oiie  -pecjcs,  a  native  of  tile  \\  e^l  Indies. 

M.VK  K,  kniij^hls  of  St.,  an  order  of  knight- 
hood in  the  re)iublic  of  \'eiii(  e,  under  the 
protection  of  St.  M.irk  the  evaiigeli-t.  The 
arms  of  the  order  are,  gules,  a  lion  winged 
or,  with  this  device)  "  Pax  lil)i  Marce  evaii- 
gelista."  This  order  is  never  conferred  but 
on  those  who  have  done  signal  service  to  the 
coniiiionwealth. 

Mark,  or  Marc,  also  denotes  a  weight 
used  in  several  slates  of  Europe,  and  lor  se- 
veral commodities,  espciallv  gold  and  silver. 
In  France,  the  mark  is  divideil  into  8  oz.  or 
64  drachms,  or  192  derniers  or  pennyweights, 
or  ItJO  esteriines,  or  300  m.iiUes,  or  C4b  fe- 
lins,  or  46US  grains,  in  Holland  the  mark- 
weight  is  also  called  tro\  -weigi.l,  and  is  ecpial 
to  that  of  France.  When  gold  and  silver  are 
soltl  by  the  mark,  it  is  divided  into  24caracts. 

Mark  ii  aUo  used  among  n^  for  a  money  j 
of  account,  and  in  some  other  countries  for  a 
coin.  The  English  mark  is  two-thirds  of  a 
pound  sterling,  or  13s.  4rf.  afid  tlie  Scotch 
mark  is  of  emuil  value  in  Scotch  money  of 
account.  The  mark-lubs,  or  lubeck-niark, 
used  at  Hamburgh,  is  also  a  monev  of  ac- 
co'.int,  equal  to  one-third  of  the  rix-ifollar,  or 
to  the  Ereiich  livre:  each  mark  is  divided 
into  10  sols-lubs.  Mark-lubs  is  aUo  a  Da-  { 
iiish  coin  equal  to  16  .sols-lubs.  Mark  is  also 
a  copper  and  silver  coin  in  Sweden. 

MARKET.  A  market  is  less  than  a  fair,  ' 
and  is  commonly  held  once  or  tsvice  a  week. 
According  to  Bracton,  one  market  ought  to 
be  distant  from  all  otiiers  at  least  six  miles 
and  a  half  and  a  third  of  a  half:  but  no 
market  is  to  be  kept  within  seven  miles  of  the 
city  of  London  ;  but  all  butchers,  victuallers, 
&c.  may  hire  stalls  and  standings  in  the  tlesh- 
markels  tliere,  and  sell  meat  and  other  provi- 
sions, four  days  in  a  week.  Every  per.son 
who  has  a  marl^et  is  entitled  to  receive  toll 
for  the  things  sold  in  it  ;  and,  by  antient  cus- 
tom, for  things  standing  in  the  market,  though 
nothing  be  sold  :  but  by  keeping  a  market  in 
any  other  manner  than  it  is  granted,  or  ex- 
torting of  tolls  or  fees  where  none  are  due,  \ 
tliev  may  be  forfeited.  i 

fn  London  every  siiop  in  which  goods  are 
exposed  publiclv  to  sale,  is  market  overt  for 
sucli  things  only  as  the  owner  professes  to 
trade  in  :  though  if  the  sale  is  in  a  warehouse, 
and  not  publiclv  in  the  shop,  the  property  is 
not  altered.  IJut  if  goods  are  stolen  fiom 
one,  and  sold  out  of  the  market  overt,  the 
property  is  not  altered,  and  the  owner  may 
take  them  wherever  he  finds  them.  5  Rep. 8.3, 

If  a  man  buy  his  ow  n  goods  in  a  market, 
the  contract  shall  not  bind  liim,  unless  the 
property  had  been  previously  altered  by  a 
former  sale. 

MARLE.  A  mixture  of  carbonat  of  lime 
and  clay,  in  which  the  carbonat  consi- 
derably exceeds  the  other  ingredient,  is 
called  marie.  Its  structure  is  earthy. 
Opaque,  sometimes  in  powder.  Specific 
gravity  from  1.6  to  2.877.  Colour  usually 
grey,  often  tinged  with  other  colours.  Ef- 
fervesces with  acids.  Some  marles  crumble 
into  powder  when  exposed  to  the  air  ;  others 
retain  their  hardness  for  many  years.  Mnrles 
may  be  divided  into  two  varieties:  1.  Those 
which  contain  more  silica  than  alumina.  2. 
Those  which  contain  more  alumina  than  sili- 
ca. Mr.  Kirwan  has  called  the  first  of  these 
siliceous,  the  second  argillaceous  marles.  At- 
O 


MAR 


\05 


tend  in  «lioii!«I  be  paid  to  this  (lialinctjoii  when 
marles  are  u.sed  as  a  manure. 

^\.k:<.\t.,  hiluminoKs,  is  found  in  tlinerent 
pari-  of  Germany.  Colour  greyi-h  orbruwn- 
isii-bl.ick.  J''ound  ma>Sive.  Shi.itosc.  Plates 
Hat  or  waved.  Opacpie.  Feels  soft.  Easily 
bioken.  Moderately  licivy.  Eflervesi'Ci 
with  acidi-s.  iiuriis  befo:e  the  blowpipe, 
leaving  black  scorta*. 

MARLIN.S,  in  artillery,  are  tarred  whilo 
skains,  or  long  wreaths  or  line  s  of  untwisted 
h  nip,  ilii)ped  in  pitcli  or  tar,  with  which  ca- 
bles and  other  ropes  are  wrapped  round,  to 
prevent  their  fretting  and  rubbing  in  the 
blocks  or  pulleys  th.ough  whicii  they  pass. 
The  same  serves  in  artillery  upon  ropes  used 
for  ligaiug  gins,  usually  put  up  in  siiiail  par- 
cels called  skains. 

MAR.MOITE.     See  Mus. 

.M.VUQn;.     See  \.^^^^^a.i  nf  Morqw. 

MARCfUErRY,  or  Inlaid  work,  is  a 
curious  work  composed  of  several  line  hard 
pieces  of  wood,  of  vnrious  colours,  fastened 
in  thin  slices  on  a  ground,  aiid  sometimes  en- 
riched with  otiier  maiters, as  silver,  biass,  tor- 
tnise-sln.ll,andiv<ir)  ;  with  the-e  assistances  the 
art  is  now  capable  of  imitaling  any  thing, 
wlieiue  it  is  by  some  called  the  ait  of  paint- 
ing i:i  wood. 

The  ground  on  which  the  pieces  are  to  be 
arranged  and  gluid  is  usually  of  well-dried 
oak  or  deal ;  and  is  composed  of  several  pieces 
glued  together,  to  prevent  its  warping.  The 
wood  to  be  used  in  iiianjiielry  is  reduced  into 
leaves  of  the  thickness  of  a  "line,  or  the  12th 
pari  of  an  inch,  and  is  either  of  its  natural 
colour^  or  stained,  or  made  black  to  form  the 
shades  by  other  metliuds:  this  some  perform 
by  putting  it  in  sand  heated  very  hot  over  tlie 
lire;  others  by  steeping  it  in  lime-water  and 
sublimate  ;  and  others  in  oil  of  sulpliur.  The 
wood  be;ng  of  the  prep  r  colours,  the  con- 
tours of  the  pieces  are  formed  according  to 
the  parts  of  the  design  thev  ..re  to  represent : 
this  is  the  most  ditlicult  part  of  marquetry, 
and  tl-.at  which  requires  the  most  patience  and 
attention. 

The  two  chief  instruments  used  in  this 
work  are  a  saw  and  a  wooden  vice,  which  has 
one  of  its  chaps  fixed,  and  the  other  move- 
able ;  which  is  open  and  shut  by  the  foot,  by 
means  of  a  (  ord  fastened  to  a  treadle. 

MARQUIS,  a  title  of  honour,  next  in  dig- 
nity to  that  of  duke,  first  given  to  those  who 
commanded  the  m.irches,  that  is,  the  borders 
and  frontiers  of  countries. 

M.'.rquises  were  not  known  in  England 
ti  1  the  reign  of  king  Richard  II.  and  the  ye;x 

ij.ir. 

MxVRRIAGE,  a  contract,  both  civil  and 
religious,  between  a  man  and  a  woman. 

Taking  marriage  in  the  light  of  a  civil  con- 
tract, the  law  treats  it  as  it  does  all  other  con- 
tracts: allowing  it  to  be  good  and  valid  in  all 
cases  where  the  parties,  at  the  time  of  making 
it,  wcie,  in  the  first  place,  willing  to  con- 
tract;  secondly,  able  to  contract ;  and,  last- 
ly, actually  did  contract  in  tlie  proper  forms 
and  solemnities  required  bv  law.  1  Black. 
433. 

By  several  statutes  a  penalty  of  100/.  is 
inflictejl  for  marrying  any  persons  without 
banns  or  licence.  But  by  2j  G.  II.  c.  o3,  if 
any  person  shall  so!emni,!e  matrimony  with- 
out banns  or  licence  obtained  from  some  per- 
sons having  authority  to  grant  the  same,  or  in 
I  any  other  plage  than  a  thuich  or  chapel  where 


lOO" 


M  A  R 


banns  have  been  iisii.-i'ly  publisheil,  uiik'ss  by 
spt-cial  licence  from  the  archbisliop  of  Can- 
terbury, he  shall  be  ^nilty  of  felony,  ami 
transported  for  14  yeari,  and  the  marriage 
shall  be  void. 

MARROW.     See.  Anatomy. 

MARRUGIUM,  ivhitt:  hirtkound,  a  aci- 
nus of  the  gynino'^permia  order,  in  Uie  didy- 
lip.l>iia  clas.i  (;f  plan'.s,  and  in  tiic  natural  nie- 
tlud  ranUing  under  the  42d  order,  verticiUa- 
tuc.  l"lie  calvx  is  salver- shaped,  rigid,  and 
ten-striated;  tlie  upper  Up  of  the  corolla  bilid, 
linear,  and  straight.  I'here  are  1 1  sptties, 
the  most  reniarUitble  of  which  is  the  vnlgare, 
a  native  of  Britain,  growing  natni  ally-  in 
waste  places,  and  by  way-sides  near  towns  and 
villages,  but  not  common.  It  h.is  a  strong 
and  somewhat  musky  smell,  and  bitter  taste. 
It  is  reputed  attenu'mt  and  resolvent ;  an  in- 
fusion of  the  leave-;  in  water,  sweetened  witii 
honey,  is  recommended  in  aslhmatic  and 
phthisical  complaints,  and  most  other  diseases 
of  the  breast  and  lungs. 

M;lliS,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the  superior 
planet-;,  moving  round  the  sun  in  an  orbit  be- 
tween tho?,c  oi  the  earth  and  Jupiter.     See 

ASTROXOMV. 

MARSHAL,  in  its  primary  signilication, 
mean 5  an  olliter  who  has  tlie  command  or 
care  of  horses  ;  but  it  is  now  applied  to  ofii- 
cers  who  have  very  different  employments, 
us  eai-1-marshal,  kniglit-niarshal,  or  marshal 
of  the  king's  house,  &c. 

Marshal  of  the  kings  b^wh,  an  officer 
who  lias  the  custody  of  the  king's  bench  |jri- 
son  in  Southwark.     This  officer  is  obliged  to 
give  his  attendance,  and  to  tak^  into  his  cus- 
tody all  pi'rsons  committed  by  that  court. 
MARSH.-iL  p/7/(f  f.rc/fff^.'K-r,  an  officer  to 
-  whom  that  ourt  commits  the  king's  debtors. 
MARSHALLF.A,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order    syngenesia  polygamia  a;qualis,   little 
known. 

.MARSHALLING  a  coat,  in  heraldry, 
is  tiie  disposal  of  several  coats  of  arms  belong- 
ing to  distinct  families,  in  one  and  the  same 
•■scutcheon  or  sliield,  together  with  tlieir  or- 
naments, parts,  and  appurtenances. 

MARSHALS EA-couRT,  is  a  court  of  re- 
cord, originally  instituted  to  hear  and  deter- 
mine causes  betw-een  the  servants  of  tlu 
king's  household  and  others  within  the  verge 
of  tlie  court,  and  liasjnrisdiction  of  things  within 
tneverge  of  tl!ecourt,and  of  pleas  of  trespass, 
where  either  party  is  of  the  king's  family,  and 
of  ailolher  actions  personal,  wHcrcinboth  par- 
ties are  the  king's  servants ;  but  the  court  has 
also  power  to  try  all  personal  actions,  as  debt, 
trespass,  slander,  trover,  action  on  the  case, 
&.C.  between  party  and  party,  tlie  libeity 
whereof  extencis  12  miles  about  Whitehall. 

Tiiejudijes  of  this  court  are  tiie  steward 
of  the  king's  household,  and  high-marshal  for 
the  time  being  ;  the  steward  of  the  court,  or 
his  deputy,  is  generally  an  eminent  counsel. 

If  a  cause  of  importance  is  brought  in  this 
court,  it  is  generally  removed  into  the  court 
of  king's  bench  or  common  pleas  by  a  ha- 
beas corpus  cum  causa. 

MAUSILEA,  a  genus  of  (lie  cryptogamia 
class  of  plants,  without  any  corolla  or  cup  : 
the  anthera;  arc  four,  and  placed  on  an  ob- 
tusely conic  body  ;  the  fruit  is'  of  a  roundish 
lignre,  consisting  of  four  cells,  in  each  of 
which  are  contained  several  roundish  seeds. 
There  arc  three  sjjecies. 


MAS 

Under  tiiis  genus  are  comprehended  the 
salvinia  of  Miclieli,  and  piliilaria  of  Dillenius. 

MAR'ilAL  LAW,  is  tiie  law  of  war,  which 
entirely  depends  on  the  arbitrary  power  of 
the  prince,  or  of  those  to  whom  he  has  de- 
legated it.  For  though  the  king  can  make 
no  laws  in  time  of  peace  without  thj  consent 
of  parliament,  yet  in  time  of  war  he  uses  an 
absolute  power  over  the  amy. 

MAR  i  IN.      See   Hirundo,  and  Mus- 


TELA. 

MARTLETS,  in  heraldry,  little  birds  re- 
presented wi'.hout  feet,  and  used  as  a  dilier- 
ence  ov  mark  of  distinction  for  younger  bro- 
thers. 

MARTNETS,  in  a  ship,  small  lines  fasten- 
ed to  the  leech  of  a  sail,  reeved  through  a 
block  on  the  topmastdiead,  and  coining  down 
by  the  mast  to  the  deck.  Their  use  is  to 
l-.ring  the  leech  of  the  sail  close  to  the  yard 
to  be  furled. 

M.\RTYNIA,  a  genus  of  the  angiosper- 
mia  order,  in  t'ne  didynaniia  ciass  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
loth  order,  p-.-rsonala'.  The  calyx  is  quin- 
qucfid  ;  the  corolla  ringent,  the  capsule  lig- 
neous, covered  with  a  bark,  with  a  liooked 
beak,  trilocular,  and  bivahed.  -There  are  CO 
species,  tender,  herbaceous,  flowery,  plants 
of  South  .Vinerica. 

AL\RY(JOLD.  See  Calendule  ;  andfor 

M\RSH-MARYG0LD,  See  CalTHA. 

MASON,  a  person  emplo)  ed  under  the 
direction  of  an  architect,  in  the  raising  of  a 
stone  building.     See  Architecture. 

MASSETKR.     See  A.s'atomy. 

M.-\SSlCOT,  a  name  given  to  the  yellow- 
oxide  of  lead,  as  minium  is  applied  to  the  red 
o.xide. 

M.-VSSONIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der hexandria  monogynia.  The  corolla  is  infe- 
rior, with  (i-pa;  ted  border  ;'iilaments  on  the 
ueckof  the  tube  ;  capsule  3-winged,  3-celled, 
many-seeded.  There  are  four  species,  bulbs 
of  the  Cape. 

MAST,  in  naval  architecture,  a  large  tim- 
ber in  a  ship,  for  sustaining  the  yards,  sails, 

CXC. 

In  large  vessels  there  are  four  masts,  vtz. 
the  mainmast,  foremast,  mizenmast,  and  bow- 
sprit. The  mainmast  is  the  principal  one, 
standing  in  the  middle  of  the  ship:  its  length, 
according  to  some,  should  be  2^  that  of  the 
midship-beam.  Others  give  tlie  following 
rule  for  lituiing  its  length,  viz.  multiply  tlie 
breadth  of  the  ship,  in  feet,  by  24;  from  the 
product  cut  off  the  last  ligurc  towards  the 
right  harid,  and  the  rest  will  be  the  length 
required.  Thus  suppose  the  length  of  the 
mitlship-beam  was'30  feet ;  then  30  x  24=' 
720,  fiom  which  cutting  off  the  last  figure, 
there  remains  72  feet  for  the  length  of  the 
mainmast.  And  as  for  the  thicknpss  of  the 
muiiima  t,  it  is  usual  to  allow  an  inch  to  every 
yard  in  length.     See  Ship-buildixg. 

MASTER  AND  SEii.VAN'T.  In  London 
and  other  jilaces  the  mode  of  hiring  is  by  what 
is  co.iimonly  called  a  month's  warning  or  a 
month's  wages :  that  is,  the  parties  agree  to  se- 
parate on  either  of  them  giving  (o  the  other  a 
month's  notice  for  that  i)urpose  ;  or,  in  lieu 
thereof,  the  party  requiring  the  separation  to 
pay,  or  give  up,  a  month's  wages.  ]?ut  if  the 
lilring  of  a  servant  is  general,  without  any 
particular  time  specified,  it  will  be  construed 
to  be  a  liirini;  for  a  year  certain  ;  and  in  Ihis 
case  if  thfe  servant  departs  before  the  year,  he 


M  A  S 

forfeits  all  his  wages.  Noy,  Max.  107.  And 
where  a  servant  is  hired  for  one  year  certain, 
and  so  frjm  year  lo  year  as  long  as  both  par- 
ties shall  agree,  and  the  servant  enters  upon 
a  second  year^  he  must  serve  out  that  year, 
and  is  not  merely  a  servant  at  will  aft^r  the 
first  year.  If  a  woman-servant  marries  sl.e 
must  neverlliel.'ss  serve  out  her  term  ;  and 
lierliusband  cannot  take  her  out  of  her  mas- 
ter's service. 

If  a  servant  is  disabled  ii  liis  master's  ser- 
vice by  an  injury  received  through  another's 
default,  the  master  may  recover  damages  for 
loss  of  his  service.  And  also  a  m.tster  may 
not  only  niainlain  an  action  against  any  one 
w  ho  entices  away  his  servant,  but  also  against 
tlie  servant;  and  if  without  any  enticement  a 
servant  leaves  his  master  without  just  cause, 
an  action  w.W  lie  against  another  who  retain^ 
him  with  a  knowledge  of  sucii  dejiarlure. 

A  master  has  a  just  right  to  expect  and  ex- 
act fidelity  and  obedience  in  all  his  lawful 
commands;  and  to  enforce  this  he  may  cor- 
rect his  servant  in  a  reasonable  manne'r,  but 
this  correction  must  be  to  enforce  the  just 
and  lawful  commands  of  the  master.  Bui. 
N.  P.  18. 

In  defence  of  Ills  master  a  servant  may  jus- 
tify assaulting  another ;  and  though  "death 
should  ensue  it  is  not  murder,  in  case  of 
any  unlawful  attack  upon  his  master's  person 
or  ))ropcrty. 

Acts  of  the  servant  are,  in  many  instances, 
deemed  acts  of  the  master ;  for  as  it  is  by  iii- 
duls;ence  of  law  that  he  can  delegate  the 
power  of  acting  for  him  to  another,  it  is  just 
he  should  answer  for  such  substitute,  and 
that  Ills  acts  being  pursuant  to  the  authority 
given  him,  should  be  deemed  the  acts  of  his 
master.  4  Bac.  Abr.  b'ii.  If  a  servant  com- 
mits an  act  of  trespass  by  command  or  en- 
couragement of  liis  master,  the  master  will 
be  an.iwerable  ;  but  in  so  doing  his  servant  is 
not  excused,  as  he  is  bound  to  obey  the  mas- 
ter in  such  things  only  as  are  honest  and 
lawhil. 

If  a  servant  of  an  innkeeper  robs  his  master's 
guest,  tlie  master  is  bound  to  make  good  the 
loss.  Also,  if  a  waiter  at  an  inn  sells  a  man 
bad  wine,  by  which  his  health  is  impaired,  an 
action  will  go  against  the  master  :  for  his  per- 
mitting him  lo  sell  it  to  any  person  is  deemed 
an  inqilied  gv:neral  command.  1  Black.  430. 
In  like  manner  if  a  servant  is  fr.tquenily  pcr- 
mitte.l  to  do  a  thing  by  the  tacit  consent  of 
his  master,  the  master  will  be  liable,  as  such 
permission  is  equivalent  to  a  general  com- 
mand. 

If  a  servant  is  usually  sent  upon  trust  with 
any  tradesman,  and  he  takes  goods  in  the 
name  of  his  master  upon  his  own  account,  the 
master  must  jiay  for  (hem  :,  and.  so  likewise 
if  he  is  sent  sometimes  on  trust,  and  other 
times  with  money  ;  for  it  is  not  possible  for 
the  tradesman  to  knov.'  when  lie  comes  by  the 
order  of  his  master,  and  when  by  his  own  au- 
IhorKy,  or  when  with  and  without  money.  1 
Str.  506.  Tnit  if  a  man  usually  deals  with  his 
tradesmen  himself,  or  constantly  pays  them 
ready  money,  he  is  not  answerable  for  what 
his  servant  may  take  up  in  his  name  ;  for  in 
this  case  there  is  not,  as  in  the  other,  any  im- 
plied order  to  trust  him.  Or  if  the  niastcr 
never  had  any  personal  dealings  with  the 
tradisman,  but  the  contracts  have  always 
been  between  the  servant  and  the  tradesman, 
and  themaster  has  regularly  given  his  ser- 


MAS 

vaiit  money  for  payment  of  every  lliiiig  liatl 
oil  Ills  account,  the  master  shall  not  be  char- 
god.  Esp.  N.  P.  1 15.  t)r  il  a  person  forbids 
ills  ^rade^lnen  to  trust  his  servant  on  his  ac- 
count, an-1  he  coj)ti;iues  to  purchase  upon 
credit,  he  is  not  liable.  The  act  of  a  ser- 
vant, though  lie  has  qu  tied  his  master's  ser- 
vice, has  been  h^-ld  to  be  iiinding  upon  the 
roaster,  by  reason  of  tli  ?  former  credit  given 
him  on  his  master's  account,  and  it  not  being 
knosvn  to  the  party  tiusling  that  he  was  dis- 
charged.    4  Bac.  Abr.  580. 

The  iiiaster  is  also  answerable  for  any  in- 
jury arising  by  the  fault  or  neglect  of  his  ser- 
vant v.'hen  executing  his  maslei-'s  business,  (5 
T.  R.  t)J9  :  but  it  there  is  no  neglect  or  default 
in  the  servant  the  master  is  not  liable.  Esp. 
Rep.  533. 

If  a  smith's  servant  lames  a  horse  whilst 
shoeing  him,  or  the  servant  of  a  surgeon 
makes  a  wound  worse,  in  both  these  cases  an 
action  for  damages  will  lie  against  tlie  master, 
and  not  against  the  servant.  But  the  damage 
must  be  done  while  the  servant  is  actually 
employed  in  his  master's  service,  otherwise 
he  is  liable  to  answer  for  his  own  misbeha- 
viour or  neglect. 

A  master  is  likewise  chargeable  if  his  ser- 
vant casls  any  dirt,  &c.  out  of  the  houie  into 
the  common  street  ;  and  so  for  any  other  nui- 
sance occasioned  by  his  servants,  to  the  da- 
mage or  annoyance  of  any  individual,  or  the 
common  nuisance  of  his  majesty's  people. 
Lord  Raym.  264. 

A  servant  is  not  answerable  to  Ii;s  master 
for  any  loss  which  may  happen  without  his 
wilful  neglect;  but  if  he  is  guilty  of  fraud  or 
gross  negligence,  an  action  will  lie  against 
liim  by  his  master. 

A  master  is  not  liable  in  trespass  for  the 
wilful  act  of  his  servant ;  as  by  driving  his 
master's  carriage  against  another,  done  with- 
out the  direction  or  assent  of  his  master,  no 
person  being  in  the  carriage  when  the  act 
was  done.  But  lie  is  liable  to  answer  for  any 
damage  arising  to  another  from  the  negli- 
gence or  unskilfulness  of  his  servant  acting  in 
his  piiiplov.  M'islanus  v.  Crickitt,  Mich. 
4lG.  If[." 

Master  of  arts,  is  the  first  degree  taken 
up  in  foreign  uiiiver.>ities,  and  for  the  most 
part  in  those  of  Scotland,  but  the  second  in 
Oxford  and  Cambridge;  candidates  not  be- 
ing admitted  to  it  till  tliey  have  studied  seven 
years  in  the  university. 

Master  in  chancery.  The  masters  in 
chancery  are  assisUnts  to  the  lord  chancellor 
and  master  of  the  roll« ;  of  these  there  are 
some  ordinary,  and  others  extraordinary :  the 
masters  in  ordinary  are  12  in  number,  some 
of  whom  sit  in  court  every  day  during  the 
term,  and  have  referred  to  them  interlocutory 
orders  for  staling  accounts,  and  computing 
damages  and  the  like  ;  atid  they,  also  admi- 
nister oaths,  take  affidavits,  and  acknow- 
ledgments ol  deeds  and  recognizances.  1"he 
masters-extraordinary  are  appointed  to  act 
in  the  country,  in  the  several  counties  of 
Kngland,  beyond  10  miles  distant  from  Lon- 
don ;  by  takingallldavits,  recognizances,  ac- 
knowledgments of  deeds,  ic.  for  the  ease  of 
the  suitors  of  the  court. 

Master  OF  the  faculties,  an  oflicer 
under  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who 
grants  licences  and  dispensations. 

Master,  of  the  horse,  a  great  officer 
of  th-j  crowi!^  who  orders  aU  matters  relating 


MAS 

to  the  king's  stables,  races,  br*td  of  horses, 
and  commands  the  equerries  and  all  the 
other  ollicersand  tradesmen  employed  in  the 
king's  stables.  His  coaches,  horses,  and  at- 
tendants, are  the  king's,  and  bear  the  king's 
arms  and  livery. 

IvfASTEK  OP  THE  ORDNANCE,  a   great  of- 

hcer,  who  has  tlie  chief  command  of  the 
king's  ordnance  and  artillery. 

Master  of  the  rolls,  is  an  assistant  to 
the  lord  chancellor  of  Kngland  in  the  iiigh 
court  of  chancery  ;  and  in  his  absence  hears 
causes  (here,  and  gives  orders.  His  sa- 
lary is  12a0/.  pcrannum. 

Master  of  a  ship,  the  same  with  cap- 
tain in  a  merchantman  ;  but  in  a  king's  ship 
he  is  an  officer  who  inspects  the  provisions 
and  stores,  and  acquaints  the  captain  with 
w  hat  is  not  good,  takes  particular  care  pf  the 
rigging  and  of  the  ballast,  and  gives  directions 
■for  stowing  the  hold;  he  navigates  the  ship 
under  the  directions  of  his  superior  ofiicer ; 
sees  that  the  log  and  log-book  are  duly 
kept ;  observes  the  appearance  of  coasts ;  and 
notes  down  in  his  journal  any  new  shoals  or 
rocks  under  water,  with  tiieir  bearing  and 
depth  of  water,  &:c. 

Master  at  arms,  in  a  king's  ship,  an 
ofticer  who  daily,  by  turns,  as  the  captain  ap- 
points,  is  to  exek-cise  the  petty  officers  a-.d 
ship's  company;  to  place  and  relieve  senti- 
nels ;  to  see  the  candles  and  fire  put  out  ac- 
cording to  the  captain's  orders  ;  to  take  care 
the  small  arms  are  kept  in  good  order,  and  to 
observe  the  diivctions  of  the  lieutenant  at 
arms. 

MASK,  in  field  fortification  :  it  sometimes 
happens  that  a  ditch  or  fosse  must  be  dug  in 
an  exposed  situation  ;  in  this  case  it  will  be  ab- 
solutely necessary  for  the  artificers  and  work- 
men to  get  under  cover  by  means  of  mask- 
ing themselves  in  such  a  manner  as  to  answer 
the  double  purpose  of  executing  their  imme- 
diate object,  and  of  deceiving  the  enemy  with 
respect  to  the  real  spot  they  occupy. 

To  eliect  the  latter  purpose  several  masks 
must  be  hastily  thrown  up,  whilst  the  men  are 
employed  behind  one;  by  which  means  the 
enemy  will  either  mi^lllke  the  real  point,  or 
be  induced  to  pour  his  fire  in  several  direc- 
tions, and  thus  weaken  its  effect. 

A  mask  is  generally  six  feet  high.  Bags 
made  of  wad  or  wool  are  too  expensive  on 
these  occasions  ;  nor  are  gabions,  stuffed  with 
fascines,  seven  or  eight  feet  high,  to  be  pre- 
ferred ;  for  if  tlie  fascines  are  tied  together 
they  wUl  leave  spaces  between  them  in  the  ga- 
bions; ;nd  if  they  are  not  bound  together, 
Ihey  will  be  so  open  at  top  as  to  admit  shot, 
&:c'. 

In  order  to  obviate  these  inconveniences 
the  following  method  has  been  proposed : 
Place  two  chandeliers,  each  seven  feet  high 
and  two  broad,  between  the  upriahts,  after 
«  liich  fill  up  the  vacant  spaces  with  fascines 
nine  feet  high,  upon  six  inches  diameter.  One 
toise  and  a  half  olepaulement  will  require  two 
cliandeliers  and  60  fascines  to  mask  it. 

_  The  engineer,  or  artilk-ry  officer,  places 
himself  behind  this  mask,  and  draws  his  plan. 

As  you  must  necessarily  have  earth,  c'jc.  to 
complete  your  work,  these  articles  may  be 
brought  in  shovels,  sacks,  or  baskets  ;'  and 
if  the  quarter  w^hence  you  draw  them  should 
be  exposed  to  the  enemy's  lire,  cover  that 
O  2 


M  A  T 


iO? 


line,  as  v.cli  a5  the  line  of  communication, 
bctw  een  the  trenches,  or  the  parallels,  with  a 
ma.-'k. 

If  you  cannot  procure  earth  ar.d  fascine;, 
make  use  of  sacks  stuffed  w  ith  wool,  &c.  and 
let  tl-.eir  diameters  be  three  feet,  and  their 
length  likewise  three ;  and  let  llie  outside  be 
frequently  wetted  to  prevent  them  from 
catching  fire. 

MASTOIDE.S.    See  Anatomy. 

MATCH,  a  kind  of  rope  slightly  twisted, 
and  prepared  to  retain  fire  for  the  n'scs  of  ar- 
tillery, mines,  fireworks,  &c.  It  is  made  of 
hempen  tow,  spun  on  the  wheel  like  cord, 
but  very  slack  ;  and  is  cop.iposed  of  three 
twists,  which  are  aJtcrwards  again  covered 
with  tow,  so  that  the  twists  do  not  appear  -, 
lastly,  it  is  holed  in  the  lees  of  old  wines. 
Tills,  when  once  lighted  at  the  end,  burns  on 
gradually  and  regularly,  wilhuul  ever  going 
out,  till  tlw  whole  is  consumed:  the  hardest 
aiul  driest  match  is  generally  the  best. 

Match,  quick,  used  in  artillery,  is  made 
of  three  cotton  strands  drawn  into  lengths,  and 
put  into  a  kettle  just  covered  with  whltr-wine 
vinegar,  and  then  a  quantity  of  saltpetre  and 
mealed  powder  is  put  into  it,'and  boiled  liil  well 
mixed.  Others  put  only  saltpetre  into  water, 
and  afti-r  that  take  it  out  hot,  and  lav  it  into 
a  trough  with  some  mealed  powder,  liioisteii- 
ed  with  some  spirits  of  wine,  thoroughly 
wrought  into  the  cotton  by  rolling  it  backwards 
and  forwards  with  the  hands ;  and  wlu-n  this 
is  done  they  are  taken  out  separately,  rirawu 
through  mealed  powder,  and  dried  upon  a 
line. 

MATERIA  MEDICA.  "  The  materia 
inedica  (says  Dr.  Darwin)  includes  all  those 
substances  which  may  contribute  to  the  re- 
storation of  health."  If,  however,  medicine 
be  defined  the  art  of  nrc-c tilling,  as  well  as 
of  curing,  diseases,  the  science  of  which  we 
are  now  to  treat  otight,  by  consequence,  ti> 
comprehend  the  preservatives  of  living  ex- 
istence, as  well  as  the  restoratives  of  heallhv 
action.  Instead,  therefore,  of  restricting 
this  article  to  the  mere  enumeration  and  dis'^ 
cussion  of  drugs,  we  shall,  in  the  first  place, 
introduce  some  general  remarks  on  those  sub- 
stances which  are  employed  as  articles  of  diet 
or  food. 

PART  I. 

dietetics. 

Organic  life  appears  to  be  influenced  and 
supported  by  two  leading  principles:  I  si. 
fibrous  excitation  ;  and,  2dly,  the  substitu- 
tion of  nutritious  ])articles,  in  place  of  tho.;s 
which  are  constantly  dissipated  or  abraded. 
The  power  by  w  hit  h  this  last  object  is  clfected 
has  been  denominated  by  the  author  of  Zco- 
nomia,  animal  appetency.  The  principal  and 
prime  organs  by  which  it  is  exerted,  or  the 
media  through  which  new  matter  is  originally 
communicated,  are  those  which  are  te'nieil 
the  digestive  and  assimilating:  it  has,  how- 
ever, recently  been  conjectured  that  tlie  or- 
gans of  digestion  are  not  the  sole  organs  of 
nutrition,  but  that  both  the  external  surface 
of  the  body,  and  likewise  the  lungs,  are  me- 
dia for  the  admission  int  •  the  system  of  pi-!- 
per  nutritive  matter.  Accordingly  we  iiiid 
the  class  nutrientia,  ui  the  materia  medisa  of 
the  author  just  quoted,  to  comprehenU  not 
merely  those  substances  which  are  receivci 


103 

into  the  stomach  as  foorl,  but  also  the  matter 
which  U  taken  into  the  lungs  in  the  act  of  re- 
spiration, as  likewise  air,  water,  and  other 
substances  that  niav  he  applied  naturally  or 
artiticially  to  the  outer  skin.  To  enquire  into 
the  grounds  upon  which  this  doctrine  is  esta- 
bli-  hed,  that  the  lungs,  the  stomach,  and  the 
surface  of  the  body,  each  affords  instrunionts 
in  coinmun  of  actual  nutrition,  does  not  fall 
within  the  province  of  the  present  article. 
See  Physiology.  It  will  be  proper  here  to 
confine  ourselves  to  the  general  consideration 
of  wiiat  is  usually  denominated  animal  and 
vegetable  diet. 

OF  ANIMAL  FOOD. 

That  man  is  designed  by  nature  for  a  mix- 
ture of  animal  and  vegetable  food,  is  obvious 
from  the  structure  of  his  orgai.s,  both  of  mas- 
tication and  digestion.  That  the  fiesh  of  ani- 
mals contains  moie  nutritire  ■■■atter,  and  that 
it  stimulates  the  absoibent  and  secerning  ves- 
sels more  p  nverfullv,  than  vegetable  aliment, 
is  demonstrated  by  the  sup-'rior  warmtli  and 
strength  which  in  a  state  of  h^-alth  we  expe- 
rience afterame.,1  ofllesh  than  of  vegetables: 
of  the  former  (animal  lle^h),  that,  in  general, 
which  is  of  the  darkest  colour,  contaiiia  more 
nutritive  matter,  and  stiiiuilales  our  vessels 
with  more  energy,  than  the '.vhite  kinds  :  in- 
deed the  liesh  of  those  animals  which  are 
carnivorous,  or  which  live  entirely  on  animal 
lood,  seldom  enters  into  the  diet  of  Euro- 
pean, or  civilized  nations.  The  "reater  sti- 
mul..ting  virtue  of  this  kind  of  food  has  been 
attributed  to  the  greater  quantity  which  it  has 
been  siippo  ed  to  contain  of  volatile  alkali. 
Dr.  Dar»in,  however,  properly  questions 
•whether  it  is  not  rather  the  elements  only  of 
this  principle  that  are  contained  even  in  the 
btrongest  dark-coloured  animal  tlesh. 

Next  in  strength  to  the  llesh  of  carnivorous 
animals  ought  to  rank  that  o*'  those  animals 
when  killed  after  full  growth,  the  young  ot' 
which  afford  a  softer,  whiter;  more  digestible, 
but  less  nutritious,  food,  such  as  the  sheep, 
the  bullock,  the  hog,  and  likewise  several  of 
the  sliell-hsh,  as  lobsters,  crabs,  muscles,  &c. 
in  which  class  may  likewise  be  enumerated 
several  fish  that  are  destitute  of  scales  or 
shells,  as  eel,  barholt,  tench,  snn'lt,  turtle, 
lurbot.  Of  the  fowl  kind  the  bustard,  wood- 
pecker, starling,  sparrow,  goose,  duck,  and 
lapwing,  ought  to  be  arranged  in  this  second 
class.  'I'hese,  with  a  due  mixture  of  veget- 
able aliment,  constilule  the  best  kinds  of  food 
for  healthy  and  athletic  iiLlividuals,  whose  di- 
gestion is  powerful,  and  who  have  a  firm 
libre. 

The  flesh  of  young  animals,  as  of  lamb, 
veal, and  sucking  pigs,a(Tord  a  less  stinuilating 
and  nutritious,  but  more  digestible  food : 
these  meats  are  consequently  most  congenial 
to  per^OllS  of  less  muscular  energy,  who  have 
more  feeble  powers  of  digestion,  and  who  ac- 
custom themselves  to  but  little  exercise: 
they  are  adapted  to  the  hypochondriac,  and 
should  be  principally  used  as  aliment  bv  indi- 
viduals wlio  are  disposed  to  those  kind  of  af- 
fections which  have  received  the  vulgar  and 
iiidiscriminat  ■  appellation  of  scorbutic. 

A  still  milder,  but,  in  the  same  pripo.tion, 
less  nutritive  food,  is  l"nrnislu-d  by  the  white 
meats,  such  as  t!ie  domestic  fowl,  partridge, 
pheasant,  and  tlieir  eggs,  with  oysters  and 
you.ig  lobsters.  These,  from  their  bland 
aod  uiiuciimuiiious  nature,  are  generally  al- 


MATERIA  MEDICA, 

lowed  to  convalescents  from  acute  diseases  : 
they  are  peculiarly  suitable  to  very  weak  sto- 
machs, and  ought  in  general  to  form  the  lirst 
articles  in  the  diet  of  females  after  childbirth. 
The  major  part  of  the  river  fish  which  have 
scales,  as  pil^e,  perch,  and  gudgeon,  are  pos- 
sessed of  very  inferior  nutritive  faculty. 

OF  MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS. 

Milk  partakes  of  the  properties  of  both 
animal  and  vegetable  aliment :  it  may  be  se- 
parated by  rest  or  by  agitation  into  cream, 
buttermilk,  whey,  and  curd.  The  cream  is 
easier  of  digestion  by  the  adult  stomach,  on 
account  of  its  containing  less  of  the  caseous, 
or  cheesy  part;  it  is  likewise  on  this  account 
more  nutritive.  Butter  contains  still  more 
nutriment,  and  is  likewise,  if  not  taken  to  ex- 
cess, exceedingly  ea-y  of  digestion,  and  is  by 
no  means  calculated  to  generate  unpleasant 
humours  in  the  body.  If  given  without  any 
separation  of  its  principles  byartihcial  prepara- 
tion, it  might  be  admitted  into  the  diet  of  in- 
fancy with  much  greater  propriety  than  other 
articles  which  are  employed  with  less  appre- 
hension of  injury.  Buttermilk  is  agreeable, 
bland,  and  gently  nutritive.  Whey  is  the 
least  nutritious,  and  most  easy  of  digestion. 
it  is  oil  this  account  ordered  with  the  utmost 
propriety  to  those  invalids  whose  constitu- 
tions have  been  rendered  too  irritable  to  bear 
the  stimulus  of  more  solid  and  nutritive  ali- 
ment. Clheese  is  of  various  kinds,  arising 
principally  from  the  greater  or  less  quantity 
of  cream  that  it  contains.  Those  cheeses 
%vhich  are  broken  to  pieces  in  the  mouth  wiili 
most  readiness  are,  for  the  most  part,  most 
easy  of  digestion,  and  most  nutritive.  Many 
kinds  of  cheeses  are  a  considerable  time  in 
undergoing  chemical  change  in  the  stomach; 
and  on  this  account,  although  difficult  of  di- 
gestion, do  not  disagree  with  weak  stomachs. 
Dr.  Darwin  observes  that  he  has  seen  toasted 
cheese  vomited  up  a  whole  day  after  it  was 
eaten,  without  having  become  perceptibly  al- 
tered, or  given  any  uneasiness  to  the  pa- 
tient. 

New  cow's-milk  is  the  food  of  infants,  and 
is  by  far  the  best  substitute  for  the  milk  of 
the  mother,  if  this  last  be  not  afforded  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  or  quality  by  the  parent, 
which,  however,  is  seldom  the  case.  The 
stomachs  of  children  abound  with  acidity; 
and  milk,  which  is  always  curdled  before  it 
is  assimilated,  is  consequently  digested  with 
more  facility  in  the  earlier  than  in  the  more 
advanced  periods  uf  life.  It  is  on  this  ac- 
count likewise  that  certain  vegetable  sub- 
stances, which  have  a  great  tendency  to  aci- 
dity, are  exceedingly  injurious  to  the  infantile 
stomach.     See  the  article  Infancy. 

OF  VEGETAIII.E  FOOD. 

The  seeds,  roots,  leaves,  and  fruits,  of 
))lants,  particularly  the  two  former,  constitute 
a  very  material  part  of  the  fo.id  of  mankind. 
According  to  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Ciilk-u,  and 
olhi  r  physiologists,  the  quantitv  ot  actual 
nourishment  that  Inese  contain,  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantitv  of  sugar  that  they  can 
be  made  to  produce;  it  is  imagined  that  the 
mucilage  which  thw  farinaceous  seeds  con- 
lain,  is  changed  in  the  granary  to  starch; 
and  that  this  starch,  in  the  pi(K-esses  to  wlrch 
the  seeds  are  afterwards  suiijected,  or  by  di- 
gestion in  the  stomach,  is  at  lengthcon  erted 
in'.o  sajciiarine  priuciple.  See  riiYbiuLocy. 


The  farinaceotis  seeds  are  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
rye,  millet,  maize  or  Indian  corn,  kcc.  The 
roots  of  this  class  are  the  sugar-root,  the 
common  carrot,  beet,  and  polypody.  Those 
with  less  of  the  saccharine  principle,  and 
which  aflbrd  a  tender  farina,  are  the  turnip- 
rooted  cabbage,  the  parsnip,  parsley  root,  as- 
paragus, turnips,  potatoes,  &c.  ;  all  of  which, 
if  less  nutritive,  are  better  suited  to  weakly 
organs  of  digestion  than  those  in  which  the 
sugar  is  more  abundant. 

Other  vegetables  contain  oil,  sugar,  muci- 
lage, or  acid,  in  various  proportions,  diluted 
with  much  water:  these  are  but  slightly  nu- 
triinental;  and  are,  for  the  most  part,  inju- 
rious to  delicate  stomachs  especially,  unless 
taken  with  moderation  ;  these  are  the  apple, 
pear,  plum,  apricot,  nectarine,  peach,  straw- 
berry, grape,  orange,  melon,  cucumber, 
dried  figs,  raisins,  and  a  great  variety  of  other 
roots,  seeds,  leaves,  and  fruits.  Of  these  it 
may  be  observed  generally,  that  those  which 
are  cold,  watery,  and  sweet,  are  most  calcu- 
lated to  prove  indigestible,  and  consequently 
injurious. 

DIFFERENT    METHODS    OP     DRESSING 
VICTUALS. 

Various  modes  of  preparing  and  dressing 
both  animal  and  vegetable  articles  of  food 
have  been  contrived,  in  order  to  render  them 
more  palatable,  and  better  adapted  to  the 
stomach.  By  boiling,  animal  flesh  is,  in  s  )me 
measure,  deprived  of  its  nourishing  juice, 
which  is  with  more  or  less  facility  given  out 
to,  and  incorporated  with,  the  broth:  this 
last  then  contains  the  most  nutritious  part  of 
the  meat ;  but  unless  stronger  than  is  ordina- 
rily used,  it  is  too  diluted  to  admit  of  an 
easy  digestion.  Broths  likewise  have  a  re- 
markable tendency  to  acidity,  particularly  ' 
when  made  from  the  tlesh  of  young  animals, 
as  of  lamb  and  veal ;  and  on  this  account 
also  are  much  less  congenial  to  weak  sto- 
machs than  is  generally  imagined.  The  va- 
rious jellies,  which  contain  the  gelatinous  and 
nutritive,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  fibrous  part 
of  animal  flesh,  are  in  general  much  more 
suitable  to  the  invalid  and  the  convalescent 
than  either  broths  or  soups.  Perhaps  the 
most  eligible  mode  of  preparing  animal  food 
is  by  the  process  called  stewing ;  for  by  this 
process  its  nutritious  and  substantive  parts 
are  concentrated  and  preserved,  itis  scarcely 
necessary  to  observe  that  the  gravy  of  boiled 
meat  contains  its  nutritive  parts  in  a  state  of 
concentration ;  it  is  digested  with  facility  ; 
and  gravy  is  therefore  the  best  mode  of  giving 
animal  food  lo  very  young  infants.    ■ 

Boasting  preserves  the  nutritive  part  of 
flesh  horn  dissipation  hi  a  greater  degree 
than  boiling :  audit  has  been  as;erted  by  an 
observant  author  (Dr.  W  illich)  that  "  one 
pound  of  roust  meat  is,  in  real  nourishment, 
t\\ui\\  to  two  or  three  pounds  of  boiled  meat." 
It  ought  however  to  lie  noticed,  that  the  fat 
of  me.it  treated  in  this  way  has  undergone 
some  degree  of  chemical  decomposition  from 
its  exjiosure  to  heat,  and  is  in  consequence 
more  oppressive  to  delicate  stomachs,  and 
generally  less  salutary,  than  that  of  boiled 
llesh.  Both  baL.iig  and  trying  are  U|)on  si- 
milar principles  inipioiier  methods  of  prepar- 
ing animal  food.  Smoked  meals,  as  prepared 
hams,  are  hard  of  digestKin.  They  should  only 
be  taken  in  small  quantities,  and  rather  as 
coiidiiuciit  than  food. 


The  art  of  cooker3',  as  applied  to  vfgetaMe 
lubstaiices,  is  priiu  ipally  useliil  in  destroying 
tlic  native  ucrimoiiy,  and  rendering  tlie  tex- 
ture softer  of  some,  ajid  by  coiiveiling  the 
acerb  juices  of  olliers  into  sacclianne  mat- 
ter. 'I  he  boiling  ol  cal)bage,  of  a'-paragus, 
&e.  are  examjiles  of  the  one,  tlie  halving  of 
unripe  pears  is  an  instance  of  the  other.  The 
above  are  all  chemical  processes ;  they  are 
too  familiar  to  need  description. 

Another  mode  by  which  tlie  nonrishmeiit 
of  mankind  is  facilitated,  ii  the  mechanic  ;.rt 
of  grinding  farinaceous  seeds  into  powder ; 
and,  in  some  instances,  exposing  them  after- 
wards to  a  fermenting  process,  as  in  the  mak- 
ing of  bread,  and  then  to  the  action  of  lire 
by  baking  or  boiling.  The  mill-stones,  by 
which  the  process  of  grinding  is  effected, 
have  been  quaintly  termed  the  artilicial  teeth 
of  society.  It  has  been  suggested  by  Dr. 
Darwin,  that  "  some  soft  kinds  of  wood,  es- 
pec  ially  wlien  they  have  undergone  a  kind  of 
fermentation,  and  become  looser,  might,  by 
being  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  mill- 
stones, be  probably  used  as  food  in  the  times 
of  famine.  Nor  is  it  improbable,"  contimies 
our  ingenious  speculator,  "that  hay  which 
has  been  kept  in  stacks,  so  as  to  undergo  the 
saccharine  process,  may  be  so  managed  by 
grinding  and  by  fermentation  with  yeast, 
like  breail,  as  to  serve  in  part  for  the  susten- 
ance of  mankind  in  times  of  great  scarcity. 
Dr.  Priestley  gave  to  a  cow,  for  some  lime,  a 
strong  infusion  ofhay  in  large  i|uantilies  for 
drink,  and  found  that  she  produced  during 
this  treatment  above  double  the  quantity  of 
milk.  Hence  if  bread  cannot  be  made  from 
ground  hay,  there  is  great  reason  to  suspect 
that  a  nutritive  beverage  may  be  thus  prepar- 
ed, either  in  its  saccharine  state,  or  ferment- 
ed into  a  kind  of  beer.  In  times  of  great 
scarcity  there  are  other  vegetables,  which, 
though  not  in  common  use,  would  most  pro- 
bably aflord  wholesome  nourishment,  either 
by  boiling  them,  or  drying  and  grinding 
them,  or  by  both  those  processes  in  succes- 
sion. Pf  these  perhaps  are  the  tops  and 
barks  of  all  those  vegetables  which  are  anned 
with  thorns  or  prickles,  as  gooseberry-trees, 
holly,  gorse,  and  perhaps  hawthorn.  The  in- 
ner bark  of  the  elm-tree  makes  a  k'uid  of 
j>ruel ;  and  the  roots  of  fern,  and  probably 
very  many  other  roots,  as  of  grass  and  clo- 
ver taken  up  in  winter,  might  yield  nourish- 
ment, either  by  boiling  or  baking,  and  sepa- 
rating the  libres  from  tlie  |)ulp  by  beating 
them ;  or  by  getting  only  the  starch  from 
those  which  possess  an  acrid  mucilage,  as  the 
white  betony.  And  the  alburnum  of  perhaps 
all  trees,  and  especially  of  those  which  bleed 
in  spring,  luinht  produce  a  saccharine  and 
mucilaginous  liquor,  by  boiling  it  in  the  win- 
ter or  spring.  ' 

OF    DRIS'K. 

"  Water,"  says  Dr.  Darwin,  "  must  be 
considered  as  a  part  of  our  nutriment,  be- 
cause so  much  of  it  enters  the  composition  of 
our  fluids  ;  and  because  vegetables  are  be- 
lieved to  draw  almost  the  whole  of  their  no  i- 
rishment  from  this  source.''  It  may,  liow- 
ever,  be  questioned  whether  pure  elementary 
water  taken  into  the  stomacii  acts  upon  the 
system  as  a  nutrimental  matter  in  any  other 
mode  than  by  procuring  the  solution,  and 
thus  facilitating  the  assimilation,  ol  solid  ali- 
ment. 


MATERIA  MEDICA. 

Water  is  the  natural  and  proper  drink  of 
man.  It  is  the  basis  of  all  other  li(|uids  ;  and 
the  larger  proportion  of  water  that  enters 
their  composition,  the  more  easily,  in  a  state 
of  health,  and  providi-d  proper  food  has  been 
taken,  are  the  solution  and  digestion  of  such 
food  iliected. 

This  fluid,  however,  is  never  or  seldom 
taken  in  a  state  of  entire  purity.  Even  in 
nature's  laboratory  it  is  invariably  impreg- 
nated with  foreign  substances  ;  and  it  is  this 
admixture  of  extraneous  matter  which  con- 
stitutes its  varieties.  Thus  we  have  snow 
water,  rain  water,  spring  water,  river  water, 
and  water  from  lakes,  wells,  and  swamps,  each 
possessing  their  individual  characteristics. 

Spring  water  is,  in  general, most  free  from 
impurities ;  it  is,  however,  less  suited  for 
drink  than  the  water  of  rivers,  as  it  almost 
constantly  contains  calcareous,  or  saline  in- 
gredients. The  calcareous  earth  dissolved 
III  the  water  of  many  springs,  has  been  sup- 
posed indeed  by  Dr.  Darwin  to  contribute  to 
our  nourishment  in  the  manner  that  lime  proves 
useful  in  agriculture.  This  principle,  how- 
ever is  not  perhaps  fully  established  ;  an  1  we 
believe  that  too  much  stress  has  by  theorists 
ill  general  been  laid  on  the  specific  qualities 
of  water,  as  modifying  both  the  bodilv  and 
intellectual  character  of  individuals  and  na- 
tions. The  cretinism  and  fatuity  ot  the  Al|)- 
ine  valleys  were  formerly  attributed  to  the 
waters  of  these  countries,  but  are  now  more 
commonly,  and  we  believe  more  justly,  re- 
ferred to  constitutional  propensity,  innutri- 
tions food,  and  a  humid  unhealthy  atmo- 
sphere. 

That  water  however  possesses  great  varie- 
ties, accerdiug  to  tlw  natare  of  the  soil  and 
situation  of  the  place  in  which  it  is  produced 
or  contained,  is  undeniable ;  and  we  shall 
here  extract  part  of  what  is  observed  on  these 
varieties  by  an  attentive  and  judicious  ob- 
server, 

"  Spring  water,"  says  Dr.  M'illich, 
"  originates  partly  from  that  of  tli.esea,  which 
has  been  changed  into  vapours  by  subterra-  ] 
neous  heat,  and  partly  from  the  atmosphere.  ^ 
As  it  is  dissolved  and  purified  in  a  variety  of  , 
ways  before  it  becomes  visible  to  us,  it  is  ' 
lighter  and  purer  than  other  wateis. 

"  l/'ftl  xvdter.     Wells  opened  in  a  sandy 
soil  are  the  purest.     The  more  frequently  a  | 
well  ii  used,  the  belter  ;  for  the  longer  water 
stands  unmoved,  the  sooner  it  turns  putrid. 

"  Rivfr  water  is  more  pure  anil  wholesome 
if  it  tloAvs  over  a  sandy  and  stonv  soil,  than  if 
it  passes  over  muddy  beds,  or  through  towns, 
villages,  and  forests:  water  is  rendered  foul 
by  fish,  amphibious  animals,  and  plants. 

"  Lake  water  much  resembles  river  water, 
but  being  less  agitated  it  is  more  impure. 
The  water  which,  in  ce\ses  of  necessity,  is 
obtained  from  swamps  and  ditches,  is  the 
worst  of  all ;  because  a  great  variety  of  im- 
purities are  there  collected,  which,  in  a  stag- 
nant and  soft  soil,  readily  putrify. 

"  Rain  water  is  also  impure,  as  it  contains 
many  saline  and  oily  particles,  soon  putrefies, 
and  principally  consistsoi  the  joint  exhalations 
of  animals,  vegetables,  and  minerals,  of  an 
immense  number  and  variety  of  smill  insects 
and  their  eggs,  seeds  of  plants,  and  the  like. 
Hain  w.iter  is  particularly  impure  in  places 
filled  with  many  noxious  vapours  ;  such  as 
marshy  countries,  and  large  manufacturing 
towns,  where  the  fumes  of  metallic  and  other 


109 

substances  are  mixed  with  rain.  In  high  and 
elevated  situations,  at  a  distance  from  impure 
exhalation  :,  if  no  strong  winds  blow,  and  af- 
ter a  gentle  slower,  rain  water  is  ihen  purest. 
In  summer,  however,  on  account  of  the  co- 
pious exhalations,  rain  water  is  most  objec- 
tionable. 

"  Snow  water  possesses  the  same  proper- 
ties as  rain  w  ater,  but  is  purer ;  botli  are 
soft,  that  is,  VMthoul  so  many  mineral  and 
earthy  particles  as  spring,  well,  and  river  wa- 
ters. Huil  water,  being  produced  in  the 
higher  regions  ol  the  atmosphere,  is  still  pu- 
rer from  its  congrlations.  Lastly,  dew-,  as  it 
arises  from  the  evaporation  of  various  bodiej 
of  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  is 
more  or  less  impure,  according  to  the  dif- 
ferent regions  and  seasons." 

On  the  different  kinds  and  qualities  of  fer- 
mented and  spirituous  liquors,  it  does  not  fall 
within  (he  compass  of  the  present  article  to 
treat.  They  all  consist  of  water  as  their  base 
or  vehicle,  of  more  or  less  alcohol  or  aident 
spirit  according  to  their  different  degrees  of 
strength,  of  sugar,  and  of  the  particular  in- 
gredient by  which  their  nature  is  determined  ; 
such  as  the  grape  in  wine,  the  apple  and  pear 
in  cyder  and  perry,  the  malt  and  hop  in  beer, 
&-c.  &c.  (See  the  respective  articles  in  their 
alpliabrliral  order.')  It  is  only  necessary  here 
to  observe,  that,  with  few  exceptions,  fer- 
mented liquors,  when  immoderately  taken, 
are  more  detrimental  than  elementary  fluids^ 
in  proportion  to  the  quantity  that  they  con- 
tain ofali  ohol,  or  ardent  spirit. 

With  respect  to  the  China  tea  and  the  cof- 
fee-berry, which  have  lately  come  into  such 
general  use  in  this  country,  we  believe  them 
to  be  much  less  injurious  to  the  animal  eco- 
nomy than  some  theorists  have  been  disposed 
to  conjecture.  In  excess,  however,  and  when 
indulged  in  as  substitutes  for,  and,  as  is  some- 
times the  case,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of, 
nourishing  diet,  they  are  highly  deleterious, 
as  they  tend  to  the  induction  of  a  morbidly 
irritable  condition  of  the  nervous  system.  It 
deserves  to  be  remarked,  that  these  stimuli 
do  not,  like  alcohol,  produce  those  formidable, 
ajjd  often  irremediable,  disorders,  affections 
of  the  liver,  dropsy,  and  apoplexy. 

An  enumeration  of  spices  (which,  like  spi- 
rituous liquors,  are  used  as  articles  of  diet 
with  too  great  freedom)  will  be  found  under 
the  head  Aroinatlcs,  in  a  subsequent  section 
of  this  article. 

PART  U- 

MEDICINALS.. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  second  division  of 
our  subject,  or  to  the  consideration  of  the 
materia  medica  in  its  more  ordinary  and  li- 
mitei!  signification. 

Various  divisions  and  modes  of  classifica- 
tion of  those  articles  which  are  used  in  medi- 
cine, have  been  proposed  and  adopted  by 
different  authors.  Some  systematic  writers 
arrange  the  articles  of  the  mater. a  medica 
according  to  their  alphabetical  order:  others 
have  taken  for  the  basis  of  their  arrangement 
the  more  sensible  properties  of  drugs,  as  de- 
tected by  the  ta4e  ;  thus  reducing  medicines 
to  the  different  heads  of  bitterness,  sweetness, 
astringency,  acidity.  Sec. :  while  some  iiave 
been  regulated  in  their  cla-ssilication  of  medi- 
cinal articles,  by  their  characters  as  objects 
in  natural  hUtory.    "  As,  however,  the  study 


110 

cf  llic  iirfciia  medica  is  merely  tlie  sltiJr  of 
tliemfdiciiial  piopeities  uf  certain  substances, 
it  is  evicient  that  tlu»  method  of  arranging 
tlieni  as  tliey  agree  in  producing  erVccts  on 
the  living  system  is  tiie  one  best  calculated 
to  Aillil  all  its  objects."     Murray. 

Am  ;ng  the  diilerent  plans  of  arrangement 
which  liave  been  framed  on  this  principle, 
that  adopted  by  Mr. Murray,  in  his  late  work 
on  the  materia  medica,  appears  liable  to  the 
tcwest  ol)jcctions.  It  is  found  -d  on  the  princi- 
ple of  Dr.  Brown,  "  tiiat  medicines  operate 
by  stimulating  the  living  fibre,  or  exciting  it 
into  motion."  See  the  article  Brunonian 
System.  This  proposition,  however,  was 
received  and  applied  by  its  author  in  too  mi- 
limited  a  sense.  In  tlie  first  place,  stimula- 
tion did'ers  not  inerelv  in  degree,  l;ut  also  in 
kind;  or,  in  otlier  words,  ojie  given  medi- 
cine cannot  by  any  re<julation  of  its  quantity 
be  made  to  produce  the  same  effects  which 
result  from  the  agency  of  another ;  soine 
are  more  ditiusible  and  transient,  others  more 
slow  and  permanent  in  their  action  ;  some  af- 
fect the  universal  system  in  almost  an  equal 
degree,  while  the  operation  of  others  is  more 
especially,  and  in  some  instances  almo.it  ex- 
clusively, directed  to  a  certain  part.  They 
liave  all  likewise  properties  peculiar  to  thein- 
■  selves. 

But  besides  this  general  and  very  important 
jnodilication  of  the  Brunonian  materia  medica, 
it  is  necessary  further  to  take  into  view,  that 
medicines  sometimes  appear  to  display  their 
agency  even  on  the  living  body  alinost  en- 
tirely upon  chemical  or  mechanical  princi- 
ples :  these  last  modes  of  operation,  although 
less  common  and  extensive  than  were  sujipos- 
I'd  in  the  anti-nt  s;.  stems  of  medicine,  must 
still  be  admitted  as  interfering  with  the  univer- 
sality, and  opposing  the  unqualihed  assump- 
tion, of  Dr.  Brown,  to  which  we  have  just  al- 
luded. 

Guided  by  these  views,  Mr.  Murray  has 
adopted  the  general  division  of  medicines  un- 
der the  four  heads  of  universal  stimulants, 
local  stimulants,  chemical  remedies,  and  tne- 
chanical  remedies,  which  are  subdivided  in 
the  following  manner : 

TABLE  OF  CLASSIFICATION. 

A.  General  stimulants. 

a.  Diflusible. 


b.  Permanent. 
B.  Local  stimulants. 


C.  Chemical  remedies. 


1).  Mcclianical  remedies. 


S  Narcotics. 
Antispasmodics. 
5  Tonics. 
(  Astringents. 

Emetics. 

Cathartics. 

Knmienagogues. 

Diuretics. 

Diaphoretics. 

Expectorants. 

Sialagogues. 

Errhiues. 

Epispastics. 

Refrigerants. 

Antacids. 

I.ithontriplics. 

Escharotics. 

Anthelmintics. 

Demulcents. 

Diluents. 

Emollients. 


The  objections  which  still  lie  against  this, 
which  wc  have  chosen  as  the  most  perspicuous 
and  comprehensive  arrangement  ot  medicines, 


MATERIA  MEDICA. 

will  be  in-ged,  as  we  proceed  to  make  some 
observations  on  their  subdivisions,  in  tlie  or- 
der of  the  above  table. 

The  following,  tlien,  may  be  regarded,  with 
some  few  e.\ceptioi)<,  as  an  abridgment,  or 
condensation,  of  the  materia  metiica  depart- 
ment of  Mr.  Murray's  treatise.  '1  he  names 
of  the  articles  are  adopted  from  the  last  edi- 
tion, recently  published,  of  the  Parmaco- 
po:ia  collegii  regit  ^Jedicon:|Tl  Edinburgensis. 
In  this  edition  the  i-imples  arc  principally  in- 
dicated by  the  Linnxan  names.  We  have 
added,  however,  the  more  customary  titles,  in 
order  to  obviate  confusion. 

OP  NARCOTICS. 

Medicines  of  this  class  had,  previous  to  the 
time  of  Dr.  Brown,  been  almost  universally 
regarded  as  sedative,  or  depressing,  even  in 
their  primary  operation.  J5y  a  bold,  and, 
in  some  measure,  legitimate  generalization, 
our  author  proved  that  this  kind  of  agency 
is,  in  the  greater  number  of  cases,  merely 
of  a  secondary  nature ;  and  that  the  symp- 
toms of  depressed,  or,  more  properly  speak- 
ing, exhausted  jiower,  resulting  from  their 
administration,  are  consequent  upjn  the 
faculty  they  possess  of  e.xciting,  in  a  prompt 
and  very  extraordinary  manner,  the  actions  of 
thesystem.  Thus  opium,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  powerful  of  the  narcotics,  Dr.  Brown 
maintained  is,  in  the  lirst  instance,  invariably 
stimulant ;  and  the  same  virtue  he  attributes 
to  the  whole  range  of  narcotic,  or,  as  they 
were  formerly  characterized,  sedative  pow- 
ers. 

Although  this  conclusion  is  deduced 
from  principles  in  the  main  correct,  and  in 
its  application  has  been  of  abundant  service 
ill  developing  the  laws  of  organic  exist- 
ence, it  cannot,  as  we  have  above  remark- 
ed, be  admitted  as  universal,  as  the  fact  must 
be  obvious  to  all  who  are  not  biassed  by  sy- 
stem, that  "  the  serlalive  effects  of  narcotics 
are  often  disproportioned  to  their  previous 
exciting  operation,  allowing  even  in  such 
cases  for  its  rapidity  and  little  permanence." 
Murray.  This  fact  then,  in  some  measure, 
interferes  with  the  correctness  of  our  author's 
(Mr.  Murray's)  classification. 

Narcoticsareemployed  medicinally  with  dif- 
ferent and  opposite  intentions.  As  stimulants 
they  are  given  in  various  disorders  of  debi- 
lity ;  in  intermittent  and  continued  fever,  in 
gout,  hy^^teria,  epilepsy,  dropsy,  &c.  As  seda- 
tives they  are  administered  to  allay  pain  and 
irritation,  and  are  consequently  largely  admi- 
nistered in  spasmodic  and  painful  affections. 

y^/co/io/,  ardent  spirit ;  spirit  of  wine.  For 
the  origin  and  preparation  of  lliis  con.-.ult  the 
article  Alcohol.  The  stimulant  eli'ect  of 
alcohol  is  generally  known  to  be  very  pow- 
erful and  diffusible ;  its  exciting  power  is 
perhaps,  in  proportion  to  its  sedative  quality, 
greater  than  any  of  the  other  narcotics.  Mo- 
derate excitement,  with  proportionate  subse- 
quent languor,  results  from  a  moderate  dose 
of  s[)irits.  In  larger  quantities  it  occasions 
intoxication,  d.'liriuin,  stupor,  coma,  death. 

Alcoliol  is  used  externally  as  a  stimulant 
in  muscular  pains :  it  has  lately  been  disco- 
vered to  he  an  useful  api)licali(in  hi  the  cure 
of  burns.  Internally  it  is  seldom  employed  in 
medicine  without  dilution  ;  and  then  is  rather 
administered  as  an  auxiliary,  or  solvint  of 
other  ingredients. 
Ether.     Ethers  bear  some  resemblance  in 


their  medicinal  powers  to  alcohol :  they  are 
more  ditfusiiile,  and  less  permanent  in  their 
operation.  'I'hey  are  t  uiployed  principally  in 
asthma,  hysteria,  and  other  spasmodic  aiiec- 
lions.  'I'lioir  dose  is  from  half  a  drachm  to 
one  or  two  drachm?.  ENternally  applied,  sul- 
phuric ether  has  been  found  to  re) leve  spas- 
modic contraction  of  the  muscles,  and  is  often 
useful  when  applied  to  the  temples  iii  head- 
ache. 

Camphara,  laurus  camphora  (Lir.) :  ha- 
bitat, Japan,  India.  Camphor  is  a  proxi- 
mate prmciple  of  vegetables  ;  it  is  principallr 
obtained  Irom  the  laurus  camphora  of  Japan. 

In  a  moderate  dose  camphor  is  stimulant ; 
in  a  larger  quantity  it  ijivariably  diminishes 
the  force  of  the  circulation,  and  induces 
sleep. 

Camphor  has  been  tised  as  a  stimulant  in 
typhus,  cynanche  maligna,  and  oilier  afi'ec- 
tion<  attended  with  debility  and  irritation  ;  as 
a  sedative  in  pneuomonia,  rheumatisin,  &c. 
in  mania  it  has  been  given  as  an  anodyne.  As 
an  antispasmodic  it  is  employed  in  ustlima, 
St.  ^'itus's  dance,  and  epilepsy.  Its  dose  is 
from  live  to  twenty  grains.  Extemally,  in 
combination  with  oil  or  liquid  opium,  cam- 
phor has  been  advantaseoiisly  used  in  rheti- 
matism,  bruises,  and  other  intlammatory  af- 
fections. 

Papaver  somnifcrii?n,  poppy.  Europe, 
Asia.  The  concrete  juice  ot  the  capsule  of 
this  plant  is  opium,  which  is  chiefly  imported 
from  Egypt,  Turkey,  and  the  East  Indies. 

The  cll'ccts  of  opium,  as  above  stated,  are 
stimulating:  it  often  occasions,  when  given 
in  somewhat  large  doses,  intoxication,  and 
even  actual  delirium.  If  a  larger  dose  be 
given,  the  symptomsof  diminished  action  ap- 
pear without  any  previous  excitement,  and 
are  succeeded  by  delirium,  stupor,  stertorous 
breathing,  convulsions,  and  death. 

Where  opium  is  given  as  a  stimulus  it 
ought  to  be  administered  in  small  and  fre- 
quently repeated  doses.  Where  the  intention 
is  to  mitigate  pain  or  irritation,  it  ought,  on 
the  contrary,  to  be  given  in  a  large  dose,  and 
at  distant  intervals.  It  is  of  importance  to 
observe,  that  where  evacuations  have  been 
pl■e^io•Jslv  procured,  or  when  a  state  of  dia- 
phoresis is  present,  opium  is  much  more  ge- 
nial and  sahitary  than  while  the  skin  is  dry,  or 
the  bowels  torpid. 

In  continued,  as  well  as  intermittent,  fe- 
vers, opium  is  given  as  a  stimulus.  In  the 
profluvia-  of  Dr.  CuUen,  opium  is  employed 
to  ciiminish  the  discharge.  In  gout  it  is  highly 
serviceable.  In  convulsive  and  spasmodic 
affections  it  is  often  administered  to  a  very 
great  extent,  as  in  the  tetanus  of  warm  cli- 
mates. In  lues  venerea  it  is  ihotight  to  acce- 
lerate the  action  of  mercury.  It  is  often  given 
to  promote  suppnn.tion,  and  is  extremely  ef- 
lic;icioi;s  in  arresting  gar.grene.  In  the  Jorra 
of  enema  opium  is  olien  administered  iu  vio- 
lent all'ections  cf  the  bowels. 

Its  usual  dose  is  one  grain  to  an  adult. 
Hyosciiamus  niger,  indigenous,  herha,  se- 
men, black  he-nbane.  '1  his  ])!ant,  in  its  ac- 
tion on  the  system,  bears  a  considerable  ro 
semblance  to  opium;  for  which  it  is  often 
employed  as  a  substitute,  where  the  latter, 
from  icliosyncracy, occasions  iiii])l(asant  symp- 
toms. It  is  free  Irom  the  constipating  eii'ects 
of  opium. 

yJtropa    belludomiii,    indigenous,    deadly 


H 


n'i;hfslia<lc.     'nolh  Iho  leaves  and  lif  rrk-s  ofj 
tins  plant,  and  also  its  loot,  aio  nuicotic.     It 
is  seldom  used  in  mtdiciiif. 

Acnniliim  niiptitkf,  aconite,  monk's-hood, 
herba.     Kurope,  America. 

Aconite  lias  been  einploved  in  obstinate 
chronic  rlieumatisiii,  in  sciiirriis,  &c.  Its 
dose  is  from  ontr  to  two  grains  of  tlie  pijwder- 
ed  leaves;  of  the  inspissated  jnice  lialf  a 
grain. 

Coriiiim  mdCuUilam,  ciciita,  hendock,  fo- 
lia, semen,  indigenous.  '1  his  is  a  powerful 
narcotic.  Like  the  aconite,  it  has  been  used 
in  sciiirrons  and  scropbulous  all'cctio[is,as  well 
as  in  rhcnmatisms.  Dose  two  or  three  grains 
of  the  powdered  leaves;  one  or  two  of  the 
inspissated  juice. 

Digitalis  purpurea,  foxglove,  folia,  in- 
digenous. Of  all  the  narcotics,  digitalis 
most  speedily  and  certainly  diminishes  the 
actiiMis  ot.the  system,  especially  of  the  arte- 
ries. It  acts  at  the  same  lime  as  a  stimulant 
on  the  absorbent  system  ;  hence  its  abun- 
dant utility  in  dropsy.  Lately  it  has  been 
e.\tensively  employed  in  ])hlhisis,  and  in  the 
early  sugos  of  this  disorder  with  vcEuarkable 
success.  Dose  one  grain  of  the  powden^d 
leaver,  and  ten  drops  of  the  tincture  of  tlie 
Kdinburgh  pharmacopoeia,  gradually  in- 
creased. 

iXicoliana  tabacum,  tpbacco,  folia.  Ame- 
rica. This  is  a  powerful  narcotic.  Its  ex- 
treme activity  prevents  it  from  being  much 
used  in  medicine. 

Lactura  vtinsa,  strong-scented  k-tluce, 
folia,  indigenous. 

From  five  to  ten  grains  of  the  inspissated 
juice,  gradually  increased,  have  been  given 


as  a  narcotic,  diuretic,  and  antispasmodic. 

Datura  stramonium,  thorn-apple,  herba, 
indigenous. 

'1  his  has  been  used  in  mania,  epilepsy,  and 
convulsive  diseases.  Dose  from  one  to  three 
grains  of  the  inspissated  jviice. 

Arnica  mnntuaa,  leopard's-bane,  flores^ 
radix.    Germany. 

The  flowers  have  been  used  in  the  dose  of 
five  grains  in  palsy,  convulsions,  &c.  Its 
root  has  been  employed  as  a  substitute  for 
Peruvian  bark. 

Rliodndcidrmn  chrtisantimm,  yellow-flow- 
ered rhodadtndron,  folia,  Sib.  via. 

This  has  been  given  in  clironic  rheuma- 
tism and  gout. 

Rliu^  tnxicondendrnn,  poison-oak,  folia. 
N.  America.  The  dried  leaves  liave  been 
used  in  palsy.  Dose  half  a  grain  twice  or 
thrice  a  day. 

Strijchnos  mix  vomica,  vomica  nut.  East 
Indies.  It  has  been  employed  in  mania,  hys- 
teria, &c.     Dose  five  grains  twice  a  day. 

Priinwi  lauro-cerasus,  cherry-tree  laurel, 
folia,  ICurope. 

'i'his  has  srarcely  been  employed  in  medi- 
cine. 

OF  ANTISPASMODICS. 

Antispasmodics  form  a  kind  of  intermedi- 
ate class  between  narcotics  and  tonics. 
Spasm  sometimes  arises  from  local  irritation 
in  states  of  genera!  irritability,  and  is  somt- 
tunes  occasioned  by  pure  debility.  Both 
narcotics  therefore  and  tonics  are  used  as  an- 
tispasmodics ;  but  there  are  certain  substances 
which  in  some  measure  appear  to  possess  a 
gpeciiic  antispasmodic  power ;  these  we  are 
now  to  enumerate. 

11 


MATERIA  MEDIC  A. 

^fosrlius,  musk,  moschus  mosrhifenis. 
Soull)  of  Asia.  Mu^k  is  a  peculiar  sub- 
stanc<;  found  in  a  small  s;.c,  situated  in  the 
umbilicus  in  the  male  of  the  above  animal, 
lis  aiitispasmodic  powers  are  considerable. 
Dose  Iroiii  six  to  twenty  grains  in  the  form 
of  bolus:  it  is  usefid  in  much  smaller  (juan- 
tities  in  the  convulsions  of  infants  from  den- 
tition. 

Custnri  um,  castor,  castor  liber.  This  is  a 
deposition  collected  in  cells  near  the.  extre- 
mity of  tl'.e  rectum  in  the  beaver.  It  is 
much  used  in  hysteria.  Dose  from  ten  to 
twenty  grains. 

OlcHia  animate  cmpijremnaticum,  empy- 
reumalic  animal  oil.  This  is  neariy  dis-' 
carded  from  practice. 

Pcinikum,  a  bitumen  of  a  red  colour. 
This  was  lorm(5rly,  but  is  not  now,  much 
employed. 

.'tmniniiia.  Tliis,  when  employed  alone 
as  an  antispasmodic,  is  given  in  the  form  of 
carbonate. 

J'trula  assufcstida,  assafa'tida,  Persia. 
This  is  a  concrete  juice,  obtained  by  incision 
from  tlie  roots  of  certain  plants.  Its  dose,  as 
an  antispasmodic,  is  from  liveto  twenty  grains. 
i'agaptrnim,  gunimi-resina,  Persia;  vir- 
tues the  same  as  assafoetida,  but  inferior  in 
power. 

Bubun  gaibanum,  gummi-rcsina,  Africa. 
Dose  ten  grains. 

I'aleriana.  nJjicinaUs,  wild  valerian:  ra- 
dix, ir.diger.ous.  Tliis  is  .bile  of  tlie  princi- 
pal antispasmodics.  Dose  from  one  scruple 
to  one  drachm,  three  or  four  times  a  day. 

Crncus  sulixui,  sat'iron,  indigenous.  '1  his 
substance  is  composed  of  the  stigmata  which 
crown  the  ]>istil  of  tiie  flower.  It  has  scarce- 
ly any  virtue. 

Mctal-iicha  leucadendron,  cajeput  oil,  In- 
dia. This  is  scarcely  in  use,  except  as  a  lo- 
cal application  in  tooth-ache. 

OF    TONICS. 

This  term  ought  not  perhaps  to  be  retained. 
The  agency  of  tonics  is  not  that  of  increasing 
lension  or  tone,  but  they  are  permanent  sti- 
mulants to  the  living  fibre.  Tonics,  then, 
are  i)roperly  regarded  as  slow  and  durable, 
in  uppusition  to  the  more  diffusiljle  and  tran- 
sient stimuli.  They  are  chosen  from  the  nsi- 
neral  and  vegetable  kingdom;  the  former 
are  less  speedy  and  sensible  in  their  action 
than  the  latter. 

I'rnm  the  mineral  Kingdom. 


fli/drarg';rus,  argeiitum  vivuni,  mercury 
J'lrruni,  iron.  Ziticum,  zinc.  Cuprum, 
copper.  Arunicum,  arsenic.  For  the  va- 
rious preparations  and  medicinal  virtues  of 
the  above  import;;nt  minerals,  consult  the 
articles  PiiARM.'^fY  and  .Medicine. 

Barijtcs,  terra  ponderosa,  heavy  earth. 
This  lias  only  been  used  in  medicine  combin- 
ed with  muriatic  acid.  Dr.  Crawford  intro- 
duced tiie  saturated  soludon  into  practice  as 
a  r.^medy  for  scrophula.  Dose  from  five  tc 
twenty  or  more  drops. 

Cidx,  lime.  Tliis  earth  exists  in  nature  as 
a  carbonat.?  :  like  harytes,  ithas  been  used  as 
a  tonic  in  con-.bination  with  muriatic  acid. 

Acidum  nilricuvi,  nitric  acid.  This  acid 
has  been  used  as  a  tonic  to  support  the  sys- 
tem under  aiiiercurial  course.  It  has  like- 
wise been  tried,  but  not  witii  decided  and  in^ 


111 

fash.  This  may  be  classed  as  a  reincdy  with 
the  former  r/rliele.  Its  (iose  is,  ten  grains  in- 
creased to  twenty  or  twenty-five. 

Tonics  from  the  vegetable  Kingdom. 
Tlie  tonic  faculty  in  vegetables  is  intimate- 
ly united  with  certain  sensible  (lualities,  with 
b.tlernt'ss,  astringency,  and  aroma.  The 
aromatic  principle  is  more  active,  but  less 
permanent  in  its  stimulating  operation.  The 
purest  bitters  indcpciidanlTy  possess  a  tonic 
power.  Astringency,  wlicii  it  exists  exclu- 
sively, or  as  the  most  predominant  principle 
in  vegetables,  constitutes  a  distinct  class;  the 
remaining  tonics  may  be  arranged  according 
as  bitterness  or  aroma  is  predominant. 

Cinchona  ojfficinaiis,   cortex   Peruvianiis, 
Peruvian  bark,   Peru.     1'hree  kinds  of  this 
bark  are  in  use,  the  pale,  red,  and  yellov/. 
'1  he  last  is  now  principally  employed,  as  it 
gives  out  more  bitterness  and  astringency  to 
water,  alcohol,  and  ether  media.     Peruvian 
bark  was  first  employed  in  intermittent  fe- 
ver.    In  this  disease'  it  is  given  in  the  doSe 
of  a  scruple  or  half  a  drachm  every  third 
hour,  during  the  interval  of  the  paroxysm. 
In  continueil  fever  it  is  piincipally  employed 
during  the  latter  stages,  when  debility  is 
urgent.      In    rheumatism,    erysipelas,  grin- 
grene,  h;rniorrhage,  and  almost  all  asthenic 
disorders,  it  has  been  administered  as  a  tonic. 
Cinchona  Carilxta,  Caribeean  bark,  Ca- 
ribce  islands.     Angwsturu,  Spanish  W  est  In- 
dies.    These  barks  have  both  been  used  as 
substitutes  tor  the  Peruvian. 

Aristnlochia  serpevfaria,  Virginian  siiake- 
root.  This  is  a  stimulating  aromatic  tonic. 
It  is  generally  given  in  the  form  of  tincture. 
Dorstcnia ' coniraiicrva,  contrayerva,  Pe- 
ru, \Vest  Indies.  This  is  scarcely  possessed 
of  any  virtue. 

Cr'otoii  cleutturia,  cascarilla  cortex,  N. 
America.  This  is  another  substitute  for  Pe- 
ruvian bark.  Dose  a  scruple  or  half  a 
dr.achm. 

Lolnmba,  radix,  Ceylon,  a  very  useful  to- 
nic bitter.     Dsse  hah  a  drachm. 

Quassia  excclsa,  lignum,  West  Indies. 
This  is  likewise  an  excellent  tonic.  Dose,  in 
substance,  from  ten  to  thirty  grains. 

Suassia  simarnuba,  simarotiba,  cortex. 
South  America.  This  has  been  extolled  as  a 
remedy  in  d\seiitery,  and  chronic  diarrhoea. 
Dose  a  scruple. 

Suictenla  jehrifuga,  Swietenia,  cortex. 
East  Indies.  Siviettnia  mahaeani,  maho- 
gany- Two  other  proposed  substitutes  for 
the  Peruvian  bark. 

Gcntiana  lulca,  gentian,  Switzerland,  Ger- 
many. '1  his  is  a  common  and  useful  reme- 
dy in  dyspepsia;  its  virtues  are  extracted 
both  by  water  and  spirit.  Dose  in  substance- 
half  a  drachm.  ^ 
Anlhnnis  nobilis,  chamomile,  flores,  in- 
digenous ;  a  powerful  and  well-known  bitter. 
N"H.  The  following  plants  are  now  not  used 
in  medicine:  artemisia  absinthium,  worm- 
wood ;  chironia  ccntaurum,  ccntaui7 ;  mar- 
rubium  vulgarr,  horehound;  mtnyanthes 
Irifotiatu,  trefoil;  ccntaura  benedicta,  bless- 
ed thistle. 

AROMATICS. 

Citrus  aurantium,  orange,  cortex  flavus. 
The  rind  of  the  orange  is  principally  employ- 
ed as  an  addition  to  comliinalions  of  bitters 


variable  success,  as  a  specific  in  the  cure  of '  used  in  dyspepsia.     It  is  given  in  the  form  of 
lues  venerea.  I  tincture,  conserve,  and  syrup. 

Ox^murias  potasses,  oxymuriale  of  pot-       Ciirtis    medico,    lemon,    corte.x  fructus,. 


114 

Asia;  similar  in  fi;ivf)iir  atid  virtiip,  but  la 
tlior  less  IkUlt  llian  tlie  orange. 

Laurus  ciiinamomniii,  ciiinaninn,  cortex, 
Cevlon.  Tliii  is  the  most  gralelul  of  tlie 
aromatics. 

Laurus  cassia,  cassia,  cortex,  E.  Imlies. 
T'li;  nearly  resembles  the  cinnamon  in  ap- 
pearance, taste,  and  virtue.  It  is  tlierefore 
used  with  the  same  intention  as  this  last.  Its 
llavour,  however,  is  less  gratehil. 

Canellu  itlb.i,  cortex.  West  Indies.  This 
is  a  moderately  strong  aromatic;  it  is  not 
much  used  except  in  combination  with  other 
substances  in  the  Ibrm  of  tincture. 

Acnru.i  cala»iuj,  sv.eet-scenietl  tja^;,  r.idix, 
indigenous.  This  is  scarcely  at  all  employ- 
ed in  medicine. 

Ammoinuin  zingiber,  ginger,  ra<lix.  East 
Indies.  The  dose  of  ginger  is  about  ten 
grains. 

Kampferia  rolundn,  z?doar'a,  radix.  East 
Indies.  This  is  seldom  employed  in  medi- 
cine. 

■Sanlalum  album,  yellow  Sanders,  lignum, 
E.  Indies.  This  wood  is  noM- nearly  banished 
from  practice. 

Pterocarpus  santalitiw:,  santalum  rubrum, 
red  Sanders,  ligimin,  India.  This,  although 
slighllv  aromatic,  is  at  present  merely  used  in 
pharmacy  as  a  colouring  ingredient.' 

■Hi/ristica  moschald,  India.  Under  the 
ofllcinal  name  myristica,  both  nutmeg  and 
mace  are  included:  the  former  is  the  seed,  or 
kernel  of  the  fruit ;  the  latter  its  capsule. 
Nutmeg  is  given  as  an  aromatic  in  doses  of 
from  live  to  lifteen  grains.  In  largei' doses  it 
is  narcotic.  Mace  is  employed  for  the  same 
purposes  as  nutmeg. 

Carophi/l  us  aronuilicns,  clove,  flores,  In- 
dia. Cloves  are  the  ujiexpanded  flowers  of 
the  plant.     Doie  from  five  to  ten  grains. 

Cap'iicum  (//inMWHi, capsicum,  Guinea  pep- 
per, fructus,  E.  and  \\ .  Indies.  This  fruit  is 
a  very  posverhd  stimulant.  It  is  not  in  much 
use  as  a  medicine.  Dose  from  Jive  to  ten 
grains. 

Piper  nigrum,  black  pepper,  fruit,  India. 
Black  pepper  is  the  unripe  fruit  of  the  plant. 
White  pepper  is  the  ripe  berry  of  tlie  same 
vegctable,  freed  from  its  outer  covefing.  It 
is  BJ  Ider  than  the  black.  Dose  ten  or  lifteeii 
grains. 

Piper  loifj^um,  long  pepper.  Tliis  i-,  the 
berry  of  the  plaut,  gathered  before  it  is  fully 
ripened.  It  is  similar  to  the  black  pepper  iii 
its  cjualitics. 

Piper  Cubeba,  cubebs,  the  dried  fruit  of 
the  tree.  It  has  similar  virtues  to  the  other 
pepp.Ts. 

Mijrtus  pimenta,  Jamaica  pepper,  baccs, 
W.  Indies.  This  is  usually  called  pimento; 
it  is  used  in  medicine  principally  on  account 
of  its  llavour. 

Amnmum  repeiis,  lesser  cardamom,  se- 
men. Cardamoms  form  an  ingredient  in 
many  of  the  bitter  tinctures. 

Cururn  rand,  caraway,  semen,  indigenous. 
These  are  in  common  use,  in  culinary  as  well 
as  medicinal  preparations. 

Corifindum  Mtlivum,  coriander,  semen, 
South  of  Europe.  These  are  used  with  tin- 
same  intention  as  caraway. 

Pimpiii-Alaunisum,  anise,  si-men,  Egypt. 
Anise  is  used  chielly  in  the  llatulcnce  of 
children.  The  four  following  seeds  have  si- 
milar virtues  to  the  anise  and  caraway  :  Anc- 
thumj<^iti'^i*i'"">  swtet  feiiutfl,  scnn;!',  iudige- 


WATERIA  MEDICA. 

nous.  Anethujii  gravenlens,  dill,  semen, 
Spain  and  Portugal.  Cumimiim  cijnimitin, 
cumin,  semen.     South  of  Europe. 

Angelica  arcliangelicii,  garden  angelica, 
semen,  folia,  radix.  "IVorthol  Europe. 

A/in,lia  piperita,  pepperniint,  herba,  in- 
digenous. Mniilia  'inJis,  spear  mint,  her- 
ba, indigenous.  Meniha  piilcgiiim,  penn\- 
lo;,  al,  herba,  indigenous.  Of  the^e  three 
mmls  the  lirst  is  the  most  pungent  and  car- 
minative. 

Pliissopu.'.  n/Jicimilis,  hyssop,  herba,  Asia, 
South  and  East  of  Europe.  This  plant 
is  nearly  similar  in  virtues  to  the  mints  just 
enumerated. 

OF    ASTRINGENTS. 

Astringents  are  those  substances  that  re- 
strain morbid  evacuations.  Their  mode  of 
opera;  ion  ha^  ben  erroiieouslv  sup])osed  si- 
milar to  tliat  by  which  dead  animal  matter'is 
constringed  and  condensed.  Increased  eva- 
cuation; do  notdepeiid  merely  upon  mecha- 
nical laxity  of  the  solids;  the  procesii,  there- 
tore,  by  wiiich  they  ai'e  arrested,  cannot  en- 
tirely be  ascribed  to  chemical  principles  ;  al- 
though in  some  cases  medicines  which  are 
caiploved  to  arrest  profuse  discharges,  con- 
fessedly possess  a  power  ofconstringingdead 
animal  ribre.  This  faculty  in  vegetables  is 
denominated  astringency,  and  results  from 
the  union  of  gallic  acid  and  tanning  principle 
combined;  tlie  former,  when  separated,  is 
distinguished  by  its  property  of  striking  3 
deep-black  colour  with  the  salts  of  iron;  the 
other  by  its  great  attraction  to  animal  gelatin. 
\'egetal)le  astringents  then  mav  be  consider- 
ed as  moderate  permanent  stimuli,  modified 
in  their  action,  even  on  living  matter,  by  the 
principle  abova  alluded  to.  Inordinate  eva- 
cuations are,  however,  often  restrained  by 
mineral  as  well  as  vegetable  substances,  and 
in  this  case  the  former  <leserve  to  be  ar- 
ranged in  the  class  of  astringents,  according 
to  the  delinition  above  given  of  these  powers. 
Dr.  Darwin  refers  astringency  to  the  pro- 
motion of  absorption.  Many  agents,  how- 
ever, which  hiive  the  greatest  ellicacy  in  ex- 
citing the  absorbent  vessels,  are  not  capable 
of  stopping  haemorrhages,  or  other  morbiil 
discharges. 

I'egelahle  Astringents. 

Zwrcus  rubur,  oak,  cortex,  indigenous. 
This  has  been  employe. I  in  luemorrhage,  di- 
arrhfta,  and  interm.ttent  lever.  Its  dose  in 
powder  js  from  liftcen  to  thirty  grains. 

Quercus  rerris-,  galls,  south  of  Europe. 
These  are  tubercles  found  on  the  branch  of 
the  tree  which  produces  them.  They  are 
employed  in  medicine  for  tlie  same  prirpnses, 
and  ire  used  under  the  same  forms,  as  oak- 
bark. 

TormrntiVa  erceta,  tormentil,  radix,  in- 
digenous. ^I'his  has  been  used  ii»  diarrhcea  in 
decoctioo.  Its  dose,  in  substance,  is  from 
half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm. 

PoL/gonum  hislorta,  bistort,  radix,  indige- 
nous. This  is  a  strong  astringent.  Dose  a 
sauple  to  a  drachm. 

AncliKsa  linctoria,  alkanet,  radix,  Soiilhorf 
Europe.  This  is  at  present  merely  employ- 
ed as  a  colouring  matter. 

Ihrmriloxijlnn  CampcehidViim,  logwood. 
It  is  used  as  an  astringent  under  the  toriu  of 
decoction,  or  watery  extract. 

Rosa  gallira,  red'  rose,  South  of  Europe. 
The  |)riniiple  use  of  this  astiingeiit  is  in  the 
form  of  gargle. 


Jrhitii.H  uvn  ursi,  bear's  wliQrtl(»-bei  y, 
fola,  Euro|)P,  America.  This  ha,-,  lieeii  prin- 
cipally jrjvcn  in  disorders  of  the  urinary  or- 
gans. Kecently  it  has  been  proposed  m 
phthisis  pulinonalis. 

Miniosii  eaterliu,  catechu,  or  Japan  earth, 
Fast  Indies,  'liiis  is  a  powerful  and  useful 
astringent  in  diarrhcea.  Its  dose  is  from  iif- 
,teen  to  thirty  gr.iins.  A'ino  i^  employed  with 
the  same  intention  as  catechu,  its'  dose  is 
from  twenty  to  thirty  grains. 

J'tcrocnrjJH.',  draco,  (hagtn's  blood,  resim. 
South  America.  This  is  scarcely  employed 
in  medicine. 

Lucca,  lac,  ficus  indica,  resir.a.  East  In- 
dies. Lac  is  very  little  emi)lo\ed  as  a  me- 
dicinal. 

Pistacea  Itntis-us,  mastiche,  resina,  South 
of  Europe.  This  is  likewise  discarded  from 
practii  e. 

Mineral  Astringents. 

'!  he  chief  of  these  are  the  mineral  acid?, 
especially  the  sulphuric,  and  the  compounds 
this  aci<l  affords  with  metals  and  earths. 

Acidiiiii  su'pliiiricuiu,  vitriolic  acid.  This 
is  used  in  ha-moptysis,  menorrhagia,  diabet(>s, 
hectic,  &c.  Jt  is  given  in  general  in  the  form 
of  diluted  acid.  Dose  Irom  ten  to  thirty 
drcjps. 

Argilla,  argil,  argillaceous  earth  with  oxyd 
of  iron,  forming  the  boles  of  which  the  chief 
is  the  armenian  bole,  were  formerly  employ- 
ed in,  but  are  now  rejected  from,  practice  as 
nearly  inert. 

■Siipersulphas  arr^iVic  el  polasstr,  alum, 
is  given  in  hemorrhage,  and  serous  evacu- 
ations.    Its  dose  is  from  live  to  liiteen  grains. 

Ca/r,  lime  ;  calx  viva,  quicklime.  Lime 
has  been  employed  as  an  astringent  in  the 
fgrm  of  lime-water;  it  is  now  not  much 
used. 

Curb'inas  calcis,  carbonate  of  lime.  The 
carlxjnates  of  lime  are  chalk  (creta  alba), 
crab's-claws  (cheli'  cancroruni),  oyster-ehells 
(te^lie  astreoriim)  ;  they  are  rather  antacids 
tiian  strictly  astringents. 

Plumbum,  lead.  This,  in  the  form  of 
oxyd,  or  salts,  is  evidently  and  jjowerfully 
astringent..  Its  prepiirations  that  a  e  em- 
[)!oye(l  are  the  white  oxyd  (ceru>a,  wliite 
lead),  and  the  acetate  (acetis  plumbi,  sugar 
of  lead). 

Zinnum,  zinc.  The  suljihate  of  zinc  (sul- 
phas zinci),  .-!iid  the  acetate  (acetis  ziiici),  are 
both  powerful  astringents.  The  former  is  in 
principal  use.  It  is  given  sometimes  in  dy- 
sentery, in  the  dose  of  two  or  three  graiin 
twice  a  day.  In  injections  and  collyria,  it  is 
employed  in  the  proportion  of  two  or  three 
grains  to  an  ounce  of  water. 

Fcrrum,  iron.  The  sulphate  is  the  most 
astringent  preparation  of  iron :  it  is,  how- 
ever, oftener  used  as  a  tonic  ihanastrini'i-iit. 

Cuprum,  copper.  Tlie  saline  prcparat  uns 
of  this  metal  are  consideiablv  ;.;tr.ngent. 
The  sulphas  cupri  is  the  most  powerful.  It 
has  been  employed  externally  as  a  stvptic. 
The  acetile  of  copper  (verdigris)  is  used  as 
a  collyrium  from  its  astringent  slyp  ic  pro- 
perty! 

or    EMETICS. 

Emetics  arc  very  properly  defined  by  Mr. 
Murray,  "  Substances  (apai.le  of  exciting 
vomiting,  inilependant  ot  any  effect  arising 
f  om  the  mere  (|iianlLty  of  matter  introduced 
intolhc  stomach,  or  of  any  nauseous  taste  or 
6 


~~Havour."  Tlie  plienomenon  of  voniitiiip;,  as 
to  its  romote  tausp,  is  of  diOit-uU  explana- 
tion. It  cannot  be  owing  simply  to  clel)ili- 
tatcd,  ami  conseiiuonlly  inverted  action  of  the 
slomacli  frwni  pn-vioiis  excitement,  as  a 
greater  qviantity  of  stinuilns  may  be  thrown 
into  this  organ  withoul  being  succeeded  by 
an  inv(M'sion  of  its  peristaltic  motion.  J)r. 
Darwin  attributes  the  el'iect  to  a  suspension 
of  the  exciting  power  of  pleasurable  sensa- 
tion, in  consecpience  of  which  tlie  libves  ot 
the  stomach  arc  arrested  for  a  time,  and 
at  length,  from  the  uiidue  accunuilalion  ol 
irritability,  tlieir  action  becomes  inverted. 
'l"he  sensation  of  nausea  <loes  not,  however, 
invariablv  precede  the  act  of  vomiting;  and 
fven  allowing  this  feeling  to  be  a  necessary 
prcludi-,  the  cause  of  the  sensation  itself  is 
left  unexplained  by  the  sensorial  theory  of 
Dr.  Darw  in. 

The  utility  of  emetics  under  some  circum- 
stances of  the  system  is  very  extiMsiye. 
'J'lieir  s.dularv  elTnts  are  not  solel\  relerable 
to  the  disi-liarge  which  they  occasion ;  but 
they  also  produce  other  changes  on  the  living 
boily,  both  general  and  partial,  vvhicli  «  ill  be 
noticed  ill  the  article   Mi- diCIxe. 

Emetics  are  derived  from  the  vegetable 
and  mineral  kingdoms. 

Emetics  from  tlie  vcgflahlf  k'ingildiii. 

Ipecacuanha,  ipecacuan,  radix,  South 
America. 

This  root  is  the  one  in  most  general  use 
8S  an  emetic:  it  ia  botli  mild  and  certain  in 
its  operation.  It  is  given  in  a  dose  from  fif- 
teen to  thirty  grains.  Iptfcacuan  is  employ- 
ed in  conjunction  with  opium,  as  a  diapho- 
retic. In  this  case  its  dose  is  from  three  or 
ftjur  to  ten  grains. 

ScUla  maritima,  scpiill,  radix,  .South  of 
Europe.  Tliis  bulbous  root  of  a  plant  grow- 
ing on  the  sandy  sliores  of  Spain  and  Italv,  is 
not  at  present  in  much  use  as  an  emetic  :  it  is 
principally  employed  as  an  expectorant  and 
tliuretic. 

Siiiapis  albfi,  mustard,  semen,  indige- 
nous. This  perhapsliiight  have  been  classed 
among  the  aromatics.  When  employed  as 
an  emetic,  its  administration  has  been  prin- 
cipallv  contined  to  paralytic  alfections.  It  is 
given  in  the  dose  of  a  tea-spoonful  mixed 
with  water. 

A-icirmn  Kiiropaiim,  asarabacca,  folia,  in- 
digenous. Th.-  introduction  of  i|)ecacuan 
into  practice,  has  almost  superseded  the  use 
of  this  ]>owerful  drug.  Dose  twenty  grains 
*)f  the  dried  leaves ;  of  the  dried  root  ^en 

A/coUana  tdhiicnin,  tobacco. 

This  is  a  violent  emetic,  as  well  as  nar- 
rotic.  It  is  scarce  ever  eiiiployed  in  prac- 
tice. 

]-'i/)m  llic  mineral  k'iiii^iliiin. 

Aiitinioninm,  stibium,  antimony. 

'J'han  antimony,  scircely  any  mineral  is  in 
wore  general  use:  it  is,  Iiowe\cr,  seldom 
used  i)ut  in  a  state  of  combination  with  oxy- 
gen or  acid.  Its  preparations,  doses,  and 
virtues,  will  be  treated  of  under  the  articles 
1'hakmacv  and  Mr.Dici.xE. 

Sulp/iwi  ziiici,  suli)hate  of /inc. 

Tins  salt  is  sudden  in  its  operation  :  it  is  in 
])rineipal  use  in  c.ises  of  poisons  having  been 
leceived  into  the  stomach.  Its  dose  is  from 
ten  grains  to  a  ^cruph;. 

Sulpliiis  riipri,  sulphate  of  copper. 
Vol.  II. 


MATERIA  MEDICA. 

Neitlier  this  nor  the  acetite  of  copper  is 
in  much  use;  they  are  violent  in  llieir  opera- 
lion,  and  in  no  respect  preferable  to  milder 
emetics. 

OF    CATH.\RTICS. 

A  discharge  of  the  intistinal  contents  ap- 
pears to  be  occasioned  by  medicines  tipon  a 
twofold  prineiiile.  Cathartics  either  imme- 
diatel)  excite  the  fibres  of  the  intestines,  thus 
accelerating  tlieir  iieristaltic  motion,  and  con- 
seiiuenlfacal  evacuations,  or  th(ry  produce  this 
effect  more  immediately  by  stimulating  tin- 
exhalant  and  secerning  vessels  ;  whose  iinids 
(the  bile,  pancreatic  juice,  and  mtestinal 
mucus)  act  as  solvents  to,  and  promote  the 
discharge  of,  the  fa-ces.  Tliese  latter  are 
milder  in  their  operation  than  the  former: 
they  are  tUe^seel  by  Darwiti  among  the  se- 
cerneiilia.  There  are,  however,  many  diugs 
which  act  at  the  same  lime  in  each'of  the 
above  modes. 

Cathartics,  still  more  than  emetics,  are  ex- 
tensively employed  in  metiicine,  Ps  capable 
o\  operating  important  changes  throughout 
the  system.  Their  u.se  iias  recently  been 
brought  more  systematically  into  notice. 

I'pon  the  grounds  just  stati.'d,  cathartics 
may  with  some  ]iropriety  be  divided  into 
purgative  ami  laxative. 

/'/'.rgativcfi. 

r«vv/rt  seiinn,  senna,  folia,  Egypt,  .Arabia. 
Tills  is  frequently  employed:  it  is  given  in 
the  form  of  intusioii.  Dose  a  drachm  or 
more. 

I{/i(iimpiilmatHm,  rhubarb,  radix.Tartary. 

The  best  rhubarb  is  imported  from  Tur- 
key. The  China  rhubarb  has  less  of  the 
aromatic  tlavour.  British  rlinbarb  is  much 
inferior  to  either.  The  dose  of  rhubarb,  as  a 
cathartic,  is  from  fifteen  grains  to  two  scru- 
l)les.  It  is  given  with  advantage  in  diarrhe-a 
and  dysentery,  as  it  contains  an  astringent 
principle.  In'  small  doses  it  is  stomachic  and" 
tonic. 

0)Hi'o/r»//(5;V(/upf7,  jalap,  radix,  Mexico. 
This  is  often  administered  both  alone  and 
more  especially  with  calomel  (submurlas  hy- 
drargyri).  Its  dose  is  from  lifteen  grains  io 
two  scruples. 

ridLhoms  nlger,  black  hellebore,  radix, 
Austria,  Italv. 

'I'his,  in  a  dose  from  ten  to  twenty  grains, 
is  a  violent  cathartic.  It  is  seldom  employ- 
ed in  modern  practice.  Dr.  Mead  attri- 
buted a  powerful  euimeiiagog;!e  property  to 
to  it,  which  however  has  scarcely  been  re- 
alized by  others.  The  antient  physicians 
gase  it  freely  in  maniacal  disonlers. 

Bri/oitia  allia,  bryony,  radix,  indigenous. 
This  root  is  not  mucii  used.  ])ose  from 
twenty  to  thirty  grains.  It  is  slightly  diu- 
retic. 

Cucumis  colocijnthis,  colocynth,  fructiis 
pulpa,  Syria. 

4  drastic  purgative  in  a  dose  from  three  to 
six  grains.  It  is  seldom  given  by  itself,  it 
has  been  chiefly  had  recourse  to  in  obstinate 
constipation. 

Momonlica  clalcrium,  wild  cucumber, 
fructus,  south  ol  Europe. 

This  is  the  mo;t  violejil  of  liU  purgatives. 
Its  dose  is  lialf  a  grain  to  two  grains. 

Hluiiiinus  caiharlicus,  buckthorn,  bacca- 
rum  succus  ,  indigenous.  1'iiis  is  seldom 
used. 

^lloe   perf/HnO,     socotriue,    Darbadoes, 


or  licpatic  and  cabbalinc  aloes  ;  succus  spls> 
;<atu«,  Africa,  Asia,  America. 

The  socolrinc  aloes  is  the  purest.  The 
liarbadoes  and  hepatic  rank  next.  Thei-.tb- 
baline  is  the  most  impure,  and  i.s  tlie  weakest. 
Dose  from  fifteen  grains  to  a  scruple.  Us 
action  is  principally  upon  the  larger  intestines, 
and  on  account  ot  the  vicinity  lo,  and  sym- 
l)iithy  of  these  \vitli,  the  uterus,  it  is  often 
useful  in  amcnorrhaa. 

Convnhulus  scammonia,  scammony,  gura- 
mi-resina,  Syria. 

This  is  a  very  drastic  cathartic.  Dose 
from  live  to  ten  grains. 

<imnhogia  gvtla,  gamboge,  gummi-resina, 
East  Indies. 

Another  violent  cathartic.  Dose  fi-om 
one  lo  four  or  five  grains.  In  coujimction 
with  the  last  and  following  article  gamboge  is 
often  administered  in  dropsy. 

■'iubiiiurias  hi/drargip-i,  'mild  muriate  cf 
mercury,  calomel. 

Dose  from  live  to  eight  or  ten  griiins. 

LAXATIVF.S. 

Afn.um,  manna,  fraxinus  ornus,  succus 
coiK:retus,  South  of  Europe. 

This  is  a  mild  and  pleasant  laxative.  It  is 
fiP(piently  given  to  children  in  conjuHctioa 
with  senna.  Dose  lb  an  adult  from  one  to 
two  ounces. 

Cassiii  fistula,  purging  cassia,  or  cassia  iir 
the  pod ;  pulpa  fructv'is,  Egypt,  East  smi 
West  1  iidies. 

Dose  from  four  lo  six  drachms. 

Tamurimliis  Iiidica,  tamarind, fructus  con- 
ditus,  E.  and  W.  Indies,  Ameri'-a,  Arabia. 

The  tamarinds  of  the  shops  is  the  |jiilp  of 
the  tree  mixed  with  seeds  and  small  libres, 
with  a  (piantity  of  coarse  sugar. 

It  may  be  taken  to  the  extent  of  two 
ounces,  or  more. 

ilicititis  communis,  palma  Christi,  oleum, 
semen,  V\'.  Indies. 

The  oil  from  the  nuts  of  palma  Christi 
is  the  castor  oil  of  the  shops,  'i'his  is  a  mild 
and  very  uset'ul  purgative, 

Sulphur,  a  sini])le  intiain:iiable  substance, 
and  nuigncsin,  either  jiure  or  carlwnated,  are 
all  the  laxatives  that  are  afforded  by  the  mi- 
neral kingdom.  The  operation  of  either  is 
exceedingly  mild. 

I'or  the  dif)"(;rent  neutral  salts  that  are  em- 
ployed as  jiurgalives  in  medicine,  see  Pkar- 
ma'cy. 

1  lie  purgatives  that  are  administered  only 
in  th.e  form  of  enema,  are  the 

Muricis  sodic,  common  salt.  An  ounce 
of  this  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  tepid  water  with 
an  ounce  of  expressed  oil,  forms  the  common 
domestic  enema. 

Tirchintliina  twneta,  turpentine,  pruus 
larix,  gummi-resina.  This  is  sometimes  em- 
ployed us  an  enema  triturated  with  the  yolk 
of  an  egg.  Dr.  Culien  recommends  this  as  a 
very  certain  catharlic.  It  is  indicated  in  ob- 
stinate cosliveness. 

yicntiaua.  The  introduction  per-ano  of 
toljacco  siMoke  has  sometimes  been  effectual 
in  procuring  alv.ne  cvacuaiion,  after  other 
cathartics  have  failed.  The  infusion  of  from 
one  to  two  drachms  in  a  pint  of  water  is  a. 
more  convenient  mode  of  administering  this 
medicine.  Much  caution  is  requisite  in 
either  case  to  obviate  its  injurious  effects. 

OF  BM.MtNAGOGUES. 

These  are  medicines  whicii  promote  the 
meustfual  disdiarge.     Obstruction  or  rcten- 


tion  of  thLMTieiip?,  unless  consequent  upon 
defeclive  conformation,  oruleriin;  impregna- 
tion, is  iisuallv  owing  to  \vcr.l<nL'53  or  want  of 
cine  excitation  in  the  vessels  of  tlie  uterus. 

This  (lebilit-Y  is  best  o\ercome  by  ge- 
neral stimnlatir.g  and  tonic  agents,  wlncli 
thus  acting,  become  emmen .gogues,  ;  some- 
time?, however,  it  U  necessary  more  imme- 
diately and  directly  to  eNcite  the  parts  in  tlie 
vicinity  of  the  uterus,  by  sucli  pmgatives 
v.hose'actioii  is  principally  directed  to  the  in- 
ferior portion  ot  tlie  intestinal  canal.  In  this 
case  these  cathartics  prove  eminenagogue.'^, 
but  not,  as  vas formerly  conjectured,  by  vir- 
fi;e  of  any  specihc  power. 

Emmeiiagognesjrom  the  class  of  ionics. 

Ferruni,  the  carbonate  of  iron,  rnbigo 
ferri  praeparata ;  is  given  in  a  dose  of  ten  or 
lifteen  grains  in  amenorrhoca  ;  the  sulphate  of 
iron  in  "three  or  four  grains.  This  last  is  the 
ferrum  vitriolalum  of  the  I.,ondoti  pharma- 
copceia. 

H/jdrargi/rus,.  the  mild  muriate  of  mer- 
cury, as  already  noticed. 

Cinchona.  Th  s  is  frequently  given  in 
amenorrhoea,  in  conjunction  witli  some  of  tlie 
preparations  ot  iron. 

From  tlie  clu.is  of  andspcismndics. 

Castoreum.  This  is  a  medicine  of  very 
triflihg  efficacy  when  used  as  an  enimena- 
gogue.     Dose  from  ten  to  twenty  grains. 

Ferula  aswfoctida,  and  the  otiier  fcetid 
gums,  (galbaiium,  sagapenuni,  and  annnoni- 
acum)  are  employed  sometimes  as  emmeua- 
gogucs.     Dose  from  ten  grains  to  fifteen. 

Fro7n  the  class  of  cathartics. 

Aloes.  This  substance  is  generally  con-  | 
nected  with  others  when  given  to  promote  | 
the  menses,  as  in  the  jiilula  aloes  cum  j 
myrrha,  &c. 

Hclleborus  niger.     This  is  not  at  present  | 
jn  much  repute.     Dose  of  the  extract  from 
three  to  ten  grains.  J 

Sinapis  alha,  semen,  mustard-seed  in  the 
do.se  of  about  half  an  ounce  is  sometimes 
taken  as  an  emmenagogue. 

Rosmarinus  officinalis,  rosemaiy,  smn- 
mitales  llorentis.  Tliis  is  now  nearly  banish- 
ed from  practice. 

liiihia  linctorum,  madder,  radix,  south  of 
Europe.  Dose  from  a  scruple  to  h.iif  a 
drachm.  Its  virtues  are  not  much  connded 
in  by  modern  physicians. 

Rnica  gra-iHolcns,  ruta,  rue,  herba,  south 
of  Europe.  The  herb  in  the  form  of  ml'u- 
sion,  and  lik-.'wisc  its  essential  oil,  are  the 
prepaialions  of  rue  that  arc  given.  It  is  per- 
Jiaps  of  inferior  ellicaiy. 

Juniperiis  .\ahina,  savin,  folia,  south  of 
Eurt>))e.  Savin  is  not  much  u  ed  internaiiy, 
altho.igli  supposed  by  some  to  be  a  powerful 
emmenagogue. 

OF    DIURETiCS. 

Diuretics  are  those  •  edicines  which  aug- 
ment the  urinary  Jischar.je.  This  etllct  is 
cither  produced  by  a  direct  stimulus  commu- 
nicated to  the  kidneys,  by  a  sym;)athetic 
excitement  of  these  organs  from  a  ])revious 
action  excited  in  the  stomach,  or,  lastly,  by 
the  promotion  of  ab5or|)tU)n,  by  which  more 
than  their  usual  quantity  is  directed  to  the 
secretory  vessels  of  the  urine.  The  saline 
tliiiplioretics  seem  principally  to  exert  their 
agency  in  the  (irst  of  these  ways.  Squill 
and  Olivers  appear  to  produce  a  primary  ac- 
tion of  thu  slouiach,  and  digitalis  from  its 


MATERIA  MEDICA. 

extraordinary  power  over  the  absorbent  sys- 
tem is  an  e-K.unpIe  of  the  last-mentioned 
mode  of  procuring  diuresis. 

Saline  diurtlics. 

Supcrtartris  pota.is.v,  cream  of  tartar. 
Dose  four  or  six  drachms  twice  a  day  in  a 
considerable  <(uantity  of  water.  This  has 
been  much  employed  in  dropsy. 

i\'ilrai  polassu',  nitre.  Dose  from  live  to 
twenty  grains.  Nitre  w^as  formerly  nuich 
used  in  gonorrhoea,  in  oriler  to  abate  the 
ardor  urina. 

Marias  ammonia:,  crude  sal  ammoniac. 
This  is  not  much  employed.  Dose  from 
eight  grains  to  a  scruple. 

.Icetis  polassa,  sal  dinreticus.  This  has 
now  likewise  fallen  into  disuse. 

Potassa,   kali.       The  dose  of  carbonated 
kali  is  from  twenty  to  thirty  grains. 
Fegetuhle  diuretics. 

SciUa  maritima.  Dose  as  a  diuretic  from 
one  to. three  or  four  grains.        ' 

Digitalis  purpurea.  Dose  from  one  grain 
to  two  or  more,  of  the  ])owdered  leaves : 
from  ten  to  thirty  drops  of  the  saturatrd 
tincture.  The  dose  requires  to  be  regulated 
and  encreased  with  much  caution. 

Nicotianu  tahacvm.  An  ounce  of  the 
dried  leaves  infused  in  a  pint  of  water,  has 
been  given  as  a  diuretic  in  the  dose  of  from 
sixty  to  a  hundred  drops. 

■Solanum  dulcamara,  woody  niglitshade, 
bitter,  sweet,  indigenous.  This  is  scarcely 
ever  prescribed. 

Lactuca  verosa.  Dose  from  ten  grains  to 
three  drachms.     It  is  not  much  used. 

Colcliium  uuiumnule,  me.ulow  saitiron,  in- 
digenous. This  has  not  been  in  uimcIi  use 
in  this  country.  It  was  first  prescrilied  in 
dropsy  by  Storck  of  Vieima. 

Graliola  officinalis,  hedge  hyssop,  south 
of  Europe.  Tlie  leaves  or  this  plant  have 
likewise  been  given  in  dropsy,  but  thev  have 
not  come  into  general  use. 

Spartium  scoparium,  broom,  summitales, 
indigenous. 

The  broom  tops  infused  in  water  havi- 
provei.1  ailxantageous  in  dropsy. 

Juniperus  communis,  jumper,  bacca-,  ii>- 
digcnous.  Juniper  berries  given  m  intusioii 
have  a  pretty  considerable  diuretic  power. 

Cnpaifera  officinalis,  copaiva  balsam. 
South  America.  Dose  from  twenty  to  thir- 
ty drops  twice  a  day.  It  is  principally  em- 
ployed m  gleet. 

Pinuslarir,  \'enice  turpentine,  balsamiun. 
I5ose  from  five  to  twelve  drops  of  the  essen- 
tial oil.  This  has  likewise  been  given  in 
gleet,  and  in  ischias. 

Pisiachia  tcrebinthinus,  C'yprus  turpen- 
tine.. Tnis  is  more  fragrant  than  the  balsam 
from  the  pinus  ;  as  is  likewise  Strasburgh 
turpentine,  the  produce  of  the  pinus  picea. 
The  coni.non  tur|ientine  (piu'.is  sylvestris 
balsam)  is  on  tlic  other  hand  the  most  o/fen- 
sive. 

Diuretics  from  the  animal  Kingdom. 

Meloe  vc.iicatorius,  cantharides,  Spajiish 
fly.  This  is  an  insect  collected  from  tlie 
leaves  of  plants  growing  in  the  South  of 
Ein'ope.  It  lias  principally  been  given  in- 
ternally for  gleet  and  retention  of  urine. 
Dose  one  grain  gradually  increased. 

OF    DIAPHOUETICS. 

If  the  natural  and  constant  exhalation 
from  the  skin  be  condensed  on  the  surface 


from  it*  augmented  discharge,  it  constitute* 
sweat.  This  effect  when  produced  only  to 
a  certain  extent,  is  called  diaphoresis.  Dia- 
phoretic and  sudorific  powers  difl'er  then 
only  in  degree.  D.aphoreticsare  classed  bv 
Darwin  under  the  head  of  secernentia.  Tliey 
necessarily  oper.ite  by  directly  or  indirectly 
exciting  the  cutaneous  exhalants.  The  sa- 
line ami  cooling  diaphoretics  appear  to  act 
in  the  latter,  the  heating  niedicinals  whicii 
are  given  to  jirocure  sweat  in  tiie  former 
manner.  Diaphoretics  with  respect  to  their 
inliuencc  on  the  system,  are  often  abundant- 
ly powerful  and  salutary. 

ylmmonia.  All  saline  preparations  arc 
more  or  less  diaphoretic  under  proper  regu- 
lation. The  ammonidcal  salts  have  been 
imagined  to  be  so  in  a  greater  degree  thas 
others.     See  TH.-iRMACY. 

f/i/drai-gt/rus.  The  mild  muriate  (calo- 
mi-l)  in  Lonjimction  with  opium  in  very 
small  doses,  is  sometimes  useluUy  employed 
as  a  diaphoretic. 

.  Aniimonium.  All  the  preparations  of  an.- 
timony   may  be  made  to  prove  sudorific. 

Ipecacuanha.  In  a  dose  of  two  or  tiiree 
grains  witli  or  witliout  an  opiate. 

Opium.  This  when  employed  as  a  dia- 
phoretic is  generally  combined  with  one  or 
other  of  the  three  former  medicines. 

Camphor  hkewise  mu.st  be  united  with 
mercury,  antimony,  or  opium,  w  hen  it  is  iii>- 
tended  as  a  diaphoretic. 

Guaiacum  O'Hcinale,  guaiac  lignum,  et 
gumnii-resina,  Soutli  America,  and  the  West 
Indies.  Guaiac  wood  is  given  in  the  form 
of  decoction,  a  quart  of  which  is  given  in 
the  course  oi  the  day.  The  gum-resin  I's 
commonly  administered  inspirit  of  ammonia, 
trom  which  it  derives  a  considetable  part  ©f 
its  virtut  s.  Dose  from  one  drachm  to  two 
ol  the  tincture. 

Daphne  mezereum.  mezereon,  cortex  ra- 
dicis  indigenous.  This  is  a  stimulating  dia- 
phoretic: it  is  generaily  given  in  lues  venerea, 
with  sarsapariila  and  guaiac,, forming  the  Lis- 
bon diet-drink. 

Sinnax  sarsaparilla,  radix.  South  Ameri- 
ca. Tills  has  scarcely  any  power  exclusive- 
ly employed. 

/.«itr«v  j«.s.ra/m.5,  sassafi'as,  lignum,  Ame- 
rica. This  is  sligHtly  stimulant  and. diaph.o- 
retic.  It  is  probably  less  efJicacious  than  has 
generally   been  imagined.  • 

Cuclitearia  armorucia,  horse-radish,  ra<K  \ . 
indigenous.  This  is  a  stimulant  capable  . 
promoting  perspiration.  Aboul  a  drachm 
of  the  root  cut  in  small  pieces  and  swallowed 
whole,  has  been  recommended  in  paralysis, 
rheumatism,  asthma,  and  dropsy. 

Salvia  ojlicinalis,  sage,  folia,  south  of 
Europe.  Its  ac|Ueous  infusion  drunk  warm 
is  slightly  stimulant  and  diaphoretic. 

EXPECTORANTS 

Are  those  medicines  which  facilitate  the 
rejection  of  mucus  or  other  lluids  from  the 
•lungs.  This  object  is  accomplished  by  in- 
creasing pulmonary  exhalation  when;  de- 
ficient, or  diminishing  it  when  too  copious. 
In  the  one  instan:  e  espectorants  are  secer- 
nent, in  the  other  absorbent  powere:  their 
operation,  like  th..t  of  emetics,  is  in  both 
cases  either  direct  or  indirect. 

Jnlimoniuni.  The  most  common  prepa- 
ration of  antimony  for  an  expectorant  is  the 
emetic  larUr  of  the  shops.    '.I'his  is  given  in 


'^noiimonia,  cafarrh,  hooping  cough,  ami 
.1  alima,  in  the  close  of  oiio  eigluh  of  a  grain. 

/pcracmiiilui.  It  is  givoii  with  the  same 
iiiteDtion  in  a  dose  of  two  or  three  grains. 

JJi^itdlis,  ill  the  dose  of  half  a  grain,  has 
been  used  as  an  expectorant,  as  likewise 

Nicotiuna,  in  the  dose  of  one,  two,  or 
tliree  gr..ins. 

S'cilUi.  This  is  one  of  the  most  effectual 
of  the  expectorantia.  Dose  one  grain  of  tlie 
dried  root. 

Allium  sativum,  garlic,  radix,  south  of 
Europe.  Garlic  is  given  in  htiuioral  asth- 
ma, drnpsv,  Ji:c.  in  the  dose  of  half  a  drachm 
or  two  scruples. 

Pob/i^ala  .sriiega,  seneka,  radix.  North 
America.  i_)ose  (rum  ten  grains  to  a  scruple. 
It  is  chitHy  employed  in  llie  secondary  stage 
of  jmeumonia. 

Ammonidvum,  ammoniac,  East  Indies, 
gummi-resiua.  Dose  from  ten  to  thirty 
grains.  This  is  frei|uenlly  used  as  jin  ex- 
pectorant. 

AssafiVtida.  Dose  from  ten  to  twenty 
grains. 

Mijrrlui,  myrrh,  gummi-resiua,  Ahyssinia 
and  Arabia.  '  Dose  from  ten  to  twenty 
grains. 

N.  13.  The  j)lants  producing  the  above  two 
glini-resins  are  imknown. 

■Stijrax  benzoin,  benzoin  or  Benjamin,  bal- 
samum.  East  [nilies.  Dose  ten  or  tifteen 
grains.  It  is  perhaps  possessed  of  little 
power. 

St>/rax  officinale,  storax,  bals.  south  of 
Europe,  Asia.  Storax  is  like  benzoin  in  its 
Yirtues. 

Tnluifera  hnlsamum,  balsam  of  tolu.  South 
America.  The  powers  ot  this  balsam  arc 
>ery  inconsiderable. 

Miiroxnlon  piruifirum,  Peruvian  balsam. 
South  Americiu  Dose  in  asthma,  leucorrha'a, 
ice.  from  five  to  fifteen  grains. 

Amyris  i^Heddcnsii,  balm  of  (Jilcad, 
Arabia.  The  (|ualities  of  this  nearly  resemble 
the  balsam  of  tolu. 

OF    SIALACOGUES. 

These  are  substances  which  increase  the 
secretion  of  saliva.  This  is  in  general  eiTecl- 
ed  by  mastication  of  acrid  substances,  but  in 
some  few  instances  is  occasioned  by  medi- 
cines taken  into  the  stomach.  Niercur\-, 
jierhaps,  is  the  only  medicine  which  uniform- 
ly <lisplays  a  sialagogue  power. 

/ii/drari^t/rui.  All  the  preparations  .  of 
mercury  have  more  or  less  inlluence  oyer 
the  salivary  glands. 

Anllieinis  pp-rirum,  pellitory  of  Spain,  ra- 
dix, south  of  r.urope.  This  is  sometimes 
chewed  in  order  to  relieve  tlie  tooth-ache. 

Arum  mucalidum,  wake-Uobin,  radix, 
indigenous.  This  rcembles  pellitory,  and 
may  be  employed  with  the  same  intention. 

Ginger,  mezereum,  and  tobacco  especially. 


ERRHINF.S 

Are  medicines  which  occasion  a  more 
than  ordinary  secretion  from  the  mucous 
nieinbrane  of  the  nostrils.  They  all  operate 
by  direct  application. 

Iris  fl'^rtntina,  Florentine  orris,  radix, 
south  of  Europe.  This  is  a  mild  sternutatory 
and  forms  one  of  the  ingredients  of  some  ce- 
phxlic  snufls. 

yEsculus   hippoaistinum,    horse  chesnut, 


MATERIA  JNIEDICA. 

sc-mon.  This  acts  as  a  moderate  sternuta- 
tory. 

brigannm  mnjoritna,  sweet  marjtirum, 
herba,  sofuth  of  luu'ope.  'I'his  has  a  slight 
errhine  power. 

LitL(i!idul/i  )pica,  lavender,  spicre  floren- 
tes,  south  of  Europe.  The  dried  leaves  in 
powder. 

Nicotitina,  tobacco.  The  powder  of  the 
dried  leaves  is  the  basis  of  snuffs. , 

^Jsaruiu  Euri>]HVUni,  asarabaca,  folia,  in- 
digenous. 'J'he  leaves  of  this  plant  in  pow- 
der form  the  basis  of  oflicinal  sternutatory 
powders. 

Feratrum.  album,  white  hellebore,  radix, 
south  .  of  Europe.  Tliis  is  a  very  violent 
errhine.  .      -  . 

Euphorbia  officinalis,  gummi-resina,  Afri- 
ca. TJiis  is  the  most  powerful  of  all  the 
errliine*.  .  It  is  seldoinor  never  employed. 

Subsulplitts  lii/drargiiri.  This  prepara- 
tioB  of  mercury  has  been  recommended  to 
be  suuffed  up  the  nostrils  in  some  kinds  of 
chronic  ophthalmia. 

EPISPASTICS    A.VR   RUBF.FACrANTS. 

Epispastics  arc  those  substances  which  ap- 
plied to  tlie  skin  produce  either  serous  or 
purulent  discharge  through  the  medium  of 
mflammation.  Rubefaciants  occasion  in- 
llammalion,  but  not  so  violent  as  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  such  discharges. 

Mclfie  vesicaiorius,  cantharis,  Spanish  (ly. 
This  is  the  principal  substance  einployed  for 
blistering.  After  a  blister  has  been  raised 
the  discharge  is  often  convi-rted  from  seaim 
into  pus  by  tlie  continued  application  of  any 
stimulating  acrid  ointment.  This  practice 
is  often  pursued  in  asthma,  paralysis,  ic. 

Ciinlhaiides  in  the  form  of  tincture  may 
be  employed  simply  as  a  rubetliciant. 

Amtuonia  with  oil,  forms  a  liniment  for 
this  purpose. 

Pinus  albns.  Burgundy  pitch,  resina.  This 
is  used  in  the  form  of  plaster,  in  chronic  af- 
fections of  the  lungs  and  chest. 

Sinapis,  mustard.  The  flour  of  mustard- 
seed  mixed  with  crumbs  of  bread,  and  made 
into  a  paste  with  vinegar,  foniis  a  sinapism,  a 
powerful  ruhefaciant.  It  is  applied  to  the 
soles  of  the  feet  in  cases  of  pressing  debility, 
as  in  the  last  stages  of  typhoid  fever,  and  in 
comatose  affections. 

Allium,  gaiiick.  The  bruised  root  of  this 
plant  is  used  for  similar  purposes  with  the 
mustard  sinapism. 

OF    REFRIGERANTS. 

Mr.  Murray  considers  those  medicines 
which  directly  lower  the  temperature  of  ihe 
body,  to  be  principally  chemical  in  their 
operation.  They  are  acids,  or  substances 
containing  a  superabundant  proportion  of 
oxygen,  which  being  received  into  the  sto- 
mach, occasions  a  less  demand  for  this  prin- 
ciple (o>;ygeii)  by  the  lungs,  and  conse- 
quently a  less  generation  or  evolution  of 
heat.  Tills  doctrine,  however,  does  not  ap- 
pear satisfactory.  See  pHysioLOGV",  Sec- 
lions  Digtstion  imd  licspiration  ;  and  Me- 
dicine, Section  Fi^er,  &c. 

Of  refrigerants,  the  vegetable  acids  are  the 
most  elHcacious. 

Citrus  aui'un'ium,  orange,  succus  fruc- 
tus.  The  acidity  of  China  orange  is  con- 
nected with  sweetness,  of  the  orange  frgm 
Seville  with  bitterness.  The  former  is  used  as 
a  refrigerant  in  fever. 

Citrus  medica,  lemou,  succus  fvuctiis. 
V-2 


US 

The  juice  of  the  lemon  is  composed  of  citric 
acid,  and  saccharine  and  mucilaginous  mat- 
ter. It  is  the  most  powerful  and  agreeable 
of  the  refrigerants.  With  carbonate  of  pot- 
ass, (kali  prep.)  it  forms  the  saline  draught, 
the  virtues  of  which  are  perhaps  owing  to 
the  carbonic  acid  that  is  es-olvecl  by  the  mix- 
ture of  the  acid  and  alkali. 

Tamurindus  itidicu.  Tamarind  is  a  very 
pleasant  refrigerant ;  a  solution  of  it  in  wa- 
ter constitutes  a  pleasant  beverage  in  fever. 

Acidum  acitosum,  vinegar.  Tlie  use  of 
this  in  medicine  is  principally  as  a  substitute 
for  the  lemon-juice. 

S'ujtcrlartris    pntasscr,    cream    of  tartar. 

Niiras  pot/tssw.  This  is  given  as  a  reirige- 
rant,  in  a  dose  of  from  live  grains  to  a  scruple. 

ANTACIDS. 

These  perhajMi  are  more  strictly  chemical 
ill  their  primary  operation  than  the  last  class 
of  medicines.  They  immediately  neutralise 
the  prevailing  morbid  acidity  of  the  sto- 
mach. 

Alkalies.  Pure  potass  jii  solution  is  em- 
ployed to  correct  acidity,  in  doses  of  liftcen 
drops  in  water.  The  carbonates  of  potass 
and  soda  are,  however,  in  more  general  use 
for  this  purpose. 

A(/ua  ammonia:  is  given  likewise  with  this 
intent.     Dose  from  twenty  to  forty  drops. 

Aijun  culcis.  Lime-water  is  also  used  to 
correct  acidity  ;  six  or  eight  ounces  being 
taken  occasioually. 

Carbonas  calcis.  Of  this  there  are  tw» 
varieties,  creta  alba,  (prepared  chalk)  and 
chela;  cancrorum  (crab's  claws).  These,  es- 
pecially the  former,  are  principally  used  is 
the  diarrhoea  of  infants. 

Magnesia  (carbonas  magnesia-).     Ths 
in  some  cases  preferable  to  chalk  as  an  a"l' 
acid,  as  the   neutral  compound  formed   by 
its  union  with  the  acid  of  the  stomach  proves 
slightly  purgative. 

OF  LITHONTRIPTICS, 

Medicines  supposed  to  have  a  power  of  dis- 
solving stone  in  the  blad<ler.  Calculus  is 
principally  formed  by  a  peculiar  acid,  called 
the  lithic,  or  uric,  with  which  alkalies  unite 
out  of  the  body,  and  thus  become  solvents  of 
the  stone.  These  medicines,  however,  can- 
not in  any  way  be  conveyed  to  the  urinary 
organs  in  sufficient  quantity  to  effect  this 
purpose,  without  material  injury  to  the  pai  ti 
and  the  general  system.  It  lias  indeed  been 
ascertained,  from  cxiieriment,  that  by  the 
exhrbition  of  alkaline  siibstaiu  es,  for  a  length 
of  time,  the  constitutional  disposition  to  se- 
crete fresh  calculus  is  in  a  great  measure  ob- 
viated. These  substances  then  are  rather 
preventives  than  curatives  of  calculary 
disorders.  That  they  do  not,  when  taken 
into  the  stomach,  operate  as  solvents,  is  suf- 
ficiently evident,  from  the  circumstance  of 
their  being  more  useful  when  administered 
saturated  with  carbonic  acid;  for  these  alka- 
line carbonates  do  not  exert  any  action  on 
the  urinary  calculi  out  of  the  body,  as  the 
Ijthic  acid  of  the  concretion  is  not  of  sufficient 
attractive  power  to  disengage  the  carbonic 
acid  from  its  union  with  the  salt.  The  only 
power  then  that  is  possessed  by  the  medicines 
termed  lithontriptics,  is  that  of  neutralizing 
acidity  in  the  first  passages,  and  thus  prevent- 
ing the  deposition  of  lithic  acid  in  the  urinary 
organs. 

Potasm,  potass.  The  dose  of  the  $oluiie» 


U8 


M  A  T 


'efpure  potass  is  15  or  20  drops  gradually  in- 
creasL-d.  The  form  in  which  it  is  generally 
employed  as  a  lithontriptic,  is  in  the  supersa- 
turated solution.  Dose,  one  or  two  pounds 
daily. 

Soda.  Tills  is  likewise  used  in  the  form  of 
saturated  solution,  under  the  uame  of  soda 
water,     llose,  one  or  two  jiounds.  ■ 

Siipo  albas.  Soap  is  a  combination  of  ex- 
pressed oil  with  |5otass  or  soda.  Dose,  one 
or  two  ounces  in  tho-  course  of  the  day- 

Calx.  Lime-water  is  sometimes  employed 
as  a  lithontriptic. 

ESCHAROTICS 

Are  substances  which  (h:3troy  the  testure 
of  both  livin<5  and  dead  animal  matter.  They 
are  employed  to  consume  excre-cences,  or 
to  operi  ulcer.  Their  action  on  the  living 
system  is  principally,  but  not  entirely,  che- 
mical. 

The  mineral  acids  have  been  employed  as 
escharofxs,  but  are  not  convenient,  iu  con- 
sequence of  their  fluidity. 

PoUismi,  iu  its  solid  state,  is  a  powerful 
escharotic:  mixed  with  lime  it  is  somewhat 
inilder. 

Nitras  argenti.  Lun.u-  caustic.  Tiiis  is  in 
common  use. 

Murius  antimnnii.  A  powerful  caustic,  but 
inconvenient  from  its  being  in  a  fluid  form. 

Sulphas  cupri  is  often  emjjloyed. 

Aceth  cupri.  (N'erdigris.)  I'his  is  milder 
than  the  sulphate. 

Al'iriiui  h'ldrargijri.  Principally  used  in 
venereal  ulcers. 

Sul)H>Jra-i  lujdrargyri.  Employed  with  the 
same  intention  as  the  muriate. 

Oxyduiii  urscnici  alhi.  A  solution  of  white 
arsenic  is  sometimes  made  use  of  as  an  ex- 
ternal application  to  cancer. 

Jiinip-i-us  sahiiut.  Savine  is  principally 
applied  in  the  form  of  ointment  to  obstinate 
ulcers.  It  is  used  in  powder  to  consume 
warts. 

ANTHELMINTICS 

Arc  those  medicines  employed  to  expel 
warms  from  the  intestinal  canal.  Their  ope- 
ration is  supposed  to  be  mechanical  ;  it  may 
how  ver  be  questioned,  whether  this  class 
should  not  be  a  subdivision  of  the  local  sti- 
mulants, as  the  greater  niniiber  of  them  seem 
to  discharge  worm;  bv  a  stimulant  rather  than 
by  a  mechanically  destructive  power. 

Doh'choi  priiriens,  cowhage.  East  and 
"West  indies.  I'his  substance  is  the  down 
growirtg  on  the  pods  of  llic  plant.  The  ac- 
tion of  this  medicine  may  perhaps  be  princi- 
pally mechanical. 

ficrnun,  iron.  The  filings  and  rust. 

.Sttinituin,  tin.  This  is  used  in  the  form  of 
powder.  Tin  may  ])erhaps  operate  by  a  me- 
chanical power.  Dose,  one  or  two  drachms. 

OhaF.jropiea,  olive  oil,  oleum  expressum. 
South  of  l^urope.     Dose  half  a  pound. 

.■Jrlsiiiisia  santonica,  wonii  seed,  Persia. 
]X)se  lialf  a  drachm. 

.*!i}igtlium;trilandica,\ndiM\  pink,  radix. 
North  America.     Dose  half  a  drachm. 

Pnlapttiium  fi'.ix  iwis,  male  fern,  radix, 
indi\»onous.     Dose  two  or  three  drachms. 

T'lnacttum  vtilv^urt.-,  tansy,  folia  et  tlores, 
indigenous.  Dose  from  a  scruple  to  a 
drachm. 

Grofiila  inermis,  cabbage  bark-trcc,  cor- 
tex, Jamaica.  Dose  thirty  grains. 


MAT 

Gamhogia.  Dose  from  five  to  twenty 
grains. 

Siihmiirias  h'/drurgi/ri.  Cuiomel  is  per- 
haps the  most  ellicacious  of  all  the  anthel- 
mintics. DojC  ten  or  twelve  grains  to  an 
adult. 

DEMULCEN'TS 

Are  substances  employed  iu  medicine  to 
shield  from  acrimony ;  they  can  only  act  on 
the  parts  to  which  they  are  directly  applied. 
From  some  circumstances,  however,  attend- 
ing tlieir  inteinal  administration,  it  is  suppos- 
ed that  they  are  capable  of  being  absorbed 
and  again  separated  by  particular  secretory 
organs.  This  supposition  does  not  appear  to 
be  entirely  satisfactory. 

Mimosa  uilotica,  g'lmi  arable,  Africa.  This 
is  used  to  allay  the  irritation  of  the  fauces  in 
catarrh.  It  is  likeuise  given  in  tenesmus, 
strangury,  &c. 

Astragalus tragacantha,  tragacanth.  South 
of  Europe,  Asia.  This  lias  virtues  similar  to 
gum  arable.   It  is  more  viscid. 

Linian  mitatissiinim,  flax,  semen,  indi- 
genous. This  is  sometnues  used  in  gonorrhoa, 
and  catarrh. 

Altha-a  nJ/'icinuHs,  mar'h  mallow,  radix, 
indige.^ous. 

Mal-ca  s^k'estris,  common  mallow,  folia, 
indigenous. 

Gli/cijrrhiza  glabra,  liquorice,  radix,  South 
of  Europe.  These  three  la!,t  are  all  pleasant 
demulcents. 

Cycas  circinalis.  sago,  East  Indies.  This 
is  a  fajcula  from  the  pith  of  the  plant  :  it  is 
often  given  in  dysentery,  &c.  as  demulcent 
and  at  the  same  {ime  nutritive. 

Orchis  mascida,  salop,  indigenous.  Similar 
in  virtue  to  sago. 

Maraiiti:  arundiiiacea,  .South  America. 
Arrow-root  is  demulcent,  and  slightly  nutri- 
tive. 

Tn/ficiim  h>/l>eriiiw',  wheat,  amyUnn. 
Starch  is  useful  as.  an  enema  with  opium  in 
dysentery,  &c. 

Corati  cerri  rasura,  hartshorn  shavings. 
Iclkyncnila,  isinglass  is  obtained  from  the 
skin  of  the  fish.     Isinglass  is  a  demulcent  in 
fretiuent  use. 

Oiea  oliiiF.  The  expressed  oil  jirincipally 
used  as  a  demulcent  is  obtained  from  the  fruit 
of  the  olive. 

Am':'i';dalus  communis,  a.\mond  oil.  01.  ex- 
press. South  of  Europe. 

ScCiHun  Cfli.  .Sipermaceti  is  obtained  from 
the  head  of  a  certain  spt'cies  of  whale.  Like 
the  almond  oil,  it  is  given  as  a  demulcent  in 
catarrh,  &c. 

Cera,  wax.  This  is  collected  from  the  an- 
tlier;v  of vegeta'oK-s  by  bees.  This  is  ]Minci- 
pally  employed  in  tlie  composition  of  oint- 
ments and  plasters. 

Of  diluents  and  emollients  the  two  re- 
maining classes  scarcely  any  thing  remains  to 
be  said.  Water,  slrictiy  speaking,  is  the  only 
diluent,  and  emollients  are  chielly  formed  of 
lieat  combined  witii  moisture,  as  in  fomenta- 
tions and  cataplasms,  or  of  uik  tuous  sub- 
stances, as  lard  (axungia  porcina)  and  the  va- 
rieties of  expr«sed  oils. 

MATH  i;m.vtic;al  instruments. 

See  Instkumen'ts. 

MATHEMATICS,  from  /*«9wir,  origi- 
nally signilled  any  discipline  or  learning;  but 
ai  present  denotes  that  science  which  teaches 
or  contcinpl.ites  whatever  is  capable  of  being 


M  A  T 

numbered  or  measured,  in  so  far  as  compu- 
table or  measurable,  and  accordingly  is  sub- 
divided inlu  arithmetic,  which  has  number 
for  its  object,  and  geometiy,  which  treats  of 
magnitude.  See  Arithmktic,  aiid  Geome- 

TRV. 

Mathematics  are  commonly  distinguished 
into  pure  and  speculative,  which  censider 
quantity  abstractedly ;  and  mixed,  which 
treat  ot  magnitude  as  subsisting  in  material 
bodies,  ancf  consequently  are  interwoven 
every  wherewith  physical  consideialions. 

Mixed  mathematics  are  very  comprehen- 
sive; since  to  them  may  be  referred  astrono- 
my, optics,  geography,  Indrography,  hydro- 
statics, mechanics,  fortification,  navigation, 
&c.  See  AsTRCSo.My,  Optics.&c. 

Pure  mathematics  have  one  peculiar  ad- 
vantage, that  they  occasion  no  disputes  anumg 
w  rangling  disputants,  as  in  other  liranches  of 
knowledge;  and  the  reason  is,  because  the 
derinitions  of  the  terms  are  premised,  and 
every  body  that  reads  a  proposition  has  the 
same  idea  of  every  part  of  it.  Hviice  it  is 
easy  to  put  an  end  to  all  niatheiuatical  con- 
tiovorsies,  by  shewing  either  that  our  adver- 
sary has  not  stuck  to  his  delinilions,  or  has 
not  laid  down  true  premises  ;  or  cUe  that  he 
has  drawn  false  coucUisioiis  from  true  princi- 
ples; and  in  case  we  are  able  to  do  nei- 
ther of  these,  we  must  acknowledge  the  truth, 
of  what  he  has  proved. 

It  is  true,  that  in  mixed  mathematics,  wl-.ere  ■ 
we  reason  mathematically  upon  physical  sub- 
jects, we  cannot  give  such  just  dehuitions  as 
the  geometricians;  we  must  therefore  rest 
content  with  descriptions,  and  they  will  be  of 
the  same  use  as  dehnitious,  provided  we  are 
consistent  with  ourselves,  and  always  mean 
the  same  thing  by  those  terms  we  have  once 
explained. 

ISIATHIOL.V,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria 
monog\  nia  class  and  order.  The  cal_\  x  is- 
entire  ;' corolla  tubular,  superior,  uudiviiled, 
drupe  with  a  globular  nucleus.  I'here  is  one 
species,  American. 

M.VnUCAKIA,  fcvtrfiv:,  a  genus  of  the 
polvgamia  supertiua  order,  in  the  syngeiicsia 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  49th  order,  composita-. 
Tlie  receptacle  is  naked  ;  there  is  no  pappus; 
the  calyx  hemispherical  and  imbricated,  with 
the  marginal  leaflet;  solid,  and  something 
sharp.  There  are  eight  species,  hut  (hi-  only 
remarkable  one  is  the  partiienium  or  common 
feverfew,  of  which  there  are  vanities  with 
doiii)le  flowers,  with  semi-double  flow  ers,  w i'li 
double  lislular  flowers,  with  a  listular  disk  and 
plain  radius,  with  short-rayed  flov, ers,  with 
rayless  flowers,  with  rayless  su'phur-coloured 
heads,  and  with  finely  curled  leaves.  All 
these  varieties  llower  abundantly  in  June, 
each  flower  being  composed  of  numerous 
hermaphrodite  and  female  florets;  the  foimer 
compose  the  disk,  the  latter  the  radius  or 
border,  and  which,  in  the  double  and  fistulous 
kinds,  are  very  ornamental  in  gardens,  but 
of  a  disagreeable  odour;  and  are  all  succeed- 
ed bv  plenty  of  seed  in  autumn.  'I'his  plant, 
has  received  a  most  extraordinary  character 
in  Instcric  and  other  alft'ctions  of  the  nerves, 
as  well  as  for  being  a  carminative  or  warm  sti- 
mulating bitter.  Dr.  Lewis,  however,  thniks 
it  inferior  to  camomile;  with  which  he  says  it 
agiees  in  all  its  sensible  qualities,  only  being 
somewhat  weaker. 

MATIUCE,  or  Matrix,  in  dyeing,  is  ap- 


MAT 

plied  to  the  five  simple  colours,  whence  all 
the  rest  are  derived  or  composed.  These 
are,  tlie  black,  white,  blue,  red,  and  yellow, 
or  root-colour.  Seo  Dyeing. 

.Matrice,  or  >iuitrici:!i,  Msed  by  the  leller- 
£ounders.     See  TvrE. 

.\h\  TRKES.  See  CoiN'iffc. 
iM.V  TRIX,  or  Motukr  Earth,  the  stone 
ill  which  iiietaMic  ores  are  found  enveloped. 

MA'l'ROSSKS,  are  soldiers  in  the  train  of 
artilliTv,  who  are  next  to  the  gunners,  and 
assist  them  in  loading,  hring,  and  sinniging 
the  great  guns.  'I'hey  carry  lirelocUs,  and 
inarch  along  with  the  store-waggons  both  as 
a  guard,  and  to  give  their  assistance  in  case 
a  waggon  should  break  down. 

MA'T'l',  in  a  ship,  rope-yarn,  junk,  S:c. 
bf.ilen  flat  and  interwoven ;  used  in  order  to 
prt-serve  the  yards  from  galling  or  rubbing  in 
hoisting  or  lowering  them. 

;MA1  Tl'vlv.  'the  word  matter  (materia, 
which  some  lexicographers  have  derived  from 
mater,  a  mother)  denotes,  in  its  pruiiitivc 
sense,  that  unexplained  something  from 
which  all  those  things  which  are  objects  of 
our  senses  are  formed. 

The  term  body  is  sometinres  confonnihid 
villi  tliat  of  matter;  but  tliey  are  essentially 
ditlerent.  Body  is  of  Saxon  origin.  It  is 
ex|)lainedby  the  lyatin  words statura,  pectus, 
truucus;  and  signilied  the  person  or  form  of 
a  man,  or  other  creature;  wlience  it  is  plain 
that  it  ought  to  be  confined  to  express  a  sub- 
stance possessing  form  or  hgure. 

Substance,  both  in  its  etymology  and  ap- 
plication, approaches  nearer  to  the  meaning 
of  the  former  of  these  terms.  It  is  well  known 
to  be  compounded  fronr  the  Latin  preposi- 
tion sub  (under)  and  the  verb  stare  (to 
stand).  It  consec[uentlv  implies  that  which 
supports  or  stands  under  the  different  forms 
and  appi;arances  which  are  presented  to  our 
senses.  It  is  still,  however,  used  in  a  distinct 
and  more  limited  sense  than  matter.  It  is 
generally  indeed  used  with  the  article,  to  sig- 
nify a  distinct  or  derinite  portion  of  matter  ; 
whereas  matter  in  the  abstract  implies  a  more 
confused  and  general  idea  of  solidity  and  ex- 
tension, with  little  or  no  regard  -to  ligure, 
jiroportion,  or  quantity. 

That  the  whole  matter  of  which  this  uni- 
verse of  things  is  composed,  is  essentially  the- 
same,  and  that  the  appa.ent  differences 
which  subsist  in  dilferent  bodies  depend  allo- 
geth(^r  on  the  particular  distribution  or  dispo- 
sition of  the  component  particles,  is  an  opi- 
nion which  has  been  entertained  by  some 
jlliilosophcrs  of  the  highest  reputation.  The 
wonderful  apparent  transmutations  which 
take  place  in  the  different  processes  and  ope- 
citious  of  nature  do^  it  must  be  confesse»l,  at 
first  sight  coimteuance  this  hypothesis.  A 
plant  will  vegetate,  and  become  a  solid  sub- 
stance, in  t!ie  purest  wati'r.  The  generation 
of  stones  in  the  earth,  the  various  phenomena 
of  petrifactions,  and  a  multitude  of  other 
facts,  contribute  greatly,  on  a  lair  considera- 
tion, to  diminish  the  al)sur<lity  of  the  alche- 
mists (who  seem  chielly  to  have  rested  on  this 
hypothesis,  viz.  that  all  matter  was  intrinsi- 
cally the  same)  and  their  hopes  of  converting 
the  basest  materials  by  the  efforts  of  art  into 
the  mos".  splendid  and  valuable  of  substance-;. 
Ail".  Boyle  distilled  the  same  water  about 
two  hundred  times,  and  at  the  end  of  each 
Uislillalion  found  a  fresh  dep0;,it  of  earth. 
Margtalf  lepeuted  the  cxperimeut  with  still 


MAT 

greater  caution.  By  means  of  two  glass 
globes,  which  coinniunicate<l  with  each  other, 
he  preserved  tlie  water  while  in  the  state  ol 
vapour  from  all  contact  with  the  air;  and  on 
repeated  <listillalion,  a  quantity  of  earth  ot 
the  csilcareous  kind  was  deposited  at  the  con- 
clusion of  each  process. 

The  extreme  rarity  an<l  miufteness  of  the 
particles  into  which  dilferent  substances  may 
be  resolved,  im}iarts  a  still  greater  degree  ol 
probability  to  this  hypothesis;  and  in  general 
the  more  any  body  "can  be  divided,  the  sim- 
pler it  appears  in  it's  component  parts. 

We  must,  however,  be  cautious  of  admit- 
ting opinions  which  are  not  sanctioned  by  the 
direct  test  of  experiim-nt;  and  however  plau- 
sible the  opinion,  the  accurate  observations 
of  modern  jjliilosophy  have  suggested  some 
objections  to  the  homogeneity  of  matter, 
which,,  without  further  discoveries,  it  will  not 
be  easy  to  silence. 

Whatever  phenomena  may  appear  to  indi- 
cate a  transmutation  of  bodies,  or  a  cliange 
of  one  substance  into  anotiier,  we  have  the 
utmost  reason,  by  the  latest  and  best  experi- 
meiit=i,  to  believe  them  merely  the  ell'ect  of 
different  combinations.  Thus  the  conversion 
of  water  and  air  into  a  solid  substance,  such 
as  the  bo<ly  of  a  plant,  is  merely  an  apparent 
conversion  ;  for  that  solid  substance  may,  by 
an  artificial  process,  be  resolved  again  into 
water  and  air,  without  any  real  change  in  the 
principles  or  elementary  particles  ot  which 
those  iluids  are  composed;  and  the  lorma- 
tioii  of  stones,  aiul  the  phenomena  of  petri- 
fadions,  are  accounted  for  upon  much  easier 
principles  than  that  of  transnuitation.  On 
tlie  other  hand,  the  utmost  efforts  of  chemis- 
try have  never  been  able  to  proceed  farther 
in  the  analysis  of  bodies  than  to  reduce  them 
to  a  few  principles,  which  appear  essentially 
different  from  each  other,  and  which  have 
never  yet  been  brought  to  a  more  simple 
I'orm.  "Thus  the  matter  of  fire,  or  light,  ap- 
pears totally  different  from  that  of  all  other 
bodies;  thus  the  acid  and  alkaline  principk-s 
can  never  ije  brought  to  exhibit  the  same 
properties;  nor  can  even  the  dilferent  species  j 
of  earths  be  converted  into  the  subst.uice  of 
each  other. 

if  hypotlietical  reasoning  was  to  be  admit- 
ted on  this  occasion,  it  would  probably  ap- 
pear more  agreeable  to'the  analogy  of  nature, 
to  suppose  that  different  substances  are  form- 
ed from  the  different  combinations  of  a  few 
simple  principles  in  diflereiit  proportions, 
than  that  the  very  opposite  qualities  of  some 
of  the  rarest  and  nio>t  subtile  fluids  should 
depend  wliolly  on  the  dilferent  form  or  modi- 
fication of  the  e^itr.inely  minute  particles 
which  enter  into  their  composition. 

It  is  propi^r,  however,  to  observe,  that  on 
this  subject  tiiere  has  hitherto  appeared  no 
decisive  experimental  proof  on  either  si.le. 
The  imperfection  of  all  human  efforts,  and 
per'iaps  of  the  luiman  faculties  themselves, 
has  hitherto  conlined  our  investigations  to 
the  properties  of  a  few  substances,  the  sim- 
plest which  chemical  analysis  has  been  able  to 
ohtnin,  and  which  for  that  reason  are  deno- 
minated ehments.  See  Elements. 

MATTUSCMK/EA,  a  genus  of  the  te- 
trandria  nijiio.rvnia  clas^  and  order..  The 
calyx  is  four-p'arte^l ;  corolla  one-petalled ; 
gerni  superior,  four-cleft.  There  is  one  spe- 
cie=,  a  herb  of  Guiana. 
[     MAURITIA,  \.\\e ginkgo,  or  maiekn-iuiir, 


MAX 


117 


a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  or- 
der of  palma;.  '1  he  calyx  of  the  male  is  mo- 
nophvllous;  the  corolla  monopetalous,  witfi 
six  stamina.  It  is  a  native  of  Japan,  where  it 
is  also  known  by  the  names  of  ginan  and 
itsio.  It  rises  with  a  long,  erect,  thick,  and 
branched  stem,  to  the  size  of  a  wainut-tree. 
The  bark  is  ash-coloured,  the  wood  brittle  or 
■smooth,  the  pith  soft  and  fungous.  The  leaves 
are  large,  expanded  from  a  narrow  bottom 
into  the  ligure  of  a  maiden-hair  leaf,  unequally 
parted,  streaked,  without  fibres  or  i.erves. 
From  the  uppermost  shoots  hang  the  flowers 
in  long  catkins  that  are  filled  with  the  ferti- 
lizing pow er ;  and  to  which  succeeds  the  fruit, 
adhering  to  a  thick  Ihshy  pedicle,  which  pro- 
ceeds from  the  bosom  of  the  leaves.  'I'liis 
fruit  is  either  exactiv  or  nearly  round,  and  of 
the  appearance  and  size  of  a  dam.i^k  plum. 
The  substance  surrounding  the  fruit  is  fleshy 
juice,  white,  very  harsh,  and  adheres  so  rirmW 
to  the  inclosed  nut,  as  not  to  be  se])aratecl 
from  it  except  by  putrefaction.  The  nut, 
properly  termed  giiuau,  resembles  the  pista— 
chia  nut,  especial'y  a  Persian  species  named 
berajes  pistoia ;  but  is  almost  double  in  size^ 
and  of  tlie  ligme  of  an  apricot-stone.  'IIjC 
shell  is  somewhat  white,  woody,  an<l  brittle, 
and  inc'oses  a  white  loose  kernel,  having  the 
sweetness  of  an  almond,  along  with  a  <legrc« 
of  harshness.  These  kernels  taken  after  din-  - 
ner  are  said  to  promote  digestion,  wiience 
they  make  part  of  the  dessert  in  great  cuter- 
taiiniients. 

M  AX1LT,A.  See  Anatomy. 

NIAXIMUM,  in  mathematics,  daiotesthe 
greatest  quantitv  attainable  in  any  given  case, 
if  a  quantity  coin  eived  to  be  generated  by 
motion,  increases,  or  decreases,  till  it  arrives 
at  a  certain  magnitude  or  position,  and  then, 
on  ihe  contrary^  grows  less  or  greater,  and 
it  be  required  "to  determine  tlie  said  magni- 
tude or  position,  the  question  is  called  a  pro- 
blem de  maximis  et  minimis. 

Thus,  let  a  point  in  m,ive  uniformly  in  a 
ris?ht  line,  from  A  towards  B,  and  let  another 
point  n  move  after  it,  with  a  velocity  either 
increasing  or  decreasing,  but  so  that  it  may,, 
at  a  certain  position  D,  become  e<iual  to  thi;f 
of  the  former  point  m,  moving  unilormly. 
D  C 

A -f -I B 

fl  m 

This  being  premised,  let  the  motion  of  n  ■ 
be  first  considered  as  an  increasing  one;  in 
which  case  the  distance  of  n  behind  m  will 
continually  increase,  till  the  two  points  arrive 
at  tlie  contemporary  positions  C  and  D ;  but 
afterward?  it  will  again  decrea-e;  for  the  mo-  - 
tion  of  »  till  then  being  slower  than  at  D,  it  is 
also  slov.er  than  that  of  the  preceding  point 
m  (by  the  hypothesis),  but  becoming  quicker  ■ 
aftei  wards  tlian  that  of  m,  the  distance  ;n /»■ 
(as  has  been  already  said)  will  again  decrease; 
and  therefore  is  a  maximum,  or  the  greatest 
of  all,  when  the  celerities  of  the  two  points 
are  equalto  eacii  other. 

But  if  n  arrives  at  D  with  a  decreasing  e*- 
leritv,  then  its  motion  being  first  ^w■ltter,  and 
afterwards  slower,  than  that  of  ot,  the  distance 
m  n  will  first  decrease  and  then  increase,  and 
therefore  is  a  minimum,  or  the  least  of  all,  in 
the  forementioned  circumstance.  Since  then 
the  distance  m  «  is  a  maximum,  or  a  mini-  - 
mum,  when  t.he  velocities  of  m  and  n  are  ■ 
cental',  or  when  that  distance  increases  as  fast 
tlirouo^h  the  motion  of  m  as  it  decreases  by 


-U3 

.that  of «,  its  fluxion  at  tlial  instant  is  evi- 
denlly  equal  to  nolliiug.  'riiercfoie,  as  tlie 
motion  ot  tiio  points  m-anc!  n  may  be  con- 
ceived such  that  tiieir  distance  /u  n  may  cx- 
j)ress  the  measure  of  any  variable  quantity 
whatever,  it  follows,  that  the  Ihixion  of  any 
variable'quantity  wiiatever,  when  a  maxi- 
■inum  or  a  minimum,  is  equal  to  nothing. 

The  rule  therefore  to  determine  any  flciw- 
■ing  quantity  in  an  ecjualion  proposeil,  to  an 
extreme  value,  is  :  having  put  the  equation 
into  liuxions,  let  the  fluxion  of  lliat  quantity 
.  -whose  extreme  ^■alue  is  sought  be  supposed 
equal  to  nothing;  by  wliich  means  all  those 
members  of  tJie  equation  in  which  it  is  found 
will  vanish,  and  the  remaining  ones  will  give 
the  determination  ofthemaxummi  or  mini- 
inum  required. 

Prob.  I.  To  divide  a  given  right  line  into 
tuo  such  i)ai ts,  that  their  product,  or  rec- 
tangle, UK-y  be  the  greatest  |)03sible.  This  is 
the  case  w  ben  the  line  i?  bisected  or  divided 
into  equal  parts.     See  Kll'XIONs. 

In  any  mechanical  engine  the  proportion 
of  the  power  to  the  weight,  when  they  ba- 
hmce  each  other,  is  foinul  by  siipposhig  the 
engine  to  move,  and  reducing  their  velocities 
to  the  respectivedirections  in  which  they  act; 
for  the  inverse  ratio  of  those  velocities  is  that 
of  the  power  to  the  weight  according  to  the 
general  principle  of  mechanics.  But  it  is  of 
use  to  determine  likewise  the  proportion  they 
ought  to  bi-ar  to  each  other,  that  wh.:n  tlie 
power  prevails,  and  the  engine  is  in  motion, 
it  may  produce  the  greatest  efi'cct  in  a  given 
time.  AVhen  the  [lOwer  prevails,  the  weight 
moves  at  first  with  an  accelerated  motion ; 
and  w-hen  tin;  velocity  of  the  pow  er  is  inva- 
riable, its  action  upon  the  weight  decreases, 
while  the  velocity  of  the  weight  increases. 
Thus  the  action  of  a  stream  ot  water  or  air 
Koon  a  wheel,  is  to  be  estimated  from  the  ex- 
cess of  the  velocity  of  the  fluid  above  the  ve- 
locity of  the  part  of  the  engine  which  it  striUes, 
or  from  their  relative  velocity  only.  Tiie 
motion  of  the  engine  ceases  to  be  accelerated 
wlien  this  relative  velocity  is  so  far  diminish- 
ed, that  the  action  of  the  power  becomes 
•equal  to  tJie  resistance  of  the  engine  arising 
from  the  gravity  of  tiie  matter  that  is  elevat- 
ed by  it,  and  fpjm  friction;  for  when  these 
balance  each  other,  the  engine  proceeds  with 
ti'.i:  uniform  motion  it  has  acquired. 

PrioB.  II.  liCt  a  denote  the  velocity  of  the 
stream,  «  the  velocity  of  the  part  of  the  engine 
■which  it  strikes  when  the  motion  of  the  machine 
is  uniform,  auJ  a  —  u  will  represent  their  rela- 
tive velocity.  Let  A  represent  the  weight  which 
would  balance  tlie  force  of  the  stream  when  its 
velocity  is  a, and/*  the  weight  which  would  ba- 
lance the  force  6f-  the  same  stream  if  its  velocity 

-was  only  a  — » ;  then  p  '.  ^  \\  "  —  "'  '.  "S  or 

4  =:  A  -x r,an<l  />  shall  represent  the  ac- 

tion  of  the  stream  upon  the  wheel.  If  we  ab- 
stract the  friction,  and  have  regard  to  the 
quantity  of  the  weight  only,  let  it  ha  e(|ual  to 
yA,  (or  be  to  A  as  7  to  1);  and  because  the  mo- 
-tion  of  the  machine  is  supposed  uniform,  /<  =  y 


IVIAXIMUIM. 


«  X  «- 


vanishes,  that  is,  ^v^^(>n  u  X  «  —  «' 

—  Sim  X  «  —  K  =:  0,  or  <z  —  3i/  =:  0.  Therefore, 
in  this  case,  the  machiue  will  have  the  gre;itest 


efTect  if  11 : 


4.V 


,  or  the  weight  yA  : 


X  A 


A  X   a  —  « 


-,  or  y  .=: 


The  mo- 


^  rv.  ■  •  -L.  •         A  A«   X    <l  —   1' 

mentum  of  this  -weight  is  yA"  =: ■ ; 

aa 

-v/hich  .i»   A  jnwmuin    when   the   fluxion   of 


;   that  is,  if  the  weight  that    is  raised  by 

the  engine  be  less  than  the  weight  -vvliich  wonld 

balance  the  power  in  tlie  proportion  of  4  to  9; 

.    -lAa 
and  the  momentum  of  the  weight  is  —    . 

27 

Prob.  III.  Suppose  that  the  given  weight  P 
(plate  Miscel.  fig.  I5fj.)  descending  by  its 
gravity  in  the  ver*'  1I  line,  raises  a  given  weight 
Why  the  cord  PMW"  (that  passes  over  the  pul- 
ley M)  along  the  inclined  plane  BD,  the  height 
of  which  BA  is  given;  and  let  the  position  of 
the  plane  BD  be  required,  along  which  VV  will 
be  raised  in  the  least  time  from  the  ln>rizontal 
line  AD  to  B. 

Let  AB  =;  s,  BD  =  v.  /  =  time  in  which  W 
describes  DB;  then  the  force  which  accelerates 
'.  a\w  .  xx 

the  motion  of  \V  is  P ,  tt  is  as , 

-v  pv  —  a\w 

and  if  we  suppose  the  fluxion  of  this  quantity  to 

,                    Saw                     Saw 
vanish,  we  shall  find  x  ^ ,  or  P  = ; 

P  X 

consequently  the  plane  BD  required  is  that  • 
upon  which  a  weight  equal  to  L'W  would  be 
sustained  by  P  ;  or  if  BC  be  the  plane  upon 
which  W  would  sustain  P,  then  BD  —  SBC. 
But  if  the  position  of  the  plane  BD  be  given,  and 
W  being  supposed  variable,  it  be  required  to 
find  the  ratio  of  W  to  P,  when  the  greatest 
momentum  is  produced  in  W  along  the  given 
plane  BD  ;  in  this  case,  W  ought  to  be  to  P  as 

BD  to  BA  4-  ^/BD  +  BA  -f-  y"  BA. 

Questions  of  this  kind  may  be  likewise  de- 
monstrated from  the  common  elementary  geo- 
metry, of  which  the  following  majr  serve  as  an 
example. 

Prob.  IV.  Let  a  fluid,  moving  with  the  velo- 
city and  direction  AC  (plate  l\Iiscel.  fig.  1.57), 
strike  the  plane  CF, ;  and  sup-pose  that  this  plane 
moves  parallel  to  itself  in  the  directitm  CB,  per- 
pendicular to  CA,  or  that  it  cannot  move  in  any 
other  direction;  then  let  it  be  required  to  find 
the  most  advantageous  position  of  the  plane  CE, 
that  it  may  receive  the  greatest  impulse  from 
the  action  of  the  fluid.  Let  AP  be  perpendi- 
cular to  CE  in  P,  draw  AK  parallel  to  CB,  and 
let  PK  be  perpendicular  upon  it  in  K ;  and 
AK  will  measure  the  force  with  which  any  par- 
ticle of  the  fluid  impels  the  plane  EC  in  the  di- 
rection CB.  For  the  force  of  any  such  particle 
being  represented  by  AC,  let  this  force  be  re- 
solved into  Ay  parallel  to  F.C  and  AP  per- 
pendicular to  it ;  and  it  Is  manifest,  that  the 
latter  AP  only  has  any  effect  upon  the  plane 
CE.  Let  this  force  AP  be  resolved  into  tl-.e 
force  Al.  perpendicular  to  CB,  and  the  force 
AK  parallel  to  it ;  then  it  is  manifest,  that  the 
former,  AL,  has  no  cflcct  in  promoting  the 
motion  of  the  plane  in  the  direction  CB  ;  so  that 
the  latter,  AK,  only,  measures  tne  ciTort  by 
which  the  particle  promotes  the  motion  of  the 
plane  CK,  in  the  dnection  CB.  Let  EM  and  F:N 
be  perpendicular  to  C.-V  and  CB,  in  M  and  N  ; 
and  the  numbei-  of  particles  moving  with  di- 
rections |).irallel  to  AC,  incident  upon  the  plane 
CF„  will  be  as  E  M.  Therefore  the  ertort 
of  the  fluid  upon  CE,  being  as  the  force  of 
each  particle,  and  the  number  of  particles  to- 
gether, it  will  be  as  -AK  X  KM  ;  or,  because 
AK    is   to   AP    (=   EM)   as   EN    to   CE,   as 

;  so  tliat  CE  being  given,  the  pro- 

CE 

blem  is  reduced  to  this,  to  find  when  EM^  x  EN 
is  the  greatest  possible,  or  a  maximum.     But 
3 


because  tlie  »nm  of  F.M'  and  of  EN*  (=  CMTi 
is  given,  being  always  etjual  to  CE",  it  follow* 
that  EN'  X  EM'  is  greatest  when  EN^  =1  7CE'; 
for  when  the  sum  of  two  quantities  AC  and  CB 
(fig.  1.58.)  was  given,  AC  X  BC-  is  greatest 
when  AC  =z  ^AB,  as  will  be  very  evident  if  a 
semicircle  is  described  upon  AD.  But  when 
EN-  X  EM'  is  greatest,  its  square  root  EN  X 
EM^  is  of  necessity  at  the  same  time  greatest. 
Therefore  the  action  of  the  fluid  upon  the  plane 
CE,  in  the  direction  CB,  is  greatest  when  I'.N' 
=  ^CE',  and  consequently  EM'  =  |CE';  that 
is,  when  EM,  the  sine  of  the  angle  ACE,  in 
which  the  stream  strikes  the  plane,  is  to  tlie  ra- 
dius, as  .^2  to  .^,5 ;  in  which  case  it  easily  ap- 
pears from  the  trigenometrical  tables,  that  tliii 
angle  is  of  54°  44'. 

Several  useful  problems  in  mechanics  may  be 
resolved  by  what  tve  have  just  now, shewn.  If 
we  represent  the  velocity  of  the  wind  by 
AC,  a  section  of  the  sa-d  of  a  windmill  per- 
jiendicular  to  its  length  bv  CE,  as  it  follows 
from  the  nature  of  the  engine,  that  its  axis  ought 
to  be  turned  directly  to  the  wind,  and  the  sail 
can  only  move  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to 
the  axis,  it  appears,  that,  when  the  motion  be- 
gins, the  wind  will  have  the  greatest  eflect  to 
produce  tliis  motion,  wb.en  the  angle  ACE,  in 
which-  the  wind  strikes  the  sail,  is  of  54''  44', 
In  the  same  manner,  if  CB  represent  the  direc- 
tion of  the  motion  of  a  ship,  or  the  position  of 
her  keel,  abstraciiag  from  her  lee-way,  and  AC 
be  the  direction  of  the  wind  perpendicular  to 
her  way,  then  the  most  advantageous  position 
of  the  sail  CE,  to  promote  her  motion  in  the 
direction  CB,  is  when  the  angle  ACE,  in  which 
the  wind  strikes  the  sail,  is  of  .54°  44'.  The  best 
position  of  the  rudder,  where  it  may  have  the 
greatest  effect  in  turning  round  the  ship,  is  de- 
termined in  hke  manner. 

Prob.  V.  To  find  the  internal  dimensions  of 
a  cyhndrical  cup,  whose  capacity  is  equal  to  a, 
when  the  cup  is  made  -with  the  least  possible 
quantity  of  silver  of  a  given  tliickness. 

Put  the  diameter  =  .V  ;  and  .7854  (ihearea  of 
a  circle  "whose  diameter  is  1)  z=  c:  then,  by 
El.  xii.  S,  ex'  :==  the  area  of  the  bottom,  and 

therefore    -^  =  the  altitude ;  but  4c,v  =:  the 

ex 
circumference  of  the  bottom,  and  therefore  ■icx 

X  — ;  =r  —    =    the  inside   curve   superficies, 
ex  X 

4,, 

Hence  cx^  -J =z.  the  whole  inside  superfi- 

'      .v 

cies,  which   is  a  minimum ;    and  therefore  it* 

_      .        .  ,       .  4a.v 

fluxion  js=:0:  that  is,  '2exx  —  — ;     :=  O,    or 

A- 
Sc.v'i-  —  4a.v  =  0,  or  «'  —  3a'=i  O,   therefore 


Sa,  and   -v 


'/^l 


diameter.      Bv 


substituting  this  quantity  for  .v  in    — r,  we  have 


a  X 


c  X 
X 


c  X 


2ac 


.^" P  =:  i  X  — r   ^^  ahltudc.     Since  then 
c  '  e  \ 


the  diameter  is 


and  the  altitude  is  half  that 


quanlitv,  thev  will  be  to  one  another  as  S  ro  1, 
to  answer  the  conditions  of  the  problem. 

P;ion.  VI.   To  find  the  greatest  cone  that  can 
be  inscribed  in  a  given  sphere. 

Let  AD  (plate  Miscel.  fig.  1.59)  the  diameter  of 
,the  sphere  s:  «i;  .7854  (the  ar«a  of  a  circle  whotr 


ME  A 

jrameter  is  1)  =  f ;  and  AC,  the  altitude  of  tlie 
cone,  =  .V  ;  then  CD  =  a  —  -v-  By  El.  in.  85, 
AC  X  CD  =  CB%  tliat  is,  x  X  «  —  "  =  "X  —  .v* 
zr  CB- ;  liut  tlie  square  of  thu  diameter  is  four 
times  the  square  of  the  raiiiiis ;  therefore,  by-El. 
xii.  a,  'ill  V  —  4t-v'  =  ilie  area  of  the  ooiic's  base, 
which,  by 'El.  xii.  10,  drawn  itlto  f ',>',  is  y  acx^  — 
-'v'  =;the  cone's  sollditf,  which  is  a  maxiinuin  ; 
tlierefore,  by  taking  away  what  is  common,  we 
vet  ax'  —  x'  a  maxinnim,  the  fluxion  of  which 
IS  =  0,  that  is,  2a.v.v  —  ?,x'x  :=  0,  or  '-'</  =  3.y, 

and   A-  =    "  .   So  that  the  cone  will  be  a  maxi- 

3 
mum,  when  Its  altitude  Is  equal  to  two-thirds 
of  the  sphei'e's- diameter. 

MKAO,  an  aarecahlc  Ii(]iinr  made  of  lio- 
nev  anil  water.    Sec  [Ionev. 

■'l  hi-re  are  many  receipts  for  making  mead, 
ofwliiih  the   following  is   one  of  the  best. 
Take  tour  gallons  of  water,  and  as  miicli  ho- 
ney as  will  make  it  hear  an  egg;  atkl-lo  tliis| 
the  rind  ol  Wmw  lemoi.s,  boil  il,  and  seinii  it  j 
well  as  it  rises.    'I'hen  take  it  o.'fthe  lire,  and  j 
add  the  three  lemons  eiit   in  pieces;  pour  it  , 
into  u  clean  tub  or  open  vessel,  and  let  it  work  ' 
for  three  days;   then  scum  it  well,  and  pour 
oil' the  clear  part  into  a  cask,  and  let  it  stand 
open  tiii  it  ceases  to  make  a  iiissing  noise; 
then  stop  it  up  close,  and  in  tliree  months  I 
time  it  will  be  line  and  tit  for  bottling.     If 
you  would  give  it  a  finer  llavoiu-,  take  cloves, 
mace,  and  nutmeg,  of  each  four  dr.uvis;  beat 
them   small,    tie  the  ])owder   in  a  piece  of 
cloth,  and  put  it  into  the  cask. 

MEADOW.  See  Husbandry. 

MEAN,  a  middle  state  between  two  extremes; 
as  a  mean  motion,  mean  distance,  arithmetical 
mean,  geometrical  mean,  &c. 

Arithmetical  Meav,  is  half  the  sum  of  the  ex- 
tremes. So,  4  is  an  arithmetical  mean  between 
y  and  6,  or  between  3,  and  5,  or  between  1  and 
7  ;  also  an  arithmetical  mean  between  a  and  b  is 

Geometrical  Me.vn,  commonTy  called  a  mean 
proportional,  is  the  square  root  of  the  product 
of  the  two  extremes;  so  th.it,  to  find  a  mean 
proportio'ial  between  two  tf-ven  extremes,  mul- 
tiply these  together,  and. extract  the  square  root 
cfthe  product.  Thus,  a  mean  proportional  be- 
tween 1  and  9,  I's  ^/I  X  9  =  \/'i=:Z;  a  mean 
between  '2  and  +|  is  y'a  x  4^  =:  n/d  =  3  also; 
_  the  mean  between  4  and  6  is  v'4  X  S  =  \/24 ; 
and  the  mean  between  a  and  l>  is  ^/ab. 

The  geometrical  mean  is  alw.ays  less  tlian  the 
arithmetical  mean  between  the  same  two  ex- 
tremes. So  the  arithmetical  mean  between  2 
and  4  -,  is  34,  but  the  »veometrical  mean  is  only  S. 
To  prove  this  generally,  let  a  and  b  be  any  two 
terms,  a  the  .greater,  and  b  the  less ;  then,  uni- 
versally, the  arithmetical  mean  — -^ — •  shall   be 

greater   than  the  geometrical   mean   ^y^b,   or 
a  ■}-  b  greater  than  '2^/ah.     For,  by 
squaring  both,  they  are-  a'  -\- '■2iib -\- b-  7  4.ii; 
subtr.  iab  from  each,  then  a^  —  '2jh-\-b'  "7  O, 
that  is,         -         -         -      {a  —  i)'  7  O. 

To  iind  a  ]\Jgan  Proportional  geometricallyy  be- 
tween two  given  lines  M  and  N.  Join  the  two 
given  lines  together  at  C,  in  one  continued  line 
AB  ;  upon  the  diameter  AB  describe  a  semi- 
circle, and  erect  the  perpendicidar  CD  ;  which 
will  be  the  mean  proportional  between  AC  and 
CB,  or  M  and  N. 

Trj  _//•.'./  t'Mo  M.im  Proportio''ah  between  two 
given  extremes.  Multiply  each  extreme  by  the 
square  of  the  other,  viz.  the  greater  extreme  by 
the  square  of  the  less,  and  the  less  eitreme  by 


M  E  A 

the  square  of  the  greater ;  then  extract  the  cube 
root  out  of  each  product,  and  the  two  roots 
will  be  the  two  mean  proportionals  sought. 
That  is,  V"^'/;"and  i^/~ub-  arc  the  two  means  be- 
tween a  and  L:    .So,  between  '-'  and  \P.,  the  two 


M  E  A 


n9 


mean  proportionals  arc  4  and  8;  ior\/'2'  X  IG 
=  y64  =  4,  and  .^Tx  "10''=  ^/.Gl  2  =  8. 

!n  a  similar  manner   we  proceed  for  three  ; 
means,  or  four  means,  or  five  means,  &c. ;  from 
all  which  it  appeal's,  that  the  scries  of  the  several 
numbe:«  of  mean  proportionals  between  a  and. 
b  will  be  as  follows ;  viz. 

1  mean,    ^ab  ; 

2  means,  ija'b,  1/ ab'  f 

3  means,  ij ab,-\/ u^b^,  (/^i'; 

4  means,  i^ a^b,  ^/ a'b','^/ a.'b' ,  \^/aP; 

5  means,  ^a'i.ya'iSy-Y  ,  ^a'b\  l/ai' : 

&c.  &c. 

Hufr/iojiicil  Mean,  Is  double  a  fourth  propor- 
tional to  the  sum  of  the  extremes,  and  the  two 
extremes  themselves  a  and  b  :  thus,  as  a  -)-  i  ;  a 

2.(4 
' ;  2i  ;  -^ —  =:  OT,  the  harmonica!  mean  be- 
' '  tl  -^  b 

fwecn  a  and  /,.  Or  it  is  the  reciprocal '  of  the 
arithmetical  mean  between  the  reciprocals  of 
the  given  extremes ;  that  is,  take  the  reciprocals 

of  the  extremes  a  and  b,  which  will  be  -  -  and 


then  take  the.  arithmetical  mean  between 


these  reciprocals,  or  half  their  sum,  which  will 


be 


+ 


1 

2T' 

2ab 


'2.!i       ' 


lastly,  the  reciprocal    c 


Henct!  cubic  measures,  or  measures  of  capa- 
city.    See  Sphere,  Cubk,  &e. 

^Ieasure  nj'vclocili/,  in  mechanics,  the- 
space  passed  over  by  a  moving  body  in  a 
given  liiTie.  To  measure  a  velocity  tlieretoro-, 
the  space  must  be  divided  into  asinany  equal 
parts  as  the  time  is  conceived  to  be  divided 
mlo;  the  'Hiantity  of  space  answering  to  such 
a  part  of  time  is  the  measure  of  tlie  velo- 
city. 

Measure,  in  geometry,  denotes  any 
quantity  assumed"  as  one,  or  unity,  to  Hrhicli- 
tlie  ratio  ol  the  other  homogeneous  or  similar 
C[u;uitilies  is  espressed. 

Measures  in  a  legal  and  commercial  sense" 
are  various,  according   to  the  various  kinds 
and    diniiiisions    of    the    things    measured. 
Hence  arise  lineal  or  longitudinal  m  asures, 
for  lines  or   lerigtlis;  sfpiare   measures,  for 
areas  or  supeilicies ;  and  solid  or  cu^)tc  inea/- 
sures,  for  bodies  and  their    capacities ;  all 
whicli  again   are  very  different   in  different 
countries    and  in  different  ages,  and   even 
many    of   tliem   for   different  commodities. 
Wkence  arise  otiier  divisions  of  anlient  antl 
inod-rn  measures,  domestic  and  foreign  ones,, 
dry  measures,  litiuid  measines,  &■<■.. 
I.  Lnngnt.aiureSyOr  measures  of  application.. 

1 .  The  English  and  Scotch  standards. 

The  English  lineal  standard  is  the   yard,, 
containing  3  English  feet,  equal  to  3   Paris 
feet  1  inch  and  J_  of  an  inch,  or  .|.  of  a  Paris . 
The  use  of  this  measiHe  was  establislicil 


of  this  is — -—    =    m,    the  harmonical   mean: 

for  arithmeticals  and  harmonicals  are  mutually 
reciprocals  of  each  other  ; 

so  that  if  «3,  m,  b.  Sec.  be  arithmeticals, 

then  shall    — ,    — ,   ——,  &c.  be  harmonicals  ; 
a  m         b 

or  if  the  former  be  harmonicals,  the  latter  will 
be  arithmeticals. 

For  example,  to  find  a  harmonical  meart  be- 
tween 2  and  G  :  here  a  ::=  2,  and  b  z=  6  ;  there- 
2,i4  2x2x6  24 

fore  — -,— ,  = r— ; —  =^  -=  3  z=  m,  the 

a  -\-b  2-1-6  8 

harmonical  mean  sought  between  2  and  6. 

Pappus  hns  shewn  a  curious  similarity  that 
subsists  between  the  three  ditTerent  sorts  of 
mean  :  a,  m,  b.  being  three  continued  terms, 
either  arithmeticals,  g;eonietricals,  or  harmoni- 
cals, then  in  the 

Arithmeticals  a  I  a  \\  a  —  m*  m  —  b 
Ccometricals  a  ^  m  ''  a  —  m  \  m  —  b 
Harmonicals    a  \  b   \\  a  —  m  1  m  —  ^.. 

MK.Voi^ES.  See  Medici.s'e. 

Measure  of  an  finc^le,  is  an  arch  descril> 
cd  from  the  vertex  in  any  place  between  its 
legs.  Hence  angles  are  di^tinguislied  by  the 
j  ratio  of  the  arches,  describi'd  from  the  vertex 
I  between  Hie  legs  to  the  peripheries.  Angles 
then  are  distinguished  by  those  arches  ;  and 
the  arches  are  distinguished  by  their  ratio  to 
the  periphery:  thus  an  angle  is  said  to  be  so 
iTlany  degrees  as  there  are  in  tlie  said  arch. 
See  Angle. 

Measure  of  a  figure,  or  plane  surface,  is 
a  square  whose  side  is  one  inch,  one  foot, 
one  yard,  or  some  other  determinate  length. 
Among  geometrician^,  it  is  usually  a  rod  call- 
ed a  •iquare  rod,  divided  into  10  sqiiare  feet, 
and  the<(piare  feet  into  10  square  digits. 

Measure  of  a  .lolid,  is  a  cube  whose  side 
is  one  inch,  foot,  yard,  or  any  other  deter- 
minate length.  In  geometry  it  is  a  cubic 
perch,  divided  into  cubic  i'eet,  digits.  Sec. 


by  Henry  I.  of  England,  and  the  standard 
taken  from  the  length  of  his  own  arm.. 
It  is  divided  into  36  inches,  and  each  inch  is 
supposetl  equal  to  3  barley-coi-ns.  AMiea 
used  for  measuring  cloth,  it  is  divided  into 
4  quarters._.aii(l  each  quarter  subdivided  into 
4  nails.  The  English  ell  is  equal  to  a  yard 
and  a  quarter,  or  45  inches,  and  is  used  in 
measuring  linens  imported  IVom  Germany 
and  the  Lowrcounlries. 

'Phe  Scols  elwand  was  estalilished  by  kin^ 
David  I.  and  divided  into  37  inches.  The 
standard  is  kept  in  the  council-chamber  of 
Ediiibtu-gh,  and  being  compared  with  the 
Englisii  yard,  Ts  found  to  measure  37  i  inches; 
and  therefore  the  Scots  inch  and  foot  are 
larger  tiuin  the  English,  in  the  proportion  of 
ISO  to  1»5;  hut  this  difference  being  so  in- 
considerable, is  seldom  attended  to  in  prac-- 
tlce.  'I'he  Scots  ell,  though  forbidden  by 
law,  is  still  used  for  measiuing  some  coarsti 
commodities,  and  is  the  foundation  of  the 
land-mca'-ure  of  Scotland: . 

Itiiierarv  measure  is  the  saine  both  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland.     The  length  of  the  chaiu  . 
is  4pole.s,  or  22  yards;  80  chains  make  a  mile. 
The  oid  Scots  computed  miles  were  generally 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  each. 

The  reel  for  yarn  is  2^  yards,  or  10  quar- 
ters, in  circuit;  liO  threads  make  a  cut,  12' 
cuts  make  a  iiasp  or  hank,  and  4  hanks  make 
a  spindle. 

2.  The  Frencli  standard  was  formerly  the 
aune  or  ell,  containingS  Paris  feet,  Tinches,  8 
lines,  or  1  yard  f  English ;  the  Paiis  foot 
royal  exceeding  the  English  by  .j-iig-parts, 
as  in  ont  of  the  following  tables.  1  his  ell  is 
divided  two  ways,  viz.  into  halves,  thirds, 
sixths,  and  twelfths;  and  into  quarters,  Lalf- 
quarters,  and  sixteenths. 

The  French,  however,  have  also  formed, 
an  entirely  new  s;.  stem  of  weights  and  nies- 
sureSj  according  to  the  following  tables 


120 


MEASURES. 


Proportions  of  the 
measures  of  cacli 
species  to  its  prin- 
cipal ineaBure  or 
unity. 


First  part  of  ilie 
name  which  indi- 
cates the  propor- 
tion to  the  prin- 
cipal measure  or 
unity. 


PRINCIPAL  M|:ASUR.ES  OS.  UNITIES. 


Length. 


Capacity. 


Weight. 


Agrarian. 


For  fircivood. 


u\ooo 

Myria 
Kilo 

1,000 

100 

Hecto 

10 

Pcca 

0 
01 

De.-i 

0  01 

Ceiiti 

O.OOI 

IV'IiUi 

Metre. 


Litr*. 


"Gramme. 


Are. 


Siere. 


Proportion  of  the  principal  me-isuresl 
between  themselves,  and  the  length  > 
of  the  meridian,  j 


1 0,000,000th  part 
of  tiie  dist.  from  the 
pcle  to  the  equator. 


A  decimetre  cube. 


V\"eight  of  a  centi- 
metre cube  of  dis- 
tilled water. 


100  square  metres. 


One  cubic  metre. 


Value  of  the  principal  measures  in 
the  anticnt  French  measures. 


3  feet  1 1  lines  and 
-I-  nearly. 


1  pint  and  jSg-,  or  1 
litron  and  4  nearly. 


18  prains  and 
84r,COO  parts. 


Two  square  perches 
des  eaux  et  foret. 


i  demi-voie,  or  \  of 
a  cord  des  eaux  et 
foret. 


Value  in  English  measures. 


'Inches  39.3S3 


f)1.083  inches, -vvhicli 
is  more  tli.in  the 
wine  and  less  than 
the  beer  quart. 


22.9GC  grains. 


11.968  square 
yards. 


3.  'I'he  Eiiglisli  avoiriitipois  pound  weiglis 
7004  troy  gtaias;  whence  the  avoirdupois 
■ounce,  wlicreof  16  make  a  potnid,  is  found 
fqiial  to  437.7;"  troy  grains.  And  it  follows, 
that  the  troy  pound  is  to  the  avoirdupois 
.pound  as  KS  to  107  licarly  ;  for  as  SS  to  107, 
so  is  .57tiOto  7003.fi.?6:  that  the  troy  ounce  is 
'to  the  avoi'xlupois  ounce,  as  80  to  73  near- 
.]y  ;  for  as  80  to  73,  so  is  4S0  to  438  :  and, 
lastly,  that  the  uvoinUipois  pound  and  ounce 
.avo'to  the  Paris  two-marc  weight  and  ounce, 
.as  63  to  G8  nearly ;  for  as  63  to  6S,  so  is  7004 
to  7jj9.S73.  See  Weight.  4.  The  Paris 
■foot  expressed  in  decim.ihis  equal  to  1.0654 
'oriiie  Knglisli  foot,  or  contains  12.785  Eng- 
.lish  inches. 

3.  The  standard  in  'Holland,  Flanders,  Swe- 
den, a  good  part  of  Germany,  many  of  the 
Hanse-towns,  as   Daiitzick  and  Hamburgh, 

■and  at  Geneva,  Franckfort,  &c.  is  likewise 
tlie  ell;  but  the  ell  in  all  these  places  differs 
I'rom  the  Paris  ell.  In  Holland  it  contains 
one  Paris  toot  11  lines,  or  4-sevenths  of  the 
Paris  ell.     'J  he  Flanders  ell  contains  2  feet 

I  inch  5  lines  and  half  a  line,  or  7-t\velfths  of 
the  Paris  el!.  The  ell  of  Germany,  Brabant, 
&c.  is  equal  to  that  of  P'landers. 

4.  The  Italian  measure  is  the  !)racchio, 
brace,  or  fathom.  This  obtains  in  the  states 
of  .\lodena,  Venice,  Florence,  Lucca,  Milan, 
Mantua,  IJologna,  &c.  but  is  of  dilVerent 
lengths.     At  \'enice  it  contains  1  Paris  foot, 

I I  inches,  3  lines,  er  8-(ifteentlis  of  the  Paris 
ell.  At  Bologna,  Modena,  and  Mardtia,  the 
brace  is  the  same  as  at  N'enice.  At  Lucca  it 
contains  1  Paris  foot,  9  inches,  10  lines,  or 
lialf  a  Paris  ell.  -U  Florence  it  contains  1 
foot,  ()  inches,  fotir  lines,  or  49  lunidredths 
of  a  Paris  ell.  At  Milan,  the  brace  for  mra- 
auriiig  of  silks  is  1  Paris  foot,  7  inches,  4 
lines,  or  4  ninths  of  a  Paris  ell;  that  for 
woollen  cloths  is  the  same  with  the  ell  of  Hol- 
land. J.ya>tly,  atBergama,  the  brace  is  1  foot 
7  inches,  6  lines,  or  5-ninths  of  a  Paris  ell. 
The  usual  measnre  at  Najiles,  however,  is  the 

,<uiina,  containing  I)  feel,  10  inches,  and  i.' 
Jlneit,  or  one  Paris  ell  and  15-seveiiteenflis. 

5.  The  Spanish  measure  is  the  vara  or 
yaid,  in  some  places  called  the  barra ;  con- 
Uiijijig.  17  Iwcnty-lourths  of  the  Paris  ell.  But 


the  measure  in  Castile  and  \"alencia  is  the 
pan,  span,  or  palm  ;  which  is  used,  together 
with  (he  canna,  at  Genoa.  In  Arragon,  the 
vara,i5  eciual  to  a  Paris  ell  and  a  half,  or  5  leet, 
5  inches,  6  linif.. 

6.  The  Portuguese  measure  is  the  cave- 
dos,  containing  1?  feet,  11  lines,  or  four-se- 
venths of  a  Palis  ell;  and  the  vara,  106 
whereof  make  a  100  Paris  ell. 

7.  The  Piedmontese  measure  is  the  ras, 
containing  1  Paris  foot,  9  inches  10  li«es,  or 
half  a  Paiii  ell.  In  Sicily,  their  measure  is 
the  canna,  the  same  with  that  of  Naples. 

8.  The  Muscovite  mrasures  are  the  cubit, 
equal  to  1  Paris  foot,  4  inches,  2  lines  ;  and 
the  arcin,  two  wliereof  are  ctpial  to  3  cubits. 

9.  The  Turkish  and  Levant  measures  are 
the  picq,  containing  2  feet,  2  inclies,  and  2 
hues,  or  ihree-lii'ths  of  the  Paris  eil.  The 
Chinese  measure  is  the  cobre,  ten  whereof 
are  etjual  to  three  Paris  ells.     In  Persia,  and 


some  parts  of  the  Indies,  the  gueze,  of  whicH 
there  are  two  kinds;  the  royal  gueze,  called 
aiso  tlie  gue/e  moiikelser,  contauiing  2  Paris 
feet,  10  inches,  11  lines,  or  four-lifths  of  the 
Paris  e'l ;  and  the  shorter  gueze,  called  shn- 
ply  gueze,  only  two-thirds  of  the  former.  At 
(Joa  and  Orniu/,  the  measure  is  the  vara, 
the  same  with  that  of  the  Portuguese,  having 
been  introduced  by  them.  In  Pegu,  and 
some  odier  parts  of  the  Indies,  the  cando  or 
candi,  equal  to  the  ell  of  Venice.  At  Goa, 
and  other  parts,  they  use  a  larger  cando, 
equal  to  17  Dutch  ells,  exceeding  that  of 
Babel  and  Balsora  by  .^  per  centiun,  and  the 
vara  by  6j.  In  Siam,  they  use  the  ken,  short 
of  three  Paris  feet  bv  one  inch.  The  km 
contains  two  snks,  the  sok  two  keubs,  ths 
keub  12  nious  or  inches,  the  niou  to  be 
etpial  to  eight  grains  of  rice,  ;.  e.  to  about 
nine  lines.  At  Camiioia  they  use  the  haster; 
in  Japan  the  t.itam  ;  and  the  span  on  some  of 
the  coasts  of  (iuinea. 


En£lish  Me.\sukfs  of  Length, 


Barlev-corns 


3 

Inch 

Palm 

9 

3 

27 

9 

3 

.Span 

36 

12 

4 

H 

Foot 

rA 

108 
180 

18 

G 

2 

1,, 

Cubit 

36 

la 

4           3 

2    Vaivl 

60 

to 

eh     5 

H      ij 

'216 

594 

'23760 

72 

24 

8  1     .; 

4           2 

19H 

66 

■J-2         l.-i-i 

11           5i 

7920 

2640 

880 

660 

440       220 

Pace 

11 


3J'_ 
1  o 


190080:63360.21120  70-10 


132 


5280    8.520  |1760  llOjfi 


Fathom 

"■J|  Pole 

110  I  40  i  Furlong 

880  ,'320  I  8     Mile. 


MEASURES. 


121 


Scripture  Measurss  of  Length,  rcdiicc-d  to  Englisli. 


Digit 


4 

Palm 

. 

- 

12 

~~'2i 

3 
6 

Span 
2 

Cllhit 

"~9i'~a4 

8 

4 

I'atli 

144 
192 

36 
48 

12 

16 

6 

1 

2 

)9'20 

4H0 

160 

HO 

20 

14  Ezechiel's  iced  '      - 
1^   Arabian  pole 
il.s|^|  10  Sclioenus,  or  measuring  line 


r.nff. 

feet. 

O 

0 

0 

I 

7 

10 

11 

14  J 


■gDec. 
G.912 

3.6  li 
10.944 

y.888 

3..552 
11.323 

7.104 
1 1.04 


The  Longer  ScRirxuRE-MEASunEJ. 

Englisli 


Cubit  ... 

400  Stadium 

.Sab.  day's  journey 
Eastern  mile 
3   Parasang 


2000 


4000 


10 


12000    SO 


90000  240  148 


miles,  paces,  feet. 
0        O     1.824 

0  145  4.6 

0  729  3.000 

1  403  1.000 
4  1 53  3.000 


24  I  3 'A  day's  journey     33     172    4.00» 


Grecian  Measures  of  Length,  reduced  to  English. 


English 
Paces,  feet.    dec. 


Cictylus,  digit 

4|Doron,  dochme 
2-iiLichas 


101 

11 


12  3 

lol  4 

I 
20 


9600 


2400 


1_<_ 
i^o 

I'i 


1_6_ 
10 

1    « 
5^ 

2 

5 

94 


rosoo  19200 


960 

'680 


Orthodc 
1J_ 

1  1 

1  i 
2-J_ 

879^ 

6981J^ 
1  1 

)ron 
Spithame 

^ 

Foot 

- 

H 

H 

Cubit 

't 

li 

1± 

2 

H 

1^ 

6 

5f 

800 
6400 

600 

533J- 

4S00 

4266  f  J 

0   0   0.7554x4. 

1  B 

0     0     3.0218  I 
0     0     7.5546  i 


O     O     S.3101_5_ 

1  6 


0     0 
0     1 


_4| 
480 


liCubit  larger 
Pace 


3840 


400 


lOOjFurlong    100     4 
3200    8O0I  8   Mile  805     5 


9.0656  i 
O.OS75 
1.5984  } 
3.109    f 
6.13125 
0.525 
4.5 
0 


Roman  Measures  of  Length,  reduced  to  English. 


Digitus 

transv 
Uncia 

ersus              ... 

4 

3 

Palmx 

s  minor 

16 
20 

12 

4 

Pes 

. 

15 

5 

H 

Palmipes 

24 

18 

6 

n 

H 

Cubit  I 

s 

40 

30 

10 

2i 

2 

ll 

Gra 

SO 

60 

20 

5 

4 

416J 

10000 

7500 

2500 

625 

500 

25 

80000    60000  20000 

5000 

40CK1 

3333^ 

200 

English 
Paces,  feet.     dec. 

0.725i 
0.967 


0     0 
0     0 

o   o 


2  Passus 
250    125  Stadium 
2000I100O1  8  'Milliare 


0 
0 
0 

o 

0 

120 
967 


2.901 
11.604 
2.505 
5.400 
5.01 
10.02 
4.5 
0 


A  TABLE 
Of  the  Measure?  of  Length  of  the  principal 
Places  in  Europe,  compared  with  the  EnglisI 


Yard. 

100  Amies,  or  ells  of  England,  equal  to 
100  of  Holland  or  Amsterdam 

100  of  Brabant  or  Auf.verp 

100  of  France  ... 

10)  of  Hamburgh,  Fraaiffort,  &c. 

\'0L.  11. 


Eng. 

yard. 

125 
75 
7(» 

12Si 
624 


lOOAunes  of  Breslaa  ...         00 

100  of  Dantzick  ...       Gfji 

100  of  Bergen  and  Dronthcim  6S~ 

100  of  Sweden  or  Stockholm         -     65| 

100  of  St.  Gall,  for  linens  -        874 

100  of  ditto,  cloths         -  .  67' 

100  Of  Geneva        .  -        -     124} 

100  Can«t  of  Marseilles  and  Montpeher     2144 
100  of  Tuulouse  &  llighLaiiguedoc200 

100  of  Genoa,  of  9  paUiis        -        245  J 

Q 


227'- 
15» 


100  Canes  of  Rom*         ... 
100  Varas  of  Kpain 
I(X)  of  Portugal 

KX)  Cavidos  of  Portugal  -  .7? 

102  Brasses  of  Venice         ...     7:'.J- 
HX)  of  Bcigamo,  &c.         .         -         7l{- 

KX)  of  Florence  and  Leghorn        -    64 

100  of  Milan  ...  58^ 

N.  B.  The  aunes  or  ells  of  Amsterdam,  Haer- 
lem,  l.cydcn,  the  Hagi;e,  Rotterd.im,  and  other 
cities  of  Holland,  as  also  that  of  Nuremberg, 
being  all  equal,  are  comprehended  under  that 
of  Amsterdam  ;  as  those  of  Osnabiirg  are  under 
those  of  France;  and  those  of  Bern  and  Ba-.il 
are  equal  to  those  of  Hamburg,  Francfort,  and 
Lcipsic. 

For  the  subdivisions  and  multiples  of  each  of 
these  measures  of  length,  tee  the  article  Aone. 

For  the  proportion  of  the  feet  of  the  principal 
nations  in  Europe,  compared  with  the  English 
foot,  see  tlis  article  Foot. 

Srjintrc;  or  Sii/irrji:i,ii  Measures.  F.ngh'sh 
square  or  siqicrficial  measures  are  raised  from 
the  yard^of  :'>(j  inches  multiplied  into  itself,  and 
tlius  producing  1296  square  inches  in  the  square 
vard  :  the  divisions  of  tliis  are  square  feet  and 
inches ;  and  the  multiples,  poles,  roods,  and 
acres,  as  in  the  following  table: 


English 
Inches 

144  Foot 

Square-Measorei. 
Yard 

1296 

9 

3600 

25 

H 

Pace 

39204 

272i 

30i 

I0?9 
435.6 

1743.0 

Pole 

1508160 

10890 

1210 

40   Rood 

627264o'  43560 

4840 

100  j  4   Acre 

Roman  Si^uare-Measure  reduced  to  English. 
The  integer  was  the  jugerum  or  acre,  whick 
the  Romans  divided  like  the  hbra  or  as  :  thus, 
the  jugerum  contained 


'.• 

_2           ©     . 

Square 

"Ch 

•.^  — 1     «    <y 

Square 

feet. 

3 
w5 

U  G     =    0 

feet. 

As 

28800 

288 

2 

18 

250.05 

Deunx 

26400 

264 

2 

10 

183.85 

Dextans 

24000 

240 

S 

2 

117.64 

Dodrans 

21600 

210 

34 

51.42 

Bes 

19200 

192 

25 

057.4C 

Septunx 

1G800 

los 

17 

191.2* 

Semis 

11400 

144 

1 

9 

VJ.UH 

yuincunx 

12000 

120 

1 

5i.Hl 

Triene 

9000 

90 

0      32 

264.65 

Quadrans 

720O 

72 

0  •  24 

198.64 

Sextans 

4800 

48 

0      16 

132  4rf 

Uncia 

2400 

24 

0  1     8 

GO  21 

Note.  Actus  major  was  14400  square  feet, 
equal  to  a  semis  ;  clima,  3600  S(iuare  feet,  equal 
to  sescuncia  ;  and  actus  minimus  equal  to  a  sex- 
tans. 

Ciibkal  Measures,  or  MMsurtj  of  capacity  fir 
liqiiiJi.  The  English  measures  were  orJgi.naljy 
raised  from  troy-weight ;  it  being  enacted  by 
several  statutes  that  eight  pounds  troy  of  wheat, 
gathered  from  the  middle  of  the  ear,  iid  wcU 
dried,  should  weigh  a  gallon  of  wijic-measure, 
the  divisions  and  multijiles  whereof  were  to 
form  the  other  measures  :  at  the  same  time  it 
was  also  ordered,  that  there  should  be  but  one 
liquid  measure  iu  the  kingdom  :  vet  custom  has 
prevailed,  and  there  having  been  introduced  a 
new  weight,  viz  the  avoirdupois,  we  h.'!^  e  now 
a  second  standard  gallon  adjusted  thereto,  and 
therefore  exceeding  the  former  in  tlic  propor- 
tiou  of  the  avoirdupois  weight  to  trov  wniglit. 


J  22 

From  this  latter  standard  are  raised  two  several 
measures,  the  one  for  ale,  the  other  for  beer. 

The  sealed  gallon  at  Guildhall,  which  is  the 
standard  for  wines,  spirits,  oils,  &c.  is  supposed 
to  contain  231  cubic  inches  and  on  this  suppo- 
sition the  other  measures  raised  therefrom,  will 
contain  as  in  the  table  underneath  :  yet,  by  ac- 
tual experiment,  made  in  168S,  before  the  lord- 
mayor  and,  the  commissioners  of  excise,  this 
gallon  was  found  to  contain  only  224  cubic 
inches  :  it  was  however  agreed  to  continue  the 
common  supposed  contents  of  231  cubic  inches; 
so  that  all  computations  stand  on  their  old  foot-  ' 
jng.  Hence,  as  12  is  to  231,  so  is  144-|r  to  281-| 
the  cubic  inches  in  the  ale  gallon  :  but  in  effect 
the  ale  quart  contains  70j  cubic  inches,  on 
which  principle  the  ale  and  beer  gallon  will  be 
282  cubic  inches.  The  several  divisions  and  mul- 
tiples of  these  measures,  and  their  proportions, 
are  exhibited  in  the  following  tables : 

English  Measure  of  Capacity  for  Liquids. 
Wine-Measure. 


MEASURES, 
Attic  Measures  of  Capacity  for  Liquids,  reduced  to  English  W'ine-measure. 


Solid  inches 

• 

23||Pint 

231 

8  Gallon 

4153 

144     18 

Runlet 

7276i 

252 

31! 

'J 
2| 

Barrel 

9702 

33G 

42 

I^ 

Tierce 

14553 

504 

63 

2 

Hogshead 

1B279 

672 

84 

1|  Puncheon 

29106 

1003  126 

7 

4 

3 

2     liButt 

58212 

2016  252 

14 

8 

0 

4      3  i  2'Tun. 

M^        CO        C3  Oi 

cc     uo     o     (N     ;o 


[«.5ooo<N>o>o 

*-•       "i'*     iaT»  .-H 

.c       O     Q     tr;     M     ■*     ■* 


C 

o 


o 


c" 
3 


O 

M 

vi 

< 

03 


1 

U 

• 

jC 

t 

' 

fi 

0 

eA 

.f.   " 

*i 

CO 

* 

1 

„- 

w 

01 

to 

0 

r 

X 

to 

m 

Vi 

0 

0 

tX} 

Ol 

rf 

01 

0 

r- 

-1 

j: 

-H 

Tn^ 

<P 

0* 

fr> 

0 

CO 

V 

Cochliarion 
Cheme 


2i 
5 


10 


15 


l-J'iMystron 

2    Conche 

2    Cyathos 


60 


30 


120 
720 


60 


360 


18640  14320 


24 


288 


12 


141 
1728 


1^;  Oxybaphon 
4    Cotyle 


12 


72 
864 


8 


12 

144 


Xestes 

6  IChous 

I 

72  I  12'Metretes 


Gall.  Pints. 

L°cK«- 

-      0 

i 

1  :i  0 

0.0356_5j. 

0 

t 
To 

0.0712|. 

0 

1 

48- 

0.089  ^ 

0 

A 

0.178  |«. 

0 

^ 

0.356  !«. 

0 

i 

0  535  i 

0 

-I 

2.141  i 

0 

1 

4.283 

0 

6 

2J.69S 

10 

2 

19.629 

Roman  Measures  of  Capacity  for  Liquids,  reduced  to  English  Wine-measure. 


Ligub 

I 

4 

Cyathu»                -            .            -            . 

6 

ii 

Aceta 

>idum              ... 

12 

3 

2 

Quart 

arius 

24           6 

4 

2 

Hemina 

48 

12 

S 

4 

2 

Sextarius 

28S 

72 

48 
192 

24 

12 

~4T' 

6 

24" 

Conj 

4 

pus 

1152 

288 

Urija 

2304 

576 

3S4 

192 

96 

48 

8 

2   Am 

46080 

11520 

7680 

3840 

1920 

960 

160 

40  1  20 

20lCuleus 


Gall. 

Pints. 

^i:*-- 

0 

°^V 

0.117-5, 

1  2 

0 

OyV 

0.469  J 

0 

oi 

0.704  :§ 

0 

o| 

1.409 

•      0 

oi 

2.813 

0 

I 

.5.636 

0 

7 

4.942 

3 

4i 

5.33 

■      7 

1 

10.65 

143 

3 

11.095 

Eeer  and  Ale  Measure. 
Pints 

Gallon 

9    Firkin 

Kilderkin 


English  Dry  or  Corn  Measure. 
Solid  inches 


72 
144 
288 
576 


18 


36 


72 


2  I  Barrel 

4  !   2  IHogshead, 


33  6 


268.8 


Pint 


537.6  1    16 


2150.4 


17203.2 


64 


;i2 


Gallon 
Peck 


64 


4  I  Bushel 


32     8  [Quarter. 


Scripture  Measures  of  Capacity  for  tilings  dry,  reduced  to  English  Corn  measure. 

Peck.  Gall.  Pint.  fn|.hDec. 


Gacha 

1 

20 

Cab 

- 

36, 
120 

H' 

Gomor 

6           3^ 

Seah 

- 

360 

18 

.    10 

3 

Epha 

1800 

90 

50 

15 

0 

Lete 

3600 

180 

100    1  30 

10 

2lc 

0 

0 

017 

0.031 

0 

0 

2 

f 

0.073 

0 

0 

5 

1% 

1.211 

1 

0 

1 

4  035 

3 

0 

3 

12.107 

16 

0 

0 

26.500 

32 

0 

I 

18.969 

2  1  Chomer,  or  Coron 

Attic  Measures  of  Capacity  for  tilings  dry,  reduced  to  English  Corn-measure. 

Peck.  GaL  Pint.  ?°^\^  Dec. 
mch. 


Cochl 

anon 

10 
~"l5 

Cyathos 

l^'oxybaphon 

60 
"120 

6 

4 

Cot  vie 

12 

8 
12 

2 
3 

Xestes 

180       18 

l\  Choe 

8C40    864 

576    144 

72       4     ' 

Mcdinuios 


0 

0 

0 

"■-■76^'^ 

0 

0 

0 

2.763  i 

0 

0 

0 

4  144  i 

0 

0 

0 

16.579 

0 

0 

0 

33.158 

0 

0 

1 

15.705  1 

4 

0 

6 

3.501 

M  E  C 


M  E  C 


M  E  C 


123 


Roman  Measuurs  of  Cipaclty  for  thing!  dry,  reJia-ed  to  English  Coni-mMsure. 


Peck.  Gal.  Pint,  f  °|.',^  Dec. 


J.i_gl. 

4 

la 
Cyathm 

6 

1-i 

Acetabulum 

21 

6 

4 

Hem 

ina 

48 
384 

1-J 

S 

2 
16 

Sextsrius 

96 

8   .Sem 

768 

192 

128 

:i2 

16      2  I 

Measure  for  horses,  is  the  hand,  which 
l)v  statute  conluiiis  four  inches. 

'meatus  AUDiTOlUUS.  See  Ana- 
tomy. 

MECHANICS,  that  branch  of  practical 
mathcmutici  wiiich  considers  motion  and 
moving  powers,  tlieir  nature  and  laws,  with 
tlieir  elil'ecls  in  maciiines. 

'I'ho  term  mechanics  is  equally  .applied  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  ecpiillbrimn  of  powers, 
more  properly  ca'led  statics ;  and  to  that 
science  which  treats  of  the  generation  and 
communication  of  motion,  wliich  constitute^ 
mechanics  strictly  so  called.  See  Stai  ics. 
Power,  Motion,  &c. 

Tlie  knowledge  of  mechanics  is  one  of 
i'  ose  thins;?,  says  Mr.  Mac  Laiu-in,  that 
:>i:\'e  to  distinguish  civilized  nations  from 
barliarians.  It  is  by  tliis  science  that  the  ut- 
most improvement  is  made  of  every  power 
and  force  in  nature;  and  the  motions  of  the 
elements,  water,  air,  and  lire,  are  made  sub- 
servient to  the  various  purposes  of  life  ;  for 
however  weak  the  force  of  man  appears  to 
be,  when  unassisted  by  this  art;  yet,  villi  its 
aid,  there  is  hardly  any  thing  above  his  reach. 
It  is  distinguished  by  sir  Isaac  New  ton  into 
))ractical  and  rational  mechanics  ;  tlie  former 
of  which  treats  of  the  mechanical  powers, 
viz.  the  lever,  balance,  axis  and  wheel,  pul- 
iev,  w'edge,  screw,  and  inclined  plane. 

Rational  mechanics  comprehends  the  whole 
llieory  of  motion,  shews  when  the  powers  or 
forces  are  given  how  to  determine  the  mo- 
tions that  are  produced  by  them  ;  and  con- 
N  <  r^ely  when  the  pha-nomena  of  the  motions 
are  given,  how  to  trace  the  powers  or  forces 
fcoin  which  they  arise. 

Tvlechanical  powers    are    simple    engines 

it  enable  men  to  raise  weights,  to  move 
'  .ivy  bodies,  and  overcome  resistances, 
which  they  could  not  do  with  flieir  natural 
strength  alone.  Tlwir  importance  to  societv 
is  incalculable.  Every  machine  whatever  is 
composed  of  one  or  more  of  them,  sometimes 
<■!"  several  combined  togetlier. 

In  considering  this  science,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary at  lirst  to  take  some  things  for  granted 
that  are  not  strictly  true;  and  after  the  theory 
is  established,  to  make  the  proper  allow- 
ances for  them. 

1.  That  a  small  portion  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, which  is  splierical.  may  be  considered  as 
a  plane.  2.  That  all  bodies  be  supposed  to 
descend  in  lines  parallel  to  each  other;  for 
though  all  bodies  really  tend  to  the  centre  of 
the  earth,  yet  the  distance  from  which  they 
fell  is  comparatively  so  small,  tiiat  their  incli- 
nation towards  each  other  is  inconsiderable. 
3.  That  all  planes  be  considered  as  perfectly 
smooth ;  levers  to  be  iutlexible,  and  without 


0 

0 

p.v 

0  01 

0 

0 

°tV 

0:04 

0 

0 

oi 

0,06 

0 

0 

0  1 

0.24 

0 

0 

1 

0.4S 

0 

1 

0. 

384 

I 

0 

0 

7.6S 

thickness  or  weight ;  cords  perfectly  pliable ; 
and  machin."s  wiliiout  friction  and  inertia. 

'I'I'.ree  things  are  always  to  be  considered 
in  treating  of  mechanical  engines;  the  weight 
to  be  raised,  the  power  by  which  it  is  to  be 
raised,  and  tiie  instrument  or  engine  by 
whi<  h  this  is  to  be  elfeclcd. 

The  mechanical  powers  are  generally  reck- 
oned si.x.;  the  lever,  the  pulley,  the  wheel 
and  axis,  the  inclined  plane,  the  wedge,  and 
the  screw. 

These  perhaps  may  be  reduced  to  two; 
for  the  pulley  and  wheel  are  only  assemblages 
of  levers,  and  the  wedge  and  screw  are  in- 
clined planes. 

To  calculate  the  power  of  a  machine,  it  is 
usually  considered  in  a  state  of  equilibrium  ; 
that  is,  in  the  slate  when  the  power  which  is 
to  overcome  the  resistance  just  balances  it. 
Having  discovered  what  quantity  of  power 
will  be  requisite  for  this  purpose,  it  will  then 
be  necessary  to  add  so  much,  more  as  to  over- 
come the  friction  and  weight  of  the  machine 
itself,  and  to  give  the  necessary  velocity. 

The  lever  is  the  simplest  of  all  machines  ; 
and  is  only  a  straight  bar  of  iron,  wood,  or 
other  material,  supported  oi!,  and  moveable 
round,  a  prop  called  the  fulcrum. 

In  the  lever  there  are  three  circumstances 
to  be  principally  attended  to :  1.  The  ful- 
crtim,  or  prop,  by  which  it  is  supported,  or 
on  which  it  turns  as  an  axis,  or  centre  of  mo- 
tion :  2.  Tlie  power  to  raise  and  sujiport  the 
wi.-ight :  3.  The  resistance  or  weight  to  be 
raised  or  sustained. 

T'lie  points,  of  suspension  are  those  points 
where  the  weights  really  are,  or  from  which 
they  hang  freely.  The  jiower  and  the  weight 
are  aiwa.ys  supposed  to  act  at  right  angles  to 
the  lever,  except  il^  is  otherwise  expressed. 
The  lever  is  distinguished  into  tliree soils, 
according  to  the  different  situations  of  the 
fulcrum  or  prop,  and  the  power,  with  respect 
to  each  other.  1 .  When  the  prop  is  placed 
between  the  power  and  the  weight.  2.  When 
the  prop  is  at  one  end  of  the  lever,  the  power 
at  the  other,  and  the  weight  betweea  tliem. 
3.  When  the  prop  is  at  one  end,  the  weight 
at  the  other,  and  the  power  applied  between 
them'. 

A  poker,  in  stirring  the  fire,  is  a  lever  of 
the  first  sort:  the  bar  of  the  grate  upon  which 
it  rests  is  the  fulcrum  ;  the  fuel,  the  weight 
to  be  overcome  ;  and  the  hand  is  the  power. 
The  lover  of  the  first  kind  is  principally  tised 
for  loosening  large  stones ;  or  to  raise  great 
v/eiglits  to  small  heights,  in  order  to  get  ropes 
under  them,  or  other  means  of  raising  them 
to  still  greater  heights;  it  is  tlie  most  common 
species  of  lever. 

APC,  Plate  Mechanics,  fig.l.  is  this  lever, 
in  which  Bis  llii^  fulcrum,  A  the  end  at  which 
Q2 


Ihe  power  is  applied,  and  C  the  end  where 
the  weight  acts. 

To  hnd  when  an  equilibrium  will  lake 
))lace  between  the  power  and  the  weight,  iu 
this  as  well  as  in  every  other  species  oi  lever, 
it  is  necessary  to  recollect,  that  when  the  mo- 
menta, or  quantities  of  tijrce,  in  two  bodies  are 
equal,  they  will  balance  each  other.  Now  let 
us  consider  when  this  v  ill  take  place  in  the 
lever.  Suppose  the  lever  Ali  (lig.  2)  to  be 
turned  on  its  axis,  or  fulcrum,  so  as  to  come 
into  the  situation  DC  ;  as  the  end  D  istarlhest 
Irom  the  centre  of  motion,  and  as  it  has 
moved  through  the  arch  AD  in  the  same  tim« 
as  the  end  B  moved  through  the  arch  BC,  it 
is  evident  that  the  velocity  of  AB  must  have 
been  gre.tcr  than  that  of  15.  But  the  mo- 
menta being  the  products  of  the  quantities  of 
matter  multiplied  into  the  velocities,  the 
greater  the  velocity,  the  less  the  quantity  of 
matter  need  be  to  get  the  same  product. 
Therefore,  as  the  velocity  of  A  is  the  greatest, 
it  will  require  less  matter  to  produce  an  equi- 
librium  than  B. 

Let  us  next  see  how  much  more  weight  B 
will  require  than  A  to  balance  it.  As  the  radii 
of  circles  are  in  proportion  to  their  circum- 
ferences, they  are  also  proportionate  to  similar 
parts  of  them;  therefore,  as  the  arches  AD, 
CB,  are  similar,  the  radius  or  arm  DE  bears 
the  same  propo.tion  to  EC  that  the  arch 
AD  bears  to  CB.  Hut  the  arches  AD  and 
CB  represent  the  velocities  of  the  ends  of 
the  lever,  because  they  are  the  spaces  which 
they  moved  over  in  ti.e  same  time ;  therefore 
the  arms  DE  and  EC  may  also  represent 
these  velocities. 

It  is  evident  then,  that  an  equilibrium  will 
take  place  when  the  length  of  the  arm  AE 
multiplied  into  the  power  A,  shall  equal  EB 
nudlipliud  into  tlie  weight  B;  and  conse- 
(juently,  that  the  shorter  EB  is,  the  greater 
must  be  the  weight  B;  tiiat  is,  the  power  and 
the  weight  must  be  to  each  other  inversely, 
as  their  distances  from  the  fulcrum.  Thus, 
supl)ose  AE,  the  distance  of  the  power  from 
the  prop,  to  be  20  inches,  and  EB,  the  dis- 
tance of  the  weight  from  the  prop,  to  be  eight 
inches,  also  the  weight  to  be  raised  at  B  to 
be  five  pounds,  then  the  power  to  be  applied 
at  A  must  be  two  jiounds ;  because  the  dis- 
tance of  the  weight  from  the  fulcrum  eight, 
multiplied  into  the  weight  five,  makes  40  ; 
therefore  20,  the  distance  of  the  power  from 
the  prop,  must  be  inultiplied  by  two,  to  get 
an  etiual  product,  which  will  produce  an 
equilibrium. 

It  is  obvious,  that  w  hile  the  distance  of  the 
power  from  tlie  prop  exceeds  that  of  the 
weight  from  the  prop,  a  power  less  than  the 
weight  will  raise  it,  so  that  then  the  lever 
affords  a  mechanical  advantage:  when  the 
distance  of  the  power  is  less  than  that  of  the 
weight  from  the  prop,  the  power  must  be 
greater  than  the  weight  to  raise  it ;  when  both 
the  arms  are  equal,  the  [jower  and  the  weight 
must  be  equal,  to  be  in  equilibrio. 

T  he  second  kind  of  lever,  when  the  weight 
is  between  the  fulcrum  and  the  power,  is  re- 
presented by  fig.  3.  in  which  A  is  the  ful- 
crum, B  the  weight,  and  C  the  power.  The 
advantage  gained  by  this  lever,  as  in  the  first, 
is  as  great  as  the  distance  of  the  power  from 
the  prop  exceeds  the  distance  of  the  weiglrt 
from  it.  Thus  if  the  point  a,  on  which  the 
pov/er  acts,  is  seven  times  as  far  from  A  as 


]2t 

the  point  h,  on  wliirh  the  wei»ht  act^,  then 
OIK-  puiind  appIkU  at  C  will  raise  seven 
pciiiul?  at  B. 

This  lever  shews  the  rerison  why  two  men 
carrying  a  buKk-ii  upon  a  stick  between  them, 
boar  shares  of  tile  luirden  which  are  to  one 
another  in  tlie  inverse  propcrtinn  of  their 
distai.ces  from  it.  For  it  is  well  known,  tliat 
the  nearer  either  of  them  is  to  the  burUen, 
tiie  greater  vhare  he  bears  of  it;  and  if  he 
goes  directly  under  it,  he  bears  tlie  whole. 
So  if  one  man  is  at  A,  and  the  other  at  a, 
havinir  the  pole  or  stick  resting  on  their 
shoulders  ;  if  the  burden  or  weight  15  is  placed 
five  times  as  near  the  man  at  A,  as  it  is  to  the 
man  «,  the  former  will  bear  five  times  as 
much  weight  as  the  latter. 

This  is  likewise  applicable  to  the  case  of 
two  horses  of  unequal  strength  to  be  so  yok- 
ed, that  each  iiorse  may  draw  a  part  pro- 
portionable to  his  strength  ;  which  is  done 
by_so  dividing  the  beam  thoy  pull,  that  tlio 
point  of  tr.iciion  may  be  as  much  nearer  to 
the  stronger  horse  than  to  the  weaker,  as  tlu; 
strength  of  the  former  exceeds  tiiat  of  the 
latter. 

To  this  kind  of  lever  may  ?oc  reduced 
oars,  rudders  of  sliips,  doors  turnini'  upon 
hinge<,  cutliiig-knivi;3  which  are  lixed  at  the 
point,  ic. 

li  in  tliis  lever  we  suppose  the  power  and 
weight  to  change  places,  so  that  the  power 
may  lie  between  the  s^-eight  and  the  prop,  it 
will  become  a  lever  of  the  third  kind;  in 
which,  that  there  may  be  a  balance  between 
the  ])ower  and  the  'weight,  the  intensity 
ot  the  power  must  exceed  the  intensity 
of  the  weight  just  as  much  as  the  distance  of 
tlie  weight  from  the  prop  exceeds  the  dis- 
tance of  the  power.  Thus,  let  E  (fig.  4.>be 
the  prop  of  tlie  lever  EF,  and  W  a  weight  of 
one  pound,  placed  three  times  as  far  from  the 
prop  as  the  power  1'  acts  at  F,  by  the  cord 
going  over  tlie  lixed  pulley  D  :  in  this  case 
the  power  must  be  etjual  to  three  pounds,  in 
order  to  support  the  weight  of  one  pound. 

To  tins  sort  of  lever  are  generally  referred 
the  bones  of  a  man's  arm ;  for  when  he  lifts  a 
weight  by  the  hand,  the  muscle  that  exerts 
its  force  to  raise  that  weight  is  lixed  to  the 
tone  about  one-tenth  part  as  far  below  the 
elbow  as  tlie  hand  is.  And  the  elbow  being 
the  centre  round  which  the  lower  part  of  the 
arm  turns,  the  muscle  must  therefore  exert  a 
force  ten  times  as  great  as  the  weight  that  is 
raised. 

As  this  kind  of  lever  is  a  disadvantage  to 
the  moving  power,  it  is  used  as  little  as  pos- 
sible; but  in  some  cases  it  cannot  be  avoided, 
such  as  that  of  a  ladder,  which  being  fixed  at 
one  end,  is  by  the  strength  of  a  man's  arms 
reared  against  a  wall. 

What  is  called  the  hammer-lever  differs 
in  nothing  but  its  form,  from  a  lever  of  the 
lirst  kind.  Its  name  is  derived  from  it>  use, 
t.'iat  of  drawing  a  nail  out  of  wood  by  a  ham- 
mer. 

Suppose  the  shaft  of  a  hammer  to  be  five 
times  a&  long  as  the  iron  part  which  draws 
the  nail,  the  lower  part  resting  on  the  board 
as  a  fulcrum  ;  then  by  pulliug  backwards  the 
end  of  (he  shaft,  a  man  will  draw  a  nail  with 
cue  liftli  part  of  the  power  that  he  must  use 
to  pull  it  out  with  a  pair  of  pincers,  in  which 
case  the  nail  would  move  as  last  as  liis  hand  ; 
but  with  th«  Uaauncr  the  hand  moves  live 


MECHANICS. 

limes  a?  much  as  the  nail,  by  the  time  tliat 
the  nail  is  drawn  out. 

Let  ACB  (fig.  5.)  represent  a  lever  of  (his 
sort,  bent  at  C,  which  is  its  prop,  or  eeuUe 
of  motion.  P  is  a  power  acting  upon  the 
longer  arm  AC,  at  A,  by  the  means  of  the 
cord  DA  going  over  the  pulley  1);  and  W  is 
a  weight  or  resi>tance  acting  upon  the  end  15 
of  the  shorter  arm  CB.  If  the  power  is  to  the 
weight  as  CBis  toCA,  they  are  in  equilibrio: 
thus,  suppose  W  to  be  five  pouiuls,  acting  at 
the  distance  of  one  foot  from  the  centre  of 
motion  C,  and  P  to  be  one  pound,  acting  at 
A,  five  feet  from  the  centre  C  ;  the  power 
and  weight  will  just  balance  each  other. 

'I  hus  we  see,  that  in  every  species  of  lever 
there  will  b(;  an  eciuilibrium,  when  tl;e  power 
is  to  the  weight,  as  the  distance  of  the  weight 
from  the  fulcrum  is  to  the  distance  of  the 
power  from  the  fulcrum. 

In  n)akii)g  experiments  on  the  mechanic 
powers,  some  dilfieulties  arise  from  the  weight 
of  the  materials;  but  as  it  is  impossible  to 
lind  any  that  are  without  weight,  we  take 
care  that  they  are  perfectly  balanced  them- 
selves, before  the  weights  and  powers  are  ap- 
plied. 'l"he  bar,  therefore,  used  in  making 
experiments  on  levers,  has  the  shnrt  end  so 
much  thicker  than  (he  long  arm,  as  will  be 
suliicient  to  balance  it  on  the  prop. 

Hitherto  we  have  supposed  that  the  power 
and  weight  acted  per])endicularlv  upon  the 
lever;  but  if  they  do  not,  they  art  with  less 
force  upon  it;  the  power  should,  therefore, 
if  possible,  be  always  made  to  act  at  right 
angles  to  the  lever. 

If  several  levers  are  combined  together  in 
such  a  manner,  as  that  a  weight  being  ap- 
pended to  the  first  lever,  may  be  supportc_-d 
by  a  power  applied  to  the  last,  as  in  fig.  6. 
(which  consists  of  three  levers  of  the  first  kind, 
and  is  so  <-ontrived,  that  a  power  applied  at 
the  point  L  of  tl:e  lever  C,  may  sustain  a 
weight  at  the  point  S  of  the  lever  A),  the 
power  muft  here  be  to  the  weight,  in  a  ratio, 
or  projjortion,  compounded  of  the  several 
ratios,  which  those  powers  that  can  sustain 
the  weight  by  the  help  of  each  lever,  when 
used  singly  and  apart  from  the  rest,  have  to 
the  weight.  For  instance:  if  the  power  which 
can  sustain  the  weight  P  by  the  help  of  the 
lever  A,  is  to  the  weight  as  1  to  5  ;  and  if  the 
])Ower  which  can  sustain  the  «aine  weight  bv 
the  lever  B  alone,  is  to  the  weight  as  I  to  4  ; 
and  if  the  powerwhich  couKl  sustain  the  same 
weight  by  the  lever  C,  is  to  the  weight  as  1 
to  5 ;  then  the  power  which  will  sustain  the 
weight  by  the  helj)  of  the  three  levers  joine<l 
together,  will  be  to  the  weight  in  a  propor- 
tion consisting  of  the  several  proportions 
multiplied  together,  of  1  to  5,  1  to  4,  and  1 
to  5;  that  is,  of  1  to  100. 

For  since,  in  the  lever  A,  a  power  equal  to 
one-lifth  of  the  weight  P  pressing  down  the 
lever  at  L,  is  sufficient  to  balance  the  weight ; 
and  since  it  is  the  same  thing  w  hether  that 
power  is  applied  to  the  lever  A  at  L,  or  the 
lever  B  at  S,  the  point  S  bearing  on  the  point 
L;  a  power  i(jual  to  one-fifth  of  the  weight 
P,  being  apiilied  to  the  point  S  of  the  lever  15, 
will  support  the  weight;  but  one-fourlh  of 
the  same  power  being  applied  to  the  point  L 
of  the  lever  B,  and  pushing  the  same  upward, 
will  as  effectually  depress  the  point  S  of  the 
same  lever,  as  if  the  whole  power  was  applied 
at  S  ;  consequently  a  power  equal  to  one- 
fourth  of  one-fifth,"that  is,  one-twentieth  of 


the  weight  P,  being  applied  to  the  point  I,  of 

the  lever  B,  and  pushing  up  the  same,  will 
support  the  we  ght ;  in  like  manner,  it  mat- 
ters not  whether  that  force  is  applied  to  (he 
point  L  of  the  lever  B,  or  to  the  point  S  of  the 
lever  C,  since,  if  S  be  raised,  L,  which  rests 
on  it,  must  be  raised  also;  but  one-lluh  of  the 
power  applied  at  the  point  L  of  the  lever  C, 
and  pressing  it  downwards,  will  as  effectually 
raise  the  point  S  of  the  same  lever,  as  if  tlie 
whole  power  was  applied  at  S,  and  pushed 
up  the  same;  consequently  a  |)ower  equal  (o 
one-fifth  of  one-twentieth,  that  is,  one-huii- 
ilredth  part  of  the  weight  P,  being  applied  Iti 
the  point  L  of  the  levi;r  C,  will  balance  tlie 
weight  at  the  point  8  of  the  lever  A. 

'Ihe  balance,  an  instrument  of  very  exten- 
sive use  in  comparing  the  weights  of  bodies, 
is  a  lever  of  the  lirst  lvind,-whose  arms  are  of 
equal  length.  The  points  from  wineli  the 
weights  are  sus])ended  being  ecpially  distant 
from  the  centre  of  motion,  will  move  with 
equal  velocity  ;  consequently,  if  equal  weight"; 
are  applied,  their  momenta  will  bo  equal, 
and  the  balance  will  remain  in  equilibrio. 

In  order  to  have  a  balance  as  perfect  as 
possible,  it  is  necessary  to  attend  to  the  fol- 
lowing circumstances:  1.  '1  he  arms  of  the 
beam  ought  to  be  exactly  etjuai,  both  as  to 
weight  and  length.  2.  '1  lie  points  from  which 
the  scales  are  suspended  should  be  in  a  right 
line,  passing  through  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  beam;  for  by  this  the  weights  will  act' di- 
rectly against  each  other,  and  no  part  of 
either  will  be  lost  on  account  of  auv  olilique 
direction.  3.  If  the  fulcrum,  or  point  upon 
which  the  beam  turns,  is  placed  in  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  this  beam,  and  if  the  fiilcruni 
and  the  points  of  suspension  are  in  the  same 
right  line,  the  balance  will  have  no  tendency 
to  one  position  more  tiiau  another,  but  w  ill 
rest  in  any  position  it  miy  be  placed  in,, 
whether  the  scales  are  on  or  Oif,  empty  or 
loaded. 

If  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam,  when 
level,  is  immediately  above  the  fulcrum,  it 
will  overset  by  the  smallest  action ;  that  is, 
the  end  which  is  lowest  will  descend;  and  it 
wdldo  this  with  more  swiftness,  the  higher  the 
centre  of  gravity  is,  and  the  le:  s  the  points  of 
suspension  are  loaded. 

But  if  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam  is 
immediately  below  the  fulcrum,  the  beam 
will  not  rest  in  any  position  but  when  level'; 
and  if  disturbed  from  that  position,  and  tlien 
left  at  liberty,  it  will  vibrate,  and  at  last  come 
to  rest  on  the  level.  In  a  balance,  therefore, 
the  fulcrum  ought  always  to  be  placed  a  little 
above  the  centre  of  gravity.  Its  vibrations 
will  be  quicker,  and  its  horizontal  tendency 
stronger,  the  tower  the  centre  of  gravity, 
and  the  less  the  weight  upon  the  points  of 
suspension. 

4.  1'he  iViction  of  the  beam  upon  the  axis 
ought  to  be  as  little  as  ])ossible;  because, 
should  the  friction  be  great,  it  will  re<|uire  a 
( unsider.ible  force  to  overcome  it ;  upon 
which  account,  though  one  weight  should  a 
little  exceed  the  other,  it  will  not  pri  ponde- 
rate, the  excess  not  bcini;  siilfieii.-nl  to  ovei^ 
come  (he  friction,  and  bear  down  the  bean*.. 
Tin:  axis  of  motion  should  be  formed  with  an 
edge  like  a  knife,  and  made  very  hard  ;  these 
edges  are  at  first  made  sharp,  and  then  round- 
ed with  a  fine  hone,  or  piece  of  buff  leathei\ 
which  causes  a  suliicient  bluntness,  or  rollingc 
edge.     <.)n  the  regular  iorm  and  excellenc 


I- 

'1 


MECHANICS, 


123 


of  tViw  axis,  (lopcnds  chieily  the  perfccfion  of 
the  inslriimerit. 

5.  'J'he  pivots  whicli  form  the  axis  or  ful- 
crimi,  shoiilcl  be  in  u  stiaii^ht  line,  aud  at  ri?ht 
angles  to  the  beam.  6.  'i'he  amis  should  be 
as  long  as  possibl'-,  relativL-ly  to  their  ihicU- 
liess,  and  tli<-  purposes  for  w  liicli  they  ari.-  in- 
tended; as  the  linger  they  are,  the  more- sen- 
sible is  the  balance. 

'Ihey  should  also  be  made  as  slifT  and  in- 
flexible as  possible  ;  for  if  the  beam  is  too 
weak,  it  will  bend,  and  bceonie  nnlrue.  7. 
'J'he  rings,  or  the  picee  on  whieh  tlie  axis 
bears,  should  be  hurtl  and  well  polished,  pa- 
rallel toeaeh  other,  and  of  an  oval  form,  tliat 
the  axis  may  always  keep  its  projier  bearing, 
or  remain  always  at  the  lowest  point. 

N'ery  delieale  balances  arc  not  only  useful 
ill  nice  experimi'nls,  but  are  likewise  much 
more  expeditious  than  others  in  common 
weighing.  If  a  pair  of  si;ales  with  a  certain 
load  is  barely  sensible  to  one-tenth  of  a  grain, 
it  will  require  a  considerable  lime  to  ascer- 
tain the  weight  to  tliat  degree  of  accuracy, 
Viecause  the  turn  must  be  observed  several 
limes  -over,  and  is  very  small.  15ul  if  no 
greater  accuracy  was  required,  and  scales 
were  used  which  would  turn  with  one-hun- 
dredth of  a  grain,  a  tenth  of  a  grain  more  or 
less  would  make  so  great  a  did'erence  in  the 
turn,  that  it  would  be  seen  ininiediately. 

The  statera,  or  Ivonian  steel-yard,  is  a  lever 
of  the  hrst  kind,  and  is  used  for  finding  the 
weights  of  dillerent  bodies,  by  one  single 
weight  placed  at  tl.t'erent  distances  fnmi  the 
prop  or  centre  of  motion  D  (ng.  7.).  For  tlie 
shorter  arm  DG  is  of  such  a  weight  as  ex- 
acllv  to  couaterpoi'-e  the  longer  arm  DX.  If 
this  arm  is  liivided  into  as  many  equal  parts 
as  it  will  contain,  each  e(iual  to  CD,  the 
single  weight  P  (which  we  may  suppose  to  be 
one  pound)  will  serve  for  weighing  any  thing 
as  he.ivy  as  itself,  or  as  many  times  heavier 
as  tliere  are  divisions  in  the  arm  DX,  or  any 
quantity  between  its  own  weight  and  that 
(piautity.  .\s  for  example,  if  1'  is  one  pound, 
aud  placed  at  the  hrst  division  1  in  the  arm 
]  )X,  it  wiii  balance  one  pound  in  th  ■  scale  at 
W;  if  it  is  removed  to  the  second  division  at 
2,  it  will  balance  two  pounds  in  the  scale  ;  if 
to  the  third  three  pounds;  and  so  on  to  the 
end  of  the  arm  1)X.  If  any  of  these  integral 
divisions  is  subdivided  into  as  many  equal 
parts  as  a  pound  contains  ounces,  and  the 
weight  P  is  placed  at  any  of  these  subdivi- 
sions, so  as  to  counterpoise  what  is  in  the 
scale,  the  pounds  and  odtl  ounces  therein  will 
by  that  means  be  ascertained. 

"The  wheel  and  axle  is  a  machine  much 
used,  and  is  made  in  a  variety  of  forms.  It 
consists  of  a  wliesl  with  an  axle  fixed  to  it, 
so  as  to  turn  round  with  it;  the  power  being 
applied  at  the  circmnference  of  the  wheel, 
and  tlie  weight  to  be  raised  is  fastened  to  a 
rope  which  coils  round  tlie  axle. 

AB  (lig.  9.)  is  a  wheel  and  CD  an  axle 
fixed  to  it,  and  which  moves  round  with  it. 
It  the  rope  which  goes  round  the  wheel  is 
pulled,  and  the  wheel  turned  once  round,  it 
is  evident  that  as  much  rope  will  be  drawn 
olif  as  the  circumference  of  the  wheel;  but 
while  the  wheel  turns  once  round,  the  axle 
turns  once  round ;  and  consequently  the  rope 
by  which  the  weight  is  suspended,  will  wind 
once  round  the  axis,  and  the  weight  will  be 
raised  through  a  space  equal  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  a.xis. 


The  velocity  of  the  power,  ihercforc,  will 
be  to  that  of  the  weight,  as  the  circumference 
of  the  wheel  to  tiuit  of  tlje  axis. 

'i  iiat  the  power  and  the  weight  may  be  in 
equilibrio,  therefore,  lh<-  jiower  must  be  to  the 
weight  as  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  to 
that  of  the  axis. 

It  is  proved  b\~  geometry  that  the  circum- 
fi.reiices  of  dilferent  circles  bear  the  same  pro- 
portion to  each  other  as  iheir  respective  dia- 
meters do;  consequently  the  power  is  to  the 
weight,  as  the  diaiiieler  also  of  the  axis  to 
tliat  of  the  wheel. 

Thus,  si:p|)ose  the  diameter  of  the  wheel 
to  be  eight  indies,  and  the  diameter  of  the 
axis  to  he  one  inch;  then  one  ounce  acting 
as  the  power  P,  will  balance  eight  ounces  as 
a  weight  \V  ;  and  a  small  additional  force  will 
cause  the  wheel  to  turn  with  its  axis,  and 
raise  the  weight;  and  for  every  inch  which 
the  weight  rises,  the  power  will  fall  eight 
inches. 

Tiie  whc'cl  and  axis  may  be  consLleml  as  a 
kind  of  perpetual  lever,  of  whieh  the  fulcrum 
is  the  centre  of  the  axis,  and  the  long  and 
short  arms  are  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  and 
the  diameter  of  the  axis.     See  lig.  10. 

From  this  it  is  evident,  that  the  larger  the 
wheel,  and  the  smaller  the  axis,  the  stronger 
is  the  power  of  this  machine;  but  then  the 
weight  must  rise  slower  ;n  proportion. 

A  capstan  is  a  cylinder  of  wood,  with  holes 
in  it,  into  whicii  are  put  bars,  or  levers,  to 
turn  it  round  ;  these  are  like  the  spokes  of  a 
wheel  without  the  rim.  Sometimes  the  axis 
is  turned  by  a  winch  fastened  to  it,  wliich  in 
this  respect  serves  for  a  wheel  ;  and  is  more 
])0werful  in  proportion  to  the  largeness  of 
the  circle  it  describes,  compared  with  the  dia- 
meter of  the  axle. 

When  the  parts  of  the  axis  dilfer  in  thick- 
ness, and  weights  are  suspended  at  the  differ- 
ent jiarts,  they  may  bo  sustained  by  one  and 
the  same  power  applied  to  tlie  circumference 
of  the  wheel  ;  provided  the  ];roduet  arising 
from  the  multiplication  of  the  power  into  the 
diameter  of  the  wheel,  is  ecpial  to  the  sum  of 
the  products  arising  from  the  multiplication 
of  the  several  weights  into  the  diameters  of 
those  parts  of  the  axis  from  wliicli  they  are 
suspended. 

In  considering  the  theory  of  the  wheel  and 
axle,  we  have  supposed  the  rope  that  goes 
round  the  axle  to  have  no  sensible  thickness; 
hut  as  in  practice  this  cannot  be  the  case,  if 
it  is  a  thick  rope,  or  if  there  are  several  folds 
of  it  round  the  axis,  you  nuist  measure  to  the 
middle  of  the  outside  rope,  to  obtain  the  dia- 
meter of  the  axis,  for  the  distance  of  the 
weight  from  the  centre  is  increased  by  the 
coiling  up  of  the  rope. 

If  teetli  are  cut  in  the  circumference  of  a 
wheel,  and  if  they  work  in  the  teeth  of  ano- 
ther wheel  of  the  same  size,  as  hg.  11,  it  is 
evident  that  both  the  wheels  will  revolve  in 
the  same  time;  and  the  weight  ajipended  to 
the  axle  of  the  wheel  B,  will  be  raised  in  the 
same  time  as  if  the  axle  had  been  fixed  to  the 
wheel  A.  But  if  the  teeth  of  the  second 
wheel  are  made  to  work  in  teeth  made  in  the 
axle  of  the  lirst,  as  at  fig.  12,  as  every  part  of 
the  circumference  of  the  second  wheel  is  ap- 
plied successively  to  the  circumference  of  the 
axle  of  the  lirst,  and  as  the  former  is  much 
greater  than  the  latter,  it  is  evident  that  ihe 
lirst  wheel  must  go  round  as  many   limes 


more  than  the  second,  as  the  circninference 
of  ihe  second  vUicel  exceeds  that  of  the  lirst 
axle. 

In  order  to  a  balance  here,  the  power 
must  be  to  the  weiglit,  as  the  product  of  the 
circumlercnces,  or  diameters  of  the  two  axles 
multiplied  together,  is  to  the  circumferences 
or  diameters  of  Ihe  two  «  heels. 

This  will  become  sufficiently  clear,  if  it  is 
considered  as  a  coniponud  lever,  which  was 
explained  above.  Instead  of  a  combination 
of  two  wheels,  three  or  foiu'  wheels  may 
work  in  each  other,  or  any  numbifr ;  and  by 
thus  increasing  the  number  of  wheels,  or  by 
proportioning  the  wheels  to  the  axis,  any  de- 
gree of  pow  er  may  be  acipiired. 

To  this  sort  of  engine  belong  all  cranes  for 
raising  great  weights;  and  in  this  case  the 
w!;eel  may  have  coi^  all  round  it,  instead  of 
handles;  and  a  small  lanthorn,  or  trundle, 
may  be  made  to  work  in  the  cogs,  and  be 
turned  by   a  winch,  whicli   will  make   the 
power  of  the  engine  to  exceed  the  power  of 
the  man  who  works  it,  as  much  asthe  number 
of  revolutions  of  the  winch  Exceeds  those  of 
the  axle  CD,  fig.  9,  when  multiplied  by  the 
excess  of  the  length  of  the  winch  above  the' 
length  of  the  semidiametcr  of  the  axle,  added 
to  the  semidiameler  or  haU'-thickness  of  the 
rope  K,  by  which  the  weight  is  drawn  up. 
Thus,  su|)pose  the  diameter  of  the  rope  aud 
axie   taken  together  to  be   13  inches,  and 
consequently  half  tiieir  diameter  to  be  6J- 
inches,  so  that  the  weight  \V  will  hang  at  &| 
indies  perpendicular  dl^talu:e  from  below  the 
centre  of  the  axle.     Now,  let  us  sup|)0se  the 
wheel  AB,  which   is  lixed  on  the  axle,  to 
have  80  cogs,  and  to  be  turned  by  means  of 
a  winch  Gi  inches  long,  lixed  on  the  axle  of  a 
trundle  of  eight  staves,  or  rounds,  working  in 
the  cogs  of  the  wheel ;  here  it  is  plain,  that 
the  winch  and  trundle  would  make  ten  revo- 
lutions for  one  of  the  wheel  A  B,  and  its  axis 
C  D,  on  which  the  rope  K  wiu'ls  in  raising 
the   wein;ht   W;    and    the   which   being  no  ■ 
longer  than  the  sum  of  the   semidiameters  of 
the  great  axle  and  rope,   the  trundle  could 
have  no  more  power  on  the  wheel  llian  a  man 
could  have  by  pulling  it  round  by  the  edge, 
because  the  winch  would  have  no  greater 
velocity  than  the  edge  of  the  wheel  lias,  which 
we  here  suppose  to  be  ten  times  as  great  as 
the  velocity  of  the  rising  weight;  so  that,  in 
this  case,  the  power  gained  would  be  as  1 0  is 
to  1.     But  if  the  length  of  the  which  is  13 
inches,  the  power  gained  will  be  as  20  to  1  ;. 
if  19'  inches  (which  is  long  enough  for  any 
man  to  work  by),  the  power  gained  will  be  as 
30  to  1  ;  that  is,  a  man  could  raise  30  times 
as  much  by  such  an  engine,  as  he  could  do  by 
his  natural  strength  without   it,  because  the 
velocity  of  the  handle  of  the  winch  would  be 
30  timtN  as  great  as  the  velocity  of  the  rising 
weight;  the  absolute  force  of  anv  engine  be- 
ing hi  the  proportion  of  the  velocity  of  the 
power,  to  the  velocity  of  the  weight  raised  by 
it.     But  then,  just  as  much  power  or  advan- 
tage as  is  gained  by  the  engine,  so  much  time 
is  lost  in  woAing  it,  which  is  common  in  all 
mechanical  cases  whatever. 

In  this  sort  of  machines  it  is  requisite  to  - 
have  a  ratchet  wheel  on  the  end  of  the  axle 
C,  with  a  .catch  to  fall  into  its  teeth;  which 
w  ill  at  anv  time  support  the  weight,  and  keep 
it  from  descending,  if  the  person  who  turns 
the  handle  should,  through  inadvertence  or 
carelesaness,  t^uit  liis  hold  wbilg  the  wei^Ji  ii> 


V26 

rising.  By  thi?  means,  tlie  clanger  is  pre- 
veutad  wliich  mifjiht  otherwise  ha;!pcn  In-  tlic 
rininiiig  clown  of  tlie  weiglit  when  lelt  at  li- 
berty. 

Tlie  pullej/  is  a  small  wheel  turning  on  an 
axis,  with  a  <lra\ving-rope  passing  over  it:  the 
small  wiie>"l  is  usually  called  a  sheeve,  and  is 
so  iiNcd  in  a  box,  or  block,  as  to  be  niovcabk- 
roiiiid  a  pin  passing  through  its  centre. 

Pullevs  are  of  two  kinds :— 1 .  Fixed,  which 
do  not  move  out  of  their  places;  2.  Move- 
able, wliich  rise  and  fall  with  the  weight. 

Whena  pulley  is  fixed, as  tig.  13, two  equal 
weights  suspended  to  tlie  ends  of  a  rope  pass- 
ing over  it,  will  balance  each  other  ;  for  they 
stretch  the  rope  equally,  and  if  eitherof  them 
is  pulled  down  through  any  given  space,  the 
fitlier  will  rise  through  an  equal  spacefill  tiie 
same  time  ;  and  consequently,  a's  the  veloci- 
ties of  both  are  eciual,  thev  must  balance  each 
other.  This  kind  of  pulley,  therefore,  gives 
no  mechanical  advanta!i;e ;  so  that  you  can 
raise  no  greater  weight  by  it  than  you  could 
do  by  vour  natural  strength.  Its  use  consists 
in  changing  the  direction  of  the  power,  and 
sometim.-s  enabling  it  to  be  applied  with  more 
convenience.  By  it,  a  man  may  raise  a 
weight  to  anv  point,  without  moving  from  the 
place  he  is  in  ;  whereas,  otherwise,  he  would 
iiave  been  obliged  to  ascend  with  the  weight : 
it  also  enables  several  men  together  to  apply 
their  strength  to  tiie  weight  by  means  of  the 
rope. 

The  moveable  pulley  represented  at  A 
(fis.  14),  is  fixed  to  the  weight  W,  and  rises 
and  falls  with  it.  In  comparing  this  to  a  le- 
ver, the  fulcrum  must  be  considered  as  at 
A;  the  weight  acts  upon  the  centre,  and 
the  power  is  applied  at  the  extremity  of 
the  lever  D.  The  power,  therefore,  being 
twice  as  far  from  the  fulcrum  as  the  weight 
is,  the  proportion  between  the  power  and 
■weight,  in  order  to  balance  each  other,  must 
be  as  1  to  2.  Wlience  it  appears,  that  the 
use  of  this  pulley  diwbles  the  power,  and  that 
a  man  inay  raise  twice  as  much  by  it  as  by  his 
strength  alone.  Or  it  may  be  considered  in 
this  way :  Every  moveable  pulley  hangs  by 
two  ropss  equally  stretched,  and  which  must, 
consequently,  bear  equal  parts  of  the  weight ; 
but  the  rope  AB  being  made  fast  at  B,  half 
the  weight  is  sustained  by  it ;  and  the  other 
part  of  the  rope,  to  which  the  power  is  ap- 
plied, hiis  but  half  the  weight  to  support; 
consequently  the  advantage  gained  by  this 
pulley  is  as  2  to  1. 

When  the  upper  and  fixed  block  contains 
two  pulleys,  which  only  turn  upon  their  axes, 
and  the  lower  moveable  block  contains  also 
two,  which  not  only  turn  on  their  axis,  but 
rise  with  the  weight  F  (fig-  IJ).  I'le  advan- 
tage gained  is  as  4  to  1.  For  each  lower 
pullev  will  bo  acted  upon  by  an  equal  part  of 
the  weight;  and  because  in  each  pulley  that 
moves  with  the  weight,  a  double  increase  of 
power  is  gained,  the  force  by  which  F  may  be 
sustained,  will  be  equal  to  half  the  weight  di- 
vided by  the  number  of  lower  pulleys;  that 
is,  as  twice  the  number  of  lower  pulleys  is  to 
I,  so  is  the  weght  suspended  to  the  power. 

But  if  the  "xtremitv  C  (fig.  16)  is  fixed  to 

the  lower  block,  it  will  sustain  half  as  much  as 

a  pulley;  consequently  here  the  rule  will  be, 

as  twice  the  number  of  pulleys  adding  unity 

•   is4o  1,  so  is  the  weight  to  the  power. 


MECHANICS. 

Tliese  rules  hold  good,  whatever  may  be 
the  number  of  pulleys  in  the  blocks. 

If,  instead  of  one  rope  going  round  all  the 
pulleys,  the  rope  belonging  to  ca<  h  pulley  is 
made  fast  at  top,  as  in  lig.  17,  a  difleient  pri> 
porfion  between  the  power  and  the  weight 
will  take  place.  Here  it  is  evident,  that  each 
pulley  doubles  the  power:  thus,  if  there  are 
two  pulle}  s,  the  power  will  sustain  four  times 
the  weight. 

Fig.  8,  is  the  concentric  pulley,  invented 
by  Air.  James  While.  O,  R,  are  two  brass 
blocks,  in  which  grooves  are  cut;  and  round 
these  a  cord  is  passed,  by  which  means  they 
answer  the  purpose  of  so  many  distinct  pul- 
leys. The  advantage  gained  is  found  by 
doubling  the  number  of  grooves  in  the  lower 
block. 

It  is  common  to  place  all  the  pulleys  in 
each  block  on  the  same  pin,  by  the  side  of 
each  other,  as  in  fig.  IS  ;  but  the  advantage, 
and  rule  for  the  pov.rer,  are  the  same  hei  e  as 
hi  figs.  15  and  IG., 

A  pair  of  blocks  with  the  rope  fastened 
round  it,  is  commonly  called  a  tackle. 

Tlie  inclined  plane.  This  mechanical 
power  is  of  very  great  use  in  rolling  up  heavy 
bodies,  such  as  casks,  wheelbarrows,  &c.  It 
is  formed  by  placing  boards,  or  earth,  in  a 
sloping  direction. 

The  force  wherewith  a  body  descends  upon 
an  inclined  plane,  is  to  the  force  of  its  abso- 
lute gravity,  by  which  it  would  descend  pcr- 
pendiculHrly  in  free  space,  as  the  height  of 
the  plane  is  to  its  length.  For  suppose  the 
plane  AB  (fig.  19)  to  be  parallel  to  the  hori- 
zon, the  cylinder  C  will  keep  at  rest  on  any 
part  of  the  plane  where  it  is  laid.  If  the 
plane  is  placed  perpendicularly,  as  AB,  fig. 
20,  the  cylinder  C  will  descend  with  its  whole 
force  oi'  gravity,  because  the  plane  contributes 
nothing  to  its  support  or  hindrance;  and 
therefore  it  would  require  a  power  equal  to  its 
whole  weigiit  to  keep  it  from  descending. 

Let  A  B  (lig.  2 1  /be  a  plane  parallel  to  the 
horizon,  and  AD  a  plane  inclined  to  it;  and 
suppose  the  whole  length  A  D  to  be  three 
times  as  great  as  the  perpendicular  D  B.  In 
this  case,  the  cylinder  E  will  be  supported 
upon  the  plane  1)  A,  and  kept  from  rolling, 
by  a  power  equal  to  a  third  part  of  the 
weight  of  the  cylinder ;  therefore  a  weight 
may  be  rolled  up  this  inclined  plane,  by  a 
third  part  of  the  power  which  would  be  suf- 
ficient to  draw  it  up  by  the  side  of  an  upright 
wall. 

It  must  also  be  evident,  that  the  less  the 
angle  of  elevation,  or  the  gentler  the  ascent  is, 
the  greater  will  be  th-  weight  which  a  given 
power  can  draw  up ;  for  the  steeper  the  in- 
clined plane  is,  the  less  does  it  support  of  the 
weight;  and  the  greater  the  tendency  which 
the  weight  has  to  roll,  consequently  the  more 
difficult  for  the  power  to  support  it:  the  ad- 
vantage gained  by  this  mechanical  power, 
therefore,  is  as  great  as  its  length  e.xceeds  its 
perpendicular  height. 

'I'o  the  inclinecl  plane  may  be  reduced  all 
hatchets,  chisels,  and  other  edge-fools. 

'I'he  iirdge  is  the  fifth  mechanical  power  or 
machine:  it  may  be  considered  as  two  equally 
inclined  planes,  joined  together  at  their 
bases;  then  DG  (fig.  22)  is  the  whole  tl.ick- 
ness  of  the  wedge  at  its  back  A  1'  G  D,  where 
the  power  is  applied;  K  F  is  the  deplli  or 
height  of  the  wedge;  I5F  the  lengtli  of  one 
of  its  sides ;  and  O  V  is  its  sharp  edge,  which 


is  entered  into  the  wood  intended  to  be  split, 
by  the  force  of  a  hammer  or  mallet  sti  iking 
perpendicularly  on  its  back.  Thus,  A  b 
(lig.  23)  is  a  wedge  driven  into  the  cleft 
C  £  D  of  the  wood  F  G. 

U  hen  the  wood  does  not  cleave  at  any  dis- 
tance before  the  wedge,  there  will  be  an  etiui- 
librium    between   the   power  inipelhng  the       ga 
wedge  downward,  and  the  resistance  ol  the       ^H 
wood  acting  against   the  two  sides  of  the       ^^ 
wedge,  wlien  the  power  is  to  the  resistance  as 
half  the  thickness  of  the  wedge  at  its  back  is 
to  the  length  of  either  of  its  sides  ;  because 
the  resistance  then  acts  perpendicular  to  the 
sides  of  the  wedge.     But  when  the  resistance        I 
on  each  side  acts  parallel  to  the  back,  the 
power  that  balances  the  resistances  on  both 
sides  will  be,  ;;s  the  length  of  the  whole  back 
of  the  wedge  is  to  douuie  its  perpendicular 
height. 

When  the  wood  cleaves  at  any  distance 
before  the  wedge  (as  it  generally  does),  the 
power  inipeUing  the  wedge  will  not  be  to  tiie 
resistance  of  the  wood  as  the  length  on  the 
back  of  the  wedge  is  to  the  length  of  both  its 
sides,  but  as  halt  the  length  of  the  back  is  to 
the  length  of  either  siile  of  the  clelt,  esti- 
mated trom  the  top  or  acting  part  of  the 
wedae.  For,  if  we  suppose  the  wedge  to  le 
lengdiened  down  from  the  top  C  E,  to  the 
bottom  of  the  cleft  at  D,  the  same  proportion 
will  hold  ;  namely,  that  the  power  witl  be  to 
the  resistance  as  lialf  the  length  of  the  back 
of  the  wedge  is  to  the  length  of  either  of  its 
sides:  or,  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing, 
as  the  whole  length  of  the  back  is  to  the 
length  of  both  the  sides. 

The  wedge  is  a  verj'  great  mechanical 
power,  since  not  only  wood,  but  even  rocks, 
can  be  split  by  it ;  wuich  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  ert'ecl  by  the  lever,  wheel  and  axle, 
or  pulley  ;  for  tiie  lorce  of  the  blow,  or  stroke, 
shakes  the  cohering  parts,  and  thereby  makes 
them  separate  more  I'asily. 

The  seven;  (fig.  24.)  is  the  sixth  and  last  me- 
chanical power,  but  cannot  properly  be  called 
a  simple  machine,  because  it  is  never  used 
w  ithout  the  application  of  a  lever  or  winch  to 
assist  in  turnuigit;  and  then  it  becomes  a 
compound  engine  of  a  very  great  force, 
either  in  pressing  the  parts  of  bodies  closer  to- 
gether, or  in  raising  great  weights.  It  may 
be  conceived  to  be  made  by  cutting  a  piece 
of  paper,  ABC  (lig.  25),  into  the  form  of  an 
inclined  plane,  or  half-wedge ;  and  then  wrap- 
ping it  round  a  cylinder  (fig,  2f)),  the  edge  of 
the  paper  AC  will  form  a  spiral  line  round 
the  cylinder,  which  will  give  thethread  of  the 
screw.  It  bein^  evident  that  the  winch  must 
turn  the  cylincTer  once  round,  before  tli.e 
weight  of  resistance  can  be  moved  frora 
one  spiral  winding  to  another;  therefore, 
as  much  as  the  circumference  of  a  circle 
described  by  the  handle  of  the  winch  is 
greater  than  the  interval  or  distance  betweeii 
the  spirals,  so  much  is  the  force  of  the  screw. 
Thus,  supposing  the  distance  of  the  spirals  to 
be  half  an  inch,  and  the  length  of  the  windi 
twi'lve  inches,  the  circle  described  by  the 
handle  of  the  winch  where  the  power  acts 
will  be  76  inches  nearly,  or  about  152  half- 
inches,  and  consequently  152  times  as  great 
as  the  distance  between  the  spirals:  and 
therefore  a  power  at  the  handle,  whose  in- 
tensity is  equal  to  no  more  than  a  single 
pound,  will  balance  152  pounds  acting  against 
the  screw ;  and  as  much  additioiul  torte  as 


is  sufilcicnt  to  overcome  the  friction,  will 
raise  the  152  pounds;  and  the  velocity  of 
the  power  will  be  to  the  vlocily  ot  Uie 
veiglit,  as  1.52  to  1.  Hence  it  appears,  that 
tlie  longer  Uif  rfinch  is,  and  the  irearer  the 
spirals  are  to  one  another,  so  mucli  the 
greater  is  the  force  of  the  screw. 

A  machine  for  shewing  the  force  or  power 
of  the  si-rew  may  be  contrived  in  ihe  following 
manner: — Let   the  wlu-el   (J  have  a  screw 
(fig.  24)  on  its  axis,  working  in  the  teeth  of  tlie 
wheel  O,  which  -.npuose  to  be  48  in  number. 
It  is  plain,  ihat  for  every  time  the  wliecl  C 
and  screw  are  Inriied  round  by  liie  winch  A, 
the  wheel  V  will  be  moved  one  toolh  by  the 
screw  ;  and  tlierefore,  in  48   revolutions  of 
the  winch,  the  wheel  D  will  be  turnrd  once 
round.     'Fiien,  if  tlie  circumference  of  a  cir- 
cle, described  by  tlie  handle  of  tiie  winch  A, 
is  equal   to  the  circumterer.ee  of  a  groove 
round  the  wheel  D,  the  velocity  of  the  han- 
dle will  l)e  48  times  as  great  as  the  velocity  of 
any  given  point  in  the  groove.     Consequent- 
ly, it  a  line  G  goes  I'oimd  tlie  groove,  and 
has  a  weight  of  48   pounds  luni"  to   it,  a 
power  equal  to  I  pound  at  the  handle  will  ba- 
lance  and  support   the   weight.     To  prove  j 
this  by  e.\])eriiuent,  let  the  circumferences  of 
the  grooves  of  the  wheels  C  and  D  be  equal 
to  one  aiiot.ier ;  and  then  if  a  weight  II,  of 
I  pound,  is  suspeiuleJ  by  a  line  going  round 
the  groove  of  (lie  wlieel  C,  it  will  balance  a 
weight  of  48  pounds  hanging  by  the  line  G  ; 
and  a  small  addition  to  the  weiglit  11  will 
cause  it  to  descend,  and  so  raise  up  tlie  other 
weight. 

If  a  line  G,  instead  of  going  round  the 
groove  of  the  wheel  D,  goes  round  its  a.\le  I, 
the  power  of  the  machine  will  be  as  much  in- 
creased as  the  circumference  of  the  groove 
exceed .  the  circumference  of  the  axle ;  which 
sui)posing  to  be  six  times,  then  one  pound 
at  II  will  balance  six  times  48,  or  288  pounds, 
hung  to  the  line  on  the  axle  :  and  hence  the 
power  or  advantage  of  this  machine 
as  2S8  to  1.  Tliat  is,  a  man  who  by  his  na- 1 
tural  strengtii  could  lift  a  hundredweight, 
will  be  able  to  raise  288  cwts.  by  this  engine. 
If  a  system  of  pulleys  was  applied  to  the 
eord  II,  the  power  would  be  increased  to  an 
amazing  degree. 

When  a  screw  acts  in  a  wheel  in  this  man- 
ner, it  is  calliid  an  endless  screw. 

When  it  is  not  employed  in  turning  a 
wheel,  it  consists  of  two  parts:  the  first  is 
called  the  male  or  outside  screw  ;  being  cut 
in  such  a  manner,  as  to  have  a  prominent 
part  going  round  the  cylinder  in  a  spiral  man- 
ner, wliicli  prominent  part  is  called  the 
thread  of  the  screw  ;  the  other  part,  which  is 
called  the  female,  or  inside  screw,  is  a  solid 
body,  containing  a  hollow  cylinder,  whose 
concve  surface  is  cut  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  convex  surface  of  the  male  screw,  so  that 
the  prominent  parts  of  the  one  may  fit  the 
concave  parts  of  the  other. 

A  very  considerable  degree  of  friction  al- 
ways acts  a.gainst  the  power  in  a  screw  ;  but 
this  IS  fully  compensated  by  other  advan- 
tages ,  for  on  this  account  tire  screw  con- 
tinues to  sustain  a  weiglit,  even  after  the 
power  is  reiiioveil,  or  ceases  to  art,  aii.l 
presses  upon  the  body  against  whi^h  it  is 
driven,  lience  the  screw  will  sustain  very 
great  weights  ;  insomuch  that  several  screws 
nro^erly  applied,  would  support  a  large  buildl 


MECHA^3ICS. 

ing,  whilst  the  foundation  was  mending,  or 
renewed. 


OF  COMPOUND  MACHINES. 

Though  it  is  evident  from  the  principles 
delivcreil  above,  that  any  one  of  the  mecha- 
nical powers  is  capable  of  overcoming  the 
greatest  possible  resistance,  in  theory;  yet, 
ill  practice,  if  used  singly  for  producing  very 
great  elfects,  lliey  would  be  frequently  so 
unwii-ldy  and  unmanageable,  as  to  render  it 
impossible  to  apply  tliem.  For  this  rea--on, 
it  is  generally  found  more  advaiitngeous  to 
combine  them  together ;  by  w  hich  means  the 
power  is  more  easily  applied,  and  many  other 
advantages  are  obtained.  In  all  machines, 
simple  as  well  as  compound,  what  is  gained 
in  power  is  lost  in  time.  Suppose  that  a  man, 
by  a  fixed  pulley,  raises  a  beam  to  the  top  of 
a  house  in  two  minutes,  it  is  clear  that  he 
will  be  able  to  raise  six  beams  in  twelve  mi- 
nutes ;  but  by  means  of  a  tackle,  with  three 
lower  pulleys,  he  will  raise  the  six  beams  at 
once,  with  tlie  same  ease  as  he  before  raised 
one;  but  then  he  will  be  six  times  as  long 
about  it,  tliat  is,  twelve  minutes:  thus  the 
work  is  performed  in  the  same  time,  whether 
tlie  mechanical  power  is  used  or  not.  But 
the  convenience  gained  by  the  power  is  very 
great;  for  if  tlie  six  beams  arc  joined  in  one, 
they  may  be  raised  by  the  tackle,  though  it 
would  be  impossible  to  move  them  by  the 
unassisted  strength  of  one  inan. 

Consequently,  if  by  any  power  you  are 
able  to  raise  a  pound  with  a  given  velocity, 
it  will  be  impossible,  by  the  help  of  any  ma- 
chine, to  raise  two  pounds  with  the  same  ve- 
locity ;  yet,  by  the  assistance  of  a  machine, 
you  may  raise  two  pounds  with  half  that  ve- 
■  locltv,  or  even  one  thousand  with  the  thou- 
[  sandtli  part  of  that  velocity  ;  but  still  there  is 
no   greater  quantity   of  motion    produced, 
when  a  thousand  pounds  are  moved,   than 
:  when   one  jjound  is   moved ;  the  thousand 
wHl'be  '  po"-"^'^^  moving  proportionally  slower. 

No  real  gain  of  force  is,  therefore,  ob- 
tained bv  mechanical  contriTaiices ;  on  the 
contrary,  from  friction,  and  other  causes, 
force  is  always  lost;  but  by  machines  we  are 
able  to  give  a  more  convenient  direction  to 
the  moving  power,  and  to  apply  its  action  at 
some  distance  from  the  body  to  be  moved, 
which  is  a  circumstance  of  infinite  import- 
ance. By  machines  also,  we  can  so  modify 
the  energy  of  the  moving  power,  as  to  obtain 
effects  which  it  could  not  produce  without 
this  modification. 

In  machines  composed  of  several  of  the 
mechanical  powers,  tlie  power  will  be  to  the 
weight,  when  they  are  in  equilibrio,  in  a  pro- 
portion formed  by  the  multiplication  of  the 
several  proportions  which  the  power'bears  to 
the  weight  in  every  separate  mechanical 
power  of  wliich  the  machine  consists. 

Suppose  a  machine,  for  instance,  com- 
posed ol  the  axle  in  the  wheel,  and  a  pulley : 
let  the  axle  and  wheel  be  such,  that  a  power 
consisting  of  one-sixth  of  the  weight  will  ba- 
lance it;  and  let  the  pulleys  he  such,  that  by 
means  of  them  alone,  a  power  equal  to  onr-- 
fourth  of  the  weight  would  support  it:  tlien, 
by  means  of  the  axle  in  the  wlieel,  and  the 
pnlleyscombined, apower equal  to one-fourtli 
of  one-six  di,  that  is,  -iy  of  the  weight,  will  be 
in  ecjuihbrio  witli  it. 
In  contriving  machines,  simplicity  ought 


127 

particularly  to  be  attended  to ;  for  a  coni- 
plicatcfl  machine  is  not  only  more  expen- 
sive, and  more  apt  to  be  out  of  order,  but 
there  is  also  a  greater  degree  of  friction,  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  rubbing  parts. 

VVIiatever  may  be  the  construction  of  a 
machine,  its  power  will  alv/ays  be  in  propor- 
tion to  the  velocity  of  the  power  to  the 
weight ;  and  so  that  this  is  obtained  in  the 
greatest  degree  that  circuin  tanees  will  ad-  - 
mit,  or  that  are  necessary,  then  the  fewer 
parts  the  belter. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  principles  already 
laid  down,  that  the  velocity  of  a  wheel  is  to 
that  of  a  pinion,  or  smaller  wheel  which  is 
driven  by  it,  in  proportion  to  the  diameter, 
circumfeience,  or  number  of  teeth  in  the  pi- 
nion to  that  of  the  wheel.  Thus,  if  the  num- 
ber of  teeth  in  a  wheel  are  60,  and  those  of 
the  pinion  5,  then  the  pinion  will  go  12  times 
round  for  once  of  the  wheel,  because  60,  di- 
vided by  5,  gives  12  for  a  quotient. 

Hence,  if  you  have  any  number  of  wheels 
acting  on  so  many  pinions,  you  must  divide 
the  product  of  the  teeth  in  the  wheels  by 
those  in  the  pinions;  and  the  quotient  will 
give  the  number  of  turns  of  the  last  pinion  in 
one  turn  of  the  first  wheel.  Thus,  it  a  wheel 
A  (fig.  27)  of  48,  acts  on  a  pinion  B  of  8,  on 
whose  axis  there  is  awheel  C  of  40,  driving  a 
pinion  D  of  6,  carrying  a  wheel  E  ot  30, 
which  moves  a  pinion  F  of  6,  carrying  an  in- 
dex ;  then  the  number  of  turns  made  by 
the  index,  will  be  found  in  this  manner: 
48^  4pj^  36— -«ox3.o-2240,  the  number  of 
turns  which  the  index  will  make  while  the 
wheel  A  goes  once  round. 

Any  number  of  teeth  on  the  wheels  and 
pinions  having  the  same  ratio,  will  give  the 
same  number  of  revolutions  to  an  axis:  thus, 
i-ix'?X  ?-.-  =  *'-X?_?''=240,  as  before.  It 
therefore  depends  upon  the  skill  of  the  engi- 
neer, or  mechanic,  to  determine  what  num- 
bers vfrill  best  suit  his  design. 

It  is  evident,  that  the  same  motion  may  be 
performed,  either  by  one  wheel  and  pinion, 
or  by  many  wheels  and  pinions,  provided  tJie 
number  of  turns  of  all  the  wheels  bear  the 
same  proportion  to  all  the  pinions  which  that 
one  wheel  bears  to  its  pinion. 

When  a  wheel  is  moved  immediately  by 
the  power,  it  is  called  a  leader;  and  if  there 
is  another  wheel  on  the  same  axis,  it  is  called 
the  follower.  Thus  A, being  moved  imnieili- 
ately  by  the  power,  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
leader,  and  B  as  a  follower ;  the  wheel  C  be- 
ing driven  by  B,  becomes  a  leader,  and  D  a 
follower;  E'(fig.  28)  is  a  leader,  and  the  cy- 
linder F  may  be  considered  as  a  follower. 

Sometimes  the  same  wheel  aets  both  as  a 
leader  and  a  follower ;  as  in  fig.  29,  where 
B  is  moved  by  A,  and  coiisequ(>ntly  is  a 
follower,  while,  as  it  drives  C,  it  is  also  a 
leader.  Therefore,  as  to  multiply  both  the 
divisors  and  dividend  by  the  same  number 
does  not  alter  the  quotient;  in  mechanical 
calculations,  every  wheel  that  is  both  a  lead- 
er and  a  follower,  may  be  entirely  omitted. 

The  power  of  a  machine  is  not  at  all  al- 
tered bv  the  size  of  the  wheels,  provided  the 
proportions  to  each  other  are  the  same. 

On  the  applicaiicn  of  men  and  horses,  as 

morins;  powers  in  jnachinery,  ifc. .  A  horse 

drawsw-ith  the  greatest  adTantagsi,  when  the 

line  of  draught  is  uot  level  with  his  breast,  but 

U 


US 


Rr  E  c 


iurlirii's  upwards,  making  a  small  angle  with 
the  horizontal  plane. 

A  horse  drawmg  a  weight  over  a  single  pul- 
ley, can  draw  'JoOlb.  for  eight  hours  a  day, 
and  walking  at  the  rate  of  '2\  miles  in  an 
hour,  which  is  about  3§  feet  in  a  second ;  and 
if  the  same  horse  be  made  to  draw  2401b., 
he  can  work  but  six  hours  a  day,  and  cannot 
go  quite  so  fast.  To  this  may  be  referred  the 
working  of  horses  in  all  sorts  of  mills  and 
water-works  ;  where  we  ought  to  know  as 
near  a-  we  can,  how  much  we  make  every 
horse  draw,  that  we  may  judge  of  w  hat  the 
effect  will  be,  when  proper  allowance  shall 
have  been  made  for  all  the  frictions  and 
hindrances,  before  we  cause  any  machine  to 
be  erected. 

AVIien  a  horse  draws  in  a  mill,  or  gin  of 
any  kind,  great  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
hoise-walk,  or  circle  in  which  he  moves,  be 
large  enough  in  diameter,  otherwise  the  horse 
cannot  exert  all  his  strength ;  for,  in  a  small 
circle,  the  tangent  (in  which  the  horse  draws) 
deviates  more  from  the  circle  in  wliich  the 
horse  is  obliged  to  go,  than  in  a  larger  circle. 
The  liorse-walk  should  not  be  le-s  than  40 
feet  in  diameter,  when  there  is  room  for  it. 
In  a  walk  of  19  feet  diameter,  it  has  been 
calculated  that  a  horse  loses  two-lifths  of  liis 
strength. 

The  worst  way  of  applying  the  force  of  a 
horse,  i?  to  make  him  carry  or  draw  up  hill ; 
for,  if  the  hill  is  steep,  three  men  will  do 
more  than  a  horse ;  each  man  loaded  with 
JOOlb.  will  move  up  faster  than  a  horse  that  is 
loaded  with  3001b.  Tliis  is  owing  to  the 
position  of  the  parts  of  a  man's  body,  which 
arc  better  adapted  for  climbing  than  those  of 
a  horse. 

As  a  horse,  from  the  structure  of  his  body, 
can  exert  most  strength  in  drawing  almost 
horizontally  in  a  straight  line,  a  manexerts  the 
least  strength  that  way:;  as  for  example:  if  a 
man  weiahing  1401b.,  walking  by  a  river  or 
canal  side,  draws  along  a  boat,  or  barge,  by 
means  of  a  rope  coming  over  his  shoulders,  or 
otherwise  fastened  to  his  body,  lie  cannot 
draw  above  S'lb.,  or  about  JL.  nf  what  a  horse 
can  draw  in  that  case.  Five  men  are  about 
ccjual  in  strength  to  one  horse,  and  can  with 
the  same  ease  push  round  the  horizontal  beam 
in  a  40-foot  walk;  but  three  of  the  same  men 
will  push  round  a  beam  in  a  19-foot  walk, 
which  a  horse  (otlierwise  equal  to  live  men) 
can  but  draw  round. 

A  man  turning  a  horizontal  windlass  by  a 
handle,  or  winch,  should  not  have  above 
,"Olb.  weight  acting  against  him,  if  he  is  to 
work  ten  hours^i  d:iy,  and  raise  the  weight  at 
the  rate  of  three  feel  and  a  half  in  a  second. 
This  supposes,  however,  that  the  seinidi- 
ameter  ot  the  windlass  i<  K()ual  to  the  distance 
from  the  centre  to  the  elbow  of  the  handle; 
for  if  there  is  a  mechanical  advantage,  as 
there  usually  is,  by  having  the  diameter  of 
the  axle,  on  whicli  the  rope  winds,  four  or  five 
times  less  than  the  dianictcr  of  the  circle 
described  by  the  hand,  then  may  the  weight 
(taking  in  also  the  resistance,  on  account  of 
the  friction  and  stillness  of  the  rope)  bo  four 
or  live  times  greater  than  30lb. ;  that  is,  so 
much  as  it  rises  slower  than  tlie  hand  moves. 

-MHCOKIUM,  in  pharmacy,  the  extract 
of  Knglish  jjoppies.  Meconiiuu  has  all  the 
\  ir'  ues  of  the  foreign  opiuiu,  but  iii  a  some- 
*vliiit  lower  degree. 


MED 

MED.'vL  denotes  a  piece  of  nvHal  in  the 
form  of  coin,  such  as  was  either  current  mo- 
ney among  the  antients,  or  sinick  on  any 
particular  occasion  to  preserve  the  porlriit 
of  some  great  person,  or  the  memorv  of 
some  illustrious  action,  to  posteritv.  '  Its 
etymology  is  probably  of  little  consequence, 
though  the  bestauthorities  give  it  from  "  me- 
tallum.'' 

To  enlarge  on  the  utility  of  medals  in  the 
sciences,  were  needless.  'As  historical  do- 
cuments, they  form  the  principal  evidence 
we  can  have  of  the  veracity  of  old  histOT'ians. 
In  some  few  instances  they'correct  the  names 
of  sovereigns ;  and  in  a  great  many,  illus- 
trate the  chronology  of  reigns,  Ky  their  as- 
sistance the  geographer  has  sometimes  been 
enabled  to  determine  the  situation  of  a  town 
whose  name  alone  has  reached  us.  To  the 
naturalist  they  afford  the  only  proofs  of  the 
knowledge  wiiich  the  ancients  had  of  certain 
plants  and  animals  ;  and  thev  sometimes  pre- 
serve delineations  of  buildings  for  the  archi- 
tect, of  which  not  even  a  ruin  is,  at  this  dav, 
standing.  The  connection  of  medals  and 
poetry  has  been  treated  at  considerable 
length  by  Mr.  Addison.  To  the  connoisseur 
they  are  absolutely  necessarv,  as  thev  enable 
him  to  appropi-iate  the  busts  and  portraits  of 
antiquity.  And  the  scholar  need  hardly  be 
reminded  that  they  have  contribtiled  in  no 
small  degree  to  the  elucidation  of  obscure 
passages  in  antient  authors.  The  alto-relievo 
of  the  Greek  coins  is  one  of  the  best  schools 
of  study  for  the  sculptor. 

The  study  of  raedals,  perhaps,  is  not  of 
very  antient  date.  The  preservation  of  the 
Greek  coins  among  their  choicest  treasure,  is 
said  to  have  been  one  of  those  marks  of  due 
respect  which  the  Komans  shewed  the 
Greeks  :  but  the  knowledge  of  medals  in  se- 
ries does  not  seem  to  have  formed  a  distinct 
branch,  either  of  study  or  entertainment,  till 
the  revival  of  literature  in  Europe.  Petrarch 
is  related  to  liave  been  one  of  the  fii'st  who 
began  to  studv  the  medallic  science.  Al- 
phonso,  king  ot  Arragon,  formed  another  col- 
lection. And  a  third  was  placed  by  Cosmn 
de  Medici  among  the  curiosities  in  the  Mu- 
seum at  FloreiKe. 

In  this  countrv,  though  we  know  of  the  ex- 
istence of  no  cabinet  before  the  time  of  Cam- 
den, it  may  be  fairto  suppose  that  theknsw- 
ledge  of  coins  and  medals  was  introduced 
from  Italy.  The  "  Britannia"  was  the  first 
work  in  which  engravings  of  them  were  pro- 
duced :  and  Speed's  Chronicle,  which  soon 
followed  it,  was  illustrated  with  coins  from 
the  collection  of  sir  Kobert  Cotton.  Henry 
prince  of  ^\'nles  was  one  of  the  first  who  had 
a  rich  cabinet ;  and  he  bequeathed  it  at  his 
death  to  Charles.  The  most  considerable  of 
our  other  early  collectors  were,  an  hbishop 
I^ud,  lord  Arundel,  and  Mr.  Seklen.  Oli- 
ver Cromwell,  we  are  told,  had  a  small  collec- 
tion ;  and  the  cabinet  of  Charles  the  Second 
is  mentioned  by  ^■aillant. 

In  the  article  here  presented  to  the  reader's 
notice,  we  shall  give  first  a  brief  account  of 
the  coins  of  the  most  antient  nations  which 
are  still  extant;  reserving  only  the  G'reek 
and  Roman,  which  are  the  most  inti-resting 
of  all  coins,  for  a  more  extended  view;  add- 
ing, at  the  close,  a  particular  though  con- 
densed history  of  the  coins  and  coinage  of 
England.     Eor  the  lirst  jiarl,  us  well  as  foj' 


M  E  D 

the  GriTk  and  Roman  coins,  wc  have  rcliea 
princi|)ally  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Tinker- 
ton.  For  the  last,  all  the  best  writers  have 
been  consulted. 

In  what  country  coinage  originated  is  un- 
certain, though  the  Crreeks  have  the  fairest 
claim  to  the  invention.  Homer,  indeed, 
makes  no  mention  of  money;  and  even  hi 
Scripture  we  find  weight  alone  used  in  the 
estimation  of  metals.  The  Hebrew  shekels, 
and  the  brass  coins  with  Samaritan  charac- 
ters, are  thought  to  be,  most  of  them,  later 
than  the  Christian  a-ra,  and  generally  the  fa- 
brication of  modern  Jews.  A  sprig  on  one 
side,  and  a  vase  upon  the  other,  is  their  ge- 
neral impression. 

The  Assyrians,  the  Medes,  .and  the  early 
inhabitants  of  Egypt,  appear  to  have  been 
totally  ignorant  of  coined  money.  Nor  was 
it  used  by  the  Phcenicians  till  after  the 
Greeks  had  set  the  example.  "  Upon  the 
wJiole,"  sa\s  Mr.  Pinkerton,  "the  Lydian 
coins  seem  the  most  antient  of  Asia:  they 
are  without  legends,  but  have  all  the  rude 
appear;mce  of  antiquity."  The  next  are 
the  Persian,  which  are  well  known  from  the 
archer  on  Ihem ;  and  from  Mithras  the 
Persian  deitv,  the  dress  of  the  princes,  and 
other  marks.  One  of  the  Darics,  coim  d 
about  live  hundretl  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian a;ra,  is  engraved  in  the  first  plate  of  the 
Numismata  Peaibrochiana.  "  All  the  real 
Darics,"  says  Mr.  Pinkerton,  "  are  gold; 
the  silver  coins  w  ith  the  archer  are  later,  and 
never  were  called  Darics."  Of  the  latter,  a 
great  manv  are  preserved  in  the  cabinet  of 
Dr.  Hunter.  A  second  series  of  Persian 
coins  begins  with  Artaxares,  or  Artaxerxes, 
who  overthrew  the  Pariliian  monarchy  about 
the  year  510,  and  ends  with  tlie  year  636, 
when  Persia  was  contpiered  by  the  Saracens. 
These  are  large  and  thin,  with  the  king's 
bust  on  one  side,  and  usually  the  altar  of  Mi- 
thras on  the  other;  the  former  accompanied 
by  Persian  letters.  Four  of  them  are  en- 
graved in  the  Numismata  Pembrochiana, 
and  six  others  on  a  separate  plate  froni  the 
cabinet  of  the  late  Mr.  Duane.  The  Phre- 
nician  and  Punic,  with  the  Palmyrene  and 
the  Etruscan  coins,  and  perhaps  the  early 
Spanish,  make  up  the  list  of  the  more  an- 
tient. The  early  Gaulish  coins  are  too  rude 
and  indistinct  for  explanation. 

The  description  of  the  Greek  coins  it  is 
probable  will  be  best  prefaced  by  a  few  re- 
marks on  their  original  value.  A  knowledge 
of  this  subject  is  not  more  neressary  to  the 
collector  than  the  classical  scholar.  The  first 
shape,  sa\s  Mr.  Pinkerton,  in  which  money 
appeared,  it  is  well  known,  was  that  of  pieces 
of  metal  without  stated  form  or  impression, 
but  merely  regulated  to  a  certaui  weight. 
For  weight  was  the  grand  standard  of  antient 
coinage.  In  Circece  large  sums  were  referred 
to  so  many  mn;e  or  inina' ;  and  the  yet  larger 
denomination  of  so  many  talents.  The  mins 
is  thought  to  have  contained  UJO  drachma", 
;uid  the  talent  00  mina'.  Such  at  least  was 
the  measure  of  .Vtlu-ns.  A  list  of  the  value  i>i 
the  other  antient  talents  has  been  given  by 
Dr.  Arbulhnot  :  its  authority,  however,  has 
been  (|uestionrd,  and  the  dilliculty  of  ap- 
plying it  to  antient  coinage  seems  extremely 
great] 

The  leading  denomination  of  the  G'rcck 
silver  nion>.'y   was   tlie   drachma,   or  eighth 


A n         t 


M,i.  . 


—ill 


^ia.  3. 


A  /> 

£ 


r 


/&.  i5. 


«/.  »•. 

1 

r 

L 

B.          T 

s 

A 

s 

T? 

A 

« 

> 

/^w.  A 


part  of  an  ounce,  of  wliich  Mr.  Pinkcrfon 
tifscribi's  (lie  medial  value  to  Ik-  niut'iii-nce 
Nieriing:  the  liidrachni,  tridraclun,  and  te- 
(r.idracliiu,  exj)laiii  tlifuiselvi"!,  L'Nci'pt  the 
li'lradrac-hm  ol  the  ^Egiiieaii  standard,  which 
was  valued  at  live  shillings.  'I'his  last  was 
the  lari;est  form  of  tiie  Greek  silver  coins. 
'J'he  silver  divisions  of  the  drachma  were  the 
tetrobolion,  the  hemidrachm  or  tribolion,  the 
diobolion,  the  oboUis,  the  heniioholioii,  the 
tetrabolion,  an<l  dichalcos ;  the  first  of  the  va- 
lue of  sixpence,  the  last  of  a  farthing  and  a 
half  Of  the  distinct  names  by  which  many 
01  these  coins  w  ere  called  among  the  different 
states,  our  intelligence  is  partial;  nor  arc 
such  names  of  consetpience. 

The  next  Greek  coinage,  in  point  of  an- 
tiiinity,  is  that  of  copper,  which  is  said  not  to 
liave  been  introduced  till  four  huiidreil  and 
four  years  b(;fore  the  Christian  a-ra.  The 
first  coijper  coin  of  Greece  was  the  chalcos, 
of  which  two  went  to  the  quarter  of  the  silver 
obolu^.  In  days  of  poverty,  however,  even 
this  was  divided  by  differnit  states  into  dif- 
ferent portions,  which  were  called  Aiim,  or 
lillle  coins.  The  lepton,  dileplon,  and  te- 
tralepton,  were  the  divisions  of  the  chalcos, 
the  smaller  of  which,  from  their  perishable 
si/e,  are  very  rare.  .  Such  were  the  brass 
coins  of  Greece  previous  to  the  subjection  of 
that  country  to  the  Roman  empire. 

The  earliest  of  the  gold  coins  of  Greece 
are  those  of  I'liilip  of  Maccdon,  although  they 
were  struck  in  Sicily  considerably  earlier. 
I'iiilip,  having  conquered  the  city  Crenides, 
e.n  the  conlines  of  Thrace,  found  gold-mines 
in  its  neig'ibourhood,  formerly  ill  explored, 
;nkl  of  small  produce.  From  this  gold  he 
fast  struck  tlu'  coins  called  Philippi,  because 
i>r  his  portrait  which  appears  on  them.  The 
Philippi  it  should  seem  were  didrachn^i,  the 
form  most  universal  in  the  aiUient  coinages 
of  gold;  and  at  their  hrst  appearance  went 
for  20  silver  drachniir,  but  in  latter  times  for 
-j  Greek  drachnuc  or  Koman  denarii.  The 
I'hilippiis  was  also  called  Xfuji;!.  There  were 
likewise  the  nfii.ix.r'"'"  ^nd  the  TirapToxfo^ot, 
with  gold  coins  of  Cyrene,  whicli  cuukl  iiut 
Jiave  gone  for  more  than  two  drachmas  oi' 
silver.  There  were  aKo  the  Ai  xp""  ^"d 
the  Terpis-flf,  or  quadru|,le  Xfwo: ;  the  for- 
mer worth  about  two,  and  the  latter  worth 
about  four  pounds  of  our  money. 

The  original  value  of  the  Komsn  coins  is  a 
subiect  still  more  intricate  and  extensive.  As 
in  Greece,  the  hrst  e.^timation  of  their  money 
was  by  weight ;  though  copper,  not  silver, 
was  the  lirst  medium  of  coinage.  The  first 
Koman  coinage,  according  to  Nlr.  Pinkerton, 
was  in  the  reign  of  Servius  Tulliis,  about  the 
■sear4tif)  before  the  co. union  lera,  and  was 
"coniiiied  to  the  as  or  res  libralis,  or  piece  of 
l)^a^s  only,  which  was  stam])ed  with  the  two- 
laced  head  of  Janus  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
prow  of  a  ship  on  the  other;  though  Mr. 
riiikerlon  ;:flei'\vard  thinks  it  probable  that 
the  very  lirst  Uoman  ascs  of  Tnllus  had  the 
fiiXure  of  a  bull,  ram,  or  other  sjiecies  of  cat- 
tle. However  this  may  be,  parts  of  the  as 
were  vcrv  early  given  in  proportion  of  weight 
and  value:  such  were  the  semis  or  half,  the 
triens,  the  quadrans,  tha  sextans,  and  the  un- 
cin.  After  a  certain  period,  the  as,  though 
still  called  libra,  fell  to  two  ounces ;  and  as  it 
fell  in  weight,  larger  denominations  were 
coined.  Such. were  the  bissus  or  dupondius. 
Vol..  ir...        '  ,  ( 


MEDALS. 

the  trcssis,  llie  qtiadrussis,  and  even  the  de- 
cussis,  or  piece  of  ten  ases  in  copper. 

When  the  Uomans  bsgan,  by  intercourse 
with  Greece,  to  imbibe  the  arts  of  elegance,  a 
variety  of  types  appeared  ii|)oi)  the  parts  of 
the  as,  and  at  length  upon  the  as  itself; 
ihongh  these,  it  is  believed,  are  not  seen  till 
near  the  time  of  Sylla.  Dupondii,  or  double 
ases,  were  also  coined  in  the  later  period  of 
till'  commoiiwealtli,  as  In  tlie  former;  toge- 
ther with  the  sestercii  a'rei,  which  came  in 
place  of  the  qtiadrirsses.  It  must  also  be  ob- 
served that  the  Komans,  in  some  instances, 
accommodated  their  coins  to  the  country  in 
whicli  their  army  was  stationed;  so  that  it 
is  from  the  coins  struck  at  Rome  only  that 
the  coinage  can  be  adjusted. 

'I  he  largest  of  the;  imperial  brass  coins, 
according  to  our  author,  was  the  sestercius, 
worth  about  twopence  English  ;  no  sensible 
diminution  of  which  from   its  lirst  weight  of 
an  ounce  took  place  till  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander Severus,  wlien  it  lost  upwards  of  a 
sixth.     In  the  time  of  the  Philipjii,  it  was  still 
more  reduced ;  and  under  'IVajanus  Depitis 
it  had  lost  near  a  half.      He  was  the  first 
prince  who   seems  to   have    coined  double 
sestercii,  or  quinarii  of  brass,  for  such  are  the 
common  medallions  inscribed  FKLICH  AS 
SAEC\I.I,   or  VICTORIA  AVG.,   whUh 
just   weigh  double    his   sestercii,   and   little 
more  than  the  sestercii  of  the  early  emperors. 
From  Trebonianns  Gallus  down  to  Galllenus, 
when  what  is  called  the  first  brass  ceases, 
the  sestercius  does  not  weigh  above  one-third 
of  an  ounce  :  any  larger  are  double  sestercii, 
or  medallions  struck  upon  uncommon  occa- 
sions.    After  (jallienus,  the  sestercius  totally 
vanishes.     Under  Valerian  and  Gallienus,  a 
new  coinage  appears  of  what  were  called  de- 
narii a'ris,  or  Philippe!  aria  of  copper  washed 
with  silver.     In  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  th\' 
follis  snp|)licd  the  place  of  the  sestercius ; 
and  soon   after  we  find  the   denarius  a-reus 
dropped  for  ever.     Such  was  the  progress  of 
the  largest  form  of  tlie  imperial  brass  coin  of 
Rome. 

The  dupondius,  being  half  the  sestercius, 
was  t!ie  next  in  value.  Prior  to  Augustus, 
it  seems  to  have  been  coiilr.ionly  struck  in 
copper;  though  after  his  time  it  wasstmck  in 
yellow  brass.  It  kept  pace  with  the  sester- 
cius in  all  its  stages. 

The  imperial  as  or  assarium  is  the  next 
coin.  It  began  to  be  called  assarium  as  soon 
as  its  size  was  reduced  to  half  an  ounce,  and, 
like  the  dupondius,  diminished  gradually  in 
its  form,  till  at  the  end  of  Gallienus's  reign 
it  became  what  is  called  small  brass.  The 
parts  of  the  as,  says  Mr.  Pinkerton,  in  the 
imperial  times,  are,  srcnerally  speaking,  very 
rare.  However,  of  Nero,  there  are  the  se- 
mis, triens,  cpiadrans,  sextans,  and  nncia, 
being  all  the  parts ;  and  of  Domitian  there 
are  the  same. 

From  Pertinax  down  to  Ciallienus,  there  is 
no  small  brass  save  of  Trajanus  Decius. 
With  (iallienus  it  becomes  extremely  com- 
mon. Toward  the  end  of  his  reign  tlie  assa- 
ria  were  diminishing  to  a  still  less  size.  Far- 
ther we  shall  not  trace  this  branch  of  the 
coinage. 

The  silver  coinage  of  Rome  is  supposed 
first  to  have  taken  |)lace  about  2G6  years  be- 
fore the  christian  ;rra.  The  most  aiitient  de- 
narii are  those  on  which  no  inscription,  save 
the  word  ROMA,  appears :  and  at  that  tiir.e 
R 


I2y 

the  denarius  sc."'ms  to  Iiare  gon.":  for  ten  ases ; 
though  it  was  afterward  raised  to  sixteen,  fill 
the  lime  of  Gallienus.  Under  Caracalla, 
V.  hen  the  silver  coinage  was  debased,  denarii 
were  struck  of  two  sizrs;  the  lar^r  bearing 
an  increase  of  value  by  a  third.  Hol'i,  how- 
ev(;r,  lessened  by  degrees  till  after  Gordiau 
111.  when  the  smaller  totally  vanished,  and 
tiie  larger  aloinr  remained.  The  latter,  in 
the  time  of  (iallienus,  was  the  sole  denarius 
of  silver,  and  probably  gave  rise  to  tlie  dena- 
rii a'rei,  which  have  been  already  mciiiioiied. 
Such  was  the  silver  coinage  fill  the  lime  of 
Ccn^tantine  the  First,  when  the  milliarensis 
was  introduced,  weighing  about  70  grains, 
and  answering  in  worth  to  our  shilling.  1  he 
denarii  or  argentei  were,  however,  still  coin- 
ed, and  were  the  money  most  common  ia 
currency. 

.  Of  the  smaller  silver  coins  of  Rome,  two 
only  remain  to  be  mentioned,  the  cjulnarii  or 
pieces  of  five  ases,  and  the  s;estercii  of  silver, 
which  seem  to  have  been  coined  down  to 
Augustus. 

Gold,  we  are  informed  by  Pliny,  was  first 
coined  at  Rome  in  the  'J04lli  year  before  the 
present  a-ra;  and  his  account  of  the  diminu- 
tion in  weiglit  which  marked  the  progress  of 
its  coinage,  is  singularly  corroborated  by 
such  coins  as  have  come  dow  n  to  u?.  Tbe 
scruple,  he  says,  went  for  20  sesterces.  "  It 
was  afterward  thought  proper  to  coin  40  pieces 
out  of  the  pound  of  gol<l.  And  our  princes 
have  by  degrees  diminished  their  weight  to 
45  in  the  pound."  T\\\  Sylla's  lime,  llie  au- 
reus contimied  at  30  denarii;  it  afterwards 
fell  to  20;  though  both  under  Claudius  and 
Severus  we  finri  it  at  25.  Consfantine  tlie 
First,  instead  of  the  aureus,  gave  the  solidus, 
of  six  in  the  ounce  of  gold,  one  of  which  an- 
swered to  l4  of  the  milliarenses.  'i'lie  so'i- 
dus  continued  of  the  very  same  standard  to 
the  close  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 

Of  the  portraits  which  are  to  be  found  on 
coins,  those  of  the  kuigs  of  Macedun  have 
the  flr.^t  rank,  as  thtir  coins  have  the  great- 
est ant;(|uitv  of  any  yet  discovered  on  whicli 
portraits  are  found.  Alexander  I.  begins  the 
series,  who  reigned  501  years  before  the 
christian  ara.  Then  follow  the  king.s  and 
queens  of  Sicily,  Caria,  Cyprus,  Pontus, 
Egypt,  Syria,  Thrace,  Cithynia,  &c.  extend- 
ing in  series  from  the  lime  uf  Alexander  l!ie  ' 
Great  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  compr.sing  a 
lieriod  of  about  330  years.  In  this  class  are 
placed  the  beautiful  coins  of  the  Seleuciche. 
The  last  series  of  anti  nt  kings  goes  down  to 
the  fourth  ceetury,  includii  g  those  of  Mau- 
ritania and  Judea;  and  finishing  the  series  of 
the  portraits  of  kings  found  on  medals  struck 
with  Grecian  chr.racters. 

The  Roman  emperors  present  a  most  dis- 
tinct series  from  Jiiiius  to  a  later  period  than 
the  destruction  of  Rome  by  the  Goths. 

The  kings,  upon  Greeli  coins,  have  gene- 
rally the  diadem,  without  any  other  orua- 
mt  ill,  usually  with  a  side  face,  and  almost  al- 
ways in  vei-y  high  relii  f ;  though  several, 
particularly  "the  beautiful  gold  coin  of  Pto- 
lemy Philadelphus,  others  of  Antony  and 
Cleopatra,  Sec.  have  more  portraits  Ihun  one 
upon  them.  The  chief  ornament  of  the  por- 
traits is  the  diadem  or  villa.  The  radiated 
crown,  a  mark  of  deification,  on  llie  pa.t()U- 
nious  coins  of  Augustus,  was,  i»i,a  little  more 
than  a  gentury  after,  put  upon  rtoitofl!:-.: 


310 

cinperor";'  head<  in  Ibeir  s^'vernl  uicdals.  Tlic 
troun  of  hiurel  is  coiitiiiiiiuly  seen  :  anil 
Agnppa  appears  not  oiilv  with  the  rostral 
but  liie  imirjl  crown.  'Ihe  successors  ot 
Alexandtr  a^5umecl,  bv  way  of  uislinction, 
tlilftTent  symbols  of  deitv  on  the  busts  of 
their  medals.  A  few  iiistanci'S  also  occur, 
among  tlie  Roman  coins,  of  the  heliKCt. 

'1  he  reverses  of  medals,  botli  amona;  the 
G;ecks  and  Romans,  were  of  infmite  variety. 
'Iheyconlaiu  (i^iirt^of  deities  at  whole  leiii^th 
with  their  attributes  and  svmbols;  public 
Ijuildings.  and  divers  ons  ;  allei!;orLcal  repre- 
sentations ;  ceremonies;  hi^toficifl  and  pri- 
vate events  ;  /ignres  of  antient  statues  ;  siib- 
jjfcts  of  natural  liislory  ;  mai^istracies,  Sec. 
'Ihe  reverses  of  tin-  Roman  coins  have  more 
of  art  and  design  than  tin;  Greek,  though  the 
latter  luive  more  exquisite  relief.  1m  the 
very  antient  coins  no  reverse  is  found,  and  of 
the  antient  Greek  reverses  some  are  in  in- 
taglio. The  lij;ures  of  deities  and  personi- 
iications  on  tiie  Roman  coins,  are  commonly 
attended  willi  ilic  names:  as,  the  li^ure  of 
Virkie  with  VIRTV.S  AVCWSTl:  but  on 
the  reverse  of  tlie  Greek  coins  the  Jigure  is 
only  accompanied  by  some  certain  symbol ; 
as_  Ceres  a  ilh  her  'wh^atcn  garland'.  Mars 
with  his  anmnir,  or  Mercurv  u  itii  his  cadu- 
ceus.  'I'he  anclior  on  Seleucian  coins  is  the 
mark  of  Antioch;  the  owl,  of  Athens;  the 
habyrinlh,  of  Crete;  the  horse,  ofThessaly; 
aud  so  on. 

Of  the  legends,  the  earlv  Greek  coins 
tisually  contain  the  name  or  the  initials  of  the 
city  they  belong  to;  or  the  name,  the  first 
character  of  it,  or  the  monogram,  of  the 
prince.  The  earliest  coins  of  .Athens  have 
onlv  AQE,  money  of  Athens;  ST.  i.f  Svba- 
sis;  M.'Vl.,  of  .\Iassilia.  STRAKOTillnN  oc- 
curs at  lull  length,,  as  well  as  *IAlnnOS  for 
Piiilip  of  Macedon.  And  though  in  after- 
tnnes  the  nam:.-s  of  princes  Were  accompanied 
by  mode-it  adjuncts,  there  were  otiiers  that 
were  not  a  little  proud.  Of  the  lormer  were 
AIKAIOr,  EV:;EBOr£,  <t>IAEAAHN01:  of 
the  latler,  ©EOnATOPOS,  BAllAEiiX  BA- 
SlAEnN,  &c. 

After  the  Koman  empire  Iiad  swallowed  up 
the  Grecian,  the  legends  on  (jreek  coins  be- 
came as  remarkable  for  length  as  they  had 
before  been  for  brevitv.  1  he  Greek  iin|)e- 
ria!  coins  have  a  great  variety  in  their  le- 
gends. Nor  are  man v  of  the  reverses  want- 
ing in  adulation.  The  legends  of  the  Roman 
im[>erial  coins  are  sliU  more  deservcdlv  cele- 
brated for  their  beautiful  simplicity.  lVl)li.\ 
CAl'TA.  and  ASIA  bUUAC  TA  are  suffi- 
cient instances. 

Of  the  pieces  produced  by  the  antient 
mints,  there  we.vso.ne  of  a  size  wliiclv  shew- 
ed them  evidently  lo  have  been  intended  for 
someihing  el>e  than  circiJation.  M-dallions 
were  occasionally  presented  by  the  emperor 
to  his  friends;  and  sometimes  by  the  mint- 
Trtaterto  the  emperor  as  specimens  of  work- 
in.msliip.  These  are  u.sually  known  by  their 
weight,  which  is  far  greater  thiui  that  of  the 
acknowledged  money,  lioth  the  Gn  c-k  and 
Roman  mi-dullioiis  appear  to  have  been  prin 
cipally  stru!:k  in  the  imperial  periods.  'I'ill 
the  time  of  Hadrian  they  are  rare.  For  a 
inure  full  account  of  them,  we  refer  to  the 
■work  o;  Mr.  Pinkerton. 

Ti;  dv;ell  longer  on  the  various  typfs  eitlie 
of  tiie  Grecian  or  tiu  Roman  coins,  would  ))c 


MEDALS. 

superfluous.  Their  curiosity  and  elegance 
are  inlinite.  'i'he  regal  coins  of  Greec<-  are 
interesting  from  (heir  portraits;  the  coins  of 
cities,  Iroiir  their  importance  to  geograpliy. 
On  the  consular  coins  of  Rome,  the  names 
and  til'e;>  of  the  consuls  <Uj  not  appear  till 
toward  the  close  of  the  series:  the  brass 
conmlar  coins  are  uninteresting.  The  im- 
perial brass  is  of  three  sizes,  large,  middle, 
and  small;  the  first  forming  a  series  of  the 
greatest  beauty.  The  imperial  diver  coins 
are  numerous;  the  gold,. of  wonderful  per- 
fection. For  tile  dilfeixnt  abbreviations  wliich 
occur  both  upon  Ihe  Greek  and  Roman 
coins,  we  shall  refer  to  the  'I'ahles  selected 
by  Mr.  Pinkerton,  as  it  would  be  impossible, 
in  so  concise  a  work  as  this,  to  give  every 
information  uhich  the  collector  might  re- 
cpiire.  'I'he  best  works  upon  the  Greek  and 
Roman  coiiis  are  proluibly  these:  Froe- 
lich's  Xotitia  Elenientaris ;  Neuinan's  Po- 
peJi  &  Reges  iiiediti ;  the  Works  of  Pelle- 
rin ;  the  Nummi  populcrum  et  urbium 
Magna"  Cira'cia-,  by  l>r.  Combe;  Havir- 
canip  on  the  Consular  Coins ;  and  the  Ro- 
man lni|H-r;al-,  by  \'aillaiit,  edition  1745,  by 
\  aldini,  with  the  Supplement  by  Kehl. 

Of  the  early  Briti^ll  coins,  previous  to  the 
arrival  of  the  Romans,  we  know  but  little. 
They  were  probably  like  the  auti'-iit  Gaulish, 
rudely  ornamented,  and  without  inscriptions. 
Those  which  we  usually  call  British,  were 
evidently  the  work  of  Roman  moneyers. 
'I'hose  with  C\'NO  on  one  side,  and  CA.NR' 
on  the  other,  are  usuallv  ascribed  to  Cunobe- 
lin,  the  king  of  the  Triiiobantes.  I'here  is 
also  one  which  has  a  hull  on  the  obverse, 
with  V.lC.U.V.L.A.M.l.O.  for  the  legend, 
apparently  struck  at  Verulam.  The  mean- 
ing of  (</.v(/m,  which  is  common  both  to  the 
Gallic  and  the  Urilish  coins,  wants  explana- 
tion. 

Of  the  coins  of  the  Saxon  heptarchy,  there 
are  but  two  descrii)tions :  the  scealta,  or 
penny,  and  the  styca;  the  latter  of  wliich 
seems  to  have  been  |)rincij)allv  conlined  to 
the  kingdom  of  Northuinbria.  Of  the  coins 
of  the  heptarchic  princes,  the  series  is  very 
far  from  regular ;  and  of  one  or  two  princes 
unique  specimens  only  are  known.  Of  the 
chief  monarchs,  Fthelbald  and  Ednuind  Iron- 
side are  the  only  two  who  break  the  series. 
Of  their  coinage  we  have  no  si)eciineiis.  The 
obverses  of  all  these  bear  merely  the  resem- 
blance of  a  human  bust ;  though  the  reverses 
are  occasionally  interesting.  The  in>crip- 
tions  also  are-  sometimes  peculiar;  and  we 
have  a  few  specimens  in  the  ninth  centurv  of 
arcliie))iscopal  coinage.  The  best  guide  to 
the  collector  of  Anglo-Saxon  coins  will  be 
tbund  in  the  plates  of  Dr.  Ilickes's  "  'i'he- 
saurus;"  their  rarity  and  valne  may  be  learnt 
from  the  Kssay  we  have  so  often  quoted. 

The  two  ln■^t  kings  after  the  Coiupiest 
coim'd  only  pennies,  the  types  of  which  an; 
dilferent,  tliough  in  point  of  weight  and  good- 
ness tlii-y  agree  with  the  pennies  of  the  Sax- 
ons: their  weight  was  usually  2'J  grains  and 
a  half.  The  obverse  represents  sometimes 
the  full,  and  sometimes  tlie  side  face  of  the 
sovereign,  with  the  name  of  the  mint-master 
aud  town  ol  mintage  on  the  reverse.  To 
pennies,  Henry  tl'.e  First  added  halfpennies, 
though  none  of  them  liave  reached  us.  King 
Stephen's  pennies  Vrcre  of  the  same  vahie  :is 
those  of  his  prodeces.sors.  Tliere  are  also 
some  evlaat,  which  have  the  name  of  Fu- 


f.TATf.  on  thc-m,  Stephen's  son;  arvd  one  oc 
curs  Willi  the  head  and  title  ol  Henry  bishoji 
of    Winchester,    Ihe    king's    base    biotlur. 
Those  of  Stephen  svhich  have  the  bai,ner, 
are  the  rarest.     '1  he  pennies  of  Henry  llie 
Second  are  also  scarce ;  of  R!<:hard  the  First 
w  e  iiave  only  the  French  penny  ;  and  of  John 
no  money  but  what  wa.s  coined  in  Ireland; 
though  of  the  last  ll-.cre  are  not  only  pennies      ' 
luit  halfpennies  and  farthings.     'I  he  lirst  coin- 
age of  llenry  Ihe  Third  had  onlv  on  the  ob- 
\erse  riENltlCA'S   KEX,  and  his  pennies 
till    within  these  30  years  were   usually   as- 
cribed to  llenry  the  Secoud.     After  his  3id 
\ear,  we  find   111   or  '1  ERCI  added   lo  the 
title.      The  pennies,    halfpennies,    and   far- 
things of  Edward  the  First  are  all  common. 
Such    pennies   as   liave   EDW.    R..\NGL. 
DNS.HYB  upon  the  obverse,  are  usually 
ascribed   lo   EiKvard   the   First;    those   wilii 
EDW  A.  or  EDW  AR.   to   Edward  the  Se- 
cond; and  thos.;  with  EDWARD  or  ED- 
WAUD\S  to  Edward  the  Third.      '1  hi-, 
however,  is  but  conjecture.     In  the  ISlh  of 
Edward  the  Tliird,  the  penny  was  brought 
down  to  20  grains;  and  in  his  27tli  year,  we 
lind  groats  and  half-groats  coined,  in   which 
the  king's  heafl  wa-i  surrounded  by  a  sort  of 
double  iressure.     In  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
Fourth,  having  previously  sunk  to   15,  tlie 
penny  fell   to    1-'    grains.       In   Edward   the 
Sixth's  lime,  it  was  reduced  lo  eight,  and  in 
Elizabeth's  to  little   more   than  seven.     Of 
Ihe  groats,  llichard  the  Third  is  very  rare, 
in  1503,  llenry  the  Se\!enth  cohied  the  shil- 
ling or  lestoon:  it  resembled  the  groat,  but 
was   larger,  and  weighed  no  less  than    144 
Iroy-grains.     Tlie  crown  of  silver  was  lirst 
^truck  by  Henry  \'lll.  and  the  half-crown, 
sixpence,  and   threepence,  by   Edward  the 
Sixth.      Elizabeth,   in   I55S,  coined   three-' 
halfi)enny,    and    in     15til,    three -farthing, 
pieces;     but    tiiev   were   disused   in    158^. 
Henry  the  Eightli  was  the  first  of  our  princes 
who  debased  the  coinage;  and  in  the  earl iir 
part  of  Edward  the  Sixth's  reign,  the  prac- 
tice was  continued:    but  from   Ihe   43d    of 
Elizabeth,  1601,  the  denomination,  weight, 
and  fineness  of  English  silver,  have  remained 
Ihe  same.     From  151)1   to  156S,  the  money 
of  Elizabeth  was  coined  in  a  better  taste,  by 
means  of  a  mill  and  screw;  but  the  artist   of 
this  money  being  hanged  for  counterleiling 
coins,  the  hammering   system  was   again   re- 
curred  to.     Till    the    time   of  Charles   the 
Second,  we  liave  liule  more  of  the  milled- 
money. 

The  design  of  a  gold  coinage  appears  to 
have  been  lust  formed  by  Henry  the  Tliird, 
Ihe  jnost  particular  account  of  which  is  lo  be 
louiid  in  lord  Liverpool's  Letter  to  the  Kins. 
The  piece  ordered  to  be  current  was  called 
a  gold  penny  ;   but  being  of  loo  great  value 
for  gi'iieral  circulation,  it  was  in  two  or  three 
years  called  in,  and  noiv  but  three  s|)ecimen!t 
remain.     In  itself,  the  gold  jienny  is  a  be.iu- 
tiful   specimen   of  the  coinage  of  Ihe   lime. 
Till-  obverse  is  much  in  the  manner  of  the 
king's  great  seal,  aud  the  inscription  Hknri- 
cus  Rkx  hi.;    on  Ihe   reverse,  the  mint- 
master's  name  and  place.     'I'he  three  known 
are  all  of  different  types:  one  reads  L\  Nl), 
another  LVNDE,  iii.l  Ihe  third  lANDEN.. 
But  it  is  from  Edward  the  Third  that  Ihe  se- 
ries of  our  gold  coins  commences.      In  134'!^ 
he  struck  the  iiorin,  half,  and  quarter   llor.n.- 
The  lloriii  was  current  for  six  shillings,  biS 


MED 

■W3«  (1i(»  same  yeai-  stu-cpcdcd  bv  tlic  noljli-, 
tilt  viilijc  of  wliifli  was  half  a  mark,  liciiry 
■llic  Tiftli  (liininislicil  llie  valiii-  of  tlic  iioIjK-  ; 
"llciirv  tin- Sixtli  restored  it  to  h-s  Bize,  aiui 
pave  It  llie  name  of  ryal;  \\h\h  I'.clwaril  the 
I'mirth,  ill  1-'Hm,  siipiilantL-d  itwilli  tlic  ai)gi-l. 
lleiii  V  (lie  r,i:»lith,  ill  Ij'J,!,  added  ttic  gold 
crown  and  half  crown  at  their  iiresoiit  vahre: 
•the  sovereigd  of  C'Jv.  (»rf. ;  the  rval  at  1  Is-.  3d. ; 
(he  angel  at  7.v.  ()</. ;  and  the  noble  at  iu  old 
Talup.  In  l.i"i(>,  he  coined  sovereigns  ajul 
■iialf-s.)vereiu;ns,  the  former  to  go  at  UCis.  and 
(lie  latter  in  proportion.  Charles  the  Second, 
however,  instead  of  the  sovereign,  introduced 
the  f^uinea  and  half-guinea.  George  tlie  First 
a  hied  the  (|narter-guinea.  15nt  though  it  was 
■coiilinui'd  in  the  earlv  part  of  (tie  rei^ii  of  his 
present  lllaie^^_v,  the  scien-shilliiy  pi,.ee  has 
4)een  preferred. 

'I'lie  history  of  our  copper  coinage,  the 
last  111  order  of  rhroiioKigy,  will  be  siiorlcr. 
From  the  reign  of  llenry'^the  Eighth  till  the 
close  of  (pieeii  h;ii:<abetir"s  reign,  the  scarcity 
of  silver  farthings  and  lialfpence  gave  rise  to 
■the  iutrodiutioii  of  tokens  or  jdedges  for  ino- 
iiey  ainrnig  tradesmen,  manv  of  which  are 
tindoiibli-dly  alluded  to  in  wliiit  has  been  said 
by  Kra-.mus  and  other  writers  about  leaden 
money.  ICIizabelh,  it  appears,  would  never 
liesr  ot  a  copper  coinage  for  the  country: 
and  though  laithing  tokens  of  eopper  were 
issueil  both  by  James  and  Charles  the  First, 
they  \vei\-  considered  rather  as  pledges  of 
government  tliau  legitimate  nionev.  The 
death  of  Cluirles  the  First  put  ail 'effectual 
slo|>  to  Ihi'ir  farther  cnvrency  :  and  till  I07'i, 
the  country  again  swarmed  with  town  pieces 
and  tradesmen's  pledges ;  w  hen,  iji  the  latter 
yi.'nr,  ha'fpeiice  and  farthings  of  copper  wi-re 
made  public  money,  and  the  circulation  of 
tokens  forbidden,  flis  present  majesty  has 
udded  two-penny  pieces. 

MEI)F.t)L.\,  climbing  Jfrican  aspiira- 
gtis,  a  genus  of  the  liexandria  order,  m  the 
trigynia  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  11th  order,  sar- 
mentacea'.  'I'here  is  no  calyx;  the  corolla 
is  sexpartife  and  revohited  :  the  berry  tri- 
spermous.  Its  (  haractersare  these :'tht  iiower 
l;as  no  empalemeirt :  it  has  six  oblong  oval 
petals,  and  six  aw  l-shaped  stamina  terminated 
by  incumbent  sonimits;  and  three  horned 
permina  terminating  the  stvie;  the  germina 
afterward  turn  to  a  roundish  trifid  berrv  with 
three  cells,  each  containing  one  heart-shaped 
seed.     There  are  three  species. 

,MF.DIC.'V(j(),  snail-trefnit,  a  genus  of  the 
decandria  order,  in  the  diadelphia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natmal  method  ranking 
iindiT  the  32d  order,  papilionacea".  The  le- 
gumen  is  oompiessed  and  screwed  ;  the  ca- 
rina of  the  corolla  luring  tioun  from  the  yex- 
illum.  There  are  1 1  species,  tliough  only 
five  aie  coninionly  cultivated  in  this  country. 
Thr-y  are  low  traihng  plants,  adorned  with 
iUiall  \ellow  flowers,  succeeded  tiy  small 
round  snail-shaped  fruit,  wWch  are  downy, 
and  armed  with  a  few  short  spines.  They 
are  all  easily  propagated  by  seeds.  The  M. 
j.itiva  or  lucern,  has  been  latterly  nnich  re- 
commended as  a  green  fodder  for  cattle,  and 
has  betu  cultivated  by  seme  farmers  with 
success. 

MFDICINF,  is  the  art  of  preserving 
health,  and  of  curing  or  alleviating  disease. 
K  is  the  same  science  in  its  application  to 
i)iua;il,  as  agriculture  to  ve^et.'-.ble,  life. 


ii  K  D 

Origin  fiiul progm.f  nf  iiiiiliciii.:.  "  Me- 
dicina  iuis(]iiam  noii  est."  This  art  arises 
out  of  l!ie  natural,  as  others  more  gradually 
and  indireclly  origiiiale  from  tiie  artificial  and 
adviriilitioes,  wants  of  mankind.  'I'lie  exact 
|)enod,  ho'.vever,  in  which  medicine  began 
to  be  firnially  iiractisrd  as  an  art,  or  se^ja- 
rately  cultivalecl  as  a  profession,  has  by  no 
means  been  aecurately  ascertained.  All  the 
accounts  which  ha\e  been  transe.iitled  on  this 
subject  from  a  dale  prior  to  the  time  of  Hip- 
pocrates, are  either  conjectural  or  fabulous. 
Hippocrates  first  elVected  a  separation  of  me- 
dicine from  philosophy  and  religi.-)ii,  and  gave 
it  the  form  of  a  distinct  science:  he  has  there 
fore  been  generally  reg;irded  by  the  modern- 
as  the  father  of  physic  ;  and  from  his  time 
tlie  history  of  (his  science  may  be  made  with 
propriely  to  commence. 

Hippocrates  was  a  native  of  Greece.  He 
was  born  in  the  inland  of  Cos,  and  flourished 
about  ion  years  prior  to  the  christian  a'ra. 
Of  his  character  as  a  physician,  an  estimate 
cannot,  conf.'sseilly  with  much  accuracy,  be 
formed  fiiiiii  his  writings,  or  from  lho';e  works 
which  have  been  attributed  to  him,  but  wliich 
are  generally  regarded  as  in  a  great  measure 
tlie  inventions  of  his  disciples  and  successors. 
"  Ilippocre.tes,'  says  a  modern  author, 
"  livetl  at  too  early  a  periml  to  be  acc[uainled 
with  the  collateral  branches  of  science.  lie 
studied  life  and  disease  in  tlie  hook  of  nature, 
and  had  the  merit  of  an  original  observer." 
We  do  not,  however,  feel  dispriscd  with  Ihis 
author  fully  to  acquit  the  "  Coan  sage  of  the' 
many  idle  theories  which  have  been  imputed 
to  him."  It  may  well  be  conceived  that  he 
was  influenced  in  his  opinions  on  the  cause 
of  disease  and  on  the  nature  of  heahiig,  if 
not  by  the  splendid  fictions  of  the  Greek  phi- 
losophy, by  precojiceived  theory  and  vague 
conjecture.  Indeed,  the  hypotheses  contain- 
ed in  the  reputed  writings  at  least  of  Hippo- 
crates, have  been,  \\itli  trivial  modilications, 
the  hypotheses  of  modern  times;  for  in  this 
author's  pervading  and  presiding  principle  of 
nature,  and  in  his  attraction,  depuration, 
decoction,  and  crisis  of  disease,  may  be  traced 
the  same  mode  of  theorizing  which  has  been 
adopted  !iy  bter  systematics. 

The  humoral  patlujlogy,  and  even  the  vis 
natiira:  mtdicutrii  of  modern  times,  appear 
to  be  modifications  or  relics  of  Hi.ppocratic 
reasoning. 

The  immediate  successors  of  Hippocrates 
began  to  direct  their  researciies  into  the  aux- 
iliary departments  of  medicine ;  and  among 
these,  Praxagoras,  Chrysijipus,  Iliropliikis, 
and  Erasistratus,  particularly  tlie  two  last, 
made  no  itvconsiderable  discoveries  (when  we 
consider  the  scantiness  of  their  materials)  re- 
S])ecting  the  structure  and  functions  of  the 
human  franip.  It  was  about  this  period,  ac- 
cording to  Celsus,  tlial  the  science  was  <li- 
vided  into  the  three  distinct  branches  of  dic- 
tetical,  pharmaceutical,  and  chirurgical  me- 
dicine— "  una  i\ux  viclu,  altera  quie  medica- 
meutis,  tertia  qua:  niiinu  mederetm."  Shortly 
after  the  time  of  1  [eropliihis,  the  medical 
world  became  divided  into  the  two  sects  of 
empirics  and  dogmatists:  the  one,  rejecting 
the  reasoning  and  deriding  the  practice  of 
their  predece^'■ors,  affected  to  disregard  all 
authority  but  that  of  experience;  the  other, 
ritaining  their  faith  in  the  scholastic  philoso- 
phy of  the  times,  and  their  conviction  of  the 
utility  of  pliviiological  knowledge  m<letect- 
\\2 


M  E  D 


ill 


ing  the  cause?  and  regnlatir.g  the  treatm-i.t  ef 
disease.  TJie  ehij>iric  sect  was  founded  by 
Serapioii  of  AlLXandrw,  about  287  )  ears  be- 
fore Clirist. 

The  next  revolulion  of  imijorlance  in  the 
medical  art  was  occasioned  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Epicurean  jjliilosophy  into  the 
schools  of  me<licine.  '1  Ins  was  eilJ-cird  by 
Asclepiades,  V. ho  was  succeeded  by  Theini- 
son,  llie  founder  of  the  methodic  sect,  the 
uienibers  of  which  were  ecjually  hostile  to  tli/J 
dogmatists  and  empirics.  'I'hey  discarded 
what  they  consich-red  the  occult  reasoning  of 
the  former,  and  suiislituted  in  the  room  of  the 
laborious  nbservations  of  (he  latter,  indirar- 
(ions  of  treatments  deduced  from  the  analogy 
of  diseases,  or  the  mutual  reaemlilance  they 
bear  lo  each  other,  "  nullius  causa;  iiotitiain 
(luicquain  ad  curationes  pertinere;  satisque 
esse  (|ua'daiii  coinmniia;  morbonmi  inlueri 
inethodioi  contendunt."  Cihii.i.  The  moit 
celebrated  of  Tliemison's  followers  were 
Tliess;ilus,  who  flourished  under  the  empe- 
ror Nero,  and  Soranus,  a  native  of  Ephesus, 
wi-io  lived  during  tiie  time  of  the  emperors 
Tnijau  and  Adrian. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  a  very  coaispicu- 
ous  a.Ta  in  the  science  of  medicine.  About 
the  131sl  year  after  Christ,  in  the  reign  of 
.Vdr».ui,  lived  the  celebr.lted  (jalen,  who  Was 
born  at  I'ergamus.  At  this  time  the  dogma- 
tic, empiric,  and  methodic  sects  of  physicians 
had  each  their  advocates.  The  niefhodics, 
however,  were  held  in  gre.atesl  estimation. 
■(i:den  undertook  tiie  reformation  of  meili- 
cine,  anil  affected  to  restore  the  Hippocratic 
))hilosopliy  and  practice.  Insiead,  however, 
of  abiding  by  the  doctrines  of  his  master,  his 
systems  were  almost  entirely  of  his  own  in- 
yenlion.  '■'  Philosophy  and  science  had  mi'» 
made  some  advances  ;  and  from  those  sources 
(iaien  introduced  many  corruptions  into  nie- 
tlicijie.""  Like  Hippocrates,  he  supposed  the 
existence  of  four  fiumonrs,  frtun  the  predo- 
minancy or  deficiency  of  one  or  other  of 
w  hich  the  varieties  of  consUtutions,  and  like- 
wise the  complexion  and  nature  of  disease, 
were  conjectured  to  originate.  Tliese  lui- 
mours  are,  in  the  C7alcnic  system,  the  blood, 
the-  phlegm,  the  yellow  bile,  and  the  black 
bile.  He  likewise  establishes  three  distinct 
kinds  of  spirits — the  natural,  the  vital,  aid 
the  animal ;  the  first  of  which  he  supposes  to 
be  a  subtile  vapour  arising  from  the  blood  ; 
this,  conveyed  to  the  heart,  becomes,  when 
conjoined  to  the  air  taken  into  the  lungs,  the 
vital  spirits,  which  are  changed  into  the  aiii- 
mal  ktnd  in  tlie  brain.  These  three  species 
of  spirits  our  author  iniasincd  to  serve  as  in- 
struments to  distinct  faculties:  the  natural 
f;icu!ty,  which  he  siippu-cd  to  reside  in 
the  liver,  and  to  preside  over  the  nutrit-i-n, 
growth,  and  geneiation  of  the  animal  bodv  ; 
the  vital  faculty,  which  he  lodiied  in  tie 
heart,  and  imagined  that  through  the  inter- 
vent  ion  of  the  arteries  itcommiinicatedwaniith 
and  preserved  life;  while  the  animal  facidlv, 
according  to  Clen,  has  it>  seat  in  the  brain, 
is  the  cause  of  motion  and  sensation,  and  pre- 
sides overall  the  other  faculties.  The  origin 
or  principle  of  molion  in  these  respective  fa- 
culties, Gaien,  as  we. I  iu>  Hippocrates,  calls 
nii'-iiyc. 

The  authority  of  Galen,  notwitiutanding 
the  tissue  of  extravagances  and  idle  conjee; 
turcs of  which  his  systems  were  formed,  con- 


132 

liirued  to  prevail  until  the  tlownfal  of  the  Ro-  j 
man  empire.     The  seat  of  leurning  now  bo- | 
came  the   tiieati'e  of  war,  and   the   ai'ls   of 
peace   took  refii.t^e   in  the  Eastern   nations.  1 
'[lie  Arabian  sncteccled  to  the  Greek  and  \ 
Koniaii  pliysicians,  and  still  fnrtlier  ohsinred  i 
tl-.e  theories  of  medicine  by  tlie  introduclion 
of  fresh  absurdities.     Anatomy  was  totally  ! 
iieghicted,  or  at  least  not  in  any  measure  ad- 1 
vanced,  by  the  Saracens:    they  made  some 
pr-jgress  in  the  science  of  botany,  and  intro- 
cluced  several  new  drugs,  principally  of  tlie  ] 
aroiiiatic  kind,  from  the  East,  v  hicli  retain  I 
still  a  jilace  in  the  materia  medica. 

The  mention  of  a  singular  controversy  | 
wliich  occurred  among  tlie  Arabian  pliysi-  I 
cians,  may  serve  to  indicate  the  complexion  | 
of  the  tinic-s  in  relation  to  the  dogmas  and  I 
practice  of  physic. 

Hippocrates  had  directed  that  in  pleurisy  | 
blood  should  be  drawn  from  the  arm  of  that  . 
side   which    iViight    be   principally   al'lccted.  j 
Sonie  of  the  Arabians  contended  that  it  should  j 
be  taken  from  the  side  opposite;  and  such  I 
was  the  medical  ignorance  and  fanaticism  of 
the  age,  that  a  decree  was  issued  from  the  ' 
university  of  Salamanca  in  Spain,  forbidding 
any  one  to  pursue  the  practice  of  Hippocra- 
tes.    The  members  of  this  university  even 
endeavoured  to  procure  an  edict  from  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  to  conlirm  their  autho- 
rity, alleging,    that   the   practice    they  op- 
posed was  no  less  pernicious  to  medicine  than 
Luther's  heresy  had  been  to  religion  I  1 

From  the  time  of  the  decay  of  learning  to 
the  commencement  of  tlie  l6th  century,  the 
history  of  medicine  furnishes  no  particulars 
of  interest.    '  This  last  is  tlie  period   which 
gave    birth    to   the   celebrated    Paracelsus,  j 
Now,  all  the  facts  and  doctrines  of  medicine  , 
came  to  be  explained  by,  and  Ibunded  upon,  j 
imaginary  principles  of  chemical  philosophy,  j 
The  antient  authors  fell  into  disrepute;  audi 
the  elements,  qualities,  and  temperaments  of! 
tlie  Greeks,  were  melted  down  and  dissipated 
jn  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist.     Fermen-  ! 
tation,  elfervescence,    ebullition,  and  defla-  : 
gration  with  salts,  sulphur,  alkali,  and  mer- 
cury, came  now  to  be  familiarly,  but  without 
any  precise  signification,   introdiued  among 
the  terms  of  the  medical  art.     With  several, 
liowever,  the  Galenic  philosophy  continued 
to  prevail. 

In  the  year  1G28,  Dr.  W.  Harvey,  of 
London,  first  demonstrated  and  co'.nmuni- 
cated  to  the  world  the  most  important  fact  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood.  This  discovery 
afforded  a  new  foundation  for  the  whole 
strucUire  of  medical  and  physiological  rea- 
soning. Even  this,  Hke  all'  other  improve- 
ments in  science,  and  bold  innovations  of 
established  doctrines,  met  with  very  ^old 
pncouragement  by  the  contem|)oraries  of 
Harvey.  It  is  said,  that  no  pliysician  or 
teacher  of  medicine,  who  had  attained  his 
40th  year,  would  subscribe  to  the  fact ;  and 
that  in  thus  conferring  an  incalculable  benefit 
on  the  community,  Harvey  diminished  his 
own  contemporary  reputation,  and  nearly 
lost  his  practice  as  a  iihysician. 

While  some  were  industriously  endeavour- 
jng  to  controvert  the  fact,  others  were  busied 
in  attempts  to  wrest  the  discovery  from  its 
aufiior. 

Servitus,  a  native  of  Spain,  had,  many 
j*ears  previous  to  the  time  of  Ilurvey,  pub- 


MEDICIXE. 

lishetl  a  Treatise  on  Medicineand Theology. 
In  this  work  it  is  asserted,  or  rather  perhaps 
conjectured,  that  the  blood,  Ijy  some  un- 
known cliannel,  passes  from  the  jiulnionary 
arteries  iiito'  the  veins.  Even  allowing  that 
this  intimation  justly  laid  claim  to  the  title  of 
a  discovery,  it  is  merely  a  discovery  of  the 
pass:it!;e  ol'the  blood  through  the  lungs,  and 
could  in  no  measure  intcrkre  wills  the  merit 
or  be  regarded  as  an  anticipation  of  the  Har- 
veyian  doctrine. 

The  period,  however,  had  not  yet  arrived 
wlien  a  rational  use  was  to  be  made  of  tlie 
imiiortant  fact  in  question.  As  the  alche- 
mists had  derided  tlie  Galenlsts,  so  the  rea- 
sonings of  the  latter  were  now  to  give  way  to 
the  mathematical  ;e:t  of  physicians,  who  by 
axioms,  postu'lata,  theorems,  problems,  ex- 
periments, and  corollaries,  ("  a  capite  ad 
calcem  armatos,  et  necem  undiqtie  minitan- 
tes,")  attempted  to  explain,  in  the  most  futile 
manner,  the  functions  of  hie,  and  to  regulate 
the  remedial  process. 

The  h-arned  and  industrious  Boerhaave, 
of  Leyden,  whose  name  stands  conspicuous 
in  the  annals  of  medicine,  at  length  attempt- 
ed to  restore  the  authority  of  the  antient 
writing; ;  and  by  uniting  the  doctrines  of 
Hippocrates  with  the  philosoijhy  of  the  times, 
he  framed  a  theory  of  medicine  upon  the 
supposition  of  acrimony,  lentor,  and  ctlier 
changes  in  the  circulating  fluids.  From 
these  changes  he  inferred  the  origin  of  all 
disease;  and  tlie  process  c-f  cure  is,  accord- 
ing to  Ijoerhaare,  euher  the  process  of  cor- 
recting or  expelling  acrimony  from  the  body, 
or  the  corr  ction  of  morbid  viscidity  or  tenu- 
ity in  the  humours.  I'oerhaave  has,  there- 
fore, been  considered  the  founder  of  the  hu- 
moral pathology ;  a  pathology  which  even  to 
this  day  retains  a  material  influence  on  the 
opinions,  the  phraseology,  and  the  practice 
at  least  of  the  vulgar. 

Conti-mporary  witii  Ijoerhaave  was  the  il- 
lu^triou^  lioffman,  a  German  professor,  and 
founder  of  a  medical  system.  Dr.  Staalil  hav- 
ing first  suggested,  or  rather  borrowed  from 
thi?  antients,  the  idea  of  the  rational  soul  of 
man  governing  and  directing  the  w-holc  eco- 
nomy of  his  body,  and  obviating  the  adverse 
;  tendency  of  noxious  ag>cnls  by  exciting  such 
actions  in  the  system  as  are  calculated  to 
effect  their  expulsion,  or  destroy  their  ma- 
lignity ;  Hoffman  endeavourerl  to  demon- 
strate, that  the  first  operation  of  the  causes 
creating  disease  was  the  production  of  uni- 
versal atony  or  spasm  in  thi;  ])rimary  moving 
powers  of  ll;e  system,  and  did  not  consist  of 
changes  produced  either  in  the  iiuantity  or 
quality  of  the  humours  or  fluids  of  the  body, 
as  taught  by  the  celebrated  Boerhaave. 

The  humoral,  however,  continued  to  pre- 
vail over  the  pathology  of  Hoffman ;  and 
Dr.  CuUen  informs  us,  that  '■  when  he  came 
to  take  a  professor's  chair  in  tlie  university  of 
Eilinbin-gii,  he  found  the  Boerhaavian  system 
then  in  its  full  force."  In  framing  a  system 
of  his  own.  Dr.  Cullen  reverted  to  the  theory 
of  Ilofl'man  ;  and  indeed  the  whole  of  his  pa- 
tho'togy,  as  far  as  it  relates  to  leading  syste- 
matic doctrines,  is  scarcely  any  thing  more 
than  an  attempt  to  unite  the  hypothesis  of 
Hoffman  with  the  Stahlian  principle  of  an  in- 
telligent, presiding,  and  preservative  power. 

We  have  thus  rauidly  conducted  our  read- 
ers over  the  ground  of  medical  history,  and 


have  presented  a  faint  outline  cf  the  prev;.il- 
ing  s\stems  of  medical  philosophy,  from  the 
tinieof  the  Giecian  to  the  time  of  the  "  Eng- 
lish Hippocrates;''  to  the  period  when  the 
fanaticism  and  prejudice  of  system  w<;re 
shortly  to  gi\e  wiy  before  the  [irecepts  of 
genuine  philosophy  and  temperate  induction  ; 
"vhen  the  medical  science  was  to  be  esta- 
blished upon  a  new  foundation  ;  when  che- 
mistrv  was  to  undergo  a  n  formation  equally 
radical  and  important ;  when  by  conse<iuence 
a  new  alliance  was  to  be  formed  between 
these  two  sciences;  when  the  language  of 
metaphor  and  hypothesis  was  lo  be  discarded 
from  either  ;  and  when  eneiurrers  after  truth 
were  to  be  inlUienced  and  directed  by  the 
independant  and  invaluable  maxim,  "  Nihil 
ill  inlellectu  quod  noil  prius  in  sensu." 

On  nosologii,  or  tlie  ckissiltcation  of  dis- 
eases. Dr.  Sydenham  was  the  first  who  pro- 
posed to  adopt  a  division  of  diseases  into 
class,  order,  and  genus,  ujion  similar  princi- 
ples with  those  of  botanical  arrangement. 
1  he  idea  has  been  followed  out  by  several  of 
Sydenham's  successors,  but  by  no  means 
with  that  success  which  had  been  anticipat- 
ed. The  reason  why  nosologists  have  in, 
some  measure  tailed,  is  sufViciently  obvious. 
\\'liile  the  objects  of  natural  histo'ry  possess 
a  certain  degree  of  uniformity,  enabling  the 
systematic  to  identify  in  a  manner  certain 
individuals,  and  thus  to  refer  them  to  one 
class,  scarcely  any  thing  of  this  order  is  ob- 
served, or  at  least  not  sufficient  to  justify  ar- 
rangement of  the  infinitely  diversified  pheno- 
mena of  disease.  I'or  example  :  a  certain 
series  of  symptoms  shall  present  themselves 
during  the  life  of  an  individual,  which  shall 
prove  to  have  depended  upon,  or  at  least 
iiave  been  connected  with,  disordered  con- 
dition of  some  particular  organ.  A  carehil 
register  of  such  symptoms  might  be  supposed 
to  furnish  the  same  guide  to  the  pathologist 
and  physician,  as  a  recollection  of  the  pro- 
minent character  of  a  plant  to  the  botanist  or 
agriculturist.  This,  however,  is  by  no  means 
the  case.  Similar  symptoms  are  not  inva- 
riably characteristic  of  similar  disorders.  A 
cough  may  originate  at  one  time  from  cir- 
cumstances which  would  at  another  time  sup- 
press it.  A  catarrh  of  the  nostrils  will  now 
be  produced  by  a  deficient,  now  by  an  ex- 
cessive, action  of  precisely  the  saiiu  mem- 
brane. The  generic  terms  then  whicli  arc 
introduced  into  medicine,  are  extremely  fal- 
lacious: they  in  fact  convey  no  idea  of  the 
precise  natiire  of  that  affection  which  they 
have  been  employed  to  indicate ;  and  the 
difficulty  is  still  greatly  augmented  when  we 
recollect  the  endless  diversities  that  must 
arise  from  the  varied  external  circumstances, 
as  affecting  and  modifying  the  constitutional 
character  of  the  same  individual. 

A  disease,  then,  as  indicated  by  name,  and 
described  by  signs,  is  in  some  measure  an 
imaginary  existence.  Dr.  Brown,  the  out- 
line of  whose  doctrines  is  elsewhere  exhibited 
(see  the  article  Bruncnian  Svstem),  aware 
of  the  errors  attached  to  nosology  founded 
on  symptoms,  ])ioposed  to  comprehend  all 
morhid  affections  under  the  two  leading  di- 
visions of  diseases  of  increased  and  diminished 
excitement.  Our  author,  however,  in  his 
opposition  to  particulars,  went  over  to  the 
other  extreme  of  too  indiscriminate  and  hasty 
generalization.  The  human  frame  is  too 
complicated  to  adniit  of  the  simplificatioUr 


i 


wliicli   Broivn  aimctl  at.     His  division  is  a 
guiilf  to  priiitiplt;  but  not  to  practice. 

A  recent  attempt  lias  l)L-tMi  mailo  to  include 
in  one;  sclicme  Ijotli  general  principles  and 
particular  facts.  This  plan,  however,  not- 
withstanding the  boldness  of  conception  by 
which  it  was  fjriiied,  and  extraordinary  inge- 
nuity l)y  which  it  lias  been  e.\ecuted,  is  de- 
tectii'e.  Il  rests  upon  a  hypothetical,  and 
Iheielorc  upon  a  sandy,  foundation.  Our 
readers  who  are  acquainted  at  all  with  mo- 
dern medicine,  will  be  at  no  loss  to  conclude 
that  we  refer  to  the  system  of  the  late  Dr. 
l.).irwin.  Ijy  this  aulhor,  excitability,  wliicii 
was  left  as  an  ultimate  fatt  in  the  IJrunonian 
theory,  is  attempted  to  be  traced  to  its  ori- 
gin, 'j'jic  sensorial  ])ower,  excitability,  or 
spirit  of  animation,  i^  conceived  to  be  "  a 
subtle  fluid,  residing  in  the  brain  and  nerves, 
and  liHbie  to  gerieral  or  partial  accumula- 
tion." The  vital  changes  ellVcted  by  the 
medium  of  this  imaginary  fluid,  are,  1st, 
"  Irritation,  whicli  is  an  exertion  or  change 
of  some  extreme  part  of  the  sensorinm  resid- 
ing in  the  muscles  or  organs  of  sense,  in  con- 
se(iuence  of  the  appulses  of  external  bodies. 
2.  Sensation,  an  exertion  or  change  of  the 
centr.d  parts  of  the  sensoriuni,  or  of  the 
whole  of  it,  beginning  at  some  extreme  parts 
of  it,  which  reside  in  the  muscles  or  organs 
of  sense.  3.  A'olition  is  an  exertion  or  change 
of  the  central  parts  of  the  sensorium,  or  of 
the  wliole  of  it,  terminating  in  some  extreme 
parts,  of  it,  which  reside  in  the  muscles  or 
Di'gans  of  sense.  4lh.  Association  is  an  exer- 
tion or  change  of  some  extreme  part  of  the 
sensoriuni,  residing  in  the  muscles  or  organs 
of  senstf,  in  consequence  of  some  antecedent 
or  attendant  libious  contractions." 

With  these  assumptions  as  his  guide.  Dr. 
Darwin  endeavours  to  penetrate  deeper  into 
the  cause  of  disease  than  is  allowed  by  a  mere 
knowledge  of  the  condition  of  the  fibre.  The 
powers  of  the  sensoriu.n  are  the  proximate 
cause  ;  the  fibrous  action,  the  excitement  of 
Dr.  Brown,  the  proximate  effect ;  and  hence, 
from  an  ingenious,  but  by  no  means  satisfac- 
tory, statement  of  the  mode  in  which  excita- 
tions are  produced,  he  treats  of  diseases  as 
occasioned  by  the  coni])arative  redundancy 
or  deficiency  of  the  sensorial  power  of  irrita- 
tion, sensation,  volition,  or  association. 

It  would  carry  us  far  away  beyond  our  li- 
mits to  pursue  this  theory  through  the  minu- 
ti;\'  of  its  ramifications.  Some  opportunities 
«-|ll  be  afforded  in  the  course  of  the  jirescnt 
article  to  acknowledge  the  obligations  which 
medicine  is  under  to  its  ingenious  framer. 
We  shall  here  confine  ourselves  to  the  state- 
jnent  of  what  we  consider  fundamental  ob- 
jections to'the  doctrines,  and,  by  implication, 
tlie  nosology  or  arrangement  of  Zoonomia. 

In  the  first  place,  it  does  not  distinguish 
between  cause  and  effect,  between  fibrous 
motion  and  its  source.  Secondly,  it  substi- 
tutes, like  the  antient  systems,  mere  state- 
ments of  phenomena  for  explication  of  their 
origin.  Thirdly,  and  what  is  more  imme- 
di.ilely  applicable  to  our  present  enqcin,',  it 
divides  that  wbirh  in  its  nature  is  indivisible. 

Dr.  Brown  had  defined  excitement  to  be  a 
certain  state  of  fibrous  action  produced  by 
the  exciting  powers  acting  upon  the  excita- 
bility. Dr.  Darwin  after  hun  considers  irri- 
l.!tiou  or  exciteme;;t  as  an  exertion  of  the 
spirit  of  animation,  exciting  the  fibres  to  con- 


MEDICINE. 

traction.  Here  v.'e  observe  the  wr.nt  of  .pre-  j 
cisiou  alluded  to,  and  the  confusion  originates  i 
from  forsaking  induction  to  embrace  hypo- 
thesis. "  On  Dr.  Darwin's  principles  the 
identical  fibrous  motion  exists  before  the  fa- 
cully  of  irritation  can  be  exerted."  The  spi- 
rit of  animation  ought  to  have  been  staled  as 
the  unknown  medium  ("  quo  pacto  adficia- 
tur  ignoratur  ")  through  wIukIi  the  excite- 
ment or  irritation  is  i>roduced. 

Again,  tlie  sentient  and  fibrous  changes 
which  in  the  Darwinian  system  of  life  are 
thus  connected,  are  not  rendered  more  ex- 
plic.ible  l>y  the  intervention  of  a  subtle  fluid. 
The  spirit  of  animation  of  Darwin,  allowing  its 
existence  to  be  capable  of  proof,  in  no  mea- 
sure facilitates  the  conception  of  vital  causa- 
tion. As  an  exemplification  of  the  last  of 
the  above  objectitins,  it  may  be  urged,  that 
when  Dr.  Darwin,  in  framing  his  classifica- 
tion, referred  all  morbid  allection  to  the 
heads  ol  irritation,  sensation,  volition,  and 
association,  he  seems  to  have  overlooked  his 
former  assumption,  founded  Upon  the  insejja- 
rabilily  and  identity  of  the  sensorial  power 
or  fluid,  and  not  to  have  been  aware  he  had 
already  asserted  that  "  propensity  to  action, 
whether  it  be  called  irritability,  sensibility, 
vokinfarity,  or  ajsociability,  is  only  anotlier 
mode  of  expressing  the  quantity  of  sensorial 
power  residing  in  the  organ  to  be  excited." 

An  increase  then  or  diminution  of  one  of 
these  energies  necessarily  supposes  an  in- 
crease or  diminution  of  all,  "  and  the  disor- 
der of  decreased  irritability,  ought  also  to  be 
the  disorder  of  decreased  sensibility,  volun- 
tarity,  and  associability."  Tlie  classification, 
then,  is  even  in  contradiction  to  the  princi- 
ples of  Zoonomia.  It  is  intricate  and  erro- 
neous. 

Perhaps  the  most  consistent  and  compre- 
hensive plan  of  arranging  individual  diseases 
would  be  that  which,  while  it  preserved  the 
important  fact  in  view,  of  the  indivisibility  of 
the  living  system, would  take  into  its  accoimt 
the  three  leading,  and  in  one  sense  separate, 
functions  performed  by  the  arterial,  the  ner- 
vous, and  the  glandular  organization. 

As  approaching  nearest  to  tliis  plan,  and 
likewise  because  it  is  in  most  general  use  in 
this  country,  at  least  as  a  text-book  for 
teachers  of  medicine,  we  shall  make  use  in 
the  present  article  of  the  nosology  of  Dr. 
CuUen,  requesting  the  reader  to  recollect  the 
unavoidable  objections  which  oppose  them- 
selves to  all  systems  and  all  classilications  of 
morbid  affections. 

The  following  are  the  classes,  orders,  and 
genera  of  CuUen,  with  the  exception  of  the 
class  locales,  which  relates  to  those  disorders 
principally  that  come  under  the  head  of  sur- 
gery. 

TABLE  OF  CLASSIFICATION. 

Cl.\ss  I.  Pyrexi.«.  '  A  frequent  pulse, 
succeeding  to  shivering  or  horror;  increased 
heat;  disturbed  functions;  prostration  of 
strength. 

Order  I.  Febris.  Pyrexia,  independant 
of  local  affection  as  its  cause ;  languor,  lassi- 
tude, and  other  signs  of  debility, 

Sect.  1.  IiitermitteHtcs.  fevers  arising 
from  the  miasma  of  marshy  grounds,  witli  an 
evident  remission,  the  returning  lits  being 
almost  always  ush  red  in  by  lionor  or  trem- 
bling.    One  paroxysm  only  in  the  day. 

Genera.     Tertiana;  quartana;  qnotiJiana. 


13.'; 

Sect  2.  Continuce.  Fevers  witliout  iu- 
termission,  not  occasioned  by  marsh  miasma, 
attended  with  exacerbations  and  remissions, 
though  not  very  perceptible. 

Genera,     bynoclia;  typhus;  synochus. 
Order  II.     PltUu,iiuisia:.      fever,   accom- 
panied by  local  inllammation  or  topical  pain, 
lesion,  or  disturbance  of  the  internal  Iudc- 
tions ;  sizy  blood. 

Geileia.  Phlogasis  ophthalmia;  plirenitis  ; 
cynanche;  pneumonia  carditis ;  peritonitis; 
gastritis;  enteritis;  hepatitis;  sjWenitis ;  ne- 
pliritis ;  cystitis ;  hystcritis ;  rheumatisnius ; 
odontalgia  podagra ;  arthropuosis. 

Order  111.  Exanlheiitalu.  Contagious  dis- 
eases, which  only  affect  once  during  lite, 
commencing  with  fever,  and  succeeded  by 
phlogosis  or  intiammatory  eruptions  on  tiie 
skill. 

Genera.  Erysipelas  ;  pestis ;  variola ;  va- 
ricella ;  rubeola  miliaria ;  scarlatina ;  m'ti- 
caria ;  pemphygus  ;  aptha-. 

Order  1\  .  '//cmonitagiw.  Pyrexia;  spon- 
taneous discharge  of  blood;  blood  when 
drawn  from  a  vein  of  a  sizy  appearance. 

Genera.  Epistasis;  hemaptisis;  lismarr- 
hois  m(/nanhagia.  ' 

Order  V.  I'rojluvia:.  Pyrexia;  inordinate 
discharge,  but  not  of  blood. 

(jenera.     Catarrh  ;  dysenteria. 
Class  II.     Nrvroses.     A  lesion  of  sense 
and  motion,  without  idiopathic  pyrexia  or  lo- 
cal disorder. 

Order  I.  Comata.  A  diminution  'of  vo- 
luntary motion  with  sleep,  or  a  deprivatiou 
of  sense. 

Genera.     Apojdexia;  paralysis. 
Order  II.  yJcii/namia.     Diminished  volun- 
taiy  motion,  whether  vital  or  natural. 

Genera.  Syncope ;  dyspepsia ;  hypo- 
chondriasis ;  chlorosis. 

Order  111.  Spastiii.  Irregular  action  of  the 
muscular  fibre. 

Sect.  I .     In  llie  animal  functions. 
Genera.    '^IVtanus ;  trismus ;  chorea ;    ra 
phania ;  epilepsia. 

Sect.  2.     In  the  vital  funclior.s. 
Genera.     Palpitatio ;    asthma;     dyspna*  .■ 
pertussis. 

Sect.  3.     In  the  natural  functions. 
Genera.      Pvrosis;    colica;    cholera;    di- 
arrhoea ;  diabetes ;  hysteria ;  hydrophobia. 

Order  \' I.  P'e-icmiie.  Derangement  of  judg- 
ment, independantly  of  pyrexia  or  cO.ma. 

Genera.  Amextia;  melancholia;  mania; 
oneirodynia. 

Class  III.  Cachexia.  A  depraved  ha- 
bit of  body,  witliout  idiopathic  pyrexia  or 
neurosis. 

Order  I.  Macorcs.  A  wasting  of  the 
whole  body. 

Genera'    Tabes;  atrbpliia. 
Order  II.     Intiintescemia.    A  swelling  of 
the  whole  or  of  the  greatest  part  of  the  body. 
Sect.  I.     Adiposa.     Fatly  swellings. 
Genus.     Polysarcia. 
Sect.  2.     I'itduloite.     Windy  swelluigs. 
Genera.    Pneumatosis  ;  tympanites ;  phy. 
sometra. 
Sect.  3.    Hi/drope.i.     Watery  swellings. 
Anasarca;  liydrocephalus;   hydrorachitis; 
hydrothorax ;  ascites;    hydrometra;   hydro- 
cele ;  physconia. 

Order  in.  hitjittigims.   Cachexies,  chief- 
ly deforming  the  skin  and  e.vternal  parts  of  ' 
the  bodv. 

11 


IW 


MliDICIXE. 


Genera.  Scrophula ;  «.yphl"u;  < <'r>rljiin; i ; 
<Ic()haiitiajU ;  Upra;  fiiiniba'sia;  tricliuinu  ; 
:icterus. 

Class  I.  Order  I. — /■<liris. 
What  in  Jt-ccr?  To  t+iis  qnesticm  it  ap- 
pears (lifliciilt  to  give  a  precise  and  sati^t;u-- 
hiry  reply.  It  is  observed  by  the  aiitlior  of 
Xoiniomia,  that  "  tlife  tenn /tTcr  is  a;iveii  to 
n  cdllpctioii  of  morbid  svniptoiiis,  wJiich  are 
4iideed  so  many  distinct  diseases  that  sonir- 
times  appear  together,  and  sometimes  sepa- 
rate ;  lience  it  lias  no  detenninate  meaning. 
except  it  si;;nities  simply  a  qiiicU  piiise,  v  liicli 
continues  tor  some  hours;''  in  wiiiili  sense 
Dr.  Darwin  employs  the  word  tln-oiighout 
Itis  ingenious  work. 

On  this  head,  however,  we  dilTer  in  opi- 
nion with  the  author  just  mentioned.  An 
increased  action  of  the  sanguiferous  svsrtt-m 
siiall  be  ind'jcetl  sometimes  by,  and  at  othvr 
t!nK?s  indepcnfliBit  of,  a  diseased  irritation, 
vithout  being  accompanied  with  other  pecu- 
liar feelings,  whidi,  not  restricting  ourselves 
to  the  etymological  sismilication  of  the  term 
fi'vcr,  we  purpose  regarding  as  necpssarv 
constituents  of  this,  as  a  <listincl  maladv. 

I[i  every  proper  fever,  there  is  a  feeling  of 
depressed  power,  which  essentially  difl'ers 
from  actual  debility.  "  A  diminutioir  of 
strength  in  the  animal  functions,"  which  con- 
stitutes part  of  Dr.  Cullen's  delinition  of  the 
febrile  state,  is  scarcely  characteristic  of  the 
condition  to  which  we  allude.  It  is  a  feeling 
wilii  which  everj-  one  is  more  or  fess  fami- 
liar, and  appears  to  indicate  rather  Gl>struct- 
ed  than  eKhall^ted  strength.  Dr.  Rush  en- 
deavours to  illustrate  this  necessary  consti- 
tuent of  genuine  fever  as  a  distinct  expression 
from  simple  irritation  of  the  blood-vessels  on 
tfie  one  liand,  and  mere  debility  on  the  other, 
by  comparing  it  with  the  smothered  sound 
■which  may  be  supposed  to  be  emitted  from 
a  musical  inslrinnent.  provided  a  heavv 
v.eight  were  applie<l  to  the  chords ;  which 
ought  to  be  suffered  to  vibrate  freelv  and 
without  obstruction,  in  order  to  jjroducc  a 
full  and  harmonious  sound.  An  illustration 
of  a  similar  nature  is  likewise  employed  bv 
Dr.  Jackson. 

Dr.  Brown  delines  fever,  "  an  asthenic  dis- 
ease that  disturbs  the  pulse."  In  this,  how- 
ever, there  is  the  same  want  of  distinction 
Mhich  we  have  iu>t  complained  of  in  the  de- 
finition of  Dr.  C'ldlen.  Asthenic  diseases  are 
diseases  of  (lelicie)it  excitement",  but  in  fevers 
we  have  an  interruption  rather  than  diminu- 
tion of  power.  The  faculties  arc  locked  uj), 
not  lost. 

Of  the  pheninntna  nf  ftvcr.  Dr.  Cullen 
v/-ry  properly  selects  the  mor«  onhnary  cir- 
cumstances that  present  themselves  in  the 
course  of  an  attack  of  intermittent /ever,  as 
ail  example  of  what  occurs  with  more  or  le^s 
regularity  in  every  case  of  genuine  febrile 
disorder. 

"  The  following,"  he  says,  "  are  to  be  ob- 
served in  such  a  paroxysm.  The  person  is 
alTected  with  languor  or  sense  of  debility,  a 
sluggishness  in  motion,  and  some  uneasiness 
in  exerting  it,  with  Irequent  yawning  and 
stretching.  At  the  same  time  the  face  antl 
extremities  become  |'ale,  the  features  shrink, 
the  buik  of  every  external  part  is  tliminished, 
and  the  skin  over  the  whole  body  appears 
constricted  as  if  cold  had  been  applied  to  it. 
At  tlic  coming  on  of  these  symiHoms,  Bymc 


rnUlnosj    of    the    extremities,   tli-oiig)i   tittle 
t.ikf  n  notice  of  by  tlie  patient,  may  be  per- 
ceived by  another  peioon.      .\l  length  Uie 
patient  himself  iecls  a  sensation  of  cold,  coni- 
monly  lirst  in  his  back,  Init  then  passUig  on-r 
his  whole  body  ;  and  now  liis  skin  I'eels  warm 
to  anolJier  person.      The  patient's  sense  of 
cold  increasing,  produces  a  tremor  in  all  his 
limbs,  with  frc'iuent  successions  or  rigors  in 
the  trunk  of  the  body.     \Vhen  this  sense  of 
cold  aiid  its  eli'ects  have  continued  for  some 
time,  they  become  less  violent,  and  are  nltei- 
naled  witii  warm  flushings.     By  degrees  tlie 
cold  j;oeH  off  entirely ;    and  a  lieat  greater 
than  natural  prevails  ;uid  continues  over  the 
whole  body.     AVith  this  l)eat  the  colour  of 
the  skin  returns,  ajid  a  [jreternatural  redness 
appears  especially  in  the  face,     ^^■'hi!5t  the 
heat  and  redness  come  on,  tlicskin  is  relaxed 
and  smooth,  but  for  some  lime  continues  drv. 
The  features  of  the  face  and  other  parts  of 
the  body,  recover  tlieir  usual  si;!e,  and  be- 
come eveji  more  tun;i<l.      When  th-e  I)eat, 
redness,  and  turgescence,  have  increased_and 
coutiimed  for  some  time,  a  moisture  appears 
on  the  forehead,  and  by  degrees  becomes  a 
sweat,   which  gradually  extends  downwards 
over  tlie  whole  body.     As  this  sweat  conti- 
nues to  flow,  the  heat  of  the  bodv  abates ; 
the   sweat,  after  contiuuin"  for  some  time, 
gradually  ceases,    the   body  returns   to    its 
usual  temperature,  and  most  of  the  lunctions 
are  restored  to  their  ordinary  state. 

Species  o/ftvers.     The  general   division 
of  systematics  is  mto  continued  and  intermit- 
tent.    The  lery  correct  description  above 
giveai  answers,  as  we  have  slated,  to  a  single 
paroxysm  or  lit  of  fever.     It  is  not  however 
often  that   the  disorder  terminates  with  the 
decline  of  tlie  paroxysm.     In  the  course  of  a 
certain  time  it  is  renewed;  and  according  to 
the  suddenness  or  tardiness  of  the  paroxysm's 
recurrence,  the  fever  is  called  continuetl,  re- 
niiltent,  or  intermittent.     Sometimes,  indeed, 
the  disordered  actions  recur  with  such  cele- 
rity, that  the  fever  appears  to  be  one  conti- 
nuous series;  "the  remission  is  inconsider- 
able, is  perhaps   without   sweat,   and   the  re- 
turning paroxysm  is  not  marked  bv  the  usual 
symptoms  of  a  cold  stage,  but  chieliv  bv  the 
exacerbation  or  aggravation  of  the  hot  one." 
The  disease  in  this  last  case  is  considered  as 
a  continued  fever  ;  in  which,  however,  there 
is,  thongh  not  the  distinct  stages  of  an  inter- 
mittent, almfwt  invariably,  especially  in  the 
earlier  periods,  a  diurnal  remission  and  re- 
currence of  paroxysm.     Of  intermittent  fe- 
vers, the  paroxvsms,  such  as  we  have  just 
described,  aie  always  rinished  in  less  than  '_'4 
hours,  and  most  fretiuently  are  not  extended 
to  nearly  this  time. 

We  are  (hen  furnished  with  a  natural  divi- 
sion of  fever  into  intermittent  and  continued, 
w'liich  however  have  mcny  circumstances  in 
common,  and  oflen  pass  into  each  other ; 
thus,  what  is  termed  in  the  schools  a  (piartan 
intermittent,  formed  by  an  inte;val  of  72 
hours  from  the  commencement  of  one  to  the 
commencement  of  another  paroxysm,  will  in 
its  course  become  a  tertian  ague,  with  only 
4R  hours  of  interval:  this  again  shall  fall  into 
a  <)uoti<liaii,  characterized  by  an  interval 
of  only  24  hours.  A  (piotidian  shall  pass  into 
the  state  of  a  remitleul,  and  this  last  be  con- 
verted into  a  true  continued  fever. 

Hisides,  however,   this   leading  distinction 
of  fever,  from  the  limes  of  tlie  recurrence  of 


(he  ('ii.f,  we  havfl  many  oiliers  arising  from 
the  naliu'e  of  the  constitution  of  tlie  indivi- 
duals attacked,  the  prevailing  cond  tion  of  the 
atmospl'.ere,  and  other  extraneous  circimi- 
staiices,  and  likewise  (what  is  ascertained 
howevcT  with  less  exactness)  the  specific  dif- 
ference of  the  oxcitijig  cause  ;  thus,  coniiiion 
fever  has  sometimes  the  inllammatory,  at 
others  the  typhoid,  character.  Thus  are 
piesented  the  bilious  remittent  fever  of  damp 
and  warm  climates,  the  yellow  fever  of  the 
West  India  islaiuls,  the  jail  fever  of  crowded 
prisons,  and  the  plague  in  liastern  countries. 
On  Ciilku'.i  gincra.  It  will  be  perceived 
that  under  the  aiipcllation  of  f'j\er  we  con- 
line  ourselves  to  the  consideration  et  what 
has  been  by  way  of  distinction  termed  simple 
fever,  and  jierhaps  with  propriety  reg;nded 
by  Mr.  A\'ilson  as  "  the  only  general  dis- 
ease," other  diseases  being  eitlicr  local,  or 
general  aiid  local.  Thus  the  sensitive  irri- 
tated fever  of  Dar^vin,  which  forms  princi- 
pally the  phlegmasia  of  CuUen,  is  a  disorder 
either  symptomatic  of,  or  at  least  supported 
by,  local  irritation. 

The  g-jnera  of  Dr.  C'ldlen  of  continued 
fever,  are, 

1.  SijnDcIui.  "  Great  heat,  pulse  frctpient, 
strong,  and  hard  ;  high-coloured  urine,  the 
lunctions  of  the  sensorium  not  much  iinjiair- 
eik'  Such  cliaract(rr,  liowever,  does  not 
answer  to  any  case  of  simple  fever;  it  is  the 
delinition  of  what  Ur.  Brown  calls  the  sthe- 
nic, whicli  is  opposed  to  the  true  febrile 
state. 

2.  Tijplnts.  "  A  contagious  disease,  tl.e 
Iwat  not  much  increased,  pulse  tVcquei.t, 
small,  and  weak  ;  urine  little  changed,  sense, 
much  Impaired,  and  the  strength  greatly  di- 
minished." '1  his  delinition  approaches  near- 
est to  tlie  more  usual  foim  of  fever  in  this 
country.  That  part  of  the  delinition,  how- 
ever, is  extremely  defective  wliicii  describes 
the  heat  as  not  much  increased. 

3.  Si/!iochi(.i.  This  is  made  by  Cullen  a 
kind  of  intermediate  disease  between  synocha 
and  typhus. 

Ejcithi!^  Cfi!(.tfs  nfffcer.     On  this  subject 
the   most  opposite  opinions  prevail.      It   is 
imagined  by  some,  (hat  no  case  of  Kcnuine 
fever,    beyond    those   ephemeral    irritatioiis 
which  are  of  daiiv  occurrence,  can  possibly 
originate  without  tlie   previous  application, 
eitlier  through  the  medium  of  the  lung^,  or 
(lie  surface  of  the   body,   of  a  certain  some- 
thing generale<l  in  the  system  of  another  in- 
dividual in  the  course  of  the  same  disease. 
Others  infer,  from  the  daily  observation  of 
iebrile    diseases    where    no    communication 
with  the  sick  can  be  traced  or  suspected,  that 
although  the  febrifacient  matter  just  spoken 
of  be  in  many,  it  is  not   in  all   instances  the 
cause  of  fever;  that  cold,  damp,  heal,  putrid 
exlialations  wlutlier  animal  or  vegetable,  iii- 
sudicicnt  ventilation,  the  depressing  jiassions. 
Sec.  are  all,  either  singly  or  in   conjunction, 
capable,    under    some    circumstar.ces,    not 
merely  of  ])redisposing  to,  but  of  actually  en- 
gendering, proper  fever.     Lastly,   there  are 
some  who  consider  contagion,  or  the  genera- 
tion  in  fever  of  specilic  lebrif.icient   matter, 
as   totally   imaginary ;   and  conceive  in   in- 
stances where  fever  has  spread  bv  comnunii- 
catiun,  that  either  certain  undetected  condi- 
tion!; in  the  air,  or  theconliued  el'thivia  of  ani- 
m*l    excretions    accumul  ited    bv   want    of 


di'anliness  ami  ventilation,  with  oilier  cir- 
tiiDi^triiices,  are  causes  siiliicicully  adi'tiuato 
to  pi'oduci;  tlie  aril'ction,  without  supposing 
Iheui^'jjicy  of  a  specilic  and  occult  power. 
"  It  is  from  luistiiiess,"  says  one  of  tlie  most 
celebrated  of  the  aiiticoiitagiouists,  "  dege- 
nerating into  i;ile(  lion  hy  chemical  cliaie^es, 
tlial  the  bodies,  clothes,  beds,  and  apartnienis, 
ot  the  poor  in  Great  Britaiji,  derive  their  poi- 
sonous, their  pestilential  charge.  By  a  coni- 
inon  pulrefa<Mive  process,  this  septic  v.nnm 
is  formed,  and  derives  none  of  its  <iualities 
from  [lulsating  arteries  or  glands.  Away 
then  with  this  preposterous  phrase,  '  from 
the  [xiisun  ent;enilered  by  septic  processrs.' 
Let  human  contagion  for  the  I'lture  mean 
rothin;-i  but  small-pox,  vaccinia,  and  the 
kindred  forms  of  morbid  secretions."  (Dr. 
Hush.) 

Notv.ilhstandin!;,  however,  the  circum- 
stances here  puinted  out  and  rested  upon, 
we  conceive  the  general  facts  to  be  in  favour 
of  poison  engendered,  independant  of  mere 
putrefaction  or  tilth  ;  and  w  e  shall  shortly  state 
the  grounds  upon  which  our  opinion  is  esta- 
blished, when  upon  the  subject  of  preventing 
the  spiead  of  fever.  That  contagion,  how- 
ever, is  absolutely  requisite  to  the  production 
of  this  disorder-,  in  eveiy  instance,  does  not 
seem  an  opinion  authorized  by  facts,  although 
it  must  be  admitted  that  the  negative  is  iaca- 
jjable  of  proof ;  for  when  we  lefer  to  its  ge- 
neration fiom  mere  lilth  and  sioth,  under  the 
circumstances  just  mentioned  Irum  Dr.  Hush, 
it  may  be  replied,  that  contagion  in  such 
cases  might  have  been  in  some  manner  con- 
veyed without  suspicion,  and  that  the  situa- 
tion of  the  recipient  constituted  merely  a 
predisposition  to  sull'er  from  its  application. 

A  contest  has  likewise  arisen  respecting  the 
production  of  intermittent  as  well  as  conti- 
nued tever.  Intermittent  fevers  are  observed 
to  prevail  especially  in  situations  the  soil  of 
which  is  marshy  :  on  this  account  it  has  been 
imagined,  that  they  are  invariably  conse- 
<|uent  upon  a  certain  taint  or  miasma  arising 
fr.im  moist  groimd.  "  The  similarity  of  the 
(liniate,  season,  and  soil,  in  the  different 
countries  in  which  intermittents  arise,  and 
the  similarity  of  the  disease,  though  arising  in 
dilVerent  regions,  concur  in  proving  that 
there  is  one  common  cause  of  these  disease?, 
and  that  this  is  the  mar.sh  miasma."  (Cul- 
len.)  Dr.  Drown  and  others  have  contend- 
ed, that  the  noxious  influence  of  cold  or  of 
licat,  "  when  the  common  asthenic  noxious 
powers  accompany  either,"  are  sufficient  to 
occasion  genuine  intermittent.  It  however 
appears  an  established  principle,  that  inter- 
mittent fevers  are  most  fre(picntly  the  off- 
spring of  poison  arising  from  marshes  or  moist 
ground.  That  other  causes  act  in  conjunc- 
tion, and  augment  the  predisposition,  is  like- 
wise an  established  fact;  for  the  agues  of 
marshy  countries  occur  most  abundantly  at 
cold  seasons  which  have  succeeded  hot  ones, 
and  especially  amongst  those  whose  diet  has 
been  innutritions  and  unslimulating.  It  is 
also  beyond  dispute  that  mere  cold  or  poor 
living  will  induce  ague  after  the  habit  has 
been  once  established. 

I'roximatc  cause  nf  fiver.  On  this;  sub- 
ject the  following  en-ors  appear  to  have  mis- 
led sxstematics.  i.  A  want  of  distinction 
between  final  and  proximate  cause  ;  between 
enquiries  instituted  in  order  to  divine  the  in- 
tentions of  nature,  and  a  careful  examination  of 


mi:  Die  INK. 

the  phenomena  of  nature  as  they  occur  in 
secpience.  'J.  The  indivisibility  of  the 
body,  and  the  universal  nature  of" tlie  disor- 
der, have  been  too  much  overlooked.  Fever 
has  been  consider<'d  as  an  alfe.  tion  of  parts 
rather  than  of  the  universal  system.  3.  An 
error  which  appears  to  result  from  the  con- 
junclion  of  tin?  two  former;  that  shrinking 
and  coldness  of  the  external  surface,  which 
is  merely  a  conset|Uei.ce  and  concomitant  ef- 
fect resulting  from  , a  febrile  attack,  has  been 
viewed  ;is  a  cause  of  the  (jther  symi)loms 
which  present  themselves  in  the  course  of  the 
affection. 

"  The  remote  causes  of  fever,''  says  Dr. 
Cullen,  "are  certain  sedative  powers  applied 
to  the  nervous  system,  which  diininishing  the 
energy  of  the  brain,  thereby  produce  a  debi- 
lity in  the  whole  of  the  functions,  and  paiti- 
cularly  in  the  action  of  the  extreme  vessels; 
this  debility  proves  an  indirect  stimulus  to  the 
sanguilerous  system,  whence  by  the  interven- 
tion of  the  cold  stage,  and  spasm  connected 
with  it,  the  action  of  the  heart  and  larger  ar- 
teries is  increased,  and  continues  fill  it  has 
had  the  effect  of  restoring  the  energy  of  the 
brain,  of  extending  this  energy  to  the  ex- 
treme vessels,  of  restoring  therefore  their  ac- 
tion, and  thereby  especially  overcoming  the 
spasm  airecting  them." 

In  the  historical  sketch  of  the  progress  of 
medical  tlieory  with  which  we  introduced 
the  present  article,  it  was  observed  that  the 
spasmodic  theory  of  Hoffinan  engendered 
tliat  of  Dr.  Cullen.  In  the  hands,  however, 
ot  this  last  systematist,  the  doctrine  in  ques- 
tion appears  to  have  received  mutilation  ra- 
ther than  amendment :  Dr.  Cullen  added 
another  set  u{  entangled  links  to  the  pre- 
viously entangled  chain.  The  shrinking, 
coldness,  and  general  inactivity,  observed  at 
the  conuiiencenient  of  fever  fits,  and  which 
are  the  necessary  consequences  of  the  sudden 
quiescence  throughout  the  system,  induced 
by  the  peculiar  action  of  the  noxious  powers 
producing  fever,  our  author  considers  as  one 
of  nature's  first  steps  in  obtaining  relief  and 
obviating  the  progress  of  the  ilisorder. 

On  this  theory  we  may  in  the  first  place 
remark,  that  when  the  progress  of  a  febrile 
alfection  is  arrested  by  remedies  applied 
during  the  first  or  cold  stage,  both  the  torpor 
of  the  brain  and  the  shrinking  of  the  surface 
may  be  removed  without  the  intervention 
of  the  hot  tit.  Indeed,,  obviating  the  recur- 
rence of  this  constitutes  the  cure  of  fever. 
Tlie  succession,  then,  of  the  hot  fit  is  not  a 
necessai-y  consequence  of  the  previous  cold 
one,  nuicli  less  is  it  an  agency  contrived  by 
nature  to  remedy  this  last.  "The  theoi-y  i"s 
likewise  "  erroneous,  in  as  far  as  it  enters  into 
the  supposed  intentions  of  nature." 

Secondly,  the  action  of  tlie  heart  and  larger 
arteries  is  not,  as  is  justly  observed  by  Dr. 
Darwin,  occasioned  fn  the  mechanical  man- 
ner of  reaction,  which  the  th.eory  we  are  can- 
vassing supposes.  During  the  continuance 
of  the  cold  fit,  the  whole  circulation  is  less- 
ened, or  in  a  manner  suspended,  the  blood 
is  not  retreating  for  safety  to  the  centre,  less 
blood  pasws  through  the  lungs  as  well  as- 
through  the  vessels  on  the  surface  af  the  body  ; 
the  fortress,  and  not  merely  the  outposts,  lias 
received  the  attack  of  the  enemv.  Now, 
when  the  hot  lit  comes  on,  the  marks  of  irri- 
tation, or  as   Dr.  BrowD  happily  terms  it,  of 


"  couiiferfelled  vigour,"  by  which  it  is  cha- 
ractt  rized,  are  merely  coiise<iuenl  upon  the 
natural  slimnli  acting  upon  accuuiulaled  irri- 
tability, of  irritabdity  accumulated  by  the 
pri-vious  quiescence  of  the  (old  stage,  and 
are  not  to  be  attributed  to  the  blood's  react- 
ing and  flowing  back  in  order  to  inOuence 
and  ot  cnpy  the  parts  and  cavities  which  it 
had  deserted.  This  supposed  action  and  re- 
action cannot  indeed  take  place  in  that  niorle 
and  to  that  extent  which  our  theorists  ima- 
gine, 'llie  human  body  is  a  living  ami  not 
"an  hydraulic  machine.  The  blood  is  not 
dammed  up  at  one  part  in  order  to  rush  with 
violence  into  another.  To  illustrate:  When  , 
even  a  part  of  tiie  body  only,  as  the  hand,  is 
immersed  in  water,  or  in  any  other  way  ab- 
ruptly exposed  to  a  diminished  temperature 
fora'^llort  period,  a  lessened  fibrous  or  vital 
a(  tion  is  the  immediate  consequence,  thesen- 
sorial  power  or  excitability  accumulates  in  a 
corresponding  ratio,  and  when  the  part  is  now 
again  subjected  to  the  inllnence  of  those 
powers  whii h  were  previously  oi)erating,  an 
irritative  and  disturbed,  in  place  of  regular 
and  healthy,  action  succeeds;  the  blood, 
however,  does  not  flow  into  the  empty  ves- 
sels like  the  waters  of  a  river  into  lateral 
channels  :  not  more  than  the  same  volume  of 
blood,  in  cases  of  much  weakness  not  so 
much,  now  circulates  through  )>arfs,  the  ex- 
citability of  which  has  been  changed,  and. 
an  accelerated,  but  not,  properly  speaking, 
increased  motion,  with  febrile  neat,  is  the 
consequence. 

We  have  perhaps  c<  needed  too  much  to 
the  spasmodk,  theory  of  fever,  in  likening 
the  state  of  the  surface  in  the  cold  fit  to  that 
jjrodnced  in  consetpience  of  diminished  tem- 
perature, for  in  this  last  the  shrinking  is  di- 
rectly produced;  whereas,  in  fever,  it  is  oc- 
casio"ned  indirectly,  or,  as  we  have  previously 
noticed,  is  merely"  one  of  the  effects  arising 
from  the  general  interruption  of  the  func- 
tions. Fever  does  not  commence  by  attack- 
ing exclusively  "  the  extreme  vessels  and 
the  capillaries  of  the  surface." 

Ths  spasmodic  theory  of  fever  then,  is  not 
only  a  substitucion  of  terms  for  an  explanation, 
of  tacts,  hut  even  the  phraseology  which  it 
employs  in  order  to  trace  and  connect  the- 
leading  symptoms  of  the  malady,  apjvars  to. 
be  deduced  from  defective  laiowledge  of  the 
laws  and  (pialities  of  life.  It  is  physically, 
nn-taphysically,  and  practically  wrong. 
"  Fever  fits  are  not  efforts  of  nature  to  re-- 
lieve  herself."  Darwin. 

Heiiire  proceeding  further,  it  may  be  pro-' 
per  to  notice  one  or  two  defects,  as  they  ap- 
pear to  us,  in  the  ingenious  theory  of  the 
author   of  Zoonomia.      In  our  remarks  on 
nosology,   the    mistakes  which   Dr.    Darwin- 
liad  been  led  into  from- his  untenable  division 
of  sensorial  power,   were  hinted  at.,    These 
mistakes  appear  to  us  to  be  evident  in  the- 
learned  author's  attempts  to  form  a  sympa- 
thetic theojy  of. the  disorders  under  notice: 
a  th.eory,  which,   in  our   opinion,   involves 
the   second    error    which   we    have    above 
stated,  viz.  that  of  overlooking  the  indivisi- 
bility of  the  body,  or  the  universal  dt^lrlbu- 
tio!i'of  sensorial  power,  and  regarding  fever 
rather  as  an  affection  of  part-,  than  of  th.ct 
whole   frame.     It  likewise,  by  consajuence,. 
embraces  the  erroneous  doctrine  of  ascribing; 
the  secondary  actions  in  fevers  to  the  cu-- 
tancous    torpor.     The     cold    lit  of   simplt 


f>"/er,  says  Dr.  Dur-iin,  consist- of  a  torpor 
ot  tl;e  cutaneous  capilbries,  with  their  mu^ 
cous  ami  perfjjirative  glands,  which  is  ex- 
s,  iitlctl  by  direct  sympathy  to  tlie  heart  and. 
jrlcries.  Tlie  torpor,  I'.o'.vever,  of  the  heart 
:'-;id  arteries  is  coexistent  wilh,  and  not  conse- 
'•iiftiit  npoo,  the  inaction  of  the  ci;taneous 
vi-=;sels  ;  thv)  sensorial  power  rciidmg  in  tlie 
former  at  the  time  ol  211  attack  ol  fever,  must 
be  affected  in  tlie  same  manner  as  the  sen- 
sorial power  of  the  latter;  and  the  admission 
or  association,  is  the  iiitroduction  of  an  un- 
necessary link  in  the  chain  of  i-aiise.  Tiiat 
ili'^taiit  parts  svnipatliize  wilh  each  other,  in 
;t  manner  which  phvsiology  has  not  hitlierto 
been  able  to  unfold,  as  the  stomach  with  tlie 
snrface  of  the  body  for  example,  is  admitted ; 
in  the  case  of  fever,  however,  we  wish 
])artirniarly  to  insist  iipoH  such  sympathy  as 
.10  explanation  of  svmptoms^  -being  super- 
(iiious:  the  heart  anJ  arteries,  the  slonuxh, 
tiie  smiace  of  the  body,  tljC  secretory  gland-, 
all  receive  a  diminution  or-sndden  interrup- 
tion, of  their  functions  at  the  same  moment 
of  time,  and  from  the  same  cause :  they  are 
Simultaneous  and  not  successive  efleets. 
Dr.  Darwin  seems  equally  unfortunate  iii 
ivferi-ing  the  hot  skin  and  remaining  qui- 
escence of  some  internal  organs,  as  of  the 
stomach,  in  the  second  stage  of  fever,  to  re- 
verse sympathy.  Sympathy  cannot  he  di- 
r^'ct  in  one  in.-,lance,  and  reverse  in  another: 
"  The  laws  of  association  are  invariable,  or 
they  do  not  exist." 

AVhat  then  ii  the  cause  of  fever?  It  is  an 
abrupt  suspension  and  consequent  disruption 
of  all  the  connected  movements  of  the  ani- 
mal fran:e  by  \vl;ich  the  balance  of  e.\cite- 
ment  is  overtiirowo,  "  the  laws  of  excitabi- 
lity are  changed,  and  in  consequence  of  which 
the  saine  agents  no  longer  produce  llic  same 
ell'ects.  Fever  dil'Cers  from  debility  inasmuch 
as  the  latter  is  a  gradual  and  regular  ex- 
haustion, not  an  abrupt  interruption  of  the 
powers  of  life ;  it  difl'ers  from  strength,  as 
strength  consists  in  a  powerful  and  etjuable 
excitement,  while  fever,  however  It  may 
"  counterfeit  vigour,"  is  never  attended  by 
the  necessary  constituent  of  vigour,  regular 
and  orderly  display  of  power. 

Tlie  primary  cold,  or  as  the  Latins  term  it, 
"  liorror,"is  from  the  quiescence  that  lias  been 
induced;  during  this  state  of  quiescence,  a 
new  and  inordinate  condition  of  the  excita- 
bility is  established,  and  by  consetjuence 
both  the  external  and  internal  stimuli  excite 
perturbed  in  the  place  of  orderly  and  usual 
actions:  action  without  power  commences; 
hence  morbid  heat  is  generated,  diseased 
associations  are  foriiied,  and  without  being 
in  a  state  pf  actual  weakness,  the  whole  sys- 
tem sink;,  ojipressed.  The  plain  indications  of 

Treatment  infivrr,  are  therefore  to  break 
the  morbid  associations  on  which  this  op- 
pression is  established,  or  obviate  the  symp- 
toms by  which  it  is  continued;  to  diminish 
the  coUUivthe  cold  stage,  the  heat  in  the  hot 
stage,  and  not  to  await  the  sanative  process 
of  nature,  either  of  dissolving  spasm,  or  of 
correcting  and  expelling  inorbiMc  matter. 
The  various  remedies  employed  for  these 
purposes  are,  the  external  and  internal  u-se  of 
cflid  -and  warm  water;  refrigerants,  sudo- 
rilics,  opiates,  emetics,  pmgatives:  on  each 
of  these,  we  shall  introduce'  a  few  separate 
remarks;  in  the  course  of  which -an  oppor- 


MEDICINE. 

tiinity  will  be  afforded,  of  enquiring  more 
minutely  into  the  patliology  ot  the  febrile 
state. 

Of  cold  ofld  tepid  affusion,  and  aUaiinn. — 
Cotdwuttr  iuternaliii. — Coid  air. — The  me- 
dical reports  ot  iJr.  Currie,  on  the  eli'ccts  of 
water  cokl,  and  warm,  in  the  treatment  of  fe- 
ver, are  hitrodiiced  inthe  following  manner: 

Narrative  nf  Dr.  ff'riglit. 

"  In  the  London  Medical  Journal  for  the 
year  17St),  Dr.  William  Wright,  formerly 
of  the  island  of  Jamaica,  gave  an  account  of 
the  successful  treatment  of  some  cases  of 
fever,  by  the  ablution  ol  the  patient  with  cold 
water. 

"  On  the  1st- of  August,  1777,"  says  Dr. 
Wright,  "I  embarked  in  a  ship  bound  to 
Liverpool,  and  sailed  the  same  evennig  from 
Montego-bay.  The  master  told  me  he  had 
several  sailors  on  tlie  same  day  we  took  our 
cL-parture,  one  of  whom  had  been  at  sick 
quarters  on  shore,  and  was  now  but  in  a  con- 
valescent state.  On  the  23d  of  August,  we 
were  in  the  latitude  of  Bermudas,  and  had 
liad  a  very  heavy  gale  of  wind  for  three  days, 
when  the  above-mentioned  man  relapsed, 
and  had  a  fever  with  symptoms  of  tlie  greatest 
malignit}'.  I  attended  this  person  otten,  but 
could  not  prevail  on  him  to  be  removed  from 
a  daik  and  conlmed  situation  to  a  more  airy 
and  convenient  part  of  the  ship  ;  and  as  he 
refused  medicine  and  even  food,  he  died  on 
the  eighth  day  of  his  illness. 

"  By  my  attention  to  the  sick  man,  I 
cauglit  the  contagion,  and  began  to  be  in- 
disposed on  the  5tli  of  September  ;  and  the 
following  is  a  narrative  of  my  case,  extracted 
from  notes  daily  marked  down  :  I  had  been 
many  years  jn  Jamaica,  but  except  bi-ing 
somewhat  relaxed  by  tlie  climate  and  fatigue 
of  business,  I  ailed  nothing  w  lien  I  embark- 
ed. This  circumstance,  however,  might 
perhaps  dispose  me  more  readily  to  receive 
the  infection. 

"  Sept.  5th,  fith,  7th:  Small  rigours  now 
and  then ;  a  prsternatuval  heat  of  tlie  skin  ;  a 
dull  pain  in  the  forehead;  the  puUe  small 
and  quick;  a  loss  of  appetite,  but  no  sickness 
at  the  stomach  ;  the  tongue  white  and  slimy ; 
little  or  no  thirst;  the  belly  regular;  tlieuriiie 
pale  and  rather  scanty ;  in  the  iiiglit  restless 
with  starting  and  delirium. 

"  Sept.  8th.  Every  symptom  aggravated  ; 
with  pains  in  the  loins  and  lower  limbs,  and 
stillness  in  the  thighs  and  hams. 

"  I  took  a  gentle  vomit  on  the  second  day 
of  this  illness,  and  next  morning  a  decoction 
of  tamarinds;  at  bed-lime  an  opiate  joined 
with  antimonial  wine;  but  this  did  not  pro- 
cure sleep  or  open  the  pores  of  the  skin. 
Xo  inllammatory  symptoms  being  present, 
a  drachm  of  Peruvian  bark  was  taken  every 
hour  for  six  hours  successively,  and  now  and 
then  a  glass  of  port-wine,  but  with  no  apjia- 
rent  beneiit.  When  upon  deck  my  pains 
were  greatly  mitigated,  and  the  colHer  the 
air  the  better.  This  circuinstance,  and  the 
failure  of  every  means  I  had  tried,  encou- 
raged me  to  put  in  practice  on  myseif,  what 
I  had  often  wislied  to  (ry  on  others,  in  fevers 
similar  to  my  own. 

"  Sept.  9tii.  Having  given  the  necessary 
directions,  about  three  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon 1  slipt  off  all  my'  clothes,  and  thiew  a 
sea-cloak  loosely  about  me  till  1  got'  ijpon 
deck,  when  the. cloak  also  was  laid  aside: 


three  buckets  of  salt  water  were  t'lCn  tlirow' 
at  once  upon  me;  Ihe  shock  was  great,  b'.' 
1  felt  immediate  relief.  The  head-ache  and 
other  pains  instantly  abated,  and  a  tine  glov.- 
and  uiaphoresis  succeeded ;  towards  even- 
ing, however,  the  same  febrile  symjitoms 
threatened  a  return,  antl  I  had  again  recour^ 
to  the  same  method  as  before,  with  the  sanu- 
good  effect.  I  now  took  food  with  an  ajj- 
petite,  and  for  the  lirst  time  had  a  sound 
nigiit'srest. 

"  Sept.  10.  No  fever,  but  a  little  uneasi- 
ness on  the  liam.s  and  thighs ;  used  the  cold 
bath  twice. 

"Sept.  II.  Every  symptom  vEnished; 
but  to  prevent  a  relapse  fused  the  coid  bath 
twice.  Mr.  Thomas  Kirk,  a  voung  genlK-- 
man,  passenger  in  the  same  ship,  fell  sick  of 
a  lever  on  the  9th  day  of  August ;  his  symp- 
toms werenearly  similar  to  mine,  and  having 
taken  some  medicines  without  experiencing 
relief,  he  was  desirous  of  trying  the  cold 
bath;  with  my  approbation  he  did  on  the 
11th  and  12th  or  September,  and  by  this 
method  was  happily  restored  to  health.  lii- 
lives  at  this  time  (Jan.  17S6)  near  Liver- 
poo!." 

We  have  thus  presented  our  readers  with 
this  important  narration  of  Dr.  Wright,  both 
as  it  furnisiics  a  history  of  fever,  as  it  details  , 
the  mode  in  which  the  cold  allusions  should 
be  employed,  and  as  it  was  confe.-isedly  tlie 
means  of  introducing  this  most  valuable  re- 
medy into  general  practice.  We  shall  now 
add  fioni  Dr.  Currie  the  more  particular 
rides  which  ought  to  govern  the  u.^e  of  the 
affusion  or  aspersion  of  cold  water  in  fevers, 
and  then  make  one  or  two  observations  on 
the  nature  of  lis  operation. 

"  The  safest  and  most  advantageous  time,  " 
says  Dr.  Currie,  "  for  using  the  cold  water 
is,  when  the  exacerbation  is  at  fts  height,  or 
immediately  after  its  declination  has  begun  ; 
and  this  has  led  me  almost  always  to  direct 
it  to  be  employed  from  six  to  nine  in  the 
evening;  but  it  may  be  sal'elv  used  at  anv 
time  of  the  day,  xdicn  there  is  no  sense  af 
cliillintss  present,  ti'lttn  ike  lieut  of  the  sur- 
face is  stcudilij  above  X'.'hat  is  natural,  ami 
uhen  th:  re  it  no  general  or  profuse  perspi- 
ration.— ^These  particulars  are  of  the  utnlO-^t 
importance:  for,  1st.  If  thealTusion  be  used 
tluring  the  cold  stage,  the  resjiiralion  is 
nearly  suspended ;  the  pulse  becomes  flut- 
tering, feeble,  and  of  incalculable  frequency  ; 
the  surface  and  the  extremities  become 
doubly  cold  and  shrivelled,  and  the  patient 
seems  to  struggle  with  the  [laiigs  of  instant 
dissolution.  1  have  no  doubt,  from  what  I 
have  observed,  that  in  such  circumstances 
the  repeated  alliisions  of  a  few  buckets  of  cold 
water  would  extinguish  life.  This  remedy 
should  therefore  never  be  used  when  any  • 
considerable  sense  of  chilliness  is  present, 
even  though  the  thermometer  applied  to  the 
trinik  of  the  body,'sh.')uld  indicate  a  degree 
of  heat  greater  than  usual. 

"  2nd.'  Neither  aught  it  to  be  us-ed,  when 
the  heat  measured  liy  the  thermometer  is 
less  than,  or  even  only  equal  to,  the  natural 
heat,  though  the  patient  should  feel  no  degree 
of  chilliness.  This  is  sometimes  the  case  to- 
wards the  last  st:iges  of  fever,  when  the  pow- 
ers of  life  are  too  weak  to  sustain  so  powerlul 
a  stimulus. 

"  3d.  It  is  also  necessary  to  abstain  from 
the  use  of  this  remedy  under  profuse  suu- 


»ib!e  perspiration,  niid  this  caution  is  more 
im|)or:aiu  iii  |)ro|iorlioii  to  the  coiitiiiiiaiice 
ot  tills  pi-rs|)iratioii." 

"  I'lickr  tlifse  restrictions,"  our  aiittior 
adils,  "  the  cold  affusion  may  be  useil  at  any 
pL-riod  of  (ever  ;  but  its  effects  are  more  salu- 
tary in  proportion  as  it  is  used  early.  A\'hen 
employed  in  the  advanc(-<l  stages  of  fever, 
where  the  heat  is  reduced  and  Uie  dehilify 
great,  some  cordial  should  be  given  immedi- 
ately after,  and  the  best  is  warm  wine." 

Observations.  Cold  water,  as  a  remedy 
for  fever,  may  be  conceived  to  o|)erate  upon 
a  twofold  principle.  In  the  earlier  stages, 
and  before  the  vital  ])Ower  is  too  much  ha- 
rassed and  oppressed  to  endure  a  violent 
shock,  the  coi)ious  and  sudden  alfusion  of 
cold  water  all  over  the  jiaked  body,  appears 
to  elVect  its  beneficial  purposes  in  part  by 
the  abruptness  of  its  agency  ;  it  in  a  manner 
jevers  the  chain  of  diseased  associations,  and 
restores  the  healthy  and  orderly  movements 
of  the  frame.  This  operation  is  not,  as  has 
bjen  suggested,  mechanical :  it  is  in  some 
measure  similar  to  tliat  produced  by  the  ope- 
ration of  an  emetic,  to  which  it  is  in  every 
respect  greatlv  preferable,  or  to  sudden  men- 
tal agitation.  In  the  language  of  the  schools, 
it  cuts  short  fever. 

When,  however,  the  diseased  associations 
are  more  (irmly  established,  and  the  vital 
power  greatlv  oppressed  by  the  disorder's 
continuance,  although  the  surface  of  the 
body  retains  its  morbid  heat,  the  water  is  to 
be  applied,  not  in  the  way  of  sudden  allusion, 
but  by  washing  with  a  spunge,  and  this  under 
the  restrictions  enjoined  by  Dr.  Currie,  or 
we  may  safely  say,  while  it  is  found  genial  to 
the  patient's  feelings,  ought  to  be  resorted  to 
in  every  case  of  simple  fever.  Tlie  action 
of  the  water  at  this  time  is  somewhat  different 
from  that  in  the  previous  period,  or  under 
dilferent  circumstances  of  the  disorder.  It 
proves  a  direct  stimulus.  But  how,  it  has 
been  urged,  can  the  negative  of  a  power 
prove  stinmlative  ?  "  Darkness  might  as  well 
be  called  a  stimulus  to  the  eye,  or  hunger 
a  stimulus  to  the  stomach,  as  cold  to  our 
sense  which  perceives  heat."  Darwin. 
To  this  it  has  been  replied  by  Dr.  Currie, 
and  before  him  by  Dr.  Beddoes,  that  the 
objection  is  founded  upon  a  disregard  of  the 
sentient  principle:  "  Cold,"  says  the  latter 
author,  "  may  very  often  be  so  applied  as, 
by  removing  the  very  disagreeable  sense  of 
heat,  that  attends  some  diseases,  to  produce 
an  effect  equivalent  to  stimulation.  It  is,  I 
believe,  exactly  in  this  way,  that  bathing  the 
body  with  cold  water  proves  serviceable  in 
low  fevers." 

From  the  urgency,  however,  of  the  de- 
bility, or  from  the  prejudices  of  the  patient 
or  his  friends,  in  some  periods  of  fever,  even 
the  application  of  cold  water  in  the  way  of 
ablution  may  be  regarded  as  too  severe. 
In  this  case  tepid  ablution  has  been  made  to 
su|)ply  its  place,  and  often  with  propriety 
and  success;  it  is,  however,  particularly  de- 
serving of  remark,  that  unless  this  last  be 
used  with  precautjoa,  the  object  of  the  prac- 
titioner in  itschoiee  is  defeated,  as  the  evapo- 
ration from  the  surface  is  more  copious  from 
the  tepid  alfusion  ;  and  this  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful,  indeed,  strictly  speaking,  the  only 
means  of  abstracting  heat.  The  term  tepid 
is  applied  bv  Dr.  Currie  to  water,  from  87°  to 
97"' ot  Fahrenheit ;  from  87°  to  "j"  tlie  water 

Vol.  II. 


MEDICI  NK. 

is  denominated  cool.  Cold  water  may  be 
given  internally,  and  with  the  utmost  free- 
dom, in  the  hoi  stage  of  the  febrile  paroxvsm. 
Its  Use,  however,  recpiires  to  be  carefully 
regulated  by  the  same  restrictions  as  in  the 
external  application ;  it  must  never  be  given 
unless  the  heat  of  the  surface  be  steadily  above 
the  natural  standard.  Draughts  of  cold 
water  have  been  known,  when  properly  ad- 
ministered, to  procure  a  sudden  solution  of 
the  disease. 

Cold  air.  Tlie  extraordinary  melioration 
in  the  modern  practice  of  medicine,  as  it  re- 
lates to  the  tn-atmcnt  of  fever  and  febrile 
diseases,  is  not  conlined  to  the  copious  use  of 
art'usion  and  ablution.  '\'\\c  terrors  of  yur 
predecessors,  in  relation  likewise  to  cold  air, 
are  fast  departing ;  and  the  iniporlaiice  of 
its  free  admission  in  the  apartUK-nts  of  the 
febrile  sufferer  es|)ecially,  comes  to  bi'  gene- 
rally acknowledged  and  applied.  It  has 
been  stated  by  a  physician,  above  all  praise 
for  fidelity  of  observation  and  justness  of 
remark,  that  the  corrupted  air  of  sick  rooms, 
from  neglect  of  ventilation,  has  been  much 
more  fatal  even  among  the  higher  classes  of 
society,  than  the  virulence  of  the  disease 
itself:  "  Vereor  nc  quidam  a^groti  non  tarn 
morbo  suo  perlerint,  quani  halitibus  pulribus, 
(pios  discuti  vetuit  pra;posteia  amicorum 
cura."  Ileberden. 

The  utility  of  cold  air  in  fever  is  referable 
to  two  principles:  1st.  That  of  immediately 
lowering  the  heat  of  the  surface,  and  thus 
taking  off  tUe  o|)pression  occasioned  by  such 
heat :  and  2n(lly,  from  affording  a  larger 
quantity  of  oxygen  at  each  inspiration.  I'lie 
lirst  of  these  principles  is  sulliciently  evident, 
and  does  not  require  any  further  illustration: 
if  cold  ablution  prove  benehcial  chietly  by 
virtue  of  diminishing  the  temperature  ot  the 
body,  it  necessarily  follows  that  coldness  in 
the  circumambient  atmosphere  must  be  at- 
tended with  precisely  similar  effects:  but 
on  the  purity,  as  connected  with  diminished 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  it  may  not 
be  improper  to  embrace  the  present  oppor- 
tunity of  ofi'ering  one  or  two  remarks.  A 
given  bulk  of  air  at  an  inferior  temperature, 
contains  more  of  the  oxygenous  principle 
than  the  same  (piantity  at  a  superior  degree 
of  heat;  hence  the  greater  refreshment  which 
is  experienced  from  the  inhalation  of  a  cold 
and  dense,  over  that  of  a  warm  and  rarefied 
atmosphere  ;  hence,  in  part,  tlu-  more  vigo- 
rous digestion  and  keen  appetite  of  a  healthy 
individual  during  the  winter,  than  the  sum- 
mer months ;  and  finally,  by  the  relief 
a  febrile  patient  experiences  from  the  in- 
spiration of  such  air,  it  is  rendered  evident, 
both  that  the  heat  of  fever  originates,  and  is 
kept  up,  independently  of  those  organs  which 
modern  chemistry  and  physiology  have  sup- 
posed to  be  the  sole  organs  for  the  supply  of 
heat  to  the  living  system.  From  this  fact 
Dr.  Reid  infers,  and  we  think  with  justice, 
that  the  constant  equality  of  animal  tempera- 
ture in  a  condition  of  health,  has  more  depen- 
danceupon  living  actions  in  general  than  upon 
the  chemical  evolution  of  caloric  in  the  lungs, 
according  to  the  ingenious  theory  first  sug- 
gested by  Dr.  Crawford,  but  since  materially 
modilied.     See  Physiology. 

But  the  frigorific  virtue  of  a  more  oxvge- 
nous  atmosphere,  when  received  into  the 
lungs  of  a  febrile  invalid,  is  a  further  proof, 
thai  however  violent  the  reaction,  as  it  has 


I3)r 

been  erroneously  calkil,  sncli  reaction  is,  in 
every  case  of  genuine  fever,  far  from  being 
an  evidence  of  actual  increase  of  power. 
Whatever  theory  we  adopt  respecting  the 
precise  mode  In  which  pure  air  induences 
the  animal  economy,  an  unilormity  of  opi- 
nion must  prevail,  that  it  is,  in  the  strictest 
sense  of  the  word,  an  exciting  agent.  Nowr 
as  far  as  it  operates  beneficially  in  fever,  it 
reduces  the  inordinate  heat ;  that  power  then 
which  actually  and  properly  excites,  by  this 
very  agency  moderates  the  turbulent  action, 
and  by  consequence  reduces  the  prevailing 
morbid  heat.  'Ihe  admission  of  cold  air 
requires  likewise  to  be  restricted  to  the  hot 
stage,  and  to  be  limited  by  the  patient's  feel- 
ings;  a  current  of  cold  air  passing  rapidly 
over  the  body  while  in  a  state  of  perspiration, 
may  be  productive  of  fatal  consecpieiices. 

Of  7'tfrigiraiits  in  fcvcr.  Besides,  how- 
ever, the  employment  of  cold  water,  and  the 
free  admission  of  a  cool  and  pure  atmo- 
sphere, other  agents  have  been  liad  recourse 
to,  and  with  considerable  efi'ect,  in  order  to 
abate  the  inordinate  heat  of  fever.  From 
possessing  the  faculty  of  cooling  the  system, 
certain  medicines  have  been  distinguished 
by  the  term  refrigerants:  refrigerants  are 
principally  chosen  Irom  the  vegetable  acids, 
and  the  different  neutral  salts ;  and  so  evi- 
dent is  their  power  in  reducing  animal  tempe- 
rature, that  they  have  properly  been  made 
to  constitute  a  considerable  part  of  regimen 
in  fever.  Indeed  nitre,  and  other  neutral 
salts,  with  the  vegetable  acids,  have  been  re- 
ceived into  some  systems  of  classitication, 
under  the  di^tinct  head  of  febrifuge  medi- 
cines. The  modus  operandi  of  relrfgerants 
has  not  perhaps  hitherto  received  explana- 
tion ;  the  substances  of  which  they  are  com- 
po'ied  are  for  the  most  part  those  which  con- 
tain oxygen  in  a  concentrated,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  loose  state  of  combination  ;  from 
this  circumstance,  their  action  has  been  in- 
geniously but  not  perhaps  satisfactorily  ac- 
counted for.  "  It  has  been  sufficiently  es- 
tablished," says  a  modern  writer,  "  that  the 
consumption  of  oxygen  in  the  lungs  is  materi- 
ally inllwenced  by  the  nature  of  the  ingesta 
received  into  the  stomach;  that  it  is  increas- 
ed by  aHimal  food  and  spirituous  liquors, 
and,  in  general,  by  whatever  substances  con- 
tain a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  oxy- 
gen in  their  composition.  But  the'  superior 
temperature  of  animals  is  derived  frem  the 
consumption  of  oxygen  gas  by  respiration; 
an  increase  of  that  consumption  must  neces- 
sarily, therefore,  occasion  a  greater  evolution 
of  caloric  in  the  system,  and  of  course  an 
increase  of  temperature,  while  a  diminution 
in  the  consumption  of  oxygen  nmst  have 
an  opposite  effect.  If,  therefore,  when  the 
temperature  of  the  body  is  morbidlv  increas- 
ed, substances  be  introduced  into  the  sto- 
mach, containing  a  large  proportion  of  oxy- 
gen, especially  in  a  state  of  loose  combi- 
nation, and  capable  of  being  assimilated  by 
the  digestive  powers,  the  nutritious  matter 
received  into  the  blood  must  contain  a  larger 
proportion  of  oxygen  than  usual;  less  of  that 
principle  will  be  consumed  in  the  lungs,  by 
which  means  less  caloric  being  evolved,  the 
temperature  of  the  body  must  be  reduced  ; 
and  this  operating  as  a  reduction  of  stimulus 
will  diminish  the  number  aud  force  of  the 
contractions  of  the  heart."  Murrays  Ma^ 
teria  Medica. 


13S 

This  reasonins  is  perhaps  more  specious 
flian  jii'^t.  In  ihe  first  place,  I'le  remarks 
which  we  have  ahove  introduc«l  on  the  actual 
diminution  of  febrile  heat  from  inhaling  an 
oxygenous  ataiospliere,  seem  to  oppose  the 
theory  of  refrigeratioii,  from  "  less  of  the 
oxygenous  principle  being  consumed  in  the 
lungs."  Secondly,  it  may  be  noticed  that 
the  effects  of  these  medicines  are  too  speedy 
and  direct  to  admit  of  llie  supposition  of  this 
intermediate  kuid  of  agency ;  and  tliirdly, 
although  the  refrigeranlia  aie  for  llie  most 
part,  they  are  not  universally,  substances 
jj'hich  contain  this  suberabundance  of  tlic 
ONvgenous  principle.  The  saline  draught, 
fof'example,  appears  to  moderate  febrile 
heat,  principally  by  reason  of  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  that  it  contains. 

Chemical  reasoning  ha?  recently  been  ex- 
tensively applied  to  the  developenient  of  the 
mode  in  general  in  which  the  functions  of 
the  stomach  and  lungs  are  connected,  and  as 
this  enqviiry  is  closely  related  both  to  t!ie 
tlieorv  ot  febrile  heat,  and  the  dietetical  as 
well  as  the  medicinal  management  of  the 
febrile  invalid,  it  may  not  be  improper  to 
detain  the  reader  by  one  or  two  furtlier  re- 
flections on  this  very  interestuig  point  of 
dlsctission.  It  is  an  axiom  of  Hippocrates, 
that  animal  food  should  not  be  given  in  fever ; 
an  axiom  which  was  no  iloubt  founded  upon 
observation  of  its  general  irritating  and  dis- 
ordering tendency.  Modern  physiology, 
liowever,  has  not  rested  content  with  a  know- 
ledge of  the  fact,  but  has  endeavoured  to 
divine  its  immediate  cause.  That  digestion 
of  the  food  is,  ca;teris  paribus,  in  proportion 
to  the  oxygenation  of  the  blood;  or  to  avoid 
an  expression  involving  theory,  to  the  purity 
of  air  and  freedom  of  inspiration,  which  an 
individual  enjoys,  is  without  question  ;  and 
it  is  further  evident  from  daily  oljscrvation, 
tliat  the  facility  of  asshnilatiiig  animal  food,  in 
particular,  is  increased  by  air,  exercise,  and 
whatever  promotes  an  uninterrupted  circu- 
lation through  the  pulmonary  organs.  Hence 
it  is  said,  we  are  furnished  with  an  expla- 
nation why  animal  diet  is  uncongenial  to  the 
patient  in  fever.  The  pulmonary  circulation 
is  impeded  by  f(;brile  oppression,  less  o.xy- 
gen  is  received  from  the  almospiiere,  and  the 
power  of  assimilating  materials  which  contain 
th^  hydrogenous  and  azotic  principles  in 
abundance  is  consequently  weakened,  oi',  as 
we  h.ive  heard  it  expressed  still  more  clie- 
inicaily,  less  fuel  or  combustiljle  matter  is 
required,  on  account  of  there  being  less 
power  of  consaming  such  fuel,  or  of  main- 
taining combustion. 

Perhaps  the  peculiarity  or  distinct  nature 
of  living  action,  has  not  been  sufficiently  at- 
tended to  by  modern  physiologists  of  tlie 
chemical  school.  That  hypothesis,  the  out- 
line of  which  we  have  just  delineated,  appears 
at  first  sight  perspicuous  and  unobjection- 
able, but  when  pursued  more  in  detail,  facts 
present  themselves  which  are  in  some  mea- 
sure at  variance  with  its  fundamental  pr'ui- 
dples. 

Animal  food  may,  pcrliaps,  prove  less  con- 
genial to  the  patient  in  fever,  than  mider  cir- 
cumslanccif  of  debility  without  febrile  dis- 
turbance, on  account  of  the  direct  irritation 
it  communicates  to  the  fibre,  iiidependantly 
of  its  chemical  properties ;  the  dilference  be- 
tween animal  and  vegetable  diet  in  this 
partio-ular,  is  abundantly  obvious.  But  it 
4 


MEDICINE. 

may  further  be  urged,  that  several  maleriuls 
taken  into  the  stomacli  during  the  burning 
heat  of  fever,  appear  to  be  productive  of 
nearly  similar  elfects,  in  their  immediate 
operation,  with  a  diet  of  animal  food  ;  of  this 
we  have  an  instance  in  opium.  Opium, 
which  when  duly  administered  is  congenial 
and  salutary,  when  given  while  the  skin  is 
drv,  and  there  is  no  disposition  to  perspi- 
ration, proves  irritating  and  hurtful ;  it  still 
further  impedes  the  weakened  digestive 
organs,  augments  the  tendency  to  costivc- 
ness,  aad  increases  febrile  heat.  These  pro- 
perties it  surely  does  not  possess  l>y  virtue 
of  the  quantity  of  hydrogen  or  azote  that  it 
co.'itains. 

OfSudorifics. 

AVe  now  proceed  to  consider  the  ardency 
of  sudoritics  as  febrifuge  remedies.  Moisture 
on  the  surface  of  tiie  body  may  be  procured 
by  medicines  which  appear  to  have  a  direct 
power  over  the  cutaneous  vessels,  or  by 
those  whose  action  seems  to  be  directed  pri- 
marilv  to  the  stomach.  These  last  are  prin- 
cipally of  the  saline  class,  which  are  by  far 
the  n\ost  suitable  in  the  febrile  state. 

The  physiology  of  perspiration,  and  tlie 
principles  by  which  it  operates  as  a  cooling 
process,  are,  notwithstanding  the  recent  dis- 
coveries in  chemistry,  and  their  application 
to  this  interesting  subject,  still  invob.ed  in 
much  obscurity. 

The  ancients  imagined  sweat  to  be  not 
merely  an  excrementitious  product,  but  the 
vehicle  of  conveying  that  morbific  matter 
out  of  the  body  which  had  been  the  occa- 
sion of  disease.  This  opinion  does  not,  in 
the  present  state  of  science,  require  to  be 
confuted.  The  questions  of  most  interest, 
respecting  the  phenomena  and  causes  of 
perspiration,  are,  in  what  relation  does  it 
stand  to  the  respiratory  ftmction  ;  and  is  that 
moisture  on  the  surface  of  the  skin  which 
closes  a  febrile  paroxysm,  to  be  regarded  as 
a  cause  or  consequence  of  tlie  disorder's  de- 
clination ? 

"  That  an  animal,"  says  Dr.  Currie, 
"  possesses  to  a  certain  extent  the  facultv 
of  rendering  sensible  heat  latent,  or,  to  speak 
more  philosophically,  of  reducing  caloric 
from  a  free  to  a  combined  state,  in  cases  in 
which  the  stimulus  of  heat  might  otherwise 
overpower  the  living  energy,  lliera  is  reason 
to  believe,  from  a  variety  iS  experiments  and 
observations;  and  th.it  this  is  in  part  per- 
formed by  perspiration  from  the  surface  can 
scarcely  admit  of  a  doubt.  Tlie  process  of 
perspiration,  which  is  continually  going  on 
from  the  surface  of  the  body,  is  in  this  point 
of  view  the  converse  of  respiration  ;  as  in 
respiration  a  gas  is  constantly  converted  into 
a  solid  or  fluid,  and  thus  heat  evolved,  so 
in  perspiration  a  fluid  is  constantly  converted 
into  a  vapour,  and  thus  heat  is  absorbed.  A 
vessel  filled  with  water  and  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere,  cannot  be  raised  above  2-'0°  of 
Faln'enlieit  by  any  quantity  of  fuel,  because, 
heat  is  ajiplied  from  below,  evaporation  car- 
ries it  off  from  the  surface  ;  in  like  manner 
we  may  suppose  the  heat  of  the  living  body 
to  be  kept  uniform,  by  the  evaporation  Irom 
its  surface  increasing  or  diminishing,  accord- 
ing to  the  qtiantity  of  heat  extricated  from 
the  system,  or  receivedfrom  the  surrounding 
medium." 

These  speculations  are  beautiful  and 
highly  ingenious.     It   however    admits  of 


question,  whether  Dr.  Currie,  in  applvins; 
them  to  the  subject  of  febrile  heat,  may  not 
have  given  too  much  weight  to  the  analogy 
of  absor))tion  of  caloric  in  inanimate  matter, 
as  explanatory  of  the  tooling  process  m  the 
living  body  ;  and  whether  sensible  pers,/ira- 
tion,  produced  by  medicine  or  otherwise, 
may  not  be  consequent  upon,  rather  than 
prior  to,  the  diminution  of  tebr.le  he;it ;  It, 
tor  example,  a  large  quanlitv  of  water  be 
swallowed  m  the  height  ol  a  febrile  paroxysm, 
and  be  directly  -succeeded  by  general  dia- 
phoresis, or  sweat,  with  reiiet  from  the 
burning  sensations  of  fever,  although  it  be 
natural  to  attribute  such  reiici  to  the  sweat 
that  is  produced,  this  last  may  be  subsequent 
to  that  altered  condition  of  the  tibre  by 
which  the  evolution  ot  caloric  is  dimii.isheil. 
Such  an  opinion  has  been  ingeniously 
argued  by  Dr.  Keid ;  and  if  the  following 
observations  of  Dr.  Darwin  are  just,  they 
appear  to  place  the  'matter  beyond  dispute. 
"  Th'e  perspirable  matter,"  savsthis  la>t  au- 
thor, "  is  secreted  in  as  gicat  quantity  dur- 
ing the  hot  fit  of  fever,  as  towards  the  end 
of  it,  when  the  sweat  is  seen  upon  the  skin. 
But  during  the  hot  lit,  the  cutaneous  ab- 
sorbents act  also  with  increased  energv,  and 
the  exhalation  is  likewise  increased  ijy  the 
greater  heat  of  the  skm  ;  and  hence  it' does 
not  appear  in  drops  upon  the  surface  ;  but; 
is  in  part  reabsorljed  and  in  part  dissipated 
in  the  atmosphere.  But  as  thfr  months  of 
the  cutaneous  absorbents  are  exposed  to  the 
cool  air  or  bed-clothes ;  while  those  of  the 
capillary  glands,  which  secrete  the  perspi- 
rable matter,  are  ex|)osed  to  the  warmth  of 
the  circulating  blood  ;  the  former,  as  soon 
as  the  fever  fit  begins  to  decline,  lose  their 
increased  action  hr^t ;  and  hen:e  the  ab- 
sorption of  sweat  is  diminished,  whilst  the 
increased  secretion  of  it  continues  for  some 
hours  afterwards,  which  occasions  it  to  stand 
in  drops  upon  the  skin.  As  the  skin  be- 
comes cooler,  die  evaporation  ot  the  persjii- 
rable  matter  becomes  less  as  well  as  the  abr 
sorption  of  it.  And  hence  the  dissipation  of 
aqueous  fluids  from  the  body,  and  conse-  • 
quent  thirst,  are  perhaps  greater  during  th«  ■ 
hot  lit  than  during  the  subsequent  sweat. 
For  the  sweats  do  not  oc  ur,  according  to 
Ur.  Alex;uider's  experiments,  till  the  sliin 
is  cooled  from  112  to  108  degrees  of  heat ; 
that  is,  till  the  paroxysm  begins  to  decline. 
From  this  it  appears  that  the  sweats  are  not 
critical  to  the  hot  lit,  any  more  than  the 
hot  (it  can  be  called  critical  to  tlie  cold  one,- 
but  simply  that  they  are  the  natural  conse- 
quences of  the  decline  of  the  hot  lit  And 
Irom  hence,"  continues  our  author,  "  it  may 
be  concluded,  that  a  fever  lit  is  not  an  eftbrt 
of  nature  to  restore  health,  but  a  necessary  ; 
<onse(iuence  of  the  previous  torpor ;  and 
that  the  causes  of  fever  would  be  less  detri- 
mental, if  the  fever  itself  could  be  prevented 
from  existing,  as  appears  in  tlie  cool  treat- 
ment of  the  small  pox." 

Of  Puti^atit'trs  and  Emetics. 
Nothing,  perhaps,  is  of  greater  moment 
in  almost  every  stage  and  every  kind  of  fe- 
ver, than  to  preserve  the  whole'  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal  free  from  accumulations  of 
colluvies,  &c.  From  a  deficient  attention 
lo  this  principle,  the  medii  al  practitioner  is 
ill  many  instances  toiled  in  the  treatment  of 
this,  and  indeed  in  a  variety  of  other  dis- 
eases.   Viscidities  and  impurities  in  the  sto. 


inach  ails'!  bowoh,  are  of'oii  bo(li  efl'.ct  and 
rausc  of  the  persistance  of  the  febrile  state  ; 
for  as  the  powers  of  assimilation  are  weaken- 
ed  by  the  iiuluction  of  fever,  so  tiie  conse- 
ouent  atcuniulatinns  of  foreign  milter  in 
tlie  alimcntarv  and  intestinal  canal,  them- 
felv;;s  prove  direct  sources  of  irritation  and 
disorder.  In  (he  primary  stages  of  fever, 
an  emetic  has  been  knorfn  abruptly  to  arrest 
its  progress,  and  the  same  purpose  is  some- 
times accom[)lished.  especially  in  ephemeral 
alVections  of  the  febrile  kinil,  by  the  employ- 
ment of  a  brisk  purgative.  In  the  more  ad- 
vanced periods  however  of  the  disorder,  the 
object  of  the  physician  ought  to  be  rather 
tliat  of  keeping  the  bowels  gently  open,  and 
this  is  best  effected  by  saline  in  place  of 
drastic  purgatives;  the  former  of  which  prin- 
cipally operate  by  exciting  the  exhalants  on 
the  internal  surface  t^  the  intestines  to  pour 
out  their  contents,  tlit?  latter  by  stimulating 
in  a  forcible  manner  the  intestinal  fibre. 

It  is  a  fact  worthy  particular  notice  in  the 
treatiiienl  of  fevers  especially,  that  where 
dvie  attention  is  given  to  ensure  regular  eva- 
cuations from  the  bowels,  those  stimuli,  the 
copious  use  of  which  is  often  necessary  to 
*up|>ort  the  sinking  powers  in  the  last  stages 
of  the  disease,  are  more  frtjely  admissible 
and  abundantly  more  efficacious :  this  is  in- 
deed an  important  principle  in  the  treatment 
of  diseases  generally  ;  and  it  is  perhaps 
rhieHy  by  virtue  of  preserving  the  excitabi- 
litv  in  an  orderly  and  due  condition  for 
tile  agency  of  other  stimuli,  that  purgatives, 
like  sudorifics,  form  so  useful,  and  indeed 
tliL"  former,  almost  an  indispensable,  part  of 
the  remedial  process  in  the  greater  number 
of  aliments.  In  intermittent  fevers  it  is  ge- 
nerally necessarv  to  evacuate  the  bowels  bv 
more  stimulant  catliartics,  more  especi.illv 
when  t!ie  cure  of  these  fevers  is  conducted 
by  the  Peruvian  bark. 

'  Having  thus  discussed  t!ie  nature,  causes, 
and  treatment  of  fever,  it  may  be  proper  to 
present  the  reader  with  a  recapitulatory  view 
of  the  remedies  which  are  required  in  tlie 
different  forms  of  this  affection  :  as  a  preli- 
minary, however,  to  such  recaptulation,  we 
shall  make  one  or  two  re  narks  on  the  more 
<nifavourab!e  symptoms  with  which  fever  is 
sometimes  attended,  and  on  the  periods  in 
which  the  disorder  displays  a  greater  or  less 
disposition  to  terminate. 

Tiie  unfavourable  signs  are,  in  the  first 
place,  an  abrupt  alteration  of  type.  If  dur- 
ing fever,  indicating  in  its  primary  stages  no 
particular  severity  of  disease,  a  rapid  change 
take  place  in  the  feelings  and  e.tpressicns  of 
(he  invalid  ;  if  upon  tf.e  more  ordinary  symp- 
toms, suddenly  and  ujiexpcctedly  supervene 
delirium,  prostration  of  strength,  an  observ- 
able change  in  the  countenance,  accompa- 
nied bv  irregular  and  partial  alternations  of 
lieat  and  cold,  without  the  intervention  of 
the  perspiring  state,  the  patient's  life  is  in 
considerable  danger.  The  abovf?  changes 
sre  often  indeed  preludes  to  a  speedy  death. 

V,'e:-kne",  (juickness,  and  irregularity  of 
pulse,  d''lirlum,  tendency  to  fahitintr  wiien 
in  an  erect  po  ture,  prostration  of  strength, 
partial  and  irregular  sweat*,  difficult  respi- 
ration an<l  deglutition,  starting  of  the  ten- 
dons, unusual  ta-tor  in  the  excretions,  great 
foulness  of  the  tongue  and  fauces,  are  all 
evidences  of  a  fatal  tendency  in  the  com- 
plaint ;    in  giiieral  lilcewise  it  may  be   ob- 


MKDICINE. 

served,  that  incases  where  maiks  of  great 
nervous  irritation  attend  the  onset  of  a  fever) 
even  though  the  disorder  may  nut  assume 
what  lias  erro.'ieously  been  termed  the  pu- 
trid type,  much  danger,  is  to  be  apprehend- 
ed. Indeed,  the  management  of  lever  is  not 
seldom  rendered  more  diffn  ult,  and  Die  in- 
dications of  treatment  less  decided,  from  the 
alwence  of  such  type.  Genuine  nervous 
fevers  are  often  the  most  obstinate  and  ma- 
lignant. 

In  fevers  of  this  kind,  indeed,  the  heat  is  of- 
ten so  partial  and  irregular  as  not  to  adn>it 
of  the  cold  affesion.  Dr.  C'unie  in  his  Medi- 
cal Reports,  describes  a  fever  in  which,  this 
remedy  was  tried  without  success.  This  fever, 
says  Dr.  C'unie,  does  not  appear  to  originate 
in  contagion,  or  to  be  propagated  by  conta- 
gion. 

Calculations  respecting  critical  days  have 
been  in  some  measure  forced  and  systema- 
tic. It  is  worthy  however  of  remark,  th.at 
continued  fevers  as  well  as  intermittent, 
in  the  successive  stages  of  their  course,  are 
disposed  to  assume  progressively  the  (juo- 
tidian,  tertian,  and  (piartan  aspect. 

Thus,  if  the  fever  has  lasted  more  than  a 
week,  the  ninth  and  eleventh  days  from  its 
first  attack  are  those  on  which  we  may  anti- 
cipate its  declination  ;  after  tin;  second  week 
tlie  seventeenth  and  twentietli  are  the  more 
usual  days  of  termination.  These,  however, 
are  by  no  means  unexceptionable  rules. 

RECAPITULATION'    OF    THE    TREATMENT 
OF    FEVER. 

Treatment  of  contirr.ied  J  ever  dilriiig  ilic 
first  three  or  four  days.  Cold  allusion. 
Water  to  be  impregnated  with  salt,  its  a))- 
|)lication  to  be  contined  to  the  hot  stages  of 
the  paroxysm.  Large  draughts  of  cold  wa- 
ttr  taken  under  the  same  limitation.  Cold 
and  pure  air.  Emetics.  Purgatives.  An- 
tinionial  and  saline  sudorifics. 

^fter  the  fifth  or  sixth  da>/.  Cold  and 
tepid  ablution.  AVater  employed  to  be  im- 
pregnated with  salt  or  mixed  with  vinegar. 
In  the  urgency  of  debility,  coldness,  or  deli- 
rium, pediluviuni  or  the  warm  bath.  Bowels 
to  be  kept  gently  but  constautlv  open,  bv 
saline  or  mild  purgatives  and  subacid  drinks. 
While  the  skin  is  preserved  moist  by  dia- 
phoietics,  give  opiates  and  wine  ;  these  last 
are  almost  invariably  improper  when  the 
skin  is  dry  and  hot,  and  the  bowels  costive. 
For  head-ache  and  other  nervous  afli?ctions, 
blisters,  aether,  camplior.  In  the  last  stages, 
when  critical  sweats  break  out,  and  the  pow-  | 
crs  of  life  appear  to  be  shrinking  from  the  ! 
contest,  repeated  glasses  of  port  wane  with 
tincture  of  opmm  in  large  quantities.  Dur- 
ing the  whole  course  of  the  disease,  the 
apartment  to  be  diligently  preserved  cool, 
clean,  constantly  ventilated,  and  free  from 
all  individuals  but  those  wlio  are  necessary 
attendants  on  the  sick. 

Trtutmiiit  of  intermittent  fever.  Cold 
affusion  immediately  upon  the  full  accession 
of  the  hot  fit.  ^\  arm  bath,  warm  spiced 
wine,  during  tlie  cols!  stage  of  the  paroxysm. 
Tincture  of  opium,  either  previous  to  the 
accession  of  the  cold,  or  towards  the  decline 
of  the  hot  fit.  Emetics,  immediatelv  pre- 
ceding the  accession  of  the  paroxysm.  Calo- 
mel purges  before  the  administration  of 
tonics  ;  arsenic,  zinc,  Peruvian  bark,  quas- 
sia, and  if  any  enlargement  of  one  of  the 
viscera  (ague  cake)  appear,  sted.  Hone  : 
S2 


I3() 

upon  'the  excitation  of  hope  the  power  of 
charms  altogether  depends ;  these  sometim'  s 
su<  ceed  in  ague,  when  oti.er  remcdie.-i  an; 
counteracted  by  the  violence  of  the  com- 
plaint. 

Although  we  have  judged  it  expedient  to 
enunitrale  the  dili'erent  iiiedicices  which  in 
tlie  even!  of  fever's  protraction  may  In: 
reciuisite,  it  is  proper  to  obse/ve  that  the 
progress  of  llie  complaint  may  for  the  most 
part  be  abruptly  arrested,  and  the  necessity 
of  other  means  of  cure  consequently  super- 
seded, by  an  early  and  judicious  employment 
of  the  cold  aifusion.  If  the  application'of  the 
water  in  tlie  mode  described  in  the  narrative 
of  Dr.  Wright  be  objected  to,  a  shower  bath 
may  be  cm])loyed,  or,  what  is  an  excellent 
and  convenient  substitute  for  the  latter,  a 
common  gardenci-'s  watering-pot ;  the  patient 
is  10  be  taken  ou;  of  his  bed,  if  convenient, 
coiiflucted  or  carried  into  an  adjoining 
apartment,  and  the  water  poured  from  this 
instrument  as  hastily  "as  it  will  admit  of  over 
his  naked  body  ;  the  skin  is  then  to  lie  quick- 
ly and  effectually  dried  with  towcis,  and  the 
invalid  reconducted  to  his  bed ;  this  course 
is  to  be  repeated  with  the  full  recurrence  of 
the  hot  paroxysm,  even  should  this  be  on 
the  same  day,  and  continued,  if  requisite,  on 
the  following  days,  until  the  disorder's  de- 
cl.iie  ;  ..r,  in  the  pointed  languaize  of  a  mo- 
dern writer,  until  "  the  fever"  be  washed 
away."  (Keid's  Medical  Reports,  IMonthly 
Magazine.) 

Fever  Houses,  Sfc. 

The  rapid  and  extended  dilfusion  of  fe- 
ver through  families  and  districts  might  be 
deemed  sullicient  evidence  in  favour  of  mat- 
ter engendered  by  febrile  action,  having  the 
power  to  produce  a  similar  disorder  in  an- 
otlier  individual.  The  fact,  however,  ajjpears 
to  have  been  pkiced  beyond  d«uht  by  the 
unfortunate  result  of  several  experiments 
made  with  sceptical  temerity  in  order  to 
prove  the  negative  of  this  assumption. 

\\)iile  the  writer  of  tlie  present  article 
was  pursuing  his  studies  in  the  E<linburgli 
viniversity,  several  anti-contagionists,  as  these 
gentlemen  were  denominated,  freely  exposed 
themselves  within  what  they  regarded  the 
imaginary  sphere  of  contagion,  in  the  wards  of 
the  infirniary  of  that  city  ;  many  in  conse- 
quence became  infected'with  ftver,  and  in 
son. e  instances  the  disorder  had  a  fatal  ter- 
mination. In  tliese  instances  the  production 
of  the  disease  could  not  be  referred  to  want 
of  cleanliness,  or  to  any  peculiar  condition 
of  the  atmospliere  ;  for  the  fever  did  not  ex- 
tend to  those  gentlemen  attending  the  hos- 
pital, who  were  l"ortunate  enough  to  remain 
satisfied  with  the  previous  evidence  iu  favour 
of  contagion. 

But  with  a  knowledge  of  the  evil,  we  have 
at  length  acquired  acknowledge  of  its  anti- 
dote ;  and  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  ex- 
periments upon  a  most  extensive  scale,  that, 
whether  the  matter  producing  iever  be  in- 
troduced into  the  system  by  "the  lungs,  the 
surface  of  tlie  body, 'or  the  stomach,  its  pow- 
er   to   inleit  extends    but  an   exceedingly 

small   distiiiice^three   feet    at  furthest - 

from  the  patient  in  whom  it  is  generat- 
ed, "  when  he  is  confined  where  the  air 
has  fre£  entrance  and  egress."  Tliis  fact, 
it  has  been  wel;  observed,  "  cannot  be  cor- 
roborated by  too  great  a  variety  of  testi- 
mony, nor  repeated  too  often,  until  it  shall 


140 

be  familiar  not  only  to  the  most  imlearned 
of  tlie  profession,  "luit  %vell  known  lo  the 
coiiHiuinity  at  large."     (Dr.  Ratcman.) 

Its  application  with  tliat  of  another  fact 
immediately  to  be  mentii-ned,  lias  already 
gone  a  considerable  way  towards  the  actual 
e.\termination  oifel)ri'e  contagion. 

This  second  fact  is,  that  aliliough  infec- 
tious matter  be  rendered  almost  immediate- 
ly mert  by  exposure  to  the  air,  it  is  cap.ible 
of  being   rendered  concentrated,    and  even 
transported  to  an  unlimited  distance,  when 
made  to  come  in  contact  with  any  material, 
even  "  a  rag  or  a  bit  of  lint,"  if  such  ma-  ! 
terial   be   e.s-cluded    Irom   the    air.      From  I 
these,    one     should  expect    unquestionable 
premises,  separate  rec.-ptacles,   apartments, 
and  liouses,  have   been   exclusively  devoted 
to   the  admission  of  the  sick  in  fever,  and, 
as  we  have  just  observed,  with  the  most  evi-  [ 
dent  and  extended  bcneiit,    particularly   to 
the  inferior  cla^ses  of  the  community.  i 

The  example  of  fever  institutions  was  set 
to  the  metropolis  by  the  very  active  and 
laudable  exertions  of  provincial  physicians. 
In  Chester,  Manchester,  Liverpool,  Dublin, 
Cork,  and  other  large  towns  in  the  Briti-.h 
isles,  the  plan  of  thus  separating  the  infec- 
tious fevers  from  other  diseases,  had  al- 
ready been  adopted,  and  at  length  an  es- 
tablishment of  this  kind  was  founded  in 
Grav's-inn-lane,  in  London,  and  with  the 
happiest  effects.  Among  the  internal  n.gu- 
laiions  of  these  houses,  the  following  are  the 
most  important ; — they  have  been  adopted 
in  the  fever  wards  of  conunon  hospitals,  and  : 
apply  in  a  general  manner  to  private  practice.  ; 

Every  patient  when  admitted  into  the  ] 
house,  is  to  change  his  infectious  for  clean 
linen  ;  the  face  and  hands  are  to  be  washed 
clean  with  warm  water,  and  the  lower  ex- 
tremities fomented.  "  The  effect  which 
this  salutary  change  has  upon  the  patient  be- 
fore anv  medicine  is  given,  is  often  more 
beneficial  than  those  which  all  the  febrifuge 
drugs  in  the  world  could  bestow."  All  dis- 
charges are  to  be  speedily  removed.  The 
floors  of  the  sick  room  are  to  be  washed 
twice  a  week,  and  near  the  beds  every  day. 
The  clothes  which  the  patient  brings  with 
him  are  to  be  carefully  puritied  by  washing 
the  linen,  and  exposure  for  a  length  of  time 
of  the  other  habiliments  to  pure  air. 

Blaiikets  and  other  bed-clothes  are  to  be 
exposed  to  the  open  and  fre«h  air  before 
they  are  used  by  another  patient.  Several 
■windows  oi  the  apartment  to  be  constantly 
opened  in  the  day,  imless  the  weatiier  is 
very  cold  and  wet;  and  some  of  them  should 
not  be  shtit  in  the  night,  if  the  patients  are 
numerous,  and  tlie  weather  moderate. 

By  a  due  eulbrcement  of  these  regulations, 
the  necessity  in  general  may  be  obviated  of 
employing  (he  acid  fumigations  recommend- 
ed by  Morvoau,  Carmichael  Smith,  and 
others,  which,  have  bei;n  ingeniously,  and 
we  think  justly,  imagined  to  operate  upon  the 
same  principles  with  almospheric  or  pure  air, 
viz.  by  oxidating,  and  thus  destroying  the 
virulence  of  the  contagious  eflluvia. 

By  cleanliness  then,  and  procuring  a  free 
circulation  of  air,  by  guarding  ag:iinst  the 
lodgment  of  contagious  matter,  and  by 
keeping  as  much  as  possible  from  actual  con- 
tact with  the  sick  in  fever,  every  cause  is  ob- 
viated from  which  infection  can  be  commu- 
nicated. The  individual  who  resides  in  the 
house  adjoining  lo  a  fever  institution  is  equal- 


MEDICINE. 

ly  out  of  the  sphere  of  contagious  influence 
with  one  i'.t  hlt^  miles  distance  ;  nay,  in  the 
contiguous  apaitment,  and  even  in  the  sick 
room  Itself,  the  immunity  is  precisely  tiie 
same:  such  are  the  preventive  as  well  as 
the  sanative  elfects  of  cleanliness  and  venti- 
lation, which,  whether  in  sickness  or  in 
health,  caniut  be  too  highly  appreciated,  o. 
too  extensively  adopted. 

Order  II. — PhUgmasiit,  Inflammations. 
\\'hen  anv  part  of  the  body  has  an  uini6ual 
heat  and  redness,  with  pain  and  swelling,  it 
is  said  to  be  inriamed.  To  constitute  this 
slate  of  a  ])art,  an  imirdinate  action  and  di- 
latation of  vessels  have  generally  been  es- 
teemed sudicient.  Such  opinion,  however, 
has  been  cp.iestioned  by  the  author  of  Zooiio- 
mia.  "  Intlammation, '  savs  Dr.  Dar'vin, 
"  is  uniformly  attended  with  the  production 
or  secretion  of  new  libres,  constituting  new 
vessels ;  this,  therefore,  may  be  es'.eemed  its 
essential  character,  or  the  criterion  of  its 
existence.  The  extension  of  tlie  old  vessels 
seems  rather  a  con>eiiuence  than  a  cause  of 
the  germination  or  pullulation  of  these  new 
ones  ;  for  the  old  vessels  may  be  enlarged 
and  excited  with  unusual  energy,  without 
any  production  of  new  ones,  as  in  the  blush 
of  sliame  or  of  anger."  On  the  contrary, 
however,  we  are  disposed  to  regard  the  for- 
mation of  new  vessels,  wliich  does  not  per- 
haps take  place  in  every  case  even  of  genu- 
ine inflammation,  to  be  subsecjuent  to,  and 
not  the  occasion  of,  capillary  dilatation.  The 
case  which  Dr.  Darwin  puts  in  opposition  to 
this  theory  is  not  in  point.  It  is  permanent 
and  forcible,  not  transient  and  slight,  exten- 
sion of  blood  vessels,  whiLh  con>ilitute5  the  in- 
flamed state.  The  eye  may  be  exp  )sed  to 
a  vivid  light,  its  vessels  consequently  act 
with  more  than  ordinary  excitement,  and 
this  to  a  certain  extent  without  actual  in- 
tlammation ;  but  if  such  excitation  be  ex- 
tended beyond  a  certain  point,  the  small 
vessels  of  the  organ  shall  be  deprived  of  their 
proper  resistance,  and  thus  shall  not  merely 
transmit  a  more  than  due  cpiantity  of  blood, 
but  such  blood  shall  in  a  manner  become 
congested  in  their  vessels,  and  shall  cause 
pain,  unusual  redness,  heat,  and  tumour. 
This  induced  weakness  of  the  capillaries, 
ought  then,  perhaps,  according  to  the  opinion 
of  some  modern  physiologists,  to  be  regard- 
ed as  the  proximate  cause  of  intlammation  ; 
the  too  great  or  too  little  excitement  on 
which  it  may  have  depended  the  remote  cause; 
and  the  increased  action  of  the  larger 
vessels  of  the  part,  the  proximate  effect. 
Tlie  augmented  action,  if  considerable,  is  ac- 
companied by  an  irritation  of  the  whole 
system;  such  irritation  constitutes  the  "  sen- 
sitive irritated  fever"  of  Dr.  Darwin,  wiiich 
is  distinguished  from  simple,  or  what  w'e  have 
con  .idcM-ed  genuine  fever,  by  its  being  a  se- 
quente  of  local  affection. 

Sthenic  and  asthenic  inflammation.  The 
disttirbance  of  the  system  does  not  correspond 
more  with  the  magnitude  of  the  local  ihsur- 
der,  than  with  the  constitutional  character 
of  the  individual  affected.  Of  two  persons 
that  are  the  subjects  of  inflammation,  as  of 
the  mucoui  membrane  of  the  nostrils,  consti- 
tuting inllammatory  catarrh,  or  a  cold  ;  of  the 
puilmonarv  vessels,  occasioning  indaiiimation 
of  the  lungs;  or  of  the  joints,  forming  rheu- 
matism; one  shall  previously  have  possessed 
much  constitutional  vigour,  the  other  shall 


liirve  bien  languid  and  iV-eble — the  former 
will  have  a  sthenic,  the  latter  an  asthenic 
disease.  This  distinction  in  practice  will  be 
found  of  immeasurable  importance.  It  was 
first  distinctly  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Brown. 
We  believe,  however,  that  this  author  was 
mistaken  in  the  mode  in  which  the  inliamma- 
tion  of  a  part,  and  the  disorder  of  the  sys- 
tem, are  connected  ;  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
firming his  favourite  tenet  of  sthenic  and 
asthenic  disorder,  he  laboured  to  prove  that 
ttie  systematic  in  many  cases  of  inflamma- 
tion actually  preceded  the  local  disease 
— this  is  not  the  case.  Even  in  the  most  vio- 
lent forms  of  pneumonia,  the  di  .order  of 
the  lungs  precedes  that  of  the  system  ;  and 
indeed  sthenic  disorder,  independantly  of  lo- 
cal irritation,  is  in  some  measure  a  contra- 
diction in  terms.  High  excitement,,  to  w  hat- 
ever  extent  it  may  be  c.rried,  while  their  is 
no  irregularity  or  want  of  balance  in  any  of 
the  Corporeal  or  mental  function-,  and  no. 
aU'ection  of  a  part,  cannot  be  properly  re- 
garded as  a  disease,  however  it  may  pre- 
dispose to  the  diseased  state. 

Tel  minulinn  of  inftummntinn.  Inflamma- 
tion is  said  to  be  resolved  when  the  natural 
state  and  action  of  parts  are  renewed  with- 
out disorganizatir«i.  It,  however,  the  in- 
flammation has  existed  for  any  time,  or 
has  been  violent,  an  unnatural  secre- 
tion takes  place  from  the  vessels  inflamed, 
which  is  called  pus ;  this  when  collected  or 
conhned,  constitutes  abscess,  and  when  the 
inllamnwtion  ends  in  this  manner,  it  is  said 
to  terminate  by  suppuration.  In  cases  of 
much  weakness,  constitutional  or  induced, 
the  vascular  action  in  the  part  shall  cease 
altogether,  its  excitability  be  irrecoverably- 
exhausted,  and  what  in  scholastic  language 
is  termed  gangrene  be  the  consequence, 
which  extending,  shall  form  sphacelus,  or 
mortification.  Kesolution,  suppuration,  gan- 
grene, are  therefore  the  usual  modes  in 
which  infiammation  terminates.  There  are 
others,  however,  which  are  peculiar  to  cer- 
tain parts  ;  thus,  an  inflammation  of  the  lungs 
often  ends  fatally  by  a  copious  effusion  of 
a  watery  matter  into  the  cellular  texture  of 
these  organs ;  thus,  an  inflammation  of  a 
gland  shall  end  in  schirrus,  or  hardness  of 
tlie  parts,  depending  perhaps  upon  the  depo- 
sition of  matter  which  remains  unabsorbed. 

Species  of  influiiiinution.  This  disorder 
is  systematically  divided  into  two  leading 
species — phlegmonous  and  erytheinatic.  The 
hrsl  is  defined  bs  Dr.  Cullen,  "  an  intlam- 
mation of  a  brigiit-red  colour,  with  a  circum- 
scribed pointed  tumour,  and  tending  to- 
wards suppuration."  The  erythema  has  a 
less  vivid  colour,  with  scarcely  any  tumour, 
spreading  irregularly,  burning  rather  than 
liirobbing  pain,  and  terminating  in  vesicles. 

These  species  are  principally  eslablished 
by  the  diflcrence  of  part  upon  which  the  in- 
flammation may  happen  to  fall.  Thus  if  the 
disorder  be  seated  superficially,  or  in  any 
internal  part  where  there  is  an  uninterrupt- 
ed expansive  or  cellular  texture,  it  will  be 
crythematic  or  spreading  ;  if  it  be  more 
deejily  lodged  among  muscular  substance,- 
it  will  be  for  the  most  part  phlegmonic. 

Indictitiona  of  the  disordci-'s  decline.  It 
scarcely  requires  to  be  observed,  that  a  cessa- 
tion ol  pain,  a  reduction  of  lumor,  a  loss  of 
redness  and  heat,  a  diminution  of  the  syste- 
matic disturbance,  are  all  eviilences  that  the 
inflamniation  is  about  to  lermiuate.    If,  how- 


ever,  tt  be  sufli'rod  to  nin  on  into  tlie  stage 
of  snppuralion,  tin;  indiiations  of  this  stile 
aro.  tlif  pulse  luToming  tulU-r  ;ukI  soltei-,  tiie 
patient  Ix-m;;  attacked  willi  sliiverin^s,  and  a 
piiUatory  teel  in  tlie  alt'ec  tod  part.  Again, 
tlie  tendontv  ti)  ganarene  is  denoted  by  the 
tiunonr  losing  ot  its  redness,  and  assuming  a 
darker  luie;  l)v  the  sutlden  cessation  of  pain  ; 
sonirlimes  by  "bh,^lers  arising  near  or  nponthe 
tumour  ;  and,  lastly;  if  tlie  loial  disorder  have 
l)een  con^iderable,  by  a  rajjid  declension  of 
tlie  pulse,  and  powers  of  life. 

Treatment.     The  indications  of  cure  are  to 
be  deduced  from  the  sthenic  or  aslliejiic  dis-  . 
position  of  (he  disease,  and  troni  the  peculiar 
nature  of  the  part  or  organ  injured. 

Hefore  the  time  of  Dr.  Brown,  action,  at 
least  inilamniatory  action,  was  too  indiscri- 
minately viewed  as  an  evidence  of  power ; 
the  inference  from  this  highly  erroneous  doc- 
trine was,  tliat  inflammation  almost  invaria- 
bly rei|uirpd  for  its  cure  a  debililaling  and 
evacuating  p  an  of  treatnienl.  Nothing  can 
be  more  incoiisiitent  with  the  laws  of  the  ani- 
mal economy. 

"  It  had  been,''  says  the  autlior  of  the  Ele- 
menta  Medicina;,  "  a  prevailing  opinion  that 
the  lits  of  the  gout  coe.ld  not  be  constituied 
bv  debilitv,  because  intiammation  accompa- 
nies tlieni.  This  ([uestion  In-  subjei  ted  to 
the  test  of  eNperiment.  11"  invited  some 
friends  to  dinner;  and  by  taking  sliniulanti 
in  their  presence,  recovered  the  most  perlect 
use  of  that  foot  with  whi(  h,  before  dinner,  he 
coulil  not  touch  the  floor  for  pain.  By  this  he 
saw,  that  not  only  the  gout  itself,  but  the  in- 
fiamniation  accompanying  it,  wus  asthenic, 
that  is,  depending  upon  debility.  Such  he 
found  likewise  to  be  the  nature  of  tlie  inHani- 
mations  in  the  gangrenous  sore  throat,  in 
chronic  rheum;itism,  &c.  &c."  The  applica- 
tion of  this  principle  in  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine has  proved  ot  incalculable  importance. 
In  conducting  the  cure,  then,  of  inllanmuition, 
the  physician  is  to  be  guided  not  so  much  by 
the  extent  and  degree  of  the  local  injury,  as 
by  the  nature  ot  what  Brown  calls  the  pre- 
vailing diathesis;  if  intiammation  be  attended 
by  a  full,  hard,  and  vigorous  pulse,  with  other 
expressions  of  power,  a  debilitating  plan  of 
treatment  is  to  be  adopted  ;  blood  is  to  be 
drawn  from  the  arm,  saline  purgatives  are  to 
be  administered;  cold,  under  the  limitations 
immediately  to  be  mentioned,  is  to  be  ap- 
plied, and  the  exciting  powers  as  much  as 
possible  withdrawn.  If,  on  the  contrary,  an 
equal  degree  ot  local  alfection  shall  be  ac- 
companieil  with  feeble,  although  (|inck, 
pulse,  and  the  remaining  symptoms  ot  di-bi- 
litv,  an  opposite  plan,  under  certain  regula- 
tions and  exceptions,  is  to  be  pursued  ;  stimu- 
lants are  to  be  thrown  in,  and  the  intiamma- 
tion cured  by  impelling  and  supporting  the 
torpid  and  feeble  powers  of  the  frame.  But 
from  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  part  cr  organ 
all'ecled,  the  mode  of  treatment  in  the  same 
degree  and  kind  of  intlaniniation  will  like- 
wise be  materially  modified.  Thus  an  asthe- 
nic alTectioR  of  the  liver  requires  dillerent  sti- 
muli from  an  asthenic  aH'ectioii  of  the  sto- 
mach. 

Again,  aUliongh  in  inflammation,  as  in 
fever,  we  generall  >  recommend  tlie  cool  treat- 
ment, and  consequent  free  admission  of  air, 
it  is  to  be  recollected  that  this  princ.ple  is 
objectionable  iii  some  kinds  of  inliainraatious, 


MEDICINE. 

aa  of  the  lungs.  For  example,  in  smalI-])o\' 
and  in  ineasles,we  shall  have  the  same  degree 
of  pyrexia,  or  fever,  present  ;  and  cold  air 
would  be  equally  indicated  in  either,  v,  epe 
we  to  infer  the  proper  metiiod  of  treatment 
alone  from  the  inilamniatory  excit'Uient; 
but  in  measles  the  lungs  are  often  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  the  local  alCeciion,  an  oxygenous 
or  pure  atmosphere  would  prove  too  stimu- 
lating to  these  organs ;  and  thus  if  we  pur- 
sued general  doctrines  without  particular  ex- 
ceptions, or  overlooked  "  the  peculiar  na- 
ture of  the  part  or  org  in  injured, '  the  object 
of  our  plans  would  be  frustrated  and  de- 
teated. 

.'\s  it  relates  to  this  important  principle  in 
medicinal  agency,  tlie  system  of  Dr.  Ijrown 
is  exceedingly  delicient.  The  peculiar  sus- 
ceptibility ot  the  separate  organs  our  author 
overlooked  in  the  rapid  and  general  survey 
which  he  took  of  the  animal  economy. 

Genus  I.  Ojiltiiialinia,  inllammation  of  the 
eye~.    See  Scrg  kry. 

Genus  II.  I'lireniti.i,  inflammation  of  th-j 
brain.  This,  as  a  sthenic  affection,  independ- 
antly  of  proper  maniacal  disorder,  or  febrile 
alfection,  is  an  extremely  rare  disease. 

Si/mptmns\  Redness  of  the  face  and  eyes, 
impatience  ol  light  and  sound,  watchfulness, 
and  furious  delirium. 

Methodiis  medendi.  Copious  evacuations. 
"  ronient  the  h.'ad  with  cold  water  for  hours 
together."  Blisters.  Blood  to  be  drawn  from 
the  temporal  artery. 

N.  B.  The  delirium  of  fever,  which  has 
been  supposed  to  indicate  an  inflammation  of 
the  brain,  is  for  the  most  part  of  an  asthenic 
nature,  and  requires  stimuli. 
Genus  III.  Q/nwJf/ic,  quinsy. 
Species  1st.  Cynanche  tonsillaris,  com- 
mon inflammatory  sore  throat. 

M.  M.  Acid  gargles.  Saline  purgatives. 
Blisters.     Antimonial  diaphoretics. 

Species  2d.  Cynanche  maligna.  An  ac- 
cidental, but  very  common,  symptom  of  scar- 
let fever.     See  Scarlati.s'a. 

Species  3d.  Cynanche  trachealis,  croup. 
See  Infancy. 

Species  4th.  Cynanche  pharynga.'a,  a  mere 
extension  into  the  phar)  nx  of  the  cynanche 
tiinsillaris. 

Sp. '>lh.  Cynanche  parotida-a.  The  mumps  is 
analfectionoftheparotidand  niaxillarv  glands, 
which  appears  in  the  form  of  a  swelling  under 
the  jaws :  it  is  more  common  in  some  than  in 
other  counties  of  England.  It  sometimes 
appears  as  an  epidemic.  The  mumps  is  in 
itself  a  slight  disease  ;  but  after  its  declension, 
which  is  in  general  about  the  fourth  day,  the 
testes  in  men,  and  breasts  in  women,  are  very 
apt  to  be  affected  with  swelling,  in  conse- 
quence of  some  peculiar  sympathy  of  these 
parts  with  the  throit. 

M.  M.     If  delirium   supervene   upon  the 
retrocession  of  the  swelhims,  blisters.     "Fo- 
ment the  head  with  warm  water.''     Darwin. 
Genus  IV.     Pneumonia,  inflammation  of 
the  lungs. 

Genus  V.  Carditis,  inflammation  of  the 
heart  or  pericardium. 

Genus  VI.  Peritonitis,  inflammation  of 
the  peritoneum. 

The  disorder  which  is  usually  termed  in- 
llajiimatiun  of  the  lungs  varies  in  some  mea- 


J4r 

sure  its  seat.  Thus  the  diseased  action  s!ia!l 
be  directed  towards  that  part  of  the  pleura 
which  is  called  the  pericardium,  and  then  it 
may  becalled  carditis  ;  or  it  may  pass  down 
the  diapr.ragm,  or  tlie  peritoneum,  and  ionn 
the  peritonitis  of  Cullen,  the  diapliragiiii.lia 
of  Darwin. 

The  general  symptoms  are,  p\rexia,  pain 
in  the  chest,  diiiicully  of  breathing,  cough  ; 
and,  if  the  disorder  jiajjoen  in  the  bthenic 
di  .thesis,  the  pulse  is  hard  and  frequent. 
Sometimes  the  expectoration  is  tinged  with 
blood. 

The  particular  symptoms  are,  in  carditis, 
p.ilpilation,  with  unequal  intermitting  pulse, 
pa'n  in  the  region  of  the  heart,  vomiting, 
tainting:  it  the  inflain motion  be  particularly 
directed  to  the  diaphragm,  the  jia  n  is  silualeil 
towards  the  'ower  ribs,  the  respiration  in  a 
recunibem  po^ture  is  extremely  difficult,  and 
tb  ■  corners  of  the  mouth  are  sometimes  so 
retracted  as  to  form  a  disagreeable  smile, 
called  risus  sardonlcus. 

M.  M.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
attend  to  the  prevui.ing  diathesis.  If  the 
constitution  is  sthenic,  and  the  disorder  ur- 
gent, immediate  and  copious  bleeding.  Re- 
frigerant and  emollient  cathartics.  Cool  and 
equal,  not  cold  and  irregular,  atmosphere. 
Diluent  drinks.  Total  abstinence  from  ani- 
mal food,  sometimes  during  the  lirst  live  days. 
Antimonial  preparations.  After  venesection 
a  blister  on  the  paineil  part.  Digitalis.  In 
Dr.  Currie's  Medical  Reports  we  lind  the  fol- 
lowing observations  :  "  I  have  employed  the 
digitalis  to  a  very  considerable  extent  in  in- 
flammations of  the  brain,  of  the  heart,  and 
the  lungs;  and  have  succeeded  with  it  iu 
cases  where  I  othenvise  should  have  despair.- 
eil."  In  Dr.  Reid's  Treatise  on  Consump- 
tion we  meet  with  an  acquiescence  in  this 
sentitnenl  on  the  fox-glove.  Our  experience, 
however,  has  taught  us  to  value  this  remedy 
principally  in  other  pulmonary  alTtctions  than 
the  more  violent  kinds  of  inflammation,  as  is 
menlioned  under  the  head  of  phihisis.  After 
the  excitement  has  been  moderated,  opium 
in  small  doses.  "  Do  neutral  salts  increase 
the  tendency  to  cough  .-"  Pediluvium.  Small 
doses  of  calomel,  to  prevent  adhesions. 

N.  B.  If  pneumonia  run  on  into  suppura- 
tion pus  will  be  discharged  by  cough,  and 
thus  a  species  of  con>umpt:on  be  formed  ;  or 
will  be  detained  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest, 
and  constitute  empyema.  In  either  case,  di- 
gitalis in  large  doses.  Calomel.  Opium.. 
Peruvian  bark. 

Genus  VII.  Gastritis,  inflammation  of  the 
stomach. 

S./niptmns.  Violent   pain   in  the  region  of 
the  stomacli,  with  pyrexia;  small,  frequent, 
and  sometimes  contracted,  pulse  ;  yomiting;. 
hiccough.. 

Causes.  It  may  be  occasioned  bv  anv  thing 
acrid  taken  into  the  stomach  ;  by  blows  on 
the  region  of  this  organ ;  and  a  slight  species 
of  it  is  often  consequent  upon  taking  cold  li- 
quids after  exercise. 

.1/.  J/.  In.  inflammation  of  the  stomach 
and  bowels  we  have,  in  some  measure,  aij_ 
exception  to  the  general  rule  of  cure,  accord- 
ing as  the  disease  appears  sthenic  or  asthenic. 
The  pulse  and  vital  powers  are  often  sud- 
denly reduced,  and  yet  venesection  is  re- 
quited.   Warm  bath.   Fomentations.    Ano- 


(i.yne  and  mucilaginous  clysters.  Blisters  on 
(!\e  pained  part. 

G.M1US  V 111.  F.nln-iii, inilaiTimation of  Ihe 
bo.it'l;;  fixed  and  diitressing  paiii  in  tlie 
l)o,vi-'is.  l-yrexia;  pulse  always  (jliick,  some- 
tinii'<  liard. 

Censes.  Thesaine  a'^  of  ga  trilis.  Likewise 
sUanguUited  hernia,  spasmodic  colic,  intro- 
siucej/'.ion. 

.1/.  /(/.  The  same  as  in  !5astritis  after  the 
iir;;ent  symptoms  have  subsided.  Small 
iloics  of  (.alomcl  and  opium. 

Genus  IX.  liqiatilis,  inflammation  of  the 
liver. 

S;mptnms.  P..ir.  in  the  region  of  the  liver, 
extending  to  the  clavicle  and  top  of  the  ria;ht 
shoulder  ;  dilliculty  of  lying,  on  t'.ie  left  side 
especially.  Pyrexia;  high-coloured  urine; 
pulse  frequent,  strong,  and  often  hard.     Bi- 

•  liOiis  evacuations,  or  jaundice.  The  ten- 
dency cf  the  disease  is  to  suppuration. 

.1/"  J/.  Co|)ious  and  repeiited  bleeding, 
beiore  the  suppurative  process  has  coni- 
mencal.  Calomrl,  and  cathartics  of  the  re- 
frigerant class.  Digitalis  in  considerable 
deses.     Blisters  to  thi;  region  of  the  liver. 

If  suppuration  talies  place,  tlie  matter 
makes  its  way  through  the  limg<,  or  the  intes- 
tinal canal,  iiitt)  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  or 
through  the  peritoneum  to  Ihesuiface.  Dur- 
ing this  process  opium  and  bark. 

'N.  B.  The  disease  above  described  is 
principally  an  afi'ection  of  warm  climates.  A 
species  of' chnniic  hepatitis  is  more  usual  in 
Britain,  and  indeed  is  one  of  our  most  com- 
mon  maladies,  especially  among  dram-drink- 
ers. 

•  S'/mpf^ym.i.  Obtuse  and  weighty  kind  of 
»ensation  in  the  region  of  the  liver;  difhtulty 
of  Iving  on  the  left  side;  pain  in  the  right 
shoulder ;  the  countenance  slightly  marked 
by  hectic  ;  dejection  of  spirits.  (Edema  of 
the  ancles. 

.'/.  M.  Small  doses  of  calomel,  with,  or 
without,  opium.  Tonic  bitters,  such  as  tpias- 
sia,  or  gentian.  An  abstinence  from  spiri- 
tuous liquors. 

Genus  X.  Splenitis,  inflammation  of  the 
spleen. 

S'/mptoms.  Tension  ;  tumor ;  heat  of  the 
left  side  ;  pyrexia  ;  pain  increased  by  pres- 
sure. 

A[.  AT.  Blisters,  cathartics,  calomel,  and 
digitalis. 

Genus  XI.  Nephritis,  inflammation  of  the 
kidneys. 

Sipiiptoms.  Pyrexia  ;  pain  in  the  lumbar 
Tcsions;  retraction  of  the  testicle;  numbness 
of  the  thigh;  vomiting;  costiveness. 

Causes.  Atcrnalicns  of  heal  and  cold  ;  ex- 
terna! violence,  &c.  as  in  other  inllainmations, 
but  chielly  calculi. 

Disii.ictions,  Nephritis  is  distinguished 
from  hi  nbago  bv  the  more  confined  situation, 
and  pungent  ciiaracter  of  the  pain  ;  by  the 
pr  si-nci-  of  pyrexia ;  and  by  there  being  in 
the  latter  no  retraction  of  the  testicle,  or 
mnnbricss  of  the  thigh.  It  is  distinguis!ied 
from  incipient  psoas  abscess,  bv  the  paiti  of 
ibis  !;isrb;Mjig  priucijjally  sealed  in  the  verte- 
bral column ;  by  such  pain  being  i:icri>ascd 
on  pressure  of  this  part ;  and  by  its  taking 
the  course  of  the  psoas  muscle.  See  Sur- 
ge r  v. 

M.  M.  Venirspctinn  Digitalis,  and  opium. 
Kiiroiis  x-thi  r.  Emollient  clysters.  Castor 
oil.     Demulcents. 


MEDICINE, 

Genus  XII.  Cystitis.  Inflammation  of  the 
bladder. 

Pyrexia.  Pain  and  tumor  above  the  pu- 
bes  ;  pain  in  discharging  urine ;  tenesmus. 

M.  a.  Vena^section.  V\'arm  bath.  Ano. 
dvne  clysters.     Diluents. 

'GenusXill.  Ilystcritis.    Inflammation  of 
the  womb. 

fleat,  pain,  tension,  and  swelling  in  the 
lower  hellv  ;  pyrexia  ;  vomiting. 

M.  M.  Venlesect.on.  Mucilaginous  clys- 
ters, with  opiates.     Anodyne  fomentations. 

Genus  XI\'.  Rlwuviatismns. 

Pvrexia ;  pains  in  the  joints,  frequently  ex- 
tending along  the  muscles  ;  heat  and  tumor 
on  the  part. 

Peculiarities.  Uhtumatic  inflammations 
never,  like  others,  terminate  in  suppuration. 
Dr.  Darwin  attribt.tes  this  circumstance  to 
the  secondary  and  associate  nature  of  the 
di^ea3e;  the  original  cause,  like  that  of  the 
gout,  not  being  in  t'ne  inflamed  part ;  and 
therefore  not  conliiuiing  to  act  alter  the  in- 
■iammation  commences.  Perhaps  tlie  pecu- 
liarity would  b;;  more  properly  referred  to 
the  nature  of  the  parts  that  rheumatism  at- 
tacks. 

Division.  Rheumatisn^is  sthenic,  or  asthe- 
nic :  the  lalter,  or  chronic  rheumatism,  oitcn 
succeeds  to  the  former  ;  which  tiie  author 
just  tpioted  refers  to  the  deposition  of  mucus, 
or  coagulable  lymph,  which  the  inflaqied 
vessels  had  poured  out  in  the  first  stages,  re- 
niaiiiing  unabsorbed  on  the  membranes  of  the 
joints.  It  would  probably  be  more  correctly 
attributed  to  the  loss  of  energy  in  the  parts 
alfected  :  an  opinion  wliich  ajipears  to  receive 
suppfirt  from  the  circumstance  of  the  asthenic 
form  of  the  complaint  soniL'times  coming  on 
in  a  direct  svav,  w-ithout  the  intervention  of 
the  acute  species. 

M.  JM.  Bleeding  would  appear  to  be  indi- 
cated in  the  sthenic  kind  of  rlieumatism:  in 
this  disorder,  however,  the  physici;;n  is  so 
often  unexpectedly  foiled  by  the  rapid  occur- 
rence of  indirect  debility,  that  venesection  is 
.almost  never  advisable  ;  it  l.iys  the  founda- 
tion for  obstinate  chronic  complaint.  Leeches 
to  fb.e  inflamed  joints.  Volatile  embrocations 
a.ter  tlic  inilairmiation  has  in  some  measure 
subsided.  Calomel,  and  opium.  Sudorirics. 
Warm  bath.  "  I  have  foiiiul  digitalis  an  ex- 
cellent remedv  in  nillammatory  rheumatism, 
one  of  the  mo-t  ted'ous  and  intractable  of  all 
diseases."     Dr.  Currie. 

Peruvian  bark  in  chronic  rheumatism.  Xo- 
latile  tincture  of  gum  guaiacum.  Flcoh-brush, 
Sea-bathing.     Electricity.     Bath  waters. 

Genus  X\'.  Odontalgia,  tooth-ache.     See 

SUROBRV. 

Genus  XVI.  Pncla^rn,  gout. 

S'/mptoms.  Pain  in  the  joints,  principally 
of  the  great  toe,  and  especially  of  the  hands 
and  feel,  returning  at  intervals.  Previously 
to  the  accession  of  the  inflammation  the  .unc- 
tions of  the  stomach  are  generally  di>turbLd. 
The  lits  gener.illy  come  on  in  the  morning. 

Causes  and  pcculiarHics.  Gout  is  inva- 
riably a  disease  of  the  asthenic  diathesis.  It 
is  ))ro<iuced  in  a  system  predisposed  to  its 
inlluence  by  the  jjidrectiy  debilitating  pow- 
ers;  such  as  a  too  liberal  indulgent  e  in  fer- 
mented and  spirituous  liquors,  high-seasoned 
nie-ts,  &c.  and  likewise  by  the  directly  debi- 
litating powers  of  v<;gelable  and  watery  food, 
depre^<ing  passions,  &c  The  inflammation 
of  this  disease  often  alternates  with,  and  ap- 


pears in  a  manner  vicarious  of,  torpor  mother 

parts  of  tiie  system  ;  as  of  the  brain  produ- 
cing apoplexy,  tlie  stomach  constituting  dy^. 
pepsy ,  and  ot  the  liver  giving  rise  to  jaundice  : 
all  which  sym|<toms  iiicleed  may  be  considered 
as  partof  the  disease.  On  this  account  gout 
has  been  divided  into  the  atonic;  that  i-, 
where  a  disposition  to  the  inllaminatisn  of  tiie 
foot  is  observable,  but  does  not  actually  take 
place ;  the  retrocedent,  where,  after  the  con- 
tinuance for  some  time  of  such  inflammation, 
it  shall  seem  to  be.transierred  to  another 
part,  and  thus  form  a  gouty  inflammation  of 
the  stomach,  or  otl-.er  organs ;  and,  lastly, 
the  misplaced,  in  which  the  gouty  tendencV, 
instead  of  displaying  itself  in  its  ordinary 
course,  falls  upon  some  other  organs,  as  the 
lungs,  the  stomach,  or  the  brain. 

Dr.  Darwin  supposes  "  the  original  seat  of 
the  gout  to  be  the  liver,  which  is  probably 
affected  with  torpor  not  only  previous  to 
the  annual  paroxy. ms,  but  to  every  change 
of  its  situation  from  one  limb  to  another." 
For  this  principle  of  associate  action  there 
does  not,  liowever,  appear  sulficientsuppoil ; 
and  indeed  the  sympathy  is  displayed  willi 
more  force  and  I'requeiicy  between  the  in- 
flamed foot  and  the  organs  we  have  above- 
mentioned  (the  stomach,  the  lungs,  and  the 
brain),  than  the  hepatic  viscus.  It  is  indeed 
the  nervous  system,  and  not  the  glandular, 
with  which  the  paroxysm  of  the  gout  appears 
to  have  the  most  intimate  coimeition  ;  and  it 
would  have  found  a  more  appropriate  place 
under  the  head  of  nervous  diseases,  than 
where  it  now  stands  in  the  Nosology.  It  is, 
however,  very  often  combined  with'calculary 
disorders.  '1  he  predisposition  to  gout  is  e\l- 
dently  hereditary  ;  but  the  attacks  of  this 
malady  may,  in  general,  be  warded  off,  even 
from  the  most  susceptible  habit,  by  a  tempe- 
rate mode  of  living.  'I  his  principle  is  illus- 
trated in  an  extraordinary  manner  by  the  his- 
tory of  Dr.  Cjregory,  the  present  professor  of 
the  practice  of  medicine  in  Edinburgh.  We 
have  often  heard  him  in  his  lectures  produce 
his  own  as  an  instructive  case  of  the  beneficial 
eilects  of  absiinen<-e  from  fermented  and  spi- 
rituous liq  lors.  fJout  has  been  imagined, 
like  fever,  to  be  a  sanative  process  of  nature! 
for  the  purpose  of  expelling  sometliiiif  from 
the  constitution.  The  doctrine,  in  eitiier  in- 
stance, is  equally  erroneous. 

M.  AT.  In  treating  gout  it  should  never  be 
forgotten  that  it  is  an  asthenic  disease : 
wiiile  excitement  is  kent  up  in  the  system  the 
paroxysms  are  suspended.  Dr.  Beddoes,  in 
his  Hygeia,  says,  that  one  of  the  greatest 
martyrs  to  gout  he  ever  met  with  infonned 
him,  "  tliat  liis  freest  year  was  that  of  a 
warmly  contested  election,  at  which  he  was 
candidate  for  a  county,  i'le  both  drank  and 
exerted  himself  at  this  time  more  than  at  any 
period  of  his  life."  This  evident  [irinciple  of 
the  asthenic  nature,  even  of  the  ,'ctiia!  inflam- 
mation in  gout,  ought  to  render  tiie  physician 
extremely  careful  in  Ills  application  of  ihe  re- 
medy lately  introduced  into  practice,  the  ap- 
pli  aiioii  of  cold  water  to  the  inflamed  part. 
In  some  violent  cases  this  may  be  proper  ;  but 
it  should  never  hv.  extended  beyond  the  limit 
of  pleasurable  sensation.  To  bleed  is  like- 
wise hazardous  in  the  extreme.  Dr.  Brow  ii*s 
mode  of  sus|)ending  llie  paroxysms  has  al- 
ready been  referred  to  ;  and  every  arthritic 
experiences  temporary  benefit  from  his  din- 
ner, his  glass,  and  pl'easurabU  company.    It 


is  bv  Hctiiig  on  (he  imnginatlon  that  empirics 
susiJlmkI  tiie  thicitC'iuni  attacks  of  ginit.  In 
tii.s,  as  in  numberless  otluT  instances,  liiilli  in, 
constitutes  the  virtue  of,  renii-dies ;  both 
therefore  in  chronic  rlieimi;iti  ni  ;uid  gout, 
we  mli!;ht  place  among  the  curative  agents 
fiu-lalli'c  tractors,  whether  autiiori/icti  by  Per- 
kins, or  foniii-il  of  old  nails  as  in  the  instruc- 
tive cNperiiiients  of  Dr.  Haygarth.  Even  a 
piece  of  sealing-wax,  or  stick,  when  su])posed 
by  the  patient  to  be  the  genuine  tractors, 
operated  in  a  most  astonishing  manner.  (Hay- 
garth  on  Perkins's  Tractors.)  The  influence 
of  the  imagination  over  the  body,  whether 
in  health  or  disease,  has  not  been  suilicie.-illy 
acted  upon  in  the  professional  practice  of  me- 
dicine. The  irregular  atfetions  in  gout  must 
be  combated  by  stuiHilants  carefully  adapt-  d 
to  the  excitability  ;  for  the  spasmodic  art'ec- 
tions  of  the  stomach  aromatics  and  bitters, 
as  ginger  and  ([uassia.  If  the  head  is  afl'ected 
c.!m[)hor,  musk,  ether,  opium  ;  these  likewise 
are  remedies  for  the  gouty  asthma.  .Tlie 
I'ortland  f).wder,  which  is  a  compo.ntion  of 
bilters  and  aromatics,  may  prove  tor  a  time 
highly  useful ;  but  the  protracted  use  of  me- 
dicines of  th  s  class  is  objectionable,  as  even- 
tually detrimental  to  the  stomach  and  general 
libre.  Regular  and  steady,  and  not  capri- 
tijus  and  merely  teinporary,  abstinence  from 
\Yine,  spirits,  and  spices.  The  body  to  be 
preserved  gently  open.  Pure  air,  moderate 
exercise,  encouragement  of  cheerftd  habits. 
Warm  and  cold  sea-bathing.  Bath  waters. 
\'ei7  smuU  doses  of -digitalis.  Hop  (liuniulus 
lupuiub)  ? 

Order  III. — Exanlhemata,  Eruptions. 
The  exanthemata  are  more  nearly  allied 
to  genuine  fever  than  those  disorders  of  whicli 
v.e  have  just  been  treating,  as  th.e  local  af- 
fections are  consequences  rather  than  causes 
of  the  general  irritation.  They  have  been 
called  eruptive  fevers.  They  are  defined  by 
Cullen  contagious  diseases,  alfecting  a  person 
only  once  during  the  whole  of  life,  com- 
mencing with  fever,  and  succeeded  by  erup- 
tion on  the  skin.  The  contagious  matter 
upon  which  these  depend  may  indeed  ope- 
rate upon  certain  parts  raore  particularly, 
and  thus  the  disease  be  entitled  to  rank 
among  the  sensitive,  irritative,  or  symptoma- 
tic fevers.  This,  however,is  l)y  no  means 
certain:  the  primary  action  of  coiit.iglon, 
whether  of  a  specific  or  general  nature,  has 
hitherto  escaped  the  penetration  of  the  pa- 
thologist. 

Genus  I.  Eriisipdas,  St.Anthany's  fire. 
Symptoms.  This  disease  does  not  corres- 
pond wit'.i  the  whole  of  the  above  definition  ; 
it  is  not  contagious;  and  it  has  frequently 
beLii  found  to  recur.  The  face  is  the  more 
ordinary  seat  of  this  affection.  After  febrile 
irritation  lias  corHiiieiiced,  and  continued  for 
a  sliort  time,  during  which  tliere  is  often  an 
unusual  drowsiness,  and  sometimes  delirium, 
the  face  sudd,-nly  becomes  bloated,  the  eye- 
lids swell,  and  the  skin  is  red  and  blistered. 
If  the  disorder  is  violent,  or  ill-treated,  the 
inllammatioii  and  redness  extend  down  the 
jieck,  and  spread  sometimes  on  the  shoul- 
ders the  tumid  appearance  of  the  counle- 
n.:iiceincreases,  delirium  supervenes,  and  tiie 
patient  has  been  known  to  die  apoplectic. 
The  erysipelas  is  an  erythematic  iniianima- 
tion.  Its  seat  is  the  rete  mucosuni.  It*  ten- 
dency is  to  gangreue  rather  than  to  suppura- 


MEDICINE. 

tiofi.  A  fatal  termination  is  said  to  be  prin- 
cipally on  the  7tli,  yth,  or  1  Itli  days. 

M.  M.  In  no  other  ali(;ctio:i  is  it  of  more 
urgent  moment  to  dceide  on  the  treatment 
by  the  nature  of  the  prevailing  diathesis,  it 
has  beeti  observed,  that  in  large  and  populous 
cities  .St.  Antiiony's  tire  almost  always  appears 
in  tne  form  of  a-sthema  ;  and  in  this  case  re- 
quires wine,  b:irk,  op;um  :  while  in  the  hardy 
constitution  of  the  rustic  it  as.^umes  a  sthenic 
character,  and  demands  the  vigorous  eni- 
ploymeiit  of  what  has  been  called  ti.e  anti- 
phlogistic reHimcn.  Venesection.  Saline 
purgatives.  Diluent  drinks.  Might  not  di- 
gitalis be  employed  with  a  pro  pect  of  sin- 
gu  ar  advantage,  as  the  disease  lias  an  evident 
allinity  with  ci.-rtain  species  of  droi)sy  >  V.'itli 
respect  to  e.^trnial  application,  it  has  beeu 
cusU).nary  to  use  mealy  substances,  such  as 
tlour.  Solutions  of  le.id,  zinc,  or  alum,  are 
improper,  "  as  they  stimulate  the  secerning 
vesseU  into  too  great  action."  (Darwin.)  Cold 
water. 

Genus  II.  Pestis,  tlie  plague,  is  an  epide- 
mic typhoid  fever. 

Genus  III.  Variola,  small-pox. 

Symptoms.  After  the  pyrexial  symptoms 
have  continued  for  three  days  eruptions  ap- 
pear on  the  skin,  which  on  the  eighth  day 
contain  pus,  and  at  length  fall  off  in  crusts. 

Species.  The  small-pox  is  divided  into  the 
distinct,  and  confluent :  the  first  has  more  of 
the  sthenic,  the  latter  of  the  asthenic,  cha- 
racter. In  the  former  the  eruptions  are  of  a 
phlegmonic,  in  the  latter  of  an  erythematic 
or  spreading,  nature.  The  eruption  of  the 
distinct  small-pox  makes  its  appearance  in 
circumscribed  red  spots  on  the  face  ;  in  the 
course  of  two  days  tiie  body  and  legs  receive 
their  portion.  The  fever  now  ceases,  the 
fiice  swells,  the  pustules  enlarge,  and  on  the 
eighth  day  are  mature.  The  swelling  of  the 
face  now  goes  oft',  and  the  hands  and  feet 
begin  to  swell,  with  a  slight  return  of  fever, 
wdnch  however  soon  declines. 

In  the  coiitluent,  or  a'thenic,  species,  the 
fits  are  not  so  regular ;  the  eruptions  are  not 
circumscribed  and  prominent,  but  diffused, 
and  scarcely  appearing  above  the  skin ;  a 
kind  of  erysipelas  sometimes  precedes  them, 
and  every  symptom  denotes  debility.  The 
fatal  ferminHtion  is  often  on  the  11th  dav. 

InoculiUion.  The  advantages  of  inocula- 
tion for  the  sniall-po\  need  not  be  insisted 
on.  The  circumstance,  however,  upon 
which  depends  the  more  favourable  character 
of  inoculated  over  natural  small-pox,  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  satisfactorily  ac- 
counted for.  The  only  cautions  requisite  in 
preparing  for  inoculation,  are  to  preserve  the 
bowels  free  from  so'rdci,  and  to  ciioone  a  time 
for  the  insertion  of  the  matter  when  tcethin^f, 
or  other  irritative  processes,  are  not  going  on 
in  the  system.  With  respect  to  the  time,  it 
has  been  well  said,  that  inoculation  oiig.it  to 
be  performed  either  before  tlie  second  month, 
or  after  the  second  year. 

,1/.  iM.  Cold  air.  The  bowels  to  be  pre- 
served open.  Animal  food  to  be  denied.  If 
the  fever  runs  high,  antimonials  and  nitre.  In 
the  confluent  species,  the  alimentary  and  in- 
testinal canal  is  with  the  utmost  solicitude  to 
be  preserved  free  from  congestions  by  pur- 
gatives, and  the  powers  of  the  system  sup- 
ported by  opium,  bark,  small  doses  of  nitre, 
wine,  pure  air;  vinegar  aspersed  about  the 


1-13 

bed,  Wills,  and  fioor,  of  the  apartjncut.     Pe- 

diliiviiiiii. 

~N.  B.  For  an  account  of  the  vaccine  dis- 
ease, or  cow-pox,  see  the  article  Vaccina- 
tion'. 

Geiui<i  IV.  Faricdia.  The  chicken-pox  is 
a  very  slight  disease;  the  eruptions  some- 
times assume  nearly  the,ci;aracter  of  the 
distinct  sinall-pox  ;  but  there  is  not  much  ir- 
ritation of  the  system,  ailil  they  generally 
disappear  in  the  course  of  three  or  lour  days 
from  their  first  breaking  out. 
Genus  V.  liiihenlu.  Meas!.-s. 
SympUmi^.  I'yrexia,  snee/ing,  inflamed 
eyes,  dry  cougii,  drowsiness;  about  thf: 
fourth  day,  or  later,  small  red  points  appear 
on  the  skill,  wliieh  in  liie  course  of  about 
three  days  fall  off  in  branny  scale.-. 

"  As  the  contagious  nialerial  of  the  small- 
pox may  be  siij)posed  to  be  diffused  in  tiiC 
air  like  a  fine  tiry  powder,  and  mixing  wiHi 
the  saliva  in  the'mouth  ttj  infect  tfie  tonsils 
in  its  passage  to  the  stomach,  so  the  conta- 
gious material  ot  the  measles  may  b.^  sup- 
posed lu  be  moi|e  completely  dissolved  in  tne 
air,  and  thus  to  impart  its  poison  to  the  mem- 
brane of  the  nostrils  which  covers  the  sense 
of  smell;  whence  a  catarrh  with  sneezing 
ushers  in  the  fever."     Zoonoinia. 

M.  M.  Measles  too  often  lay  the  founda- 
tion of  pulmonary  consumption,  to  prevent 
which  the  symptoms  denoting  inflammation 
of  the  lungs  are  to  be  with  jiiuch  solicitude 
obviated  ;  and  for  this  jjurpose  small  doses  of 
tincture  of  digitalis  are  to  be  preferred  to- 
every  other  medicine.  A'ena-section  cannot 
with  propriety  be  used  in  young  subjects, 
however  imperiously  called  "lor  ;  and  digita- 
lis supplies  its  place  without  the  risk  of  in- 
ducing indirect  debility.  Steady  and  ccol 
atmosphere,  not  cold  air  in  currents.  Refri- 
gerant cathartics,  with  calomel.  Animal  food 
not  to  be  given.  Digitalis,  with  a  very  small 
miantity  ol  opium,  lor  the  cough  succeeding 
to  measles. 

Genus  VI.  jl /;'//« r/«, miliary  fever,  is  merelv 
a  symptomatic  eruption  ot  small  red  pini- 
-ples  about  the  neck  and  face,  which  in  two 
days  become  white  pustules,  and  desqua- 
mate. They  have  a  peculiar  smell.  Much 
anxiety  and  difliciilty  of  breathing  precede 
the  eruption.  This  disorder  appears  to  be  a 
consequence  of  an  improper  heating  regimen 
in  fever. 

(leiius  VII.  Scarlatina,  scarlet  fever. 
Sijmptoms,  Sec.  Alter  pyrexia  has  lasted 
about  four  days  a  scarlet  eruption  appears  oa 
the  skin,  sometimes  attended  with  inflamed 
tonsils  and  cervical  glands:  these  last  some- 
times a|)pear  withmit  cutaneous  eruption, 
and  the  disease  has  been  called  cynanche  ma- 
ligna. Tiiis  disorder  is  apt  to  be  mistaken 
tor  measles  ;  but  in  scarlet  fever  there  are  no 
cat.irrhal  symi)lonis  as  in  measles.  This  dis- 
order is  very  irregular  in  its  aspect;  and 
often,  without  mucli  care,  faial  in  its  termi- 
nation. Somelimes,  without  any  alarming 
symptoms  in  tlie  onset  of  the  fever,  a  change 
takes  place,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours 
the  patient  falls  into  the  arms  of  death.  The 
unfavourable  symptoms  are  the  same  as  i«. 
other  fevers.  It  is  a  disease  principally  of 
chihlren.  Whether  it  depend  upon  specific 
contagion,  like  measles  and  small-pox,  is  not 
perhaps  t'lilly  ascertained. 

iM.Al.  Cold  atfusion.  Cold  air.  Ant'unonials, 
opium,I)ark,\vixie,saiine  purgatives  or  enemas. 


144 

nilre,  bli-ters.     Sec  tlie  spction  on  Fever  in 
this  arlicle. 

Genus  Vni.  Vrticuria,  nettle-rash.  After 
pyrexia  for  a  day,  small  red  spots  like  the 
stingiiig  of  nettles,  appear  on  the  skin,  which 
almost  vanish  during  the  day,  bill  letiirn  in 
the  evening.  It  scarcely  requires  any  medi- 
cal treatment.  The  disease  does  nut  la'st  more 
liian  two  or  three  days. 

Genus  IX.  Aphtlia,  ihvufh.  Spots  on  the 
fauces  and  tongue,  by  which  this  disorder  is 
constituted,  are  almost  always  symptomatic 
of  other  diseased  Stat -s. 

Genus  X.  Panphigxis,  "  a  fever  attended 
by  successive  eruptions  of  vesicles  about  the 
size  of  almonds  which  are  filled  with  a  yel- 
lowish serum,  and  in  three  or  four  days  s'ub- 
side."  The  treatment  is  to  be  regulated  by 
■the  Dature  of  the  attendant  fever. 


Order  IV.- 


Discharges 


,  pyrexia,  with 
any  external 
from   a   vein 


-Hcinorrhagics 
of  blood. 
The  definition  of  this  order  is, 
profusion  of  blood,  without 
violence;  blood  when  drawn 
shewing  the  butfy  coat.  Discharges  of 
blood,  however,  are  olten  unattended  with 
pyrexical  irritation,  and  indeed  for  tlis  most 
part  are  evidences,  not  merely  of  local,  but 
also  oi  general  weakness.  Augmented  ener- 
gy in  tlie  larger  propelling  vessels  may  in- 
deed overcome  the  resisting  power  of  the 
smaller  branches,  and  produce  what  is  called 
active  lieniorrhage ;  in  this  case  w-e  have 
only  local  debility  to  contend  with  in  the 
cure.  Dr.  Darwin  divides  hemorrhage  into 
the  arterial  and  venous,  the  latter  of  which 
he  attributes  to  defect  of  venous  absorption  ; 
it  docs  not  appear,  however,  that  the  veins 
act  in  the  manner  of  absorbents,  according 
to  the  opinion  of  our  author.  Venous  hc- 
inoixhage  depends  upon  general  weakness, 
accidentally  d.rected  to  the  vessels  from 
which  the  blood  is  poured  out  by  rupture  of 
their  coats.  It  is  always  a  highly  asthenic 
disease. 

Kupture  of  blood-vessels,  and  conseqnent 
liemorrhage,  has  been  ascribed  to  an  im- 
mediate and  primary  change  effected  in  the 
constituent  particles  of  the  vital  fluid.  Tliis 
supposition,  however,  seems  to  be  totally 
unfounded;  even  in  the  most  active  hemor- 
^rhape  the  blood  does  not  undergo  "  orgasm, 
ebuihtion,  tu  rgescence,  or  expansion,"  accord- 
ing to  the  theory  of  Hoffmann. 

Genus  I.  f.pistaxis,  bleeding  from  the 
nose. 

■S>/mptnm.i.  I'ain  or  fulness  of  the  head, 
giddiness,  dimness  of  vision,  drowsiness,  irri- 
tation of  the  nostrils.  It  is  the  disorder  princi- 
pally of  young  persons,  wlio  have  a  lax  and 
weak  hbre  ;  in  some  few  instances  it  occurs 
as  vicarious  of  obstructed  menses,  and  some- 
times appears  in  men  when  the  hemor- 
rhoidal discliarge  has  been  suddenly  arrest- 
ed. 

Af.  Af.  Cold  a])plied  to  the  neck  and 
head.  Mechanical  pressure,  or  absorbing 
substance.,  to  the  nostrils.  Acids  and  as- 
tringents internally  Avoiding  irritation  of 
the  body  or  mind.  The  bowels  to  be  kept 
gently  opeu.  Nourishing  but  not  stimulating 
aliment.  In  the  .  pistaxi.,  ol  old  people,  and 
■in  cases  of  much  weakness,  bark,  vitriolic 
acid,  opium.  If  the  disDrder  is  violent, 
iSttd  liive    depended  upon  the  sujjprcsiion 


MEDICINE. 

of  some  other  discharge,  such  discharge  to 
be  restored. 

Genus  [I.  Ilcmnpliisis.  SpiUing  of 
blood.  Symptoms.  Redness  of  tlie  chi'eks, 
a  sensation  uf  weight  in  the  breast,  diljjciilt 
respiration.  Saltish  taste  in  the  nioull^>icrij 
tation  in  the  trachara,  coughing  up  of  lloriil 
blood. 

Hemoptysis  more  usually  appears  in  in- 
dividuals with 'i  slender  malie  and  contract- 
ed chest,  who  are  of  an  irritable  habit,  and 
who  have  been  subjected  m  their  earlier 
years  to  epistaxis.  It  generally  comes  on  at 
the  age  of  pubertv. 

Causes.  Violent  irritation  of  mind  or 
body,  sudden  vicissitudes  of  heat  and  cold, 
too  powerful  exertion  of  the  luiigs,  as  in  sing- 
ing, coughing,  playing  upon  wind  instru- 
ments. Like  epistaxis,  and  indeed  more 
frequently,  it  immediately  originates  from 
obstructed  menses.  Sometimes  it  appears 
vicarious  of  a  gouty  paro.xysm. 

M.  M.  :\\{  irritation  and  irregularities 
to  be  carefully  guarded  against,  iiowels  to 
be  kept  evacuated  by  mild  purgatives.  Man- 
na. Tamarinds.  Peruvian  or  oak-bark, 
combined  w'ith  mineral  acids,  especially  the 
sulphuric.  Opium.  Digitalis  in  large  doses, 
so  as  to  occasion  nausea.  "  A  table-spoon- 
ful of  common  salt."  (Dr.  Kush.)  "  One  im- 
mersion in  cold  water,  or  a  sudden  sprinkling 
all  over  with  cold  water,  would  probably 
stop  a  pulnionary  hamorrhage."  (Darwin.)  ■ 
Procure  a  return  of  the  obstructed  discharge,  i 
PIdldsis  piilmonalis,  coiisumplian  of  the 
lungs. 

Si/inptomi.  Emaciation,  we.akness,  cough, 
hectic  fever,  and  for  the  most  part  an  ex- 
pectoration of  pus. 

Dr.  Cullen  lias  introduced  pulmonary  con- 
sumption into  his  nosology',  as  a  sequel  of 
hemoptysis.  This  common  and  fatal  ma- 
lady, however,  often,  and  indeed  for  the  most 
part,  originates  mdependantly  of  hemor- 
rhage Iroin  the  lungs.  Its  origin  and  progress  '  damp,  and  especially  cold  application  to  the 
are  most  usually  exceedingly  insidious.  'The  '  feet,  as  by  sitting  with  the  feet  on  a  stone 
persons  chielly  obnoxious  to  phthisis,  are  [  floor,  or  an  oil-cloth.  Milk  diet,  of  which 
those  of  a  scrophulous  habit,  who  have  been  Hoffman  elegantly  says,  "  Qua  perplures 
disposed  previously  to  suffer  by  lymphatic  !  phthisicos,  in  cymba  Charontis  quasi  ha;rentes, 
tumours,  who  are  of  a  slender  make,  have  j  s3natos,pristiiiipque  redditos  valetudini,novi." 
long  necks  and  narrow  chests,  who  have  been  ,  Avoiding  all  spirituous  liquors,  and  spiced  or 
liable  in  their  earlier  years  to  bleeding  at  the  high-seasoned  meats.  Keeping  the  bowels 
nose,  who  have  had  frequent  catarrhal  all'ec-  gently  open  by  manna,  castor-oil,  senna,  &c. 
tiuns  while  children,  and  in  whom  cough  has  ,  I'va  Mrsi  has  recently  been  reconmiended 
remained  or  been  ill-treatedafter  the  enij)tive    by  Dr.  Bourne. 

diseases  of  infancy,  more  especially  the  j  These  are  the  remedies  of  the  first  stage, 
measles.  These  predispositions  ordinarily  '  or,  more  properly  speaking,  the  menacing 
breakout  into  actual  disease,  at  or  shortly,  symptoms  of  consumption.  When  the  lungs 
after  the  period  of  puberly.     It  is  at  this  time    have  actually  become  ulcerated  after  gradual 

and  protracted  irritation,  very  little  expec- 
tation of  recovery  can  remain.  Grillith's 
mixture,  composecf  of  steel,  myrrh,  and  alkali. 
Digitalis  in  larger  doses,  and  combined  with 
the  above  tonic.  Uva  ursi?  opium  and  vitri- 


small  bodies,  in  the  cellular  texture  of  tli«e 
organs,  which  by  repeated  and  gradual  irri- 
tation, at  length  come  to  ulcerate  and  de- 
stroy the  fabric  of  the  lungs,  and  produce 
the  symptoms  of  fully-formeJ  phthisis.  The 
origin  and  actual  nature  of  these  bodies  are 
iK)t  perhaps  very  evident;  they  were  for- 
mally erroneously  imagined  to  be  indurated 
lymi)liai;c  glands. 

'I  he  more  immediately  exciting  cause  of 
pulmonary  consumption  is  generally  an  ex- 
posure to  cold,  which  operates  in  the  manner 
described  under  the  section  Catarrh.  Con- 
sumption, however,  may  be  brought  on  by 
amenorrhrea,  lues  venerea,  unseasonably  re- 
pelled eruptive  action  on  the  surface,  mental 
affections,  &c. 

A/.  M.  "  The  facility,"  says  a  modern 
author,  "  of  repressing  the  primary  symp- 
toms of  phthisis  pulmonalis,  is  proportioned 
to  its  dilliculty  of  cure  when  the  cliaracters 
of  the  disorder  are  fully  confirmed,  and  the 
texture  of  the  lungs  almost  wholly  destroy- 
ed." (Reid  on  Consumpti-ju.)  In  no  case, 
perhaps,  is  neglect  or  early  mismanagement 
of  disease  more  pregnant  with  irremediable 
evils  than  in  the  instance  of  consumptive 
affections.  Digitalis  properly  and  timely 
had  recourse  to  is  "  the  anchor  of  hope." 
"  In  families  where  this  fatal  disease  (phthi- 
sis) is  hereditary,  the  use  of  this  remedy  as 
a  prophylactic,  will,  I  have  no  doubt,  save 
many  lives  that  would  otherwise  have  been 
cut  short."  (Dr.  Currie.)  "  Digitalis  is  a  re- 
medy in  pulmonary  consumption  in  its  earlier 
periods,  which  under  due  regulations,  and 
with  sufficient  attention  to  other  circum- 
stances of  regimen  and  <liet,  may  be  employ- 
ed with  a  prospect  of  almost  nivariable  re- 
lief." (Dr.  Reid.)  Other  testimonies  equally- 
decided,  might  be  adduced  in  favour  of  this 
valuable  remedy.  Warm  bathing.  A  regular 
temperature  in  the  air  that  the  person 
breathes.  Warm  clothing.  Avoiding  cur- 
rents of  air.     Assiduously  guarding  against 


that  the  pulmonary  circulation  becomes  al- 
tered ;  and  the  seeds  of  the  disease,  hitherto  | 
latent,  are  expanded  and  developed.  I 

In  any  constitution  then  at  this  period,  and 
more  "specially  in  those  that  are  characte- , 

rised  by  a  scrophulous  tendency,  a  short  and  olic  acid.  Digitalis  combined  w  itli  calome 
generally  dry  cough,  succeeiling  perhaps  to 
a  trivial  cold,  altencled  with  emaciation  In 
the  smallest  degree,  and  more  especially  if 
the  pulse  be  rapid,  and  the  cheek  be  naarked 
by  hectic  redness,  alternating  with  more 
than  usual  paleness  of  countenance,  the  pa- 
tient Is  to  be  assiduously  watched,  and  the 
disorder  earnestly  combated. 

Cowvc.v.  I'hthisical  ulceration  of  the  lungs, 
or  confirmed  consumption,  is  ordinarily  pro- 
duced through  the  medium  of  tubercles^  or  i 


('hange  of  climate.  If  a  tendency  to  ab- 
sorption from  the  surface  of  pulmonary  ulcer 
could  be  induced  greater  than  the  deposition 
of  it,  we  might  have  some  prospect  of  curing 
the  disease  in  Its  advanced  stages.  In  order 
to  produce  this  absorption,  sailing  so  as  to 
occasion  sea-sickness  has  been  had  recourse 
trt.  Swinging,  rliling  in  a  carriage,  and  other 
nioiles  of  occasioning  a  degree  of  vertiginous 
ali'ection,  and  consequent  nausea,  have  like- 
wise Leen  recommended  and  practised.    In- 


MKDJClNfi:. 


U:. 


iKiIalion  of  a  lowered  afmosplifrp,  of  other  i  Ion  from  hemonhagc?,  by  tlu'  disL-liarges  not 


iiiodilied  gasKs,  and  evun  vulalile  aslriii;,;('nt 
sub-itances,  liavc  becri  also  proposed  and  tried, 
but  not  with  di'cidrd  lK-iu'iil.  In  the  t'Oii- 
linncd  slagos  of  plitliisis,  animal  diid  wliicli 
is  nutritivi',  williout  being  sliiiiulanl,  ought 
to  be  advised.  I'atli  wuters  and  cohl  sea- 
bathing arc  improper  in  every  stage  of  the 
coiiiplaint. 

N.  B.  If  consiuiiption  be  symptomatic  of 
otiier  diseases,  v. Iiiie  the  symptoms  are  sub- 
dued by  the  a!)ove  rcmetlies,  tlie  altention 
must"  necessarily  be  turned  princiijally  to- 
wards the  origijial  affection. 

Caution.  All  the  signs  of  consumption  may 
be  present  without  the  presence  of  the  dis- 
ease. Debility,  (emaciation,  and  cough,  may 
be  brouglit  on  by  nervous,  indc'ijendant  of 
oj'ganic  disease,  as  well  as  by  worms  and  in- 
teslin.il  viscidities.  Hectic  fever  may  be 
occasioned  in  certain  constitutions  by  mental 
allections  alone;  this  likewise  is  sometimes 
induced  by  worms  Purulent  expectoration, 
indeed,  is  decisive  ;  but  the  nature  of  the 
sputa  is  not  with  facility,  in  every  case,  to  be 
decided  upon. 

(Jenus  11[.     HttmnrrhoU,  the  piles. 
AVeigiit  and   pain  of  the    bead,   vertigo, 
pain  in  the  anus  and  loins,  swellings  and  fiu.\ 
of  blood  from  the  anus. 

M.  M.  If  s\m|)tom3  of  arterial  activity 
accompany  the  hAinorrhoids,  vitriolic  acici, 
\vith  moderate  astringents,  such  as  infusion 
of  roses.  Temperance,  exercise,  abstinence 
from  spirituous  litpiors  and  spices.  Tama- 
rinds. Lenitive  electuary,  sulphur,  chrys- 
tals  of  tartar.  Castor  oil.  \\aira  fomen- 
tation, by  sitting  over  the  steam  of  heated 
water.  Leeches.  These  two  last  remedies,  are 
especially  serviceable  in  what  are  called  the 
blind  haMuorrhoids,  where  there  is  swelling 
with  pain  from  congestion  in  the  ha;mor- 
rhoidal  veins,  without  any  discharge  of  blood 
from  the  anus. 

^Vhen  the  hxmorrhoidal  (lux  is  attended 
with  much  debility,  whiL-  the  bowels  are 
kept  open  by  castor-oil  and  other  similar 
purgatives,  themore  powerful  astrin.gents  are 
to  be  employed.  Steel.  Exercise.  Generous 
diet.  Cheerful  train  of  thinking.  See  Sur- 
gery. 

(I'cnus  IV.  Menorrhagin,  immoderate 
menstrual  llux. 

i'l/inpioms.  Pain  in  the  back  and  loins, 
vertigo,  difficulty  of  breathing,  flushes  of  heat 
•ind  cold,  frequent  pulse  ;  in  cases  where  the 
disease  is  more  directly  from  debility,  loss 
of  appetite,  paleness  of  countenance,'  cold- 
ness o.  the  limbs,  edematous  swellings  about 
the  ancles. 

M.M.  In  the  first  species,  the  menstrual 
irregularity  generally  arises  from  hysteric  or 
nervous  alTections,  "libidinous  desires,,  and 
other  violent  passions  ;  in  this  case  attention 
must  be  paid  to  counteract  the  cause.  Avoid 
stiniHli  of  all  kinds,  mental  or  physical.  Ke- 
frigeralit  ctharlics,  if  costivenessbe  present. 
Moderate  astringents,  such  as  infusion  of 
roses,  and  the  sulphuric  acid.  In  the  nienor- 
vhagia  of  direct  di;bility,  astringents,  cordi.ds, 
and  stinudants.  Pe'ruvian  bark  and  sul- 
phuric acid,  opium,  alum,  port  wine.  F.x- 
ternal  application  of  cold  water,  or  vinegar. 
Steel.     See  Midwifery. 

Order  V.     Prqflitvia. 

The  iirofluvia;  arechstincruished  by  Dr.  Cul- 
■    Vol.  M. 


being  naturally  sanguinary.  Thii  order  coiv 
tains  two  genera,  catariluis  and  dysenleria, 
both  of  which  might  have  t()und  more  ap|)ro- 
priate  situations  even  in  Dr.  Ciil!en\  own 
nosology. 

Genus  I.  Catarrliu.s;  a  cold. 
S'l/inplnms.     Pyrexia,  with  increased  dis- 
charge from  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nostrils,  and  in  violent  cases  of  the  lattices 
and  bronchia^  witii  cough. 

'i'lie  term  cold,  which  is  made  lise  of,  in 
common  language,  principally  to  denote  an 
inllannnatory  condition  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  tl'e  nose,  is  exceedingly  incorrect ; 
it  not  only  confounds  the  ellect  with  tlie 
cause  of  the  disonier,  but  convej's  an  errone- 
ous idea  of  the  mode  iu  which  such  disorder 
is  created. 

The  operation  of  cold,  unless  through  tlie 
medium  of  the  sensations,  is  invariably  nega- 
tive ;  it  is  merely  an  abstraction  of  the  stimu- 
lant  power  of  heat,  and  by  its  ajiplication  to 
tlie  living   body  (trcnn  an  invariable  law  of 
organic   existence)   renders  the   frame  in  a 
more  than  ordinary  measure   susceptible  of 
such,  and  other  stimulant  jiowers.     lor  tx- 
ampie:  Suppose  an  animal  to  exist  in  a  me- 
dium teni|)erature  of  ()U'',  let  10°  be  suiitract- 
ed  for  a  short  jjeriotl,  and  afterwards  precipi- 
tately added,  tiie  GO"  will  now  act  as  witli  a 
power,  perhaps,  of  f)."),  on  account  of  the  ))re- 
vioiis  alistraction  of  stuuuli   producing,  as  it 
has  i)een  very   properly  expressed,  "  an  ac- 
cumulation of  excitabilitv."     In  this  manner 
then  is  explained  the  agency  of  cold,  in  en- 
gendering   intlammatory    disorders,    among 
which    that    we    are     now    considering    i.-i 
one   of  the   most  frequent;    an  explanation 
founded  upon  a  principle  for  the  develope- 
ment  of  which  we  are  unquestionably  indebt- 
ed to  the  genius  of  Dr.  Brow  n.     This  author, 
however,  made  an  improper  use  of  his  own 
discovery;  he  did   not  suliiciently  take  into 
account     the    complicated    and    combined 
functions  of  the  animal   economy ;  and  the 
very  first  position  which  he  deduced  from  the 
detection  of  this  important,  and  indeed  cha- 
racteristic, quality  of  living  existence,  is  prac- 
tically   incorrect.      "  Cold   applied   to  the 
animal  system  never  proves  injurious  unless 
succeeded  by  heat;"  Irigus  ninuiuam  iiocet, 
nisi  ubi  t^us  actionem  calor  excipit.     In   en- 
deavouring to  support  this  assumplion.  Dr. 
Brown  and  his  disciples  have  aimed  to  prove 
that  those  symptoms  which  are  usually  cha- 
racterised by  the  appellation  of  a  cold,  as 
well  as  rheumatism,  and  all  other  diseases 
arising  from  exposure  to  cold,  are  not  oc- 
casioned until  the  same  or  a  superior  degree 
of  external  heat  be  restored;  torgetting  that 
the  "  accumulation  of  excitability''  irnmedi- 
alelv  resulting  from  dihiinish.'d  temperature 
is  acted  upon,  and  thus  inflammatory  ir.i- 
tation  engendered,  by  the  remaining  stimuli 
of  the  frame,  external  and  internal.     Thus 
an  individual,  while  still  exposed  to  the  ca- 
tarrh-producing temperature,  w  liile,  for  ex- 
ample, his  feet  remain  wet   and  cold,  shall 
have  inllaramation  in  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  nose  and  fauces,  feljriie  irritation,  and 
all  the  usual  phenomena  of  catarrh  ;  the  ba- 
lance of  excitement  being  overturned,  and 
turbulent    irritant    action  being  established 
in  its  stead. 

Further,  the  existence  of  a  cold  does  not 
I  suppose   the  presence  of  a  sthenic  disease : 


indcod  the  rxact  contrary  is  tlic  fart,  for  the 
malady  will  be  occasioned  with  most  facility 
when  the  frame  is  weak  and  irritable. 

W  iiy  the  membrane  of  (hi-  no.strils,  &c. 
sUouid  be  t!;e  read:esl  to  siiU'er  more  par- 
ticularly, does  not  seem  to  admit  of  an  easy 
explanation  ;  it  is  iniportaiit,  however,  to  le- 
collect  what  has  been  poiited  o'lt  in  an  ex- 
plicit manner  by  Dr.  Lcudots,  and  since  by 
Dr.  Pveid,  that  i  his  membrane  is  a  part  of  the 
same  expan>ioj)  with  that  wl'.ich  lines  the 
windpipe  and  enters  li;e  kings ;  so  that  iu 
fact  a  common  itil'.ajnniatory  cold  is  adeg.-ee 
of  the  same  disease  with  Eii  iiillaminatiou  of 
the  lungs. 

M.AJ.  Moderate  and  equal  temperature. 
The  bowels  to  be  kept  gently  o])eii.  If  the 
icbrile  irritation  is  coiisideral-le,  sudorifics. 
Anlimonials,  nitre.  Oleaginous  substances 
may  be  used  to  allay  the  cough  ;  bi.t  irritat- 
ing balsams,  such  as  cough -medicir.es  arc 
generally  composed  of,  are  in  the  highest 
degree  detrimental;  they  too  often  increase 
the  disposition  to,  and  sometimes  actually 
produce,  contirmed  consumption.  Liquo- 
rice, honey,  boiled  (ig,  almor.d  emulsion. 

If  the  jilithisical  tendency  is  con-^picuous, 
digitalis  (see  the  section  on  Phthisis  puln.o- 
nalis). 

Genus  II.  D//senteria,  dysentery. 
■Sijmplams.  I'Vecjuent  stools,  mixed  with 
mucus,  and  sometimes  with  blood,  attended 
with  griping  and  tenesmus,  the  proiier  aivine 
excretions  being  retained ;  pyrexia,  pulse 
(luick  and  feeble.  The.  disease  is  sometimes 
contagious  and  epidemic. 

Ccamc.i.  Dysentery  depends  upon  the 
irritability  of  weakness,  determined  by  par- 
ticular circumstances  to  the  alimentary 
canal;  its  predisposing  and  exciting  Causes 
are  alternations  of  heat  and  cold,  more  espe- 
cially when  accompanied  by  damp,  as  when 
an  army  is  encamped  on  marshy  ground  ; 
the  putrid  miasma  arising  from  the.  marshes  ; 
tlie  contagious  etiluvia  ])roceeding  from  the 
discharg-  in  the  (!i>ease ;  and,  accor<ling  to  sir 
John  Pringle,  from  dead  bodies  left  unburicd 
in  the  field  of  battle. 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  symptoms 
seems  to  be,  a  spasmodic  construction  of  tlie 
larger  intestines,  retaining  tjie  farces. 

Al.  M.  Calomel,  opium,  and  rhubarb,  to 
re!ie\e  the  spasm,  and  discharge  the  contents 
of  the  bowels.  Mucilaginous  clysters,  as  of 
starch  with  tincture  of  opium.  Emetics. 
Small  doses  h'e(juently  repeated  of  ipceacu- 
an.  Colombo.  Peruvian  bark.  Warm 
bathing. 

Cl.ass  II.  Neurones,  Nervous  diseases. 
Man  is  indebted  for  all  his  acciiiisitions  lo 
casual  observation,  leadir.g  to  experiment. 
That  the  faculty  we  call  the  sentient  resided 
in,  or  was  developed  through,  theinstrmiieit- 
tality  of  a  peculiar  and  distinct  organization, 
we  should  not,  a  priori,  have  conceived  ;  there 
is  nothing  in  the  composition  either  of  brain 
or  nerve  to  lead  to  this  conjecture.  If,  how- 
ever, a  portion  of  the  bony  defence  of  the 
encephalon  be  accidentally  pressed  in  upon 
its  substance,  and  an  interruption  in  the  ta- 
culties  of  sensation  and  voluntary  motion  be 
tlie  consecjuence ;  if  such  accident  be  repeated 
with  the  same  result  ;  finally,  if  it  be  fotn-.d. 
as  it  has  been,  that  by  voluntarily  producing 
pressure  on  this  organ,  similar  efiects  may 
be  occasioned  in  proportion  to  the  degree 
and  extent  of  tlie  force  employed;  tlic  infer- 


145 

I'nce  will  come  at  length  to  be  indisputable, 
tliat  the  brain  is  the  ur^an  or  reservoir  of 
sensation,  and  t!ie  medium  tliroui^h  which 
loco-i;i6tioii  is  elVeclecl. 

Again,  if  il  be  fuund  that  at  pleasure  we 
can  deprive  any  portion  of  the  b.idy  both  of 
sense  and  motion,  by  dividing  the  nerve  sup- 
plying such  part,  or  culling  off  it  communi- 
cation with  the  brain,  we  are  likewise  lully 
justilied  in  interring,  that  the  chord  we  liave 
severed  was  the  mstrument  by  wiii;'h  the 
empire  of  the  will  had  been  exercised  over 
tlic  now  inert  and  u^eles^  member. 

It  is  by  the  aggregation  of  sucli  observ- 
ances tliat  we  arrive  at  the  pathology  of 
nervous,  as  a  distinct  class  of  moriiid  affec- 
tions. When,  for  example,  any  particular 
member  of  the  bod.  suddenly  refuses  to  obey 
the  command  of  tin-  will,  or,  in  common  lan- 
guage, becomes  paral  tic,  although  we  may 
not  be  able  to  trace  the  remote  cause  from 
which  tills  has  originated,  we  know  that  it 
must  have  :inniediat..lv  depended  upon  some 
moibid  change,  eitlier  in  the  brain  itself,  or 
at  least  iw  the  nerve  supplying  the  organ  in- 
disposed. 

'i'his  modi-  of  inferring  the  nature  of  w  hat 
is  not  an  object  of  our  senses,  Ijy  comparing 
it  with  what  we  attually  observe,  will  be 
found  ecpiaMy  satisfactory,  in  relation  to  par- 
tial as  total  interruptions  of  sense  and  mo- 
lion  ;  thus,  by  a  less  degree  of  injury  done 
to  a  nerve,  as  by  lacerating  or  puncturing, 
instead  of  dividing  it,  we  s.iall  perceive  not 
an  entire  deprivati»n  of,  but  merely  an  im- 
pediment to,  tlie  loco-niotivi- faculty ;  the 
actions  of  the  member  will  be  in  a  manner 
refractory  ;  and  convulsive  or  irregular,  in- 
stead of  orderly  and  stejidy,  motion,  will  fol- 
low the  mandates  of  the  will. 

If  tlien,  without  the  interference  of  an 
experimenter,  and  without  visible  injury  to 
the  animal  structure,  the  movements  of  an 
organ  become  impro])erly  accelerated,  or 
•  X'ase  to  be  exercised  in  their  usual  mode; 
if,  to  instance  by  example,  the  heart  perform 
two  feeble,  in  place  of  one  full  and  vigo.ous 
contraction  ;  we  are  authorised  to  state,  that 
tlie  disorder  thus  constituted  is  strictly  and 
pi'ojK-rly  a  nervous  alfection ;  and  our  con- 
clusion, as  to  the  fact,  will  be  precisely  the 
same,  whatever  theory  we  incline  to,  respect- 
ing the  quo  iiiodo  in  which  lu-rvous  power 
is  displayed ;  whether  with  Hartley  we  con- 
ceive it  to  depend  Ujion  vibrations  and  vi- 
bratiuncles,  whether  we  embrace  the  doc- 
trine of  universally  pervading  atlier,  or  sub- 
scribe to  the  untenable  jio^itions  of  the  au- 
llior  of  Zoonomia. 

Depraved  perception  and  interrupted  mo- 
tion, are  therefore  the  essences  of  nervous 
diseae:  the  percipient,  however,  is  to  be 
distingiiislied  from  the  moli\  e  faculty  ;  for  we 
have  a  chiss  of  living  actions-,  which,  although 
i;<l!ially  under  the  induence  of  nervous  pv)wer 
with  those  over  which  the  will  pre.id-s,  are 
nevertheless,  in  a  state  of  health,  incessar.ll\ 
larricd  on  w  thout  perception  or  conscioiis- 
liess;  thus,  by  impeding  the  functions  of 
the  nerves  of  the  stomach,  we  may  interrupt 
the  function  of  digestion.  Dlgeslion,  how- 
ever, is  a  process  performed  without  design, 
and  inriep-iulantly  of  volition;  on  the  olii  r 
hand,  the  intellect  may  be  inipiired  bv  a  if-- 
rang-ment  in  the  nervous  system,  whih-  III.- 
digestive  power  shall  proceed  without  the 
f.mallest  liiadrance. 


MEDICINE. 

Dr.  Cullen's  definition  of  a  nervous  dis- 
ease, V  ouUI  therefore  have  been  more  accu- 
iVite,  had  he  stated  it  to  be  an  affection  of 
either  sense  or  mQtion,  without  idiopathic 
pvrexia,  or  visible  disease  of  parts.  Tiie 
orders  of  tiiis  class  (neuroses)  are  four : 

1.  Comata.  A  diminution  of  voluntary 
motion,  v.ith  sleep  or  impaired  senses. 

'2.  Adynamia-,  a  diminution  of  the  invo- 
luiitarv  motions  of  either  natural  or  vital 
functions. 

3.  Spasmi,  morbid  motions  of  muscular 
fibre. 

4.  Vesania-,  disorders  of  the  judgment  or 
intellect  without  primary  pyrexia,  or  observ- 
able affection  of  any  particular  part  of  the 
body. 

Order  I.     Comata. 

Genus  I.  Apnpli-xia,  apoplexy. 

Si/iiiptoDis.  Abolition  of  the  sentient  and 
loco-motive  faculties,  the  sleep  in  general 
attended  with  snoring.  The  respiration, 
motion  ot  the  heart,  and  other  involuntary 
actions,  remaining. 

Causes.  We  conclude  from  the  analogy 
above-stated,  that  there  is  some  degree  of 
pressure  on  the  brain  in  almost  all  cases  of 
apoplectic  stupor;  but  that  efl'usioii  of  blood 
takes  place  in  the  manner  described  by  the 
generality  of  authors,  is  exceedingly  proble- 
matical ;  if  the  appearances  on  dissection  are 
appealed  to  in  behalf  of  tUis  theory,  it  is  an- 
swered, that  such  appearances  can  alone  ap- 
ply to  t^atal  cases  of  the  disease  ;  and  in  such, 
an  actual  rupture  of  vessels  and  effusion  of 
blood  will  readily  be  admitted. 

Epilepsy,  palsy,  and  apoplexy,  were  con- 
tended by  Urovvn  to  originate  from  the  mere 
irregularity  of  nervous  power  conse<juent 
upon  debility  or  dehcient  excitement  ;  and 
to  be  occasioned  without  eitlier  an  unusual 
impetus  of  circulation  to  the  vessels  of  the 
brain,  or  impeded  return  of  blooti  from  this 
organ.  We  believe,  however,  that  although 
the  cause  of  apoplexy  often  is  in  one  sense 
mere  deficiencv  of  excitement  directed  to 
the  sentient  organization,  the  immediate  oc- 
casion of  the  apoplectic  symptoms  is  for  the 
most  part  the  state  of  the  vessels  of  the 
brain. 

Apoplexy,  for  the  s.ake  of  illustration,  may 
be  tlivided  into  sthenic  and  asthenic.  If  a 
vigorous  and  plethoric  man,  sitting  down  to 
his  dinner  and  liis  glass,  suddenly,  during 
the  excitement  of  conviviality,  of  mirth,  and 
of  alcohol,  fall  on  the  tloor  with  deprivation 
of  sense  and  apoplectic  stertor,  it  must  be 
evident  that  the  lit  has  been  induceil  by  a 
gre.iter  (low  ot  arti-rial  blood  into  the  vessels 
oi  the  brain,  than  the  veins  of  this  organ  could, 
in  due  time,  convey  away.  The  apoplex\ 
has  bren  induced  in  the  manner  of  a  sthenic 
di-ease. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  deb.auched  and  de- 
bilitated individual  be  the  subject  of  an  apo- 
plectic attack,  at  the  time  when  the  excite- 
ment of  intoxication  shall  have  been  succeed- 
ed by  the  condition  of  incUrect  debility,  the 
disease  will  here  have  heen  brought  about  in 
a  different  manner ;  the  impetus  in  the  vessels 
OI  Ihe  brain  shall  Icive  partaken  of  the  gene- 
ral diiniinition  of  power  throughout  th'-  whole 
system  ;  sluggish  vascular  action  shall  have 
caused  congesti.ai ;  uhchcongestion,  in  union 
.villi  the  delitrient  excitement  on  which  it  hail 
depended,   shall  have  induced  that  sudden 


suspension  of  the  sentient  faculfy  wliicii  con- 
stitutes the  apoplectic  paroxysm. 

Apoplexy  often  immediately  succeeds  to 
a  full  meal -.  what  more  natural  than,  under 
such  circumstances,  to  allnbute  the  lit  to  a 
distended  stomach  pressing  upon  the  aoita 
or  large  descending  blood-vessil,  and  conse- 
(jueiit  determination  ot  the  vital  tiuid  in  an 
inordinate  measure  to  the  bead?  Such  con- 
clusion, however,  will  not  bear  the  scrutiny 
of  strict  enquiry.  L  poll  this  priiici|)le,  the 
apoplectic  stertor  and  iiisensibility  ought  to 
be  induced  with  most  readiness,  as  in  oneor- 
ilynia  or  niglil-mare,  while  the  body  is  in  a 
recumbent  posture,  and  the  stomacli  is  most 
distended  from  the  extrication  of  gas  which 
takes  place  in  conseciueiice  of  the  weak- 
ened digestive  pouer;  in  place  of  this,  how- 
ever, the  fall  is  immediate  ;  the  attack  is  made 
while  tlie  body  is  in  an  erect  position,  and 
often  before  the  stomach  has  become  in  a  very 
great  degree  distended;  the  tit  then  arises,  iu 
tills  i.ist  case,  from  that  degree  of  excitement 
which  the  digestive  powers  have  called  olVto 
their  aid,  leaving  the  brain  in  a  condition  of 
insullicient  energy,  properly  to  propel  the 
vital  (luid  through  its  own  vessels  ;  congestion 
of  blood  is  the  consequence,  and  this  last  th;r 
proximate  or  immediate  cause  of  the  iit. 

A/.  M.  The  strictest  attention  to  the  man- 
ner in  wlwch  the  disorder  has  been  brought 
on.  If  the  disease  is  sthenic,  and  the  phy- 
sicians are  called  in  while  the  paroxysm  still 
continues,  immediate  and  copious  bleed- 
ing from  the  arm,  the  jugular  veins,  or  the 
temporal  artery.  Every  ligature  about  the 
p.atient's  body,  especially  about  the  neck, 
to  be  loosened  immediately.  Press  hard  witb 
the  thumb  and  fore-finger  upon  the  carotid 
arteries,  taking  care  to  avoid  the  juglilaE 
veins.  Place  the  head  of  the  patient  high  on 
ills  pillow,  or  seat  him  erect  in  a  chair. 
Preserve  the  apartment  cool.  Cold  water 
may  in  some  cases  b<;  applied  vigorously  to 
the  forehead  and  temples.  Afterwards  saline 
purges,  and  subacid  drinks.  Enemas.  Care- 
iul  preservation  from  irregular  and  violent 
excitations,  either  of  body  or  mind.  In  the 
asthenic,  and  by  far  the  most  usual  form,  of 
the  complaint,  bleeding  with  much  less  Ireedoin 
and  only  during  the  paroxysm;  in  general, 
it  is  not  at  all  proper.  It  is  better  to  opea 
the  temporal  artery,  if  convenient,  than  to-. 
bleed  from  tlie  arm  or  jugulars.  The  ap- 
plication of  cupping-glasses  still  prefer- 
able ;  apply  blisters  to  the  neck.  When 
the  power  of  deglutition  has  returned,  cor- 
dials and  stimulants.  Ojiium  and  wine  in 
very  small  doses.  Volatile  alkali.  Sprinkle 
vinegar  aliout  the  room.  To  prevent  the 
returns  of  the  (its  ;  tonics,  particularly  bit- 
ters, as  Colombo,  gentian,  quassia  ;  exercise 
and  mental  amusement,  witlumt  violent  ex- 
citation. Jouriu  ys  to  l!ath  or  elsewhere. 
Preserve  the  body  re-gularly  open,  without 
violent  purgations.  Avoid  sikhlcii  e-jposure 
to  cold,  especially  cold  and  wet  h-el.  If  the 
ht  has  followed  the  suppKtssion  of  any  ac- 
customed discharge,  or  cutaneous  eruption, 
let  them,  if  possible,  be  restored. 

(Jenus  II.    Piirtili/.ii.i,  palsy. 

Partial  interruption  of  the  loco-motive  fa- 
cult\ ,  sonietiiiies  with  a  ilegree  of  apojilectic 
stertor. 

'I'liis  is  partial  apoplexy,  arising  from  simi- 
lar causes  operating  in  a  less  degree.      It 


sniiuHiiiifls  succi'ivL-  (o  a  full  fit  of  ap«;iU'\y, 
and  t'onliiiucs  for  iiumllis,  or  cUiriiig  life.  'I'lic; 
jialsy  ofU-n  iiffccls  llie  whole  of  one  side,  and 
i-i  conliiifd  to  tlKit  side  ;  hence  it  has  l).',;n 
biipiiiisi-d,  that  liic  injorv  of  the  brain  is  likc- 
vi>e  partial;  and  from  the  decussation  that 
lias  bi'cn  imap;ined  traceahlc  of  the  iiervis 
from  the  encephalun,  Dr.  Darwin  and  others 
have  conc.Uided,  that  the  origin  of  the  disease 
is  on  that  side  of  the  brain  opposite  to  the 
affected  side. 

Palsy,  however,  certainly  originates  at 
times  "(even  if  genuine  apoplexy  does'  not) 
from  interrupted  excitement,  without  any 
ooni^estion  in  the  brain,  as  its  more  inmiedi- 
at(;  source  ;  as  when  it  residts  from  the  poi- 
son ot  lead  and  other  causes. 

Af.A/.  Ascertain  the  exciting  cause,  and, 
if  possible,  counteract  it.  K.meties,  purga- 
tives, preceding  stimulants  and  tonics.  'To- 
nics and  Stimnlanls  the  same  as  in  asthenic 
apoplexy.  N'olatile  embrocations  tothepa- 
faly/ed  side  or  limb.  Warm  balh.  ISatli 
waters.     Klectricilv.     (Jalvanism. 

N.  H.  I'atuitv,  or  second  childhood,  very 
often  takes  place  through  the  medium  of  pa- 
ralytic alfections  ;  the  iacully  of  memory  ap- 
pears to  be  overthrown  by  the  associate  sen- 
tient actions,  which  constitute  this  faculty, 
being  dissevered  beyond  the  power  of  re- 
union ;  and  existence  is  reiluced,  in  conse- 
quence, to  a  stat'c  of  mere  vitality  from  im- 
mediate impression.  This  is  not  seldom  the 
case  when  the  loco-motive  power,  and  the 
energy  of  the  muscular  lihre,  shall  have  been 
restored  to  their  former  state.  In  this  case 
the  recollection  of  the  past,  and  anticipation 
of  the  future,  have  both  probably  been  irre- 
caverably  lo.st. 

■j'lie  mere  possibility  of  his  being  reduced 
lo  this  condition  of  humiliating  existence, 
one  would  think  a  motive  sulficiently  power- 
ful to  check  the  intemperate  in  his  course. 

Order  II.  Jdi/namuv. 
Genus  I.  Sipicnpe,  fainting. 
■Si/iiipto/iis.     A  diminution,  or  even,  for  a 
time,  a  total  cessation,  in  the  action  of  the 
lieart. 

I''ainting  may  arise  from  passions  of  the 
mind ;  from  sudden  reduction  of  stimulus, 
as  frt>m  bleeding,  or  draw  ins;  off  the  waters  in 
dropsy  ;  violent  pain;  ths  irritation  of  worms, 
or  other  crudities,  in  the  stomach  and  bow- 
•els  ;  much  heat,  offensive  etiluvia,  S;c. ;  in 
lliese  cases  the  di--order  has  been  called  syn- 
<opc  cerebralis.  \\'hen  fainting  arises  from 
ileficieiicy  of  oxygen  in  the  ciniunambient 
■air,  as  in  a  crowded  assembly,  the  cessation 
■of  the  lieart  is  produced  nearly  upon  the 
same  princijif-s  as  in  actual  sul'location, 
<lro\vning,  or  strangling.  It  is  then  termed 
syncope  pulmonea. 

M.M.  lnuni;diately  obviate,  if  possible, 
the  exciting  cause.  Endeavour  to  restore 
sensation  by  as|)ersing  cold  water  on  the  face 
and  ni-ck  ;  attempt  to  force  down  a  small 
quantity  of  brandy  ;  and  in  all  cases,  but 
niwre  especially  w  hen  the  affection  arises  from 
impure  air,  throw  open  the  windows,  and 
prevent  conlpa^sionale  spectators  from  crowd- 
ui:;  round  the  insensible  patient. 

N.  B.  If  lainting,  or  |)alpitation,  recur 
frequently,  and  without  any  manife>t  cause, 
either  predisposing  or  exciting,  there  will  be 
reason  to  suspect  that  the  disorder  is  not 
liervotiP,  but  depends  upon  some  malconfor- 


MEDICINE. 

matirtn  in  the  lieart,  or  neiglibouring  bIot!3- 
vessels.     In  this  last  case  it  is  irremediable. 

(ienus  11.   Di;.\jir]»iia,  indigestion. 

S'lmptomi.  Deficient,  or  depraved,  ap))e- 
tite  ;  nausea;  vomiting;  inflation  from  liatn- 
lence;  heartburn;  pain  in  the  stomach,  es|e- 


cially  when  the   body  is   in  a  bent  position  ; 


oppressed  breathing;  rostiveness. 

'I'liis  disi-ase  evidently  arises  from  deficient 
action  ill  the  muscular  iibres  of  the  stomach, 
which  in  violent  cases  amounts  to  inverted 
nuition  and  vomiting.  It  acknowledges  the 
same  sources  as  oilier  affections  of  weakness: 
these  are,  intemper.ite  use  of  spirituous  li- 
quors, and  of  tea  ;  exposure  to  damp  and 
cold  ;  irregular  hours  of  repose ;  intense 
^ludv  ;  mental  de|;ression  and  anxiety  :  when 
originating  from  this  last  source  the  disorder 
has  an  equal  <  laim  lo  the  appellation  of  hy- 
pochoiulriasis,  or  low  spirits,  with  that  of 
dyspepsia. 

i\l..\f.  I'urga.lives,  with  calomel,  p'e- 
viouilv  to  giving  tonics.  An  emetic,  t  o- 
lumho,  gentian,  quas.^ia.  Magnesia,  in  order 
to  neutralii'e  the  acidity,  and  ease  the  conse- 
i[uent  |)ain  of  heartburn. 

Chalk,  wiiicli  is  u^ed  with  the  same  in- 
tention, is  improper,  on  accdvmt  of  that  neu- 
tral compound  which  it  forms  with  the 
_  a<id  of  the  stomach  being  insoluble,  and 
tending  to  increase  the  costive  state.  "  The 
dyspeptic  must  be  persuaded  that  a  horse  is 
the  be^t  physician  ;  and  that  temperance  of 
everv  kind,  with  rea-.onable  dissipation  and 
exercise  in  a  dry  healthy  air,  will  do  more  for 
him  than  aU  the  medicines  in  (he  world." 
(Townsend.)  Cold,  or  shower,  bath,  in  very 
warm,  and  warm  bathing  in  cold  weather.  A 
j;lass  of  warm  water  after  dinner  and  supper. 
Genus  III.  Hypnchnndrlusis,  low  spirits. 
Indigestion,  with  languor,  and  causeless 
a|ipreliension  of  evil,  more  especially  as  it 
rel.ites  to  the  patient's  state  of  health. 

This  disease  and  dyspepsia  only  deserve 
to  fie  distinguished  Ijy  separate  names,  inas- 
much as  the  mental  depression  in  liypochon- 
dviasis  appears  especially  to  increase  the  dis- 
ease by  which  it  is,  in  ]>art,  con>tituted  ;  and 
such  disease  is  again  magnified  beyond  mea- 
sure by  the  morbid  imagination  of  the  invali<l. 
Thus,  in  some  cases  of  confirmed  hypochon- 
driasis, the  dyspeptic  sensations  shall  be  attri- 
buted by  the  sulferer  to  tlie  immediate  agency 
of  a  malevolent  power. 

M.  M.  Aim  at  converting  solicitude  and 
apprehension  into  confidence  and  hope  ;  not 
by  deriding  the  teelingsof  the  hypochoudriac, 
and  treating  them  as  tanciful,  but  by  breaking 
the  chain  of  diseased  associations.  I'rocure 
a  gradual  change  of  scene  and  of  habits. 
Journeys  to  lialh,  or  elsewhere,  according  to 
the  previous  disposition  of  the  patient.  Bath 
waters.  Warm  bathing.  Pre-erve  carefully 
the  alimentary  canal  free  from  colluvies  and 
viscidities  by  drastic  purges  and  calomel. 
Maintain  a  regular  moisture  of  the  skin,  with- 
out copious  perspiration.  Tonics  with  aro- 
matics.  Dr.  Darwin  particularly  insists,  and 
with  justice,  on  the  advantage  ofuniibrmity 
in  the  hours  of  meals :  this  uniformity  should 
even  exiend  to  medicinals,  the  same  hour  of 
re|)etilion  being  invariably  observed.  "  .fi- 
esta, or  slee[)  after  dinner." 

(ienus  I\  .  Chlorosis,  green-sickness. 
Dyspepsia  ;  paleness  of  the  ^kin  and  of  the 
lips;  lassitude;   thfhcult  breathing,    and  p.il- 
pitation  of -(.lie  lieart.  after  uiin;'  more  e.Kcr- 


147 

cisc  than  usual,  especially  in  Coi.-g  rapidly 
up  stairs ;  pulse  small,  ft'e'bie,  and  sotnetiraes 
very  (piick ;  coldness  of  the  extremities; 
i^pjielitc  deficient,  and  oflcntimei  depraved  ; 
pain  ill  the  back  and  loins;  cosf.veness; 
o-dcmato'is  ancles,  especially  towards  even- 
ing ;  and  ob.strn<ted  nienstrualion.  "Ch!o- 
robi  laborat  debilis  puella  totum  corjnis,  laxo 
(vdemale  tumct;  pallent  et  frigenl  oninia." 
(\"an  S.vieten.) 

]^r.  Cullen  has,  witli  mucli  improprietjr, 
classed  this  among  the  nervous  diseases;  it 
ougiil  to  have  been  transferred  to  the  next 
leading  division  of  disease,  or  rather  regarded 
as  an  afl'eclion  of  (he  lymphatic  and  absorb- 
ent system.  In  cases  of  much  debility,  espe- 
cially of  disposition  to  torpor,  in  the  alv 
soibent  and  secerning  vessels  ,  if,  at  the  time 
when  nature  demands  a  new  secretion  and 
discharge  from  the  system,  in  place  of  ge- 
nerous living,  due  exercise,  modera-.e  and 
pleasurable  excitation  of  the  mind,  "  the  evta- 
springing  hope'  of  youth,  &:c.  be  substituted 
to  jjoverl)  and  unwliolcsomeness  of  diet,  wa- 


tery and  vegetable  fo:)d,  i(iactivity;  conceal- 
ed, oppressing,  ungratified,  and  hopele.ss  de- 
sircs  ;  the  eli'ect  is  the  disease  now  under  no- 
tice: which,  however,  from  much  natural 
debility,  independantly  either  of  mental  de- 
pression, unwliolesome  diet,  or  any  other 
cause,  may  be,  and  very  often  is,  occasioned. 
Chloro^is,  indeed,  is  of  exceedingly  freiiueiit 
occurrence. 

'i'lie  immediate  cause  is  evidently  an  inac- 
tive state  of  the  absorbent  vessels,  more 
esjjecially  of  those  which  supply  the  chyle: 
hence  deiiciency  of  red  blood  in  the  vessels, 
want  of  propelling  power  in  the  heart  and 
arteries:  hence  want  of  menstruation,  ccde- 
matous  sv^ellings  of  the  feet,  "  pallent  et 
frigent  omnia." 

M.  .1/.  Almost  as  certainly  as  some  kinds 
of  pain  yield  to  opium,  does  even  obstinate 
chlorosis  tall  liefore  the  |)Ower  of  steel.  "  Dum 
hoc  utitur,  incipit  oriri  major  calor."  To 
steel,  then,  must  the  .physician  princij;ally 
trust  in  every  case  of  genuine  green-sickness. 
It  is  necessary,  howc. er,  frequently  to  com- 
mence with  an  emetic;  and  in  aluiott  all 
cases  it  is  pro;:er  to  give  a  purgative,  joined 
with  calomel,  before  the  administration  (Xf 
steel.  Tonic  bitters.  Aromatics.  Mode- 
rate exerci-e  in  a  pure  atmosphere.  Flesh 
diet.  "  A  bath  of  about  eighty  degrees,  as 
Buxton ;"  not  by  any  means  ctjder.  Mar- 
riage. 

Order  III.  Spnsmi,  Spasms. 
In  the  introduction  to  the  class  Neuroses, 
yve  endeavoured  to  describe  briefly  the  man- 
ner in  wliich  a  knowledge  y^as  acquired  of 
the  separate  functions  and  distinct  diseases 
of  tiie  nervous  system.  In  the  case  of  spas- 
modic alfections  this  is  especially  illustrated. 
If  in  any  animal  the  nerve  supplying  a  limb 
be  denuded,  and  a  violent  stimulus  be  ap- 
plied to  its  surfuce,  the  whole  member  shall 
be  immediately  thrown  into  convulsive  agita- 
tions :  a  fact  which  is  perhaps  too  often  de- 
moi.'trated  in  galvanic  and  other  experi- 
ments. When  then  such  convulsive  move- 
ments ajjpear,  without  experiments,  and 
sometimes  without  apparent  cause,  a  similar 
change  is  justly  inferred  to  take  place  in  the 
nerve  or  nerves  passing  to  the  organ  which 
may  be  the  subject  of  the  disease,  'llicrc  is 
onec'.rcumstance  with  r«spect  to  spasm  that. 


J  48 

bo'.h  til  Ihenryanfl  practice,  oui^lit  always  to 
be  retained  i;i  tin:  iiit-:iiory ;  I'lis  is,  tlial  tliL- 
sp  is:i!odic  or  coiivuUlve  state  of  parts  iuvu- 
ri;ibly  implies  debliitv.  To  act  irregularly, 
is  ill  all  iiistance-i  to  act  witli  deficient  vigour; 
lor  the  si\m  total  of  these  disorderly  iii.)vc- 
Jilents,  performed  in  a  given  timi-,  will  not 
amount  to  tlio  qLiantnm  of  power  displayed 
ill  t!ie  same  time  liy  healthy  and  steady  ac- 
tion. Tills  fact  ajjpears  to  be  a  sufficient  re- 
futation of  Dr.  Danviii's  liypothesis,  that 
convulsions  are  voluntary  exertions  of  the 
inascles  to  relieve  pain,  even  if  we  concede 
to  this  author,  that  the  strict  delinition  of  vo- 
lition ought  to  be  '•  the  active  stat?  of  the 
sensorial  faculty  in  producing  motion,  in 
consequence  of  desire  or  aversion,  whether 
we  have  tiie  power  of  restrainina;  tiiat  action 
or  not;"  for,  according  to  this  principle,  con- 
vulsion should  be  an  actiial  and  positive  in- 
crease of  vigour,  which  it  is  not ;  for  while 
the  utmost  agitaliou  is  carrying  on  in  the  con- 
vulsed member  or  organ,  if  a  due  quantity 
of  stimulus  be  thrown  in,  excitement  will  im- 
mediately follow,  and  in  co;i;equeace  of  this 
excitement,  quiescence  and  lirmness;  in  the 
same  manner,  but  upon  a  different  principle, 
.as  tightening  the  sail  of  a  ship  arreats  its  vi- 
bratory motions,  bat  increases  its  actual  and 
integral  force. 

If  it  appear  difiicult  to  conceive  whv  a 
■  fltiiiialant  or  exciting  agent  should  produce 
tliis  debilitated  action,  we  must  refer  to  tlie 
.invarirtbie  law  of  living  existence,  that  exci- 
tation carried  beyond  a  certain  point,  is  i  n- 
medialely  productive  of  indirect  debility  : 
tlius  when  thegalvanist  convulses  the  leg  of 
a  frog,  he  throws  in  more  of  stimulus  than  is 
adapted  to  the  librous  excitability  of  the  or- 
gan in  question;  he  exhausts  tlie  irritability 
of  the  part;  and  the  convulsion  that  follows 
is  the  consequence  of  sucli  exhausti  m,  ex- 
actly upon  the  same  princi|)le  thut  half  a  pint 
of  wine  shall  give  steadiness  to  the  tongue, 
and  firmness  to  the  step,  while  a  quart  of  this 
stimuiu;,  taken  in  the  same  time,  shall  pro- 
duce a  temporary  paralysis  of  the  limbs,  and 
render  the  speech  faultering  and  inarticu- 
late. 

We  have  indiscriminately  employed  in 
the  above  observations,  the  terms  spasm  and 
convulsion.  As  it  relates  to  the  excitement, 
f  hey  are  virtually  the  same  states;  and  thus, 
whether  convulsion  or  spasm,  that  is,  whe- 
ther rigid  immoveable  contraction,  or  rapid 
ulternationsof  contraction  and  relaxation,  liil- 
low  the  debilitating  causes  upon  which  they 
<lepend,  in  one  sense  they  arc  scarcely  to  be 
distinguished ;  the  difii-rence  of  physiognom v 
whicli  they  assume  appears  to  have  depend- 
ance  upon  the  complicated  associations  of 
living  actions,  which  are  but  little  under- 
stojil,  and  both  in  theory  and  practice  too 
jnujli  disregarded. 

From  the  above  remarks  we  hope  it  has 
been  rendered  evident,  tliat  in  allempting  to 
overcome  a  spasm  or  convulsion,  the  leading 
principle  of  cure  must  be  stimulative  ;  the 
iliscase  in  (juestion,  however  originatin;;,  in- 
variably implying  ilebilily,  or  more  properly, 
perhaps,  deliciency  of  excitement. 

Sect.  I.  Spasmodic  affections  in  the  ani' 
tnatjiinctioiu. 

Genus  I.  Tetanw;.  A  spasmodic  rigi- 
flity  of  a  great  part  of  the  bcdy:  in  some  in- 
Btaiices  it  n  drawn  violi'Btl)'  backward,  at 


MEDICINE. 

others  forwards,  and  in  both  cases  the  Am  ase 
is  generally  tbUov.ed  or  attended  by  trismus 
or  I'jck-jaw  ;  these  symptoms  may  last  with 
greater  or  inferior  violence  from  twenty-four 
hours  to  a  month  or  more. 

The  immediately  exciting  causes  of  teta- 
nus are,  wounds  or  pricks  of- tendons;  the 
sudden  application  of  cold  after  extreme 
heat ;  great  intemperance,  or  other  vices ; 
the  disease  may  likewise  be  consequent  upon 
viscid  mucus,  worm;,  and  other  irritating  sub- 
stances, in  the  alimentary  passages.     - 

liT.  M.  As  in  fevers,  it  is  liighly  necessary 
to  preserve  thealimentary  canal  free  from  col- 
luvies,  in  order  that  the  return  of  due  and  or- 
derly excitement  may  not  be  prevented  by 
this  cause;  so  is  it  especially  necessary  in 
nervous  anil  spasmodic  affections  carefully  to 
keep  in  mind  the  incalculable  importance  of 
this  principle.  Indeed,  among  the  actually 
exciting  causes  of  the  malady  now  under  iio- 
i;.:e,  these  intestinal  crudities  are  perhaps  the 
most  frequ  nt.  Let  the  practitioner  then,  in 
every  spasmodic  disorder,  pay  solicitous  at- 
tention to  the  condition  of  the  stomacli  and 
bowels:  it  is  in  these  organs  "  that  the 
archer  may  be  seated,"  in  whatever  direc- 
tions h;'  may  send  out  his  arrows.  It  is  not, 
li't  it  be  as  carefully  rem.'mbered,  by  the  act 
of  evacuation  in  reducing  tlie  system;  that 
either  emetics  or  purgatives  operate  thus  be- 
nelicially ;  but  by  the  disposition  tiiat  a  free- 
dom in  the  first  passages  favours  to  the  due 
susceptibility  of  the  exciting  powers,  on  the 
agency  of  whicli  the  return  of  hcjlth  de- 
pends. Indeed,  as  far  as  either  purgnig  or 
vomiting  are  in  themselves  immediately  in- 
~^'rumental  in  dissolving  spasm,  as  it  has  been 
expressed,  independantly  of  the  source  just 
relerred  to,  it  is  by  virtue  of  the  agitation 
and  stimulus,  not  by  the  discharge  of  which 
tliey  are  productive.  (See  Infancy.) 
Emetics,  cathartics  with  calomel.  Pouring 
large  quantities  of  cold  water  over  tlie  body 
during  the  spasm,  in  order  forcibly  to  sever 
the  catenated  motions  by  which  it  is  consti- 
tuted. Warm  bathing.  Very  large  quanti- 
ties of  opium.  More  than  four  hundred 
drops  of  the  tincture  have  been  given  in  some 
violent  tetanic  afi'ections  in  the  course  of 
twenty-four  hours,  and  without  prouucuig 
any  inroxicating  effect.  Other  antispasmo- 
dic medicines.  Mercury.  If  the  spasm  has 
originated  from  alaceratedor  punctured  ten- 
don, divide  it  freely,  and  produce  pain  and 
inflammation. 

Genus  II.  Conviilsio,  convulsions.  On 
the  cause  and  treatment  of  these,  we  need 
not  enlarge,  after  tlie  remarks  we  have  intro- 
duced on  the  nature,  predisposing  and  ex- 
citing causes,  of  convulsive  and  spasmodic 
disortlcrs  in  general. 

Genus  III.     Chorea,  St.  A'itus's  dance. 

S>/niptom.i.  Convulsive  agitations  of  the 
limbs,  in  general  almost  confined  to  one  side 
of  the  body.  When  the  jiatient  attempts  to 
walk,  he  produces  involuntary  gesticula- 
tions. 

.1/.  .1/.  Emetics,  cathartics  with  calomel; 
anthelmintics  ;  bark,  steel,  and  other  tonics  ; 
electricity,  galvanism,  tepid  bathing,  sea- 
bathing. 

Genus  W.  Ihiphania,  contractions  in  the 
joints. 

Si/inploms,    Spastic   contractions    of  the 


joiri'.s,with  excruciating  pain,  and  convulsive 
I  motions,  returning  periodically,  and  contimi- 
:  ing  tor  many  day^.  It  appca'rs  to  be  a  spe- 
'  cies  of  rheumatism. 

M.  M.  Purges,  followed  by  tonics ;  mer- 
cury combined  with  opium. 

'Genus  \.  Epilepsia,  epilepsy.  A'iolent 
convulsions  of  the  muscles,  aliended  with 
sleep. 

Epilepsy  in  its  nature  and  causes  appears 
to  hold  a  kind  of  intermediate  situation  be- 
tween apoplexy  and  convulsion;  it  has  the 
sudden  fall  and  the  sopor  of  the  one,  with  the 
irregular  muscular  action  of  the  other.  Epi- 
lepsy, in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  is  a  disease 
of  extreme  ne(|uency:  indeed,  all  the  con- 
vulsions of  children  maybe  called  epileptic. 
In  its  full  and  fbrmidahle  shape,  it  is  not  so 
frequcnlly  met  with  as  several  other  diseases. 
A  iihysi'.ian,  however,  mav  denominate,  with 
propriety,  all  tits  epileptic,"  of  wliich  alternate 
or  combliied  convulsions  and  sleep  constitute 
the  characters,  especially  if  these  are  ccnnect- 
ed  in  any  degree  with  an  increased  action  of 
the  salivary  glands. 

_  A/.  M.  Epileptic  fits  are  sometimes  conge- 
nital, hereditary,  and  depend  upon  some  oc- 
cult stale  of  the  nervous  system.  In  these 
cases  tlie  disorder  is  ijeneral'iy  irremediable. 
All  that  can  be  done  oy  art  fs  merely  to  as- 
certain, and  endeavour,"if  possible,  to  obviate, 
the  e.xciting  causes  of  the  disease;  and  during 
the  paroxysm  to  loosen  every  bLindage  about 
the  neck  and  head,  preseive  the  apartment 
in  whi(  h  the  fall  is  made  as  airy  as  possible, 
and  be  careful  that  the  patient  do  not  inllict 
injury  upon  himself  by  the  viol-;nce  ot  his 
agitation.  In  some  cases,  indeed,  the  ind>- 
vidual  can  obviate  the  full  formation  of  the 
paroxysm  by  tying  a  ligature  round  the  limb 
in  wdiich  the  sensation  tlireatening  the  attack 
is  perceived,  between  the  point  at  which  such 
sensation  commences  and  the  brain.  This 
sensation  constitutes  what  is  called  the  epi- 
leptic aura  :  its  abstract  cause  Is  obscure;  but 
no  less  so  than  tlie  phenomena  of  spasm  in 
general. 

In  treating  the  complaint,  particular  atten- 
t'on  is  to  be  given  to  the  predisposing  and 
exciting  cause  or  causes,  which  are  extremely 
numerous;  such  as  youthful  intemperance,  in- 
dulgence in  secret  vices,  mental  pas-ions  and 
affections,  imitation  of  other  epileptics,  livelv 
recollections  of  previous  impressions,  repelled 
eruptions  or  discharges,  sudden  alternations 
ot  the  extremes  of  temperature,  unideasant 
odours,  and,  as  by  far  the  most  common 
source  of  those  epilejitic  fits  which  scarcely 
amount  to  absolute  epilepsy,  worms.  These 
causes  must  all  necessarily  be  removed  before 
the  physician  can  have  the  least  prospect  of 
overcoming  the  disease.  Emetics,  cathartics, 
with  calomel;  anthelmintics:  suddenly  dis- 
sever the  chain  of  associations,  by  plunging 
the  patient  in  the  cold  bath,  or  dashing  with 
violence  cold  water  over  his  naked  body. 
Induce  a  now  disease,  as  the  itch;  apian 
which  Dr.  Darwin  adopted  with  success  in 
the  treatment  of  St.  Aitus's  dance,  with  which 
the  present  has  a  great  alllnity.  Patients  have- 
likewise  been  cured  of  epilepsv,  by  the  acci- 
dental occurrence  of  a  ipiarlan "  ague.  These 
are  inslructive  cases  to  the  rellecting  and  spe- 
culative. Tonics.  Galvanism.  By  this  newlv 
discovered  source  of  nervous  excitation,  the 
writer  of  this  articl.c  recollects  to  have  wit« 


ncsscd  a  supposed  cure  of  a  very  obsliuatt' 
case  of  epilepsy.  It  is  not,  however,  easy  la 
asi-erUiii  how  far  reiiieilies  operate  in  over- 
coming gradually,  chronic  affections. 

Of  ^(■'nrms,  and  Anthelmintics.  \\"omis 
ve  have  just  stated  to  be  ;unong  the  most 
frequ'-lit  of  the  exciting  eae.ses  of  cp.lcplic 
iils.  As  the  order  (>t  our  nosology  no  wliere 
ieavls  us  to  notice  them  iii  an  especial  man- 
lier, it  may  not  be  improper  in  this  place  to 
introduce  one  orluo  remarks  respecting  their 
luiUire  and  treatment. 


Intrstina!    worms 


are  of  three  kinds : 


the 
the 
the 
are 
are 


AiKIMCIXE. 

Ci.'iuia  II.  yl-i  Itinii. 

Si/mp'nm/i.     Ditlicult  respiraliin    return- 


ascaridis,  or  small  thread-like   worm  ; 
hunbricus   teres,   or  round   worm;  antl 
tiiiiia,  or  tape  worm.     The  iirsl  ot  these 
principallv  conlined  to  the  rectum  :  they 
ilivided  by  Dr.  Darwin  into  two  species,  vi/. 
'■  the  coiiiuion  small  one,  like  a  thread,  which 
lias  a  very  sharp  head,  as  appears  in  the  ini- 
croscopeii   and  which  is  so  leiuler  that  the 
cold  air  s  ion   renders  it  motioiil,es3;  and  a 
lar;;er  kind,  above  an  inch  long,  and  nearly 
as  'thick  as   a   very  fmall   crow-quill,    and 
\\W\c\i  is  verv  hard  in  respect  to  its  texture, 
and  very  tenacious  of  life."     The  symptoms 
by  which  the  presence  of  these  may  be  sus- 
pected, are  an  uneasiness  and  itching  in  the 
rectum,  especially  urgent  towards  evening  : 
this,  if  violent,  disturbs  sleep,  and  occasions 
ft'brile  irritation,   and  sometimes  tenesmus, 
witli  mucous  discharge  from  the  anus,  indi- 
gestion, and  itching  of  tlie  nostrils. 

Af.Af.  Clysters  of  lime-water,  injection 
of  tobacco-smoke.  Mercurial  ointment  iu- 
t  oduced  into  the  anus.  Aloes  and  steel, 
both  bv  the  n:outh  and  in  the  form  of  enema. 
Saline  purgatives.  Harrowgate  water,  so  as 
to  induce  six  or  seven  stools  every  morning. 
The  lumbricus  is  the  most  common.  Its 
symptoms  are  enumerated  in  the  article  In- 
fancy. Lumbrici  are  of  very  difl'erent 
lengths  and  magnitude  ;  they  are  principally 
found  in  the  smaller  intestines,  but  are  situ- 
ated occasionully  both  in  Ihir  stomach  and 
larger  intestines.  These  worms  have  been 
known  to  pierce  through  the  coats  ot  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  and  iiave  thus  occasioned 
most  excruciating  pains  .md  death. 

The  tape  worms  are  sonnaimes  voided  of 
an  enormous  length  :  tiiey  have  been  stated 
to  be  horn  two 'to  forty  feet  long.  They 
properly  consist  of  an  united  chain  of  separate 
animals";  as,  when  broken,  each  portion  has 
the  power  of  reproduction.  "  The  worms 
of  this  genus  possess  a  wonderful  power  of 
retaining  life.  Two  of  them,  wliicli  were 
voided  by  a  pointer  dog  in  consequence  of 
violent  purgatives,  each  of  which  was  seve- 
ral feet  in  length,  had  boiling  water  poured 
on  them  in  a  bason,  which  seemed  not  much 
I  >  inconvenience  them.  When  the  water 
was  cool,  tliey  were  taken  out,  and  put  into 
ginorwhisky  of  the  strongest  kind,  in  which 
their  life  and  activity  coiitniued  uninijiaired, 
and  they  were  at  length  killed  by  adding  to 
the  spirit  a  quantity  ol  corrosive  sublimate." 
The  svvr.ptoms  are  much  the  same  with 
those  of  the  lumbrici,  but  more  urgent. 

M.  M.  See  MXteria  Medica,  section 
Anthelmintics. 

Spasmodic  Affections  continued. 
Sect.  II.     In  the  vital  Functions. 
Genus    I.   Palpilatio,    palpitation.     See 
.Syncope. 


ing  at  intervals,  with  a  sense  of  tightness 
across  the  breast.  Wheezing  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  asthmatic  (its;  scarcely 
any  cough  but  wiiat  is  hard  :  towards  the 
clo;;e  of  the  paroxv>m  it  however  becomes 
iirire  free,  attenifed  with  a  discharge  of 
mucus. 

U'liese  symptoms  certainly  arise  from  a 
spasmodic  construction  of  the  bronchial 
fibres,  "  which  is  communicated  by  consent 
to  the  larynx  and  diaphragm." 

The  causes  of  a^llmia  are  numerous,  while 
its  predisposition  is  ofti  n  herediti'.ry,  and  de- 
pendant upon  a  peculiar  conformation  and 
temperament;  the  .actual  disease  may  be  ex- 
cited by  intemperanci'  either  in  eating  or 
drinkina,  violent  exercise,  mental  agitation, 
eruptions  or  discharges  abru|)tly  or  unseason- 
ably repelled;  the  fumes  of  metallic  poison, 
as  of  lead,  &c. 

^/.  Hf.  Spasmodic  asthma,  when  fully 
estab'ished,  scarcely  admits  of  a  radical  cure. 
Tlie  i)aroxysnis  to  he  relieved  by  opium  and 
xther;  colfee;  tonics  in  the  intervals,  piinci- 
pallv  of  the  class  of  bitters  and  aromatics. 
Avoid  distending  the  stomach  inordinately. 
Emetics ;  enemas  previous  to  the  expected 
accession;  gentle  horse  exercise ;  ])uie  air; 
oxygen  gas.  If  eruptions  have  been  repelled, 
endeavour  to  restore  them. 

Genus  III.  Dyspmva,  ditriculty  of  breath- 
ing. Tills  is  improperly  introduced  into  the 
nosologv  as  a  genus,  it  being  merely  a  symp- 
tom of  other  diseases,  con.sequent  upon  de- 
fective formation  of  the  clie.t,  or  brought 
on  by  evident  causes,  which  being  removed, 
the  disorder  iirmiediately  declines. 
Genus  IV.  Pertussis,  hooping  c6ugii. 
Siiinptoms.  Convulsive  strangulating  cough, 
with  noisy  inspiration  or  hooping,  and  some- 
times attended  with  vomiting.  It  is  conta- 
gious. 

The  precise  nature,  or,  as  physicians  ex- 
press themselves,  the  proximate  cause  of 
hooping  cough,  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
accurately  ascertained.  Dr  Darwin  sup- 
poiC^  it  to  be  "  an  inllammution  of  themen> 
branes  -which  line  tlie  air-vessels  of  the 
lungs,  and  that  it  only  differs  from  periitneu- 
nomia  superficialis  in  the  circumstance  of  its 
being  contag  ous."  He  on  this  account  enu- 
merates it  among  the  sensitive  irritated  fe- 
vers: we  are  inclined,  however,  to  think  that 
the  infection  principally  operates  upon  the 
stomach  ;  and  that  the  innanimatory  disorder 
of  the  mucous  membrane  is  merely  a  conss- 
queme  of  the  protraction,  or  erroneous  treat- 
ment, of  the  complaint.  It  is  not  attended, 
in  the  lirst  instance  at  least,  with  the  symp- 
toms of  inflammatory  irritation  ;  and  the  vo- 
miting, by  which  the  violent  lits  are  often  re- 
lieved, proves  tiiat  the  stomach,  in  pertussis, 
ii  in  a  morbidly  irritable  state. 

It  deserves  however  to  be  remarked,  that 
the  membrane  in  question  is  very  apt  to  par- 
take of  the  prevailing  irritation,  to  become 
inllamed,  an<l  thus,  like  the  inflammation  af- 
ter small-po\,  and  measles  more  especially, 
to  lav  the  foundation  of  consuinptio:i  of  the 
lungs. 

AI.  M.  Antimonial  emetics.  Very  small 
doses.  Warm  bathing.  Above  all,  digitalis  ; 
in  no  disease,  perhaps,  is  the  power  of  this 


].19 

valuable  medicine,  displaced  more  forcibly 
and  i-vJd'-iUly  than  in  hooping  cough,  its 
eMt?cts  ;\re  generally  almost  in'latitaneous. 
.'Vfiir  the  violence  of  the  disea-e  has  sub- 
siiied,  and  even  before,  change  of  air.  Cic- 
cuta  (conium  maculatum)  lias  been  much 
employed  in  this  complaint. 

Sect.  111.    In  the  animal  functions. 
(Jeiiiis  I.  Pijrasis.    Water-braih  of  Scot- 
land.    Water-qualm. 

.'i'l/mptnms.  Sudden  (eructation  of  watery 
fluid  v.ith  or  without  hrarlburn  ;  the  fluid 
brought  from  the  stomach  suuictimes  insi- 
pid. 

M.  M.  The  author  of  the  present  arlicli! 
recently  had  an  oppoitunity  of  wiliiessing 
in  this  disease  the  beiielicial  elfects  of  the  iii- 
lialation  of  tol^iiicco-smoke  by  a  persor.  not 
previously  accustomed  to  smoking ;  llii-i 
man  had  taken  tonics,  antispasmodics,  and  ::il- 
tacids,  without  effect.  "  A  gram  of  Ojiimu 
twice  a  day,  soai),  jron  powder,  a  blister." 
(Darwin.) 

Cienus  II.   Colica,  colic. 
Si/mptoms.    Permanent  and    excruciating 
pain  in  the  bellv,  with  a  sensation  as  of  twist- 
ing about  the  navel,  constipation,  and  some- 
times vomiting. 

Causes.  These  symptoms  evidently  ori^ 
ginale  from  spasmodic  constriction  in  some 
part  of  the  intestinal  caual,  which  may  be 
occasioned  by  various  causes  ;  such  as  indi- 
gestible foodjtlu-  sudden  application  of  cold  ; 
acrid  substances  received  into  the  stomach  ; 
pois.ins,  especially  lead ;  hence  colic  is  a 
kind  of  epidemic  disease  among  painter^, 
attended  with  paralysis  of  the  arms,  &:c.  It 
is  likewise  common  in  cydjr  countries.    , 

M.  M.  Opium.  Catnarlics,  principally  . 
of  castor  oil.  AVarm  bathing.  Anoduie 
clysters.  Fomentations  and  blisters  to  thf! 
part.  In  obstinate  cases  of  the  painters' 
colic,  Bath  waters.  Carefully  obviate  th.; 
exciting  causes,  of  the  disease. 
Genus  III.  Cholera. 

Si/mptoms.  \'oniiting  and  purging  of  bi- 
lious matter,  violent  pains  in  the  stomach  and 
bowels,  with  great  anxiety  and  irritability.  ■ 

Cholera  is  one  of  the  diseases  of  the  au- 
tumnal months  ;  it  is  very  often  [iroduced  by 
the  sudden  succession  of  cold  to  unusualiy 
warm  weather :  it  sometimes  follows  tli<'  tak- 
ing of  indigestible  substances,  as  of  mucli 
cold  cucumlier,  especially  at  the  period  of 
the  year  above-mentioned,  when  tnc  direct- 
ly d'ebilitating  jiower  of  cold  abruptly  suc- 
ceeds to  the  uidirectly  debilitating  operation 
of  heat,  and  the  biliary  secretion  is  more  than 
ordinarily  copious. 

III.  J/.  During  the  violence  of  the  vomit- 
ing and  purging,  give  water-gruel,  and  in- 
iect  starch  clysters,  to  each  of  which  add 
tincture  of  opium.  After  the  disorder  has 
in  some  measure  subsided,  restore  due  exr 
cilement  bv  cordial  and  nourishing  diet, 
with  stomachic  medicines.  If  febrile  irrita- 
tion is  induced,  the  saline  draught,  com- 
posed of  salt  of  wormwood  and  lenion-jiuce.-  . 
Genus  l^'.  Diarrhea. 
Siimptnms.  Frequent  stools,  without,  pri- 
mary pyrexia,  and  not  induced  byi-cor>- 
tagion. 

A  morbid  action  in  the  excretories  of  the 
intestines  constitutes  this  disease:  sometimes 
however,    and.   frce.iiCiUly,  .  pu)-ging.   ariSc-s 


150 

from  nicrc  lo^s  of  excitability  in  tlu;  iiilesti- 
lul  libre,  wiUioiit  increase  eitlitr  of  bile  or 
aiiv  olIiLT  excrclioii.  It  ii  iiiiniedialely  oc- 
ca>iono<l  l)y  acriu  maUer  in  tbe  intestines  ; 
Uv  acidities,  by  mental  passions,  or  by  tlie 
sudden  application  of  cold,  more  especially 
to  the  feet. 

.1/.  M.  According  to  the  exciting  causes. 
If  there  is  reason  to  snsnect  the  lodgment 
of  acrid  matter,  calomel,  with  jalap,  senna, 
or  rliubarb  Afterwards  astringents,  of  which 
one  of  the  best  is  gond  red  wine.  0|):um. 
(/h.ilk,  if  acidity  prevails.  An  emetic  if  the 
^lisrirder  continues  obslmate. 

Genus  V.  Diuhclc.i. 

St/m;)loj>i-'!.  Su))er.ibund:mt  discliarge  of 
iM-ine,  in  some  cases  amounting  to  fifty 
pounds  in  twenty-four  hours,  limpid  and 
>\ve;-.tis!i  to  the  taste,  with  urgent  and  per- 
petual thirst,  dry  skiii,  weakness,  emacia- 
ition. 

'i'liis  disease  often,  ])erhnps,  e.\is1s  to  a  very 
•<-onsiderabie  evtent  w  itliout  being  detected. 
It  is  not  an  uncoiiimon  complaint  among 
the  poor,  t-specially  of  the  north  of  Jiri- 
tain. 

'I'he  principal  circumstances  th.it  have  at- 
■tracted  the  notice  of  the  pathologist  in  re- 
ference to  this  complaint,  are  the  saccharine 
<|ualitv  of  the  mine  e\  acuated,  an<l  the  at- 
■tendaiil  emaci.ilion.  One  of  the  princ  ipal 
in:;redients  in  the  mitrilion  of  the  body  has 
lieen  supposed  to  be  the  saccharine  priuciple ; 
from  the  inordinate  discharge  ot  this  i)rin- 
u-iple  in  the  diabetic  urine,  the  disorder  has 
Ijeen  therefore  referred  by  some  to  a  defi- 
fiencv  of  assimilating  poN/er  in  the  stomach 
-and  dijestive  organs,  while  others  have 
imagined  it  to  originate  entirely  from  alter- 
ed action  in  the  kidneys.  Perhaps  both  of 
these  causes  may  operate  in  producing  dia- 
betes. Upon  ihssection,  the  kidneys  are  al- 
ways found  flaccid.  Dr.  Darwin,  after  Mr. 
Charles  Darwin,  attributes  the  copious  How 
of  urine  to  the  inverted  or  retrograde  action 
of  the  urinary  lymphatics  ;  but  besides  that 
this  tii'-oFv  does  not  account  for  the  super- 
abundance of  sugar  or  of  mucilage  in  the 
water,  it  has  been  proved  that  such  niver- 
sioa  of  the  absorbents  is  inconsistent  with 
■tlieir structure  and  general  economy. 

.\r.  Af.  Animal  diet.  Dr.  liollo  and 
others  ha,ve  obst  rved  that  when  the  patient 
lives  on  animal  food,  the  saccharine  qualify 
of  diabetic  urine  abate*;.  Alkaline  and  as- 
tringent medicines,  such  as  nut-galls  and 
lime-water.     15ark.    Steel.     Opium.    Alum- 

wilev. 

N .  I).  A  copious  flow  of  urine  is  frfquent- 
!v  observed  to  attend  nervous  aiVections,  and 
iiideed  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
disease  we  are  next  to  notii;e  :  in  these  cases 
however,  the  water  ha;  not  the  superabund- 
ance of  the  saceiiarine  principle  as  in  genu- 
ine diabetes,  «  hicli  last  disorder  has  been  er- 
roneousiv  placed  in  the  class  Neuroses. 

Clenus  VI.  // /itiriu.  The  hysteric  disease. 

■S'l/ni^i'nms.  A  gurgling  of  the  bowels,  fol- 
•lowed  bv  globus  h\stericiis,  or  a  sensation 
of  a  ball  ascending  io  the  throi.t,  and  mena- 
citig  suffocation.  Convulsive  agitations,  al- 
4ernate  laughing  and  cr/ing,  ageiuTal  fickle- 
ness and  irritability  of  mind.  A  large  (luan 
tity  of  straw-coloured  or  limpid  urine,  llys- 
iter'ia,  like  epili-psy,  is  in  a  certain  degree  ex- 
tremely common;  it  generalLy  lir»t  occurs  in 


MEDICINE. 

females  about  the  time  of  puberly.  U  iSj 
like  all  other  convulsive  afl'ections,  a  symp- 
tom of  a  la-c  habit,  and  is  conseiiuent  upon 
the  irritability  of  weakness.  It  may  be 
brought  on  by  mental  agitation,  or  by  irri- 
tations in  the  stomach,  bu.vels,  uterine  or- 
gans. Sic. 

The  discharge  of  urine  which  attends  or 
precedes  hysteric  paroxyni,  is  attribtited  by 
Dr.  Darwin  to  the  inverted  ntotions  of  the 
lymphatics  about  the  mouth  of  the  bladder, 
as  in  diabetes;  a  tempo! ary  torpor,  or  spasm 
of  these  vessels,  would  aj)pear  sufVicient  to 
account  for  the  siiperabundant  excretion, 
the  watery  part  of  the  urine  not  being  taken 
up. 

^1/.  .1/.  Avoid  cverv  occasional  and  exci- 
ting cau^e  of  the  disease,  liark,  quassia,  and 
other  tonics.  I'o  rentove  the  present  symp- 
toms, camphor,  assafcctida,  castor,  opium  ; 
if  this  last,  from  idiosyncracy,  disagrees  with 
the  patient,  the  hyoscyamus  will  generally 
be  found  an  excellent  substitute.  This  has 
not  the  constipating  tendency  of  opium  ;  and 
inlnsteric  cases  it  is  of  importance,  while 
much  evacuation  is  i;uarded  against,  to  pre- 
serve a  freedom  both  in  the  alvine  and  cu- 
taneous discharges.  iMiictics.  N.  li.  The 
cu^fomarv  ])l.m  of  bleeding  in  hysteric  afl'ec- 
tions is  extremelv  detrimental  to  the  general 
health,  and  disposes  to  a  return  of  the  pa- 
roxysms. If  it  is  judged  necessary  in  some 
cases  of  hysteria  to  withdraw  a  small  quantity 
of  blood,'  it  should  be  done  not  by  vene- 
section in  the  ordinary  mode,  but  by  the  ap- 
plication ot  a  cupping-glass. 

Genus  ^TI.  Uydrophobin. 

A  dread  of  water  as  exciting  painful  con- 
vulsions (jf  the  pharynx,  caused  for  the  most 
part  bv  the  bite  of  a  mad  dog,  violent  spasms, 
furious  insanity,  death. 

.If.  il/.  "  Mhen  the  contagion  of  a  putrid 
fever  is  taken  by  the  saliva  into  the  stomach 
and  bowels,  which  is  its  constant  road," 
(<iuerv)  "  if  the  patient  the  moment  he  linds 
himself  attacked  witli  a  sense  of  chilliness, 
loss  of  appetite,  and  an  unpleasant  taste,  in 
his  mouth,  has  recourse  to  two  emetics  at 
proper  intervals,  and  after  the  operation  ot 
the  first  emetic  takes  a  cathartic,  he  has 
cerf.'inly  got  rid  of  the  infection:  in  the 
same  jeanner,  even  after  three  days,  in"  per- 
haps a  week,  if  the  part  bitten  by  the  dog  le 
cut  out  with  the  knife,  the  danger  is  escaped." 
(Townseiiil.)  Dr.  T'hornton  advisi-d  the  ap- 
jjlication  of  hot  vinegar,  sharpened  with  vi- 
triolic acid,  to  the  wounds  of  five  uu>n  who 
had  been  bitten  by  a  rahid  animal,  and  this 
application  was  attended  with  seeming  suc- 
cess. .Mercury  :  this  hy  some  has  been  ex- 
tolled as  a  specific  for  hydrophobia. 

Order  1\'.     /'i\ait!,r. 

Disorders  of  the  intellect,  iiuU'peiidant  of 
pyrexia  or  coma. 

"  liverv  nervous  disease,  (says  an  authnr 
whom  we  have  before  ipioted)  is  a  degree  of 
insanity."  If,  however,  imagination  carried 
to  the  heiglil  of  senlient  ))er<:i'ption,  or,  as 
it  has  been  ex[)ressed  hv  Dr.  liatty,  the  rais- 
inu;  np  in  the  mind  of  images  not  distinguish- 
able from  Impressions  on  the  senses,  is  the 
proper  ileliiiition  of  the  insane  stale — "the 
cardinal  point  on  which  madness  turns'" — 
the  above  apophthegm  of  Dr.  Reid  mav  be 
regarded  as  rather  bold  and  impressive  than 


strictly  acctirafe.  Il  were  surely  improper  t« 
denominale  the  apoplectic,  the  paralytic, 
the  hvsteric,  or  the  tetani>',  insane ;  yet  an 
individual  under  these  maladies,  is  as  truly 
atVected  with  a  nervous  disorder  as  one  who, 
like  the  lunatic  astronomer  in  Rasselas,  con- 
ceiting himself  to  possess  the  nuKstery  ot  the 
elements,  commands  rain  to  shed  fertility  on 
the  barren  soil. 

'■1  hat  liie  disorders  of  the  intellect  are  dis- 
orders of  the  nerves  we  readily  adniit.j  it  ij 
the  converse  of  the  proposition  we  presume 
to  (piestion  ;  and  in  so  doing,  we  justify  Dr. 
Cullen,  in  considering  tlie  vesania',  or  men- 
tal affections,  as  a  distinct  order  of  nervous 
diseases. 

The  pathology  of  such  diseases  is  peculiar- 
ly perplexing.  We  find  by  experience,  that 
an  increase  of  vascular  action  in  a  tender 
orge.n  will  give  rise  to  the  feeling  of  pain  ; 
we  have  ascertained  liy  the  conjunctive  and 
mutually  reflective  aid  of  casual  observation 
and  direct  experiment,  that  convulsive  move- 
ments in  themuscular  libre  are  occasioned  by 
an  interruption  of  nervous  excitement  in 
whatever  that  may  consist;  we  see  the  brain 
pressed  u|)on,  and  the  apoplectic  stupor  fol- 
low ;  but  in  endeavouring  to  trace  deranged 
consciousness  to  disordered  organization, 
temporary  or  permanent,  an  increase  of  in- 
tricacy appears  in  a  manner  to  grow  out  of 
labour  and  research. 

Dissection  does  not  afTord  that  assistance 
to  the  pathologist  in  this,  as  in  many  other 
dejiarfments  of  his  inquiries  ;  for,  independ- 
antly  of  the  great  want  of  unifonuitv  that  has 
been  observed  in  the  brains  of  the  unfortunate 
victims  to  mental  derangement,  it  is  impos- 
sible lo  jiulge  from  an  inspection  of  this  oiv 
gan,  how  far  the  altered  structures  and  ap- 
]>earances  have  been  causes,  and  how  tar 
consecpiences,  of  the  malady. 

Dr.  Cullen  has  four  genera  in  liis  order 
vesania-,  viz.  amentia,  melancholia,  mania, 
and  oneirodynia,  on  each  of  which  we  shall 
introduce  a  lew  remarks. 

(icnus  I.  Amfiitiu,  ideocy. 

Anient  a  is  defined  an  imbecility  of  judg- 
ment, preventing  t!ie  perception  or  the  re- 
collection of  the  relations  of  filings. 

Man  is  born  with  merely  a  susceptibility 
of  knowledge,  a  capacity  of  acquisition  ;  hu  , 
is  condncfed  from  observation  to  comparison,  , 
and  from  comparison  to  principle.  Place  aij 
infant  in  a  spacious  apartment,  give  him  for 
the  first  time  the  free  use  of  alt  the  senses 
with  which  nature  has  furnished  him,  and  \vi 
will  strelch  out  his  hand  to  perhaps  the  nin-t 
distant  object  ill  the  room,  with  a  full  ])er- 
suusion  of  being  able  to  grasp  it.  Like  the 
youth  couc'icd  by  Cheselden  on  K])som 
l)ov\ns,  every  Ihiiig  within  the  scope  of  his 
vision  ap|)ears  in  a  manner  to  touch  his  eve, 
he  has  not  the  smallest  conception  either  of 
distance  or  magnitude,  and  the  same  to- 
tal ignorance  prevails  in  respect  to  obiects 
which  have  relatioit  to  all  his  other  senses. 
Knowle<lge  then  is  the  result  of  exj)erience, 
which  is  another  word  for  comparison  of 
observation  of  "  tlie  relations  of  things." 

As  Iran,  how-evcr,  essentially  dilVers  from 
the  brute,  by  the  more  extended  compass  of 
his  intellectual  grasp,  the  superinduclion  of 
the  mora!  sense,  and  the  anticipation  of 
future  events,  so  different  individuals  have 
varied  susteptibilities  of  aciiuiring  iiifornia- 


tioM  ;  and  this  vflriation,  wliidi  constitiitci 
tvrry  sliade  of  diilVriMice  in  inttllwUuil  cliii- 
r.utiT,  iiuisl  iH.-c\'Sjaril_y  ari^e  c'illn;i'  Irom  dif- 
ti'ience  in  the  pt-iveptivc  organs,  oi-  coni- 
b'niii;;  and  retaining  I'acnlty.  W'lien  then, 
^MtIlout  any  a|)i)ar(Mit  di'licniMicy  of  tlit;  ix- 
ti'inal  senses,  vvhiili  art-  the  inlets  to  know- 
|i(|.^e,  we  find  an  individual  not  to  liave  ar- 
ri'.i'J  at  a  fvwcn  slandanl  of  inlellig^-nte  by 
the  eoiistant  eiiiploynient  of  sucli  senses,  not 
to  liave  obtained  a  due  knowledge  of  "  the 
relations  of  things,"  we  place  him  out  ol  liie 
range  of  intelligent  existences,  have  an  ob- 
scure conception  of  something  defective  in 
the  interior  strnelmv  of  his  sentient  organi- 
zation, and  denominate  him  an  ideot. 

This  is  Ihif  amentia  congenita  of  Cnllen, 
ideocy  from  birth. 

Ideocy,  however,  niav  be  |)ro(hiced.  Fa- 
tuity may  succee<l  to  int-llectnal  vigonr,  an<l 
the  whole  fabric  of  acquireil  knowledge  be 
undermined  and  overthrown.  '1'luis  man 
may  be  literally  reduced  to  the  Innniliating 
condition  of  second  cliildhood.  This  state 
juay  be  engi-ndered  abruptly  and  visibly,  or 
gradually,  and  almost  in  an  imperceptible 
manner.  It  may  follow  violent  agitations  of 
the  frame,  as  desolation  succeeds  to  tem- 
pest, or  may  be  brought  about  by  the  gia- 
aations  of  natural  decay. 

']"he  causes  of  ideocv,  when  it  is  not  the 
result  of  original  malconformation,  are,  all 
kinds  of  intemperance,  more  especially  in- 
dnlgence  in  the  use  of  spirituous  liijuors:  "  it 
has  been  traced  up  to  somnolence  too  much 
indulged."  'I  h,;  media  through  which  it  is 
principally  occasioned  are  mania,  npople.'iy, 
and  above  all  epilepsy.  When  lirndy  es- 
tablished even  in  youth,  very  little  hope  of 
recovery  can  be  enlerlained  by  the  friends 
of  the  unfortunate  victim  to  his  own  impru- 
dence. The  condition  of  ideocy  is  a  condi- 
tion beyond  the  reach  either  ot  physical  or 
moral  influences? 

Genus  11.  Mthinchnlia. 

Genus  111.  Mitiiiu. 

We  have  placed  these  two  genera  of  Dr. 
Cullen  together,  as  we  deem  our  author 
finidamentally  erroneous  in  considering  them 
distinct  affections.  JSIi-lancholia  is  defined 
"  partial  madness  without  dyspepsia."  From 
this  mode  of  reasoning,  mania,  instead  of 
being  distinguished  by  the  character  of  uni- 
versal madness,  would  hav(;  been  with  as 
much  propriety  denominated  partial  madness 
without  fever. 

Insanity  is  intensity  of  idea,  converting 
imagination  into  implicit  belief,  and  thus 
proilucing  an  incongruity  of  action  ;  incon- 
gruity as  it  respects  former,  consistency  as 
it  relates  to  present,  impressions  and  associa- 
tions. It  partakes  of  the  character  of  mania 
or  melancholia,  of  violent  rage  or  gloom  v 
despondency,  according  to  the  previous 
temperament  of  the  sufferer,  and  the  nature 
of  the  prevailing  idea.  In  eacii  the  disor- 
dered associations  are  engendered  upon  pre- 
cisely the  same  principles. 

Madness  dillers  from  ideocy,  as  the  con- 
clusions derived  from  erroneous  principles,  in 
philosophising,  differ  from  the  conceptions  of 
ignorance-,  the  oin_>  is  correct  reasouiLig  from 
erroneous  premises,  the  other  is  defective 
judgment  from  defective  information. 

llow  this  intensity  of  idea  is  produced, 
we  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  -..  we  do 


MEDICINE, 

not  indeed  feel  it  diflicult  to  comprclirnd, 
that  v.n  absorbing  attachment  to  one  object, 
or  an  exclusive  attention  to  one  particidar 
piuMiit,  may  come  at  last  to  make  shipwreck 
of  the  understanding;  but  it  is  the  suscepti- 
bility of  being  carried  away  by  this  idea,  that 
constitutes  the  difficulty  in  qiieslion.  Like 
the  (levelo]<ement  of  intellectual  character, 
the  dis])osition  to  run  iiito  the  state  of  in- 
sanity may  perhaps  depend  upon  the  most 
miinite  (urcumslances  of  accidental  asso- 
ciations: "  11  ne  taut  C|u'un  legcr  accident, 
cpi'un  atome  deplace,  pour  te  fail  perir,  pour 
le  degrader,  pour  te  ravir  cetle  intelligiMice 
tlont  tu  i)arois  si  lier !"  So  precarious  is  the 
tei.ure,  even  of  the  most  exalted  po.ssessioiis 
of  man! 

Madness,  however,  like  ideocy,  may  be 
p'oduced  through  the  medium  of  bodily  dis- 
orders;  thus,  fever  will  often  occasion  de- 
lirium, which  is  a  species  of  temporary  in- 
sanity. Thus,  an  obstruction  of  the  men- 
strual discharge  will  frequently  be  the 
means  of  developing  the  latent  disposition 
to  maniacal  disorder,  occasioned  by  previous 
disease,  resulting  from  erroneous  education, 
or  depending  upon  hereditary  (  onformation. 
Imleed,  almost  the  whole  range  of  nervous 
diseases  may,  under  ))re<lisposing  circum- 
stances, come  to  be  e.xciting  causes  of  genu- 
ine insanitv.  ^\'h■en  lunacy  has  been  brought 
on  by  bodily  disorder,  the  complexion  of  the 
derangement  shall  be  formed  by  the  pre- 
vious temperament,  or  natural  disposition,  of 
the  sufferer;  thus,  tlie  favourite  ideas  of 
health  shall,  in  their  increase,  be  the  pre- 
dominant and  overwhelming  ideas  of  mad- 
ness;  again,  when  the  insane  state  has  more 
immediately  proceeded  from  |)assions  of  the 
mind,  or  moral  rather  than  physical  causes, 
the  idea  that  has  van(juislied  the  intellect 
shall  continue  to  reign,  'i'he  imaginary  mo- 
narch shall  preserve  his  dominions  and  sway, 
and  tlirough  the  medium  of  his  distempi-red 
fancy,  shall  observe  menials  and  attendants 
in  the  persons  whositrround  him  ;  the  melan- 
choly lover  shall  require  but  a  female  form 
to  pass  before  his  cell,  to  be  persuaded  of 
the  actual  presence  of  the  object  of  his  affec- 
tions ;  and  the  religious  enthusiast  shall  read 
a  special  embassy  from  heaven,  in  the  counte- 
nance of  every  compassionate  visitor. 

Prognosis.  "  The  chances  of  recovery  are 
against  those  madmen,  who  can  trace  their 
indisposition  to  lunatic  ancestry.  When  the 
causes  are  accidental,  orobTiously  corporeal, 
a  favourable  termination  may  be  expected. 
"  The  insanity  subsequent  to  parturition,  is 
generally  curable  if  the  curative  attempts  be 
rational."  (Cox.)  "  Patients  who  are  in  a  furi- 
ous state  recover  in  a  larger  proportion, 
tlian  those  who  arc  depressed  and  melan- 
cholic. When  the  furious  state  is  succeeded 
by  melancholy,  and  after  this  shall  have 
continued  a  short  time  the  violent  paroxysm 
returns,  the  hope  of  recovery  is  very  slight. 
Indeed  whenever  tnese  states  of  the  diseased 
frequently  change,  such  alteration  may  be 
considered  as  unfavourable.  When  insanity 
supervenes  on  epilepsy,  or  where  the  laiter 
di-ease  is  induced  by  insanitv,  a  cure  is  vei-y 
seldom  effected.'  (Haslam.V  When  a  per- 
son becomes  insane  who  has  a  family  of  small 
children  to  solicit  his  attention,  the  prog- 
nostic is  very  unfavourable,  as  it  shews  the 
maniaciil  hallucination  to  be  more  powerful 


li  I 

tlian  those  ideas  that  generally  iriterest  us  thn 
most."  CDiiruin.)  "  Th':ugl)  individiaK  of 
every  lemperanient  become  insane,  it  has 
been  observed  tliat  those  of  the  saiiguine 
inorelrc-qiu  ntly  recovi.-r." 

M.  M.  Fn-.leavour  to  draw  oft'  the  mind 
from  the  privaiiing  idea,  or  otl-.erw-iie  to 
ccnvince  the  maniac  of  the  errors  of  his  con- 
ceptions, and  fallacy  of  his  pretensiiin-,  by 
relating  the  iiicouL'.ruous  conceits  of  oilier 
iiumiacs  wliich  have  some  affinity  with  his 
own.  M.  I'inel  slates,  that  in  the  nicelre  ot 
I'aris,  a  maniac  was  cured  of  the  hallucina- 
tion of  sup[)0--ing  his  head  had  been  taken  off 
by  the  guillolini',  and  that  another  had  been 
))'laced  on  his  shoulders,  by  a  person  judi- 
(iously  ridk-ulir.g  in  his  hearing  the  miracle 
of  St.  Dennis,  wlio  was  said  to  carry  his  head 
under  his  arm,  and  to  ki.s  it.  W'lien  the 
maniac  was  endeavouring  to  prove  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  fact  by  an  ajjpeul  to  his  own 
i-ase,  the  narrator  of  the  story  suddenly  ex- 
claims, "  Why,  how,  you  fool,  could  In;  kiss 
his  own  head  r  was  it  wilh  h  s  heel  r"  In-in-- 
cipieni  and  equivocal  madness,  cautiously 
ai)stain  from  expressing  suspic-ions  in  the 
hearing  of  the  patient.  "  Nothing  is  more 
calculated  to  make  a  person  mad  than  the 
idea  of  bring  thought  so."  (Ueid.)  On  this 
account,  premature  confinement  is  to  be  de- 
precated, not  merely  as  cruel,  but  as  injudi- 
cious in  the  extreme.  Those  who  are  pla(i;d 
over  the  insane  as  guardians,  should  unite 
decision  and  firiniiess  of  character  with  ten- 
derness of  disjjosiiion  and  gentleness  of  man- 
ners. 

In  strong  plethoric  habits,  venesection. 
Cathartics.  Tlu'se  last,  especially  in  melan- 
choly, often  require  to  be  of  the  drastic  kiiul, 
and  united  wilh  calomel.  "  Diarrluea  ver- 
often  provesa  natural  cure  of  insanity."  (Has- 
1am.)  N'omits.  Camphor.  Opium  in  lar:.e 
doses.  Cold  bathing  during  the  violence  of 
the  paroxysms,  and  in  some  cases  warni- 
bathing  in  tlie  intervals.  During  the  ur- 
gency of  phrenzy,  Sjiply  cold  water  to  the 
head.  Clay  lap.  Blisters  t;)  the  scalp.  Ir. 
some  cases  the  production  of  a  veitginous 
state  by  a  rotatory  swing,  has  lately  bc-ert 
found  effectual  in  breakiiig  the  morbid  asso- 
ciations constituting  phrenetic  and  melan- 
choly paroxisms.  Digitalis  in  \ery  large- 
doses,  but  regulated  with  caie.  Introducing 
a  new  disease,  which  is  of  a  tr:\ial  naturi". 
and  easy  of  cure.  "  1  should  place  consi- 
derable hopes  on  inoculation,  had  the  party 
not  previously  had  the  siuall-|'Ox,  taki:,-.^ 
care,  by  projier  medicines  and  ninnageniein,. 
to  increase  the  symptoms  that  usually  attend 
this  last  disease  to  such  a  degree,  that  the 
whole  system  should  be  considerably  atl'ecl- 
ed  without  the  life  being  endangereil."  i,Cox.  > 

In  instances  where  inadm-ss  has  originated 
from  corporeal  diseases,  it  scarcely  requires 
to  be  observed,  that  a  considerable  part  of  tlu- 
treatment  must  be  confituted  by  the  admi- 
nistration of  those  remedies  that  in  common 
cases  of  these  attijctions  have  been  found  to 
be  effectual. 

Genus  IV.  Oneirodyniii.  This  gams  is 
defined  by  Dr.  Cullen  "  a  violent  and  dis- 
tressing  imagination  in  time  of.  sleep."  It  is 
divided  into  two  spec.es  -.  the  active,  or  that 
e.xciting  to  walking  and  various  other  mo- 
tions ;  and  the  gravans,  with  a  sen*e  of  weight 
or  pressure  on  the  chest.     1  h's  last  is  the 


nisiht-ninrc,  wliii'li  h 
i;uilY  among  the  dis- 


oi 


'i  ,1.;  loriiicr  ol  Ihiac  is  cenoraUy  either  con- 
gciiila!,  or  iiulr.ced  in-  imkiiowii  c;iiises  ;  it  is 
)!S-rba;);  ]jrlticip:il;_v  ciirious,  as  it  evintes  the 
ffliiio^t  iTiilir.iitod  power  of  one  fcr.se,  when 
(•ontoyirated  as  it  xvcrc,  or  emp'.jyod  ta  Die 
exclusion  of  the  rest.  Dr.  Dsrvvin  relates 
(he  ease  ofa  geiUlen'an  \\\\o  had  l:)<t  his  sig'.it, 
CMlor'iig  hi;  room,  and  inr.iiediaiply  infurai-. 
inof  hiin  of  the  leiigtli,  breadth,  and  'height  of 
the  apartment,  by'tiic  ir.r.'irided  exercise  of 
his  sense  oi  heariiig;  an  accu'ixy  which  he 
cou ill  not  have  arrived  a!,  )iad  he  retained 
!lie  iaculty  of  sii;!;!.  In  like  manner  the 
sieci)-\vaik"er  "  w'i  unlock  his  door,  wander 
far  from  home,  avoid  opjjosiiic;  obstacles, 
and  pass  with  safety  over  narrow  bridges," 
which  during  his  waliing  hours  he  would  have 
shr.nned  as  unah'c  to  accomplish. 

The  incubus,  or  night  mare,  appears  to 
arise  from  an  interruption  of  the  circulation 
of  b'c.K^d  through  the  lungs,  from  defective 
irritability  in  these  organs,  induced  by  fa- 
tigiu',  mental  oppression,  "  a  full  supper, 
and  v.-ine ;"  whicli  last,  in  some  persons,  will 
almost  invariably  induce  the  chsease. 

J/.  .1/.  Temperance;  especially  moderate 
suppers.  "  To  sleep  on  a  iiard  bed  with  the 
I'.ead  raised  "  Emetics.  Purgatives  of  aloes 
and  calomel.  Tonics.  Sleeping  in  a  large 
airy  apartment,  and  without  curtains  to  the 
bea. 

Class  III.  Cuclu'xix.  Cachexies. 
Previous!  V  to  an  acquaintance  with  the 
di-^tinrt  structure  and  separate  functions  of 
the  nervous  system,  before  the  important  dis- 
covery of  th<'  circulation  of  the  blood,  and 
the  more  recent,  but  hardly  less  important, 
•ievelopcnxent  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology 
of  the  secerning  and  absorbent  vessels,  the 
notions  of  pathologists  on  the  mode  in  which 
disease,  local  and  general,  is  occasioned, 
were  indistinct  and  erroneous. 

When,  for  example,  on  the  surface  of  the 
liody  appeared  a  peculiar  eruption,  whicli 
i'fter  a  certain  time  broke  through  the  outer 
skin,  and  discharged  an  offensive  matter,  it 
was  natural  to  infer  that  such  discharge  was 
engendered  from  a  depraved  condition  of  the 
solids  or  fluids  of  the  living  system,  nearly  in 
the  same  manner  as  exhalations  proceed  from 
dead  and  putrid  animal  or  vegetable  sub- 
stance, or  as  wort  is  formed  in  the  fermenting 
vat.  Hence  the  use  of  the  terms  bad  habit 
of  body,  ibulness  of  blood,  peccancy  of  hu- 
mours, cachexies. 

'J'hese  gross  and  indiscriminate  opinions 
resp:jctiiig  the  actual  nature  and  inuiiediate 
cause  of  disease,  are  now  retained  alone  by 
the  vulgar;  and  as  the  nomenclature  should 
keep  pace  with  the  advances  of  science,  the 
word  cachexy,  as  descriptive  of  those  alVec- 
tions  we  are  now  to  no'ice,  ought  to  be  ba- 
nished from  the  phraseology  of  the  nosologist, 
and  a  generic  title  substituted,  indicative  of 
disordered  or  deranged  action  in  the  secern- 
ing, absorbing,  and  glandular  organs. 
Order  I.  Marcorc.i. 
A  wasting  of  the  body  or  general  emacia- 
tion. 

(lenus  I.     Tuhi's.     Asthenia,  emaciation, 
and  hectic. 

Gemis  H.  Jlrnphia.     Asthenia,  and  ema- 
ciation without  hectic. 

Dr.  CuUeu  has  properly  distutguished  the 


MEDICINE. 

emaciation  connected  in  its  origin  with  hectic  I  Will  assuage  the  fever  of  tabes,  and  from  the 
fever,  from  that  independant  of  lliis  as  a  pri-  i  same  cause,  the  stimulus  whicli  it  imparts  to' 
mary  and  essential  chan.cter.     The  lattiT,    the  absorbi-nt  and  lacteal  vessels.  ^ 

however,  or  atrophia,  should  not  appear  in  How  lieclic  fever  originates,  it  is  diflicult 
the  last  class  of  diseases.  Wheji,  for  e.\am-  to  e.\plain:  its  symptoms  have  been  altrihul- 
ple,  in  consequence  of  mental  al'fectioii,  of  '  ed  by  a  writer' oi  the  present  day  to  that 
suddpn  and  too  copious  evacuation  of  any  of  overjilus  of  excitement  being  expcntied  upon 
the  fluids,  of  deficiency  in  the  quantity  or  de-  ^  the  arterial,  which  is  occasioned  bv  the  deli- 
pravation  in  the  qui'liiy  of  the  articles  of '  cient  excitabililv  of  the  absorbei'it  system, 
nd  strer.gth  is  perceiv- i  This,  however,  is  rather  a  statement  than  an 
have   been   occasioned    exjilanation  of  iis  essence.     'I'I'.e  characteris- 


diet,  a  loss  of  tiesh 

ed,   the  cll'ect  shail 

without  any  default  in  the  absorbent  vessels, 

and  consequently  without  hectic  ;  for  let  it 

be  retained  in  the  recollection,  as  a  principle 


tics  OI  hectic  are  principally  the  circumscrib- 
ed redness  on  tiie  clieok  apjjearing  more 
evidently  once  or  twice  in  the  course  of  llie 


of  the   utmost  importance  in  practice,  that    day,  u.-ually  after  meals,  and  alternating  with 
vhere  hectic  fever  is  present,  a  greater  or  '  '  '  '     ' 


.    1  g>"c-: 
less  degree  of  derangement  in  the  lymphatic 
vessels  is  likewise  present.     Hectic  fever  is  a 
disease  of  the  absorbent  system. 

For  tlie  ]:urpose  of  illustrating  this  dis- 
tinction between  tabid  and  atrophic  disorders, 
let  two  individuals  he  supposed  <'Ciually  ema- 


a  more  than  ordinary  paler.ess  of  counte- 
nance; the  pulse  is  feeble  and  quick;  like 

I  the  crimson  Hush  of  the  cheek,  it  is  accele- 
rated by  any  thing  received  into  the  stomach ; 

'  the  urine  is  for  t!ie  most  part  high-coloine<l, 
but  deposits  a  bran-like  sediment  alter  stoud- 
ing  lor  same  time;  the  tongue  is  not  furred 


ciated  and  ecpially  weak;  but  this  weakness  .  in  the  same  manner  as  in  fever  in  general,  but 
and  emaciation  m  one  shidl  have  been  in-  j  is  clean ;  and  otten,  as  the  disease  advances, 
duced  by  an  indisposition  to  take  a  due  quan-  |  it  increases  in  redness,  the  exact  contrary  to 
tity  of  nourishment,  in  order  to  supply  the  ;  what  is  observed  in  genuine  fever;  the  sw'eat* 
requisitions  of  the  frame;  in  the  otlier  per- :  are  partial  and  irregular,  and  not  attended 
haps,  notwithstanding  the  loss  of  bulk  and  of  i  with  the  same  degree  of  temporary  relief  as 
strength,  an  equal,  or  even  greater  quantity  ;  in  other  cases  ;  and,  more  especially 'in  the  ad- 
of  aliment  shall  have  been  received  into  the  yanced  periods  of  tiie  complaint,  'irincipaliy 
stomach.  Now,  in  this  latter  ca>e,  the  tabid  break  out  about  the  neck,  breast,  and  shoui- 
state  has  been  occasioned  by  a  torpid  condi-  deis  ;  as  the  disease  proceeds,  debility  and 
tion  or  improper  action  of  those  vessels  whose  emaciation  succeed,  the  legs  and  feet  become 
office  it  is  to  separate  the  nutritive  part  of  o'dematous,  and  (not  however  till  nearly 
the  food,   and  convey    it,   properly  prejjar- .  the  tatal  close  of  tl<.e  malady  on  which  the 


ed,  to  the  blood-vessels  (see  the  article  Di 
gestion).  In  the  former  the  misciiief  has 
proceeded  from  a  want  of  those  materials 
upon  which  theSe  vessels  exercise  their  func- 
tions. In  the  one  the  hectic  flush  from  the 
very  onset  of  the  malady  shall  imprint  the 
cheek ;  in  the  other,  hectic  will  not  be  occa- 
sioned until  the  absorbents,  from  not  being 
properly  exercised,  corneal  length  to  be  dis- 
ordered. The  one  complaint  is  the  tabi'S  of 
Dr.  Cnllen;  the  other  is  the  atrophia  of  the 
same  author. 

We  have  been  particular  in  pointing  out 
this  distinction,  because  it  is  not  sufficiently 
noticed  by  writers  in  general,  notwithstanding  • 
its  extreme  importance  in  practice  ;  and  be- 
cause, by  keeping  it  distinctly  in  view,  we 
shall  be  enabled  to  reconcile  the  apparently 
contrary  operation  of  those  medicines  whicli 
are  employed  with  varied  •  effect  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances  of  debility  and  emacia- 
tion. 

Steel,  for  instance,  is  one  of  tliDsc  articles 
which,  on  account  of  their  almost  magic  pow  er 
over  some  diseases  of  debility,  have  been  indis- 
crimiuately  recommended  in  all ;  it  has  ac- 
quired the  erroneous  appellation  of  a  tonic 
medicine,  but  as  a  tonic  it  often  fails. 

Now  let  us  trace  its  effects  in  the  two  spe- 
cies of  emaciation  ju^t  alluded  to.  In  the 
lirst  stage  of  atrophy  its  administration  will 
be  often  followed  by  irritative  action,  in  the 
place  of  due  excitement;  the  attendant  febrile 
iieat  (not  hectic  fever)  will  be  angmcnled, 
costivencss  and  an  arid  skin  will  follow,  iui<\ 
indeed  all  the  symptoms  of  the  malady  be 
heightened  and  confirmed. 

In  tabid  diseases,  on  the  other  hand,  tlu' 
reverse  effects  will  arise.  Here  the  fever  is 
hectic;  and  in  the  same  degree  that  this  va- 
luable medicine,  when  duly  emi)lo\ed,  had 
increased  the  febrile  irritation  iu  atrophia,  it 
'  11 


lectic  depends)  delirium  at  length  supei- 
venes. 

Af.  Jl/.  In  atrophia,  a  supply  of  nourish- 
ment, equivalent  io  the  loss  that  may  have 
been  sustained  ;  if  emaciation  has  arisen 
from  mental  disturbance,  the  remedies  must 
chiefly  be  made  to  apply  to  the  mind.  To- 
nics Ironi  the  vegetable  class,  such  as  coloni- 
ba,  (juassia,  and  gentian  ;  not  steel.  Abate  the 
fehrile  irritation,  by  keeping  the  bowels  gently 
open  by  the  nidder  purgatives,  such  as 
manna,  senna,  and  castor  oil.  Preserve  a 
slight  moisture  ef  the  skin  by  small  doses  of 
antimonials.  Uegular  and  moderate,  not 
violent  or  agitating,  exercise.  Shower-bath  in 
very  warm,  tepid  bathing  in  cold  weather. 
Pure  air. 

Ill  icibcx,  or  cmnciatinn,  iiccompamtd  hi/ 
primuri/  luclic.  An  emetic,  to  accomplish 
the  double  purpose  of  lorcibiy  expelling  ven- 
tricular and  intestinal  acidities,  and  exciting 
the  languid  absorbents.  Drastic  purgatives, 
as  jalap  or  aloes,  with  calomel,  with  the 
same  intention.  Steel,  in  conjunction  witli 
T'eruvian  bark  or  bitters.  Horse  exercise. 
^Varnl  bathing. 

N.  B.  Tabes  is  for  the  most  part  symp- 
tomatic of  other  complaints,  as  of  a  disease  of 
the  lungs  or  the  liver;  and  in  such  cases  the 
treatment  by  which  it  is  to  be  overcome  is  the 
treatment  of  the  origir.al  or  radical  malady. 

Order  II.  Jntumc.iccniia;  general  sKellings. 

Sect.  I.    Adipma,  Fatty  swellings. 

(ienus  f.  J'olifxiircid,  obesity.  This  arises 
from  the  deposition  of  oil  in  the  adipose  mem- 
brane becoming  disproportionate  to  the  re- 
<luisitions  of  tiie  body,  li  proceeds  in  general 
trom  indolence  and  intemperance. 

A/.  A/.  'I  einperancc,  exercise,  less  animal 
food,  early  rising. 


Sect.  ir.  I'hituoSiT,  windy  s\v(;Hiii!»?.. 

Geinis  I.  Pntvmatnsi.f,  a  U-iise  clastic  swell- 
ing of  1  lie  body,  cR'pitatiiig  under  the  toiicli. 

I'nciidialo.si"-.  is  constituted  by  a  distension 
of  I  he  cellular  nienibiane  from  air;  it  may 
arise  williout  any  evident  cause,  and  in  lliis 
case  is  denomina'led  by  Dr.  Cullen  the  spon- 
taneous pneumatosis ;  or  the  distending  air 
may  he  introduced  by  iiieajis  of  an  external 
woiuid,  as  of  the  thorax,  in  compound  frac- 
ture of  the  ribs:  sometimes  elastic  swellings 
of  the  whole  body|  follow,  from  the  applica- 
tfon  of  poison;  and  at  others,  pneumatosis 
appears  as  an  attendant  upon  the  hysteric 
disorder. 

Tbe  pathology  of  this  disease,  unless  when 
if  arises  from  wounds,  is  exceedingly  ob- 
scure. 

71/.  MT.  Scarifications,  compresses,  tonics. 

(Jenus  II.  Tijmpanilea,  a  windy  swelling  of 
tlie  abdoin.-n,  tense,  elastic,  painful,  and  at- 
tended by  coiliveness. 

'IVmpanitic  swellings,  bnth  of  the  'intes- 
tinal canal  and  of  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen, 
often  take  place  in  conjunction  with  anasarca, 
or  oilier  disorders  of  debility,  and  frequently 
arise  from  sedejitary  habils,  hyijochoudriac 
.ailments,  ajul  innutritions  diet. 

M.M.  Carminatives,  emetics,  tonics,  and 
a  generous  diet,  with  exercise. 

Tympanites  is  sometimes  connected  with 
obstructed  inenstru.ition,  and  in  this  case  is 
seldom  ov<-rconie  but  with  tlie  return  of  the 
menstrual  discharjje. 

Genus  HI.  Plu/^oiuetra,  an  elastic  swelling 
in  the  liypogastrium,  consequent  upon  flatu- 
lent disti  nsion  of  the  womb. 

"  'i'liis  freque^itly  deceives  the  barren  fe- 
male witli  the  hopes  of  pregnancy,  till  nature 
explains  the  mystery,  and  her  expectations 
\anishln  air." 

Sect.  III.  Aquosa,  watery-  swellings. 

Dropsical  enlargement  is  distinguished 
from  pneiunatosis  liy  its  being  iiiela>lic,  or 
Jiiur.ij;  from  the  pressure  of  the  linger,  and 
slvwly  recovering  its  former  fulnijss. 

\\'liile  considerable  obscurity  attends  the 
nature  and  ])ro\miate  cause  of  uindy  swell- 
ings, thetheory  of  dropsical  affections  is  sufti- 
■ciently  evident.  Dropsy  is  a  collection  of 
serous  fluid,  [either  in  the  cellular  membrane, 
or  in  the  cavities  of  the  body.  It  is  invariably 
oc  asioiied  by  exhalation  being  dispropor- 
tioiate  to  absorption  ;  this  increase  of  exha- 
lation and  diminution  of  absorption  result 
from  debility,  which  may  be  either  direct  or 
indirect;  the  latter  follows  increased  action 
of  the  vessels,  as  in  tlie  dropsy  succee<ling  to 
intemperance  ;  the  former  arises  out  of  deli- 
ricnt  excitement  in  the  lymphatic  system, 
as  when  an  iiidividual  becomes  dropsical 
froin  indolence,  inactivity,  mental  depression, 
and  poverty  of  diet.  -Partial  dropsies,  or 
anasarcous  swellings  of  the  cellular  mem- 
brane; as  well  as  eil'usions  into  cavities,  may 
abo  originate  frcim  pressure  on  the  veins,  in- 
tlfpendantlv  ol  original  debility  in  the  lym- 
phatic vessel.;,  such  pressure  obstructing  the 
tree  re(hi\  ot  blood  through  the  venous  sys- 
tem, and  by  consequence  occasioning  a 
more  than  ordinary  determination  to  the  ex- 
halant  arteries  in  tl.'e  vicinity.  Such  aie  the 
■tlropsiiulaccuinul.itionswhich  sometimes  oc- 
fur  in  pregnancv,  and  which  are  relieved  bv 
■vlellvery.  In  this  manner  likewise,  that  swcll- 
iiig  of    the   abdomen,   constituting  ascites,. 

Vol.  II. 


MEDICINE. 

partly  originates,when  it  is  caused  or  attended 
by  an  obstructed  circulation  through  the 
hver,  the  blood  in  the  v<-na  porta;  accumu- 
lating in  an  inoidinate  measure,  and  by  con- 
sequence supplying  the  lymphatic  vessels  of 
the  part  witli  more  than  their  due  proportion 
oflluid.  Lastly,  without  universal  tlebility 
in  the  exhalunt  and  alisorbent  vessels,  dio|j- 
sical  swellings  may  arise  from  inllamm.'ition, 
as  is  illustrated  in  the  anasar<ous  collections 
following  erysipelas,  in  tin;  hjdrocele  suc- 
ceeding to  a  blow  on  the  testicle,  in  the  drop- 
sy of  the  chest  resulting  from  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  and  in  ascites  following  peritoneal 
intlammalion. 

In  \\  hatever  mode,  and  to  whatever  extent, 
dropsy  may  be  occasioned,  the  accunuda- 
tion  of  serous  lluid.by  whi'-h  it  is  constituted, 
always  argues  debility  in  the  lymphatic  ves- 
sels of  the  part  in  which  this  accumulation 
occurs.  This  debility,  perhaps,  is  primarily 
and  jirincipally  seated  in  the  lymphatic  ex- 
halanls ;  for  we  do  not  find  hectic  fever  a 
characteristic  of  hydropic,  as  it  is  of  other  af- 
fections, in  which  an  original  torpor  of  the 
absorbents  is  evidently  the  cause  of  the  mor- 
bid symptoms.  Hectic  only  comes  on  iulhe 
last  stages  of  dropsy,  wlien  the  absorbents  an: 
worn  out  with  constant  exertion  to  absorb  the 
effused  lluid. 

We  liave  hitherto  spoken  indiscriminately 
of  dropsy  of  cavities,  and  of  dropsy  in  the  cel- 
lular membrane:  these,  however,  although 
tliey  often  exi-t  conjointly,  it(|uire  to  be  ilis- 
tinguished  ;  for  instance,  an  accumulation  of 
water  in  the  thorax  may  be  confined  to  the 
cellular  texture  of  these  organs,  and  form  the 
disease  properly  distinguished  by  the  deno- 
mination of  anasarca  puhnonum;  or  it  may  be 
dili'used  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  and  con- 
stitute the  true  hydrops  pectoris,  or  hydro- 
tliorax.  The  former  generally  arises  from  an 
universal  torpor  of  the  lymphatic  system, 
and  is  almost  constantly  connected  with  liy- 
dro])ic  swellings  of  other  parts,  particularly 
the  ancles  and  legs  ;  the  latter  often  originates 
as  a  local  disease,  as  from  an  inflammation  of 
tlie  pleura,  and  is  sometimes  confined  entirely 
to  the  dust. 

Genus  I.  Jnaanrca.  General  dropsy. 

Dropsy  of  the  cellular  membrane  im- 
mediately under  the  skin  appears  prin- 
cipally in  the  lower  extremities,  on  ac- 
count of  tlie  depeniling  situation  of  these 
members,  and  the  imivirsal  connection  be- 
tween the  cells  of  which  the  membrane  is 
constituted  :  and  party  on  account  of  the  de- 
liciency  in  lymphatic  excitement,  from  which 
it  originates,  being  more  conspicuous  in 
those  vissels  which  are  the  furthest  removed 
froni_tlie  centre  of  the  circulation.  x\nasaica, 
as  it'arises  from  exhausted  excitability  in  tlie 
lymphatic  vessels,  is  always  a  disorder  indi- 
cating much  danger. 

il/.  M.  Tliose  stimuli  which  are  found  to 
exert  their  influence  on  the  absorbent  vessels, 
particularly  steel,  digitidis,  calomel.  Diure- 
tics, such  as  .squills,  juiiiper,  nitrous  sether, 
cantharides,  chrystals  of  tartar,  and  nitre. 
Emetics  and  cathartics  are  less  proper  in 
anasarca  lli;in  in  dropsy  of  cavities.  The  phy- 
sician must  be  e-ipecially  careful  while  eva- 
cuating the  lluid  bv  means  of  diuretics,  to 
support  the  general  excitement,  in  order  to 
|)revent  its  re.iccumulation;  from  want  ot  so- 
licitous attention  to  this  particular,  the  wa- 
ters, after  an  apparent  cure  of  anasarca,  often 


15.1. 

again  collect  to  an  increasing  extent.  Punc- 
tures and  scarifications  of  the  extrem'ties  ar(; 
seldom  advisable,  on  account  of  the  prevail- 
ing debility  and  tendency  to  gangrene. 

The  sparing  use  of  liqi.fds  is  generally  pro- 
per in  dropsy;  instances,  however,. have  been 
known  of  copious  draughts  ol  water  produ- 
cing a  termination  of  the  complaint. 

Genus  II.  //'/drnri-ii/ialus,  dropsy  of  the 
brain.     See  Ini'ANCY. 

Genus  III.  //i/drorcchi(is,  dropsical  tu- 
mour in  the  spine.     See  .SoitCKj'.y. 

Genus  IV.  l/ydrothorax,  tiropsy  of  tbe 
chest. 

Si/mptom.i.  DifilcuUy  of  breathing,  espe- 
cially in  a  horizontal  position,  paleness  of 
countenance,  starting  in  sleep,  palpitation  of 
the  heart,  numbness  of  the  arms,  especially 
when  elevated,  and  in  the  advanced  stages  of 
the  malady  an  evident  fluctuation  of  water  in 
the  cavity  of  the  chest,  '{lie  hydrotliorax, 
or  hydrops  pectoris,  "is  distinguished  from 
the  anasarca  pulmonnn;,  as  the  patient  in  tlie 
former  cannot  lie  down  half  a  minute;  in  tlie 
latter,  the  diliiculty  of  breathing,  which  oc- 
casions him  to  rise  up,  coines  on  more  gradu-' 
ally;  as  the  transition  of  the  lynipli  in  the  cel- 
lular membrane,  from  one  part  to  another  of 
it,  is  slower  than  tliat  of  the  eifused  lymph  in 
the  cavity  of  the  chest."  (Darwin.)  We  have 
already  said,  that  in  the  anasarca  puhnonum 
the  disease  is  often  attended  with  swelled 
legs.  Dr.  Darwin  suspects  that  even  this 
species  of  dropsy  of  the  chest  is  in  the  greater 
number  of  instances  a  disease  nurelv  of  the 
cellular  membrane  of  the  part,  not  of  a 
general  torpor  of  the  lymphatic  system,  and 
that  the  legs  do  not  swell  till  the  patient,  from 
the  protraction  of  the  local  malady,  becomes 
universally  weak.  We  often,  ho«  ever,  meet 
with  ascitic  and  anasarcous  swellings  com- 
mencing in  the  extremities,  wliich,  in  their 
course  towards  a  fatal  termination,  rise  up 
into  the  chest,  and  in  this  manner  occasion 
the  pulmonic  affection.  Here  the  general 
paralysis  of  the  lymphatics  precedes  the  pri- 
mary disorder  of  the  thorax. 

Canst -i.  \V  hire  tlie  universal  has  preceded 
the  local  affection,  the  malady  is  most  fre- 
quently to  be  traced  to  intemperance  in  the 
use  of  fermented  and  spirituous  liquors.  The 
most  usual  source  of  genuine  hydrotliorax,  or 
hydrops  pectoris,  is  the  sudden  application  of 
cold,  while  the  body  is  in  a  state  of  perspira- 
tion and  debility,  from  previous  heat  and  ex- 
ercise. Young  people,  during  perspiration 
and  fatigue  from  dancing,  "  if  they  drink 
freely  ot  cold  lemUiade  or  water  are  apt  to 
bring  on  a  dropsy  of  <he  client-''  (Townsend.) 

A/.  .1/.  Digitalis  in  considerable  doses  is 
especially  indicated  in  dropsy  of  tlie  chest, 
and  its  ell'ects  are  more  visible  as  well  as 
more  certain  in  the  anasarca  puhnonum  than 
in  the  hydrops  pectoris,  because  this  medi- 
cine influences  powerfully  the  whole  extent 
of  the  absorbent  system.  Squill,  in  conibii^a- 
tion  with  calomel,  for  the  hydrops  pectoris  ; 
and  if  the  cellular  membrane  be  anasarcous, 
connect  steel  willi  both  the  above  medicines. 
Chrystals  of  tartar,  especially  in  the  anasarca 
pulmonum.  Diuretics  of  other  kinds,  the 
same  as  in  general  anasarca.  Opium.  In 
hydrotliorax,  or  dropsy  af  the  chest,  without 
anasarca,  paracentesis,  or  puncture  in  the 
side.  "  It  is  sometimes  impossible  even  to 
relieve  the  dropsy  of  intemperance;  and  tljp 


154 

tlrop<icaI  from  this  cause  can  never  expect 
again  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  existence  in 
full  measure."     (iV'Jcioes.) 

Genus  V.  AKites.  Dropsy  of  tlie  ab- 
domen. 

Tlie  swelling  of  the  abdomen  is  tesse, 
scarcely  elastic,  but  fluctuating  ;  the  fluctu- 
atijn  can  sometimes  be  perceived  by  spread- 
ing one  hand  oii  one  side  of  t!ie  abdomen,  and 
striking  witn  the  other  hand  on  the  opposite 
side.  Asciies  is  attended  with  scarcity  of 
lu-ine,  thirst,  and  after  some  time  a  degree  of 
hectic  fever. 

Ascites  most  usually  originates  throuc;li 
the  medium  of  a  diseased  liver;  and  such  dis- 
eas-?  is,  in  tlie  greater  number  of  instances, 
itself  induced  by  intemperance  in  spirituous 
liquors.  Like  tlie  disease,  however,  of  tlie 
lungs  preceding  dropsy  in  tlie  chest,  liver 
complaints  .  productive  of  ascites,  may  be 
brought  on  by  the  precipitate  application  of 
c.)\i\  succeeding  to  the  extremes  of  heat,  bv 
indolence,  mental  affections,  and  other  cau.;e^. 
Ascites  sometimes  originates  from  debility  in 
the  ab.lominal  lymphatics,  without  the  iiiter- 
■^ention  of  any  hepatic  disease. 

m.  M.  Ascertain  by  enquiry  into  previous 
and  present  symptoms,  whether  any  degree 
of  liver  complaint  has  preceded  the  drop- 
sical accumulation ;  whether  there  is  any 
dir.position  to  jaundice  of  the  skin  ;  whether 
the  alvine  excretions  are  insuflicient,  whitish, 
and  slimy;  wiiether  there  has  been  any 
pain  in  the  region  of  the  liver,  dillicnlty  of 
lying  on  the  side,  especially  on  the  left  skIc, 
lugh  colour  of  the  urine,  pain  in  the  right 
shoulder,  &c.  and  a.lapt  the  treatment  ac- 
cordingly. If  the  water  is  independant  of 
disease  in  the  liver,  chrystals  of  tartar,  digi- 
talis, other  diuretics,  and  steel,  may  be  im- 
mediately had  recourse  to,  witliout  tlie  inter- 
vention of  calomel  purgatives  and  of  emetics, 
which  last  are  almost  always  indicated  in  the 
more  iisiial  form  of  ascites,  that  form  a  mor- 
bid afl'ection  of  the  biliary  organs.  Emetics 
in  hejjatic  ascites  are  often  attended  with 
most  beneficial  effects.  "  Per  vomitus  sol- 
Tuiitur  cuncta  tenacia,  concutiuntur  obstruc- 
ta,  expelluntur  stagnanlia,  luide  mirabililer 
in  hoc  morbo  prosunt."  (Boerhaave.)  In 
the  administration  of  ascitic  purgatives,  care 
must  be  taken  that,  from  the  violence  of  ex- 
citement which  tliey  occasion,  they  do  not 
Vnduce  peritoneal  in/i;mimation.  A  combi- 
nation of  gamboge,  elaterium,  and  calomel, 
is  frequently  enqiloyed  as  a  purgative  in 
ascites.  Mercu4-ial  ointment  to  the  region  of 
the  liver.  Tonics,  especially  steel.  The 
inhalation  of  vital  air,  as  recommended  and 
employed  by  Dr.  Thornton  and  others. 
'J'ap|)ing.  This  is  to  be  regarded  in  general 
as  merely  a  ))alliative:  if  how'ever  there  has 
not  been  any  very  considerable  disea>e  of 
the  liver,  or  the  debility  is  not  extremely 
urgent,  ta])ping  may  be  advised  with  a  pros- 
pect of  eliecting  a  radical  cure,  provided  due 
tare  is  at  the  same  time  employed  to  main- 
tain a  proper  excitement,  or,  as  it  is  gene- 
rally expressed,  to  restore  and  preserve  the 
tone  of  the  system. 

Genus  V.  I l--jdrnm:trla.  Dropsy  of  the 
womb. 

This,  like  the  physomed'a,  ulreaily  mi.-n- 
tioned,  often  assumes  a  deceitful  resemblance 
to  pregnancy.  It  is  characterized  by  drop- 
lital  swelling,  confin«d  (o  ilie  region  of  the 

a 


MEDICINE. 

uterus,  not  being  accompanied  by  other 
symptoms  of  dropsy. 

It  is  a  disease  to  which  the  unmarried  and 
the  barren  are  principally  obnoxious  ;  some- 
times it  follows  abortion. 

M.  M.  Stimulant  fomentations.  Drastic 
purgatives.  Aromatic  foetid  gums.  Em- 
menagogues. 

Genus  MI.  Hi/drncele.  Dropsy  of  the 
scrotum.     See  Surgery. 

Sect.  IV.  Solida:.  Swellings  of  solid 
parts. 

Genus  I.  Pli'j.fcmiia.  A  swelling  chiefly 
occupying  a  portion  of  the  abdomen,  in- 
creasing gradually,  and  neither  tense  nor 
sonorous  as  in  pneumatosis,  nor  fluctuating 
as  in  dro]5sy. 

This  disease  is  principiiUy  formed  bv  a 
schirrous  state  of  the  several  parts,  and  vis- 
cera, which  form  its  seat.  These  seliirrous 
enlargements  are  generallv  incurable. 

Genus  II.  Hadiitis.     Kickets.      See  In- 

F.-VNCy. 

Order  III.  T?!ipi-fighi  s. 

Deformities  and  discolouralions  of  the  ex- 
ternal surface  from  general  disease. 

Genus  I.  Scvoplnda.     King's  evil. 

Swellings  of  the  lymphatic  glands,  termi- 
nating in  ulcer,  are  perhaps  the  only  proper 
characteristics  of  actual  serophula  :  the  thick 
upper  lip,  transparent  skin,  aiKt  other  np- 
jiearances  which  are  considered  as  sympton-.s 
of  the  disease,  are  merely  marks  of  peculiiy 
predisposition. 

A  scrophulous  habit  is  merely  a  suscepti- 
bility of  disease,  arising  from  torpor  in  the 
lymphatic  vessels,  and  when  brought  on  by 
the  agency  of  exciting  causes,  consists  in  a  pe- 
culiar action  of  the  lymphatic  glands,  by  which 
inflammation  and  at  length  ulceration,  with 
a  discharge  ofgrumous  matter,  are  induced. 

Its  exciting  causes  are  those  which  en- 
courage the  origiiial  debility,  and  the  dis- 
ease may  almost  certainly  be  avoided  by 
attention  to  diet  and  regimen  ;  bv  nutritious 
food,  a  pure  o.xygenous  atmosphere,  clean- 
liness, exercise,  &:c.     See  Infancy. 

When  by  neglect,  the  predisposition  has 
been  permitted  to  break  out  into  disease, 
calomel  purges,  steel,  small  doses  of  digita- 
lis, warm  and  sea-bathing,  muriates  and 
pliospliates  of  barytes  r  above  all  cleanliness; 
ventilation,  stimulating  nutritious  diet.  I>et 
the  iTiind  be  preserved  free  from  the  errone- 
ous idea,  that  to  cure  scrojihiila  is  to  purge 
away  gross  liumoms.     See  Surgery. 

Genus  II.  Si/jiliilii.  ^  enereal  di-ease. 

After  impure  connectini,  a  disorder  of  tlie 
genitals,  ulcers  in  tlif  mouth  and  nose. 
Kniptions  on  the  skin  of  a  copper  colour, 
terminating  in  ulceration ;  these  are  ]>rin- 
cipally  situate<l  near  the  margin  of  the  hair; 
blotches  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  especi- 
ally on  the  suiface  of  the  face.  Nocturnal 
pains  in  the  centre  of  the  bones. 

M.  Af.  Mercurials.  Nitric  acid.  Tonics. 
N.  B.  For  the  loial  application  to  venereal 
ulcers,  the  more  particular  treatment  of  the 
conqilaint,  and  llie  mode  of  curing  gonorr- 
hea virulenta,  see  Surgery. 

fJeiiui  111.  Scnrlmlu.t,  scurvy. 

Indolence  and  lassitude;  gloomy  and  tumid 
coiuilenaiice  ;  gums  livitl,  and  disposed  to 
blee<l  spontaneously,  or  Irom  the  slii^hest  irri- 
tation; skin  drv.  and  covered  with  livid  spots  ; 
edematous  swellings  of  the  ancles.  Scurvy 
appears  to  originate  I'rom  wttut  ot,  or  e.xliaust- 


ed  excitement,  both  in  the  venous  and  ab^' 
sorbent  system  ;  it  is  produced  by  a  ])ro- 
tracted  course  of  salt  food,  and  by  mental 
depression. 

,1/.  &[.  Fresh  animal  and  vegetable  diet,- 
Juice  of  lemon.  ]5ark.  Steel.  Terrene  atmo- 
sphere. Mental  excitement. 

The  elephantiasis,  lepra,  framba-sia,  an<F 
trichoma,  torming  the  fourth,  tilth,  sixth,  and 
seventh  genera  of  this  order,  aie  diseases  of 
such  rare  occurrence  in  tliis  country,  as  not  to 
require  any  parlicular-descrijitioii. 

For  the  more  common  eruj)t;ons  which 
require  local  application,  see  Surgery. 

Genus  III.  yc/;7v;.s-,  jaum-liLe. 

S.'jmptom.t.  "Mellowness  of  the  skin  and 
eyes;  white  and  slimy  fares;  high-coloured 
urine,  tinging  linen  yellow;  laiigour,  lassi- 
tude, and  extreme  depression  of  spirits. 

T!ie  yellow  colour  of  the  skin,  which  con- 
stitutes jauiuiice,  arises  fi\;ni  the  diffusion 
throug'.i  the  system  of  that  bile,  whicli,  in  the 
natural  course,  wuu'd  pass  through  the  bi- 
liary dricls  into  the  uitestiiial  canal.  This- 
imprcguationof  the  system  with  bile  has  beea 
supposed- to  be  elfecled  in  lluee  ways,  viz. 
tiirough  liie  medium  of  the  lacteal  vessels 
and  the  thoracic  <luct,  when  the  obstruction 
is  in  the  duodenum;  and  by  regurgitation, 
through  the  hepatic  veins,  or  absorption  by 
the  lymphatics  of  the  liver,  w  lien  the  obstruc- 
tion is  in  some  part  of  the  bile's  course 
pievious  to  its  arrival  in  the  duodenum. 

This  interruption  of  the  biliary  secretion 
may  originate  fro-ni  a  spasmodic  affection 
near  th  ■  duct ;  from  chronic  inf-air.m  itions^ 
or  otlier  diseases  of  the  liver  interfering  with 
the  secretion ;  from  certain  concretions  lodg-^ 
ing  in  some  part  of  the  hepatic  organs,  called 
gall-stones ;  and,  as  pointed  out  by  Mr. 
Townsend,  from  viscid  mucus  stopping  up  or 
obstructing  the  biliary  pa-sages.  Indied;. 
whatever  hinders  the  bile  from  passing  into 
the  duodenum  may  prove  a  source  of  jaun- 
di<e. 

The  first  of  the  abo^■e  species  o(  jaundice- 
is  generally  of  a  temporary  nature;  it  occurs- 
principal!)  in  those  who  iiave  much  irrilabi- 
iily  oi  habit,  in  consequence  of  violent  jjas-- 
sious,  and  other  sources  of  spasmodic  affec- 
tions. 

The  second  species  is  not  of  so  decided  a 
nature;  it  follows  npon  a  long  course  of  intem- 
perance in  spirituous  liquors,  and  is  only  to 
be  remedied  by  removing  the  disease  of  the 
liver  itself. 

The  biliary  calculi,  which  give  rise  to  the 
third  species  of  jaundice,  appear,  like  urinary 
concretions,  to  arise  from  some  defective  ac- 
tion in  the  secretory  or  absorbing  vessels  of 
the  parts  in  which  they  arc  formed  or  lodg- 
ed; their  production,  like  the  stone  in  th."* 
bladder,  is  evidently  favoured  by>  a  reten- 
tion of  fluid,  from  which  they  are  Icrmed.  It 
may  therefore  be  inferred,  that  gall-stones 
are  ne\er,  or  seldom,  produced  without  some 
previous  jaundice  having  taken  place.  Thus 
they  are  both  the  cause  and  consequence  of 
the  disease.  Their  presence  may  be  ascertain- 
ed from  jaundice  frequently  disappearing  and 
retiirniug,  from  the  ap])enrance  of  blliar/ 
concretions  auioug  the  firces,  and  from  the 
disease  being  attended  with  shooting  pains  in 
the  epigastric  region,  and  right  hypochon- 
drium.  Nivusea,  dillicull  respiration,  and 
sickness,  often  likewise  accompany  this  spe- 
cies of  jauadicc. 


M  E  L 

Tlie  icterus  muco'ius  of  Townscnll,  wliicli 
■^s  pfiiuips  tlic  most  tic(iii(-'Jit  six-cics  of  jaun- 
dice, is  uiialtemled  either  ijy  pain  or  spas- 
nioUic  affcctioMs;  tliero  are  no  gall-btoiies 
observed  in  tlie  f;cces;  but  t.iese  are  generally 
discliarged  mixed  wilii  nitv  !i  slime  and  visci- 
<liUes.  It  is  generally  acco;  ipaniedwith,  and 
indeed  ts  mo.^t  coninwuly  nccasioned  by,  a 
depression  of  mind,  especi.iliy  when  favoured 
Jjy  sedentary  habits,  breatii'i:g  an  impure  at- 
mosphere, living  upon  uinv!jule>onie  innutri- 
tions diet,  or  indulging  in  ihe  too  free  use  of 
"  spirituous  potation." 

AVhile  it  is  tlie  most  freipiciit,  and  often- 
times the  most  protracted,  ^f  any  of  the  spe- 
cies of  jaundice,  it  is  at  the  same  time  most 
tasy  ot  cure  when  properly  understood  and 
managed. 

M..\f.  Emetics.  C'a'..)iiiel  purgatives.  Bitter. 
Tonics,  especially  c.-lombo,  with  rhubarb. 
Vureair.  E.\ercise  Oii  horse  back.  Mental 
excitement. 

Ill  icterus  spasiTiodiciis,opiu.n,  assafretida, 
••ether,  electricity.  If  the  spasm  depends  upon 
any  irritations  in  thestonuicli  or  bowels,  these 
to  be  removed  by  emetics,  purgatives,  anlliel- 
iiiintics.  In  icterus  calculosii<,  emetics  to 
facilitate  the  pass.nge  of  tin-  gall-stonea.  An- 
tispasmodics. Warm  batliing.  Emollient 
chsters.    Vegetable  tonics,  and  steel. 

"N.  15.  The  average  doses  of  niediciues  will 
be  found  stated  in  liie  articles  Materia  Me- 
DICA,  and  Pharmacy. 

MEDIETA^i  1JN(;U,E,  a  jury  or  in- 
tjuest  impanelled,  whereof  the  onc-liiilf  con- 
sists ot  natives  or  deniziiis,the  other  strangers; 
and  used  in  pleas  u  herein  the  one  party  is 
a  stranger,  the  other  a  denizen. 

MEDIUM,  in  logic,  the  mean  or+niddle 
term  of  a  syllogism,  being  an  argument,  rea- 
son, or  consideration,  lor  which  we  aflirm  or 
deny  any  thing  ;  or,  it  is  tlie  cause  why  the 
greater  "extreme  is  aliirmed  or  denied  ol  the 
less  in  the  conclusion. 

Medium,   or   ME.AX,  geometrical.     See 

MEDULLA  OBLONGATA.    See  An-.\- 

TOMY. 

Mri>ULLA  SPINALIS.  See  Anatomy. 
MEDUSA,  a  genus  of  vermes  of  tlie  or- 
<lcr  mollusca.  The  generic  character  is,  body 
gelatinous,  or  bicu'.ar,  and  generally  tlat  un- 
derueaili :  mouth  central  bi.neatli.  The  ani- 
mals of  this  genus  consist  of  a  tender  gelati- 
nous mass  of  different  figures,  furnished  with 
arms  or  tentacular  proces>es,  proceeiling  from 
the  lower  surface:  tlie  larger  species,  wlien 
touched,  cause  a  slight  tingling  and  redness, 
end  are  usually  denominated  >ea-nettl.s ; 
thev  are  supposed  to  constitute  the  chiel  food 
.of  cetaceous  lish,  and  most  of  them  shine  w  Ith 
great  splendour  in  the  v.aler.  There  are  44 
species.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  •262. 

MEIONITI,  a  mineral  found  only  among 
the  lava  of  \  csu\  ius,  always  crystalli.:ed.  Pri- 
mitive form,  a  prisui  whose  bases  are  squares. 
It  occurs  usually  in  eight-~ideLl  prisms,  and 
terminated  bv  tour-sided  pyramids.  Some- 
times the  edg'es  of  the  prism  are  truncated. 
Colour  greyisli-wliltc;  Iracture  Hat;  melts 
'Ijefore  the  blowpipe  into  a  w  bite  spongy  glass. 
MELAMPODIUM,  ageuus  of  the  class 
and  order  syngenesia  polygamia  nccessaria. 
The  caKx  Vi  five-leaved;  recept,  chalfy,  co- 
aical;  down  one-leaved,  involuted,  converging. 
There  are  three  species,  herbs  of  the  A\  est 
IiWtcs. 


MEL 

MEr,ANITE,  a  mineral  found  m  the 
neighbourhood  of  X'esuviiis,  and  former- 
ly called  black  garnet.  Its  colour  is  black 
or  brownish.  C.'rystalli/ed  in  six-sidi-d  prisms, 
terniinat-ed  by  trihedral  summits.  It  is  com- 
posed of        40       silica 


M  R  h 


]5» 


alumina 
oxide  of  iron 
magnesia 
lime 


28.5 
16.5 
10.0 

3.5 

O.'Jj  oxide  of  manganese. 


98.75 

MEL.\LEUC'A,  a  genus  of  the  polyandria 
order,  belonging  to  the  polyadclphia  class  of 
plants.     The  calyx   is  (luiiupieparUte,  supe- 
rior; the  corolla  pentajjetalous  ;  the  lilamelits 
are  very  numerous,  and  collected  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  form  live  pencils  :  there  is  one 
stvle  ;  the  capsule  is  half-K;overed  wilh  tin- 
cab  x,  formed  like  a  berry,  and  is  trivalved 
and  trilocular.     The  species  are  1 1,  natives 
of  India  and  the  South  Sea  islands.  The  most 
remarkable  species  is  tlie  leucadendron,  tfom 
a  variety  of  vvliicli  (I he  lalifolia,   or  broad- 
leaved  leucadendron)  the  cajeput  oil  is  ob- 
tained ;  a  medicine  in  very  high  esteem  among 
the  Eastern  nations,  particularly  in  India.    It 
is  said  to  be  obtained  by  distillation  from  the 
fruit  of  the  tree.     Wli^n  brouglit   into  tins 
countrv  il  is  a  litpiid  of  a  greenish  colour,  of  a 
fragrant  but  at  tlu'  same  time  a  very  peculiar 
odour,  and  of  a  warm  pungent  taste.     Some 
authors,  however,  represent  this  oil  as  bring, 
when  of  the  best  ([uality,  a  white  or  colourless 
lluid  ;  and  it  has  been  said  by  the  authors  of 
the  Dispensatorium  Brunsvicense,  -when  pre- 
pitrod  in  Europe  from  the  seeds  sent  from 
India,   to  be  entirely    of  this   appearance. 
Hitherto  the   oleum    cajeput  has  been  but 
little  employed  either  in  Britain  or  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  ;  but  in  India  it  is  used 
both  internally  and  externally,  and  is  highly 
extolled  foi'  its  medical  properties.     It  is  ap- 
plied externally  uhere  a  warm  and  peculiar 
stimulus  is  requisite;  il  is  employed  for  re- 
storing vigour   after  luxations  and   sprains, 
and  for  easing  a  violent  pain  in  gouty  and 
rheumatic  ca.ses,  in  tootli-nche.and  similar  af- 
fections ;  but  it  has  been  chiclly  celebrated  as 
taken  internally,  and  it  is  particularly  said  to 
operate  as  a  verv"   powerful  remedy  against 
tympanic  affections. 

MELAMPYRUM,  coz:--zcheat,  a  genus 
of  the  angiospermia  order,  in  the  didynamia 
cl.iss  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  40th  order,  personuta?. 
The  calyx  is  quadrifid;  the  upper  lip  of  the 
corolla  is  compressed,  with  the  edges  folded 
back;  tlie  capsule  is  bilocular  and  oblique, 
0|)ening  at  one  side  ;  three  are  two  gibbous 
seeds.  There  are  five  species,  four  of  them 
natives  of  Britain,  and  growing spontanei>uslv 
among  corn-tields.  They  are  exellent  food 
for  cattle;  and  Linnxus  tells  us,  that  where 
they  abound,  the  yellov.est  and  best  butter  is 
made.  Their  seeds,  when  mixed  with  bread, 
give  it  a  du-ky  colour  ;  and,  according  to 
some  authors,  produce  a  vertigo,  and  other 
disorders  of  the  head  ;  but  this  is  denied  by 
Mr.  Withering,  though  he  allows  that  they 
give  it  a  bitter  taste. 

^{K\^\^TOMA,  i\ie  ^incrican  goosebcrri/ 

tree,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  in  the 

decandria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural 

metliiiid  ranking  under  the  17th  ©rder,  caly- 

U2 


canthemT.      The  c.dvx    is  quinquefid  ami 
campamilated;  the  petals  are   live,   inserted 
into  the  calyx  ;  the  bi.'rry  is  (iuin(pjelocuiar, 
a.nd  wrapp -d  in  the  calyx.  There  are  67  spec, 
most  ot   Ihem  shrubs  of  the  warm   pails  of 
.\meri(  a,  and  very 'beautiful  on  account  of  the 
variegation  of  their  leaves.   Most  of  the  leaves 
are  ot  two  dilferent  colours  on  their  surfaces  ; 
the  uiidi;r  side  being  either  while,  gold-co- 
loured, or  russet,   and   Ihc  iijiper  parts   of 
dillerent  shades  of  green ;  so  that  Ihey  make  a 
line  appearance  in  the  h;  t-house  all  the  year 
round.      There  are  but  few  of  these  plants  iu 
the  European  gaidens;  which  may,  perhaps,. 
Iiave   bi-en   occasioned   by   the  difficulty  of 
bringing  over  growing  plants  fi  oin  liie  W  est 
lndie>;  and  the  seeds,  being  small  when  taken 
out  from  ihe  pul])  of  their  fruits,  rarely  suc- 
ceed.     Some  of  these  species  strike  very 
easily  from  cuttings. 

.\1I:LCH!  TES,  in  rhurch  history,  the 
name  givi-li  to  tlie  Syriac,  Egyptian,  and 
other  christians  of  the  l^evant.  'Ihey  cele- 
brate mass  in  the  Arabian  language.  'J  he 
religious,  among  the  Melchites,  follow  the 
rule  of  St.  Basil,  the  common  rule  of  all  the 
Greek  monks.  They  have  four  line  con- 
vents, distant  about  a  day's  journey  fruin 
Damas,  an<l  never  go  out  ot  the  cloister. 

MKLCIIIZEUECinANS,  in  clmrrh 
history,  a  sect  wiiich  arose  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  third  century,  and  alhrmed,  that 
Melchisedech  wasnot  a  man.  but  a  heavenly 
power,  superior  to  Jesus  Christ. 

MEEIIVGIUS,   in   ofailiiology,  the  tur- 
key, a  genus  of  birds  belonging  to  the  order 
of  gallinie.   The  head  is  co\  ered  with  spongy 
caruncles;  and  there  is  likewiie  a  memijrana- 
ceous   longitudinal  caruncle  on   the  throat. 
There  are  but  two  species,  viz.  the  gallopavo, 
or  North  American  turkey  of  Ray;  and  the 
satyra,  or  horned  turkey.     T  lie  tirst   has  a. 
caruncle  both  on  the  head  and  throat ;  and 
the  breast  of  the  male  is  bearded  or  tufted. 
It   lives  upon  grain  and  insects ;  when  the 
cock  struts,  he  blows  up  his  breast,  spreads 
and  erects  liis  featiiers,  relaxes  the  caruncle 
on  the  forcheatl,  and  tlie  naked  parts  of  the 
face  and  neck  become  intensely  red.    Bavbot 
informs  us  that  verv  few  lurke,ys  are  to  be  met 
with  in  Guinea,  and  (hose  only  in  the  hands 
of  the  chiefs  of  the  European  forts ;  tii-  i.e- 
groes  declining  to  breed  any  on  accoiint  of 
their    tenderness,   which    suiliciently  proves 
them  not  to  be  natives  of  that  climate.     H  i^ 
also  remarks,  thatneitlier  the  common  poul- 
trv  nor  ducks  are  natural  to  Guinea,  ary 
more  than  the  turkey.     Neither  is  that  bird 
a  native  of  Asia;  the  lirst  tiiat  were  seen  in 
Persia  were  brought  from  Venice  by  some 
Armejiian   merchants.     They   are    bred  in 
Cevlon,  but  not   found  wild.     In  fact,   the 
turl^ey   properlv  so  called,  was  unknown  to 
the  anlient  naturalists,  and  even  to  the  old 
world,  before  the  discovery  of  America;  and 
with  this  the  Portuguese  name  peru  remark- 
ably coincides.     It  was  a  bird  peculiar  to  the 
ncu  continent,  and  is  now   the  commonest 
wild-fowl  hi  the  northfin  jjarlsof  tliat  couji- 
iry,  where  they  are  frequenlly  met  with  by 
luindreds  in  a  llock ;  in  ihe  da\-time  they 
trequent  tlie  woods,    wliere   they   feed    on 
acorns,  and  return  at  night  to  the  swamps  to 
roost,  which  they  do  on  the  trees.     ']  hey  arii 
frequently  taken  by  means  of  dogs,  though 
they  run  faster  for  a  lime  ;  but  the  dogs  per- 
iisli'ng   in  tiie  pursuit,  tlie  birds  soon  grow 


156 


MEL' 


fatigueil,  and  take  to  itie  highest  trees,  wliere 
they  will  suffer  th.-mselves  to  i)e  shot  one 
after  another,  if  within  reach  of  the  iiiarks- 
man.  Tliis  fowl  was  first  seen  in  France  in 
the  reign  of  Francis  I.  and  in  England  in  that 
of  Henry  VIII.  By  the  date  of  the  reis;n  of 
theee  nionarchs,  the  tirst  turkeys  must  have 
been  brought  from  Mexico,  the  conquest  of 
wh  ch  was  completed  A.  D.  I5'J1. 

The  turkey  hen  begins  to  lay  eai'ly  in  the 
spring,  and  will  often  produce  a  great  number 
of  eggs,  which  are  white,  marked  with  red- 
dish or  yellow  spots,  or  rather  freckles.  She 
sits  well,  and  is  careful  of  her  young;  of 
which  in  this  climate  slie  will  often  have  from 
14  to  17  for  one  brood:  but  she  scarcely  ever 
sits  more  than  once  in  a  season,  except  al- 
lured thereto  by  putting  fresh  eggs  under  her 
as  soon  as  the  lirst  set  are  hatched  ;  for,  as  she 
is  a  close  sitter,  she  will  willingly  remain  two 
months  on  the  nest,  though  this  conduct,  as 
may  be  supposed,  is  said  greatly  to  injure  the 
bird.  Turkeys  are  bred  in  quantifies  in  some 
of  the  eastern  counties  of  England,  and  are 
driven  up  to  London  towards  autumn  for 
sale  ip  tiucks  of  several  hundreds,  which  are 
collected  horn  the  several  cottages  about 
ISoriolk,  Suffolk,  and  neighbouring  coun- 
ties, the  iniiabitants  of  which  think  it  well 
worth  their  while  to  attend  carefully  to  them, 
by  making  these  birds  a  part  of  their  family 
during  the  breeding-season.  It  is  pleasing  to 
see  with  what  facility  the  drivers  manage 
them  by  means  of  a  bit  of  red  rag  fastened 
to  the  end  of  a  stick,  which,  from  their  anti- 
pa  hy  to  it  as  a  colour,  acts  with  the  same  ef- 
fect as  a  scourge  to  a  quadruped. 

Of  the  turkey  there  are  several  varieties, 
wliich  have  arisen  from  doini'stication.  Tlic 
most  common  is  dark-grey,  inclining  to  black, 
or  barred  dusky-white  and  black.  There  is 
also  a  beautiful  variety  of  a  fine  deep  copper 
colour,  with  the  greater  quills  pun-  white,  and 
the  tail  of  a  dirty  white ;  it  is  when  old  a 
most  beautiful  bird.  A  variety  with  a  pure 
white  plumage  is  also  now  not  unfrequent, 
and  appears  very  beautiful.  It  was  once  es- 
teemed as  a  great  rarity,  and  the  breed  sup- 
posed originally  to  have  ari-en  in  Holland. 
The  sahjou  inhabits  India,  and  is  sometimes 
lesi  than'  the  last.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig. 
26K 

MELES,  in  zoology.    See  Ursus. 

MELIA,  aiddt-rach,  or  the  head-tree,  a 
genus  of  the  nionogynia  order,  in  the  decan- 
dria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  2Jd  order,  trihilati.  'j'he 
calyx  is  qninqnedentated;  the  petals  five;  the 
nectarium  cylindrical,  as  long  as  the  corolla, 
with  its  mouth  ten-toothed;  the  fruit  is  a 
plum  with  a  quiiuiuelocular  kernel.  There 
are  three  species,  all  of  them  exotic  trees  of 
the  Indies,  ri-iir;  near  20  feet  high,  adorned 
with  large  pinnated  or  w  nged  leaves,  and 
clusters  of  pentapetalous  flowers.  They  are 
all  propagated  by  seeds  sow  n  on  hotbeds. 

MELIANTHUS,  lioney-Jloiver,  a  genus 
nf  th  ■  aiigiospermia  order,  in  the  didvnamia 
class  of  pUnts,  aiwl  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  2  ithorder,  corydales.  The 
calyx  is  pentaphyllous,  with  the  lowermost 
leaf  gibbous:  there  are  four  piitals,  with  the 
nectarium  under  the  l»w(  st  ones.  The  cap- 
sule is  quadriloculai.  'I'jiere  are  three  spe- 
cies: 1.  The  major  has  many  upright,  ligne- 
ous, liuruble  stalks,  and  from  the  sides  and 

5 


tops  of  the  stalks  long  spikes  of  cliocolate- 
coloured  flowers.  2.  The  minor  has  upright, 
ligneous,  soft,  durable  stalks1||and  from  the 
sides  and  ends  of  the  branches  long,  loose, 
pendulous  bunches  of  flowers  thiged  with 
gieen,  saffron-colour,  and  red.  Uofh  the 
speoies  flower  about  June :  but  rarely  produce 
seeds  in  this  country.  I'hey  are  very  orna- 
mental, both  in  foliage  and  flower,  ami  merit 
admittance  in  every  collection.  They  are 
easily  propagated  by  suckers  and  cuttings. 
Tiiey  thrive  best  in  a  dry  soil,  and  in  a  shel- 
tered warm  exposure.  3. 1'hc  coinindous,  lit- 
tle known. 

MELICA,  i-npegru.sx,  a  genus  of  the  digy- 
nia  order,  in  the  triandria  class  of  |)Iants,  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  uniler  the'  4lh 
order,  gramina.  The  calyx  is  bivalved,  hitlo- 
rous,  with  an  embryo  of  a  flower  betwixt  the 
two  florets.  Ihere  are  three  species,  of 
which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  nutaii';.  It 
is  a  native  of  several  parts  of  liritaui,  and  the 
adjacent  islands  ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  some 
nf  the  western  islands  make  ropes  of  it  for 
liihiiig-nets,  as  it  will  bear  the  water  for  a 
long  time  without  rotthig. 

MELICOCCA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  octaiidria  monogynia.  The  calyx  is 
four-parted;  the  petals  four,  bent  back;  stigma 
subpeltate,  drupe  coriaceous.  There  is  one 
species,  a  tree  of  South  America. 

MELICYTUS,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  dioecia  pentaudria.  There  is  one  spe- 
cies, of  New  Zealand,  little  known. 

MELISSA,  bauin,  a  genus  of  the  didyua- 
mia  gyninospermia  class  of  plants,  with  a 
monopetalous  ringent  llower,  the  lower  lip  of 
which  is  divided  into  three  segments,  whereof 
the  middle  one  is cordated :  the  se^ds  are  four 
in  number,  and  contained  in  the  bottom  of 
the  cup.     There  are  six  sjjecies. 

Baum  is  greatly  esteemed  nmong  the  com- 
mon people  as  good  in  disorders  of  the  head 
and  stomach ;  but  is  less  regarded  in  the  shops. 
It  is  most  conveniently  taken  In  infusion  by 
way  of  tea ;  the  green  liei  b  is  greatly  better 
than  the  dry,  which  is  contrary  to  the  general 
rule  in  relation  to  other  plants. 

MELITTIS,  bastard  baum,  a  genus  of  the 
didynamia  gymuosperinia  chibS  of  plants  ;  the 
upper  lip  of  whose  cup  is  emarginated  ;  the 
upper  lip  of  its  flower  is  plane,  ai^l  the  lower 
one  crenaletl.     There  are  two  species. 

MELIUS.  INQUIRENDUM,  in  law,  a 
writ  that  lies  for  a  second  inquiry  to  be  made 
of  what  lands,. ike.  a  man  died  seized;  when 
partiality  is  .suspected  upon  tlie  writ  diem 
clausil,  &c. 

MELLATS.  This  genus  of  salts  is  but  im- 
perfectly known,  in  consequence  of  the  scar- 
city of  mellilic  acid.  Hitherto  they  have 
been  examined  only  by  Klaproth  and  Vau- 
queliu,  and  even'by  them  too  slightly  to  ad- 
mit a  description  of  their  properties.  The 
following  are  all  the  facts  hitherto  ascer- 
tained. 

I.  When  mellitic  acid  is  neutralized  by 
potass,  the  solution  crystallizes  in  long  prisms. 
1  he  acid  appears  capable  of  combining  with 
this  salt,  and  forming  a  super.iiellat  of  potass. 
For  when  the  mellite  (or  native  nif  Hat  of 
alumna)  is  decomposed  by  carbonat  of  po- 
tass, and  the  alkaline  solutions  mixed  with 
nitric  acid,  crystals  are  obtaineil  consisting  ol 
mellilic  acid  cbmbmcd  with  a  sinall  portion  ol 
potass. 


M  E  f.. 

2.  ^Vhen  mellitic  acid  is  neutralized  by 
soda,  the  solution  crystallizes  in  cubes  or 
three-sided  tables ;  sometimes  insulated,  some- 
times in  gioupv 

3.  Vi'lien  mellitic  acid  is  saturated  by  am. 
monia,  the  solution  yields  hne  transparent  si.x- 
sided  crystals,  which  become  opaque  whetv 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  assume  the  white  co- 
lour of  silver. 

4.  When  mellitic  acid  is  dropt  into  bafytes 
water,  stroiitian  water,  or  lime  water,  a  wliitu 
powder  immediately  precipitates,  which  is 
dissolved  by  adding  a  little  more  of  the  acid. 

5.  ^^'hen  the  acid  is  rnixed  with  a  solution 
of  sulphat  of  lime,  very  sinall  gritty  crystals 
precipitate,  which  do  not  destroy  the  transpa- 
rency of  the  water ;  but  the  addition  ol  a 
little  ammonia  lenders  the  precipitate  flaky. 
The  precipitate  jiroduced  by  this  acid  in  linJe 
.water  is  redissolved  by  tiie  addition  of  nitric 

acid. 

6.  When  this  acid  is  dropt  into  acetat  cf 
barytes,  a  rlaky  precijiitate  appears,  which 
is  dissolved  by  adding  moi  e  acid.  W  iili  mu 
riat  of  barytes  it  produces  no  precipitate; 
but  in  a  short  time  a  group  of  transparent 
needle-form  crystals  is  deposited,  consisting, 
most  likely  ofsupeiinellat  of  barytes. 

7.  When  this  acid  is  dropt  into  suljjhat  of 
alumina,  it  throws  down  an  abundant  precipi- 
tate in  the  form  of  a  white  flaky  powder. 

MELLITE,  lioufi/stnnt ,  nudut  nj  alamina. 
This  mineral  was  first  observed  about  10 
years  ago  in  Ihuringia,  between  the  layers  of 
wood  coal.  It  is  of  a  hojiey-yellow  colour 
(whence  its  name)  ;  and  is  usually  crystallized 
in  sinall  octahedrons,  whose  angles  are  often 
truncated.  Fractm-e  conchoidal.  Specilic  gra- 
vity, according  to  Abich,  1.666.  When  heat- 
ed it  whitens,  and  in  the  open  air  burns  with- 
out being  seikibly  charred.  A  white  matter 
remain?,  which  ell'ervesces  slightly  with  acids, 
and  which  at  first  has  no  taste,  but  at  leugtii 
leaves  an  acid  impression  upon  the  tongue. 

Klaproth  analysed  the  mellite  in  1709,  and 
ascertained  it  to  be  a  compound  of  alumina, 
and  a  peculiar  acid,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  ol  mellilic.  And  this  analysis  was  soon, 
after  confirmed  bv  M.  Vauquelin. 

MELLITIC  ACID  has  been  found  only 
in  the  mellite.  It  may  be  procured  from 
that  mineral  by  the  following  process:  Keduce 
the  mellilc  to  powder,  and  boil  it  in  abofut 
72  times  its  weight  of  vrater.  The  acid  con>- 
biiies  with  the  water,  an  I  the  alumina  sepa- 
rates in  flakes.  By  tiltring  the  solution,  and 
evapoiatin-  suffieieiuly,  the  mellitic  acid  is 
obtained  in  the  state  of  crystals. 

These  crystals  are  either  very  fine  needles, 
sometimes  collected  into  globules,  or  small 
short  prisms.  They  have  a  brownish  colour, 
and  a  taste  at  first  sweetish-sour,  and  after- 
WL'^^ds  bitterish. 

Tliis  acid  is  not  very  soluble  in  water  ;  but 
the  precise  decree  of  solubility  has  not  been 
ascertained.  When  exposed  to  heut,  it  is 
rea<lily  decomposed,  exh.iling  an  abundant 
smoke,  which  however  is  destitute  of  smell. 
A  small  quantity  of  insipid  ashes  remains  b'e- 
hind,  wiiich  do  not  alter  the  colour  of  litmus 
papi'r. 

All  atlempts  (o  convert  it  info  oxalic  acid 
b_\  the  a<  lion  of  nitric  acid  have  tailed.  The 
nitric  add  merely  caused  it  to  assuirte  a 
>lraw-yellow  colour.  ■' ' 

'I'he  eifect  of  tlie«,iiiiple  bodies  on  this  arid 
h.is  jkol  been  tried.     It  couibuics  with  alikU- 


lies,  pnrt1i«,  and  mctullic  oxiilfi,  and  forms 
witli  til. ■Ill  salts  \vlii(  li  are  (listim^uislii'd  bv 
till-  iianiL'  ofmellats.  'I'lie  properties  of  thesi; 
conipDuiids  will  be  considered  afterwards. 

From  the  analysis  of  M.  Klaprolli,  wu 
learn  that  the  mellite  is  com  posed  of 

»i(i  inellitic  acid 

KiaUiiiiina 

3S  water 

1 00. 

From  other  analyses  by  the  same  chemist, 
he  infers  lliat  inellitio  acid  is  composed  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  anil  oxygen,  but  the  pro- 
portions are  not  yet  known. 

MliLOftlllA,  ./f::'.v  iimUotu,  a  genus  of 
the  peiitan<lria  order,  in  the  inonidelphia 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  nifthod 
rankini^  under  the  37lh  order,  columnifera;.. 
The  capsule  is  cininquelocular  and  monsper- 
iniHis.  'I'here  are  11  species:  but  the  only 
remarkable  one  is  the  olilorius,  or  common 
Jew's-maliow,  which  is  a  native  of  llie  warm 
parts  of  Avia  and  America.  It  is  an  annual 
plant.  The  tlowers  sit  close  on  the  xipposite 
side  of  the  branches  to  the  loaves,  cominE; 
out  singly  ;  they  are  compose<l  of  five  small 
yellow  petals,  and  a  £;reat  number  of  stamina 
surrounilmg  the  oblong  germen,  which  is 
situated  ill  the  centre  of  the  liower,  and  after- 
uar<ls  turns  to  a  rou<Th  swelling  capsule  two 
inches  long,  ending  m  a  point,  and  having 
four  cells  Idled  with  angular  greenish  seeds. 
This  species  is  cultivated  about  the  city  of 
Aleppo  in  Syria,  and  in  the  F-a-^t  Indies,  as  a 
pot-herb;  the  Jews  boiling  the  leaves,  and 
eating  them  with  their  meat. 

MELODINUS,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  pentandria  digynia.  It  is  contorted; 
nect.  in  the  middle  ot  the  tube,  stellate  ;  berry 
two-celled,  many-seeded.  There  is  one  spe- 
cies, a  shrub  of  New  Caledonia. 

Ml'.LODY,  in  music,  the  agreeable  effect 
of  different  sounds,  ranged  and  disposed  in 
succession  ;  so  that  meloily  is  the  effect  of  a 
sinsle  voice  or  instrument,  by  which  it  is  dis- 
tinguished from  harmony. 

MELOE,  a  genus  of  insevts  of  the  order 
coieoptera  ;  the  p. tntric  character  is;  anten- 
n;E  moiiiliforni,  \viti5the  last  joint  ovate  ;  tho- 
rax «oundish  ;  wing-sheaths  soft,  flexile  ;  liead 
inflecV'-d.  Among  the  principal  species  of 
nieloe  may  be  numbered  the  meloe  prosca- 
rabsus,  commonly  called  the  oil-beetle.  It 
is  of  considerable  size,  often  measuring  near 
an  inch  and  a  half  in  length  ;  its  colour  is  vio- 
let-black, especially  on  the  antenna;  and 
limbs;  the  wing-sheaths  are  very  short,  in 
the  female  insect  espi-cially,  scarcely  cover- 
ing more  than  a  third  of  the  body,  and  are  of 
an  oval  shape.  This  species  is  frequent  in  the 
advanced  state  of  spring  in  fields  and  pas- 
tures, creeping  slowly,  the  body  appearing  so 
swoln  or  distended  with  eggs  as  to  cause  the 
insect  to  move  with  difliculty.  On  being 
handled  it  suddenly  exsudes  from  the  joints 
of  its  legs,  as  well  as  from  some  parts  of  the 
body,  several  small  drops  of  a  clear,  deep- 
yellow  oil  or  fluid,  ol  a  very  p<  culiar  and 
pinetrating  smell.  This  oil  or  fluid  has  been 
highly  celebrated  for  its  supposed  etTicacy  in 
rheumatic  pains,  &c.  when  used  as  an  embro- 
cation on  the  parts  affected  ;  for  this  puHjjose 
also  the  o  I  expressed  from  the  whole  insect 
has  been  used  witn  equal  success.  The  fi^ 
male  of  this  species  deposits  her  eggs,  which. 


MEL 

•  re  very  small,  and  of  an  orange-colour,  in  a 
large  liea|)  or  mass  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  ground;  each  egg,  when  viewed  by  the 
microscope,  ai)|)ears  of  a  cylindric  shape, 
with  rounded  ends;  from  these  are  hatched 
the  larva-,  whidi,  at  their  liist  appearance, 
scarcely  measure  a  line  in  length,  and  are  of 
an  ochre-yellow,  with  black  eyes ;  they  are 
furnished  with  short  antenija-,  six  legs  of  mo- 
derate length,  and  a  long,  jointedj  taper- 
ing body,  terminated  by  two  forked  fila- 
ments or  processes.  'I'hese  larva;  are  found 
to  live  by  attaching  themselves  to  other  in- 
sects, and  absorbing  their  juices.  They  are 
sometimes  seen  strongly  fastened  to  common 
flies,  &c.  a  practice  so'  extraordinary  as  fo 
have  caused  considerable  doubt  vdielher 
they  could  possibly  iiave  been  the  real  larva- 
of  the  meloe  proscaraba-us.  The  accurate 
observations  of  Degeer,  however,  have  com- 
pletely proved  that  fact. 

The  meloe  scabrosus  extremely  resembles 
the  preceding;,  and  is  found  in  similar  situa- 
tions, but  differs  in  being  of  a  reddish  purple 
colour,  with  a  cast  of  deep  gilded  green. 

Meloe  vcsicatorius,  blister-fly  or  .Spanish 
fly,  is  an  insect  of  great  beaufy,  being  en- 
tirely of  the  richest  gilded  grass-green,  with 
black  antenna-.  Its  shape  is  lengthened,  and 
the  abdomen,  which  is  pointed,  extends 
somewhat  beyond  the  wing-sheaths;  its  usual 
length  is  about  an  inch.  This  celebrated  in- 
sect, the  cantharis  of  the  materia  mcdica, 
forms,  as  is  well  known,  the  safest  and  most 
eflicacious  epispaslic,  or  blister-plaster  ;  rais- 
ing, after  the  space  of  a  few  hours,  the  cuticle, 
and  causing  a  plentiful  serous  discharge  from 
the  skin.  It  is  supposed  however  that  tiie 
cantharis  of  Dioscorides,  or  that  used  by  the 
antientsforthe  same  purpose,  was  a  dilierent 
species,  viz.  the  meloe  cichorei  of  Linnaeus, 
an  insect  nearly  cqu-al  in  size  to  the  meloe 
proscarabaus,  and  of  a  black  colour,  with 
three  transverse  yellow  bands  on  the  wing- 
shells.  The  meloe  vesicatorius  is  principally 
found  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe,  as 
Spain,  the  south  of  France,  i&c.  It  is  also 
observed,  though  far  less  plenlitully,  in  some 
parts  of  our  own  country.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  tig.  263. 

MELON.  SeeCucuMis. 

MELOTHRIA,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  in  ti.e  tfiandrria  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
34th  order,  cucurbitacea;.  The  calyx  isquin- 
quelid;  tlie  corolla  campanulated  and  mo- 
nopetalous;  the  berry  trilocular  and  moiio- 
spernious.  There  is  only  one  species,  viz. 
the  pendula,  a  native  of  Carolina,  Virginia, 
and  also  many  of  the  American  islands.  The 
plants  strike  out  roots  at  every  joint,  which 
fasten  themselves  into  the  gro-.ind,  by  which 
means  their  stalks  extend  to  a  great  distance 
each  wav.  The  flowers  are  very  small,  in 
shape  like  those  of  the  melon,  of  a  pale  sul-  | 
phur-colour.  The  fruit  in  the  West  Indies 
j,rows  to  the  size  of  a  pea,  is  of  an  oval  hijure, 
and  changes  to  black  when  ripe;  these  are 
by  the  inhabitants  sometimes  pickled  when 
they  are  green.  In  Britain  the  fruit  are  much 
smaller,  and  are  so  hidden  by  the  leaves  that 
it  is  diflicult  to  find  them.  The  plants  are 
too  tender  to  be  reared  m  this  country  witii- 
out  artiricial  heal. 

MELYRIS,a  genusof  insects  of  the  order 
coieoptera :  tiie  generic  character  is,  anteuuic  ^ 


M  E  .Af 


157 


entirely  perfoliate;  liead  inflected  under 
the  thorax ;  thorax  margined  ;  lip  clavate, 
L>inarginate;jaw  one-tootiied,  poinlud.  There 
arc-  three  species.     Sec  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  iig. 

264. 

MKMBRANE.    See  Akatomy. 

.MEMECYLON,  a  genus  of  the  oclan- 
dria  monogynia  class  and  order.  Thecalvx 
is  superior;  corolla  ouc-pelal!ed;  antli.  in- 
serted in  the  side  of  the  apex  of  the  lilament; 
berry  crowned  with  cylindrical  calyx.  There 
are  three  spcci-,  trees  ot  the  East  Indies. 

MEMORY,  artificial,  a  method  of 
assisting  the  memory,  bv  foniltng  certain 
words,  the  letters  of  which  shall  signify 
(he  date  or  a:ra  to  be  renienibered.  In  or- 
der to  tills,  the  following  series  of  voweb,  diph- 
thongs, and  consonants,  together  with  their 
corresponding  numbers,  must  be  exactly 
learned,  so  as  to  be  able  at  pleasure  to  forin 
a  technical  word,  that  sh  lil  stand  foV  any 
number,  or  to  resolve  such  a  word  already 
formed. 


./ 

'  <• 

i      o      u 

ail 

0/ 

ei 

ou 

y  1 

1 

2 

3     4     5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

0 

\i 

.1 

'    /'i/ 

J 

fi 

I 

n 

= 

The  first  five  vowels,  in  order,  naturally  re- 
present 1,  2,  3  4,  5;  the  diphthong  a«  =z  G,  as- 
being  composed  of  a  and  i/,  or  1  -|-  5  =  6 ;  and 
for  the  like  reason,  ol  =:  7,  and  ou  =z  9.  Tl'.e 
diphthong  c;  will  ea.sily  be  remembered  for  8,  as 
being  the  initials  of  the  wurd.  In  like  manner, 
where  the  initial  consonants  could  conveniently 
be  retained,  they  are  made  use  of  to  s'gnify  the 
number,  as  t  for  3, /for  4,  t  for  S,  and  u  for  9. 
The  rest  were  assigned  without  any  particular 
reason,  unless  that  possibly />  may  be  more  e.tsiiy 
remembered  for  7  or  septem,  /■  for  8,  or  okri, 
d  for  2,  or  duo  ;  6  for  1 ,  a.4  being  the  first  conso- 
nant ;  and  /  for  5,bcuig  the  Roman  letter  for  .W; 
than  any  others  that  could  li.ive  been  put  ia- 
tlteir  places. 

It  is  farther  to  be  observed,  that  s  and  v  be- 
ing made  use  of  to  represent  the  cypher,  where 
many  cyphers  meet  together,  as  lOOD,  1000000, 
&e.  instead  of  a  repetition  of  a  z  y  z  y  z  y,  &c. 
let  t;  stand  for  ICO,  lu  for  a  thousand,  and  m  for 
a  million.  Thus  ag  will  be  100,  ig  300 ;  oi:g  900,, 
&c.  att  1000,  <m  1000000,  /ouot  59000000,  &c. 

Fractions  may  he  set  down  in  the  following' 
manner  :  let  r  signify  the  line  separatiiig  the 
numerator  and  denominator,  the  first  coming 
before,  the  other  after  it ;  as  Jro  J,  urfi  y,  pourci 
_2Ji  ,  &c.  When  the  numerator  is  1,  or  unit,  i" 
need  not  be  expressed,  but  begin  the  fraction 
with  ;  ;  as  re  ^,  ri  \,  ro  \,  &c.  So  in  decimals 
'■"^  Toor>  rath  looo- 

This  is  the  principal  part  of  the  method, 
which  consists  in  expressing  numbers  by  ar- 
tiJiciat  words.  The  application  to  history  and 
chronology  is  also  performed  by  artificial 
words.  The  art  herein  consists  in  .mak- 
ing such  a  change  m  the  ending  of  the 
name  of  a  place,  person,  planet,  coin,  &c. 
without  alt.ring  the  beginning  of  it,  as  shall 
readily  suggest  the  thing  sought,  at  the 
same  time  that  the  beginning  of  the  word 
being  preserved,  shall  be  a  leading  or 
prompting  syllable  to  the  ending  of  it  so 
changed.  Thus,  in  order  to  remember 
the  years  in  which  Cyius,  Alexander,  and 
Julius  Cisar,  founded  their  respective  mo- 
narchies, the  following  words  may  be  form- 
ed ;  for  Cj  riis,  Cyr«ii ;  lor  .i\Je.\ander,  Akx- 


153 


MEN 


ita\  for  JuViiis  Caesar,  Julio^.  L'is  signifies, 
according  to  tlie  powers  assignefl  to  tiie  let- 
ters before-mentioned  536;  zla  is  331  ;ai.d  os 
i<  46.  Hence  it  will  l^e  easy  to  roniiniber, 
t!iat  tlie  empire  of  Cyrus  was  founded  job 
years  before  Cluisl,  tliat  of  Alexander  331, 
and  that  of  J'.ilius  Csesar  46.  Tliis  account 
is  taiien  from  a  treatise,  entitled,  a  Kew  Me- 
t'lod  of  Artiricial  Memory  ;  where  tlie  reader 
Will  find  several  e.xamples  in  chronologv,  geo- 
graphy, &c.  of  sucli  artificial  words  disposed 
in  verses,  which  must  be  allowed  to  contri- 
bute much  to  the  assistance  of  the  memory, 
since  being  once  learned,  they  are  seldom  or 
never  forgotten.  However,  the  author  ad- 
vises his  reader  to  form  tlie  words  and  verses 
himself,  in  the  manner  described  above,  as  he 
wiil  probably  remeniber  these  better  than 
those  formed  by  another. 

We  shall,  in  this  place,  give  his  table  of  the 
kings  of  England  since  the  Conquest,  where 
one  thoQsaud  being  addr-d  to  the  Italics  in 
€ach  Avord,  expres-es  tlie  year  when  they  be- 
gan their  reigns.     Thus, 

Will  conjna,  RufAv)/,  Hen/Y/n; 

Steph'iiV  &   Hen^ec'x'/,   Ukhbcin,  Jann, 

llethdas  &z  EdJoid. 
Edseti/p,     Edter?c/),     llhetois,   llefotoiin, 

Heihadque. 
llenfvfjd,  Edquar/iuc,  Efi-Uo/.Y,  Hensep- 

feil,  Henoc///n. 
Edsex/o,5,  Mary/i(f,   Els/ii'-,   Jiims/jd,  Ca- 

roprim.sf/. 
Carsec!o(-,  Jam.fd'//',  Wib't//,',  Anpi/d,  Geo- 

bo-d  ■!. 
MEN.\CHAXITE.  This  substance  has 
been  found  abiuidantly  in  liie  valli'v  of  Me- 
xiachan  in  Cornwall;  aud  lieiice  was  called 
meiiachanite  by  Mr.  Gregor,  tlie  discoverer 
of  it.  It  is  in  small  grains  like  gunpowder, 
of  no  determinate  shape,  and  mixeti  witli  a 
line  grey  sand.  Colour  black.  Easily  pul- 
verised. Powder  atlracted  bv  the  magnet. 
Specific  gravity  4.-IJ7.  Does  not  detonate 
with  nitre.  \\"ith  two  parts  of  lixcd  aU^ali  it 
melts  into  ail  olive-coloured  mass,  fro  u  which 
Jiitric  acid  preci  litates  a  white  powder.  The 
mineral  acids  only  extract  from  it  a  little  iron. 
Diluted  sulphuric  acid,  mixed  with  the  pow- 
<!<  r,  in  such  a  proportion  that  the  mass  is  not 
too  liquid,  and  tiieii  evinjoratni  to  drvn.ess, 
jnoduces  a  blue-coloured  mass.  Before  tlie 
ilowpipe  does  not  decrepitate  nor  meit.  It 
tinges  inicrocosmic  salt  green ;  but  the  co- 
lour becomes  brown  on  cooling;  yet  m  cro- 
cosmic  salt  does  not  dissolve  it.  Soluble  in 
bor.ix,  and  alters  its  colour  in  the  same  man- 
ner. 

According  to  the  analysis  of  Mr.  Gregor, 
it  is  composed  of 
■fl)  oxide  of  iron 
45  oxide  of  titanium 

91,  with  some  silica  and  manganese. 
According  to  M.   Klaproth's   analysis,    it 
ie  composed  of  51.00  oxide  of  iron  ■  " 
45.5!5  oxide  of  titaninin 
3.50  silica 
.25  oxide  of  manganese. 

lOO.OO 
Another  variety  of  this  ore  from  the  I'ra- 
lian  mountams,  analysed  by  Lowltz,  contain- 
ed 53  oxide  of  titaniiuii 
47  oxide  of  iron 

100. 


MEN 

A  mineral,  nearly  of  the  name  nalare  witli 
the  one  just  described,   has  been    found   in 
i-iavaria.     Its   specilic  gravity   is  only    3.7. 
.\-cordnig  i..^  the  analysis  ol'Vauqwelin  anu 
Hecnt,  it  ii  composed  of 
49  oxide  of  titanium 
35  iron 
2  nnir.ganese 
14  oxygen  combined  with  the  iron  and 

manganese 

100. 

A  specimen  of  the  same  ore  from  Tiotanv 
Bay  has  been  lately  analucd  by  Mr.  Ciie!- 
nevix. 

MENAIS,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria  mo- 
nogynia  class  and  order.  The  calvx  is  three- 
leaved;  ihe  corolla  salver-shajied  ;  berry  four- 
celled;  sn-ds  solitary.  Tiiereisone  species, 
a  herb  of  South  .Vmerica. 

MENDICANTS,  or  begging  friars,  se- 
veral orders  of  religious  in  popish  countries, 
V.  I'.o,  having  no  settled  revenue,  are  su|)por(  -'d 
l)y  the  charitable  contributions  tiiey  receive 
!rom  oUu-rs. 

MENLSCIl'M,  a  genus  of  the  rryptoga- 
mia  filices.  The  cap->ules  are  iie.iped  in 
cie-cents  interposed  between  the  veins  of  the 
pod.  There  is  one  species,  a  native  of  the 
\\  est  Indies. 

MENISCUS.  See  Optics. 

.MEXISPERMUM,  a  genus  of  the  dioe- 
cla  doiiecandria  class  and  or.ier.  The  male 
petals  are  four  outer,  eight  inner  ;  s'.amina 
sixteen  ;  female  corolla,  as  in  the  male  ;  st-.m. 
eight,  barren ;  ben-ies  tw  o,  one-seeded.  There 
are  13  species,  herbs  of  the  East  Indies. 

MENNONITES,  a  sect  of  baptists  in 
Holhind,  so  called  from  Memion  Sinionis  of 
rViezland,  who  lived  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. This  sect  believe  that  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  the  oily  rule  of  faith  ;  lliat  the  teruH 
per-.in  and  trinity  are  not  to  be  used  in 
speaking  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  II  jly  Ghost : 
that  the  lir:t  man  was  not  created  perfect; 
that  it  is  unlawful  to  swear  or  to  wage  war 
upon  any  occasion;  that  infants  are  not  the 
proper  subjects  of  baptism  ;  and  that  minis- 
ters of  the  go-pel  ought  to  receive  no  salary. 
They  all  unite  in  pleading  f)r  toleration  m 
religion,  and  debar  none  Iroin  their  asicni- 
blies  who  lead  pious  lives,  arid  own  the  scrip- 
tures for  the  word  of  God. 

MENSES.    See  Physiology. 

MENSTRUU.M,  in  chemistry,  the  fluid 
in  which  a  solid  lx)dy  is  dissolved.  Thus 
water  i.s  a  menstruum  for  salts,  and  gums ; 
and  alcohol  for  resins. 

MENTHA,  mint,  a  genus  of  the  symno- 
speriiiia  order,  in  the  didynamia  class  of 
plants;  and  in  tlic  naturalmethod  ranking 
under  the  -i'Jd  order,  verticillalx-.  The  co- 
rolla isneai'is  ei|ual  and  quadrilid,  with  one 
segment  broader  than  the  rest,  and  emargi- 
iiated  ;  the  stamina  are  erect,  standing  asun- 
der. There  are  19  species ;  but  not  more 
than  tiiree  are  cultivated  for  use,  namely, 
the  viridis,  or  common  spearmint,  iho  pipe- 
rita or  peppermint,  and  the  pulcgivim  or 
pennj royal.  A;l  these  are  so  well  known 
as  to  need  no  description;  and  all  of  them 
are  veiy  easily  propagated  by  cuttings,  part- 
ing the  roots,  or  by  otfsets. 

I'or  culinary  pur|)Oses,  the  spearmint'  is 
preferred  to  the  other  tui)  ;  but  lor  medi- 
cine, the  peppermint  and  pennyroyal  have 
almost  t-ntiiely  supersudcd  it.    A  conserve 


M  E  N 

of  the  leaves  h  very  grateful ;  and  tlie  distil* 
led  waters  both  simple  and  spirituous,  are 
univei-sally   tliought    pleasant.      Dr.    Lewis 

lys,  that  dry  mint  digested  in  rectified  spi- 
rits of  wine,  gives  out  a  tincture  which  ap- 
pears by  day-light  of  a  line  dark-green,  but 
by  candle-light  of  a  bright  red  colour.  The 
tact  is,  tiiat  a  small  quantity  of  this  tinc- 
ture is  green  either  by  day-light  or  by 
candle-light,  but  a  large  quantity  of  it  seems 
impervious  to  common  day-light;  however, 
when  held  betwixt  the  eye  and  a  candle,  or 
bet,  ixt  the  eye  and  the  sun,  it  appears  red. 

"^I  he  virtues  of  mint  are  those  of  a  w  arm 
stomachic,  capable  of  relieving  colicky 
pains,  and  the  gripes,  to  which  chil  Iren  .-.re 
subject.  It  like.vise  proves  an  useful  cordial 
in  languors  and  fair.tness.  When  prejian  d 
with  rectilied  spirit,  the  whole  virtues  of  Ihe 
■mint  are  extracted.  Tht?  expressed  juice 
contains  onlv  the  astringent  ami  bitter  parts, 
together  with  the  mjciiagiuous  substance 
eomnion  to  all  vegetables.  The  pep- 
permint IS  much  more  paiigent  than  the 
others. 

Pennyroval  h.as  the  same  general  charac- 
ters witn  lac  mint,  but  is  more  acrid  am), 
less  agrecible  wdien  taken  into  the  stomach-. 
It  was  long  lield  in  great  esteem  in  hysteric* 
coir  plaints,  and  suppressions  of  the  menses, 
but  its  effects  are  trifling,  it  is  observable, 
that  both  water  and  rectified  spirit  extract 
the  virtues  of  this  herb  by  infusion,  and  like- 
wise elevate  tlie  greatest  part  of  them  by 
distiliation. 

MENTZELIA,  a  genus  of  the  polyandria 
monogynia  class  and  order.  The  cal.  is  five- 
leaved  ;  cor.  five-petalled ;  caps,  inferior, 
c}lindric,  many-seeded.  There  is  one  spe- 
ci  's,  an  annual  oi  South  America. 

Mi':NYANTHUS,  buckbean,  a  genu? 
of  the  pentandria  monogynia  class  of  plan(=, 
with  a  inonopetalous  funnel  like  flower,  di- 
vided into  live  deep  segments  at  the  limb  r 
the  fruit  is  an  oval  capsule  with  one  cell, 
containing  a  great  many  small  seeds.  There 
are  live  species. 

Buckbe.ui,  called  by  authors  trifolium  pa- 
lustre  and  paludosum,  is  greatly  recommend- 
ed as  a  diuretic  in  dropsical  cases;  as  also 
in  the  cure  of  intermittent  fevers,  and  disor- 
ders of  the  breast  arising  IVom  tough  matter 
in  the  lungs  :  the  general  way  of  taking  it  is 
in  a  strong  infusion,  though  many  prefer  the 
juice  fresh  expres.-^ed  from  the  leaves. 

.\I  ERC  ATOR's  projection  of  maps.  See 
Map. 

MENSURATION,  in  general,  denotes 
the  act  or  art  of  measuring  lines,  superficies 
and  solids  ;  and  it  is,  next  to  arithmetic,  a 
sulij('ct  of  the  greatest  use  and  iiuportaiice, 
both  in  affairs  that  are  absolutely  necessary 
in  human  life,  ami  in  every  branch  of  ma- 
thematics ;  a  subject  by  which  sciences  arc 
establishevl,  and  commerce  is  conducted ; 
by  whose  aid  we  manage  our  business,  and 
inform  ourselves  of  the  wonderful  operations 
in  nature  ;  by  which  we  mea  v.re  the  heavens 
and  the  earth,  e^l:n)ate  the  capacities  of  all 
vessel,  and  the  bulks  of  all  bodies,  gau^e  our 
liquors,  build  edifices,  measure  our  lands  a*u^ 
the  works  of  artificers,  buy  ai;d  sell  an  iiilinrtc 
variety  of  things  necessary  in  life,  and  :vrf 
supplied  with  ttie  means  of  making  the  cal- 
culations which  are  necessary  for  \Xik  con- 
siructLuu  of  almost  all  machines. 


■i£2 


NA.T  U  M  AJL     M 1  s  1  O  JK,i 


^y^/7//rfA^ra/  ^i^4«k/^ 


%5<7 


i^e/urt^  iv^n//fr. 


c   /Vv^y^  1^^^  y^^// 1^//^  c'tul/r 


///?n^u  Je/^ay^hf/i 


'Madre/i^/a    orrt'Vi'a/ 


Jl^affi  fillip- 


,'.  .1 


MEN 

It  is  evidi-'nt  that  the  close  cor.npcfion  of 
this  suliject  with  t!i<'  aiTairs  ot"  nu'ii  woiiUl 
very  early  evince  its  i.iiportance  to  thciii ; 
and  accordingly  the  greatest  anions  them 
have  paid  tlie  iilnio-it  attention  to  it ;  and 
tin:  chief  ;'.iui  most  essential  discoveries  in 
geometry  in  all  ages  have  been  made  in 
consequence  of  their  efljrts  in  tliis  subject. 
Socr^ites  thought  that  the  prhne  use  of  f^eo- 
nii'lry  was  to  measure  the  ground,  and  in- 
deed tins  business  gave  na)>ic  to  the  subject ; 
and  most  of  the  anlients  seem  to  have  had 
no  other  end  besides  mensuration  in  view  in 
all  Uieir  geometrical  d  squisitioiis.  Euclid's 
]"lewi''nts  are  almost  entirely  devoted  to  it  ; 
and  aiJiongh  there  arc  conlaine  1  in  them 
m.Kiy  proj)erties  of  geometiical  iigures, 
which  may  be  applied  toother  purposes,  and 
indeed  of  wliich  ihe  moderns  luve  made  the 
ino.it  m.iterial  uses  in  various  disquisitions  of 
e\reedin'.;ly  different  kinds;  notwiLhstai^diiiu; 
this,  Knt  fkl  himself  seems  to  have  adapted 
tin.-in  enUrely  to  this  purpose:  for,  if  it  is 
consider". I  that  his  Elenents  contain  a  con- 
tinued ciiain  of  reas  ni:ig,  and  of  truths,  of 
vvliich  the  fonniT  are  sncc.;ssive!y  applied 
to  the  discovery  of  the  latter,  one  pro;..-  si. 
tion  dependi.iJ  on  another,  and  llie  succeed- 
ing propositions  still  approximating  to\a:cls 
^  >me  particular  object  near  the  end  of  eaJi 
liojk  ;  and  when  at  the  last  we  find  tliat  ob- 
ject to  be  the  quality,  proportion,  or  relation 
between  (he  magnitudes  of  figures  bolh  plane 
and  solid  ;  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  avoid 
allowing  this  to  have  been  Euclid's  grand 
object.  Accordingly  he  determined  the  Chief 
properties  in  the  iiien'uration  of  rectilini.-aL 
plane  and  solid  li^ures ;  and  squared  all  such 
planes,  and  cubed  all  such  solids.  1  hi*  only 
curve  figures  wliich  he  attempte  i  besides  are 
the  circle  and  sphere;  andwhen  he  could  not 
accurately  determine  their  measures,  he  gave 
an  excellent  method  of  ajjproximating  to 
then,  fcy  shewing  how  in  a  circle  to  inscribe 
a  r'^gular  polygon  which  shodd  not  touch 
ano-.-i'-r  circle,  ccncentric  with  tiie  former, 
although  their  circumferences  should  be  ever 
si  near  together ;  and,  in  like  manner^  be- 
t.ieen  any  two  concentric  spheres  to  de- 
i:  ril),-  a  polyhedron  which  sjiould  not  any 
V  here  touch  the  inner  one  :  and  approxima- 
tions to  their  measures  are  all  that  have  hi- 
therto been  given.  But  althougli  he  cou'.d 
not  scpiare  the  circle,  iiar  cube  the  sphere, 
he  delemiined  the  proportion  of  one  circle 
to  another,  and  of  one  sphere  to  another,  as 
veil  as  the  proportions  of  all  rectilineal  shni- 
lar  hgures  to  one  another. 

Archimedes  took  up  mensuration  where 
Euclid  left  it,  and  carried  it  a  great  length. 
lie  was  the  first  wlio  squared  a  curvilineal 
space,  unless  Hippocrates  must  be  excepted 
on  account  of  his  lunes.  In  his  times  the 
conic  sections  were  admitted  in  geometry, 
anil  he  applied  himself  closely  to  the  mea- 
suring of  them  as  well  as  other  figures.  Ac- 
cordingly he  determined  the  relations  of 
spheres,  spheroids,  and  conoids,  to  cylin- 
ders and  cones  ;  and  the  relations  of  para- 
bolas to  rectilineal  planes  whose  quadratures 
had  long  t>efore  been  determined  by  Em  lid. 
lie  has  left  us  also  his  attempts  iipon  the 
circle  :  he  proved  that  a  circle  is  equal  to  a 
right-angled  triangle,  whose  base  is  equal  to 
the  circumference,  audits  altitude  e-;ual  to 
the  radius  ;  and  consequentiv  that  its  area  is 
(buml  by  drawing  the  radius  into  half  tiie 


MEN 

circumference;  and  so  reduced  th(»  rjundrn- 
ture  of  the  circle  to  the  determination  of  I'  e 
ratio  of  the  diameter  to  the  circumference  : 
but  which,  liowever,  lias  not  vet  been  lound. 
IJeing  disajipoinlcd  of  the  e.xact  quadrature 
o(  the  circle,  for  want  of  the  rectilicalion  oi 
its  circumference',  which  all  his  methods 
would  not  effccl,  he  proceeded  to  a,ssign 
an  useful  ap])roxinialion  to  it :  this  he  effect- 
ed by  Ihe  uuiuerical  calculalion  of  the  pe- 
rimeters of  the  inscribed  :nul  circumscribed 
polygons ;  from  which  calculations  it  ap- 
pears that  the  perimeter  of  the  circumscrib- 
ed regular  polygon  of  19?  sides  is  to  the 
diameter,  in  a  less  ratio  than  that  of  3.^.  (3|| 
to  I,  and  tiiat  the  in-cribed  polygon  of  yo 
sides  is  to  the  d'aineter  in  a  afreatcr  ratio 
than  that  o(  S^f  to  1  ;.  and  "consequent- 
ly much  more  than  the  circurmetence 
of  the  circle  is  to  the  diameter  in  a 
less  ratio  than  that  of  3i  to  I,  but  great- 
er than  that  of  3|^  io  1 :  the  first  ratioof  3.^ 
to  I,  reduced  to  whole  numbers,  gives 
that  of  22  to  7,  for  34.:  1  :  :  i?2  :  7,  which 
there'brc  will  be  iiearK  the  ratio  of  the  cir- 
cumference to  the  tHameter.  I'rom  this 
ratio  of  the  circumference  to  the  diameter 
he  comptited  the  approximate  area  of  the 
circle,  and  found  it  to  be  to  the  s  jirare  of 
the  diameter  as  M  to  14.  He  likewise  de- 
teinvined  the  relation  between  the  circh-  and 
ellipse,  with  that  of  their  similar  parts.  The 
hyperbola  (00,  in  all  probability,  he  attempt- 
ed :  but  it  is  not  to  be  hoped,  that  he  nut 
with  any  success,  since  approximations  to 
its  area  are  all  that  can  be  given  by  all  tlie 
methods  that  have  since  been  invented. 

Besides  these   figures,    he    has  left  ns  a 
treatise  on  tlie  spiral  described  by  a  point  I 
moving  Uiiiformly  along  a  right  line,  which! 
at  the  same  time  moves  witii  an  unitorm  an-  ' 
gular  motion  ;  and  deieniiined   the   piv.p.or- 
tion  of  its  area  to  tlut  of  its  circumscrilxKl 
circle,  as  also  the   proportion  of  their  sec- 
tors. 

Throughout  the  whole  woiks  of  this  great 
man,  which  are  chieily  en  men.st  ration,  he  ' 
every  where  discovers'  the  deepest  desifii,  ! 
and  finest  invention  ;  and  seems  to  have  been  ' 
(with  Euclid)  cxcecflingly  careful  ot  admit- 
ting into  his  dcmonstr.itions  nothing  but 
principles  perfectly  geometrical  and'une.x- 
ceptionable:  and  although  his  most  general 
method  of  demonstrating  the  relations  of 
curved  figures  to  straight  ones,  is  bv  inscrib- 
ing polygons  in  them,  yet  to  determine 
those  relations,  he  does  not"  increase  the  num- 
ber and  diminish  the  magnitude  of  the  sides 
ad  infinitum  ;  but  from  this  plain  fundamen- 
tal principle,  allowed  in  Euclid's  Elements, 
viz.  that  any  quantity  mav  be  so  often  mul- 
tiplied, or  added  to  itself,"  as  that  the  result 
shall  exceed  any  proposed  finite  quantity  of 
the  same  kinil,  he  proves  that  to  deny"  !iis 
figures  to  have  the  proposed  relations,  would 
involve  an  absurdity. 

He  demonstrated  aho  many  properties, 
particularly  in  the  parabola,  bv  means  of 
certain  numerical  progressions,  whose  terms 
are  similar  to  the  inscribed  figures ;  but 
without  considering  sucli  series  "to  be  con- 
tinued ad  infinitum,  and  then  summing  up 
the  terms  of  such  iulinite  series. 

He  had  another  very  curious  and  singular 
contrivance  for  deteriuining  the  measures  of 


M  E  R 


159 


fi  'tn'es,  in  which  he  procc-eds  as  it-wcre  nie- 
iKuiically  by  weighing  tiiein. 
Several  other  endnent  men  among  the 
ancients  wrote  upon  this  subject,  liolli  be'bre 
and  after  laiclid  and  Archinedis  ;  bi.t  liieir 
alt  inpts  were  usually  upon  pailiciilar  parts 
of  ii,  and  according  to  iiietho.ls  not  e&seii' 
tially  di/'lereiit  from  theirs.  Amcng  these 
are  to  be  reckoned  Tlialcs,  An;:xagorfts,  Py. 
Ihagoras,  I5r\son,  Anlijdjon,  Hippocrates  of 
Chios,  Plato",  Apollonius,  Phik),  and  Plole- 
my  ;  most  of  whom  wrote  of  tiie  (Hiadratnre 
ot  the  circle  :  and  those  after  Archimedes,  by 
his  method,  usually  exieiuled  the  approxi- 
mation to  a  greater  degree  of  accnracv. 

Many  of  the  moderns  have  also  prosecut- 
ed the  same  prob'em  of  the  qnad;atuie  of 
the  circle,  after  the  same  nietliods,  to  great- 
er lengths:  such  are  \icta  ond  Metiiis, 
whose  proportion  between  the  diameter  and 
circumference  is  that  of  113  to  355,  wliicli 
is  within  about  .^^^-.^^  of  the  true  ratio; 
but  above  all  Ei.dolfili  van  Ceulen,  who.  with 
an  amazing  degree  of  industry  and  patience/ 
by  tlic  same  ratio  to  ;.'0  places  ot  ligures, 
making  it  that  of  1  to  3.l4l5926335S'97932 
3S4ii  -.j-.     See  C'lacLF.. 

Hence  it  appears,  that  all  or  most  of  the 
material  improvi'inents  or  inventions  in  the 
principles  or  methods  of  treating  of  geometry, 
nave  l:een  made  cspc^cially  for  the  improve- 
ment of  this  chief  part  of  it,  mensuration, 
wliich  abundantly  shews  the  dignity  of  the 
subject;  a  sul)j"ect  which,  as 'Dr."  Barrow 
says,altrr  mentioning  some  other  things,"  de- 
serves to  be  more  curiously  weighed,  because 
from  hence  a  name  is  imposed  upon  that 
mother  and  mistress  of  the  rest  of  the  malhe- 
m;itical  sciences,  which  is  employed  about 
magnitudes,  and  which  is  wont  to'  be  called 
geometry  (a  word  taken  from  ancient  use, 
because  it  was  first  apjlied  <  niv  to  measur-' 
iiig  the  earth,  and  fixing  the  limits  of  pos- 
sessions) :  I  hough  the  name  seemed  veiy  ridi- 
culous to  Plato,  who  substitutes  in  its  place' 
the  more  extensive  n.ime  of  metrics  or  mea- 
suration  ;  and  others  after  him  give  it  the-  ' 
title  of  panlomelry,  because  it  teaches  the 
method  of  measu'ring  all  kinds  of  magni- 
tudes."' See  Heights,  Survf.yix'g,  Le- 
VEi.i.i.vG,  Geometry,  and  (t.avging. 

MERCT  RlAi.lS,  mercury,  a  genus  of 
tlie  ennean'hia  order,  in  the  ditecia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  3Sth  order,  tricoccea'.  The  calvx 
of  the  male  is  tripartite;  there  is  no  corolla, 
but  9  or  1  '  stamina  ;  the  aiither.T  globular  and. 
twin.  The  female  calyx  is  tripartite;  there  is- 
no  corolla,  but  two  st)  les  ;  the  capsule  is  bi- 
coccous,  bilocular,  and  monospermous.' 
There  are  six  species. 

0(  these,  the  pereimis,  according  to  Mr. 
Lightfoot,  Is  of  a  soporific  deleterious  nature, 
noxious  both  to  man  and  beast.  'Tliere  are 
instances  of  those  who  have  eaten  it  bv  mis- 
take, instead  of  the  chenopodium  bonus 
Henricus,  or  English  mercurv,  and  have 
thereby  slept  their  last.  Tourhefort  informs 
us,  that  the  French  make  a  syrup  of  the  juice 
of  the  annua, , -mother  species,  two  ounces  of 
which  are  given  as  a  purge ;  and  that  thev 
use  it  in  pessaries  and  ch  sters.  mixin"  one 
jiart  of  honey  to  one  aiid  a  half  of  the 
juice.  Dr.  Withering  dilVcrs  greatly  from 
Lightfoot  concerning  the  qualities  of  tiie  per- 
ennis.  "  This  plant,  (says  he),  dressed  like 
spinach,  is  very  good  eatics  early  iji  the- 


\6o 

sprin<T,  and  is  frequenllv  gathered  for  tliat 
purpose;  but  it  is  said  to  be  liurtful  to 
sheep."  Mr.  Hay  relates  tlie  case  of  a  man, 
iiis  wife,  and  three  children,  who  experi- 
enced highly  deleterious  effects  from  eating 
it  fried  witli  bacon  ;  but  this  was  probably 
wlien  the  spruig  was  more  advanced,  and 
the  plant  had  become  acrimonious.  When 
steeped  in  water,  it  aflbrds  'a  fine  deep-blue 
colour.  Sheep  and  goats  eat  it ;  but  cows 
and  horses  refuse  it. 

M12RCURY,  called  also  quicksilver, 
\vas  known  in  the  remotest  ages,  and  seems 
to  have  been  employed  by   the  antients  in 
gilding  and  in    separating  gold  Irom   other 
bodies,  just  as  it  is  by  the  moderns. 
•    Its  colour  is  white,  and  similar  to  that  of 
silver;    hence    the  names  hydrargyrus,   ar- 
gentum  vivum,  quicksilver,  by  which   it  has 
been  known  in  all  ages.     It  has  no  taste  nor 
smell.   It  possesses  a  good  deal  ot  brilliancy  ; 
juid  when  its  surface  is  not  tarnished,  makes 
a  very  good  mirror.     Its  specilic  gravity  is 
T3.jo3.     At  the  common  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere,  it  is  always  in  a  state  of  lluidity. 
In  this  respect  it  ditfers  from  all  other  metals. 
But  it  becomes  solid  wlicn  exposed  to  a  suf- 
ficient degree  of  cold.      The   temperature 
necessary   for  freezing   this  metal  is  —39', 
as  was  ascertained  by  the  experiments  of  Mr. 
Macnab  at  Hudson's-bay.     The  congelation 
of  mercury  was  accidentally  discovered  by 
the  Petersburgh  academicians  in  1759.    Tak- 
ing the  advantage  of  a  very  severe  frost, 
they  plunged  a  thermometer  into  a  mixture 
of  snow  and  salt,  in  order  to  asceitaiu  the 
de<^ree  of  cold.     Observing  the  mercury  sta- 
tionary, even  after  it  w.is  removed  from  the 
mixture,  thev  broke  the  bulb  of  the  thermo- 
meter, and  found   the  metal  frozen  into  a 
solid  mass.     This  experiment  has  been  re- 
jieated  very  often  since,  especially  in  Britain. 
Mercury  contracts  considerably  at  llie  instant 
of  freezing  ;    a   circumstance  which   misled 
the  philosophers  who  first  witnessed  its  con- 
jrelation.     The  mercury  in  their  thermome- 
Ters  sunk  so  much  before  it  froze,  that  they 
thought  the  coid  to  which  it  had  been  ex- 
posed, much  greater  than  it  really  was.     It 
was  in  consccptence  of  the  rules  laid  down 
by  Mr.  Cavendish,  tiia^  .VIr.  Macnab  was  en- 
abled to  ascertain  the  real  freezing   point  of 
the  metal. 

Solid  mercury  may  be  subjected  to  the 
blows  of  a  hainiiier,  and  may  be  extended 
without  breaking.  It  is  therefore  malleable  ; 
but  neither  the  degree  of  its  malleability,  nor 
its  ductility,  nor  its  tenacity,  has  been  as- 
certained. 

Mercury  boils  wlien  heated  to  660".  It 
may  tlure'fore  be  totally  evaporated,  or  dis- 
tilled from  one  vessel  into  another.  It  is  by 
distillation  that  mercury  is  purilied  from  va- 
rtous  metallic  bodies,  with  whitli  it  is  often 
contaminated.  The  vapour  of  mercury  is  in- 
visible and  i:lastic  like  romnion  air ;  like 
air,  too,  its  elasticity  is  indefinitely  increas- 
ed by  heat,  so  that  it  breaks  through  the 
strongest  vessel,  (jeolf'roy,  at  thi;  <lesire  of 
an  alchvniist,  inclosed  a  (('uanlity  of  it  in  an 
iron  globe,  strongly  secured  by  iron  hoops, 
and  put  the  apparatus  into  a  furnace.  Soon 
atier  tiie  globe  became  red-hot,  it  burst  with 
.ill  the  violence  of  a  bomb,  an«l  the  whole  of 
the  mercury  was  dissipated. 

Mercin-y  is  not  altered  by  being  kept  un- 
der v,.it"r.'    When  exposed  to  the  air,  its 


IVffiRCURY. 

surface  is  gradually  tarnished,  and  covered 
with  a  black  powder,  owing  to  its  combining 
with  tlie  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere.  But 
this  change  goes  on  very  slowly,  unless  the 
mercury  is  either  heated  or  agitated,  by 
shaking  it,  for  instance,  in  a  large  bottle  lull 
of  air.  By  either  of  the^e  jirocesses,  the  me- 
tal is  converted  into  an  oxide :  by  the  last, 
into  a  black-coloured  oxide  ;  and  by  the  first, 
into  a  red-coloured  oxide.  This  metal  does 
not  seem  to  be  capable  of  combustion. 

The  oxides  of  mercury  at  present  known 
are  four  in  number: 

1.  The  protoxide  was  first  described  with 
accuracy  by  BoCrljaave.  He  formed  it  by 
puttin:;  a  httle  mercury  into  a  bottle,  and 
tying  it  to  the  spoke  of  a  mill-wheel.  By 
tlie  constant  agitation  which  it  thus  under- 
went, it  was  converted  into  a  black  powder, 
to  which  he  gave  the. name  of  cth.iops  per 
.?c.  '^rhis  oxide  is  veatllly  formed  by  agitat- 
ing impure  mercury  in  a  phial.  It  is  a  black 
powder  without  any  of  the  metallic  lustre, 
lias  no  taste,  and  is  insoluble  in  water.  Ac- 
cording to  the  experiments  of  Fourcroy,  it  is 
composed  of  96  parts  of  mercury  and  4  of 
oxygen.  Wlien  this  o.xide  is  exposed  to  a 
strong  heat,  oxygen  gas  is  emitted,  and  the 
mercury  reduced  to  the  metallic  state.  In  a 
more  moderate  heat  it  combines  with  an  ad- 
ditional dose  of  oxygen,  and  assumes  a  red 
colour." 

2.  When  mercui'y  is  dissolved  in  nitric 
acid  withotit  the  assistance  of  heat,  and  the 
acid  is  made  to  take  up  as  much  mercury  as 
possible,  it  has  been  demonstrated,  by  the 
experiments  of  Mr.  Chenevix,  that  it  com- 
bines in  that  case  with  10.7  per  cent,  of  oxy- 
gen. Of  course  an  oxide  is  formed,  com- 
posed of  S9.3  mercury  and  10.7  oxygen. 
This  is  the  deutoxidu  of  mercury.  'I  his  ox- 
ide cannot  be  separated  completely  from  the 
acid  which  holds  it  in  solution  without  under- 
going a  change  in  its  composition  v  of  course 
we  are  at  present  ignorant  of  its  colour  and 
olht-r  properties.  Indeed  it  is  very  probable 
that  it  is  the  same  with  the  black  oxide  just 
described  under  the  name  of  protoxide;  but 
tins  h.is  not  yetljeen  proved  in  a  satisfactory 
manner. 

3.  When  mercury,  or  its  protoxide,  is  ex- 
posed to  a  ln'at  of  about  600°,  it  combines 
with  additional  oxygen,  assumes  a  red  co- 
lour, and  is  converted  into  an  oxide,  which, 
in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  we 
must  consider  as  a  tritoxide.  This  oxide 
maybe  formed  two  different  ways:  1.  By 
putting  a  little  mercury  into  a  flat  bottomed 
glass  bottle  or  matrass,  the  neck  of  which  is 
drawn  out  into  a  very  narrow  tubi-,  putting 
the  mattrass  into  a  sand-bath,  and  keeping  it 
constantly  at  the  boiling  point.  The  height 
of  the  inattrass,  and  the  smallness  of  its 
mouth,  prevent  the  mercury  from  making 
its  escape,  w  hile  it  affords  free  access  to  the  air. 
The  surface  of  tip-  mercury  becomes  gradually 
bl  u  k,  and  then  red,  by  combining  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air :  and  at  the  end  of  several 
months  the  wliole  is  converted  into  a  red 
powder,  or  rather  into  small  crystals,  of  a 
very  deep  red  colour.  The  oxide,  when  thus 
obtained,  was  lormerly  called  precipitate  per 
se.  a.  \Vhrii  mercury  is  ili.ssolved,  in  nitric 
a<  id,  evaporated  to  dryness,  :ind  then  ex- 
posed to  a  pretty  strong  Ivat  in  a  porcelain 
CUD,  it  ;issuines,  when  triturated,  a  brilliant 
red  colour.    The  powder  thus  obtained  was 


formerly  called  red  precipitate,  and  possesses 
exactly  the  properties  of  the  oxide  obtained 
by  the  former  process.  .    i 

This  oxide  has  an  acrid  and  disagreeable 
taste,  possessing  poisonous  qualities,  and  acts 
as  an  escharolic  when  applied  to  any  part  of 
the  skin.  It  is  somewhat  soluble  in  water. 
When  triturated  with  mercury  it  gives  out 
part  of  its  oxygen;  and  the  whole  mixture  is 
converted  into  protoxide  or  black  oxide  of 
mercury.  AMien  heatedalong  w  ith  zinc,  or  tin 
filings,  it  sets  these  metals  on  fire.  Accord- 
ing to  Fourcroy,  it  is  composed  of  92  parts  of 
mercury  and  K  of  oxygen.  But  tin-  analysis 
of  Mr.  Chenevix,  to  "be  described  hereafirr, 
gives,  for  the  proportion  of  its  component 
parts,  85  parts  of  mercui}'  and  15  parts  of 
oxygen. 

The  red  oxide  of  mercury,  prepared  in 
the  usual  way,  is  not  pure,  but  always  con- 
tains a  portion  of  nitric  acid.  If  we  dissolve 
it  ill  muriatic  acid,  and  precipitate  it  again, 
it  falls  in  the  state  of  a  white  powder,  and  re- 
tains a  portion  of  muriatic  acid.  It  was  in 
this  state  that  it  was  examined  by  Chenevix. 
The  dilficulty  of  procuring  this  oxide  in 
a  state  of  purity,  and  the  uncertainty  respect- 
ing the  proportion  of  acid  which  it  retain^, 
may,  in  some  measure,  account  for  the  diiler- 
ent  results  obtained  by  ditferent  chemists  in 
their  attempts  to  ascertain  its  proportions. 

4.  Fourcroy  has  observed,  that  when  o\y- 
muriatic  acid  gas  is  made  to  pass  through  the 
red  oxide  of  mercury,  it  combines  with  an 
additional  dose  of  oxygen,  and  is  converted  . 
into  a  peroxide;  but  as  this  peroxide  cannot 
be  procured  in  a  separate  state,  we  are  igno- 
rant of  its  properties. 

Mercury  does  not  coinbine  with  carbon  or 
hydrogen;  but  it  unites  readily  whh  sulphur 
and  with  phosphorus. 

When  two  parts  of  sulphur  and  one  of  mer- 
cury are  triturated  together  in  a  mortar,  the 
mercury  gradually  di?appears,  and  the  whole 
assumes  the  form  of  a  black  powder,  for- 
nu>rly  called  ethiops  mineral.  It  is  scarcely 
possible  by  any  process  tocombini'  the  sulphur 
and  mercury  so  completely,  that  small  glo- 
bules of  the  nietal  may  not  be  detected  by  a 
microscope.  When  mercury  is  added  slowly 
to  its  own  weight  of  melted  sulphur,  and  the 
mixture  is  cons.antly  stir;'ed,  the  same  black 
compound  is  formed. 

Fourcroy  had  suggested,  that  in  this  com- 
pound the  mercury  is  in  the  state  of  black 
oxide,  absorbing  the  necessary  portion  of  ox- 
ygen from  the  atmosphere  during  its  combi- 
nation with  the  sulphur.  But  the  late  expe- 
riments of  Proust  have  shewn  that  this  is  not 
the  case.  BerthoUet  has  made  it  probable 
that  ethi;:ps  mineral  contains  sniphureted 
hydrogen.  Hence  we  must  consider  it  as 
compo,sed  of  three  ingredients,  namely,  mer- 
cury, sulphur,  and  sniphureted  hydrogen. 
Such  compounds  are  at  present  denominated 
by  chemists  hydrogenous  sulpluirets.  Fthiops 
niineral  of  course  is  an  hydrogenous  sulplmret 
of  mercury.  When  this  substance  is  heated, 
part  of  the  sulphc.r  is  dissipated,  and  the 
compouml  assumes  a  deep  violet  colour. 

When  heated  red-hot,  it  sublimes;  and  if 
a  proper  vessel  is  placetl  to  rcci'ivc  it,  a  cake 
is  oblaiuetl  of  a  line  red  colotu".  Tliis  cake  ' 
w as tivinerly  called  cinnabar;  and  when  rC- 
di-iceti  to  a  fine  powder,  is  well  known  ii» 
commerce  under  the  name  of  vermilion.  It 
has  been  l-.itherlo  supposed  a  compound  of 


M  £  ft 

t!ic  oxide  of  mercury  aiul  siilpliur.  Hut  llio 
i-sperinicms  ot  Proust  luve  dc-nioiistratcil 
thuLtli'i  mercury  wliicli  it  coulaiiis  is  iiitiie 
melallic  state.  According  to  Uiut  very  ac 
curiile  chemist,  it  is  coiniioscd  ol  8  j  parts  ol 
UH-rcury  and  \j  of  sulpliur.  .  It  is  liierefore 
sulp'.iurel  ot  r.u-rcury. 

'I  lie  sulpliurcl  of  "mercury  has  a  scarlet  co- 
lour, moii;  or  less  beuutilul,  according  lo'llie 
mode  of  preparing  it.  Its  specilic  gravity  is 
about  10.  It  IS  tasteless,  insoluble  in  waier, 
and  in  niurialie  acid,  and  not  altered  by  ex- 
posure to  liie  air.  \V'hen  lieated  suflicientiy. 
It  lakes  lire,  and  burns  witii  a  blue  ikme. 
When  mi.\ed  with  Iiaif  its  weight  of  iron 
iiliiigs,  and  distdled  ui  a  stone-ware  retort, 
the  sulpliur  combines  with  the  iron,  and  the 
mercury  passes  into  the  receiver,  which 
ought  to  contain  water.  By  this  procfss 
iniTcury  may  be  obtained  in  a  slate  of  purity. 
The  use  of  siilphuret  of  mercury  as  a  paint  is 
well  known. 

Mr.  Pelleticr,  after  several  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  combine  phosphorus  and  mer- 
cury, at  last  succei-ded  by  distilling  a  mix- 
ture of  rod  oxide  oi  mercury  and  phosphorus. 
Part  of  the  phosphorus  combined  witii  the 
oxygen  of  the  oxide,  and  was  convertwl  inlo 
an  acid;  tlie  rest  combined  with  the  mercury. 
He  observed  liiat  themeicury  was  converted 
into  a  black  powder  before  it  combined  with 
tlie  phospliorus.  As  Peiletier  could  not  suc- 
^  ceeil  in  ins  attempts  to  combiiie  phospliorus 
with  mercury  in  its  metallic  state,  we  must 
roncluue  tliat  it  is  not  with  mercury,  but  with 
the  black  oxide  of  mercury,  that  the  phos- 
phorus comljines.  T  he  compound,  therc-- 
fore,  is  not  pliosphorus  of  mercury,  but  black 
pliosphureted  oxide  of  mercury. 

it  is  of  a  black  colour,  of  a  pretty  solid 
consistence,  and  capable  of  being  cut  with  a 
kni.'e.  When  exposed  to  the  air,  it  exhales 
vapours  of  phospliorus. 

Mercury  does  not  combine  with  the  simple 
incomlnistibles. 

Mercury  combines  with  the  greater  num- 
ber of  metals.  These  combinations  are  known 
in  cliemistry  by  the  name  of  amalgams. 

l"he  amalgam  of  gold  is  formed  very  rea- 
dily, because  there  is  a  very  strong  affinity 
between  the  two  metals.  If  a  bit  of  gold  is 
dipped  into  mercury,  its  surface,  by  com- 
bining with  mercurv,  becomes  as  white  as 
silver.  The  easio^t  way  of  forming  this 
amalgram  is  to  tlirow  small  pieces  of  red-iiot 
gold  into  mercury.  The  proportions  of  the 
ingK;dients  are  not  determinable,  because 
the  amalgam  has  an  allinity  botli  for  the  gold 
and  the  mercury ;  in  consequence  of  which 
they  combine  in  any  proportion.  This  amal- 
gam is  white,  with  a  shade  of  yellow  ;  and 
when  composed  of  six  parts  of  mercury  and 
one  of  gold,  it  may  be  obtained  crystallized 
in  four-sided  prisms.  It  melts  at  a  moderate 
temperature  ;  and  when  heated  sufliciently, 
(he  mercury  evaporates,  and  leaves  the  gold  m 
a  state  ol  purity.  It  is  much  used  in  gilding. 
The  amalgam  composed  of  ten  parts  of  mer- 
cury and  one  of  gold,  is  spread  upon  the  metal 
whicli  is  to  be  gilt;  and  then,  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a  gentle  and  eijual  heat,  the  mercury 
is  driven  oM,  and  the  gold  left  adhering  to  the 
metallic  surface;  this  surface  is  then  rubbed 
witli  a  brass-wire  brush  under  water,  and  af- 
terwards burnished. 

Dv.  Lewij  altem])ted  to  form  an  amalgarn 
of  platinum,   but   hartlly  succeeded  after  a 

Vol.  U. 


M  E  R 

labour  wliicli  lasted  for  several  weeks.  Guy 
ton  MoFve.iu  succeeded  by  means  of  heal, 
lie  fixed  a  small  cylinder  of  platinum  at  tin- 
bottom  ol  a  tall  glass  vessel,  and  covered  it 
with  mercury.  'Hie  vessel  was  then  pljiced 
in  a  sand-bath,  and  the  mercury  kept  con- 
stantly boiling.  '1  he  mercury  gradually 
combined  with  the  platinum;  the  weight  ot 
the  cylinder  was  doubled,  and  it  became 
brit(le.  Wlien  healed  strongly,  the  mercury 
evaporated,  and  left  the  piatinurr.  partly  oxi- 
dated: It  is  remarkable,  tiiat  the  platinum, 
notwiti'staiifiing  its  si:per.or  specilic  gra\;ty, 
always  swam  upon  the  surface  of  the  mercu- 
ry, so  tiiat  Morveau  was  under  the  necessity 
of  fVxing  it  down. 

Tiie  amalgam  of  silver  is  made  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  of  gold,  and  with  equal  ease. 
It  forms  denlritical  crystals,  which,  according 
10  the  Dijon  academicians,  contain  eiglit 
parts  of  mercury  and  one  of  silver.  It  is  of  a 
wliite  colour,  and  is  always  of  a  soft  consist- 
ence. Its  specilic  gravity  is  greater  than  the 
mean  of  the  two  metals.  Gellert  has  even 
remarked  that,  when  thrown  into  pure  mer- 
cury, it  shilis  to  the  bottom  of  that  liciuid. 
VV  hen  healed  sufiicienlly,  tlie  mercury  is 
volatilized,  and  the  silver  remains  behind 
pure. 

Tlie  affinities  of  mercui-y  as  ascertained  by 
Morveaji,  and  of  its  oxicles  as  exhibited  by 
Bergman,  are  in  the  following  order: 

Mercury.         Oxide  of  Mercurv. 


M  E  R 


\6i 


Gold, 

Muriatic  acid. 

Silver, 

Oxalic, 

Tin, 

Succinic, 

Lead, 

Arsenic, 

Bismuth, 

Phosphoric, 

Pluliiiuni, 

Sulphuric, 

Zinc, 

Saciactic, 

Copper, 

Tartaric, 

Antimony, 

Citric, 

Arsenic, 

Sulphurous, 

Iron. 

Nitric, 

Fluoric, 

Acetic, 

Boracic, 

Prussic, 
Carbonic. 

Mercury,  in  astronomy,  the  smallest 
of  the  planets,  and  the  nearest  the  sun.  See 
Astronomy. 

MF.KGUS,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of 
birds  of  the  order  of  anseres;  distinguished 
by  having  the  beak  of  a  cylindrical  ligurc, 
aiid  hooked  at  the  extremities,  and  its  denti- 
culations  of  a  subulated  form. 

1.  The  cucullatus,  or  crested  diver  of  Ca- 
tesby,  has  a  globular  crest,  white  on  each 
side ;  and  tlie  body  is  brown  above,  and  white 
below.  This  elegant  species  inhabits  North 
America.  It  appears  at  Hudson's-bay  the  end 
of  May,  and  builds  closi;  to  the  lakes.  The 
nest  is'composed  of  grass,  lined  with  feathers 
from  the  breast;  the  number  of  eggs  from 
four  to  six.  The  young  are  yellow,  and  are 
lit  to  ily  in  July.  They  all  depart  from 
thence  in  autumn.  They  appear  at  New 
^'ork,  and  other  parts,  as  low  as  Virginia  and 
Carolina,  in  November,  where  they  fre- 
quent fresh  waters.  They  return  to  the 
north  in  March,  and  are  called  at  Hudson's- 
l)av  omiska  sheep.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  lig. 
u'i':,. 

2.  The  merganser,  or  goosander,  weighs 
four  pounds ;  its  length  is  two  feet  four  inches; 

X 


(lie  brcsdtli  thr#e  feet  four.  The  dun-diver, 
or  female,  is  less  than  the  male;  the  bead  and 
upper  part  of  (he  neck  are  ferruginous  ;  the 
tluoat  while;  the  feathers  on  the  hind  part 
are  long,  and  form  a  pendant  crest;  the 
back,  the  coverts  of  tlie  wings,  and  the  (ail, 
are  of  a  deep  ash-colour;  the  greater  quili- 
fealhers  are  black,  the  lesser  white;,  the 
breast  and  middle  of  the  belly  are  whitCj 
tinged  with  yeliow.  The  goosander  seems  to 
prefer  the  more  northern  situations  to  those 
of  (he  south,  not  being  seen  in  the  last  ex- 
cept in  very  severe  seasons.  It  continues 
(he  whole  year  in  the  Orkneys;  and  has 
been  shot  in  the  Hebrides  in  sunimer.  It  is 
common  on  (he  condnent  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  but  most  so  towards  (lie  north. 

3.  The  albellus,  or  smew,  weighs  about  34 
ounces  ;  the  length  is  18  inches,  the  breadtb 
26  ;  (he  bill  is  near  two  inches  long,  and  of  a 
lead-colour;  the  head  is  adorned  with  a  long 
crest,  white  above  and  black  beneath;  the 
head,  neck,  and  whole  under  part  of  the 
body,  are  of  a  pure  while ;  (he  tail  is  of  a  deep 
ash-colour,  the  legs  a  blueish  grey.  'I'he  fe- 
male, or  lough-diver^  is  less  than  the  male  ; 
(he  back,  (he  scapulars,  and  the  tail,  are 
dusky ;  the  belly  is  whhe.  The  smew  is  seen 
in  England  onh'  in  winter,  at  which  season  it 
will  so'melimes'bc  met  with  at  the  southern 
parts  of  it ;  as  also  in  France,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Picardy,  whereit  is  called  la 
i>:etle:  similar  to  lliis,  we  have  heard  it  called 
!n   Kent  by  the  name  of  magpie-diver. 

There  are  three  other  species. 

MERIDIAN.  See  Astronomy,  and  Ge- 
ography. 

MERIDIONAL  PARTS,  MILES,  or 
MINUTES,  in  navigation,  are  the  parts  by 
which  the  meridians  in  Mr.  Wright's  chart 
(commonly  though  falsely  called  Mercator's) 
increase  as  the  parallels  of  latitude  de- 
crease :  and  as  the  cosine  of  the  latitude  of 
any  place  is  equal  to  the  radius  or  senii-dia- 
meler  of  that  parallel,  therefore,  in  the  true 
sea-chart,  or  nautical  planisphere,  this  radius 
being  the  radius  of  the  equinoctial,  or  whole 
sine  of  90°,  the  meridional  parts  at  earli  de- 
gree of  latitude  must  increase,  as  the  secants 
of  the  arch,  contained  betw  een  that  latitude; 
and  the  equinoctial,  do  decrease.  The 
tables  therefore  of  meridional  parts,  which 
we  have  in  books  of  navigation,  are  made  by 
a  continual  addition  of  secants;  they  are  cal- 
culated in  some  books  for  every  degree  and 
minute  of  latitude ;  and  they  will  serve  either 
to  make  or  graduate  a  Mercator's  chart,  or 
to  work  the  Mercator's  sailing.  To  use  them, 
you  must  enter  the  table  with  the  degree  of 
latitude  at  the  head,  and  the  minute  on  tho 
lirst  column  towards  the  left  hand,  and  in  ti.e 
angle  of  meeting  you  will  have  liie  meridio- 
naf  parts.  Having  the  latitudes' of  two  places> 
to  find  the  meridional  miles  or  minutes  be- 
tween them  :  Consider  whether  one  of  the 
places  lies  on  the  equator,  or  both  on  the 
same  side  of  it;  or,  lastly,  on  different  sides. 
1.  If  one  of  (he  proposed  places  lies  on  the 
equator,  (hen  the  meridional  dilTerence  of  la- 
titude is  the  same  with  the  fetitude  of  the 
other  place,  taken  from  the  table  of  meri- 
dional parts.  2.  If  the  two  proposed  jjlaces 
be  on  the  same  side  of  tlie  equatoi',  tlien  the 
meridional  dilference  of  latitude  is  found  by 
subtracting  the  meridional  parts  answering  to 
th.c  least  latitude,  fi-oni  ti-.ose  answering  to  the 


Ji]2  ?il  E   R 

f;ro;'.lc5t,  and  the  diH'erenat  is  that  reqniri-d. 
.>.  ll' tlie  places  lii-  on  elillVrenl  sidi's  of  the 
,  equator,  tiien  the  meridional  diliefenee  of  la- 
titude is  found  In-  adding  togelher  the  me- 
ridional parts  ansuering  V)  eadi  latitude,  and 
the  sum  is  tiiat  ivcpiircd. 

7o^-7i//>«  Mehidionai.  Parts  io  nay  S/thi-rof^ij 
rv'itb  tie  Siimr  e  viTfl/K-js  tis  in  *i  Sphere,  i.et  th€  semi- 
diametcr  of  the  equator  be  to  the  distance  nf 
the  centre  from  the  focus  of  the  generatin;r  g\. 
lipse,  as  M  to  1.  JLet  A  represent  the  latitude 
for  which  the  meridional  parts  are  required,  s 
the  sine  of  tlie  latitude,  to  the  radius  1  :  find  tiie 

arc  B,  whose  sine  is  — ;  take  the  loirarithniic 
m 

tangent  of  half  the  complement  of  B,  from  the 
common  tables  ;  subtract  the  log.  tangent  from 
30.0000000,  or  the  log.  tangent  oi  -15':  multi- 
ply the  remainder  by  the  number  791.5  70-M(iT;), 
and  divide  the  product  by  m  ;  then  the  quotient 
subtracted  from  t)ie  meridional  parts  in  the 
sphere,  computed  in  the  usual  manner  for  the 
latitude  A,  will  give  the  meridional  parts,  ex- 
pressed in  minutes,  for  tlie  same  latitude  in  the 
spheroid,  when  it  is  the  oblate  one. 

E.^^mfi'f.  If  r/!7r!  ;  1  ;;  1000  ''22,  then  the 
greatest  diflerence  of  the  meridional  parts  in 
the  sphere  and  spheroid  is  7G.0929  niirrates.  In 
other  cases  it  is  found  by  midtiplying  the  re- 
mainder above-mentioned  bv  Llie  number 
1171.078 

When  the  spheroid  is  oblong,  the  difTerence 
in  the  meridiotial  parts  between  the  sphere  and 
spheroid,  for  the  same  latitude,  is  then  deter- 
mined Isy  a  circular  arc. 

Wcsiiail  here  add  a  table  of  meridional  jiarfs, 
calculated  both  for  the  soherc  and  oblate  sphe- 
roid, by  the  rererend  Mr.  Murdoch,  in  his  new 
and  learned  Treatise  of  Mercator's  Sailing  ap- 
plied to  the  true  Figure  of  "the  Earth.  By  this 
table  may  be  projected  a  true  chart  for  any 
part  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  the  several  pro- 
blems of  sailing  may  be  solved  by  it.  Maps  of 
countries  may  be  delineated  and' applied  to  the 
various  purposes  of  navigation,  geography,  and 
astronomy.  Nor  are  the  errors  of  the  conimon 
spherical  projections  so  very  "small  in  many 
cases,  as  to  be  inconsiderable  and  not  danger- 
ous. For  instance,  if  a  ship  sails  from  soutii  la- 
titude 2.5°,  to  north  latitude  -JO",  and  the  angle 
of  the  course  be  43' :  then  the  difference  of  lon- 
gitude by  the  common  table  would  be  :!»)«', 
exceeding  the  true  dilFerence  3141'  by  (55',  or 
miles.  Also  the  di.stance  sailed  would  be  4.512, 
'exceeding  the  true  distance,  44'J.3,  by  89',  or 
miles  which  difierences  are  too  great  to  be  neg- 
lected. For  other  instances  of  such  a  correction 
of  the  charts,  we  refer  to  th.e  author's  admi- 
rable book  above-mentioned. 

A  TABLE 

Of  Mcridii;nal  Parts  to  the  .Spheroid  and  Sphere, 

with  their  Diirerences. 


'J'ABLE  (cintiiii/ti/). 


D.       Spheroid.       Sphere. 


J). 

Spheroid. 

Sphere. 

Diff. 

1 

i'8.7 

60.0 

I.  3 

2 

117.3 

lao.o 

2.  7 

3 

176M 

180.1 

4.  0 

4 

2:ii.9 

240  2 

5.  3 

5 

2it.!.« 

300.4 

,      G.  6 

0 

352.7 

3;J0.fl 

7.  9 

7 

411.!J 

421  0 

9.  2 

8 

471.0 

WJ.5 

10.  5 

9 

530.4 

54'J.2 

11.  8 

10 

5)^9.9 

603.0 

13.  1 

11 

B49.7 

6-64.1 

14.  4 

1'.^ 

70y.fi 

7'25.3 

1.5.  7 

l.i 

769.8 

7S8,S 

17.  0 

11 

830.2 

S48..5 

18.  3 

1.5 

890.9 

910.5 

19.  G 

16 

9.51.3 

97'..'.7 

20.  9 

n 

1013.1 

■    1035.3 

18 
19 

20 

ai 

22 
23 
24 
2.5 
2C- 
27 
28 
2?» 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
.35 
36 
37 
3S 
■M 
40 
41 
-12 
•13 
44 
'1 .5 
46 
47 
•IK 

49 
50 
51 
5'J 
5:i 


56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
6-1 
(>'5 

a; 

67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
72 
73 
74 


78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
83 
84 
■85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 


1074.S 
1136.8 
11.99.2 
1 262.0 
1325.3 
13S9.0 
l-)53.3 
1518.0 
1583.3 
1649.1 
1715.6 
1782.7 
18.50.5 
1919.0 
1988.2 
2058.3 
2129.0 
2-200.8 
2273.4 
2347.0 
2421.6 
2497.2 
2573.9 
2651.8 
2730.9 
28 1 1.3 
2S93.1 
2976  :>. 
S0i;0.9 
3147.2 
3235.1 
3324.8 
3416..-5 
3509.7 
3605.3 
3703. 1 
3803.1 
3905.7 
4010.9 
4118.9 
4229  8 
•S344.0 
4-161.3. 
4,582.7 
4707.8 
4S37.I 
4971.0 
5109  8 
5254.0 
5403.9 
5560.2 
5  7 '-'3. 5 
,5894.4 
60737 
6262.4 
6161,6 
6672.6 
6S96.S 
7l3f;.2 
73;»;;.0 
7670.1 
7970.9 
8300.2 
86fi3.8 
9O70.O 
9530.2 
10061.1 
IOP88.7 
11456  5 
1 2416.0 
13a^l0.4 
16223.8 


Dill". 


1098  3 
1161.G 
1225.2 
1289  2 
13.53.7 
1418.6 
148^11 
1550  0 
16I6.S 
1683.5 
1751.2 
ISI9.5 
1888.4 
1958.0 
2029.3 
2099.5 
2171.4 
2244.2 
2317.9 
2392.6 
2468.3 
2544.9 
2622.6 
2701.5 
2781.6 
2863.0 
2945.8 
3029.9 
3115.5 
3202.7 
3291.5 
3382.1 
3174.5 
3568.8 
S6-35  2 
.3763.8 
3864.6 
396S.O 
4073.9 
4182.6 
4294.2 
4409.1 
4527.3 
4649.2 
47v5.0 
4904.9 
5039.4 
5178.8 
5323.6 
5474.0 
56:10.8 
5794.6 
5965.9 
6145.6 
683-J.7 
6534.3 
6745.7 
6970  3 
7210.0 
7467.1 
774  1.5 
8045.6 
8375.2 
8739.0 
9 1  •15,4 
9605.8 
10136.9 
10764.6 
11532.5 
12522.1 
13916.4 
16299,5 


24.  8 

25.  0 

27.  2 

28.  4 

29.  6 
.30.  8 
32.  O 


33, 
34. 
35. 


.36.  8 
37.  9 

39.  O 

40.  1 

41.  2 

42.  3 
4:i.  4 

44.  5 

45.  6 

46.  7 

47.  7 

48.  7 

49.  7 

50.  7 

51.  7 

52.  7 


54 

6 

55. 

5 

56. 

4 

57. 

3 

58. 

2 

59. 

1 

59. 

9 

60. 

7 

ei. 

C2. 

5 
3 

63. 

0 

63. 

7 

64. 

4 

65. 

1 

65. 

8 

66. 

5 

67. 

2 

67. 

8 

68. 

4 

69. 

0 

69. 

6 

70. 

1 

70. 

6 

71 

1 

71. 

5 

71. 

9 

7y. 

8 

72. 

7 

73.  1 

74.  1 

74.  4 
71.  7 
7,5.  0 
7.5.  2 
7,5.  4 
7.5.  6 

75.  S 

75.  9 

76.  O 
76.  1 
76.  0 
7,5.  7 
37.75 


MRKI.IN.     ,Seel-'Ai.co.v. 

MUKLON,  in  fortilicalion,  i'-  that  part  of 
3  paiapt-t  which  is  terminatoti  bv  two  embra- 
sures of  a  battery,  lis  hpii;ht  and  thickness 
are  the  same  with  those  of  the  parapet;  but  its 
breadth  is  gcriei-iliy  iiiiie  feet   oil.  the  iijside, 


M  E  ? 

and  sl.v  r,n  (lie  outside.  It  serves  to  cover 
those  on  tliii  battery  from  tiie  enemy;  and  is 
better  when  made  of  cartli  well  beaten  and 
close,  Ihan  when  built  with  sloiie.^;  because 
Ihey  fly  about  and  w-oinid  lliosc  they  should 
delend. 

.M KUOP.S,  in  ornitliologv, a  genus  belon-r- 
mg  lo  the  order  of  pica-.  'il,e  bill  is  crook- 
ed, Hat,  and  carinaled  ;  the  longue  is  ja'-^ed 
allhe  point ;  and  llv  feet  an-  of  ihe  walklii-r 
knid.  llie  princ-iiial  species  are,  1.  'i'he 
apiaster,  or  bce-ealcr,  wliich  has  an  iron-co- 
loured back;  the  bellv  and  tail  ai-e  of  a  bhie- 
ish  arc-en;  and  the  tin-oal  vellow.'  'J'his  bird 
nilial;ilsv;ii-ioiis  parts  of  Eu'rope,  on  the  i-onti- 

nenl,llioiighnntinKjigland;vetissaidloiiave 
l)eenseen  ui  Sweden,  and  Hocks  of  them  have 
been  met  witli  at  Ans|)ach  in  Ciermanv  in  the 
month  of  June.  It  takes  the  name  of  bee- 
eater  f]-om  its  being  very  fond  of  (hose  in- 
sects; but,  besides  these,'  it  will  catch  iinats. 
Hies,  cicad.i',  and  olher  insects,  on  the  wing, 
hkp  swallows.  Tliese  birds  make  Iheir  nesU 
m  the  ii'des  in  tlie  U-inks  of  rivers,  like  the 
sand  martin  and  kingstisher;  at  the  end  of 
which  tlie  female  lavs  from  live  to  seven 
white  eggs,  rather  less  than  those  of  a  black- 
birtl.  The  nest  itself  is  composed  of  moss. 
2.^  'I'heviridis,  or  Indian  bee-eater,  is  gi-een, 
with  a  black  belt  on  the  breast ;  and  the 
throat  and  tail  are  black.  It  inhabits  Bengal. 
3.  'I'he  erythropterus,  or  i-ed-winged  bee- 
eater,  is  in  length  six  inches  ;  ilie  bill  is  one 
inch,  and  black;  the  tipper  purts  of  the  head,, 
body,  wings,  antl  tail-coverts,  are  pi-eeii 
brown,  deepest  on  the  head  and  back,  lightest 
on  the  rump  and  tail-coverts;  behind  the  eve 
is  a  s|)ot  of  the  same,  but  of  a  very  deep  co- 
lour; till'  (piills  and  tail  are  red,  t'ipped  with 
black;  the  last  two  inches  in  length;  the 
throat  is  yellow  ;  the  tindi-r  parts  of  the  bodv 
are  a  dirty  white ;  and  the  legs  black.  Thei'e- 
aremoi-e  than  20  other  specTes. 

Ml.:SEiVIl!RYANTH EMUM,  fs-wuri- 
i^lohL,  a  genus  of  the  pentagynia  orde:",  in  the 
icosandria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  1 3th  order,  succu- 
leiitie.  The  calyx  is  qtiinquehd  ;  the  petals 
are  ininierous  'and  linear;  the  capsule  is 
lleshy,  inferior,  and  monospei-mous.  There,.jire 
se\  eiily-live  species,  all  .-African  plants,  from 
the  Ca])e  of  Good  Hope,  near  40  of  which 
are  retained  in  our  gardens  for  variety.  Of 
these  only  one  is  annual,  and  the  niosf  re- 
markable of  tliem  all :  it  is  called  the  crvstal- 
liiuini,  diamond,  licoides,  or  ice-plant.  "This 
singular  and  ciirioiis  plant,  being  closely  co- 
vered with  large  pclhicid  pin'iples,  filll  of 
nioistiii-e,  shining  brilliantly  like  iliamonds,  is 
in  great  esleeni.  It  is  a 'very  tender  plant 
while  young,  and  is  raised  annually  iVom  seetl 
by  ineansof  hotbeds.  In  June  it'uill  endure 
the  open  air  till  October,  when  it  perishes; 
but  if  placed  in  a  hothouse  in  autumn  it  will 
often  live  all  winter. 

The  other  species  are  anost  durable  in  stem 
and  foliage.  .Some  are  shrubby ;  others  pen- 
dulous, with  loose  stragsjling  stems,  and 
branches  inclining  to  tiie  grountl;  while  others 
have  no  stalks  at  all ;  their  leaves  are  univer- 
sally very  thick,  succulent,  lleshy,  and  of 
many  various  shapes,  situations,  and  direc- 
tions; while  some  are  punctured,  or  dotted, 
wilh  transpat-ent  points;  and  some  have  pel- 
lucid pimples,  as  already  mentioned.  They 
afS)rd  a  very  agreeable  variety  at  all  times  of 
the  year,  aiid  luei-it  a  place  ia  every  collec- 


I. 


M  £  T 

tion.  Tlioy  are  ;ri;ciiliouse  pl-anls,  and  are 
propagated  by  cutliiigs  of  their  stalks  and 
branches. 

MKSENTERY.    See  Anatomy. 

Ml'ISNl'^,  1)'.;  vvlio  \i  lord  of  a  manor,  and 
so  liastcnanls  liolding  of  liiiji,  y«t  liimscll 
holds' of  a  superior  loid.     13  Viii.  Abr. 

MESNi:  PUOCIiSS,  is  an  intermediate 
process,  which  issues  pending  the  suit,  ui)on 
s';mo  collateral  interlocutory  matter,  as  to 
summon  juries,  witnesses,  and  tin-  like; 
sonh-tinies  it  is  put  in  contradistinction  to 
liual  process,  or  process  of  eseciition;  and 
tlici!  It  si^nilies  all  suidi  pl'ocess  as  intervenes 
liclueen  lliu  beginmug  and  end  of  a  suit.  3 
Black.  ■-'-'.). 

MESPU.US,  the  medlar;  a  genus  of  the 
p.ntasrvnia  order,  in  the  icosaudiia  rla-^s  oi 
plantbVand  iii  t!,e  natural  method  rankim; 
under  the3(Jth  ordiT,  pomacex.  '1  he  calyx 
is  quinquelid;  the  pituls  are  live;  the  berry 
is  inferior  and  pcnt..spermous. 

There  are  nine  species,  the  principal  of 
which  are,  1.  The  (Jermanica,  Ck'rman  me>- 
piius,  or  common  medlar,  rises  with  a  de- 
formed tree-stem,  branching  irregularly  15 
or  20  feet  high;  spear-shaped  leaves  and 
brown  frviit,  the  si/e  of  middling  apples, 
which  ripvMi  in  October,  but  arc  not  ealable 
lill- beginning  to  decay.  The  varieties  are, 
common  grc\it  German  medlar;  smaller 
NottHighani  medlar;  spear-?haped  Italian 
nieijiar.  i.'.  The  arbutilolia,  arbutus-leaved 
liiespihis,  has  a  small,  roundish,  pur|)le  fruit, 
hke  haws.  3.  The  amelauchier,  or  shrubby 
medlar,  with  l)lack  fruit.  4.  The  chama'- 
mespihis,  or  ilwarf  medlar,  commonly  called 
bastard  tiuince,  has  small  red  fruit.  :>.  The 
cotoneaster,  conunonly  called  dwiirf  ciuince, 
with  small  roundish  bright-red  fruit.  (5.  The 
Cadaneiisis  Canada  snowy  ni'splhis,  \vith 
small,  purp'i<h  fruit,  like  Iiaws.  7.  The 
)>yracantha,  or  evergreen  thoni,  rises  with  a 
slirubbv,  spinous  stem,  branching  di:fusely 
12  or  ]-i  feet  high,  all  the  shoots  terminated 
bv  numerous  clusters  of  whitish  (lowers  ;  suc- 
ceeded by-  large  bunches  of  beautihd  red 
berries,  remaining  all  wniter,  and  exhibiting 
a  very  ornamental  appearance. 

MESSENtil'-US,  are  certain  oHicers 
chie'.iy  enip'.nved  under  the  direction  nfthe 
secretaries  uf "state,  and  always  in  readiness 
to  be  sent  with  all  kinds  of  dispatches  foreign 
and  domestic.  They  also,  by  virtue  of  the 
secretaries'  warrants,  take  up  |)ersons  for  high 
treason,  or  other  otVences  against  the  state, 
■j'he  prisoners  (hey  apprehentf  are  usually 
keot  at  their  own  houses,  for  each  of  which 
they  are  allowed  (iv.  8r/.  per  day,  by  the  go- 
Aerpjiient:  and  when  they  are  sent  abroad, 
they  have  a  statc*l  allowance  for  their  jour- 
ney. 

METALS  may  be  considered  as  the  great 
instruments  uf  all  our  improvements:  with- 
out them,  many  of  the  arts  and  sciences 
could  hardly  have  existed.  So  sensible  were 
the  autieiits' of  their  great  importance,  that 
they  raised  those  persons  who  hr»t  disco- 
vered the  art  of  working  them  to  the  rank  of 
deities.  In  chemistry,  tliey  have  always  tilled 
a  conspi<uous  station:  at  one  period  the 
whole  science  was  confined  to  them  ;'and  it 
niav  be  sai-l  to  have  owed  its  very  existence 
to  a  rage  for  making  and  transmuting  metals. 
"1.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous  properties 


M   E  T 

of  (he  metals  is  a  particular  brilliancy  which 
ihcy  possess,  and  which  has  been  called  the 
metallic  lustre.  -Tliere  are  oilier  bodies  in- 
dee<l  (mica  for  instance)  which  at>paiently 
possess  this  peculiar  lustre,  but  in  them  it  is 
conlinod  to  the  surface,  and  accordingly  di.^- 
appearswhen  they  are  scratched,  whereas  it 
pervades  every  part  of^  the  metals.  'I'liis 
Uistre  is  occasioned  bv  their  retlecting  much 
more  light  than  any  other  bodies  ;  a  property 
'.vhich  seems  to  depend  partly  on  the  close- 
ness of  their  texture.  'I'his  renders  them  pe- 
culiarly proper  for  mirrors,  of  which  they  al- 
ua\s  form  the  basis. 

3.  Thev  are  perfectly  opaque,  or  imper- 
vious to  light,  even  after  they  have  been  re- 
duced to  very  thin  plates.  Silver  h:af,  for 
instance,  __._'.__  ot  an  inch  thick,  does  not 
permit  the  smallest  ray  ot  light  to  pass  tlnongii 
It.  Cjold,  however,  when  very  thin,  is  not 
absolutely  opaque:  for  gold  leaf,  i^^-^- 
of  an  inch  thick,  when  held  betueen  die  eye 
.uid  the  light,  appears  of  a  lively  green;  and 
must  therefore,  as  Xewlon  lirst  remarked, 
transmit  the  green-coloured  rays.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  all  other  metal»,  as  the  same 
idiUpsophe.'^  supposed,  would  also  transmit 
light  if  they  could  be  reduced  to  a  proper 
degree  of  iiiinness.  It  is  to  this  opacity  thai 
a  part  of  the  c\cellerice  of  the  metals,  as 
mirrors,  is  owm.;;  thiMr  brilliancy  alone 
would  not  qualify  them  for  that  purpose. 

3.  They  may  be  melted  by  the  applica- 
tion of  heat,  and  even  then  still  retain  tlieir 
opacity.     This  property  enables  us  to  cast 
them  in  moulds,  and  then  to  give  them  any 
shape  we  please.     Jn  this  maimer  many  ele- 
gant iron  utensils  are  formed.     Different  me- 
tals dilter  exceedingly  from  each  other  in  fu-  | 
sibility.     Mercury  is"  so  very  fusible,  that  it  j 
is  always  lliiid  at"  the  ordinary  temperLture 
"of  the'atmosplierc;  wiiile  other  metals,  as  | 
platinum,  cannot  be  melted  except  by  the  1 
most  violent  heat  which  it  is  possible  to  pro-  I 
duce.  ■  I 

4.  Their  specific  gravity  is  iniich  greater  l 
than  that  of  any  other  "body  at  present  | 
known.  AntimonV,"  one  of  the  lightest  of  : 
them,  is  more  than  six  times  heavier  tlun  ; 
water;  and  the  sijecilic  gravity  of  platinum,  j 
the  iieaviest  of  all  the  metals^  is  23.  This  i 
great  density,  no  doubt,  conlributes  con-  i 
sldeiablv  to  tiie  rellection  of  that  great  quan-  ' 
titv  of  hght  which  constitutes  the  metallic  | 
lusire.  I 

.").  TJiev  are  the  best  conductors  of  elec-  | 
tricity  of  all  the  bodies  hitherto  tried. 

6.  "Xone  of  the  metals  are  very  hard ;  but  [ 
some  of  them  may  be  hardened  by  art  to  j 
such  a  degree  as  to  exceed  the  hardness  of  ' 
almost  all  other  bodies.  Hence  the  nuine-  | 
rous  cutting  initrumeiits  which-the  moderns 
make  of  steel,  and  which  the  antients  made  ■ 
of  a  combinatiiin  of  copper  and  tin. 

7.  'I'he   eia^licily  of  ihe  metals  depends  i 
upon  their  hardness;  and  it  may  be  increased  ; 
bv  the  same  proce>s  by  which  th-ir  hardness 
Ij"  increased.     Thus  the  sleel  of  which  the  ba- 
lance-springs of  watches  are  made,  is  almost  ; 
perfectly  elastic,  though  iron  in  its  natural 
slate  possesses  but  little  elasticity.  ] 

8.  But  one  of  their  most  important  pro-  I 
peities  is  malleability,  by  which  is  meant  the 
capacity  of  behig   extended   and   ihittined 
when   struck  with   a   hammer.      This   pro- 
pert  v,  which  is  Dcculiar  to  metals,  enables 

X.  2 


M  i:  1- 


l6'.t 


us  to  give  the  melaliic  bodies  any  form  we  ^ 
think  proper,  and  thus  renders  it  easy  for  us 
to  convert  them  into  the  various  instruments 
for  which  we  ha\'e  occasion.  All  metals  do 
iu)t  possess  this  pioperty;  but  it  is  remark- 
abh-  that  almost  all  those'  wliii  h  weif-  know ii 
to  the\inticnts  have  it.  Heat  increases  this 
property  considerablv.  Metals  becqme 
iiarder  ami  denser  by  being  liamniered. 

9.  Another  property,  which  is  also  svantint; 
in  many  of  the  metals",  is  ductility  ;  by  wliiclr 
we  mean  Ihe  caijocity  of  l)eing  drawn  out 
into  wire,  by  being  forced  through  holes  of 
various  rliameterj. 

10.  ]3m:tility  depends,  in  some  nieasriire, 
on  another  properly  which  melals  possess, 
namely,  tenacity  ;  by  which  is  meant  the 
power  wliich  a  metallic  wire  of  a  given  <h- 
ameterhas  of  resisting,  without  breaking,  the 
action  of  a  weiglit  susTpended  from  its  extre- 
mity. Metals'^differ  exceedingly  from  e.ich 
other  ill  their  tenacity.  An  iron  wire,  for 
instance,  -yh  of  an  Inch  in  diameter,  will 
support,  without  breaking,  about  SOOib. 
weight;  whereas  a  lead  wire,  of  the  same  di- 
ameter, w  ill  not  support  above  2|)ib. 

11.  When  exposed  to  the  action  of  heat 
and  air,  most  of  the  metals  lose  their  lustre, 
and  are  converted  into  earlhy-like  powders 
of  dilf'erent  colours  and  properties,  according 
to  the  melal  and  the  degree  of  heat  employed. 
Several  of  the  metals  even  lake  lire  when  ex- 
)H)>ed  to  a  Strom;  heat;  and  ailer  combustion 
the  residuum  is  fouiul  to  be  the  very  same 
earlhy-like  substance. 

1-2."  If  any  of  these  calces,  as  they  are 
called, 'is  mixed  with  charcoal-powder,  and 
exposed  to  a  strong  heat  in  a  proper  Vessel, 
it  is  changed  again  to  the  hielal  from  which 
it  was  jiroduced.  This  fact  is  easily  ex- 
])lained  on  the  principles  af  modern  chemist- 
ry;  the  calx  is  the  metal  combined  witiioxy.  - 
gen,  or  an  oxide,  in  modern  language,  and 
by  heating  it  with  charcoal,  wl-.ich  has  a 
siroimer  attraction  tbv  oxygen,  th;:t  substance 
is  taken  from  the  metal",  and  it  is  brought 
again  to  the  metallic  state.  The  oxygen  hi 
this  process,  uniting  with  the  charcoal,  forms 
carbonic  acid  gas. 

')"he  words  calx  and  calcination,  then,  are 
evidently  improper,  as  they  convey  false 
ideas ;  phi'o-oijheis  therefore  now  employ, 
instead  of  them,  the  words  oxide  and  oxi- 
<li/ement,  which  were  imented  by  the 
French  chemists.  A  iiKtallic  oxide  signiiies 
a  metal  united  with  oxygen ;  and  oxidize- 
nieiit  implies  the  act  of  that  union. 

13.  Metals,  then,  aie  all  capable  of  com- 
bining with  oxvgen;  an<l  this  combination  is 
sometimes  accompanied  by  combustion,  and 
sometimes  not.  The  new  compounds  formeij 
are  called  metallic  oxides,  and  in  some  cases 
melallic  acids.  The-e  were  formerly  distin- 
guished from  each  other  by  their  colour. 
t)no  of  the  oxides,  for  instance,  was  called 
black  oxide,  an  :thcr  w-as  termed  red  oxide; 
but  it  is  now  known  that  the  same  oxide  is 
capable  of  assuming  ditU'erciil  colours-  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  Tiie-  mode  of 
naming  them  from  their  colour,  therefore, 
wants  precision,  and  is  apt  to  mislead;  es- 
pecially as-there  occur  different  examples  of 
two  distinct  oxides  of  the  same  metal  liaving 
the  same  colour. 

As  it  is  absolulelv  necessary  to  be  able  to 
distinguish  the  dill'cieut  oxides  of  the  same 


16-1 


M  E  T 


Tnetal  from  each  otiier  witli  perfect  precision, 
■diid  as  the  present  chemical  noinenclaliire  is 
tlefeclive  in  tliis  respect,  we  may,  till  some 
better  method  is  proposed,  distinguish  them 
from  each  other,  by  prefixing  to  the  word 
oxide  the  tii-st  syllable  of  the  Greek  ordinal 
numerals.  1  nus  the  protoxide  of  a  metal 
will  denote  the  motal  combined  with  a  niini- 
inum  of  oxvgen,  or  the  first  oxide  which  ihe 
metal  is  capable  of  forming  ;  deuloxide  will 
denote  the  second  oxide  of  a  metid,  or  the 
metal  combined  with  two  doses  of  oxygen. 
Wiien  a  metal  lias  conioined  with  as  much 
fixygen  as  possible,  the  compound  formed  is 
denoted  by  the  term  pcro  ide;  indicating  by 
il,  that  the  metal  is  thoroughly  oxid;^ed. 

Tlius  we  have  the  t.;rm  oxide  to  denote 
the  combination  of  metals  with  oxygen  in  f^e-, 
neral;  the  terms  protoxide  and  peroxide  to 
denote  the  miniinum  and  maximum  of  oxi- 
dizement ;  a;'.d  the  terms  deutoxide,  trito.x- 
ide,  Sec.  to  denote  all  the  intermeaiate  states 
wiixh  are  capable  of  beipg  formed. 

I-i.  Metals  are  cajiahle  also  of  combining 
with  the  simple  combustib'.us.  Tlie  com- 
pounds thus  formed  are  denoted  ijy  tlie  sim- 
ple combustible  which  enters  into  the  combi- 
ratioii,  with  the  teruiinatioii  uiet  added  to  it. 
Tims  the  combination  of  a  metal  wil.i  sul- 
phur, piio<phorus,  or  carbon,  is  called  tiie 
sulphuret,  phosphuret,  or  carburet  of  the 
m  tal.  IIy<lrogen  has  not  been  proved  ca- 
paoie  of  eiiteruig  into  similar  combinations  ; 
neither  have  the  simple  incombustiblcs. 

15.  The  metals  are  capable  likewise  of 
combining  witli  each  other,  and  of  forming 
Goinpaunds,  so  ne  of  which  are  extremely 
useful  111  the  manufacture  of  instruments  and 
iitens'lj.  Thus  pewter  is  a  compound  of 
lead  and  tin :  brass,  a  compound  of  copper 
and  zinc;  be:l-metal,  a  compound  ofcoppi'r 
and  tin.  These  metattic  compounds  are 
called  by  chemists  alloys,  except  when  oik- of 
the  combining  metals  is  mercury.  In  thai 
case  the  compound  is  called  an  amalgam. 
Thus  the  compound  of  mercury  and  gold  is 
called  the  amaigani  of.gold. 

16.  Tlie  metals  at  present  amount  to  23  ; 
only  1 1  oi  which  were  known  before  the  year 
1730.  They  may  be  very  conveniently  ar- 
ranged under  three  classes;  name'y,  1. 
Ma.leable  meta'.s ;  2.  Brittle  and  iuy>  iy  fu- 
sib!e  mjtals  ;  3.  Brittle  and ^Uricultly  fusible 
me'a's.  Th'-!  metals  belonging  to  each  of 
these  classes  will  be  seea  froiii  the  following 
Table: 

Malleable  (formerly  called  perfect  metals). 
I.  iiAd,         2.  Platinum,      3.  Silver, 
4.   Mercury,   5.  Copper,  6.  Iron, 

%.    I'll,  8.  Lead,  9.  Nickel, 

10.  Ziiic. 

Brittle,  and  easily  fused. 
1.  !>isniutii,         2.  Tellurium, 
3.  Aniimoiiy,     4.  Arsenic. 

Brittl  ■,  and.difficultly  fu^ed. 

I.  Cobalt,  2.  Manganese, 

3.  Tungsten,  4.  Molybdenun,. 

.■),   Uranium,  fi.  Titanium, 

7.  Cliro.niuin,        8.  Coki.nbium, 
y.  Taiiloliuin. 

The  antients  gave  tothe  seven  following 
metals  tlie  iia  n.'s  of  the  planets,  and  djnoteJ 
r^r-.'-xoi  them  by  parti:u!.ir  marks,  which  re- 
ixcseuled  both  the  planet  uiiU  the  melal: 


MET 

Gold  was  the  Sun,  and  represented  by  O 

Silver    .    .  .  Moon, .'  (^ 

Mercury  .  .  Mercury, «' 

Copper    .    .  Venus, § 

Iron   ....  Mars, ^ 

Tin Jupiter, 2(. 

Lead  ....  Saturn, Ij 

It  seems  most  probable  that  these  names 
were  first  given  to  the  planets;  and  that  the 
seven"  metals,  the  only  ones  then  known, 
were  sujjposeil  to  have  some  relation  to  the 
planets  or  to  the  Gods  that  inhabited  them, 
as  tlie  number  of  both  happened  to  be  the 
same.  It  appears  from  a  passage  in  Origen, 
tliat  these  names  first  arose  among  the  Per- 
sians. Wliy  each  jjarticular  metal  was  <le- 
nominated  by  a  particular  planet,  it  is  not 
easy  to  see.  Many  conjectures  have  been 
made,  but  scarcely  any  of  them  are  satis- 
iactory. 

As  to  the  cliaracters  by  which  these  me- 
tals were  expressed,  astrologers  seem  to  have 
considered  tliem  as  the  attributes  of  the  dei- 
ties 01  the  same  nature.  The  circle,  in  the 
earliest  periods  among  the  Egyptians,  was  the 
symbol  of  divinity  and  perfection ;  and 
seems  with  great  propriety  to  liavc  lv;en 
clii;si  n  by  tiiem  as  the  character  of  the  sun, 
esperjaily  as,  when  surrounded  by  small 
strokes  projecting  from  its  circumi'crence,  u 
may  form  some  representation  of  the  emis- 
sion ol  rays.  The  s^-iniclrcle  is,  in  like  man- 
ner, the  image  of  the  moon ;  the  only  one  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  that.appears  under  thai 
form  to  the  naked  eye.  The  character  r 
is  supposed  to  represent  the  scythe  of  Sa- 
turn; y.  the  thiin..ierbo't  of  Jupiter;  g  the 
lance  of  Mars,  together  with  his  shield ;  2 
the  looking-glass  of^\'n^Is;  and  j  the  ca- 
duceus  or  wai.d  of  Mercurs'. 

Professor  Beckmann,  however,  who  has 
examined  this  subject  witli  much  atteiilion, 
thinks  that  these  cliaracters  are  mere  abbre- 
vi.'.tions  of  the  old  names  of  the  planets. 
"  The  character  of  Mars  (he  observes),  ac- 
cording to  the  o'dest  lucfle  of  representaig  it, 
is  evidently  an  abb/evia'jon  of  the  word 
©offot,  under  which  the  Greek  mathemati- 
cians understood  that  deity;  or,  in  other 
-.'.ords,  the  first  letter©,  witi'i  the  last  letters, 
placed  above  it,  'lug  character  ot  Jupiier 
was  originally  the  initial  letter  oi  Zt«i :  and 
in  tlie  oldest  manuscripts  ol  the  maili^  rnati- 
cal  and  astrological  works  of  Juhus  Finni- 
cus,  the  capital  Z  only  is  used,  to  which  the 
last  letter  swas  afterwards  ailded  at  the  bot- 
toiii,  to  render  the  abbreviation  more  dis- 
tinct. The  supposed  l»oking-glass  of  Venus 
is  nothing  else  t;iantlie  init'al  lett^^r  distorted 
a  little  of  the  word  ^m^ofos,  which  wiis  the 
name  of  that  go  idess.  i  lie  imaginary  sc\  the 
of  Saturn  has  been  gradiialiv  formed  irom 
the  two  first  letters  of  his  n.im-.  Kfoyos,  which 
•transciibers,  lor  the  sake  of  dispatch,  made 
ahvays  more  convenient  fov  use,  but  at  the 
sa.rie  lime  less  perceptible.  To  discover  in 
the  pretended  caduceus  ul  Mercury  the  ini- 
I  a'  letter  of  his  Greek  name  StixCwj  one 
iie;'ds  only  look  at  the  abbreviations  in  the 
jldest  manuscripts,..wiiere  he  will  find  that 
tin-  2.  was  once  written  as  C;  they  will  re- 
mark also  that  transcribers,  to  distinguisli 
this  abbreviation  from  the  rest  still  mine, 
placed  the  C  thuscj  ,  and  added  under  it  the 
next  letter  r.  U  tho ,e  to  whom  this  lUduc- 
lion  appeals  improbable  will  oifly  take  thj 

8 


MET 

trouble  to  look  at  other  Greek  abbreviations, 
they  will  find  many  tnat  dift(.-r  still  farther 
from. the  original  letters  tliey  express  than 
the  present  ciiaiacter  ^  from  the  C  and  r 
united.  It  is  possible  also  that  later  tran- 
scribers, to  whom  the  origin  ol  this  abbrevi- 
ation was  not  known,  may  have  endeavoured 
to  give  it  a  greater  resemblance  to  the  ca- 
duceus of  Meix-ury.  In  short,  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  many  other  astroiionuial  clia- 
ractei"s  are  real  symbols,  or  a  kind  of  proper 
liieroglyphics,  that  repre^ent  certain  attri- 
butes or  circumstances,  like  the  characters  <jf 
Aries,  Leo,  and  others,  ipiotedby  Saumaise." 

METAJ.LURGY.  When  it  is  once  as- 
certained that  an  ore  of  metal  may  be  work- 
ed with  advantage,  the  metallurgist  pro- 
ceeds in  his  operations :  first  extracting  the 
ore  by  all  the  mechanical  methods  the  art 
possesses ;  which  consist  in  digging  shafts, 
opening  adits,  employing  various  machines  to 
raise  tlie  water,  renew  tlie  air,  bring  up  the 
ore,  favour  the  ascent  and  desc;'nt  oi  the  mi- 
ner, prevent  the  tartii  from  giving  waj ,  Sec. 

In  general,  after  haviiig.bored  flie  ground 
which  contains  ores,  or  having  ascertained 
their  existence  by  various  indications,  a 
square  perpendicular  well,  or  shaft,  is  dug  in 
tiie  grouncl,  sutliciently  wide  to  pi.;ce  straight 
laddei's  in  it;  over  wiiich  inachmen  is  fixed, 
lor  the  purpose  of  raising  and  lowi-ring  ves- 
sels, and  in  which  it  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  fix  pumps  to  diMw  oil' the  water  which  is. 
collected.  If  the  ore  is  too  deep  lor  a  single 
shaft  to  lead  from  the  gra,ss  or  surface,  to  the 
vein  at  the  bo'.toiu  of  the  first  shaft,  a  hori- 
zontal gallery  is  opened,  at  the  end  ot  which 
a  second  shaft  is  sunk,  and  in  this  manner 
the  workmen  |>roceed  until  they  arrive  at 
the  bottom  of  the  mine. 

M'hen  the  rock  to  be  perforated  is  hard, 
sohd,  and  capable  of  supporting  itself,  the 
shaft  will  not  require  to  he  guarded  widiin  ; 
but  if  it  is  soft  and  friable,  it  it  threatens  to- 
fall  in  during  the  exca\ation,  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary to  support  the  shaft  and  gallery  with 
pieces  of  wood-work,  covered  with  planks  all 
round,  in  order  to  support  the  earlii  and  re- 
tiiin  the  iiajiinents,  which  from  time  to  time 
would  separate,  and  might  maim  the  work- 
men. 

One  of  the  most  important  particulars  of  tlie 
art  ot  explonng  liiiiies,  is  the  renovation  of 
the  air.  \^  hen  it  is  priicticable  to  open  a.; 
gallery  which  shall  lead  from  the  bottom  of. 
the  shaft  to  the  day  or  open  air,  a  current  is. 
easily  established  by  this  simple  artifice.. 
Wlien  this  i<  not  possilile,  a  second  shaft  is, 
S-.  ii:<  to  tlie  extremity  of  the  gallery,  opposite- 
to  that  where  the  first  was  sunk.  When  onti- 
of  these  shafts  opens  at  a  difU'rent  level  from; 
the  other,  the  cnvu'atioii  and  renewal  of  the- 
air  ai"e  easy.  If  the  second  slialts  are  of 
equal  height,  the  current  will  not  take  place 
spontaneous! V,  but  must  be  delerniined: 
by  causing  them  to  comiuunicaie  witii  a. 
liglitcd -furnace. 

Tlie  danger  of  waters  v  liich  overflow  the 
works  and  retard  the  operations,  at  the  same 
time  tiiat  tiiey  lareaten  the  safety  of  the 
.workmen,  is  no  less  necessary  to  be  pro- 
vi  led  against.  If  the  water  transudes  g:  adu- 
.lily  through  the  earth,  it  may  be  let  oil  into. 
tiie  plain  or  Ihe  nearest  river  by  means  of  a. 
horizontal  adit.  If  it  is  collected  in  a  greater 
qii.inliiy,orit  il  is  not  possible  to  open  such  an 


MET 

adit,  tlie  water  is  extracted  by  pumps,  wliicli 
aro  moved  eitluT  by  iv  stream,  or  by  a  pond, 
or  by  vapour  of  wali-r  introduced,  and  con- 
dcM.s('d  in  cylinders.  'I'hesc  last  machines, 
called  steani-engines,  arc  at  present  nuich 
more  common  tluui  formerlv.  (Hve  Steam 
Engimk.)'  It  is  an  object  of  great  diiticully 
sometimes  to  defend  tliev-'orks  against  cnor- 
Dions  masses  of  water  wliicli  rush  forth  \s  lien, 
in  digging,  a  vast  subterranean  re-ervon-  is 
opened.  These  cases  iiappdy  are  very  rai-e ; 
but  they  are  in  some  measure  provided 
a;;ainst  by  a  kind  of  moveable  strong  door, 
or  barricadj,  which  the  workmen  place  at  tlit; 
inom.'nt  when  they  find  by  tlu;  particular 
so\nul  of  the  rock,  that  the  waters  are  com- 
ing in  upon  them,  which  barricado,  by  sepa- 
titing  them  from  the  liquid,  gives  tlieni.  time 
to  save  themselves. 

The  destructive  elastic  fluids,  which  so 
frequently  are  disengaaied  in4he  cavities  ot 
mines,  aiid  particularly  the  carbonic  acid  gas, 
i!iid  thfferent,  species  of  mixed  hydrogen 
gasi'-;,  more  or  less  pernicious,  are  also 
among  the  most  formidable  enemies  o! 
iiiiiiei's.  Galleries,  liies,  ventilators,  inilam- 
niations  by  means  of  torches  held  at  a  great 
diiUnce  in  tliose  parts  of  the  ■mines  which 
are  m  ■pliiti/ed  by  the  infiammable  gases, 
and  particularly  the  various  metliods  ot 
causing  fresh  air  to  enter,  are  the  only  reme- 
dies which  can  be  opposed  to  tliese  subterra- 
neous evils. 

Few  metals  are  found  in  a  pure  state;  gold, 
silver,  and  sometimes  copper,  are  excep- 
tions. The  other  metals  are  generally  found 
in  t'le  state  of  oes,  in  which  they  are  mixed 
and  blenderl  with  other  substances,  so  as  not 
to  have  the  thu  til  ty  or  oilier  qualities  of  me- 
tals: often,  indeed,"they  have  not  the  metallic 
lustre.  So  uetimes  t'.ie  ore  is  only  a  pure 
oxide,  which  requires  no  more  than  that  the 
oxygen  should  be  <lrawn  from  it  by  lieatiug 
it  wilh  an  luliammable  substance.  Such  are 
all  tl;e  ferruginous  ochres,  which  areo.xides  of 
iroi:. 

The  ores  of  metals  are  generally  found  in 
the  veins  of  mountains  or  rocky  strata,  and 
are  always  separated  from  the  rocks  on  oacli 
side  by  a  quantity  of  spar,  (piarlK,  of  some- 
times softer  clay  or  earth.  The  p.:v  is  ge- 
nerally of  the  gypseous  kind.  These  form 
the  matrix  of  the  ore  ;  in  English,  called  the 
ri  ler.  In  ditierent  vems  it  is  of  dirt-rent 
thicknesses;  the  quantity  of  the  ore  increas- 
in.-f  as  that  of  the  matter  which  surrounds  it 
(limiiiisiies.  Oi'tvii  the  ore  is  in  branching 
masses  wandering  irregularly  through  it,  and 
is  olten  rudely  mixed  with  the  matrix  in  veins 
of  different  "thicknesses.  These  are  calit'd 
braagled  Ores. 

The  veins  or  fissures  of  the  rocky  strata 
are  sometimes  only  a  few  indies  wine,  and 
Roaielisnesmany  yards.  In  rich  mines  there 
nre  immense  masses  of  ore  many  feet  broad. 
"  Wln;re  the  veins  happen  not  to  be  iilled  up, 
\ve  find  the  ores  crystallized  round  the  cavity. 
The  ore,  wh I'll  separated  from  the  matrix, 
generally  contains  some  otlier  matter;  as  sul- 
j)hur,  arsenic,  or  both:  and  sometimes  aH 
earthy  substance,  the  whole  b'ing  united  into 
a  compound  which  al  first  appears  liomoge- 
ueous. 

'I'he  first  operation  on  metals  is  to  separate 
the  ore  from  the  m:itrix.  V/lien  the  ore  is 
ioiuid  iu  large  maoses,  most  ot  it  may  be  dug 


M  E  T 

upvfree  from  the  matrix,  and  those  pieces  to 
wuich  it  adheres  may  be  freid  by  a  ha.mner. 
lint  a»  the  ore  isoiten  intimately  mixed  with 
the  matrix,  it  is  necessary  to  try  other  ine- 
thods. 

Sometimes  the  whole  is  reduced  to  pow- 
der and  thrown  into  water;  the  water  is  then 
|)ut  in  motion,  and  the  earthy  matter  floats 
above  the  ore,  on  account  ot 'their  different 
specific  gravity.  It  is  stil.  better  to  place  the 
powder  on  a  board,  over  which  water  may  be 
made  to  run  ;  being  stirred  while  the  w.iter 
runs  over  it,  tiie  earthy  parts  float  and  are 
carried  off,  whilsir  the  metallic  parts  remain 
belling.  This  operation  is  called  washing 
the  ore. 

,  Wlien  the  matrix  is  not  divisible  by  \va- 
'ter,  a  stamping-mill  is  employed,  which  con- 
sists of  an  axis  turned  by  a  water-wheel.  On 
the  axis  there  are  a  number  of  cogs,  whicli 
lilt  up  a  perpendicular  p  liar  of  wood  plated 
at  bottom  with  iron  ;  this  falling  down  bruises 
the  matrix  to  powder.  It  otten  happens  that 
the  matrix  is  harder  than  the  ore,  and  in  this 
case  the  ore  will  be  reduced  to  a  much  liner 
powder  than  it.  Here  the  ore  is  a  much 
iieavier  substance;  yet  its  surface  may  be  so 
much  increased,  th.tt  it  may  be  carried  off  by 
tilt  water  before  the  matrix.  ,_This  may  be 
o'jviated  by  subjecting  the  mass  to  a  brisk 
heat,  and  throwing  water  upon  it  when  red- 
hot,  which  renders  the  matrix  more  easy  to 
be  powdered.  There  are  many  ores  of  this 
kiiiil  which  undergo  a  fusion  by  heat;  hence 
till'  small  particles  of  the  matrix,  which  are 
angular  and  irregular,  contract  tlieni.selves 
into  little  spheres,  by  which  means  losing 
part  of  their  surface,  they  become  specih- 
cally  heavier,  and  fall  more  readily  to  the 
bottom  of  the  water:  the  ore  too  generally 
loses  part  of  the  sulphur  it  contains,  and  en 
this  account  becomes  specifically  heavier: 
the  stone  becomes  softer,  and  i<i  sometimes 
disposed  to  fiiU  into  powder  merely  by  the 
application  of  water,  especially  if  com|)osed 
ot  gypseous  spar.  Quartz  is  not  ind'eed  so 
easily  heated  in  this  way,  but  it  becomes 
softer  bv  these  means;  cracks  and  flaws  are 
produced  in  it,  and  of  consequence  it  is  more 
easily  divided. 

After  all  there  will  in  washing  be  some  loss 
of  the  metal :  hence  it  is  found^  more  expedi- 
ent to  bring  the  whole  mass  into  fusion,  a:?'  is 
practised  in  Germany.  'Ihe  fusion  is  per- 
formed in  son'.e  of  the  ordinary  furnaces, 
and  commonly  with  the  addition  of  pariicu- 
hir  stones,  or  the  scorix  of  former  fusions, 
v\  hich  greatly  promote  the  fusion  of  the  new- 
matter.  Thus  the  metallic  matter  settles  to 
the  bottom  still  in  tlie  state  of  an  ore,  w' he  nee 
tiie  process  is  called  crude  separation.  When 
the  ore  is  thus  freed  from  its  matrix,'  tlie 
next  operations  are,  to  separate  the  sulphur, 
arsenic,  &c.  which  the  metals  may  contain; 
and  this  must  be  done  by  a  mild  heat,  be- 
cause of  their  strong  adhesion  to  the  metals, 
which  the  metallurgists  call  their,  rapacity. 
If  exposed  to  a  violeni:  heat,  the  arsenic  will 
hardiv  separate-  w!\en  forced  olif  intensely, 
sometimes  carrying  off  part  of  tiie  metal 
along  with,  it.  This  treating  the  ore  in  a 
gentle  heat  is  called  roasting  it.  The  work- 
men commonly  build  the  ore  into  heaps  with 
fuel,  so  that  the  wliole  may  become  red-hot, 
and  the  air  nave  free  passage  thiougli  it. 
Some  ores,  as  tliose  of  copper,  require  many 


U  E  T 


ll3 


repetitions  of  the  process,  the  sulpliur  ai:d 
arsenic  adhering  so  closely. 

In  conseciiience  of  this  operation,  the  me- 
tal remains  more  or  less  in  the  torin  ot  an 
oxide ;  the  operation  of  reduction  becomes 
therefore  necessary  It  is  often  necessary  to 
a;id  earths  to  the  oreii,  as  they  oiten  contain 
earths  not  so  easily  fusible,  but  which  by  mix- 
ture with  others  become  so.  '1  he  f:res  being 
kept- up  for  some  time  the  ore  melts  ;  and  as 
It  passes  through  the  fuel,  whicli  is  generally 
charcoal  ot  wood,  the  oxygen,  wliicii  the  ox- 
ide contained,  is  drawn  off  by  tiie  charcoal 
loruiing  fixed  air,  aud  the  metal  falls  into 
the  ba  on  constructed  lor  that  purpose  in  the 
I  u  mace. 

Tiius  the  metal  is  obtainetl  free  from  earthy 
and  stony  matter,  and  generally  from  ar^enlc 
and  sulpfiur,  but,  it  contains  otfier  metals; 
thus  copper  has  always  with  it  more  or.  less  of- 
iron,  silver  a  quantity  of  copper,  &c. 

Some,  as  Jead  ores  wl-.eii  rich,  are  treated 
by  immediate  fusion,  witjiout  previous  roast- 
ing; for  though'  it  would  give  a  greater 
quantity  of  the  metal,  it  would  be  too  ex- 
pensive. There  are  many  ores  in  which  tho 
metal  exists  in  the  state  ot  an  oxide.  Here 
previous  roasting  would  be  of  no  advantage. 
The  ores  of  silver  and  gold  require  certain 
additions  to  them  to  attract  the  ■^ulp>u- and 
arsenic,  and  to  melt  the  other  matter^  whicli 
is  mixed  with  them,  so  as  to  dispose  tliein  to- 
separate.     See  Assaying,  &c. 

-METAPIIOrv,  ill  rhetoric,  a  trope,  by 
which  We  put  a  strange  word  for  a  proper, 
word.     See  Ki-ietoric. 

METAPHYSICS.     It  is  remarkabU'  that 
scaneiyanv  two  writers  are  agreed  with  re- 
spect to  the  meaning  of  the  word  iiietb'.phy- 
sics.     One  lexicographer  tells  us,  somewhat- 
obscui-ely,  Uiat  it  is  "  the  doctrine  ot  the  ge- 
neral    affections    of   substances    existing." 
Al  other  that  "  it  is  a  science  which  treats  of 
being   as  such  in.  the   abstract.^     While  a 
third  most  gravely  assures  us,  it  means  "  that    - 
part  of  philosophy  which  considers  the  nature 
and   properties  of  thinking  beings.''    This- 
last  definition  must  evidently  be  unfounded, 
since  "  the  nature  and  properties  of  thinking, 
beings "  are  either  a  branch  of  natural  philo- 
sophy or  of  logic.     See  Logic  . 

The  word  seems  to  have  originated  with: 
.Aristotle,  who  has  termed  a  treatise  which  is- 
placed,  after  nis  Physics,  ^Lla, la  fao-ixa.  -So 
'hat  it  may  mean  cither  someihiug  "  beyond 
Physics, ''or  merely  "an  appendix  to  his 
physics'"  or  natural  history.  This  treatise 
chietly  relates  to  the  ifltellectual  world. 

The  mode  ui  which  authors  have  treated' 
of  metaphysics  is  as  various  as  their  dehn;— 
tions  of  the  term.  One  author,  mider  liie 
form  of  a  treatise  of  metaphysics,  presents  us 
with  a  discussion  on  abstract  words,  the:r 
meaning  and  application;  aiioliier  with  an- 
enquiry  into  the  faculties  and  operations  of 
the  lumian  mind  ;  a  third  with  a  voiunie  of 
th.eolosy,  a  (i-sserlation  on  the  being  and  at- 
tributes'of  God,  and  tlie  nature  of  -[)iritual 
and  i-elcstial  inte'nigcuces  ;  and  a  I-  urlfi  with 
a  treatise  of  ethics  or  moral  philosophy. 

A  science  so  subtle,  so  indefinite,  so  eva- 
sive, which,  cnder  so  niiuiy  Proteus  fornis, 
eludes  out  grasp,  is  scrceiy  a  proper  sulyect   . 
tor  a  pracliotl   work   like  th;s.     ^N  hat   are  • 
metaphysic:?  Ever,- thing!  Nothing!     Yet 
there -are  some  subjects  which  tlie  learned i 


lG5 


MET 


have  ?grpe<l  in  calling  metaphysical:  siuh 
were  Uie  discussions  between  Claike  and 
Leibnitz  concerning  the  free  aaeiicy  of  man; 
such  were  the  disputes  concerning  identity 
and  diversity  wliich  formerly  agitated  the 
schools.,  and  those  upon  the  origin  of  evil; 
and  if  we  were  called  upon  to  point  out  a 
r.iost  able  and  rational  work,  info  which  me- 
taphysics are  hilrouuced  with  pro|>ripty  and 
ability,  w^e  should  name  Cudworth's  Inlel- 
k'ctual  System. 

Min'ATARSUS.     SecAK.\TOMY. 

M  IlTKOK.  This  term  is  by  some  writers 
mc.de  to  comprehend  all  the  visible  pheno- 
inc-na  of  meteoroloKv,  but  it  is  more  gene- 
rally conhned  to  lumincms  bodies  appearing 
suddenlv  at  uneertain  times,  and  with  more 
or  less  of  motion  in  the  atmosphere.  I'hese 
rnav  be  reduced  inider  three  classes,  viz.  fire- 
balis,  falling  or  sliooting  stars,  and  ignes  fa- 
tui. 

'I'hose  ]>henonien.i  which  are  classed  togc- , 
flier  under  the  gcjieral  appellation  of  fire- 
balls, were  dividi'd  bv  tiie  antients  into  seve- 
ral species,  according  to  the  exter[ial  form  or 
appearance  wiiicii  tliev  assumed.  'I'hey  were 
also  regarded  by  them  in  a  much  more  for- 
midable liglit  than  by  us  ;  as  being  llie  cer- 
tain prognostics  of  great  and  awful  events  in 
the  moral  and  political  world.  ICven  the  phi- 
losophic (.'ic:eroliiniielr  speaks  of  the  "abocci- 
dente  faces,"  as  the  certain  harbingers  or  in- 
liicalions  of  tliose  bloody  scenes  which  in  his 
time  convulsed  and  desolated  the  Roman 
connnonuealth. 

Under  the  general  name  of  comets,  Pliny 
enumerates  a  variety  of  these  phenomena.  If 
tlie  fire  cpnunences  at  one  e.\tremity  of  tlie 
meteor,  an'd  burns  by  degrees,  he  terms  it, 
from  its  form  and  appearance,  a  lamp  or 
torch;  if  an  e.xtended  mass  of  hre  passes  lon- 
gitudinally tlu'ongh  the  atmospliere,  he  calls 
it  a  dart;  and  if  its  length  and  magnitude  are 
considerable,  and  it  maintains  its  station  for 
any  space  of  time,  it  is  a  beam;  and  if  the 
clouds  seem  to  part,  and  emit  a  quantity  of 
tire,  he  l,erras  it  h  chasm;  but  this  last  ap- 
pears to  be,  strictly  speaking,  an  electrical 
phenomenon,  indeed  ojily  a  strong  and  vivid 
flasii  of  lightning. 

,  Several  instances  of  these  meteors  are  re- 
corded by  the  same  author.  During  the 
spectacle  of  gladiators  exhibited  by  Gernia- 
iiicus,  one  of  tliem  passed  rapidly  by  the  faces 
of  the  spectators  at  noon-day.  A  meteor  of 
that  species  which  he  calls  a  beam,  he  adds, 
was  seen  when  the  Lacedemonians  were  de- 
feated at  sea,  in  that  memorable  engagement 
which  lo.it  theiw  the  empire  at  sea.  lie  also 
mentions  a  sanguineous  kiirl  of  meteor,  a 
flame  as  red  as  blood,  which  fell  from  heaven 
about  the  107th  Olympiad,  when  Philip  of 
Niacedou  was  concerting  his  wii'ked  plan  for 
ejiilaving  the  republics  of  C'i'cece.  lie  re- 
lates, th.it  when  lie  was  himself  on  the  watch 
during  tin;  night  in  the  Roman  c.imp,  he  was 
a  S|)ei  tutor  of  a  siinilar  appearance — a  num- 
ber of  resplendent  lights  iixed  upon  the  pa- 
lisadoes  of  the  camp,  similar,  he  says,  to 
tliose  which  mariners  speak  of  as  attaching 
tlieniselves  to  the  masts  and  yards  of  a  ship. 

In  tropical  cliniates  these  meleors'are  more 
common  and  more  stupendous  than  in  these 
more  temperate  recrions.  "  As  I  was  riding 
in  Jamaica,''  says  Mr.  Barbham,  "  one  morn- 
iiii»  Iroui  my  hJbitalion,  situated  about  three 
niiies  iiorlh-west  from  St.  Jago  de  la  Vega,  I 


M  E  T 

ssw  a  ball  of  lire,  appearii^g  to  mc  about  the 
bigness  of  a  bomb,  swijtlv  falilng  down  with 
a  great  blaze.  At  first  f  thought  it  fell  into 
the  town;  but  when  I  came  nearer,  I  saw 
many  people  gathered  together,  a  little  to 
the  southward,  in  the  savannah,  to  whom  I 
rode  up,  to  intpiire  the  cause- of  their  meet' 
ing:  liiey  were  admiring,  as  I  found,  the 
ground's  being  strangely  broken  up  and 
ploughed  by  a  ball  of  fire,  which,  as  they 
said,  fell  down  lliere.  I  observed  there  were 
many  holes  in  the  ground;  one  in  the  middle 
of  the  bigness  of  a  man's  head,  and  five  or  si.x 
smaller  round  about  it,  of  the  bigness  of  one's 
list,  and  so  deep  as  not  to  be  fathonie<l  by 
such  implements  as  were  at  hand.  It  was 
observed  also,  that  all  the  green  herbage  was 
burnt  up  near  the  holes;  and  there  continued 
a  strong  smell  of  sulpliur  near  the  place  for 
some  time  after." 

Ulloa  gives  an  account  of  one  of  a  similar 
kind  :it  Quito.  "  About  nine  at  night,"  says 
he,  "  a  globe  of  fire  appeared  to  rise  from 
the  side  of  the  mountain  Pichinca,  and  so 
large,  that  it  spread  a  light  over  all  the  part 
of  the  city  facing  that  niounlain.  'l"he  house 
wh're  1  lodged  looking  that  way,  1  was  skir- 
jiriseJ  with  an  exlra<.rdinary  light  da'ting 
through  the  crevices  of  tlie  windo-.v-shutters. 
On  this  appearance,  and  the  bustle  of  the 
people  in  tlie  street,  I  hastened  to  the,  win- 
dow, and  came  lime  enough  to  see  if,  in  the 
middle  of  its  career,  w-hich  continued  from 
west  to  south,  till  I  lost  sight  of  it,  being  in- 
tercepted by  a  mountain  that  lay  between 
me  and  it.  It  was  round,  a'nd  its  appar<'nt 
diameter  about  a  (oof.  I  observed  it  tu  rise 
from  the  sides  of  Pichinca,  although,  to  judge 
li'om  its  course,  it  was  behind  that  mountain 
where  this  congeries  of  inllaiiimable  matter 
was  kindled.  In  the  lir>t  half  of  its  visible 
course  it  emitted  a  prodigious  elVulgence, 
then  it  began  gradually  to  grow  dim  ;  so  that, 
upon  its  disappearing  behind  the  intervening 
mountain,  its  light  was  very  faint." 

Meteors  of  this  kind  are  very  frequently 
seen  between  the  tropics  ;  but  they  some- 
times also  visit  the  Miort  temperate  regions 
of  Europe.  We  have  the  description  of  a 
very  extraordinary  one,  given  us  iiy  Monta- 
nari,  that  serves  to  shew  to  what  great  heights, 
in  our  atmosphere,  these  vapours  are  found 
to  ascend.  In  the  year  1676,  a  great  globe 
of  lire  was  seen  at  liononia,  in  Italy,  about 
three  <[uarters  of  an  hour  after  sunset.  It 
passed  westward  with  a  most  rapid  covirse, 
and  at  the  rate  of  not  less  than  160  miles  in 
a  minute,  which  is  much  swifti-r  than  the 
force  of  a  cannon  ball,  aiul  at  last  stood  over 
the  Adriatic  sea.  In  its  course  it  crossed 
over  all  Italy  ;  and,  by  computation,  it  could 
not  have  been  less  than  .iS  miles  above  the 
surface  of  tlie  earth.  In  the  w  hole  line  of  its 
course,  wherever  it  approached,  the  inhabi- 
tants below  could  distinctly  hearil,  with  a 
hissing  noise,  resembling  that  of  a  firework. 
Having  passed  away  to  sea,  towards  Corsica, 
it  was  heard  at  last  to  go  off  with  a  most  vio- 
lent exidoMOn,  much  louder  th.m  that  of  a 
cannon ;  and  inimedialelv  after,  another 
noise 'was  liear<l  like  the  rattling  of  a  great 
cart  upon,  a  stony  pavement,  which  was  pro- 
bably nothing  more  tliai^  the  echo  of  the  for- 
mer sound.  Its  magnitude,  wlien  at  Rononia, 
appeared  twice  as  long  as  llie  moon  oneway, 
and  as  broad  the  other;  so  that,  considering 
its  iiei'jht,  il  could  not  have  been  le-s  tha  i  a 
4 


M  E  T 

mile  long,  and  half  a  mile  broad.  Erom  tl.e 
height  at  which  this  was  seen,  and  there  be- 
ing no  volcano  in  that  quarter  ol  the  world 
whence  it  came,  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  this  terriWe  globe  was  k'ndled  on  sonn: 
part  of  the  contrary  side  of  the  globe  ;  'and 
thus,  rising  above  the  air,  and  passing  in  a 
course  opposite  to  that  of  the  earth's  motion, 
ill  this  manner  it  acquired  its  amazing  ra- 
pidity. 

Twa  of  these  meteors  appeared  in  this 
cotuitry  in  the  year  178,3,  of  which  a  most 
particular  and  truly  philosophical  acc'buui 
and  ingenious  solution,  by  Dr.  lilagden,  are 
published  in  the  I'hilosophical  Transactions 
of  the  loUowing  year;  and  as  his  account  will 
apply  to  many  phenomena  of  the  kind,  we 
cannot  take  any  better  method  to  elucidate 
this  part  of  tlie  subject,  than  by  presenting 
oitra-eaders  with  a  short  abstract  of  this  very 
curious  and  learned  memoir. 

^i  he  first  of  the  two  meteors  in  <iuestioii 
was  seen  on  the  1  Sth  of  August,  and  was,  m 
appearance,  a  luminous  ball,  which  rose  in 
file  N.  X.  W.  nearly  round:  it,  however, 
soon  became  elliptical,  and  gradually  assumed 
a  ta.l  as  it  ascended,  and,  in  a  certain  part  of 
its  course,  seemed  to  undergo  a  remarkable 
change,  compared  to  bursting ;  after  which 
it  proceeded  no  lunger  as  an  entire  mass, 
but  was  apparently  divided  into  a  cluster  of 
balls  of  different  magnitudes,  and  all  carry- 
ing or  leaving  a  train  beh  nd,  till,  having 
passed  the  east,  and  verging  considerably. to 
the  south,  it  gradually  descended,  and  was 
lost  out  of  sight.  Tlie  time  of  its  appearance 
was  aliout  sixteen  miiiute>  p.ist  nine  in  the 
evening,  and  it  was  visible  about  half  a  mi- 
nute. It  was  seen  in  all  parts  of  (jreat  Rrj- 
tain,  at  Paris,  at  N'uits  in  l>urgundv,  and 
even  at  Rome;  and  is  suppo.-.ed  to  have  de- 
scribed a  tract  of  1000  miles  at  least  over  ihe 
surface  of  the  earth.  It  appears  to  have 
burst  and  re-united  several  times;  and  the 
first  bursting  of  it  which  was  noticed  seems 
to  have  been  somewhere  over  Lincolnshire, 
perhaps  near  tiie  c.oimnencement  of  the  fens. 
This  change  in  tlie  meteor  corresponds  with 
the  period  in  which  it  sutlered  a  deviation 
from  its  course.  If,  indeed,  the  explosion 
was  any  kind  of  eflbrt,  we  cannot  wonder 
that  tile  body  should  be  diveited  by  it  from 
its  direct  line ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
seems  equally  probable,  that  if  it  was  .forced 
by  any  cause  to  change  its  direction,  the 
conseijuence  w;.ould  naturally  be  a  separation 
of  its  parts. 

The  illumination  of  these  meteors  is  often 
so  great  as  totally  to  obliterate  the  stars,  to 
ntake  the  moon  look  dull,  and  even  to  afl'e(  t 
the  spectators  like  the  sun  itself.  When  this 
meteor  was  observed  at  ]5russels,  the  m"oon 
ap])eared  quite  red,  but  when  it  was  passed, 
recovered  its  natural  light.  This  eilect,  the 
doctor  remarks,  must  have  depended  on  the 
contrast  of  colour,  at  d  shews  how  large  a 
liroporfion  of  tlie  blue  ra_\s  enters  into  that 
light  which  could  even  make  the  sili'cr  mouu 
appear  to  have  an  excess  of  red.  The  body 
of  the  lire-liall,  even  before  it  Imrst,  did  ntit 
a]ipear  of  an  unilorni  brightness,  bu't  consisted 
of  lucid  and  dull  parts,  which  were  coiislaiU- 
ly  changing  their  respective  positions,  .so  that 
llie  whole  eil'ecl  was  to  some  eyes  like  an 
internal  agitation  or  boiling  of  ihe  niattiM-. 
I'y  the  best  accounts  that  could  be  procured 
concerning  the  height  of  the  meteor,  it  seems 


i 


MET 

to  li.iTp  vnripd  from  55  to  60  mile?.  In  t(icsp 
Irto  last  puvticiilars  it  scenis  to  liavi^  wtmdi-r- 
liillv  coiiespDiHli'il  witli  some  olln-r  jiliem)- 
Iiici'iu  ol  tlii^  same  kind. 

A  report  \Vas  lii'ard  some  lime  after  tlic 
liu'toor  disappeared,  and  this  report  was  loud- 
est ill  Liiiro!n,liire  and  the  adjacent  parts, 
and  Uf^ain  in  llic  eastern  parts  ol  Kent:  the 
report  we  may  thereloro  sup|)ose  to  be  the 
elit'ectiif  the  two  explosions  ol'  the  body,  lirst 
Bver  Lincolnshire,  and  afterwards  wlien  it 
entered  the  continent:  a  hissing  sound  was 
said  also  to  liave  accompanied  tlie  progress' 
of  the  meteor.  Judging  from  the  height  of 
the  meteor,  it;  bnllc  is  conjectiived  to  have 
been  not  less  than  half  a  mile  in  diameter; 
and  when  we  consider  tliis  bulk,  its  velocity 
cannot  fail  to  asteiiish  us,  wliich  is  suppo^eil 
to  be  at  the  rate  of  more  than  40  miles  in  a 
second. 

The  other  meteor,  which  appeared  on  the 
4th  of  October,.  1783,  at  43  minutes  past  six 
in  the  evenin;;,  was  much  smaller  than  the 
former,  and  of  a  much  sliorter  dm-ation.  it 
was  tirsl  perceived  to  the  norlhwaid,  as  a 
stream  of  fire,  like  the  common  shooting 
stars,  but  large ;  but  presently  burst  out  into 
lliat  intensely  bright  blueisli  tlaiue,  which  is 
peculiar  to  such  meteors.  It  left  behind  it  a 
tlu^ky-^ed  streak  of  lire,  and,  exce])t  this,  had 
110  tail,  but  was  nearly  globular.  After  mov- 
ing not  less  than  lo'(iegrees  in  this  bright 
slate,  it  became  suddenly  extinct  without  any 
.■\plosion.  'I'lie  height'of  the  mete6r  must 
lijve  been  between  40  and  50  miles;  and  its 
lU.ration  was  not  more  than  three  seconds. 

The  doctor  is  of  opinion,  that  the  general 
cause  of  these  phenomena  is  electricity,  which 
opinion  he  grounds  upon  tlie  following  cir- 
cumstances: 1st,  The  velocity  of  these  me- 
teors, in  which  they  correspond'  with  no  other 
bodv  ill  natun-  but'the  electrical  lluid.  Oclly, 
Tlie"  electrical  phenomena  attending  meteors, 
the  lambent  llames,  and  the  sparks  proceed- 
iiv  from  them,  which  have  sometimes  da- 
maged sliips  and  houses  in  the  manner  of 
i,;htniiig;  and,  added  to  these,  the  liissing 

/and,  r;'senibling  that  of  electricity  passing 
;  iim  a  conductor.     As  a  third  argument  in 

vour  of  this  hypothesis,  the  doctor  remarks 
tlie  connection  of  meteors  with  the  nortlieni 
l;_;!its.  Instances  are  recorded,  where  norlh- 
■  ■ni  lights  have  been  seen  to  join,  and  form 
I  :oiinous  balls,  darting  about  with  great  veln- 
ciiv,  and  even  leaving  a  train  like  hre-balls. 
'J'h'e  aurora  borcalis  appears  to  occupy  as 
liigli,  if  not  a  higher,  region  above  the  surface 
of'the  eartii,  as  may  be  concluded  from  the 
very  distant  countries  to  whicli  it  has  been 
visible  at  the  same  time.  4llily,  Tlie  most 
remarkable  analogy,  the  docior  thinks,  is  the 
c  ourse  of  at  least  all  the  larger  meteors,  which 
s-ems  to  be  constantly  from  or  towards  (he 
north  or  north-west  quarter  of  the  heavens. 
Of  above  forty  differinit  tire-balls  described 
in  the  Philosophical  IVansactions,  twenty 
are  so  described,  that  it  is  certain  their 
course  was  in  that  direction:  only  three  or 
four  seem  to  liav.e  moved  tlie  contrary  way  ; 
and  wivli  respect  to  the  remainder,  it  is  leit 
doubtful,  from  the  imperfect  state  of  the  re- 
kitions. 

Notwithstanding  the  doctor's  ingenious  ar- 
guments, we  cannot  subscribe  to  tlie  opinion, 
tliat  these  phenol  icna  are  altogether  ciectri- 
c;il.     The  duration  of  the  lire-ball,  tlie  un- 


M  K  T 

pfinal  consistency  of  the  mass,  and  several 
otlier  points  in  the  narration,  seenr  to  indi- 
cate that  its  materials  were  of  a  less  rare  and 
evanescent  nature  than  the  electric  fire. 
The  following  |jrobably  w  as  elect:  ical. 

On  board  llie  Montagne,  under  the  com- 
mand of  admiral  Chambers,  In  lat.  ^2''  4S', 
long.  9°  3',  on  the  4th  of  November  1749, 
about  ten  minutes  before  twelve,  as  the  au- 
thor, Mr.  Chambers,  was  taking  an  oljserva- 
tion,  one  of  the  ipiarter-masters  desired  lie 
would  look  to  the  windward.  On  directin.'' 
his  eye  that  way,  he  observed  a  large  ball  of 
blue  lire  aboui  three  miles  distance  from 
them.  They  immediately  lowered  the  top- 
sails, but  it  came  so  last  upon  them,  that  be- 
fore they  could  raise  the  maln-tack,  they  ob- 
served the  ball  rise  almost  perpendicularly, 
and  not  above  40  or  50  yards  from  the  main- 
chains,  wlicii  it  went  off  with  an  explosion  as 
great  as  if  hundreds  of  cannon  had  been  dis- 
charged at  the  same  time,  leaving  behind  it 
a  strong  sulphureous  smell.'  J;y  this  e\|)lo- 
sion,  the  inain-topin;ist  was  shattered  in 
pieces,  and  the  main-mast  rent  (piite  down 
to  the  keel.  Five  men  were  knocked  down, 
and  one  of  them  was  greatly  bruised,  and 
some  other  damage  of  less  importance  was 
done  to  the  shi|).  Just  before  tfie  explosion, 
the  ball  seemed  to  be  of  the  size  of  a  large 
mill-slone. 

The  shooting  or  fiilling  star  is  a  common 
phenomenon;  bvX  though  so  frequently  ob- 
served, the  great  distance  and  transient  na- 
ture of  these  meteors  have  hitherto  frustrated 
every  attempt  to  ascertain  their  cause,  llie 
connection  of  these  with  an  active  state  of  the 
atmospheric  electricity,  is  however  certain 
from  o^>^ervation;  and  we  have  more  reason 
to  consider  lliem  as  electric  scintillie  than  as 
solid  or  fluid  matter  in  the  act  of  combustion. 
They  precetle  a  change  of  wind. 

Concerning  the  nalur.-  and  composition  of 
the  iirnisJiilHiis,  or  \\  iU-uith-a-wisp,  there  is 
less  dispute ;  the  generality  of  philosophers 
being  agreed,  that  it  is  caused  by  some  vola- 
tile vapour  of  the  phosphoric  kind,  probably 
the  phosphori/ed  hydrogen  gas.  'I'lie  light 
trom  putrescent  substances,  particularly  pu- 
trid lish,  and  those  sparks  emitted  from  the 
seTi,  or  sea-water  when  agitated,  in  the  dark, 
crirrespoiid  in  appearance  with  this  meteor. 
ISir  Isaac  Newton  delines  the  ignis  fatuus  to 
be  "  a  vaj)Our  shining  without  heat;''  and  it 
is  usnalU  visible  In  damp  places,  about  dung- 
hills, burying-grounds,  and  other  situations 
which  are  likely  to  abound  with  phosphoric 
matter. 

A  remarkable  ignis  fatuu5was  observed  by 
Mr.  Derham,  in  some  boggy  ground,  be- 
"tween  tw'o  rocky  hills.  He  was  so  fortunate 
as  10  be  able  to  approach  it  witiiin  two  or 
three  yards.  It  moved  with  a  bri>k  and  de- 
sultory motion  about  a  dead  thistle,  till  a 
slight  agitation  of  the  air,  occasioned,  as  he 
supposed,  by  bis  near  approach  to  it,  caused 
it  to  jump  to  another  place;  and  as  he  ap- 
proached, it  kept  flying  before  him.  He  was 
near  enoiigh  to  satisfy  hinjself  that  it  could 
not  be  the  shining  of  glow-worms  or  other 
insects  :  it  was  one  uniform  body  of  light. 

M.  Beccaria  mentions  two  of  these  lumi- 
nous appearances,  which  were  frequently  ob- 
served in  the  neighboiirhood  of  IJologna,  and 
which  emitted  a  light  equal  to  that  of  an  or- 
dinary faggot.  The;r  motions  were  uneqiml, 
sometimes  rising,  and  soiuetimes  sinking  to- 


M  K  T 


1G7 


wards  the  earth;  sometimes  tot.iUy  disap'' 
peariug,  though  in  general  they  conlimiwi 
fiovering  alwut  six  lect  from  the  griuiiKJ. 
i'hey  (lill'eicd  in  size  ami  figure;  and,  in- 
deed, the  form  of  each  was  lliiclualing,  some- 
tiiiies  floating  like  waves,  and  dropping 
sparks  of  tire,  lie  was  assured  there  v/as 
nut  a  dark  night  in  flie  whole  year  in  which 
tliey  did  not  appear;  nor  was  tiieir  appear- 
ance at  all  af'fec:ied  by  the  weather,  wliether 
cold  or  hot,  snow  or  rain.  'I'hey  have  beeji 
known  to  change  their  colour  from  red  to 
yellow;  and  general, y  grew  fainter  as  any 
person  approached,  vanishing  entirely  when 
the  observer  came  very  near  to  them,  and 
appearing  again  at  some  distance. 

Dr.  Shaw  also  describes  a  singular  ignis 
fatuus,  which  he  saw  in  the  Holy  J-and.  It 
was  sometimes  globular,  or  in  the  form  of 
the  flame  of  a  candle;  and  immediately  af- 
terwards sjiread  itself  so  much,  as  to  involve 
the  whole  company  in  a  pale  inolfen>ive  light, 
and  then  was  observed  to  contract  itself 
again,  and  suddenly  <lisappear.  In  less  than 
a  minute,  however,  it  would  become  visible 
as  before,  and  run  along  from  one  place  to 
another;  or  woukl  expand  itself  evermore; 
than  three  acres  of  the  adjacent  mountains. 
The  atmos[)liere  at  this  time,  he  adds,  was 
lliick  and  lia/.y. 

In  a  superstitious  age  we  cannot  wonder 
that  these  jihenomeiia  have  all  been  attri- 
buted to  supernatural  agency:  it  is  one  of 
the  noblest  purposes  of  pfiilosophy  to  release 
the  mind  from  the  bondage  of  imaginary  ter- 
rors; and  by  exjilaining  the  modes  in  which 
the  Divine  i'rovidence  disposes  the  different 
pow  ers  ol  nature,  to  elevate  our  thoughts  to 
the  One  I'irst  Cause;  lo  teach  us  to  see 
"God  in  all,  and  all  in  (jod." 

MICTKOKIC  STONES.  Almost  all  the 
larger  fire-balls  have  been  observed  to  disap- 
pear with  a  loud  explosion ;  and  it  was  al- 
most constantly  affirmed  that  heavy  stony 
bodies  fell  from  them.  Hut  though  several 
wcll-authentcated  accounts  of  the  fall  of 
such  stoni's  had  been  from  time  to  time  jiub- 
llslied,  liitlt-  credit  was  given  to  them;  nor 
didtliev  indeed  attract  the  attention  of  phi- 
losophers, till  Dr.  Cliladni  published  a  dis- 
sertation on  the  subject  in  1794.  'J  wo  years  • 
after,  Mr.  King  published  a  still  inoie  com- 
plete collection  of  examples,  both  antient 
and  modern;  many  of  them  supported  by 
such  evidence  that  it  was  impossible  to  re- 
ject it.  These  two  dissertalions  excited  con- 
siderable attention :  but  the  opinion  that 
stones  had  really  fallen  from  the  atyiosphere 
was  considered  as  so  extraordinary,  and  so 
contrary  to  what  we  know  of  the  constitution 
of  the  air,  that  most  peojile  lle^itated.  or  re- 
fused their  assent.  Meaiiwinle  Mr.  Howard 
took  a  different  method  of  investigating  the  • 
subject.  He  not  only  collected  all  the  re- 
cent and  well-:iulhenticated  accounts  of  the 
fall  of  stony  bodies,  and  examined  the  evi- 
dence of  their  truth,  but  procured  specimens 
of  the  stones  which  were  aid  to  have  fallen 
in  different  places,  compared  them  tngetlier, 
and  subjected  them  to  a  chemical  analysis. 
The  result  was,  that  all  these  stony  bodies 
differ  completely  from  every  oilier  known  • 
stone  ;  lliU  they  all  resemble  each  other ; 
and  that  they  are  all  composed  of  the  sair»e 
ineredienls.  His  disserlalion  on  the  subject: 
was  pubiish'ed  in  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions for  1 802.    The  proofs  wliiciv  this  aduiU 


16S 

rable  dissertation  contain',  tlir.t  the  stony 
bodies  in  question  ivally  lell  fiom  tlie  atmo- 
sphere, are  quite  irrt'sistiljle.  Indeed,  their 
external  characters  and  chemical  analysis 
would  alone  decide  the  point:  tor  it  is  quite 
inconceivable  that  in  hum,  England,  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy,  in  clnnatesand  soils  ex- 
ceedinnl'v  dilferent  iVoni  each  other,  stones 
shouUrhave  been  pointed  out  which  diit'ered 
Ironi  every  other  mineral  in  the  coimtries 
where  tiiey  were  found,  and  wiiich  exactly 


METEOniC  STOKES. 

resembled  one  another,  provided  t'lpse  liad 
not  had  the  same  origin.  Tho  chenncal  ana- 
ivHs  of  lloward  was  soon  after  repealed,  and^ 
verified,  by  Vauque-in  and  Klaproth. 

Mo^t  of  tlie  stones  which  have  fallen 
irom  the  atmosphere  have  been  preceded  by 
the  appearance  of  luminous  bodies  or  me- 
teors. Tiiese  meteors  burst  witli  an  explo- 
sion, and  then  the  shower  of  stories  falls  to 
the  earth.  Sometinifs  the  stones  coiitinue 
luminous  till  they  sink  into  the  earth ;  but 


sr.ist  commonly  tlicir  lumino'J?n433  disr.ft 
pears  at  tlie  time  of  the  explo^ioni  'I'hes^ 
meteors  move  in  a  direction  itearly  horizon- 
tal, and  they  seem  to  approach  the  earth  be- 
fore they  explode.  I'he  following  table, 
drawn  up  by  Mr.  Izarn,  exliibits  the  collec- 
tion of  the  best-authenticated  instances  i,f 
the  fallin!T  of  stones,  &c.  from  the  atmosphere 
hitherto  observed,  together  with  tlie  tun'' 
when  they  fell,  and  tha  persona  on  whose 
evidence  the  fact  rests. 


SnUtance<, 

Phcci  ivhere  they  fell. 

Pcrhi  of  the}r  Full.                     i 

TeH'.'rony.  • 

Shower  of  stones 

. 

At  Rome          .... 

Under  Tulhis  Hostilius 

- 

Livy 

Shower  of  stones 

- 

At  ROTAO             .... 

Consuls  C.  ?.Iartius  &  M.  Torquatus 

J.  Obsequens 

Sliov.'er  of  iron 

- 

In  Lucania       -         .         .         - 

Year  before  the  defeat  of  Crassus 

Pliny 

Shower  of  mercury 

- 

In  Italv             .... 

... 

- 

Dion 

A  very  large  stone 
Three  large  stones 
Shower  of  fire 

- 

Near  tlie  river  Negos,  Thrace 

Second  year  of  the  78th 

Olympiad 

PUny 

. 

In  Thrace         .... 

Year  before  J.  C.  452 

- 

Ch  of  Count  Marcellia 

. 

At  Oucsnoy                _         .          - 

January  4111,  1717 

. 

Geoffroy  Ic  Cadet 

Stone  of  72  lbs. 

- 

Near  Laris'aa,  Macedonia 

January  1706"             .• 

. 

Paul  Lucas 

About  1200  stones — one  of  120 lbs.? 
Another  of  60  lbs.          -             -     i 

Near  Padua  in  Italy 

In  1510 

- 

Garden,  Varcit 

Another  of  59  lbs. 

- 

■On  Mount  Vaiser,  Provence    . 

November  27th,  1627 

- 

Gassendi 

Shower  of  sand  for  15  hours 

- 

In  the  Atlantic          -         -         - 

April  (ith,  171!) 

- 

Pere  la  Feuille'e 

Shower  of  sulphur 

. 

Sodom  and  Gomorrah 

... 

- 

Moses 

Sulphureous  rain 

. 

In  tiic  duchy  of  Mansfeld 

In  1658 

- 

Spangenberg 

The  same 

- 

Copenhageri              ... 

In  1646 

- 

Oiaus  AVormius 

Shower  of  sulphur 

- 

Brunswick        .... 

October  1721 

- 

Siegesber 

Ditto  of  a  viscid  unknown  matter 

Ireland              .... 

In  16D5 

. 

Muschenbroeck 

Two  large  stones  weighing  20  lbs. 

Liponas  in  Bresse 

September  1753 

- 

Delalande 

A  stony  mass 

Niorl,  Nfflrmandy 

In  1750 

. 

Delalande 

A  stone  df  74  lbs. 

At  Luce  in  I^e  Maine 

September  13th,  176S 

- 

Bachelay 

A  stone          ... 

- 

At  Aire  in  Artois 

In  176S 

. 

Gurson  de  Boyaval 

A  stone          .         -         - 

- 

In  l,e  Cotentin          ... 

In  1768 

- 

Morand 

Extensive  shower  of  stones 

- 

Environs  of  .A.gen 

July  24th,  1790 

. 

St.Amand,  Baudin,&Ci 

About  12  stones 

- 

Sienna,  Tuscany        ... 

July  1794 

- 

Earl  of  Bristol 

A  large  stone  of  56  lbs. 

- 

Wold-Cottage,  Yorkshire 

December  l.^th,  1795 

. 

Captain  Topham 

A  stone  of  about  20  lbs. 

. 

Sale,  department  of  the  Rhone 

March  17ti>,  1798 

. 

Lclievre  and  De  Dree 

A  stone  of  10  lbs. 

- 

In  Portugal                -         -         - 

February  19:h,  1796 

- 

Southey 

Sliower  of  stones 

. 

Benares,  East  Indies 

December  19th,  1798 

. 

J.  Llov'd  WiUiam3,Esq. 

Sliower  of  stones 

- 

At  Plann,  near  Tabor,  Bohemia 

July  Md,  1753 

. 

B.  do  iiorn 

Mass  of  iron,  70  cubic  feet 

. 

America             ... 

April  5th,  1800 

- 

Philosopiiicai  Magazine 

Mass  of  ditto,  14  quintals 

. 

Abakank,  Siberia  , 

Very  old 

. 

Pallas,  Chladui,  &c. 

Shower  of  stones 

- 

Barhoutan,  near  Roquefort 

July  1789 

. 

Darcet,  jun.  Lomet,  &c. 

Large  stone,  2G0  lbs. 

. 

Ensislielm,  Upper  Rhine 

November  7th,  1492 

- 

Butensclioen 

Two  stones,  200  and  303  lbs. 

. 

Near  Verona             .        .        - 

In  1762 

- 

Acad,  de  Bourd 

A  stone  of  20  lbs. 

. 

Sales,  near  Villc-Franche 

March  12th,  1798     - 

. 

De  Dree 

Several  ditto,  from  10  to  17  lb 

s.     ■■■  •  ' 

Near  L'Aigle,  Normandy 

April  26th,  1803       - 

- 

Fourcroy, 

The  stoiw  bodies  when  found  are  al- 
■wavs  hot.  Tiie.y  commonly  bury  themselves 
some  depth  inider  ground.  Their  si^e  dif- 
fers from  a  few  ounces  to  several  tons.  They 
are  usually  roundish,  and  always  covered 
■with  a  black  crust.  In  many  cases  they 
sm.-ll  strongly  of  sulpliur.  The  black  crust, 
from  the  analysis  of  lloward,  consists  chielly 
of  oxide  of  iron. 

Tlie  outer  surface  of  these  stones  is 
rough.  When  broken,  they  appear  of  an 
adigrey  colour,  and  of  a  "ranular  texture 
like  a  coarse  sandstone.  When  examined 
with  ;i  microscope,  four  different  substances 
may  '♦.e  discovered,  of  w  hich  the  stone  is 
coinposed:  1st,  A  number  of  spherical  bo- 
die>,  varying  in  size  from  a  pin's  head  to  a  pea, 
of  a  greyish-')ro\Vn  colour,  opaque,  breaking 
Cii.-i:ly  in  every  direction,  of  a  compact  t-^x- 
ture,  capableof  scratching  glass,  and  of  giv- 
ing a  lew  feeble  sparks  with  steel.  2d,  Frag- 
ments of  pyrites  of  an  indeterminate  shape, 
of  a  reddisli-yellow  colour,  granular,  and 
easilv  reduc.e(f  to  powder.  'I'he  powder  has 
a  black  colour.  3d,  Grains  of  iron  in  the 
jnetailic  state,  scaUcred  like  the  pyrites 
through  thp  stone.  4th,  '1  he  three  substances 
just  mentioned  are  cemeiited  together  by 
a  fourth  of  au  eiirlhy  consistence,  and  so  soft 


that  all  the  other  substances  may  be  easily 
separated  by  the  point  of  a  knife  or  the  nail, 
and  the  stone  itself  crumbled  to  pieces  be- 
tween the  hngers.  This  cement  is  of  a  grey 
colour.  Tl'.e  proportion  and  size  of  these 
different  constituents  vary  considerably  in 
different  specimens ;  but  all  of  them  bear  a 
striking  resemblance  to  each  oiiier.  Tlieir 
specific  gravity  varies  from  3.35'-'  to  4.281. 

Ffoin  the  '  analysis  of  Howard,  which 
was  conducted  with  much  precision  and  ad- 
dress, and  wiiich  has  been  fully  coiilirmed 
by  Vauquelin  and  Klaproth,  we  learn,  that 
the  black  crust  consists  of  a  compound  of 
iron  and  nickel,  partly  metallic  and  partly 
oxvdi/ed.  Tlie  pyrites  consist  of  iron,  nickel, 
anil  sulphur.  The  metallic  grains  consist  of 
.iron,  combined  with  about  one-third  of  its 
weight  of  nickel,  and  the  yellow  globules  arc 
composed  of  silica,  magnesia,  iron,  and  nickel. 
The  count  15iiurnon  observes,  that  these  glo- 
bules resemble  the  chrysolite  of  Werner,  and 
that  their  chemical  analysis  corresponds  ex- 
iictly  with  Klaproth's  aii.ilysis  of  that  niineial. 
'J  iie  earthy  cement  consists  of  the  very  same 
substances!  and  nearly  in  tlie  sann-  propor- 
tion;, as  llic  globular  substances,  llul  it  will 
be  neces.sary  to  exhibit  a  specimen  of  some 
of  the  analyses,  as  published  by  the  philoso- 


phers to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  them.  A 
stone  which  fell  at  Benares  in  India,  was  aiia= 
lyzed  by  Howard.    The  pyrites  consisted  ot, 

2.0  sulphur 
10.;")  iron 
1.0  nickel 
2.0  earths  and  foreign  bodies. 

15.5 

The  spherical  bodies, 
50.0  silica 
15.0  magnesia 
34.0  oxide  ol  iron 
2.5  o.xide  ol  nickel. 


101.5 

The  earthy  cement> 

4S.0  silica 
18.0  magnesia 
34.0  oxide  of  iron 
2.5  oxide  of  n.ckel. 


102.5 


A  stone  which  fell  in  YorkshirPj  deprivetl\ 
as  much  as  possible  of  its  metallic  particles, 
gave  i\Jr.  Howard  from  150  grains, 


]\1  E  T 

7.")  silica 
37  mai;i)('.ia 
4S  oxide  of  iron 

2  oxide  ol  11  ickol 

162. 
Th'>  increase  of  weight  was  owing  to  the  oxy- 
tlize]iii;iit  of  the  metallic  bodies. 

Stones  wliie.li  Cell  at  Laigle  in  France  in 
1S0.3,  yicld.'d  by  the  analysis  of  Vauqiieliii 
4uid  t'ouieroy, 

54  silio  1 
30  o.\idc  of  iron 
9  nia*iie>ia 

3  oxide  of  nickel 
2  sulphur 

1  n;;!0  ■ 

lUj. 
The  celebrated  stone  which  fell  at  F-iisis- 

?;iMni,  in  Alsa(?e,  in  14!) '.  ^  ■■■'■! -i  t-i''  v 

lUosophers,       t 

56.0  gilica 
30.0  oxiilc  of  iron 
IJ.O  inagiie-sia 
ti.i  nickel 
3.5  sulphur 
1.4  lime. 
•lii 

10.-.. 3 

5.  The  experiments  of  Howard,  thus  con- 
tinued by  others,  and  supported  by  the  most 
respectable  historical  evidence,  having  de- 
monstrated that  these  stony  bodies  realty  do 
J  lil  from  the  heavens,  it  was  natural  to  ex- 
pect that  various  attempts  would  be  made  to 
aiccount  for  their  appearance.  I!ut  such  is 
the  obscurity  of  the  subject,  so  little  progress 
iiave  we  made  in  the  science  of  meteorology, 
t'.Kit  no  opinion  in  tlie  slightest  degree  pro- 
li.ible  has  hitherto  been  advanced.  It  was 
lii'st  supposed  that  the  bodies  in  question  had 
been  l:irown  out  of  volcanoes;  but  the  im- 
:;ieiise  distance  fioni  all  volcanoes  at  which 
•liey  have  been  found,  and  the  absence  of  all 
similar  stones  from  volcanic  productions,  ren- 
der tills  opinion  untenable.  Chladni  end-a- 
voured  to  prove,  that  the  meteors  from  which 
they  fell  were  bodies  floating  in  space,  un- 
connected with  any  planetary  system,  at- 
tracted by  the  earth  in  their  progress,  and 
kin. lied  by  their  rapid  mutioii  through  the 
atmosphere.  But  this  opinion  is  not  suscep- 
tible of  any  direct  evidence,  and  can  scarce- 
ly be  believed,  one  would  think,  even  by  Dr. 
Chladni  himself.  Laplace  suggests  the  pro- 
Ijabilitv  of  their  having  been  thrown  off  by 
thj  volcanoes  of  the  moon:  but  the  meteors 
wliich  almost  always  acco^npariy  them,  ;,nd 
ih.e  swiftness  of  their  liorizoiual  motion,  mili- 
tate too  strongly  again.st  tiiis  opinion.  Tiie 
i^ieater  number  of  philosophers  consider 
t  le.n,  with  Mr.  King  and  sir  William  Ha- 
milton, as  concretions  actually  formed  in  the 
atmosphere.  This  opinion  is  undoubtedly 
the  mo't  probab'e  of  all;  but  in  the  present 
Htate  of  our  knowledge,  it  would  be-absurd 
to  attempt  any  explanation  of  the  manner  in 
which  thev  are  formed.  The  masses  of  na- 
tive iron  found  in  South  America,  in  Siberia,, 
and  near  .Agiiam,  Contain  nickel,  as  has  been 
ascertained  by  Proust,  Hovard,  and  Kla- 
p'oth,  and  resembli"  ex  ictly  the  iron  found 
>n  the  "iton^s  fallen  from  the  atmosphere.  We 
lijve  eve.'^  re^ison,  therefore,  ta  ascribe  to 

Yei..  11. 


JI  E  T 

them  th?  same  ori£,inal;  and  this  accordingly 
is  ahnost  the  uniform  opinion  of  philosophers. 
Kiapri/lh  has  shrwn,  that  real  native  iron  is 
distinguished  from  meteoric  iron  by  the  ab- 
sence of  nickel. 

Upon  the  whole,  we  may  consider  tliese 
stony  and  metallic  masses  as  fragments  of 
(ire-balls  whicii  have  burst  in  the  atmosphere; 
but  the  origin  and  cause  of  these  (ire-balls 
will  perha))s  for  ages  baOle  ail  the  attempts 
of  pliilosophcrs  to  explain  them. 

MliTlLOUOLOGY,  (he  doctrine  of  me- 
teors, or  the  study  of  the  variable  phenomena 
of  the  a'.inosphere,  in  which  also  is  commonly 
included  the  art  of  deducing  probable  con- 
jectures on  the  future  stale  of  the  weather. 

The  latter  branch  of  this  science  was  suc- 
cessfully cultivated  by  the  antients ;  and  it 
subsists  at  this  day  among  those  whom  neces- 
sity, arising  from  the  nature  of  their  occupa- 
tions, rentiers  diligent  in  comparing  the  pre- 
sent appearances  of  the  atmosphere,  and  cir- 
cumstances depending  on  its  present  state, 
with  the  changes  whicli  succeed.  The  apho- 
risms of  Virgil,  in  his  Georgii  s,  are  beauti- 
ful examples  of  this  kind  of  skill,  and  possess 
philosophical,  in  an  equal  degree  with  poet- 
ical, merit. 

The  atmosphere  rtiay  be  considered  in  re- 
spect of  the  <firection  of  its  currents  or  winds; 
of  the  variations  in  its  gravity  or  pressure; 
of  the  changes  in  its  temperature;  of  the 
state  of  the  electricity  whicli  it  exhibits ;  and 
lastly,  as  to  the  visible  phenomena  which  are 
supposed  to  depend  on  the  foregoing;  and 
the  regular  notation  of  which,  together  with 
the  other  indications,  will  be  found  the  only 
successful  way  of  prosecuting  this  study. 
Since  the  invention  of  philosophical  instru- 
ments, an  attention  to  these  has  too  much 
supersede<l  the  antient,  and,  singly  consider- 
ed, the  more  rational,  way  of  deducing  prog- 
nostics :  it  has  been  accordingly  lett  to  the 
ploughman,  the  mariner,  and  the  tisherman; 
whose  experience  being  successful  witliout, 
would  undoubtedly  be  more  so  with,  the  aid 
of  instruments. 

V\'inds,  though  proverbially  uncertain  in 
some  climates,  are  yet  not  without  a  striking 
degree  of  regul  .rity  and  system,  if  we  con- 
sider the  whole  atmosphere ;  and  there  is  a 
])art  of  the  world  where  the  wind  is  so  con- 
stantly in  one  (juarter,  that  xviniki'ttrd,  in 
common  speet  h,  stands  for  eastern,  and  let- 
xvfird  forweste:n.  We  want  only  a  more 
extensive  set  of  observations  to  render  ex- 
c<  edingly  probable  the  follouin^  hypothesis  : 
'1  hat  a  large  portion  of  the  whole  atmosphere 
moves  constantly  trora  east  to  west  round  the 
earth,  on  and  near  the  equator;  that  this  is  sup- 
plied and  impelled  by  air  from  the  tcmpi?rate 
aixl  cold  latitudes  on  each  side  toward  the 
poles  ;  which  again  receive,  by  a  siiperior 
current,  the  overilow  of  the  tropical  regions, 
where  the  air,  rarerted  by  llie  heat,  is  con- 
stantly rising  and  tending  to  lateral  dilf'nsion. 
This  opinion,  as  will  appear  herealter,  is 
supported  by  many  facts ;  and  it  is  certainly 
in  tiieory  a  most  beautiful  provision  for  that 
constant  internal  inorement  in  the  mass  of 
the  air,  without  which  it  could  not  probablv 
serve  the  salutary  purposes  to  animal  and 
vegetable  lite  uhich  it  d  les  at  present.  The 
exceptions  both  hi  regular  and  irregular  winds 
to  such  an  hypofhesis  may  perhaps  be  ac- 
counted for  when  the  snpf  rior  curreiits,  which 


M  E  T 


if>> 


interest  philosophers  alone,  and  of  whicli  vje. 
know  very  little,  ;;hall  have  been  more  inves- 
tigated.    See  Wind. 

^'ariable  winds  evidently  stamp  the  nature 
of  every  climate,  and  therefore  depend  upon 
causes  which  act  with  uniformity,  notwith- 
standing all  their  apparent  irregiiiarity. 
They  are  all  intimately  connected  with  each 
other,  and  probably  siicceed  each  other  in  a 
certain  order,  thoiigh  that  order  has  not  hi- 
l()erlo  been  observed.  All  that  can  be  done 
at  present  is,  to  oirtr  a  few  unconnected  re- 
marks. 

Winds  appear  usually  to  begin  at  that  point . 
towards  whicli  they  blow.  '1  hey  must  there- 
fore be  owing  to  a  rarefaction  or'displacinij  of 
the  air  in  some  particular  quarter,  either^by 
the  action  of  heai  or  some  other  cau  e.  'I'his 
is  more  particulariy  the  case  when  the  wind 
blow^s  with  violence.  Hurricanes  are  uni- 
(brmly  preceded  by  a  great  fall  of  the  baro- 
meter; and  the  wind  often  flows  in  everv 
dire.ction  towards  tiie  place  where  tiie  barci- 
iikter  stands  so  low.  One  would  be  tempted 
in  this  case  to  sii])pose  the  sudden  decompo- 
sition of  a  portion  of  the  atmosphere.  Strong 
iioith-east  winds  have  been  repeatedly  ob- 
served beginning  at  the  quarter  towards 
which  they  (low.  In  1740,  Dr.  Frai.klin  was 
prevented  from  observing  an  eclipse  of  the 
moon  at  Philadelphia  by  a  north-east  storm, 
which  came  on  about  seven  o'clock  in  th» 
evening.  He  was  surprised  to  lind  after- 
wards that  it  had  not  come  on  at  Boston  till 
near  1 1  o'clock :  and  upon  comparing  all  th« 
accounts  which  he  received  from  the  several 
colonies  of  the  beginning  of  this  and  other 
storms  of  the  same  kind,  he  tiaiind  it  to  be  al- 
ways an  hour  later  the  farther  north-east  for 
every  100  miles. 

"  From  thence  (says  he)  I  formed  an  idei 
of  the  course  of  t!ie  storm,  which  I  will  ex- 
plain by  a  familiar  instance.  I  suppose  a 
long  canal  of  water  stopped  by  a  gate.  The 
yvater  is  at  rest  till  the  gate  is  opened;  then 
it  begins  to  mo\e  out  through  the  gate,  and 
the  water  next  the  gale  is  lirst  in  motion,  and 
moves  on  towards  the  gate  ;  and  so  on  suc- 
cessively, till  the  water  at  the  head  of  the 
canal  is  in  motion,  which  it  is  last  of  all.  lit 
this  case  all  the  water  moves  indeed  towards 
the  gate  ;  but  the  successive  times  of  begin- 
ning the  motion  are  in  the  contrary  wav,  viz. 
from  the  gate  back  to  the  head  of' the  "canal. 
'I'hus,  to  produce  a  north-east  storm,  1  sup- 
pose some  great  rarefraction  of  the  air  in  or 
near  the  Gulf  of  iMexico;  tlie  air  rising 
thence  has  its  place  supplied  by  the  next 
more  northern,  cooler,  an<l  therefore  derscr 
and  heavier  air;  a  successive  curren'.  is 
formed,  to  which  our  coast  and  inland  mcun- 
tains  give  a  north-eastern  direction." 

A  similar  storm  was  observed  by  Dr.  Mit- 
chell in  1S02.  it  began  at  Charlestov.n  on 
the  21st  February,  at  two  o'clock  in  the^  af- 
ternoon ;  at  Wasliington,  which  lies  several 
hundred  miles  to  the  north-east,  it  v  as  net 
observed  till  tive  o'clock;  at  New  York  it 
began  at  ten  in  the  evening ;  and  at  .\'.b„ny 
not  till  day-break  of  the  Sad.  Its  motion, 
from  tills  statement,  was  1100  mile?  in  li 
hours,  or  100  miles  in  the  hour. 

A  remarkable  storm  of  the  same  kind,  and 
accompanied  by  an  easterlv  w  ind.  \  .is  o{>- 
served  in  Scotland  on  the  8lli  ol  February 
1799.  It  was  attended  by  a  very  h-avv  fall 
oi   snoiv,   and  liie  niotiou  ot  tlie  v.uid'  wj« 


much  slower.  At  Falkirk  it  b"gan  to  snow 
at  six  in  till."  eveiiitis  ot  tin-  7iii ;  at  Iv.iin- 
liurih,  about  one  o'clock  in  tiie  moniiiiji  (,t' 
thciBtli;  niKl  at  Dunbar,  at  ciglit  oVloi  k  in 
the  nn)rni:i;i.  It  lasted  i  1  lioiirs,  and  did  not 
travel  aliovv  100  mi  es  dmiii'^  that  time. 

'I'he  i.ovtli-e;ist  wind  blows  most  tVe<]UCiUly 
V  ith  lis  dnring  tlu;  fpriii^  montlis  ;  and  from 
till,'  observations  made  by  captain  Cook,  it 
appears,  that  the  same  wind  |)revails  during 
,the  same  period  i.n  tlie  northern  Pacilic. 
Hence  it  appears,  tiiat  at  that  season  the  told 
ah'  troni  liie  north  of  Europe  and  America 
Hows  into  the  Atlitntic  and  Pacilic.  Henre 
the  reasvm  of  its  uncommon  coldness,  liry- 
jiess,  and  density. 

It  is  very  common  to  oViserve  one  current 
of  air  blowing  at  the  snrtiice  of  the  earth, 
wiiile  a  cmTciit  llows  in  a  contrary-  direction 
in  the  higher  strata  of  the  atmospliere. 
'i'lire.»  ^nch  winds  have  been  observed  blow- 
ing in  contrary  directions,  all  at  the  same 
time.  It  U  allirmccl  that  changes  of  we;V.her 
generallv  begui  in  the  upper  strata  of  the  air, 
the  wind  wliich  blows  there  gradually  extend- 
ing Itself  to  the  svirface  of  the  eartli. 

With  regard  to  the  pressi.re  of  the  atino- 
sphere,  it  is  every  where  variable,  as  ajjpears 
by  t!ie  barometer ;  which  indicates  lo  ns  the 
Wright  o.  a  colnnin  (jf  air,  extending  to  the 
top  of  the  atmosi)here,  and  \\  hose  base  is 
e<iiial  to  tliat  of  the  inercnry.  ^  At  the  level 
of  the  sea,  where  the  coUmm  of  air  is  longest, 
the  mean  lieight  of  the  barometer  is  thirty 
inches.  This  sir  George  Shuckburgh  found  to 
be  the  case  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Channel,  in  the  temperature  of  .ij"  and  60°; 
Mr.  Konguer,  on  the  coast  of  Peru,  in  the 
temperature  of  84";  and  lord  Mulgrave,  in 
latitude  SO".  The  mean  heiglit  of  the  baro- 
meter is  less,  the  higher  any  place  is  situated 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  because  the  co- 
lumn of  air  which  supports  the  mercury  is 
the  shorter. 

Between  the  tropics  tfee  variations  of  the 
barometer  are  exceedingly  small  ;  and  it  is 
remarkable,  that  in  that  part  of  the  world  it 
does  not  descind  aboi'e  half  as  much  for 
every  200  feet  of  elevation  as  it  does  beyond 
tiie  tropics. 

As  the  latitude  advances  towards  the  poles, 
the  range  of  the  barometer  gradiiallv  in- 
treases,  till  at  last  it  amounts  to  two  or  three 
inches.  This  gradual  increase  will  appear 
from  the  following  table: 

TABLE 
Of  the  Rano-e  of  the  Barometer. 


METEOROLOGY, 

of  the  range  is  in  th?  inverse  ratio  of  tlic  i  vation  takes  place ;  that  tlii?  elevation  of  nine 
leipjht  of  tlie  place  above  the  level  ot  the  sea.    o'clock  dilfers  from   tlr.'.t  of  two  t)y  -z\''^^, 


l-'rom  a  taijle  publis 


"y 


Mr.  Cotte,  in 


(lie  Journal  de  I'Ir.  sn|ue,  it  seems  exceeding 
Iv  probable  iliat  tne  b..rumeler  has  always  a 
tendency  to  rise  from  the  morning  to  the 
evening";  and  that  this  tendency  is  greatest 
belwet-n  two  o'clock  in  the  allernoon  and 
nine  at  night,  at  which  hour  the  greatest  e'e- 


j      1  z    — ■ 

while  that  at  two  dillers  from  themoiuing 
elevation  only  by  ^;  and  that  in  certain 
climates  the  greatest  elevation,  takes  place  at 
two  o'clock.  I'hK  follgv.  nig  is  a  part  ot  tlit! 
table  on  which  these  ollservaUOI^^are  founded, 
reduced  to  the  English  standard. 


Years 

Places. 

of  ob- 
serva- 
tion. 

Mea 

n  Height  of  the  Barometer. 

Morning. 

Noon.       j     Evening. 

Year. 

Aries 

(i 

29.9347 

29.9.347 

29.9413 

29.9347 

Arras 

C 

29.6S83 

29.6683 

29.6832 

29.675* 

Bourdeaux 

11 

29.7212 

23.838,5      -     29.8.385 

29.838.1 

Cambray 

13 

29.S7.')6 

29.8682 

29.8756 

29.8755 

.Chinoii 

12 

237719 

29.7795 

29.8001 

29.786<» 

Diinkrk 

,S 

29.9199 

29.9347 

29.9347 

29.927$ 

Hairenau 

10 

29..%'18 

29.564S 

29.5741 

29.564>? 

Laiin        .         .         - 

7 

29.3.Sj4 

29.3206 

29.3429 

29.3351 

Lisle 

6 

29.91G5 

29.9274 

29.9347 

29.9077 

Mayeane 

7 

29.7172 

29.7056 

29.7127 

297127 

Alanlieira 

r, 

29.S167 

2^6018 

29.6167 

29.609S 

Montmorenci 

22 

29.CS3G 

29.6536 

29.6610 

29.6530 

Mulliau^en 

7 

29.1873 

29.1800 

29.1873 

29.187.t 

Obernheim 

12 

29.4834 

29.4665 

29.4764 

29.4764 

Paris        -         -         - 

67 

29.S902 

29.8607 

29.8756 

29.875(> 

Poitiers 

12 

29.7276 

29.7276 

29.7276 

29.727(1 

Rouen 

11 

29.8607 

29.8535 

29.8535 

29.853.-1 

Rome       -         -         - 

;; 

29.8S07 

29.b'460 

29.3756 

29.8607 

St.  Maurice  le  Gerard 

10 

29.8016 

29.8016 

2y.S090 

29.8QiS 

Troves 

10 

29.6885 

29.6979 

29.6885 

29.6SS5 

Latitude. 

Plficcs. 

Range  of  the  Ba- 
rometer. 

Greatest. 

Annual . 

0"    o' 
22     23 

33   sr, 

40     55 
51       8 
S3     23 
59     SG 

Peru 

C.ilcutta 

Cape  Town 

N.ipli.s 

Dover 

Liverpool 

Pctcrsbnrgh 

0.20 
0  77 

1.00 
2.17 
2.99 
3.45 

089 

1.80 
1.96 
2.77 

In  North  Ameiiia,  however,  the  range  of 
the  baionietei  is  a  great  dial  less  than  in  the 
correspond. ng  European  latitudes.  In  \\[. 
giiiia,  for  ii.sl.  nee,  it  never  tTcceeds  I.I. 

The  range  of  the  b.croiiieter  is  gieater  at 
the  level  of  the  sea  than  on  the  inoiinlains  ; 
aiid  in  the  same  degree  of  kl.tude,  the  extent 


The  range  of  the  barometer  is  greater  in 
winter  than  in  summer.  Thus  at  York  the 
mean  range  of  the  barometer,  during  Octo- 
ber, November,  December,  .lanuary,  Febru- 
ary, March,  of  the  year  1774,  was  1.4J,  and 
for  the  six  summer  months,  1.01(5. 

It  is  probable  that  the  variations  of  the 
barometer,  as  well  as  those  of  the  thermo- 
meter, are  susceptible  of  what  we  may  term 
a  local  character  for  each  tract  or  country  dif- 
fering in  climate.  This  will  be  most  leadilv 
discovered  by  the  following  mode  of  inves- 
tigation :  Prejiare  a  slieet  of  paper  ruled  in 
squares  with  pale  ink;  the  horizontal  lines 
agreeing  with  the  inches  and  decimal  divi- 
sions ot  the  scale  of  the  barometer ;  the  per- 
pendicular, which  may  be  about  twice  as 
distant,  representing  divisions  of  time.  It 
will  be  convenient  to  consider  each  line  as 
denoting  midniglit,  and  to  mark  the  days  of 
the  month  at  the  top  of  the  columns  thus  de- 
fined. On  this  scale  let  the  several  notations 
of  any  register  of  the  barometer  be  set  down 
by  uieans  of  a  dot  tor  each,  placed  in  the 
part  of  Ihe  scale  where  it  may  point  out  the 
time  and  the  <;levation.  I'lie  desired  num- 
ber of  notations  thus  made,  a  curve  may  be 
<lrawn  through  the  series  of  dots,  which  will 
represent  at  one  view  the  course  of  the  baro- 
meter for  the  time.  It  will  be  found,  on 
comparing  a  number  of  these  curves,  that 
they  characterize,  in  aNcertaii*  degree,  not 
only  tlie  latitude  and  season,  but  the  locality 
of  the  observations.  So  that  although  the 
most  obvious  resemblances  may  be  traced  in 
dillerent  years  of  the  same  register,  yet  the 
general  appearance  of  registers  from  differ- 
ent climates,  will  be  found  to  dilfer  in  all 
respects.  In  this  way  niay  be  seen  at  oi.c 
view  both  the  correspondence  between  the 
ialiiiide  or  elevalimi  above  the  sea  of  aiiy 
place,  and  the  range  at  tliat  i>lace  ;  and  the 
coiiKideute  bttweea  the  niovemtnts  of  llie 


barometer,  and  tlie  other  phenomena  of  the 
weather.  It  is  obvious  that  the  same  mode, 
and  even  the  same  scale,  may  be  made  to 
serve  for  temperature  also,  by  marking  de- 
grees upon  the  horizontal  lines,  axd  changing 
the  appearance  of  the  line  representing  tem- 
perature, so  as  to  make  it  readily  distinguish- 
able from  the  other  curve.  'I  here  is  a  cor- 
respondence in  this  climate  between  the  two 
instruments,  whicli  will  thus  often  become 
conspicuous.  It  consists  in  an  elevation  of 
temperature  after  a  rise  cf  the  barometer, 
and  vice  versa:  the  exceptions  to  this  occur 
chiefly  at  the  setting  in  ul  frost,  and  when  it 
rains  with  the  wincl  fioni  the  eastward.  But 
the  most  remarkable  circumstance  which  has 
been  thus  brougiil  to  light  is,  an  iiitluuice 
which  the  sun  and  moon  exercise  over  the 
atmosphere  in  respect  to  its  pressure ;  and 
which  is  detailed  in  a  scries  of  observations, 
accompanied  with  a  chart  of  this  kind,  for 
the  year  1793,  in  the  Philosophical  Maga- 
zine, vol.  vii.  p.  355. 

The  eflect  of  this  is,  a  tendency  in  the  at- 
mosphere to  gain  weight  wliile  the  moon  is 
passing  to  either  ipiarler,  and  vice  versa  to 
lose  it  during  the  approach  of  lull  or  new 
moon.  'I'he  actual  change  whicii  on  a  mean 
often  years  is  found  always  to  take  place  at 
London,  amounts  only  to  two-tenths  of  an 
inch  in  the  barometer,  which  thus  occurs 
twice  in  each  moon.  The  apparent  inlln- 
enre  is  often  niuch  greater  for  a  considerable 
time  togetlier.  The  specimen  ot  the  regis- 
ter alluded  to,  which  is  given  Plate  Meteoro- 
logy, will  elucidate  the  whole  ol  the  foregoing 
observations. 

There  is  something  in  these  movements  of 
the  atmosphere  very  much  resembling  lite 
w.ive.i  lU'udiuible  in  dense  lluids.  Tluis  a 
.udden  and  great  depression  in  the  baroine- 
ler  IS  follow  d  by  an  ecpially  sudden  rise, 
whicn  is  often  ciirricil  beyond  the  point  tiom 


wfiich  tlif  original  motrment  c«miYifii^fd. 
Aftei'  a  continued  fjr.idual  riseon  the  otlicr 
haiul,  there  usually  occurs  a  siinihir  depres- 
sion. Except  on  tlie  eve  of  great  stoniis,  tlie 
rising  nioveniPnt  is  however  the  more  rapid 
of  the  two.  The  undvilatious  which  are  to 
be  found  in  tiie  curve  corre.sponding  to  the 
intervals  between  the  phases  of  the  moon, 
often  couiprcheiid  in  tluMr  sweep  some  smaller 
ones,  whicli  appear  to  be  due  to  occasional 
and  less  exten^^ive  causes. 

It  happens  also  from  some  principle  of  the 
kind  aliove  stated,  that  these  movements, 
which  in  fair  and  moderate  weatlier  proceed 
with  considerable  regularity,  on  being  dis- 
turbed by  storms,  are  not  resumed  suddenly 
but  by  degrees,  and  the  ialerruption  is  per- 
ceptible for  a  considerable  space  afterwards. 

In  long  periods  of  wet  weatlier,  the  baro- 
nieler  usually  keeps  abnut  the  mean  altitude, 
rising  and  falling  through  a  short  space  with 
little  regularity. 

In  serene  and  settled  weather  it  is  (jene- 
rally  higii  ;  and  low  in  calm  weather,  when 
the  air  i»  inclined  to  rain ;  it  sinks  on  high 
wiiidi,  rises  hiL^iL-it  on  easterly  and  northerly 
winds,  and  sinks  wlien  the  wind  lilmvs  from 
the  south.  At  Calcutta,  it  is  always  higliest 
w  hen  the  wind  blows  from  the  north-west  and 
north,  and  lowest  when  it  blows  from  the 
soutli-east. 

Such  are  the  phenomena  respecting  the 
variations  of  the  barometer,  as  far  as  they 
can  be  reduced  under  general  heads.  Va- 
rious attempts  have  been  inade  to  explain 
them,  but  hitherto  without  ajiy  great  degiee 
of  success.  Tlie  theory  of  Mr.  Kirwan  ap- 
pears by  far  the  most  plausible,  though  it  is 
not  sufiVcient  to  explain  all  the  facts.  The  fol- 
lowing observations  may  be  considered  as  a 
kind  of  ab-tract  of  his  theory,  except  in  one 
or  two  instances. 

It  is  evident,  that  the  density  of  the  atmo- 
sphere is  least  at  the  equator,  and  greatest  at 
the  poles;  for  at  the  equator,  the  centrifuL'al 
forte,  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  and  the  heat,  all  of  which  tend  U>  di- 
minish the  density  of  the  air,  arc  at  their 
maximum,  while  at  the  pole  they  are  at  their 
minimum.  The  mean  height  of  the  baro- 
meter at  the  level  of  the  sea,  all  over  the 
globe,  is  30  inches;  the  weight  of  the  atmo- 
Sjjhere,  therefore,  is  the  same  all  over  the 
globe.  The  weight  of  the  atmos])here  de- 
pends on  its  density  and  height:  where  the 
density  ol  the  atmosphere  is  greatest,  its 
lieight  must  be  least;  and,  on  the  contrary, 
where  its  density  is  least,  its  height  must  be 
the  greatest.  The  height  of  the  atmosphere, 
therefore,  must  be  greatest  at  the  eqtiator, 
and  least  at  the  poles ;  and  it  must  decrease 
gradually  between  tiie  equator  and  the  poles: 
so  that  its  upper  surface  will  resemble  two 
inclined  planes,  meeting  above  the  equator 
in  their  hldiest  part. 

During  summer,  when  the  sun  is  in  our 
hemisphere,  the  mean  heat  between  tlie 
equator  and  the  pole  does  not  dilVer  so  much 
as  in  winter.  Indeed,  the  heat  of  northern 
countries  at  that  time  equals  the  heat  of  tlie 
torrid  zone:  thus  in  Russia,  during  July  and 
August,  the  tliermomcter  rises  to  8.'i°.  Hence 
the  rarity  of  the  atmosphere  at  the  pole,  and 
consequently  its  height,  will  be  increased. 
The  upper  surface  of  the  atmosphere,  there- 
fore, in  the  northern  hemisphere,  will  be  less 


METEOROLOGY. 

inclined,  wliile  that  of  the  southern  heml- 
splicn-,  from  contrary  c,iii.-,e«,  will  be  iimch 
more  inclinijjl.  'I"he  vc:ry  rtverse  will  take 
place  during  our  winter. 

The  density  of  the  atmosphere  depends  in 
a  great  measure  on  the  pressure  of  the  super- 
incumbent column;  and  therefore  decreases, 
according  to  the  height,  as  the  pnssure  of 
till,-  superincumbent  column  c'onstantly  de- 
creases. Hut  the  densitv  of  the  atmosphere 
in  the  turritl  yoi.ie  will  not  decrease  so  fast  as 
ill  the  temperate  and  frigid  zones ;  because 
its  column  is  longer,  and  because  there  is  a 
greater  pro|)ortion  of  air  in  the  litgher  part 
of  this  column.  M'his  accounts  for  the  obser- 
vation of  -Mr.  Cassaii,  that  the  barometer 
only  sinks  half  ;is  much  for  every  200  feet  of 
elevation  in  the  torrid  as  in  the  temperale 
zones.  The  d(  nsity  of  the  atmosphere  at  the 
equator,  therefore,  though  at  tiie  surface  of 
the  earth  it  is  h-ss,  must  at  a  certain  lieiglit 
ecpuil,  and  at  a  still  greater  surpass,  the  den- 
sily  of  the  atmosphere  ill  tiie  temperate  zones 
and  at  the  poles. 

A  current  of  air  is  couslantly  asceniling  at 
the  equator,  and  part  of  it  at  least  ri'aches 
and  continues  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  at- 
mosphere. From  the  fluidity  of  air,  it  is  evi- 
dent, that  it  cannot  accumulate  above  the 
equator,  but  must  roll  down  the  inclined 
plane  which  the  upper  surface  of  the  atmo- 
sphere assumes  towards  the  poles.  As  the 
surface  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  noitliern 
is  more  inclined  during  our  winter  than  that 
of  the  southern  hemisphere,  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  the  e(|uatorial  current  of  air  must  llow 
over  upon  the  northern  than  upon  the  south- 
ern atmosphere  ;  so  that  the  quantity  of  our 
atmosphere  will  be  greater  during  winter 
than  that  of  the  southern  hemisphere :  but 
during  summer  the  very  reverse  will  take 
place.  Hence  the  greatest  mercurial  heights 
take  place  during  winter,  and  the  range  of 
the  barometer  is  less  in  summer  than  in  win- 
ter. 

As  the  heat  in  the  torrid  zone  never  difii=rs 
much,  the  density,  and  consequently  the 
height,  of  the  atmosphere,  will  not  vary 
much.  Hence  the  range  of  the  barometer 
w  itliin  the  tropics  is  comparatively  small  ; 
and  it  increases  gradually  as  we  approach  tlie 
poles,  because  the  difl'ereiice  of  the  tempera- 
ture, and  conse(|nently  of  the  den-ity,  of  the 
atmosphere,  increases  with  the  latitude. 

The  diurnal  elevation  of  the  barometer  in 
the  torrid  zone  corresponding  to  the  tides, 
observed  by  Mr.  Cassan  and  others,  must  be 
owing  to  the  intluence  of  the  moon  on  the  at- 
mosphere. Tills  inlluence,  notwithstanding 
the  ingenious  attempts  of  D'Alembert  ;md 
several  other  philosophers,  seems  altogether 
inadeipiate  to  account  for  the  various  phe- 
nomena of  the  winds.  It  is  not  so  easy  to  ac- 
count for  the  tendency  which  the  barometer 
has  to  rise  as  the  dav  advances,  which  seems 
to  be  established  by 'Mr.  Cotte's  table.  Pr-r- 
haps  it  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  addi- 
tional quantity  of  vapour  added  to  the  atmo- 
sphere, which,  by  increasing  the  quantity  of 
the  atmosphere,  may  possibly  be  adequate  to 
produce  the  efl'ect. 

The  falls  of  the  barometer  which  precede, 
and  the  oscillations  which  accompany,  vio- 
lent storms  and  hurricanes,  shew  us,  that 
these  phenomena  are  produced  by  very  great 
rarefactions,  or  perhaps  destrucdon  ef  air,  in 
particular  parts  of  the  atmosphere.  1'he  falls 
Y  2 


1,^1 

of  the  barometer,  too,  that  accompany  windj, 
proceed  from  the  same  cause. 

That  the  temperature  of  (lie  «ir  varies  con- 
siderably,  fiot  only  in  different  climates  and 
in  diderent  seasons,  but  even  in  the  same 
plac;  and  in  the  same  season,  must  In;  ob- 
vious to  the  most  careless  observer.  This 
perpetual  variation  cannot  be  ascribed  to  the 
direct  heat  of  the  sun  ;  for  the  rays  of  that 
luminary  seem  to  produce  no  effect  what- 
ever upon  air,  though  ever  so  ii;ucli  concen- 
trated; but  llu-.y  wanii  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  which  communicate!!  it-)  heat  to  the 
surrounding  atmosphere.  Meiice  it  happens, 
that  the  tcuiperaluie  of  the  air  is  iiif.fliest  in 
those  places  whicli  are  so  siti  ated  as  to  be  most 
warmed  by  the  sun's  rays,  and  that  it  varies 
in  every  region  with  the  season  of  liie  year. 
Hence  too  the  reason  why  it  diminishes  ac- 
cording to  the  height  of  tiie  air  above  the 
surface  of  the  earlli.  Tiiat  portion  of  the 
earth  which  lies  at  tlie  eciualor,  is  exposed  to 
tlie  most  perpendicular  rays  ot  the  sun.  Of 
course  it  is  )■  jttest,  and  th.-  beat  of  the  earth 
diminishes  gradually  from  the  equator  to  the 
poles.  1  he  temperature  of  the  air  must  Hol- 
low the  same  order.  T  he  air,  then,  is  hot- 
test over  the  ecpiator ;  and  its  temperature 
gradually  diminislics  from  the  equator  to  the 
poles,  where  it  is  coldest  of  all.  It  it  iioltest 
at  the  surface ;  and  it  becomes  gradually 
colder,  according  to  its  lieight  above  that 
surlace.  l.et  us  examine  the  nature  ©f  these 
two  dimiiushilig  progrc-ssions  of  tempera- 
ture. 

1.  Though  the  temperature  of  the  air  is 
highest  at  the  equator,  and  gradually  sinks  as 
it  approaches  the  pole,  yet  as  in  every  )>lace 
the  temperature  oi  the  air  is  constantly  vary- 
ing with  the  season  of  the  year,  we  cannot 
form  any  precise  notion  of  the  progression, 
without  taking  the  temperature  in  everv  de- 
gree of  latitude  for  eery  day  of  the  year, 
and  forn.ing  from  each  a  m<-an  temperature 
for  the  whole  year;  which  is  done  by  adding 
together  the  whole  observations,  and  dividing 
by  their  number.  The  quotient  gives  the 
mean  temperature  for  tlie  year,  the  dhni- 
nutiun  from  the  pole  to  the  equator  takes 
place  ill  arithmetical  progression ;  or,  to 
speak  more  proiierly,  the  annual  tempera- 
tures ot  all  the  latitudes  are  arithmetical 
means  between  the  mean  aimuul  tempera- 
ture of  the  equator  and  the  pole.  This  was 
lirst  discovered  by  Mr.  Mayer;  and  by 
means  of  an  equation  which  he  founded  ou 
it,  but  rendered  considerably  plainer  and  sim- 
pler, Mr.  Kirwan  has  calculated  the  mean 
annual  temperature  of  every  degi-ee  of  lati- 
tude between  the  eipintor  and  tlie  pole.  He 
proceeded  on  the  following  principle:  Let 
the  mean  annual  heat  at  tne  equator  be  7ii, 
and  at  the  pole  m  —  7>;  put  f  lor  any  other 
l.ititude;  the  mean  annual  temperatuie  of 
that  latitude  will  be  jii  —  ii  X  sin.  p'.  ]f 
therefore  the  temperature  of  any  two  lati- 
tudes is  known,  the  value  of  m  and  n  may 
be  found.  Now  the  temperature  of  north 
latitude  40°  has  been  found  by  tlie  be<.t  ob- 
servations to  be  (13.1°,  and  that  of  latitude 
jO",  52.9°.  The  square  of  the  sine  of  40°  is 
nearly  0.419,  and  the  square  of  the  sine  of 
50°  is  nearly  0.'>86.  The.eforts 
m  —  0.41  ;/  =  t\:.i,  and 
;n  —  0.58  >i  =  jU  9  :  therefore, 
62.1  -f  0.41  II  =  5'J  y-f  0.5S  jr.aseach 
of  lljen),  from  the  two  tirst  equations,  is  e<iual 


j;2 

to  711.  From  this  last  equation  the  value  of 
n  is  foiiiiJ  to  be  53  ueaily  ;  and  m  is  ncaily 
equal  to  84.  Tlie  nieau'teiiiperature  ot  tlie 
equator,  therefore,  is  84°,  and  that  of  the  pole 
31'.  To  find  the  mean  temperature  tor  every 
other  latitude,  we  have  only  to  lind  88  arith- 
metical means  between  84  and  31.  In  this 
manner  Mr.  Kirwau  calculated  the  following 
table: 

TABLE 

Of  the  Mean  Annual  Temperature  of  the 
Standard  Situation  in  every  Latitude. 


METEOROLOGY. 


Lat. 

Temper. 

Lat. 

Temper. 

Lat. 

Temper. 

90 

31. 

71 

36.6 

52 

51.1 

89 

31.04 

70 

37.2 

51 

52.4 

88 

31.10 

69 

37.8 

50 

52.9 

87 

31.14 

63 

38.4 

49 

53.8 

86 

31.2 

67 

39.1 

48 

54.7 

85 

31.4 

66 

39.7 

47 

55.6 

84 

31.5 

65 

40.4 

46 

56.4 

83 

31.7 

64 

41.2 

45 

57J 

82 

32. 

63 

41.9 

44 

58.4 

81 

32.2 

62 

42.7 

'  43 

59.4 

80 

aj.6  ' 

61 

43.5 

42 

60.S 

79 

32.9 

60 

44.3 

41 

61.2 

78 

33.2 

59 

45.09 

40 

62. 

77 

33.7 

58 

45.8 

39 

63. 

76 

34.1 

57 

46.7 

38 

63.9 

7.5 

34.5 

56 

47.5 

37 

64.8 

74 

35. 

55 

48.4 

36 

65.7 

7.'? 

35.5 

54 

49.2. 

35 

66.6 

72 

36. 

53 

50.2 

34 

67.4 

Lat. 

Temper. 
68.3 

Lat. 
23 

Temper. 

Lat.] 

33 

75.9 

32 

69.1 

22 

76.5 

if 

SI 

69.9 

21 

77.2 

11 

SO 

70.7 

20 

77.8 

10 

H9 

71.5 

19 

78.3 

9 

28 

72.3 

18 

78.9 

8 

9.7 

72.S 

17 

79.4 

7 

9.6 

73.8 

16 

79.9 

6 

25 

74.5 

15 

80.4 

5 

24 

75.4 

14 

80.S 

0 

81.3 

817 

82. 

82.3 

82.7 

82  9 

83.2 

83.4 

SS.6 

84. 


This  table,  liowever,  only  answers  for  liie 
teinpera'ure  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  ocean. 
It  was  calculated  for  that  part  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  which  lies  between  the  80th  degree 
of  northern  and  the  45lh  of  soutliern  lalitude, 
and  extends  westward  as  far  as  the  Gulf- 
stream,  and  to  within  a  few  leagues  of  the 
coast  of  America ;  anil  for  all  that  part  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  reaching  from  lalitude  4.^° 
north  to  latitude  40°  south,  fr;  m  the  20th  to 
the  275th  degree  of  longitude  east  oi  Lon- 
don. This  part  of  the  ocean  Mr.  Kirwan  calls 
the  standard  ;  the  rest  of  the  ocean  is  subject 
to  anomalies  which  will  be  alterwards  men- 
tioned. V 

Mr.  Kirwan  has  also  calculated  the  mean 
monthly  ten)perature  of  the  Standard  ocean. 
The  princi|)les  on  which  he  went  were  these : 
The  mean  temperature  of  April  seems  to  ap- 
proach very  nearly  to  the  mean  annual  tem- 


perature ;  and  as  far  as  heat  depends  on  the- 
action  of  the  solar  rays,  tlie  mean  heat  of 
every  month  is  as  the  inean  altitude  ot  the 
sun,  or  ;ather  as  the  sine  ol  the  sun's  altitude. 
The  mean  heat  of  April,  tiierefore,  ami  the 
sine  of  the  sun's  altitude,  being  given,  the 
mean  heat  of  May  is  iound  in  tins  maimers 
As  the  sine  of  the  sun's  mean  altitude  in 
April,  is  to  the  mean  heat  ol  April,  so  is  liie 
sine  of  the  sun's  mean  altitude  in  May,  to  the 
m(>an  lieat  of  May.  In  the  same  manner 
the  mean  heats  of  .lune,  July,  and  August, 
are  found;  but  the  rule  would  give  the  tem- 
perature of  the  succeeding^  months  too  low, 
because  it  does  not  take  in  the  heat  derived 
from  the  earth,  which  possesses  a  degree  of 
lieat  nearly  ecpial  to  the  mean  annual  tempe- 
rature. The  real  temperature  of  these 
months,  therefore,  must  be  looked  upon  as 
an  arithmetical  mean  between  the  astrono- 
mical and  terrestrial  heats.  'J  hus,  in  latittide 
31°,  the  astronomical  heat  of  the  month  of 
September  is  44  6°,  and  the  mean  annual  heat 
is  52.4° ;  therefore  the  real  heat  of  this  njonlh 

44.6  -I-  52.4 
should  be  — '—^ — '-  =z  48.5.     Mr.  liirv^an, 

however,  after  going  through  a  tedious  caU 
cul:;tion,  found  the  results  to  agree  so  ill  with 
observatki^ns,  tiiat  he  drew  Dp  the  following 
■  table,  partly  from  principles,  and  partly  by 
studying  a  variety  of  sea  journals: 


Lat. 

80' 

January 

22 

February 
March 

23. 

27. 

April 
May 
June 

S2.G 
36.5 
51. 

July 
Auj^ust 

50. 
39.5 

September 
October 

33.5 
28.5 

November 

23. 

December 

22.5 

T.4BLE  of  the  Monthly  Mean  Temperature  of  the  Standard  from  Lat.  80°  to  Lat.  10'. 


79" 

78° 

22.5 

23. 

23. 

2.3.5 

27.5 

28. 

32.9 

33.2 

36.5 

37. 

51. 

51.5 

50. 

50.5 

40. 

41. 

34. 

34.5 

29. 

29.5 

23.5 

24. 

23. 

23.5 

77° 

76° 

75° 

23.5 

24. 

24.5' 

24. 

24.5 

25. 

28.5 

29. 

29.5 

33.7 

34.1 

34.5 

37.5 

38. 

38.5 

52. 

52. 

52. 

51. 

51. 

51. 

41.5 

42. 

42.5 

35. 

35.5 

36. 

30. 

30.5 

31. 

24.5 

25. 

25.5 

24. 

24.5 

25. 

74" 

73° 

25. 

25.5 

25.5 

26. 

30. 

305 

35. 

35.5 

39. 

39.5 

52.5 

53. 

51.5 

52. 

43. 

43.5 

86.5 

37. 

31. 5 

32. 

26. 

26.5 

25.5 

26. 

72° 

71° 

70° 

69° 

68° 

67° 

66° 

26. 

26.5 

27. 

27.5 

27.5 

28. 

28. 

26.5 

27. 

27.5 

28. 

28; 

28.5 

29. 

31. 

31.5 

32. 

32.5 

33. 

33.5 

34. 

36. 

36.6 

37.2 

37.8 

38.4 

39.1 

39.7 

40. 

40.5 

41. 

41.5 

42. 

42.5 

43. 

53-5 

54. 

54. 

54.5 

54.5 

54.5 

3S. 

52.5 

53. 

53.5 

53.5 

53.5 

54. 

54.5 

44. 

44.5 

45. 

45.5 

46. 

47. 

48. 

38. 

38.5 

39. 

39.5 

40. 

41. 

42. 

32.5 

33. 

33.5 

34. 

34. 

35. 

36. 

27. 

27.5 

28. 

28.5 

29. 

30. 

31. 

26.5 

27. 

27.5 

28. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

65° 

64° 

63» 

28.. 

29. 

sew 

30. 

31. 

32. 

35. 

36. 

37. 

40.4 

41.2 

41.9 

44. 

45. 

46. 

55. 

55.5 

55.5. 

51.5 

55. 

35. 

48.5 

49. 

50. 

43. 

44. 

4.-. 

37.        37.5 

3S. 

32. 

32.5 

33. 

30.5 

31. 

31.. 

Lat. 


62° 


'January 
February 
Marcfi 
April 
May 
June 
July 
August 
September 
October 
November 
December 


31. 

33. 

38. 

42.7 

47. 

56. 

55.5 

51. 

46. 

39. 

34. 

32. 


61° 

60° 

32. 

33. 

34. 

35. 

39. 

40. 

43.5 

44.3 

48. 

49. 

56. 

56. 

55.3 

56.   . 

52. 

53. 

47. 

48. 

40. 

41. 

35. 

36. 

33. 

34. 

59° 

34. 

36. 

41. 

45.09 

50. 

56.5 

56.5 

54. 

49. 

42. 

37. 

35. 


58" 

'ssT 

37. 

42. 

45.8 

51. 

57. 

57. 

53. 

50. 

43. 

38. 

36. 


57° 

36. 

38. 

43. 

46.7 

52. 

57.' 

57.5 

56. 

51. 

44. 

39. 

37. 


56" 

55" 

54° 

53° 

52° 

51° 

50° 







37. 

38. 

.39. 

40. 

41. 

42. 

42.5 

39. 

40. 

41. 

42. 

43. 

44. 

44.5 

44.6 

45. 

46. 

48. 

49. 

50. 

50.5 

47.5 

48.4 

49.2 

50.2 

51.1 

52.4 

52.9 

53. 

54. 

55. 

56. 

57. 

53. 

58.5 

57.5 

58. 

58.5 

59. 

59. 

60. 

61: 

58. 

59. 

60. 

61. 

62. 

63. 

63.5 

57. 

58. 

59. 

60. 

61. 

62. 

611.3 

52. 

'?3" 

54. 

53. 

56. 

57. 

58.5 

45. 

'ife.- 

47. 

4S. 

49. « 

50. 

50.5 

40. 

41. 

42. 

43. 

44.5 

46. 

46.5 

38.  . 

39. 

4a 

41. 

42. 

44. 

44.5 

49° 

48» 

47° 

43.5 

43. 

42.5 

44.5 

45. 

45.5 

51. 

52.5 

53.. 

53.8 

54.7 

55.6 

59. 

60. 

61. 

62. 

63. 

64. 

64. 

65. 

66. 

64. 

65. 

66. 

59.  ' 

60. 

61-. 

51. 

52. 

58. 

47. 

48. 

49.- 

45. 

46. 

47. 

46°       45* 


44. 

46. 

S-0.5 

36.1 

62. 

65. 

67. 

67. 

62. 

54. 

50. 

48. 


44.5.- 

46.5 

54.5 

,57.5. 

63. 

66. 

68. 

68. 

63. 

55. 

51. 

49. 


Lat. 


January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

Sej>t  ember 

October  ' 

November 

Dec«mbcr 


44° 


45. 

47. 

35.5 

58.4 

64. 

67. 

69. 

69. 

64. 

53. 

52. 

50. 


43° 

42" 

41° 

40° 

39° 

45.5 

46. 

46.5 

49.5 

51. 

48. 

49. 

50. 

53. 

56.5 

55.5 

58.5 

59.5 

60. 

60.5 

59.4 

60.3 

61.2 

62.1 

63. 

65. 

66. 

67. 

63. 

69. 

68. 

69. 

70. 

70  5 

71. 

69.5 

70. 

70. 

71. 

71. 

69.5 

70.  . 

70. 

71. 

71. 

66. 

68. 

69.5 

70.5 

71. 

57. 

58. 

59. 

60. 

61. 

53. 

.54. 

55. 

50. 

57. 

51. 

52. 

53. 

[5-i. 

5S. 

38° 

37" 

36° 

35° 

34° 

33" 

32° 

52. 

535 

55. 

53.5 

59J} 

63. 

63. 

58. 

60. 

61. 

6'J. 

6.3. 

64.5 

66. 

61. 

62. 

63. 

64. 

65. 

66.5 

67.5 

63.9 

64.3 

65.7 

66.5 

67.4 

68.3 

69.1 

70. 

W.5 

71. 

71.5 

72. 

72.5 

73. 

71. 

71. 

71.5 

71.5 

7a. 

79.5 

73. 

72. 

7,2. 

72.5- 

72.5 

72.5 

72.5 

73. 

72. 

72. 

72.5 

72J 

72J 

72.5 

73. 

71.5 

72. 

72.5 

72J 

72.5 

72.5 

73. 

62. 

63. 

61. 

65. 

66. 

67.5 

68.5 

58. 

59. 

60. 

61. 

62. 

63. 

64.5 

56. 

57. 

58. 

59. 

60. 

61. 

62.5 

31° 

30° 

63. 

63.5 

67. 

68.5 

68.5, 

69.5 

69.9 

70.7 

73. 

73^ 

73. 

73.5 

73. 

73.5 

73. 

73.5 

73. 

73,5 

69.5 

70  5 

65.5 

06  5 

6  J. 5 

64.5 

29° 
03.5 

28° 

27* 

63.5 

64. 

68.5 

69.5 

69.5 

V- 

72.: 

72.5 

71.5 

72.3 

72.8 . 

74.5 

75.5 

76.. 

74.5 

75.5 

76. 

74.5 

75.5 

76. 

74.5 

75.5 

76. 

74. 

75.5 

76. 

71. 

72.5 

72.5 

68. 

69. 

69.5 

66. 

67. 

07.5 

METEOROLOGY, 


i;5 


Lat. 

January 

Feljruaiy 

March 

April 

Mny 

June 

Julr 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 


TABLE  of 

tlie  Monthly  Mean  Temperature,  !<c. 

lOid'iinieJ, 

2,5" 

24» 

23" 

22° 

21" 

20" 

19" 

18° 

n" 

16" 

w 

14" 

I.V 

12* 

U* 

10* 

~n5.f 

"fiir 

CS. 

C9. 

71. 

72. 

72.5 

73. 

7.3.5 

74. 

74.5 

75. 

76. 

"nJ 

~n~ 

71. 

•72. 

72. 

72.5 

74. 

75. 

76. 

76.5 

77. 

77.5 

78. 

78.5 

79. 

79.5 

79.8 

TO.' 

73.5 

74.5 

75. 

75.5 

7C. 

77. 

77.5 

78. 

7S.5 

79. 

79.5 

80. 

80.8 

81. 

itl.5 

SI.'! 

7-1..5 

75.4 

75.9 

76-.S 

77.2 

77.8 

78.3 

78.9 

79.4. 

79.9 

80.4 

80.8 

81.3 

81.7 

82. 

\77.S 

7S. 

78.5 

79.5 

80. 

80.5 

81. 

81.5 

82. 

82.5 

83. 

83. 

83.5 

84. 

84. 

7K. 

7K.5 

7y. 

79.5 

80. 

80.5 

81.5 

82. 

82.5 

83. 

83.5 

83,8 

84. 

84.3 

84 .6 

.-.•1... 

7K 

78.5 

7.9. 

79.S 

80. 

80.5 

81.5 

82.- 

82.5 

8.3. 

8.3.5 

83.8 

84. 

84.3 

84.G 

84.S 

78. 

78.5 

79. 

79.5 

80. 

80.5 

81.5 

82. 

82.5 

83. 

83.5 

83.8 

84. 

84.3 

84.G 

S4.S 

77.5 

78. 

78.5 

79. 

79.5 

80. 

81. 

81.5 

82. 

82.5 

83. 

83. 

83.5 

84. 

84.3 

84.6 

73.5 

74.5 

■75. 

7S.S 

77. 

78. 

79. 

80. 

81. 

81.5 

82. 

82.5 

83. 

83.5 

83.8 

84. 

72. 

73.5 

74. 

74.5 

75. 

75.5 

76. 

77. 

78. 

78.5 

79. 

79.5 

80. 

80.5 

80.8 

81. 

69.5 

70. 

71. 

71.5. 

72. 

72.5 

7.'3. 

74. 

75. 

75.5 

7G. 

76.5 

77. 

77.5 

7f;. 

78.5 

Froiu  this  table  it  iipppars,  tint  January" 
is  the  coklest  month  in  rvt-ry  latitiidr,  and 
thai  July  is  the  varr.icst  month  in  all  lati- 
tudes above  4S°.  Til  lowii- latitudes,  August 
is  generally,.  \varnie.it.  The  dill'erence  be- 
tween the'  hottest  and  coldest  months  in- 
creases in  proportion  to  the  distance  from 
the  equator.  Kvery  habitable  latitude  enjox  s 
a  mean  heat  of  00°  tor  at  lea-t  two  nicnlhs; 
this  heat  jeenis  ncce.ssary  lor  the  production 
ofcorji.  Within  ten  dejrrecs  ol  the  poles, 
the  temperatures  diJfervtry  little;  neither  do 
tliey  diHer  much  within  ten  degrees  of  the 
equator:  the  temperatures  of  dill(.Ti-nt  years 
diiiVr  very  little  near  the  equator;  but  they 
dill'er  mOre  and  more  as  the  latitudes  ap- 
proach the  poles.  ■ 

2.  'I'hat  the  temperature  of  the'afmospliere 
gradually  diminishes,  according  to  its  height 
above  tlie  level  of  the  sea,  is  veil  known. 
Thus  the  late  Dr.  Httton,  of  Edinburgh, 
found,  th;'.t  a  themiometei',  kept  on  the  toji) 
of  ArtlnuVseat,  usually  stood  three  degrees 
lower  than  a  thermometer  kept  at  the  bottom 
of  it.  Hence,  then,  a  height  of  800  leet  oc- 
casioned 3°  of  diminution  of  temperature. 
Oil  the  summit  of  Pincliinca,  the  thermo- 
meter stood  at  30°,  as  observed  by  Bouguer; 
white  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  the  same  la- 
titude, it  stood  at  84".  Here  a  height  of 
15564  feet  occasioned  a  diminution  of  tem- 
perature, aniouiitii;g  to  54°.  But  though 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  gradual  dimi- 
nution of  temperature,  according  to  the 
height,  it  is  l)y  no  means  easy  to  determine 
the  rate  of  diminution.  Euler  suppo.-es  it  to 
be  in  a  harmonic  progression ;  but  this  opi- 
nion is  contradicted  by  observations.  Saus- 
S'lre  supposes,  that  in  temperate  climates  the 
diniimilion  of  le.iiperature  amounts  to  1°  for 
every  287  feet  of  elevation.  But  Mr.  Kirvvrtii 
has  sliewn  that  no  such  rule  holds,  and  thi''. 
the  rate  of  diminution  varies  with  the  temp, 
rature  at  the  surface  of  the  earth.  We  a; 
indebted  to  this  philosopher  for  a  ver.y  inge- 
nious method  of  determining  the  rale  of  cii- 
minution  in  every  particular  case,  supposing 
the  temperature  "at  the  surface  of  the  earth 
known. 

Since  the  ternperature  of  the  atmosphere 
is  constantly  diminishing  as  we  ascend  above 
the  level  of  tlie  sea,  it  is  obvious,  that  at  a. 
certain  height  we  arrive  at  the  region  of  per- 
petual congelation.  This  region  varies  in 
height  according  to  tlie  latitude  dI  the  place ; 
it  is  highest  at  the  equator,  and  desi.  ends  gra- 
dually nearei",,t!ie  earth  as  we  approach  .the 
polos.  It  v..r!es  ;,lso  according  to  the  season, 
being  highe^t  in  summer,  and  lowest  in  win- 
ter. "  M.  Bouguer  fouud  the  cold  on.  the  top 


bf  Pinchihoa,  one  of  the  Andes,  to  extend 
from  seven  to  nine  degrees  below  !  he  freezing- 
point  every  morning  immediately  before  sun- 
rise. He  concluded,  therefore,  that  the 
mean  height  of  the  term  ot  congelation  (the 
place  where  it  freezes  during  some  part  of 
the  day  all  llie  year  round)  between  the  tro- 
pics was  15,577' feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea ;  but  in  latitude  28"  he  placed  it  in  sum- 
mer at  the  heitjht  of  13,440  feet.  Nov-',  if 
we  take  the  difference  between  the  tempe'ra- 
ture  of  the  equator  ^nd  the  freezing-point, 
it  is  evident  that  it  will  hear  the  same  pro- 
portion to  the  lerm  of  congelation  at  the 
niualor,  that  the  difference  between  the 
mean  temperature  of  any  other  degree  of 
latitude  and  the  freezing-point  bears  to  the 
term  of  congelation  in  th;it  latitude.  Thus 
the  mean  heat  of  the  equator  being  84°,  the 
dllference  between  it  and  32  is  52;  the  mean 
heat  of  latitude  28°  is  72.3°  ;  the  dilFerence 
between  which  and  32  is  40.3  :'  then  52  ; 
15577  ;:  40.3  !  12072.  In  this  manner  Mr. 
Kiiwa«  calculated  the  following  table : 

Mean  height 
of  the  term  of 
congelation. 

Lat.  Fed. 

0     •  -  -         15577 

5  -  -         15457 

10  -  -         150<)7 

15  -  -         1449.'^ 

■  ■>  -  -         13719 

13030 

,)  -  -         11592 

35  -  -  1GLI()4 

40  -  -  ynifi 

7558 

GJdO 

4912 

I    i  -  -  3GS4 

251(> 

-  I  -  -  1557 

748 

:    i  -  -  120 

Beyond  this  height,  which  has  been  called 
the  lower  term  of  congelation,  and  which 
must  vary  with  the  season  and  other  circum- 
stances, ilr.  Bouguer  has  distinguished  ano- 
theij  wliich  he  called  the  upper  term  of  con- 
gelation; that  is,  the  point  above  which  no 
N^isible  vapour  ascends.  iVIr.  Kirwan  consi- 
ders this  line  as  much  less  liable  to  vary  dui- 
itig  the  summer  months  than  tlie  lower  term 
of  congelation,  and  thereiere  has  made  choice 
of  it  to  determiiie  the  rale  of  the  diminution 
of  heat,  as  we  ascend  in  the  atmosphere. 
Bouguer  determined  t'ne  height  of  this  term 
in,  a  single  case,  and  Kirwan  hsis  calculated 


the  following  table  of  its  height  for  everj'  de- 
gree of  latitude  in  the  northern  hemisphere: 


TABLE 


Of  the  Height  of  the  Upper  Line  of  Consela— 
tion  in  the  different  Latitudes  oithe  Nortlieru 
Hemisphere. 


N. 

N. 

N. 

Lat. 

Feet. 

Lat. 

Feet. 

Lat- 

Feet. 

0 

2800O 

33 

19800 

62 

4SS<» 

5° 

27784 

34 

19454 

63 

4910 

6 

27644 

35 

19169 

64 

4.?31 

T 

27504 

36 

1S577 

65 

•  4752 

8 

27364 

37 

179S5 

66 

46!<4 

9 

27224 

38 

17393 

67 

.      461G 

10 

.27084 

39 

16801 

68 

454* 

11 

afiSKO 

40 

16207 

69 

44t:a 

12 

26676 

41 

15712 

70 

4418 

13 

.26472 

1  -12 

1.5217 

71 

4354 

14 

262G8 

43 

14722 

72 

4295 

15 

26QC1 

1  44 

14227 

73 

4235 

16 

,   2.5781 

1  43 

137SO 

74 

4177 

17 

25501 

-W 

13235 

75 

4119 

18 

25221- 

47 

12740 

76 

4067 

19 

24941 

48 

12245 

77 

4015 

20 

24661 

49 

1 1750 

78 

396.3 

21 

24404 

50 

11253 

79 

S9U 

ii2 

24147 

51 

10124 

80 

3861 

23 

23S90 

52 

69G5 

81 

3315 

24 

23633 

'  53 

7S06 

82 

3769 

25 

23423 

!  54 

6647 

83 

3723 

26 

22906 

'■  55 

5617 

84 

3677 

27 

223S9 

'  56 

5533 

85 

3631 

28 

21872 

1  57 

5439 

86 

3592 

29 

213.55 

1  58 

5345 

87 

3553 

30 

20:i38 

!  59 

5251 

88" 

3514 

:jl 

20492 

60 

5148 

89 

3475 

32 

20146 

61 

5068 

90 

3432 

The  following  rule  of  Mr.  Kirwan  ■will  enable  - 
us  to  ascertain  the  temperature  at  any  required 
height,  provided  we  know,  the  temperature  at 
the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Let  the  ol^servcd  temperature  at  the  surface 
of  the  earth  be  ^  ot,  the  height  given  =  6,  and 
the  height  of  the  upper  term  of  congel.ition  for 

,^  .  32 

the  given  latitude  be  :^  r ;  :heu =the; 

Too"" 

diminution  of  temperature  for  every  hundred 
feet  of  elevation ;  or  it  is  the  conmiou  dllference  ^ 
of  the  terms  of  the  progresslou  required.    Let 
tills  common  difference  thus  found  be  deuoted  : 


bv  i ;  then  c  x 


b 
ICO 


gives  us  the  whole  dimi- 


nation  of  temperature  from  the  surface  of  the^ 
earth  to  the  given  height.  Let  this  diminution 
be. denoted  by  d,  theu.w  —  rf  is  o'vioMslj'  the-.- 
leniperature  required.  An  eian>;.le  will  make.. 
this  rule  sulficicntly  obvious,  lu  latitude  56°,  . 
the  heat  below  being  54  ,  iv^iuircd  the  tenipeia— 
turc  uf.  the  air  at  the  height  of  803  feel.?  . 


i;4 


Here  ai  =z  5i,  t  =  5533, 


Too 


32 


1 


J  4.33 


/. 


=  0.404  =:  c,  and  c  X =  0.404  X  S.Oa  := 

3.24  =  i!,  and  m  —  d  =z  5i  —  S.'J4  =  50.75. 
Here  we  see  thit  the  ternperature  of  the  a!r  SOU 
feet  above  the  surface  of  tlie  earth  is  5(f.  75. 

From  this  method  of  liitiniating  the  dinii- 
nuLion  ot  ti-mperature,  which  a;jreeo  reiiiavk- 
ably  well  witli  obiervutioii,  we  see  that  tlie 
heat  diminishes  in  an  arithmetical  progres- 
sion. Hence  it  follows,  that  the  heat  of  the 
air  at  a  distance  from  the  earth  is  not  ow- 
ing to  the  ascent  of  hot  strata  o(  air  froin  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  but  to  the  conducting 
power  of  the  air. 

3.  This  rule,  however,  applies  only  to  the 
temperatme  of  the  air  during  the  suiiniier 
months  of  the  year.  In  winter  the  upper 
strata  of  the  atmosphere  are  often  warmer 
than  tile  lower.  Tluis,  on  the  31st  of  Janu- 
aryj  177ti,  the  thermometer  on  the  snmmit 
of  Artiiur's-seat  stood  six  decrees  hi<j;her  than 
a  thermometer  at  IlawkhiH,  v.hich  is  6s4 
feet  lower,  Mr.  Kirwan  considers  this  su- 
perior heat,  almost  nniformly  observed  dur- 
ing winter,  as  owing  to  a  current  of  warin  air 
from  the  ec|iiator,  which  rolls  towards  tlie 
north  pole  dvu-ing  otir  winter. 

4.  Such,  then,  in  general  is  the  metliod  of 
finding  the  mean  ar.nual  tempeialure  over 
the  globe.  There  are,  however,  several  ex- 
ceptions to  these  general  rules,  which  come 
now  to  be  mentioned. 

'l'h::t  part  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  which  lies 
between  north  latitudes  52°  and  6()'',  is  no 
broader  at  its  northern  I'xtreniitv  than  42 
jniles,  and  at  its  southern  extremity  than 
1300  miles:  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose, 
therefore,  tliat  its  temperature  will  be  con- 
siderably influenced  by  tlie  surrounding 
land,  which  consists  of  ranges  of  mountains 
covered  a  great  part  of  the  year  with  snow ; 
and  there  are  besides  a  great  many  high,  and 
consequently  cold,  islands  scattered  through 
it.  For  these  reasons  Mr.  Kirwan  concludes, 
that  its  temperature  is  at  least  four  or  five 
decrees  below  tlie  standard.  lUit  we  are 
not  yet  furnished  with  a  siillicicnt  nmnber  of 
observations  to  determine  this  with  accu- 
racy. 

It  is  the  general  opinion,  tlial  the  southern 
hemispliore,  beyond  the  4r)t!i  degree  of  lati- 
tude, is  considerably  cold*r  than  the-  corre- 
sponding [)art3  of  ti'ie  northern  hemispliere. 
Mr.  Kirwan  has  shewn  that  this  holds  viilh 
respect  to  the  summer  of  !he  southern  hemi- 
sphere, but  that  the  wijitiT  in  the  same  lati- 
tudes is  milder  than  in  the  northeui  hemi- 
sphere. 

Small  jeas  surrotmded  with  land,  at  lea-^i 
in  temperate  and  cold  climates,  are  generally 
warmer  in  smiimer  and  colder  in  winter  than 
the  standard  oci-an,  bc.rause  they  are  a  good 
deal  inllnenced  bv  the  temperature  of  the 
land.  The  gulf  of  Bothnia,  for  instance,  is 
for  them-.t  part  frozen  in  winter;  but  in 
summer  it  is  sometimes  heated  to  70°,  a  de- 
gree of  hp.it  never  to  be  found  in  the  oppo- 
site part  of  the  Atlantic.  The  German  Sea 
is  above  three  degrees  colder  in  winter,  and 
five  degrees  warmer  hi  smnmer,  than  the  At- 
lantic. Tlie  Mediterranean  Sea  is,  for  the 
greater  part  of  its  extent,  wamier  both  in 
iummcr  and  winter  than  the  Atlantic,  which 


METEOROLOGY. 

)  therefore  flowsinto  it.  The  Black  Sea  is 
colder  thaji  the  Mediterranean,  and  tiows 
into  it.  .  '    - 

Tiie  eastern  parts  of  North  America  are 
much  colder  tlian  the  opposite  coast  of  Eu- 
rope, and  fall  sliort  of  the  standard  by  about 
10''  or  12',  as  appears  from  American  ni'le- 
orilogical  tables.  Tiie  causes  of  this  remark- 
able diiTereiice  are  many.  The  higb.est  part 
of.  North  America  "li^  between  the  40th  and 
50th  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  the  100th 
and  1  lOtli  degree  of  longitude  west  from  Lon- 
don ;  for  tliere  the  greatest  rivers  originate. 
'I'he  very  height,  therefore,  makes  this  spot 
colderthan  it  otherwise  would  be.  it  is  co- 
vered with  immense  forests,  and  abound-  with 
large  swamps  and  morasses,  wliii  h  render  it  in- 
^capableof  receiving  any  great  degree  of  heat ; 
so  that  the  rigour  of  winter  is  much  less  tem- 
pered bv  the  heat  of  liie  earth  than  in  the 
old  continent.  To  the  east  lie  a  number  of 
very  large  lakes ;  and  farther  north,  Hud- 
son's-bay  ;  about  50  miles  on  the  south  of 
which  tii.'re  is  a  range  of  mountains,  which 
prevent  its  receiving  any  heat  from  thatiiuar- 
ter.  This  bav  is  bounded  cm  the  east  by  the 
mountainous  country  of  Labrador,  and  by  a 
number  of  islands.  Hence  tiie  coldness  of 
the  north-uest  winds,  and  tlie  lowness  of  the 
temperature.  But  as  the  cultivated  parts  of 
Nortli  America  are  now  much  warmer  than 
formerly,  there  is  reason  to  expect  that  the 
climate  will  become  still  milder  when  the 
country  is  better  cleared  of  woods,  though 
perhaps  it  will  never  equal  the  temperature 
of  the  old  continent. 

Islands  are  warmer  than  continents  in  the 
same  degree  of  latitude;  and  countries  lying 
to  the  windward  of  extensive  mountains  or 
forests  are  warmer  than  those  1\  ing  to  the 
leeward.  Stones  or  sand  have  a  less  capa- 
city for  heat  than  earth  has,  which  is  always 
somewhat  moist;  tliev  hcdt  or  cool,  therefore, 
more  rapidly  and  to  a  greater  degree,  tience 
the  violent  heat  of  Arabia  and  Africa,  and 
the  intense  cold  of  Terra  del  Fuego.  Living 
vegetables  alter  their  temperature  very  slow- 
ly, but  their  evaporation  is  great;  and  if  they 
are  tall  and  close,  as  in  forests,  they  exclude 
the  sun's  rays  from  the  earth,  and  shelter  the 
winter  snow  from  the  wind  and  the  sun. 
Woody  countries,  therefore,  are  much  colder 
than  those  which  are  cultivated. 

Air  is  one  of  those  bodies  which  have  re- 
ceived the  name  of  electric,  bec.use  they  are 
capable  of  being  positively  or  negatively 
charged  with  electric  matter.  It  not  only 
contains  that  portion  of  e' -otricity  which 
seems  necessary  to  the  c  istitulion  of  all 
terrestrial  bodies,  but  it  is  liable  also  to  be 
charged  negatively  or  pc: lively  when  elec- 
tricity is  abstracted  or  iiKrodnced  by  means 
of  conducting  bothes.  '!  iiese  difl'erent  states 
must  occasion  a  varietv  if  phenomena,  and 
in  all  probability  com .  ibutc  very  consider- 
ably to  the  various  coriiiinations  and  decom- 
positions which  are  continually  going  on  in 
air.  'I  he  electric, :1  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
then,  is  a  point  of  considerable  importance, 
and  has  wit!;  great  propriety  occupied  the 
attention  ,i  philo50|)licrs  ever  since  Dr. 
Frank' 1.  demonstrated  that  thunder  is  occa- 
sion d  by  the  agency  of  electricity. 

1.  Tlie  mo.l  complete  set  of  observations 
on  the  electricity  of  the  atniosijhere  were 
miule  by  jirofessor  I'eccaiia  of  Turin.  He 
foiuul  the  air  almost  always  positively  elec- 


trical, especially  in  the  day-time  and  in  dry 
weather.  When  dark  or  wet  weather  clears 
up,  the  electricity  is  always  negative.  Low 
thick  fogs  rising  mto  dry  air  carry  up  a  great 
deal  of  electric  iiKiller. ' 

2.  In  the  morning,  when  the  hygrometer 
indicates  dryness  equal  to  that  of  the  preced- 
ing day,  positive  electricity  obtains  even  be- 
fore sunrise.  As  the  sun  gets  up,  this  elec- 
tricity increases  more  remarkably  if  the  dry- 
ness increases,     it  diminishes  in  llie  evening. 

3.  The  mid-day  electricity  of  days  equally 
dry  is  proportional  to  the  heat. 

4.  Winds  always  lessen  the  electricity  of 
a  clear  day,  esi;ecially  if  (bnip. 

5.  For  the  most  part,  «hen  there  is  a  cleair 
sky  with  little  wind,  a  couMilerable  electricity 
arises  after  sunset  at  dew-falling. 

6.  Considerable  light  has  been  thrown 
upon  the  sources  of  atmospherical  electricity 
by  the  experiments  of  S.iussure  and  other 
piiilosophcrs.  Air  is  not  only  electrified  by 
friction,  like  other  electric  bodies,  but  the 
state  of  its  elettricity  is  clianged  by  various 
chemical  oper.itions  which  often  go  on  in  the 
atmosphere.  Evaporation  bcems  in  all  cases 
to  convey  electric  matter  into  the  atmo- 
sphere. On  the  other  hand,  wlien  steam  is 
condensed  into  water,  the  air  becomes  nega- 
tively electric. 

Farther,  Mr.  Canton  lias  ascertained  that 
dry  air,  when  heated,  becomes  negatively 
electric,  and  positive  when  cooled,  even 
when  it  is  not  permitted  to  expand  or  con- 
tract :  and  the  expansion  and  contraction  of 
air  also  occasion  changes  in  its  electric  state. 

Thus  there  are  four  sources  of  atmospheric 
electricity  known:  1.  Friction;  2.  Evapora- 
tion;  3.  Meat  and  cold;  4.  Expansion  and 
contraction :  not  to  mention  the  electricity 
evolved  by  the  melting,  freezing,  solution, 
&c.  of  various  bodies  in  contact  with  air. 

7.  As  air  is  an  electric,  the  matter  of  elec- 
tricity, when  accumulated  in  any  particular 
strata,  will  not  imnicdi.dtly  make  its  way  to 
the  neighbouring  strata,  but  will  induce  in 
them  clvjiiges  similar  to  what  is  induced  upon 
plates  ot  glass  or  similar  bodies  ])iled  upon 
each  other.  Therefore,  if  a  stratum  of  air  is 
electrified  positively,  the  stratum  immediate- 
ly above  it  will  be  negative,  the  stratum 
above  that  positive,  and  .so  on.  Suppose 
now  that  an  imperfect  conductor  was  to 
come  into  contact  with  each  of  these  strata: 
we  know  from  the  principles  of  electricity 
that  the  equihbiium  wouUl  be  restored,  and 
that  this  would  be  attended  with  a  loud  noise, 
and  with  a  flash  of  light.  Clouds  are  imper- 
fect conductors,  if  a  cloud,  therefoie,  cvimi  s 
into  contact  with  two  such  strata,  a  thunder- 
clap will  follow.  If  a  positive  stratum  is 
situ.ited  near  the  earth,  the  intervention  of  a 
cloud  will,  by  servmi;  as  a  stepping-sloni;, 
bring  the  stratum  withui  the  striking  distance, 
and  a  thunderclap  will  be  heard  while  the 
electrical  lluid  is  difcharging  iiself  into  the 
earth.  If  the  stratuiii  is  negative,  the  con- 
trary ell'ects  will  take  place.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear, however,  that  thunder  is  often  occa- 
sioned by  a  discharge  of  electiic  matter  from 
the  eartli  into  the  atmos|)here.  The  acci- 
dents, most  of  them  at  least,  which  were  I'or- 
merly  ascribed  to  this  cause,  are  now  nuicli 
more  satisfactorily  accoimted  for  by  lord 
Stanhope's  theory  of  the  returning  stroke. 
The  discharge  from  the  clouds  directly  into 


tlie  parili  h  also  probably  less  ri'eqiient  lliaii 
(roiii  cluiul  to  cioiul. 

'I'Ik- lur  gii'.Ut-r  piiit  of  file  visible  plieiio- 


^'  lur  gii'.ut-r 
of  Im'  atiiii 


iiK'lia  ol  llii'  atiiius|ili'.Te  are  due  lo  llif  \\a- 
U-i'  wliuli,  iM'iicg  r;iiM.'(.J  b)  t'vaporalioii,  in 
IraiispinU'd  liciu  jjlaii.-  lo  place  in  vapour, 
^iiiil  wiurli,  pliyMtally  spi-akirig,  is  «  piupcr 
coiupoiinit  part  ol  tin-  air.  \\  lieu  by  any 
iTicans  a  ponioi!  of  lliis  is  deprivi-d  of  its  toii- 
Sulueut  caloric,  it  reappears  in  iiiiiiuti'  drop<, 
wliich  are  at  first  uuiloruily  diffused,  and 
Icsai.il  the  transparency  of  llie  air  in  pmijur- 
tiuii  to  tlicir  al  uiidaiiee.  By  ilie  report  of 
those  wlio  have  ascended  tlie  liif^liest  moun- 
tain'-, or  pel  formed  aerostatic  voyage?,  tliere 
is  usually  a  suOicieiit  cpiantity  ol  lliis  diliUbeil 
water,  especially  toward:,  evening,  lo  become 
visible  from  above  as  a  sea  of  haze.  It  should 
seem  thai  this  is,  in  fa<  I,  tli  •  vi  il  uhlch, 
being  drawn  over  the  sal)le  of  the  sky,  con- 
verts it  lo  a  blue  of  various  decrees  of  inten- 
sity; or  at  least  tliat  it  shares  with  the  Irani- 
parent  air  in  this  efi'eet. 

'I'he  next  stage  is  dew,  or  rather  haze,  for 
the  !att<n'  term  seons  more  appropriate  lo  the 
appearance  of  dew  while  it  is  tailing.  Here  the 
drops  have  so  far  become  collectetl  as  to  form 
an  aggregate  laintly  detined  in  tlie  air.  'I'o 
this  succeed  various  dehnile  aggregates, 
under  the  general  term  cloud.  Out  of  the 
latt-r  are  formed  l■.'^iu,  snow,  and  hail,  by 
which  the  product  of  evaporation  is  iinally 
restored  to  the  earth.  '1  lie  excess  for  any 
given  time,  of  the  falling  water  o\  it  tliatuliiLn 
is  evaporated,  passes  oli"  by  the  springs  and 
rivers  to  that  gr^id  reservoir  which  lornis  tlie  | 
far  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  the  globe.       i 

Tracts  of  forest,  especially  if  mountaiiion>:, 
invite  tin*  rain,  and  protect  tlie  springs  ;  wliile 
the  accumulated  heat  on  cultivated  plains  ; 
often  causes  the  clouds  to  pass  over  them,  or 
to  be  dissipated.  Clearing  of  land  and  cul- 
ture, therefore,  tend  to  lessen  the  rain  and 
the  rivers;  but  it  is  for  the  interest  of  agricul- 
ture to  leave  a  certain  quantity  of  limber 
fjrowing,  especially  in  springy  lands,  and  to 
repair  tlie  waste  ot  it  by  planting;  for  it  is 
not  inipos-ible,  that  in  a  series  ot  ages,  the 
axe  and  the  plough  too  freely  applied  might 
convert  a  tract  of  fruitful  country  into  one 
little  better  than  an  .African  desert. 

Tlie  mean  annual  cpiantity  of  rain  is  greatest 
at  the  equator,  and  decreases  gradually  as  we 
approach  the  poles.     'I'hus  at 
(iianada,  Antilles,  lij°  N.  lat.  it  is  1:26  inches 
Cape  Fran:;oi*,  St. 

Domingo  -  19"  46'  -  -  120 
Calcutta  .  -  -  23  '23  -  -  81 
Home  -  -  -  -  41  54  -  -  39 
England     -     -    -  33  -     -      32 

Petersburgh  -  -  59  16  -  -  16. 
On  the  contrary,  the  number  of  rainy  days 
is  smallest  al  the  equator,  ai.cl  increases  in 
proportion  to  the  distance  from  it.  l''rom 
north  latitude  12 'to  43",  the  mean  number  oi 
rainy  days  is  78  ;  from  43°  to  46°  the  mean 
puniher'is  103;  from  46°  to  50°  it  is  134; 
from  51°  to  60°,  161. 

The  number  of  rainy  days  is  often  greater 
in  winter  llian  in  summer;  but  the  quantity 
of  rain  is  greater  in  summer  than  in  winter. 
At  Pcteisburgh  the  number  of  rainy  or  snnwy 
days  during  winter  is  S4,  and  the  quantity 
which  lalis  is  only  about  live  inches;  during 
summer  the  number  of  r.iiny  davs  is  nearly 
tlie  same,  but  the  qu.mtity  w'hich  fulls  is  about 
11  mcbes. 


MF.TEOllOLOGY. 

More  rain  falls  in  mountainous  cotintiies 
(lian  in  plains.  Among  (he  Andes  it  is  said 
to  rain  almost  perpelually;  while  in  l'".g>pt  it 
hardly  ever  rams  al  all.  If  a  rain-gauge  is 
placed  on  tlie  gr'Hind,  and  another  al  some 
height  perpendicularly  above  it,  more  rain 
will  be  collected  into  the  lower  Ihiin  iiitoth' 
higher;  a  )) oof  Ih.at  the  <|\iintilv  of  r,  in  iii- 
irea<esas  it  descends,  owine  perhap;  to  the 
drops  atlrai  ting  vapour  during  tiieir  passage 
Ihrougli  the  lower  strata  of  iTie  atmosphere 
wlicre  the  greatest  quantity  resides.  This, 
however,  is  not  always  the  case,  as  Mr.  Cop- 
land of  Dumlrics  discovered  in  the  course  of 
his  experiments.  lie  observed  also,  that 
when  lhe<juanlity  of  rain  collected  into  the 
lower  gauge  was  greatest,  the  rain  commonly 
continued  for  some  time;  and  that  the  great- 
est (pianlity  was  collected  in  the  higher  gauge 
imly  either  at  the  end  of  great  rains,  or  dur- 
ing rains  wliicli  did  not  last  long.  These  ob- 
servations are  important;  and  may,  if  fol- 
lowed out,  give  us  new  knowledge  of  the 
causes  of  rain.  They  seem  to  show,  thai 
during  rain  the  atmosphere  is  somehow  or 
oilier  brought  into  a  state  which  induces  it  to 
part  with  its  moisture;  and  that  the  rain 
continues  as  long  as  this  state  continues. 
Were  a  suliicient  number  of  observations 
made  on  this  .subject  in  ditferent  places,  and 
was  the  atmosphere  carefully  analysed  dur- 
ing dry  weather,  during  rain,  and  immedi- 
ately alter  rain,  we  might  soon  perhaps  dis- 
cover th't  true  theory  of  rain. 

Kain  falls  in  all  seasons  of  the  year,  at  all 
times  o!  the  d.iy,  and  during  the  night  as  well 
as  the  (lay  ;  though,  according  to  M.  ToalJo, 
a  greati-r  quantity  falls  during  the  day  than 
the  night,  'i'he  cau^e  of  rain  then,  whatever 
it  may  be,  must  he  something  which  operates 
at  all  limes  and  seasons.  Rain  falls  also  dur- 
ing the  continuance  of  every  wind,  butoften- 
est  when  the  wind  blows  from  the  south. 
l*'alls  of  rain  often  happen  likewise  during 
jxrfect  calms. 

It  appears  from  a  paper  published  by  M. 
Cotte  in  the  Journal  de  Physique  for  Oct. 
1791,  containing  the  mean  ipiantity  of  rain 
falling  at  147  places  situated  between  north 
lat.  1  r  and  6u°,  deduced  from  tables  kept  .st 
these  places,  that  the  mean  annual  quaulitv 
of  rain  falling  in  all  these  places  is  34.7  inches'. 
Let  us  suppo-e  then  (which  cannot  be  very 
far  from  the  truth)  that  the  mean  annual 
cjiiantity  of  rain  for  Uie  whole  globe  is  thirty- 
tour  inches.  The  superficies  of  the  globe 
consists  of  170,981,012  square  miles,  or 
680, 401, 498,47 1,475,'200,  square  inches.  The 
quantitv  ot  rain  therefore  falling  annuallv  will 
amount  to  23,337,650,8 12,030,''l 56,800  cubic 
inches,  or  somewhat  more  than  91,751  cubic 
indes  of  water. 

'I'll  j  ilry  land  amounts  to  52,745,253  square 
nii'es ;  tlie  <piantity  of  raiu  falling  on  it  annu- 
ally tlieri-fore  will  amount  to  30,900  cubic 
miles.  The  quantity  of  water  running  annu- 
uliy  into  the  sea  is  13,140  cubic  miles  ;  a 
c)uantity  of  water  equal  to  wh'ch  must  be 
supplied  by  evaporation  from  the  sea,  other- 
wise the  land  would  soon  be  completely 
drained  of  its  moislure. 

'I'he  (lUauttty  oi  rain  falling  annuallv  in 
Great  Britain  ma;  be  seen  from  tlie  following 
table  :  which  is  probably  tiie  most  extensive 
uf  the  kind  ;  and  as  accurate  as  the  use  of  .u- 
slru.iients,  not  constructed  by  one  persoi, 
and  ailjUited  to  a  coitvuon  staudard,  will  al- 


low.  It  is  niostly  coin[)iled  from  the  Transac- 
lions  of  different  learned  societies. 
CouKTiKs  Mear.  ann.  I'epth 

(maritime).  Places.  in  inches. 

Ct:Kil'cr'aiid.     -  Ke.^wick,  7  ve.irs         -        67,  5 
Carlisle,  1  )'i.ar  .         20.  2 

IVeitKortlanJ,     IlCiidal,  1 1  ye»rs  -         59.  3 

l-'r.ll-fool,  :;  yciirs         -         5.5.  7 
Waith  builon.  .',  years  -JO" 

Lamathhe.     -    Jjniie.isier,  10  years      -         Ao 

l.ivt-rp.jol,  1«  yt-irs      -         ;)■!.  4 
^;antlil;».er,  y  ycirs    -         33 
'J  ov/nicy  -  -         41 

Crawslyawboolh,  near  Has- 
Jingden,  u  years        -         60 
Gtcucftlcri^'ire.    Biisicl,  3  years  -         2'j.  2 

HnKitrulihire.     i.rid^ewa.cr,  :(  ye^rs  'J.'j.  ?, 

CorniutilL     -     JLiid^uar.  near   Mount's 

Hay,  0  yeais  -        41 

AruMlic-r  ..lac,  1  year  29.  9 

Dnentliirr.     -    I'lymoiuh,  ■.;  years       -         4«.  5 

Hamfishirt,  -     vielooiiine,  1,  years       -         w7.  2 

Fyficld,  7  years  -        '23.  Q 

Kent.        -        Rover,  .5 )  cars  -        37.  $ 

f.iic\.       r        Upmiiisicr  -        -         19.  5 

Norjoik.      -       Isoivich,  13  years        -         '2T>.  5 

I'eriii'jire.     -      DHrruv\  by,  ne;ir  I^eeds,  6  y.  27.  S 

Oarsdilc,  near  Scdbergh, 

3  3  ears  -         -         Jo.  3 

T^Wt/jifrihr^iDn/.W'iddiingtOTif  1  vear     -      21.  2 

Counties  (inland).     Places.  Means. 

MiJJUstw     -     London,  7  years           -  23. 

Hiirn:          -      South  I.aiKbcih,  9  years  22.  7 

Hirt/Drdshifc.     Near  Wa;  e,  5  years     -  25 

Hiir,tli!g(iotiil}.     Kimhulton,  7  vears      -.  25 

Ddrbyn.iii.     -    Chats  worth,  15  years  27.  8 

HiiiltUiiJihire.       l.yiiaor,  21  years        ^  2-i.  3 

NorthoKlitiinsh.  Near  Oundle,  14  years  23 


General  mean  -  35.2 
As  the  places  su'ojeci  to  much  ram  predo- 
miiiate  considerably  in  this  list,  it  w.ll  pro- 
bably be  nearer  the  truth,  if  we  take  the 
mean  annual  raji  in  England  and  \\  ales  at 
a  quantity  not  exceeding  32  inches. 

in  this  cmimry  it  generally  rains  less  ia 
March  than  in  IXovember,  in  tlie  proportiun 
at  a  medium  of  7  to  12.  It  generally  rains 
less  in  April  than  Octoher  in  the  proportion 
of  1  to  2  nearly  at  a  medium.  It  generally 
rains  less  in  May  than  September;  the  chances 
that  it  does  so  are  at  lea»t  4  to  3:  but  when 
it  rains  plentifully  in  May  (as  J. 8  niclies  or 
more),  it  generally  rains  but  little  in  Sep- 
tember; and  when  it  rams  one  inch  or  less  in 
May,  it  rauis  plentifully  lu  September. 

Snow  is  evidently  lormed  hy  a  process  of 
regular  crystallisation  among  minute  frozeu 
panicles  ot  water  fioatiiig  in  the  air.  It  is 
remarkable,  that  previous  to,  and  during,  the 
tall  ot  snow  in  quantity,  the  tempeiature  con- 
tinues about  3-'".  it  should  seem  that  the 
evolution  of  tne  constituent  caloric  of  the 
w:iler  produces  the  same  effect  when  ice  is 
formeu  in  theatmospheiv,  as  when  it  is  loim- 
ed  ui  water.  The  structure  of  acrvstal  of 
snow  denmnstrates  tliat  a  drop  ot  rain  is  aUa 
formed  by  the  union  ot  a  great  number  of 
smaller  drops.  When  these  come  together 
in  the  act  of  freezu.g,  and  suddenly,  tliey 
form  a  nucleus  of  v.  .lue  spongy  ice,  >.  hicu, 
by  its  extreme  coldness,  becoming  incrusteii 
with  clear  ice  from  tue  uate.  t  collects  in 
Its  descent,  constitutes  hail  a^  we  usually  see 
It.  Somctiaii-s,  however,  the  nucuiis  liUs 
unincrustcd,  whicti  is  a  ptogiiustic  ot'  ^harp 
■  losis.  Hail  has  been  liKevvise  ooservecl  per- 
fectly transparent,  and  havia,  the  in-m  i.f 
in  oulate  i.pUeroc.>,  sliowi.ig  iiial  ii  cousisted 


(-,,■  ,'   ,^.  ,.:,;(.|i  ha<l  be.n  frozen  ei.tire  in 
j.  ritatciy  inot.on. 

'  ^ assumed  by  the  suspended  wa- 
ter ill  the  r.ilerval  between  the  fust  prccipi- 
tafoii  and  the  descent  of  rain,  af/bid  a  to- 
pioiis  iield  of  observation.  Tliese  are  not„as 
J„i.'lu  be  liaitily  supposed,  the  sport,  of 
■\i\w^-^  diangins  with  every  niovenient;  oi  the 
coii'.au.iiis  medium.-  Indeed  llie atmospliere, 
at  the  lieiehl  where  clouds  n-ually  appear,  is 
4,n<!isturl»e'i  by  the  various  obstacles  which 
t"- row  it  into  contending  streams  and  eddies 
near  tlie  surlace  of  the  earth,  and  i'lows  in  a 
mo'e  direct  and  even  current.  Accordnigly, 
tl-.e  particles  of  water  whicli  it  contains  are 
allowed  to  assume  a  certain  arrangement; 
and  constitute  a  fynii,  which  is  often  eciually 
well  deriaed  at"  a  distance  with  that  of  solds 
althouMi,  were  we  to  penetrate  it,  we  snould 
perceive -onW  the  grey  mist.   ;  V-     ^ 

These  -forins  have  lately  been  discovered 
to  be  subject  tocertain  laws  in  their  produc- 
tion their  action  on  each  other,  and  theirre- 
s->hition  into  Tain.  The  visible  course  of 
these  has  been  traced  and  described;  and  the 
antieiit  mode  of  drawing  prognostics  sceiiis 
in  consequence  likely  to  be  restored,  with  the 
.advantaije  of  a  nomenclature,  bv  which  the 
learned  may  reason  on  a  subject  hitherto,  for 
want  of  terms,  in  a  manner  incommunicable, 
and  contriied  to  the  adepts  of  experience. 
iJefore  the  nomenclature,  it  will  be  proper  to 
•exhil)it  the  ireneral  principles  on  which  its 
^Ijthor  ''1  '''5  explanation  of  the 

Jacts.  ..  r     1   I-       • 

•  'EvapoiaiMi  ii  iu)t  a  process  of  solution  in 
air  neither  is  it  probable  that  the  water  is 
decomposed  bv  it.  It  is  the  same  procession 
jo  the  "rCcit  si^le  of  nature,  as  m  a  small  quan- 
tity of  waicr  placed  over  the  tire.  Vapour  is 
lormed  and  diiTused  in  all  directions  from  its 
source  with  a  force  proportioned  to  the  teni- 
pcri'lure  of  the  water,  and  subject  to  the  op- 
posing force  of  the  vapour  alreatly  in  the  air. 
The  vapour  thus  emiited  may  be  deconi- 
nostd  in  diiVereiit  ways  ;  as,  1.  Immediately 
on  its  passing  into  the  atmosphere,  producing 
a  fo!?  Qf  mist.  2.  Afier  having  mounte<l 
Vmoiiah  the  warm  air,  near  tiie  earth,  on  its 
arrival  in  a  higher  and  colder  region,  m  which 
tase  dense  vlouds  are  tiiore  formed.  3.  After 
havin'J^  been  uniforrtdv  mi  set!  w  itii  the  ifiass  of 
t'^e  atTno'iphere,  and  perhaps  travelled  with  it 
to  a  ffreat  (hstar.ce  from  its  source;  m  this  case 
it  eiiuer  tails  in  dew,  or  is  collected  intosiieets 
.,r  hori-tontal  beds  during  a  slower  subsidence; 
or  lastly,  it  becomes  a  conductor  to  the  elec- 
tricitv  il  the  c'luilibrinip  of  the  latter  is  dis- 
turbVd;  and  indicates  by  its  arrange.r.cnt  in 
threads,  the  usual  effects  of  that  fluid  on  light 

in  every  case,  the  caloric  which  constituted 
the  v.u)our  decomposed,  appears  to  jjass  into 
t  le  atmosphere,  which  hence  becomes  olten 
sensib'y  warmer  just  before  rain;  and  on  the 
«Jv.-  liand,,lhe  evaporation  of  the  water  siis- 
p.  n.le 
b  -co  i; 

Til  ■ 
rear  \ 
the  s\s. 

umblcilK    lyoLh.uii,.-;!  -..  .    ,  ^- 

.,i.;tie^  of  vapour;  but  this  part  ot  the  sub- 
lm|)''rlelilly  provided  with 
j6  uii^ht  serve  for  data  to 


.METEOROLOGY. 

T!i<  re  an-  Ihree  simple  and  distinct  modifi-  j  'wliiie  tlic  cumulus  enters  it  laterally, 
catic  iie  of  which  tlie  aggregate  of    beneat; 

miiii.  ^iled  a  r!oi;rl,  !!i:iy.bi;  formed, 

increase  to  It.)  g^eirte^  .-:id finally  de- 

crease and  disiippcar. 

13y  mod  '  o  Le  xinUerstood  simply 

the  slTuciv  . f.er  ot  aggregation,  not 

the  precise  I'ii.i  >i.-  j,.agr.itiide,  wliich  indeed 
varies  every  momeiit  in  most  clouds.  'J'lie 
principal  modifications  are  commonly  as  dis- 
tinguishable fioineach  other  as  a  tree  from  a 
hilK  or  the  latter  from  a  like ;  al;hou2;li  clouds 
in  the  same  niodificatlon,  Considered  witli  re- 
spect to  eacli  other,  have  often  only  the  com- 
mon resemblances  which  exist  among  trees, 
hills,  or  lakes,  taken  generally. 

,  Tiie  same  aggregate,  wiiich  has  been 
formed  in  oiiemodilication,  upon  a  change  in 
the  attejidant  circumstances  may  pass  into 
another.        , 

Or  it  may  continue  a  considerable  time  in 
ail  intermediate  slate,  partaking  of  the  cha- 
racttns  of  two  modifications;  and  it  may  also 
disa|)pear  in  this  stage,  or  ,i-eturn  ti^tlir  first 
hiodii'ieatipn.     Justly,  aggregates,  s.eparately 


md  frrjiB 


■  tt:'.  cirru-i.  , 
Clouds  in  tli.s  ijiodificatioii  have  the  least 
dfiisily,  the  greatest  elevation,  and  the  great' 
est  v.iriety  of  extent  and  uncciioii.  They 
are  the  earlie-t  appearance  alter  >erene  wea- 
ther. They  are  (ir>t  indicated  by  a  few  threads 
pencilled,  as  it  were,  on  the  sky.  'I  liese  in- 
crease in  length,  and  new  Ofies  are  in  ll.e 
mean  time  added  Literally.  On>n  ihe  lirst- 
forined  th  eads  ■i^rvv  as  atoms  to  support  nu- 
merous branciies,  which  in  their  turn  give 
rise  to  others.  The  process  may  be  compared 
cither  to  vegetation  or  io.  lyitullisat.on;  but  it 
is  clearly  ana)o^ous  to  tlic  deiicaie  arrange- 
ments which  cii'iUe  in  the  pai  tides  of  coloured 
powders,  such  as"  chalk,  vermiiioii,  ifC.  when 
these  a.e  projected  on  a  cak<-  or  sswn,  aiter  it 
has  been  touched  with  llie  kui  b  ot  a  charged 
L.eyden  phial.  We  may  consider  the  panicle* 
of  water  as  similarly  placed  upon  or  beneath 
a  jjiaic  of  charged  air. 

'i'heir  duration  is  jmcertain,  vrrying  from 
a,,feiy  minutes  after  the  lirsl  appearance  (o  an 
formed  in  dilioraii.t  modil'cations,  niLy  unite  '  t-^tcnt  of  many  hours.  It  is  long  when  they 
and  pass  into  one,  exliibiting  dilierent  cha- j  ^i'l'?a'"alone,andv't  great iiiig!us, and sluirle'r 
ractcrs  in  di.ilerent  parts ;  or  a  portion  of  a  \  w'u'n  lliey  are  formed  lower,  aiul  ni  tiie  vici- 
simple  aggregate  may  pass  into  another  mo-    "'ty  .°f  otiier  cloi.ds 


111  tiic  air,  robs  it  of  so  much  as  to 
^•.•n  ■■.)1-  u)  our  fecr:n:;=!  in  its  compa- 


1  se  changes 
lo  be  found  in 
jilts,  whicii  un- 
I  carry  oil"  great 


'fi 


KU,-  . 


dilication,  wiLlipiit  scpnratuig  from  the  re- 
mainder of  the  mass.  Hence,  together  with 
the  simple,  it  beeo:i;es  necessary  to  admit  in- 
termediate aiul compound  modilications,  aiid 
to  impose  names.on  such  of  them  as  are  wor- 
thy of  notice.  ■     . 

The  simple  modifications  are  thus  named 
and  dpfin^d  :  (Sec  Plate  Meteorology.) 

1.  Cirrus.  Def.  Nubes  cirrata,  tenuissima, 
qiUE  undique  crescat. 

Parallel,  flexuous,  or  diverging  fibres,  ex- 
tensible in  an)-  or  ui  all  directions. 

2.  Cumulus.  ]3ef.  Nubes  cumiilata,  den- 
sa,  sursum  crescc-ns. 

Convex  or  conical  heaps,  increasing  up- 
ward from  a  horizontal  base. 

3.  Stratus.  Def  Nubes  strata,  aqus  modo 
exjiansa,  deorsum  crescens. 

A  widely  extended,  continuous,  Iiorizontal 
sheet,  increasing  from  below. 

The  intermediate  modifications  which  re- 
quire to  be  noticed  are : 

4.  Cirro-cumulus.  Def.  Nubecula;  densi- 
ores,  iubrotundae,  et  quasi  in  agmiiie  appo- 
sitae. 

Small,  well  defined,  roundish  masses,  in 
close  horizontal  arrangement. 

5.  Cirro-siratus.  Def.  Nubes  extenuata, 
siibconcava  vel  undulcita.  Nubecula;  hujus- 
niodi  apposit.T. 

riori/ontal  or  slightly  inclined  masses,  at- 
tenuated towards  a  part  or  the  whole  of  their 
circumference,  concave  downward  ;  or  undu- 
lated, separate,  or  in  groups,  consisting  of 
small  clouiids,  having  these  characters. 

The  compound  modifications  are : 

6.  Cumutn-sirutus.  Def.  Nubes  densa, 
basimcumuli  cum  structura  patente  exhibens. 

A  dense  cloud  with  the  base  of  the  cu- 
mulus, but  in  its  upper  part  exteuded  into  a 
broad  llat  structure. 

7.  Cumulo-cirro-stratus,'iel nimbus.  Def. 
Nubes  vel  nubium  congeri?s  pluviam  eifuii- 
dens, 

T/ic  rain  cloud.  A  cloud,  or  system  of 
clouds, from  which  rain  is  fallhig.  It  is  a  hori- 
zontal sheet,  above  which  the  cirrus  spread", 


This  modification,  although  in  appearance 
almost  mplioiilesi,  is  iutimately  connected 
with  the  variable  motions  ol  the  atmosphere. 
Considering  that  clouds  o!  this  kind  have  long 
been  deemed  a  prognostic  of  wii;d,  it  is  es- 
tiaoidinary  that  ihe  naiuie  of  this  connection 
should  not  iiave  been  morg  studied,  as  the 
knowledge  of  it  might  iuve  been  productive 
of  useful  results. 

Ill  fair  weather,  with  light  variable  breezes, 
the  sky  is.seldoni  quite  clear  of  small  groups 
of  the  oblique  cirrus,  whicli  frecjiiciitly  come 
on  from  tlie  leeward,  and  the  direction  of 
their  increase  is  to  windward.  Continued  wet 
weather  is  attended  with  horizontal  sheets  of 
this  cloud,  which  si.bside  quickly,  and  pass  to 
the.cirro-stratus..  The  cirri.s  pointing  upward 
is  a  distant  indication  ol  rain,  and  downward  a 
more  immediate  one  of  lair  weather,  lielore 
storms  they  appear  lower  and  denser,  and 
usually  in  the  quarter  opposite  to  llial  tioin 
which  the  storm  arises.  Steady  high  winds 
are  also  ]3iece>led  and  atleiuled  by  streaks 
running  quite  across  the  sky  in  the  direction 
they  blow  in.  These,  by  an  optical  decep- 
tion, appe.ir  to  meet  in  tiie  horizon. 

The  relations  of  this  modification  with  the 
state  of  the  bai-ometer,  Iheinuimeter,  hvgro- 
nnter,  and  elecUonielcr,  have  not  yet  been 
attended  to. 

.  Of  Ihe  cumulus. 

Clouds  in  tills  modification  are  commonlT 
of  the  most  dense  structure.  They  are  lorm- 
ed  in  the  lower  atino-.pl.ere,  and  move  aions; 
with  the  current  wiiicii  is  next  the  earth. 

A  small  irregular  spot  first  a])ptar  ,  and  i* 
as  it  were  Ihenudeus  on  wliich  they  increase. 
Tlie  lower  surface  continues  iiregularlv  plane,.' 
while  the  upper  rises  into  conical  or  iieim- 
spherical  heaps. 

Their  appearance,  increase,  and  disapjiear- 
ance,iii  fair  weather,  are  often  periodical,  and 
keep  pace  with  the  tcinperalure  of  the  dav. 
Thus  they  b;'gin  to  form  some  hours  ailer 
sunrise,  arrive  at  their  m;i\imum  iil  the  hol- 
tesi  part  of  the  altemoiu,  llun  go  on  diiu;- 
uisliiug,  ami  totally  dispnse  about  suiwi. 

liul  in  changeable  wc.iher  they  p.aluke  of 


METEor^OT.o  r,r. 


177 


the  virhsituilp^  oY  tlii«  atmospliprc ;  sometimes 
(gvapDnitini;  ;i!mo;t  a-;  soon  as  t'orini-d,  al 
Ot.iei':!  suddenly  loniiaig,  and  as  iini<:kly  [lass- 
ing  lo  the  comixxind  in'Hlilications. 

The  cuiiuilus  of  lair  wcathrr  lias  a  mode- 
ratt- elevation  and  exti-nl,  and  a  well-di'lined 
rounded  sMiiace.  Piwions  to  rain  if  increases- 
more  raindly,  appears  lower  in  the  alino- 
s))'iere,  and  with  its  surlace  lull  ol'loose  lleetes 
or  protuberances. 

Tlie  formation  of  larr^e  cnninli  to  leeward 
in  a  stronLfWuid,  indicates  the  approach  of  a 
calm  with  ram.  AV'lien  they  do  not  disappear 
or  subsiiL-  about  siniset,  l)ut  continue  to  rise, 
thunder  is  to  be  expected  in  the  night. 

Independ.intly  of  the  beauty  and  iiiaj^nili- 
cence  it  adds  to  the  face  of  nature,  the  lumu- 
1ns  serves  to  screen  the  earth  from  the  direct 
ravs  of  the  sun  ;  by  its  multiplied  retlectioiis 
to  diffuse,  and,  as  it  were,  econouiise  tlie  light; 
and  also  to  convey  the  product  of  evapora- 
tion to  a  clistance  from  the  place  of  its  orisiii. 
'J'he  relations  of  the  cumulus,  wilh  the  state 
of  the  baromi'ter,  &c.  have  not  yet  been 
iniough  attended  to. 

It  appears  that  there  is  a  continual  evapo- 
ration from  the  base  of  this  cloud,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  tendency  to  subside  into  lower 
snd  warmer  air.  This  evaporation  is  more 
than  comj)ensated  during  its  increase  bv  the 
depjsition  from  above  :  while  tlie  two  eifects 
balance  each  other,  the  cloud  remains  sta- 
tionary as  to  bulk;  when  the  su  ply  from 
above  fails,  it  sinks  into  the  lower  air,  and 
totally  disappears.  This  happens  usually  a 
little  before  sunset,  because  the  inequality  in 
the  temperatures  of  the  hif^iipr  and  lower  air, 
bv  virtue  of  wliicli  it  subsisted,  gives  place  at 
that  time  to  the  tendency  to  eipial  cliffusion 
of  the  caloi-ic. 

Of  the  stratus. 

Tills  modilication  has  a  mean  degree  cf 
density.  It  is  the  lowest  of  clouds,  since  its 
inferior  surface  commonly  rests  on  the  earth 
or  water 


tlip  same  lime  descending  to  a  lower  slalion  j  of  siil)sidence,  as  in  common  caSes  of  precip 


in  the  atmosphere 

The  cirro-cnmiiUi.s  is  formed  tVom  a  cirrii"!, 
or  from  a  number  of  small  separate  cu'ri,  by 
the  libres  collapsing,  as  it  were,  and  passing 
into  small  roiiudisii  masses,  in  whii-li  the  tex- 
ture ol  the  cirrus  is  no  longer  discernible,  al- 
though they  still  retain  somewhat  of  the  same 
relative  arrangement.  'J'his  change  takes 
jilacr,  either  tliroughout  the  whole  mass  at 
once,  or  progres-ively  from  one  extremity  to 
the  otiier.  In  either  case,  the  same  ellect  is 
produced  on  a  number  of  adjacent  cirri  at 
the  same  time,  ami  in  the  same  order.  It 
appears  in  some  instances  to  be  accelerated 
by  the  ap[)roacli  of  other  clouds;  and  is  pro- 
bably due  to  the  eipiilibrium  of  the  electric 
fluid  between  the  cloud  and  tht^  surrounding 
atmosphere. 

This  modilication  forms  a  very  beautiful 
sky,  sometimes  exhibiting  iiumerous  distinct 
beds  of  these  small  connected  clouds  lloaling 
at  different  altitudes. 

The  cirro-cumulus  is  frequent  in  summer, 
and  is  attendant  on  warm  and  dry  weather. 
It  is  also  occasionally,  and  more  sparingly, 
seen  in  the  intervals  of  showers,  and  in  w  inter. 
This  cloud  is  a  sure  prognostic  of  increased 
temperature.  It  may  either  evaporate,  or 
pass  to  the  cirrus  or  cirro-stratus. 

Of  the  cirro-stratus. 

I  This  cloud  appears  to  result  from  the  sub- 
sidence of  the  libres  of  the  cirrus  to  a  hori- 
zontal position,  at  the  same  time  that  they 
approach  towards  each  other  laterally.  The 
form 'and  relative  position,  when  seen  in  the 
distance,  frequently  give  the  idea  of  shoals 

i  of  hsh.     Yet  in  this,  as  in  other  instances, 

!  the  vtructure  must  be  attended  to,  rather  than 
the  form,  which  varies  much;  presenting  at 
other  times  the  appearance  of  parallel  bars, 
interwoven  streaks  like  the  grain  of  polished 

I  \^ood,  Sec.     It  is  always  thickest  in  the  mid- 


Contrary  to  the  last,  which  mavbeconsi-  '"e.  oc  M  one  e.xtremity,  and  extenuated  to- 
dered  as  belonging  to  the  dav,  this  is  pro-  wards  the  edge.  1  he  distinct  appearance  ol 
perlv  the  cloud  of '^niglit ;  the  time  of  its  first    •''  "'^^'"^  ''"''*  "»'  ^'^^'^X^  precede  the  produc 


,.    tion  of  this  and  the  last  modifications, 
creeping  niists  which  in  calm  |     The  cirro-stratus  precedes  wind  and  rain, 


appearance  being  about  sunset.     It  lompre- 


hends  all  thosi 

evenings  ascend  in  spreading  sheets,  like  an    the  near  or  distant'^approach  of  which  itki 
inundation  ot  water,  Irom  the  bottom  of  val-    sometimes   be   estimated  from  its  greater  or 
leys,  and  the  surface  of  lakes,  nvers,  &c.    Its    less  abundance  and  permanence.    It  is  almost 
duration  is  frequently  through  the  night.  |  always  to  be  seen  in  the  intervals  .-if  storms. 

On  the  return  of  the  sun,  the  level  surface    .Sometimes  this  and  the  cirro-cumulus  ap|)ear 


of  t'lis  cloud  begins  to  put  on  tlie  a|)pearance 
oi  cumulus,  the  w  hole  at  the  same  time  sepa- 
raiing  from  the  ground.  The  continuity  is 
next  destroyed,  and  the  cloud  ascends  and 
evaporates,  or  passes  off  with  the  a|)pearance 
of  the  nascent  cumulus. 

This  has  been  long  experienced  as  a  prog- 
nostic of  fair  weather ; 

.\t  nebuUe  magis  ima  petunt,  campoipie 
recumbunt : — \'irgil.  Georg.  lib.  i. 
and,  indeed,  there  is  none  more  serene  than 
that  which  is  ushered  in  by  it 
ot  the  stratus  to  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  as 
indicated  by  the  barometer,  Sec.  appears,  not- 
withstanding, to  have  passed  hitherto  without 
due  attention. 

Ofllif  cirrn-cumHlus. 

The  cirrus  having  continued  for  some  time 
increasing,  or  stationary,  usually  passes  either 
to  the  cirro-cumulus,  or  the  cirro-stratus ;  at 

Vol.  II. 


together  in  the  sky,  and  e\ en  alternate  witi 
each  other  in  the  same  cloud,  when  thedilT'ei- 
ent  evolutions  which  ensue  are  a  curious 
spectacle;  and  a  judgment  may  be  formed  of 
the  weather  likely  to  ensue,  by  observing 
which  niodification  prevails  at  last.  The 
cirro-stratus  is  the  modilication  wliich  most 
fre(|uently  and  completely  exhibits  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  solar  and  lunar  halo,  and  (as 
supposed  from  a  few  observations)  the  par- 
helion and  paraselene  also,  llence  the  rea- 
r,-,  ,  . .  1  son  of  the  prognostic  for  foul  weather  com- 
le  n  ion  ]„m,iy  ^lia^vri  from  the  appearance  of  halo. 
This  cloud  is  among  those  natural  indications 
which  may  be  trusted  in  conlirmation  of  the 
indications  of  the  barometer  and  hydrometer 
for  rain.  It  mav  be  reasonably  tliought  to 
originate  Irom  a  supervening  cold  and  moist 
current,  occasioning  precipiiation  in  theatmo- 
spliere  below,  before  it  is  itself  to  be  perceived. 
Us  appearance  often  indicates  the  simple  act 

z 


tation  in  lluids  at  rest. 

Of  the  cumulo-straiii.1. 
The  different   modilicatioas    wViicIi    have 
been  just  treated  of,  sometimes  give  place 
to  each  other:   at  other  times  t\vo  or  more 
appear  in  the  same  sky ;  but  in  this  case  the 
clouds  ill  the  same  modification  lie  mostly  in 
the  same  plane  of  elevation,  those  which  arc 
more  elevated  appearhig  through  the  iijter- 
vals  of  the  lower,  or  the  latter  shewing  dark 
against  the  lighter  ones  above  them.   .  SVhen 
the  cumulus  increases  rapidly,  a  cirro-stratus 
is  frequently  seen  to  form  around  its  summit, 
reposing  thereon  as  on  a  mountain;   while 
the   former  cloud   contimic-s  discernible    in 
some  degree  through  it.  This  staU;  continues 
but  a  short  time.    The  cirro-stratus  speedily 
becomes  denser,  and  spreads;  while  the  su- 
perior part  of  the  cumulus  extends  itself,  and 
passes  into  it,  the  base  continuing  as  before, 
and  the  convex  protuberances  changing  their 
position  till  they  pnsent  themselves  laterally 
and  downward.     More  rarely  the   cumulus 
alone  |)erforms  this  evolution,  by  the  move- 
ment or  mode  of  increase  of  its  superior  part. 
In  eifhi-r  case,  a  large  lofty  dense  cloud  is 
formed,  which  ir.ay  be  compared  to  a  mush- 
room with  a  very  thick  short  stem.  Ivutwhcn 
a  whole  sky  is  crowded  with  this  modilication, 
the  appearances   are  more  indistinct.     The 
cumulus  rises  through  the  interstices  of  the 
superior  clouds  ;  and  the  whole,  seen  as  it 
passes  oil"  in  tlie  distant  horizon,   presuits  to 
the  fancy  mountains  covered  with  snow,  in- 
tersected with  dark  ridges  and  lakes  of  water, 
rocks  and  lowers,  &c.     The  distinct  cumulo- 
stratus  is  formed  in  tlie  interval  between  the 
lirst  appearance  of  the  fleecy  cumulus  and 
the  commencement  of  rain  ;  also  during  the 
approach  of  tiiunder-storms.     The  indistinct 
appearance  of  it  is  chiefly  in  the  longer  or 
shorter  interval  of  showers  of  rain,  snow,  or 
hail. 

The  cumulo-stralus  chiefly  affects  a  mean 
state  of  the  atmosphere,  as  to  pressure  and 
temperature,  but  is  not  peculiar  to  any  sea- 
son; and  it  may  be  seen  before  a  fall  of  snow, 
as  well  as  before  a  thunder-storm. 

Of  the  nimbus,  or  cumulo-cirro-strr.lus.  ■ 
Clolids  in  any  one  of  the  preceding  modilT- 
cations,  at  the  same  degree  of  elevation,  or 
two  or  more  of  them,  atf  different  elevations, 
may  increase  so  as  completely  to  obscure  the 
sky,  and  at  times  put  on  an  appearaiiec  ot  den- 
sity, whici)  to  the  inexperienced  observer  in- 
dicates file  speedy  commencement  of  rain. 
It  is  nevertheless  extremely  probable,  as  well 
from  attentive  observation,  as  from  a  consi- 
deration of  the  several  modes  of  their  pro- 
duction, that  the  clouds,  while  in  any  one  of 
these  states,  do  not  at  any  time  let  fall  rain. 

I't-fore  this  effect  takes  place,  thcv  have 
been  uniformly  found  to  undergo  a  change, 
attended  with  appearances  sullicientlv  re- 
markable to  constitute  a  distinct  nioJifica- 
tifiii.  Tliese  appearances,  when  the  rain  hap- 
pens over  our  heads,  are  but  imperfectly 
seen.  We  can  then  only  observe,  before  the 
arrival  of  the  d  user  and  lower  clouds,  or 
through  their  interstices,  that  there  exists  at 
a  greater  altitude  a  tiiih  light  veil,  or  at  least 
a  hazy  turbidness.  AVhen  this  has  consider- 
ably increased,  we  see  the  lower  clouds 
spread  iheinselves  till  they  unite  in  all  poinLs, 
audlorai  one  uniform  thcet.    li.erain  thea 


173 


MET 


cnnin-iences  ;  and  the  lower  clouds-,  arriving 
from  tlie  windward,  move  under  liiii  sheet, 
and  are  successively  lost  in  it.  ^Vhen  tlio 
hitter  cease  to  arrive,  or  when  the  slieet 
breaks,  erery  ouc's  experience  teaches  hiai 
to  expect  an  abatement  or  cessation  of  rain. 
But  there  often  follows,  what  s(-enis  hitherto 
to  have  been  ui-uoticed,  an  iuiuiediate  and 
great  addition  to  the  quantity  of  cloud.  For 
on  the  cess.ition  of  rsm,  the  lower  broken 
clouds  which  remain  rise  into  cumuli,  and  the 
superior  slieet  puts  on  the  various  forms  of 
the  cirro-stratus,  sometimes  passing  to  the 
tirro-cumuUis. 

if  the  interval  is  long  before  the  next 
shower,  the  cumulo-stratus  usually  makes  its 
appearance,  which  it  also  does  sometimes 
very  suddenly  after  the  first  cessation. 

But  we  see  the  nature  of  this  process  more 
perfectly,  in  viL-wing  a  distant  shower  in  pro- 
file. 

If  the  cumulus  be  the  only  cloud  present  at 
such  a  tnne,  wcmay  observe  its  superior  part 
to  become  tufted  with  cirri.  Several  adjacent 
clouds  also  approach,  and  unite  laterally  by 
subsidence. 

The  cirri  increase,  extending  tlieniselves 
upward  and  laterally;  after  which  the  shower 
is  seen  to  commence.  At  other  times  tlie 
converse  takes  place  of  what  has  been  de- 
scribed relative  to  the  cessation  of  rain.  Tlie 
cirro-stratus  is  previously  formed  above  the 
cumulus;  and  their  sudden  union  is  attended 
^ith  the  production  of  cirri  and  rain. 

In  either  case  the  cirri  vegetate,  as  it  were, 
in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  rain  falling  ; 
and  give  the  cloud  a  character  by  which  it 
is  easily  known  at  great  distances,  and  to 
■fthich,'in  the  language  of  meteorology,  we 
may  appropriate  the  nimbus  of  the  Latms : 

Quails  ubi  ad  ten"as  abrupto  sidere  nim- 
bus 

It  mare  per'medium  ;  miseris,  heu  1  prescia 
long^ 

Ilorrescunt  corda  agricolis. — Virgil. 

When  one  of  these  arrives  hastily  with  the 
wind,  it  brings  but  little  rain,  and  frequently 
some  bailor  driven  snow.  In  heavy  showers 
the  central  sheet,  once  formed,  increases  to 
windward,  the  cirri  being  propagated  above 
and  against  the  lower  current,  while  the  cu- 
muli, arriving  with  the  latter,  are  successively 
arrested  in  their  course,  and  contribute  to 
reinforce  tl>e  sbower. 

In  continued  gentle  rains  it  does  not  ap- 
pear necessary,  for  the  resolution  of  the 
clouds,  that  the  difl'erent  modifications  should 
come  into  actual  contact.  It  is  sullicient, 
♦hat  tliere  exist  two  strata  of  clouds,  one 
passing  beneath  the  other,  and  each  conti- 
nually tending  to  horizontal  uuiform  diffu- 
sion. It  w;ll  rain  during  this  state  of  the  two 
strata,  although  they  sliould  be  separated  Ijy 
an  interval  of  many  lumdred  feet  in  eleva- 
tion. 

As  the  masses  of  cloud  are  always  blended, 
and  their  arrangen)ent  destroyed,  before  rain 
CODiei  on,  so  the  reappearance  ol  those  is  the- 
signal  for  its  cessation.  The  thin  sheets  of 
rlouci  which  pa.ss  over  during  a  wet  day,  cer- 
tainly receive  from  the  Inuifid  almosphsri;  :v 
su.jply  proportionate  to  tiien-  consuuiption ; 
■while  tue  latter  prevents  their  increa.e  in, 
bulk.  Hence  a  seeming  paradox,  which  yet 
accords  strictly  with  observation;  that  for 
ajiy.Riveu.Uoucof  a  wet  day,  or  any  given 
7 


M  I  C 

day  of  a  wft  season,  the  more  cloud  the  less 
ram.  Hence  also  arise  some  liirther  reflec- 
tions on  the  purpose  answered  by  clouds  in 
the  economy  of  nature.  Since  rain  nray  be 
produced  by,  and  continue  to  fall  from,  the 
slightest  obscuration  of  the  sky,  by  the  nim- 
bus, that  is,  by  two  sheets  in  different  states, 
while  the  cumulus,  or  cumulo-stratus,  with 
the  most  dark  and  threatening  aspect,  passes 
over  without  letting  fall  a  drop,  until  their 
change  of  state  commences;  it  should  seem 
that  the  lattei-  are  the  reservoirs,  in  which  the 
water  is  collected  from  a  large  space  of  at- 
mosphere, for  occasional  and  local  irrigation 
in  dry  seasons,  and  by  means  of  whicii  it  is  also 
arrested  at  times  in  its  descent,  in  the  midst 
of  wet  ones.  In  this  so  evident  provision 
for  the  sustenance  of  all  animal  and  vegetable 
life,  as  well  as  for  the  success  of  mankind  in 
that  pursuit  so  essential  to  their  welfare,  in 
temperate  climates,  of  cultivating  the  earth, 
we  mav  discover  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of 
the  Creator  and  Preserver  of  all  things. 

The  nimbus,  although  in  itself  one  of  the 
least  beautiful  clouds,  is  yet  now  and  then 
superbly  decorated  with  its  attendant,  the 
rainbow,  which  can  only  be  seen  in  perfection 
w  hen  backed  bv  the  widely  extended  uniform 
gloom  of  this  modification. 

J^IETHOD,  in  logic,  &c.  the  airange- 
meut  of  our  ideas  in  such  a  regular  order, 
thattheirinutual  connection  and  dependance 
mav  be  readily  comprehended. 

SIETONViMY,  in  rhetoric,  is  a  trope  in 
winch  one  name  is  put  for  another,  on  account 
of  the  near  relation  there  is  between  them. 
By  this  trope  any  of  the  most  significant  cir- 
cumstances of  a  thing  are  put  for  the  thing 
itself.     Sec  Rhetoric. 

M  ETOI'E.     See  Architecture. 

METRE,  in  poetry.  See  Hexameter, 
Pentameter,  Sec 

MEFUOSIDEROS,  a  geuus  of  the  class 
and  order  icosandria  monogynia.  The  calyx 
is  five-cleft,  half-superior  ;  petals  five ;  sta- 
mina verv  long,  standing  out;  stigma  sim- 
ple; capsule  three-celled.  There  are  13 
speiies,  of  New  Holland,  &c. 

MEZEREOy.     See  Daphne. 

MEZZOTINTO.     See  Engraving. 

MIASMA,  among  piiysicians,  denotes  the 
contagious  efiluvia  of  pestilential  diseases, 
whereby  they  are  communicated  to  people 
at  a  distance. 

MIC.-V.  This  stone  forms  an  essential  part 
of  manv  mountains,  and  has  been  long  known 
under  the  names  of  glacies  Marine,  and  Mus- 
covy glass.  It  consists  of  a  great  number 
of  thin  laminre  adhering  to  each  other,  some- 
times of  a  very  large  size.  Specimens  have 
been  found  in  "Siberia  nearly  '2\  yaids  6<|uare. 

It  is  sometimes  crystallized;  its  primitive 
form  is  a  rectangular  prism,  whose  bases  are 
rhombs  with  angles  of  I'iO"  and  (it)"  :  its  inte- 
grant molecule  has  the  same  form.  Some- 
times it  occurs  in  rectangular  prisms,  whose 
bases  also  are  rectangles,  and  sometimes  also 
in  short  six-sided  prisms;  but  it  is  much  more 
fre<iueiit  in  plates  or  scales  of  no  determi- 
nate ligiire  or  size. 

Its  texture  is  foliated.  Its  fraginenlA  Hat. 
The  lamella'  flexible,  and  somewhat  elastic. 
Very  toiigb.  Often  absorbs  water.  Specific 
gravity  Irom  i;.t).)4tj  to  ^.yJ42.  I'eels  smooth, 
but  mil  greasy.  Powder  feels  greasy.  Co- 
lour, when  putcal,  .silver  while  or  grey  ;  but 


M  I  C 

It  occurs  also  yellow,  greenish,  red'Iish- 
brown,  and  black.  Mica  is  fusible  by  tha 
blowpipe  into  a  while,  grey,  gn-en,  or  black 
enamel ;  and  this  last  is  attracted  by  the  mag. 
net.  Spanish  wa.\  nibbed  by  it  becomej 
negatively  electric. 

A  specimen  of  mica,  analysed  by  Vauque- 
lin,  contained 

50.00  silica 
35.00  alumina 
7.00  oxid.;  of  iron 
1 .35  magnesia 
1.33  luiie, 

94.tJS 
Mica  has  long  been  employed  as  a  substi- 
tute for  glass.  A  great  quantity  of  it  is  said 
to  be  used  in  the  Russian  marine  for  panes  to 
the  cabin-wuidows  of  slups  ;  it  is  preferred, 
because  it  is  not  so  liable  as  glass  to  be  broken 
by  the  agitation  of  the  ship.  It  is  also  used 
in  our  navy  for  lantlierns,  for  the  use  of  the 
powder-rooms. 

MICHELIA,  a  genus  of  the  octandria 
polygynia  class  of  plants,  the  flower  of  which 
consists  ot  eight  petals ;  the  fruit  consists  of  a 
numljer  of  globose  unilocular  berries,  dis- 
posed in  a  cluster  ;  in  each  of  which  there 
are  four  seeds,  convex  on  one  side,  and  angu- 
lar on  the  other.  There  are  two  species, 
trees  of  the  East  Indies. 

MICHAUXIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  octandria  monogynia.  The  calyx  is 
l6-parted;  corolla  wheel-shaped,  8-parted; 
nect.  8-valved,  staminiferous  ;  caps.  8-celled, 
many-seeded.  There  is  one  species,  a  bi- 
ennial of  Alep|)0,  resembling  the  campanula. 

MICROMETER,  an  astronomical  ma- 
chine, which,  by  means  of  a  screw,  serves  to 
measure  extremely  small  distances  in  the  hea- 
vens, &c.  and  that  to  a  great  degree  of  ac- 
curacy. 

The  micrometer  consists  of  a  graduated 
circle  (Plate  Miscel.  fig.  1132),  of  a  screw  ryi?, 
and  its  index  q  r.  The  threads  of  the  screw 
are  such,  that  50  make  the  length  of  one 
inch  exactly.  When  it  is  to  be  used,  the 
point  o  is  set  to  tlie  side  of  the  part  to  be 
measured,  and  then  t!ie  index  is  turned  about 
with  the  finger,  till  the  eye  perceives  the 
point  has  just  passed  over  the  diameter  of 
that  part;  then  the  number  of  turns,  and 
parts  of  a  turn,  shewn  by  the  graduated  cir- 
cle, will  give  the  dimensions  in  parts  of  an 
inch,  as  we  shall,  shew  by  the  following  ex- 
ample :  Suppose  it  is  re(|Uired  to  measure  the 
diameter  ot  a  human  hair,  and  I  observe  the 
index  is  turned  just  once  round  while  the 
point  0  passes  over  it ;  then  it  is  plain  the 
diameter  of  the  hair  in  the  image  is  ^Vh  of 
an  inch.  Now  if  the  microscope,  I  D  E  F, 
def,  magnifies  6  limes,  or  makes  the  image 
0  limes  larger  in  diameter  than  the  object, 
then  is  the  diameter  of  the  hair  itself  but 
ifh  of  ^'y.  that  is,  but  -^fglb,  part  of  an  inch. 

Also  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  as  there  are 
ten  large  divisions,  and  twenty  small  ones, 
on  the  micrometer  pUite,  so  each  of  those 
small  divisions  is  the  .^tli  of  ^Jjlh,  or  the 
_«■  _th  part  of  an  incl'i.     Therefore,   if,  in 

I " oo  1  ...  . 

measuring  any  part  ol  an  object,  you  observe 
how  many  of  these  smaller  divisions  are  pass- 
ed over  by  the  index,  you  will  have  so  many 
Ihoiisiindth  pails  ol  an"  iiidi  lor  the  measure 
required. 


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M  I  D 

ThcrP  have  bi-cn  micrometers  coiitrivpcl 
by  various  pecHOiis.  \Vf  shall  (U'Scribe  oiu- 
iuveiited  l)v  Mr.  C'avallo,  whiili  tunsists  ol 
a  small  si'milruiis|)arfiit  scale  or  slip  of  mo- 
tliiT-of-pi'arl,  about  the  aotli  part  of  ail  iiuli 
broad,  and  of  tlic  thickness  of  coinmoii  writ- 
iiii;  paper.  It  is  divided  into  a  number  of 
equal  parts  by  means  of  parallel  lines.  This 
micrometer  is  situated  within  tin;  tube,  at  the 
focus  of  the  eve-lens  of  the  telescope,  when- 
the  imas^e  of  'the  object  ii  formed,  and  with 
its  divided  ed!;e  passino;  through  the  centre 
of  the  field  ot  vi.-w.  tt  is  to  be  hxed  upon 
the  (liaphrau;m,  which  [generally  stands  within 
tiie  tube  at  the  focal  distance  of  the  eye-lens. 

I5y  looking  through  the  telescope,  the 
intake  of  the  object  and  the  mirrometer  will 
appear  to  coincide;  hence  the  observer  may 
fasily  see  how  many  divisions  of  the  latter 
measure  the  length  or  breadth  of  the  former  ; 
and  knowing  the  value  of  the  divisions  of  the 
micrometer,  he  may  easily  determine  the 
angle  which  is  subtended  by  the  object. 

To  iMccrtuin  the  true  value  of  the  divisions 
of  a  micromelcr  in  a  telescope — Direct  the 
telescoi)e  to  the  sun,  and  observe  how  many 
divisions  of  tlie  micrometer  measure  its  di- 
ameter exactly  ;  then  take  from  the  nautical 
almanac  the  diameter  of  the  sun  for  the  dav 
on  w  liicli  the  observation  is  made  ;  divide  it 
by  the  number  of  divisions,  and  the  (juotient 
is  the  value  of  one  division  of  the  microme- 
ter. Ex.  Suppose  that  Sfji  divisions  of  the 
micrometer  measure  the  diameter  of  the  sun, 
and  tlie  angle  of  the  sun  is  31 '2'-'",  or  1832", 
which  divide  by  'J6.5,  and  tlie  quotient  is 
7!"  or  1-'  11  ;"  this  is  the  value  of  one  divi- 
sion of  tlie  micrometer;  the  double  of  which 
is  the  value  of  two  divisions;  tlie  treble  is 
the  value  of  three  divisions,  and  so  on.  See 
Phil.  Trans.  Vol.  81. 

MICKDPUS,  bastard  cudweed;  a  genus 
of  the  polygamia  necessaria  order,  in  the 
svngenesia  class  of  plants:  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  4t)th  order,  com- 
])(>sita>.  The  i"c»e[)tacle  is  paleaceous;  tliere 
is  no  pappus;  the  calyx  is  caliculated ; 
there  is  no  radius  of  the  corolla.  The  female 
florets  are  wrapped  in  the  scales  of  the  calyx. 
'J'here  are  two  species,  the  supinus  and  erec- 
tus  ;  but  only  the  former  is  ever  cultivated 
in  gardens.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  growing 
naturally  in  Portugal;  and  is  frequently  pre- 
served in  gardens  on  account  of  the  beauty 
of  its  silverv  leaves.  It  is  easily  propagated 
bv  seed  sown  in  autumn,  and  requires  no 
other  culture  than  to  be  kept  free  from  weeds 

MICUOSCOPE.     See  Optics. 

MICROTEA,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria 
digvnia  class  and  order.  The  calyx  is  live- 
leaved,  spreading;  corolla,  none;  drupe, 
dry,  ecliiiiatfd.  Theie  is  oii»  species,  an 
annual  of  the  West  Indies. 

MIDWIFERY,  in  the  restricted  sense 
of  the  word,  is  the  art  of  assisting  women  in 
t.'hildbirth.  It  is  generally,  however,,  made 
to  comprehend  the  management  of  women, 
both  previously  to,  and  some  time  after,  de- 
livery ;  as  well  as  the  treatment  of  the  infant 
ill  its  early  stale. 

It  is  usual  to  commence  dissertations  on 
this  art,  with  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of 
the  female  organs  of  generation:  for  the 
former  of  these,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
article  Anatomy  ;  and  the  physiology  of  the 
geuerative  functions,  with    the    subject   of 


■        M  I  D 

confcplion,  will  be  found  treated  of  under 
the  head  of  Ph  vsiologv. 

We  shall,  in  the  |)resent  article,  com- 
mence by  tracing  the  progressive  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  uterine  system,  con- 
se(|ueiit  upon,  and  immediately  after,  im- 
pregnation; we  shall  then  notice,  in  a  general 
manner;  the  subject  of  spurious  pregnancy, 
with  that  of  superfo-tatiou  ;  treat  of  the  mor- 
bid allections  which,  under  some  circum- 
stances of  predi3i)Osilioii,  uterine  gestation 
induces  ;  give  an  account  of  the  three  kinds 
of  labours,  natural,  difVicult,  and  preternatu- 
ral ;  and  conclude  with  describing  the  requi- 
site treatment  of  the  female  after  d.diverv. 

Of  the  changes  i::hich  impreiimdion  induces 
in  lite  uterine  si/sfeni — The  ovum  is  consti- 
tuted in  early  uterine  gestation,  by  the  em- 
bryo or  untiii'med  fcetus,  the  umbilical  chord 
or'  navel  string,  the  membranes,  and  the 
waters.  It  at  lirst  appears  as  an  unformed 
mass,  the  component  parts  nfjt  being  cajiable 
of  separation  or  even  distinction.  Soon  after 
conception,  the  external  lamella  grows  tliin- 
ner,  the  rudiments  of  the  fo-tus  become  more 
apparent,  and  at  length  a  thi<k  vascular  sub- 
stance (the  placenta)  is  developed,  distinct 
from  the  membranous  portion  of  the  ovum. 

This  membranous  portion  is  formed  origi- 
nally of  two  coats;  that  next  the  fa-tus  is 
nanied  amnion  ;  and  the  esternal,  the  true 
chorion.  These  are  decidedly  organized 
membranes;  but  beyond  these  there  is  an 
external  lamella,  which  is  at  first  loosely 
spread  over  the  ovum,  but  afterwards  comes 
into  actual  contact  with  the  true  chorion. 
This  external  lamella  is  much  thicker  than 
the  other  membranes,  and  in  early  concep- 
tion composes  a  very  large  part  of  tlie 
ovum;  it  was  denominated  by  Rnysch,  tu- 
nica lilamentosa,  it  has  been  since  termed,  the 
false  or  spongy  chorion ;  more  recently, 
however,  two  layers  have  been  detected  in 
it,  one  covering  the  ovum,  and  the  other 
lining  the  uterus.  Tkis  last.  Dr.  Hunter 
has  called  membrana  decidua,  on  account  of 
its  being  cast  off  after  delivery  ;  while  to  that 
portion  which  immediately  covers  the  ovum, 
he  has  given  the  name  of  decidua  reilexa, 
because  it  is  reflected  from  tlie  womb  upon 
tlie  ovum,  and  forms  the  connecting  medium 
between  them. 

Thus  the  ovum,  on  its  first  formation,  and 
afterwards,  when  it  receives  the  appellation 
of  fcitus,  is  enveloped  by  four  membranes; 
the  decidua,  the  decidua  reilexa  (these  two 
eventually  come  to  be  blended),  the  true 
chorion,  and  the  amnion. 

We  have  already  said,  that  tlie  chorion  and 
the  amnion  are  "decidedly  organized,  and 
composed  of  iibrous  layers  :  the  decidua  has 
been  generally  supposed  to  be  formed  ot  ex- 
travasated  blood,  or  coagulable  lymph  ;  it  has 
recently,  liowever,  been  argued,  and  we 
think  justly,  that  the  decidual  is  likevvise  a 
trulv  organized  membrane. 

])r.  Denman  calls  the  decidua,  the  con- 
necting membrane  of  the  ovum :  its  formation 
is  contemporary  with  conception,  and  pre- 
cedes the  time  at  which  we  have  commenced 
our  deseripliou  ;  viz.  when  the  ovum  has 
passed  from  the  ovarium  into  the  uterus :  as  a 
proof  of  this  uterine  and  prior  formation  of 
the  decidual  membrane,  we  may  mention 
that  it  is  found  in  tlie  case  of  an  extra-uterine 
foetus. 

Between  tl;e  chorion  and  the  amnion,  we 
Z2 


M  I  n 


1/9 


find  111  the  early  months'  of.  pregnancy,  a 
quantity  of  gelatinous  iKiid,  and  near  the 
inseiiion  of  the  uiiibilical  cliord,  a  small 
white  s])eck  is  Seen  on  the  litter  membrane, 
which  is  a  sac  tilled  with  a  white  milky  kind 
of  liquor  ;  it  is  called  the  vesiciiln  lactea  oT 
umbuicalis;  this  communicates  w'.thtlie  navel- 
string  by  a  small  chord,  which,  however, 
with  tiie  sac  to  wlii(  h  it  leads,  are  onlv  ob- 
servable in  the  early  months  of  gestation; 
their  use  has  not  been  ascertained. 

In  the  first  instance,  th<^  involucra  of  thn 
embryo  constitute  by  lar  the  largest  part  ot 
the  ovum  ;  the  proportions  afti'rwarcs  couiC 
to  be  reversed:  an  ovum,  for  exiuiiple,  at  the 
end  of  eight  weeks,  is  about  tlie  size  ot  a 
hen's  esrg,  wh.il'e  the  embryo  itself  veighi 
very  littli-  more  than  a  scnipli; ;  in  ei?Kl 
months  from  conception,  the  tfrtus,  on  tht' 
contrary,  weighs  somewhat  more  than  five 
pounds,'  while  the  secundiues  do  not  much 
exceed  one  pound. 

Cont:nts  of  the  vtcru.i  iv  advanced  preg- 
nanc//.—\n  advanced  pregnancy,  the  con- 
tents'of  the  gravid  uterus  are  the  foetus.  witK 
the  navel-string,  the  placenta,  membranes, 
and  contained  iiuid. 

The  placenta  is  the  medium  of  comm'ini- 
cation  between  the  filal  and  maternal  part 
of  the  gravid  uterus;  this  is  a  t  luck  vascular 
mass,  attacheil  to  the  fa-tus  by  the  navel 
string  or  chord,  and  to  th.-'  womb  by  means 
of  the  spongy  chorion  or  decidua;  the  chorrf 
imariably  proceeds  from  the  navel  of  the 
foetus,  but  its  attachment  to  the  placenta  n 
not  always  in  the  same  place  ;  it  is  composed 
of  two  "arteries,  and  a  vein  enveloped  with 
tun'cs,  and  distended  with  a  quantity  ot  ge- 
latinous viscid  substance.  Tiie  umbilical 
chord  is  without  nerves,  as  tlien  there  is  ro 
S'^ntient  communication  between  the  fatus 
and  the  mother:  the  iiani  matemi,  or  marks 
as  they  are  called,  on  children,  cannot  origi- 
nate from  the  causes  to  which  they  are  vul- 
garly attributed;  longings,  &c.  on  the  part 
of  the  parent. 

It  is  about  the  fifth  montli  that  the  con- 
nection, of  which  we  have  already  spoken, 
is  formed  between  the  two  layers  of  the  de- 
cidua, or  belveen  the  membrana  decidua 
and  the  decidua  reilexa  ;  the  double  decidua 
tluis  formed,  is,  hi  comparison  with  the  othec 
membranes,  opaque. 

The  true  chorion  is  the  firmest,  smoothest, 
and  most  transparent,  of  all  the  fa-tal  involu- 
cra, with  the  exception  of  the  amnion;  with 
this  last  it  IS  united,  through  the  intervention 
of  a  gelatinous  substance.  The  amnion  is  the 
thinnest  and  most  transparent  of  the  mem- 
branes, indeed,  in  the  human  subject:  no  ves- 
sels have  hitherto  been  traced  in  this  niein- 
brane ;  while,  however,  it  is  thinner,  it  is 
stronger,  than  the  chorion,  and  when  the 
membranes  are  about  to  break,  gives  the 
greatest  resistance. 

In  addition  to  these  coverings,  v.e  find  in 
the  quadruped  an  oblong  membranous  sac  or 
pouch  (the  allantois)  situated  between  the 
chorion  and  the  amnion;  this  membrane 
communicates  with  the  urachus,  which  in 
brutes  is  open,  and  transmits  the  urine  hither 
from  the  bladder.  (See  Compar.^tive 
An.\tomy.)  Now  that  small  sue  which  we 
have  described,  as  placed  in  the  earlier 
months  of  gestation  between  the  chorion 
and  amnion,"  hat  been  thought  by  some  ana- 


180 

toaiists.to  be  the  urarhus;  in  tlie  human 
subject,  howt-ver,  there  is  no  allaiitois,  and  no 
■communicalion  of  this  kind. 

The  waters  of'  the  gravid  uterus  are  en- 
closed within  the  ainnion,  and  are  called 
lujuor  amnii;  in  tlie  first  months,  they  are 
pu-er  and  clearer  tlian  in  more  advanced 
pregnancy,  at  which-time  they  become  more 
opaque  and  gehtinous.  Alter  a  certain  period, 
the  waters  diminish  proportionally  to  the 
advance  of  impregnation ;  they  are  com- 
posed of  a  saline  tluid,  and  appear  to  be  al- 
together excrenientious. 

Sometimes  water  is  collected  between  the 
lamella:  of  the  chorion,  or  b'.-tfreen  the  cho- 
rion and  amnion;  this  constitutes  the  false 
\yater:  it  is  generally  in  much  smaller  quan- 
tity than  the  true  "water,  and  may  be  dis- 
charged at  any  period  of  pregnancy  without 
injury. 

Progressive  increase  nftlie  uterine  organs. 
—The  uterus,  alth:Hi'.^h  gradually  augment- 
ing ill  capacity  from  tiie  lirst  moment  of  con- 
ception, lo  never  completely  distended  ;  in 
early  gejtatiQii,  its  contents  are  conlined  to 
the  fundus  ;  and  even  when  the  foetus  has  ar- 
rived at  it^  full  growth,  the  linger  mav  be 
introduced  some  way  within  the  uterine'  ori- 
^ce,  without  interfering  with  the  membranes. 
1  he  incrrasin:;  size  of  the  uterus  does  not 
depend  upon  the  parts  being  meclianically 
stretciiP'.l,  hut  upon  a  gradual  evolution  in  the 
manner  ot  organic  growth,  in  general. 

It  is  not  easy  to  determine  on  pregnancy, 
from  ttie  appearances  in  the  early  months ; 
during  the  three  l!r.^t  months  succeeding  to 
conception,  tlie  os  tinea?  feels  smooth,  and 
its  oiitice  does  not  undergo  anv  sensible  en- 
Jargement;  between  the  third  and  fifth 
month,  a  dilatation  commences  in  the  cervix 
and  oritke  ;  the  latter  begins  to  assume  a  dif- 
ferent appearance,  and  to  project  more  into 
the  vaginal  cavitv. 

More  decisive  marks  of  the  existence  and 
periofl  of  pregnancy  are  furiii-hed  by  the 
progressive  augmentation  of  the  abdominal 
tumour.  Between  the  fourth  and  fifth  month, 
the  I'undus  uteri  begins  to  rise  above  the 
brim  of  the  pelvis,  and  its  cervix  comes  now 
to  be  distended.  In  the  lifth  month,  the  ab- 
domen enlarges  considerably,  the  fundus 
uteri  extends  about  midw.iv^  between  the 
pubis  and  the  umbilicus,  and  its  cervix  is  sen- 
sibly shortened.  In  the  seventh  month, 
the  fundus  reaches  the  navel,  and  the  cervix 
is  now  distendtjl  nearly  three-fourths.  In 
the  eighth,  it  has  advanced  about  ha-f-way 
between  the  umbilicus  and  scrobicuius  cor- 
dis; and  in  the  niiitli,  it  has  reached  the 
scrobicuius  ;  the  cervix  uteri  is  now  com- 
pletely distended.  The  womb,  tluMi,  in  the 
last  period  of  pregnancy,  occupies  all  the  um- 
bilical and  hypogastric  regions:  its  shape  is 
nearly  pyriform. 

During  the  progress  of  pregnancy,  the 
substance  o;  the  womb  becomes  much  softer 
and  looser  than  previous  to  conception,  and 
the  uterine  vessels  are  increased  in  a  very 
considerable  degree. 

.'ipari-ius  pregnanqi. — ^In  the  article  Me- 
dicine, two  diseases  are  mentioned;  the  hv- 
<lroinetra,  or  dropsy  of  the  wo'iib,  and  the 
physoinetra.or  windy  disten  .ion  of  this  org.m, 
whiili  frequently,  in  the  first  instance,  give 
hope  ot  uterine  co<c:eption ;  besides  these, 
schiir  JUS  or  other  tumours,  in  or  near  the 
uterus,  someliii.e .  prcieul  tlic  jame  tillacious 


MIDWIFERY. 

signs  oF  conception ;  as  beside  the  appear- 
aice  of  tumour,  the  menses  cease,  and 
nausea,  vomHini,  and  other  indications  ot 
pregnancy,  come  on;  sometimes  llatus  in  the 
bowels  will  be  mistaken  for  the  movements 
of  the  fa-tiis.  Even  a  fulness  of  the  breasts, 
with  a  distillation  of  a  viscid  fluid  from  the 
nipple,  may  occur,  and  time  alone  shall 
prove  the  expectations  to  have  been  unfound- 
ed. 

There  is  besides  another  species  of  spurious 
gravidity,  which  in  general  is  less  alarming  in 
its  nature  than  those  just  alluded  to.  \\'liat  is 
called  false  conception,  is  occasioned  by  the 
di>sokitiun  of  the  ia-tus  in  the  early  months  of 
pregnancy,  the  placenta  being  retained  in  the 
womb,  by  the  addition  of  coagulated  blood 
becoming  indurated,  and  at  length  being 
discharged.  Mere  coagula  of  blood,  retain- 
ed in  tlie  uterine  cavity,  after  violent  menor- 
rliagia,  constitute  another  species  ol  mola  or 
fal»e  coitceijtion,  which  indeed  is  still  more 
freipieyt  than  the  placental  mola  above-men- 
tioned. 

Superfictatinn,  extra  titer ine  cnncep'.ioni, 
and  monsters  .—Almost  immediately  uj-'oii  the 
uterus  becoming  impregnated,  its  cervix  and 
orilice  are  entirely  closed  by  means  of  a  gluti- 
nous matter ;  its  whole  internal  cavitv  is  like- 
wise lined  by  the  external  involucrum  of  the 
ovum  ;  the   Fallopian  tubes  become  llaccid, 
and,  as  pregnancy  advances,  are  supposed  to 
be  ihcapal)le  of  reaching  the  ovaria;  hence 
the  possibility  ol  one  conception  supervening 
upon  another,  before  delivery,  is  nvx  pretty 
generally  exploded ;     in  cases    where    one 
j  to-tus  has   been  expelled,   and  another  has 
1  been  retained,  it  appears  that  the  supposed 
superffctation  has  arisen  from  a  dou'jie  con- 
,  ception.     Many  animals,   however,   are  ca- 
'  ))able  of  conceiving  during  uterine  gestation; 
I  because  their  ova  do  not  enter  the  uterus 
from  the  ovaria  so  early  as    in  the  human 
subject,  and  the  orifice  of  the  womb  does  not 
I  clo-e,  as  in  the  latter,  immediately  upon  con- 
ception. 

I      Sometimes  the   fcclus,  instead  of  passing 

'  from  the  ovarium  through  the  Fallopian  lubes, 

remains  in  one  or  otiier  c^^  these,  or  even  tails 

i  into  the  abdominal  cavily,  there  to  be  nou- 

,  rislied  ;  thus  constituting  ventral  conceptions, 

which  sometimes  burst  into   the   abdomen, 

are   expelled  through  openings  formed   by 

abscesses,  or  becoming  shrivelled,  and  in  a 

manner  calcareous,  remain  in  the  body  with 

imjnmity. 

Every  deviation  from  the  natural  order  of 
uterine  gestation,  may  be  considered  as  mon- 
strous: whether,  as  is  r.ometimes  the  case, 
two  or  more  ova  become  blended  into  one, 
having  lucmbranes  and  waters  in  common  ; 
whether  a  pan  of  tlie  body  in  the  f(vtus  is 
wanting,  as  is  often  obsirved,  or  any  I'xtra- 
orchnary  circumstance  in  the  distribution  of 
vessels  occurs;  lastly,  a  monster  is  conslituted 
by  the  production  of  an  animal  of  a  different 
species  from  its  parents;  as  in  the  mule, 
produced  by  the  blended  generation  of  an 
ass  and  a  mare.  A  muli.'  is  incapable  of  pro- 
jiagaling  its  species,  aUliough  one  or  two  ex- 
ceptions to  this  law  are  on  record. 

Diseases  of  pregnane'/.-^"  Every  body 
knows,''  says  Dr.  James  Gregory,  "  the 
reason  for  which  the  bearing  of  children  was 
made  a  work  of  great  pain  and  labour ;  Init 
it  was  no  pari  ot  the  stnlence  pa«tU  on  Eve 


and  her  female  descendants,  that  it  «hoiil(l 
t)e  also  a  work  ot  danger,  or  any  thing  like  a 
disease.  There  is  much  reason  to  suspect, 
that  the  danger  and  tlie  diseases  often  con- 
nected with  cliildbi-aring,  are  produced  by 
our  own  preposterous  man.igenieiit,  and  out 
absurd  contrivances  and  interference,  in 
order  to  assist  iiaturi  in  one  of  her  most 
important  operations  ;  which,  like  all  the  rest 
of  them,  is  contrived  with  perfect  knowledge 
and  wisdom." 

'lo  these  sentiments  we  readily  and  heartily 
subscribe.  It  cannot,  hnwever,  be  denied,  that 
pregnancy,  although  a  natural  and  often  the 
most  healthy  state,  although  it  even  occasions 
in  many  instances  an  exemption  from  dis- 
ease, is,  especially  in  the  present  luxurious 
and  artiiicial  states  of  society,  sometime* 
productive  of  peculiar  morbid  artectieus, 
which  it  is  our  business  now  to  notice. 

One  of  the  most   uniform  circumstances 
attending  pregnancy,  is  the  stoppage  ot  the 
menses.  Now,  although  this  stoppage  is  a  na- 
tural event,  and  occasioned  by  the  increased 
demand  of  the  uterine  organs. for  the  supply 
of  its  new  charge,  yet,  under  suine  circum-  - 
stances,  this  sudden  change  of  the  blood's 
determination,   as  it  has  been  called,    pro- 
duces inconvenience.     What  has  been  the 
remedy  for  such  incoiivenieuce  ?    an  indis- 
criHiinate  u^e  of  the  lancet,  which  has  a  ge- 
neral tendency  to  augment  the  disorders  it 
is  intended  to  remove,  vertigo  and  drowsi- 
ness ;  for  these  partial  and  improper  deter- 
pjii4ations  of  blood,  arise  from  deficiency  of 
propelling  power  in  the  general  system.     It 
IS  not  to  be  denied,  that  in  some  few  instances, 
venesection,  as  preparatory  to  other  treat- 
ment,  is  often   necessary;  but  nothing  can 
be  a  more  dangerous  principle  to  admit,  than 
that   vertigo,  and  depression,  and  sleeping, 
whether  with  .or  without  preguancy,  are  u> 
be  combated  by  wit':diaw'ing  blood  from  IliB, 
body  ;   wheu,  as  we  have  just  remarked,  not- 
withstanding tlie  ap]ie.'.r.aiice  of  partial  con- 
gestion, the  symptoms  themsidves,  for  which 
venesection  isoi'len  resorted  to,  have  actually 
originated  from  deficient  quantity  of  the  vital, 
fluid,  and  "  are  connected  with  a  particular 
state  of  the  uervous  system."     When  bleed- 
ing is  judged  necessarv  in   pregnancy,  care 
thouKl  b,' taken  not  to  withdraw  a  large  quan- 
tity, as  in  sthenic  inflammation.     'I  hree  or 
four  ounces  are  geneiallv  sufficient  to  answ-er 
»\\  the  purposes  that  bleeding  is  intended  to 
accomplish;  and  we  repeat  that,  for  the  most 
part,  tlie  sicknes.s,  loathing,  mental  depres- 
sion,  head-ache,   and    even  vertigo,   which 
sometimes  acconijiany  the  earlier  periods  of 
pregnancy,  are  best  combated  by  very  gentle 
and  temperate  exercise,  bv  endeavouring  to 
promote  a  cheerful  train  of  thought,  and  by 
taking  a  nourishing,  at  the  same  time  avoid- 
ing a  diet  that  is  stimulating  and  irritative. 

With  respect  to  the  liearlburn,  and  other 
stonuich  and  bowel  complaints,  in  the  inci- 
pient stages  of  uterine  gestation,  they  are  tO' 
be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  when  aris- 
ing independantly  of  the  pregnant  state ; 
vomiting  is  very  seldom  proper.  The  bilious 
symptoms,  as  they  are  denominated,  for  w  hich 
emetics  are  prescribed,  are  in  general  best 
counteracted  by  mild  laxative  medicines, 
accompanied  by  tonic  bitters,  especially  co- 
lomba  and  (piassia,  with  magnesia  and  rhu- 
barb; which,  with  air  and  moderate  exer- 
cise, prove  also  highly  'uselul  io  a  stat«;  of 


nervous  Initaliil'ty.     OpiaJfS  are  sonnclinips 
ri'qiiiri'il.     W'liiMi  tlic  bi'oa.^is  of  a  |)i(;^i)jnC 


female  appear  i;misually  triise  anJ  luiiiiul, 
tiglit  iaciiiginusl  hf  avoided  vvitli  the  utmost 
solicitude;  somclimes  it  is  iietes^ary  to  batlip 
the  mamma;  with  oil,  or  to  apply  some  ime- 
tuous  substance  ;  and  if  much  tebrile  irrita- 
tion should  attend  upon  tiie  complaint,  gentle 
laxatives  should  be  Iwd  recourse  to. 

'I'hose  ali'eclions  which  ure  incident  to  the 
more  advanced  btages  of  pregnancy,  and 
vliieli  depend  u])on  the  change  of  situation- 
of  the  uterus,  and  pressure  on  parts  in  its  vi- 
cinity, are  oltenlinies  of  a  more  urgent  and 
•.darniing  nature;  tliese  arc  suppressions  of, 
or  dilliculty  in  passing,  urine  ;  a  retroversion 
of  the  uterus,  obstinate  co->tiveiiebS,  the  iia*- 
jnorrhoids,  dropsical  ajul  varicose  swellings 
of  tlie  legs  and  thighs,  pains  in  the  back, 
it:c.  cough,  diliicuky  of  breathing,  iuconli- 
uence  of  urine,  and  lastly,  violent  convulsive 
or  epih-ptic  (its. 

Difficulty  in  passing  urine  proceeds  from 
pressure  on  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  by  the 
uterus,  before  the  fundus  arises  above  tlie 
pubis.  In  this  slate  much  care  is  required, 
not  to  retain  the  urine  when  the  disposition 
to  evacuate  it  is  uxgent  ;  the  bowels  should 
be  kept  constantly  but  gently  open,  by  niild 
purgL.tives,  as  castor-oil  and  manna ;  the 
patient  should  lie  down  when  very  uneasy, 
and  every  source  of  fatigue  or  irritation 
should  be  carefully  guarded  against. 

A  retroversion  of  the  uterus  is,  though  not 
a  very  common,  a  very  dangerous  disease  in 
pregnancy.  It  is  caused  by  the  fundus  of 
tiie  uterus,  in  place  of  emerging  above  the 
pubes,  falUng  backwards  into  the  lower  and 
back  part  of  the  pelvis;  the  os  tinea;  is  in 
consetpience  drawn  up  towards  the  pubes; 
and  thi;  lundus  uteri,  wliich  ought  to  be  the 
upper,  comes  to  be  the  rao>t  depending,  part 
ol  the  tumour. 

A  retroversion  of  the  uterus,  usuallv  oc- 
curs belween  the  middle  of  the  third  and  the 
end  of  the  fourth  month,  liom  conception. 
Its  symptoms  are,  a  constant  weight  ami 
pressure  of  the  parts,  with  tenesmus  and  pains 
like  labour-pains  ;  the  urine  is  suppressed; 
a  tumour  may  be  felt  between  tlie  vagina 
and  the  rectum,  which  tills  the  wiiole  infei'inr 
capacity  of  the  iielvis,  and  hinders  the  finger 
from  i)assing  freely  into  the  vagina  ;  as  the 
disease  advances,  the  bladder,  from  distension, 
becomes  inflamed  ;  tliis  aiflammation  is  ex- 
tended to  the  other  abdominal  viscera  ;  gan- 
grene of  the  uterus  ensues,  and  is'succeeded 
by  delirium,  convulsions,  death. 

In  attempting  the  reduction  of  the  uterus, 
we  must  be  carelul  to  evacuate,  if  possible, 
the  bladder  by  the  catheter,  antl  the  rectum 
by  enemas;  fomentations  should  be  applied 
to  the  inflamed  parts  ;  venesection  is  some- 
times requisite,  and  then  tjie  re.luction  of 
the  prolapsed  uterus  must  be  attempted,  by 
placing  the  jiaticnt  upon  her  knees,  and  intro- 
ducing the  linger  into  the  vagina,  pressingwith  1 
a  gradual  and  equable  lorcc.  Vv'hen  the 
operation  is  completed,  tlie  patient  must  be 
conlined  for  some  time  to  bed  ;  the  urinary 
and  alvHie  excretions  prevmted,  by  gentle 
diuretics  and  laxatives,  from  being  retained, 
aiwl  evecy  otlier  source  of  irritation  guarded 
against. 

W  ith  re-pect  to  costiveness  and  the  he- 
morrhoidal tendency,  during  uterine  ges- 
tation, these  may  geuuiully  be  obviated  by 


yet  (lie  fn-tus  is  relained,  if  this  membrane' 
IS  n;)t  di>charged;  if  the  blood  evacuated' 
is  ))ure  and  free  from  clots,  and  is  unattended 
with  pain  or  the  feeling  of  pressure,  abor- 
tion from  i)a;morrliagc  is  less  to  be  appre- 
hended. 

The  causes  disposing  to  aliorlion  are,  much 
weakness  and  irritabiliiy  of  tUe  frame:  the 
more  inmiediately  escitiiigcanses  are.  violent 
passions  of  the  mind,  excessive  bodily  agi- 
tation, or  mechanical  injuries.  The  position 
or  inoti;)n  of  the  I'tetus  itself  may  likewise 
dispose  to  miscairiage. 

The  size  of  the  abortive  ovum,  about  six 
weeks  succeeding  to  conception,  is  nearly 
anout  that  of  a  pigeon's  egg;  in  two  moi.ihs 
its  bulk  is  that  of  a  common  h.-n's  egg,  and 
in  three  months  it  ecjuals  thu  size  of  a  goooe's 

W  here  we  have  reason  to  apprehend  abor- 
tion, even'  attentio.i  is  to  be  given  to  avoid 
the  exciting  causes.    On  the  lirst  appearance 
of  menacing  symptoms,  the  p.ilient  should 
be  principally  connned  to  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion, the  di  -t  should  be  nourishing  but  not  ir- 
I  ritating;  the  mind  should  be  kept  a»  free  as 
I  possiljie  from  agitation  ;  and  crowded  irregu- 
1  larly  heated  apartmenls  shunned. 
I      \Vhen   the  hemorrhage  has  come  on,  and 
the  abortion  followed,  vegetable  astringents 
are  to  be  given,  with  opiates  and  bark  ;  the 
bowels  are  at  the  same  time  to  be  kept  eva- 
cuated ;  and  in  cases  of  great  debility,  port 
wine  is  to   be-  copiously  taken ;    sometimci; 
cold  or  astringent  applications  to  the  vagina 
are  necessary.     (See  Menorrhagia,  in  the  ar- 
ticle Medicine.) 

Nutund  labours. — That  increase  of  the 
uterus,  by  which    it  adapts    itself  to  the  in- 
creasing size  of  its  contents,  in  pregnancy, 
i  has  certain  limits,     jn  the  course  of  tiiiity- 
,  .        ....   -  ,    ,     -        .        j  nine  weeks  from  conception,  it  refuses  to  un- 

jx-nod  m  whuhi   occurs    and    he  previous  '|^^      ^„^,  j,,,.j,^^^  enlargement  ;  hence  con- 
emperament  ol   the  invalid.     \   hen  symp-    ^,..,,=i^„  ■  ^,^.  ^.^-^.f^  „^^^^,  sensation,  are 

toms  ol   much  vascular  fulness  attend  the  at- I  „„„;,„,,      .,.,,:„|,  -„„„„,■.,..,„       '■•bour-pains. 


vprf  mild  purgatives,  such  as  castor-oil, 
nianni,  senna,  &c. 

Dropsical  enlargements  of  the  legs  and 
feet,  are  to  be  counteracted  by- frequent  re- 
cumbency of  posture,  frictions  of  the  legs 
morning  and  evening,  moderate  exercise  in 
the  open  air,  preserving  the  bowels  from 
constipation,  and  by  taking  a  nutritive  diet. ' 

f'ains  in  the  back  or  loins,  cramp,  cliolic, 
Sic.  are  generally  most  urgent  in  the  first 
pregnancy;  they  appear  to  arise  from  the 
))ressure  of  the  uterus  on  parts  in  its  vicinity, 
and  are  to  be  diminished  by  laxatives,  by 
avoiding  loo  full  diet,  and  by  the  occasional 
use  of  opiates. 

The  same  observations  apply  to  cough,' 
dyspnoea,  See.  Mechanical  pressure  on  tlie 
uterus,  which  has  been  advised  by  some,  is 
a  highly  dangerous  expedient,  and  should 
never  be  resorted  to. 

When  epileptic  fits  occur,  in  advanced 
pregnancy,  they  are  ofliMi  attensled  with  very  | 
considerable  danger;  these  happen  most  lr>- 
ipieiitly  in  first  pregnancies,  and  arc  especi- 
allv  liable  to  be  induced  by  the  irritation  of 
the  gravid  uterus  in  females  who  have  previ- 
ously been  subject  to  convulsive  affections. 
These  tits  arise  from  the  violent  motions  of 
the  ftctus,  in  the  litter  stages  of  pregnancy  ; 
from  profuse  h;emorrhages,  or  other  debili- 
tating evacuations,  happening  at  this  time  ; 
from  external  violence,  or  from  mental  agi- 
tation. 

Hysteric  affections  are  sometimes  induc- 
ed, both  in  the  earlier  and  later  perioils  of 
pregnancy  ;  tliese  are  by  no  means  so  alarm- 
ing as  epileptic  convulsions,  which  are 
characterised  by  much  distortion,  and  by 
foamini'  at  the  month. 


The  treatment  of  epilepsy  in  the  jiregnant 
state   must    be  regulated  according  to   the 


excited      v.hich    constitute 


tacks,  venesection  v\ in  be  proper,  pivv ions  to  ,  M'.„„ ,   „t  ,;...,     ,..,  .-     i     »  •  •  ,       j 

,,       '      ,  ,     ,.         "  ■•         '  I  •  1    1    .■  1  hese,  at  lirst,  are  comparatively  trivia!,  and 

the   emplovment   ot   iiurfjatives,  winch,  last  .  „„i,.   '    „„„&„..„       „,,      ii    •    ,      .„i       t 
,    ,'     ■  111  ■  ,  T  f   ontv  recur  alter  a  consideral)le  interval;  at- 

are  to  be  succeeced  bv  opiates.     In  case  o,  i,  ,,.'„„  ,.    i,  „„„    ,.    ,•,      ,  .> 


ti\  0| 
morbid  inilability  frjm  idiosyncracy  to  the 
operation  of  o'liuni,  castor,  mo-ich,  hyoscya- 
miis,  or  other  narcotics,  may  supply  its  place. 
When  the  patient  is  totally  comatose,  stimu- 
lating enemas  should  be  forced  up  the  rec- 
tum, and  epispastics  or  cataplasms  made  use 
of  to  the  legs  and  feet. 

When  conrulsions  follow  upon  profuse 
evacuations,  they  are  in  the  highest  degree 
alarming;  in  this  case  the  falling  excitement 
must  be  suiiported  with  the  utmost  energy 
and  speed :  warm  aiiplication^  should  be 
made  to  the  stomach,  and  cordials  with  opi- 
ates poured  in  both  by  the  mouth  and  anus. 

Of  abortian  unci  Jlnndiirj;s .—Ahoximm 
happen  during  any  period  of  pregnancy ; 
in  early  gestation,  however,  the  times  ot  mis- 
caiTiage  are  tisuaily  about  the  second  and 
third,  at  the  more  advanced  periods  about 
the  fifth  and  seventh,  months. 

Abortion  is  commonly  preceded  by  \\x- 
morrhage  ;  pains  in  the  back,  abdomen,  or 
loins,  with  a  sensation  of  depending  weight, 
and  the  discharge  of  a  watery  fluid.  If,  with 
the  flooding,  a  vascular  membranous  sub- 
stance should  be  thrown  out,  abortion  will 
almost  intallibly  follow ;  this  is  the  niem- 
brana   decidua.      Excessive   tloodings  often 


terwards,  however,  they  become  more  fre- 
quent and  forcible  ;  till  'at  length,  from  the 
power  of  uterine  contraction,  aided  by  the 
action  of  the  diaphragm  and  abdominal 
muscles,  the  membranes  are  ruptured,  the 
OS  uteri  dilated,  and  the  child  born. 

Approaching  labour  is  indicated  by  the, 
subsiding  of  the  abdominal  tumour;  hence  a 
relief  from  the  sensations  of  weight  ami  pres- 
sure ;  an  excretion  of  mucus  from  the  vagina, 
which  is  sometimes  tinged  with  blood,  suc- 
ceeds, attended  with  dilficultv  of  discharging, 
or  total  suppression  of,  urine;  tenesmus,  ab- 
dominal pains,  which  extend  to  the  loins 
and  pi.bi  >  ;  much  restlessness,  alternate  ri- 
gours and  flushes  of  heat. 

What  are  termed  spurious  labour-pains, 
are  more  irregular  than  those  of  genuine  la- 
bours; they  do  not  produce  any  alteration 
in  the  orilice  of  the  womb,  and  are  not  at- 
tended with  any  considerable  discharge  of 
!  mucus,  by  which  genuine  labour  is  some- 
times preceded,  and  always  accompanied. 

The  prognosis  of  labour  cannot,  with  pre- 
cision, be  formed.  TI.e  more  ordinary  Ii 
mils  of  a  natural  easy  labour,  from  its  actual 
commencement,  is,  trom  six  to  twelve  liours: 
sometimes,  however,  it  is  completed  at  the 
end  of  two  hours,  and  at  others  is  protracted 
occur  iii  the  early  stages  of  pregnaucy,  and  |  for  some  davs,    The  lirst  labour"  is  almost 


135 

invariably  fhe  most  tardy  as  wull  as  "the 
iiio4  painful. 

Ill  natural  parturition,  the  accoucheur  hai 
no  occasion  tor  interference  until  the  niem- 
banes  are  ruptured;  to  this  succeeds  the 
dilaiatioii  of  the  os  uteri,  and  the  head  of  tlie 
child  is  forced  against  the  perin;eura  ;  the  ac- 
coucheur is  now  required,  during  every  pain, 
gently  to  press  with  tlie  palm  of  liis  hand 
B:iain>t  the  perina;al  tumour,  formed  by  the 
head  of  the  child  ;  the  peria.vum  itself  is  like- 
wise to  be  lubricated.  The  head  will  be  ex- 
pelled through  the  orihcium  externum,  ifl 
i'onse.[uence  of  the  resistance  given  by  the 
perina-um,  which  must  be  released  by  cau- 
tieusly  passing  it  over  the  face  and  chin  of 
the  child  ;  and  now  the  female  is  to  be  sutler- 
c*d  to  rest  for  a  minLite  or  two,  until  the  re- 
currence of  a  iresh  labour-pain,  by  which 
the  body  of  the  child  will  he  protruded,  and 
the  delivery  ell'ected. 

The  child  is  to  be  removed  as  far  as  the 
umbilical  chord  will  permit ;  wiiich,  when  the 
Infant  has  shewn  sign.s  of  life,  must  be  tied  and 
rut;  the  ciiild  is  tlien  lobe  wrapped  in  a 
warm  receiver,  washed,  and  dressed.  See 
!>.  "ANcy. 

The  parts  of  the  female  are  to  be  verv 
gently  wiped,  a  warm  soft  cloth  applied,  and 
the  delivery  of  the  placenta  or  afterbirth 
waited  for.  The  approach  of  its  expulsion 
is  usually  announced  by  the  discharge  of 
some  clotted  blood,  and  by  what  are  termed 
c;riping  pains ;  its  advancing  is  ascertained 
by  the  shifting  of  the  abdominal  tumour,  and 
by  the  lengthening  of  the  chord,  which  should 
be  twisted  round  the  tinripr  of  the  right  hand, 
while  two  hngers  and  thumb  of  the  left  hajid 
are  made  to  grasp  that  part  of  it  within  the 
vagina ;  and  when  a  pain  presents,  it  will 
in  this  manner  be  extracted  without  employ- 
ing force ;  if  any  difliculty  arises  from  the 
passage  of  the  bulky  part  of  the  placenta 
through  tlie  vagina,  the  linger  and  tlunnb  of 
the  right  hand  may  be  passed  up  the  chord, 
and  tl;e  edges  gently  loosened. 

But  should  the  placenta  not  advance  when 
the  chord  is  completely  extended,  and  the 
female  suffer  pain,  the  operator  must  desist. 
A  soft  warm  cloth  should  be  appli^-d  to  the 
uterine  orilic(',  and  tlie  p.itient  allowed  lo  rest 
for  some  minutes  ;  in  tlie  m?an  time,  a  gra- 
dual pressure  may  be  made  on  the  abdomen, 
to  assist  the  uterine  contraction,  and  facilitate 
the  extraction  of  Ihe  placenta,  which,  in  by 
far  the  majority  of  cases,  is  disengaged  and 
•  ■xi)elled  within  less  than  an  hetir  after  the 
birlh  of  the  child.  From  want  of  power, 
how  ever,  in  the  uterus,  from  spasmodic  action 
of  this  organ,  or  from  a  diseased  state  of  the 
])lacenta  itsi:lf,  it  may  be  retained  in  the 
ulerus,  and  give  rise  lo  unpleasant  symp- 
toms. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  employ 
force  in  the  extraction,  which  is  perhaps 
never  the  case  but  hi  instances  of  flooding, 
the  female  should  be  laid  on  her  hack  ;  the 
accouclu'ur  must  pass  his  hand  well  lubri- 
cated into  the  uti-rus,  and  search  for  the 
convex  body  of  the  afterbirth,  the  adhesions 
of  whii-ji  must  be  gradually  separ.it''d  by  the 
lingers;  and  when  the  whole,  body  !■.  loosened, 
it  must  be  carefully  brought  away. 

Much  controver^y  has  recently  arisen  with 
respect  lo  tin'  eligi!)ilily  of  a  forcible  extrac- 
tJuu  yf  the  j)la':i;nta;  it  cannot  be  denied, 


MIDWIFERY. 

that  a  retention  of  this  membrane  iias  been 
attended  witii  fatal  conseqiieu'  es ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  prec.pitate  and  too  forcible 
efforts  to  procure  its  extraction,  have  been 
followed  by  fatal  accidents.  Perhaps  il  may 
be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule,  ttiat  although 
the  expulsion  of  the  placenta  is  earnesllv  to 
be  wished,  its  retention  is  attended  with 
mHch  less  risk  than  a  forcible  extraction, 
when  the  vital  power  is  insufficient  to  endure 
much  manual  torce. 

Difficull  labour. — Eitherfrom  a  diminution 
of  the  uterine  propeihng  powers,  or  an  in- 
crease of  the  resisting  ones,  delivery  may  be 
protracted  beyond  the  ordinary  period,  al- 
though the  head  of  the  child  presents  in  its 
natural  course.  \\hen  this  happens,  thi- 
labour  may  bedenoininated  difficult;  diflicult 
labours  may  be  referred  to  the  condition  of 
the  mother,  the  child,  or  the  secundines. 

I'iius,  in  the  first  place,  they  may  be  oc- 
casioned or  attended  by  uterine  h.emorrhage, 
epileptic  tits,  spasms,  faintings,  nausea, 
liectic  or  consumptive  state,  mental  agita- 
tions, and  mismanagement  in  the  time  of 
labour:  or  the  impediment  to  the  progress  of 
labour  may  be  local,  as  from  narrowness  of 
the  pelvis  or  other  distortions,  constriction 
and  dryness  of  the  vagina,  rigidity  of  the  os 
tinea',  schirri  or  polypi  in  the  uterus  or  vi- 
einity,  accumulated  fieces,  calculus,  prolapsus 
of  the  uterus,  vagina  an«  rectum,  obliquity 
of  the  womb. 

In  the  second  place,  the  impediment  may 
be  occasioned  by  the  bulk  and  ossihaatioii  of 
the  child's  head,  the  manner  in  which  it  pre- 
sents, and  the  largeness  or  transs'erse  presen- 
tation of  the  shoulder;. 

Thirdly,  in  the  secundines  there  may  be 
too  great  a  rigidity  of  the  membranes,  or  the 
contrary;  too  large  a  quantitv  of  water; 
the  navel-chord  may  be  too  long  or  too  short, 
or  il  may  prolapse  before  the  child's  head; 
and  lastly,  the  placenta  may  be  attached  to- 
wards the  cervix  or  mouth  of  tiie  womb.  On 
each  of  these  causes  and  their  remedies,  we 
shall  now  proceed  to  descant. 

When  luemorrhage  or  flooding  occurs  with 
genuine  labour-pains,  Ihe  membranes  are 
to  be  broken,  as  soon  as  tlie  dilatation  of  Ihe 
mouth  of  the  womb  is  sufficient  to  ailmit  the 
hand  ;  the  haemorrhage,  upon  the  discharge 
of  the  water,  will  generally  abate;  in  tiiis 
case,  the  patient  must  be  carefully  ))reservetl 
li'om  being  heated,  opiates  must  be  admi- 
iiislered,  and  Ihe  natural  process  of  delivery 
awaited. 

If  the  lia'morrh  ;ge,  as  has  happened  in 
some  tew  cases,  depends  upon  a  separalion 
of  the  placenta,  attached  towards  the  neck 
of  the  womb,  the  (low  of  blood  may  be  im- 
petuous, from  the  separation  of  the  cake,  be- 
fore the  ulerus  is  sufficiently  dilated  lo  ad- 
mil  the  passage  of  the  child's  lu-ad.  In  this 
else  the  membranes  are  to  be  broken,  and 
the  delivery  effected  by  turning  or  extracting 
with  the  forceps  or  crochet,  with  as  much 
expedilitm  as  is  consistent  with  the  safely  of 
the  mother.  Upon  the  occurrence  of  epi- 
leplic  fits,  cramps  in  tlie  thighs,  legs,  ^-e. 
fainlings,  and  other  symplonis,  which  are 
coiisecjuences  as  well  as  causes  of  piotracled 
labour,  no  general  rules  can  he  given.  The 
ex(  ilemeiit  or  strength  should  be  supported 
in  tliese  cases  of  nervous  irrilahility,  heat 
and  fatigue  must  be  sedulously  guarded 
agaiiist,  opiiiles  giveii,  and  the  progress  of 


the  labo'ir  waited  for.  In  cases,  however, 
of  violent  epileptic  attacks,  the  delivery  of 
the  child  shtiulil  be  effected  as  soon  as  pos^" 
sible. 

When  a  febrile  disposition  is  more  than 
usually  conspicuous,  the  bowels  must  be 
kept  gently  open,  and  a  cooling  reghiica 
adopted. 

In  cases  of  severe  colic  presenting  imme- 
diately before  the  pains  of  labour,  emollient 
clysters  should  be  injected,  followed  by 
opmm. 

Nausea  and  sickness  must  be  combated 
by  diluent  liquids,  by  bitters,  and  by  small 
doses  ot  opium. 

\\  hen  labours  occur  in  the  consumptive 
state,  they  are  almost  invariably  lingering. 
Under  these  circumstances,  that  posture  of 
the  body  should  carefully  be  cho-en  for  the 
female,  in  which  respiration  is  best  promot- 
ed ;  the  head  and  breast  should  be  elevated 
more  than  in  iirdmary  ca^es ;  and  the  apart- 
ment preservetl  cool  and  airy,  but  free  Irom 
currents  of  air.  After  delivery,  in  instances 
of  conlirmed  phthisis,  the  symptoms,  which 
during  pregnancy  had  been  in  some  measure 
mitigated  and  suspended,  recur  with  an 
alarming  and  fatal  rapidity. 

It  scarcely  requires  to  be  observed,  that 
all  sources  of  mental  agitation,  even  those 
which  without  scruple  would  be  admilled  at 
other  times,  should  be  sedulously  prevented 
in  incipient  labour;  violent  iiood'ing,  convul- 
sion, and  fatal  deliquia,  have  been  induced  at 
this  period  from  deficient  observance  of  such 
caution. 

The  above-mentioned  obstructions  to  the 
progress  of  labour  are  of  a  general  nature ; 
impediments,  however,  to  delivery  may  de- 
l)end  upon  local  causes :  the  first  of  these 
we  have  mentioned,  are,  narrowness  and 
distortions  of  the  pelvis,  or  other  bones.  In 
all  cases  indeed  of  deformity,  such  as  curved 
spine,  bowed  legs,  much  projection  of  the 
breast-bone,  &c.  the  labour  may  be  difficult, 
indcpendantly  of  actual  deformity  of  the  pel- 
vis ;  but  the  former  are  likew  ise  frequently 
combined  with  the  latter.  The  pelvis  iiiay 
be  faulty  at  its  upper  and  inferior  portion,  or 
ill  its  cavity. 

In  the  first  case,  we  can  only  ascertain  the 
distortion  from  the  symptoms  in  pregnancy  ; 
the  pelvis  is  known  to  be  too  small,  or  the 
head  of  the  child  dlspropoitionallv  large,  bv 
the  latter  not  advancing  in  proportion  lo  the 
|iains  ;  and  by  feeling  a  sharp  ridge  on  the 
top  of  the  child's  head,  occa^iolle^l  by  Ihe 
bones  riding  over  each  other  in  consequence 
of  pressure. 

If  the  patient's  strength  rapidly  falls,  if 
the  child's  head  begins  to  swell,  and  the 
parts  of  the  female  to  tumify  and  inflame, 
the  artificial  mode  of  delivery  must  now  be 
resorted  to,  taking  great  care  not  to  be  too 
|)recipitate  in  the  application  either  of  instru- 
ments or  of  force. 

Local  obstructions  may  exist  also  in  the 
soft  parts ;  the  vagina  may  be  dry  and  con- 
stricted ;  in  which  case  all  stretching  and 
nuchanical  force  is  lo  be  avoided,  and  1  he- 
parts  lubricated  by  oily  substances  or  warm 
applicalions.  When  a  thickness  and  rigidity 
ol  the  o;  tiiicrr  obstruct  labour,  as  in  women 
advanced  in  lite,  the  parts  may  likewise  be 
lubricated,  and  here  opiates  are  often  ne- 
<cs»ary.  In  this  case  no  forcible  altempts 
should  be  made  to  open  Iht;  uterus.     I'oly- 


pous  or  o(her  tumo'irs  sometimes,  but  very 
rarely,  i'o(|uirc  extiriKitioji,  In  order  to  Ihcili- 
tate  tiie  p<»ssag(,'  of  Ihe  cliikl  through  the  va- 
gina. WliL-ii  difficulty  occiivs  from  accumii- 
lati^d  hcciis,  eiiiullient  dvstcrs  must  be  had 
immediate  recourse  to.  Calcidi,  if  thev  ob- 
Btriict  the  passages,  must,  when  they  cannot 
be  pushed  back,  be  cut  open  and  evtracted. 

VVlien  prolapsus  of  the  uterus  occurs  from 
the  too  gi'eat  capacity  of  llir  pelvis,  tin,- 
womb  must  be  supported  in  time  of  pain 
that  the  stretchiui;  ot  parts  may  be  gradual. 
When  the  vagina  or  rectum  prolapse,  they 
must  be  reduced  by  gentle  pressiire  during 
the  intervals  of  the  pauis,  and  a  reuirn  obvi- 
ated by  very  gentle  pressure. 

Obliiiuity  of  ihe  womb  never,  perhaps, 
interferes  with  the  progress  of  labour,  except 
in  cases  of  a  pendulous  abdomen  or  distorted 
pelvis. 

Labour  may  be  protracted  from  peculi- 
arities in  cither  the  form  or  position  of  tlie 
child's  head. 

Natural  disproportion  in  size  may  take 
place  in  the  liead  ottlie  infant;  it  may  be  en- 
larged from  emphysema,  in  conseipience  of 
tlied'athof  tlie  fa-tus,  or  this  enlargement 
may  originate  from  hydrocephalus  :  the  tirst 
of  these  can  only  be  detected  by  tlie  tardy 
advances  of  tlie  child,  when  compared  with 
the  violence  of  llie  laliour-pains  ;  the  second 
is  discovered  from  previous  symptoms,  and 
from  the  emphysematous  feel  of  the  present- 
ing head  ;  the  last  may  sometimes  be  ascer- 
taned  by  a  separation  of  the  bones,  and  a 
fluctuation  in  tiie  head. 

In  these  cases  recourse  must  be  had  to  in- 
struments ;  and  if  by  any  force  properly 
employed  the  head  cannot  be  made  to  pass, 
the  cranium  must  be  pierced  and  the  brain 
extracted,  previous  to  the  delivery. 

The  mere  luifavourable  position  of  the 
head  may  be  referred  to  two  kinds.  Isl. 
Where  the  open  of  the  head,  or  fontanella, 
presents  instead  of  the  vertex  ;  and  2dly, 
tice-cases. 

If  the  former  is  the  obstacle,  the  labour 
will  generally  terminate  well  witliout  arti- 
ficial aid.  Pace-cases,  however,  are  often 
extremely  difficult  and  latwrious :  their  va- 
rieties are  constituted  by  tlie  direction  of 
the  chin  to  the  pubes,  or  to  the  sacrum,  or 
to  either  side.  In  these  cases  tlie  labour 
must  be  permitted  to  proceed,  till  the  face 
i<  protrudi'd  as  far  down  as  possible.  It  is 
often  as  hazardous  and  as  difficult  to  thrust 
back  the  child,  and  bring  down  the  vertex, 
as  to  turn  it  and  deliver  by  the  feet.  Some- 
times the  attempt  to  alter  the  position  inay 
succeed ;  or  where  the  face  is  considerably 
advanced,  the  lingers  may  be  placed  in  the 
mouth  of  the  child,  and  the  jaw  pulled  down, 
by  which  the  bulk  of  the  head  will  be  dinii- 
nisiied  ;  or  the  chin  may  be  pressed  to  bring 
it  under  the  arch  of  the  pubes,  bv  which  the 
crown  will  be  pushed  into  the  hollow  of  the 
sacrum,  and  the  passage  of  the  heatl  thus  fa- 
cilitated. 

Labour  is  seldom  obstructed  by  the 
breadth  of  the  shoulders ;  if  the  shoulders 
do  not  pass  after  several  pains,  the  accou- 
cheur may  assist  the  delivery  by  passing  a 
finger  on  each  r,ide  as  far  as  the  axjUa. 

La>tl\ ,  the  difficultv  and  danger  o.  labour 
may  have  reference  lo  the  secuiid  nes 

i'roiu  the  rigidity  of  the  mciubranes  the 


MIDWIFERY. 

b'lth  is  not  «)  frequcnlly  rendered  (edioft^ 
as  from  the  opposite  cause  ;  and  as  many  in- 
conveniences ari>e  from  the  premature  eva- 
cuation of  the  waters,  this  accident  should 
be  guarded  against  rather  than  encouraged. 

"^riie  impediment  to  delivery  from  loo  great 
a  quantity  of  water  seldom  proves  danger- 
ous; even  l».-re  the  membranes  should  ne- 
ver be  bro!;en  lill  the  soft  paits  are  fullv  di- 
lated. 

WI.en  the  nivel-string  is  too  long,  the  la- 
bour may  be  protracted  from  its  circumvo- 
lutions passing  round  the  child's  neck  or 
bodv.  This,  iiowever,  is  very  seldom  tlie 
case,  and  it  is  almost  never  necessary  or  pro- 
pin-  to  divide  the  chord  in  the  birth  ;  a  prac- 
tice that  may  be  attended  with  fatal  conse- 
quences. 

\V'lien  the  funis  is  too  short,  a  precipitate 
exjiulsion  of  the  placenta  may  be  the  coiise- 
ipience,  or  the  rupture  of  tlie  chord  and 
(ieatli  of  the  child  ;  this  case,  however,  very 
rarely  happens.  When  the  funis  is  prolaps- 
ed In-fere  the  hi'ad,  it  should,  if  possible,  be 
thrust  up  above  the  presenting  part;  for  the 
circulation  of  the  chord,  and  consequent 
death  of  thechild,  may  otherwise  take  |ilace. 
If  the  head  is  tar  advanced,  and  the  life  of 
the  child  in  danger,  delivery  may  be  per- 
formed with  the  Ibrceps. 

When  the  placenta  is  attached  towards 
the  neck  or  orifice  of  the  uterus,  tlic  danger 
from  hieniorrhage  is  very  considerable,  and 
the  delivery  is  to  be  accomplished  as  speedi- 
ly as  possible. 

By  the  above  observations  it  will  be  ren- 
dered evident,  that  the  practice  of  manual 
or  Instrumental  assistance,  even  in  difficult 
labour,  is  very  seldom  requisite  ;  as,  how- 
ever, there  are  cases  where  the  defects  of 
Mature  mav  be  in  some  measure  remedied 
by  art,  it  will  be  proper  more  particularly 
to  speak 

Of  the  inodc  ofdelkvri/  bij  inatruments. 
Fiircrps.  This  is  an  instrument  which  in 
its  improved  form  may  be  used  without  en- 
dangering the  safety  of  either  mother  or 
child.  ^V'hen  it  is  re(|uisite  to  employ  it 
with  tlie  head  presenting  naturally,  the  fe- 
niaU:  must  be  laid  on  her  back  across  the 
be<l,  and  the  accoucheur  kneeling  before 
her  is  lirst  to  lubricate  the  perineum  and  the 
vagina,  then  geiitiv  dilate  the  parts  by  pass- 
ing his  hand  through  the  vagina  by  the  sitle 
of  the  child's  head  till  it  advances  as  far  as 
an  ear ;  along  the  hand  lie  is  to  guide  a 
blade  of  the  forceps,  which  is  to  be  intro- 
duced in  the  direction  of  the  line  of  the  pel- 
vis, the  liandle  held  backwards  towards  the 
perina;um,and  the  clam  kept  closely  applied 
to  the  child's  head.  This  must  be  insinuated 
by  degrees  with  a  kind  of  wriggling  motion, 
till  the  blade  is  applied  along  the  side  of 
the  head  over  the  ear:  the  operator  must 
then  withdraw  the  first  hand  fn.im  the  pelvis, 
and  secure  the  handle  of  the  blade  already 
introiluced,  tdl  the  other  blade  is  insinu- 
ated in  the  same  manner  ;  the  handles  must 
then  be  brought  exactly  to  antagonize  each 
other,  and  then  the  blades  are  to  be  locked. 
Now,  while  one  hand  is  engaged  in  defend- 
ing tn.-  perma'um,  the  other  must  be  em- 
ployed in  moving  the  forceps  froin  blade 
I  blade,  not  straight  forwards ;  and  the  ac- 
Icouclieur  should  only  operate    during   the 


rP3. 

pain?,  if  any,  and  if  not  fie  sfioiiW  frequently 

desist. 

When  the  p(  rirurum  begins  to  protrude, 
the  operatoi-  must  rise,  elevate  the  handle  of 
his  instrument  very  gently,  and  by  a  turn 
biing  the  head  round  from  under  the  arcK 
of  the  pubes,  careiullv  preserving  the  peri- 
na'um  from  being  lacerated. 

When  the  vertex  pres';iits  v^ith  tlic  face 
laterally  in  the  pflvis,  the  instrument  rr.ust 
not  be  introduced  till  the  ear  of  the  child 
has  passed  under  the  pubes;  t!ie  womuii 
should  now  be  place<l  on  her  side  or  knees, 
and  when  the  forceps  are  passed,  should 
again  bi'  placed  on  her  back,  and  the  head 
be  delivered  in  the  manner  it  presents. 
When  the  forceps  in  tliis  case  fails,  it  innst 
be  fixed  over  the  heail  and  occiput ;  if  this 
last  method  docs  not  succeed,  the  size  of ' the 
head  must  be  diminished. 

If  the  fontanella  presents  with  the  face  Xa 
the  pubes  or  sacrum,  the  forceps  may  be 
a])plied  in  the  same  manner  as  in  a  natural 
presentation  ;  here  the  extraction  should  be 
made  with  extri'rr.e  deliberation,  tl-.e  forceps 
must  be  re!ease<l  when  the  head  i;  delivered, 
and  the  remainiier  of  the  delivery  regulated 
as  inuler  ordinary  ciicuin-stances. 

in  this  caseof  fiintanel  presentation,the short 
diamctrr  of  the  pelvis  is  intersected  by  the 
long  axis  of  the  head,  and  it  is  thus  rendi-r- 
ed  impossible  to  bring  the  head  along  by  any 
force  wc  are  justilied  in  using.  In  this  case,  ■ 
the  common  forcejis  being  withdrawn,  the 
long  one  is  to  be  had  recmirse  to.  An  in- 
strument has  likewise  bc:en  employed  hi  these 
cases  with  a  thir<l  blade. 

In  face-presentations,  the  accoucheur  is  to 
pass  his  hand  with  great  gentleness  witiiin 
the  pelvis,  and  only  during  the  intervals  of 
pain  endeavour  to  push  the  shoulders  above 
the  brim  of  the  pelvis  ;  should  this  succeed, 
the  labour  will  perhaps  proceed  orderly  ;  it, 
however,  every  endeavour  is  baffled  to  make 
the  crown  or  fontanel  present,  the  forceps 
is  to  be  applied  over  the  ears  of  the  child, 
and  the  extraction  performed  in  the  best 
manner  the  accoucheur  is  able  :  if  this  fails, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  the  crotchet.  When 
the  face  presents  with  the  chin  to  the  pubes, 
previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  forceps, 
the  chin,  if  possible,  should  be  brought 
down  below  the  pubes.  '\\'hen  the  chin  is  to 
the  sacrum,  it  should  be  advanced  to  its  in- 
ferior part  ;  and  when  it  is  laterally  directed, 
the  chin  should  be  as  low  as  the  under  jiart 
of  the  tuber  ischii  before  the  instrument  is 
employed. 

Embn/oloini/.  When  every  method  has 
failed  of  extracting  the  head  of  the  child, 
this  operation  must  be  had  recourse  to  ;  that 
is,  the  skull  must  be  perforated,  and  its  con- 
tents evacuated.  This  is  a  modern  and  im- 
portant improvement  in  the  art  of  midwifery  r 
the  instruments  by  which  the  operation  is  to 
be  accomplished,  consist  of  a  pair  of  long 
scissars,  a  sharp  curved  crochet,  and  a  blunt 
hook.  It  is  unnecessary  to  say,  that  em- 
bryotomy should  never  be  employed  but  in 
cases  of  absolute  necessity  ;  and  where  the 
demotisiration  is  complete,  that  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  pelvis  are  insufficient  to  admit 
the  passing  ot  the  child's  head. 

In  the  narrowest  pelvis  that  presents,  the 
soft  parts  should  be  fully  dilated  previous  to 
perlorating  the  cranium  ;  the  head  of  the 
child  is  to  be  iixed  firmly  in  tlie  pelvis,  and 


1P4 

.flvivancej  as  far  as  possible  ;  the  long  scissai'3 
are  to  be  intioduce.l  into  the  vagina  by  tiie 
direction  of  t!ie  liand,  ajid  the  points  guard- 
i-d  till  they  apply  to  the  cranium  oi'the  child, 
Nsiiich  they  must  be  made  to  perforate  till 
they  are  inserted  as  far  as  the  rests;  tliey 
ere  then  to  be  fiiUy  dilated,  carefully  closed 
again,  half-turned,  and  again  dilated,  so  as 
to  form  a  crucial  hole  in  the  scull.  Now, 
they  are  to  be  thrust  beyond  the  rests,  open- 
ed and  shut  for  several  times,  till  a  very 
large  opeiiing  is  made ;  the  scis^ars  are 
then  lo  be  wilhdra\ui  carefully,  and  llie 
brain  cxtractetl  by  means  of  the  Ihigcrs  or 
blunt  hook,  and  if  any  portion  ot  bor.c  is 
found  loose  it  is  to  be  removed  by  the  hng- 
ers  or  smail  forceps.  The  teguments  ot  the 
scalp  should  now  be  drav.n  over  tlie  cranial 
pertoratioii,  and  the  e.xtraction  delayed  for 
some  hours  ;  sometimes  the  force  of  natural 
lal)Our-pains  will  suffice  for  the  expulsion  of 
the  head;  if  not,  it  must  be  drawn  forward 
by  means  of  two  fingers  introc-luced  in^o  the 
cavity  of  the  cranium,  by  the  blunt  hook,  or 
by  tlie  crochet ;  which  la>t  is  to  be  introdu- 
ced in  the  same  manner  as  a  blade  of  the  for- 
ceps, taking  care  to  guard  the  point  with  the 
finger  ;  the  force  employed  must  be  e^^certed 
by  intervals,  and  if  there  are  labour-pains, 
only  during  their  occurrence ;  sometimes  it 
is  necessary  to  emplov  considerable  exertion 
in  order  to  effect  the  extraction  :  if,  after  tiie 
head  has  passed,  the  bodv  resists  the  ex- 
tracting power,  the  thorax  must  be  pierced, 
and  some  of  its  contents  likewise  discharged. 

If,  from  great  inattention  or  ignorance, 
the  head  has  been  severed  from  tlie  body, 
and  both  remain  in  the  uterus,  the  head, 
when  it  cannot  be  extracted  rirst,  must  be 
pushed  upwards  ;  the  crotchet  or  blunt  hook 
must  be  lixed  under  the  arm-pit,  (lie  arms 
must  be  brought  down,  and  the.  body  ex- 
tracted by  hxing  the  crotchet  below  the 
shoulder  blade,  on  the  breast-bone  or  among 
the  ribs.  Tlie  head  must  aSterwanls  be  drawn 
out  with  the  crotchet. 

In  face-presentations,  where  it  is  impos- 
sible to  alter  the  position  of  the  foetus,  the 
double  crotchet  has  been  employed:  this 
last,  however,  is  very  s«ldom  necessary. 
The  crotchet  with  a  single  blade  is  almost 
invariably  to  be  preferred. 

Ocsitrian  optrutio.n.  This  consists  in 
making  an  opening  into  the  abdomen  of  the 
mother,  in  order  to  extract  the  child,  when 
delivevy  cannot  be  accomplished  in  any 
other  way.  The  propriety  of  having  recourse 
to  this  op. -ration  in  any,  which  in  all  in- 
stances is  attended  with  oiisiderahle  hazard, 
has  been  inilch  agitated  ;  and  it  must  be 
confessed,  that  the  Uiiha])py  event  of  those 
casi-s  in  which  the  expe<lieiit  has  rccentiy 
been  tried  in  Britain,  are  highly  discoura- 
ging. In  the  eity  ol  Kdinburgn,  the  ca-sarian 
operation  has  l)een  performed  five  times, 
and  none  of  the  females  who  were  operated 
upon  survived  many  days. 

In  other  countries,  however,  such  has  not 
been  the  universal  result  of  the  trial  in  cpies- 
tion  ;  and  the  following  circumstances  have 
by  many  been  imagined  to  authorise  the 
adoption  of  this  expedient- 
Defective  ioriii  of  the  pelvis.  Whenever 
the  capa'itv  of  the  pelvis  is  so  kiiiall  that 
Us  larger  diaini'ter  does  not  exceed  an  inch 
and  a  half,  a  cusc  of  exceedingly  uufre<juent 


MIDWIFERY. 

occurrence,  the  ca;sarian  operation  lias  been 
judged  an  attempt  attended  with  less  dan- 
ger, even  to  the  mother,  than  that  of  em- 
bryotomy above  described;  and  as  affording  a 
prospect  of  saving  the  child  it  is  preferable. 

Secondly,  imperforaticns  or  contracted 
passages  in  or  about  the  vagina,  have  been 
supposed  to  indicat'e  this  operation ;  but  it 
has  been  ascertained  that  tumours  in  the  va- 
gina may  be  extirpated,  or  that  imperfora- 
tions  from  the  parts  of  the  vagina  having 
grov.n  together  may  be  opened,  and  that 
therefore  such  accidents  will  nut  justify  the 
operation  in  question. 

\\hcn  the  uterus  has  been  lacerated, 
and  the  whole  foetus  has  escaped  into 
the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  the  ca;sarian 
operation  has  been  recommended  ;  if,  how- 
ever, even  in  this  case,  incision  into  the  ab- 
domen is  ever  allowable,  it  should  be 
maile  at  that  time  alone  u-hen  a  prospect 
remains  of  saving  tlie  child  ;  as  such  incision 
immediately  alter  the  uterus  has  burst, 
would  be  almost  inevitably  attended  by  the 
death  of  the  mother.  "  Should,  however, 
the  patient  recruit  after  the  accident,  and  it 
be  found  impossible  to  extract  the  child 
through  the  ordinary  passages,  a  simple  in- 
cision through  the  integuments  of  the  abdo- 
men niay  afford  the  means  of  saving  tlie  life 
of  tlic  woman." 

Cases  of  ventral  conception,  or  hernia;  of 
the  uterus,  do  not  afford  suliicient  ground.-> 
for  the  attempt.  In  the  former,  the  event 
is  to  be  trusted  to  nature  ;  and  in  the  latter, 
cases  are  on  record  of  reduction  of  the  rup- 
ture and  the  safe  delivery  of  the  child. 

AVith  respect  to  the  position  or  bulk  of  the 
child,  the  late  improvements  in  obstetrical 
inslrumonts,  S;c.  have  superseded  in  all 
cases  the  necessity  of  this  hazardous  expc:- 
dient,  when  llie  obstacle  to  delivery  has 
been  on  the  part  of  the  fa-tus  merely.  It 
then  in  any  case  the  cssarian  operation  is 
justifiable,  it  appears  to  be  in  that  only 
where  the  extreme  contraction  of  the  pel- 
vis does  not  admit  of  the  operation  of  em- 
bryotomy. 

Operation.  "  First  empty  the  intestines, 
the  rectum,  and  the  vesica  urinaria,  then 
lay  the  patient  in  a  horizontal  posture.  In 
making  the  incision,  we  must  avoid  the  large 
arterie.^  in  the  containing  parts.  It  )t  was 
to  extend  far  outwards,  considerable  branches 
of  the  circumflex  might  be  divided;  if  in- 
wards, the  epigastric:  so  the  best  place  is  be- 
tween the  recti  muscles,  or  upon  the  outside 
of  the  rectus.  The  surgeon  should  first  di- 
vide the  skin  and  muscles,  and  leave  the 
peritoneum  entip-,  until  the  bleeding  from 
the  vessel's  has  entirely  ceased.  We  then 
open  the  peritona'Uin,  making  first  a  small 
incision,  and  observe  if  the  u'erns  is  contigu- 
ous ;  if  it  is  we  divide  it  with  caution;  The 
chscharg;:  of  blood  is  smaller  than  we  should 
expect.  Wit  then  cut  the  membranes,  se- 
parate the  placenta  to  extract  the  la-lus,  dis- 
charge the  waters,  and  as  soon  as  the  Jtetus 
and  secundines  are  nmioved,  the  uterus  con- 
tracts of  itself.  Then  let  thesuigeon  pass 
his  hand  into  the  cavity  of  the  uterus,  and 
with  one  or  two  fingers  open  the  os  uteri, 
that  the  blood  may  pass  readily  out  by  the 
vagina.  We  then  shut  the  womb,  sew  the 
containing  ])arts  of  the  abdomen  with  the 
glover's   stitch,   or   iuterrupled    suture,     at 


three-fotirths  of  an  inch  distance,  making 
the  needle  pass  through  the  skin  and  part  of 
the  muscles,  leaving  the  peiitonaum  eiuiie  ; 
or  It  there  is  a  considerable  effusion  ol  blood 
and  water,  stitch  all  bi.t  the  under  part,  in- 
troduce into  it  a  soft  tent,  and  cover  the  v\hole 
With  a  compress.  The  patient  is  to  be  kept 
on  a  strict  antiphlogistic  regimen  during  thc3 
cure."  (Extracted  from  the  directions  of 
Dr.  Monro,  in  Dr.  Hamilton's  System  of 
Midiufery.) 

2\.  further  operation  has  been  proposed  and 
practised  :  that  ol  dividing  the  symphiais  pu- 
bis, by  making  an  inci-ion  with  tlie  scalpel 
through  the  soft  parts,  in  the  direction  of  the 
commissure  of  the  ossa  pubis,  separating  af- 
terwards the  cartilaginous  articulation  ;  and 
then,  by  an  extension  of  the  thighs,  separat- 
ing the  bones,  and  waiting  for  tlie  expulsion 
ot  the  ftt-tus  by  natural  labour-pains ;  if  these 
prove  insufficient  to  effect  the  expulsion,  re- 
course is  then  directed  to  be  had  to  extrac- 
tion by  the  scissars  and  crotchet,  to  turning 
thechild,  or  to  the  ca-sarian  section. 

'Ihis  last,  however,  which  has  been  called 
the  Sigaultian  operation,  from  its  having  lii'st 
been  proposed  by  M.  Sigault  of  Paris,  is  in 
no  instance  to  be  substituted  for  that  of  em- 
bryotomy ;  "  which,  if  not  too  long  delayed, 
may,  in  the  present  iinproved  state  ol  the 
art,  be  employed  in  most  cases  of  distortion, 
with  perfect  salety  to  the  mother,  who  is 
always  justly  entitled  to  tlie  first  pl.ce  in  our 
intentions,  and  whose  valuable  life  is  the 
most  interesting  and  important  object  of  our 
regard." 

PretermUural  labours. 
From  natural  and  dillicult,  we  now  pass 
on  to  consider  tho  e  labours  that  are  deno- 
minated preternatural;  which  are  constituted 
by  the  presentation  of  any  part  of  the  (.iuld 
excepting  tiie  lu  ad  and  face.  The  causes 
of  these  are  obscure.  The  unnatural  posi- 
tion has  been  attributed  to  the  motions  of 
the  infant  in  tiie  early  months  ot  pregnancy, 
to  agitations  of  the  mother  at  that  period,  to 
the  form  of  the  child,  the  C|Uantitv  ot  the  wa- 
ters, the  loo  great  length  or  shortness  of  the 
navel-striiig,  and  other  circumstances. 

When  labour  is  but  little  advanced,  and 
before  the  position  of  the  child  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  touch,  a  preternatural  presen- 
tation may  be  antici|)a;ed,  if  the  pains  are  ex- 
tremely weak,  if  the  membranes  are  pro- 
truded in  a  form  like  the  finger  of  a  glove,  if 
no  part  of  the  child  c.  n  be  discovered  when 
the  uterine  orifice  is  much  dilated,  or  if  the 
presenting  part  gives  less  resisUince  than  or- 
dinary. It.  lastly,  when  the  membranes  are 
rupluied,  the  meconium  comes  ;  way  with 
the  waters,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  the  breech 
presents,  or  that  the  child  is  de;id. 

PretiTnatural  |)resentations  may  be  coin- 
preheiKle<l  under  the  three  following  fiivi- 
kions:  1.  'llie  presentation  of  one  or  both 
teet,  knees,  or  the  breech.  '2.  When  the 
child  lies  in  a  transverse  position,  and  pre- 
sents with  the  arm,  shoulder,  side,  back,  or 
abdouK'n.  3.  When  one  or  both  arms  are 
protruded  before  the  head. 

The  first,  and  by  far  the  most  favourable, 
fortii  of  ininatural  ])res('ntati<)n,  is  calleil  tlie 
.\grippan  iiosfure.  V\  hen  one  or  both  feet 
present,  scarcely  any  thing  more  is  reipiired 
than  if  the  labour  was  strictly  natural,  until 
the  orilice  of  the  womb,  is  sullieitiitly  dl- 


tatpcl,  ai)(l  (lie  pre'enlina:  pavl.>  li;ive  ail- 
vaiicc-tl  vvithoul  lli^  OS  uxliTimni.  'I'lii^  wo- 
man iiiiist  llun  be  laid  on  lu-r  sidi-,  and  tin; 
ojKTaloi'  i>  lolal'i'-  hold  of  one  log  abovi'  llu: 
aiicK',  and  gently  cndeavonr  to  pnll  it  ilown 
in  the  time  ot  a  pain  ;  not  in  a  straight  diroo-  I 
tion,  but  troni  side  to  side,  or  iVom  the  sa- 
crum to  the  piibes.  Upon  the  remission  ol' 
the  pain,  a  warm  floth  is  to  be  applied  to 
the  OS  extenuim,  and  upon  the  recurrence 
ot  a  pain,  the  other  leg  is  to  l)e  brought  do.vn 
in  tlie  same  inaiimr  with  the  lirsl.  Now  a 
warm  cloth  should  b;-  wrapped  round  the 
feet,  so  as  to  leave  the  toes  exposed,  in  order 
to  direct  the  turning  of  the  body  :  if  these 
are  directed  towards  one  of  the  sacro-iliac 
ssnchonilroses,  the  child  is  to  be  brought 
along,  without  any  alteration  of  its  position, 
till  it  is  arrested  by  the  lesistance  of  the 
shoulders  ;  if,  however,  the  toes  siiould  point 
to  the  back  or  belly,  the  chiUl's  body  must 
be  gradually  turneil,  till  the  abdomen  is  ap- 
plied to  that  sacro-iliac  synchondrosis  to 
which  it  is  nearest.  In  turning,  the  child's 
body  must  be  lirnily  grasped  with  both 
liands,  directing  it  a  little  ujjwards,  and  late- 
rally, in  the  lime  of  the  pain,  lavouring  that 
line  of  direction  to  which  nature-  appears  to 
incline. 

\\  hen  the  breech  is  entirely  protruded, 
the  child  must  be  taken  hold  of,  and  gradu- 
ally extracted,  by  grasping  with  the  t|ninibs 
above  the  haunches,  and  the  hngers  spread 
upon  the  groins;  as  the  belly  advances,  the 
cijeralor  must  slide  \\p  his  hand,  and  gently 
draw  down  a  little  of  the  navel-string  ;  and 
if,  after  the  breech  is  protruded,  the  chord 
is  compressed  at  the  os  tincie,  the  delivery 
must  be  earnestly  expedited.  When  the 
child  has  advanced  as  far  as  the  breast,  it 
ought  to  be  sujjported  by  one  hand  of  the 
operator;  the  infant  being  then  drawn  gently 
towards  one  side,  two  or  more  lingers  of  tlie 
other  hand  may  be  introduced  at  the  oppo- 
site into  the  pelvis,  over  the  back  of  the 
shoulder  as  far  as  the  elbow,  to  bringdown 
the  arm  obluiuely  over  the  breast.  '1  he  o])e- 
ralor  having  now  shilted  hands,  the  opposite 
arm  must  be  disengaged  in  the  same  man- 
ner. 

Now  the  woman  is  to  be  allowed  rest  till 
another  jniin  or  two  follow  ;  when,  liy  gently 
bearing  down,  the  liead  w  ill  generally  pass  : 
il,  however,  this  is  not  the  case,  a  <langer  of 
the  infant's  life  will  arise;  from  the  pressure  of 
the  navel-string  ;  if  the  pulsation  of  this  is 
extremely  weak,  the  labour  must  by  all 
means  be  expedited.  Two  lingers  of  the  left 
iiand  are  to  be  introduced  into  the  mouth  of 
the  child,  while  its  body  is  supported  by  the 
liand  and  arm,  and  the  jaw  pulled  towards 
the  bl•ea^t ;  then  pressing  down  the  shoulders 
with  the  other  hand,  the  accoucheur  mu^l 
rise  from  his  seat;  and  having  turned  the 
lace  into  the  sacral  hoKow,  pull  in  a  chrection 
from  before,  backwards,  with  considerable 
force,  alternately  raising  and  depressing  the 
head  ;  when  the  face  descends  from  the  hol- 
low of  the  sacrum,  the  delivery  must  be  ef- 
fected by  bringing  the  back  part  of  the  head 
from  under  the  pubes,  by  a  half-round  turn. 
During  this  time,  pressure  should  be  made 
by  an  assistant  on  the  perina;um;  caution  is 
required  not  to  injure  the  child's  jaw.  Jf  the 
navel-string  interleres,  il  must  be  disengaged 
as  easily  and  expeditiously  as  possible. 

When  obstacles    prevent   the  ready  ad- 
VOL.  II. 


MIDWIFERY. 

vflncemcnt  of  the  liead,  the  operator  is  to 
forbear  hU  exertion,  from  time  to  tinu;.  If 
the  resisting  bulk  is  occasioned  by  hydro- 
cephalus, the  tegumcnis,  if  not  burst,  may 
be  perforated  ;  and  indeed,  if  the  head  from 
any  cause  is  still  found  too  bulky  to  be  pro- 
truded or  extracted,  the  perforator  and 
crotchet  must  be  employed. 

\\'luit  only  one  foot  is  protruded  into  the 
vagina,  the-  other  is  sometimes  jirevented 
from  following,  by  catching  on  the  pubes; 
this  is  to  be  dislodged  when  it  can  be  done 
with  facility  ;  if  not,  the  attempt  should  not 
be  made,  but  the  descent  of  the  breech  must 
be  waited  fur.  When  one  or  both  knees 
present,  the  d(;Iiverv  is  iiearfy  the  same  as  in 
ieet-presentalion.  When  the  I'eet  protrude 
along  with  the  breecli,  the  latter  is  to  be 
thrust  up,  till  the  position  is  connected  into 
a  footing-casi-. 

A  breech-presentation  nnist  be  left  to  na- 
ture, till  the  child  is  advanced  as  far  as  the 
chest,  when  the  delivery  must  be  accom- 
plished as  in  a  feet-presentatioH. 

When,  ydly,  the  child  lies  in  a  transverse 
position,  and  presents  with  the  arm,  shoul- 
der, side,  back,  or  abdomen,  manual  assist- 
ance is  alwiij  s  reciuisite;  the  hand  is  to  be 
introduced  into  the  uterus  in  the  gentlest 
manner,  the  feet  sought  for,  and  the  delivery 
accoinplislied  as  in  foot-presentations:  to 
effect  which,  the  following  rules  must  be  at- 
tended to.  1.  Although  the  preferable  pos- 
ture tor  placing  the  woman  is  generally  on 
her  back,  it  will  sometimes  be  necessary  to 
turn  her  on  the  left  side,  with  the  breech 
])Iaced  over  the  edge  of  the  bed,  and  the 
knees  ke])t  separate  with  a  folded  pillow. 
2nd.  The  exact  position  of  the  child  is  to  be 
ascertained.  3d.  The  orilice  of  the  uterus 
should  be  dilated  so  as  to  allow  the  hand  to 
pass  freely,  and  strong  i)ains  are  to  be  waited 
for.  4lh.  Should  the  waters  have  been  dis- 
charged, and  the  parts  remain  rigid,  warm 
oil  should  be  injected  into  the  uterus,  and 
a  full  dose  of  laudanum  given.  5th.  Tlie 
hand  must  be  introduced  only  during  the  re- 
mission of  the  pain,  and  the  parts  should  be 
well  lubricated  with  oil  or  pomatum.  6lh. 
Tin;  expanded  palm  of  the  hand  is  to  be  em- 
ployed in  pushing  up  to  come  at  the  feet, 
and  not  the  clenched  hsts  or  point  of  the  fin- 
gers. 7th.  Both  feet,  if  easily  reached, 
should  be  laid  hold  of;  the  hand,  if  possible, 
going  over  the  anterior  part  of  the  child. 
Kth.  When  the  hand  is  within  the  pelvis, 
it  should  not  always  be  moved  in  the  line  of 
the  umbilicus,  but  rather  towards  one  side, 
yih.  'I'lie  hand  should  be  passed  as  far  as 
the  middle  of  the  child's  body,  beiore  the 
feet  are  sought  for.  10th.  If  the  hand  is  in- 
capable of  passing  the  presenting  part  of  the 
child,  this  should  gently  be  elevated  in  the 
pehis,  and  then  removed  to  the  opposite  side. 

A\  hen  the  arm  presents,  the  hand  of  the 
accoucheur,  well  lubricated,  must  be  con- 
ducted into  the  uterus,  by  the  course  of  its 
side,  along  the  thorax,  and  towards  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  pelvis  where  the  head  lies  ;  if 
any  difljculty  occurs  in  coming  at  the  feet,  the 
hand  must  be  withdrawn,  and  the  other  pass- 
ed in  its  stead;  if  still  a  passage  cannot  be 
procured  bi;yond  the  shoulder  and  head,  the 
presenting  part  must  be  elevated,  and  gently 
juished  on  one  side,  that  a  bold  may  be  taken 
of  one  or  both  feet,  to  which,  w  hen  they  have 
Aa 


!85 

siilliciently  advanced,  a  noose  is  to  be  ap- 
plied; and  thus  by  jiulling  with  one  liaiid,  by 
the  noose,  and  j.-ushuig  the  otlier,  the  feet 
may  be  bro\ight  down,  and  the  delivery  ef- 
fected. 

When  (he  shoulder  presents,  (he  delivery 
by  lurning  will  be  more  difficult,  in  propor- 
tion as  the  presenting  part  protrudes,  and 
becomes  locked  in  the  |)elvis.  A  side-pic- 
seiitat^on  niiiy  be  ascertained  by  feeling  the 
ril)s  ;  when  the  back  presents,  (he  s.jjne  will 
be  felt ;  and  tin-  navel-string  if  the  abdomen. 
These  three  last  are  by  no  means  coniiuon 
occurrences. 

'I'he  arm-presentations  are  the  most  diffi- 
cult cases  in  preternatural  labour ;  in  this 
case,  the  protruding  arm  ought,  if  ))ossible, 
to  be  reduced,  and  the  head  brought  into 
the  pelvis.  'I'lie  hand  of  the  accoucheur, 
well  lubricated,  must  be  insinuated  into  tlie 
womb,  by  the  direction  of  the  child's  arm, 
till  it  reaches  as  far  as  the  shoulder,  which 
if  the  accoucheur  can  raise  up,  he  will  ge- 
nerally be  successful  in  reducing  the  arm; 
if  (his  method  fails,  he  must  attempt  gently 
to  push  up  the  fore-arm  at  the  elbow,  and 
retain  it  till  the  head  enters  the  pelvis; 
should  these  attemi)ts  prm-c  abortive,  the 
accoucheur  is  to  search  for  the  feet,  and 
bring  them  down  in  the  best  manner  circum- 
stances will  admit  of.  If  the  arm  has  been 
long  protruded,  the  os  externum  swelled  and 
cold,  the  waters  drained  olT,  and  the  position 
of  the  child  such  as  to  render  tlie  above 
methods  of  reduction  impossible,  the  use  of 
the  crotchet  must  be  resorted  to.  When 
both  arms  present,  which  constitutes  a  less 
diliicult  case  than  when  only  one  protrudes, 
the  delivei-y  must  be  conducted  upon  the 
same  princijiles. 

('oinplcx  lahmirx. — The  princij)al  of  these 
are  constituted  by  plurality  of  children,  mon- 
sters, uterine  ha-morrhage,  convulsions,  rup- 
tured uterus,  and  the  prolapse  of  the  navel- 
string. 

I'liirtili/y  of  children. — Two  children  at  .1 
birth  are  by  no  means  uncommon  oc<-ur- 
rences,  triplets  seldom  ajipear,  <iuadrriplets 
still  more  rarily  ;  there  are,  however,  in- 
stances on  record,  even  of  live  ciiildren  from 
one  pregnancy. 

When  there  are  (wo  or  more  children,  the 
size  of  that  one  w  hich  has  been  delivered  is 
usually  small,  (lie  (|uantity  of  the  liquor  aif.- 
nii  inconsiderable,  the  umbilical  chord  con- 
tinues to  bleed  after  division,  tiie  placenta  is 
retained,  true  labour-pains  recur,  and  the 
uterine  tumour  is  not  sensibly  diminished  be- 
tween the  stomach  and  umbilicus. 

In  twin-cases,  the  delivery  of  the  second 
child  ought  not  be  precipitated,  but  deferred 
till  the  woman  has  rested  some  time,  and 
till  the  second  set  of  membranes  occupy  the 
situation  of  the  former  ones ;  no  attempts 
ought  to  be  made  to  extract  the  placenta 
till  after  the  birth  of  the  remaining  child ;  a 
second  ligature  should  be  placed  on  that  end 
of  the  chord  next  the  mother  immediately 
after  the  birth  of  the  lirst  infant,  and  a  gentle 
compression  made  on  the  abdomen  of  tlie 
woman,  which  must  be  gradually  tightened 
as  the  tumour  of  the  uterus  subsides. 

The  ])lacenta  is  to  be  managed  in  the  or- 
dinary manner.  In  cases  of  two  or  more 
children,  it  generally  separates  with  much 
facility,  if  liine  has  been  given  for  the  regu- 


186 

lar  contractions  of  the  uterus.  The  chord  of 
each  placenta  should  be  vcrj'  gently  pulled  ; 
and  when  resistance  is  met  with  at  the  uterine 
oiihce,  the  fingers  must  be  introduced,  in 
order  to  loosen  th 'ir  edges. 

If,  from  the  very  diminutive  size  of  the 
first  and  second  child,  and  the  remaining  of 
the  abdominal  tumour,  there  is  reason  to 
suspect  a  third,  the  accoucheur,  after  wait- 
ing about  ha'f  an  hour  for  the  placenta  to 
separate,  without  eft'ect,  is  to  introduce  his 
hand;  and  if  a  third  set  of  membranes  are 
<letected,  to  break  them,  and  manage  the  de- 
livery according  to  the  presentati  >n. 

A/onsUr.s.  These  are  of  various  shapes 
and  magnitude  ;  thev  ot'ten,  unless  very  small, 
occasion  much  trouble  in  the  delivery.  Mon- 
strous productions  may  be  constituted  by  a 
preternatural  conformation  of  single  parts, 
such  as  of  the  chest,  head,  abdomen,  &c.  or 


MIDWIFERY. 

arises  from  the  probability  of  the  continued 
pressure  on  the  chord  interrupling  the  cir- 
culation between  the  motlier  and  tlie  chill, 
before  the  latter  has  respired,  and  thus  prov- 
ing fatal  to  its  lite.  \Vhen,  therefore,  the 
accoutlieur  has  succeeded  in  reducing  the 
protruding  funis,  delivery  ought  by  all  means 
to  be  expedited  as  much  as  possible. 

M.\NAGEMENT  OF  THE  LYING-IN  FEMALE. 

Most  of  the  complaints  which  succeed  to 
delivery  owe  their  origin  to  injudicious  nurs- 
ing, improper  cordials,  heated  apartments, 
impure  air,  and  a  disregard  ot  the  mandates 
of  nature  ;  on  the  part  of  the  female,  in  neg- 
lecting to  suckle  her  ollspriug.  Pariurition, 
unless  artilicially  rendered  so,  is  not  u>uallv 
a  dangerous  process.  The  obvious  way  theii 
to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  such  affections 
as  sometimes  follow  this  process,  is  to  preserve 


there  may  be  two  heads,  two  bodies  with  one  i  a  free  circulation  of  air  in  the  lying-in  room, 
'    "         ""  '  "  guarding  against    the    admission   of  partial 

streams  or  currents  ;  to  forbid  the  practice  of 
L/t:  rim  h'Cmorrliagc. — The  separation  of  keeping  up  large  tires  during  the  confine- 


head,  &c.     These  cases,  however,  are  of  ex- 
ceedingly unfrequent  occurrence. 


the  placenta  is  invariably  attended   with  a 
gre.^ter  or  less    discharge   of  blood;    when. 


ment ;  to  avoid  indiscrimin;iteiy  taking  medi 
cines,   eitlier  in  compliance  with  cu-tom  or 


iiowever,  this  exceeds  a  certain  quantity,  and  i  the  nurse's  creed  ;  and  to  present  the'  breast, 
symptoms  of  debilitj-  present  themsel"es  in  !  as  soon  as  possible,  to  the  new-born  infant, 
rapid  succession,  no  time  is  to  be  lost  in  hav-  j  In  cases  where  the  patient  after  delivery 
ing  recourse  to  assistance,  both  internal  and  is  exceedingly  feeble,  and  the  succeeding 
external:  cloths  are  to  be  applied  to  the  ori- 1  pains  are  violent,  opiates  are  ni'cessary. 
iice  of  the  uterus,  dipped  in  some  cold  as-  i  Where  a  tendency  to  deliquiumis  perceived, 
tringent  fluid,  such  as  vii'.egar  and  water,  or  .  wine  and  other  cordials  are  given  with  the 
red  tart  wine,  which  are  likewise  to  be  laid  on  utmost  proprietv  ;  but  to  give  either  the  one 
the  back  and  abdomen ;  and  the  patient  is  to  '  or  the  other  in"  large  quantities,  for  succe-> 
be  supported  by  doses  of  laudanum,  port  ,  sive  periods,  merely  because  the  female  is 
wine,  and  medicinal  astringents.  |  lying-in,  is  highly  improper,  and  often  exceed- 

With  respect  to  the  hs'morrhage  that  arises  ingly  detrimental, 
from  the  retention  of  the  placenta,  in  such  i  An  inordin.ite  quantity  of  bed-cloth.es,  irri- 
cases  extraction  of  this  substance  should  be  fating  diet,  heated  room's,  and  deficient  venti- 
immediately  procured,  provided  the  debility  lation,  are  regarded  by  a  phvsician  of  the 
does  not  menace  immediate  extinction  of  most  unquestionable  authoritvi  and  who  had 
life;  in  which  case, opium,  wine,  and  cordials,  ample  opportunities  for  observation,  as  the 
may  be  given,  and  the  operation  of  extraction  principal  sources  of  puerperal  diseases.  (He- 
,i„r. w:ii.'.,.. 1.  :.  :_  berdcn.)    The  miliarv  eruptions  which  break 


deferred  till  ti.e  strength  is  in  some  measure 
recruited.  These  are  cases,  however,  in 
which  it  is  hazardous  to  lay  down  any  un- 
deviating  rule  of  conduct. 

When  epileptic  fits  happen  during  la- 
bour, they  are  generally  to  be  treated  with 
renesection,  immediately  succeeded  bv 
large  doses  of  opium ;  an  expeditious  de- 
livery, Iiowever,  can  only  be  depended  on 
for  radical  relief. 

The  rupture  of  the  uterus,  which  is  the 
most  alarming  accident  that  can  occur  during 
parturition,  is  preceded  by  excessively  strong 
and  frequent  labour-pains,  especially  felt  on 
a  particular  part  of  the  uterus,  and  wiien  the 
womb  gives  way  the  labour-throes  immedi- 
ately cease  ;  the  patient  is  now  affected  witli 
vomiting,  a  discharge  of  blood  is  perceived 
from  the  vagina,  the  pulse  becomes  exceed- 
ingly quick,  coldness  of  the  extremities  suc- 
ceed, and  the  patient,  seized  with  a  su<lden 
fainting  or  epileptic  lit,  sinks  into  the  arms  of 
death. 

When  this  dreadful  accident  has  taken 
place,  the  only  prospect  that  we  can  have  of 
saving  the  life  of  the  patient,  is  immediate 
delivery.  This  has  been  had  recourse  to 
with  success. 

When  the  labour  is  rendered  complex 
ky  the  prolapse  of  the  umbilical  chord,  the 
chord  must  immediately  be  replaced,  and, 
during  the  delii'ei'y,  carefully  retained  above 
the  presenting  part.  The  danger  in  this  case 


out  on  the  skin,  either  at  this  or  any  othe: 
period,  are  almost  universally  attributed  to 
heating  irritating  regimen. 

M'hen  inflammation  of  the  omentum,  or 
other  parts  in  the  vicinity  of  the  uterus,  oc- 
curs soon  alter  delivery,  a  cool  regimen  is 
n.quired,  with  gentle  sudorifics ;  but  in  order 
to  obviate  the  extraordinary  tendency  to  ex- 
haustion and  gangrene,  discoverable  under 
these  circumstances,  opium,  wine,  and  bark, 
must  be  given  in  conjunction  with  diapho- 
retic medicinals.  Puerperal  fever,  attended 
with  intlammation  of  parts,  is  a  highly  as- 
thenic and  dangerous  maladv. 

When  febrile  irritation  is  indirect  from  a 
retention  ot  the  milk,  this  lluid  must  be 
drawn  off  by  means  of  glasses,  evacuating 
medicines  are  to  be  given,  and  afterwards  ab- 
sorption promoted  by  the  application  to  the 
breast  of  a  simple  plaster.  If  from  this  cause, 
from  exposure  to  cold,  or  from  any  other 
accident,  actual  inflammation  is  occasioned 
in  one  of  the  breasts,  it  will  be  requisite  to 
have  recourse  to  anodyne  (bnienlations,  or 
to  emollient  poultices.  When  the  irritation 
of  the  nipple  from  the  child's  suckling  is  very 
troublesome,  oily  applications  should  be  made 
use  of;  and  of  these,  that  which  has  been 
found  one  of  the  most  efficacious,  is  the  oil  of 
wax  (ol.  cerae). 

It  has  been  advised  by  some  practitioners 
to  adiDiuister  drastic  purgatives,  such  as  wJoes, 


in  case  of  a  suppression  of  the  lochia  and  con* 
sequent  fever :  the  proj)riety  of  this  expedi- 
ent, very  soon  after  delivery,  would  appear 
extremely  problematical,  'f  he  b  nvcls,'  how- 
ever, should  l.iy  all  means  be  ke|)t  ojvn. 

With  respect  to  the  period  of  confu:  *iaeiit, 
it  has  come  at  length  to  be  prettv  generally 
acknowledged,  that  the  feelings  ol  tlie  [jatient 
furnish  a  safer  directory  than  the  patient's 
almanack. 

I'or  the  management  of  the  infant,  see  1  .\'- 

FANCY. 

Explanation  of  Plates, 
Fig.  1.  presents  a  fi-ont  view  of  the  uterus 
in  situ  suspended  in  the  vagina  ;  the  anterior 
parts  of  the  ossu  ischium,  w  ilh  the  ossa  pubis, 
pudenda,  perinieum,  and  anus,  being  remov- 
ed, in  order  to  shew  the  internal  parts.  A, 
the  last  vertebra  of  the  loins.  BB,  the  ossa 
ilium.  C'C,  the  acetabula.  DD,  the  inferior 
and  posterior  parts  of  the  os  a  ischium.  E, 
the  part  covering  the  extre.uity  of  the  coc- 
cyx. F,  the  inferior  part  of  the  rectum.  GG, 
the  vagina  cut  open  longitudinally,  aiul 
stretched  on  each  side  of  the  collum  uteri,  to 
shew  in  what  manner  the  uterus  is  suspended 
in  the  same.  HII,  part  of  the  vesica  urinaria 
stretched  on  each  siUi-  of  the  vagina,  and  in- 
ferior part  of  the  fundus  uteri.  1,  the  collum 
uteri.  K,  the  fu.idus  uteri.  LL,  the  tubi 
Fallopiani,  and  fimbria?.  MM,  the  ovaria. 
NN,  the  ligamenta  lata  and  rotunda.  OO, 
the  superior  part  of  the  rectum. 

Fig.  2.  presents  a  front  view  of  tlie  uterus 
in  the  beginning  of  the  first  month  of  preg- 
nancy; the  anterior  part  being  removeil,  tliat 
the  embryo  may  appear  through  the  am- 
nios, the  chorion  being  dissected  off.  A,  the 
fundus  uteri.  15,  the  collum  uteri,  with  a 
view  of  the  rugous  canal  that  lead.,  to  the  ca- 
vity of  the  fundus.     C,  the  OS  uteri. 

Fig.  3.  the  same  view  and  section  of  the 
parts  as  in  fig.  1.,  shews  ihe  uterus  as  it  ap- 
pears in  the  second  or  third  month  of  preg- 
nancy- F,  the  anus.  G,  the  vagina,  with  its 
plica;.  IIH,  the  p.)sterior  and  interior  part  of 
the  urinary  bladder  extended  on  each  side; 
the  anterior  and  superijr  part  being  removed. 
II,  the  mouth  and  neck  of  the  uomi),  as  raised 
up  when  examining  the  same  by  the  touch, 
with  one  of  the  fingers  in  tiie  vagina.  KK,  the 
uterus  as  stretched  in  the  second  or  tlurd 
month,  containing  the  embryo,  with  the  pla- 
centa adhering  to  the  fundus. 

Fig.  4.  in  tlie  same  view  and  section  of 
the  parts  with  the  former  figures,  represents 
the  uterus  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  mouth  of 
pregnancy.  A,  the  uterus  as  stretclied  to 
near  its  hill  extent,  with  the  waters,  and  con- 
taining the  foetus  entangled  in  the  funis,  the 
head  presenting  at  the  upper  part  of  the  pel- 
vis, lili, 'tlie  superior  part  of  the  ossa  ilium. 
CC,  the  acetabula.  DU,  the  remaining  pos- 
terior parts  of  the  ossa  ischium.  E,  the  coc- 
cyx. F,  the  inferior  part  of  the  rectum. 
GGG,  the  vagina  stretched  on  each  side. 
H,  the  OS  uteri,  the  neck  being  stretched  lu 
its  full  extent,  or  entirely  obliterated.  II, 
part  ol  the  vesica  urinaria.  KK,  the  placenta, 
at  the  superior  and  posterior  part  of  the  ute- 
rus. LL,  the  membranes.  M,  the  fimis  um- 
bilicalis. 

Fig.  5.  presents  a  front  view  of  twins  in 
utero  in  the  beginning  of  labour.  A,  the 
uterus  as  stretched,  with  Ihe  meinbranes  and 
waters,    iili,  the  superior  paits  of  the  oi»a 


M  I  D 

ilium.  CC,  the  acelalmla.  DD,  tlic  ossa 
iscliium.  E,  the  cciccvx.  V,  the  lowci-  part 
of  Ihe  iTclimi.  GG,  the  vagina.  JJ,  Iheos 
jnlonnini  strelched  open  about  a  liiii^er 
breadth,  with  the  nu-nibraiips  and  waters  in 
lime  of  lal)oiir-|jains.  II,  tlie  iiilerior  p.ut  ol 
the  iilenis,  strelilied  with  the  waters  which 
are  below  tlie  head  of  tliecliild  that  |)n>ents, 
KK,  the  two  placentas  adhering  to  the  poste- 
rior part  of  the  uterus,  the  two  fcrluses  l_vini» 
".,  Ijre  tlieni,  one  with  its  head  in  a  proper 
position  at  the  inferior  part  of  the  uterns,  and 
the  other  situated  preternaturally  with  the 
liead  to  the  fundus  ;  tlie  bodies  of  both  are 
here  ei, tangled  in  their  |)roper  funis,  which 
fvequentiv  happens  in  the  natm'al  as  well  as 
preternatural  positions.  I.LIj,  the  nieml)ranes 
beloiignig  to  each  placenta. 

Fig.  6.  exhibits,  in  a  lateral  view  and  lon- 
gltuiinial  division  of  the  pai'ts,  the  gravid  ute- 
rus when  labour  is  soni  -what  advanced.  A, 
the  lowest  vertebra  of  the  back ;  the  distance 
from  which  to  tlie  last  mentioned  vertebra 
is  here  shewn  by  dotted  lines.  CC,  the  usual 
t1iickiie.ss  and  Hgure  of  the  uterus  wdien  ex- 
tended by  the  waters  at  tlie  latter  part  of 
pregnancy.  O,  the  same  contracted  and 
grown  thicker  after  the  waters  are  evacuated. 
V.E,  the  figure  of  the  uterus  when  pendulous. 
I'T,  the  ligiire  of  the  uterus  wiun  stretched 
higher  than  usual,  which  generally  occasions 
vomitings  and  difliculty  of  breathing,  (i,  the 
OS  pubis  of  the  leftside.  HIl,  the  os  inler- 
luini.  F,  the  vagina.  K,  the  left  nymplia. 
L,  the  labium  pudendi  of  the  same  side.  M, 
the  remaining  portion  of  tlie  bladder.  IS', 
the  anus.  Ol-",  the  left  hip  and  thigh. 

Fig.  7.  exliibits  the  forehead  of  the  fcctus 
turned  backwards  to  the  os  sacrum,  and  the 
occiput  below  the  pubes;  by  which  means  Ihr 
narrow  part  of  the  head  is  to  the  narrow  part 
of  the  pelvis,  that  is,  between  the  inferior 
parts  of  the  ossa  ischium.  A,  the  uterus  con- 
tracted closely  to  the  fcetus  alter  the  waters 
are  evacuated.  BCD,  the  vertebra?  of  the 
loins,  OS  sacrnm,  and  coccyx.  E,  the  anus.  F, 
the  left  hip.  G,  t!ie  perinsum.  H,  the  os  ex- 
ternum beginning  to  dilate.  I,  the  os  pubis 
of  the  lelt  side.  R,  the  remaining  portion  of 
the  bladder.  L,  the  po^ilerior  part  of  the  os 
uteri. 

Fig.  8.  presents  a  lateral  inteninl  view  of  a 
distorted  pelvis,  divided  longitudmally,  with 
the  head  of  a  fcetus  of  the  seventh  month 
passing  the  same.  ABC,  the  os  sacrum  and 
coccyx.  D,  the  OS  pubis  ol  the  leftside.  E, 
the  tuberosity  of  the  os  ischium  of  the  same 
side. 

Fig.  9-  presents  a  side  view  of  a  distorted 
pelvis,  divided  longitudinally,  with  the  head 
of  a  full-grown  foetus  squeezed  into  the  brim, 
the  parietal  bones  decussating  each  other,  and 
compressed  into  a  conical  form.  ABC,  the 
OS  sacrum  and  coccyx.  D,  the  os  pubis  of 
the  left  side.  E,  the  tuberosity  of  the  os 
ischium.  F,  the  processus  acutus.  G,  the 
foramen  magnum. 

Fig.  10.  shews  in  what  manner  the  head 
of  the  foetus  is  helped  along  with  the  for- 
ceps, when  it  is  necessary  for  the  safety  of 
either  mother  or  child.  A,A,B,C,  the  ver- 
tebra of  the  loins,  the  os  sacrum,  and  coccyx. 
D,  the  OS  pubis  of  the  left  side.  E,  part  of 
the  bladder.  FF,  the  intestinum  rectum. 
GGG,  the  uterus.  H,  the  mons  Veneris.  I, 
tlie  clitoris  with  the  left  jiyiiipha.     Xj    the 


u  r  D 

corp>iscavprnosum  clilorldis.  V,  the  meatus 
urinarius,  K,  the  left  l.ibium  p\i<lendi.  ],,  the 
anus.  N,  the  |)erinanim.  QP,  the  left  hip  and 
thigh.  K,  the  bkin  and  muscular  part  of  the 
loins. 

Fig.  1 1 .  shews  in  a  lateral  view  the  face  of 
the  child,  forced  down  into  the  lower  part  of 
the  pelvis,  the  chin  below  the  pubes,  and  the 
vertex  in  the  cavity  of  the  os  sacrum ;  the 
waters  being  all  discharged,  the  uterus  ap- 
pears closely  attached  to  the  body  of  tlie 
child. 

Fig.  12.  shews  the  head  of  the  child  in  the 
same  position  as  the  eleventli  !igure.  A  B,  the 
vertebra"  of  the  loins,  os  sacrum,  and  coccyx. 
C,  the  OS  pubis  of  the  left  side.  D,  the  lower 
part  of  the  rectum.  E,  the  perinKum.  F,  the 
left  labium  pudendi.  GGG,  the  uterus. 

Fig.  13.  shews  the  head  of  the  fa-tus,  by 
strong  labour-|iains,  s(iueezed  into  a  longisli 
Ibrm,  with  a  tumour  on  tlie  vertex,  from  long 
compression  of  the  head  in  the  pelvis.  K,  the 
tumour  on  the  vertex.  L,  the  forceps.  M, 
the  urinary  bladder  much  distended  with  a 
large  quantity  of  mine,  froin  the  long  pres- 
sure of  the  head  against  the  urethra.  N,  the 
under  part  of  the  uterus.  GO,  the  os  uteri. 

Fig.  14.  exhibits  a  front  view  of  the  pelvis, 
the  breech  of  the  to-tus  presenting,  and  dilat- 
ing the  OS  internum,  the  membranes  having 
been  prematurely  ruptured. 

Fig.  15.  represents  in  a  front  view  of  the 
pi  Ivis,  the  fa-tus  compressed  by  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  uterus  into  a  round  form,  the  fore 
parts  of  the  lormer  being  towards  the  inferior 
part  of  the  latter,  and  one  foot  and  hand 
fallen  down  into  tlie  vagina.  In  this  (igure, 
the  anterioi-  part  of  the  pelvis  is  remored  by 
a  longitudinal  section,  through  the  middle  of 
the  foramen  magnum.  A.\,  the  superior  por- 
tion of  the  o-si  ilium.  Bli,  the  uterus.  C,  the 
mouth  of  the  uterus  shooting  and  appearing 
in  OOOO  the  vagina.  D,  the  inferior  and 
posterior  part  of  the  os  externum.  F'EEE, 
the  remaining  parts  of  the  ossa  pubis  and 
ischium.   I'FF,  the  adipose  membrane. 

Fig.  16.  represents  the  forceps  and  blunt 
hook,  rt,  Ihe  straight  forceps,  fr,  the  posterior 
part  of  a  single  blade,  c,  the  blunt  hook; 
which  is  empk)yed  to  assist  the  extraction 
of  the  head  after  the  cranium  is  opened,  by 
introducing  the  small  end  along  the  ear  on 
the  outside  of  the  head,  to  above  tlie  under 
jaw,  where  the  point  is  to  be  lixed  ;  the 
other  extremity  of  the  hook  being  held  with 
one  hand,  while  two  fingers  of  the  other  are 
to  be  introduced  into  the  opening.  The 
small  end  is  useful  in  abortions,  to  draw  down 
the  secundines  when  they  are  not  exjielled 
by  labour-pains,  or  cannot  be  extracted  by 
tl;e  fingers.  The  large  hook  at  the  opposite 
end  is  useful  to  assist  the  extraction  of  the 
body  when  the  breech  presents,  but  sliould 
be  used  with  much  caution. 

Fig.  17.  A  represents  the  whole  bone  til- 
let,  which,  when  the  operator  is  not  provided  1 
with  forceps,  may  sometimes  be  uset'ul  in  i 
laborious  cases.  BB,  two  views  of  a  pessary 
for  the  prolapsus  uteri.  C,  a  round  pessary 
which  is  in  more  general  use  than  the  former. 
DD,  two  views  of  a  female  catheter. 

Fig.  18.  II,  represents  a  pair  of  curved 
crotchets,  locked  iji  the  same  manner  as  the 
forceps;  the  dotted  lines  indicate  a  sheath, 
contrived  to  defend  the  point  till  it  is  intro- 
duced butliciently  high,  b,  gives  a  view  of  the 
A  A  12 


M  I  G 


187 


back  part  of  one  of  the  crotchets,  c,  a  front 
view  of  the  point,  d,  the  scissars  for  perforat- 
ing the  cranium,  in  very  narrow  and  distoited 
pelvises. 

MIGRATION,  of  birds.  It  has  been 
generally  believed,  that  many  different  kinds 
of  birds  annually  pass  from  one-  country  to 
another,  and  spe'nd  the  summer  or  the  winter 
where  it  is  most  agreeable  to  them  ;  and  that 
even  the  birds  ot  our  own  island  will  seek 
tile  most  distant  soutiiern  regions  of  Africa, 
when  directed  by  a  peculiar  instinct  to  leave 
their  own  country.  It  has  long  been  an 
opinion  pretty  generally  received,  that  swal- 
lows reside  during  the  winter  seaon  in  the 
warm  soutiiern  regions;  and  Mr.  Adansoii 
particularly  relates  his  having  seen  them  at 
Senegal,  when  tliey  were  obliged  to  leave 
this  country.  But  besides  the  swallow ,  Mr. 
Pennant  enumerates  many  other  birds  which 
migrate  from  Britain  at  different  limes  of  the 
year,  and  aretlien  to  be  found  in  other  coun- 
tries ;  after  which  they  again  leave  these 
countries,  and  return  to  Britain. 

1.  Crows.  Of  this  genus,  the  hooded 
crow  migrates  regularly  with  the  woodcock. 
It  inhabits  North  Britain  the  whole  year;  a 
few  are  said  annually  to  breed  on  Dartmoor, 
in  Devonshire.  It  breeds  also  in  Sweden 
and  Austria  ;  in  some  of  the  Swedish  pro- 
vinces it  only  shifts  its  quarters,  in  otliers  it 
resides  throughout  the  j  ear.  Our  author  is- 
at  a  loss  for  the  summer  retreat  of  tliose  birds 
which  visit  us  in  such  numbers  in  winter,  ani 
quit  our  country  in  the  spring  ;  and  for  the 
reason  wliy  a  bird  whose  food  is  such  that  it 
may  be  found  at  all  seasons  in  this  country, 
siiould  leave  us. 

2.  Cuckoo,  di-appears  early  in  autumn ; 
the  retreat  of  this  and  the  following  bird  is 
quite  unknown  to  us. 

3.  AA'ryneck,  is  a  bird  that  leaves  us  in  the 
winter.  If  its  diet  is  ants  alone,  as  several 
assert,  the  cause  of  its  migration  is  very  evi- 
dent. This  bird  disappears  before  winter, 
and  revisits  us  in  the  spring,  a  little  earlier 
than  the  cuckoo. 

4.  Hoopoe.  Comes  to  England  but  bv 
accident.  Mr.  Peuiuint  once  indeed  liearH 
of  a  pair  that  attempted  to  make  their  nest 
in  a  meadow  at  Selborne,  Hainpshire,  but 
were  frightened  away  by  the  curiosity  of 
people      It  breeds  in  Germany. 

5.  Grouse.  The  whole  tribe,  cxce|)t  the 
quail,  live  here  all  the  year  round  ;  that  bird 
either  leaves  us,  or  else  retires  towards  the 
sea-coasts. 

6.  Pigeons.  Some  (ew  of  the  ring-doves 
br<  ed  here ;  but  the  multitude  that  appear 
in  winter  are  so  disproportioned  to  what  con- 
tinue here  the  whole  year,  as  to  make  it 
certain  that  the  greatest  part  quit  the  coun- 
try in  the  spring.  It  is  most  probable  ther 
go  to  Sweden  to  breed,  and  return  thence  in 
autumn :  as  .Mr.  Ekmark  informs  us,  they 
entirely  quit  that  country  bel'ore  winter. 
Multitudes  of  the  common  wild  pigeons  also 
make  the  northern  retreat,  and  visit  us  in 
winter;  though  numbers  breed  in  the  high 
clitls  in  all  parts  of  this  island.  The  turtle 
also  probably  leaves  us  in  the  winter,  at  least 
changes  its  place,  removing  to  the  southern 
counties. 

7.  Stare,  breeds  here.  Possibly  several 
remove  to  other  countries  for  that  purpose, 
since  tlie  produce  of   tliose  that  coatia\ie 


18S 


M  r  G 


]\r  I  G 


u  I  L 


liere  seems  unequal  to  the  clouds  of  them 
that  a|)[K'ar  in  winter.  It  is  not  unlikely 
that  many  migrat.'  into  Sweden,  whither  Mr. 
Bergcr  observes  they  reauu  in  spring. 

<S.  riirushes.  The  fieldfare  and  the 
redttiug  breed  pass  their  sumuiers  in  Nor- 
way and  other  coid  countries ;  their  food  is 
berries,  which  abounding  hi  our  kintfdonis 
tempt  theiij  hither  in  the  winter.  These  two, 
and  the  Royston  crow,  are  the  ouiy  lan<l 
birds  tliat  regularly  and  constantly  migrate 
into  England,  and  do  not  breed  here.  The 
hawtiuch  and  crossbill  come  hither  at  such 
uncertain  times  as  not  to  deserve  the  name 
of  birds  of  passage. 

9.  Chatterer.  The  chatterer  appears  an- 
nually about  Edinburgh  in  flocks  during 
winter,  and  feeds  on  Ihc  berries  of  the  moun- 
tain-.ish.  In  South  Britain  it  is  an  accidental 
visitant. 

10.  Grosbeaks.  The  grosbe.ik  and  ci'oss- 
bill  come  liither  but  seldom  ;  thev  breed  in 
Austria.  Tiie  pine  grosbeak  probably  breeds 
in  the  forests  of  the  Higlilands  of  Scotland. 

U.  Buntings.  All  tne  genus  inhabit  Eng- 
land throughout  the  year,  except  the  greater 
brambling,  which  is  forced  hitlier  from  the 
nortii  in  very  severe  seasons. 

rj.  Finches.  All  continue  in  some  ])ar^ 
of  these  kingdoms,  except  the  siskin,  which 
is  an  irregular  visitant,  said  to  come  from 
Russia.  I'he  linnets  shift  their  (piarters, 
breeding  in  one  part  of  this  island,  and  re- 
move with  their  young  to  others.  All  finches 
feed  on  the  seeds  of  plants. 

13.  Larks,  fly-catchers,  wagtails,  and  war- 
bl<?rs.  All  these  bfrds  teed  on  insects  and 
worms;  yet  only  part  of  them  (|uit  these 
kingdoms,  though  the  reason  of  migration  is 
the*ame  to  all.  'I'lie  lughtiugale,  black-cap, 
lly-catcher,  willow-wren,  wheatear,  and 
white-tliroat,  leave  us  before  winter,  while  the 
small  and  delicate  golden-crested  w  ren  braves 
•)U.-  severest  frosts.  The  migrants  of  this 
genus  continue  lon'g€sl  in  Great  Britain  in 
the  southern  counties,  the  winter  in  those 
parts  being  later  than  in  those  of  the  north  ; 
Air.  StillingHeet  having  observed  several 
■wheatears  in  tlie  isle  of  Purbeck  on  the  isth 
of  November.  A>  these  birds  are  incapable 
of  very  distant  flights,  Spain,  or  the  south  of 
France,  is  probably  their  winter  asylum. 

14.  Swallow  and  goat-sucker.  Every 
species  disappears  at  the  approach  of  winter. 

Water-Fowi,,  cloven-footed. 
1 .5.   Herons.     Tlie  white  heron   is  an  un- 
common bird,  and  visits  us  at  uncertain  sea- 
soiLs ;  the  common  kind  and  the  bittern  never 
leave  us. 

16.  Curlews.  The  curlew  breeds  some- 
times on  our  mountains  ;  but,  considering 
the  vast  flights  tliat  apjjcar  in  winter,  it  is 
probable  that  the  greater  part  retire  to  other 
countries ;  the  whimbrel  breeds  on  the 
Grampian  hills,  in  the  ncighbonrliood  of 
hivercauld. 

17.  Snipes.  The  woodcock  breeds  in  the 
moist  woods  of  Sweden,  and  other  cold 
countries.*  Some  snipes  breed  here  ;  but  tlie 
greatest  part  retire  elsewhere,  as  do  every 
other  species  of  this  genus 

18.  Sandpipers.  I'he  lapwing  continues 
here  the  whole  year ;  the  ruff  breeds  hi^re, 
but  retires  in  winter  ;  the  redshank  and  sand- 
piper breol  iu  this  country,  and  reside  here. 


All  the  others  absent  themselves  during  sum- 
mer. 

19.  Plovers  and  oyster-catchers.  The  long- 
legged  plover  and  the  sanderling  visit  us  oni\ 
in  winter:  the  dottrel  appears  in  spring  and  in 
antunin  ;  yet,  what  is  very  singular,  we  do 
not  find  it  breeds  in  South  Britain.  Tlie 
oyster-catcher  lives  with  us  the  whole  year. 
1  he  Norfolk  plover  and  the  sea-lark  breed  in 
ICngland.  The  green  plover  breeds  ou  the 
moinitains  of  the  north  of  England,  and  on 
tlie  Grampian  hills. 

We  must  here  remark,  that  every  species 
of  the  genera  of  curlews,  woodcocks,  sand- 
pipers, and  plovers,  that-  forsake  us  in  the 
spring,  retire  to  Sweden,  Poland,  Prussia, 
Norway,  and  I^ipland,  to  breed;  as  soon  as 
the  young  can  fly,  they  return  to  us  again, 
becausK  the  frosts  which  set  in  earlv  in  those 
countries  totally  deprive  them  of  the  means 
of  subsisting;  as  the  dryness  and  liardness  of 
the  ground,  in  general,  during  our  summer, 
prevent  them  from  ])eiielrating  the  earth  with 
their  bills,  in  search  of  worms,  which  are  tlie 
natural  food  of  these  binls. 

20.  Kails  and  gallinules.  Every  species 
of  these  two  genera  continue  with  us  the 
whole  year ;  the  land-rail  excepted,  which 
is  not  seen  here  in  winter.  It  likewise  con- 
tinues in  Ireland  only  during  the  summer- 
months,  when  it  is  very  numerous. 

FiNNED-FOOTED  WatER-BIRDS. 

21.  Phalaropes  visit  us  but  seldom  ;  their 
breeding-place  is  Lapland  and  other  arctic 
regions. 

'J2.  Grebes.  The  great-crested  grebe,  the 
black  and  white  grebe,  and  little  grebe,  breed 
with  us,  and  never  migrate ;  t>e  others  visit 
us  accidentally,  and  breed  in  Lapland. 

Web-footed  Birds. 

23.  Avoset.  Breed  near  Fossdike  in  Lin- 
colnshire, hut  quit  their  quarters  in  winter. 
They  are  then  sliot  in  different  parts  of  the 
kingdom;  which  they  visit  not  regularly,  but 
accidentally. 

24.  Auks  and  guillemots.  The  great 
auk  or  pingniu  sometimes  breeds  in  St. 
Kilda.  The  auk,  the  guillemot,  and  puflin, 
inhabit  most  of  the  maritime  clilfs  of  Great 
Britain,  in  amazing  numbers,  during  summer. 
The  l)lack  ijuillemot  breeds  in  the  Bass  Isle, 
and  in  St.  Kilda,  and  sometimes  in  Lkiiidinno 
rocks.  We  are  at  a  loss  for  the  breeding- 
place  of  the  other  species;  neither  can  we 
be  very  certain  of  the  winter  residence  of 
any  of  them,  except  of  the  lesser  guille- 
mot and  black-billed  auk,  whi<  h,  during  win- 
ter, visit  in  vast  Hocks  the  frith  of  Forth. 

2 J.  Divers,  chielly  breed  in  the  lakes  of 
Sweden  and  Laplancf,  and  in  some  countries 
near  the  pole  ;  but  some  of  the  red-throated 
divers,  the  northern,  and  the  iniber,  may 
breed  in  the  north  of  Scotland  and  its  isles. 

20.  Terns.  ICvery  species  breeds  here, 
but  leaves  us  in  the  winter. 

27.  I'etrels.  The  fulmar  breeds  in  the 
isle  of  St.  Kilda,  and  continues  there  the  whole 
year  except  September  and  part  of  October. 
The  shearwater  visits  the  Isle  of  .Man  in 
April;  breeds  there;  and,  leaving  it  in  Au- 
gust or  the  beginning  of  Se|)tember,  disperses 
over  all  parts  of  the  Atlantic  ocean,  'i'he 
stormfinch  is  seen  at  all  distances  from  land 
on  the  same  vast  watery  tract ;  nor  is  ever 
found  near  tine  shore  e.\cept  by  souie  very 


rare  accident,  unless  in  the  breeding-seawin. 
Mr.  Pennant  found  it  on  some  little  rocky 
isles,  off  the  north  of  Skye.  It  also  breeds  iu 
St.  Kilda.  He  suspects  to )  that  it  nestles 
on  the  Blasquel  isles  olf  Kerry,  and  that  it 
is  the  gourder  of  Mr.  Smith. 

2S... Mergansers.  This  whole  genus  is 
mentioned  among  the  birds  th,U  fill  the  Lap- 
land lakes  during  summer.  Mr.  Pennant 
has  seen  the  young  of  the  red-breasted  in  the 
north  of  Scotland  ;  a  few  of  these,  and  pci- 
haps  of  the  goosanders,  may  breed  there. 

29.  Ducks.  Of  the  numerous  species  tl-.at 
form  this  genus,  we  know  of  few  that  breed 
here;  the  swan  and  goose,  the  shield-duck, 
the  eider-duck,  a  few  shovellers,  gargauies, 
and  teals,  and  a  very  small  portion  of  the  wild 
ducks. 

The  rest  contribute  to  form  tliat  amazing 
multitude  of  water-fowl  that  annually  repair 
from  most  parts  of  Europe  to  the  woods  and 
lakes  of  Lapland  and  other  arctic  regions, 
there  to  perform  the  functions  of  incuba- 
tion and  nutrition  in  full  security.  They 
and  their  young  quit  their  retreat  in  Septem- 
ber, and  disperse  themselves  over  Europe. 
\Mth  us  they  make  their  appearance  the  be- 
ginnihg  of  October;  circulate  first  round  our 
shores ;  and,  when  compelled  by  severe  frost, 
betake  themselves  to  our  lakes  and  rivers. 
Of  the  web-footed  fowl  there  are  some  of 
luirdier  constitutions  than  others  ;  these  en- 
dure the  ordinary  winters  of  the  inm-e  nor- 
thern countries ;  but  when  the  cold  reigns 
there  with  more  than  common  rigour,  they 
repair  for  shelter  to  these  kingdoms:  this 
regulates  the  appearance  of  some  of  the  diver 
kind,  as  also  of  the  «ild  swans,  the  swallow- 
tailed  shield-duck,  and  the  different  sorts  of 
goosimders  w  hich  then  visit  our  co;ists.  Ba- 
rentz  Ibuiid  the  barnacles  with  then'  nests  in 
great  numbers  in  Nova  Zembla. 

30.  Corvorants.  The  corvorant  and  shag 
breed  on  most  of  our  hieh  rocks:  the  gannet 
in  some  of  the  Scotch  isles,  and  on  the  coast 
of  Kerry ;  the  two  first  continue  on  our 
shores  the  whole  year.  The  gannet  disperses 
itself  all  round  the  seas  of  Great  Britain,  in 
pursuit  of  the  herring  and  pilchard,  aiul  even 
as  far  as  theTagus  to  prey  on  the  s.irdina. 

MILE,  a  measure  of  length  or  distance, 
conlaining  eight  furlongs. 

Tlie  English  statute -mile  is  fourscore 
chains,  or  17tiO  yards;  that  is,  5280  feet. 
See  Chain,  Yard,  and  Foot. 

We  shall  here  give  a  table  of  the  miles  in 
use  among  the  principal  nations  of  luirope, 
in  geometrical  paces,  G(),OCO  of  which  make 
a  degree  of  the  equator. 

Geometrical  paces. 

Mile  of  Kussia  -  750 

of  Italy  -  -  lOOO 

of  England  -  1250 

of  Scotland  and  Ireland  1500 

of  Poland         -  -  3000 

of  Spain  -  -  3428 

of  Germany         -  -        4000 

of  Sweden  -  -  5001) 

of  Dennia.k  -  -        5000 

of  Hungary         -  -  6000 

MILIAUY  FEVEK,  a  malignant  fever,  so 

called  from  the  eruption  of  certain  pustules 

resembling  millet-seeds.     See  Medicine. 

MU.IU.M,  MiLLi-.T,  a  genus  of  the  dig)-- 
nia  ortler,  in  the  triandria  class  of  plants  ;  and 


id  the  natiinil  method  rankinir  under  l!ie  4lh 
ordtfr,  grainiiKi.  'I'lie  calyx  i-.  bivalvcdujul 
luiillorous ;  tin;  corolla  is  very  short ;  tlie 
stigmata  i»fiu:il-like.  Tliere  are  12  species, 
of  whirli  ihe  iiiu>t  remai-kable  is  the  eli'usimi, 
or  coinmoEi  iiiillet. 

MILK,  is  a  lliiid  secreted  by  tlie  female  of 
all  those  aniinals  dciioiniiialed  iiianinialia,  and 
iiileiided  evidently  for  tlie  iiourishiuenl  of 
her  olVspriii^. 

'I'lie  milk  of  every  aiiiiual  has  certain  pe- 
culiarities whieli  di.^ling^lisll  it  from  every 
other  milk.  I5iit  the  animal  whose  milk  is 
iiio^t  made  use  of  by  man  as  an  article  of 
loud,  and  with  whic[i,  consequently,  we  are 
best  acpiainted,  is  the  cow.  Chemists,  tlicn'- 
fore,  have  m.ule  choice  of  cow's  milk  for 
their  e\periments. 

Milk  is  an  opa((ue  fluid,  of  a  white  colour, 
a  slight  peculiar  smell,  and  a  pleasaiU  sweet- 
ish taste.  When  nenly  drawn  tVoin  the  cow, 
it  has  a  taste  very  dilferenl  fro:n  tiial  which 
it  acquires  aftta-  it  has  been  kept  for  some 
hours. 

U  is  liipiid,  and  wets  all  thoso  substances 
wliich  can  be  moistened  in  water ;  but  its 
consistence  is  greater  than  that  of  s\'ater,  and 
it  is  slightly  unctuous.  Like  water,  it  freezes 
when  cooled  down  to  about  30° ;  but,Par- 
inentier  and  Deyeux,  to  whom  we  are  in- 
ilebted  lor  by  far  tlie  completest  account  of 
milk  hitherto  published,  founil  that  its  freez- 
ing-point varies  considerably  in  the  milk  of 
dilferent  cows,  and  evtn  of  the  same  cow  at 
different  times.  Milk  boils  also  when  suf- 
liciently  heaied  ;  but  the  sanu-  variation  takes 
place  in  the  boiling-point  of  dil/ere:t  milks, 
though  it  never  deviates  very  far  from  the 
boiling-jioint  of  water.  Milk  is  specihcallv 
heavier  than  water,  and  lightt  r  than  blooil  ; 
but  the  p.ecise  degree  cannot  be  ascertained, 
because  almost  every  particular  milk  has  a 
specific  gravity  peculiar  to  itself. 

When  milk  is  allowed  to  remain  for  some 
time  at  rest,  there  collects  on  its  surface  a 
thick  unctuous  yellowish-coloured  substance, 
known  Ijy  the  name  of  cream.  The  cream 
appears  sooner  on  milk  in  summer  tli  ai  in 
winter,  evidently  owing  to  the  diffirrence  of 
temperature.  In  summer,  about  four  davs 
of  repose  are  necessary  before  the  whole  of 
the  cream  collects  on  the  surf.ice  of  the  11- 
quitl ;  but  in  winter  it  requires  at  least  double 
the  ti.iie. 

Alter  the  cream  is  separated,  the  milk 
which  remains  is  much  thinner  than  before, 
and  it  has  a  blueish-wliite  colour.  If  it  is  heat- 
ed to  the  temperature  of  100\  and  a  little 
rennet  (which  is  water  digested  with  the 
inner  coat  of  a  calf's  stomach,  and  preserved 
with  salt)  is  poured  into  it,  coagulation  en- 
sues; and  if  the  coagulum  is  broken,  the 
milk  very  soon  separates  into  two  substances; 
a  solid  white  part  known  by  the  name  of 
curd,  and  a  lluid  pint  called  w'hev. 

'I'lius  we  see  that  milk  mav  be  easily  sepa- 
rated into  three  parts;  namely,  cream,  curd, 
and  whey. 

1.  Cream  is  of  a  yelknv  colour,  and  its 
consistence  increases  gradually  by  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere.  In  three  or  four  days 
it  becomes  so  thick  that  the  vessel  which  con- 
tains it  may  be  inverted  without  risking  any 
loss.  In  eight  or  ten  days  more,  its  surface 
is  covered  over  witli  mucors  and  byssi,  and 
it  has  no  longer  the  flavour  of  cream,  Init  of 
very  fat  cheese.     This  is  the  process  for  mak- 


MILK. 

ing  what  in  this  country  is 
ciieese. 

Cri/ain  possesses  many  of  the  properties  of 
an  oil.  It  is  specilically  lighter  than  water  ; 
it  has  an  unctuous  feel ;  stains  clothes  precisely 
in  the  manner  of  oil ;  and  if  it  is  kept  lluid, 
it  contracts  at  last  a  taste  which  is  very  analo- 
gous to  the  rancidity  of  oils.  When  ke|)t 
boiling  for  some  time,  a  little  oil  makes  its 
appearance,  and  iloats  upon  its  surface.- 
Cream  is  neitiier  soluble  in  alcohol  nor  in  oils. 
'I  hese  properties  are  suflicient  to  shew  us, 
that  it  contains  a  quantity  of  oil ;  but  this  oil 
is  combined  with  a  |)art  of  the  curd,  and  mix- 
ed with  some  serum;  cream,  then,  is  com- 
|)Osed  of  a  peculiar  oil,  curd,  and  sei-uni.  The 
oil  may  be  easily  obtained  separate  by  agi- 
tating the  cream  lor  a  considerable  time. 
This  process,  known  to  every  body,  is  called 
clniriiing.  After  a  certain  time,  the  cream 
separates  into  two  portions;  one  lluid,  and 
resembling  creamed  milk;  the  other  solid, 
and  called  butter. 


Butter  is  of  a  yellow  colour,  possesses  the 
properties  of  an  oil,  and  mixes  readily  with 
other  oily  bodies.  When  heated  to  the 
temperature  of  '.)(>",  it  melts,  and  becomes 
transparent;  if  it  is  kept  for  some  time  melt- 
ed, some  curd  and  water,  or  whey,  separates 
from  it,  and  it  assumes  exactly  the  appear- 
ance of  oil.  But  this  process  deprives  it  in 
a  great  measure  of  its  peculiar  flavour. 

When  butter  is  kept  for  a  certain  time,  it 
becomes  rancid,  owing  in  a  good  measure  to 
the  presence  of  these  foreign  ingredients ; 
tor  it  butter  is  well-washed,  and  a  great  por- 
tion of  these  matters  separated,  it  does  not 
become  rancid  nearly  so  soon  as  when  it  is 
not  treated  in  this  manner.  It  was  formerly 
supposed  that  this  rancidity  was  owing  to  the 
developement  of  a  peculiar  acid ;  but  Par- 
memierand  Deyeux  have  shewn  that  no  acid 
is  present  in  rancid  butter.  When  batter  is 
distilled,  there  comes  over  water  an  acid, 
and  an  oil,  at  first  fluid,  but  afterwards  con- 
crete. 'I'he  carbonaceous  residuum  is  but 
small. 

Butter  may  be  obtained  ty  agitating  cream 
newly  taken  from  milk,  or  even  by  agitating 
milk  newdy  drawn  from  the  cow";  but  it  is 
usual  to  allow  cream  to  remain  for  some  time 
before  it  is  churned.  Now  cream,  by  stand- 
ing, acquires  a  sour  taste;  butter,  therefore, 
is  commonly  made  from  sour  cream.  Fresh 
cream  reiiuires  at  least  four  times  as  much 
churning  before  it  yields  its  butter,  as  sour 
cream  does ;  consequently  cream  acquires, 
by  being  kept  for  some  time,  new  jjroperties, 
in  consequence  of  which  it  is  more  easily  con- 
verted into  butler.  When  very  sour  cream 
is  churned,  every  one  who  has  paid  the 
smallest  attention  must  have  perceived,  that 
the  buttermilk,  after  the  clwirning,  is  not 
nearly  so  sour  as  the  cream  had  been.  The 
butter,  in  all  cases,  is  perfectly  sweet;  conse- 
quently the  acid  wdiich  had  been  evolved 
has  in  a  great  measure  disappeared  during 
the  process  of  churning.  It  has  been  ascer- 
tained, that  cream  may  be  churned,  and  but- 
ter obtained,  though  the  contact  of  atino- 
spheric  air  should  be  excluded.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  has  been  alHrmed,  that  when 
cream  is  cluirned  in  contact  with  air,  it  ab- 
sorbs a  considerable  quantity  of  it. 

In  all  cases  there  is  a  considerable  extri- 
cation of  gas  during  the  chunihig  of  butter. 


!89 

called  a  cream-  I  From  the   i)henomeiia,   it  can  scarcely  be 

'  doubted  that  tliis  gas  is  carbonic  acid.  "  Dr. 

Young  aliinns,  that  during  the  churning  tliere 

is  au  increj.'.e  of  temperature  amounting  to 

four  degrees. 

These  facts  shew  that  considerable  chemi- 
cal changes  go  on  during  the  process  of 
churning.  The  afjitation  kee))s  the  dilferent 
substances  in  contact,  and  enables  them  to 
act  upon  each  otirer.  The  ex])ulsion  of  car-  . 
bonic  acid  accounts  for  the  diminution  of 
acidity  after  churning;  while  Ihe  other  jdie- 
noinena  « ould  lead  us  to  suppose  that  thjj 
cream,  before  it  becomes  butter,  unites  to  a 
new  portion  of  oxvgen. 

The  aflinily  of  the  oil  of  cream  for  the 
other  ingredients  is  such,  that  it  never  sepa- 
rates completely  from  tliein.  Not  only  arc 
curd  and  whey  always  found  in  the  cream, 
but  some  of  this  oil  is  constantly  found  m 
creanied  milk  anil  whey;  for  it  has  been  as,- 
certained  by  actual  experiment,  that  Ixittep 
may  be  obtained  by  churning  whey.  27 
.Scotch  ])int3  of  whey  yield  at  an  average 
about  a  pound  of  butier.'  This  accounts  for 
a  fact  well  known  to  those  who  superintend 
dairies,  that  a  good  deal  more  butter  may- 
be obtained  from  the  same  quantity  of  milk, 
provided  it  is  churned  as  drawn' from  the 
cow,  than  when  the  cream  alone  is  collected 
and  churned. 

The  buttermilk,  as  I'armentier  and  Dey- 
eux ascertained  by  exiieriment,  possesses 
precisely  the  propi-rties  of  milk  deprived  of 
cream. 

2.  Curd,  which  may  be  separated  from 
creamed  milk  by  rennet,  has  many  of  the 
properties  of  coagulated  albumen.  It  is 
white  and  solid  ;  and  when  all  Ihe  moisture 
is  squeezed  out,  it  has  a  good  deal  of  brittle- 
ness.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  ;  but  pure  alka- 
lies and  lime  dissolve  it  readily,  c-speciallv 
when  assisted  by  li^-at;  and  w  hen  lixed  alkali 
is  used,  a  great  quantity  of  ammonia  is  emit- 
ted during  the  solution.  The  solution  of 
curd  in  soda  is  of  a  red  colour,  at  least  if  heat 
is  employed  ;  owing  probably  to  the  separation 
curd  by  the  action  of 


of  charcoal  from  flu 

the  alkali.  Indeed,  when  a  s'trong  heat  has 
been  used,  charcoal  iirecipitales  as  thi»  so- 
lution cools.  The  matter  dissolved  by  tlie 
alkali  may  be  separated  from  it  bv  means  of 
an  acid ;  but  it  li.is  lost  all  the  pi-oi)erties  of 
curd.  It  is  of  a  black  i  olour,  melts  like  tal- 
low by  the  application  of  heat,  leaves  oily 
stains  on  paper,  and  never  acquires  the  con- 
sistence of  curd.  Hence  it  appears  that 
curd,  by  the  action  of  a  lixed  alkali,  is  de- 
composed, and  converted  into  two  new  sub- 
stances; ammonia,  and  oil  or  rather  fat. 

Curd  is  soluble  also  in  iicids.  If,  over  curd 
newly  precipitated  from  milk,  and  not  dried, 
there  are  poured  : '1.1111  parts  of  water,  contain- 
ing as  much  of  any  of  the  mineral  acids  as 
gives  it  a  sensibly  acid  taste,  the  whole  is 
dissolved  after  a  nftle  boiling.  Acetic  acid 
and  lactic  acid  do  not  dissolve  curd,  wdien 
very  much  diluted ;  but  these  acids,  when 
concentrated,  dissolve  it  readily,  and  in  con- 
siderable quantity.  It  is  remarkahle  enough, 
iluit  concentrated  vegetable  acids  dissoh-e 
curd  readily,  but  have  very  little  action  on  it 
when  they  are  very  much  dilul'-d ;  whereas  the 
mineral  acids  dissolve  it  when  much  diluted  ; 
but  when  concentrated,  have  either  very  little 
effect  oa  it,  as  sulphuric  acid,  or  decompose 
II 


100 

it,  as  nitric  acid.  By  means  of  this  last  acid. 
as  BertlioUet  (iiscovered,  a  <iuaiitilv  of  azotic 
gas  may  be  ol)taiiied  from  ciinl. 

Curd,  as  is  well  known,  is  ii-ed  in  making 
clieese;  and  tlie  clieese  is  tlie  better  tiie  more 
it  contains  of  cream,  or  of  tliat  oily  matter 
whicli  constitutes  cream..  Il  is  well  known 
to  che^^semakers,  that  the  goodness  of  it  de- 
pends in  a  great  measure  on  the  manner  ot 
separating  tlie  wiiey  from  the  curd.  It  the 
inilk  is  much  heated,  the  coagulum  broken 
in  pieces,  and  the  whey  forcibly  sep-iraled, 
as  is  the  practice  in  many  parts  of  Scotland, 
the  cheese  is  scarcely  good  for  any  thing  ; 
but  the  whev  is  delicious,  especially  the 
whey  last  scjueezed  out,  and  butler  may  be 
obtained  from  it  in  considerable  quantity. 
This  is  afuU  proof  that  nearly  the  wholecreaniy 
part  of  the  milk  has  been  separated  with  the 
whey.  Whereasif  the  milk  is  not  too  much 
heated  (about  100  degrees  is  sufficient),  if 
the  coaguUim  is  allowed  to  remain  unbroken, 
and  the  whey  separated  by  very  slow  and 
gentle  pressure,  the  cheese  is  excellent ;  but 
the  whey  is  almost  transparent,  and  nearly 
colourless. 

Good  cheese  melts  at  a  moderate  heat ; 
but  bad  cheese,  when  heated,  dries,  curls, 
and  exhibits  all  the  phen  jmena  of  burning 
horn.  Hence  it  is  evident,  that  good  cheese 
contains  a  (piantity  of  the  peculiar  oil  which 
constilHtes  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of 
cream  ;  whence  its  llavour  and  smell. 

This  resemblance  of  curd  and  albumen 
wakes  it  probable  that  the  coagulation  of 
milk  and  albumen  depends  upon  the  same 
cause.  Heat,  indeed,  djes  not  coagulate 
Biiik,  because  the  curd  in  it  is  diluted  wilh 
too  large  a  quantity  of  water;  but  if  milk  is 
boiled  in  contact  w'ith  air,  a  pellicle  soon  torms 
on  its  surface,  which  has  the  properties  of  curd. 
If  this  pellicle  is  removed,  another  succeeds; 
and  by  continuing  the  boiling,  the  whole 
of  the  curdy  matter  may  be  separated  from 
milk.  When  tliis  pellicle  is  allowed  to  re- 
main, it  falls  at  last  to  the  bottom  of  the  ves- 
sel ;  wliere,  being  exposed  to  a  greater  heat, 
it  becomes  brown,  and  communicates  to  milk 
that'disagreeable  taste  which,  in  this  country, 
is  called  ai/«g((/ taste.  It  happens  more  rea- 
dily when  milk  is  boiled  along  with  rice, 
llcur,  &c. 

Ifto  boiling  milk  there  is  added  as  much 
of  any  neutral  salt  as  it  is  capable  ofilissnlv- 
ing,  or  of  sugar,  or  of  gum  arable,  the  milk 
coagulates  and  the  curd  separates.  Alcohol 
alao  coagulates  milk;  as  do  all  acids,  ren- 
net, and  the  infusion  of  the  (lowers  of  arti- 
choke and  of  the  thistle.  If  milk  is  diluted 
with  ten  times  its  weight  of  water,  it  cannot 
be  made  to  coagulati'  at  all. 

3.  Whev,  after  being  liltred  to  separate  a 
quantity  of  curd  which  still  continues  lo  float 
through  it,  is  a  thin  pellucid  lluid,  of  a  yel- 
lowish-green colour  and  pleasant  sweetish 
taste,  in  which  the  Ijavourof  milkmay  be  dis- 
tingui^lled.  It  always  contains  some  curd: 
ii.'i'.lv  the  whole  may  be  separated  by  keep- 
ing tlie  whey  for  some  tim  ■  boiling  ;  a  thick 
white  scuvn  gatluTS  on  the  surface,  whi.  h  is 
known  by  the  nane  of  skiin-curd.  VVIien 
this  scum,  which  consists  of  the  curdy  part, 
is  carefully  separated,  the  whey,  after  being 
allow^^  to  rfiinain  at  rest  for  so  lie  ho  irs,  to 
giv.!  the  remaiiulcr  of  the  curd  time  to  preci- 
pitate, is  decanted  uff  almost  as  colourless  as 


MILK. 

water,  and  scarcely  any  of  the  peculiar  taste 
of  milk  can  be  distinguished  ij_^  it.  If  it  is 
now  slowly  evaporated,  it  deposits  at  la  I  a 
lumiiier  of  wliite-co.oured  crystals,  which  are 
sugar  of  miik.  Towards  the  end  ot  the  eva- 
poration, some  crystals  of  murial  of  potass 
and  of  muriat  of  soda  make  their  appearance. 
According  to  Scheele,  it  contains  also  a  little 
phosphalof  lime,  which  indeed  may  be  pre- 
ciijitated  bv  ammonia. 

After  the  salts  have  been  obtained  from 
whey,  what  remains  concretes  into  a  jelly  on 
cooling.  Hence  it  follows  lliat  whey  also 
contains  gelatine.  Whey,  then,  is  composed 
of  water,  sugar  of  milk,  gelatine,  muriat  of 
potass,  and  phosphat  of  lime.  'I'he  otiier 
salts  which  are  sometimes  found  in  it,  are 
only  accidentally  present. 

If  whey  is  allowed  to  remain  for  some  time, 
it  becomes  sour,  owing  to  the  formation  ot  a 
peculiar  acid  know  n  by  the  name  of  lactic  acid. 
It  is  to  this  property  of  whey  that  we  are  to 
ascribe  the  acidity  which  iniik  contracts;  for 
neither  curd  nor  "cream,  perfectly  freed  from 
serum,  seems  susceptible  of  acquir.ng  acid  pro- 
perties. Hence  the  reason  also  that  milk,  af- 
ter it  becomes  sour,  always  coagulates.  Boil- 
ed milk  has  the  property  of  continuing  longer 
sweet,  but  it  is  singular' enough  that  it  runs 
sooner  to  putrefaction,  than  ordinary  milk. 

The  acid  of  milk  differs  considerably  from 
the  acetic :  yet  vinegar  may  be  obtained 
ti-om  milk  by  a  very  simple  process.  If  to 
somewhat  more  than  8  lbs.  troy  of  milk  six 
spoonfuls  of  alcohol  are  added,  and  the  mix- 
ture w  ell  corked  is  exposed  to  a  heat  sufficient 
to  support  fcrmentatijn,  provided  attention 
is  paid  to  allow  the  carbonic  acid  gas  to  escape 
from  time  to  time,  the  whey,  in  about 
a  month,  will  be  found  converted  into  vine- 
gar. 

Milk  is  almost  the  only  animal  substance 
which  m.iy  be  made  to  undergo  the  vinous 
fermentation,  and  to  afford  a  liquor  resem- 
bling wine  or  beer,  trom  which  alcohol  may 
be  separated  by  distillation.  This  singula'r 
fact  seems  to  have  been 'first  discovered  by 
tlie  Tartars;  they  obtain  all  their  spirituous 
li(]Uors  from  mare's  milk.  Il  has  been  ascer- 
tained, Ihat  milk  is  incapable  of  being  con- 
verted into  wine  till  it  has  become  sour ;  af- 
ter this  nothing  is  necessary  but  to  place  it  in 
the  proper  temperalure;  the  fermentation 
begins  of  its  own  accord,  and  continues 
till  the  formation  of  wine  is  coinplete<l. 
Scheele  had  shewed  that  milk  was  capable 
of  feraienlin.;,  and  that  a  great  quantity  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  was  extricated  from 
it  during  this  fermentation  ;  but  he  did 
not  suspect  that  the  re.sult  of  this  fenneiita- 
tioii  was  the  form.ilion  of  an  intoxicating 
liquor  similar  to  wine.  The  Tartars  call 
the  vinous  liquid  which  they  prepare  koumiss. 
A  very  exact  account  of  its  preparation  and 
medical  uses  has  been  published  by  Dr.  (Julh- 
rie. 

When  milk  is  distilled  by  the  he.it  of  a 
vvater-ba  h,  there  comes  over  water  having 
the  peculiar  odour  of  milk:  which  putrefies; 
and  consequentlv  contains,  besides  mere  wa- 
ter, some  of  tl'ie  other  constituent  parts  of 
m.lk.  After  some  time  the  milk  coagulates, 
as  always  happens  when  hot  albumen  ac- 
c|uires  a  certain  degree  of  concentration. 
There  remains  behind  a  thick  unctuous  yel- 
lowish-white substance,  to  which  Hollinan 
6 


gave  the  name  of  franchippan.  Tliis  snb- 
staiuc,  when  the  lire  is  increased,  yields  at 
Inst  a  Iran-parent  li(|U(l,  which  becomes  gra- 
dually moie  coloured  ;  some  very  fluid  oil 
comes  over,  then  ammonia,  an  aci',1,  and  at 
last  a  very  thick  black  oil.  '1  ow  ards  tiie  end 
of  tlie  process  carbure  ed  hydrogen  gas  is  dis- 
engaged. 'I  here  remains  in  the  retort  a 
coal  which  contains caibonat  of  potass,  muriat 
of  potass,  and  phosphat  of  lime ;  and  some- 
tiiues  magnesia,  iron,  and  muriat  of  soda. 

Thus  we  see  that  cow's  milk  is  composed 
ofth"  following  ingredients: 

1.  Water,  6.  Muriat  of  soda, 

2.  Oil,  7.  Muriat  of  potass, 

3.  Curd,  S.-  Sulphur, 

4.  Gelatine,        9.  Thosphat  of  lime. 
J.  Sugar  of  milk. 

The  milk  of  all  other  animals,  as  far  as  it 
has  hitherto  been  examined,  consists  nearly  of 
the  same  ingredients:  but  there  is  a  very 
great  difference  in  their  proportion. 

Woman's  milk  has  a  much  sweeter  taste 
than  cow's  milk.  When  allowed  to  remain 
at  rest  for  a  sufficient  time,  a  cream  gathers 
on  itssuiface.  ''i'his  cream  is  more  abundant 
than  iji  cow's  milk,  and  its  colour  is  usually 
much  whiter.  Alter  it  is  separated,  the  milk 
is  exceectinglv  thin  ;  and  has  the  appearance 
rather  of  whey  wilh  a  bUieish-white  colour, 
than  of  creara-m:lk. 

None  of  the  methods  by  which  cow's  milk 
is  coagulated  succeed  in  producing  the  coa- 
gulation of  woman's  milk.  It  is  certain, 
however,  thatit  containscurd ;  for  if  itis  boiled, 
pellicles  form  on  its  surface,  which  have  all 
the  properties  of  curd.  Its  not  coagulating, 
therefore,  must  be  attributed  to  the  great 
quantity  of  water  v\ith  which  the  curd  is  di- 
luted. 

Though  the  cream  is  churned  ever  so  long, 
no  butter  can  be  obtained  from  it ;  but  if, 
after  being  agitated  for  some  hours,  it  is  al- 
lowed to  remain  at  rest  for  a  day  or  two,  it 
separates  into  tw-o  parts  :  a  fluid  which  occu- 
pies the  inferior  part  of  the  vessel,  pellucid 
and  colourless  like  water;  and  a  tiiick  while 
unctuous  fluid  whicii  swinis  on  the  surface. 
The  lowermost  lluid  contains  sugar  of  milk 
and  some  curd;  the  ui)permost  does  not  dif- 
fer from  cream  except  in  consistence.  The 
oilv  part  of  the  cream,  then,  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated by  agitation  from  the  curd.  This  cream 
contains  a  greater  portion  of  curd  than  the 
cream  of  cow's  milk. 

When  this  milk,  after  the  curd  is  separated 
from  it,  is  slowly  evaporated,  it  yields  crys- 
tals of  sugar  of  milk  and  of  muriat  of  soda. 
The  quantity  of  sugar  is  rather  greater  than 
in  cow's  milk.  According  to  Haller,  the  sugar 
obtained  from  cow's  milk  is  to  that  obtained 
from  an  equal  <|uanlity  of  woman's  milk  as  3.> 
to  jS,  ancl  sometimes  as  37  to  67,  and  in  all 
the  intermediate  ratios. 

Thus  it  ap])ears  that  woman's  milk  dif- 
fers fr()m  that  of  cow's  in  three  particulars  : 

It  contains  a  much  smaller  (piantity  of  curd. 
Its  oil  is  so  intimately  combined  wilh  its  curd 
that  it  does  not  yield  butter.  It  contains  ra- 
ther more  sugar  of  milk. 

Parmentier  and  Deycux  ascertained,  that 
the  (inantity  of  curd  in  woman's  milk  increases 
in  |)roportion  lo  the  time  after  delivery. 
Nearly  the  same  thing  has  been  observe^ 
with  respect  to  cow's  milk, 


M  I  L 

Ass's  milk  lias  a  very  strong  rrscmblance 
tohinnaii  milk.  U  lias  nearly  the  same  colour, 
smell,  and  coiisisleiice.  \N  lien  left  at  re;.t 
for  a  sullicient  time,  a  cream  forms  upon  its 
surface.  Ijut  by  no  means  m  such  abundance 
as  in  woni.m  siuilk.  This  civaiu,  by  very  long 
agitation,  yields  a  butler,  which  is  always  soil, 
unite,  and  tasteless;  and,  what  is  singular, 
very  readily  iniNes  again  with  the  bctlermilk; 
but" it  may  be  again  separated  by  agitation, 
while  the  vessi;l  which  contains  it  is  j)lunged 
ill  cold  water.  Creamed  ass's  niiiU  is  thin, 
aiKl  has  an  a'jreeabl.-  sweeti--h  taste.  Alcohol 
and  acids  separate  Iidiu  it  a  little  curd,  which 
lia^  hut  a  small  degree  of  coniislence.  The 
sertnii  yields  sugar  ot  milk  and  luurial  of  lime. 

Ass's  milk  tlierefore  differs  from  cow's  milk 
in  three  particulars : 

Its  cream  is  less  abundant  and  more  insipid. 
It  contains  less  curd.  It  contains  more  su- 
gar of  milk  :  the  proportion  is  35  to  80. 

Cjoal's  milk,  il  we  except  its  consistence, 
U  hicli  is  greater,  does  not  differ  much  from 
tow's  milk.  JJke  that  milk  it  throws  up  abun- 
dance of  cream,  from  which  butter  is  easily 
obtained.  The  creamed  milk  coagulates  just 
as  cow's  milk,  and  yields  a  greater (luantity  of 
curd.  Its  whey  contains  sugar  of  milk,  mu- 
riat  of  lime,  and  nniriat  of  soda. 

Cwe's  milk  resembles  almost  precisely  that 
of  the  cow.  Its  cream  is  ratlier  more  abund- 
ant, and  yields  a  butter  whitli  never  acquirt^s 
the  consistence  of  butter  from  cow's  milk. 
Its  curd  has  a  fat  and  viscid  appearance,  and 
is  not  wit.hout  dilificully  made  to  assume  the 
consistence  of  tlie  curd  of  cov/s  milk.  It 
makes  excellent  cheese. 

Mare's  milk  is  thinner  than  that  of  llie  cow, 
but  scarcelv  so  thin  as  human  milk.  lis  cream 
cannot  be  converted  into  butter  by  agitation. 
The  creamed  milk  coagulates  precisely  as 
cow's  milk,  but  the  curd  Is  not  so  abundant. 
The  serum  contams  sugar  of  milk,  sulphat  of 
lime,  and  muriat  of  lime. 

MILKY-\\  AY,  in  astronomy,  a  broad 
track  or  path,  encompassing  the  whole  hea- 
vens, dislinguisliable  by  its  white  appearance  ; 
whence  it  obtains  its  name,  bee  Astro- 
nomy. 

MiLL,  a  maclune  or  engine  for  grinding 
corn,  Stc.  ol  which  there  are  several  kinds, 
according  to  l\i<i  vanous  methods  of  applying 
the  moving  power;  as  water-milis,  wind- 
mills, mills  worked  by  horses,  &c. 

In  waler-i.iilU  the  momentum  of  the  water 
is  the  moving  power ;  and  the  attrition  ot 
the  two  stones  in  grinding  is  the  force  to  be 
overcome.  Of  these  tnere  are  two  kinds,  viz. 
those  where  the  force  of  the  water  is  applied 
above  the  wheel,  and  those  where  it  is  ap- 
plieil  below  thewiieel ;  the  lorinerbeing  callcvl 
overshot,  and  the  latter  undershot  mills :  and 
to  these  we  may  add  a  breast-miU,  where  the 
\vater  strikes  against  the  middle  ol  th;-  wheel. 

Few  people  are  ignorant  that  corn  is  ground 
lay  two  nid\-btones,  placed  one  above  the 
other,  without  touching.  The  lower,  or  ne- 
ther, mill-stone,  is  immoveable  ;  but  the  up- 
per one  turns  upon  a  spindle.  The  opposite 
surfaces  of  the  two  stones,  w  hich  act  to  grind 
the  corn,  are  not  plane  or  fiat ;  but  the  up- 
per one  is  hollow,  and  the  unde;  one  swells 
upwards ;  each  of  them  being  of  a  conic 
figure,  whose  axis  indeed  is  very  short  in  p-.:- 
portion  to  the  diameter  of  its  base :  for  the 
upper  one,  being  six  feet  in  diameter,  is  hol- 
lowed but  about  one  inch  at  its  centre  ;  and 


M  1  L 

the  lower  one  rises  but  about  three-fourths  of 
an  inch.  These  two  mill-stones  come  nearer 
and  nearer  towards  their  circumference, 
whereby  the  corn  that  falls  fiom  the  hopper 
has  room  to  insinuate  between  them  as  far  as 
tv^o-thirds  of  the  radius,  which  is  the  jjlace 
where  it  begins  to  be  ground,  and  where  it 
makes  the  greatest  re-istance  that  it  is  capable 
of;  the  space  between  the  stones  being  in  that 
place  but  about  two-thirds  or  three-lourths 
of  the  thickness  of  a  grain  of  corn.  But  as 
the  millers  have  the  means  of  raising  or  sink- 
ing the  upper  stone  a  little,  they  can  propor- 
tion its  distance  hum  the  lower  one,  accord- 
ing as  they  would  have  the  iiour  finer  or 
coarser. 

The  circular  motion  of  the  upper  mill- 
stone brings  the  corn  out  of  the  hopper  by 
jerks,  and  causes  it  to  recede  from  tlie  centre 
towards  the  circumference;  where  being 
quite  reduced  to  flour,  it  is  thrown  out  of  the 
mill,  by  the  centrifugal  force  of  tlie  stone, 
through  a  liojc  provided  on  puqiose. 

As  the  water  acts  upon  an  ovcrshot-miU 
both  by  impulse  and  weight,  so  does  it  like- 
wise upon  a  breast-mill,  or  that  where  the 
water  comes  upon  the  breast  or  middle  part 
of  the  wheel :  and  here,  though  the  weight  of 
the  water  is  not  so  great  as  in  the  overshot 
mill,  being  contained  in  the  buckets  of  the 
lower  quarter  only;  yet  the  impulse  of  the 
water  is  much  greater,  the  heiglit  of  the  wa- 
ter being  increased  nearly  the  semidiameter 
of  the  great  wheel,  all  other  things  being 
equal.  If  the  height  of  the  water  remains  the 
same,  the  aperture  of  the  penstock,  or  flood- 
gate, must  be  enlarged  to  nearly  twice  the 
area,  that  the  force  may  be  the  same;  so 
that  to  produce  the  same  etTect,  twice  as 
much  water  is  necessary  for  a  breast-mill  as 
fo)-  an  overshot  one,  every  thing  else  being 
the  same. 

As  to  the  undershot-mill,  it  is  evident  that 
tliere  can  be  only  the  impulse  from  the  wa- 
ter ;  and  therefore  the  height  of  the  water  re- 
maining the  same,  there  must  be  a  larger 
aperture  of  the  [iiMistock  for  the  discharge  of 
a  greater  quantity  of  water  in  the  same  time, 
in  order  to  produce  the  same  eif'ect,  as  in  the 
overshot,  or  breasl-mill  :  whence  a  greater 
expel. ce  of  water  will  l,e  made  here  than  in 
any  other  mill,  and  can  only  be  supplied  for 
a  constancy  by  a  river  ;  and  where  this  can 
bo  had,  the  undershot  is  the  easiest,  cheapest, 
and  most  simple  structure  a  mill  is  capable 
of. 

Mr.  Smeaton  has  considered  the  best  me- 
thods of  constructing  all  the^e  mills  from 
machines  and  models  made  on  purpose  ;  but, 
conscious  of  the  inferiority  of  models  to  ac- 
tual practice,  did  not  venture  to  give  his  opi- 
nion without  having  seen  tiiein  actually  tried, 
and  the  truth  of  his  doctrines  established  by 
practice. 

Having  described  the  machines  and  mo<lel3 
used  for  making  his  experiments,  he  observes, 
that,  with  regard  to  power,  it  is  most  pro- 
perly measured  by  the  raising  of  a  weight; 
or,  in  other  words,  if  the  weight  raised  is 
multiplied  by  the  height  to  which  it  can  be 
raised  in  a  given  time,  the  product  is  the 
measure  of  the  power  raising  it ;  and,  of 
consequence,  all  those  powers  are  equal 
whose  products  made  by  such  multiplication 
are  equal :  for  if  a  power  can  raise  twice  the 
weight  to  the  same  height,  or  the  same  weight 
to  twice  the  height,  iu  the  same  time  that  an- 


M  I  L 


191 


other  can,  the  former  power  will  be  double 
the  latter ;  but  il  a  power  can  only  raise  half 
the  weight  to  double  the  height,  or  double  the 
weight  to  half  the  height,  in  the  same  time 
that  another  can,  the  two  powers  are  equal. 
This,  however,  must  be  under  tood  only  o(  a 
slow  and  equable  motion,  without  accelera- 
tion or  retardation;  for,  if  the  velocity  is 
either  very  quit  kly  accelerated  or  11  tarded, 
the  vis  inertia?,  in  our  author's  opinion,  will 
prodficc  an  irregularity. 

To  compute  the  elfects  of  water-wheels 
exactly,  it  is  necessary  to  know,  in  the  first 
place,  what  is  the  real  velocity  of  the  water 
which  impinges  on  the  wheel  ;  2.  The  quan- 
tity of  water  expended  in  a  given  time  ;  and, 
3.  flow  much  of  the  power  is  lost  by  the  fric- 
tion of  the  machinery. 

I.  With  regard  to  the  velocity  of  the  water, 
Mr.  Smeaton  determined  by  experiments 
with  machinery,  that  with  a  head  ot  water  15 
inches  in  height,  the  velocity  oi  the  wheel  is 
8.96  feet  in  a  minute.  The  ana  of  the  head 
being  105.8  inches;  this  multiplied  by  the 
weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  water,  equal  to  .579 
of  an  ounce  avoirdupoise,  gives  61.26  ounces 
for  the  weight  of  as  much  water  as  is  contain- 
ed ill  the  head  upon  one  inch  in  dejjth  ;  and 
by  further  calculations  derived  from  the  ma- 
chinery made  use  of,  he  computes  that  264.7 
pounds  of  water  descend  in  a  minute  through 
the  space  of  1  5  inches.  The  jjower  of  the 
water,  therefore,  to  produce  mechanical  ef- 
fects in  this  case,  will  be  264.7  x  1  5,  or  3970. 
From  the  result  of  t!ie  experiment,  however, 
it  appeared  that  a  vast  quantity  of  the  power 
was  lost  ;  the  effect  being  only  to  raise  9.375 
pounds  to  the  height  of  135  inciies:  so  that 
the  power  w  as  to  the  ellect  as  3970  to  9.375 
X   135  =:  1266,  or  as  10  to  3.1S. 

This,  according  to  ounuthor,  must  be  con- 
sidered as  the  greatest  single  el'lecc  of  water 
upon  an  und>-rsliot-w  heel,w  here  the  water  de- 
scends from  a  height  of  15  inches ;  but  as  the 
force  of  the  current  is  not  by  any  means  ex- 
haustcd,we  must  consider  the  triie  proportion 
betwixt  the  power  and  ellect  to  be  that  betwixt 
the  quantity  of  water  already  mentioned,  and 
the  sum  of  all  the  eH'ects  i)roducible  from  it. 
This  remainder  of  power,  it  is  i)!ain,  must  be 
equal  to  that  of  tlie  velocity  of  the  wheel  it- 
self multiplied  into  the  weight  of  the  water. 
In  the  present  experiment,  the  circumference 
of  the  w  heel  moved  w  ith  the  velocity  of  3. 123 
feet  in  a  second,  which  answers  to  a  head  of 
1.82  inches  ;  and  this  height  being  multiphed 
by  264.7,  the  quantity  of  water  expended  in 
a  minute,  gives  481  for  the  power  of  the  wa- 
ter after  it  has  passed  the  wheel  ;  and  hence 
the  true  proportion  betwixt  the  power  and 
the  elfect  will  be  as  3849  to  1266  ;  or  as  1 1 
to  4. 

As  the  wheel  revolved  86  times  in  a  mi- 
nute, the  velocity  of  the  water  must  be  equal 
to  86  circumferences  of  the  wheel ;  which, 
according  to  the  dimensions  of  the  apparatus 
used  by  Mr.  Smeaton,  was  as  86  to  30,  or  as 
20  to  7.  The  greatest  load  w  ith  which  the; 
wheel  would  move  was  9  lb.  6  •■•:  ;  and  by 
12  lb.  it  was  entirely  stopped.  W  hence  our 
author  concludes,  that  the  impulse  of  tfie  wa- 
ter is  more  than  double  of  what  it  ought  to 
be  according  to  theory  ;  but  this  he  accounts 
for  by  observing,  that  in  his  experiment  the 
w heel  was  placed  not  in  an  open  river,  whert; 
the  uutural  (Mirent,  after  it  has  commtuucated 


1 9'' 

its  impulse  to  the  float,  lias  room  on  p!l  sidoiC 
to  escape,  as  tlie  llicovv  supposes,  but  in  a- 
coiuliiit,  towiiicli  the  lloat  bciiii;  adapted,  the 
watei-  ciiunot  othenvise  escape  than  by  mov- 
ing along  witb  the  wheel.  It  is  obs^ivable, 
tliat  a  wheel  working  in  this  manner,  as  soon 
a^-  the  water  meets  the  tloat,  receiving  a  sud- 
den check,  it  rises  up  agamst  tbe  float  like  a 
vave  against  a  lixeU  object ;  insomuch  that, 
vlien  the  slieet  of  w  ater  is  not  a  quarter  oi  an 
inch  thick  before  the  lloat,  yet  this  sheet  will 
act  upon  the  whole  surface  of  a  tloat  whose 
height  is  three  inches ;  and,  consequently, 
was  the  lloat  no  higiier  than  the  thickness  of 
thi;  sheet  of  water,  as  the  theory  also  sup- 
poses, a  great  part  of  the  force  vvould  have 
been  lost  bv  the  water  dashing  over  the  lloat. 

,Mr.  ^imeaton  next  proceeds  to  give  l:al)les 
of  the  velocities  of  wheels  with  different 
heights  of  water;  and  from  the  whole  de- 
duces the  following  conclusions :  1.  The  vir- 
tual or  effective  iiead  being  the  same,  the  ef- 
feit  will  be  U'.arly  as  the  quantity  of  water 
eNpeiKle<l.  2.  'I  he  expellee  of  water  being 
the  same,  the  effect  will  be  nearly  as  the 
lieight  of  the  virtual,  ot  elfective  licad.  3. 
The  quantity  of  water  expended  being  the 
same,  tJie  effect  is  nearly  as  the  square  of  the 
velocity.  4.  The  aperture  being  the  same, 
the  effect  will  be  nearly  as  the  cube  ot  liie 
velocity  of  the  water.  Hence,  if  water  parses 
out  ot  an  aperture  in  the  same  section,  but 
with  dilVerent  velocities,  the  expence  will  be 
])roponional  to  tlie  velocity  ;  and  therelore, 
if  the  c^xpence  is  not  proportional  to  the  ve- 
locity, the  section  of  tne  water  is  not  the 
same.  '>.  The  virtual  head,  or  that  from 
w  hich  we  are  to  calculate  the  pow  er,  bears  no 
irrfjponion  to  the  liead-water  ;  but  when  the 
a-jwrture  is  larger,  or  the  velocity  of  the  wa- 
ter less,  they  approach  nearer  "to  a  coinci- 
dence ;  aiul  co'S.^^i|uentIy,  in  the  large  Ojjen- 
ings  of  nulls  and  sluices,  where  great  <|uan- 
tities  of  water  are  discharged  trom  moderate 
heads,  the  head  of  water,  and  virtual  hea<l 
determined  from  the  velocity,  will  neaily 
agree:  which  is  also  conlirmed  by  expe- 
rieiici:.  6.  The  most  general  proportion  be- 
twixt the  power  and  eifect  is  that  of  ID  to  3; 
the  extremes  10  to  3. 'J,  and  10  to  L'.S.  But 
it  is  observable,  that  where  the  power  is 
greatest,  the  second  term  of  the  ratio  is 
greatest  aiso :  hence  we  may  allow  tlie  pr.i- 
])ortion  subsisting  in  great  works  to  be  as 
three  to  one.  7.  'I'he  proportion  ot  velocity 
between  tlie  water  and  wheel  is,  in  general, 
about  hve  to  two.  8.  There  is  no  certain 
ratio  between  the  load  that  the  wheel  will 
carry  at  its  proper  maximum,  and  what  will 
totally  stop  it ;  though  the  proportions  are 
contained  within  tlie  limits  of  20  to  i<),  and 
'20  to  l.'i:  but  as  the  effect  approaches  nearest 
to  the  ratio  of  L'O  to  1.5,  or  of  4  to  3,  when 
the  power  is  greatest,  either  by  increase  of  ve- 
iocllv,  or  ((uantity  of  water,  this  seems  to  be 
the  nu)>t  a[)plicable  to  large  works;  but  as 
(hi-  load  that  a  wheel  ought  to  have,  in  order 
to  work  to  the  best  advantage,  can  be  assign- 
ed by  knowing  the  effect  that  it  ought  to 
produce,  and  the  velocity  it  ought  to  have  in 
producing  it,  the  exact  knowledge  of  the 
greatest  load  it  will  bear  is  of  the  lea^t  coiise- 
<|uertct  ill  practice. 

Mr.  Smeaton,  after  having  finished  his  ex- 
periments on  the  undershot-mills,  reduced  the 
number  of  lloals,  which  were  originally  24,  to 
l.i ;  which  caused  a  diminution -ia  the  effect, 


.AIILL. 

by  reason  that  a  greater  ciuanlitv  of  water 
escap(;d  between  the  Moats  and  tlie'lloor  than 
before  :  but  on  adapting  to  it  i,  circular  sweep 
of  such  a  length,  that  oiw  lloat  entered  into 
the  curve  betore  the  other  left  it,  the  effect 
came  so  near  that  of  the  former,  as  not  to 
give  any  hopes  of  a'lvancing  it  by  increasing 
the  number  ot  lloats  beyond  24  ill  this  parti- 
cular wlieel. 

Our  autlior  next  proceeds  to  examine  the 
power  of  water  when  acting  by  its  own  gra- 
vity, in  turning  an  overshol-wheel :  "  In  rea- 
sonmg  without  experiment,"  says  he,  "  one 
might  be  led  to  iniagine,  that  however  dil- 
fereiit  the  mode  of  a|)plication  is,  vet  that, 
whenever  the  same  quantity  of  water  de- 
scends through  the  same  perpendicular  space, 
the  natural  effective  power  would  be  equal, 
supposing  the  machinery  free  froin  friction, 
equally  calculated  to  receive  the  full  effect  of 
the  power,  and  to  make  the  nipst  of  it:  for, 
if  we  suppose  the  height  of  a  column  of  wa- 
ter to  be  30  inches,  and  resting  U|ion  a  base 
or  aperture  of  one  incli  S(|uare,  everv  cubic 
inch  of  water  that  departs  iherel'rom  will  ac- 
quire the  same  vplocily  or  momenluni  from 
the  uniform  pressure  of  30  cubic  inches  above 
it,  thai  one  cul)ic  inch  let  fall  from  the  top 
will  acquire  in  falling  down  to  the  level  of  the 
aperture  :  one  would  therefore  suppose  that 
a  cubic  inch  of  water  let  fall  through  a  space 
of  30  inches,  and  there  impinging  upon  an- 
other body,  would  be  capable  of  producing 
an  e([ual  ell'ect  by  collision,  as  if  the  same 
cubic  inch  had  descended  through  the  same 
space  with  a  slower  motion,  and  produced  its 
effects  gradually.  Hut,  however  conclusive 
this  reasonhig  may  seem,  it  will  appear  in  t!ie 
course  of  the  following  deductions,  that  the 
eilect  of  the  gravity  of  descending  bodies  is 
very  different  from  the  eifect  of  the  stroke  of 
such  as  are  non-elastic,  though  generated  by 
an  equal  mechanical  power." 

liaving  made  such  alterations  in  his  ma- 
chinery as  were  necessary  for  overshot- 
wiieels,  our  author  next  gives  a  table  of  ex- 
periments w  ith  the  apparatus  so  altered.  In 
t.iese  the  head  was  six  inches,  and  tiie  height 
of  the  wheel  24  inches,  so  that  the  wliole  de- 
scent was  30  inches ;  the  iiuanlitv  of  water 
expended  in  a  minute  was  96J  pounds ; 
which,  multiplied  bv  30  inches,'  gives  the 
power  =  2y00  :  aiuf,  after  making  the  pro- 
per calculations,  the  ell'ect  was  computed  at 
1914;  whence  the  ratio  of  the  power  to  it 
comes  to  be  nearly  as  3  to  2.  If,  however, 
we  compute  the  power  from  the  height  of  the 
w  heel  only,  the  power  will  be  to  the  ell'ect 
nearly  as  :>  to  4. 

I'rom  another  set  of  experiments  the  fol- 
lowing concUisioiis  were  deduced : 

1 .  The  effective  power  of  the  water  must  be 
reckoned  upon  the  whole  descent ;  because 
It  inu>t  be  raised  to  that  height,  in  orilertobe 
able  to  produce  the  same  el'fect  a  second 
lime.  1  he  ratios  between  the  powers  so  esti- 
mated, and  the  effects  at  a  maximum,  dill'er 
nearly  from  4  to  3,  and  from  4  to  2.  Where 
the  heads  of  water  and  (]uantities  of  it  ex- 
pended are  the  least,  the  proportion  is  nearly 
trom  4  to  3  ;  but  wliere  the  heads  and  i|uan- 
tities  are  greatest,  it  comes  nearer  to  that  of 
4  to  2  ;  so  that  bv  a  medium  of  the  whole  the 
ratio  is  nearly  as  3  to  2.  Hence  it  appears 
that  the  effect  of  overshot-wheels  is  nearly 
double  to  that  of  undershol.  ones :  the  coiise- 


qiienre  of  v.  h'.ch  is,  that  non-(dastic  Ijodi^  ■ , 
when  acting  by  their  impulse  or  collisioi,. 
communicate  only  a  ])art  vf  their  original  in:- 
|Hii-e,  the  remainder  being  spent  in  changing 
their  hgme  in  consequence  of  the  stroke. 
'I'he  uitmiate  conclusion  is,  that  the  ell'ects  as 
well  as  the  powers  are  as  the  'piantities  of 
water  and  perpendicular  heights  multiplied 
together  re--pe(  lively. 

2.  I5y  iiK-reasing  the  head,  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  the  effects  are  at  all  augmented  in 
proportion  ;  for,  by  raising  it  from  3  to  1 1 
inches,  the  effect  was  augmented  by  less  than 
one-seventh  of  the  increase  of  perpendicular 
height.  Hence  it  follows,  that  the  higher  the 
wheel  is  in  proportion  to  the  whole  tiesccnt, 
the  greater  will  be  the  ell'ect ;  because  it  d(  - 
pends  less  upon  the  impulse  of  the  head,  and 
more  upon  the  gravity  of  the  water  in  the 
buckets:  and  if  we  consider  how  obliquely 
the  water  issuing  from  the  head  must  strike 
the  buckets,  we  shall  not  be  at  a  loss  to  ac- 
count for  the  little  advantage  that  arises  from 
the  impulse  thereof,  and  shall  immediately 
see  of  how  little  conseipience  this  is  to  the 
eilect  of  an  overshot-wheel.  This,  however, 
as  well  as  other  things,  must  be  subject  to  11- 
ni'tation  ;  for  it  is  necessary  that  the  velocity 
of  the  w  ater  should  be  somewhat  greater  than 
the  wheel,  otherwise  the  latter  will  not  onlv 
bc  retarded  by  the  striking  of  the  buckets 
against  the  water,  but  some  of  the  power  will 
be  lost  by  the  dashing  of  the  water  over  the 
buckets. 

3.  To  determine  tlie  velocity  which  the 
circumference  of  the  wheel  ought  to  have,  in 
order  to  produce  the  greatest  effect,  Mr. 
Smeaton  obser.es,  that  the  more  slowly  any 
body  descends  by  the  force  of  gravity,  when 
acting  upon  any  piece  of  machinery,  the 
more  that  force  will  be  spent  upon  it ;  and 
consequently  the  eilect  will  be  greater.  If  a 
stream  of  water  falls  into  the  bucket  of  an 
oveishot-w'heel,  it  will  be  there  retained  till 
the  wheel  discharges  it  by  moving  round ; 
and  of  {-onsefiuence,  the  slower  the  wheel 
moves,  the  moie  water  will  it  receive:  so  that 
what  is  lost  in  velocity  is  gained  by  the  greater 
pressure  of  water  upon  the  buckets.  From 
the  experiments,  however,  it  iqipears,  that 
when  the  wheel  made  about  20  turns  in  a 
minute  the  el'fect  was  g^eate^t ;  when  it  made 
only  18^  the  motion  was  irregular;  and  when 
loaded  so  as  not  to  admit  its  turning  IR  times, 
the  wheel  was  ovcr|)owered  with  the  load. 
When  it  made  30  turns,  the  power  was  di- 
minished by  about  one-twentieth  ;  and  when 
the  number  of  turns  was  increased  to  4o,  it 
was  diminished  by  one-fourth.  Honce  we 
see  that,  in  practice,  the  velocity  of  the  wheel 
should  not  be  dimini~lied  farther  than  w  hat 
will  procure  some  solid  advantage  in  |ioint  of 
power  ;  because,  caieri.s  paribus,  the  buckets 
must  be  larger  as  the  motion  is  slower ;  and 
the  wheel  being  more  loaded  with  water,  the 
stress  will  be  pro|)ortioiiably  increased  upon 
every  part  of  the  work.  The  best  velocity 
for  jiractice,  therefore,  will  bi'  that  when  the 
wheel  makes  30  turns  in  a  minute,  which  is 
little  more  than  three  feet  in  a  second.  This 
velocity  is  applicable  to  the  highest  overshot- 
wheels  as  well  as  the  lowest.  Kxperience 
howt^'cr  determinirs,  that  high  wheels  may 
deviate  farther  from  this  rule  before  they  will 
lose  their  power  by  a  given  aliiiuot  part  of 
the  whole,  than  low  ones  can  be  pel^nltted  to 
do ;  for  a  wheel  of  24  feet  high  may  move  at 


llip  rate  of  six  feet  per  serond,  while  our  au- 
tlioi"  lias  srcri  one  ot  33  lect  liii^h  move  very 
slculily  aiivl  well  witii  a  velocity  of  llUle  move 
tli;ui  two  feet.  'I'lie  n';>soii  of  this  superior 
velocity  in  tiie  24-feet  wliecl,  may  prolnilily 
be  owing  to  the  small  j>ro|)i)ition  tlr.it  the 
head  I'equisite  to  ^ive 'he  proper  velocity  to 
the  wheel  b>Mrs  to  tlie  uliole  height. 

4.  Tlie  maximum  loaJ  for  an  overshot- 
wlieel  is  that  which  reduces  the  circumfer- 
vncc  of  the  wheel  to  its  projier  velocity, 
which  is  known  by  dividiiia,  the  eli'ect  it 
oiij^Iit  to  produce  in  a  given  time,  by  the 
space  intended  to  be  described  by  the  lir- 
cuinlt-reiice  of  the  wheel  in  l!'«;  same  time: 
tiie  qu.ilient  will  be  the  resi'-tance  overcome 
at  the  eircmnference  of  llic  wheel,  and  is 
€(|ual  to  tile  load  reciuired,  including  the  fric- 
tion and  resistance  of  tlie  machinery. 

3.  'I'he  gre.itest  velocity  that  an  overshot- 
wheel  is  capable  of,  dejiends  jointly  upon  the 
diameter,  or  hei;>ht  of  the  wheel,  and  the  ve- 
locity of  falling  bodies  ;  for  it  is  jjiain  that  the 
velociiv  of  the  civcumference  i\m  never  be 
greater  than  to  describe  a  semicircumfercuce, 
xviiile  a  l)o;ly  let  fall  fram  the  top  describes 
the  tliameter,  nor  even  cpiite  so  »reiit  ;  as  the 
diiiereiice  hi  point  ol  lime  must  a'ua;.s  be  in 
f.ivour  of  that  which  falls  through  the  diame- 
ter. Thus,  supposing  tl;c  diameter  of  the 
wheel  to  be  10  teet  and  an  inch  in  diameter, 
a  heavy  body  would  fall  through  tliis  space 
in  one  second;  but  sucli  a  wheel  could  never 
arrive  at  this  velocity,  or  make  one  turn  in 
two  seconils,  nor  couid  an  overshot-wheel 
ecer  co;ne  near  it:  because,  after  it  has  ac- 
quired a  certain  velocity,  great  put  of  tiie 
Witei  is  prevented  from  entering  the  buckets, 
and  part  is  thrown  out  again  by  the  ceatrit'u- 
gal  force  :  and  as  these  circumstances  have  a 
cnnsiderable  dependaiice  upon  tlit  lorm  o;  the 
buckets,  it  is  iiuj-'ossibleto  lay  down  any  gene- 
ral rule  for  tlie  velocity  of  tliis  kind  of  wheels. 

6.  ')  iiough  in  theory  we  niiy  suppose  a 
wheel  to  be  made  capable  of  overcoming  any 
resistance  whatever,  yet  as,  in  practice,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  the  wheel  and  buckets  of 
some  certain  and  determinate  size,  we  al- 
ways find  that  the  wlieel  will  he  stopped  bv 
such  a  weight  as  is  equal  to  the  effort  of  tlie 
water  ill  all  the  buckets  of  a  semicircumfer- 
ejice  put  together.  Tiiismay  be  determined 
from  tlie  structure  of  the  buckets  themselves* 
but,  in  practice,  an  overshot-wheel  becomes 
unserviceable  long  before  this  time:  for  when 
it  nuvt^  with  such  an  oliiifcicle  as  diminishes 
its  velocity  to  a  certain  degree  its  motion  be- 
comes irregular  ;  hut  tins  never  happens  till 
tiie  velocity  of  the  circumference  Ia  less  than 
the  t«o  feet  per  second,  when  the  resistance 
16  tquable. 

7.  From  the  above  observations  we  m.iy 
easily  ileduce  the  force  of  water  U]ion  breast- 
wheels,  ^^c.  But,  in  general,  all  kinds  of 
wheels  where  the  v,  ater  cannot  descend 
through  a  given  space  unless  the  wheel  moves 
vith  it,  are  to  be  considered  as  overshnt- 
wlieels  ;  and  those  wiiich  receive  the  impulse 

■  or  shock  of  the  water,  whether  in  an  li  iri- 
zontal,  oblique,  or  perp  ■ndicular  direction, 
are  to  be  considered  as  undersliots.  I  lence  in 
a  w  heel  in  w  hich  the  water  strikes  at  a  certain 
point  below  the  surface  of  the  head,  and  after 
that  descends  in  the  arch  of  a  circle,  jn-ess- 
ing  by  its  gravity  upon  the  wheel,  the  eirect 
cf  sucli  a  wheel  will  be  equal  to  that  of  an 
undershot  whose  head  is  equal  to  the  dill'er- 
VOL.    II. 


MILL. 

!  cnre  of  level  between  the  surface  of  the  w.v 
j  ter  in  the  reservoir  and  the  point  where  it 
strikes  the  wheel,  added  to  that  of  an  over- 
shot who^e  hciglit  is  equal  to  llie  difl'erence 
of  level  between  the  point  where  it  strikes 
the  wheel  and  the  level  of  the  tail-water. 

In  the  (il3th  volume  of  the  Transactions 
our  author  considers  some  of  the  causes 
which  have  produced  disagreements  aiKi  dis- 
putes aiiiong  mathematicians  upon  this  sub- 
ject, lie  observes,  that  soon  after  sir  Isaac 
Newton  had  given  his  dellnition,  "  that  llie 
quantity  of  motion  is  the  measure  of  the 
same,  arising  from  the  velocity  an<l  quantity 
of  mailer  conjointly,"  it  was  contrnvi  Ued  by 
hfs  coi.lemporary  philosophers.  They  main- 
lahied,  that  the  measure  of  the  quantity  of 
moti«  II  should  be  estimated  by  taking  the 
quantity  of  matter  and  the  square  of  the  ve- 
locity conjointly.  On  this  subject  he  re- 
marks, that  hum  ecpial  impelling  powers 
acting  for  equal  intervals  of  time,  equal  aug- 
mentations of  velocity  are  acquired  by  given 
bodies  when  they  are  not  resisted  by  a  me- 
dium, 'i'lius  a  body  desceiuling  one  second 
by  the  force  of  gravity,  passes  through  a 
space  of  IG  feet  and  an  inch  ;  but  at  the  end 
ol  that  time  it  has  acquired  a  velocity  of  32  ft. 
C  inc.  in  a  second  :  at  the  end  of  2  sec.  it  lias 
actjuircd  one  that  would  carry  it  through  til 
feet  4  inches  in  a  second.  If,  therefore,  in 
conseiiuence  of  this  equal  increase  of  velo- 
city, we  define  this  to  be  a  double  quantity  of 
motion  generated  in  a  given  time  in  a  certain 
<iua!ifily  of  matter,  we  come  near  to  sir 
Isaac's  dehiiition:  but  in  tr\ing  experiments 
upon  the  eil'ects  of  bodies,  it  appears,  that 
when  a  body  is  put  in  molioii,  by  whatever 
cause,  the  impression  it  will  make  upon  an 
iinitormly  resisting  medium,  or  upon  uni- 
hnmly  yielding  substances,  will  be  as  lire 
mass  of  matter  of  the  moving  body  multi- 
plied by  the  square  of  its  velocity.  The 
question  therefore  properly  is,  whether  those 
terms,  the  quantity  ot  motion,  the  momenta, 
or  forces  of  bodies  in  motion,  are  to  be 
esteemed  eijual,  double,  or  triple,'when  they 
have  been  generated  by  an  equable  imptiUe 
:ictiiig  for  an  equal,  double,  or  triple  time? 
or  that  it  should  be  meastired  by  the  eiic-cts 
being  equal,  double,  or  triple,  in  overcoming 
reistances  before  a  body  in  motion  can  be 
stopped;  For,  according  to  the  meaning  we 
put  upon  these  words,  the  momenta  of  equal 
iH).lies  will  be  as  the  velocities  or  squares  of 
the  velocities  of  the  moving  bodies. 

Thouc^h  by  a  proper  attention  to  the  terms 
emp'oyed,  houever,  we  shall  lind  bodi  these 
doctrines  to  be  true  ;  it  is  certain  that  some 
of  the  most  celebrated  writers  upon  mecha- 
nics have  fallen  into  erroi's  by  neglecting  to 
attend  to  the  meaning  of  the  terms  they  m:iki- 
use  of.  Desaguliers,  for  instance,  after  hav- 
ing been  at  pains  to  show  that  the  dispute, 
which  in  his  time  had  subsisted  for  50  j?ars, 
V  as  a  dispute  merely  about  words,  tells  us, 
thai  both  0|)inions  may  be  easilv  reconciled 
in  the  following  case,  viz.  that  the  wheel  of 
an  undershot  water-mill  is  capable  of  doing 
(juadruple  work  when  the  velocity  of  the  wa- 
ter is  doubled,  instead  of  double  work  only: 
"For,"  says  he,  "  the  adjutage  being  the 
same,  we  tind,  that  as  the  water's  velocity  is 
double,  there  are  twice  the  number  of  parti- 
cles that  issue  out,  and  therefore  the  ladle- 
board  is  struck  by  twice  the  matter;  which 
matter  moving  with  twice  the  velocitv  that  it 
B  h 


lf.3 

had  ni  the  first  case,  (he  whole  eflTfct  must  he 
qui-dniple,  thnu.gli  the  ii:s(;;ntyr,eous  slrcke- 
ol  each  part de  is  ini  reaped  c.n'y  in  a  -imp!* 
proportion  ol  the  velocitv.''  In  another  place 
the  stin.e  author  tells  us,  that  thouph  "  the 
knowledge  oi'dir  fovegoing  particulars  is  Ay 
solutely  necessary  (or  scttii  g  an  undersliot- 
wheel  to  woik,  yc  t  the  advantage  to  be  reap- 
ed (jom  it  would  still  be  guesn-work,  and  we 
should  he  at  a  loss  to  lind  out  the  utmost  that 
it  could  perfoiin,  had  it  not  been  for  an  inge- 
nious proposition  of  that  excellent  mechanic, 
M.  I'areiit,  of  the  roval  academy  ot  sciences, 
who  has  shewed,  tli.il  an  undersliol-w.hee!  can 
do  the  most  woik  wliH  its  velocity  is  equal 
to  (he  third  part  of  tlia(  of  the  water-;  becim  e" 
(hen  two-;lnrd:i  of  the  water  are  empioycd  la 
driving  (he  wheel,  with  ii  foi'ce  proportion- 
able (o  (he  square  rff  the  velocKy.  liy  mt.lti- 
l^lying  the  surface  of  the  adjutage  or  opening 
by  (he  height  of  (he  wa(er,  we  shall  have  tne 
column  of  water  that  moves  (he  wheel.  The 
w  heel  (Iras  moved  will  ^ustiiin  on  the  opposite 
side  only  four-ninths  of  that  weight  which 
will  keep  it  in  eijuilihrio;  hut  what  it  iv.ii 
move  With  the  velocity  it  has,  is  only  one- 
third  of  the  equilibriiun."  'I  his  conclusion 
is  likewise  adopted  bv  Mr.  .MacUmrin. 

Mr.  Smeaton,  in  tfie  year  ir,5o,  instit'.itcd 
another  set  of  experiments ;  the  immeuiiiie 
object  of  which  wa^,  to  determine  what  pro- 
portion or  quantity  of  mechanical  power  is- 
expended  in  giving  the  same  body  diflereiit 
degrees  of  velocity.  Having  construc(ed  a 
projicr  apparatus  for  (he  purpose,  and  with  it 
made  a  number  of  experiments,  he  concludes, 
"  (hat  (ime,  properly  speaking,  has  nothing 
to  do  widi  the  production  of  mechanical  ef- 
fects, otherwise  than  as  by  equally  flowir.g  it 
becomes  a  common  measure;  sothat,  what- 
ever mechanical  effect  is  found  to  be  pro- 
duced in  a  given  time,  the  uniform  continu- 
ance of  tlie  action  of  the  same  mechanical 
power  will,  in  a  cioubh'  time,  [iroduce  twice 
that  eli'ect.  A  mi  chanical  power,  therefore, 
projierly  speaking,  is  measured  by  the  whole 
of  its  incciianicaT  ctl'ect  produced,  wlie;li(;r 
that  elfect  be  produced  in  a  greater  or  less 
time:  thus,  having  treasured  up  1000  ttins  of 
water,  which  I  can  let  out  upon  the  overshot- 
wheel  of  a  mill,  and  descending  (liroueli  a 
perpendicular  of  1:0  feet;  this  power,' ap- 
plied in  a  proper  manner,  will  grind  a  certain  • 
([uantity  of  corn  in  ah  hour:  but,  supposing 
(he  mill  (o  be  capable  of  receiving  a  grea(er 
impulse  widi  as  .great  advantage  "as  :"i  less; 
then,  ii'  the  corn  is  let  out  tvvice  as  fast,  the 
same  quantity  of  corn  will  be  ground  in  lialf 
an  hour,  the  whole  of  the  water  being  like- 
wise expended  in  that  time.  What  tiine  has 
therefore  to  do  in  the  case  is  this:  Let  (he 
rate  of  doing  the  business,  or  jnoducing  the 
eli'ect,  be  what  it  will  ;  if  this  rate  is  uniform, 
when  I  have  found  by  experiment  what  is 
done  in  a  given  time,  liien,  ])roceeding  at  the 
same  rate,  twice  the  efl'ect  will  he  produced  in 
twice  the  time;  on  supposition  that  1  have  a 
3up[)ly  of  mechanic  power  to  go  on  with. 
Thus,  1000  tuias  of  water  descending  throM?h 
20  feet  ]3erpeiidicular,  being,  as  has  been 
shewn,  a  given  mechanic  power,  bet-it  be  ex- 
pended at  wh.at  rate  it  will  ;  if,  when  this  is 
expended,  we  are  to  wait  another  hour  till  an 
equal  qu  uitity  can  be  procured,  then  we  can 
only  expend  11?  such  quantities  in  ."4  hours. 
But  if,  w  liile  tlie  thousand  tuns  of  water  are 
expending;  in  oi;e  liour,  Uie  same  quaiitit)-  is 


rpnened,  we  can  then  expeiul  34  such  in  the 
24  lioiirs,  or  go  on  without  intermission.  Tiie 
product  or  elfect  will  tlien  be  in  proportion 
to  time,  wliicli  is  llii'  common  measure ;  but 
the  quantity  of  mechanic  power  arising  from 
tlie  iiow  of  the  two  rivers,  compared  I)_y  tak- 
ing an  eipial  portion  of  time,  is  double  mihe 
one  to  the  other ;  thsugh  each  has  a  mill 
that,  wlien  going,  will  grind  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  corn  in  an  iiour." 

"The  following  is  a  description  of  a  corn- 
mill  of  the  most  common  sort.  See  Plate, 
Mills.  ■  ■ 

AB  (.fig.  1)  is  the  water-wheel,  which  is  ge- 
nerally "from  18  to  24  feet  in  diameter, 
reckoned  frOEii  the  outermost  edge  of  any 
iloat-board  at  A,  to  that  of  the  opposite  one 
at  B.  'J'he  water  striking  on  the  lloats  of  this 
wheel  drives  it  round,  and  gives  motion  tp 
the  mill.  The  wheel  is  (ixe<l  upon  a  very 
strong  axis  or  shaft,  C,  one  end  of  which  re-ts 
on  D,  and  the  other  on  E,  within  the  mill- 
house. 

On  th's  shaft,  or  axis,  and  within  the  mill- 
liouse,  is  a  wheel  F,  about  eight  or  nine  feet  in 
diameter,  liaving  cogs  all  round,  which  w-ork 
in  the  upright  staves,  or  rounds,  of  a  trundle 
G.  This  trundle  is  fixed  upon  a  strong  iron 
axis,  called  the  spindle,  the  lower  end  of 
which  turns  in  a  brass  foot  fixed  at  H,  in  a 
horizontal  beam  H,  called  the  bridge-tree  ; 
and  the  upper  end  of  the  spindle  turns  in  a 
wooden  bush  fixed  into  the  nether  mill-stone, 
which  lies  upon  beams  in  the  floor  I.  The 
top  of  the  spindle  above  the  bush  is  square, 
and  goes  into  a  square  hole  in  a  strong  iron 
cross,  ahcd  (lig.  2),  called  the  rynd  ;  under 
which,  and  close  to  the  bush,  is  a  round  piece 
of  thick  leather  upon  the  spindle,  which  it 
turns  round  at  the  same  time  as  it  does  the 
rynd. 

The  rvnd  is  let  into  grooves  in  the  under 
s*irface  of  the  running  mill-stone  K,  and  so 
turns  it  round  in  the  same  time  that  the  trun- 
dle G  is  turned  roinid  by  the  cog-wheel  F. 
This  mill-stone  has  a  large'  hole  quite  through 
its  middle,  called  the  eye  of  the  stone,  through 
which  the  middle  part  of  the'rynd  and  upper 
end  of  the  spindle  may  be  seen  ;  whilst  the 
four  ends  of  the  rynd  lie  below  the  stone  in 
their  grooves. 

One  end  of  the  bridge-tree,  which  support< 
the  spindle,  rests  upon  the  wall,  whilst  the 
other  is  let  into  a  (ieam,  called  the  brayer, 
LM.       ■ 

The  brayer  rests  in  a  mortice  at  T- ;  aiKl 
the  other  end  M  hangs  by  a  strong  iron  rod 
N,  which  goes  through  the  floor  I,  and  has  a 
screw-nut  on  its  top  at  ()  ;  by  the  turning  of 
which  nut,  the  end  M  of  the  brayer  is  raised 
or  depressed  at  pleasure;  and  conseciuently 
the  bridge-tree  and  the  upper  mill-stone.  I5y 
this  means  the  upper  millstone  may  be  set  as 
close  to  the  under  one,  or  raised  as  higli  from 
it,  as  the  iniller  plea.ses. 

Tlie  nearer  the  mill-stones  are  to  each 
oiher,  the  finer  the  corn  is  ground  ;  and  the 
more  remote  from  «lie  another,  the  coarser. 

The  upper  mill-slonc  is  inclosed  in  a  round 
box,  which  does  not  touch  it  any  where,  and 
is  about  an  inch  distant  from  its  edge  all 
round.  On  tlie  top  of  this  box  stands  a 
frame  for  holding  the  hopper  P,  to  which  is 
hung  the  shoe  (i,  by  two  lines  fastened  to  the 
hincfer  part  of  it,  fix'i.-d  upon  hooks  in  Ihi!  hop- 
per, and  by  os^e  tnd  of  the  string  K  la5tene<l 


MILL, 

to  the  fore  part  of  it ;  the  other  end  being 
twisted  round  the  pin  S.-  As  the  pin  is  turned 
one  way,  the  string  drav.s  up  the  shoe  closer 
to  the  hopper,  and  so  lessens  the  aperture  be- 
tween them;  and  as  the 'pin  i^  turned  tlie 
other  way,  it  lets  down  the  shoe,  and  en- 
larges the  aperture. 

If  the  shoe  is  drav^jn  up  quite  to  the  hop- 
per, no  corn  can  fall  from  the  hopper  into  the 
mill:  if  it  is  let  down  a  little,  some  will  fall ; 
and  the  quantity  will  be  more  or  less,  accord- 
ing as  tlie  slioe  is  more  or  less  let  down  ;  for 
the  hopper  is  open  at  bottom,  and  there  is  a 
hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  shoe,  not  directly 
under  the  bottom  of  the  hopper,  but  nearer  to 
the  lowest  end  of  the  shoe,  over  the  middle 
eye  of  the  mill-stone. 

There  is  a  square  hole  in  the  top  of  the 
spindle,  in  which  is^put  the  feeder  V  (fig.  2) ; 
this  feeder,  as  the  spindle  turns  round,  jogs 
the  shoe  three  times  in  each  revolution,  and 
so  causes  the  corn  to  run  constantly  down 
from  the  hopper  through  the  shoe  into  the 
eye  of  the  mill-stone,  where  it  falls  upon  the 
top  of  tiie  rvnd,  and  is,  by  the  motion  of  the 
rvnd,  and  tiie  leatlur  under  it,  thrown  below 
the  upper  stone,  and  ground  between  it  and 
the  lower  one.  'jlic  violent  motion  of  the 
stone  creates  a  centrifugal  force  in  the  corn 
going  round  with  it,  by  which  means  it  gets 
farther  and  farther  iVom  the  centre,  as  m  a 
spiral,  in  every  revolution,  until  it  is  quite 
thrown  out ;  and  being  then  ground,  it  falls 
tlu'ough  a  spout,  called  the  mill-eye,  into  a 
trough  placed  to  receive  it. 

\V' hen  the  mill  is  fed  too  fast  the  corn  bears 
up  the  stone,  and  is  ground  too  coarse  ;  and, 
besides,  it  clogs  the  mill,  so  as  to  make  it  go 
too  slow.  When  the  mill  is  too  slowly  fed,  it 
goes  too  fast ;  and  the  stones,  by  their  attri- 
tion, aie  apt  to  strike  ftre.  Both  these  in- 
c  mvenicnces  are  avoided  by  turning  the  pin 
S  backward  or  forward,  winch  draws  up  or 
lets  down  the  shoe ;  and  thus  regulates  the 
feeding,  as  the  miller  sees  convenient. 

The  heavier  the  running  mill-stone  is,  and 
the  greater  the  quantity  of  water  that  falls 
upon  the  wheel,  the  faster  will  the  mill  bear 
to  be  fed,  and  consequently  it  v.^ill  grind  the 
more:  and,  on  the  contrary,  the  lighter  the 
stone,  and  the  less  the  ciua'ntity  of  water,  so 
much  the  slower  must  the  feeding  be.  But 
when  the  stone  is  considerably  worn,  and  be- 
come light,  the  mill  must  be  fed  slov/ly  at 
anv  rate  ;  otherwise  the  stone  will  be  too 
much  borne  up  by  the  corn  under  it,  whicli 
witl  make  the  meal  coarse. 

The  quantity  of  power  sufficient  to  turn  a 
heavy  mill-stone,  is  but  very  little  more  than 
what  is  necessary  to  turn  a  light  one  ;  for  as 
it  is  supported  upon  the  spindle  by  the  bridge- 
tree,  and  the  end  of  the  sp'.ndle  'that  turns  in 
the  brass  foot  therein  being  but  small,  the 
difference  arising  from  the  weigiit  is  but  very 
inconsiderable  in  its  action  again  t  the  power 
or  force  of  the  water;  and,  besides,  a  heavy 
stone  has  the  same  advantage  as  a  heavy  lly, 
namely,  that  it  regulates  the  motion  much 
better'than  a  light  one. 

The  centriliigal  force  carrying  the  corn  to- 
wards the  circumference,  it  is'natural  it  should 
be  crushed,  when  it  comes  to  a  p'ace  where 
the  interval  between  the  two  mill-stones  is 
less  than  its  thickness;  yet  the  upper  mill- 
stone being  sup|)ortcd  ona  point  winch  it  can 
never  quit,  it  does  not  so  clearly  appear  why 


it  should  produce  a  great'-r  effect  when  it  i* 
heavy  tiiiwi  when  it  is  light  ;  since,  if  i  were 
equally  distant  Irom  the  nellier  mill-stone,  it 
could  only  be  capable  of  a  hmitcd  impres- 
sion. But  as  experience  proves  that  this  is 
reailv  the  case,  it  is  necessary  to  disaiver  the 
cau^e.  'J  he  spindle  of  the  mill-stone  being 
supported  bv  a  horizontal  piece  of  timber, ' 
about  nine  or  ten  feet  long,  resting  only  on 
both  its  ejids,  by  the  elasticity  of  this  piece, 
the  upper  mill-stone  is  allowed  a  veilical  mo- 
tion, plaving  up  and  down  ;  by  which  move-' 
ment,  the  heavier  the  stones  are,  the  more 
forcibly  is  the  corn  wedged  in  between  them. 

In  order  to  cut  and  grind  the  corn,  both 
the  upper  and  \inder  null-stones  liavt  chan- 
nels or  furrows  cut  into  them,  proceeding  ob- 
liquely from  the  centre  to  the  circumference. 
Anil  these  furrows  are  cut  perpendicularly  on 
one  side,  and  obliquely  on  the  other,  w  Inch 
gives  each  furrow  a  sharp  edge  ;  and  in  the 
two  stones  tliev  come  again>t  one  another, 
like  the  edges  of  a  pair  of  scissars  ;  and  so 
cut  the  corn,  to  make  it  grind  the  easier, 
when  it  falls  upon  the  places  between  the 
furrows.  These  are  cut  the  same  way  in  both 
stones,  when  they  lie  upon  their  bacts,  which 
makes  them  run  crossways  to  each  other  | 
when  the  upper  stone  is  inverted,  by  turning 
its  fun  owed  surface  towards  that  of  the  lower; 
for  if  the  furrows  of  both  stones  lay  the  same 
wav,  a  great  deal  of  the  corn  would  be  driven 
onward  in  the  lower  furrows,  and  so  come 
out  from  between  the  stones,  without  being 
either  cut  or  bruised. 

The  grinding  surface  of  the  under  stone  is- 
a  little  convex  from  the  edge  to  the  centre, 
and  that  of  the  U|)per  stone  a  little  concave; 
so  that  they  are  farthest  from  one  another  in 
the  middle,  anrl  appioacii  gradually  nearer 
towards  the  edges.  P.y  this  means  the  corn, 
at  its  first  entr.mce  between  the  stone.s,  is 
only  bruised ;  but  as  it  goes  farther  on  to- 
wards the  circumference  or  edge,  it  is  cut 
smaller  and  smaller ;  and,  at  last,  finely 
grouiul,  just  before  it  comes  out  from  between 
them. 

When  the  furrows  become  blunt  and  shal- 
low by  wearing,  the  running-stone  must  be 
taken  up,  and  both  stones  new  drest  with  a- 
chisel  and  hammer ;  and  every  time  the 
stone  is  taken  up  there  must  be  some  tallow  . 
put  round  the  spindle  upon  the  bush,  which 
will  soon  be  melted  by  the  heat  the  spindle 
actjuires  from  its  turni'ng  and  rubbing  against 
the  bush,  and  so  *11  get  in  betwixt  them  ;• 
otherwise  the  bush  would  take  fire  in  a  very 
little  time. 

The  bush  must  embrace  the  spindle  quite  • 
close,  to  ])revent  any  shake  in  the  motion,, 
which  would  make  some  parts  of  tiie  stones- 
grate  and  fire  against  each  other  ;  whilst  the 
other  parts  of  them  would  be  too  far  asunder, 
and  by  that  means  spoil  the  meal. 

Wfienever  the  spindle  wears  the  bush,  so 
as  to  begin  to  shake  in  it,  the  stone  must  be 
taken  up,  and  a  chisel  driven  into  several  , 
parts  of  the  bush  ;  an<l  wlien  it  is  taken  out, 
wooden  wedges  must  be  forced  into  the  holes ; 
by  which  means  the  bush  will  be  made  to  em-  ■ 
bi-aee  the  spindle  again,  close  all  round.  In 
doing  till ',  great  care  inu-;l  be  taken  to  drive 
equal  wetlges  into  the  bush  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  spindle  ;  otherwise  it  will  be  throwa 
out  of  the  perpendii'ul.ir,  and  so  hinder  the 
upper  stone  from  being  set  parallel  to  the 
under  one,  which  is  absolutely  necessary  for. 


tiiakinpc  good  work.  V.'li.^n  any  acculcnt  of 
tliis  kind  liappciis,  ihc  pci'pcndiciilai"  |,<osilion 
ol'tlie  spindle  jiuist  l)c  re-tnied,  by  adjn-iting 
the  bridt;e-trei;  with  jiroptT  wedges  put  be- 
tween it  and  the  brayer. 

It  oltea  happens  that  the  rynd  is  a  liKlc 
vreneiied  in  layiiii;  down  the  iipiier  stone 
upon  it,  or  is  made  to  sink  a  little  lower  on 
one  side  of  the  spindle  than  on  the  other  ; 
and  this  will  cause  one  edge  of  the  upper  stone 
to  drag  all,  round  upon  the  other,  while  the 
oppu-iite  edge  w  ill  not  touch.  But  tliis  is 
easily  set  to  rig.its,  by  raisi.ig  the  stone  a 
little  with  the  lever,  and  putting  bits  of  pa- 
per, eardti,  or  thin  eliips,  between  the  rynJ 
and  the  stoni;. 

A  less  quantity  of  water  will  turn  an  over- 
shot-niill  (where  the  wheel  has  buckets  in- 
stead of  iioat-bo.irds)  than  a  breast-mill,  where 
(he  lall  of  water  seldom  exceeds  half  the 
height  of  the  wheel  ;  so  that  where  (here  is 
but  a  small  quantity  of  water,  and  a  fall  great 
enough  for  the  wheel  to  lie  inider  it,  the 
bucket,  or  overshot,  whei.'l,  is  always  used  : 
but  where  there  is  a  large  body  of  water  with 
a  little  fail,  the  breast,  or  (lo.it-board,  wheel 
must  be  used.  V/here  the  water  runs  only 
ii|)on  a  small  declivity,  it  can  act  but  slowly 
upon  the  under  part  of  the  wiieel ;  in  which 
case  the  motion  of  the  wheel  will  be  slow  : 
and  therefore  Llie  tloats  ou.^ht  to  be  very 
long,  though  not  high,  that  a  large  body  of 
vater  may  act  upon  them  ;  so  that  what  is 
wanting  in  velocity  may  be  made  up  in 
power;  and  then  the  cog-wheel  may  have  a 
greater  number  of  cogs,  in  proportion  to  the 
rounds  in  the  trimdle,  iu  order  to  give  the 
Inill-stone  a  sulTicient  degree  of  velocity. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  Smeaton',  that  the 
powers  necessary  to  produce  the  same  effect 
on  an  imdershot-wheel,  a  breast-wheel,  and 
an  overshot-wheel,  must  be  to  each  other  as 
the  numbers  2.4,  1.7j,  and  1. 

Pructical  ri/lts  for  the  construction  of 
mills: — 1.  Measiu'e  the  perpendicular  height 
of  the  fall  of  water,  in  feet,  above  that  part 
of  the  wheel  on  which  the  water  begins  to 
act,  and  call  that  the  height  of  the  fall. 

a.  Multiply  this  constant  number  C4.2SS2 
by  the  height  of  t!ie  iail  in  feet,  and  the  square 
root  of  the  product  will  be  the  velocity  of 
tlie  water  at  the  bottom  of  the  fall,  or'the 
-.  number  of  feet  that  the  water  there  moves 
per  second. 

3.  Divide  the  velocity  of  the  water  bv 
three,  and  the  ipiotient  will  he  the  velocitv  of 
the  lloat-boards  of  the  wheel,  or  tiie  number 
of  feet  they  must  each  go  through  in  a  se- 
cond, when  the  water  acts  upon  litem  so  as 
to  have  the  greatest  power  to  turn  the  mill. 

4.  Divide  the  circumference  of  the  wheel 
in  feet  by  the  velocity  of  its  lloats  in  feet  pei' 
second,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number 
of  seconds  in  which  the  wheel  turns  round. 

J.  By  this  last  number  of  seconds  divide 
Go,  and  the  quotient  wdl  be  the  number  of 
turns  of  the  wiieel  in  a  minute. 

6.  Divide  120  (the  number  of  revolutions 
a  mill  stone  four  feet  and  a  half  diameter 
ought  to  have  in  a  minute)  by  the  number  of 
turns  of  the  wiieel  in  a  minute,-  and  the  quo- 
tient will  be  the  number  of  turns  the  mill- 
stone ought  to  have  for  one  turn  of  the 
wheel. 

7.  Then,  as  tlie  number  of  turns  of  the 
wheel  in  a  minute,  is  to  tlie  number  of  turns 
of  th.e  iiiiU-st'jue  in  a  niiiuile,  so  must  the 


MIT.I,. 

'.lumber  of  staves  in  the  trundle,  be  lo  (he 
nunib-r  of  cogs  in  the  wheel,  in  the  nearest 
whole  numbers  that  can  be  found. 


Ry  these  rules  (he  following  table  is  calcu- 
lated to  a  water-wheel  JS  feel  diameter, 
wliicii  may  be  a  good  size  in  general. 


THE  MII.I.-WRIGUT'S  TABLE. 


1 

1 

Re\'olutioii* 

Revohit'ons  of 

nc-ij,dit 

Velocitv  of  VcloL-itr  o!| 

Revolmions 

of  the  mill- 

Cogs in  the 

the  mill-slcno 

(if  the 

the  f.iil  of 

the  v/heel 

of  the  wheel 

stone  for 

wlice 

,  and 

per  miniiic,  !)y 

fall  of 

water   per 

per  se- 

per minute. 

one  of  the 

stave 

•i    in 

these  staves  '      * 

water. 

second. 

cond. 

wheels. 

the  trundle. 

and  cogs. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

100  parts 
of  a  foot. 

Feet. 

100  parts 
of  a  foot. 

Revolu- 
tions. 

100  parts  ] 
of  a  rev.  i 

Revolu- 
tions. 

100  parts 
of  a  rev. 

Cogs. 

Staves 

Revolu- 
tions. 

I(X)  parts 
of  a  rev. 

1 

R  .  02 

2.G7 

2.83 

42  .40 

254 

<i 

119.84 

2 

1 1  .  ;>1 

3  .  78 

4.00 

30  .  CO 

210 

7 

ISO.  00 

n 

1.",  .  8i) 

4.63 

4.  91 

24  .  44  ■ 

196 

8 

I20.2!^ 

4 

IG  .04 

5  .35 

5  .67 

21  .  16 

190 

9 

119.74 

5 

17  .  i)^  - 

5  .  98 

C  .  31 

IS  .  93 

170 

9 

119  .  Cfi 

c, 

I'O  .  CA 

6  .  55 

6.  94 

17  .28 

156 

9 

120  .  2'J 

■J 

21  .21 

7  .07 

7  .50 

16  .00 

144 

9 

120  .0) 

« 

22  .  ns 

7  .  55 

K  .02 

14  .  96 

134 

9 

119.. 3-1 

;1 

21  .  05 

8  .02 

8.51 

14  .  10 

140 

10 

119.  14 

10 

2'>  .  25 

8  .45 

8  ,  97 

13  .33 

1.34 

10 

120  .  18 

11 

2G  .  59 

8  .86 

9  .  40 

12.76 

128 

10 

120.. 32 

12 

27  .  77 

9.26 

9  .82 

12  .  22. 

122 

10 

119  .ra 

1/. 

2S  .  f)l 

9  .  64 

10  .  22 

11  .  74 

118 

10 

120.36 

It 

30  .00 

10  .  CO 

10  .  60 

1 1  .  32 

112 

10 

118  .72 

15 

31  .05 

10.35 

10.  99 

10 .  ys 

110 

10 

120  .  96 

16 

32  .  07 

10.09 

1 1  .  34 

10  .  ,58 

106 

10 

120  .  20 

17  , 

33  .06 

1 1  .  02 

11  .  70 

10  .  26 

102 

10 

119  .34 

18 

34.02 

1 1  .  34 

12.02 

9  .  98 

100 

10 

120  .  L\) 

19 

34  .  95 

1 1  .  65 

12  .  37 

9.70 

98 

10 

121  .  122 

20 

35  .  86 

11  .95 

12  .  68 

9  .  46 

94 

10 

119  .  18 

1 

0 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

To  construct  a  mill  by  tins  table,  liiid  the 
height  of  the  fall  of  water  in  the  first  column, 
and  against  that  height,  in  tlie  sixth  column, 
you  have  the  number  of  cogs  in  the  wheel, 
iind  staves  in  the  trundle,  for  causing  the 
mill-stone,  four  feet  six  inches  diameter,  to 
make  about  120  revolutions  in  a  minute,  as 
near  as  possil,iIe,when  tlie  wheel  goes  with  one- 
third  part  of  the  velocity  of  tlie  water.  And 
it  appears  by  the  7th  coliimn,  that  the  number 
of  cogs  in  the  wheel,  and  staves  in  the  trun- 
dle, are  so  near  the  truth  for  the  reqtiired 
])urpose,  that  the  least  number  of  revolutions 
of  the  mill-stone  in  a  minute  is  1 18,  and  the 
greatest  number  never  exceeds  12!  ;  which 
i's  according  to  the  speed  of  some  of  the  best 
mills. 

One  of  the  most  usual  communicatijns  of 
motion  in  macliinery,  is  by  means  of  tooth.ed 
wheels  acting  on  each  other.  It  is  of  the 
greatest  consequence  to  have  If.e  leetli  so 
formed,  that  the  pressure  by  which  one  of 
them  urges  the  other  round  its  axis  it  con- 
stantly the  same.  Tliis  is  by  no  means  the 
case  when  tiie  common  construction  of  a 
spur-wheel,  acting  in  the  cylindrical  staves  of 
a  lantern,  or  trundle,  is  used.  The  ends  of 
teeth  should  never  be  formed  of  parts  of  cir- 
cles, but  of  a  particular  curve,  called  the  epi- 
cycloid, which  is  formed  by  moving  the  cir- 
cle, called  the  generating  circle,  rouiul  the 
circumference  of  another  circMe,  while  it 
(urns  also  round  its  own  centre  ;  then  any 
point  will  describe  an  epicycloid. 

Emerson  observes,  that  the  tectli  of  wheels 
ougiit  not  to  act  upon  each  other  before  they 
arrive  at  tlie  line  which  joins  their  centres  ; 
and  though  the  inner  or  under  sides  of  the 
teeth  mav  be  of  any  form,  yet  it  is  better  to 
make  both  sides  alike,  which  will  serve  to 
Bb  2 


make  the  wheel  turn  backwards.  The  more 
teeth  that  work  together  the  better ;  at  least 
one  tooth  should  always  begin  before  the 
other  has  done  working.  The  teeth  ought  to 
be  so  disposed  as  not  to  trouble  or  hinder  one 
another  before  they  begin  to  work. 

If  the  cogs  of  a  wheel  and  rounds  of  a  trun- 
dle could  be  put  in  as  exactly  as  the  teeth  are 
cut  in  the  wheels  and  pinions  of  a  clock,  then 
the  trundle  might  divide  the  wheel  exactiv, 
that  is  to  say,  the  trundle  might  nuike  a  given 
number  of  revolutions  for  one  of  the  wheel, 
w  ithout  a  fraction.  But  as  any  exact  num- 
ber is  not  necessary  in  miH-w"ork,  and  the 
cogs  and  rounds  cannot  be  set  in  so  truly  as 
to  make  all  the  intervals  between  them  equal, 
a  skilful  mill-wrightwill  always  give  the  wheel 
what  lie  calis  a  hunting-coa; ;  that  is,  one 
more  than  what  wi|l  answer  to  an  exact  divi* 
sion  of  the  wlicel  by  llie  trr.ndie.  And  then 
as  every  cog  comes  to  the  trundle,  it  w  ill  take 
the  next  staff,  or  round,  behind  the  one  wliich 
it  took  in  the  former  revolution  ;  and  by  tiiat 
means  will  wear  all  the  parts  of  the  cogs  and 
rounds  which  work  upon  one  another  equally, 
and  to  equal  distances  fiom  one  another,  in  a 
little  lime.     See  Flour-mill. 

M;lls,  Bark,  like  most  other  inills,  arc 
worked  sometimes  by  means  of  horses,  at 
others  by  water,  and  at  others  by  wind.  One 
of  the  best  mills  we  have  seen  described  for 
these  purposes  is  that  invented  by  Mr.  B-j^"- 
nall,  of  Vvorsley,  in  Lancashire  :  this  ma- 
chine will  serve  not  only  to  chop  bark,  to 
grhid,  to  riddle,  and  potmd  it,  but  to  beajn, 
or  w  ork  green  hides  and  skins  out  of  th.e  mas- 
tering, or  drench,  and  make  them  readv  for 
the  ouse,  or  bark-liquor;  to  beam  sheepskins 
and  other  skins  for  tlie  skinner  s  use  ;  ahd  to 
scour  ;.nd  take  off  the  bloom  from  tanned 


lia'lirr,  when  in  the  ri;rr_vi:ip  state.  Thi; 
uauire  and  connection  of  the  clil'lL'vent  parts  of 
f'tiis  c«ntiivan;e  mav  be  nndcrstood  from  tiie 
fi j'jres  aiivl  fo'lo'.ving  (k'SiTi[)tion : 

Fie.  3  is  a  horizontal  piaii  of  the  mill.  T"is. 
A,  a  longitudinal  section  o;  it.  V\^.  5,  a  trans- 
vi-r>e  st'ctidn  of  it. 

A,  tlie  watci'-wiu'cl,  by  wliicii  the  vholc 
iinachinerv  is  worked. 

1!,  (lie  shafts. 

<_',  the  pit-whnel,  which  is  fix^-d  on  the  wa- 
ter-wliPel  shaft  IV,  and  tur:!S  liic  iipriglil  shaft 
E;  by  tlie  wlieel  F,  and  works  the  cutters  and 
hammer  by  tapets. 

D,  the  spnr  and  bevil-w'ieel  at  the  top  of 
«  the  Uj)riglit  shalts. 

F;  tlie  uprig'it  shaft. 

F,  the  crown-wheel,  which  works  in  the 
pit-whecl  C. 

G,  the  spur-nut  to  (nrn  thestonP'  I. 
1',  the  beam,  wit^i  knives  or  cutters  fixed 

at  IIh"  end  ta  chop  ov  cut  the  bark;  which 
bariv.is  lobe  put  upon  the  ciilters  or  grating 
?",  o;i  -'.v'lich  the  b-Aiin  is  to  f  dl. 

Q,  !:;•;  Iryal  that  receives  the  bark  from  liie 
cutters  i,  and  conveys  it  irito  the  hopper  11, 
by  V,  hi.  h  it  descends  through  tlie  shoe  J  to  tlie 
ttoues  [,  where  it  is  ground. 

K,  ifie  spout,  which  receives  the  bark  from 
the  stones,  mid  cojn'f.-\s  it -int  i  the  tryal  L; 
v.lvcli  tryal  is  wired  to"  rift  or  dress  the  bark, 
as  itde.-.cend5  from  the  stones  I. 

M,  the  tro'.i.f/h  to  receive  the  bark  that 
passes  through  the  Irval  L. 

1{,  the  luininer,  to  crush  or  bruise  the 
bark  that  falls  tnto  the  dish  S,  which  said  dish 
is  on  the  incline,  so  that  the  hammer  kejps 
forcing  it  out  of  the  lower  side  of  the  said 
ilish  when  bruised. 

/r,  a  trough  to  receive  the  dust  and  moss 
that  jiassec  thn.u;,h  the  tryal  Q. 

T,  the  bevil-wheel,  that  works  in  the  wheel 
D,  which  works  tlie  beani-kuit'e  b'.-  a  crank 
V,  at  the  end  rtf  the  shaft  u. 

W,  the  pen'-;tra'.iiig  rod,  which  leads  from 
the  crank  V  to  the  start  a. 

.T,  the  start,  wiiich  has  several  holes  in  it  to 
lengthen  or  shorten  the  stroke  of  the  beam- 
knife. 

'/,  the  shaft,  to  which  the  slide  rods  /;,  /;,  are 
•fi  -ed  by  the  starts  n,  n. 

It,  the  slide-rod,  on  which  the  knife  /  is 
-■fixed;  which  knife  is  to  work  tiie  hides,  &c. 
On  the  knife  are  two  sprijigs  a,  u,  to  let  it 
have  a  little  play  as  it  makes  its  stroke  bark- 
wards  and  forwards,  so  that  it  may  not  scratch 
or  damage  the  hides,  &c. 

t,  is  a  catch  in  aslide-rod  A.whicli  catches  on 
tiie  arch-heajf ;  and  the  said  arch-head  co;i- 
veys  the  knife  back  without  touching  the  hide, 
snd  then  falls  back  to  receive  the  catch  again. 
/,  the  roller  to  take  up  the  slide-rod  h, 
v.iiile  the  liids  are  shifting  on  the  beam  4, 
by  pulling  affile  handle  in. 

b,  the  beam  to  work  the  hides,  &c.  on. 
Each  beam  has  four  wheels  p,p,  working  in  a 
trough-road  g,  e;,  and  removed  by  the  levers 
c,  c.  When  the  knife  has  worked  the  hide, 
&c.  siilTiciently  in  one  part,  the  beam  is  then 
.shifted  by  the  lever  c  as  far  as  is  v,ante<i. 

d,  a  press,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  bearn,  to 
hold  the  hide  fast  on  the  beam  while  vvork- 


MILI,. 


Jiig. 

e  an  arch-head,  on  which  the  slide  rod  // 
catches. 

/,  the  knife  fixed  on  the  slide-rod  //,  to 
■work.  Uie  hides,  &c. 


i,  <:utters,  or  grating,  to  receive  the  bark 
for  rhopping. 

The  beam  P,  with  knives  or  cutters,  may 
either  be  worked  by  tapers,  as  described,  or 
by  the  bevil-wheel  '1",  with  a  crank,  as  ^',  to 
cut  the  same  as  shears. 

^  he  knife./'  is  fixed  at  the  bottom  of  tin- 
start,  which  is  fixed  on  the  slide-rod/*;  the 
bolloni  of  the  start  is  split  open  to  admit  the 
kiiiie,  the  width  of  one  toot ;  the  knife  sliou'd 
have  a  gudgeon  at  each  ^•ni\,  to  n\  in  the 
open  part  of  the  start ;  and  the  two  springs  n, 
a,  prevent  the  knife  from  giving  too  much 
way  when  w  orkiiig  ;  the  knife  should  be  one 
foot  long,  and  four  or  iive  inches  broad. 

The  arch-head  <  will  shift  nearer  to,  or  fur- 
ther fron,  the  beam  //  ;  and  will  be  lixed  so 
as  to  carry  the  knife  back  as  far  as  is  wanted, 
or  it  may  be  taken  awf.y  till  wanted. 

'i'iie  roller  /  is  taken  up  by  pulling  at  the 
handle  ;;;,  whirl)  takes  up  the  siide-rod  so 
high  as  to  give  iiead-room  nnder  the  beam- 
knife.  The  handle  may  be  hung  upon  a 
hook  for  that  purpose.  The  s'.ide-rod  will 
keep  running  upon  the  ro'.ler  all  tlie  time  the 
hide  is  shifting;  and  when  the  hide  is  fixed 
the  knife  is  put  on  the  beam  again  by  letting 
it  down  by  theliand!e«(.  There  may  be  two 
or  more  knives  at  work  on  one  beam  at  the 
sam.?  time,  by  having  dilferent  slide-rods. 
T  here  should  be  two  beams,  so  that  iIk;  work- 
men could  be  shitting  one  hide,  &c.  while  the 
otl.-er  was  working.  The  beam  must  be  Ihit, 
and  a  little  on  the  incline.  As  to  the  breadth 
it  docs  not  matter;  the  broader  it  is  the  less 
sliifting  of  the  hides  will  be  wanted,  as  the  le- 
ver c  w  ill  shii't  them  as  far  as  the  wii.tii  of  tin- 
hide,  if  required.  Mr.  ISagnall  has  lormed  a 
kind  of  jiress  d,  to  let  down,  by  a  lever,  to 
hold  the  hide  fast  on  eacli  side  of  the  knife,  if 
required,  so  that  it  will  sulfer  the  knile  to 
make  its  back  stroke  without  pulling  the  hide 
up  as  it  conies  back.  The  slide-rod  may  be 
weighted,  to  cause  the  knife  to  lay  stress  on 
the  hide,  &c.  according  to  the  kind  aud  con- 
dition of  the  goods  to  be  worked. 

Ilid-esand  skins  for  the  skinne-r's   use  are 
worked  in  the  same  «ay  as  for  the  tanners. 

.Scouring  of  tanned  leather  for  the  currier's 
use  will  be  done  on  tiie  beam,  the  same  as 
wo;-king  green  hides.  It  is  only  taking  the 
knife  away,  and  fixing  a  ^tone  in  the  sae.ie 
manner  as  the  knife  by  the  said  joint,  and  to 
have  a  brush  fixed  to  go  either  before  or  after 
tiie  stone.  Tiie  leather  wi'l  be  better  secured 
.  this  -ivay  than  by  hand,  and  much  sooner. 

The  whole  machinery  may  be  worked  by 
water,  wind,  steam,  or  any  other  power. 
And  that  jiart  of  the  machinery  which  relates 
to  the  beaming  part  of  tlie  hides  may  be  fixed 
to  any  horse  b.'rk-niill,  or  may  be  worked  by 
a  horse,  or  other  power,  separatily.  bee 
Gregory's  valuable  work  on  .Mechanics,  to 
which  weha\e  been  indebted  for  this  p.ut  ot 
the  present  article  and  some  others,  p.uticu- 
iarly  the  table  of  specilic  gravities  in  vol.  I. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  Mr.  Ter- 
ry's improved  mill  for  grinding  hard  sub- 
stances :  Fig.  6,  A,  is  the  hopper ;  B,  a  spi- 
r.\l  wire,  in  the  form  of  a  reversed  cone,  to 
regulate  the  delivery  of  the  articles  to  he 
ground  ;  C,  an  inqjined  iron  plate,  hung  up:>n 
a  pin  on  its  higher  end  :  Ihir  lower  end  rests 
on  thr-  grooved  axis  D,  and  agitates  the  wire 
B;  D  i»  the  grinding  cylinder,  which  acts 
against  the  channelcci  iron  plate  K  \  V,  a 
screw  oji  llie  side  of  tin-  mill,  by  mcajiS  of 


which  th'j  iron  plate  E  is  brought  nearer  to, 
or  removed  farther  from,  (he  a.x  3  D,  accord- 
nig  as  the  article  is  w:uited  liner  or  coarser  f 
G,  the  handle  by  which  motion  is  given  to  the 
axis  ;  11,  the  tube  whence  the  articles,  when 
ground,  are  received. 

Mill  Jfir  ifrindiiipr  cnloiirx.  A  machine 
of  this  kmd  was  invented  a  few  years  ago  by 
Mr.  Hawlinson,  for  which  he  was  prcsentcil 
with  the  gold  medal  by  tlie  society  for  the 
encouragi-uv.  lit  of  arts,"  mannfawtures,  Stc. 
the  description  of  which  is  as  follows  : 

A,  fig.  7,  is  the  roller,  or  cylinder,  made 
of  marble  ;  1!  is  t'le  concave  muller,  co.erin'» 
one- third  of  the  roller  of  the  same  niarbie, 
and  is  fixed  in  a  woodi-n  frame  h,  which  ij 
hung  to  llie  frame  F.,  at  (7.  C  ib  a  piece  of 
iron  about  an  inc  li  broad,  to  keep  the  mulkr 
steady,  and  is  fixed  to  the  frame  with  a  joint 
at/'.  'I'he  small  b  ndino;  screw,  wiili  the  tiv- 
iiut  that  passes  tiirough  the  centre  of  the  ii-cjii 
plate  at  c,  is  for  the  purpose  of  la\ing  more 
pressure  on  the  muller,  if  reiiuin'rd,  and  I* 
keep  it  more  steady.  I)  is  a  taker-olF,  made 
of  a  clock-spring,  about  half  an  ii;ch  broad, 
and  fixed  to  a  similar  frame-saw,  in  an  irin 
irame  K,  in  an  inclined  position  to  the  roller, 
and  turning  on  pivots  jit  d:L  G  is  a  sHile- 
board,  to  draw  out  occasionally,  to  clean,  and 
to  sustain  the  plate  li,  to  ca"tch  the  colour 
on  as  it  falls  from  the  laker-iiif.  F  is  a  drawer, 
for  the  purpose  of  containing  cuniers'  shav- 
ings, which  are  the  be^t  thuigs  for  cieaiiinjy 
paint-mills. 

Vv  e  shall  now  add  an  account  of  an  im- 
proved mill  lor  grinding  inchgo,  or  other  dry 
colon;  s.     L,  fig.  8,  rejiresents  a  mortar  made 
of  hard  maruU,  or  haid  stone;  M,  a  muller, 
nearly  in    the  torin  of  a  pear,  in  tlie  upper 
part  of  which  an  iron   axis  is  firmly  fixed  ; 
wlii^h  axis,  at  the  paas  NN,  turns  in'grooves 
or  slits,   cut  ill  two  pieces  of  oak,   projectino- 
horizoutally  Ironi  a  w  all ;  and  wlien  the  axis, 
is  at  w  ork,  it  is  secured  in  the  grooves  by  iron 
pins,  OO.     P,  the  handle,  which  forms  part 
ot   the  axis,  and  by    which   the   grinder  is 
Morkc-d.     (-),  the  w'all,    in    which    thi;   oak 
pieces,  NN,  are  fixed.     R,  a  weight,  which 
iiiay  oi-casioiially   be  i'.dded,  if  more  power 
is  wanted.     Fig.' 9  shews  the  muller,  with  its 
axi.s,  se))arale  Irom  the  other  machinery  ;  iis 
botloH;  siiould  be  made  to  fit  the  mortar.     S 
is  a  groove  cut  through  the  stone.     The  io- 
digo,  i;c.  to  be  ground,  is  thiown  above  the 
inuller  into  the  mortar  ;  on  turning  the  han- 
dle tlie  lumps  fall  into  the  groove  cut  through 
the  muller,  and  are  thence'clrawn  under  its  ac- 
tion, and  driven  to  the  outer  edge  wjtliin  the 
mortar,    from  whence  the  coarser   pai tides 
again  (all  into  the  groove  of  the  muller,  and 
are  again  g. ound  under  it.    A  wooden  cover, 
in  two  halves,  with  a  hole  for  the  axis,   is 
usually  placed  upon  the  mortar,  during  the 
operation,  to  prevent  loss  of  colour,  or   bad 
cdect  to  the  cjperator. 

Mill,  Foot,  is  a  mill  for  grinding  corn  or 
any  other  substance,  moved  by  the  pressure 
of  the  feet  of  men  or  animals.  In  some  foot- 
mills  a  liorse  or  an  ox  is  fixed  to  a  stall  upon  a 
floor  above  a  vertical  wheel ;  and  a  hole  is 
made  in  the  lloor  in  the  place  where  the  hind 
leit  of  the  animal  should  stand  ;  thus  ad- 
mitting those  feet  to  press  upon  the  rim  of  a 
"heel,  and  cause  Lli<- wheel  to  turn  upon  its 
axle,  and  give  motion  to  the  whole  mill,  [hit 
in  this  kiiicl  of  machine  the  animal  will  l>e 
obliged  vciy   unnaturally  to  move  his  hin^l 


.Mil,  1,-^V'O  U  K  . 


M  I  M 

fret  wliile  his  fore  fict  will  be  at  rest ;  and 
f.irtiicr  Ml  •  niolive  force  being  applied  i)rar 
til'-  vrricx  of  ill'' vvlipi'l  \v:li  act  btil  witl;  I'Kle 
a  Ivaiili.g-  ;  and  the  work  done  will  be  coiu- 
par.ilivflv  trilling. 

//«/!>'.'- Ml!  L,  or  hnrsc-mill,  is  tlv.it  worl.ed 
Iiy  (lie  hand,  or  by  horiw,  <Wc.  'I'lu-re  is  a 
I  'n;;  biMiii  or  levi-'r  l".)r  moving  it,  so  attaciieil 
t'l.il  it  may  receive  many  nieu  or  hor.-es,  to 
(liivf  st-veral  mi!!s  at  oiici-.  Thfre  is  llit 
cog-\vh<;i-l,  placed  liortzonlally,  with  pins 
fixed,  not  on  its  plane,  hut  on  the  ontside,  at 
t!i  ■  circunilvreiice  of  the  joints.  'J'herc  are 
also  tlie  triiiidl.-hv-ad,  the  snpporl.'the  iron 
axis,  and  (he  drum  where  tlu-  mill-stones 
are  inclosed. 

MILLKNAIU.WS,  or  C'iiii,r.i:sTs,  a 
name  given  to  tiiose  who,  in  the  [iriraitive 
i'.^.-i,  belli  vetJ  tl'.at  the  saints  will  one  day 
rei'jjn  on  earth  with  Jisiis  Christ  a  thousand 
years. 

MTLLEPES.    See  Oniscus. 

MILT.KHOKA.  See  Madrkpore,  7oo- 
PHiTEs,  and  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  hgs.2(56,  'J67. 

Mll.I.l'.HIA,  a  genus  of  the  syngenesis 
polvg.iniianeces-aria  class  of  plants,  the  coni- 
])ound  nouer  of  which  is  radiated  ;  thi.-re  is 
scarcely  any  visible  rocq'ftacle  oflheseed>, 
which  are  single  after  each  particular  llowci-, 
and  have  no  p.ippus  or  tlown.  There  arc 
three  species. 

MILLET.      Sec   ^^ILLruM,   and   Pani- 

CUM. 

Millet-grass.     See  Milium. 

>[ILLING.    See  Fulling. 

MIMOSA,  the  ■leniilivcpl-iiil,  z  gemrs  of 
the  polvgamia  order,  in  the  n)o:io-cia  class  ol 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
»nuh-r  tlie  33d  order,  lomentace.e.  The  lier- 
map'irodite  caly.\  is  quiniiuedentate  ;  the  co- 
rolla qu!n;|uetid  ;  there  are  live  or  more  sta- 
mina, one  pistil,  and  a  legumen ;  the  m.ile 
calyx  is  quinqnedenlate ;  the  corolla  ([uin- 
qiielid,  with  live,  ten,  or  more  stamina. 

The  name  mimosa  signifies  "  mimic  ;"and 
is  given  to  tnis  genus  on  account  of  the  sen- 
Eihility  of  the  leaves,  which,  by  their  motion, 
mimic  or  imitate  tiie  ni  ition  of  animals.  'I'iiij 
genus  tomjirises  8.)  different  species,  all  n  •- 
t;vi-s  of  warm  climates.  Of  the  sorts  cult;- 
\a;cd  !)■  re  in  our  stoves,  &c.  some  are  of  tlie 
shrub  and  tree  kind,  and  two  or  thr,  e  arc 
herbaceous  perennials  and  annuals.  Th.? 
sensitive  kinds  are  exceedingly  curious. plants 
in  the  very  singular  circumstance  of  liieir 
leaves  receding  rapidly  from  the  touch,  an  J 
running  up  close  together  :  and  in  some  sorts 
the  footstalks  and  all  are  aifected,  to  as  in- 
stantly to  fall  downward  as  if  fastened  by 
hinges,  which  last  are  called  humble  sen>i- 
tives.  'I'hey  have-  all  winged  leaves,  each 
wing  consisting  of  many  small  pinn;u.  Tiie 
following  are  the  most  rema-kable: 

1.  The  sensitiva,  or  common  sensitive  himi- 
ble  plant,  rises  with  an  under-?hrubbv  pricklv 
stem,  branching  six  or  eigl-.t  feet  high,  armi-d 
with  crooked  spines ;  conjugated,  pinnated 
leave-,  with  bijugatcd  partial  lobes  or  wings, 
having  the  inner  ones  the  least,  each  leaf  on  a 
long  footstalk  ;  and  at  the  sides  and  ends  of 
the  branches  many  purple  liowers  in  roundish 
heads;  succeeded  by  broad,  flat,  jointed 
pods,  in-radiated  clusters.  This  is  somewhat 
of  the  humble  sensitive  kind;  the  leaves, 
footstalks  and  allj  receding  fivm  the  touch, 


M  I  M 

tho'igh  net  with  such  facility  as  in  some  of  the 
following  sorts. 

2.  'I'he  pudica,  or  basliful  humble  pl,c;t. 
rises  with  an  under-shrubby,  didlui'ate.l, 
prickly  stem,  branching  two  or  thiec  feet 
round,  armed  with  hairy  spines.  Ti-.is  is 
truly  of  the  humble  sensitive  Iviiid  ;  for  l)y  ti-.e 
least  touch  the  leaves  instantly  recede,  c  )n- 
tract,  clo.se,  and,  togeth.-r  with  the  footstalk, 
quickly  d-cline  downward,  as  if  ashanied  at 
the  aj)pruach  of  the  hand. 

3.  'i  he  perjiambuca,  or  i)ernambu<;a  slo'h- 
fi.l  mimoia,  recedes  very  slowly  from  tlie 
touch,  only  contracting  its  pinns  a  little 
when  smartly  touched :  hence  the  name  sloth- 
ful mimosa. 

4.  'i"he  aspi-rata,  or  Panama  sensiti  e  pl.mt, 
seliom  ris;,s  above  tiirec  feet  in  helLdit ;  but 
its  slender  branches  extend  coiisiderahlv  on 
tiie  neighbouring  buslies.  It  is  armed  with 
crooked  sharp  sphies,  sn  thickly  set  on  t  e  i 
trt!nk,  brandies,  and  leaves,  that  there  is  no 
loucliing  it  with  safety.  But  the  plant  has  a 
be:util'ul  appearance  ;  the  (lowers  are  yellow 
and  globular,  growing  at  the  extremity  of  the 
branches.  The  pods  are  hairy,  brown,  and 
jointed  ;  each  containing  a  small,  fiat,  and 
brown  seed.  The  leaves  are  numerou-,  small, 
and  winged  -.  next  to  those  of  the  mimosa  pu- 
dica they  are  the  most  iirilable;  CJiniactiiigi 
w  Itli  the  least  touch,  and  remaining  so  for  se-  \ 
xeral  minutes  after.  This  species  would  form 
a  good  hedge  or  fence  round  a  garden. 

5.  The  punct.ita,  or  punctated  sensitive 
min)osa,  rises  with  a  shrubby,  upright,  taper, 
spotted,  unarmed  st.-in,  branching  erectly 
live  or  six  feet  high  ;  bipinnated  leaves,  of 
'our  or  five  pair  of  long  winged  folioles,  hav- 
ing each  about  20  pair  of  pinns ;  and  at  the 
axillas  and  termination  of  tlie  branches  ob- 
long spikes  of  yellowish  decandruous  (lowers, 
the  interior  ones  castrated;  succeeded  above 
by  oblong  seed-pods.  This  sort,  tho'  imturally 
sliri'bby  and  perennial  in  its  native  soil,  vet 
in  this  country  sometimes  decays  ia  winter. 
Ft  is  only  sensitive  in  the  foliola,  but  quick  in 
tlie  motion. 

6.  The  viva,  lively  mimosa,  or  smallest 
sensitive  weed,  has  many  creeping  routs,  and 
spreads  iiseh  so  as  to  cover  large  spots  of 
rfround.  It  rises  at  most  to  two  ir.ches,  and  has 
winged  leaves,  with  numerous  smad  pinine. 
i'he  flower  is  globular,  of  a  biuei^h  colour, 
and  grows  in  clusters  from  the  axilliv :  these 
are  followed  by  little,  short,  hairy  pods,  con- 
laining  smooth  shining  sei'ds.  This  is  the 
most  sensible  of  all  the  mimosas,  the  [Uidica 
not  excepted.  Hy  running  a  stick  over  tlie 
plant,  a  person  may  write  his  name,  and  it 
will  remain  visible  for  ten  minutes. 

7.  The  quadrivalvis,  perennial,  or  quadri- 
valve  humble  mimosa,  has  lied)aceous,  slen- 
der, quadrangular,  prickly  stems,  branching 
and  spreading  all  around,  armed  with  recurv- 
ed spines;  bipinnated  leaves  of  two  or  three 
pair  of  winged  lobes,  having  each  many  pin- 
n;c ;  and  at  the  axillas  globular  heads  of 
purple  (lowers,  succeeded  by  quadrivalvular 
pods.  This  is  of  the  humble  si-nsilivc  kind, 
iioth  leaves  and  footstalks  receding  from  the 
touch. 

8.  The  plena,  annual,  or  double-tlowered 
sensitive  mimosa,  rises  with  an  herbaceous, 
erect,  n  mid,  unarmed  st.'iii,  closely  branch- 
ing and  sjireading  every  way,  three  or  four 
feet  high ;  bipinnated  leaver  of  four  or  live 
pair  of  winijed  lobes,  of  inauy  pairs  of  pin- 


M  I  M 


197 


n3c ;  and  at  the  axillas  and  termination  of  tiie 
branches,  spikes  of  yellow  penlaiidrous  flow- 
ers, tile  low-.-r  ones  doubl  ■,  suirci'eded  by 
short  broad  po'Is.  This  an..u:d  is  only  sensi- 
tive ill  till  loliola,  but  extremely  seiibibic  of 
the  l«i:chorair. 

9.  The  coriiigcra,  or  h'  rned  Mexican  mi- 
mosa, commonly  called  great  horreil  acacia, 
has  a  shrubby,  upright,  il-i  rined  -.tein, 
brandling  irregularly,  armed  witli  veiy  large 
horn-like  w  liite  spines,  by  pairs,  connected  at 
the  base ;  bipinnated  leaves  thin'y  placed ; 
an. I  (lowers  growing  in  sp'kes.  Tins  species 
is  esteemed  a  curiosity  for  the  oddity  of  its 
large  spines,  rcscmbiing  the  horns  of  animals, 
and  which  are  often  variously  wreathed, 
twisted,  and  contorted. 

10.  Tlie  fifrne^iana,  or  fragrant  acacia, 
grows  in  woodlands  and  waste  lands  in  most 
pai  ti  of  Jamaica  ;  rising  to  2j  or  30  feet,  with 
stiitable  thickness.  T'oniierly  the  flowers  of 
this  tree  were  used  as  an  ingredient  in  the 
theriaca  andromachi  of  the  ohl  dispensatories. 
'1-he  tree  is  sometimes  planted  for  a  hedge  or 
fence  round  inclostires  ;  and  the  timber, 
though  small,  is  useful  in  rural  economy. 

li.  The  arborca,  or  wild  tamarind-tree,  is 
common  in  all  tiie  woodlands,  and  especially 
near  v.  here  settlements  have  been  made,  lit 
Jamaica.  It  rises  to  a  considerable  height, 
and  i-  proportioiiably  tliick.  The  timber  is 
excellent,  and  serves  many  purposes  in  rural 
economy  :  it  is  of  the  colour  of  cedar,  prelly 
hard,  and  takes  a  good  polish.  The  leaves 
are  numerous ;  the  (lowers  globular  and 
white.  The  pods  are  about  a  foot  in  length, 
ol  a  line  scarlet  colour  ;  when  tiiev  are  ripe 
they  open  and  become  twisted.  ^Llie  seeds 
then  appear. 

12.  'i  he  latifolia,  shag-bark,  or  white  wild 
tamarind.  This  excellent  timber-tree  is  very 
common  in  Jamaica,  and  rises  to  a  moderate 
height  and  good  thickness.  The  truiik  is 
rough  and  scaly  :  the  leaves  are  numerous, 
of  a  rhomboidal  (igure,  and  yellowish  cast. 
The  (lower-spikes  are  (rom  the  axilla-;  their 
colour  is  yellow.  The  seed-vessels  are  flat, 
jointed,  and  twisted.  The  seeds  are  of  the 
tiij;ness  of  a  vetch,  white,  and  finely  streaked 
with  t>lue. 

13.  The  lebcck,  or  ebony-tree.  This  is  a 
native  ot  the  East  Indies,  but  raised  from  seeds 
in  Jamaica  and  St.  \'incent's. 

14.  The  scanden'',  cacoons,  or  mafootoo 
wylli,  is  lieqiieiit  in  all  the  upland  valleys 
aiid  v.oodUuKis  on  the  north  side  of  Jamaica. 
It  climbs  up  the  tallest  trees,  and  spreads  It- 
self in  every  direction  by  means  of  its  cirrhi, 
or  claspers,  so  as  to  form  a  complete  arbour, 
and  to  cover  the  space  of  an  English  acre 
liom  one  root.  This  circumstance  has  a  bad 
eliect  on  the  trees  or  bushes  so  shaded ; 
light,  air,  and  rain,  (so  necessary  for  all 
plants,)  being  shut  out,  the  leave?  drop  otf, 
the  tree  grackially  rots,  and  the  limbs  fall 
down  by  the  weight  of  this  parasite. 

The  roots  of  this  plant  run  super(icially 
under  the  ground  or  herbage.  1  he  trunk  is 
seldom  thicker  than  a  man's  thigh  ;  and  sends 
olf  many  branche-;,  with  numerous  shining 
green  leaves,  each  of  which  terminates  in  a 
tendril  or  clasper,  that  serves  to  fast  n  it  to 
trees  or  bushes.  The  (lower-spikes  are  from 
the  axillx  :  they  are  slender,  and  the  florets 
on  them  small  and  numerous.  The  pod  is 
perhaps  the  largest  and  longest  in  the  worhl  ; 
being  sometimes  eight  or  nine  feet  in  lengjji. 


1£^  M    J    M 

■  '■■  !'.;:■;  ijiead,  jointwl,  and  eontaining  10 
mIs.  Tlvjie  seeds  aic  brown,  sliiiiing, 
d,  and  very  hard,  and  called  cacooiv?. 
,e  the  same  a»  iiieiitioiu'd  in  th?  Philo- 
i  'rraii^aclioii":,  No.  '.'2-2.  p;iL".''?!)S,  by 
wr  iicms  Sl:«iie,  ai  b^-inq;  Ihvowi; 
tiie  Hebrides  and  Orkneys. 

This  bean,  after  being  lonjrsoaUeil  in  v,;;- 
ter,  is  boiled  and  eaten  by  sonit  negroes ; 
but,  in  general,  there  seenis  to  be  no  other 
tise  made  ot  it  than  asasart  ofsniilV-box.  _ 

13.  The  catechu,  aLcording  to  Mc.  Ker 
(iled.  Obs.  and  Im)u:r.  vol.  v.  p.  151,  &c.), 
grows  only  to  I'J  fet-t  in  iK'ight,  and  to  one 
loot  in  diameter;  it  is  cbvereJ  Avith  a  thick, 
rongh,  brown  bzrk,  and  towjards  tlie  top  di- 
vides into  many  close  brandies:  tlie  leaves 
are  bipimiatcd,'  or  doubly  winged,  and  are 
placed  ■a'.lornaulynpo'n  the  Voiuigerbranches: 
the  pjrtial  pinnie  are  nearly  two  inches  long, 
and  are  commonly  from  15  to  30  pair,  hav- 
ing full  glar.ds  inserted  between  the  pinna? : 
«aeh  wing  is  nsualU'  furnished  with  about  40 
pair  of  pinnulx>,  or  linear  lob?>,  beset  with 
sliort  hairs:  the  spines  are  short.  -From  this 
tree,  which  grows  |5lentifully  on  tlie  moun- 
tainous parts  of  Iiiilostan,  where  it  flowers  in 
June,  is  produced  tiie  officinal  drug  long 
known  in  Europe  by  the  name  of  terra  japo- 
'.nica. 

l6.  The  nilotica,  or  true  Egyptian  acacia, 
vises  to  a  greater  height  than  the  preceding. 
T!ie  fruit  is  a  long  pod,  resembling  that  of 
the  lupin,  and  contains  many  lliittish  brown 
seeds.  It  is  a  native  of  Arabia  and  Egypi, 
.and  flowers  in  July.  Although  the  mimosa 
nilotica  grows  in  great  abundance  over  the 
vast  extent  of  Africa,  yet  gum  arabic  is  pro- 
duced chiefly  by  those  trees  which  are  si- 
tuated near  the  equatorial  regions ;  and  w  e 
are  told  that  in  Lower  Egypt  the  solar  heat 
is  never  sufficiently  intense  for  this  puq>tise. 
The  gum  exudes  in  a  liquid  state  fiom  the 
bark  of  the  trunk  and  branches  of  the  tree,  'n 
a  similar  manner  to  the  gum  vhich  is  often 
produced  v:poii  the  cherry-trees,  &c.  in  tliis 
countrv ;  and  by  exposure  to  the  air  it  soon 
acquires  solidity  and  hardness.  In  Senegal 
the  gum  begins  to  flow  when  tlie  tree  first 
«pens  its  ilowers ;  and  continncs  durijig  the 
-rainy  season  till  the  mo:ith  of  December, 
wheii  it  is  collected  for  l!ie  first  time.  An- 
other collection  of  the-  gum  is  made  in  the 
month  of  Marcli,  from  incisions  in  the  bark, 
which  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  air  at  that 
time  is  saitl  to  render  necessary.  G  um  ara- 
bic is  now  usually  imported  into  England 
from  Rarijary,  in  large  casks  or  hogsheads. 
The  comm.)n  appearance  of  this  gum  is  well 
known  ;  and  the  various  figures  whicli  it  as- 
sumes seem  to  depend  upon  a  variety  of  ac- 
cidental circumstances  attending  its  transu- 
dation and  concretion.  Gum  arabic  of  a  pale 
yellowish  colour  is  most  esteemed  ;  on  the 
contrary,  those  ])ieces  which  are  large,  rough, 
of  a  roundish  figure,  and  of  a  brownish  or 
reddish  hue,  are  found  to  be  less  pure,  and 
are  said  to  be  produced  from  a  different  spe- 
cies of  miinosa  ;  but  the  .Vrabiiui  and  Egyp- 
tian gum  is  commonly  intermixed  with  pieces 
of  this  kind,  smilar  to  that  which  comes 
from  the  coast  of  Africa  near  the  river  Sene- 
gal. 

Cium  arabic  does  not  admit  of  solution  bv 
spirit  or  eil ;  but  in  twice  its  quantity  of  water 
it  dissolves  into  a  mucilaginous  Ihnd,  of  the 
consistence  of  a  thick  syrup  ;    and   in  this 


TNI  I  N 

*^al:e  answers  many  useful  pharmaceutical 
Purposes,  by  rendering  oily,  resinous,  and 
pinguious  substances,  niiscible- with  water. 
The  glutinous  iiuality  of  gum  arabic  is  pre- 
ferred to  most  other  gums  and  mucilajinoiis 
substances,  as  a  demulcent  in  coughs,  hoarse- 
nesses, and  otlier  catarrhal  affections,  in  or- 
der to  obtund  irritating  acrimonious  humoi;rs-, 
and  to  su|>i;ly  the  loss  of  ubradetl  mucus.  It 
has  iiceii  very  generally  employed  in  cases 
of  ardor  urins  and  strangury  ;  but  it  is  tlie 
opinion  of  Or.  Cullen,  "that  even  this  mu- 
cilage, as  ari'intcrnal  (iemvdcent,  can  be  of  no 
service  beyond  the  alimentary  canal." 

17.  The  Senegal  is  a  native  of  Guinea,  and 
was  some  time  ago  introduced  into  Jamaica. 
The  flowers  are  globular,  yellow,  and  fra- 
grant. The  pods  are  brown,  and  of  (lie  size 
of  a  goose-quill.  Tiic  tree,  on  being  wound- 
e<l,  e.xudes  gura  arabic,  tliough  in  less  qu:in- 
lity,  and  less  transparent,  than  that  of  the 
shops,  which  is  obtained  from  the  nilctica 
above  described. 

There  are  above  40  otiier  species  charac- 
terised in  the  Systema  Vegetabilium. 

MI.Ml'LUS,  mnnkci/  Jloi^er,  a  genus  of 
the  didvnamia  angiospermia  class  of  plants, 
with  double  stigmata,  and  a  ringent  mono- 
petalous  iiow  er  ;  the  fruit  is  a  biloeular  cap- 
sule, with  several  seeds  in  each  cell.  There 
are  time  species. 

MIMUsOP.S,  a  genus  of  theoctandria  mo- 
uogynia  class  of  plants,  the  coiolla  of  which 
consists  of  eight  petals ;  and  its  fruit  is  a 
drupe.  There  ai"e  tliree  species,  trees  of  the 
East  Indies. 

MINA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a  money  of 
account,  etjual  to  a  hundred  drachms. 

WINE,  a  deep  ])it  under  ground,  whence 
various  kinds  of  minerals  are  dug  out ;  but 
the  term  is  more  particularly  applied  to  those 
wliich  yield  metals.  Where  stones  only  are 
procured,  tlie  appellation  of  quarries  is  uni- 
versallv  bestowed  upon  the  places  from  which 
thev  are  dug  out,  however  deep  they  mav 
be.' 

The  internal  parts  of  the  earth,  as  far  as 
they  have  been  yet  investigated,  do  not  con- 
sist of  one  uniform  substance,  but  of  various 
strata  or  beds  of  substances,  extremely  dif- 
ferent in  their  appearances,  specific  gravities, 
and  chemical  qualities,  from  one  another. 
Neither  are  these  strata  similar  to  one  an- 
other, cither  in  their  nature  or  appearance, 
in  diti'erent  couiUiies;  so  that,  even  in  tlie 
short  extent  of  half  a  mile,  the  strata  will  be 
found  (]uite  ditferent  from  what  they  are  in 
another  place.  As  little  are  they  the  same 
either  in  depth  or  solidity.  Innumerable 
cracks  and  fissures,  by  the  minors  called 
lodes,  are  found  in  every  one  of  them  ;  but 
these  are  so  entirely  dilierent  in  size  and 
shape,  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  inference 
from  theirsize  in  one  place  to  that  in  another. 
In  lliese  lodes  or  Assures  the  metallic  ore  is 
met  with  ;  and,  considering  the  great  uncer- 
tainty of  the  dimensions  of  the  lodes,  it  is 
evident  that  the  business  of  mining,  wliich 
depends  on  that  size,  must  in  like  manner  be 
quite  uncertain  and  precarious. 

The  insides  of  the  fissures  are  commonly 
coated  over  with  a  hard,  ci^stalline,  earthy 
substance  or  rind,  which  very  often,  in  the 
breaking  of  hard  ore,  conies  off  along  witli 
it ;  and  is  commonly  called  the  capels  or 
walls  of  the  lode. 

The  breadth  of  a  lode  is  ea?ily  known  by 


M  I  N 

the  distance  betwixt  the  two  incrustcd  sid-  ' 
of  the  stones  of  ore;  and  if  a  lode  yit!':> 
any  kind  of  ore,  it  is  a  better  sign  that  ll.e 
walls  are  regular  and  smooth,  or  at  least  tl  l 
one  of  them  is  so,  than  otherwise  ;  but  thei  • 
are  not  many  of  tbeee  (issui-ts  which  have  ii  ■ 
gular  walls  until  they  have  been  sunk  do.:i 
some  fathoms.  ' 

Thus  the  inner  part  of  tlie  fissure  in  wLi.  !, 
the  ore  lies  is  all  the  way  bounded  by  Iv  j 
walls  of  stone,  wljicli  are  generally  para!!-  : 
to  one  anotlier,  and  include  the  breadth.' 
the  vein  or  lode.  AVJiatever  angle  ofinci;- 
nation  some  fissures  make  in  the  solid  slia'  : 
at  their  beginning,  they  generally  continue  to 
ilo  the  same  all  along,  boii.e  are  very  iiiicei  - 
tain  in  their  breadth,  as  they  may  be  small  - 1 
tiieir  upper  part  and  wide  underneath-;  ai  1 
vice  veisa.  Their  regular  breadtii,  as  well  a ; 
their  depth,  is  subject  to  great  variation  ; 
lor  though  a  fissure  may  be  many  failioi.^s 
wide  in  one  particular  place,  yet  a  litlle  fa- 
ther east  or  west  it  may  not  perhaps  be  o:..; 
inch  wide.  Tliis  excessive  variation  happen* 
generally  in  very  compact  strata,  whea  (i. ; 
vein  or  fissure  is  squeezed,  in  a  ir.anr.er, 
thiough  hard  rocks  wfucli  seem  to  compress 
and  straiten  it.  A  true  vein  or  fissure,  ho\.  - 
ever,  is  never  entirely  obliterated,  but  alw;;  , 
shews  a  string  of  metallic  ore,  or  of  a  vei;  ■ 
substance;  wliich  often  serves  as  a  leader  •  ■ 
the  miners  to  follow,  until  it' sometimes  Icr.di 
them  to  a  large  and  richly  impregnated  part. 
Their  length  is,  in  a  great  ineasii re,  unli- 
mited, though  not  the  space  best  fitted  for 
)  ielding  metal.  The  richest  state  for  copper 
IS  from  40  to  80  fathoms  deep  ;  for  tin,  from 
i'O  to  60 ;  and  though  a  great  quality  of 
either  may  be  raised  at  SO  or  100  fathoms, 
yet  "  the  quantty  is  often  too  much  decaved 
and  dry  for  metal." 

1  he  fissures  or  veins  of  the  Cornisli  mines 
extend  from  E.  to  W. ;  or,  more  properly, 
one  end  of  the  fissure  points  W.  and  by  rf.,  or 
W.  and  by  N.,  while  the  other  trends  E.  and 
by  S.  or  E.  and  by  N.  Thus  they  fre- 
quently pa^s  through  a  considerable  tract  of 
country  with  very  few  variations  in  their  di- 
rections, unless  they  are  interrupted  by  some 
intervening  cause.  But,  besides  this  east  and 
west  direction,  we  are  to  consider  what  the 
miners  call  the  underlying,  or  hade,  of  tlie 
vein  or  lode,  viz.  the  deflection  or  deviation 
of  the  fissure  from  its  perpendicular  line,  as  it 
is  followed  in  depth  like  the  slope  of  the  roof 
of  a  house,  or  the  descent  of  the  steep  side  of 
a  hill.  I'his  slope  is  generally  to  the,  north  or 
south  ;  but  varies  much  in  different  veins,  or 
sometimes  even  in  the  same  vein:  for  it  will 
freep.iently  slope  or  underlie  a  small  space  in 
ditiercnl  ways,  as  it  may  appear  to  be  forced 
.by  hard  strata  on  either  side.  Some  of-  the 
li^sures  do  not  vary  iii<!ch  from  a  perpendi- 
cular, while  some  deviate  more  than  a  fa- 
thom ;  that  is,  for  ("very  fathom  they  descend 
in  perpendicular  height,  they  deviate  like- 
wise as  much  to  the  south  or  iimth.  Others 
dilt'er  so  much  from  the  jjerpendicular  that 
they  assume  a  position  almost  horizontal ; 
whence  they  are  also  called  horizontal  or  flat 
lodes,  and  sometimes  lode-plots.  Another 
kind  of  these  has  an  irregular  position  with 
regard  to  the  rest,  widening  horizontally 
lor  a  litlle  way,  and  then  descending  perpen- 
dicularly almost  like  stairs,  with  only  a  small 
string  or  leader  to  follow  after;  and  thus  they 
tilteniately  vary,  and  yield  ore  in  several  Hat 


or  horizontal  (i^surfs.  Tliis,  by  tlu;  Cornish 
tinners,  is  called  a  floor  or  stuiat  ;  which, 
properly  speaking,  is  a  holeor  cha^ni  im- 
jjrfcgnalVd  wilh  nictal,  making  no  continued 
lineot  dirucUon  or  n^giilar  walls.  Nciliu-r 
tloes  a  Hour  of  ore  descend  to  any  consider- 
able depth ;  tor  underneath  it  there  appears 
tio  sii^n  i)f  a  vein  or  lissure,  either  leadnig  d.i- 
rectly  down,  or  any  ether  way.  This  kind 
of  vein  is  very  rare'  in  nritain.  The  lissurcs 
most  common  in  Tiritain  are  the  pcr|.emlicu- 
lar  and  inclined,  whetli;  r  tlielr  direction  is 
nortli  or  south,  east  or  west. 

'i'he  perjjendicular  and  horizontal  fissures 
probably  remain  little  altered  from  their  lirsl 
position",  when  they  were  formed  at  the  indu- 
ration of  the  strata  immediately  after  the  wa- 
ters left  the  land.  The  perpemVicular  hssures 
are  found  more  conunonly  situated  in  level 
ground,  at  a  distance  from  hills,  and  from  the 
sea-shore;  but  with  regard  to  the  latter,  we 
tind  that  (he  upper  and  under  masses  of  strata 
dill'er  hi  tlieir  solidity  and  other  prop.rties. 
"  Hence  it  is  very  plain  that  inclined  lis- 
sures  owe  their  delleclion  or  underlie  to  some 
secondary  ^anse,  violence,  or  subsidence  of 
the  earth  ;  lor  though  perpendicular  fissures 
are  seldom  to  be  seen,  yet  such  as  are  in- 
clined at  very  considerable  depths  become 
more  and  more  perpendicular,  as  the  more 
central  strata,  from  the  vast  superincimibent 
weight,  do  not  seem  so  likely  to  be  driven 
out  of  their  position  as  those  which  lie  nearer 
the  surface." 

The  fissures  are  oftsn  met  with  fractured 
as  well  as  inclined  ;  the  reason  of  which  has 
probably  been  a  subsidence  of  the  earth  from 
some  e.vtraoidinary  cause.  'I'liough  the  me- 
tallic veins  generally  run  from  east  to  west, 
they  are  frequently  intersected  by  veins  or 
lodes  of  other  matters,  whii.h  run  from  north 
to  south.  Some  of  these  cross  veins  contain 
lead  or  .mtimony,  but  never  tin  or  copper. 
Sometimes  one  of  th<-se  unmetallic  veins  in- 
tersects the  true  one  at  right  angles;  some- 
time? obrKiuely  ;  and  sometimes  the  mixture 
of  both  is  so  intimate,  that  the  most  expert 
miners  are  at  a  lo^s  to  discover  the  separated 
part  of  a  true  vein.  When  tliis  last  is  inter- 
cepted at  right  angles,  it  is  moved,  either 
north  or  south,  a  very  little  way,  perhaps  not 
more  than  one  fathom  ;  in  which  case  the 
miners  having  worked  to  a  small  distance  in 
one  of  these  directions,  if  they  find  themselves 
disappointed,  turn  to  the  other  hand,  and  sel- 
dom fail  of  meeting  with  what  they  expected. 
Sometimes  they  are  directed  in  their  search 
by  the  pointing  of  a  rib  or  string  of  the  true 
vein  ;  but  when  the  interruption  happens  in 
an  oblique  direction,  the  difficulty  of  finding 
the  vein  again  is  much  greater. 

When  two  metallic  veins  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  each  other  run  in  an  oblicpie  direc- 
tion, and  of  consequence  meet  together,  they 
commmonly  produce  a  body  ot  ore  at  tin- 
place  wlii^e  they  intersect;  and  if  both  are 
rich,  the  ipiantity  will  be  considerable;  but 
if  one  is  poor  and  the  other  lich,  then  both 
are  either  enriched  or  impoverished  by  the 
meeting.  After  some  time  they  separate 
again,  and  each  will  continue  its  former  di- 
rection near  to  the  other  ;  but  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  they  continue  united. 

It  is  a  sign  of  a  poor  vein  when  it  separates 
or  diverges  into  strings ;  but,  on  the  con- 
Kary,  when  several  ol  tliem  are  fou;id  running 


MINE. 

into  on;*,  it  is  accounted  a  promising  sign. 
Sometimes  there  arc  branches  without  the 
walls  of  the  \ein  in  the  adjacent  strata,  whiih 
oiten  come  either  obli(|uely  or  transversely 
into  it.  Jf  these  branches'  are  impregnated 
with  ore,  or  if  they  underlie  faster  than  the 
true  vein  (that  is, 'if  they  dn)  deeper  into  the 
ground),  then  they  arc  saiil  to  overtake  or 
come  into  the  lode,  and  to  enrich  it ;  or  if 
they  do  not,  then  they  are  said  to  go  olf  from 
it,  and  to  impoveiish  it.  But  neitlier  these, 
nor  any  other,  marks,  either  of  the  richness 
or  poverty  of  a  mine,  are  entirely  to  be  de- 
pended upon:  for  many  mines,  which  have  a 
very  bad  ajipcarance  at  first,  do  nevertlieless 
turn  cut  extri'mely  well  afterwards  ;  while 
others,  which  in  the  beginning  seemed  very 
rich,  turn  gradually  worse  and  w  orse :  but, 
in  general,  where  a  vein  has  had  a  bad  ap- 
pearance at  first,  it  will  be  imprudent  to  be 
at  niucli  expeiice  with  it. 

Veins  of  metal,  as  has  been  alrea'dy  ob- 
served, are  fretiuently  so  compressed  betwixt 
hard  strata  that  they  are  not  an  inch  wide; 
nevertheless,  if  they  have  a  stiiiig  of  good 
ere,  it  will  generally  be  worth  while  to  jnir- 
sue  them ;  and  they  frequently  turn  out  well 
at  last,  after  they  have  come  into  softer 
ground.  In  like  manner,  it  is  an  encourage- 
ment to  go  on  if  the  branches  or  leaders  of  ore 
enh.rue  either  in  wid.th  or  deptli  as  they  are 
worked  ;  but  it  is  a  bad  sign  it  they  continue 
horizontal  without  inclining  dov. nwards; 
though  it  is  not  proper  always  to  discontinue 
the  w  orkiiig  of  a  vein  which  lias  an  unfavour- 
able aspect  at  first.  '  Veins  of  tin  are  worth 
working  when  only  three  inches  wide,  pro- 
vided the  ore  is  good ;  and  copper  ores  when 
six  inches  wide  will  |)ay  very  well  for  the 
working.  Some  of  the  great  mines,  how- 
ever, have  very  large  veins,  with  a  number 
of  other  small  ones  very  near  each  other. 
There  are  also  veins  crossing  one  another 
sometimes  met  whh,  which  are  called  contras, 
vulgarly  caunters.  Sometimes  two  veins  run 
dovin  into  the  ground  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  meet  in  the  direction  of  their  depth  ;  in 
which  case  the  same  observations  apply  to 
them  as  are  applicable  to  those  that  meet 
in  an  horizontal  direction.  Sometimes  a  vein 
will  suddenly  disappear  without  giving  any 
warning,  by  becoming  narrower,  or  of  worse 
([uality  ;  which  by  tiie  miners  is  called  a  start 
or  leap,  and  is  very  common  in  the  mines  of 
Cornwall.  In  one  day's  time  they  may  thus 
be  disappointed  in  the  working  a  ricli  vein  of 
tin,  and  have  no  further  sign  of  any  thing  to 
work  upon:  at  the  fractured  extremity  of 
their  vein  they  perceive  a  body  of  clay  or 
other  matter  ;  and  the  method  of  recovering 
their  vein  is  to  drive  on  their  work  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  former  part,  so  that  their  new- 
work  shall  make  tlic  same  angle  with  the  clay 
that  the  other  part  of  the  vein  does.  Some- 
times they  sink  a  shaft  down  from  the  sur- 
face ;  but'it  is  generally  a  matter  of  difficulty 
to  recover  a  vein  when  thus  lost. 

The  rhcthod  of  discovering  mines  is  a 
matter  of  so  much  difficulty,  that  it  seems 
surprising  how  those  who  were  totally  unac- 
quaiutedWith  the  nature  of  metals  first  came 
to  think  of  digging  them  out  of  the  earth. 
In  modern  times  we  know  that  mines  have 
bi^en  frequently  discovered  by  accident ;  as 
in  sea-clilfs,  among  broken  craggy  rocks,  by 
the  washing  of  the  tides  or  floods;  also  by 
irruptious  and  torrents  of  water  issuing  out  of 


109 

hills  and  mountain-,  and  sometimes  by  the 
w  caring  of  high  roads. 

Mines,  however,  are  now  most  commonly 
discovered  by  investigating  the  nature  of 
Such  veins,  ores,  and  stories,  as  may  seem 
most  likely  to  turn  to  account :  but  there  is  a 
particular  sagacity,  or  habit  of  judging  from 
particular  signs,  which  can  be  acquired  only 
by  long  practice.  Mines,  espec  ally  those  i<f 
co))]jer,  may  also  be  discovered  by  the  harsli 
and  disagreeable  taste  of  the  wateis  which 
issue  from  them  ;  though  it  is  probable  that 
this  only  happens  w  h.cii  the  ore  lies  above  the 
level  ot  the  water  which  breaks  out;  for  it 
does  not  seem  likely  that  the  taste  of  the  ore 
could  ascend,  unl'ss  we  were  to  suppose  a 
pond  or  lake  of  water  standing  above  it.  The 
Ijresence  of  copper  in  any  water  is  easily  dis- 
covered by  iimnerging  in  it  a  bit  of  polished 
iron,  which  will  thus  instantly  be  turned  of  a 
copper  colour,  from  the  precipitation  .of  the 
nictal  upon  it.  A  candle,  or  a  piece  of  tallow, 
put  iiuo  water  of  this  kind,  will  in  a  short 
time  be  tinged  of  a  green  colour. 

Alter  the  mine  is  fouiK',  the  next  thing  to 
be  considered  is,  whether  it  may  be  chig  tc> 
advantage.  In  order  to  determine  this,  we 
are  duly  to  weigh  the  nature  of  the  place, 
and  its 'situation,  as  to  wood,  water,  carriage, 
healihiness,  and  the  like  ;  and  compare  the 
result  with  the  richness  of  the  ore,  the  charge 
of  digging,  stamping,  washing,  and  smelting. 
'J  he  form  and  situation  ot  the  spot  should 
be  particularly  well  considered.  A  mine 
must  cither  happen,  1.  in  a  mountain;  2. 
in  a  hill ;  3.  in  a  valley  ;  or,  4.  in  a  flat.  But 
mountains  and  hills  'are  dug  with  much 
greater  ease  and  convenience,  chiefly  because 
the  drains  and  burrows,  that  is,  the  adits  or 
avenues,  may  be  here  readily  cut,  both  to 
drain  the  water,  and  to  forni  gangways  for 
bnnging  out  the  lead,  &c.  In  all  the  four 
cases,  we  are  to  look  out  for  the  veins  which, 
the  rains  or  other  act  idental  circumstances 
mav  have  laid  bare;  and  if  such  a  vein  is 
found,  it  mav  often  be  proper  to  open  the 
mine  at  that"  place,  especially  if  the  vein 
proves  tolerably  large  and  rich  :  otherwise 
the  most  commodious  place  for  situation  is. 
to  be  chosen  for  the  purpose,  viz.  neither  on  - 
a  fiat,  nor  on  the  to))  of  mountains,  but  on 
the  sides.  The  best  situation  for  a  mine 
is  a  ipountainous,  woody,  wholesome  spot  ; 
of  a  safe  easy  ascent,  and  bordering  ou  a  na- 
vigable river.  The  places  abounding  with 
mines  are  generally  healtliy,  as  standing 
high,  and  everv  where  exposed  to  the  air; 
yet  some  places' where  mines  are  found  prove 
poisonous,  and  can  upon  no  account  be  dug. 

Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  where  there  are 
a  great  many  mines  of  copper  and  tin,  are  a 
verv  mount'ainous  country,  which  gives  an 
opp'ortunity  in  many  places  to  make  adits  or 
subterraneous  drains  to  some  valiey  at  a  dis- 
tance, bv  which  to  carry  off  the  water  fronl 
the  mine,  which  otherwise  would  drown 
them  out  from  getting  the  0!e.  These  adits^ 
are  sometimes  carried  a  mile  or  two,  and  dug 
at  a  vast  expence,  as  from  2000/.  to  4000/. 
especially  where  the,  ground  is  rocky  ;  and 
yet  Ihey'find  lliis  cheaper  than  to  draw  up  the 
water  out  of  the  mine  quite  to  the  top,  when 
the  water  runs  in  plenty,  and  the  mine  is 
deep.  Sometimes,  indeed,  they  cannot  find 
a  level  near  enough  to  which  an  adit  may  be 
carried  from  the  "very  bottom  of  the  mine; 
yet  thev  fmd  it  worth  while  to  make  an  adit. 


200 


M  I  N 


at  hairt'.iR  Iieiglit  to  wliicli  Ihe  water  is  lo  be 
rais.*>l,  lliciebv  saving  hall' l!ie  e\|);-iu-c. 

'i"lji-  late  "Mr.  Costar,  coasicL-r.iig  thai 
sometiiiH-s  from  snia'l  s-.reain«,  aiui  >oiiie- 
t  nr.?s  ironi  little  sprinas  or  collections  of  rain- 
water, one  might  have  a  good  ileal  ot  water 
above  ground,  though  not  a  suUicient  (|n.in- 
tity  to  turn  an  over>not-w!ie-'l  thoii;^l)t,  that 
if  a  suiKcieiit  fall  mia;!it  be  liad,  t^his  eollee- 
tijn  of  wat.T  might  l)e  nni'le  useful  in  raising 
tiic  water  in  a  mine  to  tlie  adit,  where  it  nrfijlit 
be  carried  oil'.  But  now  the  iBost  general 
method  of  draining  mines  is  by  tiie  steaiii- 
engiiie. 

A. Mine  (in  niilitarv  alTairs)  is  also  a  subter- 
raneous cavity  made  accordiiig  to  the  rules  of 
art,  in  «hich  a  certain  quantity  of  powder 
is  lodged,  which  by  its  c.splosion  blows  up 
the  earth  above  it. 

It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  the 
figure  produL-ed  by  llie  explosion  is  a  para- 
boloid ;  and  that  the  c;iitre  of  the  powder, 
or  charge,  occ;)|);e^  Ihe  focus. 

The  place  wiicre  tiie  (lowder  is  lodged  i» 
called  the  chamber  of  the  mine,  orfonieau. 

Tlic  passage  leading  to  the  powder  is  called 
the  gallery. 

'1  he  line  drawn  from  (he  centre  of  the 
chamber,  perpendicular  to  the  nearest  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  is  called  the  line  of  least 
resistance. 

'Ihe  pit  or  hole,  made  by  springing  the 
mine,  is  called  th;'  excavation. 

The  lire  is  communicated  to  the  mine  by 
a  pi|)e  or  hose,  made  c?f  coarse  cloth,  whose 
diameter  is  about  one  mch  and  a  halt,  called 
asaucisson  (lor  the  iilliMg  of  which  near  halt  a 
pound  of  powder  is  allowed  to  every  foot), 
extending  from  the  chamber  to  the  entrance 
of  the  gallery  ;  to  the  end  of  which  is  lixed  a 
match,  that  the  miner  whi>  sets  lire  to  it  mav 
have  time  to  retire  before  it  reaches  the 
chamber. 

To  prevent  the  powder  from  contracting 
any  dampness,  the  saucissoii  is  laid  in  a  small 
trough,  called  an  auget,  made  of  l;oards, 
three  inches  and  a  halt  broad,  joined  toge- 
ther lengthwise,  with  straw  in  it,  and  round 
the  saucisson,  with  a  wooden  cover  naile<l 
upon  it. 

GaUcrifs  and  chumhi.y.'i  of  mines. — Clalle- 
ries  niadt;  within  the  iortiiication,  before  the 
place  is  attacked,  and  from  v.'hich  several 
branches  are  carried  to  did'erent  places,  are 
generally  four  feet  or  four  and  a  half  wide, 
-and  live  feet  or  live  and  a  half  high.  'J'he 
earth  is  supported  from  falling  in  by  arches 
and  walls,  it  tiiey  are  lo  remi-.in  for  a  consi- 
derable time;  but  when  mines  are  made  to 
be  used  in  a  short  time,  then  the  galleries  are 
but  three  feet  or  Ihiee  ajid  a  hulf  wid<-,  and 
live  feet  high,  and  the  earth  is  supported  by 
wooden  tranies  or  props. 

The  gallerv  being  carried  on  to  the  place, 
where  the  [viwder  is  to  be  lodged,  the  miners 
make  the  ch.imber.  This  is  generally  of  a 
cubical  form,  large  enoiigii  to  hold  the  wooden 
box,  wliich  contains  th.-  ponder  neces^arv  for 
the  charge:  the  box  is  lined  with  straw' and 
sand-!)ags,  to  jirevent  the  powder  from  cor.- 
tracting  d  mpness. 

The  chamb  r  is  sunk  something  lower  than 
the  gallery,  if  llie  soil  peiniits;  but  where 
water  is  to  be  ap])rehended,  it  must  be  made 
liigfier  than  the  gallei')' ;  othLT.vi-,e  the  be- 
sieged wilj  let  in  the  water,  and  spoil  the 
mine. 


M  I  N 

Saanlilics  of  pnwdcr  lo  chars^e  minc-i. — 
Before  any  calculalion  canbenideof  the 
proper  charge  for  a  mine,  tup  density  and 
tenacity  of  the  soil  In  vhich  it  is  to  be  made 
must  be  asccrtaine;!,  either  by  experiment, 
or  oiherwi>e;  lor  in  soils  oi'liio  saiT.e  den- 
sity, that  which  has  the  greatest  tenacity  wi  1 
require  the  gieatest  force  to  separate  its 
pails.  1  he  den,-it_\  is  determined  bv  weigh- 
mg  ii -cubic  foot  (or  any  certain  quantity)  ot 
the  soil ;  but  ihe  lenac :ly  can  only  be  d'eter- 
mincd  by  making  a  mine.  The  loilowing  ta- 
ble tontams  experiments  in  six  dilfeient  soils, 
"hich  may  be  of  s.  me  assistance  to  lorw  a 
judiinient  of  the  nature  of  the  sod,  when  an 
actual  experiment  cannot  be  had  : 


N.Uu-rc  of  the  So!!. 

Dcasitv. 

Tenacity. 

•WeTs-ht 

of !  cubic 

foot. 

Quantity 
of  powder 
to  ra:sc  1 
ciib./ath. 

!. 

Loose  earth  or  sand 

95  pds. 

8  pds. 

'2. 

Common  light  soil 

I'i4 

10 

:i. 

I.oam,  or  stror.g  soil 

127 

I2i 

4. 

Potter's  clav,  or  stllTsoil 

135 

i;si 

5. 

Clay, mixed  with  stones 
Masonry 

160 

16 

6. 

205 

■21  i 

Loading  nvd  slopping  of  min-s. — ^The  gal- 
lery and  chamber  being  ready  to  be  loaded, 
a  sirong  box  of  v.ood  is  made  of  the  size  and 
ligin-e  of  the  chamber,  being  about  one-third 
or  one-fourth  bigger  than  is  required  for  con- 
taining the  neces-ary  quantity  of  powder : 
against  tlie  sides  and  bottom  of  the  box  is  put 
some  straw  ;  and  this  straw  is  covered  over 
with  empty  sand-bags,  to  prevent  the  powder 
liom  coiiiracting  any  dampness:  a  hole  is 
made  in  the  side  next  the  gallery ,  near  the 
bottom,  for  the  saucisson  to  pass  through ; 
which  is  lixed  lo  the  middle  of  the  bottom,  by 
means  of  a  wooden  pig,  to  prevent  its  loosen- 
ing from  the  powder:  or  that,  if  the  enemy 
should  get  to  the  entrance,  ke  ma^•  not  be 
ahle  to  ti-arit  out.  This  done,  the  [xnvder  is 
brought  in  sand-bags,  and  thrown  ioose  in  the 
box,  and  covered  aho  with  straw  and  sand- 
bags ;  upon  this  is  put  the  cover  of  the  box, 


j.ressed  down  very  I'reht  with  sirong 


prop: 


and,  to  render  them  more  secure,  planks  are 
■also  put  above  them,  against  the  earth,  and 
v.edge.l  in  as  fast  as  possible. 

'I  his  done,  the  vacant  spaces  between  the 
props  are  Idled  iq)  with  stones  and  dung,  and 
rammed  in  the  strongest  manner:  the  least 
neglect  in  this  work  will  considerably  alter  the 
effect  of  Ihe  mine.  ■■• 

'Ihe  auget  is  then  laid  from  the  chamber  to 
th'  entrance  of  the  galle  v,  with  .some  straw 
at  the  bottom ;  and  tlie  s'aucisson  laid  in  it, 
with  straw  over  it:  lastly,  it  must  be  shut 
with  a  wooden  cover  nailed  upon  it.  Great 
care  must  be  taken,  in  stopping  up  Ihe  galle- 
ry, not  to  press  too  hard  upon  tlie  auget,  for 
fear  of  spoiling  the  saticisson  ;  wiiich  may 
hinder  the  powder  from  taking  lire,  and  so 
prevent  the  mine  from  springing.  The  gal-' 
lery  is  stopped  up  with  slones,  earth,  and 
dung,  well  rammed,  six  or  seven  feel  further 
from  Ihe  chamber  than  tlie  Iruglh  of  the  line 
of  least  re^isUlllce, 


M  I  N 
MINERAL  M'A'l  EUa.    See  Waters. 

MINERALOGY,  is  th  t  science  wiiicli 

treats  of  the  solid  and  inanimate  mali-rials  of 
wliicli  cur  globe  consists;  and  these  are 
usually  .  rranged  under  lour  'k.sses :  the 
earthy,  Uy«  saline,  the  hiflammable,  and  the 
metallic,  wlixh  arc  thus  distinguished: 

1.  The  earthy  minerals  compose  the 
greater  part  ot  the  crust  of  the  earth,  and 
generally  form  a  <  overnig  to  the  rest.  Tiicy 
are  not  i  eiiiarkaole  for  being  heavy,  brittle, 
or  I'ght-coloured.  They  are  little  disposed 
t')  chrystallize,  are  tminllammable  in  a  low 
teniperatuie,  insipid,  and  wiihout  much 
smell. 

2.  llie  saline  mineral-  are  comnionlv  mo- 
derately heavy,  soft,  sapid,  and  possess  some 
degree  of  trai,  paroncy. 

J.  The  ir.naiiimable  class  of  minerals  is 
light,  brittle,  mostly  opaque,  of  a  yellow, 
uiown,  or  black  colour,  seldom  chrystallize, 
and  never  feel  cold. 

4.  Metallic  minerals  are  characterized  hv 
being  heavy,  generally  opa<ji;  ',  lough,  malle- 
able, cold,  not  easily  inHaiiicd,  and  bv  ex- 
hibiting a  great  varii  ty  of  colours^  of  a  pecu- 
liar lustre. 

Under  each  of  these  classes  are  various 
genera,  species,  sub-species,  and  kinds,  which 
will  be  noticed  in  order.  Sometimes,  as  in 
liie  vegetable  kingdom,  we  tind  a  .trict  af- 
hnity  between  dilterent  S])ecies  of  minerals, 
ami  in  that  case  they  an  s;iid  to  belong  to  the 
same  family;  but  in  miiierahx;v,  one  class 
does  not  always  blend  with  anollier  in  a  che- 
mical point  of  view,  or  tuvnish  that  beautiUil 
gradation  and  almost  imperceptib'e  union 
which  is  to  be  traced  in  the  other  kingdoms 
of  nature. 

As  the  external  characters  are  of  tlie  first 
importance  in  facilitating  our  acquaintance 
with  minerals,  we  shall  brielly  explain  this 
subject,  beiorewe  proceed  lO  the  classilicatiou 
ot  the  dnl'erent  substances. 

Of  tlie  external  characters  of  Minerals. 

The  external  characters  of  minerals  are 
either  generic  or  specific.  The  generic  cha- 
racters are  certain  properties  of  minerals, 
w  ilhout  any  reference  to  their  dilTerences,  as 
colour,  lustre,  weglit,  &c.  ;  and  the  differ- 
ences between  these  properties  form  the  spe- 
cific characters. 

Generic  characters  may  be  general  or  par- 
ticular. Ill  the  first  division'are  comprehended 
those  that  occur  in  all  minerals,  in  the  last 
those  that  are  found  only  in  particular  classes 
of  minerals. 

The  particular  generic  external  charac- 
ters are  thus  advantageously  arranged: 

1,  Colour. 

2.  Cohesion  of  particles ;  distinguished  into 
solid,  friable,  and  lluid. 

in  solid  minerals  are  to  be  regarded  the 
external  shape,  the  external  surface,  and  the 
external  lustre.  AVhen  bioken,  the  histre  of 
the  fracture,  the  fracture  itself,  and  the  sha]  e 
of  the  fragments,  are  to  be  noticed.  In  dis- 
tinct concretions,  regaid  must  be  paid  to  the 
shape  of  the  concretions,  their  surface,  their 
lustre,  transparency,  streak,  and  soiling.  AH 
these  may  be  ascertained  by  the  eve.  I'y 
Ihe  touch,  we  may  discover'the  hardness  of 
mnerals  their  tenacity,  frangibilitv,  (lexi- 
biity,  their  imcluosily,  "coldness,  wi  ight,  and 
their  adhesion  to  the  tongue.     By  the  ear  wc 


ili^tlnguish  (!«eii'  souikI,  mid  by  tlie  »niell  mu! 
tastfi  the  qualities  whicli  thcsy  two  senses  in- 
dicate, 

III  friable  minerals,  external  shape,  lustre, 
aspect  of  particles,  soilina;,  and  degree  of  fri- 
ability, are  to  be  atteiid>'d  to. 

Ill  !lui(l  minerals  the  lustre,  transparency, 
and  fluidity,  are  principal  objects  to  be  re- 
garded. 

The  specific  external  characters  of  mine- 
rals are  founded  on  the  distinctions  and  varie- 
ties of  the  two  great  generic  divi.iions.  And 
iirst,  of  colours,  the  iiames  of  which  are  de- 
rived from  certain  bodies  in  which  they  most 
generally  occur,  either  in  a  natural  or  arti- 
licial  slate,  or  from  diiferent  mixtures  and 
comp'jsitions  of  both. 

I.  Colour. 

\.  White.  Tills  may  be  snow-white,  ved- 
d:  ii-white,  yelUiwish-white,  silver-white,, 
greyish-white,. greenish-white,  milk-white,  or 
tin-white. 

3.  Grey.  Lead-grey,  blueisli-grey,  poarl- 
ricy,  reddish-^rey,  sniolie-grey,  greeni^h- 
grcy,  yellowish-grey,  steel-grey,  and  ash- 
grey, 

3.  Black.  Greyish-black,  brownish-black, 
dark-blii-k,  iron-black,  greenish-black,  and 
blueish-black. 

4.  Blue.  Indigo-blue,  Prussian-blue,  la- 
vender-blue, smalt-blue,  sky-blue. 

5.  Green.  Verdigris-green,  celadeii-green, 
mountain-green,  emerald--\reen,  leek-ureen, 
apple-green,  grass-green,  pistachio-green,  as- 
paragus-green, olive-green,  blackish-gieen, 
canary-green. 

6.  Yellow.  Sulphur-yellow,  lemon-yel- 
low, gold-yellow,  bell-nietal-yellow,  slraw- 
yellow,  wine-yellow,  Isabella-yellow,  ochre- 
yellow,  orange-yellow,  honey-y  ellow,  wax- 
yellow,  brass-yellow. 

7.  Red.  Morning-red,  hyacinth-red, 
brick-red,  scarlet-red,  copper-red,  blood- 
re<l,  carmine-red,  cochineal-red,  criniHin- 
red,  coUuubine-red,  liesh-red,  rose-red, 
jieach-blossoin-red,  cherry-red,  brownish- 
red. 

8.  Brown.  KedUish-brown,  clove-brown, 
hair-brown,  yellowish-brown,  tombac-biown, 
wood-brown,  liver-brown,  blackish-brown. 

Besides  these  distinctions,  colours  may  be 
clear,  dark,  liglit,  or  pile;  they  may  have  a 
tarnished  appearance,  a  play,  a  change- 
ability, an  iridescence,  an  opalescence,  a 
permanent  alteiation,  and  a  delineation  of 
figure  or  p-attern,  such  as  dotted,  sjiotted, 
tiouded,  lianied,  striped,  veined,  dendritic, 
or  niinilbrni. 

II.  Cohesion  of  P.^rticles. 

Minerals  are  divided  into,  1.  Solid,  or 
such  as  have  their  parts  coherent,  and  not 
easily  moveable  ;  2.  Friable,  or  that  state 
of  aggregation  In  whiih  th.e  particles  niav  be 
overcome  by  simple  pressure  of  the  ()n5:t'r  ; 
and,  3.  Fluid,  or  such  as  consist  of  particles 
which  alter  their  place  in  regard  to  each  oilier 
by  their  own  weight. 

1 .  Sidid  Minerals. 

External  aspect  has  thre-;  things  to  be  re- 
garded, 1.  The- shape;  3.  The  surface;  and 
3.  'I'i'.e  lustre.    The  external  shape  again 

Vol.  II. 


MINERALOGY, 

may  lie  common,  particular,  regular,  or  ex- 
traneous ;  and  iience  ari^e  the  specific  dif- 
ferences. 

1 .  The  common  external  shape  may  be  mas- 
sive; disseminati'd  coarsely,  minutely,  or 
finely  ;  in  angular  pieces,  snaip-coriiered  or 
bluni-coruered  ;  in  grains,  large,  coarse, 
small,  fine,  angular,  llal,  round;  in  plates, 
thick  or  thill ;  in  membranes  or  tiakes,  thick, 
thin,  or  very  tjiin. 

The  particular  external  shape  may  be  long- 
ish,  as  dentiform,  filiform,  capillary,  reticu- 
latic,  denih-ilic,  corallilorm,  stalactitic,  cylin- 
drical, tubiform,  claviform,  or  frulicose; 
roundish, as  globular,  spherical,  ovoidal,  sphe- 
roidal, amygdaloiJal,  bolryoidal,  reniform, 
tuberose,  or  lused-like  ;  Hat',  as  specular,  or 
in  leaves ;  cavernous,  as  cellular  in  various 
forms,  with  impressions,  perforated,  corrod- 
ed, amorphous,  or  vesicular;  entangled,  as 
lamosi',  i^c. 

In  the  regular  external  shape  or  chrystalli- 
zatioii  are  to  be  regarded  its  genuineness,  ac- 
corchng  to  wliicii  it  may  be  either  true  or 
suppositious;  its  shape,  made  up  of  planes, 
edges,  angles,  in  which  are  to  be  observed 
tlie  fundamental  figure  and  its  parts,  tlie 
kind  of  fundanieiital  figure,  the  varieties  of 
each  kjid  of  fundamental  figure,  with  their 
accidents  and  distinctions,  and  the  alterations 
which  the  fundamental  figure  undergoes  by 
Iruncation,  by  bevelment,  by  acumination, 
or  by  a  division  of  thi-  planes.  There  are  a 
variety  of  figures  under  each  of  these  subdi- 
visions. 

It  must  be  remarked  also  that  the  external 
shajje  may  be  extraneous,  or  derived  from 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  as  in 
fossils  and  pt-trifications. 

2.  The  external  surface  contains  several 
varieties  of  distinctions.  It  may  be  uneven, 
granulated,  rough,  smooth,  or'  streaked  in 
various  ways  and  directions. 

3.  The  external  lustre  is  tlii.>  third  generic 
external  character,  and  is  of  much  importance 
to  lie  atieiidetl  to.  In  this  we  hav6  to  con- 
sider the  intensity  of  the  lustre,  whether  it  is 
splendent,  -hining  glistening,  glimmering, 
or  dull ;  next  the  sort  of  lustre,  wiiether  me- 
tallic or  common.  The  latter  is  distinguish- 
ed into  seminutallic,  adamantine,  peaiiv,  re- 
sinous, and  vitreous.  * 

Aspect  of  the  FraHure  of  solid  Minerals. 

After  tlie  external  aspect,  the  fracture 
forijis  no  inconsiderable  character  in  mine- 
rals. Its  h'Stre  may  be  deternjined  as  in  the 
external  lusire;  but  the  fracture  itself  admits 
of  great  varieties.  It  "may  be  compact, 
spliutcry,  coarsely  splintery, 'finely  splintery, 
even,  conchoidal,  uneven,  earth'y, '  hackly, 
Utile  fracture  is  fibrous,  we  are  to  consider 
the  thicknesi  of  tlu'  fibres,  if  coarse  or  deli- 
cate; the  direction  of  the  fibres,  if  straighlor 
curved ;  and  the  position  of  the  fibres,  'if  pa- 
r;d!(l  or  diverging. 

In  the  radiated  fracture  we  are  to  regard 
the  breadtli  of  the  rays,  their  directio.n,  their 
position,  their  passage  or  cleavage,  fn  the 
foliated  liacture,  the  size  of  Ihe^folia,  tlieir 
degree  of  perfection,  their  direction,  position, 
a>i)ect  of  titeir  surfa(:e,  passage  or  cleavage, 
ainl  the  numbevof  cleavages,"are  to  be  noted. 

The  shape  of  the  fragniciUa  may  alsobe 
very  various-regular,  as  cubic,  rhomboidal, 
trapezoidal,  S-c.  or  irregular,  as  cunc-iforni, 
splintery,  tabiUar,  iiKletermiuaiely  angular. 
C  c 


201 
/ispect  oflhc  (lintinct  Concrtiions. 

The  shape  of  the  distinct  concretions  fonns 
very  prominent  external  characttrs.  They 
may  fje  granular,  diflerenl  in  shape,  or  in  mag- 
nitude ;  they  may  be  lamvll-ar,  distinct,  con- 
cretions, ditiering  in  the  direction  of  the  la- 
mella-, in  the  thickness,  willi  regard  to  shapfc, 
and  in  tlie  position. 

'I  he  surface  of  the  distinct  concretions 
may  be  smooth,  rough,  streaked,  or  uiieveii  ; 
as  for  their  lusire,  it  may  be  determined  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  external  lustre, 

General  Aspect  us  to  Transparer 
Minerals,  as  is  well  known,  have  diu -i-  ..i. 
degrees  of  transparency,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered among  their'  external  characters. 
'1  hey  may  be  transparent,  semitranspareiif, 
translucent,  translucent  at  the  edjes,  or 
opaque. 

The  Streak. 

'Che  colour  of  this  external  character  may 
be  either  similar  or  different.  It  is  pre- 
sented to  us  when  a  mineral  is  scraped  with 
the  point  of  a  knife:  and  is  similar,  when  the 
powder  that  is  formed  is  of  the  same  coiour 
with  the  mineral,  as  in  chalk;  or  dissimilar  o'r 
different,  as  in  cinnabar,  orpiment,  &c.        ' 

,  ■  fhe  Soiling  or  Colourina; 
Is  ascertained  by  taking  any  mineral  sub- 
stance beiween  the  lingers,  or  drawing  it 
across  some  other  body.  It  may  soil  strongly, 
as  in  chalk,  slightly,  as  in  molybdena,  or  not 
at  all,  which  is  a  (uiality  belonging  to  most  of 
the  solid  minerals.  A'l  the  preceding  e.*- 
ternal  charactei-s  are  recognized  by  the  eye. 

Extcrmd  C/inractei-s  from  the  Touch. 

These  are  eight  in  number,  and  are  not 
destitute  of  utility  to  the  mineralogical  stu- 
dent. 1.  llarduc-ss:  2.  Tenacity;  3.  Fr;  n- 
gibility ;  4:  Flexibility ;  5.  Adh'esion  to  the 
tongue;  6.  Unctuosity ;  7.  Coldness;  3. 
Weight.  ^ 

flardness  may  be  tried  by  a  capacity  t« 
resist  tlie  file,  yielding  a  little  to  it,  bv  being 
semi-hard,  sod,  or  very  soft.  Tenacity  has 
diiierent  degrees,  in  substances  beins  hriitli-, 
sectiJR  or  mild,  or  ductile.  Tiie  fraiigibiaiy 
consists  in  minerals  beir.g  verv  dilll(:uli;y 
frangible,  difficultly  frangible,  easiiv  traug!- 
ble,  or  very  easily  irau.'jibie.  1  he  ilexil-riiiiy 
is  proved  by  beiiiz  simply  f'jexible,  elasiicly 
flexible,  coumioiily  iiexible.  Or  !n;lexib!e. 
The  adJiesion  to  the  tongue  may  be  stroni^ly 
aJhesive,  pretty  stioiigly,  weakly,  very 
weakly,  or  not  at  all.  U'nctuosity  may  be 
meagre,  rather  greasy,  greasy,  or  very 
greasy.  Coldness  is  subdivid;-<'l  into  cokf, 
pretty  cold,  rather  cold.  Weight  may  be 
distinguished  into  swiniming  or  siipcrna'taRi: 
light,  rather  light,  heavy,  very  heaVv.  'Ijie 
three  last  divisions  from  the  toiich,  are  in  ih-^ 
Menierian  system  regarded  as  anomaloiia  • 
but  they  seem  propeii'y  to  be  classed  under 
this  head. . 

E.rt(rii(tl  CkiraetfKt  frnm  th^  Simncl  or 
/ieaiiiig. 

The  diiferent  kinds  of  sound  \vhiti>  occur 
in  the  niintfral  kiiis^dom  are,  i.  A  vinginjj 
sound,  a^  in  native  luseiiic and  tliiu  spliiiUis 
of  horu-stoiie;  H.  A  graiine  sound,  ss  in 
frosii-burni  clay;  3.  A  tre'aklr.g  sound,  as 
that  of  natural  uiDUlgani. 


202 

?.  Friable  jllinfrab. 

The  externa!  characters  drawn  from  mine- 
lals  of  this  class  are  derived,  lirsl,  from  the 
external  sliape,  which  niav  be  massive,  dis- 
seminated, thinly  coating,  ?pmiious,  or  den- 
dritic: secondly,  from  the  lustre,  regarded 
under  its  intensity,  whether  glimmering  or 
dull,  and  its  sort,  whether  common  glinniier- 
ing  ormet£;Uic  glimnirriiig  :  thirdly,  Ir'jm  the 
aspect  of  the  particles,  as  being  dusty  or 
scaly  :  fourthly,  from  soiling  or  colouring,  as 
strongly  or  lightly  :  and  lastly,  from  the  fri- 
ability, wliich  may  be  loose  or  coheiing. 

3.  Fluid  Minerals. 

Of  external  characters  drawn  from  fluid 
minerals,  there  are  only  two  kinds,  which  in- 
clude three  varieties  :  'l .  The  lustre,  which  is 
either  metallic,  as  in  mercury,  or  resinous,  as 
in  rock  oil.  2.  The  transparency,  which  is 
transparent,  as  in  naphtha;  turbid,  as  in  mine- 
ral oil ;  or  opacpie,  as  in  mercury.  3.  The 
fluidity,  which  may  be  iluid,  as  in  mercury, 
or  viscid,  as  in  mountain  tar. 

External  Characters  frorn  the  Smell. 

These  may  be  spontaneously  emitted  and 
described,  as  bituminous,  faintly  sulphureous, 
or  faintly  bitter;  or  they  may  bo  produced  by 
breatliing  on,  and  yield"  a  ckiy-like  smell ;  or 
they  may  be  excited  by  friction,  and  smell 
urinous,  sulphureous,  garlick-like,  or  empy- 
leuraatic. 

External  Character  fro?n  the  Tasle. 

Tliis  character  prevails  chiefly  in  the  sa- 
line class,  and  it  contains  the  following  va- 
rieties :  a  sweetish  taste,  sweetish  astringent, 
Stypi.ic,  saltly  bitter,  saltly  coohng,  alkaline, 
or  urinous. 

Having  now  gi-ven  a  synoptical  view  of  the 
external  cliaracters  of  minerals,  we  shall  pro- 
ceed to  tlieir  classification,  and  in  this  we 
shall  chielly  follow  the  names  and  arrange- 
ajaent  of  professor  Jameson. 

CLASS  I. 

EARTHY    rOSSILS. 

First  Genus.     Diamond. 
Diamond. 

This  precious  stone  has  great  variety  of 
-shades,  exhibiting  a  beautiful  play  of  co- 
lours. It  occurs  in  indeterminately  angular 
and  com|)lete!y  spherical  grains,  wiiich  jire- 
scnt  planes  of  fhrystallization,  or  arc  actually 
chrystallized.  Its  fundamental  chr)>stal  is  the 
oclaetlron,  which  passes  into  various  forms. 
It  is  hard  in  the  highe-.t  degree,  brittle,  not 
rery  dlflicuitly  frangible,  and  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  3.t500. 

The  diamond  has,  by  modern  experiments, 
been  proved  to  be  nearly  p»ne  carbon,  and 
begins  to  burn  at  14°  or  13°  of  V.'edge- 
wood.  SeePlatel.  Mineralogy,  figs.  Land 2. 

Second  Genus.     ZrRcoN. 
First  Species.     Zircon. 
Tiic  prevailing  colour  is  grey,  but  it  occurs 
iikewisc  green,  blue,  red,  yellow,  and  brown, 
with  various  intermediate  tints. 

It  is  found  most  commonly  in  roundisli 
angular  pieces,  with  rounded  angles  and 
edges.  When  chrystallized,  the  fjgiue  is  ge- 
jteially  a  rectangular  four-sided  prism,  boiiie- 


MIXERALOGY. 

what  flatly  acuminated  by  four  planes,  set  on 
lateral  ijlanes  ;  but  of  thisfigure  there  are  se- 
veral varieties.  The  chrystals  are  almost  al- 
ways very  small,  hav*  a  smooth  surface, 
bordering  on  strongly  splendent.  Internally, 
the  lustre  is  strongly  splendent,  passing  into 
adamantine.     Fig.  3. 

Zircon  is  hard  in  a  very  high  degree,  brit- 
tle, frangible  without  great  difficulty.  !^pe- 
chic  gravity  4.7U0.  It  forms  a  colourless, 
transparent  mass  with  borax,  but  is  infusible 
by  the  blo\vpipe  without  addition. 

'  Found  in  the  island  of  Ceylon,  where  it 
was  first  discovered,  and  lately  in  Norway, 
imbedded  in  a  rock  composed  of  hornblende 
and  felspar. 

Frequently  cut  as  a  precious  stone,  and 
used,  as  an  inferior  kind  of  diamond,  o!  which 
it  was  once  considered  as  a  \arieiy.  Its  play 
of  colours  very  considerable. 

Second  Species.     Hijucinlh. 

The  chief  colour  is  red,  passing  to  reddish- 
brown,  ai-d  to  orange-yellow.  'I'he  figure  a 
rectangular  four-sided  prism,  flatly  acumi- 
nated by  four  planes,  which  are  set  in  the  la- 
teral edges.  ( )f  this  figure,  however,  seve- 
ral varieties  occur. 

The  chrystals  are  generally  small,  and  al- 
ways imbedded.  The  lateralplanes  smooth, 
and  externally  shining.  Internally,  it  is 
splendent  and  glassy,  inclining  somewhat  to 
resinous.     Fig.  4. 

I'he  hyacinth  is  transparent,  very  hard, 
frangible  without  particular  difficulty,  feels  a 
litde  greasy  when  cut,  and  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  4.000. 

Is  fusible  with  borax.  Exposed  to  the 
blowpipe  it  loses  its  colour,  but  not  its 
transparency . 

Occurs  in  rocks  of  the  newest  floetz  trap 
formation,  and  sonietin;cs  in  sand.  Is  a  na- 
tive of  Ceylon,  the  country  of  gems ;  of 
Spain,  of  Portugal,  France,  .Italy,  Saxony, 
and  probably  Scotland. 

It  takes  a,fine  polish,  and  when  tlie  colours 
are  good,  it  is  higlily  valued.  A  third  spe- 
cies, called  cinnamon  stone,  has  lately  been 
discovered  at  Columbo,  in  Ceylon. 

Tidrd  Genus.     Flint. 

First  Species.     Chrysoberyl. 

The  prevailing  or  general  colour  is  aspara- 
gus-green, passing  into  a  variety  of  allied 
shades.  It  exhibits  a  milk-white  light ;  oc- 
curs in  roundish  and  angiikir  grains,  which 
sometimes  approach  in  shape  to  the  cube. 
It  is  seldom  chrystallized  ;  but  when  in  this 
state,  it  conmionly  presents  a  longish  si.x- 
sided  table,  having  truncated  lateral  edges, 
and  longitudinally  streaked  lateral  planes. 
The  chrystals  are  small,  externally  shining, 
and  internally  splendent.     Fig.  5. 

It  is  hard,  brittle,  .not  very  easily  frangible, 
with  a  speciiic  gravity  of  3.6U0.  Witliout 
addition,  it  is  infusible. 

The  chrysoberyl  is  found  in  I'razil,  and  in 
the  sand  of  Ceylon.  It  is  sometimes  set  in 
rings  with  a  yellow  foil,  but  is  rarely  in  the 
possession  of  our  jewellers. 

Second  Species.     Chrysolite. 

The  chief  colour  is  pistachio-green,  of  all 
degrees  of  intensity.  U  occui's  in  original 
angular  sharp-edged  pieces.  With  a  rough, 
scaly,  splintery  iurlace,  auJ  when  chrystal- 


lized, exhibits  a  broad  rectangular  four-sided 
pnsm,  with  its  lateral  edges  sometimes  trun- 
cated, sometimes  bevilled,  and  acuminated 
by  six  planes.     Fig.  6. 

The  external  surface  of  the  chrystals  is 
splendent,  internally  splendent,  and  vitreous. 

Third  Species.     Olivine. 

The  colour  is  generally  asparagus-green, 
of  various  degrees  of  intensity.  It  is  found 
imbedded  also  in  roundish  pieces  and  grains; 
and  when  chrystallized,  which  is  rare,  in  rec- 
tangular four-sided  prisms. 

Internally,  it  is  shining,  varying  between 
glistening  and  splendent.  It  is  semilrans- 
parent,  very  easy  frangible  ;  in  a  low  degree 
hard,  and  not  particularly  heavy.  It  is 
nearly  infusible  without  addition.  Occurs 
imbedded  in  basalt ;  is  frequently  found  in 
Bohemia,  and  also  in  Hungary, .Austria, 
France,  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  Sweden, 
Iceland,  and  Norway.  Pieces  as  large  as 
a  man's  head  have  been  found  in  some  pans 
of  Germany. 

Fourth  Species.    Augite. 

The  general  colour  is  blackish-green.  It 
occurs  chiefly  in  indeterminate  angular 
pieces  and  roundish  grains.  Occasionally  it 
is  chrystallized,  and  presents  broad  rectangu- 
lar six-sided  jjrisms.  The  chrystals  are 
mostly  small.  Internally  the  lustre  is  shin- 
ing, approaching  sometimes  to  splendent. 

The  augite  is  only  translucent,  and  but 
faintly  transparent.  It  is  hard,  not  very 
easily  frangible,  and  not  particularly  heavy. 

It  is  found  in  basalt,  either  singly  or  ac- 
companied with  olivine,  in  Bohemia,  Hun- 
gary ;  at  Arthur's-seat,  near  Edinburgii ;  in 
some  of  the  Hebrides,  and  in  Norway. 
From  olivine  if  is  distinguished  by  its  darker 
colours,  the  form  of  its  chrystaliization,  and 
its  greater  hardness. 

Fij'ih  Species,    f'esuviane. 

Its  principal  colour  is  dark  olive-green, 
passing  into  other  allied  shades.  It  occurs 
massive,  and  often  chrystallized  in  rectangu- 
lar four-sided  prisms.  The  chrystals  are 
mostly  short,  and  placed  on  one  another. 
Externally  their  surface  alternates  between^ 
glistening  and  splendent.  Internally  they 
are  glistening,  with  a  lustre  between  vitreous 
and  resinous. 

The  vesuviane  is  translucent,  hard  in  a  mo- 
derate degree,  and  approaching  to  heavy. 
Before  the  blowpipe  it  melts  witiiout  ad- 
dition. 

It  is  found  among  the  exuviic  of  ^'e^^lvius, 
from  whence  it  derives  its  name,  in  Siberia, 
and  Karatschatka.  At  Naples,  it  is  cut  inta 
ring-stones,  and  sold  under  various  names. 

Sixth  Species.    Leuzile. 

The  colours  are  yellowisli  and  grevisli- 
white.  It  occurs  mostly  in  original  round 
and  angular  grains.  ^V'lien  chrystallized,  it 
exiiibits  acule  double  cight-sitled  pyramids. 
j  Internally  it  is  shining,  and  approaching  to 
■  glistening,  with  a  vitreous  lustre,,  incliuing. 
somewhat  to  resinous. 

The  leuzite  is  translucent  and  semitrans- 
parent.  It  is  liard  in  a  low  degree,  brittle, 
easily  frangible,  and  not  very  heavy,  [t  i^ 
infusible  without  addition.  With  borax,  it 
forms  a  brownish  transparent  gl.iss. 

U  is  found  in  rocks  of  the  ne.vest  floetz 


<r!ip  formation,  payllailavly  in  banilt,  iien.r 
Naples,  ami  in  lln;  vicinity  of  1{uiiil',  nej-j- 
jnai)  gavp  it  IIil-  name  oC  whiU' ganie(  j  but 
WeriKT  )ia'!  as<crl;uned  it  to  be  a  <'.l.itiiict 
species  of  itsclj'. 

Sercnih  ■'Species.     A/clrn/te- 

The  general  colour  is  velvet-black.  It 
ercurs  clirystallizcd  iji  a  six-sided  prism. 
Tlie  chryalaU  are  iiiiddlt'-sizcd  'or  small. 
Externally  tlicy  ;(ie  smootli  and  sliiiiing,  ap- 
pioacliinu;  to  spli-ndent ;  internally  sliining, 
Ijit lining  t"  glistening. 

The  melanite  is  opatjue,  hard,  pretty 
easily  frangible,  and  not  very  lieavy.  ft 
cccnrs  imbedded  in  rocks  of  the  newest 
Hoetz  trap  formation,  and  hitherto  has  been 
found  only  at  Frcscati  and  Si.  Albano,  near 
Rome. 

Eighth  Species.     Garnet. 

This  is  divided  into  two  sub-speries,  the 
precious  garnet  and  tlic  common  garnet. 
See  Gaunet,  and  tig.  7. 

Kinlh  Species.     Pi/rope. 

The  colour  is  dark  blood-red.  It  occurs 
in  small  ami  .mid<llt-sized  roundish  and  angu- 
lar grains;  but  never  chrystaliized.  Its  lustre 
is  splendent  and  vitreous.  It  is  completely 
transparent,  hard  so  as  to  scratcli  quartz, 
and  not  particularly  )ieavy. 

1  he  pyrope  is  found  imbedded  in  serpen- 
tine in  Sa.\ony  and  Bohemia.  In  l''ife>hire, 
Scotland,  it  is  lound  in  the  sand  on  the  sea 
shore.  It  is  employed  in  various  kinds  of 
jewellery,  and  is  generally  set  in  a  good 
foil. 

Tenth  Species.     Greiiatite. 

The  colour  is  a  dark  reiUlish-brown.  It  is 
always  chrystalhzed  in  broad  si.v-sided  prisms. 
The  chrystals  are  small  and  middle-sized, 
internally  glistening,  with  a  lustre  between 
vitreous  and  resinous. 

The  gremttite  varies  from  opaque  to 
translucent,  is  hard,  brittle,  easily  Irangible, 
and  not  particularly  heavy. 

It  is  found  imbedded  in  mica  slaie,  in  St. 
Gothard,  Switzerland;  and  is  also  met  with 
in  15ritanny  end  in  Spain. 

Eleventh  Species.    SpineUe. 

The  predominant  colour  is    red,   which 

E asses  on  into  blue,  green,  yellow,  and 
rown.  It  occurs  in  grains,  and  likewise 
chrystaliized  in  octaedroiis  witli  several  va- 
■  nations.  Tlie  chrystals  are  very  rarely  mid- 
dle-sized. Externally  and  internally  the  lus- 
tre is  splendent  and  vitreous. 

The  spinelle  alternates  from  transparent  to 
vitreous :  it  is  liard  in  a  pretty  high  degree, 
and  approaches  to  heavy.  It  is  fusible  with 
borax:  occurs  in  rocks  belonging  to  the 
newest  iloetz  trap  formation  ;  and  is  found  in 
Pegu  and  Ceylon.  It  is  used  as  a  precious 
stone,  and  considerably  valued,  though  pos- 
sessing neither  the  hardness  nor  tlie  lire  of 
the  oriental  ruby. 

Tieelfth  Species.     Sapphire. 

The  principal  colour  Berlin  bine;  but  it  is 
found  also  red,  with  all  the  intermediate 
shades  between  these  two  colours.  It  oc- 
curs in  smail  rolled  pieces,  and  chrystaliized 
in  double  three-sule  pdyrauiid>,  of  which 
there  are  several  varieties  in  figure. 


MIXEHAT/JGY, 

The  chrystals  are  small  and  nii'ldle-mz'^d. 
Iiiteriuiily  the  Uistre  is  spleiulcnt  and  vitre- 
ous. It  is  more  or  less  transi)arent  in  differ- 
ent specimens.  .Some  varieties,  when  cut, 
exhibit  a  star  of  3'X  rays.    Fig.  8. 

The  sapphire  is  hard  in  the  highest  dcgre?, 
but  yields  to  the  diamond ;  it  is  easily 
frangible,  and  rather  heavy,  having  a  sj)e- 
ciiic  gravity  of  about  4.000". 

Ft  is  infusible  v/ithout  addition:  occurs  in 
rocks  of  the  newest  tloetz  trap  formation,  and 
is  supposed  to  be  an  inmate  of  granite,  syen- 
ite, and  other  primitive  rocks. 

This  precious  stone  is  found  in  the  utmost 
beauty  in  Pegu.and  Ceylon.  It  is  also  a  na- 
tive of  Portugal,  of  France,  and  of  Boliemia. 
Next  to  the  diamond,  it  is  the  most  valuable 
of  gems,  and  is  used  in  llie  iinest  kiiul  of 
jewellery. 

It  slioidd  be  observed,  that  the  violet-co- 
louri-d  sapphire  is  the  oriental  amethy-t ; 
that  tlie  )el!ow  is  the  oriei:tal  clirysolite  and 
topaz ;  and  that  the  green  is  the  oriental 
emerald. 

Thirteenth  .ipecies.     Coruiulum. 

The  principal  colour  is  a  greenish-while, 
of  various  degrees  of  intensity.  It  occurs 
massive,  disseminated,  in  rolled  pieces,  and 
chrystaliized.  The  chrystallizations  resemble 
those  of  the  sappliire,  and  the  chrystals  are 
middle-sized  and  imbedded. 

The  corundum  is  duplicating  translucent, 
hard  in  a  high  degree,  pretty  easily  frangi- 
ble, and  approaches  to  heavy.  It  is  supposed 
to  occur  imbedded  in  granite,  syenite,  or 
green-stone,  and  is  found  in  the  Carnatic  and 
on  tlie  coast  of  Malabar.     See  C'orundu.m. 

Fourteentli  Species.    Diumond  Spar. 

The  colour  is  a  dark  hair-brown.  It  oc- 
curs massive,  dissemiiated,  in  rolled  pieces, 
and  chrystaliized  in  six-sided  prisms,  or  very 
acute  six-sided  pyramids.  Internally,  its 
lustre  is  splendent,  appi'oaching  in  a  slight 
degree  to  adamantine.  It  may  be  cut  so  as 
to  present  an  opalescent  star  of  six  rays,  of  a 
peculiar  pearly  light. 

It  is  translucent  on  the  edges,  hard  in  a 
high  degree,  easily  frangible,  and  not  parti- 
cularly heavy. 

The  diamond  spar  probably  occurs  in  gra- 
nite. It  has  hitherto  been  found  onlv  in 
China.  Both  this  stone  and  corundum  are 
employed  in  cutting  and  polishing  hard  mi- 
nerals, and  they  seem  to  be  neariy  allied  to 
each  other. 

Fifteenth  -Species.    Emery. 

Emery  is  hard  in  the  highest  degree,  not 
very  easily  frangible,  and  is  heavy.  It  oc- 
curs in  beds  of  talc  and  steatite,  and  is  fre- 
ciiuntly  accompanied  with  calcspar  aud 
blende.  It  is  found  in  Saxony,  in  the  islands 
of  the  Archipelago,  in  Spain,  Normandy,  and 
is  said  also  to  be  a  native  of  the  isles  of 
Guernsey  and  Jersey. 

It  is  of  great  use  in  cutting  and  polishing 
hard  bodies. 

Sixteenth  Species.    Topaz. 

The  chief  colour  is  a  wine-yellow,  of  all 
degrees  of  intensity.  It  is  found  massive, 
I  disseminated,  and  sometimes  rolled,  but  most 
conimonly  chrystaliized  in  oldique  eight- 
sided  or  tour-sided  prisms,  which  exhibit  se- 
veral varieties.  The  chrystals  are  small  and 
Cc3' 


20S 

middle-sized,  fxternally  splendent  •.  inlern- 
allv  fplendt-nt,  and^l^ining:  Instie  vitreous. 

Tlie  topaz  alternates  from  transluci-nt  to 
Iraiispareht,  and  is  duplicatinq:  lianspaieiit. 
It  is  hard  in  a  high  de-ree,  ea.ily  frangible, 
and  is  not  particularly  heavy.  It  is  fusible 
w  itlj  borax  ;  and  some  kinds  in  a  gentle  heat 
t»irii  \Vhite,  and  are  sometimes  sold  for  dia- 
monds. 

It  is  commonly  found  in  veins  that  traverse 
primitive  rocks  in  Bia/il.  Siberia,  in  Pegu, 
and  Ceylon  ;  in  Bohemia,  Saxony,  and  itt 
Coriiwail.  E.\liibiting  various  forms  and 
tints,  it  has  often  been  coiifoim.ed  with  other 
precious  stones.  It  is  much  used  in  seals 
and  rings. 

Seventeenth  .Species.     Emera'.d. 

The  green  called  emerald  is  the  character^ 
istic  colour  of  this  species,  but  it  has  all  di;- 
grees  of  intensity  Irom  deep  to  pale.  It  is 
said  to  occur  jiias'sive  and  in  rolled  pieces,  but 
most  commonly  chrystaliized  in  low  ecpii- 
angular  six-sided  prisms.  The  chrystals  are 
middle-sized  and  small.  Internally  the  lustre 
is  intermediate  between  shining  and  splen- 
dent, and  is  vitreous.  It  alternates  from 
transparent  to  translucent,  and  is  duplicating- 
transparent. 

Tiie  emerald  is  hard,  not  particularly- 
heavy,  melts  easily  with  borax,  but  is  scarce- 
ly fuiible  before  the  blowpipe.  It  occurs  in 
veins  that  traverse  clay-slate,  and  at  present 
ii  only  found  in  South  America,  particularly 
in  Peru,  though  the  Romans  are  said  to  have 
procuicd  it  from  Egypt  and  Ethiopia. 

From  the  beautv  and  vivacity  of  its  colour, 
till'  charming  emblem  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, this  precious  stone  is  much  admired, 
and  employed  in  the  most  expensive  kinds 
of  jewellery,     bee  Emek.\ld. 

Eighteenth  Species.     Beryl. 

This  is  divided  into  two  sub-species,  the 
precious  and  tlie  schorlous  beryl.  See 
Beryl,  and  tig.  9. 

Nineteenth  Species.     Schorl. 

This  is  divided  into  two  sub-species,  com- 
mon schorl  aud  tourmaline.    Fig.  10. 

Tzveniieth  Species.    Thumerstone. 

The  colour  is  commonly  clove-brown,  of 
various  degrees  of  intensity.  It  is  occasion- 
ally found  massive,  more  frequently  dissemi- 
nated ;  but  generallv'  chrystaliized  in  very  flat 
and  oblique  rhomb's.  Externally,  its  lustre 
is  generally  splendent ;  internally,  it  altern- 
ates frsra  glistening  to  shining,  and  is  vi- 
treous. 

This  species  alternates  from  perfectly 
transparent  to  weakly  translucent.  It  i« 
pretty  hard,  very  easily  ft-angible,  and  not 
particularly  heavy.  It  appears  to  be  pecu- 
liar to  the  primitive  mountains,  and  is  found 
imbedded  in  limestone  in  Saxony,  Dauphiny, 
Norway,  Siberia,  and  Cornwall.  Fig.  11. 

Tv:enty-first  Species.    Iron-Flint. 

The  colour  a  yellowish-brown,  borderin^r 
on  liver-brown.  It  occurs  commonly  mas- 
sive, but  also  chrystaliized  in  small  equian- 
gular six-sided  prisms.  Externally,  its  lustre 
is  splendent ;  internally,  shining,  and  is  inter- 
mediate between  vitreous  and  resinous. 

Iron-llint  is  opaque,  and  slightly  trans- 
lucent on  the  edges.   It  is  pretty  hard,  soiner 


204 

whit  ULTlmUiy  (Vaiislblc, and  approaching  to 
l.e^vy.  It  oc'ciiis  in  iron-.slom;  vpins,  aud  is 
f'H! -,.1  in  Saxony,  and,  according  to  Karslen, 
at  P.iistol.  It  renders  the  ir.jn  ore,  along 
with  v^iich  it  is  dug,  very  diflicnit  of  fusion." 

Tiventr/'Sicon:!  Spirien.    Quartz. 

WtrnL'r  divides  this  into  five  sub-species, 
amethyst,  rock  chv\  strd  (iig.  !2),  niilk-qnariz, 
com  !K)n  cjua:  tz,  and  prase.  The  lirst  sub- 
.  specits  is  again  subdivided  into  common 
amethyst  and  thick  fibrous  amethyst.  See 
Quartz,  Amethyst,  6cc. 

Ttcentij-third  Species.     llnvn-Stnne. 

Tlorn-stone  is  divi<led  into  three  sub-spe- 
cies, splintery  liorn-stone,  conchoidal  horn- 
stone,  and  wood-stone. 

First  Sub-species.    Splintery  Ilom-Stonc. 

Tiie  common  colour  grey,  bnt  ofton  rel, 
with  various  shades  of  each.  It  is  usually 
fuLuid  massive,  or  in  large  balls.  Internally 
iis  iusiro  is  dull ;  but  glimmering  when  it  ap- 
proaches to  the  nature  of  quartz.  It  is  more 
•or  ie.ss  translucent  on  the  edges,  hard,  brit- 
tle, very  diliicultly  fraagible,  and  not  parti- 
cularly l;eavy.. 

The  substance  is  infusible  without  addi- 
tion; and  is  found  in  the  sh.ipe  of  balls  in 
limestone,  and  sometimes  forming  the  basis 
ol  porphyry.  It  is  a  native  of  Bavaria,  S\ye- 
den,  and  the  Shetland  inlands  ;  and  appears 
to  differ  fiom  tpiartz  in  containing  a  larger 
proportion  of  alumina. 

Second  Sub-species.  Conchoidal  Horn-Stone. 
■  The  colour  runs  from  greyish -white  to 
yellowish  and  greenish-white.  It  occurs 
massive.  Internally,  it  is  a  little  glistening, 
stronjiy  translucent ,  on  tiie  edges,  har3, 
easily  frangible,  and  not  particularly  heavy. 
Conchoidal  horn-stone  is  found  in  beds  or 
in  veins,  accompanied  with  agate,  at  Gold- 
berg, in  Saxony. 

Third  Sub-species.  U'ood-Stone. 
The  prevailing  colour  is  ash-grev,  but  with 
inany  different  shades.  Its  sh.'pe  is  exartly 
conformable  to  its  former  woody  form,  whe- 
ther trunk,  branches,  or  roots.  Internallv,  it 
is  sometimes  dull,  and  sometimes  glim:nering 
and  glistening ;  slightly  translucent  on  the 
edges,  pretty  hard,  easily  frangible,  and  not 
particularly  lie.ivy. 

It  is  found  ir.sulated  in  sandy  loam  in  Sax- 
ony, B..heini:i,  Russia,  Hungary,  and  at  Loch 
Neagh  in  Ireland.  It  receives  a  good  po- 
lish, and  is  applied  to  the  same  purposes  as 
agate. 

Tw:nt;/-fourth  Species.    Flint. 

The  general  colom-  is  grey,  but  with  many 
varieties.  It  occurs  niassi\e,  in  regidar 
plates,  in  angular  g'ains  and  species,  in  glo- 
bu'ar  and  elliptical  rolled  pieces,  in  the  form 
of  :.uid,  and  tuberose  and  p  'rforated.  Sonie- 
timi-s  it  is  chr.slaljized,  wlien  it  cxhibils 
doul.le  ix-sidt'd  pnsms,  or  tlal  double  three- 
sided  pyramids.  Inleinall;, ,  tlve  lustre  is 
glim.iKi'ing.  translucent  on  the  edges,  hard, 
easily  fiaii^ble,  aud  not  particularly  heavy. 

-fwentii-J'fih  Sp    /ev.     Cludcedonij. 

Th^  istiivided  no  two  .ub-spccics,  chal 
ccdony  aud  carneliati. 


MINERALOGY. 

First  Sub-species.     Common  Chalcedon'/. 

The  n)ost  common  colour  Is  grey.  The 
external  shape  is  various,  being  massive,  in 
blunt-edged  grains  au'l  rolled  pieces,  in  origi- 
u;J  round  balls,  &c.  '&:c.  Internallv,  tiie  chal- 
cedony is  almost  always  dull,  commonly  se- 
niitransparent,  har;l,  brittle,  rather  d  flicultly 
frangible,  and  not  particularly  heavy.  It  oc- 
curs in  amygdaloid,  and  in  |>or,)hyry  ;  and 
is  found  in 'JViinsylvania,  in  Iceland,  Siberia, 
'Cornwall,  Scotland,  and  the  Hebrides.  Be- 
ing susceptible  of  a  fine  polish,  it  is  employed 
as  an  article  of  jewellery. 

Second  Sub-species.  Ctirnelian. 
The  jnincipal  colour  is  a  blood-red,  of  all 
degrees  of  intensity.  It  commonly  occurs 
in  roundish  pieces,  and  also  in  layers:  the 
lustre  is  glistening,  bordering  on  glimmering, 
and  is  seinitran ^parent.     Sec  Carnelun. 

Agate. 

The  fossils  known  under  this  name  are  all 
compound  substances;  and  hence  cannot 
have  a  particular  place  in  any  systematic  ar- 
rangement. Werner  llierefore  has  placed 
them  as  a  supplement  to  the  species  chalce- 
dony, which,  lorms  a  principal  cftnstiuient 
part  of  them,  and  disposes,  liiem  according 
to  their  colour-delineations,  thus:  1.  Forti- 
iication  agtite ;  2.  Land.scape  agate  ;  3.  Hib- 
bon  agate  ;  4.  Moss  agate  ;  5.  Tube  agate  ; 
6.  Clouded  agate ;  7.  Land  agate ;  8.  Star 
agate  ;  9.  Fragment  agate;  10.  Punctated 
agate;  11.  Petrifaction  agate ;  12.  Coal 
agate  ;  13.  Jasper  agate.  They  are  all  com- 
pounded of  chalcedony,  carnelian,  jasper, 
horn-stone,  quartz,  hehotrope,  amethyst, 
indurated  lithomarge,  and  opal,  in  dilfereiit 
quantities  aud  proportions  ;  and  are  found  in 
great  abundance  in  Germany,  France,  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  East  Indies. 

The  uses  of  agate  are  various.  It  is  cut 
into  vases,  mortars,  snuff-boxes,  seals,  han- 
dles to  knives,  and  for  many  oliier  useful  pur- 
poses.    See  Agate. 

Tiicntij-sixth  Species.     Heliotrope. 

The  principal  colour  is  intermediate  be- 
tween leek  and  dark  celadon  green,  or  moun- 
tain green.  It  occurs  massive,  and  in  an- 
gular as  well  as  rolled  pieces.  Internally  the 
lustre  is  glistening,  and  is  always  resinous. 
It  is  commonly  translucent  in  the  edges;  'S 
easily  frangible,  hard,  and  not  particularly 
heavy. 

Heliotrope  is  found  in  rocks  belonging  to 
the  fioetztrap  formation,  in  Asia,  Persia,  .Si- 
beria, Saxony,  and  Iceland. 

On  account  of  its  beautiful  colour  and  its 
hardmss,  it  is  employed  for  ne.irly  the  same 
purposes  as  agate.     See  Heliotkope. 

Twenty-seventh  Species.    Plasma. 

The  usual  colour  is  'mtermcdiate  between 
grass  and  leek-green,  and  of  dilferent  de- 
grees of  intensity.  It  occurs  in  indetermi- 
nably  angular  pieces,  which  have  a  rough 
eartliy  crust.  Internally  its  lustre  is  glisten- 
ing. It  is  intermediate  between  semltranspa- 
rent  .md  strongly  translucent,  hard,  brittle 
frangible  without  great  difficulty,  and  not 
[)arlicul  .r;y  heavy. 

lliliierto  it  has  only  been  found  among  the 
ruins  (  Rom  •  and  constiuil.  d  a  part  of  tue 
.ornamental  d:ess  of  the  antieul  Romans. 


Tiven*'j-i-ijith  Species.    Chri/^opras, 

Its  characteristic  colour  is  apple-green,  of 
all  degrtw  of  ii.tensity.  It  is  lound  massive 
in  angular  pieces,  and  in  tliick  plates.  In- 
ternally it'll,  dull;  the  lustre  interniedi.iie 
betvveen  trans'iwent  and  semitransparent.  It 
is  hard,  not  very  diliicultly  frangible,  n.T 
particularly  heav)  ;  au.d  is  tound  along  wiiii 
quaitz,  opal,  chalcedony,  &c.  at  Koseinucu, 
in  Lower  Silesia. 

Chrysopras  is  principally  Used  for  rini;- 
stones,  and  some  variet.es  are  higidy  esteem- 
ed ;  but  it  is  diflicult  to  cut  and.  polish. 

Tuent>/-ninth  Species.    Flinty  Slate. 
This  has  been  divided  into  two  sub-species^ 
common  tiinty  sate,  and  Lydian  stone. 

Firs'  Sub-.ipecies.  Common. Flinty  Slate. 
The  princip.al  colour  is  grey,  but  tiiere  are 
many  varieties  of  shades.  It  occurs  massive 
in  whole  beds,  and  frequently  inblum-angled 
pieces,  with  a  smooth  and  glin.rtieiing  si;r- 
face.  Internaliy,  it  i^  faintly  glimmeriii<;  ; 
more  or  less  translucent  on  the  edges  ;  hard, 
battle,  dii5'icultly  frangible,  and  not  particu- 
larly heavy. 

It  occurs  in  be<ls  in  transitive  mountains 
in  Saxony,  at  the  lead-hills  in  Scotland,  and 
other  places. 

Second  Sub-species.     Lijdian  Stone. 

Thr-  colour  is  greyi-h-black,  passing  into 
velvel-black.  It  occurs  massive,  and  is 
Ireqnently  tound  in  trapezoidal-snaped  rolled 
pi-ces.  Internally,  it  i^  glimmering  ;  opaque, 
hard,  pretty  easily  trangible,  and  not  parti- 
cular Iv  he:. vy.  It  is  lound  in  similar  form- 
ations" with  tlic  preceding,  near  Prague  and 
Carlsbad  in  llohemia,  in  Saxony,  ;-.ncl  in  the 
Moorfoot  and  Pentland  hills,  near  Edin- 
burgh. * ' 

AVhen  polished,  it  is  used  as  a  test-tone 
for  determining  the  purity  of  gold  and  silver; 
but  is  less  suited  for  tl-.is  purpose  than  basalt, 
and  some  kind  of  clay  slate. 

Thirtieth  Species.     Cat's  Eye. 

The  principal  colour  is  grey,  of  which  it 
presents  many  varieties.  It  occurs  in  bUnt- 
edged  pieces,  is;  rolled  pieces,  and  likewise 
massive.  Internally,  it  is  shining;  usually 
translucent,  and  sometimes  also  semitrans- 
parent.  It  is  hard,  easily  frangible,  and  not 
partictdarly  heavy. 

Its  geognostic  situation  is  unknown  It  is 
imported  from  Cevlon  and  the  coast  of  Mala- 
bar :  and  is  usually  cut  for  ring-stones.  Some 
of  the  varieties  are  higlily  valued. 

Thirt^!-first  Species.    Prehnite. 

The  Cdloins  are  various  shades  of  green, 
white,  and  u'llow.  It  is  sometimes  massive, 
and  sometiiiies  chrystallized  in  obliciiie  four- 
sided  tables.  Externally,  the  chr\slals  are 
smooth  and  shining  ;  internally,  inclining  to 
glistening  and  pearly. 

Prehnite  is  traislucent,  sometimes  passing 
into  semilransparent  and  tr.insparent :  it  is 
hard,  easily  frangible,  and  not  very  heavy. 
It  occurs  in  Dauphiny  in  veins  ol  the  o'dest 
Ibrination  ;  in  Scotl.md  in  rocks  be  onging  to 
I  he  newest  floetz  trap  lormation  ;  ami  was 
lirst  discovered  in  Airica  by  colonel  Prehii, 
,nnn  whom  it  receives  its  appellation. 


TlifUi-^rrnnd  Specks.    Zi  olite. 

This  siK'cics  is  divided  by  Wirncr  ir.io 
five  sub-species,  1.  Mealv  zeolite;  2.  Fi- 
brous zf-nlUe ;  3.  Ri'diale'd  Keolite ;  4.  Fo- 
liati-d  Zf.vWle  ;  5.  C'uhec  zeolite.  As  they 
iue  |>riiR-ifiaIly  distipniii^hed  liom  each  otlu:r 
by  liar'.iiie.  hiidnes,  and  lustre,  we  pliall 
oiily  obscivt;,  that  the  chief  colours  ot  ai)  are 
yellowish,  whit i-h,  and  reddish,  with  u  va- 
riety of  intermediate  shades  ;  that  zeolil.'  oc- 
curs massive,  in  angu  ar  piccts,  in  balls,  and 
sonielinu's  chrystuilizL-d  in  sliort  and  obliqin' 
four-sided  prisms,  and  in  perfect  sinoolh 
planed  cubes;  that  it  is  according  to  the 
sub-specics  opa(iue,  translucent,  or  even 
Iran  parent ;  and  that  it  is  semihard,  easily 
fru'i^ible,  and  r.ot  paiticulariy  iieavy. 

Zeolite  occurs  in  ro<ks  beluiiging  to  the 
newest  tormation,  but  is  sometimes,  Ihous^h 
rarely,  lound  in  primitive  green  stone,  either 
disfeniinaied,  in  colemporaneous  balls,  or 
lining  or  filling  up  air  cavities  or  veins.  All 
t!ie  cliU'ereiil  sub-species  are  natives  of  Scot- 
land. The  mealy  zeolite  is  found  in  the  Isle 
ot  Sky  ;  the  fibrous  and  radiated  in  the  isles 
ofCaiiary  and  Sky;  the  foliated  in  Siaifa, 
and  the  cubic  in  the  same  isle,  and  likewise 
ill  Sky.  They  are  iikswi.-ie  met  with  iii  Ice- 
land, in  Sweden,  in  Germany,  and  the  East 
Lidies.    Figs.  '13  and  14. 

Tlurty-iltird  Sptcicf:.     Cross-Stone. 

The  colour  is  a  greyish-white.  It  occurs 
rhrystalliz'd,  either  in  broad  reetaiiguhu: tour- 
sided  piisins,  or  in  twin  chrystals.  The 
chrvstals  are  mosll\  small,  and  aggregated  on 
one  another.  Boui  the  internal  and  the  ex- 
ternal libtn;  is  sliining,  hiclining  to  splen- 
dent or  glistening. 

T  he  cioss-stone  is  translucent  passing  to 
transparent,  semi-hard,  easilv  franaible,  and 
not  particularly  heavy.  It  has  hitlieito  been 
found  only  in  mineral  veins,  and  in  agule- 
balls,  at  .^tronli.m,  in  Arg\lt:shire,  and  at 
Aiidieasbeig,  inllartz,  as  well  assomeotlier 
places. 

Thirl  I /-fourth  Species.     ./Igrite-.'iionc. 

The  colour  is  a  perfect  azure  blue,  of  dif- 
ferent slia<les.  It  is  found  massive,  disse- 
niir.ated,  and  in  rolled  pieces.  The  In-tre  is 
glislening  and  glimmering.  It  is  trans!ucei:t 
on  the  edges,  pretty  h.ird,  brittle,  easily 
frangible,  and  not  particularly  heavy. 

Tlie  geognoslic  situation  is  not  correctly 
ascertained.  It  is  said  to  have  been  tbnnd 
near  the  lake  of  Baikal,  in  Siberia,  in  a  vein 
acompanied  with  garnet,  felspar,  and  py- 
rites. It  occurs  in  Persia,  China,  'lartj'.ry, 
and  Siberia  ;  in  South  .America  ;  bu!  in  F,u- 
rope  has  only  been  found  among  the  ruins 
of  Rome. 

Its  beautiful  colour  renders  it  an  object  of 
attraction,  and  being  capable  of  receiving  a 
high  polish,  it  is  apphed  to  variou*  useful 
purposes,  and  enters  into  the  composition  of 
jiiaiiv  ditfeent  ornaments.  It  is  the  lapis 
lazuli  of  painters.  Werner  is  con^tantly  maiv- 
ing  additions  to  his  species  under  every  ge- 

BUS. 

Of  those  belonging  to  the  flint  genus, 
wbikh  are  less  known,  and  have  been  <le- 
scribed  with  less  precision  than  the  preced.ng, 
are  (oaoi:e,  tuuud  in  S.>'eden  and  N  >r- 
way ;  pistaziie,  found  in  Norw.iy,  Bavaria 
anil  France;  ceylauitej  inCeylou;  euclase 
10 


MINERALOGY. 

In  Peru;  hyalite,  near  Franckfort;  menilite, 
near  Paris  ;  lomonite,  in  Lower  Hritmny  ; 
iialroiite,  in  Snabia  ;  azurite,  in  Stiria,  &'c. ; 
andaUisite,  or  hardspar,  in  Saxony,  France, 
and  Spain;  chiasfolile,  or  hollow  spar,  in 
France  and  Spain,  and  probably  in  Cumber- 
land ;  scapolite,  in  Norway  ;  and  arctizite,  or 
sve  nerite,  in  Sweden,  Norway,  Switzerland, 
and  lazulite. 

FOUIITH    GENUS. 

Clay  Genus. 
First  Species.    Jasper. 
This  is  divided  into  six  sub-species;  Egyp- 
tian Jasper,  striped  jasper,  porcelain  jasper, 
i-ommon  jasper,  agatii  jasper,  and  opal  jas- 
per. 

Second  Species.     Opal. 

Werner  divides  thi.s  in'o  four  sub-species, 
precious  opal,  common  opal,  semi-opal,  and 
wood  opal. 

Third  Species.     Pitch-Stone. 

Tlie  colours  are  black,  green,  brown,  red, 
and  occasionally  gr.ey.  It  occurs  always 
massive  in  great  beds  and  rorks.  Internally, 
its  lustre  is  shining.  It  is  commonly  trans- 
lucent in  a  small  degree,  brittle,  and  pretty 
easily  frangible. 

Pitch-stone  is  fusible  without  addition  ;  oc- 
curs in  beds  in  the  newest  poi'i'hyryand  floelz 
trap  formation;  and  is  found  ni  Sa.\ony, 
Hungary,  in  several  of  the  Hebrides,  and  in 
Durrtfriesshire.  Some  of  its  varieties  bear  a 
striking  resemblance  to  pitch,  from  v?hence 
it  receives  its  appellation. 

Fourth  Species.  Obsidian. 
The  principal  colour  is  velvet-black.  It 
always  occuis  in  angularly  roundish-pieces. 
Ihternally  it  is  spl -ndent.  Some  of  tiie  va- 
rieties are  translucent,  others  semi-transpa- 
rent. It  is  hard,  easily  frangible,  and  not 
very  heavy. 

Obsidian  occurs  insular  in  the  newer  por- 

fhyry  formation,   and  is  found  in  Hungary, 
celand,  in  Peru,  and  various  other  countries. 
,  When  cut  and  polished,  it  is  sometimes  used 
:  for  ornameiital  purposes,  and  mirrors  for  te- 
lescopes have  been  formed  of  it.     It  probably 
owes  its  origin  to  tire. 

Fifth  .Species.     Pearl  Stone. 

Its  colour  is  generally  grey,    sometimes 

I  black  and  red.     It  occurs  vi  sicnlar,  and  the 

1  vesicles  are  long  and  roundidi,  with  a  shining 

'■  pearly  lustre.    ~lt  is  translucent  on  the  edges, 

not  very  brittle,  very  easily  frangible,  and  ra- 
!  tiler  light. 
I       Pea.  1  stone  is  found  in  beds  of  porphvry, 

near  'i'okay,  in  Hungary,  in  the  north  of  Ire- 
;  land,  and  the  Hebrides. 

Sixth  Species.  Pumice  Stone. 
Its  usual  colour  is  a  light  yellowish-grey, 
passing  into  diiCerent  neighbouring  shades. 
It  is  small,  and  lensthened  vesicular:  its  in- 
ternal lustre  glisiening,  generally  translucent 
in  the  edges,  soft,  antl  seldom  semi-hard, 
very  brittle,  easily  frangible,  and  swims  in 
lluids. 

It  occurs  in  varioas  situations,  gr ni  rally 
accompanied  by  rocks  that  l^elong  to  the 
Uoetz   trap  formation  ;  and  t  ough  usually 


205 

classed  among  volcanic  productions,  in  some 
siiuations  it  evidently  is  of  aquatic  orisiii.  It 
is  fotind  in  tiiif  Lipari  islai.d-.,  in  Hungary, 
Iceland,  and  on  the  banks  of  tiie  Rhine;  arid 
is  used  lor  poli-hiiig  stones,  nn  tab,  glass,  and 
ivory ;  and  also  for  preparing  parclnnent. 

Seventh  .Species.    Felspar 
Is  divided  into  four  sub-species  ;  compact 
felspar,   common  felspar,  adiilaria,  and  La- 
bradofe  stone.  Fig.  15. 

Eigh  h  species.  Pure  Clay 
Is  snow  white,  with  occasionally  a  yellow- 
ish tinge,  and  0. curs  in  kidney-shaped  pieces, 
which  liave  no  lustre.  It  is  opaque,  soils 
very  little,  adheres  slightly  to  file  tongue,  is 
light,  and  nitermediate  between  soft  and  fri- 
able. 

Pure  clay  is  found  immediately  under  the 
soil,  accom|)anied  witli  foliated  gypsum  and 
selenite,  at  Halle,  in  Saxony,  only. 

Ninth  species.    Porcelain  Earth. 

Tiie  colour  is  generally  a  reddish-white,  of 
various  degree-  oi  intensity,  ll  ccurs  m,  s- 
sive  and  disseminated  ;  its  particles  are  line 
and  dusty,  slightly  cohering,  and  feeUng  line 
and  light. 

It  is  found  in  beds  in  gneiss,  accompanied 
with  quartz  and  other  substances,  in  Saxony, 
at  Passau,  Limoges,  and  in  Cornwall.  In 
China  and  Japan,  where  it  is  called  kaolin,  it 
is  very  abundant.  It  forms  the  basis  of  china 
ware. 

Tenth  species.     Common.  Clay. 

This  is  divided  into  six  sub-species,  as 
foliow : 

1.  Loam,  of  a  yellowish  grey  colour,  fre- 
quently spotted  wirii  yellow  and  brown,  and 
occurring  massive,  "it  is  dull  and  weakly 
glimmering,  colours  a  little,  adheres  pretty 
strongly  to  the  tongue,  and  feels  slighty 
greasy.  It  is  often  mixed  with  sand,  gravel, 
and  iron  ochre. 

2.  Potter's  clay  is  of  two  kinds,  earthy  and 
slaty.  The  earthy  is  of  a  yellowish  and  grey . 
ish-white  colour  in  general;  occurs  massive; 
is  opacjue,  colours  a  little,  feels  somewhat 
greasy,  and  adheres  strongly  to  the  toDgue, 
Slaty  potter's  clay  is  generally  of  a  dark  ash- 
grey  colour,  and  feels  more  greasy  than  the 
preceding.  It  occurs  in  great  rock  masses, 
and  in  ailuviai  land.  IJoth  kinds  are  univer- 
sally dislribuled,  and  aie  of  great  importance 
in  the  arts  and  in  domestic  economy. 

3.  Pipe  clay  is  greyish-white,  passing  into 
yellowish-white,  occuring  massive,  of  a  glim- 
mering lustre,  and  having  its  particles  pretty 
coherent.  It  feels  rather  greasy,  is  easily 
frangible,  and  adheres  pretty  strongly  to  the 
tongue. 

4.  Variegated   clay    is  commonly  white,. 
red,  and  yellow,  strij)ed,  veined,  and  spotted^ 
It  occurs  massive,  is  soft,  ])as^ing  into  friable,,  ■ 
feels  a  little  greasy,  and  adheres  somewhat  to 
the  tongue.     It  is  found  in  Upper  Lusatia, 

j.  Clay-stone  is  commonly  grey  or  red, 
with  various  intermediate  tints.  It  occurs 
massive,  is  dull,  opaque,  soft,  pretty  easily 
frangible,  feels  rather  meagre,  and  does  not 
adhere  to  the  tongue.  It  forms  vast  rock 
masses,  occurs  in  beds  and  veins,  and  is  found 
in  Saxony,  in  Scotland,  and  in  Shetland. 

a.  Slate  clay  is  of  a  grey  colour,  presenting 
s.'veral  varieties.     It  is  massive,  intcruauy 


20(3 

thill,  opn.qiie,  pretty  soft,  mild,  easily  frangi- 
bli*.  atiheres  a  little  to  the  tongue,  and  feel^ 
Bic;igre.  It  is  generally  ibmid  wherever  the 
ovil,  tloetz  trap,  and  alluvial  formations  oc- 
tur. 

Ekvailh  species.     Pofkr,  or  Polishing- 
Stonc, 

Is  of  a  yello'.vish-grey  colour,  striped,  and 
the  colours  alternate  in  layer?.  It  occurs 
massive,  is  dull,  very  soft,  adheres  to  tlie 
tongue,  feels  line  but  meagre,  and  is  nearly 
swiminirg.  It  is  found  in  tiie  vicinity  of 
pseudo-volcanoes,  though  liitherlo  it  Las  only 
teen  discovered  in  Bohemia. 

Tivelfth  species.  Tripoli 
Is  of  a  yeliowish-grey  colour,  passing  into 
ash-grey ;  occurs  masiive,  is  internally  dull, 
very  soil,  feels  meagre  and  rough,  dues  not 
adhere  to  the  tongue,  and  is  railier  hght.  It 
is  found  in  veins  and  beds  in  floetz  rocks  ui 
Saxony,  in  Derbyshire,  and  many  otlu^r 
countries  besides  Tripoli,  from  whence  it  was 
first  brought.  Its  use  in  polishing  metals  and 
jninerals  is  well  known. 

Thirteenth  species.  Ahim-Stone 
Is  of  a  grevish-white  colour,  occurs  mass- 
ive, shews  a  tendency  to  chrystallization,  is 
soft,  passing  to  friable',  and  light.  It  is  found 
at  Tolfa,  near  Rome,  from  whence  the  fa- 
uious  Uomau  alum  is  manufactured. 

Fourteenth  species.  Alum  Earth. 
The  colour  is  a  blatkish-brown,  and  brown- 
ish-hlack  ;  it  is  massive,  dull,  ieels  a  little 
meagre,  and  sonic\*'hal  greasy  ;  is  intermedi- 
ate between  soft  and  fiiable,  and  light.  It  is 
found  in  beds  of  great  magnitude  in  alluvial 
land,  and  in  Hoetz  trafi  formation  in  several 
parts  of  C-rmany,  in  Naples,  and  in  France. 
It  is  lixiviated  to"obtaiathe  alum  it  contains. 


Fiftecnih  species,    Mum-filntc 
Is  divided  into  two  sub-species,  as  follow: 

1.  Common  alum-slate  is  between  a  grey- 
ish and  bluish-black  colour,  occurs  massive, 
and  in  balls,  is  soft,  not  very  brittle,  easily 
frangible,  and  not  very  heavy,' 

2.  Glossy  alum-slate  is  of  an  inteniiciliatc 
colour,  between  Wueish  and  iron-black  ;  oc- 
curs massive,  with  a  shining  seini-nietallic  I 
lustre,  and  in  other  respects  resfimljies  the 
former.  It  is  found  in  beds  and  strata  in  Sax- ! 
ony,  France,  Scotland,  and  Hungary ;  and 
allorde  cor.siderable  quantities  of  alum. 

Sixteenth  species.    Bituminous  Shale 
Is  of  a  brownish-black  colour,  and  occurs 

rn.assivfi,    Intemaliy,  its  luotre  Is  glimmering ; 

it  a  vevvsoft,  rather  mjld,  feels  rntl'.erftrt'Hsy, 

ii>   easiry  frangible,   and    not    purliciiUirly 

lieavy. 

It  is  found  with  clav-alate  in  the  coal  form- 

tdion,  in  Bohemia,  f'ngUind,  Scotland,  and, 

tither  coid  countries, 

Seventeenth  apecies.    DravAus  Sidle,  or 
Black  CImtk: 

hs  colour  Is  a  gieyish-blaek,  with  »  tinge 
of  blue;  it  ocrurinvi«'ivei  i«  opp.ijue,  coIqiii's 
a;id  writen,  is  (loft,  mild,  eaullT  frangible,  feeln 
uw^p^vc  but  fine,  arid  i*.  r.itiiei-  lijjhl, 

It  is  founi  in  primitive  nrJiinUiinii  in 
i'liwui,  Germoj))',  iiutund,  B(;t>iltiiid,  and 


the  Melirides.     When  of  a  middling  degree 
of  hardness,  it  is  used  for  drawing, 

Eighteenth  species.  Ifhet-Slate. 
The  common  colour  is  greenish-grey  ;  it 
is  massive;  interiijUy,  weakly  glimmering, 
semi-hard,  feels  rather  greasy,  and  is  not  par- 
ticularly Initde  or  heavy.  It  occurs  in  pri- 
mitive mountains  in  Saxony,  liohemia,  and 
the  Levant.  When  cut  and  polished,  it  is 
used  for  sharpening  knives  and  tools. 

Nineteenth  species.  Cla>j-Slfitc. 
Its  principal  colour  is  grev,  of  which  there 
are  many-  varieties.  It  occurs  massive;  in- 
ternally, its  colour  is  glistening,  thi-  substance 
opaque,  soft,  pretty  easily  frangible.  It  is 
found  in  vast  strata  in  primitive  and  transi- 
tion mountains  in  many  different  countries, 
but  particularly  in  Scotland.  VVI-.en  split 
into  thin  and  firm  tables,  it  is  used  for  rooting 
houses,  and  other  purposes. 

Ttventieth  sp(vies.  Lepidnlite. 
Its  colour  is  a  kind  of  peach-blossom,  red, 
verging  on  lilac-bhie,  and  occurs  massive. 
Its  internal  lusitre  is  glistening ;  it  is  trans- 
lucent, soft,  easily  frangible,  and  e;isily  melts 
before  the  blowpipe.  Hitherto  it  has  only 
been  found  in  Moraxia,  where  it  lies  in 
gneiss. 

Tuentij-first  species.    Mica,  or  Glimmer. 

Its  common  colour  is  gi-ey,  of  great  va- 
riety of  shades.  It  occurs  massive,  dissemi- 
nated in  thin  t'^.bles  and  layers  in  other  stones, 
and  chtystalli^ed  either  in  equilateral  six- 
sided  tables,  or  in  six-sided  prisms.  The  sur- 
tiice  ot  the  chrystals  is  splendent ;  internally, 
shining  and  splendent.  In  thin  plates,  it'is 
transparent;  but  in  larger  masses  only  trans- 
lucent on  the  edges.  It  is  semi-hard,  feels 
smooth,  but  not  greasy,  elastically  flexible, 
and  more  or  less  easily  frangible. 

It  forms  one  of  the  constituent  parts  of 
granite,  gneiss,  and  mica  slate,  and  i<  almost 
peculiar  to  the  primitive  mountains.  It  v.as 
formerly  used  instead  of  glass,  for  windows 
and  lanterns,    I'lg.  16, 


Tiventy'second  species.    Pot-Stone. 

Its  colour  is  a  greenish-grey,  of  different 
degrees  of  jiuensity  ;  k  massive;  lustre,  in- 
ternaily,  glistening'  and  pearly,  translucent 
on  the"  edges ;  Bolt,  feels  greasy,  and  is  very 
dinicultly  frangible. 

It  occura  in  beds,  oris  indular ;  and  is  found 
in  the  <!(ni!itry  of  the  Grisons,  in  Saxony,  and 
probably  in  liudson's-bay,  and  is  nearly  al- 
lied to  iuduntled  taic. 

Tiventij'lhird  species.    Chlorite, 
Which  see, 

Tfjoitij'fourth  species.   'Hornblende, 
Whielisee.  See  also  fig.  17. 

Txvtnt;f-f!fih  species.  Basalt. 
The  usual  eolom- is  greyhh-black,  of  vari- 
ous dug:i>e«  of  intensity,  'It  occurs  massive, 
III  bltint  and  rolled  pieces,  and  itoinelinies  ve- 
sicular, Inturnally,  it  is  commonly  dull.  It 
is  usually  found  in  distinct  concreti'ons,  which 
are  ttenorallv  cohiinnar,  ami  Kometlmos  tiii- 
warm  of  l6o  teot  ii»  length.  C'omnn>nlv 
opitque,  si-nii-luird,  brittle,  very  diirniiltl'v 
frangible,  ineltn  without  addition,  and  is  al- 


most exclusively  confined  to  the  floetz  (rai» 
formation.  It  occurs  in  strata,  bt;ds,  and 
veins,  in  ainiost  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
and  is  very  abundant  in  Scotland,  Ireland, 
and  in  oth'er  parts  of  the  British  European 
dominions.  It  is  useful  for  building,  as  a 
touch-stone,  as  a  flux,  and  in  glass  manufac- 
tures. 

Txocntij-sixlh  species.    Wacce. 

The  colour  is  a  greenish-grey,  of  various 
degrees  of  intensity.  It  occurs  massive  ;ind 
vesicular,  is  dull,  somewhat  glimmering, 
opaque,  usually  soft,  more  or  less  easily 
frangible,  and  not  particularly  heavy. 

It  is  said  to  belong  exclusively  to  the  floetz 
.  trap  formation,  where  it  occurs  in  beds  and 
above  clay,  and  also  in  veins.  It  is  found  in 
Sa.xony,  Bohemia,  and  Sweden. 

Tteentij-sevenlh  species.  Clink-Stone 
Is  commonly  of  a  dark  greenish-grey  co- 
lour, always  massive,  and  occurring  iii  irre- 
gular columns,  and  tabular  distinct  concre- 
tions. It  is  usually  translucent  on  the  edges, 
brittle,  easily  frangible,  and  when  struck  with 
a  hammer,  sounds  like  a  piece  of  metul. 

It  is  said  to  belong  to  the  floetz  trap  form- 
ation, anil  generally  rests  on  basalt.  It  is 
fouiul  in  Lusatia,  Bohemia,  South  America, 
and  in  the  isle  of  Lambash,  in  the  frith  o£ 
Clyde. 

Twenty-eighth  species.    I.ma 

Is  divided  into  two  sub-species. 

1.  Slag  kiva  is  of  a  greyish-black  colour, 
passing  into  other  shades.  Externally,  it  is 
spotted,  occurs  vesicular  and  knotty,  is"  gene- 
rally opaque,  semi-hard,  brittle,  easily  fran- 
gible, aud  not  particularly  heavy. 

2.  Foam  lava  is  of  a  dark  gieenish-grey 
colour,  occurs  small  and  line,  vesicular;  ex- 
ternally, glimmering,  slightly  translucent  on 
the  edges,  brittle,  easily  frangible,  and  light. 
It  has  often  been  confounded  with  piunice- 
stone,  from  which,  howc\er,  it  differs  very 
much.  On  account  of  its  lightness,  it  is  usell 
v.'itii  advantage  in  arciiing  vaults,  and  other 
kinds  of  building. 

Tioenty-ninth  species.  Green  Earth, 
Its  colour  is  a  celaden  green,  of  various 
degrees  of  intensity.  It  occurs  massive,  in 
angular  and  globular  pieces,  and  also  disse- 
minated. Internally,  it  is  dull,  streak  glist- 
ening, very  soft,  easily  frangible,  and  light. 

It  is  principally  found  in  amygdaloid,  in 
Saxony,  Bohemia,  Scoiiand,  "and  other 
placesll  and  is  used  by  painters. 

Thirtieth  species.    Liihormge 
Is  divided  into  two  sub-species. 

1.  Friable  lithomage,  or  rockmarrow,  is 
snow-white,  or  yellowish-white,  occurs  mas- 
sive, as  a  crust,  and  disseminated ;  ia  t;ene- 
rally  coherent,  feels  greasy,  and  adheres  to 
the  tongue.  Is  found  in  tin  veins,  iu  Sax- 
ony. 

2.  Indurated  lithomage  is  most  connnonly 
while,  of  wliich  it  presents  aevend  varieties ; 
is  massive  ;  internally,  dull ;  streak  shining, 
very  soft,  easily  frangible,  feola  greasv,  aiid 
adheres  RtroiiAl'v  to  the  toiigui),  It  occurs  in 
veins  rtf  porpliy'ry,  &c.  iu  Saxony,  Bohemia, 
ISavai'lu,  &c. 

Thirty-first  species,    lioek  Soap 
Is  of  a  browuiih  or  jjitth-black  colour, 


massive  ami  riissemiiiated,  dull,  opaque,  does 
not  suil,  « riles  1:I^l'  draw  iiuj-slate,  is  easily 
frangibli;,  ami  adheres  slroiijily  to  the  tongue. 

It  is  linmd  imbedded  in  rocks  of  the  tloelz 
trap  formation,  in  Poland,  and  in  the  isle  of 
Sky,  but  is  very  rare,  and  foimd  only  in 
small  (luantities. 

Tliirtij-second  -species.     Yallozv  Farlli. 

The  colour  is  ochre-yellow,  of  diiierent 
degrees,  of  intensity ;  it  is  massive,  streak 
somewhat  shining,  soils,  writes,  is  very  solt, 
adheres  pretty  strongly  to  the  toiigue,  and 
feels  st)mewhal  greas) .  It  occurs  in  beds 
with  iron-stone,  in  Upper  Saxony,  and  is  em- 
ployed as  a  jjigment. 

'l"o  the  clay  genus,  likewise,  belong  ad- 
liesive  slate,  lioat-stone,  pimte,  and  umber, 
which  may  be  considered  as  recent  disco- 
veries. 

FIFTH    GENUS. 

Talc  Gams. 
First  species.     Bole. 

Its  colom'  is  cream-yellow,  passing  into  vari- 
ous other  shades  ;  is  commonly  massive,  very 
soft,  easily  frangible,  feels  greasy,  gives  a  shin- 
ing streak,  adheres  to  tlie  tongue,  and  is 
light.  It  occurs  in  rocks  belongiiig  to  the 
newest  iloetz  trap  formation,  and  is  lound  in 
beds  of  wacce  or  basalt,  in  Silesia,  Italy,  6cc. 
It  was  formerly  employed  in  medicine,  but  is 
now  used  only  as  a  pigment. 

Second  species.    Native  Talc  Earth. 

The  colour  is  yellowish-grey,  passing  into 
cream-yellow.  It  occurs  massive,  tuberose, 
ajid  of  other  shapes  ;  is  internally  dull,  almost 
Ojjaque,  soft,  frangible  without  much  difficulty, 
and  adheres  a  little  to  the  tongue. 

It  is  found  in  beds  of  serpentine,  but  only 
hitherto  in  Moravia. 

Third  species.     Meerschaum. 

The  usual  colour  is  yellowish-white.  It 
occurs  massive,  is  internally  dull,  opaque, 
streak  shining,  is  soft,  adheres  strongly  to  the 
tongue,  feels  a  little  greasy,  and  is  nearly 
swimmip.g.  It  is  principally  found  in  Na- 
tolia,  in  Samos,  riungary,  Moravia,  S])ain, 
and  America.  It  is  much  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  heads  of  tobacco-pipes.  It  is  said 
lliat  the  Turks  eat  it  as  a  medicine. 

Fourth  species.    Fuller's  Earth. 

The  coloui-s  are  greenish-«'hite,  grey, 
olive,  and  oil-green.  It  is  massive ;  inter- 
nally dull,  usually  opaque,  gives  a  shining 
streak,  is  very  soil,  leeis  greasy,  and  is  not 
particularly  heavy. 

It  is  found  in  different  situations  in  Eng- 
land, Saxony,  .Msace,  and  Sweden;  and  is  of 
essential  use  in  cleansing  woollen  cloth,  from 
which  property  it  receives  its  name. 

Fifth  species,    Neaphrite, 


Sixth  species.     Steatite. 

The  principal  colour  is  white,  of  which  it 
presents  many  varieties.  It  occurs  massive, 
disseminated,  in  cru-'.s,  and  chrystallized  in 
six-sided  prisms.  Internally  it  is  dull,  streak 
shining,  very  soft,  rather  dilUcullly  frangible, 
and  lev.- Is  greasy. 

It  is  found  in  beds  and  veins  in  serpentine 
in  Norway,  Sweden,  Sa.\ony,  England,  Scot- 
land, and  China.  It  is  u-ed  in  tfie  manufac- 
ture of  porcelain,  and  for  other  purposes. 


MINERALOGY. 

Serenlh  species.     Serpentine, 
Which  see. 

Eighth  species.  Schiller-Stone. 
Its  colour  is  olive-green,  usually  dissemi- 
nated and  massive ;  lustre  shining,  is  soft, 
sliglilly  brittle,  and  e.isilv  frang'ble.  It  oc- 
curs imbedded  in  serpentine,  ai:d  is  found  in 
llu-  Harz,  in  Saxon v,  Cornwall,  and  Ayr- 
siiire.  It  is  often  conlounded  with  Labradore 
hornblende. 

Ninth  species.     Talc. 
Thisisdivideil  into  three  sub- species. 

1.  Karlliy  talc  is  of  an  intermediate  colour 
between  greenish-white  and  light  greenish- 
grey  ;  friable,  strongly  glinnnering,  soils  a 
little,  feels  rather  greasy,  and  occurs  in  tin 
veins  near  Freiberg  in  Saxony. 

2.  Common,  or  Venetian  talc,  is  princi- 
pally of  an  apple-green  colour,  massive  and 
disseminated,  and  in  delicate  and  small  tabu- 
lar chrystals.  It  is  almost  alv.ays  splendent 
and  shining,  translucent,  in  thin  leaves  trans- 
parent, llexible,  but  not  elastic;  soft,  easily 
irancible,  feels  very  greasy,  and  approaches 
to  light. 

It  is  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  primi- 
tive mountains,  v\here  it  is  lound  imbedded  in 
serpentine,  and  also  in  veijis.  It  is  found  in 
the  Tyrolese  Alps,  in  Switzerland,  and  in 
Sa.xony. 

3.  Indurated  talc  is  of  a  greenish-grey  co- 
lour, of  various  degrees  of  intensity,  occurs 
massive,  is  shining,  passing  to  glistening, 
strongly  translucent  on  the  edges,  soft,  feels 
rather  greasy,  and  is  frangible  without  parti- 
cular difficulty.  It  is  tuund  in  primitive 
mountains  in  Tyrol,  Austria,  Scotland,  and 
the  Shetland  isles. 

Tenth  species.    Asbest. 
See  Asbestos. 

Eleventh  species,     djanite, 
V\'hich  see. 

Txirljth  species.     Actynolite 
Is  divided  into  the  following  sub-species: 

1 .  Asbeslous  actynolite  is  of  a  greenisli-giev 
colour,  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  and  in 
cajiillary  chrystals  ;  is  internally  glistening, 
tran-lucent  on  the  edges,  soft,  brittle,  not 
easily  frangible,  nor  [jarticularly  heavy.  It 
is  found  in  mineral  beds  in  Saxony,  and' other 
parts  of  German}-. 

2.  Common  actynolite  is  generally  of  a 
green  leek-colour,  passing  into  other  shades 
of  the  same  ;  it  occurs  massive,  and  likewise 
chrystallized  in  very  oblique  six-sided  prisms, 
is  splendent  externally,  semi-hard,  rather 
brittle,  and  not  caily  frangible. 

It  is  found  in  beds  in  piimjtive  mountains, 
in  Saxony,  Switzerland,  Norway,  and  Scot- 
land. 

3.  Glassy  actynolite  is  principally  of  a 
mountain-greencolour,  of  various  degrees  of 
intensity;  occurs  massive,  or  in  thin  six-sided 
acicular  chrystals,  is  shining  and  vitreous, 
strongly  translucent,  brittle,  easily  frangible, 
semi-hard,  and  is  found  in  similar  situations 
with  the  preceding. 

Thirteenth  species.    Trcnmlite. 

Thi-i  is  divided  into  the  following  sub- 
species : 

1.  Asbestons  tremolite  is  of  a  whitish  co- 
lour with  -a  tinge  of  yellow,  grey,  red,  or 
green:  it  occuis  massive,  and  in.  capillary 


207 

and  acicular  diryst.ils ;  intprnally  glistening, 
very  soft,  easily  frangible,  and  translucent  on 
the  edges. 

2.  Common  tremolite  is  nearly  of  the 
same  colour  as  the  preceding,  occurs  massive, 
and  in  long  and  very  oblique  four-sided 
prisms :  internally,  is  shining  and  glistening, 
tiansluccnt  and  semi-transparent,  semi-hard, 
and  pretty  easily  frangible. 

3.  Glassy  tremolite  is  yellowish,  reddish, 
greyish,  and  greenish-white;  occurs  massive, 
and  chrysiallized.  Internally,  is  shining  and 
pearly  ;  is  composed  of  very  thin  prismatic 
concretions,  which  are  again  collected  into 
very  thick  prismatic  concretions.  It  is  trans- 
lucent, bridle,  and  pretty  easily  frangible,, 
and  is  said  to  emit  a  phosphoric  light  when 
rubbed  in  the  dark. 

Tremolite  is  |)rincipally  found  imbedded  in 
primitive  mountains,  pai'licularlv  the  moun- 
tains of  Tremola,  in  Switzerland.  It  is  alsO' 
found  in  different  parts  of  Germany,  and  in 
Scotland. 

Sahlite,  lately  discovered  in  Sweden,  like, 
wise  belongs  to  the  talc  genus. 

SIXTH    GENUS. 

Calc  Genus. 
First  species.  Rock  Milk. 
Its  colour  is  yellowish-Nvhite;  it  is  coin'^ 
posed  of  tlully,  dusty  particles  generally 
weakly  cohering,  teeis  meagre  yet  fine,  soils 
very  much,  and  is  very  light.  It  is  found  in- 
fissures  and  holes  of  mountains  composed  of 
floetzlinie-stone,  in  Switzerland. 

Second  ■'ipecies.     Chalk. 

Its  colour  is  principally  all  yellowish- 
white:  it  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  and. 
as  crust  over  flint.  Internally,  is  dull,  opaque,, 
soils,  writes,  soft,  sonielimes  very  soft,  very 
eajiy  frangible,  feels  meagre,  'and  rather 
rough  ;  elfervesces  strongly  with  acids,  and  is 
found  principally  on  the  sea-coast,  though  the 
Cl-.iltern  range  in  England  is  wholly. composed, 
of  it.  It  is  used  forjjolishing  and  cleansing, 
metals,  glass,  &c.  and  in  soii'.e  places  as  a. 
manure,  and  cement  in  building. 

Third  species.    Lime-Stone 

Is  divided  into  several  sub-species : 

1.  Compact  lime-stone  is  of  two  varieties,, 
conunon  compact  lime-stone,  and  roe-stone,. 

Tlie  former  is  generally  of  a  grey  colour,  but 
is  frequently  veined,  zoned,  siriiied,  or  cloud- 
ed; occurs  massive,  and  in  roiled  pieces;  is 
translucent  on  the  edges,  semi-hard,  brittle,, 
pretty  easily  frangible;  is  almost  entirely  con— 
lined,  like  lime  m  general,  to  the'floetz 
mouniains;  occurs  in  sand,  stone,  and  coal 
formations,  in  England,  Scotland,  and  many 
other  countries  ;  and  is  frequently  u^ed  for 
building  or  making  roads,  or,  when  bunit,  for" 
manure  and  cement.. 

The  latter,  or  roe-stone,  is  of  a  chesnut- 
brown  colour,  is  massive;  internally  dull,, 
composed  of  small  and  fine-giained  giobular 
distinct  concretions ;  semihard,  brittle,  not 
very  easily  frangible;  occurs  in  beds  in  con- 
siderable quantities  in  Saxony,  and  is  solely 
used  for  manure,  for  which  its  admixture 
with  marl  admirably  lits  it. 

2.  Foliated  limestone  is  likewise  of  two- 
kinds,  granular  limestone,  and  calc  spar' 
(figs.  18.  and  H).).  The  former  is  commonly 
whitish,  but  presents  many  varieties  of.  Ibaf 
colour ;  is  aiaisive,  occurs  almost  always  ia. 


208. 

granular  distinct  concretions,  is  more  or  k>ss 
translucent,  scmiliard,  brittle,  easily  fran- 
gible, is  peculiar  to  the  primitive  and.tran- 
sitive  niinititaiiis,  anJ  is  cliiefly  found  in 
Italy,  whence  it  is  distributed  over  Europe, 
for  tiie  purpose  of  statuary.  'The  «i)ite 
marble  of  Paros,  or  granular  limestone,  has 
long  been  celebratecl.  Scotland  furnishes 
some  beautiful  varieties  of  marble*,  whose 
uses  are  well-known. 

'i1ie  latter,  or  calc  spar,  is  principally 
white,  hut  has  many  shades.  It  occurs 
massive,  disseminated,  and  chrystaliized, 
either  in  six-sided  prisms,  or  three-sided 
prisms.  The  lustre  alternates  from  splend- 
ent to  sli"ning  and  glistening,  and  is  most 
commonly  vitreous.  The  massive  va- 
rieties aiv  translucent,  and  sometimes  even 
transparent.  It  is  fomid  veinsgenous  in  al- 
most every  rock  from  granite  to  the  newest 
flo^'lz  trap,  occurs  in  a  great  variety  of  mine- 
ral veins,  and  is  very  universaliv  dissi-mi- 
natcd,  but  is  f'ounil  particularly  beautiful  in 
Derbyshire,  in  Ireland,  Saxony,  i-'rance,  and 
Spain. 

.3.  Fibrous  limestone,  is  of  two  varieties, 
coiiimon  lii.'rous  limestone,  and  tibrous  lime- 
stone, or  ea!c  sinter.  The  former  is  com- 
monly greyish,  reddish,  or  yellowish-white; 
massive,  lustre  glistening,  fragments  splin- 
tery, more  or  less  translucent,  seniihard,  and 
occurs  only  in  small  veins. 

The  latter,  or  calc  sinter,  is  |)rincipa!lv 
vhite,  of  wiiich  it  exhiblls  several  beauti'ili 
varieties  ;  occurs  massive,'  and  also  in  many 
particular  external  forms;  internally  is  glim- 
mering and  pearly.  It  is  commonly  found  in 
curved  lamellar  distinct  concretions,  is  niore 
or  less  translucent,  semii'.ard,  brittle,  a'ui  easily 
frangible  ;  it  is  discovered  In  almost  every 
lime.stone  'country.  The  grotto  of  Anti- 
paros,  and  similar  situations,  aii'ord  striking 
instances  of  calc  sinter.  It  is  the  alabaf.lcr 
of  the  ancients,  and  is  still  used  in  statuary. 

4.  Pea-stons  is  commonly  yellowi'sh- 
white,  massive,  internally  dull,  opaijue  or 
transUicent  on  the  edges';  soft,  very  ea-idy 
frangible  ;  and  is  found  iu  great  masses  in  the 
■vicinity  of  the  hot  springs  at  Carlsbad  iu 
Bohemia,  it  is  composed  of  spherically 
round  distinct  concretions.  All  the  varieties 
of  limestone  eitervesce  with  acids. 

Fiiurlk  species.  Schaum,  or  foaming  earth, 
Is  principally  of  a  light  yeilo«  ish  colour  : 
occurs  massive  and  disseminated  ;  is  inter- 
mediate between  shining  and  ylisiening;  pie- 
sents  large,  coarse,  small,  and  line-granied 
distinct  concreti-jus ;  is  generally  opaque, 
soft,  completely  friable;  ieels  fine,  but  not 
greusy,  and  cracks  a  little.  It  is  found  in 
caviifes  of  th.c  oldest  floeti!  limetone  in  Tiui- 
ringia,  and  in  the  north  of  Ireland. 

J-'ij'ili  spirits ,  slate  spar. 
Its  colour  mill;y,  and  greenish  or  reddish- 
while  ;  occurs  massive ;  luslre  intermediate 
between  shining  and  glistening,  and  com- 
pletely pearly  ;>agiueiits  ilaty,  translucent, 
Boft,  and  pretty  easily  fran;;ible.  It  is  found 
in  liriie-.li)nebe!ls  in  primitive  moiintainrt, 
anri  is  produced  In  >5onvi!y.  Saxony,  and 
Cornwall. 

Si-.nk  ipw'0s.    Broi:-n  spar. 

This  is  diviiitU  into  the  following  sub-spe- 
cies: 

I.  Foliated  browii  spar,  is  principally  white 


MINERALOGY. 

and  red,  with  several  varieties  of  each.  It 
occurs  massive,  globular,  with  tabular  ini- 
jiressions,  and  frequently  chrystallized,  ex- 
ternally shining,  internally  alternating  from 
shining  to  spleniient.  It  is  found  in  granular 
distinct  concretions  of  all  magnitudes ;  is 
more  or  less  translucent,  semihard  ;  a  little 
dilficuUly  frangible,  and  occurs  in  veins  ge- 
nerally accompanied  with. calc  spar,  &c.  in 
the  mines  of  Norway,  France,  Germany, 
England,  and  other  countries. 

'J.  Fibrous  brown  spar  is  of  a  flesh-red, 
passing  into  rose-red  ;  occurs  massive,  lusire 
glistening,  fragments  splintery,  iu  other  re- 
spects resembling  the  preceding.  Hitherto 
it  has  beesi  found  only  in  Hungary  and  Tran- 
sylvania. 

S(:m!h  species.     Rliomh  spar. 

Its  colours  are  yellowish  and  greyish-white ; 
occurs  only  in  regular  niK-klle-size'd  rhombs  , 
lustre  splendent,  generally  intermediate  be- 
tween translucent  and  semitransparenl;  is 
semihard,  brittle,  easily  frangible,  and  is 
foiind  imbedded  in  rocks  belonging  to  the 
talc  genus  in  Switzerland,  Sweden,  and  on 
the  banks  of  Loch-lomond  in  Scotland. 
Kiglitspicies.    Scliaa' stone. 

The  most  common  colour  is  greyish-whit:-; 
it  occurs  massi\e,  is  shining  and  nearly 
peariy,  translucent,  pretty  hard,  brittle,  easily 
Irangible,  ami  has  been  hiliieito  found  only 
in  the  Bannat  of  Tameswar,  accompanied  by 
copper  ore. 

Ninth  species.    Slini'-stone. 

Its  colour  is  wood-brown,  passing  into  vari- 
ous other  shades.  It  occurs  massive,  and  some- 
times disseminated  tliroiigh  gyps,  is  dull  or 
glimmering  internally,  transUicent  on  the 
edges,  rather  soft,  eas'ily  frangible,  and  when 
rubbed,  emits  an  urinous  smell.  It  is  found 
in  consi'lerable  quantities  in  the  district  of 
Jilansfield  in  Thuringia. 

Tenth  species.    Marie, 

Which  see. 
Eleventh  species.    Bituminous  marie  slate. 

Its  colour  is  intermediate  betwe;Mi  greyish 
and  brov.'nish-bh:ck  ;  it  is  massive,  from 
glimmering  to  shining,  fragments  slaty,  usu- 
ally soft,  not  very  brittle,  easily  frangible,  and 
streak  shining.  It  is  found  in  beds  along 
with  the  oldest  Hoetz  limestone,  and  contains 
much  cojiper  inlerinixed  with  it,  on  account 
of  which  it  is  usually  smelted  in  Thuringia, 

Txielffh  species.  Calc  tutP. 
The  colour  is  yellowish-grey;  it  is  gene- 
rally perforated  or  marked  with  the  inip.-es- 
sioiis  of  other  substances,  also  amorpiious, 
ramose,  and  corroded/  Internally  dull, 
substance  opaque,  soft,  easily  frangilile,  aiui 
approaching  t:)  swimming.  It  occurs  in  al- 
luvial land,  and  is  found  in  'I'huringia,  at 
Gotha,  And  other  places  in  Germany. 

Thirleenih  species,  Jrragone, 
The  principal  colours  are  greenish-grey, 
and  iron-giey.  It  occurs  chrystalll/ed  "ui 
^jerfect  equiangular  six-sided  prisms;  the 
lustre  is  glistening,  passing  into  shining,  and 
is  vitreous;  it  is  semihard,  brittle,  not  par- 
ticularly heavy,  and  plurpluresces  a  .little. 
It  w.is  (list  discovered  in  the  province  of  Ar- 
rago'i,  whence  its  name,  imbt-dded  in  gjps, 
but  has  sincri  been  found  in  20m«  Other  coun- 
tries of  the  continent. 


rourteeulh  speeks.  Appntitf. 
The  usual  colours  are  white,  green,  blu*, 
and  red;  it  generally  occurs  chrystallized, 
the  radical  form  of  wiiich  is  the  ecjuiaiigula;' 
six-sided  prism.  Externally  it  is  splendent, 
internally  shining  and  resinous.  It  is  com- 
monly transparent,  semihard,  brittle,  easily 
frangible,  and  occurs  in  tin  veins  in  Saxony, 
Hohemia,  and  in  Cornwall.  It  has  beencou- 
foundedwithschori.  Sec.     Fig.  20. 

Fijieentk  species.     Jsparagus  or  spargel 
stone. 

The  principal  colour  is  asparagus-green; 
it  occurs  only  chrystallized  in  equiangular 
>ix-siued  prisms,  is"  internally  shining,  most 
frequenily  translucent,  semihard,  easily 
frangible,  and  brittle.  Hitherto  it  has  beeli 
found  only  in  Miircia  in  Spain,  tiiough  sup- 
posed to  be  produced  in  Norway.  It  is 
neariy  allied  to  appatite.     Fig.  21. 

Si-'ti-entli  species.     Borncite. 

Its  colours  are  yellowish,  smoke  and  grey- 
ish while,  passing  to  as|)aragus-grven ;  it  ' 
occurs  in  chrystalliicd  cubes,  with  the  edges 
and  angles  truncated,  internally  shining, 
co;iimoiily  semitransparenl,  sennhard,  brit- 
tle, and  easily  frangible.  Hilherlo  it  his 
been  discovered  only  at  Luueburg  in  Ha- 
nover.   Fig.  22. 

Seventeenth  species.     Fluor, 
AVhich  see,  also  lig.  23. 

Eighteenth  sj)icies.     Gjrps. 
This  is  divided  into  the  following  sub-spe- 
cies: 

1 .  Gyps  earth  is  of  a  yellowish-white  co- 
lour, passing  into  some  allied  shades,  is  inter- 
mediate between  line  scaly  and  dusky,  dull 
and  feebly  glimmering,  soils  a  little,  feels 
meagre  but  soft  and  hue,  and  is  light.  It  is 
found,  though  rarely,  in  gyps  countries,  and 
is  formed  in  ihe  same  manner  as  rock  milk. 
It  is  used  as  a  manure. 

2.  Compact  gyps,  is  commonly  ash-grey, 
passing  into  smoke  and  yellowish-grey,  'is 
massive,  internally  dull,  feebly  tran-.lucent 
on  the  edges,  very  soft,  frangible  without 
great  dilTiculty,  and  is  emploved  in  archi- 
tecUire  ami  sculpture,  under  "the  name  of 
alabaster. 

3.  r'o'iated  gyps  is  commonly  white,  grev, 
or  red,  presenting  spotted,  striped,  and  vein- 
ed colour  delineations.  It  occurs  massive, 
and  in  blunt-edged  pieces,  but  seldom  in 
chrystals.  Interiiaily  it  allernates  tio.n  shin- 
ing' and  gliateninv  to  glanmering,  is  trans- 
lucent and  duplicating,  very  soft,  and  not 
particularly  diflicultly  frangible.  It  has  been 
conroundcd  with  granular  limestone. 

4.  Fibrous  gyps  is  principally  white,  "rey, 
and  red,  with  various  shades  of  each,  ft  oc- 
curs massive  and  dentiform,  the  internal  liis- 
tri;  is  usually  glistening  and  pearly,  com- 
monly seniitiansparent  and  translucent,  very 
soft,  and  easily  frangible. 

Fossils  belonging  to  the  g)ps  formation, 
occupy  ditferent  aitualioiis.  lin-y  are  found 
in  Swiizerland,  Thuringia,  Derbyshire,  (.'oni- 
wall,  Moifat  in  Scotland,  and  oilier  places. 

Gyps,  when  burnt,  forms  an  extx'llent 
cement,  and  is  used  for  many  ornamental 
pvirposi.'S, , 

Xinetesnth  species.    Srlenite, 

Its  principal  colour  is  snow-white,  passhig 
into  other  neighbouring  shades:  is  generally 


massive,  but  not  unfrcqiieiitly  chivstallizi'il 
ill  nr.Uv  ol)!ii)UL'  si\-,i(U>tl  |)ri,in-,  I'l  ■  r].vyi. 
t.ils  seldom  lais;p,  but  iiUdaalls  ^liimi.g  iiul 
»i)|iTiileiU.  Fig.  i!4. 

Si'luuite  is  conililctfly  transpaicul,  soU, 
sniiii-vvliat  (icxibl.-,  not  viry  frangiljlf,  ami 
is  Imiiiil  in  the  oldest  gyps  fornialion,  m 
single  clirystals  in  clay  beds  in  the  newest 
formation,  and  in  otiier  situations.  It  is 
(■uninion  in  ■riuiringia,  at  Montmaitre  near 
I'aris,  Sholover  ncal-  Oxford,  and  in  tlie  isle 
ot  Sliepps.  U  is  employed  in  taking  tlie 
UiOsl  deliVate  impressions,  for  crayons  and 
oliie.' purposes. 

Tixiiliflh  .ipiru-s:  Ciihf  sptir. 
The  colour  is  milk-white  with  various  allied 
shades.  It  is  nias-.ive,  occurring  in  large, 
coarse,  and  small  ground  distinct  ccncretitms. 
'i  lie  lustre  is  shining,  passing  into  splendent, 
translucent,  sollish,  very  easily  frangible,  an.l 
not  particularly  heavy.  It  is  found  in  salt 
rorks  in  Sal/bourg. 

'Id  the  calc  genu?  are  also  referred  phos- 
jdiorlte,  which  tonus  a  great  bed  in  K.strenia- 
dura  in  Spain ;  and  the  anhydrite,  found  in 
the  duciiy  of  Wirtemberg. 

Seventh  cfnus. 
ISaryie  Grtiiit. 
first  specic-1.     U'illnrite 
Ts  commonly  of  alight  yellovv  ish-grey  co- 
lour, generallv  massive,  bul sometimes  clnys- 
talll/ed   in    six-sided   i)ri:nis,    or   double  six- 
sided  pyramids.     'I'he  lustre  ot  the  i)rincipal 
fractme'is  shining;  the  fragments  generally 
\\e.:ge-shaped.     It  is  traiisluci  nt,   somewhat 
senuhard,   brittle,  easily  frangible,  and  pretty 
lieavy.   l-'igs.  ■.'.">  and  '26. 

Itrneltsj  without  addition,  before  the  blow- 
pipe, into  a  w  hite  enamel,  and  occurs  in  veins 
along  witli  hea\y  spar,  lead-glance,  &c.  at 
Angiesark  in  Lancashire,  t  ombinetl  with 
niur.atic  acid,  it  may  be  used  in  metlicine, 
tliough  a  very  active  poison  of  itself. 

Second  species.     Ihavy  spur  or  haryic. 
See  Barytes. 

Eighth  gexu?. 
Strontian  gilUIS. 
Fir.it  .iptcits.     Stroiilian. 
The  usual  colour  is  intermediate  between 
asparagus  and   a]>ple-green  ;    it  occurs  most 
cunimonly  massive,   but  sometimes  chry  stal- 
hzed   in  a  circular  six-sideil   prism.       The 
thrystals   are   scopifornily    and  manipularlv 
aggregated.       'ilie   lustre  of  the   principal 
fracture  is  shining,  of  thecro^s  fiaclureglisten- 
ijig.     It  is  translucent   in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  soft   and    semihard,    brittle,    easily 
frangible,  dissolves    in    acitls   with  efferves- 
cence,  and  occurs   along  with  lead-glance, 
heavv  spar,  ic.  at  Strontian  in  Argvh-shire, 
the  only  place  where  it  has  yet  been  found. 
Sicond  species.     Celcsiinc 
Is  divided  into  two  sub-species: 

1.  Fibrous  celestine,  is  ot  an  intermediate 
colour,  between  iiidigo-blueand  hlueisli-grey; 
it  occurs  massive  and  in  plates,  anil  also  clirvs- 
talli/ed,  shewing  a  tendency  to  prismatic 
tlistinct  concretions  ;  is  translucent,  soft  or 
semi-hard,  easily  frangible,  and  pretty  heavy. 
Jt  is  found  in  lVnns\  Ivania  and  in  I'rance. 

2.  Foliated  celestine,  is  of  a  milky-white 
colour,  tailing  into  blue ;  it  occurs  massive, 
and  also  chr)  stallizgd  in  ii-X-sidcd  tables  in 

Sol.  II. 


]\Il\Tn.\TO0Y. 

terspcting  each  other.  It  has  a  gli-icning  ' 
luslie,  is  siii>iii<ly  Ir.in^liicenl,  sultish,  not 
parlicularlv  biillle,  ca~il_\  Irangible,  and  liard. 
U  occurs  sumelimes  in  sulphiu'  beds,  and  is 
unind  \ery  finely  chryslalli/ed  in  Sicily,  and 
likewise  near  liristol.     Fig.  ~7. 

CLASS  II. 

Fcssii,  Saints. 

The  substances  included  in  this  class  are 
conlined  to  those  which  are  found  in  a  natu- 
ral stale  only  ;  and  thi'  greater  part  of  them 
apjiear  to  he  loriued  by  the  agency  of  water, 
air,  Sec. 

'Ih  ■  distinguisliing  characters  of  fossil  salts 
are,  their  taste  and  ea«y  solution.  They  re- 
semble each  other  so  dosclv,  tli;it  the  term 
siiliw  consistence  is  used  to  express  whatever 
relates  to  liardness,  tenacity,  and  frangibility. 
First  spicies.     \iitriiii,  or  Xa/iiral  Sodti. 

It  max  he  divided  into  the  two  following 
sub-s|iecies : 

1.  Common  natron,  is  of  a  vellowish  or 
grevish-white  colour,- occurs  in  line  flakes  or 
in  duslv  particles,  has  a  sharp  alkaline  taste, 
eflervesces  with  nitric  acid,  is  easily  sohible 
in  water,  and  strikes  blue  vegetable  tinctures 
green.  It  occurs  as  an  efllorescence  in  the 
surface  of  soil,  or  on  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  i 
lakes  that  occasionally  become  dry.  It  is  I 
found  in  very  large  (pianlilii-s  in  Hungary, 
IJohemia,  and  Es\pt,  and  in  many  other 
countries  of  the  Old  \\  orld. 

;,'.  Radiated  natron,  or  natural  siula,  is  of 
a  greyish  or  yellowish-white  colour,  occurs  in 
crusts  or  chrystallized  in  capillai)  or  acicniar 
chrvstals,  is  glistening  and  translucent,  and  is 
found  in  larije  ipiantities  in  the  province  ot 
Sukana  in  Barbary,  ami  in  Southern  Atrica. 

Natron  is  principally  employed  in  the  ma- 
nufacture of  glass,  soap,  and  for  washing.     It 
is  also  used  as  a  Ihix  after  being  puritied. 
Second  species.     Natural  nitre. 

The  colour  is  greyish  or  yellowish-white, 
approaching  to  snow-white;  it  is  tlaky,  some- 
times verges  to  solid  and  massive,  is  of  a  sa- 
line consistence,  and  tastes  saltly  cooling. 
Placed  on  hot  iron,  it  hisses  and  detonates ; 
is  usuallv  found  in  thin  crusts  on  the  surface 
ot  the  soil  at  particular  seasons  of  the  year, 
particularK  in  hot  climates.  It  is  also  met 
witli  in  various  <-ouiitries  of  Ewrope,  and  is 
much  used  in  making  gunpowder,  in  medi- 
cine, and  tlie  arts.  Tlie  greatest  part,  liow- 
ever,  en)plo\ed  for  those  purposes,  is  an  ar- 
tificial pre))ar;ition  from  the  refuse  of  animal 
and  vegetable  hoilies  underguiiig  putrefac- 
tion, and  inLxed  with  calcareous  and  other 
earth. 

Third  species.    JVatural  Rock-salt 

Is  divided  into  two  sub-species: 

1.  Kock  or  stone-iilt,  which  is  of  two 
kinds,  foliated  and  tibreiH.  The  former  is 
commonly  of  a  white  or  grey  colour,  occurs 
massive  and  disseminated,  and  also  chrystal- 
lized in  cubes ;  in  general  is  strongly  translu- 
cent, rather  hard,  easily  frangible,  and  feels 
somewhat  greasy.  The  latter  is  greyish, 
yellowish,  and  snow-white  ;  occurs  massive, 
is  strongly  translucent,  verging  to  semitrans- 
parent,  decrepitates  when  laid  on  burning 
coals,  and  is  found  in  beds  lying  over  the  first 
or  oldest  tloetz  trap  formation.  It  forms 
whole  hills  at  Cordova  in  .Spain,  is  found  also 
in  (Jermanv,  and  almost  every  country  in  the 
Dd 


ttorhl.  At  Xaiitwicli  m  Cliesliirc  it  has  long 
been  dug.  lis  use  is  as  general  as  its  dissc- 
miiialion.  It  isemplo\ed  as  a  daily  season- 
ing for  our  food,  as  a  manure,  hi  various  ma- 
nulacturcs,  and  for  purposes  loo  numerous  to 
mention. 

'J.  Lake-salt  occurs  cither  in  th'u  plates, 
which  are  lormed  on  the  surface  ot  salt-lakes', 
or  in  grains  at  their  bottom.  It  is  translu- 
cent, and  of  a  saline  consistence.  It  is  founi 
in  C'y|>rus,  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  in  va- 
rious parts  of  Africa. 

I'oiirlli  species.    Natural  sal  ammoniac. 

The  colour  is  commonlv  greyish  or  yel- 
lowish-white. It  is  of  a  saline  consistence, 
and  is  tlaky,  witli  an  urinous  taste.  It  is 
sometimes  lound  massive,  sfalacl  tic,  tub<-- 
rose,  bttryoidL.I,  and  chrystallized.  It  is  the 
jiroduct  ol  volcanoes  and  pseudo-volcanoes, 
and  is  lound  in  Italy,  Sicily,  in  thevidniiy 
of  inlianii'd  beds  of  coal  both  in  F.nsland  and 
.Scotland,  and  in  several  countries  of  Asia. 

I-'iJtIi  species.  Natural  Epsom  salt. 
Colour  a  grey  ish-wiiite.  It  occurs  in  ca- 
pillary ellloresceiices,  and  is  mealy  or  liaky, 
ol  a  saline  consistence,  and  taste  saltlv  bitter. 
It  is  found  as  an  cJtloresccnce  on  clayey 
stones  or  gyps  rocks,  at  Sena,  at  Solfatara,  in 
Hungary,  and  Boiiemia.  It  is  also  contained 
in  many  mineral  springs,  particularly  those 
ot  F'psoni,  \\hence  it  derives  its  name.  Ep- 
som salts  are  much  used  as  an  easy  purg:;tive. 
Considerable  cpianllties  of  magnesia  may  be 
obtained  Irom  tliem. 

Siilli  .species.     Natural  Gluuber  salt. 

The  colour  is  usually  gn-yi^h  and  vellow- 
ish-white.  It  occurs  in  the  form  ot  mealy 
elllorescences,  in  crusts,  and  sometimes  chry- 
stallized in  acicularand  in  six-sided  prismatic 
chrvstals.  Internalh  it  is  shining,  with  a  vi- 
treous lustre,  is  soft,  brittle,  easily  frangible, 
and  has  a  cooling  but  a  saltly  bitter  taste. 

It  is  tbund  on  the  borders  of  salt-lakes,  on 
moorish  ground,  oji  old  and  new-built  walls 
in  diiferent  countries  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa,  and  is  usi-d  as  a  purgative  medicine, 
and  in  some  places  as  a  substitute  for  soda  IR 
the  manufacture  of  white  glass. 

Seventh  species.  Natural  ah/m 
Is  of  a  yellowish  or  greyish-white  colour; 
occurs  as  a  mealy  etllort'scence,  or  in  deli- 
cate capillary  chrystals  ;  has  a  sweetish  astrin- 
gent taste,  and  is  produced  in  various  situa- 
tions in  Scotland,  (Sermany,  Italv,  Snain, 
Sweden,  :ii;d  in  Egvpl. 

Alum  is  empkived  as  a  mordant  in  d\eing, 
in  the  manufacture  of  leatlier,  as  a  medicine, 
for  preventing  wood  from  catching  lire,  and 
for  preserving  animal  substances  irom  putre- 
faction. 

Kiglitli  species.     Hair  salt. 

i      The  principal  colours  are  snow,  vellowish, 

and  greyish-white.     It  occurs  in  delicate  ca- 

])illary  .  hrystals,  has    a  saline  consistence, 

and  a  sweetish  astringent  taste. 

Hair  salt  is  found  in  diiferent  mine  coun- 
tries on  the  continent,  at  Whitehaven  in 
F'.iigluiid,  and  near  Paisley  in  Scotland,  and 
bears  a  striking  resemblauce  to  tibrous  gvps. 

Ninth  species,     liock  butter. 
The  colour  is  light-yellow  or  grey isii- white. 
It  occurs  massive  and  tuberose,  is  translu- 
cent, has  a  saline  cojisistcnce,  or  sweetish-sour 


210 

■astringent  taste,  and  feels  a  little  greasy.    It 
oozes  out  of  lissures  of  rocks  of  alum  slate, 
.-md  is  found  in  Lusatia,  Thuriiigia,  Denmark, 
Siberia,  and  near  Paisley  in  Scotland. 
Tenth  species.     Nalural  vitriol 

Is  divided  into  the  three  following  sub- 
species : 

1.  Iron  vitriol,  is  comnionly  of  an  emerald 
and  verdigris  green.  It  occurs  massive,  tu- 
berose, stalactitic,  and  chrystallized  in  differ- 
ent figures ;  is  splendent  and  vitreous,  has  a 
saUne  consistence,  and  a  sourish  astringent 
taste.  It  is  found  usually  alo\ig  with  iruu 
pyrites,  by  the  decomposition  of  which  it  is 
formed,  in  different  countries  of  continental 
Europe,  in  many  of  the  Englisli  mines,  and 
in  America.  It  is  employed  to  dye  linen 
yellow,  and  wool  and  silk  black,  in  tlie  pre- 
paration of  ink,  as  a  paint,  &c. 

2  .Copper  vitriol,  is  usually  of  a  dark  sky- 
bhie  colour.  It  occurs  massive,  dissemi- 
nated, stalactitic,  dentiform,  and  chrystnl- 
iized  ;  is  translucent,  soft,  very  brittle,  and 
iias  a  styptic  taste.  It  is  found  in  various 
mining  cocutries,  in  Wicklow,  and  in  Angle- 
sea.  It  is  used  in  cotton  and  linen  printing, 
and  when  prepared  is  employed  by  painters. 

3.  Ziiic  vitriol,  is  of  a  greyish,  yellowish, 
leddisii,  and  gieenish-white  colour.  It  oc- 
curs tuberose,  stalactitic,  and  coralloidal,  is 
translucent,  of  a  sahne  consistence,  and  a  styp- 
tic taste.  It  is  produced  most  abundantly 
\vhere  much  blende  occurs,  and  is  found  in 
Austria,  Hungaiy,  and  Sv.eden. 

Here  it  must  be  remarked,  that  borax, 
though  so  well  known  by  name,  is  without  a 
place  in  the  Werneriau  system,  as  it  is  un- 
certain whether  or  not  it  occurs  in  a  solid 
state.  It  is  most  probable  that  it  occurs  only 
in  solution  in  certain  lakes.     See  Borax. 

The  new  genus  stallite,  of  which  only  one 
species,  cryolite,  has  been  found  in  Green- 
land, s€eras  properly  to  come  under  this 
head. 

CLASS  III. 
Infl.^mmabi.e  Fossils. 

Fossils  belonging  to  this  class   are  liglit, 

brittle,    mostly  opa<iup,    yellow,   brown,   or 

black,  seldom  chrystallized,  ancl   never  feel 

cold.     They  are  more  nearly  allied  to  the 

metallic  than  to  the  earthy  or  saline  classes. 

First  Genvs. 

Sulphur  Genus. 

First  species.     Natural  sulphur. 

It  contains  the  tv;o  following  sub-species: 

1.  Common  natural  sulphur,  is  of  the  co- 
lour the  name  expresses,  but  of  dil'ferent  de- 
grees of  intensit}  .  It  occurs  massive,  disse- 
minated, and  chrystallized  in  octahedrons  or 
double  six-sided  pyramids,  is  internally  be- 
tween shining  and  glistening,  translucent,  in 
chrystals  fr-  cinently  transparent,  very  soft, 
easily  frangible,  and  light. 

It  is  found  in  masses  in  gyps,  in  veins  that 
traverse  primitive  rocks,  in  nests  of  lime- 
stone, and  11)  other  siiuations,  and  is  pro- 
duced in  every  quarter  ot  the  world,  tliough 
in  the  British  dominions  it  seems  to  be  ton- 
iiiied  to  Iri  laud. 

2.  Volcanic  natural  sulphur  is  of  the  co- 
lour the  name  imports,  but  with  a  consider- 
able tliige  of  green.  It  occurs  corroded,  ve- 
Sicular,  perforated,  amorphous,  and  some- 
times as  a  sublimate  in  (lowers,  is  glistening 
and  resinous,  and  translucent  in  u  siigiit  dc- 


WINERALOGY. 

gree.     It  is  found  only  in  yolcanic  counlries, 
and  among  lava,  but  is  produced  in  Rrvat 
abundance;  and  is  employed  in  medicine,  in 
tlie  comi;osition  of  gunpowder,  and  as  a  va- 
pour in  «  hitening  wool  and  silk. 
Second  Genus. 
BiTU.MiN'ous  Genus.     See  Bitumeks. 
First  species.     Broun  coal.     See  Coal. 
Fourth  Genus. 
Graphite  Genus. 
First  species.     Glance  coul. 
This  is  divided  into  two  sub-species : 

1.  Conchoidal  glance  coal,  is  of  an  iron- 
black  colour,  of  dilfereut  degrees  of  intensity, 
occurs  massiie  and  vesicular,  internally  sinn- 
ing, bordering  sometimes  on  semihard, 
brittle,  easily  frangible,  ancl  light.  It  burns 
without  tiame  or  smell,  and  has  hitherto  been 
found  only  in  tiie  newest  tloetz  mass  forma- 
tion, accompanied  with  other  kinds  of  coal, 
at  Meissner  in  Ilessia.  The  fracture  is  con- 
choidal. 

2.  Slaty  glance  coal,  is  of  a  dark  iron-black 
colour,  occurs  massive,  is  shining  and  glis- 
tening, soft,  very  easily  frangible,  light,  and 
intermediate  between  sectile  and  brittle.  It 
is  fovnul  imbeded  in  masses,  beds,  and  \eins, 
in  primitive,  transitive,  and  tloetz  rocks, 
and  is  produced  in  Spain,  Savoy,  Saxony, 
Bohemia,  and  in  the  isle  of  Arran  in  Scot- 
land. Its  principal  fracture  is  more  or  less 
slat}'. 

Second  species.     Graphite. 
This  contains  two  sub-species  : 

1.  Scaly  grapiiite,  is  commonly  of  a  dark 
steel-grey  colour.  It  occurs  massive  and 
thsseminated,  is  usually  glistening,  fi-acture 
scaly-folialed,  is  very  soft,  perfectly  sectile, 
wTites  and  soils,  feels  very  greasy,  and  ii  ra- 
ther difficultly  frangible. 

2.  Compact  graphite,  is  rather  blacker 
than  the  preceding,  is  intemallv  glimmering 
with  a  metallic  lustre,  fracture  hne-grained, 
in  other  respects  agreeing  wiUi  the  preceii- 
ing.  It  usually  occurs  in  beds,  and  is  found 
near  Keswick  in  England,  in  Ayrsliire  in 
Scotland,  and  in  various  other  parts  of  Eu- 
rojje,  Asia,  and  Africa.  The  liner  kinds  are 
lirst  boiled  in  oil,  and  then  cut  into  pencils. 
The  coarser  |)arts  and  sawings  ai-e  melted 
with  sulphur,  and  then  cast  into  coarse  pen- 
cils for  the  !use  of  artiticers.  It  is  likewise 
applied  to  various  other  purposes,  under  the 
vulgar  name  of  black  lead. 

Third  species.  Mineral  charcoal. 
The  colour  is  a  greyish-black.  It  occurs 
in  small  angular  and  somewhat  cubical-shaped 
pieces,  is  glimmering,  with  a  siiky  lustre, 
soils  strongly,  is  soft,  and  light.  It  is  foiiiul 
in  thin  layers  in  different  kinds  of  coal,  and 
is  widely  disseminated. 

Fifth  Genus. 
Resin  Genus.     See  Kesins. 
First  species.     Amber. 
This  is  divided  into  the  two  following  sub- 
species: 

1.  Wliite  amber,  is  of  a  straw-yellowish 
colour.  It  occurs  massive,  and  sometimes 
associated  with  the  following  sub-species,  is 
glistening  with  a  resinous  lustre,  fracture  con- 
choidal, ;iiid  simply  translucent. 

2.  Yellow  amber,  is  of  a  wax-yellow  co- 
lour, passing  into  several ueighbouriiig  shades. 


It  occurs  always  in  indclerminal.-ly  angular 
l>Uint-i.-agccf  piot-es.  is  esteinaliy  dull,  inter- 
nally splendent,  with  a  vitreous  and  resinous 
lustre.  It  is  transparent,  soft,  rather  bnttSij, 
pretty  easily  frangible,  light,  and  swimming. 
It  burns  with  a  ycUow-coloured  flame,  emit- 
ting an  agreeable  odour ;  when  rubbed,  it 
acquires  a  strong  negative  tiectrical  virtue  ; 
is  lound  in  layers  of  bituminous  wood,  and 
in  luiior  coal,  on  sandy  sea-siiores,  and  fre- 
(pientiy  floatiug  on  the  >ea.  li  Is  chiclly 
produced  on  the  coasts  of  Pru^sis  in  Sweden, 
Norway,  &c.  and  according  to  some,  has 
been  found  in  the  alluvial  land  near  London. 
It  admits  of  a  fiue  polish,  and  is  cut  into 
necklaces,  bracehis.  snulf-boxes,  and  various 
otiu-r  articles.  Ihe  oil  and  acid  obtained 
from  it  are  used  in  medicine. 

Second  species.    Honey-stone, 
See  Mellite. 

CLASS  IV. 

Met.vllic  Fossils. 

First,  Platin.\  Genus. 

First  S'  ectcs.     Aatii'c  platina. 

The  colour  is  very  light  steel-grey,  ap- 
proaciiiiig  to  siiver-whiie.  It  occurs  in  flat, 
smooth,  and  smaihsh  grains,  exteniaily  shin- 
ing, lustre  metaliic,  intermediate  between 
semihard  ainl  soft,  completely  malleable, 
pretty  flexible,  and  very  heavy,  its  specific 
gravity  being  about  15.6. 

Platina  is  the  least  fusible  of  metals,  and 
does  not  amalgamate  with  mercury.  It  has 
hitherto  been  found  only  in  sand  accom- 
panied with  other  metals,  and  is  produced  in 
South  America,  and  probably  also  in  St.  Do- 
nfngo  and  B.Hbadoes.  From  the  peculiar 
qualititv  it  possesses  of  resisting  the  action  of 
many  salts,  af  remaining  unaltered  in  the  air, 
and  of  receiving  a  fine  polish,  it  has  been 
rendered  subservient  to  several  purposes  in 
chemistry  and  t.he  arts.     See  Platina. 

Second  Genus.     Gold. 
First  species.     Native  gold. 
This  is  divided  into  three  sub-species: 

1.  GjUl-yellow  native  gold,  is  of  a  perfect 
colour,  corresponding  to  its  name.  It  seldom 
occurs  massive,  often  disseminated  in  mem- 
branes, in  roundisli  and  tlattish  pieces,  in 
grains,  and  also  chrystallized  in  cubes,  octaT 
liedrons,  simple  three-sided  pyramids,  garnet 
dodecahedrons,  and  acute  double  eight-sided 
|)yramids.  External  lustre  of  the  inrvrtals  is 
splendent;  internally  it  is  glimmering,  pass- 
ing into  glistening.  It  is  soft,  coi>ir,letely 
malleable,  flexile,  and  uncommonly  hea.'y.  It 
is  found  in  veins,  beds,  disseminated  in  rocks, 
and  in  grains,  in  almost  every  country  of  the 
world,  but  commonly  in  too  small  quantities 
to  be  collected  for  use.  America  and  Africa 
supply  the  largest  (juantities. 

2.  Brass-yellow  native  gold,  is  principally 
of  the  colour  of  brass,  occurs  dissemin.a.  il, 
capillary, mo. s-l ike,  reticulated, and  in  leaves, 
also  chiystallized  in  thin  six-sided  cubes,  and 
is  rather  ligiiler  than  the  preceding.  It  is 
found  in  dillerent  situations  in  Bohemi;i, 
Transylvania,  and  Norway. 

.3.  Greyish-yellow  native  gold,  is  of  a  brass- 
yellow  colour  tailing  into  steel-grey,  occrs 
in  very  small  flatfish  grains  like  platinu,  and 
is  found  with  that  metal. 

Third  Genus.    AUrcury,  which  see. 


MINEnALOGY, 


First  xpccien 

The  colour  is  tin-wliiti 


Nativ!  mercury/,  or  rjulck- 
nilriT. 


it  occurs  perfect 


niclallic  lustre,  iloi'S  not  wet,  feels  very  cold, 
and  is  unconfnionly  heavy.  Before  the  blow- 
pipe it  is  volatili/.eil,  without  any  smell.  II 
IS  usually  found  iji  cinnaliar  at  Idria.  It  oc- 
curs in  a  compact  limestone,  and  here  it  is 
very  abundant.  It  is  likewise  produced  in 
dij'lerent  parts  of  Germany,  France,  Spain, 
and  in  very  large  ciuantitie^  in  Peru. 

The  uses  ot  ([uieksilvor  are  multifarious, 
and  caimot  be  enumerated  in  this  place. 
Second  species.     Natural  a/iudgaiH. 

Fluid  or  semi-fluid  amalii;am  is  of  an  inter- 
mediate colour  between  tin  and  silver-white. 
It  occurs  ill  small  massive  piece?  ajid  in  balls, 
also  disseminated  and  chrystallized  in  ditl'e- 
rent  forms.  Externally  it  is  shining  and 
s|)L'iKleiil,  is  soft  and  somewhat  fluid  ;  when 
cut  or  pressed,  it  emit;,  a  creakiiia;  sound  like 
natural  amalgam,  and  is  unconnnonly  heavy. 

Tliird  species.    Mercurial  horn-ore,  or  cor- 
neous mercury, 
Is  of  an  ash-grey  colour,  of  various  deQ;rec:s 
of  intensity;  occurs  very  rarely  ma-sive^  but 
commonly  in  small  vesicles,  internalh  chrv- 
stalliz:  d  and  splendent.      It  is  soft,  "sectile, 
easily  frangible,   and   heavy.      It  is  usually 
found  with  tile  other  species  of  mercury,  and 
is  produced  in  the  same   countries.     It  was 
<irst  discovered  in  the  mines  of  the  Palatinate. 
Fourth  species.      Mercurial    Hvir-nre,   or 
mercurial  hepuiic  ore. 
Compact  mercurial  liver-ore,  is  of  an  in- 
termediate colour  between  dark -red  and  lead- 
grey,  occurs  massive,  is  glistening  and  glim- 
mering internally,  opaiiue,  soft,  sectile,  ea^ilv 
fraiigibie,  and  uncommonly  heavy.     It  is  the 
most  common  ore  of  mercury  at  Friaul  in 
Idria. 

F'lffh  specie.'!.  Ciunubar. 
Dark-red  cinnabar,  is  principally  of  a  per- 
fect cochineal  red,  occurs  massive,  dissemi- 
nated, in  blunt-cornered  pieces,  in  mem- 
branes, amorphous,  dendritic,  fruticose,  and 
chrystallized.  The  clirystals  are  small,  splen- 
dent e.\ternally,  and  shining  internally.  T  he 
massive  cinnabar  is  ojiaque  or  translucent  on 
the  edges,  very  soft,  sectile,  easily  frangible, 
and  uncommonly  heavy. 

Blight-red  cinnabar' is  of  a  lively  scarlet- 
red  colour.  It  o<  curs  massive  and'  dissemi- 
nated, is  internally  glimmering,  substance 
opaque,  streak  shining,  soik,  is  very  soil,  sec- 
tile, very  easily  fiai.gible,  and  very  heavy. 
Both  belong  to  the  s.inie  countries  with  quick- 
silver. In  Idria,  Spai;:,  and  Pern,  this  genus 
is  most  abundant.  It  does  not  occur  hi  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  Great  Britain,  or  Ireland.  From 
the  ore  of  cinnabar  the  greatest  part  of  the 
mercury  used  in  commeiceis  obtained. 
Fourth  Genus.  Silver. 
First  species.  Aative  Silver. 
Conmion  native  silver  is  of  the  colour  tlie 
name  expresses.  It  occurs  massive,  disse- 
minated, in  pieces,  plates,  and  membranes, 
as  w-ell  as  in  other  forms,  besides  being  chry- 
stallized in  cubes,  octaiiedions,  four-sided  re'c- 
tangu'ar  prisms,  double  six-sided  pyramids, 
double  three-sided  pyramids,  and  hollow  four- 
sided  pyramids.  It  is  sole,  perfectlv  mal- 
leable, common  llexible,    and    very 'heavy 


wlien  pure.  It  appears  to  belong  to  the 
lu'ucr  primitive  ro<Ks,  where  it  occurs  in 
veins,  and  is  usually  accon)i)anii;d  with  heavy 
spar  and  (jnartz. 

Scorid  spccic.i.  Antimonial  silver. 
Tin-  colour  is  intermediate  between  tin- 
while  and  silver-white,  it  occirrs  massive, 
disseminaleil,  and  chrystallized,  is  externally 
gli.li'niiig,  internally  shining  and  splendent, 
«ilh  a  metallic  lustre.  It  is  found  in  coarse, 
small,  and  line  granular  distinct  concretions, 
is  sectile,  not  very  dillicultly  frangible,  soft, 
and  uncommonly  heavy.  It  contains  upwards 
of  80  ])arts  oi  silver,  ft  occurs  in  veins  com- 
posed of  calx,  spar,  &c.  in  Spain,  Germany, 
and  other  countries. 

Third  species.  .Arsenical  silver. 
The  colour  is  tin-wliite,  passing  into  silver- 
wh  te.  It  occurs  massive,  disseminateti,  glo- 
bular, and  chry  stallizcd  ;  is  sottish,  sectile,  and 
very  heavy.  It  contains  about  12  parts  ol 
silver,  much  arsenic  and  iron,  and  is  usually 
found  with  native  arsenic  and  otner  minerals 
in  Germany  and  Spain,  but  is  a  rare  mineral. 

Fourth  species.  Corneous  silver-ore,  or 
horn-ure. 
The  colour  is  most  frequently  a  pearl-grey, 
of  all  ilegrees  of  intensity.  It  occurs  massive, 
disseminated,  in  membranes,  balls,  and  also 
chrystallized  in  cubes  and  in  adcular  and 
capillary  chrystals.  It  is  more  or  less  trans- 
lucent, soft,  perfectly  malleable,  and  heavy. 
It-contains  upwards  of  60  parts  of  silver,  and 
is  found  alw-tiys  in  veins.  ]t  is  widely  distri- 
buted over  the  globe,  but  is  most  abundant 
in  South  America.  It  is  sometimes  found  in 
Cornwall,  and  receives  its  name  from  cutting 
like  horn. 

Fifth  species.  Sihcr-bluck. 
The  colour  is  a  blueish-black,  whence  its 
name.  It  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  and 
in  various  other  forms,  of  all  degrees  of  con- 
sistence, from  friable  to  solid.  It  gives  a 
shining  metallic  streak,  soils  very  little,  is 
easily  frangible,  sectile,  and  heavy.  It  is 
found  with  silver-glance  and  horn-ore  in 
ilimgary,  Bohemia,  Norway,  and  Siberia. 

Si.ith  species.  Siher-gkmce 
Is  of  a  dark-blackish  lead-grey  colour,  oc- 
curs usually  massive,  disseminated,  in  mem- 
branes, &c.  and  also  chrystallized  in  cubes, 
octahedrons,  garnet  dodecahedrons,  and 
double  eight-sided  pyramids.  Externally  it 
is  shining  and  glistening;  internally  it  alter- 
nates from  sliiiiing  to  glistening,  and  has  a 
metallic  lustre.  It  is  soft,  con^pletely  mal- 
leable, pretty  flexible,  and  unconnnonly 
heavy,  containing  upwards  of  80  parts  of 
pure  silver;  and  is  fountl  in  veins,  along  with 
native  silver  and  other  minerals,  in  Hungary, 
Austria,  and  other  countries  of  Europe^  biit 
more  particularly  in  Mexico  and  Peru. 

Seventh  species.  Brittle  siher-glancc. 
Tlie  colour  is  intermediate  between  iron- 
black  and  dark  lead-grey.  It  occurs  massive, 
disseminated,  in  membranes,  and  frequently 
chrystallized  in  eciuiangular  six-sided  prisms, 
and  rectangular  four-sided  tables.  Exter- 
nally it  is  highly  splendent,  internally  shhiing 
and  glistening.  It  is  soft,  brittle,  easily 
frangible,  and  unconnnonly  heavy,  contain- 
ing upwards  of  60  parts  of  silver.  It  is  found 
always  in  veins,  accompanied  with,  other  mi- 
^         ■  Dd3- 


211 

ncrals,  and  principally  in  Himgary  and  Sax 
ony. 

F.ighth  species.  lied  silver-ore. 
Dark-red  silver-ore  is  intermediate  be- 
tween cochineal  red  and  lead-grey.  It  oc- 
curs majsivo,  disseminated,  dendritic,  in 
membranes,  and  chrystallized  in  ecjuiangular 
six-sided  prisms.  It  i«  externally  splendent; 
interiialiy  it  alternates  Ironi  shining  to  glitti- 
n  eriiig.  The  massive  varieties  are  opa(jue  ; 
tne  chrystallized  passing  from  semi  to  transpa-. 
rent.  It  is  soft,  sectile,  easily  frangible,  and 
heavy. 

Tiiis  species  occurs  always  in  veins,  aq- 
compauied  with  other  minerals,  and  is  loiind 
in  Bohenna,  Hungary,  Norway,  and  other 
countries. 

Ainth  species.  PHtite  silver-ore. 
The  colour  is  a  very  light  lead-grey.  It 
occurs  massive  and  disseminated,  has  a  mo- 
tailic  lustre,  a  shining  streak,  is  soft,  slightly 
ilexible,  easily  frangible,  and  heavy.  It  con- 
lains  large  quantities  of  lead,  sulphur,  and  an- 
tiniony,  and  scarcely  10  parts  of  silver.  Iti* 
always  fomul  in  veins,  and  chicliy  near  Frey- 
berg: 

Tenth  species.  Black  silver-ore. 
The  principal  colour  is  iron-black,  inclin- 
ing to  steel-grey.  It  occurs  massive,  disse- 
minated, and  chrystallized  in  three-sided  py- 
ramids. Internally  it  is  shining  with  a  me- 
tallic lustre.  It  is  semihard,  sectile,  easily 
frangible,  and  heavy. 

Fifth  Genus.  Copper,  which  see. 
First  species.  Native  copper. 
Thecolour  iscopper-red,  but  frequently  tar- 
nished. It  occurs  massive,  disseminalcJ,  and 
in  various  other  forms,  besides  being  chry- 
stallized in  cubes,  dodecahedrons,  &c.  It  is 
intermediate  between  semihard  and  soft, 
completely  malleable,  common  flexible,  d(f- 
licultlv  frangible,  and  very  heavy.  It  is  usu- 
ally found  in  veins  and  sometimes  in  bed.s, 
and  is  produced  in  Cornwall,  Anglesea,  the 
Shetland  islands,  and  many  other  countries 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  Copper  may 
be  applied  to  a  vast  number  of  useful  j>ur- 
poses,  and  is  ne.xt  to  iron  the  most  necessary 
of  metals. 

Second  species.  Copper-glance. 
Compact  copper-glance  is  usually  of  a 
<lark  lead-colour,  passing  into  blackish- grey. 
It  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  in  mem- 
branes, and  occasionally  chrystallized  ;  exter- 
nally shining,  intemally  between  shining  and 
glistening.  It  is  soft,  perfectly  sectile,  easily 
frangible,  and  heavy. 

Third  species.  Variegated  copper  ore. 
Its  colour,  when  dug,  is  intemiediate  between 
copper-red  and  pinchbeck-browii,  hut  it  soon 
becomes  tarnished.  It  occurs  massive,  dis- 
seminated in  plates,  membranes,  and  chry- 
stallized in  octahedrons.  It  is  soft,  slightly 
sectile,  easily  frangible,  and  heavy;  and- is 
found  in  beds,  veins,  and  rocks  of  dilierer.t 
formations,  in  Cornwall,  and  various  parts  ot" 
continental  Europe.  It  yields  about  79' 
parts  of  pure  copper. 

Fourth  species.     Copper  pt/rites. 
When  fresh,  its  colouris  brass-yellow,  of  dif-.' 
ferent  shades  according  to  its  richness.     It  oc- 
cursmassive,  disseminated  in  membranes,  &c. 
and  also  chrystallized  in  various  ligures.    Ex- 
ternally it  is  intermediate  between  glistening' 


212 

ami  shiniiis;,  intornallv  soft;  is  between 
-semili-rd  aiul  so!t,  brittle,  easily  frangible, 
ajid  heavy. 

Fijili  species.     White  copper  ore 

Is  ot  an  intermediate  colour  between  silver- 
white  and  bronze-yellinv  :  occurs  massive  and 
disseminated  ;  is  i'nternallv  glistenins;,  with  a 
metallic  lustre;  rather  soft,  brittle,  easily 
frangible,  and  heavy.  It  is  tonnd  in  \eins 
and  miner;:!  beds  in  primitive  mountains, 
and  is  produced  in  Cornwall,  in  dillerent 
parts  ot  Germanv,  in  Siberia,  and  in  South 
America ;  but  it  'is  one  of  the  rariJ.-t  species 
of  copper  ore. 

Sijth  species.     Ore:/  copper  ore,  or 
Fnh!  ore. 

The  most  common  colour  is  stei.'l- 
«rey:  it  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  and 
4jlsd crystallized  in  tetrahedrons,  octahedrons, 
■and  c'lrnet  dodecahedrons.  It  is  more  or 
less  semihard,  brittle,  easilv  frangible,  and 
heavv  ;  ami  is  found  in  the  newer  primitive 
rocks,  and  likewise  in  transitive  and  tloetz 
rocks,  in  several  mines  of  Cornwall,  in  Ger- 
nunv,  Italv,  Sweden,  Norway,  Siberia,  and 
Chill,  it  is  usually  smelted  on  account  oi 
the  copper  it  contains. 

Si  venih  species.  Copper  hkck. 
The  colour  is  usually  intermediate  between 
bluish  and  brownish-black  :  it  occurs  massive, 
or  disseminated,  and  as  acoatinc,  to  other  ores 
of  copper;  is  alw.iys  more  or  less  colierin;;, 
and  heavv,  containing  from  40  to  5t)  parts 
of  copper.  It  is  usually  found  with  copper 
pyrites,  &c.  and  is  produeed  in  Silesia, 
fiermanv,  France,  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
Siberia.  "  Sometimes  it  is  very  beautiful. 

Eighth  species.  Red  copper  ore. 
Compact  red  copper  is  usually  of  a  dark  co- 
chineal-red colour  :  occurs  massive,  in  mem- 
branes, crowded,  amorphous,  and  also  dis- 
seminated. Internally  it  is  glimmerina;,  in- 
clinini?  to  glistening,  with  a  semimetallic 
lustre:  it  is  opaque,  semihard,  brittle,  ea-ily 
frangible,  and  heavy. 

Xinth  species.  Tile  ore. 
Earthy  tile  ore  is  usually  of  a  red  hyacinth 
colour;  massive,  disseminated,  and  incrustiiig 
copper  pvrites;  is  intermediate  between 
friable  and  solid,  soils  slightly,  is  almost  al- 
ways colierent,  and  is  heavy.  It  is  found 
in  veins,  commonly  accompanied  witli  native 
copper   ore  and  malachite. 

Teulli   species.      Copper  mure. 

Earthy  copper  azure  is  of  a  smalt-blue  co- 
lour; usually  friable,  and  disseminated;  is 
composed  of  dusty  particles,  does  not  soil,  is 
chiefly  cohering,  and  approache.s  to  heavy. 
It  is  found  in  small  ciu mtities,  usually  ac- 
companied with  malachite  and  copper  green, 
indifferent  parts  of  Genn.my,  in  Norway,  and 
Siberia. 

Eleventh  species.     Makiclute,  whi(  h  see. 
Tivelfth    species.      Copper    trreen. 

The  p-  iiicipal  colour  is  verdigris-grcen,  of 
different  degrles  of  intensity :  it  usually  occurs 
jnassive,  disseminated,  and  coating  mala- 
chite;  is  internally  sliiuing;  more  or  less 
translusceiit,  soft,  not  very  brittle,  easily 
frangible,  and  intermediate  between  heavy 
and"not  particularly  heavy.  It  is  found  in 
the  same  geognostic  situation  with  in.dachite, 
in  (JoriiwuU  ai)d  olher  couulricii,  but  is  rare. 


MINERALOGY. 

Thir'eeidh  species.     Iron-shot  copper 
green. 

Earthy  iron-shot  copper  green  is  usu- 
allv  of  an  olive-green  colour:  occurs 
massive,  and  disseminated;  is  dull,  soils  a 
little,  soft,  passing  into  triable,  not  very 
brittle,  easily  frangible,  and  not  particularly 
heavy. 

Fcurteenth  species.     Copper  emeruhl. 
The  colour  is  an  emeiaUI-green.  It  occurs  in 
chrv^tallized  six-sided  pri.^ms,  which  are  ex- 
ten'iallv  and  intern;illy  shining,  with  a  vitre- 
ous lustre,  and  transluscent.    It  is  semihard, 
brittle,  and  not  particularly  heavy;  and  is  j 
found  in  the  remoter  parts  of  the   Russian  I 
dominioui,  and  on  the  Chinese  frontiers.  j 

fij'teenth  species.     Copper  mica  | 

Is  usuallv  of  an  emerald-green  colour:  it 
occurs  massive,  disseminated,  and  occasionally 
chrystallized  in  very  thin  six-sided  tables. 
Kxt'ernallv  it  is  smooth  ;nid  splendent,  inter- 
nallv  splendent  with  a  pearlv  lustre.  The 
n"ias>ive  varieties  are  translucent ;  the  chry- 
stallized transparent.  It  is  soft,  si-ctile,  not 
verv  brittle,  nor  particularly  heavy  ;  and  has 
liiiherto  been  found  only  in  veins  in  Corn-  : 
wall,  where  it  passes  under  the  unscientific 
name  of  foliatic  arse4iiat  of  copper. 

.     Si.tteenih  ■■tpecies.     Leniieular  ore.  I 

The  colour  is  sky-blue,  sometimes  passing  ; 
into  verdigris  green.     It  occurs  chrystalli/ed  ; 
in  small,  flat,   double,   four-sided  pyramids; 
is  externally  shining;  translucent,  soft,  rather 
brittle,  and  very  easily  frangible.     Hitherto  I 
it  has  been  found  only  in  Cornwa-l.  i 

Seventeenh  species.     Olireii  ore.  i 

Foliated  oliven  ore  is  of  a  perfc'ct  olive-  I 
green :  seldom  occurs  massive,  usually  in  | 
dvu^\  crusts,  and  in  small  chrystals,  present-  j 
ing  acute  rhomboids,  and  oblique  four-sided  j 
[)risms.  Internally  it  is  glistening,  with  an  , 
adamantine  lustre.  It  is  very  soft,  sectlle,  | 
and  heavv  in  a  low  degree  ;  and  lias  hitherto  '. 
been  fouiid  only  in  Cornwall.  ] 

Sixth  Genus.     Iron. 

i'VrvJ  species.     .\'iil/ve  iron  \ 

Is  of  a  light  steel-grey  colour,  inclining  to 
silver  white  :  it  has  hitherto  been  foun.i  only  ; 
ramose  ;  internallv  it  is  intermediate  bi-lweeu 
glimineriiig  and  i^listening,  with  a  perfect  me- 
tallic lu^tl■e,  and  a  hackly  fracture.  It  is  be- 
tween soit  and  semihard,  perfectly  malleable, 
common  llexible,  dilUcultly  frangible,  and  un- 
cominonlv  h^Mvy.  Hitherto  it  has  been 
t'ouiid  onlv  in  loose  masses  on  the  surtace  of 
the  earth,  and  is  a  rare  production. 

Seeonil  species.  Iron  pyrites. 
Common  iron  pyrites  is  usually  of  a  perfect 
bioii/.e-vellow  colour:  it  occurs  massive,  dis- 
semiiiatrd,  iiimeiubranes.aiul  also  chrystalliz- 
ed in  cubes,  octahedrons,  dodei  ahedrons,  ico- 
sahedrons,  and  leuzile  chrystals.  It  is  hard, 
brittle,  and  heavy,  and  when  rubbed  or 
struck  with  steel,  emits  a  strong  sulphureous 
smell.  It  occurs  in  almost  every  kind  of 
mineral  repository,  but  most  commonly  in 
granite:  its  geographic  distribution  is  equally 
extensive,  but  it  is  princip.illy  valued  on 
account  of  the  sulphur  which  may  be  ex- 
tracted from  it  by  sublimation. 

Third  species.     Mds^nelic  pyritci 
Is  of  an  intermediate  colour  between  broiize- 
yellow  and  copper-red  :  it  occurs  massive  and 
clhscmiiiatcd ;  is  internally  sliiniug,  with  a 


metallic  lustre,  passes  from  hard  to  semi- 
hard, is  brittle,  easily  frangible,  and  heavy. 
It  ib  attracted  by  (he  magnet;  is  found 
only  ill  primitive  mountains,  in  Caernar- 
vonshire, in  severiU  parts  of  Germany,  in 
Norway,  and  Siberia;  and  is  used  for  the 
same  purposes  as  common  pyrites. 

J'oiirlli  species.  Magnetic  iron-.itone. 
Common  magnetic  iron-stone  is  of  an  iron- 
black  colour  :  IS  massive,  disseminated,  and 
also  chrystallized  in  cubes,  octahedrons,  and 
garnet  dodecahedrons,  and  rectangular  four- 
sided  prisms.  It  is  externallv  shining  ;  i:i- 
tenially  between  splendent  and  glistening, 
with  a  metallic  lustre;  is  iiiternudiate  be- 
tween liard  and  semihard,  brittle,  and 
heavy.  It  occurs  most  frequently  in  pri- 
mitive mountains,  and  is  found  in  the  SIk  t- 
lands,  many  parts  of  Germany,  and  other 
countries,  particularly  Sweden.'  When  pure 
it  alfurds  excellent  bar  iron. 

/'///■/(  species.  Iron  glance. 
Common  iron  glance  is  usually  of  a  dark 
steel-grey  colour,  with  several  different 
shades  It  commonly  occurs  massive  and 
(hsseminated,  and  also  chrvstallized  in  flat, 
double,  three-sided  pvrainids,  and  in  doublr 
three-sided  pyramids.  Externally  it  alter- 
nates from  splendent  to  ghstening  ;  iniernally 
it  is  most  coiiunonlv  glistening.  It  is  hard, 
brittle,  heavy,  and  r.ither  diflicultlv  frangible. 
It  occurs  in  beds  and  veins  in  priinilive  and 
ti'ansiti\e  mountains,  and  is  found  in  con- 
siderable quantities  in  Sweden  and  other- 
countries,  and  ali'ords,  when  smelted,  an  ex- 
cellent malleable  iron. 

Si.rth  species.  Red  iron-stone. 
Red  iron  froth.  The  colour  is  intcrnie- 
diate  between  ciierrv-red  and  brownish-red. 
It  occurs  cominonlv  friable,  massive,  some- 
times coating  and  disseminated,  and  is  com- 
posed of  scalv  particles,  w  liich  are  glimmer- 
ing, aiid  have  a  semi-metallic  lustre.  It  soils 
slionglv,  feels  greasv,  and  is  pretty  heavy. 
It  is  found  Usually  in  veins,  and  chiefly  in 
primitive  mouwtains  in  Lancashire,  Corii\\all, 
Norway,  (Jermany,  and  Chili,  and  produces 
good  iron. 

•^'ivenlh  species,  frozen  iron-stone. 
brown  iron  I'rolli  is  of  an  intermediate  co- 
lour bi  tween  steel-grey  and  clove-brown,  and 
IS  between  fri  ble  and  solid.  It  occurs  mas- 
sive, coaling,  spumous,  &:c.  and  is  composed 
of  scalv  particles,  shining  and  listening, 
with  a  m-tallic  lustre.  It  soils  strongly,  feels 
greasv,  and  is  vi'ry  light.  It  is  commonly 
found  lining  dru-v  cavities,  in  brown  hema- 
tite, in  the  Shetland  isles,  in  various  parts  of 
Germany,  and  in  Chili. 

Eighth  sp<  cies.  Sparrij  iron-stone. 
The  principal  colour  is  a  light  yellowish- 
grey,  which,  on  exposure  to  the  air  or  heat, 
ch.mges  into  brown  or  black.  It  occurs 
massive,  disseminated,  with  pyramidal  im- 
pressions, in  plates,  and  i  hrystallized.  It  is 
found  in  granular  distiiK  t  concretions,  com- 
inonlv translucent  on  the  edges,  semihard, 
not  vi'rv  brittle,  easily  frangible,  and  heavy. 
It  is  chietly  confined  to  tlie  primitive  ami 
Uoetz  mountains,  and  is  |  roduced  in  small 
tpiantities  in  liiigkuul,  Scotland,  and  Ireland; 
but  on  the  continent  it  is  in  some  places 
verv  abuiulant,  and  allbrds  .'.n  iron  which  is 
cxtelkntly  ada))ted  for  steel-uiaking. 


Ninth  -ipccief,  Bluch  iron-slnne. 
Compart  lilatk  iron-stone,  is  of  an  intei- 
nii'diale  colour  bctwecii  hliii;.li-l)l;uk,  and 
tliwk  stfcl-grr;y  :  it  occurs  ina-sivc,  tiibpro-.(', 
rcnilorrn,  iS:c.  i-  ^t■ulillu^(],  lintlle,  oaiilv 
tViUigible,  and  In  livv. 

Tviith  .v/)(.c/f.v.     Cldi/  irnn-xtonc. 

Kcddle  n  ot'  a  light  brown^li-rcd,  passinj^ 
into  (  hcrry-rrd  :  it  occn.s  onlv  massive  ;  soils 
strongly,  and  writes,  is  sectiU',  easily  fran- 
gible, and  nitlier  In-avy.  It  is  chiellv  fonjul 
in  tlie  newer  clay-slate,  and  is  jirodiiced 
pretty  abinidajitly  m  (ierniany  and  Siberia, 
i'lie  coarser  varieties  are  li->ed  bv  tne  car- 
penter, tlie  liner  by  tjie  paniter,  under  the 
ijuuie  ol  r<'d-clialU. 

ElcTinlh  .■iptcic-i.     ling  ir'on-nrc. 

Morass  ore  is  of  a  yellow-Ijrown  colour, 
sometimes  friable,  sometimes  coherent,  ami 
occurs  massive,  corroded,  in  strains,  and  tu- 
berose. It  soils  pretty  strongly,  feels  meagre 
but  line,  and  is  ligluiili. 

Tzi'clftli  spccic.i.     /Hue  iron-tarlh. 

AVhen  fresli  it  is  wliitisli,  but  soon  becomes 
nf  an  indigo-bUie  colour,  of  diO'erent  degrees 
ofintensily;  it  occurs  massive,  di;seminaied, 
;:iid  tliinly  coating;  the  particles  are  dull  and 
dusty;  it  soils  sliglitly,  leeis  line,  and  is  ligbt- 
isli.  Itisfomid  Ml  nests  in  cla_\-beds,  and 
otiier  siluaions,  in  tlie  Sliedand  i>le5,  ice- 
land,  Sweden, and  Siberia. 

Tiiirfi'rnth  species.  Green  iron-earllt. 
Friable  green  iron-eartb  is  of  a  sUlvin-gnen 
colour,  o'-curs  massive  and  disseinin.ited,  i^ 
mure  or  kss  cohering,  soft,  fine,  easilv  IVan- 
cible,  and  intermediate  between  particularly 
heavy  and  heavy. 

J''oiir:ecnlh  .ipccic.i.  Cuhc  ore. 
The  colour  is  olive-gnen,  of  different  de- 
grees of  intensity;  it  occurs  massive,  and 
clirystall;/ed  in  small  cubes,  istranslucent,  soft, 
brittle,  and  not  particularly  heavy.  It  is 
found  in  \eins,  but  hitherto  only  in  Corn- 
wall. 

S  E  V  F.  N  T  H  G  E  X  V  s .  Lecul. 
First  species.  Lead  glance. 
Common  lead  glance  is  of  a  fresh  lead- 
grev  colour,  of  dill'erent  degrees  of  intensity  ; 
it  occurs  massive,  di'seminated,  in  mem- 
branes, &c.  and  also  chrystallized  in  cubes, 
octahedrons,  four-sided  prisms,  six-sided 
prisms,  and  three->ided  tables.  It  is  soft, 
seclile,  externally  easily  frangible,  and  un- 
commonly heavy  ;  and  is  found  i'>  veins  and 
beds  in  primitive,  transitive,  and  lloelz  moun- 
tains, at  lead-hills  in  Lana.kshire,  l>crb\- 
shire,  and  several  other  counties  of  Kn^laiid, 
Scotland,  and  Wales ;  besides  being  widely 
ditluscd  over  other  parts  oi  the  globe.  It  is 
most  freipiently  worked  as  an  ore  ot  lead,  but 
sometmies  as  an  ore  of  silver. 

Second  species.  lihic-lead  ore. 
Is  of  an  intermediate  colour  between  dark 
indigo-blue  and  le.id-giey  ;  it  occurs  m.ia- 
sive,  and  chrystallized  in  perfect  six-sided 
prisms,  is  soft,  sectile,  easily  frangible,  and 
heavy,  and  is  found  in  veins  with  ether  mi- 
nerals of  the  same  class,  but  is  altogether  a 
rare  fossil,  nor  has  it  hitherto  been  discovered 
in  Britain. 

Third  species.     JJroicn-lead  ore. 
Is  of  a  hair-brown  colour  of  di  lerent  de 
grees  of  inteiisity;  it  occurs  jnassive,  aud 


MINERALOGY. 

clirystnllizcd  in  six-sided  prisms,  is  feebly 
translucent,  s'lll,  not  very  buttle,  easily  Iran- 
gible,  and  intermediate  between  heavy  and 
uncommonly  heavy.  U  is  louiul  in  veins, 
accompanied  wiln  other  mineial-,  in  Bohe- 
inu>,  liuagaiy,  Brittany,  and  ."saxony. 

I'oiirtli  species.  Jilack-lcud  ore. 
The  colour  is  greyish-black,  of  different 
degrees  ot  i.itcnsity  ;  it  occurs  massive,  disse- 
minated, and  cnry  itaUize<l  in  six-sided  prisms; 
externally  is  usually  splendent,  int(.Tnally 
shining  with  an  ad.uii  ntiiie  hl^lre,  is  rather 
oritlh-,  easily  Iraagib.e,  and  heavy.  It  is 
found  in  veins,  aii<l  almost  aUva\  s  accompa- 
nieil  vvitli  other  kliuts  of  lead  ore,  at  lead-hills 
111  Scotlaiiil,  111  liuiicmia,  ScXony,  and  other 
mineral  countries. 

/'(/</(  species.  Il'/tile-leud  ore. 
The  colour  is  white,  but  has  various  shades; 
it  occurs  massive,  di>seminated,  in  mem- 
branes, but  most  commonly  chrystallized  in 
prisms  and  pvramuU,  of  diiferent  ligures. 
Kxternally,  it  is  spi'cular  splendent,  inter- 
nally between  splendent  aud  glistemng,  with 
an  adamantine  liiilre.  it  is  soit,  brittle,  very 
easily  frangible,  and  heavy,  and  is  found  in 
must  places  where  the  other  sjiecies  occur,  in 
I^nglaiid,  Wales,  .Scotland,  Ireland,  Sec. 
Next  to  lead  gUmce  it  is  the  inn^t  conimun  of 
tlie  lead  ores,  but  is  seldom  in  suliicient 
abuiHiaiice  to  become  an  object  to  the  metal- 
lurgist. 

•Sixth  species.  Creen-leud  ore. 
Its  colour  is  grass-green,  of  various  shades; 
it  generally  occurs  chryst.iUized,  in  six-sided 
prisms,  is  always  translucent,  soft,  rattier 
brittle,  very  easily  Irangible,  and  heavy,  it 
is  produced  in  Scotlaml  and  other  countries, 
and  is  sometimes  coiiiounded  with  the  pre- 
ceding species. 

5.  veiith  spceies.  Red-le,id  ore. 
Its  general  colour  is  a  hyacinth-red  ;  it  oc- 
curs massive  but  rarely,  sometimes  in  mem- 
branes, but  most  commonly  chrystallized  in 
broad  obliipie  four-sidrd  prisms,  is  both  ex- 
ternally and  uitcrn.illy  splen<lent,  verj  solt, 
between  brittle  and  sectne,  easily  frangible, 
anil  lieavv.  It  is  tound  jn  veins  in  gneiss  and 
mica  slate,  accompanied  with  other  tossils  ot 
the  same  kind,  in  Austria,  Savoy,  and  Sibe- 
ria, and  on  account  of  its  beautiful  colour  is 
cinedy  used  as  a  pigment . 

Eighth  sptcies.  Yelloi-e-red  ore. 
Its  principal  colour  is  wa.x-yellow ;  it  is 
generally  cliryatallized  in  rectangular  four- 
sided  tabW's,  cubi-s,  octahedrons,  efpuangular 
eight-sided  tables,  and  double  eight-Sided 
pvramids.  Externally,  it  is  shining  and 
smooth,  internalK  glistening,  with  a  resinous 
lustre ;  it  is  translucent,  soft,  between  brittle 
and  sectile,  easily  frangible,  and  heavy.  It 
is  found  in  compact  hme-stone  in  Carinthia, 
and  some  utner  countries  of  the  continent. 


.\'in!h  .'ipecies.      Lead  xiiriol,  or  litriol  oj 

lead. 
<  The  colour  is  yellowish-grey  and  greyish- 
white;  It  occurs  onlv  chr_>stallized  in  octahe- 
drons of  diiferent  hgurtj.  Externally  it  is 
shilling,  internally  splendent,  with  an  ada- 
inantme  lustre.  It  is  often  semi-transparent, 
rattier  brittle,  and  heavy,  and  is  found  in 
Scotland,  Anglesea,  and  Spain, 


213 

T(  nth  .species,  lead  earth. 
Cohpieiit  lead  earth  is  usually  ot  a  yeilow- 
isli-u:ey  coloin  ;  it  occurs  n  as;:ve,  is  inter- 
nally ylmmi,  ring,  UMiadv.  opaipie,  solt,  in- 
<  lining  to  sectile,  easily  trangdjie,  and  heavy. 
Jt  is  louiKl  in  pniniiive  linie>lone  in  iJerby- 
shircj  ocotlanri,  and  many  other  countries. 

Eighth  Gt.sus.    Tin. 
Tir.st  .species.    Tin  pyrites. 

Tlie  colour  is  intermediate  between  steel- 
grey  and  brass-veilow;  it  occurs  massive  and 
dissenuiiatea.  Intermilly  is  glistiming,  and  has 
a  metallic  lustre,  is  sciiiihaid,  brittle,  easily 
Iranginle,  and  heavy.  It  melts  easily,  and 
has  hitherto  been  found  only  in  Cornw'all. 
Second  ■■species.     Tin  stone. 

'I  he  most  common  colour  is  blackish- 
brown;  it  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  iti 
rolled  piece,,,  in  grams,  like  sand,  but  most 
he<iuently  chrystallized  in  prisms  and  pyra- 
miils  of  different  hgures.  internally  it  is 
shining  and  gli,teniiig,  it  yields  a  greyish- 
white  streak,  is  hard,  eas,ly  trangible,  brittle, 
and  very  heavy.  It  is  found  only  in  primi- 
tive rocks,  and  is  conlineil  to  a  few'situations, 
like  all  the  tin  g;  nus. 

Jhird  species.  Cornis/t  tin  ore,  or  zioodtin. 
The  most  usual  colour  is  luir-brown,  of 
diflereiit  degrees  of  intensity  ;  it  occurs  usu- 
ally in  rolled  pieces,  sometime>  reniform  with 
impressions.  It  is  found  usually  m  large  and 
coarse  granular  distinct  concretions,  is  opaque, 
hard,  brittle,  easily  Irangible,  aiid  uncom- 
monly heavy.  It  "is  inhiMJjle,  and  huhertcv 
has  only  been  tound  in  Cornwall  in  alluvial 
land,  accompanied  with  tin  stone. 

Ninth  GE.vt;s.     llivnuth. 
J-irst  species.     j\'ative  bismuth 

Its  colour  is  silver-white,  with  an  incli- 
nation to  red;  it  occurs  massive,  dissemi- 
nated in  leaves,  reticulated,  and  chrvstallized 
in  small  four-sided  tables,  and  in  small  and 
indistinct  cube-,  and  tiiree-sided  pyramids. 
It  is  soft,  sectih-.  rather  difficultly  ir'angib.e, 
ami  uncommonly  lieavy  ;  and  is  found  in 
veins  in  primitive  moui'il.iiiis  in  Saxony,  and 
other  parts  of  the  continent  ;  but  it  is  doubt- 
hil  if  produced  in  Britain. 

Second  species.    Bianinth  glance. 

The  colour  is  a  light  lead-grey  ;  it  occurs 
massive,  disseminated,  and  in  acIT-ular  and 
capillary  chrystals  ;  it  soils,  inclines  to  sectile, 
is  easily  frangible,  and  heavy.  It  is  tound 
always  in  veins,  and  is  u-uall\  accompanied 
with  native  bi^mutii,  chielly  in  Sa.xony,  Bo- 
hemia, aud  Hungary. 

Thii-d  species.  Bismuth-ochre. 
The  colour  is  a  straw-yellow,  passing  into 
other  neighbouring  sliades  ;  it  is  massive  and 
Uisseminated,  opaque,  soft,  not  very  brittle, 
easily  frangible,  and  heavy.  This  mineral 
IS  rare,  and  seems  to  be  confined  to  a  few 
places  in  Saxony  and  Bohemia. 

Tenth  Genus.  Zinc. 
First  species.  Blende. 
Yellow  blende  is  of  a  dark  wax  and  sul- 
phur yellow  colour  ;  it  usually  occurs  mas- 
sive and  dissemiiK.ted,  but  is  sometimes chrvs- 
t.ilhzed  in  rectangular  four-sided  prisms ;"  it 
is  shining  and  splendent  botU  externally  and 


214 

interna'.'.y,  wiiii  an  ai'.ainatuiiic-  lustiv;  is 
loimJ  ill  large  uikI  couisl-  e;i-amilar  dblinct 
co;n.i'e!ii>ii~,  is  usually  transluci-nl,aemiiiar(l, 
briule,  t-asily  fri:iigii)lc',  aiul  litavy.  It  phos- 
piiorescc'S  when  l-ubij;-a  in  the  dark ;  occurs 
jiiost  frequently  in  traiisilivt  mountains  in 
Boiiemia,  and  oilier  parts  uJ'tjfirmany. 
Second  specUs.  Culaiuinc. 
Tlie  general  colour  is  yfllowish-grey,  which 
passes  into  other  neighbouring  shades;  it 
occurs  massive,  disseminated,  cellular,  cor- 
roded. Sec.  ar.d  clirystallized  in  tables  cubes, 
pyramids,  and  prisms.  Kxlernally  the  chr)  s- 
tals  are  splendent  and  sliining  ;  internally, 
between  sliinaig  and  glimmering.  It  is  usu- 
ally found  in  small  and  line  gra'^nular  distinct 
concretions,  is  semihard,  not  very  brittle, 
rather  d.fiicultlv  frangible,  and  heavy  ;  and 
is  .oroduced  in  beds  in  a  floetz  lime»tone  for- 
mation, accompanied  w  ith  iron-9chre,  Icad- 
gLiiice,  i-c.  It  is  met  with  in  all  the  niine 
counties  of  England  and  Scotland,  in  Ger- 
many, and  other  parts  of  the  continent ;  and 
when  puritied  and  roasted,  is  used  for  the 
fabrication  of  brass,  which  is  a  compound  of 
zinc  and  copper. 

Elevent.h  Genus.  Aatimnnij. 
First  species.  Native  aii'imony. 
The  colour  is  perfect  tin-white:  it  occurs 
massive,  disseminated,  renilbrm,and  probably 
rhrvstalhzed ;  in  the  fresh  fracture  it  is  splen- 
dent, and  has  a  metallic  lustre.  It  is  found 
usually  in  coarse,  small,  and  line  granular 
distinct  concretions,  is  soft,  sectlle,  easily 
frangible,  and  heavy  in  a  low  degree.  It  i> 
])rodiiced  in  veins  in  Daupliiny  and  in  the 
iHr/.,  and  disseminated  in  calx-spar  in  A\'est- 
ermanriland,  iii  Sweden  ;  but  is  a  rare  mine- 
ral. 

Second  species.     Grey  anlimonij  ore. 

Compart  grey  antimony-ore  is  usually  of 
a  light  lead-grey  colour,  occurs  massive,  dis- 
seminated, and  occasionally  in  meir.branes  ; 
internally  is  shining  and  glistening  with  a 
iii.'lallic  lustre,  is  soft,  not  very  heavy,  easily 
frangible,  soils,  and  becomes  more  shining  in 
t!ie  streak.  It  is  found  in  Sweden  and  some 
other  countries,  but  is  the  rarest  sub-species. 
Third  species.  Black  (iniimoiu/  ore. 
Is  of  an  iron-black  colour,  occurs  only 
thrystallized  in  rectangular  four-sided  tables, 
is  internally  shining  with  a  metallic  lu>tre; 
is  soft,  rather  sectile,  and  lieavy.  In  Corn- 
wall it  is  found  of  peculiar  beauty. 

Fourth  species.  Red  antimom/-ore. 
Its  colour  is  cherry-red;  it  occurs  massive, 
often  in  membranes,  but  most  fretiuently  in 
delicate  capillary  chryst.ils ;  both  externally 
and  internally  his  shining,  and  has  an  ada- 
niantine  histn,'.  It  is  found  in  coarse,  small, 
and  longi^h  granular  distinct  concretions,  is 
opaque,  not  very  brittle, and  easily  frangible; 
but  is  a  very  rare  species. 

Fifth  species.  Ifhilc  antiinomi  ore. 
It  passes  ill  colour  from  snow-white  to  se- 
veral neighbouring  shades  ;  occurs  massive 
and  in  membranes  oci  ;.siunally,  bvit  most 
commonly  cliry  stpUized  in  rectangular  four- 
sided  tables,  cubes,  and  acicular  and  capil- 
lary chryslals.  It  is  found  in  coarse  and 
small  gr-imilar  distinct  concretions,  is  trans- 
lucent, soft,  rather  sectile  and  heavy.  Before 
the  blowpij)e,  it  becomes  wholly  volatilized. 


n  is  found  in 
and  Saxon  V. 


MINERALOGI". 
veins  in   Bohemia,  Ilungarv, 


Sixth  spicics.     AiiliiHomi-ochr 


It  is 

soft,  not  very  brittle,  nor   particularK 
vy.     It  is  found  always  in  veins,  in  ditie- 


The  colour  is  a  straw-yehow,   of  various 
degrees  of  intensity  ;  it  seldom  occurs  mas- 
sive and  disseminated,  but  usually  as  a  coat- 
ing on  chrvsfals  of  grey  antimony  ore 
dull  ■  '  ■    ■    ■ 

hea 

rent  parts  of  (jermany,  and  is  evidently 
found  liy  the  decomposition  of  grey  anti- 
mony ore. 

TwiLFTH  Genus.  Cohnlf. 
First  species.  Hliite  cobalt  ore. 
When  fresh  fractured  tlie  colour  is  usually 
tiu-wliite  ;  it  occurs  massive,  disseniinated, 
&c.  and  also  clirystallized  in  cubes  and 
double  four-sided  pyramids.  It  is  found  in 
coarse,  small,  and  line  gr.mular  di>tinct  con- 
cretions ;  is  semihard,  brittle,  not  very  diili- 
cultly  trangible,  and  lieavy.  It  easily  mehs 
before  the  blowpipe,  emits  a  strong  arsenical 
smell,  and  yields  a  white  metallic  globule. 
It  usually  occurs  in  beds  in  primitive  moun- 
tains, and  is  tound  in  Sweden^  Norway,  and 
Silesia. 

Second  species.  Grei/  cobalt  ore. 
On  the  fresh  fracture  its  colour  is  light  steel- 
grey  inclining  to  white,  but  it  becomes  tar- 
nished by  exposure;  it  occurs  only  massive, 
disseniinated,  tubiform  and  specular ;  inter- 
nally it  IS  glimmering  or  glistening  with  a 
metailic  lustre,  is  foi.nd  in  thick  and  curved 
lamellar  distinct  concretions,  and  is  pro- 
duced in  Cornwall,  Norway,  and  various 
other  countries. 

Third  species.  Cobalt  glance. 
The  colour  IS  a  silver-white,  slightly  inclin- 
ing to  reddisli:  it  is  commonly  massive  and 
disseniinated,  sometimes  chrvstallized  in  dif- 
ferent forms  ;  is  externally  splendent,  inter- 
nally between  shining  and  glistening,  and  has 
a  metallic  lustre.  It  is  semihard,  britde, 
not  very  easily  frangible;  and  when  struck 
with  steel,  eniils  an  arsenical  smell.  It  is 
found  in  veins  in  various  formations,  in  the 
dili'erent  mine  countries  of  the  continent  of 
Europe;  and  from  it  the  greatest  part  of  the 
cobalt  in  commerce  is  obtained,  which  is 
highly  useful  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  and 
as  a  paint. 

Fourth  sj)ecits.  Black  cobalt  ore'. 
Earthy  black  cobalt  ore  is  of  an  intermedi- 
ate colour  between  brownish  and  blueish- 
black,  is  composed  of  dull,  dusky  particles, 
which  soil  a  little,  usually  cohering,  streak 
shining,  and  very  hght. 

Fifth  species.  Brozvn  cobalt  ochre 
Is  of  a  liver-brown  colour,  pa.sing  some- 
limes  into  other  neighbouring  shades ;  it  oc- 
curs massive  and  dissem;na'  'd,  is  internally 
dull,  soft,  sectile,  easily  frangible,  and  light ; 
and  appears  to  be  peculiar  to  the  floelz 
mountains  in  some  parts  of  Germany  and 
Spain. 

Sixth  species.  Yellntc  cobalt  ochre 
Is  usually  of  a  dirty  straw-yellow,  occurs 
massive,  frequently  much  hiirsten  and  cor- 
roded;  it  is  internally  dull,  streak  shniinj;, 
soft,  and  rather  friable,  sectile,  easily  fran- 
gible, and  light.  It  is  the  rarest  species  of 
cobalt  ore,  but  must  valued  on  account  of 
its  purity. 

Seventh  species.     Bed  cobalt  orhre. 
Cobalt  crust  is  of  a  peach  blossom-red  co- 
11 


lour,  of  different  degrees  of  Intensity,  accuv» 
most  liequem'.y  in  velvety  drusy  coalings, 
and  di-seiiimated,  is  feebly  glunmeruig,  bor- 
dering on  dull,  scarcely  soils,  has  a  shining 
streak,  and  is  very  soft  and  light. 


Thirteenth  Genus.     Nickel. 
First  species.'  Copper  nickel 

Is  of  a  red  copper-colour  of  difi'erent  de" 
grees  of  inteiisitv  ;  it  occurs  usually  massive 
and  disseminated,  is  internally  glistening,  and 
has  a  metallic  lustre.  It  is  usually  unsepa- 
rated  ;  so.netimes,  however,  it  is  found  in 
coarse  and  small  granular  distinct  concre- 
tions, is  semihard  in  a  high  degree,  brittle, 
not  very  ea-ily  frangible,  and  heavy.  Before 
the  blowpipe  it  emits  an  arsenical  smell  and 
odour,  and  afterwards  melts,  tho'.igh  with 
dilliculty.  It  is  found  in  Cornwall,  Norway, 
and  many  otlier  countries,  and  is  nearly  al- 
lied to  cobalt. 

Second  species.  Nickel  ochre 

Is  of  an  apiile-green  colour,  occurs  always 
as  a  coating  or  elllorescence,  is  compos  -d  of 
dull  dasty  particles,  loose,  or  little  cohering, 
feels  meagre,  and  is  light.  It  is  found  in  the 
same  situations  with  the  preceding  specie-^. 
It  is  not  certain  that  native  nickel  has  yet 
been  discovered,  though  it  is  mentioned  by 
some  mineralogists. 

Fourteenth  Genus.     Manganese. 
First  species.     Greij  manganese  ore. 
Radiated  g'ey  manganese  ore  is  of  a  dark 
steel-grey  colour,   occurs  massive,  dissemi- 
nated, andchrystallized  in  prisms  of  different 
varieties.     It  is  found  in  coarse,  large,  and 
small    granular    distinct    concretions;     soils 
strongly  when  rubbed,  is  soft,  bridle,  rather 
difficultly    frangible,    and    not     particularly- 
heavy.     It  is  produced  in  several   counliea 
of  England  and   Scotland,  and  in   dilferent 
parts  of  Germany. 
Second  species.     Black  manganese  ore 
Is   of    an     intermediate     colour  between 
brownish-black  and  dark-greyish  black,  oc- 
curs massive,  disseminated",  and  in  octahedral 
chrystals.     It  is  found  in  small  and  line  gra- 
nular   concretions ;     is    opaque,    semihard, 
brittle,  and  heavy  ;  but   is  a  rare  mineral, 
and   liitheito  found  only   in  a  few  places  of 
Germany  and  Spain. 

Third  .ipecies.  Bed  manganese  ore 
Is  of  a  light  rose-red  col  nir,  occurs  massive 
and  disseminated,  is  internally  dull,  trans- 
lucent in  a  slight  degree,  hard,  brittle,  easily 
frangible,  and  heavy.  It  is  found  in  veins  in 
Norway,  France,  and  some  other  countries. 


Fifteenth  Genus.    Hfolybdena. 
First  species.     Molybdena. 
Us  colour  is  a  fresh  burning  lead-grey  ;  it 
occurs    Uhvially    massive    and'  disseminated, 
but  also  chiy^iallized  in  six-sided  tables,  and 
short  six-sided  prisms ;  internally  it  is  splen- 
dent, the  fracture  perfectly  foliated,  and  is 
found  in   large  and  coarse'  granular  distinct 
concretions.       It  soils  a  little,   is  very  soft, 
easily  frangible,  its  thin  leaves  common  flexi- 
ble, sectile.  feels  greasy,  and  is  heavy.     It  is 
one  of  the  oldest  of  nietals,  and  occurs  only 
in   primitive  mountains,  disseminated,  or  in 
veins;  and  is  produced  in  Norway,  Sweden, 
Bohemia,  and  other  countries. 


MINEBALOGY. 


215 


Sixteenth  Gf.ncs.     Arsenic. 

lurxt  s;)icic.i.  A'alivi!  arsmic. 

M'hi-n  tii'sli  broken  it  is  of  a  light  vvliitisli 
Icail-grey  coli  nr,  but  il  spct'lily  taniislics  ; 
it  occurs  massive,  (lissemiiialed,  rcMiitbrm,  and 
ill  plates,  with  various  impressions.  It  is 
fouiul  in  tliiii,  curved,  lamellar,  distinct  con- 
cretions ;  In  the  streak  it  becomes  shining 
and  metallic,  somihanl  in  a  h'gh  degree, 
very  easily  franjJiible,  and  between  sectile 
and  malleable.  It  occurs  only  in  primitive 
mountains,  and  in  veins  of  a  newer  Ibrma- 
tion,  and  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Ger- 
uuuiy,  in  France,  and  in  C'hili. 

Si-coiid  .ipecie.i.     Arsenic  pyriles. 

Common  arsenic  pyrites  is,  when  fresh,  of 
a  silver-white  colour,  but  soon  acquires  a 
yellowish  tarnish ;  it  octiu's  massive,  dis- 
seminated, and  also  in  chryslals  of  various 
figures.  Internally,  it  is  shii.lae;,  with  a  me- 
tallic lustre ;  ami  is  found  u>'..ally  unsepa- 
rated,  is  hard,  brittle,  not  easily  frangible, 
and  heavy.  It  occurs  oniy  in  primitive 
mountains  and  in  beds,  and  i--  produced  in 
Norwa),  Germany,  and  Siberia.  From  this 
uri.:  tiie  white  oxide  of  arsenic  is  prmcipally 
obtained. 

Third  species.     Orpimcnt. 

Red  orpinient  is  of  an  aurora-colour,  of 
different  degrees  of  intensity  :  it  occurs  mas- 
sive, dissen. mated  in  membranes,  and  also 
tlirystallized  in  oblique  four-sided  and  six- 
sided  prisms.  It  is  translucent,  but  the 
chrystjis  are  transparent,  is  very  soft,  yields 
a  lemon  or  orange-coloured  streak,  and  is 
easily  trangible  It  is  found  both  in  primi- 
tive and  floetz  mountains,  and  is'  produced 
in  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  the  AVest 
Indies.     It  is  used  as  a  pigment. 

Yellow  orpinient  is  of  a  perfect  lemon-yel- 
low colour,  occurs  massive,  and  in  verv  mi- 
nute chrystals,  is  found  in  large,  coarse,  and 
small  angular  granulated  distinct  concretions, 
is  translucent,  very  soft,  sectile,  and  common 
flexible.  It  occurs  principallr  in  lloetz 
mountains,  in  several  parts  of  Germany  and 
the  Ea»t. 

Fourth  species.     Arsenic  hlotm. 

The  colour  is  a  reddish-white  and  snow- 
white  !  it  occurs  as  a  coating,  in  small  balls, 
&c.  and  in  very  delicate  capillary  shining 
chrystals,  is  translucent  on  the  edges,  very 
soft,  easily  frangible,  and  soils.  It  is  pro- 
duced in  rents  of  a  granite  rock,  and  hitherto 
has  only  been  discovered  in  Swabia. 

Seventeenth  Genus.  Sclicele.* 
First  species.  Tungsten. 
The  colour  is  usually  yellowish  and  grey- 
ish-white, which  pass  into  several  other  neigh- 
bouring shades  ;  it  occurs  massiv,  dissemi- 
nated, and  iiequently  chrystallized.  Inter- 
nally it  is  shin;:ig,  with  a  vitreous  lustre ;  is 
more  or  less  translucent,  soft,  not  very  brit- 
tle, and  uncommonly  heavy.  It  is  found  in 
primitive  iiv.untains,  and'  belongs  to  the 
oltle^t  metalliferous  formations,  ;rnd  is  pro- 
.duced  in  Cornwall,  Sweden,  Sa.xony,  and 
Bohemia. 

I         Second  species.     W'^olfrum 
Is  of  an  intermediate  colour  ijetween  dark 
greyish-black,  and  brownish-black;  it  occurs 


*  So  called  iii  honour  of  the  illustrious 
Schecle. 


massive,  and  also  <:hrystallized  in  l)road  six- 
sided  •prisms,  and  rectangular  four-sided 
tables;  and  is  found  in  fortification-wise 
curved  lamellar  distinct  concretions.  It  is 
opaque,  yields  a  reddish-brown  streak,  is  soft, 
brittle,  and  tincommonly  heavy.  It  is  pro- 
duced in  the  primitive  mountains,  almost  al- 
ways accompanied  with  tin,  in  Cornwall,  and 
some  other  countries. 

Eighteenth  Genus.    Menachinc. 

First  species.  Jhnachanite 
Is  of  a  greyish-black  colour,  inclining  to 
iron-black,  occurs  only  in  small  flatlish  an- 
gular grains.  Internally  is  glistening,  witli  an 
adamantine  lustre,  is  ])crfectly  opaque,  soft, 
brittle,  retains  its  colour  in  tiie  streak,  is  ea- 
sily frangible,  and  moderately  heavy.  It  is 
attractable  by  the  magnet,  and  is  found  in 
Cornwall,  accompanied  by  line  qiiarlz-sand, 
in  the  isle  of  Providence  in  America,  and  at 
Botany  I'ay. 

Second  species.  Octruhcdrite. 
Its  colour  passes  from  indigo-blue  to  many 
other  shades;  it  occurs  only  chrystallized, 
and  that  in  very  acute  octahedrons.  It  is 
chielly  translucent,  and  semitr.insparcnt, 
semihard,  brittle,  and  borders  on  heavy.  It 
is  found  in  Dauphiny,  and  appears  from  ac- 
curate esperiineiits  to  be  an  oxide  of  nieiia- 
chiiie  mixed  .with  silica. 

Third  species.  Rut  He 
Is  of  a  dark  blood-red  colour,  of  various 
degrees  of  intensity;  it  occurs  always  clirys- 
taUized  in  four-sided  and  six-sided  prisms, 
and  also  in  compressed  acicular  and  capillary 
chrystals.  Externally  it  is  shining,  internally 
splendent,  translucent  in  a  slight  degree, 
hardish.  easily  frangible,  and  not  very  heavv. 
It  is  found  imbedded  in  drusy  cavities  of  gra- 
nite, Szc.  in  different  parts  of  Germany, 
France,  Spain,  isiberia,  and  South  Carolina". 

Fourth  species.  Nigrine 
Is  of  a  dark  brownish-black  colour,  passing 
(o  velvet-black;  it  occurs  in  larger  and 
smaller  angular  grains,  and  in  rolled  pieces. 
Externally  moderately  glittering,  internally 
the  same,  with  an  adamantine  lustre,  is 
opaque,  scmiliard,  brittle,  and  yields  a  vel- 
lowish-brown  streak,  it  is  found  m  alluvial 
hills  in  several  parts  of  Germany,  and  also  in 
Ceylon. 

Fifth  species,  /serine 
Is  of  an  iron-black  colour,  somewhat  in- 
clining to  browiiish-black;  it  occurs  usually 
in  small  obtnse  angular  grains,  and  in  rolled 
pieces,  internally  glistening,  w.th  a  scnii- 
mctallic  lustre,  is  completely  opaque,  hard, 
brittle,  and  retains  its  colour  in  tlu-  streak. 
Hitherto  it  has  been  found  only  in  the  stream 
called  iser  in  Ciermany,  from  which  it  re- 
ceives its  appeii.ifion.  "  It  bears  a  great  re- 
semblance to  iron-sand. 

Nl.N'ETEENTH  GeNUS.      CrWl. 

First  species.  Pitch  ore 
Is  usually  of  a  veivet-black  colour;  it  oc- 
curs almost  always  massive  a ;hI  disseminated. 
Internally  is  shiniiio;,  soft,  britt!':-,  uncom- 
monly iieavy,  and  compl  lely  infusible  with- 
out audition.  It  is  f<".!nd  in  veins  of  primi- 
tive iT)!iunt.'.ias  aloiig  with  le.id  r^.id  siber 
ores,  and  is  piotluced  in  Saxony  and  Norway. 


Second  .ipecie.i.  Urnn  mica. 
The  principal  colour  is  a  grass-green,  pass- 
into  various  allied  shades ;  it  occurs  some- 
limes  ill  membranes,  but  coiniiionly  chrystal- 
lized in  rectangular  four-sided  tables.  The 
fracture  is  foliated,  the  fragments  and  distinct 
concretions  are  loo  minute  to  be  determined. 
Il  is  more  or  l.-ss  translucent,  soil,  sectile, 
easily  fr.mgiblej  and  is  found  iu  iron-stone 
veins  in  Cornwall,  Saxony,  and  France. 

Tliird  species.     Uran  Ochre. 

Friable  uran  ochre  is  usually  of  a  straw-yel- 
low colour :  it  generally  occurs  as  a  coating  or 
eltlorescence  on  pitch  ore  ;  is  friable,  and 
composed  of  dull  dii^ty  particles,  which  feel 
meagre,  aiifl  are  noi  particularly  heavy. 

Indurated  man  ore  is  of  the  same  colour  as 
the  preceding :  occurs  massive  and  dissemi- 
nated, is  generallv  dull,  internally  opacpie, 
soft,  brittle,  and  soils  a  littlt.-,  and  is  found 
along  w  ith  the  other  ores  of  uran. 

Twentieth  Genus.  Sijkan. 
First  species.  Native  .Sylvan. 
Is  of  an  intermediate  colour  between  white 
and  silver-white :  occurs  massive  and  disse- 
minated, and  also  chrystallizeil  in  four  and 
six-sided  jirisms,  in  small  three-sided  pyra- 
mids, in  cubes,  and  in  short  acicular  chrys- 
tals. It  is  soft,  not  very  brittle,  easily  frangi- 
ble, and  heavy ;  and  before  the  blowpipe 
melts  as  easily  as  lead,  burning  with  a  light 
green  colour,  and  emitting  a  sharp,  disagree- 
able odour.  Hitherto  it  hits  only  been  found 
at  Face-bay,  in  Transylvania. 

Second  .species.  Graphic  Ore. 
Its  colour  is  a  light  steel-grey :  it  occurs 
massive  and  chrystallized;  externally  is  splen- 
dent, internallv  glistening.  M  hen  massive, 
it  shews  a  tendency  to  fine  granular  distinct 
concretions :  it  is  soft,  brittle,  sectile,  and 
heavy,  and  is  worked  as  an  ore  of  gold  in 
Transylvania,  where  alone  it  has  yet  been 
found. 

Third  species.  Yellozv  Sulvmi  Ore 
Is  of  a  silver-white  colour,  inclining  to 
brass-yellow:  it  occurs  <!isseminated  and 
chrystalli;;ed  in  very  small  and  rather  broad 
four-si<led  prisms;  is  soft,  rather  sectile,  and 
uncommonly  heavy.  It  is  found  along  with 
the  other  species  of  the  genus,  and  contains  a 
considerable  portion  both  of  gold  and  silver. 

Fourth  species.    Black  Sijhan  Ore 

Is  of  an  intTmediafe  colour  between  iron- 
black  and  blackish  lead-grey  :  it  occurs  mas- 
sive, and  in  small,  thin,  and  longish  six-Mded 
tables,  which  are  usually  imbedded.  Ex- 
ternally it  is  splendent:  iiitemally  shining, 
soils  a  little,  is  very  soft,  Si  ctile,  spht'  easily, 
and  in  thin  leaves  is  common  flexible.  It 
melts  easily  before  the  blowpipe;  occurs  in 
veins  along  with  other  minerals,  but  is  only 
fiund  iu  Transylvania,  where  it  is  worked  for 
tl-.e  gold  and  silver  it  contains. 

Twenty-first  Genus.    Chrome.   . 
First  species.     Acicular,  or  Needle  Ore. 

Its  colour  is  dark  Eteel-grey :  occurs  in 
imbeddvd  acicular  chryslals:  iiue'nally  shines 
wiUi  a  metallic  lustre,  is  soft,  not  veiy  brit- 
tle, heavy,  and  is  always  accompanied  with 
chrome  ociire,  and  sometimes  with  native, 
gold.     It  is  found  iu  Sibeiia,  . 


21(5 


M  I  N 


Second  species.     Chrome  Gchre 

Is  of  a  venligris-grireii,  passing  through  se- 
vfial  neii;liboiiring  shades :  it  otcius  iiias- 
fivc,  dibiL'iiiiitated,  and  in  n1emhrJne■^ ;  i'^ 
(hill,  solt,  not  very  heavy,  and  is  luiiiid  witli 
thi-  i;rc<"edine;  spt'i.ics. 

Having  alreadv  extended  this  arlidc  lo  a 
great-r  leni^tli  than  was  inteiulfd,  in  order 
that  «e  might  be  able  to  give  a  satistactory  | 
view  of  the  beautiful  system  of  Werner,  we 
shall  only  subjoin  the  names  of  some  other 
minerals',  which  either  have  not  bei-n  regu- 
larly classed,  or  are  but  recently  discovered, 
and  therefore  have  not  been  accurately  in- 
vestigated: these  are 

Earthy  fossils,  foliated  prehiiite,  schmelz- 
steiii,  spofhnnene,  meionite,  somnite,  glassy 
felspar,  s|jiiithere,  metallic  lossils,  pilchy  iron 
ore,  gadohnite,  copper  sand  or  muriate  ot 
copper,  phosphat  of  copper,  corneous  lead 
ore,  ren.fonn  leail  ore,  bournoiiite,  columbite, 
tantalite,  yttertantalite. 

To  which  may  be  added  loisite,  needle  or 
acicular-stone,  '  lisli  eye-stone,  irun-clay, 
(igure-stone,  granular  actynolite,  dniomitp, 
foliated  celesiine  and  its  varieties,  silver 
black  witli  iti  sub-species. 

EXPLANATION'    OF    fl.ATE    II. 

Fig.   1.  The  Ico^ahedron. 
3.  The  Dodecahedron. 
The  ile.vahedron,  as 

3.  Cube. 

4.  Hhomb. 

5.  Keclani;ular  tetrahedral  prism. 

ti.  Olili^ue-angular  tetrahedral  prism. 

7.  Oblicpie-angular  tetrahedral  prisin, 

in  wiiicli  liic  terminal  planes  are 
Set  obliciuely  on  the  lateral  planes. 

8.  Ecpiiangular  he.vahedral  prism. 

9.  Tetraiiedron,  or  simple  three-sided 

pyr.imiil. 
iO.   Double     three-sided    pyramid,    in 

whic  h  the  lateral  planes  of  the  one 

pvramid    are    set    on  the   lateral 

edges  of  the  other. 
11.  Octaheilron. 
I'J.   Sini|>le  >ix--ided  pyramid. 

13.  Doul)le  six-sided  |)\  ramid,  in  which 

the  lateral  planes  of  the  one  jjyra- 
luid  are  set  on  the  lateral  planes  of 
the  other. 

14.  Double  six-sided  pyramid,  in  «  hi<h 

the  planes  ol  the  one  pyramid  are 
set  obliquely  on  lho.-.e  ot  the  other, 
so  liiat  tue  common  base  forms  a 
zig-zag  line. 

1  j.  Rectangular  four-sided  table. 

Itt.  Obliipie-aiigular  four-sided  tabic, 

17.  iMjuiangular  six-sided  talile. 

18.  J.englhened  six-sided  table. 

19.  and  'JD.  Coinmon  lews. 

Atteralion  of  the  Fuudiimciltal  J'igitrcs 
bi)  Triiiiciitioti. 
21.  Cubetrmicatedon  all  its  angles. 
2'J.  Cube  truncated  on  all  its  edges. 

Jii/  Bcvelment. 
S3.  Thfl  cube  bevi'lled  on  all  its  edges. 
24.  Three-sided  pri-.in  having  its  lateral 

edges  bevelled. 
2 J.  Obliq  e-angular  four-sided  prism  be- 

.   veiled  un  its  extremities. 
26.  Six-sided  table,  with  bevelled  termi- 
nal planes. 


U  I  N 

2".  Octahedron,  with  bevelled  angles. 
Bi/  yicumhiiitf'n. 

28.  Cube,  with  the  angles  actmiinated 

by  three  planes  which  are  set  on 
the  lateral  planes. 

29.  Cube,  with  the  ang'es  acuininaled 

by  three  idanes  which  are  set  on 
the  lateral  edges. 

30.  Kectangular  lour-sided  prism  acumi- 

nated bv  four  plane,,  winch  are  sirt 
on  the  lateral  planes. 

31.  Equiangular  six-sided  prism,  acumi- 

nated on  both  extremities  by  six 
pianes,  which  are  set  on  the  late- 
ral planes. 
3:2.  Four-sided  ])ri>-ni,  acuminated  on 
both  extieniilies  by  four  planes, 
which  are  >etoii  the  lateral  edges. 

33.  Six-sided  prism,  acuminated  oe  both 

extremities  by  three  pl.mes,  which 
a:e  set  on  tlie  alternate  lateral 
planes. 

34.  Six-sided  prism,  acuminated  on  botli 

extremitie..  by  three  planes,  whirli 
are  set  on  the  alternate  lateral 
edges. 

35.  Double  eight-sided  pyramid,  accu- 

minated  on  both  extremities  by 
four  ii'anes,  which  are  set  on  the 
alternate  lateral  edges. 

MINTMl'M,  in  ihehiglur  geometry,  the 
least  quantity  attainable  in  a  given  case. 

.MINOK,  in  law,  is  an  heir,  either  maf.'  or 
feuKile,  before  theyarrive  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one;  during  the  minority  ot  such,  they  are 
usuLillv  incapable  of  acting  for  them-elves. 

Mi.N'OR,  in  lo^ic,  the  Seconal  proposition 
of  a  regular  syllogism. 

Minor,  in  music,  signifies  less,  and  isa])- 
l^lied  to  certain  concords  or  intervals  which 
dilTer  from  others  of  the  same  denomination 
bv  halt  a  tone :  thus  we  say  a  third  minor, 
meaning  a  less  third ;  a  sixth  major  and 
minor. 

MINT,  the  place  in  whieli  the  public  mo- 
ne\  is  coined.     See  Coining. 

i'he  oflicers  of  the  mint  aie,  1.  The  war- 
den of  the  mint,  who  is  chief;  he  oversees 
the  other  olTicers,  and  receives  the  bullion. 
'J.  The  master  worker;  who  receives  the  bul- 
lion from  the  warden,  causes  it  to  be  melted, 
delivers  it  to  the  m«neyers,  and  when  it  is 
coined  receives  it  again.  3.  The  comp- 
troller, who  is  the  overseer  of  all  the  inierior 
ollicers,  and  sees  that  all  the  money  is  made 
to  the  just  assize.  4.  The  assav-masler ; 
who  weighs  the  gold  and  silver,  and  sees  thai 
it  is  according  to  the  standard.  5.  Tin-  au- 
ditor; who  lakes  the  accounts.  C.  The  sur- 
vevor  of  the  melting;  who,  after  the  a-say- 
ma'ster  has  made  trial  of  the  bullion,  sees  that 
it  is  cast  out,  and  not  altered  after  it  is  deli- 
vered to  the  melter.  7.  The  eiigr.iver;  who 
engravi's  the  stamps  and  d\  es  for  the  coinage 
off  he  money.  .  S.  The  clerk  of  the  irons; 
who  sei's  that  the  irons  are  (lean  and  tit  to 
work  w  ith.  9.  The  melter  ;  who  melts  the 
bullion  before  it  is  coined.  10.  The  provost 
of  the  mint;  who  provides  for,  and  oversees 
all  tlie  monuyers,  11.  'I'he  blancliors;  w'ho 
anneal  and  clause  the  money.  I'J.  1  he  mo- 
neyers;  some  of  wliom  forge  the  money, 
some  shear  it,  some  round  and  mill  it,  and 
some  stamp  or  coin  it.  13.  The  porters; 
who  keep  the  gate  of  the  mint. 

.Mint.     See  Mrntha. 

MINLASTIA,  a  genus  of  the  trian<lria 


]M  I  R 

Irigynia  class  and  order.  The  cal.  is  5-Ieavctl; 
cyr.  none.  caps,  l-celli-d,  3-valved.  There 
arc  three  species,  liei  bs  Oi  Spain. 

MINI,  TE.  Ill  geometry,  the  sixtieth  part 
of  a  degree  oi  a  circle. 

Minutes  are  denoted  by  one  acute  accent, 
thui  (');  as  ihe  -econd,  or  sixtieth  I'artof  a 
minute,  ii  by  two  »uch  aci  ents,  tiiui  (") ; 
and  the  thir /by  three  ('";,  &c. 

MiNUiL  of  time,  the  sixtieth  part  of  an 
hour. 

MIRALIL  S,  imin-cl  «f  l\ru\  a  genus 
of  the  n.oiioguna  order,  in  the  penlandria 
class  of  pi, .Ills,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  with  those  of  wbicii  tiie  order  is 
doubtful.  The  corolla  is  funntl->liaped 
above;  the  calyx  inferior;  the  nectarium 
globular,  containing  the  germen.  The  most 
r' nuirkablc-  species  are,  1.  The  jalapa,  or 
common  marvel  of  Peru.  Of  this  there  are 
varieties,  Willi  white  flowers,  with  yellow  flow- 
ers, witli  purple  llowers,  with  red  llowers, 
with  white  and  yellow  flowers  while  and 
purple  flowers,  purple  and  yellow  llowers, 
red  .ind  yellow  flowers.  '2.  The  longiilora, 
or  long  flowered  mirabilis,  with  al;  the 
bninches  and  shoots  tenmnated  by  while 
llowers  in  clusters,  having  very  long  Uibe«, 
nodding  downward.  3.  The  dicholoma, 
dichofomoiis,  or  forked  mirabilis,  with  small- 
ish red  flow  ers  at  the  axillas,  singly  and  close- 
sitting. 

The  roots  of  all  these  plants  are  purgative ; 
but  require  to  be  given  in  a  great  quaiitifv  to 
operate  equal  to  the  true  jalap,  which  is  a 
species   of  comolvulus.     See   Convolvv- 

LUS. 

MIRKOU,  a  speculum,  looking-glas.^,  or 
any  polished  body,  whose  use  is  to  form  the 
hnages  of  distinct  objects  by  reflection  of  the 
rays  ot  light. 

Mirrors  are  either  plane,  convex,  or  con- 
cave. The  lirsl  sort  reflects  the  raxs  of  light 
in  a  direction  exactly  similar  to  that  in  which 
they  fall  upon  it,  and  therefore  represents 
bodies  of  their  natural  magnitude-.  Bjit  the 
convex  ones  make  the  rays  diverge  nuicli 
more  than  before  reflexion,  and  fhcref<n'e 
greatly  <liiniiii.>h  the  images  of  those  objects 
which  they  exhibit ;  while  the  concave  ones, 
by  collecting  the  ravs  into  a  focus,  not  only 
magnity  the  objects  they  shew,  but  will  also 
burn  very  fiercely  when  exposed  to  the  rays 
of  the  Sim  ;  and  hence  they  are  conmionly 
known  by  the  name  of  burning  miirors. 

In  antient  times  the  mirrors  were  maile  of 
some  kind  of  mctiil  ;  and  from  a  passage  in 
the  mosaic  w  ritings  we  learn,  that  the  mirrors 
used  by  the  Jewish  wonien,  were  made  of 
brass  ;  a  practice  doubtless  learned  from  the 
Egyptians, 

Any  kind  of  metal,  when  well  polished, 
will  rellect  verv  powerfully  ;  but  of  all  othei's, 
silver  rellects  the  most,  though  il  h^s  jdwavs 
been  too  expensive  a  material  for  coiimion 
use.  CJold  IS  also  verv  powerlul;  ;nui  all 
metals,  or  even  wood,  gill  and  polisheil,  will 
act  very  powerfully  as  burning  mirrors.  Even 
polished  ivory,  or  straw  nii  i;ly  plaited  toge- 
ther, will  form  mirrors  capable  of  burning, 
if  on  a  l.irge  si  ale. 

Some  of  ihe  more  remarkable  laws  ami 
phenomena  of  plane  mirrors  are  as  follow  : 

1.  A  spectator  will  see  his  image  of  the 
same  size,  and  erect,  butrevei"sed  as  to  right 
and  left,  and  as  tar  beyond  the  speculum  as 
he  is  before  it.    As  lie'  moves  to  or  from  Hie 


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II  I  s 

jppciiUim,  liis  image  will,  yt  the  sanir  (imp, 
move  towards  ur  iiom  the  spfciiliim  aUo  on 
the  otiiei"  sidi!.  In  like  maimer  it',  wliile  tlie 
speitalor  is  at  rest,  an  oljjeet  be  in  iiKjlion, 
its  image  beliind  Ihi;  spetiikini  will  he  seen 
to  move  at  the  same  rate.  Also  when  the 
s|)ettator  moves,  tlie  inuigcs  of  objects  that 
are  at  lest  will  ajjpear  to  ilpproaeh  or  recede 
iVom  liim,  after  the  same  manner  as  when  he 
moves  towards  real  objects. 

2.  ]f  several  mirrors,  or  several  iVagments 
i>r  pieces  of  uitrrors,  be  all  disposed  in  the 
same  plane,  they  will  only  exhibit  an  object 
once. 

3.  If  two  plane  mirrors,  or  speciihims, 
nii-et  ill  any  an;j;le,  the  eye,  placed  within 
that  angle,  will  see  the  image  of  an  object 
placed  within  the  same,  a^  often  repeated  as 
tlx're  may  be  perpendiculars  drawn  deter- 
mining llie  places  of  the  imag  s,  ;ind  ttrmi- 
naled  uithout  the  angle.     See  Optics. 

MISC  llNiV,  or  .MisNA,  the  code  or  col- 
lection of  the  civil  law  of  the  Jeus.  ']  he 
Ji;v.s  pretend,  that  when  God  gave  the  writ- 
ten law  to  Moses,  he  gave  him  also  another 
not  written,  which  was  preserved  by  tradi- 
tion among  the  doctors  of  the  synagogne,  till 
rabbi  Jnda,  surnamed  the  Holy,  si-eing  the 
danger  they  were  in,  through  liieir  di^per- 
sion,  or  de|>arling  from  the  traditions  of  their 
fathers,  judgeil  it  proper  to  re»luce  them  to 
writing. 

the  misna  is  divided   into  six  parts:  the 

•*_  relates  to  the  distinction  of  seeds  in  a 
iie.d,  to  trees,  frniti,  tythes,  &:c.  'I'lie  se- 
con<l  regulates  the  manner  of  observing  fes- 
tivals: the  tiiird  treats  of  women,  and  ma- 
trimonial cases:  the  fourth  of  losses  in  trade, 
clc.  the  liftli  is  on  obligations,  sacririccs.  Sec. 
and  the  sixth  treats  of  the  several  sorts  of 
purilication.     See  Tai.muc. 

jMISI)iiMi:.VX()i:!L  A  crime  or  mis- 
demeanour is  an  act  committed  or  omitted, 
in  violation  of  a  ])ublic  law,  either  forbidding 
or  connnanding  it. 

.NSISLETOf:.     SeeViscuM. 

MlS.N()^iEU,  tlie  using  of  one  name  for 
another. 

Where  a  person  is  described  so  that  he 
n;ay  not  be  certainly  distinguislied  and 
Known  from  other  persons,  the  omission,  or 
in  som-p  cases  the  miitake  of  the  name  shall 
ii,A  avoid  tht^rant.     11  Rep.  20. 

(f  tie.-  chri-tian  name  is  wholly  mistaken, 
this  is  ri-'gularly  lata!  to  all  legal  instruments, 
as  well  declarations  and  pleadings  as  grants 
and  obligations. 

The  mistake  of  the  surname  does  not  vi- 
tiate, because  there  is-  no  repugnancy  that  a 
person  shall  have  dilferent  surnames;  and 
therefore,  if  a  man  enter  into  an  obligation  by 
a  particular  name,  he  may  be  impleaded  by 
tliat  name  in  tlie  deed,  and  his  real  name 
brought  in  by  an  alias  ;  ami  then  the  name  in 
the  deed  lie  cannot  deny,  because  he  is 
estopped  to  say  any  thing  contrary  to  hfs 
own  de^d.     '_'  Kol.  Abr.  14G. 

MISPRISION,  is  generally  understood  to 
be  of  all  such  high  offences  as  ar-  under  th.' 
degree  ofca|)ital,  but  bordering  th-reoii,  and 
it  is  said  tliat  a  misprision  is  contained  in 
everv  trea-oii  and  felony  whatso'-ver;  and, 
that  if  tile  king  please,  tiie 'orlender  may  be 
proceeded  agaaist  for  the  misprision  oniy.  4 
Hiack.  119       ^ 

.MIS-RI'jCrr.VL,  in  deeds,  is  sometimes 
injuriou^i,  and  sometimes  not;  if  a  lliin^  be 
"Vol.  il. 


M  N  I 

referred  to  time,  place,  and  number,  and  that 
is  mistaken,  all  is  void. 

MrrClIF,r,I-A,  a  genus  of  the  tetrandria 
monogynia  class  and  order.  The  cor.  is  i- 
petalled;  stigmas  4;  berry  trirtd,  '2-seeded. 
There  is  1  species,  an  berbof  N.  America. 

Mll'E,  a  small  coin  formerly  current, 
equal  to  about  one  third  part  of  a  farthing. 

It  also  denotes  a  small  weight  used  by  the 
moneyers.  It  is  equal  to  the  twentieth  ])arl 
of  a  grain,  and  is  divided  into  twenty-tour 
doits. 

Mite.  Sec  Acarus. 
MITF.LLA,  hudard  American  saiiirlc ; 
a  genus  of  the  digynia  order,  in  the  decan- 
dria  class  of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural  me- 
thod ranking  under  the  1.3lh  order,  succu- 
lenl:e.  The  calyx  is  quinquelid;  the  corolla 
jienlapelalous,-  and  inserted  into  the  caly\ ; 
tJie  petals  pinnatifid;  the  capsule  unilocular 
and  bivalved,  with  the  valves  equal.  There 
are  two  species,  both  natives  of  North  Ame- 
rica, rising  with  annual  herbaceous  stalks 
from  (ive  or  six  to  eight  or  nine  inches  in 
height,  and  producing  spikes  of  small  whitish 
flowers,  whoie  petals  are  fringed  on  their 
edges. 

MI'I'IIKIDATEA.  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nandria  monogvnia  class  and  order.  The 
cal.  is  four-cleft ;  cor.  none  ;  fruit  glolnilar, 
drpressed.  There  is  one  'species,  a  tree  of 
Madagascar. 

Mil  TIML'S,  a  writ  by  which  records 
are  transferred  from  one  court  to  another. 
This  word  is  also  used  for  the  precept  direct- 
ed to  a  gaoler,  under  the  hand  and  seal  of  a 
justice  of  the  peace,  for  the  receiving  and 
safe  keeping  a  felon,  or  otlier  oflendtr,  by 
him  committed  to  goal. 

MIZKN,  in  the  sea-language,  is  a  par- 
ticular mast  or  sail.  The  niizen-mast  stands 
in  the  sternmost  part  of  the  ship.  Its  length 
is  by  some  accounted  the  same  witli  the 
iieiglit  of  the  main-top-mast,  from  the  quar- 
ter-d;-ck;  or  half  the  lengtb  of  the  main- 
mast, and  half  as  thick.  The  sail  which 
belongs  to  tlie  nii/.en-mast,  is  called  the 
mizen-saii:  and  when  the  word  niizen  is 
used  at  sea,  it  alwa.ys  means  the  sail. 

MNASIUM,  a  genus  of  the  hexandria 
monogynia  class  and  order.  Thecal,  is  1- 
lea.ve.l,"  3-parted  ;  cor.  1-petalled,  3-pailed  ; 
anther*  4-cornered;  germ  3-lobed;  stigmas 
3.  There  is  1  species,  an  aquatic  of  Gui- 
ana. 

.MNI.VHUM,  a  genus  of  the  monandria 
digynia  class  and  order.  The  cal.  is  4-pai  l- 
ed,  superior;  cor.  none;  seed  1.  There  is 
one  species,  an  herb  of  New  Z-'aland. 

.\IN1UM,  nuirsh-moas  ;  a  genus  of  the 
natural  order  of  niusci,  belonging  to  the 
cryptogamia  class  ol  plants.  The  anthera 
is  operciilated ;  the  calyptra  smooth;  the 
female  capitulum  naked  and  powdery,  re- 
mote. There  are  ,4  British  species,  but  none 
have  any  remarkable  property  except  the 
two  following:  1.  The  tontanum  is  an  ele- 
gant moss,  frequent  in  bogs,  and  on  the  bor- 
ders of  cold  springs.  It  is  from  two  to  four 
inches  high :  the  stalks  are  simple  at  the 
/base,  and  covered  witii  a  rusty  down ;  but 
liigher  up  are  red,  ant  divided"  into  several 
round,  single,  taper  branches,  which  proceed 
nearly  from  the  sam.,'  pomt.  The  leaves 
are  not  more  than  yV-h  of  an  inch  long,  lan- 
ceolate and  acute,  ot  a  whitish-green  colour, 
Ee 


MOD 


217 


and  so  t-hinly  set,  that  tlie  red  stalk  appi-a;s 
between  them.  'I  his  moss,  as  il  nuv  b? 
seen  at  a  considcrabie  distance,  is  a  good 
mark  to  lead  to  the  discovery  of  clear  anil 
cold  springs.  Dr.  'Withering  inforus  us, 
that  wherever  this  inoss  grows,  a  spring  of 
fresh  water  may  be  found  without  mu'h  dig- 
ging. 9,.  The  h\groiiietricum  grrws  in 
woods,  lieaths,  gardL-awvIks,  waiis,  eld  trees, 
decayed  wood,  ajid  wliere  coa'.s  or  ciiuler.s 
have  been  laid.  It  is  stendess,  ha>  lips  in- 
versely egg-shaped,  nodd'ng,  ai.ii  bright  yel- 
low. If  the  (ruit-jtalk  is  moi.triied  at  "the 
base  with  a  little  water  or  steam,  the  iiead 
makes  three  or  four  revolutions;  if  the  head 
is  moistened,  it  turns  back  again. 

MOAT,  or  Ditch,  in  foitificatioi;,  a 
deep  trench  dug  rounii  the  r^mpaitoia  lor- 
tiiietl  place,  '.o  prevent  surprizes. 

Tlic  brink  ot  the  moat,  next  the  ramparf, 
is  called  the  scarjie  ;  and  the  opposite  one, 
the  coiinterscarpe. 

A  dry  moat  round  a  large  place,  v.ilh  a 
strong  garrison,  is  prelerable  to  one  full  of 
water,  because  the  passage  may  be  fiispeted 
incli  by  inch  ;  and  the  btsi;gers,  when  ;odgi-ii 
in  it,  are  continually  exposed  to  the  bomusj 
grenades,  and  other  (iie-works,  which  are 
thrown  incessantly  from  the  rampart  into 
their  works.  In  the  middle  of  dry  moats 
there  is  sometimes  another  sniail  one,  called 
cuneite;  which  is  generally  dug  so  diep, 
till  they  liiid  wi.ter  to  fill  it. 

'I  he  deepest  and  broadest  moats  are  ac- 
counted the  best,  but  a  deep  one  is  pri  ferable 
to  a  broad  one:  the  ordliiaiy  breaollii  is  about. 
twenty  fathcnis,  and  tlie  depth  about  six-, 
teen. 

To  ditiin  a  moat  that  is  full  of  water,  tiiey 
dig  a  trc  nch  deeper  than  the  level  of  the 
wat"r,  to  let  it  ri  n  ol'f;  and  then  throv/ 
hurdles  upon  the  mud  and  slime,  covering 
tlvemwilluarth  orbinidies  of  rushes,  to  make 
a  sure  and  tlrm  p:issage. 

MODE,  in  logic,  called  also  syllogistic 
mood,  a  proper  disposition  of  the  several 
propositions  of  a  syllogism,  in  respect  of 
quantity  and  quality. 

As  in  all  the  several  dispositions  of  the 
middle  term,  the  propositions  of  v.hxh  a  syl- 
lo;;ism  consists  may  be  either  universal  or 
particular,  afiirmative  or  negative;  the  due 
determination  ot  these,  and  putting  them  to- 
gether as  the  laws  of  aigumeiitalion  require, 
constitute  w  hat  logicians  call  the  moods  of 
syllogisms.  Of  these  moods  there  are  a  de- 
terminate number  to  every  ligure,  including 
all  the  possible  ways  in  whicii  propositions, 
diifering  in  quantity  or  quality,  can  be  com- 
bined, according  to  any  disposition  of  the 
middle  term,  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  just  con- 
clusion. There  are  two  kinds  of  moods,  the 
one  direct,  the  other  indirect. 

The  dire<t  mood  is  that  wherein  the  con- 
clusion is  drawn  from  the  premises  directly 
and  immediately,  as,  "  Every  animal  is  a 
living  tiling,  every  man  is  a  livhig  animal; 
therefore  every  :i]an  is  a  living  thing."  There 
are  lourteen  of  these  direct  moods,  four 
whereof  belong  to  the  tirst  figure,  four  to 
the  second  and  six  to  the  third.  I'hey  are 
denoted  by  so  many  artificial  words  framed 
for  that  purpose,  viz.  1.  Barbara,  crWrent,  - 
darii,  ferioque.  4.  Baralip,  celanles,  dabitis, 
iapesmo,  trisesom.  2.  Cesare,  camcslres, 
festino,  bavoco.     3.  Darapti,  felaploii,  disa- 


218 


M  O  » 


mis,  (!  itisi,  bocardo,  ferison.     The  v>5e  and  ' 
cllect  ol'  which  words  lii;  wholiy  in  llie  sj  Ua-  , 
bl.->,  and  liu'  lelien;  of  which   the  syllables  ■ 
consist;  each  word,  f)r  instance,  consists  of 
tiiroe  5ylla!)lcs,  denoting  the  tlrrce  proposi-  j 
tions  of  a  syilo^ism,  viz.  major,  minor,  and  i 
conclusion:  'add',  that  the  Ivllers  of  each  syl-  | 
lable  are  cither  vowel,  o,-  consonants;  the  i 
vowels  are  A,  wiivjh  denotes  an  iiniversar  af-  | 
fnirialivf;  E,  an    iniiversal   negative;  L,    a 
particular  affirn-.alive ;  and  O,  a  particniar 
licgaiive:    thus,  Barbara    is  a  syllogisni  or 
mood  of  tli?  lirst  figure,  consisting  of  three 
universal   afiirmative  propositioris:  Baraiip, 
one  of  the  foiM'th  ligure,  consisting  of  two 
■universal  airirmalive  premises,  and  a  particu- 
lar al'iirniative  conclusion.     The  consonants 
are  chieriy  of  use  in  the  reduction  of  s_>  Uo- 
gisms.     'rhe  indirect  mood,  is  that  wherein 
the  conclusion  is  not  inferred  immediately 
from  the  premises,  butfolows  from  them  by 
means  at  a  conversion;  as,  "  Every  aninul 
is  a  living  t;iiLi2,   every   man  is  an  animal; 
therefore  some  living  thing  is  a  man." 

Mode,  in  music,  a  particular  system,  or 
constitution  of  sounds,  by  which  the  octave 
is  divided  into  certain  intervals,  according  to 
the  genus.  The  doctrine  of  the  anlients 
respecting  modes  is  rendered  somewhat  ob- 
scure, by  the  difference  among  their  authors 
as  to  the  definitions,  divisions,  and  names  of 
their  modes.  Some  place  the  specific  vari- 
ations of  tones,  or  modes,  in  the  manner  of 
division,  or  oriler  of  the  concinnous  parts; 
and  others  merely  'n  the  different  tension  of 
tiie  whole:  i.  e.  as  the  whole  series  of  notes 
are  more  acute  or  grave,  or  as  they  stand 
higher  or  lower  in  tiie  great  scale  of  sounds. 

MdDEL,  in  a  general  sense,  an  original 
pattern,  proposed  lor  any  one  to  copy  or  imi- 
tate. This  word  is  particularly  used  in 
building,  for  an  artilicial  pattern  made  in 
■wood,  stone,  plaster,  or  otiier  matter,  with 
all  its  parts  and  p;-oportions,  in  order  for  the 
better  conducting  and  executing  some  great 
work,  and  to  give  an  idea  of  the  effect  it  will 
have  in  large.  In  all  great  buildings,  it  is 
r.iuch  the  surest  way  to  make  a  model  in  re- 
Jlevo,  and  not  to  trust  to  a  bare  design  or 
draught.  There  are  also  models  for  the 
building  of  ships,  &c.  and  for  extraordinary 
staircases,  &c. 

They  also  use  models  in  painting  and  sculp- 
ture; whence,  in  the  academii-s,  they  give 
tjie  term  mjdel  to  a  naked  man  or  woman, 
disposed  in  several  postures,  to  afford  an  op- 
portunity to  the  scholars  to  design  him  in  va- 
rious views  and  attitudes. 

Models  in  imitation  of  any  natural  or  arti- 
ficial substance,  are  most  usually  made  by 
means  of  moulds  composed  of  plaster  of 
Paris.  For  the  purpose  of  making  these 
moulds,  this  kind  of  plaster  is  much  more 
fit  than  any  other  substance,  on  account  of 
the  i)ower  it  has  of  absorbing  water,  and  soon 
condensing  into  an  hard  substance,  even  after 
it  Ins  been  rend.-red  so  thin  as  lo  be  of  the 
consilcnce  of  cream.  This  happens  in  a 
thorter  or  longer  time,  as  the  plaster  is  of  a 
better  or  worse'quality;  and  its  good  or  bad 
properti  s  depen<l  very  much  upon  its  age, 
to  which, '  therefore,  particular  regird  ought 
t  o  h':  had.  It  is  so'.tl  in  the  shops  at  very  dif- 
lerent  prices;  lip  finest  being  made  use  of 
lor  casts,  and  ili'e  mid  lling  sort  for  monlds. 
It  liiy  be  very  easily  colourcti  by  means  of 


JM  O  D 

aln.ost  any  kind  of  powder  excepting  what 
contains  an  alkaline  salt;  for  lliis  would  che- 
micaUy  decom]joie  the  subst^iuce  of  it,  and 
render  it  unfit  .or  use,  tne  gyf.-sum  or  plaster 
being  a  suiphat  of  lime,  wiiich  would  be  de- 
co.nposed  by  the  alkali  precipitating  the  lime. 
A  very  considerable  quantity  of  chalk  would 
also  render  it  soft  and  useless,  bi.t  lime 
hardens  it  to  a  great  degree.  The  addition 
of  csiumon  size  will  likewise  render  it  mucli 
harder  than  if  mere  water  is  made  use  of.  hi 
making  either  moulds  or  models,  however, 
we  must  be  careiul  not  to  make  the  mixture 
too  thick  at  lirst;  for  if  t!>is  is  done,  and 
mc'-e  water  added  to  thin  it,  tne  composition 
mustalwavs  prove  brittle,  and  of  a  bad  qua- 
lily. 

The  particular  manner  of  makhig  models 
(or  casts,  as  they  are  also  called)  depends  en 
the  f)rm  of  the  subject  to  be  taken.  The 
process  is  easy  where  the  parts  are  elevated 
only  in  a  slight  degree,  or  wliere  they  form 
only  a  right  or  obtuse  angle  whh  the  princi- 
pal surface  from  wliich  they  project;  but 
where  the  parts  project  in  smaller  angles,  or 
form  curves  inclined  towards  tJie  principal 
surface,  the  work  is  more  difiicult.  This  ob- 
servation, however.,  holds -good  only  with  re- 
gard to  had  and  inflexible  bodies;  for  such 
as  are  sufl  may  often  be  freed  from  the 
mould,  even  though  they  have  the  shape  last 
mentioned.  But  though  this  is  the  case  witli 
the  soft  original  substance,  it  is  not  so  with 
the  inflexible  model  wiien  once  it  is  cast. 

The  moulds  are  to  be  made  of  various  de- 
grees of  thickness,  according  to  the  size  of 
tiie  model  to  be  cast;  and  may  be  fro:n  half 
an  inch  to  an  inch,  or,  if  very  large,  an  incii 
and  an  half  V.  here  a  number  of  models 
are  to  be  taken  from  one  mouid,  it  will  like- 
wise be  necessary  to  have  it  of  a  stronger  con- 
texture than  where  only  a  few  are  required, 
for  very  obvious  reasons. 

It  is  mucli  more  easy  to  make  a  mould 
for  any  soft  substance  than  a  rigid  one,  as  in 
any  of  the  viscera  of  the  animal  bodv:  for 
the  fluidity  of  the  mixture  makes  it  easily  ac- 
commodate itself  to  the  projecting  parts  of 
the  substance;  and  as  it  is  necessary  to  inllate 
these  substances,  they  may  be  very  readily 
extracted  again,  by  letting  out  the  air  which 
distended  them. 

When  a  model  is  lo  be  taken,  .the  sur.^ace 
of  the  original  is  first  to  be  greased,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  plaster  from  sticking  to  it; 
but  if  the  substance  itself  is  slippery,  as  is  the 
ca;e  with  the  internal  parts  of  the  human  bo- 
dy, this  need  not  be  done:  when  necessary, 
it  niay  be  laid  over  with  linseed  oil  by  means 
of  a  painter's  brush.  The  original  is  then  to 
be  laid  o;i  a  smooth  table,  previously  greased, 
or  covered  with  a  cloth,  to  i)revenl  the  plas- 
ter sticking  to  it ;  then  surround  the  original 
with  a  frame  or  ridge  of  glazier's  putly,  at 
such  a  distance  from  it  as  will  admit  the  pUis- 
ter  to  rest  upon  the  table  on  all  sides  ol  the 
subject  for  about  an  inch,  or  as  much  as  is 
sullicienl  to  give  the  proper  degree  of 
strength  to  the  mould.  A  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  plaster  is  (hen  to  be  poured  as  uni- 
formly as  possible  over  the  whole  substance, 
until  it  is  every  where  covered  to  such  a 
tliickness  as  lo  give  a  proper  substance  to 
the  mould,  wdiicli  may  vary  in  proportion  to 
the  size.  The  whole  must  then  be  sulVercd 
to  rciuauj  ijj  Uiis  C9U<.)iti»j*  liil  Ua*-  plaster  has 


MOD 

attained  its  hardness:  when  the  frame  f* 
taken  away,  the  niould  may  be  inverted,  and 
the  subject  removed  from  it;  and  wlitn  Ihe 
,'ilaster  is  thoroughly  .dry,  let  it  be  well  sea- 
soned. 

Having  formed  and  seasoned  the  moulds, 
they  must  next  be  prepared  for  the  easts  by 
greasing  ihe  inside  of  them  with  a  mixtu  e  of 
olive  oil  and  lard  in  equal  parts,  and  then 
nlled  with  iine  liuid  plaster,  and  the  plane  of 
tlie  mould  formed  bj'  its  resting  en  the  sur- 
face of  the  table,  covered  to  a  sufScient 
thickness  with  coarse  plaster,  to  form  a  strong 
basis  or  support  for  the  cast  where  this  su[-- 
port  is  re<juisite,  as  is  particulaxly  tiie  case 
w  here  tlie  thin  and  membranous  parts  of  the 
body  are  lobe  represented.  Alter  the  plas- 
ter is  poured  into  the  mould,  it  must  be  suf- 
fered to  stand  until  it  has  acquired  the  great- 
est degree  of  hardness  it  will  receive:  afu-r 
which  the  mould  must  be  removed:  bi.t 
this  is  attended  with  some  dilliculty  when 
the  shape  of  the  subject  is  unfavourable ;  and 
in  some  cases  the  mould  must  be  separate.l 
by  means  of  a  small  mallet  and  chisel,  li 
by  these  iiistruments  any  parts  ot  the  model 
should  be  broken  olf,  they  may  be  cemented 
by  making  the  two  surfaces  to  be  applied  lo 
each  other  quite  wet;  then  interposing  be- 
twixt them  a  little  liquid  plaster;  and  lastlv, 
the  joint  smoothed,  after  being  thoroughly 
drv.  Any  small  holes  that  may  be  made  iu 
the  mould  can  be  filled  up  with  liquid  plas- 
ter, after  the  sides  of  them  have  been  tho- 
roughly welled,  and  smoothed  over  with  the 
edge  of  a  knife. 

In  many  cases  it  is  altogether  impractica- 
ble to  prepare  a  mould  of  one  piece  for  a 
whole  subject;  and  therefore  it  must  be  con- 
sidered how  this  can  be  done  in  such  a  man- 
ner a,s  to  divide  the  mould  into  the  fewest 
pieces.  This  may  be  effected  by  making 
every  piece  cover  as  much  of  the  patttrn  as 
possible,  without  surrounding  such  project- 
ing parts,  or  running  ii.to  such  hollows  as 
would  not  admit  a  separation  of  the  mould. 
Where  any  hiternal  pieces  are  recpiired,  they 
are  lirst  to  be  made;  and  then  tlie  outer 
pieces,  after  the  former  have  become  hard. 

Besides  the  models  w  hich  are  taken  from 
inanimate  bodies,  it  has  been  frequently  at- 
templed  to  take  the  exact  resemblance  of 
people  while  living,  by  using  their  face  as  the 
original  of  a  model,  whence  to  take  a  mould ; 
and  the  operation,  h  iwever  disagreeable,  has 
been  submittetl  to  by  persons  ot  the  highest 
ranks  in  life.  A  considerable  difficulty  oc- 
curs in  this,  however,  from  the  person's  be- 
ing apt  to  shrink  and  distort  his  features 
when  the  liciuid  is  poured  upon  him ;  nei- 
ther is  he  altogether  without  danger  of  suf- 
focation, unless  the  ojjerator  well  under- 
stands his  business. 

To  avoid  the  former  inconvenience,  it  will 
be.  proper  to  mix  the  plaster  with  wanil  ii>- 
slead  of  cold  water,  by  vvh'ch  n.eans  the  per- 
son will  be  under  no  liniplalion  lo  shrink; 
and  to  prevent  any  danger  of  a  lalal  acci- 
dint,  the  following  nielliod  i'  to  be  practised: 
Having  laid  the  person  hoiizonlally  on  his 
back,  ihe  iiead  must  lust  be  raised  by  means 
of  a  pillow  to  the  exact  position  in  which  it  is 
naturally  earned  when  the  body  is  erect; 
then  the  parts  to  be  rej.resi  nted  must  be 
very  thinly  (overed  o\er  with  line  oil  of  al- 
mouds^  by  means  ui  a  painter's  brush :  thtt 
3 


MOD 

fjc?  is  lliPn  lo  be  first  covered  willi  fins  fluifl 
piaster,  bfj^iiiiiiiig  ;U  the  upper  part  ot  the 
forehead,  and  spreading  it  over  the  eyes, 
whicli  are  to  be  kept  close,  that  the  plaster 
may  not  come  in  contact  with  theglol)L-;  yet  : 
not  closed  so  s(rongl)  as  to  cause  any  inina-  | 
tural  wrinkles.  Cover  then  the  nose  and 
ears,  plugging  first  up  the  nicalus  auciilorii 
■with  cotton,  and  tiie  nostrils  with  a  small 
Cfuantity  of  tow  rolled  up,  of  a  proper  size  to 
e\cliide  the  plaster.  During  liie  time  tliat 
i!;i,'  nose  is  thus  stopped,  the  person  is  to 
I'leathe  through  the  mourh:  in  this  state  the 
lUiid  plaster  is  to  be  brought  down  low 
enough  to  cover  the  upper  lip,  observing  to 
I'MV-,-  the  rolls  of  tow  projectuig  out  ct  the 
iUHt(-r.  When  the  operation  is  thus  far  car- 
.  'hI  on,  the  plaster  must  be  sulfered  to  hard- 
:  : ;  after  vvnich  the  tow  may  be  withdrawn, 
aatl  the  nostrds  left  free  and  open  for  breath- 
h)g.  'I'lie  mouth  is  then  to  be  closed  in  its 
iritural  pos  tion,  and  the  plaster  brought 
'  wn  to  the  e.\tremity  of  the  ciiin.  Ik-gin 
'  len  to  cover  that  part  of  the  breast  which 
i^  to  be  represented,  and  spread  the  plaster 
t'j  the  outsides  of  the  arms  and  upwartis,  in 
inch  a  manner  as  to  meet  and  join  that  which 
i.  previously  laid  on  the  face:  when  the 
'.  !'.ole  of  the  mass  has  ac(|uh'ed  its  due  liard- 
i...'S3,  it  is  to  be  cautiously  lifted,  witlujut 
iireaking  or  giving  pain  to  ihe  person.  After 
the  mould  is  constructed,  it  must  be  sea- 
V  ni";d  in  the  manner  already  directed  ;  and 
\'  ;.:'n  tile  mould  is  cast,  it  is  to  be  separated 
l;om  the  model  by  means  of  a  small  mallet 
and  chisel.  Tlie  eyes,  which  are  necessarily 
jho'.vn  closed,  are  to  be  carved,  so  that  the 
eve-lids  miy  be  represented  in  an  elevated 
pi.'4ure;  the  nctrils  hollowed  out,  and  the 
b?.ck  part  of 'the  head,  from  which,  on  ac- 
count of  the  hair,  no  mould  can  be  taken, 
must  be  finished  according  to  the  skill  ot  Ihe 
iirli>t.  The  edues  of  the  moilel  are  then  to 
be  neatly  smoothed  off,  and  t!ie  bust  fixed  on 
its  pedestal. 

MODULATION,  in  musir-,  the  art  of 
conducting  harmony,  in  composition,  or  ex- 
temporary |)erfonnance,  tiirough  thoie  keys 
and  modes  which  have  a  due  relation  to  the 
fiindainenlal,  or  original  key.  Though 
(verv  piece,  as  is  well  known,  has  its  princi- 
pal or  governing  key,  yet,  for  the  sake  of 
contrast  and  relief,  it  is  not  only  allowable 
but  necessary  to  pass  from  kev  to  key,  and 
fioni  mode  to  mode;  to  assume  dilferent 
t-h.irps  or  tliits,  and  lead  the  ear  through 
those  transitions  of  tone  and  harmony  which 
interest  the  feelings  and  delight  the  ear. 
Rut  though  in  grami  compositions  there  is  no 
quality  of  a  greater  importance  than  tiiat  of 
a  masterly  modulation,  it  is  not  easy  to  lay 
<lo,vn  rules  for  its  accomplishinent.  Some- 
times a  gradual  and  almost  insensible  evolu- 
tion of  harm  ]ny  is  requisite  to  the  composer's 
object;  at  other  times,  a  bold  and  sudden 
tii.inj;e  can  alone  produce  the  necessary 
'eifecf. 

iSIODULE.  See  Architecture. 
MODUS  DKCIMANDl,  in  law,  is 
■where  monev^land,  or  other  valuable  con- 
*ideration,  has  been  given,  time  out  of  niind, 
to  the  minister  or  pars m  of  any  certain 
]'dace,  in  the  room  of  lithes.  A  clergyman 
may  sue  in  a  spintual  court  for  a  modus  de- 
■»-.i.nandi ;  yet  if  the  modus  is  denied  there, 
wr  a  custo n  is  to  be  tried,  the  trial  thrieof 
ijuioiigs  to  thi;  courts  of  common  Uuv.  When 


M  O  L- 

lands  are  ronvcrti-d  to  other  uses,  as  in  the 
C!is<;  ot  hay-ground  (uriied  into  tillage,  the 
modus  may  be  discharged,  and  tlie  tithes 
paid  again  in  kind. 

MOEHHINGI.A,  mossy  chickweed.  In 
botany,  a  genus  of  the  octandria  digynia  class 
ol  plants,  the  flower  of  which  is  composed  of 
four  short,  undivided  petals;  and  its  Iruit  is  a 
subglobose  capsule,  witli  one  cell,  in  vhich 
are  contained  numerous  roundish  seeds. 
There  is  one  species. 

MOLE.     SeeZAi.p.4. 

MOLLUGO',  African  chickweed;  a  ge- 
nus of  the  tryginia  order,  in  the  triandria 
class  of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  2'.id  order,  carvophvllei. 
The  calyx  is  pent 'phyllous;  there  is  no  co- 
rolla ;  th.e  capsule  is  trilocular,  and  trivalved. 
There  are  six  sjjecies,  aiinuals  of  the  Cape, 
and  of  the  E.  and  W'.  Indies. 

MOLUCCELLA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  didynamia-gymno.-permia  class  of  ])!aut?, 
the  flov.  er  of  which  is  monopetalous  and  lal;i- 
ated;  the  upper  lip  being  entire,  and  the 
lower  one  triiid  :  the  seeds  are  turbinated, 
and  contained  in  the  bottom  of  the  cup. 
One  annual  species. 

MOLYBDATS.  These  salts,  composed 
of  molybdic  acid  combined  with  the  alkalies 
and  eartl'.s,  were  formed  by  Schetle;  but 
their  properties  are  still  almost  completely 
unknown.  The  supcrmolybdat  of  potass 
alone  has  been  described  with  some  detail.  It 
is  formed  l)y  detonating  one  part  of  sulphu- 
ret  of  muKbdenum  and  three  parts  of  nitre 
in  a  crucible.  By  dissolving  the  reddish 
mass  v.'hich  remains  after  this  operation,  antl 
(iltering,  a  solution  of  sniphat  of  potass  and 
molybdat  of  potass  is  obtained.  By  evapo- 
rating the  solution,  the  sulphat  of  potass  is 
separated;  wh.  n  sulphuiic  acid  is  dropt  into 
the  remaining  liciuid,  supermolybdat  of  po- 
tass is  precipitated.  This  salt  is  soluble  in 
water.  Its  solution  chrystalhzesby  ev.ipora- 
tion  in  small  rhomboidal  plates  insei  led  into 
each  other.  They  are  bright,  and  have  a 
metallic  taste.  "When  exposed  to  the  blow- 
pipe upon  charcoal,  they  melt  without  swell- 
ing, and  are  converted  into  small  globules, 
which  are  ([uickly  absorbed  by  the  charcoal. 
When  melted  witii  a  mixture  of  phosphat  of 
soda  and  of  ammonia  (or  microcosmic  salt), 
tliey  communicate  a  green  tinge.  Hot  wa- 
ter dissolves  them  completely,  and  prussiat 
ol  potass  occasions  in  this  solution  a  reddish 
brown  precii>itate.  When  a  solution  of  mu- 
riy.t  of,  tin  is  poured  ujjon  them,  they  acquire 
a  blue  colour. 

MOLYBDEx\U.\I.  The  Greek  word 
AioXugSaiva,  and  its  Latin  translation  plum- 
b.ig"),  seem  to  have  been  employed  bv  the 
■antients  to  denote  various  oxides  of  lead;  but 
by  the  moderns  they  were  applied  indiscri- 
minately to  all  substances  possessed  of  tlie 
follbwiiig  prO|)erties:  light,  friable,  and  soft, 
of  a  dark  colour  and  greasy  feel,  and  which 
leave  a  stain  upon  the  lingers.  Scheele  (irst 
ex^.unined  these  minerals  with  attention.  He 
found  that  two  very  dilferent  substancei  hail 
been  confounded  together.  To  one  of  these. 
Which  is  composed  of  carbon  and  iron,  he 
appropriated  tlie  word  plumbago  ;  the  otlier 
he  called  molvbdena. 

Molvbdena  is  composed  of  scaly  particles 
adhering  sliiihUy  to  each  other.     It-,  colour 
is  bUieijh,  very  much  resembling  tliat  of  lead. 
Ee-:: 


TVI  O  T, 


2:3 


Scheele  analysed  it  in  1778,  and  obtained 
sulphur  and  a  whitish  po'iider,  wliicli  pos- 
sessed the  propertied  ct  an  acid,  and  which, 
Iherclbie,  he  called  acid  of  molvbdena. 
Bergman  si.spected  tliis  acid,  from  its  pro- 
perties, to  be  a  metallic  oxiuc;  and  at  his 
recpiest,  Ilielni,  in  17S2,  undertook  the  1;:- 
boiious  course  of  cxpeiiincr.ts  by  wiiich  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  a  metal  fiom  this 
acid.  His  method  was  to  form  it  into  a 
paste  with  Unseed  oil,  and  tlien  to  apply  a 
very  strong  heat.  This  process  he  repeated 
several  times  successively.  To  liie  metai 
which  he  obtained  he  gave  the  name  ot  mo- 
lybdenum. The  experiments  of  .SchecJi- 
were  alterwards  repeated  by  Pelletier,  Use- 
man,  and  Heyer;  and  not  or.ly  fully  con- 
(Irmed,  but  discovered  many  new  facts,  a:.d 
the  metallic  nature  of  molybdic  acid  wasput 
beyond  a  doubt:  though,  in  conscqueiice  of 
tile  very  violent  heat  necessary  lo  fuse  nio' 
lybdenum,  only  very  minute  grains  of  it  have 
been  hitherto  obtained  in  the  state  of  a  me- 
tal. Still  more  lately,  iMr.  Hatchett  has  pub- 
lished a  very  valuable  set  of  experiments, 
which  llirow  much  new  light  upon  the  uatur* 
of  this  metal. 

Molybdenum  is  externally  of  a  whitish- 
yeiloH  colour,  but  its  fracture  is  a  wliitish- 
grey.  Hitherio  it  has  only  been  procured  iu 
small  grains,  aggluiiwatecl  together  in  brittle- 
masses.  ■  Its  speciric  gravity  is  7.j00.  It  is 
almost  infusible  in  our  iires." 

N^  hen  exposed  to  heat  in  aii  open  vessel, 
it  gi'adually.  combines  with  oxygen,  and  is' 
converted  into  a  white  oxide,  which  is  vola-: 
tili;a-d  in  small  brilliant  needle-form  crvstals. 
This  oxide,  having  the  properties  of  an  acid, 
is  known  by  the  name  of  molybdic  acid. 

Erom  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Hatchet,  it 
follows  that  molybdenum  is  capable  of  com- 
bining with  four  dilfei'ent  proportions  of  oxy- 
gen, and  of  forming  tour  oxides;  namely,  1. 
'Ihe  black  ;  2.  The  blue;  3.  The  green,  to 
which  Mr.  Hatchet  has  given  the  name  of 
molybdous  acid;  and,  4.  liie  yellow  or 
white,  or  the  molybdic  acid. 

1 .  The  protoxide,  or  black  oxide,  may  be 
obtained  by  mixing  molybdic  acid  with 
charcoal  powder  in  a  crucible,  and  appivini; 
heat.  A  black  mass  remains,  which  is  the 
black  oxide.  It  seems  to  contain  cnly  a  very 
minute  quantity,  of  oxygen. 

2.  The  blue  oxide  may  be  obtained  by 
the  same  process  not  carrie<l  so  far:  it  !3 
lornied  also  whenever  a  plate  ol'  tin  is 
plunged  into  a  solution  of  molybdic  acid. 

3.  The  peroxide,  or  molybdic  -acid,  tt 
obtained  by  distilling  six  parts  of  diluted  ni- 
tric acid  repeatedlx  offnati.e  moivmbdena 
in  powder.  A  wiiite  mass  is  left  behuid, 
composed  of -sulphuric  and  molybdic  acids. 
A  little  piire  water  washes  away  Ihe  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  molybdic  acid  remains  be- 
hind. This  acid  has  at  first  a  while  colour; 
but  when  melted  and  sublimed,  it  becomes 
yellow. 

Molybdenum  combines  readily  with  sul- 
phur; and  ti.e  compound  has  exactly  Ihe 
prope.  tiesof  iiiol)bdena,  thesub-tance  which 
Scheele  decompounded.  Moivmbdena  is 
tlieretore  sidphuret  of  molybdenum.  The 
n-ason  that  Scheele  obtained  from  it  mo- 
lybdic acid  was,  that  the  metal  combined 
with  oxygen  during  his  process.  Sulphuret 
of  molybdenum  iiiay  be  fornieU  also  by  dis- 


220 


MOM 


tiUiiigtogelher  one  part  of  molybriic  aci'l  and 
live  pails  of  sulphur.  Molybdenum  is  also 
capable  of  combining  with  phosphorus. 

Few  of  tliL-  alloys  of  this  metal  have  been 
hiliierto  examined. 

It  seems  capable  of  uniting  with  gold. 
I'll.'  alloy  is  probablv  of  a  white  colour.  It 
combines  readily  with  platinum  in  the  state 
of  an  oxide.  The  com]),:und  i->  fusible.  Its 
specilic  gravity  is  ^O.DOO. 

The  alloys  of  molybdenum  with  silver, 
iron,  and  copper,  are  metallic  and  friable ; 
tliose  with  lead  and  tin  are  powders  which 
cannot  be  fused.  Several  other  combina- 
tions have  been  made  both  by  Hi^'lm  and 
Richter;  but  as  the  metals  wl-.icli  they  tried 
were  alloyed  not  with  molybdemun,  but  with 
jnolymbdic  acid,  they  cannot  be  coiisidorcd 
as  by  any  means  tlie  sa:ne  with  the  alloys 
formed  by  molybdenum  itself. 

Molybdenum,  Ores  of.  These  are  very 
scarce,  having  been  found  only  in  Sweden, 
Germany,  Carniola,  among  the  Alps,  near 
Inverness,  and  in  the  island  of  Lewis,  in 
Scodand.  The  oiily  species  known  is  mo- 
lybedna,  which  is  foimd  commonly  massive : 
^omctimes,  however,  it  is  chrystallized  in 
hexsdral  tables.  Cobur  liglit  lead-grey; 
sometimes  with  a  shade  of  red.  Streak 
bhiei-h-grey,  melallic.  Powder  blueish  t-ex- 
ture,  foliated  la'moUa-,  slightly  (Icxibie.  Spe- 
cific gra\-ity  4.5  to  4.73.  Marks  bhieish- 
black.  A  piece  of  resin  rubbed  with  this  mi- 
neral becomes  positively  electric.  losolubie 
in  sul[)!mr!c  and  mmiatic  acids.  Composed 
ef  about 

60  molybdenum 
40  sulphur 

I'.-O 

MOMENT,  in  the  doctrine  of  infinites, 
denotes  the  tame  with  inrinitesimal. 

MoJ,IE^JT,  momentum,  in  mechanics, 
signifies  the  same  with  impetus,  or  the  cpian- 
tity  of  motion  in  a  moving  body;  whicli  is 
always  efpial  to  the  quantity  of  matter,  nnil- 
tiplied  iiito  the  velocity ;  or,  which  is  the 
same  thing,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  rect- 
angle undVr  the  quantitv  of  matter  and  ve- 
locty. 

MOMORDICA,  male  balsam  apple;  a 
genus  of  the  syngenesia  order,  in  the  mo- 
ncccia  class  of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  me- 
thod ranking  under  the  34th  order,  cucurbi- 
tace:!;.  The  male  calyx  is  quiiiquefid;  tlio 
corolla  sexpartite;  the  lilaments  are  three  in 
iiiiniher.  The  female  calyx  is  trili<l;  the  co- 
Tblia  quinqiiepaitite;  thr*  style  trifid ;  the 
fruit  is  an  ajjple  parting  asunder  with  a 
spring.  There  are  eiglit  sp^-cies,  tlie  most  rfe- 
iiiarkable  of  which  are,  1.  1  he  balsainina,  or 
male  balsam  apple.  This  is  a  native  of 
-Asia ;  and  has  a  trailing  stalk  like  those  of 
the  cucumber  or  melon,  witli  smooth  leaves, 
cut  into  several  segments,  and  spread  open 
like  a  iiand.  The  fruit  is  oval,  ending  in 
acute  poii;ts,  having  several  deep  angles,  with 
sharp  tubercles  placed  on  their  edges.  It 
clianges  to  a  red  or  purplish  colour  when 
ripe,  opening  with  elasticity,  and  throwing 
out  its  seeds.  '2.  The  elaterium,  wild  or 
spurting  cucumber,  has  a  large  (le-.hy  root, 
soir.ewhat  liKe  briony,  whence  come  foth, 
pvery  sprinj?,  several  thick,  rougli,  trailing 
st.ilks.  The  flowers  come  out  from  the 
\Aa^i  of  the  stalks :  tliese  are  male  and  fe- 


M  0  N 

male,  growing  at  dilfeient  places  on  the 
same  plant  like  those  of  the  common  cucum- 
ber: biit  tliey  are  much  less,  of  a  pale  yellow 
colour,  with  a  greenish  bottom;  the  male 
lloweis  stand  upon  thick,  short,  toot  stalks, 
but  the  female  flowers  sit  upon  the  young 
fruit;  which,  after  tlie  flower  is  faded,  grows 
of  an  oval  form,  an  inch  and  a  halt  long, 
swelling  like  a  cucumber,  of  a  grey  colour, 
like  the  leaves,  and  covered  over  with  short 
jnickles.  'i'his  species  has  one  of  its  names 
from  the  property  of  casting  out  its  seeds, 
together  with  the  viscid  juice  in  which  the 
seeds  are  lodged,  with  a  violent  force,  if 
touched  while  ripe. 

The  iirst  species  is  famous  in  Syria  for 
curing  wounds.  The  natives  cut  open  the 
unripe  fruit,  and  infuse  it  in  sweet  oil,  which 
they  expose  to  the  sun  for  some  days,  until  it 
becomes  red;  and  then  present  it  for  use. 
Dropped  on  cotton,  and  applied  to  a  fresh 
wound,  the  Svrians  reckon  this  oil  the  best 
vulnerary  next  to  b.ilsam  of  Mecca,  having 
found  by  experience  that  it  often  cures  large 
wounds  in  three  days.  The  leaves  and  stems 
of  this  plant  are  used  for  arbours  or  bovvers. 
The  elaterium  of  the  shops  is  the  fruit,  or  ra- 
ther tlm  in-pissated  ficula,  of  the  juice  of  the 
unripe  fruit  of  the  wild  cucumber.  It  is 
usuallv  sent  us  from  Spain  and  the  southern 
parts  of  France,  where  the  plant  is  common. 
We  receive  it  in  small,  flat,  whitish  lumps,  or 
cakes.,  that  are  dry,  and  break  easily  between 
the  fingers.  It  is  of  an  acrid,  nauseous,  bit- 
ter taste,  and  has  a  strong  offensive  smell 
wiien  n.-wly  made;  but  these,  as  well  as  its 
oiiier  properties,  it  loses,  after  being  kept  for 
some  time.  It  is  a  very  violent  purge  and 
vomit,  and  is  now  but  seldom  used. 

MOMOTUS,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  or- 
der pica-.  The  generic  character  is,  bill 
strong,  slightly  curved,  serrate  at  the  edges; 
nostrils  feathered;  tongue  feathered;  tail 
wedged;  feet  formed  for  walking.  There  is 
but  one  species,  the  Brasiliensis,  that  inhabits 
Drasil;  size  of  a  blackbird;  eighteen  inches 
long;  lives  solitarily  in  unfrequented  forests; 
building  a  iie.4  of  dry  grass  on  the  gvound, 
or  in  holes  abandoned  by  the  armadillo,  and 
lays  two  eggs ;  feeds  on  insects  and  raw 
flesh,  the  fragments  of  which  it  macerates  in 
w-ater;  whrn  taken,  it  strikes  violently  with 
its  bill.  Its  voice  is  harsh,  weak,  tremu- 
lous. 

MONADELPIIIA,  (from  a""*'  ahne, 
and  aSixpiot  a  brothi  rlinod ;)  a  "  single  bro- 
tlierhootl."  The  name  of  the  l6th  class  in 
r.inmvus's  sexual  system,  consisting  of  plants 
with  hermaphrodite  flowers;  in  which  all  the 
stamina,  or  male  org.  us  of  generation,  are 
united  bi.-lo.v  into  one  body  or  cylinder, 
through  which  passes  the  poinlal  or  female 
organ.     See  Botanv. 

.MONANDRIA,  (from  /*o»o(  alone,  and 
avr.f  a  mail  or  husband .)  I'lie  name  of  the 
first  class  in  Linnacus's  sexual  system ;  con- 
sisting of  plants  with  liermaplirodite  flowers, 
which  have  only  one  stamen  or  male  organ. 

MONAKDA,  Indian  horeliound;  a  ge- 
nus of  the  monogvnia  ortler,  in  the  diandria 
class  of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  42d  order,  verticillat;r. 
'i'he  corolla  is  unequal,  with  the  upper  lip 
linear,  involving  the  filaments;  there  are  four 
seeds.  Thcve  are  seven  species;  the  most 
remarkable  is  tlie  didyma,  a  native  of  North 


M  O  N 

America.  It  is  herbaceous.  The  flower.'!, 
which  are  of  a  bright  rvd,  surround  the  stalk 
in  whorls,  each  whorl  containing  about  14 
flowers ;  and  are  succeeded  by  lour  small 
kidney-shaped  shining  seeds,  lodged  in  the 
bottom  of  the  permanent  flower-cup.  '1  he 
Indians  superstitiously  believe  that  a  fumi- 
gation of  this  plant  is  effectual  lor  (hiving 
away  the  devil. 

MONAS,  a  genus  of  vermes,  order  in- 
fusoria. The  generic  character  is  worm  in- 
visible to  the  naked  eye,  most  simple,  peilu- 
cid,  resembling  a  point.  I  here  are  five  spe- 
cies: the  termo  is  a  most  miuule,  simple  ge- 
lateiious  point:  to  be  found  in  most  animal 
and  vegetable  infusions :  of  all  animals  the 
most  minute,  beirg  so  extremely  delicate 
and  transparent,  as  often  to  elude  the  most 
highly  magnifying  powers,  blending  in  a 
manner  with  the  water  in  which  it  swims. 

MONETIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or* 
der  tetrandria  monogvnia.  The  cal.  is  four- 
cleft;  petals  four;  berry  two-celled;  seeds 
solitary.  There  is  one  species,  a  shrub  of 
the  E.  Indies. 

MONEY.  The  sera  of  the  invention  of 
money  is  not  easy  to  be  settled.  There  is  v.u 
room  to  doubt,  but  that  in  the  earliest  agc- 
the  ordinary  way  of  traffic  among  men  wa^ 
by  trucking  or  exchanguig  one  commodity 
tor  another ;  but  in  course  of  time  it  was 
found  necessary,  in  the  way  of  commu- 
tiitive  justice,  to  have  some  common  mea- 
sure or  standard,  according  to  whiijh  all 
things  should  be  estimated. 

Money  is  usually  divided  into  real  and 
imaginary.  Real  money  includes  all  coins, 
whether  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  or  the  like  •, 
such  as  guineas,  crowns,  pistoles,  pitces  of 
eight,  ducats,  &c.  for  an  account  of  which 
we  refer  the  reader  to  the  article  Coin. 

Imaginary  money,  or  money  of  account, 
is  that  which  never  existed,  or,  at  least,  whiciv 
does  not  exist  in  real  specie  ;  but  is  a  deno- 
mination invented  or  retained  to  facilitate  the 
slating  of  accounts,  by  keeping  them  still  ou 
a  fixed  footing,  not  to  be  changed  like  cur- 
rent coins,  which  the  authority  of  the  sov(- 
reign  sometimes  raises  or  lowers,  according 
to  the  exigencies  of  the  state,  of  which  kinds 
are  pounds,  livres,  marks,  maravedies,  &c. 
See  PouiVD,  &c. 

No  person  is  obliged  to  take  in  payment 
any  money  which  is  not  lawful  metal,  that  is, 
of  silver  and  gold,  except  for  sums  under 
sixpence.     2  Inst.  377. 

But  it  was  decided  in  Hilary  term,  1  790, 
that  bank  notes  were  considered  as  money, 
and  therefore  a  propi'r  tender  in  payment. 

English  Money  rfuccmnit,  is  the  pound, 
shillings,  and  pence ;  the  pound  contain* 
twenty  shillings,  and  the  shilling  twelve 
pence. 

The  old  Scotch  Money  of  account  was 
the  pound,  shilling,  and  penny ;  the  pound 
containing  twenty  shillings,  bemg  equivalent 
to  one  shilling  and  eiglitpence  English  ;  and 
the  shilling  containing  twelve  pennies,  equ:il 
to  a  penny  English.  There  is  also  among 
them  an  account  of  marks,  tlie  mark  being 
e<|uival_cnt  to  one  shilling  l}pi'iiiiy  English": 
of  this  "last  kind  they  had  formerly  a  silver 
coin. 

French  Money  of  utcount,  !■  France, 
sous,  cents,  &c. 


Diilr/t  AfoN'F.Y  o/  (icpount,  is  ke])l  at 
Auislordaiu  iiiid  Ki^Uerckim,  the  two  cliiel 
tr.iiliiig  p'.aces,  in  guiliK-is,  slivers,  and  i;f- 
nins;  so  liialihougli  goods  are  sold  tor  otlicr 
sp^H-ios,  Micli  as  livr.  Ai-  ijjros,  &c.  yet  all  arc 
ri'ihiteil  to  till!  ahov^•  deMoininalioiis  for  tlio 
i-iilries  ii)U)  their  IjooUs.  The  exchaiiyos  art- 
jnadi.'  willi  Ui  in  so  many  shillings  to  a  puinid 
sterling,  though  in  nual  other  places  in  de- 
iiiv-rs  (Tc-gros. 

SpuKiali  Money  nf  accniiiit,  is  at  Cadiz 
kept  iji  rials  of  pl.le  and  its  Iractinns;  at 
C'ustiU',  in  niaravrdies ;  at  Valencia,  in  livrr-s 
or  dollars,  sueldos  and  dincros ;  ot  which' 
last  twelve  make  a  sueldo,  and  twenty  su- 
eldos a  livre  or  dollar.  Seventeen  quartos,  at 
Cadiz  and  Castile,  make  two  rials, vellon, 
vhich  is  now  an  imaginary  coin,  tiiongh  for- 
jnerly  it  was  the  prnicipal  one  of  the  king- 
dom. A  maravedie  is  another  imaginary 
specie,  of  which  seventeen  is  reckoned  to  a 
rial  vellon.  The  ducat  is  also  a  fictitious 
coin  of  eleven  rials  of  plate  in  purchases, 
sales,  and  other  mercantile  transactioi's,  ex- 
cept in  exclranges,  when  it  is  valued  at  ele- 
ven rials  of  plate  ami  one  maravedie,  or  575 
jnaravc'dies. 

rortuguc-ie  Moxey  nf  account,  is  kept 
in  reas,  or  res  making  a  separation  at  every 
hiinilred,  thousaiuUh,  &cc.  800  reas  go  to  a 
iu.)iJore. 

(it-rmnn  mid  Snis.i  Money  nf  account. 
At  Coningsberw,  Elbing,  and  Dantzii ,  ac- 
counts are  kept  in  rixdollars  and  gros,  or  in 
Polish  guilders,  gros,  and  deniers,  or  penins. 
'(hey  exchange  on  Ain>terdam  in  Polish  gros 
for  a  livre  de  gros  of  six  guilders  current  mo- 
ney of  Anislerdani,  and  on  Hamburg  tor  the 
ri.xdoUar.  At  Liibec,  accounts  are  kept  i?i 
marks,  schellings,  and  deniers  or  penins-lubs, 
in  which  their  exchanges  are  made.  At 
Breslaw,,accounts  are  kept  in  rixdollars  and 
silver  gros  and  penin^;  in  the  iirst  of  which 
species  exchanges  are  made  on  Amsterdam 
lor  a  certain  number  of  stivers,  bank  money, 
and  on  Hamburg  for  rixdollars  of  Bieshiw 
against 'rixdollars  of  Hamburg  bank.  At 
Hamburg,  accounts  are  kept  in  marks, 
schellings,  and  deniers-nbs  biink  money,  by 
'those  who  have  cash  in  the  bank;  but  by 
those  who  have  not,  tiicir  books  are  gene- 
r...lly  kept  in  rixilollars,  schellings,  and  de- 
rnier current  money.  At  Bremen,  accounts 
'are  kept  in  rixdollars  and  gros,  and  it  ex- 
changes on  .Amstei'dam  rixdollai's  of  seveutv- 
gros  for  rixdollars  of  titty  stivers  banco.  At 
Leipsic  and  Naumbourg,  accounts  are  kept 
in  rixdollars,  crowns,  gros,  and  penins.  At 
Berlin,  and  in  all  this  kingdom,  accounts 
arc  kei't  in  guild;-rs,  gros,  and  penins.  At 
Zurich,  accounts  are  kept  in  rixdnllars, 
creut/ers,  and  liellers;  reckoning  their  rix 
dollars  (wortii  about  4j-.  Cxi.  sterling)  at  108 
of  their  creutzers.  At  Frankfort  on  tJie 
Mahie,  and  Hanaw,  accounts  are  kept  in  rix- 
dollars and  creutzers.  At  Vienna,  accounts 
are  kept  in  guiklers,  creutzers,  and  penins, 
reckoning  eight  penins  to  a  creutzer,  and 
sixty  creutzers  ■to  a  guilder.  At  Nuremberg 
and  Augsbourg,  accounts  are  kept  in  guild- 
ers, creutzers,  and  hellers;  at  Liege,  in 
Ijvres,  sols,  and  deniers. 

In  the  canton  of  St.  Gall,  in  Switzerland, 
accounts  are  kept  in  guilders,  creutzers,  and 
penins;  or  under  the  same  denomination 
iwith  the  coins  of  the  empire.     lu  the  canton 


MONEY, 

of  Basil,  accounts  a;e  variously  kept,  «ome  in 
rixdollars,  schelling-,  and  d-'nicrs;  some  in 
livres,  sciiellings,  i.nd  deniers ;  some  in  rix- 
dollars, creutzers,  and  penins;  and  some  in 
guilders,  creutzers,  and  penins. 

Ilulian  Money  nf  acvoimt.  In  the  cities 
of  Genoa  and  Novi,  accounts  are  kept  in 
livres,  soldi,  and  denari;  or  in  dollars  of  100 
soldis.  At  Milan,  accounts  are  kej)t  in  livres, 
soldis,  and  denaii,  to  be  counted  ht\e  pOvinds, 
^shiU  ngs,  and  pence,  viz.  twelve  denaris  to  a 
soldi,  iic.  At  i?ome,  accounts  are  kept  in 
crov,'ns,  julios,  and  bajoches,  or  grains  and 
(luaitrins;  the  cnnvii  is  divided  into  ten  ju- 
lios, and  the  julio  into  ten  bajoches.  At 
l,eghorn,  accounts  are  generally  kept  in  dol- 
lars, soldi,  and  denari.  At  I'lorence,  they 
kei-p  their  books  and  accounts  in  crowns, 
soldi,  and  denari,  picoli  or  current'inoney. 
At  Naples,  accounts  arc  kept  in  ducats,  (io- 
rins,  and  grains.  The  account-  iu  Sicily  are 
ke|)t  the  same  as  at  Na]>les,  \l  Lucca  they 
kc'cp  their  accounts  in  cn-v.ns,  livres,  soldi, 
and  denari;  the  crown  is  worth  7  livres  10 
sokli;  the  livre,  liO  soldi;  and  the  soldi,  12 
denari.  At  ^'cnlce,  accounts  are  kept  in 
livres,  soldi,  and  denari,  picoli  or  current ; 
but  the  bank-entries  are  in  livres,  soldi,  and 
grosses:  both  the  ourrent  and  bank-ducats 
of  \  enice  make  24  soldi,  or  six  livres  and  4 
soldi.  At  Bologna,  accounts  are  kept  in 
livres,  soldi,  -and  denari ;  the  livre  being  20 
soldi,  and  the  soldi  12  denari.  At  Ijergam, 
the  nionev  of  account  is  the  same  as  at  lio- 
logna,  and  its  proportions  the  same.  At 
Parma  accounts  are  kept  in  crowns,  soldi,  and 
ilenari ;  the  crow  n  is  2Q  suldi,  and  the  soldi 
20  denari.  At  ^Modena  and  Mantua,  ac- 
counts are  kept  in  livres,  soldi,  and  denari. 
In  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  accounts  are  kept 
in  livres  or  lires,  soldi,  and  i[uartrins.  At 
Placentia,  accounts  are  kept  in  crowns,  soldi, 
and  denari  of  mark  ;  of  which  12  denari  make 
a  soldi,  and  20  sokli  the  crown.  In  tiie 
island  of  Sardinia,  accounts  are  kept  as  in 
most  parts  of  Italy,  in  livies,  soldi,  and  de- 
nari. Ill  the  island  of  Malta,  the  money  of 
accouiU  is  the  same  with  that  of  Sicily.  In 
the  island  of  Caiidia,  the  account  is  the  same 
ai  at  N'enice. 

Rtissiftn,  Sxvedisli,  Danish,  and  Polish 
Mo}iEY  of  account.  In  the  Iraoing  places 
of  the  Russian  empire,  accounts  are  kept  in 
roubles,  grives,  and  inoscus([ues,  or  in  rou- 
bles and  coppecks ;  10  coppecks  (each  of 
which  is  eiiual  to  2  mosco-ciues)  make  a 
a  grive,  and  100  coppecks,  or  10  grives,  is  a 
rouble.  In  the  kingdom  of  Sweden,  accounts 
are  kept  in  dollars,  marks,  and  oorls;  th."; 
dollar  being  worth  4  marks,  and  tlie  mark  8 
oorts.  In  Denmark,  accounts  are  kept  in 
maiks  and  schellings:  the  ri\dollar  is  worth 
6  marks;  the  mark",  16  schellings;  and  the 
schelling,  3  penins.  Accounts  are  kept  at 
Hergcn,  and  in  other  places  in  Norway,  in 
Danish  rixdollars,  marks,  and  schellings.  In 
Poland,  accounts  are  kept  in  guilders,  gros, 
and  deniers,  of  which  18  deniers  make  a 
gro=,  and  30  gros  a  guilder:  they  here  keep 
accounts  also  in  rixdollars  and  gros,  reckon- 
ing 90  of  the  latter  to  one  of  thelbrmer.  At 
Riga,  accounts  are  kept  in  rixdollars  and 
gros,  the  former  of  which  species  consists  of 
90  of  the  latter. 

Ti'rki-h  Moi'iey  of  accnunt.  TheTurks, 
bothin  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  account  by 


711 

purses,  either  of  silver  orgolil  (tliebst  b/ing 
Of  ly  used  ill  the  s-.rai^^io),  will)  half  purses  of 
go:d,  called  also  ri/.es:  llie  purse  ol  silver  Is 
iijual  to  1500  I'Vench  li /res,  or  about  fi5/. 
steiliiig;  and  the  li:ilf  purse  in  proportion: 
the  piir-e  of  gold  is  15,(ioO  scc|>i.ns,  e4|i!:!l  lo 
30,000  French  <  lowns,  or  aboiil  3,750'. 
slerli  g:  th.ii  is  seld.iin  used  but  for  pri;sent3 
to  favoui>Us,  so  that  a  purse  simply  sii^nilies 
a  i)ur.e  of  silver,  or  1,500  livies.  'Ihe  nier- 
clr.uits  also  u:e  j>ulch  doll-.ns,  called  astani 
or  about)uels,  wilh  medlns  aii'.l  aspers:  the 
dollar  is  equal  to  33  medins,  and  the  inedin 
lo  3  aspers ;  the  asper  lo  a  haiipeniiy  sterling 
money. 

Asiatic  Monies  of  account  are  as  follow. 
In  Persia,  they  account  by  the  taman  (called 
also  man  and  tuineiii)  and  dinar-bisti ;  the 
taman  is  composed  ot  50  abassis,  or  100  ir.a- 
niodies,  or  200  chapes,  or  10,000  dinars; 
which,  accounting  the  abas-i  on  the  foot  of 
18  French  sols,  or  the  din.ir  on  that  of  a  de- 
nier, amounts  to  37.  12.*.  6J.  sterling  the  la- 
man.  They  also  account  by  larins,  especi- 
ally at  OriMUS,  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Per- 
sian guph :  the  larin  is  equivalent  t«  \\d. 
sterling  ;  and  on  that  footing  is  used  also  in 
Ar':bia,  and  through  a  great  part  ot  the  East- 
Indies.  Chinese  moneys  of  account  are  the 
pi'-,  picol,  and  tael ;  wi'iich,  though  in  effect 
weigiits,  do  likewise  serve  as  money  of  ac- 
count, obtaining  in  Tonquin  as  well  as  Chi- 
na:-the  pic  is  divided  into  100  catis,  some 
say  125;  the.cati  into  16  taels,  each  tael 
equal  to  one  ounce  two  drachms;  the  picol 
contains  t)6|caties;  Uie  tael  is  equivalent  to 
fw.  ^d.  sterling. 

Japanese  moneys  of  account  are  the  scliii- 
ites,  cockiens,  oebans  or  oubans,  and-taels: 
200  schuites  are  e.jUal  to  500  Dutch  pounds, 
the  cockien  .equallo  10  low-country  pounds, 
1000  oebaiis  make  45,000  taels. 

Mogul  money  of  account:  at  Surat,  Agra, 
and  the  rest  of  the  estates  ot  the  great  mogul, 
they  use  {acres,  acrtes,  or  leeths,  impUing 
oiK-'hundred  thousand;  thus  a  lacre  ot  rupees 
is  100,000  rupees;  the  lacre  being  n.-arly  on 
the  footing  ot'the  tun  of  gold  in  Holland,  and 
the  million  of  France. 

Monies  of  account  of  other  islands  and 
coasts  of  India.  Throughout  Malabar,  and 
at  Goa,  they  use  tangas,  v  ntms,  and  pardos- 
Neraphin  :  t'he  tanga  :s  of  two  kinds,  viz.  of 
good  and  bad  alloy  ;  hence  their  custxim  is  to 
count  bv  good  or"bad  money;  the  tanga  of 
good  alloy  is  better  l>y  one-fifth  than  the  bad, 
so  that  4  tangas  good'being  allowed  the  par- 
clos-xer?.phiii,  there  will  be  required  5  of  tjie 
bad ;  4  vintins  good  make  a  tanga  likewise 
good;  15  barucos,  a  vintin;  a  goodb?ruc<.> 
is  equal  to  a  Portuguese  ree,  a  Frci.ci)  de- 
nier, or  one-thirteenth  of  a  penny  sterling. 
In  the  island  of  Java  they  use  the  sontasa- 
pacou,  ti,rdos,  and  catis  ;  which  last  money, 
tO!?ether  with  the  h-eth  or  lacre,  is  much 
used  throughout  all  the  Ea^t  Indies:  the 
sonta  is  200  caxas,  or  little  pieces  ot  that 
country,  hung  on  a  string,  and  is  fqua!  to 
eleven-'tv  eliths  ot  a  penny  sterling:  five  son- 
las  make  the  sapae  ou.  i  he  lardos  :-qiia)  to 
2.S.  8(/.  steri'na ;  the  cati  contains  20  taels  ; 
the  tael  6«.  Sd.  sterlmg.  There  are  islands,  . 
cities,  ami  states,  of  the  East  Indies,  vhosa  • 
monies  of  account  .we  not  here  expressed, 
partly  because   reducible  to  some   of  t!ie* 


32i 


M  O  N 


al)ov2-mentioiiC(l,  and  partly  because  wc  find  t 
no  certain  consistciit  account  of  them. 

jljriviin  Mcti EY  nfiiccniiiit.  From  Cspe 
A'wd  to  ti:e  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a!i  c\- 
ciiangc-3  ar.d  valuations  of  mercfiandize  are 
inac'e  on  the  foot  of  tlie  niacout<;  and  piece ; 
wiiich,  l:ioi!gli  no  ir.uriies  of  account  (tor 
tliose  barbarians  liave  no  real  monies,  and 
tiierefore  need  no  imaginaiy  encS  to  esliuiate 
tlien'i  by)  yet  serve  in  ilcti  thereof.  At  Lo- 
ango  do  iioirie,  and  other  places  on  tlie  coast 
oi  Angola,  the  estiniatiuni  are  made  by 
inacoiites;  and  at  Malimboand  Cttbindo,  on 
the  same  coast,  the  negroes  re..kon  by  pieces: 
among  the  first  the  niacoutc  is  equal  to  iO 
pieces;  ten  macoutes  nial>e  100,  which  like-- 
viise  gives  us  a  kind  of  imaginary  money,  to 
estimate  any  purchase,  exchange,  Szc.  they 
fix  on  (he  one  side  the  niuuber  of  macoutes 
ixqiiired;  e.ccr.  for  a  nesjro;  so  that  tiiere 
are  several  barg.iins  made  for  one;  suppose, 
for  instance,  llse  slave  to  be  liNed  at  3,500 
j)ieces,  this  amounts  to  350  macoutes ;  to 
make  up  this  number  of  macoutes  in  mer- 
cliandiie,  they  fix  the  price  of  each  in  ma- 
coutes. Two  Flemish  knives,  c.r.  ;>•)•.  are 
accounted  onemacoute;  a  coj;per  bason,  '2 
pound  weight,  three  ;  a  barrel  ot  gunpowder, 
tl;ree,  ^~c.  For  the  piece,  it  'serves  in  like 
manner  to  estimate  the  vaUu-  of  goods,  duties, 
&c.  on  either  side:  thus  the  natives  require 
10  jjieces  for  a  slaye  ;  and  the  Europeans  put, 
for  instance,  a  fusee  at  I  piece,  a  piece  of 
sakunpours  at  4  pieces,  S:c.  The  cities  of 
liiubary  and  Egypt,  whitl)cr  t!;e  Europeans 
traffic,  leckon  much  after  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  Levarit  and  the  dominions  of  the 
grand  seignor  ;  for  the  rest,  through  that  vast 
er<tent  of  coast  where  -we  trade  for  negroes, 
goid-du^t,  elephant's  teeth,  wax,  leather,  &:c. 
either  the  miserable  inhabitants  do  not  know 
■what  money  of  account  is,  or,  if  tliey  have 
any,  it  is  only  what  strangers,  settled  among 
t!;em,  have  introduced. 

Monies  of  account  in  America.  Here 
liiey  have  no  money  of  their  own ;  the 
respective  monies  of  account  of  the  Euro- 
peans, who  have  made  settlements  there, 
being  establisi-.ed  among  them. 

MONKEY.   SeeSiMiA. 

MONOCHOUD,  a  musical  instrument, 
composed  of  or.e  string,  used  to  try  the  va- 
riety and  proportion  of  sounds. 

It  is  formed  of  a  rule,  divided  and  sub- 
divided into  several  parts,  oh  which  there  is 
a  moveable  string  stretched  ujioii  two  bridges 
at  each  extreme.  In  the  middle  between 
these  is  a  moveable  bridge,  by  means  of 
which,  in  applying  it  to  the  different  divisions 
of  the  l.ne,  the  sounds  are  found  to  bear  the 
same  pr«^ortion  to  each  other  as  the  division 
of  the  Inicj  cut  by  the  bridge.  There  are 
also  monorhonls  with  forty-eight  fixed 
bridges.  1  he  following  is  the  account  of  a 
jnoriochord  invented  by  earl  Stanhope  : 

1.  The  wire  is  not  made  either  of  brass 
or  of  iron,  but  of  sleel,  which  is  verv  far 
superior.  For,  steel  wire  does  not  keep' con- 
tinually lengthening,  as  brass  and  iron  wires 
fio  when  they  are  stretched  considerably.  2. 
'I  he  wire  in  this  monochord  rloes  not,  as 
usual,  pull  downwards  on  the  bridges,  but 
the  whole  wire  lerms  one  straight  and  hori- 
-v'-onial  line,,  by  which  means  the  move.ible 
bridge,.which  determines  the  exact  length 
^  the  wire,  can  be  moved  wUijoul  altering 


M  O  N 

the  tension  of  the  wire.  .  This  is  not  the  case 
when  the  wire  pulls  downvvards  cu  the 
bridges.  3.  The  ends  of  the  Tire  are  not 
twi.%led  round  the  two  stout  steel  pins  which 
keep  it  stretciied ;  but  each  end  of  the  w  ire 
is  soft-soi<lered  in  a  long  groove  form- 
ed in  a  piece  of  steel  which  goes  over  its  cor- 
responding pin.  '1  his  is  a-  great  improve- 
ment. 4.  One  of  those-  two  steel  i>ins  is 
strongly  fastened  on  a  br<\ss  slider,  wliicit  is 
moved  by  means  of  a  screw  with  very  fine 
threads,  which  screw  lias  a  large  micrometer 
head  minutely  divided  on  its  edge,  and  a 
corre.-pouding  nonius;  so  that  the  tension  of 
the  wire  may  be  adjusled  with  the  sreatest 
precision,  in  order  to  obtain  its  exact  pitch. 
5.  A  slider  is  fi.>;ed  across  tiie  top  of  the 
moveable  bridge,  and  is  moved  by  means  of 
another  screw  with  very  fine  threads;  so 
tiwt  the  Itngth  of  the  wire  may  be  regulated 
with  the  greatest  nicety  in  all  cases.  6.  The 
above-mentioned  slider,  xWiich  is  on  the  top  of 
the  moveable  bridge,  is  adjusted  to  the  sleel 
rod  or  scale,  riot  by  sight,  or  by  the  coinci- 
dence of  lines,  but  by  means  of  mechanical 
contact  against  projecting  pieces  of  steel 
iirnily  fixed  on  tliat  steel  scale,_which  method 
is  incomparably  more  correct.  7.  Each 
bridge  carries  a  metallic  finger,  which  keeps 
th,:  wire  close  to  the  lop  of  lire  bridge,  whilst 
the  wire  is  made  to  vibrate.  8.  'J  he  vibra- 
tions of  the  wire  are  produced  by  touching 
it  with  a  piece  of  cork,  with  (he  -same  eUistic 
force,  antl  on  the  very  same  spot  each  time, 
namely,  at  the  distance  of  one  inch  from  the 
immoveable  bridge. 

MONNIESFA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order,  diadelphia  pentandria.  The  calyx  is 
five-parted;  corolla  stringent;  stamina  3, 
capsules  5,  l-seeded.  Tiiere  is  one  species, 
an  American  annual. 

AIONOCULOS.  Monoculus,  a  genus  of 
the  order  aptera  :  .the  generic  character  is, 
feet  formed  for  swimming;  body  covered  by 
a  crustaceous  tegument ;  eyes,  in  most  spe- 
cies, approximated,  and  imbedded  in  tiie 
shell. 

Of  the  monoculi,  by  far  the  major  part  are 
very  small  water-insects,  requirino;  the  assist- 
ance of  a  microscope  for  the  investigation  of 
their  particular  organs  :  some  however  are  so 
large  as  to  require  no  very  mmute  inspection  ; 
and  one  species  in  particular,  (if,  indeed,  it  can 
be  allowed  to  stall' 1  W'ith  propriety  in  the  jje- 
nus)  is  of  a  size  so  gigantic,  that  it  is  generally 
considered  as  the  largest  of  the  crustaceous 
tribe.  This  animal  istlie  monoculus  [Solyphe- 
mus  of  Lir.na'us,  commonly  distinguished 
by  the  title  molucca  or  king-crab.  Speci- 
me:is  are  sometimes  seen  of  two  feet  in  length, 
exclusive  of  the  tail.  It  is  a  native  of  the  In- 
dian ocean,  and  is  s;iidto  be  generally  found 
in  pairs,  or  male  and  femnleswiiiiiiiing  toge- 
ther. The  colour  of  the  whole  animal  is  a  yel- 
lowish-brown :  the  shell  is  very  convex, 
rounded  in  front,  and  lunated  behind,  where 
il  joins  the  lower  partoftheb.jdy  :  this,  which 
is  of  the  same  crustaceous  nature,  is  marked 
on  each  side  into  several  spiny  incisions;  the 
Ic'gs,  wiiich  are  seven  on  each  side,  are  situated 
beneath  the  concavity  of  the  large  or  rounded 
part  of  the  shell,  and"  are  each  terminated  by 
a  double  claw,  those  of  the  lowest  pair  having 
some  additional  processes  :, the  brauchia",  or 
respiratory,  organs  are  disposed  in  the  form  of 
several  Hat,  rounded,  imbricated  lamella  on 


M  0  N 

each  S'.de  the .  lower  part  of  the  body  ;  llie 
tail,  whicliBs  strait,  triangular,  and  of  lii,-  sanv: 
criistaceoiS  nature  with  tne  rest  of  the  shell, 
IS  equal  in  lengtli  to  the  whole  body,  and  gra- 
dually laperi  to  a  sharp  point.  'I  lie  e\es  in 
this  species,  instead  of  being  approximate  !, 
-as  required  in  the  Linnieaii  generic  character, 
are  extremeiy  distant  from  each  other,  being, 
situated  towards  the.  sides  of  tlie  shell:  thoy 
are  of  a  semilunar  form,' and  the  s.rface  i:; 
divided  into  a  great  number  of  minute  ci- 
.nical  convexities :  this  part  however  should 
be  considered  as  only  constituting  the  cornea 
or  exterior  covering  of  each  eye;  the  organs 
themselves  being,  according  to  the  o'lservations 
of  Mr.  Peliver,  in  the  Philosopiiical  Transac- 
tions, placed  on  a  pedicle  beneath  each  of  the 
above-mentioned  semilunar  cornea;.  Peti- 
ver's  words  are  these.  "  The  whole  stru< - 
ture  of  this  animal  is  very  reinai-Kable,  and 
particularly  his  eyes,  viz.  between  tiie  fourth 
and  last  pair  of  ciaws  on  each  side,  reckoning 
from  his  mouth,  and  excluding  the  small  pair 
there  jjlaced,  are  inserted  the  rudiments  of 
another  pair,  or  a  claw  broken  ort'onear'i 
side  at  tiie  second  joint  or  elbow  ;  on  this  • 
extremities  ure  the  eyes,  like  those  of  the  hor  - 
of  snails,  but  under  the  covert  ofa  thick  a,,: 
opaque  shell.  Nature  in  that  place  has  wondi-.- 
fully  contrived  a  transparent  lantern,  throu  i 
which  the  light  is  conveyed,  whyse  superlici'  ^ 
very  exactly  resembles  the  great  eyes  of  o;  ^ 
large  libeiiit  or  adderboits,  wiiich  to  the  naked 
e)'e  are  plainly  [jerceived  to  be  composed  of 
oV  innumerable  giobuli:  these,  like  them,  are 
oblong,  and  guarded  bv  a  testaceous  suiierci- 
liura." 

Of  the  European  monoculi,  by  far  the  large>t 
is  the  monoculusauus,  which,  wlien full-grown, 
measures  nearly  an  inch  and  three  quarters 
from  the  front  to  the  end  of  the  body,  exclu- 
sive of  the  forked  divisions  of  the  tail.  It  is 
found  in  muddy  stagnant  waters,  but  is  a  rare 
species  in  this  country,  having  been  only  ob- 
served in  a  few  particular  situations,  fn  its 
general  shape,  it  is  considerably  allied  to  the 
large  exotic  species  before  described,  but  the 
body  IS  ofa  more  lengthened  fonn  in  propor- 
tion, with  the  hinder  part  naked,  and  divided 
into  numerous  joints  :  the  branchia;,  or  resoi- 
ratoi-y  organs,  are  large,  and  are  distributed 
into  numerous  imbricated  rows  on  the  under 
part  ot  the  body :  beneath  the  front  is  a  pair 
otjointed,  trihd  arms,  e\tending  on  each  side 
to  a  considerable  distance ;  tiie  eyes  are  placed 
near  each  other  in  iront  of  the  shell:  the  tail 
is  tei'ii^nated  by  a  par  of  long  forks  or  ceta- 
ceous processes,  f  he  colour  of  the  u  hole  in- 
sect is  a  pale  greenisii-iirown  above,  and  red- 
diih  bene.ith.  V\'e  ->re  inlormed  in  vol.  40  of 
the  Philosophical  Transactions  that  this  insect 
has  been  f  jund  in  great  plenty  in  a  pond  on 
L'exley's  common,  in  Kent,  ft  is  also  added 
that  the  same  pond,  having  been  perfectly 
dried,  and  being  suddenly  filled  dnring  a  heavy, 
tlumder-stonn,  swarms  of  tiie  same  auiiiial 
were  again  observed  in  it  within  the  space  of 
two  davs  ailer. 

Monoculus  pulex,  called,  from  its  peculiar 

starting  or  springing  motionj   the  water-fr.'a, 

is  an  almost  universal  inhabitant  of  stagnant.- 

waters,   appearing  SDineiimes   in  such  vast 

swarms  as  to  cause  aif  apparent  discoloratioa 

of  the  water  itself.     It  is  an  insect  of  a  highly 

;  singular  and  elegant  app<'arance,  exhibiting, 

I  when  magnilied,  a  beautiful  distribution  of  in-. 

I  terttul  organs.     Its  general  Icn^tU  is  about 


MOO 

Jfic  tenlli  of  an  indi,  but  il  is  wimptimcs  seen 
consKltTablv  Uirgi'f:  its  sliapu  is  oval,  S'Oim'- 
wliiit  trunciilc.l  "i.i  Iroiit,  tiiid  sliaiply  poiiil- 
v\  bcliind :  ihe  liody  is  iiitloswl  in  a  bi- 
valve, lraiis|)ari.Mitsiii-ll,  svliicii,  uli^-ii  examinee! 
by  llip  niKioscopc,  appears  fineiy  iTti- 
ciilati-d :  on  each  side  tiie  licacl  is  a  strong 
liar.sparent  jointed  arm,  1ori<ing- into  two  di- 
vir.ion^;,  and  lerminaling  in  several  cetaceons 
branches  :  the  tail,  wliicli  is  generail)  inclosed 
witi'.iji  the  shell,  is  occasionally  protruded  in 
the  form  of  a  strong  curved  and  pointed  pro- 
.cess:  tlie  eyes  of  this  animal  :rre  of  a  sin'-nlar 
c<  nstuictior.  ;  tliey  are  large  in  propjrliun  to 
t  he  insect,  placed  very  near  each  other,  ajjpec.r 
to  cousi;-t  of  many  separate  globul-s,  of  a  black 
colour  uniled  under  a-common  skin. 

M(>N01)0N  MONOCEHOS,  unmcorn 
NARWHAL,  is  a  native  of  the  northern  seas,, 
where  it  is  (amelinies  seen  of  the  length  of 
■  more  than  twenty  feet  from  the  mouth  to  the 
.tail ;  and  is  at  once  distinguishable  from  every 
oilier  kind  of  whale  by  its  very  long,  ivory- 
like tooth,  which  is  perfectly  straight,  of  a 
white  or  yelluwish-wlrite  colour,  spirally 
wreathed  throughout  its  whole  length,  and 
gradually  tapering  to  a  sharp  point.  It  mea- 
sufe->  from  six  to  nine  or  ten  leet  in  length, 
and  proceeds  from  a  socket  on  the  one  side 
of  the  upper  jaw,  having  a  large  cavity  at  its 
base  or  root,  "running  through  the  greater  part 
of  the  whole  length.  In  the  young  aniiw.ils 
and  occasionally  even  in  the  full  grown  ones, 
more  especially  in  the  males,  tliere  are  two  of 
these  teethj  sometimes  nearly  oiccpial  length, 
and  sometimes  very  unequal  in  this  respect: 
they  are  seated  very  close  to  each  other  at 
the  base,  and  as  their  direction  is  nearly  hi  a 
straightjiine,  they  diverge  but  little  in  their  pro- 
gress towards  the  extremites.  'I'he  head  of 
the  narwhal  is  short,,  and  convex  above  ; 
the  mouth  small ;  the  spiracle  or  breatiiing- 
hole  duplicated  within  ;  the  tongue  long  ;  the 
pectoral  tins  small ;  the  back,  tinless,  widish, 
convex,  becoming  gradually  accuniinated  to- 
wards the  tail,  which,  as  in  other  whales,  is  ho- 
rizuiitai.  The  general  tbrm  of  the  animal  is 
rather  long  than  thick  in  proportion  to  its  size. 
The  colour,  when  young,  is  sai<l  to  be  nearly 
black,  but  lighter  on  the  belly:  but  as  the  ani- 
mal advances  in  age,  it  becomes  marbled  or 
.variegated  with  black  and  white  on  the  back 
and  sides,  while  the  belly  is  nearly  white. 
Tlic  skin  is  smooth,  and  there  is  a  consider- 
able depth  of  oil  or  blubber  bene.^th  it. 

The  narwhal  chiefly  inhabits  tl'.e  nortliern 
parts  of  Davis's  Streights.  Its  food  is  said  to 
consist  of  the  smaller  kind  of  flat-fish,  as  well 
as  of  actinia:,  medusa?,  and  many  other  ma- 
rine animals.  It  is  principally  seen  in  the 
small  open  or  unfrozen  spots  towards  the 
coasts  of  the  northern  seas.  To  such  places 
it  resorts  in  multitudes,  for  the  convenieiicy  of 
breathing,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  sure 
of  finding  near  the  shores  a  due  supply  of 
fond,  and  is  very  rarely  seen  in  the  open  sea. 
It  is  taken  by  means  of  harpoons,  and  its 
flesh  is  eaten  by  the  Greenlanders,  both 
raw,  boiled,  and  dried:  the  intestines  and 
oil  are  also  used  as  a  food ;  the  tendons 
make  a  good  thread,  and  the  teeth  serve  the 
purpose  of  luniting-horns  as  well  as  the  more 
important  ones  ot  building  tents  and  iiouses  : 
but  before  this  animal  became  distinctly  known 
to  the  uaturalists  of  Euro,je,  they  we  e  held 
in  high  estimation,  as  the  supposed  horns  of 
uiiitorns.    Various  medical  virtues  were  also 


]VT  O  N 

attributed  to  them,  and  thev  Kcre  f  ven  ijum- 
hered  among^liie  articles  ot  mau'iiilicence.  A 
throne  nuule  tor  the  IDanish  monarchs  is  said 
to  he  still  preserved  in  the  castle  oi  Ito.senberg, 
composed  entirely  of  narwhals'  teeth  ;  tiie 
niilerial  being  antiently  considered  as  more 
vidu.abic  than  gold. 

A  specinnn  of  this  whale,  inea-uring  about 
eighl.en  feet,  exclusive  ol  the  horn  or  tooth, 
was  some  time  ago  stranded  Oii  the  roast  of 
Lincolnshire,  at  no  great  distance  from  Boston, 
and  was  said  to  have  been  taken  alive. 

2.  Monodon    spuriu.-,   spurious    narwhal. 
A  species  most  allied   to  the  narwhal,  but 
not  perhaps,  strictly  speaking,   of  the  same 
genus:  no  teetlv  in  the  moutli,  but  from  the 
extremity  of  the  upper  mandible  project  two 
minute,  conic,  obtuse  teeth,  alike  curved  at 
the  tips,  weak,  and  not  above  an  inch  long: 
bod)  elongated,  cylindric,  black.    Besides  the 
pectoial  tins,  and  horizontal  tail,  is  also  a  mi- 
nute dorsal  lin.     It  must  be  numbered  among 
the  rarest  of  the  whales,      its  flesh   ami   oil 
are  conside.red  as  very  purgative:    inhabits 
1  the  main  ocean,  seldom  coming  towards  shore: 
j  feeds  on  the  loligo  :  has  aspfracle  like  other 
I  whales.     Both   flesh  and  oil   are  eaten,  but 
I  not  without  apprehension,   for  the  reason  ai- 
I  ready  mentioned. 

Monodon  narwhal,  a  genus  of  mammalia 

■  of  the  order  cete  ;  the  generic  character  is, 

j  teeth  two  in  the  upper  jaw,  extending  straight 

forward,  long,  spiral :  spiracle  on  the  fore  and 

j  upper  part  of  die  head.     It  inhabits  the  Atlan- 

[  tic,  swims  rajiidly,  and  is  from    IS  to  40  feet 

long  and  12   broad.     Skin  white,  spotted  on 

j  the  back  with  black :  dorsal  fins  :  pectoral,  two 

small:  head  small :  eyes   very  minute:  what 

are    commonly    exhibited   as    the   unicorns 

horns.     See  Plate  Nat  Hist.  fig.  269. 

MONOECIA,  from  /aovos  alone,  and  oixia^ 
a  house  ;  the  name  of  the  21st  class  of  Lia- 
na;us's  sexual  method.     See  Botany. 

MONOGYNIA  from  /Kovor  alone,  and 7^11 
a  woman  ;  the  name  of  the  nrst  order  or  sub- 
division in  the  first  13  classes  ofiinnicus's 
sexual  method;  consistingof plants,  which,  be- 
sides their  agreement  in  their  classic  character, 
generally  derived  from  the  number  of  their 
stamina,  have  only  one  style,  or  female  organ. 
See  Botany. 

MONtXrRAM,  a  character  of  cypher, 
composed  of  one,  two,  or  more  letters  inter- 
woven ;  being  a  kind  of  abbreviation  of  a 
name,  antiently  used  as  a  seal,  badse,  arm=. 
&c. 

MONOPOLY,  is  an  allowance  by  the 
king,  by  his  grant,  commission,  or  otherwise, 
to  any  person  or  persons,  bodies  politic  or 
corporate  ;  or  of,  or  tor,  the  sole  buying,  sell- 
ing, making,  working,  or  using  of  any  thing, 
whereby  an\  person  or  persons,  bodies  poli- 
tic or  corporate,  are  sought  to  be  restrained 
of  any  freedo:n  or  liberty  they  had  before, 
or  hindereil  in  their  lawful  trade.  3  Inst. 
181. 

But  it  seems  that  the  king's  charter,  im- 
powering  particular  persons  to  trade  to  and 
from  such  |)lace  is  void,  so  far  as  it  gives 
such  persons  an  exclusive  right  of  trading,  and 
debarriugall  others;  and  it  seems  now  agreed, 
tliat  nothing  can  exclude  a  subject  from  trade 
but  an  act  of  parliament.     Ra\m.  4SQ. 

MONOm  ERUS.  Monoptere,  a  genus 
of  the  fishes  of  the  order  apodal ;  the  generic 


I.I  O  O 


213 


character  is,  body  angui'liform ;  nostrils  plated 
between  the  eyes;  lin  caudal. 

1 .  'I  he  moiio|)terus  Javaiiicus,  the  only 
animal  o(  tins  g<  uus  hitherto  discovered,  is 
thus  des(ribidb>  the  count  de  la  Cepeee, 
from  the  ni.nuisciipts  of  Commersoii,  by 
wliom  it  was  considered  as  a  species  of  M 'i- 
ia.ua.  '1  he  Body  is  scrpentilorni,  viscous, 
and  destitute  ot  conspicuous  scales:  the  head 
thick,  coiii]jressed,  enlarging  towards  tlit 
back  pait,  and  terminated  in  front  by  a  round- 
ed muzzle:  the  gape  is  rather  wide;  the  up- 
per jaw  scarcely  projecting  b.'yond  the  lov. er ; 
both  being  furnished  with  close  teeth:  the 
gill  ineHibiane  has  only  three  rays,  and  the 
brancliix  are  only  three  in  number  on  eacli 
side  ;  the  lateral  line,  which  is  nearer  the  back 
than  the  belly,  extends  Ironi  the  gills  to  the 
extremity  of  tiie  tail,  and  is  almost  of  a  gold- 
colour:  the  backii  of  a  livid  brown  or  black- 
ish colour.  This  fish  is  a  native  of  the  Indian 
seas  and  is  very  common  about  the  coasts  of  Ja- 
va, wliere  it  is  considered  as  an  excellent  food. 

MONriON  lA,  a  genus  of  the  dodecand;  ia 
order,  in  the  polyadelphia  class  of  plants.  Thfi 
calyx  is  pentrojjiiyllous  ;  the  corolla  pentape- 
tak)us  and  irregular ;  the  stamina  are  15  in 
number,  and  coalited  into  five  filaments;  the 
style  bilid  ;  the  capsule  peutacoccous.  There 
are  three  species. 

MONSOON.    See  AVind. 

MONTH,  the  twelfth  part  of  a  year.  See 
Chronoiogy. 

MONTIA,  water  chickwecd,  a  genus  of 
the  trigynia  order,  in  the  triandria  cli^ss  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  rankim^ 
with  those  two  of  wliicli  the'crder  is  doubtlui. 
The  calyx  is  tly  phyllous ;  the  corolla  monope- 
lalous  and  irregular ;  the  capsule  unilocular 
and  trivaWed.     Ihere  is  one  species. 

Mood,  or  Mode,  in  grammar,  the  dilTer- 
ent  manner  of  conjugating  verbs,  serving  to 
denote  the  different  affections  of  the  mind. 

MOON.    See  Astronomy. 

MOONSTONE.  Tliis  is  the  purest  fel- 
spar hitherto  found.  It  occurs  in  Ceylon  and 
.Switzerland  ;  and  was  first  mentioned  by  Mr. 
Pini.  Specific  gravity,  2. 5i9.  Colour  white; 
sometimes  with  a  sh;ide  of  yellow,  green,  or 
red.  Its  surface  is  sometimes  iriddescent.  A 
specinien  of  it  analysed  by  Vaiiquelin,  yielded. 

64  silica 
20  alumina 
14  potass 
2  lime 

100 

The  whitish  felspar,  called  petunze,  yielded  to 
the  same  chemist 

74.0  silica 
14.5  alumina 
5.5  lime 

94.0 

MOORING,  in  the  sea-language,  is  the  lay- 
ing out  the  anchors  of  a  ship  in  a  [ilace  where 
shecan  ridesecure.  Mooringacross,  islayino- 
out  on  each  side;  and  moor'ftig  along,  "is  to 
have  an  anchor  in  a  river  and  a  hawser  on 
shore.  AVhen  ships  are  laid  up  in  ordinary, 
or  are  under  orders  of  fitting  for  sea,  the  moo'r- 
ings  are  laid  out  in  harbours  ;  and  consist  of 
claws,  pendant  chains,  cables,  bridles,  an- 
chors, swivels,  jews-harps,  buoys,  aad  chains, 


"ifA 


M  O  R 


MORDF.LLA,  a  genus  of  iiisccls  of  tlio 
oiiier  coleoptcra.  ■  Tlit-  aiitcniix"  aio  tliread- 
siiuiH-cl  aiul  senv.ted  ;  ihe  head  is  dedectfd 
iiutk-r  the  neck :  Ihe  pappi  are  elevated,  com- 
p;v*^f<l,<ind  obiii'iielv  blunted;  and  tlie  elytra 
arc  bent  backwards  'near  the  apex.  I'here 
are  six  species. 

MOK.'EA,  a  genus  of  the  nionogynia  or- 
der, in  the  triamUia  class  of  p'fants;  and  in 
the  natural  metiiod  ranking  under  tneOlh  or- 
der, en.sat*.  "1  he  corolla  is  hcNapetalous  ; 
the  three  interior  petals,  patent ;  the  rest  like 
Itio^e  of  the  iris.  I'hore  are'  17  species,  beau- 
tifid  exotics,  resembling  the  iris. 

.MOIUNA,  a  genus  of  the  nionogynia  or- 
der, in  the  triandria  class  of  plants  ;  and  in 
the  natural  inelhftd  ranking  under  the  4Sth 
order;  aggregala:.  The  corolla  is  unequal ; 
the  calvx  ol  tlie  fruit  is  nionophyllous  and 
dented ;"  the  calyx  of  th.-  flower  bilid ;  there 
is  oi:e  seed  und'er  the  calyx  of  the  llower. 
'J  hire  is  one  species. 

-MOK  IND.-V,  a  genus  of  the  nionogynia  or- 
dcr.in  ihepenlandria  classof  plants;  andintiie 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  48th  outer, 
aggregata-.  'I'lie  liowerj  are  aggregate  and 
nion.opetalons  ;  the  stigmata  bilid  ;  the  fruit 
plvnns  aggregate  or  in  clusters.  'J'here  are  3 
species,  trees  of  the  F.ast  Indies. 

MORiSONl.l,  agenus  of  the  polyandria 
order,  in  the monadelphia  classof  plants  ;  and 
in  die  natural. method  ranking  undtr  the'Jjth 
order,  putaniinea*.  The  calyx  is  single  and 
bilid;  the  corolla  tetrapetalous;  there  is  one 
))istil ;  the  berry  ha^;  a  hard  bark,  is  unilocular, 
polyspermous,  and  pedecelialed.  There  is  one 
species,  atreeof  South  America. 

MOK.MYKUs,  a  ger.us  of  fishes  of  the 
Ijranchioslegeous  order,  the  generic  character 
is,  head  smooth  ;  teeth  numerous,  notched  ; 
aperture  ol  the  gills  linear,  without  a  cover  ; 
^ill  membrane  with  one  ray  ;  body  scaly. 
I'liere  are  three  species.  Tne  kannnme  has 
the  tailbiiid,  obtuse;  dorsal  lin  with  03  rays. 
It  inhabits  the  Nile  ;  body  whitish  and  much 
comi)i"esed. 

.MOROCCO,  marnqnin,  in  commerce,  a 
fine  kind  of  leather  prepared  of  the  skin  of  an 
animal  of  the  goat-kind,  and  inijioited  from 
the  Lev.mt,  Rarb.iry,  &c. 

The  name  was  probably  taken  from  the 
kingdom  of  Morocco,  whence  the  manner  of 
preparing  it  was  borrowed,  which  is  this  :  the 
skins  brring  lirst  dried  in  the  hair,  are  steeped 
in  water  three  davs  and  nights ;  then 
stretched  on  a  tanner's  horse,  beaten  with 
a  large  knife,  and  steeped  alresh  in  water  every 
dav  :  tney  are  then  tinown  into  a  large  vat  in 
the  ground,  full  of  water,  where  quicklime  has 
been  slaked,  and  theie  he  lifteen  days;  whence 
thev  are  taken,  and  again  return' d  every  night 
aniT  morning.  They  are  next  thrown  into  a 
freili  vatoi  lime  and  water,  and  ^-liifted  nigl;'. 
and  morning  for  lifteen  clays  longer :  then  rins- 
ed In  cle.ir  water,  and  the  hair  taken  oif  on  the 
leg  with  the  knile,  returned  into  a  third  vat, 
and  shifted  as  before  for  eigliteen  days  ;  steep- 
ed twelve  hours  in  a  river,  taken  out,  rir.sed, 
put  in  pails,  where  they  are  jjonnded  with 
wood'Mi  pe-lles,  changing  the  w.iter  twice ; 
then  laid  on  the  horse,  and  the  tlesh  taken  off; 
returned  into  pails  of  new  water,  taken  out,  and 
tht:  hair-sidescrape.l;  returned  into  fresh  pails, 
taken  out,  and  thrown  into  a  pail  of  a  particular 
form,  having  holes  at  bjitoin  :  here  they  arc 
beaten  for  the  spa.':i!  of  an  hour,  and  fresh 
water  poured  on  Ironi  time    to   time  ;  then 


M  O  R 

being  stretched  on  the  leg,  and  scraped  on 

ciluerslde,  they  are  rcturnctiinto  pails  of  fresh 
water,  taki:n  out,  stretched  anu-sewed  up  all 
aro'ind  in  manner  of  bags,  leaving  out  the 
h.nder  legs  as  an  aperture  for  the  convey- 
ance ot  a  certain  ini.\ture. 

The  skins  thus  sewed  are  put  hi  lukewarm 
water,  where  dogs  excremeiKs  have  been  dis- 
so;ved.     Here  thev  are  stirred  wUh  long  poles 
loi  half  an  hour,  'lelt  at  rest  a  d:j/.en,  taken 
out,  rinsed  in  tresii  water,  and  filled  by  a  tun- 
nel with  a  preparation   of  wafer  and  sumac, 
mixed  and  heated  over   the  iiic  tdi  ready  to 
boil ;  and,  as  they  are  filled,  the  hind  legs  arc 
sewed  up   to  sto[)  the  passage.     In  this  slate 
they  are  let  down  into  the  vessel  of  water  and 
sumac,  and  kept  stirring  for  four   hours   suc- 
cessively; taken  out  and  heaped  on  one  ano- 
ther; alter  a  little  time  tlieir  sides  are  chang- 
ed, and  thus  they  continue  an  hour  and   a 
haii  till  dimmed.    'I'his  done,  they   are  loos- 
ened, and  filled  a  second  time  uitii  the  same 
prel'aration,  sewed  up  again,  and  kept  stirring 
two  hours,   piled   up  an  1   drained   as   before, 
'ifiis  process  is  again  repeated,  uilii  this  d;t- 
ference,  tliat  they  are  ilieii  only  stirretl  a  (juar- 
ter  o  an  hour;  after  which  ti;ey  are  lelt  till 
next   morning,    when  they   are    taken   out, 
drained  on  a  rack,  unsieved,  the  sumac  taken 
out,  folded  in  two  from  head  to  tail,  the  hair- 
side  outw  ards,  laid  over  each  ofhei'  on  the  leg, 
to  perfect  their  draining,  stretched  out  and 
dried;  then  trampled  under  foot  by  t,wo  and 
two,  stretched  on  a  wooden  table,  what  flesh 
and  sumac  remains  scraieA  otT,  the  hair-side 
]  rubbed  over  with  oil,  and  that  again  with  water. 
I      Tiiey    are   then    wrung    with  the   hands, 
stretched,  and  pressed  tight  on  the  table  with 
an  iron-nistiument  like   tiial  of  a  currier,   tlie 
flesh  side  uppL'rinost  ;  then   turned,  and  tlie 
hair-side  rubbed  strongly   over  with  a  hand- 
ful of  rushes,  to  squeeze  out  as  much  of  the  oil 
remaining  as  possible.      'I  he  first   curse   of 
b'ack  is  now  laid  on  the  hair-side,  by  means  of 
a  lockof  hair  twisted  and  steeped  in  a  kind  of 
(black  dve,    prepared  of  sour   beer,  wherein 
pieces  of  olrl  rustv   iron   have  been  thrown, 
When  half-dried  in' the  air,  ttiey  are  stretched 
on  a   table,   rubbed  over   every  w-ay  with  a 
I  paumclle,  or  wooden-toothed  instrument,    to 
'  raise  the   grain,   over  w  hich  is    past  a   light 
couch  of  water,  then  sleeked  by  rubbing  them 
;  with  rushes  prepared  for  the  pur|)0>e.     Thus 
•  sleeked,  they  have  a  second  couciie  of  black, 
,  then  dried,    laid  on  the  table,  rubbed    over 
I  with  a  paumellc   of  cork,  to  raise  the   grain 
I  again ;  and,    after  a  light  couche  of  water, 
sleeked  over  anew  ;  and  to  raise  the  grain  a 
,  tliird  time,  a  paumeileof  wood  is  used. 
i      After  the  hair-side  has  received  al!  its  pre- 
'  parations,    the    flesh-side   is   pared    with  a 
sharp  knife  tor  the  purpose:  the  hair-side  is 
strongly  rubbed  over  with  a  woollen  cap,  hav- 
ing bei'ore   given    it  a  gloss  with  barherries, 
citron,  or  orange.     The   whole  is    finished 
by  raisin.-  the  grain  lightly,  for  .  the  last  time, 
w'ith  the  panmelle  of  cork;  so  that  they  arc 
now  lit  for  the  market. 
i      Manner  njpripitring  red  Morocco:  af- 
ter steeping,    stretching,  scraping,  beating, 
and  rinsing  the  skins,  as  before,  lliey  are  at 
length  wrung,  stretched  on  the  leg,  and  passed 
after  each  other  into  water  where  alum  has 
been   dis-iolved.     Thu-i  alumed,  they  ai'e  left 
to  drain  till  morning,  then  wrung  out,  pulled 
I  on  the  leg,  and  folded  from  head  to  tail,  the 
,  liesli  inwartls. 


.M  O  R 

In  tills  slate  they  receive  their  fust  dye,  l)> 
passing  them  after  one  another  into  a  red   li- 
quor prepared  with  laqtie,  and  some  otlier  in 
gredicnts,  \\  hich  the  marowcjuineers  ke«  p  a  m  - 
cict.     This  they  repeat  again  and  again,  till 
th.e  skins  have  got  their  first  colour  ;  then  th.  y 
are  rinsed  in  clear  water,  stretched  on  the  1  ;;, 
aiidleft  to  drain  twelve  houis;  thrown  inio 
water  through  a  sieve,  and  stirred  incessantly 
for  a  day  with  long   poles;  U^keii  out,    lung 
on  a   bar  across  ihfi   water   ail  night,  while 
against  red,  and  red  against  white,  and  jn  the 
morning  the  water  sliried  up,  and  the   skii.i 
returned  into  it  for  t.wentv-tour  horns. 

iMOR  TAl.n  Y,  Bin's  "j,  accounts  of  the 
numbers  of  deaths  or  burials  in  any  parish  in 
district.  The  establishment  of  registers  of  v..U 
kind  in  Great  Brhain,  was  occasioned  by  the 
plague,  and  an  abstract  ol  them  waspublishi-il 
weekly,  to  shew  the  increase  or  decrea=e  <'f 
the  disorder,  that  individuals  in'ght  judge  of 
the  necessity  of  removal,  or  of  taking  other 
precautions  against  it.  and  government  be  in- 
formed of  tlie  propriety  or  success  on  any 
public  measures  reUriing  to  the  disorder. 
The  first  diiections  for  keeping  registers  ct 
births  and  burials  were  contained  in  the  in- 
junctions to  the  clergy,  issued  in  the  v'  -. 
1538,  whicii  not  being 'properly  attendea  i-  , 
were  enforced  in  1547,  and  again  in  the  1-  - 
ginning  of  the  reign  of  tlhzabeth,  who  a'-  ,■ 
appointed  a  protestation  to  be  made  by  the 
clergy,  in  which,  among  other  things,  they  ■ 
promise  to  keep  the  register-book  in  a  proper 
manner.  One  of  the  canons  of  the  chur  ii 
prescribes  very  minute'.y  in  what  mann-  r 
entries  are  to  be  made  in  the  parish-registci  . 
and  orders  an  attested  copy  of  the  regis;er 
of  each  succcs-ive  year  to  be  annually  trans- 
mitted to  the  bisliop  of  the  diocese  or  his 
cl.ancellor,  and  to  be  preserved  in  the  bi- 
shop's registry.  These  registers  have  only 
been  occasii.n'allv  communicated  to  the  pub- 
lic, and  that  without  sufficient  particulars  to 
supply  much  information;  but  in  London, 
and  the  surrounding  parishv  s,  the  parish- 
clerks  are  re(|uired  to  make  a  weekly  return 
of  burials,  with  the  age  and  disease  o'f  which 
the  person  died  ;  a  summary  of  which  account 
is  published  weekly  ;  and  on  the  Thursday 
before  Chrisimas-day,  a  general  account  fs 
made  up  for  the  whole  year.  The>e  accounts 
of  c'n  i'-tenings  ami  burials,  taken  by  the  com- 
pany of  parish  clerks  of  London,  were  began 
21st  Dec.  1592,  but  were  not  made  public 
till  i:)94;  and  towards  the  end  of  the  follow- 
ing year,  uj)on  the  ceasing  of  the  plague, 
thev  were  discontinued  ;  at  this  time  the 
Loudon  bill-i  of  mortality  comprehended  but 
109  parishes.  In  1(103,  the  weekly  bills  of 
inor;ality  were  resumed,  and  have  been  regu- 
larly continued  ever  since  ;  the  number  of 
parishes  included  in  them  has  been  increased 
at  ditf'erent  times,  and  at  present  is  I4t5. 

Bills  of  m-irtalitv,  especially  such  as  give 
the  ages  of   the  ciead  and   the  disorders  of 
which  they  died,  furnisn  much  useliil  infor- 
mation; thev  shew  the  diiVeiviit  degrees  of 
healthiness  o'f  seasons  or  districts,  the  progress 
of  population,  and  the  probabilities  of  the 
j  duration  of  human  life  in  any  part  of  the  usual 
term  of  existence;  they  are  the  foundations 
;  on  which  ah  tables  o.  tfie  value  of  annuities 
'•  on  lives,  or  depending  on  survivorship,  have 
been  conslrucled. 
!      In  1662,  .Mr.  John  (iraunf  published  some 
I  ingenious  observations  on  the    London  Hills 
I  4 


I 


M  O  R 

of  Miirt;il!(_v,  which  wltc  much  cnbiijcd  in 
sub.^ifqiiful' editions.  Sir  \\  iliia.n  IVUv,  in 
IO'Sj,  I'.uule  considi'iabie  usi>  of  the  iiit'or- 
ination  alluidi-d  I)_y  liieiii,  in  liis  I'olilical 
AritiiniL'tic.  In  f74'J,  Mr.  '1".  Simpson 
liubiishi'd  Ids  Treatise  on  Anniutics  in  winch 
lie  inberled  a  talde  formed  by  Mr.  Smart 
from  tlie  Londoji  bills  of  moitality,  with  sonic 
corrections  which  appeared  necessary:  in 
1746,  Mr.  Dp  rarcieu.\,  in  an  Kssai  snr  les 
I'robabilites  de  la  Vie  hiiniaiiie,  made  some 
.objcctioiis  to  Mr.  .Simpson's  alterations  in  the 
I.oudon  bills,  but  witliout  siiffirieut  foun- 
dation ;  and  in  1752,  Mr.  Simpson,  in  a  sup- 
plement to  his  Treatise  on  Annuities,  made 
use  of  tlie  same  table  from  the  i-ondon  bills, 
but  adapted  to  a  dilferent  radi.x.  In  I7(i9, 
Dr.  Price  published  his  treatise  on  Rever- 
sionary Payments,  in  whicli,  particularly  in 
the  subsec|uent  editions,  many  valuable  ol)- 
servations  are  to  be  found  on  the  bills  of  mor- 
tality of  different  places,  and  very  acctn-ate 
tables  are  given  of  the  expectation  of  life,  and 
the  value  of  aimuities,  accoiding  to  these  bills. 

Dr.  Price  remarks,  that  in  every  place 
which  just  supports  itself  in  the  number  of 
its  inhabitants,  without  any  recruits  from 
other  places ;  or  where,  for  a  course  ot  years, 
tliere  has  been  no  increase  or  decrease,  the 
number  of  persons  dying  every  year  at  any 
particular  age,  and  above  it,  must  be  equal 
to  the  number  of  the  living  at  that  age.  The 
mmiber,  for  e.\ample,  dying  every  year,  at 
all  ages,  from  the  beginning  to  the  utmost 
extremity  of  life,  must,  in  sucli  situation,  be 
just  equal  to  the  whole  number  born  every 
year.  Ajid  for  the  same  reason,  the  numbej- 
dying  every  year  at  one  year  of  age  and  up- 
\yards,  at  two  years  of  age  and  upwards,  at 
three  and  upwards,  and  so  on,  must  be  equal 
to  the  numbers  that  attain  to  those  ages  every 
year;  or,  which  is  the  same,  to  the  numbers 
of  the  living  at  those  ages.  It  is  obvious,  that 
iniless  this  happens,  the  number  of  inhabi- 
tants cannot  remain  the  same;  it  follows,' 
therefore,  that  In  a  town  or  country,  where 
there  is  no  increase  or  decrease,  bills  of  mor- 
tality which  give  the  ages  at  which  all  die, 
%yill  shew  the  exact  number  of  inhabitants; 
and  also  the  exact  law,  according  to  which 
human  life  wastes  in  that  town  or  country. 
In  order  to  find  the  number  of  inhabitants, 
the  mean  numbers  dying  annually  at  every 
particular  age  and  upwards,  must  be  taken  as 
given  by  the  bills,  and  placed  under  one  an- 
other in  the  order  of  the  second  column  :  see 
Tablel,  article  Expectation.  I'hese  num- 
bers will  be  the  numbers  of  the  living  at  1,  2, 
3,  &c.  years  of  age  ;  and,  consequently,  the 
sum,  diuiinishedby  half  the  numberborn  annu- 
ally, will  be  the  whole  number  of  inhabitants. 

The  bills  of  mortality,  in  some  parts  of 
Great  Britain,  are  known  to  be  materially 
defective ;  the  deficiencies  may  chielly  be 
ascribed  to  the  following  circumstances:  1. 
Many  congregations  of  dissenters,  inhabiting 
towns,  have  their  own  peculiar  burying- 
grounds;  as  have  the  Jews,  and  the  Roman 
Catholics,  who  reside  in  London.  2.  Some 
persons,  from  motives  of  poverty  or  conveni- 
ence, inter  their  deail  witliout  any  religious 
ceremony;  this  is  known  to  happen  in  the 
Inetropolis,  in  Bristol,  and  Xewcastle-upon- 
Tyne,  and  may  happen  in  a  few  otiier  large 
towns.  3.  Children  who  die  before  bap- 
tism are  interred  without  anv  religious  cere- 
mony, and  consequently  are  not  registered. 

^  OL.  II. 


M  O  Ti 

4.  XegligPnre  may  be  sujiposctl  to  ratnc 
sonic  omissions  in  tlic  registers,  especially  in 
those  small  benelices,  v/herc  the  oDiciating 
minister  is  not  resident.  5.  Many  per-ons 
employed  in  the  army  and  in  navigation  dii; 
abroad,  and  coiise(iuently  their  burials  re- 
main unregistered.  \\  hatever  may  be  the 
total  mimlier  of  deaths  and  burial's,  which 
from  these  several  circumstances  are  not 
brought  to  account,  it  has  been  computed 
that  about  .lOOn  ol  them  may  be  attributed 
to  the  metropolis,  and  a  large  portion  of  the 
re^t  may  be  a-'-ribed  to  "the  other  gieat 
towns,  and  to  Wales,  wliere  the  registers  are 
less  carefully  kejit  than  in  England. 

Tlie  ainiuul  amount  of  the  burials,  as  col- 
lected conlormably  to  tlie  population  act, 
authorizes  a  satisfactory  inference  of  dimi- 
nishing mortality  in  England  since  the  year 
1 780 ;  the  number  of  marriages  and  baptisms, 
indicates  that  the  existing  population  in  1801, 
was  to  that  of  17H0,  as  117  to  100,  whih!  the 
amount  of  registered  burials  remained  sta- 
tionary during  tlie  same  |)eriod  ;  the  first  five 
years  of  which,  as  well  as  the  last  live  years, 
and  all  the  21  years  taken  together,  equally 
averaged  about  186,000  per  annum. 

The  whole  number  of  baptisms,  collected 
for  the  purposes  of  the  population  act,  was 
6,4.3'i,110;  of  these  3,283,188  were  males, 
and  3,150,922  females;  so  that  the  baptisms 
of  males  were  10,426  to  10,000  baptisms  of 
females.  The  whole  number  of  the  burials 
appeared  to  be  5,165,844;  of  which  2,575,762 
were  males,  and  2,590,082  females,  so 
that  the  burials  of  males  were9,944  to  10,000 
burials  ol  females.  It  may  be  inferred  hence, 
that  of  10,426  males  born  in  England,  only 
9,944  die  at  home;  therefore,  about  one  in 
twenty-two  dies  abroad  in  the  employments 
of  war  and  commerce  ;  a  proportion  wliicli 
strongly  marks  the  enterprising  character  of 
the  nation. 

MORTAR-PIECE,  a  short  piece  of  ord- 
nance, considerably  thick  and  wide;  serving 
to  throw  bombs,  carcases,  lire-pots,  &c.     See 

Gt'X-NERV. 

MORTGAGE,  signifies  a  pawn  of  land  or 
tenement,  or  any  thing  immoveable,  laid  or 
bound  for  money  borrowed,  to  be  the  credi- 
tor's for  ever,  if  the  money  is  not  paid  at 
the  day  agreed  upon ;  and  the  creditor 
holding  land  and  tenement  upon  this  bargain, 
is  called  tenant  in  the  mortgage.  He  who 
pledges  this  pawn,  or  gage,  is  called  the  mort- 
gageor,  and  he  who  takes  it,  the  mortagee. 

The  last  and  best  improvement  of  mortgages 
seems  to  be,  that  in  the  mortgage-deed  of  a 
term  for  years,  or  in  the  assignment  tjiere- 
of,  the  mortgageorshouldcovenantfor  himself 
and  his  heirs,  that  if  default  is  made  in  the 
|jayment  of  the  money  at  the  day,  then  he 
antl  Jiis  heirs  will,  at  the  costs  of  the  mort- 
gagee and  his  heirs,  convey  the  freehold  and 
inheritance  of  the  mortgaged  laads  to  the 
mortgagee  and  his  heirs,  or  to  such  person  or 
persons  (to  prevent  merger  of  tiie  term)  as  he 
or  they  shall  direct  and  appoint :  t»r  the  re- 
version, after  a  term  of  fifty  or  a  Inindred  years, 
being  little  worth,  and 'yet  the  mortgagee 
for  want  thereof  continuing  but  a  termer,  and 
subject  to  a  forfeiture,  &c.  and  not  capable  of 
the  privileges  of  a  freeholder;  therefore  wlien 
the  mortgageor  cannot  redeem  the  land,  it  is 
but  reasuiiable  the  mortgagee  should  have 
the  whole  interest  and  inheritance  of  it  to 
disuoseof  it  as  absolute  twuer.  3  Bac.  Abr,  6J3. 
Ff 


M  O  R 


225 


Ahlioiigh  after  breach  of  llie  eondiliun, 
an  absolute  fee-simple  is  vested  at  common 
law  in  tlie  mortgagee  ;  yet  a  right  of  redemp- 
tion being  still"  inherent  in  the  land,  till  the 
equity  of  redemption  is  foreclosed,  the  same 
right  shall  descend  to,  and  is  invested  in,  such 
persons  as  had  a  right  to  the  land,  in  case 
there  had  been  no  mortgage  or  incumbrance 
whatsoever;  and  as  an  equitable  perlbrm- 
aiice  as  elfectuaily  defeats  tne  interests  of  the 
mortgage,  as  the  legal  iJcrformance  does  at 
common  law,  the  condition  still  hanging  Over 
the  estate  till  liie  equity  is  totally  foreclosed  ; 
on  this  foundation  it  has  bi-eii  held  that  a 
person  w  ho  conies  in  under  a  voluntary  con- 
veyance, may  red''em  a  mortgage;  and  thougli 
such  right  of  redeiiiiitioii  is  inherent  in  the 
land,  yet  the  party  claiming  the  benefit  of  it, 
must  not  only  set  forth  such  right,  but  also  shew 
that  he  is  the  person  entitled  to  it.  Hard.  465. 

But  if  a  mortgage  is  forfeited,  and  thereby 
die  estate  absolutely  vested  in  the  mortgagee 
at  common  law,  yet  a  court  of  e<|uity  will 
consider  the  real  value  of  the  tenements,  com- 
pared with  the  sum  borrowed.  And  if  the 
estate  is  of  greater  value  than  the  sum  lent 
thereon,  they  will  allow  the  mortgageor,  at  any 
reasonabl  ■  time,  to  recal  or  redeem  the  estate, 
paying  to  the  mortgagee  his  principal,  interest, 
and  costs.  'J  his  reasonable  advantage,  al- 
lowed to  the  mortgageors,  is  called  the  equi- 
ty of  redemption.     2  Black.  159. 

It  is  a  rule  established  in  equity,  analogous 
to  the  statute  of  limitatinn,  that  after  twenty 
years  possession  of  the  mortagee,  he  shal! 
not  be  disturbed,  unless  there  are  extraordi- 
nary circumstances;  as  in  the  case  of  femes 
coveit,  infants,  and  tiie  like.     3  Atk.  313. 

MORTISE,  or  Mortoise,  in  carpentry, 
&c.  a  kind  of  joint,  wherein  a  hole  of  a  certain 
depth  is  made  in  a  piece  of  timber,  wliich  is 
to  receive  another  piece  called  a  tenon. 

MORTMAIN,  signifies  an  alieEalion  of 
lands  and  tenements,  to  any  guild,  corpora- 
tion, or  fraternity,  and  their  successors,  as 
bishops,  parsons,  vicars,  &c.  which  may  not 
be  done  without  the  king's  licence,  and  tlie 
lord  of  t!ie  manor  ;  or  of  the  king  alone,  if  it 
is  immediately  liolden  ofiiim. 

Rut  in  order  to  prevent  any  imposition  in 
respect  to  the  disposal  of  lands  to  charitable 
uses,  which  might  arise  in  a  testator's  last  hours, 
and  in  some  measure,  from  political  principles, 
to  restrain  devises  inmortmain,  or  thetoo  great 
accumulation  of  land  in  hands  where  il^  lies 
dead,  and  not  subj"ct  to  change  possession,  it 
is  provided  by  stat.  9  G.  II.  c.  36,  (called  th« 
statute  of  mortmain),  that  no  manors,  lands, 
tenements,  rents,  advowsons,  or  other  heredit- 
amciils,  corporeal  or  incorporeal,  whau,  e.-T, 
nor  any  sum  or  sums  of  money,  goods,  chat- 
tels, stocks  in  iiie  public  luni,-,  securities  lur 
money,  or  other  personal  estate  whatsoever, 
to  be  laid  out  or  disposed  of  in  the  purciiasts 
of  any  lands,  tenements,  or  liereditanients, 
shall  be  given,  limited,  or  appointed  by  will,  to 
any  person  or  persons,  bodies  politic  or  cor- 
porate, or  otlienvise  for  any  estate  or  interest 
whatsoever  ;  or  any  ways  charged  or  iiicLim- 
bered  by  any  person  or  persons  whatsoever, 
in  trust,  or  for  the  benefit  of  any  charitalilc 
use  whatsoever;  but  such  gift  shall  be  by- 
deed  indented,  sealed  and  delivered  in  the 
presence  of  two  or  more  credible  witnesses, 
twelve  'alendar  months  at  lea^t  before  the 
debt  of  such  donor,  and  beinrolLd  in  the  high 
,  court,  of  ch-acerywiliiinsut  calendar  tuoutlH 


221 


M  O  R 


aftorexecution  for  the  charitable  H'p  intended ; 
and  be  willioul  any  power  of  revocalion,  re- 
servation, or  trust,  for  benelil  of  the  donor. 
And  al!  gifts  and  apiiointnienls  whalsoever,  of 
any  lands,  tenemenls,  or  other  hereditaments, 
or  of  an)- estate  or  interest  tiiercin,  or  of  any 
charge  or  inciniibranee  alfecting  or  to  afi'ect 
any  lands,  teneinents.orhLTeditamcnts,  or  any 
personal  estate  to  be  laid  out  in  the  purchase  of 
ajiy  lands,  lenenienti,  or  hereditaments,  or  any 
♦•state  or  interest  iherein,  or  of  nnv  charge  or 
iucuuibrance  atieeting  or  to  affect  the  same, 
to  or  in  trust  for  any  charitable  use  whatso- 
f  ver,  niatle  iji  any  other  manner  than  is  di- 
rected by  this  act,  shall  be  absolutely  null 
and  void.  But  the  two  universities,"  their 
colleges,  and  the  scliolars  upon  the  founda- 
tion of  the  colleges  at  Eton,  Weslminiler, 
and  W'irichester,  arfe  excepted  out  oi  this  art ; 
but  with  tills  proviso,  that  no  college  shall 
be  at  liberty  to  purchase  more  advowsons 
than  are  equal  in  munber  to  one  moiety  of 
liie  fellows  or  students  upon  the  respective 
li^nndatioiis. 

iVI(.M{L'S,  the  oiuLBERRy-TREE,  a  genus 
of  tile  teirandria  order,  in  the  monoecia  class 
of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  J3d  oider,  scabrid.T.  Thj  male  ca- 
Jyx  is  quadripartite  ;  and  there  is  no  corolla: 
the  le.uaie  calyx  is  tetraphvllous  ;  there  is  nn 
coroila:  two  styles  ;  the  calyx  like  a  berry, 
with  one  seed.  There  are  seven  sj)ecies,  viz. 
1.  I  he  nigra,  or  common  biack-fruited  mul- 
berry-tree, rises  with  an  upright,  large,  rough 
trunk,  dividing  into  a  branchy  and  very  spread- 
ing hfad,  rising  20  feet  high,  or  more.  2. 
riie  alba,  or  white  mulberrv-tree,  rises  with 
an  upright  trunk,  branching  20  or  30  feet 
high.  There  IS  a  variety  with  purplish  fruit. 
3.  I  he  papyrifera,  or  paper  muh)erry-tree  of 
Japan,  grows  20  or  30  feet  high  ;  having  large 
palmated  leaves,  some  trilobate,  others"  quin- 
quelobed  ;  and  momvcious  do-.vers,  svicceeded 
by  small  back  fruit.  4.  The  rubra,  or  red 
Virginia  mulberry-tiee,  grows  30  feet  high  ; 
and  nas  large  reddi'sh  berries.  5.  The  tinctoria, 
tlyer's  mulberry,  or  fustic,  lias  oblong  leaves 
more  extended  on  one  side  at  the  base,  with 
axillary  thorns.  It  is  a  native  of  Pnasil.  and 
Jamaica.  6.  The  tartarica,  or  Tartari.in  mul- 
berry, has  ovate  oblong  leaves,  equal  on  both 
sides,  and  equally  serrald.  It  abouuds  on 
the  banks  of  the  VVolga  and  the  Tanais.  7. 
tlie  Indica,  or  Indian  mulberry,  hasovateob- 
long  leaves,  equal  on  botlj  sides,  but  unequally 
serrated. 

Tlie  last  three  species  are  tender  plants  in 
this  country ;  but  the  four  first  are  very  hardy, 
and  succeed  in  any  common  soil  and  situation. 
The  leaves  are  generally  late  before  they 
,  come  out,  the  buds  seldom  beginning  to 
till  the  middle  or  towards  the  latter  end  of 
May,  according  to  the  temperature  of  the 
season  ;  and  wiien  these  trees,  in  particular, 
begin  to  expand  their  foliage,  it  is  a  good  sign 
of  the  near  approach  of  fine  warm  settled  wea- 
ther; the  white  mulberry,  however,  is  gene- 
rally forwarder  in  leahngthanthe  black. 

Considered  as  fruit-trees,  the  nigra  is  the 
only  proper  sort  to  cultivate  here  ;  the  trees 
bem^  not  only  the  most  plentiful  bearers, 
but  the  fruit  is  largerand  much  fiuer-flavovired 
llian  that  of  the  white  kind,  which  is  the  only 
other  sort  that  bears  in  this  country.  The 
three  next  species  are  chietly  employed  to 
form  variety  in  our  ornamental  plantations: 
ILou^h  abroad  they  are  adapted  to  more  use- 


M  O  S 

fiJ  purposes.  The  wood  of  the  mulberry-tree 
is  \ellou',  tolerably  hard,  and  may  be  applied 
to  various  uses  in  turnery  and  ^carving:  but 
in  order  to  separate  the  bark,  which  is  rough, 
thick,  thread),  and  tit  for  being  made  into 
ropes,  it  is  proper  to  steep  the  wood  in  water. 

Mulberry-trees  are  noted  for  their  leaves  af- 
fording the  principal  food  of  that  valuable  in- 
sect the  silkworm.  The  leaves  of  the  alba,  or 
white  species,  are  preferred  for  this  purpose  in 
Europe;  but  in  China  where  the  best  silk  is  made 
the  worms  are  said  to  be  fed  with  those  ot  the 
niorus  tartavica.  The  adv;uitages  of  white 
muli)errv-trees  are  not  confined  to  the  nou- 
rishment of  worms :  they  may  be  cut  every 
three  or  four  years  like  sallows  and  poplar 
trees,  to  make  faggots;  and  the  sheep  eat 
their  leaves  in  winter,  before  they  arc  burnt. 
This  kind  of  food,  of  which  they  are  extremely 
fond,  is  very  nourishing;  it  gives  a  delicacy  to 
the  ilesh,  and  a  fineness  and  beauty  to  the 
wool. 

'I'lie  papyrifera,  or  paper-mulberry,  is  so 
called  troin  the  paper  chielly  used  by  the  Ja- 
pauese  being  made  of  the  bark  of  its  branches. 
The  leaves  of  this  species  also  serve  for  food 
to  the  silkworm,  and  it  is  now  cultivated  with 
success  in  France.  It  thrives  best  in  sandy 
soils,  grows  faster  than  the  common  mulberry, 
and  at  the  same  time  is  not  injured  by  the  co'd. 
M.  de  la  Bouviere  aihrms  that  he  procured 
a  beautil'ui  vegetable  silk  from  the  bark  of  the 
young  branches  of  this  species  of  mulberry, 
which  he  cut  while  the  tree  was  in  sap,  and 
afterwards  beat  and  steeped.  The  worn  -n  of 
Lxjuisiana  procure  the  same  kind  of  produc- 
tion fri^in  the  shoots  whicii  issue  from  the  stock 
of  the  mulberrv,  and  which  are  four  or  five 
feet  high.  After  taking  olf  the  bark,  they  dry 
it  in  the  sun,  and  then  beat  it  that  the  exter- 
nal part  may  fall  off ;  and  the  internal  part, 
which  is  fine  bark,  rem?.ir.s  entire.  This  is 
again  beaten,  to  make  it  still  finer:  after  which 
thev  bleach  it  with  dew.  It  is  then  spun, 
and' various  fabrics  are  made  from  it,  such  as 
nets  and  fringes:  they  even  sometimes  weave 
it,  and  make  it  into  cloth.  The  finest  sort  of 
cloth  among  the  inhabitants  of  Otaheite  and 
others  of  tiie  South  Sea  islands,  is  made  of  the 
bark  of  this  tree. 

The  tinctoria  is  a  fine  timber-tree,  and  a 
principal  ingredient  in  most  ol  our  yellow  dves, 
for  which  it  is  chiefly  imported  into  Europe. 
The  berries  are  s.veet  and  wholesome  ;  but  not 
much  used,  except  by  the  winged  tribe,  by 
whose  care  it  is  chiefly  planted. 

MOSAIC,  or  mnsaic-iiork,  an  assemblage 
of  little  pieces  of  glass,  marble,  precious 
stones,  &c.  of  various  colours,  cut  square 
and  cemented  on  a  grouiul  of  stucco,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  imitate  the  colours  of  painting. 

i\I()SCj-lUS,  musk,  a  genus  of  quadru- 
peds of  the  order  pecora:  the  generic  cha- 
racteris,  horns  none  ;  front  teeth  in  the  lower 
jaw  eight ;  tusks  solitary,  in  the  upper  jaw 
exserttd. 

1.  Mo^chus  moschifcrus,  Tibetian  musk. 
The  musk  is  one  of  those  (juadrupeds  whose 
true  form  and  natural  history  appear  to  have 
continued  in  great  obscurity  long  after  the  in- 
troduction and  general  use  of  the  Celebrated 
psrfume  which  it  produces.  To  the  aiitients 
it  was  unknown,  and  was  first  mentioned  by 
the  Arabians,  whose  physicians  used  the  drug 
in  their  practice.  The  animal  was  bv  some 
t'onsidcred  as  a  kind  of  goat,  by  others  as  a 
species  of  deer  or  autdope,  auUwaS;  of  course^ 


M  O  S 

supposed  to  be  a  horned  animal ;  nor  w"3  fj 
till  about  the  decline  of  the  seventeenth  ceii- 
tury  that  a  tolerably  accurate  description  or 
figure  was  to  be  found. 

The  si/e  and  general  appearance  of  this 
animal  resemble  those  ofa  small  roebuck.  It 
measures  about  three  fei-t  three  inches  in 
length,  about  two  feet  three  inches  in 
height  from  the  top  of  the  shoulders  to  tli^ 
bottom  of  the  fure-teet,  and  two  feet  nine 
inches  from  the  top  of  the  haunches  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  hind  feet.  The  upper  jaw  is  con- 
siderably longer  than  the  lower,  and  is  fur- 
nished on  each  side  with  a  curveil  tusk  about 
two  inches  long.  These  tusks  are  of  a  dif- 
ferent form  from  thoseof  any  other  quadruprd  ; 
being  sharp-edged  on  their  inner  or  lower  side, 
so  as  to  resemble,  insome  degree,  apair  of  small 
crooked  knives:  their  substance  is  a  kind  of 
ivory,  as  in  the  tusks  of  the  babyrussa  and  some 
other  animals. 

The  general  colour  of  the  whole  body  is  a 
kind  of  deep  iron  grey  ;  the  tips  of  the  hairs 
being  of  a  ferruginous  cast,  the  remainder 
blackish,  grov.-ing  much  paler  or  whitish  to- 
wartls  the  roots.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  tig.  070 
The  female  is  smaller  than  the  male,  and 
wants  the  tusks :  it  has  also  two  small  teats. 

They  are  hunted  lor  the  sake  of  their  well- 
knov.n  perfume  :  w  hich  is  contained  in  an  oval 
receptacle  about  the  size  ofa  small  egg,  hang- 
ing from  the  middle  of  the  abdomen,  and  pc  • 
culiar  to  the  animal.  'J'his  receptacle  is  found 
constantly  filled  with  a  soft,  unctuous,  brown- 
ish substance,  oi  the  most  powerful  and  pene- 
trating smell ;  and  which  is  no  other  than  the 
perhime  in  its  natural  state.  As  soon  as  the 
animal  is  killed,  the  hunters  cut  olTthe  recep- 
tacle or  musk-bag,  and  lie  it  up  ready  for  sale. 
The  animals  must  of  necessity  be  extremely 
numero'is  in  some  parts,  since  we  are  assurcil 
by 'la  vernier,  the  celebrated  merchant  and 
traveller,  that  he  purciiased,  in  one  of  his 
Eastern  journeys,  no  less  Uian  seven  thousand 
six  hundred  and  seventy-three  musk-bags. 

So  violent  is  the  smell  of  musk,  when  fresh- 
taken  from  tlie  animal,  or  horn  i|uantities  put 
up  by  the  merchants  for  sale,  that  it  has  b^-en 
known  to  force  Iheblo.id  from  the  nose,  eves, 
and  ears,  of  those  who  have  imprudently'  in- 
haled its  vapouis. 

As  musk  is  an  expensive  drug,  it  is  frequently 
adulterated  by  various  substances;  and  we  arc 
assured  that  pieces  of  lead  have  been  found  in 
some  of  the  receptacles,  inserted  in  order  to 
increase  the  weight.  The  smell  of  musk  is  so 
remarkably  diif'usive,  that  every  thing  in  its 
neighbourhood  becomes  strongly  infected  witlt 
it;  even  a  silver  cup  that  has  had  musk  in  it 
does  not  part  with  the  scent,  though  other 
odours  are  in  general  very  readily  dischargetk 
from  metallic  substances. 

As  a  medicine  it  is  held  in  high  estimatioit 
in  the  Eastern  countries,  and  has  now  been  in- 
troduced into  pretty  general  use  among  our- 
selves, especially  in  those  disorders  which  are 
commonly  termed  nervous;  and  inconvulsiva 
and  other  cases,  it  is  often  exhibited  in  pretty 
large  doses  with  great  success. 

2.  Moschus  Indicus,  («•  the  Indian  musk. 
This  species  is  said  to  be  rather  larger  than  the 
common  or  Tibetian  musk,  of  the  colour  men- 
tioned,in  the  specific  cliaracter,  with  the  head 
shaped  like  th;it  of  a  horse,  upright  oblorvj 
ears,  and  slender  legs.     It  isa  native  of  India. 

3.  .Moschus  pygma*us,  or  the  pygmy  musk, 
is  considerably  smallo'  Ihmi  a  domestic  catj; 


MOT 

Tnca=;miiiR  lillle  more  than  nine  inches  from 
llie  nose  to  the  tail.  Its  colours  is  bright  h;i_v, 
uhiti'  l)ciit;atli  aiHl(»n  the  insid-sofllu'  thighs. 
Its  s'lKipe  ii  heauliUil,  unci  the  l<'gs  are  so  slen- 
der as  not  to  e\a  rd  the  diami'ter  oi'  a  swan- 
qiiill ;  tlie  head  i  i  ruther  larg.-,  and  the  aspect 
iiiiUL  It  is  a  nativt;  of  many  parts  ol  the  Kast 
Indies  and  the  Indian  island's,  and  is  said  to  be 
most  toninioiiin  Java,  where  liie  natives  catch 
great  niunbers  in  snares,  and  carry  thi-ni  to 
the  markets  in  tlu-ir  cagi-s  for  sale.  Accord- 
ing  to  Mr.  Pennant  thev  may  be  purchased  at 
so  low  a  rate  as  two  pence  halfpenny  apiece. 
Tiiere  are  three  other  species. 

MOSQUF,,  a  temple  or  place  of  religions 
tR'orship  among  the  Nlalionielans. 

All  mosques  are  square  buildings,  gene- 
rally built  with  stone;  before  the  chief  gate 
there  is  a  square  court,  paved  with  white 
marble,  and  low  galleries  round  it,  whose 
roof  is  supported  by  marble  ijiUars.  In  these 
galler.es  the  Turks  wash  themselves  before 
tliev  go  into  the  mosque.  In  each  mosque 
tlieie  are  a  great  number  of  lamps;  and  be- 
tween these  hang  many  crystal  rings,  os- 
triches' eggs,  and  other  curiosities,  which, 
vlien  the  lamps  are  lighted,  make  a  line  shew. 
As  it  is  not  lawfid  to  enter  themostiue^  with 
shoes  or  stockings  on,  the  ))avements  are  co- 
vered with  pieces  of  stuif  sewed  toget'ier, 
each  being  wide  enough  to  liold  a  row  of 
men  kneeling,  sitting,  or  prostrate.  The 
women  are  not  allowed  to  enter  the  mos(|ues, 
but  stav  in  the  porches  without.  About 
every  mosque  there  are  six  high  towers,  call- 
ed minarets,  each  of  which  has  three  little 
open  galleries,  one  above  another :  these 
towers,  as  well  as  the  mosciues,  are  covered 
with  lead,  and  adorned  with  gilding  and 
other  ornaments;  and  from  thence,  instead 
of  a  bell,  the  people  are  called  to  prayer  by 
certain  officers  appointed  for  that  purpose. 
Most  of  the  mosques  have  a  kind  of  hospital 
belonging  to  them,  in  which  travellers,  of 
what  religion  soever,  are  entertained  during 
three  days.  Each  mosque  has  also  a  place 
called  larbe,  which  is  tlie  burying-place  of  its 
founders;  within  which  is  a  tomb  six  or  seven 
feet  long,  covered  with  green  velvet  or  sat- 
in, at  the  ends  of  which  are  two  tapers,  and 
round  it  several  seats  for  tliose  who  read  the 
koran,  and  pray  for  the  souls  of  the  deceased. 
MOS.S.  See  Muscus. 
MOTACILLA,  the  ivtigtail  and  tvurhler, 
a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order  of  passeres,  dis- 
tinguished by  a  straight  weak  bill  of  a  subu- 
lated  figure,  a  tongue  lacerated  at  the  end; 
and  very  slender  legs. 

1.  'Jhe  alba,  or  white  wagtail,  frp'quents 
tlie  sides  of  ponds  and  small  streams,  and 
feeds  on  insects  and  worms.  'I'lie  head,  back, 
and  upper  and  lower  side  of  the  neck  as  far 
as  the  breast,  are  black;  in  some  the  chin  is 
white,  and  the  throat  marked  with  a  black 
crescent ;  the  breast  and  belly  are  white. 
The  tail  is  very  long,  and  always  in  motion. 
Mr.  Willughby  observed,  that  this  species 
s\\\\\.%  its  quarters  in  the  winter,  moving  from 
the  north  to  the  south  of  England  during  that 
season.  In  spring  and  autumn  it  is  a  constant 
attendant  on  the  plough,  for  the  sake  of  the 
worms  thrown  up  by  that  instriuneut. 

2.  The  flava,  or  yellow  wagtail,  migrates 
in  the  north  of  England,  but  in  Hampshire 
continues  the  whole  year.  The  male  is  a 
bird    of   great    beauty ;    the  breajt,   belly, 


M  O  T 

thighs,  and  vent-feathers,  being  of  a  most 
vivid  and  lovely  yellow.  '1  lie  colours  of  the 
female  are  far  more  obscure  than  those  of  the 
male  :  it  wants  also  those  black  spots  on  the 
thmat. 

.3.  I'he  regultH,  or  gold-crested  wren,  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  and  of  the  correspondent 
latitudes  of  Asia  and  Ameri .a.  It  is  the 
least  of  all  the  European  birds,  weighing  only 
a  single  drachm.  Its  length  is  about  four 
inches  and  a  half,  and  the  wings  when  spread 
out  measure  little  more  than  six  inches. 
On  the  top  of  its  head>is  a  beautiful  orange- 
coloureil  spot,  called  its  crest,  which  it  can 
hide  at  plea^ul■e;  the  margins  of  the  crest  are 
yellow,  and  it  ends  in  a  pretty  broad  black 
line;  tlie  sides  of  the  neckjre  of  a  beautiful 
yellowish-green;  the  eyes  surrounded  with  a 
white  circle  ;  the  r.eck  and  back  of  a  dark 
green  mixed  with  yellow.  In  America  it  as- 
sociates with  the  titmice,  running  up  and 
down  the  bark  of  lofty  oaks  with  them,  and 
collecting  its  food  in  their  comjiany,  as  if 
they  were  all  of  one  brood.  It  leeds  on  in- 
sects lodged  in  the  winter  dormitories  in  a 
torpid  state.  It  is  said  to  sing  ver\  melodi- 
ously. 

A.  The  sutoria,  or  taylor-bird,  is  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies.  It  is  remarkabl.'  for  the 
art  with  which  it  makes  its  nest,  seemingly  in 
order  to  secure  itself  and  its  young,  in  the 
most  perfect  manner  possible,  against  all 
dangi  r  from  voracious  animals.  It  picks  up 
a  dead  leaf,  and  sews  it  to  the  side  of  a  living 
one:  its  slender  bill  is  the  nee<lle,  and  its 
thread  is  formeil  of  some  line  fibres;  the  lin- 
ing is  composed  of  feathers,  gossamer,  and 
down.  The  colour  of  the  bird  is  light  yel- 
low; its  length  three  inches,  and  its  weight 
only  three-sixteenths  of  an  ounce;  so  that 
the  materials  of  the  nest  and  its  own  size  are 
not  likely  to  draw  down  a  habitation  depend- 
ing on  so  slight  a  tenure. 

5.  The  lucinia,  or  nightingale,  exceeds  in 
size  the  hedge-sjiariow.  'I'he  bill  is  brown  ; 
the  irides  are  hazel ;  the  head  and  back  pale 
tawny,  dashed  with  olive;  the  tail  is  of  a  cleep 
tawny  red;  the  under  parts  pale  ash-colour, 
glowing  white  towards  the  vent;  the  (|uills 
are  cinereous  brown.  The  male  and  female 
are  very  similar.  This  bird,  the  most  famed 
of  the  feathered  tribe  for  the  varietv,  length, 
and  sweetness  of  its  notes,  is  supposed  to  be 
migratory.  It  is  met  with  in  Siberia,  Swe- 
den, Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  CJreece. 
Hasselquist  speaks  of  it  as  being  in  Palestine, 
and  Fryer  ascertains  its  being  found  about 
Chulminor  in  Persia;  it  is  al>o  spoken  of  as 
a  bird  of  China,  Kamtschatka,  and  Japan  ;  at 
which  last  place  they  are  much  esteemed, 
and  sell  dear;  as  thev  are  also  at  Aleppo, 
where  they  are  "in  great  abundance  kept 
tame  in  houses,  and  let  out  at  a  small  rate  to 
such  as  choose  it  in  the  city,  so  that  no  enter- 
tainment is  made  in  the  spring  without  acon- 
CLft  of  these  birds." 

They  are  solitary  birds,  never  uniting  into 
even  small  flocks  ;  and  in  respect  to  the  nests, 
it  is  very  seldom  that  two  are  found  near 
each  other,  llie  female  builds  in  some  low 
bush  or  quickset  edge,  well  covered  with  fo- 
liage, for  such  only  this  bird  frequents;  and 
lays  four  or  five  eggs  of  a  greenish-brown. 
The  iiest  is  composed  of  dry  leaves  on  the 
outside,  mixed  with  grass  and  fibres,  lined 
with  hair  or  down  within,  though  not  always 
alike.  Tiie  female  alone  sits  ou  and  hatches 
Ffi.' 


MOT 


227 


the  eggs,  while  the  male  not  far  off  regales 
her  with  his  deliglitful  song;  but  as  soon  as 
the  young  are  hati  lied,  he  commonly  leaves 
oil  bingiiig,  and  joins  with  the  female  in  the 
task  of  providing  tor  and  feeding  them.  After 
the  young  can  provitle  for  themselves,  the 
old  female  provides  for  a  second  brftod,  and 
the  song  of  the  male  recommences.  They 
have  been  known  to  have  three  broods  in  a 
year,  and  in  the  hot  countries  even  four. 
These  birds  are  often  brought  up  from  the 
nest  for  the  sake  of  their  song.  They  are 
likewise  caught  at  their  first  coming  over; 
and  though  old  birds,  yet  by  management 
can  111'  made  to  bear  conlinement,  and  to  sing 
e(|ually  with  those  brought  up  from  t'le  nest. 
None  but  the  vilest  epicure,  as  Mr.  Latham 
remarks,  would  think  of  eating  these  charm- 
ing songsters;  yet  we  are  to':d  that  their  flesh 
is  equal  to  that  of  the  oriohin,  and  (hey  are 
fatted  in  {iascony  lor  the  table. 

6.  'Ihe  modularis,  or  hedcc-sparrow,  a 
well-known  bird,  has  the  back  and  wing-co- 
verts of  a  dusky  hue,  eds-ed  with  reddisli- 
brown  ;  rump  of  a  greeuisii-brown  ;  throat 
and  breast  of  a  dullash-colour;  the  belly  a 
dirtv  white;  and  the  legs  of  a  dull  flesh-co- 
lour. The  note  of  this  bird  wotild  be  thought 
pleasant,  did  it  not  remind  us  of  the  approach 
of  winter;  beginning  with  llie  first  frosts,  and 
continuing  till  a  little  time  in  spring.  Itsoften 
repeating  the  word  tit,  tit,  tit,  has  occasion- 
ed its  being  called  titling;  a  name  it  is  known 
by  in  many  -places. 

7.  The  pluviiicurus,  or  redstart,  is  some- 
what less  than  the  redbreast ;  the  forehead 
is  w  hite  ;  the  crowu  of  the  head,  hind  part  of 
the  necf;,  and  ba<k,  are  deep  blue-gre\  ;  Ihe 
cheeks  and  throat  black;  the  breast,  rump, 
and  sides,  red;  and  the  belly  is  white;  the 
two  middle  tail-feathers  are  brown  ;  the  rest 
red  ;  and  the  legs  are  black.  The  wings  are 
brow  n  in    both  sexes. 

This  bird  is  migraton-;  coming  hither  ill 
spring,  and  drparting  in  autumn  about  Oc- 
tober. It  is  not  so  shy  as  many  birds  in  re- 
sjiect  to  itself ;  for  it  approaches  habitations, 
and  frequentlv  makes  its  nest  in  some  hole  of 
a  wall  where  numbers  of  people  \)ass  by  fre- 
Citieiitlv;  vet  it  is  content,  if  no  one  meddles 
with  the  liest.  This  birdfreciuenl'y  wags  its 
tail;  but  does  itsidew  ays,  like  a  dig,  when 
he  is  plea-ed,  and  not  up  and  down  hke  the 
wagtail.  It  is  with  (hfliculty  that  these  birds 
are  kept  in  a  cage;  nor  will  they  submit  to 
it  by  any  means  if  canght  old.  Their  son^ 
has  no  great  strength;  yet  it  is  agreeable 
enough;  and  thev  will,  if  taught  young,  imi- 
tate the  notes  of  other  birds,  and  >ing  by  night 
frequenfly  as  well  as  in  the  day-time. 

8.  'Ihe  rubecula,  or  redbreast,  is  univer- 
sally known.  It  abounds  in  Burgundy  and 
Eorraiiie,  where  numbers  are  taken for  the 
table,  and  thought  excellent.  It  builds  not  far 
from  the  ground  if  in  a  bush  ;  though  some- 
times it  fixes  ou  an  out-house,  or  retired  part 
of  some  old  building.  The  nest  is  Composed 
of  dried  leaves,  mixed  with  hair  and  moss, 
and  lined  with  feathers.  The  eggs  are  r)f  a 
dusky  white,  marked  with  irregular  leddi-.h 
spots ;  and  are  from  three  to  sev  en  in  number. 
The  young,  when  full-feathered,  may  be 
taken  for  a  dili'crent  bird,  being  spotted  all 
over.  The  first  rudiments  of  the  red  break 
forth  ou  the  breast  about  the  end  of  August; 
but  it  is  quite  the  end  of  Septemi>er  belore 
tlie-^-  come 'to  the  full  colour,     liiiccts  ive 


228 


MOT 


tht-';v  general  food ;  but  in  defect  of  these  tlicy 
■will  eat  many  other  things.  No  bird  is  so 
tame  and  famUiur  as  this;  closely  attending 
tiie  heels  of  the  gardener  when  he  is  n^ing 
his  spade,  for  the  sake  of  worms  ;  and  fre- 
ijuentiy  in  winter  entering  houses  where  win- 
dows are  open,  when  tliey  will  pick  up  tlie 
crumbs  from  the  table  wliile  the  family  is  al 
dinner.  Its  familiarity  has  caused  a  jtetty 
name  to  be  given  it  in  several  touutries.  1  he 
ptoi>le  about  Bornholm  call  it  Tonuiii-liden  ; 
in  Norway,  Peter-ronsmad;  the  Germans, 
Thonids-gierdet ;  and  we,  the  Robin-red- 
breast. 

9.  The  oenantlie,  or  wheatear,  is  in  length 
five  inches  and  a  half.  The  lop  of  the  heatr, 
hind  part  of  the  neck,  and  back,  are  of  a 
blueisii  grey ;  and  over  the  eye  a  streak  ot 
white;  the  under  parts  o(  the  Ijody  yellowish- 
vhite  :  the  breast  is  tinged  with  red  ;  and  the 
legs  are  black.  This  bird  is  met  w  itli  in  most 
parts  of  Europe,  even  as  far  :!S  Greenland  : 
and  spe<:iniens  Irave  also  bei'n  received  froni 
the  East  Indies.  It  visits  England  aumrally 
in  the  middle  of  March,  and  leaves  usiii  Sep- 
tember. It  cluetly  frequents  heaths.  The 
nest  is  usuaily  placed  under  shelter  of  some 
turf,  clod,  stone,  or  the  like,  always  on  tlie 
ground,  and  not  'jnfrequenlly  in  some  de- 
serted rabbii-buiTOW.  It  is  composed  of  dry 
grass  or  moss,  mi.ved  witn  wool,  fur  of  the 
rabbit,  &c.  or  lined  with  hair  and  feathers. 
The  eggs  are  from  five  to  eight  in  number, 
of  a  'igiit  blue,  with  a  deeper-blue  circlt-  at 
the  large  end.  The  young  are  hatched  tlie 
middle  of  May.  In  some  parts  of  England 
these  birds  are  in  vast  plenty.  About  East- 
bourn  in  Susse.x  thev  are  taken  in  snares  ni.tde 
of  horsehair  placed  beneath  a  long  turf: 
being  very  tnnid  birds,  the  motion  of  a  cloud, 
or  theajjpearance  of  a  hawk,  will  drive  them 
for  shelter  into  these  traps,  and  so  tiiey  are 
taken.  Tlie  ininii)ers  annually  ensn^reil  in 
tliat  district  alone  amount  to  about  1S40 
dozen,  wliich  usually  sell  at  sixpence  per 
liozeii.  (Quantities  of  these  are  eaten  on  ihe 
spot  by  the  neighbouring  inhabitant ^ ;  others 
are  picked,  and  sent  up  to  the  Eondoii  poul- 
terers; and  many  are  potted,  being  as  much 
esteemed  in  England  as  the  ortolan  on  the 
continent.  Their  food  is  insects  only ; 
though  in  rainy  summers  tirey  feed  much  on 
earth-worms,  whence  they  are  fattest  in  such 
seasons. 

10.  The  cyanea,  or  superb  warbler,  a  most 
beautiful  species,  is  five  inches  and  a  half 
Ijng.  The  bill  is  black  ; 'the  feathers  of  the 
head  are  long,  and  stand  erect  like  atull  crest; 
from  the  forchi-atl  to  tlie  crown  tliev  are  of  a 
bright  l)lue  ;  thence  to  the  nape,  black  like 
velvet;  tiirough  the  eyes  from  the  bill  there 
runs  a  line  of  black ;  and  beneath  tlie  eye 
springs  a  tuff  of  the  same  blue  feathers;  l)e- 
natli  which,  and  on  the  chin,  it  is  of  a  deep 


blue,  almost  black,  and  feeling  lil 


velvet. 


'live  hind  p;ivt  of  the  neck,  and  upper  parts 
of  (he  bnily  and  tail,  are  of  a  deep  hlue-black, 
th'^  ender  pure  whit  ■;  the  wings  are  dusky  ; 
tht- shafts  of  tne  quills  chesnnt ;  the  legs  are 
dusky  browT) :  the  claws  black.  It  inhabits 
Van  Oiemcn  s  Land,  the  most  southern  part 
of  Ne.v  Flolla.id.  The  f  inaje  of  this  species, 
is  discovered  to  be  entirely  di>stilute  of  all  the 
fill!'  bliii'  colours,  both  pile  and  dark,  by 
will  h  the  male  is  adorned,  except  that  tliere 
is  .1  very  narr  )w  circl.'  ofa/uic  round  each 
•ye,  apparently  on  thr  ikiu  only. 


RI  O  T 

11.  The  troglodytes,  or  wren,  is  a  very 
small  species,  in  length  only  three  inches  and 
three  quarters,  though  some  liave  measured 
four  inches.  It  generally  carries  the  tail 
erect.  This  minute  bird  is  found  throughout 
Europe ;  and  in  England  it  deries  our  severest 
winters.  Its  song  is  much  esteemed,  being, 
though  short,  a  pleasing  warble,  and  much 
louder  than  could  be  expected  from  the  size 
of  the  bird ;  it  continues  throughout  the  year. 

The  Sylvia,  builds  in  low  bushes,  and  lays 
live  pale-green  eggs,  sprinkled  v.ith  reddish 
spots.    See  Plate  Nat-.  Hist.  lig.  971. 

Above  150  other  species,  besides  varieties, 
are  enumerated  by  ornithologists. 

MOTE,  in  law-books,  signilies  court,  meet- 
ing, or  convention,  as  a  ward-mote,  burgh- 
mote,  swain-mote,  &c. 

MOTH.  See  Phal.€na. 

MOTION,  has  been  defined  to  be  "  a 
clu:.)ge  of  place,"  or  the  act  by  whi<'h  a  body 
coricsponc's  with  dili'erent  parts  of  space  at 
different  tines. 

We  are  principally  acquainted  with  two 
sorts  of  motion  in  tlie  beings  tliat  surround 
us;  ore  is  the  motion  by  wiiich  an  entire 
body  is  tran  .'erred  from  one  place  to  an.otiier, 
as  taat  of  a  stone  when  it  tails,  or  of  a  siiip 
under  sail.  It  is  tiiis  speci>  s  ol  motion  which 
most  frequentlv  co.m.-s  under  our  observation, 
and  with  wiiicli  w^e  arc  l»-st  acqua  nted.  But, 
bi-sides  th^~,  there  is  aiiotner  kind  of  motion, 
which,  liiougii  not  so  obvious,  is  yet  not  less 
comman  nor  i.rpcrtant.  This  is  a  motion  of 
the  parts  of  bodies  among  themselves,  which 
;hough  sometimes  the  object  of  our  senses, 
yet  in  other  cases  we  recpiire  the  aid  ot  re- 
llection  to  be  convinced  o;  its  existence.  It 
is  by  this  imperceptible  motion  (hat  plants 
and  animals  grow,  and  by  which  the  greatest 
number  of  tne  compositions  and  I'ecomposi- 
tions  throughout  the  globe  t.ike  place.  We 
may  form  some  idea  of  this,  by  observing  the 
coiitiiuial  motion  of  the  light  particles  which 
oonielimes  float  afiout  in  water,  when  it  is 
held  in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  which  proves, 
that  the  parts  of  the  water  themselves  are  in 
constant  motion.  But  if  we  reflect  a  little,  we 
shall  discover  that  the  particles  of  the  most 
solid  bodies  are  also  condnually  changing 
their  situations.  Heat  expands,  and  cold 
contracts,  the  size  of  all  boiiies;  now,  we 
know  from  experience,  that  tlie  temperature 
of  bodies  is  constantly  varying,  consequi  ntly, 
the  particles  must  be  in  conlmual  agitation, 
ill  order  to  adapt  themselves  to  tiie  size  of  the 
bodv. 

The  communication  of  motion  from  one 
body  to  another,  though  a  fact  with  wiiic  h 
we  are  well  acquainted,  we  are  equally  inca- 
pable of  accounting  for.  It  is,  however,  of 
the  utmost  importance  in  mecnanics,  which 
is  indeed  an  art  derived  frou  the  study  of  its 
laws.  In  considering  motion,  several  circiim 
stances  must  be  attend'  d  to: 

1.  The  force  which  iinpresses  the  motion. 
;'.  The  quantity  of  matter  in  the  moving 
body.  3.  The  velocity  and  {lirectioii  of  the 
motion.  4.  The  space  passeil  over  In  the 
moving  body.  5.  The  time  em'toyed  in 
going  over  this  space,  ti.  Ihe  lone  with 
which  it  strikes  another  body  that  is  opposeil 
to  it. 

In  a  mechanical  sense,  every  body,  by  its 
inertia,  resists  all  r.iange  of  st.ile.  if  al  rest, 
it  will  1191  begin  to  move  of  iUelf }  and  if  mo- 


M  O  T 

tion  is  communicated  to  it  by  another  body, 
it  will  continue  to  move  for  ever  unitorndy, 
except  it  is  stopped  by  an  external  agent,    'jt 
is  true,  we  do  not  see  any  instances  of  Louies 
continuing  to  move  for  ever,  after  bifing  oute 
put  in  motion;  but  the  reason  of  tliis  is,  that 
all  the  bodies  which  we  see  are  acted  upon 
in  aich   a  nanner,  as  to   have  their  motion 
i  gradually  destroyed  by  fnctiun,  or  the  rub- 
,  bing  of  other  bodies  upon  them.     lor  it  vou 
diminish  the  friction  by  uny  means,  the  mo- 
tion will  continue  much  longer  ;  but  as  it  is 
'  impossible  to  destroy  it  entir-'-ly,  it  diminishes, 
and  at  last  destroys,  all  motions  on  the  surface 
,  of  the   earth,     'i'o  ])ut  .a   body  in  motion, 
liierefore,  there  must  be  a  siiiiicient  cause. 
;   I  hese  causes  are  called  motive  pov.ers,  and 
1  tiie  following  are  thde  gencra'ly  used  in  n.e- 
I  chanics ;  the  action  of  men  and  other  animals, 
wind,  water,  gravity,  tlie  pressure  of  the  at- 
!  mosphere,   and  the  elasticity   of  fluids  and 
I  other  bodies. 

I      Tlie  velocity  of  motion  is  estimated  by  the 
I  time  employed   in   moving  over  a  certain 
!  space,  or  by  the  space  moved  over  in  a  cer- 
tain lime.     To  ascertain  the  degree  of  this 
swittness  or  velocity,  the  space  rur.  over  must 
be  divid.ed  by  the  time.     For  example  :  sup- 
p'jse  a  body  moves  over  1000  yards   in   10 
minutes,  its  velocity  will  be  100  yards  per 
minute.     If  we  would  compare  the  velocity 
,  of  two  bodies  A  and   15,  of  which  A  moves 
over  54  yards  in  9  minutes,  and  B  9d  yards 
in  6  minutes,  the  velocity  of  A  will  be  to  that 
of  i'.,  in  the  jiroportion  oi  6  (the  ijuotient  of 
54  divided  by  9;  to  16  (the  quotient  of  96  di- 
vided by  6). 
To  know  the  space  run  over,  the  velocity 
,  must  be  multiplied  by   the  time;  for  it  is 
!  evident,  that  if  either  the    velocity  or   the 
lime  is  increased,  the  space  run  over  will  be 
i  greater.     If  the  velocity  is  doubled,  then  the 
.  bod\  will  move  over  twice  the  space  in  the 
I  same  time;  or  i;  the  time  is  twice  as  great, 
i  then  the  space  will  be  doubled  ;  but  if  the 
;  velocity  and  time  are  both  doubled,  then  will 
the  sp.K'e  be  four  t.mes  as  great. 

It  follows  from  lliis,  that  when  two  bodies 
I  move  over  unequal  spaces  in  unequal  limes, 
i  their  velocities  are  to  eacli  other  as  the  quo- 
I  lienls  arising   irom  dividing  the  sp  .ces  run 
'  over  by  the  times.     It  two  bodies  move  over 
;  unecjual  spaces  in  tlie  same  t.me,  their  velo- 
j  cities  will  be   in   pfoportion    to  the  spaces 
passed  over.     And  it  two  bodies  move  over 
]  equal  'paess  in  unequul  times,  thiMi  their  re- 
spective velocities  will   be   inversely  as  the 
time  emploied;  thai  is,  if  A  in  one  minute, 
and  B  in  two  minutes,   run  over   100  yards, 
the  vehicity  of  A  will  be  to  that  of  B  as  2  to  1. 
A  body  in  motion  must  every  instant  tend 
fo  some  particular  point.     It  m;.y  either  tend 
alwavs  to  the  same  ])oint,  in  which  case  the 
motion  will  be  in  a  straight  line :  or  :t  may 
be  contiiniallv  eliaiigiiig   the  point  to  which 
its  motion  is  directed,  and  this  will  produce  a 
curvilinear  motion. 

If  a  bodv  is  actc  d  upon  only  by  one  force, 
or  l)\  several  in  the  >aiw  direction,  its  nio- 
t'on  w  11  be  in  ihe  same  dlie^iion  in  which  the 
moving  .orce  acts;  as  the  mctioii  of  a  boat 
wh'.eh  a  jiian  draw^  to  him  wiUi  a  rope.  Hut 
if  several  po.vers,  dillerently  directed,  act 
upon  it  at  the  same  time,  as  it  cannot  obey 
tii.-m  all,  it  will  move  in  a  direction  some- 
where between  lliem. 
This  is  what  15  tailed  the  composition  and. 

8 


rpsolulion  of  molioii,  and  is  of  llie  utmost  im- 
poi'taiK.e  ill  ini'iliiiiiics. 

Suppose  a  b-nly  A  (Piatt-  Miscel.  fig.  ]63) 
to  be  acted  iipuii  by  anolluM-  liody  iiiliiL-di- 
.  rectioii  AB,  wliilo  at  tlie  a.i.u-c  time  it  is  iin- 
jJelled  by  aii.jliier  in  the  direction  AC,  tlien 
It  will  move  in  l!ie  direction  AD;  and  if  ttie 
lines  Ai5,  AC,  are  made  of  lengths  propor- 
tio'iate  to  the  forces,  anil  the  lines  CI),  ))H, 
drawn  para'lel  io  tiii-m,  so  as  to  comph-te  tiie 
parailelogram  .\BI)C,  tiien  the  line  wiiicli  the 
body  A  will  describe',  will  be  tlie  diaaynal 
AO;  and  the  length  of  this  line  will  represent 
the  force  with  which  the  bod\'  will  move.  It 
is  evident,  that  if  a  bodv  is  imjK'lled  by  equal 
forces  acting  at  rialit  angles  to  each  other, 
that  it  will  move  in  the  diagonal  of  a  square; 
but  whatever  may  be  the  direction,  or  degree 
of  force  by  wiiich  tiie  two  powers  act,  the 
above  method  will  always  give  tlie  direction 
and  force  of  the  moving  body. 

It  follows  from  this,  that  if  we  know  tlie 
clfect  which  tiie  joint  .iction  of  two  jjowcrs 
has  upon  a  biidy,  and  the  force  and  direc- 
tion of  one  of  them,  it  is  easy  to  lind  that  of 
the  other.  For,  suppose  AD  to  b.:  the  di- 
rection and  force  with  which  the  body  moves, 
and  AI?  to  be  one  of  the  impi  lling  .'orces, 
then,  by  completing  the  paralleiogram,  tlie 
other  power  AC  is  found. 

Instances  in  nature  of  motion  produced  by 
several  powers  acting  at  the  same  lime,  are 
innumer.ible.  A  ship  impelled  by  the  wind 
and  tide  is  one  wtll  known.  A  paper  kite, 
acted  upon  by  the  wind  and  the  string,  is  an- 
otlier. 

Motion  is  said  to  be  acceler.ited,  if  its  ve- 
locity continually  i,icreases;  to  be  uniformlv 
accelerated,  if  its  velocity  increa^es  equallv 
ill  equal  times. 

Motion  is  said  to  be  retarded,  if  its  velo- 
city roiitlmially  decreases:  and  to  be  r.ni- 
fornily  retarded,  if  its  velocity  decreases 
e<iually  in  ecpial  times. 

If  you  suppo-^e  a  body  to  be  put  in  motion 
by  a  single  impulse,  and  moving  uniformly, 
to  receive  a  new  inipuhe  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, its  velocity  will  be  augmented,  and  it 
will  goon  with  the  aug  '-.ented  Velocity. 

If  at  each  instant  of  its  motion  it  receives  a 
new  impulse,  the  velocity  will  be  continually 
increasing;  and  if  this  impulse  is  always 
e^ual,  the  velocity  will  be  unilormiy  accele- 
rated. 

The  regularly  incr':asing  velocity  with 
which  a  body  falls  to  the  earth,  is  an  instance 
of  accelerated  motion,  which  is  caused  by 
the  constant  action  of  gravity.  To  illustrate 
this,- let  us  suppose  the  tune  of  descei:'  of  a 
falling  body  to  be  divided  into  a  number  of 
very  smail  e(|ual  parts;  the  impression  of 
gravity,  in  the  lirst  small  instant,  would  make 
the  body  descend  w.th  a  p;-oport:onate  and 
unitorm  velocity;  but  in  the  second  instant, 
the  bodv  n-ceiving  a  new  impulbe  from  gra- 
vity, in  addition  to  the  iirsf,  would  move  with 
t\^  ice  the  velocity  as  before;  in  tf'.e  thid  in 
stant,  it  would  have  three  times  the  velocity, 
and  so  on. 

To  illustrate  the  doctrine  of  accelerati  d 
motion,  let  us  suppose  liiat,  in  the  triaii'.^le 
AliC  (:ig.  Misrel.  104),  A  I]  expresses  the  t;nie 
which  a  body  takes  to  fall,  aid  I'C  the  velo- 
city acquired  at  the  end  of  the  fall.  Let  Ali 
be  divided  into  a  number  of  equal  part',  in- 
tlelinitely  smail,  and  from  each  of  these  divi- 
iious  siippoae  lines,  as  DE,  drawn  paraili,!  to 


MOTION. 

BC;  it  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said, 
that  those  lines  will  express  the  velocities  of 
the  lalling  body  in  the  several  respective 
points  of  time,  each  being  greater  than  tiie 
other,  by  a  ceitain  quantity  of  increase,  which 
follows  IVom  the  nat'.;re  of  the  triangle.  Now, 
the  spaces  described  in  the  same  tiim',  are  in 
in'oportion  to  the  velocities ;,  and  the  sum  of 
the  .<paces  described  in  all  the  small  poitions 
of  time,  is  equal  to  the  space  described  from 
the  beginning  of  the  fall.  I!ut  the  sum  of  all 
the  lines  parallel  to  BC,  taken  indeiuiiteiy 
near  to  each  other,  constitutes  th^  area  of  the 
triangle.  Therefore  the  space  descrilTed  by 
a  failing  body,  in  the  time  expressed  by  AB, 
with  an  uniformly  accelerated  velocity,  of 
which  the  last  degree  is  expressed  by  BC, 
will  be  represented  by  the  area  of  the  tri- 
angle ABC. 

Let  us  now  suppose  that  gravity  ceased  to 
act,  and  that  the  body  moved  duri.ig  another 
portion  of  time,  BF,  equal  to  AU,  with  the 
actpiircd  velocity  represented  by  BC.  As 
the  spiice  moved  over  is  found  by  multiply- 
ing the  velocity  by  the  thne,  the  rectangle 
Cl''  will  represent  the  space  moved  over 
in  this  seconfl  pjirtion  of  time,  which  is  twice 
the  triangle  ABC,  and  consequently  twice 
the  space  is  moved  over  with  the  accelerating 
velocity  in  the  same  time. 

But  if  we  suppose  gravity  still  to  act,  be- 
sides the  space  CF,  which  it  would  have 
moved  over  by  its  acqniued  velocity,  we  must 
add  the  triangle  CGH,  for  the  ej'fect  of  the 
constant  action  of  gravitv  ;  therefore,  in  this 
second  portion  of  time,  the  body  moves  over 
three  times  the  space  as  in  the  iirst.  In  like 
manner,  it  may  be  easily  seen  by  the  figure, 
that  in  the  next  portion  it  would  move  over 
live  times  the  space ;  in  the  next  seven  times, 
and  so  on,  in  arithmetical  progression.  And 
as  the  velocitii's  of  falling  bodies  are  in  pro- 
portion to  tlie  spaces  run  over,  it  follows, 
that  the  velocities  in  each  instant  increase,  as 
the  numbers  I,  3,  5,  7,  9,  &c. 

It  follows  from  this,  that  the  space  run 
over  is  as  the  square  of  the  time;  that  is,  in 
twice  the  time,  a  body  will  lit'l  with  four  times 
the  velocity;  in  thrice  the  time,  with  nine 
times  the  velocity,  &;c.  for,  in  the  first  time, 
there  was  but  one  space  n.n  over;  the  square 
of  1  is  1 :  at  the  end  of  the  second  time  there 
are  four  spaces  run  over,  one  in  the  tirst,  and 
three  in  the  second;  tlie  square  of  2  is  4;  at 
the  end  of  the  third  time  there  are  nine  spaces 
run  over  ;  the  ■•quare  of  3  is  9  :  and  so  on. 
Tiiis  may  be  seen  in  tlie  figure. 

It  is  found  by  experiment,  that  a  body  fall- 
ing from  a  height,  moves  at  the  rate  of  l(i_!_ 
feet  in  the  first  second ;  and,  as  has  been 
shewn  abo\'e,  acquires  a  velocity  of  twii:e 
that,  or  3Ci  feet  in  a  second.  At  the  end  of 
the  next  second,  it  will  have  fallen  6li  feet, 
the  spac  being  as  the  square  ot  the  time-  t!ie 
square  of  2  is  4,  and  -1  ti.nes  iS-t^  is  64  ^.  Py 
the  same  rule  you  may  lind,  that  in  the  thii<i 
second  it  will  f.:ll  144  feet;  in  the  next  2j6 
(eet,  and  so  on.  It  is  to  be  understood,  how- 
ever, ihat  by  thi;  veloc  ty  is  meant  what  bo- 
dies would  acquir",  if  they  were  to  fall 
through  a  space  wliere  there  was  no  air;  tor 
its  re.-istance  coiisidei ably  dmiinidies  their 
velocity  in  falling. 

It  h  .s  liven  already  'hewn,  thit  if  two 
forces  art  uniformly  u.-C'  i'  bodv,  thev  will 
c-use  it  to  move  iu  a  straight  hue;  but  if  one  , 


229 

of  the  forces  is  not  uniform,  but  either  ac<  e- 
lerating  or  retarding,  the  movhi;^  body  will 
describe  a  curve  line.  Il  a  hail  ■  -  ■■•  '  ' 
from  a  cannon,  it  receives  Iron'.  .. 

which,  if  there  was  no  resistcince  ,1 , 

and  if  it  was  not  acted  upon  by  gravity, 
would  cause  it  to  move  always  in  a  sliMiglit 
line ;  but  as  soon  as  it  leaves  the  nioutli  ol  the 
cannon,  gravity  acta  upon  it,  and  makes  it 
change  its  direction.  It  then  desci.be.'  a 
curve,  called  a  parabola.  This  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  theory  of  projectiles,  and  tiie  art 
of  gunnery  ;  but  it  is  not  now  considered  to 
be  of  so  much  importance  as  it  formerly  was, 
as  it  is  found  that  the  resistance  of  tiie  air, 
and  other  causes,  have  so  much  ellect  uiJou 
projected  bodies,  that  they  describe  curves 
very  different  froiri  what  they  ought  to  do 
according  to  this  theory;  and  therefore  it  is 
much  less  a|)plicable  to  practice  tiian  other- 
wise it  would  be. 

The  force  with  which  a  bodv  moves,  or 
which  it  would  exert  upon  anotlier  body  op- 
posed to  it,  is  always  in  proportion  to  its  vi'- 
locity  multiplied  by  its  weight,  or  quantity  of 
matter.  '1  his  force  is  called  the  momentuirt 
of  the  body ;  for  if  two  eqna;  bodies  move 
with  ditt(;rent  velocities,  itis  evident  that  their 
lorces,  or  momenta,  are  as  their  velocities; 
and  if  two  bodies  move  with  the  same  veio- 
city,  their  momenta  are  as  the  cjuantities  of 
matter;  theretore,  in  all  cases,  their  momenta 
must  be  as  the  products  of  their  quantities  of 
matter,  and  their  velocities.  This  rule  is  the 
foundation  of  mechanics. 

In  consequence  of  the  visinertiae  of  matter, 
all  motion  produced  by  one  force  only  act- 
ing upon  a  body,  must  be  rectilinear;  for  it 
must  receive  some  particular  direction  from 
the  power  that  impressed  it,  and  must  retaiir 
that  direction  until  it  is  changed  by  some- 
other  power.  Whenever,  therefore,  we  see- 
a  body  moving  in  a  curvilinear  direction,  we 
may  be  certain  tli.'.t  it  is  acted  upon  by  two 
forces  at  least.  ^^  hen  one  of  the  two  torces 
ceases  to  act,  the  body  will  move  again  in  a. 
straight  line.  Thus  a  stone  in  a  sling  is  mov- 
ed round  by  the  hand,  while  it  is  pulled  to- 
wards the  centre  of  the  circle,  wluch  it  de- 
scribes, by  the  string:  but  when  the  string  is- 
iet  go,  the  stone  Hies  o(T  in  a  tangent  to  tlie 
circle. 

Every  bodv  moved  in  a  circle  has  a  ten- 
deiM-y  to  liy  olf  from  its  centre,  which  en- 
deavour of  receding  is  called  the  centrifugal. 
force  :  and  it  is  opposed  to  tb.e  centripetal 
iorce ;  or  th.it  which,  by  drawing  bodies  to- 
wards the  centre,  makes  them  revolve  in  a 
curve.  These  two  lorces  are  called  together 
central  forces. 

The  centre  of  gravity  of  a  body  is  that 
point  about  which  all  the  parts  of  a' body  da 
in  any  situation  exactly  balance  eacli  other. 

Heme,  if  a  body  is'i-uspendcd  or  sup- 
ported by  this  point,  the  body  will  lest  in  anv- 
positon  in  winch  it  is  put.  Also,  whateveir 
sup;_o:-ts  that  point  b  ars  the  weight  of  the 
wiiolebody;  and  while  it  is  supported,  the 
body  cannot  fall.  We  may  theiefire  ton- 
sider  the  w  hole  weight  of  a  body  as  centred- 
in  this  p  -int. 

The  eiimmon  tentr^  of  gravity  of  two  or 
more  br.dies  is  the  jioint  about  w.hich  they 
would  equiponderate,  or  re-it.  in  anv  position.. 
If  the  centie  o;  Liavitv  ol  twobod-e=,  .-V  and? 
u,  (Plate  Miscel.  lig,  l6j)  is  couuccteil  by  the 


230 


MOT 


rigl'it  line  AB,  tlie  distanres  AC  and  BC, 
from  the  common  centre  of  gnu-ity  C,  are  re- 
ciprocally as  tlie  weiglits  of  t!ie  bodies  A  and 
B,  that  is,  AC  :  BC  :     B  :  A. 

If  a  line  is  drawn  from  the  centre  of  gra- 
vity of  a  body,  perpendicular  to  the  horizon, 
it  is  called  the  line  of  direction;  becaii>e  it  is 
the  line  that  the  centre  of  gravity  would  de- 
scribe if  the  bodv  fell  freely. 

It  is  the  property  of  llifs  line,  that  while  it 
falls  within  the  base  upon  which  the  body 
stands,  the  body  cannot  fall  ;  but  if  it  fail 
without  the  base',  the  bodv  will  tumble.  Thus 
the  inclining  body  ABCD,  (tig.  166)  whose 
centre  of  gravity  is  E,  stands  firmly  on  its 
base  C'DIK,  because  the  line  of  direction  EF 
falls  within  the  base.  But  if  a  weight,  as 
ABGH,  is  laid  u|!nn  the  top  of  the  body, 
.  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  body  and 
weight  togetiier  is  raised  to  L;  and  then,  as 
the  line  of  di;;eclion  LD  falls  without  the 
base  at  D,  the  cenire  of  gravity  is  not  sup- 
ported, and  the  w  hole  body  and  weight  will 
tumble  down  together. 

Hence  appears  the  absurdity  of  people's 
rising  hastily  in  a  coach  or  boat,  when  it  is 
likely  to  overset ;  for  by  tlxat  means  tliey  raise 
the  centre  of  gravity  so  far  as  to  endanger 
throwing  it  quite  out  of  the  base,  and  if  (hey 
do,  they  overset  the  vehicle  efit-ctually. 
Whereas,  had  they  clapped  (Io'am  to  the  bot- 
tom, they  would  liave  brouglil  ihe  line  of  di- 
rection, and  consequently  the  centre  of  gra- 
vity, farther  within  tlie  base,  and  by  that 
iiitans  might  have  saved  themselves. 

The  broader  the  base,  and  the  nearer 
the  line  of  direction  is  to  the  middle  or  centre 
of  it,  the  more  lirmly  does  the  body  stand. 
On  the  contrary,  the  narrower  the  base,  and 
the  nearer  tte  line  of  diiection  is  to  the  side 
of  it,  the  more  easily  may  the  body  be  over- 
thrown, a  less  change  of  position  being  sulli- 
cient  to  remove  the  line  of  direction  out  of 
the  base  in  the  latter  case  than  in  the  former. 
And  hence  it  is,  that  a  sphere  is  so  easily 
rolled  upon  a  horizont  d  plane;  and  that  it  is 
fco  difiicult,  if  not  ini])os;.ible,  to  make  things 
V  hicli  are  siiarp  pointed  to  stand  upright  on 
the  point. 

Ironi  what  has  been  said,  it  plainly  appears, 
tliat  if  a  plane  CO  on  which  a  heavy  body 
is  placed,  was  elevated  at  C,  the  body  would 
slide  down  upon  the  plane,  whilst  the  line 
of  direction  tails  within  the  base;  but  it  would 
tumble  or  roll  do«  n  when  that  line  (alls 
without  the  base.  Thus  the  body  E  (tig. 
1(J7)  would  only  slide  down,  whilst  the  body 
\j  would  roll  down  upon  it. 

When  the  line  of  direction  falls  within  the 
base  of  our  feet,  we  stand,  and  moil  lirmly 
when  it  is  in  the  middle;  but  when  it  is  out 
of  that  base,  we  immediately  fall.  And  it  is 
not  only  pleasing,  but  even  surprising,  to  re- 
lied upon  the  various  methods  and  postures 
which  w-e  u.sc,  to  retain  this  position,  or  to  re- 
rover  it  when  lost,  without  our  being  sensible 
of  it.  Thus  we  bend  our  bodies  when  we  rise 
from  a  chair,  or  when  w  c  go  up  stairs ;  and  for 
this  purpose  a  man  leans  forward  when  he 
carries  a  burden  upon  his  back,  and  backward 
viieu  he  carries  it  on  his  breast,  and  to  the 
right  or  lell  side  as  he  carries  it  on  the  op- 
posite side. 

lifa  bodv  is  suspended  freely  from  different 
centres,  its  centre  of  gravity  will  be  in  the  in- 
tersection formed  by  lines  drawn  from  those 
eciiUcs  perpendicular  to  llie  liorizou.  Hence 


M  O  U 

we  obtain  an  easy  practical  method  of  finding 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  any  irrcL^ular  plane 
li.iUre.  Suspend  it  by  any  point,  with  the 
l)hine  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and  fr(;ni 
the  point  of  suspension  hang  a  plumb  line, 
and  draw  a  line  upon  the  body  where  tlie 
string  passes  over;  do  the  same  tor  any  other 
point  of  su-.pension,  and  where  the  tvo  lines 
meet  must  be  the  centre  of  gravity  ;  for  the 
centre  of  gravity  being  in  each  line,  it  must 
be  at  the  point  where  they  intersect. 

MoTlOK,  spontam-mis  or  muscuiar,  is  that 
performed  by  the  muscles  at  the  command 
of  the  will. 

'hloTioi^,  natural  or  invohintanj,  tliat  ef- 
fected, without  any  such  command,  by  the 
mere  merhaiuMn  of  the  parts,  such  as  the 
motion  of  the  heart,  pulse,  &c. 

Motion-,  intcslint-,  the  agitation  of  the 
particles  of  which  a  body  consists. 

MoTiov,  in  music,  the  manner  of  beating 
the  measure,  to  hasten  or  slacken  tlie  time  of 
the  words  or  notes. 

MOVEMENT,  in  mechanics,  a  machine 
that  is  moved  by  clockviork.  See  Clock- 
work. 

MOULDINGS.  See  Architecture. 
MOUNTAINS.  Elevations  consisting 
chiefly  of  clay,  sand,  or  gravel,  are  called 
hills.  Those  which  collsi•^t  chielly  of  stone 
are  called  mountains.  Mountains  are  divided 
into  prinucval,  that  is,  of  eipial  date  with  the 
formation  of  the  globe,  and  secondary  or 
alluvial.  Among  primaeval,  those  of  granite 
hold  the  tirst  place.  The  highest  mountains 
an<l  most  e.xtensives  ridges  throughout  liie 
globe  are  of  that  kind  ;  as  the  Alps  and  Pyre- 
nees in  Europe;  the  Altuischan,  Uralian,  and 
Caucasus,  in  Asia;  and  the  Andes,  in  Ame- 
rica. The  highest  of  them  never  contain 
metallic  ores  ;  but  some  of  the  lower  contain 
ores  of  copper  and  tin.  The  granite  next  the 
ore  alwa\s  abounds  in  mica.  I'etrifactioiis 
are  nevc'r  found  in  these  )nima;vai  moun- 
tains. 

'i'liat  the  formation  of  these  mountains  pre- 
ceded that  of  vegetables  and  animals,  is 
jii  tly  inferred  from  their  containing  no  or- 
ganic remains,  either  in  the  form  of  petrcfac- 
tion  or  imi>i-ession.  Naturalists  are  agreed, 
that  granites  were  formed  by  crystallization. 
This  operation  probably  toot  place  alter  the 
formation  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  gradual 
excavation  of  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  when  the 
drv  land  appeared.  For,  by  means  of  the 
separation  of  the  aeriform  lluids  which  con- 
stitute the  atmosphere,  the  eva|)oralion  of 
part  of  the  water  into  the  atmospliere,  and  the 
gradual  retreat  of  the  remainder,  the  various 
s|)ecies  of  earth*,  bctbre  dissolved  or  diffused 
tlirough  this  mighty  mass,  were  disponed  to 
coalesce;  and  among  these  the  siliceous  must 
have  been  the  (irst,  as  it  is  the  least  soluble  ; 
but  as  the  siliceous  earth  has  an  allinity  to 
the  oilier  earths  witJi  which  it  was  mixed, 
someoftheve  must  have  united  in  various 
proportions,  and  thus  have  formed,  in  dis- 
tinct masses,  the  ieldtspar,  schorl,  and  mica, 
which  compose  the  granite.  Calcareous  earth 
enters  very  sparingh  into  the  comi-osifion  of 
tills  stone;  but  as  it  is  found  in  schorl,  which 
is  freipiently  a  component  part  of  granite,  it 
follows  that  it  must  be  one  of  the  jirimitive 
ear  hs,  and  not  entirely  derived  from  marine 
exuviie,  as  some  have  supposed.  Quartz  can 
never  be  supposed  to  be  a  product  of  fire ;  for 


M  O  U 

in  a  very  low  heat  it  bursts,  cracks,  and  lose* 
its  transparency,  and  in  the  highest  degree  of 
iieat  that  we  can  produce,  is  infusible,  so  that 
ui  every  essential  point  it  is  different  from 
glass,  to  which  some  have  compared  it.  As 
granite  contains  earths  of  every  genus,  we 
may  conclude,  that  all  the  simple  earths  are 
original.  This,  however,  is  no  proof  that 
they  are  in  reality  s.mple  and  uiicompouiided 
of  cjther  principles;  but  they  must  be  consi- 
dered as  such  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge.  Though  water  undoubtedly 
dates  fr;,m  creation,  yet  late  experiments 
have  shewn  it  to  be  a  compound,  as  was  for- 
merly stated. 

Mountains  which  consist  of  limestone  or 
marbles  of  a  granular  or  scaly  texture,  and 
not  disposed  in  strata,  seem  also  to  have  pre- 
ceded the  creation  of  animals,  for  no  organic 
traces  are  found  in  tlicni.  Some  of  those 
which  consist  of  argillaceous  stones,  and  some 
of  the  sil'.ceous,  contain  also  no  organic  re- 
mains. These  often  c'.nsist  of  parallel  strata 
of  unequal  thickness ;  and  the  lower  are  harder 
and  less  thick  than  the  upper,  and  therelorc 
seem  to  have  been  formed  earlier  tlian  the 
upper. 

Alluvial  mountains  are  evidently  of  poste- 
rior forhiation,  as  they  contain  petrifactions 
and  other  vestiges  of  organic  substances,  and 
these  are  ahvay  s  stratihed. 

Mountains,  as  to  structure,  are  entire,  stra- 
tified, and  confused.  Entire  mountains  are 
formed  of  huge  masses  of  stone,  without  any 
regular  iissures,  and  are  mostly  homogeneous. 
Thev  consist  chietly  of  granite,  sometimes 
gneiss,  schistus,  fUig  stone,  sand-.4one,  lime- 
stone, gypsum,  porphyry,  or  trap.  Some  iu 
.Sweden  and  Norway  cKJiisist  of  iron  ore. 

The  stratified  mountains  are  those  whose 
mass  is  regularly  di\  ided  by  joints  or  fissures: 
these  are  called  horizontal,  rising,  or  dipping. 
Homogenous  stratified  mountains  consist 
chielly  of  stones  ol  the  argillaceous  genus,  or 
of  the  fissile  compound  species  of  the  siliceous 
genus,  as  metallic  rock  ;  sometimes  of  lime- 
stone of  a  gra.nulaj'  or  scaly  texture,  in  which 
no  annual  vestiges  appear.  Tliis  limestone 
reposes  on  the  argillaceous  or  siliceous  strata : ' 
sometimes  the  argillaceous  are  covered  vvith 
masses  of  granite,  sometimes  of  lava.  'I'hese 
mountains,  particularly  those  of  gneiss,  me- 
tallic rock,  and  horn-stone,  are  the  chief  seat 
of  metallic  ores.  U'hen  covered  with  lime- 
stone, the  ore  is  generally  between,  the  lime- 
stone an<l  the  argillaceous  stones.  These 
ores  run  in  veins,  not  in  strata.  Petrifactions 
are  found  upon,  but  not  in,  these  mountains. 
Heterogeneous,  or  compound  stratified 
nii.untains,  consist  of  alternate  strata  of  va- 
lious  species  of  stones,  earths,  sands,  &c, 
^I'he  limestone  here  is  always  of  the  laminar, 
and  not  of  the  gianular  or  scalv,  kind;  and 
when  it  contains  any  ore,  it  is  placed  between 
its  lamina".  Stones  of  the  siliceous  genus 
seldom  lorm  strata  in  these  mountains,  ex- 
cept lavas  ;  but  the  strata  are  freqiientlv  in- 
terrupted by  sllicecus  masses,  as  jasper,  por- 
phvrv,  &c.  Coal,  bitumen,  petrifactions, 
and  oiganic  impressions,  are  found  in~  these 
mountains;  also  salts  and  calamine. 

'Hiere  are  other  mountains,  which  cannot 
pro|ierlv  be  called  stiatihed,  as  they  consist 
only  of  three  immense  masses,  the  lowest 
granite,  the  middle  argillaceous,  and  the  up- 
per I'uuestoiie,  Metallic  ores  arc  found  in 
6 


M  O  U 

tlie  arf^illaceous  pari,  or  between  it  and  (he  I 
liiiitstoiie. 

Confuted  mountains  ronsist  of  stones  heap-  ; 
cd  together  without  order,  t-helr  interstices  I 
filled  with  clay,  sand,  and  mica.  Tiicy  I 
seartely  ever  contain^  any  ore. 

Besides  these,  there  are  many  mountains  I 
in  dih'erent  parts  ol'  l!ie  world,  which  derive 
their  origin  from   volcanoes;  but  of  these   it 
will  be  necessary  to  treat  in  a  succeeding 
article. 

The  height  of  mountains  is  usually  calcu- 
lated by  ^K•an^  of  the  barometer.     I'or  this 
purpose  two   columns  of  mercury,  or  baro- 
meters, are  provided,  and  one  is  kept  at  the 
fool  ot  the  mountain  while  trie  other  is  carried 
to  its  smnniil.     The  degn-e  of  heat,  if  not 
eipial,  is  rc'luced  by  ca'culation  to  an  e(|ua- 
lity,  and  for  this  pur]iose  a  thermometer  is 
allached  to   each  of  the  barometers.     The 
de;jree  of  heat  to  which  both  are  reduced,   is 
55" :  if,  however,   either  of  the  barcmeters 
stands  at  30  inches,  and  theanne.\ed  tliermo-  ■ 
meter  at  53",  no  reduction  is  to  be  made  in  ' 
tlie  degrees  indiciited  by  that  barometer  ;  but  ' 
if  either  of  them  is  at'  30",  and  the  thernio-  ! 
meter  below  55°,  we  must  add  the  e\pansion  ! 
the   mercury  in  the  barometer  would  liave  i 
e\|)erienced  at  the  heat  of  55°.     If  the   heat  ' 
should,   on  the  contrary,  be  above  5.)°,  we  | 
111U4  abstract  the  degree  of  e\pan>ion  which  ! 
it  gains  by  that  heat.     Every  degree  of  Fah-  ' 
reiiheit's  scale    pro.luces   an    expansion    of! 
00.304  of  the   barometrical   inch,   when  the; 
barometer  is   at   30  ;    when,   therefore,    the  | 
theiniometer  is  at  1 1° below  or  above  55°,  we 
iiHist  add  in  the  former,  or  subtract 'ui  the 
latter  case,  elev.-n  times  that  number  from 
the  barometrical  height.     In  the  same  man-  i 
ner  it  may  be   calculated,  whatever  is  the  : 
li'.'ight  of  the  barometer.     \Vhen  this  matter  : 
is  abccrlaiued,  the   height  is   easily   foun;l  by  ' 
cmnparing  the  two  barometers,  and  calculat- 
ing; the  density  of  the  air  in  the  higlier  regions 
according  to  the   principles  of  geometrical  ' 
progression.  | 

The  highest  mountains  are  those  which  are  , 
•situated  at  or   near  the    equator;    and  the  j 
Andes  are  generally  allowed  to  be  the  high- 
est of  these.     Catopaxi,  one  of  the  Andes, 
which    was     measiu'ed    by  Udoa   and    the 
I'Ven'h  academicians,   w-as  found  to  be  some 
miles  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  whereas  the  ' 
liighest  point  of  the  Alps  is  not  above  a  mile  | 
and   a   half.     Mount  Caucasus    approaches  I 
n -arest  to  the  height  of  the  Andes,  of  any  of 
the  Asiatic  mountains.     The  Peak  of  'IVne- 
rilC,  which  has  been  so  much  celebrated,  is 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  in  height.     It  is  an  ex- 
traordinary   circumstance,   that   the   moon, 
which  is  a  body  so  much  smaller  than  our 
earth,  should  have  been  thought  to  exceed  it 
in  the  irregularities  of  its  surface;    some  of 
the  mountains  in  that  planet  being  formerly 
supijosed.to   exceed   nine   miles  in  height: 
but  Or.  lierschel  lias  proved  that  the  highest 
of  them  is  not  ecjual  to  one  mile. 

The  line  of  congelation,  or  of  perpetual  frost, 
on  mountains,  is  calculated  at  15,400  feet,  at 
or  near  the  equator;  at  the  entrance  of  the 
temperate  zone,  at  13,428;  on  Tenerifl',  at 
1,000;  in  Auvergne  (lat.  45)  6,740;  witli  us 
(lat.  52)  5,740.  On  the  Andes,  vegetation 
ceases  at  14,  697  feet  ;  and  on  the  Alps,  at 
9,5S5.  The  air  is  so  dry  in  these  elevated 
Situations,  that  M.  d'Arcet  observed,  that  on 
tlie  Pic  de  Midi,  one  of  the  Pyrenees,  salt  of 


M   U  C 

tartar  remained  dry  for  an  hour  and  a  half, 
though  it  immediately  moistened  in  the  same 
temperalur<'  at  the  bottom  of  the  mountain. 

MOl'NTING,  in  mililary  affairs,  signi- 
fies going  upon  duly.  Thus,  nioiuiting  a 
breach,  is  running  up  to  it;  mounting  the 
guard,  is  going  upjn  guard  ;  and  iiKninting 
the  trenches,  is  goiii'  upon  dtily  in  the 
trenches;  but  mounling  a  cannoii,  mortar, 
&c.  is  the  setting  it  on  its  carnage,  or  the 
r^jsing  its  mouth. 

MOUSE.     See  Mus. 

MOU  TH.  See  Anatomy. 

MUCILAGE,  a  glutinous  matter  obtained 
from  vegetables,  transparent  <uk1  tasteless, 
soluble  in  water,  but  not  in  spirit  of  wine.  It 
chielly  consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  oxygen.     See  G  r.uxEN. 

MUCILAG INOUS GLANDS.  See  Ana- 

TOiMY. 

MUCOK,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  tjie  order 
of  fungi,  in  the  cryptogamia  class  of  plants. 
Tiie  fungus  has  vesicular  heads  supported  by 
footstalks.  There  are  17  l',ritish  species; 
the  most  remarkable  of  whicliare:  1 .  The 
spli-.eroci'phalus,  or  grey  round-headed  iiui- 
cor,  grouuig  upon  rotten  wood,  and  some- 
times U|)0n  decayed  plants  and  mosse.s.  The 
stalks  of  this  are  generally  black,  about  a  line 
in  height,  bearing  each  at  the  top  a  spherical 
bal.  abotit  the  size  of  a  pin's  head  ;  its  coal 
or  rind  is  covered  with  a  grey  powder,  and 
containing  within  a  black  or  fuscous  spongy 
down.  The  coat  burets  with  a  ragged,  irre- 
gular margin.  2.  Tile  lichenoides,  or  little, 
black,  pin-headed  mucor.  This  species  grows 
in  grou[)S  near  to  eacii  other,  in  chasms  of 
the  barks  of  old  trees,  and  upon  old  park- 
pales.  The  stalks  are  black,  about  two  lines 
in  height,  beating  eacli  a  single  head,  some- 
times a  dotible  or  treble  one,  of  the  size  of 
mustard  or  poppy  seeds,  of  a  roundish  ligure 
at  lirst,  but  when  burst,  often  tlattish  or  trun- 
cated, and  of  a  black  colour.  The  internal 
powdered  down  is  black,  with  a  tinge  of 
green.  3.  I'he  mucedo,  or  common  grey 
iiijuld,  grows  on  bread,  fruits,  plants,  and 
other  substances,  in  a  putrid  state.  It  grows 
ill  clusters;  the  stalks  a  ipiarter  of  an  inch 
high,  pellucid,  hollow,  and  cylindrical;  sup- 
porting each  a  single  globular  head,  at  tirst 
transparent,  afterwards  dark -grey;  which 
burs.s  with  elastic  force,  and  ejects  small 
round  seeds  discoverable  by  the  microscope, 
4.  The  glaucus,  or  grey  cluster-heftded 
mould,  is  found  on  rotten  apples,  melons, 
and  other  fruits ;  as  also  upon  decayed  wood, 
and  the  stalks  of  wheat.  Tiiese  are  of  a  pel- 
lucid grey  colour ;  the  stalks  are  generally 
single,  supporting  a  spherical  ball,  which, 
when  magnilied,  appears  to  be  compounded 
of  numerous,  line,  moniliform,  necklace-like 
radii.  5.  The  crustaceus,  or  fin«;ered  mould, 
is  frequent  upon  corrupted  food  of  various 
kinds.  It  is  of  a  white  aqueous  colour  ;  the 
stalks  single,  each  suiiporting  at  the  lop  four 
or  five  necklace-like  radii,  diverging  from 
the  same  point  or  centre.  6.  The  septicns, 
or  yellow  frotii}'  mucor,  is  found  on  Iheieaves 
of  plants,  such  as  ivy  and  beech,  &c.  some- 
times upon  dry  sticks,  and  frequently  upon 
the  tan  or  bark  in  hot-houses.  It  is  of  no  cer- 
tain size  or  ligure,  but  of  a  fine  yellow  colour, 
and  a  substance  rcscnibllng  at  lirst  cream 
beaten  up  into  froth.  In  the  space  of  '2-'t 
hours  it  actjuires  a  thin  filmy  coat,  becomes 
.  dry,  and  full  of  a  sooty  powder  adhering  to 


M  U  C 


231 


downy  threads.  The  seeds  under  themicrcy- 
scope  appear  to  be  globular.  Haller  ranks 
it  under  a  new  genus,  which  he  terms  luligo  ; 
the  characters  of  whi'h  are,  that  the  plants 
contained  under  it  are  soil,  and  like  butler 
at  first,  btit  soon  change  inlo  a  black  sooty 
pouder. 

MICOUS  ACID.    .See'  Sai-.-lctic  aciu. 

"Mucous  GLAND.    SeC  ANArCMY. 

ML'CT  S,  a  thiid  secreted  by  certain 
glands,  and  serving  to  lubricate  many  of  the 
internal  cavities  of  the  Ixidy.  In  its' natural 
slate  it  is  generally  limpid  and  colourless; 
but  from  certain  causes,  will  often  assume  a 
thick  consistence  and  w  litisli  colour  like  pus. 
As  it  is  sometimes  of  very  great  importance 
in  medicine  to  distinguish  the-e  two  fluids 
from  each  other,  this  was  lately  proposed  as 
the  subject  of  a  prij^e  dispuiation  by  the 
/Esculapian .Society  of  Kdiiibtirgli.  The  pri^e 
was  gamed  by  INlr.  Charles  Darwin,  student 
ot  medicine  from  Litchfield. 

The  conclusions  drawn  from  his  experi- 
ments were,  I.  Pus  and  mucus  are  both  so- 
luble in  tne  vitriolic  acid,  ih  lugh  in  very 
difierent  proportions,  pus  being  by  far  least 
soluble.  2.  The  addition  of  w.iier  to  either 
of  these  compounds  deconipos,es  it.  The 
mucus  thus  separated  either  swims  in  the 
mixture,  or  form-,  large  tlocculi  in  it ;  whereas 
the  pus  falls  to  the  bottom,  and  forms,  on 
agitation,  an  uniform  turb  d  mixture.  3.  Pus 
is  dilfusible  through  a  diluted  vitriolic  acid, 
though  mucus  is  not.  1  he  same  also  occurs 
witii   water,  or  with  a   solution  of  sea-salt. 

4.  Nitrous  acid  dissolves  both  pus  and  mu- 
cus. Water  added  to  the  solution  of  pus 
produces  a  precipitate,  and  the  fiuid  above 
becomes  clear  and  green,  w  hile  water  and  the 
solution  of  mucus  form  a  tui  bid  dirty-coloured 
lluid.  5.  Alkaline  lixivium  dissolves,  though 
sometimes  with  diliiculty,  mucus,  and  cene- 
rally  pus.  6.  ^^'ater  precipiiules  pus  irora 
such  a  niixture,  but  does  not  mucus.  7. 
Where  alkaline  lixivium  does  not  dissolve 
pus,  it  still  distinguishes  it  from  mucus,  as  it 
then    prevents   its   diffusion    through   water. 

5.  Coagutable  lymph  is  neither  soluble  in 
concentrated  nor  diluted  vitriolic  acid.  9, 
Water  produces  no  change  on  a  solution  of 
serum  in  alkaline  lixivium,  until  after  lone 
standing,  and  then  only  a  very  slight  sedi!- 
ment  appears.  10.  Corrosive  "sublimate  coi 
agulates  mucus,  but  does  not  mis. 

I'rom  the  above  experiments,  it  appears 
that  strong  Mdnhuric  acid  and  water,  diluted 
sulphuric  acid,  and  caustic  alkaliae  lixivium 
and  water,  will  serve  to  distinguish  pus  from 
mucus;  tlvil  the  vitriolic  acid  can  separate  it 
from  coagulable  lymph,  and  alkaline  lixivium 
troll,  serum.  Hence,  when  a  person  has  any 
expectorated  matter,  the  decomposition  of 
which  he  wishes  to  ascertain,  let  him  dissolve 
it  in  vitriolic  acid,  and  in  caustic  alkaline 
lixivium;  and  let  him  add  pure  water  to  both 
solutions.  If  there  is  a  fair  precipitation  in 
each,  he  may  be  assured  that  some  pus  is 
present.  But  if  there  is  a  precipitation  in 
neither,  it  is  a  certain  test  that  the  mixture  is 
entirely  mucus.  If  the  matter  cannot  be 
made  to  dissolve  in  alkaline  lixivium  by  time 
and  trituration,  we  have  also  reason  to  believe 
that  it  is  pus. 

Mucus,  NASAL:  this  name  is  given  to  a 
liquiil  which  is  secreted  in  the  cavities  of  the 
nose,  and  is  discharged  outwardly,  either  by 
the  nostrils  in  the  form  ot  ilrops,  or  iu  th.at  of 
masses  more  or  kss  Uiickjor  by  the  fauces 


233 


M  U  C 


when  it  Jesceiids  by  the  posterior  part  of  the 
nasal  cavities,  in  uhich  it  is  thrown  out  by 
spitting.  This  liquid  is  separated  fio;u  tiie 
blood  by  the  arteries,  and  appears  to  be 
formed  in  particalar  crypts,  which  we  find 
abundantly  disseminated  ni  ilie  nostrils:  it  is 
collected  also  from  all  llie  frontal  sinuses.  It 
is  also  mixed  with  the  lachrymal  juice,  w-hich 
descends  by  the  channel  whicii  jjasses  throuf^h 
the  OS  unguis,  and  dilutes  the  thickened  nasal 
mucus. 

We  must  particularly  consider  botli  tlie 
abundance  and  the  characters  of  this  rupiid 
in  the  catarrh,  improperly  called  catarrh  of 
the  brain,  in  which  the  nasal  niucui  is  sepa- 
rated in  larger  quantity,  and  remains  a  longer 
time  in  its  ducts.  "  It  is,"  says  M.  Four- 
croy,  "  especially  under  this  circumstance, 
that  citizen  \'auipiehn  and  myself  have  ex- 
amined it,  as  we  tlien  piocured  it  with  great 
facility.  We  have  also  availed  ourselves  of 
the  considerable  discharge  ofnmcus  which  is 
produced  by  the  contact  of  the  oxigenated 
muriatic  acid  gas,  in  order  to  obtain  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  it  for  the  experiments  adapt- 
ed for  making  us  well  acquainted  with  its  na- 
ture. It  lias  several  times  happened  to  ci- 
tizen Vauquelin,  who  is  very  sensible  to  the 
action  of  the  oxigenated  muriatic  acid  gas, 
that  he  has  collected  by  its  elfect  64  grammes 
of  this  liquid  in  less  than  an  hour.  By  means 
of  these  circumstances  we  have  been  enabled 
todeterniine  its  nature  in  a  considerably  ex- 
act manner.  It  is  known  that  Uiis  liquid  is 
verv  abundant  in  children,  that  it  is  a  little 
heavier  than  water,  and  adheres  to  most  bo- 
dies, e\  en  the  most  polished." 

Tile  nasal  mucus  is  at  first  liquid,  clear  and 
limpid,  a  little  viscid  and  adhesive,  without 
smell,  of  a  saline  and  acrid  taste,  which  irri- 
tates tlie  most  delicate  part  of  the  skin  ;  it  is 
then  really  the  pituita  vitrea  of  the  antients. 
Wlien  exposed  to  the  air  and  to  the  fire,  it 
comports  itself  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
tears,  from  which  it  diifers  only  bv  the  abun- 
dance of  its  residuum,  wliich  is  thicker,  and 
frequently  more  coloured.  It  affords  crystals 
of  muriate  of  soda,  of  soda  in  the  state  of  car- 
bonate, and  of  pliosphates  of  lime  and  of 
soda;  the  last  are  much  more  abundant  than 
tlie  others.  It  turns  paper  stained  with  mal- 
low-flowers green,  by  its  salts:  we  also  find 
in  it  ail  animal  matter  which  is  not  albumi- 
nous, but  tpiicklv  becomes  thick  and  con- 
crete by  the  oxigen  of  the  air  and  of  the  oxi- 
genated muriatic  acid;  it  then  acquires  opa- 
city, and  a  yellow  or  f^reenish  colour,  swells 
considerably,  and  becomes  niled  with  bubliles 
by  the  action  of  hrc,  leaving  but  little  resi- 
duum upon  the  ignited  coals.  'I'liis  annual 
mucilage,  which  is  more  abundant  than  in 
the  tears,  appears  to  be  of  the  same  nature  in 
both. 

'i'his  liquid,  being  always  exposed  to  the 
air,  w'hicli  continually  passes  through  the  nos- 
trils, is  constantly  thicker,  more  viscid,  and 
more  ailhcsivc,  than  the  tears;  and  the  crtr- 
bonate  of  soda  whicli  it  contains,  whilst  tlie 
latter  contains  only  soda,  announces  that  die 
air  deposits  in  it  a  part  of  the  carbonic  acid 
which  it  contains,  especially  as  it  is  expired 
out  of  the  lungs.  Conseqnentiv,  it  then  ren- 
dei's  thesi^lutionsof  barvtes,  of  strontian,and 
of  lime,  very  sensibly  turbid.  In  the  nostrils, 
the  iieat  of  the  plant,  especially  in  catarrhs, 
and  the  current  wiiich  iiaessantly  acts  upon 
it,    contribute    also    to    thicken    it.     'ihe 


M  U  C 

nuicilage  of  the  nasal  humour,  wiicn  it  be- 
comes thick  ill  the  air,  tre(|ueiitly  aasuuies  in 
it  the  form  of  sniad,  dry,  brilliant,  and,  as  it 
were,  micaceous  plates.  If  it  has  dried  in 
very  tliiii  la\ers,  it  nearly  reseiub'.es  those 
brilliant  and  light  marks  which  snails  leave 
beniiid  them  upon  the  substances  over  which 
they  crawl,  'llie  nasal  mucus  experiences 
no  real  putrefaction  in  the  air;  we  snould  al- 
most be  induced  to  say  that  it  wasnnalterable 
and  imputrcscible,  when  we  see  it  remain 
without  contracting  any  bad  smell,  even  in 
the  midst  of  water,  and  at  a  considerably  ele- 
vated lem|)eraiure.  However,  this  property 
of  preservulion  does  not  extend  so  tar  as  to 
communicate  itself  to  other  bodies  that  are 
immersed  in  it. 

^\'aler  does  not  dissolve  the  mucus  of  the 
nose.  It  is  known  that  this  matter  remains 
viscid  in  that  fluid,  and  that  it  cannot  be  di- 
luted in  water  without  much  difficulty,  even 
by  af;ilation.  Hot  water  and  ebullition  do  not 
render  this  singular  mixture  more  miscible  or 
more  soluble.  In  boiling  water,  it  appears  at 
hrst  to  form  one  body  with  the  water  ;  never- 
theless, we  see  it  separate  and  fall  to  the  bot- 
tom of  this  h(|uid  by  cooling.  It  is  probable 
that  this  insolubility  is  owing  to  the  lixadon 
of  the  oxigen.  Neither  has  it  the  property 
of  rendering  oils  miscible  with  water,  nor  of 
effecting  their  suspension  by  trituration,  as  a 
vegetable  mucilage  does.  It  is  on  this  ac- 
count that  when  we  wash,  or  even  boil,  tliis 
thick  humour  in  water,  the  salts  which  it  con- 
tains are  dissolved  and  separated,  without 
affecting  the  mucilage  which  constitutes  its 
base. 

The  acids  thicken  the  nasal  mucus  when 
they  are  concentrated  and  employed  in  small 
proportions ;  but  wlien  we  add  a  larger  quan- 
tity, they  redissolve  and  give  it  different 
shades  of  colour.  The  sulphuric  acid  tinges 
it  purple,  and  renders  it  very  liquid,  forming 
however  some  Hakes  in  it  wiiich  sink  to  the 
bottom.  The  nitric  acid,  when  rather  strong, 
dissolves  it  of  a  yellow  colour.  The  muriatic 
acid  is  that  which  effects  its  sulution  the 
most  easily  and  the  most  completely  of  all, 
giving  it  a  violet-colour.  The  alkaline,  or 
earthy  salts,  do  not  cause  it  to  undergo  any 
alteration,  nor  do  they  dissolve  it. 

'Jhe  mucus  of  the  nostrils  being  especially 
distinguished  from  all  the  other  animal  liquids 
by  the  viscid  mucilage  uliicli  it  contains  in 
considerable  ahuiulance,  it  is  evidently  from 
the  presence  of  this  principle  that  we  ought 
to  seek  its  uses,  and  the  function  which  it 
performs  in  the  animal  economy.  Besides 
the  kind  of  evacuation,  sometimes  very  abun- 
danl,  which  it  procrn-es;  and  the  proportion 
of  the  evacuated  matter  i  oiiipared  with  that 
of  the  other  excretory  organs,  which  it  car- 
ries out  of  the  body  ;  this  liquid  maintains  the 
softness  of  the  membranous  sides  of  the  nasal 
cavities,  and  |)reveiits  that  dryness  which  the 
air  passing  in  continual  stn.-ams  through  these 
cavities  teiuls  to  produce  in  them.  It  inoile- 
rates  the  too  great  sen>ibility  of  Ihe  nervous 
papilix'  w  hich  are  spread  out  upon  the  olfac- 
tory membrane;  it  stops  and  fixes  the  odo- 
rous bodies,  it  blunts  their  too  jm-at  activity; 
it  purifies  the  air  that  is  n  spired,  by  taking 
from  it  the  pulverulent  paitii.les  which  it  car- 
ries along  w  ith  it,  and  which  wonUl  be  more 
hurtful  in  (he  lungs.  Being  always  contained 
in  a  hoi,  humid,  and  arid  place,  three  circum- 
stances which  would  so  tinincntly  promote 


MUG 

putrefaction,  provident  nature  lias  given  it  a 
properly  wiiich  opposes  tlie  seplicity  w  liicli 
would  liave  expo:-e't  man  and  the  animals  to 
a  multitude  of  dangerous  vitiations  and  ma- 
ladies. 

It  13  known  that  the  mucus  of  the  nostrils 
is  capaole  of  changing  its  nature,  and  assum- 
ing various  properties,  in  the  nasal  affections. 
It  thickens,  becomes  yellow,  orange-colour- 
ed, or  greenish,  frequently  tinges  linen  with 
a  very  lively  green  cast  by  drying  upon  it  ; 
It  sometimes  produies  the  sensation  of  the 
presence  of  copper;  and  sometimes  it  exhales 
a  nauseous  or  fe;id  smell.  In  some  affec- 
tions it  becomes  so  acrid  that  it  seems  to 
corrode  the  membrane  of  the  nostrils,  and 
produces  excoriations  round  their  orifices,  as 
well  as  upon  the  upper  lip.  Lastly,  it  is 
sometimes  liquid  lilve  water,  at  otliers  ropy 
like  oil:  in  se\eial  cases  thick,  riscid,  and 
always  transparent,  like  jelly ;  in  other  cir- 
cumstances, semicoticrete,  and  white,  yellow, 
or  green,  like  a  purulent  humour.  None  of 
these  changes  have  yet  been  chemically  ex- 
amined, and  hardly  even  has  the  attenlioii 
which  they  deserve  been  bestowed  ujioii 
iheni. 

Ml'FTI,  or  MuPHTt,  the  chief  of  the  ec- 
clesiastical order,  or  primate,  of  the  mussul- 
man  religion.  The  authority  of  the  mufti  is 
very  great  in  the  Ottoman  empire ;  for  even 
the  sultan  himself,  if  he  would  preserve  any 
appearance  of  religion,  cannot,  without  hear- 
ing his  opinion,  put  any  person  to  death,  or 
so  much  as  inflict  any  corporal  punishment. 
In  all  actions,  especially  criminal  ones,  his 
opinion  is  required  by  giving  him  a  writing, 
in  which  the  case  is  stated  under  feigned 
names,  which  he  subscribes  with  the  words, 
//f  sluul,  or  shall  not,  be  punishtd.  Such 
outward  honour  is  paid  to  the  mufti,  that  the 
grand  seignior  himself  rises  up  to  him,  and 
advances  seven  steps  to  meet  him,  wlun  he 
comes  into  his  presence.  The  election  of 
the  mufti  is  solely  in  the  grand  seignior,  who 
presents  him  witli  a  vest  of  rich  sables,  &c. 
If  he  is  convicted  of  treason,  or  any  great 
crime,  he  is  put  into  a  mortar,  kept  tor  that 
purpose  in  the  Seven  Towers  at  Constanti- 
nople, and  pounded  to  death. 

MUGGLEIONTANS,  a  religious  sect, 
whi(  h  arose  in  England  about  the  year  16j7; 
so  denonhnuted  from  their  leader  Lodowick 
Miigglelon,  a  journe}man  taylor,  who,  with 
his  associate  Ixceves,  asserted,  that  they  were 
tlie  two  last  witnesies  of  God  thai  should  ap- 
pear before  the  eml  of  the  world. 

WUGIL,  mullet,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
order  abdominales.  The  generic  character 
is,  lips  membranaceous ;  the  inferior  cari- 
nated  within:  teeth  none;  at  the  corners  of 
the  mouth  an  inllicled  callus:  gill-membrane 
with  six  curved  rays:  body  fleshy;  scales 
large;  dorsal  hns  two. 

1.  Mugll  cephahis,  common  mullet.  This 
fisli,  the  niugil  and  mugilis  of  the  anticnt 
Honiaiis,  is  a  very  conmiOH  inhabitant  of  the 
.Mediterranean  and  northern  seas,  frecpicnt- 
ing  chiefly  the  shallow  parts  near  the  shores, 
and  feeding  on  the  snuillcr  kind  of  worms, 
sea-insects,  and  vegelables.  Its  general  length 
is  fiom  1~  to  IS  or  l(i  inches,  and  its  colour 
bhielsh-grey,  darker  on  the  back,  and  silvery 
on  the  abdomen  ;  the  sides  are  marked,  like 
lliose  of  the  grayling,  with  several  dusky 
stripes,    according   to   the   rows  of  scales. 


M  U  I. 

Tvlilt:!)  arc  large;  and  nuiiuli^d;  the  fins  are 
liluifisli;  llic  lirsl  dorsal  till,  wliich  is  sitiiatcil 
on  tlio  iiiidiili:  of  tlie  back,  consists  of  four 
Tery  strong  rays :  the  second  dor>al  fin  is 
olaced  o|)j)OsltL'  the  anal,  and  iias  only  soft 
rays;  the  base  ot  the  dorsal  and  anal  Ini,  as 
will  as  that  of  the  tail,  is  scaly,  and  the  tail 
is  forked  or  lunated. 

'I'he  niulli-t  is  found  not  only  in  the  Euro- 
pean seas,  but  in  tlie  Indian  and  Atlantic 
oceans.  It  is  observed  to  assemble  fretiuejit- 
)y  in  small  shoals  near  the  shore,  in  <inest  of 
food,  burrowing  into  the  soft  mud,  and  leav- 
ing the  trace  of  its  head  in  the  form  of  a 
round  hole. 

In  the  spring  and  early  summer  months, 
Ihis  lisli,  like  the  salmon,  ascends  rivers  to  a 
considerable  distajice;  and  when  jireparing 
for  these  expeditions,  is  observed  in  shoals 
near  the  surface  of  the  water,  at  which  time 
tlie  lishermen  endeavour  to  avail  thi'niselves 
ol  the  opportunity  of  surrounding  them  with 
their  nets,  which  the  lisii  are  said  to  shew 
great  address  in  escaping  from. 

'I'lie  mullet  is  considered  as  an  evcellent 
fisli  fir  tlie  table,  though  not  a  fashionable 
one  in  our  own  country.  Dr.  Biocli  informs 
us,  that  it  is  g:'neraily  eaten  with  the  addition 
•foil  and  lemon-juice.  The  spawn  is  often 
prepared  into  an  inferior  kind  of  caviar, 
called  botargo,  by  dr)ing  and  salting  it;  in 
which  manner  aUo  tiie  lisli  itself,  in  plentiful 
seasons,  is  occasionally  preserved.  See  Plate 
Kat.  Hist.  fig.  2-i. 

2.  Mugil  crenilabiSjCrcnated  mullet.  Size 
of  the  common  mullet;  length  about  twelve 
inches;  colour  whitish;  scales  rather  large, 
and  marked  by  a  dusky  streak ;  upper  lip 
ga|)iiig,  lower  bicarinaled  witiiin,  and  both 
lips  cienulated  on  the  edges;  fins  glaucous 
white,  tile  pectoral  marked  at  the  base  by  a 
round  black  spot;  tail  forked;  native  of  the 
Ked  Sea.     Tii/re  are  seven  other  species. 

iMUG-\\  OKT,   in  botany.     See  Aute- 

MESI--\.  I 

MUIILENBERGIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  ' 
and  order  triaiulvia  digynia.     The  calv.x  is 
one-leaved,    miiuUe,    lateral ;     corolla   two- 
Valved.      There    is   one  species,  u  grass  of 
America. 

Ml'lD,  a  large  measure  in  use  among  the 
French,  for  things  dry.  The  muid  is  no  real 
vessel  used  as  a  measure,  but  an  estimation 
of  several  other  measures,  as  the  septier, 
mine,  niinot,  luishel,  S;c. 

Muid  is  also  one  of  the  nine  casks,  or  re- 
gular vessels,  used  in  I'rance,  to  put  wine  and 
other  li<piors  ill.  'i'lie  muid  of  wine  is  di- 
vided into  two  demi-muids,  four  <[uarter- 
niiiids,  and  eight  halt-quarter  muids,  con- 
taining 3t)  septiers. 

.MULBEUKY      SeeMoRUs. 

iMl'LE,  in  zoology,  a  mongrel  kind  of 
tpiadrup 'd,  usually  generated  between  an  ass 
and  a  mare,  and  sometiiues  between  a  horse 
and  a  she-ass ;  but  the  signification  of  the 
word  is  comnionlv  extended  to  every  kind  of 
animal  produced  by  a  mi.xtup.'  of  two  diflisr- 
eiit  s|)ecies.  There  are  two  kinds  of  these 
animals:  one  from  the  he-ass  and  mare,  the 
other  trom  the  horsi;  and  the  she-ass.  We 
call  them  indifterentiy  mules,  but  the  Ro- 
mans distincuished  Iheui  by  proper  appella- 
tions. Th  •  first  kind  are  the  best  anil  most 
esteemed,  as  being  larger,  stronger,  and  hav- 
ing least  of  the  ass  in  their  disposition.  The 
largest  and  .stoutest  asses,  and  the  fairest  and 

Vol.  II. 


M  U  L 

finest  mares,  are  chosen  in  those  counlrie«- 
wiiere  these  creatures  arc  most  in  use;  as  iu 
Spain,  Italy,  and  I' landers.     In  the  last  espe- 
cially, they  succeed  in  having  very  stately 
mules  from  the  size  of  their  mares,  some  of 
them  10  and  some  17  hands  high,  which  are 
very   serviceable   as   suiupter-mules    in    the 
1  army.     But  since  the  Low-countries  are  no 
longer  under  the  dominion  of  Spain,  they 
breed    lener   mules.      These   creatures   are 
very    much    commended    for    their    being 
stronger,    surer-footed,    going    easier,    being 
more  clieaply  iiiaintaiiied,  and  lasting  longiTi 
than  hor.->r!s.     They  are  coinmouh'  ol  a  black 
I  brown,  or  cjuite  black,  with  that  'shining  list 
!  along  the  back  and  cross  the  shoulders  which 
distinguishes  asses.  In  former  times  they  were 
much  more  common  in  this  country  than  at 
present,  being  often  brought  over  in  the  davs 
of  popery  by  the  Italian  princes.     They  co'ii- 
'  tinued  longest  in  the  service  of  inillers,  and 
are  yet  in  u-<'  among  them  in  some  places, 
.  on  act  ount  of  the  great  loads  they  carry  on 
their  back.      As  they  are  ca|)able  of  being 
!  trained  lor  riding,  bearing  burdens,  and  for 
I  draught,  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  might 
be  usefully  employed  in  many  dilliTent  ser- 
vices.    But  tliey  are  comniouly  found  to  be 
vicious,  stubborn,  and  obstinate  to  a  proverb ; 
which  whether  it  occasions  or  is  produced  by 
the  ill  usage  they  meet  with,   is  a  point  not 
easily  settled.     Whatever  niav  be  the  case  of 
asses,   it  is  allowed   that   mules  are   larger, 
fairer,  and  more  serviceable,  in  mild  than  in 
warm    climates.      In   the    British    American 
colonies,  both  on  tlie  continent  and  in  the 
islands,  but  especially  in  the  latter,  they  are 
mucJi  used  and  esteemed;  so  that  they  are 
Ireijuently  sent  to  them  from  hence  ;  suffer 
less  in  the  passage,  and  die  much  seldomer, 
'  than  horses;  ancl  commonly  yield,  when  they 
arrive-,  no  inconsiderable  profit. 
i      It  has  commonly  been  asserted,  that  ani- 
mals produced  by  the  mixture  of  two  hetero- 
geneous species,  are  incapable  of  generating, 
and  thus  perpetuating  the  monstrous  breed: 
but  this,  we  are  informed   by  M.  BulFon,  is 
now  discovered  to  be  a  mistake. 

MULES,  among  gardeners,  denote  a  sort 
of  vegetable  monslers  produced  by  putting 
the  farina  fecundans  of  one  species  of  plain 
into  the  pistil  or  utricle  of  another.  The 
carnation  ;1nd  sweet-william  being  somewhat 
alike  in  their  parts,  particularly  their  flowers, 
the  farina  of  the  one  will  impregnate  the 
other,  and  the  seed  so  enlivened  will  pro- 
duce a  plant  dilftring  from  either.  An  in- 
stance of  this  we  first' had  in  Mr.  Fnirchild's 
garden  at  Iloxfon,  where  a  plant  is  seen  nei- 
ther sweet-william  nor  carnation,  but  resem- 
bling both  equally  :  this  was  raised  from  the 
seed  of  a  carnation  that  had  been  impreg- 
nated by  the  farina  of  the  sweet-william. 
These  couplings  being  not  unlike  those  of 
the  mare  with  the  ass,  which  produce  the 
mule,  the  same  name  is  given  them  ;  and 
they  are,  like  the  others,  inciipable  of  multi- 
plying their  species.  Ihis  furnishes  a  hint 
for  altering  tlie  property  and  taste  ot  anv 
fruit,  by  impregnating  one  tree  with  the  fa- 
rina of  another  of  the  same  class,  e.  g.  a  cod- 
lin  with  a  pearmain,  which  will  occasion  the 
codlin  so  impregnated  to  la«t  a  longer  time 
than  usual,  and  to  be  of  a  sharper  taste.  Or 
if  the  winter  fruits  are  fecundated  with  the 
dust  of  the  summer  kinds,  they  will  ripen  be- 
fore their  usual  time.  And  iVom  this  acci- 
Gg 


M  U  L 


2.33 


denial  C'lipling  of  the  farina  of  one  with  ano- 
ther, it  may  possibly  be,  that  in  an  orchar<l 
where  there  is  variety  of  apples,  even  the 
fruit  gathered  from  the  same  tree  dllfiT  in 
their  flavour,  ami  in  the  season  of  maturity. 
It  is  also  from  the  same  accidental  coupling 
that  the  numberless  varieties  of  fruits  ana 
flowers  raised  every  day  from  seed  i)rocee(l. 

Ml'LLEH,  or  Mi'LLAR,  denotes  a  stone 
flat  and  even  at  the  liottoin,  but  round  at 
lop,  used  for  grinding  of  matters  on  a  ni.irblc. 
'1  he  apothecaries  use  mullers  to  prepare 
some  of  their  testaceous  powders;  and  paint- 
ers for  their  colours,  either  dry  or  in  oil. 

Mn.LERI.A,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der diadei|)liia  decandria.  'i  he  pericarp  is 
elongated,  fleshy,  necklace-form,  with  one- 
seeded  globules.  There  is  one  species,  a  tree 
of  Surinam. 

MULLET,  or  Mollf.t,  in  heraldry,  a, 
bearing  in  form  of  a  llat,  or  rather  of  the  lowel 
of  a  spur,  whichlt  originally  repre.->ented. 

MULLUS,  surmullet,  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  order  thoracici.  The  generic  character 
is,  head  compressed,-  scaly ;  mouth  beard- 
ed; gill-membrane  three-vaycd ;  body  co- 
vered with  large -subdeciduoiis  scales. 

1.  Miillus  ruber,  the  red  surmullet,  is 
principally  found  in  tiie  -Mediterranean  and 
northern  seas,  where  it  arrives  at  th.e  length 
ol  12  or  15  inches;  its  colour  is  an  elegant 
rose-red,  tinged  with  olive-colour  on  the 
back,  and  of  a  silvery  cast  towards  the  abdo- 
men. The  surmullet  is  a  fish  of  a  strong  and 
active  nature,  swimming  briskly,  and  fceding 
principally  on  the  smaller  fishes,  v^orms,  and 
sea-insects.  It  is  generally  considered  as  a 
very  delicate  fish,  and  is  celebrated  for  lia'v- 
ing  been  the  fiishionable  object  of  RoniJin 
luxury,  and  for  which  such  enorniou's  sums 
are  reported  to  have  been  sometimes  given; 
though  it  is  probable  that  the  iiigh  estiinatiort 
in  which  it  was  held  by  the  antienf  Cireeks 
and  Romans  was  more  owing  to  a  preiudico 
entertained  on  account  of  its  eleuant  appear- 
ance, than  to  its  real  merit  as  a  lood.  Tho 
Romans  practised  a  singular  retiiiiinent  in- 
luxury,  by  lirst  bringing  the  fish  airve  to  the 
table  in  a  glass  vessel,  in  order  that  the 
guests  might  enjoy  the  (jleasure  of  contem- 
plating the  beautiful  clianges  of  its  evanescent 
colours  during  the  time  of  its  gradual  cx]>i- 
ratioii ;  alter  which  it  was  pre])ared  for  their 
repast. 

2.  Mullus  surmuletus,  striped  surmullet, 
of  similar  size  and  general  appearance  with 
the  preceding,  but  marked  on  each  side  by 
two  and  sometiines  three  longitudinal  vellow 
stripes:  native  of  the  Mediterranean,  but 
found  occasionally  in  the  Atlantic  and  other 
seas :  in  equal  esteem  as  a  food  with  the 
fonner,  of  which  it  has  even  been  consideitd 
by  some  authors  as  a  variety. 

3.  Mullus  Indicus,  India'n  surmullet.  Size 
and  habit  of  the  conimon  or  red  mullet ;  co- 
lour extremely  beautihil  in  the  living  fish 
but  fading  very  soon  after  death;  upper  part 
of  the  head  and  back  dark  changeable  pur- 
ple, growing  faint  on  the  sides,  whicJi  are 
marked  by  a  few  longitudinal  azure  and 
golden  lines,  and  by  two  oblong  spots  on 
each  side;  the  first  situated  about  the  middle 
of  the  body,  sniallish,  and  of  an  opaline  or 
changeable  golden  and  white  colour;  the  se- 
cond situated  near  the  tail,  larger,  and  of  a 
dark    purple;    abdouieu  while;    dorsal  iia- 


234 


M  U  R 


purplp,  streaked  with  light  bUie  ;  pectoral 
and  anal  pink-colour:  native  of  the  Indian 
seas :  observed  by  Dr.  Russel  near  Visgapa- 
tam:  inferior  as  a  food  to  the  red  iiuiliet, 
and  not  much  e^teeraed. 

4.  Alullus  barbatus,  inhabits  the  European, 
Mediterranean,  and  Pacific  seas :  body, 
wiien  deprived  of  its  scales,  red.  Nothing 
can  be  more  beautilul  than  tlie  colours  ol 
this  tish,  wlien  in  the  act  of  dying ;  and  no- 
thing more  delicious  than  its  llesh.  I'lie  Eo- 
mans  held  it  in  such  repute,  that  prodigious 
suras  were  given  for  them:  tliey  \\ere  fre- 
quently bought  at  their  weight  in  pure  silver, 
bee  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  273.  Ihere  are 
two  other  species. 

ISJULTlLA'l  ERAL,  in  geometry,  is  ap- 
plied to  those  ligurcs  which  have  more  tlian 
tour  sides  or  angles,  more  usually  called  po- 
lygons. 

MULTINOMIAL,  or  Multinomial 
ROOTS,  in  malhcmatics,  such  roots  as  are 
composed  of  many  names,  parts,  or  mem- 
ber-. ;  as,  (,  +  l>  -f  d  +  c,  &-c.     See  Root. 

MULTIPLE,  in  arithmetic,  a  number 
which  comprehends  someother  several  times, 
thus  ti  is  a  multiple  of  l?. 

Multiple  ratio,  or  proportion,  is 
tliat  which  is  between  multiples.  If  the  less 
term  of  the  ratio  is  an  aliquot  part  of  the 
greater,  tlie  ratio  of  the  greater  to  the  less  is 
eallei!  multiple,  and  that  of  the  less  to  the 
greater  submultiple.  A  s«bnuiltiple  number 
is  that  contained  in  the  multijile ;  thus,  the 
numbers  1,  2,  and  3,  are  submultiples  of  9. 
Duple,  triple,  &cc.  ratios,  as  also  subduples, 
subtriples,  &c.  are  so  many  species  of  mul- 
tiple and  submultiple  ratios.     Hi-e  Ratio 

MULl  [PLICAND.     See  Arithmetic. 

MULTIPLICATION.  See  Arithme- 
tic, and  Algebra. 

MULTIPLYING  GLASS.  See  Op- 
tics. 

MUM,  a  kind  of  malt  litjuor,  much  drunk 
in  Germany,  and  cliielly  brought  from  Bruns- 
wick, which  is  the  place  ot  most  note  for 
making  it.  '^  "^ 

MUMMY.     See  ESisALMiNG. 

MUNCIIAUSIA,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  order  polyadelphia  polyandria.  The  ca- 
lyx is  si.\-cleit;  petals  clawed;  stamina  in 
si.\  bodies;  pistils  superior.  There  is  one 
species,  a  tree  of  Java. 

MUNICIPAL,  in  the  Roman  civil  law, 
an  epitliet  which  signihes  invested  with  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  Roman  eiti.iens. 
Thus  the  municipal  cities  were  those  whose 
inhabitants  were  capable  of  enjoying  civil 
efiices  in  the  city  of  Uome. 

Municipal,  among  us,  is  applied  to  the  laws 
that  ohtain  in  any  particular  city  or  province: 
and  those  are  called  municipal  olhccrs  who 
are  elected  to  defend  the  interest  of  cities,  to 
Jiiainti'.iii  their  rights  and  privileges,  and  to 
preserve  order  and  harmoay  among  the  citi- 
zens; such  :is  mayors,  sheriffs,  &c. 
.  MUNTINGIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  ])olyandria  monogynia.  The  calyx  is 
Jive-parted;  corolla  live-petalled  ;  berry  live- 
celled  ;  seeds  many.  There  is  one  species, 
a  shrub  ol  Jamaica. 

MURiliNA,  a  genus  of  Ijshes  of  the  order 
apodal..  The  generic  character  is,  body 
tel-sha|>ed  ;  pectoral  tins  none ;  spiracle  oil 
each  side  the  neck. 

1.  Mura-na  Helena,  Roman  mura^na.  Tiiis 
fish,  the  celebi-at(;cl  favourite  of  the  antient 


M  U  R 

Romans,  who  considered  it  a3  or.e  of  ths 
most  luxurious  articles  of  the  table,  is  found 
in  considerable  jjleiUy  about  ^.everal  of  the 
Mediterranean  coasts,  vdiere  it  arrives  at  a 
siiie  at  least  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  of 
an  eel.  Its  colour  is  a  dusky  greenish-browTi, 
prettv  thickly  variegated  on  all  parts  with 
dull-yellow  s"ubangular  marks  or  patches, 
which  are  disposed  in  a'someuhat  different 
manner  in  dilferent  individuals,  and  are  ge- 
nerally scattered  over  with  smaller  sijeck- 
lings  of  brown,  the  whole  forming  a  kind' of 
obscurely  reticular  pattern.  The  murxiVa  is 
capable  of  living  with  etpial  facility  both  in 
fresli  and  salt  water,  though  principally  found 
at  sea.  In  its  manners,  it  much  resembles 
the  eel  and  the  conger,  being  extremely  vo- 
racious, and  preying  on  a  variety  of  siiialler 
animals.  The  antients,  who  ke])!  it  in  reser- 
voirs approprialerl  for  the  purpose,  are  said 
to  have  sometimes  tamed  it  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  come  at  the  signal  of  its  master  in  order 
to  receive  its  food.  Pliny  records  a  must 
disgusting  and  barbarous  instance  of  tyranny 
practised  by  one  Vedius  Pollio,  who  was  iii 
the  habit  of  causing  his  olti-nding  slaves  to  be 
thrown  into  the  reservoirs  in  which  he  kept 
hismunciue;  expressing  a  savage  delight  in 
thus  being  able  to  taste  in  an  improved  state 
their  altered  remains.  The  emperor  Augus- 
tus, according  to  Seneca,  honoured  th.s  man 
with  his  presence  at  one  of  his  entertain- 
ments ;  when  a  slave  happening  to  break  a 
valuable  chrystal  vase,  was  immediati-lv  or- 
dered to  be  thrown  to  the  muraMuc;  but  the 
poor  boy,  flying  to  the  feet  of  Augustus,  re- 
quested rather  to  die  any  death  tlian  thus  to 
be_  made  the  food  of  lishes.  The  emperor, 
being  informed  of  this  extraordinary  mode  of 
punishment,  immediately  ordered  all  the 
chrystal  vessels  in  the  house  to  be  broken 
belore  his  face,  and  the  ponds  of  the  barba- 
rous owner  to  be  completely  tilled  up  ;  at  the 
same  time  giving  the  slave  his  freedom,  but 
sparing  the  life  of  the  oflender  in  considera- 
tion of  lormer  friendship.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  tig.  a76. 

2.  Mursna  ophis,  spotted  mur.rna.  Ob- 
served by  t'orskal ;  native  of  the  Red  Sea ; 
has  a  rising  callus  between  the  eyes,  uokl- 
coloured  irides,  upper  lip  shorter  than"  the 
lower,  and  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  united  at 
the  tail.     Sec  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  iig.  275. 

3.  Murffina  catenata,  chain-striped  niu- 
ra-na.  This  species,  of  which  the  individuals 
l>itherto  described  appear  to  be  of  the  size  of 
a  smallish  eel,  is  of  a  brown  colour,  crossed 
by  large  chauilike  white  bands,  somewhat 
irregular  hi  their  form  on  dillerent  parts  of 
the  animal,  and  maiked  by  numerous  brown 
spots  and  freckles.  This  llsh  is  a  native  of 
Surinam. 

4.  Mur.Tna  reticulata,  reticulated  mur.Tua. 
In  size  and  general  form,  this  resembles  the 
preceding  species,  but  dill'ers  in  colours  and 
in  the  disposition  of  the  dorsal  tin,  which 
commences  immediately  at  the  back  of  the 
head,  and  is  continued  round  the  tail,  where 
it  unites  with  liie  vent-fin.  Nati\e  of  the 
Indian  seas. 

5.  MursMia  conger,  conger  eel;  inhabits 
the  European  seas  and  risers ;  is  extremely 
voracious,  feeding  on  dtlicr  fish,  crabs  in 
their  soft  state,  and  particularly  carcases.  It 
grows  to  a  vast  sia<'.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist, 
tig.  274.    There  are  four  other  species. 


M  U  R 
MURDER,  or  Murthep,.     See  Homi- 

CIDF. 

MUREX,  in  natural  history,  a  gei.us  of 
univalve  or  simple  shells,  witliout  any  hin"e, 
formed  of  a  single  piece,  ami  beset  with  Tu- 
bercles or  spines.  '1  he  mouth  is  large  and 
oblong,  and  has  an  expanded  lip,  and  tho 
clavicle  is  rougb. 

The  clavicle  of  the  murex  is  in  some  spe- 
cies elevated,  in  others  depressed ;  and  tht: 
mouth  is  sometimes  dentated,  and  at  others 
smooth  ;  the  lip  also  in  some  is  digitated,  in 
others  elated,  and  in  some  laciniated;  and 
the  columella  is  in  some  smooth,  in  others 
rugose. 

Murex,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  insects  be- 
longing to  the  or<ler  ot  vermes  teslacea. 
This  animal  is  of  the  snail  kind;  the  shell 
consists  of  one  spiral  valve,  rou^h,  with  mem- 
branaceous furrows  ;  and  the  aperture  termi- 
nates in  an  entire  canal,  either  straight,  or 
somewhat  ascending.  There  are  60  species, 
particularly  distinguished  by  peculiarities  iu 
their 'hells,  &c.  See  Plate' Nat.  Hist.  figs. 
•277,  278.  ^ 

In  the  accounts  of  a  Spanish  philosopher  k 
is  mentioned,  that  on  the  coasts  of  Guayaquil 
and  Guatimala  in  Peru,  the  murex  i's  also 
found.  The  shell  which  contains  it  adheres 
to  the  rocks  that  are  washed  by  the  sea.  It 
is  of  the  size  of  a  large  walnut.'  Tlie  liquor 
may  be  extracted  two  ways:  some  kill  the 
animal  after  they  have  drawn  it  out  of  the 
shell,  then  press  it  with  a  knife  from  head  (a 
tail,  separate  from  the  body  the  part  where 
the  liquor  is  collected,  and  throw  away  the 
rest,  \\hen  this  operation,  afier  being  re- 
peated on  several  snails,  has  afforded  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  fiiiid,  the  thread  intended  to 
be  dyed  is  dipped  in  it,  and  the  process  is 
finished.  The  colour,  which  is  at  lirst  of  the 
whiteness  of  milk,  becomes  afterwards  <»reen 
and  is  not  purp'.e  till  the  thread  is  drv.  ^Hiose 
wlio  disapprove  of  this  method  draw  the  fish 
partly  out  of  tlie  sliell,  and,  squeezing  it, 
make  it  yield  a  fiuid  which  serves  for  dyeing : 
they  repeat  this  operation  four  times  at  diller- 
ent inler\'als,  but  always  with  less  success. 
If  they  continue  it,  the  fish  dies.  No  colour 
at  present  known,  says  the  Ahhf:  Raynal,  can 
be  compared  to  this',  either  as  to  Itisire,  live- 
liness, or  duration.  It  succeeds  belter  on 
cotton  than  wool,  linen,  or  silk. 

MUUIAT,  gncti  sand  nf  Peru.  This 
ore,  which  was  brought  from  Peru  by  Dom- 
bey,  is  a  grass-green  powder,  mixed  with 
grains  of  quartz.  \\  hen  thrown  on  burning 
coals,  it  communicates  a  green  colour  to  the 
fiame.  It  is  soluble  both  in  nitric  and  mu- 
riatic acids  without  efl'ervescence.  The  so- 
lution is  green.  This  miueial  was  first  proved 
to  contain  muriatic  acid  by  Berthollet.  Af- 
terwards Proust  analyzed  it.  Hut  Vauqueli'n 
announced  that  he  considered  it  merely  as 
an  oxide  of  (  opper  mixed  with  common  salt. 
However,  a  siil)se<iuent  examination  con- 
vinced him  that  his  opinion  was  unfounded  ■ 
ami  that  the  mineral  was  reallv  a  carboiiat' 
as  had  been  afiirmed  by  Berthollet  and 
ProuM.  This  coiulusion  lias  been  conlirmed. 
by  Klaproth,  who  found  the  green  sand  cf 
Peru  composed  of 

7,5.0  oxide  of  copper 
10.1  muriatic  acid 
H>.<)  water. 


«. 


100.0 


-^•^  .     ITatueax,  Histomx. 


Z6ff 


Z67 


•  -^iru///y6^/vr  y/<^7///!.i'W/Jyf 


ZS£> 


it 


W^ti.  ^ 


I''  Jt 


K-^'/tiTTum' 


•^    ■'://  /^,     .-i/z^.'i.fe- 


Z73 


Azrt^^ 


Z7Z 


Z74 


17  & 


^/^//■t:r     .  ^■/■a/Zi,'^//-/^ 


'f^/luAr. 


277 


''Au/A-.r     r/rj^iC'/iMi/. 


l'rrnted^ua.i-J^o5.  fffr'^j^ac^TiaSi^s.  ^at^^Tzd^e  Sir.J32a/:k^uiTj-^ 


'SrdA  -v 


i^ 


M  U  R 

Mt'RTATIC  ACM  I).    'l'his«iibstaucpm»y 
be  piocmed  by  the  lollouing  process:  Lot  a 
snuill  pneiimatir  lioup;li  be  pi'ucurcil,  hollow- 
ed out  of  a  single  bliiek  of  wooil,  abonl  14 
iiiehes  long,  seven  Ijioatl,  niul  six  ileep.  Allcr 
it  lias  been  Iiullnued  oiil  to  tlie  (ieplji  ol  ail 
ineli,  leave  three  iiiehes  by  way  oi  siielf  on 
one  side,  and  cut  out  the  rest  to  the  ])roper 
depth,  giving  tlie    inside  of  the    jjottom   a 
circular  forni.      I'wo  inches  from  each  end 
onl  a  slit  in  the  shelf  to  tlie  depth  of  an 
inch,  and  lu'oud  enough  to  admit  the  end  of 
iiiKiU  glass  tubes,  or  the  points  of  small  re- 
torts.  This  trougli  is  to  be  iilled  with  mer- 
cury to  the  height  of  one  quarter  of  an  inch 
Hbove  tlie  surface  of  the  shelf.     Small  glass 
jars  are  to  be  procured  of  considerable  thick- 
iies-;  and  strength,  and  suitable  to  the  size  of 
the  trough.     One  of  tliem,  being  filled  with 
mercury  by  plunging  it  into  the  trough,  i-rto 
lie  placed  on  the  shelf  over  one  of  tlu;  slits. 
It  ought  to  be  supported  in  its  position  ;  and 
llie  most  convenient  method  ot  doing  that  is 
to  have  a  brass  cylinder  two   inches   high 
screwed  into  the  eclge  of  the  trougli,  just  op- 
posite to   the  border  of  the  shelf.     On  the 
top  of  it  are  fixed  two  flat  pieces  of  brass,  ter- 
muiating  each  in  a  semicircle,  moveable  free- 
ly upon  the  brass  cylinder,  and  forming  to- 
gether a  brass  arm  terminating  in  a  circle, 
tlie  centre  of  which  is  just  above  the  middle 
of  the  sht  in  the  shelf,  when  turned  so  as  to 
be  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  shelf.     This 
circle   is   made  to  embnice  the  jar:    being 
formed  of  two  distinct  pieces,  its  size  may  be 
increased  or  diminished  at  pleasure  ;  and  by 
means  of  a  brass  slider  it  is  made  to  catch  tlie 
jar  firmly. 

'I'iie  apparatus  being  thus  disposed,  two  or 
three  ounces  of  common  salt  are  to  be  put 
into  a  small  retort,  and  an  e(|ual  quantity  of 
sulphuric  acid  added  ;  tlie  beak  of  the  retort 
plunged  below  the  surface  of  the  mercury 
m  the  trough,  and  the  heat  of  a  lamp  ap- 
plied to  the  salt  in  its  bosom.  A  violent  ef- 
fervescence lakes  place;  and  air-bubbles 
rush  in  great  numbers  from  its  beak,  and 
rise  to  the  surface  of  the  mercury  in  a  visible 
white  smoke,  which  has  a  peculiar  odour. 
Alter  allowing  a  number  of  them  to  escape, 
till  it  is  supposed  that  the  common  air  which 
previously  existed  in  tlie  retort  has  been  dis- 
placed, plunge  its  beak  into  tlie  slit  in  the 
shelf  over  which  the  glass  jar  has  been  placed. 
The  air-bubbles  soon  displace  the  mercury 
and  fill  the  jar.  The  gas  thus  obtained  is 
called  muriatic  acid  gas. 

This  substance,  in  a  state  of  solution  in 
water,  was  known  even  to  the  alchemists ; 
but  in  a  gaseous  state  it  was  first  examined 
by  Dr.  Priestley,  in  an  early  part  of  that  il- 
lustrious career  in  which  he  added  so  much 
to  our  know  ledge  of  gaseous  bodies. 

I.  Muriatic  acid  gas  is  an  invisible  elastic 
fluid,  resembling  common  air  in  its  mechani- 
cal properties,  its  specific  gravity,  accord- 
ing to  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Kirwan,  is 
0.002315,  or  nearly  double  that  of  common 
air.  Its  snu'll  is  pungent  and  peculiar;  and 
whenever  it  co.mes  in  contact  with  common 
air,  it  forms  with  it  a  visible  white  smoke.  If 
a  bottle  of  it  is  druwn  into  the  mouth,  it  is 
found  to  taste  excessively  acid ;  much  more 
so  than  vinegar. 


M   U  R 

will  any  combustible  burn  in  it.  Il 
niarkable,  howi'ver,  that  it  has  a  considerable 
elVect  upon  (he  llame  of  combustible  bodies ; 
for  if  a  burning  taper  is  plunged  into  it,  the 
Ikiiiie,  just  before  it  goes  out,  may  be  ob- 
served to  assume  a  green  colour,  and  the 
same  tinge  appears  ne.xt  time  tlie  taper  is 
lighted. 

3.  if  a  little  water  is  let  up  into  a  jar  filled 
with  this  gas,  the  wiiole  gas  disappears  in  an 
instant,  the  mercui-y  ascends,  fills  the  jar,  and 
pushes  the  water  to  the  very  top.  The  rea- 
son of  this  is,  that  there  exists  a  strong  afli- 
nity  between  muriatic  acid  gas  and  water; 
an<l  whenever  tliey  come  in  contact,  they 
combine  and  form  a  liquid,  or,  which  is  the 
same  thing,  the  w'atcr  absorbs  the  gas.  Hence 
the  neces>ily  of  making  experiments  with 
this  gas  over  niercnry.  In  the  water  cistern 
not  a  partic'e  of  gas  would  be  procured. 
Nay,  the  water  of  the  trough  would  rush 
into  the  retort  and  fill  it  completely.  It  is 
this  afiinity  between  muriatic  acid  gas  and 
water  w  liich  occasions  the  while  smoke  that 
appears  when  the  gas  is  mixed  with  common 
air.  It  absorbs  the  vapour  of  water  which 
always  exists  in  common  air.  The  solution 
of  muriatic  acid  gas  in  water  is  usuallv  deno- 
minated simply  muriatic  acid  by  chemists. 

4.  If  a  little  of  the  blue-coloured  liipiid 
which  is  obtained  bv  boiling  red  cabbage- 
leaves  and  water,  is  let  up  into  a  jar  filled 
with  muriatic  acid  gas,  the  usual  absorption 
of  the  gas  takes  place,  but  the  liquid  at  the 
same  time  assumes  a  fine  red  colour.  This 
change  is  considered  by  chemists  as  a  cha- 
racteristic property  of  acids. 

5.  Muriatic  acid  gas  is  capable  of  com- 
bining with  oxygen.  To  obtain  the  combi- 
nation, we  have  only  to  put  a  quantity  of  the 
black  oxide  of  manganese  in  powder  into  a 
retort,  and  pour  over  it  liquid  muriatic  acid. 
Heat  is  then  to  be  applied  to  the  mixture, 
and  the  beak  of  the  retort  plunired  tinder 
water.  An  ei'fervescence  takes  place,  and  a 
green-coloured  gas  comes  out  at  the  beak  of 
the  retort,  which  may  be  received  in  tlie 
usual  manner  in  jari.  This  gas  has  been  as- 
certained to  be  a  compound  of  muriatic  acid 
and  oxygen.  It  is  called  oxy-muriatie  acid, 
and  will  come  under  our  consideration  here- 
after. 

6.  It  does  not  appear  from  any  experi- 
ments that  have  been  hitherto  made]  that  any 
of  the  simple  combustibles  are  capable  of 
combining  with  muriatic  acid  gas.  Dr. 
Priesllev  found,  that  sulplinr  absorbed  slowly 
about  tlie  fifth  part  of  it.  "Wiiat  remaiiie'd 
was  inflammable  air,  burning  with  a  blue 
flame,  and  not  absorbed  by  water.  He  found 
that  phosphorus  scarcely  absorbed  any  sen- 
sible ([Uantity  of  itj  and  that  chavooa!  absorbed 
it  vcr)'  fast.  Hydrogen  gas  does  not  produce 
any  sensible  cKange  in  it.  Neither  does  it 
seem  capable  of  beijig  affected  by  azotic 
gas. 

.Muriatic  acid  is  capable  of  combining  with 
two  doses  of  oxygcii  only.  With  the  first 
dose,  it  forms  oxymuriatic  acid;  with  the 
second,  hyperoxyinuriatic  acid.  The  first 
of  them  ought,  in  strict  propriety,  to  be 
termed  an  oxide  rather  tliau  an  acid. 

MUHIATS.    The  muriats  are  a  genus  of 


i\r  U  S 


2.1.5 


and  when  plunged  into  jars  filli'd  with  it,  they 
die  iMtautaneouslv  in  convulsions,    Neillier 


2.  Animals  are  incapable  of  breathing  it, .  salts  which  have  been  long  known,  and  from 


w  hicli  indeed  the  whole  of  the  class  h;ive  lior- 

rowed  their  »J!U«  ;  for  to  Ihtioi  belong*  com- 

ii  gS 


re-  mon  salt,  the  most  important  and  the  most 
indispensably  necessary  of  all  the  salts,  lliey 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  following  pro- 
perties; 

When  lieated,  they  melt,  and  arfr  volati- 
lized, at  least  in  pari,  without  undergoing  de- 
composition. 1  he  first  portions  which  fly  off 
contain  an  excess  of  acid. 

Not  in  tlie  least  altered  by  combustibles, 
even  wlien  assisted  by  heat. 

Soluble  in  water.  I'or  the  most  part  they 
raise  the  boiling-point  of  water. 

Elfcrvesce  witli  sulphuric  acid,  and  white 
acrid  fumes  of  inuriatii-  acid  are  disengaged. 

When  mixed  with  nitric  acid,  they  cxiiale 
the  odour  of  oxymuriatic  acid. 

MUKI{j\IN,  or  Gargle,  a  contagious 
disease  among  cattle,  principally  caused  by  a 
h(k  dry  season,  or  rather  by  a  general  pu- 
trefaction of  the  air,  wliicli  begets  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  blood,  and  a  swelling  in  the 
throat,  that  soon  proves  mortal,  and  is  com- 
municated from  one  to  another,  though  it 
generally  goes  no  fartlier  than  to  those  of  the 
syne  kind. 

The  symptoms  of  this  disease  are,  a  hanging 
down  and  swelling  of  the  head,  abundance  of 
gum  in  the  eyes,  rattling  in  the  throat,  $i 
sliort  breath,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  stag- 
gering, a  hot  breath,  and  a  shining  tongue. 

MrUK.WA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der decandria  moiiygynia.  The  calyx  is 
five-parted ;  corolla  bell-shaped,  with  a  ncc- 
tarinm  encircling  the  germ ;  berry  one-seeded. 
There  is  one  species,  a  tree  of  the  East  In- 
dies. 

MUS,  Me  rat,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of 
the  order  glires.  The  generic  cliaracter  is, 
upper  front-teeth  wedge-shaped ;  grigdevs 
on  each  side  three,  sometimes  only  two; 
clavicles  or  collar-bones  in  the  skeleton. 

This  numerous  tribe  constitutes  a  forini- 
dablo  phalanx  aga'iost  wjiich  mankind  find  it 
necess:irv  to  employ  the  various  artifices  of 
extirpation,  in  order  to  lessen  the  ravages  o::- 
ca^ionallv  sulTered  by  its  depredations.  In 
our  own  island,  the  black  and  tiie  brown  rats,, 
the  field  and  domestic  mice,  are  the  principal 
destroyers ;  but  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  at. 
well  as  in  the  hotter  regions  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America,  mairv  other  species,  still  more 
noxious  and  formidable,  are  found,  1  he  dil- 
fereiit  kinds  vary  considerably  in  their  man- 
ner Qi  life,  some  ccnifining  themselvcoS  entire- 
ly to  vegetable  food,  while  otjiets  are  poly- 
phagous,  destroying  with  indiscriminate  avi- 
dity almost  any  animal  or  vegetable  substance 
to  which  thcv'can  gain  access.  Thwr  pace 
is,  in  general,  rather  quick,  and  their  most 
usual  residence  is  in  obscure  stibtcrraneoua 
retiyats,  from  which  they  principally  emerge 
by  niglst.  They  are  of  a  prolific  nature,  and 
tiie  females  ur'o  furnislied  with  numerous 
teals,  Some  species  are  migratory ;  otheis 
local  or  attached  to  the  ssme  residence. 
Lastly,  some  are  of  an  uncouth  form  and  dis- 
agreeable appearance,  while  others  are  re- 
markable for  the  elegance  of  tiieir  colours. 
In  the  i£th  edition  oi  tiie  Systeina  Naturae, 
Linnteus  included  in  this  genus  the  jerboas, 
the  cftvys,  and  several  other  animals  whicii 
are  now  formed  into  distinct  genera.  Thi* 
mode  of  distribuiion  n-ii?at  perhaps  be  car- 
ried still  farlher,  the  habit  or  appearance  of 
some  species  dilfej  uig  very  considerably  frow 
that  <ji  the  u»aj"ir  part  <*f  H»e  tfibc. 


236 


MUS. 


1.  Miis  z'bethicus,  tm]?k  rat.  In  tlie  Me- 
rioirs  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  for 
the  year  1725,  there  is  a  complete  and  excel- 
lent description  of  this  animiil  l)v  Mons.  Sar- 
razin,  at  that  time  king's  physician  at  Que- 
bec. It  is  from  the  above  descriiJtion  that 
the  count  de  liiiffon  has  drawn  tip  the  major 
part  of  his  own  account,  and  inileed  it  docs 
not  appear  possible  to  add  any  tiling  material 
to  what  Mons.  Sarrazin  has  delivered.  This 
animal  is  of  the  size  of  a  small  rabbit,  and  is 
extremely  common  in  Canada.  Its  head  is 
short,  like  that  of  a  water-rat;  the  eyes  large; 
tjie  ears  very  siiort,  roimded,  anci  covered 
internally  as  well  as  extemallv  with  hair.  It 
has,  like  t!ie  rest  of  this  tribe,  four  very  strong 
cutting  teeth,  of  which  those  in  the  lower 
jaw  are  near  an  inch  long;  those  in  the  up- 
per somewhat  shorter:  the  fur  on  the  whole 
body  is  soft  and  glossy,  and  beneath  is  a  tine 
I'nr,  or  thick  down,  as  in  the  beaver ;  the 
toes  on  all  the  feet  are  simple,  or  without 
iv.cmbranes,  and  are  covered  with  hair;  the 
tail  is  nearly  as  long  ;.s  the  body,  and  is  of 
the  same  iorm  with  that  of  the  sorex  mosch.a- 
tus  or  musk  shrew,  being  laterally  compress- 
ed ;  it  is  nearly  naked,  and  covered  with 
small  stales  intermixed  with  scattered  hairs. 
The  generiil  colour  of  the  animal  is  a  reddish 
brov.n  ;  of  tl'.e  tail  ash-colour.  In  its  general 
appearar.ce  tliii  animal  greatly  resembles  the 
beaver,  except  in  size,  and  in  the  form  of  its 
tail.  It  has  also  siiiiilar  instincts  anil  disposi- 
tions ;  living  in  a  social  slate  in  the  winter, 
•in  curioiisl) -constructed  huts  or  cabins,  Iniiit 
near  the  edge  of  some  lake  or  river.  These 
3u;ls  are  abuut  two  feet  and  a  half  or  three 
(feet  in  diameter,  plaisteredwith  great  neatne>s 
in  the  inside,  and  covered  cxternallv  w,ith  a 
kin -J  of  basket-w-ork,  of  rushes,  &c.  interlaced 
together  so  as  to  form  a  compact  and  secure 
guard,  impermeable  by  water.  During  the 
V'inler  these  receptacles  are  generally  covered 
by  several  feet  of  snow,  and  the  animals  re- 
side in  them  without  being  incommoded  by 
it,  several  families  commonly  inhabiting  each 
.  cabin.  It  is  adiled  that  the  insides  of  the 
receptacles  are  fnrni>hed  with  a  series  of 
.  steps,  to  prevent  them  IVom  being  injured  by 
inundations.  Thest- animals  do  not  lay  up  a 
,  stock  ol  provisions  like  the  beaver,  but  form 
subterraneous  passages  beneath  and  round 
their  cabins,  to  give  themselves  an  oijpoilu- 
nity  of  procuring  occasional  supplies  ot  roots, 
herbage,  &c.  According  to  .\!ons.  Sarrazin 
tiie  animal,  is  particularly  calculated  by  na- 
ture for  its  subterraneous  habits,  having  a 
great  muscular  force  in  its  skin,  which  en- 
ables it  to  contract  its  body  occasionally  into 
a  small  volume:  it  has  also  a  great  supple- 
tiess  in  the  false  ribs,  which  easily  admit  of 
contrai  lion,  so  tirat  It  is  enable<l  to  pass 
through  holes  impervious  to  much  smaller 
animal i  than  itself. 

During  the  summer  these  creatures  wan- 
der about  in  pairs,  feeding  voraciously  on 
herbs  and  roots.  Their  odour,  which  resem- 
bli.-s  that  of  musk,  is  so  strong  as  to  be  per- 
ceived at  a  <:onsiderable  distance;  and  the 
skin,  when  taken  from  the  body,  still  retains 
the  scent:  this  nnisky  odour  is  owing  to  a 
whitish  tiuid  deposited  in  certain  glands  situ- 
ated near  the  origin  of  the  tail.  It  has  been 
supposed  tliat  the  calamus  aromaticus,  or 
sweet  llag  (a(orus  calamus,  Lin.),  which 
thi-se  .inimals' select  as  a  favourite  food,  may 
eontnljutc  lo  their  Ira^raut  smell.      They 


Tvalk  and  run  in  an  awkward  manner,  like 
the  beaver,  and  they  caimot  s.vim  so  readily 
as  that  animal,  their  feet  being  unfurnished 
with  webs.  '1  heir  voice  is  said  to  resemble 
a  groan.  The  females  produce  their  young 
towards  the  beginning  of  summer,  and  have 
live  or  six  at  a  time ;  and  th'se,  if  taken 
carlv,  are  easily  tamed,  and  become  very 
sportive;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  tail, 
which  in  the  full-grown  annual  is  as  long  as 
the  body,  is  at  tliat  perioil  very  short. 

The  fur  of  this  species  is  greatly  esteemed 
as  a  commercial  article,  resembling  that  of 
the  beaver.  Linna-us,  in  the  twelfth  edition 
of  the  Systenia  Natnra-,  rankexl  the  animal 
under  the  genus  castor ;  and  Mr.  Pennant 
has  fol'owed  his  example.  Mr.  Sclu-eber, 
however,  considers  it  as  belonging  in  strict 
propriety  to  tlie  present  genus,  blee  Plate 
Nat.  Hist.  fig.  279. 

2.  Mus  decumanus,  Norway  rat.  This 
domestic  species,  which  is  now  become  the 
common  rat  of  our  own  island,  and  is  jiopc- 
larly  known  by  the  name  of  the  Norway  rat, 
is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  India  and  Per- 
sia, from  which  countries  it  has  been  imported 
into  Europe.  In  England  it  seems  to  have 
made  a  national  concpiest  over  the  black  rat, 
which  is  now  become  rare  in  comparison. 
The  brown  rat  is  larger  than  the  black  rat, 
measuring  nine  inches  from  the  nose  to  the 
tail,  w  hich  is  of  the  same  length,  and  marked 
into  about  200  rings  or  circular  spaces;  the 
colour  of  the  animal  is  a  pale  tawny-grey, 
whitish  beneath  ;  the  fore  feet  have  four  toes, 
with  a  claw  in  ])lace  of  a  fifth.  It  is  a  bold 
and  voracious  animal,  and  commits  great 
havoc  in  granaries,  &c.  Sometimes  it  takes 
up  its  residence  in  the  banks  of  waters,  and 
swims  occasionally  with  almost  as  much  faci- 
lity as  the  water  rat,  or  mus  amphibius.  In 
its  general  manner  of  life  it  agrees  with  the 
black  rat ;  and  not  only  devours  grain  and 
fruits,  but  prevs  on  poultry,  rabbits,  and  \a- 
rious  other  animals.  It  is  a  very  prolific  spe- 
«ies,  and  produces  from  ten  to  twelve  or  four- 
teen, or  even  sometimes  eighteen,  young  at 
a  time.  ^\'hen  closely  pursued,  it  will  sonie- 
times  turn  upon  its  adversary,  and  bite  with 
great  severity.  It  seems  to  have  made  its 
lirst  appearance  in  England  about  seventy 
years  ago,  and  is  still  much  less  tVe(iuent  in 
l-'rance  and  some  other  parts  of  the  continent 
than  the  black  rat. 

3.  Mus  rattus,  black  rat.  This  species, 
like  the  former,  though  now  so  common  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  is  supposed  lo  have 
been  originally  introduced  from  India  and 
Persia.  Its  general  length  from  nose  to  tail 
is  seven  inches,  and  of  the  tail  eight  inches; 
the  colour  of  the  head  and  whole  upper  part 
of  the  body  is  a  dark  iron  or  blackish  grey  ; 
the  belly  is  of  a  dull  ash-colour;  the  logs  are 
dusky,  and  veiy  slightly  covered  with  li:iir; 
the  fore  feet,  as  in  the  brown  rat,  have  only 
four  toes,  with  a  small  claw  in  place  of  a  fitth; 
the  tail  IS  nearly  naked,  coated  with  a  scaly 
skin,  and  marked  into  mnnerous  divisions  or 
rings.  Like  the  former  species,  this  animal 
breeds  frequently,  and  conmionly  brings 
about  six  or  seven  young  at  a  time.  Some- 
times they  increase  so  fast  as  to  overstock  the 
place  of  their  abode,  in  which  case  they  fight 
and  devour  eaih  other.  It  is  said  that  this  is 
the  reason  why  these  aninvals,  after  being  ex- 
tremely troublesome,  sometimes  disappear 
buddtJly.     Various  arc  the  methods  made 


use  of  for  the  expulsion  of  rats  from  the  place?, 
they  frequent;  among  which  none  is  uiuil 
singular  than  that  mentioned  by  Gesner,  who 
tells  us  he  had  been  informed  that  if  a  rat  is 
caught  and  a  bell  tied  round  its  neck,  and 
then  ict  at  liberty,  it  will  drive  away  the  rest 
wherever  it  g:)es.  '1  his  expedieiit  appears 
to  be  occasionally  practiied  in  modern  times, 
with  success.  A  gentleman  travelling  througii 
Mecklenburgl'.,  about  30  years  ago,  was  wit- 
ness to  the  following  curious  circumstance  in 
the  post-house  in  New  Stargard.  After  din- 
ner the  landlord  placed  on  the  floor  a  lar-e 
dish  of  soup,  and  ga\e  a  loud  whistle,  lu.- 
mediately  there  came  into  the  room  a  iiiasliii, 
a  fine  Angora  cat,  an  old  raven,  and  a  re- 
markably large  rat,  with  a  bell  about  its  neck. 
The  four  animals  went  to  the  dish,  and  with- 
out ilisturbing  each  other,  fed  together;  after 
which  the  dog,  cat,  and  rat,  lay  before  the 
fire,  while  the  raven  hop|)ed  about  the  room. 
The  landlord,  after  accounting  lor  the  tanii- 
liarity  which  existed  among  the  animals,  ii>- 
fbrmed  his  guest  that  the  rat  was  the  mo.>t 
usefiil  of  the  four,  for  the  noise  he  made,  had 
completely  freed  the  house  hom  the  rats  and 
mice  with  which  it  was  before  infested. 

4.  Mus  mu-culus,  common  mouse.  The 
manners  and  appearance  of  this  little  animal 
are  so  universally  known,  that  it  seems  al- 
most unnecessary  to  particularise  it  by  a  for- 
mal description.  It  is  a  general  inhabitant 
of  almost  every  part  of  the  Old  Continent, 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  originally  a, 
native  of  America,  though  now  siiUiCTeiitly 
common  in  many  parts  ot  the  New  World,, 
as  well  as  in  many  of  its  scattered  islands. 

The  mouse,  tho'.igh  wild  and  extremely 
timid,  is  not  of  a  ferocious  disposition,  but 
may  be  easily  tamed,  aixl  soon  after  it  has 
been  taken,  will  begin  to  feed  without  fear, 
in  the  immediate  presence  of  its  captors. 
']"he  white  variety  is  frecpiently  kept  in  a 
tame  state,  and  receives  an  atUitional  beauty 
from  the  bright  red  colour  of  its  eyes ;  a  par- 
ticLiLrity  which  generally  accompanies  the 
white  varieties,  not  only  of  this  tribe,  but  of 
many  other  quadrupeds. 

The  mouse  is  a  prolific  animal :  the  expe- 
riment of  Aristotle  is  well  known,  and  often 
quoted.  He  placed  a  pregnant  mouse  in  a 
vessel  of  grain,  and  after  a  short  space  found 
in  it  no  less  than  the  number  of  120,  all 
which,  he  concluded,  were  the  descenclants 
of  the  mouse  he  had  inclosed. 

The  fur  of  the  mouse  is  remarkably  soft 
and  elegant,  and  the  structure  of  the  hair  in 
this  animal,  as  well  as  in  the  rat,  and  proba- 
bly in  many  others  of  this  genus,  is  singularly 
curious:  each  hair,  when  microscopically 
examined,  app<'aring  internally  divided  into 
a  kind  of  transverse  partitions,  as  if  by  the 
continuation  of  a  spiral  fibre;  a  structure 
very  dillerent  from  that  of  the  hair  of  most 
other  animals,  and  of  which  the  particular 
nature  seems  not  verv  distinctlv  understood. 

Deiliam,  in  his  ?liysico-l'lieology,  con- 
ceives that  this  mechanism  of  a  spiral  fibre 
may  serve  for  the  "  gentle  evacuation  of 
some  humour  out  of  the  body ;"  and  adds, 
that  "  perhaps  the  hair  serves  as  well  for  the 
insensible  perspiration  of  hairy  animals  as  to 
fence  against  cold  and  wet."  Whatever  is 
the  real  nature  or  use  of  the  above  structure, 
its  appearance  cannot  fail  to  excite  astonish- 
ment ill  those  who  lalvc  tiie  pauis  of  cxumin- 


?ng  rt  viith  a  good  microscope,  by  whirli 
thfv  will  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  this  curious 
apijcarance. 

In  Aldrovandus,  who  relates  the  circum- 
staiicf  from  Gesner,  we  meet  with  a  direc- 
tion lor  than<>;ini!;,  as  it  wi're,  a  mouse  into  a 
est,  by  m;il<ing  it  tlie  incessant  pei-secutor 
and  enemy  ot  the  rent  of  its  species.  'I'his  is 
to  be  elFected  l)y  placing  several  mice  toije- 
ther  in  a  vessel  without  food,  when,  alter  a 
certain  space,  they  will  be  so  slinnilaled  by 
liuu'^cr  as  to  destroy  each  other:  the  sur- 
viving animal  beini^  then  liberated,  will,  ac- 
cording to  this  author,  become  the  most  de- 
structive enemy  of  his  own  tribe,  and  will  kill 
every  one  he  meets.  Another  singular  and 
most  crUi-1  experiment  is  quoted  by  .-Vldro- 
vandns  from  .Mizaldus,  who  tells  us,  that  if 
two  or  three  mice  are  shut  up  in  an  earllnii 
pot,  and  placed  over  a  lire,  the  shrill  cries 
which  they  utter  will  attract  llie  mice  in  the 
otiier  parts  of  the  liouse,  and  cause  them  to 
precipitate  themselves  into  tlie  lire.  AMiat- 
ever  truth  there  may  be  in  this  experiment, 
it  is  certain  thai,  on  the  shrill  cry  of  distress 
littered  by  one  of  these  animals  ke])t  with 
several  oiheis  in  a  cage,  the  rest  will  he- 
queiitly  attack  and  destroy  it. 

J.  Mus  svlvaticus,  wood  mouse.  This 
animal  chielly  freijuents  dry  and  elevated 
groimds,  and  is  found  in  wootis  and  lields  in 
great  pi  nly.  It  appears  to  be  common  in 
all  the  temperate  parts  of  Kuropt;,  and  even 
in  Russia.  It  sometimes  varies  in  size,,  indi- 
viduals being  occasionally  met  with  which 
exceed  the  rest  in  magnitude,  thovigii  dilier- 
ing  in  no  other  respect.  Its  general  lenglli 
is  about  four  inches  and  a  half  from  nose  to 
tail,  and  the  tail,  which  is  slightly  covered 
with  hair,  measures  four  inches.  Tlie  colour 
of  the  animal  is  a  yellowish  brown  above  and 
whitisli  beneath;  the  colours  being  pretty 
di-linctl_\  marked  or  separ^ited;  the  eyes  are 
lull  and  black,  and  tlie  snout  rather  bUmt. 
These  animals  retire  into  hole>  among  brusli- 
wood,  and  under  the  trunks  of  trees,  wliere 
they  amass  great  quantities  of  acorns,  nuts, 
ana  beech-mast.  According  to  IJuffon,  a 
whole  bushel  has  sometimes  been  found  in  a 
single  hole.  '1  hese  holes  are  about  a  foot  or 
more  under  ground,  and  are  often  divided 
into  two  apartments;  the  one  for  hving  in 
alone  with  their  young,  the  other  for  a  ma- 
gazine of  provisions.  Considi-rable  damage 
is  often  done  to  plantations  by  these  animals, 
which  carry  off  new-sown  acorns,  &c.  Tlie 
count  de  IJul'tbn  aftirnis,  tliat  in  France  more 
mischief  is  done  by  these  creatures  tlian  by 
all  the  birds  and  other  animals  |)ut  together  ; 
and  adds,  that  the  only  way  to  prevent  this 
is  by  laying  traps,  at  ten  p.ic._s  asunder, 
through  the  whole  extent  of  the  sown 
ground.  No  other  apjuratus,  he  savs,  is 
necessary  than  a  roasted  walnut,  placed  un- 
der a  stone  supported  by  a  stick:  the  ani- 
mals come  to  eat  the  walnut,  which  thev 
prefer  to  acorns  ;  and  as  the  walnut  is  ijxed 
to  the  stick,  whenever  they  touch  it,  the 
stone  falls  and  kills  them.  The  same  expe- 
dient may  be  as  successfully  used  for  the 
destruction  of  the  short-tailed  field  mouse, 
wliicli  likewise  commits  great  havoc  in  fields 
and  plantations.  W  hen  the  count  de  Buifbn 
fust  ]iractised  this  experiment,  he  desired 
that  all  the  held  mice  thus  taken  in  traps 
might  be  brought  to  him,  ami  found  with 
astoiiishmeut,  tlut  above  100  were  taken  each 


MUS. 

day  from  a  piece  of  ground  consisting  only  of 
:\bout  40  of  our  acrs.  I'roni  the  lith  of 
November  to  the  8lh  of  December,  above 
2000  were  destroyed  in  this  manner.  When 
the  froH  becomes  severe,  they  retire  into 
their  holes,  and  feed  on  the  stoves  they  have 
collected.  They  abound,  like  many  other 
animals  of  tJiis  genus,  chielly  in  autumn,  and 
are  far  less  conunon  in  the  s|)ring  ;  for  if  pro- 
visions happen  to  fail  them  in  the  winter,  it 
is  thought  that  they  destroy  each  other;  a 
circumstance  which  is  known  occasionally  to 
take  place  in  many  other  ?|)ecies. 

The  long-tailed  field  mouse  is  a  very  pro- 
lific animal,  breeding  more  than  once  a  year, 
and  often  producing  litters  of  ten  at  a  time. 
Ill  one  of  their  holes  have  been  found  two 
females,  with  20  young.  Specimens  have 
sometimes  been  seen  perfectly  white,  with 
red  eyes. 

6.  Mus  messorius,  harvest  mouse.  This 
small  specks  seems  to  have  escaped  tlie  no- 
tice of  liritish  naturalists  till  it  was  observed 
by  the  late  Mr.  Gilbert  White,  of  Selburne 
in  Hampshire,  in  which  county  it  is  frequent. 
.Mr.  \\  kite,  in  the  year  17(37,  communicated 
the  animal  to  Mr.  Pennant,  who  introduced 
it  into  the  British  Zoology. 

"  These  mice,"  says  Mr.  White,  "  are 
much  smaller  and  more  slender  than  the  inns 
domestlcns  medius  of  Pay,  and  have  more 
of  the  squirrel  or  dormouse  colour;  their 
belly  is  «  bite  ;  a  straight  line  along  their  sides 
divides  the  shades  oi  their  back  and  belly. 
They  never  enter  into  houses,  are  carried 
into  ricks  and  barns  with  the  sheaves,  abound 
in  harvest,  and  build  their  nest  amidst  the 
straws  of  corn  above  around,  and  sometimes 
in  thistles.  They  breed  as  many  as  eight  at 
a  litter,  in  a  little  round  nest  composed  of  the 
blades  of  grass  or  w  heat.  One  of  these  nests 
was  procured  in  the  autumn  of  17(37,  most 
artificially  platted,  and  composed  of  the 
1  blades  of  wlieat,  perfectly  round,  and  about 
the  size  of  a  cricket-ball,  with  the  aperture 
so  ingeniously  closed,  that  there  was  no  dis- 
covering to  what  part  it  belonged.  It  was 
so  compact  and  well  hlled,  tliat  it  would  roll 
across  the  table  without  being  discomposed, 
though  it  contained  eight  little  mice  that 
were  naked  and  blind.  As  this  nest  was  per- 
fectly full,  how  could  the  dam  come  at  her 
litter  res])ectively,  so  as  to  administer  a  teat 
to  each?  Perhaps  she  opens  dill'erent  places 
for  that  puipose,  adjusting  them  again  when 
the  iMisiness  is  over  ;  but  she  could  not  pos- 
sibly be  contained  hei-self  in  the  ball  w  ith  l:er 
young,  which  moreover  would  be  daily  in- 
creasing in  bulk.  This  wonderful  procreant 
cra<lle,  an  elegant  instance  of  the  effect  of 
instinct,  was  found  in  a  wheat-field,  suspend- 
ed in  the  head  of  a  thistle." 

Mr.  White  adds,  that  "though  these  ani- 
pials  hang  their  nests  for  breeding  up 
amidst  the  strawj  of  standing  corn,  above 
ground,  yet  in  the  winter  they  burrow  deep 
in  the  earth,  anil  make  warm  beds  of  grass ; 
but  their  grand  rendezvous  seems  to  be  in 
corn-ricks,  into  which  the)'  are  carried  in 
harvest."  A  neighbour  of  Mr.  White's 
housed  an  oat-rick,  in  which  were  some  hun- 
dreds assembleil  under  the  thatch.  1  he 
measure  of  th(;  animal  is  just  two  inches  and  a 
((uarter  from  nose  to  tail,  and  the  tail  is  just 
two  inches  long.  Two  of  them  in  a  scale 
just  weighed  dowji  a  copper  halfpenny,  which 


237 

was  al  out  the  third  of  an  ounce  avoirdupo.s; 
so  tiiat  hey  may  Ix-  considered  as  the  small- 
est of  the  iiritish  ((uadrupeds. 

7.  Mus  minutus,  minute  mouse.  This 
species,  according  to  Dr.  Pallas,  is  frequent 
in  the  birch-woods  of  Siberia,  as  well  as  In 
many  of  the  temperate  irarts  of  Knssia,  fre- 
quenting corn-field's  and  barns.  Its  general 
colour  is  a  deep  taw  ny  above  and  white  be- 
low ;  tlie  nose  is  sharpish  and  of  a  dusky  co- 
lour, with  a  whiteness  at  the  corners  of  the 
month  ;  the  ears  are  iiid  in  the  Inr;  the  feet 
grey ;  the  length  from  nose  to  tail  is  little 
more  tlian  two  inches,  and  the  weight  not 
half  a  dram.  Those  found  in  Siberia  are  of  a 
richer  or  more  fulvous  colour  than  those  of 
other  regions.  This  animal.  Dr.  Pallas  says, 
is  very  frequent  in  autumn  and  winter  in 
corn-ricks  and  about  granaries,  and  is  often 
found  intermixed  with  the  mus  agrarius,  hi- 
habiting  similar  places.  It  seems  extremely 
nearly  allied  to  the  harvest  mouse,  and  it  is 
not  im|)ossible  that  it  may  tii  reality  be  the 
same  animal,  the  dtfl'erences  appearing^  al- 
most too  slight  for  a  specific  distinction. 

8.  Mus  amphibius,  water  rat.  The  water 
rat  is  a  general  inhabitant  of  the  temperate, 
and  even  tiie  colder,  parts  of  Kurope  aii'l 
Asia,  and  occurs  also  in  North  America,  fre- 
quenting rivers  and  stagnant  waters,  and 
forming  its-burrows  in  the  banks.  It  is  of  a 
thicker  and  shorter  fonn  than  many  odiers 
of  this  genus,  and  has  somewhat  of  the  shape 
ot  a  beaver.  Mr.  Ray,  following  an  error  of 
Wiliughby,  describe^  it  as  having  the  fore- 
feet Webbed;  and  Linna'us,  in  his   Systema 

:  Natura',  characterizes  it  from  that  verv  cir- 
I  cumstance,  but  acknowledges  that  he  had  not 
!  himself  examined  the  anunal.      In   realitv, 
'•  however,  there  is  no  such  appearance  in  the 
,  feet  of  the  water  rat,  and  the  notion  seems  to 
I  have  been  hastily  adopted  from  observing  the 
i  facility  with  which  it  swims  and  dives.     The 
I  general  length  of  the  water  rat  is  about  seven 
inches,  and  the  tail  about  live.     Its  colour  is 
blackish-ferruginous  above,   and  deep  cine- 
I  reous  beneath  ;  the  nose  is  thick  and  blunt;. 
'  the  eyes  small,  the  tars  roiaidid  and  hi<l  in. 
the  fur.     In  colour  it  appears  to  vary  in  dit- 
i  fercnt  regions,  being  sometimes  nearly  Wacfc, 
and  sometimes  ;aler  than  usual.     It' also' va- 
ries as  to  size,  and  the  varieties  have  been 
mistakenly   considered    as    di.stinct    species. 
This  animal  never  frequents  houses,  but  con- 
fines itself  to  the  banks  of  waters,. and  is  sup- 
posed to  live  on  fish,  frogs,  8tc.  and  probably 
on  various  roots  and  other  vegetable  sub- 
stances.     Dr.  Pallas-,  however,  is  unwilling 
to  ailmit  that  it  preys  at  all  upon  fish,  thougti 
reported  so  to  do  by  the  count  de  Buffon  and 
others.     At  some  seasons  of  the  year  it  is 
observed  to  have  a  musky  scent.     The  fe- 
-fliale  produces  her  young  in  April,  and  ge- 
nerally brings  about  live  or  six  at  a  time. 
The  measures  of  this  species,  as  given  by 
Mr.  Schreber,  are  as  follow,  viz.  Irom  nose 
to  tail  six  inches  and  a  half,  and  of  the  tail 
three  inches. 

9.  Mus  lemmris,  lemming  rat.  Tlie  won- 
deifiil  m'grations  of  this  species  have  long 
rendered  it  celebrated  in  the  annals  of  natural 
histor)'.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  no 
accural*  figure  of  it  was  published  till  Dr. 
Pallas  caused  it  to  be  engraved  in  his  excel- 
lent work  on  the  Glires. 

The  hist  de-c,iber  of  the  lemming  seems- 
to  have  been  Olaus  Magnus,  fram  wliojUi 


I 


238 

sesi^ral  of  tlie  olScr  naturalists  have  copied 
their  account'*.  Ati.rwards  AS'oiinius  gave  a 
more  psrllcular  description;  siiici;  wiiich, 
Ricaut,  ill  tlie  Pliilosophical  Transactions, 
Jjiinaus,  in  the  Acta  tlolmiensia,  and  Dr. 
Pailas,  in  hii  publication  before  mentioned, 
Jiave  still  farllier  elucidated  its  liistorj'  and 
manners.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  iSb. 

Ti\e  lemming  differs  in  size  and  colour  ac- 
cording to  ihe  regions  it  inhabits:  those 
which  are  found  in  Norway  being  almobt  as 
large  as  a  water  rat,  while  those  of  Lapland 
anil  .Siberia  are  scarce  larger  than  a  field 
mouse  ;  the  Norwegian  measuring  more  than 
iive  inches  from  nose  to  tail,  while  those  of 
Lapland  and  Siberia  scarce  e.>;ceed  tliree. 
The  colour  of  the  Norway  kind  is  an  elegant 
variegation  of  black  and  tawny  on  the  upper 
parts,  disposed  in  patches  and  clo'ided  mark- 
liigs;  the  sides  of  the  head  and  the  under 
parts  of  the  body  being  white,  the  legs  anil 
tail  greyish.  In  the  Lapland  kind  the  colour 
is  chieilv  a  ta\vny  brown  above,  vMth  some 
indiiliuc't  dusky  variegations,  and  beneath  of 
a  dull  white ;  the  claws  are  also  smaller  than 
ill  t!ie  Norwegian  animal.  The  head  of  the 
lemming  is  large,  short,  thick,  and  well  fur- 
red ;  the  snout  very  obtuse ;  the  ears  very 
*  small,  rounded,  and  hid  in  the  fur;  the  eyes 
sni^il;  the  neck  short  and  broad;  the  body 
thick;  and  the  limbs  short  and  stout,  espe- 
ciall)'  the  fore  legs ;  the  fore-feet  are  broad, 
t'urnishetl  with  five  toes,  which  have  strong, 
coiiijjressed,  and  somewhat  crooked  claws,  of 
which  the  three  middle  ones  are  longer  than 
the  rest;  on  the  hind-feet  are  also  hve  toes, 
with  smaller  claws  than  those  of  the  fore-feet ; 
the  tail  is  very  short,  thick,  cylindric,  obtuse, 
and  covered  with  strong  hairs,  disposed  like 
those  of  a  pencil  at  the  tip. 

The  natural  or  general  residence  of  the 
lemming  is  in  the  Alpine  or  mouiuainous 
parts  of  Lapland  and  Norway,  from  which 
tracts,  at  particular  but  uncertain  periods,  it 
descends  info  the  plains  below  in  nnmense 
troops,  and  by  its  incredible  numbers  be- 
comes a  temporary  scourge  to  the  country, 
devouring  the  grain  and  herbage,  and  com- 
niilting  devastations  equal  to  those  caused 
by  an'arniy  of  locu-ts.  These  migrations  of 
the  lemming  seldom  happen  oftener  than 
once  in  ten  years,  and  in  some  districts  still 
less  frequently,  and  are  supposed  to  arise 
from  an  unusual  multiplication  of  ilie  ammals 
in  the  mountainous  parts  they  inhabit,  toge- 
ther will)  a  defect  of  food;  ;ind,  perhaps,  a 
kind  of  instinctive  prescience  ot  unfavourable 
seasons,  for  it  is  observable  that  their  chief 
migrations  are  made  in  the  oiitumn  of  such 
years  as  are  followed  by  a  very  severe  win- 
ter. The  inclination  or  instinctive  faculty 
which  induces  them,  with  one  consent,  to 
assemble  from  a  whole  region,  collect  them- 
selves into  an  army,  and  desetnd  from  the 
mountains  into  the  neighbouring  plains,  in 
the  form  of  a  firm  phalanx,  moving  on  in  a 
straight  line,  renolulely  surnioiiniiiig  every  ob- 
stacle,  and  undismayed  by  every  danger, 
cannot  be  conleniplatisd  without  astonish- 
ment. All  who  have  written  on  the  subject 
agree  that  they  proceed  in  a  direct  coiusp, 
so  that  the  ground  along  wiiich  they  have 
pa«jcd  appears  at  a  dinlance  as  if  it  had  been 
plougheA  ;  the  grass  being  devoured  to  the 
very  roots,  in  numorou?  stripes,  or  parallel 
patns,  of  one  or  two  spans  broad,  and  at  the 
Pittance  of  some  ells  from  each  oilier.    This 


M\!5. 

army  of  ndce  nioTe»  chiefly  by  iiifjit,  or 
early  in  the  morning,  devouring  the  herbage 
as  It  passes,  in  such  a  inunner  tiiat  the  surface 
appears  as  if  buiiit.  Noobslacles  wiiich  they 
happen  to  meet  in  their  way  have  any  eflijct 
in  altering  their  route  ;  neither  lires,  nor  deep 
ravines,  nor  torrents,  nor  marshes  or  lakes : 
they  proceed  obstinately  in  a  straight  line; 
and  hence  it  hajipens  "that  many' thousands 
perisii  in  the  waters,  and  are  found  dead  by 
the  shore-;.  If  a  rick  of  hay  or  corn  occurs  in 
their  passage,  thev  eat  through  it ;  but  if 
rocks  nitervene  which  thev  cannot  pass,  they 
go  round,  and  Ihen  resume  their  former  straight 
direction.  If  disturbed  or  jjursm-d  while 
swimming  over  a  lake,  and  their  phalanx  se- 
parated by  oars  or  poles,  they  will  not  re- 
cede, but  keep  swimming  directly  on,  and 
soon  get  into  regular  order  again ;  and  have 
even  been  sometimes  known  to  endeavour 
to  bo;ird  or  pass  over  a  vessel.  On  Iheir  pas- 
sage over  land,  if  attacked  by  men,  they  will 
raise  themselves  up,  uttering  a  kind  of  bark- 
ing sound,  and  fly  at  the  legs  of  their  inva- 
ders, and  will  fasten  so  liercely  at  the  end  of 
a  stick,  as  to  suffer  themselves  to  be  swung 
about  before  they  will  quit  their  hold  ;  and 
are  with  great  clifliculty  put  to  flight.  It  is 
said  that  an  intestine  war  sometimes  takes 
place  in  these  armies  during  their  migrations, 
and  that  the  anunals  thus  destroy  each 
other. 

•  The  major  part,  however,  of  these  hosts,  is 
destroyed  by  various  enemies,  and  particu- 
larlv  by  owls,  hawks,  and  weazels,  exclibive 
of  the  numbers  which  perish  in  the  waters ; 
so  that  but  a  small  number  survive  to  return, 
which  they  are  sometimes  observj'd  to  do,  to 
tlieir  native  mountains. 

In  their  general  manner  of  life  tliey  are 
not  observed  to  be  of  a  social  disposition,  but 
to  reside  in  a  kind  of  scattered  manner,  in 
holes  beneath  the  surface,  without  laying  up 
any  regular  provision,  like  some  other  am- 
mals of  this  tribe.  Tliey  are  supposed  to 
breed  several  times  in  a  year,  and  to  produce 
five  or  six  at  once.  It  has  been  observed 
that  the  females  have  sometimes  brought 
fortii  during  their  migrations,  and  have  been 
seen  carrying  some  in  their  mouths,  and 
others  on  their  backs.  In  some  parts  of 
Lapland  they  arc  eaten,  and  are  said  to  re- 
semble squirrels  in  taste. 

It  was  once  believed  that  these  animals  fell 
from  the  clouds  at  particular  seasons,  and 
some  liave  aflirmed  lliat  they  have  seen  a 
leinining  in  its  descent;  but  an  accident  of 
this  kind  is  easily  accounted  for,  on  the  sup- 
position of  a  lemming  escaping  now  and  then 
iioni  tlie  elaws  of  some  bird  which  had  seized 
it,  and  thus  falling  to  the  ground;  a  circum- 
stance which  is  said  not  unfreqiienlly  to  take 
place  when  the  animals  are  seizeil  by  crows, 
gulls,  &c. 

10.  Mus  o-coiioniicns,  ceconomic  rat.  The 
ft^conomic  rat,  so  nam<-d  from  its  provident 
disposition,  ami  the  skill  with  which  it  collects 
its  provisioiH,  is  a  native  of  Siberia,  inhabit- 
ing that  country  in  vast  abundance,  and 
even  extending  as  far  as  Kamtschalka.  Its 
curious  hisioi-v  has  been  given  with  great 
exactness  by  Dr.  I'allas:  who  informs  us  that 
these  little  animals  make  their  burrows  with 
wonderful  skill,  immediatelv  below  the  sur- 
face, in  soft  turfy  soils;  formfng  a  chamber,  of 
a  liatlisli  arched'  Ibrm,  of  a  small  height,  and 
U 


about  a  foot  in  diameter,  (o  which  they  some- 
times add  as  many  as  thirty  small  pipes  or 
eiitrsiKCS,  and  near  the  chamber  they  fre- 
quently form  other  caverns,  in  which  they 
deposit  their  winter  stores ;  these  are  said  to 
consist  of  various  kinds  of  plants,  even  of 
some  sj;ecies  wiiich  are  poisonous  to  man- 
kind. They  gather  them  in  summer,  har- 
vest them  with  great  care,  and  even  son'p- 
times  bring;  them  out  of  their  cells  in  order 
to  give  them  a  more  tliorough  drying  in  the 
sun.  The  chief  labour  rests  on  the  females; 
the  males  during  the  summer  wandering 
about  in  a  solitary  state,  inhabiting  some  old 
nests  occasionally,  and  living  during  that  ]>e- 
riod  on  berries,  without  touchin"  the  hoards, 
which  are  reserved  for  winter,  wlien  the  male 
and  female  reside  togetlier  in  the  same  nest. 
They  are  said  to  breed  sevaal  times  in  the 
year,  the  female  producing  two  or  three 
young  at  a  t^inie. 

The  migrations  of  this  little  species  are  not 
less  extraordinary  than  those  of  the  lemming, 
and  take  place  at  uncertain  periods.     Dr. 
Pallas  imagines  that  the  migrations  of  those 
inhabiting  Kamtschatka  may  arise  fi'oni  some 
sensations  of  internal  fire   in   that  volcanic, 
country,  or  from  a  prescience  of  some  uiiu 
sual  and  bad  se;i.son.     Whatever  is  the  cause, 
tlie  fact  is  certain.     At  such  periods  they  ga- 
ther together,  during  the  spring  season,  in 
surprising  numbers,  except  the  lew  that  re- 
side about  villages,  where  they  can  pick  up 
some  subsistence ;  and  this  makes  it  probable 
that  their  migrations,  like  those  of  the  lem- 
ming, are  rather  owing  to  want  of  food.    The 
niiglity  host  i)roceeds  in  a  direct  course  west- 
ward, occasionally  swimming  with  the  utmost 
intrepidity  over  rivers,  lakes,  and  even  arms 
of  the  sea.     During  these  perilous  adven- 
tures, some  are  drowned,  and  others  destroy- 
ed by  water-fo\'.',  fish,  &c. :    those    which 
escape  rest  a  while  to  bask,  dry  their  fur, 
and  refresh  themselves,  and  then  again  set 
out  on  their  migration.     It  Is  said  tiiat  the 
inhabitants  of  Kamtsch.itka,  when  they  hap- 
pen to  find  them  in  this  fatigued  situation, 
treat  them  with  the  utmost  tenderness,  and 
endeavour  by  every  possible  method  to  re- 
fresh and  restore  them  to   life  and  vigour. 
Indeed  none  of  the  smaller  animals  are  so 
much    esteemed  by    the   Kamtschadalcs   as 
these,  since  to  their  labours  thev  owe  many 
a  delicious  repast,  robbing  the'ir  hoards  in 
autumn,  and  leaving  there  some  kind  of  pro- 
vision hi  return,  accompanied  by  some  ridi- 
culous presents  by  way  of  amends  for  the 
theft.     As  soon  as  the  migrating  host  of  these 
animals  has  crossed  the  river  Penschim,  at 
the  head  of  the  gulph  of  that  name,  it  turns 
southward,   and   reaches  the  rivers  Judoma 
and  Ochot  about  the  middle  of  July:    the 
s))'ace  thus  traversed  appears  astonishing,  on 
consulting   the  map  oi  the  country.     Tlie 
flocks  during  this  time  are  so  numerous  that 
an  observer  has  waited  two  hours  to  see  them 
all  pass.     1  heir  return  inio  Kamtschatka  is 
in  October,  and  is  attended  with  the  utmost 
festivity  and  welcome  on  the  part  of  the  na- 
tives, who  consider  their  arrival  as  a  sure 
prognostic  of  a  successhil  chace  end  fisherv  ; 
and  they  are  said  equally  to  lament  their  liii- 
grations',    which  are   usually   succeeded   by 
rainy  and  tempestuous  weather. 

This  curious  species  is  generally  of  a  tawny 
colour,  darker  on  the  back,  and  lighter  tit 


niof^  .ipprA.icIuiig  ia  an  ash-colonrcil  white- 
iii'si  boir'dtli :  its  usiril  Iciiglli  ij  about  four 
iiu-l)i's  and  a  nuartef,  aiij  the  tail  one  iucli ; 
iti  liml)s  are  strong ;  its  eyes  small,  its  e:irs 
n:iki;il,  very  slioil  and  round,  and  almost  liid 
beneatli  the  fur  of  the  head. 

This  animal  is  also  supposed  to  be  an  in- 
Imbitant  of  Iceland  ;  at  least  a  species  wliich 
lansl  be  greatly  allied  to  it  is  found  in  that 
cou[itry,  and  is  said  to  be  particularly'plenti- 
ful  in  the  wood  of  llusafels.  In  that  coun- 
trv,  where  berries  are  but  thinly  dispersed, 
the  little  animals  arc  obli;^ed  to  cross  rivers 
to  nialie  llieir  distant  fora5;ing  excursions, 
and  in  their  return  are  obliged  to  repass  the 
i•lr^r.lm;  their  manner  of  performing  which  is 
tlius  related  by  Mr.  OlaU'en,  from  the  ac- 
counts of  otners,  coumiunicated  to  himself: 

"  Tlie  jiarty,  consistin,^  of  from  six  to  ten, 
select  a  Hat  piece  of  (Iried  cow-dung,  on 
which  tliey  place  the  berries  they  have  col- 
lected in  a  heap,  on  the  middle ;  and  then, 
by  tlieir  united  force,  drawing  it  to  the  wa- 
ter's edge,  launch  it,  and  embark,  placing 
tliemselves  round  the  heaj),  with  their  heads 
joined  over  it,  and  their  backs  to  the  water; 
their  tails  jiendant  in  the  stream,  and  serving 
the  purpose  of  rudders."    , 

11.  Wus  socialis,  social  mouse.  The  so- 
cial mouse  is  a  native  of  tlie  Caspian  deserts 
between  the  Volga  and  the  Yaik,  and  tlie 
country  of  ilircania.  It  lives  in  low  sandy 
situations,  in  large  societies;  the  ground  in 
many  places  being  covered  with  the  little 
hillocks  lornied  by  the  earth  cast  out  in  form- 
ing the  burrows,  w'hich  are  said  to  be  about 
a  Npan  deep,  with  eight  or  more  passages. 
'i"ht  animals  are  always  observed  to  live  in 
pairs,  or  with  a  family;  tliey  are  fond  of  tu- 
hp-roots,  which  form  a  principal  article  of 
their  tooil.  They  appear  cliieily  in  the 
sprmg,  when  they  are  very  numerous,  but 
are  rarely  seen  in  autumn,  and  are  supposed 
eilher  to  migrate  in  autumn  or  to  conceal 
tliemselves  among  the  bushes,  &c.  and  in  (he 
winter  to  shelter  themselves  in  hay-ricks. 
The  head  in  this  species  is  thick,  and  the 
nose  blunt ;  the  whiskers  white ;  the  ears 
oval  and  naked  ;  the  limbs  short  and  strong, 
and  tlie  tail  slender.  The  upper  parts  are  of 
a  light  grey,  and  the  under  white. 

12.  Mus  cricetus,  hamster  rat.  Of  the 
pouched  rats  the  hamster  is  the  most  re- 
markable, and  indeed  is  the  only  European 
species  provided  with  tliose  peculiar  recep- 
tacles, which  are  situated  on  each  side  the 
irioudi,  and  when  empty  are  so  far  contract- 
ed as  not  to  ajipcar  externally,  but  when 
filled  res(-mble  a  pair  of  tumid  bladders,  hav- 
ing a  smooth  veiny  surface,  concealed,  how- 
ever, under  the  fiir  or  skin  of  the  cheeks, 
T.hich  bulge  out  extremely  in  this  state. 
They  are  so  large  as  to  liolcl  the  quantity  of 
a  quarter  of  a  pint,  English  measure. 

The  general  size  ot  the  hamster  is  nearly 
that  of  a  lirown  or  Norway  rat,  but  it  is  of  a 
much  thicker  form,  and  has  a  short  tail.  Its 
colour  is  a  pale  reddish  brown  above,  and 
black  beneath.  The  muzzle  is  whitish,  the 
cheeks  reddish,  and  on  each  side  the  body 
are  three  moderately  large  oval  white  spots, 
of  which  those  on  the  shoulders  are  tiie 
largest;  the  ears  are  moderately  large  and 
rounded,  and  the  tail  almost  bare,  ami  about 
three  inciies  long;  on  the  fore-feet  are  four 
w«,  witli  a  claw  iu  place  of  a  Mb,  and  on 


I.I  US. 

the  hind  feet  are  five  toes.  Sometiii^js  the 
hamsti.-r  varies  in  colour,  being  found  eitlvr 
black  with  a  white  muzzle,  or  of  a  pale  yel- 
lowish \iliite.  The  male  is  always  much 
l.irger  than  the  female.  On  each  'side  the 
lower  part  of  the  back  is  an  almost  bare  spot, 
covered  only  with  very  short  down. 

'I"he  hamster  inhabits  Siberia  and  the  south 
of  lUnsia.  It  is  also  found  in  Poland,  as  well 
as  in  many  parts  of  German  v.  Tliey  are  very 
destructive  in  some  districts,  devouring  great 
([uanlities  of  grain,  which  they  carry  off  in 
their  cheek-pouches,  and  deposit  in  their 
holi-s,  in  order  to  devour  during  the  autumn. 
Their  habitations,  which  they  dig  to  the  depth 
of  threi;  or  four  feet,  consist  of  more  or  fi-wer 
ajiartments,  according  lo  the  age  of  the  ani- 
mal :  a  young  hamster  makes  tliem  hardly  a 
foot  deep ;  an  old  one  sinks  them  to  the 
depth  oi  four  or  live  feet,  and  the  whole  dia- 
iiieier  of  the  residence,  taking  in  all  its  habi- 
tations, is  sometimes  eight  or  ten  faet.  The 
principal  chamber  is  lined  with  dried  grass, 
and  serves  for  a  lodging;  tlie  others  are  des- 
tined for  the  preservation  of  provisions,  of 
which  he  amasses  a  great  quantity  during  the 
autumn.  Each  hole  has  two  apertures;  the 
one  descending  obliquely,  and  the  other  in  a 
perpendicular  direction";  and  it  is  through 
this  latter  that  the  animal  goes  in  and  out. 
Tlie  holes  of  the  females,  who  never  reside 
with  the  males,  are  somewhat  different  in 
their  arrangement,  and  have  more  numerous 
passages.  The  female  breeds  two  or  three 
times  a  year,  producing  five  or  six,  and  some- 
times as  many  as  sixteen  or  eighteen.  The 
growth  of  the  young  is  rapid,  and  thej  are 
soon  able  to  provide  for  themselves. 

The  hamster  feeds  on  all  kinds  of  herbs 
and  roots,  as  well  as  on  grain,  and  even  occa- 
sionally on  the  smaller  animals.  "  In  har- 
vest-time (says  Mr.  Allaraand)  he  makes  his 
excursions  for  provision,  and  carries  every 
article  he  can  hnd  into  his  granary.-  To  fa- 
cilitate the  transportation  of  his  food,  nature 
has  provided  him  with  two  pouches  in  the 
inside  of  each  cheek.  On  the  outside  these 
pouches  are  membranous,  smooth,  and  shin- 
ing ;  and  in  the  inside  are  a  great  many 
glands,  which  continually  secrele  a  certain 
tluid,  to  preserve  their  tlexibility,  and  to 
enable  them  to  resist  any  accidents  which 
may  be  .occasioned  by  the  roughness  or 
sharpness  of  particular  gi-ams." 

On  the  approach  of  winter  the  hamster  re- 
tires into  his  subterraneous  abode,  the  entry 
ofuhichhe  shuts  up  with  great  care:  and 
thus  remaining  in  a  state  of  tranquillitv,  feeds 
on  his  collected  provision  till  the  fi'ost  be- 
comes severe;  at  wliicli  period  he  falls  into 
a  prolound  slumber,  which  soon  grows  into 
a  conhrmed  torpidity,  so  tlwt  the  animal 
continues  rolled  up,  with  all  its  limbs  inflexi- 
ble, its  body  perfectly  cold,  and  without  the 
least  appearance  of  life.  In  this  state  it  may 
even  be  opened;  when  the  heart  is  seen  al- 
ternately contracting  and  dilating,  but  with  a 
motion  so  slow  as  to  be  scarce  perceptible, 
net  exceeding  15  pulsations  in  a  minute, 
though  in  the  waking  state  of  the  animal  it 
beats  150  pulsations  in  the  same  time.  It  is 
added  tliat  the  fat  of  the  creature  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  being  coagulated,  that  its  intes- 
tines do  not  exhibit  the  smallest  symptoms 
of  irritability  on  the  application  of  the  strong- 
est stimulants,  and  tlie  electric  shock  mav  be 


239 

pa-sed  llu-ough  it  without  elTcct.  This  le- 
thargy of  the  hamster  has  hi-en  generally 
ascribed  to  the  etiecl  of  cold  alone;  but  late 
observations  have  proved,  that  unless  at  a 
certain  deplli  beneatli  the  surface,  so  as  to 
be  beyond  the  access  of  ttie  external  air,  the' 
animal  does  not  fall  into  its  st;ite  of  torpidity, 
and  that  tiie  severest  cold  on  tlic  surface  does 
not  affect  it.  On  tiie  contrary,  when  dug  up 
out  of  its  burrow,  and  exposed  to  the  air.  it 
infalliblv  awakes  in  a  few  nours.  The  waking 
of  the  hamster  is  a  gradual  operation:  he 
hrst  loses  the  rigidity  of  his  limbs ;  then 
makes  profound  inspi'rations,  at  long  inter- 
vals ;  after  thii  he  begins  to  move  ins  limbs, 
o|)ens  Ills  mouth,  and  utters  a  sort  of  unplea — 
sanl  rattling  sound.  Af'er  continuing  these 
operations  lor  some  time,  he  at  leiipth  opens 
his  eyes,  and  endeavours  to  rise ;  but  rei  Is 
alxnit  for  some  lime,  as  if  in  a  state  of  intoxi- 
cation, till  at  length,  after  resting  a  small 
space,  he  perfectly  recovers  liis  usual  p:iwers. 
This  transition  from  'torpidity  to  activity  re- 
cpiires  more  or  less  time,  accoixling  to  the 
temperature  of  the  air,  and  other  circum- 
stances. AVhen  exposed  to  a  cold  air,  he  ij 
sometimes  two  hours  in  waking;  but  in  a 
warmer  air  the  change  is  eileclud  iiihalf  tiie. 

time. 

Tlie  manners  of  the  hamster  are  generallji 
represented  as  far  from  pleasing.  No  society 
appears  to  exi4  among  these  :inimals.  They 
are  naturally  very  fierce,  and  make  a  despe- 
rate defence  when  attacked:  they  also  pursue 
and  destroy  every  animal  whi"<  h  they  are 
cajjable  of  co«tiuering,.  not  excepting  evea 
the  weaker  individuals  of  tfieir  own  species. 
They  are  said  to  be  particularly  fond  of  tlie 
seeds  of  liquorice,  and  to  abound  in  the  dis- 
tricts where  tliat  plant  is  cultivated.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Sultzer,  they  abound  to  such 
a  degree  in  Gotiia,  that  in  'one  vear  1  l,:.e4, 
in  another  54,429,  and  in  a  third  SO,  1.59  of 
their  skins  were  delivered  in  the  Hotel  de 
\  ille  of  that  capital,  where  the  hamster  is 
proscribed  on  account  of  the  devastations  it 
commits  among  the  corn. 

13.  Mus  bursarius,  Canada  raf  This, 
which  is  a  species  but  lately  discovered,. 
seems  to  be  the  most  remarkable  ol  all  the 
pouched  rats  for  the  jiroportional  size  of  tlie 
receptacles.  It  is  a  native  of  Canada,  and 
is  about  the  size  of  a  brown ,  or  Norway 
rat,  and  is  of  a  paie  greyish-brown  colour, 
rather  lighter  beneath  ;.  the  length  to  the 
tail  is  about  nine  inches,  and  that  of  the 
tail,  which  is  but  slightly  covered  with  hair, 
about  two  inches;  the  legs  are  short;  the 
fore-feet  strong,  and  v.ell  adapted  for  burrow- 
ing in  the  ground,  ha\mg  live  claws,  of  which 
the  three  middle  ones  are  very  large  and 
long;  the  interior  much  smaller,  and  the 
exterior  very  small,  with  a  large  tubercle  or 
elbov/ beneatli  it.  The  claws  "on  the  hind-  - 
feet  are  comparatively  very  small,  but  the 
two  middle  are  larger"  than  "the  rest,  and  the 
interior  one  is  scarce  visible;  tlie  teeth  are 
extremely  strong,  particularly  the  lower  pair, 
which  are  much  longer  than  the  upper;  the 
ears  are  very  small.  This  species  is  de- 
scribed in  the  5th  volume  of  th.e  Transac-  ■ 
tions  of  the  Linna?an  Society ;  but  we  must 
observe  ilial  by  some  oversight  in  the  con- 
duct of  the  figure  there  given,  the  claws  on 
the  fore-feet  are  represented  as  only  three  in 
number,  and  are  somewhat  too  long,  weak, 
aiid  curved.    .A.inore  faitlifui  representatioa.i 


040 


M  U  S 


xs  given  in  T)(.  Sliaw's  exif-Iknt  work,  whirh 
ifaccOiii^jLinicd  by  an  oulliiiC  of  tljt-  head,  in 
iU  naiuial  size,  in  order  to  s1<l'\v  llie  teetli 
and  chei-k-pouclws.  Tlie  manners  of  tiiis 
spci;ies  are  at  prcSLMit  unknown  ;  but  il  may 
tpe  cone  udcd  tliat  it  lays  in  a  stock  of  pro- 
visions, eitlier  for  autumnal  or  wiuler  food. 
The  pouches  of  tlic  individual  specimen 
above  d(^scribed,  when  hrst  brought  to  go- 
vernor Present,  were  filled  Willi  a  kind  of 
earthy  substance:  it  is,  therefore,  not  im- 
probable that  the  Indians  who  caught  the 
animal  might  have  stuffed  it  thus,  in  order 
to  preserve  it  in  its  utmost  extent. 

14.  Mus  typhlus,  blind  rat.  This  is  per- 
haps one  of  tlie  largest  and  most  remarkable 
of  its  tribe,  measfiring  between  seven  and 
eight  inches  in  length,  and  being  entirely 
destitute  both  of  eyes  and  tail ;  the  defect  of 
the  former  is  a  very  singular  circumstance, 
and  the  animal  perfiaps  altbrds  the  only  in- 
stance of  a  truly  blind  or  eyeless  (]uadrnped. 
In  the  mole,  the  eyes,  however  small  and 
tlee|)lv  seated,  are  yet  perfect  in  their  kind, 
and  t'hotigh  not  calculated  for  acute  vision, 
still  enable  the  animal  to  avoid  llie  danger  of 
exposure;  but  in  the  quadruped  now  under 
consideration,  there  are  merely  a  pair  of  sub- 
cutaneous rudiments  of  eyes,  smaller  than 
poppy-seeds,  and  covered  with  a  real  skin. 
St  is  ppjbable,  however,  that  even  these  mi- 
tuite  organs  are  suflicient  to  give  an  obscure 
perception  of  light,  and  to  enable  the  animal 
to  consult  its  safety  by  generally  continuing 
beneath  the  surface.  The  external  ears  are 
also  wanting,  and  the  foramina  Imiding  to  the 
internal  organs  are  very  small,  entirely  hid 
by  the  fur,  and  situated  at  a  great  distance 
backward.  There  is  scarce  any  distinction 
lietween  the  liead  and  neck,  and  the  whole 
form  of  the  animal,  like  that  of  the  mole,  is 
calculated  tor  a  subterraneous  life;  tlie  body 
being  cvlindric,  the  limbs  very  slKirt,  and  the 
feet  and  claws,  though  small  and  weak  in 
<-om|)arison  with  those  of  moles,  ^et  calcu- 
!ate<l  for  d.iggingor  burrowing  in  the  ground. 
'I'lie  colour  of  tlie  animal  is  a  greyish  brown  ; 
the  ftir,  v^hich  is  very  (hick,  soft,  and  downv, 
being  duskv  toward  the  ron's,  and  greyish  to- 
ward the  tips;  the  head  is  lighter  and  the 
abdomen  darker  than  the  other  parts ;  the 
lower  lip  is  also  whitish,  and  sometimes  a 
white  mark  extends  along  the  forehead  ;  the 
front-teeth  are  very  large,  and  arc  naturally 
bare  or  exserted  ;  the  lower  piiir  being  much 
longer  than  the  upper.  'I'his  singular  species 
is  a  native  of  the  southern  parts  of  Russia, 
where  il  burrows  to  a  great  extent  beneath 
the  surface,  forming  several  lateral  passages, 
bv  w-iiicli  it  may  pass  in  quest  of  roots,  &c. 
It  is  said  to  feed  in  particular  on  the  roots  of 
the  cha'rophvllum  bulbosum.  In  the  morn- 
ing hours  it  sometimes  quits  its  hold  to  bask 
in  the  sunshine,  and  if  disturbed,  instantly 
takes  refuge  beneath  tlie  surface;  burrowing 
v.itii  great  agility,  and  frequently  in  a  per- 
p'-ndicular  direction.  Its  bite  is  very  severe 
wli  n  attacked.  It  has  no  voice,  but  emits  a 
kind  of  snorting  soiind,  and  gna>hes  its  large 
teeth  in  a  menacing  mamier,  raising  its  head 
:il  the  same  time.  The  female  is  said  to  pro- 
duce from  two  to  four  young. 

15.  Mus  Capeiisis,  Cape  rat.  In  its  ge- 
neral shapi-,  this  animal  is  not  unlike  the 
great  sanu  rat  lirst  dest  ribed,  and  is  e(|uall\- 

^umtnyn  about  the  Cape  of  Gujd  Hope  ;  but 


MUS 

it  is  far  inferior  in  size,  measuring  abotrt  seven 
inches  to  the  tail,  wliich  is  very  .-hort,  iiearl\ 
while,  and  tlaltish.  The  general  colour  ol 
this  species  is  a  du-ky  rufous  ash.-brown, 
paler  or  more  inclining  to  whitish  beneath; 
the  end  or  tip  ot  the  nose  is  naked  and 
bkck,  the  remainder  wliile,  and  on  each  side 
are  several  strong  while  bristles;  the  chin, 
lower  sides  of  the  cheeks,  and  spaces  round 
the  eyes,  are  also  white,  and  on  tiie  hind  part 
of  the  head  is  an  oval  white  spot ;  the  te.'th 
are  naturallv  exserted  or  naked,  and  are  si- 
milar in  form  to  tho^e  of  the  great  sand  rat. 
In  its  manners  and  wa\  ot  liie,  the  animal  is 
also  similar  to  that  species ;  and  is  very  do 
structive  to  gardens,  flinging  up  hillocks, 
and  eataig  various  kinds  oi  roots. 

MUSA,  the  plantain  tree,  a  genus  of  the 
monoecia  order,  in  the  polyaiuiriu  class  ot 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  Sth  order,  scitamine;e.  The  ca- 
Ivxof  the  male  hermaphrodite  is  a  spalha  or 
sheath;  the  corolla  is  dipetalous;  the  one 
petal  erect  and  quinquedentate;  the  other 
nectariferous,  concave,  and  shorter:  there 
are  six  species,  hve  of  wi,ich  are  perfect ;  one 
st_\le;  the  germen  inferior  and  abortive.  The 
teniale  hermaplu-odite  has  the  calyx,  corolla, 
filaments,  and  pistil,  of  lite  male  liermaphro- 
dite,  with  only  one  filament  perfect ;  the 
berry  is  obloi'ig,  and  three-angled  below. 
There  are  lliree  species: 

1.  Musa  paradisiaca,  is  cultivated  in  all 
the  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  where  the  fruit 
serves  the  Indians  for  bread;  and  some  of 
the  white  people  also  prefer  it  to  most  other 
things,  especially  to  the  yams  and  cassada 
bread.  The  plant  rises  with  a  soft  stalk  13 
or  20  feet  high  ;  the  lower  part  of  the  stalk 
is  often  as  large  as  a  man's  thigh,  diminishiiig 
gradually  to  tlie  top,  where  the  leaves  come 
out  on  every  side:  these  are  often  eight  teet 
long,  and  from  two  to  three  broad,  with  a 
strolig  tieshy  mid-rib,  and  a  great  number  ol 
transverse  veins  running  from  the  niid-rib  to 
the  borders.  The  lea\  es  are  thui  and  tender, 
so  that  where  they  are  expo5ed  to  the  open 
air,  they  are  generally  torn  by  the  wind  ;  for 
as  they  are  large,  the  wind  has  great  power 
against  them :  tJiese  leaves  come  out  from 
the  centre  of  the  stalk,  and  are  rolled  up  at 
their  lirst  appearance;  but  when  they  are  ad- 
vanced above  the  slalk,  they  expand  and  turn 
backward.  As  these  leaves  come  up  rolled 
in  this  manner,  their  advance  upward  is  so 
quick,  that  their  growth  may  almost  be  dis- 
covered  by  the  naked  eye:  and  if  a  fine  line 
is  draw  11  across  level  with  the  top  of  the  leal, 
in  an  hour  the  leaf  w  ill  be  near  an  inch  above 
it.  When  the  plant  is  grown  to  its  full 
lieight,  the  spikes  of  flowers  appear  in  the 
centre,  which  is  often  near  four  feet  long. 
'I'lie  llowers  come  out  in  bunches,  those  in 
the  low  er  part  of  the  spike  being  the  largest ; 
the  others  diminish  in  their  size  upward. 
Kach  of  these  bunches  is  covered  with  a 
sheath  of  a  fine  purple  colour,  which  drops 
ol'f  when  the  tlowei-s  open.  The  upper  part 
of  the  spike  is  made  up  of  male  flowers, 
which  are  not  succeeded  l)y  fruit,  but  fall  ol)' 
with  their  covers.  The  fruit  or  plantain  is 
.ibout  a  foot  long,  and  an  incli  and  a  half  or 
two  inches  diameter :  il  is  at  fii-st  green,  hut 
wiien  ripe  jiale-yellow.  The  skin  is  lough; 
and  within  is  a  soft  pulp  o'  a  luscious  sweet 
(lavour.    'Ihe  spikes  ol  the  fruit  are  olteii  so 


M  U  S 

large  as  to  weigli  upwards  of  401b.  Tlie 
truit  of  this  sort  is  generally  cut  before  it  is 
ripe.  _'l'he  green  si^iji  is  pulled  olf.  and  lh« 
heart  is  roasted  in  a  clear  me  for  a  few  mi- 
nutes, and  Ire,  iiently  turned:  il  is  then 
scraped,  and  sened  "up  as  bread.  Boile<l 
plantains  are  not  so  palatable. 

'Ihis  tree  is  cultivated  on  a  ven'  extensive 
scale  m  Jamaica,  without  the  fruii  oi  which. 
Dr.  Wright  says,  the  island  would  scarce  be 
liabitaide,  as  no  species  oi  provision  could 
supply  their  place.-  Even  ilo' a  or  bread  it- 
selt  would  be  less  agreeable,  and  less  able  to 
support  the  laborious  negro,  so  as  to  enable 
him  to  do  his  business,  or  to  keep  in  health. 
I'lantains  also  fatten  horses,  cattle,  swme, 
dogs,  fowls,  and  other  domestic  animals. 
The  leaves,  being  smooth  and  soft,  are  em- 
iiloyed  as  dress  ngs  after  blisters.  The  water 
irom  the  soft  trunk  is  astringent,  and  em- 
ployed by  some  to  clieck  diarrhoeas.  Every 
otiier  part  of  the  tree  is  useful  in  dilferent 
parts  of  rural  economy.  Tiie  leaves  are 
used  for  napkins  a.nd  table-cloths,  and  are 
food  for  hogs. 

2.  Musa  sapientum,  (/if  Jn?!«f»a/ref.  Yhis 
species  difl'ers  from  the  preceding  in  having  its 
stalks  marked  with  dark -purple  stripes  and 
spots.  The  froil  is  shorter,  straighter,  and 
rounder  ;  the  pulp  is  softer,  and  of  a  more  lus- 
cious taste.  It  is  never  eaten  green  ;  but  when 
ripe  it  is  very  agreeable,  either  eaten  raw  or 
hied  in  slices  as  fritters ;  and  is  relished  by  all 
ranks  of  people  in  the  \\  est  Indies.  Both  these 
plants  were  earned  to  the  \\  est  Indies  from 
the  Canary  Islands,  whither,  it  is  believed, 
they  liad  been  brought  trom  Guinea,  where 
they  grow  naturally.  They  are  also  culti- 
vated in  Egypt,  and  in  most  other  hot  coun- 
tries, where  they  grow  to  perfection  in  about 
ten  months  from  their  lirst  planting  to  the 
ripening  of  thei;  fruit.  When  their  stalks  are 
cut  dow  n,  several  suckers  come  up  from  the 
roots,  which  in  six  or  eight  months  produce 
fruit ;  so  tliat  by  cutting  down  the  stalks  at 
<lifierent  times,  there  is  a  censtant  succession 
of  fruit  all  the  year.  In  Europe  some  of 
these  plants  are  raised  by  g^entlemen  who 
have  hot-houses  capacious  cnougii  for  their 
reception,  in  many  of  \i  liich  thev  have  ripen- 
ed their  fruit  very  well ;  but  as  they  grow 
very  tall,  and  their  leaves  are  large,  they  re- 
quire more  room  in  tlie  stove  than  most 
|)eople  are  willing  to  allow  them.  Thev  are 
propagated  by  suckers,  which  come  from  the 
roots  of  those  p'aiits  thai  have  fruited;  and 
many  times  the  younger  plants,  when  stinted 
in  arowlh,  also  put  out  suckers.  T!ie  fruit 
of  this  tree  is  four  or  five  inches  long,  of  the 
size  and  and  shape  of  a  middling  cucumber, 
and  of  a  high,  grateful  llavour:  the'leaves 
are  two  yards  long,  and  a  foot  broad  in  the 
middle;  tluy  Join  to  the  top  of  the  body  of 
the  tree,  and  often  contain  in  their  cavities  a 
great  (|uanlity  of  water  which  runs  out  uj-on 
a  small  incision  being  made  into  the  tree,  at 
the  junction  of  the  leaves.  Bananas  grow 
ill  great  bunches,  that  weigh  12  lb.  and  u])- 
waids.  Tlie  body  of  the  tree  is  so  |)oroas 
as  not  to  merit  the  name  of  woofl ;  the  tree  is 
only  perennial  by  its  roots,  anil  dies  down  to 
the  ground  every  autninn.  Wlien  the  na- 
tives of  the  West  Indies  (s<iys  Labat)  under- 
take a  voyage,  they  make  provision  of  ;« 
paste  of  b.inana,  which,  in  case  of  need, 
serves  tlieju  for  uourishment  and  drink :  for 
6 


lliis  purpose  tlipy  la1<(!  i-ipp  bananas,  ami 
having  s<iui'czi-(l  tlicni  lliroi^h  a  line  sic-vc, 
form  tiie  solid  Innt  into  snuiU  loaves,  wliiili 
;ire  tlried  in  (iie  snn  or  in  hot  aslies,  atle] 
heine;  previously  wrapped  up  in  the  leaves  of 
Indian  liowering-reed. 

3.  Musa  tioglodytarum,  has  a  scarlet 
■spathe  and  scarlet  berry,  but  not  eat.ible. 

MUSCA,  fly,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the 
<jrder  dijitera. '  'I'he  g^n(}ric  cliaracter  is : 
mouth  fornud  into  a  lieshy  proboscis,  with 
■two  lateral  lips  ;  palpi,  none. 

The  vast  extent  ol  the  g^nus  niusca  makes 
it  necessary  to  divide  llu-  «  hole  into  ditferent 
assortments,  in  order  to  the  more  ready  in- 
vesligalion  oi  tlie  spocies.  These  divisions 
are  iiistiluted  from  tlie  form  of  tiic  antenna', 
winch  are  either  simple  (without  any  lateral 
hair  or  plume),  or  armed  (that  is,  lurnished 
with  a  lateral  hair  or  plume).  'I'licse  divi- 
sions are  farther  sejxuated  into  others,  ac- 
cording to  the  more  or  less  downy  or  hairy 
ajipearance  of  the  insects. 

'I'he  lirst  section  of  tliis  geiuis  comprehends 
-ucli  Hies  as  have  simple  antenna-'. 

'I'he  larv;e,  in  the  different  tribes  of  flies, 
dilfer  far  more  in  habit  than  the  coni|)lele  in- 
s:  cti,  some  being  terrestrial,  and  others  a([ua- 
tic.  '["hose  of  the  more  conuuon  kinds  are 
emphatically  distinguished  by  the  title  of 
ma;i::;ols,  and  spring  from  eggs  depositeil  on 
various  putrid  substances.  Several  of  the 
aquatic  kinds  are  of  singularly  curious  forma- 
lion,  and  e\hil)it  vvonderful  examples  of  the 
provision  ordained  by  natvu'e  for  the  preser- 
vation of  even  the  meanest  and  most  seem- 
ingly conlemplibie  of  animals.  Several  are 
ilialjitanls  of  plants,  feeding  during  this  state 
on  other  living  insects.    ' 

The  general  form  of  the  chi-ysalis  or  pupa 
is  that  of  an  oval,  differently  modified,  ac- 
i  ording  to  the  species,  and  formed  by  the  ex- 
Irrnal  skin  of  the  larva,  which  hardens  round 
the  chrysalis.  Some  species,  however,  cast 
thi'ir  skin  before  their  change  into  the  pupa 
slate. 

In  this  division  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
species  is  the  musca  cham.Tleon,  whi'k  is  a 
large  black  tiv,  with  a  broad  llalt.sii  a!x!o- 
uien,  having  the  sides  of  each  segment  yel- 
low, forming  so  many  abrupt  semibands 
across  that  part.  It  proceeds  from  an  aqua- 
tic larva,  of  very  considerable  size,  measuring 
luo  inches  and  a  half  in  length,  of  a  some- 
what llaltened  shape,  and  of  a  brown  colour, 
with  a  narrow  or  slender  front,  the  body 
widening  by  degrees  towards  the  middle,  and 
frc5m  liience  gradually  tapering  to  the  extre- 
mity or  tail,  which  is  terminated  by  a  circle 
of  radiating  or  diverging  hairs.  'Ihis  larva 
is  common  in  stagnant  waters  dining  the  sum- 
mer luonlhs,  and  passes  into  its  chrysalis  state 
\uthout  casting  its  skin,  which  <lries  over  it, 
so  as  to  preserve  llie  former  appearance  of 
the  animal  in  a  more  contracted  state. 

In  this  division  also  stands  the  musca  ver- 
mileo,  a  middle-si/ed  fly,  of  a  somewhat 
lengthened  form,  with  a  distant  resemblance 
to  a  tipula.  It  is  of  a  dull  yellow  colour, 
with  transparent  wings ;  the  thorax  marked 
above  by  two  black  lines,  and  the  abdomen 
by  a  triple  series  of  black  spots.  The  larva 
ot  this  species  measures  above  three  quarters 
otan  inch  in  length,  and  is  of  a  pale  yellow- 
ish-grey colour,  slender  or  sharpened  in  front, 
and  growing  graduallv  broader  towards  the 

Vol.  II. 


MUSCA. 

tail.  It  is  foimd  iu  the  soiilhern  parts  of  Ku- 
rope,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  sonu?  districU 
of  J''rance,  and  is  remarkable  for  practising  a 
method  exactly  similar  to  that  of  the  lieme- 
robius  formicaleo  in  order  to  obtain  its  prey ; 
excavating  a  circular  pit  or  cavity  in  the  dry 
sand,  concealing  itself  beneath  the  centre, 
and  tiius  waiting  the  arrival  of  any  small  in- 
sect which  may  happen  to  fall  into  it,  and 
alter  absorbing  its  juices,  throwing  out  the 
exhausted  remains  to  a  consi<ierabi(;  distance 
from  the  verge  of  the  cavity.  This  larva 
seems  to  have  been  first  observed  and  de- 
scribed by  Heaumur,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the 
I'rench  Academy  for  the  year  1752.  It  as- 
sumes the  slate  of  a  chrysalis  by  casting  its 
skin,  which  rolls  to  the  hinder  part  of  the 
body:  the  chrysalis  is  of  a  dull  reddish  co- 
lour, and  is  rounded  or  clubbed  at  the  upper 
part,  suddenly  tapering  from  thence  to  the 
extremity,  and  alter  lying  nine  or  ten  days, 
gives  bnth  to  the  included  jnsect. 

Of  the  downy  or  slightly  haired  flies  with 
l)ri^lled  antenna-,  one  o!  the  most  remark- 
able is  the  musca  teiiax,  which  is  about  the 
size  of  a  drone,  and  of  a  brown  colour,  with 
transparent  wings,  and  the  lirst  segment  of 
the  abdomen  yellow  ish  on  each  side.  It  pro- 
ceeds from  a  larva  of  a  very  singular  appear- 
ance, being  a  long-tailed  brown  maggot,  of 
rather  slow  motion,  measuring  about  three 
i|uarlers  of  an  inch  in  length,  exclusive  of  the 
tail,  which  is  extensile,  and  consists  of  a 
double  tube,  the  exterior  annulaled  into  nu- 
merous segments,  and  the  interior  slender, 
and  terminated  by  a  circle  of  hairs,  surround- 
ing a  spiraculum  or  air-hole.  This  uK'.ggot 
is  seen  in  imulily  stagnant  waters,  drains,  and 
other  places  of  the  dirtiest  description  ;  and 
notwithstanding  its  unpleasing  appearance, 
exhibits,  when  accurately  examined,  many 
particulars  well  worthy  of  admiration.  The 
leet  in  particular,  which  are  seven  in  number 
on  each  side,  are  wonderfully  calculated  for 
enabling  the  animal  to  ascend  walls  or  other 
perpendicular  places,  in  order  to  seek  some 
proper  situation  in  wliich  it  may  undergo  its 
change  into  chrysalis,  being  verv  broafl,  and 
beset  on  their  under  siuluce  with  numerous 
small  hooked  claws,  giving  it  the  power  ot 
clinging  with  security  during  its  ascent. 

of  tills  larva  a  particularity  is  slated  on 
the  authority  of  Limuxus,  which,  if  true,  may 
indeed  well  be  numbered  among  the  Mira'- 
cula  Insectorum  (the  title  of  the  paper  in  the 
Ama-nitates  Academicie,  in  which  it  is  an- 
nounced), viz.  that  being  a  frequent  inhabi- 
tant of  the  turbid  pulp  used  in  the  operation 
of  paper-making,  it  is  ollen  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  wooden  mallets  used  in  the  pro- 
cess, as  well  as  scpieezed  in  the  strongest 
presses,  and  yet  survives  uninjured  tiiese 
seemiiigly  destructive  ojic'rations  !  I ! 

Ihi;  above  larva  coiuiuoidv  changes  to  a 
chrysalis  about  the  end  of  .August,  fhe  skiii 
contracting  :uul  drying  romul  (lie  body,  and 
the  tail  continuing  in  a  shrivelled  state.'  Afler 
thus  remaining  about  the  space  of  a  lortnight, 
it  gives  birth  to  the  complete  insect,  which 
has  so  much  the  general  a|)|)earance  of  a 
drone,  that  it  is  very  frequentlv  mistaken  for 
such.  It  is  extremely  common  durins  Ihe 
month  of  September. 

iNlusca  penolula,  which  belongs  also  to  this 

division  ot  ihe  genus,   is  a  moderately  lari!;e 

and    very   beautiiul    insect.      Its    colour   is 

black,  vvitii  four  bright  yellow  stripes  down 

lib 


2-11 

the  thorax,  and  t!  lee  broad  interrupted  bars 
across  the  ab<lomeii ;  or,  in  other  words,  this 
tly  might  be  described  as  ol  a  bright  _Nello»\r 
colour,  with  the  thorax  marked  by  four  loii- 
gilud'.nal  black  lines,  and  the  Kb'l()ii!''ii  by 
tlirce  transverse  ones,  connected  by  a  b'ack 
stripe  down  the  middle,  lis  larva,' whidi  is 
an  inhabitant  of  stagnant  v/aters,  is  of  a  still 
more  remarkable  appearance  than  that  of  the 
immediately  preceding  species,  which  it  re- 
sembles in  size,  but  is  ol  a  paler  colour,  and 
furnished  whh  a  tail  of  greater  length,  com- 
])Osed  of  a  double  lube,  the  interior  of  which 
is  very  slender,  extensile  at  the  pleasi're  of 
the  animal  to  a  vast  length,  and  terminated 
by  a  very  small  spiracle.  'I'he  length  ot  this 
tube  is  tiierei'ore  varied  according  to  the 
greater  or  smaller  depth  at  v.hch  the  insect 
choo-,es  to  continue,  the  tip  nachii.g  to  the 
snrlace,  in  order  to  siqiply  the  requisite  ipian- 
tity  of  air.  Sometimes  great  numbers  of 
these  maggots  are  found  co.led  or  twitid  to- 
gether by  their  tails  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
is  l;y  no  means  easy  lo  separate  any  one  from 
the  rest.  Tise  chrysalis  resi'-mbles  that  oi  the 
niusca  fenax,  the  remains  of  the  tail  being 
visible  in  a  dried  and  contracted  state.  '1  he 
complete  insect  is  frequently  seen  on  flowers 
during  the  aulunmal  season. 

Among  the  hairy  or  bristly  flies  wilii 
plumed  anteimiC  stands  the  well-known  spe- 
cies caih  (1  musca  carnaria,  or  the  common 
large  blow-liy.  This,  as  every  one  knows, 
deposits  its  eggs  on  animal  lie>h,  either  fresh 
or  pulrid.  '1  he  larva;  or  maggots  hatch  in 
abotit  the  space  of  a  few  hours,  and  win  n  fuU- 
growii,  which  happens  in  eight  or  ten  days, 
are  of  a  white  or  yellowish-white  colour  with 
a  slight  tinge  of  (lale  red,  and  of  a  kngthened 
shape,  with  a  sharpei.ed  front,  in  which  the 
mouth  is  situati-d,  and  from  whence  the  body 
gradually  enlarges  in  size  to  the  last  or  ter- 
minal sigment,  which  is  of  a  very  broad 
and  iiattened  form,  surrounded  by  several 
slightly  prcminent  tip.s,  and  furnished  with  a 
pair  of  dusky  specks  resembling  eyes ;  so 
.tliat  an  inaccurate  spectator  might  easily. 
mistake  this  part  for  the  head,  and  the  proper 
head  for  the  tail.  \\'hen  the  animal  changes 
lo  a  chrysalis,  the  skin  dries  round  it,  and  the 
wl.ole  assumes  a  completely  oval  form,  and  a 
reddisii  colour,  soon  changing  into  a  reddish- 
brown.  In  ten  days  more  the  fly  it^elf 
emerges,  which  is  too  well  known  to  require 
particular  de^<■ri|)tion. 

-Musca  vivipara  greatly  resembles  the  pre- 
ceding, and  is  found  in  similiar  situations,  but 
is  viviparous,  disclosing  small  ready-formed 
larvie  instead  of  eggs,  which  in  this  species 
are  hatched  internally.  Tliis  particularity  is 
not  confined  lo  the  pre-ent  species,  but  has 
been  observed  in  some  others  of  this  genus. 

To  this  as  well  as  the  preceding  has  been 
applied  the  observation,  Trcs  vnisca:  consu- 
itiiiiit.  caditvir  rqiii  tcquc  ci(h  ac  len;  the 
number  of  larvx  proceeding  frciii  the  flies, 
and  the  quick  evolution  of  the  successive 
broods,  destroying  t';e  same  quantity  of  lie^li 
in  a  given  time  as  the  predacious  quadruped, 
"ho  devours  a  great  quantity  at  certain  in- 
tervals only,  while  the  process  of  ce>lruction 
continues  with  unremitted  perseverance  on 
the  part  of  one  or  other  of  the  respective 
rac<-s  of  flies. 

Of  the  hail-flies  with  bristled  antenna;,  the 
musca  grossa,  the  largest  of  European  liies, 
affords  a  good  example. 


2^2 


M  U  S 


M  U  S 


gare,    scricum,    recui'vuai,    capsulis    erectis 
cii^pitlulis. 

'J  lie  iu-ad  of  this  moss  a[>|)ears  to  the 
naked  eyo  a  small,  smootli,  uriiwiiisl)-yollow, 
oblong  Iwdv,  of  about  a  ninth  of  an  inch 
long ;  this  is  covered  at  its  upp^-T  end  with  a 
mc-mbranaccous  calyptra  or  hoo(l,in  shape  re- 
senibhng  an  cxtingnisher,  or  a  funnel  hi- 
verted.  \\"lien  tliis  lalyptra  is  taken  oil',  and 
the  head  viewed  with  a  microscope,  the  siir- 
ra<  e  of  it  is  seen  to  be  ridged  with  longitu- 
liinal  stria;.  'Ihe  basis  of  the  head  is  of  a 
deep  orange-co'onr,  and  more  opaque  than 
the  rest  ;  and  tlie  top  is  bonnded  by  an 
orange-colowed  ring,  swelling  ont  son\ething 
beyond  the  surlaco  of  tiie  contiguous  parts  of 
the  head.  Good  glasses  show  that  in  tiiis 
head  there  are  not  wanting  the  parts  essen- 
there  arise  heads  or  caps'jies  of  various  ligure  j  lial  to  tlie  fruclihcation  ot  what  are  usually 
and  striictiire,  but  all  unicapsub.r ;  some-  ofi  called  tlie  more  periect  plants.  This  ring  is 
these  are  naked,  and  otliers  covered  with  a  i  truly  a  monopliyllous  undulated  calyx,  witii- 
calyplra  or  hood;  some  stand  on  long  pe- !  in  which  ari^e  sixteen  pyramidal  limbriated 
tildes,  and  others  are  placed  clo<e  to  the  stamina:  these  are  of  a  pale-greenish  co- 
stalks.  'I'hese  heads  are  usually  called  cap-  lour,  and  are  loaded  with  a  whitish  oval  t'a- 
sul.'c,  which  contain  their  seeds  or  i'arina ;  rina.  The  stamina  all  bend  tov.  aid  each 
;ind  their  pedicles  sets,   in  the  ninia,  hypna,  |  other  from  tlieir  bases,  and  almost  meet  in  a 


Musca  flava,  is  one  c.f  the  sma!le-.t  but 
most  elegant  ot  the  Ei;ro|)ean  flics:  it  is  of 
a  yellow  colour,  with  bright  gold-green 
eyes. 

Ml'SCI,  Mosxes,  one  of  the  seven  fami- 
lies or  cla-ses  into  wliich  all  vegetables  are 
divided  by  Linnxus  in  tlie  Philosophia  Bo- 
tanica,  is  the  2d  order  in  the  cry  ptogamia 
class,  acccrdirig  to  fh;'  sexual  system. 

The  ni'ire  perfect  -kinds  of  mosses  are 
found  in  the  shape  of  small  but  regular  plants, 
divided  into  several  branches,  and  clothed 
wish  le.ives;  these  are  of  various  forms  and 
struciues;  some  be;..gbroad  and  thin,  others 
slender  as  hairs ;  some  pellucid,  others 
np:L;;.i;; ;  some  smooth,  others  hairy.  From 
tlie  a!:e  of  these  leaves  in  some  kinds,  and 
from  the   summit  of  the   stalk*  in   others. 


brya,  and  polytricha,  &c.  These  capsules 
in  some  are  covered  with  a  calyptra  or  hood  ; 
in  others  they  are  naked.  Ot  the  first  kinii 
:;re-  tile  splachnum,  polytrichum,  mniuni, 
bryuni,  hypnum,  lonlinalis,  and  buxbaumia; 
and  of  the  latter  sort,  the  lycopodium,  po- 
i^.-lla,  sphagnum,  and  phascum. 

Some  of  the  mosses,  it  is  evident,  approach 
to  the  natiu'e  of  the  plants  which  have  their 
male  and  female  parts  in  the  same  (lower, 
and  ntliers  to  thjse  wliich  have  them  in  dif- 
ierent  ones.  After  all,  this  tribe  of  plants, 
as  well  as  the  mushrooms,  ferns,  and  sea- 
weeds, is  still  imperfectly  known.  Tlie  ch,i- 
nicteristics  of  these  plants,  however,  accord- 
ing to  tne  se.Nual  system,  are,  l.Tops  with- 
out filaments  or  threads.  2.  The  male  flow- 
er, consfiuiteJ  by  the  presence  of  the  an- 
ther.T,  or  lops,  jjlaced  apart  from  the  female, 
either  on  the  same  or  distinct  roots.  3.  The 
iemile  roots,  flowers  deprived  of  the  pistil- 
lum  or  pointal.  4.  The  seeds  devoid  ot  both 
lobes  (colyledones)  and  proper  coverings, 
so  that  they  exliibil  the  naked  embryo. 

This  order  is  subdivided  into  13  genera, 
from  the  presence  or  absence  of  tlie  calyx, 
which  in  thc-se  plants  is  a  veil  or  cover  like 
u  monk's  cowl,  that  is  placed  over  the  male 
organs  or  tops  of  the  stamina,  and  is  deiio- 
ininai.d  calyptra,  from  the  sexes  of  the 
plants,  whicli  bear  male  and  female  tiowers, 
sometimes  on  the  same,  sometimes  on  dis- 
tinct roots;  and  from  the  manner'of  growth 
of  tlie  female  flowers,  wliich  are  sometimes 
produced  singly,  sometimes  in  bunciies  or 
cones. 

The  manner  of  seeding  of  mosses  in  gene- 
ral, may  be  more  clearly  understood  fro.  n  the 
<lescr  p'tion  of  that  geiu'is  of  them  wliicli  has 
been  traced  thr  ugh  all  its  stages,  and  to 
which  most  of  the  othecs,  though  every  ge- 
i.us  has  its  distinct  fructilication  in  sonic  re- 
spects, yet  bear  a  very  general  analogy. 

'I'hc  genus  already  observed,  is  that  called 
by  iJr.  Dilleniiis,  the  liypnum.  The  species 
or  tins  are  vi'.y  nuiUL'rous  and  co.umon  ; 
but  t  lat  parli':ulur  one  which  was  the  subject 
of  thise  observations,  is  the  short-branched 
iilky  kinds,  coin:non  on  old  Wul!s ;  ;ind  cal- 
cd  l>y  that  autlior  hi  lii* History,  hypnum  viil- 


point  at  the  tops.  This  is  their  appearance 
wlieii  tlie  head  is  nearly  ripe  ;  and  immedi- 
ately under  the  arch  formed  by  these  stami- 
na, is  a  cylindric  hollow  pjstillum,  through 
which  the  farina  makes  its  way,  and  is  dis- 
persed among  the  seeds  in  tlie  head.  The 
ti-uit  is  a  large  capsule,  filling  every  part 
of  the  membrane  which  shows  itself  on 
the  outside  of  the  head,  and  in  most 
places  is  contiguous  to  it ;  this  capsule  is 
filled  with  perfect  and  very  beautiful  seeds ; 
they  are  round,  transparent  when  uiiri|)e, 
but  afterwards  opaque,  and  of  a  very  beauti- 
ful green,  which  colour  they  retain  even 
when  dried. 

\\  hen  this  head  is  first  produced  from  the 
plant,  the  stamina  are  verv  slender,  and  stand 
erect ;  the  head  is  scarcely  any  thicker  than 
the  stalk,  and  the  calyptra  covers  it  all  over, 
10  shield  the  tender  substance  of  the  farina 
from  externa!  injuries.  As  the  farina  af- 
terwards swells  in  the  stamina,  the  seeds  in 
the  head  increase  also  in  bult;,  and  by  their 
increase  the  head  is  more  extended  in  thick- 
ness ;  and  the  stamina  are  by  this  means  se- 
parated fariher  and  farther  from  each  other 
at  their  bases,  but  bend  inwards  toward  their 
points,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  arched  co- 
vering over  the  stigma  of  the  pistillum, 
which  is  single  ,  and  hence  the  farina  falls  as 
it  ripens  into  the  head,  and  impregnateo  the 
seeds. 

The  1 1  principal  genera  are  as  follow : 
lycopodium,  polytrichum,  bryum,  selagines, 
usnei,  mnium,  byssi,  sphagmiin,  hvpna, 
conferva;,  and  fbntinales.  Tliese  are  ii>und 
growing  on  the  barks  of  trees  as  well  as  on 
the  ground. 

Many  of  the  mosses  grow  on  rocks  and 
barren  places,  and,  rotting  away,  afford  the 
first  principles  of  vegetation  to  other  I'lants, 
which  could  never  else  have  taken  root  there. 
Otliers  grow  in  bogs  and  marshes,  and  bv 
cimtinuai  increase  anil  decay  fill  up  and  con- 
vert them  either  into  fertile  pastures,  or  into 
peat-bogs,  the  source  of  inexliauslible  fuel 
to  the  polar  regions.  'I'hey  are  applicable 
also  to  many  domestic  purposes:  tlie  lyco 
podiuins  are  some  of  them  u>ed  in  dyeing 
of  vani,  and  in  meilicine :  the  sihajnuni 
M\d  polytrichum  furnidi  convenient  beds  for 


M  U  S 

the  I.riplanders ;  and  the  hypnimis  are  used 
in  tiling  of  iiouses,  stopping  crevices  in  walls, 
packing  up  of  brittle  wares  and  the  roots  of 
plants  for  distant  conveyanci-,  &c. 

MUSClCAl'.-\,  orL"LY-c.4TCHEi!,  a-genus 
of  birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  passeiv> 
T'he  bill  is  flatted  at  the  base,  almost  trian- 
gular, not -lied  at  the  upper  mandible,  and. 
beset  with  bristles  ;  the  toes  (generally)  di- 
vided as  far  as  their  origin.  There  are  97 
specie-.;  the  most  remarkable  are: 

1.  The  ffrisola,  or  spotted  flv-calclier, 
abaut  live  inches  and  three  <|uarters  long. 
'1  he  head  is  large,  of  a  brov.  nisn  hue,  spotted 
obscurely  with  bhu  k  :  the  back  is  of  a  lllon^e- 
colour;  the  wings  and  tail  are  diisky;  the  breast 
and  beliy  while.  It  is  a  bird  of  passage  ;  ap- 
pears here  in  the  spring,  breeds  with  us,  and 
departs  in  September^  It  builds  its  nest 
I  against  any  part  of  a  tree  tliatwill  support 
it ;  often  in  the  hollow  cause<l  by  the  decay 
of  some  large  limb,  hole  in  a  wall,  &c.  also 
on  old  posts  and  beams  of  barns ;  and  is 
found  to  reuirn  to  the  same  place  season  after 
season.  It  lays  tour  or  live  pale  eggs  mark- 
ed with  reddish.  It  feeds  on  insects,  and 
collects  tlieiii  on  tlie  wing. 

'2.  The  fiabellifera,  or~fan-tailed  fly-catch- 
er, is  in  length  six  inches  and  a  half:  the 
head  is  black,  which  colour  descends  on  the 
back  jiari  lower  than  the  nape,  whence  it 
passes  forward  in  a  narrow-  collar  to  the 
tnroat ;  the  chin,  throat,  and  sides  of  the 
neck,  except  where  this  collar  passes,  are 
white,  and  over  the  eye  is  a  white  streak 
like  an  eye-brow  ;  the  tail  is  longer  tlian  tlie 
body,  the  two  niidJIe  feathers^ black,  the 
others  white ;  the  legs  are  dusky.  This 
species  inhabits  the  southern  isle'  of  New 
Zeabnd  ;  where  it  isseen  constantly  hunting 
after  insects,  and  llies  always  with 'its  tail  m 
shape  of  a  fan.  It  is  easily  "tamed  ;  and  w.ll 
then  sit  on  any  person's  shoulder,  and  pick 
off  the  flies.    See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  hg.  2S1. 

3.  The  caribunensis,  or  cat-bird,  is  some- 
what bigger  than  a  lark:  length  eigiit  inches: 
bill  black  ;  the  upper  parts  of  tlie^  body  and 
wings  are  of  a  deej)  brown ;  the  under  asli- 
coloured  ;  the  crown  of  the  head  is  black; 
the  tail  is  blackish;  and  the  legs  are  brown.. 
This  species  is  found  in  Virgin, a  in  the  sum- 
mer-season ;  where  ilfrequenis  siirubs  rather 
than  tall  trees,  and  feeds  on  insects;  its  cry 
resembles  that  of  a  cat,  whence  the  Englisii 
name  given  it  by  Catesby. 

4.  'I'lie  rubicollus,  purple-throated  fly- 
catcher, is  about  the  sue  cf  a  blackbird; 
the  whole  plumage  is  black,  except  tlie  chin, 
throat,  and  fore  part  ot  the  neck,  on  which 
is  a  large  bed  of  beautiful  crimson,  inclining 
to  purple;  the  legs  are  black.  Tliese  birds 
inhabit  Cayenne  and  other  parts  of  South 
.■\merica  ;  where  they  are  found  in  flocks, 
and  precede  in  general  the  toucans  in  their 
movements,  'i'hey  feed  on  frUits  an.l  in- 
sects: and  are  kvely  birds,  always  inaction. 
They  for  the  most  part  fiequciit  the  woods, 
like  the  toucans ;  and  where  the  first  are 
found,  the  others  are  i^eldoni  far  off.  See 
I'late  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  i.'S3. 

iVU'SCLIC.     See  Anatomy. 

Muscles,  Insertion  ttndjorct  of  the.  'l"he 
all-wise  Author  of  nature  has  furnished  ani- 
mals with  limbs  moveable  about  the  joints 
0/  means  of  muscular  cortLs,  inserted  iie.ir 
!iie  joint  or  centre  of  motion;  the  great 
.'.  isdom  of  w  h;cli  will  ^ippsar,  fcoiii  supposiiij; 


M  U  S 

the  iiiscrlion  to  bi?  at  E  (Plate  Mifrel.  fij;. 
loS.)  nciir  th.?  wrist  B,  tlicimisclo  I)  K  bt-.hv:^ 
citlii.T  iuu.;i:  and  separate  IVom  the  bone 
1),  A,  IJ,  or  boiiiul  clown  to  it  by  sonic  li;;a- 
nient  or  fascia  U ;  in  eitiier  of  whicli  cases 
(lie  bone  A  15  cannot  be  liuneil  up  cjuile  to 
IIk'  siluution  A  II,  unless  the  muscle  D  V,  is 
contracted  or  slioiiencd  to  D  M,  which 
would  not  only  lie  Iroublesonie  but  even  im- 
possible. It  would  be  [rouble->ome,  because 
(he  breadlh  and  thickness  of  the  arm  would 
be  vastly  increased,  so  as  to  become  as  big 
as  the  belly  of  an  aninral.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  structure  of  a  nniscle  being  such 
that  it  cannot  be  contracted  but  a  little,  sel- 
dom above  two  or  three  lingers'-breadlh ; 
sach  an  insertion  as  that  at  1".,  whicii  requires 
a  contraction  of  about  a  foot  and  a  half, 
wciuld  be  altogether  impossible.  Therefore, 
in  lact,  we  find  the  muscles  inserted  near  the 
cenUe  of  motion,  as  at  1,  lig.  169. 

In  order  to  calculate  the  force  of  any 
mU'Cle,  we  are  to  consider  the  bones  as  h-- 
vers;  and  then  the  power  or  force  of  the 
muscle  will  be  always  to  the  resistance  or 
weight  it  is  capable  of  raising,  as  the  greater 
distance  of  the  weight  fron\  the  centre  of 
iliotion  is  to  the  lesser  distance  of  the  power. 
Hence,  it  being  foimd  by  experiments,  that 
a  robust  young  man  is  able  to  suspend  a 
weight  1!,  equal  to  twenty-eight  pounds,  when 
the  arm  is  extended  in  a  supine  and  hori- 
zontal situation,  we  have  this  proportion, 
\\/,.  the  lorce  of  the  muscle  I  D  is  to  the 
weight  R,  =  2S  j\y,  as  the  distance  D  C  is 
to  the  distance  I  C.  But  it  is  found,  that 
D  C,  the  lengtli  of  the  cubit  and  hand,  is 
more  tlian  twenty  tunes  greater  than  I  C, 
the  distance  of  Llie  muscle  from  the  centre 
of  motion.  Therefore  the  force  of  the  muscle 
I  I),  must  be  more  than  twenty  times  great- 
er than  the  weight  R,  or  more  than  28  x  "U 

=  5eotb. 

Again,  to  lind  the  force  which  the  biceps 
and  braehia'us  muscles  exert,  when  the  hu- 
merus D  A,  (lig.  170.)  is  perpendicular  to 
the  horizon,  we  are  lirst  to  consider  what 
weight  a  man  is  capable  of  sustaining  in  this 
posture,  viz.  H  ;=  3j  pounds,  and  next  the 
([uantity  of  the  distanctK  C  B,  C  1,  which  in 
this  case  are  as  16  to  1.  Therefore  t!ie  force 
of  these  muscles  is  to  the  weight  R  =:  35 
pounds,  as  the  distance  C  li  =  IG  is  to  the 
distance  1  C  =  1  ;  or  the  force  is  equal  to 
5liO,  as  before. 

Btit  what  a])pear3  most  wonderful  is,  the 
force  of  the  muscles  that  move  tlie  lower 
jaw ;  which,  when  taken  altogether,  do  not 
in  a  man  exceed  the  weight  of  1  pound,  and 
yet  exert  a  force  equal  to  J34  pounds,  imd 
in  mastiff-dogs,  wolves,  bears,  lions.  See; 
their  force  is  vastly  superior,  so  as  to  break 
large  bones,  as  they  practise  daily  in  their 
feeding. 

The  motions  of  the  far  greater  part  of  the 
muscles  are  voluntan-,  or  dependant  on  our 
vill ;  tho<e  of  a  few  others,  involuntarv.  The 
former  are  called  animal,  the  other  natural 
motions,  finally,  the  motions  of  some  of 
the  muscles  are  of  a  mixed  kind,  partly  ani- 
mal and  partly  natural.  Those  nuiscles 
which  perform  the  voluntary  motions,  re- 
ceive nerves  from  the  brain  or  s])inal  mar- 
row :  those  which  perform  their  motions  in- 
voluntarily, have  their  nerves  from  the  cere- 
bellum ;  and  those  whose  motion  is  partly 
voluntary,    and    partly    involuntary,    have 


M   US 

theirs  in  part  from  the  brain,  and  in  part 
Ironi  the  cerebellum.  And  as  a  muscle  can 
no  longer  act  when  its  nerve  is  either  cut 
asunder  or  tied  up,  so  the  same  absolute  de- 
pend.ince  it  lias  on  its  artery  :  for  from  the 
experiments  of  .Sleiio  and  others  on  living 
annuals,  it  appears  that  in  cutline;  or  tying 
up  the  artery,  the  muscle  in  the  same  man- 
ner loses  its  whole  power  of  action,  as  if 
the  luMve  had  been  cut  or  tied  up. 
MUSCOVY  GLASS.  See  Mica. 

MrSilKOOM.     See  Agaricus. 

ML'SIC,  a  science  which  teaches  the  pro- 
perties, dependauces,  and  relations  of  melo- 
dious sounds  ;  or  the  art  of  producing  har- 
mony and  melody  by  the  due  combination 
and  arrangement  of  those  sounds.  This 
science,  when  emi)loyed  in  searching  the  prin- 
ciples of  this  combination  and  succession,  and 
the  causes  of  the  pleasure  we  receive  from 
them,  becomes  very  profound,  and  demands 
much  patience,  sagacity,  and  (lepth  of  think- 
ing, his  generally  sup])oscd  that  the  w^jrd 
nuisic  is  derived  from  Mu^a,  because  it  is 
previously  believed  that  the  invention  of  this 
art  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  muses  :  but  Dio- 
doriis  derives  it  from  an  Egyptian  name,  in- 
timating that  music  was  lirst  established  as  a 
M'itnce  in  Eg\pt  after  the  Deluge,  and  that 
the  lirst  itiea  of  musical  soun<l  was  received 
trom  tluit  produced  by  the  reeds  growing  on 
the  banks  of  the  Nile,  by  the  wind  blowing 
into  them.  Others  again  imagine,  tliat  the 
lirst  ideas  of  music  were  received  from  tlie 
warbling  of  birds.  Howevt-r  this  mav  really 
have  been,  it  appears  at  least  ecjually  ration- 
al, to  attribute  its  origin  to  mankiiul;  since 
musical  intonation,  in  tlie  infancy  of  lan- 
guage, must  often  have  been  the  natural  re- 
sult of  passionate  feeling,  and  since  also  we 
lind  that  wherever  there  is  speech  there  is 
song. 

The  antient  writers  on  this  science  diller 
greatly  as  to  its  object  and  extent.  In  gc- 
nsral,  they  give  to  it  a  much  wider  latitude 
than  that  which  it  obtains  with  us.  Under 
the  name  of  music  they  comprehended  not 
only  the  melodious  union  of  yoices  and  in- 
struments, but  also  the  dance,  gesture, 
poetrv,  and  even  all  the  other  sciences. 
Hermes  defines  music  to  be  the  general 
knowledge  of  order  ;  which  was  also  the  doc- 
trine of  I'lato,  w  ho  taugl-.t  that  every  thing 
in  the  universe  was  music. 

Music,  however,  properly  so  called,  only 
concerns  the  due  order  and  proportion  of 
sounds ;  and  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
tl.eoretical  and  the  practical.  Theoretical 
music  comprehends  the  knowledge  of  har- 
mony and  modulation ;  and  the  laws  of  that 
successive  arrangement  of  sound  by  which 
air,  or  melody,  is  produced.  Practical  music 
is  the  art  of  bringing  this  knowledge  and 
those  laws  into  operation,  by  actually  dis- 
posing of  tiie  sounds,  both  in  combination 
and  succession,  so  as  to  produce  the  desired 
el'fect :  and  this  is  the  art  of  composition  : 
but  practical  music  may,  in  fact,  be  said  to 
extend  still  further,  and  to  include  not  only 
the  production  of  melodious  and  harmonious 
composition,  but  also  its  performance ;  and 
to  such  a  facility  in  execution,  and  nicetv  of 
expression,  has  "this  department  of  practical 
music  arrived  at  the  present  dav,  tli.it  its 
professors,  generally  speaking,  hold  a  truly 
respectable  rmik  in  the  various  list  ol  mgdern 
Hh2 


M  U  S 


243 


ortisiii;  and  are  iiighly,  as  well  as  most  de- 
.<ervedly,  esteemed  by  all  lovers  and  patrons 
of  mii.,ical  taste  and  ingenuity. 

MUSaS^-ENDA,  a  genus  of  the  peiitandria 
monogynia  class*  and  order.  The  cor.  is 
fuunel-iorin  ;  .stigma  2,  ihickish  ;  berry  ob- 
long, inferior  ;  seeds  disposed  in  4  rows. 
There  are  three  .species,  shrubs  of  China. 

MUSK.  1  jiis  substance  is  st-cretcd  into  a 
kind,  situated  in  the  umbilical  region  of  the 
(|uadruped  called  moscbus  moschifer  (whicli 
see).  Its  colour  is  brownish  red  ;  its  feel 
unctuous;  its  taste  bitter ;  and  its  smell  aro- 
matic and  inteiis>-ly  strong.  It  it;  partially 
soluble  in  water,  which  acquires  its  smell ; 
and  in  alcohol,  but  that  liquid  does  not  re- 
tain the  odour  of  musk.  Nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids  dissolve  it,  but  destroy  llie  odour.  Fix- 
ed alkalies  develope  the  odour  of  ammonia. 
Oils  do  not  act  on  it.  At  a  red  heat  it  has 
the  same  fetid  ,smell  as  uriiu;.  Its  compo- 
nent parts  have  wot  been  ascertained. 

MLSKE'l',  a  lire-arm  borne  on  the  shoul- 
der, and  used  in  war.  The  length  of  a  mus- 
ket is  fixed  at  three  feet  eight  inchei.  from 
the  muzzle  to  the  nan,  ^aiid  it  carries  a  ball 
of  2y  to'i  pounds. 

In  fortification,  the  length  of  the  line  of 
defence  is  limited  by  the  ordinary  distance 
of  a  musket-shot,  which  is  about  120  ia- 
thonis  ;  and  the  length  of  almost  all  military 
architecture  is  regulated  bv  this  rule.     See 

Gl'SJXERY,  Cll'N-S.MJTHEUY,  and  RlFLE. 

MUSKEI'OON,  a  kind  of  short  thick 
musket,  whose  bore  is  the  thirty-eighth  part 
of  its  length  :  it  carries  five  ounces  of  iron, 
or  seven  and  a  half  of  lead,  with  an  equal 
(juantity  of  jjowder.  This  is  the  shortest  sort 
of  blunderbuss. 

MUSLIN',  a  line  thin  sort  of  cotton  cloth, 
which  bears  a  downy  nap  on  its  surface. 
There  are  sevi-ral  soils  of  muslins  brougl-.f 
from  the  East  Indies,  and  more  particularly 
from  Bengal. 

MU.STIT^A,  the  otter,  a  genus  of  qua- 
drupeds of  the  order  fene :  the  generic  <'harac- 
ter  is,  foreteeth  upper  six,  erect,  acuter, 
distinct;  lower  six  ^obtuser,  crowded,  placed 
within;  tongue  smooth. 

.M.  Intra,  common  otter.  Thecomnion  otter 
is  foiiiul  in  almost  every  part  of  Europe,  as 
well  as  in  the  colder  regions  of  Asia ;  inha- 
biting the  banks  of  rivers,  and  feeding  prin- 
cically  on  iish.  It  occurs  also  in  the  northern 
parts  of  .America,  and  particularly  in  Canada, 
wliere  it  appears  to  arrive  at  a  larger  size 
than  in  Europe.  In  the  river  Euphrates,  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  found  to  be  no  larger  than 
a  commoa  cat ;  hut  it  is  probable,  t.iat  this 
is  in  reality  a  different  species,  yiz.  tlie  M. 
lutreola,  or  suialler  otter,  herealter  to  be 
describcxl.  Tlie  length  of  the  otter  is  nearly 
two  feet  from  nose  to  tail,  and  of  tlie  tail 
about  sixteeii  inches.  Its  colour  is  a  deep 
brown,  with  a  small  light-coloured  patch  on 
each  side  the  nose,  and  another  under  the 
chin,  "  The  otter,  (says  Mr.  Pennant) 
shews  great  s;>.gacity  in  forming  its  habitation  : 
it  burrows  iiiider  ground  on  th.e  banks  of 
some  river  or  lake,  and  always  makes  the 
entrance  of  its  hole  under  water,  workina; 
upwards  to  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  and,  be- 
fore it  readies  the  top,  nKikes  several  holts 
or  lodges,  that  in  case  of  high  (loods  it  may 
have  a  retrc;at,  for  no  animal  aiTects  hing 
drier;  and  then  makes  a  minute  orifice  for 
tiie  admission  of  air.     It  is  farther  observed^ 


244 


M  I'  S 


tliat  tliis  animal,  the  more  effectually  to  con- 
ceal its  r.lreat,  contrives  to  make  even  this 
little  air-hole  in  the  inulst  of  some  thick 
bush."  Though  tiie  principal  food  of  the 
otter  consists  of  fish,  yet  it  is  said  that  in 
hard  weather,  when  this  its  natm'al  prey 
fails,  it  will  attack  the  smaller  inudnipeds, 
as  well  as  poultry,  &c.  The  otter  is  nalii- 
Tally  a  very  tierce  animal ;  and  when  hunted 
with  dogs,  as  is  so.uetiraes  the  pi'actice,  will 
inflict  very  severe  wounds  on  its  antagonists. 
The  female  produces  four  or  live  young  at 
a  birth  ;  tiiis  commonly  happi-ns  early  in  the 
spring.  The  young  otters,  it  taken  at  a  very 
early  age,  may  be  successfully  tamed,  and 
tauglit  by  degrees  to  hunt  for  I'ish,  and  bring 
them  to  their  master. 

When  the  otter,  in  its  natural  or  unedu- 
cated state,  has  caught  a  fisii,  it  immediately 
draws  it  ashore,  and  devours  the  head  and 
upper  parts,  leaving  the  remainder;  and 
when  in  a  state  of  cajjtivitv,  will  eat  no  iish 
but  what  is  perfectly  fre^h,  but  w  ill  prefer 
bread,  milk,  &c. 

2.  NI.  lutreola.tlie  smaller  otter,  verynuich 
resembles  the  comm\)n  otter,  but  is  smaller  ; 
the  body  is  of  a  dusky  colour,  but  willi  a 
considerable  cast  of  tawny.  In  size  it  falls 
short  of  the  common  otter,  measuring  about 
a  foot  ni  length.  In  Norlh  America  this 
species  is  known  by  the  name  of  minx  ;  and 
J3  said  sometimes  to  leave  the  water,  and 
prey  on  poultry,  &c.  in  the  manner  of  a 
polecat,  biting  off  the  heads  and  sucking  the 
blood.  It  is  said  also  to  have  a  fetid  smell. 
In  Europe  the  smaller  otter  is  chiefly  found 
in  Poland  and  Lithuania,  living  on  fi-h,  frogs, 
&'c.  Its  fur  is  very  valuable,  and  next  in 
beauty  tp  that  of  the  sabie. 

3.  Si.  lutris,  the  sea  otter,  is  the  hrgest  of 
the  otters,  measuring  about  3  feet  fr,;m  the 
nose  to  the  tail,  and  the  tail  thirteen  inches. 
The  colour  of  this  species  is  a  deep,  glossy, 
brownish  black,  the  fur.  being  extremely 
soft  and  very  line ;  on  the  (orehead  is  gene- 
rally a  cast  of  greyish  or  silver-colour.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  I'ennant,  it  U  one  of  the  most 
local  animals  we  are  acquainted  with,  being 
entirely  conhiied  between  lat.  44.  and  Oo. 
north  ;  and  between  east  long,  from  London, 
126.  to  150. ;  inhab  ting,  in  great  abundance. 
Bering  s  islands,  Kamfschatka,  the  Aleutian 
and  Fox  islands,  between  Asia  and  America. 
They  land  also  in  the  Kurile  islands,  but  are 
never  seen  in  the  clrmiiel  between  tlie  north- 
east of  Siberia  and  America.  It  is  suppos- 
ed that  they  bring  but  one  at  a  time.  They 
are  mo^t  extremely  harmless  animals,  and 
are  singularly  aifectionate  to  their  young, 
'i'hey  br:ng  forth  on  la. id  and  often  carry 
the  young  one  between  tlieir  teeth  ;  fondle 
them;  and  frequently  lliiig  them  up,  and 
catch  tiiem  again  in  their  paws  ;  and  before 
tliej  can  swim,  the  p.irents  take  them  in 
their  fore  feet,  and  swim  about  on  their  backs. 
The  young  continues  with  its  p,irent  till  il 
.takes  a  mate. 

This  animal  is  killed  for  its  skin,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  of  furs,  being  sold 
at  the  rate  of  from  14  to  25  pounds  sterling 
each.  Th  y  are  said  to  be  chiefly  sold  to 
the  Cuiijese. 

'i'lie  sea  otter  is  sometimes  taken  with 
nets,  but  is  more  frequently  destroyed  witli 
clubs  and  spears. 

4.  M.  fero,  ferret,  has  eyes  red  and  fiery. 
It  inhabits  Africa.    In  liurcpe  it  is  tain(?d  to 


W  17  T 

catch  rabbits,  nits  &c.  It  procreates  twice 
a  year,  and  brings  fortli  h'om  6  to  S  at  a 
time.     See  I'l.ile  Nat.  Hist.  lig.  284. 

.\I.  erminea,  stoat:  inhabits  Europe,  the 
cold  parts  of  Africa,  Asia,  and  China;  Iive.sin 
heaps  of  stones,  banks  of  rivers,  hollow  trees, 
and  forests,  especially  of  beech  :  preys  on 
squirrels,  mice,  and  sniall  birds.  Body  about 
teii  inches  long  ;  hair  short,  which  in  northern 
climates  becomes  while,  e.xcept  the  outer 
luilf  of  the  tail,  wiiicli  remains  black.  The 
fur  is  very  ^•;^luable.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist, 
iig.  286.  Tliere  are  26  species  of  the  mus- 
tela. 

MLTE.  If  any  person  being  arraigned 
on  any  indictment  or  a|>peal  for  felony,  or 
on  any  indictmeiu  for  piracy,  shall  upon  such 
arraignment  stand  mute,  or  \sill  nut  answer 
diret  tly  to  llie  felony  or  piracy,  lie  shall  be 
convicted  of  the  offence,  ami  the  court  shall 
thereupon  award  judgment  and  execution, 
in  the  same  manner  as  if  he  hatl  been  con- 
victed by  verdict  or  confession  ;  ami  by  such 
judgment  shall  have  all  the  same  conse- 
quences as  a  conviction  by  verdict  or  confes- 
sion.    12  G.  III.  c.  20. 

And  the  law  is  the  same  with  respect  to  an 
arraignment  for  petit  treason  or  larceny ; 
lor  before  this  act,  per,sons  standing  mule  in 
either  of  these  cases,  were  to  have  the  like 
judgment  as  if  they  had  confessed  the  in- 
dictment. 2  Inst.  177. 

ML'TILLA,  a  genus  of  insects,  of  llie 
order  hymenoptcra  ;  the  generic  character 
is,  antenn.e  hliform  ;  feelers  four ;  the  articu- 
lations obconic,  seated  on  the  tip  of  the  lip  ; 
jaw  membranaceous  at  the  tip,  lip  projecting 
obconic;  wings  in  most  species  obconic;  body 
pubescent,  thorax  retuse  behind  ;  stiuf;  pun- 
gent, concealed.  The  M.  helvola  inhabits 
the  Oape  of  Good  Hope.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  fig.  287.     There  are  38  species. 

Ml'ST.     See  Fermentation. 

MUTISIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
syngenesia  pol\gamia  superflua.  The  cal. 
is  cylindric,  imbricate;  cor.  of  the  ray  oval, 
oblong;  of  the  disk,  trilid,  down-featJiered  ; 
recept.  naked.  There  is  one  sjiecies,  a 
climber  of  Peru. 

MUTUAL  PROMISE,  is  where  one  man 
promises  to  pay  money  to  another,  and  he,  in 
consideration  thereof,  promises  to  do  a  cer- 
tain act,  &:c.  &c.  Such  [)romises  must  be 
binding,  as  w'ell  on  one  side  as  thr  other ;  and 
both  made  at  tlie  same  time.     1  Salk.  21. 

MUTUS  ET  SURDUS,  a  person  dumb 
and  deaf,  and  being  a  tenant  of  a  manor,  the 
lor<l  shall  have  the  wardship  and  custadv  of 
him.  But  if  a  man  be  dumb  and  deaf,  and 
have  understanding,  he  may  be  grantor  or 
grantee  of  land.i,  &c.     1  Co.  Inst. 

A  prisoner  deaf  and  dumb  from  his  birth, 
may  be  arraigned  for  a  capital  fill'ence,  if 
intelligence  can  be  conveyed  to  him  by  signs 
or  symbols.  Leach's  Cr.  Law,  9".  See  Evi- 
dence. 

MUTULE.    Sec  Architecture. 

MUTUUM,  in  the  civil  law,  denotes  a 
loan  simply  so  called  ;  or  a  contract  intro- 
duced by  the  law  of  nations,  whereby  a 
thing  consisting  in  weight,  as  bullion ;  in 
number,  as  money  ;  or  in  measure,  as  corn, 
timber,  wine,  &c.  is  given  to  another  iqion 
condition  that  he  shati  return  another  thing 
of  the  same  quantity,  nature,  and  value,  on 
deniaad.    This,  therefore,  is  a  contract  witli- 


M  U  T 

out  reward;  so  that  where  use  or  intercut 
arises,  there  must  be  some  particular  article 
in  the  contract  whereon  it  is  founded. 

ML'TIN'V,  in  a  military  sense,  to  riys 
against  authority  Anv  ollicer  or  soldier 
who  shall  presume  to  use  traileruus  or  dis- 
rcspecthil  words  against  the  sacred  person 
of  his  majesty,  or  any  of  the  royal  liiimly,  is 
guilty  of  mutiny. 

Any  officer  or  soldier  who  shall  beliave 
himself  with  contempt  or  disrespect  towards 
the  general  or  other  commander  in  chief  ot' 
our  forces,  or  shall  speak  words  lending  tp 
their  hurt  or  dishonour,  is  guilty  of  mutiny. 

Any  pflicer  or  soldier  who  shall  begin, 
excite,  cause,  or  join  in,  any  mutiny  or  se- 
dition in  tlie  troop,  company,  or  regiment 
to  which  he  belongs,  or  in  any  other  troop, 
or  company,  in  our  service,  or  on  any  party, 
post,  detachment,  or  guard,  on  any  pretence 
whatsoever,  is  guilty  of  mutiny. 

Any  otlicer  or  soldier,  who,  being  present 
at  any  mutiny  or  sedition,  does  not  use  his 
utmost  endeavours  to  suppress  the  same,  or 
coming  to  the  knowledge  of  anv  mutiny,  or 
intended  mutiny,  does  not.  without  delay, 
give  intormation  to  his  commanding  oliiceV, 
is  guilty  of  mutiny. 

Any  officer  or  soldier,  who  shall  strike  liis 
superior  officer,  or  draw,  or  offer  to  dvdw, 
or  shall  lift\ii)  any  weapon,  or  offer  any  vio- 
lence against  him,  being  in  the  execution  of 
his  office,  on  any  pretence  whatsoever,  or 
shall  disobey  any  lawful  command  of  liis  su- 
perior ollicer,  is  guilty  of  mutiny.  See  the 
articles  of  war. 

MY.A,  the  gaper,  in  zoology  ;  a  genus  be- 
longina;  to  the  order  of  vermes  tcstacea,  the 
characters  of  which  are  these.  It  ha-  a  bi- 
valve shell  gaping  at  one  end ;  the  hinge, 
for  the  most  part,  furnished  with  a  thick, 
strong,  and  broad  tooth,  not  inserted  iiita 
the  opposhe  valve.  This  animal  is  an  ascidia. 
'I'he  most  remarkable  species  are, 

1 .  The  declivis,  or  sloping  mya,  which  has 
a  brittle  haU'-transparent  sliell,  with  a  hinge 
slightly  prominent  near  the  opening,  and 
sloping  downwards.  It  inhabits  tlie  rivers  of 
Europe.  It  is  freijuent  about  the  Hebrides, 
and  the  fish  is  eaten  there  by  the  gentry. 

2.  Tlie  mya  pictorum,  has  an  oval  brittle 
shell,  with  a  single  lont;itudinal  tooth  like  a 
lamina  in  one  shell,  and  two  in  the  other; 
the  breadth  is  a  little  above  two  niches,  the 
length  one.  It  inhabits  rivers.  The  slielU 
are  used  to  put  water-colours  in,  whence  the 
name.  Otters  feed  on  tliis  and  the  other 
fresh-water  shells. 

3.  The  margaritifera,  or  pearl  mya,  has  a 
very  thick,  coarse,  opaque  shell ;  often  much 
dc'corticaled ;  oblong,  bending  inward  on 
one  side,  or  arcuated  ;  black  on  the  outside  ; 
usual  breadth  from  five  to  six  inches,  length 
two  and  a  tpiarter.  It  inhabits  great  rivers, 
especially  those  which  water  the  mountain- 
ous parts  of  Great  Urilain.  This  shell  is 
noted  for  producing  (piantities  of  pearl. 
There  have  been  regular  fisheries  for  the 
sake  of  this  precious  article  in  several 
of  our  rivers.  Sixteen  have  been  found 
within  one  shell.  They  are  the  disease  of 
the  fish,  analogous  to  the  stone  in  the  human 
body.  On  being  squeezed  they  will  eject 
the  pearl,  and  oil  en  cast  it  spontaneously  in 
the  sand  of  the  stream.  The  river  Conway 
was  noted  for  tlicm  In  the  days  of  Camdeti,. 


M  Y  C 

I.mnanis  mmit;  a  remarkable  tliscover^ 
reliitiii.n  to  llic  gi'iK-ralidi!  of  pearls  in  tins 
(isii.  It  is  a  ii>li"lliat  will  bc:ii-  removal  re- 
luarkaljlv  \v<-ll  ;  ami  it  is  said,  that  in  sonic 
|ilac-es  tdev  lorm  iVM-rvo'.rs  for  iIil-  purpose 
III  kffpii^s  It,  aiul  takii>g  out  the  pearl, 
wliicli,  ill  a  certain  period  of  time,  will  be 
again  renewed.  From  observations  on  tlie 
!;iowth  oi  llieir  shells,  and  the  luiniber  of 
their  aniuilar  lainime  or  scales,  it  is  si.p])osed 
llie  tish  will  attain  a  Very  great  age  ;-jO  or 
6;)  years  are  im.aL';ined  to  be  a  moderate  com- 
piitati:;!!.  The  discovery  turned  on  a  me- 
thod which  Linnaeus  found,  oi  putting  these 
shell-liih  into  a  state  of  producing  pearls  at 
ills  pleasure;  though  the  linal  effect  did  not 
take  p!.;ce  for  several  years :  he  says  that  in 
iive  or  six  years  after  the  operation,  the  pearl 
woulil  Jiave  acquired  the  size  of  a  vetch.  \\'c; 
are  unacquainted  w ith  tho  means  by  which 
he  acconipli^hedlhis  extraordinary  operation. 

MYAGUUM,  Culd  nf  PU-asurc,  a  genus 
of  the  siiiculosa  order,  in  the  tctraduiainia 
class  of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  39th  order,  sili(]Uosa^ 
The  silicula  is  terminated  by  an  oblong  style  ; 
the  cell  generally  iiionospermous.  There 
are  ten  species ;  Ijut  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  sativum,  which  grows  naturally  in  corn- 
lii'ld-i  ill  the  south  of  l'":ance  and  Italy,  and 
rtlso  in  some  parts  of  Britain.  It  is  an  annual 
))laiit ;  and  is  cultivated  in  (lermany  for  the 
S-'.ke  of  the  expressed  oil  of  tlie  seeds,  w  hich 
the  inhabitants  use  for  medicinal,  culinary, 
and  economical  purposes.  The  seeds  are  a 
favourite  food  with  geese.  Horses,  goats, 
sheep,  and  cows,  eat  the  plant. 

MYCTKRIA,  the  J.vbiku,  a  gentis  of 
birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  grallK.  The 
l)ill  is  long,  bending  npwards,  and  acute; 
the  nostrils  are  small  and  linear;  there  is 
no  tongue;  and  the  feet  have  four  toes. 
There  are  two  species :  I .  The  Americana, 
or  American  jabirn,  is  about  the  size  of  a 
turkey.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  288.  The 
bill  is  long,  stout,  and  of  a  black  colour  ;  the 
whole  plumage  is  white,  except  the  head,  and 
abont  iNvo-thirds  of  the  neck,  which  are  bare 
of  feathers  and  of  a  blackish  colour;  the 
remai;ider  is  also  bare,  and  of  a  fine  red  ;  on 
the  hind-head  are  a  few  greyish  feathers  ;  the 
legs  are  strong,  of  a  great  length,  and  cover- 
ed with  black  scales;  wings  and  fail  even  at 
the  end.  '^i'his  bird  is  found  in  all  the  sa- 
vannas of  Cayenne,  (nriana,  and  other  parts 
t)f  South  America.  It  is  migratory  and  gre- 
garious. It  makes  its  nest  in  great  trees, 
\\hicli  grow  on  the  borders;  lays  two  egg^, 
and  brings  up  the  young  in  the  nest  till  they 
can  descend  to  the  ground.  The  colour  of 
the  young  birds  is  grey ;  the  second  year  it 
t:hanges  to  rose-colour,  and  the  third  to  pure 
white.  They  are  very  wild  and  voracious, 
and  their  food  is  lish,  which  they  devour  in 
great  quantities.  'l"he  llesh  of  the  young 
birds  is  said  to  be*good  c'ating,  but  that  of 
the  old  is  hard  and  oily.  2.  The  Asiatica, 
or  Indian  jabiru,  is  of  a  large  size.  The  bill 
is  dusky,  almost  straight  above,  and  gibbous 
near  tiie  forehead ;  tlie  under  mandible 
swelled  beneath ;  and  from  the  base  of  the 
bill  there  passes  through  and  beyond  the  eye 
a  black  streak,  'i'lie  general  colour  of  the 
plumage  is  white  ;  the  lower  half  of  the  bark, 
the  prime  quills,  and  tail,  are  black;  the  legs 
a  pale  red.  This  species  inliabits  tlie  East 
Indies,  aud  feeds  w  saails. 


M  Y  O 

MY(i1?<DA,  a  genus  of  the  letragynia 
order,  in  the  telraiidria  class  of  plaids  ;  "and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  with  Ibo-e  of 
which  the  order  is  doubtlul.  The  cal\x  ii 
(|ua(lripartite  ;  the  petals  four;  tin;  fruit  a 
globose  plum.  There  are  lliiee  species, 
shrubs  of  the  \Vest  Indies. 

M\()S(jriS,  Srovjiinn-grass,  a  genus  of 
the  monogynia  order,  in  the  ]:cntandria  class 
of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  nietlu.d  rank- 
ing under  the  4lst  oril(  r,  asperiiolia-.  '1  he 
corolla  is  salver-»hape<l,  (juin<|uefid,  and 
emargiiiated ;  the  throat  shut  up  by  small 
arches.  There  arc  seven  species,  of  whicn 
the  mo>t  remarkable  is  the  scorpioides,  or 
moi.se-ear.  '1  his  is  a  weed  of  Britain,  grow- 
ing nattirally  in  dry  fields,  and  margins  of 
sjirings  and  rills.  'Jhe  blossoms  vary  from  a 
full  blue  to  a  very  i)ale  one,  and  sometimes 
a  yellow ;  anil  appear  in  a  long  spirally 
twinted  spike.  When  it  grows  in  the  water, 
and  its  taste  and  smell  are  thereby  rendered 
less  observable,  sheep  will  sometimes  eat  it  ; 
but  it  is  generally  fatal  to  them.  Cows, 
horses,  swine,  and  goats,  refuse  it. 

M^'()S'iRUS,  a  germs  of  the  i)olvginia 
order,  in  tlie  pentandria  class  of  plants  ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
'i6th  order,  niultisiliqu:e.  Thel-alyx  is  pcn- 
faphyllous,  the  leaves  cohering  at  the  base  ; 
there  are  live  subulated  nectaria  resembling 
petals  ;  the  seeds  are  numerous.  There  is 
one  species,  a  weed. 

M\()XUS,  d'/rmduse,  a  genus  of  qua- 
rupeds  of  the  order  glires  :  The  generic  cha- 
racter is,  front-teeth  two,  the  upper  cuneat- 
ed,  the  lower  compressed  ;  grinders  four  in 
each  jaw;  vibrissa- long;  tail  cylindric,  vil- 
lose,  thicker  towards  the  end;  legs  of  equal 
length,  fore-feet   tetradactylous. 

1.  Myoxus  glis,  fat  dormouse;  this  spe- 
cies, the  glis  of  Pluiy  and  the  old  naturalists, 
is  a  native  of  France  and  the  South  of  Eu- 
rope. It  also  occurs  in  Kussia,  Austria,  &c. 
residing  on  trees,  and  leaping  from  bough  to 
bough  in  the  manner  of  a  squirrel,  though 
with  a  less  degree  of  agility.  It  feeds  on 
nuts,  acorns,  fruit,  &c.  and  during  great  part 
of  the  winter  remains  torpid  in  its  nest,  which 
is  prepared  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  with 
dried  leaves,  moss,  &c.  During  its  state  of 
torpidity,  it  is  said  to  grow  very  fat,  con- 
trary to  the  nature  of  most  of  the  hvbcrnat- 
ing  or  sleeping  animals  ;  which  are  ob>ervcd, 
on  their  hrst  emerging  from  that  state,  to 
be  far  leaner  than  before  its  commenceni.''nt. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  this  animal 
awakes  at  intervals,  and  indulges  in  the  use 
of  its  collected  stores  of  provision. 

It  is  but  just  to  observe,  that  the  count  de 
Rulibn  has  very  properly  exposed  the  ab- 
surdity of  the  ancient  notion  ;  and  has  ob- 
served that  the  animal  occasionally  wakess 
and  makes  use  of  its  stock  of  provision.  The 
truth  is,  that  it  is  at  all  times  fat,  and  appear, 
as  niucli  so  in  spring  as  in  autumn.  15y  the 
ancient  Romans  it  was  numbered  among  the 
articles  ot  luxury,  and  was  fattened  in  pro- 
per receptacles,  called  gliraria. 

The  si/.e  of  this  e'eg.mt  species  is  not  very 
far  short  of  that  ol  a  squirel,  measuring 
from  nose  to  tail  near  si\  inches,  and  the  tail 
four  and  a  half.  It  is  an  animal  of  a  much 
thicker  form,  in  propirtion,  than  a  stpiirrel, 
and  is  of  an  elegant  ash-colour,  white  on  the 
under  parts  and  insides  of  the  limbs ;  the 
tail  is  very  villose  or  lurry,  aud  of  a  slightly 


M  Y  O  213 

spreading  form,  like  that  of  a  squirrel;  ll-.c 
eyes  are  larue  ami  black;  the  cars  tl'iii, 
rounded,  aiict  very  slightly  haired.  Sonic- 
-tinies  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  have  a 
slight  dusky,  and  sometimes  a  tefruginoiss 
tinge.  Its  general  iiianners  resemble  those 
ot  a  squirrel,  but  it  is  not  easily  tamed.  The 
young  aic  produced  about  the  middle  of 
summer,  and  are  lour  or  live  in  nuniler. 

2.  Myoxus  nilella,  gaulen  dormouse.  The 
garden  dormouse  is  a  native  of  the  temper- 
ate and  warmer  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  is  commonly  found  in  gardens,  feeding 
on  \  arious  kinds  of  fruit,  particularly  peaches 
and  aprico.s.  It  makes  its  nest,'  like  the 
rest  of  this  genus,  in  the  hollows  of  trees, 
and  sometimes  in  those  oi  walls,  or  even  in 
the  ground  .:bout  the  roots  of  trees,  &c.  col- 
lecting, lor  this  purpose,  diied  leaves,  gras.s, 
mosses,  &c.  in  autumn  it  collects  a  quan- 
tity of  nuts,  iiia^t,  &.C.  tnd  deposits  it  in  its 
hole  ;  and  during  the  greatest  part  of  the 
winter  remains  in  a  stale  of  torpidity,  awak- 
ing only  at  distant  intervals.  Its'  general 
length  IS  about  four  inches  and  a  half,  and 
the  tail  rather  less.  It  is  of  an  elegant 
rufous  or  ferruginous  colour  above,  and  yel- 
lowi^h  white  beneath;  the  eyes  are  .imbed- 
ded in  a  large  black  patch  or  spot,  wliich  ej^ 
tends  to  some  distance  beyond  each  car; 
the  tail  is  somewhat  wider  towards  the  end, 
and  sharpens  at  the  e\treniitv..  and  is  mark- 
ed on  that  part  by  a  longitudinal  black  stripe, 
iiaving  the  edges  white.  These  animals 
produce  their  young  about  the  middle  of 
summer,  which  are  about  five  or  six  in 
number,  and  are  said  to  be  of  a  verv  quick, 
growth. 

3.  Myoxus  muscardinus,  common  dor- 
mouse. The  size  ot  this  animal  is  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  a  mouse,  but  it  is  of  a  more  plump 
or  rounded  form,  and  the  nose  is  more  oi>- 
tuse  in  proportion  ;  the  eyes  are  large,  black, 
and  prominent ;  the  ears  broad,  thin,  and 
semitransparent ;  the  fore-feet  have  foui 
toes,  and  the  hiud-feet  five,  but  the  interior 
of  these  latter  are  destitute  of  nail-- ;  the  tail 
is  about  two  inches  and  a  half  long,  and 
is  closely  covered  on  all  sides  with  hair, 
which  is  rather  longer  towards  the  tip  than 
on  the  other  parts  ;  the  head,  back,  sides, 
belly,  and  tail,  are  of  a  tawny-red  colour;, 
the  throat  w  hite  ;  the  fur  is  remarkably  soft, 
and  the  wdiole  animal  has  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  elegance  in  its  appearance.  It  some- 
times happens  that  the  colour  is  rather- 
brown  than  reddish. 

Dormice,  savs  Mr.  Pennant,  inhabit  woods- 
or  very  thick  hedges;  :bimiiig  their  nests- 
in  the  hollows  of  some  low  tree,  or  near  the 
bottom  of  a  close  shrub.  As  they  want 
much  of  the  sprightliness  of  the  squirrel,  the-« 
never  aspire  to  the  tops  of  trees,  or  attempt 
to  bound  from  spray  to  spray.  Like  the 
squirrel,  they  form  little  magazines  of  nuts,. 
&c.  for  their  winter  provision,  and  take  their- 
food  in  the  same  upr  ght  posture.  The  con- 
sumption of  their  hoard  <luring  the  rigour  of 
winter  is  but  suiall,  for  they  sleep  most  part 
of  the  time,  retiring  into  their  holes  o  :  the 
approach  of  winter,  and  rolling  themselves 
wp,  lie  torpid  during  the  greatest  part  of  the 
gloomy  season.  Sometimes  they  experience 
a  short  revival  in  a  -arm  sunny  day  ;  when 
they  laki-  a  little  food,  and  Uieii  relapse  into, 
their  furmcr  state. 


245  M  Y  R 

These  animals  seldom  appear  far  fiom 
tlieir  rc;treati,  or  in  any  cxpos^-d  sitiialioii ; 
for  which  reason  they  seem  less  commoii  :ii 
this  country  than  tliey  n-ally  are.  'i  liev 
make  their  nest  o!'  grass,  mo.s,  and  (Umu 
leaves.  According  to  tlic  count  de  I'.ulfon, 
it  consists  of  interwoven  !ieri)s,  and  is  S!N 
inches  in  diameter,*  open  or.ly  al)Ove,-and  i^ 
situa'.ed  l)Hween  iIk:  brandies  of  hazel  and 
binshwoad..  The  number  of  young  is  gene- 
rally three  or  four. 

MY  RICA,  Gal,;  or  Stveet-mHn-a,  a  genus 
of  the  tetrandria  ord.-r,  in  the  dicceia  diss  of 
•dants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  rankw.g 
under  the  5tl)  order,  amentaceic.  The  scalp 
oi  the  male  calkin  is  in  tlie  form  of  acres- 
cent,  without  any  corolla.  'l"he  scale 
of  the  female  catkin  the  same:  there  is  no 
corolla  ;  but  two  styles,  and  a  monospermous 
berry. 

1.  The  gale,  Dntih  myrtle,  or  swcel-wil- 
low,  grows  naturally  upon  bo^s  in  many 
places  both  of  Scotland  and  England.  It 
rises  about  four  feet  U'a^.  'J-'he  fe- 
male Houers  or  catkins  are  proiluced  from 
■the  >ide3  of  the  branches,  growing  upon  se- 
parate plants  from  the  male,  which  are 
succeeded  bv  clusters  of  smuU  berries,  each 
having  a  small  seed.  It  (lowers  in  July,  and 
ripens  in  autumn.  When  transplanted  into 
shrubberies,  the  moistest  parts  mu.t  be  as- 
signed to  it. 

The  leaves,  flowers,  and  seeds  of  this  plant, 
Iiave  a  strong  fragrant  smell,  and  a  bitter 
taste.  Tliey  "are  said  to  be  used  among  tlie 
common  people  for  destroying  moths  and 
cutaneous  Insects,  being  accounted  an  ene- 
niv  to  insects  of  every  kind  ;  internally,  in 
infusions,  as  a  stomachic  and  vermifuge ; 
and  as  a  substitute  to  hops  for  preserving 
malt  licpiors,  which  they  render  more  ine- 
briating, and  of  consequince  less  salubrious; 
it  is  said  that  this  quality  is  destroyed  by 
.boiling. 

2.  'I'lie  cerifera,  wax-bearing  myrica,  or 
candleberry  myrtle,  is  a  native  of  North 
America.  "It  is  a  small  tree,  about  10  or  12 
feet  high,  with  crooked  stems  branching  tbrth 
near  the  ground  irregukudy.  The  leaves 
grow  irregidarly  on  them  all  round ;  some- 
times by  pairs,  sometimes  alternately,  but 
Generally  at  unequal  distances.  The  branci.es 
of  the  old  plants  shed  their  leaves  in  the 
autumn  ;  but  the  young  plants  raised  from 
seeds  retain  them  the  greatest  part  of  the 
winter,  so  as  during  tliat  season  to  have  the 
appearance  of  an  evergreen,  lint  this  beauty 
will  not  be  lasting,  for  they  shed  their  leaves 
l)ioportionably  earlier  a»  the  i)lants  get  older. 

There  are  both  male  and  female  trees  of  this 
sort :  the  flowers  are  small,  of  a  whitish  co- 
lour, and  make  no  ligure ;  neither  docs  the 
fruit  that  succeeds  the  female  (whi<h  is  a 
small,  dry,  blue  berry),  though  produced  in 
clusters,  make  any  shew  :  so  that  it  is  from 
the  leaves  this  tree  receives  its  beauty  and 
v.due;  for  these  lieing  bruised,  as  well  as  the 
bark  of  the  young  shoots,  emit  the  most  re- 
freshing and  delightful  fragrance,  that  is  i-x- 
cee<led  by  no  niyrtle,  or  any  other  aromatic 
slirub.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  2S<J. 

There  is  a  variety  of  this  species  of  lower 
growth,  with  shorter  but  broader  leaves,  and 
of  equal  fragrance.  This  grows  commonly 
in  Carolina;  where  the  inhabitants  collect 
i'roin  its  berries  a  wax  of  which  they  make 


IM  Y  R 

candles,  and  which  occasions  its  being  called 
the  candleberry  tree.     It  delij,bts  in  a  niorst- 
ish  soi;.     1  he  "wax  is  procured  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  In  November  and  December, 
when  the  berries  are  ripe,  a  man  with  his  fa- 
mily will  remove  from  home  to  some  island 
or  sand-bank  near  the  sea,  where  these  trees 
most  abound,   taking  with  them  kettles  to 
boil  the  berries  in.     Me  builds  a  hut  wit!', 
palmetto-leaves  for  the  shelter  of  himself  and 
family  during  his  residence  there,  which  is 
commonly  four  or  five  weeks.     The  man 
cuts  down  the  trees,  while  the  children  strip 
off  the  berries  into  a  porridge-pot ;  and  h;;V- 
ing  put  water  to  them,  they  boil  them  till  the 
oif  doats,  which  is   then  'skimmed  off  into 
another   vesseL      This  is   repeated    till    no 
more  oil  appears.     When  cold,  this  hardens 
to  the  consistence  of  wax,  and  is  of  a  dirty- 
green  colour.   •  'i'hey  then  boil  it  again,  and 
clarity  it  in  brass  kettles;  which  gives  it  a 
transparent  greenness.      These  cajidlcs  burn 
a  longtime,  and  yield  a  grateful  smell.  They 
usually  add  a   fo'urth  part  of  tallow,  which 
makes  them  burn  clearer.     There  are  seven 
other  species. 

MYKIOITIYLLUM,  a  genus  of  the 
polyandria  order,  in  the  monoecia  class  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  15th  order,  inmidata-.  The  male 
calvx  is  tetraphyllous;  there  is  no  corolla; 
the'  stamina  are'  eight  in  nmiiber.  The  fe- 
male calyx  is  tetraphyllous  ;  the  pistils  fo:ir  ; 
there  is'no  stile ;  and  four  naked  seeds. 
Tliere  are  two  species,  aquatics  of  Europe. 

MYRISTICA,  the  nutmeg-tree;  in  botaay, 
a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  class 
dicecia,  and  order  syngenesia,  and  of  the 
natural  order  lami.  The  male  calyx  is  mo- 
nophyilous,  strong,  arid  parted  into  three  la- 
ciniic  of  an  oval  shape,  and  ending  in  a  point : 
it  has  no  corolla,  lu  the  middle  of  the  re- 
ceptacle rises  a  column  of  the  height  of  the 
calyx  ;  to  the  upper  part  of  which  the  an- 
thc"ne  are  attached.  Thev  vary  in  number 
from  three  to  twelve  or  thirteen,  'i'he  fe- 
male calyx  and  corolla,  as  in  the  male,'  on  a 
distinct  t"ree.  The  germen  of  an  oval  shape  ; 
the  style  short,  with  a  bifid  stigma,  the 
lacinite"  of  which  are  oval  and  spreading. 
The  fruit  is  of  that  sort  called  drupa.  It  is 
fleshy,  roundish,  sometimes  unilocular,  some- 
times bivalved,  and  when  ripe  bursts  at  the 
side.  The  seed  is  enveloped  with  a  llesliy 
a^id  fattv  membraneous  substance,  which  di- 
vides into  lilaments:  this,  in  one  of  the  spe- 
cies is  the  mace  of  the  shops.  The  seed  or 
nutmeg  is  round  or  oval-shaped,  unilocular, 
and  contains  a  small  kernel,  variegated  on 
the  surface  by  the  fibres  running  in  the  form 
of  a  screw. 

There  are  five  species  of  this  genus  accord- 
ing to  some  authors ;  but  several  of  these 
being  only  varieties,  may  be  reduced  to 
three,  viz.  1.  Myristica  fatua,  or  wild  nut- 
meg ;  this  grows  in  Tobago,  and  rises  to  th« 
height  of  an  ;ipple-tree  ;  has  obhmg,  lanceo- 
lated,  downy  U-aves,  and  hairy  truit  ;  the 
nutmeg  of  which  is  aromatic,  but  when  given 
inwardly  is  narcotic,  and  occ'asions  drunken- 
ness, delirium,  and  madness  for  a  time.  2. 
The  myristica  sebifera,  a  tree  freciuent  in 
Ciuiana,"  rising  to  40  or  even  to  60  feet  high  ; 
on  wounding  the  trunk  of  which,  a  thick, 
atrid,  red  juice  runs  out.  Anblet  says  no- 
tliing  of  the  nutmegs  being  aromatic;   he 


M  Y  H 

only  observes,  that  a  yellow  fat  is  obtained 
from  1 1. em,  which  serves  many  economical 
;ii>d  medic.ll  purposes,  and  that  th.e  natives 
make  candles  ot  it.  3.  The  my^tel•ia  aro- 
iiKitica,  or  nutmeg,  atlains  the  height  of  30 
feet,  producing  numerous  branches,  which 
rise  together  in  stories,  and  covered  with 
bark,  which  of'  the  trunk  is  a  reddish  brown, 
but  that  of  the  young  br;mches  is  of  a  bright 
green  colour;  the  leaves  are  neatly  ellipti- 
cal, pointed,  undulated,  obliquely  nerved, 
on  file  upper  side  of  a  bright  green,  on  tiie 
imder  whitish,  ar.d  st;ind  alternately  upon 
footstalks ;  the  IhAvers  are  small,  and  hang 
upon  slender  peduncles,  |)roceeding  fro:ii 
the  axillae  of  the  leaves:  they  are  both  male 
and  female  upon  separate  trees. 

The  nutmeg  has  been  supposed  to  be  the 
comacum  of  Iheophrastus,  but  there  seems 
little  foundation  for  this  o|)inion  ;  nor  caiv  it 
with  more  probability  be  thought  to  be  the 
chrysobalanos   of  Galen.      Our  first  know- 
ledge of  it  was  evidently  derived  from   the 
Arabians;  by  Avicennaitwascalleil  jiausiban, 
or  jansiband,   wdiich  signifies  nut  of  Bauda. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  nutmegs,  the  one 
male  and  the  other  female.     'I'he  feinale  is 
that  in  connnon  use  ;  the  male  is  longer  and 
more  cvlindric,  but  it  has  less  of  the  fine  aro- 
matic flavour  than   the  other.     This  is  very 
subject  to  be  worm-eaten,  and  by  the  Dutch 
it  is  strictly  prohibited  from  being   packed 
with  the  otiiers,  because  it  will  give  occasion 
to  their  being  worm-eaten  too,  by  the  insects 
getting  from  one  sjie'cies  to  the   other.     An 
almost  exclusive  and  very  lucrative  trade  in 
nutn-iCgs  from  the  island  of  Ce>,  Ion  was  car- 
ried on  by  the  Dutch,  but  it  is  now  transfer- 
red to  the  English,  who  have  become  masters 
of  the  colony.' 

The  seeds  or  kernels  called  nutinegs  are 
well  known,  as  they  have  been  long  used 
both  for  culinary  ami  medical  purposes.  Dis- 
tilled with  water,  they  yii  Id  a  large  quantity 
of  essential  oil,  resembling  in  flavour  the 
spice  itself;  after  the  distillation,  an  insipid 
sebaceous  matter  is  found  swimming  on  tl.e 
water ;  the  decoction  inspissated,  gives  an 
extract  of  an  unctuous,  very  lightly  bitterish 
taste,  and  with  little  or  no  astringency.  Rec- 
tified spirit  extracts  the  whole  virtue  of  nut- 
megs by  infusion,  but  elevates  very  little  of 
it  in  distillation ;  hence  the  spirituous  ex- 
tract possesses  the  flavour  of  the  spice  in  an 
eminent  degree. 

Nutmegs,  when  heated,  yield  to  the  press 
a  considerable  quantity  of  limpid  yellow  oil, 
which  on  cooling  concretes  into  a  sebaceous 
consistence.  In  the  shops  we  meet  with 
three  sorts  of  unctuous  substances,  called  oil 
of  mace,  though  really  expressed  from  the 
nutmeg.  The  best  is  brought  from  the  East 
Indies  in  stone  jars  ;  this  is  of  a  thick  con- 
sistence, of  tli('  colour  of  mace,  and  has  an 
agreeable  fragrant  smell ;  the  second  sort, 
which  is  paler-colonrcd,  and  much  inferior 
111  ([ualitv,  comes  from  llolUmd  in  solid  mass- 
es, generally  flat,  and  of  a  square  figure : 
the  third,  which  is  the  worst  of  all,  and 
usually  <'alled  common  oil  of  mace,  is  an  ar- 
tificial composition  of  sevum,  palm  oil,  and 
the  like,  flavoured  with  a  little  genuine  oil 
of  nutmeg. 

Method  of  gathering  and  preparing  nut- 
megs.— When  the  fruit  is  ripe,  the  natives 
ascend  the  trees,  and  gather  it  by  pulling 
10 


M  Y  R 

tlie  braiiL-lies  to  them  willi  long  hooks.  Some 
;iit' cMiployi'd  in  opcniai;  tiifiu  imnifLllalely, 
and  ill  taking  olf  the  given  siivll  or  lirst 
nnd,  wliicli  is  laid  lo^^eiliei-  in  a  heap  in  the 
woods,  where  in  liirte  it  putrelies.  As  soon  as 
the  jjutretaition  has  taken  place,  lliere 
spi'in,;f  up  a  kiiidol'  niuilirooni>,  called  bo- 
K  ti  nMseluUN  ni,  of  a  blackish  eoloiir,  and 
iiuifli  valued  by  the  ii.itives,  wiio  eonsider 
them  as  delicati." eating.  AVhen  the  nuts  are 
ilrippcd  of  their  iirst  rind,  lli'.'y  are  carri;:d 
home,  and  the  mace  is  carefully  taken  oil' 
wiin  a  small  knile.  The  mace,  w^hicli  is  oi 
a  beantiful  n«l,  but  afterwards  assumes  a 
d.irkidi  red  colour,  is  laid  to  dry  in  the  sun 
tor  tlie  space  of  a  day,  and  is  tiien  removed 
to  a  place  less  exposed  to  his  rays,  where  it 
remains  for  eight  days  that  a  may  soften  a 
liUle.  'I'liey  afterwards  moi-lvn  it  with  sea- 
w,.ler,  to  prevent  it  from  drying  too  nuii-h, 
or  from  losmg  its  oil.  Tiiey  are  careful, 
however,  not  to  employ  too  much  water, 
Je4  it  should  become  putrid,  and  be  devour- 
ed by  the  worms.  It  is  last  of  all  put  into 
sniuU  bags,  and  squeezed  very  close. 

The  nuts,  which  are  still  covered  willi 
their  ligneous  shell,  are  for  three  days  expos- 
ed to  the  sun,  and  afterwards  dried  before 
a  lire,  till  they  emit  a  sound,  when  they  are 
shaken ;  they  then  beat  the.n  with  small 
slicks  in  order  to  remove  their  shell,  which 
Hies  off  in  |)iece3.  Tliese  nuts  are  distribut- 
ed into  three  parcels  ;  the  lirst  of  winch  con- 
tains the  largest  and  most  beautiful,  which 
are  destined  to  be  brought  to  Europe ;  the 
second  contains  such  as  are  resrrved  tor  the 
tise  of  the  inliaoitants ;  and  the  third  contains 
the  smallest,  which  are  irregular  or  unripe. 
These  are  burnt ;  and  part  of  the  rest  is  em- 
ployed for  procuring  oil  by  pressure.  A 
pound  of  them  commonly  gives  three  ounces 
of  oil,  whivh  lias  the  consistence  of  .tallow, 
and  has  entirely  the  taste  of  nutmeg,  liorh 
the  nut  and  mace,  when  distilled,  atiford  an 
essential,  transparent,  and  volatile  oil,  of  an 
excellent  llavour. 

The  luitiuegs  which  have  been  thus  se- 
lectetl,  would  soon  corrupt  if  they  w«<ie  not 
watered,  or  rather  pickled,  with  lime-water 
made  from  calcined  siieil-lish,  which  they 
dilute  with  salt  water  till  it  attains  the  con- 
sistence of  lluid  pap.  Into  tiiis  mixture  they 
plunge  the  nutmegs,  coiit.iineii  in  small  bas- 
kets, two  or  three  times,  till  tiiey  are  com- 
uletclv  covered  over  with  the  liquor.  They 
are  afterwards  laid  in  a  heap,  where  they 
beat,  and  lose  their  superiUious  moisture  by 
evaporation.  When  tliey  have  sweated  sui- 
iiciently,  they  are  then  properly  pre|jared, 
and  litVor  a  sea-voyage. 

The  medicinal  qualities  of  nutmeg  are  sup- 
posed to  be  aromatic,  anodyne,  stomachic, 
and  astringent ;  and  with  a  view  to  the  last 
mentioned  effects,  it  has  been  much  used  in 
diarrlia-as  and  dysenteries.  To  many  people 
the  aromatic  flavour  of  iititmeg  is  very 
iii^reeable  ;  they  however  should  be  cautious 
not  to  use  it  in'  large  quantities,  as  it  is  apt 
to  affect  the  head,  and  even  to  manifest  an 
liypnotic  power  in  such  a  degree  as  to  prove 
e.vtremely  dangerous.  Bonttus  speaks  ot 
thi->  as  a  frequent  occurrence  in  India;  and 
])r.  Cullen  relates  a  reinaikab;e  instance  of 
this  soporiiic  el'l'ect  ot  the  natmeg,  wnich  fell 
under  his  own  observation,  and  hence  con- 
cludes, that  in  apoplectic  anu  paiai^t.c  cases 


M  Y  R 

this  spice  may  be  very  improper.  He  ob- 
s.^rves.  that  a  person  by  mistake  took  two 
drams  or  a  little  more  of  powdered  nutmeg  ; 
he  felt  it  warm  in  his  stomach,  without  any 
uneasiness;  but  in  about  an  hour  after  he 
had  taken  it  he  was  seiz-jd  with  a  drowsiness, 
wliich  gradually  increased  to  a  complete 
stupor  and  insensibility  ;  and  not  long  after 
he  was  found  falh-n  from  his  chair,  lying  on 
the  floor  of  liis  chamber  in  the  state  ineii- 
tioiied.  Being  laid  abed  he  fell  asleep; 
but  waking  a  little  fro.ii  time  to  time,  he  was 
quite  delirious ;  and  he  thus  continued  al- 
ternately sleei)ing  a:?»'i  delirious  fjr  several 
hours.  By  degrees,  however,  both  these 
symptoms  diminished  ;  so  that  in  about  six 
hours  from  the  time  of  taking  the  nutmeg 
he  was  pretty  well  recovered  from  both. 
.Mthough  he  still  complained  of  liead-ache, 
and  some  drowsiness,  he  slept  naturally  and 
ipiietly  the  following  night,  and  next  day  was 
quite  in  his  ordinary  health. 

The  ollicinal  preparations  of  nutmeg  are,  a 
spirit  and  essential  oil;  and  the  nutmeg  in 
substance  roasted,  to  render  it  more  astrin- 
gent. Both  the  spice  itself  and  its  essential 
0;1  enter  several  compositions,  as  the  con- 
fectio  aromatica,  spiritns  ammonia',  com.,ii:c. 
Mace  ))o5sesses  c[ualilies  similar  to  those  of 
the  nutmeg,  but  is  less  astringent,  and  its 
oil  is  supposed  to  be  more  volatile  and 
acrid. 

MYRMECI.V,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  tetrandria  moiiogynia;  the  calyx  is 
tubular,  hve-toothed ;  cor.  one-petalled ; 
germ  live  glands  at  the  base  ;  stigma  bila- 
meiate;  caps,  luo-valveil.  There  is  one 
species,  a  shrub  of  Guiana. 

.MYBMECOPHAGA,  Ant-e.vter,  a 
genus  of  tiuadrnpeds  of  the  order  bruta.  The 
generic  character  is,  teeth  none ;  tongue 
cylindric,  extensile  ;  mouth  lengthened  into 
a  somew  hat  tubular  form  ;  body  covered  with 
hair.  The  animals  of  this  genus  live  entire  y 
on  insects,  more  particularly  on  the  various 
kinds  of  ants  ;  in  order  to  obtain  which,  ihev 
extend  their  tongue,  which  is  of  a  very  great 
length,  ae.d  of  a  roundish  or  wormdike  form, 
into  the  nests  of  those  insects;  and  when,  by 
means  of  the  viscid  moisture  with  which  it 
is  covered,  a  sntiicient  number  are  secured, 
they  retrai  t  it  suddeidy  into  the  month,,  and 
swallow  them.  A  part  of  the  generic  cha- 
racter of  t'ne  mvrm''co;)liaga  is  the  total  waiit 
of  teeth,  in  which  particularity  it  resembles 
no  other  animals  except  those  of  the  genus 
nianis,  in  which  tiie  same  circumstance  takes 
place.  'I'i'.ere  are,  however,  in  the  ant-eaters, 
according  to  the  observations  of  iMons. 
Brous-onet,  ceitain  bones  or. processes  not 
unlike  teeth,  situated  deep  at  the  entrance  of 
the  gullet  or  ojsophagus;  or  rather,  accord- 
ing to  the  celebrated  Camper,  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  jaws.  The  bpecies  of  ant-eaters 
are  not  numerous. 

1.  Myrmecophaga  jubata,  great  ant-eater. 
This  is  by  far  the  lari;est  of  the  ant-eaters, 
being  upwurds  of  seven  feet  in  length,  from 
the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  tail  ;  but 
if  measured  to  the  origin  of  the  tail-,  it  is  no 
more  ".lian  about  live  feet- and  a  half.  It  is  an 
animai  oi  an  uncouth  appearance ;  the  head 
is  s.-.iall ;  the  snout  very  iotig ;  the  eves 
small  ;  the  cars  short  and  round  ;  the  shoul- 
ders thick  and  muccular,  fiom  whence  the 
body  tapers  tow  ards  the  tail ;  but  the  Ihighs 


M  Y  R 


247 


are  thick  and  stout;  the  colour  of  the  animal 
is  a  deep  grey,  with  a  very  broad  bind  of 
black  running  froni_  the  neck  downwards  on 
each  side  the  body,  gro-.viiig gradually  iiarroiv- 
erasit  passes  down  ;  ihisbLick'band'isaccorU- 
puniedoi)  the  npivrpart  by  a  streak  of  white; 
the  fore  le^s  are  ot  a  lighter  cast  than  the 
hinder;  and  have  a  patch  or  spot  of  black 
ill-front  not,  much  above  the  foot ;  the  tail  is 
black,  extremeiy  long  and  bushy;  tlie  hair 
on  the  whole  body,  but  especially  on  the  tail, 
is  very  h;usli  and"  coarse:  there  are  four  toes 
on  the  fore-feet,  and  live  on  the  liind :  the 
two  middle  claws  of  the  fore  feel  are  extreme- 
ly large  and  strong  ;  which  render  this  crea- 
luii",  though  destitute  of  teefii,  a  very  fornii. 
dable  adversary  ;  since  it  has  been  known  to 
destroy  animals  of  much  greater  apparent 
strength  than  itself;  hxing  its  claws  upon 
them,  and  exerting  such  poweiful  strength  as 
to  kill  them  by  continued  laceration  and 
pressure.  It  is  a  native  of  Bradland  Gui- 
ana; it  is  chielly  a  nocturnal  animal,  and  is 
said  to  sleep  during  the  g  eatest  p.irt  of  the 
day  in  retired  places.  Its  pace  is  somewhat 
slow,  and  its  manners  dull  and  heavy.  It 
is  said  to  swim  with  ease ;  at  w!dch  tune  it 
flings  its  tail  over  its  back.  A  living  speci- 
men was  some  years  ago  brought  into  Spain, 
and  kept  in  tlie  royal  menagerie  at  Madrid; 
in  till'  state  ot  conlinement  it  would  readily 
eat  raw  meat  cut  small,  and  was  said  to  swal- 
low four  or  live  pounds  in  a  day.  Its  length 
was  six  feet,  from  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the 
tail,  and  its  lieight  was  two  feet. 

2.  Myrmecophaga    didactyla,   little    ant- 
eater.     This  is  an  animal  of  "great  elegance. 
It  is  not  superior  in  size  to  a  squirrel  ;  me:;- 
suring  little  more  than  seven  inches  from  tlie- 
nose  to  the  tail,  which  is  Iqngerthan  the  body 
and  head:    the  head    is    small;    the   snout 
sharpened,  and  slightly  bent  downwards;  the 
legs  are  short ;    the  fore  feet  have  onl\-  two 
claws  on  each,  the  exterior  one  much  larger 
and  stronger  thun  the  inleri;)r;  on  each  of" 
th  •  hind  (eet  are  four  claws  ot  moderate  size  ; 
the  ears  are  very  small,  and  hid  in  the  fur;, 
the  eyes  are  also  small.     The  whole  animal- 
is  co\ered  with  a  beautiful  soft,  and  some- - 
what  crisped  or  curled  iur,  of  a  pale  yellow 
colour,   or  rather,  yellovz-brown ;     th"e  tail, 
which  is  very  thick  at  the  beginning  or  base, 
gradually  tapers  to  the  tip  ;  and  the  lower 
surface,  for  about  the  space  of  four  inches 
from  the  tip,  is  bare;  the  tail  in  this  specif  s 
being  prehensile,  and  the  animal  commonly 
residing  on  tn-es,  and  pn-ying  on  ai.ts,   by 
means  of  its  long  tongue,  in  the  iiK'niier  of 
other  species.     It  is  a  native  of  Guiana.     See 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  lig.  ^yo. 

3.  Myrmecophaga    acnleata,     aculeated 
ant-eater.     The  ac.deated  ant-eater  is  one  of:' 
liiose  curious  anim.ls  which  have  been  lately 
discovered  in  the  vast  island,  or  rather  conti- 
nent, of  Auslrala~ia  or  N'ew  Holland;  and  is 

a  striking  instance  of  that  beautiful  gradation, . 
so  frequently  observed  in  the  animal  kin.g- 
dom,  by  which  creatures  of  one  tribe  or  genus 
approach   to  those  of  a  very  dillerent  one.  -  - 
It  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the  very 
distant   Linn.a-an  genera  of  hystrix   (porcu-- 
pine)  and  myrmecophaga  (ant-eater),  having  . 
the  external  coating  and  general  appearance  ■ 
of  the  one,  with  the  moulli  and  pec,  liar  ge- 
neric characters  oi  the  oihe  .     This  aniinal,  . 
so  far  as  may  be  judged  from  the  specimens  . 
intijerlo  imported,  is  about  a  fool  ia  length... 


2  IS 


M  Y  n 


In  its  inoi.'e  of  life  lljis  auiinal  resoiiil)les 
tin-  ri'it  of  tiio  ;int-e;itors,  being  geiienillv 
foujid  in  Ihft  ni'.(l-t  ot  so:!ie  large  ant-liiM:  it 
ijuiTOivs  v.ilh  great  strengtli  and  celerity 
uni-ier  ground,  wlien  di-sturlsed  ;  its  feet  and 
legi  bein-^  most  excessively  strong  and  short, 
:i!)d  v.onUL-rfiiily  adapted  to  this  purpose.  It 
Ts  ill  even  burrow  under  a  pretly  strong  pave- 
nieut,  removing  the  stones  with  its  claws  ;  or 
under  the  bottom  of  a  wall.  During  tliese 
t-Nertions,  its  body  is  strengthened  or  length- 
ened to  an  uiicommon  d  .'gree,  and  appears 
very  diff-.-rent  from  the  short  or  plump  aspect 
which  it  bears  in  its  undisturbed  state. 

It  canp.ol  esca])e  tiie  observation  of  every 
scientific  naturalist,  that,  in  conetiuence  of 
the  discovery  of  this  curious  animal,  the 
Linna'an  character  of  myrmecoph.iga  is,  in 
j)art,  rendered  inapplicable.  Since,  there- 
fore, theg.'nera  of  inanij  and  myrniecoph.aga 
di.fer  only  in  the  external  covering  (tiie 
former  bei;ig  coated  with  scales,  and  the  lat- 
ter with  hair),  it  would,  perhaps,  be  not  im- 
proper to  conjo.n  the  two  genera,  to  add  this 
as  a  new  species,  and  to  give  as  part  of  t!ic 
generic  character,  corpus  pilis,  squamis,  vel 
aculeis  tectum.  Or  it  might  even  constitute 
a  new  genus,  which  would  diifer  from  those 
of  manis  and  mvrniecophaga,  in  having  the 
body  covered  with  spines^ 

NiVKMKLliOX,  a  genus  of  insects  of 
the  order  neuroptera:  llie  generic  character 
is,  mouth  lumished  with  jaws,  teeth  two; 
feelers  four,  elongated;  siemmala  none  ;  an- 
fennx  clavated,  of  the  length  of  the  thorax  ; 
wings  deflected;  tail  of  the  male  furnished 
witn  a  forceps  consisting  of  two  straightish 
lilaments.  Of  this  genus  the  species  whose 
history  is  best  understood  is  the  in>rmeleon 
formicaleo  of  l.inn;rus,  whose  larva  has  long 
been  celebrated  by  naturalists  for  its  wonder- 
fil  ingenuity,  in  preparing  a  kirid  of  pilfal  or 
deceptive  cavity  for  the  destruction  of  such 
insects  as  happen  unwarily  to  enter  it.  The 
myrmeleoii  tbrniicaleo,  in  its  complete  or  ily 
state,  bears  no  inconsiderable  resemblance  to 
a  small  dragon-lly,  from  which,  however,  it 
inay  readily  be  distinguished  by  its  antennae. 
It  is  of  a  predacious  nature,  tlynig  chiehy  by 
night,  and  pursuing  the  smaller  insects  in  the 
in;inner  ot  a  libellula.  .It  deposits  its  eggs 
in  dry  sandy  situations;  and  the  young  larva-, 
when  liatched,  begin  separately  to  exercise 
their  talent  of  preparing,  by  turning  tiiem- 
selves  rapidly  round,  a  very  small  conical  ca- 
vity in  the  sand.  Under  'he  centre  of  the  ca- 
vity the  little  animal  conci  als  itself,  suddi-nlv 
rushing  forth  atintervals  in  order  to  seize  any 
small  insect  which,  by  approaching  the  edge 
of  the  cavity,  has  been  so  unfortunate  as  to  fall 
in;  and  after  sucking  out  its  juices  through 
its  tubular  forceps,  throws  it  by  a  sudden  ex- 
ertion to  some  distance  troni  the  cavity.  As 
the  creature  ibcre.ises  in  size  it  enlarges  the 
cavity,  -which  at  length  becomes  about  two 
inches  or  more  in  diameter.  The  larva, 
when  full-grown,  is  more  than  half  an  inch 
long,  and  is  of  a  flattened  figure,  broad  to- 
wards the  upper  part,  and  gradually  laoering 
loan  obtuse  point  at  the  extremity.  It  is  of 
a  brown  colour,  and  beset  with  numerous 
tufts  of  dusky  liair,  which  are  parlii  ularly 
coiispicuous  on  each  side  the  annuli  of  the 
abdomen  ;  the  legs  are  slender ;  the  head 
and  thorax  railier  small;  the  tubular  jaws 
long,  curved,  serrated  internally,  and  very 
hliurp-poiuted.    ,'J'hc   whole  aiiiinal  is  of  an  ! 


RI  V  R 

iinpleasing  aspect,  and  on  a  cursory  vieAV 
bears  a  general  resemblance  lo  a  llat-iwdied 
spider.  When  mugnihed,  its  'aj>l)earance  is 
highly  uncouth. 

The  ingenious  Reaumur  and  Roesel  have 
given  accurate  descriptions  of  lliis  larva  and 
its  extraordinary  history.  It  is  one  of  those 
whose  term  of  life,  liLethat  of  the  libellukc 
and  ephemera;,  is  protnicted  to  a  very  con- 
siderable space,  since  it  survives  the  first 
winter  in  its  larva  state,  taking  no  nourish- 
ment during  that  time,  and  in  the  sj)ring  re- 
sumes its  u>;i:al  manner  of  preying.  In  pre- 
paring its  pit,  it  begins  by  tr.icing  an  exterior 
circle  of  the  intended  diameter  of  the  cavity, 
continuing  its  motion,  in  a  spiral  line,  till  it 
gets  to  the  centre,  thus  marking  several  vo- 
lutes in  the  sand,  resemiiling  the  impression 
of  a  large  helix  or  snail-shell  ;  and  after  hav- 
ing suliicieiitly  deepened  thecavity  by  a  repe- 
tition of  this  motion,  it  smooths  the  sides 
into  a  regular  shape  by  throwing  out  the  su-' 
penluous  sand  lying  on  tlie  ridges ;  this  it 
does  by  closing  its  forceps  in  such  a  manner, 
that  together  with  the  head,  tiiey  form  a  con- 
venient shovel,  with  which  it  throws  the  sand, 
with  so  strong  a  motion  out  of  the  cavity, 
that  the  grains  often  fall  to  the  distance  of 
near  a  foot  bevond  the  brink.  The  depth  of 
the  pit  is  generally  e<jual  lo  the  diainetivr. 
^\'hen  full-grown  and  ready  to  change  into 
a  chrysalis,  the  animal  envelopes  itself  in  a 
round  bail  of  sand,  agglutinated  and  connect- 
ed by  very  fine  silk,  which  it  draws  from  a 
tubular  process  at  the  extremity  of  the  body; 
with  this  silk  it  also  line<  the  internal  suiia'-e 
of  tlie  ball,  whicli,  if  opened,  appears  coated 
by  a  fine  pearl-coloured  silken  tissue.  Jt 
continues  in  the  stale  of  chrysalis  about  four 
weeks,  and  then  gives  birth  to  the  complete 
insect. 

The  myrmeleon  barbanis  has  antennx  as 
long  as  the  body;  thorax  spotted  with  yel- 
low.    See  Plate"  Xat.  Hist.  fig.  291. 

M^'ROBALAXS,  a  kind  of  medicinal 
fruit   brought    from   the   Indies.     See   M.\- 

TERIA  .MeDICA. 

iMYRODKXDRUM,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  Older  polyandria  monogynia.  The  cor. 
is  (ive-petalled  ;  stigma,  capitate,  five-lobed  ; 
per.  five-celled.  There  is  one  species,  a  tree 
efGuiana. 

MYRODIA,  a  genus  of  the  inonadelphia 
polyandria  class  and  order;  the  calyx  is  single, 
one-leafed;  cor.  five-petalled ;  pisl.  one  co- 
lumn of  anthers  undivided,  dru|)e  dry,  two 
nuts.  There  are  two  species,  shrubs  of  the 
We,-,t  Indies. 

MYROSMA,  a  genus  of  the  monandria 
monogv'nia  clas^  and  order ;  the  cal.  is  double, 
oiiter  three-l(;aved,  inner  three-|)arted  ;  cor. 
live-parted:  caps,  three-cornered.  There  is 
one  species,  a  shrub" of  Surinam. 

MYROXYLIT.M,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia order,  in  the  decandria  class  of  plants. 
'Ihe  calyx  is  campamilated  ;  the  superior 
|)et3l  larger  than  lhere.it  ;  the  germ,  is  longer 
llnin  the  corolla;  the  legumen  monosper- 
mous.  There  is  but  one  species,  the  peru- 
iferum,  a  native  of  Peru  and  the  warmer 
parts  of  Africa.  It  is  this  shrub  that  yields 
the  balsam  of  Peru,  which  is  said  to  be  ex- 
tracteil  from  it  by  coction  in  water.  This 
balsam,  as  brought  to  us,  is  nearly  of  Ihe 
consistence  of  thin  honey,  of  a  reddish  brown 
colour  inclining  to  black,  an  agreeable  aro- 


M  Y  n 

malic  Emell,  and  a  very  hot  biting  tastf. 
Distilled  with  water,  it  yields  a  tniatl  (juaii- 
tity  of  a.  fragrant  essential  oil  of  u  reddish 
colour ;  and  ii;  a  strong  lire,  without  addition, 
a  yellowish  red  oil  lialsam  of  Pej-u  is  a  very 
warm  aromatic  medieine,  considerJ1)!y  hotter 
and  more  acrid  than  copaiva.  (bee  Ualsam.) 
Us  ])rincipal  tSfecls  are  to  warm  the  habit, 
to  strcKgthen  the  nervous  system,  and  attenu- 
ate viscid  humours,  lier.ce  its  use  in  some 
kinds  of  asthmas,  gonorrha'as,  dysenteries, 
and  ot!>er  d'sorders  proce.  ding  from  a  d<'. 
bilily  of  the  solidi,  or  sluggishness  and  inac- 
tivity of  the  jni.es.  It  is  also  employed  ex- 
ternally, f()r  cleansing  and  healing  wounds 
and  ulcers,  and  sometime?  against  palsies  and 
rheumatic  pains.  Tiiere  is  another  sort  of 
balsam  of  Peru  of  a  white  colour,  and  con- 
siderably more  fragrant  than  the  tt)rmer. 
This  is  very  rarely  brought  to  us.  It  is  said 
to  be  the  produce  of  the  same  plant  which 
yields  the  common  or  black  balsam;  and  to 
exsude  Irom  incisions  made  in  the  trunk, 
while  Ihe  former  is  obtained  by  boiling. 
I'here  is  also  a  third  kind,  commonly  called 
the  red  or  dry.  ^I'his  is  supijosed  to  obtain 
a  diiferent  state  from  the  white,  merely  in 
consequence  of  the  treatment  to  which  it  is 
subjected  after  it  is  got  from  the  tree.  It  is 
almost  as  fragrant  a^  the  balsam  of  Gilead, 
held  in  so  high  esteem  among  the  Eastern 
nations.  It  is  very  rarely  in  use  in  iiritain, 
and  almost  never  to  be  met  with  in  our 
shops. 

.Nn  RRH,  a  gummy  resinous  concrete 
juice.  The  plant  trom  which  this  substance  is 
obtained,  is  not  certainly  known.  According 
lo  iSruce,  it  belongs  to  the  genus  mimosa, 
and  grows  in  Abyssinia  and  Arabia.  It  is 
in  the  form  of  tears.  Colour  reddish-yellow, 
sometimes  transparent,  but  more  frequently 
opaque.  Taste  brittle  and  aromatic.  Doe's 
not  melt  when  heated,  and  burns  with  dilli- 
cully.  A\"ith  water  it  forms  a  yellow  so- 
lution. The  solution  in  alcohol  becomes 
opaque  when  mixed  with  water.  I$v  distil- 
lation it  yields  oil.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
1.3ti.  It  is  employed  in  medicine,  and  is 
soluble  in  alkalies. 

The  medical  effects  of  this  aromatic  bitter 
are,  to  warm  and  strengdien  the  viscera  ;  it 
fretpiently  occasions  a  mild  diaphoresis,  and 
promotes  the  lluid  secretions  in  general. 
Hence  it  proves  serviceable  in  languid  cases, 
diseases  arising  from  a  simple  inactivity,  ca- 
chectic disorders,  and  wliere  the  lungs  and 
tliorax  are  oppressed  by  viscid  phlegm. 

Rectified  spirit  I'xtracts  the  line  aromatic 
llavour  anil  bitterness  of  this  drug,  and  does 
not  elevate  any  thing  of  either  in  evapora- 
tion ;  the  gummy  sul.-stance  left  bv  this  men- 
struum has  a  disagreeable  taste,  with  scarcely 
any  of  the  peculiar  llavoiu- of  the  myrrh  ;  this 
part  dissolves  in  water,  except  sonie  impuri- 
ties which  remain.  In  distillation  with  water, 
a  considerable  quantity  of  a  ponderous  essen- 
tial oil  arises,  resembling  in  llavour  the  origi- 
nal drug.  ^Iyrl■h  is  the  basis  of  an  officinal 
tiiuture.  It  enters  the  piluhe  ex  aloe  ct 
myrrha,  the  pilukr  e  gummi,  the  pilula;  sto- 
machica',  and  other  fornuil.e. 

M\'RSINIC,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  penlandria  class  of  plants, "and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
l.Slh  order,  bicornes.  Tiie  corolla  is  semi- 
<|uinquelid  and  conniveni  ;  the  eerinen  fillinir 
the  corolla;    the  berry  quinquelocular  and 


/(f/j    ^  rrt'//it<  fi^ 


n  A  -r  \v  K  3.  Ji^     Ji  ;i  .-s  t  o  ik  y 


283 


( 

Dinted  A'j/- Richard  l'hiliips,J\'<^f  2fn/(rf^  SOrft.BliuJdiiarj . 


M  y  R 

rciits^pornioiis.  'I'liere  are  two  species, 
itI>s  of  (Ir'  Cape. 

MYHII.K.     See  Myktus. 

MYHTUS,  tlie  inviik-;  a  gpnus  of  tin' 
inoiiogynia  orili-r,  in  t'lu'  icosamlria  class  ot 
phuils ;  and  in  the  natiiial  imHliod  raiikin<^ 
iiiulrrlliL'  I91I1  onliT,  lii-s|)ori(lx.  'Iliecal)x 
is  miimiiu'lid,  sii|)(M'ior  ;  IIkmc  are  livi;  petals  ; 
iJic  bt'iry  is  dispcnnous  or  trispinnioiis. 
'I'lu'ru  an-  3ti  species,  of  wliicli  tlie'most  ro- 
niarkablc  are: 

1 .  'I'lie  conimuiiis,  or  common  myrtle-tree, 
of  wliicli  tlie  niosl  mateiial  varieties  are  ; 
liroad-leaved  Koiiian  myrtle,  with  oval,  sfiiii- 
ing,  green  leaves,  an  inch  and  a  half  long, 
and  one  broad ;  and  which  is  remarkably 
lloriferoiis.  Gold-suiped  broad-leaved  Hu- 
man myrtle.  Hroad-leaved  Dutcii  myrtle, 
with  spcar-sluiped,  sharp-pointed,  dark-green 
leaves,  an  inch  long,  and  about  three  quar- 
ters of  one  broad.  Dniible-tlowered  Diilili 
myrtle.  l5road-leaved  Jew's  mvrtle,  having 
tlie  leaves  placed  by  threes  at  each  joint ;  by 
vvliiji  particular  circumstance  this  species  is 
in  universal  estimation  among  the  Jews  in 
their  religious  ceremonies,  particularly  in 
<lccorating  their  tabernacles  ;  and  lor  which 
jjurpose  many  gardeners  about  Lon<lon  cul- 
tivate this  variety  with  particular  care  to  sell 
U>  the  above  people:  for  the  true  sort,  having 
the  leaves  exactly  by  threes,  is  very  scarce, 
and  is  a  curiosity  ;  but  by  care  in  its  propa- 
gation, taking  only  the  perfectly  ternatc^ 
leaved  shoots  for  cuttings,  it  may  jje  increas- 
ed fast  enough  ;  and  is  worth  the  attention 
of  the  curious,  and  particularly  those  wlio 
raise  myrtles  for  the  F-omlon  markets.  Orange- 
leaved  Spanisli  myrtle,  with  oval  spear.vsluiped 
leaves,  an  inch  and  a  half  long  or  more,  and 
one  broad,  in  clusters  round  the  branches,  and 
resembling  the  shape  and  colour  of  orange- 
tree  leaves.  Gold-striped-leavcd  orange 
iiayrtle.  Common  upright  Italian  myrtle, 
uilh  its  branches  and  leaves  growing  more 
erect,  the  leaves,  oval,  lanceolate-shaped, 
iicute-pointed,  and  near  an  'nch  long  and 
Jialf  one  broad.  Silver-striped  upriglit  Italian 
myrtle.  \\  hite-berri.-d  upright  Italian  myr- 
tle. Portugal  acute-leaved  myrtle,  v\"ith 
spear-sha|)ed,  oval,  acute-pointed  leaves, 
iiljout  an  inch  long.  Hox-leaved  mvrtle,  with 
weak  branches,  and  mall,  oval,  obi  use,  lucid- 
jjreen,  closely -placed  leaves.  Striped  box- 
le;ived  myrtle.  |{osemary-leaved  myrtle. 
Silver  -  striped  rosemary  -  leaved  mvrtle. 
'Ihyme-leaved  myrtle,  wiili  very  small  close- 
ly-placed leaves.  Nutmeg-myrtle,  with 
<-re<t  branches  and  leaves  ;  the  leafes  oval, 
acute-pointed,  and  finely  scented  like  a  niil- 
ineg.  IJroad-leaved  uutmeg-inyrtle.  Silver- 
^lriped-leaved  tlitto.  Cristated  or  cock's- 
I  Diiib  myrtle,  fre(iuently  called  bird's-iiest 
my  rile,  'l'lle^e  are  all  beautiful  evergreen 
shrubs,  of  exceeding  fragrance,  exotics  origi- 
nally of  the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  and 
of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  conse<iueiilly  in 
this  country  require  a  shelter  of  a  greenliou.^e 
in  winter. 

2.  The  pimenta,  pimentS,  Jamaica  pep- 
per, or  alfspi(-e  tree-,  grows  about  30  ieet 
in  height  aiul  two  in  circumference ;  the 
branches  near  the  t0|)  are  much  divided  and 
thickly  beset  with  leaves,  which  by  their  con- 
tinual verdure  always  give  the  tree  a  beauti- 
ful appearance;  the  nark  is  very  smooth 
externally,  and  of  a  grey  colour;  the  leaves 
vary  in  shape  and  in  si/e,  but  are  coniiiionlv 

Vol.  11. 


M  Y  T 

about  four  inches  long,  veined,  pointed,  el- 
liptical, and  of  a  deep  shiniig  grei  n  colour  ; 
the  llowers  are  produced  in  liiinches  or  pa- 
nicles, and  stand  upon  subdividing;  or  tricho- 
tonious  stalks,  which  usually  terminate  the 
branches ;  the  calyx  is  cut  into  four  roundish 
segments;  (he  [jetals  are  also  four,  white, 
small,  rellex,  oval,  and  placed  opposite  to 
each  otlxT  between  the  segnienls  of  the  ca- 
lyx; the  lilaments  are  numerous,  longer  tluin 
the  petals,  spreading,  of  a  greenish-white 
colour,  and  rise  from  the  calyx  and  upper 
part  of  the  gernieii ;  the  anthenc  aie  round- 
ish, and  of  a  pale  yellow  colour ;  the  style 
is  smooth,  simple,  and  erect  ;  the  stigma  is 
obtuse;  the  germen  becomes  a  round  succu- 
lent berry,  containing  two  kidney-shaped 
(lattish  seeds.  This  tree  is  a  native  of  New 
Spain  and  the  West  India  islands.  In  Ja- 
maica it  grows  very  plentifully  ;  and  in  June, 
July,  and  August,  puts  forth  its  flowers, 
wliicli,  with  every  part  of  the  tree,  breathe  an 
aromatic  fragrance.  'J'he  berries  when  ripe 
are  of  a  dailv  purple  colour,  and  full  of  a 
sweet  pulp,  which  the  birds  devour  greedily. 
The  pimento  is  a  most  beautiful  oiloriferous 
evergreen,  and  exhibits  a  fine  variety  in  the 
stove  at  all  seasons. 

.MYTILT.'S,  the  mus.^cl,  a  genus  of  ani- 
mals belonging  to  the  order  of  vermes  tes- 
tacei.  'J  he  animal  is  an  ascidia ;  the  sheil 
bivalve,  ojten  affixed  to  some  substance  l)y  a 
bearil ;  the  hinge  without  a  tooth,  marked 
by  a  longitudinal  hollow  line.  Of  these  ani- 
mals there  are  a  great  many  species,  some 
of  them  inhabiting  the  seas,  others  the  rivers 
and  poiiils.  Several  of  them  are  remarkable 
for  the  beauty  of  their  internal  s\k-\\,  and  for 
the  pearls  which  are  sometimes  found  in 
them. 

1.  The  edulis,  or  edible  mussel,  has  a 
strong  shell,  slightly  incurvated  on  one  side, 
and  angulated  on  tlie  other.  The  end  near 
the  binge  is  pointed,  the  other  rounded. 
When  the  epidermis  is  taken  off  it  is  of  a 
deep-blue  colour.  It  is  found  in  immense 
beds,  both  in  deep  water  and  above  low-wa- 
ter mark.  This  species  inliabits  the  Euro- 
pean and  Indian  seas.  Between  the  tropics 
it  is  largest,  and  smaller  within  the  polar  cir- 
cle. It  is  said  to  be  hurtful  if  too  often  eaten, 
or  in  too  great  quantities. 

2.  The  anatinus,  or  duck  mussel,  has  a 
shell  more  oblong  and  less  convex  than  the 
last ;  is  very  brittle  and  semitransparent ;  the 
space  round  the  Iiinges  like  the  last;  the 
length  about  live  inches,  breadth  two.  It  is 
foiinil  in  Europe  in  fresh  waters.  Both  it 
and  the  cygneus  arc  devoured  by  swans  and 
ducks,  whence  their  names:  crows  also  feed 
on  these  mussels,  as  well  as  on  different  other 
shell-hsh;  and  it  is  diverting  to  observe,  that 
when  tlie  shell  is  too  hard  for  their  bills  they 
lly  with  it  to  a  great  height,  drop  the  shell  oil 
a  r<Kk,  and  pick  out  the  meat  when  the  shell 
is  fracturetl  by  tlie  fall. 

3.  The  violacea,  or  violet  mussel,  has  the 
shell  longitudinally  furrowed,  the  rim  very 
(ihfuse,  somewhat  formed  like  the  mytihis 
edulis,  hut  considerably  larger  and  more  flat- 
tened, of  a  beautiful  violet-colour.  Inhabits 
the  southern  ocean. 

4.  The  margarile  ferus  produces  the  true 
mother-of-pearl,  and  frequently  the  most  va- 
luable pearls:  th<?  outside  sometimes  sea- 
green,  or  cheiuut,  or  bloom-cojour  w  ith  white 

li 


M  Y  T 


219 


rays ;  when  the  outer  coal  is  removed  it  lias 
the  same  lustre  as  the  inside:  ll:e  younger 
sliells  have  ears  as  long  as  the  sliell,  and  re- 
semble scallops. 

There  are  between  50  and  60  otlier  species. 

Mussels  not  only  open  and  sliut  their  shells 
at  pleasure,  but  they  have  also  a  jirogressive 
motion  ;  they  can  fasten  tlieniselvcs  where 
lh(  y  please ;  they  respire  water  like  the 
fishes ;  and  some  even  flutter  about  on  ils 
surface  so  as  to  'inhale  air.  If  they  lie  in 
shallow  places  a  .?mall  circular  motion  is  seen 
above  the  heel  of  the  shell,  and  a  few  nio- 
i'leiits  after  tliey  cast  out  the  water  by  one 
single  stroke  at  the  other  end  of  the  shell. 
The  mouth  is  situated  near  the  sharp  angle  of 
the  animal;  and  is  furnished  with  four  float- 
ing fringes  in  the  shape  of  muslachios,  which 
may  perhaps  answer  the  purpose  of  lip-. 
The  barbs  wliich  surround  tlie  edge  of  al- 
most half  the  niussc-l,  are  a  wonderful  web  of 
hollow  fibres  which  serve  as  fins  or  organs  of 
respiration,  as  vessels  for  the  circulation  of 
the  fluids;  and  probably,  as  some  philoso- 
phers suppose,  as  wedges  for  opening  theit: 
shells ;  tor  we  observe  two  large  rauscles  or 
tendons  for  the  purpose  of  shutting  tlicm ; 
but  we  in  vain  look  for  their  antagonists,  or 
those  which  are  destined  to  open  them. 
^Vhen  tiie  mussel  wishes  to  open  itself,  it  re- 
laxes the  two  muscles  or  tendons,  ai.tl  sweiis 
the  hinges,  which  act  as  wedges,  and  separate 
the  shells.  The  animal  shuts  up  itself  l)y  the 
contraction  of  two  thick  fibrous  muscles, 
wliich  are  fixed  internally  to  each  er.d  of  the 
shells ;  and  these  shells  are  lined  all  round 
with  a  membrane  or  epidermis,  wl.icli  unites 
them  so  closely  together  when  they  are  soak- 
ed in  water,  that  not  the  smallest  drojj  can 
escape  from  the  mussel.  Wlien  mussels 
choose  to  walk  they  often  contrive  to  raise 
themselves  on  the  sharp  edge  of  their  shells, 
and  put  forth  a  fleshy  subst..nce  susceptible 
of  extension,  which  serves  them  as  a  leg  to 
drag  themselves  along,  in  a  kind  of  groove 
or  furrow  which  they  form  in  the  sand  or 
mud,  and  which  supjiorts  the  shell  on  both 
sides.  In  jionds  these  furrows  ?,re  very  ob- 
ser\ab'e.  From  the  same  member  or  leg 
hang  the  threads  hy  which  the  animals  fasten 
themselves  to  rocks,  or  to  one  another. 

According  to  the  observations  of  M.  Mery, 
of  the  I'aris  academy,  and  the  subsequent 
experiments  of  other  naturalists,  mussels  are 
all  androgynous ;  and,  from  a  peculiar  gene- 
rative organization,  each  individual  is  of  itself 
capable  of  propagating  its  species,  and  annu- 
ally does  it  without  the  intercourse  of  any 
other.  This  is  altogether  singular,  and  dii.'i'r- 
ent  from  what  takes  place  in  snails,  earth- 
worms, and  other  antlrogenous  or  liernia- 
lihroditical  animals.  In  the  spring,  mussels 
lay  their  eggs ;  t-iiere  being  none  found  in 
them  but  in  \einfer.  The  minute  eggs,  or 
embryos,  are  by  the  parent  jilaced  in  .due 
order,  and  in  a  very  close  arrangemenl,  en 
the  outside  of  the  shell ;  where,  by  means  of 
a  gluey  matter,  they  adhere  very,  fast,  and 
continually  increase  in  size  and  strength,  till 
becoming  perfect  mussels,  they  fall  oil"  and 
shift  for  themselves,  leaving  the  holes  where 
tliev  were  placeil  behind  them.  This  abun- 
dance the  mussel-shells  very  plainly  siiow, 
when  examined  by  the  microscope,  and 
sometimes  the  uumUer  is  2000  or  3000  on  one 
shell;  but  it  is  not  certain  that  these  have 
been  all  lixed  there  by  the  piu.sel  witliin 


2iO 


N  A  I 


for  these  fish  usiiiilly  lying  in  great  mimben 
iieai-  oiiL'  another,  the  eaihiyos  of  one  ar'- 
often  afiixed  to  llie  shell  oi  another.  "  The 
frineed  edge  of  the  mussel,  wliich  Le\v,,-n- 
Iioetk  calls"  the  beard,  ha,  iu  every  -the  mi- 
nutest part  of  it  such  variety  of  molions  as 
-  is  inconceivable  ;  for  being  composed  of  lout- 
ish fibres,  each  fibre  has  on  both  sides  a  va-l 
many  moving  particles. 

Tiie  mussi.-l  is  iiifested  by  several  enemies 
in  its  own  element;  according  to  Reaumur  it 
is  in  particular  the  prey  of  a  small  shell-iisli 
i)f  tlie  trochus  kind.  'Tiiis  animal  attaches 


NAP 

itself  to  (lie  shell  of  the  mussel,  pierces  it  with 
a  round  hole,  and  introduces  a  sort  of  tube, 
live  or  six  luies-long,  whicli  it  turns  in  a  spiral 
direction,  and  with  which  it  sucks  the  sub- 
stance of  tlie  mussel.  Mussels  are  also  sub- 
ject to  certain  diseases,  which  have  been  sup- 
posed to  be  the  cause  of  those  bad  effects 
u  hich  somethnes  happeji  from  the  eating  of 
them. 

MYKTNE,  the  liag;  a  genus  of  insects 
belonging  to  the  order  of  vermes  intestiui. 
it  lias  a  slender   body,  cariuated  beneath  ; 


N  A  R 

mouth  at  the  e.xtreniity,  cii rated;  the  two 
jaws  pinnated  ;  an  adipose  or  rayless  fin 
round  the  tail  and  under  the  belly.  The 
only  remarkable  species  is  the  gludnoa, 
about  eight  inches  long.  It  inhabits  the 
ocean  ;  enters  the  mouths  of  li->li  when  on  the 
hooks  of  lines  that  remain  a  tide  under  water  ; 
and  totally  devours  the  wiiole,  excejit  the 
skin  and  bones.  The  Scarborough  fisher- 
men ollen  lake  it  iu  the  robbed  fish,  on  draw- 
ing up  their  lines.  Liniia:us  attributes  to  it 
the  property  of  turning  water  into  gube, 


N 


"V"  or  n.  tlie  thirteendi  letter  of  our  alpha- 
-^^  )  bet;  as  a  numeral  stands  for  900; 
and  with  a  dash  over  it,  thus  N,  for  900,000. 
!N',  or  In",  stands  for  numiTo,  L  e.  in  number; 
and  N.  B.  for  nola  bene,  note  well,  or  observe 
well.  Among  the  antieiit  Romans,  N.  denotes 
Nepos,  Nonnius,  &c.  X.  C.  Nero  C:esar, 
or  Nero  Claudius  ;  N.  L.  Noii  liquet  ;  N.  P. 
Notarius  Publicus;  and  NBL.  stands  for  no- 
bilis. 

NADIR,  in  astronomy,  that  point  of  the 
heavens  which  is  diamrtrically  opposite  to 
the  zenith,  or  point  directly  ovir  our  heads. 

NAIAiJ:  a  genus  of  the  monandria  order, 
in  the  dicecia  class  of  plants;  and  in  tiie  na- 
tural method  ranking  witli  those  of  which  the 
order  is  doubtful.  The  male  calyx  is  cylin- 
drical and  bifid  ;  the  corolla  ([uadrifid  ;  there 
is  no  filament,  nor  is  thertiany  female  calyx 
or  corolla  ;  there  is  one  jjislil,  and  the  cap- 
sule is  ovate  and  unilocular.  There  is  one 
species,  an  aquatic  of  the  South  of  Europe. 

N.A.IL,  unguis.  See  Anatomy,  and 
Horn. 

NAILS,  in  building,  &c.  small  spikes  of 
iron,  brass,  &c.  which  being  driven  into 
wood,  serve  to  bind  several  pieces  togethf'r, 
or  to  fasten  something  upon  them.  The  se- 
veral sorts  of  nails  are  very  numerous:  as,  1. 
back  and  bottom  nails,  which  are  made  with 
flat  shanks  to  hold  fast,  and  not  open  the 
wood.  '2.  Clamp-nails,  for  faatening  the 
clamps  in  buildings,  &c.  3.  Clasp-nails, 
whose  heads  clasping  and  sticking  into  the 
wood,  render  the  work  smooth,  so  as  to  ad- 
mit a  plane  over  it.  •  4.  Cleixh-nails,  used 
by  boat  and  barge-builders,  and  proper  for 
any  boarded  buildings  that  are  to  be  taken 
down  ;  because  they  will  drive  without  split- 
ling  the  wood,  and  draw  without  breaking; 
of  this  there  are  many  sorts.  5.  Clout-nails, 
used  for  nailing  on  clouts  to  axle-trees.  6. 
Deck-nails,  for  fastening  of  decks  in  ships, 
<loul)ling  of  sSiipping,  and  floors  laid  with 
planks.  7.  Dog-nails,  for  fastening  hinges 
ci>  doors,  &c.  8.  Flat-points,  much  used 
in  ship])ing,  and  proper  where  there  is  occa- 
sion to  draw  and  hold  fast,  and  no  conveni- 
encv  of  clenching.  9.  Jobent-nails,  for  nail- 
ing'thiii  plates  of  iron  to  wood,  as  small 
hinges  on  cupboard-doors,  &c.  10.  Lead- 
jiaiis,  for  nailing  lead,  leather,  and  canvas,  to 
hard  wood,     U.  Port-nails,  for  uailing  hin- 


ges to  the  ports  of  ships.  12.  Pound-nails, 
which  are  four  square,  and  are  much  used  in 
Essex,  Norfolk,  and  Suffolk,  and  scarcely 
any  where  else,  except  for  palling.  13.  Rib- 
bing-nails, principally  used  in  ship-building, 
for  fastening  the  ribs  of  ships  in  their  places. 
14.  'Hose-nails,  which  are  drawn  four-square 
in  the  shank,  and  commonly  in  a  round  tool, 
as  all  common  twopenny  nails  are  ;  in  some 
countries  all  the  larger  sort  of  nails  are  made 
of  this  shape.  15.  Rother-nails,  which  have 
a  full  head,  and  are  chieily  used  in  fastening 
rothcr-irons  to  ships.  16.  Round-head  nails, 
for  fastenina;  on  hinges,  or  for  any  other  use 
where  a  neat  head  is  required ;  these  are  of 
several  sorts.  17.  Scupper-nails,  which  have 
a  broail  head,  and  are  used  for  fastening  lea- 
ther and  canvas  to  wood.  IS.  Sharp  nails  : 
th.ese  have  sharp  points  and  fiat  slianks,  and 
are  much  used,  especially  in  the  West  In- 
dies, for  nailing  sott  wood.  19.  Sheathing- 
nails,  for  fastening  sheathing-bo.irds  to  ships. 
-'0.  Sc|uare  nails,  which  are  used  for  hard 
wood,  and  nailing  up  wall-fruit.  21.  Tacks, 
the  smallest  of  which  serve  to  fasten  paper  to 
wood,  the  middling  for  wool-cards,  &c.  and 
the  larger  for  upholsterers  and  pumps. 

Nails  are  said  to  be  toughened  when  too 
brittle,  by  heating  them  in  a  fire-shovel,  and 
putting  some  tallow  or  grease  among  them. 

Nail,  is  also  a  measure  of  length,  contain- 
ing the  sixteenth  part  of  a  yard. 

NAIS,  a  genus  of  the  vermes  moUusca ; 
die  generic  character  is,  body  creeping,  long, 
linear,  pellucid,  depressed;  peduncles  ur  feet 
with,  small  l)ristles  on  each  side.  'I'liere  are 
ten  species :  the  digitata  is  found  w  ith  single 
lateral  bristles,  tail  laciniate,  in  stagnant 
waters,  or  the  sandy  sediment  of  rivers,  with 
its  head  attaclied'  to  the  stalk  of  atpiatic 
plants ;  it  is  about  4  lines  long. 

NAM.V,  a  genus  of  the  digynia  order,  in 
the  penlandria  class  of  plants :  and,  in  the 
natural  method,  ranking  under  the  13th 
order,  succulentx.  The  calyx  is  pentaphyl- 
lous,  the  corolla  <|uinquepartite,  the  capsule 
unilocular  and  bivalved.  There  is  one  spe- 
cies, an  annual  of  Jamaica. 

NANDINA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der hexandria  monogynia.  The  calyx  is 
many-leaved,  imbricate";  corolla  six-petallcd. 
There  is  one  .species,  a  herb  of  Japan. 


NAI'yEA,  a  genus  of  the  polyandria  order, 
in  the  polyadelpliia  class  of  plants;  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  37tli  oider, 
columniier;K.  The  calyx  is  single  and  cy- 
lindric ;  the  arilli  coalited  and  monospermous. 
There  are  two  species;  both  of  them  with 
perennial  roots.  Uoth  of  them  are  natives  of 
Virginia  and  other  parts  of  North  iViiierica ; 
ti'oni  the  bark  of  some  of  the  Indian  kinds  a 
sort  of  fine  hemp  might  be  procured,  capable 
being  v.oven  into  very  strong  cloth.  -  They 
are  easily  propagated  by  seed,  which  will 
thrive  in  any  situation. 

NAPTIIA  a  name  given  to  the  most 
liquid  bitumen ;  it  is  light,  transparent,  and 
very  inflammable.  There  are  several  varie- 
ties, found  chiefly  in  Italy,  and  particularly 
near  Modena.  Kempfer,  however,  says,  that 
great  quantities  are  collected  in  several  parts 
of  Persia;  naturalists  attribute  the  formation 
of  the  liquid  bitumens  to  the  decomposition 
of  those  that  are  solid,  by  the  action  of  the 
subterraneous  fires.  Naptha  is  said  to  be 
the  lightest,  which  the  fire  first  disengages: 
naptha  is  very  volatile,  and  so  combustible, 
that  it  catches  fire,  if  any  thing  burning  be 
brought  near  it.  In  Persia,  this  and  the 
other  bitumens  are  employed  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  iiglit  in  lamps  by  means  of  wicks  ; 
they  may  be  used  aKo  to  give  heat ;  for  this 
purpose  some  naptha  is  poured  on  a  few 
liandfuls  of  earth,  and  kindled  with  paper, 
when  it  burns  briskly,  but  diffuses  a  tliick 
smoke,  which  adheres  to  e*ery  thing,  and 
leaves  a  disagreeable  smell.  In  India,  the 
(lame  produced  by  it  is  worshipped,  and  the 
heat  it  emits  is  used  for  dressing  victuals ; 
and  in  some  cases  it  has  been  successful!)'  em- 
ployed hi  paralytic  diseases.    See  Bitumen, 

NARCISSUS,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  iu  the  hexandria  class  of  plants;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  9lh 
orden-,  spathacea'.  There  are  six  petals; 
the  iiectarium  is  funiiil-sliaped  and  mono- 
jihyllous;  the  stamina  are  within  {he  nec- 
arium.  There  are  15  species  ;  the  most 
remarkable  are : 

1.  The  bastard  narcissus,  or  common  yel- 
tlow  English  daffodil,  grows  wild  in  great 
plenty  in  many  of  our  woods  and  cojjpiccs, 
and  under  hedges,  in  several  parts  of  Eng- 
land, Us  commonness  rentiers  it  of  but 
U 


K  A  K 

lilllc  esleciii  with  many  ;  coiisliV  rnl,  liow- 
fver,  lis  ail  early  and  i-lcgant  (lower,  oi'  t-x- 
ceeding  liardincss  and  easy  ciiUir.c,  it  inurits 
a  jilaii-  in  evci-y  p;anlcn,  t-.^ijcLially  lii''  (loublc. 
•>.  'I'lio  liicolor,  or  Iwn-colouri'd  incom- 
paiabU;  narcissus;  tin-  variclics  arc,  common 
s,ingli'-llov,crc<l,  scnii-doiiblc-ilowcri.'d,''  uilli 
the  inUMior  pelals  ,M)nie  uiiite,  and  some  yel- 
low, with  sulpluir-colonrid  llower.-. 

3.  The  poeticns,  poelic  daffodil,  or  com- 
mon white  narcis-iH,  i";  well  known.  Of  this 
there  are  varieties  with  purple-cupped  ilow- 
ers,  vellow-cupped  llowers,  douhh-llowered  ; 
all  of  thcnu  with  entire  white  petals.  It  is 
the  aiilient  celebrated  narcissus  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  poets,  which  they  so  greatly 
e.xtol  for  its  extreme  beauty  and  fragranc^c. 

4.  The  bulbocodium.  From  the  large 
spreading  nectarlum  of  tliis  species,  which 
ii  three  or  four  limes  longer  tlian  tlie 
|)etals,  narrow  at  bottom,  and  widening 
gradually  to  the  brim,  so  as  to  resemble  the 
shape  ot"^  some  old-fasliioned  hoop  petticoats, 
it  obtained  the  name  hoop-petticoat  narcissus. 

5.  The  serotinus,  or  late-flowering  small 
autumnal  narcissus. 

6.  The  lazelta,  or  multiflerous  daffodil, 
commonly  called  polyanlluis  narcissus.  The 
varieties  of  this  are  very  numeroU'^,  consist- 
ing of  about  eight  or  nine  principal  sorts ; 
each,  of  wliich  has  many  intermediate  varie- 
ties, amounting  in  the  wLoK-  to  greatly  above 
a  hundred  in  the  Dutcli  llorists'  catalogues, 
each  variety  distinguished  by  a  name  accord- 
ing to  tlie  fancy  of  the  first  raiser  of  it.  They 
are  all  very  pretty  ilovvers,  and  make  a 
charming  appearance  in  the  Oower-borders, 
&:c.  ;  they  are  also  finely  adai)ted  for  blow- 
ing in  glasses  of  water,  or  in  pots,  to  orna- 
ment rooms  in  w  inter. 

7.  The  jonquila,  or  jonquil,  sometimes 
called  rush-leaved  dal'foilil.  The  varieties 
are,  jontpiil  minor  with  single  flow(?rs;  jon- 
quil luajor  witli  single  flowers,  starry-Hower- 
ed,  yellow  and  while  tlowered,  white-tlower- 
ed,  semi-double-fiowereil,  doul^le-llowered, 
and  lartje  dc/uble  inodorous  jonciuil  ;  all  ot 
tliem  nuutillorous,  the  single  in  particular; 
but  sometimes  the  doubles  produce  only  two 
or  three  tlov.  ers  from  a  spatha,  and  the  sin- 
gles commonly  six  or  eight.  All  the  sorts 
have  so  fine  a  shape,  so  soft  a  colour,  and  so 
sweet  a  scent,  tliat  they  are  among  the  most 
agreeable  spring-liowers. 

8.  The  calathinus,  or  multiflorous  yellow 
narcissus. 

y.  'We.  odorus,  odoriferous,  or  sweet-scent- 
ed starry-yellow  narcissus. 

10.  The  tviandrus,  or  triandrous  rush- 
ieaved  white  narcissus. 

1  1 .  The  trilobus,  or  trilobate  yellow  nar- 
cissus. 

12.  The  minor,  or  \ellow  winter  daffo- 
dil. 

N,\RCOTICS,  in  medicine,  soporiferous 
medicines,  which  excite  a  stupefaction.  See 
the  next  article. 

NARCOTIC  Principle.  It  has  been 
long  known  that  the  milky  juices  which 
exude  from  certain  plants,  as  the  poppy, 
lettuce,  &c.  and  the  infusions  of  others,  as  of 
the  leaves  of  the  cfigitalis  purpurea,  have  the 
prop  -rty  of  exciting  sleep,  or,  if  taken  in 
closes  large  enough,  of  inducing  a  state  resem- 
bling apoplexy,  and  terminating  in  death. 
How  far  these  plants  owe  these  properties  to 


K  A  R 

certain  common  principles  which  tliey  po:;- 
sess,  is  not  known,  though  il  is  exceedingly 
probable  that  they  do.  '  But  as  a  peculiar 
substance  has  been  delected  in  op'.nm,  th'; 
most  noted  of  the  narcotic  preparations, 
which  cosses-es  narcotic  properties  in  per- 
fection, we  are  warranted,  till  further  experi- 
ments elucidate  the  subject,  to  consider  it  as 
the  narcotic  principle,  or  at  least  as  one  spe- 
cies of  thesubftances  belonging  to  this  genus. 
Opium  is  obtained  from  the  papavcr  album, 
or  white  poppv,  a  plant  which  is  cultivated 
in  great  abundance  in  India  and  the  East. 
The  poppies  are  planted  in  a  fertile  soil,  and 
well  watered.  After  the  il  .v.-ering  is  over,  and 
llie  seed-capsules  have  attaineil  nearly  their 
full  size,  a  lonaitudinal  incision  is  made  in 
them  about  sun-s-el  for  three  or  fourevenings 
in  succession.  From  these  incisions  there 
flows  a  milky  juice, which  soon  concretes, 
and  is  scraped  off  the  plant  and  wrought  into 
cakes.     In  this  state  it  is  brought  to  Europe. 

Opium  thus  prepared  is  a  tough  brown 
substance,  has  a  peculiar  smell,  and  a  nau- 
seous bitter  acrid  taste.  It  becomes  softer 
when  held  in  the  warm  hand,  and  burns  very 
readil  v  and  strongly.  It  is  a  very  compound 
substance,  containing  sulphat  of  lime,  sulpliat 
of  potass,  au  oil,  a  resinous  body,  an  extrac- 
tive matter,  gluten,  mucilage,  &c.  besides 
the  peculiar  narcotic  principle  to  which  pio- 
bablv  it  owes  its  virtues  as  a  narcotic. 

^^'hen  water  is  digested  upon  opium,  a 
considerable  portion  of  it  is  dissolved,  the 
water  taking  up  several  of  its  constiluents. 
When  this  solution  is  evaporated  to  the  con- 
sistence of  a  syrup,  a  gritty  precipitate  begins 
to  appear,  which  is  considerably  increased 
by  diluting  the  liciuid  with  water.  It  consists 
fhierty  of  three  ingredients;  namely,  resin, 
oxygenized  attractive,  and  the  peculiar  nar- 
cotic principle  which  is  crystallized.  \Vhcn 
alcohol  is  digested  on  this  precipitate,  the 
resin  and  narcotic  substances  are  taken  up, 
while  the  oxvgenised  extractive  remains 
behind.  The  narcotic  principle  falls  down 
in  crystals  as  the  solution  cools,  still  however 
coloured  with  resin.  But  it  may  be  obtained 
tolerably  pure  by  repeated  solutions  and 
crystallizations. 

M'ater  is  incapable  of  dissolving  the  whole 
of  opium.  What  remains  behind  still  contains 
a  considerable  portion  of  narcotic  princiiile. 
\Vhf.i  alcohol  is  digested  on  this  residuum, 
it  acquires  a  deep  red  colour  ;  and  deposits, 
on  cooling,  crystals  of  narcotic  principle,  co- 
loured by  resin,  which  may  be  purified  by 
repeated  crystallizations.  The  narcotic 
principle  obtained  by  either  of  these  methods 
possesses  the  following  properties  : 

Its  colour  is  white.  It  crystallizes  in  rec- 
tangular prisms  with  rhomboidal  bases.  It 
has  neither  taste  nor  smell. 

It  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  soluble  in 
about  400  parts  of  boiling  water,  but  precipi- 
tates again  as  the  solution  cools.  The  so- 
lution in  boiling  water  does  not  at'fect  vege- 
table blues. 

It  is  soluble  in  24  parts  of  boiling  alcohol 
and  100  parts  of  cold  alcohol.  When  water 
is  mixed  with  the  solution,  the  narcotic  prin- 
ciple precipitates  in  the  state  of  a  white  pow- 
der. 

Hot  ether  dissolves  it,  but  lets  it  fall  on 
cooling. 

When  heated  in  a  spoon  it  melts  like  wax. 
When  distilled  it  froths,  and  emits  \\hite  va- 
112 


N  A  II 


2.51 


pours,  W'liicli  condense  into  a  yellow  oil. 
.Some  water  and  carbonat  of  ammoiiia  pass 
into  the  reCi;iver ;  and  at  last  carbonic  acid 
gas,  ammonia,  and  carbureted  hydrogen  gas, 
are  disengaged.  'lln-rc  remanu  a.  bulky 
c-oal,  which  yields  traces  of  potass.  The  oil 
obtained  by  this  process  is  viscid,  and  has  a 
peculiar  aromatic  smell  and  an  acrid  taste. 

It  is  very  soluble  in  all  acids.  Alkalies 
throw  it  down  from  these  solulions  in  lli.r 
state  of  a  white  powder. 

Alkalies  render  il  rather  more  soluble  in 
water.  When  tliev  arc  saturated  with  acids, 
the  narcotic  principle  falls  down  in  the  stale 
of  a  white  pow(l<;r,  which  is  redissolved  by 
adding  an  excess  of  acid. 

Volatile  oils,  while  hot,  dissolve  it ;  but, 
on  cooling,  they  let  it  fall  in  an  oleaginour 
state  at  firsi,  but  il  gradually  crystallizes. 

When  treated  w  ith  nitric  acid,  it  becomes 
red  and  dissolves;  much  oxalic  acid  is  form- 
ed, and  a  bitter  substance  remains  behind. 

AVhen  potass  is  added  to  the  aqueous  so- 
lution of  opium,  the  narcotic  principle  is 
thrown  down;  but  it  retains  a  portion  of  the 
potass. 

Its  solubility  in  water  and  alcohol,  when 
immediately  extracted  from  opium,  seems 
to  be  owing  to  the  jjiestnce  of  resin  and  ex- 
tractive  matter,  both  of  which  render  it  so- 
luble. 

It  possesses  the  properties  of  opium  in  per- 
fection. Derosne  tried  it  upon  several  dogs, 
and  found  it  more  powerful  than  opium.  Its 
bad  eliects  were  counteracted  by  causing  the 
animals  to  swallow  vinegar.  This  substance 
is  known  to  be  of  eipial  service  in  counter- 
acting the  elVects  of  opium.  Derosne  sup- 
poses lliat  the  eflicacy  of  vinegar  may  be  ow- 
ing to  the  readiness  with  which  it  dissolves 
the  narcotic  principle. 

Many  other  substances  beside  opium  pos- 
sess narcotic  virtues  ;  but  hitherto  they  have 
not  been  examined  by  chemists  with  much 
attention.  The  most  remarkable  are  the 
following: 

1.  The  lactuca  virosa,  and  the  sativa  or 
garden-lettuce,  and  indeed  all  the  lactucas, 
yield  a  milky  juice,  which,  when  inspissated, 
iias  very  much  the  appearance  of  opium,  and 
possesses  the  same  properties.  Indeed,  Dr. 
Coxe  of  Philadel])hia  aflirms,  that  as  good 
opium  may  be  obtained  from  the  garden-let- 
tuce as  from  the  poppy.  The  milky  juice  is 
obtained  by  incisions  at  the  time  when  the 
lettuce  is  running  to  seed.  The  resemblance 
between  the  inspissated  juice  of  the  lactuca 
virosa  and  opium  is  striking. 

2.  The  leaves  of  the  atropa  belladonna, 
or  deadly  nightshade,  and  indeed  the  whole 
plant,  are  remarkably  narcotic;  and  when 
taken  iu  too  great  doses  [>roduce  blindness, 
convulsions,  coma,  and  death. 

3.  The  leaves  of  the  digitalis  purpurea, 
or  t()x-glove,  are  still  more  powerlul  if  pos- 
sible Thev  lower  the  pulse  in  a  remarkable 
degree,  and,"  like  several  other  very  poisonoiB 
narcotics,  promote  the  discharge  of  urine. 

•A.  Hyoscvamus,  niger  or  henbane. 

5.  Coniuin  maculatum,  or  hemlock. 

6.  Datura  stramonium. 

7.  Ledum  palustre. 

To  these  may  periiaps  be  added  the  prunus 
laurocerasus,  and  the  leaves  of  nicotiana  ta- 
bacum  or  tobacco.  The  list,  indeed,  might 
be  easil^  increased ;  almost  all  the  plant* 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  of  lurida:  pos- 


252 

seisin;^  narcotic  properties ;  but  as  we  are 
completely  ignorant  of  the  cheniiciil  proper- 
ties of  these  plants,  it  is  unnecessary  to  be 
more  particular. 

Nabcotic  salt.    SeeT!oR\cic  acid. 

IsAKOU.-i,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  triamlna  class  of  plants;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  4lh 
order,  graniina.  There  is  no  calyx;  the  co- 
rolla is  bivalved.  'J'here  are  three  speciis. 
Tills  plant  uas  highly  valued  by  the  antieiils 
both  as  an  article  of  luNury  and  mecUcme. 
The  unguentum  nardinum  was  used  at  baths 
and  feasts  as  a  favourite  perfume.  Its  value 
is  evident  from  that  passage  of  scripture, 
where  our  Saviour's  head  was  anointed  with 
a  box  of  it,  with  wliich  Judas  found  fault. 
From  a  passage  in  Horace  it  appears  that 
this  ointment  was  so  valuable  among  the 
ll;)man«,  tiiat  as  much  as  could  be  contained 
in  a  small  box  of  precious  stone  was  consider- 
■  ed  as  a  sort  of  equivalent  for  a  large  vessel 
of  wine,  and  a  proper  quota  for  a  guest  to 
niitribute  at  an  entertainment.  The  plant 
l),id  a  great  character  among  the  antienls  as 
a  medicine,  botli  internally  taken  and  exter- 
nally applied.  Its  sensible  qualities,  indeed, 
proinise  it  to  be  of  considerable  etficacy  in 
some  cases,  as  it  has  a  pungency  of  taste  su- 
perior to  coDtrayerva,  and  little  inferior  to 
serpentaria. 

N  .VriONAL  DEBT,  the  sum  which  is  ow- 
ing by  a  government  to  individuals  who  have 
ad\-aiice'J  money  for  public  purposes,  either 
in  anticipation  of  the  produce  of  particular 
branches  of  the  revenue,  or  on  credit  of  the 
general  power  which  the  government  pos- 
sesses of  levying  tlie  sums  necessary  to  pay 
interest  for  tlie  money  borrowed,  or  to  repay 
the  principal.  The  practice  of  borrowing 
money  on  account  of  tlie  state  has  been  found 
so  convenient,  that  almost  every  nation  of 
modern  Europe  is  encumbered  with  a  con- 
siderable debt:  the  different  manner  of  con- 
ducting hostilities  in  antient  and  modern 
times  has  perhaps  rendered  this  practice  ab- 
solutely necessary,  as  the  vast  expences  with 
yyliich  wars  are  now  attended  could  not  pos- 
sibly be  defra\ed  during  the  time  of  their 
continuance,  without  producing  the  greatest 
distress,  or  perhaps  absolute  ruin,  to  the 
cotmtries  engaged  m  tliem.  In  antient  times 
wars  were  not  only  shorter  in  their  duration, 
but  were  conducted  on  jM-inciples  which  ren- 
dei-cd  great  pecuniary  supplies  less  necessary 
than  at  present ;  the  whole  contest  was  a 
scene  of  plunder  and  devastation,  tlie  per- 
sons and  property  of  the  enemy  were  at  the 
entire  disposal  of  the  con(|ueror,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  plunder  was  accoimted  f  r 
to  the  public.  The  arms  made  use  of  were 
much  less  expensive  than  those  of  modern 
warfare,  and  the  extent  of  naval  operations, 
the  g.'eat  soune  of  national  expcnditn.e  in 
lU'idern  times,  was  comparatively  trilUng. 
Kir  J.  Sinclair  his  justly  observed,  that  had 
the  rage  of  cjuippiiig  numerous  lleets,  and 
building  ships  of  great  mtignitude  and  dimen- 
sions, never  existed,  har  'ly  any  state  in  luu- 
rope  would  have  b-en  at  this  thne  in  debt. 

The  principal  advantages  arising  iVom  na- 
tional debts,  and  the  system  of  creilit  on 
which  they  are  founded,  are,  1.  'I'he  resource 
ithey  aliord  in'great  emergencies,  vihich  gives 
a  greater  pennanencv  to  -tales,  which  in  lor- 
jrier  times,  for  w  int  of  su.h  occasional  re- 
buurces,  were  iiwre  liable  to  internal  derunge- 


KATIONAL  DEBT. 

ments  and  to  foreign  subjugation.  3.  T1.6  1 
equalization  of  taxes.  If  the  supplies  were  ' 
raised  within  the  year,  and  tiie  txpences  of 
r.ar  were  considerable,  every  individual 
would  be  obliged,  in  consequence  of  the  ad- 
ditit'nal  weight  of  his  contiibutions,  greatly  | 
to  curtail  his  expences;  and  the  emplo\  ment 
of  the  poor,  and  the  consumption  ot  tlie  rich, 
would  be  considerably  diminished;  whereas, 
when  taxes  are  nearly  equal,  in  time  of  peace  | 
atid  war,  the  value  of  every  species  ol  pro-  ( 
perty,  of  industry,  and  tlie  circulation  of ' 
wealth,  are  maintained  on  as  regular,  steady, 
and  uniforin  a  footing,  as  the  uncertainty  and 
instability  of  human  allairs  will  admit.  3. 
They  retain  money  in  the  country,  which 
would  otherwise  be  sent  out  of  it ;  public 
debts  have  more  influence  in  this  respect  than 
all  the  laws  against  the  exportation  of  specie 
thai  ever  were  made.  4.  They  promote  cir- 
culation. The  ta\es  which  they  occasion  on 
the  property  of  the  rich,  and  the  encourage- 
ment they  hold  out  to  the  avaricious,  pre- 
vent the  accumulation  of  private  hoards,  and 
bring  the  whole  money  and  personal  pro- 
tv  of  a  country  into  emplovmeut.  5.  They 
attacii  the  people  to  tlie  government;  for 
every  individual  creditor  is  led  by  his  own 
interest  to  support  tlie  authority  on  the  pro- 
sperity and  existence  of  which  the  secmitv 
of  his  property  depends.  The  extent  of  this 
influence  is  so  well  understood,  that  it  is  not 
probable  the  government  of  any  country 
where  a  public  debt  has  once  existed,  will 
ever  permit  it  to  be  wholly  paid  off.  6.  They 
encourage  industry  and  tlie  acquirement  of 
property,  by  the  facility  with  which  indivi- 
duals can  lay  out  the  surplus  of  their  profits, 
without  the  risk  of  commercial  bankruptcies, 
or  the  unavoidable  expences  and  sm.ill  ad- 
vantage which  landed  estates  yield,  and  re- 
ceive interest  on  their  capital  with  certainty 
and  regularity. 

The  disadvantages  attending  the  system  of; 
incurring  national  debts,  are,  1.  The  facility  | 
of  carrying  on  war  being   much  increased :  I 
while  large  sums  can  be  easily  borrowed,  it 
may  frequently  cause  wars  to  be  protracted, 
uhich  woidd  have  been  much  sooner  brought 
to  a  termination,  had  the  governments  en- 
gaged in  them  experienced  the  difficulty  of 
defraying   tlie   whole  expence  by  taxation. 
2.  The  value  of  the  property  of  those  who 
have  lent  their  money  to  the  stale,  depend- 
ing on  the  public  tranquillity,  inclines  them 
to  support  indiscriminately  the  measures  of 
the  government,  whatever  may  be  their  ten- 
dency: they  are  interested  both   to  preach 
and  practice  apathy  under  every  invasion  of 
the  constitution  of  their  country.      3.   Tlie 
increase  of  taxes  to  pay  the  interest  of  the 
di'bt,  produces  an  increase  in  the  price  of  all 
the  necessaries  of  life,  and  renders  it  difficult 
for  the  manufacturers  of  a  slate  in  which  this 
system  has  been  carried  to  a  great  heiu;ht,  to 
maintain  a  successful  competition  with  the 
subjects  of  oth.r  powers,  who  may  be  in  a 
less  embarrassed  situ:ilion.     4.  When  a  na- 
tion is  encunibired  with  debts,  a  pernicious 
s|)irit  of  gambling  is  encouraged:  stock-job- 
bing, with  all   its  train  of  evil  conseipieiices, 
necessarily  arises;  and  a  moneyed  inti_'rest  is 
erected,   the   sole   employment  of  which  is 
that   of   drawing   every   possible   advantage 
from  the  wants  of  indiviiluals,  or  the  iieccs>i- 
lies  of  the  public.     .'>.   Public  debts   have  a 
very  nnilenal  inllucnce  ou  llic  distribution  of 


property.  Every  new  loan  must  be  procured 
trom  persons  already  possessing  considerable 
wealth,  and  such  persons  yvill  not  lend  their 
money  without  the  expectation  of  making  a 
profit  by  it;  the  hurease  of  the  flebt  is,, 
then-tore,  to  them  a  source  of  increasing 
wealth,  to  whicli  their  share  of  the  additional 
taxes  attendant  upon  it  bears  but  a  small  pro 
poition;  ami  if  the  government  possesses  no 
reventie  but  what  is  drawn  from  the  people, 
whatever  it  pays  to  one  description  of  men 
must  b(f  drawn  principally  from  others:  thus 
the  additional  income  acquired  by  moneyed 
men,  bv  taking  advantage  of  the  necessities 
of  the  state,  is,  in  fact,  a  portion  of  the  in- 
coine  of  their  h.'ss  alliueni  fellow-citizens, 
which  is  transferred  to  thc:ni  through  the  nitv 
dium  of  the  government,  and  whicif,  in  a 
much  greater  proportion  than  it  increases 
their  wealth,  must  render  those  poorer  from 
whom  it  is  drasvn. 

The  practice  of  incurring  national  debts 
on  extraordinary  occasions  hatl  been  resorted 
to  in  other  countries  long  before  it  was  adopt- 
ed in  England.  The  Italian  republics  seem 
to  have  begun  it ;  Genoa  and  \'enice  had 
both  considf  table  debts.  8pain  was  deeply 
in  debt  before  the  end  of  the  Ifitli  century, 
about  a  hundred  years  before  England  owed 
a  shilling.  In  Franc<;  the  funding  system 
was  introduced  about  the  year  1678;  and 
previously  to  the  revolution,  the  debt  of  that 
country  was  l42  millions  sterling;  two-fifths 
of  which  consisted  of  life-annuities,  w  hich  in 
this  estimate  are  taken  at  eleven  years  pur- 
chase. 

The  national  debt  of  Great  Britain  com- 
menced in  the  reign  of  William  III.  The 
war  which  began  in  1689  being  very  expen- 
sive, and  the  grants  of  parliament  not  supply- 
ing money  so  fast  as  it  was  wanted,  the  expe- 
dient of  mortgaging  part  of  the  public  re- 
venue was  adopted.  At  first  the  produce  of 
part'cular  taxes  was  assigned-  for  repayment 
of  the  principal  and  interest  of  the  money 
borrowed;  large  sums  were  also  raised  on  life- 
annuities,  and  aniniities  for  terms  of  years; 
and  the  funds  established  for  pa-\ment  of 
tiiese  debts  being  generally  inadec]ualc  to  the 
charge  upon  them,  occasioned  great  deficien- 
cies, which,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  war, 
amounted  to  i,lt)0,459/.  I4.s.  9^(1.  and  wera 
charged  on  the  continuation  of  various  du- 
ties which  Jiad  been  granted  for  short  terms. 
The  total  amount  of  the  funded  and  unfund- 
ed debts  in  the  year  1697,  was  10,9iO,945/. 
19>'.  Rif/i  The  trequent  anticipation  of  the 
different  funds,  and  their  general  deficiency 
from  the  diminution  of  the  revenue,  in  con- 
sequdicc  of  which  the  interest  due  upon 
money  lent  to  government  was  often  long  in 
arrear,  reduced  public  credit  at  this  period 
to  a  very  low  ebb,  and  rendered  persons  who 
had  money  very  reluctant  in  advancing  it  to 
the  government,  though  p'iid  wli.at  would 
now  be  called  an  exorbitant  interest:  the 
accumulation  of  tlie  public  debts  caused  se- 
rious apprehensions  among  people  of  proper- 
ty of  all  descriptions. 

The  greirt  expeni-e  of  the  war  during  the 
reign  ot  queen  Anne  was  chielly  <lefrayed  by 
the  sale  of  annuities  ibr  different  terms,  but 
niotly  for  99  years;  and  money  was  not 
only  borrowed  to  pay  the  interest  of  loans, 
but  oflen  to  pay  the  interest  of  that  interest; 
or,  wliat  is  much  the  same  thiiin,  the  arrears 
of  utlcrest  were  coiivcilcd  into  principal,  by 


which  means,  and  from  great  misiriMajcment ' 
of  the  public  (iiiaixes,  tho   debt  rapidly  iii- 
ereasecl,  anjl  on  the  31st  Dccenibcr  1716, 
aniounti'd    to    43,364,501'.    S?.    Ad.       This 
amount  was  considered,  in  the  language  of 
the  king  i'.nd  parliament,  as  an  "  iiisiip])ort- 
able  weiifht;"  and  tln'  house  of  connnons  ex-  1 
pre'^sed  their  (U'termination  to  apply  them- 
selves, with  all  possible  diligenee  and  alien-  \ 
tinn,  to  the  great  and  necessary  work  of  I'e- 
dueiiig  by  degiees  this  heavy  burthen,  as  the 
ni'ist   ellectnal   nic;ans  of  preserving  (o   the 
public  funds  a  real  and  certain  security.  '• 

I'heeuiaent  rate  of  interest  having  lowered 
consi<leral)ly,  a  plan  vas   I'.dopied   for  redu. 
ring  the  rate  of  interest  payable  on  such  part 
of  the  public  debts  as  carried  G  pi-r  cent, 
interest,   which    causing     a   surplus    in    the 
funds  appropriated   to  tlie-  payment  of  the 
ij)lcrest,  the  overplus  remaimng,  after  satis-  ' 
fvingtlie  charges  upon  the  respective  fund-, 
was  formed   into  a  separate  fuiul-,  under  the 
title  of  the  sinkiua;  fund,  for  tlu'  express  pin-  \ 
pose  of  discharging  such    luitioual   debts  as 
were  incurred  bciore   December  17LG,  and 
"  lor  no  other  use,  intent,  or  purpose,  what- 
soever."    This  arrangement  was  well  calcu- 
lated for  efiecting  a  gradual  reduction  of  tlie 
amoUTit  of  the  debt,  and  give  a  ne.v  conli- 
dence  to  t!ie  piiblic  creditors,  from  a  persua-  , 
siun  that  the  ])rovision3  made  would  prevent  , 
the  inconveniences  which  iiad  formerly  arisen 
from  the  interest  of   particular  debts  being 
fre<niently  long  in  arrear ;  and  that  instead  of 
the  deijresiion  of  tlie  current  vjlue  of  tlieir 
securities,  which  generally  attends   Uie    in- 
crease of  public  debts,  this  vaUie  woulil  in- 
crease in  proportion   to  the  progress  of  re-  • 
demption.      'I'he   public   had  al<o  a  distant 
hope  at  least  of  being  relieved  from  soine  of  \ 
the  many  taxes  which  it  had  been  necessary 
to  impose  for  paying  the  intercbt  of  the  debt,  i 
the  pernicious  elfects  of  which,  both  on  the  ! 
foreign  trade  and  the  internal  state  of  the 
cotmtry,  began  to  be  sensibly  felt. 

The  expectations  entertain  -d  from  the 
sinking  fund  were,  however,  soon  disappoint- 
c;l;  as  the  period  of  its  strict  application  to 
the  purpose  for  wliicii  it  was  established  did 
not  exceed  10  or  11  years.  The  famous 
South  Sea  scheme  was  likewise  to  have  fur- 
nished a  considerable  sum  to  be  employed  in 
the  reduction  of  the  public  delits;  instead  of 
which  it  increased  their  amount  bv  an  addi- 
tion to  tin-  capita!  of  3,034,769/.  "l  U.  \\d., 
while  the  annual  charge  was  ratlier  augment- 
ed than  diminished  by  the  allowance  for  ma- 
nagement on  the  increased  capital :  a  further 
reiluttion  of  a  part  of  the  interest  was  how- 
ever secured  bv  this  transaction. 

In  1 7'J7  the  interest  payable  on  29,962,979/. 
12v.  9\d.  South  Sea  stock  and  annuities,  and 
on  1,''iS,0'2-i  17.?.  \0.\d.  due  to  the  I'auk, 
was  reduced  from  5  to  4  per  cent,  vvhicli  pro- 
duced such  an  important  augmentation  of  the 
sinking  fun»l,  thai  had  it  been  faithfully  ap- 
plied to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  intend- 
ed, and  received  no  other  increase  than  what 
would  have  arisen  fioin  a  judicious  apphca- 
tion  of  it,  the  niUional  debt  would  at  this  time 
have  been  wholly  annihilated.  During  the 
reign  of  George  I.  the  fund  continued  to  be 
appio)iriate<l  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  was 
formed:  little  progress,  however,  was  made 
in  discharging  ilic  public  debts;  for  at  the 
same  instant  that  old  incumbrances  were 
thus  paid  off;  new  debts  were  contracted  ;  so 


NATIONAL  DEBT. 

that  at  the  f  ir.I  of  the  year  1727,  the  total  of 
the  funded  debt  amounted  to  51,258,939/. 
4?.  2Jrf,,  of  which  it  must  be  remembered 
that  upwards  of  three  millions  arose  from  tlie 
additional  capital  created  by  the  South  Sea 
company's  subscript  ion. 

The  wh.ole  sum  paid  ol'f  by  the  sinking  fund 
from  its  estabrhhment  to  tlie  vear  I  739,  was 
only  8.328,354/.  17.,'.  ll(/,;'and  the  total 
amount  of  the  debt  at  this  period  40,954,023'. 
3.-;.^  4I/.A. 

The  war  with  Spain  and  France,  wliicii 
bPifan  in  this  vear,  increased  the  deljt  to 
78,293,313/.  t.v."lO(/l..  the  interest  on  which 
amonnted  to  3,061,004/.  1 IV.  \\d.  per  ann. 

The  interest  of  money,  which  had  risen 
during  the  war  to  upwards  of  4  per  cent.  fi;ll, 
when  the  cessation  of  hostilities  terminated 
the  loans  of  goverinnent,  to  3  per  cent. ;  and 
the  administration  seized  the  moment  of  in- 
creasi-d  prosperity  lo  propose  another  impor- 
tant reiluction  of  interest.  Tuwards  the  end 
of  1 749,  3  per  cent,  stock  had  he^w  for  some 
months  above  par  :  an  act  was  therefore  pass- 
ed by  which  the  interest  was  reduced  on  all 
the  public  debts  redeemable  by  law,  wliich 
then  carried  4  per  cent,  interest,  forming  to- 
gether a  capital  of  57,703,475/.  Qs.  A^d.  'J'lie 
proprit'tors,  on  signifying  their  coasent  to  the 
reduction,  were  to  have  4  per  cent,  interest 
to  the  25lli  December  following,  thence  3^ 
per  cent,  till  25  December,  1757,  and  after- 
wards 3  per  cent,  per  annum.  I'pwardsof 
tliree  millions  remained  unsubscribed,  winch 
was  therefore  paid  o.'f,  by  inonev  boriMwed 
at  3  percent.,  and  thus  a  saving  of  612,735/. 
))er  annum  was  elVected,  wiiich  ought  to  luive 
contributed  materially  to  the  reduction  of  tlie 
debt.  Little  progress,  however,  was  made  in 
fliminisliing  the  capital  of  the  debt;  and  at 
the  commencement  of  the  war  in  1755  it 
amounted  to  74,9S0,886/.  8.5.  2i(/. 

The  gieat  expences  of  the  war  rendered 
the  loans  of  greater  inagnitude  than  had  ever 
before  been  raised,  and  the  debts  incurred 
were  somewhat  increased  bv  the  practice  of 
entitling  tlie  persons  lending  the  mon^-v  to 
a  greater  capital  than  the  sum  actuallv  ad- 
vanced ;  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  war,  includ- 
ing the  loan  of  1763,  they  amounted  to 
141,691.313/.  13?.  4(7.,  and  the  annual  inter- 
est to  4,706,734/.  11(/. 

During  the  succeeding  12  years  of  peace, 
little  was  done  in  reality  towards  diminishiiig 
the  amount  of  the  debt;  for  although  in  each 
year  from  1765  to  1775,  some  small  portion 
of  the  funded  debt  was  paid  off,  the  w  hole 
amounted  to  only  11,983,553.'.  being  a  less 
amount  than  had  sometimes  been  burrowed 
iii  one  year  ol'  war  ;  and  the  debt  was  far  from 
being  diininished  even  this  amount,  as  during 
tlie  same  period  a  new  debt  of  5,052,500/. 
was  contracted,  by  borrowing  money  on  3 
per  cent,  stock,  in  order  to  redeem  4  per 
cents. 

The  American  war  was  entered  into  with 
a  funded  debt  of  132,343,051/.,  including  an 
estimated  value  of  tiie  long  aimuities  and 
exchequer  annuities,  and  an'  unfunded 
debt  of  about  3,600,000.'.,  making  together 
135,943,051/.  the  interest  on  which  amounted 
to  4,476,^21/.  per  annum.  The  expencesof 
this  war  greatly  exceeded  those  which  had 
preceded  it ;  and  the  mcrea^;  of  the  debt  was 
much  greater  than  had  ever  been  incurred 
by  anv  country  in  the  same  space  of  time. 
The  folowing   st.itenients  \vill  shew  the  e.x- 


2.V3 

tent  of  the  sums  borrowed,  and  the  additions 
thus  made  to  the  annual  burthens  of  th(| 
country : 

Monev  bor.  D'bt  creato<l.  Interest. 

1776  2,00'0,C00  2,150,000   64,500 

1777  5,000,01)0  5,000,000  225,000 
1773   6,000,000  6,000,000  330,000 

1779  7,000,000   7,000,000  472,.")0O- 

1780  12,000,000  12,000,000  6y7.500 

1781  12,000,000  21,000,000  060,000  ■ 
f782  13,500,000  20,250,000  793.125- 
17S3  12.000,000  15,000,000  560,000 
1784  6,000,000  9,000,000  316,500 


j;  75,500,000  97,400,000  4,119,125 

Froin  which  it  appears  that  a  nominal  capital 
of  21.000,000/.  was  added  to  the  sum  of 
75,500,000/.  actually  borrowed,  and  that  the 
interest  on  the  whole  amounted  to  5/.  Qs.  Id. 
per  cent.,  on  which  tlie  perpetual  interest- 
w^as  equal  to  4/.  O.v.  per  cent,  on  the  whole 
sum.  In  addition  to  the  above  sums,  a  verv 
considerable  omoimt  of  navy  debt  was  funded 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  which  being 
pr0i)erly  part  of  the  expencc?  of  it,  the  total 
debt  incurred  by  the  American  war  may  be 
stated  as  follows :' 

Debt  created.     Intercut. 

In  3  per  cents.        64.648,000     1 .9.39,440 

4  per  cents.         32,750,000      1,310,000 

^  5  per  cents.         17,869,992       .S93,499 

Terminable  annuities  8ti9 ;623' 


..£115,267,902    5,012,563 
The  whole  amount  of  the  funded  and  un- 
funded  deljis,  including  a  valuation   of  the  ■ 
terminable  aminities,   was  on   the   5lh  Jan. 
1786,  268,100,379/.  18.?.  8f/.,  and  the  amount . 
of  the  annual  interest  9,512,232/.  7s.  Qd. 

The  magnitude  of  the  ])ub!icdebt,  and  the 
consequent  low  price  of  the  funds,  appear  at 
this  period  to  have  engageii  the  serious  atten- 
tion of  the  government;  in   consequence  of 
which  some  new  taxes  were  impost  d,  in  order 
to  raise  a  surplus  of  revenue,  as  the  fouud..tion  • 
of  a  |ilan  for  establishhig  a  new  sinking  fund. 
In  order  to  ascertain  what  portion  ol  the  re- 
venue might  be  appropriated  to  this  purpo.se, 
a  select  committee  of  the  hou.^e  of  commons 
was  appointed  to  examine  and  slate  the  ac- 
counts pn>enteil  to  the  house  relating  lo  the 
public  income  and   i-xpenditure,  and  to  re-  - 
port  what  might  be  expected  to  be  the  arniual 
amount  of  the  income  and  expenni-ure  in  fi.-  - 
tnre.     On  the  2!st  March,  17S6,  tiie  com- 
mittee made   tlu  ir  report;   and  conceiving 
that  the  circum^tances  of.  the  times  rendered  ^ 
any  average   drawn  from  the  amoimt  of  the  ■ 
revenue  in  former  periods  in  a  great  degree 
inapplicable  to  the  situatio'i  of  the  country, 
they.fornied  an  account  of  the  public  receipt 
and  expeii  i  ure  lo  .Michaelma;  1785,  and  lo  • 
January  1780,  Irom  wiiicii  it  appeared,  that 
at  the  former  periotl  there  was  a  surplus  of 
901,001/.,    and   at   the   latter    a.  surplus  of 
919,290/.     As  it  was  evident  tliat  a  innd  .of 
1.  ss  than  one  million  per  annum    would.be  • 
very  iha<lec|uati!  to  the  purpose  for  .w-brdi  it 
was  designed,  new  taxes  were  imposed  for 
raising  the  surplus  revenue  to  this  sum  ;  and  . 
in  order  the  more  efiectiially  to  prevent  nii- 
nislers  from  diverting  it  to  any  oth.erpurjiose,  . 
the  mode  was  adopted  which  had  been  IVe- - 
quently  suggested,  of  vesting  the  annual  sum 
in  the' hands  of  coiumissioueis :  some  oilier. 


2M 

juditioii^  rsgulalioiij  were  alfocslablish?;!  by 
.  tlie  act  passed  for  this  purpose.     See  riiNK- 

ING  FUN'D. 

Ill  the  Year  1789,  it  was  found  necessary 
to  borrow  1,002, 140/.  on  a  toiUiiie  scheme, 
'•ri'.id  137,000/.  to  replace  tiie  like  sum  which 
liafi  becii  issued  out  of  the  civil  list  revenue, 
as  a  loan  to  tiie  prince  of  Orange  :  the  latter 
was  raised  on  ani-viities  for  ISj  years.  I'he 
total  ainonnt  of  the  public  debt  in  tl;e  year 
170-',  being  the  year  previous  to  the  .war  with 
llio  Frenc.il  repnbUc,  was,  according  to  tiie 
oflncial  account,  _'.)S,231,'i48/.;  but  including 
the  value  of  the  teiuiinable  annuities,  and  tlie 
aniouiit.of  the  ujitiiiKk-d  debt,  llie  total  was 
2(iS,'3o7.272l.  Is.  7d.,  the  annual  interest  and 
cliarges  of  manas^enient  on  which  amounted 
t )  9,7.->2,t)73/.  14»-.  8rf.  From  this  amount, 
however,  a  deduction  is  to  be  made  of  the 
stock  wiiicii  liad  Ijeeu  redeemed  by  the  ope- 
ration of  the  sinking  fund,  ^^'ith  this  formi- 
dable burthen  on  the  property  and  industry 
of  tlie  country,  a  war  was  entered  into,  whicli 
from  the  enormous  expenditure  attending  i(, 
increased  the  amount  of  the  national  debt  in 
a  degree  beyond  all  former  precedent  or  con- 
jecture. The  loan  of  the  year  1793  was  raised 
wliolly  on  3  per  cent,  stock,  and  those  of  the 
subsequent  years  being  aUo  raised  chiefly  on 
fli's  description  of  stock,  an  unnecessary  ad- 
dition has  been  made  to  the  capital  of  the 
di;bt,  and  the  charge  for  management  has 
been  considerably  augmented,  as  the  allow- 
ance to  the  bank  on  this  account  is  computed 
on  the  capital  created.  In  the  tifird  year  of 
the  war  the  amount  of  the  loan  was  consi- 
tlerably  greater  than  had  ever  before  been 
borrowed  in  one  year;  but  still  larger  sums 
were  raised  in  some  of  the  succeeding  years. 
The  natural  consecpience  of  such  a  lapid  ac- 
cumulation of  debt  was  a  great  depreciation 
i>(  the  current  prices  of  the  public  funds,  so 
that  the  government  was  obliged  to  allow  a 
very  high  intere-t  for  the  money  borrowed ; 
and  towards  the  end  of  the  year  1*97,  many 
j)eisons  seemed  to  entertain  an  apprehension 
vliat  tlie  funding  svstem  had  been  extended 
nearly  to  its  limits;  in  consequence  of  this 
opinion,  various  expedients  were  successively 
tried  for  raising  a  considerable  part  of  the 
war  expenditure  within  the  year ;  none  of 
these  projects  fully  succeeded,  but  they  cer- 
tainly rendered  the  sums  which  it  was  neces- 
sary to  borrow,  somewhat  less  in  amount 
tlian  they  must  otherwise  have  been;  still, 
however,  they  were  of  un]irecedeiUed  mag- 
nitude: and  in  1S02,  after  the  conclusion  of 
the  war,  it  was  still  found  necessary  to  borrow 
twenty-live  millions  more,  to  make  goodex- 
pences  of  tlie  war  remaining  unprovided  tor. 
'J  he  total  amount  of  the  national  debt  at 
Midsummer  1802,  including  the  stock  created 
by  the  iiiiiierial  loans,  and  estimating  tlie  un- 
funded debt  at  Ij, 500,000/.  was  019,303,027/. 
9v.  (W.,  the  annual  charge  of  which  for  interest 
and  management  amounted  to  21,5.'j7,728/. 
Ij.s.  6d.  From  this  amount  is  to  be  deduct- 
t!d  the  stock  bought  up  by  the  commissioners, 
and  transferred  to  tiieni  for  redemption  of 
land-tax 


NATIONAL  DEBT. 

PROGRESS  OF  THE  NATIOr^^AI,  DEnT,  FROM  VVS  COMMENCEMENT 
TO  MIDSUMMER  1802. 


National  Debt  at  the  Revolution,  IfiSS 

Increase  during  the  reijn  of  William  Hid. 

Amount  at  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne 

Increase  during  the  reign  of  Queen  As!ne 

Amount  at  establishment  of  Sinking  Fund,  1716 
Increase  during  the  reign  of  Geo.  I. 
Decrease  of  annual  charge       -         -         - 

Amount  at  the  accession  of  Geo.  lid. 

Decrease  during  the  Peace      -        -         _ 

Amount  at  commencement  of  the  War,  I7J9 
Increase  during  tlii^  W'ar  ... 

Amount  at  the  end  of  the  War  in  17-18 

Decrease  during  the  Peace       -         -         - 


Capital. 

i5,730,');;9 
i6;?;)4,702 

.'ii,yjti,7y9 

4S,f!()4,/;ol 
4,(;o4,654 

53,019,1.55 
6,064,538 

-16,954,623 
;U,:):5S,6S9 


iKTnitnsr 

fl9,H55 
1,271,087 

l,:iI0,942 
1,841,.JB2 

3,'!  52,524 
941,958 


Amount  at  the  commencement  of  the  War,  1755 
Increase  during  the  War  ... 

Amount  at  the  end  of  the  War,  1762 

Decrease  during  the  Peace      -        -        - 

Amount  at  commencement  of  the  American  War 

Increase  during  the  War  -        .-         - 

Amount  at  the  conclusion  of  the  American  \S^'ir 
Increase  in  the  year  1789         .        -        - 

Amount  in  17S9  .         .         .         -         . 

Redeemed  during  the  Peace 

Amount  at  the  commencement  of  the  War,  1793 
Increase  during  the  War  -        - 


Redeemed  during  the  "U'ar 


141,691,313 
5,748,262 

135,943,051 
132,157,328 

268,100,379 
1,189,140 

269,259,519 
9,441,850 

259,847,669 
350,013,508 

609,861,177 
69,243,336 

540,617,841 


2,210,566 
246,54 1 

■  1,964,025" 
lj096,97y 

3,061,004 
389,364 

2,671,640 
2,035,094 

4,706,734~ 
229,913 

4,476,827* 
5,035,41 1 

9,512,232 
56,S6.i 

9,569,095 
283,255 

9,285,840 
11,988,633 

21,274,473 
2,089,220 

19,185,253 


Amount  at  conclusion  of  the  War  in  1802       ... 

Since  the  period  at  which  the  above  statement  terminates,  another  war  has  been  entered  into, 
which  has  already  added  many  millions  to  the  pubhc  debt ;  but  as  the  sum  to  which  it  mav  be 
increased  is  beyond  the  reach  even  of  probable  estimate,  we  can  only  give  the  following  state- 
ment of  the  total  amount  of  the  Debt  on  the  5th  January,  1 806,  which  wiU  also  shew  the 
dilTerent  descriptions  of  Stock  and  Annuities  of  which  it  consists : 

NATIONAL  DEBT  01-   GRE.-\T  BRITAIN. 


5  per  Cent.  ConsoUdated  Annuities 

5  per  Cent.  Annuities,  1797  and  1802       r 

4  per  Cent.  Consolidated  Annuities  - 

3  per  Cent.  Reduced  Annuities 

3  per  Cent.  Consolidated  Annuities 

3  per  Cent.  Deferred  Annuities 

3  per  Cent.  Annuities,  1726     -         -        - 

Bank  Slock     .-...- 

South  Sea  Stock      ..... 

Old  South  Sea  Annuities  ... 

New  South  Sea  Annuities         ... 

South  Sea  Annuities,  1751  ... 

Imperial  3  per  Cent.  Annuities 

Value  of  the  Long  Annuities 

Do.  of  the  Short  Annuities 

Do.  of  Imperial  Annuities     ... 

Do.  of  the  Life  Annuities      -         .         - 
Annuities  on  Lives,  with  Survivorship,  1765 
Tontine  Annuities,  1789  ... 

Value  of  Exchequer  Annuities 

Redeemed  by  Sinking  Fund     ... 

Transferred  for  Land  Tax  redeemed 

Total  Funded  Debt         ... 
Navy,  Victualling,  and  Transport  Debt 
Army,  Barracks,  Ordnance,  &c. 
Treasury  Bills,  &c.  .        .        .        - 

Exchequer  Bills        .         .         .         .         - 


Capital. 

£.41,389,136  8  4 

9,088,902  16  3 

-  49,725,084  17  2 

-  137,246,269  3  7 

-  376,707,982  2  0* 

1,740,625  0  0 

1,000,000  0  O 

-  11,686,800  O  O 

3,662,784  8  6f 

-  11, 907,470  2  7^ 

8,494,830  2  103 

1,919,600  O  0 

7,502,633  6  8 

-  19,969,799  12  6 

786,.599  5  1 

2,184,694  7  9 

403,779  9  6 

18,000  0  0 

280,452  18  O 

2,3,668  O  O 

685.739.112  O  9J: 
104,701,999  0.  0 

581.037.113  0  9j 
22,CKX),(XX3  0  0 

559,0.37,113 

5,5lX),000 

.       3,0(K>,C00 

.       1,200,000 

-  1 3,000,0a) 


Interest 

AND 

Manageme.xt. 

I 

2,088,081 

18 

7 

458,535 

2 

10 

2,011,379 

13 

7 

4,179,148 

17 

2 

11,470,758 

0 

3 

30,450  O  O 

356,502  3  5 

735,974  13  11 

58,325  15  6 

228,455  3  H 

1,075,669  4  n 

423,039  5  9 

232,587  10  O 

67,296  II  7 

540  O  O 

20,032  7  O 

23,668  0  0 

23,460,444  8  2 

.3,170,073  19  4 


20,290,370     8   10 
660,000    0     0 

19,630,370     8   10 


681,000     0     0 


Total  of  the  Nat.  Debt  and  die  ann.  interest  thereon,  581,737,113    0     9^  20,311,370    8  10 

For  the  comparative  value  of  the  different  fuud>,  and  the  mode  Of  transacting  business  therein, 
see  PusLic  Funds. 


N  ^\.  T 

NATRIIM.     See  Soda. 

N.Vri\  I  TY,  ill  old  law-books,   signifies 

villa'magi'  or  servitude. 

N.Vi  I'K.VL  HlSrORY.  Tlie  object  of 
this  bramli  of  science  may  be  divided  into 
two  beads  ;  the  lirst  teaclies  us  the  characte- 
ristics,,or  distinctive  marks,  of  each  indivi- 
dual object,  whether  animal,  vegetable,  or 
niineral;  the  second  makes  us  acquainted 
villi  all  its  pecnliarities,  as  to  its  habits,  its 
(|ualities,  and  its  uses.  To  assist  in  attaining 
the  lirst,  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  some  system 
of  classilication,  in  which  nidividuals  that 
agree  in  pa'rti<ular  points  may  be  arranged 
together.  In  this  work  we  have  adopted 
the  I.iimx-an  system,  as  the  most  sini[)le  and 
perfect  that  has  bei  n  presented  to  the  public. 

A  knowledge  of  the  second  head  is  onlv 
gained  by  a  patient  investigation  of  each  par- 
ticular object ;  for  this  we  refer  the  reader  to 
the  several  B;enera  described  in  these  volumes, 
under  which  we  have  endeavoured  to  give  a 
brief  account  of  all  the  interesting  and  ma- 
terial facts. 

The  study  of  natural  history  consists  in  the 
collection,  arrangement,  and  exhibition,  of 
the  v.nious  productions  of  the  earth.  These 
are  .divided  int.>  the  three  grand  kingdoms 
of  nature,  the  boundaries  of  which  meet  to- 
gether in  the  zoophytes.  See  Zoophytes. 

Minerals  inhabit  the  interior  parts  of  the 
earth,  in  rude  and  shapeless  masses.  They 
are  bodies  concrete  without  life  and  sensa- 
tion.    See  Mineralogy. 

\'egeUbles  clothe  the  surface  with  ver- 
dure, inib  be  nourishment  through  bibulous 
roots,  breatiie  by  leaves,  and  continue  their 
kind  by  the  dispersion  of  seed  within  pre- 
scribed limits.  They  are  organized  bodies, 
and  have  life  and  not  sensation,  bee  Bo- 
tany. 

Animals  adorn  the  exterior  parts  of  the 
earth,  respire  and  generate  eggs;  are  im- 
pelled to  action  by  hunger,  afl'ections,  and 
pain ;  and  by  preying  on  other  animals  and 
vegetables,  restram  within  proper  bounds 
and  proportions  the  numbers  of  both.  They 
have  organized  bodies,  and  have  life,  sensa- 
tion, and  the  power  of  locmnolion. 

Man,  the  governor  and  subjugator  of  all 
other  beings,  is,  by  his  wisdom  alone,  able 
to  form  just  conclusions  from  such  things  as 
present  themselves  to  his  senses,  which  consist 
of  natural  bodies.  Hence  the  first  stop  of 
wisdom  is  to  know  these  bodies ;  and  to  be 
able,  by  marks  inipr  nted  on  tliem  by  the 
God  of  nature,  to  distinguish  them  from 
each  other,  and  to  affix  to  every  object  its 
proper  name.  These  are  the  elements  of  this 
science  ;  this  is  the  great  alphabet  of  nature: 
for  if  the  name  is  lost,  the  knowledge  of  the 
object  is  lost  also. 

The  method  adopted  in  natural  history, 
indicates  that  every  body  may,  by  inspec- 
tion, be  known  by  its  peculiar  name,  and  this 
points  out  whatever  the  industry  of  man  has 
been  able  to  discover  concerning  it ;  so  that, 
amidst  the  greatest  apparent  confusion,  the 
greatest  order  is  visible. 

The  Linnican  system  is  divided  into  five 
branches,  each  subordinate  to  the  other: 
these  are,  class,  order,  genus,  sjiecies,  and 
variety,  with  their  names  and  characters.  In 
this  arrangement,  the  classes  and  orders  are 
arbitrary,  tlie  genera  and  species  are  natural. 

Ot  the  three  grand  divisions  above  referred 
to,  the  animal  kmgdom  ra'iks  highest  in.com- 


N  A  T 

pavative  estimation,  the  next  the  vegetable, 
anil  last  is  the  miiii-ral  kingdom. 

To  thi:  vegetabli'  and  mineral  kingdoms, 
we  have  already  referred  under  the  clistincl 
heads  Botany  and  Minkralogy:  witli 
regard  to  the  animal  kingdom,  we  observe 
that. 

Animals  enjoy  sensation  by  means  of  a 
living  organization,  animated  by  a  medullary 
sulistance  ;  perception  by  nerves ;  and  mo- 
lion  by  the  exertion  of  tlie  will.  They  have 
members  for  tlie  dilfer<,-nt  purposes  of  life ; 
organs  for  their  different  senses  ;  and  facul- 
liis  or  powers  for  the  application  of  their 
different  perceptions.  They  all  origin. ite 
from  an  egg.  Their  external  and  internal 
slriiclure,  haliits,  instiiKls,  and  various  re- 
lation.; to  each  other,  will  be  found  under  tiie 
dilferent  genera.  See  also  Comparative 
-Vnatom  v. 

Tlie  division  of  animals  is  into  six  classes, 
formed  from  their  internal  structure. 
1.  Mammalia  ("Heart  with^  viviparous 
I  2    auricles  | 
■  &  2  veiitri-  , 
cles:  bloo''  - 
2  Birds 


^ 


cles:  lilood  1 

warm   and  I 

Ired.  J 


oviparous 


N  A  U 
Class  V.     l.s-sECT.t. 


25a 


4.  Fishes 

5.  Insects 


3.  Amplilbia    ["  Heart  with~]  lungs  voluntary 
1  auricle <S£  ] 
Ivenlricle:  y 
blood  cold  I 
and  red.      J 
f  Heart  with)  have  antenna 
I  1     auricle,  | 
-/  venlricleO;  }■ 
6.  Vermes       |  sanies  cold  |  fentacula. 
t^and  white.  J 
The  following  is  an  abstract  of  Linnsus's 
Systema  Natura-,  by  Gmclin. 

Class  I.  Mammalia. 
Ordei.         Genera.  Species. 

Primates  4  S8 

Bruta  7  25 

Ferae  10  186 

Glires  10  129 

Pecora  8  90 

Bellua;  4  25 

Cete  4  14 


7 

47 

557 

C 

lass  11.   AVES. 

Order. 

Genera. 

Species 

Accipitres 

4 

271 

Pic;e 

2G 

663 

Anseres 

13 

314 

Grails 

20 

326 

Gallins 

10 

129 

Passeres 

17 

9S3 

6  S7  2686 

Cl.ass  in.    Amphibia. 

Order.         Genera.  Species. 

I\cptilia  4  147 

Sei-peates  6  219 


o 

10 

36j 

Class 

IV. 

Pisces. 

OrdcM-. 

G« 

nera. 

Specie 

Apodes 

10 

37 

Jugulares 

6 

52 

'Ihoracici 

19 

452 

Abdominales 

16 

202 

Branchiostegi 

10 

81 

Chondropter) 

-gii 

3 

65 

Order.         C 

eiiera. 

Specie 

Coleoptera 

65 

4048 

ntmii)tera 

14 

1464 

I.epidoptera 

3 

2G00 

iS'euioptera 

7 

174 

Hvmenoptera 

25 

1239 

Ulptera 

12 

692 

Aptera 

15 

679 

7                       121  10896 
Class  VI.    Vermls. 

Order.         Genera.  Species. 

2 1  384 

31  5.38 

36  2525 

1 5  498 

15  191 


Inlestina 
Moliusca 
'I'cstacea 
Zoophita 
infusorial 


60 


5S9 


5  lis  4036. 

Natural  PHiLOSOPiiY,  that  which  con- 
siders the  powers  and  properties  of  natural 
budits,  and  their  actions  on  one  another. 

Ourknowlege  of  nature  being  now  found  to 
result  entirely  from  well-coiulucted  experi- 
ments, the  term  natural  philosophy  has  been 
latterly  compounded  with  that  of  experiment- 
al [ihilosophy,  and  indeed  they  seem  nearly 
to  mean  the  same  thing.  See  Experimental 
Philosophy.  N'aluruliihilo.sophy is, however, 
obviously  rather  a  svstem  or  aggregate  of  seve- 
ral branches  of  kno'v,  leilge,  than  a  simple  and 
uniform  science.  Tliese  branches,  therefore, 
it  was  necessary  to  treat  of  under  separate 
articles,  to  which  we  must  content  ourselves 
with  referring  upon  this  occasion,  arranging 
them  ill  the  order  in  which  we  think  they  may 
be  studied  with  most  advantage,  viz'.  At- 
traction, Grav^itation,  and  Gravity, 
Magnetism,  Motion,  Mechanics, 
Pneumatics,  Hydrostatics,  Hydrau-' 
Lies,  Electricity,  Galvanis.m,  Optics,, 
Astono.my  ;  to  which  we  may  add  Chemis- 
try and  Mineralogy. 

NATURALIZATION,  is  when  an  alien- 
born  is  made  the  king's  natural  subject. 

Hereby  an  alien  is  put  in  the  same  state  as 
if  he  had  been  born  in  the  king's  liegeance,  ex- 
cept only  that  he  is  incapable  of  being  a 
member  of  the  privy  council  or  parliament, 
and  of  holding  any  office  or  grant.  No  bill 
for  a  naturalization  can  be  received  in  either 
house  of  parliair.ent,  without  such  disabling 
clause  in  it ;  nor  without  a  clause  disabling 
the  person  fiom  obtaining  any  immunity  in 
trade  thereby,  in  any  foreign  country,  unless 
he  shall  have  resided  in  Britain  seven  years 
after  tlie  commencement  of  the  session  in 
which  he  is  natuialized.  '  Neither  can  anv 
i^erson  be  naturalized,  or  restored  in  bloocf, 
unless  he  has  received  the  sacrament  within 
one  month  before  bringing  in  of  the  bill,  and 
unless  he  also  tal^es  ilie  oaths  of  allegiance 
and  supremacy  in  tin-  presence  of  the  par- 
liament.    1  Bkick.     374.    See  Alien. 

NAVAL  STOX.ES  comprehend  all  ihose  par- 
ticulars made  use  of,  not  only  in  the  royal 
navy,  but  in  every  other  kin<l  of  navigation  ; 
as  timber  for  shipping,  pitch,  tar,'  hemp, 
cordage,  sail-cloth,  gunpowder,  ordnance  and 
lirc-aruis  of  every  sort,  ship-chandlerv  wares 
&c. 

NAUCL.'EA,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria  . 
monogynia  class  anil  order.     The  corolla  is 
funnel-form  ;  seed  one,  inferior,  Iwo-cebed  ; 
receptacle,   common  globular.     There   are 
four  species.  U'ecj  of  the  Kas,t  Indies,  &c,  . 


255 


/ 


NAVIGATION,  tVie  .-.rt  of  conducting  a  ship 
from  one  port  to  another.  Tlie  msiii  end  of  all 
practical  navigation  is,  to  conduct  tlie  ship  in 
s  ifety  to  her  destined  port  ;  and  for  this  purpose 
't  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  to  know  in  what 
particuhiv  part  of  the  surface  of  th£  globe  she  is 
at  any  particular  time.  This  can  only  be  done 
by  having  an  accurate  map  of  the  sea-coasts  of 
all  the  countries  of  the  world,  and,  by  tracing 
out  the  sliip's  progress  along  the  map,  to  know 
at  what  time  she  approaches  the  desired  haven, 
or  how  she  is  to  direct  her  course  in  order  to 
reach  it.  It  is  therefore  a  matter  of  great  im- 
portance for  navigators  to  be  furnished  with 
map5,  or  charts,  as  they  are  called,  not  only 
very  accurate  in  themselves,  but  such  as  are 
capable  of  having  the  ship's  course  easilv  traced 
upon  them,  without  the  trouble  of  laborious  cal- 
culations, which  are  apt  lo  create  niist.ikes. 
The  navigator  should  have  a  perfect  knowledge 
of  the  figure  and  motion  of  the  earth  ;  the  vari- 
ous real  and  Imaginary  lines  upon  it,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  ascertain  the  distance  and  situation  of 
places  with  respect  to  one  .mother.  He  should 
abo  be  acquainted  with  the  several  instruments 
employed  in  measuring  the  ship's  way  ;  such  as 
the  log,  half-minute  glass  ;  quadrant  to  take  the 
r.Uitude  of  the  sun  and  stars  ;  compass  to  repre- 
sent the  sensible  horizon  ;  and  azimuth  compass 
to  take  tlie  azimuth  and  amplitude  of  the  sun,  in 
order  to  know  the  variati<m  of  the  magnetic 
needle.  He  should  have  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  maps  and  charts  of  the  lands  and  seas,  toge- 
t'ner  with  the  depth  of  water,  the  times  and  set- 
ting in  of  the  tides  upon  the  coasts  that  he  may 
have  occasion  to  vi?it  :  also  the  currents  ,  of  the 
mould  and  trim  of  the  ship,  and  the  sail  she 
bears,  that  so  a  due  allowance  may.be  made  for 
lee-way.  By  the  help  of  these,  he  may  at  all 
times  know  the  place  the  ship  is  in,  which  way 
he  must  steer,  and  how  f.;r  he  has  to  run  to  gain 
his  intended  port. 

■)"he  names  of  the  two  great  divisions  of  navig.a- 
tion  are  taken  merely  from  the  kind  of  charts 
made  use  of.  Plane  sailing  is  that  in  which  the 
plane  chart  is  made  use  of;  and  Alcrcator's 
failing,  or  globular  sailing,  is  that  in  which 
Mercator's  chart  is  used.  In  botk  these  methods, 
it  is  easy  to  find  the  ship's  place  with  as  great 
exactness  as  the  chart  will  allow,  either  by  the 
!(,''itinn  of  a  case  in  plane  trigonometry,  or  by 
geometrical  construction. 

Of  Plant  S'tUin^.  A«  a  necessary  preliminary 
to  our  understanding  thif  method  of  navigation, 
ive  shall  here  give  the  construction  of  the  plane 
■cl-.art. 

1.  This  chirt  supposes  the  earth  to  be  a  plane, 
and  the  meridians  parallel  to  one  another  ;  and 
likewise  the  parallels  of  latitude  at  e.iual  dist- 
ances from  one  another,  as  they  really  are  upon 
the  globe.  Though  this  method  ir,  in  itself  evi- 
dently false;  yet,  in  a  slsort  run,  and  especially 
near  the  equator,  an  account  of  the  sliip's  way 
may  be  kept  by  it  tolerably  well. 

Having  determined  the  limits  of  the  chart, 
that  is,  iiow  many  degrees  of  latitude  and  lon- 
gituje,  or  meridional  distance  (thcv  being  in 
this  chart  the  fcamc),  it  Is  to  contain  :  suppose 
from  the  lat.  of  I'.y  N.  to  the  hit.  of  7J°  N.,  and 
fromthc  longitude  of  London  in  0  deg.  to  the 
long,  of  ,'50'' W.;  then  choose  •\  scale  of  equal 
parts,  by  which  the  chart  may  be  contained 
v.'itKin  the  si/.e  of  a  sheet  of  paper  on  which  it 
is  imenjcd  to  be  drawn. 

M..'<e  a  parallelogram  ABCD,  (Plate  Naviga- 
ti(in,  :'g.  I),  the  Icn^hof  which  AB  from  nortli 
vr.  south  sluill  contain  51  degrees,  the  difTerence 
<!  ir.iitiide  b6;v,'een  the  limits  of  W"  and  71"; 
ii.iJ  the  breadth  AD  from  east  to  west  shall 
i.-;itr:;n  tlie  proposed  B^  degrees  of  longitude, 
f),".  -••tgtecs  being  taken  from   the  said   scale, 


NAVIGATION. 

and  this  parallelogram  will  be  the  boundaries 
of  the  chart. 

About  the  boundaries  of  thf  chart  make 
scales  containing  the  degrees,  halves,  and  quar- 
ters of  degrees  (if  the  scale  is  large  enough)  ; 
drawuig  lines  across  the  chart  through  every  5 
or  10  degrees;  let  the  degrees  of  latitude  and 
longitude  have  their  respective  numliers  an- 
nexed, and  the  sheet  is  then  fitted  to  receive  the 
places  intended  to  be  delineated  thereon. 

On  a  straight  .dip  of  pasteboard,  or  stitT  paper, 
let  the  scale  of  the  degrees  and  parts  of  degrees 
of  longitude,  in  the  line  AD.  be  laid  close  to  the 
edge  ;  and  the  divisions  numbered  from  the  right 
h.-md  towards  the  left,  being  ail  we^t  longitude. 

.Seek  in  a  geograjihical  taiile  for  tiie  latitudes 
and  longitudes  of  the  places  contained  within 
the  proposed  limits  ;  and  i»t  them  be  written  out 
in  the  order  in  which  they  increase  in  latitude. 

Then,  to  lay  down  any  place,  lay  the  edge 
of  the  pasteboarii  scale  to  the  divisions  on  each 


side  tlie  chart,  shewing  tlic  latitude  of  the  pl.ifa; 
so  that  the  beginning  of  its  divisions  falls  on  the 
right-hand  border  .\\i ;  and  against  the  divi:,ioii 
shewing  the  longitude  of  the  given  place  make 
a  point,  and  this  gives  the  position  of  the  [ihace 
proposed  ;  and  in  like  manner  are  all  the  other 
places  to  be  laid  down. 

Draw  waving  lines  from  one  point  to  the 
other,  where  the  coast  is  contiguous,  and  thus 
the  reprcKeutation  of  the  lands  within  the  pro- 
posed limits  will  be  delineated. 

Write  the  names  to  the  respective  parts,  and 
in  some  convenient  place  insert  a  compass,  aH<4 
the  chart  will  be  completed. 

2.  The  angle  formed  by  the  meridian  and 
rhimib  that  a  ship  sails  upon,  is  called,  as  we 
have  said,  the  ship's  course.  Thus,  if  a  ship 
sails  on  the  N.N.E.  rhumb,  then  her  course  will 
be  22°  ^O* ;  and  so  of  others,  as  is  manifest  from 
the  following  table  of  the  angles  which  every 
point  of  tlie  compass  makes  with  the  meridian. 


North. 

South. 

Points. 

1 
D.  M.      1 

North. 

South. 

X 

2.49 

X 

5.37 

J, 

8.20- 

N.  by  E. 

•S.  by  E. 

1 

11  15 

N.  by  W. 

S.  by  W. 

it 

14.  4 
16  52 
!9.-tl 

N.  N.  E. 

S.  S. E. 

tj 

22.30 

N.  N.  W. 

S.  .S.  W. 

w 

S.5.19 

28.  7 

30.56 

N  E.  by  N. 

S.  E.  by  S. 

3 

33.45 

N.W.byN. 

S.  \\\  by  S. 

h\ 

36.34 

39.22 
42.11 

N.  E. 

S.  E. 

4 

45.  0 

N.  W. 

s.  w. 

■I     i 
4     i 

47.49 
50.37 
53.26 

N.  E.  by  E. 

S.  E.  by  E. 

5 

56.15 

N.W.by'W". 

S.W.byW". 

59.  4 
61.52 
61.12 

E.  N.E. 

E.  S.E. 

G 

(;7.:>0 

W.  N.  \V, 

w.  s.  w. 

70.19 
73.  7 
75.56 

E   by  N. 

E.  by  .S. 

7 

7S.45 

\V.  by  N. 

W.  by  .S. 

7     i 

81.34 

7     h 

8.1.22 

7     I 

f.7  U 

East. 

8 

90.   0 

^^'e,t. 

3.  The  distance  between  two  places  lying;  on 
the  same  parallel  counted  in  miles  of  the  equa- 
tor, or  the  distance  of  one  place  from  the  meri- 
dian of  anotlier  counted  as  above  on  the  parallel 
passing'  over  that  place,  is  called  meridional  dis- 
tance ;  which,  in  plane  sailing,  goes  under  the 
name  of  departure. 

4.  Let  A  {iv^.  *J),  denote  a  certain  point  on 
the  earth's  surf;ice,  AC  its  meridian,  and  AD 
the  parallel  of  latitude  passing  tiiroun;h  it;  and 
suppose  a  ship  to  sail  from  A  on  the  N.  N.K. 
rliumb  till  she  arrives  at  B  ;  and  through  B  draw 
the  meridian  BD,  (wiiich,  accordin;.;-  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  pi.  ne  sailinjr,  must  be  jKirallel  to  CA,) 
and  the  parallel  of  latitude  HC ;  theu  the  length 
of  AB,  viz.  lu'-.v  far  the  ship  has  sailed  upon  the 
N.  N.l'^  rhumb,  is  called  her  di^itancc  ;  AC  or  KD 
will  he  her  dilfcrence  of  latitude,  or  northin^]f  : 
CB  wUi  .be  her  dej)artiire,  or  casting ;  and  the 


an^le  CAB  will  be  the  coiirse.  Hence  it  is 
plain,  that  the  distance  mailed  will  always  be 
greater  than  cither  tlie  difference  of  latitude  or 
departure;  it  bein;^the  hypothentise  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle,  wlicreof  the  other  two  arc  the 
legs  ;  except  the  s!iip  sails  either  on  a  meridian 
or  a  parallel  of  latitude  :  for  if  the  ship  sails  on 
a  meridian,  then  it  is  plain,  that  her  distance 
will  be  just  equal  to  her  difTerence  of  latitude, 
and  she  will  have  no  departure  ;  but  if  she  sails 
on  a  parallel,  then  her  distance  will  be  the  sime 
with  her  departure,  and  she  will  have  no  dilVer- 
ence  of  latitude.  It  is  evident  also  from  the 
figure,  that  if  the  cour-^e  is  less  than  4  points, 
or  4;>  degrees,  its  complement,  viz.  the  other 
oblique  angle,  will  be  gi'eatcr  than  45  degrers, 
and  so  the  ditlerence  of  latitude  will  be  greater 
than  the  departure;  but  if  the  course  is  ;jrearcr 
thiiu  4  points,  then  the  •dillerence  of  latitude 
i 


•will  be  loM  tlian  tlie  depar(Bre ;  and  lastly,  if 
the  course  id  just  4  points,  tl.c  difl'crence  of  la- 
titude will  lie  etjtial  to  the  dL-jiartiire. 

5.  Since  tlie  distance,  dill'erence  of  latitude, 
and  departure,  form  a  riglit-.irgled  triangle,  in 
wliich  tiie  oMi'juc  angle  opposite  to  the  liepar- 
t\M-e  is  the  course,  and  the  otlu  r  its  complement ; 
therefore,  having  any  two  of  these  yivca,  we 
can  (by  pUine  trigonometry)  find  the  rest ;  and 
hence  arise  the  cases  of  plane-sailing,  which  arc 
as  follow : 

Case  1.  Course  and  distance  given,  to  find 
the  dllTercnce  of  latitude  and  departure. 

F.x.^mpU.  Suppose  a  ship  sails  from  the  lati- 
tude of  :iO''  yj'  north,  N.  NE.  32  miles  (fig.  :i). 
Reijiiircd  the  difierence  of  latitude  and  depar- 
ture, and  the  laiiiiide  come  to.  Then  (by  right- 
angled  trigonometry)  we  have  the  following  ana- 
logy for  finding  the  departure,  viz. 
As  radius  .  .  -  .  .  10.00000 
to  the  distance  AC         -         32.  1.50.)!.'; 

so  is  the  sine  of  the  course  A  22°  30'  <).5H'JS4 
to  the  departure  BC         -       12.25  1.03799 

«o  the^lnp  has  made  I2.2S  miles  of  departure 
easrerly,  or  has  got  so  far  to  the  eastward  of  her 
meridian.  Then  for  the  difference  of  latitude  or 
northing  the  sliij)  has  made,  we  have  (by  rect- 
angular  trigonometry)  the  following  analogy, 

.    radius      -         -         .         .         .  10.00000 

i    the  distance  AC         -         32  1.5051.5 

■so  is  the  co-sine  of  course  A  22°  30'  9  58284 
to  the  diftcrencc  of  lat.  AB    29.57  1.47077 

«o  the  ship  has  dilTered  her  latitude,  or  made  of 
northing,  29.57  m'uuies. 

And  since  her  foriuer  latitude  was  north,  and 
Iier  di  (Terence  of  latitude  also  north  ;  therefore, 
To  the  latitude  sailed  from         -     30°,  25'  N 
add  the  dillerence  of  latitude  00°,  29.57 


and  the  sum  is  the  latitude  come  to  30°,  54.57'N. 

By  this  case  are  calculated  the  tables  of  dif- 
ference of  latitude,  and  departure,  to  every  de- 
gree, point,  and  quarter-point,  of  the  compass. 

Case  II.  Course  and  dilfereiice  of  latitude 
given,  to  find  distance  and  depanurc. 

Exatnple.  Suppose  a  ship  in  the  latitude  of 
45°  25'  north,  sails  NEiN.^  easterly  (I'late  Na- 
vlj^ation,  fig.  4),  till  she  comes  to  tlie  latitude  of 
4^°  55'  north:  required  the  distance  and  depar- 
ture made  good  upon  that  course. 

Since  botli  latitudes  are  northerly,  and  the 
course  also  northerly  ;  therefore. 
From  the  latitude  come  to  -  4i;°,  55' 

subtract  the  laiitmle  sailed  from  4.5°,  25' 

xai  there  remains  -         -         -         01°,  30' 


the  difference  of  latitude,  equal  to         SO  miles. 

And  (by  rectangular  trigonometry)  we  have 
the  following  analogy  for  finding  the  departure 
ED,  viz. 

As  radius  -----  10.00000 
is  to  the  diff  of  latitude  AB     90  1.95424 

so  is  the  tangent  of  course  A  39°,  22'  9.91404 
to  the  departure  BD  -  73. S4  1  SoS2R 
JO  the  ship  has  got  73.84  miles  to  the  eastward 
of  her  former  meridian. 

Again,  for  the  distance  jVD,  we  have  (by  rect- 
angular trigonometry)  the  following  proportion, 
viz. 

As  radius  -----  lO.OOOOO 
is  to  the  secant  of  the  course  ■.V^'^,  22'  10.11176' 
JO  is  the  dilV.  of  latitude  AB    90  1.95424 

to  the  distance  AD         -  116.4  2.OIJ60O 

Case  III.  Difference  of  latitude  and  distance 
given,  to  find  course  and  departure. 

Bvittnole.  -Suppose  a  ship  sails  from  the  lati- 
tude of  56°  5(V  north,  oil  a  rhumb  between  south 
and  west,  12*5  miles,  and  she  is  then  found  by 
observation  to  be  in  the  latitude  of  55°,.  40' 
north  ;  required  the  course  she  sailed  on,  and 
her  departure  from  the  meridian.  (Fig.  5.) 

Since  the  latitudes  are  both  north,  and  the 

Vol.  II, 


NAVIGATION". 

ship  sailing  towards  the  equ-t  ir;  there.'! :>re, 
I'ronrthe  lat'iude  sailed  fri'm         -         5C°,  50* 
subtract  the  observed  latitude         -         55°,  10* 


and  the  remainder  -         .         .         01°,  40' 

equal  to  70  miles,  is  the  diff'ercncc  nf  latitude. 

By  rectangular  trigonometry  we  have  the  fol- 
lownig  proportion  for  finding  the  angle  of  the 
course  F,  vi/.. 

As  the  distance  sailed  DP         )2G  2.10037 

is  to  radius         -         .         .  -         10.00000 

so  is  the  diir.  of  latitude  FD     70  l.R!510 

to  the  co-sine  of  the  course  F  5(j°,  15'  9.74473 
wliich,  because  she  sails  between  south  and  west, 
will  be  south  50°  1,5' west,  or  SW/,M'.  Then, 
for  the  departure,  wo  have  (by  rectangular  tri- 
gonometry) tlie  following  proportion,  viz. 

As  radius' 10.00000 

is  to  the  distance  sailed  DF      126  2.100:57 

so  is  the  sine  of  the  course  F  5C°,  15'  9.919S5 
to  the  departure  DE         -         104.8  2.02022 

consequently  she  has  made  I04.S  miles' of  de- 
parture westerly. 

_  Case  IV.  Diff'erence  of  latitude  and  departure 
given,  to  find  course  and  distance. 

Example.  Suppose  a  ship  sails  from  the  latitude 
of  44°  50'  north,  between  south  and  east,  till 
she  has  made  64  miles  of  easting,  and  is  then 
found  by  observation  to  be  in  the  Latitude  of 
42°  56'  north :  recjuircd  the  course  and  distance 
made  good. 

Since  the  latitudes  are  both  north,  and  the 
ship  sailing  towards  the  equator;  therefore, 
From  the  latitude  sailed  from         -      44°,  SO'N 
take  the  latitude  come  to  -        42°,  56' 


and  there  remains         ...       oi°,  54' 
equal  to  114  miles,  the  difference  of  latitude  or 
southing. 

In  this  case  (by  rectangular  trigonometry)  we 
have  the  following  proportion  to  find  the  course 
KGL  (fig.  6),  viz. 

As  the  diff.  of  latitude  GK       1 14  2.05690 

is  to  radius  -  -  .  ,  lO.(XXXX) 

so  is  the  departure  KL  64  1.S06I8 

to  the  tangent  of  course  G  29°,  19'  9.74928 
which,  because  the  ship  is  sailing  between  south 
and  cast,  will  be  south  29°  19'  cast,  or  SS£^ 
east  nearly. 

Then  for  the  distance,  we  shall  have  (by  rect- 
angular trigonometry)  the  following  analogy, 
viz. 

As  radius  -----  10.00000 
is  to  the  ditr.  of  latitude  GK     114  2.05690 

so  is  the  secant  of  the  course  29°,  19'  10.05952 
to  the  distance  GL  -  130.8         2.11642 

consequently  the  ship  has  sailed  on  a  SSE^ 
east  course  130.S  miles. 

Case  V.  Distance  and  departure  given,  to 
find  course  and  difference  of  latitude. 

Enmplt.  Suppose  a  ship  at  sea  s;uls  from  the 
latitude  of  34°  24'  north,  betv/een  north  and 
west,  124  miles,  and  is  found  to  have  made  of 
westing  86  miles;  required  the  course  steered, 
and  the  diirerence  of  latitude  or  northing  made 
good. 

In  this  case  (bj  rectangular  trigonometry)  we 
have  the  following  proportion  for  finding  the 
course  ADB,  (fig.  7),  viz. 

As  the  distance  AD         -         124  2.09342 

is  to  radius         -         -         .  .         10.00000 

so  is  the  departure  AB  86  1,934.50 

to  the  sine  of  the  course  D  43°  54'  9.84108 
so  the  ship's  course  is  north  -33°  45'  west,  or 
NWiN  5  west  nearly. 

Tlien  for  the  difference  of  latitude,  we  have 
(by  rectangular  trigonometry)  the  following 
analogy,  viz. 

As  radius  -  .  .  .  .  10.00000 
is  to  the  distance  AD  124  2.09S42 

so  is  the  co-sine  of  the  course  43°,  54'  9.85766 
to  the  diff.  of  latitude  BD         89.35  1.95108 

which  is  eqi'ial  to  1  degree  and  29  min.  nearly. 

Klc 


2.57 

Hence,  to  find  th  •  latitude  the  ship  is  in,  since 
both  latitudes  are  norrli.and  the  eliip  sailing;  from 
the  equator;  therefore 

To  the  latitude  sailed  from  -         34°,  24' 

add  the  difference  of  latitude         -  1°.  29' 

•* 

the  sum  is  ....        35°,  JU' 

the  latitude  the  ship  is  in  north. 

Case  VI.  Course  and  departure  given,  to  find 
distance  and  difference  ol  latitude. 

Examp  >.  Suppose  a  ship  at  sea,  in  the  latitude 
of  24°  30'  south,  sails  SEflS,  till  she  has  made  <  f 
casting  96  miles :  required  the  distance  and  dii- 
fcrer.ce  of  latitude  made  good  on  that  course. 

In  this  case  (by  rectangular  trigonometry  and 
by  case  2.)  we  have  thefolIo\ving  proportion  for 
finding  the  distance  (fig.  8),  viz. 
As  tlie  sine  of  the  course  G     :i3°,  45'      5).74474 
is  to  the  departure  HM  96  1.9S227 

so  is  radius ,         -        .         .        -         lO.OtXKO 
to  the  distance  GM        -         172.8  2.237.'3 

Then,  for  the  difference  of  latitude,  we  have 
(by  rectangular  ti  igononiety)  the  following  ana- 
logy, viz. 

As  the  tangent  of  course         33°,  45'       9.8248S 
is  to  the  departure  HM  96         -       1.98227 

so  is  radius  .         -         -         -         10.(XXX)0 

to  the  difference  of  lat.  GH     143.7  2.15738 

equal  to  2°,  24'  nearly.    Consequently,  since  the 
latitude  the  ship  sailed  from  was  south,  aird  she 
sailing  still  towards  tlie  south. 
To  tlie  latitude  sailed  from  -  24°,  30' 

add  the  difference  of  latitude         -  2°,  25' 


and  the  sum  .  .  - 

is  the  latitude  she  is  come  to  south. 


20°,  5-J 


6.  When  a  ship  sails  on  several  courses  in  24 
hours,  the  reducing  all  these  into  one,  and 
thereby  linding  the  course  and  distance  mad? 
good  upon  the  whole,  is  commonly  called  the 
resolving  of  a  traverse. 

7.  At  sea  they  commonly  begin  each  day's 
reckoning  from  tlie  noon  of  that  day,  and  from 
that  time  they  set  down  all  the  dilferent  courses 
and  distances  sailed  by  the  ship  till  noon  neic 
day  upon  the  log-board  ;  then  from  these  several 
courses  and  distances,  they  compute  the  differ- 
ence of  latitude  and  dejiarture  for  each  course 
(by  Case  I.  of  Plane  Sailing)  ;  and  these,  toge- 
ther with  the  courses  and  distances,  are  set  down 
in  a  table,  called  the  Traverse  Table,  which 
consists  of  five  columns:  in  the  first  of  which 
are  placed  the  courses  and  distances  ;  in  the  two 
next,  the  dilTerences  of  latitude  belonging  to 
these  courses,  according  as  they  are  north  or 
south  ;  aud  in  the  two  last  are  placed  the  de- 
partures belonging  to  these  courses,  according 
as  they  are  east  or  west.  Then  thev  sum  up  all 
the  northings  and  all  the  southino-s;  and  taking 
the  difference  of  these,  they  know  the  difference 
of  latitude  made  good  by  the  ship  in  the  last  24 
hours,  which  will  be  north  or  south,  according 
as  the  sum  of  the  northings  or  southings  is 
greatest :  tlie  same  way,  by  taking  the  sum  ot 
ail  the  eastings,  and  likewise  of  all  the  westings, 
and  subtracting  the  lesser  of  these  from  the 
greater,  the  difference  will  be  the  departure 
made  good  by  the  ship  last  24  hours,  which  will 
be  east  or  west  according  as  the  suw  of  the  east- 
ings is  greater  or  less  than  the  sum  of  the  west- 
ings ;  then  from  the  difference  of  latitude  and 
departure  made  good  by  tlie  ship  last  24  hours, 
found  as  .above,  they  find  the  true  course  and 
distance  made  good  upon  the  whole  (by  Case  4 
of  Plane  Sailing),  as  also  the  course  and  distance 
to  tlie  intended  pert 

E  :ap:ph.  ."Suppose  a  ship  at  sea,  in  the  latitude 
of  48'  24'  north,  at  noon  any  day,  is  bound  to  a 
port  in  the  latitude  of  43°  4-:)'  norths  whose  de- 
partiire  from  the  hi)  is  144  miles  east ;  conse- 
quently the  direct  .course  and  distance  of  the 
ship  is  SSE.  \  east  315  miles;  but  by  reason  of 
the  shifting  of  t!:e  winds  she  is  obliged  to  steer 


258 

tlie  fol!owi;isf  cmir'cs  u\\  r.opn  rert  i\  iv,  v'.7. 
SE'S  5ii  milc5,  SSE  CA  riiles,  NWivV  4-i'inTle5, 
S'AV  ■§  west  54  miles,  and  SE»S  i  east  71  m:Ics : 
re.juired  the  course  and  dlstaace'mide  pond  tlic 
l.i?t  24  hours,  and  the  bearins:  and  distance  of 
the  sh'p  from  the  intended  port. 

^h?  solution  of  this  traverse  depends  entirely 
on  the  1st  and  4th  Cases  of  Plane  Sailing-;  and 
first  we  must  (by  Case  I.)  find  the  dlll'L-rence  of 
latitude  and  departure  for  each  course.  T!:us, 
1.  Course  SE'S  dist?.n.-e  o'J  miles. 
For  departure. 
A^  rad-ns  -  -  _ 

is  to  the  distance  -  5fi 

»o  is  the  sine  of  thecourse       Sr.°,  45' 
to  the  departure  -  Sl.l! 

For  difference  of  latitude. 
A?  radius  -  .  . 

is  to  the  distance  -  5t; 

to  is  the  co-sine  of  the  course  33^,  45* 
to  the  dift  of  latitude  46..57 

2.  Course  SSE  and  distance  C4  miles, 
For  departure. 
As  radius  ... 

IS  to  the  distance  .  fi4 

*o  is  the  sine  of  t.he  course        iii.'^,  50' 
to  the  departure  .  C  '..t 

for  difference  of  latitude. 
As  radius  ... 

it  to  the  distance  -  64 

so  is  tiie  co-sine  of  the  course  22',  ao' 
to  the  difference  of  latitude      59.13 

3.  Course  K  WiW  and  distance  48  miks. 
For  dei>arture. 
As  radius  ... 

is  to  the  distance  .  4S 

»o  is  the  sine  of  the  course       5n°,  15' 
to  the  departure  -  ."59.91 

For  diilercnce  of  latitude. 
As  radius  ... 

is  to  the  distance  .  48 

m  is  the  co-sine  of  the  course  56°,  15' 
to  the  dilTtrence  of  latitude      26.67 

4.  Course  SiW  ^  west  and  distance  54  miles 

For  departure.. 
As  radius  -  -        •    . 

is  to  the  distance  -  54 

90  is  tlie  sine  of  the  course       16°,  52' 
to  the  departure  -  15.67 

For  difference  of  latitude. 
As  radius  ... 

is  to  tlie  distance  .  54 

so  is  the  ci:-sine  of  the  course  16°,  52' 
to  the  difference  of  latitude      51.67 

5.  Course  SEiS  +  cast  and  distance  74  miles. 

For  departure. 
As  radius  -  .  . 

is  to  the  distance  -  74 

so  is  the  sine  of  the  course       39°,  22' 
to  the  departure  .  46.94 

For  difference  of  latitude. 
At  radius  ... 

is  to  the  distance  -  74 

10  is  the  co-sine  of  the  course  39°,  22' 
til  the  difference  of  latitude     57.21 

Now  these  several  courses  and  distances,  to- 
gether with  the  differences  of  l.ititude  and  de- 
jjartures  deduced  from  them,  being;  set  down  in 
the  proper  columns  in  the  traverse  table,  will 
stand  as  follow : 

The  Tbaverse  Table. 


10  00300 
1.74819 
9.74474 
1.49293 

10  00000 
I.74S19 
9.91935 
1.66804 


10.00060 
1.80318 
2.58234 
1.3S902 

lOOOOOO 
1.80518 
9.96562 
I.77IS0 


lO.CXTOCO 
1.68124 
9.91 985 
1.60109 

10.00000 
1.68124 
9.74474 
1.4S59S 


10.00000 
1.732,'',9 
9.462S2 
8.19501 

lO.OOOOO 
1 .73239 
9.9S090 
1.71329 


10.00000 
1.86923 
9.80228 
1.67151 

10.00000 
1.80923 
9.88824 
1.7, 


NAVIGATION. 

Trom  the  above  table  it  is  plain,  since  the  |  gree  on  .my  parallel,  is  to  tTi«  Icn^hofa  ilep;rfe 
sum  of  the  northings  is  26.67,  and  of  the  soutli-  upon  the  eiiuator,  so  is  the  co-sine  of  the  lati. 
InSTi  214. 5S,  the  dItVercnce  betwctii  these,  viz  tude  of  that  parallel,  to  radius. 
187.91,  v/ill  be  ihe  southing  made  good  by  the  i  Cor.  3.  Hence,  As  radius,  is  to  the  co-sine  ef 
ship  the  last  21  Iiours  ;  also  the  sum  of  the  east-  I  any  latitude,  so  arc  the  minutes  of  difference  of 
iii,Ts  being  i02.,';5,  and  of  the  westings  55.58,  the  |  lonfitude  between  two  meridians,  or  their  dis- 
difference  46.97  will  be  the  castiiifj  or  departure  j  tance  in  miles  upon  the  equator,  to  the  distance 
made  5;ood  by  the  ship's  last  24  hours  :  conse-  of  these  two  meridians  on  the  parallel  in  miles, 
ijucntly,  to  find  the  true  course  and  distance  Cor.  4.  And,  ..\s  the  co-sinc  of  any  par^ilUl,  ia 
made  pood  by  the  ship  in  that  time,  it  will  be  |  to  radius,  so  is  the  length  of  any  arch  vn  that 


(liy  Case  4.  of  Plane  Sailing), 
As  the  difference  of  latitude    187.91  2.27393 

is  to  the  radius  .  -  10.00000 

so  is  the  departure         -  46.97  1.67182 

to  the  tang-ent  of  the  course  11°,  0.3'  9.39789 
wliich  is  SAE  i  east  nearly.  Then  for  the  dis- 
tance, it  "will  be. 

As  radius      -         .         .         .         .  10.00000 

is  to  tlie  difference  of  Latitude  187.91  2.27393 

to  is  the  secant  of  the  course  14°,  03'  10.01319 
to  the  distance  -  193.7  2.28712 

consequently  the  ship  has  made  good  the  last 
24  hours,  on  a  SAE  ^  east  course,  193.7  miles: 
and  since  the  ship  is  sailing  towards  the  equator; 
therefore, 

From  the  latitude  sailed  from  .  48°,  24'  N 
take  tiic  diff.  of  latitude  made  good        3  ,  OS  S 


Courjtj, 

Distiinca, 

i'>'jf-  'f  Lat.     1      Dfparlurc. 

T 

56 
64 
48 
51 
9-1 

VT  . 

N.          S.           E. 

\v. 

SSE 
NWiW 

snviw 

26  67 

46.57 
59.13 

51.67 
57.21 

31.11 
2-1.5 

46.94 

.;9.9i 

15.67 

26.67 
f  I  r>. 

211.  2;io8,;53 
26.   7  ]  55.58 

5,5  58 

iftT  ni 

Ar.  i\n 

T"  — 

parallel  (Intercepted  between  two  meridians)  in 
utiles,  to  the  length  of  a  similar  arch  on  the 
equator,  or  minutes  of  difference  of  longitude. 

Cor.  5.  Also,  As  the  co-sine  of  any  one  pa- 
rallel, is  to  the  co-sine  of  any  other  parallel,  so 
is  the  length  of  any  arch  on  the  first  in  miles, 
to  the  length  of  the  same  arch  on  the  other  in 
miles. 

From  what  has  been  said,  arises  the  solution 
of  the  several  cases  of  parallel  sallng,  which  are 
as  follow : 

Case  I.  Given  the  difference  of  longitude  be- 
tween two  places,  both  lying  on  the  same  pa- 
rallel :  to  find  the  distance  between  those  places. 

E.\a;-:pU  1.  Suppose  a  ship  in  the  latitude  of 
54°  20'  north,  sails  directly  west  on  that  parallel 
till  she  has  difTered  her  longitude  12°  45';  re- 
quired the  distance  sailed  en  that  parallel. 

First, The  ditTerence  of  longitude  reduced  into 
minutes,  or  nautical  miles,  is  765',  which  is  the 
distance  between  the  meridian  sailed  from,  and 
come  to,  upon  the  equator  ;  thea 
to  find  the  distance  between  these  meridians  on 
the  parallel  of  54°  2C/,  or  the  distance  sailed^ 
it  will  be,  by  Cor.  3.  of  the  last  article, 
As  radius  .  -  .  10.00000 

is  to  the  co-sine  of  the  lat.  54°  20'      9.76572 

so  are  the  minutes  of  diff.  Ion.  765  2.18366 

to  the  distance  on  the  parallel  446.1         2.649r,»- 

i'.\-.:OT/7c  2.  A  degree  en  the  equator  being  60 
minutes  or  nautical  miles  ;  rcq\iired  the  length 
of  a  degree  on  the  parallel  of  51°  32'. 

By  Cor.  3.  of  the  last  article,  it  will  be 
As  radius  ...  10.0000(? 

9.79383 


there  remains                .             -  45  ,  16  N 

tiSe  latitude  the  ship  is  in  north.  And   because  ' 

the  port  the  ship  is  bound  for  lies  in  the  latitude 

of  43°  40'  N.    and   consequently  south   of  the  '•  the  meridi 

slilp  ;  therefore, 

From  the  latitude  the  ship  is  in  4  1°,  16'  N 

take  the  latitude  she  is  bound  for  43  ,  40  N 

and  there  remains  .  .  .  1  ,  86 
or  96  miles,  the  difference  of  latitude  or  south- 
ing the  ship  has  to  make.  Again,  the  whole 
easting  the  ship  had  to  make  being  144  miles, 
and  she  having  already  made  46.97,  or  47  miles 
of  casting  ;  therefore  the  departure  or  easting 
she  still  has  to  make  will  be  97  miles :  conse- 
quently, to  find  the  direct  course  and  distance  _ 

between  the  siiip  and  the  Intended  port,  it  will  1  is  to  the  co-sine  of  the  latitude51°,  32' 
be  (by  Case  4.  of  Plane  Sailing), 
As  the  difference  of  latitude     96 
is  to  radius  ... 

so  is  the  departure  -  97  1 .986' 

to  ihe  tangent  of  the  course    45°,  19'    10.00450 

And 
As  radius  ...  10.00000 

is  to  the  difference  of  latitude  96  1.93227 

so  Is  the  secant  of  the  course     45°,  19'   10.15293 
to  the  distance         .         .  136.5  2.13620 

whence  the  true  bearing  and  distance  of  the  in-  I 
tended  port  is,  SE  136.5  miles.  1 

Of  PjraUrl  Sjtlirg.  Since  the  parallels  of  lati- 
tude do  always  decrease  the  nearer  they  ap- 
proach the  pole,  it  is  plain  a  degree  on  any  of 
them  must  be  less  than  a  degree  upon  the  equa- 
tor. Now  in  order  to  knew  the  length  of  a  de- 
gree on  any  of  them,  let  PB  (fig.  9)  represent 
half  the  earth's  axis,  PA  a  quadrant  of  a  meri- 
dian, and  consecjuently  A  a  point  on  the  equa- 
tor, C  a  point  on  the  meridian,  and  CD  a  per- 
pendicul.ir  from  that  point  upon  the  axis,  which 
plainly  will  Ve  the  sme  of  CP  the  distance  of 
that  point  from  the  pole,  or  the  co-sine  of  CA 
Its  distance  from  the  equator;  and  CD  will  be 
to  AB,  as  the  sine  of  CP,  or  co-sine  of  CA,  is  to 
,  the  r.dius.  Again,  if  the  <;Uadrant  PAB  is 
turned  round  upon  the  axis  PB,  it  is  plain  the 
point  A  will  describe  the  circunit'erence  of  the 
equator  whose  radius  is  AB,a:id  any  other  point 
C  upon  the  meridian  will  describe  the  circum- 
I'erencc  of  a  parallel  whose  radius  is  CD. 

Cor.  1.  Hence  (because  the  circumference  of 
circles  are  as  their  radii)  it  follows,  that  the  cir- 
cumference of  any  parallel  is  to  th.c  circumfer- 
ence of  the  equator,  as  the  co-sinc  of  iis  Luitude 
is  to  radius. 

Cor.  2.  And  since  he  whole-  a-e  as  teir 
similar  paits,  ii  wULbc,  fi>  the  la-.g  h  i>(  a  ce- 


so  are  the  min.  in  l°ontheequa.  60         1.77815 
1.9S227  !  to  -  -  -  37.32         1.57198 

10.00000  j  the  miles  answering  to  a  degree  on  the  parallel 
of  51°  32'. 

By  this  problem  a  tabic  is  constructed,  shew- 
ing the  geographic  miles  answering  to  a  degree 
on  any  parallel  of  latitude ;  in  which  you  may 
observe,  that  the  columns  marked  at  the  top 
with  D.  E.  comain  the  degrees  of  latitude  be- 
longing to  each  parallel  and  the  adjacent  co- 
lumns marked  at  the  top  Miles,  contain  the 
geographic  miles  answering  to  a  degree  upon 
these  paiallels.  Seethe  table  in  the  article  Mat. 
Though  the  table  does  only  shew  the  n.ilcs 
answering  to  a  degree  of  any  parallel,  whose  la- 
titude consists  of  a  whole  number  of  degrees  ; 
yet  it  may  be  made  to  serve  for  any  parallel 
whose  latitude  is  some  nimiber  of  degrees  and 
minutes,  by  making  the  following  proportion, 
viz. 

As  I  degree,  or  60  minutes,  is  to  the  difference- 
between  the  miles  ansv/ering  to  a  degree  in  the 
next  greater  and  next  less  tabidar  latitude  than 
that  proposed  ;  so  is  the  excess  of  the  proposed. 
latitude  above  the  next  tabular  latitude,  to  a 
[iroportional  part ;  wliich,  subtracted  from  the 
miles  answering  to  a  degree  of  longitude  in  tl>e 
next  less  tabular  latitude,  will  give  the  miles 
answering  to  a  degree  In  the  proposed  latitude. 
JixamfU.  Required  to  find  the  miles  ansv.  cring 
to  a  degree  on  the  parallel  of  56°  44'. 

Fir.st,  The  next  less  parallel  of  lailtndc  in  the- 
t.ablc  tlian  tli.it  proposed,  is  that  of  56°,  a  de- 
gree <:f  which  (by  the  table)  is  ei|ual  to  35. .55 
milej ;  a'ld  tl-.c  next  greater  parallel  of  latitude 
In  th.'  la',  la,  than  that  proposed,  is  that  of  57°, 
.1  degite  of  wlvich  is  (by  the  table)  equal  to  32  68 
milei :  the  difference  of  these  is  i-7,  and  the  dis-^ 
tance  between  these  parallels  u  1  degree,  or  60 


HwlniilM ,  als3  the  distance  botweeii  tlie  par;illtl 
OT  .JO''',  ami  tlie  proposed  p;'.ra!lel  of  5i>^  n-i',  is 
4!  miiiMUT. :  then,  by  ti.e  preceding;  proportion, 
it  will  be,  As  fro  ii  to  K7,  30  is  'ii  to  GOB,  tlic  dif- 
ference liciween  a  defjiee  on  the  parallel  of  5G° 
and  a  de;;rep  on  the  parallel  of  5i;^  l-V ;  which, 
therefore,  taken  from  :'.:>..;.5,  the  miles  answcrin<f 
to  a  degree  on  the  parallel  of  .55",  leaves  ."^  .'J  I  a, 
the  miles  answering  to  a  degree  on  the  parallel 
of  5>"^  -i'l',  as  was  required. 

C.isr  II.  'Die  dl.itance  sailed  in  any  parallel  of 
latitude,  or  th.e  distance  between  anv  two  places 
on  that  parallel,  being  given;  to  iiiid  the  differ- 
ence of  longitude. 

£xi:ti!j>!c.  Suppose  a  ship  in  the  latitude  of 
55°  .%■'  north,  sails  directly  east  f.Sy/i  miles  : 
required  how  much  slie  has  diflerod  lier  lon- 
gitude. 

By  Cor.  4.  Art.  1.  of  this  section,  it  will  be 
As  the  co-sinc  of  the  lat.  55°  HG'      '.).'5'202 

is  to  radius  -  .  -  li\oax)0. 

so  is  the  distance  sailed  Gfi.'.Ct  '-'..S!)0'()7 

to  minute  of  difference  of  Ion.  12I:i  :i.03-10,'; 

whijh  reduced  into  de,<,'rees,  by  dividing  by  GO, 
niikes  '20°  13',  the  diil'erence  of  longitude  the 
^iilp  has  niade. 

This  also  may  be  solved  by  help  of  the  pre- 
ceding table,  VIZ.  by  finding  from  it  the  miles 
ans-.vering  to  a  degree  on  the  proposed  parallel, 
and  dividing  wth  this  the  given  number  of 
miles  the  quotient  v/ill  be  the  degrees  and  mi- 
nutes of  dilference  of  longitude  required. 

'I'hus  in  the  last  example,  we  find,  from  the 
foregoing  table,  that  a  degree  on  the  parallel  of 
£.5°  SG'  is  equal  to  3:i,8D  miles  ;  by  this  we  divide 
the  jiroposed  number  of  miles  (,'85.6,  and  the 
quotient  is  'J0.1:i  degrees,  i.e.  -JOP  13',  the  dif- 
ference of  longitude  required. 

Case  III.  The  difference  of  longitude  between 
two  places  on  the  same  parallel,  and  the  distance 
between  them,  being  given  ;  to  fiud  the  latitude 
of  that  parallel. 

ExainpU.  Suppose  a  ship  sails  on  a  certain 
pirallel  directly  west  6'1'4  miles,  and  then  has 
dilTLTed  her  longitude  lb°  4G',  or  llSti  miles: 
required  tlie  latitude  of  the  parrJlel  s!ie  sailed 
upon  ;  it  will  be  by  Cor.  3.  before 
As  the  min.  of  dlff  long.  1.     Vm  .<!.05154 

is  to  the  distance  sailed  624  L'  79.)1.S 

so  is  radius  ...  10.0(H>.X) 

to  the  co-sine  of  the  lat.  T,G°,  21'       9.74364 

conse-'jueatly  the  latitude  of  the  ship,  or  parallel 
she  sailed  upon,  was  5G^  21'. 

From  v,'hat  has  been  said,  may  be  solved  the 
following  problenis ; 

Prob.  I.  Suppose  two  ships  in  the  latitude  of 
■\j°  ac/  north,  distant  asunder  fiJ4  miles,  sail 
Iwth  directly  north  2,i6'  miles,  and  consctpaently 
are  come  to  the  latitude  of  5VP  mV  north :  re- 
quired their  distance  on  tlaat  par.iUcI. 

By  Cor.  5.  Art.  I.  of  this  section,  it  will  be. 
As  the  co-sine  of  4.'i°,  SCV  9-S,!7HI 

is  to  tile  co-sine  of  50^,  46'  9.80105 

«o  is  .  .  6.54         -         aSl.'jjS 

to  .  .  601         .         2.77882 

the  distance  between  the  ships  when  on  the  pa- 
rallel of  5<fi  46'. 


NTAVIGATION, 

(final  to  796  miles,  the  difference  of  latitude  Br 

distance  sailed. 


Of  MhUle-liilitud:  SalHiijr.  1.  When  two  places 
lie  both  on  the  same  parallel,  we  have  shcv.n 
how,  from  the  difference  of  longitude  given,  to 
find  the  miles  of  casting  or  westing  between 
tiiem,  decoNlrj.  But  when  two  places  lie  not 
on  the  same  parallel,  then  their  difference  of 
longitude  cannot  be  reduced  toliiiles  of  easiing 
or  westing  on  the  parallel  of  either  place  :  for 
if  counted  on  the  parallel  of  that  place  that  lias 
the  greatest  latitude,  it  would  be  too  small; 
and  if  on  the  parallel  of  that  place  having  the 
least  latitude,  it  would  be  too  great.  Hence  the 
common  way  of  reducing  the  difference  of  lon- 
gitude between  two  places,  lying  on  different 
par.<llels,  to  miles  of  casting  or  westing,  it  e  con- 
tra, is  by  counting  it  on  the  middle  parallel  be- 
tween the  places,  which  is  found  by  adding  the 
l.ititudes  of  the  two  places  together,  and  taking 
half  the  Sinn,  which  will  be  the  latitude  of  the 
middle  parallel  required.  And  heuce  arises  the 
solution  of  the  following  cases ; 

Case  !.  The  l.ititudes  of  two  places,  and  their 
dltTcrence  of  longitude,  given ;  to  find  the  direct 
course  and  distance. 


Prnm  the  hlitiMo  she  was  in 
take  the  difference  of  latitude 


25!) 

5Cf>,  0& 
1  ,  36 


Examph:  Required  the  direct  course  and  dis- 
tance between  the  I.l/.ard  in  the  latitude  of 
50°  (V  north,  and  longitude  of  5°  H'  west,  and 
St.  Vincent  In  the  latitude  of  17°  iC  N.  and  lon- 
gitude of  i'4°  20' W. 
First,  I'o  the  latitude  of  the  Lizard 
add  the  latitude  of  St.  Vincent 

The  sum  is        . 

Half  the  sum  or  latitude  of  the 

middle  p.Trallel  is         - 
Also  the  difference  of  latitude  is 
equal  to  1!I70  miles  of  .southing.     A; 
From  the  longitude  of  St.  Vincent 
take  the  longitude  of  the  Lizard 

there  remains        ... 

equal  toU-K;  min.  of  dilV.  of  Ion.  west. 

Then  for  the  miles  of  westing,  or  departure, 

it  will  be  (by  Case  1.  of  Parallel  Sailing), 

As  radius  .  -  .  lo  00000 

is  to  the  co-sine  of  the?  „^-.  „.,       „    .., 

'  33°,  35'       9.92069 

..         1M6  3.05918 

!.'54.7         2.97987 

will  be  (by  Case  4.  of 

1970 


50°  00' 

N 

17 

10 

67 

10 

S3 

35 

N 

33 

50 

gam, 
24 

SOW 

05 

14 

"1 


Pro!).  II.  Suppose  two  ships  in  the  latitude  of 
".5°  4H'  north,  distaut  iil'i  miles,  sail  directly 
n.irth  till  the  distance  between  them  is  62'4 
miles:  required  the  latitude  come  to,  and  the 
distance  su-ied. 

Hy  Cor.  5  Art.  1.  of  this  section,  it  will  be, 
.■->  their  first  distance  846  2.92737 

is  to  their  .second  distance      624  2.795 IS 

80  Is  the  co-si.ie  of  -  4,)°,  48'  9.84:;34 
.to  the  co-sine  .  .  59°,  04'  9.71115 
the  latitude  of  the  parallel  the  ships  are  come  to. 

Consequently,  to  find  their  distance  s:ii!ed, 


I'ro.n  :he  latitude  come  to 
tabtract  tlie  latitude  sailed  from 

and  there  remains 


59°, 
45 


Oi' 
48 


middle  parallel 
so  is  mIn.  diff.  of  Ion. 
to  the  miles  of  westing 

And  for  the  course   i 
Plane  Sailingi, 

As  the  diff.  of  lat.         -  1970  .3.2.044' 

is  to  radius  .  ...  lO.OOOtX) 
so  is  the  departi'.re         -         9.''4.7  2.97987 

to  the  tang,  of  the  course  2,";°,  51'  9.68540 
which,  because  it  is  between  s&utli  and  west, 
v.-ill  be  SSW  i  west  nearly. 

For  the  distance,  it  will  be,  by  the  same  case. 
As  radius  .         .         .        '.  10.00000 

is  to  tlie  diff.  of  lat.         .         1970  3.29.147 

so  is  the  secant  of  the  course  '25°,  51'  10.04579 
to  the  distance         -         -       iJIBU  3.34026 

whence  the  direct  course  and  distance  from  the 
Lizard  to  St.  Vincent  are  SSW  i  2189  W.  miles. 

Case  II.  Ona  latitude,  course,  and  distance 
sailed,  being  given;  to  find  the  other  latitude, 
and  differenee  of  longittide. 

F.\-arrpL:  Sij]>pose  a  ship  in  the  latitude  of 
50°  C/J' north,  siiih  stiuth  50° 06'  west,  150  miles: 
required  the  latitude  the  ship  has  come  to,  and 
liow  much  she  has  differed  htr  lotigltude. 

First,  For  the  difference  of  latitude,  it  will  be, 
[by  Case  1.  of  Plane  Sailing,) 


As  rauuis 

is  to  the  distance  -  1.50 

30  is  the  co^lr.e  of  the  course  .5o°,  06' 

to  the  diff.  of  latitude      .     96.22  1.98:125 

equal  to  1°, .'!«'.    An(J  since  the  ^»ip  is  sailing 

towards  the  eqiutor  :  therefore, 


and  there  remains  -  .  48  ,  24 

the  latitude  she  has  come  to  north.  CcDse« 
quently  the  latitude  of  ihe  middle  parallel  will 
be  49°  12'. 

Then  for  departure  or  westing  it  will  be,  by 
the  same  Case, 

^^5  radius 10.00000 

is  to  the  distance        .  I''0  2  17609 

so  is  the  .sine  of  the  course  5ff,0G'  9.8S48'J 
to  the  departure        -  115.1  2.0S098 

As  for  the  difference  of  longitude,  it  will  be, 
(by  Case  2.  of  Plane  Sailing,) 
As  the  co-s.  of  the  middle  j^ar.  49°  12*     9.81519 
is  to  radius  ....  10.00000 

so  is  the  departure  -  115.1         2  05098 

to  the  min.  diff  of  longitude  176.1  2  24579 
equal  to  2°  5(i',  which  is  the  difference  of  longi- 
tude  the  ship  has  made  westerly. 

Case  III.  Course  and  difference  of  latitude 
given  ;  to  fiiid  the  distance  sailed,  and  differ- 
ence of  longitude. 

F.x,!mplc.  Suppose  a  slii)>  in  the  latitude  of 
5?>°  34'  north,  sails  SFiS,__till  by  ob.servation  sh« 
is  found  to  be  in  the  hititudc  of  51°  \-2',  and 
consequently  has  differed  her  latitude  2°  22',  or 
142  miles:  required  the  distance  sailed,  and 
the  difference  of  longitude. 

First,  for  the  departure,  it  will  be,  ,'by  Case  2. 
of  Plane  .SaiHng,) 

As  radius  ...  10  00000 

is  to  the  diff.  of  latitude  142  2.15229 

so  is  the  tang,  of  course  3.3",  45'      .9.82489 

to  the  departure  -  94.88  1.97718 

-And  for  the  distance  it  will  be,  (by  the  salno 
Case,) 

As  radius  .  .  10.000C9 

is  to  the  dilT.  of  latitude  142  2.15229 

so  is  the  secant  of  the  course  33°,  45'  10.08015 
to  the  distance  -  170,8  2.23244 

1  hen,  ,ir.ce  the  l::tif,:de  sailed  from  was  SS'' 
34'  north,  and  the  latitude  come  to  51°  12' 
north  ;  therefore  the  middle  parallel  will  be 
52°  2;j' ;  and  consequently,  for  tiie  difference  oi" 
longitude,  it  will  be,  {by  Case  2.  of  Parallel 
Sailing,) 

As  the  co-sine  of  the  mid.  par.  52°,  23'  9.78."60 
is  to  the  departure         -  94.88         1.97718 

so  is  radius  -  -  .  lO.OOXK) 

to  min.  of  diff.of  longitude  1.55.5  2.191  § 
equal  to  2°  35',  the  difference  of  longitude 
easterly. 

Case  IV.  Difference  of  latitude  and  distance 
sailed,  given ;  to  find-  th.c  course  and  difference 
of  longitude. 

Example.  Supfjose  a  ship  In  the  latitude  of 
4.3°  26'  north,  sails  between  south  and  east,  24G 
milts,  and  then  is  fomid  by  observation  to  be 
in  the  latitude  of  41°  06' north:  rcqui.-ed  the 
direct  course  and  difference  <if  longitude. 

First,  for  ihe  course,  it  will  be,  (byCas;  3.  of 
Plane  Sailing,) 

As  the  distance  -  246  2..30O94 

is  to  radius  .  .  lO.OOUXJ 

so  is  thediif.  of  Latitude  140  2.14613 

to  the  co-sine  of  ihe  coiir-e  .')5°,  19'  9.75.)  19 
w!:ich,  because  the  sh.lp  sail,  between  south  .-nd 
cast,  v/ill  be-EOutii  5:t-  19'  e  isr,  or  bF.iE  nttirlr. 
IJien,  for  departure,  it  will  be,  by  the  same 
Case, 

As  radius  .  .  -  U>  GOOOO 

is  to  the  distance  .  246  2.')903i 

so  i-;  the  sine  of  the  course    5.)°,  19*        S.yiitri 

to  the  departure         -  202J  ^l^MSm 

10.00000        l.-istly.  For  the  dllFerence  of  lo.agitiidc,  it  -wilJ 

2  17609    will  be,  (by  Case  2.  of  Parallei  S;ii!ing,) 

9.80716  {  As  the  co-sine  of  the  mid.  par.  4','^,  16'     y.?,';?!?^ 

,  ■  "  -  --     ;,  tQ  [)ij  departure         .  S03.8         2..-50J93 

so  is  radius  -  -  10  00  .<>0 

tg  ir.iti,  of  diff.  of  Isngitude      273.3        2.4:;(.7'4 


06 


2)0 


the  difference    of    longlinde 


equal  to   i"  3; 
easterly. 

C.vsE  V.  Course  and  departure  g\ven  ;  to  Sad 
difference  of  iatitude,  dilVcrence  of  longitude, 
and  distance  s-i!ed. 

Evamfh.  Supjwse  a  ship  in  the  latitude  ef 
4S^  23'  north,  sails  S\ViS,  till  sItc  hasiuade  of 
westing  l'-'3  miles:  required  the  l:<titHde  come 
to,  the'dilFerence  of  longitude,  and  the  distance 
sailed. 

First,  For  the  distance,  it  wiil  be,  (by  Case  6. 
of  Plane  Sailiuff,) 

As  the  si.ie  of  the  course  33°,  45'  G  74474 
is  tu  the  departure         -         123  2  06991 

5oisrr.dii.s  -  -  -  lO.OWJO 

to  the  distance  -  221.4  2  31ol. 

And  for  the  difTerencc  of  latitude,  it  mil  be, 
bv  the  same  L'are, 

As  the  tang,  of  course  33°,  45'         9,82489 

is  to  the  departure         -         I -'3  2.0.^»1 

so  is  radius  -  -  -  10.00000 

to  the  difF.  of  latitude  184  2  26302 

equal  to  3°  04';  and  since  the  ship  is  sailing:  to- 
wards the  equator,  the  latitude  come  to  will  be 
.45°  19'  north;  and  consequently  the  middle 
"parallel  will  be  46°  51'. 

Then,  to  find  the  difForence  of  longitude,  it 
will  be,  (Case  2  of  Parallel  S.iiling,) 
As  the  co-sine  of  middle  par.  46°,  5 1'      9.83500 
is  to  the  departure  -  123  2,0S991 

so  is  radius  -  -  -  10.00000 

to  niin.  of  difT,  of  longitude      ISO  2.25491 

which  is  equal  to  3°  00',  the  difference  of  longi- 
tude westerly. 

Case  VI.  difference  of  latitude  and  departure 

given  ;  to  find  course,  distance,  and  difference  of 

longitude. 

Example.    Suppose  a  ship  in  the  latitude  of 

46°  37'  north,  sails  between  ,south  and  east,  till 

she    has    made  of    easting   146  miles,    and    is 

then  found  by  observation  to  be  in  the  latitude 

uf  43°  24'  north  ;  required  the  course,  distance, 

and  difference  of  longitude. 

First,  by  Case  4.  of  Plane  Sailing,  it  will  be 

for  the  course, 

As  the  diff  of  latitude 

is  to  the  departure 

»o  is  radius 

to  the  tang,  of  the  course 

which,  because  the  ship  is  sailing  between  south 

and  east,  will  be  south  36°  55'  east,  or  SEiS  \ 

tast  nearly. 

for  the  distance,  it  will  be,  by  the  same  Case, 

As  radius  -  -  10  00000 

if  to  the  diff,  of  latitude  193  2.28556 

so  is  the  ,=ecant  of  the  course  36°,  55'     10,09718 
to  the  distance  -  241.4  2.38274 

Then,  for  the  difference  of  longitude,  it  will 
l>e,  by  Case  2.  of  Parallel  Sailing, 
As  the  co-sine  of  the  mid.  par.  45°,  CO'    9.84949 
is  to  the  departure         -  HO"  2,16137 

so  is  n.diu'i  -  -  10.00000 

to  min.  of  diff.  of  longitude        205  2.31188 

equal   to  3°  25',  the  difference    of   longitude 
easterly. 

Cask  VII.  Distance  and  departure  given  ;  to 
find  difference  of  latitude,  course,  and  dilTcrence 
of  longitud 


10.00000 
2,21748 
9.86436 
2.08184 


NAVIGATION'. 

And  for  the  difference  of  latitude,  it  will  be, 
by  the  same  Case, 
As.  radius 

is  to  the  distance  -  165 

so  is  the  co-sine  of  the  course  42°  59' 
to  the  difference  of  latitude  120,7 
e.qu-Hl  to  2°  00' ;  consequently  the  latitude  come 
to  will  be  3i°  40'  north,  and  the  latitude  of  the 
middle  tiaralle!  will  be  32°  40".  Hence,  to  find 
the  difference  of  longitude,  it  will  be,  by  Case  2. 
of  Parallel  Sailing, 

As  the  co-sine  of  the  mid,  par.  32°,  40'     9.92522 
is  to  the  departure  -  112.5         2.05115 

so  is  radius  ...  lO.OOOCX) 

to  min.  of  diff.  of  long.  133.6         2.12593 

ec]ual  to  2°  IS' nearly,  the  difference  of  longi- 
tude easterly. 

Case  Vlli.  Differoiice  of  longitude  and  de- 
parture given ;  to  find  difference  of  hititude, 
course,  and  distance  sailed. 

Example.    Suppose  a  ship  in   the  latitude  of 


rioncc  it  is  plain  the  ship  lias  drfifercd  In'r 
kilitiulu  ISG.'i  miniitfs,  oi  3'  0',  and  so  hi*, 
come  to  Cm.'  latitude  of  40'  19'  iioilh,  and  has 
inatl''o;diiiert.'iue  of  longiUult  143.8  ii.iinitt-5, 
or  2°  23'  48",  westerly. 

3.  This  method  of  sailing,  though  it  is  not 
strictly  true,  \et  comes  vcVy  near  the  triilh, 
as  will  be  evident  by  coir.pariiig  an  example 
wrought  by  this  method,  with  the  same 
wrought  by  the  method  delivered  in  the  next 
section,  which  is  strictly  (rue;  and  it  serves, 
without  any  considerable  error,  in  runnings- 
ot  4j0  iiiiles  between  tlie  tt|nator  and  parallel 
of  30  degrees,  of  300  miles  betw<eii  that  and 
tiie  parallel  of  6o  de_,-rees,  and  of  150  miles 
as  iar  as  there  is  any  occa>ioii,  and  conse- 
cjOenlly  must  be  su'lliciently  exact  fur  24 
hours  run. 

,  f>/'  Mtrcatnr^s-  sailing.  Though  the  nie- 
50^  46'  north,  sails  between  south  and  west,  till  i  ridians  do  ail  meet  at  thj  pole,  and  the  pa- 
her  difference  of  longitude  is  3°  12',  and  is  then  I  rallcls  to  the  equaior  do  contiinialiy  decrease, 
found  in  have  departed  from  her_former  meri-  1  and  that  in  proportion  to  the  co-sihes  of  their 

latitudes;  i,ct  in  old  sca-ciiarts  the  meridians 
were  drawn  parallel  to  one  another,  and  con- 


193 

2.2S55G 

146 

.2.16137 

_ 

laooooo 

36°,  55' 

9.375S1 

dian  126'  miles:  recjulred  the  difference  of  la- 
titude, course,  and  distance  sailed. 

First,  for  the  latitude  she  has  come  to,  it  will 
be,  bv  Case  3.  of  Par:dlel  Sailinsr, 
As  min.  of  diff".  of  long.      -192"  2.28330 

is  to  the  departure         -  126  2,10037 

so  is  radius  -  -  lO.lXXXXl 

to  the  co-sine  of  mid.  par.  48°,  59'  9.81707 
Now,  since  the  middle  Latitude  is  etjual  to 
half  the  sum  of  the  two  latitudes  (by  art.  1.  of 
this  sect.)  and  so  the  sum  of  the  two  latitudes 
equal  to- double  the  middle  iatitude;  it  ft)llows, 
that  if  from  double  the  middle  latitude  we  sub- 
tract anv  one  of  tlie  latitudes,  the  remainder 
will  be  the  other.  Hence  from  twice  48°  59', 
viz.  97°  58',  taking  50°  46'  the  latitude  sailed 
from,  there  remains  47°  12'  the  latitude  come 
to ;  conseq-aently  the  difference  of  latitude  is 
3°  34',  or  214  minutes. 

Then-,  for  tlie  course,  it  will  be,  by  Case  4.  of 
Plane  Sailiiag, 

As  difference  of  latitude  214  2.33041 

i  is  to  radius  ...  lO.OO'JOO 

so  is  the  departure         .         123  2,10037 

to  the  tang,  of  the  course  '.Kp  29'  9.7G99G 
which,  because  it  is  between  south  and  west, 
will  be  south  30'  29'  west,  or  SSW  ^  west 
nearly. 

And  for  the  distance,  it  will  be,  by  the  same 
Case, 

As  radius  ...  10.00000 

is  to  the  difference  of  lat.         214  2.33041 

so  is  tlie  secant  of  the  course  30°,  29'  10.06461 
to  the  distance         -         -         248.4  2.39502 

2.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  easy  to 
solve  a  traverse  by  the  rules,  of  Middle-latitude 
Sailing. 

Examp't.  Suppose  a  ship  in  the  latitude  of 
43°  25'  north,  s;iils  upon  the  following  courses, 
viz.  SWiS  63  miles,  SSW  \  west  -15  miles,  Sbl 
5i  miles,  and  SWAW  74  miles  ;  required  the 
latitude  the  slilp  !)as  come  to,  aud  how  far  she 
has  differed  her  longitude. 

First,  By  Case  2.  of  this  sect,  find  the  differ- 
ence of  latitude  and  dilFcrcnce  of  longiiude  be- 


ExaZipU.    Suppose  a  ship  in   the  latitude  of  ;  '"".^ing  to  each  course  and  distance,  and  they 


83°  40'  north,  sails  between  south  and  eust  16.= 
miles,  and  has  then  made  of  easting  1 12.5  miles  -. 
required  the  difference  of  latitude,  course,  and 
ditie^ence  of  lo:igitude. 

First,  for  the  course,  it  will  be,  by  Case  S. of 
.Plane  .Sailing, 

As  the  distance  -  1G5  2,21748 

is  to  radius  -  .  10.0000!) 

to  is  the  departure         -  102,5  2.051 15 

to  t!ic  sine  of  the  course  42°,  59'        9.83367 

which,  Ii_-r  -use  the  ship  sails  between  south  and 
cast,  will  be  south  42°  59'  cast,  or  S£ili  ^  east 
nearly. 


will  stand  as  jn  the  following  table  : 


Courses.  D 

stances. 

nif  of  Lat. 

Dlff.oJ 

Lon^. 

-  G3 

-  45 

-  54 

-  74 

North, 

South 

F.ast. 

■West. 

SW/;S 

SSW  ;w 

SM! 

SWiW 

— 

52.-1 
39.7 
53.0 
41.1 

14.75 

47  85 
28.62 

81.08 

157,55 

13.75 

Diff.  of  J. at. 

1H(;.2 

Diff.  of  Long.  143.80 


sequently  the  parallels  of  iatitude  made  equal 
to  the  eiiuator,  and  so  a  degree  of  longitude 
on  any  parallel  as  large  as  a  degree  on  the 
e(|f,ator;  also  in   thcjc  charts  the  degrees  of 
latitude  were  still  represented  (as  Ihs-v  are  in 
thenxsclves)  cqu;il  to  each  other,  and  tolh.:se 
ot  the  equator.     By  these  means  the  degrees 
of  longitnde   being  increased  beyond   their 
just  proportion,  and  the  more  ^o'the  nearer 
tliey  approach  the  pole,  the  degrees  of  lati- 
tude at  the  same  thiie  remaining  the  same,  it 
is  evident  places  must  be  very   erroneously 
marked  down  upon  these  charts  with  respect 
to  their  latitude  and  longitude,   and  conse- 
(jiienlly  their  bearing  froiil  one  anotiier  very 
lalse.  ■  ■', 

To  remedy  this  inconvenience,  so  as  still  to 
keep  the  meridians  par  Uel,  it  is   plain  we 
must  protract,  or  lengthen,    tlie  degrees  of 
latitude  m  the  same  proportion  as  those  of 
longitude  are,  that  so  the   proportion  in  east- 
ing and  westing  may  be  the  same  witii  that 
of  soutliiiig  and  nortliing,  and  consequently 
the  be;ijii,gs  ct  places  froni  one  another  are  tlie 
same  upon  the  ctiart  as  upon  the  globe  itself. 
Let  ARD  (lig.  10,)  be  a  quadrant  of  a  me- 
ridian, A  the  piile,  D  a  point  on  the  equator, 
AC  half  the  axis,  B  any  point  itpon  the  me- 
ridian, from  wiiich  draw   !!F  perpendicular 
to  AC,  and  BG  perpendicular  to  CD ;  then 
ISO  will  be  the  sine,  ami  !'.F  or  CCi  tlie  co- 
sin?,  of  BU  the  latitude  of  the  point  13  ;  ilravT 
DE  the  tangent  and  CE  the  sectmt  of  the  arcli 
CD.     It  has   been  demonstrated,    that  any 
arch  of  a  parallel   is  to  the  like  arch  of  the 
equator,  as  th;-  co-sine  of  the  kititude  of  that 
p.irallel  is  to  radius.     'I'hus  any  arch,   as  a 
minute  on  the  parallel  described  bv  the  point 
15,  will  be  to  a  minute  on  the  ctiti.itor,  as  !U"' 
or  CG  is  to  CD ;  l)ut  since  the  triaii j,les  CCJB, 
CDK,  are  similar,  therefore  CG  will  be  to 
CD  ;is  CB  is  to  CK,  ('.  c.  the  co-sine  of  any 
parallel  is  to  radius  as  radius  is  to  the  secant 
of  the  hititude  of  that  parallel.     liut  it  has 
been  iu'-t  now  shown,  Ih  t  the  co-snie  of  any 
paralh'l  is  to  radius,  as  the  length  of  any  arcli 
(as  a  minute)  on  that  parallel  Vs  (o  the  lengtli 
of  the  like  arch  on  the  e(|uatO(  ;  therefore  tlie 
length  of  ain  arch  (as  a  minute)  on  any  pa- 
rallil,  is  to  the  leiigtn  of  the  like  arch  on  die 
equitor,    as   radius  is   to  the  secant  oi  the 
latitude  of  that  parallel ;  and  $o  the  Icngtiv 


ofanr  arch  (a%  a   miiuite)  on  (Iii»  fqiiator, 
is  longer  tli.in  tliu  M^i!  urcli  of  any  pualicl, 
in    till-  siinie  propurllon    a-i    tliL'     sucant   of 
flie    latitude  of    U>at   p.irallel   is   to  r.itlins. 
Unt  sinco   ill  tliis  projection   the    iiieri<iians 
are   paiallL-l,   ami   (;on;v(|nently    each  paral- 
lel of  latitude   e(|iial   to   the  equator,    it  is 
plain  the  length  ol  any  arch  (as  a  nrnuite)  on 
any  parallel,  is  increased  beyoiil  its  just  pro- 
portion, at  such  rate  as  the  secant  of  tiie  lati- 
tude of  tnat  parallel  is  greater  than  radius; 
and  tlieretore,   to  keep  up  the  proportion  of 
iioitliing  and  soiithin,i»  to  that  of  eastinirand 
westinnv  upon  tnis  cliarl,  as  it  is  u|)on  the 
globe  itself,  the  lona;lh  of  a  minute  noon  the 
lueri'lian  at  any  j);ii-all.l  niu-talso  be  increas- 
ed beyond  its  just   proportion  at   the  same 
rate,  ;'.  e.  as  the  secant  of  the  latitude  of  that 
parallel  is  greater  tiian  radius.     'I'liu*  to  lind 
the  length  of  a  minute  upon  the  meridian  at 
the  lalitu  le  of  7j  degrees,  since  a  minute  of  | 
a  meridian  i  every  where  equal  on  the  globe, 
and  also  equal  to  a  minute  upon  tli.'  e([uaLor, 
let  It  be  represented  by  unity;  tiien  making 
it  as  radius  to  the  secant  of  75  degrees,  so  is 
unity  to   a   loarth  number,  which   is  3..S154 
nearly  ;  and  consequently,  by  wliatevcr  line 
you  represent  one  minute  on  the  equator  of 

this  chart,   the  length  of  " ---'  ■■ 

enlarged  meridian  at  the  latitude  of  75   de- 
grees, or  the  di'-tan -c  between  the  parallel  of 
7i°0()'andthe  parallel  of  75''0l',  will  be  equal 
to  3  of  lhe>e  lines,  an<i  ^oVo  ^'^  '""^  °f  them. 
By  niaAing  the  same  proportion,   it  will  be 
found  that  the  length  of  a  minute  on  the  me- 
ridian of  this  chart  at  the  parallel  of  OO',  or 
the  d'slance  between  the   parallel  of  6;J°  00 
and  that  of  DO-  Of,  is  equal  to  two   oi   ;':iese 
lines.     After  the  same  manner,  the  li  ngtii  of 
a  minute  on   the  enlarged  meridian  may  oe  , 
found  at  any  latitud.e  ;  and  consequen'ly  be- ' 
ginning  at  the  equator,   and  computing  the 
length  of  every  intermedi  ,te  minute  between 
that  and  any  pa;alhl,   the  sum  of  all  these  . 
shall  be  the  leiigtii  of  a  meridian  intercepted  ' 
betwei  n  the  eipiator  and  that   parallel;  and 
the  distance  of  each   degree  and  minute  of 
latitude  from  tlie  c»(itiator  upon  the  meridian  ', 
of  this  chart,   computed  in  minutes  of  the  | 
equator,   forms  what  is  commonly  called  a 
table  OI  meridional  p;uts. 

It  the  arch  1!D  (hg.  10.)  repveser.ts  the  lati- 
tude ol  any  point  B,  then  (C  f5  being  ladiiis)  , 
CE  will  be  the  secant  of  tiiat  latluide  ;  but  it 
lias  been  sliown  above,  tliatradius  is  to  sei  ant  i 
of  any   latitude,  as  tlv-   length  ot  a  minute 
upon  Ine  equator  is  to  the  length  of  a  minute  ] 
on  the  meridian  of  this  ciiait  at  th»t  latitude  ;  . 
therelore  CD  is  to  CE,  as  the  lenglli  of  ami-  i 
nute  on  the  equator  is  to  the  leugtii  of  a  mi-  j 
nute  upon  the  meridian   at  the  latitude  of ' 
the  point  B.     Consequently,  if  tli.-  radius  CD  j 
is  taken  equal  to  the  length  o;  a  minute  upon  I 
the  e()uatoi-,  CE,  or  the  secant  oi  the  latitude, 
will  be  eqvial  to  the  lenglii  of  a  muuite  upon 
the  mer.dian  at  that  latitude,     'i  he.-efoie.  in  , 
general,   if  the  length  of  a  minute  iqioi;  tiie  j  there 
equator  is  made  radius,  the  length  of  a  mi- 
nute Uj-on  the  enlarged  meridian  wil'  becverv 
wliere  equal  to  the  secant  of  tlx  arch  coii- 
taiiied  between  it  and  the  equator. 

Hence  it  fodows,  sin  e  the  length  of  everv 
intermediate  minute  between  the  equator 
and  any  paralUd  is  equal  io  the  secant  of  the 
latitude,  (the  radiu.s  beuig  equal  to  a  minute 
upon  the  cqu.:tor),  Me  sum  oi  a.l  these 
lengths,  or  the  duiance  ot  llut  parallel  ou  tiie 


NAVIGATION. 

cnlnrgetl  meridian  from  tlie  equator,  will  be 

eipi.d  to  the  sum  of  all  tin;  secants  to  everv 

minute  contained  between  it  and  tlie  equator. 

Coiiseciuently,  lliedistaiue  between  any  two 

par.dlels  on  the  same  side  of  the  equator,  is 

j  equ.ll  to  the  dillercnce  of  the  sums  of  all  the 

I  secants  contained  between   the  equator  and 

j  eacli  parallel ;  and  the  distance  b  tween  any 

two  parallels  on  contrary  sides  of  the  c'<|uatof, 

I  is  equal  to  the  sum  ol  the  sums  of  all  tiiese- 

I  cants  contained  between  the  equator  and- each 

i  parallel. 

I  By  the  tables  of  mer!dional  pirt*  given  by  all 
the  writers  on  this  subject,  may  be  constructed 
the  nautical  ciinrt,  commonly  called  Mercator's 
chart.     Sco  Mai-s. 


In  (ijr.  1 1,  let  A  and  F.  represent  two  places 

ion  Merc.itor's  chart,  AC  the  meridian  of  A, 


upon 

and  C'lJ  the  parallel  of  litiuide  piissingthroujjli 
E  ;  draw  Ali.  and  set  off  upon  AC  the  length 
AI!  equal  to  the  number  of  minutes  contained 
in  the  diiFerence  of  latitude  between  the  two 
placts,  aud  taken  from  the  same  scale  of  ecjual 
pi.rts  the  chart  was  made  by.  or  from  the  eqim- 
tor,  er  any  graduated  p.inillcl  of  the  Aart,  and 
thron-h  B  draw  BD  parallel  to  CE  meeting  AE 
in  D,  _  Then  AC  will  be  the  enlarged  dilfcrence 
of  latitude,  AB  the  proper  dllTerence  of  lati- 
,  „,  ,  'nde,  CE  the  diiTerence  or  longitude,  BD  the 
til  of  o.ie  minut:;  on  the  ,  '''^P^«"re,  AE  the  enlarged  distance,  and  AD 
the  proper  di,stance,  between  the  two  places  A 
and  E  :  also  the  angle  BAD  will  be  the  course, 
and  .'\E  the  Hnimb-line  between  them. 

Now,  since  in  the  triangle  ACE,  ED  is  pa- 
rallel to  one  of  it;  sides  CE  ;  it  is  plain  the  tri- 
angles ACE,  ABD,  v/ill  bo  similar,  and  conse- 
quently the  sides  proportional.  Hence  arise  the 
solutions  of  the  several  cases  in  tliis  sailing, 
which  are  as  follow: 

C.^sE  I.  The  latitudes  of  two  places  given,  to 
find  the  meridional  or  enlarged  diflerence  of 
ladtude  hetv.'een  them. 

_  Of  this  case  there  are  three  varieties,  viz. 
either  one  of  the  places  lies  on  the  equator  ;  or 
both  on  tl'.e  same  side  of  it ;  or  lasily,  on  dif- 
ferent sides. 

1 .  If  one  of  the  proposed  places  lies  on  the 
equator,  then  the  meridional  difTerence  of  lati- 


tude is  the  same  with  the  latiiude  of  the  other     so  is  radiu 


26 1 

To  themerid.pariu  answering  to  17"  30'  106G.7 
Edd  tlitse  auiwering  to        .  ig   SO     756.1 

the  sum  is  -  .  .  IS"'-*  8 

the  meridional  diiTerence  of  latitude  requiredr' 

Case  II.  Tlic  latitude-,  and  lonciiudei  of  two 
places  given  ;  to  find  the  direct  course  and  di». 
tance  bciwec.T  them. 

ExampU.  Reciiiired  to  find  the  direct  course 
and  distance  beiween  the  Lizard  In  the  Latitude 
of  50°  01/  north,  and  Port  Royal  in  Jamaica,  in 
the  l.uitiidc  of  17°  ■iO';  diiTcrlng  in  lon^Hiude 
70°  'IG',  Port  Royal  lying  so  fat  to  the  v.-es'tward 
of  the  Lizard. 

PliKPAIlATIOV. 

From  the  latitude  of  the  Lizard        -       50°  00'' 
subtract  liie  latitude  of  Port  Royal  17   40 

and  there  remains        -        -        .  32   20 

equal  to  \<nu  minutes,  tlie  proper  difFereiTce'of 

latitude. 

Then  from  the  merid.  parts  of  .50°  00'      3474.5 

subtract  those  of  -  17   40        10j7.!2 

and  there  remains  -        .         .        2397.3 

the  meridional  or  enlarged  difTcrenre  of  longi- 
tude. * 

Geometricaely.  Draw  the  line  AC,  fio'.  12, 
representing  the  meridian  of  the  Lizard  at  A  • 
and  setoff  from  A,  upon  that  line,  AE  equal  to 
I9-K)  (from  any  scale  of  equal  parts)  the  proiier- 
difference  of  latitude,  also  AC  equal  to  2397.S 
(from  the  siune  scale)  the  meridional  or  enlaro-ed 
diflerence  of  latitude.  Up-jn  the  point  C  raise 
CB  perpendicular  to  AC,  and  make  CB  equal; 
to  424G,  the  minutes  of  ditTercnce  of  longitude. 

Join  AB,  and  tJirough  E  draw  liD  parallel 
to  BC  :  so  the  case  is  ciinstruced  ;  and  AD  ap- 
plied to  the  same  scale  of  equal  parts  the  other 
legs  were  taken  from,  will  give  the  direct  dis- 
tance, and  the  angle  DAD  mc-a=uicd  by  the  line  " 
of  chords  will  give  the  course. 

By  Calculation'. 
Fortheangle  of  the  course  EAD,  it  will  be 

(by  rectangular  trignnometrv,)  ' 

AC  :  CB  r :  R  :  i-,  bag, 

I.  f.  As  the  merid.  did",  of  lat.     2:;9T.3       3,3797o^ 
is  to  the  difference  oi  long.       424(1.0       3.62798 


place,  taken  from  the  table  of  meridional  parts. 
Ei-nnipU.  Required  the  meridional  difference 
of  latitude  between  St.  Tliomas,  lying  on  the 
equator,  and  St.  Antonio,  in  the  latitude  of  17° 
20'  north.  We  look  in  ihe  tables  for  the  meri- 
dional part  answering  to  17°  20',  and  find  it 
to  be  1050.2,  the  entarged  difTerence  of  latitude 
required. 

_  2  If  the  two  proposed  places  are  on  the  same 
side  of  the  equator,  then  the  meridional  differ- 
ence of  latitude  is  found  by  subtracting  the 
meridional  p.trts  answering  to  the  least  latitude 
from  those  answering  to  the  greatest,  and  the- 
dltference  is  that  required. 

Example.  Required  the  m-'ridional  difTerence 
of  latitude  between  the  Lizard  in  the  latitude 
of  50°  CO'  north,  and  Antigua  in  the  latitude  of 
17°  3o'  nortli. 

From  the  meridional  parts  of  50°,  Oty       3474." 
subtract  the  mecid.  parts  of       17    C-O       1066.7 


-  -  lO.OlXXXJ 

to  the  tang,  of  the  direct  course  60°  33'  10.34828 
which,  because  Port  Royal  is  southward  of  thsi 
Lizard,  and  the  difference  of  longitude  westerly 
will  be  south  60°" 83'  west,  or  SWtW  i  -Rest 
nearly.  ^ 

Then   for  the  distance  AD,    it   will  be   (by 
rectangular  trigonometry). 


Sec.  A  :  AD, 


10.00000 
3.2S7SO 

10.30833 
3.5961 


■ms      _         -  -  2407.3 

the  meridional  difTerence  of  latitude  required. 

3.  if  the  places  he  on  different  sides  of  the 
etiuator,  tlien  tlie  meridional  diflerence  of  lati- 
tude is  found  by  adding  together  the  meridional 
parts  ansv.-ering  to  each,  latitude,  and  the  sum  is 
that  required. 

Exjiaph.  Required  the  meridional  difTerence 
of  latitude  between  Antigua  in  the  laiitude  of 
17°  3',y  north.,  and  Lima  in  Peru  iji  the  latitude 
ot  12°  30'  south. 


R   :  AE 
i.e.  As  the  radius 

is  the  proper  diff.  of  lat.  1940 

so  is  the  secant  of  the  course     60°  33< 
to  the  distance  -  394.5.6 

consequently  the  direct  course  and  distance  b'el 
tween  the  Lizard  and  Port  Royal  in  Jamaica  is 
south  60°  33'  3945.G  miles. 

Case  IU.  Course  and  distance  sailed,  given  • 
toii.nd  difference  of  latitude,  and  difference  of 
longitude. 

ExampU.  Suppose  a  ship  from  the  Lizard  \n 
the  latitude  of  50°  00'  north,  sails  south  3.;°  40* 
west  156  miles:  re%|uired  ihe  laiitude  ccme  to 
and  how  much  she  has  altered  her  longitude.  ' 
Geo.metrically.  I.  Draw  the  hne  BK  Ciip- 
13),  representing  the  niendiin  of  the  Lizard 
at  B  ;  from  B  draw  the  li:ie  BM,  makin-r  with 
BK  an  ani^le  equal  to  SJ°  40'  and  uMn  this 
hne  set  oif  BM  equal  to  56  the  given  distance 
and  from  M  let  fall  the  perpendicular  MiC" 
upon  Vi&.. 

Then  for  BK  the  proper  d'fTerence  of  latitude 
It  will  be,  (by  rectangular  trigonometrv  )  ' 

R  ;  MB  :;  s.  BJMK  :  bk,' 


2Gi 


!.  e.  As  radim  •  -  lO.O^Ci.'^O 

j»  to  the  dlatance  -  15fi  2.19:ii2 

so  U  the  co-sine  of  the  course  S3''  40'  i).:)0:)78 
to  the  proper  d-.iT.  cf  lat.  1^7     _      _  2.IlViP0 

c-jual  to  -Jp  07';  and  since  the  ship  is  sailinsr 
from  a  north  latitude  towards  the  south,  tlicrc- 
fore  the  latitude  cor.ie  to jvill  be  47°.53'  north. 
llence  the  meridional  dilierence  of  latitude  will 
be  1D:?.4. 

2.  Porrluce  EK  to  D,  till  ED  is  eoj.vA  to 
193.4  ;  th.rough  D  draw  DL  parallel  to  MK., 
■nieetinjr  DjM  produced  in  L;  then  DL  will  be 
the  difference  of  long:i:ude  :  to  find  which  by 
calculation,  it  \vill  be,  (by  recla'.i;jular  trigono- 
metry.) 

Pv  •  ED   •  •  T.  LBO   :  DL, 
i.  <•.  As  radiu's  " "    -  -  lO.COOOO 

is  to  the  meridional  difi".  of  lat.  19.'?.4  2.28C<G 
."io  is  the  tani;.  o!' ihe  course  3o°4'j'  9.S5SS! 
to  minutes  of  dltT".  of  Ion.?.  1.3S.8  2.14240 
c,|ua!  to  '2°  IS'  4S",  the  diSerence  of  longitude 
tiie  ship  has  made  westerly. 

Case  IV.  Given  course  and  both  latitudes, 
viz.  t.he  latitude  sailed  from,  and  the  huirude 
come  to;  to  lind  the  distance  sailed,  and  tiic  dif- 
ference of  longitude. 

S.\amfk.  Suppose  a  ship  in  the  latitude  of 
.^O'-'  -20'  north,  sails  soutii  ;):i°  4.5'  cast,  until  by 
■oo-;ervation  she  is  found  to  be  in  the  latitude  of 
.■51°  A  J  north;  re.juired  the  distance  sailed,  and 
the  diiTerence  of  longitude. 

Geom::trically.  Dr.iw  AB  (fig.  14),  to  re- 
present the  meridian  of  the  ship  in  the  first  la- 
titude ;  and  set  off  from  A  to  B  15.5  tiie  minutes 
of  the  proper  dilierence  of  Utitude,  alio  ACJ 
e.-'ial  to  2J7.9  tl'.e  miniues  of  the  enlarged  dif- 
ference of  latitude.  Through  i;  and  G,  draw 
the  lines ~BC  and  GK  perpendicular  to  AG;  also 
draw  AK,  making  with  Wi  an  .angle  of  .1:5'  4.5', 
whi'.-h  will  meet  the  tv.-o  former  lines  in  the 
j^ji.irs  C  and  K;  so  the  case  is  constructed,  and 
•vC  and  GK  may  be  found  from  the  line  of 
»iji:Hl  parts  :  to  find  which. 

By  Calculation; 

First,  For  tlie  diiTerence  of  longitude,  it  will 
be,  (by  rectangular  trigonometry.) 

R  :  AG  ::  r.  gak  ;  GK, 

;.  /.  As  radius  -  -  10.00000 

j.;  to  the  enlarged  difr.  of  l,at.  257.2  2.!1M5 
so  is  the  tano".  of  the  course  P,.;-*  45'  9.84289 
to  min.  of  dilT.  of  longitude  172.;i  2.2:!6;M 
e'.|ual  to  'P  52'  IR",  the  diiference  of  longitude 
the  ship  has  made  easterly. 

'i'his  might  also  have  been  found,  br  first 
finding  the  departure  BC  ;by  Case  2.  of  Plane 
S.-.iling),  and  then  it  would  be  AB  ;  BC  "AG 
"  GX.  the  UllTcrence  of  longitude  required. 

Tl-.en,  for  the  direct  distance  AC,  it  will  be, 
(by  rectangular  trigonometry,) 

R  :  AB  ::  see.  a  :  ac, 

i.  c.  M  rar-ius       ^      -  -  10.00000 

is  to  the  proper  difF.  of  lat.       15.5  2. lUM.", 

eo  is  the  secant  of  the  course  ."53^  45'  10.0.S015 
to  the  direct  distance  18(5.4         2.27048 

consequently  the  s!-.ip  has  sailed  soutli  33'  45' 
east  18(i.4  miles,  and  has  diflercd  her  longitude 
^  52'  IS"  easterly. 

Case  V.  Botli  latitudes  and  distances  sailed, 
given ;  to  find  the  direct  course,  and  dilierence 
of  longitude. 

KxnmpL:  .Suppose  a  ship  from  the  latituds  of 
45'' 26' north,  sails  between  north  and  cast  195 
m'les,  and  tlion  by  obser^'ation  she  is  found  to 
lie  iu  the  latitud*  of  4^"  G'  north  :  required  the 
tlircct  course,  and  di/Tcrcnca  of  longitude, 

Gkomri  aicAi.LY.  Draw  AB  (fig,  1.5),  ctiual 
to  JCO,  tho  proper  diirrrence.of  iatitude,  and 
from  tl>a  point  B  raise  th.q  perpendicular  BD;. 
then  lako  l:)5  in  yoiir  compasses,  and  Kotting 
un»  foof  t(f  tl«en>  !n  A,  with  tho  other  cross  the 
line  liD  in  D.  Produce  AD,  till  AC  in  o'lml 
to   W'J^.O  the   enlarged  difllrencc  uf  liitiiudc. 


NAVIGATIONS 

Throu;:!i  C  oraw  CK  parallel  to  BD,  meotin* 
AU  produced  in  K:  so  tho  case  is  coustntctcd ; 
and  the  angle  A  may  be  mea.^urcd  by  the  line 
of  chords,  and  CK  by  the  line  of  equal  paris ; 
to  find  wliibh, 

IBy  Calculation; 
First,  For  the  angle  of  the  course  B.VD,  it  will 
be,  (bv  rectangular  trigonometry,) 

AB  :  R  : :  ad  ;  see.  A. 

;.<•.  As  t!ie  properdin",  of  lat.     ICO  2.50412 

is  to  radius  -  -  lO.OCOOf) 

r.o  is  the  distance  -  195  2.29003 

to  the  secant  of  the  course  34"^  5S'  10.08591 
which,  because  the  ship  i»  sailing  between  norlh 
and  east,  will  be  north  34^  5'/  east,  or  KKtN 
1°  7'  easterly. 

Then,  for  the  difference  of  longitude,  it  will 
be,  (by  rectangular  trigcmometry  ) 

R  :  AC  : :  t.  a  :  'ck, 

;.  <•.  As  radius                  -                 -  lO.OOOGO 

is  to  the  merid.  dl.T.  of  lat.    2.33.G  ,,  2.3CS47 

soistlie  t.m'r. of  the  course    34°  5£'  9.S4r;07 

lo  min.  of  ditf.  of  longitude   l';2.3  2.21 154 

equal  to  -P  4ii'  43",  the  dilierence  of  longitude 
easterly. 

Case  i^l.  One  latitude,  course,  and  difference 
of  longitude,  given  ;  to  find  the  other  latiti;de 
and  distance  sailed. 

Examjilr.  Suppose  a  ship  from  the  latitude  of 
48°  .50'  north,  sails  south  34°  4<y  west,  till  her 
diiTerence  of  longitude  is  2°  42' :  required  the 
latitude  come  to,  and  the  distance  sailed. 

Gko.metricallv.  I.  Draw  AE  (fig.  Id),  to 
represent  the  meridian  of  the  ship  in  the  first 
latitude,  and  make  the  .angle  E.'\C  equal  to 
34°  40',  the  angle  of  the  course  ;  then  draw  I'C 
parallel  to  AE,  at  the  distance  of  1B4  the  mi- 
nutes of  dilTorence  of  longitude,  w4;ich  w'lll 
meet  AC  in  the  point  C.  From  C  let  f  dl  upon 
AK  the  perpendicular  CE  ;  then  AE  v/ill  be  llie 
enlarged  dilference  of  latitude.  To  find  which, 
by  calculation,  it  will  be,  (by  rectangular  tri- 
gonometry,) 

't.  A  :  R  ::  ce  :  ae, 

;.  e.  As  the  tang,  of  tlie  course  34°  40'  9.S39S4 

is  to  the  radius               -             -  10.00000 

so  is  min.  of  dilT.  longitude         154  2.2143  1 

to  tho  enlarged  diff.  of  latitude  2.;7.2  2.37.500 

and  because  the  ship  is  sailing  from  a  north  la- 
tit'.idc  southerly,  therefore 

From  the  mcrlj   parts  of  7      ^go  50'  SMfT.Q 
the  latitude  sailed  from    ^ 

take  the  merid.  diiTerence  of  latitude  237.2 


and  there  remains  _         -         -  3l.*9  7 

the  meridional  parts  of  the  latitude  come  to,  viz. 
4(i°  09'. 

Hence,  for  the  proper  diiTerence  of  Kaiitude, 
From  the  latitude  sailed  from  -  4So  .50'  N 
take  the  latitude  come  to        -        -    4S    09  N 


and  there  remains        -  -  2     41 

equ.al  to  lUl,  tiie  minutes  of  diiTerence  of  lati- 
tude. 

2.  Set  olF  upon  XV.  the  length  AD  equal  to 
Ii)l  the  proper  diiTerence  of  latitude,  and 
th'-ongh  D  dr.iw  DB  parallel  to  CE  :  then  AB 
will  be  the  direct  distance.  To  find  wliich,  by 
calculation,  it  will  be,  (by  rcct.angular  trigono- 
metry,) 

R  ;  AD  ::  Sec.  .\  :  AB. 
;.  t.  As  radius  -  -  10.00003 

is  to  the  proper  di!T.  of -lat.        161  2.20(;,s;i 

80  ia  the  secant  of  the  course     34°  40'    10.0S4S'S 
to  the  direct  distance        -        195.8        2.2917 1 

Case  Vtl.  One  latitude,  course,  and  departure, 
given  ;  to  find  the  other  latitude,  distance  saile^l, 
and  dilierence  of  longitude. 

F,\umpli\  Suppose  H  ship  sails  from  the  latitude 
of  54°  au'  north,  south  42  3:i'  east,  until  she  lias 
m.adc  of  departure  IIG  miles ;  required  the  la- 
litude  she  is  in,  her  direct  distance  sailed,  and 
huw  much  iihc  ha*  altered  her  longitude. 


GBoMF.Trir.'.LLT.  1. 1  Iavin» i'rn\v»i  tl,sr!\tr!. 
dian  AB  (fig.  17),  make  tl^e  ;;nj-|e  BAD  etpiat 
to  42"  33'.  Draw  I'D  parallel  to  AB  at  tlie  dis- 
lancc  of  1  la,  which  will  meet  AD  in  D,  Let 
fall  upon  AB  the  perpendicular  DB.  Then  AB 
will  be-  ihe  proper  diflerence  of  latitude,  and 
AD  the  di.^ect  distance :  to  find  which  bv  cal- 
culation, first,  for  the  distance  AD  it  will  be, 
(bv  rcctanguler  trigonometry,) 

s.A  :  ED  ::  R  :  ad. 

;.  c  As  the  sine  of  the  course  42'  33'  Q.s^OiO 
is  to  the  departure  -  116  2.06441; 

so  is  radius  -  -  lO.OOCCO 

to  the  direct  distance       -         171.5        2.234."  i 
Then,  for  the  proper  diiTerence  of  latitude,  it 
will  be,  (by  rectangular  tri<;onometry,) 

T.  A  :  BD  ::'r  :  ab. 

;.  c.  As  the  tang,  jf  the  course  42''  3S  0.962.^  1 
is  to  the  depanure         -  116  2.0544') 

so  is  radius  -  -  lO.OOa'i) 

to  the  proper  diff.  a£  latitude  126.4  2.I01i;.5 
equal  to  2'' C':  consetuiently  tlie  ship  lias  come 
to  t!ie  latitude  of  5^^  30'  north  ;  and  so  the  me- 
ridional diilerence  of  latitude  v/ill  be  212.2. 

2.  Produce  AB  to  E,  till  AE  be  equal  to 
2!2.2;  and  through  E  drav/  EC  parallel  to  BD, 
meeting  AO  produced  in  C  ;  then  EC  will  he 
the  diiTerence  of  longitude;  to  find  which  by 
cjlcula'.ion,  it  will  be,  {\^y  rectangular  trigono' 
melrv,) 

R  :  AE  ::  t.  a  ;  ec. 

,-.  r.  As  radius  -  -  ICGOOTi 

is  to  the  merid.  diff.  of  l.at.     212.2  2.32t)7  ; 

so  is  the  tang,  of  the  course  42°  .33'  9.96281 

to  the  min.  of  diff.  of  long.    194.3  2.289J(> 

equal  io  3^  14'  48",  the  diiTerence  of  longitude 
easterly. 

This  might  have  been  found  -otherv/ise.  thus : 
Because  the  triangles  ACE,  ADB,  are  similar; 
therefore  it  will  be, 

Aii  :  BD  ::  AE  :  ec. 

;.!•.  As  the  proper  dilT.  of  lat.     126.4  r.lOlfi.i 

is  to  tl'.B  departure      "-              116  2.0644<> 

so  is  the  enlarged  dilT.  of  lat.     212.2  5.32575 

to  mill,  of  diit.  of  longitude       194.8  2.28S."»> 

Case  Vill.     Both    latitudes    and  departure 

given ;  to  find  course,  distance,  and  dilierence 
of  longitude. 

Exa'<-pl!.  .Suppose  a  ship  from  the  latitude  of 
46°  20'  N.  sails  between  south  and  west,  till  she 
has  made  of  departure  126.4  miles  ;  and  is  tlieu  ' 
found  bv  observadcn  to  be  in  the  latitude  of 
43°  35'  north  :  reijuired  the  course  and  distance 
sailed,  and  diiTerenfc  of  longitude. 

Geo.methicallv.  D.'aw  .\K  (fig.  IS),  to  re- 
present the  meridian  of  the  ship  in  her  iirst  lati- 
tude ;  set  off  upon  it  AC,  equal  to  165,  the  pro- 
per diflerence  of  latitude.  Draw  BC  perpendi- 
cular to  AC,  equal  to  126.4  the  departure,  and 
join  AB.  Set  oft  from  A,  AK  equat  to  :J33.3, 
tiie  enlarged  diiTerence  of  latitude  ;  and  through 
K  draw  KD  parallel  to  BC,  meeting  AB  pro. 
duced  in  D  ;  so  the  case  is  constr -.cied,  and  DiC 
w  ill  be  the  dilference  of  longitude,  A3  tlie  dis- 
ta-.ce,  and  the  angle  A  the  course;  to  fmii 
which. 

By  Calculation  ; 

First,  For  DC  the  diiTerence  of  longitude,  !t 
will  be, 

AC  :  CB  ::  ak  :  kd. 

;.f.  As  the  proper  diir.  of  lat.    165  2.21743 

is  to  the  departure          -           120.4  2.1017,i 

60  is  the  enlarged  dliT.  of  lat.     233.3  2.36791 

to  min.  of  diiT.  of  loiigiiudo       178.7  2.2521« 

equal  to  2°  53'  4'/',  the  diiTerence  of  longitude 
v.csterly, 

Then,  for  the  course  it  will  be,  (by  rectan. 
gular  trigonomctrv,) 

AC  :  5c  ::  R  :  t.  a. 

/.  t.  As  the  proper  ditF.  of  lat.    1  '>"5  2.21.7-18 

is  to  the  departure  -  446,1         2,1017.'i 

so  is  radius  -  -  10.00000 

tu  the  tang,  of  the  course       a7"  2"'     a.aa4MT 


I 


vslik'h,  liecanje  tlic?  ^>ip  trill:,  lictwscn  south  .iikI 
v/eit,  will  be  somli  rJV""  21'  west,  or  J)\Vi:> 
■C'  .'iCy  wcbtcrK*. 

I.nstiy,  Vor  tlie  disMnrc  A",  it  will  be,  (by 
rectangular  tr))jo:ioiiietrv,) 

H,  A  :  Bc  :':  r  :  ar. 

;.  r.  As  tlie  sine  of  the  course  RT"  27'  <).7S3!).'> 

ir,  to  the  departure        -  120.4  L'.!OI75 

sri  is  nulius    ,              -  -  10.0'.)0')0 

to  the  direct  disiance         -  207.9  2.:U7:*0 

Cask  IX.  One  latitude,  distnnc-e  sailed,  and 
departure,  given  ;  to  (in  J  the  0!  her  latitude,  dif- 
ference of  longitude,  and  course. 

Ewmplc.  Suppose  a  ship  in  the  latitude  of 
43°  3:5' north,  siuls  between  south  and  east  l"'^ 
miles,  and  has  then  made  of  dejiarture  IILMV: 
required  the  latitude  come  to,  the  direct  course, 
and  dllTecence  of  longitude. 

GEOMr.Ti)ic;\Li.Y.  1.  Draw  ED  (fig.  19)  for 
the  meridian  of  the  ship  at  B ;  and  parallel  to  it 
draViT  FF.,at  the  distance  of  112.C,the  departure. 
'lake  l;i!i,  the^ distance,  in  your  compasses,  and 
lixinj  one  point  of  them  in  B,  with  the  other 
cross  the  line  l'£  in  the  [joint  E  ;  then  join  B 
and  K,  and  from  E  let  fall  upon  BID  the  perpen- 
dicular ED  ;  so  BD  will  be  the  proper  difference 
of  latitude,  and  the  anfrle  B  will  be  the  course; 
to  Hnd  which  by  calculatioTi, 

rirst,  For  the  course  it  will  bc,  (by  rectangular 
trigonometry,) 

BF.  :  R  ::  DE  :  s. B. 

i.  f.  As  the  distance         -        133  2.1;19S8 

is  to  radius  ....  lO.OCWOO 

so  is  the  departure         .         1I2.S  2.0.51.54 

to  the  si.. e  of  the  course         54^41'  9.911SG 

which,  because  the  ship  sails  between  south  and 
east,  will  be  south  54°  41'  east,  or  SE  O''  41' 
easterly 

Then,  for  the  difference  of  latitude,  it  will  be, 
(by  rectanj;ular  trigonometrv,) 

R  :  BE   : ;  Co.  S.'  B  :  BD. 
;.  e.  As  radius         ....         lO.OOOCX) 
is  to  the  distance  .  1.3.'?  2.139S8 

so  is  the  co-sine  of  the  course  54"  41'  9.7G2(K) 
lo  the  difference  of  latitude        79.3  1.901:-i8 

crjual  to  1"  19'.  Consequently  the  ship  has  come 
to  the  latitude  of  47°  13'.  Hence  the  meridional 
differtaco  of  latitude  will  be  117.7. 

iVlly.  Produce  B  to  A,  till  B.\  is  equal  to 
117.7;  and  through  A  dr-i,v  Ail  pardlel  to  D£, 
meeting  BE  produced  in  C  ;  then  .VC  will  be  the 
dl/i'.Tence  of  longitude;  to  find  which  by  cal- 
culation, it  will  be, 

BD  :  DE  ;:  E.\  :  ac. 

i.  !.  As  the  proper  dift".  of  hit.   79.S  1.90180 

is  to  the  departure  -  112  6         2.05154 

so  is-  the  enlarged  diff.  of  lat.  1 17.7  2.07078 
to  the  diff.  of  iongiiijde       -      166.1  2.2£04-l 

equal  to  2°  46'  Oij",  the  difference  of  longitude 
easterly. 

H.-^ving  shewn  under  the  article  M.vps  how 
to  construct  a  Mcrcator's  chart,  we  sliall  now 
proceed  to  point  out  its  several  u.scs. 

Prob.  I.  Let  it  be  required  to  lay  down  a 
place  upon  the  chart,  its  latitude,  and  the  differ, 
ence  of  longitude  betAveen  it  and  some  known 
place  upon  the  chart  being  given. 

.£.\.7;;.y;/r'.  Let  the  known  place  be  the  Lizard, 
lying  on  the  parallel  of  ,50-  00'  norih,  and  the 
place  to  be  laid  down  St.  Katherine's  on  the  east 
coast  of  America,  differing  in  longitude  from 
the  Lizard  42'  3S',  lying  so  much  to  the  west- 
ward of  it. 

Let  L  represent  the  Lizard  on  the  chart,  (fi». 
20,)  lying  on  the  parallel  of  .10"  00'  north,  its 
meridian.  Set  off  AE  from  E  upon  the  equator 
EQ  'i'i'  3.;',  towards  Q,  which  'will  reach  from 
E  to  f .  Through  F  draw  the  meri<£  i:i  FG,  ar.d 
this  will  be  the  meridian  of  St.  Kathr  i me's  then 
set  off  from  O  tu  H  upon  the  gra.'.uated  mc-.-i- 
diin  (JB,  28  c!e>rce3  ;  and  throuf :.  H  draw  the 
parallel  oflaiia.de  HiM,  whicii  will  meet  the 


NA^'JG.VTIOiV. 

Cornier  meridian  in  K,  the  place  upon  the  chart 
required, 

Pi:o5. 11.  Given  tv.'o  places  upon  the  chart  to 
find  their  difference  of  latitude  and  difference  of 
lonfjitude. 

_  Through  the  two  places  draw  parallels  of  la- 
titude; theii  the  distance  between  these  parallels, 
numbered  in  degrees  ;nid  minutes  upon  the  gra- 
duated meridian,  will  he  the  difference  of  lati- 
tude required  ;  and  through  the  two  places 
drawing  meridians,  the  distance  between  these, 
counted  in  degrees  and  minutes  on  the  equator, 
or  any  graduated  parallel,  v/iU  be  the  difference 
of  longitude  required. 

Paon.  II!.  To  find  the  bearing  of  one  place 
from  another,  upon  tlii  chart. 

Einrnplf,  Required  the  bearing  of  St.  Kathc- 
rine  s  at  K,  from  the  Lizard  at  L" 

Draw  the  meridian  of  the  Lizard  AE,  and 
join  K  and  I,  with  (he  right  line  KL ;  then,  by 
the  line  of  chords,  measuring  the  angle  KLE, 
and  with  that  entering  the  tables,  we  shall  have 
the  thing  required. 

This  may  also  be  done,  by  having  compasses 
drawn  on  the  chart  (suppose  at  two  of  its  cor- 
ners) ;  then  lay  the  edge  of  a  ruler  over  the  two 
places,  and  let  fall  a  perpendicular,  or  take  the 
nc'irc^t  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  compass 
next  the  first  place,  to  the  ruler's  edge  ;  then, 
with  this  distance  in  your  compasses,  slide  them 
along  by  the  ruler's  edge,  keeping  one  foot  of 
them  close  to  the  ruler,  and  the  other  as  near  as 
you  can  judge  perpendicular  to  ii,  which  will 
describe  the  rhumb  required. 

_  Prob.  IV.  To  find  the  distance  between  two 
given  places  upon  the  chart. 

This  problem  admits  of  four  cases,  according 
to  the  situation  of  the  two  places  with  respect 
to  one  another. 

Case  I.  When  the  given  places  lie  both  njjon 
the  equator. 

In  this  case  their  distance  is  found  by  convert- 
ing  the  degrees  of  difference  of  longitude  inter- 
cepted between  them  into  minutes. 

Case  II.  When  the  two  places  lie  both  on  the 
same  meridian. 

Draw  the  parallels  of  those  places ;  and  the 
I  degrees  upon  the  graduated  meridian,  inter- 
cepted between  those  parallels,  reduced  to  mi- 
nutes, give  the  distance  required. 

Case  III.  When  the  two  places  lie  on  the  same 
parallel. 

E  amp'e.  Required  to  find  the  distance  be- 
tween  the  points  K  and  N,  both  Iving  on  the 
par.allel  of  28°  00'  north.  Take  froiii  your  scale 
the  chord  of  60',  or  radius,  in  your  compasses, 
and  with  that  extent  on  KN  as  a  base  make  the 
isosceles  triangle  KPN  ■  then  take  from  the  line 
of  sines  tlie  co-sine  of  the  latitude,  or  sine  of  72", 
and  f  jt  that  off"  from  P  to  S  and  T.  Join  S  and 
T  with  the  right  line  ST,  and  that  applied  to 
the  graduated  equator  will  give  the  degrees  and 
minutes  upon  it  eijual  to  the  distance  ,  which, 
converted  into  minutes,  will  be  the  distance  re- 
quired. 

The  reason  of  this  is  evident  from  the  me- 
thod of  Parallel  Sailing ;  for  it  has  been  there 
demonstrated,  that  radius  is  to  the  co-sine  of 
any  parallel,  as  the  length  of  any  arch  on  the 
equator,  to  the  length  of  the  same  arch  on  that 
pa-'allel.  Now,  in  this  chart  KN  is  the  distance 
of  the  meridians  of  the  two  places  K  and  N 
upon  the  equ.ator;  and  since,  in  the  trian')-!e 
PNK,  ST  is  the  parallel  to  KN,  therefore  PN 
:  PT  : :  NK  :  T.S.  consequently  T3  will  be 
the  distance  of  the  two  places  K  and  N  uoon 
the  parallel  of  28°. 

If  the  parallel  the  two  places  lie  on  is  not  Tr.r 
from  the  equator,  and  they  ni-t  Tar  asun'er : 
then  their  distance  may  be  found  ihu;:    Tri'cc 


the  distance  between  them 


11!  your  compisies 


and  apply  tliat  to  the  graduaii^J  merid.an,   so 


2(53 

tl'.?.t  one  fcot  tnry  bc.-.s  many  niir.utes  .-ibove  .as 
the  other  is  l)cl</w  l  he  given  parallel;  and  the 
degrees  and  iiiimiies  intcrctpied,  reduced  lo 
minutes,  v.ill  give  the  distance. 

Or  it  may  aUo  bc  found  thus:  Take  the 
length  of  a  clegrce  on  the  meridian  at  the  given 
parallel, and  turn  that  over  on  tlie  parallel  from 
the  cne  phice  to  the  other,  as  oft  as  you  can  j 
then,  as  often  as  that  extent  is  contained  between 
the  places,  so  many  times  GO  miles  will  bc  con- 
tained in  the  distance  between  them. 

CaseI"V.  When  (he  places  differ  both  in  lon- 
gitude and  latitude. 

Example.  Su]j;)ose  it  was  reqtiired  to  find  the 
distance  between  the  two  places  a  and  ^  upon  the 
chart.  By  Prob.  II.  find  the  difference  of  latitude 
between  them  ;  and  take  that  in  your  compasses 
from  the  graduated  equator,  wfiich  set  off  on 
the  meridian  of  a,  from  ./  to  i ;  then  through  b 
draw  i(^  parallel  to  dc;  and  taking  ac  in  your 
compasses,  apply  it  to  the  graduated  equator, 
and  it  will  shew  the  fiegrees  and  minutes  con- 
tained  in  the  distance  required, which  multiplied 
by  GO  will  give  the  miles  of  distance. 

The  reason  of  this  is  evident ;  for  it  is  plain 
ad  is  the  enlarged  difference  of  latitude,  and  at 
the  proper  :  consequently  ae  is  the  enlarged  dis- 
tance, and  ac  the  proper. 

Prob.  V.  To  lay  down  a  place  upon  the  chart, 
its  latitude  and  bearing  from  some  known  place 
upon  the  chart  being  kncwn  ;  or  (wh'ch  is  the- 
same)  having  the  course  and  difference  of  lati- 
tude that  a  ship  has  made,  to  lay  down  the  run- 
ning of  the  ship,  and  find  ier  place  upon  the 
chart. 

ExampU.  A  ship  from  the  Lizard  in  the  lati- 
tude of  50°  00'  north,  sails  SSW  till  she  has  dif- 
fered her  latitude  36°  40' :  required  her  place 
upon  tiie  chart. 

Count  from  the  Lizard  at  L,  on  the  gradu- 
ated meridian  downwards  (because  the  course  Is 
southerly)  36°  40'  to  g ;  through  which  draw  a 
parallel  of  latitude,  whicli  will  be  the  parallel 
the  ship  is  in  :  then  from  L  draw  a  SSW  line 
L/,  cutting  the  former  parallel  in/,  and  this  will 
be  the  ship's  place  upon  the  chart. 

Prob.  VI.  One  latitude,  course,  and  dist.ance- 
sailed,  given  ;  to  lay  down  the  running  of  the 
ship,  and  find  her  place  upon  the  chart. 

Example.  Suppose  a  ship  at  a  in  the  latitude- 
of  20°  Oiy  north,  sails  north  37°  20',  east  191 
miles:  required  the  ship's  place  upon  the  chart. 

Having  drawn  the  meridian  and  parallel  of 
the  place  a,  set  cSi  the  rhumb-line  ae,  making 
with  fli  an  angle  of  37"  20' ;  and  upon  it  set  off 
191  from  u  to  c  ;  through  <:  draw  the  parallel  cb; 
and  taking  ah  in  your  com  passes,  apply  it  to  the 
graduated  equator,  and  obser\'e  the  number  of 
degrees  it  contains;  then  count  the  same  num. 
bcr  of  degrees  on  the  graduated  meridian  from 
C  to  h,  and  through  h  draw  the  parallel  /r, which 
will  cut  ac  produced  in  the  point  e,  the  ship's 
place  required. 

Prob.  VII.  Both  latitudes  and  distance  sailed 
given  ;  to  find  the  ship's  place  upon  the  chart. 

Example.  Suppose  a  ship  sails  from  a,  in  the 
latitude  of  20  00'  north,  between  north  and  east 
lUl  miles,  and  Is  then  in  the  latitude  of  45  OC/' 
north ;    required  the  ship's  place  upon  the  chart. 

Draw  df  the  parallel  of  45',  and  set  off  upon; 
the  meridian  of  a  upwards,  ab  equal  to  the  pro- 
per dillerence  of  latitude  taken  from  the  equator 
or  graduated  parallel.  Through  i  draw  he  pa. 
raUel  to  de  :  llien,  with  191  iu  your  compasses, 
fixing  one  foot  of  them  in  a,  with  the  other  cross 
Itc  in  c.  Join  ./  in  c  with  the  right  line  ac ;  which. 
produced  will  meet  dti  in  e^  the  ship's  place  re- 
quired. 

P  oB.  ^^II.  One  latitude,  course,  and  differ- 
ence of  longitude,  given ;  to  find  the  snip's  phca. 
upon  the  ctiart . 

10 


■20i 

ExompU.  Suppose  a  sliip  from  tlie  1-izard  in 
the  latitude  of'jO"  (X)'  north,  sails  SWiW,  till 
]«r  diflerence  of  longitude  is  42°  36':  required 
the  ship's  place  upon  the  chart. 

Having  drawn  AE  the  meridian  of  the  Lizard 
nt  L,  count  from  F.  to  F  upon  the  equator  42° 
ati' ;  and  throuj,'h  F  draw  the  meridian  EG ;  then 
from  L  draw 'the  SWiW  line  -LK,  and  where 
this  meets  FG,  as  at  K,  wiU  be  the  ship's  place 
required. 

PnoB.  IX.  One  latitude,  course,  and  depar- 
ture, given  ;  to  find  the  ship's  place  upon  the 
chart. 

Example.  Suppose  a  ship  at  a  in  the  latitutle 
of  20"  00'  north,  sails  north  37°  20'  east,  till  she 
has  made  of  departure  116  miles:  reqvnred  the 
ship's  place  upon  the  chart. 

Havius;  drawn  the  meridian  of  a,  at  tbo  dis- 
tance of^Uii  draw  parallel  to  it  the  merid'an  f . 
Draw  the  rhumb-line  nc,  which  will  meet  i-.'  in 
some  point  c;  then  through  c  draw  the  paraUd 
cb,  and  ab  will  be  the  proper  dift'erence  of  lati- 
tude, and  be  the  departure.  Take  ab  in  your 
compasses,  and  apply  it  to  the  equator  or  gra- 
duated parallel ;  then  observe  the  number  of 
degrees  it  contains,  and  count  so  many  on  the 
graduated  meridian  from  C  upwards  to  h. 
Through  h  draw  the  parallel  ht,  which  will  meet 
a:  produced  in  some  point  as  e,  which  is  the 
ship's  place  upon  the  chart. 

PiiOB.  X.  One  latitude,  distance,  and  depar- 
ture, given  ;  to  find  the  ship's  place  upon  the 
chart. 

Evamtle.  Suppose  a  ship  at  ci  in  the  latitude 
of  20' do'  north,  sails  101  miles  between  north 
and  east,  and  then  is  found  to  have  made  of  de- 
parture 116  miles:  required  the  ship's  place 
upon  the  chart.  „  ,     <■ 

Having  drawn  the  meridian  and  parallel  ot 
the  placebo,  set  off  upon  the  parallel  am  equal 
to  116,  and  through  w  draw  the  meridian  U 
Take  the  given  distance  191  in  your  compasses; 
Bcttin<r  one  foot  of  them  in  a,  with  the  other 
cross  1/  in  c.  Join  ac,  and  through  c  draw  the 
parallel  cb  :  so  d  will  be  the  departure,  and  ab 
the  proper  difference  of  latitude ;  then  proceed- 
ing with  this  as  in  the  foregoing  problem,  you 
v/ill  find  the  ship's  place  to  be  c. 

Prob.XI.  The  latitude  sailed  from, difference 
of  latitude,  and  departure,  given ;  to  find  the 
ship's  place  upon  the  chart. 

Examik.  Suppose  a  ship  from  a  in  the  latitude 
of  20"  00'  north,  sails  between  north  and  east, 
till  she  is  in  the  latitude  of  45"  00'  north,  and 
is  then  found  to  have  made  of  departure  116 
miles  :  required  the  ship's  place  upon  the  chart. 
Ilavino-  drawn  the  meridian  of  .',  set  off  upon 
it,  from"  to  b,  -25  degrees,  (taken  from  the 
equator  or  graduated  parallel)  the  proper  dif. 
fercnce  of  latitude ;  tlien  throug'i  b  draw  the 
parallel  be,  and  make  it  equal  to  1 10  the  depar- 
ture, and  join  ac  Count  from  the  parallel  of  a 
on  the  graduiited  meridian  upwards  to  (/2,5  de- 
crees, and  through  (/draw  the  parallel  di,  which 
will  meet  a:  produced  in  some  point  c,  and  thie 
will  be  the  phice  or  the  ship  required. 

In  the  article  of  Plr:ne.Sailing,  it  is  evident  that 
the  terms  meridional  distance,  departure,  and 
difference  of  longitude,  were  synonimons,  coii- 
.tantlv  signifying  the  same  thing;  which  evi- 
dently followed  from  the  supposition  of  the 
earth's  surface  being  projected  on  a  plane  in 
■which  the  meridians  were  made  par.allcl,  and 
the  degree*  of  latitude  equ.d  to  one  another  and 
to  those  of  the  equator.  But  since  it  has  been 
dcmoajtrated,  that  if,  in  the  projection  of  the 
earth's  surface  upon  a  plane,  the  meridians  are 
made  parallel,  the  degrees  of  latitude  must  be 
uneaual,-s,ill  increasing  the  nearer  they  come 
to  the  pole;  it  follows,  th:it  the»e  terms  must 
denote  liuct  really  diflcrcut  fryiu  uuc  another. 


NA^'IGATION. 

0/  Obnijiie  Sailing.  The  questions  tliat  may  lie 
projiosed  on  this  head  being  innumerable,  we 
shall  onlv  give  one  .as  a  specimen 

Coasting  along  the  shore,  1  saw  a  cape  bear 
from  me  NNE  tlien  I  stood  away  NWAW  20 
miles,  and  I  observed  the  same  cape  to  bear 
from  ine  NE/jE  :  required  the  distance  of  the 
ship  from  the  c.ipe  at  each  station. 

GEOMEXriiCALL-v.  Draw  the  circle  NW  SE 
(figure  21,)  to  represent  the  compass,  ;\S 
the  meridian,  and  WE  the  east  and  west  line, 
and  let  C  be  the  place  of  tiic  ship  in  her  ii.'st 
st;ition  :  then  from  C  set  oil'  upon  the  NWir'W 
line,  CA  20  miles,  and  A  will  be  the  place  of 
the  ship  in  her  second  station. 

From  C  draw  the  NNE  line  CB,  and  from  A 
draw  AB  parallel  to  the  NE6E  hne  CD,  wiiich 
will  meet  CB  in  B,  the  place  of  the  cape,  ami 
CB  will  be  the  distance  of  it  from  the  ship  in 
its  first  station,  and  AB  tlie  distance  in  the  se- 
cond :  to  find  which, . 

Bv  Calculation  ; 
In  the  triangle  ABC  are  given  AC.  equal  to 
20  miles ;  the  angle  ACB,  equal  to  7S"  45'.  the 
distance  between  the  NNE  and  NW  b  W  lines 


moiif ,  tlipre  is  commonly  fastened  at  it  a  piece 
of  red  rag. 

'1  lie  log  being  tlius  |)reparecl,  and  liovr 
overljoaril  from  the  poo)),  ynd  the  liii';  veered 
out  by  help  of  a  reel  liiat  turns  easily,  and 
about  whieli  it  is  wound  us  last  as  the  log  will 
carry  it  away,  or  rather  as  tiie  ship  sails  from 
it,  will  shew,  tteiordmgto  thetime  of  veering, 
how  far  the  ship  has  rim  in  a  given  time,  and 
conseijueiitly  lier  rate  of  sailing. 

Adegreeof  a  meridian  according  to  'die  ex- 
actes'i  nieaiures  contains  about  (3y.54.'i  Knellsh 
miles  ;  and  each  mile  by  the  statute  being  j280 
fi  et,  therefore  a  degree  of  the  meridian  will 
be  about  7200  feet;  whence  the  J^  of  that, 
viz.  a  minute  or  nautical  inlle,  must  contain 
6120 'itandard  leet ;  consequenl'iy,  since  J  is 
tlie  — J-g^  part  of  an  hour,  and  eacli  knot  is 
the  same  part  oi  a  nautical  mile,  it  follows,  that 
each  knot  will  contain  the  ^-i^  of  6120  ieet 
VIZ.  51  Ieet. 

Hence  it  is  evident,  that  whatever  number 

u.oi»..w^  „■ ^^ ,  ,  <'f  knots   the  ship    runs  in  half  a  minute,  the 

also  the  angle  ABC,  equal  to  BCD,  equ  il  to  I  same  luimber  ot  miles  siie  v  ill  rtui  in  one  hour, 
:33"  45',  the  distance  bctv.'ecn  llie  NNE  and  j  supposing  her  to  run  witii  the  same  degree  of 
NEiE  lines;  and  consequenUy  the  :ingle  -'V,  j  velocity  during  that  time;  and  thereiore  it  ii 
equal  to  67"  30'.  j  the  general  way  to  hea\e  the  log  every  hour. 

Hence,  for  CB,  the  distance  of  the  cape  from  ^^  |.„q^^,  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ■f.^^Xma  u  but  if  the  force 
the  ship  In  her  first  station,  it  wiU  be,  (by  Ob-  i  ^^.  direction  of  tiie  wind  varies,  and  not  cou- 
hque  f^g'"'"""^".''^)^,  ..  g  j,^(,  .  CB  I  tames  the  same  during  the  whole  hour;  or  if 

;.  >.  As  the  sine  oV  'the  angleB  33"  43'  9.74473  |  tl>c-re  lias  been  tnoi  e  sail  set,  or  any  sail  liaixled, 
is  to  the  distance  run  AC  £0  -       1  301G3  '■  so  that  the  smp  has  run  .wilter  or  slower  in  any 

so  is  the  sine  of  BAC        -        67   30      9.96562    pa.l  o!  tne  hour  than  siie-ulattheti  Meof  h.-av- 


to  CB  -  -         -         -        33.26         1.52191 

the  distance  of  the  cape  from  the  ship  at  the  first 
station^  Then  for  AB,  it  will  be,  (by  oblique 
trigonometrv,) 

S.ABC  •  AC   ;:  S.ACB  :  AB, 
;.  r.  As  the  slne'of  B      -         33°  45'         9.74474 
is  to  AC         -         -         -         20  —  1,30103 

so  is  the  sine  of  C  -         78   45 

toAB         -  -  -         35.31 

the  distance  of  the  ship  from  the  cape  at  her 
second  station.  | 

1  Of  the  Lns.-tine  and  Compass.  The  me-  ! 
tliod  commonly  made  use  of  for  measuring  a 
ship's  way  at  "sea,  or  how  tar  she  runs  in  a 
niven  space  of  time,  is  by  the  log-hue  and  half- 
minute  glass.     See  the  article  Log, 

The  log  is  generally  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  tliick,  and  five  or  six  inches  from  the  an- 
gular point  to  the  circninference.      It  is  ba- 
lanced by  a  tliin  plate  of  lead,  nailed  upon  tlie 
arch,  so'  as  to   swim  perpendicularly  in  tiie 
water,  with  about  \  impressed  under  the  sur- 
face.    TlieUne  is  fastened  to  the  log  by  means  I 
of  two  legs,  one  of  which  passes  tlirough  a  liole 
at  the  corner  and  .is  knotted  on  the  opposite 
side;  while  the  other  leg  is  att  lelied  to  llie 
arch  by  a  pin  fixed  in  another  hole,  so  as  to 
<lraw  out  occasionally.     15y  these  legs  the  log 
isliung  in  ecjuilibrio";  and  the   line  which  is 
unitecf  to  it.   is   ilivided  into  cert;nn  spaces, 
which  are  in  proportion  to  an  ecpial   numljcr 
of  geographical  miles,  as  a  half-minute  or  (piar- 
ter-minute  is  loan  hour  of  time. 

These  s|)aces  are  called  knots,  because  at  the 
end  of  each  or  iliem  there  is  a  piece  of  twine 
witli  knots  in  il,  inreeved  between  the  slrandsof 
the  line,  which  slirws  how  many  of  these  spaces 
orknotsarenm  out  during  the  half  minute, 
They  commoiilv  begin  to  be  counted  at  the  dis- 
tance of  about  1 U  fathoms  orGO  Ieet  from  the  log, 
so  that  the  log  wlieu  it  is  hove  overboard 
may  be  out  of  the  eddy  of  the  siiip's  wake  be- 
fore they  bi'gin  to  count ;  and  lor  the  more 
readv  dlscoverv  of  this  point  of  comnicnce- 


ing  the  log;  then  there  must  be  an  allowance 
made  accuidingiy  lor  it,  and  tiiis  must'  be 
accoiding  to  liie  discretion  of  the  artist. 

Sometanes,  when  trie  snip  i-  before  the  wind, 

and  there  is  a  gre;it  sea  setting  after  her,  it 

will  bring  hoiiK  tlie  log,  and  consequently  the 

n  99157  '  '''"P  "''^  ^'"'   *^''^'*'''   tlian  is  given  by  the  log. 

1  54786  '  1"  '^'^'^  '^^^'^  'tis  usual, if  there  is  a  very  great 

sea,  to   allow  one  mile  in  ten  ;  and  less  in 

proportion,   if  the  sea  is  not  so  great.     But 

for   the   generality,    the  ship's  way  is  really 

greater   tijan   tliat    given  by   the  log ;    and 

therefore,    in  order  to   have  the  reckoning 

rather  before  than  brliind  the  sliip  (which  is 

the  satest  way),  it  will  be  proper  to  make  the 

space  on  the  log-line  between  knot  and  knot 

to  consist  of  ,50  teet  instead  of  51. 

If  the  space  between  knot  and  knot  on  the 
log-line  should  happeii  to  lie  too  great  in  pro- 
liortion  to  the  liali-minute  glass,  viz.  greatei" 
than  50  feet,  then  the  distance  given  by  the 
log  will  be  too  short  ;  and  if  that  space  is  too 
small,  then  the  distance  run  (given  by  the 
log)  will  be  too  great :  therefore,  to  lind  tlie 
true  distance  in  either  case,  having  mea- 
sured the  distance  between  knot  and  knot, 
we  have  the  following  proportion,  viz. 

As  the  true  distance,  50  feet,  is  to  tlie  mea- 
sured distance;  so  are  tlie  miles  of  distance 
given  liy  the  log,  to  tlie  true  distance  in  miles- 
that  the  sliip  lias  run. 

Exumpk  I.  Suppose  asTiiprunsat  the  rate 
of  6^  knots  in  liaif  a  minute;  but  measuring 
the  space  between  knot  and  knot,  1  find  it  to 
be  -'ifi  feel:  retjuired  tiie  true  ilislance  in  miles. 
Making  il.  As  50  feet,  are  to  50  feet,  so  are 
6.25  knots,  to  seven  knots  ;  I  find  that  the  true 
rate  of  sailing  is  7  miles  in  tliehour. 

I'.Xdinulc  II.  Suppose  a  ship  rtms  al  tlie 
rateofti^  knots  111  half  a  minute  ;  but  mea- 
during  the  space  between  knot  and  knot,  I 
lind  it  to  be  only  44  feel:  required  the  true  rate 
the  ship  is  sailing. 


MakiDR  It,  As  50  fool  nvfl  to  -U  fi-et,  so  aiv; 
6.5  knots  to  5.7'J  knit-;,  1  (iinl  tliat  the  true 
rate  of  sailing;  is  5.72  Diiles  in  the  hour. 

A:;ain,  supposing  the  distance  between 
knot  ansl  knot  on  the  Io'!;-line  to  be  exactly 
50  I'eet.  but  that  tiie  glass  is  not  .30  seroiuls  ; 
then,  it' the  n;lass  requires  1oii;».m-  time  taan  .30 
seconds,  the  distance  given  will  be  too  great, 
if  estimated  by  allowin;^  one  mile  for  every 
knot  run  in  the  time  the  glass  runs ;  and,  on 
the  contrary,  if  the  glass  rc([ui res  loss  time  to 
run  than  30  seconds,  it  will  give  the  distance 
sailed  too  small.  Consequently,  to  find  the 
true  distance  in  eilher  case,  we  must  mea- 
sure the  time  the  gla^s  requires  to  run  out 
(l)y  the  method  in  the  following  article)  ; 
then  we  have  the  following  |)ro|)orlion,  viz. 

As  the  number  of  seconds  the  glass  runs, 
is  to  hair  a  minute,  or  30  seconds  ;  so  is  the 
distance  given  by  the  log,  to  the  true  distance. 
F.rnmpk  I.  Suppose  a  sliip  runs  at  the  rate 
of  'i  knots  in  the  t'uie  the  glass  runs ;  but 
measuring  the  glass,  I  find  it  runs  34  seconds ; 
recjuired  the  true  distance  sailed. 

NIakingit,  As  34  seconds  are  to  30  seconds, 
so  are  7.5  to  5.6  ;  I  iind  that  the  ship  sails  at 
the  rate  of  6.6  miles  an  hour. 

F.xu'JVfih  ir.  Suppos,^  a  ship  runs  at  the 
rate  of  6s  knots;  but  measuring  the  glass,  I 
find  it  runs  only  25  secou.ls ;  requiretl  the 
true  nte  of  sailing. 

Make  it,  .Vs  25  seconds  are  to  30  seconds,  so 
ar^  6  5  knots  to  7'.R  kn  its  ;  I  find  that  the  true 
riteofsailin;  is  7.8  niiles  an  hour. 

Tu  order  to  know  hiw  many  seconds  the 
g':iis  runs,  you  may  try  it  by  a  watch  or 
.  clock  thxt  vibrate;  seconds;  but  if  neither 
of  these  is  at  hand,  then  t.ike  a  lin  ;,  and  to 
tlie  one  end  faste.iing  a  plummet,  hang  the 
other  upon  a  nail  or  peg  so  that  the  dis- 
■  t-inc;  from  the  peg  to  the  cerure  of  llie 
pluniiiet  is  39^ inches:  then  this  put  into 
inilion  will  vibrate  seconds;  i.  c.  every  time 
i(  pAsjes  the  perpen-ilicjiar,  you  are  to  count 
ou'sec.inl;  consequentlv,  by  observing  the 
iiu  liber  of  vibr.itions  that  it  makes  during  tlie 
tine  the  glais  is  running,  we  know  liow 
in  mv  seconds  the  glass  runs. 

If  there  is  an  error  both  in  (he  log-line 
and  lialf-minute  glass,  viz.  if  the  distance  be- 
tween knot  and  knot  and  the  log-line  is  ei- 
ther greater  or  less  than  50  feet,  and  the  glass 
runs  either  more  or  less  than  30  seconds; 
than  the  linding  out  the  ship's  true  distance 
will  be  som.'what  moi'e  complicate,  and  ad- 
mit of  three  cases,  viz. 

Case  I.  If  the  glass  runs  more  than  30  se- 
conds, and  the  distance  l)etwi.'en  knot  and 
knot  is  less  than  50  feet,  then  the  distance 
givcnbvtlielog-line,  viz.  by  allowing  1  mile  for 
each  knot  the  ship  sails  while  the  glass  is  run- 
uing,  will  always  be  greater  than  (lie  true 
distance,  since  'cither  of  these  errors  gives 
the  distance  too  grejt.  Consequently,  to 
find  the  true  rate  of  sailing  in  tliis  case,  we 
must  first  find  the  distance  on  the  supposition 
that  dieio3;-line  only  is  wrong,  and  then  with 
this  we  sliall  find  the  true  distance. 

Evrimple.  Suppose  a  ship  is  found  to  run 
at  the  rate  of  6  knots ;  but  exSniining  the 
,gla,ss,  I  find  it  runs  35  secontls  ;  and  mea- 
suring the  log-line,  I  find  the  dis(ance  be- 
tween knot  and  knot  to  be  but  46  feet :  re- 
<juired.the  true  distance  run. 
-  First,  we  have  the  following  proportion. 
Viz.  As  5ft  feet ;  46  ;  ;  6 knots:  5.52  knots. 
Vol..  II. 


KAVKXVTION, 

Tlien,  As  35  seconds:  30  seconds  ;  ;  5.52 
knots:  4.73  knots.  Consequently  the  true 
rate  of  sailing  is  4.73  nV.les  an  hour. 

Case  11.  If  the  glass  is  less  than  30  se- 
conds, and  (he  space  between  knot  and  knot 
is  more  tliau  50  feet;  then  the  distance 
given  by  the  log  will  always  be  less  than  the 
Irue  distance,  suice  either  of  tliese  errors  less- 
ens tiiat  true  distance. 

Exdmplf.  Suppose  a  ship  is  found  to  run  at 
the  rate  of  7  knots ;  but  examining  the  glass, 
I  find  it  rtuis  only'25  seconds  ;  and  measuring 
the  space  between  knot  and  knot  on  the  k)g- 
line,  I  find  it  is  54  feet:  required  the  true 
rate  of  sailing. 

First,  As  25  seconds :  30  seconds  ;  ;  7 
knots :  S  knots.  Then,  As  50  feet :  54  feet ;  ; 
S,  4  knot'^:  9.072  knots.  Consequently  th<; 
true  rate  of  sailing  is  9.072  miles  an  hour. 

Case  III.  If  the  glass  runs  more,  than  30 
seconds,  and  the  space  between  knot  and  knot 
is  greater  than  50  feet;  or  if  the  glass  runs 
less  than  30  seconds,  and  the  space  between 
knot  and  knot  is  greater  than  50  feet :  then, 
since  in  either  of  lliese  two  cases  the  effects 
of  the  errors  are  contrary,  it  is  plain  tiie  dis- 
tance will  sometimes  be  too  great,  and  some- 
times loo  little,  according  as  the  greater  quan- 
tity ol  the  error  lies ;  as  will  be  evident  from 
the  following  examples: 

Example  \.  Suppose  a  sliip  is  found  to  run 
at  the  rale  of  9;  knots  per  glass;  but  e.xamhi- 
ing  the  glass,  it  is  found  to  run  36  seconils  ; 
and  by  measuring  the  space  between  knot  and 
knot,  it  is  found  to  be  53  feet ;  required  the 
true  rate  of  sailing. 

First,  As  50  feet :  5S  feet  ;  :  9.5  knots : 
11.20  knots.  Then,  As  38  seconds:  30  se- 
conds ;  ;  11.02  knots  :  8.7  knols.  Conse- 
quently the  ship's  true  rate  of  sailing  is  b.7 
miles  an  hour. 

Example  II.  Suppose  a  ship  runs  at  the 
rale  of  6  knots  per  glass  ;  but  cNamining  tlie 
glass,  it  is  found  to  run  only  20  seconds ; 
and  bv  measuring  the  log-line,  the  distance 
between  knot  and  knot  is  found  to  be  but  33 
feet :  required  the  true  rate  of  sailing. 

First,  As  50  feet:  3S  feet  :  :  6  knots  :  4.56 
knots.  I'hen,  As  20  seconds:  30  seconds:  : 
4.56  knots:  6.S4  knots.  Consequently  the 
true  rate  of  sailingis  6.83  miles  an  hour. 

But  if  in  this  case  it  happens,  that  the  time 
the  glass  takes  to  run,  is  to  the  distance  be- 
tween knot  andkn:)t,  as  30,  the  seconds  in  half 
a  inhiute,  is  to  50,  tiie  true  distance  between 
knot  and  knot;  then  it  is  plain,  that  whatever 
number  of  seconds  the  glass  consists  of,  and 
whatever  number  of  feet  is  contained  between 
knot  and  knot,  yet  the  distance  given  by  the 
log-line  will  be  "the  true  distance  in  miles. 

The  meridian  and  prime  vertical  of  any 
)>lace  cuts  the  horizon  m  four  points,  at  90 
degrees  distance  Irom  one  another,  viz.  North 
South,  Fast,  and  West :  that  part  of  the  me- 
ridi.ui  whicii  extends  itself  from  the  place  to 
the  north  point  of  the  horizon  is  called  the 
north  line ;  that  wliicli  tends  to  the  south 
point  of  the  horizon  is  called  the  south  line  ; 
and  tiiat  part  of  the  prime  vertical  which  ex- 
tends towards  the  rigiit  hand  of  the  observer 
when  his  face  is  turned  to  the  north,  is  called 
the  east-'.ine;  and  lastly,  that  part  of  the  prime 
vertical  which  tends  towards  the  left  hand  is 
called  the  west  line  ;  the  lour  points  in  which 
these  lines  meet  the  horizon  are  called  the 
cardinal  points. 

Li 


2(j5 

In  ordc-rto  determine  t!ie  course  of  the  vind 
-md  to  d!»c<.vir  tlie  various  allcialious  or 
shillings,  ,:,(h  quadrant  of  the  iiorizoii  iii- 
lertep'ed  Iw  twceu  the  meridian  and  prime 
vertical,  i.s  usually  divided  iiKo  eight  rqual 
parts,  and  coiiseiiuentlv  (lie  whole  horizon 
into  Ihuty-lwo;  and  the  lines  drawn  from 
the  place  on  whicli  the  observer  sland-^  to 
the  points  of  division  in  his  horizon,  are 
called  rluimb-iiiies ;  the  four  principal  of 
which  are  those  described  in  the  preceding 
paiagraph,  each  of  them  having  its  name  from 
tiie  cardinal  point  in  the  horizon  towards 
which  It  tends :  the  rest  of  the  ihumb-linex 
have  their  names  compounded  of  the  prin- 
cipal lines  on  each  side  of  them,  as  in  the 
figure ;  and  over  wiiichsoever  of  these  lines 
the  course  of  the  wind  is  directed,  tliat  wind 
takes  Its  name  accordingly.    See  M.^cket- 

ISM. 

Hence  it  follows,  that  all  rlimnbs,  except 
the  four  cardinal^  n.ust  be  curves  or  hemi- 
spherical lines,  always  tending  towards  tlie 
pole,  and  approaching  it  by  infinite  gyration* 
or  turnings,  but  never  falling  into  it.  Thus  let 
1',  Plate  Misccl.  fig.  172,  l;e  the  pole,  EQaii 
aichol  I  he  equator,  PF;,  PA,  &:c.  meridians, 
and  Kl'(;iIKFaiiyr!uimb:  then  because  the 
angles  I'El'',  P1''G,  &:c.  arc  by  the  nature  of 
the  rliumb-line  cijual,  it  is  evident  that  it  will 
form  a  curve-line  on  the  surface  of  the  globe 
always  apjn-oacliiiig  tlie  pole  P,  but  never 
falling  into  it;  for  it  it  were  possible  for  it  to 
lall  into  the  pole,  (hen  it  would  follow,  that 
tliesanie  line  could  cut  an  infinite  number  of 
oliier  lines  at  equal  angles,  in  the  same  point; 
whicli  is  absurd. 

Because  there  are  32  rhumbs  or  points 
in  the  compass  equally  distant  trom  one  ano- 
ther, therefore  the  a'ngle  contained  between 
any  two  of  them  adjacent  will  be  1 1'  1  j',  viz. 
.Jj.  partof36o";  and  so  the  angle  cont.iined 
between  the  meridian  and  the  N6E  will  be 
11' 15',  and  between  the  meridian  and  the 
NNE  will  22'  30' ;  and  so  of  the  rest.  See 
Table  of  the  ang'e:i  &c.  at  the  beginnins  of 
the  article. 

Concerning  currents,  and  knvj  to  make  pro- 
peratluv;unces.  1.  Currentsarecertain  settings 
of  the  stream,  by  which  all  bodies  (as  sliip^-, 
&c.)  moving  therein,  are  compelled  to  alter 
their  course  or  velocity,  or  both  ;  and  submit 
to  tlie  motion  impressed  upon  them  bv  the 
current. 

Case  I.  If  the  current  sets  just  the  course 
of  the  ship,  i.  e.  moves  on  the  same  rhumb 
with  it ;  then  the  motion  of  the  ship  i.-  in- 
creased, by  as  much  as  is  the  drift  or  vcloc'iy- 
of  the  current. 

Example.  Suppose  a  ship  sails  SEiS  at  tli..; 
rate  ofO  miles  an  hour,  in  a  current  that  se;s 
SE/;S  2  miles  an  hour:  required  her  true 
true  rate  of  sailing. 

Here  it  is  evident  that  the  ship's  true  rato 
of  sailing  will  be  8  miles  an  hour. 

Case  II.  If  the  current  sets  directly  against 
the  sliip's  course,  then  the  motion  of  the 
ship  is  lessened  by  as  much  as  is  the  velocity 
of  tiie  current. 

Example.  Suppose  a  ship  sails  SSVV  at 
the  rate  of  10  miles  an  hour,  in  a  current  that 
sets  NNE  6  miles  an  hour,  requu-ed  the 
ship's  true  rate  of  sailing. 

Here  it  is  evident,  that  the  ship's iriie  rate 
of  sailing  will  be  4  miles  au  hour.  Hdiice  it 
is  plaiiij 


2(36 

1.  If  the  velocity  of  tlie  current  is  less 
lliaii  the  velocity  of  the  ship,  then  the  ship 
will  get  so  mucli  ahead  as  is  the  (lillereiice 
of  these  velocities. 

2.  If  the  velocity  of  the  current  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  ship,  then  the  ship  will  fall  so 
much  astern  as  is  the  diffei-eiice  of  Cliese  ve- 
locities. 

3.  Lastly,  if  the  velocity  of  the  current  is 
equal  to  that  of  the  ship,  then  the  ship  will 
stand  still,  the  one  velocity  destroying  the 
other. 

Case  III.  If  the  current  thwarts  the  course 
of  the  ship,  then  it  not  only  lessens  or  aug- 
ments her  velocity,  but  gives  her  a  new  di- 
rection, compounded  of  the  course  she  steers 
and  the  setting  of  the  current. 

The  nuthod  qfjceeping  a  journal  at  sea,  and 
hoxu  to  correct  it ;  by  duJcuvj;  proper  allorj- 
ancefor  the  ke-ivay,  variation,  .Vc.  1.  Lee- 
way is  the  angle  that  tlie  rhumb-line,  upon 
which  the  ship  endeavours  to  sail,  makes  with 
the  rhumb  she  really  sails  upon.  This  is  oc- 
casioned by  the  force  of  the  wind  or  surge  of 
the  sea,  wivni  she  lies  to  the  windward,  or  is 
close  hauled,  which  causes  her  to  fall  off  and 
glide  sideways  from  the  point  of  the  compass 
she  capes  at.  Thus  let'NESW  (lig.  1.'2.)  re- 
present the  compass  ;  and  suppose  a  ship  at  C 
capes  at,  or  endeavours  to  sail  upon,  the 
rhumb  Ca  ;  but  by  the  f  irce  of  the  wind,  and 
surge  of  the  sea,  she  is  obliged  to  fall  off,  and 
make  her  way  good  upon  the  rhumb  Ci; 
then  the  angle  aCb  is  the  lee-way ;  and  if  that 
angle  is  equal  to  one  point,  the  ship  is  said  to 
make  one  point  iee-way;  and  if  equal  to  two 
points,  the  sliip  is  said  to  make  two  points  lee- 
way, &c. 

2.  The  quantity  of  this  angle  is  very  uncer- 
tain, because  some  ships,  with  the  same  quan- 
tity of  sail,  and  with  the  same  gale,  will  make 
more  lee-way  than  others;  it  de;'endiiig  much 
upon  the  mould  and  trim  of  the  sliip,  and  the 
quantitv^  of  water  that  she  draws.  The  com- 
mon allowances  that  are  generally  made  for 
the  lee-w-ay,  are  as  follow  : 

(1.)  If  a  ship  is  close  hauled,  has  all  her 
sails  set,  the  water  smooth,  and  a  moderate 
gale  of  wind,  she  is  then  su^jpo.sed  to  make 
little  or  no  lee-way.  (2.)  If  it  blows  so  fresh 
as  to  cause  the  small  sails  to  be  handed,  it  is 
usual  to  allow  one  point.  (3.)  If  it  blows  so 
liard  that  the  top-sails  must  be  close-reefed, 
then  the  common  allowance  is  two  points  for 
lee-way.  (4.)  If  one;  top-sail  must  be  hand- 
ed, thou  the  ship  is  supposed  to  make  be- 
tween two  and  three  points  lee-way.  (5.) 
When  both  top-sails  must  be  handed,  tiien 
the  allowance  is  about  four  points  for  lee- 
way. (6.)  If  it  blows  so  hard  as  to  occasion 
the'  fore-course  to  be  handed,  the  allowance 
is  between  jj  and  6  points.  (/.■)  When  both 
main  and  fore-courses  must  be  handed,  then 
tior  6^-  points  are  commonly  allowed  for  lee- 
way. (S.)  When  the  mizen  is  handed,  and 
the  ship  is  trying  ahull,  she  is  then  com- 
monly allowed  a!)out  7  points  for  lee-way. 

3.  ''riiough  these  rules  are  such  as  are  ge- 
nerally madi'  use  of,  yet  since  the  lee-way 
clepemls  much  upon  the  mould  and  trim  of 
the  ship,  it  is  evident  that  they  caimot  ex- 
actly serve  to  every  ship  ;  and  therei'ore  the 
Vest  wav  is  to  find  it  by  observation.  Thus, 
let  the  ship's  wake  be  set  by  a  compass  in  the 
poop,  and  the  opposite  rliumb  is  the  true 
*(.mrse  made  good  by  the  ship ;  then  the  dif- 


NAVIGATION. 

ference  between  this  and  the  course  given  by 
the  compass  in  the  binude,  is  the  lee-way  re- 
(piired.  If  the  ship  is  within  sight  of  land, 
then  the  lee- way  may  be  e.Naclly  found  by 
observing  a  iJuiiit  on  tlie  land  which  conti- 
nues to  bear  the  same  way;  and  the  ilistance 
between  the  point  of  the  compass  it  lies  upon, 
and  the  point  the  ship  capes  at,  will  be  the 
lee-way.  T  hus,  suppose  a  ship  at  C  is  Iving 
up  'SbW  (fig.  23)  towards  A ;  but  histead  ol 
keeping  that  (ourse,  she  is  carried  on  the 
XNE  line  CP>,  and  consequently  the  point  li 
continues  to  bear  tlie  same  way  from  the 
ship;  here  it  is  evident  that  the  angle  ACB 
(or  the  distance  between  the  NiW  line  that 
the  ship  capes  at,  and  tlie  NXE  line  that  the 
ship  really  sails  upon)  will  be  the  lee-way. 

4.  Having  the  course  steered  and  tlie  lee- 
way given,  we  may  from  thence  lind  the  true 
course  by  the  following  metliod,  viz.  Let  your 
face  be  (.urned  directly  to  the  windward  ;  and 
if  the  ship  has  lier  larboard  tacks  on  board, 
count  the  lee-way  from-  the  course  steered 
towards  tlie  right  hand  ;  but  if  the  starboard 
tacks  are  on  board,  then  count  it  from  the 
course  steered  towards  the  leit  hand.  Thus, 
suppose  the  wind  at  north,  and  the  ship  lies 
up  within  six  points  of  the  vt  ind,  with  her  lar- 
board tacks  on  board,  making  one  point  lee- 
way ;  here  it  is  plain  that  the  course  steered 
is  KNE,  and  the  true  course  E/iN  :  also  sup- 
pose the  wind  is  at  NNW,  and  the  ship  lies 
up  wiUiin  Q>\  points  of  tiie  uuid,  with  her  star- 
board tack  on  board,  making  \\  point  lee- 
way ;  it  is  evident  that  the  true  course,  in 
this  case,  is  WSW. 

5.  We  have  this  general  rule  for  finding  the 
ship's  true  course,  having  the  course  steered 
and  the  variation  given,  viz.  Let  your  tace 
be  turned  towards  the  i)oint  of  the  compass 
upon  whicli  the  ship  is  steered ;  and  if  the 
variation  is  easterly,  count  the  quantity  of  it 
from  the  course  steered  towards  the'  right 
hand,  but  if  westerly  towards  the  left  hand; 
and  the  course  thus  found  is  the  true  course 
steered.  Thus,  suppose  the  course  steered 
is  N6E,  and  the  variation  one  point  easterly, 
then  the  true  course  steered  will  be  NNE; 
also  suppose  the  course  steered  isNE6E, 
and  the  variation  one  point  westerly,  then  in 
this  case  the  true  course  will  be  Nl£:  and  so 
of  otJiers. 

Hence,  by  knowing  the  lee-way,  variation, 
and  course  steered,  we  may  from  thence  iind 
the  ship's  true  course  ;  but  if  there  is  a  cur- 
rent under  foot,  then  that  must  be  tried,  and 
proper,  allowances  made  for  it,  as  has  been 
shown  in  tlie  section  concerning  currents, 
from  thence  to  lind  the  true  course. 

6.  After  making  all  the  proper  allowances 
for  linding  llie  shq/s  true  course,  and  making 
as  just  an  estimate  of  the  distance  as  we  can  ; 
yet  by  reason  of  the  many  accidents  that  at- 
tend a  ship  in  a  ilay's  running,  such  as  differ- 
ent rates  of  sailing  between  the  times  of  heav- 
ing the  log,  the  want  of  due  care  at  the  helm 
by  not  keeping  her  steady  but  suffering  her 
to  yaw  and  fiill  off,  sudden  storms  when  no 
account  can  be  kept,  &c.  the  latitude  bv  ac- 
count frecpiently  dilfers  from  the  latitude  by 
observation;  and  when  that  happens,  it  is 
evident  there  must  be  some  error  in  the  reck- 
oning: to  discover  wliicli,  and  where  it  lies, 
and  al^o  how  to  correct  the  reckoning,  you 
may  observe  the  following  rules: 

1st.  If  the  ship  sails  near  the  meridian,  or 


wllhin  2  or  2*  points  thereof,  then  if  the  lali.< 
tude  by  account  disagrees  with  the  latitude 
by  observaiion,  it  is  most  likely  that  the  error 
lies  in  the  distance  run;  lor  it  is  plain,  that  in 
this  case  it  will  rc(|uire  a  very  sensible  error 
in  the  course  to  make  any  considerable  error 
in  the  ditl'erence  of  latitude,  which  cannot 
well  happen  if  due  care  is  taken  at  the  helm, 
and  proper  allowances  arc  made  for  the  lee- 
way,  variation,  and  currents.  Conaequenlly, 
if  the  course  is  pretty  near  the  truth,  and  the 
eiror  in  the  distance  runs  regularly  through 
the  whole,  we  may,  from  the  h.titude  obtain- 
ed by  observation,  correct  the  distance  and 
departure  by  account,  by  the  following  ana- 
logies, viz. 

As  the  difference  of  latitude  by  account 
is  to  the  true  difference  of  latitude. 
So  is  the  departure  by  account 
to  the  true  departure. 
And  so 'is  the  direct  distance  by  account 
to  the  true  direct  distance. 

The  reason  of  this  is  plain  ;  for  let  AB,  llg. 
24,  denole  the  meridian  of  liie  ship  at  A;  and 
suppose  the  ship  sails  upon  the  rhumb  AK 
near  the  ineridiaii,  till  by  account  she  is  tound 
in  C,  and  consequently  lier  dili'erence  of  la- 
titude by  account  is  Ali;  but  by  fbservation 
she  IS  lound  in  the  parallel  ED,  and  so  her 
true  difference  of  latitude  is  AD,  her  true 
distance  AE,  and  her  true  departure  DE; 
then,  since  the  triangles  ABC,  ADE.  a.esimi- 
lar,  it  will  be  AB  :  AD  "  JiC  .  D£,  and 

AB;  AD  ::  AC  :  ae. 

Example.  Suppose  a  sliip  from  the  latitude 
of  4j'  20'  north,  after  having  sailed  ui:on  se- 
veral courses  near  the  me; idiaii  for  24  huurs, 
her  difference  of  latitude  is  computed  to  be 
ujjoii  the  whole  93  miles  southerly,  and  her 
departure  34  miles  easterly;  but  by  oo>er-.  a- 
tiun  she  is  lound  to  be  in  the  latitude  'f  43° 
10'  north,  and  consequently  her  true  diiier- 
ence  ol  latitude  is  130  miles  southeiiy  ;  then 
for  the  true  departure,  it  will  be,  As  the  dif- 
ference of  latitude  by  account  95,  is  to  the 
true  difference  of  latitude  130,  so  is  the  de- 
parture by  account  o4,  to  the  true  depaiture 
46. j3,  and  so  is  the  distance  by  account 
100-9,  to  the  true  distance  138. 

2dly,  If  the  courses  are  for  the  most  part 
near  the  parallel  of  east  and  west,  and  the 
duect  course  is  within  5J  or  6  points  ol  the 
meridian;  then  if  tiie  latitude  by  account 
differs  from  the  observed  latitude,  it  is  most 
probable  that  the  error  lies  in  the  course  or 
distance,  or  perhaps  both  ;  for  in  tliis  case  it  is 
evident,  the  departure  by  account  will  be 
very  nearly  true  ;  and  thence  by  the  help  of 
this,  and  tne  true  dilierence  of  latitude,  may 
the  true  cour>e  and  direct  distance  be  readily 
found  l)v  ca^e  4.  of  plane  sailing. 

The  lorm  of  the  log-book  and  journal,  to- 
gether with  an  example  of  a  day's  work,  are 
here  subjoined. 

To  express  tlie  days  of  the  week,  we  com- 
monly use  the  characters  by  which  the  sun 
and  planets  are  expressed,  viz.  0  denotes 
Sunday,  @  Monday,  J>  Tuesday,  '^  \\'ed- 
nesdav,  21  I'hursdiiv,  9  l''ridav,  Ij  Satur- 
day.  ' 


I^  A\Y10ATI0]N  , 


I^mrdfi'r  RicliKnl  Pliillipa  .Vrir  lin'Ja^  Snrrt  fii,ichf>i. 


i 


N'  A  U 

The  funn  of  tlie  Loc-Book,  with  the  Manner 
of  working  Days'  Works  at  Sc.i. 


The  JLog-Buok. 


H 


Courses. 


SWiS 


winds 


Nortli 


N/.F. 


Observations  and 

Ai'cidents.  @"  — 
Dav  of -::^— 


]':i!r  weather  :  ^t 
four  this  afternoon 
I  too  It  my  depar- 
ture from  tlie  Li- 
zard, in  the  lati- 
tude of  iT  00'  north, 
it  bearing  N  N  E, 
distance  5  leafrucs. 


S  S  W       E  /.  y 


SWiW    NNE 


S  W 


I    ;SWiW 


ENE 


The  jjale  Increas- 
ing and  hein^-  under 
all  our  sails. 

After  tl'.ree  this 
morniag,  frequent 
showers  witii  tliick 
weather  till  near 
noon. 


The  ^'ariation  I 
reclion  to  be  one 
point  westerly. 


NEiE 


The  Log-Book. 


Courses  Correct. 

Dist. 

DifF.   Lat. 

Diir.  Long. 

50 

I!) 

4!) 

2-l.S 

25.5 

N.  1     S. 

E. 

W. 

S  SW 

SAW 

s  w 

.s  Wis 

S  Wis 

-!')■, 'J 

is.<; 
2;).7 
20.2 
19.5 

29.4 
5.5 
45.5 
20.0 
19.5 

M-t.2 

125.0 

JIvnce  the  ship,  by  account,  has  come  to 
the  latiUnle  of  47°  -iO'  iiorlh,  and  has  dill'ered 
her  longitude  2°  6'  westerly;  so  this  day  I 
have  made  my  way  good  S.  31°  31'  W.  dis- 
tance 157.4  miies. 

At  noon  the  Lizard  bore  from  me  N.  31° 
31'  E.  distance  157.4  miles;  and  bavins;  ob- 
served tiie  latitude,  I  i'oiuid  it  agreed  with  the 
latitude  by  account. 

We  have  undm-  the  article  Lo.ngitude 
sliewn  the  method  of  linding  the  longitude  at 
sea  by  means  of  timckceoers.  For  the  me- 
thod of  doing  the  same  by  lun.ir  observations, 
we  refer  to  the  Nautical  Almanac,  and  the 
tables  fliat  accompany  it. 

jSAU  i'lLU.S,  in  zoology,  a  genus  belong- 
ing to  the  order  of  vermes  testaceEC.  The 
shell  consists  of  one  spiral  valve,  divided  into 
several  apartments  by  partitions.  There  are 
1 7  species,  chielly  distinguished  by  particula- 
rities in  their  shells. 

The  most  remarkable  division  of  tiie  nau- 
tili is  into  the  thin  and  thick-shelled  kinds. 
The  first  is  called  nautilus  papyraeeus;  and 
its  shell  is  indeed  no  thicker  than  a  piece  of 


N  A  Z 

papflr  <.\!ic!i  out  of  (lie  water,    Tim  spceies 
IS  not  al  all  fastened  to  its  sliell  ;  but  there  is 
an  opinion,  as  o'd  as  tlie  days  of  I'liny,  that 
this  creiilure  creeps  out  of  its  shell,  and  goes 
on  shore-  to  feed.     M'lien  this  species  is  to 
sail,  il  expands  two  of  its  arms  on  liigh,  and 
belv.ceii  these  sti|)ports  a  membrane  whicli 
it  throws  out  on  (Ins  occasion  ;  this  serves  for 
its  sail :  and  tlie  two  other  arms  it  iiangs  out 
of  its  shell,  to  serve  occasionally  eitiier  as 
oars  or  as  a  steerage ;  but  this  last  otlice  is 
generally  served  by  the  tail.     Mlien  the  sea 
is  calm,  it  is  common  to  see  numbers  of  these 
creatures  diveitiiis;  themselves  in  this  man- 
ner; bulas  soon  as  a  storm  rises,  or  any  thing 
gives  tiieni  disturbance,  they  draw  in  their 
legs,   and  take  in  as   much  water  as  makes 
them  specitically  heavier  than  that  in  which 
tUey  float ;  and   they  sink  to  the   bottom. 
When  they  rise  ajiaiii,  fh('y  void  this  water 
by  a  lunnber  of  holes,  of  whicli.  their  legs  are 
full.  The  other  nautilus,  whose  shell  is  thick, 
never  quits  that  lu'ibitatioii.     'I'liis  shell  is  di- 
vided into  40  or  more  partitions,  which  grow 
smaller  and  smaller  as  tiiey  approach  tlie  ex- 
tremity or  centre  of  the  siiell  ;  between  every 
one  of  these  cells  and  the  adjoining  ones,  there 
is  a  communication  by  means  of  a  hole  in 
(he   centre  of  every  one  of  the  partitions. 
I'hrough  this  hole  there  runs  a  pipe  of  the 
whole  lens;th  of  tlie  shell.     It  is  supposed  by 
many,  that  by  means  of  tliis  pipe  the  fish  oc- 
casionally passes  from  one  cell  to  another ; 
but  this  seems  by  no  means  probable,  as  the 
lish  must  undouiitedly  be  crushed  to  death 
by  passing  through  it.      It    is    much   more 
hikely  that  the  lish  always  occupies  the  largest 
chamber  in  its  shell ;  that  is,  that  it  lives  in 
the  cavity  between  the  mouth  and  the  first 
partition,  and  that  it  never  removes  out  of 
tills ;  but  that  all  tlie  appar.Uus  of  cells  and  a 
pipe  of  communication,  which  we  so  much 
admire,  serves  only  to  admit  occasionally  air 
or  water  into  the  shell,  in  such  proportion  as 
may  serve  the  creature  in   its  intentions  of 
swimming. 

Some  autliors  call  this  sliell  the  concha 
margaritifera ;  but  this  can  be  only  on  ac- 
count of  the  fine  colour  on  its  inside,  wliich 
is  more  beautiful  tlian  any  otiier  mother-of- 
pearl  ;  for  it  lias  not  been  observed  that  this 
species  of  iish  ever  produced  pearls.  It  must 
be  observed,  that  tlie  polypus  is  by  no  means 
to  be  confounded  with  the  pnper-shclled  nau- 
tilus, notwithstanding  the  great  resemblance 
in  the  arms  and  body  of  the  inclosed  fish  ; 
nor  is  the  eornu  ammonis,  so  frequently  found 
fossil,  to  be  confounded  with  the  tliick-shell- 
ed  nautilus,  though  the  concameralions  and 
general  structure  of  the  sh'dl  are  alike  in 
both  ;  for  there  are  great  and  essential  difl'cr- 
ences  between  all  these  genera. 

NAZARITKS,  among  the  Jews,  persons 
who  either  of  themselves,  or  by  their  i)arenls, 
were  dedicated  to  tlie  observation  of  Nazarit  e- 
ship.  They  were  of  two  sorts,  namely,  such 
as  were  bound  to  this  observance  for  only  a 
short  time,  as  a  week  or  month  ;  and  those 
who  were  bound  to  it  all  their  lives.  Al!  that 
we  find  peculiar  in  the  hitter's  way  of  life  is, 
tliat  they  were  to  abstain  from  wine  and  all 
int,>xicating  liquors,  and  never  to  shave  or 
cut  o!f  the  hai's  of  their  heads.  The  lirst 
sort  of  Nazariles  were  moreover  to  avoid  all 
delilenient ;  and  it"  tliey  ei'anced  to  contract 
any  pollution  before  the  term  was  expired, 
they  were  obliged  to  begin  afreju.  Wo- 
L  1  .'^ 


N  II  E 


267 


menas«-pll  as  men  might  bind  themselves 
to  this  vow. 

NK  ADMI'n  AS,  in  law,  awrit  tJirected 
to  the  bi<hop,  at  the  suit  of  one  that  is  patron 
ofa  church,  where,  on  a  quare  iiiipe'dit,  &c. 
depending,  he  is  doubtful  liial  the  bi-hop  will 
collate  his  clerk,  or  admit  the  otjiei's  clerk, 
during  tlie  «uit  between  them. 

NEAT,  or  Net-weight,  the  weight  of 
a  commodity  alone,  clear  of  the  cask,  bag, 
case,  or  even  filth. 

NI'^IU'LOUS,  cloud;/,  in  a.slronoRiy,  n 
term  applied  to  certain  of  the  fixed  stars, 
which  sliew  a  dim  hazy  light,  being  less  than 
those  of  the  sixtli  magnitude,  and  therefore 
scarce  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

NF-CESSITY.  The  law  charges  no  man 
with  default  wlieje  the  act  is  compulsory,  and 
not  voluntary,  and  where  there  are  iiol  a  con- 
sent and  election;  and  tiiercfore  if  either 
there  is  an  impossibility  for  a  man  to  do 
otherw  ise,  or  so  great  a  perturbation  of  the 
judgment  and  reason  as  in  presiFijition  of 
law  man's  nature  cannot  overcome,  such  ne- 
cessity carries  a  privilege  in  itself. 

Necessity  is  of  three  sorts ;  necessity  of 
conservation  of  lil'e,  necessity  of  obedience, 
and  necessity  of  the  act  of  God,  or  of  a 
stranger. 

And  lirst,  of  conservation  of  life  ;  if  a  man 
steals  viands  to  satisfy  his  present  hunger,  this 
is  no  felony  nor  larceny. 

Tlie  second  necessity  is  of  obedience  ;  and 
therefore  where  baron  and  feme  commit  a 
felony,  the  feme  can  neither  be  principal  nor 
accessary,  because  tlie  law  intends  her  to  have 
no  will  in  regard  of  the  subjection  and  obe- 
dience she  owes  her  husband. 

1  he  tliird  necessity  is  of  the  act  of  God,  or 
of  a  stranger;  as  if  a  man  is  particular  tenant 
for  years  of  a  house,  and  it  should  be  over- 
throw n  by  thunder,  lightning,  and  tempest, 
in  t!iis  case,  he  is  excused  of  waste.  Bac. 
Elem.  25,  26,27. 

NECK.  See  A  X  AT  o  m  v.  * 

NECKERIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  crvptoeamia  musci,  but  little  known. 

NEC'lARlUM.  See  Bot.\nv,  vol.  i.  p. 
254. 

NECTRIS,  a  genus  of  the  hexandria 
digynia  class  and  order:  the  calyx  is  one - 
lealed,  six-parted,  coloured  ;  corolla  none  ; 
styles  permanent ;  caps,  two ;  superior  ovate, 
one-celled,  many-seeded;  there  is  one  species, 
a  native  of  Guiana. 

NECYDALtS,  a  genus  of  insects  belong- 
ing to  the  order  of  coleoptera.  The  feelers 
are  setaceous;  the  elytra  are  shorter  and  nar- 
rower than  the  wings ;  the  tail  is  simple. 
1  lure  are  1 1  species,  chielly  distinguished 
by  the  size  and  figure  of  the  elytra. 

NEEDLE,  a  very  common  small  instru- 
ment or  utensil,  matie  of  steel,  pointed  at  one 
end,  and  pierced  at  the  other,  ur.ed  in  sewing, 
emlnoidery,  tapestry,  &c.  Needles  make 
a  very  considerable  article  in  commerce, 
though  llure  is  scarcely  any  commodity 
cheaper,  the  consumjition  of  them  being  al- 
most incredible.  The  sizes  are  from  N°  I. 
the  largest,  to  N°  25.  the  smallest.  In  the 
manufacture  of  needles,  Gerinan  and  Ilun- 
g.irian  steel  ait  of  most  repute.  In  the  mak- 
ing of  them,  the  first  thing  is" to  pass  the  steel 
through  a  coal-fire,  and  under  a  hammer,  to 
bring  It  out  of  its  square  figure  ipto  a  cylin- 
drical one.    This  d«He,  it  is,  diavya  thraugii 


268 


NEE 


a  large  hole  of  a  wiredrawliig-iron,  ami  re- 
turned into  the  fire,  and  drawn  thro\igh  a  »e- 
■cond  liole  of  the  in.n,  smaller  than  the  iirst, 
and  thus  successively,  from  hole  to  liolc,  till 
it  has  axrquired  the  degree  of  iineness  requir- 
ed  for  that   species  of  needles,    observing 
every  time  it  is  to  be  drawn  that  it  is  greased 
over  with  lard,  to  render  it  more  manageable. 
The  steel  thus  reduced  to  a  fine  wire,  is  cut 
in  pieces  of  the  length  of  tlie  needles  intejid- 
€d.     These  pieces  are  flatted  at  oae  end  on 
the  anvil,  in  order  to  form  the  iiead  and  eye; 
they  are  then  put  into  the  lire  to  soften  them 
farther,  and  thence  taken  out  and  pierced  at 
each  extreme  of  the  flat  part  on  the  anvil,  by 
force  of  a  puncheon  of  well-tempered  steel ; 
and  laid  on  a  leaden  block  to  bring  out,  with 
anoth-r  pun-.heon,  the  little  piece  of  steel  re- 
maining in  the  e\e.     Tiie  corners  are  then 
tiled  off  the  square  of  the  heads,  and  a  little 
cavity  filed  on  each  side  of  the  flat  of  the 
head  ;  this  done,   the  point  is  formed  with  a 
file,  and  the  whole  filed  over  ;  they  are  then 
laid  to  heat  red-hot  on  a  long  flat  narrow  iron, 
crooked  at  one  end,  in  a  cliarcoal-fire,  and 
when  taken  out,  are  thrown  into  a  bason  of 
cold  water  to  harden.     On  this  operation  a 
good  deal  depends;    too   much  heat  burns 
them,   and  too  little  leaves  them   soft:  the 
medium  is  learned  by  experience.      \\'hen 
they  are  thus  hardene'd,  they  are  laid  in  an 
iron  shovel  on  a  Are,  more  or  less  brisk  in 
-proportion  to  the  thickness  of  the  needles ; 
taking  care  to  move  them  from  time  to  time. 
This  serves  to  temper  them,  and  takeoff  their 
brittleness :  great  care  here  too  must  be  taken 
of  the  degree  of  heat.  They  are  then  straight- 
ened one  after  another  with  the  hammer,  the 
coldness  of  the  water  used  in  hardening  them 
having  twisted  the   greatest   part  of  them. 
The  next  process  is  the  polishing  them.     To 
tlo  this  they  take  twelve  or  fliteen  thousand 
needles,  and  range  them  in  little  heaps  against 
each    otiier    in    a   piece  of    new  buckram 
sprinkled   with  emery-dust.      The    needles 
thus  disposed,  emery  dust  is   thrown   over 
them,   which  is  again  sprinkled  with  oil  of 
olives:  at  last  the  whole  is  made  up  into  a 
roll,  well  bound  at  both  ends.     This  roll  is 
.then  laid  on  a  polishing-table  ;  and  over  it  a 
tiiick  plank  loaden  with  stones,  which  two 
men  work  backwards  and  forwards  a  day  and 
a  half,  or  two  days,  successively;  by  which 
means  the  roll  being  continually  agitated  by 
the  weight  and  motion  of  the   plank  over  it, 
the  needles  withinside  being  rubbed  against 
each  other  with  oil  and  emery,  are  insensibly 
polished.   After  polishing  they  are  taken  out, 
and  the  liUh  waslied  off  them  with  hot  water 
and  soap;  they  are  then  wiped  in  hot  bran,  a 
little  moistened,  placed  with  the  needles  in  a 
round  box,  and  suspended  in  the  air  bya  cord, 
which  is  kept  stirring  till  tiie  bran  and  needles 
are  dry,    '1  he  needles  thus  wiped  in  two  or 
'hree  different  brans  are  taken  out  and  put 

wooden  vessels,  to  iiave  the  good  se]5arat- 
ed  from  tiiose  whose  points  or  eyes  have  been 
broken,  either  in  polishint;  or  wiping;  the 
points  are  tiien  all  turned  the  same  way,  and 
smoothed  with  an  en)ery-stone  turned  with  a 
wheel.  This  operation'  finislies  tliem,  and 
there  remains  nothing  but  to  make  them  into 
packets  of  two  hundred  and  filty  eacli. 

NK  EXt'..\T  REGNO,  is  a  writ  to  re- 
strain a  p  rson  from  going  out  of  the  king- 
dom with<)ul  the  king's  licence. 

VVilhiu  UiS  wahn,'  the  king  may  command 
5 


N  E  P 

the  attendance  and  service  of  all  his  liegemen  ; 
but  he  cannot  send  any  man  o\it  of  the  realm, 
or  even  upon  the  public  service,  except  sea- 
men and  soldiers,  the  nature  of  whose  em- 
ployment necessarily  implies  an  exception. 
1  Black.  138. 

This  writ  is  now  mostly  used  where  a  suit 
is  commenced  in  the  court  of  chancery  against 
a  man,  and  he  intending  to  defeat  the  other 
of  his  just  demand,  or  to  avoid  the  justice 
and  equity  of  the  court,  is  about  to  go  be- 
yond sea,  or  however,  that  the  duty  will  be 
endangered  if  he  goes. 

If  the  writ  is  granted  on  behalf  of  a  subject, 
and  the  partv  is  taken,  he  either  gives  security 
bv  bond  in  such  sum  as  is  demanded,  or  he 
satislies  the  court  by  answering  (where  the 
answer  is  not  already  in)  or  by  affidavit,  that 
he  intends  not  to  go  out  al"  the  realm,  and 
gives  such  reasonable  security  as  the  court 
directs,  and  then  he  is  discharged.  P.  R.  C. 
252. 

NEGLIGENXE,  is  where  a  person  neg- 
lects or  omits  to  do  a  thing  which  he  is 
obliged  bv  law  to  do.  Thus  where  one  has 
goods  of  another  to  keep  till  such  a  time,  and 
he  has  a  certain  recompence  or  reward  for 
the  keeping,  he  shall  stand  charged  for  in- 
jury by  negligence,  &c. 

fs^EPA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order  he- 
meptera;  the  generic  character  is,  snout  in- 
flected; wings  four,  cross-complicate,  Coria- 
ceous on  the  upper  part;  fore-feet  chelifomi, 
the  rest  formed  for  walking.  This  genus  is 
aquatic,  inhabiting  stagnant  waters,  and  prey- 
ing on  the  smaller  water-insects,  &c.  The 
largest  species  yet  known,  and  which  very  far 
surpasses  in  size  all  the  European  animals  of 
the  gemis,  is  the  nepa  grandis,  w  hich  is  a  na- 
tive of  Surinam  ^nd  other  parts  of  South 
America,  often  measuring  more  than  three 
inches  in  length.  Its  colour  is  a  dull  yellow- 
ish-brown, with  a  few  darker  shades  or  varie- 
gations ;  the  under  wings  are  of  a  semitrans- 
parent  white  colour,  and  the  abdomen  is  ter- 
minated by  a  sliorl  tubular  process. 

Nepa  cinerea,  or  the  common  water-scor- 
pion, is  a  very  frequent  inhabitant  of  stagnant 
waters  in  our  own  country,  measuring  about 
an  inch  in  length,  and  appearing,  w  hen  tlie 
w  ings  are  closed,  entirely  of  a  dull  brown  co- 
lour; but  when  the  wings  are  expanded,  the 
body  appears  of  a  bright  red  colour  abiive, 
with  a  black  longitudinal  band  down  the 
middle  ;  and  the  lower  wings,  which  are  of  a 
fine  transparent  while,  are  dicorated  with  red 
veins:  from  the  tail  proceeds  a  tubular  bifid 
process  or  style,  nearly  of  the  length  of  the 
body,  and  which  appears  sinde  on  a  general 
vievv,  the  two  valves  of  which  it  consists 
being  generally  applied  close  to  each  other 
throughout  their  whole  length.  The  animal 
is  of  slow  motion,  and  is  often  found  creeping 
about  the  shallow  parts  of  ponds,  &c.  In  the 
month  of  May  it  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  soft 
surface  of  the  nuid  at  the  bottom  of  the  wa- 
ter; thi'y  are  of  a  singular  shape,  resembling 
some  of  the  crowned  seeds,  having  an  oval 
body,  and  an  upper  part  surrounded  by  seven 
radiating  processes  or  curved  spines;  the 
young,  when  first  hatched,  are  not  more  than 
the  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  water- 
scorpion  flies  only  by  night,  when  it  wanders 
about  the  fields  in  the  neiglibourhood  of  its 
native  waters.  The  larva;  and  puj)a:  (lillferin 
appearance  from  the  complete  insect,  in  hav- 


K  E  P 

ing  only  the  rudiments  of  wings,  and  being  of 
a  paler  or  vellower  colour.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  fig.  2U2. 

Nepa  ciniicoides  of  Linna-us  differs  ma- 
terially from  the  preceding  species,  and  has  • 
at  first  view  more  the  aspect  of  a  notonecta 
than  a  nepa,  the  hind  legs  being  formed  for 
swimming  briskly,  and  furnished  with  an  edg- 
ing of  hairs  on  tlie  inner  side.  '1  his  insect  is 
less  common  than  the  preceding,  but  is  found 
in  similar  situations, 

Nepa  linearis  is  an  insect  of  a  highly  sin- 
gular aspect,  bearing  a  distant  resemblance 
to  some  of  the  smaller  insects  of  the  genera 
mantis  and  phasiria.  It  measures  abotit  an 
inch  and  a  half  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the 
beginning  ot  the  abdominal  style  or  process, 
which  is  itself  of  equal  length  to  tlie  former 
part,  and  the  whole  animal  is  extremely 
slender  in  proportion  to  its  length  ;  the  legs 
also  are  long  and  slender,  and  the  chela?  or 
fore-legs  much  longer  in  proportion  th;in  tlio-e 
of  the  second  species  or  nepa  cinerea ;  the 
colour  of  the  aiumal  is  dull  yellow  ish-brown  ; 
tl'.e  back,  when  the  wings  are  expanded,  ajv 
pcaring  of  a  brownish-red,  and  the  under 
wings  white  and  transparent,  k  inhabits  the 
larger  kind  of  stagnant  waters, frequenting  the 
shallower  parts  during  the  middle  of  the  day, 
when  it  may  be  observed  to  prey  on  the 
smaller  water-insects,  &c.  Its  motions  are 
singular,  often  striking  out  all  its  legs  in  a 
kiiul  of  starting  manner  at  intervals,  and  con- 
tinning  this  exercise  for  a  considerable  time. 
The  eggs  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  nepa 
cinerea,  of  an  oval  shape,  and  furnished  with 
two  processes  or  bristles  divaricating  trom  the 
top  of  each.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist."fig.  293. 
There  are  14  species. 

NliPEN  rilES,  a  genus  of  the  tetrandria 
order,  in  thegynandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  among  those  of 
which  the  order  is  doubtful.  The  calyx  is 
qt;adripartite;  there  is  no  corolla;  the  cap- 
sule is  quadrilocular.  There  is  one  species, 
a  plant  of  Cevlon. 

NEPIiR's'RODS,  or  Bones,  an  instru- 
ment inver.tcd  by  J.  Neper,  barcn  of  Mer- 
chi>ton,  in  Scotland,  w  hereby  the  lar.ltiplica- 
tion  and  divisix>n  of  large  numbers  are  much 
facilitated. 

Neper's  nov,  the  construction  nf.  Sup- 
pose the  common  table  of  multiplication  to 
be  made  upon  a  plate  of  metal,  ivory,  or. 
pasteboard,  and  then  conceive  the  several 
colunms  (standing  dow  nwards  from  the  disjvts 
on  the  head)  to  be  cut  asunder;  and  these 
are  what  we  call  Nepei^'s  rods  for  multiplica- 
tion. But  then  there  must  be  a  good  number 
of  each ;  for  as  many  times  as  any  figure  is  ia 
the  multiplicand,  so  many  rods  of  that  species 
(i.  e.  with  that  figure  on  the  top  of  it)  must 
we  have ;  though  six  rods  of  each  species  will 
be  suflicient  for  any  example  in  contmon  af- 
fairs ;  there  must  be  also  as  many  roils  of  O's. 
But  before  we  explain  tre  way  of  using 
these  rods,  there  is  another  thing  to  be  known, 
viz.  that  the  figures  on  every  rod  are  written 
in  an  order  different  from  that  in  the  table. 
Thus,  the  little  square  space  or  division  in 
which  the  several  products  of  every  column 
are  written,  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 
line  across  froni  the  U|)pf-r  angle  on  the  right 
to  the  lower  on  the  left ;  and  if  the  jiroduct  is 
a  digit,  it  is  set  in  the  lower  division  ;  if  it  has 
two  places,  the  first  is  set  in  the  lower,  and 
the  second  in  llic  upper  division;  but  th« 


N  E  P 

.♦paces  on  the  top  an;  not  divitk-d,  Also  thrro 
is  a  rod  ut  digits,  not  divitii-d,  v\lii<li  is  cailed 
the  iii(lc\-rod;  and  of  this  wx  noed  but  onr 
singK'  rod.  !Si.'c  the  (igvirc  of  all  the  dilferenl 
rods,  and  llie  index,  separate  from  one  aji- 
oliuT,  in  plate  Misc-el.  lii;.  174. 

Nicpek's  ROii,  iiiii/liiilicalioit  Ir/.  First  lay 
flo«M  llie  incU'N-rod;  then  on  the  right  of  it 
set  the  rod  uliose  top  is  the  tigine  in  the 
)iighe-t  place  of  the  multiplicand  ;  next  to  this 
aga'n  set  the  rod  whose  top  is  next  the  liginv 
oi  tlujjHiltiplican  1  ;  and  so  on  in  order  to  the 
first  (Ignre.  Then  is  yonr  nuiUiplicanil  tabu- 
lated for  all  the  nine  digits ;  for  in  the  same 
line  of  s<|uares  standing  against  every  (igure 
of  the  index-rod,  you  have  the  product  of 
that  figure,  and  therefore  yon  have  no  more 
fo  do  than  to  transfer  the  products  and  sum 
them.  I!ut  in  taking  out  these  products  from 
tlie  rods,  the  order  in  which  the  (igures  stand 
obliges  you  to  a  very  easy  ami  small  addition  ; 
thus,  begin  to  lake  out  liie  figure  iji  the  lower 
part,  or  unit's  placj-,  of  tiie  s(|Uave  of  the  hrst 
rod  on  lh,>  right;  add  tlie  (igme  in  tlie  upper 
part  of  tills  roil  to  that  in  trie  lower  part  ol 
tha  next,  and  so  on,  wliicii  may  be  d  ne  as 
fast  as  yon  can  look  on  them.  To  make  this 
practice- as  clear  as  possible,  take  the  follow- 
ing example. 

Kxaniple:  To  multiply  4768  by  385.  flav- 
ingset  the  rods  together  for  t'le  number  47t)S, 
agaijist  5  in  the  index  I  lied  this  numbei',  by 
adding  according  to  the  rule        -  2JS4'o 

Against  8  this  number         -         -         38144 
Against  3  this  number         -        -       14304 
Total  product  1S3.J0SU 

To  make  the  use  of  the  rod;  yet  more  regular 
nnd  easy,  they  are  kept  in  a  flat  square  box, 
whose  breadth  is  that  of  ten  rods,  and  the 
lengtli  that  of  one  rod,  as  thick  as  to  hold  six 
(or  as  many  as  you  please)  ;  the  capacity  of 
the  box  being  divided  into  ten  cells,  for  the 
diil't-rent  speeiesof  rods.  When  the  rodsari^ 
put  up  in  tlie  box  (each  species  in  its  own  cell 
distinguished  by  tlie  first  figure  of  the  rod  set 
before  it  on  the  face  of  the  box  near  the  top), 
as  much  of  every  rod  stands  without  the  box 
as  shews  the  hrst  figure  of  that  rod ;  also  upon 
one  of  the  flat  sides  without  and  near  the 
edge,  upon  the  left  hand  the  index-rod  is  fix- 
ed; and  alo:ig  the  foot  there  is  a  small  ledge, 
so  that  the  rods  when  appl.ed  are  laid  upon 
this  side,  ami  supported  b\  tiie  ledge,  which 
makes  the  practice  very  easv  ;  but  in  case  the 
nuiltiphcand should  hive  more  than  9  places, 
the  u;.'per  face  of  the  box  may  be  ma  le 
broader.  Sum  ■  make  the  rods  with  four  dif- 
ferent faces  and  figures  on  each  tor  dili'erent 
purposes. 

Nepe>?'s  rods,  division  f)!/.  First  tabulate 
your  divisor;  then  you  have  it  multiplied  by 
alt  the  digits,  out  of  whii-h  you  may  choose 
such  convenient  divisors  as  will  be  next  less  to 
the  hgures  in  the  dividend,  and  write  the  in- 
dex an,sweiing  iu  the  quotient,  and  so  a>nti- 
nuallytill  the  work  is  done.  Thus  2179788 
divided  by  6123,  gives  in  the  quotient  356. 

Having  t.ibulated  the  divisor,  6123,  you 
seethat  6123  cannot  be  had  in  2179;  there- 
fore take  live  places,  and  on  the  rods  find  a 
number  that  is  equal,  or  n-xt  less,  to  21797, 
which  is  18369;  that  is  3  times  the  divisor, 
wherefore  set  3  in  the  <iuotient,  and  subtract 
18369  from  the  ligures  above,  and  there  will 
remain  3428  ;  to  which  add  8,  the  next  figure 
of  the  dividend,  and  seek  again  on  the  rods 
for  it,  or  the  next  less,  which  you  will  find  to 


N  E  R 

bo  five  times;  therefore  set  S  in  the  quotient, 
andsubt.act  30615  from  34288,  and  there 
will  remain  3673  ;  to  which  add  8,  the  la^t 
figure  in  the  divitlcnd,  and  finding  it  to  be  just 
0  times  the  divisor,  set  6  in  the  (piotient. 

NICPIOPA,  Caimint,  or  Nkp,  a  genus  of 
the  gymnospermia  order,  in  the  didynamia 
chus  of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  42d  order,  verticillatw 
The  under  lip  of  the  corolla  has  a  small  mid- 
dle segment  crenated;  the  margin  of  tiie 
throat  IS  rellexed ;  the  stamina  approach  one 
another.  'I'here  are  20  species;  the  most 
remarkable  is  the  cataria,  common  nep,  or 
catmint.  This  is  a  native  of  many  parts  of 
l!rila;n,  growing  about  hedges  and  in  waste 
places.  The  plant  has  a  bitter  lastc,  and 
strong  smell,  not  unlike  pennyroyal.  An  in- 
fusion of  this  plant  is  reckoned'  a  good  ce- 
phalic and  emmenagogue ;  being  fowid  very 
eflicacious  in  chlorotic  .cases.  Two  ounces  of 
Ihe  expressed  juice  may  be  given  lor  a  dose, 
it  is  called  catmint,  because  catsare  very  fond 
oi  it,  especially  when  it  is  w-ithered  ;  for  then 
they  will  roll  themselves  on  it,  and  tear  it  to 
pieces,  chewing  it  in  their  mouths  vvitli  great 
pleasure. 

NEPHEUUM,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria 
order,  in  the  mona'cia  class  of  plants.  TJie 
male  calyx  is  ((uinquedentate  ;tl-.ereis  no  co- 
rolla: the  female  calyx  is  (iiiadvitid;  there  is 
no  corolla.  There  are  two  germens  and  two 
styles  on  each:  the  fruit  are  two  dry  plumbs, 
niuricatcd,  and  monospermous.  There  is  one 
species,  a  h'-rb  of  thf  East  Indies. 

NEPHKiriC  WOOD,  lignum  nephrili- 
cum,  a  wood  of  a  very  tlense  and  compact 
texture,  and  of  a  line  grain,  brought  ustrom 
New  Spain,  in  small  blocks,  in  its  natural 
state,  and  covered  with  its  bark.  It  is  to  be 
chosen  of  a  pale  colour,  sound  and  firm,  and 
such  as  has  not  lost  its  acrid  taste;  but  the 
surest  test  of  it  is  the  infusing  it  in  water;  for  a 
piece  of  it  infused  only  half  an  hour  in  cold 
water,  gives  it  a  changeable  colour,  which  is 
blue  or  yellow,  as  variously  hekl  to  the  light. 
If  tlie  phial  it  is  in  is  heldbetween  the  eye  and 
the  ligiit,  the  tincture  appears  yellow;  but  if 
th.-  eye  is  placed  between  the  light  and  the 
phial,  it  a])pear5  blue. 

ThU  wood  is  a  very  good  diuretic,  and  is 
said  to  be  of  great  use  with  the  Indians  in  all 
diseases  of  the  kidneys  and  bladder,  and  in 
suppressions  of  urine  from  whatever  cause. 
It  is  also  commended  in  fevers  and  obstruc- 
tions of  the  viscera.  The  way  of  taking  it, 
among  the  Indians,  is  only  an  infusion  in  cold 
water. 

NEPHRITIS.    See  Medicine. 

NEREIS,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  animals 
belonging  to  the  order  of  vtTmes  mollusca. 
The  body  is  oblong,  linear,  and  fitted  for 
creeping;  it  is  furnished  with  lateral  pencilled 
tentacula.  There  are  1 1  species,  of  which 
llie  most  remarkable  are  the  five  following: 
I .  The  noctiluca,  or  noctilucous  nereis,  which 
inhabits  al'post  every  sea,  and  is  one  of  the 
causes  of  the  luminousness  of  the  water. 
These  creatures  shine  like  glow-worms,  but 
with  a  brighter  splendour,  so  as  at  night  to 
make  the  element  appear  as  if  on  fire  all  i 
around.  Their  bodies  are  so  minute  as  to  ' 
elude  examination  by  the  naked  eye. 

It  is  sometimes  called  nereis  phosphorans  ; 
and  is  thus  described  by  Griseline.  The  head 
is  roundish  and  flat,   and  the  mouth  acumi-  I 
nateil.    The  two  horns  or  feelers  are  short  I 


N  E  R 


2r><j 


and  siibulafcil.  Tlic  eyes  are  promincflt,  and 
placed  on  each  side  ol  Ihe  head.  The  body 
IS  composed  of  about  Iwenly-threc  segmtiits 
or  joints,  which  are  much  less  nearer  the  tail 
than  at  the  head.  '1  htse  segnKiils  on  both 
sides  the  animal  all  end  in  a  short  conical 
apex,  out  of  which  proceeds  a  little  bundle 
ot  hairs;  from  under  these  l>un<I!es  the  feef 
grow  in  the  lonii  of  sitmII  liexik- subulaled 
figments  destitute  of  any  tiling  like  claws. 
It  is  scarcely  two  lines  long,  and  is  quite 
pellucid,  and  its  colour  is  iliat  of  water, 
green.  They  arc  Hound  upon  all  kinds  of 
marine  plants;  but  they  often  leave  them,  and 
are  found  upon  the  surface  of  the  water:  they 
are  frequent  at  all  seasons,  but  especially  in 
summer  before  stormy  weather,  when  they 
arc  more  agitated  and  more  luminpus.  Tluir 
numbers,  and  wonderinl  agilit;. ,  added  to. 
their  pellucid  and  shining  quality,  do  not  a 
little  contribute  to  their  ilkiniinatmg  the  sea,. 
for  myriads  of  those  animalcula'  may  be  c  on- 
tained  in  the  portion  of  a  kniall  cup  of  sta-. 
water.  Innumerable  quantities  of  them  lodge 
in  the  cavities  of  the  scales  of  fishes,  and  to 
them  probably  do  the  fisi:es  owe  their  nocti- 
lucous qualility. 

2.  Nereis  l.icuslris,  or  bog  nereis  (fig.  2.) 
The  body  of  tiie  t^ue  of  a  hog's  short  bristle, 
transparent,  articulated,  and  on  either  side  at 
every  articulation  provided  with  a  short  seta- 
ceuu.i  loot ;  interiorly  it  seems  to  consist  in  a 
manner  of  oval-shaped  articulations,  and  u. 
back  fcunied  by  two  lines  bent  backwards. 
It  inhabits  marshes  abounding  in  clay,  where 
it  remains  under  ground,  pushing  out  its 
other  extremity  by  reason  of  its  contisiual 
motion.  When  taken  but  it  twists  itself  up. 
Is  frequeiit'in  Sweden. 

3.  Nereis  cirrosa,  or  waving  nereis.  The 
body  is  red,  lunibriciform,  with  sixty-five, 
notches,  furnished  on  both  sides  with  two  rows 
of  bristles.  At  each  side  of  the  head  ten  fila- 
ments, at  the  sides  of  the  mouth  nianv,  twice 
as  long  as  the  forirer.  It  dwells  in  N'orway, . 
on  rocks  at  the  bottom  of.the  sea.  It  voniiu. 
a  red  li([uor,  with  which  it  tinges  the  water. 
See  V\Me  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  294. 

4.  Nereis  ca;rulea,  or  blue  nereis.  It  in- 
habits the  ocean,  where  it  destroys  the  ser- 
puhe  and  teredines,    fig.  295. 

5.  Nereis  giganta'a,  or  giant  nereis,  is  a 
peculiar  species  of  those  large  worms  that 
make  their  way  into  decayed  piles  driven 
down  into  the  sea,  which  they  bore  through 
and  feed  upon,  whence  they'are  cailed  sea- 
worms,  or  nereis.  Erom  head  to  tail  they 
are  beset  on  either  side  with  small  tufts  ter- 
minating in  tnree  points,  which  are  like  the 
fine  hair-pencils  usetl  by  painters,  and  com- 
posed of  shining  bristles  of  various  coiours. 
The  upper  part  of  the  body  in  this  worm  is 
all  over  covered  with  small  hairs.  The  rings 
of  which  it  is  tormed  are  closely  pressed  to- - 
gether,  and  )  iekl  to  the  touch.  The  three 
lows  of  small  tutts  we  have  been  describing, 
serve  this  nereis  uistead  of  feet,  w  hich  it  uses 
to  go  forwards  as  fishes  do  their  fins.  Fig.  2o6. 

NEKITA,  a  genus  of  vermes  testacea :  the 
generic  character  is ;  animal  a  limax ;  shell 
univalve,  spiral,  gibbous,  ll.:ttish  at  bottom ; 
aperture  semiorbicular  or  semilunar  ;  piUar- 
lip  transversely  truncate,  llattish.  There  are 
about  80  species  of  this  genus. 

NERIL'M,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
tlie  natural  metlwd  ranking  under  the  30tb 


270 


N  E  \V 


order,  contorta;.  There  are  tv.o  creel  folli- 
cles; the  srt'ds  plum v;  the  tube  of  fhe  co- 
rolla tenniuatcd  by  a  lacerated  crown.  There 
are  nine  species/all  of  them  natives  of  the 
warmer  climates ;  the  most  rein;\rkable  of 
which  are,  1.  T  he  oleander,  Soutii  Sea  rose  ; 
this  is  a  Ijcautifiil  shrub,  cultivated  in  gardens 
on  r.cconnt  of  its  flower,.,  w  hicli  arc  ot  a  fine 
red,  and  in  clusters,  but  of  an  indilTerent 
smell ;  the  whole  plant  is  poisonous,  and  es- 
pecially theU-.iik  of  the  roots.  The  double 
variety  is  beautilu'.,  but  it  should  be  kept  in  a 
stove.  2.  The"  antidysintericum,  a  native  of 
Ceylon  ;  the  bark  ol  which  is  an  article  of  the 
materia  medica,  under  tlie  name  ot  conessi. 
3.  The  tiiitloriuni,  a  new  speci-s,  vvltli  beau- 
tiful blue  flowers,  discovered  f-y  Dr.  Rox- 
burgh at  Madras.  A  decoction  of  theleav;s, 
with  an  addition  of  lime-water,  makes  an  in- 
tligo  of  line  ijuaiity.  The  whole  plant  in  all 
the  neriums  is  of  a  poisonous  ([uality,  in  that 
respect  resembling  apocynum. 

KEUTKIUA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der tetrandria  digyma:  tlie  corolki  is  funnel- 
shaped,  four  clelt';  superior  berry  two-ceiled; 
seciis  solitary,  'i'here  is  one  species,  an  an- 
nual of  New  Zealand. 

NERVES.  ^eeAN.^TOMV. 
NESTOIUANS,  a  christian  sect,  the  fol- 
lowers of  Nestorius,  bishop  and  patriarch  of 
Constantinople;  who,  about  the  year  429, 
taug'.it  that  tliere  were  two  persons  in  Jesus 
C'lirist,  (he  divine  and  the  human,  which  are 
united,  not  hypostatically  ov  substantially, 
but  in  a  mvstical  mannLT:  whence  he  con- 
cluded, that' Mary  was  tlie  mother  of  Christ, 
and  not  the  mother  of  God.  For  this  opi- 
nion Kesforins  was  condemned  and  deposed 
by  the  council  of  Ephesus;  and  the  decree  of 
iliis  council  was  confirmed  by  the  emperor 
7'heodosius,  who  banished  the-  bishop  to  a 
monastery. 

KETflNGS,  ina  ship,  a  sort  of  grates 
made  of  small  ropes,  seized  together  with  rope- 
yarn  or  twine,  and  fixed  on  the  quarters  and  in 
the  tops  ;  they  are  sometimes  stretched  upon 
the  ledges  from  the  waste-trees  to  the  root- 
frees,  from  tlie  top  of  the  forecastle  to  the 
poop  ;  and  sometimes  are  laid  in  the  waste  of 
a  ship  to  serve  instead  of  gratings. 
NE'lTLE.  SeelJRTicA. 
Netti.e,  (hv.d.  SeeLAMiuM. 
isEl'  U.\i)A,  a  genus  of  the  decagynia  or- 
tler,  in  the  decandria  cla^s  of  plants,  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  und  r  the  13lh  or- 
der, succulenta;.  The  calyx  is  tjuinquepar- 
tite ;  there  are  five  petals ;  the  capsule  inle- 
rior,  decemlocular,  decaspermous,  and  acu- 
Icated.  There  is  only  one  species,  the  pro- 
cumbens.  The  wliole  plant  is  white  and 
woolly;  and  is  a  native  of  the  warm  climates, 
and  found  on  dry  pare  hed  grounds. 

NliUTUAL  SALTS,  among  chemists,  a 
sort  of  salts  neither  acid  nor  alkaline,  but 
partaking  of  the  nature  of  both.     See  Acid, 

Al.KAI.I,  CuEMlSrRY,  &C. 

NEU  IHALIZATION.  When  two  or 
moresulwtances  mutually  destroy  each  otiier's 
urop'-rlies,  tiiey  are  said  to  neutr.  li/.e  one  an 
ether.  Tluis,  in  a  proper  combination  of 
acid  and  alkaline  sub.-.tances,  the  acid  and 
alkaline  pr  iperties  are  destroyed. 

KEWEl  .  See  Architecture. 

KEWT.  See  Lacerta. 

NEWTONIAN  ITllLOSOITIY.thedoc- 
trine  of  the  uiiiverse,  or  the  properties,  laws, 
aifections,  actions,  forces,  motions,  &c.  of 


N  I"  V,'' 

bodies,  both  celestial  and  terrestrial,  as  dc- 1 
livered  by  Newton. 

The  chief  parts  of  the  Newtonian  pliiloso-  i 
phv,  as  delivered  by  the  author,  except  Ivis ' 
Optical  Discoveries,  &c.  are  contatned  in  his  j 
Principia,  or  Mathematical  Pvmcipks  of  Na- 
tural I'liilosophy.     He  founds  his  system  on 
tlie  following  definitions. 

1 .  Quantity  of  n>atler  is  the  measure  of 
the  same,  arising  lixm  its  density  and  bulk 
conjointly.  Thus,  air  of  a  double  density,  in 
the  same  space,  is  double  in  Cjuantity;  in  a 
double  space,  is  quadruple  in  quantity  ;  in  a 
triple  space,  is  sextuple  in  quantity.  Sec. 

'J.  Quantity  of  motion  is  the  measure  of 
the  same,  arising  from  the  velocity  and  quan- 
tity of  matter  conjunctly.  This  is  evident,  be- 
cause the  motion  of  the  whole  is  the  motion 
of  all  its  parts ;  and  therelore  in  a  body  double 
in  ([uanlity,  with  equal  velocitv,  the  motion 
is  double,  &c. 

3.  The  vis  insita,  vis  inertia?,  or  innate  force 
of  matter,  is  a  power  of  resisting,  by  wliich 
every  body,  as  much  as  in  it  lies,  endeavours 
to  persevere  in  its  present  state,  whether  it 
is  of  rest,  or  moving  uniformly  forward  in  a 
right  line.  This  deiinition  is  proved  to  be 
just,  by  experience,  from  observing  the  diffi- 
culty with  which  any  body  is  moved  out  of 
its  place,  upwards  or  obliquely;  or  even 
downwards,  when  acted  on  by  a  body  endea- 
vouring to  urge  it  quicker  than  the  velochy 
given  it  by  gravity,  and  any  how  to  change 
its  state  of  motion  or  rest.  And  therefore 
this  force  is  the  same,  whether  the  body  has 
gravity  or  not  ;  and  a  cannon-ball,  void  of 
gravity,  if  it  could  be,  being  disclnuged  ho- 
rizonrally,  will  go  the  same  distance  in  that 
direction,  in  the  same  time,  as  if  it  were  en- 
dued witi!  gravity. 

4.  An  impressed  force  is  an  action  exerted 
upon  a  body,  in  order  to  change  its  state, 
wnetiier  of  rest  or  motion.  Tiiis  force  con- 
sists in  the  action  only  ;  and  remains  no  longer 
in  the  body  when  the  action  is  over.  For  a 
botjy  maintains  every  new  state  it  acquires, 
by  its  vis  inertia;  only. 

5.  A  centripetal  force  is  that  by  which  bo- 
dies are  drawn,  impelled,  or  anyway  tend, 
towards  a  point,  as  to  a  centre.  Tiiis  may 
be  considered  of  three  kinds,  absolute,  acce- 
lerative,  and  motive. 

6.  Tlie  absolute  quantity  of  a  centripetal 
force  is  a  measure  of  the  same,  proportional 
to  the  efficacy  of  the  cause  that  urges  it  to 
the  centre. 

7.  The  accelerative  quantity  of  a  centri- 
petal force,  is  the  measure  of  the  same  pro- 
portional to  the  velocity  which  it  generates  in 
a  given  time. 

8.  The  motive  quantity  of  a  centripetal 
force,  is  a  measure  of  the  same,  proportional 
to  the  motion  which  it  generates  in  a  given 
time.  This  is  always  known  by  the  quantity 
of  force  equal  and  contrary  to  if,  that  is  jUst 
sufficient  to  hinder  the  descent  of  the  body. 

After  these  definitions,  follow  certain  scho- 
lia, treating  of  the  nature  and  distinctions  ol 
t.nie,  space,  place,  and  motion, absolute,  rela- 
tive, ap|)arent,  true,  real, See.  After  which,  tin 
..uthor  proposes  to  shew  how  we  are  to  collect 
the  true  motions  from  their  causes,  effects, 
and  a|)pareiit  dillerences ;  and  vice  versa, 
ho,v,  from  the  motions,  cither  true  or  appa- 
rent, we  may  conic  to  the  knowledge  of  their 
causes  and  effects.  In  order  to  this,  he  lays 
down  the  following  axioms  or  laws  of  motion. 

8 


N  E  vr 

1st  law.  Every  body  perseveres  in  its  slati' 
of  rest,  or  of  unilorm  motion  in  a  right  hue, 
unless  it  is  compelled  to  change  that  slate  by 
forces  impressed  upon  it.  Thus,  "  projec- 
tiles pcis.vere  in  their  motions,  so  far  as  they 
are  not  retarded  by  tiie  resistance  of  the  air, 
or  impelled  downwards  by  the  force  of  gra- 
vity. A  top,  whose  parts,' by  their  cohesion, 
are  perpefually  drawn  aside  from  rectilinear 
motions,  does  not  cease  its  rotation  otl-.erwise 
than  as  it  is  retarded  by  the  air.  The  greater 
bodies  of  the  planets  and  comets,  meeting 
witli  less  resistance  in  more  free  s|)accs,  pie- 
serve  their  mot.on.s,  both  progressive  and  cir- 
cular, for  a  much  longer  time.'' 

2d  law.  The  alteration  of  motion  is  always 
proportional  to  the  motive  force  imi>iessed, 
and  is  made  in  the  direction  of  the  right  line 
in  which  that  force  is  impressed.  Thus,  if  any 
force  gcMierates  a  certain  quantity  of  motion, 
a  double  force  will  generate  a  double  quan- 
tity, whether  that  force  is  impressed  all  at 
once  or  in  successive  moments. 

3d  law.  'i'o  every  action  there  is  always 
opposed  an  equal  re-action  ;  or  the  mutual 
actions  of  two  bodies  upon  each  other,  are  al- 
ways equal,  an';  directed  to  contiary  parts. 
Thus,  whatever  draws  or  presses  another,  is 
as  much  drawn  or  pressed  by  that  other.  I; 
you  press  a  stone  with  your  tinger,  the  finger 
is  also  pressed  by  the  stone,  &c. 

From  this  axiom,  or  law,  Newton  deduces 
the  following  corollaries : 

1.  A  botly  by  two  forces  conjoined  will 
describe  the  diagonal  of  a  parallelogram,  in 
the  same  time  that  it  would  describe  the  sides 
by  those  forces  apart. 

2.  Hence  is  explained  the  composition  of 
any  one  direct  force  out  of  any  two  oblique 
ones,  viz.  by  making  the  two  oblique  forces 
the  sides  of  a  parallelogram,  and  the  diagonal . 
the  direct  one. 

3.  Tlie  quantity  of  motion,  which  is  col- 
lected by  taking  the  sum  ot  the  motions  di- 
rected towards  the  same  parts,  and  the  differ- 
ence of  those  that  are  directtd  to  contrary 
parts,  suffers  no  change  from  the  action  of  bo- 
dies among  tl-.emselves;  because  the  motion 
which  one  body  loses  is  communicateil  to 
anotiier. 

4.  The  common  centre  of  gravity  of  two 
or  more  bodies  does  not  alter  its  state  of  mc- 
tion  or  rest  by  tlie  actions  ul  liie  bodies 
among  themselves;  and  therefore  liie  com- 
mon centre  of  gravity  of  all  bodies,  acting 
upon  each  other,  (excluding  external  actions 
and  impediments)  is  "either  at  rest,  or  moves 
uniionnly  in  a.right  line. 

5.  Tlie  motions  of  bodies  included  in  a 
given  space  are  the  same  among  themselves, 
whether  that  space  is  at  rest,  or  moves  uni- 
formly forward  in  a  right  line  without  any 
circular  motion.  The  truth  of  this  is  evident 
from  the  experiment  of  a  ship  ;  wliere'all  mo- 
tions are  just  the  same,  whether  the  ship  is  at 
rest,  or  proceeds  uniformly  forward  in  a 
siraiglit  line. 

().  It  bodies,  any  how  moved  among  tlienj- 
selves,  are  urged  in  the  direclioii  of  parallel 
lines  by  equal  accelerative  forces,  they  will 
all  continue  to  move  among  themselves,  after 
the  same  manner  as  if  they  had  not  been 
urged  by  such  forces. 

The  mathematical  part  of  the  Newtoniiiri 
Philosophy  depends  chielly  on  the  following 
lemmas,  especially  the  first,  containing  tlii  • 
doctrine  of  prime  and  uUhuatc  ratios. 


Ml[.S  rE  ]LL  A"N1E§ 


160 


I!  I> 


MuTOiiii'ter 


in'fi 


A*. 

A 

j(?^ 

N, 

w  <■ 

\^ 

U 

X^'U 

K 

G 

\ 

.-.^ 


163 


i6j 


liuierlion  oi'  the  MiucLe-t 

i6e 


m/iMi/ii/M/m 


Olive  Tre.'.t 


in 


B 


Noctiiiiitil 


thive  ot' thf  Mu.<rl,:f 


n" 


l^eper'.tRod.s 


A 


8 


7>i>u/«//;n- 2tich)udFluIlip«.^^»-  iindne  Strv^t.  JilftLJ.tnnrs 


'Lcm.  1.  Quanlillcs,  anJ  the  ratiosof  qiinn- 
tillts,  which  111  any  finite  time  converge  con- 
tinually to  ei|nahly,  and  before  the  eml  of 
thai  time  ajiproach  nearei-  the  one  to  the 
olhei'  tliaii  by  any  given  Jil'ference,  become 
ultimately  equal. 

Lem.  '2.  shews,  that  in  a  space  boniul- 
cd  by  two  right  lines  and  a  curve,  if  an  iiiii- 
nite  number  of  parallelograms  are  iiiscnbe<l, 
all  of  eciiial  breadlli;  then  the  uUiniate  ratio 
of  the  curve  space,  and  the  sum  of  tlie  pa- 
rallelograms, will  be  a  ralio  of  e(|uality. 

Lem.  3.  shews,  that  the  same  thijig  is  true 
wlien  the  breiU-lths  of  the  parallelograms  are 
une<iiul. 

In  the  succecdhig  lemiius  it  is  shewn,  in 
like  manner,  that  tlie  ultimate  ratios  of  the 
sine,  chord,  and  tangent,  of  arcs  inlinitely 
diminished,  are  ratios  of  equality;  and  there- 
fore that  in  all  our  reasonings  about  these, 
we  may  safely  use  the  one  for  the  other:  that 
the  ulumate  form  of  evanscent  triangles, 
made  by  the  arc,  chord,  or  lang("nt,  is  that 
of  similitude,  and' their  nltimale  ratio  islh.it 
of  ciiuality  ;  and  hence,  in  reasonings  about 
ultimate  ratios,  these  triangles  may  safely  be 
used  one  lor  another,  whether  they  are  jiiade 
with  tlie  sine,  the  arc,  or  the  tangent.  lie 
then  demonstrates  some  properties  of  the 
ordinates  of  curvilinear  ligures  ;  and  shews 
that  the  spaces  which  a  body  describes  by 
any  iinite  force  urging  it,  whether  that  force 
is  determined  and  immutable,  or  conlinually 
varied,  are  to  eacii  other,  in  the  very  begin- 
ning of  the  motion,  in  the  duplicate  ratio  of 
the  forces;  and  lastly,  having  added  some 
demonstrations  concerning  the  evanescence 
of  angles  of  contact,  he  proceeds  to  lay  down 
the  mathematical  part  of  his  system,  which 
depends  on  the  following  theorems. 

'Iheor.  I.  The  areas  which  revolving  bo- 
dies describe  by  radii  drawn  to  an  ijunioveable 
centre  of  force,  lie  in  the  same  ijiiniuveahle 
planes,  and  are  proportional  to  the  times  in 
wliich  they  are  described.  To  this  proposi- 
tion are  annexed  several  corollaries,  respect- 
ing the  velocities  of  bodies  revolving  by  cen- 
tripetal forces,  the  directions  and  pi  o|.iortions 
of  those  foices,  S:c.  such  as,  that  the  velocity 
of  such  a  revolving  body  is  reciprocally  as  the 
peri)endicular  let  fall  from  the  centre  of  force 
upon  the  line  touching  the  orbit  in  the  place 
of  the  body,  &c. 

Theor.  2.  Every  body  that  moves  in  any 
curve  line  described  m  a  plane,  and  by  a 
radius  drawn  to  a  point  eitlier  immoveable 
or  moving  forward  witli  an  uniform  rectili- 
near motion,  d-'scribes  about  that  point  areas 
jjroportional  to  tlie  times,  is  urged  by  a  cen- 
tripetal force  directed  to  that  point.  With 
corollaries  relating  to  such  motions  in  resist- 
ing mediums,  an;l  to  the  direction  of  the 
forces  when  the  areas'are  not  propoilional  to 
the  times. 

Theor.  3.  Every  body  that,  by  a  radius 
I'rawii  to  the  centre  of  another  body,  any  how 
moved,  describes  areas  about  tliat  centre 
proportional  to  the  times,  is  urged  Uy  a  force 
compounded  of  the  centripetal  forces  tending 
to  that  other  body,  and  of  the  whole  accele- 
rative  force  by  which  tliat  other  body  is  ini- 
pelled.     With  several  corollaries. 

Theor.  4.  The  cealripelal  forces  of  bodies 
which  by  eiiual  motions  descrjbe  dilierent 
circles,  tend  to  the  centres  of  tiie  same  cir- 
cles; and  are  one  to  the  other  as  the  scjuares 
•I  the  arcs  described  in  equal  times,  applied 


NEWTONIAN  PITK.OSOrHY. 

to  the  radii  of  the  cinles.  With  many  co- 
rollaries relating  to  the  velocities,  times,  pe- 
riodic forces,  &c.  And,  in  a  scholium,  the 
author  farther  adds,  moreover,  by  means  of 
the  foregoing  pro])osition  and  its  corollaries, 
we  may  discover  the  proportion  of  a  centri- 
petal force  to  any  other  known  force,  such  as 
that  of  gravity.  For  if  a  body,  by  means  of 
its  gravity,  revolve?  in  a  circle  concentric  to 
the  earth,' this  gravity  is  the  ce ntiipetal  force 
of  that  body,  'fiut  froin  the  de»cenl.  of  heavy 
bodies,  the  time  of  one  entire  revolution,  as 
well  as  the  arc  desc  ribed  in  any  given  tune, 
is  given  by  a  '  orollary  to  this  proposition. 

On  these  and  such-like  princijiles  depends 
the  Newtonian  mathematical  iihilosopliy. 
The  author  farther  shews  how  to  find  the 
centre  to  which  the  forces  impelling  any  body 
are  directed,  having  the  velocity  of  the  body 
given;  and  finds  that  the  centrifugal  force  is 
always  as  the  versed  sine  of  the  nascent  arc 
directly,  and  as  the  s(|uare  of  the  time  in- 
versely; or- directly  as  the  square  of  the  velo- 
city, a'nd  iir.ersely  as  the  chord  of  the  nascent 
arc.  i'Vom  these  premises,  he  deduces  the 
method  of  hnding  the  centripetal  force  di- 
rected to  any  given  point  when  the  body  re- 
volves in  a  circle ;  and  this,  whether  the  cen- 
tral point  IS  near  hand,  or  at  immense  dis- 
tance; so  (hat  all  the  lines  drawn  from  it  may 
be  taken  for  parallels.  And  he  shews  the 
same  thing  with  regard  to  bodies  revolving  in 
spirals,  ellipses,  hyperbolas,  or  parabolas. 
He  shews  also,  having  the  figures  of  the  or- 
bits given,  how  to  find  the  velocities  and 
moving  [lowers  ;  and  indeed  resolves  the  most 
dlffiruit  problems  relating  to  the  celestial 
bodies  with  a  surprising  degree  oi  mathema- 
tical skill.  T  hcse  problems  and  demonstra- 
tions are  all  contained  in  the  first  book  ot  the 
l'rincij)ia ;  but  an  account  of  them  here 
would  neither  be  generally  understood,  nor 
easily  comprised  in  the  limits  of  this  work. 

Ill  the  second  buok,  Newton  treats  of  the 
properties  and  motion  of  fluids,  and  their 
powers  of  resislance,  v.ith  the  motion  of  bo- 
dies througii  :  uch  resisting  mediums,  those 
resistances  being  in  the  ratio  of  any  powers  of 
the  vel.)cilies  ;  and  the  motioirs  being  either 
made  in  right  lines  or  curves,  or  vibrating 
like  pendulums. 

On  entering  upon  the  third  book  of  the 
Principia,  Newton  brietly  recapitulates  the 
contents  of  tlie  two  former  books  in  these 
words:  "  In  the  [ireceding  books  I  have  laid 
down  the  principleii  of  philosophy,  principles 
not  philosuphica!,  but  mathemaUcal ;  such, 
to  wit,  as  V.V.  may  build  our  reasonings  upon 
in  philosophical  enquiries.  These  principles 
are,  the  laws  and  conditions  of  certain  mo- 
tions, and  pov..-r3  or  forces,  which  chieily 
have  respect  to  philosophy.  But  lest  they 
should  have  appealed  ot  themselves  dry  and 
barren,  I  have  illustrated  them  here  and  there 
w.tlvsome  philosophical  scholiums,  giving  an 
account  of  such  things  as  are  of  a  more  ge- 
neral nature,  and  which  philosophy  seems 
chiefly  to  be  founded  on ;  such  as  the  density 
and  the  resistance  of  bodies,  spaces  void  oi 
all  matter,  and  the  motion  of  light  and  sounds. 
It  remains,  he  adds,  that  from  the  same  prin- 
ciples I  now  demonstrate  the  frame  ot  the 
system  of  the  world.  Upon  this  subject  1 
Imd  indeed  composed  the  third  book  in  a 
popular  method,  that  it  might  be  read  by 
many.  But  afterwards  considering  that  such 
as  had  not  sufficiently  entered  into  the  prin- 


271 

fiples  could  not  easily  elisccrn  (he  strength  of 
the  consequences,  nor  lay  aside  the  preju- 
dices to  which  they  liad  been  many  yearj 
ac(  ustomed  ;  therefore  to  prevent  the  disputes 
which  might  be  raised  upon  such  accounts, 
1  chose  to  reduce  the  subslancr  of  that  book 
into  the  form  of  propositions,  in  the  mathe- 
matical way,  whicli  should  bi;  read  by  those 
only  who  had  first  made  themselves  masters 
of  the  principles  established  in  the  preceding 
books." 

As  a  necessary  preliminary  to  this  third 
part,  Newton  lays  down  rules  for  reasoning 
in  natural  philosophy. 

The  phenomena  first  considered  are,  1. 
That  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  by  radii  drawn 
to  his  centre,  de>-cribe  areas  projiortional  to 
the  times  of  description;  and  that  their  peri- 
odic limes,  the  fixed  stars  being  at  rest,  are 
in  the  sesqiiiplicate  ratio  of  their  distances 
from  tJiat  centre.  3.  The  sa  e  thing  is  like- 
wise observed  of  Ihe  phenoiiiena  of  Saturn. 
3.  T  he  live  primary  planets.  Mercury,  Ve- 
nus, Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  with  their  several 
orbits,  encompass  the  sun.  4.  The  fixed 
stars  being  supposed  at  rest,  the  periodic 
times  of  the  sukI  five  i)ninary  planets,  ;;nd  of 
tlie  <:arth,  about  tlie  sun,  arc  in  tlie  scsquipli- 
cate  proportion  of  their  mean  distances  from 
the  sun.  5.  The  primary  planets,  by  radii 
drawn  to  the  earth,  describe  areas  no  ways 
proportional  to  the  times;  but  the  areas  which 
they  describe  by  radii  drawn  to  fhe  sun  are 
proportional  to  the  times  of  description.  6. 
'I  he  moon,  by  a  radius  drawn  to  the  centre 
of  the  earth,  describes  an  area  pn- portional 
to  the  time  of  description.  All  which  phe- 
nomena are  clearly  evinced  by  astronomical 
observations.  '^Ihe  mathematical  demonstra- 
tions are  next  applied  by  Newton  in  the  fol- 
lowing propositions. 

Prop.  1 .  The  forces  by  which  the  satellites 
of  Jupiter  are  continually  drawn  off  from  rec- 
tilinear motions,  and  retained  in  their  proper 
orbits,  tend  to  the  centre  of  that  planet,  and 
are  reciprocally  as  the  scpiares  of  the  distances 
of  those  satellites  from  that  centre. 

Prop.  2.  The  same  tiling  is  true  of  the  pri- 
mary planets,  with  respect  to  the  sun's  centre. 
Prop.  3.  The  same  thing  i-;  also  true  of  tlie 
moon,  in  respect  of  the  earth's  centre. 

Prop.  4.  The  moon  gravitates  towards  the 
earth;  and  b)  the  force  of  gravity  is  conti- 
nually drawn  off  from  a  rectilinear  motion, 
and  retained  in  her  orbit. 

Prop.  5.  The  same  thing  i>  true  of  all  the 
ether  planets,  both  primary  and  secondary, 
each  with  respect  to  the  centre  of  its  motion. 
Prop.  0.  All  bodies  gravitate  towards  every 
planet ;  and  the  weights  of  bodies  towards  any 
one  and  the  same  planet,  at  equal  distances 
from  its  centre,  are  proportional  to  the  quan- 
tities of  matter  thev  contain. 

Prop.  7.  There  is  a  power  of  gravity  tend- 
ing to  all  bodies,  proporticnal  to  the  several 
quantities  of  matter  wLach  thev  contain. 

Prop.  3.  In  two  spheres  mutually  gravi- 
tating each  towards  the  other,  if  the  matter  in 
places  on  all  sides,  round  about  and  equidis- 
tant from  the  centres,  is  similar,  the  weight 
of  either  sphere  '.owards  the  other,  will  be  re- 
cijirocally  as  the  square  of  the  distance  be- 
tween their  centres.  Hence  are  compared  to- 
gether the  weights  of  bodies  towards  difTerent 
planets;  hence  also  are  discovered  the  quanti- 
ties of  mattei;in  the  several  planets;  and  hence 


272  ^'  1  c 

likewise  are  fouuti  tli<.-  densities  fiam  Uiose 

^'  'prop.  9-  The  force  of  gravity,  in  payts 
downwards  from  tlie  surface  of  tlie  panets  to- 
wards their  centres,  decreases  nearly  m  Hie 


proportion  of  the  distances  from  lliose  centres 
-riicse,  ar.ii  manv  other  propositions  and 
corollaries,  are  proved  or  illustrated  by  a 
sreat  variety  of  experiments,  m  aU  >he  gieal 
points  of  physical  astronomy.  becGRAViTY, 
Gravitatiom,  &c. 

NIC-^NDKA,  a  genus  of  the  monogvnia 
order  in  the  decandna  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  rankmg  under  the  loth 
order,  coutorta-.      Tlic  calvK  is  monopl.yl- 
lous  and  quadripartite  ;  the  corolla  is  mono- 
netaloiis,  tubulated,  and  parted  into  ten  laci- 
jiiK;   the   fruit  is  an  oval  berry,   which  is 
grooved   longitudinally,  and  contains  many 
Snail  anaular  s.eds.     Of  this  there  is  only 
cue  speciis,  the  amara,  a  native  of  Oui.uia. 
'Ihe  leaves  and  stalks  are  bitter,  and  used  by 
Ihe  natives  as  an  emetic  and  purge. 
NICHE.  See  Architecture. 
NICKEL,  in  niineralogv-  '1  liere  is  found  in 
.different  p.irts  of  Germany  a  heavy  mineral 
-of  a  ruddish-brov.n  colour,  not  unlike  copper. 
When  exposed  to  the  air,  it  gradually  loses 
its  lustre,  becomes  at  first  browaush,  and  is  at 
last  covered  witli  green  spots.     It  was  at  hrst 
taken  for  an  ore  of  copper :  but  as  none  ot 
that  metal  can  be  extracted  fi-om  it,  Uie  Ger- 
man  mhiers  give  it  the  name  of  kupiermckel, 
or  false  copper,     llierne,  who  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  father  of  the  Swedish  chemists, 
■is  the  first  person  who  mentions  this  mineral. 
He  gives  a  description  of  it  in  a  book  pub- 
lished by  liim  in  Ui<j4  on  the  art  of  detecting 
jnetals.     It  was  generally  considered  by  mi- 
iieralogists  as  an  ore  of  copper,  till  it  was 
examined  by  the  celebrated  Cronstedt.     He 
concluded  fioin  his  experiments,  which  were 
published  in  the  Stockholm  Transactions  tor 
175!  and  17;".4,  that  it  contained  a  new  me- 
tal, to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  nickel. 

'Ihis  opinion  was  embraced  by  all  the 
Swedes,  and  indeed  Ijy  the  greater  luimber  of 
chemical  philosophei-s.  Some,  however,  par- 
ticularly Sage  and  Mon-iet,  aflirmed,  that  it 
-contained  no  new  metal,  but  merely  a  com- 
pound of  various  known  metals,  which  could 
be  separated  from  each  other  by  the  usual 
proc.'sses.  These  assertions  induced  Berg- 
man to  undertake  a  very  laborious  course  of 
-experiments,  in  order,  if  possible,  to  obtain 
nickel  in  a  state  of  purity  ;  for  Cronstedt  had 
not  been  able  to  separate  a  ([uaiitity  of  arse- 
jiic,  cobalt,  and  iron,  which  adhered  to  it 
with  much  obstinacy.  These  experiments,, 
which  were  published  in  1775,  fully  conlirm- 
ed  the  conclusions  of  Cronstedt. 

Nickel,  v.hen  perfectly  pure,  is  of  a  fine 
■white colour,  reseinbliug  silver;  and  like  that 
metal  it  leaves  a  white  trace  when  rubbed 
-tipon  the  poli->bcd  surface  of  a  hard  stcnie.  1 1 
is  rather  softer  than  iron.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  9.  Its  malleability,  while  cold,  is  ratlier 
greater  than  that  ot'iron,  but  it  cannot  be 
Jieated  without  being  oxidated,  and  in  conse- 
ijuence  reiulered  brittle.  It  is  attracted  by 
the  magnet  as  strongly  as  iron.  Like  tliat 
iuelal,  it  mav  be  coinerted-  into  a  magnet; 
and  in  that 'state  points  to  the  north  when 
irecly  suspended,  precisely  as  a  common 
dnagnetic  needle.  It  requires  for  fusi..)n  a 
-teniperature  at  least  eijual  to  150°  Wedtre- 
wood.   It  has  nut  hitherto  been  crys(alli:ied. 


NIC 

When  heated  in  an  open  vessel,  it  com- 
bines with  o.xygcn,  and  assumes  a  green  co- 
lour; and  if  the  heat  is  continued,  acquires  a 
tinge  of  purple.  T  he  oxide  of  nickel,  ac- 
cording to  Klaproth,  is  composed  of  77  parts 
of  nickel  and  23  of  oxygen. 

Nickel  has  not  been  combined  with  car- 
bon nor  hydrogen,  but  it  combines  readily 
with  sulpiiur  and  phospliorus.  Cronstedt 
found  that  sulphuret  of  nickel  may  be  easily 
formed  by  fusion.  The  sul])huret  which  be 
obtained  "was  yellow  and  hard,  with  small 
sparkling  face{s ;  but  the  nickel  which  he 
ciiiployed  was  Impure. 

J-'liosphuret  ot  nickel  may  be  formed  e'rther 
by  fusing  nickel  along  with  phosphoric  gliss, 
or  by  dropping  phosphorus  into  it  while  red- 
hot.'  It  is  of  a  white  colour,  and  when  broke, 
it  exhibits  the  appearance  of  very  slender 
prisms  collected  together.  Vriieu  heated, 
the  jihosphorus  bums,  and  the  metal  is  oxi- 
dated. It  is  composed  of  8,3  i)aits  of  nickel 
and  17  of  phosphorus.  The  nickel  however 
on  wliich  this  experiment  was  made,  was  not 
pure. 

Nickel  is  not  acted  upon  by  azote,  nor  does 
it  combine  with  muriatic  acid. 

ITie  alloys  of  this  metal  are  but  very  im- 
perfectly known.  W'ith  gold  it  forms  a  white 
and  brittle  alloy  ;  with  copper  a  white,  hard, 
brittle  alloy,  easily  oxidized  when  exposed  to 
the  air  ;  with  iron  it  combines  very  readily, 
and  forms  an  alloy  whose  properties  have 
not  been  sufficiently  examined  ;  with  tin  it 
tonus  a  while,  hard,'brittlc  mass,  which  swells 
up  when  heated;  with  lead  it  does  not  com- 
bine without  difficulty;  with  silver  and  mer- 
cury it  refuses  to  unite;  its  combination  with 
platinum  has  not  been  tried. 

The  atfinities  of  nickel,  and  its  oxides,  are, 
according  to  Bergman,  as  follows: 


Nickel.  Oxide  of  Nickel. 

Iron,  Oxalic  acid. 

Cobalt,  Muriatic, 

Arsenic,  Sulphuric, 

Copper,  Tartaric, 

Gold,  •  Nitric, 

Tin,  Phosphoric, 

Antimony,  Fluoric, 

Platiiuun,  .Sadactic, 

Bismuth,  Succinic, 

Lead,  Citric, 

Silver,  Lactic, 

Zinc,  Acetic, 

Sulphur,  Arsenic, 

Phosphorus.      .  Boracic, 
Prussic, 
Carbonic. 
Nickel,  o/ts  of.     Hitherto  nickel  has 
been  found  in  too  small  t]uantities  to  be  ap- 
plied to  any  use;  of  coin<_-  there  are  no 
mines  of  niitel.     It  usually  occurs  in  secon- 
dary mountains,  and  commonly  accompanies 
cobalt.     It  has  been  I'ound  in  dilTerent  parts 
of   Germany,    in    Sweden,   Siberia,  Spain, 
France,  and  Britain. 

NICOL.'MT.VNS,  in  church  history, chris- 
tian heretics  who  assumed  this  name  from 
NicoUis  of  Antioch ;  v\-|io,  being  a  gentile 
by  birth,  lirst  embraced  Judaism,  and  then 
cmistianity  ;  when  his  zeal  and  devotion  re- 
commended hhn  to  the  church  of  Jerusalein, 
by  whom  he  was  ciiosen  one  of  tlic  lirst  dea- 
cons. 

NICOTI.\NA,  tobficcn,  a  genus  -of  the 
monogynia  order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of 
plants,  and  in  llic  natural  method  ranking 


N  I  C 

under  the  28th  order,  lurida".  The  co.o'h 
is  funnel-shaped,  with  a  plaited  limb  ;  the 
stamina  inclined;  the  capsule  bivalved  and 
biloeular.  There  are  seven  species,  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  is  the  tabacum  (see 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  297),  or  common  to- 
bacco-plant. This  was  lirst  discovered  in 
.America  by  the  Spaniards  about  the  year 
1560,  and  by  them  imported  into  Europe.  It 
had  been  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  America 
long  before  ;  and  was  called  by  those  of  the 
islands  yoli,  and  pa;tun  by  the  iuluibitiints  of 
the  conihient.  It  was  sent  into  Spain  frcni 
Tabaco,  a  province  of  Yccatari,  where  it  was 
first  discovered,  and  whence'  it  lakes  its  com- 
mon «ame. 

lliere  are  two  varieties  of  tliat  species  of 
nicotiana  which  is  cultivated    ibr  conr.nnn 
use;    and  which   are-  distinguished   by   the 
names  of  Oronokoe,  and  sweet-scented  to- 
bacco.    They  ditTer  from  each  other  in  the 
figure  of  their   leaves  ;  those  of  the  former 
being  longer  and  narrower  than  the  la'.ter. 
They   are  tall    herbaceous   jilants,   growing 
erect  with   fine    foliage,  and  rising  with   a 
strong  stem  from  six  to  nine  feet  high.     .The 
stalk,  near  the  root,  is  upward   of  an  inch 
diameter,    and  suiToundt;d   with   a  kind  of 
hairy  or  velvet  clammy  substance,  of  a  yel- 
lowish-green colour.     'Ihe leaves  are  latiier 
of  a  deeper  green,  and  grow  alternaleiy  at  the 
distance  of  two  or  three  inches  from  each 
other.     They  are  oblong,  of  a  spear-sliaped 
oval,     and     simple ;      -the     largest     about 
twenty  iiu  lies  long,  but  decreasing   in  size 
as  they  ascend,  till  they  come  to  be  only  ten 
inches  long,  and  about  half  as  broad.     The 
face  of  the  leaves  is  much  corrugated,  hke 
those  of  spinach  «he{i  full-ripe.    Before  t!i.  y 
come  to  maturity,  when  they  are  about  five 
or  six  inches  long,  the  leaves  are  generally  of 
a  full  green,  and  rather  smooth  ;  but  as  thev 
increase  in  size,-  they  become  rougher,  and 
ac(iuire   a  yellowish    cast.     T'he    stem  and 
branches  are  terminated  by  large  bunches  of 
iiowcrs  collected  into  chusters,  of  a  delicate 
red  ;  the  edges,  when  full-blown,  inclining  to 
a  pale  purple.     T  hey  continue  in  succes>icn 
till  the  end   of  the  summer;  when   they  aie 
su(  teeded  by  seeds  of  a  brown  colour,  and 
kidney-shaped.     These  are  very  sm?.ll,  each 
■(■ap>uie    containing    about    lOUO;    and  the 
whole  ))roduce  of  a  single  plant  is  reckoned 
at  about  350,000.     The  seeds  ripen  in  the 
moiitli  of  September. 

Mr.  Carver  informs  us,  that  the  Oronokoe, 
or,  as  it  ii  called,  the  long  Virg  nian  tobacco, 
is  tlie  kind  best  suited  for  bearing  the  rigour 
of  a  northern  climate ;  the  strength,  as  well  as 
iho  scent,  of  the  leaves,  being  greater  than 
liiat  ot  the  other.  Tlie  sweet-scented  sort 
flourishes  most  in  a  sandy  soil,  and  in  a  warm 
climate,  where  it  gieatly  exceeds  the  former 
in  the  celerity  of  its  growth  ;  and  is  likewise,, 
as  its  name  intimates,  much  more  mild  and 
pleasant. 

Cii  tiire. — Tobacco  thrives  best  in  a  warm, 
kindly,  rich  soil,  that  is  not  subject  to  be 
overrun  by  weeds.  In  Virginia  lilie  soil  in 
which  it  thrives  best  is  warm,  light,  and  in- 
clining to  be  sandy;  and  therefore  if  the 
plant  IS  to  be  cultivated  in  Britain,  it  oUelit  to 
l>e  planted  in  a  soil  as  ucaily  of  the  same  kind 
as  possible.  Other  kii.ds  of  soil  miglii  pro- 
bably be  brought  to  suit  il,  by  a  mixture  of 
proper  manure;  but  we  must  renumber, 
that  whatever  manure  is  made  use  of  must 


N  I  C 

hr  llioroiiglily  incorporated  uilli  tli';  soil.  TIjc 
bi-'st  siliKdioii  tor  ii  tobacco-plaiiUifuni  is  llic 
toiitlu-rn  (li'chvlty  ol  a  lull  rutlu-r  graihial 
than  al)ni|)l,  or  a  spot  tliiit  is  sliclti/rL-d  lioni 
till'  iKjrlli  winds:  lint  at  the  sHjiie  time  it  is 
necessary  thai  the  (.iRuts  enjoy  a  free  air; 
,  for  without  that  tliey  wid  not  prosper. 

Having  so'.vn.the  seed,  On  t-!ie  least  appre- 
lieii  ion  ol"  a  frosl  after  the  plants  appear,  it 
will  Ijc  necessary  to  spread  mats  over  the 
beds,  a  little  elevated  from  the  ground  by 
poles  laid  across,  that  they  may  not  be  crnsh- 
ed.  When  tiie  tobacco  has  risen  to  the 
lieii;ht  of  more  than  two  feet,  it  commonly 
hegnis  to  pot  forili  the  branches  on  which  the 
flowers  and  si'cds  are  prodno'd  ;  but  as  this 
expansion,  if  snlfercfl  to  lake  place,  would 
drain  the  nutriment  from  the  leaves,  which 
are  tin;  most  \aUiable  part,  and  thereby 
lessen  tlieir  size  and  ellicacy,  it  becomes 
lici'dlal  at  this  stage  to  nip  oil'  the  extremity 
of  the  stalk  to  prevent  its  growing  higher. 
In  some  climates  the  top  is  commonly  cut  off 
when  the  jdant  has  15  leaves:  but  if  llie  to- 
bacco is  intended  to  be  a  little  slionger  than 
iisnal,  this  is  done.wlicn  it  has  only  13. 

'I'lie  apparent  signs  of  maturity  are  these : 
the  leave-,  as  they  approach  a  state  of  ripe- 
nos,  become  more  corrugated  or  rough  ; 
and  when  fully  ripe  appear  mottled,  with  yel- 
lowish spots  on  the  raised  parts;  wliiUt  the 
cavities  retain  their  usual  green  colour. 

I'obacco  is  subject  to  be  destroyed  by  a 
worm  ;  and  without  proper  care  to  extermi- 
nate tills  enemy,  a  whole  field  of  plants  may 
soon  be  lost.  'I'lii^  animal  is  of  the  horned 
species,  and  appears  to  be  peculiar  to  the  to- 
bacco-plant ;  so  that  in  many  parts  of  Ame- 
rica it  is  distingnislied  by  the  name  of  the  to' 
bacco-worm.  In  what  manner  it  is  first  pro- 
duced, or  how  propagated,  is  unknown  :  but 
it  is  not  discernible  till  the  plants  have  attain- 
ed aboilt  halt  their  height ;  and  then  appears 
to  be  nearly  as  large  as  a  gnat.  Soon  after 
this  it  lengthens  into  ii  worm  ;  and  by  de- 
•grees  increases  in  magnilude  to  the  bigness 
of  a  man's  linger.  In  shape  it  is  regular  Iroiii 
its  head  to  its  tail,  without  any  diminution  at 
cither  extremilv.  Thu  colour  ot  its  skin  is, 
in  gL-neral,  green,  inteispersed  uidi  several 
s))Ots  of  a  jellowisli  white;  and  tlie  whole 
covered  with  a  sliort  hair  scarcely  to  be  dis- 
cerned. These  worms  are  found  the  most 
predominant  during  the  end  of  July  and 
the  beginning  of  August;  at  whicli  time  the 
plants  must  be  p.irlic  ularly  attended  to,  and 
every  leaf  carelully  searched.  As  soon  as  a 
wound  is  disiovered  (and  it  will  not  be  long 
belore  it  is  perceptible"),  care  mu?t  be  taken 
to  destroy  the  cause  of  it,  wdrch  will  be  found 
near  it,  and  from  its  ujisubstantial  texture 
may  easily  be  crushed. 

AVhen  the  tobacco  is  fit  for  being  gather- 
ed, on  the  first  morning  that  promises  a 
fair  day,  before  the  sun  is  risen,  take  an  axe 
or  a  lolig  knife,  and  holding  the  st.ilk  near 
t:ie  top  with  one  hand,  sever  it  from  its  root 
with  the  ol  her,  as  low  as  possible.  Lay  it 
gently  on  the  ground,  taking  care  not  to 
break  off  the  leaves,  and  there  let  it  remain 
exposed  to  tlie  rays  of  the  sun  throughout  the 
clay,  or  until  the  leaves,  according  to  the 
American  expression,  are  entirely  wilted ; 
that  is,  tilt  they  become  limber,  and  w  ill  bend 
any  way  without  breaking.  But  if  the  wea- 
ther should  prove  rainy  without  any  )nttrvi^l» 
Vol.  II. 


N  r  C 

of  sunsliine,  and  the  jdants  appear  (o  be  fully 
ripe,  they  niibt  be  housed  ininicdialely.  This 
nubt  be  done,  however,  with  great  care  that 
the  leaves,  vliich  arc  in  this  stale  ver\  brittle, 
may  not  be  broken.  They  are  next  to  be 
placed  under  proper  shelter,  either  in  a  barn 
or  covered  hovei,  wlieri:  they  cannot  be  af- 
lected  by  rain  or  too  mich  air,  thinly  scat- 
teied  on  the  floor;  and  if  the  sun  does  not 
appear  tor  several  days,  tlicy  must  be  lett  to 
wilt  in  that  manner  ;  but  in  tlils  case  the 
quality  of  the  tobacco  will  not  be  quite  so 
good. 

^\'llen  the  leaves  have  acquired  the  above- 
nieiili''iied  tlexibility,  the  plants  must  be  laid 
in  iieain,  or  latlier  in  one  heap  if  the  <(Uan- 
tily  is  not  loo  great,  and  in  about  24  hours 
tliey  will  be  found  to  sweat.  But  during  this 
time,  when  they  have  lain  for  a  little  while, 
and  begin  to  ferment,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
tin n  them;  bringing  those  which  are  in  the 
middle  to  the  surface,  and  placing  those 
which  are  at  the  surface  in  the  middle.  The 
longer  they  lie  in  tliis  situation,  the  darker- 
coloured  is  the  tobacco.  After  they  have 
lain  for  three  or  four  days,  for  a  longer  con- 
tinuance might  make  the  plants  turn  mouldy, 
tliey  iiiav  be  fastened  together  in  pairs  with 
cords  or  wooden  pegs,  near  the  bottom  of  the 
stalk,  and  hung  across  a  pole,  with  the  leaves 
susjiended  in  the  same  covered  place,  a  pro- 
per interval  biing  left  between  each  pair.  In 
alioul  a  month  the  leaves  will  be  thoroughly 
dried,  and  of  a  proper  temperature  to  be 
laken  down.  This  slate  may  be  ascertained 
by  their  appearing  of  the  same  colour  with 
(hose  imp. /ried  from  ,\nierica.  Rut  lliis  can 
be  done  only  in  wet  weather.  The  tobacco 
is  exceedingly  apt  to  attract  the  humidity  of 
the  atmo^jiliere,  which  gives  it  a  pliability 
tli.it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  its  preserva- 
tion; for  it  llie  plants  are  removed  in  a  very 
dry  season,  the  exlrrnal  parts  of  the  leaves 
will  crumble  into  tlusl,  and  a  considerable 
waste  will  ensue. 

Cure. — As  soon  as  the  plants  are  taken 
(low  11,  tlii-y  must  again  be  laid  in  a  heap,  and 
pressed  with  heavy  logs  of  wood  for  about  a 
week  ;  but  this  climate  may  possibly  require 
a  longer  time.  "While  they  remain  in  this 
state  it  will  be  necessary  to  introduce  your 
hand  ("requenlly  into  the  heap,  to  discover 
vvhelher  the  heat  is  not  too  intense ;  for  in 
large  quantities  this  will  sometimes  be  tiie 
case,  and  considerable  damage  will  be  occa- 
sioned bv  it.  When  tliey  are  found  to  heat 
too  much,  that  is,  when  the  heat  exceeds  a 
moderate  glowing  warmth,  jiart  of  the  weight 
by  which  tliey  ire  pressed  must  be  taken 
away  ;  and  Ihe  cause  being  remo\ed,  the  ef- 
fect will  cease.  "^Ihis  is  called  the  second,  or 
last  sweating  ;  and,  when  compli-ted,  which  it 
generally  will  be  about  the  time  just  men- 
tioned, the  leaves  may  be  stripped  from  tlie 
stalks  for  use.  Many,  however,  omit  this 
last  sweating. 

M'hen  the  leaves  are  stripped  from  the 
stalks,  they  are  to  b ;  tied  up  in  bunches  or 
hands,  and  kept  in  a  cellar  or  other  damp 
place  ;  though  if  not  handled  in  dry  weather, 
but  only  during  a  rainy  season,  it  ij  of  little 
consequence  in  what  part  of  the  house  or 
barn  they  are  laid  up.  At  this  period  tlie 
tobacco  is  thoroughly  cured,  and  as  proper 
for  m.inufacturing  as  that  imported  from  the 
colonies. 
Tobacco  is  made  up  into  rolls  by  the  in- 


N  I  H 


17Z 


Iiabilatils  of  the  interior  paili  of  Anirvica, 
by  means  of  a  machine  calked  a  tobacco- 
wlieel.  Willi  Iliis  machine  they  spin  the 
leaves  after  they  are  cured,  into  a  twist  of 
any  size  they  tiiink  fit;  and  having  folded 
it  into  rolls  of  about  20  jjcunds  eat  h,  I  hey 
lay  it  by  for  use.  In  tins  stale  it  will  keep 
for  several  years,  and  be  continually  improv- 
ing, as  it  always  grows  milder.  '1  fie  Illinois 
usually  form  it  into  carrots;  which  is  done 
by  lading  a  number  of  leaves,  when  cured, 
on  each  other  allcr  the  ribs  have  been  taken 
out,  arid  rolling  them  rotuid  with  packthread 
till  they  become  cemented  together.  'Ihcse 
rolls  commonly  measure  about  18  or  20 
inclies  in  length,  and  nine  round  in  the  mid- 
dle part. 

NICTITATING  Membrane.  Sec  CoM- 
PARATiVK  Anatomy. 

NIGELL.A, /•7!nc//o:ticr,  or  diril  in  a 
l>!i.;h,  a  genus  of  the  penlagynia  order,  be- 
longing to  llie  penlandria  cais  of  plants. 
riicre  is  no  caI)X  ;  the  petals  are  five,  and 
five  trilid  nectaria  within  the  corolla  ;  there 
are  t\\f2  connected  capsiilc-s.  Tiiere  are  fwt 
species,  all  of  them  annuals,  and  natives  of 
the  warm  parts  of  lulrope  ;  and  rising  from  3 
foot  to  a  loot  and  a  hall  h  j^li,  adorned  with 
liluc  or  while  ilower.^.  Tiiey  are  projiagalcd 
by  seeds,  which  in  a  dry  and  warm  situation 
will  thrive  very  well ;  and  the  plants  ripen 
seeds  in  this  country. 

NIGIi  r-MAHK.     See  Medicine. 

NKjI\IN.\,  in  hot.  nv,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nog)iiia  order,  belonging  to  the  penlandria 
class  of  jilanls.  'I  he  c  tnol'a  it;  iunnel-shaped ; 
tlie  <  alyx  inllaled;  the  stigma  obtuse;  the 
capsule  bilocular. 

NIvJKINl',.  'I'liis  ore  has  Iiilherto  been 
found  only  near  Passau  in  I5avaria,  and  at 
Arendaal  in  Norw.iy,  and  near  St.  Ciothard. 
It  was  discovered  by  professor  Hunger.  It  is 
sometimes  di-seminaled,  but  more  commonly 
crystallized,  in  four-sided  priini*,  not  longer 
than  one-fourth  of  an  inch.  Primitive  torni 
a  riioniboidal  pnsm. 

Colour  reddi^ll,  yellowish,  or  bla-kish- 
brown  ;  somelinies  whitish-grey.  Powder 
whitish-grey.  Lustre  waxy,  or  nearly  Kietal- 
lic.  Texture  foliated.  Brittle.  Spe-cilic 
gravity  3.510.  Muriatic  acid,  by  repeated 
digustion,  dissolves  one-third  of  it.  Ammo- 
nia pre<ipitatcs  from  this  solution  a  clamiivy 
yellowisli  substance.  Infusible  by  the  blow- 
pipe, and  also  iu  a  clay  crucible ;  but  in  cliarr 
coal  is  converted  into  a  black,  opaque,  por 
rous  slag. 

.\ccirding  to  the  analysis  of  Klaproth  it  is 
composed  of 

33  oxide  of  titaniuni 
3  J  silica 
33  lime 

101. 

The  mineral  called  sphene  bv  Haiiv  be- 
longs to  this  species.  According  to  the  aua« 
hsis  of  Cordier  it  is  composed  of 

33.3  oxide  of  titanium 
2S.0  silica 
32.2  lime. 

93.5 

NIHIL  DIGIT,  a  failure  in  the  defem!- 
anl  to  put  iu  an  aiuwer  to  lije  plaintift"'s  de- 


274 


K   J  T 


claratiori,  S:c.  1)y  Ihe  day  assigned  for  tiia< 
purpose,  by  which  omission  judgment  of 
course  is  had  against  him. 

NIM15US,  in  antitiuity,  a  circle  observed 
on  certain  medals,  or  round  the  head  of  some 
emperors,  answering  to  tlie  circles  of  light 
drawn  around  the  images  of  sauits.  'Ihe 
nimbus  is  seeiv  on  the  iiii  dais  of  Maurice, 
Phocas,  and  others,  even  of  the  upper  em- 
pire.    See  also  ^JETEOROI-OG.•. 

NIPA,  a  genus  of  the  natural  order  of 
palms.  The  male  has  a  ppathe  ;  the  corolla 
IS  six-petallid.  The  female  has  a  spathe ; 
corolla  none;  drupes ;ingular. 

There  is  one  species,  a  native  of  the  E. 
Indies.  The  leaves  are  used  in  making 
mats. 

NrPPRRS,  in  a  ship,  are  small  ropes 
about  a  fatliom  or  two  lojig,  with  a  little  truck 
■^t  one  end,  and  sonielime-'  only  a  wale-knot, 
'^rhefr  use  is  to  help  holding  off  the  cable 
fmni  the  main  or  jeer-cap>tan,  -where  the  ca- 
ble is  so  slthiv,  so  wet,  and  so  great,  that  they 
cannot  strain'  it,  to  liold  it  ol'f  with  their  bare 
b  nds.     ~ 

>iiSI  PRIUS,  in'  law,  a  commission  di- 
rected to  the  judges  of  assize,  empowering 
them  to  try  all  (piestions  of  fact  issuing  out 
of  the  coijVts  at  \Ve>tiniiKttr  that  are  (hen 
ready  for  trial  by  jury.  'J'lie  original  of  which 
name  is  this :  all  causes  commenced  in  the 
courts  of  \Yestniinster-hall  a;e,  by  course  of 
the  coitrts,  appointed  to  he  tried  on  a  day 
fixed  iu  some  I'jster  or  Michaelmas  term,  by 
a  jury  returned  from  the  county  wherein  tlie 
t^ause  of  action  arises;  but  with  this  proviso, 
nisi  prius  justiciarii  ad  assisas  capicndas  vene- 
rint:  that  is,  unless  before  the  day  prefixed 
the  judges  of  assize  come  into  the  county  in 
question,  w  hich  they  always  do  in  the  vaca- 
tion preceding  each  Easter  and  Michaelmas 
term,  and  there  try  the  cause.  And  then, 
U|Jon  the  return  of  the  verdict  given  by  tlie 
jury  to  the  court  above,  the  judges  there  give 
judgment  for  tlie  party  to  whom  the  verdict 
IS  found.     3  Black.  i9.     See  Assizes. 

NISSCILIA,  a  genus  of  the  decandria  or- 
der, in  the  diadelphia  class  of  plants,  and  in 
tiie  natural  method  ranking  under  the  .jid  or- 
der, papilionacea-.  The  calyx  is  (]uiiKjUe- 
(lentate  ;  the  capsule  mouospermous ,  and  tt  r- 
ininated  by  a  ligulated  wiug-  'I'here  are  two 
species,  trees  ot  Carlhagena. 

NiriDULA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the 
toleoptera  order.  ')  he  generic  character  is, 
antenns  clavate,  the  club  solid  ;  shells  mar- 
Joined ;  head  prominent ;  thorax  a  little  Hat- 
fened,  margined.  There  are  upwards  of  30 
specie;  of  this  genus. 

NITR.'VRIA,  a  genus  of  the  liionogynia 
order,  in  the  dodecandria  class  of  plants,  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  \ritli  those  of 
which  the  order  is  doubtful.  'l'h<5  corolla  is 
pentapelalous,  with  the  petals  arched  at  Ihe 
top;  the  calyx  OjUrnqifelu! ;  the  stamina  l."i  ; 
tiie  fruit  a  monosperinous  plum,  'iliere  i:. 
une  species,  a  Shrub  ot  Sdjena. 

NITRATS,  salts  formed  ky  H'e  nitric 
a- id.  The  niost  imporliuit  of  the  nitrals 
liave  been  long  known  ;  and  in  consequence 
of  the  singular  properties  which  they  possess, 
no  class  of  bodies  has  e.xcited  greater  atten- 
tion, or  been  e.samuieil  witii  more  unwearied 
industry.  See  Nitre.  They  may  be;  dis- 
tin^uiblicd  by  Ihtf  (uUotting  pioperlies  : 


N  I  T 

1.  Soluble  in  water,  and  capable  of  crystal- 
lizing bv  cooUng.  'J.  When  heated  to  red- 
ness, along  with  combustible  'jpdies,  a  vio- 
lent combustion  and  delonation  are  produced. 

3.  Sulphurip  acid  disengages  irom  them 
fumes,  wiiich  have  the  odour  of  nitnc  acid. 

4.  When  heated  along  with  muriatic  acid, 
oxymuriatic  acid  is  exhaled,  b.  Decom- 
posed by  heat,  and  y  iekl  at  first  oxygen  gas. 
The  nitrats  at  present  known  are  \'^  in  num- 
ber. Few  of  tliem  combine  with  an  excess 
of  acid  or  of  base,  so  that  there  are  hardly 
any  supernitrats,  or  subnitrats. 

ISTPKE,  ov  iiilral  of  pntriis.  As  this  salt, 
known  also  by  the  name  of  saltpetre,  is  pro- 
duced naUirally  in  considerable  quantities, 
particularly  in  Egypt,  it  is  higlily  probable 
that  the  aiitients  were  acquainted  with  it; 
but  scarcely  auv  thing  certain  can  be  col- 
lected from  their  writings.  If  Pliny  men- 
tions it  at  all,  he  confounds  it  with  soda, 
which  was  known  by  the  names  of  nitron  and 
nitrum.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  it  has 
been  know'u  in  the  East  from  time  immemo- 
rial. Eoger  Hacon  mentions  this  salt  in  the 
13th  century  under  the  name  of  nitre. 

Ko  ph:-nomenon  has  excited  the  attention 
of  chemical  philosophers  more  than  the  con- 
tinual reproduction  of  nitre  in  certain  places 
aftcM-  it  had  been  extracted  from  them.  Pro- 
digious cpianlities  of  this  salt  are  necessary 
for  the  purposes  of  war;  and  as  nature  has 
not  laid  up  great  magazines  of  it,  as  she  has 
of  some  oth.er  salts,  fliis  annual  reproduction 
is  the  only  source  from  which  it  can  be  pro- 
cured. It  became  therefore  of  the  utmost 
consequence,  if  possible,  to  discover  the 
means  which  nature  employed  in  forming  it, 
in  order  to  enable  us  lo  imitate  her  processes 
by  art,  or  at  least  to  accelerate  and  facilitate 
tliem  at  pleasure.  Numerous  attempts  ac- 
cordingly have  been  made  to  explain  and  to 
imitate  these  processes. 

Lemerv  the  younger  advanced,  that  all  the 
nitre  obtained  exists  previously  in  animals 
and  vegetables;  and  that  it  is  formed  in  these 
substances  by  the  processes  of  vegetation  and 
aii'unali/.ation.  But  it  was  soon  discovered 
that  nitre  exists,  and  is  actually  tormed,  in 
niauv  places  where  no  animal  nor  vegetable 
substance  luid  been  decomposed  ;  and  con- 
se(|u;-utlv  this  theory  xtas  as  untenable  as  the 
former.  "  So  far  indeed  is  it  fron\  being  true 
tliat  nitre  is  formed  by  these  processes  alone, 
tliat  the  ([uaulity  of  nitre  in  iilaiits  has  been 
found  to  depend  entirely  On  the  soil  in  which 
they  grow. 

At  last,  by  the  numerous  exjieriments  of 
several  l''rench  philosophers,  oarticularly  by 
those  of  Thouvenel,  it  was  discovered  that 
nothing  else  is  necessary  for  the  piodnction 
of  nitre  than  a  basis  of  lime,  heat,  and  an 
open  but  not  too  free  communication  with 
dry  atmospheric  air.  When  these  circum- 
stances combine  the  acid  is  first  formed,  and 
afterwards  the  alkali  makes  its  ajipearance. 
How  the  air  furnishes  materials  for  this  i)ro- 
duc  ion  is  easily  explained,  now  that  the 
component  ];artsof  the  nitric  acid  are  known 
to  be  oxygen  and  azote;  but  how  lime  con- 
liibulesto  their  union  it  is  not  so  easy  to  see. 
The  appearance  of  the  potass  is  equally  ex- 
traordinary. If  any  tiling  ran  give  counte- 
nance to  the  lijpothesis  tiiat  potass  is  com- 
posed of  I'une  and.  azote,  it  ij  this  siusi,ular 
tact,  ,    . 


N  I  T 

Nilre  is  found  abundantly  on  the  surface 
of  the  eartli  in  India,  South  America,  and 
even  in  some  parts  of  Spain.  In  Gemiaiiy 
and  France  it  is  obtained  by  m(.'ans  of  arlili- 
cial  nitre-beds.  These  consist  of  the  refuse 
of  animal  and  vegetable  bodies  undergoing 
putrefaction,  mixed  with  calcareous  and 
other  earths.  It  has  been  ascertained  tlmt 
if  oxygen  gas  Is  presented  to  azote  at  the  in- 
stant of  its  disengagement,  nitric  acid  is  form- 
ed. This  seems  to  explain  the  origin  ol  the 
acid  ilutlle^e  beds.  The  azote  disengaged 
from  these  juitrefying  animal  substances  com- 
bines with  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The  pbta^s. 
is  probably  iurnrshed,  partly  at  least,  by  the 
vegetables  and  the  soil. 

'I  he  nitre  is  extracted  from  these  beds  by 
lixiviating  the  earthy  matters  with  water] 
Thii  w'ater,  when  sullicieiitly  impregnated,  is 
evaporated,  and  a  brown-coloun-d  salt  ob- 
tained, known  by  the  name  of  crude  nitre. 
11  consists  of  nitre,  common  salt,  nitr^t  of 
lime,  and  various  other  salts.  The  foreign 
salts  are  either  separated  by  repeated  crys- 
tallizations, or  by  washing  the  salt  rcpeatcoly 
v\ith  small  quantities  of  water;  for  the  foreign 
salts  being  more  soluble  are  taken  uj)  lirst. 

Nitre,  when  slowly  evaporated,  is  obtain- 
ed in  six-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  six- 
sided  pyramids  ;  but  for  most  purposes  it  is 
preferred  in  an  irregular  mass,  because  in 
that  state  it  contains  less  water.  The  pri- 
mitive form  of  its  crystals,  according  td 
llauv,  is  a  rectangular  octahedron,  composed 
of  two  four-sided  pyramids  applied  base  to 
base ;  two  of  the  sides  are  inclined  to  the 
other  pyramid  at  an  angle  of  1  JO' ;  the  other 
two  at  an  angle  of  1 1 1".  The  form  of  its  in- 
tegrant particles  is  the  tetrahedron.  The 
six-sided  prism  is  the  most  common  form 
which  it  assumes.  Somelimis,  instead  of  six- 
sided  pyramids,  these  prisms  are  terminated 
bv  IS  facets,  disposed  in  three  ranges  of  six, 
as  if  threi-  truncated  pyramids  were  piled  on 
each  other;  sometimes  it  crystallizes  m 
tables. 

'J'he  specific  gravity  of  nitre  is  1.93f)9.  Its 
taste  is  sharp,  bitterish,  and  cooling.  It  is 
very  brittle.  It  is  so'uble  in  seven  times  its 
weight  of  water  at  the  temperature  of  t)0% 
and  in  nearly  its  own  weight  of  boiling  water. 
It  is  not  altered  by  ex|;osure  to  the  air. 

When  the  solution  of  nitre  is  exjiosed  to  a 
boiling  heat,  part  of  the  salt  is  evaporated 
along  with  the  water,  as  Wallerius,  Kirwan, 
and  J^avoisicr,  observed  suc<es-ively.  When 
exposed  to  a  strong  heat  it  melts,  and  con- 
geals by  cooling  into  an  opatine  mass,  which 
has  been  i  ailed  mineral  crystal.  Whenever 
it  melts  it  begins  to  disengage  oxygen  ;  and 
by  keeping  it  in  a  red  heat  about  the  third  of 
its  weight  of  that  gas  may  be  obtained:  to« 
wards  the  end  of  tlie  process  azotic  gas  is  dis-r 
engaged.  If  the  heat  is  continued  long 
enough  the  salt  is  completely  decomposed, 
aiul  pure  potass  remains  behind. 

It  ihtonates  more  violently  with  combus- 
tible bodies  than  any  of  the  other  nitrats. 
\\  hen  mixed  vvith  one-third  part  of  its  weight 
of<'liarcoal,  and  thrown  into  a  red-hot  crucible, 
or  when  charcoal  is  thrown  into  red-hot  nitre,, 
delonation  lakes  place,  and  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  combustions  that  tan  be  exhibited. 
The  residuum  is  carbonat  of  potass.  It  was 
formerly  called  nitre  fixed  bv  charcoal.  A 
still  more  violent  detonation  is  produced  by 
usiug  phosphorys  ijustead  of  chart^iol.     W^icu 


N  1  T 

a  mi\Uire  of  liitre  ami  phosiilionis  is  stnu-k 
ddi.ully  «ill)  ;i  liot  liiimmer  a  vi-rv  violoil  de- 
toiKitioii  is  pioiluced. 
■'  .    Nilre  oxulizes  all  the  metals  at  a  n-d  lir.it, 
even  roU  and  pUitiniim. 

Nitre,  according  to  iicrgmau,  is  conipoied 
of 

31  acid 
til  putas? 
B  water. 

lUD 

Accordin<»  to  the  lati'st  evoeriinoiits  ol  Kir- 
wan,  after  bcin;;  dried  in  the  IcinperaUuv;  ol 
7u°,  it  ii  composed  of 

44.0  arid 
51.8  potiisi 
4, a  water. 

100.0 

Kitre  h  decomposed  by  the  following  salts: 
I,  Snlpiiats  of  soda,   ammonia,  magnesia, 
aUimiiu. 

'J.  iVluriat  and  aretal  of  harytes. 
One  of   the    n)ust   imptMtant  compomids 
formud    by   mi-ans  of   nitre  is   (gunpowder, 
which  has  compU'tely  changed   the  modern 
art  of  war.     S^-c  Cjunpowdf.r. 

NirUlC  ACID  seems  to  have  been  first 
©btuiiicd  in  a  separate  state  by  liayniond 
Lnllv,  who  was  born  at  Majorca  in  12.?.t. 
He  procured  it  by  distilling  a  mixtnre  of  ni- 
tre and  clay.  It  was  afteruards  denominated 
iupiaforlis,  and  spirit  of  nitre.  The  name 
nitric  acid  was  lirst  given  it  in  1  7.S7  by  the 
French  chemists  ;  it  was  inuncdiatelv  before 
ca  ied  nitrous  acid. 

I.   It  is  !»enL'rally  obtained  in  lara;e  mami- 
faclories  by  distilling  a  mi.\tnre  of  nitre  and 
clay  ;  but  the  acid  procured  by  this  process 
is   weak    and  impure.      Ciiemists  generally 
l>repare  it  by  distilling  three  parts  of  nitre 
anil  one  of  sulphuric  acid  in  a  glass  retort. 
'I'iie  neck  of  tue  retort  must  be  luted  into  a 
receiver,    from    which   there   passes  a   glass 
lube  into  a  bottle  with  two  mouths,  contain- 
ing a  little  water,  and  furnished  with  a  tube 
of  safety  ;  which  is  a  tube  open  at  its  upper 
end,  and  having  its  lower  end  plunged  in  wa- 
ter.   'I'lie  water  prevents  any  communication 
between   the  e.Nternal  air  and  the  inside  of 
,  the  apparatus.     If  a  vacuum  happens  to  be 
formed   within  the  vessels,   the  external  air 
reaches  down  through  the  tube,  and  prevents 
any  injury  to   the   vessels.      On    the    other 
Jiand,    if   air  is  generated  in   the  vessels  it 
forces  the  water  up  the  tube,  the   height  ol 
"which  becomes  thus  the  me.isure  of  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  air  in  the  vessels.     15y  this  con- 
-Jrivaiice  the  apparatus  is  in  no  danger  of  be- 
ing broken,  winch  otherwise  might  happen. 
I'roin  the  other  mouth  of  this  bottle  thej'e 
l)asses  a  tube  into  a  pneumatic  apparatus,  to 
collect  the  gas  whicii  is  evolved  during  the 
"process.  The  retort  is  to  be  heated  gradually 
almost  to  redness.     The  nitric  acid  comes 
over,  and  is  condensed  in  the  receiver ;  wliile 
.the  common  air  of  the  vessels,  and  a  <|uantity 
rof  oxyg<'n  gas  which  is  evolved,  especiallv  to- 
wards the  end  of  tlie  process,  passes  into  the 
pneumatic  apparatus,  and  the  water  in  the 
Jjottles  is  impregnated  with  some  ai  id  which 
.i»not  condensed  in  tiic  receiver. 
■'     The  acid  thus  obtained  is  of  a  yellow  co- 
Jour,  andaUnoit  always  conl;vins  muvi.ilic  and 


N-  I  T 

.sometimes  sulphurous  acid.  Tiie.^c  mav  be 
removed  by  distilling  it  over  again  with  a 
moderate  heat,  and  clianeing  the  receiver 
alter  the  lirst  portion,  which  contains  all  the 
foreign  acitls,  has  passed.  It  still  contains  a 
(pianiily  of  nitrons  gas,  to  which  it  owes  its 
colour  and  the  red  fumes  winch  it  exhales. 
U  his  gas  may  also  be  expelled  bv  the  appli- 
cation of  heat.  I'nre  nitric  acid  remains  be- 
hind, transparent  and  colourless,  like  water. 

W  hen  newly  prepared  m  this  maimer  it  Is 
a  liquid  as  transparent  and  colourless  as  wa- 
ter; but  the  alimity  between  its  component 
parts  is  so  weak,  that  (he  action  of  light  is 
sullicient  to  drive  oil'  a  part  of  its  oxygen  in 
the  form  of  gas  ;  and  thus,  by  converting  it 
partly  into  nitrous  gas,  to  make  it  assume  a 
veliow  colour.  Its  taste  is  exceedingly  acid 
and  peculiar.  It  is  very  corrosive,  ami 
tinges  the  skin  of  a  yellow  colour,  which  does 
Jiot  disappear  till  the  epidermis  comes  oil'.  It 
is  constantly  emitting  white  fumes  wiiich  have 
an  acrid  disagreeable  odour. 

It  has  a  strong  alliiiity  for  water,  and  has 
never  yet  been  obtained  except  mixed  with 
that  liquid.  When  concentrated  it  attracts 
nioistuie  from  the  atmosphere,  but  not  so 
powerfully  as  sulpliuric  acid.  It  also  pro- 
duces heat  when  mixed  with  water,  owing 
evidently  to  tliecolicentraliou  of  the  water.." 
The  specific  gravity  of  the  strongest  nitric 
acid  that  can  be  jirocured  is  !  jS.3  ;  but  at 
(lie  tenii)eraliire  ol  bO  ,  Mr.  Kiiwan  could 
not  proeme  it  stronger  tli.m  1.5543. 

As  this  liquid  acid  is  a  comiioniid  of  two 
ingredients,  namely,  jMire  nitric  acid  and  wa- 
ter, it  becomes  an  object  of  the  greatest 
consequence  to  ascertain  the  iiropnriion  of 
each  of  these  parts.  'I'his  problem  has  lately 
occupied  the  attention  ol  Mr.  Kirwaii,  who 
has  endeavoured  to  solve  it  in  the  following 
manner : 

He  dried  a  quantity  of  crystallized  carbo- 
nat  of  soda  in  a  red  he;it,  and  dissolved  it  in 
water,  in  such  a  proportion  thut  3ti7  grains 
of  the  solution  contained  50.05  of  alkali.  He 
salmated  3(i7  grains  of  this  solution  with  147 
grains  of  nitric  acid,  the  speeiiic  gravity  of 
which  was  l.i!754;  and  which  he  ascertained  j 
to  contain  45.7  per  cent,  of  acid,  of  the  spe- 
cific gravity  1.5543,  chosen  by  him  as  a  I 
stamlard.  '1  he  carbonic  acid  driven  oil' 
amounted  to  14  grains.  On  adding  939 
grains  of  water  the  speeiiic  gravity  of  the  so- 
lution, at  the  temperature  of  58.5^,  was 
1.0401.  I'y  com[)armg  this  with  a  solution 
of  nitrat  of  soda,  of  the  same  density,  he 
louiid  that  the  salt  contained  in  it  amounted 

to  — of  the  whole.    There  was  an  excess 

il).*l01 

of  acid  of  aliout  two  grains.    The  weight  of  the 

whole  was    1439  grains :  the   quantity   of   salt 

ii.'ig 
consequently  was  -      — —=:  85.142  grains.  The 

qu.intity  of  alkali  was  50.05  —  14  r=  S6.05.  The 
quantity  of  standard  acid  employeil  was  6(5.7. 
'I'he  wiiole  therefore  amounted  to  102.75 
grains;  but  as  only  S5.l4i'  grains  entered 
into  the  composition  of  the  salt,  the  remain- 
ing 17.00K  must  have  been  pure  water  mixed 
with  the  nitric  acid.  But  il  Litt.7  of  standard 
acid  contain  I'.liOS  of  water,  100  parts  of 
the  same  acid  mu^t  contain  26.38.  One  liuii- 
dred  parts  of  standard  nitric  acid,  therefore, 
are  composed  of  73.(>i.'  parts  of  pure  nitric  acid 
and  26.38  of  water. 

Mr.  i)avs-  considers  as  pure  acid  the  per- 
M  111  2 


K  I  T  -rj 

maneiitly  ekastk;  vapour  or  gas  fornieii  by  sa- 
I mating  nitrous  gas  with  o.\ygen  gas.  Tliii 
gas  is  of  a  pale-yeilow  colour,  aiida  s|)ec:lic 
gravity  2.44  tintes  that  of  air.  It  is  not  pun; 
aci.l,  containing  undoubl(;dly  a  portion  of  ni- 
trous gi5.  The  following  table  exhibits  the 
proportion  of  this  acid  contained  in  nitric 
acid  of  tliU'erent  densities,  according  to  the 
experiments  of  that  ingenious  cheinist: 


100  Pnrl! 

Nitric  .\eid, 

True  iVcid. 

Wateri 

ot  Sp.  Gr. 

1..50W 

91.55 

8.15 

1.447.5 

«0.rj9 

I9.G1 

3.428.5 

71.(J5 

'jy\.:iS 

1.390<: 

ea.oc 

37.04 

l.il55I 

.5fi.fl8 

43.12 

i..';isc 

52.03 

47.97 

l.:?042 

49.04 

.50. 9G 

1.2s:',l 

4fi.03 

5;i.97 

1.2090 

45.'..7 

54.73 

When  nitric  acid  is  exposed  to  the  action 
of  heat  it  boils  at  the  temperature  of  248, 
and  evaporates  completely  without  altera- 
tion ;  but  when  made  to  pass  ibrough  a  red- 
hot  ])orcelain  tube  it  is  decomposed,  and 
converted  into  oxygen  and  azotic  gas.  When 
cooled  down  to  — C()  it  begins  to  congeal  ; 
and  when  agitated  it  is  converted  iiitoainajs 
ot  the  consistence  of  butter. 

Oxygen  gas  has  vq  action  whatever  on  ni- 
tric acid  ;  but  all  the  sinijiie  combustibles 
decompose  it,  unless  we  are  to  except  the  dia- 
mond. Wiien  poured  upon  sulphur  or  phos- 
jihorus  at  a  high  temperature  it  sets  them  on 
lire;  but  at  a  moderate  temperalure  it  con- 
verts them  slowly  into  acids,  while  nitrous 
gas  h  exhaled,  it  iiillaines  charcoal  also  at 
a  iiigli  temperature  ;  and  even  at  the  coniinon 
temperature,  provided  the  charcoal  is  perfect- 
ly dry  and  minutely  divided.  Hydrogen  gas 
produces  uo  change  on  it  at  the  temperature 
of  the  atmosphere  ;  but  when  passed  along 
with  it  througli  a  red-hot  porcelain  tube  it 
detonates  w  itli  great  violence  ;  water  is  form- 
ed, and  azotic  gas  evolved. 

AVhcu  this  acid  is  poured  upon  oils  it  se(s 
them  on  lire.  This  is  occasioned  by  a  de- 
couijiositioii  both  of -the  acid  and  oil.  The 
ox\gen  of  the  acid  combines  with  the  carbun 
and  with  the  hydrogen  iif  the  oils,  and  at  the 
Slime  time  lets  go  a  quantity  of  caloric. 
Hence  we  see  that  the  oxygen  whicli  enters 
into  the  coin|)osi[ion  of  the  nitric  acid  still 
contains  a  great  deal  of  caloric  ;  a  fact  whicii 
isconlirmed  by  a  great  number  of  other  phe- 
nomena. The  combustion  of  oils  by  this 
acid  was  first  taken  notice  of  by  Borricliius 
and  SlJre;  but  il  is  probable  that  Homberg 
communicated  it  to  Slare.  In  or<!er  to  set 
lire  to  the  tixed  oils  it  must  be  mixed  witti 
some  sulphuric  acid;  tlie  reason  of  which 
seems  to  be,  that  'these  oils  contain  water, 
which  must  be  [ireviously  removed.  The 
sulphuric  acid  combinesWith  this  water,  and 
allows  the  nitric  acid,  or  rather  the  oil  and 
nitric  acid  together,  to  act.  The  drying  oils 
do  not  require  any  sulphuric  acid  :  they  havir 
been  boiled,  and  consequently  deprived  oi  ail 
inoislure. 

Azote  has  no  action  on  nitric  acid  ;  but 
muriatic  acid  dev'Mupose^  it  b^-  comluDiDg 


2715 


NIT 


with  a  portion  of  its  oxygen  nitrous  ^as  and 
oxviiiuriatic  gus  being  evolved. 

It  is  c:ipabli-  of  oxidizing  all  the  metak, 
except  gold,  ))l?.tiniim,  and  titanium.  It  ap- 
pears, troiu  the  experinieiits  of  SchelTer, 
Bergman,  Sage,  and  1  illet,  that  nitric  acid  is 
capable  of  dissolving  (and  conswiiiently  ot 
oxidizing)  a  very  minute  ([uantity  even  ot 
cold.  . 

It  evea  sets  fire  to  zmc,  bismuth,  and  tin, 
if  it  is  poured  on  them  in  fusion,  and  to  lilings 
of  iron  if  thev  are  perfectly  dry. 

Nitric  acid  combines  with  alkalies,  earths, 
and  the  oxides  of  metals,  and  forms  com- 
pouiids,  which  are  called  nitrats. 

Tine  order  of  its  affinities  is  as  follows ; 

Barytes, 
Potass, 

Sod-., 

Strontiaii, 

J.ime, 

Magnesia, 

Ammonia, 

Glucina, 

Alumina, 

Zirconia. 


Nitric  acid  is  one  of  the  most  important 
Histruments  of  analysis  which  the  chemist 
possesses ;  nor  is  it  of  Ulterior  consequence 
when  considered  in  a  political  or  commercial 
view,  us  it  forms  one  of  the  most  essential 
ingredieiits  of  gunpowder.  Its  nature  and 
composition  accordingly  have  long  occupied 
the  attention  of  philosoplievs  ;  and  from  tlieir 
experiments  it  appears,  that  nitric  acid  is 
composed  of  azote  and  oxygen ;  coiise- 
quentlv  nitrous  "a*  is  also  composed  of  the 
tame  iiigredientsr  And  as  nitrous  gas  absorbs 
oxvgen,  even  from  common  air,  an.'i  forms 
^viin  it  nitric  acid,  it  is  evident  that  nitric  acid 
contains  more  o.xygen  tliau  ititrous  gas.  But 
it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  asrertain  the 
exact  proportions  of  tlie  component  parts  of 
this  acid.  Lavoisier  concluded,  from  his  ex- 
periments on  tilt:  decomposition  of  nitre  by 
charcoal,  that  nitric  acid  is  composed  of  one 

rirt  of  azote  and  four  parts  of  oxygen.     But 
'avy  ha.;  shewn  that  this  decomposition  is 
more  complicat.xl  than  had  been  supposed; 
and  that  Lavoisier's  experiments  by  no  means  | 
uaiTant  the  coiicIivViou  v.hich  he  drew  from 
them.     (Javenrlish,  tin  the  other  hand,- con- 
cluded, from  his  experimir'nts,  that  the  acid 
which   he  formed,   by   combining    together 
azote  and  oxygen  by  means  of  electricity,  is 
composed  of  one  part  of  azote  and  2.346  of 
oxygen.     With  thi.s  result  the   late  experi- 
ments of    Mr.    Davy    corresponded   very 
iiearlv.     He   formed  his  standard   acid   by 
co;nbiiiing  together  known  tiu?.ntities  of  ni- 
trous gas  and  oxygen.      Accordinii  to  hint 
100  parts  of  pure  nitric  acid  are  composed 
of 

29. 5  azote    ■ 
70.5  oxygen 

100.0; 
or  1  part  of  azote,  and  2.39  of  oxygen. 

Niti'it"  arid  is  seldom  in  a  state  of  absolute 
purity,  lioldiiig  usually  a  certain  portion  of 
citrotis  gas  in  solution.  In  this  state  it  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  nitrous  acid;  a 
cninpouiid  of  considerable  impjitance.  See 
l>iiTROus  Acid, 


N  I  T 

NITHITES,  are  salts  formed  from  nitrats, 
saturated  witli  nitrous  gas.     See  Nitrats. 

The  existence  of  these  salts  was  tirst  point- 
ed out  by  Bergman  and  Scheele :  the  two 
philosophers  to  whom  we  are  indebted  Ibr 
the  lirst  precise  notions  concerning  the  dif- 
ference between  nitric  and  nitrous  acids. 
Tliev  cannot  be  formed  by  combining  di- 
rectly nitrous  acid  with  the  different  earthy 
and  alkaline  bases;  nor  have  any  expert^ 
ments  made  to  combine  nitrous  gas  with. the- 
nitrats  been  attended  uitli  success. 

The  only  method  of  obtaining  these  salts 
at  present  known,  is  that  which  was  long  ago 
pointed  out  by  Bergman  and  Scheele.  It 
consists  in  exposing  a  nitrat  to  a  pretty  strong 
lieat  till  a  (luantity  of  oxygen  gas  is  disen- 
gaged from  it.  W  hat  remains  in  tlie  retort 
alter  this  process  is  a  nitrite  ;  but  the  length 
of  time  necessary  for  producing  this  change 
has  not  yet  been  ascertained  with  any  decree 
of  precisiiin.  If  the  heat  is  applied  toofong 
the  nitrat  will  be  totally  decomposed,  and 
nothiag  Uit  the  base  wlU-  remain,  a'-,  hajipen- 
ed  to  some  of  the  French  chemists  on  at- 
tempting to  repeat  the  proce.ss  of  Bergman 
and  Scheele. 

Nitrite  of  potass  is  the  only  salt  formed  by 
this  process,  of  which  an  account  has  been 
sriven.  Scheele's  process'  for  obtaining  it  is 
as  follows  t  I'lll  a  small  retort  with  nitre,  and 
keep  it  red-hot  for  half  aii'  hour.  VV'l.cn  it  is 
allowed  to  cool  it  ts  found  in  the  state  of  a 
nitrite.  It  deliquesces  when  exposed  to  the 
air  ;  and  red  vapours  of  nitrous  acid  are  ex- 
haled when  any  other  acid  is  poured  upon  it. 
jVs  the  nitrites  have  never  been  examined 
by  chemists,,  and  as  it  has  not  even  been  de- 
termined whether  any  considerable  number 
of  the  nitrats  can  be  converted  into  these 
salts,^  it  would  be  hi  v.iin,  in  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge,  to  attempt  a  parti- 
cular description  of  them.  It  may,  however, 
be  considered  as  e.^xeedingly  probable  that 


no  such  salts  a.s  the  nitrites  of  ainmonia,.gUi- 
cina,  yttria,  alumina,  and  zirconia,  exist  or 
can  be  formed,  at  least  by  the  p-o'.-ess  of 
Scheele  and  Bergnuui ;  for'  the  nitrats  with 
these  bases  are  decomposetl  completely  by 
the  action  of  a  heat  too  moderate  to  ho|)e  for 
the  previous  emission  of  oxygen  gas. 

Fro.n  the  few  observations  that  have  been- 
made,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  nitritw 
are  in  general  deliquescent,  very  soluble  in 
water,  decomposVble  by  heat  as  well  as  ni- 
trats ;  that  their  taste  is  cooling  like  lliat  of 
the  nitrats,  but  more  acrid  and  nitrous  :  that 
by  exposure  to  the  air  they  are  gradually 
converted  into  nitrats  by  absorbing  oxygen  ; 
but  this  change  lakes  place  exceedingly 
slowly. 

NITRO-MURIATIC  acid.  When  ma- 
riatic  acid  is  mixed  with  nitric  acid,  the  mix- 
ture is  nitro-muriatic  acid,  wliicli  was  for- 
merly known  bv  the  name  of  aqua-rcgia. 

NVlROUS  'ACll).  Tl>e  liquid  at  pre- 
sent called  nitrous  acid  by  chemists,  may  be 
formed  by  cavulng  nitrouf,  gas  to  pass  through 
nitric  acid.  The  gus  is  absori>ed,  and  the 
acid  assumes  a  yellow  colour ;  and  its  s|)e- 
cilic  gravity  is  diminished.  It  is  then  deno- 
minated nitrous  acid.  It  is  always  in  this 
state  that  it  is  obtained  by  distilling  a  mixture 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  nitre.  The  acid  of 
commerce  is  always  uitn  ii;  acid.  'I  he  nitric 
and  nitrous  acids  were  fu'sl  distinguished  with 
accuracy  by  Swliecle. 


NIT 

Tlie  nature  of  nitrous  acid  was  first  invest!* 
gated  by  Or.  Priestley,  who  denionstratedj 
by  very  decisive  experiments,  tiiat  it  is  a 
compound  of  nitric  acid  and  nitrous  gas. 
IWi.-,  opinion  was  enibraeed,  or  rather  it  waj 
lirst  fully  developed,  by  Morveau..  But  the 
theory  of  Lavoisier,  which  su])poscd  the  dif^ 
ference  between  nitric  and  nitrous  aciiis  to 
depend  merely  on  the  lirst  containing  a 
greater  proportion  of  oxygen  than  th.e  se- 
c<md,  for  some  time  drew  the  attention  of 
chemists  from  the  real  nature  of  nitroua  acid. 
IJaMnond  published  a  dissertation  in  17y6,  to- 
demonstrate  the  truth  of  the  theory  of  Priest- 
lev  and  Morveau-;  and  the  same  thing  has 
been  done  still  more  lately  by  Messrs.  'Fhum'- 
son  and  Davy.  At  present  it  is  alkwcd  by 
every  one,  that  nitrous  acid  is  merely  nitric 
acid  more  or  less  impregn^ed  with  nitrous- 
gas. 

'I'his  being  the  case,  and  nitric  acid  being- 
capable  of  alisorbmg  very  different  propor- 
tions of  nitrous  gas,  it  is  evident  that  there 
mu-^t  be  a  great  variety  of  nitroits  acitls,  dif- 
fering from- ea^-h  other  iu.  llie  proportion  cf 
nitrous  ga.s' which  they  contain;  unless  we 
choose  to  conline  tlie  term  nitrous  acid  to  the 
compound  formc<l  by  sattirating  nitric  aeid 
completely  with  nitrous  gas. 

When  nitrous  gas  is  placedMn  contact  with 
nitric  acid,  the  acid  absorbs  it  slowly,  ar.d 
accpiires  first  a  pale-yellow   colour,  then  a 
bright  yellow.    VVIien  a  conaderable  portion 
more  of  nitrous  gas  is  absorbed,  the  acid  be- 
comes dark  orange,    tlien   olive,,  which  i)i- 
creases  in  intensity,  with  the-  gas  absorbed ;. 
then  it  becomes  of  a  bright  green ;  and,  last- 
ly, when  fully  saturated,  it  becomes   blue*- 
green.     Its  "volume  ami  it^  volatility  also  iti-> 
crease  yvith  th<?  quantity  of  gas  absorbed  ;. 
and  wlien  fully  saturated  it  assumes  the  fornr 
of  a  dense  vapour,  of  an  exceedingly  sulfo- 
cating  odour,  and  difficultly  condensible  by 
water.-    In  this  state  of  saturation  it  is  di-<tin- 
guished  bv  Dr.  Priestley  by  the  name  of  ni- 
trous acid  vapour.  It  is  of  a  dark-red  colour, 
and  pa.;ses  througli  water  partly  without  be- 
ing absorbed..    'I  he  (juantity  of  nitrous  gas- 
alworbed  by  nitric  acid  is  very  great.     Dr. 
Priestley  found,  tl-iat  a  quantity  ot  ;u;iil,  equal 
in  bulk  to  four  pennyweight-,  of  water,   ab« 
sorbed  130   ounce -measures  of  gas  without 
being  satur.ited.      The  component   parts  of 
nitrous  acid,  of  dilft  rent  coloursand  densities, 
may  be  seen  in  the  following  table,  drawn  up 
by  Mr.  Davy,  from   experiments  made  b^ 
hun  on  purp.)-e,  with  much  precision  : 


,Sp. 
(Jiav. 

Cuinpoucnt 

b-.n-ts. 

100  Parts. 

Nitric               1 

Nitrous 

.>\cid.  Water.' 

Gas. 

Solid  nitric  acid 

I  ,."^0  1 

91  55 

8.45 



VeUo\v  nitrous 

1  SiO'J 

TO.5 

s..-? 

o 

Briefht  yellow 

l.JOO 

S8.!!4 

8.10 

29« 

D:irk  orange- 

1;480 

S6.84 

7.6 

S.5« 

ijjrht  olive 

1 .479 

8(5.00 

7..';5 

GAS 

Dark  olive 

1.47S 

85.4 

7.5 

7.1 

I!ri);ht  green 

1.47G 

84.8 

7.44 

7.7G 

Blue  green 

1 .47,1 

S4  6 

7.4 

sm 

The  colour  of  nitrous  atid  depends,  in 
some  measure,  also  on  the  proportion  of  wa- 
ter which  it  contains.  \\  hen  to  yellow  ni- 
trons acid  concL>ntrateil,  a  fourth  part  by 
weight  of  water  is  added,  tin;  coUiur  is  chaii- 

igi'd  to  a  line  gnvn;  and  when  equal  parts  of 
water  are  abided,    it  becojiies   blue.    Dj. 


N  O  C 

TPric^tlfiv  observed,  Uiat  water  impregnated 
wilh  ih.s  acid  in  ihe  st.He  of  vajinur,  became 
first  blue,  then  green,  and  lasliy  yi'llow.  A 
greeji  nitrons  acid  became  orangi-coiourcd 
while  liot,  and  retained  a  yellow  tinge  when 
told.  A  blue  acid  ijecai\ie  yellow  on  bein^ 
heated  in  a  tube  hermetically  sealed.  An 
oianj^e-coloured  acid,  by  long  keepiuR,  be- 
came gret'B,  and  afterwards  of  a  deep  blue  ; 
and  wiieu  cxjioscJ  U)  air  resmucd  its  iHi;;inal 
colour.  When  nitrous  acid  is  eNpo'ed  to 
huit  tlie  nitrous  £>;as  is  expelled,  and  nitric 
avid  remains  behind.  'I'lie  gas,  hiwever, 
carries  along  with  it  aciuanlity  of  acid,  es|)i-- 
«'ially  if  tinr  acid  is  concmlrated.  But  ni- 
trous acid  vapour  is  not  altered  iu  the  least 
Vjv  exposure  to  heat. 

ll  is  not  altered  by  oxygen  gas,  common 
air,  nor  by  .inotic  cas. 

The  simple  combusliWes  and  niotah  act 
Upon  it  precisely  as  oii  nitric  acid,  ll  an- 
swers iiincii  belter  than  niiric  acid  (or  inllani- 
iiig  oili  and  other  similiir  bodies. 

It  converts  sulphurous  and  phosphorous 
acids  into  sulphuric  and  phosplioric. 

Nitrous  acid  vapour  is  absorbed  by  sulphu- 
ric acid,  but  seeinint;ly  without  producing 
any  change;  for  when  water  is  |)ourcd  into 
the  mixture,  the  heat  produced  expels  it  ia  | 
t!ie  usual  form  of  red  fumes.  The  only  sin- 
gular cil■cum^taIlce  attendijig  this  iinpregna- 
lioii  is,  that  it  disposes  the  sulphuric  acid  to 
cry^ailize. 

'NOBILITY,  a  quality  tliat  ennobles,  and 
raises  a  person  possessed  of  it  above  the  rank 
ef  a  commoner.. 

The  civil  state  of  England  consists  of  the 
nobility  and  commonalty.  The  nobility  are 
all  those  who  are  above  the  degree  of  knight, 
under  which  term  is  included  that  of  a  baro- 
net ;  namely,  dukes,  nianiuises,  earls,,  vis- 
counts, and  barons.   1  Black.  396. 

Nt)CTUKNAI^,  NocTURLABiuM,  an 
instrument  chiefly  u.sed  at  sea,  to  take  llie  al- 
t.tude  or  depression  of  bome  stars  about  the 
pjle,  in  order  to  lindthe  latitude,  and  hour  of 
the  night. 

Some  nocturnals  are  hemisplMM'es,.  o;- jja- 
nispheres,  on  the  plane  of  the  ecpiinoclial.. 
Those  commonly  in  use  among  seamen  aie 
two;  the  one  adapted  to  the  polar  star,  and 
the  lir>t  of  the  guards  ol  ih- little  bear  ;  the 
other  to  ihe  pole-star,  and  the  pointers  of  the 
great  bear. 

This  instrument  coii^sts  of  two  circular 
plate-i  (see  Plate  Mistiel.  figure  17.5),  ap- 
plied to  each  other.  The  greater,  wht<-h  has 
a  handle  to  hold  tlie  instrument,  is. about  two 
inches  and  a  half  in  diaineter,  and  is  divided 
into  twelve  parts,  agreehig  to  the  twelve 
months,  and  each  month  subdivided  into 
every  fifth  day;  and  so  that  the  middle  of 
the  handle  corresponds  to  that  day  of  the 
year  wherein  the  star  lierc  regarde<l  ha.s  the 
same  right  ascension  with  the  suu.  If  the  i:>- 
strument  is  fitted  for  two  stars,  the  handle  is 
made  moveable.  Tl>e  upper  left  circle  is 
divided  into  twenty-four  equal  parts  for  the 
twenty-four  hours  of  the  clay,  and  each  hour 
subdivided  into  quarters.  These  twentv-four 
.  Lours  are  noted  by  twi-nty-fcur  teeth;  to  be 
told  in  the  night.  Those  at  the  hours  12 
,  are  distinguished  by  their  length.  In  the 
^  centre  of  the  two  circular  plates'  is  adjusted  a 
long  index.  A,  moveable  upon  the  upper 
plate  ;  and  the  three  pieces,  viz.  the  two  cir- 
cles and  uidex,  are  joined  by  a  rivet  which  is 


N  O  N 

pierced  through    the    centre    with  a  hole, ' 
through  which  tlie  star  is  to  be  observed. 

Ti)  uii'  the  nnclunwl. — Turn  the  upper 
plate  till  the  long  tooth,  marked  12,  is 
against  the  day  ol  the  monlh  on  the  under 
plate:  then,  bringing  the  instrument  neartlie 
eye,  suspend  it  by  tilt:  handle  wilh  the  plane 
nearly  parallel  to  the  iquinoclial;  and  view- 
ing the  pole-star  Ihrough  the  hole  of  the 
centre,  turn  the  index  about  till,  bv  the  edge 
coming  from  the  centre,  von  seethe  bright 
tar,  or  guard,  of  the  liitlebear  (if  the  in^lru' 


NOT 


277 


pos  mentis  shall  not  lose  his  life  for  felony  or 
murder;  but  the  drunkard  can  have  no  in- 
dulgence on  account  of  the  loss  of  his  reason, 
for,  in  Ihe  eye  of  the  law,  his  drunkenness 
does  not  extenuate  but  aggravate  itis  of-, 
fence. 

NoN  EST  iKVEKTUS,  is  a  sheriff's  return 
to  a  writ,  that  the  defendant  is  not  to  be 
found. 

No.v-NATURAi.s,  in  medicine,  so  called 
because  by  their  abuse  they  b'^cotne  the 
causes  of  dieases.     See  Medicink.  The  old 


mcnt  is  lilted  to  that  star)  :  then  that  to;>tlu)f  I  physicians  have  divided  the  non-naturals  into 
the  U))per  circle,  under  the  edge  of  the  in-  i  0  classes,  viz.  the  air,  meats  and  drinks,  sleep 
dex,   is  at  the  hour  of  the  night  on  Ihe  edge  '  ami  watching,  molifni  and  rest,  the  passions 


of  the  hour-circle:  which  niav  be  known 
without  a  light,  by  counting  the  teeth  from 
the  longest,  which  is  for  the  hour  12. 

NOIJE.     See  Surgery. 

Nt)Dr,8.     See  Astronomy. 

NOl'lTl-ANS,  in  churcli  history,  christian 


of  the  mind,  the  retentions,  and  excretions. 

Non-pros.  If  the  plainlilf  neglects  to 
deliver  a  declaration  for  two  terms  after  the 
de'endanl  appears,  or  is  guilty  of  other  de- 
lays or  defaults  against  the  rules  of  law  in  any 
subset|uent  stage  of  the  action,  he  is  adjudged 


hereliiri  in  the  Jd  century,  followers  of  Noe- '  not  to  pursue  his  remedy  as  he  ought ;  and 
tius,  a  philosopher  of  Ephesns,  who  it  is  said  i  thereupon  a  nonsnit  or  non  prosequitur  is  en- 
pri'tended  that  he  was  another  Moses,  sent  !  Icred,  and  he  is  then  said  to  bo  non-pros'd. . 


by  God,  and  that  his  brother  was  a  new  ■ 
Aaron  ;  his  doctrine  consisted  in  aftirming  1 
thai  there  was  but  one  pci'son  in  the  God- 
head, and  that  tlie  AVord  and  the  Holy  Spi- 
rit Wiiri:  but  external  denominations  aivento 
(iod  in  consequence  of  different  operaticms  ; 
that  as  creator  he  is  called  Father  ;  as  incar- 
nate, Son  ;  and  as  descending  on  the  aposth'S, 
iloly  Cihost.. 

NOLANA,  a  genus  fif  the  monogynia  or- 
der, in  the  pentandiia  class  of  |)lants',  and  in 
the  initural  metliod  ranking  under  the4tst 
order,  asperifoli*.  The  corolla  is  canipanu- 
lated  ;  the  style  jituated  betwixt  the  germcns  ; 
the  seeds  are  bilocular,  and  resemble  ber- 
riesv  There  is  one  species,  an  annual  of 
Peru.. 

NOLLE  PROS-KQUI,  is  used  where  the 
plaintiff  proceeds  no  farther  in  his  action,  and 


3  I'.lack.  395. 

NoN-jti;siDENCE.     See  Rksidexce. 

NONAGKSIMAL,  or  nuiuii^tsimul  de- 
gree, called  also  the  midiieaven,  is  the  highest' 
point,  or  90th  degree,  of  the  ecliptic,  reck- 
oned from  its  intersection  with  the  horizon  at 
any  time  ;  and  iu  altitude  is  ecjual  to  the  an- 
gle that  the  ecliptic  makes  willi  the  horizon 
at  their  iuter.^ection,  or  equal  to  the  distance 
of  the  zenith  Irom.the  pole  of  the  ecliptic.  .It 
is  much  used  in  the  calculation  of.  solar 
eclipses. 

KOXAGON,  a  figure  havii^  nine  sides 
and  angles.  In  a  regular  nonagon,  or  that 
whose  angles  and  sides  a4'e.  Ul  equal,  if  each 
side  iS'  1,'it.sarea  will  b«  (i.  1 31 8242 -|-  \  of 
70",  to  the  radius  1.. 

NONirS.-    Sec  \"f:K\-iER. 
NONSLT'-U,  in  law,  i~  where  a  person  has 


nay  be  as  well 'before  as  idler  a  verdict,  and    commenced  au. action,   aiul  at  the  trial  fails. 

in  I'-is  evidence  to  support  it,  or  has  brought 
a  wio:>g  action.  T  here  is  this  advantage  al- 
teiuling  a  nonsuit,  that  the  plaiiitilT,  thonglv 
he  i:\a_\s  co-ts,  may  afterwards  bring  another 
action  lor  the  same  cause,  which. he  cannot 
do  alter  a  verdict  against  him.  Tidd's  K.  B. 
Practice. 

NONES>  nornr,  in   tlw  P.oman  calendar,. 
the  litth   day  of  tiie   months  January,   Fe- 


is  stronger  against  a  plaintiff  than  a  nonsuit, 
which  is  only  a  default  in  apjicarance;  but 
this  is  a  voluntary  acknowled'.imenl  that  he 
has  no  cause  of  aeiioij.     Impev's  15.  R.  j 

NOMBRIL  POINT,  in  heraldry,  is  the 
next  below  Ihe  fess-pjiiU,  or  the  very  centre 
ot  the  escutcheon; 

NOME,  or  Name,  in  algebra,  denot<-s 
any  c|uantity  w^ith  a  sign  piTfixed  or  added  to 


it,  whereby  it  is  connected  with  some  oth  T  bruary^.  April,. June,  August,  September,  No- 
qnantity,.  upon  which  the  whole  b'..-comes  a'  vember,  and  December';  ami  the. seventh  of 
binomial,  trinomial,  or  the  like  :  llurs«-ji6|  March,  Joly,  and  October.  March,  May, 
is  a  bincHiial,  <;-)- 6 -f-c  is  a  trinomial,  whose  !  July)  ai«.l  (ktober,  had  six  days  in  their 
resptfctive  names  or  nomes  are  a  and  h  for '  nones  ;.  because  tlitrse  alone,  in  'the  anticnt 
the  first,  and«,  b,  and  c,  for  the  second.  See  i  constitution  of  the  year  by  Numa,  had  31 
Aloebp.a-.  days   apiece,   the  re'st  having  only  29,  and 

NOMINATIVE,    i:i   gramnrr.r,   the  first-  February  30  :  but  wJien  C;e;ar  reformed  the- 
case  in  nouns  which  are  declinable.  I  year,  and  made  other  months  c-ontaining  31 

NON-APPFARANCE,  a  defiult  in  not    day  s,  lie  did  not  allot  them  six  days  of  nones, 
appearing,  i.ri  a  court  of  judicature.     Attor-j      NORROY,   the  title  of  the  third  of  the 
neys  subscribing  warrants  for  appearing  in    three  kings  at  arms..    See  Heraldry. 
coi»rt  are  liable  to- attachment  and  tine  for        x'r>T)\i\i  i-     i     r       •         -^l 

nr,n -.Mnp-.r^n^^-       If  ,  ,1  f     1    """'""='"'        NORM.AL,  3  pcrpendicular  formuig  With; 
non-appearance.      It  a  detenc  ant   does  not  .i       e  •  l .        i  ^ 

''      .    -    -  >...i.a..t   iiucs  HOC    another  line  a  right  angle. 


1  find -bail   upon  a  scire  facias  and 
jugintnt  may  be  had  against  him. 


appear  a;i( 
rule  given 

No;<  COMPOS  MENTIS,  ill  law,  is  used  to 
denote  a  person's  not  being  of  sound  me- 
mory and  understanding.  Of  these  persons 
there  are  four  dill'erent  kinds,  an  ideot,  a 
madman,  a  lunatic  who  has  lucid  intervals, 
and  a  drunkard  who  deprives  himself  of  rea' 
ssn  by  his  own  act  and  deed.  In  all  these 
cases  except  the  last,  one  that  is  non  com- 
(i 


NORWAY  R.AT.     See  M us. 

NOSE.     See  Anatomy. 

NOTARLVL  ACTS,  are  those  acts,  in  tlie- 
civil  law,  which  require  to  be  done  under  the 
seal  of  a  notary,  and  wliich  are  admitted  as 
evidence  in  foreign  courts. 

NOTARY,  is  a  person  duly  appointed  to 
attest  deeds  and  writings ;  he  also  protests 
and  notes  foreign  and iiilojid bills  of  eschange 


^/-S  NO  T 

u;k1  pro;!iis?ol^-  nolcs,   translate^  languages 
.and   iiUeiis  the  sain.-,   pnters   and   extends 
Siii|/s  prutest:!,  &c. 

■  NO'I'ATI ON,  in  arithmetic  and  algebra, 
the  method  of  expressing  numbers  orqnaiiti- 
ties  by  signs  or  characters  appropriated  for 
IJKit  purpose.  SeL' Algebra,  Arithmetic, 
Character,  &c. 

NoT.iTiox,  in  music,  tlie  manner  of  ex- 
pressing, or  representijig  b\- characters,   all 
the   diltereiit  sounds   used  in    music.     The 
•antient  n<}tation  was  verv  diii'erent  from  that 
of  tlie  moderns.     The  Greeks  employed  for 
this  purpo-e   the    letters   of  their'  al'pliabet, 
sometimes  placing  iliem  erect,  and  sometimes 
invertiirg,  iiuilil;-Uing,  and  compounding  them 
in  various  mantiers,   so  as  to  represent  bv 
tiiem  all  the  diiferent  tones  or  chords  used  in 
tlieir  system.     By  a  treatise  of  Alvpiiis,  ])ro- 
fe^sedly  written  to  explain  the  Greek  cha- 
racters, \vc  iiud  that  lliey  amounted   to  no 
!<'ss  a  nu:ii!)er  than  1240."  'I  Ix-sewere,  iiow- 
t-ver,  rejected  aftersvards  by  the  Latins,  who 
•  introduced  letters  from   their   own  alphabet, 
A.  B,  C,  I).  !■:,  V,  Cr,  II.  I.  K,  I„  M,  N,0, 
]',  filteen  in  number,  and  by  wliich  tliey  ex- 
liressed  thj  sounds  coutain-\'i   in   tlie   bisdia- 
))ason.    For  the  great  im[)ri)vement  upon  tlli^ 
Dotation,  which  at  length  took  place,   and 
which  is  in  part  adopted  at  the  present  day, 
we  are  indebted  to  St.  Gregory,  the  first  po|)e 
of  that  name  ;  who  rellectin^  that  in  the  bis- 
diapason,  the  sounds  after  Liclianos  Meson, 
or  the  middle  tone,  were  but  a  repetition  of 
those  which  preceded,  and  that  every  sep- 
tenary in  progression  was  precisely  tlie  same, 
reduced  the  number  of  letters  to'seven,  viz. 
A,  H,  C,  i),  K.  !•',  G:  but  to  distinguish  the 
second  septenary  from  the  first,  the  second 
was  denoti-d  by  the  small,  and  not  the  capi- 
tal, Roman  L-tters ;  and  when  it  became  ne- 
cessary   to   extend  the  system   farther,  tlie 
small  letl.^rs  were  doubled  thus,  aa,  bb,  cc, 
fid,  ee,  If,  gg.     The  stave,  consisting  of  a  va- 
riable number  of  parallel  lines,  the  applica- 
tion of  which  some  attribute  to  Guido,  was 
afterwards  introduced;  and   this   was  again 
meant  to  be  improved  upon  by  the  adoption 
of  small  points,  commas,  accen'ts,  and  certain 
little  obli(]ue  strokes,  occasionally  interspersed 
in  the  stave,  while  also  two  colours,  yellow 
and  red,  were  used;  a  yellow  line  signifying 
the  letter  or  note  C,  and  a  red  line  deiuiting 
tliat  of  F.  Two  nu'thods  of  not  itioii  w  ere  lonij 
after  employed  for  the  viol  and  other  stringed 
histrumenta,  which  were  distinguished  by'the 
terms  lyra-way  and    gamul-wav  ;    with   this 
.  f;.\ception,   that  the  literal   notation  for  the 
lute  is  constantly  called  the  tablature  ;  con- 
.  cc-niing  wliich,  as  also  the  notation  bv  letters 
ill  general,  i:  may  be  observed  that  tiiev  are 
a  very  inartilicial  pra'lic,.,   as  was  also  tlie 
.old  method  of  notation  for  the  llute  and  lla- 
.  gi-olet  by  dots. 

NOTR  is    a    minute,  or  short    writim;, 
,  ■oitaining  some  article  of  bn-iin>s  ;  in  whicli 
JOns-  we  say,  jjromissory  note,  note  of  hand, 
banknote,     bee  Bills  of  Exciiangf.. 

NOTES,  in  muMC,  characters  whicli  bv 
their  various  forms  and  situations  on  the 
staves,  indicate  the  dui-ation  as  well  as  the 
gravity  or  acuteness  of  the  several  sounils  of  a 
composition. 

NO  riCE,  ill  law,  Is  the  making  something 
kno-.vn  that  a  man  was  or  might  be  ignorant 
•f  before,  and  it  jirodnces  divero  ell'ects  ;  lor 


NOV 

by  it  the  parly  that  gives  the  same  shall  have 
some  benelit,  which  otherwise  he  should  not 
have  had:  and  by  this  m.-ansthe  party  to 
whom  tlie  notice  is  given  is  made  subject  to 
some  action  cr  charge,  that  otherwis(>  lie  won  Id 
not  have  been  liable  to,  andhis  estali-in  dan- 
ger of  prejudice.     Co.  Lit.  309. 


The  plaintiff 


md  <leteiu 


ant  arc  both  bound 


at  their  peril  to  take  notice  of  the  general 
ruli-s  of  the  practice  of  the  court ;  but  if  there 
is  a  s|)ecial  particular  rule  of  court  made  for 
the  plaintiff,  or  for  the  defendant,  he  for 
wtiom  the  rule  is  made  ought  to  give  notice 
of  this  rule  to  the  other;  or  else  he  is  not 
i)Ouiid  generally  to  take  notice  of  it,  nor  sliall 
be  in  contempt  of  the  court  altliough  he 
does  not  obey  it.     'J  L.  P.  H.  'J()4. 

NOTONIiCTA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the 
order  liemiptera.  The  generic  character  is, 
snout  inllected;  antenna?  shorter  than  thorax; 
wing-s  coriaceous  on  the  upper  part,  and 
cros-;ed  over  each  other;  hind  feet  edged 
with  hairs,  and  formed  for  swimming.  The 
principal  species  of  this  are, 

!.  Tlie  notoiiecta  glauca,  a  very  common 
aquatic  insect,  inhabiting  stagnant  waters ; 
and  geiierallymeasuring  about  three  parts  of 
an  inch  in  length.  Its  colour  is  grev-lnown, 
and  the  upper  wings  are  marked  along  the 
edges  by  a  row  of  minute  black  specks.  Tliis 
insect  is  usually  seen  swimming  on  its  back, 
in  which  situation  it  hears  a  most  striking  re- 
semblance to  a  boat  in  miniature,  tim  hind 
legs  acting  like  a  pair  of  oars,  and  impelling 
the  animal  at  iulervi'ls  tiirough  the  water.  It 
preys  on  the  smaller  inliabitants  of  the  water, 
anil  (lies  onlv  by  nisht. 

C.  Notonecta  striata,  is  mucli  smaller  than 
the  preceding,  not  measuring  more  than  a 
ipiarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  is  of  a  yel- 
lowish-grey colinr,  with  numerous  transverse 
undulated  black  lines  or  streaks :  it  is  found 
ill  stagnant  waters. 

3.  Notonecta  minutissinia,  is  an  extremely 
small  species,  with  grey  wings,  marker!  bv 
longitudinal  dusky  sjjots  -.  like  the  two  former 
it  is  an  inhabitant  of  stagnant  waters,  but  is 
far  less  freipiently  observed  than  the  rest,  on 
account  of  its  very  small  size.  There  are  17 
species.' 

NOTONUS,  a  genus  of  insects  of  tlie  co- 
leoptera  order.  The  generic  character  is, 
antenn.e  filiform;  feelers  four,  hatchet-sha|)- 
ed  ;  jaw  one-loolhed  ;  thorax  a  little  narrow - 
eil  behind.  There  are  13  species,  loiind  in 
Europe  and  Asia. 

NO\'ATl.\NS,  a  christian  sect  which 
sprang  uj)  in  the  third  century,  so  called  from 
Novatian,  a  priest  of  Rome,  or  Nov  at  us,  an 
.Vfrican  bi>hop<  who  separated  from  the  com- 
munion of  pope  Cornelius,  whom  Novati:m 
charged  with  a  criminal  lenity  towards  those 
who  had  apostatised  during  the  persecution 
of  Dcciiis.  He  iliMiicd  the  church's  power 
of  remitting  mortal  sins. 

NO\'F.I<,  in  the  civil  law,  a  term  used  for 
the  constitutions  of  several  emperors,  as  of 
Justin,  Tiberiu'',  Leo,  and  more  paillcularlv 
for  those  of  Justinian.  The  constitutions  of 
Justinian  were  called  novils,  either  lioin  their 
producing  a  great  alteration  in  the  face  of 
the  antient  law,  or  Ik  cause  tluy  wire  made 
on  new  cases,  and  after  the  icvisal  of  the  an- 
tient code,  compiled  by  the  ortl(;r  of  that 
emperor.  Thus  the  constitutions  of  thcem- 
])eiors  Theodosius,,  N  alenlinian,  Marcian, 
&c.   were  alto  calleil  novels,  on  account  of 


N  U  M 

Uu'ir  being  published  after  tlie  TlieoJosi.m 
code. 

NOUN,  in  gjammar,  a  part  of  speech, 
which  signifies  things  without  any  relaiion  to 
time ;  as  a  man,  a  house,  sweet,  bitter,  &c. 

NUCLEL'S,  in  general,  denotes  the  ker- 
nel of  a  nut,  or  even  any  seed  inclosed  within 
a  husk.  The  term  nucleus  is  also  used  for 
the  body  of  a  comet,  otherwise  called  its 
heail. 

NUDE  CONTR.\CT,  a  bare  promi<^^, 
without  any  consideration,  auil  therefore 
void. 

NUIS.-VNCE,  signifies  generally  anv  thing 
that  woiks  hurl,  inconvenience,  or  damt?  , 
to  the  property  or  person  of  another.  Nui- 
sances are  of  l«o  kinds,  public  or  private 
nuisance,  and  either  affect  the  public  or  ih.; 
individual.  The  remedy  ior  a  nuisance  is 
by  action  on  the  case  for  damages.  Ever'. 
continuance  of  a  nuisance  is  a  fresh  nuisance, 
ami  a  fresh  action  will  he. 

NUMBER,  kinds  end  distinctions  of. 
MathC'iiaticians,  considering'  luimber  un- 
der a  great  many  relations,  have  esta- 
blished llie  following  distinctions.  Broki'u 
numbers  are  the  same  with  fractions.  Car- 
dinal numbers  are  those  which  express  the 
quantity  of  units,  as  1,  2,  3,  iVc.  whereas 
ordinal  numbers  are  those  winch  express 
order,  as  1-t,  'id,  3d,  Src.  Compound  num- 
ber, one  divisable  by  some  other  number 
besides  unity  ;  as  l'.',  which  is  divisible  by 
2,  J,  4,  and  6.  Numbers,  as  12  and  15, 
wiiich  have  some  common  measure  besides 
unity,  are  said  to  be  compound  numbers 
among  tiiemselves. 

Cubic  number  is  the  product  of  a  square 
number  by  its  root  :  such  as  27,  as  beint"- 
the  product  of  the  squ  ire  miuiher  9,  by  its 
root  3.  All  cubic  numbers  whose  root  is 
less  than  ti,  being  divided  bv  6,  the  re- 
mainder is  the  root  itself:  thus  27-^ti  leaves 
the  remainder  3,  its  root;  216,  the  cube  of 
t),  being  divided  by  6,  leaves  no  remainder; 
343,  the  cube  of  7,  leaves  a  remainder  1, 
which  added  to  6,  is  the  cube  root ;  and  jl2, 
the  cube  of  S,  divided  by  6,  leaves  a  rc-- 
maindin"  2,  which  added  to  6,  is  the  cube 
root.  Jlence  the  remainders  of  tlie  divisions 
of  the  cubes  above  21(i,  flividod  bv  (i,  beini 
adiled  to  li,  always  gives  the  root  of  the  cube 
so  divided,  till  that  remainder  is  i,  and  con- 
sequeiuly  1 1  the  cube-root  of  the  number 
divided.  But  the  cube  number  above  this 
bein-f;  divided  by  6,  there  remains  nothina-, 
the  cube-root  being  12.  Thus  the  remaind- 
ers of  the  liigher  cubes  are  to  be  added  to 
12,  and  not  to  6,  till  vou  com;'  to  Is,  when 
the  remainder  of  the  division  must  be  adiled 
to  IS  ;  and  so  on  ad  infinitum. 

Determinate  number,  is  that  refi-rnd  to 
some  given  unit,  as  a  ternary  or  three  : 
will  reas  an  indeterminate  one,  is  that  refer- 
red to  unity  in  general,  and  is  called  quantity, 
llomogeneal  numbers,  are  those  releired 
to  the  same  unit ;  as  those  referred  to  dif- 
Icrcnt  units  are  termed  heterogeueal. 

W'liole  numbers,  are  otherwise  called  in- 
tegers.    SeelNTEOER. 

Rational  number,  i*  one  commpiisurable 
with  unity  ;  as  a  number  incommensurable 
with  unity,  is  termed  ii  rational  or  a  surd.  See 

StlKD. 

In  the  same  manm-r  a  rational  whole  mini- 
ber,  is  that  whereof  unity  is  an  aliquot  part; 
a  rational  brokin  number,  that  equal  to  some 


.N  U  M 

stli(\uot  part  of  tmitv ;  aiul  a  rcilional  mixed 
jmiiiber,  th.it  consisiing  of  a  wliule  numbcT 
aiul  a  broken  one. 

Evoii  mmiber,  that  whicli  may  be  dividi'd 
into  two  eq'.iiil  pails  witliiuit  any  fraction,  as 
0,  12,  StC.  '1'Ik-  sum,  dilleJCiicc,  and  pro- 
duct, of  any  niuuber  of  even  number.-i,  is  al- 
wavs  an  even  nmnbcr. 

An  evenly  even  number,  is  that  which 
niav  be  measured,  or  divided,  v.ithout  any 
remainder,  by  anoliicr  even  luniibt-r,  as  A 
by  'J. 

An  unevenly  even  number,  when  a  num- 
ber may  be  equally  divided  by  an  imeveu 
liumlier,  as  20  by  5. 

I'neven  numfjer,  that  wliicli  exceeds  an 
even  number,  at  least  by  unity,  or  which 
cannot  be  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  as 
3,  3,  &.C. 

'I'lie  sum  or  difference  of  two  uneven  num- 
liers  makes  an  even  number;  but  the  factum 
of  two  uneven  ones  makes  an  uneven  num- 
ber. 

If  an  even  numijcr  is  added  to  an  uneven 
one,  or  if  the  one  is  subsiracled  from  llie 
other,  in  the  former  case  the  sum,  in  the 
Jatter  the  dilference,  is  an  uneven  mimber; 
but  the  factum  of  an  even  and  imeven  num- 
l)er  is  even. 

'I'he  sum  of  any  even  number  of  uneven 
numbers  is  an  even  number;  and  tlie  sum 
of  anv  uneven  number  of  uneven  numbers  is 
an  uneven  number. 

I'riinitive  or  prime  numbers,  are  tliose 
only  divisible  by  unity,  as  5,  7,  &c.  And 
jirime  numbers  among  themselves,  are  those 
which  have  no  lomnion  measure  besides 
unity,  as  12  and  19. 

I'erlect  number,  that  wliose  aliquot  parts, 
added  together,  make  the  wiiole  number,  as 
(5,  2S  ;  the  aliquot  parts  of  6  being  3,  2,  and 
1  n=  (i ;  and  those  of  28,  being  14,  7,  4,  2,  J, 

Impjrfcct  numbers,  those  whose  aliquot 
parts,  added  together,  make  either  more  or 
le);s  tli.ui  the  whole.  And  the<e  aredistin- 
guis'ued  into  abundant  and  defective  ;  an  in- 
stance in  the  former  case  is  12,  whose  ali- 
quot parts  (i,  4,  .^,  2,  1  make  siNteen  ;  and  in 
tlie  latter  case  16,  wliose  aliquot  parts  S,  4,  2, 
and  1,  make  but  15. 

I'lain  number,  that  arising  from  the  multi- 
plication of  two  numbers,  as  6,  which  is  the 
product  of  3  by  2  ;  and  these  numbers  are 
culled  the  sides  of  the  plane. 

Scpiare  number,  is  tlir])roducl  of  anv  num- 
ber nuiltipried  by  itself;  thus  4,  which  is  flie 
factum  of  2  by  2,  is  a  square  number. 

Every  squire  number  added  to  its  root 
innkes  an  even  number. 
'  Polygonal,  or  polygonous  numbers,  (he 
sums  of  arithmetical  progressions  beginning 
with  unity  ;  these,  where  the  common  ilil- 
ference  !■>  ],  are  called  trianguJ.ar  numbers  ; 
wliere  2,  square  numbers;  where  3,  penta- 
gonal numbers ;  where  4,  h  wagonal  num- 
bers ;  wliere  5,  heptagonal  numbers,  &c.  See 

I'OLYGONAL. 

Pyramidal  numbeis :  the  sums  of  polvgo- 
nous  numbers,  collrcted  after  the  same  liian- 
ner  as  tlie  polygoiis  themselv-es,  and  not 
gatiiered  out  of  arithmetical  progressions, 
are  called  first  pyramidal  numbers;  the 
sums  of  the  first  pyramidals  are  called  se- 
cond pvramidals,  iVc. 

If  they  arise  out  of  triangular  numbers, 
ll»c-y  arc'  called  trian^'iUir  pyramidal  nuin 

4^ 


N  U  N 

bers ;  if  out   of  pentagons,  first  pentagonal 
pyramidals. 

From  llie  manner  of  summing  up   pol\- 
goiial   numbers,   it   is  easv  to  conceive  how 
the  prime  pvramidal  nuinbers  are  found,  viz. 
r»— 2;  ?i'-j-  3  /(•—  (a— 5)  a 
g expresses    all 

the  prime  pyramidals. 

Jsu.MBER,  in  grammar,  a  modification  of 
nouns,  verbs,  &c;  to  accommodate  them  to 
the  varieties  in  their  objects,  considered  with 
regard  to  mimber. 

NUMKUAI,  LETTERS,  those  letters  of 
the  aliihabel  wliich  are  generally  used  for 
ligiires  as  I,  V,  X,  L,  C,  D,  'M.  See 
Akith.metic,  C'hai(.\cter,  &c. 

NU.MKKALS,  ill  grammar,  those  words 
wliich  express  numbers ;  as  six,  eiglit,  ten,  &c. 
NlMKUA'llOX.      See    Arith.metic, 
Charaotkk,  &c. 

Nl'iMlUA,  in   ornithology,  a  genus  be- 
longing to  the  order  of  galfinie.     On  each 
side  of  the  head  there  ii  a  kind  of  coloured 
fh-shy  horn;  and  thi;  beak  is  furnished  with 
cere  near  the  nostrils.     The  species  called 
meleagris,  or   (juinea   hen,   is   a  native    of 
.'\frica.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  298.     It  is 
larger  than   a  common   hen.      Its  body  is 
sloped  like  that  of  a  partridge  ;  and  its  colour 
is   all  over  a  dark    grey,    very    beautifully 
spotted  with  small   white' sjjecks ;  there  is  "a 
black  ring  round  tlie  neck  ;  its  head  is  red- 
dish, and  it  is  blue  under  the  eyes.     They 
naturally  herd   together   in   large  numbers', 
and  breed  up  their  young  in  common  ;  the 
females  taking  care  "of  the  broods  of  others, 
as  well  as  of  their  own.     Harbul  informs  us, 
that  in  Guinea  they  go  in  flocks  of  200  or 
300,  perch  on  trees,'  and  feed  on  worms  and 
grasshojipers ;  that  thev  are  run   down   and 
taken  by  dogs;  and  th'at  llieir  flesh  is  ten- 
der and  sweet,  generally  white,  though  some- 
times black.     They  breed  verv  well  with  us. 
Tlie  wliite-breasted  one  is  a 'mere  varietv, 
of  which  there  are  many  ;  it  is  mostly  found 
in  Jamaica.     The  mitred,  or  iiumida  mitrata, 
is  a  differi-nt  and  not  a  common  species  ;   it 
inhabits  Madagascar  and  Guinea.    The  third 
si)ecies  which    i\Ir.  L.itham  mentions  is  liie 
crested,   or   numida  cristata.      This  species 
likewise   inhabits  Africa.     BuiTon,  who   de- 
scribes it  at  great  length,  calls  it  la  peintacle. 
Linna-us  ami  Gmelin  call  it  Numida  melea- 
g  is,  ,'vc.  Ray  and  Willughby  call  itgallusand 
gallina  Guinecnsis,   &;e^     ^Ir.  Pennant  con- 
tends, and  seems  to  prove,  that  the  pintados 
hid   been   early   introduced  into  Britain,  at 
least  prior  to  the  year  1277.    But  they  seem 
to  have  been  much  neglected  on  account  of 
the    difficulty    of  rearing    them ;    for   they 
occur  not  in  our  antient  bills  of  tare.     Tiiev 
liave  a  double  caruncle  at  the  chaps,  and  n'o 
fold  at  the  throat. 

NUNCiO,  or  Nuntio,  an  amb.issador 
from  the  pope  to  some  catholic  prince  or 
state  ;  or  a  person  who  attends  on  the  ))ope's 
behalf  at  a  congress,  or  an  assembly  of  se- 
veral ambassadors,  'i'he  nuncio  has  a  juris- 
diction and  may  delegate  judges  in  all  the 
stat<;s  wliere  he  resides,  except  in  France, 
where  he  has  no  autliority  but  that  of  a 
simp'e  ambassador.     See  A'aib-^ssador. 

NUNCUPATIVE  will,  denotes  a  last 
will  or  testament,  only  made  verbally,  and 
not  put  in  wi-itijig.    See  Witt  and  Testa- 

-ME.ST. 


N  U'R 


'  271^ 


X'■KS^.I<^',  ill  gardening,  i-i  a  piece  of 
land  set  apa  I  for  raisi:)g  and  prijpagating  aJI 
sorts  of  trees  and  plains,  to  supply  the  gar- 
den and  other  plantalioiis. 

In  a  nursery  for  frti  l-trees,  the  following 
rules  are  to  be  observ.d:  1.  'Ilial  the  soil 
should  not  be  better  tiiun  that  hi  vijich  tlie 
trees  are  to  be  planted  out  lor  good.  2. 
Tliat  it  ought  to  be  fresh,  and  not  -ik  h  as 
lias  been  already  worn  out  by  trees,  or  other 
large  growing  plants.  3.  k  ought  neither 
to  be  loo  Wet,  nor  too, dry,  but  rather  of  a 
middling  nature;  lliough',  ol  the  two  ex- 
tremes, iX.y  is  to  be  |)referred ;  because, 
tliougli  trees  in  sucii  a  soil  tlo  not  make  so 
great  a  progress,  yet  they  are  g-nerally 
sounder,  and  more  dispose'd  to  fru;triiir.ess. 

4.  It  must  be  inclosed  in  such  a  manner  that 
neither  tattle  nor  vermin  may  come  in  ;  and 
so  as  jiarticuiarly  to  e.\clu;le'  hares  and  rab- 
bits, which,  when  tlie  ground  is  covered  with 
snow,  are  great   destroyers  of  voung  trees. 

5.  The  ground  being  inclosed  sliould  be  care- 
fully  tii-nched   about    two   feet    deej) ;  this 
tills  should  be  done  in  August,  that  it  mav 
be  ready  for  receiving  young  stocks  at  the- 
season  for  planting,  which  is  commonly  about 
the  beginning  of  October:  intrenching  the 
ground,  you  must  be  careful  to  cleanse  it 
from  the  roots  of  all  noxious  w<;ed-.     0.  The 
season  being  come  lor  planting,  level  dowti 
the  trenches  as  ecpial  as  possible;  and  then 
lay  out  the  ground  into  quarters,  which  may 
be  laid  out  in  beds  for  a  seminar.,  in  whicli 
you  may  sow  the  seeds  or   stones  of  fruit. 
7.  And  having  provided  yourself  with  stocks, 
the  next  year  proceed  to  trans|)lant  them, 
in  the  following  manner :  draw  a  line  across 
the  ground  intended  to  be  planted,  and  open 
a  number  of  trenches  exactly  straiglit ;  then 
take   the   stocks  out  of  the   seed-beds ;   in 
doing  wliicli,  you  should  raise  the  ground 
with  a  spade,  in  order  to  preserve  the  roots 
as  entire   as  possible;    prune  otf  the   very 
small  fibres,  and  if  there  are  any  that  have 
a  tendency  to  root  directly  downwards,  such 
roots  should  be  shortened.     Tlieii  plant  them, 
in    the   trenches,  if  they   are   designed   lor 
standards,  in  rows  three' feet  and  a  half,  or 
four  feet,  from  each  other,  and  a  foot  and  a 
half  distant  in  the  rows;  but  if  for  dwarfs, 
three  feet  row  from  row,  -and  one  foot  in  the 
row,  will   be   a  suSHcient  distance.       These 
plants  should  by  no   means  be  headed,  or 
pruned  at  top,  which  will  weaken  them,  and 
cause  them  to  produce  lateral  branches.     If 
llie  winter  should  prove  very  cold,  lav  some 
mulch  on  the   surface   of  the  ground  m-ar 
their  roots  taking  care  not  to  let  it  lie  ton 
thick  near  the  stems  of  the  plants,  and  to 
remove  it  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  over.    In  the 
summer  season  destroy  the  weeds,  and  di^ 
up   the    ground  every  spring   between   the 
rows.     Tne  second  )  ear  after  ])lanling,  such 
of  the  stocks  as  are  designed  for  dwarfs  wilt 
be  lit  to  bud  ;  but  tho^e   that  are  designed 
for  standards  should  be  sull'erej  to  grow  five 
or  six  feet  high  before  they  are  budded  or 
gr,ifted  ;    for  the  manner  of'doing  which,  see 
Grafting. 

As  to  timber  trees,  Mi^.  Miller  advises 
those  gentlemjn  w!io  would  have  plantations 
in  parks,  woods,  &c.  to  make  nurseries  upont 
the  ground  intended  for  planting,  where  a 
sullicient  number  of  tha  trees  may  be  left 
standing,,  after  the  others  have  Ueeu  Ura.m, 
out  to  plant  in  other  places. . 


2S0 


NYC 


The  ground  intended  for  tlie  flo\v(?r-nur- 
sery  slioald  be  well  situated  to  llie  f-uii ;  and 
defended  froiH'  strnns;  winds  l)y  pUmlalioiis 
of  trees,  or  by  building?,  'f  lie  soil  also 
should  be  light  and  dry,  esiKcially  lor  bMl- 
boiij-rooted  flowers ;  for  i-  this  nnrserv  the 
oiisets  &<  all  biilbous-rooled  (lowers  should 
be  planted,  and  remain  there  till  tliey  be- 
come blowing  roots,  when  they  should  be 
removed  into  the  pleasnre-garden,  and  plant- 
ed either  m  beds  or  borders,  accortling  to 
the  goodness  of  the  flowers.  These  llow- 
ers  may  also  be  raised  in  the  nursery  Ironi 
seed.  'The  seedling  auriculas,  polyanthuses, 
ranunculuses,  anemonies,  carnations,  &c. 
should  be  raised  in  this  nursery,  where  they 
should  be  preserved  till  they  have  llowercd, 
when  all  those  should  be  marked  that  are 
worthv  of  bL-ing  transplanted  into  the  llower- 
garden:  this  should  be  do.ie  in  their  proper 
seasons  ;  for  all  Ihe^e  seedling  llowers  oiiglit 
not  indiscriminately  to  be  exposed  to  public 
view  in  the  pleasure-garden,  because  it  al- 
ways liappens,  that  there  are  great  numbers 
of  ordinary  llowers  produced  among  them, 
which  will'there  make  but  an  indifferent  ap- 
pearance. 

NUT.  See  Corylus. 
KoT-CALLS.  See  (JaI.lIc  Acid. 
NUTATION,  in  astronomy,  a  kind  of 
tremulous  motion  of  the  axis  of  the  earth, 
wherebv,  iii  each  annual  revolution,  it  is 
twice  inclined  to  the  ecliptic,  and  as  often 
returns  to  its  former  position.  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  observes,  that  the  moon  has  the 
like  motion,  only  very  small,  and  scarcely 
sensible. 

NL'TMEG.    See  Myristica. 
NUriUTION.     See  DicESMOK,  Ma- 
teria Medica,  and  Physiology. 

NLX  VOMICA,  a  fiat,  compressed, 
round  fruit,  about  the  breadth  of  a  shilling, 
brought  from  India.     See  Strynchus. 

NVCTANTHES,  Arabian  Ja.smine,  a 
penus  of  the  inonogynia  order,  in  the  d:an- 
flria  class  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  with  the  44th  order,  sepiariy.  The 
corolla  and  calyx  are  octolid  :  the  perian- 
'thium  dicoccous.  There  are  seven  species, 
■the  most  remarkable  of  which  are:  1.  The 
arbor  trislis,  or  sorrowful  Iri'e.  'I'his  tree, 
or  slu'ul),  the  pariirticu  of  tin-  I'lrauiins,  grows 
naturally  in  sandy  |)laces  in  l-udia,  particu- 
larly in  the  islands  of  Ceylon  and  Java, 
■where  it  is  procured  in  great  abmulance,  and 
attains  the  height  of  IS  or  '2Q  feet.  It  rises 
with  a  four-corn:Ted  stem,  bearing  leaves 
that  are  oval,  ajid  taper  to  a  point.  The 
.jlowers,  which  are  wliiie  an<l  highlv  odorifer- 
.Gus,  having  a  sweet  delectable  smell  eniu- 
(lating  the  best  liouey,  consist  of  one  petal 


N  Y  M 

deeply  divided  into  eight  parts,  whicli  are 
narrower  towards  the  stalk,  and  dilated  to- 
wards the  sunnnit.  The  fru"t  is  dry,  capsu- 
lar, nu-mbranaccous,  and  compressed. 

it  is  generally  asserlv.(l  of  this  plant,  that 
the  llowers  open  in  the  evening,  and  lall  olf 
the  succeeding  day.  Fabricius  and  I'aluda- 
uu^,  however,  restrict  the  assertion,  by  at- 
lirmiiig,  from  actual  observation,  that  this 
eil'ect  IS  found  to  take  place  only  in  sucli 
llowers  as  are  iniiTiet4iately  under  the  iiillu- 
ence  of  the  solar  rays,  {jrimmius  remarks 
in  his  Liljoratorium  Ccylonicum,  that  the 
llowers  of  tliis  tree  afford  a  fragrant  water, 
which  is  cordial,  refreshing,  and  frequently 
employed  with  success  in  infiaininations  of 
the  eye-i.  The  tube  of  tlie  flower,  when 
dried,  has  the  smell  of  saffron  ;  and  being 
pounded  and  mixed  with  sandvr-.-wood,  is 
used  bv  the  natives  of  the  Malabar  coast  for 
imparting  a  grateful  fragrancy  to  their  bodies, 
which  they  rub  or  anoint  with  the  mix- 
ture. 

2.  The  angustifolia,  of  which  the  llowers 
are  white,  inexpres-ibly  fragrant,  and  gene- 
rally appear  in  the  warm  summer-months. 
Strong  loam  is  its  proper  soil. 

NVMPH,  amor.g  naHiralisls,-that  state  of 
winged  insects  between  their  livhig  in  the 
form  of  a  worm,  and  their  appearing  in  the 
winged  or  most  perfect  state.     See  Ento- 

t4OL0GV. 

NVMPH.1':A.     SeeAKATOMY. 

Ny:.iph.s:,  the  ■•xatt:r-libi,  a  genus  of  the 
monog}nia  order,  in  the  ]-)olyandria  c'ass  ot 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  j4th  order,  miscellanea.  The 
corolla  is  polypetalous ;  the  calyx  trtra- 
pliyllous  or  pei.taphyllous  ;  the  berry  muki- 
locular  and  truncated.  There  are  six  spe- 
cies, of  which  the  most  remarkable  are  :  1. 
and  ~'.  1"he  lutea  and  diba,  or  yellow  and  white 
water-lilies  ;  both  of  which  are  natives  of 
Britain,  growing  in  lakes  and  ditches.  Lin- 
lucus  tells  us,  that  swine  are  fond  of  the 
leaves  and  roots  of  tiie  former  ;  and  that  the 
smoke  of  it  will  drive  away  crickets  and 
blatta-,  or  cock-roaches,  out  oF  hoi'S.;s.  The 
root  of  the  second  hss  an  astringent  and  bit- 
ter taste,  like  those  of  most  atpiatic  plants 
that  run  deep  into  the  nuid.  3.  The  lotus, 
with  heart-shaped  toothed  leaves,  a  plant 
thought  to  be  peculiar  to  Egypt,  is  men- 
tioned by  Herodotus.  M.  Savary  ineri- 
lions  it  as  growing  in  the  rivulets  and  on  th 
sides  of  the  lakes  :  and  that  there  are  two 
sorts  or  varieties  of  the  plant,  the  one  with  a 
white,  the  other  with  ablueish  llower.  "  Th.e 
calvx  (he  says)  blows  like  a  large  tulip,  and 
ilill'uses  a  sweet  smell,  resembling  that  ol 
the  lily.     The  lust  species  produces  a  roimd 


K  Y  S 

rf;ol  like  that  of  a  potatoe  ;  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  banks  of  llie  !;.ke  Mii'^all  lei  d 
upon  it.  '1  he  rivulets  in  the  environs  of 
Damietta  are  covered  wilii  this  majest  c 
Howe:,  which  rises  ujwards  ot  two  feet  above 
the  water.  4.  In  tlie  East  and  West  Indies 
giowsa  species  of  I'liisjjlant,  iiamed  neluniho 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Cejlon.  'Hie  llowers 
are  large,  llesii-coioured,  and  con^st  of  nu- 
merous petals,  disposed  as  in  the  otlier  spe- 
cies ot  w'ater-lily,  in  two  or  more  raws.  '1  he 
seed-vessel  is  shaped  like  a  top,  being  broad 
and  circular  above,  narrow  and  almm!. 
pointed  below.  It  is  divided  iiilo  sever..! 
distinct  cells,  which  forin  so  many  large 
round  holes  iipcjn  the  sin-face  of  the  fruit, 
each  containing  a  single  seed.  With  the 
tluvvcr  of  this  plant,  which  is  sacred  among 
the  heathens,  they  adorn  the  altars  ol  lluir 
teniples.  The  stalks,  which  are  used  as  a 
pot-herb,  are  of  a  wonderful  length.  The 
root  is  -very  long,  extends  itself  transverse!  v, 
is  of  the  size  ot  a  man's  arm,  jouited  and 
librotis,  with  long  intervals  between  the 
joints.  The  fibres  surround  the  joints  iu 
vcrlicilli  or  wliorls. 

IsYSSA,  a  genus  of  the  order  of  dia-cia, 
in  the  polygainia  class  of  plants ;  and  m  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  12tii  order, 
holoracesc.  The  hermaplirodite  calyx  is 
C|Um(,)uepaitite4  ttere  is  no  corolla;  the 
stamina  are  five  ;  there  is  one  pistil ;  the 
fruit  a  ])lum  iirferior.  Tlie  male  calyx  is 
quniqueparlite,  .no  corolla,  and  ten  stamina, 
there  ari'  two  species  :  l.Tlie  integrifolia, 
entire-leaved;  and,  2.  TJie  denticulata,  or 
serrated-k;av<?d  tupelo. 

The  eiTtire-lca".-ed  tupelo-h-ce,  in  its  native 
soil  and  climate,  grows  to  near  W  feet  high  ; 
in  this  country  its  si^e  varies  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil  or  situation.  In  a 
moist  rich  earth,  well  sheltered,  it  conies  to 
near  20  feet;  in  othcTs,  that  are  less  so,  it 
makes  slower  progress,  and  in  the  end  is 
proportionally  lower.  The  branches  arc 
not  veiy  numerous;  and  it  rises  with  a  re- 
gular trunk,  at  the  top  of  which  they  gene- 
rally grow.  In  England  they  seldom  pro- 
duce Iruft. 

'lite  serrated-'eaved  tujielo-trce  grows 
usually  nearly  30  feet  in  height ;  and  divides 
into  hranches  near  the  top  like  the  other. 
The  leaves  ate  oblong,  pointed,  ol  a  light- 
green  colour,  and  come  .out  without  order 
on  long  fo'  tslajks  The  llowers  come  out 
from  llie  wings  of  the  leaves  on  long  fof>t- 
sL.lks.  The_\  are  smv'll,  of  a  greenish-colour  ; 
and  are  succeeded  by  oval  drupes,  contain- 
ing sharp-pointed  nuts,  .about  the  sLze  of  a 
French  oh\e. 


O  D  L 


O  B  S 


O  B  S 


28V 


O. 


/^     tho  foiirtepiilli  Icttpr  of  our  alplKibot. 
^-^5     As  a  ininieial,  il  is  soiiieliines  used 

for  eleven  ;  and  willi  a  dash  over  it  thus  O 
for  eleven  thousand.  In  the  notes  of  the 
aiilienls,  ().  CON.  is  read  ojius  coiuUutuni  ; 
(>.  C.  Q.  opere  consilioqu(.- ;  ().  D.  M. 
opera,  donum,  muiuis;  and  O.  L.  O.  opus 
locat'.uu. 

In  nnisic,  the  O,  or  rather  a  circle,  or 
double  CD,  is  a  note  of  time  called  by  us  a 
seini-l>reve  ;  and  by  the  Ilaliaiiscircolo.  The 
O  is  also  used  as  a  mark  of  triple  time,  as 
beiiitf  the  most  perlcct  of  all  figures. 

rtAK.     See  (JuEKCUS. 

OAKAM,  okl  ropes  untwisted,  and  pulled 
out  into  loose  hemp,  in  order  to  be  used  in 
caulUin!»  the  seams,  tree-)iaiN,  and  bemis  of 
a  ship,  lor  stojjpiiij;  ur  prevenling  leaks. 

(JAR,  in  navigation,  a  lone;  piece  of  wood, 
for  moving  a  vessel  by  rowing;.  Oars  for 
ships  are  generally  cut  out  of  lir-limber, 
tiiose  for  barges  are  made  out  of  New  Eng- 
land or  Dantzic-rafters,  and  llio>e  for  boats, 
either  out  of  English  ash,  or  lir  rafters  from 
Norwav. 

OA'f'.     See  Avena. 

OATH,  an  aliirmation  or  denial  of  any 
thing  before  one  or  more  persons,  who  have 
the  authority  to  administer  the  same,  for  the 
discovery  and  advancement  of  truth  and 
ri_.;ht.     .See  Affidavit. 

OBF.l.ISK,  a  truncated,  quadrangular, 
and  slender  pyramid,  raised  as  an  ornament, 
and  frequently  charged  either  with  inscrip- 
tions or  hieroglyphics. 

Obelisks  appear  to  be  of  very  great  anti- 
quity, and  to  be  lirst  raised  to  transmit  to 
posterity  precepts  of  philosophy,  which  were 
cut  in  hieroglyphical  cliaracters :  alterwards 
they  were  used  to  immortalize  the  great 
actions  of  heroes,  and  the  memory  of  persons 
beloved.  Tlie  lirst  obelisk  mentioned  in  his- 
tory was  that  of  Rameses  king  of  Egypt,  in 
the  (hue  of  tlie  Trojan  war,  w  hich  was  forty 
cubits  high.  Piiiiis,  another  king  of  l''.g\  pi, 
raised  one  of  forlv-live  cubits  ;  and  Ptolemv 
Plulatlelplyus,  another  of  eighty-eight  (  ubits, 
in  memory  of  Arsinoe.  Augustus  erected 
one  at  Kome  in  the  Campus  Marlins,  whicli 
served  to  mark  the  lioin's  on  an  horizontal 
dial,  drawn  on  the  pavement.  They  were 
called  by  the  Egyptian  priests  the  lingers  of 
the  sun,  becau.se  they  were  made  in  Egypt 
also,  to  serve  as  styles  or  gnomons  to  mark 
the  hours  on  the  ground.  Tiie  Arabs  still 
call  them  I'liaroah's  needles,  whence  the 
Italians  call  tin m  aguglia,  and  the  French 
iiignilles. 

The  proportions  in  the  height  and  thick- 
ness are  nearly  the  same  in  all  'obelisks  ; 
tlieir  height  be  ng  nine  or  nine  and  a  half, 
and  sometimes  ten  times,  their  thickness  ;  and 
their  diameter  at  the  top  liever  less  tlian 
half,  and  never  greater  than  three-fourtiis,  of 
that  at  the  bottom. 

OBLATE,  Hatted,  or  shortener! ;  as  an 
oblate  spheroid,  having  its  axis  shorter  than 

Vol.  11. 


its   middle  diameter,  being  fonned  by  the 
rotation  of  an  ellipse  about  the  shorter  axis. 

015I,.\TENE--S.     See  Eaktii,  tigure  of. 

OBLIGATION,  a  bond  containing  a  pe- 
nalty, with  a  condition  annexed,  either  for 
payment  of  money,  performance  of  cove- 
nants, or  the  like.  '1  Ins  security  is  called  a 
specialty.  Co.  Lit.  172.  See  Bond,  and 
Deed. 

OBLlQUE.in  geometry,  something  aslant, 
or  that  deviates  from  the  perpendicular. 
Thus,  an  obli(|ue  angle,  is  either  an  acute  or 
obtuse  one;  that  is,  any  angle  e.vcept  a  right 
one. 

OiiLiauE  Plane.s.     See  Dialling. 

OliLONGATA  Medulla.  See  Ana- 
tomy. 

OIKJIX^S,  in  antiquity,  an  antient  Athe- 
nian coin,  worth  a  penny  farthing.  .Among 
antient  physicians  ;  obolus  likewise  denoted 
a  weight,  e<|nal  to  ten  grains. 

OBOLAUIA,  a  genus  of  the  angiospermia 
order,  in  the  didynamia  class  of  plains;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
40th  order,  personata-.  The  cai\  x  is  bifid  ; 
the  corolla  campanulatcd  and  qnadriiid ; 
the  capsule  unilocular,  bivalved,  and  poly- 
spermons  ;  the  stamina  rising  from  the  divi- 
sions of  the  corolla.  Tliere  is  one  species,  a 
herb  of  Virginia. 

OBSEKVATORY,  a  place  destined  for 
observing  the  heavenly  bodies;  being  gene- 
rally a  buikling  erected  on  some  eminence, 
covered  with  a  terrace  for  making  astrono- 
mical ob.ervations. 

The  ])rincipal  instruments  for  a  fixed  ob- 
servatory are,  a  large  lixed  ([uadrant,  or  a 
circular  divided  instrument,  cliielly  for  mea- 
suring vertical  angles  ;  a  transit  instrument  ; 
an  equatorial  instrument ;  a  chronometer,  or 
regulator  ;  one  or  more  powerful  telescopes  ; 
a  lixed  zenith  telescope,  and  a  night  tele- 
scope. 

Tlie  quadrant,  or  quarter  of  a  circle,  di- 
vided into  91)',  and  each  degree  subdivided 
into  minutes  or  smaller  parts,  has  been  made 
ot  various  sizes  ;  some  of  tlieni  having  a  ra- 
dius even  of  eight  or  nine  or  more  feet  ill 
lenglli.  When  those  quadrants  do  not  ex- 
ceed one  or  two,  or  at  most  three  feet,  in 
radius,  they  are  generally  fixed  upon  their 
particular  stands,  wdiich  are  furnished  with 
various  mechanical  contrivances,  that  are 
ncsessary  to  place  the  plane  of  the  (|ua- 
drant  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and  for 
all  the  other  necessary  adjustments.  Rut 
large  quadrants  are  fixed  upon  a  strong  wall 
by  means  of  proper  clamps ;  hence  they  have 
been  commonly  called  mural  <|uadrants,  and 
are  situated  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian 
of  the  observatoiy.  In  either  of  those  qua- 
drants an  index,  which  reaches  from  the 
centre  to  the  edge  of  the  arch,  moves 
round  that  centre,  or  round  a  short  axis  w  liicli 
passes  through  that  centre  so  as  to  be  moveable 
with  its  extremity  all  round  that  arc,  and 
thus  point  out  oil  the  divisions  of  the  arch, 


the  angle  wliii  h  it  fonns  with  the  horizon,  or 
witli  tl;e  vertical  line,  in  any  given  situation. 
'I'liij  iiiilex  carries  a  telescope,  through 
which  the  observer  looks  at  any  particular 
object,  whose  altitude  he  wishes  lo  de- 
termine. 

Plate  Observatory,  &c.  fig.  I.  represents  a 
simple  construction  »f  a  small  moveable  qua- 
drant, and  fig.  2.  represents  a  niuMl  qua- 
drant. Of  the  quadrant  fig.  1.  CEB  is  the 
arch  divided  into  W,  and  generally  subdi- 
vided into  smaller  divisions,  such  as  half 
dei;rees,  or  third  parts  of  each  degree,  &<;. 
The  centre  of  the  ar>  h  is  at  A,  and  the  whole 
is  comiected  togethiM-  by  means  of  strong 
metallic  bars,  as  is  sbi-wn  between  the  letters 
ABC  in  the  figure  :  in  the  centre  A,  a  short 
axis  is  fixed  perpendiculaf  to  the  plane  of 
the  instrument,  and  to  the  upper  part  of  fiiis 
axis  is  fastened  the  index  AD,  whicli  carries 
the  telescope.  This  index  generally  has  a 
small  lateral  projection,  as  at  E,  upon  which 
the  nonius  or  vernier  is  marked,  by  whicli 
me.ins  the  minutes  or  smaller  parts  ttf  each 
degree  may  be  discerned.  (See  Vernier.) 
'I'he  screw  P,  commi<nly  called  the  tangent 
screw,  with  a  nut  that  may  be  fastened  to 
any  part  of  the  arch  RC,  screws  likewise 
into  the  extremity  of  the  index,  and  is  use- 
ful for  moving  the  index  gently,  or  more  ac- 
curately than  by  the  immediate  application 
of  the  hand  to  the  index  itself. 

Since  the  index  is  suspended  at  one  end, 
viz.  at  A,  if  the  other  end  D  happens  to  be 
disengaged  from  the  screw  P,  the  lower  end 
D  of  the  index  will  naturally  come  down  to 
C,  on  account  of  its  own  weight,  and  that  of 
the  telescope.  Now,  in  order  to  avoid  this 
tendency  downwards,  an  arm  Y  of  brass 
or  iion,  is  frequently  affixed  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  index,  which  carries  the  leaden 
weight  Z,  sufficient  to  balance  the  weight 
of  the  index  and  tele-scope  ;  so  tliat  by  this 
means,  even  when  disengaged  from  the 
screw  P,  the  index  will  remain  in  anv  situ- 
ation in  which  it  may  be  left.  The  whole 
frame  ARC  is  supported  upon  a  strong  ver- 
tical axis  FS,  the  lower  part  of  which  turns 
into  the  ])edestal  OKw,  and  carries  an  index 
SX,  which  moves  upon  the  divided  horizon- 
tal circle  O,  fixed  to  the  pedestal.  This 
serves  to  fix  the  plane  of  the  quadrant  in 
any  azimuth  that  may  be  required.  The 
lower  part-  of  the  pedestal  has  three  claws, 
with  a  screw  m  in  each  ;  by  whicli  means 
the  axis  F^S  may  be  set  truly  perpendicular. 
The  |)luminet  AO,  suspended  at  A,  serves 
to  shew  V  hen  the  edge  AC  of  the  instru- 
ment is  truly  perpendicular,  or  when  the  fir^t 
division  of  tlie  aixli  at  C  is  exactly  in  the 
vertical  which  passes  through  the  centre  A 
of  the  quadrantal  arc  BC.  The  weinht 
of  the  plummet  generally  mo\es  in  a  alass 
of  water,  which  is  fixed  upon  the  arm  GK; 
the  object  ot  which  is  to  check  the  vibrations 
of  the  pendulum  ;  whicli  otherwise  would  be 
easily   moved   by  every  breath  of  air,  and 


2*J-  •     ■ 

voiiUI  omlimie  to  move  for  a  con-.Klfiahli:! 
time  afu^r.  \V>  do  not  meiitio:i  tlio  lenses 
or  microscopes  tliat  are  apijlied  to  read  oiT 
tlie  divisions  at  E  and  at  \,  or  to  see  tin? 
coincideiue  ol  tlie  plnnimel-!ine  willi  a  dot 
niarlvod  upon  the  arc  at  C,  as  matters  that 
nc-ed  no  purlicnlar  description. 

In  tlie  eye-tnbe  of  the  telescope  AD, 
■  there  are  certain  slender  wires,  placed  in  the 
fo^ijs  of  tiie'eye-lens,  and  perpendicular  to 
the  a\is  of  the  teiescope,  wliich  ena!)lL'  tlie. 
observer  to  distinguisii  more  accuiately 
wiien  an  object,  tiiat  is  seen  thro'.igli  the 
teiesi-ojje,  reaches  the  axis  of  the  telescope, 
or,  a<  it  is  more  coiiinionlv  called,  tlie  line 
ot.colliiiiation,  &c.  Now  when  the  stars  or 
planets  are  observed  at.night,  those  wires 
in  the  eye-lube  cannot  be  seen  ;  therefore, 
to  render  them  visible,  an  arm  or  wire  is 
ti\e(l  occasioiiaily  at  l!ie  end  of  the  telescope, 
which  arm  holds  a  small  piece  of  ivory  or 
card  z,  set  aslant  to  the  axis  of  tlie  tele- 
scope ;  for  when  a  lis;hfed  candle  or  lantern 
.is  situated  at  a  little  di-^tance,  and  is  directed 
so  as  to  shine  upon  the  above-mentioned 
ivory  or  card,  the  n-llectiun  of  the  li^lit  from 
it  into  the  tube  of  the  telescope,  will  enable 
the  observer  to  distinguish  the  wires  at  the 
.same  time  tliat  he  beliolds  the  celestial  ob- 
ject. 

The  mural  quadrant,  fig.  ?,  is  a  larger 
instrument  like  the  above,  excepting  that  it 
has  no  stand;  and  its  index  is  prevented 
from  bending  on  account  of  its  great  length, 
by  means  of  metallic  bars,  d,f,  b  c.  This 
instrument  is  firmly  lixed  upon  a  wall  ex- 
actly in  the  plane  of  the  meridian  of  the 
observatorv,  for  which  purpose  it  has  clamps, 
screws,  and  other  adjustments.  It  has  like- 
wise a  plummet. 

This  undoubtedly  i5  the  principal  instru- 
ifient  of  an  observatory ;  for  by  observing 
the  times  by  the  clock,  of  the  arrival  of  anv 
celestial  object  to  the  meridian,  the  right 
ascension  of  tiiat  object  is  had  immediately  ; 
and  its  declination  is  shewn  at  the  same  time 
by  the  index  of  llie  quadrant  upon  the  di- 
vided arch  ;  deducting  the  inclination  of  the 
equator,  wliich  is  given  by  the  latitude  once 
ascertained  of  the  observatory.  It  is  by  this 
means  that  exact  catalogues  of  the  places  of 
the  lixed  stars  have  been  made. 

The  transit  instrument  consists  of  a  tele- 
scope of  any  convenient  length,  lixed  at 
right  angles  to  a  horizontal  axis,  wliich  axis 
is  supported  at  its  two  extremities  ;  and  the 
instrument  is  generally  situated  so  that  the 
line  of  coUimation  of  the  telescope  may  move 
in  the  plane  of  the  meridian.  Tlie  \]se  of 
this  instrnment  is  to  observe  the  precise 
time  of  the  celestial  bodies'  passage  across 
the  meridian  of  the  observatory. 

Fig.  3.  exhibifci  a  transit  instniment.  N 
M  is  the  t  leseope ;  in  the  eye-tube  of  whicli 
a  system  of  parallel  wires,  is  situated  in  the  fo- 
cus of  the  eye-lens.  FE  is  the  horizontal  axis, 
ill  the  middle  of  which  the  teIesco|je  is  steadily 
fixed ;  so  that  by  moving  the  telescope,  the 
axis  is  forced  to  turn  round  its  two  extremi- 
ties J'l  and  F,  which  rest  in  the  notches  of 
two  thick  pieces,  T,  S,  of  bell-metal,  such 
as  arc  delineated  separately  and  magnilicd 
at  X.  and  Z,  Those  pieces  arc  generaUy  lix- 
«d  npi.n  two  pillars,  either  of  cast  iron,  or. 
which  is  b.:tler,  of  siaae,  asareshertfu  sit  the 


OBSERVATORY. 

fiirure  ;  and  they  are  constructed  so  as  to  be 
susceplible  of  a"  small  motion  by  means  ot 
slides  and  screws,  viz.  the  piece  'i'  backwards 
and  forwards,  and  the  piece  S  upwards  and 
downwards;  by  which  means  the  axis  F.K 
of  the  instrument  may  be  set  exactly  hori- 
zontal, and  caused  to  move  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  in  order  to 
verify  the  lirst  of  those  requisites,  viz.  to  see 
whether  the  axis  is  truly  horizontal,  the  long 
spirit-le\-el  P  Q  is  suspended  upon  it  by 
means  of  the  metallic  branches  PO  and  QK  ; 
and  the  situation  of  the  bubble  in  it  will 
immediatelv  shew  whether  tlie  axis  is  truly 
horizontal, 'or  which  way  it  inclines,  and  of 
course  where  it  must  be  raised  or  depressed. 
The  other  reiiuisite,  viz.  whether  the  axis 
is  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  meri- 
dian, or  not,  may  be  verilied  by  various 
means,  the  be^t  of  which  is  by  observations 
on  those  circunipolar  stars  which  iiL'ver  go 
below  the  Ivirizon  of  the  observatory.  Thus, 
observe  the  times  by  the  clock,  when  a 
circunipolar  star,  seen  through  the  telescope 
X.\I,  crosses  the  meridian  both  above  and 
below  the  pole  ;  and  if  the  times  o(  describ- 
ing the  eastern  and  w-estem  parts  of  its  cir- 
cuit are  equal,  tlie  telescope  Is  then  in  the 
plane  of  the  meridian,  consequently  the  axis 
K1-"  is  perpendicular  to  that  plane  ;  other- 
wise the  notched  pieces  T  aiid_  H,  which 
support  the  extremities  E,  F,  of  tlie  axis, 
must  be  moved  accordingly,  or  until  upon 
observation  it  is  found  that  the  above-men- 
tioned times  of  the  stars'  semi-revolutions  are 
equal. 

\Mien  the  instrument  has  been  -once  so 
adjusted,  a  mark  may  be  made  upon  a  house, 
or  rock,  or  post,  at  some  distance  from  the 
observatory,  so  that  wlien  viewed  through 
tlie  telescope,  this  mark  may  appear  to  be 
in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  telescope  ; 
bv  which  means  the  correct  situation  of  the 
iiistrument  may  afterwards  be  readily  veri- 
fied. 

The  cylindric  e.xtremity  F  is  perforated, 
and  the  'perforation  passes  through  the  half 
of  the  axis,  and  reaches  the  inside  of  the 
telescope;  that  side  of  the  telescope  tube 
which  is  exactly  facing  F,  being  also  per- 
forated. Within  the  said  tube,  and  directly 
opposite  to  the  perforation  of  the  end  !•', 
a  plane  reflector,  or  a  flat  piece  of  ivory, 
is  iixed,  making  an  angle  of  45'  with  the 
axis  of  the  telescope,'  and  having  a  hole 
through  it  large  enough  to  admit  all  the  rays 
passing  from'the  object-glass  to  the  eye- 
glass of  the  telescope. 

When  stars  or  other  celcstiaF  objects  are 
to  be  observed  in  the  night-time,  a  small 
lantern  Y  is  set  upon  a  stand  just  before  the 
'  perforation  of  the  extremity  F,  so  as  to  throw 
the  light  within  the  axis,  and  upon  the  slant 
reflector  within  the  tube  of  the  telescojie, 
whence  it  is  rellected  upon  the  wires  in  I  lie 
eve-tube  M,  and  renders  them  visible.  Ky 
placing  the  lantern  nearer  to,  or  farther  from, 
the  extremity  !■',  the  observer  may  illumi- 
nate the  wires  sufliciently  for  the  purpose, 
and  not  too  much. 

To  the  other  extremity  E  of  the  axis,  a 
divided  circle,  or  sometimes  a  semicircle,  is 
fixed,  which  turns  with  the  axis  ;  the  index 
being  lixed  to  the  i)illar  whicli  supports  the 
axis.  yometinKis  the  situation  of  those  parts 
is  vevcreeJ,  viz.  the  circle  is  fastened  to  the 


pillar,  or  to  the  brass  piece  which  supports 
the  axis,  and  the  index  is  fa^tened  to  the 
extremity  E  of  the  axis.  1  he  use  of  this 
circle,  is  to  place  the  telescope  in  the  direc- 
tion of  any  particular  celestial  body,  wiien 
that  body  crosses  the  meridian  ;  which  incli- 
nation is  equal  to  the  collatitude  of  the 
place,  more  or  less  the  decliuation  of  the 
celestial  body,  according  as  that  declination 
is  north  or  soutli. 

To  adjuai  the  clock  by  the  sun't  transit 
over  the  incridian. — Note  the  times  by  the 
clock  when  the  preceding  and  following 
edges  of  the  sun's  limb  touch  the  cross 
wires.  The  difference  between  the  middle 
time  and  12  hours,  shews  how  much  tlie 
mean,  or  time  by  the  clock,  is  faster  or  slower 
than  the  apparent,  or  solar  time,  for  that 
day ;  to  which  the  equation  of  time  being 
applied,  will  show  the  time  of  mean  noon  ior 
that  day,  by  which  the  clock  may  be  ad- 
justed. 

Astronomical  or  ecjuatorial  sector,  an  .in- 
strument for  finding  the  diifereiice  in  right 
ascension  and  declination  between  two  ob- 
jects, the  distance  of  which  is  too  great  to 
be  observed  by  the  micj-oiiieter,  was  invented 
by  Graham.  Let  AB  (fig.  4.)  represent  an 
arrh  of  a  circle,  conlaining  10  or  12  degrees 
well  divided,  having  a  stiong  plate  CD  for 
its  radius,  fixed  to  the  middle  of  the  arch  at 
D:  let  this  radius  be  applied  to  the  side  of 
an  axis  HFI,  and  be  moveable  about  a  joint 
fixed  to  it  at  F,  so  that  the  plane  of  the  sec- 
tor may  be  always  jiarallel  to  the  axis  HI  ; 
which  being  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  earth, 
the  plane  of  tlie  sector  will  always  be  parallel 
to  the  plane  of  some  hour-circle.  Let  a 
telescope  CE  be  moveable  about  the  centre 
C  ot  the  arch  AB,  from  one  end  of  it  to  the 
other,  b\  turning  a  screw  at  G  ;  and  let  the 
line  of  si,;ht  be  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the 
sector.  Now,  by  turning  the  whole  instru- 
ment about  the  axis  HI,  till  the  plane  of  it 
is  successively  directed,  first  to  one  of  the 
stars  and  then  to  another,  it  i»  easy  to  move 
the  sector  about  the  joint  F,  into  such  a  po- 
sition, that  the  arch  AH,  when  ^ixed,  shall 
take  in  both  the  stars  in  their  pass'ige,  bv  the 
plane  of  it,  provided  the  ditlerenre  of  their 
declinations  does  not  exceed  the  arch  AB. 
Then,  having  fixed  tlie  plane  of  the  sector  a 
little  to  the  westward  of  both  the  stars, 
move  the  telescope  CE  by  the  screw  O  ; 
and  observe  by  a  clock  the  time  of  each 
transit  over  the  cross  hairs,  and  also  the  de- 
grees and  minutes  upon  the  arch  AB  cut  by 
the  inde.x  at  each  transit ;  then  in  the  dif- 
ference of  the  arches,  the  ditTerence  of  the 
declinations,  and  by  the  difference  of  the 
times,  we  have  the  difl'erencc  of  the  right  as- 
censions of  the  stars. 

The  dimensions  of  tliis  instniment  are 
these:  The  length  of  the  telescope,  or  the 
radius  of  the  sector,  is  2-|  feet ;  the  breadth 
of  the  radius,  near  the  end  C,  is  li  inch; 
and  at  the  end  D  two  inches.  The  breadth 
of  the  limb  A15  is  li  inch  ;  and  its  lenath  six 
inches,  containing  ten  degrees  divided  into 
quartei-s,  and  numbered  from  each  end  to 
the  other.  The  telescope  carries  a  nonius 
or  subdividing  plate,  whose  length,  being 
equal  to  sixteen  (|uarters  of  a  degree,  is  di- 
vided into  fifteen  etiu.d  parts ;  which,  in  ef- 
Ic'it,  divides  the  limb  into  minutes,  and,  by 
■slimatiun,  into  smaller  parts.  The  lensitu 
of  Die  square  axis  HFI  is  ei;jhtecn  inches. 


and  it>  tliitkness  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  : 
(he  iliaiuetcrs  of  I  In;  circles  art;  each  S  inches  ; 
the  thickness  of  the  plates,  and  the  oilier 
measures,  may  he  taken  at  the  diicclion  of 
u  workman. 

'l"liis  instriiincnt  may  he  rectified,  for  mak- 
ing ohservatioiis,  in  ihis  manner  :  liy  placin;; 
the  intersection  of  the  cr.ws  hairs  at  the  same 
tiiitance  from  the  plane  of  the  sector,  as  the 
centre  of  the  ohjecl-glass,  the  plane  descrihed 
bv  the  line  oi  sight  during  the  circular  mo- 
tim  of  the  telescope  upon  the  lind)  will 
J>e  sulticiently  true,  or  free  from  conical  cur- 
vitv  :  which  may  be  examined  by  siisi)en(l- 
iiig  a  long  plumb-line  at  a  convenient  dis- 
tance from  the  instrument ;  and  by  lixing 
the  plane  of  the  sector  in  a  vertical  |)Osition, 
and  then  liy  observing,  while  tlie  telescope 
is  moved  by  the  screw  along  the  limb,  whe- 
ther the  cross  hairs  appear  to  move  along 
the  plumb-line. 

The  axis  h  f  o  (see  figure  below)  may 
be  elevated  nearly  parellel  to  the  axii  of 
the  eartli,  by  means  of  a  small  coiwnion 
quadrant  ;  and  its  error  m.ay  be  correct- 
ed by  making  the  line  of  sight  follow 
the  circular  motion  of  any  of  the  circum- 
polar  stars,  while  the  whole  instrument 
is  moved  about  its  axis  h/o,  the  tele'Coi>e 
being  tixcd  to  the  limb  :  for  this  pm-pose, 
let  the  telescope  tc  t  be  directe<l  to  the  star 
u,  when  it  passes  over  the  highest  point  of 
its  diurnal  circle,  and  let  the  division  cut  by 
the  nonius  be  then  noted:  then  after  twelve 
hours,  when  the  star  comes  to  the  lowest 
point  of  its  circle,  having  turned  the  iustru- 
ment  half-round  its  axis  to  bring  the  tele- 
scope into  the  position  m  n  ;  if  the  cross  hairs 
cover  the  same  star  supposed  at  b,  the  ele- 
vation of  the  axis  Itfn  is  exactly  right  ;  but 
if  it  is  necessary  to  move  the  telescope  into 
the  position  u  v,  in  order  to  point  to  this  star 
at  c,  the  arch  m  ii,  which  measuies  the  angle 
f//./  a  or  hj  c,  will  be  known  ;  and  thi-ii  the 
axis  hfo  must  be  depressed  half  the  quaiUitv 
of  this  given  angle  if  the  star  passed  below 
b,  or  must  be  raised  so  much  higher  if 
above  it;  and  thus  the  trial  must  be  repeat- 
ed till  the  true  elevation  of  the  axis  is  ob- 
tained. By  making  the  like  observations 
upon  the  same  star  on  each  side  the  pole, 
in  the  six  o'clock  hour-circle,  the  error  ot 
the  axis,  towards  the  east  or  west,  may  also 
be  found  and  corrected,  till  the  cross-hairs 
follow  the  st.»r  quite  round  the  pole:  for 
siip|)0sing  u  o  p  b  c  to  be  an  arch  of 
the  meridian,  make  the  angle  ii  f  p  e(|ual 
to  half  the  angle  a  f  c,  aiul  the  line 
J'p  will  point  to  the  pole  ;  and  the  angle 
ofp,  which  is  the  error  of  the  axis,  w  ill  be 
euuai  to  half  the  angle  hfc,  or  mfu,  founcl 
bv  the  observation  ;  because  the  differmice 
of  the  two  angles  ufh,  afc,  is  double  the 
<lilierence  of  their  halves  ufo  and  afp. 
I'nU'SS  the  star  is  very  neat;  the  pole,  al. 
liiwance  must  be  made  for  refractions. 

Equatorial  or  portable  oh.icrvnrori/ :  an 
instruiiient  de-igned  to  answer  a  number  of 
u.scful  purposes  in  practical  astronomy,  inde- 
pendantly  of  any  particular  observatory  ;  it 
iTuiv  he  made  use  of  in  any  steady  room  or 
and  [Derforms  most  of  the  useful  pro- 
blems in  the  science. 

The  principal  parts  of  this  instrument  (fig. 
i.)  are.  1-  Tlie  azimuth  or  horuoiual  circle 


OBSERVA'l'ORV. 

A,  wliich  re|)resents  the  horizon  of  the  place, 
and  moves  on"  an  axis  B,  called  th»  ver- 
tical axis.  2.  The  e(|Uatonal  or  hour  circle 
C,  representing  the  equator,  phiced  at  right 
angles  to  the  polar  axis  D,  or  the  axis  of 
the  earth,  upon  which  it  moves.  3.  'i'he 
semicircle  of  declination  K,  on  which  the 
telescope  is  placed,  and  moving  on  the  axis 
of  declination,  or  the  axis  of  motion  of  t.'se 
line  of  coUimation  [•'.  'Jhese  circles  are 
measured  and  divideil  as  in  the  following 
table : 


.5  ■*! 

■n  I 
S  t^ 


>  -o 


I" 


O         O 


.a 
O 


3  .:;; 
o  p 
-a     .b 


.c  c.  'n    _  0)  '^ 


-  -  2-S3 


-    t:    O    ra 


4.  The  tele-cope  in  this  equatorial  may  be 
brought  parallel  to  the  polar  axis,  as  in  the 
figure,  so  as  to  point  to  the  pole-star  in  any 
part  of  its  diurnal  revolution ;  and  thus  it 
iias  been  observed  near  noon,  when  the  sun 
has  shone  very  bright.  5.  The  apparatus 
for  correcting  the  error  in  altitude  occasi- 
oned bv  refraction,  which  is  applied  to  tlie 
eve-end  of  the  telescope,  and  consists  of  a 
slide  (J  moving  in  a  groove  or  dovetail,  and 
carrying  the  several  eye-tubes  of  the  tele- 
scope, on  which  slide  there  is  an  index  cor- 
ret-ponding  to  5  small  divisions  engraved  on 
the  dovetail  ;  a  small  circle  called  the  refrac- 
tion circle,  II,  moveable  hy  a  hnger-screw  at 
the  extremity  of  the  eye-eiid  of  the  telescope; 
which  circle  is  divided  into  half-minutes,  one 
entire  revoUitioa  of  it  being  equal  to  3'  18'', 
and  by  its  motion  raises  the  centre  of  the 
cross  hairs  on  a  circle  of  altitude  ;  and  like- 
wise  a  <|iiadrant  I  of  an  inch  and- a  half  ra- 
dius, with  divisions  on  each  side,  one  ex- 
pressing the  degree  of  altitude  of  tlie  object 
viewed,  and  the  other  expressing  the  mi- 
nutes and  seconds  of  error  occasioned  by 
refraction,  corresponding  to  that  degree  of 
altitude:  to  this  quadrant  is  joinecf  a  sm;dl 
round  level  K,  which  isadjusted  partly  bv 
the  piniou  thai  turns  die  v.hoie  of  this  appa- 
^'  n  ii 


ralti9,  and  partly  by  the  index  of  the  quad- 
rant ;  for  which  purpose  the  refraclioi.-circle 
is  M-t  to  the  same  ininnte,  &c.  which  the  in- 
dex points  toon  the  limb  of  the  (luadranl; 
and  if  the  inimitc,  &c.  given  by  tfie  quad- 
rant exceeds  the  3'  IK''  contained  in  one  eit- 
tire  revolution  of  the  retraction-circle,  this 
must  be  set  to  the  excess  ahovo  one  or  more 
of  its  enliiC  revolutions;  then  tiie  centre 
of  the  cross  hairs  will  appear  to  l)e  raised  on 
a  circle  of  altitude  to  Die  additional  height 
which  the  error  ol  refraction  will  occasion  at 
that  altitude. 

'J  he  principal  adjustment  in  this  in>tru- 
meiit  is  that  of  making  the  line  of  coUimation 
to  describe  a  portion  of  an  hour-circle  in  tlie 
heavens;  in  order  to  which,  the  azimuth- 
circle  must  be  truly  level;  the  line  of  colji- 
inatioii,  or  some  corresponding  line  represent- 
ed  by  tlie  small  brass  rod  M  parallel  to  it^ 
must  be  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  ili 
own  proper  motion  ;  and  this  last  axis  iniis.t 
be  perpcndii  ular  to  the  ))olar  axis.  On  the 
brass  rod  M  there  is  ocxiasionally  [)laced  a 
hanging  level  N,  the  use  of  which  will  appear 
in  the  following  adjustments. 

The  azimuth-circle  may  be  made  level  I>v 
turning  the  instrument  till  one  of  the  levels 
is  parallel  to  an  imaginary  liiie  joining  Iwp 
of  the  leet-screws ;  then  adjust  that  level 
with  these  two  feet-icrows  ;  turn  the  circle 
half  round,  that  is,  18U";  and  if  the  bubble 
is  not  tlien  right,  correct  halt  tiie  error  by 
the  screw  belonging  to  the  level,  and  the 
other  half  error  by  the  two  feet-screws ;  re- 
peat this  till  the  bMblile  conn  s  right  ;  then 
turn  the  circle  90°  from  the  two  former  po- 
sitions, and  set  the  bubble  right,  if  it  is 
wrong,  by  the  foot-screw  at  the  end  of  the 
level ;  when  this  is  done,  adjust  tlie  other 
level  by  its  own  screw,  and  the  azimuth-circle 
will  be  truly  level,  'the  iianging  level  must 
then  beTixed  to  tlie  brass  rod  by  two  liooks 
of  equal  length,  and  made  truly  parallel  to- it: 
for  this  purpose  make  the  polar  axis  per- 
pendicular or  nearly  iieipendicular  to  tlie 
lioiizon  ;  then  adjust  the  level  by  the  pimoii 
of  the  declinationsfmicircle,  reverse  the 
level,  and  if  it  is  wrong,  correct  half  the 
error  by  a  small  steel  screw  that  lies  under 
one  end  of  the  level,  and  the  other  half 
error  by  the  pinion  of  the  declination-semi- 
circle ;  repeat  Uiis  till  the  bubble  is  right 
in  both  |)Ositions.  In  order  to  make  the 
brass  rod  on  which  the  level  is  suspended,  ift 
right,  angles  to  the  axis  of  motion  of  the 
telescope  'or  line  of  coUimation,  make  the 
polar  axis  horizontal,  or  nearly  so  :  set  the 
declination-semicircle  to  0\  turn  the  hour- 
circle  til!  the  bubble  comes  right ;  then  turn 
the  declination-circle  to  yo" ;  ailjust '  liip 
bubble  by  raising  or  depn^ssing  the  polar 
axis  (first  bv  hand  till  it'  is  nearly  right,  ai. 
terwards  tighten  with  an  ivory-key  the  socicet 
which  runs  on  the  arch  widi  the  polar  axis, 
and  then  »pply  the  same  ivory  key  to  the 
adjusting  screw  at  the  end  of  the  saiil  arch 
till  the  bubble  comes  quite  right)  ;  then  U-.m 
the  declination-circle  to  the  opposite  yu  •; 
if  tlie  level  is  not  then  right,  cornet  halt  the 
error  by  llie  .Hforesaida<ijusling  screw  at  the 
end  of  the  anh,  and  the  other  half  errnr  bv  t!ic 
'i  screw's  which  raise  or  depress  the  end  of  tini 
brass  rod.  The  polar  axis  remaining  nearW 
horizontal  as  before,  and  tlie  declinati  o!>- 
semicircle  at  0°,  adjust  il»e  bubblt/  bv  the 


2S4 


O  B  S 


hour-circle  ;  then  turn  the  tledinution-SPiiii- 
circle  to  90^  ajid  adjust  the  bii!)ble  by  raising 
or  depressing  tlie  polar  axis  ;  then  turn  the 
hour-circle  It!  hours ;  and  if  the  bubble  is 
wrona;,  correct  half  the  error  by  the;  polar 
axis,   and  the  other  half-error  by   the  two 
pair  of  capstan-screws  at  the  feet  of  the  two 
supports  on  one  side  of  the  axis  of  motion  of 
the  telescope ;  and  thus  this  axis  will  be  at 
right  angles  to  the   polar  axis.      The  next 
adjustment  is  to  make   the  centre  of  cross 
haiy  remain  on  the  same  object,  while  you 
turn  the  eje-lube  quite  round  by  the  pinion 
of  the  refraction  apparatus:  for  this  adjust- 
ment, set  the  index  on  the  slide  to  the  first 
division  of  tlie  dovetail ;  and  set  the  division 
marked    18"   on  the  refraction-circle  to  its 
mdex  ;  then  look  through  the  telescope,  and 
with    the   pinion   turn    the    eye-tube  quite 
round  ;  and   if  the  centre  of  the  hairs  docri 
not  remain  on  the  same  spot  during  that  re- 
volution,  it  must  be  corrected  by  the  four 
small  screws,  two  and  two  at  a  time  (which 
you  will  lincl  upon  unscrewing  the  nearest 
end  of  the   eye-tube  that  contains  the  first 
eye-glass)  ;    repeat    this  correction  till  the 
centre  of  the  hairs  remains  on  ;!ie  spot  you 
are  looking  at  dming  an  entire  revolution. 
In  order  to  make  the  line  of  coUimation  pa- 
rallel to  the  brass  rod  on  ,wl-.ich  the  level 
hang-;,  set  the  polar  axis  horizontal,  and  the 
declinatijn-circle  to  90' ;  adjust  the  level  by 
t)ie  polar  axis  ;  look  tlirougii   the  telescope 
on  some  distant  horizontal  object,  covered 
by   the  centre  of  the  crois  hairs ;  then  in- 
vert the  telescope,  which  is  done  by  turning 
the  hour  cnrle  half-round;  and  if  the  centre 
of  the  cross  hairs  does  not  'cover  the  same 
object  as  before,  correct  half  the  error  by 
the  uppermost  .and   lowernv,:st  of  the  four 
small  screws  at  the  eye-end  of  the  lar.;e  tube 
of  the  telescope:  this  correction  will  give  a 
second  object  now  covered  by  the  centre  of 
the  hairs,  which  must  be  adopted  instea<l  of 
the  hrst  object :  then  invert  the  telescope  as 
before ;  and  if  the  second  ol>ject  is  not  co- 
vered bv  the  centre  of  the  liairs,  correct  half 
the   error  by   the  same  two  screws    which 
were  usfd  before  :  this  correction  will  give  a 
third  object,  now  covered  by  tiie  centre  of 
the  hairs,  which  must  be  adopted  instead  of 
the  second  object;  repeal  this  operation  till 
no  error  remains ;  then  set  the  hour-circle 
exactly  to  \'2  hours  (the  declination-circle 
vemaining  at  90"  degrees  as  before)  ;  and  if 
the  centre  of  the  cross  hairs  does  not  cover 
the  last  object  fixed  on,  set  it  to  that  object 
by  the  two  remaining  small  screws   at  the 
eye-end  of  the  large  tube,  and  then  the  line 
of  colliination  will   be  parallel  to  the  brass 
Vod.     Kor  rectifying  the  nonius  of  the  decli- 
nation and  equatori-.d  circles,  lower  the  tele- 
scope as  many   degrees,    minutes,    and  se- 
conds, bekAV  0'   or  -K  on  the   declinalion- 
semicircle,as  are  equal  to  the  complement  of 
th"  latitude  ;  then  e.evate  the  polar  axis  till 
the  bubble  is  horizontal,   and  thus  the  ecjua- 
torial  circle  will  be  elevated  to  the  co-lati- 
tude of  the  phiic;  set  this  circle  to  6  hours  ; 
adjust  the  lev*'!  by  the  pinion  of  the  decli- 
nation-circle ;  liien  turn  the  etpiatorial  circle 
exactly   I'i  hours  from  the  last  i)o>ition;  and 
if  the  level  is  not  right,  correct  one   half  of 
the  eitor  by  the  equatorial  circle,  and   the 
o'.her  half  by   the  dedinalion-circle ;    then 
tu.-n  liie  Miua'torial  circle  b.ck  again  exactly 
12  hours  from  the  last  position;  and  if  the 


O  B  S 

level  is  still  wrong,  repeat  the  correction  as 
before  till  it  is  right  when  tr,.-iied  to  either 
position;  that  being  done,  set  the  nonius  of 
the  equatorial  circle  exactly  to  6  hums,  and 
the  nonius  of  the  declination  circle  exactly 
to  0'. 

The  principal  uses  of  this  equatorial  are, 

1.  To  find  the  meridian  by  one  observa- 
tion only  :  for  this  purpose  elevate  the  equa- 
torial circh:  to  the  co-latitude  of  the  place, 
and  set  the  declination-semicircle  to  the  sun's 
decli[iation  for  the  day  and  hour  of  the  day 
required;  then  movefile  azimuth  and  hour 
circk'S  both  at  the  same  time,  either  in  the 
same  or  contrary  direction'^,  till  you  bring 
the  centre  of  the  crosshairs  in  tiie  telescope 
exactly  to  cover  the  centre  ot  the  sun  ;  w  hen 
that  is  done,  the  index  of  the  hour-circle 
will  give  the  apparent  or  solar  time  at  the 
instant  of  observation  ;  and  thus  the  time  is 
gained,  though  the  sun  is  at  a  distance  from 
the  meridian  ;  then  turn  the  hour-circle  till 
the  index  points  precisely  at  12  o'clock,  and 
lower  tlie  telescope  to  the  horizon,  in  order 
to  observe  some  p.)int  there  in  the  centre 
of  your  glass,  and  that  (joint  is  youv  meri- 
dian mark  found  by  one  observation  only  ; 
the  best  time  for  this  operation  is  three  hours 
before  or  three  hours  after  12  at  noon. 

2.  To  point  the  telescope  on  a  star,  though 
not  on  the  meridian,  in  full  ilay -light.  Hav- 
ing elevated  the  equatorial  circle  to  the  co- 
latitude  of  the  place,  and  set  the  declination- 
semicircle  to  the  star's  declination,  move 
the  index  of  the  hour-circle  till  it  >hall  point 
to  tlie  precise  time  at  which  the  star  is  then 
distant  from  the  meridian,  fomid  in  tables  of 
the  right  ascension  of  the  stars,  and  the 
star  will  then  appear  in  the  glass.  Besides 
these  uses  peculiar  to  this  instrument,  it  is 
also  applicable  to  all  the  purposes  to  which 
the  principal  astronomical  instruments,  viz. 
a  transit,  a  quadrant,  and  an  e([Ual-allitude 
instrument,  are  applied. 

Of  all  the  different  sorts  of  chronomr-ters 
or  timekeepers,  a  pendulum-clock,  when 
properly  constructed,  is  undoubtedly  capable 
of  the  greatest  accuracy,  it  being  liable  to 
fewer  causes  of  obstruction  or  irregularity  ; 
therefore  such  machines  are  most  recom- 
mendable  for  an  observatory.  'I'he  situation 
of  this  clock  must  be  near  the  quadrant, 
and  near  the  transit  instrument;  so  (hat  the 
observer,  whikt  looking  through  the  felc- 
sco|)e  of  any  of  those  instruments,  may  he;ir 
the  beats  of'the  clock  and  count  the  seconds. 

We  need  hardly  observe  with  respect  to  te- 
lescopes, that  they  are  of  very  great  use  in 
an  observatory.  Indeed  a  telescope  for  the 
same  can  never  be  loo  good  or  too  large ; 
and  it  should  be  furnished  with  micrometers, 
with  different  eye-pieces,  &c.;  but  as  a  large 
instrument  of  that  sort  is  not  easily  managed, 
nor  is  always  required,  so  there  sliould  be  two 
or  three  telescopes  of  dilTerent  sizes  and  dif- 
ferent powers  in  every  observatory.  One 
at  least  ought  to  be'  fixed  upon  an  a\is 
wliieh  may  move  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  earlh;  for  in  this  con^i  uction  the  celes- 
tial bodies  miy,  with  the  telescope,  be  easily 
followed  in  t'cir  movf-ments  ;  as  the  hi:nd  o( 
tlieob'^erver  is,  in  that  case,  obligv'd  to  move 
the  telescope  in  cue  direction  only. 

A  pretty  g'  od  telescope  ;daced  truly  ver- 
tical in  au'ob.ctvalory,  is  likewise  a  very  u^e- 


o  c  c 

ful  instrument;  as  the  aberration  of  the  stnr», 
latitude  of  tiie  place,  &c.  may  be  obsi'rved 
and  delerniined  by  the  use  of  such  an  instru- 
ment, with  great  ease  and  accuracy. 

The  night  telescope  is  a  short  telescope, 
which  magnifies  very-  little;  but  it  collects  a 
considerable  quantity  of  light,  and  has  a  very 
great  field  of  view  ;  it  therefore  renders  visible 
several  dim  objects,  which  cannot  be  disco- 
vered with  teiescoijes  of  considerably  greater 
magnifying  powers;  and  hence  it  is  very 
useful  for  finding  out  nebula",  or  small  co- 
rnels, or  to  see  the  arrangement  of  a  great 
number  of  stars  in  one  view. 

The  principal  instruments  that  are  at  pre- 
sent used  for  marine  astronomy,  or  for  the 
purpose's  of  navigation,  are  that  incompara- 
bly useful  instrument  called  Iladlev's  sex- 
tant, or  quadrant,  or  octant ;  a  portable  chro- 
nometer; and  a  pretty  good  telV'Jcope.  With 
these  fi-w  instruments,  the  latitude-,  longi- 
tudes, hours  of  tne  day  or  night,  and  several 
other  problems  usehil  to  navigators,  m'ay  be 
accurately  solved.  See  Optics,  and  Quad- 
rant. 

0BS!D;.\N,  in  mineralogy,  called  also 
the  Iceland  agate,  is  found  either  in  detached 
ma-ses,  or  forminir  a  part  of  rocks.  It  has 
the  appearance  of  black  glass.  It  is  usually 
invested  with  a  grey  or  opaque  crust.  Its 
fracture  is  conchoidal.  Specific  gravity 
2.3r>  nearly.  Colour  black,  or  greyih-black  ; 
when  in  very  tlVm  pieces  green.  \'ery  brit- 
tle. It  melts  into  an  opaque  grey  mass.  It 
is  composed  of 

60  silica 
22  alumina 
9  iron 

1 00. 

OBTrRATOT?.     S'^eM  atomy. 

OCCllTTALES.     See  Anatomy. 

OCCULT,  in  geometry,  is  used  for  a  line 
that  is  scarcely  perceptible,  di'awn  with  the 
point  of  the  compasses,  or  a  leanen  pencil. 
These  lines  are  used  in  several  operations, 
as  the  raising  of  plans,  designs  of  buildings, 
pieces  ol  p>rspeclive,  &c.  They  arc  to  be 
effaced  when  the  work  is  finisheil. 

OCCULTATIOX,  circle  of  pcrpctualy 
is  a  parallel  in  an  oblique  sphere,  as  far  dis- 
tant from  the  depressed  pole,  as  the  elevated 
pole  is  from  the  horizon.  All  the  stars  be- 
tween tills  jxiiallcl  and  the  depressed  pole, 
never  rise,  but  lie  constantly  hid  under  the  • 
horizon  of  the  place. 

OCCUPAl  lOX,  or  OccuPAN-CY.  The 
law  of  occupancy  is  fomided  upon  the  law  of 
nature,  and  is  simply  the  taking  possession 
of  tiiOsC  things,  which  before  belonged  to- 
nobody;  and  this  is  the  true  ground  and 
foundation  of  all  property.  In  the  civil  law 
it  denotes  the  ])osses,-;ion  of  such  things  as  at 
present  properly  belong  to  no  private  person, 
but  are  capable  of  being  made  so  ;  as  by  seiz- 
ing or  taklr.g  of  spoils  in  war,  by  catching 
thhigs  wild  by  nature,  as  birds  and  beasts  of 
game,  &:c.  or  by  finding  thing?  before  undis- 
covi  red,  or  lo-t  by  their  pro|)er  owners. 

OCCUPlEKSrj/"  tiV(/;2Hg.  a  term  in  the 
sail-works  for  the  pei-sons  whp  are  the  sworn 
officers  that  allot,  in  particular  places,  what 
quiiilily  of  salt  is  to  be  made,  tluit  theni-ir- 
kets  ma\  not  be  o^cr^t(icke<l.  and  sea  that  a'l 
,s  carrietl  fairly  and  equally  between  the  losd 
and  the  tenant. 


o  c  r 

OCF.AX,  ill, grography,  that  va^  coller- 
tioii  of  salt  and  navigable  waK'rs,  in  wliic!) 
til..'  two  coiilini'iit-,  the  lirst  inclnclin,^  lui- 
ro|)e,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  the  last  Ame- 
rica, are  inclosed  like  isla.'ds.  'J'lic  ocean  is 
<li^ling^li^hl•^l  into  three  granrl  divisions:  I. 
'I'lie  AllaiUic  ocean,  winch  divides  Europe 
and  Africa  Ironi  America,  which  is  generally 
alKHit  three  thonsand  miles  wide  ;  '.'.  The 
Pacilic  ocean,  or  ."iouth-sca,  which  d!vid<fs 
Anierici  troni  A'^ia,  and  Is  generally  ahout 
ten  thou-and  niile<  over;  and,  3.  'The  Indian 
ocean,  which  sep:irates  the  ICast  lndie^  friin 
Africa,  whicli  Is  three  tlmu^and  miles  over. 
The  other  si-as  whk.ii  are  called  oceans,  are 
only  parts  or  branches  of  these,  and  usually 
receive  Iheir  names  from  the  countries  tU<'y 
border  upon. 

OC'tlNA,  a  geiuisof  Ih-.-  monogynia  order, 
in  the  p  dyandria  class  of  plants;  and  in  the 
n.Uural  method  ranking  with  those  of  whi.-.'n 
the  order  js  doifotfiil.  The  corolla  is  piMit:i- 
petaloiis;  the  ca!yx  pentaphyUons;'  the  ber- 
ries moncpermoiis,  and  aliixed  to  a  large 
roundish  recep'acle.  Tliere  arc  threi-  spe- 
cies, trees  of  the  East  Indies  and  Suutli 
America. 

OCHRR,  in  natural  history,  a  g-nus  of 
earlhs,  sliglitly  colu-reiit,  and  coir.post-d  of 
fine,  smooth,  soft,  argillaceous  particles, 
roiijrh  to  the  touch,  atul  readily  didhsible  in 
water.  It  is  a  combiiiaiion  of  alumina  and 
red  oxide  of  iron.  Ocnr.s  are  of  various  co- 
lours, as  ri:d,  blue,  velluw,   brown,   green, 

OCTIIWM.V,  a  Ji-nus  of  the  p  ntandria 
order,  in  the  monadelphia  class  of  plants; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
37th  order,  columnifera.'.  The  corolla  con- 
sists of  six  petal',  three  of  which  are  external, 
and  the  other  three  internal;  the  anthera- 
unite,  and  form  a  Sjiiral  pillar  round  die  style ; 
the  capsule  is  long,  and  has  live  loculaments, 
which  contain  a  number  of  black  round  seeds. 
Of  tills  there  is  only  one  species,  viz.  the 
ochroma  lagopus,  the  doi'  n-tree,  or  cork- 
wood. This  tree  is  (n-quent  in  .'amaica,  is 
of  speedy  growth,  and  rise>  to  about  25  or 
30  feci.  The  flowers  are  large  and  yellow. 
The  capsules  are  about  live  inciies  lona;, 
rounded,  aiidcovi-red  with  a  thin  skin;  w  hicli 
when  dry  falls  off  in  live  longitudinal  seg- 
ments, and  leaves  the  fruit  greatly  resem- 
bling a  hare's  foot.  The  down  is  short,  soft, 
aiwl  silky;  it  is  used  sometimes  to  stiitl'beds 
and  pillows ;  but,  like  other  vegetable  downs, 
is  apt  to  get  into  clots:  an  insipid  clear  gum 
exudes  from  the  tree  when  wounded.  The 
bark  is  tongii,  and  its  libres  ?re  in  a  reticu- 
lated form ;  it  might  be  made  into  ropes. 
Tliedri,-d  wood  is  so  very  lii;!it  and  buoyant, 
as  to  be  used  by  the  (isherineii  in  Jamaica  for 
their  nets  insleati  of  pieces  of  cork. 

OCIIROX^LUM,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  order  penlandria  trigynia.  The  calyx 
is  live-cleft;  petals  live;  nect.  angular,  three- 
lobed,  gland.  ;  capsules  three,  approximate- 
ly, one-celled,  tsvo-seeded. 

OCIMU.Vl,  or  OcvMUM,  basil,  a  genus 
of  the  diilynamia  gymno^permia  class  of 
plants,  with  a  bilabiated  cup ;  its  flower  is 
monopetalous  and  ringent;  and  its  seeds, 
which  are  four  in  number,  are  contained  in 
the  cup,  which  closes  for  that  purpose. 
There  are  25  species'  Roth  the  herbs  and 
seed  of  basil  are  used  in  medicine,  aud  are 


o  n  o 

.-aid  (o  be  pftod  in  disorders  of  the  lungs,  and 
to  promote  the  menses. 

OCTAGON,  or  OcTOGOfJ,  in  giometry, 
is  a  figure'  of  eight  sides  anri  angles;  and  this, 
when  all  the  sides  and  aeg'es  are  equal,  is 
!  ailed  a  r<-gular  octagon,  or  one  which  may 
be  inscribed  in  a  circle.  If  the  radius  of  a 
circle  circumscribing  a  regular  octagon  is 
=  ;•,  and  tlie  side  of  the  octagon  =^ij;  then 

OcT.\GON,  in  forlilicatioii,  denotesa  place 

th;it  has  eight  bastions. 

OC;TAIIKi)RON,  or  OCT.A.F.DP.ON,  in 
giometrv,  one  of  the  live  regular  bodies,  con- 
sisting of  eight  equal  and  equilateral  tri:u!gles. 
The  square  of  the  side  of  the  octahedron 
is  lo  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  circum- 
scribing s|jhere,  as  1  to  'Z.  If  the  diameter 
of  the  sphere  is  2.  the  S(,)lidity  of  tlie  octa- 
hedron inscribed  in  it  will  Ix;  1,33333  neariy. 
The  octahedron  is  two  pyr;imids  put  to- 
gether at  their  bases  ;  therefore  its  solidity 
may  be  found  by  miiltii)lying  the  quadrangu- 
lar base  of  either  of  them,  by  one  third  of  the 
perpendicular  height  of  one  of  tliiMn,  and 
then  doubling  the  p-roduct. 

OtJFANDRIA.  theeightli  class  in  Lin- 
na'us's  sexual  system  ;  consisting  of  plants 
with  licnnaphrodite  flowers,  which  are  fur- 
nished w  ith  eight  stamina,  or  male  organs  of 
generation.     See  Rotany. 

OCTANT,  or  Octile,  in  astronomy, 
that  aspect  of  two  planets,  wherein  they  are 
distant  an  eigiith  part  of  a  circle,  or  4j",  from 
each  other. 

OCTAVE,  in  music,  an  interval  contain- 
ing seven  degrees,  or  twelve  semitones,  and 
which  is  the  lirst  of  the  consonances  in  th-:- 
order  of  generation.  The  most  simple  per- 
ception that  we  can  have  of  t'.vo  sounds  is  that 
of  unisons,  which,  resulting  from  equal  vi- 
brations, are  as  one  to  one ;  the  ne.xt  to  this 
in  simplicity  is  the  octave,  which  is  in  doub!e 
computation  as  one  to  two.  The  liarmonies 
of  tiiese  sounds  have  a  perfect  agreenieiit, 
which  distinguishes  them  from  any  other  in- 
terv.d,  and  contribute:?  to  give  them  that  uni- 
sonous eifect  which  induces  the  comm-.)ii  ear 
to  confound  them,  and  take  them  iixtiffe- 
rently  one  for  the  other.  This  interval  is 
called  an  octave,  because  moving  diatoni- 
caily  from  onet.rm  to  the  other,  we  produce 
eight  dilferent  sounds.  The  octave  compre- 
hends all  the  primilive  and  orighial  sounds; 
so  that  having  established  a  sy^tL-m,  or  series 
of  sounds,  in  the  extent  of  an  octavv',  we  can 
only  prolong  that  series  by  repeating  th.' 
same  order  in  a  second  octave,  and  again  in 
a  third,  and  so  on,  in  all  which  we  shad  not 
fiiul  anv  sound  tliat  is  not  the  replicate  of 
some  sound  in  the  adjoining  octave. 

T'he  complete  and  rigorous  system  of  the 
octave  requires  three  major  tones,  two  minor, 
and  two  major  semitones.  Tlie  temper.ited 
system  is  of  five  equal  tones,  and  two  semi- 
tones, forming  together  seven  diatonic  de- 
grees. 

ODE.  See  Poetry. 
tlDON'rOGNATIlUS,  a  genus  of  fishes 
of  the  order  apodes.  The  generic  ch:iracter 
is,  mouth  furnished  with  a  strong  moveable 
lamina  or  process  on  each  side  the  upper 
jaw;  gill  membrane  live-rayed. 

Aculealed  odoiitognatluis.  The  senus 
odonto^nathLis  consists  of  a  single  species,  of 


O  E  N 


283 


which  the  fo'lowing  is  the  dcfc  'p'loT).    '!hc 
hi;ad,  body,  and  tall,  are  very  ( omprtssed  ; 
the   lower  jaw,  which   is    longer   than   the 
upper,  is  very  much  ilevatetl   towards  liiC 
other  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  iiisoinudi  as 
to   3[!pear  almost  vertic.l;  and  is  lowered 
somewhat  in  llie   manner  of  a  drawbrii':..;e 
when  the  mouth   is  opened,  w  hen  it  apjjea.-s 
li!;e  a  small  scaly  boat,  very  transparent,  fur- 
rowed beneatli,  and  finely  denticulatrd  on  (he 
margins;  this  lower  jaw,   in   the  act  ol   de- 
pression, draws  forwards  two  llat,  irregular 
lamina-,  of  a  scaly  sub  fiance,  a  litile  bent  at 
their  posterior  eiid,  and  larger  at  their  origin  ■ 
than  at  their  tips,  denticulated  on  their  an- 
terior margin,  and  i.tlathed,  one  on  one  side 
and  the  other  on  the  opposite,  to  the  mo>t 
prum  nent  part  of  the  upper  jaw  ;  when  the 
moulh  is  closed   again,  these  pieces  apply 
themselves  on  each  side  to  one  of  the  oper- 
cula,  of  which  they  represent  the  exterior' 
denticulated  b.rder;  in  the  middle  of  tiifse 
j;'ws  is  placed  the  tongue,  which  is  pointed 
aud  free  in  its  movements;  the  gill-covers, 
which  are  composed  of  several  pieces,  are 
very  t  an  parent  at   the  liinll  part,  but  scaly 
and   of  a  bright  silver-colour  in  front;  the' 
gi  !-niembraiie  is  also  silvery,  and  has  livi; 
irays ;  tl-.e  breast  isteiiHinated  below  bv   a 
sharp  carina  fiirnidied    with    eight  crooked 
.-[lines ;  the  carina  of  the  belly  is  also  furnish- 
ed with  twenty-eight  spines,  di.sposed  in  two 
longitudinal  ranges  ;  the  anal  fm  is  very  long,  • 
and  extends  almost  as  far  as  the  base  of  the 
tail-tin,  which  is  of  a  forked  shape;  the  dor-' 
sal  fin  is  placed  on  the  tail,  pioptMly  spealc- 
ing,   at  about   three  q;iarters  pf  the  whole 
leiVj^thof  the    animal,  but  it   is  extremely 
small.     The  general   K  ngtli  of  this   fi~li    is 
three  decimetres,  and  its  colour,  so  far  as  n:ay 
be   conjectured  from    specimens  preserved 
for  some  time  in  spirits,  is  a  bright  silver.     It 
is  a  native  of  the  Auieiican  seas,  and  is  com- 
mon about  the  coasts  of  Cayenne,  where  it 
ranks  in  the  number  of  edible  fishes. 

OECONOMY,  unimu'i,  comjM-eh.-nds  tl:e 
various  n|)erations  of  nature,  in  the  genera- 
tion, nutrition,  and  preservation  of  animals. 
See  Ay^TOMV,   Physiology,  Compara-*- 

TIVE  AyATOMY,  DIGESTION,  &C. 

OEDEMA.     See  Surgery. 

O  ED  ERA,  a  genus  of  tlie  syngenesia  poly- 
gamia  segregala  class  :ind   order;  thecidj.v- 
many  ■l!owere<l ;  <  orollet.s  '.ubular,  hcrinajHiii)-  - 
d.le,  wfth  one  or  two  female  ligul.ile  ilrMets  : 
recep:  chalify,  down  of  several  challs.    There 
are  two  species,  heilis  of  the  Cape. 

OENANTHE,  water  (or  heijdock)  drop- 
wort  :  a  genus  of  the  digynia  order,  in  the 
pcntandria  class  of  plants;  and  in  the  nalur.il 
metiiod  ranking  under  the   45th  order,  um-- 
bellat:c-     The  ilorets  are  diiform ;  those  of 
the  disc  sessile  and  barren  ;  the  fiuit  crowned  . 
with  the  calyx.     I'liere  are  1 1    species,   of 
wliich   the  iiiost  remarkable  is  the  croe.^ta, - 
or  hemlock  dropwoit,  growing  frequently  oil' 
the  banks  of  ditches,  rivei-s,   and  lakes,   in 
many  parts  of  Ijfitain.    The  root  and  leaves 
of  this   plant   are  a  strong. poison  ;  siveral 
persons  have  perished  by   eating  it  through 
mistake,  either  for  water-parsnips  or  for  cc-  - 
lery,    which  last  it   much   resembles   in   its 
leaves.     So  exceetlir.gly  deleterious  is  thi* 
plant,  that  Mt.   Liglitfjjt    tells  us   he  Us 
heard  tlu-  bte  Mr.  Christopher  d'Ehret,  the 
celebrated  botaiiic  paintLf  sav,  that  wlule  he 


2S(J 


O  E  S 


\va=  drawing  it,  the  smell  or  effluvia  retK\cr- , 
ccl  liim  so  giiltly,  lliat  lie  was  several  tinn-s 
obliged  to  quit  die  room,  and  walkout  in  t!ie 
fresii  air  to  recover  himself;  but  retollectirig 
.at  last  what  migiit  be  the  probable  cause  o! 
his  repeated  illness,  he  opened  the  door  and 
windows  of  the  room,  and  the  free  air  then 
enabled  him  to  tinidi  his  work  without  any 
more  returns  of  ihe  giddiness.  Mr.  Light- 
foot  informs  us,  that  he  has  given  a  spoonful 
of  tlie  juice  of  this-plant  to  a  dog,  but  with- 
out any  other  effect  than  that  of  making  him 
verv  sick  and  stupid.  In  about  an  hour  lie 
■recovered;  and  our  author  has  seen  a  goat 
eat  it  with  impunity.  To  such  of  the  human 
spjcies  as  have  unfortunately  eaten  any  part  of 
tiVs  plant,  a  vomit  ii  the  best  remedy. 

Lobel,  Kay,  and  others,  call  this  vegetable 
a-nanthe  aquatica  cicut;e  f.;cie.  It  grows  in 
jjreat  plentv  all  over  Pembrokeshire,  and  is 
called  bv  the  inhabitants  hve-lingered  root ; 
it  is  much  used  by  them  in  cataplasms  for 
the  felon  or  worst  kind  of  whitlow.  They 
eat  some  parts  of  it,  but  carefidly  avoid  the 
■roots  or  stalk.-  These  indee<l  are  of  a  most 
pernicious  nature,  and  never  fail  to  prove 
instantly  fat.d  unless  a  proper  remedy  is  ap- 
.iilled. 

C)F-XOT[IER.\,  tree-primrose:  a 
geims  of  the  inonogynia  order,  in  the  octan- 
drla  class  of  plants ;"  and  in  the  natural  me- 
thod ranking  under  the  17th  order,  calycan- 
thema;.  The  calyx  is  (|Uadriiid  ;  the  petals 
four;  the  capsule  cylindric  beneath;  the 
seeds  naked.  There"  are  11  species;  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  are:  1.  'I'lie  bi- 
ennis, or  common  biennial  tree-primrose, 
with  large  liriglit-yellow  flowers,  a.  (Jcto- 
valvis,  or  octovalvi'd,  smooth,  biennial  tree- 
■jjiimrose,  with  large  bright-yellow  lh>wers. 
.3.  The  fruticosa,  or  shrubby  narrow-leaved 
perennial  tree-primrose,  with  clusters  of  yel- 
low flowers,  succeeded  by  pedicellated, 
acute-angled  capsuie'<.  4.  The  pumila,  or 
Jow  pereTinial  tree-primrose,  with  briaht-yel- 
4ow  flowers,  succeeded  by  acute-angled  cap- 
■r.u\es. 

These  plants  are  exotics  from  America ; 
but  are  all  very  hardy,  i)rosper  in  any  com- 
mon soil  and  situation,  and  have  been  long  in 
the  English  gardens,  especially  the  three  lust 
sorts  ;  but  the  oenolliera  biennis  is  the  most 
commonly  known. 

OF.SOlMl.VGUS.     See  Anatomy. 

OES  TKUS.a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
diptera:  the  geni-ric  character  is,  antenna- 
triarticiilate,  very  short,  sunk  ;  fare  broad, 
depressed,  vesicular;  nioith,  a  simple  ori- 
lice ;  feelers  two,  biarticulate,  sunk ;  tail  in- 
ilected.  The  genus  oestrus  or  gad-lly  is  re- 
markable, like  that  of  ichneumon,  for  the 
sin'mlar  residence  of  its  larva^ ;  viz.  beneath 
the^kin,  or  in  dili'erent  parts  of  the  bodies  of 
quadrupeds. 

The  |jiincipal  European  species  is  tlie  oes- 
trus bovis,  or  ox-gadiiy.  This  is  about  the  size 
of  a  common  bee,  and  is  of  a  pale  yellowish- 
brown  colour,  with  the  thorax  marked  by 
four  longitudinal  du,ky  strtaks,  and  the  ab- 
domen by  a  black  bar  across  the  middle, 
tiie  tip  being  covered  with  lawny  or  orange- 
coloured  hairs;  the  wings  are  pale  brown, 
and  unspotted. 

The  female  of  this  species,  when  ready  to 
di'po-it  her  eggs,  fastens  on  the  back  of  a 
heiter  or  cow,  and  piercing  the  skin  with  the 
tube  situated  at  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  de- 


O  E  S 

por,i(s  an  egg  in  the  puncture  ;  she  then  pro- 
ceeds to  another  spot  at  some  distance  trom 
the  former,  repeating  tlie  same  operation  at 
intervals  on  many  parts  of  the  animal's  back, 
l  his  operation  is  not  performed  -witlioul  se- 
vere pain  to  the  animal  on  which  it  is  prac- 
tised ;  and  it  is  for  tliis  reason  that  cattle  are 
observed  to  be  seized  with  such  violent  hor- 
ror when  apprehensive  of  the  approaches  ot 
the  female  oestrus ;  flying  with  uncontrol- 
able  rapidity,  and  endeavouring  to  escape 
their  tornien'tor  by  taking  refuge  in  the  near- 
est pond;  it  being  observed  that  this  insect 
ranlv  attacks  cattle  when  standing  in  water. 

In'tiie  punctures  -of  the  skin  tlms  formed 
by  the  gadfly,  the  several  eggs  hatch ;  and 
the  laiv;e,  by  their  motion  and  suction,  cause 
so  many  small  swellings  or  abscesses  beneath 
the  skin,  which  gro\viiig  gradually  larger, 
become  externally  visible,  exhibiting  so  many 
tubercles  an  incti  or  more  in  diameter,  with 
an  opening  at  the  top  of  each,  through  whicli 
may  be  ob.^ei'ved  tne  larva,  imbedded  hi  a 
purulent  fluid;  its  appearance  is  that  of  an 
oval  maggot,  of  a  \ellowish-wliite  colour 
while  voung,  but  growing  gradually  darker 
as  it  advances  in  age,  till"  at  the  time  of  its 
full  growth  it  is  entirely  brown.  It  is  chiefly 
in  the  months  of  Augtist  and  September  that 
the  eggs  are  laid,  ami  the  larva-  remain 
through  the  ensuing  winter,  and  till  the  latter 
part  of  the  next  June,  before  they  are  ready 
to  undergo  their  change  into  chrysalis.  At 
this  period  they  force  themselves  out  fro'.n 
their  resi)ective  cells,  and  falling  to  the 
ground,  each  creeps  bem-ath  the  lirst  con- 
venient shelter,  and  lying  in  an  inert  state 
becomes  contracted  iiito  an  oval  form,  but 
without  casting  the  larva  skin,  which  dries 
and  hardens  round  it.  When  the  included 
insect  is  ready  for  exclusion,  it  forces  open 
the  top  of  the"  pupa  or  chrysalis  coat,  and 
emerges  in  its  perfect  form,  having  remained 
within  the  chrysalis  somewh.;t  more  than  a 
month. 

Tliou?li  the  history  of  this  insect  in  its 
larva  state  has  long  ago  been  detailed  witli 
sufijcient  accuracy  by  Vallisiieri,  Ueaumur, 
and  others,  yet  the  fl"y  itself  appears  to  have 
been  very  "generally  C(mfounded,  and  that 
even  bv  LiinuTus  liimself,  with  a  very  dili'er- 
ent species,  resembling  it, in  size,  hut  which 
is  bred'  in  the  stomach  and  intestines  of 
horses,  the  larva-  being  no  other  than  the 
whitish  rough  mgagots  w hich  farriers  call  by 
the  title  of  bots.  'J'liis  insect  is  the  oestrus 
equi;  it  is  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  oestrus 
bovis,  and  is  of  a  yellowish-brown  colour, 
with  a  duskv  band  across  the  thorax,  and  the 
tip  of  the  abdomen  of  similar  colour  ;  the 
wings  are  whitish,  with  a  pale  dusky  bar 
across  the  middle  of  each,  and  two  dusky 
spots  at  the  tip. 

The  manner  in  which  the  young  larvK  or 
bots  are  introduced  into  the  stomach  and 
bowels  of  the  animal  they  infest  is  singularly 
curious.  When  the  female  has  been  im- 
pregnated, and  the  eggs  are  suflicientiy  ina- 
tured,  she  seeks  among  the  horses  a  subject 
for  her  purpose,  and  a])proaching  it  on  tiie 
wing,  she  holds  her  body  nearly  upright  in 
the  air,  and  her  tail,  which  is  lengthened  for 
the  purpose,  curved  inwards  and  upwards ; 
in  this  wav  she  approaches  the  part  where 
she  designs'to  deposit  her  egg  ;  and  suspend- 
ing hei-self  for  a  few  seconds  before  it,  sud- 
denW  darts  upon  it,  and  leaves  her  egg  ad- 
1.0 


f)  F,  S 

hering  to  the  hair;  she  liardlv  appears  tf) 
settle,  but  mci-ely  touches  the  liair  with  ti^.' 
egg  held  out  on' the  projected  point  of  tl.'.- 
abdomen.  The  egg  is  made  to  adhere  liy 
means  of  a  glutinoiis  lirpior  secreted  with  it. 
She  then  leaves  tiie  liorw  at  a  small  distancf  , 
and  prepares  a  second  egg,  and,  poising  her- 
self before  the  part,  deposits  it  in  the  same 
way.  The  licjuor  dries,  and  the  egg. becomes 
liriiily  glued  to  the  hair;  this  is  repeated  by 
various  flies  till  four  or  Ave  hundretl  eggs  are 
sometimes  placed  on  one  horse.  The  horses, 
«  hen  they  become  used  to  this  fly,  and  find 
that  it  doe's  them  no  injury  (as  the  tabani  and 
conopes,  by  sucking  their  blood),  hardly  re- 
gard it,  and  do  not  appear  at  all  aware  of  its 
insidious  object.  The  skin  of  the  horse  is 
always  thrown  into  a  tremulous  motion  on 
the  touch  of  this  insect ;  which  merely  arises 
from  the  very  great  irritability  of  the  skin  and 
cutaneous  muscles  at  this  season  of  the  year, 
occasioned  by  the  continual  leasing  of  the 
flies,  till  at  lei'igtli  these  muscles  act  involun- 
larilv  on  the  ^slightest  touch  of  any  body 
whatever.  'I  he  inside  of  the  knee  is  the  part 
on  which  these  ihes  are  most  fond  of  deposit- 
ing their  eggs,  and  next  to  this  on  the  side 
and  back  part  of  the  shoulder,  and  less  fre. 
cpientlv  on  the  extreme  ends  of  Ihe  mane. 
But  it  'is  a  fact  worthy  of  attention,  that  the 
fly  does  not  place  them  promiscuously  about 
tlie  body,  but  constantly  on  those  parts  whicli 
are  most  liable  to  be  licked  with  the  tongue : 
and  the  ova  therefore  are  always  scrupulously 
placed  within  its  re.ich  ;  tor,  when  they  have 
remained  on  the  hairs  four  or  Ave  day.5,  they 
become  ripe,  after  which  lime  the  slightest 
application  of  warmlh  and  moisture  is  suffici- 
ent to  bring  forth  in  an  instant  the  latent 
larva.  At  this  time,  if  the  tongue  of  the 
horse  t(mchesthe  egg,  itsoperculum  is  thrown 
open,  and  a  small  active  wonii  is  produced, 
which  readily  adheres  to  the  moist  surface  of 
the  tong'ie,  and  is  thence  conveyed  with  the 
food  to  the 'stomach. 

These  larva;  attach  themselves  to  every 
part  of  the  stomach,  but  are  generally  most 
numerous  about  the  pylorus,  and  are  some- 
limes,  though  much  les's  frequently,  found  in 
the  iiilestines.  Their  munbers  in  the  slo- 
niach  are  very  various,  often  not  mine  than 
half  a  dozen,"  at  other  times  more  than  a 
hundred,  and  if  some  accounts  might  be  re- 
lied oil,  even  a  much  gn-ater  number  than 
this.  'I'hey  hang  most  commonly  in  clus- 
ters, being  fixed  by  the  small  end  to  the 
inner  membrane  of  "the  stomach,  which  they 
adhere  to  bv  means  of  two  small  hooks  or 
teutacula.  'When  they  are  removed  from 
the  stomach  tjiey  will  attach  themselves  to 
any  loose  membrane,  and  even  to  the  skin 
of  the  hand. 

'J'he  body  of  the  larva  is  compo=ed  of 
i-leven  segments,  all  of  which,  except  the 
two  last,  are  surrounded  with  a  double  row 
ot  liornv  bristles  directed  towards  the  trun- 
cated end,  and  are  of  a  reddish  colour,  ex- 
cept the  points,  which  are  black.  These 
hv\x  evidently  receive  their  food  at  the  small 
end,  bv  a  long'itudinal  aperture,  which  is  situ- 
ated between  two  hooks  or  tentacula.  Their 
food  is  probably  the  chyle,  which,  being 
nearly  pure  alinient,  may  go  wholly  to  tlw 
composition  of  their  bodi'es  without  any  ex- 
crementitious  residue  ;  though  on  dissection 
the  intestine  is  found  to  contain  a  yellow  or 
gieenibh  matter,  which  is  derived  Irom  tlie 


O  E  S 

colour  of  tlu)  food,  ancl'slicus  tliat  tlii;  chyle, 
a-lht-y  receive  it,  is  not  pcrfrctly  pun*. 

'I'licy  attain  tlieir  full  groutfi  about  tlie 
liittf r  end  of  May,  and  are  coming  from  (he 
Jiorse  from  tins  time  to  tlic  latter  end  of  June, 
or  sometimes  later.  C-n  dro)iping  to  tlie 
ground  tli;'y  find  out  some  convenient  re- 
treat, and  change  to  the  clirysalis;  and  in 
about  six  or  scvlmi  weeks  the  lly  ajipi-ars. 

Oe^lrus  ovis,  or  the  sheep-gadlly,  is  so 
named  from  its  larva  inhabiting  the  nostrils 
and  frontal  sinuses  of  sluv))  in  particular, 
though  it  is  also  found  in  similar  situations 
in  deer  and  some  other  quadrupeds.  It  is 
a  smaller  species  than  either  of  the  two  pre- 
ceding, and  is  of  a  whilish-grey  colour,  with 
the  thorax  marked  by  (our  longitudinal  black 
streaks,  aiid  the  abdomen  speckled  with 
black.  I'he  larv:e  are  nearly  as  large  as 
those  of  the  oestrus  equi,  and,  aecordnig  to 
the  obscrvatioEis  of  Mr.  Clark,  are  of  a  Jeli- 
cate  white  colour,  fiat  on  the  umler  side,  and 
convex  on  the  upper;  having  no  spines  at 
the  divisions  of  the  segments,  though  they 
are  provided  with  lentacula  at  the  small  end. 
'J'hc  oilier  is  trujieated,  with  a  prominent  riiig 
or  margin.  When  young  these  larvse  are 
perfectly  white  and  transparent  ;  but  as 
they  iniri'ase  in  size  the  upper  side  becomes 
marked  with  two  transverse  brown  lines  on 
each  segment,  and  some  spots  are  seen  on 
the  sides.  They  move  with  considerable 
quickness,  holding  with  their  teiitacula  as  a 
lixed  point,  and  drawing  up  the  bodv  to- 
W'Urds  them.  When  full-grown  they  tall 
through  the  nostrils,  and  change  to  the  pupa 
or  chrysalis  state,  lying  on  the  ground,  or 
adhering  to  some  blade  of  grass.  The  tly 
jjroceeds  from  the  chrysalis  in  the  space  of 
about  two  months. 
'  The  oilier  British  oestri  are  the  oestrus  ha;- 
inorrhoidalis  of  Linnicus,  whose  larva,  like 
that  of  the  oestrus  e{|ui,  resides  in  the  sto- 
machs of  horses  ;  and  the  oestrus  veteriiuis  of 
Mr.  Clark,  the  larva  of  which  is  also  found 
in  similar  situations.  The  oestrus  h.-cmor- 
rhoidalis  is  about  the  size  of  a  common  win- 
dow-lly,  with  pale  dusky  wings,  brown  tho- 
rax, abdomen  white  at  the  base,  black  in  the 
middle,  and  red  at  the  tip.  The  oestrus 
veterinus  is  nearly  of  similar  size  with  the 
oestrus  equi,  and  is  entirely  of  a  ferruginous 
colour,  with  the  abdomen  more  ckiskv  to- 
wards the  tip.  Tlie  oestrus  tarandi  inhabits 
Lapland,  and  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  back 
of  the  rein-deer,  and  is  often  fatal  to  them. 
See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  tig.  299. 

The  other  exotic  oestri  are  probably  nu- 
merous, but  are  at  present  very  little  known. 

Whether  the  formidable  African  fly,  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Bruce  under  the  name  of 
zinib  or  tsaltsalya,  may  be  referred  to  this 
genus  or  not,  we  shall  not  pretend  to  deter- 
mine; there  are  however  some  particulars 
in  its  history  which  would  lead  one  to  sup- 
pose it  an  oestrus. 

"  This  insect,"  says  Mr.  BraSe,  "  is  a  proof 
how  fallacious  it  is  to  judge  by  appearances. 
If  we  consider  its  small  size,  its  weakness, 
want  of  variety  or  beauty,  nothing  in  the 
creation  is  more  conlemptible  and  insignili- 
caui.  Yet  passing  from  these  to  his  history, 
and  to  the  account  o(  his'  powers,  we  iiiu-.t 
Confess  the  very  great  injustice  we  do  him 
from  want  of  consideration.  We  are  obliged, 
with  the  greatest  surprise,  to  acknowledge. 


OFF 

that  those  huge  animals ihe  elejjhant,  the  riii- 
noceros,  the  hun,  and  the  tiger,  inliabitingth'' 
same  woods,  are  still  vastly  his  inferiors  ;  and 
that  the  appearance  of  this  small  insect,  nay, 
his  very  sound,  though  he  is  not  seen,  oc- 
casions more  tn|)i(lalion,  movement,  and 
disorder,  both  in  the  human  and  brute  cre- 
ation, Ihan  woukl  whole  herds  of  these  mon- 
strous animals  colhcled  together,  though 
their  iiniiibcr  was  in  a  tenfold  proportion 
greater  than  it  really  is. 

"  This  insect  is  called  zimb;  it  has  not 
been  described  by  anv  naturalist,  it  is  in 
size  very  little  larger  Ihan  a  bee,  and  his 
V.  ings,  which  are  broader  than  those  of  a  bee, 
placed  separate,  like  those  ol  a  lly.  As  soon 
as  this  plague  appears,  and  their  buzzing  is 
heard,  all  Ihe  cattle  forsake  their  food,  and 
run  wildly  about  the  plain,  till  they  die,  worn 
out  with  latigue,  fright,  and  hunger.  No 
remedy  remains  for  the  residents  on  such 
spots  but  to  leave  the  black  earth,  and  hasten 
down  to  the  sands  of  Atbara,  and  there  they 
remain  while  the  rains  last,  this  cruel  enemy 
never  daring  to  pursue  them  farther. 

"  \\  hat  enables  the  shepherd  to  perform 
the  long  and  toilsome  journeys  acro^is  Africa 
is  the  camel,  emphatically  called  the  ship  of 
the  desert.  'I'hough  his  size  is  immense, 
as  is  his  strength,  and  his  body  covered  with 
a  thick  skin,  defended  with  strong  hair,  yet 
still  he  is  not  capable  to  sustain  the  violent 
[junctures  the  fly  makes  with  his  proboscis. 
He  must  lose  no  time  in  removing  to  the 
sands  of  Atbara ;  for  when  once  attacked  by 
this  lly,  his  body,  head,  and  legs,  break  out 
into  large  bosses,  which  swell,  break,  and 
putrify,  to  the  certain  destruction  of  the 
creature.  Even  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros, 
who,  by  reason  of  their  enormous  iMilk,  and 
the  vastquantity  of  food  and  water  they  daily 
need,  cannot  shift  to  desert  and  dry  places  as 
the  season  may  require,  are  obliged  to  roll 
themselves  in  mud  and  mire,  which,  when 
dry,  coats  them  over  like  armour,  and  enables 
them  to  stand  their  ground  against  this 
winged  assassin  ;  yet  I  have  found  some  of 
these  tubercles  upon  almost  every  elephant 
and  rhinoceros  that  I  have  seen,  and  attri- 
bute them  to  this  cause."  There  are  twelve 
species  of  this  insect. 

OFFENCE,  is  any.  act  committed  against 
any  law.  Oft'euces  are  either  capital  or 
not  capital.  Capital  offences  are  those 
for  which  an  offender  shall  lose  his  life  ;  not 
capital,  where  the  olf'ender  may  lose  his  lands 
and  goods,  be  fined,  or  suffer  corporal  pu- 
nishiiient,  or  both,  but  not  loss  of  life.  High 
treason,  petit  treason,  and  felony,  constitute 
capital  offences;  other  offences,  not  capital, 
include  the  remaining  part  of  crimmal  of- 
fences or  pleas  of  the  crown,  and  come  under 
the  denomination  of  misdemeanors. 

OFFERINGS.  Oblations  and  offerings 
partake  of  the  nature  of  tithes  ;  and  all  per- 
sons which,  by  the  laws  of  this  realm,  ought 
to  pay  their  offerings,  shall  yearly  pay  to  the 
parson,  vicar,  proprietary,  or  their  deputies, 
or  farmers  of  the  parishes  where  they  dwell, 
at  such  four  offering-days  as  heretofore  with- 
in the  space  of  four  years  last  past  have  been 
accustomed;  and  in  default  thereof,  shall  pav 
for  the  said  otl'erings  at  Easter  following.  2 
and  3  Ed.  VI.  c.  13. 

OFFICE,  is  that  function,  by  virtue  where- 
of a  person  has  some  employment  in  Ihe  af- 
f.iiVs  of  another.     Aii  oiiice  is  a  right  to  exer- 


O  F  F 


267- 


cisp  any  ))uWic  or  private  employment,  and 
to  lake'the  fees  and  emoUunents  Ihercunta 
belonging,  whether  public  as  those  of  magis- 
trates, or  privale  as  ot  bailiffs,  receivwrs,  Stc, 

'l"iie  statute  5  and  6  lidward  VI.  c.  \6, 
declares  all  securities  given  for  (he  sale  of 
ollices  unlawful.  And  if  any  person  shall 
bargain  or  sell,  or  take  any  reward,  or  pro- 
mise of  rewar<l,  for  any  oiiice,  or  the  ilepu- 
lation  of  any  office,  concerning  the  revenue,, 
or  the  keepers  of  Hie  king's  castles,  or  the 
adininislration  and  execution  of  justice,  unless 
it  is  such  an  office  as  had  been  usually  grant- 
ed by  tlie  justices  of  the  king's  bench  or  com- 
inon'pleas,  or  by  justices  of  assize,  every  sucii. 
person  shall  not  only  forfeit  his  right  to  such 
ofiice,  or  to  the  nomiuation  Ihereol,  but  the 
person  giving  such  reward,  &c.  shall  be  dis- 
abled to  hold  such  office.  Hut  it  has  been  de- 
cided, that  where  aiioflice  is  within  Ih.e  statute,, 
and  the  salary  ceiiain,  if  the  principal  makes 
a  deputy,  reserving  by  bond  a  less  sum  out 
of  the  salary,  it  is  good  ;  or,  if  the  jjrolils  are 
uncertain,  reserving  a  part  as  half  ihe  profit^, 
it  is  good;  for  the  fees  still  belong  to  thc- 
principal,  in  whose  name  they  must  be  sued 
lor.  Salk.  466.  Rut  where  a  per.-on  so- 
a])pointed,  gives  a  bond  to  the  principal  to- 
pay  him  a  sum  certain,  without  reference  to- 
the  profits;  this  is  void  under  the  statute.. 
Salk.  46-,. 

To  olier  money  to  any  oflicer  of  state,  to 
procure  the  reversion  ol  an  cilice  in  the  gift 
of  the  crown,  is  a  misdemeanor  at  common 
law,  and  ijuiiishable  by  Inlormalion  ;  and* 
even  the  attempt  to  induce  him  under  the 
intluence  of  a  bribe,  is  criminal,  though  never- 
carried  into  execution.  Any  contract  to 
procure  the  nomination  to  an  ofiice,  not  with- 
in theslat.  G  Ed.  VI.  is  defectiveon  the  ground 
of  public  policy,  and  the  money  agreed  to. 
be  given  is  not  recoverable. 

Office,  in  the  canon-law,  is  used  for  a- 
benelice  that  has  no  jurisdiction  annexed  to 
it.  It  is  also  used  for  divine  service  cele- 
brated in  public;  and  in  the  Romish  church 
it  is  a|)plied  to  a  particular  prayer  preferred 
in  honour  of  some  saint;  thus,  when  any 
saint  is  canonized,  a  particular  oiiice  is  at  the 
same  time  assigned  him,  out  of  tlie  common 
ofiice  of  the  confessors,  Ihe  Virgin,  Sec.  We 
say  tl'.e  ofiice  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  of  IheA'irgin,. 
ofthe  passion,  of  the  holy  sacrament,  of  the 
dead,  &c. 

OFFICER,  a  person  possessed  of  a  post 
or  office.  See  the  preceding  article.  The 
great  officers  of  the  crown,  or  state,  are  the 
lord  high  steward,  the  lord  high  chancellor,, 
the  lord  high  treasurer,  the  lord  president- 
of  the  council,  the  lord  privy  seal,  the  lord 
chamberlain,  the  lord  high  constable,  the 
earl  marshal ;  each  of  which  see  under,  its. 
proper  article. 

OffigerS)  commission,  are  those  appoint- 
ed by  the  king's  commission;  such- are  all' 
from  the  general  to  the  cornet  inclusive,  who- 
are  thus  denominated  in. contradistinction  to- 
wan  ant-ofiicers,  who  are  appointed  by  the 
colonel's  or  captain's  warrant,  as  ciuarter-mas- 
ters,  Serjeants,  corporals,  and  even  chapiaini- 
and  surgeons.  . 

OFFicERs-,g-enfra/,  are  those  wliose  com- 
mand is  not  limited  to  a  single  company,, 
troop,  or  regiment;  but  exteixls  to  a  body 
of  forces,  composed  of  several  regiments ;: 
such  are  the  general,  lieutenant-general,, 
major-generals,  and  brigadiers.  .         ^ 


2S3 


O  I  L 


Offtcers.  stiif,  are  such  as,  in  the  kUig'ii 
pp.'sence,  bear  a  white  slali"  or  wand  ;  aiul 
at  other  times,  on  tlieir  going  abroad,  have 
it  carried  before  tliein  bv  a  tooinian  bare- 
headed;  siicii  are  tiie  lord  steward,  lord 
cliainberlain,  lord  treasurer,  &c. 

'I'lie  white  stall'  is  taken  for  a  commission, 
and  at  the  king's  deatli  each  of  these  olhcers 
breaks  his  stall  over  the  hearse  made  for  tlie 
king's  body,  and  by  this  means  lays  down  his 
commission,  and  cliseliarges  all  lus  inferior 
otlicers. 

Officf.rs,  subaltern,  are  all  who  admi- 
•  Ulster  justice  in  the  name  of  subjects ;  as 
those  who  art  utider  the  earl  marshal,  ad- 
miral, S:c.  la  flie  army,  tlie  subaltern  of- 
iicers  are  the  lieutenant's,  cornet;,  ensigns, 
■Serjeants,  and  corporals. 

OFFICIAL,  in  the  canon  law,  an  ecclesi- 
astical judge,  apointed  by  a  bishop,  chapter, 
ablmt,  &c.  with  charge  o'f  the  spiritual  juris- 
diction of  the  diocese.  Of  these  there  are 
two  kinds;  tlie  one  is  in  a  manner  the  vicar- 
general  of  the  diocese,  and  is  called  by  the 
canonists  ofi'icialis  princii)alis,  and  in  our 
statute-law,  the  bishop's  cliancelior.  There 
is  no  appeal  from  his  court  to  tlie  bishop,  his 
being  esteemed  the  bishop's  court.  Tlie 
otliei- called  officialisforaneus,  andis  appointed 
bv  the  bishop  whr-u  the  diocese  is  very 
larf^e;  he  his  but  a  limited  jurisdiction,  and 
luis'a  certain  extent  of  territory  assigned  him, 
wherein  lie  nhjides. 

OFFING,  or  Offin",  in  the  sea-language, 
that  part  of  the  sea  a  good  distauce  from 
shore,  where  there  is  deep  water,  and  no 
need  of  a  pilot  to  conduct  the  ship;  thus,  if 
a  ship  from  shore  is  seen  sailing  out  to  sea- 
ward, they  say,  she  stands  for  tlie  offing  ;  and 
if  a  ship,' having  the  shore  near  lier,  lias  au- 
otiier  a  good  way  without  her,  or  towards  the 
se.i,  they  say,  tliat  ship  is  in  the  oliling. 

OH,,  which  is  of  such  extensive  utility  in 
the  arts,  was  known  at  a  very  remote  period. 
It  is  nientioned  in  Genesis,  and  during  tlie 
time  of  Abraham  was  even  used  in  lamps. 
The  olive  was  very  early  cultivated,  and  oil 
("xtiacted  from  it  in  I'^gypt.  Cecrops  brought 
it  from  Sais,  a  town  in  Lower  Egypt,  where 
it  had  heen  cultivated  from  time  immemorial, 
luid  taught  the  .'Vtlienians  to  extract  oil  from 
it.  Ill  this  manner  the  use  of  oil  became 
known  in  Europe.  But  the  ^Jreeks  sc?iii  to 
have  been  ignorant  of  the  method  of  procur- 
in-'  light  bv  means  of  lamps  till  after  the  siege 
<>t  Trov  ;  at  least  Hoiher  luver  mentions 
them,  and  constantly  describes  his  heroes  as 
lighted  by  torches  of  wood.  There  are  two 
classes  ot  oils  exceedingly  different  from  each 
otlier  ;  namely,  lixed  oil's  and  volatile  oils. 

Fixed  ods  arc  dlslingui^lled  by  the  follow- 
ing characters: 

1 .  Lic(ui(i,  or  easily  becoming  so  when  ex- 
posed to  a  gentle  heat".  i>.  An  unctuous  feel. 
3.  Very  combustible.  4.  A  mild  taste. 
5.  Koi'i'iig  point  not  under  t);iO\  6.  Insoluble 
in  water  and  alcohol.  7.  Leave  a  greasy 
stain  upon  paper. 

Those  oils  which  are  called  also  fat  or  ex- 
pressed oi  s,  are  numerous;  and  are  obtained, 
partly  from  animals  and  partly  from  v<>ge- 
tjiblos,  by  sini[)le  espression.  As  instances 
liiav  be  inenlioned,  wli.tle-oil  or  train-oil  ob- 
t;i.n'ed  horn  the  blublK-r  of  the  whale;  olive- 
od,  obtained  fro.ii  the  fruit  of  the  olive  ;  liii- 
•«tfd-oil  and  uUuo|iii-oil,  obtained  lioiii  liiv- 


o  r  L 

seed  and  almond-kernels.  Fixed  oils  may 
also  be  extracted  from  pojipy-seeds,  hemp- 
seeds,  beech-mast,  and  many  other  vegetable 
sub-,tances. 

It  deserves  attention,  that  the  only  part  of 
vegetables  in  which  lixed  oils  are  found  is  the 
seeds  ot  bicot_\ledinous  plants.  In  animals 
they  are  most  visually  deposited  in  the  liver, 
though  they  are  found  also  in  the  eggs  of 
fowls. 

All  these  oils  differ  from  each  other  in  se- 
veral particulars,  but  they  also  possess  iniiny 
particulars  in  common.  Whether  the  oily 
principle  in  all  the  hxed  oils  is  the  same,  and 
whether  they  owe  their  ditferences  to  acci- 
dental ingredients,  is  not  yet  completely  as- 
certained, as  no  proper  analysis  has  hitherto 
been  made  ;  but  it  is  not  improbable,  as  all 
the  oils  hitherto  tried  have  been  found  to 
yield  the  same  products.  In  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge,  it  would  he  useless  to 
give  a  particular  description  of  all  t'.-e  lixed 
oils,  as  even  the  differences  between  thenr 
have  not  been  accuratidy  ascertained. 

Fixed  oils  are  considered  at  present  as 
composed  of  hydrogen  and  carbon.  I^- 
voisicr  analysed  olive-oil  by  burning  a  given 
portion  of  it  in  oxygen  gas,  bv  means  of  a 
particular  apparatus.  During  the  combustion 
there  was  consumed 

Of  oil  -  15.79  grains  troy 

Of  oxygen  gas  50.80 

Total  66.65 
The  products  were  carbonic  acid  and 
"water.  The  carbonic,  acid  obtained  amount- 
ed to  44.50  grains ;  the  weight  of  the  water 
could  not  be  accurately  ascertained  ;  but  as 
the  whole  of  the  substiuices  consumed  were 
converted  into  carbonic  acid  gas  aud  water, 
it  is  evident,  that  if  the  weight  of  the  carbonic 
acid  is  subtracted  from  the  weight  of  tlie^e 
substances,  there  must  remain  precisely  the 
weight  of  the  water.  Mr.  Lavoisier  accord- 
ingly concluded,  by  calculation,  that  the 
weight  of  the  water  was  22.15  grains.  Now 
the  (piantity  of  oxygen  in  44.50  grams  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  is  3"?. 04  grains,  and  tli(> 
oxygen  in  33.15  grains  of  water  is  18.82 
grains ;  both  of  which  taken  together  amount 
to  50. S6  grains,  precisely  the  weight  of  the 
oxygen  gas  employed. 

■'i'lie  (iiKintity  of  charcoal  in  44.50  grains 
of  carbonic  acid  gas  is  12.47  grains  ;  and  the 
quantity  of  hydrogen  in  22.15  grains  of  water 
is  3.32  grains;  both  of  which,  when  taken 
together,  amount  to  15.79  grains,  which  is 
the  weight  of  the  oil  consumed. 

It  follows,  therefore,  from  this  analysis,  that 
15.79  grains  of  olive  oil  are  composed  of 

12.47  carbon 
3.32  hydrogen. 
Olive-oil  therefore  is  composed  of  about 

79  carbon 

'2\  hydrogen 

100. 
This  however  can  only  be  considered  as  a 
verv   imjierfect  approximation   towards  the 
truth. 

Fixed  oil  is  usually  a  liquid  with  a  certain 
degree  of  visciilily,  aillieriiig  to  the  sides  of 
the  glass  vessels  in  which  it  is  contained,  and 
forming  slreaks.  It  is  never  jKifeclly  trans- 
parent, having  always  a  certain  degree  of 
colour  ;  most  us'.ialiy  it  is  yellowish  or  green- 
1 


O  I  I, 

ish.  Its  taste  is  sweet,  or  nearly  insipid. 
When  fresh,  it  has  little  or  no  smell.  Its 
specilic  gravity  varies  from  0.'.)4.)3  (the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  linseed-o:l)  toO.9153  (the  spe- 
cihc  gravity  of  o'.ivc-oil). 

I'lxed  oil  is  uisoluble  in  water.  When  the 
two  liquids  are  agitated  together,  the  water 
loses  it.i  transparency,  and  acquires  the  white 
colour  and  consistency  of  milk.  This  mix- 
ture is  known  by  the  name  of  emul>ion. 
When  allowed  to  remain  at  rest,  tiie  oil  soon 
separates,  and  swuns  upon  the  surface  of  the 
wi'.ter. 

Fixed  oil  does  not  evaporate  till  it  is  heat- 
ed to  ahoift  600".  At  that  temperature  it 
boils,  and  mav  be  distilled  over ;  but  it  is 
always  somewhat  altj'red  by  the  process. 
Some  water  and  sebacic  acid  seem  to  be 
formed,  a  little  charcoal  remains  in  the  re- 
tort, and  the  oil  obtained  is  ligliter,  more 
iluid,  and  has  a  stronger  ta-te,  than  before. 
Oil  thus  distilted  was  formerly  distinguished 
bv  the  name  of  philosophical  oil. 

Fixed  oil,  when  in  the  stgte  of  vapour, 
takes  lire  on  the  appro.'ich  of  an  ignited  body, 
and  burns  with  a  y>-llowis!i-wliite  llaine.  It 
is  upon  this  principle  that  candles  and  lamps 
burn.  1  he  tallow  or  oil  is  first  converted 
into  the  state  of  va])Our  in  the  wick  ;  it  then 
takes  lire,  and  supplies  a  suificient  quantity 
of  heat  to  convert  more  oil  into  vapour;  and 
this  process  goes  on  while  any  oil  remains. 

The  wick  is  necessary  to  present  a  suHici- 
ently  small  quantity  of  oil  at  once  for  the  heat 
to  act  upon.  If  the  heat  was  suflicieiitly 
great  to  keep  the  wi^ole  oil  at  the  tempera- 
lure  of  G00\  no  wick  woukl  be  necessaiy,  as 
is  obvious  from  oil  catching  (ire  s|)ontaneous- 
ly  when  it  has  been  raised  to  that  teinpera- 
t'ure. 

M'hen  exposed  to  the  action  of  cold,  lixed 
oils  lose  their  lluidity,  and  are  con\erted 
into  ice  ;  but  this  change  varies  exceedingly 
in  d liferent  oils. 

A\'lien  lixed  oils  are  exposed  to  the  open 
air  or  to  oxygen  gas,  they  undergo  dil'fereiit 
changes  according  to  the  nature  of  the  oil : 

1.  Some  of  them  dry  altogether,  without 
losing  their  transparency,  when  thin  layers 
of  tlieia  are  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 
These  are  dislingui-^hed  by  the  name  of  dry- 
ing oils,  and  are  employed  by  painters.  Lin- 
seed-oil, nirt-oil,  poppy-oil,  aud  hempseed- 
oil,  possess  this  property;  but  liiiseeiloil  is 
almost  the  only  one  of  these  litiuids  employ- 
ed in  this  country  as  a  drying  oil.  The  cause 
of  this  peculiarity  has  not  been  completely 
investigated  ;  but  it  is  well  known  that  these 
oils  possess  the  drying  quality  at  lirst  but  im- 
peitectly.  Belore  they  can  be  employed  by 
painters,  they  must  be  boilo-d  with  a  little 
litharge.  Ouriiig  this  operation  the  litharge 
is  partly  reduced  to  the  metallic  slate.  Hence 
it  has  been  conjectured  that  drying  oils  owe 
their  peculiar  properties  to  the  action  of 
oxygen;  which  is  sujiposed  either  to  consti- 
tute one  of  their  coinpoueiit  parts,  or  to  con- 
vert till  111  into  drying  oils  by  diminishing 
their  hydroi;en. 

2.  Othei-" lixed  oils,  when  e>; posed  to  the 
atmosphere,  gradually  become  thick,  opaque, 
and  white,  and  assuuK;  an  appearance  very 
much  resembling  «ax  or  tallow.  These  have 
been  di>tinguislied  by  the  term  fat  oils. 
Olive-oil,  oil  of  sweut  almonds,  of  rape-seed, 
and  of  ben,  beluiig  to  this  cl.iss. 

When  oil  is  pouicd  upon  water,  so  as  to 


form  a  (hlii  layer  on  its  surfacp,  and  U  In 
tlial  maniiL-r  i-xposcd  to  llie  atniospln're  ; 
tli'-sf  cliaiiges  ai'«  picKlucPtl  inucli  sooner. 
liKrlhollft,  who  first  I'vaiuint'd  tliese  plu'- 
noiiuMia  with  altPiition,  asriihi-d  them  to  tht- 
aclimi  of  light :  but  SiMnifbier  ubsi'rvcil  that 
no  such  change  was  produced  on  the  oil 
though  ever  so  long  c^poiod  to  the  light, 
provided  atmos|)lierical  air  was  excluded; 
but  that  it  took  place  on  the  admission  of 
owgeu  gas,  whetliiu'  the  oil  was  exposed  to 
the  light  or  not.  ■  It  cannot  bi-  doubted,  then, 
tiiat  it  is  owing  to  the  action  ol'oxygen.  It  is 
supposed  at  present  to  be  the  consecjuejice 
of  the  simple  absorption  of  oxygen  and  its 
combination  with  the  oils. 

3.  Both  tiie>e  classes  of  oils,  when  expos- 
ed in  considerable  ([uantity  Vo  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere,  under'^o  an(JtJier  change, 
well  known  vuidcr  (Ul-  name  of  rancidity.  15nt 
the  fat  oils  become  rancid  much  more  rea- 
dily tlian  the  drying  oils.  Kancid  oils  are 
thick,  have  usually  a  brown  colour,  convert 
vegetable  blues  to  red,  and  have  the  smell 
and  taste  A' sebacic  acid.  During  the  change 
which  they  vmdcrgo,  some  drops  of  water 
also  appear  on  their  surface.  Tlie  rancidity 
of  oils  then  is  owing  to  the  formation  of  a 
quantity  of  acid  in  them,  'I'his,  togt-ther 
with  the  water,  is  evidently  the.consetiuence 
of  a  ])artial  ilecomposition. 

I'ixed  oils  I'cudily  dissolve  sulphur  when 
assisted  by  heat.  The  solution  assumes  a 
reddish  colour.  \Vhen  distilled,  there  conies 
over  a  great  quantity  of  sulpiuuvted  hydrogen 
gas.  ^\■hen  the  solution  is  allowed  to  cool, 
the  sulphur  is  di-posited  in  chrvstals.  13v 
this  |)rocess  PelUtier  obtained  sulphur  in  re- 
gular octahedrons. 

'I'hcy  likewise  dissolve  a  small  proportion 
of  phosphorus  when  assisted  bv  heat.  These 
oily  phosphnrets  emit  the  odoiu'  of  phosphu- 
reted  hydrogen,  and  yield,  when  distilled,  a 
portion  of  that  gas.  When  rubbed  in  the 
open  air,  or  \\hen  spread  upon  the  surface 
of  otlier  bodies,  they  appear  luminous  in  con- 
setpience  of  the  combustion  of  the  phos|)ho- 
rus.  \\'hen  hot  oils  saturated  with  phospho- 
rus arc  allowed  to  cool,  tlie  phosphorus  chrys- 
talli/.'s  in  octahedrons,  as  I'dletier  ascer- 
tained. 

Charcoal  h.ns  no  sensible  action  -on  fixed 
oils;  but  when  they  are  filtred  through 
charcoal-powder,  they  are  rendered  purer, 
the  charco.d  retaining  their  impurities.  Nei- 
ther hydrogen  nor  azotic  gas  has  any  action 
on  lixed  oils. 

I'lxcd  oils  have  scarcely  any  action  upon 
metals  ;  but  they  combine  with  several  me- 
tallic oxides,  and  form  co.iipomids  known  bv 
tlie.name  of  plasters.     See  Plastf.r. 

They  combine  likewise  with  alkalies  and 
earths,  and  form  with  them  compotuids called 
soaps.  The  fat  oils  enter  into  these  combi- 
nations much  more  readily  than  the  drying 
oils.  See  Soap. 

Fixed  oils  absorb  nitrous  gas  in  consider- 
able quantities, and  at  the  same  time  become 
much  thicker  and  specilically  heavier  than 
belbre. 

Sulphuric- acid  decomposes  fixed  oils,  at 
least  when  concentrated.  It  renders  them 
first  thick  and  of  a  brown  colour;  then  water 
is  formed,  charcoal  precipitated,  and  an  acid 
formed.  Nitric  acid  renders  them  thick  and 
viscid.  ■\Vlien  nitrons  acid  is  poured  upon 
the  drying  oils,  it  inflames  them  without  ad- 

^oL.  II. 


OILS. 

dition  ;  Ijut  it  does  not  produce  that  effect 
upin  the  fat  oil;,  unless  it  is  mixed  with  a 
port  ion  of  sulphuric  acid. 

I'Jie  allinities  of  fixed  oils  are  as  follows  : 
I-inu!,  Ammonia, 

ll.uytes,  Oxide  of  mPrrurv, 

fixed  alkalies.      Other  metallic  oxides, 
iMagiiesiu,  Alumina. 

^  The  importance  of  lixed  oils  is  well  known. 
Some  of  tliem  are  employed  as  seasoners  of 
food;  s  une  are  burnt  inlamps;  some  form 
the  basis  of  soap  ;  not  to  mention  their  utility 
in  paintir.g,  and  the  many  other  important 
purposes  which  tliey  serve. 

Oifs,  volalik,  called  also  essential  oils, 
are  dist'mguishetl  by  the  following  properties: 

1.  /J(]uid  ;  oil eii  almost  as  liquiil  as  water; 
sometimes  viscid. 

2.  \'ery  combustible. 

?'■  An  acrid  taste  and  a  strong  fragrant 
odour.  .     . 

4.  15oiling  point  not  higher  than  212'. 

5.  Soluble  in  alcohol  ;  and  imperfectly  in 
w'ater. 

6.  Evaporate  without  leaving  any  stain  on 
pa])er. 

liy  this  last  lest  it  is  easy  to  discover  whe- 
ther they  haveheen  adulterated  with  any  of 
the  lixed  oils.  Let  a  dro|)  of  the  volatile  oil 
fall  upon  a  sheet  of  writing-paper,  and  then 
apply  a  gentle  heat  to  it.  If  it  evaporates 
without  leaving  :uiy  slain  upon  the  pa))ei-, 
the  oil  is  pure;  jiut'if  it  leaves  a  stain,  it  has 
been  contaminated  with  some  lixed  oil  or 
other. 

^'olat^le  oils  are  almost  all  obtained  from 
vegetables,  and  they  exist  in  every  part  of 
plants ;  the  root,  the  bark,  the  wood,  the 
leaves,  the  (lower,  and  even  the  fruit :  though 
they  are  never  found  in  the  substance  of  the 
cotyledons  ;  w  hereas  the  lixed  oils,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  almest  always  contained  in  these 
bodies. 

When  the  volatile  oils  are  contained  in 
gi<'at  abundance  in  plants,  they  are  some- 
times obtained  by  simple  expression.  This 
is  the  case  with  the  oil  of  oranges,  of  lemons, 
and  of  bergamot;  but  in  general  they  can 
only  be  obtained  by  drstillation.  The  part 
of  'the  plant  cont.iining  the  oil  is  put  into  a 
still  will!  a  (piantity  of  water,  which  is  dis- 
tilled off  by  the  application  of  a  moderate 
heat.  The  oil  comes  oser  along  with  the 
water,  and  swims  ufun  its  surface  in  the 
receiver.  I?y  this  i)rocess  are  obtained  the 
oils  of  peppermint,  thyme,  lavender,  and  a 
-great  many  others,  w  Inch  are  prepared  and 
employed  by  the  perfumer.  Otheis  are  pro- 
cured by  the  distillation  of  re,iiious  bodies. 
This  is  the  case  in  particular  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, which  is  obtained  by  distilling  a  kind 
of  resinous  juice,  called  "turpentine,  that 
exudes  from  tiie  juniper. 

The  greater  number  of  volatile  oils  are 
liquid,  and  some  of  them  are  as  transparent 
and  colourless  as  water.  This  is  tlie  case  with 
the  oil  of  turpentine;  but  for  the  most  part 
they  are  coloured.  Some  of  them  are  yel- 
low, as  the  oil  of  lavender;  some  brown,"  a> 
the  oil  of  rhodium  ;  some  blue,  as  the  oil  of 
camomile;  but  the  greater  number  of  vola- 
tile oils  are  yellow  or  reddish-brown. 

Their  odours  are  so  various  as  to  defv^all 
description.     It  is  sullicient  to  sav,  that  all 
the  fragrance  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  re- 
sides in  the  volatile  oils.    I'heir  taste  is  al- 
Oo 


289 

ways  acrid,  hot,  and  exceedingly  unpleasant. 
Their  specific  gravity  is  for  the  nioU  part 
less  than  that  of  water  ;  but  some  volatile 
oils,  as  those  of  caiielU  and  sassafras,  are  hea- 
vier than  water.  The  specific  gravity  of  the 
volatile  oils  varies  from  0.8f)97  to  1.043<^ 

W'ater  dissolves  a  small  portion  of  volatile 
oils,  and  acquires  (he  odour  and  the  taste  of 
the  oil  which  it  holds  in  solution. 

When  heated,  they  evaporate  very  readily 
and  without  alteration.  They  are  much 
more  combustible  than  fixed  oils,  owing  lo 
their  greater  volatility.  They  burn  witti  a 
line  bright  white  (laine,  exhale  a  great  deal 
of  smoke,  deposit  much  soot,  and  consume 
a  greater  proportion  of  the  oxygen  of  the 
atmos|)liere  than  fixed  oils.  '1  he  products 
of  their  combustion  are  water  and  carbonic 
acid  gas.  From  tiicse  facts  it  has  been  con- 
cluded that  they  are  composed  of  the  sauie 
ingredients  as  the  fixed  oils,  but  that  they 
contain  a  greater  proportion  of  hydrogen. 

When  exposed  to  tlie  action  of  cold  they 
congeal  like  the  fixed  oils;  but  the  tempe- 
rature necessary  to  |)ioduce  this  eli'ect,  varies 
according  to  the  oil.  Some  of  them,  as  oil 
of  anise  and  of  fennel,  become  solid  at  the 
temperature  of  50' ;  frozen  oil  of  bergamot 
and  of  caiiella  become  liquid  at  2.3'' ;  oil  of 
turpi-ntiiie  at  14  .  Margueron  exposed  seve- 
ral volatile  oils  to  a  cold  of  \T.  They  con- 
gealed or  rather  clirvstallizod  partially,  and 
at  the  same  time  emitted  an  elastic  Hmd. 
These  chrystals  consisted  partly  of  the  oils 
themselves,  partly  of  other  substances.  Some 
ot  them  had  the  propirties  of  ben/oic  acid. 

Volatile  oils,  when  exposed  to  the 
action  of  light  in  close  vessels,  and  exchukd 
(rom  common  air,  undergo  very  singuLr 
changes.  Tiieir  colour  becomes  deipcr, 
they  acipiire  a  great  deal  of  consistency,  aiid 
their  speciltc  gravity  is  considerably  increas- 
ed. The  cause  ot  these  changes  is  but  im- 
perfectly known.  Tingrv,  to  whom  we  are 
indebted  for  these  intere^tiIlg  reseai-ches, 
has  proved  that  light  is  a  necessary  rgent. 
It  was  supjiosed  foi'merly  that  they  were  oc- 
casioned by  the  aljsorplion  of  oxygen;  and 
when  oxygen  is  present,  it  has  been  ascer- 
tained that  it  is  absorbed;  but  Tingrv  has 
proved  that  the  same  <hanges  go  oii'wheu 
oxygen  is  excluded.  This  philosopher  as- 
cribes tliem  to  the  lixation  of  light.  If  this 
is  the  real  cause,  tlie  quantity  of  light  fixed 
must  be  enornious;  (or  as  the  "specific  gravity^ 
of  the  oils  is  increased  coiisiderablv  while  the 
bulk  continues  the  same,  it  isevident  that 
the  absolute  weight  must  be  increased  pro- 
portion.ihly.  t)iie  circainstance,  however, 
rentiers  this  cimclUsion  somewhat  doubtful, 
at  least  in  its  fullextent;  and  that  is,  that 
the  (juaiitity  of  change  was  always  propor- 
tional to  the  quantity  of  the  oil  and'  the  quan- 
tity of  air  contained'in  the  vessel. 

When  exposed  to  the  open  air  their  co- 
lour becomes  gradually  deeper,  and  they  ac- 
ipjire  consistency,  while  they  exhale  at  the 
same  time  a  vi  ry  strong  odour.  The  air 
around,  as  Priestley  first  ascertained,  is  de- 
prived of  its  ox\ gen,  a  quantity  of  water  is 
lormed,  and  the  oils  at  last,  for  the  most  part, 
assume  the  form  of  resins. 

A'olatile^  oils  dissolve  sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus, and  the  solutions  have  nearly  the 
same  properties  as  those  made  by  means  of 
lixed  oils.  ... 

Tliey  kave  no  action  on  the  metals,  ajid 


29©  ^  I  L 

teem  scarcely  capable  of  combwing  with  the 
metallic  osiiles. 

They  combine  only  imperfectly,  and  in 
smallquantilifs,  with  alkalies  and  earths.  The 
French  chemists  liave  proposed  to  give  th"se 
oombinatioiis  the  name  of  savonules,  which 
Dr.  Pearson  has  translated  by  the  term 
saponules;  but  tliese  denominations  have  not 
t)een  adopted  by  chemists. 

They  absorb  nitrous  gas  in  great  abini- 
daace,  and  with  great  facilit)",  and  seemingly 
deconipoie  it»  acijuiring  a  thick  consistence 
and  a  resinovis  appearance,  as  if  they  had 
ilbsoibed  oxvget!. 

Sulphuric  ecid  d^-composes  volatile  oils; 
carbureted  li\dro!;en,  gas  is  emitted,  and 
charcoal  is  precipitated.  Nitric  acid  iiiHanies 
ihein,  and  converts  llieui  into  water,  car- 
bonic acid,  and  chai;co;d.  O.symuriatic  acid 
coaverts  them  i:ito  substances  analogous  to 
resins. 

Volatile  oils  are  applied  to  a  great  number 
<9i  uses.  Some  ot  them  are  employed  in 
medicine;  some  of  them,  as  oil  of  turpentine, 
are  much  usid  to  dissolve  resins,  which  are 
aftenvards  employetl  as  varnishes  ;  not  (o 
mention  their  employipent  in  painting  and 
Ui  periuniery. 

Besides  the  oils  which  exist  ready  formed 
in  tlie  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  tliere 
area  variety  ofotliers  which  are  obtained 
Vhen  animLiI  or  vegetable  bodies  are  distilled 
by  means  of  a  heat  above  that  of  boiling  water. 
1  hese  oils  have  received  the  appellation  of 
empyreamatic,  because  they  are  formed  by 
the  action  of  the  tire. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  plants  which 
yield  the  Sscd  oils  occurring  usually  ia  com- 
snerce  : 

1.  Linum  usitatisslmum  &  ? 
pererme        -         -     5 
S.  Corylus  .ivellana  7 

3.  Utij^ans  regia         5 

4.  Papaver  somniferum 

5.  C.innabis  sativa         -     - 
S.  Sf-samum  orientale 

7.  Olea  E'lropca 

8,  Amygdalus  communis  - 
p.  Guilandina  Muhrlnga    - 

10.  Cacurbitapepo&melapcpo  Cucumber  oil 
]i.  Pagtts  sylvatlca         -      -       Beech  oil 

I'J    Srn»pis  nigra  &  arver.sis       Oil  of  mustard 

13.  He!ianthusannui)S&!>er-7    ^.i    r        r 

„,„■  '       J-   Oil  of  sunkowcr 

14.  Brassica  naptrs  &  campestris  P.apeseed  oil 

15.  Ricituis  CO  nmunis         -       Castor  oil 

16.  Nicotiana  tabacura&ru5-7  T  i  j    -i 

•  _        _        _      h  Tpbacco-seed  ou 

17-  Primus  domestica  -       Plnm-kcmel  oil 

IH,  Vitis  vinifera         -         -       Grapeseed  oil 
19.  Theobro-na  cacao  -      Butter  of  cacao 

SO'.  LaurU'i  nobilis         -       -       Laurel  oil 

1 1 .  Arachis  hypogia    -      -       Ground-nut  oil'. 
The  follov/ing  Table  contai(i5  a  copious  list 

«f  plants  which  yield  volatile  oils.  The  pa.-t  of 
tUe  pl.int  from  which  i:  is  extracted,  and  the 
Kn^iish  name  of  the  oil,  arc  added  in  separate 
roluiQiUi 


Ijinseed  oil 

Nut  oU 

Poppy  oil 
Hemp  oi! 
Oil  of  sesamum 
Olive  v)d 
Almond  oil 
Oil  of  behen 


OLD 


OLE 


Plants. 

Parts. 

Oil  of 

Cnioiir. 

1.  Artemisia  absy milium 

Leaves 

Wormood 

Groea 

'J.  Acorus  calamiis    -     .     -     . 

Root 

Sweet  flag 

Yellow 

3.  Mvrtus  pimenta       _     ,.     - 

Fruit 

Jamaica  pepper 

Yellow 

4.  Anethum  gravcolens      -     - 

.Seeds 

Dill         .        . 

Vello>y 

5.  Ano^elica  archaiigelica  -     - 

Root 

Angelica 

G.  Pinipinella  anlsum         -     - 

Seeds 

Ani.se 

WIdte- 

7.  Illicium  anisatum      -     -     - 

Seeds 

Stellat..  anise 

Brown 

8.  Artemisia  vul;;aris    -     -     - 

Leaves 

IVIugwort 

f).  Citrus  aurantium      ... 

Rind  of  the  fruit 

Bcrgamot 

Yellow 

10.  Melolesica  leu.-odendra      - 

Leaves 

Cajeput  -         — 

Green 

11.  r.ugenia  carvophyllata 

-Capsules       - 

Cloves     - 

Vclli.w 

1'^.  Carum  carui  -     -     -     -     _ 

.Seeds 

Caraways 

Yellow- 

13.  Amomum  cardamomura    - 

Seeds 

Card,  seeds 

Yellow- 
White 

14.  Carlina  acaulia     -     -     -     . 

Roots 

-     -     -     - 

15.   Scandix  chaercfoliura    -    . 

Leaves 

Cliervil     - 

Sulph.  ycilow 
Blue 

16.  M.itricaria  chamomilla 

Petals 

Cliamomilc 

17.  I.aurus  cinnamomuni     -     . 

Kark 

Cinnamon 

YeUow 

18.  Citrus  medica       .     -     -     . 

Rind  of  the  fruit 

Lemons  - 

Yellow 

1 9.  Cochlearia  officinalis     -     - 

Leaves 

Scurvy  grass    - 

Yellow.- 

20.  Copaifera  officinalis       -     - 

Extract 

Coi)aiba 

White 

21.  Coriandrum  sativum      -     - 

Seeds- 

Coriand.  seed 

White- 

2*2.  Crocus  sativus      -     -     -     - 

Pistib 

SalTrou    - 

Yellow 

23.  Piper  cubeba       -     -     -     - 

Seeds. 

Cubeb  pepper 

Yellow 

24.  L.aurus  cdilaban       .    -     - 

Bark 

Culilaban 

Brown  yellow ' 

2.^.  Cuminum  cvmium   -     -     - 

Seeds 

Cumini    - 

Yellow            ' 

2(j.  Inula  hclenimn     -     _     -     - 

Routs. 

Elecampane    - 

White 

27.  Anethum  fceniculum      - 

Seeds. 

Fennel     -        ^ 

White 

2S.  Croton  eleutheria     -     -    . 

Bark 

Cascarilla 

Ycilow 

29.  JMaranta  galang-a       ... 

Roots 

Oalanga. 

Yellow 

30.  Hyesopus  officinalis       -     - 

Leaves         - 

Hyssop  - 

Yellow 

31.  Juniperus  communis      -     - 

Seeds 

Junijier  - 

Green 

32.  Lavendula  spica        -     -     - 

Flower* 

Lavender 

Yellow 

SS.  l.aurus  nobilis      .     -     .     - 

Berries          ~ 

Laurel     - 

Brownish 

34.  Prunus  iaurocerasus       -     - 

Leaves 

Laurocerasus 

S5.  Levisticum  logusticum 

Roots. 

Loveage 

Yellow 

36.  Myristica  mo.schata       -     - 

Seetls 

Mace 

Ycilow 

37.  Origanum  majorana      -    - 

Leaves- 

Marjoram. 

Yell.iw 

S8,  PIstacia  lentiscus       -     _    - 

Resin 

Mastich 

Yellow 

39.  Matricaria  parthenium- 

Plant 

Motherwort    - 

Blue 

40.  Melissa  officinalis     .     -     ~ 

Leaves 

Balm       - 

White      . 

41.  Mentha  crispa     -     -    -     - 

Leaves 

-         .         . 

V/hite 

42.  pipcritis        -    -    - 

Leaves          - 

Peppermint     - 

Y'ellow 

43.  Acliillea  millefolium.     -     - 

,  Flowers 

MiUefoil 

Blue  and  gretn 

44.  Ci:rus  anramium      -     -     - 

Leaves          - 

Ncr<ili     - 

Orange 

45.  Origanum  creticura       -    - 

Flowers        •• 

Spanish  hop     - 

Brown 

4G.  Apium  petrosehnum     -     - 

Roots 

Parsley   - 

Ydlow 

47.  Pinus  sylveitrii  &  abies     - 

Wood  and  resin 

Turpentine 

Colourless 

■lb.  Piper  nigrum       -     -     -     - 

.Seeds 

Pepper    - 

Yellow 

49.  Rosmarinus  officinalis   -    - 

Plant 

Rosemary 

Colourless 

50.  Me.'^.tlia  pidegium.    -     -    - 

Flowers 

Feuuyroyal 

Y'ellow 

51.  Genista  canariensis  -     -     - 

Root 

Rhodium 

Y'ellow 

52.  Rosa  ceutifolia    -    .    -    - 

Petals 

Roses 

Colourless 

53.  Ruta  gravcolens        »    -     - 

Leaves 

Rue 

Yellow 

54.  Juniperus  sabina       -     -     - 

Leaves 

Savice     - 

YelUnv 

55.  Salvia  officinalis        .     -     - 

Leaves 

Sage 

Green 

56.  .Samalum  album        -    -    - 

Wood 

S.int;lum 

Y'ellow 

57.  .Laurus  sassafras  -    .     -     - 

Root 

Sassafras 

Yell...w 

58.  Satnreia  hortensis     -     -     - 

Leaves 

.Satureia 

Yellow 

5'J.  Thymus  serpillum    -     -    - 

Leaves  Sc  flowers 

Tiiyme    - 

Yellow 

60.  Valeriana  officinalis       -     - 

Root 

Valerian 

Green 

61.  Ka'mpferia  rotunda       -    - 

Ruot 

Zedoary 

Greenish  blue 

62.  Amomum  Zinziber       -     - 

RODt 

Ginger    - 

Yellow 

63.  Andropogon  schxnanthunl 

- 

Sira 

Brown. 

Several  of  the  gtim-resins,    as  myrrh  and  galbanum,  yield  an  essential  oil ;  and  likewise  the 
balsams,  as  benzoin,  &c. 


OiL-MiLt.     SeeOi.EA'. 

OLAX,  a  genus  of  the  triandria  irtonogy- 
nia  class  and  order.  Tiie  calyx  is  entire, 
trilid  ;  (.orollafuiiuel-form,  trihd;  nect.  four; 
berry  three-celled,  luaiiy-sceded.  There  is 
one  species,  a  tree  of  CeYtoii. 

OLDENLANDIA,  agerius  of  the  tetran- 
dria  inoiiogynia  class  and  order.  Its  char.ic- 
ters  are  these:  the  empalemeiit  of  the  liower 
is  pernianent,  silting  upon  the  germen  ;  the 
(lower  has  four  oval  petals,  wiiicli  spread 
open,  and  four  staniiua,  teriiiijiated  by  small 


summits;  it  has  a  roundish  germen,  situated 
under  the  liower,  crowned  by  an  indi  nted 
stigma:  the  germen.  afterwards  turns  to  a 
globular  capsule,  with  two  cells  tilled  witlv 
siaall  seeds.  There  are  sixteen  species, 
herbs  of  the  Cape,  &c. 

(OI,I)-WIFE.  or  Wrasse.   See  Labrus. 

OLE.^,  the  «livi--tru-,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
uogytiiu  order,  in  the  diandria  class  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
the  44th  onler,  sapieri.T.  "^I'lie  corolla  is  cpia- 
drilid,  with  tiie  segments  nearly  ovate.     Th« 


O  T.  K 

fruit  15  a  mom^prrmfnis  plum.     Tlion-  arc 
■Sfvfii  si)pcie-i  ;  the  most  rcMiarkableare  : 

1.  Till'  F"i\roppa,  or  common  olivc-Ufe, 
rises  willi  iipn^hl  solid  terns,  liraix-liiiii; 
mniKToii'ilv  on  '--very  -iilp,  20  or  30  feet  liigli ; 
spoar-sliaped,  sliif,  opposite  leaves,  (wo  or 
tliree  inches  long,  and  half  an  inch  or  more 
broad  ;  and  at  the  a\illas  small  clusters  of 
white  flowers,  sncceeded  hy  oval  fruit.  This 
species  is  till;  principal  sort  cultivated  for  its 
fruit;  the  varieties  of  which  are  numerous, 
varying  in  size,  colour,  and  quality.  It  is  a 
native  o;  the  southern  parts  of  Km'opr,  and 
is  cultivated  in  great  quantities  in  the  south 
of  fVance,  Italy,  and  I'oitugal,  tor  the  fruit 
to  make  the  olive-oil. 

2.  The  capensis,  or  Cape  box-leaved  olive. 
3.  Olea  odoratissima,  tiie  llower  of  which  is 
by  some  said  to  give  the  line  llavour  to  the 
green  tea;  but  Thunberg  attributes  tlie  lla- 
vour to  llie  cvmellie  sesercpie. 

Olive-trees  are  easily  propagated  by  shoots, 
vhicli,  when  care  has  been  taken  to  ingraft 
them  properly,  bear  fruit  in  the  space  of 
tcight  or  ten  years.  Those  kinds  of  olive- 
trees  which  produce  the  pure.^t  oil,  and  bear 
the  greatest  (piantity  of  fruit,  are  ingrafted 
on  the  slocks  of  inferior  kinds.  Different 
names  are  assigned  by  the  French,  to  the 
dili'erent  varieties  of  the  olive-tree;  and  of 
llu'ie  they  reckon  19,  whilst  in  f'lorence  are 
cultivated  no  fewer  than  32.  Olive-shoots 
are  i:!grafled  when  in  liower;  if  the  opera- 
tion has  been  delayed,  and  the  tree  bears 
fruit,  it  is  thought  sufficient  to  take  olfn  ring 
oi  bark,  two  hngers'  breadtlfin  extent,  above 
the  highest  gralf.  Iii  that  case  the  brandies 
do  not  decay  the  first  year  ;  they  alford  nou- 
rishment tx)  the  fruit,  and  are  not  lopped  olf 
till  tlie  folloviug  spring.  Olive-trees  are 
commonly  p'antedin  the  form  of  a  (|uincunx, 
and  ill  rows  at  a  consiiierable  distance  from 
one  another,  lietween  the  rows  it  is  usual 
to  plant  vuies,  or  to  sow  some  kind  of  grain. 
It  is  observed,  that  olives,  like  many  other 
fruit-trees,  bear  well  only  once  in  two  years. 
The  whole  art  of  dressing  these  trees  con-ists 
in  removing  the  supcrllinus  wood;  for  it  is 
remarked,  that  trees  loaded  with  too  much 
wood  produce  neither  so  much  fruit  nor  of 
so  goad  a  quality.  Their  propagation  in 
England  is  commonly  by  layers. 

Olives  have  an  acrid,  bilter,  and  extremely 
disagreeal)le  taste;  pickled  (as  we  receive 
tliem  from  abroad;  they  prove  less  disagree- 
able. The  I.ucca  olives,  which  are  smaller 
than  the  others,  have  the  weakest  taste  ;  the 
Spanish,  or  larger,  the  strongest;  the  Pro- 
vence, which  are  of  a  middling  size,  are  gene- 
rally the  mo=t  esteemed. 

When  oliv'es  are  intended  for  preservation, 
they  are  gathered  before  they  are  ripe.  The 
art  of  preparing  them  consists  in  removing 
their  bittcrnes-;,  in  preserving  them  green, 
ami  in  im[)regnating  tliem  with  a  brine  of 
aromafised  sea-sait,  which  gives  them  an 
agreeable  la^te.  For  this  purpose,  difl'erent 
metliods  are  employed  :  formerly  they  used 
a  mixture  of  a  pound  of  (luicklinie,  with  six 
pounds  of  newly  sifted  \vood.iashes;  but  of 
late,  instead  of  the  ashes,  they  em[)loy  nothing 
but  a  ley.  This,  it  is  alleged,  softens  the 
olives,  makes  them  more  agreeable  to  the 
♦aste  an  1  less  hurtful  to  the  constitution.  In 
)?■  '"''k*  "*  Provence,  after  the  olives  have 
^tt  sum     <^  .^  jjj  jl^^,   ij^^u^.^  (jipy  remove 


O  f,  E 

them,  take  out  the  kernel,  and  ptit  a  caper 
ill  its  place.  'I'h  se  olives  they  preserve  in 
excellriit  oil;  and  when  thus  prepared,  they 
strongly  stimulate  the  appetite  in  winter. 
Olives  perfectly  ripe  are  soft,  and  of  a  dark 
red  colour.  'I'liey  are  then  eaten  without 
any  preparation,  excepting  only  a  seasoning 
of  pepper,  salt,  and  oil;  for  they  are  ex- 
tremely tart,  bilter,  and  corrosive. 

The  oil  is  undoubli-dly  that  part  of  the 
jiroduce-  of  olive-trees  which  is  of  greatest 
value.  The  quality  of  it  depends  on  the 
nature  of  the  soil  \vherc  the  tn-es  grow,  on 
the  kind  of  olive  from  which  it  is  expressed, 
on  the  care  which  is  taken  in  the  gathering 
and  pressing  of  the  fruit,  and  likewise  on  the 
separation  of  the  part  to  be  extracted.  Un- 
ripe olives  give  an  intolerable  bitterness  to 
the  oil  ;  when  they  are  over-ripe,  the  oil  has 
an  uiiguinous  taste;  it  is  therefore  of  impor- 
tance to  choose  the  true  point  of  maturity. 
When  the  situation  is  favourable,  those  spe- 
cies of  olives  are  cultivated  wbiclr  yield  fine 
oils ;  otherwise  they  cultivate  such  species 
of  trees  as  bear  a  great  quantity  of  fruit,  and 
thev  extract  oil  from  it,  for  the  use  of  soap- 
eries,  and  for  lamps. 

Thev  gather  the  olives  about  the  months 
of  Xovember  or  December.  It  is  best  to 
put  them  as  soon  as  possible  into  baskets,  or 
into  bags  made  of  wool  or  hair,  and  to  press 
them  immediarely,  in  order  (o  extract  a  line 
oil.  Those  who  make  oil  only  for  soajjeries, 
let  them  remain  in  heaps  for  some  time  in 
their  storehouses  ;  when  afterwards  pressed, 
they  yield  a  much  greater  cpianlity  for  oil. 
Ill  order  to  obtain  the  oil,  the  olives  arc  first 
bruised  in  a  round  trough,  uinler  a  mill- 
stone, rolling  perpeiulicularlv  over  them  ; 
and  when  suiricieiitly  mashed,  put  into  the 
maye,  or  trough,  •/«,  of  an  olive-press  (Plate 
iMiscel.  lig.  177),  v.here  a(s  are  the  upright 
beams,  or  cheeks  ;  h  the  female,  and  c  the 
male  screw ;  c,  the  bar  for  turning  tlie  screw  ; 
f,  the  board  on  which  the  screw  presses;  g, 
a  cubical  piece  of  wood,  called  a  block ;  /;, 
the  peel,  a  circular  board  to  be  put  und('r 
the  block.  I?y  turning  the  screw,  all  the 
liquor  is  pressed  out  of  the  mashed  olives,  and 
is  called  virgin-oil ;  after  which,  hot  water 
being  poured  upon  tlie  remainder  in  the 
press,  a  coarser  oil  is  obtained.  Olive-oil 
keeps  only  about  a  year,  after  which  it  de- 
generates. 

Oil  of  olives  is  an  ingredient  in  the  compo- 
sition of  a  great  many  balsams,  ointments, 
plasters,  mollifving  and  relaxing  liniments. 
It  is  of  an  emoUient  and  solvent  nature;  mi- 
tigates gripes  of  the  colic,  and  the  pains  ac- 
companying dysentery ;  and  is  supposed  a 
good  remedy  when  any  person  has  chanced 
to  swallow  Corrosive  poisons.  It  is  an  effec- 
tual cure  for  the  bite  of  a  viper;  .and,  as  M. 
liourgeois  te'ls  us,  for  the  sling  of  wasps, 
bees,  and  other  insects.  A  bandage  Soaked 
in  the  oil  is  immediately  applied  to  tlie  sting, 
and  a  cure  is  obtained  uilliout  any  inflam- 
mation or  swelling.  Olive-oil  is  of  no  use  in 
p.iinting,  because  it  never  dr'es  comphlely. 
The  best  soap  is  made  of  it,  mixed  with 
Alicant  salt-wort  and  quickf.m". 

OI.ERON,  sea  l(nv.<  nf,  certain  laws  n'- 
lating  to  maritime  affairs,  made  in  the  time 
of  Richard  I.  when  lie  was  at  tlie  island 
of  Oleron. 

These  )a\v5,  being  accounted  tli?  most 
Oo2 


O  N  C 


29\ 


excellent  sea-laws  in  the  world,  are  recorded 
in  tlie  black  book  of  theadniira'ty. 

OLIIiANU.Vl,  a  dry  resinous  subslanc'i 
obtained  from  the  juniperiis  lycia,  and 
chiefly  collected  in  Arabia.  It  is  fhe  frank- 
incense of  the  anlieiits.  It  is  in  transparent 
brittle  masses  about  the  size  of  a  clesnut. 
Us  colour  is  yellow.  It  has  little  taste,  and 
when  burnt  diliuses  an  agreeable  odour.  Al- 
cohol dissolves  it ;  and  with  water  it  foims  a 
milky  liquid.  When  distilled,  it  yields  a 
small  quantity  of  volatile  oil.  Specific  gra- 
vity, 1.7.?. 

Ol.lVK.     ,See  Oi.EA. 

OLYMPIC  (Ia.mes,  were  solemn  uames, 
fmious  among  the  antieiit  Greeks,  so  call<<i 
from  Olympian  Jupiter,  to  whom  they  were 
dedicated. 

OLYRA,  a  genus  of  the  triandria  order, 
in  the  mona-cia  class  of  plants,  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  uuder  the  4th  order, 
gramina.  The  male  calyx  is  a  billorous  and 
aristatcd  glume ;  the  corolla  a  beardless 
glume  ;  the  female  calyx  is  an  imitioroui, 
patulous,  and  ovate  glume;  the  style  is 
bilid,  and  the  seed  cartilaginous.  There  are 
two  species,  herbs  of  Jamaica. 

OMURE,  a  game  at  cards,  played  by  2,  3, 
or  5  persons;  in  all  other  respects  resembling 
quadiille. 

O.MI'.NTUM.     See  Anatomy. 

OMNIUM,  a  term  in  use  among  stock- 
jobbers to  express  all  the  articles  included  in 
the  contract  between  government  and  the 
original  subscribers  to  a  lo,m,  which  of  late 
years  has  generally  consisted  of  dilierent  p.rd- 
portions  ot  3  and  4  per  cent,  stock,  with  a 
certain'  quantity  of  terminabli!  annuities. 
Tiiose  who  dispose  of  their  share  scon  aller 
the  agreement  is  coiicUidc'd,  gonerally  get  4 
premium  of  2  or  3  Jicr  cent,  for  it,  whiih 
iluctuates  with  the  curn-nt  prices  of  the  public 
funds;  and  in  a  few  instances  the  onmiun^ 
has  been  at  a  considerable  discount.  Some 
of  the  sub>cribers  pay  their  whole  subscrip- 
tion at  the  time  fixeil  lor  the  first  or  second 
payment,  and  their  shares  become  immedi- 
alelv  transferable  stock  :  others  dispo-t  of 
the  several  articles  which  make  up  the  terms 
of  the  loan,  separ.itely  ;  and  in  this  siale  thp 
3  or  4  per  cent,  consols,  &c.  are  distiugcish- 
ed  by  the  name  of  scrip,  till  the  whole  sum 
has  been  paid  in  upon  them. 

OMPllALE.A,  a  genus  of  the  triandria  or- 
der, in  the  nioncrcia  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  imthod  ranking  with  those  of 
w  liich  the  order  is  doubtful.  The  male  calyx 
is  tetraphxUous;  there  is  no  corolla;  the  le- 
ceptacle,  into  which  the  anthenr  are  sunk,  is 
ovate.  The  female  caKx  and  corolla  are  as 
in  the  male;  the  sti'^ma  trilid  ;  the  capsnl* 
carnous  and  trilocular,  with  one  seed.  Thers 
are  four  'pedes,  slu-ubs  of  Jamaica. 

OXCIIIDHM,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the 
order  vermes  mollusca :  the  generic  character 
is;  body  oblong,  crecjung,  flat  beneath, 
mouth  p'aced  before;  feelers  l\vo,  situated 
above  the  mouth  ;  arms  two,  at  the  sides  of 
the  head  ;  vent  behind,  and  placed  beneath. 
The  oni  hidium  typhx,  the  only  species, 
inhabils  licHgal.  on  the  leaves  oi  tlictyphti 
elephanlina,  about  an  inch  long,  'md  tlirei- 
quarlers  of  an  inch  broad,  but  linear  r:nd 
longer  when  creeping.  In  appearance  itvry 
much  resembles  a  limax,  but  diiYers  pviucf- 
puUy  in  w.mting  the  shield  and  lateral  pore, 
and  in  being  turnislied  with  a  vent  Ijelund. 


292 


O  N  O 


O  P  A 


r.o.ly  above  convex,  beneatii  flat  and  smootli", 
head  s  nail,  and  placed  beneath,  whicli,  when' 
the  animal  is  in  motion,  is  perpetually  chan- 
ging its  form  and  siw,  and  dia'.vn  in  when  at 
rest ;  mouth  placed  lengthways,  and  conti- 
nually varying    its   sliajie  froiii   circular  to 
Imear;  feelers  retractil«,  resembling  those  ot 
a  slug,  and  apparently   tipt  with  eyes;  arms 
dilatable,  solid,  compressed,  and  somewhat 
j)Lilmate  when  fully  expanded. 
ON'IOK.   See  Allium. 
ONISCUS,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
aptera:  the  generic  character  is;  legs  four- 
teen;  antenna;  setaceous;  body  oval.   Of  this 
genus,  which  consists  of  more  than  40species, 
the  best  known  is  tlio  oniscus  aselhis,  popu- 
larly known  by  the  name  of  the  woodlou»e. 
It  is  a  very  common  insect  in  gardens,  fields, 
&c.  and  is  ob^rved  in  great  qua?ililies  under 
the  barks  of  decayed  trees,  bi.-n'alh  stones  in 
damp  situations.  Sec.     Its  general  length  is 
.about  half  an  inch,  or  rather  niore,  and   its 
c^)lour    livid  brown,    the  larger    specimens 
often  exhibiting  a  double  series  of  pale  spots 
down  the  back:    like  th.e  rest  of  the  genus,  it 
preys  on  the  minuter  insects. 

2.  Oniscus  armadillo,  or  the  medical  wood- 
louse,  is  of  somewhat  larger  size  than  the  pre- 
ceding, much  darker  colour,  and  of  a  polish- 
'cd  surface :  it  is  equally  common  with  ti\e 
preceding  species,  and  is  found  in  similar 
situations;  when  suddenly  disturbed  or  han- 
dled, it  rolls  itself  up  into  a  completely  glo- 
bular I'orm,  in  the  manner  oi'  the  curious 
quadrupeds  called  arinaddlos,  frequently  re- 
maining in  this  state  for  a  very  considerable 


disturbed.  Swammerdain  relates  a  ludicroiis 
mistake  of  a  servant-maid,  who,  linding  in 
the  garden  a  great  many  in  this  globular  slate, 
imagined  she  had  disco'vered  some  handsome 
initeriais  for  a  necklace,  and  betook  herself 
to  stringing  them  with  great  care;  but  on 
suddenly  perceiving  them  unfold,  was  seizetl 
with  a  panic,  and  ran  shrieking  into  the 
house. 

Tjiough  considered  as  of  but  slight  im- 
portance in  the  present  practice  of  plivsic, 
these  animals  once  maintained  a  very  respect- 
able station  in  the  materia  medica,  under  the 
title  of  millepedes. 

;.,.3.  Oniscus  aquaticus  is  a  native  of  the 
clearer  kind  of  stagnant  waters,  and  is  of  the 
general  size  and  colour  of  the  oniscus  a^ellus, 
but  of  a  more  lengthened  form,  and  with 
longer  luiibs  in  proportion ;  the  two  last  legs 
being  biiid.  This  species  is  viviparous,  and 
x)f  a  considerably  proliiic  nature. 
; .  Among  the  marine  insects  of  this  genus  the 
largest  is  the  oniscus  entomon,  measuring  two 
.inciics  in  length:  its  gejieral  form  and  colour 
■resemble  that  of  the  ojiiscus  a-ellus,  but  the 
four  lower  ptiir  of  legs  are  longer  in  pi  opor- 
tiftn,  the  three  hrst  pair  being  very  small  and 
•short ;  the  tail  is  long  and  pointed.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  European  seas,  and  is  louiid 
about  rocks,  &c.  It  is  of  a  strong  fabric,  the 
'<livi.sions  of  the  upper  part  being  of  an  almost 
calcareous  nature.  This  animal  is  capable  of 
living  siveral  days  in  fresh  water. 

ONOC'LKA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
cryptoganiia  filices.  The  capsules  are  under 
Uie  recurved  and  contracted  pinnules  of  the 
frond,  rtseinbling  pericarps.  'I'here  are  two 
sijerjes. 

.    ONONIS,  or  Ano.vis,  resl-barrozi;   i:i 
botany.     SeeAno.Nis. 


ONOPORDUM,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  syngenesia  polygamia  a'qualis.  'l"he 
essential  character  is,  calvx  scales  inucronate; 
recept.  honey-combed.  'Ihere  are  seven  spe- 
cies, one  of  them  well-known  under  the  name 
of  cotton-thistle  or  pig-leaves. 

ONOSMA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  or- 
der, in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  metliod  ranking  under  the  4lst 
order,  asperifoli:e.  The  corolla  is  campanu- 
lated,  with  the  throat  pervious:  there  are 
four  seeds.  There  are  three  species,  rock 
plants  of  the  South  of  Europe. 

ONYX,  in  natural  history,  one  of  the  se- 
mip_'llucid  gems,  with  variously-coloured 
zones,  but  none  red;  being  composed  ol 
ciy>tal,  debased  bv  a  small  admixture  of 
earth,  and  made  up  either  of  a  number  of  Hal 
plates,  or  of  a  series  of  coats  surrounding  a 
ix-ntral  nucleus,  and  separated  from  each 
other  by  veins  of  a  different  colour,  resem- 
bling zones  or  belts.  We  have  four  spe- 
cies of  this  gem:  1.  A  blueish-wliite  one, 
with  bro;id  wliite  zones.  2.  A  very  pure 
onyx,  with  snow-white  veins.  3.  Tiie  jasp- 
onyx,  or  horny  onyx,  with  green  zones.  4. 
The  brown  onyx,  with  blueish-white  zones. 
The  antients  attributed  wonderful  properties 
to  the  onyx,  and  imagined  that  if  woin  on 
the  finger  it  acted  as  a  cardiac ;  they  have 
also  recommended  it  as  an  astringent,  but  at 
present  no  regard  is  paid  to  it.  The  word  in 
the  Greek  language  signifies  nail;  the  ]xiets 
feigning  this  stone  to  have  been  formed  by 
the  Parc.E  from  a  piece  of  Venus's  nails,  cut 
affby  Cupid  widi  one  of  his  arrows.  See 
Chalcedony. 
OOLITE.  Sec  Pisolite. 
OPACITY,  in  philosophy,  a  quality  of 
bodies  which  renders  them  impervious  to  the 
rays  of  light. 

The  cause  of  opacity  in  bodies  docs  not 
consist,  as  was  formerly  supposed,  in  the  want 
of  rectilinear  pores,  pervious  every  wav  ;  but 
either  in  the  unequal  density  of  the  ])arts,  in 
the  magnitude  of  the  pores,  or  in  their  being 
filled  with  a  matter,  by  means  of  which  the 
rays  of  light  in  their  passage  are  arrested  by 
innun'.erable'  refractions  and  rellections, 
become  extinct,  and  are  absorbed. 

OPAL,  m  mineralogy:  this  stone  is  (bund 
m  many  parts  of  Europe,  cspeciallv  in  Hun- 
gary, in  the  C'rapacks  near  the  village  of 
Czenni/ka.  When  first  dug  out  of  the  earth 
it  is  soft,  but  it  hardens  and  iliminishes  in  bulk 
by  exposure  to  the  air.  The  substance  in 
which  it  is  found  is  a  ferruginous  sand-stone. 
'I'he  opal  is  always  amorphous.  Its  h-ac- 
ture  is  conchoidal.  Commonly  somewhat 
transparent.  Specific  gravity  from  1.9J8  to 
2.541).  The  lowness  of  its  specific  gravitv, 
in  some  cases,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  accidental 
cavities  which  the  stone  contains.  Thes«  are 
sometimes  filled  with  drops  of  water.  Some 
specimens  of  opal  have  the  property  of  emit- 
ting various-coloured  ravs,  with  a  particular 
elT'ulgency,  when  placed  between  the  eye  and 
the  light.  The  upals  which  possess  this  pro- 
perty are  distinguished  by  lapidaries  by  the 
epithet  Oriental;  and  often  by  mineralogists 
by  the  epithet  nobilis.  ^I'his  property  ren- 
dered the  stone  much  esteemed  by  the  an- 
tients. Opals  acquire  it  bv  exposure  to  the 
sun.  Werner  has  divided  this  species  into 
five  subspecies: 

1.  Noble  opal.     Lustre  internal,  glassy. 


O  P  A 

Colour,  usually  light  bluish-white.  Wlicn  its 
position  is  varied,  it  rellects  the  light  of  va, 
rious  bright  colours.  Brittle.  Spec  ific  gra- 
vity 2.1 14.  Does  not  melt  before  the  blow- 
pipe. When  hi-ated  it  becomes  opaque,  and 
sometimes  is  decomposed  by  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere.  Hence  it  'seeiiis  to  follow 
that  water  enters  i;ssenlially  into  its  composi- 
tion. A  specimen  of  this  variety,  ana'ysed 
by  Klaproth,  contained 

90  silica, 
10  water 

100. 

2.  Common  opal.  Fracture  impei-fecfly 
conchoidal.  Lustre  external  aj:d  iiite:nal, 
glassy  or  greasy.  Its  colours  are  ver\-  va- 
rious; milk-v.hite,  yellows,  retls,  greens  of 
different  kinds,     infusible  bv  tlie  blowpipe. 

Specimens  of  this  variety 'sometimes  occur 
with  rifts :  thc^se  readily  imbibe  water,  and 
therefore  adhere  to  the 'tongue.  Some  opals 
gradually  become  opaque,  but  recover  their 
trans|)arencv  when  soaked  in  water  by  im- 
bibing that  iluid.  They  are  then  called  hy- 
dropii.ines,  or  oculi  mundi.  The  constituen'ls 
of  the  common  opal,  as  ascertained  by  Klap- 
roth, are 


Opal  of  Kosemutz. 

98.75 
0.1 
0.1 
0.0 


98.95 


Opal  of  Telkobanya. 
93.5  silica 

1.0  oxide  of  iron 

0.0  alumina 

5.0  water. 

99.5 


3.  Semi-opal.  Coloui-s,  various  shades  of 
white,  grey,  yellow,  red,  brown,  often  mixed 
together.  Lustre  glassy,  sometimes  creasv. 
Fracture  imperfectly  conchoidal.  Brittle. 
Sometimes  adheres  to  the  tongue.  Specific 
gravity  2.540.  Infusible  before  the  blow- 
pipe. Us  constituents,  as  ascertained  by  Klap- 
roth, are, 

Senuopal  of  Telkobanya  Of  Menal-monlant. 


43.5  -  85.5  silica 

'I'.O  -  0.5  oxide  of  iron 

7.5  -  11.0  water 

1.0  alumina 

98.0  0.5  lime. 

9S.5 

4.  Ilotz-opal  or  wood-opal.  Colours,  va- 
lious  shades  orv\hite,  grey,  brown,  yellow, 
red.  I'ound  in  lai^e  pieces,  whicli  have  the 
form  of  wood.  Lustre  glassy,  sometiniej 
greasy.  Fracture  in  one  direction  conchoidal, 
in  another  exhibiting  the  texture  of  wood. 
Usually  opaciue.  Brittle.  Considered  as 
fragments  of  wood  impregnated  with  semi- 
opal. 

5.  Under  the  opal  may  be  placed  also  the 
mineral  known  by  the  name  ot  cat's-cye.  U 
comes  from  Ce_\lon,  and  is  seldom  seen  by 
r.uropean  mineralogists  till  it  has  been  po- 
lishetl  by  the  lapidary.  Mr.  Klaprotlihas 
described  a  specimen  which  he  received  in 
its  natural  slate  from  Mr.  Greville  of  Lon- 
don. Its  figure  was  neariy  sipiare,  with  sharp 
edges,  a  rough  surface,  and  a  good  deal  of 
brilliancy.  Its  le.xture  is  imperfectly  foliated. 
Lustre  greasy.  Specific  gravity  2.625  lo 
2.66.  Colour  grey,  with  a  tinge  of  greer 
yellow,  or  white;  or  brown,  with  a  '',f,i:eo( 
yllow  or  red.    In  certain  ;,o6iftons  it   re- 


O  P  H 

fleets  a  5])!eiitli(l  \v\utc,  as  docs  the  eye  of  a 

cat  :  lioijcc  the  name  of  this  stoiiP. 

Two  speciiiiens  analvscd  by  Klaproth,  the 
fir--t  from  Ceylwi,  the  oilier  fVoiii  Malabar, 
weie  coiiipo-.cil  of 

9:>.00  94.50  silica 

1,75  iJ.OO-nhiiniiia 

l.iO  l."iO  lime 

O.C'j  0.25  oxide  of  iron. 


0^!. 


98.25 

OPATKUM,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  co- 
Icoplera  order  ;  the  generic  character  is:  an- 
tdina-  nionihtorin,  tiiicker  towards  llie  top; 
liead  projecting  from  a  cavity  in  the  thora.v  ; 
thorax  a  little  tlattened,  nT:'.rgiiie<l;  shells  ini- 
niarginale,  lonu;;r  than  th..-  abdomen.  'J  here 
are  about  L'S  spe.  les  of  tins  genus. 

t)l'KKAIltJ.\.  ijeeJjuRGERY. 

OPEllATION:;;  in  chemistry.  See  Che- 
mistry. 

OPKRCULAMA,  a  genns  of  the  class 
and  ordvr  tetranilria  nionogvnia :  the  (lower 
is  coniponiid  ;  caly.x  common,  one-leafed. 
There  are  thiee  species,  insignilicant  herbs  of 
New  Holland,  ice. 

OlTiK  KI'HALUS,  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  order  dioracici ;  tin;  generic  character  is: 
head  Ciialed  with  dissimilar  scales;  body 
elongated. 

1.  Ophicephalns  punctatiis:  length  about 
ten  inches;  dorsal  tin  commencing  at  no 
gri-at  distance  from  the  head,  and  e  iniinued 
nearly  to  the  tail;  it  is  of  moderate  breadth, 
and  of  a  dusky  colour  spotted  witli  black; 
anal  (in  of  sinnlar  shape  and  colour.  Native 
of  India,  inhabiting  rivers  and  lakes,  and 
considered  as  a  delicate  and  wholesome  fond. 

y.  Ophicephalus  striatiis ;  length  about  12 
inches  ;  shape  rather  longer  than  that  of  the 
preceding  species.  Native  of  India,  inhabit- 
ing lakes,  where  it  often  grows  to  a  much 
larger  size  than  first  mentioned,  ll  is  in 
equal  esteem  as  a  food  with  the  former  spe- 
cies, and  even  reconnnended  as  a  proper 
diet  for  convale<  ents.  Native  name  wrahl. 
There  is  one  other  vpecies. 

OPIlllJill.VI,  a  geiuisof  fishes  of  the  order 
apodes  ;  the  generic  character  is :  head  some- 
what naked ;  teeth  in  the  jaws,  palate,  and 
throat ;  branchiosteaous  membrane  seven- 
raved,  patulous ;  body  ensiform. 

1.  Ophidium  barbatuin :  the  head  of  this 
fish  is  small;  ihe  upper  jaw  rather  longer  than 
the  lower,  and  both  beset  v.ith  a  great  m:'.,jy 
small  teeth  ;  tlie  lips  are  strong  and  l'.,-5hv"; 
in  the  throat  are  several  small  teeth :_  .oetwe'en 
the  eyes  and  month  are  four  smaVi  pcres.  It 
iscoinmonly  found  of  the  !ei-,gf]j  of  eigiit  or 
nine  inches,  and  sometini'is  twelve  oi-  four- 
teen; and  is  met  with  in  <il!  parts  of  t!ie  Me- 
diterranean sea,  and  in  great  i>ientv  in  tl:e 
Adriatic.  It  is  often  taken  bv  net.-'  in  Pro- 
rence  and  Languedoc  with  o'ih.-r  k'ris  of 
fish,  and  is  most  common  during  the  t,imimer 
season.  It  is  not  considered-  ?.'-  ,,n  elegant 
fish  for  the  t;;',^;^,.  tfie  '.'ies'i  bei.ig  ratiier 
coarse.     \'^  j^eik  oii  small  fislie>,  crabs,  &c. 

The  ophidium  aculeatuni,  or  pri'  kly  i, phi- 
ilium,  hihabits  the  fre  h  rivers  in  Imi.-i,  feeds 
on  worin>  and  a  fat  kind  of  earth,  is  esculent 
,-iiui  long.  See  Plate  Nat.  Ili=t.  fig.  300. 
There  are  four  snecies. 

pPlIIOGLasSUiVI,  ad^lcr'.t  tongue,  a 
genus  of  the  iiatnral  order  of  filices,  in  the 
4 


O  P   II 

cryptogamia  class  of  plants,  Tlie  spike  is 
aiiiculatcd,  (lal-,  and  turned  to  the  two  sides, 
with  the  articuli  or  joints  opening  across. 
Tliere  are  nine  species,  of  which  the  only  re- 
markable one  is  the  vulgalem,  or  common 
adder's-longue,  which  is  a  native  ci  several 
[jlaces  of  lirilaiu,  growing  in  meadows  and 
moist  pastures.  The  country-people  make 
an  ointment  ol  the  tivsh  leaver,  and  use  it  as 
a  vulnerary  to  green  wounds. 

OPHIOKIIt/A,  a  gennsof  (he  monogy- 
nia  ordeii,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants, 
ar.d  in  the  na'ural  method  ranking  under  the 
47lh  order,  stellata^.  'I'he  corolla  isTunnel- 
.dia])ed;  the  capsule  twin,  bilocular,  and 
polyspermous.  Tliere  .-re  three  species,  the 
most  ren.irkah'e  of  which  is  the  Asiaticuni,  or 
true  lignum  coiubrii.'iin.  The  root  oi  this  is 
known  in  ihe  Eat  Indies  to  be  a  specific 
agaiii-it  the  poison  >jf  that  most  dreadful  ani- 
mal <:alled  the  hooded  serpent. 

The  true  root  is  called  mungus,  for  the 
lollowidg  rea-ion:  There  is  a  kind  6l  weasel 
in  the  Ea>t  1 1. dies,  called  mungutia  by  the 
natives,  niu  go  bv  the  I'oruiguese,  and  mun- 
cas  by  the  Dutch.  This  animal  pursues  the 
hooded  serpent,  as  the  cat  does  the  mouse 
with  us.  As  fojn  as  the  serpent  appeal's,  tlie 
weasel  attacks  him;  and  il  she  chances  to  be 
bitten  by  him,  she  immediately  runs  to  find 
a  certain  vegetable,  upon  eating  which  she 
returns,  and  renews  the  figiit.  That  cele- 
brated traveller  Ka'mpfer,  who  kept  one  of 
these  weasels  tame,  that  ate  witli  him,  lived 
with  him,  ami  was  his  companion  whe'rever 
he  went,  says  he  saw  one  of  tliese  battles 
between  her  and  the  serpent,  but  could  not 
certainly  iind  out  what  root  the  weasel  look- 
ed out  tor.  But  whether  the  weasel  first  dis- 
covered this  antidote  or  not,  it  is  an  infallible 
remedy  against  the  bite  of  the  hooded  ser- 
pent.    And  this  he  undertakes  to  ascertain, 

OPHIOXYLUM,  a  genus  of  the  niQiicecia 
order,  in  the  polygamia  class  of])'.dn's,  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  '.vith  those  of 
which  the  order  is  doi.btf.,',.'  The  herma- 
phrodite cal)X  is  <iuii\.,nehd ;  the  corolla 
<iuinquefid  and  fum'.,-i^s|,';iped,  with  a  cvlin- 
drieal  neclarium  (viiliin  its  mouth.  There  are 
two  species,  jnvulis  of  the  Eiist  Indies.  ' 

OPH'V.A,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  or- 
fl^'N  ,n  the  oc!aiiih-ia  class  of  plants.  The 
i"';oTitcrum  is  bivalvular  and  trillorous ;  the 
rwollais  tetrapetalous  above;  the  berry  uni- 
locular. There  is  one  species,  a  shrub  of 
Africa. 

OPHITES,  in  church  history,  christian 
heretics,  so  called  both  from  the  veneration 
they  had  for  the  scpent  that  tempted  Ev  , 
and"  the  worship  thev  paid  to  a  real  serpent. 
Thev  pretended  that  the  serpent  was  .lesus 
Christ,  and  that  he  taught  men  the  know- 
ledge of  ^liiod  and  evil.  They  distinguished 
between  Jesus  and  Christ:  Jesiis  they  said 
was  born  of  the  ^-  irgin,  but  Christ  came  down 
from  heaven  to  be  united  with  him  ;  Je\us 
was  crucified,  but  Christ  had  left  him  to  re- 
turn to  heaven. 

OPHRYS,  tXL't/hhide,  a  genus  of  the  dian- 
dria  order,  in  the  gMiaiidna  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
7th  order,  orchidea'.  The  nectarium  is  a 
little  carinated  uelow.  Tliere  are  34  species  ; 
but  the  mo-t  remarkable  are  the  following: 
I.  'Ihe  ovata>  oval-leaved  ophrys,  or  com- 
mon twybkde,  has  a-  bulbous  trbraled  root, 


OPT 


zcjS 


crowned  by  two  oval,  broail,  obtuse,  ve  iied, 
opposite  leaves ;  an  erect,  succulent,  green 
stalk,  six  or  eight  inches  liigh,  naked  above, 
and  terminati-d  by  a  loo>e  spike  of  greenish 
flowers,  having  the  lip  of  the  nectariuin  biliih 
'J  he  flowers  of  this  species  resemble  the  figure 
of  gnats.  2.  The  spiralis,  spiral  orchis,  or 
triple  ladies'-tresscs,  with  a  clust<T  of  oval, 
pointed,  ribbed  leaves ;  erect  simple  stalk-, 
half  a  foot  high,  terminated  by  long  spikes  of 
white  odoriferous  flowers,  h.inging  to  one 
side,  having  the  lij)  of  the  nectarium  entire, 
and  crenaferi.  3.  The  nidiis-avi>,  or  bird's- 
iie.-l;  with  loose  spikes  of  pah -brown  flowers, 
having  the  lip  of  the  nectarium  bifid.  4.  The 
antliro])ophora.  man-shaped  ojilirys,  or  man- 
orchis  ;  with  spikes  of  greenish  liowers,  re- 
presenting the  figure  of  a  nakci  man  ;  tiie 
lij)  of  the  iie(  tariuin  hnear,  tripartite,  v  ith  the 
middle  segim-nt  longest  and  bifid  i  l.eri:  i> 
a  variety  with  brownish  flowers  tingrd  v/ith 
green.  5.  The  insi'ctifera,  or  insect-orchis, 
has  spikes  of  insect-shaped  greenish  flowers, 
having  the  lip  of  the  nectarium  almost  five- 
lobed.  This  wonderful  species  exhibits 
flowers  in  different  vari'ties,  that  represent 
singular  figures  of  files,  bees,  and  other  in- 
sects, ..nd  ar.-  of  dilierent  colours  in  the  vari- 
eties, fi.  The  monorchis,  or  musky  ophrys, 
with  a  loose  si^ike  of  yellowish  musky-scent- 
ed liowers. 

OPHTHAEMIA.  SeeMF.DiciVE. 

OPll'.M.  See  N.1RCOTIC  prisciplf, 
PAPAVF.n,  and  Matebja  Medica. 

OPOIiALSAMUM,  or  halm  of  Cikad,  a 
resin  obtained  from  the  amvris  Gileadensis,  a 
tree  which  grows  in  Arabia,  espec  iailv  near 
Mecca.  It  is  so  much  valued  by  the  Turks, 
that  it  is  rarely  imported  into  Europe.  Little 
is  therefore  known  of  its  composition.  It  is 
satd  to  be  at  fir>t  turbid  and  white,  and  of  a 
strong  aromatic  .smell,  and  of  a  bitter,  acrid, 
astuiigent  taste;  but  by  keeping,  it  becomes 
limpid  and  thin,  and  its  colours  change  first 
to  green,  then  to  ye'low,  and  at  last  it  as- 
sume.-  the  colour  ot  honey. 

OPOPONAX,  a  resin'obtaiued  from  the 
pastinaca  opoponax,  a  plant  which  is  a  nati\.e 
of  the  countries  round  the  Levant.  The  gum- 
resin  is  obtained  by  woimding  the  roots  of  the 
plant.  Tiie  milky  jui  e,  wlien  diied  in  the 
sun,  constitutes  the  opopoi.ax.  It  is  in  lumps 
of  a  reddisl;-yellow  colo  r,  and  wliite  wilhin  : 
taste  bitter  and  acrid.  \\'ith  water  it  forms  a 
milky  so!ut'oii.     Its  spec  ac  gravity  is  1.62. 

OPOSSUM.    S  e  Dii  fJPHis. 

OPPOSITE  SI'  .  riON.-  .  are  two  hyper- 
polas  made  bv  cutting  I'vo  oppositf  cones  by 
the  samepla'e.     See  CoNlc  Sectio.vs. 

OPPOSITI'-  'N,  in  astronomy,  is  that  as- 
pect or  situation  of  two  -lars  or  planets, 
wherein  they  are  'iametrically  opposite  to 
each  other,  or  1?0'     ui.iler. 

Opposition.  .;.  g-viictry,  the  relation  of 
two  things,  between  v.Iw'ch  a  line-  may  be 
drawn  pcrpendicJar  to  -botiv 

OPTATI\  E  MOtlD,  in  grammar,  tliat 
which  serves  .to,  express  an  ardent  desire  or 
wish  for  something.  In  the  English  language 
wc  have  ucilJter  optative  nor  subjunctive 
mood. 

OITICS,  tbe  science  which  explains  the 
properties  of  liglit. 

Optical  dcjinilions  and  principles. 

1,  Light  is  a  matter,  the  particles  of  whisb. . 


294 

are  exlrcmcly  small,  and  by  striking  on 
our  visual  organs,  give  us  the-  scnsatiun  ot 
seeing. 

2.  J'in;  parlicles  of  light  are  emitted  from 
w!)at  are  called  luminous  bodies,  Hich  as  tlie 
sun,  a  lire,  a  torch,  or  candle,  &:c.  &c.  It  is 
reliected  or  sent  back  by  what  are  termed 
opake  bodies,  or  those  whicli  have  no  power 
oi'alibrding  light  in  themselves. 

3.  Liglit,  whether  emitted  or  reHected,  a!- 
wavs  moves  in  straight  or  direct  hues,  as  may 
e.isilv  be  proved  Ijy  looking  into  a  bent  tube, 
vhich  evidently  obstructs  the  progress  of  tlie 
liglit  in  directlii.es. 

4.  By  a  rav  of  light,  is  usually  meant  the 
least  particle  of  %ht  that  can  be  either  inter- 
cej)ted  or  separated  from  the  rest.  A  beam 
ot  light  is  generally  used  to  express  some- 
thing of  an  aggregate  or  mass  of  light  greater 
than  a  single  ray. 

5.  Parallel  ra'vs  are  such  as  proceed  equally 
distant  from  each  other  througli  their  whole 
course.  The  distance  of  the  sun  from  the 
faith  is  so  immense,  tlial  rays  proceeding 
from  the  body  of  tliat  luminary  are  generally 
regarded  as  parallel. 

6.  Converging  rays  are  .such  as,  proceed- 
ing from  anv  body,  approach  nearer  and 
nearer  to  each  other,  and  tend  to  unite  in  a 
point.  The  form  of  rays  thus  tendi.ig  to  an 
union  in  a  single  point  has  been  compared  to 
that  of  a  caiuile-extinguisher;  it  is  in  Ikct  a 
pi'i'fect  cone. 

7.  Diveiging  rays  are  those  which,  pro- 
ceeding from  a  poii.-,  continue  to  recede 
from  each  other,  and  exhibit  the  form  of  aji 
inverted  cone. 

S.  A  small  object,  or  a  small  single  point 
of  ail  object,  from  whicli  rays  of  light  diverge, 
or  indeed  jnoceed  in  any  direction,  is  some- 
times called  ll-.e  radiant,  or  radiant  point 

9.  Any  parcel  of  rays,  diverging  from  a 
])oiiit,  considered  as  separate  from  the  rest,  is 
called  a  pencil  of  rays.. 

10.  The  focus  of  rays  j-s  that  point  to 
which  converging  rays  tend,  and  in  whicli 
tliey  unite  and  iiilersect,  or  cross  each  otlier. 
It  u'uiy  becoiiiideredaslheapexorpoiiitoflhe 
€-one;  and  it  is  called  the  focus  (or  lireplaci), 
because  it  is  the  point  at  which  burning- 
glasses  biu'ii  iiiost  intensely. 

;11.  The  virtual  or  imaginary  foctis  is  that 
supposed  point  behind  a  mirror  or  lonking- 
j^lass,  where  tin'  ravs  would  luivt;  n.durally 
Ainited,  had  they  nol  been  intercepted  by  tlie 
jninor. 

1 .'.  I'lane  mirrors  or  s pecnlums  are  tho'-e 
reflecting  bodies,tlie  surfaces  of  which  are  per- 
fectly plain  or  even,  such  as  our  commm 
]!ioking-g!a>ses.  Conve.v;  and  concave  mir- 
rors are  those  the  surfaces  of  which  are 
curved. 

)3.  ,\n  incidi-nt  ray  is  that  which  comes 
from  any  body  to  tlie'rellecting  surface;  the 
j-ellectiiig  ray  is  that  which  is  sent  back  or 
reflected. 

14.  The  angle  of  incidence  is  the  angle 
which  is  formed  by  the  line  which  the  inci- 
dent ray  describes"  in  its  progress,  and  a  line 
drawn  perpendicularly  to  the  reflecting  sur- 
face: and  tlie  angle  o"f  reflection  is  the  angle 
formed  by  the  same  perpendicular  and  the 
reflected  ray;  thu<,  (Plate  I.  On'.ics,  fi^.  1) 
if  /)«  isa  rellecting  surface,  and  dc  an  inci- 
dent rav,  then  d  c  I'  is  the  anghr  of  incidence, 
and  tc  P  the  angle  of  reflection. 


OPTICS. 

1 .5.  By  a  medium  opticians  mean  any  tiling 
which  is  transparent,  sucli  as  void  space,  air, 
water,  or  glass,  through  whicu  consequently 
llie  rays-ol  light  can  pass  in  straight  hues. 

16.  The  refraction  of  the  rays  of  light  is 
their  being  bent,  or  attracted  out  of  their 
course,  in  passing  obliquely  from  one  nwidium 
to  another  of  a  different  density,  and  which 
causes  objects  to  appear  broken  or  distorted 
wlieii  pan  of  them  is  seen  ui  a  dilierent  nic' 
dunn.  It  is  from  this  property  ol  light  that  a 
stick  or  an  oar  which  is  partly  immersed  in 
water,  appears  broken. 

17.  A  lens  is  a  transparent  bodv  of  a  dif- 
ferent density  Irom  the  surrounding  medium, 
commonly  of  glass,  and  used  by  opticians  to 
collect  or  disperse  the  rays  of  light.  They  are 
in  general  either  convex,  tliat  is,  thicker  in 
tlio  middle  than  at  tJie  edges,  which  co.lect, 
and  by  the  force  of  refraction  converge  the 
rays,  and  consequemly  magnify;  or  concave, 
that  is,  lliinner  in  the  middle  than  al  the  edges, 
which  by  the  refraction  disperse  the  rays  ot 
light,  and  diminish  the  objects  Uialure  seen 
through  them. 

18.  Vision  is  performed  by  a  contrivance 
of  this  kind.  The  crvstalline  Imnionr,  which 
is  seated  in  the  fore-part  ot  the  human  eye, 
immediately  behind  the  pupil,  is  a  perfect 
convex  lens.  As  theielore  every  object  is 
rendered  visible  by  beams  or  pencils  ot  light, 
which  proceed  or  diverge  from  every  radiant 
point  of  the  object,  the  crvstalline  lens  col- 
lects all  tiiese  divergent  rays,  and  causes 
them  to  converge  on  the  back  part  ofthi 
eye,  where  the  retina  or  optic  nerve  is  spread 
out ;  and  the  poKits  where  each  pencil  ot 
rays  is  made  to  converge  on  the  retina,  ^rc 
exactly  correspondent  to  the  points  of  the 
oljject  from  which  they  proceed.  As,  how- 
ever, from  tiie  great  degree  of  convergence 
which  this  contrivance  will  produce,  the  pen-  ■ 
cils  of  light  proceeding  from  the  extreme 
points  ot  tlie  object  will  be  made  to  cross 
each  other  before  they  reach  the  retina,  the 
image  on  the  retina  isjiuays  iiiverti-d.  (See 
Plate!!,  tig.  23.) 

U).  The  magnitude  of  the  image  painted 
on  the  retina  will  also,  it  is  evident,  dejjend 
Oh  the  greatness  or  obtusenesj  of  the  ansle 
under  which  the  pencil  of  r.us  iiroceeding 
from  tlie  extreme  points  of  ( lie  object  enters 
the  eye.  For  it  is  plain,  that  the  more  open 
or  obtuse  the  ancle  is,  the  gi cater  is  the  ten- 
dency of  these  ravs  to  meet  in  a  ))oint  and 
cro^s  each  other;  and  the  sooner  they  cross 
each  other  alter  jiassing  the  crystalline  lens, 
the  larger  w.ll  be  the  inverted  image  painted 
on  the  retina,  (See  Plate  II.  tig.  'J4.)  'J'he 
visual  angle,  therefore,  is  tliat  which  is  made 
by  two  right  lines  drawn  from  the  extieine 
points  of  any  object  to  tlie  eye  ;  and  on  the 
measure  of  that  angle,  the  apparent  magni- 
tude of  every  visible  object  will  depend. 

UO.  'Phe  prism  used  by  opticians  is  a  tri- 
angular piece  of  line  glass,  wiiicli  lias  tlie 
power  of  separating  the  rays  of  light. 

lliMnr:!  nfdi\cinxrit:s.  'I"he  most  antient 
hypothesis  wliich  leatts  to  the  true  tTieory  of 
liglitaudcolonrs,  is  that  of  the  Platonics,  vi/, 
that  light,  from  whatever  it  proceeds,  is  pro- 
pagated ill  right  Ihies;  and  that  w'hen  it  is 
reflected  from  the  surfaces  of  polished  bo- 
dies, the  angle  of  rellection  is  equal  to  the 
angle  of  incidence.  'I'o  this  may  be  added 
the  opinion  of  Aristotle,  who  supposed  that 


rainbows,  lialoeS,  and  mock  stim,  were  ocr«- 
sioned  by  the  leSection  of  the  sun's  beams  in 
diliereiit  circumstances.  We  have  reason  to 
believe,  that  the  use  of  convex  glasses,  both 
as  magnifters  and  as  burning-glasses,  was  not 
uiikiiov\n  to  the  antients,  though  the  theory- 
was  not  understood.  The  magnifying  power 
of  glasses,  and  some  other  optical  pheno- 
mena, were  also  largely  treated  of  by  Aliia- 
zeii,  an  Arabic  phdosopher  of  the  twelfth 
ceuturv.  These  observations  were  followed 
by  those  of  Koger  Bacon,  who  demonstrated 
by  actual  experiment,  that  a  small  segment 
ot  a  glass  globj  would  greatly  assist  the  sight 
of  oiii  persons ;  and  Iroin  tl>e  hints  alTorded 
bv  these  two  philosophers,  it  is  not  unrea- 
sonable to  conclude,  that  the  invention  of 
spectacles  p  ocecded.  Coiicerniiig  the  ac- 
tual author  of  this  nsehil  invention,  we  have 
no  certain  inibrination  ;  we  only  liiid,  that  it 
was  generally  known  about  tlie  beginniug  of 
the  lourteenth  century. 

Ill  the  year  lj7j,  Maurolycus,  a  teacher 
of  nialliematics  at  Messina,  published  a  trea- 
tise on  optics,  in  which  he  demonstrates,  that 
file  crystalline  luinioiir  of  the  eye  is  a  lens, 
which  collects  the  rays  of  light  proceeding 
from  external  objects,  and  throws  them  ou 
tile  retina,  or  0))tic  nerve.  I'roni  tins  prin- 
ciple he  was  led  to  discover  the  reason  of 
what  are  called  short  and  imperfect  sights. 
Ill  the  one  case,  the  rays  converge  too  soon  ; 
ill  the  otiier,  they  do  not  converge  soon 
enough,  ileuce  short-sighted  persons  are 
relieved  by  X  concave  glass,  wUicli  causes 
the  lavs  to  diverge  in  some  degree  before. 
they  enter  the  eye,  and  renders  it  more  diffi- 
cult lor  them  to  converge  so  fast  as  they 
would  have  done  after  entering  the  crystal- 
line humour.  Hence  too  he  prove-s  that  a 
convex  lens  is  of  use  to  persons  who  have 
weak  but  long  sight,  by  causing  the  rays  to 
converge  sooner,  and  in  a  greater  quantity, 
than  would  otherwise  hajipen.  lie  was  the 
hr^t  also  that  solved  a  problem  which  had 
ciuised  much  perplexity  in  tlie  antient 
schools,  resjiecling  llie  sun's  iiiuije  appear- 
ing loiind,  though  the  rays  that  form  it  are 
tiansmilti'd  into  a  dark  room  tlirough  an  an- 
gular aperture.  He  considered,  that  as  tiie 
rays  ot  light  are  constantly  proceeding,  in 
every  direction,  from  every  part  of  tlie  sun's 
disk,'  "  they  must  be  crossing  each  other 
from  the  extreme  part  of  it  in  every  point  of 
the  aperture  ;  so  that  every  such  jioint  will 
be  the  apex  of  two  cones,  of  which  Ihe  base 
of  the  one  is  the  suu's  disk,  and  that  of  the 
other  his  iniage  on  tlie  opposite  wall."  The 
whole  image,  therefore,  consi.-ts  of  a  number 
of  images.  Ml  of  which  are  circular;  the 
image  of  the  sun  formed  of  those  imagers 
must  be  circular  also;  and  it  will  approach 
the  nearer  a  peifect  circle,  the  smaller  the 
ajiertui  e,  and  the  more  distant  the  image. 

Nearly  about  the  same  time  Joiunnes  Ua))- 
tista  Pciria,  of  Na;:les,  invented  the  camera 
ohseura ;  and  his  experiments  U|)on  that  in- 
strument convinced  bim  that  light  is  a  sub- 
stance, by  the  iutroini.ssion  ot  v4iich  into  the 
eve,  vision  is  performed  ;  tor  it  is  p>oyerto 
iiienlion,  that  before  his  time  the  opinion  was 
almo^t  general,  that  vision  <lepended  upon 
what  w\is  termed  visual  rays,  proceeding 
from  the  eye.  In  this  the  system  of  Porta 
corresponds  nearly  with  that  of  Maurolycus: 
but  it  ought  to  be'remarkeii,  that  the  disco- 
veries ol  Ccich  of  tliese  two  philoiophovs  were 


tinlcnown  to  llie  otlipr.  ITe  sh(>vv?,  more- 
cvvr,  that  :i  clclcL-t  of  li^lit  is  rciufijR'd  by  the 
dilatation  of  the  pupil,  whitli  roiitracls  invo- 
hiiitarily  when  exposed  to  a  strong  light,  and 
opens  when  the  lii;ht  is  j'aint  and  languid. 

One  H'k-tcher,  of  I'rcslaii,  in  1671,  endea- 
voured to  aceonnt  for  the  plicnonioua  of  the 
rainbow,  by  a  douI)le  refleetion  and  one  re- 
fraclion ;  but  Antonio  de  iJoniinis,  whose 
treatise  was  pulilished  in  iGl !,  was  (he  hrst 
wlio  came  near  to  the  true  tlieory.  He  de- 
scribes tlie  ')ro!»ress  of  the  ray  of  hght  through 
eaeh  droj)  of  the  fallin';;  rain  ;  lie  shews  tiial 
it  enters  the  np|>er  part  of  the  drop,  wliere 
it  suiters  one  relraetion;  that  it  is  rene<ted 
once,  and  then  refrartid  :li>ain,  so  a?  to  come 
directly  to  tlie  eye  of  the  spectator  l  why  tin-) 
refraction  should  produce  the  different  co- 
lours, was  reserved  tor  sir  Isaac  Newton  to 
explain. 

The  latter  patt  of  tlie  .sixteenth  cc»liiry 
was  ilUistrioMs  lor  the  inv<'ntion  of  telescopes. 
It  is  gi  nerally  alloweil  to  have  been  casual. 
That  effect  of  rehaetion,  which  causes  the 
rays  of  light,  in  passin;>  through  a  dense  me- 
dium thicker  in  the  middle,  to  converge  to  a 
point,  and  also  that  whi<h  takes  place  when 
they  pass  through  one  thicker  at  the  extremi- 
ties, had  been'  long  observed  ;  and  the  a,ssist- 
ance  which  convex  and  concave  glasses  af- 
forded to  the  sight,  had  brought  ihem  into 
common  use.  'J  lie  inventor  ol  the  telescope 
is' not  certainly  knov/n.  Theinost  probable 
account  is,  that  one  Zacharias  Jansen,  a  spec- 
tach'-maker  ef  Middleburgh,  trying  the  ef- 
fect of  a  concave  and  convex  glass  united, 
found  that,  placed  at  a  certain  disUmce  from 
each  other,  they  had  the  property  of  bring- 
ing distant  objects  ap[«i:ently  nearer  to  the 
eye.  An  account  which  is  very  commonly 
received,  is,  that  some  of  his  children  playing 
in  his  shop  with  spectacle-glasses,  perceived 
that  when  they  held  two  of  these  glasses  be- 
tween their  fingers,  at  a  certain  distance  from 
each  other,  the  dial  of  the  clock  appeared 
greatly  magnihed,  but  in  an  inverted  posi- 
tion. From  this  their  father  adopted  the  idea 
of  adjusting  two  of  these  glasses  on  a  l)oard, 
so  as  to  move  them  at  pleasure.  Telescopes 
were  greatly  improved  by  Galileo,  who  con- 
^trncled  one  which  magnified  33  times,  and 
with  this  he  made  all  his  wonderful  astrono- 
mical discoveries. 

'f  he  rationale  of  telescopes  was,  however, 
not  explaiiK-d  till  Kepler,,  wlio  described  tlie 
nature  and  the  de.jree  of  refraction,  when 
light  passed  throu.;h  denser  or  rarer  mediums, 
the  surfaces  of  which  are  convex  or  concave; 
namely,  that  it  corresponds  to  tlie  diameter 
of  the  circleof  which  the  convexity  or  conca- 
vity are  iiortions  of  arches.  He  suggested 
some  improvements  in  the  construction  of  te- 
lescopes, which,  however,  were  left  to  others 
to  put  in  practice. 

To  the  Jansens  we  are  also  indebted  for 
the  discovery  of  the  microscope;  an  instru- 
lUent  dep'-niling  upon  exactly  the  same  prin- 
ciples as  the  former.  In  fact,  it  is  not  impro- 
bable, that  the  <louble  lens  was  first  applied 
to  the  observation  of  near  but  minute  objects, 
and  afterwards,  on  the  same  principles,  to 
objects  which  appeared  minute  on  account  of 
their  dibtaiice. 

Mucli  attention  was  given  bv  Kepler  to 
the  investigation  of  the  law  of  refraction  ;  but 
iic  Wis  able  io  advance  no  nearer  the  trutii 


OPTICS. 

'  than  the  observation,  that  when  the  incident 
ray  does  not  make  an  angle  of  more  than  30 
degrees  with  the  perpendicular,  the  refracted 
ray  proceeds  in  an  angle  which  is  about  two- 
thirds  ot  it.  Many  disputes  arose  about  the 
time  of  Kepler  (ItiOD)  upon  this  subject,  but 
it  appears  that  little  was  effected  by  them  in 
the  cause  of  truth. 

Kepler  was  more  successful  in  pursuing 
the  discoveries  of  Maurolycus  and  l».  Porta. 
He  demonstrated  that  images  of  external  ob- 
jects were  formed  upon  the  ojitic  nerve  by 
the  (vn  of  rays  coming  tVom  every  part  of 
the  object :  he  also  observed,  that  these 
images  are  inverted;  but  this  eircumsUmce, 
he  says,  is  rectiticd  by  the  mind,  which,  when 
an  impression  is  made  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  retina,  <'Oiisiders  it  as  made  by  rays  pro- 
ceeding from  the  higher  parts  ol  the  object. 
H.ibit  is  su;»osed  to  reconcile  us  to  this  de- 
ception, and  to  teach  us  to  direct  our  hands 
to  (hose  parts  of  oljjeets  from  which  the  rays 
proceed.  Tyi  ho  IJrahe;  observing  the  appa- 
rent diminution  of  the  moou's  disc  in  solar 
eelipseii,  imagined  that  there  was  a  real  di- 
minution of  the  di:K-  by  the  force  of  the  sun's 
rays  ;  but  Kepler  said,  that  the  disc  of  the 
moon  does  not  ajvpear  less  in  consequence  of 
bi'ing  unenlightened,  but  ratherthatita-ppeai-s 
•it  other  times  larger  than  it  really  is,  in  con- 
setjueiice  of  its  being  enliglueiied.  For  pen- 
cils of  rays  from  such  distant  objects  gene- 
rally come  to  their  foci  l>cfore  they  reach 
the  retina,  and  consequently  diverge  and- 
spread  when  they  reach  it.  For  this  reason, 
he  adds,  diffei-ent  persons  may  imagine  the 
disc  to  be  of  dil'ferent  magnitudes,  accord- 
ing to  the  relative  goodness  of  their  sight. 

ill  the  sixteenth  century  also  many  im- 
provements were  made  in  perspective ;  the 
ingenious  device,  in  particular,  of  the  refor- 
mation of  distorted  images  by  concave  or 
convex  specuhims  was-  invented,  but  it  is 
uncertain  by  whonii 

The  true  law  of  refraction  was- discovered 
liy  Snellius,  the  mathematical  professor  r.f 
Leyden;  but  not  living  to  complete  it,  tiie 
discovery  was  published  and  explained  by 
professor  Hortensius.  Some  discoveries  of 
lesser  importance  were  made  at  this  time, 
among  others  by  Descartes,,  who  verv  clearly 
exjilauied  the  nature  and  cause  of  t+ie  tigure 
pf  the  rainbow,  though  he-  was  able  to  give 
no  account  of  the  colours;  he  however  con- 
sidered the  small  portion  of  water,  at  which 
th°  ray  issues,  as  having  the  effect  of  a  prism, 
which  was  known  to  liave  the  property  of 
exhibiting  the  light,  transmitted  through  it, 
coloured. 

In  Ifi'JS,  the  curious  discovery  of  ScHeiner 
was  published  at  Home,  which  ascertains  t+ie 
fact,  that  vision  depends  upon  the  images  of 
external  objects  upon  the  retina.  For  taking 
the  eye  of  an  animal,  and  cutting  away  the 
coat>i  of  the  back  part,  and  presenting  cliffer- 
ent  objects  before  it,  he  displayed  their  images 
distinctly  painted  on  the  naked  retina  or 
optic  nerve.  The-  same  philbnipher  demon- 
strated by  experiment,  that  the  pupil  of  the 
eye  is  enlarged  in  orKt  to  view-  remote  ob- 
jects,, and  contracted  when  we  view  those 
which  are  near.  He  shewed,  that  the  rays 
proceeding  from  any  object,  and  passing 
through  a  small  hole  in  a  pasteboard,  cross 
one  another  before  they  enter  the  eye  ;  for  if 
the  edge  of  a  knife  is  held  on  the  side  next 
the  eye,  and  w  moved  along  till  it  in  part 


205 

coTer^  the  hole,  it  will  first  conceal  from  the 
eyi-  that  part  of  the  object  which  is  situated 
on  the  ojjjjosite  side  of  the  hole. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  velocity  of  light  was  discovered 
by  some  members  of  the  lioyal  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Paris,  particularly  Cassini  and 
Koemer,  bv  obsi-rvingthe  eciij.'sesof  Jiqjitcr's 
satellites.  About  the  same  lime  Mr.  Uoyle 
made  his  experiments  on  colours.  He  proved 
that  snow  did  not  alVect  the  eye  by  a  native, 
but  reflected  light,  a  circumstance  which, 
however,  at  this  day,  we  should  scarcely  be- 
lieve was  ever  necessary  to  be  |)roved  \jy 
experiment.  Hy  adnitting  also  a  ray  of  light 
into  a  dark  room,  and  letting  it  tall  on  a 
sheet  of  paper,  he  demonstrated,  that  white 
reflected  much  more  light  than  any  other 
colour;  and  to  jirove  th.d  while  bodies  rellect 
the  rays  outwards,  he  adds,  that  common 
burning-glasses  will  not,  for  a  long  while,  burn 
or  di-cok)ur white  paper;  on  the  contrary,  a 
concave  mirror  of  black  marble  did  not  le- 
flect  the  rays  of  the  sun  with  near  so  much 
power  as  a  common  concave  mirror.  The 
same  effect  was  verilieil  by  a  tile,  one  half  of 
tlie  surface  of  whicli  was  v/hitc,  and  the  other 
black. 

Some  experiments  were  made  about  this 
time  on  the  difference  ol  the  refractive  powers 
of  bodies  ;  and  the  lirst  advance  to  the  great' 
fliscoveries  by  means  of  tlie  prism  w  as  made 
by  Grimaldi,  who  observed,  that  a  beam  of 
the  sun's  light,  transmuted  througli  a  prism,. 
instead  of  appearing  round  on  the  opposite, 
wall,  exliibited  an  oblong  image  of  the  sun. 
Towards  the  close  of  this  century  the  reflect- 
ing telescope  was  invented  by  our  country- 
man James  G-regory.  it  was,  however,  only 
an  idea  conceived  ijy  him  upon  theory,  and 
the  first  reliectJng  telescope  was  made  by 
Kewton. 

The  reader  will  soon  perceive  how  verv 
imperfect  all  the  priT:<ding  discoveries  Here- 
in comparison  with  those  of  sir  Isaac  New- 
ton. Before  this  tune,  little  or  nothing  was 
known  concerning  colours;  even  the  remark 
of  Grimaldi  respecting  the  oblong  tigure  of 
the  sun,  maile  by  transmitting  the  rays- 
through  a  prism,  was  unknown  to  our  great 
philosopher,  having  been  published  only  the- 
y-e.ir  before.  This  tict,  however,  which  he 
had  observed  himself,  was,  it  appears,  the 
first  circumstance  which  directed  the  atten- 
tion ot  Newton  to  the  investigation  ot  tho' 
theoiy  of  colours.  Upon  iiieasuring  the 
coloured  image,  which  was  made  by  the 
light  admitted  into  a  daik  chamber  througti- 
a  prism,  he  found  that  its  length  was  five- 
times  greater  than  its  breadth.  So  nnac- 
countiible  a  circumstance  induced  him  to  try 
the  effect  of  two  prisms,  and  lie  found  that 
the  light,  which  by  the  tii'st  prism  was  ditlused 
into  an  oblong,  was  by  the  second  reduced  to 
a  circular  form,,  as  regularly  as  if  it  had  passed 
through  neither  of  tuem.  Atier  many  con- 
jectures and  experiments  relative  to  the  cause 
of  these  phenomena,  he  at  length  applied  to- 
them  whiit  he  calis  the  experinientuin  creels. 
He  look  two  boai\'ls,  and  placed  one  of  tl^ein 
close  to  the  window,  so  that  tiie  light  inigiit 
be  admitted  through  a  ~mall  iiole  made  in  ;t, 
and  after  passing  thiouah  a  pri>m  migit  fall 
on  the  other  board,  which  was  placed  atr 
about  tWL-lve  feet  distance,  and  in  wUieh  there 
was  al'.>y  a  small  apertiire,  iu  orilcr  tuut  soma 


290 

of  Ihs  incident  liglit  might  pnss  tlircnigU  it. 
Ri-iiiiul  lliis  lioli-,  in  till;  aecoiid  board,  he  also 
placed  *  prism,  so  tliat  the  li^lit,  after  passing 
i)o!li  tile  boards,  niigiit  siiiiir  a  second  re- 
fraction befo.e  it  veai;li(;d  tlie  wall.  He  tlieu 
moved  the  lirst  prism  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
iiv.ike  tiie  several  parts  oftiie  image  cast  upon 
the  second  board  pass  successivrly  tliroui^h 
tlic  hole  in  it,  that  In-  might  observe  to  what 
places  on  the  wall  tlie  second  prism  would 
refract  tiiem.  The  consequence  was,  that 
the  colomed  lis^ht,  which  formed  one  end  of 
the  Image,  suftVred  a  refraction  considerably 
greater  than  tiiat  at  the  oilier  end;  in  oilier 
w.?nls.  rays  or  particles  of  light  of  one  colour 
were  lound  to  lie  more  refrangible  than  those 
of  another.  'l"he  true  cause,  therefore,  of 
the  lent^th  of  the  image  was  evident ;  since  it 
was  proved  by  the  experiment,  that  light 
was  not  honiogencal,  but  consisted  of  difll-r- 
ent  particles  or  rays,  which  were  capable  of 
diil'crent  degrees  of  retrangibility,  according 
to  which  Oiey  were  transmitted  through  the 
prism  to  the  opposite  wall.  It  was  further 
evident  from  these  exjieriments,  that  as  the 
rays  of  light  dili'er  in  rofrangibility,  so  tliey 
also  dili'er  in  exhibiting  particular  colours, 
some  rays  producing  the  colour  red,  others 
that  of  yellow,  blue,  &c.  and  of  these  differ- 
ent-coloured ravs,  separatetl  by  means  of 
the  prism  according  to  their  different  de- 
greei  of  retrangibility,  the  oblong  figure  on 
the  wall  was  compo-ed.  But  to  relate  the 
great  variety  of  experiments,  by  which  he 
demonstrated  these  principles,  or  the  exten- 
sive application  of  them,  would  lead  us  too 
much  into  ilelail;  let  it  suflice  to  say,  that  he 
applied  his  principles  to  the  satisfactory  ex- 
planation of  the  colours  of  natural  bodies,  of 
the  rainbow,  and  of  most  of  the  phenomena 
of  nature  where  light  and  colour  are  con- 
cerned; anil  iliat  almost  everything  which 
we  at  present  know  upon  these  subjects  was 
laid  open  by  his  experiments. 

His  observatitins  on  the  difTerent  refrac- 
tive powers  of  dilierent  substances  are  cu- 
rious and  profound ;  but  cliemistry  was  at 
that  period  scarcely  in  a  state  sufiiciently  ad- 
vanced to  warrant  all  his  conclusions.  The 
general  result  is,  that  all  bodies  seem  to  have 
their  refractive  powers  proportional  to  their 
densities,  e.xceptmg  so  far  as  they  partake 
more  or  less  of  inflammable  or  oily  par- 
ticles. 

The  discovery  of  the  dilf  rent  rcfrangibility 
of  the  component  rays  of  light  suggested  de- 
fects in  the  construction  oi  telescopes,  which 
were  before  unthou;;ht  of,  and  in  the  creative 
lianil  of  a  Niwton  lea  to  some  no  less  extra- 
ordinary improvements  in  thein.  it  is  evi- 
dent, tliat  since  the  rays  of  light  arc  of  dilier- 
ent refrangibilities,  the  more'refrangible  will 
converge  to  a  focus  much  sooner  than  the 
less  reliangible,  consequently  that  the  whole 
beam  cannot  be  brought  to  a  focus  in  any 
one  point  ;  so  that  the  focus  of  every  object- 
glass  will  be  a  circular  space  of  considerable 
diameter,  namely,  about  one  lilty-lilth  of  the 
aperture  ol  the  telescope.  To  remedy  this, 
he  adopted  Gregory's  idea  of  a  reflector,  with 
such  improvements  as  have  bem  the  basis  of 
all  ihe  present  instruments  of  tlii--  kind. 

\\  lien  a  science  has  been  carried  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  perfection,  subsei|uent  disco- 
veries are  too  apt  to  be  <  onsidereil  as  of  little 
importance.  ')  he  real  philosopher  will  not, 
however,  regard  the  discoveries  on  light  and 


OPTIC?. 

colours,  since  the  time  of  Newton,  as  unwor 
thy  his  attention.  By  a  mere  accident,  a 
very  extraordinary  property  in  some  bodies 
of  imbibing  light,  and  afterwards  emitting  it 
in  the  daik,  was  observed.  A  shoemaker  of 
Bologna,  being  in  vjuest  of  some  chemical 
secret,  calcined,  among  other  things,  some 
stones  of  a  ])aiticiilar  kind,  which  he  found 
at  the  bottom  of  .Mount  Peleius ;  and  casually 
observed,  that  when  the^e  stones  were  car- 
rieil  into  a  tiark  |jlace,  alter  having  been  ex- 
posed to  the  light,  they  possesse*l  a  selt-ilUi- 
minating  power.  Accident  aftervvards  disco- 
vered the  same  property  in  other  substances. 
Baldwin,  of  Misiiia,  dissolving  chalk  in  aqua- 
fortis, found  that  tlie  residuum,  alter  distilla- 
tion, exactly  resembled  the  Bolognian  stiine 
in  retaining  and  emitting  light,  whence  it 
now  h;is  the  name  of  Balilwin's  phosphorus; 
and  M.  Du  l''ay  observed  the  same  property 
in  all  substai-ces  that  could  be  reduced  to  a 
laW  by  burning  only,  or  after  solution  in  ni- 
Uous  acid.  ThcaC  facts  seem  to  establish  the 
materiality  of  light. 

Some  very  accurate  calculations  were 
made  about  the  year  1725  by  Ur.  Bradley, 
which  allbrded  a  more  convincing  proof  of 
the  velocity  of  light,  and  the  motion  of  the 
earth  in  its  ol-bit.  Nor  iiiust  we  forget  M. 
Bouguer's  very  curious  and  accurate  expe- 
riments for  ascertaining  the  quantity  of  light 
which  was  lost  b\  reflection,  the  most  deci- 
sive of  which  was  by  admitting  into  a  darken- 
ed chainber  two  rays  of  lifflit,  one  of  which 
he  contrived  should  be  reflected,  and  the 
other  fall  direct  on  the  opposite  w  all ;  then 
by  comparing  the  size  of  the  apertures  by 
which  the  light  was  admitted  (that  through 
which  the  direct  ray  proceeded  being  much 
smaller  than  that  through  which  the  reflected 
ray  was  suffered  to  pass,  and  the  illumination 
on  the  wall  being  equal  in  both),  he  was  en- 
abled to  form  an  exact  estimate  of  the  quan- 
tity of  light  which  was  lost.  To  prove  the 
same  elli'ct  with  candles,  he  placed  himself  in 
a  room  perfectlvdark,  with  a  book  in  his  hand, 
and  having  a  candle  lighted  in  the  next  room, 
he  had  it  brousht  nearer  to  him  till  he  could 
just  see  the  letiers,  whiirh  were  then  2i  feet 
from  the  candle.  He  then  received  the  light 
of  the  candle  reflected  by  a  looking-glass 
upon  the  book,  and  he  found  the  whole  dis- 
tance of  the  book  from  the  sourci-  of  the  light 
(including  the  distance  liom  the  book  to  the 
looking-glass)  to  be  only  1.")  feel;  whence  he 
concluded,  that  the  quantity  of  direct  light 
is  to  thai  of  reflccled  as  .i76  to  t'-'j  ;  and  si- 
milar mclhods  were  pursued  by  him  for  mea- 
suring the  proportions  of  light  in  general. 

'1  he  specirtalions  of  -Mr.  Melvilie  coui  ern- 
ing  the  blue  shadows  which  appear  from 
opaque  bodies  in  the  morning  and  evening, 
when  the  atmosphere  is  serene,  are  far  from 
uninlcresting.  These  phenomena  he  attri- 
butes to  the  power  which  the  atmosphere 
(losse.  se^  of  rellecting  the  fainter  and  more 
refrangible  rays  of  light,  the  blue,  violet,  <Vc. 
and  upon  this  )>rinciple  he  also  explained 
the  blue  colour  of  the  sky,  and  some  other 
phenomena. 

The  same  period  produced  Mr.  Dollond's 
great  improvement  in  the  construction  of 
tt.-lescopes.  It  consists  in  using  three  glasses 
of  different  refractive  powers,  crown  and  flint 
glass,  which  correct  each  other.  The  great 
(lisjjer.sion  of  the  ravs  which  the  flint-glass 
produces,  is  the  effect  of  the  lead,  and  is  in 


proportion  to  the  quantity  of  that  meCal 
whuli  is  used  in  its  coiripo.s'ilion.  Mr.  Mar- 
tin found  the  refractive  powers  of  different 
glasses  to  be  in  proportion  to  their  specific 
gravity. 

Several  discoveries  and  improvements 
have  been  made  since  the  time  «f  New  ton  ■ 
in  that  branch  of  optics  which  relates  more 
immediately  to  vision.  One  of  these  is  not 
only  curious  in  itself,  but  led  to  the  explana- 
tion of  several  circumstances  relating  to  vi- 
sion. M.  Dela  Mottc,  a  physician  ot  Danl- 
zick,  was  endeavouring  to  verify  an  experi- 
ment of  Scheiner,  in  which  a  distant  object 
appeared  multipred  when  viewed  through 
several  holes  made  with  the  point  of  a  pin  in 
a  card,  not  further  di.^tant  from  one  another 
than  the  diameter  of  the  puiiil  of  the  eye; 
but  notwiili.sianding  all  his  labour,  he  was 
unable  to  succeed,  till  a  friend  happening  lo 
call  upon  him,  he  desired  him  to  make  the 
trial,  and  it  answered  perfectly.  This  friend 
was  short-sighted  ;  and  when  lie  applied  a 
concave  glass  close  to  the  card,  the  object, 
which  seemed  multiplied  before,  now  ap- 
peared but  one. 

The  last,  though  not  least,  successful  ad- 
venturer in  this  branch  of  science,  is  Mr. 
Delaval,  who,  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester,  in  I7S4, 
has  endeavoured,  with  great  ingenuity,  to  ex- 
Jilain  the  permanent  coluurs  of  opaque  bo- 
dies. The  m.ijority  of  those  philosophers, 
who  have  treated  of  linht  and  colours,  have, 
he  observes,  supposed  that  certain  bodies  or 
surfaces  reflected  only  one  kind  of  ravs,  and 
therefore  exhibited  the  phenomena' of  co- 
lours; on  the  contrary,  Sir.  Delaval,  by  a 
variety  of  well-conducted  experiments,  evin- 
ced, that  colours  are  <;xhibited,  not  by  re- 
flected, but  by  transmitted  light.  This  he 
proved  by  covering  coloured  glasses  and 
other  transparent  coloured  media,  on  the 
furlfier  surface,  with  some  substance  perfect- 
ly opaque,  when  he  found  they  reflected  no 
colour,  but  appeared  perfectlv  black.  He 
concludes,  therefore,  as  the  fibres  or  bases  of 
all  vegetable,  mineral,  and  aniiual  substances, 
are  fouiul,  when  cleared  of  heterogeneous 
matters,  to  be  perfectly  white  ;  that  the  rays, 
of  light  are  in  tact  reflected  from  these  white 
particles,  through  coloured  media,  with 
which  they  are  covered;  that  these  media 
serve  to  intercept  and  im|iede  certain  ravs- in 
their  passage  throi  gh  them,  while,  a  free  pas- 
sage being  left  to  others,  they  exhibit,  ac- 
cording to  tliesi"  circumstance^,  different 
colours.  This  he  illustrates  bv  the  fact  re- 
marked by  Dr.  Ilallev.  who,  in  diving  deep 
into  the  si'a,  fcund  that  the  upper  part  of  Ins 
hand,  when  extended  into  the  water  frnin 
the  diving-bell,  rellected  a  deep-red  colour, 
while  the  under  part  appeared  perfectly 
green,  'i'he  conclusion  is,  (hat  the  more 
refrangible  ra_\s  were  intercepted  and  reflect- 
ed by  paiticles  contained  in  the  sea-water, 
and  were  consecpiently  rellei  ted  back  by  the 
under  part  of  the  hand;  while  the  red'ravs, 
which  were  pcrinilted  to  pass  through  the 
water,  were  in  the  same  manner  reflei'ted  by 
the  upper  part  of  the  hand,  which  therefore 
appeared  ol  a  red  rose-cohiur.  Those  me- 
dia, our  author  thinks,  transmit  coloured 
light  with  the  greatest  strength,  which  have 
the  strongest  ri'fractive  power. 

Of  llic  iiulurr  nf  lii^ld.      Numerous  opi- 
nious  have  successively  been  adopted  con- 


ccriiiiip;  tliis  woiuleifiil  (liilil.  It  Im-;  ticoii 
Konifliiiii'!!  (-■onsiilfivil  as  d  disliiu'l  Fiibstaiu'f, 
soiiieliiiu's  as  luiiuilily,  soiiK'linifs  as  u  ciiisi', 
f'requiMitIv  :is  ail  rffccl ;  by  soiiiu  ivpardoil  as 
;i  ci)in|ioiiiiil,  aiul  I))'  iillic'iK  as  u  simpli?  sub- 
Rtauri'.  Drscartifs  ami  oilier  nhilosoiilieis 
of  high  ivpiiU',  huvi'  iiiuigiiiocl  that  ihc  scn- 
SHtioii  winch  we  ivcoive  from  hi^hl  is  to  bi* 
attril)uti'ii  eiUirrly  to  the  vibrations  of  a  sub- 
tile midiiim  or  lluiil.wirichis  ililliisi:cIlbro\H;h- 
out  till'  universe,  ami  which  is  put  into  aciiuii 
by  the  impulse  of  the  sun.  In  tiii--  view  they 
cojisuler  liaht  as  analo^^ous  to  M)uh(l,  uiru:h 
is  known  to  depend  entirely  on  tli<-  puisaliims 
of  the  air  upon  the  auditory  nerves;  and  in 
support  of  tiiis  opinion,  it  lias  !)r<ii  i;veu  lale- 
Iv  urged,  Isl,  'I'liat  son.e  didUiomh,  on  being 
rubbed  or  ciiafed,  are  Iminiious  in  the  daik. 
1,'.  'I'liat  ail  ch-ctrit  spark,  not  lai'ner,  but 
much  bfiujiter,  than  the  (lame  of  u  eamllr, 
may  be  produce<l,  and  yet  that  no  part  of  the 
electric  liuid  is  known  to  escape,  in  such  a 
case,  to  distant  places,  but  the  whole  (iro- 
ceecis  in  the  direction  to  which  it  is  desliiied 
by  the  hand  of  the  operator.  ^^  e;.ker  or 
stronger  spaiks  of  this  Ikiid  are  also  known  to 
differ  in  colour;  the  siroiifjeot  are  while,  and 
the  weake.t  red,  &c. 

To  th.s  opinion,  however,  t!,ere  are  many 
pressing,  and,  imleed,  in^lll^^ouIltoble  objie- 
tions.  1st,  1  hv  vrloi'iiy  of  souhd  beats  a 
very  small  prOi/ortion  to  thai  ol  ligiit.  Lnlit 
travels,  in  lae  space  ol  eight  mnuites,  a  di - 
taiiee  ai  which  sound  could  not  be  coiiimu- 
II  cated  in  17  years;  and  even  our  senses 
may  convince  us,  if  we  attend  to  the  explo- 
sion of  gunpowder,  &;c.  of  the  almost  inlimie 
velocity  ol  the  oiie  compared  with  that  oi  the 
other.  Sdl),  If  light  dependid  allogeiher 
on  tlie  vibrations  of  a  fluid,  no  solid  reason 
can  be  assigned  why  this  fluid  sliouid  cease 
to  vibrate  in  the  night,  since  the  sun  must 
always  all'ect  some  part  of  the  circumambient 
fluid,  and  p.oduce  a  perpetual  day.  ocily, 
The  artilice  oi  candles,  lamps,  &c.  would  be 
wholly  unnecessary  upon  this  hypothesis, 
since,  by  a  quick  motion  of  the  hand,  or  of 
a  machine  contrived  for  this  purpose,  light 
iniglit  on  all  occasions  be  easily  produced. 
4th!y,  Would  not  a  ray  of  light,  admilled 
through  a  small  aperture,  put  in  motion,  ac- 
coruing  to  this  theory,  tiie  whole  ihiid  con- 
tained in  a  chamber?  In  fact,  we  know  that 
light  IS  propagated  only  in  ligut  Uncs  ;  wliere- 
as  sound.,  wiiich  depends  upon  vibration,  is 
propagated  in  every  direction.  Sthly,  The 
separation  or  eNtcnsion  of  the  rays,  by  means 
of  the  prism,  can  never  be  accounted  for  by 
the  tlieory  ol  a  vibrating  medium,  6thly, 
'J'lie  texture  of  many  bodies  is  actually 
changed  by  exposure  to  the  light.  The 
juice  (if  a  certain  shell-lish  contracts,  it  is 
well  known,  a  very  line  purple  colour,  when 
permtted  to  imbilie  the  rays  of  tlie  sun  ;  and 
the  stronger  the  light  is,  the  more  perfect  tjie 
colour.  I'ieces  of  cloth  welted  witn  this  fluid 
become  purple,  even  though  inclosed  in 
glass,  it  the  solar  light  only  is  admitted  ;  but 
the  eti'ect  is  totally  prevented  by  the  inter- 
vention of  the  thinnest  plates  of  metal,  wiiich 
exclude  the  light.  Some  of  the  preparations 
of  silver,  as  Uma  cornea,  will  remain  white 
if  covered  from  the  light,  but  contract  a 
dark-purple  colour  when  exposed  to  it ;  and 
even  the  colour  of  plants  is  derived  from  the 
light,  since  a  plant  wiiich  vegetates  in  dark- 
ness will  be  perfectly  white.     As  colour  i% 

Vol.  II. 


OPTICS. 

imparted  by  li.a,hl,  ko  it  in  ii!.<to  de-.lrovcil  by 
il.  It  mnsl  have  lallen  within  Ihe  ohserva- 
tioii  ol  every  ivackr,  that  silki  aini  other  stulls 
of  delicate  colour.-.,  are  greatly  affected  by 
the  action  of  light.  Kxperiments  liave  been 
made  ujxiii  tlie  same  stufis  by  exposing  them 
to  both  lii-al  and  moislure  in  the  dark,  and 
also  by  e^po^illg  them  to  llie  light  in  the  va- 
cuum of  an  air-jiuinp,  and  it  was  found  by  all 
I  bene  experiment-,  that  the  change  of  colour 
was  lo  be  ascribed  to  the  action  of  light, 
"ihlv,  ^\  itii  re-pecl  to  the  emission  of  light 
bv  diamonds  and  other  stones,  it  is  easily  ac- 
lounted  for  upon  other  principhs;  and  the 
aru;uiiienls  founded  upon  the  electric  spark 
liot  being  sensibly  diminished,  will  meet  with 
a  satisfactory  solution  by  considering  the  ex- 
treme rarity  of  liglit,  and  the  niiiaUeiiess  of 
its  particles. 

It  is,  therefore,  almost  universally  agreed 
by  the  moderns,  that  light  consists  of  a  num- 
ber of  extremely  minute  particles,  which  are 
actually  projected  from  the  luminous  body, 
I  and  act  by  their  projectile  force  upon  the 
I  optic  nerve.  Concerning  the  nature  of  these 
particles,  or  rather  of  the  matter  of  which 
they  consist,  tliere  is  less  unanimity  in  the 
philosoi>hical  world. 

The  first  remarkable  property  of  light  is  its 

amazing  velocity.     In  the  -hort  space  of  one 

!  seconrl  a  panicle  of  liijlit  traverses  an  extent 

ot   170,ljt)0  miles,   which   is  so  miuh  swiiter 

I  than  the  progress  of  a  cannon-ball,  that  the 

j  light  is  enabled  to  pass  a  space  in  about  eiijht 

I  minutes  which  could  not  be  passed  with  the 

ordhiary  velocity  of  a  cannon-ball    in    less 

j  thai;  32  y'-'ars.     'Phe  velocity  of  light  is  aNo 

'  found  to  he  uniform,  whether  it  i?  original,  as 

fiom  the  Sim,  or  rcllected  only,  as  Irom  the 

planets. 

The  mode  of  calculating  the  velocity  of 
light  is  a  branch  of  astronomy.  It  will  suf- 
fice, therefore,  in  this  place  to  remark,  that 
by  mathematical  observations  made  upon  the 
transits  oi  ^'elUls  in  l7iil  and  1769,  tlie  dia- 
meter ol  the  eai  til's  orbit  was  tound  to  be 
about  1 63,636,800  geographical  miles.  AVhen, 
therefore,  the  earth  happens  to  be  on  tiiat 
side  of  her  orbit  wiiich  is  opposite  to  Jupiter, 
an  eclipse  of  his  satellites,  or  any  other  ap- 
pearance in  that  planet,  is  obser-ed  to  take 
place  15  or  16  minutes  later  than  it  wo'uld 
have  done  if  tlie  earth  had  been  on  that  side 
of  her  orbit  which  is  nearest  to  Jupiter.  From 
the  very  accurate  observations  of  Dr.  Brad- 
ley, il  appears,  that  the  light  of  the  sun  passes 
from  that  luminary  to  the  earth  in  eiglit  mi- 
nutes and  twelve  seconds. 

The  next  property  of  light  to  which  it  is 
proper  to  advert  is,  iliat  it  is  detached  from 
every  luminous  or  visible  body  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  constantly  moves  in  right  lines.  It 
is  evident  that  tlie  jiarlicles  ot  light  move 
continually  in  right  lines,  since  they  will  not 
pass  through  a  bended  tube  ;  and  since  if  a 
beam  of  light  is  in  part  iolercepted  by  any 
iiiterveiiini!;  body,  the  shadow  ot  that  hodv 
will  be  boumied  by  right  lines  passing  from 
the  luminous  body,  and  ineetiRg  the  lines 
whicli  terminate  the  interceding  body.  1 1ns 
being  granted,  it  is  obvious,  that  ihe  rays  of 
light  must  be  emitted  troni  luminous  bodies 
in  every  direction  ;  since,  whatever  mav  be 
the  distance  at  which  a  spectator  is  placed 
from  anv  visible  object,  every  point  ol  the 
surface  w  hicli  is  turned  tow  ards  liiiii  is  visible 


29; 

lo  Iiini,  wliitli  could  not  be  upon  any  other 
l)iiiiei)>le. 

'i  he  rarity  of  light,  and  the  minuteness  of 
its  pu!  tii;les,  are  not  less  remarkable  than  115 
velocity.  If  indeed  the  (Jreator  had  not 
formed  its  panicles  infinitely  small,  tlieir  ex- 
cessive velocih  would  be  destructive  in  the 
highest  degree.  It  was  ilemonslrated,  that 
hgiit  moves  about  t«o  millions  of  limes  as- 
fast  as  a  (annon-ball.  The  lorce  with  wlwTi 
moving  bodies  strike,  is  in  proportion  to  their 
masses  multiplied  by  tlieir  velocities;  and 
conse(|ueiitl\,  if  Ihe  particles  of  light  wi-rft 
emial  in  biifk  to  the  two-millior.th  part  of  a. 
grain  of  sand,  we  should  be  no  more  able  ti> 
endure  their  impulse  than  ihat  of  sand  shot 
point  blank  from  ihe  mouth  of  a  cannon. 
Ihe  minuteness  of  the  rays  of  light  is  also 
di-monslrable  from  the  facility  with  which 
they  penetrate  glass,  chryslal,  and  other  solid 
bodies,  whicii  have  their  porc-s  in  a  rectilinear 
diiectijji,  and  that  without  the  snialiest  di- 
minution of  their  velocity,  as  well  as  from  the 
( ircuinstance  of  their  not  being  able  to  re- 
move the  smallest  particle  ot  microscopte 
dust  or  matter  which  they  encounter  in  their 
|>roi;ress.  A  further  proof  might  be  added, 
tluit  if  a  candle  is  lighted,  and  there  is  no 
obstacle  to  obstruct  its  rays,  it  will  lill  the 
whole  space  within  two  miles  around  it  al- 
most instantaneously,  and  before  it  has  lost 
the  least  sensible  part  of  its  substance. 

'l"o  the  velocity  with  which  the  particles  of 
li'jht  are  known  to  move,  may  in  a  great  me.v 
sure  be  attributed  the  extreme  rarity  and 
tenuity  of  that  fluid.  It  is  a  well-know  n  fact, 
that  the  eht'ct  of  light  upon  the  eye  is  not 
in^tanlaiieous,  but  continues  tor  a  consider- 
able time.  Now  we  can  scarcely  conceive 
a  more  minute  division  ot  time  than  the  1  jOth 
part  of  a  second.  If,  therefore,  one  lucid 
point  of  the  sun's  surface  emits  150  particles 
of  light  in  one  second,  we  may  conclude  that 
tliis  will  be  sulilcieiit  to  afford  light  to  the  eye 
without  any  seeming  intennission ;  and  yet, 
such  is  the  velocity  with  which  light  pro- 
ceeds,  that  still  these  particles  will  be  at  least 
1000  miles  distant  from  each  other.  It  it  was 
not  indeed  for  this  extreme  tenuity  of  tlie  tluid, 
it  Would  be  impossible  that  the  particles 
should  pass,  as  we  know  they  do,  in  all  di- 
rections without  interfering  with  each  other. 
In  all  probability  the  splendour  of  all  visible 
objects  may  be  in  pro|-iorlion  to  the  tfreater 
or  less  number  of  particles  which  are  emitted 
or  rellecled  from  their  surlace  in  a  given 
space  of  time  ;  and  if  \vc  even  suppose  300 
particles  emitted  successively  from  the  sun's 
surface  in  a  single  second,  still  these  particles 
w  ill  follow  each  other  at  the  immense  distance 
of  abo\  e  500  miles. 

Of  the  reflcdion  ofUe;ht,  or  cainptrici.  It 
has  been  already  intimated,  ihat  lhera\3of 
lii^hl  which  proceed  from  any  hmnnons  body 
move  always  in  stiaiglit  lines,  unless  this  di- 
rection or  motion  is  clianged  by  certain  cir- 
cumstances; and  ihese  are  redection,  refrac- 
tion, .mdintledion. 

The  great  law  of  Tcllection,  and  whicli 
serves  to  explain  all  its  phenoim  i.a,  is  this, 
that  the  angle  o!  reticttion  is  always  ec;ual  to 
the  angle  of  incidence.  It  has  been  already 
intimated,  that  by  tlie  angle  ot  incidence  is 
meant  the  angle  madcj  by  a  ray  of  haht  witii 
a  perpendiciila'r  to  the  reflerlmg  .surface  at 
the  point  where  the  ray  falls;  and  byjthe 
angle  of  reflection,  the  angle  which  the  ray 


208 


jiiake?  nitli  the  same  perpemlic'ular  on  the 
other  side. 

A  ray  of  light  falling  perpendicularly  on  a 
plane  s'nrlace^  is  rellected  back  exactly  in  the 
tame  direction  in  which  it  came  to  the  re- 
tiectiii'^  surface:    rays  falling  obliquely  ob- 
serve the  general  law  of  li-tleolion,  and  (heir 
angle  of  reflection  is   exactly  equal  to  the 
angle  of  incidence.   In  Plate  I.  Optics,  fig.  !., 
_fc  IS  a  ray  of  liglit  falling  perpendicularly  on 
"the  p'ane  surface  uh,  and  it  is  retlected  back 
exactly  in  tlie  same  direction ;   ec  is  a  ray 
falling'obliqueiv  on  the  surlace  at  c,  and  it  is 
tellected   in   the  direction   cd,   making  the 
angle-  of  rellection  cd  P  exactly  equal  to  the 
angle  of  incidence  Ct-P,  a^  may  be  seen  by 
inspection  ol  tlie  figure. 
.  Parallel  rays  falling  obliquely  on  a  plane 
reflecting  surface  are  rellected  parallel,  con- 
verging ravs  are  reflected  with  the  same  de- 
gree of  ccmvergence,    and    diverging    rays 
ojuaily  diverging.      lii  other  words,    plane 
surfaces  or  iiiirro'rs  make  no  change  in  the 
previous  disposition  of  tl,e  rays  of  light. 
•  A  mirror  is  a  body,  the  surlace  of  which  is 
polished  to  such  a  degree  as  to  reflect  most 
copiously  the  rays  of  light.     Figs.   1,  2,3, 
are  nlane  mirrors:  in  fig.  2.  the  rays  db  and 
■ca,  which  are  parallel,  after  having  reached 
the  surface  ah  are  retlected,  the  one  towards 
A  and  the  other  towards  k,  and  in  both  in- 
stances the  angle  of  reflection  is  evidently 
equal  to  the  angle  of  incidence. 

The  ravs  di'and  ca  (lig.  3.)  are  conver- 
gent, and  without  the  interposition  of  the 
mirror  would  unite  in  the  point  E ;  but  being 
reflected,  tliev  unite  in  the  opposite  point  F: 
the  angle  of  reflection  with  respect  to  each 
being  still  equal  to  the  angle  of  incidence,  as 
may  be  seen  by  drawing  perpendiculars  to 
the  points  a  and  b. 

:  The  rays  ftt  and  ca^  (fig.  4.)  are  on  the 
cc.ntrary  "divergent,  and  alter  reflection  to- 
wards h  and  k,  preserve  exactly  the  same 
distance  from  each  other  as  they  would  have 
had  if  thev  had  proceeded  without  interrup- 
tion towards  F  and  E,  the  angle  of  reflection 
being  witti  respect  to  each  ray  still  e.xactly 
equal  to  the  angle  of  incidence. 

Thus  it  is  that  plane  surfaces  reflect  the 
rays  of  light;  but  the  effects  are  materially 
drCferent  when  the  surfaces  are  convex  or 
concave,  though  the  same  law  still  obtains 
with  respect  to  these.  i''rom  a  convex  sur- 
face, parallel  rays,  when  rellected,  are  made 
to  diverge;  convergent  rays  are  retlected 
less  convergent,  or  are  even  made  to  diverge 
ill  proportion  to  the  curvatine  of  the  surface 
compared  with  their  degree  of  convergence  ; 
aiiil  divergent  rays  are  reiulered  more  diver- 
cent.  Thus  it  is  the  nature  of  convex  sur- 
Sices  to  scatter  or  disperse  the  rays  of  liglit, 
and  in  evcrv  instance  to  impede  their  con- 
vergence. "Frdm  a  concave  surface,  on  the 
Kontrarv,  parallel  rays  when  reflected  are 
made  to  ccuverge ;  converging  rays  are  ren- 
dered more  convergent ;  and  diverging  rays 
are  made  less  divergent,  or  even  in  certain 
cases  may  hi:  made  to  converge. 

'I'o  understand  this  pirt  of  the  subject,  it 
is  necessary  to  be  aware,  that  all  curvilinear 
surfaces  are  composed  of  right  lines  infi- 
nitely short,  or  points ;  and  the  reader  will 
reco'llect,  that  only  those  rays  which  fall  per- 
pi'iidiciilariy  on  a  reflecting  surface  are  re- 
af-ci'Ml  back  in  llie  same  direction.  .'Vll  curves 
»r<:  arches  or  se^niciits  of  ciJcles :  if  llierc- 

3 


OPTICS, 

fore  any  curvilinear  or  spherical  surface  is 
presented  to  a  number  of  parallel  rays,  it  is 
evident  that  only  that  ray  which  strikes  the 
spherical  surface  in  such  a  direction  that  it 
would  proceed  in  a  right  line  to  the  centre  of 
that  circle,  of  which  tlie  reflecting  surface  is 
an  arch  or  segment,  can  be  said  to  fall  per- 
pendicularly upon  it,  of  which  the  reader 
may  convince  hiinselt  by  drawing  a  straight 
hue  with  a  ruler  at  any  point  of  a  given  circle 
or  curve.  All  the  rest  of  the  parallel  rays; 
therefore,  falling  on  the  spherical  surface, 
will  fall  obliquely  upon  it,  and  will  conse- 
quently be  subject  to  the  general  law  of  re- 
flection, and  tne  angle  of  their  reflection  will 
be  ecjiial  to  the  angle  of  their  incidence. 

Perhaps  the  subject  will  be  rendered  still 
plainer,  if,  pursuing  the  idea  thrown  out  in 
the  preceding  jjaragraph,  that  all  curves  are 
formed  of  a  number  ot  straight  lines  infinitely 
short,  and  inclining  to  each  other  like  the 
stones  in  the  arch  of  a  bridge,  we  present  to 
the  readi.r  the  figures  5,  (5,  7;  which  may  be 
imagined  so  many  mirrors  bent  or  inclineJ  in 
tiie  form  which  is  represented  in  the  plate. 
The  ravs  db  and  cd  (lig.  5.),  which  are  paral- 
lel, are  from  their  dilferent  points  of  inci- 
dence rendered  divergent  in  ti  and  e ;  the 
angle  of  reflection  with  respect  to  each  being 
equal  to  the  angle  of  incidence. 

In  fig.  6.  the  rays  ab  and  cd  are  conver- 
gent, and  would,  without  the  interposition  of 
the  reflecting  surface  bd,  unite  in  m;  but  ac- 
cordingfothesanieprinciple,they  now  proceed 
to  unite  in  /,  which  is  more  distant  from  the 
reflecting  surface  than  Uie  point  m  ;  and  it  is 
evident,  that  if  the  curvature  of  the  two 
branches  of  the  reflecting  surface  b  and  d 
was  greater,  they  miglit  be  rellected  parallel, 
or  even  divergent.  In  the  same  manner,  as 
in  fig.  '.,  the  rays  ab  and  cd,  which,  without 
the  interposition  of  tlie  convex  surface  hd, 
would  diverge  but  very  little  at  m,  become 
after  reflection  much  more  divergent  at  /; 
and  the  angles  of  retlection  will  be  found  in 
all  these  cases  exactly  equal  to  the  angles  of 
incidence,  if  measured  from  tiie  reflecting 
surface  produced  or  lengthened,  as  at  _/g  and 
ik. 

Let  now  fig.  S  represent  a  concave  mirror 
formed  upon  the  same  princijjles  as  those 
which  we  have  been  examining  of  the  convex 
kind.  The  rays  ah,  cd,  whicli  were  parallel 
before  reflection,  and  which  make  their  angles 
of  reflection  equal  to  their  angles  of  incidence 
(measured  for  convenience  in  this  figure  from 
the  reflecting  surface  produced),  become  evi- 
dently convergent  at  the  point  /;  upon  the 
same  "principles  in  lig.  9.  the  converging  rays 
ab  and  cd,  wiiich  would  not  have  united  be- 
fore they  reached  the  point  m,  are  now  after 
reflection  united  at  /,  which  is  much  nearer 
the  reflecting  surface,  (n  fine,  the  divergent 
rays  ai  and  erf  in  fig.  10.,  which  would  have 
become  more  divesgent  at  m,  had  they  not 
been  intercepted  by  the  reflecting  surface, 
become  convergent  after  reflection,  and  are 
found  actually  to  unite  at  o. 

Mirrors  are  formed  either  of  metal,  or  of 
glass  plated  behind  with  an  amalgam  of  mer- 
cury and  tin.  'J"he  latter  are  most  in  common 
use';  but  they  are  improper  for  optical  instru- 
ments, such  as  Jelescopes,  S;c.  because  they 
commonly  present  two  linages  of  the  same 
obicct,  the  one  vivid  and  the  other  faint,  as 
in.'i.v  be  perci.'ived  by  ))laring  the  flame  of  a 
wax-taper  before  a 


coiiunou  looking-glass. 


The  reason  of  this  double  image  Is,  that  a'-pait 
of  the  rays  are  immediately  nllected  iioiu 
the  anterior  surface  of  the  glass,  and  thus  foan 
the  faint  image  ;  while  (he  greatest  part  of  the 
rays  penetrating  the  glass  are  rellected  by 
the  amalgam,  and  form  the  vivid  image. 

From  the  principles  laid  down,  moslof  the 
phenomena  of  retlection  may  be  explained.  In 
plane  mirrors,  the  image  a|:pcars  ot  its  natu- 
ral size,  and  at  the  same  distance  behind  the 
glass  as  the  object  is  before  it.  f  o  under- 
stand periectly  the  reason  of  this,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  advert  to  the  subject  of  vision, 
as  formerly  explained.  It  will  be  remember- 
ed, that  by  the  spherical  form  of  the  eye,  and 
particularly  by  means  of  the  chrjslalline  hu- 
mour which  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  it,  the 
rays  of  light  are  converged  ;  and  those  from 
thX'  extreme  points  of  the  object  cross  each 
other,  so  as  to  form  an  inverted  image  on 
that  part  of  the  optic  nerve  which  is  called' 
the  retina.  The  apparent  magnitude  of  ob- 
jects vi'ill  consequently  depend  upon  the  size 
of  the  inverted  image,  or,  in  otlier  words,, 
upon  the  angle  which  the  rays  of  light  form, 
by  entering  the  eye  from  the  extremities  of 
any  object. 

As  therefore  the  angle  of  reflection  is  alwavs 
equal  to  the-angle  of  incidence,  it  will  he  evi- 
dent on  the  inspection  of  fig.  11.   that  the 
converging  rays  \\m,  L«,   proceeding  from 
the  extremities  of  the  object  KL,  and  falling, 
on  t!ip  mirror  ab,  are  reflected  to  the  eye  at 
e  with  the  same  degree  of  convergence,  and 
consequently  will  cause  the  image  kl  to  be 
seen   under  an  angle   equal  to  that    under 
which  the  object  itself  would  have  been  seen, 
from  the  point  i  without  the  interposition  of 
the  mirror.     The  image  apjiears  also  at  a 
distance  behind  the  mirror  equal  to  that  at 
which  the  object  stands  before  it.      For  it 
must  be  remembered,  that  objects  are  ren- 
dered visible  to  our  eyes  not  by,  a  single  ray 
proceeding  from   every  point  of  afi  object,, 
but  that  in  fact  pencils  or  aggregates  of  di- 
vergent lays  proceed  ii-om  every  j)oint  of  alL 
visible  objects,  which  rays  are  again,  bv  the 
mechanism' of  the  eye,  converged  to  as  many 
points  on  all  those  parts  of  the  retina  whee 
the  image  is  depicted.    The  point  from  which 
the  rays  diverge  is  called  the  focus  of  diver- 
gent rays ;  and  the  point  behind  a  reflecting 
surface  from  which  they  appear  to  diverge,, 
is  called  the  virtual  focus.     As  therefore  the 
angle  of  reflection  is  exactly  eijual   to  the 
angle  of  incidence,  it  is  evident  that  the  vir- 
tual focus  will  he  at  the  s.ime  distance  behind 
the  mirrur  as  the  real  locus  is  at  before  it.. 
Thus,  in  fig.  12.,  the  diverging  rays  r/i  will 
after  reflection  appear  to  diverge   from   the 
point  g  which  is  behind  tlie  mirror  ab,  and 
that  point  for  the  reasons  assigned  (viz.  no- 
alteration  being  made  in  the  disposition  of 
the  rays  but  only  in  llie  direction)  will  be  at 
an  equal  distance  behind  the  miriOr  witli  the 
luminous  point  c  before  it. 

As  every  part  of  tlic  image  appears  at  a 
distance  behind  the  minor  etpial  to  that  at 
which  the  object  stands  before  it,  and  as  the 
object  K  I.  (fig.  11.)  is  inclined  or  oi.toftl'.e 
vertical  position,  the  image  kl  appears  also 
inclined.  Hence  it  is  evident,  that  to  exhi- 
bit objects  as  they  are  without  iny  degree  of' 
distortion,  looking-glasses  should  be  alwavs 
hung  in  a  vertical  position,  that  is,  at  riglit 
angles  with  the  floor  of  the  apartment. 
U  is  clear,  however,  from  v.liat  has  pr«» 


VfAcJ,  llio.l  the  case  must  be  very  dilTerolit 
Willi  Uiom;  mirrois,  the  siirlaces  ol'  which  ari' 
s[)lu:ric;il,  whether  convex  or  concave.  C)l 
liie  former  it  iias  been  shewn  thai  llieir  pru- 
iierly  is  to  scatter  and  disperse  the  rass  of 
ii^ht,  to  render  those  divergent  wliich 'were 
parallel,  to  diniinisli  the  coiivergCi)ce  of  con- 
verging rays,  and  to  angmcut  the  divergence 
uf  those  which  diverged  before.  'I'lie  lirst 
obvious  el'fect  of  these  mirrors,  tlicreibre, 
nuisl  be  to  exhibit  the  image  of  tlie  object 
which  is  op|)osed  to  them  smaller  than  it  is 
in  reality.  For  the  angle  under  which  the 
vays  strike  the  eye  of  the  observer,  mnst  ne- 
cessarily be  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  con- 
vexity of  the  mirror.  Suppose,  for  in.->tance, 
the  object  CU  (tig.  !.>.)  placed  before  the 
convex  mirror  ah;  the  two  rays  Cr  and  \)d, 
which  proceed  from  the  extremities  of  the 
object,  and  which,  without  the  interposition 
■of  the  mirror,  would  converge  at  _/',  are  re- 
ilecled  less  conn.-rgent,  and  ujiite  at  /,  form- 
ing an  angle  much  more  acute  than  tliey 
would  otherwise  have  done.  The  conse- 
ijuence,  therefore,  of  the  visual  angle  being 
to  much  more  acute,  is,  that  the  image  gh  is 
proportionably  smaller  than  the  object  it- 
«elt. 

The  second  cffwct  of  this  dispersion  of  the 
rays  is,  that  the  image  appears  at  a  less  dis- 
tance behind  the  glass  than  it  would  have 
<lone  in  a  plane  mirror.  To  understand  tliis 
cflVcl,  it  IS  necessary  again  to  advert  to  a 
piuiciple  of  optics  which  has  been  just  stated, 
viz.  that  objects  are  rendered  visible  not  by  a 
single  ray  of  light  jiroceeding  from  every 
point  of  the  object,  but  that  trom  evtry  mi- 
nute point  of  the  surface  of  every  visible  ob- 
ject pencils  of  divergent  rays  proceed,  which 
are  again  converged  on  the  retuia  of  the  spec- 
tator's eye. 

Suppose  then  G  (fig.  14.)  a  luminous  point 
of  any  visible  object,  from  which  a  pencil  of 
divergent  rays  jiroceed,  and  fall  upon  the 
convex  mirrors/):  these  rays,  agreeably  to 
the  nature  of  these  mirrors,  are  rellected  more 
<4ivergent,  and  have  their  fictitious  point  of 
re-union  (or  virtual  focus)  g  much  nearer  to 
the  eye  and  to  ihesiu'face  of  the  mimr,  than 
they  would  otherwise  have:  The  image, 
therefore,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  ligure,  In- 
stead of  being  at  a  distance  behind  the  mirror 
ecpial  to  the  di5tanc;e  at  which  the  object 
stands  before  it  (as  would  be  the  case  in  a 
plane  mirror),  will  appear  at  a  smaller  dis- 
lance,  and  this  distance  will  always  be  dimi- 
nished in  proportion  to  the  convexity  of  the 
niirnir. 

l"'or  the  same  reasons  an  object  of  a  certain 
si/e,  placed  either  perpendicularly  oroblic|Ui!- 
ly  before  a  convex  mirror,  will  necessarilv 
appear  curved  or  bent,  because  the  difCereiit 
points  of  the  object  are  not  at  ecjual  distances 
from  the  surface  of  the  mirror.  All  these 
elJ'ects  will  be  very  apparent  from  inspecting 
one  of  those  small  glass  globes,  lined  with  the 
common  amalgam  for  making  looking-glasses, 
\vhich  are  sonu:tlmes  suspended  in  old-fashion- 
ed apartments.  In  these  the  eoiiipanV  seated 
in  the  room  or  round  the  table,  are  repre- 
sented by  very  minute  images,  which  appear 
not  at  a  certain  distance  behind  as  in  plane 
looking-glasses,  but  very  near  the  surface  of 
the  minor,  and  ulwavs  in  some  degree  curved 
or  distorted. 

The  effects  and  phenomena  of  concave' 
miiTors  will  obviously,  from  wliat  has  been 


OPTICS. 

said,  be  the  direct  contrary  lo  those  of  llie 
convex  kind.  The  snrlace  of  concave  mir- 
rors is  generally  spherical  (or  in  in  the  form 
of  a  globe) ;  though  that  is  not  always  the 
most  convenient  form  for  optical  purposes, 
but  it  is  that  which  is  least  difiicitll  lo  the 
workmen. 

Tlie  general  (jfl'ect  of  concave  mirrors  is, 
we  Irave  already  seen,  to  render  the  rays 
more  convergent,  'i'he  point  in  which  the 
conveig(,-d  rays  unite  is  called  the  focus  of 
amverging  rays;  but  this  focus  cannot  be 
the  same  for  all  the  rays  incid.iut  oii  a  ccm- 
cave  surface.  The  parallel  rays  ah,  cle  (tig. 
15.),  are  converged  by  the  mirror  at  the  point 
I'',  whicli  is  distant  from  the  mirror  one-fourth 
p.irt  of  the  diameter  of  that  circle,  of  which 
the  mirror  is  a  part  or  section  ;  and  this  is  the 
point  which  is  called  the  focus  of  parallel 
rays,  and  it  is  the  real  or  principal  focus  of 
the  mirror.  'I'he  convergincr  ravs/g,  /«',  are 
rellected  upon  tlie  same  piinciple^  more  con- 
vergent, and  uiiiti-  at  the  point  K,  nearer  to 
the  surface  of  the  mirror  than  the  principal 
focus.  In  tine,  the  divergent  rays.Hm  and 
Ko,  which  proceed  from  the  point"  \\.  bevond 
the  principal  focus,  unite  ut  the  point  P."  lUit 
it  Die  point  of  divergence  was  nearer  the 
mirror  than  the  principal  focus,  as  for  in- 
stance at  K,  they  would  still  be  rellected  di- 
vergent, and  would  proceed  one  towards _/' 
and  the  other  towards  /(. 

Plane  and  convex  mirrors  exhibit,  as  has 
been  already  mentioned,  the  image  behind 
the  glass  or  mirror,  and  in  a  situation  con- 
formable to  that  of  the  object;  but  concave 
mirrors  shew  the  image  behind  when  the  ob- 
ject is  placed  between  the 'principal  focus  and 
the  mirror,  and  then  the  image  is  larger  than 
the  object.  Let  AB  (fig.  16.)  be  the  object 
placed'  before  the  concave  mirror  EF,  "and 
nearer  to  the  mirror  than  its  principal  focus. 
The  two  pencils  of  rays  Ac,  Hf,  which  pro- 
ceed from  the  extremities  of  the  object,  and 
which,  without  the  interposition  of  the  mir- 
ror, would  converge  at  d,  are  reflected  more 
converging,  and  "unite  at  1);  and  making  an 
angle  greater  or  more  obtuse  than  they  would 
otherwise  have  done,  the  image  tib  is  conse- 
(juently  greater  than  the  object. 

'i'his  image  too  appears  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance behind  the  mirror  than  the  object  is  at 
before  it.  'J'lie  reason  of  this  will  appear,  if 
we  suppose  A  (fig.  17.)  a  point  of  any  object 
placed  nearer  to  the  mirror  than  the  princi- 
pal focus  F,  whence  a  pencil  of  divergent  rays 
proceed,  and  falling  on  the  mirror,  are  (ac- 
cording to  the  principles  before  laid  down) 
reflected  less  divergent,  and  consecjuently 
have  their  virtual  or  imaginary  focus  at  a 
greater  distance,  than  if  the  object  had  been 
placed  before  a  plane  mirror. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  object  is  placed 
farther  from  the  mirror  than  the  principal  lo- 
cus, as  for  instance  at  e,  the  rays  ch,  cd,  being 
only  moderately  divergent  when  they  come 
in  contact  with  the  mirror,  are  rellected  con- 
vergent, and  will  represent  at  E  an  image  of 
the  object.  If  the  eye,  therefore,  is  with- 
drawn to  a  sufficient  distance  (to  o  for  ex- 
ample) for  the  rays  to  cross  ench  other,  it 
will  perceive  the  image  suspended  in  the  air 
at  E  between  the  mirror  and  itself.  The  rea- 
son of  this  depends  upon  what  hasbeen  already 
stated.  Every  ohject  is  rendered  visible  to 
us  by  pencils  of  divergent  rays  from  every 
Ppii 


'■i'J-J 

point  of  that  object ;  It  therefore  ceases  to  be 
visible  il  these  rays  are  converged  to  a  point, 
ancl  this  happens  when  the  object  is  not 
nearer  lo  the  mirror  than  the  principal  focus. 
To  rentier,  therefore,  an  object  thus  ^it-^iated 
visible,  it  is  necessary  that  the  eye  sliouki  re- 
cede so  far  beyond  the  place  of  the  image  E, 
as  lo  allow  the  rays  lo  cross  each  other,  and 
meet  the  eye  in  a  state  of  divergence. 

''llie  image  is  in  this  case  always  inverted. 
.Such  is  the  image  In  of  the  object  AI5  (lig. 
18.).  I'rom  this  property  of  the  concave  re' 
Hector  lo  form  the  image  of  an  object,  ia 
these  cases,  before  the  rellector,  many  de- 
ceptions have  bei  n  produced,  lo  the  "great 
surprise  of  tlie  ignorant  spectator.  He  is 
made  to  see  a  bottle  half-full  of  wati-r  invert- 
ed in  the  air  without  losing  a  drop  ot  its  con- 
tents; as  he  advances  into  a  room,  he  is 
tempted  to  exclaim  with  Macbeth,  "  Is  thii 
a  dagger  that  I  see  before  mer''  and  when  h« 
attempts  to  grasp  it,  it  vanishes  into  the  air. 

A  variety  of  similar  appearances  may  be 
represented,  which  are  all  produced  by  nieans 
of  a  concave  mirror,  having  an  object  be- 
fore it  stroiiRly  illuminated,  care  being  taken 
that  only  the  rays  of  light  reflected  from 
the  object  shall  fail  upon  the  concave  reflect- 
or, placed  in  sticli  a  manner  that  the  image 
shall  be  in  the  middle  of  the  adjoining  room  ; 
or,  if  in  the  same  room  w  ith  the  object  and 
reflector,  a  screen  must  be  placed  so  as  to 
prevent  the  spectator  from  discovering  them. 
A  hole  is  then  made  in  the  partition  betweeii 
the  two  rooms,  or  in  the  screen,  through 
which  the  rays  pass  by  which  the  image  i« 
formed.  The  spectator  then,  when  he  casts 
his  eyes  upon  the  partition  of  the  screen, 
will,  in  certain  situations,  receive  the  ravj 
coming  through  this  small  aperture.  He  will 
see  the  image  iormed  in  the  air;  he  will  have 
no  idea,  if  not  previously  acCjuainted  with  op- 
tics, of  the  nature  of  the  deception  ;  and  may 
either  be  amused,  according  to  the  inclina- 
tion of  his  friends,  with  tempting  fruit,  or  b« 
terrified  at  the  sight  of  a  ghastly  apparition. 

Since  it  is  the  property  of  a  concave  mirror 
to  cause  those  rays  which  proceed  in  a  paraU 
lei  direction  to  its  surface,  lo  converge  to  a 
focus  ;  and  since  the  solar  rays,  from  the  im- 
mense distance  of  that  body,  may  be  consi- 
dered as  parallel ;  concave  mirrors  prove  very 
useful  burning-glasses  :  and  the  focus  of  paral- 
lel rays,  or  principal  focus,  is  their  focus  or 
burning-point. 

Cylindrical  mirrors,  such  as  that  represent- 
ed in  lig.  19.  are  employed  more  for  the  pur- 
pose of  amusement  than  of  philo.sophy.  1  iiey 
are  called  mixed  mirrors,  because  lliey  pro- 
duce at  the  same  instant  tlie  effects  of  plai"n 
and  of  convex  mirrors.  Suppose,  for  instance, 
GF  (fig.  20.)  to  be  the  height  of  such  a  mir- 
ror, and  AE  an  object  placed  before  or  rather 
below  it;  all  the  rays  which  proceed  from 
the  points  A,  B,  C,.l),  E,  falling  on  the  sur- 
face CJF  of  the  mirror,  and  reflected"  to  the 
ey  e  at  O,  wiH  represent  the  images  of  these 
different  points  at  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  as  they  woulcj 
be  represented  ia  a  plane  mirrcjr ;  and  w  ith 
respect  to  tliese,  the  diinemions  of  the  object 
will  not  be  altered  in  the  corresponding  image. 
But  since  .the  mirror  is  also  curved,  if  we  sup- 
pose the  space  (;,  t,y,  (fig.  21.)  lo  represent 
a  part  of  its  circuniferelice,  tlie  rays  Aq,  Lr, 
M.J,  N/,  O.r,  P;,  Ft/,  being  reflected  to  the 
eye  at  Z,  will  exhibit  all  iliese  poiuts  A,,l, 


300 

M,  K,  &<••  witWn  the  spaces/;  wliicli  will  in 
this  direction  diniini-h  considerably  the  di- 
mensions of  the  image,  accordiiu;  to  the 
principles  already  explained  in  treating  ot 
the  convex  mirror,  viz.  by  diminishing  the 
convergence  of  rays,  and  consequently  re- 
ducing the  size  of  the  image  in  proportion  to 
the  convexity.  In  the  cylindrical  mirror,  it 
must  be  ob;erved,  that  it  is  in  the  breadth 
ouly  that  this  diminution  takes  place.  1  he 
sauie  will  take  place  with  respect  to  all  thg 
pomts  of  the  object  wh'ch  are  visiljle  withm 
the  lines  BQG.CRH,  DTI,  ESK,  concen- 
-tric  to  the  surface  of  the  mirror.  1  hese  parts 
must  therefore  be  very  much -extended  in 
the  drawing  or  design,  if  a  perfect  ima^e  is  to 
be  represented  iu  tiie  mirror.  Dittortea 
diawings  of  this  kind  are  common  i:)  the 
shops  of  the  opticians,  whicli,  on  a  cylindri- 
cal mirror  being  placed  on  the  board  or  d;a  v- 
•ing,  dispUv  perfect  figures.  The  principle 
of  the^e  will,  however,  be  very  easily  under- 
stood from  what  has  been  now  stated. 

The  conical  minor  is  represented  in  hg. 
22,  and  tliis  is  also  considered  as  a  mixed 
"mirror;  for,  as  well  as  the  cylindrical,  it  pro- 
duces at  once  the  effects  of  a  convex  and  a  ^ 
plane  mirror.  Suppose,  for  instance,  the  | 
angle  CKF  (fig.  2.3.)  to  represent  this  mir- 
rw,  and  the  lines  CK,  FK,  two  of  the  right  ^ 
lines  which  compose  it.  These  tv/o  hues 
would  tlien  answer  to  two  plane  mirrors  in- 
clined towards  each  other:  and  the  rays  pro- 
'ceeding  from  the  points  ABC,  filling  on 
tiie  surface  at  g,  It,  i,  and  reilected  to- 
,  wards  the  eye  at  O,  would  represent  these 
points  as  if  at  the  base  of  the  mirror  in  the 
opposite  order  «,  b,  c  ;  and  tlie  same  obser- 
vation will  apply  to  the  points  D,  E,  F,  which 
are  represented  "at  il,  e,f,  as  well  as  all  tho^e 
which  are  in  the  circles  AHD,  BIE,  CGh. 
But  as  tiiere  do  not  proceed  from  each  point 
simple  rays  of  light,  but  pencils  of  rays,  they 
are  modiiied  in  this  mirror  upon  the  same 
.jM-inciples  as  in  the  convex  mirror;  and  coii- 
sequeiitly  the  image  will  appear  smaller  tlian 
tlie  object,  and  nearer  to  the  eye,  tlian  in  the 
plane  mirror. 

■  lleivce  it  will  be  evident,  that  we  may  see 
in  the  centre  tiie  image  of  whatever  is  painted 
on  the  exterior  circumference  AHD,  and  the 
"extremities  of  the  imag.'  will  be  formed  from 
the  interior  circle  CGF;  and  as  the  curva- 
ture or  convexity  of  the  mirror  is  greater  to- 
'wards  the  apex  or  point  of  the  cone,  it  fol- 
lows, that  that  which  is  the  most  extended  iu 
the  obiert  will  be  the  most  compress.-d  or 
TOiiceiitrated  in  the  image.  Thus  the  dark 
part  of  the  board  (!ig.  24.)  is  intended  to  re- 
present in  the  mirror  an  ace  of  sjjades;  and 
■the  points  a,  h,  c,  d,  e.f,  a:,  &c.  which  are 
neart-^t  to  th^-  mirror,  form  the  outer  circuni- 
ference  of  the  image;  and  the  points  1,  2,  3, 
4.  5,  6,  7,  8,  of  the  external  circumference 
of  the  board,  unit.;  in  the  centre  of  the  image 
at  an  alin:)st  imperceptible  point. 

Of  the  rrfructinn  nj  lii^lit,  or  diopina. 
It  has  been  proved  that  light,  like  every 
known  substance,  is  subject  to  the  laws  of  at- 
traction ;  it  has  been  intimated  too,  that  even 
its  propensity  to  move  in  a  direct  line  is,  in 
ixTtain  cuics,  overcome  by  this  superior  in- 
tlii'<nce  ;  and  that  the  direc'tion  of  the  rays  of 
light  is  changed  in  paiiing  from  one  medium 
to  another.  Tlv-  space  in  which  a  ray  of 
liglit  moves  is  called  a  medium ;  whether  pure 
Hpuce,  air,  water,  glass,  or  any  other  trans- 
8' 


OPTICS. 

parent  substance ;  and  when  a  ray  is  bent 
out  of  its  natural  course  in  na.-ing  from  one 
medium  to  another,  it  is  said  to  be  refracted 
or  broken,  probabW  from  the  broken  appear- 
ance which  a  stall,  &c.  exhibits  when  part  of 
it  is  immersed  in  water. 

There  are  two  circumstances  essential  to 
refraction  :  1st,  That  the  rays  of  light  shall 
pass  out  of  one  medium  into  a.iodier  of  a  dil- 
ferent  density,  or  of  a  greater  or  less  degree 
of  resistance.  2dly,  That  tliey  pass  m  an 
oblique  direction. 

The  denser  the  refracting  medium,  or  that 
into  which  tlie  ray  passes,  is,  the  greater  \yill 
be  its  refracting  power  ;  aiid  of  two  refracting 
mediums  of  the  same  densitv,  that  which  is  of 
an  oily  or  inflammable  nature  will  have  a 
greater  refracting  power  than  the  other. 

The  angle  of  refraction  depends  on  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  rays  falling  on  tlie  refracting 
su.-face  being  such  always,  that  the  sine  ot  the 
incident  angle  is  to  the  sine  of  the  retracted 
angle  in  a  given  proportion. 

The  incident  angle  is  the  angle  made  by  a 
ray  of  lighi,  and  a  hue  drawn  perpendicular  to 
the  refracting  surface,  at  the  point  wiiere  the 
light  enters  the  suriace ;  and  the  refracted 
ang-le  is  the  angle  made  by  the  ray  in  the  re- 
fracting medium  with  the  same  perpendicular 
produced.  Tiie  sine  of  the  angle  is  a  line 
which  serves  to  measure  the  angle,  being 
drawn  from  a  point  iii  one  leg  perpendicular 
to  the  other. 

In  passing  from  a  rare  into  a  dense  medi- 
um, or  from  one  dense  medium  into  a  denser 
medium,  a  rav  of  light  is  refracted  toward:; 
the  perpendicular,  that  is  so  that  the  angle  of 
refracuon  shall  be  less  than  the  angle  of  inci- 
dence ;  on  the  contrary,  in  passing  from  a 
dense  medium  into  a  r"  re  medium,  or  trom 
one  rare  iw.-dium  into  a  rarer,  a  ray  ot^  light 
is  refracted  from  the  perpendicular.  Thus, 
iu  passing  from  eriiptv  space  into  air.  or  any 
other  medium  whatever,  the  ray  is  bent 
towards  the  perpendicular ;  and  in  pasMiig 
from  any  other  medium  into  pure  space,  it  is 
bent  the.  contrary  way,  that  is,  from  the  per- 
pendicular;  the  same  effects  will  take  place 
in  [lassing  from  air  into  glass,  and  from  glass 
into  air,  &c. 

To  render  this  perfectly  clear,  let  us  have 
recourse  to  lig.  25.  If  a  ray  of  light  pG 
passes  from  air  to  water,  in  the  direction 
pG,  perpendicular  to  the  plane  D(/,  which  se- 
parates the  two  mediums,  it  sulier?  no  re- 
fraction, because  one  of  the  essentials  is 
wanting  to  that  effect,  viz.  the  oblitputy  ot 
the  incidence. 

But  if  a  ray  AG  passes  obliquely  fro'u  air 
into  water,  instead  of  continuing  its  course  in 
tiie  direct  line  GR,  it  takes  the  direction  C'rrt, 
and  approaches  the  perpendicular;  P.  in  such 
a  manner  that  tlie  augl  '  of  reliacl;-;n  l'G«  is 
less  than  its  angle  of  incidence  pGA. 

If  the  ray  came  in  a  more  oblique  direc- 
tion, the  retraction  would  be  still  greater  ;  so 
I  that  in  all  cases    where  the  mediums  are  the 
I  same,  the  angle  of  refraction  will  alwaysbe 
'  found  la  bs  ar  a  regular  and  constant  propor- 
I  tion  to  the  angle  of  incidence ;  <>r,  to  spe;;k 
in  technical  language,  the  sine  of  incidence  is 
to  the  sine  of  reYraclioii  in  a  given  ralio,_and 
,  this  ratio  is  discovered  by  cxiierieuce.  '{"hiis, 
I  wliei\a  ray  passes  out  ot  air  into  water,  the 
ralio  is  as  i  to  .3, 


out  of  water  into  air,  as  3  to  4. 
air  info  glass,  as  3  to  2. 
glass  into  air,  as  2  to  3. 
air  into  diamond,  as  5  to  2. 
diamond  into  air,  as  2  to  5. 
The  refraction  of  light  is  attributed  by  sir 
Isaac  Neutonto  the  principle  of  attraction; 
and    perliaps  one    of  the   most  satisfactory- 
proofs  ot  this  theory  is  thi^  known  fact,  that 
the  change  in  'he  ciirection  of  die  rav  com- 
mences, not  when  it  comes  in  contact  with 
tiie  refrai  ting  medium,  but  a  little  before  it 
reaches  the  surface,  and  the  incurvation  aug- 
ments in  piopoition  as  it  approaches  this  me- 
dium.    Indeed  no  principle  will  account  for 
the  phenoinenoii  of  hglil  passing  more  easily, 
that  is,  more  directly,  througha  dense  thaa 
through  a  rare  medium,  but  that  of  altrac-, 
tion ;    since  it  is  tbiuid  by  univer^dl  experi- 
ence, that  the  attraction  'of  all  bodies  is  ui 
proportion  to  their  densities. 

In  passing  from  a  dense  into  a  rare  medi- 
um, however,  there  is  a  certain  degree  of  ob- 
liquity at  which  the  refraction  is  changed 
into  rellection.  In  other  words,  a  ray  of 
light  will  not  pass  out  of  a  denae  into  a' rare 
medium,  it  the  angle  of  incidence  exceeds  a 
certain  hmit,  but  will  -  be  reflected  back. 
Thus  a  ray  of  light  will  not  pass  out  of  glass 
into  air,  if  llu  angle  of  incidence  exceeds  40" 
11;  or  out  of  glass  into  water,  if  the  angle  of 
incidence  exceeds  jt)^  20. 

As  the  rays  of  light,  in  passing  from  a  dense 
medium  to  a  rarer,  are  refracted  from  tlie 
perpendicular,  in  fact  are  bent  or  inclined 
towards  the  eye  of  the  spectator,  who  looks 
at  an  oiiject  in  the  denser  medium  while 
standing  at  its  side,  the  reason  will  be  clear 
why  the  bottom  of  a  river  appears  to  us 
nearer  than  it  really  is.  If  the  spectator 
stands  on  a  bank  just  about  the  level  of  the 
water,  it  is  about  one-third  deeper  than  it  ap- 
pears ;  and  why  an  oar,  partly  in  and  partly 
out  of  the  water,  seems  broken.  Let  Quo 
(fig.  20.)  represent  an  oar,  the  part  ;;()  being 
out  of,  and  the  p.irt  no  being  in,  the  water  ; 
the  rays  diverging  from  o  will  a[)pear  to  <li- 
verge  from  b  nearer  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  evein'  point  in  no  will  be  found 
nearer  to  the  surface  than  its  real  place,  and 
the  part  no  will  apjiear  to  make  an  angle 
with  the  part  Qrt.  On  this  account  also,  a 
fish  in  the  water  appears  much  nearer  the 
surface  than  it  actually  is ;  and  a  skilful 
marksman,  in  shooting  at  it,  will  -aim  con- 
siderably below  the  place  which  it  seems  to 
occupy. 

(In  the  same  principle  a  common  experi- 
ment is  explained.  Put  a  shilling  into  a  ba- 
son, and  walk  b.ick  from  it  till  the  shilling  is 
just  obscured  by  the  side  of  the  bason;  then 
by  pouring  water  inio  the  bason,  the  shilling 
instantly  appears;  for  by  what  has  been  said 
above,  the  object,  being  now  in  a  denser  me- 
ditim,  is  made  to  appear  nearer  to  its  surface. 
As  the  refraction  must  in  all  cases  depend 
on  the  obliquity  of  the  ray,  that  part  of  any 
bodv  which  is  most  immersed  will  seem  to  be- 
pios'l  materially  altered  by  the  refraction. 
When,  however,  the  object  extends  to  no- 
gieat  depth  in  tiie  water,  the  figure  is  not  nia- 
terially  distorted;  but  if  the  object  is  of  a 
'onsiderabU:  size,  or  extends  to  a  great 
.tleplli,  tliase  rays  which  proceed  from  thc- 
!Uor(-  (li>taiit.extremilies  come  in  a  more  ob- 
lique direction  on  their  eiiier^entc  into  the 


air,  an<l  tlier  consernicntly  siiflV'r  a  grcatfr 
refraction  than  tlie  il.sI.  T  Inis  a  stmiglit 
leaden  pipi-  appears  ir.'ar  the  l)oltoni  of  a 
deep  water  to  Ije  curved,  an<l  a  flat  bason 
seems  deeper  in  the  niiiklle  than  near  tlie 
sides. 

To  tliesc  laws  of  refraction  is  to  he  attri- 
buted tlic  dilference  between  the  real  and  the 
apparent  risin;^  ot  tlie  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
above  I  he  liurizon.  'I'he  horizontal  refrac- 
tion is  something  more  than  halt  a  degree, 
whence  the  snn  and  moon  appear  above 
itiie  horizon  when  they  are  entirely  below  it. 
From  the  horizon  the  refraction  continually 
decreases  to  the  zi'nith.  Refraction  is  in- 
creased by  the  diaisityol  the  air.  and  conse- 
quently it  is  gre.ileriii  culd  countries  than  in 
liot ;  and  it  is  also  affected  by  tiie  degree  of 
cold  or  heat  in  the  same  country. 

Parallel  rays,  if  refracted,  preserve  their 
parallel  diretliuii  b'th  m  entering  and  in 
passing  out  of  a  reifaciuif^  medium,  [irov  di'd 
the  two  surfaces  of  the  refracting  medium  are 
parallel.  'l"he  tw  >  rays,  EA,  EA,  (fig.  ■21.) 
after  relraction,  .  hile  the)  approach  the  per- 
pendiculars pp,  con'inue  parallel  as  before, 
the  reason  of  which  is  evident  on  the  prin- 
ciples already  established;  for  the  ray  AC, 
(PI.  II.  fig  3.)  oncoming  in  contact  with  the 
surface  of  the  refracting  medium  V.V ,  iloes  not 
continue  its  course  in  the  straight  line  C6,  but 
being  refracted  at  the  point  of  cunta<t  C,  it 
approaches  the  perpendicular  P/),  and  comes 
out  at  u. 

After  coming  out  of  the  refracting  medium, 
if  we  suppose  the  surface  CH  para. lei  to  EF, 
it  ought  to  proceed  to  B,  having  deviated 
from  the  perpendicular  in  the  same  degree  in 
which  it  .ipproachcd  it  on  its  first  rcliaction  ; 
and  thus  it  continues  parallel  to  the  line  C'li, 
which  is  that  in  which  it  would  have  pro- 
ceeded if  it  had  not  been  intercepted  by  the 
medium. 

'Phis  parallelism  cannot  subsist  if  the  two 
surfaces  Kl,  HI,  (tig.  4.)  are  inclined,  as  in 
the  figure  ;  because  the.  ray  entering  at  a,  and 
emerging  at  h,  the  object  A  will  be  seen  from 
the  point  B  at  e,  which  is  out  of  its  true  place. 
Converging  rays  become  less  convergent  in 
passing  from  a  rare  to  a  denser  medium,  as 
from  air  into  water;  and  on  the  contrary, 
their  convergence  is  augmented  by  passing 
from  a  dense  to  a  rarer  medium,  as  from  wa- 
ter into  air.  (See  fig.  1.)  In  the  same  man- 
'ner,  diverging  rays  become  less  divergent  in 
passing  out  of  a  rare  medium  into  one  wliich 
'is  denser,  and  their  divergence  is  increased  by 
passing  out  of  a  dense  into  a  rarer  medium. 
(See  fig.  3.)  This  fact  is  a  necessai-y  conse- 
<li.ence  of  the  gt-neral  law  of  refraction  :  but 
it  Will  satisfactorily  explain  why  an  object 
wider  water  appears  larger  to  an  eve  above 
the  surface  tlian  it  really  is,  and  why  all  ob- 
jects appear  magnified  seen  through  a  mist ; 
for  in  all  these  cases,  the  converging  ra\'s,  by 
which  we  see' the  extreme  points  of  the  ob- 
ject, and  which  during  their  (lassage  through 
the  w'ater,  Sec.  were  refracted  towards  the 
perpendicular,  on  tlieir  eniergeiiee  into  the 
air  are  made  more  Huddenly  to  converge,  and 
cons.-i|nently  the  visual  angle  is  rendered 
more  obtuse. 

It  is  evident,  that  when  parallel  rays  fall 
•upon  a  spherical  surface,  that  ray  only  which 
penetrates  to  the  centre  or  axis  will  proceed 
ju  a  direct  course  :  fur  all  the  rest  inuit  neccs- 


OPTICS. 

sarily  make  an  ani^le  more  or  Irs;  oliluse,  in 
liroportion  to  their  distance  from  the  centre; 
they  are  therefore  rendered  convenjent  or 
divergent  according  to  the  nature  otthe  me- 
dium on  which  tiiey  are  incident.  If  (hey  fall 
on  the  convex  surface  of  a  medium  denser 
than  that  which  they  leave,  as  in  jjassing 
from  air  into  glass,  they  will  converge,  as  may 
b,-  seen  in  I'latell.  tig.  5.  where  that  jilie'- 
nonienon  is  represeiiied ;  lor  the  parallel 
rays, /(/, /if,  Tfig.  10.)  falling  in  an  oblitpie  di- 
rection on  the  refracting  medium  terminated 
by  the  convex  surface  E/q-,  they  v.iH  be  re- 
fracted, and  will  each  respectively  ap|)roach 
the  perpendiculars  zC-,  or,«C,  and  will  conse- 
iiuently  have  a  tendency  to  unite  towards  the 
axis  AH. 

It  is  however  proper  to  remark,  that  the 
point  at  which  they  join  the  axis  AH  will  be 
di>tant  from  the  surface  of  the  refracting  me- 
dium, in  proportion  as  the  point  on  \^  liicli  they 
lall  on  the  convex  surface  is  distant  from  tlia't 
axis;  becau-e  the  more  di>laiit  that  point  is, 
the  more  oblique  is  the  incidence  of  the  ray. 
I'husthe  ray  hi  joins  the  axis  at  k;  but  the 
ray  y^tloes'not  join  the  axis  till  it  arrives  at  I.). 

Hays  already  convergent,  falling  on  the 
convex  surkice  of  a  dense  medium,  will  be 
acted  upon  differenlly  according  to  circum- 
stances. 

If  their  convergence  is  exactly  propor- 
tioned to  the  convexity  of  the  surlace,  they 
will  not  suffer  any  refraction  ;  (see  fig.  6.) 
because  in  that  case  one  of  the  essentials  is 
wanting  to  rifraction,  viz.  the  obliquity  of  the 
incidence  ;  and  each  ray  proceeds  in  a  direct 
line  to  the  centre  of  that  circle,  of  which  the 
convex  surface  is  an  arch  or  segment. 

For  instance,  the  rays  ef  and  dh,  (fig.  11.) 
which  tend  to  unite  at  C,  the  centre  of  the 
convex  surface,  may  be  considered  as  per- 
pendicular, being  the  radii  of  the  circle. 

If  the  rays  have  a  tendency  to  converge 
before  they  reach  the  centre  of  the  convexity, 
they  will  then  be  rendered  less  convergent 
for  instead  of  converging  to  a  point  at  h 
(fig.  7.),  they  will  converge  at  B.  The  rea- 
son of  this  is  evident ;  for  the  ray //(  (hg.  II.) 
which,  if  not  intercepted,  would  meet  the 
axis  at  /.-,  nearer  the  surface  of  the  refracting 
medium  than  the  centre  of  convexity  C,  be- 
ing refracte  1  towards  the  perpendicular  or 
radius  dQ,  meets  the  axis  only  at  n. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  rays  liave  a  tend- 
ency to  converge  beyond  tlie  centre  of  the 
convexity,  they  will  then,  by  the  law  of  re- 
fraction, be  rendered  still  more  convergent, 
as  in  fig.  8  ;  w  here  their  poir.t  of  union,  n  n  .t 
intercepted,  would  be  t  ;  but  where,  by  tiie 
inlluence  of  the  refraction,  they  are  found  to 
converge  at  C.  For  the  ray  i,-/i,  (fig.  1 1.)  the 
tendency  of  which  is  towards  /,  is  refracted 
towards  the  perpendicular  i/C,  and  joins  the 
axis  at  p. 

If  diverging  rays  fall  on  tlie  convex  surface 
of  a  denser  medium,  they  are  always  n  n- 
dered  less  divergent,  as  in  tig.  9. ;  and  they 
may  be  rendered  parallel,  or  even  conver- 
gent, according  to  the  degree  of  divergence 
compared  with  the  convexity  of  the  refract- 
ing surface,  on  die  principles  already  ex- 
plained. 

If  rays  pass  from  a  dense  to  a  rarer  medi- 
um, the  suiTace  of  the  dense  medium  being 
convex,  in  this  case  parallel  rays  become  con- 
vergent;  for  the  parallel  rays  af,£^(,  (fig.  12.) 


?.0\ 

when  they  reach  the  convex  surfr.cr  cD?',  in- 
stead of  continuing  their  direct  course,  are 
refracted  from  the  perpendiculars  nC,  6C, 
iuid  converge  at  k. 

Converging  rays  are  also  rendered  n'ore 
convergent.  Thus  tlie  rays  k,  ui,  which 
wilhout  any  change  in  the  medium,  would 
have  proceeded  in  the  direction  m  and  <i,  ia 
consequence  of  the  relraction  which  they 
suffer,  and  which  bends  thein  from  the  per- 
pendiculars (iC,  />0,  unite  at;). 

Diverging  rays,  if  they  proceed  from  the 
point  C,  the  centre  of  convexity,  suffer  no 
refraction;  because,  for  the.  reasons  aln  ady 
assigned,  they  may  be  con>iflered  as  perpen- 
dicular to  the  refracting  surf.ice,  and  conse- 
quently they  are  deficient  in  one  of  tlie 
causes  of  refraction,  llie  obliquity  of  inci- 
dence. 

If  they  proceed  from  a  point  which  is 
nearer  to  the  surface  than  the  centre  of  con- 
vexity, such  as  )-,  they  will  be  refracted  from 
the  perijendicularw/C, /)C,  and  will  be  ren- 
dered more  di\ergent  towards  x  and  ;/. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  diverging  rays 
come  from  a  point  such  as  q,  beyond  t.'ie  cen- 
tre of  convexity,  lluy  will  be  rendered  less 
divergent;  fur  instead  of  going  towards  ;  and 
z,  they  will  be  refracted  from  the  perpendicu- 
lars «C',  iC,  towards/  and  It. 

\\\wn  rays  pass  from  a  rare  into  a  dense 
medium,  and  the  surface  of  the  dense  medium 
is  concave,  then  parallel  rajs  are  rendered 
divergent,  as  in  Plate  II.  fig.  13. ;  for  the  pa- 
rallel rays  »A,  de,  (fig.  17.)  ere  refracted  to- 
wards the  pei|jendiculars  J'C  and  ^C,  and 
are  consequently  divergent. 

Converging  rays  falling  on  the  same  con- 
cave surface  will  be  rendered  less  conver- 
gent, as  in  fig.  14.  For  the  rays  a6,  </f,  (fiLT. 
I  8.)  which  would  have  converged  at  O  it  llieir 
jirogress  hail  not  been  intei-l-epted,  will  bu 
refracted  towards  the  perpendiculars _/C  and 
,i;C,  and  will  unite  only  at  ;'.  If  the  conver- 
gence was  les~,  they  might  by  the  refraction 
be  rendered  ])araHei,  or  even' divergent. 

Diverging  rays  proceeding  from  the  centre 
of  concavity  wifl  not  suffer  any  refraction,  for 
the  reasons  already  assigned. 

If,  however,  diverging  rays  proceed  from 
any  point  nearer  the  refracting  surface  than 
t!ie  centre  of  conca\ily,  they  will  be  rendered 
less  divergent,  as  in  f;g.  15.'  For  the  two  di- 
verging rays  kb  and  kt  (lig.  19.),  instead  of 
proceeding  to  d  and  //,  are  refracted  towards 
the  perpendiculars/C  and  gC. 

If,  on  the  conlnny,  which  is  the  most  ge- 
neral case,  the  dAerging  rays  proceed  from  a 
point  more  distant  from  the  surface  thai;  the 
cenire  of  concavity,  their  divergence  will  be 
increased,  as  in  fig.  1(5.  For  the  diveiyin:^ 
rays /'(  and  /<  I'fig.  I9}.whuhtcnd  towa.'-ris 
ni  and  ;;,  are  rehactcd  towards  the  perpendi- 
eukus /C  and  il;C,  and  become  more  diver- 
gent than  they  would  otherwise  huve  been. 

When  rays  pass  from  a  dense  into  a  rarer 
medium,  and  thi-  (tense  medium  is  terminated 
by  a  concave  surlace,  then 

Parallel  rays  become  dive.rgent;  for  the 
parallel  rays  dt,  gi,  (lig.  20.)  w  hen  they  reach 
the  concave  suriace  f  Di,  instead  of  <  ontinu-  ■ 
ing  their  course  in  tne  direct  lines  towards  / 
an<I  //,  proceed  towards  m  and /j,  being  re- 
Iracteil  from  the  jjerpi-ndiculars  Ca,  C'.i,  and- 
itre  cousequently  divergent. 


ZCI 


Converging  ray,  if  their  point  of  cnnver- 
genceis  precisely  at  C,  thcceiitre  of  the  con- 
cavity cUi,  wiiraut  suffer  any  refraction,  be- 
Muse  they  are  perpendiculars,  as  already  es.- 
))lained,  therefore  liave  no  obliquity  of  inci- 
dence. If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  rays  lend 
to  a  point,  such  as  n,  nearer  to  flie  surface 
than  the  centre  of  tlie  concavity  C,  then  they 
are  rendered  more  convergent ;  for  the  rays 
ge,ri,  which  naturally  tend  to  that  po'nt,  are 
refracted  fioni  the  perpendiculars  Ce,  Ci,  and 
converge  at  o,  nearer  the  concave  sr.rface. 

Lastly,  if  the  converging  rays  tend  to  a 
point  /,  \vhich  is  beyond  the  centre  C,  they 
are  rendered  less  convergent.  For  the  rays 
St",  //,  which  would  naturally  unite  at  that 
point,  are  refracted  from  the  perpendiculars 
Cf,  Ci,  and  unite  at  k,  which  is  more  distant 
still. 

Diverging  rays  in  the  same  circumstances 
are  rendered  more  divergent.  For  the  rays 
T.c,  E?,  diverging  from  ti.e  point  E,  instead  of 
proceeding  towards  ii  and  x,  are  refracted 
tiom  the  perpendiculars,  and  are  directed 
towards  y  and  :. 

From  the  property  which  all  spherical  con- 
vex surfaces  have,  of  rendering  parallel  rays 
passing  out  of  a  rarer  medium  convergent, 
glasses  made  in  this  form  are  very  commonly 
used  as  burning-glasses ;  and  as  the  sun's  rays, 
proceeding  from  so  vast  a  distance,  may  be 
considered  as  parallel,  the  focus  of  parallel 
rays  will  of  course  be  their  burning-p  Jint. 

A  lens  is  a  transjiarent  body  of  a  different 
densitv  from  the  surrounding  medium,  and 
tenni:iated  by  two  surfaces,  either  both  sphe-  1 
rical,  or  the  one  plane  and  the  other  spheri- 
cal, whether  convex  or  concave.  They  are 
therefore  generally  distinguished  by  their 
forms,  and  are  called  plano-convex  or  plano- 
concave, or  double  convex  or  double  con- 
cave ;  a  lens  which  has  one  side  convex  and 
the  other  concave,  is  called  a  meniscus,  or 
concave-convex  lens.  See  Plate  I!,  tig.  21. 

It  is  evident,  that  in  lenses  there  may  be  al- 
most an  infinite  variety  with  respect  to  the 
tlegree  of  convexity  or  concavity  ;  for  every 
convex  surface  is  to  be  considered  as  the  seg- 
ment of  a  circle,  the  diameter  and  radius  of 
V  hich  ma\'  vary  to  almost  sn  infinite  extent. 
Hence,  when  opticians  speak  of  the  length  of 
tiie  radius  as  applied  to  a  lens,  as  for  instance, 
when  they  say  its  radius  is  3  or  6  inches,  they 
mean  that  the  convex  surface  of  the  glass  is 
the  part  of  a  circle,  the  radius  jof  which,  or 
half  the  diameter,  is  3  or  6  inches. 

Tile  axis  of  a  lens  is  a  straight  line  drawn 
Dirough  tlie  centre  of  its  splierical  surface  ; 
and  as  the  spherical  sides  of  every  lens  are 
arclies  of  circles,  the  axis  of  the  lens  would 
pass  exactly  through  the  centre  of  that  circle, 
of  which  its'  sides  are  arches  or  segments. 

From  what  has  been  already  staled,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  certaui  effect  of  a  convex 
IcHs  muit  be  to  render  parallel  rays  conver- 
fent;  to  augment  the  convergence  of  conver- 
ging rays ;  to  diminish  in  like  manner  the  di- 
vergence of  diverging  rays,  and  in  some  cases 
to  make  them  parallel  or  even  convergent, 
according  to  the  degree  of  divergence  com~ 
pared  with  the  convexity  of  the  lens.  In 
what  is  called  a  doubli>convex  lens,  this  effect 
will  be  increased  in  a  duplicate  proportion, 
since  both  surfaces  will  act  in  the  same  man- 
ner upon   the  rays;  and  since  it  has   been 


<5racs. 

their  convergence  cciually  augmented  by  be- 
ing incident  on  the  convex  sunace  of  a  dense, 
or  the  concave  smlace  of  a  -rare  medium. 
These  glasses  then  must  necessarily  have  the 
effect  of  magnifying  glasses,  since  by  the 
convergence  of  the  rays  the  visual  angle  is 
rendered  more  obtuse,  and  consequently  the 
image  which  is  depicted  on  the  retina  must  be 
proportionably  larger. 


docs  nol  agree  wllli  that  of  tlie  middle  parti. 
The  modes  adopted  for  remedying  ihem  de- 
fects in  optical  glasses,  will  be  hereafter  ex- 
plained. 

The  effects  of  a  concave  lens  are  directly 
opposite   to  those  of  the   convex  lens,     lit 
other  words,  by  such  a  glass,  parallel  ray.s 
are  rendered  divergent,  converging  rays  have 
their  convergijnie  diminisiied,  and  diverging 
The  focus  of  those  rays  which  come  in  a    rays  have  their  divergence  augmented,  in  pro- 
parallel  direction  to  the  glass,  is  called  the  '  portion  to  the  concavity  of  the  lens.     These 
tbcus  of  parallel  rays,  or  principal  focus.     In  ]  glasses  llien  exhibit  objects  smaller  than  they 
a  plano-convex  glass  this  tocus  is  at  the  length  I  really  are  ;  for  by  causuig  the  rays  to  diverge, 
ol  the  diameter  of  that  circle,  of  which  the    or  more  properly  by  diminishing  the  con- 
convex  surface  is  a  segment ;  and  in  a  dou-    vergence  of  llie  ray  s  proceeding  from  the  ex- 
ble-convex  lens,  or  one  which  is  convex  on  |  trcme  points  of  the  object,  the  .visuaLangle  is 
both  sides,  the  focus  is  as  the  distance  of  tl-.e  [  rendered  more  acute,  and  the  image  painted 


adius,  or  half  the  diameter,  of  the  circle  of 
which  the  lens  is  a  segment.  This  focus 
therefore  is  easily  found  upon  mathematical 
principles.  It  may  also  be  found,  tliough  not 
with  equal  exactness,  by  holding  a  sheet  of 
paper  before  the  glass  when  exposed  to  tlie 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  observing  the  distance  of 
the  paper  from  the  glass  w  heu  the  luminous 
spot  on  the  paper  is  very  small,  and  when  it 
begins  to  b;jrn ;  or  when  the  focal  length 
does  not  exceed  three  feet,  the  fociis  may  be 
found  by  holding  the  lens  at  such  a  distance 
from  the  wall  oj^posite  a  window-sash,  that 
the  image  ot  the  sash  may  appear  distinct 

upon  the  wall. 

From  this  property  in   convex  lenses,  of 

rendering  all  rays  in  some  degree  convergent 

which  fall  upon  their  surfaces,  it  is  evident 
j  that  in  all  such  cases  there  must  be  a  point, 

which  in  general  is  at  the  focus,  where  pen- 
I  cils  of  rays   proceeding  from  the  extreme 


on  the  retina  is  smaller,  than  it  would  have 
been  had  tiiese  rays  not  been  intercepted  iu 
their  liatural  progress ;  and  by  the  diver- 
gence of  the  rays  the  object  is  represented 
with  less  clearness  than  it  would  otherwise 
have  had,  since  from  this  cause  a  less  quantity 
of  light  enters  the  pupil  of  the  eye.  .:\Il 
concave  lenses  have  a  negative  or  virtual  lo- 
cus, which  is  a  point  correspond'mg  witii  the 
divergence  of  parallel  rays  incident  on  tlie 
surface  of  the  lens. 

Light  is,  however,  not  so  simple  a  sub- 
stance as  it  may  be  supposed  upon  superii- 
ciaily  considering  its  general  effects  ;  it  is  in- 
deed found  to  consist  of  particles  which  are 
ditferenlly  refrangible,  tliat  is,  some  of  them 
mav  be  refracted  more  than  others  in  passing 
through  ceitain  mediums,  whence  they  are 
supposed  by  philosophers  to  be  different  in 
size.  The  common  optical  instrument  called 
a  prism,  is  a  triangular  piece  of  glass,  through 


point  of  any  object  must  first  unite  and  then  which  if  a  pencil  or  collection  of  rays  is  made 
cross  each  other ;  and  consequently  an  in-  to  pass,  it  is  found  that  the  rays  do  not  pro- 
verted  image  of  the  object  will  be  exhibited    ceed  parallel  to  each  other  on  their  emer- 


Pf 


at  any  distance  beyond  that  point.  This  may 
be  elucidated  by  a  very  easy  experiment, 
viz.  by  holding  a  common  reading  or  magni- 
fying glass  between  a  candle  and  a  sheet  of 
paper  suspended  on  the  wall,  at  a  proper  dis- 
tance, when  the  image  of  the  candle  will  ap- 
[lear  on  the  paper  inverted :  and  the  reason 
of  this  is  extremely  clear ;  for  it  is  evident 
that  tlie  upper  pencils  after  refraction,  are 
those  which  proceeded  from  the  under  part 
of  the  luminous  body,  and  the  under  r.!ys 
are  those  which  come  from  its  top.  The  po- 
sition is  therefore  only  inverted,  and  the 
image  remains  unimpaired. 

From  the  same  property,  convex  lenses 
will  cause  miuiv  ravs  to  enter  the  eye  which 
would  otherwise  have  been  scattered  or  dis- 
persed, and  therefore  objects  seen  through 
them  appear  clearer  and  more  splendid  than 
when  viewed  by  the.  naked  eye.  If,  how- 
ever, the  glass  is  very  thick  (as  in  high  mag- 
nifiers), some  of  the  rays  which  enter  it  will 
be  reflected  or  sent  back,  and  consequently 
the  bolliancy  of  tlie  image  will  suffer  some 
diminution. 

A  large  object  seen  through  a  lens  which 
is  very  convex  will  appear  deformed  ;  and 
this  proceeds  from  the  refraction  not  being 
equal  at  all  points  in  stich  cases.  'I  he  same 
cause  operates  also  to  render  some  parts  of 
the  image  Indistinct,  while  others  are  distinct 
and  clear.  Thus  the  extremities  of  the 
image  seen  through  a  lens  of  a  very  short 
focus  are  connnonlv  confused  and  inilistinct, 


roved,  that  parallel  or  convergent  rays  have    because  the  refraction  at  the  edges  of  tlie  lens 


gence,  but  produce  on  an  opposite  wall,  or 
any  plane  surface  that  receives  them,  an  ob- 
long spectrum,  which  is  variously  coloured, 
and  it  consequently  follows  that  some  of  the 
rays  or  particles  are  more  refrangible  than 
others. 

The  spectrum  thus  formed  is,  perhaps,  the 
most  beautiful  object  which  any  of  the  ex- 
periments of  philosophy  presents  to  our  view. 
The  lower  part,  w  hich  consists  of  the  least  re- 
frangible rays,  is  of  a  lively  red ;  which, 
higher  up,  by  insensible  gradations,  becomes 
an  orange  ;  the  orange,  in  the  same  manner,  - 
is  succeeded  by  a  yellow;  the  yellow,  by  a 
green  ;  the  green,  by  a  blue;  after  which  fol- 
lows a  deep  blue  or  indigo;  and  lastly,  a  faint 
violet.         1 

Of  rision.  There  is  not  any  part  of  the 
animal  frame  which  displays  in  a  more  satis- 
factory manner  to  our  rtrasou,  the  wisdom  and 
design  of  our  Creator,  than  the  eye.  Its 
anatomical  structure  is  however  explained 
under  the  articles  Akatomy  and  Physio- 
logy. It  is  only  necessary  at  present  to  con- 
sider it  as  an  optical  instrument.  '1  he  ex- 
ternal coat  or  case,  which  forms  the  globe  of 
the  eye,  is  at  the  back  part  strong  ami  opake: 
the  fore  part  is  ihin  and  transparent,  .-^o  as  to 
admit  readily  the  rays  of  light ;  and  it  is  there- 
fore called  the  cornea,  from  its  resemblance 
to  polished  horn.  It  inrlose«i  three  pellucid 
matters  called  the  humours,  which  are  of  dif- 
ferent densities.  Tliat  in  the  anterior  part, 
immediately  under  the  (tirnej,  is  called  the 
aqueous  huinour;  that  iiMinediately  behind  i» 


/'/i/.  /*:        /<• 


l^ihtuh'-.l  lii.jttft  i.i  i.t.ti.M-  KJ'hilt^v.Jlrt.1p.-  Sir.--tt.  HUili'rijrf  J^it.li'n . 


rtectystaTtincTitimoiir,  which  is  a  (lonl)lc-con- 
\ex  lens  ol  -'roiit  reliMdiii'.; \>  )Wi-r,  yiKilhiTcst 
v(  the  eye  is  (iilecl  with  ajellv-like  substance 
called  the  vitreous  lumiour.  "  I'lie  iris,  which 
is  the  coloui-ei!  part  of  the  eye,  is  an  opaque 
membrane  which  is  perforated  by  a  small 
hole,  the  pupil,  through  which  the  rays  of 
light  must  pass  to  the  cryslalline  humour. 
The  optic  nerve  enters  ai  the  under  part, 
and  is  spreafl  all  over  the  interior  surface,  at 
the  back  of  the  eye,  in  the  form  of  a  line  net- 
vork,  and  thi-refore  is  called  the  retina.  The 
^student  of  optics  will  see  hojn  this,  that  the 
eye  is  altogi'lher  calculated  to  act  asaconvex 
lens  of  strong  refractive  powers. 

It  lias  already  been  explained,  that  from 
every   luminous   point   of  a   visil)le   object, 
cones  or  pencils  of  light  are  emitted  or  re- 
flected in   every  direction  ;  but  to   produce 
vision,  it  is  nece-isary  that  they  should  be  con- 
centrated or  converged  to  sucli  a  point  as  to 
make   a  forcible   impression  on  the  retina. 
Thus  from  the  luminous  body  A,   I'late  II. 
(lig.  22.)  the  rays  r,  r,  r,  are  sent  in  various 
directions.     Those  which  fall  upon  the  trans- 
parent cornea  CC,   are   there    refracted  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  enter  the  pui)il  at/j,  and 
in  passing  the  chrystalline  lens  or  humour  they 
suiter  a  second  rehaction,  and  are  converged 
to  a  point  or  focus  at  the  point  «  on  the  re- 
tina.    Now  it   is  evident,  that  if  the  rays 
could  have  passed  the  humours  of  the  eye  ui 
tJieir  natural  threction,  that  is,  in  the  direction 
of  the  cone  or  pyramid  CAC,  they    would 
have  made  upon  the  retina  a  very  extensive 
but  feeble  impression,   such  as  we  know  by 
experience  could  not  produce  distinct  virion  ; 
to  obviate  this  it  is  appointed  by  the  all-wise 
Author  of  our  existejice,  that  by  the  force  of 
the  refraction  which  they  sillier  in  the  eye, 
they  sliould  foi'ui  anotiier  cone  opposed   to 
the  first  at  its  base,  and  the  apex  ol  which  is 
at  a,  and  tiius  an  impression  suiliciently  forci- 
ble to  produce,  distinct  vision  is  made  on  tlie 
retina. 

Ill  tlie  preceding  instance,  the  luminous 
body  A  was  considered  as  a  point;  and  what 
has  been  sai.l  of  it  will  apply  to  every  point 
of  a  visible  object,  which  is  capable  of  trans- 
mitting or  retiecting  to  tlic  eye  a  pencil  or 
collection  of  rays.      Thus  we  may  easily  sup- 

Sose  that  from  every  part  of  the  arrow  O  A 
,  (fig.  '23.)  cones  or  pencils  of  ligiit  may  be 
transmitted;  these,  like  all  pencils  or  collec- 
tions of  rays,  coming  from  a  point,  will  di- 
verge, and  will  fall  upon  tiie  eye  in  some  de- 
gree divergent,  or  in  the  form  of  cones  or  py- 
ramids. 

The  pencil  of  rays  OEIF  will  then  paint 
the  extremity  ()  in  the  point  I  ;  the  pencil 
BFME  will  also  p-.iiut  the  extremity  B  in  the 
point  M;  and  since  all  the  points  between  O 
and  B  are  represented  between  I  and  M,  of 
course  I.\I  will  be  the  image  of  OH.  Hence 
it  is  evident,  tliat  by  means  of  this  refraction 
there  are  certain  points  at  whicli  the  rays  of 
light,  after  passing  the  pupil,  cross  each  other, 
and  the  image  whicli  is  formed  on  the  retina 
is  conse()uently  inverted. 
■  Artilicial  eyes  are  sold  by  the  opticians,  in 
wliich  all  the  humours  are  made  of  different 
kinds  of  glass,  and  may  be  separa  ed  at  plea- 
sure. At  the  back  part,  wliere  tlie  retina  is 
supposed  in  the  natural  eye  to  receive  the 
eonverged  rays,  is  placed  a  piece  of  ground 
gl3ss>.  where  the  image  from  the  opgiosed  ob- 


OPTICS. 

ject  is  rendered  in  an  inverted  position,  as  in 
a  camera  obscura.  The  sunie  effect  may  be 
produced  with  a  natural  eye,  and  the  nature 
of  Vision  may  betlius  experimentally  demon- 
strated :  if  a  bullock's  eye  is  taken  fresh,  the 
posterior  coats  de.Nterously  removed  even  to 
the  vitreous  humour,  and  if  a  piece  of  white 
paper  is  then  placed  at  the  part,  the  image 
of  any  bright  object  which  is  placed  before 
the  eye  will  be  seeii  distinctlv  painted  on  the 
paper,  but  in  an  inverted  position. 

If  the  humours  of  tlie  eye,  through  age  or 
weakness,  have  slirunk  or  decayed,  the  cor- 
nea will  th-n  be  too  Hat ;  and  the' rays,  not  be- 
ing sullicieiitly  bent  or  refracted,  arrive  at  the 
retina  beiore  they  are  united  in  a  focus,  and 
would  meet,  if  not  intercepted,  in  some  place 
behind  it,  as  in  Plate  II.  lig.  23.  Tiiey 
therefore  do  not  make  an  impression  sufiici- 
ently  correct  and  forcible,  but  form  an  inihs- 
linci  picture  on  the  bottom  of  the  eye,  and 
exhibit  the  object  in  a  confused  and  iniperfect 
maimer.  This  defect  of  the  eye  is  therefore 
remedied  by  a  double-convex  lens,  such  as 
the  common  spectacle-glasses,  which,  by 
causing  the  rays  to  converge  sooner  than  they 
otherwise  woi'ild,  afford  that  aid  to  this  defect 
of  nature  which  the  circumstances  of  the  case 
may  require  ;  the  convexity  of  the  glass  being 
always  proportioned,  by  one  who  is  capable 
of  direcliiig  in  the  choice  of  spectacles,  to  the 
deficiency  in  vision. 

If,  on  llic  contrary,  liie  cornea  is  too  con- 
vex, the  pencils  of  rays  will  unite  in  their 
foci  before  their  arrival  at  tlie  retina,  as  in 
li^.  26,  and  the  imao;e  will  also  be  indistinct. 
T  his  defect  is  remedied  by  concave  glasses, 
which  cause  the  rays  to  diverge  ;  and  conse- 
quently, by  being  properly  adapted  to  the 
case,  will  enable  llie  eye  to  form  the  image 
in  its  proper  place. 

The  rays  of  light  being  emitted  or  reflected 
from  a  visible  object  in  all  directions,  it  must 
be  plain  that  some  of  them  from  e\ery  part 
of  it  nuftt  reach  the  eye.  Thus  tlie  object 
Ail  (Plate  II.  lig.  2S)'is  visible  to  an  eye  in 
any  part  where  the  rays  Art,  Ah,  Ac,' Ad, 
Ac,  15,/,  B^,  Be,  Bd,  Ct;  Ca,  Cb,  Cc,  CV, 
and  Ct,  can  come.  l?iit  though  rays  are  re- 
tlected  from  every  point  of  the  object  to 
every  part  of  the  circumambient  space,  yet 
it  is  evident  that  only  those  rays  which  pass 
through  the  pupil  of  the  eye  can  affect  the 
sense  ;  and  those  rays  also  give  the  idea*  of 
colour,  according  to  the  properties  of  those 
bodies  which  transmit  or  reflect  them. 

As  the  direction  in  which  the  extreme  pencils 
of  light  cross  each  otiier  in  the  eye,  bears  a 
due  proportion  to  the  angle  in  wli'ich  they  are 
transmitted  from  the  object  to  the  eve,  it  is 
evident  that  the  image  Ibrmed  upon  the  retina 
will  be  proportioned  to  the  apparent  magni- 
tude; and  thus  we  have  our  hrst  ideas  of  the 
sii!e  and  distance  of  bodies,  which,  liowever, 
in  many  cases  are  corrected  by  experience. 
The  neaier  any  object  is  to  the  eye,  the  larger 
is  the  angle  by  which  it  will  appear  in  the 
eye,  and  therefore  the  greater  will  be  the 
seeming  magnitude  of  that  body.  Tn  Plate 
n.  fig.  24,  let  AB  be  ail  object  viewed  di- 
rectly by  the  eye  QK.  From  each  extre- 
mity draw  the  lines  AN  and  CM,  intersect- 
ing each  otherin  the  crystalline  humour  at  I. 
Then  draw  the  line  IK  in  the  direction  in 
which  tlis  eye  is  supposed  to  look  at  the  ob- 
ject.   Th«  angle  AlB  is  then  the  optical  or 


S03 

visual  angle  ;  and  the  line  IK  is  called  the  op- 
tical axis,  because  it  is  the  axis  of  the  lens  or 
crystalline  humour  continued  to  the  object. 

'Ihe  apparent  magnitude  of  object-,  llien, 
depending  thus  on  the  angle  under  which 
they  are  seen,  will  evidently  vary  according 
to  their  distances.  Thus  different  objects,  as 
A!5,  CD,  EF,  the  real  magnitudes  of  which 
are  very  unequal,  may  be  situated  at  such 
tlistances  from  the  eye  as  to  have  tliirir  appa- 
rent magnitudes  all  e(iual ;  for  if  Ihey  are  si- 
tuated at  such  d"istances  that  the  rays  AN,. 
liM,  shall  touch  the  extremities  of  each,  they 
will  then  appear  all  under  the  same  ojjtical 
angle,  and  tiie  <lianieter  MN  of  each  image 
on  the  retuia  will  consequently  be  equal. 

In  the  same  manner  objects  of  equal  mag- 
nitude, situated  at  unequal  distances,  w  ill  aji- 
pear  unequal.  For  let  AB  and  Gli,  Iwo 
objects  of  equal  size,  be  placed  before  the 
eye  at  different  distances,  IK  and  IS;  draw 
the  lines  GP  and  HO,  crossing  each  other  ia. 
1  ;  then  OP,  the  image  formeil  by  the  oiyect 
GI!  on  the  retina,  is  evidently  of  a  greater, 
diameter  than  the  image  MN,  %vliith  repre- 
sents the  object  AB;  in  other w<rds,  the  ob- 
ject GH  will  appear  as  large  as  an  object  of 
the  diamet(MTV,  situated  at  the  same  place 
as  the  object  AH. 

To  render  the  subject  still  clearer,  suppose 
the  object  UK  (see  Plate  II.  fig.  27)  to  be  at 
a  hundred  yards  distance,  it  will  form  an  an- 
gle in  the  eye  at  A.  At  two  hundred  yards 
distance  the  angle  it  makes  will  be  twice  as 
small  in  the  eye  at  B.  Tims  to  whatever  mo- 
derate distance  tbe  object  is  removed,  the 
angle  it  forms  in  the  eye  will  be  proportion- 
ably  less,  and  therefore  the  object  will  be  di- 
minislied  in  tlie  same  proportion. 

Hence  it  follows,  that  objects  situated  at- 
different  distances,  whose  apparent  magni- 
tudes are  equal,  are  to  each  other  as  their 
distances  from  the  eye ;  and  by  the  same 
rule,  equal  objects  situated  directly  before 
the  eye,  have  their  apparent  magnitudes  in  3 
reciprocal  proportion  to  their  distances. 

Tills  last  proposition  must,  liowever,  be  re- 
ceived with  some  allowance  ;  for  it  is  only 
applicable  to    very  distant  objects,  and   to 
those  where  the  sense  is  not  corrected  by  the  ■ 
judgment.     For  if  the  objects  are  near,  we 
do  not  judge  of  their  magnitude  accor<l!ng  to  • 
the  visual  angle,     'liius,  if  a  man  of  six  feet 
high  is  seen  at  the  distance  of  six  feel  und.  r 
the  very  same  angle  as  a  dwarf  of  only  two 
feet  high  at  the  distance  of  two  feet,  still  Ihe  ■ 
dwarf  w  ill  not  appear  as  large  as  thi;  man,  lie- 
cause  the  sense  is.  corrected  by  the  judg- 
ment. 

In  most  cases;  however,  where  the  dis- 
tance is  considerable,  the  rule  will  be  found 
accurate  ;  and  as  it  has  its  foundation  in  na- 
ture, most  of  the  pl.enomena  of  vision  will 
be  explained  by  having  recourse  to  the  prin- 
ciples here  laid  down.  If  the  eye  is  placed 
above  a  horizontal  plain,  the  different  parts 
of  this  plain  will  appear  elevated  in  propor- 
tion to  tlisir  distance,  till  at  length  they  w  ill. 
appear  upon  a  level  with  it.  For  in  propor- 
tion as  the  different  parts  arc  more  distant, 
the  rays  which  proceed  from  them  form  an- 
gles with  the  optical  axis  IK  (Plate  II.  fig. 
24"!  more  and  more  acute,  and  at  length  be- 
come almost  parallel.  This  is  the  reason 
wh.y,  if  we  stand  on  the  sea-shore,  those- 
parts  of  ttie  ocean  which^  afe  at  a  great  dig- 


304. 

tance  appear  elevated :  for  the  gl,'.)ular  form 
of  the  earth  is  not  perceptible  to  tiie  eye; 
and  if  it  «;is,  the  ap|iurent  ek'valii.n  oi  the 
sea  is  far  greater  tliaii  tlie  avcli  which  a  seg- 
ment of  the  giolie  would  forin  within  any  dis- 
tance that  our  eyes  are  capable  of  reaching. 

For  tiie  same  reason,  if  a  number  of  objects 
are  placed  on  the  same  plane  and  at  the  same 
height  below  the  P\e,  the  more  distant  will 
appear  taller  than'  the  others  ;  and  if  the 
same  objects  are  plated  on  a  similar  plane 
above  the  eye,  the  more  distant  will  appear 
the  lowest. 

The  distant  parts  of  a  long  wall,  for  the 
same  reacon,  appear  to  a  person  who  stands 
near  one  end  to  ciiive,  or  incline  towards 
him.  In  tlie  same  manner  the  high  wall  of  a 
lofty  tower  seems  to  a  s])Cclator,  placed  di- 
rectly nuder  it,  to  bend  over  him,  and 
threaten  him  with  instant  destruction.  If  any 
person  inclined  to  make  the  experiment  will 
lie  down  on  his  back  in  a  situation  of  this  de- 
scription, at  the  distance  of  live  or  six  feet 
troin  the  wall  of  which  he  contemplates  the 
fremei'dous  height,  he  will  immediately  be 
made  sensible  ot  the  phenomenon. 

If  tlie  distance  between  two  objects  forms 
an  insensible  angle,  the  o'ljects,  though  in  re- 
ality at  some  distance  from  each  other,  will 
appear  contiguous.  This  is  assigned  by  some 
astronomers  as  the  reason  why  the  ring  or 
belt  of  Saturn  appears  as  one  ma,-.s  of  light, 
while  they  contend  that  it  is  formed  from  a 
number  of  little  stais  or  satellites  ranged  with- 
in a  certain  distance  of  each  other. 

If  the  eye  is  carried  along,  as  in  a  boat, 
without  being  sensible  ot  its  own  motion,  the 
objects  whicli  are  stationary  on  each  side  will 
appear  to  move  in  a  contrary  direction.  Thus 
ve  attribute  to  the  sun  and  the  other  heavenly 
bodies  a  diurnal  motion,  which  only  affects 
the  earth  which  we  inhabit. 

If  two  or  three  objects  at  a  considerable 
distance,  and  on  which  the  eye  of  the  spec- 
tator is  fixed,  mo\e  with  ecjual  velocity  past 
a  third  object  which  is  attest,  the  moving  ob- 
jects will  appear  to  be  actually  at  rest,  and 
tliat  which  is  really  stationary  will  appear  in 
motion.  ^I'hus  the  clouds  which  pass  over 
trie  face  of  tiie  moon  appear  at  rest,  while  the 
inoon  itself  appears  to  proceed  rapidly  along 
in  an  oj)posite  direction.  This  happens,  be- 
cause the  eye  which  is  fixed  upon  the  clouds 
follows  their  motion  meclianically,  and  there- 
fore the  moon  a|)pears  to  move  and  not  the 
clouds  ;  as  in  the  boat  we  do  not  perceive  its 
motion,  but  conceive  the  banks  are  retiring 
behind  us. 

If  the  centre  of  the  pup'l,  that  is,  (he  op- 
tic axis,  is  directed  along  the  surface  of  any 
slender  object  in  a  perfectly  right  line,  this 
line  will  appear  only  a  point,  bccaiise,  in  fact, 
theexlremitici  only  are  visible. 

An  extended  aiid  distant  arch,  viewed  hy 
an  eve  which  is  exactly  iu  the  same  line,  will 
ajipear  as  a  plane  surface  ;  because  all  the 
parts  appearing  eciually  distant,  the  curvature 
will  not  be  perceived. 

If  a  circle  is  viewed  obliquely  it  will  ap- 
pear an  oval,  because  the  diameter  wh  (  h  is 
peipendicular  .o  the  eye  is  shortened;  in 
oUier  words,  the  rays  which  pro'-eed  from 
the  extremities  form"  an  angle  so  much  the 
more  acute  as  the  oblitiuity  is  greater ;  on 
the  tontrarv,  the  diameter  which  is  parallel 
to  the  eye  is  apparently  extended, 


OPTICS. 

Such  are  the  general  principles  upon  which 
vision  is  pL-rfurmed  ;  but  the  sense  of  sight  is 
limiied  not  only  with  respect  to  distant  ob- ' 
jects,  but  with  respect  to  those  which  are 
near.  Every  person  will  easily  perceive  that 
if  a  book,  or  any  other  object,  is  he'd  too 
close  to  the  eye,'  the  letters  or  the  object  will 
appear  very  "indistinct  and  conhised.  This 
distance  varies  with  respect  to  dillerent  eyes. 
Very  near-sighted  persons  can  see  at  the  dis- 
tance of  one  or  two  inches  ;  but  where  the 
eye  is  in  a  sound  state,  the  point  of  distinct 
vision  varies  from  six  to  ten  inches,  or  eight 
inches  as  a  medium. 

To  understand  the  reason  of  this,  it  is  ne- 
cessai-y  to  remember  that  objects  are  made 
visible'  by  cones  of  diverging  rays  proceed- 
ing from'every  luminous  point  of  an  object ; 
but  to  have  the  object  dei'rly  painted  on  the 
retina,  the  rays  must  not  enter  the  pupil  of 
the  eve  too  divergent.  Indeed  they  ought  to 
come  in  almost  a  parallel  direction,  n-.ore  in 
the  form  of  a  cylinder  than  a  cone,  otherwise 
the  humours  of' the  eye  will  not  make  them 
converge  at  the  proper  points  on  the  retina. 
Thus,  let  us  suppose  CD  (I'late  111.  tig.  2'J) 
to  be  the  diameter  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye;  O 
is  then  a  luminous  point  of  any  object  si- 
tuated at  the  distance  of  about  six  inches, 
and  OC  and  OD  are  divergent  rays  jjroceed- 
ing  from  this  point.  Let  AC  and  BU  then 
be  ])arallcl  rays.  It  will  then  be  evident  that 
the  divergency  of  the  rays  OC  and  OD  is  so 
very  small,  that  they  are'almost  parallel  when 
they  arrive  at  the  "pupil;  and  consequently 
the" eye  will  be  able  to  converge  them  in  such 
a  degree  as  to  produce  distinct  vision. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  jjoiiit  O  was  nearer 
to  the  pupil,  or  if  the  pupil  was  larger,  they 
would  fall  more  diverging  upon  the  eye,  and 
the  image  of  the  object  would  be  formed  at  a 
point  behind  the  reiina,  so  as  to  be  very  im- 
perfect and  confused.  Hence  we  may  easily 
perceive  the  use  of  a  single  lens  of  a  sliort 
focus,  or  high  magnifying  power,  such  as  is 
employed  in  the  single  microsco|)e.  It  ren- 
ders these  divergent  rays  less  divergent  ;  and 
conseciuently  assists  the  eye  in  making  them 
converge  to"  that  point  which  is  necessary  to 
distinct  vision. 

From  the  principles  laid  down  it  may  ea- 
sily be  understood  why  very  mhiute  objects 
are  imperceptible  to  the  naked  eye.  If  those 
objects  could,  consistently  with  distinct  vi- 
sion, be  brought  near  to  the  eye,  they  would 
be  perceived  as  well  as  by  the  aid  of  a  ini- 
cn.scope:  hence  some  very  near-sighted  per- 
sons mav  be  said  to  have  niicroscopic  eves; 
but  at  six  or  eiuiht  inches  (the  limit  of  distinct 
vision)  these  objects  subtend  too  small  an  an- 
gle to  be  perceptible.  Opticians  say  that  the 
eve  is  not  capable  of  pert<'iving  any  object 
vvhich  subtends  an  angle  of  less  than  half  a 
minute  of  a  degree.  The  image  on  the  re- 
tina is  in  this  case  less  than  the  ^J^nr  1''"'  '"'^ 
an  inch,  and  the  object  it  elf  at  six  inches  dis- 
tmce  less  than  the  ^/j^  part  of  au  inch 
broad.     AH  smaller  objects  are  invisible. 

All  very  distant  obj.-cts,  upon  the  same 
princip'es,'  appear  imtistincl  ;  for  their  images 
on  th'-  retina  are  so  extremely  small,  t'lat 
the  distinction  of  |);irts  is  not  perceptibli'. 
Thus  il  a  man,  of  six  IVet  stature,  is  vii-wed 
at  tlu-  distance  of  a  mile,  his  imagi!  on  the  re- 
tina will  not  be  more  than  the  thoii-^an  Ith 
part  of  au  inch  in  length.     We  cannot  be 


.inrprised,  tlioreftirf,  i.'  llip  eye  can  iVnci-Tt) 
notliing  of  his  features,  or  the  miniiler  pai^i 
of  his  body. 

Distant  objects,  however,  appear  not  oi;'^ 
indistinct  Iwt  obscure;  and  this  last  ellect  ii 
from  a  deticlency  of  light,  very  many  of  llie 
rays  being  intercepted  •  in  their  passage 
through  the  air.  Hence  the  dilference  in  the 
appearance  of  such  objects  in  a  dark  and 
cloudy  day,  when  the  air  is  inipregnaled  with 
vapours,  from  that  which  they  assume  when 
the  sun  shines  full  and  strong  uiion  tliera. 

Midi  a  single  glass  the  defects  in  sight, 
with  respect  to  many  objects,  either  too  neiir, 
or  at  too  great  a  distance,  tor  the  per-ons  la- 
bouring under  them,  are  remedied  ;  but  there 
are  cases  where  the  object  is  so  far  distant,  or 
so  minute,  that,  though  its  outline  may  reach 
the  eye,  its  paits  must  still,  even  with  the  aid 
of  a  single  lens,  be  indistinctly  perceived. 
The  art  ot  man  has  discovered  a  remedy,  in  a 
great  degree,  for  this  imperfection ;  and  by 
means  ot  a  combination  ot  glasses  lias  open- 
ed a  wide  field  for  his  researches  into  the 
womlers  of  nature :  he  can  now  trace  the 
limbs  of  an  insect  invisible  to  the  naked  eye; 
or  he  can  make  the  celestial  objects  apjjear 
to  him  as  it  their  distance  hid  beeti  on  a  sud- 
den diminished  by  many  millions  of  miles. 

0}>tical  Jniirumeiits. — From  \\hat  has  been 
stated  concerning  vision,  the  principle  of  the 
single  microscope  will  be  easily  understood. 
Since  the  e)e  cannot  have  a  distinct  percep- 
tion of  any  object  at  a  nearer  distance  than 
six  or  eight  inches,  and  since  there  are  many 
objects  which  at  that  <listance  must  be  wholly 
imperceptible,  or  at  best  appear  as  points, 
an  instrument  which  can  render  them  visible, 
is  a  very  desirable  attainment. 

It  has  been  suOicieiilly  explained  that  ob- 
jects appear  larger  or  smaller  in  proportion 
to  the  angle  under  which  they  are  seeu.  Since 
therefore  the  rays  by  which  small  objects  arc 
rendered  visible  by  the  microscope,  must 
come  from  the  extreme  points  of  tliat  object, 
it  is  manifest  that  though  the  apparent  mag- 
nitude is  increased  by  the  interposition  of  the 
lens,  its  real  magnitude  remains  the  same. 
The  lens  enables  us  to  view  it  at  a  shorter 
distance  ;  it  will  therefore  appear  exactly  as 
much  larger  in  diameter  through  the  lens,  as 
its  distance  from  the  glass  is  less  than  the 
nearest  distance  of  distinct  vision  with  the 
naked  eye. 

Let  A  (Plate  III.  fig.  I)  be  then  a  point 
of  an  object  not  visible  to  the  eye  at  a  less 
distance  than  AR,  because  the  rays  are  too 
diicrgent  for  ili--tinct  vision.  Now  if  the 
same  object  is  placed  in  the  focus  C  of  the 
lens  D,  tlie  ravs  wliich  proccd  from  it  will 
be  rendered  parallel  by  passing  the  lens  ;  and  - 
therefore  the  ol^ject  is  rendi'ied  distinctly  vi- 
sible to  tlie  eye  at  li.  It  will  then  of  course 
appear  as  much  larger  through  the  lens  than 
to  the  naked  eye,  as  CI)  is  less  than  AB. 

It  the  objec  I  AH  is  in  the  one  focus  of  the 
lens  DK,  and  the  eye  in  the  other  focus  F 
(rig.  2),  as  much  of  the  object  will  be  visible 
as  is  equal  to  the  di.nneter  of  the  lens;  for 
the  rays  AD  and  BE  iiroceed  tluough  the 
extremities  of  the  lens,  and  are  united  at  tho 
focus  F,  and  render  the  extreme  parts  of  the 
oliject  visible.  Ileuce  a  maxim  in  optics, 
"  that  when  an  object  is  plai-ed  in  one  focus 
of  a  lens,  and  the  eve  in  the  other,  the  object 
appears  just  twice  as  large  as  it  would  to  the 


nak<!<l  eye,  wlialover  the  fjze  of  (lie  lens :" 
lor  tlie  tines  I'l^  ainl  FE,  if  piotracteil  to  the 
distance  of  A  and  15,  would  form  an  image 
exactly  twice  as  large.  "  If,  on  the  olher 
hand,  the  ey(.'  is  m  arer  to  tlie  lens  than  the 
focus,  it  will  see  the  oliject  still  larger;  and  if 
it  is  farther  than  the  focus  it  will  not  see  it  so 
large  ;  and  in  all  ca-es  the  visible  part  of  the 
object  will  be  to  the  lens,  as  the  focal  dis- 
tance of  the  lens  is  to  the  distance  of  the 
eye." 

From  what  has  been  said,  tlie  reason  will 
be  very  plain  why  the  niagnitiide  of  objects 
seen  through  a  double-convex  lens,  that  is,  a 
single  microscope,  will  be  in  the  proportion 
which  the  focus  of  the  lens  bears  to  the  limits 
of  distinct  vision.  Thus,  suppose  AB,  fig.  ), 
to  be  that  distance,  or  about  six  inches,  so 
that  the  eye  B  can  but  just  perceive  the  ob- 
ject A,  anil  let  the  focal  distance  of  the  lens 
J)  be  one-half  of  an  inch  ;  then  since  CJ)  is 
l)ut  one-twelfth  of  AB.  the  length  of  the  object 
at  C  will  appear  twelve  times  as  large  as  at 
A,  and  its  surface  will  appear  magnihed  14-1 
tin;;"s. 

'I'lie  most  powerful  single  microscopes  are 
very  small- globules  of  glass,  which  any  cu- 
rious person  may  make  for  himself  bv  melting 
tfic'ends  of  line  threads  of  glass  in  the  tlanie 
ot  a  candle  ;  or  by  taking  a  little  line  pow- 
dered glass  on  the  point  of  a  very  small  nee- 
dle, and  melting  it  into  a  globule  in  tiiat  wav. 
It  was  with  such  microscopes  as  tiiese  that 
Lewenhoeck  made  all  liis  wonderful  disco- 
veries, most  of  which  are  deposited  in  the  Bri- 
tish Museum. 

The  double  or  compound  microscope  dif- 
fers from  the  preceding  iji  this  respect,  that  it 
consists  of  at  least  two  Irnses,  by  one  of  which 
an  image  is  formed  within  the  tube  of  the 
inicroscopo ;  and  lliis  image  is  view  ed  through 
the  eye-glass,  instead  of  tiie  object  itself  as  in 
the  single  microscope.  In  tiiis  respect  tlie 
principle  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  telescope, 
only  that,  as  the  latter  is  intended  to  view 
distant  objects,  the  object-lens  is  of  a  long  fo- 
cus, and  consequently  of  a  moderate  magni- 
fying power,  and  the  eye-glass  of  a  short  fo- 
cus, which  magnihes  considerably  the  image 
made  by  the  oijject  lens,  ^\■hercas  the  mi- 
croscope being  intended  only  for  minute  ob- 
jects, the  object-lens  is  consei|uently  of  a 
short  t()cus,  an<l  the  eye-glass  in  this  case  is 
not  of  so  high  a  iiiagnilying  power. 

A  single  figure  will  serve  to  explain  the 
principles  on  which  all  these  instruments  are 
constructed.  Suppose  therefore  LN  (Plate 
III.  lig.  3)  to  be  the  object-lens,  and  FG  to 
be  the  eye-glass.  The  object  OB  is  placed  a 
little  beyond  the  principal  focus  of  LN .  The 
tones  or  pencils  of  rays  then  proceeding  from 
the  dillerenl  points  ot  the  object,  are  by  the 
lens  maile  to  converge  to  their  respective 
foci,  and  form  an  inverted  image  of  the  ob- 
ject at  PQ.  This  image  is  seen  through  the 
eye  glass  FG,  and  the  rays  of  each  pencil 
will  proceed  in  a  parallel  direction  to  the  pu- 
pil of  the  eye. 

The  conspound  microscope  was  thus  origi- 
nally constructed  of  two  glasses,  but  it  was 
imnid  that  what  is  called  the  field  of  view  W3S 
too  confined  in  instruments  of  this  construc- 
tion. For  the  pencil  of  rays  which  emanates 
from  the  point  ()  of  the  object,  and  is  con- 
verged by  the  lens  to  D,  would  proceed  af- 
tei'vvanls  diverging  towards  H,  and  therefore 

Vol.  II. 


OPTICS. 

would  never  arrive  at  the  lens  FO,  nor  enter 
the  eye  at  I') ;  hut  tin-  pencils  which  proci  ed 
from  0  and  l>  will  bi'  conv<'rgrd  to  the  lens 
FC;,  and  sent  to  the  eye  at  F  in  a  paralli-l 
direction.  Hence  if  the  object  is  huge,  a 
very  small  pai-t  of  it  will  be  visible,  because 
several  pencils  will  fall  without  the  eye-glass 
FG,  anil  the  field  of  view  will  conseiiucnlly  be 
very  limited. 

'I'o  remedy  tliis  inconvenience,  a  broad 
lens  DF  is  interposed,  eithi  r  of  a  plano-con- 
vex, or  of  a  double-convex,  form.  By  this, 
it  will  be  perceived,  the  pencils  which  "would 
have  proceeded  towards  II  and  I,  will  be  re- 
fracted to  the  eye-glass,  and  the  figure  will 
be  com])letely  forfned  as  in  the  plate.  This 
glass  is  called  by  opticians  the  body-glass,  be- 
cause it  is  situated  in  the  body 'of  the  mi- 
croscope, home  artists  now  make  these  in- 
struments with  two  eye-glasses,  made  rather 
thin,  which  in  some  degree  corrects  what  is 
called  the  aberration,  or  dispersion  of  the 
rays.  In  all  these  microscopes  the  object  is 
seen  in  an  inverted  position ;  but  this  is  of 
little  importance  with  regard  to  small  insects 
and  other  mimite  bodies. 

The  solar  microscope  is  a  kind  of  camera 
obscura,  wliich,  in  a  darkened  chamber, 
throws  tlie  image  on  a  wall  or  screen.  It' 
consists  of  two  lenses  fixed  opposite  a  hole  in 
a  board  or  window-shutter;  one,  which  con- 
denses the  light  of  the  sun  upon  the  object 
(which  is  placed  between  t'iem),  and  the 
other  which  forms  the  image.  There  is  also 
a  plain  reflector  placed  without,  moved  by  a 
wheel  and  pinion,  which  may  be  so  re- 
gulated as  to  throw  the  sun's  rays  u])on 
the  outer  lens.  The  reader  may  form 
some  idea  of  this  by  inspecting  the  Plate 
III.  fig.  12,  of  the  camera  obscura,  only 
supposing  the  figures  on  the  wall  to  be  a 
microscopic  object  magnified  by  the  lens. 
Mr.  Adams's  most  ingenious  invention,  the 
lucernal  microscope,  is  also  to  be  considered 
as  a  kind  of  camera  obscura  ;  only  the  light  ii! 
this  latter  case  proceeds  from  a  lamp,  instead 
of  from  the  sun,  w  hich  renders  it  convenient 
to  be  used  at  all  times.  But  for  a  descrip- 
tion of  this  elegant  and  most  amusing  instru- 
ment, we  must  refer  to  his  Microscopical 
Essays. 

I'rom  what  has  been  said  on  the  nature  of 
the  compound  microscope,  the  principle  of 
the  telescope  may  be  easily  understood.  Te- 
lescopes are,  however,  of  two  kinds  :  the  one 
depending  on  the  principle  of  n-.fraction,  and 
called  the  dioptric  telescope ;  the  other  on 
the  principle  of  reflection,  and  therefore 
termed  the  refiecting  telescope. 

The  parts  essential  to  a  dioptric  telescope 
are,  the  two  lenses  AD  and  FY  (Plate  III. 
fig.  4).  As  in  the  compound  microscope, 
AD  is  the  object-glass,  and  FY  is  the  eye- 
glass ;  and  these  glasses  are  so  combined"  in 
tlie  tube,  that  the  focus  F  of  the  one  is  ex- 
actly coincident  with  tFie  focus  of  the  other. 

Let  OB  then  represent  a  very  distant  ob- 
ject, from  every  point  of  which  pencils  of 
rays  will  proceed  so  little  ihverging  to  the 
object-lens  AD,  that  they  may  be  considered 
as  nearly  parallel ;  IM  w'ill  th'en  be  the  image 
which  would  be  formed  on  a  screen  by  tlie 
action  of  the  lens  AD.  For  supposing  OA 
and  BD  two  pencils  of  rays  proceeding  from 
the  extreme  points  of  the  object,  they  will 
unite  ill  the  focal  point  F,  and  iiiteriiect  each 


30'i 

oflier.  But  the  point  F  is  also  (he  focus  of 
the  eye-glass  F^■ ;  and  tiir-rcioie  the  pent  il 
oi  rays,  instead  of  going  on  to  cljserge,  wdl 
pa-s  through  it  in  nearly  a  parallel  direction, 
so  as  to  cause  distinct  vision. 

It  is  then  plain  that,  as  in  the  comiioiind 
microscope,  it  is  tlie  image  which  is  here 
contemplated;  and  this  will  account  for  the 
I  ommoii  seiijation  when  people  sav  the  ob- 
ject is  brought  nearer  by  a  tele.co"i>e.  For 
the  rays,  which  after  cr'ossing  proceifd  in  a 
divergent  state,  fall  upon  the  lens  FY,  as  if 
they  procec-ded  from  a  real  object  situated  at 
F.  All  that  is  ellectcd  by  a  telesco)5e  then 
is,  to  form  such  an  image  of  a  distant  object, 
by  means  of  the  object-lens,  and  th<>n  to  give 
tlic  eye  such  assistance  as  is  necessary  lor 
viewing  that  image  as  near  as  possible  ;  so 
that  the  angle  it  shall  subtend  at  the  eye  shall 
be  very  larg(-  comjiared  with  the  angle  which 
the  object  itself  would  subtend  in  the  same 
situation.  This  is  effected  bv  means  of  the 
eye-glass,  which  refracts  the  "pencils  of  rays, 
so  t+iat  tliey  may  be  brought  to  their  several 
loci  liy  the  humours  of  the  eye,  as  has  been 
described. 

To  ex|)laiii  cleariy,  however,  the  reason 
why  it  appears  magnified,  we  must  again  have 
recourse  to  the  figure.  OB  being  at  a  great 
distance,  the  length  of  the  telescope  is  incon- 
siderable with  respect  to  it.  Supposing, 
therefore,  the  eye  viewed  it  from  tlie  centre 
ot  the  object-glass  C,  it  would  see  it  under 
the  angle  OCB :  let  OC  and  BC  then  be 
liroduced  to  the  focus  of  the  glass,  they  will 
then  limit  the  image  IM  formed  in  the  locvLS. 
If  then  two  parallel  rays  are  supposed  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  eye  glass  EY,  thev  will  be  con- 
verged to  Its  focus  -n,  and  th"e  eye  will  see 
the  image  under  tlie  angle  FIIY.  The  ap- 
parent magnitude  of  the  object  seen  bv  the 
naked  eye  is,  therefore,  to  that  of  the  iniage 
which  is  seen  through  the  telescope,  as  the 
magnitude  of  the  angle  OCB,  or  ICM,  to 
that  of  EHY,  or  IGM.  Now  the  aiVle 
IGM  is  to  ICM  as  CF  toFG  ;  that  is,  as  tlie 
focal  length  of  the  object-glass  to  that  of 
the  eye-glass. 

Tiie  magnifying  power  of  these  glasses 
may  be  augmented  to  a  considerable  degree, 
because  the  focal  length  of  the  object-glass' 
with  respect  to  that  o1  the  eve-glass,  may  be 
greatly  increased.  Tliis  however  would  re- 
quire a  tube  of  immense  length  ;  because  an 
eye-glass  of  a  very  short  focus  would  cause 
such  a  dispersion  of  the  rays  of  licht,  parti- 
cularly  towards  the  edges  of  the  glass,  that 
the  view  n  ould  be  intercepted  by  lie  prisma- 
tic colours. 

Another  manifest  defect  in  these  telescopes 
is,  that  the  linage  appears  inverted:  this, 
■  however,  is  of  no  consequence  with  respect 
to  the  beavenly  bodies;  and  on  this  account 
it  is  still  used  as  an  astronomical  telesco-ie. 
One  of  almost  a  similar  construction  i»  aVo 
used  on  board  of  sliips  as  a  night-glass,  to 
discover  rocks  in  the  ocean,  or  an  enemy's 
fleet.  Notwithstanding  the  inconvenience' of 
exhi!)iting  the  objects  inverted,  more  glasses 
than  two  cannot  be  employed  from  the  pau- 
city  of  light ;  and  habit  soon  enables  the  per- 
sons who  use  (hem  to  discern  objects  with  fo- 
lerable  dibtinctiiess. 

Galileo,  who  had  heard  of  the  invention 
of  telescopes,  but  had  not  seen  one>  con- 
structed a  telescope  upon  theoretical  prind- 


3C6 

pies,  and  adopted  a  concave  lens  as  an  eye- 
glass, but  whtftiier  with  a  view  of  obviating 
the  disagiee.ible  effect  produced  by  the  in- 
version of  the  unage  or  not  is  inieerlain. 
This  effect  is  however  produced  by  tin:  Gali- 
lean telescope,  tiie  construction  of  whicli  is 
a-s  foIlcAvs  :  Let  AB,  fig.  5,  be  a  very  dis- 
tant object,  fro.n  every  |)oint  of  which  pencils 
of  rays  proceed  to  the  convex  lens  Dli,  and 
are  refracted  towards  tlieir  foci  at  I'SG.  i5ut 
a  coiicavc  lens  III,  the  virtual  focus  of  which 
is  at  l-'G,  being  interposed,  the  rays  are  not 
suifered  to  converge  to  that  point ;  but  !)eing 
made  le.-;s  convergent,  as  is  tlie  effect  of  these 
glasses,  enter  the  pupil  almost  parallel,  and 
ai'e  converged  by  the  huni.->urs  of  the  eye  to 
their  proper  foci  on  the  retina  at  PQU  :  and 
the  object  v.ill  appear  erect,  because  tiie 
pencils  of  ravs  cross  eacli  other  only  once, 
as  in  natural  Vision.  Objects  are  seen  very 
distinct  through  this  telescope  ;  but  the  lield 
of  view  is  so  small,  that  its  use  is  almost  cc- 
clusively  confined  to  the  comnic)?i  opera- 
glasses.  For  if  the  focus  of  the  eye-gkrfs  is 
short,  the  pencils  of  rays  are  rendered  so  di- 
vergent, that  but  a  few  of  them  can  enter  the 
pupil. 

It  was  necessary  then,  to  render  the  chop- 
trie  telescope  useful  tor  terrestrial  purposes, 
to  cause  the  image  to  be  seen  in  an  erect  po- 
sition. This  was  effected,  by  the  addition  of 
two  other  convex Jenses;  of  this  Kepler  sug- 
ge-iled  the  idea,  though  it  was  not  reduced  t^o 
practice  till  thirty  years  after  his  time.  The 
principle  on  which  this  telescope  is  construct- 
ed will  be  easily  understood  from  what  has 
Ijeen  prenused,  and  by  inspecting  the  Plate, 
fig.  6.  It  will  be  seen  there,  that  to  the  com- 
mon asfroiioinical  telescope,  there  are  added 
two  other  eve-giasses  of  the  same  focus  ;is 
the  iirst,  L>.i  and  QR  ;  and  the  list  o''  these 
is  placed  at  twice  its  focal  distance  from  HI. 
After  the  rays  therefore  have  passed  the  first 
eye-glass  Hi,  instead  of  being  received  by 
the  eye,  as  in  the  former  case  of  the  ;islrono- 
rnical  telescope,  they  pass  on;  tiie  rays  which 
constitute  each  jjencil  being  rendered  paral- 
lel ;  and  in  this  stat?  tlie  respective  pencils 
cross  each  other  in  the  common  focus,  and 
the  rays  are  received  in  this  parallel  state  by 
the  second  eve-glass  LM.  The  rays  tln.-n 
constituting  the  respective  pencils  converge 
to  their  fo^i  at  NO,  where  a  second  image  is 
formed,  but  inverted  with  respect  to  the 
fonner  image  EK.  This  then  is  the  image 
wl'.ich  is  viewed  through  the  third  eye-glass 
QU  ;  and  being  in  the  same  position  as  thi' 
object  itself,  is  painted  on  the  retina  at  XZY, 
and  causes  the  object  to  be  seen  erect,  as  if 
no  glasses  had  besn  interposed.  Tlie  appa- 
rent magnitude  of  the  object  is  not  changed 
by  these  glasses ;  and  depends,  as  before,  on 
the  focal  lengths  of  tiie  lii'st  obje<t-glass  and 
the  lens  nearest  to  if.  The  brilliancy  of  the 
object,  however,  will  be  diminished,  since 
sever;;!  rays  will  be  lost  in  their  i)as3age 
through  tiie  two  additional  glasses.  In  placing 
the  glasses  in  this  telescope,  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  axes  of  the  lenses  coincide,  or, 
as  it  is  evident  from  our  princijiles,  indistinct 
viiion  only  will  lie  produced. 

'I'he  brightness  of  the  appearance  through 
any  of  these  telescopes  or  microscopes,  (le- 
pends  cliiefly  on  the  aperture  of  the  "object- 
glass.  For  if  the  whole  of  that  glass  was 
covered  except  a  small  aperture  in  the  mid- 
dle, the  magnitude  of  the  image  would  not 


OPTICS. 

be  altered  ;  but  fewer  rays  of  every  pencil 
being  admitted,  the  object  would  appear  ob- 
scure. 

In  few  words,  the  apparent  distinctness  or 
confusion  of  any  object,  viewed  througli 
glasses,  depends  on  the  mutual  inclination  of 
the  rays  in  any  one  pei.cil  to  each  other, 
when  they  fall  on  the  eye;  the  apparent 
magnitude  depends  upon  the  inclinLitiun  of 
the  r.!y5  of  dilfercht  pencils  to  eacli  other ; 
the  apparent  situation  depends  upon  the  real 
situation  of  the  extreme  jiencils  ;  and  the  ap- 
parent brightness  or  obscurity  depends  on 
the  cpianlity  of  rays  in  each  pencil. 

As  the  magnifving  power  of  all  dioptric  te- 
lescopes depends  on  tiie  proportion  which 
the  focal  length  of  the  eye-glass  bears  to  th.it 
of  the  object-glass ;  and  as  an  eye-gla>s  of 
verv  high  magnifyins  powers  c«u!d  not  be 
used  on  account  of  the  alierration  or  disper- 
sion of  the  rays,  from  the  unequal  thickness 
of  the  glass  ;  various  contrivances  were  in- 
vented tor  the  sake  of  employing  object- 
glasses  of  a  very  long  focus.  Wooden  tubes 
of  a  very  great  lengtli  were  found  unma- 
nageable. At  length  the  famous  Huygens 
invented  a  mode  of  dispensing  with  the  tube. 
He  attached  the  object-glass  to  a  liigh  pole, 
with  a  piece  of  mechanism  which  enabled 
him  to  raise  or  lower  it  at  pleasure  ;  and  he 
made  the  eye-glass  correspond  to  it  by  a  silk 
cord,  which  he  held  tight  in  his  baud.  'I'his 
method  is,  wf  believe,  still  in  use  on  the 
continent  lor  celestial  objects,  and  distin- 
guished liy  the  name  of  the  aerial  telescope. 

These  inventions  were  however  all  render- 
ed nugatory  by  the  discovery  of  the  rellect- 
ing  telescope.  For  a  dioptric  or  refracting 
telescope,  even  of  one  thousand  feet  focus,  if 
it  could  be  used,  could  not  be  made  to  mag- 
nify with  distinctness  above  one  thousand 
limes  ;  whereas  a  rellecting  telescope  of  the 
length  of  eight  or  nine  feet  will  magnify  witli 
distinctness  1200  times. 

The  well-known  property  in  concave  spe- 
culums,  of  causing  the  pencils  of  rays  to  con- 
verge to  their  loci,  and  there  funning  an 
image  of  any  object  tliat  may  be  opposed  to 
them,  gave  rise  to  the  reiiecting  telescope. 
In  this  the  effect  is  precisely  the  siime  as  that 
produced  by  the  dioptric  telescope;  only 
that  in  the  one  case  it  is  produced  by  reflect- 
ed, and  in  tlie  other  by  retracted,  light.  Re- 
llecting telesiopes  are  made  in  various  forms; 
and  those  principally  in  use  in  this  country 
are  distinguisbed  by  the  names  of  their  re- 
spective inventors,  and  are  called  the  New- 
tonian, (jregorian,  and  Herschelian  tele- 
scopes. The  rellecting  telescope  on  the  Gre- 
goiian  principle,  wliicli  is  the  most  common, 
as  it  is  fouiul  to  be  t!ie  most  convenient,  is 
consnicted  in  the  following  manner  : 

At  the  bottom  of  the  great  tube  (Tlate 
111.  fig.  7)  TITT,  is  placed  a  large 
concave  mirror  DUVF,  wliose  principal  fo- 
cus is  at  m  :  and  in  the  middle  of  this  mirror  is 
a  round  hole  P,  opposite  to  which  is  placed 
the  small  mirror  L,  concave  towanl  the  great 
one  ;  and  so  fixeil  to  a  strong  wire  M,  that  it 
may  be  removed  further  from  the  great  mir- 
ror, or  nearer  to  it,  by  means  of  a  long  scr<rw 
in  tlie  inside  of  the  tube,  keeping  its  axis  slill 
in  the  same  line  Vmn  witn  that  of  the  great 
one.  Now,  since  in  viewing  a  very  remote 
object,  wc  can  scarcely  see  a  point  of  it  but 
wiiat  is,  at  least,  as  broad  as  the  great  uiii- 


ror,  we  may  consider  the  rays  of  each  pen- 
cil, whicii  tiow  from  every  point  of -the  ob- 
ject, to  be  parallel  to  each  other,  and  to  co- 
yer tlie  whole  rellecting  surlace.DUNT''.  But 
to  avoid  confusion  in  the  figure,  we  shall  only 
draw  two  rays  of  a  [lencil  liowiiig  from  each 
extremity  ol  the  object  into  the  great  tube  ; 
and  trace  their  progress  through  all  their  re- 
llecti.-ins  and  retractions  to  the  eye/ at  tho 
end  of  the  small  tube  It,  wliicli  is  joined  to 
tlie  great  one. 

Let  Us  then  suppose  the  object  AB  to  be  at 
such  a  distance,  that  tiie  rays  C  may  flow 
tioni  its  upper  extremity  A,  iuid  the  rays  E 
from  its  lower  extremity  13;  then  the  rays  C 
falling  parallel  upon  the  great  mirror  at  D, 
will  be  thence  rellected  converging  in  the 
direction  DG  ;  and  by  crossing  at  1  in  the 
principal  focus  in  the  mirror,  they  will  form 
the  lower  extremiiy  of  the  inverted  image 
IK,  similar  to  the  upper  extremity  A  of  tiie 
oliject  Aii;  and  passing  on  to  the  concave 
mirror  L  (wliose  focus  is  at  «).  they  will  f.dl 
upon  it  at  i;-,  and  be  tliencc  reliected,  con- 
verging in  llie  direction  ,gN,  because  gnt  is- 
longer  than  ijvj ;  and  passing  through  the  hole 
P  in  the  large  mirror,  tlicy  would  meet  some- 
where about  r,  and  form  the  upper  extre- 
mity u  of  the  erect  image  uh,  similar  to  fhe 
upper  extremity  A  of  the  l>bj^■ct  AB.  But  by 
pas-ing  throL'gli  the  plano-convex  glass. R  m 
their  way,  tiiey  form  that  e.Ktreniity  of  the 
image  at  a.  In  the  same  manner  the  rays  E, 
which  come  from  tlie  bullom  of  the  object 
AB,  and  fall  parallel  upon  the  great  mirror 
at  V,  are  thence  rellected,  converging  to  its. 
focus ;  where  they  form  the  upper  extremiiy 
1  of  the  inverted  image  IK,  similar  to  tlie 
lower  extremity  B  of  the  object  AB :  and 
thence  passing  on  to  fhe  small  mirror  I,,  and 
hilling  upon  it  at  /;,  they  are  thence  rellected 
in  the  converging  state  hO  ;  and  g»ing  oii- 
tlirough  the  hole  P  of  the  great  mirror,  they 
would  meet  somewhere  about  q,  and  ibriii 
there  the  lower  extremity  /;  of  the  eict 
image  «/i,  similar  to  the  lower  extremitv  B 
of  the  object  AB  ;  but  by  passing  through 
Ihe  convex  glass  R  in  their  way,  they  meet 
and  cross  sooner,  as  at  b,  where  that  point  of 
the  erect  image  is  formed.  The  like  being 
understood  ol  all  those  rays  which  How  from 
the  intermediate  points  of  the  oliject  between 
A  and  B,  and  enter  the  tube  'I'P,  all  the  in- 
termediate points  of  the  image  between  u  and 
h  Will  be  formed  ;  and  the  rays  passing  on 
from  the  image  through  the  eye-glass  S,  and 
through  a  small  hole  c  in  the"  end  of  the  lesser 
tube  tt,  they  enter  'he  eye^i  which  sees  tlie 
image  ab  (by  means  of  ihe  eye-glass)  under 
the  large  angle  ced,  and  magnified  in  length 
under  that  angle  f.om  c  to  d. 

In  the  best  reflecting  telescopes,  the  focus 
of  the  small  mirror  is  never  coincident  with 
the  focus  m  of  the  great  one,  where  the  first 
ima^e  IK  is  formed,  but  a  little  beyond  it 
(with  respect  to  the  eye)  asat/r,  the  conse- 
quence of  which  is,  that  the  rays  of  the  pen- 
<-ils  will  not  be  parallel  after  rellection  trom 
the  small  mirror,  but  converge  so  as  to  meet 
in  points  aboul  q,  c,  r  ;  where  they  wouKl 
fon'in  a  larger  upriglit  image  than  ah,  if  the 
glass  R  was  not  in  their  way,  and  this  image 
might  be  viewed  by  means  of  a  single  eye- 
glass properly  placed  between  tlie  image  and 
the  eye  :  but  tlien  the  lield  of  view  would  be 
Icas,  and  consequently  not  so  pleasant  ;  (or 


/Ui^/ii-^  .f^l*  4f  tS.-a  /(y  JU'fiiU^.  llHJfir  ./ffwtf  /Ha^^h.ut/,/.onJ^>n. 


tliat  rcawn  the  ijlass  K  is  still  retained,  to  en- 
large the  sfopt'  oi-  area  of  the  iicid. 

'I'o  linil  thi!  inagiiif)ii)g  power  of  tiiis  te- 
lescopi.",  multiply  the  local  ih^taiicc  of  tin.' 
great  mirror  by  the  distance  of  the  small 
i\iirror  from  the  imagt-  next  the  eve,  ami  niiil- 
liply  the  focal  dntiuice  of  tiie  small  mirror  by 
the  local  distance  of  the  eye-gla^s  ;  then  di- 
vide tlie  product  of  the  Inriiier  mnltiplicatiou 
by  that  ol  the  latter,  and  the  iiiiolunt  uill 
express  the  mai;iiifying  power.  'I'lie  differ- 
ence between  the  Newtonian  and  Gregorian 
telescope  is,  that  in  the  former  ihe  spectator 
looks  iri  at  the  side  through  an  aperture  upon 
a  plane  mirror,  by  which  the  ra_\s  relkcted 
iiom  the  concave  mirror  are  rellecled  to  the 
eye-glass  ;  whereas  in  the  latter  the  reader 
will  sec  that  he  looks  through  the  common 
eye-glass,  which  is  in  general  more  conve- 
nient. 

The  immensely  powerful  telescopes  of  Dr. 
Herschel  are  of  a  still  diiferent  construc- 
tion. This  assiduous  astronomer  has  made 
several  specula,  which  are  so  perfect  as 
to  bear  a  magnifying  power  of  more  than  six 
thousand  timeo  in  diameter  on  a  distant  ob- 
ject, 'the  object  is  rel'ected  by  a  nnriDr  as 
jii  tlie  Gregorian  telescope,  and  the  rays  are 
intercepted  by  a  lens  at  a  proper  distance,  so 
that  the  observer  has  his  back  to  the  object, 
and  looks  througli  the  lens  at  the  mirror, 
'the  magnifying  power  will  in  this  case  be  the 
same  as  in  Ine  Newtonian  telescope  ;  but 
there  not  being  a  second  lelleclor.  the  bright- 
ness of  the  olyect  viewed  in  the  Herschelian 
is  greater  than  that  ill  the  Newtonian  or 
~Cj  i\;goriaii  telescope.  In  conclusion,  sir  Isaac 
Newton's  excellent  maxim  must  not  be 
omitted:  "  'I'iie  art,"  says  he,  "  of  con- 
Slrjcling  good  microscopes  and  telescopes 
may  be  said  to  depend  on  the  circumstance 
ol  making  the  last  image  as  large  and  dis- 
tiiict  and  luminous  as  possible." 

There  are  some  instruments  of  rather  an 
amusing  than  a  useful  description,  the  effects 
of  vvliich  depend  on  a  proper  combination 
of  plane  or  convex  glasses.  Our  limits  will 
not  admit  the  notice  of  more  than  two  of  this 
kind,  namely,  the  magic  lanthorn,  and  the 
camera  obscura.  The  former  is  a  micro- 
scope upon  the  .same  principles  as  the  solar 
microscope,  and  may  be  used  with  good  ef- 
fect for  magiiif)  ing  sma  I  transparent  .objects; 
but  in  general  it  is  applied  to  the  purpose  of 
amusement,  by  c.isting  the  image  oi  a  small 
transparent  painting  on  glass  upon  a  wliite 
wall  or  screen,  at  a  proper  distance  from  the 
instrunii'nt. 

Let  a  candle  or  lamp  C  (fig.  8)  be  placed 
in  tlie  inside  of  u  box,  so  tnat  the  light  niay 
pass  tlirough  the  plano-convex  lens  jSN,  and 
strongly  ilium. nate  the  oOJec  t  01'  ;  which  is 
a  transparent  painting  <)n  glass,  inverted  and 
moveable  before  NN,  by  means  of  a  sliding 
piece  in  which  the  glass  is  set  or  (ixcd.  Thi-s 
illumination  is  still  more  increa.ed  by  the  re- 
llection  of  light  from  a  concave  mirror  SS, 
jilaced  at  the  otiier  end  of  the  box,  which 
causes  the  light  to  fal.  upon  the  lens  NN,  as 
represented  in  the  liguie.  La>tly,  a  lens  LL, 
Jixed  in  a  sliding  tube,  ii  brought  to  the  re- 
♦juiste  distance  from  the  object  OB,  and  a 
large  ereiU  image  IM  is  formed  upon  the  op- 
posite wall. 

The  camera  obscura  has  the  same  relation 
to  the  telescope  as  the  solar  microscope  has 


OPTICS. 

to  the  common  double   microscope,  and  is 
thus  constructed: 

Let  CD  (lig.  12)  represent  a  darkened 
chamber  perlorati-d  at  L,  where  a  convex 
lens  is  lixod,  the  curvature  of  which  is  such, 
tluht  Ihe  locus  of  parallel  rays  falls  upon  the 
opposite  wall.  Then  if  AU  is  an  object  at 
such  a  distance  that  the  rays  which  procee<l 
from  any  given  point  of  its  surlace  to  the 
hn^  L  maybe  esteemed  parallel,  an  inverted 
picture  will  be  formed  on  the  ©[jposite  wall ; 
lor  the  [lencil  which  proceeds  from  A  will 
converge  to  a,  ami  the  pencil  which  proceeds 
from  1)  will  converge  to  b,  and  the  interme- 
<l;nte  points  of  the  object  will  be  depicted 
between  a  and  b. 

I'or  the  use  of  painters  these  instruments 
are  now  constructed  in  a  very  convenient 
mode,  'flic  lens  is  made  to  slide  in  a  small 
wooden  box,  so  as  to  be  easily  adjusted  to  a 
proper  focus  ;  and  the  image  falls  upon  a 
plane  mirror,  placed  oblicjuely  at  the  back 
part  ot  the  bo.\,  from  which  it  is  rellected  on  a 
piece  of  ground  glass,  or  on  a  sheet  ol  white 
paper  exiended  over.  The  picture  which  is 
thus  formed  is  very  tender  and  beautiful. 
The  moving  objects  give  it  animation;  and 
the  outline  formed  is  so  perfect  that  it  may 
be  easily  traced,  even  by  a  person  who  is 
little  skilled  in  drawing  or  perspective. 

(if  the  dnirhic  of  colmirs,  or  chroniatic!. 
—\n  some  of  the  preceding  sections  we  had 
occasion  to  use  the  word  aberration,  though 
we  had  not  then  an  opportunity  of  explaining 
it ;  since  in  the  optics  of  the  mind,  as  well  as 
in  those  of  which  we  are  treating,  when  too 
many  images  are  presented  at  once,  a  certain 
degree  ot  confusion  must  necessarily  ensue. 
As  there  is  no  '•  royal  road  to  science,"  so 
philosophy  gradually  devclopes  her  secrets, 
Lind  the  |)ossession  of  one  fact  prepares  the 
mind  for  another. 

\\'e  have  hitherto  assumed  as  a  principle, 
that  a  convex  lens  unites  in  one  point, 
which  we  have  called  the  focus,  all  the  rays 
proceeding  from  any  given  point  of  an  ob- 
ject. It  tills  was  exactly  the  case,  the  images 
ibrmed  by  these  glasses  would  be  perfectly 
distinct  and  unconfused.  The  principle, 
however,  holds  strictly  true  only  with  respect 
to  those  rays  which  pass  nearly  through  the 
centre  oi  the  lens  ;  for  those  w  hich  pass  near 
the  extremities  or  edges  of  the  gla^s,  meet  in 
foci  still  more  distant,  and  from  this  miiliipli- 
cation  of  images  great  indistinctness  results. 
To  shew  the  reason  of  this  it  is  necessary 
to  have  recourse  to  a  rigure.  Let  PP  then 
(Plate  HI.  lig.  10)  be  a  convex  lens;  and 
Ec  an  object,  the  point  E  of  which  corre- 
sponds with  the  axis  of  the  lens,  and  sends 
forth  the  rays  liM,  KN,  liA,  EM,  and  EN, 
all  of  which  reach  the  surface  of  the  glass, 
but  ill  diiferent  parts.  Now  it  is  manifest, 
upon  the  principles  already  explaine<l,  that 
the  ray  EA,  which  passes  through  the  middle 
oftiie  glass,  suiters  no  refraction;  ilie  rays 
KM,  E.VI,  also,  which  pass  thrDUgh  near  to 
EA,  will  be  converged  to  a  focus  at  1",  which 
we  have  been  accustomed  to  consider  as  the 
foeus  of  the  lens.  Cut  the  rays  EN,  EN, 
w  hich  are  nearer  to  the  edge  of  the  glass,  will 
be  dilVerently  refracted  ;  and  will  meet  about 
G,  nearer  to  tiie  lens,  where  tiiey  will  form 
an'  tiler  image  Gg.  Hence  it  is  evident  that 
the  tirst  image  F/  is  formed  only  by  the  union 
of  tliose  rays  wliicli  pass  very  near  the  centre 


307 

of  the  lens ;  but,  in  truth,  as  the  rays  of  iiglit 
proceeding  Irom  every  point  of  an  ob  ect  are 
very  numerous,  there  is  a  sui  cession  of 
images  formed  according  to  the  ])arts  of  (he 
len.  where  they  penetrate,  whi<li  necessarily 
jiroduees  great  indistinctness  and  ctintusioii ; 
and  this  is  what  is  meant  by  the  word  aberra- 
tion. 

This  confusion  or  dispersion  of  the  rays  it 
increased  in  proporliort  as  the  arcs  VAP, 
PUP,  are  larger  segments  of  their  respective 
circles:  hence  in  very  thick  and  convejc 
lenses  tlie  aberration  is  svidi  as  ro  be  intoler- 
able. Even  in  the  ol>j'Ct-gla:ses  of  tele- 
scopes, tlioiigli  they  are  made  thin,  and  are 
segments  of  large  circles,  and  though  from 
these  reasons  the  dispersion  of  the  rays  may 
be  insensible  in  itself,  still  the  magnifying 
power  muitiplies  it  as  often  as  the  object  it- 
self. Hence  the  greater  the  migitifying 
power,  the  smaller  should  be  the  aperture  of 
the  object-glass  ;  and  w  hen  the  dispersion  of 
the  rays  is  very  great,  the  defect  is  in  some 
degree  remedied  by  covering  the  edge  of  the 
lens  with  an  opaque  ring ;  but  in  tnis  case, 
while  distinctness  is  restored,  the  brightuess 
of  the  image  is  necessarily  diminished.  Op- 
ticians have  therefore  endeavoured  to  form 
such  combinations  of  lenses,  both  concave 
and  convex,  varying  in  their  res])ective  foci, 
as  must  unite  all  the  rays  in  a  single  point, 
and  thus  present  a  distinct  image.  Calcula- 
tions have  been  formed  for  tlicse  combina- 
tions, but  the  hand  ot  the  artist  has  never 
been  able  to  bring  the  speculations  of  theo- 
rists to  entire  perfection. 

The  plan  most  generally  adopted  by  prac- 
tical opticians  is,  to  combine  two  shallow 
lenses  together  in  such  a  manner  that  they  act 
as  a  single  lens.  They  use  often  plano-con- 
vex, for  that  ligure  admits  of  less  aberration 
than  any  other ;  but  shallow  lenses  of  a  dou- 
ble-convex kind  will  answer.  In  this  combi- 
nation the  lenses  are  set  near  together,  so  that 
tlie  second  lens  acts  only  in  bringing  the  rays 
which  pass  through  the  lirst  to  a  nearer  tocus. 
Thus  111  Plate  111.  tig.  9,  AB  and  CD  are 
two  lenses  of  this  description  ;  and  the  focus 
of  AB  would  be  at  F,  but,  by  the  second 
lens,  tlvc  rays  are  made  to  converge  at  a 
nearer  focus/':  thus  they  act  together  as  a 
single  lens  of  double  their  magnifying  power, 
with  this  advantage ;  that  as  the  curvatures  of 
both  coniointlv,  are  less  than  the  curvature 
ot  a  single  lens  of  eijual  power,  the  aberration 
is  greatly  lessened. 

The  aberrat  ion  w  hich  w  e  have  been  describ-  • 
ing  results  from  the  spherical  form  of  the 
glasses  ;  but  there  is  aiiother  kind  of  aberia- 
tion,  which  depends  immediately  upon  the 
nature  and  properties  of  light  itself.  Each 
ray  or  beamol  lii;ht,  indeed,  which  gives  us 
the  sensation  of  white,  is  found  to  be  com- 
pounded of  seven  olher  rays;  and  these  com- 
ponent rays  are  each  of  them  difl'erently  le- 
fraugible.'  Hence  objects  viewed  tlu-ougU 
very  convex  glasses  are  often  found  to  have 
the'ir  edges  tinged  w  ith  various  colours.  This 
effect  was  long  felt,  but  it  remained  ior  New- 
ton to  explain  the  cause. 

In  the  sliort  history  contained  in  tlic  first 
part  of  this  article,  the  discoveries  on  colours 
were  britlly  related ;  but  it  will  perhaps  be 
satisfactory  to  the  reader  to  have  the  txperi- 
ment  described  in  the  words  of  Newton  hini- 
self,  which  will  at  die  same  time  alTord  an  en- 


308 

-ample  of  tlie  style  and  manner  of  this  first  of 
philosophers. 

"  In  a  very  dark  chamber,  at  a  round  hole 
F  (PI;Ue  111.' fig.  14\  ab'jtU  one-third  of  an 
inch  bioiid  (says  he),  made  in  the  shutter  of  a 
Avindou',  I  jvlaced  a  glass  prism  AI5C,  wliereby 
(he  beam  of  the  sun's  light,  SF,  uhich  came 
in  at  that  hole,  might  be  refracied  upwards, 
toward  the  opposite  <v:iil  of  tiie  chamber,  and 
there  form  a  coloured  image  of  the  sun,  re- 
presented at  Pr.  The  axis  of  the  prism 
(that  is,  tlie  line  passing  through  tiie  middle 
of  the  prism,  from  one  end  of  it  to  the  other 
end,  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  refracting  an- 
gle) was  in  tliis  and  the  tollo'.vini;  experiments 
perpendicular  to  the  incident  rays.  About 
this  axis  I  turned  the  prism  slowly  ;  and  saw 
the  refracted  lir^lit  on  the  wall,  or  coloured 
image  of  the  sun,  lirst  to  de-ci'nd,  and  then 
to  a-^cend.  Between  the  descent  and  ascent, 
when  the  image  seeme<l  stationary,  I  stopped 
the  prism,  and  fixed  it  in  that  posture. 

"  Tlien  1  let  the  refracted  light  fall  perpen- 
dicularly upon  a  sheet  of  white  p:iper,  MN, 
placi-d  at  the  opposite  wall  of  the  chamber; 
and  obs'.-rved  the  ligure  and  dimensions  of  tiie 
■solar  image  PT,  formed  on  the  paper  by  that 
light.     This  image  was  oblong,  and  not  oval, 
but  terminated  by  two  rectihnear  and  paial-  | 
lei  sides,  and   two  semicircu'ar  ends.     On  its 
sides  it  was  bounded  pretty  distinctly  ;  but  on  ; 
its  ends  verv  confnsedly  and  iiKli^tinclly,  the  \ 
light  there  decaying  and   vanishing  by  de-  ; 
grees.     At  the  distance  of  18  5-  feet  from  the  : 
prism,  the  breadth  of  the  image  was  about  ! 
'2ji  inches,  but  its  length  was  about  lOj  inches,  I 
and  the  length  of  its  rectilinear  sides  about  8  i 
inches;  ami  ACB,  tiie  retracting  angle  of  llie  ! 
prism,  whereby  so  great  a  length  was  made,  I 
was  64\     A\  iih  a   less  angle    the  length  of 
the  image  was  less,  the  breadth  remaining  the  \ 
same.     It  is  farther  to  be  observed,  that  the  ' 
rays  went  on  in  slraigiit  lines  from  tlie  prism 
to  the  image ;  and  therefore  at  their  going 
out  of  the  |)rism  had  all  that  inclination  to 
one  another  from  which  the  length  of  the 
i  iiage  proceeded.     This  image  P  T  was  co- 
loured, and  the  more  eminent  colours  lay  in 
this  order  from  tne  bottom  at  T  to  tlie  top  at 
P ;  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo, 
violet,  together  with  all  tiieir  intermetliate 
degrees,  in  a  continual  succession,  perpetu- 
ally varying." 

The    philosopher  continued  his    experi- 
ments, and  l)y  making  the  rays  thus  decoin- 
■pounded  pass,  as  was  f  jruie'  ly  rekited,  through 
a  second  prism,  he  found  that  they  did  not 
admit  of  farther  de-ouiposition  ;  and  that  ob- 
jects placed  in  the  rays  producing  oner  colour 
always  appe  ired  to  be  of  that  colour.     He 
then  examined  the  ratio  between  the  sines  of  I 
imiden'-e  and  refraction    of    the.se  decom- 
pounded rays;  and  found  that  each  of  the  i 
seven  prim'iry  colour-m  ikiug  rays,  as  tiiey 
may   be  called,    had   certain   I'mits   within  j 
which  they  wi-re  coiifiii -d.     Thus,    let  the  j 
sine  of  incidence   in  glass  be  divided   into 
lifty  i-qual  pa'ts,  the  ^ine  of  refraction  into 
air  ol   the  least  aii<l    most   refrangible   rays  ' 
will   contain    respectively   77   and   78  siivh  I 
parts.     The  sines  ol  refraction  ol   all  (he  de-  i 
grees  of  red  will  have  tie  inter    ediitv- de- ; 
Krees  of  magnitude,  from  77  to  77^-;  orani;e  ' 
from  77J  to  77i  ;  yellow  from  77  .J-  'o  775-;  • 
gretu  (lom  77}  to  77i ;  blue  Iroiu  77i  to 


OPTICS. 

775  ;  indigo  from   77J  to  77|. ;  and  violet 
from  77.J.  to  78. 

According  to  the  properties  of  bodies  in 
reflecting  or  absorbing  these  rays,  the  co- 
lours which  we  see  in  them  are  formed.  If 
every  ray  tailing  upon  an  object  was  reflected 
to  our  eyes  it  would  appear  white ;  if  every 
ray  was  absorbed  it  would  appear  black  ;  be'- 
tween  these  two  appearances  innumerable 
species  of  colours  may  be  formed  by  rellection 
or  transmission  of  the  various  combinations 
of  the  colour-making  rays.  If  the  rays  also 
01  light  were  not  thus  compounded,  every 
object  would  appear  of  the  same  colour,  and 
an  irksome  uniformity  would  prevail  over 
the  face  of  nature. 

To  leave,  however,  for  the  present,  the 
further  prosecution  of  this  subject,  and  to 
return  to  that  of  the  errors  arising  in  optical 
glasses  from  the  dispersion  of  the  rays  of  li^ht, 
it  must  be  evident  that,  in  proportion  as  any 
part  of  a  glass  bears  a  resemblance  to  the 
Ibrm  of  a  prism,  the  component  rays  must  be 
necessarily  separated.  ^I'he  edges  of  everv 
convex  lens  a])proach  to  this  form  ;  and  it  is 
on  this  account  that  the  extremities  of  objects 
viewed  througli  them  are  fouiui  to  be  tinged 
witii  coloured  rays.  In  reality,  as  all  the  dif- 
ferent colour-making  rays  are  dilferently  re- 
frangible, in  such  a  glass  these  different  ravs 
will  have  diilerent  foci,  and  will  iorm  their 
respective  images  at  dilierent  distances  troni 
the  glass.  Tims  imagine  PP  (Plate  III. 
fig.  1 1)  to  be  a  double-convex  lens,  and  OO 
an  object  situated  at  some  distance  from  it.  If 
the  object  OO  was  red,  tiie  rays  proceeding 
from  it  would  form  a  red  image  at  Kc;  if  it 
v.as  violet,  an  hnage  of  that  colour  would  be 
formed  at  Vd  nearer  tiie  glass  ;  and  if  the  ob- 
ject was  white,  or  any  other  combination  of 
the  colour-making  rays,  these  ravs  would 
have  llieir  respective  foci  at  dilierent  dis- 
tances from  tiie  glass,  and  form  a  succession 
of  images,  in  the  order  of  tiie  prismatic  co- 
lours, between  the  space  Kr  and  \v. 

This  dispersion  depends  on  the  focal  length 
of  the  glass,  the  space  which  the  coloured 
imag!--s  occupy  being  about  the  "?!th  part. 
Thus,  if  the  glass  is  of  28  feet  focus,  the 
space  between  Kj-  and  Vd  will  be  about  one 
foot,  and  so  in  proportion.  Now  when  view- 
ed through  one  eye-glass  or  more,  this  suc- 
cession of  images  will  seem  to  form  but  one 
image,  but  that  very  indistinct,  and  tinged 
with  various  colours ;  and  as  the  red  image 
Kr  in  the  figure  is  largest,  or  seen  under  the 
greatest  angle,  the  extreme  parts  of  this  con- 
fused image  will  be  red,  and  a  succession  of 
the  prismatic  colours  will  be  formed  with  this 
red  fringe,  as  isfrecjuently  found  in  telescopes 
upon  the  old  construction. 

'I'his  defect  in  telescopes  was  long  regarded 
as  witiiout  a  renie  iy ;  but  who  shall  set 
bouu  Is  tj  the  inventive  powers  of  the  human 
mind  ;■  It  was  in  the  different  refractive 
powers  of  various  media  that  a  remedy 
was  -ought  for  this  property  in  glasses,  so  ad- 
verse to  the  h'  'pes  and  wishes  of  philosophers. 
Sir  IsaHC  Newton  li.id  hinted  tin-  practicabi- 
lity of  this  plan;  but  lie  was  too  cleiply  en- 
gaged in  tlie  vast  discoveries  which  the  use 
of  the  reflector  opened  to  his  view,  to  |)ur- 
sue  practically  the  idea.  As  w.iter  is  known 
lo  h.ive  very  different  refractive  pow  rs  from 
gla-'S,  the  great  Kuler,  proccediiig  upon  the 
hirtt  of  Newton,  projected  an  obji.cl-jjlass  ol 


two  lenses,  with  water  between  them.  Tlie 
memoir  inf  Eule'r  excited  powerlully  the  at- 
tention of  Mr.  Dollond,  a  practical  optician 
in  i-ondon  ;  and  after  frying  the  retractive 
power  of  water  coiiibiiied  with  glass  in  the 
lorni  of  a  jjrism,  he  conceived  t.iat  the  re- 
fractive powers  of  dilierent  glasses  might 
serve  to  correct  each  other.  He  app  led 
himself  theretbie  to  examine  the  ([U-ilities  of 
every  kind  of  g'ass  he  could  procure,  and 
found  that  the  two  which  diif'ered  most  es- 
sentially in  iheir  refractive  powers  were  the 
comniun  crown  or  window  glass,  and  the 
white  Hint  glass.  He  then  formed  two  prisms, 
one  ol  the  white  Hint  of  an  aiiiile  of  about  ^5 
degrees,  and  another  of  flint  of  29.  'J  hey 
refracted  verj'  nearly  alike,  but  their  power 
of  making  the  colours  diverge  was  very  dif- 
lerent.  rle  next  ground  several  others  of 
crown  glass,  tdl  he  procure,!  one  which  was 
etpial  as  to  the  divergency  of  light  with  that 
ot  the  flint  gla-.s.  He  placed  tlicm  together, 
therefore,  but  in  opposite  directions,  so  as  to 
counteract  each  other ;  aiirl  be  found  that  the 
light  which  passed  tlnougii  them  was  per- 
fectly while.  This  di  covery,  it  was  obvious, 
was  immediately  applicable  to  the  object- 
glasses  of  telescopes.  To  make  the  glasses 
act  as  tiie  two  prisms,  to  reiract  the  light  in 
contrary  directions,  it  was  plain  that  the  one 
must  be  concave  and  the  other  conve.x  ;  and 
as  the  rays  are  to  converge  to  a  real  focus,  tlie 
excess  of  refraction  inu-t  be  in  the  convex 
lens.  As  the  convex  lens  is  to  refract  most 
also,  it  appeared  from  his  experiments  that  it 
must  be  of  crown  glass.  He  tlieietore  em- 
ployed two  convex  lenses  of  crown  glass, 
with  a  concave  lens  of  Hint  glass  ;  and  tiiese 
are  the  telescopes  most  in  use  at  present,  and 
well  known  by  the  name  of  achromatic  te- 
lescopes. Some  opticians  however,  we  be- 
lieve, now  construct  them  with  two  lenses, one 
convex  and  the  other  concave. 

In  fig.  1.3,  a  and  c  shew  the  two  conve.x 
lenses,  and  bb  the  concave  one,  of  this  tele- 
scope. They  are  all  ground  to  spheres  of  dif- 
ferent radii,  according  to  the  refractive  pow- 
ers of  tlie  different  kinds  of  glass,  and  the  in- 
tended focal  distance  of  the  object-glass  of  ^H 
the  telescope.  According  to  Boscovich,  the  ^^ 
tocal  distance  of  the  parallel  rays  for  the  con- 
cave lens  is  one-haltj  and  for  the  conve.i 
glass  one-third,  of  tjie  combined  focus.  When 
put  together  they  refract  the  rays  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  Let  ab,  ah  (tig.  18),  be  two 
led  ra\s  of  the  sun's  liglit  falling  parallel  on 
the  first  convex  lens  c.  Supposing  there  was 
no  other  lens  presi  nt  but  that  one,  they  would 
then  be  converged  into  the  lines  be,  be,  and 
at  ktst  meet  in  the  locus  q.  Let  the  lines 
gh,  e;li,  represent  two  violet  rays  falling  on 
the  surface  of  the  lens.  These  are  also  re- 
fracted, and  will  meet  in  a  focus  ;  but  as  they 
have  a  greater  degree  of  refrangibility  than 
the  red  ra\s,  they  must  of  consecitience  con- 
verge more  by  the  same  power  of  refraction 
in  the  glass,  and  meet  sooner  in  a  focus,  sup- 
pose at  r.  Let  now  the  concave  lens  of  Hint 
glass  ddbc  placed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  in- 
tercept all  the  rays  before  they  come  to  their 
focus.  If  this  lens  was  made  of  the  same 
materials,  and  ground  to  to  the  same  radius 
with  the  convex  one,  it  would  have  the  same 
power  to  cause  the  rays  to  diveige  that  the 
former  had  lo  make  them  converge.  In 
this  case,  the  red  rays  would  become  paral- 


Icl,  and  move  on  in  the  line  no,  on:  hut  tlip 
oiicave  leiis,  bL-iiig  niadi'  ot  Hint  gl.i'-s,  and 
upon  a  shorter  raduH,  lias  a  prralcr  n irac- 
tivi;  power,  ;.iid  tiu-retoro  they  diverge  a  liUli; 
aller  tliey  come  oiU  oi  it ;  aiul  it  no  tiiird 
Ilmis  uas  inler|)0>cd,  Ihi-y  would  proceed  di- 
verging in  tiie  lines  n^n,  opt ;  but,  by  the  iii- 
teriXiBUioii  01  Ine  tli;rd  lens  ovo,  tlie\  an- 
again  made  to  eonverge,  and  nie;-t  in  a  (oens 
somewnat  more  distant  than  the  lormer,  as 
at  .!■.  By  the  concave  lens  the  violet  rays  aiv 
als)  reiracled,  and  made  to  diverge:  but, 
Ji..ving  a  gieater  degree  of  relrangibility,  the 
saiii-  |jo.ver  of  refraction  makes  them  di>eige 
so:iiew.iat  more  tiian  th-  red  ones  ;  and  thus, 
it  no  tiiird  lens  was  interposed,  they  woyld 
pri):;eed  ,n  snrh  lines  as  t'liii,  Iniii.  As  the 
d.iloieiiUy-coloiired,  rays  tlien  fall  upon  the 
third  lens  with  diiL-rent  degrees  ot  diver- 
gence, it  is  plain  that  the  same  power  of  le- 
f  a,-tioii  in  that  lens  will  iiperate  upon  ihcni  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  bring  them  all  tog.ther 
to  a  focus  very  nearly  at  the  S-Uiie  point.  The 
i-ed  rays,  it  is  true,  re.|Uire  the  greatest 
power  of  rel'i action  to  bring  them  to  a  focus; 
htit  they  fah  upon  the  lens  with  the  least  de- 
gree ot  diveiv,eiic».  The  violet  rays,  though 
tlK-y  require  tiie  least  power  of  refraction, 
yet  have  the  greatest  degree  of  divergence; 
and  thus  all  meet  t.igether  at  the  point  x,  or 
very  nearly  so.  It  was  aftervvaids  demon- 
strated by  M.  Zeikcr  of  Petersbnrgh,  that  it 
is  the  lead  used  in  the  composition  of  the 
crown  glass,  which  gives  it  tills  remarkable 
property  of  <lispersiiig  the  extreme  rays  ;  and 
he  found  that  this  property  was  increased  in 
proporlion  to  tin-  <|uantitv  of  minium,  or  red 
lead,  which  was  employed  in  the  manufacture 
ot  the  glass. 

The  more  v/e  investigate  the  WlIiUs  of  na- 
ture, the  greater  reason  have  we  to  admire 
the  uisdom  of  its  author,  and  that  wonderful 
adaptation  of  our  organs,  in  the  miiuiler  par- 
ticulars, to  the  general  laws  which  pervade 
the  universe.  1  lie  subject  before  us  alfords 
a  striking  instance  to  corroborate  tliis  remark. 
We  have  hitherto  supposed  the  eve  to  be  a 
lenscaj)able  only  of  enlargingandcontractini;, 
and  consec|Uentlv,  from  the  desci'iption  now 
given  of  tlie  rays  of  liglit,  it  must  be  incapa- 
b.e  of  obviating  the  conhision  which  must 
arise  from  their  dilierent  degrees  of  refrangi- 
bility.  Cut  here  the  use  of  that  wonderful 
structure  of  parts,  and  the  dilierent  fluids  in 
the  eye,  is  clearly  seen.  The  eye  is,  in  fact, 
a  compound  lens.  Each  fluid  has  its  proper 
degree  of  rehangible  ])0'.ver.  The  shape  of 
ilie  lenses  is  altered  at  will,  according  to  the 
distance  of  the  object ;  and  the  three  sub- 
stances having  the  proper  powers  of  refrangi- 
bilily,  the  eliects  of  an  achromatic  glass  are 
without  dilliculty  produced  by  the  eye, 
whose  niechanic^d  structure  and  exact  ar- 
rangement of  siibitances  it  is  in  vain  lor  the 
art  of  man  to  iniilate. 

V  0111  what  has  been  stated,  the  principal 
phenomena  of  colours  may,  without  much 
tliiticulty,  be  explained. 

If  all  the  diiferent-coloured  rays  which  the 
prism  aitords  are  n  Uiiiied  in  the  tocus  ot  a 
convex  lens,  the  produce  will  be  wliil*;  yet 
these  same  rays,  which,  taken  toiretlier,  form 
svhite,  give,  alter  the  point  of  their  reunion, 
th.it  is,  beyoi;d  the  point  wdit-re  they  (  ross 
each  other,  t  le  same  co  ours  as  those  wiiicli 
departed  liom  the'prism,  but  in  a  reversed 


OPTICS. 

order,  by  the  crossing  of  the  rays :  the  reason 
o: Which  is  clear;  for  the  ray  being  white  be- 
fore it  was  divided  by  the  prism,  must  ne- 
cessarily become  so  by  the  reunion  of  its 
parts,  wliicii  the  dilference  of  refrangibiiity 
had  separatid,  and  this  reunion  cannot  in  any 
manner  tend  to  alter  or  destroy  the  nntnre  of 
the  colours ;  it  lollv.vs  then  that  tliey  iiinst 
appear  again  beyond  the  point  of  crossing. 
.\  similar  ell'ect  will  be  produced,  if  the  dis- 
persed rays  are  received  from  the  prism  upon 
a  concave  reflector.  In  the  focus  of  the  re- 
flector they  will  unite  and  form  a  white  or 
colourless  image  of  the  sini.  I'ut  it  is  cu- 
riousto  reniaik,  that  if  any  one  of  tiie  colours 
is  sto))j)ed  in  lis  progress  to  the  reflector  by 
the  interposition  of  a  wire,  or  any  other  slen- 
der opaque  body,  then  the  image  in  the  focus 
will  be  an  impi'rfect  wh.fe,  or  a  mixed  co- 
lour. Ueyoixl  the  focus  the  rays  separate 
again,  as  in  the  case  of  their  passing  thiongh 
a  convex  lens,  and  form  the  coloured  spec- 
trum, only  the  order  of  the  colours  from  the 
crossing  of  the  rays  is  inverted. ,. 

In  the  same  manner,  if  we  mix  a  certain 
proportion  oi  red  colour  with  orange,  yelIow% 
green,  blue,  indigo,  aiul  violet,  a  colour  will 
be  produced  which  resembles  that  which  is 
made  bv  mixing  a  little  black  witli  white, 
and  which  would  be  entirely  white  if  some  of 
the  rays  were  not  lost  or  absorbed  by  the 
grossness  of  the  colouring  matter. 

A  colour  nearly  approaching  to  white,  is 
also  formed  by  colouring  a  piece  of  round 
pa>teboa!-d  with  the  ditft-rent  prismatic  co- 
ioui's,  and  causing  it  to  be  turned  roipid  so 
rapidly,  that  no  particular  colour  can  be  per- 
ceived. 

If  to  a  single  ray  of  the  snn,  divided  by 
the  prism,  which  will  then  form  an  oblong 
coloured  spectrum,  a  thick  gla-s  deeply  co- 
loured with  one  of  the  primitive  colours  is 
applied,  for  example  red,  the  light  which 
passes  through  will  appear  red  only,  and  will 
form  a  round  image. 

The  component  rays  of  light  maybe  sepa- 
rated by  otlier  means  than  by  the  [irism.  It  is  a 
common  amusement  of  children  to  blow  round 
hubbies  of  soap,  dissolved  in  water,  from  the 
bowl  of  a  tobacco-pipe ;  and  these  bubbles 
will,  in  the  sunshine,  commonly  exhibit  most 
of  the  prismatic  colours.  Indeed  the  same 
thing  mav  be  at  any  time  observed  ui  the 
bubbles  made  by  agitating  soap  and  water. 
As  these  bubbles  are  thin  vesicles  of  the  mat- 
ter dissolved  in  the  fluid,  they  are  commonly 
supposed  to  vary  in  their  thickness,  and  to  act 
in  this  way  in  separ.itiiig  the  rays.  If  two 
pieces  of  glass,  also  of  an  unequal  surface,  are 
gently  pressed  together,  round  the  point  of 
contact  circles  of  dilierent  colours  will  be 
formed.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  employed  for 
this  experiment  the  object-glasses  ot  two  te- 
lescopes of  a  long  focus,  which  it  is  well 
known  are  much  less  conve.x  than  the  com- 
mon spectacle-glasses.  One  was  a  plano- 
coovex  for  a  telescope  of  14  feet,  and  the 
other  a  doubU--conve.x  for  one  of  50  feet. 
Upon  pressing  the  glasses  close  together,  at 
the  point  of  contact  circles  of  coloured  light 
appeared,  and  tiiey  increased  in  number  and 
size  as  the  pressure  w  s  increased.  The  or- 
der of  the  (olours  next  to  the  point  in  con- 
tact, which  was  black,  was  blue,  yellow, 
white,  vellew,  and  red.  AVithout  this  circle 
anotiier  appeared,  consisting  of  violet,  blue. 


309 

green,  yellow,  and  red.  A  third  succeeded 
of  purple,  blue,  green,  yellow,  and  red  ;  and 
a  fourth  of  green  and  red.  'I  lie  outer  circles 
were  paler,  and  more  obscure,  than  those 
within. 

The  appearance  of  these  circles  is  deli- 
neated in  fig.  )  5.  where  a,  b,  c,  d,  c ; 
/;  .^,  /(,  i,  k  ;  /,  ;;;,  ii,  o,  p ;  q,  r;  .i,  I;  u, 
X ;  I/,  z  ;  denote  the  colours  in  order  from 
the  centre,  nanvly,  black,  blue,  green, y<  How, 
red  ;  purple,  blue,  green,  yellow,  red  ;  green, 
re<l :  greenisli  blue,  red ;  green  sh  blue  ;  red- 
dish white. 

Various  theories  have  been  offered  to  ac- 
count for  this  separation  ol  the  rays,  but  none 
of  them  are  (piite  satisfactory.  Perhaps  if. 
Mr.  Deleval's  experiments  on  transmitted 
and  reflected  light  were  carefully  |>ursued, 
they  might  alford  some  iliu:trat'ion  of  the 
phenomenon. 

If  two  thick  glasses,  the  one  red  and  the 
other  green,  are  placed  one  upon  another, 
thev  will  produce  a  perfect  opy.city,  though 
each  of  them,  taken  separately;  is  transpa- 
rent; because  the  one  permits  the  rod  rays 
only  to  pass  through  it,  and  the  other  only 
green  ones  ;  thereWe  w  hen  these  two  glasses 
are  united,  neither  of  those  kind  of  rays  can 
reach  the  eye  ;  because  the  hist  permits  only 
red  rays  to  pass,  and  green  ones  are  the  only 
ravs  w"hich  the  second  can  transmit. 

'If  the  rays  of  thesuu  are  made  to  fall  very 
obliquely  upon  the  interior  surface  of  a  prism, 
the  violet-coloured  rays  will  be  reflected,  and. 
the  red,  &c.  will  be  transmitted  ;  if  ihe  obli- 
qiiitv  of  incidence  is  auameeted  the  blue  will 
be  also-  reflected,  and  the  oLiier  transmitted  ; 
tire  reason  of  which  is,  that  the  rays  which 
have  the  most  relrangibility  are  also  those 
which  are  the  easiest  reflected. 

In  whatever  manner  we  examine  the  co- 
lour of  a  single  prismatic  ray,  we  shall  al- 
ways find,  that  neither  refraction,  reflection, 
nor  any  other  means,  can  make  it  forego  its 
natural  hue;  but  if  we  examine  the  artuicial 
colouring  of  bodies  by  a  microscope,  it  will 
appear  a  rutre  heap  of  colours,  unequally 
mixed.  If  we  mix  a  blue  and  yellow  to 
make  a  common  green,  it  will  appear  mode- 
rately beautilul  to  the  naked  eye ;  but  when 
v.e  regard  it  with  microscopic  attention,  it 
seems  a  confused  mass  of  yellow  ..nd  blue 
parts,  each  particle  reflecting  bu.  one  sepa- 
rate colour. 

Of  the  raiiihoiv,  mid  other  remurkable  phe- 
nojitt-na  of  light. — Shice  the  rays  of  light  are 
found  to  be  decompounded  by  refracting  -iir- 
faces,  we  can  no  longer  be  surprised  at  the  • 
changes  produced  in  any  object  by  the  inter- 
vention of  anotiier.  'i'iie  vivid  colours  which 
gild  the  rising  or  the  setting  sun,  must  ne- 
cessarily dirler  from  those  whicl^  adorn  its 
noon-day  splendour.  There  must  be- the 
greatest  var.ety  which  the  liveliest  fancy  cart 
imagine.  The  clouds  will  assume  theinost 
fantastic  forms,  or  will  lour  w  ih  the  darkest 
hues,  according  to  the  dilierent  rays  which  . 
are  re.iectcd  to  our  eyes,  or  thequantitv  ab- 
sorbed by  .tiie  vapour.-  in  the  air.-  The  tgiio-- 
rant  niu  titude  will  necessarily  l)e  alarmed  by 
tiic  sights  in  the  li  aven^  ;  by  the  appearance  - 
at  one  time  of  three,  at  anotherof  hve,  uns  ; 
of  circles  of  various  magnitudes  romd  the 
sun  ormoiin  ;  and  thence  ci  ceive  lu.it  -  >uie 
.ata-  change  must  ta\e  place  in  ;ii,-  pl;vMC^l  . 
or  tiie  moral  world,  snni-j  fall  of  eii.jj.,-e.  or 
tremendous  ejrtliquake :  Wiiile  t.ie  optician 


810 

contemplate'!  tliem  merely  as  the  natural  and 
beaiitiiiil  effects  proiluced  by  tlouds  or  va- 
pour in  various  masses  upon  tlie  rayj  of 
light. 

One  of  trie  nio.-t  beaulitul  and  common  of 
these  ai)pearances  deserves  particular  inves- 
tigation, as,  wlien  this  subject  is  well  under- 
stood, there  will  be  little  dil'licully  in  ac- 
counting for  others  of  a  similar  nature,  de- 
pendant on  the  different  refrangibility  of  the 
rays  of  light.  Frequently,  when  our  backs 
are  turned  to  the  sun,  and  there  is  a  shower 
eitlier  around  us,  or  at  some  distance  Ijefore 
us,  a"  bow  is  seen  in  the  air,  adorned  with  all 
or  some  of  the  seven  primary  colours.  The 
appearance  of  this  bov.,  in  poetical  language 
Called  tlie  iris,  and  in  comiaon  language  the 
rainbow,  was  an  inexplicable  ni)  stery  to  the 
antients ;  and,  though  now  w  ell  understood, 
continues  to  be  the  subject  of  aduiiration  to 
tlie  peasant  and  the  philosopher. 

■We  are  indebted  to  sir  Isaac  Newton  for 
the  explanation  of  this  aj;pearance ;  and  by 
various  easy  experinienls  we  may  convince 
any  man  that  his  theory  i=  founded  on  truth. 
If  a  glass  globe  is  suspended  in  the  strong 
light  of  the  sun,  it  will  be  found  to  rellect  tlie 
dilferent  prismatic  colours  exactly  in  (iropor- 
tion  to  the  position  in  which  it  is  placed;  in 
other  words,  agreeably  to  the  angle  which  it 
forms  with  the  spectator's  eye  and  the  inci- 
dence of  the  rays  of  light.  I'iie  fact  is,  that 
innumerable  pencils  of  light  fall  upon  tire 
surface  of  the  globe,  and  eacii  of  these  is  se- 
parated as  bv  a  pri>ni.  'l"o  make  this  matter 
still  clearer,  let  us  suppose  the  circle  15A\\" 
(Plate  in.  fig.  115)  to  represent  the  globe,  or 
a  drop  of  rain,  for  ea'li  drop  may  be  consi- 
dered as  a  small  globe  of  water.  The  red 
ravs,  it  is  well  known,  are  least  refrangible  ; 
they  will  therefore  be  refracted,  agreeably  to 
their  angle  of  incidence,  to  a  certain  point  A 
in  the  most  distant  part  of  the  globe  ;  tl-.c  i 
yellow,  the  green,  the  blue,  and  the  purple 
ravs,  will  each  be  refracted  to  another  point. 
Apart  of  the  light,  as  refracted,  will  be  trans- 
mitted, but  a  part  will  also  be  feflected ;  the 
red  ravs  at  the  point  A,  and  the  others  at 
certain" other  points,  agreeably  to  tliejr  angle 
of  refraction. 

It  is  very  evident  that  if  the  spectator's  eye 
is  placeil  in  the  direction  of  M\\',  or  the 
course  of  the  red-making  rays,  he  will  only 
distinguish  the  red  colour ;  if  in  another  si- 
tuation, he  will  see  Qiily  by  the  yellow  rays  ; 
ill  another  by  the  blue,  '&:c.  :  but  as  in  a 
shower  of  rain  there  are  drops  at  all  heights 
and  all  distances,  all  tliose  that  are  in  a  cer- 
tain position  with  respect  to  the  spectator 
will  rellec^  the  red  rays,  all  those  in  the  next 
station  the  orange,  those  In  the  ne.xt  the 
green,  &c. 

To  avoid  co;ifusioii  let  us,  for  the  present, 
imagine  only  three  drops  of  rain,  and  three 
degrees  of  colours  in  the  section  of  a  bow 
(Plate  ill.  fig  20).  It  is  evident  that  the 
angle  CKP  is  less  than  th.'  angle  BEP,  and 
th.at  the  angle  AKP  is  the  greate>t  of  the 
three.  Thi-f  largest  angle  then  is  formed  by 
the  red  rays,  the  middle  one  consists  of  the 
preen,  and  the  smallest  is  the  purple.  All 
the  drops  of  rain,  therefore,  that  iiappen  to 
be  in  a  certain  position  to  the  eye  of  th  ■ 
spectator,  will  rellect  the  red  rays,  and  form  a 
hand  or  semicircle  of  red;  those  again  in  a 
certain  p.jsitioii  will  present  a  band  of  green, 
iic.    If  lie  alters  his  station,  the  spectator  will 

0 


OPTICS. 

still  see  a  bow,  though  not  the  same  bow  as 
beJore  ;  and  if  there  are  iniiny  spectator^ 
tiiey  will  each  see  a  dilhrrcnt  bow,  tliouj,h  it 
appears  to  be  the  same. 

There  are  sometimes  seen  two  bows,  one 
formed  as  has  been  described,  the  other  a|)- 
pearnig  externally  to  embrace  the  primary 
bow,  and  which  is  sometimes  called  a  secon- 
dary or  false  bow,  because  it  is  lainter  than 
the  other  ;  and  what  is  most  remarkable  is, 
that  in  the  false  bow  the  order  of  the  colours 
appeal's  always  reversed. 

In  the  true  or  primary  bsw  we  have  seen 
diat  the  rays  of  light  arrive  at  the  spectator's 
eye  after  two  relractions  and  one  relic<'tion  ; 
in  tlie  secondary  how  the  rays  ai=e  sent  to  our 
eves  after  two  refractions  and  two  rellections, 
and  the  order  of  the  colours  is  reversed,  be- 
cause in  this  latter  case  ti;e  lii.7l!t  enters  at  the 


is  equal  to  the  di<Tcrcnce  between  tlie  angW 
marie  l)y  the  incident  aud  emergent  rays  and 
the  altitude  oi  the  sun. 

1  he  angle  between  tb<>  incident  and  emer- 
gent rays  is  dill'ei-ent  lor  the  different  ailours, 
as  was  already  intimated;  lor  tiie  red,  or 
least  rt:traiigib;e,  rays,  it  is  e<|ual  to  iu°  2' ; 
tor  the  violet,  or  jiiost  rejrangli)le,  it  is  ei[nai 
to  40  J7';  consecpiently  when  the  sun  is 
more  than  4J'  :i'  above  the  horizon,  the  red 
coh.ur  cannot  be  seen  ;  when  it  is  above  40^ 
1 7'  tlie  violet  colour  cannot  be  seen. 

The  secondary  bow  is  made  in  a  similar 
manner;  but  the  sun's  rays  sutler,  in  this 
case,  two  leiieclions  within  the  drop.  'I'lie 
ray  SB  (Plate  Ul.Jig  19)  is  d'lcompounded 
at  15 ;  and  one  part  is  refracted  to  A,  thence 
rellected  to  P,  and  from  P  rellected  to  \V, 
where  it  is  refracted  to  M.  The  angle  be- 
inferior  part  of  the  di-.)p,  and  is  transmilled  I  tween  the  incident  and  einergent  i-,i\s  .SN.M 
through  the  superior.  Thus  dig.  1-0)  the  ray  is  e(|iial  as  before  to  N.MI  ;  and  N.NlK,  the 
of  li^iit  which  enters  at  U  is  retract  d  to  A,  I  height  of  the  bow,  is  equal  to  tlte  difference 
whence  it  is  reflected  to  P,  and  again  reflect-    between  the  angle  made  by  the  incident  and 


ed  to  W,  w  here,  suti'e-rJKg  another  relVactioii, 
it  is  sent  to  -the  eye  of  the  spectator,  'i'he 
colours  of  this  outer  bow  are  fainter  than 


eiiieigent  rays  asid  tiie  licght  of  the  sun.  In 
tins  ca-e  tiie  angle  SNM,  Icr  (he  red  lavs,  is 
ecpial  to  50'^  7'',  and  tor  the  violet  ravs  it  is 


those  of  the  other,  because,  the  drop  being  eiju..!  to  54'  7';  con6ec|ueiitiy  the  upper  |)art 
tiao^parent,  a  part  of  the  light  is  tiau  iniltetl,  oi  the  secondary  bow  will  not  be  seen  when 
audconsequenllv.lo>t,  at  eachretlection.  Uie  sun  is  above  j4'  7'  above  the  horizon, 

The  pheno:nenc.n  assumes  a  semicirctflar  -^-^^  ">'',  ''^^e,''  pau  of  the  bow  will  not  be 
appearance,  because  it  is  only  at  certain  air-]  ^^-^i;;"  "'"="  ""-*  sun  is  50  /' above  the  hori- 
gles  that  the  refracted  ravs  are  visible  to  our 


eyes.     Tiie   least  refran.;ibie,  or   red  rays, 

make  an  angle  of  42  degrees  two   iniQutes, 

and  the  most  refrangible  or  -violet  rays  an 

angle  of  4ci  degrees  1.7  minutes.     Now  if  a 

line  is  draw.n  horizontally  from  the -spectator's 

eye^  it  is   evident  that  angles  formed  with 

this  line,  -of  a  certain  dimension  In  every  di- 
rection, will  produce  a  circle  ;  as  wiil  be  evi- 
dent by  only  attaching  a  cord  of  a  given 

length  to  a  certain  point,  round  which  it  n\ay 

turn  as  round  its  axis,  and  in  every  point  will 

descrilie  an  angle  with  the  horizontal  line  of 

a  certain  and  determinate  extent. 

Let  HO,  for  instance  (Plate  III.  fig.  19), 

represent  the  horizon,  I5W  a  drop  of  rain  at 

any  altitude,  Slj  a  line  drawn  from  the  sun  to 

the  drop,  which  will  be  parallel  to  aline  S.\! 

drawn  from  the  eye  of  tlie  spectator  to  the 

sun.  The  course  of  l>art  of  the  decom- 
pounded  ray  SB  may  be  lirst  by  refraction 

from  B  to  A,  then  by  redectiou  from  .'V  to 
VV,  lastly  by  refraction  from  \V  to  M.  Now 
all  drops,  which  are  in  such  a  situation  that 
the  incident  and  emergent  rays  SB,  M\V, 
produced  through  them  make  the  same  an- 
gle SN.M,  will  be  the  me.ms  of  exciting  in 
the  spcct^itors  the  sine  idea  of  colour.  I.et 
MVV  turn  upon  HO  as  an  axis,  till  VV  meets 
thi'  horizon  on  both  sides,  and  the  point  \V 
will  describe  the  arc  of  a  circle  :  and  all  the 
drops  placed  in  its  cimimferonce  will  have 
the  property  we  jiave  mentioned,  of  trans 
mitting  to  the  eye  a  particular  colour.  When 
the  plane  IIM\VA  is  perpendicular  to  the- 
horizon,  the  line  M\V  is  directed  to  (he  ver- 
tex of  the  bow,  and  \VK  is  its  altitude. 

This  altitude  depends  on  two  things,  the 
angle  between  the  iiii-ident  and  emergent 
ravs.  and  the  height  of  the  sun  above  the  ho- 
rizon ;  for  since  SM  is  parallel  to  SN,  the 
angle  SN.M  is  equal  to  NMl  :  but  SMII.the 
altitude  of  thesuii,  is  equal  to  KMI ;  therefore 
the  altitude  of  thebow  W.VIK,  whichiseqii.d 
to  the  dilfereiice  between  U'Ml  and  KMI, I  form,  and  ihcnce  we  can  easily  account  lor 


In  the  same  manner  innumerable  bows 
might  be  formed  by  a  greater  number  of  re- 
IhctKins  within  the  drops  ;  but  as  tlie  secon- 
<larv  is  so  mu<h  tiiiuter  than  the  primary, 
that  ail  the  colours  hi  it  are  seldom  seen,  lor 
the  same  reason  a  bow  made  with  tluec  re- 
llections would  be  fainter  still,  and  in  general 
altogether  imperceptible.  Since  the  ravs  of 
light,  by  \arious  rellections  and  refractions, 
are  thus  capable  of  forming,  by  means  of 
drops  of  rain,  tlic  bows  which  we  so  fie- 
(p.ently  see  in  the  heavens,  it  is  evident  that 
there  will  be  not  only  solar  and  lunar  bows, 
but  that  many  striking  appearances  will  be 
produi  ed  by  drops  upon  the  ground,  or  air 
on  the  agitated  surface  of  the  w  ater.  Thus  a 
lunar  bow  will  be  lonned  by  ravs  from  the 
moon  aliectcd  by  drops  of  rain  ;  but  as  its 
light  is  very  faint  in  comparison  with  that  of 
the  sun,  such  a  bow  will  very  seldom  be  seen, 
and  the  colours  of  it,  when  seen,  wili  be  faint 
and  dim. 

The  marine  or  sea  bow  is  a  phenomenon 
sometimes  observed  in  a  niiicli  ;iguated  sea  ; 
when  the  wind,  sweeping  part  of  the  tops  of 
the  waves,  cairies  them  akilt,  so  that  the  sun's 
lays,  failing  upon  them,  are  refracted,  &c.  as 
in  a  conunon  showCr,  and  paint  the  colours 
of  the  how. 

]{i)hault  mentions  coloured  bows  on  the 
grass,  formed  by  the  retraction  of  the  sun's 
rays  in  the  moniicg  dew. 

Dr.  Langwitii,  indeed,  once  saw  a  hnv  Iv- 
ing  on  tile  ground,  the  colours  of  which  were 
almost  as  lively  as  those  of  the  common  rain- 
bow. It  was  extended  seveial  hundred  \  ards. 
It  was  not  round,  but  oblong,  being,  as  he 
conceived,  the  portion  ot  an  hvperhola.  The 
colours  look  up  less  space,  and  were  nuicli 
more  lively,  in  those  parls  of  the  bow  which  - 
were  near  him  than  in  those  which  were  at  a 
distance. 

The  drops  of  rain  descend  in  a  globular 


the  effects  proclucptl  b}*  thcin  on  the  rays  of 
liglit ;  bill  in  (lilt' -iviil  kali  s  of  the  uir,  iti- 
fifdd  ot  drops  tii  riiii,  vapouc  falls  to  tliu 
cartti  111  (lilf'en.Mt  lorim  of  slx't,  snow,  aii'l 
h.iil.  hi  the  two  laUer  stiiles  theiv  caiiii  it  be 
a  refract  1011  of  llie  lays  of  light  ;  but  in  tlie 
forme;'  stale,  when  a  ilroj)  is  parilv  in  a  con- 
gealed and  ;iaitly  ill  a  Muid  lorni,  the  rays  ol 
liglit  will  be  di.Teivntiy  aflecunl,  both  ironi 
the  form  of  the  drop  and  its  various  rel'ract- 
hig  [inwors.  Ilenee  we  may  expert  a  variety 
of  cnriu-.i-i  ai>,)earances  in  the  lieiiveiis;  and 
to  tho.ie  dro|is,  in  different  states,  we  may  at- 
tri-Hite  the  iorni.itioii  of  lialos,  parhelia,  and 
in  iiiv  other  phenomena,  detailed  in  the  Phi- 
loi  iphital  Transactions,  or  in  the  histories  of 
every  coiinti-y. 

The  !'.  ilo,  or  corona,  is  a  liimincni'--  circle 
surrounding  tlie  sun,  the  moon,  a  planet,  or 
a  li\id  star.  It  is  so  neliiiM-s  quite  while, 
and  sonii-limes  coloured  like  tlie  rainbow. 
Those  «  hich  have  been  observed  rotiad  the 
moon  or  stars  are  but  of  a  very  small  diame- 
ter ;  those  round  liie  sun  are  of  difl'-rent 
magnitudes,  and  sometimes  immensels  great. 
When  coloured,  the  coluurs  arefamicr  tliau 
those  of  the  rainbow,  and  a|>pear  in  a  dif- 
ferent order,  according  to  their  size.  In  those 
whieli  sir  Isaac  Newton  observed  in  1692, 
the  order  of  the  colours,  from  the  inside  ne.\t 
the  sun,  was  in  the  innermost  bine,  white, 
red;  in  the  middle  purple,  blue,  green,  yel- 
low, pale  red;  in  tlie  outermost  pale  blue, 
and  p.ile  red.  Ilu\  gens  observed  one  red 
ne.xt  the  sun,  and  pale  blue  at  the  e.\tre- 
iiiity.  Mr.  W'eidler  iias  given  an  account  ot 
one  yellow  on  the  inside,  and  white  on  the 
outside.  In  France  one  was  observed,  in 
v  hich  theonler  of  ihe  colonis  was  while,  red, 
blue,  green,  and  a  bright  red  on  tlie  out- 
fide. 

Artificial  coronas  may  be  made  in  cold 
weather,  by  placnig  a  liglited  candle  in  the 
midst  of  a  cloiui  ot  sieam  ;  or  if  a  glass  win- 
<low  is  breathed  upon,  and  the  liame  of  a 
candle  placed  at  some  distance  from  the  win- 
dow, while  the  operator  is  also  at  the  distance 
of  some  feet  from  another  |)art  of  the  wiii- 
dpw,  the  llaine  will  be  surrounded  with  a  co- 
loured halo.  ' 

When  M.  Bouguer  was  on  the  top  of  mount 
Pichinea,  in  the  Cordilleras,  he  and  some 
gentlemen  who  accompanied  him,  observed 
a  most  remarkable  phenomenon.  When  the 
sun  was  just  rising  behind  them,  and  a  white 
cloud  was  aboui  thirty  paces  from  them, 
each  of  them  observed  his  own  shadow  (and 
no  other)  projected  upon  it.  All  the  parts 
of  the  shadow  were  distinct  ;  and  the  head 
was  adorned  with  a  kind  of  glory,  consisting 
of  three  or  four  concentric  crowns,  of  a  very 
lively  colour,  each  exliibiting  all  the  varieties 
of  the  primary  rainbow,  and  having  the  cir- 
cle red  on  the  outside. 

Similar  to  this  appearance  w.a3  one  which 
occurred  to  Dr.  M'f'ait,  in  Scotland.  This 
gentleman  observed  a  rainbow  round  his  sha- 
dow in  a  mist,  when  he  was  situated  on  an 
eminence  above  it.  in  this  situation  the 
vhole  country  appeared  to  be  immersed  in  a 
vast  deluge,  and  nothing  but  the  tops  of  hills 
appeared  here  and  there  above  the  llood  ;  at 
another  time  he  observed  a  double  range  of 
colours  round  his  shadow. 

The  parhelia,  or  mock  suns,  are  the  most 
splendid  apiiearauces  of  this  kind.     Wc  find 


OPTICS. 

tliese  appearances  frequently  advertcrl  to  tiy 
the  antieiits,  who  generally  considered  them 
as  formidable  oinens.  I'our  mock  suns  were 
seen  at  once  by  Scheiner  tit  Uo.iie,  and  by 
.Vlusch  ■nbroeek  at  I'lreclit;  and  seven  were 
obierveJ  by  IJevelius  at  Sedan,  in  Ititjl. 

The  [larhelia  generally  appearabout  the  size 
of  the  true  sun,  not  ipiile  so  hriglit,  though 
they  are  said  sometimes  to  rival  tiieir  parent 
liiiniiiary  in  splendour.  When  there  are  a 
number  of  I  hem  they  are  not  ecjual  to  each 
other  in  brightness.  Externally  they  aix" 
tinged  with  colours  like  the  rainbow.  They 
are  not  always  round,  and  have  sometimes  a 
long  /ierv  tail  opposite  the  sun,  but  paler  to- 
waids  the  oxtreinity.  Dr.  Ilaller  observed 
one  with  tails  extending  both  ways.  Mr. 
Weidlersaw  a  parhelion  with  one  tail  point- 
ing up  and  another  downward,  a  little  crook- 
ed ;  thi-  limb  which  was  f.*rliicst  from  the 
sun  bi  ing  of  a  purple  colour,  the  other  tinged 
with  tlie  colours  oil  he  rainbow. 

Coronas  generally  accompany  parhelia  : 
sonn- ciiloured,  and  others  white.  There  is 
also,  in  general,  a  very  large  white  circle,  pa- 
ra'lel  to  the  horizon,  which  passes  through  all 
the  parhelia;  and,  if  it  was  entire,  w'ould  go 
througii  the  crivtre  of  the  sun  :  sometimes 
there  are  arcln-s  of  smaller  circles  concentric 
to  this,  and  touching  the  coloured  circles 
which  surround  the  sun  ;  they' are  also  tinged 
with  colours,  and  contain' other  parhelia. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  appearances 
of  this  kind  was  that  which  was  observed- at 
Rimie  by  Scheiner,  as  intimated  above  ;  and 
this  may  serve  as  a  sufiicient  instance  of  the 
parhelion. 

This  celebrated  phenomenon  is  represent- 
ed in  Plate  111.  lig.  17,  in  which  A  is  the 
|)!ace  of  the  observer,  B  his  zenith,  C  the  true 
sun,  and  AB  a  i)lane  passing  through  the  ob- 
server's eye,  the  true  sun,  and  the  zenith. 
About  the  sun  C  there  appeared  two  con- 
centric rings,  not  co.'iplete,  but  diversified 
with  colo  IS.  Tlie  lesser  of  them,  DEF,  was 
fuller,  and  more  perfect  ;  and  though  it  was 
open  tVoin  D  to  !•',  yet  those  ends  were  per- 
p-tually  endeavouring  to  unite,  and  some- 
times they  did  so.  The  outer  of  these  rings 
was  much  fainter,  so  as  scarcely  to  be  dis- 
cernible. It  h.ad,  however,  a  variety  of  co- 
lours, but  was  very  inconstant.  The  third 
circle,  KLMX,  was  very  large,  and  entirely 
while,  passing  through  the  middle  of  the 
sun,  and  every  where  pandlel  to  the  horizon. 
At  lirst  this  circle  was  entire;  but  towards 
the  end  of  the  phenomenon  it  was  weak  and 
ragged,  so  as  hardly  to  be  perceived  from  M 
towards  N. 

Ill  the  intersection  of  this  circle  and  the 
outward  iris  GKl,  there  broke  out  .two  par- 
helia, or  mock  suns,  N  and  K,  not  quite  per- 
fect, K  being  rather  weak,  but  N  shone 
brighter  and  stronger.  The  brightness  of 
the  middle  of  them  was  something  like  that 
of  the  sun  ;  but  towards  the  edges  they  were 
tinged  witli  colours  like  those  of  the  rain- 
bow, and  they  were  uifeven  and  ragged.  The 
p.irhelion  N  was  a  little  wavering  ;  and  sent 
out  a  spiked  tail  NP,  of  a  colour  somewhat 
fiery,  the  length  of  which  was  continually 
changing. 

The  parhelia  at  L  and  M,  in  the  horizontal 
ring,  were  not  so  bright  as  the  former,  but 
were  rounder,  and  white,  like  the  circle  in 
which  they  were  placed.    The  paihelion  N 


3'1 

disappeared  before  K;  and  while  M  grew 
laiii'e',  K  grew  brighter,  and  vanished  the 
last  of  all. 

It  is  to  be  observed  farther,  that  the  order 
of  the  colours  in  the  circles  DEF,  GK.N',  was 
the  same  as  in  the  coinnion  halos,  namely, 
red  next  the  sun  ;  and  the  diameter  of  the 
inner  circle  was  also  about  45",  which  is  the 
usual  size  of  a  halo. 

Parhelia  have  been  seen  for  one,  two, 
three,  and  four  hours  together  ;  and  in  North 
.'Vineiica  they  are  said  to  continue  some  days, 
and  to  be  visible  from  sun-rise  to  sun-set. 
\S  hen  they  disapjxar  it  sometimes  rains,  or 
snow  falls  in  the  form  of  oblong  spiculi-. 

Mr.  Wales  says,  that  at  Churchill,  in  Hud- 
son's-bay,  the  rising  of  the  sun  is  always  pre- 
ceded by  two  long  streams  of  red  light.  'Ihese 
rise  as  the  sun  rises ;  and,  as  they  grow 
longer,  begin  to  bend  towards  each  other,  till 
they  meet  directly  over  the  sun,  forming 
there  a  kind  of  parhelion,  or  mock  sun. 

These  two  streams  of  light,  he  savs,  seem 
to  have  their  source  in  two  other  parhelia, 
w  Inch  rise  with  the  true  sun  ;  and  in  the  win- 
ter season,  when  the  sun  never  rises  above 
tlK'hazc  or  fog  which  he  says  is  constantly 
found  near  the  horizon,  all  these  accompany 
him  the  whole  day,  and  set  with  him  in  the 
same  manner  as  they  rise.  Once  or  twice  he 
saw  a  fourth  iiarhelion  under  the  true  sun  j 
but  tills,  he  adds,  is  notcommon. 

The  cause  of  these  is  apparently  the  rellec- 
tioii  of  the  sun's  light  and  image  from  the 
thick  and  frozen  clouds  in  the  northern  at- 
mosphere, accompanied  also  with  some  de- 
gree of  refraction.  To  enter  upon  a -mathe- 
matical analysis  of  these  phenomena  would 
be  only  tedious,  and  very  toreign  to  our  pur- 
pose. From  what  has  been  said  upon  this 
subject  it  is  evident,  that  all  the  phenomena 
ot  colours  depend  upon  two  properties  of 
liglit,  therefrangibility  and  rellexibility  of  its 
rays. 

Of  ihe  inflection  nf  liprjif. — The  directioa 
of  the  rays  of  light  is  changed,  as  we  have 
seen,  in  their  approach  to  certain  bodies,  by 
rellection  and  refraction ;  and  consequently 
we  must  admit  tlial  there  is  some  power  in 
these  bodies  by  which  such  ellects  are  uni- 
versally produced.  If  rellection  was  pro- 
duced simply  by  the  impinging  of  particles 
o(  light  on  hard  or  elastic  bodies,  or  if  they 
were  In  themselves  elastic,  the  same  etL'CLs 
would  follow  as  in  the  impulse  of  other  elastic 
bodies  ;  but  the  angle  ot  incidence  could  not 
be  e(|ual  to  the  angle  of  reflection,  unless  the 
liarticles  of  light  were  perfectly  elastic,  or  the 
bodies  on  which  they  impinged  were  per- 
fectly elastic.  Now  we  know  that  the  bodies 
on  which  these  particles  impinge  are  not  per- 
fectly elastic  ;  and  also  that  if  the  particles  of 
light  were  perfectly  ela,stic,  the  diffusion  of 
light  from  the  rellecting  bodies  would  be 
very  dilferent  from  its  present  appearance: 
for  as  no  body  can  be  perfectly  polished,  the 
particli's  of  light,  which  are  so  inconceivably 
small,  would  be  rellected  back  by  the  inequa- 
lities on  the  surface  in  every  direction;  con- 
sequently we  are  led  to  this  conclusion,  that 
the  reflecting  bodies  have  a  power  which 
acts  at  some  little  distance  from  their  sur- 
faces. 

If  this  reasoning  is  allowed  to  be  just,  it 
necessarily  follows,  that  if  a  rav  of  light,  in- 
stead of  impinging  Qu  a  body,  "should  pass  50 


312  OPT 

near  to  it  as  to  be  williin  tin;  spTiere  of  that 
powt-r  wUkh  tlie  body  possesses,  it  must  iie- 
c  'Sxarily  suITlt  a  cliaii^i.-  in  its  direction.    Ac- 


tual exiiei-iiuents  CDiiiirm  the  truth  of  this  po- 
sition ;  and  to  the  cliange  in  tiie  direction  of 
a  particle  of  ligiit,  owing  to  ils  nearness  to  a 
body,  we  give  the  name  ol  inflection. 

Fioin  one  of  these  e.\perinient3,  made  by 
sir  Isaac  Newton,  the  whole  of  this  subject 
will  l>e  easilv  under»tood.  At  the  distance  of 
two  or  three  feel  from  lire  window  of  a  dark- 
ened room,  in  which  was  a  hole  three-lomths 
of  an  incli  broad,  to  admit  the  light,  he  placed 
a  black  sheet  of  pasteboard,  having  m  the 
middle  a  hole  about  a  quarter  of  an  incli 
square,  and  behind  the  hole  the  blade  of  a 
sharp  knife,  to  intercept  a  small  part  of  Ihe 
li»ht  which  would  otherwise  have  passed 
tlfrounh  the  hole.  Tlie  planes  of  the  paste- 
board^nd  blade  were  par.diel  to  each  other  ; 
and  when  the  pasteboard  was  removed  at 
such  a  distance  trom  the  windo.v,  as  that  all 
the  liijht  coming  into  the  i-oom  must  pass 
througli  the  hole  in  the  pasteboard,^  he  re- 
ceived what  came  through  this  hole  on^  a 
piece  of  paper  two  or  three  feet  beyond  the 
knife,  and  perceived  two  slreams  of  faint 
li-rlit  shooting  out  both  ways  from  the  beam 
oflight  into  the  shadow.  Astiie  brightness  of 
the  direct  rays  obscured  the  fainter  light,  by 
making  a  hole  in  hi.  paper  he  let  tliem  pa,s 
throui'h,  and  had  tlius  an  opportunity  ot  at- 
tendin'^  closely  to  the  two  streams,  which 
were  nearly  e".iual  in  length,  breadth,  and 
quantity  of  light.  That  part  which  was 
neaiest  to  the  sun's  direct  light  was  pietty 
strong  for  the  space  of  about  a  (luarter  of  an 
inch,  decreasing  gradually  till  it  became  im- 
perceptible ;  and  at  Ihe  edge  of  the  knife  it 
subtended  an  angle  of  about  twelve,  or,  at 
Biosl,  fourteen  degrees. 

Another  knife  was  tlien  placed  opposite  to 
the  former,  and  lie  observed,  thai  when  the 
distance  of  their  edges  was  about  the  tour- 
hundredth  part  of  an  inch,  the  stream  divid- 
ed in  the  middle,  and  left  a  shadow  between 
llie  two  parts,  which  was  so  dark,  tliat  all 
li-rht  passing  between  the  knives  seemed  to  j 
be  bent  aside  to  one  knife  or  the  other  ;  as 
the  knives  were  brought  nearer  to  each 
other,  this  shadow  grew  broader,  till  upon 
the  contact  of  the  knives  the  whole  liglit  dis- 
apijeared.  . 

Pur-ning  his  observations  upon  this  ap- 
pearance, lie  perceived  fringes,  as  they  may 
be  termed,  of  different-coloured  light,  three 
made  on  one  side  bv  the  edge  of  one  knife, 
and  three  on  the  oilier  side  by  the  edge  ot 
Ihe  other;  and  thence  concluded,  that  as  in 
j-efraction  the  ravs  of  light  are  diflerently 
acted  upon,  so  aVe  they  at  a  distance  from 
bodies  bv  inflection ;  and  by  many  other  ex- 
perimcnisof  the  same  kind  he  supported  his 
position,  which  is  conlirmed  by  all  subse- 
quent  experiments.  ,      ,      .        ,i  • 

We  may  naturally  conciude,  tliat  from  this 
properlvof  inflection  some  curious  changes 
w  ill  be  produced  in  the  appearances  of  exter- 
nal objects.  If  we  take  a  piece  of  wire  of  a 
less  diameter  than  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  and 
place  it  between  the  eve  and  a  distant  object, 
tlie  latter  will  appear  magnified  (i'late  111. 
li"-  21).  Lei  A  be  a  church-steeple,  13  the 
eve,  C  the  wire.  The  rays  by  wlucli  the 
steeple  would  have  been  otherwise  seen  are 
intercepted  bv  the  wire  ;  and  it  is  now  seen 
Wy  inflected  rays,  which'malvP  a  greater  an- 


O  R  C 

gle  than  Ihff  direct  rays,  and  consequently 
tlie  steeple  will  be  niagnilied. 

In  nearly  shutting  tlie  eyes,  and  looking  at 
a  c.-iiidle,  liiere  ajJpear  ra'ys  of  light  extrud- 
ing irom  it  in  various  directions,  like  co.iiels' 
tails  :  for  the  light,  in  passing  through  the 
eye-laslies,  is  inilecled ;  and  consequently 
many  separate  beams  will  be  formed,  di- 
verging trom  the  luminous  object.  The 
power  of  bodies  to  inflect  the  rays  of  light 
passing  near  to  them  will  produce  diiTerent 
effects,  according  to  the  naiure  of  the  rays 
acted  upon  ;  consequently  a  separation  wJU 
take  place  in  the  dillereutly  rehangible  rays, 
and  those  fringes  which  were  taken  notice 
of  by  sir  Isaac"Newton  will  appear  in  other 
objects  which  are  seen  by  the  means  of  in- 
lieited  rays.  From  considering  thus  the  ac- 
tion of  bodies  upon  light,  we  come  to  this  ge- 
neral conclusion,  for  wiiich  we  are  indebted 
lo  our  great  philosopher :  that  light,  as  well 
as  all  other  matter,  is  acted  upon  at  a  dis- 
tance; and  tl-.at  retiection,  refraction,  and 
inilection,  are  owing  to  certain  general  laws 
in  tlie  particles  of  matter,  which  are  equally 
necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  beauli- 
ful  harmony  in  the  objects  nearest  to  lis,  and 
to  produce  by  their  joint  action  that  great  law 
by  which  the  greater  bodies  in  tlieir  system 
are  retained  in  their  respective  orbits. 

OPTION.  Every  bishop,  whether  creat- 
ed or  translated,  is  bound  immediately  after 
conhrmation,  to  make  a  legal  conveyance  to 
the  archbishop  of  the  next  avoidance  of  such 
dignity  or  benefice  belonging  to  the  see,  as 
the  said  archbishop  shall  choose,  which  is 
therefore  called  an  option. 

OK,  in  heraldry,  denotes  yellow,  or  gold- 
colour.     See  Heraldry. 
ORANGE.     See  Citrus. 
ORBICULARIS.     See  An'atomv. 
OllBlT.     See  Astronomy. 
OKCHARD,  a  plantation  of  fruit-trees. 
In  planting  an  orchard  great  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  soil  is  suitable  to  the   trees 
planted  in  it;   and  that  they 'are   procured 
trom  a  soil  nearly  of  the  same  kind,  or  rather 
poorer  than  tliat  laid  out  for  an  orchard.     As 
j  to  the  situation,  an  easy  rising  ground,  open 
to  the  south-east,    is  to  be  preterred.     Mr. 
Miller  recommends  planting  the  trees  four- 
score feet  asunder,  but  not  in  regular  rous  ; 
and  would  have  thi-  ground  between  tiie  trees 
plowed,  and  sown  wrth  whealand  olhcrcrops, 
in  the  same  manner  as  if  it  was  clear  from 
trees;  by  which  means  the  trees  will  be  more 
vigoroiLS  and  healthy,  will  abide  much  longer, 
and  produce  better  fruit.     If  the  ground  has 
been  pasture,   the  green  swartl   should    be 
plowed  in  the  spiing   before  the  trees  are 
|)lautcd  ;  and  it  it  is  sutifered  to  lie  a  summer 
tallow,  it  will  greatly  mend  it,  provided  it  is 
stirred  two  or  three  times  to  rot  the  grass, 
and  prevent  the  growing  of  weeds.     At  Mi- 
chaelmas it  should  be  plowed  pretty  deep,  in 
order  to  make   it  lioseforthe  roots  of  the 
trees,  which  if  the  soil   is   dry,  should  be 
planted  in  October;  but  if  it  is  moist,  the  be- 
ginning of  March  will  be  a  better  season.     If 
several  sorts  of  fruit-trees  are  to  be  planted 
on  the  same  spot,   you  should  observe   to 
plant  the  largest -gro'wing  trees    backwards, 
and  so  proceed  to  those  of  less  growth,  con- 
tinuing the  same  method  quite  through  tiie 
whole  plantation ;  by  which  means  the  sun 
and   air  will   more   easily  pass  through  the 
whole  orciiard.     Wiien  you  have  planted  the 


ORG 


f 


trees,  vou  should  support  them  with  stakM, 
to  prevent  their  being  blown  out  of  llir 
ground  by  the  wind;  and  the  following 
spring,  if  the  season  should  prove  dry,  cut  a 
quantity  of  green  turf,  and  lay  it  about  the 
roots,  with  tlie  grass  downwards;  by  which 
nieaiis  a  great  expence  of  watering  will  he 
saved,  and  alter  the  tirst  year  Uiey  will  bo 
out  of  danger.  Whenever  you  plow  tlie 
ground  betwixt  these  trees,  you  must  be 
careful  not  to  go  too  deep  amongst  their 
routs,  which  wouKl  greatly  damage  the  trees ;  . 
but  if  you  do  it  cautiously,  your  stirring  the 
face  oi  the  ground  will  be'ot  great  service  to 
thein  :  though  you  should  obs.rve,  never  to 
sow  too  near  the  tree,  nor  to  suiler  any  great 
rooting  weeds  to  grow  about  them  ;••  be-  . 
cause  this  would  sUirve  them,  by  exhaust- 
ing the  goodness  of  the  soil,  whicii  every 
two  or  three  years  should  be  mended  wiili 
dung  or  other  manure.  These  trees,  after 
they  are  planted  out,  will  require  no  other 
pru'uingbesidescuUingotf  their  ba^d  branches, 
or  such  as  croaS  each  other. 

ORCHIS,  Jhol-stonc.s,  a  genus  of  the  gy- 
nandria  diandria  class  of  plants,  the  corolla 
of  which  is  of  a  coriiiculated  form  ;  and  its 
fruit  is  an  oblong  unilocular  capsule,  contain- 
ing numerous  scobiform  seeds. 

The  essential  character  is,  nect.  a  horn  or 
s|nir  behind  the  llower.  There  are  JO  species 
of  this  genus, whicli  exceedingly  resembles  the 
ophrys.  The  most  remarkable  species  are 
the  ioUowing : 

1 .  Ihe  mascula,  or  male  fool-stones,  has  a 
root  composed  of  two  bulbs,  crowned  with 
oblong,  broa<l,  spotted  leaves;  upright 
stalks,  a  foot  high,  with  one  or  two  narrow 
amplexicaule  leaves,  and  terminated  by  a  long 
spike  of  reddish-purple  flowers  having  the 
petals  rellexed  backward  ;  a  quadrilobt- d  cre- 
naled  lip  to  the  necturium,  and  an  obtuse 
horn.  Tlie  flowers  of  this  species  possess  a 
verv  agreeable  odour. 

'  2.  i  he  morio,  or  female  orchis,  has  a  few 
amplexicaule  leaves ;  and  terminated  by  a 
short  loose  spike  of  llowei-s,  having  counivent 
petals,  a  quadrified  crcnated  lip  to  the  necta- 
rium,  and  an  obtuse  horn. 

3.  The  mihtaris,  or  man-orchis,  has  erect 
iiower- stalks,  eight  or  ten  inches  high,  termi- 
nated by  a  loose  spike  of  ash-coloured  and 
reddish 'flowers,  having  confluent  petals;  a 
quiiuiuefid,  rough,  spotted  lip  to  the  necta- 
rium,  and  an  obtuse  horn.  1  he  structure  of 
the  flowers  exhibits  the  figure  of  a  naked  man ; 
and  is  often  of  dit'ferent  colours  in  the  same 
flower,  as  ash-colour,  red,  brown,  and  dark- 
striped.     , 

All  the  orchises  are  ver>-  hardy  perennials, 
with  bulbous  llesliy  roots".  The  flowers  ap- 
pear ill  May,  June,' and  July,  but  principally 
in  June:  their  mode  of  flowering  is  uniyei- 
sallv  in  spikes,  many  flowers  in  each  spike ; 
aiuf  eacli  fl  iwer  is  composed  of  live  petals  in 
two  series,  and  a  nectarium.  The  season  for 
ri'inoviiig  them  is  in  summer,  after  they  have 
done  flowering,  when  their  leaves  and  stalks 
decay :  plant  them  three  inches  deep,  and 
let  tliem  remain  umlisturbed  several  years  ; 
for  the  less  they  are  remoyed  the  stronger 
they  will  flower. 

This  plant  flourishes  in  various  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  grows  in  our  country 
spout.uieouslv,  and  in  great  abundance.  It 
is  assiduously  cultivated  iirthe  luist ;  and  the 
root  of  it  forms  a  considerable  part  of  tlie 
U 


-  ^n 


o  r  'v  :i  r  .s 


o  R  n 

i3ip|  of  tlio  inliabit;int'<  of 'I'urkry,  rcrsia,  and 
M\ria.  l''u)iM  it  is  luadp  tlic  almu^iilary  pow- 
tl>T  called  salcp  ;  whith,  prcpaivd  ihim  lo- 
reit'ii  roots,  is  sold  at  five  or  six  shillings  pi-r 
pound,  tliougli  it  might  be  fiiiiiishod  by  oiir- 
Kcivi's  at  a  sixth  piirt  of  that  pri<-e,  if  wo  chose 
to  pay  any  attention  to  the  cultiii'f  of  this 
plant.  'I'hi;  orchis  uiasciila  is  tli<!  most  va- 
fiR'd  for  this  purpose.  A  dry,  and  not  very 
lertilc  soil,  is  best  adapted  to  its  growth. 

'I'lu'  propcrest  time  for  gathering  tlie  roots 
is  when  the  seed  is  furmc-d,  and  the  stalk  is 
ready  to  fall;  because  the  new  ImiIIi,  of 
V'hicnthe  salep  is  made,  is  then  arrived  to  its 
full  maturity,  and  nuiy  be  distingnish"il  froni 
the  old  one,  by  a  white  bud  risin;;  IV  )ni  the 
top  of  It,  which  is  the  germ  of  the  orchis  of 
the  suoceetling  year. 

ORDICAL,  a  form  of  trial,  or  of  disrover- 
ina;  innocence  or  gnilt,  formerly  practised 
over  almost  all  Europe,  and  which  prevailed 
in  Kngland  from  the  time  of  Kdwartl  the 
Confessor,  till  it  was  abolished  by  a  derlara^ 
tion  of  Henry  111.  It  v/m  called  purgaliu 
vulgaris,  or  judicium,  in  opposition  to  bel- 
Juni,  or  combat,  tlu  other  form  of  piirgauon. 
In  ICngland  an  oll'endrr,  on  being  arraign- 
ed, and  pleading  Not  guilty,  had  it  in  ins 
choice  to  put  himself  upon  (iod  and  liis 
oiuntrv ;  that  is,  upon  the  verdict  of  a  jury  ; 
er  upon  God  aUine,  on  which  account  it  was 
called  the  judgment  of  (iod,  it  being  pre. 
sunied  that  God  would  deliver  the  innocent. 
'J'he  mori'  popubr  kinds  of  ordeal  were  those 
of  red-hot  jion  and  waters  the  tir^t  for  free- 
llieu  and  people  of  fashion,  and  the  last 
for  pe.isanls.  b'ire  ordeal  was  performed 
either  by  taking  up  in  the  hand  a  piece 
of  red-hot  iron,  of  one,  two,  or  three  pounds 
weight  ;  or  else  by  walking  barefoot  aiul 
b'.indlold  over  nine  red-hot  ploughshares, 
laid  at  unequal  distances;  and  if  the  party 
esca])ed  unhurt  he  was  adjudged  innocent,  if 
jiot  he  was  I'oiulemned  as  guilty.  W'ateror- 
deal  was  pertbrmed  either  by  plunging  the 
bare  arm  up  to  the  elbow  in  boiling  water, 
ajid  escaping  unhurt  thereby  :  or  by  casting 
the  per.son  suspected  into  a  river  or  pond  of 
water;  and  if  he  floated  therein,  withoHt  any 
action  of  swimming,  it  was  deemed  an  evi- 
dence of  his  Qfuilt ;  but  if  he  sunk  lie  was  ac- 
quitted 4  iUack.  .340. 
OUDKR.  See  .Architecture. 
OKOr.US,  or  Oroivatiov.  No  person 
sliaM  be  adimlted  to  the  holy  order  of  de.icon 
under  2.?  years  of  age ;  nor  to  the  order  of 
prie^t  unless  he  is  '..'4  complete  ;  and  none 
sh.iU  he  ordained  without  a  title,  that  is,  a 
nomination  to  some  cure  or  benefice,  and  lie 
shall  have  a  testimonial  of  his  good  behaviour, 
for  three  years  past,  from  three  clergymen  ; 
and  the  bishop  shall  examine  him,  and  if  lie 
sees  cause  m  ly  refuse  him.  .And  before  lie  is 
ordained  he  si'wU  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
arid  supremacy  before  the  ordinary,  and  sub- 
scribe the  thirty-nine  articles 

OUDIN'.MtY,  in  commoii  and  canon 
law,  i<  one  who  has  ordinary  or  imniediati- 
jurisdiction  in  ecclesiastical  causes  in  such  a 
place.  In  which  sense  arehdcicons  are  ordi- 
naries, though  the  appellation  is  more  fre. 
qiiently  given  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese, 
v\'ho  has  the  ordinary  ecclesiastical  jurisdic- 
tion. The  archbishop  is  the  ordinary  of  tht 
wlmle  province,  to  visit  and  receive  appeals 
from  inferior  iudicatiires, 

OliDlNAtiiS,  or   Orcj.v.vte    appi.i- 
Vou  II. 


o  n  K 

1  CATF',  in  geometry,  are  parallel  linct,  MM, 
mm  (I'iaiir  .Sliscell.  hg.  1*S),  terminaiing  in  a 
curve,  and  bisected  by  a  diameter,  as  AD. 
'1  he  half  of  these,  as  MP,  mp,  is  properly  the 
semiordinate,  llioii^h  commonly  called  ordi- 
nate. 

OKDN.ANCE,  a  general  name  for  all 
sorts  of  great  guns  used  in  war.     bee  Gu.s- 

NERV. 

Ordnance,  horittg  nf.  Guns  are  thus 
bored:  the  piece  A  (I'late  Observatory,  tig. 
7.)  is  pla(ed  upon  two  standards  Bli.  by 
means  of  two  journeys,  turned  romul  by  a 
wuter-wheel;  the  bree<h  D  being  introduced 
into  the  central  line  of  the  wheel,  with  the 
nin/zle  towards  the  sliding  carriage  E,  which 
is  pressed  forwards  by  a  ratcb  V  and  wcMghts. 
Upon  this  sliding  carriage  is  lixed,  truly  ho- 
rizontal and  central  to  the  gun,  liie  driil-bar 
G,  to  the  end  of  which  is  tixed  a  carp's  tongue 
drill  or  cutter  II  ;  which,  being  pressed  for- 
ward upon  the  piece  whilst  it  is  turning  round, 
perforates  the  bore,  which  is  afferw.irds 
linish'd  with  bars  and  cutters. 

The  machinery  for  boring  of  ordnance  is 
sometimes  put  in  motion  by  a  steam-engine  ■. 
and  in  this  way,  from  IS  to  l.U  great  guns 
have  been  borii'ig  at  the  same  time  ;  the  borer 
in  each  i)iece  being  brought  up  to  its  projier 
place  in  the  gun,  by  a  lever  and  weights.  In 
this  method  of  bringing  up  the  borer  the 
pressure  may  always  be  made  ecpiable,  and 
the  motion  of  the  borer  regular;  but  the  dis- 
advantage is,  that  without  due  attention  the 
borer  may  work  u|)  too  far  towards  the 
breech,  and  the  piece  be  spoiled.  In  the 
royal  arsenal  at  Woolwich,  only  one  piece  is 
bored  al  a  time  in  the  same  mill  :  the  gun  to 
be  bored  lies  with  its  axis  parallel  to  the  ho- 
rizon, and  in  that  ijosilioii  is  turned  round  its 
axis  by  means  of  wheel-work,  moved  by  one 
or  nioie  horses.  Tin'  borer  is  laid,  as  above 
descrilied,  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the 
gun,  and  is  incapable  of  motion  in  any  direc- 
tion except  that  of  its  ler.gth ;  and  in  this  di- 
rection it  is  constantly  moved  bv  means  of  a 
small  rack-wheel,  kept  in  proper  motion  by 
two  men,  who  tlHis_  make  the  point  of  the 
borer  so  to  bear  against  the  part  of  the  gun 
that  is  boring,  a.s  to  pierce  and  cut  it.  'I'he 
outside  of  file  gun  is  smooth'-d  at  the  same 
time  by  men  with  instruments  lit  fur  the  pur- 
pose, whilst  it  turiLs  round,  so  that  the  bore 
may  be  e.xactly  in  the  centre  of  the  metal. 
See  Gregory's  Mechanics, 

ORnKANCE,  ojTice  nf,  an  office  kept  within 
the  Tower  of  London,  which  superintends 
and  disposes  of  all  the  arms,  instruracnts,  and 
utensils  of  war,  both  by  sea  and  land,  in  all 
the  magazines,  garrisons,  and  forts,  in  (ireat 
Britain. 

ORES,  METALLIC.  This  ckass  compre- 
heiuls  all  the  mineral  bodies,  composed  either 
entirely  of  metals,  or  of  which  metals  con- 
stitute the  most  considerable  and  important 
part,  It  is  from  the  minerals  belonging  to 
this  class  that  all  metals  are  extracted;  for 
this  reason  they  have  obtained  the  name  of 
ores. 

As  the  metals  at  present  known  amount  to 
2,3,  we  shall  divide  this  class  into  Qi  orders, 
allotting  a  distinct  order  for  the  ores  of  every 
particular  metal, 

,\)etals  exist  in  ores  in  one  or  other  of  the 

four  following  states:  1.  In  a  metallic  state, 

and  either  solitarv,  or  tumbined  with  each 

other,    i;.  Coijibfned  with  sulphur.    3.  In 

U  r 


O  n  F, 


31J 


flic  st.itP  of  oxides.  4.  Coir.binH  with  acids. 
Each  order  therefor"  may  be  divided  iirto  the 
tour  tbllowing  genera : 

1.. Alloys.  .1.  0<ides. 

2.  Sulphurets.  4,  Salts. 
It  must  be  observed,  however,  ttiat  every 
metal  has  not  hitherto  been  found  in  alHliese 
four  st.ites,  and  that  some  of  tliem  are  hardly 
susceptible  of  them  all.  Some  of  the  orders', 
therefore,  want  one  or  more  gentTa,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  lal)le,  taken  from 
Dr.  Thomson's  incom|)arable  work  on  che- 
mistry ;  a  work  of  which  every  student  of 
that  science,  or  of  natural  philosophy,  ought 
to  be  possessed. 

Order  I.    Gnld. 
1 .  Alloys. 
Order  II.     Platinum. 
1 .  Alloys. 
OKnrRlil.     Silvrr. 

1.  Alloys. 

2.  Sirl])hureti. 
.3.  Oxides. 

4,  .Salts. 

Ohdkr  IV.     AfiTcary. 
1.  Alloys. 
?.  Sulpiiurets. 

3.  Oxides. 

4.  Salts. 

Order  V.     Coppfr. 

1.  Alloys. 

2.  Sulphurets.. 
.3.  Oxides. 

4.  Salts, 

Order  VI.     Iron. 

1.  Alloys. 

2.  Sulphurets. 

3.  Oxides. 

4.  Salts. 
Order  VII.     Tin. 

1.  Sulphurets. 

2.  Oxides. 
Order  VIII.     Lcud. 

1 .  Sulphurets. 

2.  Oxides. 

3.  Salts. 

Order  IX.    Nickfl. 

1.  .Sulphurets. 

2.  Oxides. 

Order  X.     Zinc. 

1.  Sulphurets. 

2.  Oxides. 

3.  Salts. 

Order  XI.     Antimovy. 

1 .  Alloys. 

2.  Sulphurets. 
?>.  Oxides. 

4.  Sclts. 

Order  XII.     Bismulh. 

1.  Alloys. 

2.  Sulphurets. 
.>,  Oxides. 

Order  XUI.     Teihrium. 

1 .  Alloys. 
Order  XIV.    Arttnio, 

J,  Alloys. 

2.  Sulphuri-ts, 

3.  Oxide«. 
•S.  baits,  , 


!t-i 


Orber  XV.    Cobalt, 

1.  Alloys. 

2.  Siilpliurcts. 

3.  Oxides. 

4.  SalU. 

Order  XVI.    Manganese. 

1.  Oxides. 

2.  Salts. 

Order  X>'II.     Tiingslcn.'' 
1.  Oxides. 
Order  X\'1!I.     Molijhdciuini. 
1.  Sulpliiivets. 
Order.  XIX.     Cranium. 

1.  O.xidL-s. 
Order  XX.     Titanium. 

1.  (Kidcs.  • 
Order  XXI.     Cln-nniium. 
1.  Oxides. 
■Order  XXII.     Columhium. 

1.  Alloys. 
Order  XXIII.     Tantulitim. 
1.  Oxides. 

Ores,  analyst's  nf.  •  The  divcHty  of  me- 
tallic ores  is  so  great,  that  no  general  method 
of  analysis  can  he  given.  We  shall  there- 
fore follow  the  different  orders,  and  point 
out  the  proper  method  of  analysing  each. 
Ill  the  rules  we  shall  follow  Uergnian,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  hrst  precise 
treatise  on  the  analysis  of  ores,  except  when 
his  methods  have  been  superseded  by  Uie 
improvements  of  succeeding  chemists. 

Gold  oris.  Tlie  presence  of  gold  may 
easily  be  detected  by  treating  the  mineral 
supposed  to  contain  it  wiih  nitro-muriatic 
acid,  and  dropping  muriat  of  tin  into  the  so- 
lution. If  the  solution  contains  any  gold,  a 
jmrple  precipitate  immediately  appears. 

Native  gold  ought  to  be  dissolved  in  nitro- 
muriatic  acid:  the  silver,  if  any  is  present, 
falls  to  the  bottom  in  the  state  of  muriat,  and 
may  be  separated  by  liltration,  and  weighed. 
Pour  sulphat  of  iron  into  the  sulution,  and 
the  g"ld  is  precipitated  in  the  metallic  state. 
The  copper,  if  any  is  present,  mav  be  preci- 
pitated by  means  of  a  plate  of  iron.  The 
presence  of  iron  may  be  ascertained  In' 
dropping  tincture  of  nutgalls  into  a  portion 
of  the  solution. 

The  auriferous  pyrites  may  be  treated  with 
diluted  nitrous  acid,  which  dissolves  the  iron, 
and  separates  the  sulphur.  The  gold  remains 
insoluble,  and  is  found  in  the  state  of  small 
grains. 

Ores  of  platinum.  Proust's  method  is, 
first  to  separate  the  sand  with  which  llie 
grains  of  platinum  arc  mixed,  by  exposing 
them  to  a  bU'.st  of  air.  By  heat  he  evapo- 
rates the  mercury,  which  still  adheres  to 
them,  anrf  then  picks  out  the  grains  of  gold, 
which  are  always  mixed  with  platinum,  and 
which  are  thus  rendered  visible.  'J  he  ore 
is  then  dissolved  in  an  acid  composed  of  one 
part  of  nitre  and  three  parts  of  muriatic  acid. 
A  l)lack  powder  remains.  This  powder, 
when  roasted,  gives  out  phosphorus  and  sul- 
phur. After  this  it  is  dissolved  by  nitro-mn- 
rialic  acid,  except  a  small  residuum,  which  is 
plumbago.  'I'he  solutions  are  then  to  be 
mixed.  They  consist  of  inuriats  of  platinum, 
and  oxymuriats  of  copper  and  iron.  I2y  eva- 
porating till  the  liiiuiti  wheji  cold  assumes  a 


ORES, 

coiislstcncv  greater  than  honey,  and  inclining 
the  retort,"the  oxsnnuiats  run  i-(f,  and  leave 
the  inurial  of  plalinuin,  which  may  he.  ob- 
tained pure  by  repeated  solutions  ami  crystal- 
lizations. '1  he  solution  containing  tlie  inu- 
nats,  and  perhaps  also  a  little  piatnuim,  is  to 
be  diluted  with  a  great  proportion  of  water, 
and  pure  ammonia  dropt  in.  The  red  oxide 
of  iron  precipitates,  ami  may  Le  estiniuted  by 
weighing  it.  When  the  solution  i»  somewhat 
concentrated,  ammonia  precipitates  the  pla- 
tinum in  tlie  state  of  a  triple  salt;  and  the 
copper,  which  now  only  remains,  may  be 
precipitated  by  a  plate  ot  iron. 

Ores  nf  silver.  The  analysis  of  the  ores 
of  silver  has  been  always  considered  as  \ery 
important,  on  account  ot  the  great  value  of 
the  metal  which  they  contain  in  greatest 
.abundance. 

1.  Native  silver  is  to  be  dissolved  in  nitric 
acid,  f'lif  gold,  if  the  ore  contains  any,  re- 
mains in  the  state  of  a  black  powder,  and 
may  be  dned  and  weighed.  The  silver  may 
be  precipitated  by  common  salt.  One  hun- 
dred parts  of  the  precipitate  dried  denote 
about  sevent\-five  parts  of  silver.  The  pie- 
seiice  of  copper  may  be  ascertained  by  the 
greenish-blue  colour  of  the  solution,  and  by 
the  deep-blue  colour  which  it  assumes  on 
adding  ammonia.  The  copper  may  be  pre- 
cipitated by  a  plate  of  iron,  or  by  the  rules 
laid  down  heivalter.  W  hen  the  ore  contains 
arsenic,  its  proportion  may  be  estimated  by 
weighing  before  and  alter  fusion  ;  for  the  ar- 
senic is  dissipated  by  heat,  or  the  ore  may  be 
dissolved  as  before  in  nitric  acid,  which  acidi- 
ties the  arsenic.  Alter  the  separation  of  the 
silver,  tlie  arsenic  acid  may  be  precipitated  by 
nitrat  of  lead,  100  parts  of  the  dry  precipitate 
indicating  about  '22  of  arsenic. 

2.  Alloy  of  silver  and  antimony  is  to  be 
treated  with  nitric  acid,  which  dissolves  the 
silver,  and  oxidizes  the  antimony.  The  sil- 
ver is  estimated  as  above.  The  oxide  of  an- 
timony may  be  reduced  by  fusion  with  four 
limes  its  weight  of  black  ilux  and  a  little 
soap. 

3.  Sulphurct  of  silver  is  to  be  treated  witli 
diluted  nitric  acid,  which  dissolves  the  silver, 
leaving  the  greater  part  of  the  sulphur  un- 
touched. The  residuum  is  to  be  dried,  and 
then  the  sulphur  burnt  oil'.  I'he  loss  of 
weight  givrt  the  sulplnir.  The  residuum,  if 
any,  is  undeconiposed  sulphnret,  to  be  treat- 
ed as  at  first.  The  silver  is  to  be  precipitated 
by  common  salt ;  and  the  otiier  metals,  if  any 
are  present,  may  be  ascertained  as  above. 
Part  of  the  sulphur  is  always  acidified.  The 
acid  thus  formed  may  be  precipitated  by  ni- 
trat of  baiTtCs,  100  parts  of  the  dried  precipi- 
tate indicating  about  14..'' of  sulphur. 

4.  Antinioniated  silver  ore  was  analysed 
by  Klaproth  in  the  following  manner:  100 
parts  ol  it  were  boiled  in  diluted  nitric  acid, 
ilie  residuum,  washed  and  dried,  was  ^'(i. 
These  '26  were  digested  into  nitro-ininiatic 
acid.  The  n-siduum  now  weighed  1.3  (so 
that  13  had  been  dissolved),  12  of  which 
were  sulphur,  and  burnt  away,  leaving  be- 
hind them  one  part  of  silica.  The  nitro- 
mnriatic  solution,  when  diluted  largely  with 
water,  let  fall  a  precipitate  which  weighed  13 
(or  10  of  j)ure  antimony),  and  had  the  pro- 
perties of  oxide  of  antiomony;  for  they  did 
not  evaporate  till  heated  to  redness,  but  at 
that  temperature  were  dissipated  in  a  grey 
smoke. 


The  nitric  solution  was  green.  Common 
salt  occasioned  a  precipitate  which  weighed 
S7.75,  equivalent  to  (i.i.Sl  of  pure  silver. 
After  the  separation  of  this  muriat  of  silver, 
sulphat  of  soda  occasioned  no  preiipitale. 
T  hrrelore  the  solution  contained  no  lead. 
Wlien  supersaturated  with  soda,  a  giev  pre- 
cipilale  tell,  weighing  live  parts.  Oil  burn- 
hig  coals  this  preciintate  gave  out  an  arse- 
nical smell.  It  was  redissolved  in  nitric 
acid;  sulphurated  alkali  occasioned  a  smut iv 
brown  precipitate  ;  and  prussic  alkali  a  Pr;.a- 
sian  blue,  which  after  torrefaction  was  m;ig- 
netic.  Hence  lie  concluded,  that  tlK-r>e  li\e 
parts  were  a  combination  of  iron  and  arsenic 
acid. 

1  he  nitric  solution  which  had  been  super- 
saturated with  ammonia  was  blue;  he  there- 
fore suspected  that  ilcontaiiied  copper.  To 
discover  tins,  he  saturated  it  witu  sulphnric 
acid,  and  put  it  into  a  polished  (ilati-  ot  iron. 
The  quantity  of  copper  was  so  small,  that 
none  could  be  collected  on  the  iron. 

5.  Sulphnret  of  silver  and  copper  may  be 
analysed  as  No.  3.  separating  tlie  copper  by 
means  of  a  plate  of  iron. 

6.  Black  silver  ore  may  be  analysed  as  No. 
2.  separating  the  copper,  if  any  is  present,  by 
means  of  an  iron  plate,  and  estimating  the 
carbonic  acid  that  escapes  when  the  ore  is 
heated  or  dissolved  in  mtric  aciil. 

7.  Red  silver  was  analysed  by  Vauqiielin 
in  llie  following  manner:  one  hundietl  parts 
of  it  were  digested  in  500  parts  of  nitric  acid 
previously  diluted  with  water.  'J"he  undis- 
solved residuum,  being  washed  and  dried, 
weighed  4l'.06.  Being  treated  with  muriatic 
acid,  it  was  all  dissolved  except  14.66  parts, 
which  were  sulphur.  The  muriatic  solution, 
when  diluted  with  a  great  quantity  of  water, 
deposited  a  white  powder,  which  weighed 
21.25,  and  was  oxide  of  antimony.  The  nitric 
acid  solution  remained  still  to  be  examined. 
Muriatic  acid  occasioned  a  heavy  precipitate, 
which  weighed  72.66  parts,  anil  which  was 
muriat  of  silver.  Keagents  shewed  that  the 
acid  retained  no  other  substance  of  solution. 

S.  Muriat  of  silver  was  analysed  by  Klap- 
roth: one  hundred  parts  of  it  were  mixed 
wilh  thrice  their  weight  of  pure  carbonat  of 
potass,  and  meUed  together  In  a  glass  retort. 
The  mass  was  dissolved  in  water,  and  the  so- 
lution liltred.  A  residuum  remained,  whith 
was  dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  wilh  the  excep- 
tion of  a  red  powder,  which,  treated"  with 
nitro-muriatic  acid,  was  dissolved,  except  a 
little  muriat  of  silver,  which,  when  reduced, 
yielded  .5  of  pure  silver.  Ammonia  precipi- 
tated from  the  nitro-muriatic  solution  2.5 
parts  of  oxide  of  iron.  'J  he  nitric  solution 
was  precipitated  by  common  salt ;  the  muriat 
of  silver,  thus  obtained,  yielded,  when  re- 
duced, 67. 25  of  pure  silver. 

'Ihe  original  aciueous  solution  of  tlie  alka- 
line mass  was  saturated  with  acetous  acid,  on 
which  it  deposited  1.75  parts  of  alumina. 
The  solution  was  evaporalid  to  dryness,  and 
the  dry  mass  treated  with  alcohol,  which 
dissolved  the  acetite  of  potass.  'J'he  resi- 
duum, amounting  to  5B.75  parts,  was  dissolv- 
ed in  water,  and  being  treated  with  muriat  of 
baryles,  15  parts  of  sulphat  of  barytes  pre- 
cipftated,  indicating  the  presence  ot  about  .5 
of  sulphuric  aciil,  or  0.75  sulphat  of  potass. 
The  remaining  5.S  parts  were  muriat  of  po- 
tass, indicating  about  '2\  parts  of  muriatic 
acid. 


Ore-t  of  mcrfuri/.  Wcliavc  vei'v  few  px- 
act  aiial3-ses  of  Un-  ores  oi'  iiicrciiry,  owing, 
perhaps  to  tlic  lac.ility  will)  wliicli  llur  mer- 
cury is  extr.icttTil  from  them  by  distiilalion. 

,lN'ative  mercury  and  ainiilgaiu  may  1)c  dis- 
solved ill  nitric  acid.  'I'lit-  gold,  if  any  is 
presL'iit,  remains  in  the  state  ot  powder,  and 
may  be  estimated  liy  its  weight.  'I'lie  affu- 
sion of  water  precipitates  the  bismuth,  if  tin; 
•solution  ha]ipens  to  contain  any.  Common 
salt  precipitates  the  silver,  and  also  part  of 
the  mercurv;  but  the  latter  may  be  redissolv- 
<rd  by  a  suliiciciit  cpiantity  of  water,  or, 
whicli  is  far  better,  of  oxymuriatic  acid, 
whili!  die  muriat  of  silver  remains  insoluble. 
Lastly,  the  mercury  may  be  precipitated  by 
sulp'liat  of  iron,  aiKl  estimated. 

2.  Native  cinnal)ur  may  be  treated  with  a 
Tnixliire  of  three  parts  muriatic  and  one  part 
nitric  acid,  which  dissolves  the  mercury,  and 
leaves  the  sulphur.  'l"he  mercury  may  be 
estimated  as  in  the  last  paragraph. 

3.  Hepatic  mercurial  ore  has  not  been 
analysed.  Its  analysis  may  be  attempted  a^ 
in  No.  '-'.  or  by  dissolving  it  in  nitric  acid. 

4.  .Muriat  of  mercury  may  be  digested  in 
Iiiuriatic  acid  till  the  whole  is  dissolved. 
Muriat  of  barytes  precipitates  the  sulphuric 
acid,  100  part''  of  which  are  equivalent  to 
IS'S  of  sulphat  of  mercury;  and  the  propor- 
tion of  this  salt  being  known,  we  have  that 
of  the  muriat. 

Ores  of  copper.  Native  copper  sometimes 
contains  gold,  silver,  or  iron.  It  niav  be  dis- 
solved in  nitric  acid ;  the  gold  remains  in  the 
state  of  a  blackish  or  rather  violet-coloured 
powder;  the  silver  may  be  separated  by  a 
polished  plate  of  copper  (or  it  may  be  preci- 
pitated fro  u  a  separate  portion  of  the  solu- 
tion bv  common  salt);  the  iron  may  be  sepa- 
rated by  boilhig  the  solution  to  dryness,  and 
treating  the  residuum  with  water.  By  this 
process,  the  nitrat  of  iron  is  decomposed  ;  the 
oxide  of  iron  remains,  while  the  watf  r  dis- 
solves tlie  nitrat  of  copper.  This  last  salt 
may  be  decomposed  by  boiling  it  with  potass; 
the  precipitate  dried  in  a  red  heat,  is  black 
oxide  of  copper.  One  hundred  parts  of  it 
denote  80  of  metallic  copper. 

2.  Sulphuret  of  copper  may  be  dissolved 
in  diluted  nitric  acid.  Part  of  the  sulphur 
reni.iins  unaltered,  and  may  be  estimated  by 
weighing  it,  and  burning  it  off.  Part  isaci- 
dilied,  and  may  be  precipitated  by  nitrat  of 
barytes;  100  parts  of  the  dried  precipitate 
indicating  14.5  of  sulpliur.  Bv  evaporation 
todivnes^,  and  .solution  in  water,  the  iron  is 
separated;  and  the  copper  may  be  estimated 
as  in  the  last  paragraph;  or  muriatic  acid 
may  be  used  instead  of  nitric;  but  in  that 
case  it  is  more  difficult  to  obtain  a  complete 
solution. 

3.  Grey  copper  ore  was  analysed  by  Kla- 
proih  in  the  following  manner :  three  hun- 
dred parts  of  it  were  digested  with  ti)ur  times 
their  weight  of  nitric  acid.  This  operation 
was  repeated,  and  the  two  acid  liquids  mix- 
ed. The  undissolved  residuum  was  IBS  parts. 
The  nitric  solution  was  green,  and  when 
common  salt  was  added  to  it,  muriat  of  silver 
precipitated.  The  solution  being  now  super- 
saturated with  ammonia,  9.5  parts  of  a  lieaky 
red  precipitate  were  obtained,  which  was 
found  to  be  composed  of  silica,  alumina,  and 
iron,  by  dissolving  it  in  muriatic  acid  and  j  ammonia, 
proceeding  by  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  ikst  1  copper  was  dissolved  by  the"  ammonia 

R  r  C 


section.     A  p<»lished  iron  ])Iatc  precipitated 
from  the  nitric  »olutioii  (iy  ])arts  of  copper. 

'I'lie  ISS  parls  of  residuum  were  boiled 
with  six  times  their  weiglit  of  muriatic  acid; 
105.. I  parls  riMiiained  undissolved,  which 
were  sulphur  and  silica.  'J'he  muriatic  acid 
solution  being  concentrated,  yielded  a  little 
muriat  of  siUer.  Being  diluted  with  a  large 
|)ortioii  of  water,  a  white  powder  precipitat- 
ed, v.liich  weighed  97.5  parts,  and  was  oxide 
of  antimony. 

4.  lied  copper  ore  has  only  to  be  dissolved 
hi  muriatic  acid,  and  tin;  copper  precii)ilated 
by  a  plate  of  iron;  88  pan-,  of  the  precipi- 
tated copjjer  being  equivalent  to  100  of  tile 
orange  oxide  of  which  the  ore  is  composed. 

5.  1  he  analysis  of  the  o.xides  and  carbo- 
nals  of  copper  scarcely  requires  any  remarks. 
I'he  water  and  carbonic  acid  must  be  esti- 
mated by  distillation  in  close  vessels,  and 
collecting  the  prothicts.  The  ore  may  then 
be  dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  and  its  copper  as- 
certained as  above. 

ti.  Arseniat  of  copper  was  analysed  by  Mr. 
Chenevi.x,  in  the  following  manner:  the  ore 
was  dissolved  in  diluted  nitric  acid,  and  ni- 
trat of  lead  pjured  in.  The  solution  was  eva- 
porated till  a  precipitate  began  to  appear, 
and  then  mi.xed  with  alcohol.  Arseniat  of 
lead  precipitated.  One  hundred  parts  of  this 
salt  indicate  3.5  of  arsenic  acid.  The  copper 
was  separateil  from  the  nitric  acid  by  boiling 
it  with  potass. 

Ort.t  of  iron.  Notwithstanding  the  great 
variety  of  iron  ores,  they  may  be  all,  as  far  as 
analysis  is  concerned,  arranged  under  three 
heads;  namely,  1.  bulphurets;  L'.  Oxides  ; 
and  3.  Salts. 

1.  Pyrites,  or  sulphureted  iron,  may  be 
treated  repeatedly  with  boiling  nitric  acid 
till  the  sulphur  is  acidilied.  Muriatic  acid  is 
then  to  be  added,  and  the  digestion  continued 
till  the  whole  is  dissolved.  Muriat  of  barytes 
h  then  to  hi;  added  to  precipitate  the  sulphu- 
ric acid;  100  of  the  dried  precipitate  indi- 
cate 14.5  of  sulphur.  If  the  solution  con- 
tains only  iron,  it  may  be  precipitated  by 
carbonat  of  soda,  calcined  to  redness,  and 
weighetl.  But  if  earths  or  manganese  are 
present,  we  must  proceed  by  the  rules  laid 
down  in  tlie  hrst  section. 

2.  If  the  oxides  of  iron  are  pure,  that  is, 
contain  nothing  but  iron,  we  have  only  to 
dissolve  them  in  muriatic  acid,  and  precipi- 
tate them  as  above.  But  it  is  very  seldom 
that  ores  possess  this  perfect  degree  of  purity. 
The  iron  is  usually  combined  with  manga- 
nese, alumina,  silica,  or  with  all  of  these  to- 
gether. The  analysis  is  to  be  conducted  ex- 
actly according  to  the  rules  already  laid 
down. 

3.  The  sparry  iron  ore  may  be  analysed  in 
the  same  manner,  excepting"  only  that  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  must  be  separated  by  dis- 
tillation or  solution  in  close  vessels. 

4.  Arseniat  of  iron  was  analysed  by  Mr. 
Chenevix  in  the  following  manner:  One  hun- 
dred parts  of  it  were  boiled  with  potass  till 
the  arsenic  acid  was  separated.  Nitrat  of 
lead  was  mixed  with  the  solution  ;  100  parts 
of  the  precepitat*  indicated  33  of  arsenic  acid. 
That  portion  of  the  ore  which  eluded  tlie  ac- 
tion of  the  potass  was  treated  with  muriatic 
acid;  the  undissolved  residuum  was  silica. 
The  muriatic  acid  was  supersaturated  with 

The  iron   precipitated ;  but   the 


31,', 

Ores  cf  tin.     1 .  T  he  sulplmret  of  tin  was 
thus  analysed  by  Klaproth:   liO  parts  of  (h.; 
ore  were  digested  with  nitro-imiriafic  acid ; 
43   parts  remained  undissolved.     i)i  tlie-e' 
30  burnt  aw;iy  with  a  bllie  liame,  and  were 
sulphur  ;  of  the  remaining  13,  eiglit  dissolved 
in  mtro-murialic  acid,     'jjie  undissolved  live 
were  healed  witli  wax,  and  vieidec;!  a  grain 
of  iron  attracted  by   the  magnet.     'I he  i<;=t 
was  a  mixture  of  alumina  and  silica.     'J  he 
nitro-murialic  solution  was  complelelv  pre- 
cipitated by  potass,  and  tiie  precij)it'ate  re- 
di.ssolved  in  muriatic  acid.     A  cylinder  of  l:;i 
precipitated  44  parls  of  copper  from  this  so- 
lution, and  lost  itself  80  parts  of  its  wei"ht. 
A  cylinder  of  zinc  precijiitated  1 30  parb  of 
tin;  so  that,  deducting  the  K-»  parls  oftin  dis- 
solved during  the  precipitation  of  the  copper, 
41  remain  for  the  tui  contained  in  the  ore. 

2.  Tin  stone  was  thus  analysed  :  One  hun- 
dred parts  of  the  ore  were  heated  to  redness, 
with  tiOO  parts  of  potass,  in  a  silver  crucible  '\ 
and  the  mixture  being  treated  with  warm 
water,  1 1  parts  remained  un<iissolved.  Theie 
1 1,  by  a  rejietition  of  the  treatment  with  po- 
tass, were  reduced  to  1-Jth.  This  small  resi- 
duum dissolved  in  muriatic  acid.  Zinc  pre- 
cipitated from  the  solution  one-half  part  of 
tin,  and  the  Prussian  alkali  gave  a  blue  p.'e- 
cipitalc,  which  indicated  one-fourth  part  of 
iron. 

The  alkaline  solution  was  saturated  with 
muriatic  acid;  a  white  precipitate  appeared. 


but  it  was  redisiolved  by  adding  more  acid. 
'J'he  whole  was  precipitated  by  carbonat  of 
soda.  The  solution,  which  had  a  yellowish 
colour,  was  redissolved  in  muriatic  acid;  and 
a  cylinder  of  zinc  being  inserted  into  the  so- 
lution, 77  of  tin  were  obtained,  indicating 
nearly  98  parts  of  oxide  of  tin. 

Ores  of  lend.  1.  Sulphuret  of  lead  nsuallv 
contains  a  little  silver,  and  sometimes  also 
antimony  and  zinc.  It  may  be  treated  with 
diluted  nitric  acid,  which  leaves  only  the  sul- 
phur undissolved,  the  weight  of  which  is  to 
be  taken,  and  its  purity  determined  bv  com- 
bustion. If  antimony  is' present,  it  will"  either 
remain  in  the  state  of  a  white  oxide,  or  if 
dissolved,  it  will  be  precipitated  by  diluting 
the  solution  with  water.  Muriatic'acid  is  to 
be  added,  and  the  solution  evaporated  till  it 
is  reduced  to  a  small  portion.  Muriat  of  lead 
and  of  silver  precipitate.  The  first  of  tlia^g 
may  be  dissolved  in  boiling  water,  the  second 
remains  insohible.  ^^■6strum  separated  the 
muriat  of  silver  by  digesting  the  precipitate 
with  ammonia.  1  "he  liquid  from  whicli  the 
muriats  were  separated  may  contain  iron, 
zinc,  copper,  'ihe  iron  may  be  precipitated 
by  ammonia  added  in  excess;  the  coj^per, 
by  a  plate  of  zinc  ;  the  zinc  may  be  precipi- 
tated by  carbonat  of  soda  redu>  ed  to  the  me- 
tallic state,  and  weighed;  subtracting  what 
had  been  separated  from  the  plate  of  zmc. 

2.  Arseniated  peroxide  of  lead  was  thiii 
analysed  by  \'auquelin :  lliO  parts  roasted 
for  half  an  hour,  and  occasionally  treated  with 
a  little  tallow,  lost  3S  parts,  whi'ch  were  con- 
sidered as  oxide  of  arsenic.  The  residue  was 
treated  with  concentrated  muriatic  acid,  and 
boiled  in  it  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  The 
lii|uid  assumed  a  red  colour,  and  emitted 
abundance  of  oxymuriatic  acid  gas.  A  white 
needleform  salt  was  deposited,  "and  some  of 
it  was  obtained  by  evaporation.  This  salt, 
dissolved  in  water,"  aod  treated  with  sulpW. 


8l"S 


ORES. 


of  sod!,  vieMf(!  55  parts  of  suiphat  of  lead 
— .  20  'J  parts  of  lead.     Tlie  liquor  tluis  treed 


from" lead  was  treated  witli  aLiimuaia.  Tiie 
precipitate  obtained  wtiglied  39  [jarts.  It 
consisted  oi  oxide  of  iron  mixed  with  oside 
of  arsenic  The  production  of  ox)munalie 
acid  induced  Vauquelin  to  consider  the  lead 
as  in  the  state  of  peroxide. 

3.  Carbonat  of  lead  was  thus  analysed: 
One  hundr.-d  grains  were  throaii  into  ^'00 
grains  of  nitric  ac  id  diluted  with  3uiJ  a,rd\ni 
of  water.  It  dissolved  completely  with  ef- 
fervescence. The  loss  of  weight  wa^  It) 
grains.  (t  was  eiiuivaleiit  to  the  carbonic 
acid.  The  sokition,  whicli  was  colourless, 
was  diUited  with  water,  and  a  cylinder  of  ziiic 
p. it  into  it.  In  24  hours  the  lead  was  preci- 
pitated in  the  metallic  slate.  It  weighed  77 
grains,  =  X2  grains  oxide.  If  muriatic  acid 
is  suspected,  it  may  be  easily  iLtected,  and 
its  weight  ascertained,  by  means  of  nitrat  of 

4.  Suli)aat  of  lead  was  thus  analysed  by  Kla- 
prolh :  One  hundred  grains  of  tiic  ore,  he.ited 
to  n.-dness,  lost  two  gr.iins,  which  were  con- 
sidered as  water.  It  was  thi'n  mixed  witli 
400  grains  of  carbonat  of  potas-,  aiyl  heated 
to  redness  in  a  platinum  crucible.  The  red- 
(\U\\  \elio-.v  mass  thus  obtained  was  digested 
in  water,  and  the  whole  thrown  on  a  liltre. 
The  o.tide  of  lead  thus  obtained  weiglied  72 
grains.  It  was  dissolved  in  diluted  nitric 
acid  One  grain  of  oxide  of  iron  remained 
behind.  Into  the  solution  a  cylinder  of  zinc 
■was  put.  The  lead  thrown  down  weighed 
ii%  grains.  Thi;  alkaline  solution  was  super- 
saturated with  nitric  acid,  and  then  treated 
with  acetat  of  barvtes.  The  sulphat  of 
barvtes  obtained  weighed  73  grains,  which 
Kla'proth  considers  as  indicating  25  g'-auis  of 
sulpmiric  acid. 

5.  P!i)sp!iat  of  lead  was  thus  analysed: 
One  hundred  grains  were  dissolved  in  diluted 
nitric  acid.  >iitrat  of  silver  dropt  into  the 
solution  formed  a  precipitate  weighina;  11 
grains,  =  1.7  .c^rain^  muriatic  acid.  'I' 
lution  was  mixed  with  su'phuric  acid. 


sulphat  of  ammonia.  I'he  residuum  repeat- 
edly treated  with  nitric  acid  was  converted 
into  yellow  moljbdic  acid. 

Ores  of  nickel.  Kupfernirkel  may  be  dis- 
solved in  nitric  acid,  by  which  the  greatest 
part  of  the  sulpluir  will  be  separated.  The 
arsenic  may  be  afterwards  precipitated  by 
the  aH'iision  of  water.  A  plate  of  iron  will 
expel  the  copper,  if  any  should  be  present. 
Precipitate  bv  potiiss  added  in  excess,  and 
boil  the  precipitate,  which  will  separate  the 
arsenic  and  sulphur  completely.  Dissolve 
the  precipitate  (previously  exposed  moist  for 
some  time  to  the  air)  in  acelii:  acid,  and  add 
an  excess  of  ammonia.  The  iron  is  precipi- 
tated ;  but  the  cobalt  and  niclsel  remain  in 
solution.  Evaporate,  and  the  cobalt  is  de- 
posited;  then  by  continuing  the  evaporation 
to  dryness  the  nickel  is  obtained. 

Ores  of  zinc.  1.  Blende  may  be  treated 
witlr  diluted  nitric  acid,  which  will  separate 
the  sulphur,  the  siliceous  gangue,  &c.  1  he 
purity  of  the  sulphur  is  to  be  ascertained  J>y 
combustion,  and  the  residuum  analysed  in 
the  manner  formerly  described.  Precipitate 
the  nitric  solution  by  soda,  redissolve  in  mu- 
riatic acid,  precipitate  the  copper  (if  any 
should  be  present)  by  a  plate  ol  iron  ;  sepa- 
rate the  iron  by  adding  an  excess  of  ammo- 
nia. The  zinc  now  only  remains  in  the  so- 
lution, whicli  may  be  obtaim-d  by  evaporat- 
ing to  dryness,  redi>?olviiig  in  muriatic  acid, 
and  precipitating  by  soda. 

2.  Calamine  may  be  digested  in  nitric 
acid,  noting  the  loss  of  weight  for  carbonic 
acid,  and  the  insoluble  residuum  boiled  with 
muriatic  acid  repeatedly;  wliat  remains  after 
dilution  with  boiling  water  is  silica.  '1  he 
nitric  solution  contains  zinc,  and  probably 
also  iron  and  alumina;  evaporate  to  dryness, 
iedi:.solve,  and  add  an  excess  of  ammonia. 
The  iron  and  alumina  either  remain  undis- 
solved or  are  precipitated,  and  tliey  may  be 
separated  by  potass.  The  zinc  may  be  pre- 
lie  so-  cipitated  bv  an  acid,  or  by  evaporation  to 
The  !  drvness.      The   muriatic  solution    probably 


sulphat  of    lead    prec  pitated   weighed 
grains,  =  73.4  oxide  oi  lead.     The  solution 
was  freed  from  sulphuric  acid  by  means  of 
llilratof  barvtes,  and  then  almost  neutralized 


]()(j    contains  iron   and  alumina,  which   may   be 
precipitated  by  the  rules  already  laid  down. 

Ores  of  antimony'.     N'ative  antimony  was 
thus  analysed:  One  hundred  grains  weredi- 


with  ammonia.  Acetat  of  lead  was  tlien  dropt  i  gested  in  nitric  acid  till  the  whoV-  was  coii- 
jn.     The  pliosphatof  lead  whi<h  precipitated  j  verted  into  a  white  powiler.     When  the  acid 


weighed  82  grains 
Ttie  solution  was  now 


=  18.37  pho^phonc 
xed 


mix 


willi 


:icul.  i  emitted  no  longer  any  nitrous  gas,  the  mix- 
muriatic  I  ture  was  diluted  with  water  and  thrown  upon 


acid,  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  dry  a  hitrc.  The  solution  was  then  treated  with 
mass  washed  in  alcohol.  The  alcohol,  when  nitrat  of  silver.  The  precipitate  yielded  by 
eva-v.irated,  left  a  small  residue,  which  dis-  |  reduction  one  grain  of  silver.  The  priissiat 
solved  in  water,  and  formed  Prussian  blue  ;  of  potass  threwdown  from  the  residuum  so- 
with  prussiat  of'  pot.iss.     It  contained  about  ^  lution  a  precipitate  which  contained  J  ccrain 


-<_  "rain  of  oxide  ol  iron. 


1  o  -s 


6.  Wolybdiit  of  had  was  thus  analysed  by 


of  iron.     The  white  oxide  forineit  by  the  ni- 
[  trie  acid  was  digested  in  muriatic  acid  ;  the 


Mr    Ilat'-het.    The  ore  was  boile<l  repeat-  ;  wiiole   dissolved  and  formed   a  transparent 
cdlv  with  sulphuric  acid  till  the  acid  retused  :  solution.     It  was   diluted  with  six  limes  its 


to  'dissolve  any  more.  The  solution  con- 
tained the  molytdic  acid.  The  undissolved 
powder  (sulphat  of  lead)  was  boiled  for  an 
hour  with  carbonat  of  soda,  and  then  washed. 
Kitric  acid  now  dissolved  it,  except  a  little 
silica.  The  lead  was  precipitated  from  this 
solution  by  sulphuric  acid;  alter  which  am- 
Hioiiia  sep.irated  a  llltli;  oxide  of  iron.  'I  he 
sulphuri ;  acid  solution  was  diluted  with  16 
parts  of  water,  and  saturate<l  with  animonia; 
a  litlli-  oxide  ol  iron  graduall)  pncipilated. 
T!k'  solu'iioii  was  now  evaporated  to  dryness, 
and  lilt:  mass  strongly  heated  to  separate  the 


was 
weight  of  water,  and  the  precipitate  redis- 
solved  in  muriatic  acid,   and   a  cylinder  of 
zinc  put   into   it.     The   antimony  obtained 
weighed  93  grams. 

2.  Sulphuret  of  antimony  is  to  be  treated 
with  nitro-inuriatic  acid.  The  sulphur  and 
the  murial  of  silver  (if  any  silver  is  present) 
will  remain.  Water  precipitates  the  anti- 
mony ;  -iilphuric  acid,  the  lead  ;  and  ammo- 
nia the  iron. 

3.  Klaproth  analysed  the  red  ore  of  anti- 
mony as  lollows;  One  iuindred  grains  were 
(.invested  m  muriatic  acid  till  tkc  whole  dis- 


solved, except  1-J  grains  of  sulphur.  A  lit*le 
sulphuret  ot  antimony  rove  willi  the  sulphu- 
reted  hydrogen  gas  exhaled,  and  was  depo- 
sited  in  the  beak  of  the  retort.  The  sulutton 
was  diluted  with  water.  The  whole  preci- 
pitated in  the  state  of  a  white  powder;  lor 
potass  threw  nothing  from  the  liquid.  'I  he 
powder  was  redissoKed  in  mur'atic  acid,  an 
excess  addeil,  and  the  solution  diluted,  A 
plate  ol  iron  threw  down  ti'^  grains  of  anti- 
mony. The  ore  then  contained  78.3  giaius 
ol  oxide  of  antimony.  One  hundred  grains 
of  the  ore  yielded  bv  sohition  in  muriatic  acid 
37  cubic  inches  oi  sulphureted  hvdrogeu  gas. 
I'rom  th'b,  Klaproth  concluded  that  it  cou- 
tained  20  grains  of  sulphur. 

Ores  ojlii.smti  III.  Native  liismuth  maybe 
treated  with  nitric  acid.  Kepeated  conceii- 
tratious  and  affusions  of  water  precipitate  the 
bisiu:tli,  and  perliaps  the  ar>enic;  but  this 
last  may  be  redissolved  in  boiling  water. 
'Ike  cobalt  remains,  and  may  be  examined 
by  the  rules  to  be  liereallcr  laid  down.  The 
same  analysis  succeeds  with  the  other  ores 
of  bismuth.  Tlie  sulphur  when  present  re- 
mains undissolved. 

We  shall  give  as  an  example  of  these  ores 
Kkiproth's  analysis  o!  a  sulphuret  of  bi>tiujlh. 
Fifty  grains  of  tiie  ore  were  digested  in  nitric 
acid.  The  whole  was  dissolved  except  2-| 
grains  of  sulphur.  'I  he  solution  being  (iihited 
with  water,  a  white  jiowdej"  precipitated. 
The  liltred  solution  was  treateil  with  com- 
mon salt ;  at  lirst  it  produced  no  change, 
but  by  and  by  the  whole  became  milky. 
Tiie  precipitate  consisted,  like  the  last,  of  ox- 
ide of  bismuth.  '1  he  sohiti(m  contiuumg 
clear  for  some  time,  indicated  that  no  silver 
was  present.  The  w  h.te  precipitate  was  not 
altered  by  exposure  to  tht^  light :  an  addi- 
tional proof  tiiat  no  silver  was  presi'nt. 

Ores  nf  titurium.  Klaproth  dissolved 
the  while  gold  ore  of  Fatzbay  in  nitro-muri- 
atic  acid,  and  added  potass  in  excess  to  the 
solution.  A  brown  precipitate  reuiaoied  un- 
dissolved, which  was  a  mixture  of  gold  and 
iron.  It  was  rediasolved  in  nitro-murialic 
acid,  the  gold  lirst  precipitated  by  nitrat  of 
mercury,  and  then  the  iron  by  potass.  '1  hf; 
potass  111  the  tirst  solution  being  saturated 
witii  muriatic  acid,  the  oxide  of  tellurium 
precipitated. 

The  other  ores  may  be  analysed  in  the 
same  manner;  only  the  precipitate  occasion- 
ed by  tlie  potass  must  be  treated  according 
to  the  metals  of  which  it  consists.  The  rules 
have  been  already  laid  down. 

Ores  nf  arsenic.  Native  arseiiic  may  l>e 
treated  with  nitro-muriatic  acid.  The  silver 
and  gold  remain  ;  the  first  in  the  slate  ot  a 
nuiriat ;  the  second  may  be  dissolved  by 
means  of  nitro-muriatic  acid,  and  precipi^ 
tated  by  sul|ihat  of  iron.  The  arsenic  may 
be  precipitated  by  concentrating  the  nitric 
solution,  aiii-l  then  diluting  with  water.  The 
iron  may  then  be  precipitated  by  ammonia. 

2.  The  sulfihureted  ores  ol  arsenic  niay 
likewise  be  treateil  with  diluted  iiilro-muu- 
atic  acid.  Tlie  sulphur  remains  undissolved; 
the  arsenic  may  be  precipitated  by  concen,- 
tration  and  the  allusion  ol  water;  the  iron  by 
ammonia. 

3.  Oxide  of  arsenic  may  bi^  dissolved  ia 
sixteen  p.vrts  of  water.  Thesolulioii  displays 
acid  proi)erties,  and  nitrat  of  silver  and  of 
mercury  occasion  precipitates  ia  it. 


O  R  V. 

Orel  of  coha!t.  White  cobalt  ore  was 
thus  analysed  by  'la-..-,  ert.  'lb  ascertain 
ilie  propoition  ol  arneiiic  lie  treated  the  ore 
with  dihittd  iiiU'ic  acid,  and  obtained  a  com- 
pU'te  soliilioii.  Crysul-i  of  white  oxiile  of 
arsenic  were  deposited,  and  l)y  repeated  eva- 
porations he  separated  the  whole  of  the  ar.-.e- 
iiic,  and  aicerlaiiied  its  weijrlit.  He  tlien 
boiled  a  new  portion  of  llie  ore  witli  four 
times  its  wciglil  of  nitric  acid,  and  thus  aci- 
iiilied  the  arsenic,  and  obtained  a  solution, 
'riiis  solution  was  treated  witli  potass,  which 
retained  tiie  arsenic  acid,  and  separated  tlie 
other  l)odi''S.  A  precipitate  of  arseniat  of 
fobalt,  vUiich  had  lalh-n  when  the  nitric  solu- 
tion was  diluted  with  water,  was  treated  with 
potass  tor  the  same  leason.  'I'he  resiilmnn, 
together  with  the  pi;ecipitate  occasioned  by 
the  potass,  was  dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  and 
anniiuuia  added  in  exc(.'ss.  I'art  was  retained 
in  solution  by  the  aninionia;  hut  pirt  was 
IJrecip  tated.  Tiie  precipitate  was  dissolved 
in  acetic  acid,  and  the  solution  repeatedly 
evaporated  \o  drMiess.  15y  lliis  process  the 
o\ide  of  iron  gradually  separated  in  the  form 
of  a  red  pow<ler.  '1  he  dissolved  part  was 
acetat  of  cobalt.  It  was  decomposed  by  the 
addition  of  ammonia  in  excess,  which  redi-- 
solved  the  cobalt.  By  these  processes  the 
arsenic  and  iron  were  separ.ited ;  the  cobalt 
was  retaiued  by  the  ammonia,  and  was  ob- 
tained by  evaporal  on.  "^I'o  ascert.iin  the 
proportion  of  sulphur  in  the  ore  a  new  por- 
tion was  boiled  with  nitric  acid.  On  cooling, 
crystals  of  wliile  oxide  of  arsenic  were  de- 
posited. 'I'hese  being  separated,  nitr.it  of 
b.iryte-.  was  added  to  the  Solution  ;  l;Ki  parts 
of  the  dried  precipitate  indicated  14.5  of 
Sulphur. 

'1  he  other  ores  of  cobalt  may  be  analysed 
nearly  hi  the  same  way. 

Ores  nf  iiwiia;an:sc.  1.  Barytatcd  manga- 
nese was  treated  by  N'auquelin  with  muriatic 
acid;  ovyniuriatic  gas  passed  over,  and  the 
wiiole  was  dissolved  except  a  little  charcoal 
and  silica.  The  solution  when  evauoratml 
yielded  crystals  of  nuiriat  of  baryles.  'I'lie^e 
were  separated;  and  the  licinid,  evaporated 
to  drynt.-s,  yielded  a  yellow  mass  soluble  io 
alcohol,  and  tinging  its  Hame  with  yellow  bril- 
liant sparks,  'llie  proportion  of  baryles  was 
ascertained  by  precipitating  it  in  the  stale  of 
a  sulpluit ;  the  manganese,  by  precipitating 
it  by  carbonat  of  potass. 

2.  The  grey  ore  of  manganese  was  treated 
by  the  same  chemist  with  muriatic  acid ; 
some  silica  remained  undissolved.  Carbonat 
of  potass  was  added  to  the  solution.  Tlie 
precipitate  was  at  (irst  white,  but  became 
black  when  exposed  to  the  air.  It  was  treated 
with  nitric  acid,  which  dissolved  every  thing 
but  the  manganese  and  iron  (if  a>iy  had  been 
present).  The  nitric  solution,  when  mixed 
with  caibonat  of  potass,  deposited  only  car- 
bonat of  lime.  The  black  residuum  was 
mixed  with  sng:ir,  and  treated  witli  nitric 
acid.  'I'he  solution  was  complete ;  theretore 
no  iron  was  present. 

The  same  processes  will  succeed  with  the 
ether  ores  of  manganese.  When  iron  is  pre- 
sent, it  may  be  separated  either  as  above,  or 
by  the  ru'es  laid  down  hi  the  tirst  section  ;  or 
what  succeeiis  better,  we  may  disselve  the 
inixture  in  acetic  acid,  and  evaporate  to  dry- 
ness two  or  three  times  repeatedly.     The 


()  i:  i: 

oxide   of  iron  is  left  behind,  while  the  acetat 
of  luanganese  continues  soluble  in  water. 

Ores  oj  tuir^aieu.  Wolfram  was  analysed 
nearly  as  follows :  The  ore  was  iioiled  with 
muriatic  acid,  and  then  digested  with  ammo- 
nia alternately  till  the  whole  was  di^solved. 
The  ai7imoiii;lcal  solutions  being  evaporated 
to  dryness  and  calcined,  left  the  yellow  oxide 
oftiiiigslen  in  a  state  of  purity.  'I'he  muriatic 
solutions  were  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid, 
evaporated  to  drviiess,  and  the  residuum  re- 
dissolved  in  wale'r.  A  little  silica  remained. 
Carbonat  of  ])otass  precipitated  a  brown 
powder  from  this  solution.  This  powder  was 
treated  with  boiling  nitric  aciil  repeatedly, 
till  the  iron  which  it  contained  was  oxidized 
to  a  maximnni.  It  was  then  digested  in 
acetic  acid,  which  dissolved  the  iiiaiigan>-e, 
and  left  the  iron,  l-'inally,  the  manganese 
was  precipitated  by  an  alkali. 

Tiingstat  of  liii'ie  was    thn*  an;;Ksed  by 
Klapiolh  :    One  hundred  grains  of  it  were 
iligesled  in  nitric  acid.    The  yellow-coloured 
residue  was  washed  and  digested  in  ammonia. 
The  residue  was  digested  in  nitric  acid  and 
ammonia  alternately,  till  a  complete  solution 
was  obtained.     Two  grains  of  silica  remained 
behind.     The  nitric  acid  solution  was  mixed 
with  ammonia,  but  no  precipitate  appeared. 
It  was  then  mixed  with  a  boiling  sohilion  of 
carbonat  of  soda.      The    precipitate    drieel 
j  weighed  ^i  grains.     It  was  carbonat  of  lime; 
I  but  wh.en  reilissolved  in  nitric  acid,  it  lelt  one 
grain  oi  sili';a.     Thii'ty-tuo  grains  of  carbo- 
I  nat  are  equivalent  to  I'T.ti  of  linie.     The  am- 
I  nioniacal   solution,  by  evaporation,   yielded 
j  sir;  II  needleform  cry-tals.     When  heated  to 
r  redness  ill  a  plalinur.i  cruible,  they  lelt  I'l^ 
[  grains  of  oxide  of  iiiugsten. 
I      Orcx  of  >ii(>li/bJ,:iuii!i.      Molsbdena  may 
be  tn;ated  with  nitric  a. id  s^leces^ive.y  boif- 
I  ed  upon  jt  till  it  is  converted  into  a  white 
'  pouder.     This  p.iwder,  Hashed  and  dried,  is 
molvbdic  acid.  The  lupiid  obtained  by  wash- 
ing 'the  acid,  on  the  addition  of  potass,  depo- 
sits some  more  moly  bdic  acid.     This  bmng 
separated,  muriat  ot  barytes  is  to  be  dropt 
into  it  as  long  as  any   precipitate  appears. 
One  .hundred  |)arts  of  this  precipitate  indi- 
cate 14..')  of  sulphur. 

Ort.1  of  uranium.  1.  Pechblende,  or  the 
black  ore  of  uranium,  was  dissolved  by  Kla- 
prolh  in  nitric  acid.  The  undissolved  part  is 
a  mixture  of  silica  and  sulphur.  By  evapo- 
rating the  solution,  nitrat  of  lead  was  preci- 
pitated ;  then  nitrat  d  uranium  in  crystals. 
'I'he  soiution  being  now  eva|>orated  to  dry- 
ness, and  treated  again  with  nitric  acid,  left 
the  iron  in  ttie  state  of  red  oxide. 

2.  Uranitic  ochre  may  be  treated  with 
nitric  acid,  which  dissolves  the  uranimn,  and 
leaves  the  iron.  Tiie  purity  of  the  iron  may 
be  tried  by  the  rules  already  l.iid  down. 

3.  (ireen  mica  was  dissolved  by  Klaproth 
in  nitric  acid,  and  ammonia  added  in  excess 
to  the  solution.  The  oxide  of  uranium  was 
precipitated  ;  that  of  copper  retained, 

Urts  of  iiianium.  'I'he  ores  of  titanium, 
reihiced  as  usual  to  a  fine  powder,  are  to  be 
fosed  with  potass  or  its  carbonat.  The  melted 
mass  is  then  to  be  dissolved  in  hot  water.  A 
ujiite  precipitate  gradually  separates,  which 
is  the  white  oxide  of  titanium.  This  is  all 
that  is  necessary  to  analyse  the  first  species. 
But  when  iron  and  silica  are  present,  the  fol- 
lowing method  of  Chencvi.x  may  be  adopt- 
ed :   Saturate  the  alkahne  sululioii  with  inu- 


o  n  G 


.317 


riatic  acid.  White  oxide  of  titanium  preci- 
jjitates.  Separate  the  jiiecipitate,  anci  eva- 
porate the  sohiiion  to  drvness.  Kcdissolve 
the  residuum  in  water.  The  silica  remains 
behind,  I're(ipitale  the  solution  by  an  al- 
kali ;  add  the  precipitate  to  the  white  oxide 
obtaineil  at  firt,  and  dissolve  the  whole  in 
sulphuric  .'icid.  From  this  solution  pliosjjho- 
ric  acid  precipitates  the  titanium,  but  leaves 
the  iron. 

The  third  species,  which  contains  lime  and 
no  iron,  is  to  be  fused  with  potass,  dissolved 
in  muriatic  acid,  and  the  silica  separated  in 
the  usual  way.  After  this  the  titaniuu)  is  first 
to  be  s<-parated  from  the  niiniatic  solution  by 
ammonia  ;  and  alterwards  ihe  lime  by  an  al- 
kaline carbonat. 

Ores  ff  chromhmi.  \'auquelin  analysed 
the  chromat  of  h-ad  in  the  tolUnving  manner  ; 
When  boiled  with  a  suliicient  quantity  oi  <  ar- 
bonal  of  potass,  a  lively  en'er'.e^e.ence  ta'.ej 
place;  the  acid  coinb  iwa  with  the  ])ola<s, 
and  the  carbonat  of  lead  is  toriiwd,  and  n  - 
mains  undissolved,  it  may  be  dissolved  in 
nitric  acid,  and  its  quantity  ascertained  by 
precipitation  with  sulphuric  aci<l.  Or  tlit: 
chroinat  may  b^-  treated  with  nuiriatie  acid^; 
nuiriat  ol  lead  pre'-ipitates,  and  chromic  acid 
rClllain,^  in  solution.  This  pr»ce;s  must  be 
repeated  till  the  wliole  of  the  ore  i»  decom- 
posed. There  remain*  in  solution  clironiic 
acid  mixed  v^ith  a  little  muriatic,  which  may 
be  separated  by  means  of- oxide  of  silver. 

OI\(i.\N,  in  general,  is  an  instrimient  or 
machine  designed  for  the  production  oi  some- 
certain  action  or  operation;  in  which  sense 
the  mechanic  powers,  machines,  ami  even 
the  veins,  arteries,  nerves,  nuiscies,  and 
bones  of  the  huinaii  body,  may  be  called  or- 
gans. 

'I  he  organs  of  sense  are  those  parts  of  the 
hodv  by  which  we  receive  the  impressions  or 
ideas  ot  external  objects,  being  commonly 
reckoned  live,  viz.  the  eye,  ear,  nose,  palate,, 
and  cutis. 

Organ,  a  wind-instrument  blown  by 
bellows,  and  containie-g  numerous  pip's  of 
various  kinds  and  dimensions,  and  nuiltlfa- 
rimis  tones  and  powers.  Of  all  musical  in- 
sruments  this  is  the  most  proper  for  the  sa- 
cred purpose  to  which  it  is  most  generally 
applied  in  all  countries  wherever  it  liiis  been 
introduced.  Its  structure  is  lofty,  elegant, 
aud  majestic  ;  and  its  si/leiiinily,  grandeiir, 
anl  rich  vohijiie  ot  tone,  have  justly  obtained 
it  an  acknowledged  pre-eminence  over  every 
otlier  instrument. 

.■\u  organ,  when  complete,  is  of  threefold 
construction,  and  furnished  with  tiiree  sets  of 
keys  ;  one  tor  what  is  called  the  great  organ, 
and  which  is  the  miuolle  set;  a  second  (or 
lower  set)  for  the  choir  organ;  and  a  third 
(or  upper  set)  for  the  sweil.  In  the  great 
organ,  the  principal  stops  are  the  two  diapa- 
sons, the  principal,  the  twelfth,  the  liltveiith, 
the  seiquialtru,  the  mixture  or  furniture,  the 
trumpet,  the  clarion,  and  the  cornet.  The 
choir  organ  usually  contains  the  stopt  diapar 
son,  the  dulciana,  the  principal,  the  liute, 
the  twelfth,  the  bassoon,  and  the  vox  liu- 
iiiana.  The  swell  comprises  ihe  two  diapa- 
sons, the  principal,  the  hautboy,  trumpet, 
and  cornet.  Besides  the  complete  organ, 
there  are  other  organs  of  lesser  sizes,  and 
more  limited  ijowers,  adapted  to  church, 
chapel,  and  chamber  use.     There  is  aisa  ibi 


318 

barrel  or  liand  organ,  consisting  of  a  move- 
a1>le  tiiniiiig  cylinder  called  a  barrel,  on 
wiiicli,  by  means  of  wires,  pins,  and  slaples, 
are  set  the  times  it  is  intended  to  perform. 
These  pins  and  staples,  by  the  revolution  of 
the  barrel,  act  upon  the  keys  within,  and  give 
admission  to  the  wind  from  -the  bellows  to 
the  pipes.  The  barrel  organ  is  generally 
portable  ;  and  so  contrived  that  the  same  ac- 
tion of  the  hand  which  turns  the  barrel,  sup- 
plies the  wind  by  giving  motion  to  the  bel- 
lows. 

The  invention  of  the  organ,  which  is  attri- 
buted to  the  Greeks,  is  very  antient,  though 
it  is  generally  allowed  to 'have  been  little 
lised  before  tlie  eighteenth  century. 

It  has  been  a  subject  of  debate  at  what 
time  the  vise  of  organs  was  first  introduced 
into  the  church.  Some  writers  say,  that  they 
were  first  applied  to  sacred  use  in  the  time 
of  pope  Vitalian,  about  the  year  660  ;  others 
that  they  were  not  employed  in  that  way  till 
the  ninth  century.  A  learned  author  has, 
however,  shewn  that  neilher  of  these  dates 
can  be  just:  and  Thomas  Aquinas  expressly 
say!;,  that  in  his  time  (about  the  year  1250) 
the  cluirch  did  not  use  musical  instruments; 
and  Bingham  says,  that  MarinMS_  Sauntus, 
who  lived  about  the  year  I'JOO,  lirst  intro- 
ducv'd  the  use  of  tliem  into  churches.  But  if 
we  may  give  credit  to  the  testimony  of  Ger- 
vas,  the  monk  of  Canterbury,  who  tJourished 
at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
organs  were  introduced  more  than  one  hun- 
dred vears  before  his  time.  Bede,  who  died 
in  735,  says  nothing  of  the  use  of  organs,  or 
other  musical  instruments,  in  our  churches  or 
convents,  though  he  minutely  di-scribes  the 
manner  in  which  the  psalms  and  hymns  were 
sung  ;  yet  Mabillon  and  Muratori  inform  us, 
that  organs,  during  the  10th  century,  became 
common  in  Italy  and  Germany,  as  well  as  in 
England;  and  that  about  the  same  time  ihey 
had  admission  into  the  convents  throughout 
Europe. 

The  church-organ  consists  of  two  parts ; 
the  main  body,  called  the  great  organ,  and 
the  positive  or  little  organ,  whi-ch  forms  a 
small  ca^e  or  buffet,  conmionly  placed  before 
tlie  great  organ.  The  size  of  an  organ  is  ge- 
nerally expressed  by  the  length  of  its  large^t 
pipe;  thus  they  say,  an  organ  of  8,  l(j,  3L' 
feet,  &c.  The  organ  in  the  cathedral  church 
at  Ulm  in  Germany  is  93  feet  high  and  i;8 
broad;  its  largest  pipe  is  13  inches  diameter, 
and  it  has  16  pair  of  bellows. 

Plate  Organ,  rcpres'-ntsa  barrel-organ  made 
by  Mr.  Lincoln,  Ilotborn,  A,  figs.  2  and  6, 
is  the  handle  by  which  it  is  played ;  on  its 
"  5pindle  is  a  crank  ci,  that  works  the  bellows 
which  supply  the  organ  with  air:  these  bel- 
lows are  in  two  distinct  parts  Bl);  and  as  the 
lower  boards  move  round/  as  a  centre,  one 
of  the  sides  is  always  filling  with  air  by  a 
valve  in  its  under  side,  while  the  other  is 
forcing  its  way  through  a  valve  in  the  board 
K  into  the  regulator  !•',  the  moveable  or 
upper  hoard  of  which  is  pressed  down  by  two 
wire  springs  /;/;.  When  the  handle  A  is 
turned,  the  crank  a  by  the  rod  d,  moves  the 
lower  boards  HI)  of  the  bellows  up  and  down, 
so  that  they  force-  the  air  alternately  through 
their  respective  valves  into  the  regulator: 
when  a  great  quantity  of  air  is  forced  into 
the  regulator,  it  overcomes  the  springs,  and 
-aises  the  upper  board;  and  during  the  time 
that  the  bellows  supply  no  air,  which  is  vrlicn 


ORGAN. 

the  valves  in  the  boards  BD  arc  shutling,  the 
springs  bb  force  down  the  board  of  the  regu- 
lator, and  drive  the  air  out  of  it  for  the  sup- 
ply of  the  organ,  till  the  bellows  begin  to  act. 
The  board  K  has  a  hole  cut  through  it,  which 
communicates  with  a  passage  ee,  hg.  2;  which 
conveys  the  air  from  the  regulator  to  a.  trur.k 
g,  called  the  wind-chest,  and  which  extends 
the  whole   length  of  the  orean   under  the 
pipes  G  and  M :  the  board  w Iiich  forms  the 
top  of  this  has  a  hole  through  it  under  every 
pipe,  and  is  covered  by  a  valve  as  h.    i  is  a 
small  wire,  the  end  of  which  rests  upon  the 
valve,  so  as  to  open  it  when  the  wire  is  pushed 
down  the  passage  ;  for  the  air  is   conveyed 
through  the  upper  board  of  the  wind-chest, 
under  two  sliilers  kl,  called  stops,  wliicfi  have 
handles  (shewn  in   fig.  6.)  coming   through 
the  frame,  by  which  they  can  be  moved  in  or 
out:  these  stops  slide  in  tubes,   lined  with 
leather,  <vhich  they  fit  very  exactly,  so  as  to 
prevent  any  air  getting  through  by  the  sides 
of  them ;  and  the  stops  have  as  many  holes 
cut  through   them  as  there  are  valves  and 
pipes,   and  at  the  same  distance  from   one 
another  ;  so  that  wlien  the  stops  are  pushed 
in,  the  holes  in  them  coincide  with  the  pas- 
sage from  the  valves  to  the  pipes  Gil,  so  as 
to  give  the  air  free  vent;  and  when  they  are 
dniwn  out,  tlie  spaces  between  tlie  holes  in 
the  stops  are  brought  over  the  passages,  so  as 
to  close  them,  and  prevent  any  air  getting 
through.     From  the  stop  k  the  air  is  con- 
veyed by  a  crooked  passage  to  the  wooden 
pipes  11,  and  the  slider  /  is  to  intercept  tlie 
air  for  the  metal  pipes  G.     A  seclion  of  each 
kind  of  pipe  is  sliewn  in  figs.  3  and  4  :  «a  Jig. 
3  is  acylmdric  pipe,  usually  of  lead;  to  one 
end  of  this  is  soldered  a  conical  pipe  bb  of  the 
same  metal,  at  the  end  d  of  which  the  air  is 
admitted.  iN'ear  the  junction  of  the  two  pipes  a  ! 
piece  of  metal  c  is  soldered,  which  fills  up  all  I 
the  pipe,  except  a  small  cavity  on  one  side, 
which   is  cut  straight ;  and  the  edge  of  the 
conical  pipe  bb  is  bent  straight,  so  as  to  leave 
a  small  crack,  thrcHigh  which  the  air  issues. 
The  edge  it  of  the  cylindric  pipe  is  cut  to  a 
sliarp  edge,  and  bent  down  to  the  line  with 
the  opening  through  which  the  air  conies: 
when  the  air  is  blown  through  the  end  d,  it 
rushes  through    the    opening    between   the 
piece  e  and  the.edge  of  the  pi])e  bb,  the  sound 
IS  formed  by  the  edge  )(  dividing  the  current 
of  air,  and  (he  vibration  of  the  air  in  the  re- 
mainder of  the  tube  uir.  in  large  pi[)jes  a  small 
piece  of  metal  o,  called  the  ear,  is  soldered  on, 
which  adils  much  to  the  sounil.    The  wooden 
pipe,  fig.  4,  is  composed  of  a  square  trunk 
of  wood  au :  in  one  end  a  block  of  wood  b  is 
glued  ;  a  small  wooden  pipe  rfis  inserted  into 
the  lower  end  of  this  block  to  bring  the  air  to 
the  pipe,  the  end  of  which  is  partly  closetl  by 
a  plug  of  wood  to  adjust  the  quantity  of  air; 
in  the  leaden  pipes  this  is  done  by  pinching 
them  up  at  the  end.    On  one  side  of  the  block 
/;  a  piece  of  o:ik  is  glued,  between  the  edge 
of  which  and  Ihe  block  b  the  air  issues,  and  is 
divided,  as  in  the  metal  pipes,  by  the  edge  of 
one  of  the  boards  of  the  trunk,  which  is  cut 
sharp  for  the  purpose:  the  endsof  the  wooden 
pi|)es  are  closed  by  a  plug  of  wood  h,  which  is 
slid  farther  in  or  out,  to  adjust  tlie  pipe  to  the 
proper  note.     The  spindle  of  the  handle  A, 
fig.  6,  has  an  endless  screw  m  upon  it,  which 
works  into  a  wheel  L,  the  barrel  K  (shewn 
sc'parately  in  fig.  I.).  This  barrel  is  made  of 
wood,  and  has  pins  drove  into  it,  which  pins, 


as  it  is  twncd  round,  litl  up  tin- keys  /;,  t'l^, 
6.  shewn  in  lig.  5,  where  A  is  the  barrel,  the 
pins  of  which,  as  it  turns,  take  hold  of  tin; 
end  e  of  the  keys  n,  and  lift  them  >ip:  these 
keys  are  supported   by   a  bar  B  called  the 
key-frame,  on  each   side   of  which  a  brass 
plate  bb  is  screwed,  which  has  notches  cut  in 
it  to  guide  each  key:  a  wire  d  is  put  through 
each  key,  round  wnichit  moves  as  a  centre  ; 
the  eiidj  of  the  key  has  a  piece  of  niahogany 
fastened  to  it,  to  which  is  jointed, the  red  I, 
by  a  piece  of  leather.   The  lower  end  of  this 
rod  is  jointed  Ito  the  wire  i,  fig.  3,  by  which 
the  valve  /(  is  opened  as  before  described : 
the  spring  under  this  valve  throws  the  rod  I 
upwards;  and  to  prevent  the  end  e  of  the  kev 
from  touching   the  barrel,  a  screw  p  is  put 
through  the  key-frame,  the  bottom  of  whicli 
is  covered  with  leather,  to   eaten  the  key 
without  making  any   ncise.     The  operation 
of  the  machine  is  as  follows :  When  the  handle 
A,  fig.  6,  is  turned,  it  works  the  bellows  bv  the 
crank  a,  and  forces  the  air  to  the  wind  chest  g, 
hg.  2;  at  the  same  time  the  screw  »/  turns  tlie 
barrel  K,  hg.  6,  slowly  round  :  the  pins  in  its 
surface  lift  up  the  end  c,  fig.  5,  of  tlie  key, 
which  depresses  the  other  end,  and  by  tlie 
rods  I  and  wire  2,  fig.  2,  opens  the  valve,  and 
allows  the  air  (it  the  stops  k  or  /  are  open)  to 
vnter  the  pipe  of  the  proper  note,  and  sound 
it.     As  the  barrel  turns,  that  key  is  dropped, 
and  the  spring  shuts  the  valve;  another  pipe, 
con'esponding  to  the  next  note  of  the  tune,  is 
then  opened  and  so  on  till  the  tune  is  com- 
pleted.    If  the  tune  is  wanted  to  be  played 
I  in  a  high  key,  the  stop  L  is  drawn  out,  and 
I  the  metal  pipes  are  used  ;  if  in  a  low  key  the 
'  wooden  pipes,  which  are  an  octave  lower, 
'  are  played,  by  luilling  out  the  stop   K  ana 
:  pushing  in   tlie  other;   if  the  tune  is- to  be 
I  played  vi;ry  loud,  both  are  drawn  out  ;  and 
I  when  both  are  pushed  in,  no  sound  is   pro- 
duced.   As  a  different  quantity  of  air  is  w  ant- 
ed for  playing  the  metal  and  wooden  pipes, 
the  bellows  are  made  large  enough  to  supply- 
both  at  once;  and  when  only  one  is  used,  the 
air  escapes  through  a   valve   in   the  upper 
board  of  the  regulator  V :  this  valve  has  a 
lo  )g  handle,  and  is  kept  shut  by- a  wire  spring; 
wiien  the  board  of  the  regulator  is  raised  to 
a  certain  height,  the  handle  of  the  valve  m 
meets  a  part  of  the  frame,  the  valve  is  open- 
ed, and  the  air  escapes.    The  frame  in  which 
the  barrel  is  mounted,  fig.  I.  is  slid  into  a 
groove  M,  fig?.  2  and  6:  to  one  of  the  uprights 
of  the  frame,  a  piece  of  brass  N,  fig.  1,  is 
screwed;   this   projects  through  the  oulsidii 
board  of  the  organ,  as  shewn  in  lig.  7,  and 
has  as  many  notches  cut  in  it  as  the  barrel 
pl.iys  dilferent  tunes;  a  bolt  O  slides  into  any 
of  these  notches,  so  as  to  keep  the  piece  1\'  in 
aiiv  place  where  it  is  set  over  the  end  of  this 
bolt;  another  bolt  P  slides  so  that  P  must  be 
wil  hdrawn  bi-l'ore  O  can  be  moved.    I'he  bolt 
P  has  a  wire  if,  figs.  2,  5,  and  6,  projecting 
from  the  back  of  it  through  the  board :  this 
win-  acts  upon  one  end  of  the  lever  ;-,  so  as 
to  push  it  down  when  tli."  bolt  is  drawn  back. 
The  key-frame  E,  fig.  5,  is  not  fastened  down 
to  the  fiame  of  the  organ,  but  has  two  pieces 
of  iron  plate  g  fastened  to  the  ends  of  it :  the 
other  end  of  this  moves  round  a  screw,  as  a 
centre,   so  that  the  frame  and  keys  can  be 
turned  up  clear  of  the  barrel ;  it  has  a  wire 
spring  !>,  to  keep  it  down,  and  a  screw  t  re- 
gulates its  distance  from    the    b:irrel    when 
down.  One  end  of  the  lever  r  is  put  under 


DKix.v. 


TttjoU  Sd  j-jScS  At  Ridurd  fMbj  s  JVi^  Sndo:  St-BladrfHca-j- 


O  r;  I 

ihe  key -frame,  so  that  wlieu  the  outer  end  is 
pushal  (Iciwii  by  drawing  back  the  bolt  1',  fig. 
7,  llieothi'rwill  raise  tiif  key-lianie  :  liie  bolt 
O  is  tiicii  at  libtrty  to  be  drawji  back  ;  and 
the  piocc  N  can  be  set,  and  fixed  at  aiiotlier 
jiotch,  which  causes  the  organ  to  play  anoliu-r 
tune,  by  moving  the  barrel  along  a  small  dis- 
tance, which  bruigs  a  Iresh  set  of  pins  undiT 
the  keys,  which  are  dil'lerenlly  disposed.  By 
the  arrangement  ol  the  bolls  as  above,  the 
barrel  can  ni-ver  be  njoved  without  first 
titling  up  the  keys,  so  that  th^-re  is  no  danger 
of  breaknig  I  he  keys  of  pin-,  in  the  barrel. 

'I'he  p;uinels  of  the  organ  are  slid  into 
grooves  cut  in  the  four  upngfits  of  the  frame. 
OKIB.ASIA,  a  gerjus  of  tlie  monogynia 
order,  in  tlv  pentandria  class  of  [jlants  ,  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
forty-seventh  order,  slellala*.  'i  he  corolla  is 
small,  tiilmlated,  and  nionopetalous.  The 
pericarpium  is  il  globular  berry,  grooved 
longitudinally  ;  is  ipiiiuiu<'locular,  and  con- 
tains one  seed.  Ol  this  there  are  six  species, 
all  natives  of  the  warmer  ])arls  of  America, 
viz.  1.  OfHcinalis :  the  natives  of  Guiana 
make  infusions  of  the  leaves,  and  give  them 
in  cases  of  spasmodic  asthma,  i.'.  Kacemosa. 
.3.  X'iolacea.  4.  Lutea.  j.  Paniculata.  ti. 
Longiflora. 
OKICHALCUM.  See  Zi.vc. 
OIUOAXUM,  origami,  or  marjoram,  a 
genus  of  the  gymnospermia  order,  in  the 
aidynamia  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  forty-second  order, 
verticillata-.  'J'here  is  a  strobilns  or  cone 
collecting  the  calcyes  together.  The  prin- 
cipal species  are,  two  hardy  perennials  and 
an  annual  for  the  open  ground,  and  live  per- 
ennials for  the  greenhouse:  viz.  1.  'I'he 
vulgare,  or  wild  pot-maijoram.  2.  The  he- 
racleoticum,  or  winter  sweet-marjoram. 
These  are  hnely-scented  aromatics,  e.\cellent 
for  culinary  purposes,  particularly  for  brodis, 
soups,  &c.  they  have  likewise  merit  fgr  me- 
dical uses,  and  for  giving  fragrance  to  oint- 
ments ;  so  that  the  plants  are  proper  both 
for  kitchen  aiui  jihysic  gardens,  and  may 
also  be  employed  in  the  pleasure-ground  as 
jjlants  of  variety.  3.  The  maijor.i.ja,  or  an- 
nual sweet-marjoram,  is  an  aromatic  of  the 
highest  fragrance,  is  admirable  for  kitchen 
use,  and  excellent  for  nosegays.  It  is  often 
called  knotted  marjoram,  from  the  flowers 
growing  in  close  knotted-like  heads.  The 
following  mostly  assume  an  undershrubbv 
growth  ;  fre(|uently  with  abiding  stalks,  if 
they  shelter  here  in  winter  :  4.  The  dictam- 
uus  or  dittany  of  Crete.  5.  The  sipyleum, 
or  origanum  of  mount  Sipylus.  6.  'i'he  cre- 
ticum,  OT  Cretan  origany.  7.  The  sniyr- 
n;cum,  or  Smyrna  origany.  8.  The  a;gypti- 
acum,  or  Egyptian  origany.  There  are  four 
other  species. 

ORIGENISTS,  in  church-history,  a 
Christian  sect  in  the  fourth  century,  so'  call- 
ed from  their  drawing  their  opinions  from 
the  writings  of  Origen.  The  ongenists  main- 
tained, that  the  souls  of  men  "had  a  pre- 
existent  state,  that  they  were  holy  intelli- 
gences, and  had  sinned  in  heaven  before  the 
body  was  created  :  that  Christ  is  only  the 
son  of  God  by  adoption. 

ORIGINAL,  in  the  court  of  king's  bench, 
the  usual  original  writ  i-^sued  in  the  actions, 
as  for  action  of  trespass  upon  the  case.  And 
this  court  ik)es  not  issue  origiBals  111  actions 


o  n  I 

of  debt,  coTenant,  or  account,  &c.  wlietcas 
the  court  of  conimoii-pleas  proceeds  by  ori- 
ginal in  all  kinds  ot  actions;  but  to  arrest 
and  sue  a  parly  to  outlawry,  it  is  nsed  in 
both  cases.     See  Imiiey's  l>.  li.  and  C.  15. 

OKIOLU.S,  oriole,  in  ornilhologv,  a  genus 
belonging  lo  the  ord:r  of  pica',  'i'he  j)ill  in 
this  genus  is  straight,  conic,  very  sharp-i)oint- 
ed  ;  edge,  cul.trated,  inclining  inwards  ;  man- 
dibles of  ecpial  li-nglh.  Nostrils  small,  ]/laced 
at  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  |)artlv  covered. 
Tongue  divided  at  the  end.  'iocs,  lliree 
forward,  one  backwaril;  tlie  middle  joined 
near  the  base  to  the  outmost  one.  Tliese 
birds  are  inhabitants  of  America,  except  in 
a  tcnv  instances;  they  are  a  noisy,  gregarious, 
frugivorous,  granivoions,  and  voracious  race, 
very  luimerons,  and  often  have  pensile  nests. 
The  several  species,  which  are  very  numer- 
ous, sinct-  Mr.  Latham  describes  no  less 
than  forty-live,  seem  to  be  principally  dis- 
tinguished by  their  (-olour. 

1.  The  lirst  species,  is  called  the  oriolus 
Haltiinore,  by  Linnanis,  and  the  Ballnnore 
oriole  by  Pennant,  and  is  an  inhabitant  ot 
North  America,  which  country  it  quits  be- 
fore winter,  and  probably  retires  to  Mexico; 
the  xoclntotl  of  ]''ernandez  seeming  to  he  ol 
the  same  species.  'I'he  head,  throat,  neck, 
and  upper  part  of  the  back  of  the  male,  are 
described  to  be  black  ;  the  lesser  coverts  of 
the  wings  orange ;  the  greater  black,  tipt 
with  white ;  the  breast,  belly,  lower  ])art  of 
the  back,  and  coverts  of  the  tail,  of  a  bright 
orange.  The  head  and  back  of  the  female 
are  orange,  edged  with  pale  brown;  the  tail 
dusky,  edged  with  yellow.  The  length 
both  of  the  male  and  female  is  seven  inches. 
This  bird  suspends  its  nest  to  the  horizontal 
forks  of  the  tulip  and  poplar  trees,  formed  of 
the  lilaments  of  some  tough  plants,  curiously 
woven,  mixed  with  wool,  and  lined  with 
hairs.  It  is  of  a  pear-shape,  open  at  top, 
with  a  hole  on  the  side  through  which  the 
young  are  fed.  In  some  [larts  of  North 
America,  this  species,  from  its  brilliant  co- 
lour, is  called  the  liery  hang-nest.  It  is 
named  the  Baltimore  bird,  from  its  colours 
resembling  those  in  the  arms  of  the  late  lord 
Baltimore,  whose  family  were  proprietors  of 
Maryland. 

•2.  The  sharp-tailed  oriole  is  about  the  size 
of  a  lark ;  the  bill  is  dusky  ;  the  crown  is 
brown  and  cinereous;  the  cheeks  are  brown, 
bounded  above  and  below  with  deep  dull 
yellow.  The  throat  is  white ;  the  breast, 
sides,  thighs,  and  vent,  are  a  dull  pale  yel- 
low, spotted  with  brown;  the  belly  is  white  ; 
tlie  back  is  varied  with  ash-colour,  black, 
and  white;  the  wing-coverts  are  dusky,  with 
ferruginous  edges. 

The  other  species  of  the  oriole,  (see  Plate 
Nat.  Hist.  tigs.  301  and  30i.)  according  to 
Mr.  Pennant's  enumeration,  are  the  white- 
backed,  the  bastard,  the  black,  the  brown- 
headed,  the  rusty,  the  white-headed,  the 
Hudsonian  white-headed,  the  olive,  the  yel- 
low-throated, the  unalaschka,  the  sharp- 
tailed,  and  the  red-wing.  This  last  species  is 
known  in  America  by  the  name  of  the  red- 
winged  starling  ami  the  swamp  blackbird. 
Although  they  appear  at  New  York  only 
from  April  to  October,  they  probably  con- 
tinue through  the  whole  year  in  the  southern 
parts  ;  at  least,  Catesby  and  Latham  make 
no  mention  of  their  tk-parture.  I'hey  are 
seen  at  times   in  such    prodigious  llotks,  as 


O  R  N 


3l!> 


even  to  obscine  the  fky.  Tiny  were  es- 
teemed Ihe  ))est  of  the  colonics,  m'akiiig  most 
dreadful  havock  among  the  maize  and"  other 
grain,  both  when  newly-sown  and  ripe.  They 
are  very  bold,  and  not  to  l>f  terrilied  by  a 
gim ;  for,  notwithstanding  the  sport-man 
makes  slaughter  in  a  (lock,  the  remainder 
will  take  a  short  (light,  and  settle  again  in 
ihe  same  lield.  The  farmers  sometimes  at- 
tempt their  destruction,  by  steeping  the 
maize  betore  they  sow  it  in  a  decoction  of 
while  hellebore.  'The  birds  that  eat  this  pre- 
pared corn,  are  seized  with  a  vertigo,  and 
fall  down,  which  sometimes  drives  the  rest 
away.  This  potion  is  |)articularly  aimed  at 
the  purjjle  grackles  or  purple  jackdaw,  wh.icli 
consorts  in  myriads  with  this  species,  as  if 
in  conspiracy  against  the  1  hours  of  the  hus- 
bandman. Thetijivler  seldom  (ires  among 
Ihe  Hocks  without  killing  someof  each.  'J  hey 
appear  in  the  greatest  numbers  in  autumn, 
when  they  receive  additions  from  the  re- 
tired parts  ofthe  country,  to prevon  the  ripen- 
ed maize.  Some  of  the' colonies  establi  Jied  a 
reward  of  three-pence  a  dozen  for  the  ex- 
tirpation of  tlie  jackdaws;  and  in  New  JCng- 
land,  the  intent  was  almost  effected  at  th'o 
co^t  of  the  inhabitants;  who  cli>cpvered,  at 
length,  (hat  Providence  had  not  hirmed  the>f 
seennngly  destructive  birds  in  vain.  Not- 
withstanding they  caused  such  havock 
among  the  grain,  they  made  ample  recom- 
pcncc,  by  clearing  (hc'ground  of  the  noxious 
worms,  the  cater|)illar  of  the  bruchus  pisi,  or 
peas- beetle,  in  jjarticular,  with  which  it 
abounds.  As  soon  as  the  birds  were  destroy- 
ed, the  reptiles  had  full  leave  to  multiply  ; 
and  the  consequence  was  the  total  loss  "of 
the  grass  in  1749  when  the  Nev*'  Knglavders^ 
repenting  too  late,  were  obliged  to  get  their 
hay  from  Pennsylvania,  and  even  from  Great 
Britain. 

ORION,  in  astronomy,  a  constellation  of 
the  southern  hemisphere.   See  Astronomy. 

Orion's  rixg,  in  astronomy,  a  constella^ 
tion  more  usually  called  Eridan'us.    See  Eui- 

DANUS. 

OHNITHOGALU.M.itor  of  BtthUiiem, 
a  genus  of  the  hexandria  inonogvnia  class  of 
plants,  the  corolla  whereof  consists  of  six> 
petals,  of  a  lanceolated  tigure  from  the  base 
to  the  middle,  erect  from  thence  to  the 
points,  jdano-patent;  they  are  permanent, 
but  lose  their  colour  :  the  fruit  is  a  round 
angulated  capsule,  formed  of  three  valves, 
and  containing  three  cells ;  the  seeds  are 
numerous  and  roundish,  the  receptacle  co- 
lumnar. 

There  are  thirty-live  species,  all  of  them 
herbaceous  and  perennial,  rising  from  three 
to  six  fei-t  high,  having  stalks  terminated  with, 
long  spikes  of  hexapetalous,  star-shaped, 
white  and  yellow  (lowers.  Six  of  the  spe- 
cies are  very  hard)',  and  will  prosper  in  any 
situation :  but  one,  namely  the  capense,  a 
native  of  tlie  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  requires 
the  assistance  of  artiricial  warmth  to  preserve 
it  in  this  country. 

ORNITHOLOGY,  that  branch  of  zoo- 
logy, which  treats  of  birds.  See  Bird.  Lin- 
na^us,  whose  ornithology  we  have  followed, 
arranges  the  whole  class  of  birds  under  six. 
orders,  according  to  the  different  figures  of 
their  beaks,  viz. 

1 .  Accipitres,  upper  mandible  with  an  an- 


370 


O  R  NT 


m'.lai-  project'oii.  2.  Pica-,  bill  compressed 
f.)nv(-x ;  Willi  feet  fonned  tliv  perching  or 
tliiiiblng.  3.  Aiisi-res,  biil  covered  willi 
skill,  jjroad  at  tin-  tip  ;  some"  with  and  some 
without  teeth.  4.  ^;r„ll,i-,bill  r()•.lll.i:^h,  tongue 
fleshy  ;  some  with  tliree  souie  with  four  toes. 
5.  G;illin;e,  bill  convex,  up-per  maiuiib!e 
aiilieil.  <).  I'asseres,  bill  conic,  siiarp-poinleil. 
ORNrniOPL'S, /'!>ii'.5>()/,  a  genus  of 
tl'.e  diadeiphia  decanuria  class  of  plai.ts,  with 
a  papilionaceous  llower :  its  fruit  is  an  ob- 
l.ji'ig  liiiiited  pod,  of  a  cylindrical  figure,  and 
.-oiiiamiiOg  in  each  joiiit  a  single  roundish 
se<-d  ;  ;uld  to  this,  that  several  of  tlie^e  pods 
usnilly  grow  together.  'I'here  are  live 
sp  riej. 

Thts  leaves  of  this  plant  are  said  to  be 
«ood  for  a  hernia,  nn.l  for  lireaki'.ig  and 
exp'.liing  the  stone  of  tl-.e  kidneys  or  bladder. 

ORNirHORUYNCriUiJ  PARADOX- 
US, frou)  New  South  Wales,  a  singular  qui- 
tiiuped,  which   has  not   yet   been  poperly 
cias^ed  in  the   Liiiui'an  system.     The  moil 
reinavkable  circumsiaiicc'in  this  curiou,  ani- 
mal, is  the  great  similarity  of  its  head  with 
that  of  a  duck,  which,  howt-ver,  is  still  more 
sinking  in  its  internal  ^tructure,     From  the 
Kvlernal  firm  of  the  scull  of  this  animal,  one 
might  be  moro  easily  led  U;  conclude  that  it 
belonged  to  such  au  aquatic:  bird,   than  to  a 
creature  of  the  mammalia  tribe,     liolli  the 
j:iws   are  as  broad   and   low   as  in  a  duck, 
and   the  calvaria  has  no  traces  of  l  sijlure, 
as   i-.  generally  the  case  in  full-grown  birds. 
There  is  likewise  a  singularity   in  the  cavity 
pi  Uie   scull,   of   which    notfiing    like    it  i.s 
known  in  anv  <juadruped  aiumal  of  the  mam- 
malia, though  tlu'fe'  e.xists   something  ana- 
Jogous  in  the  class  of  bird-,  namely,  a  con- 
siderable bony  fal.N,  which  is  situated  along 
the  middle  of  the  os   frontis,  and    the    ussa 
t.i,-i-ginati5.      Tliis  processus    is    in    general 
scarcely  to  be  seen  in  the  mammalia,  even 
in  those  that  have  a  bofiy  tentorium  cere- 
iielli.     The  mandible  of  this  animal  is  very 
singular,  ccmsisting  of  a  beak,  the  under  part 
of  which  has  its  margin  indented  as  in  ducks, 
iU)d  of  llie   proper  instrument  for  chewing 
that  is  situated   behind,   uithin  the  cheeks. 
This  has  no  teeth,  nor  even   the  traces  of 
alvL'o'i,  hut  only  two  broad   processes  of  a 
peculiar  formation  on  each  side,  wJiosb  un- 
dulated  snperlicies   lit    one   aijother.      Dr. 
Shaw   says  of  tht;   sp;'x:imeii   he  examined, 
that   it  had  no  teeth,  "  denliun   nulla  sunt 
vestigia."     Hut  sir  Joseph  Banks  inlorms  us, 
that   .Mr.   Home  has  found,  in  a  specimen 
that  belongs  to  the  Society  (^f  Naiural  His- 
tory at  Xewcastle,  on  each  side  of  ihc  jaws, 
two  snjall   and   llat  molar  teeth.     'I'lie  fore 
part  of  iljis  anomalous  mandible,  or  the  beak, 
IS  covered  and  bord -red  with  a  e-.iriaceons 
skin,  in  which  three   parts  are  to  be  distill- 
gdished  :   I.  The  proper  integument  of  the 
bi'ak  Cintegnnjentuii)  rostri'),  2.  The  labiated 
margins  of  it  (iiiargines  labi.iles).     3,  A  cu 
nous  edge  of  the  >-kin  of  the  beak  (linibns 
transversarius),     Imo  these   three   parts  of 
t'lat  inemhrane  immiTOus  nerves  are  distrl- 
bnted,  of  which  tlios"  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  beak  arise  from  the  second  braiU'li  of  the 
(i/i'i  pair,   I'lz,  ill  iIm'  liml)U-.  ir.m^vcrsarius  ; 
that  wliicli   penetrates  thn>ugh  the  loramen 
lJi,li,iorbitali',    in    the    margo    lahiahs ;    Ihal 
wliirli   comes   forth    iirhind  the  os-.a    iiilM- 
ijia.vilUria,  and  to  the  :ateguaii'nluiu  rostri, 


O    1!    0) 

tl;ree  branches,  which  run  out  between  th« 
ossa  intermaxillaria.     I'rom  this  i|uantity  of 
nerves,   with  which  tlie    integnnnfiit  of  the 
beak  is  provided,  no  doubt  is  left  of  this  part 
being  intended  as  the  organ  of  feeling,  a  sense 
which,  be>ide3  men   and  the  quadrumanes, 
very   tew  mammalia  cujoy,  that  is  to  say, 
few    animals  possess    the   facultv   of  distin- 
guishing tlie   form  of  e.xlernal  objects  and 
their  iiualities  by   organs  destined  for   that 
purposi.-;  a  property   that  is  dilVoient  from 
the  common  feeling,  by  wincji  every  animal 
is  able"  to    perceive    rhe   teniperat.ure  and 
presence   of  sensibie    objects,    but    v.ithuut 
being   informed    by   the  touch  of  them,   oi 
their  pei.nliar  qualities.     Thus,  for  instance, 
the  skill  in  the  wings  of  a  bat,  and  its  ear, 
serve  probably  as  organs  of  common  feeling, 
by  means  of  which  they  are  enabled  to  lUil- 
ter,    after    being    blinded,     without    Hying 
against  any  thing.     The  whiskers  (vibrissa-) 
of  many  animals  seem  likewise  to  serve  lor 
the  purpose  of  informing  them  of  the  pre- 
sence of  sen--ible  bodies,  on   which  account 
Dr.  Darwin  compares  them  with  the  antenna' 
of  insects  ;  but  they  are  not  able  to  inform 
themselves  of  the  properties  of  ihose  objects. 
It  it  true  tiiat  the  >nDnt  of  a  mole  has  been 
considered  by  Derham,   and  the  snout  and 
tongue  of  many  other  animals  likewi^e  by 
liiiljon,  as  organs  of  touching  ;  but  this  seems 
only  to   be  their  secondary  use.     The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  elephant's  trunk,  which 
liullbn  also   conceives   to   be    an  argan   of 
touching,  although  from  its  maimer  of  liv- 
ing, the  necessity  of  such  an  organ  of  touch- 
ing does  not  appear.     The  ornithorhynchus, 
however,  is  an  animal  v\hich,  from  the  si- 
milarity of  its   abode,   and  the   manner  of 
searching   for   food,  agrees  much   with  the 
duck,  on  which  account  it  has  been  e<pially 
pro\ided  by  nature  with  an  organ  for  touch- 
ing, vi/.  with  the  integument  of  the  beak, 
rii  Illy  endowed  with  nerves.     This  instance 
of  analogy  in  the  structure  of  a  singular  or- 
gan of  sen>e  in  two  speeii-s  of  animals  from 
classes  quite  dil'lerent,   is  highly  instructive 
lor  comparative  physiology,  and  on  this  ac- 
count the  ornithorln  iKJius  belongs  to  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of  zoology, 
and  may   in  general  be  looked  upon  as  one 
of  the  most  interesting  discoveries  with  u  hich 
that  part  of  natural  history  has  been  enrich- 
during  the  last  cenlurv.     See  Plate  Nat. 


O  R  R 

very  floriferotis,  and  the  llowcrs  conspiciioiij 
and  ornamental  for  adorning  the  llower-com- 
|iartiuents.  'the  Scotch  liighlanders  have  a 
great  e.steem  for  tiie  tubercles  of  the  roots 
of  the  tnberosus,  or  species  sometimes  called 
wood-pea.  They  dry  and  chew  them  in  ge- 
neral to  give  a  better  relish  to  their  litpior  ; 
tliey  also  aliirm  that  they  are  good  against 
most  disorders  of  the  breast,  and  that  by 
the  use  of  them  they  are  enabled  to  resist 
hunger  and  thirst  for  a  long  time.  In  Bread- 
albaiie  and  Koss  -  sliiiv,  they  sometimes 
bruise  and  steep  theai  in  «sater,  and  in.ike 
an  agreeable  termented  liquor  with  them. 
'1  hey  have  a  sweet  taste,  something  like  tin; 
roots  of  liquorice  ;  and,  wlien  boiled,  we  are 
told,  they  are  nutritious  and  well  llavonred ; 
and  in  times  of  scarcity  have  served  as  a 
substitute  for  bread. 

ORONTIUM,  a  genus  of  the  monogyuia 
order,  in  the  hexaiulria  class  of  plants ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
second  order,  piperita'.  The  spadix  is  cy- 
lindrical, covered  with  florets ;  the  corolla 
hexapetalous  and  naked  ;  there  is  no  style  ; 
the  tollicles  an;  nionospermous.  There  are 
two  species,  marsh  plants  of  Canada  and 
Japan, 

ORPHAN:  in  the  city  of  London  there 
is  a  court  of  record  established  tor  the  care 
an<l  government  of  orphans. 
ORPIMILNT.  SeeAasEN.c. 
ORRF2RV,  a  curious  machine  for  repre- 
senting the  motions  and  appearances  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  We  shall  in  this  place 
merely  shew  the  theory  of  the  wheels,  leav- 
ing a  more  particular  description  for  the  ar- 
ticle Planetahiv.m.  We  must  first  com- 
pare and  find  out  the  proportion  which  the 
periodical  times,  or  revolutions,  of  the  pri- 
mary planets,  bear  to  that  of  the  earth  ;  ami 
they  are  such  as  are  expressed  in  the  table 
below  ;  where  the  (irst  culumn  is  the  time  of 
the  earth's  period  in  days  and  decimal  parts; 
the  second,  that  of  the  planets  ;  the  third 
and  fourth  are  numbers  in  the  same  propor- 
tion to  each  other :  as 


.W.-),'ii 

88 

5    : 

:  83 

20,  for  Mera 

o()j,C5 

224,7 

2    : 

:  r>'2 

32,  for   Venus. 

3W.'-'5 

68(3,9 

<?    : 

:   40 

75,  for  Mars. 

3t)j,'.'j 

433'i,5 

u  ■■ 

:      / 

83,  for  Jupiter. 

3G:>,2J 

:  107.=)9,3 

'?    •■ 

;     j 

148,  for  Saturn. 

I'd 

Hist,  lig,  3(13. 

0R01!.\NCnE,  hrnnm-rapi\  a  gemis  of 
the  didynamia  angiospcrmia  class  of  plants, 
ranking  under    the  4otli  order,  personatu-. 

Tiie  corolla  is  monopetalous  and  ringent  ; 
and  its  fruit  an  oblong  capsule  formed  of 
two  valves,  and  containing  a  great  many 
minute  seeds ;  the  calyx  is  bitid.  There  is  a 
glandule   under  the  liase     of   the   germen. 

There  are  fourteen  species. 

OROni'S,  hittir  velch,  a  geinis  of  the 
decandria  order,  in  the  diadeiphia  class  of 
plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  3'.'d  order,  papilioiiacea\  The 
style  is  linear;  the  calyx  obtuse  at  the 
base,  with  the  upper  segments  deeper  and 
sliojter  than  the  rest.  There  are  Hi  species, 
.Ml  of  ihemlKUe  librated  roots,  which  are  pei- 
ennial,  but  are  annual  In  stulk,  rising  early  in 
spruig  aud  decaying  in  auluinn.  They  are 
very  hardy  iilaiils,  and  prosper  in  any  com- 
niou  soil  of  a  garden,  .Most  of  the  sorts  are 
0 


If  we  now  suppose  a  spindle  or  arbor  with 
six  wlieels  ti.xed  upon  it  in  an  horizontal  po- 
sition, having  the  number  of  teeth  in  each 
correspondnig  to  the  numbers  in  the  third 
column,  \\z.  the  wheel  AM  (see  Pl.'te 
Observatoi-Y,  iig.  6.)  of  83  teeth,  I!L 
of  .-.'J,  CK'of  .iO  (for  the  earth),  DI  of  40, 
F,H  of  7,  and  F(>  of  5  :  aud  anoiher  set  of 
wheels  moving  freely  about  an  arbor,  having 
the  number  of  teeth  in  the  fourth  column, 
viz.  AN  of  «o,  IK)  of  35,  CP  of  .-.0  (for  the 
earih),  DQ  of  75,  ER  of  83,  and  FS  of  148  '; 
then,  if  those  two  arbors  of  fixed  and  move- 
al>le  wheels  are  niadt?  of  the  size,  and  lixed 
at  the- distance  from  each  other,  as  here  rei 
presented  in  the  scheme,:  the  teeth  of  the 
former  will  lake  those  of  the  latter,  and  turn 
them  very  freely,  when  the  machine  is  in 
motion. 

These  arbors,  with  their  wheels,  are  to  be 
placed  in  a  box  of  an  adc<|nate  siiie,  in  a  perv 
peiidicular  positi.in:  the  iiibor  of  lixi'd 
wheels  to  move  in  pivots  at  the  top  and  bot- 
tom of  the  box  ;  and  the  arbor  ot  move,!hK" 
wlioclb  to  mu\t;  iii  pi\uU  at   the  lup  au<i 


KATUIBAJL    mSTOMTo 


204 


<?/Vv^    .  <r/-u/yw 


z&e 


.  /lyrr-/.i    //.Mi//??^/ 


197 


{hin^^3Ura 


a^tOj^Mt/xn 


■   l^ef-i 


e9f.t^  ctrTirJa 


300 


2S2 


299 


C^ee>^/.^  ^ym^a/ 


.   J'^a   r/n^re.a 


JOZ 


303 


J'rmkJ  Jog.  I-iao6,  ^^EchallHlinis  .^Vnr3ruifcJ't.SluMiaj-j- 


O  R  Y 

!)'.>( lorn  of  tljo  boK  ;  niiil  Uii>  :\i'l)Oi' of  moro- 
iible  wlufi.'l.s  (o  go  tliroiigli  tlic  top  of  the 
Ixix,  on  ;i  [irojUT  lifiu,lil,  on  llio  lo|i  nl' which 
i- to  be  |)I;ii  uJ  a  roiim!  hjll,  i;ilt  with  i;oUl, 
to  rcprc'seiit  thi:  <un.  ()(i  caitli  of  the-  iiiove- 
ablu  wheels  is  to  be  lixi'd  a  socket,  or  tube, 
asceiulijig  al)ove  tlie  top  of  the  box,  and 
having  on  tlie  top  a  wire  lixed,  and  l)ent  at 
a  proper  di^laiice  into  a  riglit  angle  upwards, 
bearing  on  tlie  top  a  small  round  liall,  re- 
presenting its  ])ro])er  |)Uiiiel. 

It  then  on  the  louer  part  of  the  arbor  of 
fivcd  wheels  is  placed  a  ])inion  of  >crew- 
teelh,  a  winch  turning  a  spindle  with  an 
endless  screw,  playing  in  the  teeth  of  the 
arbor,  will  turn  it  with  all  its  wheels  ;  and 
these  wheels  will  move  the  others  about 
with  their  planets,  in  their  proper  and  re- 
spective period,  ol  time,  very  exactly.  For, 
while  the  (ixed  wheel  C'K  moves  its  ecpial 
(-.'P  once  ri)inid,  the  wheel  AM  will  move 
AN  a  little  more  than  four  times  round,  and 
so  will  nicelv  exhibit  the  motion  of  Mercury  ; 
and  the  whi;el   H!    will  turn  the  wheel  FS 


about 


1 


C!),j 


round,  and  so  will  truly  repre- 


sent tlie  motion  of  Saturn,  and  the  same  is  to 
be   observed  of  all  the  rest. 

(,)  R  TEGIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
triandria  monogynia.  The  calyx  is  live- 
leaved;  corolla  none;  capsule  one-celled; 
seeds  many.  There  are  two  species,  trailing 
plants  of  Spain  and  Italy. 

(JRT110{;R  Al'llYJ  that  part  of  grammar 
whicli  teaches  the  nature  and  affections  of 
letters,  and  the  just  method  of  spelling  or 
writing. 

ORTHonRAi'HY,  in  geometry,  the  art  of 
drawing  or  delineating  the  fore-right  plan  of 
any  object,  and  of  expressing  the  heights  or 
elei'ations  of  each  |.)art.  It  is  called  ortho- 
grai)hy,  from  its  deiermining  thing^  by  per- 
pendicular lines  tailing  on  the  geometrical 
plane. 

ORTHOGRypHY,  in  architecture,  the  ele- 
vation of  a  building. 

Orthography.     See  Perspective. 

ORTOLAN.     See  Emberiza. 

ORYZA,  rice,  a  genus  of  the  digvnia 
order,  in  the  liexandria  class  of  plants  ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  4th 
order,  gramina.  Tlic  calyx  is  a  bivalved 
iinillorous  glume  ;  the  corolla  bivalved,  near- 
ly equal,  and  adhering  to  the  seed.  There 
is  but  one  S|)ecies,  namely,  the  sativa  or  com- 
mon rice.  This  plant  is  greatly  cultivated 
in  most  of  the  Eastern  countries,  wliere  it  is 
the  chief  support  of  the  inhabitants  ;  and 
£;reat  quantities  of  it  are  brought  into  Eng- 
land and  other  European  countries  every  year, 
where  it  is  much  esteemed  for  puddin!j.s, 
&."c.  it  being  too  tender  to  be  produced  in 
these  northern  countries  without  the  assist- 
ance of  artilicial  heal ;  but  from  some  seeds 
which  Wire  formerly  sent  to  Carolina  there 
have  been  great  quantities  produced,  aiul  it 
is  found  to  succeed  there  as  well  as  in  the 
Eastern  countries. 

i'iiis  plant  srows  upon  moist  sods,  where 
the  ground  can  be  liowed  over  with  water 
after  it  is  come  up. 

Rice  is  the  chief  commodity  and  riches  of 
D.niiieta  in  Egypt,  and  Dr.  llassel(]uist 
gives  the  fallowing  description  of  the  mariner 
iu  which  they  dress  and  separate  it  from  the 
Ijusks.     "  It  is  pounded  by  hollow  iron  pes- 

Voi.  II. 


O  S  C 

;  ties  of  a  cylindrical  form,  lifted  up  by  a 
'  wheel  worked  by  oxen.  A  person  sitting 
between  the  two  pestles,  jiushes  forward  llie 
ri<-e  when  the  pestles  an;  rising;  another 
sifts,  winnous,  and  lays  it  un<ler  the  pestles. 
In  this  manner  they  continue  working  it  un- 
til it  is  entirely  free  from  chall'  and  liusks. 
When  clean,  'they  add  a  thirtieth  part  ol 
salt,  and  pound  them  together;  by  which 
the  rice,  formerly  grey,  be<'omes  wli.te.  Af- 
ter this  purilicalion,  it  is  passed  through  a 
tine  sieve  to  |)art  the  salt  from  the  rice;  and 
then  it  is  ready  for  sale."  Damivta  sells 
every  year  (ji),siifl  sacks  of  rice,  the  greatest 
part  of  which  goes  to  Turkey,  some  to  Eeg- 
iioiii,  Marseilles,  and  \'enice. 

Hice,  according  to  Dr.  Cullen,  is  prefer- 
able to  all  other  kinds  of  grain,  botli  for 
largeness  of  produce,  tpiantitv  of  nourish- 
ment, and  goodness.  This,  he  says,  is  plain 
from  macerating  the  different  grains  in  wa- 
ter; for,  as  the  rice  swells  to  the  largest  size, 
so  its  ])arts  are  more  intimately  divided. 
Rice  is  said  to  all'ect  the  eyes;  but  this  is 
purely  prejudice.  Thus  it  is  alleged  a  par- 
ticular people  of  Asia, who  live  on  this  grain, 
are  blind-eyed  ;  but  if  thi-  soil  is  sandy,  aiicl 
not  much  covered  with  herbage,  antl  the 
peo))le  are  mucli  employed  in  the  lield,  this 
affection  of  their  eyes  maybe  owing  to  the 
strong  rellection  of  the  rays  of  light  from 
this  sandy  soil ;  and  our  auUior  is  the  more 
inclined  to  this  opinion,  bei:ause  no  sucli  ef- 
lect  is  observed  in  C'arolijia,  where  rice  is 
commonlv  used. 

OSBECKIA,  a  genus  of  the  octandria  mo- 
nogynia class  and  order.  The  cal.  is  four- 
clelt ;  cor.  four  and  live-petalled  ;  stain, 
eight  or  ten  ;  anthers  beaked  ;  caps,  inferior, 
four-celled.  There  is  one  species,  a  trilling 
plant  of  China. 

OSClLE.VriOX,  in  mechanics,  the  vi- 
bration, or  reciprocal  ascent  and  descent,  of 
a  |)endulum.     See  Pendulvm. 

It  is  demonstrated,  that  tlie  time  of  a  com- 
plete oscillation  in  a  cycloid,  is  to  the  time 
in  which  a  body  would  fall  through  the  axis 
of  that  cyi  loid,  as  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  to  its  diameter;  whence  it  follows,  ]. 
That  the  oscillations  in  tin-  cycloid  are  all 
performed  in  eciual  times,  as  being  all  in  the 


O  S  T  32r 

anotlier  in  l1ie  ratio  compouiulecl  of  (he  dt- 
rect  subdui)licatc  ratio  of  tlie  leiigllis  of  thi- 
pendulums,  and  inver-e  siibdu|)licate  raiio 
ol  the  accelerating  forces.  Hence  it  ap|  ears 
thai  it  oscillations  of  unequal  ptnduhnii- am 
perlornu-d  in  tin;  same  time,  llie  ac<-el.-ratiiig 
gravities  of  tliese  pendulums  niu>l  be  as  their 
lengths;  and  thus  we  conclude,  tlial  tlirt 
force  of  gravity  decreases  as  you  go  to- 
Wiu-ds  the  equator,  since  we  li'nd  thai  the 
lengths  of  pendulums  that  vibrate  seconds 
are  always  less  at  a  less  distance  from  the 
e<niator.'  6.  The  space  described  bv  a  fall- 
ing body  in  any  given  time,  may  be  exactly 
known;  for  linding,  by  ex|)eri'mei.Ls,  what 
peiiduhnu  oscillates  iii  that  lime,  the  half 
of  the  ))endulum  will  be  to  the  space 
reipiired,  in  (he  dujilicate  ratio  of  the  diu- 
meterof  acircle  to  the  circumference. 

Centre  o/'Osru,i.ATioN.     See  Centre. 

OSMl  TES,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  onder 
syneenesia  polygamia  fruslraiiea.  The  cal. 
is  imbricate,  scariose ;  cor.  of  the  ray  ligii- 
late;  down  obsolete;  rccept.  challV.  'There 
are  f  jur  sjiecies,  shrubs  of  the  Cap'e. 

OS.Ml  NDA,  moon-v.ort  \  a  genus  of  the 
order  of  lilices,  iu  the  cryplogamia  class  of 
plants.  There  are  taeiity-seven  species; 
the  most  remarkable  of  whi'cli  is  the  regalis, 
osmuiid-royal,  or  llowering  fi'in.  This  is  A 
native  of  liritain,  growingin  putrid  marshes. 
Its  leat  is  doubly  winged,  bearing  bunches  of 
flowers  at  th('  ends.  'I'he  root  iioiled  in 
water  is  very  slimy  ;  and  is  used  in  the  north 
to  stiU'en  linen  instead  oi  starch.  Some  of 
the  leaves  only  bear  (lowers. 

OSSIFICATIO.V,  the  formation  of  bones. 
See  C  o  .V  c  R  t  T I  o  N  s . 

0STE01.(K;Y.     See  Anatomy. 

OSliaiSPER.Mr.M,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  order  s\  ngenesia  iiolygauiia  iiece>sari3. 
1  he  cal.  is  simple,  in  two  rows,  manv-leav- 
ed,  almost  eipial ;  seeds  globular,  col'oured, 
bony  ;  down  none  ;  recept.  naked.  There 
are   1 7  species,  shrubs  of  tlie  Cape. 

()STH.\C10N,  in  ichthyology,  a  genijs 
ol  the  braiichio>tegous  order  ot  lishes,  of  u 
globose,  oval,  or  ovato-quadrangular  ligure  : 
the  skin  is  always  very  lirm  and  hard  ;  and 
is  in  some  specie^  stnooth,  in  others  entirely 
covered  with  spines  ;  and,   (iiially,  in  some 


same  ratio  to  the  time  in  which  a  bodv  I  the  spines  entirely  occupy  only  particular 
tails  through  the  diameter  of  the  generating]  places;  there  are  no  belly-lins,and  the  otiiers 
circle.  2.  As  the  mi<ld!e  part  of  the  cycloid  are  live  in  number,  viz.  two  pectoral  or  la- 
may  be  conceived  to  coinciile  with  the  ge-|  leral  tins,  one  on  the  back,  the  pinna  ani, 
nerating  circle,  the  time  in  a  small  arch  ofi  and  die  tail.  'Ehere  are  I'J  species  of  ihn 
that  circle  will  be  nearly  equal  to  the  time  genus :  the  triqueler  has  a  triangular  body 
in  the  cycloid  ;  and  hence  the  reason  is  evi-  unarmed  ;  inhabits  India  ;  the  back  appear- 
dent,  why  the  times  in  very  little  arches  are  i  ing  as  if  co\ered  with  rhombic  jiiarks  cut 
equal.  .1  The  time  of  a  complete  oscilla- 1  transversely.  The  o.uadriconuis,  with  frontal 
lion  in  any  little  arch  of  a  circle,  is  to  the  tinn-  and  subcaudal  spines,  inhabits  India  and 
in  which  a  bodv  would  fall  throuirh  half  the    Guinea. 


radius,  as  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  to 
its  diameter;  and  since  the  latter  time  is 
half  the  lime  in  which  a  body  would  fall 
through  the  whole  diameter,  or  any  chord, 
it  follows  that  the  time  of  an  oscillation  in 
any  little  arch,  is  to  the  time  in  which  a 
liody  would  fall  liirough  its  chord,  as  the 
■.emicircle  to  the  diameter.  4.  The  times 
of  tlie  oscillations  in  cycloids,  or  in  small 
arches  of  circles,  are  in  a  sub-duplicate  ratio 
of  the  lengths  of  till.-  pendulums.  5.  liut  if 
the  bodies  that  oicillate  are  acted  on  by  un- 
eipial  accelerating  forces,  then  the  oscillation 


OsTRACioN,  trunk-fish,  a  genus  of  fishes, 
of  the  order  nantes;  t!ie  generic  cliara'- 
ter  is,  teeih  pointing  for»ar<ls,  cvln.dric, 
rather  blunt ;  body  mailed  by  a  bcnv  co- 
vering. 

1.  t)stracioii  triijueter,  tricpietral  Innik- 
fish ;  the  ostracions  or  trunk-lishes  are  so 
strikingly  <li>tiuguished  by  their  bony  crust 
or  covering,  that  no  dilii  viity  can  arise  to  the 
ichthyological  student  in  relerring  them  to 
their  proper  genus.  The  invesligalioa  of  ths 
species  however  tlemauds  a  greater  degree 
of  attention,   and  such  is  ih.:  simiiaritv  be- 


will  be  perlbrmcil  in  times  thai  are  to  ouu  '  iwceii  souie  of  Ihcse,  that  it  remains  Joubl. 
S  s  '  . 


322 


O  S  T 


ful  wlietliisr  they  sliouUl  be  considered  as 
truly  distinct,  or  as  constituting  mere  sexual 
JilTerenres. 

The  triquetral  trunk-iish  measures  about 
twelve  inches  in  length,  and  is,  as  its  name 
imports,  of  a  trigonal  shape,  the  sides  slop- 
ing obii(iuely  irom  the  ridge  of  the  back, 
and  the  abdomen  being  flat  ;  the  whole  ani- 
mal, except  to  within  a  small  rlistance  from 
the  tail,  is  completely  enveloned  in  a  bony 
covering,  divided  into  weU-detined  hexago- 
nal spaces,  and  covered  (as  in  the  whole 
genus)  with  a  transparent  epidermis  like  that 
of  the  artnadillo  among  c|uadrupcds  ;  llie 
tisnal  colour  is  a  subferruginous  brown,  with 
u  white  spot  in  th  ■  centre  of  each  hexagon, 
wliich  is  also  marked  by  fine  rays  divcrgmg 
from  the  centre  to  the  edges:  the  tins  are 
-vellowisii,  and  the  tail  romided ;  the  naked 
part  of  the  extremity  of  the  body  or  base  of 
the  tail  being  marked  with  white  specks, 
similar  to  those  on  the  crustaceous  part  of 
the  animal :  the  pectoral  fins  are  rather  small 
than  larg*",  and  of  a  roundetl  shape :  the  dor- 
sal and  anal  are  also  rather  small,  and  are 
situated  opposite  each  other  towards  the  ex- 
tremitv  ot  the  body,  and,  like  the  rest  of  the 
genus,'  this  fish  is"  destitute  of  ventral  fins. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  Indian  and  American 
seas,  and  is  supposed  to  feed  oh  the  smaller 
Crustacea,  shell-lish,  and  sea-worms.  It  is 
said  to  he  considered  as  an  excellent  fish 
for  the  table,  and  is  held  in  high  estimation 
among  the  East  Indians.  There  are  ten 
species. 

2.  Ostracion  qnadricornis,  four-horned 
trmik-fish  ;  length  iw^elve  inches ;  shape  sub- 
trigonal  ;  the  hack,  when  viewed  in  profile, 
strongly  arched,  and  having  a  smooth  outline; 
mail  divided  into  larg.e  lu-xagons  marked  with 
nunif  rous  and  very  small  tubercles ;  on 
the  top  of  the  head'  two  very  strong  spines 
pointing  forwartls;  and  from  the  hind 
part  of  the  abdomen,  inunediately  he- 
fore  the  anal  fin,  two  more  spines  pointing 
backwards  ;  colour  of  tlie  mailed  part  sub- 
violaceous  brown,  with  darker  streaks  irre- 
gularly <lispersed  over  the  whole ;  naked 
part  of  the  bfxly  near  the  tail,  yellowish- 
brown,  marked  with  deep-brown  sjjots;  fins 
and  tail  yellowish-brown.  Native  of  the 
Indian  and  American  seas.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  fig.  3.04. 

OSTKKA,  the  ni/stcr,  in  zoology,  a  genus 
belonging  to  the  ordt-r  of  vermes  testacea. 
The  sliell  has  two  unequal  valves  ;  the  cardo 
has  no  teeth,  but  a  small  hollowed  one  with 
transverse  lateral  streaks.  There  are  thirty- 
one  species,  principally  distinguished  by  pe- 
culiarities in  their  shells.  The  common  oys- 
ter is  reckoned  an  excellent  food  ;  and  is 
eaten  both  raw  and  variously  prepared. 
The  character  of  the  genus,  in  the  words  of 
Barlnit,  is,  "  The  animal  a  tethys;  the  sliell 
bivalve,  imequivalve,  with  somelliing  like 
ears  ;  the  hinse  void  of  teeth,  with  a  dii-p 
oval  hole,  and  transverse  streaks  on  the 
sides.  There  is  no  womb  nor  anus."  The 
genus  is-divided  into  four  families,  of  wliich 
ostrea  is  tlie  last. 

The  oyster  differs  from  the  muscle  in 
being  utterly  unable  to  change  its  situation. 
It  is  entiiely  without  a  tongue  which  an- 
Jwtrs  the  purposes  of  an  arm  in  the  other 
aiiiiiial,  but  nevertheless  is  often  attach- 
ed very  firmly  to  any  object  it  happens  to 
approach,     tsolhing  is  so   commtxii  in   tin- 


O  T  1 

rivers  of  the  tropical  climates,  as  to  see  oys- 
ters growing  even  amidst  the  hrnnclies  of 
the  foi'est.  Jilany  trees,  which  prow  along 
the  banks  of  the  stream,  ofte^l  bend  their 
branches  into  the  water,  and  particularly 
liie  mangrove,  which  chielly  delights  in  a 
moist  situation.  To  these  the-  oysters  hang 
in  clusters,  like  apples  upon  the  most  fertile 
trees  ;  and  in  proportion-as  the  weight  of  the 
fish  sinks  the  plant  into  the  water,  where  it 
still  continues  growing,  the  number  of  oys- 
ters encrcase,  and  hang  upon  the  branches. 
This  is  cfiiicted  by  means  of  a  glue  proper 
to  themselves,  which  when  it  cements,  the 
joining  is  as  hard  as  the  shell,  and  is  as  dif- 
ficultly broken. 

Oysters  usually  cast  their  spawn  in  May, 
which  at  first  appears  like  drops  of  candle- 
grease,  and  sticks  to  any  hard  substance  it 
lulls  upon.  These  are  covered  with  a  shell 
in  lAvo  or  three  days  ;  and  in  three  yeai-s  the 
animal  is  large  enough  to  be  brought  to 
market.  As  they  invariably  remain  in  the 
places  where  they  are  laid,  and  as  they  grow 
without  any  other  seeming  food  than  the  af- 
Ihix  of  sea-water,  it  is  the  custom  at  Col- 
chester, and  other  parts  of  England,  where 
the  tide  settles  in  marshes  on  land,  to  pick 
up  great  (juaiitities  of  small  oysters  along 
the  slidre,  which,  when  first  gathered,  seldom 
exceed  the  size  of  sixpence.  These  are 
deposited  in  beds  w  here  the  tide  comes  in, 
and  in  two  or  three  years  grow  to  a  toler- 
able size.  They  are  said  to  be  belter  tasted 
for  being  thus  sheltered  Irom  the  agitations 
of  the  deep ;  and  a  mixture  of  fresh  water 
entering  into  these  repositories,  is  said  to 
improve  their  flavour,  and  increase  their 
growth  and  fatness. 

The  oysters,  however,  wliich  are  prepared 
in  this  manner,  are  by  no  means  so  large  as 
those  found  sticking  to  rocks  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sea,  usually  called  rock-oysters. 
These  are  sometimes  found  as  broad  as  a 
jilate,  and  are  admired  bv  some  as  excellent 
food.  But  what  is  the  size  of  these  com- 
pared to  the  oysters  of  the  East  Indies,  some 
of  whose  shells  have  been  seen  two  feet 
over!  The  oysters  found  along  the  coast  of 
C'oromandel,  are  capable  of  furnishing  a 
plentiful  meal  for  eight  or  ten  men ;  but 
it  seems. universally  agreed  that  they  are  no 
way  comparable  to  ours  for  delicacy  of  fla- 
vour. 

OS'f'RIC'II.  See  Struthio. 
OS Y U IS,  noc/'.?  rosrinury,  a  genus  of  the 
di(ecia  triaiidria  cla^s  of  plants,  without  any 
(lower-pelals  ;  the  huit  is  a  globose  unilocu- 
lar berry,  containing  a  sin,^le  osseous  seed. 
There  are  two  species.  ^I  his  whole  shrub 
Is  astringent,  and  consetiuently  good  in 
lluxes. 

OrilEU.'V,  a  genus  of  the  tetrandria  mo- 
nogynia  class  and  order.  The  cal.  is  four- 
parted;  pet.  four;  stigma  sessile;  caps. 
'I'here  is  one  species,  a  shrub  of  Japan. 

OTIIONNA,  a  genus  of  the  jjolygamia 
necessaria  order,  in  the  syngenesia  class  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  "iOtii  order,  compoeitx.  'I'he  re- 
ceptacle is  naked ;  there  is  almost  no  pap- 
pus ;  the  calyx  is  monophyllous,  mullifid, 
and  nearly  cylindrical.  There  arc  27  sjie- 
cies. 

OTIS,  the  bustard,  in  ornithology,  a  dis- 
tinct genus  uf  birds,  of  the  order  of  tlic  gal- 


O  V  I 

lin»,  the  characters  of  which  are  these  ;  there 
are  three  toes  on  each  foot,  all  turned  for- 
wards ;  and  the  head  is  naked,  or  has  no 
comb.  There  are  four  species,  principally 
distinguished  by  their  colour.  One  of  the  spe- 
cies, the  tarda,  or  bustard  (see' l.'late  Nat. 
Hist.  fig.  305.),  is  the  lara<-sl  of  the  .iritisli 
land  fowl,  the  male  at  a  medium  weighing 
25  pounds ;  there  are  instances  of  some  verv 
old  ones  weighing  27 :  the  breadth  nine 
feet;  the  length  near  four.  Besides  the  size 
and  difference  of  colour,  the  male  is  distin- 
guished from  tile  female  by  a  tull  of  feathers 
about  five  inches  long  on  each  side  of  the 
lower  mandible.  Its  neck  and  head  are  ash- 
coloured  ;  the  back  is  barred  transversely 
with  black,  and  bright  rust-colour;  thegreater 
quill-feathers  are  black;  the  belly  white; 
the  tail  is  marked  with  broad  red  and  black, 
bars,  and  consists  of  twenty  feathers  ;  the 
legs  dusky. 

The  female  is  about  half  the  size  of  the 
male :  the  crown  of  the  head  is  of  a  deep 
orange,  traversed  with  black  lines ;  the  re-t 
of  the  head  is  brown.  The  lower  part  of  the 
fore-side  of  the  neck  is  ash-coloured ;  in 
other  respects  it  resembles  the  male,  only 
the  colours  of  the  back  and  wings  are  more 
dull. 

The  birds  inhabit  most  of  the  open  coun- 
tries of  the  soulh  and  east  parts  of  tiiis  is- 
land, from  Dorsetshire  as  far  as  the  Wolds 
in  Yorkshire.  'I'hey  are  exceedingly  shy, 
and  difficult  to  be  shot ;  r>m  very  fast ;  and 
when  on  the  wing  can  fly,  though  slowly, 
many  miles  without  resting.  It  is  said,  that 
they  take  flight  with  difficulty,  and  are  some- 
times run  down  with  greyhounds.  They  keep 
near  their  old  haunts,  '  seldom  wandering 
above  twenty  or  thirty  miles.  Their  food 
is  corn  and  other  vegetables,  and  those  large 
earth-worms  that  appear  in  great  quantities 
on  tlie  downs  before  sun-rising  in  the-sum- 
mer.  Tliese  are  replete  with  moisture,  an- 
swer the  purpose  of  li(|uids,  and  enaWe 
them  to  live  long  without  drinking  on  those 
extensive  and  drv  tracts.  Besides  this,  na- 
tur<'  has  given  the  males  an  admirable  ma- 
gazine for  their  security  against  drought, 
iSeiiig  a  pouch  whose  entrance  lies  immedi- 
ately under  the  tongue,  and  which  is  capable 
of  holding  near  seven  ipiarts;  and  this  they 
probably  fill  with  water,  fo  supply  the  hen 
when  sitting,  or  the  young  before  they  can 
fly.  Bustards  lay  only  two  eggs  of  the  size 
of  those  of  a  goose,  of  a  p  ile  olive-brown, 
marked  w  ith  spots  of  a  dark  colour ;  they 
make  no  nest,  only  scrape  a  hole  in  the 
ground.  In  autumn  they  are  (in  Wiltshire) 
geneiiilly  found  in  large  turnip-iields  near  the 
downs,  and  in  flocks  of  iO  or  more. 

OTTER.     See  Mustela. 

0\'AL,  an  oblong  curvilinear  figure, 
otherwise  called  ellipsis.  'The  proper  oval, 
however,  or  egg-shape,  dill'ers  considerably 
from  that  of  the  ellipsis,  being  an  irregular 
figure,  narrow-er  at  one  end  than  at  the 
other ;  whereas  the  ellipsis,  or  mathematical 
oval,  is  equally  broad  at  each  end ;  though 
it  nui-.t  be  owned,  these  two  are  commonly 
coulounded  together,  even  geometriciani 
calling  the  oval  a  fiilse  ellipsis. 

OVARIES.  See  Anatomy,  and  Com- 
PARA-TivE  Anatomy. 

0\  ltDA,a  genus  of  the  didynamia  angio^ 


O  V  I  O  V  I 

lipormhi  class  and  orcior,  'I'lio  r;i1.  is  flvft- 
cli;fl ;  car,  Uibe  suliylindi-ic,  iiipurioi-,  vi'iy 
joiiii ;  l)crry  i;lol)iilai'.  'I'licre  avo  two  sihv 
i;ies,  slinibs  ot'SQUlh  America, 

ON'KH-IIALK,  ill  the  sea  Iaiia;tiaa;e.  A 
roi)e  is  said  to  lie  ovfrlialed  ulicii  tliawji  tou 
6li.lT",  or  Iialt'tl  llic.c-oiilraiy  way. 

Over-rake,  among  M-amon  :  wlicua  sUip 
(■iiliiig  at  anclior,  so  overbcals  luM'self  into 
a  licacl-siM,  tliat  elie  is  waslied  liy  tiur 
Maves  breaking  in  upon  iier,  tlicy  say  the 
r.avis  ovi-r-rake  her. 

()\  ICliSKKKS  nf  Ihc  poor.  Tlie  proper 
iminbcr  of  overseers  of  tlie  poor  for  cacli 
parisli,  must  be  duly  appointed,  and  sworn 
before  twojustices  of  tl»e  peace,  one  whereof 
must  be  of  the  qnoriun. 

The  overseers  thus  appoinleil,  and  taking 
on  them  the  office,  sliall  within  fourteen  days, 
receive  llie  books  of  assessments,  and  of 
accomits,  from  their  predecessors,  and  what 
money  and  materials  shall  be  in  their  hands, 
and  reimburse  them  fur  their  arrears.  17 
(Jei).  II.  c.  38. 

,\nd  shall  take  order  from  time  to  time, 
witli  the  consent  of  two  such  justices  as 
aforesaid,  for  setting  to  work  the  children  of 
siicli  ))arent3  wl\o  shall  not  by  the  said  over- 
seers be  tliinight  able  to  keep  or  maintaii) 
them,  and  ii>ing  no  ordinary  or  ilaily  trade 
of  life  to  get  their  living  by.     4.3  Kliz.  c.  'J. 

liv  the  17  Cieo.  II.  c.  38.  if  any  person 
shall  be  aggrieved  by  any  thing  done  or 
omitted  by  the  chnrchwardcns  and  overseers, 
or  by  any  qf  his  majesty's  justices  of  the 
peace,  he  may,  giving  reasonable  notice  to 
the  chmvhwardeiis  or  overseers,  appeal  to 
the  next  general  or  qeartcr-sessions,  where 
the  same  shall  be  lieard,  or  fuially  determin- 
i(h1.;  but  if  reasonable  notice  is  not  given, 
then  tliey  shall  adjourn  the  appeal  to  liie 
next  general  or  ([uai  ter-sessions  ;  and  the 
court  iiiay  awartl  reasonable  costs  to  either 
party,  as  they  may  do  by  8  and  9  A\'.  in 
ca^e"  of  appeals  concerning  settlements.  See 
Poor.  I         .       . 

(.)\'I:RT  act.  In  the  case  of  treason  ' 'V  soft,  grey,  curling  (leece,  which  gradualh 
ill  compassing  or  imagining  the  death  of  the  |  ''''anges  mto  liair  towards  tlic  end  of  sum- 
liicg,  ihis  imagining  must  be  iuaiiit'ested  by 


.0  V  1 


323 


chain  at  motintaiiis  extending  through  thr 
middle  of  the  conthieiif  to  tin-  ]''.aslf'rn  sea. 
In  Kamtschatks  it  is  plrtiiliful  ;  it  occurs 
aUo  in  iJarb.iry,  in  the  mountains  of  Greece, 
and  ill  the  islands  of  (Jorsica  and  Sa»-dinia  ; 
dillering  nierely  in  a  few  slight  particulars 
of  colom;  and  sf/e,  according  to  its  cliuTnte. 

The  general  size  of  the  argali  is  that  of  n 
small  fallow  deer,  Its  colour  is  a  greyish 
I'erruginous  brown  above,  and  wliitisli  "be- 
neath ;  the  face  is  also  whitish,  and  behind 
each  shoulder  is  often  observed  a  ilusky  spot 
or  patch  ;  the  legs,  at  least  in  the  ICuropean 
kind,  are  conuuonly  white  ;  the  head  strong- 
ly resembles  that  o'f  a  ram,  but  the  ears  are 
smaller  in  proportion,  the  neck  more  slender; 
the  body  large  ;  the  limbs  slender  but  strong; 
the  tail  very  short,  bein!j  hardly  more  than 
three  inches  in  length  ;  the  horns  in  the  full- 
grown  or  old  animals,  are  extremely  large, 
placed  on  the  top  of  the  head,  and  stand 
close  at  their  base,  rising  first  upwards,  aiid 
then  bending  down  and  twisting  outwards  as 
in  the  conunon  ram  ;  the  borlv  is  coveri'd 
with  hair  instead  of  wool,  in  which  particular 
consists  its  chief  ditierence  from  the  general 
a-pect  of  a  sheep  ;  but  in  winter  the  face, 
and  particularly  the  part  ^bout  llie  tip  of 
tlie  nose,  becomes  whiter,  the  back  of  a  n'lore 
ferruginous  cast,  and  the  hair,  which  in  sum- 
mer is  close,  like  that  of  a  deer,  becomes 
somewhat  rough,  wavy,  and  a  little  curled, 
consisting  of  a  kind  of  wool  intermixed  with 
hair,  and  conrealing  at  its  roots  a  tine  white 
woolly  down  ;  the  hair  about  the  neck  and 
slioulders,  as  well  as  under  the  throat,  is  con- 
siderably longer  than  on  the  other  parts.  The 
female  is  inferior  in  sl/e  to  the  male,  and  has 
smaller  and  less  cur\  ed  jionis. 

In  Siberia  the  argali  is  chielly  seen  on  the 
tops  of  the  liighest  mountains  exposed  to 
the  sun,  and  free  from  woods.  The  animals 
generally  go  in  small  (locks ;  they  produce 
their  young  in  the  middle  of  >Jarch,  and 
have  one,  and  sometimes  two,  at  a  birth. 
The  young,  when  llrst  liorn,  are  covered  with 


nier. 


?>.me  Ojjen  act ;  otherwise  being  only  an  act 
of  the  mind,  it  cannot  fall  under  any  jtidicial 
cognizance.  Bare  v/nrds  are  lield  not  to 
amount  to  an  overt  act,  unless  put  into  writ- 
ing, in  which  case  they  are  tlu-n  held  to  be 
au  overt  act,  as  arguing  a  more  deliberate 
intention.  No  evidence,  shall  be  admitted 
of  any  avert  act,  that  is  not  expressly  laid  in 
the  indictment.     7  W,  c.  3. 

OV'IS,  -fheep,  a  genus  of  quadruptds  of 
the  order  pecora:  the  gene  ic  character  is, 
horns  hillow,  wrinkled,  turning  backwards, 
and  spirally  intoned  ;  front-teeth,  eight  in 
the  lower  jaw  ;  canine-teeth,  none. 


The  horns  of  the  old  males  grow  to  a  vast 
size,  and  have  been  found  of  the  length  of 
two  Unssian  yards,  nieasured  along  tlie 
spires;  weighii-g  liCteen  pounds  each.  We 
are  assuretl  by  lather  Kuljruquis,  a  traveller 
in  the  thirleenfli  century,  that  iie  had  seen 
some  of  the  horns  so  large  that  he  could 
hardly  lift  a  pair  with  one  hand,  and  that 
the  Tartars  make  great  drinking-cu])s  of 
tham.  A  more  roodern  traveller  has  asserted, 
tliat  young  foxc^s  occasionally  shelter  them- 
selves in  such  as  are  here  aniVtliere  found  in 
the  deserts. 

In  Coi-sica,  the  argali  is  known  by  the 
name  of  inufro  ;  where  it  is  so  wild  as  rarelv 


1.  Ovisammon,  argali.  As.the.capra  ffiga-j  to  be  taken -alive,  but  is  shot  by  the  hun*- 
grus,  or  Caucasan  il>ex,  is  supposed  to  be  e,-s,  who  lie  in  wait  for  it  among  the  momi- 
the  origmal  ol  the  domestic  goat,  so  the  ovis  iai„s.  When  the  young  are  taken,  however, 
ammon,  argah,  or  musimou,  is  believed  to  be  [  ,vhich  is  sometimes  the 'case  when  the  parent 
the  chiet  pnnucval  stock  from  winch  all  the^  is  shot,  thev  are  observed  to  bu  very  readilv 
Kinds  tji  domestic  sheep   have  proceeded ;    tamed         '  <  v 

jnany  of  whicli  djiler  full  as  widely  both  j  '  pvom  the  above  description  it  Mill  suffi- 
fromeach  other  and  their  archetype  as  tlie  oifntly  appear,  that  the  wild  sheep  is  by  no 
§'*■''''*•  ^  I  means'  that  seemingly  helpless  animal  which 

Argali,  or  wild  sheep,  is  an  inhabitant  of,  we  view  in  a  state  of  eoniinement  in  artificia! 
rocky  or  mountainous  regions,  and  is  chielly  life;  but  in  the  highest  degree  active  and 
found  in  tlie  alpine  parts  of  .Asia.  It  was  fii-st  vigorous.  It  is  supposed  to  live  about  fcui^ 
obierved  by  Dr.  Tallas  throughout  the  vast  j  te'cu  years. 

Ss2 


2.  Ovls  arles,  tlie  common  sheep.  Tliisani- 
mal  is  so  goaeitfllv  known,  that  a  particular 
description  of  it.,  form  and  m^jners  bec/imes 
unnecessary,  .  Tlte,'domestic  sheep,  in  '.u 
most  valuable  or  woolly  state,  exists  hardly 
any  wiiere  in  perfection  except  iii  Kiirope, 
and  some  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia. 
\\iien  traiisjjortpd  into  very  warm  climaUs, 
it  loses  its  peculiar  coven'ng,  and  ajjpears 
coated  with  liair,  having  only  a  shoit  wool 
next  the  skin.  In  very  cold  climates  also, 
the  oxlcnor  part  of  the  wool  is  observed  lu 
be  hard  and  coarse,  Ihoiigh  the  interior  is 
more  soft  and  line.  In  luigland,  and  some 
other  F,iiro|)ean  regions,  the  wool  acquires  a 
peculiar  length  and  fineness,  ajid  is  best 
adapted  to  the  various  purpos<fs  of  comiHerce. 
Tliat  of  Spain  i>  still  finer,  but  less  proper 
for  using  a'onc;  and  is  mixed  with  the 
luiglish  lor  the  superior  kinds  of  dolh. 

Of  all  the  domestic  animals,  nsnc  is  sn 
subject  to  various  disorders  as  the  sheeii. 
Of  these,  one  of  the  most  extraordinary,  as 
well,  as  the  most  fatal,  is  the  rot,  owiiigdj 
vast  numbers  of  worms,  of  the  genus  fasciola, 
which  are  found  in  the  liver  and  gall-bladder! 
They  are  of  a  Hat  form,  of  an  oval  shape, 
with  slightly  pointed  e.xtr^maies,  and  bear  ;t 
general  resemblance  to  the  seeds  of  a  goiyd. 

3.  Ovis  strepsciccros,  Cretan  sheep  ;  tliis 
variety  is  principally  found  in  the  island  of 
Crete,  and  is  kept  ui  several  parts  of  Kurope 
for  the  singularity  of  il«  appearance  ;  the 
horns  being  vi-ry  "large,  long,  and  twisted  in 
the  manner  of  "u  screw  ;  tjiose  of  the  male 
are  upright,  those  of  the  female  at  right 
angles  to  the  head.  This  animal  is  ranked 
as  a  distinct  species  in  the  Syslema  Natura;. 
See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  3utj. 

4..  Ovis  Guineensis.  Afric-jn  sheep.  Tlii», 
which  is  soiftetiiues  termed  the  C'ai)e  sheep, 
and  which  is  erroneously  mentioned  in  P;ut- 
foil's  Natural  History  us  of  Indian  extraction, 
is  supposed  to  be  most  frequent  in  Guinea, 
and  is  distinguished  from  others  by  its  re. 
markably  meagre  a|)pearance,  length  of  neck 
and  limbs,  pendant  ears,  and  long  arched 
or  curved  visage.  It  is  covered  rather  with 
hair  than  wool,  and  has  a  pair  of  pendant 
Iiairy  wattles  beneath  tlio  neck,  as  in  goats, 
The  iioriis  are  small,  and  the  tail  long  imi 
lank.  This  variety  is  also  considerod  as  a 
"listinct  species  in  the  twelfth  edition  of  the 
Systema  NatuKc.  See  Plsit«  Nat.  liist.  lies. 
307,  308.  " 

5.  Ovis  laticaudata,  broad-tailed  sheep; 
this  extraordinary  and  awkward  vari(>tv  oc- 
curs  in  Syria,  iia'rbary,  an;!  Ethiopia.  '  It  is 
also  found  in  'iurtary',  Tibet,  &c.  lis  ge^ 
neral  appearance,  as'  to  other  parts  of  tha 
body,  scarcely  dill'ers  from  that  of  the  litt- 
ro|)ean  sheep",  and  in  Tibet  it  is  remarkable 
for  tlio  exquisite  lineness  of  its  wool.  'i"he 
tails  of  these  sheep  sometimes  grow  so  lar^e, 
Isaig.  ami  heavy,  as  to  weigh,  according^to 
some  leports,  from  iiltecn  to  iiftv  pounds  j 
and  in  order  tu  enaijle  the  animal  to  straxp 
with  coiivejiieiico,  tiio  sli.-pherds  are  "often 
obliged  to  put  a  Iwanl,  funii-ht'd  with  smail 
wlieels,  under  ihc  tail.  This  (art  of  the 
sheop  is  of  a  substance  rcsembUne  niarravf 
and  is  f-onsidered  as  a  great  delicacy, 

6,  Ovis  piidu.  This  is  a  aev^y  discovered 
species,  having  bei-n  Just  described  by  .Mo, 
liny,  in  his  Natural  Uistary  of  Chili,  ijy 
iufomisus  that  it  is  s  native  of  the  Ahdes  • 


324 


OUT 


lliat  It  is  of  n  brown  colour ;  ;iliou'..  tht'  '■ize 
of  a  kid  of  half  a  year  i;k'i  rwitli  vi-iy  imicli 
thp  u|)pL'a;rtnC('  of  a  gout  ;  but  with  Miiall 
si;;ci<itli  lio.  11^,  bending  o'litwanU,  and  witlioiit 
aii\'  appi'arance  of  beard.  It  is  of  a  gre- 
garioiK  nature,  and  when  tlit-  snow  falls  on 
tin-  upper  parts  of  tlie  mountains,  desciiids 
into  the  valieys  in  large  herds,  to  feed  in  the 
plains  of  Chili,  at  wliich  time  it  is  easily 
taken,  and  readily  tawed.  The  female  is 
without  liorns. 

OL'XCE,  a  little  weight,  the  sixteenth 
part  of  a  pound  avoirdupois,  and  the  twelfth 
part  of  a  ])ound  trov  ;  the  ounce  avoirdu- 
pois is  divided  into  eight  drams,  and  the 
ounce  troy  into  twenty  pennyweights. 

Ovxci.     See  Felis. 

OL"rr,A\'\'RY,  is  being  put  out  of  the 
law,  or  out  of  the  king's  protection.  It  is  a 
punishment  iiitiicted  for  a  contempt  in  re- 
fu-ing  to  be  amenable  to  the  process  of  the 
Jiig.lier  courts.  l!y  outlawry  in  civil  actions, 
:i  person  is  put  out  of  the  protection  of  the 
law,  so  that  lie  is  not  only  incapable  of  suing 
for  the  redress  of  injuries,  but  mav  be  impri- 
soned, and  forfeits  all  his  goods  and  chattels, 
and  the  prolits  ot  his  land  ;  liis  personal  chat- 
tels inmiediately  upon  the  oullawn",  and  his 
clistlels  real,  ami  the  proHts  of  liis  lands,  when 
found  by  inquisition.     1  Salk.  39j. 

It  seems  that  originally  process  of  outlawry 
only  lay  in  treason  and  tirlonv,  and  was  after- 
wards extended  to  trespass  of  an  enormous 
nature ;  but  the  process  of  outlawi-y  at  this 
day  lies  in  all  appeals,  and  in  all  indictments 
ot  conspiracy  and  deceit,  or  otiu'r  crimes  of 
a  higher  nature  than  trespass  vi  et  arinis ; 
but  it  lies  not  in  an  action,  nor  on  an  indict- 
ment on  a  statute,  unless  it  is  given  by  such 
statute  either  expressly,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
pr.Tinunire;  or  impliedly,  as  in  cases  made 
treason  or  telony  by  statute  ;  or  where  a  re- 
covery is  given  by  an  action  in  which  such 
process  lav  before,  as  in  case  of  forcible  entry. 
btaundf.  192. 

Proci'.i.i  of  outhnvnj.  Tlie  exigent  must 
be  sued  in  tlie  county  whcrelhe  party  really 
resides,  for  there  all  actions  were  originally 
laid  ;  and  because  outlawries  were  at  first 
only  for  treason,  felony,  or  very  enormous 
trespasses,  the  process  was  to  be  executed  at 
the  tnrn,  which  is  the  sheritFs  criminal  cotirt ; 
and  this  held  not  only  before  tlie  sheritT,  but 
before  the  coroners,  wlio  were  aulient  con- 
servators of  the  peace,  being  the  best  men 
in  each  county,  to  preside  with  the  sherilf  in 
his  court,  and  who  pronounced  the  outlawry 
in  the  county-court  on  the  parties  being 
i[uint6  exactus ;  and  therefoi  e  antiently  there 
was  no  occasion  for  any  process  to  any  other 
county  than  that  in  which  the  party  actually 
resided.  Mut  the  modern  practice  being  dif- 
ferent, the  reader  is  referred  to  'I  idd's  Pracl. 
K.IJ. 

Of  the  reversal  (f  oittluvries.  There  are 
two  ways  of  reversing  an  outlawry:  first,  by 
a  writ  of  error  returnalle  coram  nobis;  se- 
condly by  iTioti(jii  founded  on  a  pU-a,  aver- 
m-nl,  or  suggestion  of  some  matter  appa- 
rent; as  in  ro>pect  of  a  supesedeas,  omission 
oCpro,ess,  variance,  or  other  matter  apparent 
on  the  record. 

Ol'TI.IC'KKU,  in  a  ship,  a  small  piece  of 
tinllier  made  liist  to  the  lop  of  the  poop,  and 
standing  out  right  astern.  At  the  outmost 
«>nd  thereof  is  a  hoi  •,  into  which  the  standing 
pail  of  the  shed  is  reeved. 


O  X  A 

OUTM'ORKS,  in  fortification,  all  those 
works  made  without^ide  the  ditch  of  a  forti- 
fied place,  to  cover  and  defend  it.     See  I'oR- 

TIFICATION. 

ox.     See  Bos. 

OXAL.VTS,  salts  formed  by  the  oxalic 
acid.  'JJiis  genus  of  salts  was  first  made 
knowi"!  by  Bergman,  who  descriljed  the 
greater  number  of  them  in  his  Dissertation 
on  Oxalic  Acid,  published  in  1770.  These 
salts  nuiy  be  distinguished  by  the  following 
properties:  1.  \\  hen  exposed  to  a  red  heal, 
their  acid  is  decomposed  and  driven  oil',  and 
the  base  only  remains  behind.  ~.  Lime- 
water  ])recipitates  a  white  powder  from  their 
solutions,  provided  no  excess  of  acid  is  pre- 
sent. 'J  his  powder  is  soluble  in  acetic  acid, 
alter  being  exposed  to  a  red  heat.  3.  Tlie 
earthy  oxalats  are  in  general  nearly  insoluble 
in  water:  Ihe  alkahne  oxalals  are  capable  of 
combining  with  an  excess  of  acid,  and  form- 
ing superuxalats  much  less  soluble  than  the 
oxalats.  4.  I'he  insoluble  oxalats  are  ren- 
dered easily  soluble  by  an  excess  of  the  more 
powi-rfnl  acids. 

OXALIC  ACID.  When  nitric  acid  is 
poureil  upon  sugar,  and  a  moilerate  heat  ap- 
|3lied,  the  sugar  soon  melts,  an  elfervescence 
ensues,  a  great  quantity  of  nitrous  gas  and 
carbonic  acid  gas  is  emitted;  and  when  the 
eflervescence  ceases,  and  the  liquid  in  the 
retort  is  allowed  to  cool,  a  number  of  small 
transparent  chrystals  appear  in  it.  These 
chrystals  const:itite  a  peculiar  acid,  which 
has  received  the  name- of  oxalic  acid,  because 
il  exists  ready -formed,  as  Srheele  has  proved, 
ill  the  oxalis  acetosella,  or  woodsorrel.  At 
first,  howe\er,  it  was  called  the  acid  of  sugar, 
or  the  saccharine  acid. 

Oxalic  acid  is  in  the  form  of  four-sided 
prisms,  whose  sides  are  alternately  larger, 
and  they  are  terminated  at  the  extremities 
by  two-sided  summits.  I'hey  are  transpa- 
rent, and  of  a  fine  w  hite  colour,  with  consi- 
derable Uistre.  They  have  a  very  acid  taste, 
and  redden  vegetable  blues. 

^\'hen  this  chrystallized  acid  is  exposed  to 
heat  in  an  open  vessel,  there  arises  a  smoke 
from  it,  which  aflects  disagreeably  the  nose 
and  lungs.  The  residuum  is  a  powder  of  a 
nmcli  whiter  colour  than  the  acid  had  been. 
By  this  process  it  loses  three-tenths  of  its 
weight,  but  soon  recovers  them  again  on 
exposure  to  the  air.  When  distilled,  it  lirst 
loses  its  water  of  chrystallization,  then  litpie- 
lies  and  becomes  brown;  a  little  |)hlegin 
passes  over,  a  white  saline  crnst  sublimes, 
some  of  which  passes  into  tlie  receiver;  but 
the  greatest  part  of  the  acid  is  destroyed, 
leaving  in  (he  ivtorl  a  mass  one-liflielh  of  the 
whole,  which  has  an  empyreumatic  smell, 
blackens  sul|)huric  acid,  renders  nitric  acid 
yellow,  and  dissolves  in  muriatic  acid  without 
alteration.  That  pari  of  the  acid  which  sub- 
limes is  unaltered.  \\'heu  this  acid  is  <lis- 
lilled  a  second  time,  it  gives  out  a  white 
smoke,  which,  condensing  in  the  nreiver, 
produces  a  colourless  imehrystallizable  acid, 
and  a  dark-coloured  matter  remains  behind. 
During  all  this  distillation,  a  vast  quantity 
of  eUbtic  va])our  makes  its  escape.  From 
27!)  grains  ol  oxalic  acid,  Bergman  obtained 
109  cubic  inches  of  gas,  half  of  which  was 
carbonic  acid,  and  haU  carbureted  hydrogen. 
l''oiitana,  from  an  ounce  of  it,  obtained  430 
cubic  inches  of  gas,  onc^third  of  which  was 
carbonic  acid,  the  rest  carbmeted  hydrogen. 


O  X  A 

From  IhesP  fads,  it  is  evident,  ihat  oxalic 
acid  is  composed  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and 
carbon. 

The  chrystals  of  oxalic  acid  are  soluble  in 
Ihi'ir  own  weight  of  boiling  water.  Water  at 
the  temperament  ol  (jj.'°  dissolves  half  its 
weight  of  them.  'I'he  specific  gravity  ot  the 
solution  is  1.0.593.  One  luindred  parts  of 
boiling  alcohol  dissolve  j()  parts  of  thesi-chns- 
tals;  but  at  a  mean  lemperature  only  "4') 
parts.  Liquid  oxafic  acid  has  a  very  a',  rid 
Ui>te  when  it  is  concentrated,  but  a  very 
agreeable  acid  taste  when  sufficiently  diluted 
with  water. 

It  clianges  all  vegetable  blues,  except  in- 
digo, to  a  red.  One  grain  of  chrystallized 
acid,  dissolved  in  1920  grains  of  water,  red- 
dens the  blue  paper  in  which  sugar-loaves 
are  wTapt :  one  gr.un  of  it,  dissolved  in  3600 
grains  of  water,  reddens  paper  stained  with 
turnsole.  According  to  Morveau,  one  part 
of  the  chrystaliine  acid  is  sufiicient  to  com- 
municate a  sensible  acidity  to  2033  parts  of 
water. 

Its  fixity  is  such,  that  none  of  it  is  silblimed 
when  waler  containing  it  in  solution  is  raised 
to  the  boiling  temperature. 

Oxalic  acid  is  not  affected  by  exposure  fo 
the  air,  or  to  the  action  of  oxygen  gas.  The 
elfect  of  the  simple  combustibles  on  it  -has 
not  been  tried. 

It  is  capable  of  oxidizing  lead,  copper, 
iron,  tin,  bismuth,  nickel,  cobalt,  zinc,  and 
manganese. 

it  does  not  act  upon  gold,  silver,  platina, 
nor  mercury. 

Oxalic  a(  id  combines  with  alkalies,  earths, 
and  metallic  oxides,  and  forms  •salts  known 
;  by  the  name  of  oxalats. 

I      Muriatic  and  at  etic  acids  dissolve  oxalic 

acid,  but  without  altering  it.     Sulphuric  acid 

decomposes  il    partly    by  the    assistance    of 

;  heat,  and  a  (piantity  of  charcoal  is  formed. 

j  Nitric  acid  decomposes  it  at  a  boiling  heat, 

;  and  converts  it  into  water  and  carbonic  acid. 

I  From  tills  result,  and  from  llu-  products  ob- 

I  tained  by  distilling  pure  oxalic  acid,  it  fol- 

!  lows,  that  this  acid  is  composed  of  oxygen, 

'  hydrogen,   and  carbon.      Fourcrov  inlorms 

1  us,  that  \auquelin  and  he  have  a'scertaii^'d 

that  it  is  comjioscd  of 

77  oxygen 
13  carbon 
10  hydrogen 

100. 
But  the  experiments  \ipon  which  this  result 
is  founded,  have  not  been  published;  so  that 
it  is  ini]M)ssible  to  judge  of  iheir  accuracy. 

The  atliiiilies  of  oxalic  acid,  according  to 
Bergman,  are  as  follows: 

Lime, 
Baryles, 

Stroiitian, 

Magnesia, 

Potass, 

Soda, 

Aiuinonia, 

Alumina. 
This  acid  is  loo  expensive  to  be  employed 
for  the  purposes  of  domestic  economy;  but 
il  is  extremely  usefid  in  chemistry  to'detect 
the  presence  of  lime  held  in  solution.  For 
this  purpose,  either  a  little  ot  the  pure  acid 
or  of  the  solution  of  oxalat  of  anuuoiiia,  is 
dropt  into  the    liquid  supposed  to    contaiu 


o  X  r 

liniP.  If  any  i^  present,  a  wliite  powilrr  ini- 
nu-iliatcly  prctipitulfS.  'I'Iil'  reason  ol'  this 
is,  lluU  o\alal  ol  lime  is  allogi'tlKT  iiisolulik-, 
and  ox.ilic  acid  in  consefincnce  is  capable  ot 
taking  linio  from  uvl-iv  oUicr  acid. 

(.)X  Al  .IS,  ivnoihnrrel,  a  genus  of  tlie  piMi- 
taaynia  oi'dcr,  in  tlu'  ilecandria  class  of  plants, 
and'  in  tin;  natural  nu;tl)od  ranking  nndcf  llic 
l4lli  orilcr,  grninali.'s.  Tin;  calyx  is  ])on.Ui- 
])1;\  lions  llic  petals  connected  al  the  liuels, 
tlie  capsule  pentagonal,  and  opejiing  at  the 
angles.  'I'liere  are  90  species;  ol' which  the 
comnion  woodsorrel  grows  naturally  in  moist 
shady  woods,  and  al  the  sides  of  hedges,  in 
many  parts  of  Britain,  and  is  but  seldom  ad- 
mitted into  gardens.  'I'he  roots  are  com- 
posed of  many  scaly  joints,  which  propagate 
in  great  plenty.  The  leaves  arise  immedi- 
ately from  the  roots  upon  single  long  fool- 
stalks,  and  are  composed  of  three  heart- 
shaped  lohes.  'I'hey  are  gratefully  acid,  and 
of  use  in  the  scurvy  and  otlier  putrid  disor- 
din's.  'I'ln,'  bulbous  kinds  from  the  Cape  are 
elegant  ornaments  of  the  greenhouse. 

OXIDE,  any  substance  combined  with 
oxygen,  in  a  proportion  not  sulllcient  to  pro- 
duce acidity. 

Oxygen  is  capable  of  combining  with  bo- 
dies usually  in  various  prop')rtions,  consti- 
tuting a  varii.'ty  of  compounds  with  almost 
pvery  substance  with  which  it  is  capable  of 
uniting.  Now  the  whole  of  the  compounds 
into  which  oxygen  enters,  may  be  divided 
into  two  sets:  1.  Those  which  possess  tlie 
pr.)pf  rties  of  acids ;  and,  i  Tiiose  wdiich 
are  destitute  of  these  properties.  The  tirst 
set  of  compounds  are  distinguished  by  the 
term  acids ;  to  the  second,  the  term  oxide 
lias  been  appropriated.  15y  oxide,  then,  is 
meant  a  substance  composed  .of  oxygen  and 
some  other  body,  and  destitute  of  the  pro- 
perties which  belong  to  acids.  It  is  by  no 
means  uncommon  to  find  a  compound  of  the 
same  base  and  oxygen  belonging  to  both  of  j 
these  sets,  according  to  the  proportion  of 
oxygen  whicli  enters  into  the  compound.  In 
all  these  cases,  the  smaller  proportion  of  oxy-  I 
gen  constitutes  the  oxide  ;  the  larger  the 
acid.  Hence  it  follows,  that  oxides  always  ' 
contain  less  oxygen  than  acids  with  the  same 
base. 

Oxygen  combines  with  three  distinct  set  of 
bodies,  the  simple  combustibles,  the  incom- 
bustibles,  anil  the  metals,  and  Ibrms  oxides 
with  every  individual  belonging  to  these  sets. 
These  oxides  vary  as  the  substance  which  con- 
stitutes the  base  ;  but  all  the  oxides  of  the 
simple  combustibles  are  combustible,  except 
the  oxide  of  hydrogen,  which  is  a  product  of 
combustion;  all  the  oxides  of  the  simple  iu- 
couibustibles  are  supporters  of  combustion  ; 
and  all  the  oxides  of  the  metals  are  either 
products  of  combustion  or  'sujiporters.  Of 
course,  the  tirst  set  of  oxides  (except  that  of 
hydrogen)  cannot  be  formed  by  combustion  ; 
neither  can  the  second  set;  but  part  of  the 
third  set  are  formed  by  combustion,  a  part 
by  the  union  of  the  oxygen  of  suppoaters 
without  combustion. 

Hesides  these  oxides,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  simple,  because  they  cont.iin  but 
gne  ingredient  combined  with  oxygen,  there 
is  another  set  much  more  numerous  than 
thev,  consisting  of  oxygen  united  at  once 
with  two  or  more  simpL-  substances.     Tliese 


OXY 


o  X  y 


bodies  may  be  distinguished  from  the  others  j  fossils  which   have 

by  giving  them  the  name  of  compound  o.x- 

ides. 


,  4i"-.ii>   »iiii  II   ij.ive    undergone    combustion, 
and  as  it  has  much  attraction  for  t"alorir,  it 


Oxides  are  often  distinguished  according 
to  the  degree  of  oxygen  they  contain.  Tlius 
the  protoxide  or  lirst  oxide  denotes  a  metal 
comiiined  with  the  least  portion  of  oxygen ; 
(leutoxide,  or  si-cond  oxide,  a  metal  com- 
bined with  two  doses  of  oxygen  ;  and  when  a 
metal  has  combined  with  as  much  oxygen  as 
possible,  the  compound  is  called  a  peroxide. 

OxinK,  carhonic.  When  a  mixture  ol 
purilied  charcoal  and  oxide  of  iron  or  zinc 
is  ex])osed  to  a  strong  heat  in  an  iron  retort, 
the  metallic  oxide  is  gradually  reduced,  and 
during  the  reduction  a  great  (piantity  of  gas 
is  evolved.  This  gas  is  a  mixture  of  carbo- 
nic acid  gas,  and  another  which  burns  «itha 
blue  llame.     'Ibis  last  is  carbonic  oxide. 

OWIUI'IU'.S,  a  genus  of  plants  as  yet 
imclassed,  nearly  allied  to  the  mirabilisj  a 
native  of  Peru. 

OX\GF,N',  ill  chemistry,  a  simple  uh- 
stance  that  enters  into  the  composition  of 
water  and  air.  The  term  oxygen  sii^nilies 
that  which  generates  or  produces  acids.  'I'his, 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  properties  of 
this  body,  was  discovered  by  Dr.  I'ricstlev 
in  1774.  It  was  at  lirst  called  dephlogi-ti- 
cated  air,  and  at'terwards  successivel)  known 
by  tlie  names  of  eininentlv-respirable  air, 
pure  air,  vital  air,  as  long  as  It  was  not  known 
tliat  this  aerial  form  is  merely  one  of  its  states 
of  combination ;  which,  notwithstanding  its 
frequency,  and  its  being  less  impure  in  this 
than  in  any  other  condition,  iloes  not  prevent 
its  being  concealed  in  other  states;  and  more 
particularly  as,  by  combining  with  many  bo- 
dies, it  loses  this  elastic  state  or  appearance 
of  air.  As  soon  as  this  truth  was  well  proved, 
and  clearly  explained  by  Tavoisier,  the  ne- 
cessity was  admitted  of  givina  it  a  dillerent 
name,  which  might  be  applicable  to  all  the 
states  in  which  it  could  e\i  t,  as  well  that  of 
gas  as  of  the  liquid  or  solid  form.  Lavoisier 
lirst  called  it  the  oxygenous  principle;  and 
the  French  school  having  decided  for  the 
word  oxygen,  by  admitting  a  simple  change 
ot  termination  in  the  first  word  proposed 
by  Lavoisier,  this  name  became  generally 
adopted. 

The  effect  of  oxygen  is  of  such  import- 
ance, that  its  presence  must  be  stated  as  the 
iiiost  indispensable  condition  of  combustion; 
which  would  not  otherwise  take  place.  It 
truly  constitutes  the  essential  part  of  that 
process,  because  its  most  decided  and  exten- 
sive character  is  its  indispensability  in  that 
process. 

Oxygen,  like  many  other  natural  bodies,  is 
found  in  three  states,  but  in  neither  of  them 
is  it  alone  or  insulated.  In  the  gaseous  form 
it  is  dissolved  in  caloric;  in  the  liquid  and 
solid  form  it  is  combined  with  dil'ferent  sub- 
stances, and  can  never  exist  concrete  and 
])ure  Without  combination,  like  many  other 
substances  no  less  decomposable  than  itself. 
And  though  we  can,  in  imagination,  conceive 
it  alone,  insulated,  pure,  and  in  a  solid  state, 
experiment  has  never  yet  exiiibited  this  tact. 
It  is  a  discovery  which  still  remains  concealed 
in  the  bosom  of  nature  ;  or  may  exist,  ill  un- 
derstood, under  the  name  of  some  substance 
yet  unknown  in  our  collections  of  minerals. 

As  oxygen  is  fie<piently  contained  in  a 
more  or  less  solid  ionn  in  sever-al  natural 


is  only  required  that  .^ouie  one  of  those  fos- 
sils should  he  healed  more  or  less,  or  pene- 
trated with  a  great  (|uantify  of  caloric,  in  or- 
der to  disengage  this  principle,  and  obtain  it 
in  the  form  ot  air  or  gas.  'I'his  is  done  by 
cliemists  to  procure  oxygen  gas.  They  ex- 
pose certain  substances,  jjarticiilarly  metal? 
burned  by  nature  or  by  art,  to  a  lire  of  con- 
siderable activity  in  closed  vessels,  so  dis- 
posed as  to  conduct  and  receive,  under  in- 
verted jars,  the  elastic  lluid  intended  to  be 
collected.  The  burned  matter  passes  again 
to  aiombustible  stale  ;  and  the  oxygen  which 
gave  it  the  burned  stale,  being  se|)'arated  and 
lused  by  caloric,  for  «hicli  it  has  a  great  at- 
traction, becomes  develo|)ed  in  the  lorm  of 
gas.     It  is  the  product  of  a  true  combustion. 

Of  the  two  bodies  whiih  form  oxvgen  gas, 
the  caloric,  which  is  the  solvent,  and  gives  it 
the  state  of  invisibility  and  elastic  tluid,  not 
being  ])onderable;  the  solidiliable  base  whidi 
is  (liN>olved,  or  oxygen,  being  the  only  pon- 
der.ible  and  lixable  body  in  e.ll  the  substances 
uith  which  this  gas  can  combine;  and  che- 
mists having  no  other  means  of  obtaining 
oxygen  in  a  simpler  state  than  that  of  gas, 
in  which  they  use  it  for  a  great  number  of 
operations  or  combinations  ;  many  of  them 
are  habituated  to  denote  this  gas  by  the 
simple  name  of  oxygen,  'i  his  is.  neverthe- 
less, an  error  of  nomenclature,  and  inimical 
to  the  perspicuity  of  chemical  doctrine  ;  be- 
cause the  word  oxygen  ought  only  lo  be  used 
to  <lenole  the  base  of  this  gas  considered 
alone,  or  in  all  the  possible  states,  but  par- 
cularly  in  the  numerous  combinations  whertiu 
it  possesses  the  litpiid  or  solid  state. 

Oxvgen  GAS.     See  Air. 

OXYMEL,  in  pJiarmacy,  a  composition 
of  vinegar  and  honey. 

OXYiMUJUATIC  ACID.  This  acid  was 
discovered  by  Scheele  in  1774,  during  his 
experiments  on  manganese.  Me  gave  it  the 
name  of  di  ])lilogistlcated  muriatic  acid,  fron^ 
the  supposition  that  it  is  muriatic  acid  de- 
prived of  phlogi,-lon.  The  I'rench  chemists, 
alter  its  composition  had  been  ascertained, 
called  it  oxygenated  muriatic  acid;  which 
unwieUly  appellation  Kirwan  has  happily 
contracted  into  oxymuriatic  acid. 

It  may  be  procured  by  the  following  pro- 
cess:  Put  into  a  tubulated  retort  a  mixture 
of  three  parts  of  coiinnon  salt,  and  one  ))art 
of  the  black  oxide  of  manganese  in  powder. 
Place  the  retort  in  the  sand-liath  of  a  hirnace, 
plunge  its  beak  into  a  small  water-trough, 
and  lute  a  bent  funnel  into  its  mouth.  AVheii 
the  mixture  has  acquired  a  moderate  heat, 
pour  into  it  at  intervals  through  the  bent 
funnel  two  parts  of  sulphuric  acid,  which 
ought  to  be  somewhat  diluted  with  water. 
An  etlervescence  ensues  ;  a  yellow-coloured 
gas  issues  from  the  retort,  which  mav  be  re- 
ceived in  large  phials  (itted  with  ground  stop- 
pers. 

Oxymuriatic  acid  gas  is  of  a  yellowish- 
green  colour.  Its  odour  is  intolerably  acrid 
and  sut'focating.  It  cannot  be  breathed  w  iih- 
oul  proving  latal.  The  death  of  the  inge- 
nious and  industrious  Pelletier,  whose  chemi- 
cal labours  have  been  so  useful  to  ihe  world, 
was  occasioned  by  his  atempting  to  respire 
It.  A  (  onsumptioii  was  the  consequence  of 
ihis  .Uempt,  which,  iu  a  short  time,  proved 


•M  I' 

lita!,  Wheu  atinosp!iei'i<J  air  contain!  fig  3 
.mixture  of  it  is  bre.i'.liQci,  it  occasions  a  vio- 
)«;it  and  almost  eonvulsive  cougli,  attemled 
witli  uiucli  pain  in  the  cliust,  "'I'his  cough 
usually  continues  to  rcliirn  at  intervals  for  a 
4lay  or  two,  and  is  accompanied  wiih  a  co- 
jj  i(  )us"  expectoration. 

It  is  c.ipable  of  supporting  combustion  ; 
in  nr<in_\  cJses  even  more  capable  than  coni- 
lUoT!  air.  When  a  burning  taper  is  plunged 
into  il,  Uie  llame  is  diminished,  and  actpiires 
a  very  red  colour;  a  great  quantity  of  smoke 
is  emitted,  and  at  the  same  lime  the  taper 
consumes  much  more  rapidly  than  in  com- 
mon air.  Tlie  facility  with  which  bodies 
take  fire  in  tliis  gas,  seems  to  depend  on  the 
dase  with  W'hich  it  parts  with  its  oxygen. 

This  gas  is  neither  altered  by  exposure  to 
light  nor  to  caloric.  It  passes  unaltered 
through  retl-hot  porcelain  tubes. 

It  dots  not  unite  readil)'  with  water. 
!?cheele  found,  that  after  standing  I'J  hours 
over  water,  four-hftlis  of  tlie  gas  were'  ab- 
sorbed;  the  remainder  was  common  air, 
»A  hich  no  doubt  had  bem  contained  in  the 
Vessel  befure  tlie  O])erutiou. 

It  rejiders  vegetable  colours  white ;  and  not 
led,  as  other  aoiils  do;  and  the  colour  thus 
d•■^troyed  can  neither  be  restoreil  by  acids 
i!or  alkalies.  It  has  the  same  eifects  on  yel- 
low wax.  If  the  quantify  of  vegetable  colours 
to  which  it  is  applied  is  sulhcienlly  great,  it 
is  found  reduced  to  the  state  of  connuon  mu- 
riatic acid.  Hence  it  is  evident,- thai  il  de- 
stroys these  colours  by  communicating  oxy- 
gen. This  prope.-ty  has  rendered  oxy mu- 
riatic acid  a  ver)  important  article  in  bleach- 
ing. 

When  a  mixturr;  of  oxymuriatic  acid  gas 
and  hydrogen  gas  is  niado  to  pass  through  a 
red-hot  porcelain  tube,  a  violent  d.elonation 
takes  place.  By  electricity  a  feeble  explo-" 
liion  is  produced. 

\\'he]i  melted  sulphur  is  plunged  into  it, 
ii>l!ainmation  also  takes  place,  and  the  sul- 
piuu'  is  converted  into  sulphuric  acicl;  but 
cold  sulpluM'.  though  it  is  partly  acidiiied  by 
this  gas,  does  not  take  tiru  m  it.' 


J'  m  » 

Wlien  phosphorus  is  pUuiged  i'sto  thu  gas, 
it  ininiudiat'-ly  takes  firo,  burns  with  fcoiiji- 
derable  splendour,  aiid  is  converted  into 
phosphqiic  acid. 

Oxyuuiriatic  acid  oxidizes  all  the  metals 
without  the  assistance  of  heat.  Several  of 
them  take  fire  as  soon  as  they  come  into  con- 
tact with  the  gas.  All  tliat  is  necessaryis,  to 
throw  a  (luantity  of  the  metal  reduced  to  a 
line  powder  info  a  vessel  lilled  with  the  gas. 
The  inllanimation  takes  place  immediately  ; 
th'.'  metal  is  oxidized  ;  while  the  acid,  decotn- 
posed  and  reduced  to  common  muriatic 
acid,  combines  witii  the  oxide,  and  forms  a 
muriat.  Arsenic  burns  in  oxymuriatic  acid 
gas  with  a  blue  and  green  llame;  bismuth, 
v.ith  a  lively  bluish  llame;  nickel,  with  a 
white  flame,  bordering  on  yellow;  cobalt, 
with  a  white  llame,  approaching  to  blue; 
zinc,  with  a  lively  while  llame;  tin,  with  a 
feelile  bluish  flame;  lead,  with  a  sparkling 
white  llame  ;  copper  and  iron,  with  a  n^d 
llame.  Several  of  the  metallic  sulplunels, 
as  cinnabar,  rt?alg.u',  sulplnu'ct  of  anliiAonv, 
take  lire  when  thrown  in  powder  into  this 
gas-_ 

AVhen  oxymuriatic  acid  gas  and  ammoniacal 
gas  are  mixed  together,  a  rapid  com!)uslion, 
attende<l  with  a  white  llame,  in^tanllv  takes 
place;  both  the  gases  are  decomposed,  wa- 
ter is  formed,  while  azotic  gas  and  muriatic 
acid  are  evolved.  The  same  plienomena  are 
apparent,  though  in  a  smaller  degree,  when 
li(|ui(l  ammonia  is  poured  into  the  acid  gas. 
The  same  decomposition  takes  place,  though 
both  llie  acid  and  alkali  are  in  a  li<piid  state, 
if  four-lifths  of  a  glass  tube  are  hi  led  with  oxy- 
muriatic acid,  ami  the  remaining  fifth  with 
annnonia,  and  the  tube  is  then  inverted  over 
water,  an  eii'ervescence  ensues,  and  azotic 
gas  is  extricuied.  It  wris  by  a  sim'-iar  expe- 
riment thai  BerthoUel  demonstrated  flie  com- 
position of  ammonia, 

Oxymuriatic  acid  is  e^nposed  of 
84  muriatic  acid 
16  oxygen 

100, 


V  MO 

'I'liougli  oxymurlstic  acid  has  hitherto  been 
placed  aniong  acids  by  cheniists,  it  does  ni'l 
possess  a  single  property  which  cliaracte^risci 
that  class  of  bodies.  Its  taste  is  not  acid  but 
astringent;  it  does  not  convert  vegetable 
blues  to  red,  but  destroys  them;  it  combines 
very  sp'aringly  with  water,  and  is  incapable 
of  combining  with  alkalies,  earths,  or  metal- 
lic oxides.  It  ought,  tlierefore,  to  be  placed 
among  the  oxides  rather  than  the  acids. 

O"!  ER  OF  DEED,  is  when  a  man  brRigs 
an  action  upon  a  deed,  bond,  kc.  and  the 
defendant  appears  and  ))ravs  that  he  may 
hear  the  bond,  &c.  wherewith  he  is  charged, 
and  the  same  shall  be  allowed  him;  and  he  is 
not  bound  to  plead  till  he  has  it,  paying  for 
the  copy  of  it. 

The  time  allowed  for  the  plaintiff  to  give 
oyer  of  a  deed,  &c.  to  the  defendant,  is  two 
days  exclusive  alter  it  is  demanded.  Cartli, 
454,     2  Durnf  &  East,  40. 

Oyer  and  tehminer,  is  a  court  held  by 
virtue  of  the  king's  commission,  to  hear  and 
determine  all  treasons,  felonies,  and  misde- 
meanors. This  commission  is  usually  di- 
rected to  two  of  the  judges  of  the  circuit,  an^l 
several  gentlemen  of  the  county  ;  but  tJje 
judges  only  are  of  the  quorum, 'so  that  ti 
rest  cannot  act  without  them.  4  KUtck.  "i-,) 
See  Assizes, 

OYE.S,  or  OvEz,  signifies  hear  ye ;  and 
is  hequemly  used  by  the  cryers  in  our  courts 
on  making  proclamation,  or  to  enjoin  si- 
lence. 

OYSTER.     SeeOsTiiEA. 

OZ.I'N.V,  a  malignant  ulcer  of  the  nosi', 
frequently  accompanied  with  a  cariss  of  ail 
the  bones  of  that  part.     See  Surgery. 

OZOPUYT.Li;  M,  a  genus  of  the  class  snd 
order  monadelphia  pentandria.  It  is  one 
styled;  calyx  live-toothed  ;  petals  five,  Ions; 
filaments  sheathing;  tlie  style  live-tootlied  it 
top ;  teeth  anheriferous ;  s'tigma  one ;  cap- 
sules five-celled.  There  is  one  species^  a 
native  of  Giu-uia. 


T>  tlie  fifteenth  letter  of  the  alphab<;t„as 
■*■  )  an  abbreviature,  stands  for  Publius, 
pondo.  Sec. ;  I'A.  DIG.  forpatricia  dignitas; 
r.  C,  for  patics  conscrijjli ;  P.  F.  for  Puhlii 
<i!iui ;  P.  P.  for  propositimi,  or  propositum 
publice;  3'.  li.  for  poj)nlus  Komanus;  PR.S. 
for  ppHorifi  senlentia;  anrl  PRS,  P.  for  pnvses 
provinciai.  In  the  Italian  music,  P.  stands  for 
piiiio,  or  softly  ;  PP,  forpiu  piano,  ?.  c,  more 
toftlv;  and  P'PP,  for  pianissimo,  or  very  soft- 
Iv.  .ituong  astronomers,  P.  M.  is  used  to 
tleiiole  post  meridiem,  or  afternoon;  and 
tomctimes  for  i)o.-.t  mane,  /.  e.  after  midnight, 
As  a  numeral,  P.  signifies  the  game  m  O, 
v'vi.,  400;  and  with  a  d.ish  over  it,  thus  Cr, 
400,000.  An.iong  physicianis,  P.  denotes  pu- 
gil  or  the  eighth  part  of  a  handful ;  P.  ,1'. 
parte!  a-qualus,  or  equal  parti  of  the  ingre- 
dients. 


PACE,  pawKJ,  a  measure  taken  from  the 
space  between  the  two  feet  of  a  man  in 
walking ;  usually  ri;ckoned  Iwo  feet  and  a 
jialf,  and  in  some  men  a  yard  or  three  feet. 

The  geometrical  pace  is  five  feet ;  and 
00,000  such  paces  make  one  degree  of  the 
equator. 

PACK,  in  commerce,  denotes  a  quantity 
of  goods,  nr.ide  ujj  in  loads  or  bales  for  car- 
riage, A  pack  of  wool  is  1 7  stone  and  two 
pounds,  or  a  horse's  load. 

PACKERS,  persons  whose  employment  it 
is  to  pack  lip  all  goods  intended  for  exporta- 
tion ;  which  they  do  for  the  great  trading 
companies  and  merchants  of  London,  jind  are 
answerable  if  I  he  gix>ds  receive  any  damage 
llirough  bad  package. 

P.U OS,     See  Ca.-viei.us. 

P.KDKRI.A,   a  genus  of  ilie  peulaudria 


monog\nia  class  and  order.  It  is  contorted; 
berry  void,  brittle,  two-seeded ;  style  bilid. 
There  are  two  species,  climbers  of  the  East 
indies. 

I'.T.DEROTA,  a  genui  of  the  mononvnia 
order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants,  and 
ill  the  natural  methofl  rai.king  under  the  3<Mh 
order,  contorlie.  The  benv  is  empty,  brittle, 
and  dispermous;  the  .stUe  bifid.  'I'lipre  are 
three  species. 

1M',()NI.\,  p('o?!y,  a  genus  of  the  digynia 
ordqr,  in  the  polyandria  class  of  plants,  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  i'Cith 
order,  multisiliqu.T.  The  calyx  is  jieiita- 
ph) lions;  the  petals  five;  there  are  no  styles; 
the  capsules  are  pol)  spermous.  There  are 
l\w  spicies,  most  of  them  hardy.  They  are 
large  herbaceous  llowery  perennials,  with 
tuberous  roots,   sending   up  strong    annual 


r  A  r 

Jtalks  from  one  to  threfi  feet  in  Iiciglif,  tPr- 
miuati-il  by  very  larnf  (lowers  of  a  beautiful 
red  colour,  and  miich  larger  than  any  rose. 
'I'lie  common  oiricinal,  or  male  peony,  is 
also  remarkable  for  its  capsules  turning  back- 
ward, opening  and  dispiayins;  their  n'd  in- 
side, tOijclhcr  witli  tlic  nnnierotis  seeds  in  a 
singularly  agreeable  order,  appearing  very 
ornamental  after  the  flower  is  past.  The 
plant  may  be  jtropagaled  either  by  parting 
tlie  root  or  l)y  seed.  This  plant  was  formerly- 
celebrated  in  nervous  distempers,  but  Iht:  pre- 
sent practice  pays  very  litth'  regard  to  it. 

I'Afj  I'^,  a  youth  ot'  state  retained  in  the 
family  of  a  prince  or  great  personage,  as  an 
honourable  servant,  to  attend  in  visits  of  ce- 
remony, carry  messages,  bear  up  trains,  robes, 
&c.  and  at  the  same  lime  to  have  a  genteel ) 
education,  and  learn  his  exercises.  'J'lie  | 
pages  in  the  king's  household  are  various, 
and  have  various  oflices  assigned  them,  as 
pages  of  honour,  pages  of  the  presence- 
chamber,  pages  of  the  back  stairs,  &c. 

PAGOD,  or  I'.\Goi>A,  a  name  whereby 
the  K.ist  Indians  call  the  temple  in  which 
they  worship  their  gods.  I'he  pagod  usually 
Consists  of  three  parts;  the  lirst  is  a  vaulted 
roof,  supported  on  stone  or  marble  colunuis: 
it  is  adorned  with  images ;  and,  being  open, 
all  persons  without  distinction  are  allowed  to 
enter  it.  The  second  part  is  tilled  with  gro- 
tesque and  monstrous  hgures,  and  no  person 
is  allowed  to  enter  it  but  the  bramins  them- 
selves. The  third  is  a  kind  of  chancel,  in 
which  the  statue  of  the  deity  is  placed.  It  is 
shut  up  with  a  very  strong  gate. 

Paood,  or  Pagoda,  is  also  the  name  of 
a  gold  or  silver  coin,  current  in  several  parts 
of  the  Kast  Indies,  value  Si'. 

PAINTING,  is  the  art  of  representing  all 
objects  of  nature  visibly,  by  lines  and  co- 
lours on  a  plain  surface.  It  has  also  the 
power  of  expressing  by  the  same  means  con- 
ceptions and  images  of  the  mind  which  do 
not  actually  exist  in  any  of  the  usual  forms 
of  nature.  It  is  to  be  considered  as  an  art 
displaying  either  conjointly  or  separately  the 
powers  of  imagination  and  imitation;  and 
maybe  divided  into  invention,  which  regards 
the  original  thouglit  or  conception  of  the  sub- 
ject ;  and  into  composition,  design,  and  co- 
louring, winch  regiird  the  execution  of  the 
work. 

Invention  consists  generally  in  the  choice 
of  such  subjects  as  are  best  calculated  to  an- 
swer some  great  and  interesting  end ;  and 
particularly  in  discovering  or  selecting  such 
subjects  as  are  capable  of  being  most  nppro- 
priately  expressed  by  painting,  and  of  pro- 
ducing a  powerful  eiilijct  by  such  means  as 
are  distinctivelv  placed  within  the  compass  of 
that  art. 

Composition  regards  the  arrangement  of 
the  subject  both  a.s  to  forms,  and  to  the  gene- 
ral effects  of  light  and  shade,  and  of  colour. 
It  compreliends  the  general  distribution  and 
grouping  of  the  figures,. their  combination  or 
contract,  the  choice  of  attitudes,  the  disposal 
of  draperies,  the  situation  of  the  scene  itself, 
as  well  as  the  distribution  and  conntction  of 
all  the  various  parts  of  scenery  and  orna- 
ment. 

-  The  important  objects  which  design  em- 
braces, will  be  found  fully  explained  under 
that  article.     See  Design. 

Colouring  regards,  first,  the  infinite  vsrietv 
of  hues  with  which  nature  diitisvguis.'ies  her 


P  A  I 

forms,  agreeably  to  the  degree  and  mixture 
of  the  rays  of  fight  which  their  surfaces  re- 
flect ;  and,  secondly,  the  distribution,  appo- 
sition, and  accompaniment,  of  various  hues  or 
tints,  so  as  to  produce  the  effect  most  pleas- 
ing to  the  sight,  a  circumstance  in  which  na- 
ture not  always  delights.  It  embraces  also 
the  light  and  shade  of  objects,  as  far  as  by 
the  iliminution  or  increase  of  these  the  har- 
mony of  tints  before-mentioned  can  be  cf-  j 
fected  ;  but  that  mi\cd  effect  of  colour  and 
of  light  and  shade  which  is  denominated  chi- 
aro-scuro,  is  more  justly  regarded  as  a  branch 
of  composition, 

j-irl  of  painlins;.  The  art  of  painting  is 
justly  ranke<l  among  the  highest  of  that  class 
of  arts  which  are  denominated  liberal.  Its 
tendency  and  powers  are  congenial  with  those 
of  poetry,  and  it  has  of  course  been  consi- 
dered as  an  employment  worthv  of  men  in 
the  most  elevated  ranks  of  life.  The  honours 
with  which  it  has  been  distinguished  in  va- 
rious countries,  will  be  found  in  the  history 
of  its  professors. 

We  shall  proceed,  in  consistence  with  a 
general  plan,  to  describe,  fir^t,  the  means  by 
which  the  student  may  hope  to  forward  his 
progress  in  this  admirable  but  difficult  art. 
We  shall  then  stale  the  diflerent  branches  of 
painting,  and  the  methods  of  practice  ;  and 
shall  la>tly  add  a  siunmary  of  its  history  in 
all  ages  and  countries. 

Cuiirtif  and  methods  of  stiidy  requisite  to  at- 
tain  tlic  art  nfjiaintiiig. 
The  process  of  study  requisite  for  the  at- 
tainment of  the  art  of  painting,  has  been  in 
part  already  described  under  the  aj'ticle 
Design*;  the  knowledge  of  design  being,  as 
was  there  said,  the  basis  of  painting,  and 
its  various  attainments  the  necessary  steps 
by  which  the  painter  nuist  commence  his 
advance  in  the  art.  The  student  having 
completed  the  various  studies  which  lead 
to  excellence  in  drawing,  must  proceed  to 
transfer  the  principles  he  has  learned  to  his 
canvas ;  and,  before  he  can  arrive  at  emi- 
nence, must  acquire  a  complete  mastery  of 
the  new  materials  in  which  he  ' 
once  the  stores  of  his  mind  an( 


painter  der't"''-  'w  '<, 

dc-.ign,  ai.::    -  '  -    '  ■ 

the  last  ol  i 

special  idei 

guish  Ji.  r 

their  .  . 

eXpreSM-l.   ^j    C.y.,]i^U    (  V,  :   .|    •     .:>.  . 

up  to  that  perfect  imitation  of  i  » 

is  wi  hin  tlie  scope  of  paiirting);  u.r.  ^.  ii:'.s 
only  we  can  be  decidedly  understood  to  sfieak 
ol  a  painter. 

'lo  this  it  is  to  be  added,  that  as  coloining 
specifically  diBtinguislies  the  art  of  thi.'  painter- 
from  all  the  other  arts  of  design,  so  k  is  the 
ultimate  accomplishment  of  all  his  studies  in 
the  art  of  painting. 

We  sliall,  therelbre,  first  treat  of  colouring, 
and  proceed  to  consid<;r  more  minutely  the 
component  parts  which  form  the  art  of  co- 
louring. 

Colouring.  Colouring  is  that  mode  of  art 
by  which  the  artist  imitates  the  appearaiK  e 
of  colours  in  all  nalnnd  objects,  and  gives  to 
arlilitial  objects  those  hues  which  are  most 
calci|lated  to  please  or  to  deceive  the  sight. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  colourist  to  consider, 
that  as  there  are  two  soits  ol  objects,  the  na- 
tural or  real,  and  the  artificial  or  painted,  so 
there  are  also  two  sorts  of  colours,  viz.  the 
natural,  or  that  which  makes  all  the  objects 
in  nature  visible  to  us,  and  the  artilicial.  or 
that  which,  by  a  judicious  mixture  of  snnple 
colours,  imitates  those  natural  ones  in-all  their 
various  situations  and  circumstances. 

The  painter  must  first  endeavour  to  acquire 
a  perfect  knowledge  of  these  two  sorts  of  co- 
lours; of  the  natural,  in  order  lo  dist'mguish 
with  precision  which  of  tiieni  he  ought  to 
imitate ;  and  of  the  artilicial,  in  order  to  com- 
jjose  the  tint  inost  proper  for  representing  the 
natural  coloiu'.  Tlu-se  acquirements  include 
the  study  of  dioptrics,  or  that  part  Of  optics 
which  has  for  its  object  the  nature  of  light  and 
colours,  and  an  aciiuauitance  at  least  with  the 
general  principles  of  chemistry.  (See. Op- 
tics.) He  will  learn  also  that  the  natural 
colour  is  of  tliree  sorts:  1st,  the  true  coloifr 
of  the  object;  L'd,  the  retlected  colour;  3d, 
is  to  display  at  j  the  colour  of  the  light  incidental  to  the  object. 
'  the  skill  ofl  In  the  artilicial  colours,  he  will  distinguish 


his  hand.  For  this  purpose,  he  must  add  to  their  force  and  softness  separately  and  by 
the  knowledgejie  tdready  possesses,  the  study  ]  comparison,  in  order  that  he  may  use  a  pro- 
of colour's  and  colouring  in  all  their  branches,  i  per  judgment  in  h(>ightening  or  attenuating 
It  is  the  knowledge  of  this  department  of  art  |  them,  according  as  Ins  subject  may  require, 
which  peculiarly  characterizes  the  profession  -  To  this  end  he  will  also  consider,  that  a 
he  is  about  to  undertake.  The  various  j  picture  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  ilat  superficies; 
branches  of  di.sign   have  formed    the  com-  |  that,  some  time  after  the  colours  are  laid  on_, 


men(!ement  of  his  studies,  and  he  may-  be 
supposed  a  perfect  master  of  them ;  but 
these  alone  cannot  constitute  him  a  painter ; 
neither  can  he  acquire  that  title  by  the  knOw- 
ledgeot  every  ruieof  invention  or  composition. 
If  we  consider  a  painter  in  regard  of  these 


th('y  necessarily  lose  their  freshness ;  and 
that  the  distance  at  which  a  picture  is  viewed 
takes  from  it  much  of  its  brightness  and  vi- 
gour ;  and  it  is  therefore  impossible  to  guard' 
against  these  drawbacks  on  the  eilect  of  his 
pencil,  without  a  complete  mastery  of  that 


last  powers  of  skill,  we  rank  him  with  the  poet  j  artifice  which  is  the  chief  object  of  the  art  of 
or  the  draughtsman  ;  if  in  regard  of  anatomic     colouring. 


knowledge  or  i)erspective,  we  confound  hin 
with  the  anatomist  or  the  mathematician  ;  if 
in  regard  of  symmetn-,  grace,  and  propor- 
tions of  forms,  we  lannot  distinguish  him  trom 
the  geometer  or  the  sculptor.  'I  he  painter, 
who  is  supposed  the  perfect  imitator  of  na- 
ture, necessarily  makes  colouring  his  chief 
object,  since  he  only  considers  na'.ure  as  she 
isimitable:  she  is  only  miitable  bv  him  as 
she  is  visible ;  and  she  is  only  visible  as  sire 
is  coloured. 

Allhongli  the  perfect  idea,  therefore,  of  a 


Although  imitation  is  the  principal  aim  of, 
colouring,  the  painter  nuist  by  no  means  be 
the  slave  of  natural  objects,  "but  the  judge 
and  judicious  imitator  of  them:  he  must  net 
imitate  all  the  colours  which  present  them- 
selves indifferently  to  his  eye;  but  he  must 
chuse  the  most  proper  for  his  purpose,  and 
add  or  temper  with  others,  to  complete  the 
b 'auty  of  effect  in  his  work.  He  must  some- 
times abate  the  vivacity  of  life,  and  some- 
times strive  to  heighten  it  by  superior  force 
and  brightness  of  colours,  in  order  to  convey 
11  ' 


3i3 

to  the  pyf  vAth  preciii.in  niul  trutli  the  Sjjirit 
and  ri'al  diaracU-r  oi'  llie  i>l)jei:t.  'I'iu-re  are 
few,  and  lliose  only  aiiKinif  the  ijitatest 
paijil.Ts,  wliu  liavi!  ai rived  at  llio  pL'itei;!  lua- 
iiaj-eineiit  ot  tiiia  didicult  pari  of  a:t. 

Oil  tlie  apposition  of  colours,  and  on  tlif 
kiio\vU-du;e  of  cliiaro-scuro,  depends  all  the 
Iiarniony  of  coloinin;^.  In  what  that  happv 
anaMgi'tni.'nt  of  colours  consists,  which  pro 
<hiCL'>  L-fl'ccts  delighllvd  to  the  cyo,  no  ndos 
can  pretend  to  a^-i-rtahi.  If  the  sonrce  of 
inforniatiou  in  tlii;-  point  is  not  in  the  mind  of 
tlu'  painter,  he  u'lil  in  vain  seek  for  it  else- 
where. Iniprciven>e!it,  howevec,  niav,  and 
unlit,  be  superadded  to  natural  discrimina- 
tion: to  acijuire  the  necessary  improvement, 
lie  will  liiid  the  best  school  in  the  works  of 
those  great  masters  wiio  h  ive  possessed  tl:e 
power  of  colo\irin!v  in  an  eminent  degree. 
Siioli  are  Titian  and  Rubens,  lint  he  must 
be  caret'ul  that,  in  studyinp;  even  the>e  great 
examijles  of  the  art,  lie  does  not  forget  tliat 
he  is  only  learning  from  them  the  road  to  na- 
ture, the  linal  source  of  his  imitation. 

C)l  the  few  maxims  which  can  be  offered 
on  the  subject  of  colouring,  the  following  are 
tlie  least  <)uestioiiai)le; 

W  e  iiuist  learn  to  view  nature  to  advan- 
tage, in  order  to  represent  her  well.  There 
are  two  manners  of  (olouring:  the  one  de- 
pending; on  habit,  the  other  on  the  true  know- 
ledge ot  colours.  'I'he  tirst  is  conlined,  the 
second  unlimited. 

'I'Ue  harmony  of  nature  in  her  colours 
arises  from  objects  participating  of  one  ano- 
llier  by  reliection ;  for  there  is  no  light  which 
<kies  not  strike  some  bodv  ;  nor  is  there  any 
•■nlinhteiKtl  body  which  does  not  rellect  its 
light  and  colour  at  tlie  same  time,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  force  of  the  light,  and  aci-ording 
lo  (he  nature  of  the  colour.  This  participa- 
tion of  reliection  in  ligiil  and  colour,  consti- 
tutes that  union  of  colouring  wliich  it  is  the 
iMisiiiiss  of  the  painter  to  imitate. 

'1  his  desirable  union  of  colour  is  sometimes 
flonsiderably  aided  in  pictures  In  the  process 
nfpl.i/.lng;  that  is,  by  the  u>e  of  colonrr-which, 
liaving  little  body,  are  diaphonmis  ;  and  are, 
by  means  of  a  light  brush  or  pencil,  passed  over 
(or,  as  pointers  express  it,  sciiml>lcdo\  er)  such 
parts  of  the  work  as  are  unpleasantlv  staring 
or  otherwise  discordant.  This  use  of  trans- 
parent colour  is  by  some  called  toning,  or 
tniiing;  and  probably  al'tbrds  the  justes't  ex- 
planation of  the  well-kno«n  passage  in  I'liny, 
.where  lie  speaks  of  ihf  alnimfiilnm  used  IJv 
tine  of  the  antient  painters  to  give  liaruionv 
and  sw-eetiiess  to  his  ))ictnres. 

\  ariety  of  tints,  very  nearly  of  the  same 
tone,  employi'd  in  the  same  ligiire,  and  often 
upon  the  same  part,  with  moderation,  contri- 
bute much  to  harmony. 

'I'lie  turn  of  the  parts,  and  the  outlines 
which  insensibly  melt  into  their  grounds  and 
artfully  disapjjear,  bind  the  objects  toge- 
ther, and  preserve  them  in  union  ;  as  they 
seem  to  conduct  the  eye  beyond  what  it  sees, 
and  persuade  it  that  it  sees  what  it  really  does 
not  see,  or  at  least  that  it  conceives  that  con- 
tinuity which  the  extremities  of  the  objects 
conce.il. 

Any  loading  or  overcharging  of  colouring, 
for  whatever  purpose  it  is  used,  must  be  so 
discreetly  managed,  as  not  to  destroy  the 
character  of  the  object.  ' 

Ttic  rcpctitiou  of  tlie  same  colour  in  a 


r.AJNTIXG. 

picture  j%'  to  be  avoided,  \inless  where  R 
serves  to  connect  the  various  masses  of  a 
coinposili<ni.  ']  he  eye  becomes  tired  with 
viewing  the  same  object:  it  love»  varietv  art- 
fully presented  to  it. 

'J'he  apparent  value  of  colours  hi  a  picture 
(as  in  all  things)  arises  from  cimiparison. 

.^several  colours  which,  placed  unmixed  bv 
one  another,  have  a  kind  of  aerial  brightness, 
when  mixed  together,  produce  a  disagree- 
able earthy  colour :  for  histance,  iiltiamaruie 
with  tine  yellow,  or  line  verniiliou. 

Colours  which  by  mixture  lose  strength 
and  become  harmonious,  are  -called  broken 
colours,  and  contnliute  as  greatly  to  the 
sweetness  and  softness  of  tones  in  pictures 
as  they  subtract  from  their  brightness. 

Chitiro-scurri.  The  knowh-dge  of  lights 
and  sliades  e\idently  forms  a  jiart  <<f  that  es- 
sential distinction  of  painting,  which  we  have 
ju^t  described  umler  the  head  of  colouring, 
and  is  requisite  to  that  part  of  colouring 
which  refers  to  composition.  I!nt  the  inci- 
dence of  particular  lights  and  shades  on  bo- 
dies placed  on  certain  planes  and  exposed  to 
certain  lights  (a  knowledge  to  be  gained  from 
the  study  of  pers[)ective),  is  a  very  small  part 
of  that  general  knowledge  of  elject  which  is 
denominated  cliiaio-sciiro.  by  which  is  meant 
the  art  of  skilfully  distributing  the  lights  and 
shades  which  ought  to  appear  in  a  picture 
as  well  for  the  repose  as  satisfaction  of  the 
c-ye.  The  incidence  of  lii^ht  uiav  be  demon- 
strated by  lines  siipjiosed  to  be  drawn  from 
the  source  of  that  light  to  the  boilv  enlight- 
ened; whereas  the  chiaro-scnro  depends  en- 
tirely on  the  painter's  imagination,  who,  as-he 
invents  the  objects,  may  dis|;ose  them  to  re- 
ceive such  lights  and  shades  as  he  proposes 
for  his  picture,  and  introduce  such  accidents 
of  colour  as  he  deems  most  advantageous  to 
the  effect  of  the  whole. 

Cliiaro-scuro,  therefore,  demands  a  per- 
fect knowledge  of  the  ellects  of  light  and 
shade,  of  aerial  perspective,  of  the  propor- 
tional force  of  colours,  or  of  those  cjualities 
by  «liich  they  appear  to  advance  to,  or  re- 
cede from,  the  e_\e,  andof  their  various  de- 
grees of  transparency  or  opa(|nene-s. 

The  art  of  chiaro-scuro  consists,  1st,  in 
connecting  and  combining  the  ligures  or  ob- 
jects of  a  composition  in  such  masses  of  light 
and  of  shade,  as  are  both  the  most  pleasing 
to  the  eye  and  the  best  calculated  for  the  just 
developenient  and  disphi)  of  the  subject. 
2i;lly,  111  assigning  to  each  object  the  colour 
most  corresponding  (on  account  of  the  force 
or  qualities  above  mentioned)  to  its  respective 
place  in  the  general  mass  or  group,  and  at 
the  same  time  best  harmonizing  with  tln' 
other  colours  of  the  pittiire,  either  jjy  its 
natural  and  proper  tone,  or  bv  the  reflected 
hues  which  it  receives  Irom  adjoining  or  sur- 
rounding objects.  'I'he  beauty  of  these  re- 
tlexi-s  de|)eiids  on  the  skillul  adaptation  of 
transparent  or  op;ique  colours.  3(lly,  In  the 
judicious  introduction  of  such  accideiits  as 
contribute  to  strengthen  the  general  elfect 
anil  character  of  the  work.  It  is  on  chiaro- 
scuro, says  Meiigs,  that  depends  the  ex|)res- 
sion  of  the  character  of  a  picture,  whether  it 
IS  gay  or  gloomy,  cheerhil  or  solemn. 

The  distribution  of  objects  forms  the  masses 
ot  chiara-scuro,  by  combining  or  connecting 
their  lights  and  shades  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
prevent  the  eye  from  wandering  conltisedly 
over  the  work.  Titian  exemplilictl  this  jne- 
JO 


cppt  ill  the  instance  of  a  hunch  of  grapes,  of 
which  each  grape,  it  seen  separately,  would 
have  its  light  and  shade  in  a  similar  degree, 
and  tluis  distracting  the  sight,  would  produce 
a  tiresome-  contusion  ;  but  wiien  collected  in 
one  bunch,  and  becoming  but  one  mass  of 
light  and  shade,  the  eye  is  capable  of  em- 
bracing them  all  together  as  a  single  obje<t. 

Tl;e  distribution  of  colours  has  an  eviilent 
power  of  uniting  the  masses  of  light  and 
shade  ;  as  the  painter  may  for  instance  intro- 
duce a  lignre  clothed  in  daik-brown  dra))eiy, 
so  nearly  approaching  in  colour  to  the  shade 
of  any  two  objects  between  which  it  is  [ilaced, 
that  thev  will  appear  but  one  mass,  and  will 
be  embraced  by  the  eye  as  such.  The  same 
effect  will  be  prodiicetl  by  the  apposition  of 
similar  or  accordant  colours  in  various  ob- 
jects. 

The  distribution  of  accidents,  bv  which  ac- 
cessory lights  or  shades  are  introduced,  has 
the  same  obvious  tendency  t<*  unite  the 
liiasscs  of  visible  colour.  Torches,  clouds, 
&c.  are  comprized  under  this  head. 

Tile  art  of  chiaro-scuro  is  that  which,  of  all 
others  coinjnehended  under  the  general  he.id 
of  painting,  appears  to  have  the  greatest 
power  of  attracting  the  e_\e  of  the  spectator, 
and  of  exciting  the  admiration  of  the  ai'tist  in 
particular. 

in  the  same  manner  that  we  have  here 
endeavoured  to  delliie  the  general  principles 
of  that  distinctive  branch  ot  the  painter's  art 
called  colouring,  and  as  we  have  before  fully 
described  the  requisite  progress  of  studv  in 
drawing  or  design,  we  shall  now  ])roceed  to 
the  remainina;  branch,  composition ;  and 
afterwards  add  a  few  words  respecting  in 
vention. 

CniHpnsilion.  Composition  may  be  di- 
vided into  the  general  distribution  of  objects, 
the  grouping,  the  choice  of  attitudes,  the 
contrast,  tlu'  cast  of  draperies,  aiul  the  ma- 
nagement of  the  back-ground  or  the  connec- 
tion of  the  w  hole  ell'ect. 

In  composition,  as  far  as  regards  the  gene- 
ral distribution  ot  obji'cts,  the  painter  ought 
to  Contrive  that  the  spectator  mav,  iit  the 
tirst  sight,  be  struck  with  the  general  charac- 
ter of  the  subject,  or  at  least  may  compre- 
hend its  principal  scope,  'i'his  eli'ect  is  most 
readily  produced  by  placing  the  most  essen- 
tial ligures  in  the  most  conspicuous  places, 
provided  it  can  be  done  without  violence  or 
impropriety.  Besides  this  distinctness  in  the 
general  expression  of  the  subject,  the  beauty 
of  the  I omposition  w  ill  depend  on  the  varietv, 
connection,  andcontiast,  displayeil  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  objects;  provided;  in  hke  manner, 
that  these  are  conformable  to  the  nature  of 
the  subject,  whether  gay,  famili.ir,  full  of  mo- 
tion and  hurry,  or  still,  solemn,  and  iiiehm- 
choly. 

The  grouping  regards  both  design  and  chi- 
aro-scuro. Ill  the  former,  it  respects  the 
ligures  prim  i|)aily  concerned  in  the  expression 
ot  the  subject,  which  must  necessarily  be 
near  to,  or  distant  from,  one  another,  as'thei): 
;ii'tions,  conversations,  or  other  mutual  rela- 
tions, reipiire.  In  the  latter,  it  regards  those 
masses  which  are  formed  from  objects  which 
may  be  propcrlv  arranged  together,  and  thosa 
ell'ects  ol  light  and  shade  which  arc  formed 
in  consequence  of  such  assemblage  or  union. 
These  are  the  points  to  which  the  allention 
must  be  principally  and  diligently  directed 
ia  forming  llie  groups  of  a  composition. 


TIic  choice  of  allitiKles  is  tlic  principal  siil)- 
onlinale  divi-;ion  of  grouping.  Whatever 
altitude  is  given,  it  nv.ist  not  only  contribute 
its  due  portion  to  tlie  conipl<'tii)ii  of  t!ic 
group,  l)ut  tlie  greatest  care  must  be  taken 
by  the  painter,  tl^iat  it  does  not  appear  to  be 
introduced  tor  tliat  purpose  merely.  It  must 
be  apiiropriale  to  the  rliaractcr  of  the  hidi- 
vidual  lignre,  and  expressive  of  its  reipiisite 
action  ;  and  it  must,  at  the  same  time,  com- 
bine whatever  beauty  of  form  can  be  shewn 
bv  such  a  selection  of  turns  or  views  of  the 
body,  as  the  necessary  ciri  umstances  will  ad- 
mit." The  knowledge  of  generic  characters, 
under  the  various  modifications  of  sex,  age, 
and  condition ;  of  the  various  operations  of 
t!ic  passions  in  the  hum?n  muul ;  and  a  tho- 
rough acc]uaiiitance  with  the  circumstances 
of  the  history  or  other  subjects  to  be  repre- 
sented ;  are  the  best  guides  to  a  good  choice 
of  attitudes. 

'I'o  the  effect  produced  by  well-chosen  at- 
titudes, contrast  gives  the  most  powcrhil  aid. 
Contrast  has  been  ulrvaily  defmed  (see  Con- 
trast); and  it  is  only  to  be  observed  here 
that  in  composition  it  extends  not  'o  human 
iigures  only,  but  to  objects  of  evi-ry  khid, 
animate  or  inanimate,  and  also  to  the  ell'ects 
of  liglit  or  chiaro-scnro. 

Of  draperies,  and  the  proper  modes  of 
ca,.ting  or  disposing  llu-ni,  notice  has  been 
taken  under  the  article  Drawing. 

The  management  of  the  back-ground,  or 
connection  of  the  general  effect,  is,  of  all 
other  parts  of  composition,  at  once  tlie  most 
diliicult  to  be  defined  or  perlornied.  It  con- 
sists in  the  general  accordance  and  subordi- 
nation of  objects  with  aiul  to  one  another,  so 
that  they  shall  all  concur  to  constitute  but 
one  single  obji;ct.  It  is  to  the  whole  wliat 
liic  grouping  of  lines,  forms,  and  chiaro-scnro, 
is  to  a  part.  It  is  etVccted  by  a  due  combina- 
tion of  liglits  and  shades,  by  an  union  of  co- 
lours, and  bv  sucli  oppositions  or  contrasts 
as  are  sullicient  to  relieve  the  distinct  groups, 
and  to  give  repose  to  the  eye.  Amidst  se- 
veral g!Oups(if  the  picture  consists  of  such), 
h  recpiires  that  one  should  be  justly  predo- 
minant in  force  and  colour,  anil  tliat  all  de- 
taclied  ol)jects  should  be  so  united  with  their 
respective  grounds  as  to  form  togetlier  one 
ptMcral  mass  of  repose  for  the  support  of 
tfic  principal  object. 

The  satisfaction  of  the  eye  is  the  ultimate 
purpose  of  this  diliicull  part  of  composition. 

Invention.  It  now  remains  to  enlarge  on 
the  most  arduous  attainment  of  the  painter, 
and  viliich  we  have  placed  the  last  in  the  or- 
der of  his  studies,  because  it  is  that  which 
gives  the  highest  character  to  the  artist,  as  it 
affords  the  greatest  opportunities  of  display- 
ing the  powers  of  his  mind. 

Invention  comprises  every  kind  of  subject 
which  can  be  represented  to  sight ;  but  it  is 
geiierallv  divided  into  historical,  allegorical, 
and  nixstical. 

Invention  simply  historical,  is  the  selection 
of  such  objects  as  plainly  relate  to  or  repre- 
sent a  subject.  lis  degrees  are  more  or  less 
valuable  according  to  Its  matter  or  subject, 
and  its  requisite  properties  are  li<lclity  and 
Jjerspicuity.  It  extends  also  to  the  introduc- 
tiou  of  all  such  enibellishments  as  are  con- 
sistent and  congenial  with  the  history  repre- 
sented, in  the  same  manner  as  in  poetry. 
'I'iift  same  illusU-alioii  by  collateral  erudition, 
Vol.  II.  ^ 


PArNTINTG. 

the  samp  enlivening  by  incidental  ornamenl, 
liie  same  blending  ol  po<;tic  imagery  (not 
over-stepping  truth),  is  admired  in  the  painter 
as  in  the  poet. 

The  cartoons  of  l?affaelle  are  among  the 
works  which  present  the  finest  examples  of 
this  species  of  inver.tion.  The  battles  of  Con- 
slantiiie,  and  some  others  by  the  same  mas- 
ter, in  the  Vatican,  are  equally  excellent. 

Allegorical  invention  is  a  choice  of  objects 
whicli  serve  lo  represent '  either  wholly  or 
partly  what  Ihey  are  not ;  ami  of  which  the 
expression  arises  from  illusion.  Calumny 
dragged  in,  at  the  fret  of  Truth,  as  described 
by  Lucian,  and  sketched  by  Ralfaelle,  is 
wholly  of  this  class.  Such  also  is  Hercules 
placed  between  Mrtue  and  Pleasure  (gene- 
rally called  the  Choice  of  Hercules);  and 
such  also  is  the  picture  of  the  School  of 
Alliens,  by  Kaffaelle,  in  which  many  pers:;'ns 
of  various  times,  countries,  and  conditions, 
are  brought  together,  to  represent  the  various 
modes  of  philosophy. 

Otlirr  works  ;He  partly  allegorical  and 
partly  historical;  in  which  tlie  sjiectator  easily 
distinguishes  the  figures  purely  historical  froiii 
others  mixed  with  them  in  tlie  same  picture, 
and  entirely  aUegorical.  Such  are  the  well- 
known  pictures  of  the  history  of  Mary  de 
Medici,  painted  by  Knbens. 

The  first  great  recpiisite  of  allegorical 
painting  is,  that  it  be  intelligible.  An  alle- 
gory not  understood,  is  a  loss  of  labour  both 
to  painter  and  s|)ectator.  For  this  purpose, 
it  must,  in  general,  consist  of  such  svinbols 
as  are  established  on 'good  authority,'  or,  if 
new,  are  obvious  to  the  mind. 

In  addition  to  this  first  requisite,  the  pro- 
per choKe  of  allegory  demands,  either  tliat 
the  suliject  could  lu  no  other  way  be  repre- 
sented, or  that  it  could  not  be  represented 
by  historical  invention  in  an  equal  degree  of 
force  and  beauty. 

.Mystical  invention  respects  the  expression 
o!  sndi  ideas  as  are  inculcated  in  our  minds 
by  ilie  precepts  of  religion.  The  [laintings 
in  the  Capella  Sistina  at  Rome,  by  Michael 
.-\ngelo,  exhibit  an  illustrious  instance  of  this 
kind  of  invention ;  and  the  student  (with  cer- 
tain modifications)  can  enter  no  better  school 
of  this  part  of  art.  The  Transfiguration  of 
our  Saviour,  by  Uaffaelle,  the  Annunciation, 
Holy  l''aniilies,  &c.  of  numerous  painters, 
arc  of  tlie  same  kind. 

T  he  style  of  mystical  painting  is  sometimes 
fiimiliar  and  tender,  as  in  subjects  of  the 
Holy  Family,  but  chiefly  majestic  and  ele- 
vated. 

A\  e  have  thus  accompanied  the  painter, 
and  slJghtly,  but  it  is  hoped  justly,  traced 
his  path,  through  the  long  course  of  his  stu- 
dies; in  the  prosecution  of  which  he  must 
himself  contribute  the  fullest  share  of  unwea- 
ried diligence  and  attention.  Kor  sre  his 
pursuits  to  be  considered  as  bounded  by  the 
rules  which  have  been  given.  Enough  re- 
mains behind  to  exercise  both  his  industry 
and  genius. 

Beyond  tlie  complete  possession  of  the  va- 
rious component  parts  of  art  which  have  brt-n 
enumerated,  expression,  in  all  its  distinct 
jjowers  of  vivacity,  justness,  and  delicacy, 
calls  for  every  exertion  of  talent.  See  EJi- 
PRF.5SI0N.  And  lo  all  this,  in  order  to  at- 
tain perfection,  must  be  superadded  the  rare 
and  transcendaiit  charm  of  grace,  that  inde- 
linuble  excellence  which  no  painters  are  al- 
Tt 


329 

lowed  (o  have  reached,  except  Apelles,  Kaf- 
(aeile,  and  Correggio. 

Oflhc  different  classes  of  painting. 

Painting  is  chiefly  divided  into  historical 
(comprehending  allegorical  and  mystical), 
grotescjue,  i)orlrait,  fancy,  animals,  fruits  and 
flowers,  battles,  landscape,  sea-views,  arihi- 
tecture,  still  life.  The  subordinate  divisions 
of  all  these  are  endless. 

'J  lie  first  has  been  sufTiciently  spoken  of 
under  the  head  of  invailion,  in'the  present 
article. 

(iiotcsque  painting  being  al?o  already  ex- 
plained under  its  jiroper  article,  it  is  only 
necessary  here  lo  add,  that  the  finest  exani- 
ples  of  lliis  species  are  to  be  fcund  in  ibe 
celebrated  loggia  of  the  Vatican  palace  at 
Home,  painted  Ironi  the  designs  of  KatTaelle, 
and  in  the  ceiling  of  the  portico  of  the  Capi- 
tol, carved  from  those  of  Michael  Angelo. 

t)f  portrait,  as  being  a  branch  of  painting 
to  which  our  country  is  peculiarly  addicted, 
it  is  requisite  to  give  a  more  detailed  ac- 
count. 

Pnriruilure.  If  the  accurate  imitation  of 
nature  is,  on  any  occasion,  capable  of  form- 
ing the  principal  merit  of  a  picture,  it  must 
cerlainly  be  m  portraiture,  which  not  only 
represents  a  man  in  general,  but  such  an  one 
as  may  be  distinguished  frcni  all  other  men. 
The  greatest  perfection  of  a  portrait  is  ex- 
treme likeness,  and  the  greatest  fault  is  the 
resemblance  of  a  person  tor  whom  it  was  not 
designed,  unless  we  are  inclined  to  except  a 
still  more  grievous  defect,  viz.  the  want  of 
resemblance  to  any  person  whatever.  The 
resemblance  of  men  to  one  another,  is  in- 
deed fre(|uently  found  in  living  nature,  but 
it  is  seldom  or  never  so  complete  and  entire, 
but  tliat  some  particular  turn  or  view  of  the 
face  will  betray  the  difference;  and  it  is  the 
business  of  the  artist  ever  lo  discriminate,  and 
to  appropriate  to  his  pencil,  those  peculiar 
features,  lines,  and  turns  of  the  face,  the  re- 
presentation of  which  will  efl'ectiially  convey 
to  the  sperlalor  the  distinct  especial  idea  of 
the  person  whose  portrait  is  set  before  him. 

\'arious  difficulties  attend,  and  not  seldom 
impede,  the  execution  of  diis  task.  It  is 
true,  that  there  is  not  a  single  person  in  the 
world,  of  whatever  age,  sex,  or  condition, 
who  has  not  a  peculiar  character  both  in 
body  and  face ;  but  it  is  also  the  essential 
duly  of  portraiture,  that  it  not  only  imitate 
what  we  see  in  nature,  but  that  it  exhibit  si.cli 
views  of  nature  as  are  confessedly  the  most 
advantageous  to  the  person  represented.  The 
inonieut  that  the  idea  raised  by  the  sight  of 
the  portrait  is  inferior  to  that  raised  by  the 
sight  of  the  person,  the  labour  of  the  artist 
sinks  into  the  debasing  region  of  caricature. 

Likeness,  however,  being  the  essence  of 
portrait,  it  is  unquestionably  the  part  of  the 
painter  to  imitate  defects  as  well  as  beauties, 
since,  by  this  means,  the  resemblance  will  be 
more  complete.  He  is  only  to  be  aware  that 
lie  strictly  preserves  that  balance  whicli  con- 
stilutes  the  character  of  the  object.  It  has 
been  sometimes  suggested  by  tliosc  who  are 
more  willing  to  court  favour  than  fame,  that 
all  appearances  of  deformity,  when  the  air, 
temper,  and  genera!  likwiessof  the  facCj  can  be 
discerned  without  them,  ouglii  to  be  omitte<l 
or  corrected  in  portraiture  ;  but  this  must  be 
done  at  least  with  considerable  discretion ; 
for,  by  too  streuuous  endeavours  to  correct 


330 


nature,  it  is  always  fountl  that  the  painter 
imeiisiblv  falls  into  a  habit  of  giving  a  geaexJ 
air  to  Ill's  poitraits,  a^  suitable  to  one  person 
as  to  another,  or  perhaps  properly  suited  to 

none.  ■  ,    i 

In  the  portraits  of  particularly  chstinguishecl 
characters,  of  men  iliustrious  either  for  rank, 
virtue,  great  actions,  or  exalted  talents,  ex- 
actitude of  representation,  whether  in  beau- 
ties or  delects,  cannot  be  too  closely  pursued. 
Portraits  of  such  persons  are  to  become  tlie 
standing  monuments  of  their  higli  naii-.e  to 
posterity  ;  >-nd  in  this  instance  every  thing  is 
precious  that  is  faithful. 

The  resemblance,  as  well  as  every  other 
excellence,  of  a  portrait,  depends  on  leature, 
•expression,  air,  colouring,  attitude,  and  ai- 

'J"ho  features  reqinre  to  be  carefully  exa- 
mined and  studied  by  inspection. in  many  dif- 
ferent viev's,  so  tJiat  at  tlie  moment  vhen 
the  painter  puts  his  pencil  to  thecan\as,  he 
inav  be  possessed  not  only  of  the  apparent 
form  of  each  particular  feature  in  the  view  in 
which  he  represents  it,  but  of  its  real  and 
characteristic  form  also,  the  full  expression 
of  which  is  not  discernible  in  every  view. 
Each  particular  feature  siiouid  appear  so  dis- 
tinctlv  shaped,  as  that  an  exact  model  of 
Ihe  real  head  could  be  formed  from  the  pic- 
ture, if  rec|uisite;  and  tliey  must  be  at  the 
■same  time  so  blended  in  the  general  mass  of 
•the  face,  that  no  one  shall  obtrude  itself  on 
the  eve  bevond  the  rest.  The  peculiar  mode 
of  toiicii,  or  execution,  whereby  each  feature 
is  best  discriminated,  can  only  be  learned 
from  practice,  and  tiie  attentive  study  of  the 
best  masters. 

For  expression,  the  student  is  referred  to 
the  general  rules  already  given  under  that 
article.  See  Expression.  In  addition  to 
which,  it  is  requisite  to  observe,  that  tlie 
greatest  care  is  to  be  used  in  a  portrait,  in 
order  that  the  expression  of  the  features  is 
uniform  and  consistent  «ith  each  other.  Er- 
rors in  this  re=pect  are  among  the  most  fre- 
quent in  portrait-painting.  The  mouth  is 
sometimes  represented  smiling,  while  ^  the 
eyes  are  sad,  and  vice  versa,  &c.  The 
painter  must  therefore  constantly  bear  in 
mind  tlie  general  idea  that  he  has  formed  of 
the  countenance  he  intends  to  e.\press,  and 
mast  be  watcliful  of  the  corresponding  forms 
of  the  features  in  moments  of  similar  expres- 
sion. Tiie  portraits  of  Titian  and  Kahar-Ue 
are  pre-eminent  in  this  jjoint.  'The  same  re- 
mark, here  applied  to  tlie  various  minute 
parts  of  the  face  may  be  extended  to  all  tlie 
larger  portions  of  the  figure.  The  same  ex- 
pression must  be  clearly  perceived  in  the 
motion  or  direction  of  the  hands,  arms,  legs, 
and  body,  that  apjieais  to  prevail  in  the 
countenance  and  turn  of  the  head.  It  is 
this  combination  only  \^'hich  can  give  the 
exact  resemblance  of  the  expression  of  na- 
ture, under  the  impulse  of  wliich  no  particular 
limb  ever  deviates  from  the  general  intention 
of  the  whole  body.     See  Expression. 

Tlie  air  principally  regards  the  lines  of  the 
face  or  figure,  the  attire  of  the  head  or  per- 
son, and  the  stature  or  make  of  the  general 
form. 

The  jiroper  lines  of  the  face  or  figure  de- 
pend on  accuracy  of  drawing,  and  an  entire 
agreement  of  the'parts  of  the  same  form  with 
one  another.  Nothing  so  entirely  disguises 
or   alters  the   appeal  aace  uf  an  individual 


PAINTING, 

person  as  the  change  of  head-dress,  whether 
it  is  the  adjustment  of  hair  or  attire.  The 
greate-l  attention,  therefore,  is  to  be  used  in 
adapting  the  arrangement  of  this  i)art  ot  the 
porlrait  to  the  general  character  of  the  per- 
son represented. 

The  stature  and  make,  in  the  same  man- 
ner, contribute  to  the  force  of  resemblance 
(as  the  least  observation  on  nature  will  teach 
us),  and  never  tail  considerably  to  influence  1 
the  air  of  the  person.  It  is  tlierefore  requi- 
site for  the  truth  of  porlrait,  ihat  tliis  part  of 
the  picture  should  be  as  faithfully  studied 
from  the  sitter  as  the  face  itself. 

With  regard  to  the  methods  of  proceeding 
in  tlie  execution  of  a  portrait,  they  have 
been,  and  are,  so  exceedingly  various  in  va- 
rious masters,  that  a  discussion' of  them  would 
1,-ad  to  an  endless  labyrinth.  AVe  shall, 
however,  select  a  curious  statement  of  Van- 
dvck's  mode  of  practice,  in  tlie  latter  time  of 
his  eminence  in  this  branch  of  painting,  as  it 
is  related  by  Du  Piles,  on  the  authority  of 
Jabac,  a  man  well  known  to  all  the  lovers  of 
the  hne  arts,  and  a  friend  of  Vandyck,  who 
thrice  painted  his  portrait : 

"  A'andvck's  custom,  as  Jabac  told  me,  was 
this:  he  appointed  both  the  day  and  hour  for 
the  person's  sitting,  and  worked  not  above  an 
hour  on  any  portrait,  either  in  rubbing  in  or 
linishing ;  so  that  as  soon  as  tl:e  clock  in- 
formed him  tliat  the  hour  was  out,  he  rose, 
and  dismissed  his  sitter,  aj)pointing  another 
hour  on  some  other  day.  His  servant  then 
came  to  clean  his  pencils,  and  brought  a 
fresh  pallet,  while  he  was  receiving  another 
sitter,  whose  day  and  hour  he  had  also  ap- 
pointed. 

"  After  having  lightly  dead-coloured  the 
face,  he  put  the  sitter  into  some  attitude 
which  he  had  before  contri\'ed  ;  and  on  grey 
paper,  with  white  and  black  crayons,  he  de- 
signed in  a  quarter  of  an  l.our  his  shape  and 
drapery,  which  he  disposed  in  a  grand  man- 
ner, and  an  exquisite  taste.  This  drawing 
lie  gave  to  skilful  persons  wliom  he  kept 
about  him,  to  paint  from  the  sitter's  own 
clotlies,  which  at  Vandyck's  request  were 
sent  to  him  for  that  purpose.  When  his 
disciples  had  done  the  most  they  could  to 
these  draperies,  he  liglidy  wont  over  them 
again;  and  so  in  a  little 'time,  by  his  great 
knowledge,  displayed  the  ait  and  truth  which 
we  at  this  day  admire  in  them." 

Nothing  varies  more  quickly,  more  dis- 
ceriiibly,  or  more  frequently,  than  the  colour 
of  a  sitter's  face.  Great  care  must  therefore 
be  taken  to  establish  an  unifonn  judgment 
of  the  sitter  in  this  respect  also  ;  for  the  co- 
louring of  the  skin  or  complexion,  being  an 
effusion  of  nature,  tending  to  discover  the 
true  tempers  of  persons,  exactness  of  iniita- 
tion  here  becomes  essential  to  the  exhibition 
of  character.  It  may  be  therefore  expedient 
to  watch  the  first  moments  of  the  appearance 
ofcolourin  the  sitter,  who,  sooner  or  later, 
from  a  continuance  in  one  posture,  loses 
those  spirits,  which,  at  his  lirst  sitting  down, 
gave  to  every  part  of  the  face  a  livelier  and 
fresher  hue.  '1  here  is  no  other  point  of  paint- 
ing in  which  the  paradox  may  be  more  truly 
asserted,  "  that  the  painter  who  only  paints 
what  he  sees  will  never  arrive  at  perfect  imi- 
tation." 

The  other  classes  of  painting  are  sufTicient- 
ly   denoted  by  their  names,   excepting  the 


last,  viz.  .iliU  life,  of  which  it  may  be  requisite 
to  add  that  the  term  is  applied  to  all  iiiani- 
male  ol)jects,  but  chiefly  to  household  furni- 
ture, ornaments,  and  instruments  of  use,  Sic. 
&c.  &c. 

Modes  and  mntcriiih  of  painting. 

The  diffeicTit  modes  of  painting  now  ia 
use  are : 

Oil  painting;  preferable  to  all  other  me- 
thod-;, as  it  admits  oi  a  jierlcct  gradation  of 
tints  in  the  nio»t  durable  of  all  materials,  ex- 
cept those  of 

Mosaic  painting ;  in  which  an  imitation  of 
objects  is  produced  by  the  junction  of  a  great 
number  ol  small  pieces  of  natural  marble  of 
different  colours  fixed  in  stucco,  a  mortar,  so 
that  if  the  mortar  is  well  prepared,  the  mo- 
numents of  this  art  may  descend  to  the  most 
remote  ages.  Some  of  the  works  of  the  great: 
Italian  masters  liave  been  excellently  copied 
in  mosaic,  and  are  to  be  seen  in  St.  Peter's 
church  at  Home. 

I'resco  painting;  which  is  performed  with, 
colours  diluted  in  water,  and  laid  on  a  wall 
newly  plaistered,  with  which  they  incorpo- 
rate, and  are  sometimes  as  durable  as  the 
stucco  itself. 

Crayon  painting;  in  which  colours,  eitlier 
simple  or  compound,  are  ground  in  water 
mixed  with  gum,  and  made  into  small  rolls 
of  a  hard  paste,  which  are  liien  used  on  paper 
or  parchment. 

iVliniature  painting;  wliich  consists  of  co- 
lours prepared  with  water  or  gum,  and  laid 
on  vellum  or  ivory.  It  is  of  course  confined 
to  works  of  a  very  small  size. 

Enamel  jxiinting;  which  is  performed  on 
copper  or  gold,  with  mineral  colours,  dried 
h\  fire.     This  method  is  also  very  durable. 

'  Wax,  or  encaustic  painting;  performed  by 
the  mixture  of  w-ax  with  the  varnish  and  co- 
lours. 

Painting  on  glass,  too  well  known  to  need 
description,  and  performed  by  various  me- 
thods. 

Painting  in  distemper ;  which  is  with  co- 
lours mi.xed  with  size,  whites  of  eggs,  or  any 
tliin  glutinous  substance,,  and  used  on  paper, 
linen,  silk,  board,  or  wall. 

Painting  in  water-colours,  more  properly 
called  limning:  it  is  performed  with  colours 
mixed  with  water,  gum,  size,  paste,  &c.  on 
paper,  silk,  and  various  otiier  materials. 

To  these  is  to  be  added  elydoric  painting,, 
consisting  of  a  mixed  use  of  ojl-colours  and 
water. 

Fora  full  account  of  some  of  these  methods, 
see  their  repesctivc  articles  in  this  work. 
Those  of  which  a  farther  explanation  remains 
to  be  given  are  distemper,  fresco,  oil-painting, 
miniature,  mosaic,  and  the  elydoric  method. 

The  tliree  former  shall  be  treated  of  accord* 
ing  to  their  order  in  point  of  time. 

Frcuco.  Fresco  is  the  most  antient  of  all 
kinds  of  paints,  the  most  speedily  executed, 
and  sometimes  the  most  remaikable  for  its 
durability.  Norden  speaks  of  some  ruins  of 
Egyptian  palaces,  on  the  walls  of  which  arc 
colossal  paintings,  wliich  are  shewn  by  ^\  inck- 
elmaii  to  have  been  executed  in  fresco. 
The  fragments  of  antient  painting  handed 
down  to  us  by  the  Romans  are  likewise  in 
fresco.  Coiilil  this  stability  of  colour  be  cer- 
tain ami  constant,  this  mode  of  art  would  be 
prelerable  to  :U1  others,  particularly  in  the 
decornliorv  of  palaces,  temples,  or  otlier  largi; 


PAINTING. 


331 


public  edifices;  as  it  has  a  froshnes";,  splen- 
dour, and  vitiour,  iiiikiiown  c'illiei-  lo  oil  or 
water-colours.  It  is  at  tiie  same  time  the 
most  ditlicult  of  accomplishment,  rc<iiiiring, 
ill  tiie  opinion  of\'asai-i,  "  111':  greatest  force 
of  genius,  boldness  of  execution,  and  readi- 
ness of  pencil."  The  reasons  for  such  an 
opinion  will  be  seen  in  the  follosving  account 
of  the  mechanical  process  of  this  beautiful 
mode  of  art. 

Ml  thod  qf'paiiiliiig  in  fresco.  Before  you 
begin  to  paint,  it  is  necessary  to  aoply  two 
layers  of  stucco  on  the  place  where  )  our  work 
isto  be  e.\ecutefl.  Il  yuu  are  to  paint  on  a 
wall  of  brick,  tlie  first  layer  is  easily  applied; 
if  of  free-stone  closely  jo'med,  it  is  necessary 
to  make  excavations  in  the  stone,  and  to 
drive  in  nails  or  pegs  of  wood,  in  order  to  hold 
the  laver  together. 

Tiie  first  layer  is  made  of  good  lime  and 
a  cement  of  pounded  brick,  or,  which  is  bet- 
ter, river-sand,  which  latter  forms  a  layer 
more  uneven,  and  better  fitted  to  attach  the 
second  smootli  layer  to  its  surface.  'I'he  an- 
tients  appear  to  have  possessed  the  art  of 
making  this  species  of  mortar  superior  to  any 
now  in  use. 

-  Before  applying  the  second  layer,  on  whicli 
you  are  to  pauit,  it  is  n.-quisile  that  the  Inst 
!s  perfectly  drv,  as  tlie  lime  vhile  moist 
emits  a  pernicious  eflluvium. 

When  the  first  layer  is  perfectly  dry,  wet 
it  again  witli  water,  in  proiiorlion  to  its  dry- 
ness, that  the  second  layer  may  more  easily 
in<orporate  wilh  it. 

I'lie-  second  layer  is  composed  of  lime, 
slaked  in  the  air,  and  exposed  for  a  whole 
jear,  and  of  river-sand  of  an  enual  grain,  and 
moderately  i^''^'^-  1  he  surface  of  this  second 
layer  must  be  uniformly  even.  It  is  laid  on 
with  a  trowel;  and  the  workman  is  provide<l 
with  a  small  piece  of  wood,  to  remove  the 
ja'-gc  grains  ot  sand,  which,  if  they  remained, 
might  tender  the  surface  uneven. 

To  give  a  fine  polish  to  this  surface,  a  sheet 
if  paper  shouKi  be  ai>pliL-d  on  il,  and  the 
trowel  passed  and  r^-passed  over  Ihe  pajier  ; 
this  caution  will  prevent  any  little  meiiuali- 
ties  which  might  injure  the  effect  of  the  paint- 
ing at  a  distance. 

"riie  workman  must  not  extend  the  layer 
over  a  greater  space  than  the  painter  is  able 
to  finish  in  a  day,  as  it  is  necessary  that  llie 
ground  should  always  be  fresh  and  moist 
under  his  pencil  ;  and  it  is  on  this  account 
■  lat  the  readiness  of  the  artist's  hand  be- 
omes  so  requisite  a  quality  in  the  execution 
of  works  in  tresco. 

The  ground  being  thus  prepared,  the 
painter  begins  his  work;  but  as  painting  in 
fresco  must  be  executed  rapidly,  and  as  tliere 
is  not  time  to  retouch  any  of  the  strokes  ot 
the  brush  with  good  effect,  he  will  fir^t  have 
taken  care  to  provide  liims'df  with  large 
finished  drawnigs  in  c-halk,  or  paintings  in 
distemper,  of  the  same  iue  as  the  work  which 
he  has  to  paint,  so  that  he  shall  have  only  to 
copy  these  drawings  on  the  wall. 

These  drawings  are  gi-uerally  made  on 
large  sheets  of  paper  pasted  together,  and 
liave  thence  been  generally  termed  cartoons 
(cartoni). 

The  painter  traces  the  outlines  of  the 
figures  on  the  plai>ter,  by  passing  a  steel  point 
over  them,  or  pricking  tliem  closely  and  pass- 
ing very  finely  powdered  charcoal  through 


(he  pricked  lioles.     He  then  procseds  to  the  |  *'ie  layers  where  cinnab.lr  is  afterwards  to 


comi'.letion  of  his  work,  having  hischiettint 
ready  prepai  ed  in  separate  earthen  pots,  and 
generally  first  trying  their  efiect  on  a  dry 
smooth  tile,  which  quickly  imbibing  then- 
moisture  discovers  the  hue  which  they  will 
have  whin  tlry  on  the  wall. 

All  natural  earths  are  good  for  painting  in 
fresco.  The  colours  are  ground  and  tem- 
percfl  wilh  water.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  that 
all  the  c(jlours  used  in  this  method  ol  paint- 
ing brighten  as  they  grow  dry,  excepting  the 
pavonazzo  or  red  varnisli,  the  brownish  red- 
ochre,  ruth-ochre,  and  the  blacks,  particu- 
larly those  lh.it  are  passed  through  the  fire. 

'1  he  b^;st  colours  are  white,  made  of  old 
lime,  and  wliite  marble-dust  (the  propor- 
tional (|uantity  of  the  latter  depends  on  the 
cinalityof  the  lime,  and  must  be  found  by 
trial,  as  too  great  a  (juantitv  of  marble-dust 
will  turn  the  colour  black;)  ultramarine-blue, 
the  black  of  charcoal,  yellow  ochre,  burnt 
vitriol,  red  earth,  green  of  Verona,  Venetian 
black,  and  burnt  ochre. 

t)lher  colours,  which  require  to  be  used 
with  greater  precaution,  are  amel,  or  enamel- 
blue,  and  cinnabar.  iMiamel-hlue  must  be 
api>hed  instantaneously,  asd  while  the  lime 
is  very  moist,  otherwise  it  will  not  incorpo- 
rate ;  and  if  you  retouch  with  it,  you  must  do 
it  an  hour  or  more  alter  the  first  application 
of  it,  in  order  to  increase  its  lustre. 

Cinnabar  has  a  splendour  almost  beyond 
all  other  colours,  but  it  losc's  it  when  mixed 
with  lime.  It  mav,  however,  be  employed 
in  places  not  exposed  to  the  air,  if  ])roper 
care  is  used  in  preparing  it.  For  this  pur- 
pose, reduce  a  quantity  of  the  purest  cinna- 
liar  to  powder,  put  it  into  an  earthen  vessel, 
and  pour  lime-water  on  it  two  or  three  times. 
By  this  process  the  cinnabar  receives  some 
impression  from  the  lime-water,  and  you  may 
then  use  it  with  greateisafetv. 

The  white  of  lime  is  formed  by  mixing 
lime,  slaked  a  long  time  before,  wilh  gejd 
water,  i  he  lime  deposits  a  sediment  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel ;  when  the  water  is 
poured  off,  this  sediment  is  the  white  of  lime. 
Another  kind  of  wiiite  mav  likewise  be 
made  from  egg-shells,  pounded,  in  great 
quantities,  and  boiled  in  water,  together  with 
quick-lime,  and  afterwards  put  into  a  strainer 
and  washed  repeatedly  with  spring  water. 

The  shells  must  be  again  pounded  until  the 
water  employed  for  thut  purpose  becomes 
pure  and  limpid;  and  when  the  shells  are 
com|)letely  reduced  to  powder,-  they  are 
ground  in  water,  made  up  in  small  pieces, 
and  dried  in  the  sun. 

The  effect  of  this  colour  must  be  ascer- 
tained bv  experiment. 

Ochres  o(  all  kinds  make  good  colours  for 
fresco,  being  previousl'r  burnt  in  iron  boxes. 

Naples   yellow    is  dangerous  to  be  used, 

when  the  painting  is  much  exposed  to  the  air. 

Blacks,  from  charcoal,   peach-stones,  and 

vine-twigs,    are  good;  that  extracted  from 

bones  is  of  no  value. 

There  is  another  black  used  by  the  Italians, 
which  they  call  tescia  da  bolta.  It  is  made 
of  the  lees  of  burnt  wine. 

Ronum  vitriol  gathered  at  the  furnaces, 
and  called  burnt  vitriol,  being  afterwards 
groinid  in  spirits  of  wine,  resists  the  air  ex- 
tremely well.  There  is  also  a  red  extract 
from  this  preparation,  somewhat  like  that  of 
lac.  This  colour  is  a  cood  preparatory  for 
T  t  2 


ed  ;  draperies  painted  wilh  these  two  co- 
lours are  as  bright  as  fine  lac  used  witli  oil. 
Ultramarine  never  changes,  and  seems  to 
communicate  its   permanent  quality  to   the    ^ 
colours  with  which  it  is  mixed. 

Vislrmpcr.  in  addition  lo  what  has  been 
said  of  this  method  of  painting  under  its  pro- 
per article,  the  followijig  particulars  are  wor- 
thy of  notice. 

Until  the  discovery  of  oil-painting,  the  me- 
thods most  generally  adopted  by  all  Italian 
painters  were  those  o(  distemper  and  fresco. 

In  distemper,  when  they  painted  on. 
boards,  they  olteii  pasted  over  tlie  boards  a 
piece  of  fine  cloth,  to  prevent  them  from 
parting;  they  then  laid  on  a  layer  of  white, 
after  which,  having  tempered  their  colours 
with  waler  and  paste  (or  rather  with  water 
and  yolks  of  eggs  beat  together  with  little 
fig-tree  brandies,  the  milk  ot  which  mixed 
with  the  eggs),  they  painted  their  pictures 
with  this  mixture. 

All  colours  are  proper  for  distemper,  ex- 
cept the  white  of  lime,  which  is  used  in  fresco 
only. 

Azure  and  ultramarine  must  be  used  witK 
a  paste  made  of  glove-skin,  or  parchment,  as 
they  will  turn  green  when  mixed  witii  yoll.s 
of  eggs. 

It  tlie  work  is  on  walls,  care  must  be  taken 
that  they  are  quite  dry.  '1  he  painter  must 
even  lay  on  two  layers  of  hot  paste  before  he 
applies  the  coionrs,  which,  it  he  pleases,  he 
may  also  temper  with  paste,  the  composi- 
tion of  eggs  and  fig-tree  branches  being 
onlv  retouching,  and  the  paste  rendering  the 
work  more  durable.  VVlien  used,  it  must  be 
kept  hot  by  fire.  This  paste,  as  has  been 
said,  is  made  of  glove-skin  or  parchment. 

All  tliejr  designs  for  tapestry  were  made 
on  paper,  in  the  same  manner  as  has  been 
mentioned  in  the  account  of  the  cartcons 
used  for  fresco-painting. 

When  a  paintei-  in  distemper  would  work 
on  cloth,  he  mu.st  chuse  that  which  is  very 
j  old  and  smooth;  then  press  pounded  phister 
with  glove-skin  paste,  and  lay  it  over  the 
cloth;  when  dry,  add  another'layer  of  the 
same  paste. 

All  the  colours   are  pounded  with  water, 

and  as  tiie  painter  wants  them  for  his  woik, 

he  tempers  each  with  paste-water ;   or  if  he 

vrtil  only  make  use  of  yolks  of  eggs,  he  takes 

'  of  wafer  one  glass,  to  which  lie   adds   an 

'  equal  quantity  of  vinegar,  the  yolk,  white, 

I  and  shell  of  an  egg,  and  some  ends  of  fig-tree 

'  branches  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  beats  them 

all  well  together  in  an  earthen  pan. 

If  he  wishes  to  varnish  his  picture  when 
fini  lied,  he  must  rub  it  with  the  whhe  of  an 
egg  well  beaten,  and  then  put  on  a  single 
coat  ot  varnis!]. 

Oi!jj.:intiiig.  The  principal  advantage  of 
oil-pauiling  over  other  methods  consists  in 
die  colours  drying  less  speedily,  so  that  it 
allows  the  painter  to  finish,  smooth,  and  re- 
touch his  works,  with  greater  care  and  preci- 
sion. The  colours  also  being  more  blended 
toa<ther,  produce  more  agreeable  gradations,- 
and  a  more  delicate  effect.  ^ 

The  antients  are  said  (see  the  historical 
part  of  this  article)  to  have  been  ignorant  of 
the  secret  of  painting  in  oil,  which  is  only 
the  grinding  the  usual  colours  in  several 
kinds  of  oil,  as  poppy-oil,  nut-oil,  and  linseed- 
oil.    This  method  was  likewise  unknown  le 


332 

the  first  masters  of  the  modern  Italian  schools, 
and  is  geiitrally  thought  to  have  been  disco- 
vered in  the  14th  century.  It  was  first  used 
on  board  or  pannel,  afterwards  on  plates  of 
copper,  and  on  linen  clotli.  Whichever  of 
tliese  materials  is  used  lor  the  purpose  of 
painting  on,  it  is  re<iuisite  that  a  ground  of 
colour  is  previously  laid,  which  is  called  the 
priming;  or  else  that  they  are  covered  with  a 
layer  of  si/ic,  cr  other  glutinous  substance, 
to  prevent  the  oil  from  penetrating,  and  being 
wliolly  absorbed  during  tlie  painting  of  tlie 
picture.  These  preparations  are  iamiliarly 
known  to  all  colournien. 

In  some  of  the  pictures  of  Titian  and 
Paolo  \'eronese,  there  is  leason  to  believe 
that  they  ^id  their  ground  with  water-co- 
lours, and  paintetl  over  it  \vitl>  oil,  which 
contributed  much  to  the  vivacity  and  Irt-sh- 
ness  of  their  works,  by  the  ground  gradually 
imbibing  so  much  of  tlie  oil  as  may  be  requi- 
site to  preserve  the  brightness  of  the  natural 
colours. 

As  the  superior  beauty  of  oil-painting  de- 
pends on  the  vividness  and  delicacv  ot  du- 
rable tint^,  we  shall  present  the  student  with 
the  best  rules  drawn  from  a  caretui  study  of 
the  works  of  \  andyck  and  Itembraudt,  two 
of  the  iiio>t  remarkable  colourists  in  dilierent 
styles.  These  rules  are  arranged  in  so  easy 
a  metliod,  that  the  student  may  be  led,  step 
by  step,  througii  all  the  ditiliculties  of  this 
nice  and  pleasing  progress. 

We  siiall  fir>t  treat  of  the  painting  of  flesh, 
ne,\t  of  draperies,  then  of  the  back-ground, 
and  lastly  of  landscapes. 

OF  PAINTING  FLESH. 

Principal  colours J'rom  zvhich  all  the  f/nt.v 
ij/  tltejlesh  arc  made,  and  tlwir  qualitits  in 
paintim^. 

Flake-wliite  is  the  best  white  known  to  us. 
This  colour  should  be  ground  with  the  (incbt 
poppy-oil  thut  can  be  procured.  It  is  often 
lound  to  turn  yellow,  on  account  otthe  oil, 
generally  sold  by  that  name,  not  being  really 
drawn  Irom  jjopiiies. 

W'iiite  comes  forward  to  the  eye  with  yel- 
lows and  reds,  but  retires  witfi  blues  and 
greens.  It  is  the  nature  of  all  wliites  to  sink 
into  whatever  ground  they  are  laid  on,  there- 
fore they  should  be  laid  on  while  grounds. 

Ivory-black  is  the  best  black:  it  is  a  co- 
Jour  which  mixes  kindly  with  all  the  others. 
It  is  tlie  true  shade  for  blue;  and  when  mixed 
with  a  little  Indian  red,  it  is  the  best  general 
shadow-colour  that  can  be  used.  It  is  gene- 
lally  ground  with  linseed-oil,  and  used  with 
drying  oil. 

Black  is  a  cold,  retiring  colour. 

Ultramarine  is  the  fmest  blue  in  the  world  : 
it  is  a  tender  retiring  colour,  and  never  glares, 
and  is  a  beautiful  glazing  colour.  It  is  used 
with  poppy-oil. 

Prussian-blue  is  a  very  fine  blue,  and  a  kind- 
working  colour :  it  is  ground  with  linseed-oil, 
though  nut-oil  is  more  proper.  It  should 
never  be  used  in  the  fiesh,  but  in  green  tints 
and  the  eyes, 

Light-ochrc  is  a  good  mixing  colour,  and  of 
great  use  in  the  nesh :  it  is  usually  ground 
with  linseed-oil,  but  nut-oil  is  better.  All  yel- 
lows are  strengthened  with  red,  and  weaken- 
ed with  blues  and  greens. 

Light-red  is  nothing  but  fine  light  ochre 
burnt.  This  and  wliilt,  hi  mixing,  produce  a 


PAINTING. 

most  perfect  flesh-colour.  It  \i  a  beautiful, 
clean  colour;  but  too  strong  for  the  white, 
and  tlierefore  will  grow  darker.  It  should  be 
ground  and  used  with  nut-oil. 

Xo  vermilion  but  w  hat  is  made  of  the  true 
native  cinnabar  should  be  used.  It  will  not 
glaze  ;  but  is  a  tine  colour  when  it  is  glazed. 
It  is  ground  with  liuseed-oil,  and  should  be 
used  wUh  drying  oil. 

Carmine  is  the  most  beautiful  crimson  :  it 
is  a  middle  colour,  between  lake  and  vermili- 
on ;  is  a  line-working  colour,  and  glazes  well 
It  should  be  ground  with  nut-oil,  and  used 
with  drving  oil. 

Lake  is  a  tender  deep  red,  but  of  no  strong 
body;  therefore  it  should  be  strengthened 
with  Indian  red.  It  is  the  best  glazing  co- 
lour that  can  be  used.  It  is  ground  with 
linseed-oil,  and  used  with  drying  oil. 

Indian  red  is  a  strong  pleasant-working 
colour,  but  will  not  glaze  well;  and  when 
mixed  with  wliite,  falls  a  little  into  lead;  it  is 
ground  and  used  as  the  lake. 

Brown  pink  is  a  fine  glazing  colour,  but  of 
no  strong  body.  In  the  llebh  it  should  never 
join  or  mix  with  the  lights,  because  this  co- 
lour and  white  aiitipathize,  and  mix  of  a  warm 
dirly  hue;  for  which  reason  their  joinings 
should  be  blended  with  a  cold  middle  tint. 
In  glazing  of  shadows  it  should  be  laid  be- 
fore the  other  colours  that  are  to  enrich  it : 
it  is  one  of  the  finishing  colours,  and  there- 
fore should  never  be  used  in  the  first  paint- 
ing, h  is  strenglhened  with  burnt  umber, 
and  ueakened  widi  terraverte;  ground  with 
linseed-oil,  and  used  with  drying  oil. 

Burnt  umber  is  a  line  warm  brown,  and  a 
good  working  strong  colour:  it  is  of  great 
use  in  the  hair,  and  mixes  finely  with  the 
warm  shade. 

Princijial  tints,  composed  from  tlicforegoing 
principal  colours,  and  ncccssunjfor paint- 
utgjtfsli. 

Light  red  tint  is  made  of  light  red  and 
while:  it  is  the  best-conditioned  of  all  colours, 
for  the  general  ground  of  the  fiesh.  With 
this  colour  and  the  shade  tint,  yoH  should 
make  out  all  the  fiesh,  like  claro-obscuro,  or 
mezzotinto.  Hemember,  that  this  colour  will 
grow  darker,  because  it  is  in  its  nature  too 
strong  for  the  white;  therefore  you  siiould 
improve  it,  by  mixing  vermilion  and  white 
with  it,  in  proportion  to  the  fairness  of  the 
complexion. 

X'crmilion  tint  is  only  vermilion  and  white 
mixed  to  a  middle  tint:  it  is  the  most  bril- 
liant light  red  that  can  be.  It  agrees  best 
with  tlie  white,  light  red,  and  yellow  tints. 

Carmine  tint  is  carmine  and  white  only, 
mixed  to  a  middle  tint;  it  is,  of  all  colours, 
the  most  beautiful  red  for  the  cheeks  and 
lips:  it  is  one  of  the  finishing  colours,  and 
should  never  be  used  m  the  first  painting,  but 
laid  upon  the  finishing  colours  without  mi.x- 
ing. 

Rose  tint  is  made  of  the  red  shade  and 
white,  mixed  to  a  middle  degree,  or  lighter: 
it  is  one  of  the  cleanest  and  most  delicate  tints 
that  can  be  used  iu  the  flesh,  for  clearing  up 
the  heavy  dirly  colours,  and  in  changing  will 
sympathize  aiul  mix  kindly. 

^  ellow  tint  is  oiten  made  of  Naples  yellow 
and  white  ;  but  it  is  as  well  to  use  1  glit  ochre 
and  white,  which  is  a  good  working  colour. 
The  ochre  is  too  strong  for  the  white  ;  there- 
fore you  should  make  a  httle  allowance  in 


I  using  it.  It  follows,  the  light  red  tints  and 
yellows  should  always  be  laid  before,  the 
blues.  If  you  lay  too  much  of  it,  you  may 
recover  the  ground  it  was  laid  on  with  the 
light  red  tints. 

Blue  tint  is  made  of  ultramarine  and  white, 
mixed  to  a  lightish  azure :  it  is  a  plea.-ant- 
working  colour;  with  it  you  should  blend  the 
gradations.  It  follows  {lie  yellows,  ami  with 
them  it  makes  the  greens  ;  and  with  the  reds 
it  produces  the  purples.  No  colour  is  so 
proper  lor  blending  down,  or  softenuig  the 
liglits  iiilo keeping. 

Lead  tint  is  made  of  ivory -black  and  fine 
w  hite,  mixed  to  a  middle  degree  :  it  is  a 
retiring  colour,  and  therefore  is  of  great  use 
in  ilie  gradations,  and  in  the  evis. 

Green  tint  is  made  of  Prussian  blue,  light 
ochre,  and  while.  This  colour  will  dirty  the 
lights,  and  ^hJuld  be  laid  sparingly  in  the 
middle  tints.  It  is  of  most  use  in  the  red 
shadows,  where  they  are  too  strong. 

Shade  tint  is  made  of  lake,  Indian  red, 
black,  and  white,  mixed  to  a  beautiful  mur- 
rey colour,  of  a  middle  tint.  This  is  the 
best  mixture  for  the  general  ground  of  sha- 
dows. It  mixes  well  w  ith  the  lights,  and  pro- 
duces a  pleasant  clean  colour,  a  little  inclined 
to  the  reddish  pearl.  As  all  the  tour  colours 
ot  its  composition  are  of  a  friendly  svmpa- 
thizing  nature,  so  consequently  this  will  be 
the  same,  and  therefore  may  be  easily  chan- 
ged by  the  addition  of  any  other  colours. 

Bed  shade  is  nothing  but  lake  and  a  very 
little  Indian  red.  It  is  an  excellent  working 
colour,  ami  a  good  glazer:  it  strengthens  the 
shadows  on  the  shade  tint,  and  receives,  when 
it  is  wet,  the  green  and  blue  tints  agreeably. 
It  is  a  good  ground  tor  all  dark  shadows. 

Warm  shade  is  made  ot  lake  and  brown 
pink,  mixed  to  a  middle  degree.  It  is  a  line 
colour  for  strengthening  the  shadows  on  the 
shade  tint,  when  they  are  wet  or  dry.  Take 
care  that  it  docs  not  touch  the  lights,  be- 
cause tliey  mix  of  a  dirty  colour,  and  there- 
fore should  he  softened  off  with  a  tender  cold 
tint. 

Dark  shade  is  made  of  ivory-black  and  a 

little  liulian  red  only.      This  colour  mixes 

very  kindly  with  the  red  shade,  and  blends 

'  agreeably  with  the  middle  tints  in  the  dead 

i  colouring.      It  is   excellent  for  glazing  the 

eyebrows  and  the  darkest  shadows. 

Process.  The  process  of  oil-painting,  par- 
ticularly in  tlie  colouring  of  flesh  and  in  land- 
scape, is  to  be  divided  into  three  stages,  or 
paintings. 

The  colours  and  tints  necessary  for  the 
first  and  second  stages  of  painting  fiesh,  are  ; 

1.  flake,  or  line  wliite;  2.  light  ochre  and  its 
tints;  3,  light  red  and  itstwotints;  4.  vermi-' 
lion  and  its  tint;  j.  a  tint  composed  of  lake, 
vermilion,  and  white;  6.  rose  tint;  7.  blue 
tint;  «.  lead  tint;  9.  green  tint;  10.  halt- 
shade  tint,  uiaile  of  Indian  red  and  white  ;  II. 
shade  tint ;   I'i.  red  shades  ;   13.  warm  shade. 

'I'lie  finishing  pallet  Ibr  a  complexion  re- 
([uires  (wn  more,  viz.  1.  carmine  and  its  tint ; 

2.  lake  ;  3.  brown  pink ;  4.  ivory-black  ;  5. 
Prussian  blue. 

First  stage,  or  dead-colouring  of  flesh. 

The  first  lay  of  colouis  consists  of  two 
parts;  the  one  is  the  work  of  the  shadows 
only,  and  the  other  that  of  the  lights. 

The  work  of  the  shadows  is,  to  make  out  all 
the  draw.ng  very  coirecfy  with  the  shade 


tint,  ill  the  same  in.innpr  as  if  it  was  to  Ix' 
cIjmc  with  this  ci)lc)iiroaly;  and  rtjnifniber  to 
drive  or  lav  the  colour  sijarini^ly.  Mil"  lifjhts 
slioMkl  be-  all  laid  in  with  llie  \\'j}\i  red  tint, 
in  iliflLTCnt  degrees,  as  ,wc  see  iheni  in  na- 
ture. These  two  colours  united,  produce  a 
clean,  tender,  middle  tint.  In  uniting  the 
lights  and  shades,  vrju  should  use  a  long 
softener,  about  the  size  of  a  large  swun-(|uill, 
wliicli  will  help  to  bring  the  work  into  cha- 
racter, and  leave  the  colouring  more  delicate; 
then  go  over  the  darkest  shadows  with  the 
red  or  warm  shade,  which  will  hiiisli  tlie  lirst 
lav. 

1  he  warm  shade  being  laid  on  the  shade 
tint,  improves  it  to  a  warmer  luie;  hut  il  lai<l 
instead  of  the  shade  tints,  it  will  dirty  and 
sp.iil  the  colours  it  mi\es  with  ;  and  if  tlie  red 
shade  is  laid  lirst,  iiistea<l  of  the  shade  tint, 
the  shadows  would  then  appear  to m  red  ; 
therefore,  notwithstanding  these  two  colours 
are  the  best  that  can  be  tor  the  shadows,  yet 
they  are  too  strong  to  be  laid  alone,  which 
is  a  proof  of  the  great  use  and  merit  of  the 
shade  lint.  Here  we  may  observe  that  tlie 
shade  and  light-red  tints  are  so  friendly  in 
their  nature,  that  even  in  continually  alter- 
ing and  changing,  ihey  always  produce  a 
clean  colour  of  a  pearly  hue. 

jVcri.  In  order  to  linish  the  (irst  painting, 
improve  the  reds  and  vellows  to  the  com- 
plexion, and  after  them  the  blues  ;  observing, 
that  the  blues  on  the  reds  make  the  purfile, 
and  on  the  yellows  pruduce  the  green.  'J'he 
same  method  is  to  be  uiuhrslood  of  the  sha- 
dows;  but  be  sure  to  leave  them  clean,  and 
not  too  dark  ;  therefore  allowance  should  be 
made  in  the  grounds  with  the  light  n-d,  be- 
cause glazing  them  will  make  them  darker. 
When  the  cloth  is  of  a  dark,  or  bad  colour, 
there  must  be  a  strong  body  of  colour  laid  all 
over  the  shadows,  such  as  will  not  sink  into 
the  ground,  but  appear  warm,  and  a  little 
lighter  than  the  life,  so  that  it  may  be  of  the 
same  forwardness  to  hiiish  as  if  it  had  been  a 
light  ground;  therefore  the  business  ot  dead- 
colouring  is,  that  you  leave  it  always  in  the 
same  order  for  hiiishin!;,  though  the  colour 
of  the  cloth  is  quite  the  reverse. 

'J'he  grounds  of  shadows,  in  what  we  call 
the  dead-colouring,  should  be  such  as  will 
support  the  character  of  the  hnishlng  c  olours ; 
which  ground  must  be  clean,  and  a  little 
lighter  tfian  the  finishing  colours,  because  the 
linishing  of  the  shadows  is  glazing ;  and  no 
other  method  than  glazing  can  leave  such 
brilliancy  and  beaulv  as  they  ought  to 
have.  If  you  begin  the  first  painting  with 
glazing,  it  will  stare,  and  be  of  no  use;  and 
the  solid  colours  which  are  laid  on  it,  will 
look  heavy  and  dull ;  therefore,  all  shadows 
and  colours  that  are  to  be  glazi  <!,  should  be 
done  with  colours  of  a  clean  solid  body,  be- 
cause the  glazing  is  more  lasting,  and  has 
the  best  effect,  on  such  colours.  Kemember 
to  lea^e  no  roughness,  th.it  is,  none  such  as 
will  a[ipear  rough,  and  interrupt  or  hurt  the 
character  of  the  finishing  colours  ;  which,  by 
examining  the  werk,  whilst  it  is  wet,  with  a 
soft  tool,  or  when  it  is  dry  with  a  knife,  may 
be  avoided,  as  it  will  easily  take  off  the  knots 
and  roughest  parts. 

The  light  red  and  wliite  improved  is  supe- 
rior to  all  other  colours  for  the  rtrst  lay  or 
ground;  which  should  be  always  done  with 
a  full  pencil  of  a  stiff  colour,  made  brighter 
tlian  the  light,  because  it  will  siuk  a  little  in 


PAINTING, 

drying.  The  greater  the  body  and  quantity 
ol  colour,  and  the  stifler  it  is  laid,  the  less  it 
will  sink.  Kvery  colour  in  drying  will  sink, 
and  partake,  in  proportion  to  its  bodv,  of  the 
colour  it  is  laid  on  ;  therefore,  all  the'liglits  of 
tlie  flesh,  if  not  laid  on  a  light  grdiiiid,  must 
consequently  change  a  little  liom  the  life,  if 
there  is  not  allowance  made.  The  sliadi'  tint 
for  the  shadows  should  fiill  into  the  rose  tint, 
as  the  complexion  grows  delicate;  all  wliicli 
should  be  lightly  united,  with  a  soft  long 
pointed  ho^-tool,  to  the  lights,  making  out 
the  whole  like  mczzotiiito.  The  great  mas- 
ters very  seldom  softened  or  sweetened  the 
colours;  but  in  uniting  the  first  lav,  they 
were  very  careful  in  preserving  the  bright- 
ness of  their  colours,  and  therefore  did  not 
work  iheni  below  tiie  complexion:  for  to 
force  or  keep  up  a  brilliaiiry  in  the  grounds, 
can  only  be  done  with  the  whites,  reds,  and 
yellows,  which  method  will  make  up  for  the 
deficiency  of  the  white  gmuiids;  therrlore, 
liie  lirst  painting  should  be  lelt  brighl  and 
bold,  and  the  l.-ss  the  colours  are  broken  the 
better.  You  should  forbear  using  any  co- 
lours that  will  produce  them,  and  be  content- 
ed to  add  what  is  waiitiiii'  in  the  next  ])aiiit- 
ing;  where,  if  you  fail,  a  clean  rag  will  restore 
tlie  lirst  ground. 

Second  pairiling,  or  second  stage. 

The  second  [lainting  begins  with  laying  on 
the  hrast  quantity,  tliat  can  be,  of  pi>[)pv-oil; 
then  wipe  il  almost  all  oli,  with  a  di}  piece 
of  a  silk  handkerchief. 

The  second  painting  is  also  divided  into 
two  parts:  one,  the  lir-t  lay  of  the  second 
painting;  which  is  scumbling  the  lights,  and 
glazing  the  shallows;  the  other,  finishing  the 
complexion  with  the  virgin  lints,  and  im- 
proving, as  far  as  you  can,  without  daubing. 

l"ir.Ht.  Scumbling  is  going  over  the  lights, 
where  ihey  are  to  be  changed,  with  the  light 
red  tints,  or  some  other  ol  their  own  colours, 
such  as  will  always  clear  and  improve  the 
complexion,  with  short  still' pencils  ;  but  such 
parts  only  as  re<|uire  it,  otherwise  the  beaulv 
of  the  rirst  painting  will  be  spoiled. 

The  light  red  tint  improved  is  the  best  co- 
lour for  scumbling,  and  im])roving  the  com- 
plexion in  general.  Where  llie  shadows  and 
drawing  are  to  be  corrected,  you  should  do 
it  with  the  shade  lint,  by  driving  the  colour 
very  stiff  and  bare,  that  yon  may  the  easier 
retouch  and  change  il  with  the  hihshing  tints. 
Some  parts  of  the  shadows  should  be  glazed 
with  some  of  the  transparent  shadow-colours, 
such  as  will  improve  and  come  very  near  to 
the  life;  but  be  sure  not  to  lay  on  too  much 
of  it,  for  fear  of  losing  the  hue  of  the  lirst 
paintini^,  the  ground  of  which  should  alwavs 
appear  through  the  glazing.  Be  very  careful 
in  unitiin!:  the  lights  and  shades,  that  tliev  do 
not  mix  dead  and  mealy;  for  the  more  the 
lights  mix  with  the  shades,  the  more  mealy 
those  shades  will  appear.  Thus  far  the  com- 
plexion is  prepared  and  improved,  in  order 
to  receive  the  virgin  lints. 

Second.  Go  over  the  complexion  with  the 
virgin  tints.  These  are  the  colours  which 
improve  tlie  colouring  to  the  greatest  per- 
fection, both  ill  the  lights  and  shadows. 

This  should  be  done  in  the  same  manner 
as  you  laid  them  in  tiie  second  part  of  the 
fir^l  painting;  that  is,  with  the  reds,  yellows, 
and  blues,  blending  them  with  delicate  light 
touclies  of  the  lemler  middle  tints,  without 


3.33 

softening.  T./Pavc  the  tints  and  tlieir  grounds 
clean  and  distinct,  and  be  content  to  leave 
off  whilst  the  work  is  safe  and  unsullied,  leav- 
ing what  is  farlher  reciiiired  lor  the  next  sit- 
ting ;  for  in  atiempliug  the  finishing  touches 
hehne  the  other  is  dry,  you  will  lose  the 
spirit  and  flrawiiig,  anct  your  colours  will  be- 
come of  a  dirty  hue. 

Third  painting,  orfinisiung. 
It  is  to  be  supposed,  the  complexion  now 
wants  very    little    more    than    a   few    light 
touches;  therefore  there  will  be  no  occasion 
for  oiling. 

Begin  with  correcting  all  the  glazing;  (irst, 
where  the  glazing  serves  as  aground  or  under 
pait;  then  determine  what  sliou'd  be  done 
next,  before  you  do  it,  so  that  you  may  be 
able  to  make  the  alteration  on  the  part  with 
one  stroke  of  tlie  pencil.  Hy  this  method 
you  preserve  both  the  glazing  and  the  tints; 
but  if  it  liappens  tliat  you  cannot  lay  such  a 
variety  of  tints  and  linishing  ( olours  as  vou 
inteiuied,  it  is  much  better  to  leave  ofCwIiili; 
the  work  is  safe  and  in  good  order;  because 
tho'C  few  touches,  which  would  endanger 
the  beauty  of  the  colouring,  luav  easily  be 
ilonc,  if  you  have  patience  to  stav  till  the  co- 
lours are  dry  ;  and  llieii,  without  oiling,  add 
those  linishings  with  free  light  strokes  of  the 
pencil. 

Kembrandt  touched  up  his  best  pictures 
a  great  many  times,  letting  them  dry  be- 
tween. It  was  this  method  which  gave  them 
their  surprising  force  and  spirit.  It  is  much 
easier  to  soften  the  over-strong  tints  when 
they  are  dry,  than  when  they  are  wet;  be- 
cause you  may  add  the  very  colours  that  are 
wanting,  without  endangeaing  the  dry  work. 
If  any  of  the  colours  of  the  pallet  want  to  be 
a  little  changed  to  the  life,  when  you  are 
painting,  it  is  much  better  to  do  it  with  the 
Knife  on  the  pallet  than  widi  the  pencil,  be- 
cause the  knite  will  mix  and  leave  it  in  good 
order  for  the  pencil. 

Of  painting  draperies. 

In  order  to  shew  the  nature  and  difiereiit 
degr(;es  of  colours  of  tints  used  in  paintiii" 
draperies,  we  must  lirst  determine  how  many 
divisions  are  absolutely  necessary  to  make 
the  hrst  lay  of  colours,  and  after  that  the  re- 
flections and  linishing  tints. 

'I'he  right  method  of  painting  draperies  in 
general  is  to  make  out  the  whole,  or  the  lirst 
lay,  with  three  colours  only,  viz.  the  lights, 
middle  tint,  and  shade  tint. 

Observe  that  the  lights  should  rather  in- 
cline to  a  w^armish  hue;  and  the  middle  tint 
should  be  made  of  friendly-working  colours, 
such  as  will  always  mix  of  a  clean,  tender, 
coldish  hue.  The  sliade  tint  should  be  made 
of  the  same  colours  as  the  middle  tint,  only 
with  less  light;  therefore  this  tint  will  also 
nii.x  of  a  tender  clean  colour.  The  beauty 
and  character  of  the  folds,  the  shape,  atti- 
tude, and  principal  lights  and  shades,  are  all 
to  be  considered,  and  made  with  these  three 
colours  only ;  which  should  be  done  to  your 
satisfaction,  before  you  add  any  of  the  re- 
flects, orhnishing  tints. 

The  reflections  of  draperies  and  satins  are 
generally  productions  of  their  own,  and  are 
always  ligiiter  tluin  the  shadows  on  which 
they  are  tound ;  and  being  produced  bv  li<rht 
will  consequently  have  a  light  warm  colour, 
mixed  with  the  local  colour  tliat  receives 
them.    Ileie  it  will  be  necessary  to  notice 


334 

tlic  general  method  of  managing  the  colours ' 
of  llie  iirst  lay,  and  lliose  of  the  reflections 
and  finishing  tints. 

In  tlv^  liist  lay,  the  high  lights  should  be 
laid  with  plenty  of  stiff  colours,  and  tiien 
shaped  ana  sollened  into  character  with  the 
middle  tint  very  coriectly.  Where  the  sra- 
(kitions  ot  the  lights  arc  slow,  as  in  the  laxge 
l>aris,  it  will  l;e  proper  to  lay  the  middle  tint 
lirst  at  their  extremities,  witli  a  tool  that  will 
drive  thi:  colour,  and  leave  it  s-paringly;  be- 
cause the  liiilits  will  mix  and  lie  the  better 
upon  it.  Next  make  out  ail  the  parts  of  the 
snadows  wilii  the  tint  driven  bare.  After 
this  comes  the  middit;  tint,  for  the  several 
lights  ajid  gradations ;  which  siiould  be  very 
nicely  wrought  up,  to  character  without 
touching  any  of  the  high-  ligiits  which  finish 
tne  hrst  lay. 

The  reflects  and  linishing  tints  are  in  ge- 
neral the  antij-athies  of  the  hrst  lays:  they 
will,  without  great  care,  dirty  the  colours  on 
which  they  are  laid  ;  and  therefore  should  be 
laid  with  a  delicate  light  touch,  without  soft- 
ening. If  it  is  overdoi'.e,  endeavour  to  re- 
cover it  with  the  colour  of  the  part  on  which 
it  was  laid:  this  may  be  done  directly,  or 
when  it  fs  dry.  \S'lie"ther  the  reflects  proceed 
f  roui  the  same  colour,  or  any  other,  the  me- 
lliod  of  using  them  is  the  same. 

Uefove  we  proceed  to  the  particular  co- 
lours, it  will  be  proper  to  make  some  obser- 
vations on  their  grounds. 

It  often  happens,  that  the  colour  of  the 
<'!oth  is  very  improper  for  the  ground  of  the 
drapery;  and  when  it  is  so,  you  should 
change  it  witli  those  colours  which  are  most 
proper  to  improve  and  support  the  finishing 
colours.  lliis  method  ol  dead-colouring 
must  consequently  preserve  them  in  the 
greatest  lustre.  In  dead- colouring,  you 
bhould  lay  the  lights  and  shades  in  a  manner 
so  as  only  to  shew  a  faint  idea  of  them,  with 
regard  to  the  shape  and  roundings  of  the 
tigure.  If  you  have  a  design  to  work  from, 
then  it  will  be  proper  to  make  all  the  large 
and  principal  parts  in  their  places:  which 
should  always  be  done  with  a  colour  that  is 
clean,  and  lighter  than  the  intended  drapery, 
though  in  general  of  the  same  hue ;  and  let 
the  shadows  be  no  darker  than  a  middle  tint. 
'J'hese  should  be  mixed  and  broke  in  a  tender 
manner,  and  then  softened  uith  a  large  tool, 
so  that  nothing  rough  and  uneven  is  left  to 
interTupt  or  hurt  the  character  of  the  linishing 
colours. 

K'Idte  satin.  All  whites  should  be  painted 
on  white  grounds,  laid  with  a  good  body  of 
colour,  because  this  colour  sinks  more  into 
the  ground  than  any  oUier. 

There  are  four  degrees  of  colours  in  the 
first  lay,  to  white  satin.  Tlie  iirst  is  the  fine 
white  for  the  lights;  the  second  is  the  hrst 
tint,  which  is  made  of  line  white  and  a  little 
ivory-black,  mixed  to  an  exact  middle  de- 
{•ree  between  the  white  and  the  middle  tint, 
this  colour  follows  the  white;  and  it  is  with 
tills  you  should  shape  the  lights  into  cha- 
racter before  you  lay  on  any  otiier:  and  take 
care  that  this  lirst  lint  appears  distinctly  be- 
tween the  white  and  the  middle  tint,  otlier- 
wise  the  beauty  and  the  character  of  the 
satin  will  be  spoiled. 

The  middle  tint  should  be  made  of  white, 
black,  and  a  little  Indian  red.  These  three 
colours  are  very  friendly,  and  mix  to  a  beau- 
vjlul  clear  colour  of  a  pearly  hue,  which  has 


PAINTING. 

the  true  brightness  and  warmth  of  the  ge- 
neral hue  of  the  satin.  Remember  to  allow 
tor  the  red  hue  changing  a  little  *o  the  lead. 
1 1  there  is  occasion  to  make  any  part  in  the 
middle  tint  lighter,  do  it  with  tile  first  tint 
only.  This  colour  should  also  be  laid  spa- 
ringly before  the  white,  in  all  the  little  lights 
that  happen  in  the  middle  tints  and  shadows; 
on  which  ycu  should  lav  the  white  with  one 
light  touch,  and  be  sure  not  to  cover  all  the 
l)arts  that  were  made  with  the  first  tin'  ;  if 
you  do,  it  will  spoil  the  character,  and  look 
hke  a  spot,  tor  want  of  the  softening  edge  or 
border,  which,  must  be  between  the  white 
and  the  middle  tint.  The  shade  tint  should 
be  made  of  the  same  colour  as  the  middle 
tint,  but  with  less  white,  so  that  it  is  dark 
enough  for  the  shadows  in  general;  with 
\Wiich  make  out  all  the  parts  of  the  shadows 
nicely  to  character,  u  Inch  is  the  work  of  the 
first  lay. 

Next  follow  the  reflects  and  finishing  tints. 

Brown  ochre,  mixed  with  the  colour  of  the 
light,  is  the  most  useful  colour  in  general  for 
all  rellects  in  draperies,  that  are  produced 
horn  their  ov.n  colours.  All  accidental  re- 
ilexes,  are  made  with  the  colour  ot  the  parts 
Irom  «hich  they  are  produced,  and  tlu-  local 
colours  that  receive  them.  There  are  but 
two  reriecting  tints  wanted  for  drajjeries  in 
general ;  one  should  be  lighter  than  the  mid- 
dle tint,  the  other  darker.  These  colours 
may  be  a  little  changed  on  the  pallet  with 
the  first  and  middle  tints,  as  occasion  re- 
cjuires,  or  lightly  broken  on  the  part  that  re- 
ceives them ;  but  this  last  method  is  not  so 
safe  as  the  other.  The  tint  sufficient  lor 
blending  the  dark  shadov\'S  to  the  mellow 
tender  hue,  is  made  with  the  shade  tint  and  a 
little  brown  ochre,  which  should  be  laid  on 
very  sparingly,  with  solt  light  touches,  for 
fear  of  making  them  dull  and  heavy  ;  if  it  is 
overdone,  recover  it  with  the  colour  it  was 
laid  upon. 

We  often  see  a  little  blue  used  in  the  first 
tint  of  white  satin,  ^'an  Haecken,  wiio  was 
the  best  drapery-painter  in  England,  did  so; 
and  sometimes,  instead  of  the  blue,  he  used 
blue-black,  till  he  found  it  to  be  a  pernicious 
colour,  and  was  therefore  obliged  to  use 
blue;  because  his  middle  tint,  which  was  only 
of  black  and  white,  was  so  very  cold,  that  no 
other  colour  but  blue  would  make  a  colder 
tint;  yet  he  managed  these  cold  colours,  in 
all  the  lights  and  middle  tints,  so  agreeably, 
and  so  liglit  and  easy  was  his  touch,  that  we 
may  learn  something  from  him. 

Blue  siiliiis.  Blue  satin  is  made  of  Prus- 
sian blue  and  fine  white. 

The  best  ground  for  blue  is,  white  for  the 
lights,  and  black  and  white  for  the  shailows. 

The  first  lay  of  colours  for  blue  is  divided 
into  three  degrees  or  tints.  First  make  ilie 
middle  tint  of  a  beautiful  azure;  then  mix 
the  colour  for  the  light  about  a  nfiddle  de- 
gree, between  that  and  white.  .Make  the 
hade  tint  dark  enough  for  the  shadows  in 
gi-neral.  All  the  broad  lights  should  be  laid 
with  plenty  of  colour,  and  shaped  to  cha- 
racter with  the  miildle  tint,  before  you  lay 
on  any  other  colours.  Kemember,  the  less 
colours  are  mixed,  the  better  they  will  ap- 
i;ear  and  stand;  for  the  lights  of  blue  should 
l)e  managed  with  as  much  care  as  those  of 
white  satin.  Next  follow  with  the  rest  of 
the  middle  tint,  and  then  make  out  all  the 
shadows.     'J'he   more  you   drive  the  shade 


tint,  the  better  it  will  receive  the  reflects  and 
finishing  tints.  'I'hc  shadows  should  be 
strengthened  and  blended  with  ivory-black, 
and  some  of  their  own  colour,  which  will  m.x 
wUh  them  into  a  tender  mellow  hue. 

The  reflects  are  made  as  those  of  white 
satin,  that  is,  with  ochre,  and  some  oftlie 
lights;  which  should  be  perfectly  done,  as 
you  intend  them,  at  once  painting.  The  sha- 
dows, when  dry,  may  be  a  htlle  iinproi  ed,  if 
there  is  occasion  to  alter  tlieui,  with  the  co- 
lours they  were  made  with.  The  Piussiau 
proper  to  be  used,  is  that  which  looks  of  the 
iiioat  beautihil  azure  before  it  is  ground;  and 
the  sooner  it  is  used  after  it  is  ground,  the 
better  it  will  work  and  appear. 

Velvet  may  be  painted  at  once.  The  me- 
thod is,  to  make  out  the  first  lay  with  the 
middle  tint  and  shade  tint;  on  which  lay  the 
high  lights,  with  light  touches,  and  finish  the 
shadows  in  the  same  manner  as  those  ot" 
satin:  but  the  nearest  imitation  of  velvet  is 
done  by  glazing  ;  the  method  of  which  is,  to 
prepare  a  ground,  or  dead-colouring,  with 
such  colours  as  will,  when  dry,  bear  out  and 
suj)])ort  the  glazing  colour  in  its  highest  per- 
fection, 'i  he  nature  of  the  glazing  colour  is 
to  be  of  a  line  transparent  quality,  and  used 
simply- with  oil  only,  so  that  whatever  ground 
it  is  laid  on,  the  whole  may  appe.:r  distinctly 
through  it.  The  best  ground  lor  blue  is  made 
with  white  and  ivory-black:  the  white  is  for 
the  high  lights,  which,  with  the  middle  tint 
and  shade  tint,  makes  out  the  first  lay  like 
me;;zotinto.  Remember  to  make  the  mid- 
dle tint  lighter  in  proportion  to  the  glazing, 
because  that  will  make  it  darker.  It  is  often 
necessary  to  cover  all  but  the  high  lights, 
with  a  thin  glazing,  laid  in  less  quantity  inaii 
if  it  was  to  be  done  once  only.  It  any  of  it 
touches  the  lights,  wipe  it  off  with  a  ch  an  rag. 
The  very  high  lights  should  be  impr.jyed, 
and  niaile  ot  a  line  white,  and  left  to  dry. 
The  glazing  ci lour  is  Prussian,  ground  veiy 
fine  with  nut  oil;  and  shoukl  be  laid  with  a 
large  stilhsh  tool.  It  is  on  the  la>t  glazing  we 
should  >trengthen  and  finish  the  shadows. 

The  greatest  laull  in  the  colouring  of  dra- 
peries is  the  painting  the  shadows  with  strong 
glaring  colours,  which  destroy  the  heautv  of 
the  lights.  This  is  not  only  the  reverse  of 
art,  but  of  nature,  w  hose  beauty  always  di- 
minishes in  proportion  with  the  lights.  I'or 
this  reason,  take  care  to  blend  and  soften  the 
shadows  with  such  friendly  colours  as  will 
agiee  with  their  local  character  and  obsni- 
rily.  Here  observe,  that  glazing  the  middle 
tint,  wliich  is  made  of  black  and  white,  will 
not  produce  a  colour  so  blue  as  if  it  had  been 
prepared  with  Prussian  and  white;  yet  this 
colour  will  preserve  tlie  beauty  of  the  lights 
in  the  highest  perfection,  by  reason  ot  its 
tender  obscure  hue,  when  the  blueness  of  the 
other  w.  uld  only  diminish  them.  This  me- 
thod of  glazing  the  blue  is  the  general  rule 
for  all  glazing. 

W  hen  glazing  blue,  the  lights  may  be 
glazed  with  ultramarine,  though  all  the  other 
parts  are  done  with  Prussian.  'I  his  method 
saves  a  great  quantity  ol  that  valuable  co- 
lour, and  answers  the  purpose  as  well  as  if  it 
had  been  done  with  ultramarine. 

Though  this  general  method  of  painting 
satins  is  to  make  the  first  lay  ol  colours  wilii 
three  degrees,  or  tints,  yet  you  should  un- 
derstand, in  using  them,  that  they  piodi 
two  more;  for  the  uii-xing  of  two 


piounce 
uillcreut 


colours  togclI]er  oil  (lie  clolli  will  muko  an- 
other of  ;i  middle  lint  l)('t\v<  ^^u  tlu-iii ;  so  it  is 
w.th  tlie  lights  and  iniddlL- tints,  and  uitli  the 
jiiiJdle  tint  and  shade  tint:  the  iirst  answers 
to  the  Iirst  lint  in  white  satin,  and  the  last 
wdl  eonseciueiitly  be  a  sort  of  gradating,  or 
half  sluile. 

Jf  the  lights  and  middle  tint  mix  to  a 
beautiful  clean  colour,  of  a  middh-  hue  be- 
Iwieu  both,  there  will  be  no  occasion  for  a 
colour  to  go  between  them,  as  in  blue  satin: 
but  if  in  luixing  they  produi'e  a  lint  inclined 
to  a  dirty  warm  hue,  then  another  of  a  sym- 
pathizing iiatni  e  should  be  laid  between  them, 
in  order  to  preserve  the  beauty  of  the  lights, 
as  the  tirst  init  in  the  white  satin;  for  if  it  was 
not  so,  the  red  in  the  middle  tint  would  cer- 
tainly dirty  and  spoil  the  while. 

It  is  highly  necessary  to  understand  these 
principles  of  the  Iirst  lay  of  colours,  in  order 
to  have  a  perfect  know  ledge  of  the  general 
rule  of  colouring. 

i'c/irlct  and  crimson.  A  light  yellow  red, 
in.ulc  of  light  oehre,  light  red,  and  white,  is 
liie  poper  ground  lor  scarlet;  the  shadows 
are  Indian  retl,  and  in  the  darkest  parts  nii.\cd 
with  a  very  liglii  black. 

'llie  second  i;ainting  should  be  a  little 
lighter  than  you  uili-nd  the  finishing  colour, 
tliat  is,  in  proportion  to  the  glazing,  which 
will  make  it  darker. 

The  liigli  lights  are  vermilion  and  white 
for  satin  and  velvet,  and  vermilion  for  cloth. 
The  midille  tint  is  \er.(iiilion,  with  a  very 
little  lake  or  Indian  red;  the  shade  tint  is 
made  with  Indian  red  and  lake,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  a  little  black  in  the  darkest  shadows. 
The  diflerence  between  scarlet  and  crimson 
is,  that  the  high  lights  of  crimson  are  whiter, 
and  the  middle  tnit  is  made  darker.  Their 
refiects  are  made  with  light  red  and  vermi- 
lion. The  high  light  should  be  laid  and  ma- 
naged in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the 
blue,  for  fear  of  dirting  them  ;  and  some- 
times they  require  to  be  touched  over  the 
second  tune  before  we  glaze  them.  The 
more  the  colours  of  the  second  painting  are 
drove,  the  easier  and  better  they  may  be  ma- 
naged to  character;  but  the  high  lights 
should  have  a  good  body  of  colour,  ancl  be 
left  with  a  delicate  light  touch.  After  it  is 
veil  dry,  finish  with  glazing  the  whole  with 
line  lake,  and  improve  the  rellects  and  sha- 
dows. Remember  that  the  scarlet  requires 
but  a  very  thin  glazing;  and  it  is  better  to 
glaze  the  crimson  twice  over,  than  lay  too 
much  at  once  painting. 

Pink  colour.  There  are  two  diiiferent 
methods  of  painting  a  pink  colour;  one  is  by 
glazing,  the  other  is  done  with  a  body  of  co- 
lours at  one  painting.  The  same  grounds  do 
for  both:  which  should  be  a  whitish  colour, 
inclining  to  a  yellow,  for  the  lights  ;  and 
Indian  red,  lake,  and  white,  for  the  shadow's. 

The  second  painting,  for  the  glazing  me- 
thod, is  done  with  the  same  colours,  and  a 
little  vermilion  and  white  for  the  high  liglits. 
When  it  is  dry,  glaze  it  with  line  lake,  and 
then  break  and  soften  the  colours  into  har- 
mony directly. 

The  other  method  is  to  make  the  high 
lights  with  carmine  and  white;  the  middle 
tint  with  lake,  white,  and  a  little  carmine ; 
and  the  shadows  with  lake  and  Indian  red, 
with  a  little  vermilion  for  the  rellections.  But 
remember,  the  shadows  will  require  to  be 
brokeji  with  some  tender  obscure  tiut. 


PAINTING. 

!  y'c/loti'.  The  ground  for  >elIow  should  be 
a  yellowish  white  lor  the  lights,  and  a  ini.\- 
ture  ol  the  oihies  lor  the  shadows. 
■  '1  here  are  the  sapie  number  of  tints  in  the 
yellow,  as  there  are  in  tin.-  white  salm,  and 
the  method  of  using  them  is  the  very  same. 
The  lights  are  m.ide  with  king's  yellow, 
ground  with  clean  good  drying  oil.  'I  he  Iirst 
tint  is  light  ochre,  changed  with  a  little  of  the 
pearl  tint,  m;.de  with  'the  dark  shade  and 
while,  which  should  be  laid  and  managed  as 
tlie  Iirst  tint  in  wliile  satin.  The  middle  tint 
is  a  mi.vture  of  tlie  light  and  brown  ochre, 
softened  with  the  pearl  tint.  Tlie  shade  tint 
is  made  with  lirown  pir.k  and  brown  ochre; 
these  belong  to  the  liiot  lay. 

The  reilects  are  light  ochre,  and  sometimes 
in  the  warmest  jiarts  mixed  with  a  little  light 
red.  '1  he  shadows  are  strengthened  with 
brown  pink  and  burnt  umber. 

Gretn.  The  proper  ground  for  green  is  a 
light  yellow  green,  which  is  made  of  light 
ochre,  a  little  white,  and  Prussian  blue,  tor 
the  lights,  and  the  ochre,  brown  pink,  and 
Prussian,  for  the  shadows. 

f 


The  linest  green  for  draperies  is  made  o' 
king's  yellow,  I'russian  blue,  and  brown  pink. 
The  high  lights  are  king's  yellow,  and  a  very 
little  Prussian;  the  middle  tint  should  have 
more  Prussian  ;  and  the  siiadow  tint  is  made 
with  some  of  the  middle  tint,  brown  pink, 
and  more  Prussian  ;  but  the  d^u'kesl  rhadow's 
are  brown  pink  and  a  little  Prussian.  The 
lights  and  middle  tint  should  be  managed  in 
the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  blues.  The 
shaclow  tint  should  be  kepi  cnt.rely  Irom  the 
lights,  because  the  brown  pink  that  is  in  it 
will,  in  mixing,  dirty  them,  as  the  black  does 
those  of  the  blues.  Rememljer  to  allow  for 
tlicir  drying  a  little  darker ;  and  that  the 
king's  yellow  must  be  ground  with  good  dry- 
ing oil ;  for  the  longer  it  is  drying,  the  more 
it  will  change  and  grow  darker;  and  the 
sooner  it  is  used,  the  better  it  will  stand.  It 
is  proper  to  have  two  sorts  of  king's  yellow, 
one  to  be  very  liglit,  for  the  high  lights  of 
velvet. 

Changeahh'  rolnnrs.  Change;ible  colours 
are  made  with  lour  principal  tints,  viz.  the 
high  lights,  middle  tint,  shade  tint,  and  re- 
flecting tint. 

The  greatest  art  liei  in  finding  the  exact 
colour  of  the  middle  tint,  b^-cause  it  has  more 
of  the  general  hue  of  the  si  k  than  anv  of  the 
others.  The  slrade  tint  is  of  the  same  hue 
with  the  middle  lint,  though  it  is  dark  enough 
for  the  shadows.  The  high  liglits,  though 
often  very  dili'erent  from  the  middle  tint, 
should  be  of  friendly-working  colour,  that 
will,  in  mixing  with  it,  produce  a  tint  of  a 
clean  hue. 

The  method  of  painting  silks  is  to  make 
out  the  folds  widi  the  shade  tint,  and  then  lill 
thein  up  in  the  lights  with  the  middle  tint. 
This  first  lay  should  be  done  to  your  satisfac- 
tion before  you  add  any  other  coloui's ;  and 
thestiffer  the  middle  tint  is  used,  the  better 
the  high  lights  may  be  laid  upon  it.  The  re- 
flecting tint  falls  generally  upon  the  gradat- 
ing half-shades,  and  should  be  laid  with 
tender  touches  sparingly,  for  fear  of  spoiling 
the  first  lay. 

This  method  of  painting  answers  for  all 
coloured  silks,  as  well  as  changeable,  with 
this  difl(:rence  only;  that  the  plain  colours 
require  not  sj  much  art  in  matching  tlie  tints, 


33  5 

as  the  changeable  do.  The  last  part  of  the 
work  is  the  liiiishing  and  strengthening  the 
shadows  with  an  ob.scuretint,  a  little  inclining 
to  a  mellowish  hue;  such  as  will  not  catcfi 
the  eye,  and  inleirupt  the  beauty  of  the 
lights. 

iUack.  The  best  ground  for  black  is  light 
red  for  the  lights,  and  Indian  red  and  a  liltle 
black  for  the  shadows. 

The  .'inishing  colours  are,  for  the  lights, 
black,  white,  and  a  little  lake.  Tlic  miiidle 
tint  has  less  while,  and  inon;  lake  and  black : 
the  shade  tint  is  made  of  an  equal  (luantity  of 
lake  anil  brown  j)ink,  with  a  very  Utile  black. 
The  method  of  painting  black  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  that  ot  othir  colours  ;  for  as  in 
these  the  principal  tiling  is  to  leave  their 
lights  clear  and  brilliant ;  so  in  black,  it  is  to 
keep  the  shadows  clear  and  lrans|)arcnt. 
Therefore  begin  with  the  shade  tint,  and 
glaze  over  all  the  shadows  with  it.  Next  lay 
in  the  darkest  shadows  w  itii  bkick,  and  a  little 
of  the  shade  tint,  very  correctly.  Afli.-rthat, 
lill  up  the  whole  breadth  of  lights  with  the 
middle  tint  only.  All  which  should  be  done 
exactly  to  the  character  of  the  satin,  velvet, 
(loth,  &c.  &c.  and  then  linish  witij  the  high 
lights. 

Here  observe,  the  ground,  being  red,  will 
bear  out  and  support  the  reds,  which  are 
used  in  the  linishilig  colours.  The  lake  in 
the  lights  takes  olf  the  cold  hue,  and  gives  it 
a  more  beautiiul  colour.  If  the  shade  tint 
was  of  any  other  colour  than  a  transparent 
warm  hue,  the  siiadows  would  consequently 
be  black  and  heavy;  because  no  other  colours 
i.aii  preserve  the  warm  brilliancy  which  is 
u anting  in  the  shadows  of  tlie  black,  like  lake 
and  brown  pink.  Black  is  of  a  cold  heavy 
nature,  and  always  too  s'rong  for  any  other 
colour;  therefore  you  should  make  an  allow- 
ance in  using  it.  i  lure  will  be  a  few  reflects 
in  satin,  which  should  be  added  as  those  of 
other  colours;  but  they  should  be  made  of 
strong  colour.?,  such  as  burnt  umber,  or 
brown  ochre,  mixed  with  a  little  shade  tint. 

Though  the  grounds  mentioned  for  the 
drajjeries  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
principal  and  nearest  ligures  in  a  picture, 
such  as  a  single  portr..u,  or  the  like  ;  yet  for 
ligures  which  are  placed  behind  the  priiK  ipal 
or  front  ligures,  their  grounds  should  always 
be  fainter  in  proportion  to  their  local  finishing 
colours. 

Linen.  The  colours  used  in  linen  are  the 
same  as  those  m  white  satin,  e.xcept  the  first 
tint,  which  is  made  of  white  and  ultramar-ne 
ashes,  i:,stead  of  the  black,  and  mi.xed  to  a 
very  liglit  bluish  tint. 

In  the  dead-colouring,  lake  particular  care 
that  the  grounds  are  laid  very  white  and 
broad  in  tiie  liglits.  The  shadows  are  made 
with  black,  white,  and  a  little  Indian  red, 
like  the  middle  tint  of  wh.ite  satin.  "^Ihese 
should  be  left  very  light  and  clean,  in  order 
to  support  the  linishing  colours. 

The  second  painlin;-;  begins  with  glazing- 
all  the  lights,  with  a  stiff  pencil  and  fine  white 
only,  driven  bare,  without  using  any  oil. 
1  he  shadows  may  be  scumbled  with  poppy- 
oil,  and  some  oi  the  colour  they  were  made 
of.  This  is  the  first  lay,  on  which  you  are 
to  follow  with  the  finishing  colours  directlv. 
The  middle  tint  of  white  satin  is  the  best 
colour  for  the  general  hue  ol  the  shadows. 
With  this  anil  white,  in  dilferent  degrees, 
make  out  all  the  parts  to  character,  witlr  free 


33S 

jiirlit  louclios,  without  softening;  llien,  with 
V.  large  loiiij-poinlc-d  pencil  uml  (iiie  white, 
lav  the  liigh  lights  very  nicelv  with  one  stroke. 
Atier  this  conies  the  tine  lighl  bluisli  lint, 
wiiiclishonld  be  mixed  light,  and  laid  in  the 
tender  gradations,  very-  sjiaringly  and  lightly, 
without  tilling  them  np. 

Kememher,  thefti"st  layshoukl  be  left  clear 
and  distinct ;  the  more  it  appear*,  the  belter. 
It  is  the  overmi^ing  and  joining  all  the  co- 
lours together,  which  .^spoils  the  beauty  of  the 
cliaracter;  therefore  it  is  better  to  let  it  dry 
before  we  add  the  reliects  and  finishing  lints. 

The  meliiod  of  letting  tlie  beautiful  clear 
colour  dry,  before  you  add  the  warm  rcllects, 
and  harmonizing  tints,  prevents  them  from 
mixing  and  dirting  each  other. 

The  principal  blending  colours  used  in  the 
reflects  are  the  yellow  tirit,  green  tint,  and 
rose  tint;  which  last  is  made  of  lake,  Indian 
red,  and  white.  Gla.f!ii;g  the  pearl  and  lead- 
colour  with  wliite,  though  it  seems  to  answer 
our  |iurpo.-e  at  the  time  when  nt  is  done,  will 
certaiidy  sink  and  be  lost  in  the  grounds  on 
which  it  is  laid;  therefore  vou  should  make 
the  dead-colouring  as  white  as  yon  intend  the 
finishing  colours,  by  reason  they  will  sink  a 
little  inpropo:tion  to  the  colour  of  the  cloth, 
which  the  glazing  with  pure  wiiite  only  will 
j-ecover. 

Of  painting  back  gFouiids. 

The  principal  colours  that  are  necessary 
for  painting  of  back-grounds,  as  walls,  build- 
ings, or  the  like,  are  while,  black,  Indian  red, 
light  and  brown  ochre,  Prussian,  and  burnt 
umber;  from  which  the  eight  principal  tints 
are  made,  as  follows  : 

1.  Pearl  is  made  of  black,  white,  and  a 
little  Indian  red. 

'J.  Lead,  of  black  and  white,  mixed  to  a 
dark  lead-colour. 

3.  Yellow,  of  a  brown  ochre  and  white. 

4.  Olive,  of  light  ochre,  Prussian,  and 
white. 

5.  Flesh,  of  Indian  red  and  white,  mi.xed 
to  a  middle  tint. 

6.  Murrey,  of  Indian  red,  white,  and  a 
little  black,  mi.\ed  to  a  kind  of  purple,  of  a 
middle  tint. 

".  Stone,  of  white,  umber,  black,  and  In- 
dian red. 

8.  Dark  shade,  of  black  and  Indian  red 
only. 

Here  the  lead  tint  serves  for  the  blues,  the 
flesh  tint  mixes  agreeably  with  the  lead,  and 
the  murrey  is  a  verv  good  blending  colour, 
and  of  great  use  where  the  olive  is  loo  strong; 
the  umber,  white,  and  dark  shade,  will  pro- 
duce a  fine  variety  of  stone  colours ;  the  dark 
shade  and  umber,  used  plentifully  with  dry- 
ing oil,  make  an  excellent  warm  shadow- 
colour.  All  the  colours  should  be  laid  with 
drying  oil  only,  because  they  mix  and  set  the 
better  will)  the  softener. 

U'here  the  marks  of  the  trowel  are  so 
strong  in  the  priming  of  the  cloth,  that  one 
body  of  colours  wdl  not  be  suflicient  to  con- 
ceal if,  lay  a  colour  to  prevent  it,  which 
should  lie  dry  before  you  begin  with  those 
parts  you  exj)ect  to  finish  at  once  painting. 

Prncc-ii.  The  process  of  painting  back- 
ground is  divided  into  two  parts  in  stages  ; 
the  (irst  is  (he  work  of  the  lirsl  lay,  the  second 
that  of  the  I'mishiiig  tints. 

Hegin  the  first  lay  from  the  shadowed  side 
of  tlie  head,  and  palal  the  lights  fust;  from 
ti 


PAINTING. 

them  go  into  the  gradations  and  shadows, 
wliich  >^liould  be  done  with  a  -.tillish  tool,  very 
sjiariiiL'ly,  with  the  d:iik  shade  and  white,  a 
httie  clianged  with  the  colours  that  will  give 
it  mote  ol  the  required  hue,  but  very  near  in 
regard  to  tone  and  strength,  leavuig  them 
liu<;  niezzotinto. 

The  dark  and  warm  shadows  sliould  be 
laid  before  the  colours  that  join  them.  This 
do  with  the  dark  shade  and  nniber,  driven 
with  drving  oil.  If  those  colours  were  laid 
on  lirst)  tiiey  would  spoil  the  transparency, 
which  is  their  greatest  beauty.  'I'he  more 
the  (irst  lay  is  driven,  the  easier  and  belter 
vou  inav  cliange  it  w  ilh  the  linishing  lints, 
therelore  you  may  lay  them  with  the  greater 
body. 

'1  he  second  part  is  to  follow  directly, 
whilst  the  (irst  lay  is  wet,  with  those  tints 
that  are  the  most  proper  to  harmonize  and 
finish  with. 

liegin  with  the  lights  first,  and  remember, 
as  you  heighten  and  finish  them,  to  do  it  with 
warmer  colours;  and  let  those  be  accompa- 
nied with  fine  tender  cold  tints.  The  lightest 
pans  of  the  ground  should  be  painted  w  ith  a 
variety  of  light  warm  clear  colours,  which 
vanish  and  lose  their  strength  imperceptibly 
in  their  gradations.  Take  care  that  you  do 
not  cover  too  mucli  of  the  first  lay,  but  con- 
sider it  as  the  principal  colour. 

From  the  lights,  go  to  the  gradations  and 
shadows;  for  when  the  lights  are  well  adapt- 
ed to  produce  and  support  the  figure,  it  is 
easy  to  fall  from  them  into  whatever  kind  of 
sh.adov.  s  vou  find  most  |>roper ;  tlieii  soften 
and  blend  the  whole  witii  a  long  large  hog- 
tool  ;  which,  with  the  strength  and  body  of 
the  drving  oil,  will  melt  and  sweeten  altoge- 
ther, in  such  a  manner,  as  will  seem  ^urpris- 
inglv  finished.  Remember  the  tints  will  sink, 
and'lose  a  little  of  their  strength  and  beauty 
in  drving.  All  grounds,  as  walls,  c^c.  should 
be  finished  at  once  painting ;  but  if  they  w  ant 
to  be  clianged,  glaze  them  with  a  little  of  the 
dark  shade  andrlrying  oil,  driven  very  bare; 
on  which,  with  a  few  light  touches  of  the  co- 
lour that  is  wanting,  you  may  improve  their 
hue.  The  dark  shadows  may  also  be  strength- 
ened and  improved  by  glazing,  which  should 
be  <loiie  after  the  figures  are  nearly  finished, 
for  fear  of  making  them  too  strong. 

Rembrandt's  grounds  are  rather  briglitcrin 
the  lights,  and  have  more  variety  of  tints  than 
any  other  painter's;  for  he  had  observed,  that 
those  tints  diminish  in  proportion  with  the 
lights;  therefore  his  sliadows  have  but  a  faint 
a|)pcarance  of  tints.  He  understood  the  gra- 
dations in  perfection,  by  mixing  and  break- 
ing the  first  lav  of  colours  so  artfully,  that 
they  deceive  in  regard  to  their  real  strength. 

N'andyck's  general  method  was,  to  break 
the  colours  of  the  ground  with  those  of  the 
drapery.  This  will  certainly  produce  liar- 
mony. 

Fresnoy'savs,  let  the  field  or  ground  of  the 
picture  be  pleasant,  free,  transient,  light,  and 
well  united  willi  colours  which  are  of  a 
friendly  nature  to  each  other;  and  of  such  a 
nfixtur'e  as  that  there  may  be  something  in 
it  of  every  colour  that  composes  your  work, 
as  it  were  the  contents  of  your  i)allel. 

Curtains  should  be  tlead-coloured  when 
we  paint  the  ground;  and  should  be  done 
with  clean  colours,  of  a  near  hue  to  the  in- 
tended curtain,  such  as  will  support  the  tjuish- 
ing  colours ;  do  it  with  a  tender  sort  of  keep- 


ing, and  near  in  regard  (o  their  tone  in  the 
liglUs,  but  much  solter  in  the  Bha<lov.s;  all 
wliich  should  be  mixed  and  broken  with  the 
colours  of  the  ground.  It  will  often  happen, 
that  we  cannot  n'ake  the  folds  the  first  pahit- 
ing;  we  should  then  leave  the  n, asses  ot  light 
and  shadow,  in  regard  to  the  keeping  of  the 
picture,  broad  and  well  united  together,  sucli 
as  may  seem  easy  to  linish  on.  The  colours 
of  tiie  landscape,  in  back-grounds,  should  be 
broke  and  softened  also  with  tiiose  of  the 
|)arts  which  join  them.  This  method  will 
make  all  the  parts  of  tiie  ground,  as  it  were, 
of  one  piece. 

The  sky  should  be  broke  with  the  lead  and 
the  iiesh-'tints.  The  murrey  tint  is  of  great 
use  in  the  grounds  of  distant  objects  ;  and  the 
umber  and  dark  shades  in  the  near  grounds. 
The  g'eens  should  be  more  beautiful  than 
you  intend  them,  because  they  will  faile  and 
grow  darker.  After  all  is  painted,  go  over 
llie  whole  very  liglUly  with  the  softener,  as 
you  did  the  grounds,  wliich  will  iiiaivc  it  look 
agreeably  finished. 

OJ  puiniing  landscapes. 

The  principal  colours  used  in  landscapes 
are;  I.  fiake  white;  2.  white  lead,  or  com- 
mon white;  3.  fine  liglil  ochre;  4.  brown 
ochre  ;  5.  brow  n  pink  ;  6.  burnt  umber  ;  7. 
ivory  black;  S.  Prussian  blue;  9.  ultramarine; 
10.  ttrreverte  ;  11.  lake;  12.  Indian  red; 
13.  vermilion,  or  native  cinnabar;  14.  king's 
yellow. 

The  principal  tints  are,  1:  Light  ochre 
and  white;  2.  Light  ochre,  Prussian  blue, 
and  white;  3.  Light  ochre,  and  Prussian 
blue;  4.  The  same  darker;  5.  Terreverte 
and  Prussian  blue  ;  6.  Brown  pink  and 
Prussian  blue ;  7.  Brown  pink  and  brown 
ochre;  8.  Brown  pink,  ochre,  and  Prussian 
blue;  9.  Indian  red  and  white;  10.  Iv 
black,  Indian  red,  and  lake. 

Tlie  colours  necessary  for  dead-colouring, 
are :  common  while,  light  ochre,  brown 
ochre,  burnt  umber,  Indian  red,  ivory-blatk, 
and  Prussian  blue. 

The  principal  colours  and  tints  for  painting 
the  skv,  are,  fine  wdfite,  ultramarine,  Prus- 
sian bl'ue,  light  ochre,  venmlion,  lake,  and 
Indian  red. 

The  tints  are,  a  fine  azure,  lighter  azure, 
light  ochre  and  white,  vermilion  and  white  ; 
and  a  tint  made  of  white-,  a  little  vermilion, 
and  some  of  the  light  azure,  at  your  discre- 
tion. 

Process.  Sketch  or  rub  in  your  design 
faintly,  with  burnt  nmber  used  with  drying 
oil,  a'nd  a  little  oil  of  turpentine;  leaving  the 
colour  of  the  cloth  for  the  lights.  Remem- 
ber, ,  in  doing  this,  lo  leave  no  part  of  the 
shadows  so  dark  as  you  intend  the  first  lay 
or  dead-colouring,  which  also  is  to  be  lighter 
than  the  finishing  colours.  Though  the  foli- 
age of  the  trees  is  only  rubbed  in  taintlv,  yet 
the  trunks  and  bodies  shouhl  be  in  their  proper 
shapes,  with  their  breadths  oflightand  shadow. 
All  kind  of  buildings  should  be  done  in  the 
same  manner,  leaving  the  colour  of  the  cloth 
for  their  lights.  Theligures  on  the  fore-ground 
may  also  be  sketched  in  the  same  manner, 
and  then  left  to  dry. 

First  painting  or  dcad'Coloiiring. 

Let  the  first  lay,  or  dead-colouring,  be 
without  any  bright,  glaring,  or  strong  dark 
colours ;  so  that  the  eil'cct  is  made  more  to 


vory- 


receive  ami  prrscrrr  the  fiiii.iliiii;?  col.jurs,  ' 
than  to  s1r-w  tlic;ii  in  theii'  lirsl  [)aiiilin^. 

Tlic  sky  sliouUI  Ijl:  done  first,  tlicii  all  the 
diitanCL'S;  and  so  work  downwards  to  the 
iTiiddli!  group,  and  iVoni  that  to  the  fore- 
ground, and  neaiesl  parts.  Kenieniln'r,  all 
the  parts  of  each  grou|),  as  trees,  buildings, 
or  the  like,  are  all  painted  with  the  group 
they  helong  to. 

'i'lie  greatest  spcret  in  dead-colourina;  is, 
to  lind  the  two  colours  which  serve  for  the 
f^ronud  of  sluiduws  in  t^i'neral,  the  skv  ex- 
cepted; and  the  iiictho;!  of  using  them  with 
the  lights:  the  lirst  of  wliich  is  Ihi-  dark 
shade  willi  a  little  lake  in  it ;  the  otiier  co- 
lour is  only  burnt  umber.  These  should  be 
a  little  changed  to  the  natural  hue  of  the 
objects,  and  thmi  laid  on  witli  tlrying  oil,  in 
till-  same  manner  as  we  shade  with  Indian 
ink,  which  is  a  kind  of  glazing,  and  as  such 
they  should  be  left ;  otlierwise  they  will  be 
dark  and  heavy,  and  therefore  would  be  en- 
tirely spoiled  for  the  (iuishing  glazing.  Uoth 
these  colours  mix  and  sympathize  agreeably 
with  all  the  lights,  but  should  be  laid  before 
them. 

The  ski/.  Tlie  sky  should  be  laid  with  a 
good  body  of  colours,  i-.nd  left  with  a  faint 
resemblance  of  the  principal  clouds,  mon- in 
the  manner  of  claro  obscuro  than  with  (iiiish- 
int;  colours;  the  whiter  it  is  left,  the  better  it 
will  bear  out  and  sujjport  them;  the  distances 
should  be  made  out  faint  and  obscurely,  with 
the  dark  shades,  and  some  of  their  lights  in 
<lilfi'rent  degrees,  and  laid  so  as  bcjt  to  lind 
and  shew  their  principal  parts.  All  tlie 
groinids  of  the  trees  should  be  laid  or  rubbed 
in,  enough  only  to  leave  an  idea  of  their 
sliapes  and  shadows  faintly,  'llie  ground  of 
their  shadows  must  be  clean,  and  lighter  than 
their  linishing  colours. 

In  painting  the  lights,  it  is  better  to  incline 
more  to  the  middle  tint,  than  to  the  very 
liigh  lights;  and  observe  to  leave  them  with 
ft  suflicient  body  of  clean  colours,  which  will 
preserve  the  (inishingcolours  better ;  all  which 
tiiay  be  done  with  a  few  tints.  After  this, 
go  over  the  whole  willi  a  sweetener  very 
iightl}-,  which  will  soften  and  mix  the  co- 
lours agreeably  for  finishing. 
Second  painting. 
Begin  with  the  sky,  and  lay  in  all  the 
azure,  and  colours  of  the  horizon  ;  then  soften 
them:  after  that,  lay  in  the  general  tint  of 
the  clouds,  and  hrfish  on  it  with  the  high 
lights,  and  the  other  tints  that  are  wanting, 
V'ith  light  tender  touches ;  then  soften  the 
uhole  with  a  sweetener,  very  lighty.  The 
finishing  of  the  sky  should  be  done  all  at  one 
painting,  because  the  lender  character  of  the 
clouds  will  not  do  so  well  as  when  the  whole 
is  ■  wet.  Observe,  that  the  stilfer  the  azure 
and  colours  of  the  horizon  are  laid,  the  better 
the  clouds  may  be  painted  upon  them. 

The  greatest  ilistances  are  chietiv  made 
\rilh  the  colour  of  the  sky;  as  Ihev  grow- 
nearer  and  darker,  glaze  and  scumble  the 
parts  very  thin,  \\\X\\  such  glazing  shadow- 
colours  as  come  nearest  to  the  general  hue 
of  the  group  the  objects  are  in.  'f  his  glazing 
jhould  be  understood  of  a  darkish  hue  ;  and 
that  the  first  painting  or  dead-colour  should 
be  seen  through  it  distinctly.  On  this  lav, 
or  ground,  add  the  linishing  colours. 

Now,   sup])Osin"  this  glazed  ground  pro- 
perly adapted  to  the  object  and  place,  it  will 
Vol.  II. 


?AINTIN©. 

b«  easy  ti:i  find  tlie  other  colours,  v,diich  are 
wanted  l()r  tin:  lights  and  finishings  of  the 
same;  but  in  laying  them,  yon  4nust  take 
'care  not  to  spoil  the  glazing  ;  therefore  be 
very  exact  in  making  llu)se  colours  on  the 
pallet,  and  then  be  sure  to  lay  them  with 
light  Iree  touches. 

llei'ore  wc  proceed  any  farther,  it  will  be 
l)ropi-r  to  say  something  of  the  most  useful 
glazing  colours. 

Lake,  terreverte,  Prussian  Iilue,  and  brown 
pink,  are  the  four  principal.  The  more  you 
manage  them  like  Indian  ink,  and  the  more 
distin<-tly  you  leave  them,  the  better  their 
transparent  beauty  will  stand  and  api>ear, 
pro\  ided  vou  do  it  with  good  drying  oil. 
After  till  se  four  glazing  colours,  burnt  umber 
is  a  very  good  glazing  warm  brown,  and  of 
great  use  in  the  broken  grounds  and  nearest 
parts;  hut  the  most  agreeable  colour  for 
the  darkest  shadows,  is  the  dark  shade  im- 
proved with  lake.  It  is  a  fine  warm  sh.ade  ; 
miscs  harmoniously  with  all  the  lights,  as 
well  as  the  shadows ;  and  is  excellent  in  the 
trunks  a:id  bodies  of  trees,  and  in  all  kinds 
of  buildings. 

Make  out  all  the  ground  of  the  objects 
with  sucii  gUizing  shadow-colours  as  seem 
nearest  to  the  .latural  hue  of  the  object  in 
that  situation;  bijt  as  the  principal  glazing 
colours  thenl^elves  are  often  too  strong  and 
glaring,  they  should  therefore  be  a  little  chan- 
ged, and  softened  with  such  colours  as  are  of  a 
near  resemblance  to  themselves  and  the  ob- 
jects: thus,  if  it  is  in  the  distances,  the  terre- 
verte and  tlie  azure,  which  are  the  principid 
glazing  colours,  may  be  improved  and  made 
lighter  with  some  of  the  sky  tints;  and  as  the 
distance  comes  nearer  with  the  purple.  In 
the  middle  group,  the  terreverteand  Prussian 
blue  may  be  changed  with  some  of  the  green 
tints;  such  as  are  made  witliout  white,  for 
white  is  the  destruction  of  all  glazing  colours. 
As  you  approach  the  first  grou]),  there  is  less 
occasion  for  clianging  them;  but  tlie  fore- 
ground and  its  objects  require  all  the  strength 
and  force  of  glazing,  which  the  colours  are 
capable  of  producing. 

After  this  glazing  ground,  follow  with 
strengthening  tlie  same  in  the  shadows,  and 
darkest  places,  in  such  manner  as  will  seem 
easy  to  finish ;  which  is  the  first  lay  of  the 
second  painting. 

The  colours  that  come  next  for  finishing, 
are  in  the  degree  of  middle  tints:  these 
should  be  carefully  laid  over  the  greatest 
breadth  of  lights,  in  such  manner  as  not  to 
spoil  and  cover  too  much  of  the  glazing. 
Do  it  with  a  pood  body  of  colour,  as  stifl"  as 
the  pencil  can  agreeably  manage.  Remem- 
ber, the  colours  of  tlie  middle  tint  should  be 
of  a  clean  beautiful  hue.  According  to  these 
methods,  it  will  be  easy  to  finish  all  the  se- 
cond painting  down  from  the  sky,  through 
the  middle  group.  As  you  come  to  the  first 
group,  where  all  the  objects  should  be  per- 
tectly  linislied,  finish  their  under  or  most 
distant  parts,  before  yoil  paint  any  of  the 
other,  which  appear  nearer.  Observe  this 
method  down  to  the  last  and  nearest  objects 
of  the  picture:  and  where  it  so  happens  that 
painting  one  tree  over  another  does  not 
please,  forbear  the  second  until  the  first  is 
drv.  Thin  near  trees  of  ditferent  colours 
will  do  better,  if  you  let  the  under  parts  dry 
before  vou  add  tl>e  finishing  colours. 
¥u 


23/ 

Third  and  lii.it  painting. 

If  oiling  is  necessiiry,  lay  the  least  quan- 
tity that  can  be;  whieh  shouhl  be  done  with 
a  stump  tool  or  pencil,  proportioned 'to  th^. 
place  that  is  to  be  oiled,  so  as  to  oil  n6  more 
than  is  wanted:  then  wipe  the  whole  place 
that  is  oiled,  with  a  piece  of  silk  handker- 
chief 

When  going  to  finish  any  objects,  remem- 
ber to  use  a  great  variety  of  tints,  very  nearly 
of  the  same  colour,  but  most  of  all  wli'ii 
linishing  lree<.  This-  gives  a  richness  to  the 
colouring,  and  produces  harmony.  The 
greens  will  fade,  and  grow  darker  ;  therefore 
it  is  highly  necessary  to  improve  and  force 
them,  by  exaggerating  the  lights,  a'nd  mak- 
ing an  allowance  in  using  them  so  much  tli« 
liglUer.  I'or  the  same  reason,  take  great 
care  not  (o  overcharge  and  spoil  the  beauty 
of  the  glazing;  for  if  you  doj  it  will  be  dull 
and  heavy,  and  will  conseiiuently  grow 
darker. 

The  method  of  painting  near  trees  is,  to 
make  the  lirsl  lay  vi;ry  near  to  nature,  though 
not  (piit<:  so  dark,  but  more  in  the  degree  of 
a  middle  tint,  and  follow  it  with  strengthen- 
ing the  shadows;  then  the  middle  tints;  and 
la^t  of  all  lay  the  high  lights  and  finishing 
colours.  All  this  cannot  be  done  as  it  should 
be,  at  one  jtainling ;  therefore  the  best  way 
is,  to  do  no  more  than  the  first  lay  with  the 
faint  shadows,  and  leave  it  to  dry. 

Then  begin  with  improving  the  middlft 
tints  and  shadow  s,  and  lei  them  drv. 

The  third  and  last  work  is,  adding  all  tlie 
lights  and  finishing  colours  in  the  best  man- 
ner you  ale  able.  This  method  of  leaving 
the  first  and  second  parts  to  <lry  separately, 
not  only  makes  Uie  whole  much  easier,  aiid 
more  agreeable,  but  leaves  the  colours  in  the 
greatest  perfection;  because  most  of  the 
work  may  be  done  with  scumbling  and  glaz- 
ing, and  some  parts  without  oiling.  The 
lights  also  may  be  laid  with  a  better  body  of 
colour,  which  will  not  be  mixed  and  spoiled 
with  the  wet  ground. 

The  figures  in  the  landscape  are  the  last 
work  of  the  picture ;  those  in  the  fore-ground 
should  be  done  first,  and  those  in  the  dis- 
tances should  be  done  next ;  for  after  the 
figures  in  the  first  and  farthest  group  are- 
painted,  it  will  be  much  easier  to  find  the 
proportions  of  those  in  the  middle  parts  of 
the  picture.  And  observe,  that  the  shadows 
of  the  ligures  sliould  be  of  the  same  hue,  or 
colour,  with  those  of  the  group  or  pUce  tbey 
are  hi. 

Miniature. 

The  art  of  painting  in  miniature  is  of  very 
antient  dale.  It  is  practised  either  on  velhmt 
or  ivory. 

The  best  metHod,  in  painting  on  vellum, 
is  to  ijlue  the  edge  of  the  vellian  to  a  copper- 
plate or  board,  over  wliich  it  is  strained,  in 
this  manner :  Let  \  our  vellum  be  every  w  ay 
a  finger's  breadth  larger  than  what  you 
strain  it  on.  Moisten  tlie  fair  side  of  the 
vellum  with  apiece  of  fine  wet  linen,  and  put 
a  piece  of  white  paper  to  the  other  side. 
Then  apply  it  to  the  plate  or  board,  stretch.- 
ing  it  eipially  in  all  directions,  lap  the  edges 
nicely  round  and  glue  them,  taking  care  to 
let  no  glue  pass  under  the  part  of  the  vellum 
on  which  you  mean  to  paint.  When  the 
glue  dries,  and  the  edges  of  yonr  vellum  are 
iUu»  fastened,  jou  inay  proceed  with  yovt 


333 

work;  or  yoii  may  (ai^reeahlylo  the  practice 
of  some  painters/ previously  give  the  veliiiin 
a  ligiil  «ash  of  wliite  lead"  well  purilied,  to 
seive  as  a  prouud. 

But  ivoiy  beiiig  the  material  roost  fre- 
queiitiv  u.-»'<l  at  pri-scnt  for-paintiiig  in  mini- 
ature, we  shall  here  give  the  most  approved 
rules  for  painting  on  ivory. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark,  that 
the  tirsl  essential  point  towards  excellence 
ill  tills,  as  i[i  all  other  branches  of  painting, 
i--  a  thorough  and  well-!?rounded  knowledge  ui 
drawing,  both  from  pUuster,  and  from  the  lih:; 
without  correctness  of  drawing  the  greatest 
l)rilliancy  of  tints  will  at  last  be  unsatislac- 
tory.  We  should  therefore  recommend  to 
the"  student  in  miniature,  to  continue,  at  his 
leisure  houi-s,  to  copy  from  large  drawin_:^s  or 
busls,  in  chalks  or  water-colours,  as  conectly 
as  possible,  which  is  tlie  best  means  of  givuig 
facility  to  the  hand  in  tlie  drawing  of  smaller 
ligures. 

Painting  in  miniature  is  of  all  others  the 
most  delicate  and  tedious  in  its  process,  being 
performed  wholly  with  the  point  of  the  pen 
oil.  It  is  only  fitted  for  works  "►'  ^  '■""^ 
size,  and  must  be  viewed  near. 


PAINTING. 


of  a  small 


Colours  used  in  miniature  painting. 

In  painting  the  face,  the  yellows  that  are 
used  are  live,  viz.  gall-stone,  terra  sienna, 
Nottingham  oclire,  Roman  ochre,  and 
l\aples  yellow;  the  latter tliree  of  which  are 
opaque  colours,  the  other  transparent  The 
greens  are  confined  to  one,  which  is  sap- 
green.  The  blues  are  verditer,  Prussian, 
indigo,  smaU,  ultramarine,  and  Antwerp. 
The  reds  are,  carmine,  drop  lake,  Cliinese 
VeiTOilion,  and  Indian  red.  Under  the  class 
of  reds,  may  also  be  put  burnt  terra  Sienna, 
its  colour  inclining  muclr  lliat  way,  though 
more  to  the  orange.  Tlie  only  browns,  il 
any  are  used  in  the  face,  are  burnt  umber 
anti  terra  de  Cassel,  and  tiiey  are  only  to 
be  used  in  the  mixture  of  dark  shades. 

For  painting  draperies,  we  shall  only  add 
fo  the  above  colours,  lamp-black,  king's  yel- 
low, and  Hake  white. 

Qualities  of  the  alwve  colours  ivlu-n  used 
in  miniature. 

YeUoie.f.  Gall-stone  is  one  of  the  finest 
and  brightest  colours,  and  a  lasting  one  ;  but 
it  should  be  sparingly  used  in  the  (lesh  tints, 
its  brilliancy  being  apt  to  overpower  all  the 
other  colours. 

Terra  di  Sienna  unburnt,  is  of  a  greasy 
nature,  but  is  used  as  a  w  arm  yellow :  burn- 
ed, it  is  more  beautiful,  partaking  of  three 
tints,  yellow,  red,  and  brown. 

Nottingham  ochre  works  well ;  but  on  ac- 
count of  its  heavy  qualities  must  be  used  with 
caution. 

Roman  ochre  is  used  with  success  in  mini- 
ature painting,  as  it  works,  when  properly 
portioned  witfi  gum-water,  extremely  sharp 
and  neat ;  and  being  in  itself  a  warm  colour, 
C'jnuuunicates  that  quality  to  the  lints  il  is 
worked  in. 

Naples  yellow,  although  adopted  by  some 
artists,  is  of  a  sickly  hue,  and  has  this  very 
l»ad  cjualily,  lliat  it  absorbs  all  colours  that 
are  either  worked  on  it,  or  mixed  with  il. 

Blaes.  Ultramarine  excels  all  olheis  in 
permanency. 

I'russian  "blue  lias  no  substitute,  ona(;counl 
of  its  strength  of  effect  and  transparency. 


Smalt  is  so  hard  that  nothing  but  an  agate 
(lag  and  muller  will  pulverize  it  sulliciently. 
It  is  not  to  be  depended  on  for  |jdrmanency. 
Indigo  is  a  usehil  blue,  tliuugh  it  must  be 
spaiintily  used,  on  account  ot  its  e.xtrexie 
depih  ol  colour,  nearly  approac-hiiig  to  Wack; 
the  best  is  called  thi-  rock  indiso-  1  he  way 
lojudj>e  of  its  qualities  is  to  break  it,  and,  if 
go  id,  it  will  have  a  copperish  hue ;  but  if 
bad,  it  will  be  of  a  dead  blackisli  cast. 

A'erditer  is  a  tine  blue,  and  imich  used  by 
miniature  painters,  not  only  in  their  sjliy- 
grounds,  but  likewise  in  the  delicate  parts  of 
tlie  face.  It  requires  to  be  very  finely 
ground  on  a  hard  (lag.  As  to  durability,  it 
clianges  in  time  to  a  (iirty  greenish  colour  ; 
on  account  of  its  being  made  from  copper, 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  put  the  pencil  it 
is  used  with  mucli  in  the  moulli,  as  its  quali- 
ties are  pernicious. 

Antwerp  blue,  is  one  of  the  greatest  de- 
ceptions in  the  world,  being,  when  dry,  a 
mot  beaulihil  bright  l)lue  ;  but  when  wet 
and  prepared,  a  very  dingy  colour,  and  to- 
tally until  for  the  face  of  a  miniature.  It 
inav  be  used  in  blue  draperies  or  back- 
grounds, i)ut  in  nothing  else. 

Sa])-greeB  is  a  hi|^h!y  useful  colour,  when 
judiciously  mixed  wi(h. other  colours;  pro- 
ducing V.  arm  llesliy-  lints, 
produced  without   it.        Its  extreme   tran 
parcncy  and  its  permanency,  are  strong  re- 
commendations in  its  favour. 

Iit'd.i.  Carmine,  is  a  line  bright  crimson, 
inclining  to  the  scarlet,  and  is  rather  an 
ojiaque  colour  :  from  it  a  variety  of  fine  tints 
mav  be  made.  There  are  various  kinds  of 
it  preiiared  by  che.nists,  but  tlie  deep  kind 
is  the  best,  the  lighter  sort  being  frecpiently 
made  so  by  adulteration. 

Drop-lake,  made  from  the  shearings  of 
scarlet  cloth,  is  a  pleasing  crimson  colour: 
its  inclining  to  the  purple  makes  it  peculiarly 
useful  for  the  carnation  tints  in  painting  deli- 
cate subjects. 

Chinese  vermilion,  when  good,  is  a  briglit 
red,  and  useful  in  miniature  pictures,  though 
not  to  be  freely  used,  its  opac.ty  lenderiiig 
il  dangerous  to  mix  much  with  other  colours; 
but  by  itself,  in  touching  tlie  parts  that  re- 
quire extreme  brightness,  it  is  of  wonderful 
service.  It  is  very  difiicult  to  find  the  real 
kind,  tlie  common  vermilion,  mixed  with  lake 
or  carmine,  being  a  general  substitute  ;  but 
the  spurious  and  the  genuine  kind  very  ma- 
terially differ  in  woi-king,  tiie  former  being 
thick  "and  heavy,  the  other  the  contrary. 

The  native  or  mineral  'cinnabar,  or  ver- 
milion, is  likewise  very  fine   in  Spain;  and 
the  French  have  mines  of  it  in  Normandy. 
There  is  a   method   of  preparing   factitious 
cinnabar,  viz.  Take  six   ounces  of  sulphur, 
and  eight  of  quicksilver,  mix  them  well ;  then 
set  them  on  the  fire,  till  part  of  the  sulphur 
is  consumed,  and  the  powder  remains  black  ; 
after  this,  it  is  sublimed  twice  in  open  pots, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  the  cinnabar  remains 
very  heavy,   and  streakeil  w  ilh  the  lines  or 
needles,  some  red,  and  others  brilliant  like 
silver:  then  take  it  and  purify  il  in  the  (bl- 
lowing  manner :  grind  il  well   in  fair  water, 
on  a  marble,  put  it  into  a  glass  or  earthen 
vessel  to  dry,  llien  put  urine;  to  it,  and  mix 
it  so  that  it  be  thoroughly  wet  and  swim; 
then    let   it   setllc,  and   the  cinnabar   being 
pr<'c.ipitated  or  fallen,   pour  oil   the  urine  b\ 
mcHnalion,  and  put  lic»h  in  (he  room  ol   il, 


leaving  i(  so  all  night,  and  re])eatin5r  tli« 
same  cluirg.:  four  or  five  da;,  s,  till  the  cinua- 
har  is  Ihoronglily  purihed.  Contmne  (lie 
process  with  beating  up  the  wljile  of  an  eaf, 
which  mixing  with  fair  water,  pour  it  upon' 
the  cinnabar,  and  stir  the  whole  about  with 
a  vvalnut-tiee  sliik;  change  tins  Tujuor  two  or 
three  times  as  aliove,  and  keep  the  vessel 
close  covered  Irom  dust;  wiien  used  for 
waler-colouis,  temper  it  with  gum-water,  and 
a  small  (|uantity  of  saffron  dissolved  will  add 
to  its  brilliancy. 

Indian  red  is  an  excellent  colour,  not  only 
for  touching  the  deep  red  parts,  but  likewise 
in  strong  liesh  tints,  in  bright  back-grounds, 
and  draperies. 

Jiro'^Lns.  Umber  is  very  greasv,  and 
mixes  unkindly;  but,  vhen  burnt,  is  very 
useful  in  many  parts  of  miniature. 

^'erra  de  Cassel,  or  N'andyck  brown,  so 
called  from  the  very  great  estimation  tiie 
inimitable  painter  of  that  name  lield  it  in,  is 
the  finest  rich  brown  in  the  world;  in  itself 
producing  a  more  beautiful  colour  than  can 
be  formed  by  the  junction  of  any  colours 
whatever.  It  is,  in  its  natural  stale,  rather 
coarse  and  sandy;  but  when  prepared,  it 
amply  repays  (he  labour. 

Lamp-black  is  uselul  for  mi.xing   in  hair 
wliu'li  cannot  be     colour  and  in  painting  draperies.    The  smoke 
of  a  candle  received  on  a  plate,  is  found  the 
best,  being  blacker  than  the  common  lamp- 
black. 

Khig's  yellow  is  a  bright  opaque  colour, 
admirably  calculated  for  painting  lace,  gilt 
buttons,  &c.  &c.  but  is  a  rank  poison,  there- 
fore should  be  cautiously  used. 

Flake  white,  or  refined  white  lead,  is  not 
to  be  used  by  itself  as  a  wliite,  for  to  a  cer- 
tainty it  will  turn  black,  which  circumstances 
should  be  nicely  attended  (o  bv  all  artists. 
If  used  in  miniature  painting,  for  linen,  &c.  it 
should  be  immediately  covered  with  a  glass, 
which  method  is  the  only  one  which  stands  a 
chance  of  preserving  its  purity.  For  a  farther 
account  of  the  qualities  of  tlicse  colours,  see 
Colour. 

Among  the  above  necessary  colours,  there 
are  three  which  require  to  be  burnt ;  viz. 
terra  di  Sienna,  umber,  and  lamp-black. 
For  this  purpose,  the  two  former  are  to  be 
put  in  a  crucibk,  which  is  to  be  covered  and 
placed  on  a  hot  fire :  and  when  you  think 
that  the  lump  of  colour  is  hot  through,  take 
the  crucible  from  the  fire,  and  let  the  colour 
cool. 

The  lamp-black  is  fo  be  prepared  thus : 
Take  some  of  the  common  kind ;  put  it  on  a 
clean  fire-shovel  or  plate  of  iron,  over  the 
fire ;  immediately  on  receiving  the  heat,  it 
will  begin  to  smoke,  on  the  ceasing  of  which 
you  will  find  your  lamp-black  freed  from  the 
oily  substance  it  originally  contained,  and 
fit  lor  immediate  use. 

Gum  tvater.  Choose  the  large  white 
pieces  of  ginii  arable,  which  are  brittle  and 
clear.  Put  them  into  a  clean  phial;  and  pom- 
water  on  them,  well-strained  and  divested  of 
all  sandy  particles.  Let  the  gum-wa(er  be 
about  thi,'  thickness  of  water-gruel,  that  is, 
so  thick  that  you  can  feel  il  in  your  fingers. 
The  fresher  made,  the  better. 


Grinding  the  colours,  and  preparing  them 
for  the  palli  t. 

Provide  yourself,  if  possible,  wi(li  an  aga(e 
flag  and  muUcr ;  but  il  Uiat  cannot  conveni- 


fiitly  l)e  liad,  glass  ones  m;iy  answer,  (fiongli 
not  I'luite  so  wc-ll.  '1  111-  gl;ts:^  imUliM-  ami  (l;ig 
imist  l)e  lighlly  roughtMicd  uiili  lino  iloiir 
ciiu-ry,  wliicli  will  give  it  a  siirface  that  will 
contimu;  a  long  tiinc-.  Afti^r  Ijciiig  particii- 
lailv  careful  llial  your  Hag,  Ace.  an;  (luitc 
flea'ii,  lay  suuu;  of  liie  colour  to  bf;  groiiml 
on  it,  briiisiiig  it  whilst  dry,  gently  witli  liie 
nuiller;  tlion  put  a  few  drops  of  water  on  it, 
and  grind  it  verv  c-arelully,  not  making  it  too 
wet,  as  that  w'lll  prevent  it  from  keeping 
sullieiently  under  the  niuller.  AVIien  you 
think  it  is  linelv  ground  in  the  water,  take 
your/ pallel-knile,  or  a  thin-edged  piece  of 
ivory,  scrape  your  colour  togetJier  in  a  little 
heap  on  your' Hag,  which  let  dry  for  a  short 
time,  then  add  your  gum-water  to  it  grailu- 
ally,  having  a  piece  of  ivury  near  you,  on 
wnuli  you  are  frequently  lo  lay  some  ol  the 
colour 'with  a  caniel-liair  pencil,  thin;  and  if 
you  perceive  the  colour  in  the  smallest  de- 
gree to  shine,  when  olry,  it  is  gummed 
enough ;  tlien  you  are  to  scrape  it  olf  your 
Hag  and  transfer  it  to  your  pallet. 

'There  are  some  colours  which  will  not 
bear  a  sullicient  <piaiitity  of  gum  to  make 
them  shine,  without  injuring  their  qualilies, 
as  small,  ultramarine,  and  verditer  blues. 

Ofliuir  p:-iwiL:  Manner  of  choosing 
than,  i?fc. 
Pencils  for  painting  in  miniature  are  not 
made  of  camel's  hair,  but  of  the  tips  of  squir- 
rel's tails,  and  of  these  there  are  two  kinds, 
the  <lark  brown,  and  ye.lowish  red.  Pencils 
made  of  the  latlcr  kind  are  called  sable  pen- 
cils, and  are  of  a  stiller  nature  than  the  olliers. 
They  are  a  useful  kind  of  pencil,  as  long  as 
the  hne  Hue  at  the  end  of  the  hair  remains, 
on  account  of  tlieir  elasticity  ;  but  the  instant 
the  flue  is  worn  olf,  they,  from  their  harsh- 
ness, become  useless;  at  all  events,  no  pen- 
cil can  be  superior  to  one  made  of  the  com- 
mon kind  of  hair.  'I'lie  error  too  prevalent 
amongst  young  miniature  painters,  is  that  of 
preferring  a  very  small  pencil  for  their  woik, 
vainly  lioping,  by  tlie  a-sistance  of  such  a 
one,  to  e.\ecute  their  picture  with  more 
neatness  and  accuracy;  but  in  this,  they  svill, 
bv  experience,  find  themselves  mistaken; 
the  tinest  and  most  highly  finished  pictures 
being  executed  with  a  middie-sized  pencil, 
the  point  of  which  being  not  only  sufficiently 
neat,  but  from  its  body  containing  a  (juantity 
of  colour  in  ll.uid,  enables  the  artist  to  give 
that  mellow  lirm  touch  whidi  is  so  generally 
admired  by  connoisseurs  in  the  art.  '^I'he 
young  artist  should  .choose  a  middle-sized 
pencil,  with  a  good  spring  and  point,  both 
of  mIhcIi  he  will  kiiuw  by  drawing  the  pencil 
lightly  through  liis  mouth,  and  touching  it 
on  lii5  thumb-nail;  if  he  limls  it,  on  being 
moderately  wet,  to  spring  again  into  its  form, 
ufter  being  bent,  it  is  a  good  sign;  but  as 
there  are  many  pencils  possessed  of  that 
tjuality,  which  are  deficient  in  anolucr  ma- 
terial one,  namely,  that  of  a  good  point, 
that  nnist  be  very  cautiously  loolied  to,  by 
turning  the  pencil  round  on  (he  nail,  ui  every 
direction,  obseiving  the  hairs  at  the  point 
keep  eciually  together  of  a  length,  and  none 
sliooting  out  on  either  side  (which  is  often 
ocisisioned  by  the  pencil-maker  putting  the 
liair  into  the  (piill  witli  a  twist  in  it).  All 
tliese  detects  biMiig  carefully  guarded  against, 
you  are  sure  of  being  in  possession  of  a  very 
principal  material  lor  miniature  painting. 
10 


rAlXTLNG. 

Ivory. 

Ahihnd  nf  choosviii:,  hUaching,  and prrpar- 
ing  it. 

Of  ivory  there  are  various  kinds,  the  dis- 
tinction of  wiiich  in  this  art  is  of  very  ma- 
terial conse<|Uence.  Ivory,  newly  cut,  and 
full  of  sap,  is  not  i:asily  to  be  judged  of;  tlie 
general  transparency  it  exhibits  in  that  state, 
Tilmost  precluding  the  possibility  of  discover- 
ing wliether  it  is  coarse-grained  or  fine, 
streaky  or  the  contrary,  unless  to  the  artist 
who,  by  a  long  course  of  experience,  is  famili- 
arised to  it.  The  best  way  to  di-icover  the 
<|uality  of  it  is,  by  holding  it  grainways  to 
the  light,  then  holding  it  up  and  looking 
tlirough  it,  still  turning  it  fronrside  to  .side, 
and  very  narrowly  observing  whether  there 
are  any  streaks  in  it;  this  yovi  will,  unless  the 
ivory  is  very  freshly  cut,  easily  discover  ; 
and 'in  this  you  cannot  be  too  particular. 
There  is  a  species  of  ivory  whicli  is  very  bad 
for  painting  on,  although  it  has  no  streaks 
in  it,  being  of  a  horny  coarse  nature,  which 
will  never  sutler  llie  colours  to  be  thrown 
out  in  the  brilliant  manner  a  fine  species  of 
ivorv  will;  you  are  therefore  not  only  to  be 
cautious  in  choosing  ivory  free  from  streaks, 
but  lUiewise  that  w-hich  "has  tlie  finest  grain 
and  close.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  treat 
on  the  manner  of  preparing  the  ivory  for 
painting  on. 

You  arc  to  heat  a  smoothing  iron  in  so 
small  a  degree  that  you  can  hold  your  hand 
on  the  fact;  of  it,  so  long  as  you  can  reckon 
three  or  four  in  mo.lerate  time  :  then  put 
your  ivorv  between  a  clean  piece  of  folded 
paper,  on  which  place  the  hot  iron,  turning 
your  ivory  frequently,  until  it  becomes  a 
transparent  while;  for  you  are  to  observe  that 
very  paiticularly,  an  opatjue  white  not  an- 
swering for  face-painting  in  miniature,  as  it 
would  give  a  harshness  and  unpleasant  aji- 
pearance  to  your  picture. 

When  you  think  your  ivory  is  sufTiciently 
while  for  vour  purpose,  lay  it  under  some 
fiat  weight'  until  it  cools,  as  that  will  prevent 
its  warping.  Then  proceed  lo  prejiare  it : 
for  which  purpose  you  must  pound  some 
pumice-stone  in  a  mortar,  as  clear  and  fine 
as  you  can,  which  put  into  a  fine  linen  or 
cambric  bag,  tying  it  about  midway,  tigiit, 
but  leaving  room  for  tlie  pumice-du>t  to  sift 
through  the  bottom.  Then  get  a  long  mus- 
tard-bottle,  perfectly  clean  and  dry,  in  which 
suspend  the  pumice-dust,  covering  the  lop 
w  itli  the  muzzle  of  the  bag,  so  that  nothing  can 
come  out;  then  shake  the  bottle  smartly  in 
your  hand,  when  the  fine  particles  of  the 
pumice  will  sift  out,  and  remain  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bottle,  thereby  preventing  any 
coarse  grains  from  being  amongst  what  you 
are  going  to  use,  which  would  vei-y  materi- 
ally injure  your  ivory.  Your  pumice-dust 
being  prepared,  scrape  the  leaves  of  ivory 
w'ilh  a  sharp  pen-knife,  until  the  scratches 
of  tho  cutting  saw  are  entirely  obliterated ; 
then  take  eitiier  a  piece  of  Dutch  polishing 
rush,  or  a  piece  of  middling  fine  patent  glass 
paper,  and  carefully  polish  your  ivory  with 
It,  not  by  passing  your  hand  backwards  and 
forwards,  but  in  a  circular  manner,  until  you 
have  it  pretty  level  ;  then  strew  some  of 
your  pumice-dust  on  the  ivory,  and  put  a 
few  drops  of  water  on  it:  wh.ich  done,  with 
your  mulltr  work  on  it  in  a  cii'cular  manner 
U  u  i 


3Vi 

a<  before,  until  you  find  every  part  has  eiMial'y 
received  the  pumice,  which  you  will  know 
by  its  i;xliil)iting  a  dead  grave  a|)|)eurance ; 
those  parts  wliich  have  not  received  the  ]n\- 
mice  continuing  to  shine  in  spots,  which  you 
must  still  labour  to  do  away  with  your  pu- 
mice and  muller.  \\  hen  you  find  it  pumiceil 
to  your  salisfactioii,  take  a  clean  sponge  and 
fair  water,  with  which  gently  wash  your 
ivory  free  from  the  puniice-duol ;  taking  care 
not  to  rub  it  hard,  for  f<-ar  of  giving  the  ivory 
a  gloss  that  would  prevent  jour  colours  from 
taking  on  it  so  pleasant  as  you  could  wish  ; 
alter  this  lay  your  ivory  lo  dry,  and  in  a  few 
hours  it  will'tie  fit  for  use.  Then  paste  it  on 
a  piece  of  wove  paper,  by  louchhig  the  back 
of  it  merely  at  the  edges ;  as  gum-water,  or 
any  other  cement,  benig  put  near  tlie  cenhe 
of  your  ivory,  will  cause  a  dark  unpleasant 
spot  perhaps  to  apjiear  through,  ia  ihe  very 
part  wliere  your  face  is  to  be  painted. 

Inslruclionsfar  mixing  compound  tints 
for  the  face. 

Purple  is  formed  of  either  ultraniarin-. 
Prussian  blue,  smalt,  or  indigo,  mixed  wHij 
either  carmine  or  drop  lake.  Ultramarine, 
although  the  most  beautiful  and  brilliant  of 
colours  by  ilsi-11,  vel  in  any  mixture  it  k'Sei 
that  perfection,  but  still  retains  a  sufficient 
scare  of  brightness  to  render  it  a  desirable 
tint  in  the  purplish  grey  shadows  of  the  face. 
Prussian  blue  mixed  as  betbrc-meRlioned, 
makes  a  bright  or  dark  purple,  according  as 
the  quantities  of  either  colours  are  portione<l; 
but  indigo  makes  still  darker,  owing  to  its 
great  natural  depth  of  colour.  Smalt  and 
carmine,  or  lake,  form  nearly  the  same  tint 
as  ultramarine,  and  may  be  used  nearly  for 
the  same  purposes. 

Grc'/.  Of  grey  tints  there  arc  various 
kinds,  according  to  the  subjects  they  arc 
re(iuired  for.  A  warm  grey  tint  may  be 
made  by  duly  portioning  burnt  terra  Sienna, 
Prussian  blue,  and  drop  lake  :  the  more 
terra  Sieniui  in  it,  the  warmer  the  tint;  the 
more  Prussian  blue  and  lake,  the  colder- 
.Anolher  grey  tint,  used, with  success  by  some 
eminent  miniature  painters,  was  composed 
of  I'russian  blue  and  Chinese  vermilion,  bet 
on  account  of  the  mikind  manner  with  which 
verinilion  incorporates  with  any  other  ce- 
lour,  it  retiuired  a  greater  proportion  of  gum 
than  ordinary  to  make  them  work  or  keep 
together.  A  (bird  grey  tint,  which  is  an  e\-- 
cellent  owe,  is  formed  of  drop  lake,  sap  green, 
and  I'russian  blue. 

Oli'iT  tinli.  A  yery  fine  olive  tint  is 
formed  of  gall  stone,  Nottingham  ochre,  and 
carmine,  or  lake;  and  another  of  sap  green 
and  lake  simply. 

Of  hair  tints:  A  beautiful  hair  colour, 
either  dark  or  light,  according  to  the  quan- 
tities of  colours,  is  made  of  carmine,  lainji- 
black,  and  sap  green.  'I'hi-  maimev  of  form- 
ing it  is  only  lo  l)e  acquired  by  ii'ai lice;  hut 
w  iien  once  attaincHl,  will  be  ibmid  worth  the 
time  of  the  trial.  That  very  difiicult  tint 
which  is  often  lo  be  met  with  in  children's 
iiair,  by  the  proper  junction  of  these  colours 
will  be  produced  to  |)erfection.  Other  hair 
tints  may  be  made  of  terra  de  Cassel  sin.ply, 
or  by  the  addition  of  lamp-black.  Soni.  ex- 
cellent painters  make  all  tlier  hair  tints  of 
burnt  terra  Sienna,  lamp-black,  and  Not- 
tingham ochre,  the  latlcr  being  added  ojitj 


310 

when  there  is  iiglil  Iiair  wanting  to  he  repre- 
seiitcil.  Burnt  'imibiT  has  hwn  Stit>slitiiti'd 
for  ti'iT.i  Sienna,  along  with  the  lamp-black, 
ari.l  ihvm'i  a  good  tint ;  hut  caro  most  he 
taken  to  avoid  cither  the  !»reenishor  ivdchj-h 
cast,  whii-h  it  is  apt  to  [)roduce. 

Tiiils  f;r  Jine  lim-iii  s^uitzs,  SfC.  Of  all 
tints  in  trausiwront  (JainHns,  se.ch  as  are  the 
Ti^iniaf.ire  vorks  of  tiie  present  day,  tliere 
a:e  none  more  difficult  to  a-certain;  for  the 
<lelicary  not  rmlv  of  mixture,  but  the  deli- 
-cacy' ot  touch,  conveys  the  idea  of  beauty  in 
the'  thinness  and  folding  of  line  linen  or 
gauze,  the  true  painting  of  which  throws  a 
veil  over  the  defects  in  otiier  parts  of  the 
picture.  We  shall  therefore  only  observe, 
that  any  of  the  tints,  under  the  head  of  ^f;-y, 
w  iii,  praperlv  man;iged,  answer  the  purpose. 
Having  now 'pointed  out  the  manner  ot  ))re- 
paring  tiie  delicate  transparent  tints  for  mini- 
ature" ixiinting,  we  proceed  to  treat  of  the 
grosser  ones,  namely,  thoie  for  draperies. 

Of  colours  proper/or  men's  drttpcriis. 

We  shall,  under  this  head,  make  some  sre- 
neral  otjservations ;  the  lirst  of  which  is,  that 
in  all  cloth  draperies  iur  men's  portraits,  it 
is  uccessarv  to  -add  some  flake  white  ;  as  it 
not  onlv  gives  the  colour  the  dead  appear- 
ance which  cloth  exhibits,  but  likewise  its 
being  incorporated  wUh  the  flake  white, 
gives  it  a  body  which  makes  the  flesh  tints 
appear  to  more  advantage.  The  next  ob- 
servation is,  that  in  grinding  up  your  dra- 
peries, you  are  to  make  them  appear  several 
degrees  lighter  in  colour  than  yon  want 
them  to  be  when  dry,  for  this  reason ;  the 
flake  white  is  a  colour  so  very  heavy,  that, 
after  vou  iloat  in  your  co.it,  it  will  sink  to 
the  bottom,  and  leave  your  colours  several 
degrees  darker  than  wh;-n  it  wasv.et;  and 
linally  yon  are  noi  to  be  too  heavy  or  thick 
in  lloating  in  vour draperies,  butmerely  tosee 
that  your  colour  is  evenly  spread  over  the 
part. 

There  are  four  models  of  working  in  mini- 
ature painting;  namely,  floating,  washing 
in,  handling,  and  ma.rking.  The  lirst  pro- 
cess, which  is  floaling,  and  is  cliiefly  used  for 
draperies,  is  thus  performed  :  Having  marked 
with  your  pencil  where  your  drapery  is  to 
be,  grind  up  your  colour  on  your  flag  (not 
putting  a  quantity  of  gum  water,  that  would 
make  it  shincS  as  it  would  fr\istrate  your  pur- 
jjose)  ;  then  take  a  large  soft  h;iir  pencil,  and, 
having  previously  laid  your  ivory  on  a  very 
level  table,  till  your  pencil  plentifully  with 
the  colour,  and  fay  it  ipiick  all  over  the  parts 
ol  the  ivory  you  want  covered,  seeing  that 
it  runs  on  every  part  oi|ually,  whicli,  if  kept 
in  a  proper  fluid  state,  it  will  readily  do; 
then  lav  it  in  some  place  to  dry,  where  it  is 
not  likely  to  receive  dust,  when  you  will 
have  a  fine  level  surface  ready  to  work  the 
shadows  of  your  drapery  on  in  a  couple  of 
hours.  Washing  in  is  performed  .vhen  your 
picture  is  on  your  desk,  by  filling  your 
pencil  moderately  wiili  colour,  and  giving 
a  very  broad  stroke  rather  faintly,  as  the 
contrary  would  not  answer;  this  manner 
l^  chiefly  used  in  beginning  the  hair,  back 
groinids',  and  likewi:*  in  laying  on  tlie  gene- 
ral flesh  tint  of  the  face;  It  is  also  used  in 
the  first  touches  of  the  dark  shadows,  which 
ought  to  be  begun  faint  and  broad.  Hand- 
ling is  the  manner  in  which  all  the  lleslv- 
parts  of  the  miuiaturc  must  be  worked,  altei: 


I'AINTIXG. 

the  first  washing  in;  and  la-lly,  marking 
consists  in  the  sharp-spirited  touches  given  to 
the  dill'ereut  features,  in  order  to'  give  that 
aniniatjil  appearance  so  necessary  to  consti- 
tute a  tine  picture. 

Biack  drapery  is  formed  of  lamp-black 
burnt,  and  ll.ikc  wl-.ite;  and  mnsl  be  laid  in 
with  a  good  deal  of  the  latter,  as  otherwise  it 
would  be  very  dillicult  to  manage  the  sha- 
<lows  so  as  to  produce  a  pleasing  eifect/ 

Bine  (hapi-ry  may  be  made  of  titiier  Prus- 
sian blue,  or  .Vntwerp  blue,  mixed  willi 
wliite;  indigo  being  too  much  inclined  to  a 
blackish  ca.vt. 

Green  drapery  is  well  made  of  king's  yel- 
low, and  Prussian  and  Antwerp  b!ue.  'the 
more  blue,  the  daiker-the  green;  and  the 
more  yellow,  the  contrary. 

"Vellow  drapery  cannot  be  so  well  repre- 
sented by  any  coloiu-  as  '.'ng's  yellow,  laid 
thin,  with  a  moderate  quantity  ot  gum  in  it. 

Drab-colour  is  well  represented  by  a  ju- 
dicious mixture  cf  umber,  in  its  ra\t'  state, 
and  flake  w  hite. 

A  c(ueeu's  brown,  as  it  is  called,  is  made 
of  burnt  Roman  ochre,  a  little  lamp-black 
ami  lake,  with  flake  white  amongst  it. 

Claret  cftlour  may  be  well  represented  by 
a  mixture  of  terra' de  Cas-el,  a  little  lamp'- 
black,  and  lake.  The  more  black  and  lake, 
the  deeper  the  colour. 

Dark  brown  can  be  formed  by  a  junction 
of  Notlingliain  oclire,  lake  and  lamp-ljlack. 

Ldac  is  made  of  carmine,  Prussian  blue 
and  flake  white. 

Grey  can  be  formed  only  of  lamp-black, 
flake-white,  and  the  smallest  quantity  of  lake 
laid  in  very  thin. 

Reddish  brown  is  best  made  of  Indian  red, 
very  little  lamp-black,  and  flake  white. 

Scarlet  is  a  colour  very  difficult  to  lay 
down  rules  for  making,  as  in  some  jjictiues 
it  is  dangerous  to  make  it  too  bright,  lor  fear 
of  hurting  the  efiect  of  the  face,  by  its  bril- 
liancy catching  the  eye  too  readily;  conse- 
quently, if  the  subject  you  are  painting  from 
life  is  very  pale,  you  run  a  very  great  risk 
by-  annexing  a  very  bright  scarlet  to  his  pic- 
lure.  We  shall  therefore  only  mention  that 
a  very  bright  scarlet  is  made  of  Chinese  ver- 
)niliou  and  carmine,  ground  togeUier  (without 
any  flake  and  white)  ;  and  if  you  want  it  still 
rendered  brighter,  when  it  is  dry,  fill  your 
pencil  with  plain  carmine,  mixed  with  thin 
gum-water,  and  glaze  over  it  nicely;  hut  if, 
on  the  contrary,  yon  wish  to  sadden,  or  take 
ai»'ay  a  share  of  its  brilliancy,  add  a  little 
flake  white  to  it,  and  that  will  have  the  de- 
sired effect. 

Ofjxdnling  lite  face  in  miinaiurc. 

You  are  first  to  provide  yourself  wilh  a 
mahogany  desk  for  painting  on,  which  is  a 
box  about  fourteen  inches  high,  and  a  foot 
broad  on  the  toj) ;  there  is  to  be  a  lid  cover- 
ed with  green  cloth,  which  is  to  havi'  a  pair 
of  small  hinges  at  tiie  front,  and  to  liH  oc- 
casionally with  a  supixirting  rail  at  the  back, 
and  notches,  so  as  readily  to  adjust  it  to  any 
lieight.  About  the  middle  of  the  green  clotli 
there  is  to  be  a  slip  of  very  thin  niahoganv, 
glued  at  each  end,  but  the  centre  of  it  left 
free,  to  fasten  your  ivory  by,  slipping  it  be- 
tween the  mahogany  and  green  cloth. 

'i'lie  ne.xt  thing  you  are  to  observe  is  the 
choice  of  your  li'glit,   which  in  this  kind  of 


painting  cannot  be  too^iarlicularly  attended 
to;  it  not  being  like  od-paiuling,  where  tiie 
rays  of  the  sun  may  be  kei>t  out  by  blind<, 
&e.  without  causing  any  material  inconveni- 
ence. A  north  light,  or  as  nearly  as  jiossible 
to  it,  must  be  attained,  fl'  there  sire  niowe 
than  one  window  in  the  room,  the  second 
must  he  closed,  so  as  to  admit  no  light;  and 
the  one  you  sit  at  is  to  have  a  green  baize 
curtain  against  the  lower  part  of  it,  to  reacli 
about  a  foot  liigher  than  yuiir  Head,  as  you 
sit  at  your  |winting  de.sk,  with  your  h'lt 
hand  towards  the  light. 

Having  placed  your  sitter  at  the  dl:.tance 
of  about  a  yard  and  a  hali  from  you,  begin 
drawing  the  outlines  ot  the  lace;  and  in  this 
be  very  particular,  as  much  depends  on  it. 
When  you  liave  them  drawn  correctly,  be- 
gin to  lay  in  the  colour,  laiiitlv,  of  the  iris 
of  the  eye,  the  shadows  under  the  eyebrows 
in  a  grey  tint,  and  under  the  nose  rather  a 
warm  purple,  m  broad  faint  waslies:  ever 
keeping  this  in  your  mind  ;  that  you  must, 
ill  the  [uocess  ot  painting  the  face  of  a  mini- 
ature picture,  go  on  faintly  at  ttie  bogiunuigj 
and  not  hurry  in  your  colours,  as  such  con- 
duct will,  to  a  certainty,  make  your  tints 
look  dirty,  and  your  picture'  harsh  and  dis- 
agreeai>le  Having,  as  before  observed,  laid 
in  your  grey  tints  wheie  your  shadows  are 
to  tail,  go  on  heightening  them  by  degrees, 
working  in  hatches  with  a  middling  full  pen- 
cil, no(  too  washy  ,  nor  voo  dry  :  as  the  former 
-woufd  be  the  means  of  muodyuig  your  co- 
lours, and  the  latter  would  make  them  raw. 
A\'hen  yon  think  you  have  pretty  atrongly 
marked  out,  and  worked  up  the  shadows, 
mix  a  wash  of  either  gall  stone,  or  Notting- 
ham ocIire,  and  drop  lake,  with  which  faintly 
go  over  the  lleshy  pasts  of  llie  face,  where 
the  sliadows  do  not  come;  ar.d  then  proceed 
to  heighten  the  carnations  on  the  cheeks, 
the  colour  of  the  beard,  if  any  such  appears, 
still  working  in  the  handling  manner  already 
mentioned,  in  various  directions;  so  that, 
after  some  time  working,  the  intersections 
appear  like  so  many  nice  points  or  dots. 
()bserve,vas  a  general  rule,  that  it  is  much 
easier  to  warm  the  tints  of  your  face,  than  to 
cool  them,  by  working  proper  colours  over 
it.  It  is  therefore  best  to  begin  wilh  cool 
greys  and  pur|)les,  and  towards  the  finishing 
of  the  picture,  to  add  warmlh,  if  necessary, 
by  gradually  working  such  coloius  as  gall- 
stone, terra  Sienna,  or  the  like,  over,  in 
addition  to  the  carmine  or  laki'  that  may  be 
necessary  to  prociuce  the  tint  of  nature. 

General  Observations. 

From  the  variety  of  style  adopted  by  diffei- 
ent  miniature  painters,  it  is  very  difiicult  foj 
a  young  beginner  to  ascertain  which  is  best 
to  be  followed ;  and  as  there  is  a  certain  <le- 
gree  of  mechanical  attentii  n  to  he  paid  to 
the  management  of  the  water-colours,  to  pre- 
serve them  clear  and  free  from  nuuldiness, 
which  is  didiiult  to  attain,  we  recomnieiul  to 
the  young  artist  to  proiuire  a  good  miniature, 
if  possible,  and  keep  it  by  him,  observing  the 
style  of  penciling  and  mauagcment  ol  the 
I  olour,  at  the  same  letting  nature  be  his  guide 
in  the  marking  of  his  features  and  colouring 
of  his  picture. 

In  tlie  managc-mcnt  of  back-grounds,  tlio 
young  ])ainter  is  to  observe  their  twofold 
purpose:  Ihat  of  giving  the  lights  their  jiroper 
value ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  of  hariuoni^ing 


ftie  colour*  of  the  face,  by  artfully  engagiiig 
the  eye  with  soiiicwiiat  ol  siinilitutle  in  Ihc 
bach -ground  to  a  tint  in  tlie  face,  whi'.li 
otherwise,  in  course  of  working  toeNpress  a 
piulicular  pari,  might  appear  too  prevalent. 

In  paintin;;  a  head,  on  an  oval  piece  of 
ivory,  such  as  the  i)resi-nt  form  of  a  mini- 
ature picture,  draw  the  chin  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible in  the  cen(;e  of  the  ivory,  unless  the 
pers(  n  is  very  tall,  in  whieli  i  ase  it  nu;St  be 
higher  up;  and  if  very  short,  (he  contrary. 

"l/(W«?V  pa/iilin^:  '  'I'his  wonderful  brancli 
oiart,  ini[)ropei'l)  called  painlirig,  almost  dt- 
f\iug  tiie  hand  of  time,  ha;,  been  prar  tisrd  in 
liiauy  countries;  but  the  In, est  works  of  their 
kind,  and  iJiose  by  which  the  moderns  have 
retrieved  the  art,  which  vi;is  in  a  manner  lost, 
are  those  in  the  church  ofSt.  Agnes,  formerly 
the  temple  of  l!a(  chus,  at  Home,  at  I'isa, 
Florence,  and  oilier  cities  ol'Il.dy. 

'J  he  most  esteemed  among  tlu- works  of  the 
moderns  are  tlio^e  in  the  church  of  St.  I'cter, 
at  Korne.  T  iiere  are  also  very  good  ones  at 
^'eMiee. 

Mosaic  work  is  composed  of  small  pieces 
of  glass,  marble,  precious  stones,  &c.  of  va- 
rious colours,  ci'menled  on  a  ground  of  stucco 
or  mortar,  in  iniitalion  ol  painlini;.  It  is  ge- 
nerally employed  in  copying  origmal  i)icl.ure3 
of  the'h.uhe^t  value  in  the  art. 

In  perfornung  this  work,  it  is  requisite  to 
provide  little  pii'ces  of  glass  of  as  many  dif- 
ferent colours  as  can  possil)ly  be  got. 

Lor  this  purpose  a  glass-maker's  furnace  be- 
ing prepared,  and  the  pots  and  crucibles  fidl 
of  the  matter  of  which  glass  is  nipde,  put  into 
each  crucible  what  colour  or  dvevoii  think 
iit,  always  beginning  with  the  weakest,  and 
augmenting  the  strength  of  the  colour  trom 
crucible  to  crucible  till  you  come  to  the 
deepest  tini  ture. 

\Vhen  the  gl.;ss  has  been  thoroughly  con- 
cocted, and  the  colours  are  in  their  perfection, 
take  out  the  ijlass,  hot  as  it  is,  and  pour  it  on 
a  smooth  marble,  llaUing  it  down  with  ano- 
ther similar  marble,  .uid  then  cut  it  into  slices 
of  eijual  bigness,  and  about  the  thickness  of 
an  inch  and  a  half. 

Then  with  an  instrument,  which  the  Italians 
call  bocca  di  cane,  you  mu  t  make  some  pieces 
square,  and  others  of  diiferent  forms  ami 
sizes,  as  occasion  r'-quires.  These  pieces  are 
to  be  orderly  disposed  in  cases,  as  in  paintlag 
in  fresco.  It  is  usual  to  I'angeall  the  liilli-rent 
tints  in  shells,  and  according  to  their  colour. 

If  it  is  desired  to  have  gild,  either  in  the 
ground  of  the  |)ainting,  or  in  the  ornaments 
or  draperies,  take  some  of  the  pieces  of  glass, 
formed  and  cut  in  the  maimer  belbre  men- 
tioned ;  moisten  these  on  one  side  with  gum- 
water,  and  afterwards  lay  them  over  with 
leaf  gold;  then  |)ut  this  piece,  or  several 
pieces  at  a  time,  on  a  hre-shovel,  and  place  it 
in  the  mouth  of  the  furnace,  after  you  have 
first  covered  them  with  another  hollow  piece 
of  glass.  Let  these  stand  till  they  are  just 
red-hot,  then  draw  the  shovel  out  all  at  once, 
and  the  gold  will  become  so  hrndy  attaclied 
to  the  glass,  that  it  will  never  afterwards  come 

off. 

Kow  in  order  to  apply  these  several  pieces, 
and,  out  of  them,  to  form  a  picture,  in  the  first 
place  provide  a  cartoon  or  design,  as  this  is 
to  be  transferred  to  the  ground  or  plaister  by 
calking,  as  in  painting  in  fresco.  See  Fresco. 

As  the  plaister  is  to  be  laid  thick  on  the 
wall,  and  Uierefore  will  coiiliiiue  IVesh  and 


rAINTIx\G. 

soft  for  a  considerable  time,  there  may  be 
enough  prepared  at  once  to  serve  for  as  much 
woik  as  will  take  up  three  or  four  days. 

'I  his  plaister  is  composed  of  lime  made  o( 
hard  stone,  with  biickdust  very  tine,  gum 
tragacanth,  and  whites  of  eggs ;  and  havim.^ 
been  thus  i)re|!ared  ar.d  laid  on  the  wall,  and 
the  design  of  what  is  to  be  re|)re-ented  trans- 
iencd  to  it,  takeout  the  little  pieces  of  glass 
with  a  pairof  plyers,  and  range  them  one  after 
anolhei',  siill  keeping  strictly  to  the  liglit, 
shadow,  dili'erent  tints  and  colours  which  are 
to  be  ri[)resent'-d ;  pressing  or  flatting  them 
down  with  a  ruler,  which  serves  both  to  sink 
thenlwil^lin  theground,and  to  render  the  sur- 
face even. 

A  long  time.and  tedious  labour  are  re- 
quisite to  finish  the  work,  which  will  be  more 
beautiful  as  tlie  |)icces  of  glass  are  more  uni- 
lorm  and  ranged  at  an  even  height. 

Pieces  of  mosaic  work  performed  with 
exactness  appear  as  smooth  as  a  table  of  mar- 
ble, and  a-  iinished  and  masterly  as  a  palming 
ill  h-C'.co,  Avith  tliis  atlvanlage,  that  they  have 
a  line  lustre  and  w  ill  last  for  ages. 
Mosaic  iLork  of  marble,  unci  precious  stones. 

These  two  kinds  of  mosaic  bear  so -near  a 
resemblance  to  each  other,  as  to  the  maimer 
of  working,  that,  to  avoid  repetition,  we  shall 
give  them  both  under  one,  taking  notice  as 
we  proceetl,  wherein  the  one  differs  from  the 
otiicr,  either  in  the  sawing  or  the  ranging  of 
the  stones. 

Mosaic  work  of  marble  is  used  in  large 
works,  as  in  pavements  of  churches  and 
palaces,  and  in  the  incrustation  and  veneering 
of  the  walls  ol' edifices  of  the  same  kind 

Mosaic  of  precious  stones  is  only  used  in 
small  works,  as  ornaments  for  altar-pieces, 
tables  for  cabinets,  &c.  on  account  of  the  ex- 
ceeding priceof  the  materials. 

Process  of  mosaic  painting. 

Tire  ground  of  mosaic  works  wholly  mar- 
ble, is  usually  a  massive  marble,  either  wiiite 
or  black. 

On  this  ground  the  design  is  cut  with  a 
t  hisel,  alter  it  has  been  first  calked. 

After  it  has  been  cut  of  a  considerable 
depth,  i.  e.  an  inch  or  more,  the  cavities  are 
tilled  up  viitli  marble  of  a  proper  colour,  (lirst 
selected  according  to  the  co'ours  of  the  de- 
sign, or  original  picture  to  be,  copied,)  and 
reduced  to  the  thickness  of  the  indentures 
with  various  instruments. 

To  make  the  ))ieces  thus  inserted  into  the 
indentures  ch-ave  fast,  (whose  several  colours 
are  to  imitate  the  liiUs  of  the  original  design.) 
a  stucco  is  composed  of  lime  and  marble-dust, 
or  a  kind  of  mastic,  which  is  prepared  bv  each 
workman  alter  a  diiferent  manner  peculiar  to 
himself. 

The  figures  being  marked  out,  the  painter 
or  sculptor  himself  draws  with  a  pencil  the 
colours  of  the  figures  not  determmed  by  th'  ■ 
ground,  andiu  the  same  manner  makes  strokes 
or  hatchings  in  the  place  where  shadows  are 
to  be ;  and  after  he  has  engraven  with  the 
chisel  all  the  strokes  thus  drawn,  he  rills  tliem 
up  with  a  black  mastic,  composed  partly  of 
Burgundy  pitch  poured  on  hot,  taking  oft" 
afterwards  what  is  superfluous  with  a  piece  of 
soft  stone  or  brick,  which,  together  with  water 
and  beaten  cement,  takes  away  the  mastic, 
polishes  the  marble,  and  renders  the  whole  so 
even  that  one  would  imagine  it  only  consisted 
of  one  piece. 


:i  II 

This  is  the  kind  of  mosaic  work  that  is  seen 
in  the  church  of  the  Invalids  in  Paris,  and  the 
chapel  at  Versailles,  and  with  which  some  en^t 
tire  apartments  of  that  palace  are  iiicrustate-l. 

As  lor  mosaic  work  of  prc<ious  siones.otlier 
and  finer  instruments  are  re<|uired  than  those 
usi'd  in  marble,  as  drills,  wh,-uls,  &c.  used  by 
lapidaries,  and  engravers  on  stone. 

As  none  but  th--  richest  marbles  and  stones 
arc  used  in  this  work,  to  make  them  go  the 
hirllier  they  are  sawn  into  the  thinnest  slices 
or  coats  iiiiagi;ial)le,  scarce  e.xceeding  hall  a 
line  ui  thickness:  the  idock  to  be  sawn  is 
fastened  firnily  with  cords  on  the  bench,  and 
only  raised  a  little  on  a  piece  of  wood  one  or 
two  inches  high, 

.'i'wo  iron  piiis,  whicli  are  on  one  side  o 
the  blor  k,  and  which  serve  lofl-ten  it,  are  put 
into  a  vice  contrived  for  the  purpose;  and 
with  a  kind  of  saw  or  bow,  made  of  fine  bras* 
v.ire  bent  on  a  piece  of  spungy  wood,  to- 
gether with  emery  steeped  in  water,  the  slice 
is  gradually  fashioned  by  following  ti;e  stroke 
of  the  de.sign  made  on  paper  and  glued  on  th'e 
piece. 

When  there  are  pieces  enough  fastened  to 
form  any  one  entire  part  of  the  design,  they 
are  ai)plied  to  the  ground. 

The  ground  wiiich  supports  this  mosaic- 
work  is  usually  of  free-.ston.-. 

The  matter  with  which  the  stones  are  joined 
together  is  a  mastic,  or  a  kind  ol  stucco,  laid 
very  thin  on  the  slices  of  marble,  &c.  as  they 
are  lashioncd;  this  being  done,  the  slices  are 
app'ied  with  pljers;  and  if  in  any  part  Ihey 
arc  not  either  squan  dor  rounded  suilicieiitly, 
so  as  to  fit  the  place  exactly  into  which  they 
are  to  be  ijiserted,  they  are  brought  down, 
v.'iien  too  large,  with  a  brass  file  or  rasp  ;  and 
when  too  little,  a  drill,  and  other  instruments 
used  by  kipidaries,  are  used  to  sujiply  the  de- 
ficient part. 

Planner  of  ■pcrforminf^  mosaic  work  qf 
f^i;])sum. 

Gypsum  is  a  kind  of  coarse  talc,  or  a  shin- 
ing transparent  stone,  found  in  the  quarries  of 
Mont-Ma:  tre,  near  Paris.  It  is  differentfrom 
the  plaister  of  Paris,  but  retains  the  name 
which  the  Romans  gave  to  the  plaister,  viz. 
gyjjsum. 

Of  this  gypsum,  or  stone  calcined  in  a  kiln, 
and  beaten  in  a  mortar,  and  silted,  the  French, 
have  made  a  sort  of  arthicial  marbles,  imitat- 
ing preiious  stones,  and  of  these  they  compose 
a  kind  of  mosaic  work,  which  does  not  come 
far  slio:t  either  of  the  durableness  or  the 
vivacity  of  the  natural  stones  ;  ai.d  which,  be- 
sides, has  this  advantage,  tliat  it^idinits  of  con- 
tinued pieces  or  painthigs  of  entire  compart- 
ments w  ithout  any  visible  joining. 

Some  make  the  ground  of  plaister  of  Paris, 
others  of  free-stone.  If  it  is  of  ])laister  of 
Paris,  they  spread  it  in  a  wooden  frame,  of  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  work  intended,  and 
in  thickness  about  an  inch  and  a  half. 

This  frame  is  so  contrived  that  the  tenons 
being  only  joinerl  to  the  mortises  by  single 
pins,  they  may  be  taken  asunder,  and  the 
frame  be  dismounted,  when  the  plaister  is  dry. 

The  frame  is  covered  on  one  side  with  a 
strong  linen  cloth,  nailed  all  round,  which  be- 
ing placed  horizontally  with  the  linen  at  the 
bottom,  is  filled  with  i)latster  passed  througli 
a  wide  sieve. 

When  the  ])laister  is  half-dry,  the  fi^ame  is 
set  uj)  perpeiidicuiarU ,  and  kit  till  it  is.  quit* 


SA2 

dry,  then  it  13  taken  out  by  taking  tlu  fran;c 
to  piftres. 

■  111  l!iis  kiml  of  mosaic  the  ground  is  tliv 
most  important  part. 

■  Now,  in  order  to  I'.ie  preparation  of  tliis 
sifted  gvpsuni,  wliicli  is  to  be  applitd  on  tliis 
ground^  it  sliuuld  h^  dissolved  and  boiled  in 
tl-.e  best  linglish  glue,  unrl  mixed  with  the  co- 
lonr  that  it  is  to  be  of;  then  the  whole  is  to  be 
vrorked  np  together  in  the  usual  consistence 
of  plaister,  and  then  laken  and  spread  on  the 
ground  live  or  six  inches  thick. 

Observe,  that  if  the  work  is  such  that 
mouldings  are  required,  they  are  lobe  funned 
w.th  gouges  and  oilier  proj^ir  instiljnunts. 

It  IS  on  this  plaister,  thus  coloured  like 
marble  or  precious  stone,  and  which  is. to 
serve  as  a  ground  to  a  work,  either  of  lapis, 
■  agate,  alabaster,  or  the  like,  that  the  design  to 
be  representetl  is  drawn,  having  lirst  been 
pounced  or  calked. 

To  hollow  or  impress  the  design,  you  must 
use  the  same  in^trunients  that  scnliilors  do, 
■the  ground  whereon  \ou  are  to  work  not  be- 
ing mucii  less  hard  than  marble  itself. 

I'he  cavities  being  thus  made  in  the  ground, 

are   to   be  Idled  up  with  tiie  same  gypsum 

boiled  in  glue,  only  differently  coloured,  and 

,    thus  are  tiie  ditterent  colours  of  the  original 

lepresented. 

In  order  that  the  necessary  colours  and 
tints  may  be  ready  at  hand,  quantities  of  the 
gvpsum  iuust  be  tempered  with  the  several 
colours  in  pots. 

After  the  design  has  been  thus  filled  and 
rendered  visible,  by  hali-polishing  it  with  brick 
and  soft  stone,  it  is  to  be  goiie  over  again, 
cutting  sucli  plates  as  are  either  to  be  weaker 
or  more  shadowed,  and  lilling  them  with 
gvp,uni ;  w  Inch  work  is  repeated  tiil  all  the 
colours  being  added  one  after  the  otlier,  re- 
present the  original  perfectly. 

When  the  work  is  iinisiied,  it  is  scoured 
with  soft  stone,  sand,  and  water  ;  after  that, 
w  ilh  a  pumice-stone  ;  and,  in  the  last  place,  po- 
lisiied  with  a  wooden  mullet  and  emc-ry. 

'I'Ih'O,  lastly,  it  is  smeared  over  with  oil, 
and  rubljed  along  time  with  the  palm  of  the 
liand,  which  gives  it  a  lustre  no  ways  inferior 
to  that  of  natural  marble. 

If  vou  would  only  make  a  variegated  table, 
or  other  work,  of  several  colours,  without 
nios;iic  figures,  the  process  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent. 

Then  you  arc  to  jirepare  separately,  in 
bo\vls,  as  many  colours  as  nature  shews  in  the 
marble  which'you  would  imitate;  and  after 
\ou  have  incorjiorated  these  with  gypsum 
and  glue-water,  take  a  trowelful  of  each  and 
dispose  them  in  a  trough  without  any  order; 
then,  without  mingling  them,  and  only  by 
cutting  or  crossing  the  gypsum  of  each  trowel 
once  with  each  of  the  rest,  you  will  give  them 
the  appearance  of  beautiful  natural  marl)<e. 
Of  tliese  you  may  make  tables,  or  lay  them  in 
a  mould,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work. 


TAINTING. 

that  the  work  appears  like  a  large  picture  seer 
through  a  diniinisliing  glass.     "  - 

'I  he  following  is  llie  manner  of  proceeding: 
A  piece  of  very  line  laien  or  wiiite  taffety'is 


willi 


cil,  and  gives  the  power  of  correcting  and 
perfecting  with  certainty. 

\\  hen  tlie  work  is  tinished,  it  is  put  under 

a  crystal,  from  which  (he  external  air  is  ex- 

slauh  in  the  most  equal  manner  ^huied,  and  it  is  then  dried  by  means  of  a 


Elydoric  painting. 

This  new  method  of  painting  was  invented 
by  M.  Vincent,  of  Montpetii.  It  is  little 
known.  It  takes  its  name  from  two  Greek 
words,  expressing  oil  and  water,  both  these 
liquids  being  employed  in  its  execution. 

Its  principal  advantages  are,  that  the  artist 
is  able  to  add  to  the  mellowness  of  oil-paint- 
ing, the  freshness  of  water-colours,  and  the 
hiijli  fuiisliing  of  immature,  in  sudi  a  manner 


possible;  or  pieces  of  glass  al)Out  two  inches  gentle  heat, 
square,  the  angles  o;  which  are  blunted  \n 
order  that  the  cloth  may  be  v.  ithout  wrinkles. 
■W  hen  these  pieces  of  cloth  are  Kuflicieiitly 
dry,  a  layer  of  white  lead  finely  ground  in  oil 
of  pinks  or  puppies  ((he  whitest  thr.t  can  be 
procured)  is  applied  on  them  with  a  knife. 
To  this  layer,  when  dry  enough  to  admit  of 
scraping,  more  may  be'added  if  necessary. 

As  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the 
prcscTvation  of  Uiis  kinc^cf  pa'nting,  that  the 
layers  are  purged  of  oil,  in  order  that  thev  may 
imbibe  tiie  colours  laid  on  them,  it  is  necessary 
that  their  surface  is  made  very  smootii,  and 
is  very  dry  and  hard. 

The  artist  is  next  provided  with  a  circle  of 
copiier,  nearly  two  inches  in  diameter,  and 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  height,  extremely 
thin,  and  painted  on  tlie  inside  wi'li  black'. 
This  circle  is  employed  to  contain  the  water 
on  the  surface  of  the  picture. 

Water  distilled  from  rain  or  snow  is  prefer- 
able to  any  other;  ordinary  water,  on  ac- 
count of  the  salts  which  il  contains,  bting  i^er- 
nicious  to  this  mode  of  painting. 

The  colours,  also,  must  be  ground  between 
two  Orient.d  agates,  most  carefully  preserved 
from  dust;  and  mixed  with  oil  of  poppies,  or 
any  other  siccative  oil,  which  has  been  ex- 
tracted without  liie,  and  limpid  as  water. 

All  the  colours  being  ground,  are  placed  in 
a  small  heap,  on  a  piece  of  glass  covered  with 
distilled  water,  in  a  tin  box. 

The  materials  being  thus  prepared,  the 
subject  to  be  painted  is  faintly  traced  with  a 
black-lead  pencil  on  one  of  the  pieces  of  cloth 
above-mentioned. 

The  tints  are  formed  on  the  pallet  from  the 
little  heaps  under  the  water,  and  the  pallet 
placed  as  usual  in  the  left  hand. 

The  picture  is  held  bi'tween  the  thumb  and 
fore  linger,  supported  by  ihe  middle,  and  the 
necessary  pencils  between  the  third  and  little 
fingers.  The  hand  rests  on  the  back  of  a 
chair,  to  give  a  full  liberty  of  bringing  the 
work  near,  or  removing  it  Ironi,  the  eye. 

'ihe  peneils  are  cleaned  with  essence  of 
rectiliedturpenline. 

After  havmg  made  the  rough  draught  with 
the  colours  still  fresh,  the  circle  of  copper 
which  ought  to  surround  the  picture  is  lilted 
exactly  to  die  surface. 

The  distilled  water  is  poured  within  this 
circle  till  it  rises  to  the  height  of  one-eighth  of 
an  inch,  and  the  eye  is  held  perpemhciilar 
over  the  object.  The  third  linger  of  the 
right  hand  must  rest  on  the  internal  right  angle 
ol  the  picture. 

'I'lie  artist  retouches  liis  work,  adding  co- 
lour and  softening  as  he  finds  requisite. 

As  soon  as  the  oil  swims  on  the  top,  the 
water  is  poured  off,  and  the  picture  carefully 
covered  with  a  watch-glass,  and  dried  iii  a 
box  by  a  gentle  heat. 

AVIien  it  is  dry  enough  to  be  scraped  nearly 
smooth  with  a  knife,  the  artist  repeats  the 
same  method  till  he  issatislied  with  his  work. 


It  is  at  this  period  that  the  advantage  of  tins 
new  method  particularly  shews  itsell  for  the 
purpose  of  linishiiig ;  as  Ihe  water  poured  on 
tile  picture  discovers  every  fault  of  the  peii- 


HlSTORV    or    TAINTING. 

Rise, progress,  and  decline  of  tlie  art  among 
l/ie  unliinls. 

As  far  as  Iiistory  reaches  back  into  past 
ages,  it  presents  us  with  manifest  proofs  of  the 
anti([uily  of  painting  and  the  oilier  arts  of  de- 
sign, 'i  he  (irst  writers  of  Iiistory  were  in  no 
I'.ttle  degree  indebted  to  those  arts  for  their 
best  materials  and  surest  vouchei-s  in  com- 
piling their  records :  painting,  sculpture,  and 
other  monumenls,  h;iving  been  employed  in 
the  mn^t  antient  times  to  jiieserve  the  me- 
mory of  facts,  anil  likewise  to  represent  re- 
ligious and  pl'.ilosophical  opinions. 

It  is  natural  to  imagine  that  a  certain  rude 
way  of  di'lineating  objects  has  in  all  countries 
preceded  the  more  arlilicial  communication 
of  Ihe  thoughts  by  letters,  and  hence  we  hear 
of  the  picture-writing  of  the  JNIexicans,  and 
the  hieroglyphic  symbols  of  Egypt. 

I'liny  expressly  says  that  the  art  of  paint- 
ing was  unknown  in  the  times  described  by 
Homer,  the  most  antient  of  authors,. in  the 
Iliad;  but  lieacknowledges  that  sculpture  was 
in  use  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  from  wlience  it  is 
evident  that  design,  which  is  the  basis  and 
es-ential  part  of  painting,  was  even  then  well 
understood.  Although  the  name  of  the  art 
is  not  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Homer, 
yet  the  art  itself  is  there  plainly  described,  as 
it  consists  in  design  and  colouring.  We  can, 
therefore,  hadly  doubt  that  painting  was 
practised  even  at  that  early  period  ;  at  least. 
Homer  himself  must  be  allowed  by  everyone 
w  ho  reads  his  lively  descriptions  of  carvings, 
statues,  sculptures,  tapestries,  and  picturesipie 
ornaments  of  all  kinds,  to  have  hatl  very  per- 
fect ideas  of  all  ihe  arts  of  design,  not  only  of 
statuary  and  sculpture,  but  of  painting. 

J5ut  the  (  arliest  date  of  jiainting  appears  to 
have  been  in  Persia,  India,  and  China,  if  we 
give  credit  to  the  writers  of  those  countries. 
Neither  the  Persians,  however,  nor  the 
Chinese,  appear  to  have  at  any  time  attained 
to  excellence  in  painting.  The  former,  as 
well  as  the  Arabians,  had,  at  one  period,  some 
knowledge  of  mosaic,  and  their  carpets,  worked 
■ivith  various  figures,  were  in  high  estimation 
ill  Ihe  time  of  Alexander  the  tireat;  but  all 
such  productions  are  of  an  inferior  class,  as 
lliev  must  necessarily  be  copied  from  other 
works.  Painting,  among  the  modern  Pei"- 
sians,  is  still  in  the  same  low  degree. 

The  Chinese  paintings  have  little  other 
merit  than  the  brightness  of  their  colours. 
The  pictures  of  Ihe  Chinese  artists  are  totally 
deficient  in  drawing  and  perspective. 

In  India,  painting  aj)pears  to  have  been 
confined  in  the  i-arliest  times  to  the  represen- 
tation of  monstrous  forms,  connected  with  (he 
superstition  of  the  country.  The  paintin'..rs  of 
Thibet  are  said  to  be  remarkable  tor  the  line- 
ness  of  the  penciling,  but  to  have  no  other 
merit.  Some  of  the  idols  are  painted  in  imi- 
latioii  of  relievo,  but  are  wholly  destitute  of 
beauty. 

In  Kgypt,  according  to  the  accounts  given 
by  Plato,  painting  had  been  practised  for  se- 
veral ihousaud  years  before  his  time,  but  \r« 


PAINTING, 


<\ci  not  know  witli  w'.iat  d.-c^vi;  of  |;ron,rff3s. 
I'lv  inonunii'iits  of  Egyptian  |xiintii)g,  suys 
\\"uirki"lni.in,  w.lii  wl'.icli  wi-  aix-  bcsl  afciuaiut- 
pil,  are  tin'  fhests  of  (licir  imiiiiiuies,  which 
liave  I'luluri'cl  so  long  that  they  appear  to  be 
secure  from  the  injiirips  of  lime.  T  liat  learned 
antiquarian  gi\e5  the  following  accoujit  ol  the 
lui'thud  of  painting  nied  on  these  cheats: 

''  White,  made  of  white  lead,  is  tirst  laid 
on  as  a  crour.d,  and  the  oiitliiies  of  the  lignre 
are  traced  on  this  ground  with  black.  The 
colours  aft.Twards  used  are  tour  in  number, 
nainely,  blue,  red,  yellow,  and  green,  and 
tlieseare  laid  on  witlinut  any  mixture  or  shad- 
ing. The  red  and  bUie  prevail  most,  and 
seem  to  have  been  pre]iared  in  the  coarsest 
manner.  '1  he  light  is  formed  by  leaving  the 
\vliitc-le;id  ground,  where  it  is  necessary,  in 
the  same  manner  as  white  paper  is  treated  in 
drawings. ' 

In  the  travels  of  Norden  in  Upper  Egypt, 
tliere  !•:  a  description  of  som.,-  colossal  figures, 
coloured  in  the  same  manner  as  the  mummies. 
The  eoloLirs  are  laid  on  a  ground  prepared  in 
the  manner  of  fresco,  and  they  are  said  to 
have  retained  their  freshness  for  many  thou- 
santl  years. 

'I'he  painting  of  the  chests  of  mummies,  of 
earthen-ware,  and  of  ornaments  on  their 
barges,  appears  to  have  been  the  chief  em- 
ployment of  the  Egyptian  artists.  Pliny  re- 
lates that  they  painted  also  on  the  precious 
metals,  but  in  what  manner  they  exercised 
this  latter  branch  of  art  is  unknown. 

This  style  of  Egyptkm  painting  is  supposed 
to  have  continued  till  tlie  reign  of  the 
Ptok-mies. 

In  antient  F.truria,  now  called  Tuscany,  the 
arts  nourished  at  a  very  early  period.  Pliny 
savs  tiial  i)ainling  was  carried  to  great  per- 
fection in*  Italy  before  the  fonnclation  of 
liome;  and  it  appears  tlial  even  in  his  time 
the  painters  of  Etruria  were  helii  in  great 
esteem. 

The  oi'ily  Etnn-ian  paintings  which  are 
now  remaining  were  found  in  the  tomb  of  the 
'rarcpiins.  1  hey  consist  of  long  painted 
frizes,  and  pilasters  adorned  with  large  figures 
which  occupied  the  whole  space  froin  the 
base  to  the  cornice.  Thise  paintings  are  on  a 
ground  of  thick  mortar,  and  many  of  them  in 
a  high  slate  of  preservation. 

WinckeliTian  is  of  opinion,  that  in  Cam- 
pania also  the  arts  had  been  introduced  by  the 
colonics  of  Greeks  who  settled  at  Naples  and 
Kola ;  but  considers  as  purely  Campanian 
works  some  medals  of  Capua  and  Teanuni, 
whither  the  Greeks  had  not  reached,  and 
praises  the  beauty  of  several.  The  autliority, 
however,  of  these  medals  is  questioned. 

There  have  been  discovered  also,  says  tlie 
learned  abbe,  a  great  number  of  painted  Cam- 
panian vases,  which,  for  design,  are  wortliy  of 
a  place  in  the  works  of  KalVael,  and  give  us 
a  high  idea  of  the  perfection  of  antient  art. 

But  it  is  in  Greece  that  the  history  of 
painthig  is  first  deserving  of  particular  atten- 
tion. The  Greeks  have,  with  mo^t  singular 
diligence,  preserved  the  names  of  their  artists 
from  the  earliest  introduction  of  the  arts 
amongst  them.  Ardices  of  Corinth,  and  Te- 
lephanes  and  Crato  of  Sicyon,  are  noticed  at 
a  period  when  painting  had  advanced  no 
farther  than  the  mere  circumscription  of  slia- 
ilows  by  single  lines.  'I'o  this  mode  of  design 
they  gave  the  name  of  sciographia.  Those 
artists  taught  something  of  the  effect  of  light 


and  shade,  and  of  course  gave  an  appearance  of 
rotindness  to  the  object  represcnled.  This 
step  of  art  was  first  called  grnphice.  Totliese 
succeeded  the  moiio<hromatisls,  a  numerous 
list ;  the  first  of  whom  was  Cleophantes  the 
Corinthian,  who  filled  up  his  outline  with  a 
single  colour,  every  where  of  equal  force,  and 
thence  gave  the  name  of  monochroms  (or  ob- 
jects ofone  rolour)  to  his  paintings. 

Ciinon  Cleona-us  invented  the  art  of  vary- 
ing tlu;  attitudes  of  his  figures,  distinguishing 
the  joints  and  nniscles,  and  imitating  the  (olds 
of  draperies.  But  the  highest  (iicomiuni  given 
of  him  bv  Jl'lian,  is  that  he  somewhat  im- 
proved the  rude  art  of  his  time. 

The  antient  schools  were  those  of  Sicyon, 
Uhodes,  Corinth,  and  Atli'Mis.  Pliny  men- 
litms  th;it  the  authority  of  Eiipompiis,  anartist 
of  Sicvon,  was  of  so  great  weight  that,  whereas 
before  him  there  were  only  two  schools,  the 
Asiatic-  and  the  Grecian,  they  were  from  his 
time  divided  into  three,  the  Attic,  Sicyonian, 
and  loiiic. 

Aglaophon  and  Polygnotus  of  Tiiasos,  who 
lived  about  420  years  before  Christ,  were  the 
first  painters  of  emiionce.  Polygnotus  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  who  gave  a  pleas- 
ing air  to  the  draperies  and  head-dresses  of 
his  female  figures,  and  to  h.ave  opened  tlu- 
mouth  so  far  as  to  shew  the  beaiity  of  the 
tei;th.  Aristotle  speaks  of  him  as  excellent 
in  CNpression.  I5ut  the  art  of  jjainting  may 
be  still  considered  to  have  been  in  an  iiifVrior 
state  till  the  time  of  Timanthes,  Parrhasius, 
and  Zeu.xis,  who  flouri>hed  about  the  period 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

In  tlni  contest  between  the  two  'latter  of 
these  great  painters,  Zeuxis  declared  himself 
to  beOvercome,  because  a  cluster  of  grapes, 
painted  by  him,  had  only  deceived  the  birds, 
but  he  w"as  himself  deceiveil  by  a  curtain 
painted  by  his  rival.  The  principal  works  of 
Z;u\is,  according  toPhny.werehis  Penelope, 
in  which  he  appeared  to  have  e.\presseil  the 
mannrrsofthat  princess;  a  Jupiter  surrounded 
by  the  gods;  the  infant  Hercules  strangling 
the  serpents  in  the  presence  of  Amphitryon 
and  Alcmene; Helen; and  iMarsyas  bound  by 
Apollo.  Lucian  aho  gives  an  account  of  a 
picture  by  Zcuxis,  representing  male  and  fe- 
male centaurs;  in  describing  which,  after 
speaking  of  the  composition  itself,  he  proceeds 
to  notice  the  execution  of  the  work:  and 
praises  jjarlicularly  the  truth  and  delicacy  of 
the  drawing,  tin-  perfect  blending  of  the  co- 
lours, the  skilful  shading,  and  the  scientific  ob- 
servance of  proportion  and  harmony  through- 
out the  whole  performance. 

Parrhasius  was  esteemed  superior  to  otliers 
in  correctness  of  outline  and  softness  of  co- 
louring. Timanthes  is  chiefly  celebrated  for 
expression,  and,  in  particular,  for  his  picture 
of  the  sacrifice  of  Iphigenia;  in  which  he  co- 
vered the  face  of  Agamemnon  with  a  mantle, 
because  he  thought  it  impossible  to  represent 
anv  expression  adequate  to  the  feelings  of  his 
situation. 

The  fame  of  these  great  artists  was  sur- 
passed by  the  class  of  painters  who  imme- 
diately succeeded  them.  Protogenes,  Pam- 
philus,  Melaiithiu'i,  Antiphilus,  Theon,  Ku- 
phranor,  and,  finally,  Apelles,  carried  the  art 
of  painting  to  the  utmost  perfection  which  it 
has  ever  attained.  Tliese  were  chiefly  emi- 
nent in  sepaiate  provinces  of  art.  Euphranor 
united  a  great  skill  in  various  branches,  and 
Apelles   eclipsed   all   other    painters  in  hi; 


343 

powers  of.  givin;  flegancc  and  grace  to  h:s 
figures. 

.Fr9m  the  time  of  these  pre-erninent  mas- 
ters, painting  gradually  declined  in  Gvei-ce  ; 
and,  the  Komans  be<'oming  masters  of  the 
whole  country,  the  arts  sunk  into  insipidity 
and  insignificance. 

The  nndispnted  and  imrivalled  excellence 
of  the  Greek  schools  appears  to  have  con- 
sisted in  drawing  and  expression.  None  of 
their  greatest  w oiks  remaining  to  our  time, 
we  can  only  lake  the  accounts  of  historians 
respeiliiii- (heir  powers  of  colouring;  but  it 
is  evident  that  they  were  capable  of  making 
very  nice  distinctions  in  this  branch  of  art, 
from  the  comparison  made  between  two 
plciures.of Theseus,  painted  by  ditlerent  ;rl- 
ists,  in  one  of  which  the  hero  was  said  to  ap- 
pear as  if  he  had  been  fed  on  rosCS,  and  in  the 
other  on  ilesh. 

It  is  still  more  particularly  doubtful  whe- 
ther the  antients  possessed  the  knowledge  of 
chiaro-scnro  in  so  eminent  a  degree  -as  it  has 
since  been  shewn  in  the  works  of  the  Lom- 
bard and  Flemish  schools.  T'lie  present  re- 
mains of  antient  paintings  do  not  certainly 
warrant  any  conclusion  in  their  favour,  al- 
though many  passages  in  their  historians  tend' 
to  make  us  believe  them  skilled  in  this  point; 
and,  as  the  woiksthat  remain  are  undoubtedly 
executed  by  infi'rior  artists,  their  autliority 
may  be  iho'uglit  of  little  weight  against  the 
geiieral  testimony  on  the  contrary  side. 

The  character  of  the  antient  scliool  of  art 
is  thus  given  by  a  Greek  writer: 

"The  paintiiigs  of  the  antients,"  says  Dio- 
iivsius  of  Halicarnassus,  "  were  at  first  simple 
and  unvaried  in  their  colouring,  but  correct 
in  their  drawing,  and  distinguished  by  their 
elegance.  Those  which  succeeded,  less  cor- 
rect in  their  drawing,  were  move  finished; 
move  varied  in  their  light  and  shades  trnstins 
tlieir  effect  to  the  multitude  of  their  colours." 
Roman  art.  ^Ve  have  already  seen  that 
before  the  foundation  of  Rome  the  arts  were 
cultivated  in  Etruria.  Pliny  also  mentions 
some  pirintinss  at  Ardea-,  Lanuvium,  and 
C:rre,  older  than  Rome,  but  it  is  uncertain 
by  what  artists  these  were  executed.  As  long 
as  the  Komans  employed  artists  of  other 
countries,  thev  were  iiidifferent  to-  the  cul- 
tivation of  the' arts;  but  towards  the  year  of 
Rome  450,  and  303  years  before  Chn.^t,  one 
of  the  Fabii,  a  ])atrk-ian  family  in  Rome, 
thought  it  no  discredit  to  employ  himself  in 
painting.  lie  painted  the  temple  of  tlie 
goddess  yalus,  and  assuriK'd  the  name  of 
l''abius  Pictor,  or  the  painter.  His  works  re- 
mained till  the  temple  itself  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  the  reign  of  Claudius. 

The  example  of  Fabius  did  not  excite  imi- 
tation. More  than  a  century  elapsed  before 
the  tragic  poet  Pacuvius  followed  his  ex- 
ample, and  painted  the  temple  of  Hercules. 
Turpilius,a  Roman  knight,  was  also  a  painter, 
con'temporary  with  Paeiivius.  Painting  did 
not  come  into  great  repute  till  the  time  of 
Messala,  who,  as  well  as  Lucius  Scipio,  paint- 
ed representations  of  his  own  victories.  Few 
names  of  Roman  painters,,  even  inthe  time  of 
Augustus,  are  mentioned  by  writers.  The 
arts,  however,  tlourislu-d  iu  high  reputatiou. 
under  many  of  the  cmperoi-s,  particularly  fronv 
die  lime  of  Nerva  to  Antoninus ;  and  Nero- 
is  said  to  have  ]>rided  himself  on  Iiis  skill  in 
painting.  A  colos»al  painting  of  120  feci  in 
height  was  executed  by  his  ordei-Si  aad  was. 


i 


afteiivartls  destroytd  by  lighlnina;.  IMiis  wa:>  , 
the  o;ilv  work  v\-h'idi  i-ip-irliciilady  inemioiiecl  j 
by  anticut  authors  to  have  been  painted  on  j 
cloth. 

Ill  the  tune  of  Claudhis  and  Nero,  the  arts  ! 
had  considerably  degenerated,  and  in  tlu^  de-  j 
Cline  and  fall  ot"thc Honian  empire  they  were 
neglected  aiul  lost  for  many  centuries. 

The  best  authority  to  be  consulted  on  the 
stateof  Grecian  and 'Roman  paintiiii,  is  !he 
relation  of  Pliny  in  his  .SJth  book  of  natural 
lii5;tory  ;  where  the  reader  will  tirid  a  complete 
list  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  painters,  and  of 
their  works,  arranged  in  their  due  classes  of 
merit. 

iElian,  Pausania-s  Quinctilian,  Velleins 
Paterculus,  and  Cicero,  may  also  be  referred 
to  for  instructive  accounts  of  various  works  of 
the  Greek  masters. 

Of  the  metlirxb  of  painting,  and  colours 
cmploi/fd  h'/  the  untitnti. 

The  paintings  of  the  antienl  artists  were 
<rither  moveable,  or  on  the  ceilings  or  com- 
partments of  buildiu'js.  Accordhig  to  Pliny, 
the  most  eminent  painters  were  employed  on 
moveable  pictures.  The  latter  were  either 
on  lir-wood,  larch,  box-wood,  or  canvas,  as 
in  the  instance  of  the  colossal  picture  men- 
tioi\ed  above,  and  sometimes  on  marble. 
When  thi-v  employed  wood,  they  laid  on 
first  a  white  groun'd.  Among  the  antiqui- 
ties of  Herciiianeum  are  four  paintings  on 
•white  marble. 

Their  iminoveable  paintings  on  walls  were 
either  in  fresco,  or  on  the  dry  stucco  in  dis- 
temper. Indeed,  all  the  antient  paintings 
mav  be  reduced  to,  first,  fresco-painting ; 
'  •secondly,  water-colour  or  distemper-painting  ; 
and  thirdly,  encaustic  painting. 

The  antient  fresco-paintings  appear  to 
have  been  always  on  a  white  stucco-ground. 
The  outlines  of  the  antient  paintings  on 
fresco,  were  probably  done  at  once,  as  ap- 
pears from'the  deptli'of  the  incision,  and  the 
boUlncss  and  free<lom  of  the  design.  • 

In  general,  the  antienis  painted  on  a  dry 
ground,  even  in  thi;ir  buildings,  as  appears 
irom  the  Ilerculaneum  antiquities,  most  of 
whicli  are  executed  in  this  manner.  At 
Rome  and  Naples,  the  lirst  (deepest)  coat  is 
of  true  Puzzolana  (of  the  same  nature  with 
the  terras  now  used  in  mortar,  required  to 
keep  out  wet),  about  one  linger  thick ;  the 
next  of  ground  marble,  or  alabaster,  and 
sometimes  of  pure  lime  or  stucco,  in  thick- 
ness about  one-third  of  the  former.  Upon 
this  they  appear  to  have  laid  a  coat  of 
black,  and  then  another  of  red  paint ;  on 
which  last  the  subject  itself  w-as  executed. 
Such  seems  to  have  been  tlieir  method  of 
painting  on  walls ;  but  in  their  moveable 
j>ictures,  and  in  the  performances  of  their 
iirst  artists,  and  where  effect  of  shade  and 
light  was  necessaiy,  they  doubtless  used 
white. 

The  colours  employed,  they  seem  to  have 
mixed  up  with  size:  this  appears  to  have 
made  the  colours  so  durable  and  adhesive, 
that  the  ancient  paintings  lately  found,  bear 
■washing  with  a  soft  cloth  and  water,  and 
sometimes  even  diluted  .i(iuatortis  is  employ- 
ed to  clean  their  paintings  in  fresco.  Pliny 
»ays,  that  glue  dissolved  in  vinegar,  and  then 
•dried,  is  not  again  soluble. 

Wliat  the  encaustic  painting  of  tlie  an- 


I'AINTIXG. 

tieiits  was,  has  been  much  disputed.  From 
the  works  of  Vitruvins  and  Pli"y,  it  appears 
evidently  that  it  wa*  of  thre:;  kin'ls: 

l-'ir-t,'wl)ere  a  picture  jiainted  in  the  com- 
mon way,  was  covered  with  a  varnish  of  wax 
melted,"  diUited  with  a  little  oil,  and  laid  on 
warm  with  a  brush; 

Secondly,  where  the  col'durs  themselves 
were  mixed 'up  with  melted  wax,  aiid  the 
mixture  used  while  warm  ;  and 

Tiiirdlv,  where  a  pauiting  was  executed 
on  ivory'  by  means  of  the  cestrum  or  viri- 
culum. 

Some  experiments  on  this  last  method  by 
Mr.  Colebrook  may  be  found  in  the  Phil. 
Trans,  vol.  .51  and  more  particular  direc- 
tions in  Muntz's  treatise  on  encaustic  paint- 
ing.    See  Encaustic. 

It  appears  from  antient  writings  of  the 
best  authority,  that  in  the  earliest  and  pur- 
est times  of  this  art,  the  painters  used  few 
colours,  perhaps  not  msre  tiian  four.  15nt 
no  certain  conclusion  can  be  drawn,  tirat  the 
more  early  among  the  great  painters  of  the 
antients,  such  as  Apoiled.irus,  Zeuxis,  'I'i- 
manlhes,  &c.  had  no  more  colours  than 
four  to  use,  merely  because  they  did  not 
use  them.  On  the  contrary,  it  may  be 
conjectured  with  some  degree  of  probabi- 
lity, from  their  cliasteness  in  design,  and 
from  the  complaints  Pliny  makes  of  the 
gaudv  taste  of  the  Roman  painters,  that  die 
Greeks  in  general  were  designedly  chaste  in 
their  colouring,  and  not  so  merely  from  ne- 
cessity. 

Of  white  colouring  substances,  the  antients 
had  white  lead  variously  prepared,  a  white 
froni  calcined  egg-shell's,  and  a  preparation 
from  cretaceous  and  argillaceous  earths.  The 
moderns,  in  addition,  have  magistery  of  bis- 
muth, little  used ;  and  ought  to  have  the 
calces  of  tin  and  zinc. 

Of  blacks,  the  antients  had  preparations 
similar  to  lamp,  ivory,  blue,  and  Frankfort 
black  ;  also  to  Indian  ink,  and  common  writ- 
ing ink  ;  and  thev  used  what  we  do  not,  the 
precipitate  of  the  black-dyers'  vats. 

The  antients  possessed  a  species  of  ver- 
milion, or  fine  cinnabar,  a  coarser  cinnabar, 
red  lead;  various  earths  burnt  and  uiiburnt, 
apparently  similar  to  our  red  ochre  ;  Vene- 
tian red,  Indian  red,  Spanish  brown,  burnt 
terra  di  Sienna,  and  scarlet  orhre  ;  they  had 
also  a  substance  alike  in  colour  and  in  name 
to  our  dragon's-blood.     See  Colours. 

The  yellow  pigments  of  the  antients  were 
generally  the  same  w-ith  our  orpiments,  king's 
yellow,  Naples'  yellow,  &c.  They  did  not 
possess  turbeth  mineral,  minexd  yellow,  or 
gamboge;  nor  do  they  appear  to  have  known 
of  gull-stone  as  a  pigment. 

Of  blue  paints  they  had  preparations  from 
the  lapis  syanus,  and  lapis  armenus.  Indigo 
they  had,  and  perhaps  hice  and  smalt;  for 
they  made  blue  glass,  but  whether  from  some 
ore  of  cobalt  or  of  wolfram  must  be  unc(,'r- 
tain  ;  they  had  not  Prussian  blue,  verditer, 
nor  litmus,  which  we  have.  Me  do  not  use 
the  blue  precipitate  of  the  dyers'  vats,  nor 
mountain  blue,  which  they  certainly  em- 
ployed. 

Of  green  colours  they  had  verdigris, 
terra  vert,  and  malachite,  or  mountain  green. 
The  latter  is  not  in  use  among  us.  Sap 
green,  greeu  verditer,  and  Scheeld's  s''cei), 


appear  to  liavc  been  known  to  them:  l:!;t 
us,  they  procured  as  many  tints  as  they 
pleased,  from  blue  and  yellow  vegetables. 

\\'e  have  no  original'purple  in  use  :  that 
from  gold,  \ry  means  of  tm,  though  very 
gooti  when  well  prepared,  is  too  dear  pei- 
ha[)s,  and  unnecessary.  Their  pur|)le  was 
a  tinged  earth.  Their  orange  of  Sandarac, 
(red  orpiment)  we  also  i)ossess.  Hence 
there  does  not  appear  to  have  been  any 
great  want  of  pigments,  or  any  material  dil- 
ference  between  the  colours  they  used,  and 
such  as  we  generally  employ.  Perhaps  (he 
full  eU'ect  of  colouring  may  be  obtained 
without  the  use  of  exceeding  brilliant  pig- 
merits,  depending  chielly  on  the  proportion 
aiul  opposition  ot  tints. 

The  antients  could  not  know  any  thing 
about  the  spirit  varnishes,  distillatii.n  heing 
a  modern  invention ;  but  they  were  un- 
doubtedly acquahited  with  tlie  use  of  the 
belter  oil  varnishes,  that  4s,  with  the  use  and 
eli'ect  of  resinous  gums,  dissolved  in  boiluig 
inspissated  oils. 

One  of  the  best  preserved  mummies  in  the 
British  Museum,  h:is  an  astonishing  bright- 
ness of  colours  on  the  outside  of  the  coliin. 
Thousands  of  years  have  not  impaired  them  ; 
they  are  as  fresii  as  if  they  had  been  laid  on 
yesterdav. 

r'rom  an  accurate  observation  of  one  of 
those  mummies  belonging  to  the  university 
of  Cambridge,  it  appeared  tliat  the  varnish 
wliich  covered  the  colours  could  not  be  dis- 
solved, nor  in  the  least  affected  bv  common 
water,  and  that  it.  equally  resisted  the  dis- 
solving powers  of  Uie  sti'ongest  spirits  ;  lience 
it  is  reasonable  to  conclude,  that  the  cotlins 
of  the  mummies  were  not  covered  with  size, 
whites  of  eggs,  simple  gums,  or  any  prepara- 
tion of  wax,  but  with  a  line  tr;uisparent  oil- 
varnisli.  It  was  discovered  at  the  same  time, 
the  colours  themselves  were  not  prepared  or 
mixed  with  oil ;  for  where  the  external 
glossy  skin  was  damaged,  broken,  or  rubbed 
off,  even  common  water  would  wash  the  co- 
lours away,  and  alfect  the  chalk  ground 
under  them. 

Pliny  has  ilescribed  the  general  and  par- 
ticular elfects  of  the  varnish  of  Ajielles,  under 
the  name  of  atrament,  so  distinctly,  that  no- 
body can  mistake  the  thing,  or  the  mixture 
he  is  speaking  of.  He  has  mentioned  the 
shining  glossy  skin  of  the  varnish,  which  ex- 
cites the  brightness  of  the  colours,  and  pre- 
serves them  against  dust;  he  observed,  that 
this  skin  was  laid  on  so  thiu,  that  it  could 
not  be  discerned  at  any  distance  ;  nor  was 
he  less  accurate  in  reporting  the  particular 
effects  of  that  mixture  which  Apelies  mad* 
use  of;  it  harmonized,  and  lowered  the  lone 
of  the  brightest  llorid  colours  in  an  impei»- 
ceptible  manner,  and  the  whole  appeared  as 
if  it  had  been  seen  through  isinglass.  The 
chemists  and  connoisseurs  are  fully  of  opi- 
nion that  no  liquid  suhstance  or  mixture  of 
any  kind  is  lit  to  produce  these  elfects  be- 
sitles  the  oil-varnislies ;  and  if  there  are  not, 
Ajjelles  and  the  (j  reeks  were  certainly  ac- 
quainted with  these  varnishes;  a  fact,  which 
might  be  strongly  urged  hi  behalf  of  their 
knowledge  of  colours. 

The  black  outlines  of  the  figures  of  the 
most  ancjent  Greek  paintings  yet  extant, 
that  is,  on  Etruscan  vases,  are  so  sharp,  so 
thick,  and  drawn  in  so  easy  and  masterly  a 
maimer,  that  one  caiiuot  help  luolJng  upon 


thfm  a?  Iiaviiij  h  -en  drnwii  in  oil-coloiir*. 
Il.id  tlicy  l>ci'ii  ill  (listciiiper  or  \vatin--i'oloiirs 
Oil  llic  rod  ci.iv  j^roiind  on  wiiicli  they  arc- 
applied,  Ui.-y  would  liavc  l)i"i'ii  iniliihi'iljind 
soaked  into  il.  Our  china  and  eiianiid  paint- 
ers, prepare  and  apply  tlieir  coioms  \ulli 
spilio  or  otiier  liipud  oils;  and  tlie  (Jreek 
ina-itcrs  seem  to  liave  done  the  same,  unless 
tUev  should  appi-ar  to  have  l)nrnt  tlieir  vases 
before  they  painted  tliein,  or  to  have  used  a 
mixture  ot  dissolved  wax  or  s^um  for  giving 
a  body  to  their  colours,  which  iiiii\;lit  have 
answered  the  same  end  as  oils.  Aii.l  this  is 
the  more  probable,  as  there  is  some  re.-.son 
to  believe,  that  these  va'es  went  throuj^h 
two  diilerent  lires,  that  of  baking  them,  and 
that  of  smelting  or  burning-in  their  colours. 

'I'lie  Greek  and  Roman  paintings  thai  have 
Ijeen  preseivcci  or  ili.icr)vered  at  Uonie  and 
llerculaneuni  do  not  countenance  the  sup- 
position of  oil-colours.  On  the  other  hand, 
X'iliuvius,  who  has  left  us  so  many  valuable 
DOtices  of  the  antient  arts,  acquaints  us  that 
there  was  a  kind  of  painting,  which  absolute- 
ly required  a  mixture  ot  oil. 

From  these  observations,  the  evidence 
which  the  antients  have  given  us  in  behaU  of 
themselves,  and  of  their  knowledge  of  oil- 
painting,  may  be  summed  up  in  tew  words. 

Their  having  been  acquainted  with  the 
wliite  ch.dk  ground  which  many  modern 
masters  use  for  oil-painting  on  boards,  proves 
no  more  than  tliat  the  anlients  might  have 
Uone  the  same. 

Tlie  oil-varnishes  used  by  the  Egyptians 
and  Apelles  might  have  brought  them  to  the  i 
<li«<."overy  of  oil-painting ;  but  as  it  appears 
both  from  mummies,  and  from  the  works  of 
Pliny,  that  theiriolours  were  not  prepared  and 
niixed  with  that  varnish,  and  as  it  is  plain 
rather  that  this  varnish  was  externally  laid 
over  the  linished  pictures,  no  other  conclu- 
sion can  be  drawn,  except  that  they  were 
within  sight  of  the  discovery,  and  that  it  is 
a  matter  of  wonder  that  they  should  not 
have  laid  liold  of  it. 

The  outlines  of  the  old  Greek  or  Etruscan 
vases  are  merely  fallacious  appearances. 

The  old  Greek  and  Poman  pa  ntings  on 
walls  and  stones  are  eitlier  painted  in  dis- 
temper or  fresco,  or  they  have  not  been 
suniciently  examined. 

The  oil  used  in  the  coarser  wax  and  wall 
paintings,  proves  at  most,  that  experiments 
had  been  tried  with  oils;  hut  we  have  no 
direct  proofs  of  oil-painting  having  been  un- 
derstood or  used  bv  the  Egyptians,  Greeks, 
or  Romans ;  and  however  great  their  skill 
or  ingenuity,  they  might  very  well  have 
been  witliin  sight  and  reach  of  the  dis- 
covery, and  nevertheless  have  missed  it. 

Rise  and  progress  nf  painting  uninng  the 
modtrns. 

Ituli/.  The  revival  of  painting  in  Italy 
was  owing  to  Giovanni  Cimabue,  bom  at 
Florence  in  the  vear  rJ40  He  acquned  his 
firet  instructions  from  some  inferior  Greek 
painters  then  employed  in  tliat  city,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  art  in  his  own 
country. 

flis  immediate  followers  were  Giotto  and 
his  scjiolars,  whose  mannrr,  like  that  of 
their  master,  was  dry  and  hard  ;  but  the  ad- 
miration bestowed  cin  their  works  excited  a 
general  emulation,  and  they  were  succccdetl 

Vol.  II. 


PAINTING. 

by  Masolini  and  Masaccio,  tin-  latter  of 
wliom  began  to  advance  the  art  by  giving 
a  superior  air  to  his  figures.  Ghirlandaio 
added  a  greater  knowledge  of  distribution 
in  the  subjects  of  his  |)ictures,  as  well  as 
greater  correctness  of  iiesign. 

Andrea  Castagiia  was  the  first  rioreiitine 
who  |)ainted  in  oil.  But  Lionarda  da  Vinci, 
and  -Michael  Angelo  Ikionaroti,  were  the 
glory  of  the  Florentine  art.  Lionardi,  pos- 
sessing a  line  imagination,  and  full  of  sensi- 
bility, entered  into  all  the  details  of  painting, 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  expression  of 
the  alfectioiis  of  tlie  soul.  If,  in  this  sublime 
branch  of  the  art,  he  was  afterwards  surpass- 
ed by  HafT.iele,  he  could  at  least  boast  not 
only  of  excelling  all  the  |)ainters  who  went 
betore  him,  but  of  having  pursued  and  in- 
vestigated a  path  which  none  of  them  had 
attempted  to  enter.  His  design  is  remark- 
able fir  purity,  and  the  most  diligent  exact- 
ness of  tonus. 

Michael  .'Viigelo  delighti^l  in  seeking  the 
great  and  the  terrible,  ratlier  than  the  grace- 
ful and  pleasing.  Reiiig  well  accpiainted  with 
every  ])art  of  anatomy,  he  knew  more  ai- 
curately  than  any  other  artist  in  what  manner 
to  express  the  forms  ami  joinings  of  the 
bones,  and  the  office  of  every  muscle,  its 
origin  and  insertion.  "  In  his  figures,"  says 
Meiigs,  "  the  articulations  of  the  muscles 
are  so  easy  and  free,  that  they  a|  pear  to  be 
made  for  the  attiliule  in  which  he  repre>ents 
them."  His  style  posse^sed  a  degree  of 
grandeur  beyond  any  other  painter.  He 
(lid  not  p.issess,  in  the  opinion  of  Reynolds, 
so  many  delightlul  parts  of  the  art  as  Raf- 
faele,  but  those  which  he  had  acipiired  were 
of  a  more  sublime  nature. 

He  informs  us  in  one  of  his  letters  (con- 
tinues sir  Joshua),  that  he  modelled  in  clay, 
or  in  wax,  all  the  figures  which  he  intended 
to  jiaint,  a  method  familiar  to  the  painters 
of  that  time. 

A'asari  has  recorded  that  he  painted  but 
one  picture  in  oil,  and  resolved  never  to 
paint  another;  saying  it  was  an  employment 
for  women  and  children. 

Michael  Angelo  was  Ixirn  at  Castel  Caprese 
in  Tuscan v  in  1474,  and  died  at  the  age  of 
ninety,  flis  principal  work  is  the  capella 
Sistina  in  the  \'atican,  which  was  painted  by 
order  of  pope  Julius  the  Second.  It  repre- 
sents, in  various  compartments,  the  origin  of 
the  human  race,  and  its  progress  to  society  ; 
theenipire  of  religion  ;  and  the  last  judgment. 
The  contemporary  of  I.ionardo  da  \'inci, 
was  Pietro  Periigino,  the  master  of  Ratl'aelle 
Sanzio  d'Uibino. 

Ralf'aele  was  born  in  14S.3,  and  was  at  an 
early  age  the  pupil  of  Pietro.  His  tirst  man- 
ner was  that  of  his  master;  but  endowed 
with  a  transcendant  genius,  after  carelully 
studying,  and  uniting  in  himself,  all  the  ex- 
cellences of  his  predecessors  and  contem- 
poraries, he  formed  a  style  more  perfect  than 
that  of  any  painter  who  went  before,  or 
has  succeeded  him.  lie  was  si-nt  for  to 
Rome  by  pope  Julius  the  Second,  who  em- 
ployed him  to  paint  several  apartments  of 
the  \'atican  palace. 

It  was  fortunate  fir  Raffaele,  says  Mengs, 
that  he  w'as  born  in  w  hat  he  terms  the  infancy 
of  the  art,  and  that  he  formed  himself  bv 
ctipviiig  nature,  before  he  had  access  to  the 
works  ol    any  great   master.     He  began  bv 


345 

studying,  with  great  exactness,  the  sim])lc 
truth  ill  his  figures;  and  thi.s  liabituattd  to 
iniUate  nature  with  precision,  it  was  not 
difiicu  t  for  him  to  carry  the  same  accuracy 
into  the  superior  style  which  he  adopleu, 
first  on  the  sight  of  the  works  of  the  great 
Florentine  master';,  and  afterwards  in  imita- 
tion of  the  antients'. 

Composition  and  expression  are  the  chief 
excellences  of  Kaffaele.  He  had  too  high 
an  idea  of  painting  to  consider  it  as  a  mute 
art :  he  made  it  sprak  to  the  heart ;  and  this 
could  only  be  done  in  subjects  which  re- 
quired expression.  If  Rat'faele  did  not  attain 
an  excellence  eepial  to  the  Greeks,  he  saw, 
at  least,  and  imitated,  whatever  was  most 
beautiful  and  expressive  in  nature.  "The 
Grecians  sailed  majestically,"  says  Mengs, 
"  betwcvii  earth  and  heaven  ;  RalTaelc  walked 
with  projiriety  on  the  earth." 

At  Venice,  about  the  same  time  with  Li- 
onardo  da  Vinci,  flourished  the  Pjelliiiis  and 
Maiitegiia.  Giovanni  lielliiii  contri!uited 
greatly  to  the  progress  of  painting.  He  is 
accounted  tlie  founder  of  the  Venetian 
school,  by  introducing  the  practice  of  oil- 
painting,  which  he  managed  very  skilfully, 
and  by  teaching  his  scholars  to  paint  after 
nature.  He  gave  a  noble  air  to  his  heads, 
and  there  is  somewhat  of  harmony  in  his 
pictures  ;  but  his  greatest  glory  is  that  he 
was  the  master  of  Giorgione  and  Tiliano 
Vecelli,  who  i  arried  the  Venetian  colouring 
to  perfection. 

Giorgione  died  in  his  3"<1  year,  having 
excited  the  eniulatioii  of  Titian,  who  soon 
greatly   surpassed  him. 

Titian  was  instructed  to  copy  nature  in 
the  most  servile  manner  m  the  school  of 
Bellini,  but  alter  seeing  the  w'orks  of  Gi- 
orgione, he  conceived  the  ideal  excellence 
of  colouring.  The  beauties  of  his  works  are 
to  be  found  in  the  happy  disposition  of  co- 
lours, both  [iroper  and  local,  an  art  which 
he  carried  to  the  extreme  of  skill.  The  art- 
ists in  the  Florentine  and  Roman  schools  had 
painted  chiefly  in  fresco  and  distemper,  and 
linished  their  large  works  from  previous 
sketches ;  but  as  'I'iti  in  painted  in  oil,  and 
linished  directly  from  the  objects  in  nature, 
this  practice,  joined  to  his  natural  talents, 
gave  him  extraordinary  advantage^,  and  the 
gicatest  truth  to  his  pictures. 

He  is  not  eminent  in  historical  pictures 
alone,  but  also  in  landscape.  In  this  pro- 
vince his  scenes  are  well  chosen,  his  trees  are 
bold  and'  varied  in  their  forms,  and  their 
foliage  admirably  executed.  He  generally 
selected  for  his  landscapes  some  singular  ap- 
pearance of  nature. 

In  Lomh'irdi!,  about  the  same  period  also, 
Bianchi,  bom  at  Modena,  instructed  in  paint- 
ing Antonio  Allegri,  better  known  by  the 
name  of  Correggio.  Correggio  began,  like 
the  other  painters  of  his  time,  to  imitate  na- 
ture alone,  but  soon  enlarged  his  manner, 
and  gave  ease  and  grandeur  to  his  designs. 
He  painted  chiefly  in  oil,  a  kind  of  painting 
susceptible  of  tlie  greatest  delicacy  and 
sweetness,  and  he  gave  a  pleasing  and  cap- 
tivating tone  to  his  pictures.  His  method 
was  to  lay  his  colours  very  thick  on  the 
brightest  parts  of  his  pictures,  in  order  to 
make  them  caiJible  of  receiving  afterwards 
the  highest  degree  of  light,  lie  perceived 
tliat  the  rellections  of  light  corrcipoiid  witk 


Si6 

the  colour  of  tlie  body  which  reflects  them, 
and  on  these  pi'hiciplei  fouiideil  his  systtra 
of  colouring. 

A  delicate  taste  in  colours,  a  perfect  know- 
kdge  of  chiaro-siiiro,  the  art  of  iiiiilins  light 
to  liglit  and  shade  to  shade,  together  with 
that  of  detaching  all  objects  from  their 
gronud,  and  an  inimitable  harmony  of  design, 
placed  Correggio  in  tlie  class  of  the  greatest 
masters  whom  Italy  has  known. 

From  these  gre.it  masteri  descended  the 
schools  of  Florence,  Rome,  Venice,  and 
Lombardv,  in  which  the  most  distinguished 
painters  w'ere  Fra  Bartolomeo  di  San  .\Iarco, 
.Andrea  del  Sarto,  Giuho  Romano,  Vasari, 
Polvdoro,  Michael  Angelo  da  Caravaggio, 
Tintoretto,  Paolo  Veronese,  the  Bassans, 
I'ordenone,  Parmigiano,  and  lastly,  the 
C'arraccis,  who  comliining  the  merits  of  the 
various  schools,  became  themselves  the  head 
of  a  school  c.iUed  Uie  Bolognese  school,  from 
the  place  of  their  birtli. 

Ludovico  Carracci  was  the  master  of  the 
other  two,  Annil)ale  and  Agostino.  He  had 
studied  the  works  of  Titian  and  Paolo  Vero- 
nese at  Venice,  those  of  Andrea  del  Sarto  at 
Florence,  those  of  Correggio  at  Parma,  and 
those  of  (riulio  Romano  at  Mantim;  but  he 
chiefly  endeavoured  to  imitate  the  manner 
of  Correggio. 

Annibliie  studietl  equally  Correggio  and 
Titian,  but  he  is  princiixilly  estc-emed  for  his 
knowledge  of  design.  Agostino  possessed  a 
ininJ  greatly  cultivated  by  learning,  and  he 
devoted  part  of  liis  time  to  poetry  and  music. 
These  three  painters  often  united  their  skill 
in  the  performance  of  the  same  picture,  and 
their  works  are  often  confounded  together, 
although  the  style  of  each  is  strongly  differ- 
ent from  the  o'lher  two.  Ludovieo  had  less 
lire,  but  Biore  gracefulness  and  grandeur; 
Agostino's  conceptions  were  more  spirited ; 
and  Annibale  is  characterized  by  boldness,  by 
a  more  profaund  design,  and  a  more  power- 
ful readiness  of  execution.  "  Ludovico," 
Sivs  sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  "  appears,  in  his 
be'st  works,  to  approach  the  nearest  to  per- 
fection. His  unaffected  breadth  of  light  and 
shadow,  the  simplicity  of  colouring,  and  the 
solemn  erfect  of  that  twilight  which  is  diffused 
over  his  pictures,  appear  to  correspond 
with  grave  and  dignified  subjects  better  than 
the  more  artificial  brilliancy  of  sunshine, 
which  enlightens  the  pictures  of  Titian. 

The  C'arraccis  established  an  acatlemy  at 
Bologna,  which  their  zeal  for  the  arts  in- 
duced them  at  first  to  call  TAcademia  dee 
Desiderosi,  but  it  was  soon  called  by  tlie 
name  of  the  founders,  because  none  more 
honourable  couid  be  given  to  it.  In  tlic 
schools  of  this  academy  were  taught  the  art 
of  modelling,  perspective,  and  anatomy  ; 
Jessons  were  given  on  the  beauty  of  tiie  pro- 
port'ODs  of  nature,  on  the  best  manner  of 
applying  colours,  and  on  the  principles  of 
liglit  and  shade.  They  held  freipienl  meet- 
ings, to  which  men  of  general  learning  were 
admitted  ;  but  these  meetings  ceased  on  the 
cleparlure  of  Annibale,  when  he  went  to 
Rome  to  paint  the  gallery  of  the  cardinal 
Farncsc. 

Tne  most  eminent  succeeding  painters  of 
the  Bolognwe  school,  were  Guido,  Lanfran- 
co,  Albano,  and  Guercino.  CJuido  is  dis- 
tiiiguished  'by  the  gracefulness  of  his  style, 
and  Guercino  bv  boldness  of  colour  and  effect. 

la  the  Rumaii  school,  I'ictro  da  Coitona 


PAINTING. 

succeeded  to  tlM)se  great  imitators  of  their 
predecessors  and  nature;  and  finding  it  dii- 
ncult  to  rival  tliein  in  that  kind  qf  painting, 
he  applied  liimself  principally  to  composition, 
and  the  arrangement  of  numerous  groups. 
His  contemporary  and  rival  was  Andrea 
Sacchi,  followed  by  Carlo  Maratti,  wlio 
flourished  at  Rome  about  the  middle  of  tlie 
17th  century,  and  aiming  at  extraordinary 
perfection,  diligently  studied  the  works  of 
the  greatest  painters,  and  particularly  Uaf- 
faele  apd  the  school  of  the  Carracci.  He  is 
the  last  eminent  painter  of  the  Roman 
school.  His  best  disciple  was  Francesco 
Imperiale,  after  whom  I'omiJeo  Battoiii  is 
the  on'y  one  with  whose  wcrks  we  are  ac- 
quainted. 

At  Naples,  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th 
century,  Guiseppe  Ribeia,  called  Spagiio- 
letto,  painted  in  the  style  of  Caravaggio, 
and  surpassed  him  in  invention,  design, 
and  choice  of  subject.  Luca  Giordano 
was  his  disciple,  who  afterwards  studied 
under  Pielro  da  Coitona  at  Rome,  and  re- 
turning to  Naples,  became  the  founder  of 
the  Neapolitan  school.  Of  this  school  So- 
limeiii  and  Sebastian  Conca  are  the  principal 
ornaments. 

During  tl;e  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, painting  began  to  appear  anew  in  Ger- 
many, France,  Holland,  and  Flanders. 

German!/.  The  names  of  Albert  Durer, 
Kranach,  Holbein,  and  Ambcrger,  stood  high 
at  Nuremberg,  Augsburg,  BasiJ,  and  Wei- 
mar, in  the  beginning  of  the  Uilh  century, 
but  the  capital  of  Vienna  aflbrded  no  en- 
couragement to  paintinor  till  the  reign  of 
Rodolph  the  Second.  The  succeeding  mo- 
narchs,  principally  from  Ferdinand  the 
Third  to  Leopold'the  First,  were  great  pro- 
moters of  the  arts ;  but  the  perpetual 
wars  in  wdiich  they  were  involved,  pre- 
vented the  progress  of  refinement ;  and 
it  was  not  till  the  total  repulse  of  the  Turks 
from  the  Austrian  frontiers,  under  tiie  last 
of  these  princes,  that  painting  began  to  flou- 
rish at  Vienna.  The  artists  of  the  German 
school  are  numerous,  but  few  of  tliem  have 
risen  to  eminence.  Of  those  few,  Albert 
Durer  is  the  first  in  the  order  of  time,  and 
Mengs  the  latest. 

Albert  was  born  in  1471,  and  excelled  in 
painting  and  engraving.  His  pi<tures  were 
finished  with  great  exactness,  but  his  manner 
was  dry  and  hard.  His  principal  works 
were  painted  at  Prague  in  the  palace  of  the 
emperor  Maximilian,  by  whom,  as  well  as 
by  Charles  the  Filth,  he  was  held  in  great 
esteem.  Raffaele  is  said  to  have  hung  the 
prints  of  Albert  Durer  in  his  own  apart- 
ment. 

Holbein  was  nearly  contemporary  with 
Durer.  He  is  known  by  a  multitude  of  ac- 
curate portraits,  and  was  likewise  eminent 
for  richness  of  invention,  which  he  displayed 
in  numerous  designs  for  gravers,  sculptors, 
and  jewellers.  His  Dance  of  Death,  paintid 
in  tlie  town-hall  of  Ba^U■,  is  universally  ce- 
lebrated. He  is  remarkable  for  having,  like 
Turpilius,  the  Roman,  performed  all  his 
works  with  his  Ifft  hand. 

Kneller,  born  at  Lubeck,  in  the  diichv  of 
Ilolstein,  received  his  (iist  instructions  rt'om 
Uembrandt.  He  painted  chiefly  portraits, 
which  were  highly  celebrated  in  F.ngland 
(luring  tli«   reigns   of  Cliarlcs  the  Sccoud, 


James  the  Second,  William  the  Third,  Annp, 
and  George  the  First. 

Antonio  Rafiiiel  Mengs,  one  of  the  most 
scientific  painters  of  any  country,  was  edu- 
cated in  Germany  ;  but  painted  chiefly  at 
Rome,  and  at  Madrid  ;  to  which  latter  capi- 
tal he  was  invitetl  by  Charles  the  Third, 
He  practised  his  art  with  an  extreme  dili- 
gence, which  has  deservedly  rendered  him 
eminent.  His  works  possess  many  beauties 
of  composition,  and  mechanical  execution. 
His  writings  are  too  frequently  metaphysi- 
cal, but  contain  many  excellent  disquisitiotis 
on  painting,  calculated  to  ins|)ire  the  artist 
with  exalted  ideas  of  his  profession. 

HoUaiid  and  Flanders.  The  Dutch  and 
Flemish  schools  are  nearly  as  much  distio- 
guished  by  the  number,  as' by  the  e.xcellence 
of  their  arti^ts. 

In  the  former  school,  the  precedence  of 
fame  in  point  of  date,  is  given  to  Lucas  van 
Leyden,  born  in  1494.  He  was  a  laborious 
competitor  of  Albert  Durer,  and  resembles 
him  in  mariner  and  style. 

Polemberg,  Ostade,  Gerard  Dow,  Mieris^ 
Wouvermans,  C'uyp,  Berghem,  Vanderwerf, 
A'an  Huysuni,  Schalchen,  Brower,  Hems- 
kirk,  are  amongst  the  eminent  painters 
of  the  Dutch  school ;  but  they  are  all 
greatly  surpassed  by  the  truly  astonishing 
genius  of  Rembrandt,  many  of  whose  works 
seem  even  to  surpass  nature  in  force  and 
eflect.  His  etchings,  also  are  highly  and 
deservedly  valued.  It  is  not,  however,  to 
be  omitted,  that  the  singular  merit  of  his 
original  conceptions  and  compositions  is 
counterbalanced  by  the  grossness  of  his 
forms. 

The  honour  of  founding  the  Flemish 
school  is  attributed  to  John  of  Bruges  ;  and 
the  names  of  his  successors  are  too  many  to 
admit  of  detail.  Their  works  are  to  be 
found  in  every  cabinet.  The  most  illustri- 
ous masters  of  tliis  school  are  Rubens  and 
\'andyck. 

To  John  of  Bruges,  belter  known  br  the 
name  of  John  van  Eyk,  was  for  a  long'tim» 
attributed  the  invention  of  oil-painling  ;  tsut 
lie  had  only  the  honour  of  transmitting  that 
method  to  Italy,  where  a  picture  painted 
by  him,  and  sent  to  Alphon-^o,  king  of 
Naples,  first  divulged  the  discovery.  I'rans 
Floris  is  celebrated  as  the  Ralfaele'of  Fland- 
ers. De  Vos,  Segre,  Diepenbech,  Teniers,- 
Jordaens,  stand  prominent  in  the  catalogue 
of  merit  in  the  same  school. 

Rubens  possessed  a  most  fertile  and  ex- 
tensive genius,  and  produced  an  immense 
number  of  works.  This  extraordinary  paint- 
er distinguished  himself  equally  in  histoic.il, 
|)ortrait,  and  landscape  painting  ;  in  animals, 
fruits,  and  flowers.  He  both  invented  and 
executed  with  the  utmost  facility.  His 
drawing,  although  overcharged,  is  not  with- 
out considerable  merit.  He  had  great  know- 
ledge of  anatomy ;  but  he  was  hurried  away 
by  the  ardour  of  execution,  and  too  often 
sacrilieed  form  and  correctness  to  splendour, 
and  the  magic  charms  of  colour.  He  ex- 
celled in  colouring,  and  chiaro-scuro.  He 
studied  principally  in  ]-ombardy,  after  the 
works  of  Titian,  Paolo  Veronese,  an<l  Tinto- 
ret,  from  whose  excellences  he  formed  rules 
for  his  own  practice,  from  which  he  seldom 
deviated. 

He  was  not  only  aii  eminent  painter,  but 


an  arcmiiplisliod  sdiolar,  and  rose  to  Iii}>li 
einployiiiciit  ill  tlic  sfivicc  of  liis  founlrv, 
visitiiu^  scvL'i'al  courts  in  tiie  cliaracler  ol 
an  amliassadoi". 

Of  the  disciples  of  Rubens,  Van(l_vr]<  liesl 
coinjjreliciidfd  all  llie  rnles  and  general  max- 
ims of  his  master;  and  even  s\ir|)asscd  liini 
in  tiie  delicacy  of  his  colonrini^,  parlicnlarly 
in  portraits,  in  which  he  st;vnds  one  of  the 
highest  masters  of  liis  art. 

t'riinre.  Ihe  French  school  or  schools 
may  be  classed  in  three  diliereut  icras,  and 
characterized  by  as  many  different  styles; 
two.  j)rior,  and  one  modern,  since  the  pe- 
riod of  the  late  revolntion.  The  artists  of 
the  former  scliools  cliicfly  a<lopled  the  man- 
ners of  the  various  painters  whose  works  they 
gtudied  or  imitated.  Hut  I'ous.sin,  Vouet, 
l.ii  Brun,  and  Le  Sneiu',  are  those  masters 
wlio  have  given  distinction  to  the  [''rencli 
sriiool  in  the  province  of  history..  .The  fust 
and  the  last  of  these  have  been  compared  by 
the  Fiencli  to  Uall'aele,  whose  example  Le 
Sueur  in  particular  considered  as  his  model. 
I'oussin  studied  the  antique  statues  with  so 
great  devotion,  that  his  pictures  freiiuently 
near  a  strong  resemblance  to  them.  Le 
Brun's  battles  of  Alexander  are  deservedly 
celebrated  for  their  spirit,  composition,  ami 
correct  drawing.  Caspar  Dughet  (common 
ly  called  (iaspar  I'oussin,  from  his  master's 
name,  which  he  adopted),  and  Claude  Gelee 
(called  Claude  I.orraHie,  from  the  place  of 
his  birth),  are  eminent  examples  of  excel- 
lence in  landscape.  The  latti-r  appears  to 
fctand  without  a  rival,  or  at  least  stood  unri- 
Talled  in  his  tim<'.  Both  these  painters  de- 
rived their  professional  knowledge,  as  well  as 
their  choice  of  svibjecls,  from  the  fascinating 
and  classic  objects  of  imitation  whicli  they 
foinid  in  Italy,  where  they  studied  and  nou- 
rished. 

The  arts  which  had  been  raised  in  France 
by  the  masters  before-mentioned  to  very  con- 
siderable dign  ty,  sunk  in  the  second  school 
of  Boucher  and  Vaulor  to  a  state  of  imbeci- 
lity an<l  affectation.  The  reputation  of  a 
coloiH'ist  was  sought  by  exaggerated  tints, 
and  the  lian<l  of  a  master  was  conceived  to 
consist  in  ostentatious  penciling. 

In  a  more  recent  period,  and  particularly 
since  the  revolution,  a  new  style  has  been 
introduced  into  the  arts.  Vien  was  the  first 
reformer  of  this  class,  and  his  example  has 
been  vigorously  followed  by  David  and  his 
contemporaries.  They  have  endeavoured  to 
substitute  a  simple  and  rigid  taste  in  the  place 
of  false  and  glittering  manners.  The  attempt 
is  laudable :  the  residt  will  be  judged  of  by 
posterity. 

The  comparative  merits  of  those  modern 
■sclwols  v\hich  h;<v(;  been  hitherto  mentioned, 
are  thus  given  by  Richardson  : 

"  The  painters  of  the  Roman  school  were 
the  best  designers,  and  had  a  kind  of  great- 
ness, but  it  was  not  antique.  The  Venetian 
and  Lombard  schools  had  e.xcelltnt  colour- 
ists  and  a  certain  grace,  but  entirely  modern, 
especially  those  of  Venice;  but  their  draw- 
ing was  generally  incorrect,  and  their  know- 
ledge in  history  and  the  antique  very  little: 
and  tiie  Bolognese  school  is  a  sort  of  compo- 
sition of  the  others.  Even  Annibale  liimself 
■possessed  not  any  part  of  painting  in  the  per- 
fection that  is  to  be  seen  in  those  from  whom 
his  manner  is  composed ;  though,  \jd  make 


rAlNTTNG. 

amends,  lie  possessed  more  parts  llian  ptr- 
haps  any  other  n'.aster,  and  ni  a  very  high 
degree. 

"  The  works  of  those  of  the  Gernian  schools 
have  a  dryness  and  ungraceful  stiOhess  not 
like  what  is  seen  amongst  the  old  Florentines, 
that  has  something  in  it  pleasing  however; 
but  tills  is  odipus,  and  as  remote  from  the 
antique  as  Gothicisin  could  carry  it. 

"  'I'Ik'  Flemings  Have  been  good  colourists, 
and  imitated  nature  as  they  conceived  it; 
that  is,  instead  of  raising  nature,  tlioy  fell  be- 
low it,  though  not  so  nnich  as  the  Germans, 
nor  in  the  same  manner.  lUibens  himself 
lived  and  died  a  Fleming,  though  he  would 
lain  Jiave  been  an  Italian  ;  but  his  imitators 
^lave  caricatured  his  manner ;  that  is,  thev 
have  been  more  Rubens  in  his  defects  Ih.iu 
he  himself  was,  but  without  his  excellences. 

"  The  French,  excepting  some  few  of  them 
(N.  Poussin,  Le  Sueur,  Sebastien  Bourdon, 
&c.),  as  they  have  not  the  German  stilTness, 
nor  the  Flemish  ungracefulness,  neither  have 
they  tht  Italian  solidity ;  and  in  their  airs  of 
heads  and  manners,  they  are  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  anli(|uc,  how  much  soever 
tliey    ni»y    have    endeavoured    to    imitate 

Spai-n.  The  art  of  painting  began  to  flou- 
rish in  Spain  during  the  reigns  of  Charles  the 
Fifth  and  Philip  the  Second.  The  style  of 
painting,  however,  was  not  distinguished  by 
sreat  excellence  until  tiie  works  of  \'elasc|uez 
appeared.  From  tlie  masterly  imitation  of 
nature  displayed  in  his  pictures,  the  school 
of  the  nation  'has  been  tormed. 

iiurbaran  and  Herrera  are  among  the  best 
painters  before  X'elasquez ;  and  Murillo  for 
the  most  distinguished  after  him.  The  soft- 
ness of  tints  and  harmony  of  colour  in  the 
paintings  of  Murillo  seem  to  enchant  the 
eye. 

In  Russia  the  arts  are  at  present  cultivated 
with  great  energy,  and  with  unremitting  at- 
tention on  the  part  of  the  government. 

In  America  also,  great  establishments  are 
forming  at  New  'S'ork  and  Philadelphia,  with 
the  same  view  to  the  promotion  of  the  arts. 

It  now  oidy  remains  to  speak  of  the  art  of 
painting  in  lingland,  where  it  is  at  present 
making  great  advances  towards  excellence. 

Painting  has  been  culti\  ated  in  F.ngland  at 
several  periods  with  various  success.  We 
shall  here  gi\e  the  account  of  it  from  Mr. 
West's  letter  in  the  tliird  number  of  Acade- 
mic Annals,  published  by  the  Royal  Academy 
of  London. 

"  Many  sovereigns  of  this  country  have 
noticed  and  patronized  the  fine  arts.  Ed- 
ward the  Third  caused  several  chapels  to  be 
embellished  with  painted  glass  and  enamelled 
monuments,  as  well  as  with  paintings  on  the 
walls,  representing  scriptural  subjects,  and 
others  from  the  cliurch  legends,  together 
with  portraits  of  then  existing  characters  of 
both  sexes.  The  chapel  of  St.  Stephen, 
Westminster,  was  the  most  conspicuous. 

"  Henry  the  Seventh  gave  patron.ige  to 
many  ingenious  men,  both  in  painting,  sculp- 
ture, and  architecture. 

"  Henry  the  Eighth  followed  the  example 
of  his  father,  in  giving  patronage  to  eminent 
men.  He  invited  those  of  the  greatest  cele- 
brity in  painting  in  Italy,  Germany,  and 
Flanders,  to  visit  his  capital.  Raffaele  and 
Titian  he  wished  to  see  at  his  court;  and  he 
►endeavoured  to  draw  them  thither  bv  the 


Sir 

most  splendid  offers:  but  not  succeeding  in. 
his  (lesne,  he  procured  sereial  of  their  works; 
in  particular  the  picture  of  St.  George,  by 
Raffaele,  at  present  in  the  possession  of  the 
king  of  S])ain,  and  the  two  pictures  by  'I'l- 
tian,  now  in  the  gallery  of  the  marcpiis  of 
Stal'lord;  the  subjects  of  wjiich  are,  Diana 
and  Acteon,  and  Diana  and  Calisto.  He 
was  mere  fortinr.ite  in  his  invitation  to  Hol- 
bein,at  that  time  famous  as  a  portrait,  pahiter, 
who  resided  in  Henry's  palace,  and  whose 
works  were  soon  spread  through  the  king- 
dom. 

"  Charli.>s  the  I'irst,  more  attached  to  the 
fine  arts  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  formed 
a  splendid  collection  of  the  works  of  the  gre.-it 
Italian  and  I'iemisli  masters.  He  invited  to 
his  court  liubens  and  Vandyck,  and  ether 
painters  of  considerable  eminence,  from  I'lan- 
<(ers  and  Holland;  and  he  gloried  in  ccuiU- 
ing  among  his  natural  subjects  Inigo  Jones, 
Ills  architect,  ,and  Dobson,  who  rose  to  emi- 
nence in  painting.  These  were  the  two  first 
English  artists  wlio  enjoyed  the  patronage  of 
royal  favotn-. 

"  Ciiarles  tlie  Second  was  proud  to  foUov^ 
the  liberal  example  of  his  fatiier,  in  bestow- 
ing rewards  (  n  ingenious  artists.  He  patron- 
ized most  of  those  w  ho  visited  his  court  from 
Italy,  Flanders,  Germany,  and  Holland;  of 
which  the  decorative  paintings  on  tiie  w  alls  iit 
\\  indsor-castU',  and  the  palace  of  Hampton- 
court,  by  ^'errio,  and  others,  are  evident 
proofs ;  beside  many  pictures  from  poetical 
subjects,  by  Gennari,  as  well  as  portraits  by 
several  painters  of  considerable  eminence. 
The  favours  which  this  monarch  showered  on 
the  arts,  were,  however,  conlined  to  foreign 
artists. 

"  Queen  Anne  was  the  first  of  our  sove- 
reigns who  called  into  activity  the  British 
pencil,  as  the  paintings  in  the  cathedral  of 
St.  Paul's,  and  llie  hi)!-pital  at  Greenwich,  by 
sir  .lames  Thornhill,  and  others  under  his  di- 
rection, suflicientlv  evince.  In  architecture, 
sir  Christopher  Wren  was  equally  distinguish- 
ed by  her  favour. 

"  But  to  form  the  great  epocha  of  patron- 
age conferred  by  a  British  king  on  British 
subjects,  in  painting,  sculpture,  and  archi- 
tecture, was  reserved  fort  lie  reign- of  his  prc^ 
sent  majesty,  George  the  Third. 

"  In  the  year  1768,  his  majesty  gave  h\< 
royal  sanction  to  a  plan  formed  for  the  esta- 
blishment of  an  academy  of  painting,  sculii- 
ture,  and  architecture,  of  which  he  was  gra- 
ciously pleased  to  become  the  protector  and 
patron, 

"  In  the  three  branches  of  art  which  con- 
stitute that  academy,  he  found  many  artists 
already  formed:  among  others  of  consider- 
able celebrity  in  painting,  Reynolds,  Wilson, 
Flayman,  Gainsborough,  Hoare,  Dann,  Mor- 
timei-.  Barret,  Sandby,  Wright,  Cotes,  and 
West ;  in  sculpture,  Baton,  Nollekens,  and 
Wilton ;  in  architecture.  Chambers,  (r. 
Dance,  Stuart,  T.  Sandiiy,  Gwyn,  and  tlKt 
two  Adams. 

"  At  the  same  time,  Strange,  AVoollett, 
Hall,  Green,  and  Mac  Ardell,  shone  witli 
marked  eminence  among  the  engravers,  'i'lie 
merits  of  our  engravers,  blended  willi  the  la- 
bours of  the  painter,  opened  a  new  avenue  to 
fame.  1  he  harmonious  soflness.of  Strange  ; 
llie  united  skill  of  Vtilson  and  Woollctt  ia 
landscape,  as  seen  in  the  prints  of  Niobe, 
Phaetou,  Cey.x,  Celadon  and  Aint-lia,.  &c.  j- 


348 


f  AK 


the  portraits  in  mezzotinto  from  sir  Joshua 
Beyiiolds,  by  M'Ardell,  Fisher,  Sec.  ;  the 
successful  combination  of  West  with  Earloni, 
Green,  Woollett,  Hall,  &c.  in  historical 
works,  35  seen  in  the  prints  of  Agrippina,  Re- 
^ulus,  Hannibal, ^Volle,  La  Hogiie,theBo\ne, 
Penn,  CromwL'U,  and  the  Re-toration,  &c. 
spread  the  celebrity  of  English  works  of  art 
through  the  medium  of  engraving;  and  the 
circumstance  of  these  prints  rising  to  a  higher 
price  Ml  every  market  throughout  the  conti- 
nent than  had  ever  been  known  in  the  an- 
nals of  the  arts,  inspired  those  commercial 
views  wiiich  after\vards  produced  tlie  galleries 
of  Shak'penre,  under  I5nydell;  the  poets, 
under  Macklin ;  historical,  under  Dowyer, 
&c.  &c.  ;  giving  to  this  coimtry  a  new  source 
of  commerce,  hi^hl  >  beneiicial  to  its  interests, 
and  unexamplvd  in  any  other." 

Eiiglixh  sclionl.  To  the  list  of  painters 
mentioned  by  West,  are  to  be  added  several 
wlio  unfortunately  experienced  no  royal  pa- 
tronage. Auiong  tliese  is  Hogarth,  whose 
unrivalled  excel. ence  in  works  of  humour  is 
j)rinci|jally  knjwn  to  us  by  the  numerous  en- 
gravings from  his  pictures. 

Ofthemolern  English  school,  sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  wa^  thi-  foundt;r,  and  his  works  stili 
r<fmain  its  greatest  glory.  They  not  only 
give  him  the  most  distinguished  rank  among 
the  artists  of  the  present  age,  but  the  effects 
produced  bv  them  on  the  rising  artists,  as 
well  as  by  the  elevated  principles  inculcated 
in  his  disconi-ses  delivered  at  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy, will  secure  his  reputation  as  long  as 
England  shall  pay  respect  to  superior  talents. 
Tlie  English  taste  appears  to  be  formed  on 
the  great  masters  of  the  Italian  and  Flemish 
schools.  Reynolds  professed  an  admiration 
and  preference  of  Michael  Angelo,  but  hi^ 
own  works  are  in  no  point  similar  to  that 
great  master  of  design. 

l"he  names  of  Gaiu'-borough  and  Wilson 
Stand  the  highest  in  landscape  jjaintnig. 

The  painters  of  this  school  have  been  dis- 
tinguished as  less  rigid  with  regard  to  (he 
fonns  and  c  ;rrectness  of  their  drawing,  than 
ambitious  of  striking  and  poignant  effect. 
"  beauty,"  says  tlie  French  Encyclopa'dia, 
"  ought  to  be  the  characteristic  of  the  Eng- 
lish school,  because  the  artists  have  it  so  tre- 
iquently  displayed  before  their  eyes.  If  this 
beauty  is  not  precisely  similar  to  the  aiiti<jue, 
it  is  not  inferior  to  it. 

"  The  English  school  should  also  be  distin- 
guished for  the  truth  of  expression,  because 
the  liberty  enjoyed  in  that  country  gives  to 
every  passion  its  natural  and  unbiassed  ope- 
ration." 

The  best  accounts  of  painting  and  painters 
are  to  be  found  in  the  works  oT  Lionardo  da 
Vinci,  Alberti,  f-omaziio,  and  Bellori ;  ami 
in  the  Lives  of  the  Painters,  by  Vasari  and 
Du  I'iles;  Felibien's  Entreticjis  sur  les  Vies 
«les  Peintres,  and  his  other  w  ritings ;  the 
Discourses  delivered  by  Rcynolils  in  the 
Royal  Academy  of  London  ;  the  various 
'I'rcatises  by  Meiigs;  Richardson  on  Paint- 
ing ;  and  Tie  Arte  Grapliici,  by  Du  Frcsnov. 

The  later  publications  of  Barry,  Shee  in 
Iirs  Rhymirs  on  .\it,  and  Howe  in  his  Inquiry 
into  the  present  State  o(  the  Arts  lu  England, 
convey  the  most  accurate  information  con- 
cerning the  progress  of  painlmg  in  this  coun- 

PciVKI'ONG,  or  while  copper,   a   metal 


PAL 

composed  of  copper,  nickel,  and  zinc.  The 
zinc  amounts  to  nearly  one-half  of  the  whole, 
and  the  proportions  of  copper  and  nickel  are 
as  b  to  13.  This  compound  metal  is  much 
used  among  the  Chinese. 

PAL.'ESTKA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a  pub- 
lic building,  where  the  youth  exercised  them- 
selves in  wrestling,  running,  playing  at  quoits, 
&c. 

FAL.VMEDEA,  a  genus  of  birds  belong- 
ing to  the  arder  of  gralke.  The  character  of 
this  genus  is,  the  bill  bends  dswn  at  the  point 
with  a  Iiorn,  or  with  a  tuft  of  feathei-s  erect 
near  the  base  of  it;  the  nostrils  are  oval;  the 
IOCS  are  divided  almost  to  their  origin,  with  a 
small  membrane  between  the  bottoms  of 
each. 

There  are  two  species  ;  the  first  of  which  is 
the  palamedea  cornuta,  or  horned  screamer. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  turkey ;  in  length 
about  three  I'eet  four  inches.  The  bill  is  two 
inches  and  a  quarter  long,  and  black ;  the 
upper  mandible  i^  a  little  gibbous  at  the  ba^e  ; 
the  vmder  shuts  beneath  it,  as  in  the  gallina- 
ceous tribe:  the  nostris  are  oval  and  pervi- 
ous, and  placed  near  the  middle  of  the  bill 
Fiom  the  crown  of  the  head  s,)rings  a  slender 
liorn  of  more  than  three  inctiLS  in  length,  and 
pointed  at  the  end:  the  irides  are  the  colour 
of  gold:  the  piumage  on  the  head,  neck,  and 
upper  part  of  the  body,  is  black,  margined 
witli  grey  on  tlie  lirst,  and  downy :  at  the  benil 
of  the  wing  are  two  sharp  horny  spurs.  'I'lie 
female,  we  are  told,  is  very  like  themaie. 

It  is  remarked,  that  they  are  always  met 
with  in  pairs;  and  if  one  die-,  the  other 
mourns  to  deatii  for  the  loss.  They  frequent 
places  near  the  w.iter  ;  make  a  large  nest  oi 
nmd,  in  the  shape  of  an  oven,  upon  the 
ground;  and  lay  two  eggs,  the  size  of  those 
'of  a  goose.  The  young  are  brought  up  in 
the  nest  till  able  to  shift  for  themselves.  They 
iiave  but  one  nest  in  the  year,  which  is  in 
January  or  February,  except  the  lirst  eggs 
are  taken  away,  when  they  make  a  second  in 
April  or  Mav.  The  young  birds  are  fre- 
qnentlv  eaten  by  the  natives,  though  the  co- 
lour of  the  fle-h  is  very  dark;  that  of  tiie  old 
ones  is  tough  and  ill  tasted.  By  ^ome  authors 
this  species  is  said  to  feed  on  crabs  and  birds, 
such  as  pigeons,  |;oultry,  and  even  to  attack 
sheep  and  goats ;  but  this  is  denied  by  others, 
who  say  that  its  principal  food  is  reptiles. 
The  cornuta  is  a  rare  species.  It  is  found  in 
certain  districts  in  Cayenne,  Guiana,  Suri- 
nam, and  other  parts  of  Soutli  America, 
chieriy  in  the  marshes  and  wet  savannas,  and 
for  the  most  part  near  the  sea. 

The  second  species  of  palamedea  is  the 
cri-tata,  or  crested  screamer.  This  bird  is 
about  the  size  of  a  heron :  the  bill  is  short, 
bent  like  that  of  a  bird  of  prey,  ami  of  a  yel- 
lowish brown:  the  irides  are  gold-coloured: 
on  the  lorehead,  jiist  above  the  bill,  is  a  tuft 
of  bUuk  feathers  variegated  with  ash-colour: 
the  head,  neck,  and  body,  are  grey,  mixed 
with  rufous  and  brown,  most  inclining  to  the 
last  on  the  wings  and  tail;  the  wings  are  not 
furnished  with  spurs;  the  legs  pretty  long,  of 
a  dull  yellow;  claws  brown;  the  hind  toe 
placed  high  up,  so  as  not  to  touch  the  ground 
111  walking.  This  bird  inhabits  Brazil. 
PAL.\  IE.  See  Anatomy. 
PALATINE  COL'NIIES,  are  those  of 
Chester,  Durham,  and  Laiicaslw.  See 
Counties  TALAriNk. 


PAL 

PALAVIA,  a  genus  of  the  monadelphia 
polyandria  class  and  order.  The  calvx  is 
half  tive-cleft;  stjle  many-cleft;  capsule 
many-seeded  ;  cells  in  a  bail  on  the  central 
receptacle.  There  are  two  species,  of  no 
note. 

PALE,  in  heraldry,  one  of  the  honourable 
ordinaries  of  an  escutcheon,  being  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  pale  or  stake  placed  upright, 
and  comprehending  the  whole  height  of  the 
coat  from  the  top  of  the  chief  to  tlie  point. 
See  Heraldry. 

PALISADE,  or  Palisado,  in  fortilica- 
tion,  an  inclomire  of  stakes  or  piles  driven  into 
the  ground,  each  six  or  seven  inches  square, 
and  eight  feet  long,  three  whereof  are  hid 
under  ground.  Paiisadocs  are  generally  used 
to  fortily  the  avenues  of  open  forts,  gorges, 
half-moons,  the  bottoms  of  ditch  s,  the  para- 
pets ol  covert-ways,  and  in  general  all  posts 
liable  to  surprize,  and  lo  which  the  access  is 
easy.  Palisadoes  are  usually  planted  perpeii- 
uiculariy,  thouglisome  make  an  angle  inclin- 
ing towards  the  ground  next  the  enemy,  tliat 
llie  ropes  cast  over  to  tear  them  up  may- 
slip. 

Palisades,  Turning,  are  an  invention  of 
M.  Coeliorn,  in  order  to  preserve  the  pali- 
sades ot  the  parapet  of  the  covert-way  troni 
the  besieger's  shot.  He  orders  them  so,  that 
as  many  of  them  as  stand  in  the  length  of  a 
lod,  or  in  about  ten  feet,  turn  up  and  down 
like  traps,  so  a*  not  to  be  in  signt  of  the  ene- 
my till  they  just  bring  on  their  attack,  and 
y<;t  are  always  ready  to  do  the  proper  ser- 
vice of  pali  ades. 

PALISSE,  in  heraldry,  a  bearing  like  a, 
range  of  palisades  belore  a  fortification,  re- 
presented on  a  fesse,  rising  up  a  considerable 
height,  and  [xjinted  ..t  top,  with  the  lield  ap- 
pearing between  them. 

PALLADIUM.  In  the  month  of  AprH, 
1803,  it  was  announced  by  a  public  notice, 
that  a  new  noble  metal  called  palladium  wa* 
sokl  at  Mr.  Forstei-'s,  Gerard-street,  Soho, 
London.  Some  of  its  properties  are  men- 
tioned in  the  paper,  but  the  name  of  the  dis- 
coverer is  concealed.  Mr.  Cheijevix,  sus- 
pecting imposition  I'iOm  the  unusual  manner 
in  which  tlie  discovery  was  announced,  made 
some  experiments  on  it  lo  discover  its compo- 
siliun,  and  soon  found  i!i;it  its  properties, 
could  not  be  referred  to  any  kiK'wn  metal. 
This  induce<l  him  lo  purchase  ail  tint  remain- 
ed iH  the  hands  ol  the  vender.  It  was  sold  at 
the  rate  of  23  grains  per  guinea. 

It  had  been  worked  by  art,  and  was  offered 
for  sale  in  thin  laniin.e.  W  hen  polished,  it 
had  exactly  the  app/ar.mce  of  platinum. 
The  lamina'  were  very  llexible.  '1  be  specilic 
gravity  varied  from  10.97'2  to  U.4S'i. 

The  effects  ol  galvanic  eUxnricity  on  it 
were  the  same  as  on  gold  and  silver.  When 
exposed  to  the  blowpipe,  the  side  farthest 
removed  trom  the  (lame  became  blue.  A 
very  violent  heat  is  necessary  to  melt  it.  The 
liutton,  by  lusion,  List  a  little  ot  its  weight, 
but  its  specilic  gravity  was  increased  t.oin 
10.i)7J  to  ll.,S7l.  It  was  harder  th.in  iron, 
and  appeared  chry>talli/ed.  The  f»acture 
was  fibrous. 

When  strongly  heated,  if  it  is  toiifhe^ 
with  sulphur  it  melts,  and  continues  melting 
till  tliei.ompoun<l  cea-<s  to  be  red-hot.  The 
sulphtu'et  is  brittle,  and  wliiler  than  |)alladi» 
uiu.     it  was  Mul  allcrcd  by   clurcvul.    It 


PAL 

Unlled  with  tlie  (iicri-rent  miHals,  and  forinctl 
alloys;  tlie  propfi-lics  of  which  liav.;  been 
dL'scTibcd  by  Mv.  Clu-iicvix. 

When  exijosed  to  the  action  of  melted 
potass,  it  loses  itsl)rilliaiicy,  and  a  linle  of  its 
Weight.  Soda  acts  with  less  violence.  When 
ammonia  is  ki'pi  over  it  for  some  days,  it  ac- 
quires a  blue  colour. 

Sulphuric  acid,  when  boiled  upon  palladi- 
um, acquires  a  line  red  colour,  and  dissolves 
a  portian  of  it ;  but  its  action  is  not  very  pow- 
frful.  Nitric  acid  acts  with  nuich  greater 
energy,  and  oxydi^esand  dissolves  it,  for  ijii; 
a  very  beavitiful  red  solution.  Muriatic  acid, 
when  lono;  boiled  u|)i>n  it,  becomes  of  a  beau- 
tiful red  colour.  Nilro-muriatic  acid  attack* 
it  with  great  violence,  and  foinis  a  line  red 
solution. 

The  alkalies  and  earths  throw  down  a  ilne 
orange  ])o\vder  from  these  si)!utions;  and 
when  annnonia  is  used,  the  supernatant  li- 
quid is  sometimes  of  a  line  gnenish  blue. 
Siilphat,  nitrat,  and  muriat  of  potass  and  of 
anmionia,  throw  dow  n  orange  precipitates,  as 
they  do  from  the  solutions  of  platinum.  Mu- 
riat of  tin  throvvs  down  a  dark  orange  or 
brown  precipitate  from  neutralized  salts  of 
palladium,  rfulphat  of  iron  throws  down 
palladium  in  the  metallic  state.  PiUvsiat  of 
l)otass  occasions  an  olive-coloured  precipi- 
tate, and  water  conl.iining  sulphuretrd  hv- 
drogen  gas  a  dark  brown  ojic.  Fluoric, 
arsenic,  phosphoric,  oxalic,  tartaric,  citric 
acids,  and  tneir  salt-,  precipitate  some  of  the 
solutions  of  palladium,  and  form  various  com- 
j)ounds  with  it. 

Such  are  the  properties  of  palladium  ascer- 
tained by  Mr.  Clienevix.  'ITiey  nidicate  a 
substance  different  from  every  other  known 
metallic  body.  .Still  he  considered  the  sub- 
stance as  a  compound,  and  trird  \ariouswavs 
of  forming  one  similar.  At  last  he  suspected 
mercury  and  platinum  as  likely  to  be  it;,  con- 
stituents ;  and  alter  various  trials,  hit  upon 
the  following  mode  of  forming  it,  wliich  suc- 
ceeded : 

One  hundred  parts  of  platinum,  previous'v 
purilied  by  solution  in  nitro-nuniatic  acid, 
ai:d  precipitation  by  sal  an\moniac,  were  dis- 
solved in  nitro-munatic  aciti.  To  the  solu- 
tion JOO  grains  of  red  oxide  of  mercury  were 
added.  'These  not  saturating  the  excess  of 
acid,  he  continued  to  add  more  till  the  acid 
was  saturated.  A  solution  of  sulpliat  of  iron 
was  put  into  a  long-necked  matrass ;  the 
mixed  solution  of  platinum  and  mercury  was 
poured  into  it,  and  the  matrass  hi-ated  on  a 
saiv.l  bath.  A  copious  precipitate  soon  fell, 
and  the  inside  of  the  matrass  was  coated  with 
a  tiiin  metallic  crust.  This  cruat,  collected 
and  waslied,  was  [uit  into  a  charcoal  crucible, 
and  exposed  to  a  violent  heat ;  a  button  o! 
metal  was  obtained,  which  posse -sed  the  pro- 
perties of  palladium.  From  the  proportions 
employed,  Mr.  Cheiievix  conclude. I,  tiut 
palladium  is  composed  of  two  parts  of  pla- 
tinum, and  one  of  mercury. 

The  extraordinary  con-.equences  that  fol- 
low from  tins  experiment  will  occur  at  once 
to  the  reader.  Here  is  a  compound  of  two 
metals,  which  cannot  be  decomposed  by  art 
And  if  we  know  one  such  compnnnd,  why 
may  not  in  any  of  the  other  supposed  metals 
be  such  compounds.' 

We  have  here  a  com[)ound  containing  mer- 
cury, ont-  of  the  most  volatile  sub^tauces  in 


PAN 


PAN 


349 


natnri!,  in  such  a  slate  a;  to  resist  the  most  ;  has  now  been  long  known  that  this  plant   is 


violent  heat  without  quitting  its  co.ubination. 
solh.it  one  of  the  most  apparently  whimsical 
of  all  the  alchyniistical  opinions  is  here  veri- 
lied. 

Rut  the  specific  gravity  of  palladium  is  one 
of  the  most  extraordinary  circumstances.  It 
is  considerably  less  than  that  of  the  lightest  of 
its  component  parts.  The  specific  gravity  of 
platinum  cannot  be  stated  at  less  than''J2. 
'I  lie  specilic  gravity  of  mercury  may  be 
stated  at  13.5  ;  but  ihe  actual  specilic  gravity 
was  only  1  l.i'.  .So  that  an  expansion  amount- 
ing to  more  than  a  third  ot  tlie  whole  has 
taken  place. 

Tlie  experiments  of  Mr.  Clienevix  wi-re 
repiMteil  by  some  of  the  eminent  chemists  in 
London  ;  among  oUiers,  by  Dr.  Wollasion 
and  Mr.  Tennant:  but  these  'gentlemen 
could  not  succeed  in  obtaining  palladium. 
Hence  doubts  are  still  entertained  by  sonie 
concerning  the  coin|)ositiiin  of  this  substance. 
Hut  the  well-known  precision  of  Mr.  Cliene- 
vix, and  the  uncertainty  which  he  has  himself 
pointed  out  of  succeeding  in  a  few  trials, 
ought  to  induce  us  to  give  him  full  credit. 
Dr.  Thompson  tried  the  experiment  with  all 
the  precautions  he  could  think  of  to  ensure 
success,  The  .metallic  crust  announced  by 
Mr.  Clienevix  was  formed  ;  and  upon  heat- 
ing; It  violently  in  a  charcoal  crucible,  a  but- 
ton was  obtained  of  a  white  colour,  and  very 
hke  platinum.  It  was  very  ponnis,  and  iliere- 
fore  though  malleable,  it  soon  broke  under 
the  hammer.  Its  s|)ecilic  gravitv  was  only 
ll.l'-'6.  But  this  was  partly  ow'ing  to  it's 
Jiorousness.  It  was  acted  upon  by  the  three 
mineral  acids;  but  the  action  of  neither  of 
them  was  violent,  and  the  solution,  instead 
of  red,  was  a  dirty  reddish-brown.  He  could 
delect  no  iron  by  the  usual  tests ;  but  the  so- 
lutions gave  unequivocal  marks  of  Ihe  pre- 
sence ol  platinum.  In  short,  the  button  was 
not  platiinim,  but  at  the  same  time  it  was  not 
palladiuni. 

PA  LASS  [A,  a  genus  of  the  svngenesia  po- 
lygamia  tVustranea  class  and  order.  The  re- 
ceptacle is  chaify  ;  down  none;  seeds  verti- 
cal; ma  gin  ciliated;  caly.x  imbricate.  There 
is  one  species,  a  shrubby  plant  of  Lima. 

P.AIJ.ET,  in  heraldry,  is  nothing  but  a 
small  pale. 

Pallkt.     See  Watch. 
P.\LM,  a  measure  of  length,  about  three 
inches. 
PALPITATION.    SeeMEDici.s-E. 
PALSY.     See  Medici.ne. 
PALY,  or  Pale,  in  heraldry.  Is  when  the 
shield   is  divideil   into  four  or  more  equal 
parts,  by  perpendicular  lines  falling  from  the 
top  to  the  bolloiii. 

PANAKY  FERMENTATION.  See 
Ferme.vtatio.si. 

P.-VNAX,  Gi.xsENG,  a  genus  of  the  di- 
a'cia  order,  in  the  polygamia  class  of  plants. 
In  the  umbel  the  corolla  is  (ive-petalied  ; 
stamina  five;  hermaphrodite  calyx  (ive- 
tootiied;  superior  styles  two;  berry  two- 
seeded;  male  calyx  entire.  There  are  nine 
species  of  this  plant:  I.  Quinquefolia.  2. 
Trilolia.  3.  Iruticosa.  4.  Arborea.  5. 
Spinosa.  6.  Aculeata.  7.  Chrysophylla. 
8.  Simplex.     9.  Attenuata. 

(jinseng  was  formerly  supposed  to  crow 
only  in  Chinese  Tartary,  affecting  mountain- 
ous sitUiition>j  shaded  by  close  woods :  but  it 


also  a  native  of  Norm  America,  whence  M. 
Sarrasiii  Iran^imUed  s,,ccin:eiis  of  it  to  I'aris 
in  Ihe  year  17ii4;  and  Ihe  ginseng  since  dis- 
covered in  Canada,  Pennsylvania,  and  \'ir- 
ginia,  by  Laliteau,  Kalm,  liartiani,  and  others, 
has  been  found  to  correspoini  exactly  with 
the  Tartarian  species  ;  and  its  roots  are  now 
rejjularly  purchased  by  the  Chinese. 

The  dried  root  of  ginseng,  a  imported 
here,  is  scarcely  the  th.ckuess  f  the  little 
linger,  about  three  or  four  inches  long,  fre- 
quently forkeil,  transversilv  wrinkled,  of  a 
horny  te.xtnre,  and  both  internally  and  ex- 
ternally of  a  yellowish-white  colour.  On  the 
top  are  commonly  one  or  more  little  knots, 
which  are  the  remains  of  the  stalks  of  Ihe 
preceding  years,  and  from  Ine  number  of 
which  the  age  ot  Ihe  root  is  judged  of.  "To 
the  ta^te  it  discovers  a  mucilaginous  sweet- 
ness, approaching  to  that  of  liquorice,  ac- 
companied with  some  degree  ol  bitterness, 
and  a  slight  aromatic  warmth,  with  little  or 
no  smell.  It  is  far  sweeter,  and  of  a  more 
gratelul  smell,  than  the  roots  of  fennel,  to 
whidi  it  has  by  some  been  supposed  similar; 
and  (li|■(i■r^  likewise  remarkablyfrom  those  roots 
inlhen.itureandpharina'  cut  i'c  properties  of  its 
actise  principles,  th._  sweet  matter  of  the  gin- 
seng being  |)reserved  entire  in  the  watery  as 
Well  as  the  spirituous  extract,  whereas  that  of 
fennel-roots  is  destroyed  or  dissipated  in  Ihe 
inspissation  of  the  watery  tijiclure.  Tlie 
slight  aromatic  impregnation  of  Ihe  ginseng 
is  likewise  in  good  meaiure  retained  in  the 
watery  extract,  and  i>erteclly  in  the  spirita- 
ous." 

1  he  Chinese  ascribe  extraordinary  virtues 
to  the  root  of  ginseng;  and  have  long  con- 
sidered it  as  a  soiereign  remedy  in  almost  all 
diseases  to  which  they  arc  liable,  having  n* 
confidence  in  any  m;  dicine  unless  in  combi- 
nation with  it.  "It  is  observed  by  Jartoux-, 
that  the  most  eminent  physicians"  in  China 
have  written  volumes  on  th'e  medicinaf  pow- 
ers of  this  plant.  V\"e  know,  however,  of  no- 
proofs  of  the  eliicaey  of  ginseng  in  Knrope  ; 
and  from  its  sensible  qualities,  we  iudge  it  to 
possess  very  little  pow  er  as  a  medicine. 

PANCRATIUM,  a  genus  of  the  hexan- 
dria  monogynia  class  of  plants,  the  llowerof 
wh'ch  consists  of  six  lanceolated  petals  ;  its 
nectarinm  is  twelve-cleft;  stamina  placed  on 
the  nectary.  There  are  ten  species,  beauli- 
lul  llowering  plants,  with  larye  bulbs. 
PANCREAS.  See  Anatomy. 
PANDANCS,  a  genus  of  the  dio-cia  mc-- 
nandria  class  and  order.  There  is  no  calvx 
or  corolla;  male  anther  sessile;  female  stig- 
mas two;  fruit  compound.  There  is  one 
species. 

PANDECTS,  in  the  civil  law,  collections 
made  by  Justinian's  order,  of  live  hundred 
and  thir'ty-four  decisions  of  the  antient  law- 
yers, on  so  many  questions  occurring  in  the 
civil  law  ;  to  which  th;it  emperor  gave  the 
force  and  authority  of  law,  by  an  e|iistle  pre- 
lixed  to  them.     The  pandects  consist  of  fifty 
books,  and  make  the  first  part  of  the  body  ot' 
the  civil  law.     See  Civil  Law. 
PANEL,  inlaw.     See  Jiry. 
PANICUM,  a  genus  of  the  dieynFa  order, 
in  the  triandria  class  of  plants.     The  calvx  ij 
trivalved,  the  third  valvule  being  vei-y  small. 
Tlie  species  are    in   number  seveiitv-iiuie 
grasses  of  dil'tierent  countries. 
P^VNNEL,  in  law.    See  Pax ei.     la  tlie 


350 


r  A  p 


?cotc!i  law,  paniicl  pi^nilics  the  prisoner  at 
the  bar,  or  person  wlio  takes  his  trial  before 
the  couit  of  jiistici'-iry,  for  some  crime. 

Paxxel,  In  joinery,  is  a  tympannni,  or 
square  piece  of  tiiin  wood,  sometimes  carved, 
framed,  cr  grooved  in  a  larger  piece,  between 
two  iipriglit  pieces  and  two  cross  pieces. 

Pan'Nel,  in  ma-onry,  is  one  of  the  fiices  of 
a  liewn  stone. 

PAKORPA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  or- 
der  neiiropte:a:   the   generic   character   is. 


snont   hornv 


cyMndnc,   wr 


th   two    feelers : 


siemmata  three ;  antenna: longer  than  thorax ; 
tail  of  the  male  chelated  or  clawed.  The 
nio-t  familiar  species  of  this  genus  is  the  pa- 
riorpa  communis  of  Liiinn-us,  an  insect  very 
fre<|uently  seen  in  meadows  during  the  early 
part  of  summer.  It  is  a  longish-bodied  lly, 
of  moderate  size,  with  four  transparent  wings 
elegantly  variegated  with  deep-brown  spots  : 
tlie  tail  of  the  mail  insect,  which  is  generallv 
carried  in  an  upright  position,  is  furnislied 
with  a  forceps,  somewiiat  in  the  manner  of  a 
lobster's  claw. 

Tlie  panorpa  coa  is  a  native  of  Greece  and 
tile  islands  ol   the  Archipelago,  and  is  an  in- 
ject  of  a  very   peculiar  appear.-ince.     It  is 
considerably  larger  t'ranthe  preceding,  and  is 
distinguished  by  liaving  the  lower  wings  so 
extremely  narrow  or  slender  as  to  resemble  a 
pair  of  linear  processes  with  an  oval  dilata- 
tion at  the  tip,'  while   the  upper  wings  are 
vprr  large,  oval,  transparent,  and  beautifully 
•variegated  with  vellowish-brown    bars    and 
•spots.    See  Plate  Nat.  Hi>t.  tie.  340. 
PANTHER.     SeeFELis. 
PAPAATCR,  tlic  pnpp>j,  a   genus  of  the 
nionogynia  order,  in  tlie  polyandria  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  un- 
der the  27th  order,  rhsca'd:r.     The  corolla  is 
telrapetalous  ;  the  calvx  diphvllous;  the  cap- 
sule bilocular,  opening  at  the  pores  below  a 
persisting  stigma.     There  are  nine  species  : 
1 .  The  somniferum,  or  somniferous  common 
pardcu-poppy.     There  are  of  this  a  great 
many   varieties,    some  of  thein    extremely 
beautiful.     The  white  ofiicinal  poppy  is  one 
©f  the  varieties  of  this  sort.     It  grows  often  to 
the  height  of  five  or  six  feet,  having  large 
(lowers,  both  single  and  double,    succeeded 
by  capsules  or  heads  as  large  as  oranges,  each 
containing  about  SOOO  seeds. 

We  are  told,  that  in  the  province  of  Bahar 
m  the  East  Indies,  the  poppy-seeds  are  sown 
in  the  months  of  October  and  November,  at 
aljout  eight  inches  distance,  and  well  watered 
till  the  plants  are  about  half  a  foot  high ; 
when  a  compost  of  dung,  nitrous  earth,  and 
ashes,  is  spread  over  the  areas;  and  a  little 
before  the  flowers  appear,  lh(;y  are  again  wa- 
tered profusely  till  the  capsules  arc  half 
grown,  at  which  time  tho  opium  is  collected, 
for  when  fully  ripe  they  yield  but  little  juice : 
two  longitudinal  incisions  fivm  below  up- 
wards, without  penetrating  the  cavity,  are 
wade  at  siin-set  for  three  or  four  successive 
evenings;  in  the  morning  the  juice  is  scraped 
off  with  an  iron  scoop,  and  worked  in  an 
iron  pot  in  the  sun's  heat,  till  it  is  of  a  con- 
sistence to  be  formed  into  thick  cakes  of 
about  four  pounds  weight ;  these  are  covered 
over  with  the  leaves  of  poppy,  tobacco,  or 
snme  other  vegetable,  to  prevent  their  stick- 
ing together,  aijd  in  thi~  situation  they  are 
dried.     See  Narcotic  Pitiyriri.t^ 

2.   The    rhsa^,    or   wild    globular-headed 
I'oppy,.ristswLth  an  upright,  hairy,  mullllio- 


'  r*  A  r 

rolls  stalk,  terminated  by  many  red  aiul 
other-coloured  lioweis  in  the  'arielies,  suc- 
ceeded- by  "globular  smooth  capsules.  Thi^ 
plant  is  common  in  corn-lields,  and  llqwers  in 
June  and  July.  The  capsules  of  this  species, 
like  those  of  the  somniferum,  contain  a  milky 
juice  of  a  narcotic  quality,  but  the  quantity  is 
verv  inconsiderable,  and  has  not  been  applied 
ta  any  medical  purpose  ;  but  an  extract  pre- 
pared froui  them  has  been  successfully  em- 
ployed a-i  a  sedative.  The  Hovvers  have  some- 
what of  the  smell  of  opium,  and  a  mucilagi- 
nous taste,  acco.npaniedwitli  a  slight  degree  of 
bitterness.  A  syrup  of  these  flowers  is  direct- 
ed iu  the  London  Pharniacopa-ia,  which  has 
been  thought  useful  as  an  anodyne  and  pecto- 
ral, and  is  therefore  prescribed  in  coughs  and 
catarrhal  affections;  but  it  seems  valued  ra- 
th.er  for  the  beauty  of  its  colour  than  for  its 
virtues  as  a  medicine. 

3.  The  cambriciim,  or  Welsh  poppy,  has 
a  perennial  root,  pinnated  cut  leaves,  smooth, 
uprfght,  multiriorous  stalks,  a  foot  and  a  half 
high,  terminated  by  many  large  yellow  flow- 
ers, succeeded  by  smooth  capsules. 

4.  The  orientalis,  or  oriental  poppy,  has  a 
large,  thick,  perennial  root ;  long,  pinnated, 
sawed  leaves ;  upright,  rough,  unidorous 
stalks,  terminated  by  one  deep-red  flower, 
succeedetl  by  oval  smooth  capsules.  The 
flowers  appear  in  May. 

PAPER,  sheets  of  a  thin  matter,  made  of 
some  vegetable  sub^tancc. 

Paper-Making.  Under  this  word  we 
cannot  do  better  than  by  giving  a  concise 
view  of  the  art  of  making  .paper. 

The  tiist  instrument  is  called  the  duster, 
made  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  four  feet  in 
diameter,  and  five  feet  in  length.  It  is  alto- 
gether covered  with  a  wire  net,  and  put  iu 
motion  by  its  connection  with  some  part  of 
t!ie  machinery.  A  convenient  quantity  of 
rags  before  the  selection  are  inclosed  in  the 
duster,  and  the  rapidity  of  its  motion  sepa- 
rates the  dust  from  them,  anil  forces  it  through 
the  wire.  U  is  of  considerable  advantage  to 
use  the  duster  before  selection,  as  it  makes 
that  operation  less  pernicious  to  the  select- 
ors. 

The  selection  is  then  to  be  made  ;  and  it  is 
found  more  convenient  to  have  the  tables  for 
cutting  olf  the  knots  and  stitching,  and  for 
forming  them  into  a  proper  shape,  in  the 
same  place  with  the  cutting-table.  The  sur- 
face both  of  these  and  of  the  cutting-table  is 
composed  of  a  wire  net,  which  in  every  part 
of  the  operation  allows  the  remaining  dust 
and  refuse  of  every  kind  to  escape. 

The  rags,  witliout  any  kind  of  putrefac- 
tion, are  again  carried  from  the  cutting-table 
back  to  the  duster,  and  from  thence  to  an  en- 
gine, where,  in  general,  they  are  in  the  sjiace 
of  six  hours  reduced  to  the  stuff  proper  for 
making  paper.  The  hard  and  soft  of  the 
same  (piality  are  placed  in  dilferent  lots  ;  but 
tiiey  can  be  reduced  to  stiill"  at  the  same 
time,  provided  the  soft  is  put  somewhat 
later  into  the  engine. 

The  engine  is  that  part. of  the  mill  which 
performs  the  whole  action  of  reducing  the 
rags  to  paste,  or,  as  it  may  be  termed,  of 
trituration.  The  number  of  the  engines  de- 
pends on  the  extent  of  the  ]ia|ier-work,  on 
the  force  of  water,  or  on  the  construction  of 
the  machinery. 

When  the  stufl"  is  brought  to  perfection,  it 
is  conveyed  into  a  general  repository,  which 


PAP 

-■iii)plie3  (iie  vot  from  wliicli  flie  sheets  of  pa- 
per are  formed.  This  vat  is  made  of  wood  ; 
and  generally  about  five  feet  in  diameter,  ami 
two  and  a 'half  in  depth.  It  is  kept  in 
temperature  by  means  of  a  grate  introduced 
by  a  hole,  and  surrounded  on  the  inside  of  the 
vat  with  a  case  of  copper.  I'or  fuel  to  this 
grate,  they  use  charcoal  or  wood  ;  and  frc- 
ciuently,  to  prevent  smoke,  the  wall  of  the 
building  comes  in  contact  witli  one  part  of 
the  vat,  and  the  fire  has  no  communication 
Avith  the  place  where ihey  make  the  paper. 

Every  vat  is  furnished  on  the  upper  part 
with  planks  inclosed  inwards,  and  even  railed 
in  with  wood,  to  jjrevent  aiij  of  the  stullfrom 
running  over  in  the  operation.  Across  the 
vat  is  a  plank  which  they  call  the  trepan, 
pierced  with  holes  at  one 'of  the  extremities,, 
and  resting  on  the  planks  which  surround  the, 
vat. 

Tlie  forms  or  inoulds  are  composed  of  ' 
wire  cliith,  and  a  movcible  frame.  It  is  whli 
these  that  they  fetch  up  the  stulT from  the 
vat,  in  order  to  form  the  sheets  of  paper. 
The  sides  of  the  form  are  made  of  oak,  which 
is  previously  steeped  in  water,  and  otherwise 
prepared  to  prevent  warping.  Tlie  wire 
cloth  is  made  larger  than  the  sheet  of  paper, 
and  the  excess  of  it  on  all  sides  is  covered 
with  a  moveable  frame.  This  frame  is  neces- 
saiy  to  retain  the  stulT  of  which  ihe  paper  is 
made  on  the  cloth;  and  it  must  be  exactly 
adapted  to  the  form,  otherwise  the  edges  of 
the  paper  will  be  ragged  and  badly  finished. 
The  wire  cloth  of  the  form  is  varied  in  pro- 
()ortion  to  the  fineness  of  the  paper  and  the 
nature  of  the  stuff. 

The  felts  are  pieces  of  woollen  cloth  spread 
over  every  sheet  of  paper,  and  upon  which 
the  sheets  are  laid  to  detach  them  from  the 
form,  to  prevent  them  from  adhering  toge- 
ther, to  imbibe  part  of  the  water  with  which 
the  stuff  is  charged,  and  to  transmit  the 
whole  of  it  when  placed  under  the  action  of 
the  press.  The  two  sides  of  the  felt  are  di!- 
fcrently  raised:  that  of  which  the  hair  is 
longest  is  applied  to  the  slieets  which  are  laid 
down  ;  and  any  alteration  of  tliis  disposition 
would  produce  a  change  in  the  texture  of  tho 
paper.  The  stulfof  wliieli  the  felts  are  ni.tde 
should  be  sufficiently  strong,  in  order  that  it 
,may  be  stretched  exactly  on  the  sheets  witli- 
outyorming  into  folds;  and,  at  the  same  time, 
snfliciently  pliant  to  yield  in  every  direction 
without  injury  to  the  wet  paper.  As  the  felts 
have  to  resist  the  reiterated  efforts  of  the 
press,  it  ajipears  necessary  that  the  warp  be 
very  strong,  of  combed  wool,  and  well  twist- 
ed. On  tile  other  hand,  as  they  have  to  im- 
bibe a  certain  (pjaiitity  of  water,  and  to  return 
it,  it  is  necessary  that  the  woof  be  of  carded 
wool,  and  drawn  out  into  a  slack  thread. 
These  are  the  utensils,  to^gether  with  the 
press,  which  arc  used  in  the  apartment  where 
the  sheets  of  paper  are  formed. 

The  vat  being  furnished  witli  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  stulf  and  of  water,  two  instru- 
ments are  employed  to  mix  them ;  the  one  of 
which  is  a  simple  pole,  and  the  other  a  pole 
armed  with  a  pii.'ce  of  board,  rounded  and 
full  of  holes,  l^iis  operation  is  repeated  as 
often  as  the  stuff  falls  to  the  brjltom,  In  the 
principal  writing-mills  in  England,  they  use. 
for  this  purpose  what  is  called  a  hog;  which  is 
a  machine  within  the  vat,  that,  by  means  of  a-.) 
small  wheel  on  the  outside,  is  made  lotu'ru 


con-itrtiifly  round,  and  kpfp  (lie  sluff  in  por- 
pitual  motion.  When  l\n:  stuli'  ;iml  watin' 
;ire  pro|)prly  niixcil,  it  is  easy  lo  peivfivf 
jvlictlicr  till-  previous  ojjerations  have  been 
complete.  W'lien  tlie  stiirCllouts  close,  and 
in  regnlar  flakes,  it  is  a  proof  that  it  lias  been 
well  tiiliirated;  and  the  parts  of  the  rags 
vhieh  have  escaped  the  rollers  also  appear. 

After  this  operation  the  workman  takes 
one  of  tlie  forms,  fiirwished  witli  its  h'anie,  by 
the  middle  of  the  short  sides;  and  li.\ing  the 
frame  round  the  win;  cloth  with  his  thumbs, 
he  phuiges  it  obliquely  four  or  ti.e  inches 
into  the  vat,  beginning  by  the  long  side, 
which  is  nearest  to  him.  After  the  immer- 
sion he  raises  it  to  a  level ;  by  these  niove- 
]nents  he  fetches  up  on  the  form  a  sulirtcient 
<[uantity  of  stuff;  and  as  soon  as  the  torm  U 
raised,  the  water  escapes  through  the  wire 
cloth,  and  the  superfluity  of  the  stuff  over  the 
siih'softhe  frame,  ''i'he  flbrous  parts  of  the 
stuff  airange  tln'mselvcs  regularly  on  the 
wire  cloth  of  the  form,  not  only  in  proportion 
as  the  water  escapes,  but  also  as  tlie  workman 
favouii'S  this  effect  by  gently  shaking  the 
fo-rm.  Afterwards,  jiaving  placed  the  form 
on  a  piece  of  board,  the  workman  takes  off 
the  Irame  or  deckle,  and  glides  this  form  to- 
wards the  couch;-r;  who,  having  previously 
laid  his  felt,  plac.'S  it  with  his  lefl  hand  in  an 
inclined  situation,  on  a  plank  lixed  on  tiie 
edge  of  tlie  vat,  and  full  of  holes.  During 
tliis  operation  the  woikman  applies  his  frame, 
and  begins  a  second  sheet.  The  couclier 
seizes  this  instant,  takes  with  his  left  hand  the 
form,  now  sutiiciently  dry,  and,  having  laid 
the  sheet  of  paper  upon  the  felt,  returns  the 
form  by  gliding  it  aloiig  the  trepan  of  the 
\at. 


pro- 


PAPER. 

[  <pi'>n(  e,  therefore,  to  attend  to  the  combina- 
tion of  labour  which  o|)erates  ou  these  im- 
pressions, 'j  lie  couclur,  in  turning  the  form 
on  the  felt,  tlattcns  a  little  the  rounded  emi- 
neuci;s  which  are  in  relievo  on  one  of  the 
surfaces,  and  occasions  at  the  same  time  the 
liollow  places  made  by  the  wire  cloth  lo  be 
partly  tilled  up.  Meanwhile,  the  efliiit  which 
is  made  in  detaching  the  torm,  produces  an 
inliiiite  number  of  small  hails  on  everv 
tuberant  part  of  the  sheet. 

Under  the  action  of  the  press,  first  with  the 
felts  and  then  without  them,  the  perlecting  of 
the  grain  of  paper  si  ill  goe>  on.  Hie  vcsti"es 
of  the  protubeiances  made  by  the  wires  are 
altogether  flattened,  and  of  consequence  the 
hollows  opposite  to  them  disappear  also  ;  but 
tlie  traces  formed  by  the  interstices  of  the 
wire,  in  consequence  of  their  thickness,  ap- 
pear on  both  sides,  and  are  rounded  by  the 
press. 

The  risings  traced  on  each  side  of  the  pa- 
per, and  which  can  be  discovered  by  the  ey 
(t! 


?-5I 


They  proceed  in  this  manner,  laying  al- 
ternately a  sheet  and  a  felt,  till  they  have 
made  six  quires  of  paper,  which  is  called  a 
post:  and  this  they  do  with  such  swiftness, 
tliat,  in  many  sorts  of  paper,  two  men  make 
upwards  of  twenty  pists  in  a  day.  ^^'hen  the 
lust  sheet  of  the  post  is  covered  with  the  last 
felt,  the  ■«  oi'kmen  about  the  vat  unite  toge- 
ther, and  submit  the  whole  heap  to  the  action 
of  the  press.  'I  hey  begin  at  lirst  to  press  it 
witli  a  middling  lever,  and  afterwaids  with  a 
lever  about  fifteen  feet  in  length.  After  this 
operation,  another  person  separates  the  she<  ts 
of  p.iper  from  the  telts,  laying  them  in  a 
heap;  and  severalofth.se  heaps  collected 
togeth»r  are  again  p>it  under  the  press. 

T»hc  stuff  which  forms  a  sheet  of  paper  is 
received,  as  we  have  already  said,  on  a  form 
made  of  wire  cloth,  which  is  more  or  less  fine 
in  proportion  tothestuff,  and  surrounded  witli 
a  wooden  frame,  an<l  supported  in  the  middle 
by  many  cross  bars  of  wood.  Inconsequence 
of  this  construction,  it  is  easy  to  perceive,  that 
the  sheet  of  paper  will  take  and  preserve  the 
impressions  of  all  the  pieces  which  compost 
the  form,  and  of  tlie  empty  spaces  between 
them. 

The  traces  of  the  wir<;  cloth  are  evidently 
perceived  on  the  side  of  the  sheet  which  was 
attaehed  to  the  form,  and  on  the  Ojjposile  side 
they  form  an  ass.'niblage  of  parallel  and 
rounded  risings.  As  in  the  paper  which  is 
most  highly  finished,  the  regularity  of  these 
impressions  is  still  visible,  it  is  evuhnt  that  all 
the  operations  to  which  it  is  submitted  have 
chiefly  in  view  to  soften  these  impressions 
without  destroying,  thctn,      It  is  of  tonsc- 


on  that  which  is  most  higlily  finished,  form 
what  is  called  the  grain  of  pajjer.  The  dif- 
ferent operations  ought  to  soften,  but  not 
destroy  it;  which  is  etfectually  done  by  em- 
ploying the  hammer.  'I'his  grain  appears  in 
the  Dutch  paper  ;  whicii  is  a  suflicient  proof 
that  though  they  have  brought  this  part  ot  the 
art  to  the  greatest  perleclioii,  they  have  not 
employed  hamniers,  but  more  simple  and  in- 
genious means.  Tiie  grain  of  paper  is  oiten 
disfigured  by  the  lelts  when  they  are  too 
muih  used,  or  when  the  wool  does  not  cover 
the  thread.  In  this  case,  when  tlie  paper  is 
submitted  to  the  press,  it  takes  the  additional 
traces  of  the  warp  and  the  woof,  and  com- 
poses a  surface  cKtreinely  irregular. 

The  paper  the  grain  of  whicli  is  highly 
softened,  is  much  fitter  for  the  purpo  es  (if 
writing  than  that  wiiich  is  smoothed  by  the 
hammer:  on  the  other  hand,  a  coarse  and 
unequal  grain  very  much  opposes  the  move- 
ments ol  the  pen  ;  as  that  which  is  beat  ren- 
ders them  very  uncertain.  'I  he  art  of  mak- 
ing paper,  tlierelore,  should  consist  in  pre- 
serving, and  at  the  same  time  in  highly  soft- 
ening, the  grain:  the  Dutch  havecalried  this 
to  the  highest  iierfection. 

The  exchange  succeeds  the  operation  last 
described.     It  is  conducted  in  a  liall  contigu- 
ous to  the  vat,  supplied  with  several  presses, 
ind  with  a  long  table.    The  workman  ar- 
ranges on  this  table  the  paper,  newly  fabri- 
cated, into  heaps;  each  heap  containing ei"lit 
or  ten  of  those  last  under  the  press,  kept  "se- 
parate by  a  woollen  felt.     The  press  is  large 
enough   to   receive    two   of  them  at  once, 
placed  the  one  at  the  other's  side.     When 
the    compression    is  judged   sutficient,    the 
heaps  of  paper  ari^  carried  back  to  the  table, 
and  the  whole  turned  sheet  l)y  sheet,  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  surface  of  every  sheet  is 
exposed  to  a  new  one  ;  and   In  tliis  situation 
they  are  again  brought  under  the  press,     it 
IS  in  conducting  the^e  two  operations  some- 
limes  to  four  or  five  times,  or  as  often  as  the 
iiature  of  the  paper  requires,  that  the  perfec- 
tion ot  the  Dutch  plan  consists.     If  the  stuff 
IS   fine,  or  the  paper  slender,  the  exchange  is 
less  frequently  repeated.     In  this  operation  it 
is  necessary  to  alter  the  situation  of  the  heaps, 
with  regard  to  one  another,  every  time  thev 
are  put  under  the   press;  and  also,  as  the 
heapsare  highest  toward  the  middle,  to  place 
small  pieces  ei  kit  at  the  v.xtreaiities,  in  order 


to  biin^  every  part  of  them  under  an  equal 
pressyre.  A  single  man  with  four  or  live 
presses  may  exch;inge  all  the  [japer  produced 
by  two  vats,  provided  the  |)revi(>us  pressing 
at  the  vats  is  well  performed.  '1  he  work  of 
the  exchange  generally  lasts  about  two  days 
on  a  given  quantity  of  paper. 

When  the  paper  has  undergone  these  ope- 
rations, it  is  not  only  softened  in  the  surface, 
but  better  felted,  and  rendered  more  pliant  in 
the  interior  jiarts  of  the  stuff.  In  short,  a 
great  part  of  the  water  which  it  had  imbibed 
in  the  operation  of  the  vat  is  dissipated.  I5y 
the  felling  of  pajier  is  understood  the  approxi- 
mation lit  the  fibres  of  the  stuff,  and  their  ad- 
hering more  closely  together.  The  paper  is 
felted  in  projjorlion  as  the  water  escajies, 
and  this  eflijct  is  produced  by  the  managc- 
nunt  and  leiterated  action  of  the  pre^s. 
Was  it  not  (or  the  gradual  operation  of  the 
press,  the  paper  would  be  porous,  aii<l  com- 
posed of  filaments  adhering  closely  together. 
The  superiority  of  the  J)utch  over  the  I'rench 
[itqjer,  depends  almost  entirely  on  this  opc^ 
ration. 

If  the  sheets  of  paper  arc  found  to  adhere 
together,  it  is  a  proof  that  the  business  of  the 
press  has  lieeii  badly  conducted.  To  avoid 
this  inconvwiiency,  it  is  necessary;  lo  bring; 
down  the  ])ress  at  first  gently,  and  by  degrees 
with  greater  force,  and  to  raise  it  as  suddenly 
as  possible.  15y  tliis  means  tlife  water,  whicli 
is  impelled  to  the  sitles  of  the  heaps,  and 
which  has  not  yet  escaped,  returns  to  the, 
centre;  the  sheets  are  equally  dry,  and  the 
operation  is  executed  without  diHiculty. 

According  to  the  state  of  dryness  in  whicli 
the  paper  is  found  when  it  conies  fi'om  tlie 
apartment  of  the  vat,  it  is  cither  pressed  be- 
fore or  after  the  first  exchange.  The  ope- 
ration of  the  p:ess  should  be  reiterated,  and 
managed  with  great  care;  otherwise,  in  the 
soft  state  of  the  paper,  there  is  a  danger  that 
its  grain  and  transparency  are  totally  destroy- 
ed. Another  essential  principle  to  the  suc- 
cess of  the  exchange  is,  that  the  grain  of  the 
paper  is  originally  well  raised,  ior  this  pur- 
pose the  wire  cloth  of  the'  Dutch  forms  is 
is  composed  of  a  rounder  wire  tiian  that 
used  in  France,  by  which  they  gain  the 
greatest  degree  of  transparency,  and  are  in 
no  danger  of  destroying  the  grain.  Besides 
this,  tlie  Dutch  take  tare  to  proportion  the 
w  ires  even  where  the  forms  are  equal  to  tiie 
thickness  of  the  paper. 

Almost  every  kind  of  paper  is  considerably 
improved  by  the  exchange,  and  receives  a 
degree  of  jjerfection  which  renders  it  more 
agreeable  in  the  use.  But  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  at  the  same  time,  that  all  papers  are 
not  equally  susceptible  of  this  nielioiation  ; 
on  the  contrary^  if 'the  stuff  is  unequal,  drv, 
or  weakened  by  the  destruction  of  tlie  fine 
parts,  it  acquires  nothing  of  that  lustre  and 
softness,  and  appearance  of  velvet,  which  the 
exchange  gives  to  stuff  properly  prepared. 

The  sheds  for  dryir^g  tiie  paper  are  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the-paper-mill,  and  are  fur- 
nished with  a  vast  number  of  cords,  on  which 
they  hang  the  sheets  both  before  and  after 
the  sizing.  The  sheds  are  surrounded  with 
moveable  lattices,  lo  admit  a  qu;iutity  of  air 
sufticient  for  drying  the  paper,  'i  he  cords  of 
the  shed  are  stretched  as  much  as  possible  ; 
and  the  paper,  four  or  five  stteets  of  it  toge- 
ther, is  placed  on  them  by  means  of  a  wood- 


y 


S52 


pre 


en  instrum-nt  rc-sembliiijr  a  pick-axe.    T'.io 
principal  diltkiiitv  in  cl.ving  ihe  paper  con- 
sists in  gracluaiK  adnuitni^  th.- exlernal  air, 
and  in  preventing  tlie  coids  Iroai   imbibing 
moisture.     With  regard  to  tlw  lirst  of  these, 
tlie  Dutch  use  very  low  sheds,  and  conslrvK  t 
their  lattices  with  great  exactness.     By  this 
means  the  Dutch  paper  is  dried  eqMally,  and 
is  extremely  supple  before  the  sizing.     '1  hoy 
prevent  the  cords  from  imbibing  the  water  by 
covering   them    with   wax.       In   using   such 
cords,  the  ni.)i>ture  doiN  not  continne  in  the 
lino  of  contact  between  the  paper  and  the 
cord,  which  prevents  the  slieel  Irom  stretch- 
ing in  tiiat  particular  place  by  its  weight,  and 
from  the  folds  which  the  moisture  in  the  sub- 
sequent   operations    might    occasion.     Ihe 
Dutch    also    employ   cord?    of  considerable 
thickness,  and  place" fewer  of  them  under  tlie 
sheets;  by  which  means  they  diminish  the 
points  of  contact,   and  give  a  freer  and  more 
equal  circulation  to  the  air. 

Tlie  size  for  paper  is  made  of  the  shreds 
and  parings  got  from  tanners,  curriers,  aud 
parchment-makers.  All  the  putrelied  parts 
and  the  lime  are  carefully  separated  from 
them,  and  they  are  inclosed  into  a  kind  of 
basket,  and  let  down  by  a  rope  and  pulley 
into  the  cauldron.  This  is  a  late  invention, 
and  serves  two  valuable  purposes.  It  makes 
it  easy  to  draw  out  the  pieces  of  leather  when 
the  size  is  extracted  from  them  by  boiling, 
creasy  to  return  them  into  the  boiler  if  the 
operation  is  not  complete.  When  the  sub- 
stance is  sufficiently  extracted,  it  is  allowed 
to  settle  for  some  time;  and  it  is  twice  liltred 
before  it  is  put  into  the  vessel  into  which 
they  dip  the  paper. 

Immediately  before  the  operation,  a  certain 
quantity  of  alum  is  added  to  the  size.     The 
workman    tak<"s    a    handful    of   the  sheets, 
smoothed  and  rendered  as  supple  as  possible, 
■  in  his  lelt  hand,   dips  them   into   the   vessel, 
and  holds  them  separate  with  his  right,  that 
thi-y    may    equally  imbibe  the   size.     Alter 
holding   them  above  the  yesscl  for  a  short 
space  of  time,  he  seizes  on  the  other  side 
with  his  right  hand,  and  again  dips  them  into 
the  vessel.     When  he  has  finished  ten  or  a 
dozen  of  these  handfuls,  they  are  submitted 
to  the  action  of  the  press.     The  superlluous 
size  is  carried  back  to  the  vessel  by  means  of  I 
a  small  pipe.     The  vessel  in  which  the  paper 
is  sized  IS  made  of  copper,  and  furnished  w  ith  ' 
a  grate,  to  give  the  si/e  when  necessary  a  due 
temperature;  and  a  piece  of  thin  bt)ard  or 
felt  is  placed  between  every  handtul  as  they 
are  laid  on  the  table  of  the  press. 

The  Dutch  are  very  careful  in  sizing  their 
paper,  to  have  every  siieet  in  the  same  handful 
of  equal  dryness;  because  it  is  found  that  the 
dry  sheets  imbibe  the  size  more  slowly  than 
those  which  retain  some  degree  of  moisture. 
They  begin   by  selecting  the  padges  in  the 
drying-hunse ;  and  after  liaving  made  them 
supple,  and  having  <le-,troyed  the  adherence 
between  tlie  sh.:ets,  they  separate  them  into 
handfuls  in  proi>orlion  to  the  drynes-,  each  ot 
them  containing  that  number  which  they  can 
dip   at   one   time,      lii^sides   this  precaution, 
they  take  care  to  apply  two  sheets  of  brown 
paper  of  an   equal   size  to   every   handful. 
■  This  brown  paper,  firm,  solid,  and  already 
sized,  is  of  use  to  support  the  sheets. 

As  soon  as  the  paper  is  sized,  it  is  the  prac- 
tice at  some  paper-mills  to  carry  it  imuiedi- 


PAPER. 

atc'y  to  the  drving-house,  and  hang  it  before 
It  cjols,  sheet  by  siieet,  on  the  cords,     'i'he 
paper,   unless  particular  attention  is  paid  to 
the  lattices  of  the  drying-house,  is  apt  to  dry 
too  fa?t,  whereby  a  great  part  of  tin-  size  goes 
ot'i'ir.  evaporatio'ii ;  or,  if  too  slow,  it  falls  to 
th(!  ground.     The  Dutch  drying-houses  are 
the  best  to  prevent  these  inconveniences  :  but 
the  exchange  alter  the  sizing,  vhich  is  gene- 
rally practised  in    Holland,   is  the  best  re- 
medy.    They   begin   this  opcrali^m  on  the 
banJfuls  of  paper,  either  v  bile  they  ;)  re  still 
hot,  or  othersvise  as  they  lind  it  convenient. 
But,  alter  the  exchange',  they  are  caretul  to 
allow  the   heaps  to  bC  altogether  cold  before 
they  are  submitted  to  the  press.     Without 
this   precaution,    the   size  would   either   be 
wholly  squeezed  out  by  (he  press  of  the  ex- 
change, or  the  surface  of  the  paper  become 
very  irregular.     It  is  of  consequence  I  liat  the 
l>aper,  still  warm  from  the  sizing,  grows  gra- 
dually  lirm,   under  the  operation  of  the  ex- 
change, in   proportion  as  it  cools.     By  this 
method  it  receives  that  varnish  which  is  after- 
wards brought  to  perfection  under  the  press, 
and  in   which  the  excellence  of  the  paper 
either  for  writing  or  drawing  chietly  consists. 
It  is  in  consequence  of  the  exchanging  and 
iig  tliat   the  Dutch  paper   is  sott  and 


e(|ual  ;"and  tliat  the  size  penetrates  into  the 
body  of  it,  and  is  extended  e<iiially  over  its 
surface. 

The  exchange  after  the  sizing  ought  to 
be  conducted  with  the  greatest  skill  and  atten- 
tion, because  the  grain  of  the  paper  then  re- 
ceives impressions  which  can  never  be  eradi- 
cated. When  the  sized  paper  is  also  ex- 
changed, it  is  possible  to  hang  more  sheets  to- 
gether on  the  cords  of  the  dr)  ing-house.  The 
paper  dries  better  in  this  condition,  and  the 
size  is  preserved  witliuut  any  sensible  waste, 
because  the  sheets  of  paper  mutually  prevent 
the  rapid  operation  ot  tlie  external  air.  And 
as  the  size  has  already  penetrated  into  the 
paper,  and  is  lixed  on  the  surface,  the  insensi- 
ble progress  of  a  well-conducted  drying- 
house  renders  all  the  good  effects  more  per- 
fect in  proportion  as  it  is  slowly  dried. 

If  to  these  considerations  is  added  the  da- 
mage done  to  the  paper  in  drying  it  imniedi- 
ateiy  after  the  press  of  the  sizing-ro.mi,  whe.- 
tlier  it  is  done  in  raising  the  hairs  by  separat- 
ing the  sheets,  or  in  cracking  the  surface,  it  is 
eyident  that  the  trouble  of  the  second  ex- 
change is  inhnitely  overpaid  by  the  advan- 
tage. 

When  the  paper  is  sufficiently  dry,  it  is 
carried  to  the  lini^hing•room,  where  it  is 
pressed,  selected,  examined,  folded,  made  up 
into  (luires,  and  finally  into  reams.  It  is  here 
put  twice  under  the  jiress;  lirst,  when  it  is  at 
its  full  size,  and  secondly,  alter  it  is  folded. 

The  principal  labourof  this  place  consists  in 
assorting  the  paper  into  different  lots,  accord- 
ing to  its  (piality  and  faults;  after  which  it  is 
made  up  into  quires.     The  ))erson  who  does 
this  must  possess   great  skill,  and  be  capable 
of  great  attention,  because  he  acts  iis  a  check 
on  those  who   separateil  the  paper  into  dil- 
ferent    lots.      lie   takes  the   sheets   with  his 
right  hand,  folds  them,  examines  them,  lays 
them  over  his  lelt  arm  till  he  has  the  number 
re(|ui>ilc  for  a  quire,  brings  the  sides  parallel 
to  one  anoiher,  and  places  them  in  heaps  un- 
der the  table.     An   expert  workman,  if  pro- 
per tare  has  been  taken  in  assorting  the  lots. 


will  finish  in  thl;  manner  near  6000  quires  in  s 
day. 

'I'he  paper  is  afterwards  collected  into 
reams  ot  20  ([uires  c'.ich.  and  for  the  last  time 
put  under  the  press,  where  it  is  continued  for 
10  or  \'2  hours,  or  as  long  as  the  dunand  of 
tlie  paper-mill  permits.  \Ve  shall  explain  lie 
structure  ot  one  of  the  best  paper-milK  now 
in  use. 

Plate  Paper  Mill,  S.-C.  figs.  1,  2,  3,  explains 
the  construction   of    an  engine   paper-ir.ill. 
ABDE,  Iig.  3,  is  a  large  vat  of  wood,  lined 
with  lead;~on  eacli  side  of  it  are  bolted  two 
pieces  of  wood,  F,G  ;  the  piece  lihasastrong 
lever  H  jointed  to  it;  the  other  end  of  this 
lever  enters  a  mortise  in  the  piece  K,  and  has 
ascre^vfa^telled  toil,  which  conies  up  through 
the  top  of  the  piece,  where  a  nut  a  is  put  on 
it,  by  turning  which  the  lever  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  at  pleasure.     In  the  middle  of  each 
of  the  levers  II  H,  is  fixed  a  brass  socket,  in 
which  the  spindle  of  the  cylinder  I  lies  ;  and 
on  the  outer  end  of  thi^  spindle  is  fixed  a  pi- 
nion K,  working  into  other  cog  wheels,  con- 
necting with  the  water-wheel,   steam-engine, 
&c.  which  gives  it  motion.     The  cylinder  is 
made  of  wood,   and   has  a  great  number  of 
steel  cutters  fixed  into    it,   parallel  to  the 
axis.     These  cutters  act  against  a  similar  set 


tixed   into  a  block  of  wood  L,  fig.  2 ;  this 
block  goes  through  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the 
vat,  and  is  kept  in  tight  by  a  wedge,  so  that 
when  the  wedge  is  knocked  out,  the  block 
can  be  taken  out  to  sharpen  the  cutters  :  tlie 
ends  of  the  cylinder  work  very  close  between 
the  side  of  the  vat,  and  a  partition  N  in  the 
middle  of  the  yat,  so  that  none  of  the  rags 
can  get  through  betw^een  them :  the  bottom 
of  the  vat  is  i^aised  up  at  M,  fig.  3.  to  the 
same  lever  with  tlie  axis  of  the  cUinder,  goes 
as  near  to  its  circumference  a>  possible  with- 
out touching,  and  then  suddenly  falls  down  to 
the  block  L.     At  the  back  of  the  vat  a  small 
leaden  cistern  ()  connects  with  it  ;  through  a 
hair  sieve  P  is  a  crooked  pipe,  which  brings 
clean  water  to  the  vat ;  the  end  of  this  pipe 
has  a  fiannel  bag  tied  over  it,  to  catch  any  im- 
purities which  may  be  in  the  water. 

Fig.  1.  is  a  box  which  is  put  over  the  cy- 
linder, and  rests  upon  the  edge  of  the  vat, 
and  the  partition  M  ;  at  each  edge  of  this  box 
is  tixed  a  trough  bd ;  when  the  box  is  put  in. 
its  place,  these  connect  with  the  top  of  the 
leaden  pipes  tf,  fig.  3.  on  the  side  of  the  vat : 
on  the  edge  of  these  troughs  hair  sieves  ^g- 
are  fixed ;  and  before  these  boards,  one  of 
which  is  shewn  at  It,  are  slid  in  grooves  in  the 
sides  of  the  box.     The  operation  of  the  ma- 
chine is  as  follows:  The  vat  is  filled  with  clean 
water,  tlie  box  fig.  2.  is  put  over  the  cylinder, 
and  a  quantity   of  rags  is  put  into  the  vat. 
The  cylinder  being  turned  round  with  a  velo- 
city of  120  revolutions  per  minute  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  arrow  in  fig.  2.  draws  the  rags 
in  between   the  cutters   in   the   cylinder  and 
(he  block  I.,  and  tears  them  to  pieces  ;   front 
the  cylinder  they   go   forwards   into  the  vat, 
and  turn  slowly' round  in   it  till  they  come 
under  the  cNliiider  again.    Tlie  great  velocity 
ol  the  cyrnuler  throws  the  rags  and  water  up 
against  "the  sieves  g  in  the  box   fig.  I.  ;     the 
foul  water   runs  through  the  sieve  into  the 
trough  /)(/,  and  from  thence  into  the  pipes 
((7j,  which  convey  it  away,  and  the  clean 
w'ater  is  bruught  to   Ihe  vat  by  the  Jiipe  P; 
when  the  Ibul  water  is  wanted  to  be  kept  i* 


P  A  V 

flieTjosrcls  are  s'.id  dovu  before  the  siev^,  as 
at  /(,  li^.  I-  whicli  prevents  tlie  water  coing 
tlivoiigli  the  sieves.  In  larger  mills  two  (lilfe- 
r«-nt  eMf»iiu'S  are  used  ;  tijat  into  « liieli  the 
rags  lire  lirsl  put  is  like  lig.  3  ;  the  other  one 
vhieh  is  used  Uj  lini-h  the  rags  is  similar  to  it, 
but  has  iiuieh  liner  cutlers,  and  the  eviindcr  is 
let  down  nuieh  nearer  tiie  block  L  by  the 
.screw  II. 

'I  he  lower  eomparlnient  of  Plate   Paper- 
making,  represents  one  of  the  tables  usetl  in 
the  manufactories  in  and  near  Lontlon,  for 
printing  the  jiaper  used  for  the  liangings  of 
rooms.    A,  is  a  square  water-tight  box,  called 
the  sieve,  mounted   upon  legs;  this   box  is 
about  5  filled  with  waler,  mixed  wiili  paper- 
shavings,  &c.  and  then  another  box  Xi  is  put 
into  it,  so  that  it  lioats  on  the  waler ;  the  bot- 
tom of  this  box  is  of  parchment,  and  a  frame 
covered  witli  a  piece  of  felt  is  laid  upon  it; 
the  taiile  D,  where  the  printing  is  performed, 
]ias  two  pieces  of  wood  (^  fixed  upright  in  it; 
these  have  notches  in  them  to  receive  the  ends 
of  a  brass  wire,  winch  is  put  tl'.rough  the  mid- 
dle of  the  roll  of  papi'r  d  ;  the  pai^er  from  this 
roll  goes  over  the  edge  of  the  table,  and  is 
laid  upon  a  horse,  fig.  j.  which  has  a  roller, 
on  its  top  for  the  paper  to  lie  on.     On  one 
part  of  the  horse  a  nun)ber  of  small  sticks  e, 
a  little  longer  than  the  wiillh  of  the  paper,  are 
laid.     Tlie  ojicration  is  conducted  as  follows  : 
the  workman  takes  a  roll  of  pajicr  (each  of 
which  is  la  \ards  long,  and  2a  inches  wide) 
from  the  sliell  !•',  undi;r  the  table,  and  puts  a 
brass  \\ire  thiough  it,  and  lays  its  ends  in  the 
pieces  a,  as  shewn  in  the  figure  4. ;  he  then 
pulls  the  end  of  the  paper  to  tlie  end  of  the 
table.     In  the  mean  lime  a  boy,  called  the 
tier  boy,  who  stands  on  the  stool  E,  brushes 
the  fell  which  lies  in  the  sieve  15  over  with  the 
colour   used  in  the  printing ;  the  workman 
then  takes  up  the  block  (in  which  the  device 
to  be  printed  is  cut  as  in  w  ood  cuts),  by  put- 
"ting  his  hand  tluough  the  strap  nailed  lo  the 
back  of  it,  and  presses  its  face  upon  the  felt  in 
the  colour-sieve  B:  the  water  which  is  under 
causes  ihe  felt  to  touch  the   block  in  every 
_^)arl,  and  take  celour  e(|ually  over  tlie  surface 
of  the  block:  he   then  removes  tlie  block, 
and  lays  it  upon  the  paper  near  the  end  of 
the  table ;  and  takes  up  a  mallet  with  a  leaden 
head,  called  tlie  mall,  which  has  a  small  shelf 
h,  in  his  right  hand,  and  gives  the  block  two 
blows  on  the  back  of  it,  to  make  the  impres- 
sion.    He  then  puts  down  the  mall,  and  lifts 
up  theblock(svhichliis  left  hand  never  qiiitti  d), 
and  turns  round  to  take  colour  at  ihe  sieve  : 
as  he  tvirns  round  to  bring  the  block  over  the 
paper  again,  he  takes  hold  of  the  edge  of  the 
paper  with  his  right  hand,  and  ))ulls  it  forward 
the  proper  distance  to  print  again  ;  in  laying 
liie  block  down,  he  guides  it  to  its  place  with 
his  right  hand,  and  when  it  is  laid  he  takes  up 
the  mall  as  before.     In  this  manner  he  pro- 
cee.'ls  till  the  end  of  the  pa])er  touches  the 
ground  ;  the  tier  l)oy  then  goes  and  puts  it 
over  the  horse,  fig.   5.  and  returns  to  the 
sieve.     When  the  middle  of  the  paper  nearly 
touches  the  ground,  he  goes  again  to  tlie  end 
of  the  paper,  and  pulls  it  straight  over  the 
horse,  and  lays  it  on  the  ground  as  in  the 
iigure.     This  operation  he  repeals  as  often  as 
is  necessary,  till   the  pieces  are  linished:  h(! 
then  takes  the  poll,   hg.  6.  from  the  ground, 
and  puts  one  ot  tlie  sticks  e,  iig.  5.  into  the 
groove  across  its  top.   He  then  puts  the  paper 
on  the  sticks,  and  lifts  them  all  together  to 
Vol.  II. 


PAP 

the  ceiling  of  the  room,  where  lie  lodges  tlie 
ends  of  the  sticks  upon  a  rack  made  tor  the 
purpose:  he  Ihen  lakes  dovvn  the  pole,  and 
pills  up  another  stick  in  a  dill'erent  pari,  so  as 
to  hang  up  all  the  pieces  in  two  or  three  loops 
to  dry.  In  those  prints  which  are  very  full,  or 
in  wliicli  there  is  inucli  colour  to  lay  on,  tlie 
mall  is  not  siiliicient  to  give  the  impression  :  a 
li'ver  is  then  used  instead.  Two  of  the  legs  of 
tlie  table  MN  jjroject  some  inches  above  it ; 
between  these,  two  bars  P  are  boiled,  the  mid- 
dle of  which  is  strengthened  by  an  ujiright 
post  Q,  whose  end  is  fastened  lo  the  ceiling. 
Tiie  shelf  h  has  a  piece  m  put  into  it ;  the 
workman  takes  his  colour,  and  places  tiie 
block  on  the  paper  as  before  ;  but  instead  ot 
taking  the  mall  from  the  shelf /;,  lie'  places  the 
middle  of  the  lever  (the  end  of  which  was  un- 
der the  bar  P,  and  the  middle  resting  on  the 
piece  111)  over  the  block,  and  presses  his 
weight  upon  the  outer  end  of  the  lever,  w  hi(-h 
gives  the  impression:  lie  tlien  lifts  up  tlie 
lever,  slides  his  right  hand  to  tlie  middle  of 
it  (keeping  his  left  at  the  outer  end),  and  re- 
turns the  lever  on  to  the  piece  m,  then  lifts 
up  the  block  lo  take  colour  as  beP.ire. 

Paper,  Marhkd.     See  Marbling. 

Paper-Office,  an  ofiice  in  which  all  the 
public  writings,  matters  of  state  and  council, 
proclamations,  letters,  intelligences,  negoti- 
ations abroad,  and  generally  all  dispatches 
that  pass  through  the  oflices  of  the  secreta- 
ries of  state,  are  lodged,  by  way  of  library. 

Papcr-OjHcc  is  also  an  office  belonging  to 
the  court  ot  king's  bench. 

PAPIER  M.\CHE',  is  a  sutetance  made 
of  cuttings  of  white  or  brown  paper,  boiled  in 
water,  and  beaten  in  a  mortar  till  they  are  re- 
duced into  a  kind  of  paste  ;  and  then  boiled 
with  a  solution  of  gum  arable  or  of  size,  to 
give  tenacity  to  the  paste,  which  is  atterv.ards 
formed  into  different  toys,  &c.  by  pressing  it 
into  oiled  moulds.  When  dry,  it  is  covered 
with  a  mixture  of  size  and  lamp-black,  and  af- 
terwards varnished. 

PAPILIO,  bidtcrflTj,  a  genus  of  insects  of 
the  order  lepidoptera.  The  generic  charac- 
ter is,  aulenn;c  thickening  towards  the  extre- 
mity, comtnonly  terminating  in  a  knob  or 
clavated  tip  ;  wings  (when  sitting)  erect,  and 
meeting  upwards;  flight  diurnal. 

The  prodigious  number  of  species,  amount- 
ing to  many  hundreds,  in  this  genus,  renders 
it  absolutely  necessary  lo  divide  the  whole 
into  sections  or  sets,  instituted  from  the  habit 
or  general  appearance,  and,  in  some  degree, 
from  the  distribution  of  the  colour  on  the 
wings.  This  division  of  the  genus  is  con- 
ducted by  LinuKus  in  a  jjeciiliarly  elegant 
and  instructive  manner,  being  an  attempt  to 
combine,  in  some  degree,  natural  and  ci\  il 
history,  liy  attaching  the  memory  of  some  il- 
lustrious antient  name  to  air  insect  of  a  cer- 
tain paiticular  cast. 

The  first  Linna-an  division  consists  of  the 
equites,  distinguished  by  the  shape  of  their 
upper  wings,  which  are  longer,  if  measured 
from  their  hinder  angle  lo  lh<eir  anterior  ex- 
tremity, than  from  the  same  point  to  the 
base.  Some  of  this  division  have  filiform  or 
sharpened  anlenn;c,  in  which  particular  they 
resemble  moths,  but  may  gfnerallv  be  very 
clearly  distinguished  by  their  habit  or  gene- 
ral shape.  The  etiuites  are  either  Troes  (or 
'I'rojans), distinguished  by  having  red  or  blood- 
coloured  spots  or  patches  ou  each  side  tlieir 


P  A  1' 


«i-! 


breasts ;  or  Achivi,  Greeks,  without  ret!  marks 
on  the  breast,  of  gayer  colours  in  geiieial 
than  the  Icnner,  and  often  having  aii  eve- 
shaped  spot  at  the  inner  corner  of  ihe  lower 

wings. 

The  next  division  consists  of  the  Heliconii. 
These  are  distinguished  by  the  narrowness  of 
their  wings,  whi»li  are  also,  in  general,  of  a 
more  transparent  appearance  than  in  the 
other  di\isi()ns;  their  upper  wings  are  abo 
generally  imuh  more  oblong  than  the  lower, 
which  are  short  in  proportion. 

1  he  third  division  consists  of  tlie  Danai, 
(from  the  sons  and  daughters  of  Danaus.) 
'1  hev  are  divided  into  danai  candidi,  or  those 
in  v.liich  Ihe  ground-colour  of  the  wings  is 
generally  white ;  and  llie  danai  festivi,  in  which 
the  ground-colour  is  never  white,  and  in 
which  a  greater  variety  of  colour  occurs  than 
in  the  candidi.  The  wings  of  the  danai  are 
of  a  somewhat  rounder  shape  than  those  of 
the  heliconii,  or  less  stretched  out. 

The  fourth  section  consists  of  the  nymph- 
ales,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  edges  of  the 
wings  being  scolloped  or  indented:  "it  is  sub- 
divided into  the  iiymphales  gemmati,  in 
which  eyesliaped  sjiots  are  seen  either  on 
all  tlie  wings,  or  on  the  upper  or  lower  pair 
only ;  and  into  the  nymphales  phalerati,  in 
which  no  ocellated  spots  are  visible  on  the 
wings,  but,  in  general,  a  great  variety  of  co- 
lours. 

The  fifth  section  contains  the  plebeii. 
These  are,  in  general,  smaller  than  the  pre- 
ceding kinds  of  butterflies  :  and  are  subdivid- 
ed into  plebeii  urbicote,  or  those  in  which 
the  wings  are  marked  by  semitransparent 
spots  ;  and  plebeii  rurale?,  in  which  the  spots 
or  patches  have  no  transparency. 

The  larva-  of  butterflies  are  universally  and' 
emphatically  known  by  the  name  of  caterpil- 
lars, and  arc  extremely  various  in  their  forms 
and  colours,  some  being  smooth,  others  beset 
with  simple  or  ramified  spines,  &c.  and  some, 
especially  those  belonging  to  the  division 
equites,  are  obser\ed  to  protrude  from  their 
front,  when  disturbed,  a  pair  of  short  tenta- 
cula  or  feelers,  somewhat  analogous  to  thostf 
of  a  snail. 

The  papilionaceous  insects  in  general,  sooii 
after  their  enlargement  froiri  the  chrjsalis, 
and  commonly  during  their  first  flight,  dis- 
charge some  drops  of  a  red-coloured  fluid, 
more  or  less  intense  in  different  species.  This 
circumstance,  exclusive  of  its  analogy  to  the 
same  process  of  nature  in  other  at^itnals,  is 
peculiarly  worthy  of  attention  from  the  ex- 
planation which  it  affords  of  a  phenomenon 
sometimes  considered,  both  in  antiert  and 
modern  times,  in  tiic  light  of  a  prodigy ; 
viz.  llie  descent  of  red  drops  from  the  air; 
which  has  been  called  a  shower  of  blood:  an 
event  recorded  by  several  writers  among  the 
prodigies  which  took  place  after  the  death  of 
the  great  dictator. 

Among  the  equites  troes,  the  papilio  ]a-i- 
amus  should  take  the  le;id,  not  only  from  th© 
corresponding  dignitv  of  the  name,  but  iroiu 
the  exquisite  appearance  of  the  animal  itself, 
which  Linnffus  considered  as  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  the  whole  papilionaceous  tribe. 

This' admirable  species  measures  more  than 
six  inches  from  wing's  end  to  wing's  end :  the 
upper  wings  are  velvet-black,  with  a  broad 
band  of  the  most  beautiful  grass-creen,  and 
of  a  satiny  lustre,  drawn  from  tlie  shoulder  to 


354 


P  A  P. 


t'lie  tip  ;  aiitl  aiiotliei-  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
wing,  following  the  shape  of  that  part,  and  of 
a  somewhat  undulating  appearance  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  tip :  tlie  lower  wings  are  of  the 
same  green  coloin",  edged  with  velvet-black, 
and  marked  by  four  spots  of  that  colour; 
while  at  the  upper  part  of  each,  or  at  the 
part  where  the  upper  wings  lap  over,  is  a 
stiuarisli  orange-coloured  spot :  the  tliorax  is 
black,  with  sprinklings  of  lucid  green  in  the 
middle,  and  the  abdomen  is  of  a  bright  yel- 
low, or  gold-colour.  On  the  under  side  of 
the  anim;:l  tise  distrib\ition  of  colours  is  some- 
what ditVerent,  the  green  being  disposed  in 
central  patches  on  the  upper  wings,  and  the 
lower  being  marked  by  more  numerous  black 
a;  well  as  orange  spots.  The  red  or  bloody 
spots  on  each  side  the  thorax  are  not  always 
to  be  seen  on  this  the  Trojan  monarch.  The 
papilio  priamus  is  a  very  rare  insect,  and  is  a 
native  of  the  island  of  .■\mboyna. 

P.  hector  is  very  happily  named,  being  of 
a  deep  or  velvet-black  colour,  willi  the  lower 
M'ings  marked  by  numerous  blood-red  spots: 
the  thorax  is  red  on  each  side,  and  the  upper 
wings  have  a  pair  of  obscure,  broken,  whit- 
ish, transverse  clouds  or  bars.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist. 
fig.  3!3. 

Among  the  equites  achivi,  the  P.  mene- 
laus  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
splendidly  beautifid  of  (he  butierfly  tribe.  Its 
size  is  large,  measuiing,  when  expanded, 
about  six  inches;  and  its  colour  is  the  most 
brilliant  silver-blue  that  imagination  can  con- 
ceive :  changing,  according  to  the  variation 
of  the  light,  into  a  deeper  blue,  and  in  some 
lights  to  a  greenish  cast:  on  the  under  side  it 
is  entirely  brown,  witli  numerous  deeper  and 
lighter  undulations,  and  three  large  ocellated 
spots  on  each  wing.  It  is  a  native  of  South 
America. 

The  P.  machaon  is  an  insect  of  great  beau- 
ty, and  may  be  considered  as  the  only  Brit- 
ish species  of  papilio  belonging  to  the  tribe  of 
equites.*  It  is  commonlyicnown  among  the 
English  collectors  by  the  title  of  the  swallow - 
tailed  butterliy,  and'  is  of  a  beautiful  yellow, 
with  black  spots  or  p.Uches  along  the  iq^per 
«lgc  of  the  superior  wings:  all  the  wings  are 
bordered  witli  a  deep  edging  of  black,  <leco- 
rated  by  a  double  row  of  crescent-shaped 
spots,  of  which  the  upper  row  is  blue,  and  the 
lower  yellow :  the  under  w  ings  are  tailed, 
and  are'  marked  at  the  inner  angle  or  tip  with 
a  round  red  spot  bordered  with  blue  and 
black.  The  caterpillar  of  this  species  feeds 
principally  on  fennel  and  other  umbelliferous 
plants,  and  is  sometimes  fou[id  on  rue.  It  is 
of  a  green  colour,  encircled  with  numerous 
black  bands  spotted  with  red,  and  is  furnished 
on  the  top  of  the  head  w  ith  a  pair  of  short 
tentacula  of  a  red  colour,  which  it  occasion- 
ally protrudes  from  th:it  part.  In  the  month 
of  July  it  changes  into  a  yellowisli-grey  an- 
gular chrysalis,  adixed  to  some  convenient 
part  of  the  plant,  or  other  neighbouring  sub- 
stance, and  from  this  chrysalis  in  the  month 
of  August  proceeds  the  complete  insect. 

Of  the  division  called  helicojiii  the  beauti- 
ful insect  the  papilio  apollo  is  an  exanijjle. 
It  is  a  nativcof  many  parts  of  Europe,  but  has 
not  yet  been  observed  in  our  own  country, 


*  Unless  we  admit  the  papilio  pod;iliriu' 
to  be  a  llrilish  species  also. 


PAP 

and  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  common 
great  cabbage-butteriiy  ;  of  a  white  colour, 
with  a  slight  semilransparency  tjwards  the 
tips  o!  the  wings,  which  are  decoiated  with 
\  elvet-black  spots  ;  and  on  each  of  the  lower 
wings  are  two  most  beautitul  ocellated  spots, 
consisting  of  a  carmine-coloured  circle  with  a 
white  centre  and  black  exterior  border. 

Of  the  division  entitled  dauai,  candldi,  the 
common  large  white  butterfly,  or  P.  brassica, 
is  a  familiar  example :  this  insect  is  too  well 
known  to  require  particular  description,  and 
it  mav  be  only  necessary  to  remind  the  read- 
er that  it  proceeds  from  a  yellowish  caterpil- 
lar, freckled  with  blueish  and  black  spots,  and 
which  changes  during  the  autumn  into  a  yel- 
lowish-grey chrysalis,  allixed  in  a  perpendicu- 
lar direction  to  some  wall,  tree,  or  otiier  ob- 
ject, some  filaments  being  drawn  across  the 
thorax  in  order  the  more  conveniently  to 
secure  its  position.  The  liy  appears  in  May 
and  June,  and  is  seen  tlirough  all  the  sum- 
mer. 

Of  the  danai  festivi  the  P.  midamus  may 
serve  as  an  example ;  an  elegant  Asiatic  spe- 
cies, of  a  black  colour,  with  a  varying  blue 
lustre  towards  the  tips  of  the  upper  wings, 
which  are  marked  by  many  wliite  spots, 
while  the  lower  pair  are  streaked  longitudi- 
nally with  numerous  while  lines,  and  edged 
with  a  row  of  white  specks. 

Among  the  nymphales  gemmati  few  can 
exceed  m  elegance  the  P.  io,  or  peacock 
butterlly,  a  species  by  no  means  uncommon 
in  our  own  country:  the  ground-colour  of 
this  insect  is  orange-brown,  with  black  bars 
separated  by  yellow  intermediate  spaces  on 
the  upper  edge  of  the  superior  wings,  while 
at  the  tip  of  each  is  a  most  beautiiul  large 
eye-shaped  spot,  formed  by  a  combination  of 
black,  brown,  and  blue,  wUh  the  addition  of 
whitish  specks  :  on  each  of  the  louer  wings  is 
a  still  larger  eye-shaped  spot,  consisting  of  a 
black  central  patch,  varied  with  blue,  and 
surroiuided  by  a  zone  of  pale  brown,  which 
is  itself  deeply  bordered  with  black:  all  the 
wings  are  scolloped  or  denticulated.  The 
caterpillar  is  black,  with  numerous  white 
spots,  and  black  ramified  spines:  it  feeds 
principally  on  the  nettle,  changing  to  cry- 
salis  in  July,  and  the  fly  appealing  in  Au- 
gust. 

P.  jurlina  is  a  species  equally  common, 
though  far  less  beautifiil.  It  is  chiefly  ob- 
served in  meadows,  and  is  of  a  brown  colour, 
,tlie  upper  wings  having  a  much  brighter  or 
orange-ferruginous  bar  towards  the  tips,  with 
a  small,  blacl-r,  eye-shaped  spot  with  a  white 
centre:  on  the  opposite  or  under  side  of  the 
insect  the  same  ciistribulion  of  colours  takes 
place. 

Of  the  nympliales  plialerali,  few  can  sur- 
pass the  common  En  ilish  species  called  P. 
atalanta,  or  the  admirable  butterfly:  it  is  of 
the  most  intense  velvet  black  colour,  with  a 
rich  carmine-coloured  bar  across  the  upper 
wings,  which  are  spotted  towards  the  tips 
with  white;  while  tiie  lower  wings  are  black, 
with  a  dee])  border  of  carm  ne  colour  marked 
by  a  row  of  small  black  spots:  the  uiuler  sur- 
face of  the  wings  also  presents  a  most  beautiful 
mixture  of  colours:  thi-  caterpillar  is  brown 
and  spiny,  feeds  on  nettles,  and  changes  into 
a  chrysalis  in  July,  the  fly  appearing  in  Au- 
gust. 

Of  the  last  division,  termed  plebeii,  mav 
be  adduced  as  an  example  a  small  English 

11 


PAR 

butterfly  called  P.  malvae,  of  a  blackish  or 
brown  colour,  with  numerous  whitish  and 
semilranspaient  spots.  It  belongs  to  the 
plebeii  urbicolffi. 

To  this  division  also  belongs  a  very  beauti- 
ful exotic  species,  a  native  of  India,  and  of  a 
most  exquisite  lucid  b!ue  colour,  edged  with 
black,  and  farther  ornamented  by  having  each 
of  the  lower  wings  tipped  with  two  narrow- 
black  tal-shaped  processes.  It  is  the  P. 
marsyas  ot  Linna;us.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist. 
tigs.  '311  and  31  J. 

PAPISTS,  persons  professing  the  popish 
religion.  By  several  statutes,  it  any  English 
priest  01  the  church  of  Koine,  born  in  tlie  do- 
minions of  the  crown  of  England,  came  to 
England  from  beyond  the  seas,  or  tarried  in 
England  three  days  without  conlbrmaig  to 
the  churcli,  he  was  guilty  of  higli  treason  ; 
and  they  also  incurred  the  guilt  of  higli  trea- 
son who  w  ere  reconciled  to  the  see  of  Rome, 
or  procured  others  to  be  reconciled  to  it.  By 
these  laws  also,  papists  were  disabled  .from 
giving  their  children  any  education  in  their 
own  religion.  If  they  educated  their  chil- 
dren at  home,  for  maintaining  the  sclioolmas- 
ter,  if  he  did  not  repair  to  church,  or  was  not 
allowed  bv  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  they 
were  liable  to  forfeit  10/.  a  month,  and  the 
schoolmaster  was  liable  to  the  forfeiture  of 
40'>-.  a  day:  if  they  sent  their  children  for 
education  abroad,  they  were  liable  to  forfeit 
100/.  and  the  children  so  sent  were  incapable 
of  inheriting,  purciiasing,  or  enjoying,  any 
lands,  profits,  goods,  debts,  legacies,  or  sums 
of  money:  saying  mass  was  punishable  bv  a 
forfeiture  of  iJOO  marks;  and  hearing  it  by  a 
forfeiture  of  100/. 

But  during  the  present  reign  the  Roman 
Catholics  have  been  in  a  great  measure  re- 
lieved from  the  restrictions  formerly  imposed 
on  them.  See  18  Geo.  HI.  c.  t)0;  and  31 
Geo.  1 II.  c.  22. 

PAPOPHORUM,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  order  triandria  digynia.  The  calyx  is 
tvvo-valved,  two-flowered;  corolla  two-valv- 
ed,  many-awned.  There  is  one  species,  a 
grass  of  America. 

PAPPUS,  dozen.     See  Dotany. 

PAR,  in  commerce.     See  Exchange. 

PARABOLA,  in  geometry,  a  figure  aris- 
ing from  the  section  of  a  cone,  when  cut  by 
a  plane  parallel  to  one  of  its  sides.  See  Co- 
nic Sections. 

PARABOLIC  CONOID,  in  geometry, 
a  solid  generated  by  tiu:  rotation  of  a  para- 
bola about  its  axis  :  its  solidity  is  =;  ^  ot  that 
of  its  circumscribing  cvlinder. 

The  circles  conceived  to  be  the  elements 
of  this  figure,  are  in  arithmetical  proportion, 
decreasing  towards  the  vertex. 

A  par:ibolic  conoid  is  to  a  cylinder  of  the 
saivie  base  and  height,  as  1  to  2  ;  and  to  a 
cone  of  the  same  base  and  height,  as  1^  to  1. 
See  Gauging. 

Parauolic  Space,  the  area  contained 
between  any  entire  ordinate  and  the  curve  of 
the  incumbent  parabola. 

The  parai/o.ic  space  is  to  the  rectangle  of 
the  semi-ordinate  into  the  absciss,  as  2  to  3  ; 
to  a  triangle  inscribed  on  the  ordinate  as  a 
base,  it  is  as  4  to  3. 

PARABOLOIDES,  a  name  given  to  pa- 
raliolas  of  the  higher  kind,  which  are  alge- 
br.iic  curves. 

PARACENTRIC    MOTION,   in  astr.- 


Hatueal  History, 


Frintid  Ja>ti-wo6,  'irKcburd  EiKp  sj't»'  SHljc  JiSlaiifiiar^ 


/i^M  Jkf/i'-r  ji-^ti^ro 


PAR 

Homy,  dfliiotes  so  much  as  a  iTvolvitic;  planet 
ai)proarlR's  nearci-  to,  or  receclos  from,  the 
sun,  or  centre  of  attraction. 

rAKADISl<:,  bird  of.     S(  e  Paradisea. 

PARADI.SEA,  in  ornithology,  a  genns  of 
birds  belonging  lo  thi-  order  of  picii'.  The 
beak  is  covered  with  a  belt  or  collar  of 
downy  feathers  at  the  base,  and  the  leathers 
on  ll;e  sides  arc  very  long. 

"  Birds  of  this  genus  (says  Latham)  have 
the  bill  slightly  bending,  the  base  covered 
with  velvet-like  feathers.  I'he  nostrils  are 
small,  and  concealed  by  the  feathers.  Tin' 
tail  consists  of  ten  feathers;  the  two  middle 
ones,  and  sometimes  more  in'  several  of  the 
species,  are  very  long,  and  webbed  only  at 
the  base  and  tips.  The  legs  and  feet  are  very 
large  and  strong :  tiii'V  have  three  toes  for- 
ward, one  backward,  and  the  middle  con- 
nected lo  the  outer  one  as  far  as  the  lirst 
joint.  The  whole  of  this  genus  have  till  late- 
ly been  very  imperfectly  known ;  f(;w  cabi- 
nets possessing  more  than  one  species,  viz. 
the  greater,  or  what  is  called  the  common 
bird  of  Paradise;  nor  has  any  set  of  birds 
given  rise  to  more  fables,  llie  various  tales 
concerning  which  are  to  be  found  in  every 
autlior;  sucli  as,  their  never  touching  the 
ground  from  tlieir  birth  to  death;  liviiig 
wholly  on  the  dew ;  and  being  produced 
without  legs.  This  last  error  is  scarcely  at 
this  moment  wholly  eradicated.  The  cir- 
cumstance which  ga\e  rise  to  it  did  not  in- 
fleed  at  lirst  proceed  from  an  intention  to  de- 
ceive,  but  merely  from  accident.  In  the 
parts  of  tlie  world  which  produce  these  biids, 
the  natives  made  use  of  them  as  aigrets,  and 
other  ornaments  of  dress ;  and  in  course 
threw  away  the  less  brilliant  parts.  The 
whole  trouble  they  were  at  on  this  occasion 
was  merely  to  skin  the  bird,  and,  after  pull- 
ing off  the  legs,  coarser  parts  of  the  wings, 
ttc.  thrust  a  stick  down  the  throat  into  the 
body,  letting  an  inch  or  two  hang  out  of  the 
mouth,  bev'ond  the  bill:  on  the  bird's  dryiiig, 
tlie  skin  collapsed  about  the  stick,  which  be- 
came fixed,  and  supported  the  whole.  They 
bad  then  no  more  to  do  than  to  put  this  end 
of  it  into  a  socket  iitted  to  receive  it,  or  fasten 
it  in  some  manner  to. the  turban,  &c.  By 
degrees  these  Were  imported  into  the  other 
isles  for  the  same  uses,  and  afterwards  were 
coveted  by  the  Japanese,  Chinese,  and  Per- 
sians, in  vvhose  countries  they  are  frequently 
seen,  as  well  as  in  many  parts  of  India  ;  the 
grandees  of  these  last  parts  not  only  orna- 
namenting  themselves  with  these  beautiful 
plumes,  but  adorning  even  their  horses  with 
tiie  same." 

Latham  eimmerates  eight  species,  but  sus- 
pects there  may  be  more. 

1.  The  largest  bird  of  paradise  is  common- 
ly two  feet  fo\ir  inches  in  lenglh  ;  the  head  is 
small ;  the  bill  hard  and  long,  of  a  pale  co- 
lour. The  hf"ad  and  back  part  of  the  neck 
are  lemon-coloured,  a  little  black  about  the 
eyes;  about  the  neck  the  bird  is  of  the 
brightest  glossy  emerald-green,  soft  like  vel- 
vet ;  as  is  also  die  breast,  which  is  black:  the 
wings  are  large  and  chesnut-coloured :  the 
back  part  of  the  body  is  covei'ed  with  long, 
stj'aight,  narrow  feathers,  of  a  pale-brown  co- 
lour, similar  to  the  plumes  of  the  ostrich. 
Tliese  fciitl'.ers  are  spread  when  the  bird  is 
on  the  wing ;  for  which  reason  he  can  keep 
very  long  in  llic  air.     On  both  sides  of  the 


1'  \  n 

bflly  are  two  tufts  of  stil'f  and  shorter  fea- 
thers, of  a  golden  yi-llow,  and  shining.  From 
the  rump'proceed'two  long  still'shafts,  which 
are  feathered  on  their  extremities. 

'|■he^e  bir:ls  are  not  found  in  Key,  an  island 
50  Dutch  miles  east  of  Banda  ;  but  they  are 
found  at  the  Aroo  islands,  l\ing  1.5  l3ulcli 
miles  farther  ca--t  than  Key,  during  the  west- 
erly or  dry  monsoon  ;  and  they  return  to 
New  ( Juinea  as  soon  as  the  easterly  or  wet 
monsoon  sets  in.  They  come  always  in  a 
Hock  of  .?0  or  40,  and  are  led  by  a  bird  which 
the  inhabitants  of  Aroo  call  the  king.  This 
leader  is  black,  with  red  spots;  and  constant- 
ly tlies  higher  than  the  rest  of  the  Hock, 
which  never  forsake  him,  but  settle  when  he 
settles;  a  circun'istaiice  that  fre<[uently  proves 
their  ruin  when  the  kuig  lights  on  the  ground, 
whence  they  are  not  able  to  rise  on  account 
of  the  singular  structure  and  disposition  of 
their  plumage.  Thi-y  are  likewise  unable  to 
lly  with  the  wind,  which  would  ruin  their 
loose  plumage;  but  take  their  (lii^ht  constant- 
ly against  it,  cautious  not  to  venture  out  in 
hard-blowing  weather,  as  a  strong  wind  fre- 
quently obliges  them  to  come  to  the  ground. 
During  their  tlight,  they  cry  like  starlings. 
Their  note,  however,  approaches  more  to 
the  croaking  of  ravens ;  w'hich  is  heard  very 
plainly  when  they  are  in  distress  from  a 
fresh  gale  blowing  on  the  back  of  their  plu- 
mage. In  Aroj,  these  birds  settle  on  the 
highest  trees,  especially  on  the  licus  benja- 
mina  of  the  horlus  malabaricus,  connnonly 
called  the  waringa  tree.  '1  he  natives  catch 
them  with  birdlime  or  in  nooses,  or  shoot 
them  w  ith  blunt  arrows ;  but  though  some 
are  still  alive  when  they  fall  into  their  hands, 
the  catchers  kill  them  immediately,  and  some- 
times cut  the  legs  olf ;  then  they  draw  out 
the  entrails,  dry  and  fumigate  the  bodies  with 
sulphm-  or  smoke  only,  and  sell  them  at 
Banda  for  half  a  rixdoUar  each  ;  but  at  Aroo 
they  may  be  bought  for  a  spike-nail,  or  a 
piece  of  old  iron.  Flocks  of  these  birds  are 
often  seen  Hying  from  one  island  to  the  other 
against  the  wind.  In  case  they  lind  the  wind 
become  too  powerful,  ihey  fly  straight  up 
into  the  air,  till  they  come  to  a  place  where 
it  is  less  agitated,  and  then  continue  their 
flight.  During  the  eastern  nur.'.soon,  their 
tails  are  moulted,  so  that  they  have  them 
only  during  four  months  of  the  western  mon- 
soon.    Sec" Plate  Nat.  Hist.  lig.  315. 

'2.  The  smaller  bird  of  Paradise  is  abo'.it 
20  inches  long.  His  beak  is  lead-coloured, 
and  paler  at  the  point.  'I  he  eyes  are  small, 
and  inclosed  in  black  about  the  neck.  The 
head  and  back  of  the  neck  are  of  a  dirty  yel- 
low, the  back  of  a  greyish  yellow,  the  breast 
and  belly  of  a  dusky  colour,  the  wings  small 
and  chesnut-coloured.  The  long  plumage  is 
about  a  foot  in  length,  and  paler  than  in  the 
large  species ;  as  in  general  the  colours  of 
this  bird  are  less  bright  than  the  former.  The 
two  long  feathers  ot  the  tail  are  coiwtantly 
thrown  away  by  the  natives.  This  is  in  all 
respects  like  the  greater  sort;  and  they  like- 
wise follow  a  king  or  leader,  who  is,  hov.  ever, 
blacker,  with  a  purplish  cast,  and  liner  in  co- 
lour than  the  rest. 

3  and  4.  The  large  black  bird  of  Paradise 
is  brought  without  wings  or  legs  for  sale  ;  so 
that  no  accurate  description  of  it  h;is  yet  been 
given.  Its  ligure,  when  stuffed,  is  ii,irrow  and 
roimd,  but  stretched  in  length  to  the  extent 
of  four  spans.  The  plumage  on  the  head, 
Yya 


I'  A  11 


35.0 


neck,  and  belly,  is  black  and  velvet-like,  wifh. 
a  hue  of  purple  and  gold,  which  appears  very 
strong.  The  bill  is  blackish,  and  one  inch  in 
length.  Oh  both  sides  are  two  bunches  of 
fealliei-s,  which  have  the  .qjpearancc  of  wings, 
although  they  are  very  dilterent,  the  wings 
being  cut  off  by  the  natives.  This  plumage 
is  soft,  broad,  similar  to  peacocks'  feathers, 
with  a  greenish  hue.  l'ir<ls  of  this  kind  are 
brought  only  from  one  p^irticular  ))lace  of 
New  Guinea.  Besides  Ihe  large  bliick  bird 
of  Paradise,  there  is  still  another  sort,  wlio.se 
plumage  is  equal  in  lenglh,  but  thinner  in 
body,  black  above,  and  without  any  remark- 
able gloss,  not  haying  those  siiining  peacock- 
feathers  which  are  found  on  the  greater  spe- 
cies. This  wants  likewise  the  three  long- 
pointed  feathers  of  the  tail  belonging  to  the 
larger  black  species. 

5.  Tlie  last  species  we  shall  mention  is  the 
king's  bird.  'I'his  creature  is  about  seven 
inciies  long,  and  somewhat  larger  than  a  tit- 
mouse. Its  head  and  ejes  are  sm.'dl,  the  bill 
straight,  the  eyes  iiicluded  in  circles  of  black 
plumage,  the  crown  of  the  head  is  Hame-co- 
loured,  the  back  of  the  neck  blood-coloured, 
the  neck  and  breast  of  a  chesnul-colour  with 
a  ring  of  the  briglitest  emerald-green.  Its 
wings  are  in  proportion  strong,  and  the  quill- 
feathers  dark,  w  ith  red  shining  plumes,  spots, 
and  stripes.  The  tail  is  straiglit,  short,  and 
brow  n.  Two  long  naked  black  shafts  project 
from  the  rump,  at  least  a  hand-breadlh  be- 
yond the  tail,  having  at  their  extremities  se- 
milunar twisted  plumage,  of  the  mosi  gh-ving 
green  colour  above,  and  dusky  below.  '1  he 
belly  is  white  and  green  sprinkled;  and  on 
each  side  is  a  tuft  ol  long  plumage,  feathered 
with  a  broad  margin,  being  on  one  side  green 
and  on  the  other  dusky.  The  back  is  blood- 
red  and  brown,  shining  like  silk.  The  legs 
are  in  size  like  those  of  a  lark,  three  fore-toes 
and  one  back-toe.  This  bird  associates  not 
with  any  of  the  other  birds  of  Paradise ;  but 
flits  solitan-  from  bush  to  bush,  wherever  he 
sees  red  berries,  without  ever  getting  on  tall 
trees. 

PARADOX,  in  philosophy,  a  proposition 
seemingly  absurd,  as  being  contrary  to  some 
received  opinion,  but  yet  true  in  fact. 

No  science  abounds  more  \\\ih  paradoxes 
than  geometry  :  thus,  that  a  right  line  should 
continually  approach  to  the  hypeibola,  and 
yet  never  reach  it,  is  a  true  paradox;  and  in 
the  same  manner,  a  spiral  may  continualiv 
approach  to  a  point,  and  yet  not  reach  it,  iii 
any  number  of  revolutions,  however  great. 

PAKALLACTIC,  in  geneal,  something 
relating  to  the  parallax  of  heavenly  bodies. 
See  Parallax. 

The  parallactic  angle  of  a  star,  &c.  is  thf- 
dift'erence  of  the  angles  CIlA  (I'l.-ite-  iMisce'.l. 
tig.  179.),  BTA,  under  ividch  its  true  and 
apparent  distance  from  tise  zenith  is  seen ;  or, 
which  is  the  same  thing,  it  is  the  angle  TSF,. 

The  sines  of  the  paiallacilc  aiigks  ALT, 
AST  (tig.  iRO.),  at  Uic  same  or  equal  d$- 
tances,  7ji,  from  the  zenith,  are  in  the  n  c»- 
procal  ratio  of  the  distr.nces  TL  and  '1  !i  htwa 
the  centre  of  the  earth. 

P.AKALLAX,  in  astrGnoiny,  denotes  a 
ch.uige  of  lise  apparent  place  ot'any  beavtiijy 
body,  caused  by  being  seen  from  dtiVcix-n't 
points  of  view;  or  it  is  the  diifereiict  iiewe^n 
tlie  true-  and  appsixiit  distance  of  aay  hea- 
venly b»dy  frO(n  tlie  zenitli. 


356 


PA  R 


Tluis  let  AB  (Plale  Miicel.  (ig.  181.)  be  a 
quadrant  of  a  girat  circle  on  tin:  earth's  sur- 
face, A  the  place  of  the  spectator,  and  tlie 
point  V  in  the  heavens  the  vertex  and  zenilli. 
Let  VXtl  represent  the  starrv  lirniaiiient, 
AD  the  seiislbte  horizon,  in  wliich  sii|)po-.e 
the  star  C  to  be  seen,  whose  distance  Irom 
the  centre  of  tlie  earth  is  TC.  If  this  star 
was  observed  from  (he  centre  T,  it  would 
appear  in  ths  firnianient  in  E,  and  elevated 
above  the  hoiizon  by  the  arch  DE:  this  point 
E  is  called  the  true  place  of  tlie  phenomenon 
or  star.  But  an  observer  viewing  il  from  tlie 
surface  of  the  eartli  at  A,  will  see  it  at  I), 
which'  is  called  its  visible  or  apparent  place  ; 
and  the  arch  DE,  the  distance  b,:t\veen  the 
true  and  visible  place,  is  what  astronomers 
call  the  paralla.N  of  the  star,  or  other  pha;no- 
niena. 

If  the  star  rises  higher  above  the  horizon  to 
M,  its  true  place  visible  from  die  centre  is  1', 
and  its  apparent  place  N  ;  whence  its  paral- 
lax will  be  the  arch  PN,  which  is  less  tlian 
the  arch  DE.  The  horizontal  parallax, 
therefore,  is  the  greatest;  and  the  h'ghcr  a 
f  lar  rises,  the  less  is  its  parallax ;  and  if  it 
should  come  to  the  vertex  or  zenith,  it  would 
have  no  parallax  at  all:  for  when  it  is, in  Q, 
it  is  seen  both  from  T  and  A  in  the  same  line 
TAV,  and  there  is  no  diflerence  between  its 
true  and  apparent  or  visible  place.  Again, 
the  farther  a  star  is  distant  from  the  earth,  so 
much  the  less  is  its  parallax:  thus  the  paral- 
lax of  the  star  F  is  only  GD,  which  is  less 
than  DE  the  parallax  of  C.  Hence  it  is  plain 
that  the  parallax  is  the  dilTerence  of  the  dis- 
tances of  a  star  from  the  zenith  when  seen 
from  the  centre  and  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth :  for  the  true  distance  of  the  star  M 
from  the  zenith  is  the  arch  \'I',  and  its  appa- 
rt-nt  distance  \'N,  the  difference  between 
w  hich  PN  is  the  parallax. 

Tiiese  distances  are  measured  by  the  angles 
VTM  and  VAM,  but  VAM  —  VTM  = 
TM.'^.  For  the  external  angle  VAM  =r  Z. 
ATM  4"  ^  AMT,  the  two  inward  and  oppo- 
site angles  ;  so  that  AMT  measures  the  pa- 
rallax, and  upon  that  account  is  itself  tre- 
(]uently  called  the  parallax :  and  this  is  al- 
ways the  angle  under  which  the  semidiame- 
ter  of  the  earth,  AT,  appears  to  an  eye  placed 
in  the  star;  and  therefore  where  this  semi- 
diameter  is  seen  directly,  there  the  parallax 
is  greatest,  viz.  in  the  horizon.  When  the 
star  rises  higher,  the  sine  of  the  parallax  is 
always  to  the  sine  of  the  star's  distance  from 
the  zenith,  as  the  semidiameter  of  the  earth 
to  the  distance  of  the  star  from  the  earth's 
centre:  hence  if  the  parallax  of  a  star  is 
known  at  any  one  distance  from  the  zenith, 
we  can  iind  its  parallax  at  any  other  dis- 
tance. 

If  we  have  the  distance  of  a  star  from  the 
farth,  we  can  easily  find  its  parallax  :  for  on 
the  triangle  T.'\C  (tig.  181.)  rectangular  at 
A,  having  the  s.-midiameter  of  the  earth,  and 
TC  the  di^tance  of  the  star,  the  angle  ACT, 
which  is  the  horizontal  parallax,  is  lotmd  by 
trigonometry ;  anil,  on  the  other  bund,  if  we 
l)ave  this  parallax,  we  can  (ind  the  distance 
of  the  star;  since  in  the  same  triangle,  hav- 
ing AT,  and  the  /L  AC  T,  the  distance  TC 
may  be  easily  found. 

Astranoincrs,  therefore,  have  invented  se- 
veral meti'  )dij  for  finding  the  parallaxes  of 
»tars,  io  order  tiiereby  to  discover  their  <lis- 
iiuicea  fro^u  the  carlli.    However,  the  lixed 


T"  A  R 

stars  arc  so  remote  as  to  have  no  sensible  pa- 
rallax; and  even  the  sun,  and  ail  the  pri- 
mary planets,  except  Mars  and  \'enii5  when 
in  ]K-ngee,  are  at  so  great  distances  from  the 
earth,  that  their  parallax  is  too  small  to  be 
observed.  In  the  moon,  indeed,  the  parallax 
is  found  to  be  very  considerable,  wliich  in 
the  liorizon  amounts  to  a  degree  or  more,  I 
and  may  be  found  thus:  In  an  eclipse  of  the  j 
moon,  observe  when  both  its  horns  are  in  the 
same  vertical  circle,  and  at  that  instant  take  j 
the  altitudes  of  both  horns:  the  difference  of 
these  two  altitudes  being  halved  and  added 
to  the  least,  or  subtracted  from  the  greatest, 
gives  nearly  the  visible  or  apparent  altitude 
of  the  moon's  centre ;  and  the  true  altitude 
is  nearly  equal  to  the  altitude  of  the  centre 
of  the  shadow  at  that  time.  Now  we  know 
the  altitude  of  the  shadow,  because  we  know 
the  place  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic,  and  its 
depression  under  the  horizon,  which  is  e(iual 
to  the  altitude  of  the  opposite  point  of  the 
ecliptic  in  which  is  the  centre  of  the  shadow. 
And  therefore  having  both  the  true  altitude 
of  the  moon  and  the  apparent  altitude,  the 
diiference  of  these  is  the  parallax  reipiired. 
But  as  the  parallax  of  the  moon  increases  as 
she  approaclii-s  towards  the  earth,  or  the  pe- 
rig;cum  of  her  orbit,  therefore  astronomers 
have  made  tables,  which  shew  the  horizontal 
parallax  for  every  degree  of  its  anomaly. 

The  parallax  alw  ays  diminishes  the  altitude 
of  a  phsenomenon,  or  makes  it  appear  lower 
than  it  would  do  if  view  ed  from  the  centre 
of  the  earth;  and  this  change  of  the  altitude 
may,  according  to  the  dulerent  situation  of 
the  ecliptic  and  equator  in  respect  of  the  ho- 
rizon of  the  spectator,  cause  a  change  of  tlie 
latitude,  longitude,  declination,  and  right 
ascension  of  any  pha'nomenon,  wjiich  is  call- 
ed their  parallax.  I'he  parallax,  therefore, 
increases  the  right  and  obli<:|ue  ascension ; 
diminishes  the  descension ;  diminishes  the 
northern  declination  and  latitude  in  the  east- 
ern part,  and  increases  them  in  the  western; 
but  increases  the  southern  both  in  the  eastern 
and  western  part ;  diminishes  the  longitude 
in  the  western  part,  and  increases  it .  in  the 
eastern.  Hence  it  appears,  that  the  parallax 
has  just  opposite  effects  to  refraction. 

Parallax,  imnuiit,  the  change  of  the  ap- 
parent place  of  a  heavenly  body,  which  is 
caused  by  being  viewed  troiii  the  earth  in 
difl'erent  parts  oi  its  orbit  round  the  sun.  The 
annual  parallax  of  all  the  planets  is  found 
very  considerabli.-,  but  that  of  the  lixed  stars 
is  imperceptible. 

PARALLEL,  in  geometry,  an  appellation 
given  to  lines,  surlaces,  and  bodies,  every 
where  equidistant  from  each  other;  and 
whicli,  though  inlinitely  produced,  would 
never  meet. 

PARALLf;L  PiANF.s,  are  such  planes  as 
have  all  the  perpendiculars  drawn  betwixt 
them  ecpial  to  each  other. 

Parallel  rays,  in  optics,  are  those  which 
keep  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  visible 
object  to  the  eye,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
inlinitely  i emote  from  the  object. 

Parallel  rullr,  an  instrument  cons'ist- 
ing  of  two  wooden,  brass,  &c.  ruiers,  equally 
broad  every  where ;  and  so  joined  together 
by  cross  blades  as  to  open  to  diirereiil  inter- 
vals, acced.'  and  recede,  an  1  yet  still  ntaiu 
their  parallehsiA,  Jjec  iNsrRUMtNTS,  >««- 
titcinutical. 


PAR 

The  use  of  this  instrument  ii  obvious  ;  for 
one  of  the  rulers  being  applied  to  a  giieu 
line,  and  the  other  withdraw  n  to  a  given  point. 
a  right  line  drawn  by  its  edge  through  that 
point,  is  a  parallel  to  the  given  line. 

Parvllels,  or  Parallel  circles,  in 
geography,  called  also  parallels  or  circles  of 
latitude,  are  lesser  circles  of  the  sphere  con- 
ci-ived  to  be  drawn  from  west  to  east,  through 
all  ilie  points  of  the  nu-ridian,  commencing 
from  lliL-  equator  to  which  they  are  parallel, 
and  terminating  with  the  pcles.  '1  hey  are 
called  parallels  of  latitude,  because  all  p'iaces 
lying  under  the  same  parallel,  have  the  same 
latitude. 

Parallels  nf  latitude,  in  astronomy,  are 
lesser  circles  of  the  sphere  parallel  to  the 
ecliptic,  imagined  to  pass  through  every  de- 
gree and  minute  of  the  colures.  They  are 
represented  on  the  globe  by  the  divisions  on 
the  tpiadrant  of  altitude,  in  its  motion  round 
the  gh^be,  when  screwed  over  the  pole  of  the 
ecliptic.     See  Globe. 

I'AR.iLLELS  of  altitude.  Or  AIiTiucantars,. 
are  circles  parallel  to  the  horizon,  imagineJ 
to  pass  through  every  degree  and  minute  of 
the  meridian  bt^twcen  tiie  horizon  and  zenith, 
having  their  poles  in  tlie  zenith.  They  are 
represented  on  the  globe  by  the  divisions  on 
the  quadrant  of  altitude,  in  its  motion  about 
the  body  of  the  globe,  when  screwed  to  the 
zenith. 

Parallels  of  declination,  in  astronoiri}-, 
are  the  same  with  parallels  of  latitude  in  geo- 
graphy. 

P-ARALLEL  SPHERE,  that  situation  of  the 
sphere,  wherein  the  equator  coincides  witli 
the  horizon,  and  the  poles  with  the  zenith  and 
nadir.  In  this  sphere  all  the  parallels  of  the 
ecju.itor  become  parallels  of  the  horizon,  con- 
seiiuently  no  stars  ever  rise  or  set,  but  all 
turn  round  in  circles  parallel  to  the  horizon; 
and  the  sun,  when  in  the  equinoctial,  wheels 
round  the  hor!Z(jii  the  whole  day.  After  his 
rising  to  the  elevatc-d  pole,  he  never  sets  for 
six  months;  and  after  his  entering  again 
on  the  other  side  of  the  line,  never  rises  for 
six  months  longer. 

This  is  the  position  of  the  sphere  to  suciv 
as  live  under  the  poles,  and  to  whom  the 
sun  is  never  higher  than  1?3°  30'. 

Parallel  s.ailinc,  in  navigation,  is  the- 
sailing  under  a  parallel  of  latitude.  See  Na- 
vigation.   . 

PARALLELEPIPED,  nr  Parallelopi- 
PED,  in  geometry,  a  regular  solid  compre- 
hended under  six  parallelograms,  the  op|)0- 
site  ones  whereof  ;ire  similar,  parallel,  and 
e()ual.     Sec  Geometry. 

All  parallelepipeds,  prisms,  cylinders,  &c. 
whose  bases  ;uk1  lieights  are  equal,  are  tlienv 
selves  equal. 

A  diagonal  plane  divides  a  parallelepiped 
into  two  equal  prisms;  so  that  a  triangular 
pri^ln  is  half  a  parallele|.>ipe(l  upon  the  same 
base  and  of  the  same  altitude. 

All  parallelepipeds,  pri-ms,  cylinders.  See. 
are  in  a  ratio  compounded  of  their  bases  and 
altitudes:  wheretore,  if  their  bases  are  ecpial, 
they  are  in  proportion  to  their  altitudes;  and 
conversely. 

All  parallelepipeds,  cylinders,  cones,  &c. 
are  in  a  tfiplitaie  ratio  of  their  homologous 
sides,  and  also  of  tlu;ir  altitudes. 

Kqual  parallelcp'yjeds,  prisms,  copes,  cy- 
lindeis,  5;c.  reciprocate  thcu'  bases  uud  alu- 
tudes. 


i  :l 


— /a/^r  ^y^i/7?y^a. 


fari^jun  ^  deV. 


I^inied  Jfafj  -iSo'S  Br  Ki^iard  Ftnllrpy  Jfat'.Brid^e-  Jn.BbiMrmrj' . 


tortxr '.' 


P  A  11 
rARALLEr.lSM  oflh  earth's  a.xh.  Sec] 

As'lKONOMV. 

IWKALLELOGKAM.      See     Cf.ome- 

TRY. 

l'AI!AI.O(;iSM,  in  logic,  a  false  reason- 
in",  or  a  tauU  conimiUccI  in  clcmoiistralion, 
when  a  coine<iuence  is  drawn  from  principles 
tlial  ar(^  false  ;  or,  llioii|;li  true,  are  not 
proved ;  or  wlieu  a  |)roposilion  is  passed  over 
tlijt  sliovild  have  been  proved  by  the  way. 
I'AuAl-YSIS,  ihc  palaii-  See  Medicine. 
PAK.\MRC1UM,  a  genus  of  the  order 
vermes  infusoria,  invisible  to  llie  naked  eye, 
simple.  pelUicid,  llattened,  obloi.g.  There 
are  seven  species.  The  P.  aiu'elia  is  com- 
pressed, loiii^itudiiially  plaited  towards  the 
tore-part,  acute  beliincl.  It  is  found  in  ditch- 
water  and  infusions;  membranaceous,  four 
times  as  lon;^  as  it  is  Inroad,  the  lore-part  ob- 
tuse, liyaline;  the  hind  pirt  filled  with  mole- 
cules; the  gold  reaching  from  the  middle  to 
the  tip.- 

PARAMETER,  in  conic  sections,  a  con- 
ftanl  line,  otherwise  called  latus  rectum.  See 
Conic  Sections. 

The  parameter  is  said  to  be  constant,  be- 
cause in  the  parabola  the  rectangle  under  it 
and  any  absciss  is  always  equal  to  the  square 
of  the  eorrespjjiidingl  semiordinate  ;  and  in 
the  ellipsis  and  hyperbola,  it  is  a  third  pro- 
portional to  the  conjugate  and  transverse 
axis. 

Thus,  if  /  and  c  are  the  two  axes  !n  the  ellippe 
and  hyperbola,  and  x  and  y  an  absciss  and  its 
ordinate  in  the  parabola  ;  it  will  ba 
c' 
*  !  '  t  '.  '  '.  P^—  —    '''^  parameter  in  the 

ellipse  and  hyperbola, 
and  X  '.  y  '.'.  y  '.  f  =■  -^  '^'^  parameter  in  the 
parabola. 
PARAMOUNT,  the  supreme  or  highest 
lord  of  the  fee.  'I'his  seigniory  of  a  lord  p:i- 
ramount  is  frequently  termed  an  honour,  and 
not  a  manor;  especially  if  it  has  belonged 
to  an  antient  feudal  baron,  or  has  been  at 
any  time  m  the  hands  of  the  crown.     2  Black. 

91. 

PARAPET,  in  fortification,  an  elevation  of 
earth  de^i!^aed  for  covering  tlie  soldiers  from 
the  enemy's  cannon  or  small  shot.  The 
thickness  of  the  parapet  is  from  18  to  20  feet; 
its  height  is  six  feet  on  the  inside,  and  four  or 
live  on  the  outside.  It  is  raised  on  the  ram- 
part, and  has  a  slope  above  called  the  supe- 
rior talus,  and  sometimes  the  glacis  of  the 
parapet.  The  exterior  talus  of  the  parapet 
IS  the  slope  facing  the  country:  there  is  a 
banquette  or  two  lor  the  soldiers  who  defend 
the  parapet  to  inouut  upon,  that  they  may 
tae  better  discover  the  country,  fosse,  and 
couuler-carp,  and  fire  as  they  find  occa.sion. 
Parap''t  of  the  covert  way,  or  corridor,  is 
wliat  covers  thit  way  from  the  si^ht  of  the 
enemy,  which  renders  it  the  most  dangerous 
place 'fir  the  besiegers,  b -cause  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood of.the  faces,  flanks,  and  curtms  of 
the  place. 

Parapet,  is  also  a  little  wall  raised  bnnist- 
high  on  tlie  banks  of  bridges,  quays,  or  high 
buildings,  to  serve  as  a  stay,  and  prevent 
people'  t'aliing  over. 

PARAPHERNALIA,  are  the  woman's 
apparel,  jewels,  and  other  things,  which,  in 
the  life-time  of  hei  hu,!)and,  she  wo.e  as  the 
ornaments  of  her  person,  to  be  allowed  by 


r  A  n 

the  discretion  of  the  court,  accordina;  to  the 
quality  of  her  and  her  husband.  'The  iius- 
band  cannot  tievjse  such  ornaments  and  jewels 
of  his  wife;  thougli,  during  his  life,  lie  has 
power  to  dispose  of  them.  But  if  she  con- 
tinues in  the  use  of  them  till  his  death,  she 
shall  afterwards  retain  tlu'Ui  against  his  exe- 
cutors and  administrators,  legatees,  and  all 
other  persons,  e\cept  cre<lilors  where  there 
is  a  deliciency  of  assets.     2  Black.  430. 

PARAPLEGIA,  or  Paraplexia,  in  me- 
dicine, a  species  of  |.aralysis  or  iialsy,  usually 
succeeding  an  apoplexy.     See  aIedicine. 

PARASANG,  an  antient  Persian  measure, 
different  at  dill'erent  times,  and  in  different 
places;  being  sometimes  jO,  vometimes  40, 
and  sometime-.  50  stadia  or  furlongs. 

PAHASITI'.S,  or  Parasitical  plants, 
in  botany,  such  plants  as  are  produced  out  of 
the  trunk  or  branches  of  other  pUmIs,  from 
whence  they  receive  their  nourishni'-nt,  and 
will  not  grow  upon  the  ground,  as  th.e  misle- 
to,  &c. 

PARCEL-MAKERS,  two  officers  in  the 
ex(  heipicr,  who  make  parcels  of  the  eschea- 
lor's  accounts,  in  which  they  charge  them 
with  every  thing  they  have  levied  for  the 
king's  use,  within  tlie  time  of  their  office,  and 
deliver  the  same  to  one  of  the  auditors  of  the 
court,  tojiiake  their  accounts  therewith. 

PARCHMENT,  in  commerce,  the  skin 
of  sheep  or  goats  prepared  after  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  render  it  proper  for  writing  upon, 
covering  books,  &c. 

The  nianuf.icture  of  parchment  is  begun 
bv  the  skinner,  and  finished  by  the  parch- 
ment-maker.    The  skin  having  been  stripped 
of  its  wool,  and  placed  in  the  lime-pit,  in  the 
manner  described  under  tlie  article  Shammy, 
the  skinner  stretches  it  on  a  kind  of  frame, 
and  pares  off  the  flesh  with  an  iron  instru- 
ment ;  tliis  done,  it  is  moistened  with  a  rag, 
and  powdered  chalk  being  sjiread  over  it,  the 
skinner  takes  a  large  pumice-stone,   flat  at 
bottom,  and   rubs  over  the  skin,   and  thus 
scours   off  the  flesh  ;   he  then  goes  over  it 
agiin  with  the  iron  instrument,  moistens  it  as 
before,  and  rubs  it  again  with  the  pumice- 
stone  without  any  chalk    underneath:    this 
smooths  and  softens  the  flesh-side  very  con- 
siderably,    lie  then  drains  it  again,  by  pass- 
iniT  over  it  the  iron  instrument  as   before. 
The  flesh-side  being  thus  drained,  by  scrap- 
ing off  the  moisture,  he  in  the  same  manner 
passes  the  iron  over  the  wool  or  hair  side : 
then  stretches  it  tight  on  a  frame,  and  scrapes 
the  fl.-sh-s;de  again  :  this  finishes  its  draining ; 
and  the  more  it  is  drained,  the  whiter  it  be- 
comes.    The  skinner  now  tlirows  on  more 
clialk,  sweeping  it  over  with  a  piece  of  lamb- 
skin that  has  the  wool  on,  and  this  smooths 
it  still  farther.     It  is  now  left  to  dry,  and 
•^•lien  dried,  taken  off  the  fra.ne  by  cutting  it 
ail  round.     The  skin  thus  far  pienar"d   by 
the  skinner,  is  taken  out  of  his  hands  by  the 
parclimenl-maker,  who  first,  when  it  is  dry, 
pares  it  on  a  summer   (which  is  a  calf-skin 
stretched  in  a  fi-ame)   with  a  sharper  instru- 
ment than   that  used  by   the   skinner,  and 
wo-'kinc;  with  the  arm  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom"  of  the  skin,  takes  away  about  one- 
half  of  its  thickness.     The  skin  thus  equally 
pared   oa    the  flesh-side,  is  again  rendered 
s.nooth,  bv  being  rubb-d  with  the  pumice- 
-t  me,  on  a  bench  covered  with  a  sack  stu-Ted 
with  tlotks,  which  leaves  the  parchment  in  a 


A 


35?" 


condition  fit  for  writing  upon.  The  parings 
thus  taken  off  the  leather,  are  used  in  making 
glue,  size,  &c. 

\\  hat  is  called  vcUuni,  Is  only  parchment 
made  of  the  skins  of  abortives,  or  at  least 
sucking  calves.  This  has  a  much  finer  grain,, 
and  is  wl.lter  and  sinootlu-r  than  parclmicnt ;. 
but  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner,  e.xcipt 
in  not  being  passed  through  tlve  lune-pit. 

PARDC)N,  is  the  remilthig  or  forgiving  »• 
felony  or  other  olfence  committed  against 
the  king. 

Blackstone  mentions  the  jjower  of  pardon- 
ing offences  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  advan- 
tages of  monarchy  in  general  above  everjr 
other  form  of  government;  and  which  caii- 
iu)t  subsist  in  democracies.  lis  utility  and 
necessity  are  defended  by  him  on  all  those 
principles  wliich  do  honour  to  Iminan  nature. 
See  4  Black.  3y6. 

Par(kins  are  either  general  or  special ;  ge- 
neral as  by  act  of  parliament,  of  which,  if 
they  are  without  exceptions,  the  court  must 
take  notice  ex  officio;  but  if  there  are  ex- 
ceptions therein,  the  party  must  aver  that  he 
is  none  ef  the  persons  excepted.  3  Inst.  233. 
Special  pardons  are  either  of  course,  as  to 
persons  convicted  ot  manslaughter,  or  se  de- 
fendeiido,  and  by  several  statutes  to  those' 
who  shall  discover  their  accomplices  in  seve- 
ral felonies;  or  of  grace,  which  are  by  the- 
king's  charter,  of  which  the  court  cannot  take 
notice  ex  ofiicio,  but  they  must  be  pleaded. 
3  Inst.  233. 

A  pardon  may  be  conditional,  that  is,  the 
king  mav  extend  his  mercy  upon  what  terms 
he  pleases ;  and  may  annex  to  his  bounty  a 
condilion  either  precedent  or  subsequent,  on 
the  performance  w  hereof,  the  validity  of  the 
pardon  will  depend;  and  this  by  the  cominoiv 
law.     2  Haw.  37. 

All  pardons  must  be  under  tlie  great  seal. 
The  elfect  of  a  pardon  is  to  make  the  offender 
a  new  man  ;  to  acquit  him  of  all  corporal 
penalties  and  forfeitures  annexed  to  that  of- 
fence ;  and  to  give  him  a  new  credit  and  ca- 
pacity:  hut  nothing  but  an  act  of  iiarliament 
can  restore  or  purify  the  blood  after  an  at- 
tainder. 
PAREGORICS.  See  Pharmacy. 
PARENCHYMA  o/"/)/«/iC;?,  that  part  of 
the  plant  that  lies  immediately  below  the  epi- 
dermis. It  is  of  a  deep-greeii  colour,  very 
tender,  and  succulent.  See  Plants,  ph'jsi- 
olngii  nf. 

PARENTHESIS,  in  grammar,  certain  in- 
tercalarv  words,  inserted  in  a  discourse,  which 
interrupt  the  sense  or  thread,  but  seem  ne- 
cessary for  the  better  understanding  of  the 
subject. 

PARENTS  AND  CHILDREN.  Ifpa- 
rcnts  run  away,  and  leave  their  children  at 
the  charge  of  the  parish,  the  churchwardens 
and  ov'erseers,  by  order  of  the  justices,  may 
sei/.e  the  rents,  goods,  and  chattels,  of  such 
parents,  and  ^lispose  thereof  towards  theic 
children's  maintenance. 

A  parent  may  lawfully  correct  his  child, 
being  under  age,  in  a  reason. ble  manner; 
but  the  legal  power  of  the  father  over  the 
persons  of  his  children,  ceases  at  the  age  of 
21.  1  Black.  452. 
PARHELION.  See  Optics. 
PARIAN  CHRONICLE.     See  Arun-- 

0 ELIAN  MARBLKS. 


, 


3.53 


V  A  U 


Pasiak  .marble,  ill  llif  natural  history  of 
the  a:ilieiits,  the  uiiite  murble  used  then,  and 
to  thi>  day,  for  carving  statues,  &c.  and  call- 
ed by  us  at  this  tune  statuary  marljle.  Too 
many  of  the  later  writers  have  confounded 
all  the  white  marbles  under  the  name  of  the 
Parian  ;  and  among  the  workmen,  this  and 
all  tiie  other  white  marbles  luive  the  co/iimon 
name  of  alabasters ;  so  that  it  is  in  gen<ial 
forgotten  among  them  that  there  is  such  a 
tiling  as  alabaster  diiVrent  from  marble ; 
which,  however,  is  truly  tlie  case.  Almost 
all  tlie  world  aUo  liave  confounded  the  Car- 
rara marble  with  this,  though  they  are  really 
very  dilferent;  the  Carrara  kind  being  of  a 
finer  structure  and  clearer  white  than  the  Pa- 
rian, but  less  briglit  and  splendid,  harder  to 
cut,  and  not  capable  of  so  glittering  a  polish. 
The  true  Parian  marble  has  usually  some- 
what of  a  faint  blueish  tinge  aniong  the  wliite, 
and  often  has  blue  veins  in  ditlerent  parts  of 
it. 

PARIANA,  a  genus  of  the  moniecia  po- 
lyandria  class  and  order.  The  male  llowers 
in  whorls,  forming  spikes;  calyx  two-valved; 
corolla  two-valved,  larger  than  the  calyx; 
filaments  40.  Female  flowers  solitary  in  each 
vhorl;  calvx  two-valved;  corolla  two-valved  ; 
stigma  two-seeded,  tliree-cornered.  There  is 
one  species,  of  no  note. 

PARlETALfA  O.SSA.  See  Anatomy. 
PARIEIARIA,  pclUtnr<j  nf  the  zutill,  a 
genus  of  the  moniEcia  order,  in  the  polyga- 
inia  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  j3d  order,  scabrida.-.  The 
-  calyx  of  the  hermaphrodite  is  quadrilid  ;  there 
is  no  corolla;  there  are  four  stamiua;  one 
style  ;  and  one  seed,  superior  and  elongated. 
'I'he  female  calyx  is  quadrilid  ;  there  is  no 
corolla;  nor  are  there  any  stamina.  There 
is  one  style ;  and  one  seed,  superior  and  elon- 
gated. There  are  10  species,  of  which  one, 
uaincd  the  oflicinalis,  is  used  in  medicine. 
The  plant  has  a  cooling  and  diuretic  qualils  . 
Three  ounces  of  the  juice  taken  internallv, 
or  a  fomentation  externally  applied,  have 
been  found  serviceable  in  tiie  strangury.  1  he 
plant  laid  upon  heaps  of  corn  infested  with 
weevils,  is  said  to  <lrive  away  those  destruc- 
tive insects.     See  Plate  Nat.'llist.  lig.  316. 

PARIS,  liffb  Paris,  or  truelow,  a  genus 
of  the  trigyiiia  order,  in  the  octandria  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  IHh  order,  savmeiitace;c.  'J'iie  ca- 
lyx is  tefrapliyllous;  there  are  four  petals, 
narrow  in  projiortion ;  the  beny  quadrilocn- 
lar.  'I'hece  is  but  one  species,  growing  natu- 
rally in  woods  and  shady  places  in  England. 
It  ha;  a  single  naked  stein,  greenish  blo-soms, 
and  blueish-black  berries.  'I'hough  this  plant 
has  been  rtckoneil  of  a  poisonous  naltue,  be- 
ing ranked  among  tlie  aconites,  yet  late  au- 
thors attribute  quite  other  properties  to  it, 
esteeming  it  to  be  a  counter-poison,  and  good 
in  iiialigii.uit  and  pestilential  fevei-s. 

PAlifSil.  In  England  there  are  9913 
paiiKhes,  of  which  3S4j  are  churches  inipro- 
pr'ate,  and  the  rest  an-  anncxedto  colleges 
or  diur;:h  dig.iilies.  In  many  of  these  pa- 
ri.-lics,  on  accoimt  of  their  large  extent  and 
tiie  number  of  parishioners,  there  are  several 
cjiaii'ls  of  ease. 

Parish-officers,  officers  chosen  annu- 
ally to  regulate  and  manage  the  concerns  of 
till  pai'-:b. 

PARK,  a  piece  of  ground  inclosed  and 


P  A  R 

stored  wiiii  wild  beasts  of  cha^e,  which  a  man 
may  have  by  prescription  or  the  kiiig's  grant. 

6y  16  Geo.  fll.  c.  30.  if  any  jierson  shsU 
pull  down  or  destmy  the  pale  or  wall  of  a 
park,  he  shall  forfeit  30/. 

Park  of  artitltry.  See  Artillery, 
park  nf. 

PAKKINSONLV,  so  called  in  honour  of 
the  English  botanist  Parkinson,  a  genus  of  the 
nionogMiia  order,  in  the  dccandria  class  of 
pkmts,  and  in  the  iiiitural  method  it  ranks 
under  the  33d  order,  lomentacea>.  The  ca- 
lyx is  quinqiielid ;  there  are  hve  petals,  all 
of  them  oval  e.xcept  the  lowest,  which  is  reui- 
form  ;  there  is  no  style ;  the  legumen  moni- 
litorni,  or  like  strung  beads.  We  know  but 
one  species  of  this  plant,  which  is  very  com- 
mon in  the  Spanish  West  Indies,  but  has  of 
late  years  been  introduced  into  the  English 
settlements,  for  the  beauty  and  sweetness  of 
its  llouers.  In  the  countries  where  it  grows 
naturally,  it  rises  to  be  a  tree  of  20  or  more 
feet  higii,  and  bears  long  slender  bunches  of 
yellow  llowers,  which  have  a  most  agreeable 
sweet  scent. 

PARLIAMENT,  is  the  legislative  branch 
of  the  supreme  power  of  Great  Britain,  con- 
sisting of  the  king,  the  lords  spiritual  and 
temporal,  and  the  knights,  citizens,  burgesses, 
representatives  of  the  commons  of  the  realm, 
in  parliament  assembled. 

The  power  and  jui'isdiction  of  parliament  j 
is  so  transceiidant  and  absolute,  that  it  cannot  ' 
be  conlined,   either  for   causes  or    persons, 
within  any  bounds.     4  Inst.  36. 

The  house  of  commons  is  a  denomination 
given  to  tlie  lower  house  of  parliament.  In  a 
free  state,  every  man,  who  is  supposed  a  free 
agent,  ought  to  be,  in  some  measure,  his  ! 
own  governor;  and  therefore  a  branch  at  least  j 
of  the  legislative  power  should  reside  in  the 
whole  body  of  the  people.  In  elections  for 
representatives  for  Cireat  Britain,  antientiy, 
all  the  people  had  votes ;  but  king  Henry 
^  !.  to  avoid  tumults,  first  appointed  that 
none  should  vote  for  kniglits  but  such  as  were 
frecdiolders,  did  reside  in  the  county,  and  had 
forty  shillings  yearly  revenue.  In  so  large  a 
state  as  oms,  therefore,  it  is  very  wisely  con- 
trived, that  the  people  should  do'that  by  their 
representatives  which  it  is  impracticable  to 
perfomi  in  person  ;  representatives  chosen  by 
a  nmnber  of  minute  and  separate  districts, 
wherein  all  the  voters  are  or  may  be  easily 
distinguished.  The  counties  are  therefore 
represented  by  knights,  elected  by  the  pro- 
prietors of  lands  ;  the  cities  and  boroughs  are 
represented  by  citizens  and  burgesses,  chosen 
by  the  mercantile  or  supposed  trading  interest 
of  the  nation. 

The  peculiar  laws  and  customs  of  the  house 
of  commons,  relate  principallv  to  the  r.iising 
of  taxes,  and  the  elections  'of  members  to 
serve  in  parliament. 

The  method  of  making  laws  is  nearly  the 
same  in  botii  houses.  In  the  house  of  com- 
mons, in  order  to  bring  in  the  bill,  if  the  re- 
lief sought  is  of  a  private  nature,  it  is  first 
necessary  to  prefer  a  petition;  which  nuist 
be  presented  by  a  member,  and  usually  set 
forth  a  grievance  req^iired  to  be  remedied. 
This  petition,  when  founded  on  facts  of  a  dis- 
putable nature,  is  referred  to  a  committee  of 
members,  who  examine  the  matter  alh-ged, 
and  accordingly  report  it  to  the  house  ;  and 
then  (or  otherwise  upon  the  mere  petition), 


P  A  R 

leave  is  given  to  bring  in  the  bill.  In  public 
matters,  the  bill  is  brought  in  upon  motion 
made  to  the  house,  without  any  petition. 

If  the  bill  begins  in  the  house  of  lords,  if  of 
a  private  nature,  it  is  referred  to  two  judges, 
to  make  report.  After  the  second  reading, 
the  hill  is  said  to  be  committed,  that  is,  re- 
ferred to  a  committee ;  which  is  selected  by 
the  hou^e,  in  matters  of  small  imiiortance ; 
or  upon  a  bill  of  consequence,  the  house  ic« 
solves  itself  into  a  committee  of  the  whole 
house.  A  committee  of  the  whole  house  is 
composed  of  every  member;  and  to  lorni  it 
the  speaker  (juils  the  chair,  and  may  conse- 
quently sit  and  debate  upon  the  merits  of  it 
as  a  private  member,  another  member  being 
appointed  chairman  for  the  time.  In  these 
committees  the  bill  is  usually  debated  clause 
by  clause,  amendments  made,  and  sometimes 
it  is  entirely  new-modelled.  Upon  the  third 
reading,  further  amendments  are  sometimes 
made;  and  if  a  new  clause  is  added,  it  is 
done  by  tacking  a  separate  piece  of  parch' 
meiit  on  the  bill,  which  is  called  a  rider.  1 
Black.  182. 

The  royal  assent  may  be  given  two  ways : 
1.  in  person,  when  the  king  comes  to  the 
house  of  peers,  in  his  crown  and  royal  robes, 
and  sending  for  the  commons  to  the  bar,  the 
titles  of  all  the  bills  that  have  passed  both 
houses  are  read ;  and  the  king's  answer  is 
declared  by  the  clerk  of  the  parliament.  If 
the  king  consents  to  a  public  bill,  the  clerk 
usually  declares,  Ic  rnii  Ic  veut,  the  king  wills 
it  so  to  be ;  if  to  a  private  bill,  suit  fait  commc 
il  est  desire,  be  it  as  it  is  desired.  If  the  king 
refuses  his  assent,  it  is  in  the  gentle  language 
of,  le  vol)  s'avisera,  the  king  will  advise  upon 
it.  When  a  bill  of  supply  is  passed,  il  is  car- 
ried up  and  presented  to  the  king  by  the 
speaker  of  the  house  of  commons ;  and  the 
royal  assent  is  thus  expressed,  le  roij  remereic 
sts  loi/at  stijels,  accepte  teiir  benevolence, 
'et  aiissi  Ic  veut;  the  king  thanks  his  loyal 
subjects,  accepts  their  benevolence,  and  also 
wills  it  so  to  be.  By  the  stat.  23  Hen.  MM. 
c.  21.,  the  king  may  give  his  assent  by  h't- 
ters  patent  under  his  great  seal,  signed  with 
his  hand,  and  notilied  in  his  absence  to  both 
houses  assembled  together  in  the  upper  house. 
And  when  the  bill  has  received  the  royal  as- 
sent in  either  of  these  ways,  it  is  then,  and 
not  before,  a  statute  or  act  of  parliament. 

An  act  of  parliament  thus  made  is  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  highest  authority  that  this  king- 
dciii  acknowledges  upon  the  earth.  It  has 
power  to  bind  eviry  subject  in  the  land,  and 
the  dominions  thereunto  belonging,  nay  even 
the  king  himself,  if  parlicularly  named  in  it; 
and  it  cannot  be  altered,  amended,  dispensed 
with,  suspended,  or  repealed,  but  in  the 
same  forms,  and  by  the  same  authority,  of 
parliament. 

Adjournment  is  no  more  than  a  contimi- 
ance  of  the  sc-ssion  from  one  day  to  another, 
as  the  word  itself  signihes;  and  this  is  done 
by  the  authority  of  each  house  separately 
every  dav,  or  for  a  longer  period ;  but  the 
adjournment  of  one  house  is  no  adjournment 
of'the  other.     1  Black.  ISO. 

Prorogation  is  the  continuance  of  the  par- 
li.mient  from  one  session  to  anotiier,  as  an 
adjournment  is  a  continusttion  of  the  session 
from  day  to  day.  And  this  is  done  by  riic 
ro\al  authority,  expressed  either  by  the  lord 
chancellm'  in  his  majesty's  presence,  or  by 


PAR 

cofnmission  from  tlm  crown,  or  frequfnlly  by 
procUuiKitioii ;  ami  l)y  tlii<,  both  luui^cs  arc 
jjrorogitt-d  at  tin-  same  tinn-,  it  not.  being  a 
prorogation,  ot  I  lie  lioiise  of  lords  or  com- 
mons, bill  ol'  the  i')urlianieiit.  The  session  is 
never  uMtlerslood  to  be  at  an  entl  inilil  a  pro- 
rogation ;  thou 'li  unless  some  act  is  i)asse(l, 
or  some  judgment  given  in  parliament,  it  is 
in  truth  no  session  at  all.     Fcf. 

A  dissolution  is  the  civil  death  of  (he ^lar- 
liameut;  and  this  may  be  eft'ecled  three  ways; 
1.  15y  tlie  king's  will  expressed  eidier  in  per- 
son or  repri'sentatinn ;  '2.  Hy  the  demise*  of 
the  crown  ;  3.   liy  the  length  of  time. 

I5y  the  king's  will ;  for  as  the  king  has  the 
sole  right  of  convening  the  parliament,  so  also 
it  is  a  branch  of  the  royal  prerogative,  that 
he  may,  whenever  he  pleases,  prorogue  (lie 
parliaiiientfor  a  lime,  or  put  a  tinal  period  to 
its  existence. 

Hy  the  demise  of  the  crown  :  this  di^soln-  | 
tion   formerly  happened   immediately  i:|)on  | 
the  death  of  the  reigning  sovereign ;  but  the  i 
calling  a  new  parliament  immediately  on  the  1 
iiiaujuration  of  th;-  successor  being;  found  in- 
•  oiivenieiit,  and  dangers  being  apprehended  j 
from  having  no   parliament  in  being,  in  case  | 
of  a  disputed  succes  ion,  it  was  enacted  by 
statu'.es  7  and  8  W.  III.  c.  15.,  and  0  Anne, 
c.  ".,  that  the  parliament  in  being  sh.all  cun- 
tinue  for  si.'  monllis  alter  tlie  death  of  any 
king  or  ()ueen,  unless  sooner  prorogued  or 
dissolved  l)y  the  successor ;  that  if  the  par- 
liament is  at  the  time  of  the  king's  death  se- 
par.'.tcd  bv  adjournment  or  prorogation,    it 
shall  noUv  thstdiiuiug  assemble  inmiediatcly ; 
and  that  if  no  parliament  is  then  in  being,  the 
members  of  thi;  last  parliament  shall  assemble 
and  be  again  a  parliament. 

Lastly,  a  i);irliainent  may  be  dissolved  or 
expire  by  length  of  time. 

1  he  utmost  extent  of  time  that  the  same 
parliament  was  allowed  to  sit  by  tlie  stat.  of 
6  \V.  c.  3.  V  as  three  years;  after  the  expira- 
tion of  whicu,  reckoning  from  the  return  of 
the  first  summons,  the  parliament  was  to  have 
no  longer  continuance.  But  by  stat.  I.Geo. 
I.  c.  38.  in  order  profs. .-sedly  to  prevent  the 

ruat  and  continued  expences  of  frequent 
ilcctioMS,  and  the  violent  heats  and  animosi- 
ties consequent  thereupon,  and  for  the  peace 
and  security  of  the  government  just  then  re- 
covering from  the  late  rebellion,  this  term 
was  prolonged  to  seven  years.  So  that  as 
our  constitution  now  stands,  the  parliament 
must  expire,  or  die  a  natural  death,  at  the 
end  of  everv  seventh  year,  if  not  sooner  dis- 
solved by  the  royal  prerogative,  bee  Elec- 
tion. 

Parliament,  tlie  high  court  of,  is  the  su- 
preme court  of  the  kingdom,  not  only  lor  the 
makina;  but  also  for  the  execution  of  laws,  by 
the  trial  of  great  and  enormous  offenders, 
whether  lords  or  commoners,  in  the  method 
of  parliamentary  impeachment.  An  impeach- 
ment be.ore  the  lords,  by  the  commons  of 
Great  Britain  in  parliament,  is  a  prosecution  '. 
of  the  already  known  and  established  law,  1 
,  and   has  been  fre(|ii  nlly   put   in    practice; 
being  a  presentment  to  the  most  high  and  | 
supreme  court  of  criininul  jurisdiction  l)y  the  I 
most  solemn  grand  inquestof  the  whole  king-  i 
doiu.      A   commoner   cannot,   however,   be 
impeached  before  the  lords  for  any  capital  1 
oiVencc,  but  only  for  high  misdemeanors ;  a  i 
peer  may  be  impeached  for  any  crime.    And  | 
they  usually,  in  case  of  an  iinpeudunent  of  a  I 


PAR 

poor  for  trcnspn,  address  (he  crown  lo  appoint 
a  lord  high  steward,  for  the  greater  dignitv 
and  legularity  of  their  proceedings;  wliicli 
high  steward  was  formerly  elected  by  the 
peers  themselves,  though  he  was  generally 
commissioned  by  the  king;  but  it  has  of  late 
years  been  streiiuously  maintained,  that  the 
ap))oinlmeut  of  a,  high  steward  in  such  cases 
is  not  indispensably  necessary,  but  the  house 
may  proceed  without  one.  'The  articles  of 
imjieachmeut  are  a  kind  of  bills  of  indict- 
ment, found  by  the  house  of  commons,  and 
afterwards  tried  by  the  lords ;  who  are  in 
cases  of  misdemeanors  considered  not  only 
as  their  own  peers,  but  as  the  peers  of  the 
whole  nation. 

PAI\NAS.S!A,  ,^)-a.si  n/ /'ar?(«.?.5to,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  letragynia  order,  in  the  pentawdria 
class  of  plants.  I'he  calyx  is  quinciuepartite; 
there  are  five  petals,  and  as  manv  nectaria, 
heart-shaped,  and  ciliated  with  globu'ar  tops; 
the  capsule  Cjuadrivalved.  There  is  but  one 
species,  having  a  stalk  about  a  fool  high,  an- 
gular, and  often  a  little  twi.sted,  bearing  a 
single  white  flower  at  top.  The  flowers  are 
very  beautifully  streaked  with  yellow ;  so 
that  though  it  is  a  common  plant,  growing 
naturally  in  moist  pastures,  it  is  fre([uently 
admitted  into  gardens. 

PAROLE,  a  term  signifying  anv  thing 
done  verbally  or  by  word  of  mouth,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  what  is  written;  thus  an 
agreement  may  be  by  parole.  Evidence 
also  may  be  divided  into  parole  evidence  and 
written  evidence.  A  parole  release  is  good 
to  disciiarge  a  debt  by  simple  contract.  2 
Show.  417.  The  holder  of  a  bill  of  exchange 
may  authorize  another  to  iniloi'se  his  name 
upon  it. 

Parole  evidence.     See  Evidence. 

PARONYCHL\,  ichillow.  See  Sur- 
gery. 

PAROTIDES.    See  Aif  atomy. 

PAROXYSM.    See  Medicine. 

PAl^RA,  a  genus  of  birds  belonging  to  the 
order  of  grallx  ;  the  characters  of  which  are: 
tlip  bill  is  tapering  :uid  a  little  obtuse  ;  the 
no.strils  are  oval,  and  situated  in  the  middle 
of  tiie  bill  ;  the  forehead  is  covered  with 
fleshy  caruncles,  which  are  lobated  ;  the 
wings  are  small  and  spinous.  There  are  five 
species;  of  which  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  chavaria,  v  hich  is  about  the  size  of  a  do- 
mestic cock.  The  Indians  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Carthagena,  who  breed  large  flocks 
of  poultry  t!iat  stray  in  the  woods,  andtrain  up 
the  chavaria  to  defend  them  against  the  nu- 
merous birds  of  prey,  no  one  of  which  will 
dare  to  encounter  it.  It  is  never  known  to 
desert  the  flock,  and  it  retm  ns  every  even- 
ing to  roost. 

'I'he  parra  Dominica  is  about  the  size  of 
the  lapwing.  The  bill  is  yellow,  as  are  also 
the  head  and  ujjper  paifs ;  the  under  are  of  a 
yellowish-white  bordering  on  rose-colour-  the 
legs  -.ire  also  yellow.  'I'liis  species  inhabits 
several  of  the  warmer  parts  of  America  and 
St.  Do.iiingo. 

The  parra  Senega'Ia,  is  about  the  same 
size  with  the  former.  Its  bill  is  also  yellow, 
tijjped  with  black ;  the  forehead  is  covered 
with  a  \ellow  skin,  t!ie  chin  and  throat  are 
black,  the  head  and  upper  parts  of  the  body 
and  lesser  wing-coverts  are  grev-brown.  The 
lowi'r  part  of  tiie  belly,  and  the  upper  and 
under  tail-coverts,  are  dirty  white.    At  the 


PAR 


3.59 


'bend  of  the  wing  is  a  black  spur,     It  inhabits 
Senegal,  and  thence  derives  Its  name. 

The  parra  jacana,  or  spur-winged  water- 
hen,  is  aliout  the  size  of  the  watei-rail.  ''Ilic 
bill  is  in  length  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter, 
of  an  orange-colour;  and  on  I  he  forehead  is 
a  membranous  flap,  half  an  inch  long,  and 
nearly  as  broad.  On  each  side  of  the  head 
also  is  another  of  the  same,  about  a  quarter 
-i/f  an  inch  broad;  and  both  together  ihey 
■Surround  the  base  of  the  bill.  The  head, 
throat,  neck,  breast,  and  under-parts,  are 
black ;  and  sometimes  the  belly  is  mixed 
with  white,  &c.  1  he  birds  of  this  species 
inhabit  Brasil,  Guiana,  and  Surinam;  but  are 
equally  common  at  St.  Domingo;  where  they 
trequi'nt  the  marshy  places,  sides  of  ponds, 
and  streams,  and  wade  quite  up  to  the  thighs 
ill  the  water.  'I'hev  are.  alJo  generally  ?ecn 
in  pairs,  and  when  separated  call  each  other 
continually  till  they  join  again.  They  are 
very  shy,  and  most  conmion  in  the  rainy 
seasons  in  May  and  November.  They  are 
at  all  times  very  noisy  ;  their  cry  sharp  and 
shrill,  and  may  be  heard  a  great  way  otT. 
'1  his,  as  well  as  ihe  other  species,  is  called  by 
the  French  chirurgien.  The  flesh  is  account- 
ed |>retty  good. 

I'lie  parra  variabilis,  or  spur-winged  water- 
hen,  is  about  nine  inches  long.  '1  lie  bill  is 
about  1-i  inches  in  length,  and  in  colour  is 
orange-yellow.  On  the  forehead  is  a  il.ip  of 
red  skin;  the  crown  of  the  head  is  brown, 
marked  with  spots  of  a  darker  colow ;  the 
hind  part  of  the  neck  is  much  the  same,  but 
of  a  deeper  dye.  On  the  forepart  of  the 
wing  is  a  yellow  spur,  &:c.  The  legs  are  fur- 
nished with  long  toes,  as  in  all  the  others,  tlie 
colour  of  uhich  is  blueish  ash.  This  species 
inhabits  Erasil,  and  is  said  to  be  pretty  com- 
mon about  Carthagena,  and  in  South  Ame- 
rica.    There  are  live  species  in  all. 

PARRELS,  in  a  ship,  are  frames  made  of 
trucks,  ribs,  and  ropes,  which  having  both 
their  ends  fastencfl  to  tlie  yards,  are  so  con- 
trived asi-to  go  round  about  the  masts,  that 
the  yards,  by  their  means,  may  go  up  and 
down  upon  the  masts:  these  also,  with  the 
breast-ropes,  fasten  the  v;:rds  to  the  masts. 

PARROT,    and    PAH  ROQUET.      .See 

PsiTTACUS. 

PARSLEY.     See  Apium. 

PARSNEP.     See  P.iSTiNACA. 

PARSON,  signifies  the  incumbent  of  a 
church.  He  is  in  himself  a  body  corporate, 
in  order  to  protect  and  defend  the  rights  of 
the  church  by  a  perpetual  succession.  When 
a  parson  is  instituted  and  inducted  into  a 
rectory,  he  is  then,  and  not  before,  in  full  and 
complete  possession.     1  Black.  391. 

PART,  in  music,  the  name  of  each  of  the 
melodies  of  any  h:irmonic  composition,  and 
which,  when  performed  in  union,  form  its 
harmony.  Four  is  the  fewest  number  of 
parts  with  which  the  chords  necessary  to  ela- 
borate harmonv  can  be  completely  filled. 

PARTERRE,  in  g.iidening,  a  level  divi- 
sion of  ground,  which,  for  the  most  |).,rl,  faces 
tlie  south;  and  best  front  of  a  house :  and  is 
generally  furnished  with  greens,  fiowei-s,  &c. 

PARTHENILM,  a  ^enus  ot  the  penlan- 
dria  order,  in  the  inonocia  class  ot  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
49th  order,  <  oinpositse.  The  niale  calyx  Is 
common  and  penl.iphyllous ;  tlie  florets  of 
the  disk  monopetai.jus.  The  female  has  five 
florets  of  the  railius,  each,  with   two  m^le 


3So 


r  A  11 


florets  behind  it;    tlie  intormecllate  female 
the  seed  is  naked.    Tliere  arc  two 


clcd   in 


superior ; 
sp'-cies. 

This  plant  has  been  much  negi 
Europe,  having,  on  account  of  its  siuell,  been 
banished  from  our  parterres.  It  is  therefore 
indebted  for  its  culture  to  the  distmgui^lied 
rank  it  iioUls  among  the  Chinese  flowers. 
The  skill  of  their  florists,  and  their  continual 
care,  have  brought  it  to  so  great  perfection, 
that  Europeans  scarcely  know  it.  Tliey 
have,  bv  their  attention  'to  its  culture,  pro- 
cured niore  than  300  varieties  of  it,  and  every 
•jear  produces  a  new  one. 

PARTI,  P.\RTiE,  Party,  or  Parted,  in 
heraldry,  is  ajiplied  to  a  shield  or  escutcheon, 
denoting  it  divided  or  niarked  out  into  parti- 
lions.     See  Heraldry. 

PAllTICIPLE,  in  grammar,  an  adjective 
formed  of  a  verb,  so  called  because  it  i)arti- 
<;ipate3  partly  of  the  properties  of  a  noun, 
and  partly  of  those  of  a  verb. 
»  PAiniCLE,  in  grammar,  a  denomination 
for  ail  those  small  words  that  tie  or  unite 
-others  together,  or  tliat  e.xpress  tlie  motlcs 
or  manners  of  words. 

PARTIES,  in  law,  signify  the  persons  that 
arc  jiamed  in  a  deed  or  line,  viz.  tho.se  that 
made  the  deed,  or  levied  the  hue,  and  also 
those  to  whom  the  same  was  made  or  levied. 
Here  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  if  an  indenture 
was  made  between  two  parties,  mentioned 
particularly  in  the  beginning  of  the  deed, 
and  tlierei'n  one  of  them  grants  to  another 
that  is  not  named  at  the  beginning  thereof, 
«uch  person  is  no  parly  to  that  deed,  nor  can 
take  any  thing  thereby.  The  parties  to  a 
suit  at  law  are  the  plaintiff  .and  defendant, 
viio  carry  on  the  suit. 

PARTITION,  in  law,  signifies  a  division 
of  lands,  S:c.  descended  by  common  law  or 
custom  among  coheirs  or  parceners,  being 
two  at  least.  Partition  may  also  be  made 
hy  joint  tenants,  and  tenants  in  common,  by 
assent,  deed,  or  writ. 

PARTNER  If  there  are  several  joint 
.part.'iers,  and  a  person  has  dealings  generalh 
with  one  of  them  in  matters  concerning  their 
joint  trade,  whereby  a  debt  becomes  due  to 
the  said  person,  it  shall  charge  them  jointly 
and  the  survivors  of  tliem;  but  if  the  person 
only  dealt  with  one  of  the  partners  upon  a 
separate  account,  in  that  case  the  debt  shall 
only  affect  that  partner  and  his  executors. 
If  one  or  more  of  the  joint  traders  become 
bankrupt,  his  or  their  proportions  are  only 
assignable  by  the  commissioners,  to  be  lield 
in  common  with  the  rest  who  are  not  bank- 
rupts. If  one  of  two  partners  becomes  a 
bankrupt,  the  comniisiioners  cannot  meddle 
with  the  interest  of  the  other,  for  it  is  not 
affected  with  the  bankruptcy  of  his  com- 
jianion.  Payment  to  one  of  the  partners,  is 
payment  to  "them  all. 

PARTRIDGE,  in  ornhhology      See  Te- 

TRAO. 

PARUS,  or  Titmouse,  in  ornithology,  a 
f;enus  belonging  to  the  order  of  |)asseres. 
Tlie  bill  is  very  entire,  covered  at  the  basis 
Avith  hairs ;  the  tongue  is  truncated  and  hairy. 
There  are  14  species,  of  which  the  nicst  re- 
tnarkable  are: 

1.  The  cristatus,  or  crested  titmouse, 
weighs  1.3  peiniy weights;  the  bill  is  blai  k, 
with  a  spot  of  the  same  colour  above  it ;  all 
ihe  upper  prt  of  the  body  groy  ;  the  neck 


.P  A.  Pt 

and  uiMler  jrarts  arc  white,  with  a  faint  tinc- 
ture of  red,  which  is  deepest  just  below  the 
wings.  The  legs  are  of  a  liad-coluur.  It 
erects  its  crown  feathers  into  a  crest.  It  in- 
habits the  warm  part,  of  North  America, 
and  frequents  Ibrest-trees,  feeding  upon  in- 
sects, 

2.  The  major,  or  great  titmouse,  has  the 
head  and  throat  black,  the  cheeks  white,  the 
back  of  a  green  colour,  the  belly  yellowisli- 
green,  divided  in  tlie  middle  by  a  bed  of 
black,  which  e.\tends  to  the  vent;  the  rump 
of  a  b!ueish-grey,  the  legs  of  a  lead-colour, 
the  toes  divided  to  the  very  origin,  and  the 
back  toe  very  large  and  strong.  This  species 
sometimes  visits  our  gardens ;  but  for  the 
most  part  hihabits  woods,  where  it  builds  in 
hollow  trees,  laying  about  ten  eggs.  li.  feeds 
on  insects,  which  it  tinds  in  the  hark  of  trees. 
In  the  spring  they  do  a  great  deal  of  mischief 
by  picking  off  the  tender  buds  of  the  fruit 
trees.  Like  woodpeckers,  they  are  perpe- 
tually running  up  and  down  tlse  bodies  of 
trees  in  quest  of  lood.  This  bird  lias  three 
cheerful  notes,  which  it  begins  to  titter  m  the 
month  of  February. 

3.  The  caudatus,  or  long-tailed  titmouse,  is 
about  five  inches  and  a  quarter-in  length,  and 
seven  niches  in  broadtli.  The  bill  is  black, 
very  t!;:ck  and  conve.v,  dilfering  from  all 
others  of  this  genus.  The  top  of  the  head, 
from  the  bill  to  the  hind  part,  is  white,  mixed 
with  a  few  dark-grey  feathers:  this  bed  of 
white  is  entirely  surrounded  with  a  broad 
stroke  of  black,  which,  rising  on  each  side  of 
the  upper  mandible,  passes  over  each  eye, 
unites  at  the  hind  part  of  the  liead,  and  con- 
tinues along  the  middle  of  the  back  to  the 
rump.  The  feathers  on  each  side  of  this 
black  stroke  are  of  a  purplish  red,  as  are  those 
immediately  incumbent  on  the  tail.  Tnelail 
is  the  longest  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  any 
British  bird,  being  in  length  three  inches,  the 
form  not  luilike  that  of  a  magpie,  consisting  of 
12  feathers  of  unequal  lengths,  the  middle- 
most the  longest,  those  on  each  side  growing 
gradu.dlv  shorter.     These    birds    are    often 


seen  passing  through  our  gardens,  going  from 
one  tree  to  another,  as  if  in  their  road  to 
some  other  place,  never  making  any  halt. 
They  make  their  nests  with  great  elegance, 
of  an  oval  shape,  and  about  elglit  inches 
deep,  having  near  the  upper  end  a  hole  for 
admission.  The  external  materials  are  mosses 
and  lichens  curiously  interwoven  witli  wool. 
On  the  inside  it  is  very  warmly  lined  with  a 
thick  bed  of  feathers.  The  female  lays  from 
10  to  17  eggs.  The  young  follow  their  pa- 
rents tlie  whole  winter,  and  from  the  slimness 
oftheir  bodies  and  great  length  of  tail,  appear 
while  flying  like  as  many  darts  witting  the 
air. 

4.  The  remiz,  or  small  sjiccies  of  titmouse. 
It  is  called  parus  pendulmus,  and  is  often 
found  in  Lithuania.  Mr.  Coxe,  in  his  Tra- 
vels through  Poland,  gives  the  following  ac- 
count of  this  little  animal.  "  Tlie  wondrous 
structure  of  its  pendant  nest  induced  me  to 
give  an  engraving  of  both  that  and  the  birds 
themselves.  'I'hey  are  of  the  smallest  spe- 
cies of  titmice,  "^riie  head  is  of  a  very  pale 
bluish  ash-colour ;  the  forepart  of  the  neck 
and  the  breast  tinged  with  red;  the  belly 
white ;  wings  black,  back  and  runij)  of 
a  yellowish  rust-colour;  quill  feathers  cine- 
reous, with  the  exterior  sides  white  ;  tlie  tail 
rusl-coloured.    'J  he  male  is  singularly  distin- 


T  A  5 

guishffd  from  the'  female  by  a  pair  of  black- 
pointed  whiskers.     Its  nest  is  in  the  shape  of 
a  long  purse,  which  it  forms  with   amazing 
art,   by  interweaving  down,  gossamer,   and 
minute  fibres,  in  a  close  and  compact  man- 
ner, and  then   lining  the    inside  with  down 
alone,  so  as  to  make  a  snug  and  warm  lodge 
for  its  young  brood.     The  entrance  is  at  the 
side,  small,  and  round,  with   its  edge  more 
strongly  marked  than  the  rest  of  this  curious 
fabric:  the  bird,  attentive  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  its  eggs  or   little  ones  from  noxious 
animals,  suspends  it  at  the  lesser  end  to  the 
extremity  of  tiie  slender  twigs  of  a  willow  or 
some  other  tree  over  a  river.     Contrary  to 
the  cuitoin  of  titmice,  it  lays  only  four  or 
five  eggs:  possibly  Providence  hatli  ordained 
this  scantiness  of  eggs  to  the  remiz,  because, 
by  the  singular  instinct  imparted  to  it,  it  is 
enabled  to  secure   its  young  much  more  et- 
fectuallv  fi-om  destruction  than  the  other  spe- 
cies, which  are  very  prolific." 

5.  Macrocephalus,  inhabits  New  Zealand. 
See  Plate  Nat.  Mist.  fig.  314. 

PASPALUM,  a  genus  of  the  triandria 
digvnia  class  and  order.  The  calyx  is  two- 
valved,  orbicular ;  corolla  of  the  same  size ; 
stigma  pencilled.  There  are  15  species,  all 
foreign  arasses. 

PASQUIN,  a  mutilated  statue  at  Rome. 
in  a  corner  of  the  palace  of  the  Ursini  :  it 
takes  its  name  from  a  cobler  of  that  city  call- 
ed PasCjUin,  famous  for  iiis  sneers  and  gibes, 
and  who  diverted  himself  with  passing  his 
jokes  on  all  tlie  people  who  went  through  that 
street.  Alter  his  death,  as  they  were  digging 
up  the  ])avement  before  his  shop,  they  found 
in  the  earth  the  statue  of  an  antienl  gladiator, 
well  cut,  but  maimed,  and  half-spoiled :  this 
they  set  up  in  the  place  where  it  was  found, 
and  by  common  consent  named  it  Pasquin. 
Since  that  time  all  satires  are  attributed  to 
that  figure,  and  are  ehher  put  into  its  mouth 
or  pasted  upon  it,  as  if  they  were  written  by 
Pasquin  redivivus ;  and  these  are  addressed 
by  Pasquin  to  Marlorio,  another  statue  at 
Rome.  When  Marforio  is  attacked,  Pasquin 
comes  to  his  assistance,  and  when  Pasquin  is 
attacked,  Marforio  assists  him  in  his  turn. 

PAS.S,  a  straight,  difficult,  and  narrow 
passage,  which  shuts  up  the  entrance  into  a 
country.  The  first  care  of  the  general  of  an 
array  is  to  seize  the  passes  of  the  country 
into  whicli  he  would  carry  the  war,  to  fortity 
them,  and  take  care  that  they  are  veil 
guarded. 

PiVbSAG  E,  or  Passo,  any  phrase  or  short 
])ortion  of  ;uiy  air,  or  other  composition, 
livery  member  of  a  strain  or  movement  is  a 
passage. 

Passage,  birds  nf.    See  MicRATtoN. 

PASSAfJlO  (Ilalian),a  succession  of  sounds 
so  connected  in  tlieir  melody  and  expression, 
as  to  form  a  member  or  jilirase  in  the  com- 
position. 

PASSANT.  See  Heraldry. 

PASSERINA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
octaiidria  monogynia  class  of  plants,  the 
flower  of  which  is  composed  of  a  single  petal, 
divided  into  four  oval  segments  at  the  limb  ; 
the  fruit  is  a  coriaceous  capsule,  of  an  oval 
shape,  with  only  one  cell,  and  containing  a 
single  oval  seed,     'i'iiereare  19  species. 

PASSIl'LOUA,  or  Passion-flower,  a 
genus  of  the  ])iiilandria  order,  in  the  gynan- 
dria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 


PAS 

Milking  under  the  34th  order,  cuciirbitace3D. 
The  calyx  is  i)eiit;i()hyllous;  tliere  are  five 
j>elali;  tlie  iieclarium  a  crowu;  the  berry  is 
prilicelhited.  'I'liere  are  3()  dilr'crciit  species, 
ull  of  tliem  natives  of  warm  loreigii  countries, 
only  one  of  which  is  snliiciently  hardy  to  snc- 
ceed  well  in  the  open  ground  here ;  all  the 
others  requiring  the  shelter  of  a  greenhouse 
or  stove,  but  ihioily  the  latter.  Tlie  most  re- 
markable are: 

1.  The  c.Trulea,  or  bliie-rayed  common 
palmatetl  passion-llower,  with  larijc  s[)readiiig 
flowers,  wuh  whitish-green  ])elals,  and  a  blue 
radiated  neclarinni;  succeeded  by  a  large, 
oval,  yelliiwish  fruit.  It  is  in  (lower  Iruni 
July  until  October;  but  the  flowers  are  f)nly 
of  one  day's  duration,  generally  opening 
about  11  or  12  o'clock,  and  frequently  in  hoi 
sunny  weather  burst  opeji  with  elasticity,  and 
contuiue  fully  expanded  all  tliatday;  and  the 
next  they  gradually  close,  assuming  a  decay- 
ed appearance,  and  never  open  any  more. 

2.  The  incarnata,  or  flesh-coloured  Italian 
passion-flower,  has  leaves  composed  of  three 
sawed  lobis,  each  leaf  attended  by  a  twining 
tendril ;  and  at  the  axiUas  long  slender  ])edini- 
culi,  terminated  each  by  one  whitish  flower, 
having  a  greenish  calyx,  and  a  reddish  or 
pm'piC  radiated  nectariiim,  surrounditig  the 
column  of  the  fructification  ;  which  succeed 
to  a  large,  round,  fleshy  fruit,  ripening  to  a 
be^iUtiful  orange-colour. 

3.  The  ve^pertilio,  or  bat's-wing  passion- 
flower, has  large,  bilobate,  or  two-lobed 
leaves,  the  base  roundish  and  glandular,  the 
lobes  acute,  widely  divaricated  like  a  bat's 
wing,  and  dotted  imderneath;  and  axillary 
flowers,  having  white  petals  and  ravs. 

4.  I'assillora  alata,  one  of  the  finest  orna- 
ments ot  our  stoves. 

As  all  the  species  are  natives  of  warm 
climates,  in  this  country  they  are  mostly  of 
a  tender  (piality,  except  the  first  sort,  which 
succeeds  very  well  in  the  full  ground,  in  a 
warm  situation ;  only  tlieir  young  branches 
are  sometimes  killed  in  ver}-  severe  winters; 
but  plenty  of  new  ones  gejierally  rise  again  in 
spring  follow  ing ;  the  others,  denominated 
stove  kinds,  must  always  be  retained  in  that 
repository. 

PASSIONS,  in  painting:  the  passions  are 
properly  consideretl  as  subjects  of  painting, 
because  being  capable  of  representation  by 
lines  and  colours,  they  fall  within  the  pro- 
vince of  that  art,  whose  ofiice  it  is  to  deli- 
neate all  objects  which  cm  be  expressed  by 
those  ineans.  To  represent  the  passions 
justly  and  hdiy,  is  however  the  utmost  reach 
of  tiie  imitative  ait.  The  nicest  accuracy  is 
re<|uisite,  and  the  sinallest  deviation  is  "i're- 
quently  destructive  of  the  whole  effect  in- 
lencleci  to  be  produced. 

Le  Llrun,  a  i-elebrated  French  painter,  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  head:-.,  in  which  he  gave 
examples  of  the  appearances  produced  in  the 
countenance  by  each  distinct  passion.  But 
these  examples  are  for  the  most  part  over- 
charged and  gross.  The  student  will  find  a 
much  surer  guide  in  the  late  publication  of 
"  The  Anatomy  of  Painting,"  by  Charles 
Bell,  where  the  rules  for  ilelineating  the  pas- 
sions are  laid  down  with  pre.ision,  by  a  fair 
detiionstration  of  physical  effects. 

PASSPORT,  or  Pass,  a  licence  or  writ- 
ing obtained  from  a  prince  or  governor, 
granting  liberty  and  safe  conduct  to  pass 
through  his  territories  without  molestation. 

Vol.  11. 


P  A  T 

Passport  also  signifies  a  licence  obtained  for 
importing  conti'aband  goods,  or  for  export- 
ing and  importing  merchandise  without  pay- 
ing the  duties ;  these  last  licences  are  al- 
ways given  to  ambassadors  and  other  public 
ministers  for  their  baggage,  equipage,  &c. 
If  any  person  forges  or  coiiiiterfeitsa  passport, 
commonly  called  a  Mediterranean  pass,  for 
any  shi|),  or  shall  alter  or  erase  any  pass  made 
out  by  the  commissioners  for  executing  the 
office  of  lord  high  ailnfiral,  or  shall  publish 
as  true  any  forged,  altered,  or  erased  pass, 
knowing  the  same  to  be  forged,  &c.  every 
such  person  being  convicted  in  any  part  of 
Ins  majesty's  dominions  where  such  oll'ence 
may  be  committed,  shall  be  guilty  of  felony 
without  benefit  of  clergy,  by  4 Geo.  II.  cap. 
18.  sect.  1. 

PASl'K,  in  the  glass  trade,  a  kind  of  co- 
loured glass,  made  of  calcined  crystal,  leatl, 
and  metallic  preparations,  so  as  to  imitate  the 
natural  gems :  for  the  manner  of  eirecliug 
which  see  Glass. 

PASTKBOAUO..    See  Paper. 

PAST1N'.\C'A,  the  parsnij),  a  geinis  of 
the  digyuia  order,  in  the  penlandria  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  45tli  onler,  umbellatic.  Tlie  fruit 
is  an  elliptical  compressed  plane ;  the  petals 
are  involuted  and  entire.  There  are  only 
three  species  of  this  genus,  the  principal  of 
which  is  the  pastinacu  sativa,  or  garden  \>:ixi- 
nip,  which  is  an  exceedingly  fine  esculent 
root.  It  is  to  be  propagated  by  sowing  the 
seeds  in  February  or  March,  in  a  rich  \\u-\- 
low  soil,  which  must  be  deep  dug,  that  the 
roots  may  be  able  to  run  deep  without  hin- 
drance. It  IS  a  common  practice  to  sow  car- 
rots at  the  same  time  upon  the  same  ground 
with  the  parsnips ;  and  if  the  carrots  are  de- 
signed to  be  drawn  young  there  is  no  harm 
in  it.  The  parsnips,  when  they  are  grown 
up  a  little,  must  be  thinned  to  a  foot  dis- 
tance, and  carefully  kept  clear  of  weeds. 
Tliey  are  finest  tasted  just  at  the  season  when 
the  leaves  are  decayed  ;  and  such  as  are  de- 
sirous to  eat  them  in  spring  should  have  them 
taken  up  in  autumn,  and  preserved  in  sand. 
They  are  useful  for  cattle. 

PATFE,  or  Pattee,  in  heraldry,  a  cross 
small  in  the  centre,  and  widening  to  the  ex- 
tremes, which  are  very  broad. 

PATELLA.     See  Anatomy. 

PATELLA,  or  Limpet,  a  genus  of  insects 
belonging  to  the  order  vermes  te^^tacea.  The 
shells  are  of  that  class  which  is  called  uni- 
valves ;  they  have  no  contour,  and  are  in  t!ie 
form  of  little  pointed  cones.  They  are  al- 
ways attached  to  some  hard  body.  Their 
summit  is  sometimes  acute,  sometimes  ob- 
tuse. Hatted,  turned  back,  or  perioraled. 
^riie  rock,  or  other  hard  body,  to  which  they 
are  always  found  adhering,  serves  as  a  kind 
of  second  or  under  shell  to  preserve  them 
from  injury  ;  and  for  this  reason  Aldrovandiis 
an<l  Uondelet  have  classed  them  ainong  the 
bivalves ;  but  in  this  error  they  have  not 
been  followed  by  any  other  writer.  The 
shells  consist  of  carbonat  of  limr.  But  when 
exposed  to  a  red-heat,  they  emit  a  smell 
like  lioin  ;  and  when  dissolved  in  acids,  a  se- 
mi-li;]nid  gelatinous  matter  was  left  behind. 
There  are  i6  species  of  this  genus,  which  are 
principally  distinguished  by  peculiarities  in 
their  shells.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  lig.  3 1 7. 

PA'TENT,  in  general,-  denotes  something 
Z  I 


P  A  V 


301 


that  stands  open  or  expanded :  thus  a  leaf 
is  said  to  be  patent  when  it  stands-almost  at 

I  ight  angles  wilii  the  stalk. 

Patent,  or  Idlers  patenf,  are  writings 
seak'<l  with  the  great  seal  of  Ijigland,  by 
which  a  man  is  authorized  to  do,  or  to  enjoy, 
any  thing,  wliich  of  liimself  he  could  not  do. 
They  anr  called  so  by  rea-son  of  their  form; 
as  being  ojien,  with  their  seal  affixed,  ready 
to  be  exhibited  for  the  confirmation  of  the 
autlioritv  delegated  by  them. 

P.VTIIOLOGY,  that  part  of  medicine 
wiiicli  explains  the  symptoms  of  diseases. 

PA'TKON,  in  the  canon  and  common 
law,  is  a  person,  who  having  the  advowson  of 
a  parsonage,  vicarage,  or  tlie  like  spiritual 
promotion,  belonging  to  his  manor,  has,  on 
that  accoimt,  the  gi;t  and  dis|)<>sitioii  of  the 
benefice,  and  may  present  to  it  whenever  it 
becomes  vacant.  T  he  |)atroii's  right  of  dis- 
posing of  a  benefice  originally  arises  either 
from  the  patron  or  his  ancestors,  &;c.  being 
the  foundi-rs  or  builders  of  the  church  ;  from 
their  having  given  lands  for  theiiiaiiitenance 
thereof;  or  from  the  chun  h's  being  built  on 
their  ground  ;  and  frequently  from  all  threft 
together.     See  Advowson.' 

PAVEMENT.     SeePAVtNC. 

PAN'ETTA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  te- 
trandriamonogynia  class  of  plants,  with  amo- 
nopetaloiis  funnel-fashioned  flower,  and  a 
monospermous  berry.  Tliere  are  seven  spe- 
cies, shrubs,  natives  of  Africa,  China,  and  the 
•West  Indies. 

PAVILION.    See  Architecture. 

Pavilion,  in  heraldry,  denotes  a  covering 
in  form  of  a  tent,  which  invests  or  wraps  up 
the  armories  of  divers  kings  and  sovereigns, 
depending  only  on  God  and  their  sword. 

PAVING,  the  construction  of  ground- 
floors,  streets,  or  highways,  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  may  be  conveniently  walked  upon. 
In  Britain  the  pavement  of  the  grand  streets, 
&c.  is  usually  of  flint  or  rubblestone  ;  courts, 
stables,  kitchens,  halls,  churches,  &c.  -are 
paved  with.tiles,  bricks,  flags,  orfirestone; 
sometimes  with  a  kind  of  freestone  and  rag- 
stone.  In  some  streets,  as  of  Venice,  the 
pavement  is  of  brick:  churches  are  some- 
times i)aved  with  marble,  and'sometimes  with 
mosaic  work,  as  the  church  of  St.  Mark  at 
Venice.  In  France  the  public  roads,  streets, 
courts.  Sec.  are  all  paved  with  gres  or  grit, 
a  kind  of  freestone.  In  Amsterdam,  and  the 
chief  cities  of  Holland,  they  call  their  brick 
pavcnient  the  burgomisters'  pavement,  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  stone  or  flint  pave- 
ment, which  usually  takes  up  the  middle  of 
the  street,  and  whicli  serves  for  earriaa;c3;  th« 
brick  which  borders  it  being  dostinea  for  the 
passage  of  people  on  foot. 

Pavements  of  freestone,  flint,  and  flags,  in 
streets,  &c.  are  laid  dry,  that  is,  in  a  bed  of 
sand ;  those  of  courts,  stables,  groimd-rooms, 
&c.  are  laid  in  a  m.ortar  of  lime  and  sand,  or 
in  lime  and  cement,  especially  if  there  are 
vaults  or  cellars  underneath.  Stonemasons, 
after  laying  a  floor  dry,  especially  of  brick, 
spread  a  thin  mortar  over  it ;  sweeping  it 
backwards  and  forwards  to  fill  up  the  joints. 
The  several  kinds  of  pavement  are  as  va- 
rious as  the  materials  ot  w  hich  they  are  com- 
posed, and  whence  they  derive  the  name  by 
which  they  are  distinguished  :  as, 

1.    Pebble-paving,    which    is   done'  willi 


362 


r  A  V 


r  A  V 


tones  collect.-rt  fr.-m  t!>.e  s.-a-bearli,  mostly 
hroi  cM  from  Uv-  isUiiiOsof  Gviernsey  aii<l  Jc-r- 
.ov  :  laev  are  very  (lurabK-,  inac-.d  the  most 
lo  of  any  stone  used  tor  this  purpose  1  licy 
[•n-  used  of  various  sizes  ;  but  tiiose  which  are 
iro.n  s,x  to  nine  inches  ileep  are  es'oenuc 
Ihe  most  serviceable.  A\lifa  tliey  ?.re  abou 
three  inches  deep  they  are  denommated 
boih-rsor  i)Owlei-.s:  these  are  used  tor  pav- 
ing courl-vards  and  othi-r  places  not  accus- 
tomed to  receive  carriages  with  iieavy  weig  its ; 
and  when  laid  in  geometrical  tigures  they 
have  a  very  pleading  appearance 

"     Ka"-paving  was  much  used  in  LonUon, 
bul'is  vexv  inferior  to  the  pebbles;  it  is  dug  : 
in  the  viciiVuv  of  Maidstone  in  Ktnt,   from 
^hich  it  has  the  name  of  Kentisli  nigstoiie  : 
there  are  squared  stones  of  this  material  tor  I 
pavin<^  coach-tracks  and  footways.  | 

3  furbeck  pitchens,  squared  stones  used 
in  footwavs:  they  are  brought  from  the  island 
(.)f  Purbeck,  and  also  frequently  used  in  court- 
yards ;  they  are  in  general  from  six  to  ten 
inches  square,  and  about  live  inches  deep. 

4.  Squared  pavhig,  for  distinction  by  some 
called  Scotch  paving,  because  the  first  of  the 
kind  paved  in  the  manner  that  has  been  and 
continues  to  be  paved  came  from  Scotland  ; 
the  tirst  was  a  clear  close  stone,  called  blue 
whvnn,  which  is  now  disused  because  it  has 
been  found  inferior  to  others  since  introduced 
in  the  order  thev  are  hereafter  placed. 

5.  Granite,  a  hard  material,  brought  also 
from  Scotland,  of  a  reddish  colour,  very  su- 
perior to  the  blue  whyim  quarry,  and  at  pre- 
sent very  commonly  u  e  1  in  London. 

6.  Guernsey,  which  is  the  best,  and  very 
much  in  use:'  it  is  the  same  stone  w.th  the 
pebble  before  spoken  of,  but  broken  with 
iron  hammers,  and  squared  to  any  dimen- 
sions required,  of  a  prismoidal  figure,  set  witli 
its  smallest  base  downwarils.  The  whole  of 
the  foregoing  paving  should  be  bedded  and 
paved  in  small  gravel. 

7.  Purbeck  paving,  for  footways,  is  ni  ge- 
neral got  in  larg;  surfaces  about  two  inches 
and  a  half  thick  ;  the  blue  sort  is  the  hardest 
and  the  best  of  this  kind  of  paving. 

8.  Yorkshire  paving,  is  an  exceeding  good 
material  for  the  same  purpose;  and  is  got  of 
almost  any  dimensions  of  the  same  thickness 
as  the  Purbeck:  This  st.me  will  not  admit 
wet  to  pass  through  it,  nor  is  it  ali'ected  by 
the  frost. 

g.  llvegate,  or  firestone  paving,  is  used 
for  hearths,  ::.oves,  ovens,  an:l  such  places  as 
are  liable  to  great  heat,  which  does  not  aUect 
the  stone  if  kejit  dry. 


10.  Newcastle  flags,  are  stones  about  two 
feet  square,  and  one  inch  and  a  half  or  two 
inches  thick  :  they  answer  very  well  far  pav- 
ing oiit-ofiices :  they  are  somewhat  like  the 
Yorkshire. 

1 1 .  Portland  paving,  with  stone  from  the 
island  of  Portland:  this  is  sometimes  orna- 
mented with  black  marble  dots. 

12.  Swedland  paving,  is  a  black  slate  dug 
ill  Leicestershire,  and  looks  well  for  paving 
lialls,  or  in  parly-coloured  paving. 

13.  Marble  paving,  is  mostly  variegated 
with  different  marbles,  sometimes  inlaid  m 

mosaic.  .  i    >   .  i 

14.  f-'lat  brick  paving,  done  with  brick 
^aid  in  sand,  nio.rar,  or  groute ;  as  when  li- 
rtiiid  lim.'  is  poured  into  tlie  joints. 

15.  Brick-on-edge  paving,  done  wrth  brick 
l.tid  edgewise  iu  the  same  niaiince.    Bricks 


are  also  laid  fi.it  or  edgewi.se  in  Iierrir,g-bf>nf". 
Bricks  are  also  somelimes  set  endwise  in 
sand,  mortar,  or  groute.  Paviiig  is  also  per- 
formed with  paving  bricks ;  ten-inch  tiles  ; 
foot  tiles;  clinkers  for  stables  and  oiiler-of- 
tices;  and  even  with  the  bones  of  animals, 
fyr  gardens,  &c. 

Pavements  of  churches,  &:c.  frequently 
consist  of  stones  of  several  colours;  chiefly 
black  and  white,  and  of  several  forms,  but 
chielly  squares  and  lozenges,  artfully  dis- 
posed. Indeed  there  needs  no  great  variety 
of  colours  to  make  a  surprising  diversity  ot 
figures  and  arrangements.  M.  'I'ruchet,  in 
the  Memoirs  of  the  French  Academy,  lias 
shewn  bv  the  rules  of  combination,  that  two 
square  s'tones,  divided  diagonally  into  two 
colours,  may  be  joined  together  chequerwise 
64  dififeivnt" way's:  which  appears  surprising 
enough,  since  two  letters  or  figures  can  only 
be  combined  two  w-ays. 

The  reason  is,  that' letters  only  cliange  their 
situation  with  regard  to  the  first  and  second, 
the  top  and  bottom  remaining  the  same  ; 
but  in  the  arrangement  of  these  stones  each 
admits  of  four  several  situations,  in  each 
whereof  the  other  square  may  be  clianged  16  I 
times,  which  gives  64  combinations. 

Indeed,  from  a  fartlier  examination  of  these 
64  combinations,  he  found  there  were  only 
33  different  figures,  each  figure  being  re- 
peated twice  in  the  same  situation,  though 
in  a  dlferent  combination ;  so  that  the  tv.  o 
differed  from  each  other  only  by  the  trans- 
position of  the  dark  and  light  parts. 

PAULICIAXS,  christians  of  ihe  seventh 
century,  disciples  of  one  Constantiae,  a  na- 
tive of'Armenia,  and  a  favourer  of  the  errors 
of  Manes  ;  who,  as  the  name  Manlchces  was 
b  ;come  odious  to  all  nations,  gave  those  of 
his  sect  the  title  of  Panlici.ins,  on  pretence 
thit  they  followed  only  the  doctrine  of  St. 
Paul. 

PAI'J.INI.V,  a  genus  of  th.- trigynia  or- 
der, in  the  octandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  'J3;l 
order,  trihilat;e.  Its  characters  are  these : 
the  flower  has  a  permanent  enipalement, 
composed  of  four  small  oval  leaves;  it  has 
four  oblong  oval  petals,  twice  the  si^e  of  the 
empalement ;  and  eight  short  stamina  wiUi  a 
turbinated  germen,  having  three  short  slen- 
der styL-s,  crowned  by  spreading  stigmas  ; 
the  germen  turns  to  a  large  three-cornered 
capsule  with  three  cells,  each  containing  one 
almost  oval  seed.  There  are  17  species,  na- 
tives of  the  West  Indies. 

P.\ULIONISTS,  in  church  history,  chris- 
tians of  the  third  century,  discii)les  of  Paul 
Samosatensis,  bishop  of  Aiitioch,  who  denied 
Christ's  divinitv,  maintaining  t'lat  w-hen  we 
call  him  the  So'n  of  God,  we  do  not  thereby 
mean  that  he  is  really  and  truly  God ;  but 
only  that  he  was  so  jjerfect  a  man,  and  so  I 
superior  in  virtue  to  all  others,  that  he  has 
this  name  given  him  by  way  of  eminence. 

PAVO,  the;)f«t,v)c/i,  in  ornithology,  a  ge- 
nus belonging  to  the  order  of  galliiue.  The 
head  is  covered  with  feathers  which  bend 
backwards  ;  the  feathers  of  the  tail  are  very 
long,  and  beautifully  variegated  with  eyes  of 
different  colours.  Lafham  enumerates  eight 
species.     The  most  remarkable  are, 

I.  The  cristatus,  or  common  peacock, 
which  is  about  the  size  of  a  common  turkey  ; 
the  lengtli  from  the  lip  of  the  [jjll  to  the  cud 


Y  A  V 

of  the  tail  being  three  feet  eight  inclie*.  On 
the  crown  there  is  a  sort  ol  crest,  composed 
of  '-'4  feathers,  which  are  not  webbed  except 
at  liie  ends,  which  are  gilded  greeii.  bee 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  318.  The  female  ii. 
ratiier  less  than  the  male. 


This  bird,  now  SO  common  in  Europe,  is. 
of  Eastern  origin,    being  a  native  of  India. 
They  are  found  wiUI  in  ihe  islands  of  Ceyloa 
and  Java  in  the   Ea^l  Indies,  and  at  St.  He- 
lena,   at  Barbuda,    and    other   We^i   India 
islands.     I'hey  are  not  ii.itural  to  China  ;  but 
they  are  found  in  many  pUices  of  Asia  and 
.\inca.      They  are,  however,  no  where  so 
large  or  so  fine  as  in  India,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Ganges,  whence,   by  degrees, 
they  have  spread  into  all  parts,  increasing  in 
a  wild  state  in  the  warmer  climes,  but  want- 
ing  some  care  in   the  colder  regions.      la 
ours  this  bird  does  not  come  to  its  full  plu- 
mage till  the  third  year.     The  female  lays 
live  or  six  greyish  white  eggs;  in  hot  cli- 
mates   20,  the   size  of  those  of  a  turkey. 
These,  if  let  alone,  she  lays  in  some  secret 
place,  at  a  distance  from  her  usual  resort,  to 
prevent   their    being   broken   by  the   male, 
1  which  he  is  apt  to  do  if  he  lind.-i  them.     The. 
time  of  sitting  is  from  27  to  30  days.     The 
young  may  be  fed  with  curd,  chopped  leeks, 
barley-meal,   <i:c.  moistened;  and  arc  fond 
of  grasshoppers  and  some  other  insects,     hi 
li\e  or  six  months  th.ey  will  feed  as  the  old 
oces,  on  wMieat  and  barley,   v\ith  what  el-e 
tliey  can  pick  up  in  the  circuit  of  their  con- 
finement.    1  h  •)  aie  caught  in  India  by  car- 
rying lights  to  llie  trees  where  they  roost, 
and   having  painted  representations  of  the 
bird  presented  to  tliem  at   the  same  time ; 
wlien  they  put  out  the  neck  to  look  at  the 
ii^^ure,   the  sportsman  slips  a  noose  over  the 
head,  and  secures  his  game.     In  most  ages 
they  have  been  esteemed  as  a  salutary  food. 
Ilortensius  gave  the  example  at  Kome,  where 
it  was  carried  to  the  highest  luxury,  and  sold 
dear ;   and  a  young  pea-fowl  is  thought  a 
dainty  even  in  the  present  times. 

2.  The  pavo   bicaicaralus   is  larger  than 
the  common  pheasant.    The  feathers  on  the 
crown  of  the  head  are  sufficiently  long  to 
form  a  crest,  of  a  dull-brown  colour.     The 
neck  is  bright   brown,  striated  across  with 
duskv  brown:  the  upper  parts  of  the  back, 
scapulars,  and  wing-cjverts,  are  dull-brown, 
doited  with  paler  brown  and  yellowish;  be- 
sides wliicli  each  leather  is  marked  near  the 
end  with  a  roundish  large  spot  of  a   gilded 
purple  colour,  clianging  into  blue  and  greeu 
in  dilferent   liglits ;    the  lower  part  of  the 
ba(  i^  and  rump  are  dotted  with  while  ;  all  the 
under  parts  are  brown,  striated  transversely 
with   black.     The  female  is  a  third  smaller 
than  the  m.de.     Tliis  species  is  of  Chinese 
origin ;  and  some  of  them  have  been  brought 
from  China  to  England  alive. 

3.  The  pavo  tibetanus  is  about  the  size  of 
a  pintado,  being  about  two  feet  and  nearly 
two  inches  long.  'I'he  head,  neck,  and  un- 
der parts,  are  ash-colonred,  marked  with 
blacki:^h  lines  :  the  wing-coverts,  back,  and 
rump,  are  grey,  with  small  white  dots;  be- 
sides which,  on  the  wing-coverts  and  back 
are  large  round  spots  of  a  fine  blue,  chan- 
ging in  different  liglils  to  violet  ami  greeil 
sokl.  This  species  iuhaljits  the  kingdom  of 
Ihibet.  The  Chijicse  give  it  the  name  of 
cluii-ichiui-Jvhi. 


I'  A  NV-^ 

PAUPET^,  ill  laVT.  Sue  I'ORMA  fAf  PER- 
IS. 

PAUSE,  ill  nnisic,  a  mark  or  cliaractcr, 
eonsistiiig  of  a  curve  drawn  ov(!r  a  dot,  and 
sigiiifyiiii!;  tliat  tlu;  noli!  or  the  rest,  over 
wliicli  it  is  placed,  is  to  be  coiitimied  beyond 
tlie  regular  time.  'I'lie  exact  lenctli  of  llie 
pause  is  not  dictated  by  any  state<l  rule,  but 
left  to  tlic  judgment,  taste,  and  t'eelmg  of  the 
performer ;  who  sometimes  is  licensed  by  the 
words  ad  libitum,  to  introduce  e.^itempore 
oubeHishnieiits. 

I'Al'.SUS,  a  genus  of  insQcts,  of  tlie  order 
oofeoplera.  Tlie  generic  chaiacter  is:  an- 
tenna of  two  joinrs,  the  upper  very  large, 
inllaled,  moveable,  anil  liooked  ;  head 
Stretched  forwards  ;  wiug-sheath*  llexile,  de- 
flected, truncated. 

1.  Pausus  niicroeeplialus.  The  head  is 
uncommonly  small  ;  the  thorax  broader  than 
the  head,  aufl  very  uneven,  the  two  parts 
being  entirely  separated  by  a  transverse  fur- 
row. This  rare  insect  is  a  native  of  lianana 
island,  and  Sierra  Leone  in  Africa.  Its  co- 
lour is  a  blackish  brown.  It  is  represented 
an  the  Plate,  both  in  its  natural  size,  and 
considerably  magnified. 

The  Cd  species,  or  pausus  splurrocerus,  is 
•Uius  described  bv  Dr.  Afzelius.  "  There 
was  a  house  building  for  the  governor,  on  an 
eminence  at  the  south  end  of  Free-town,  in 
Sierra  Leone.  I  had  not  resided  there  many 
days,  when  one  evening,  having  just  lighted 
my  candle,  and  begun  to  write,  t  observed 
something  droi)ping  from  the  cieling  before 
me  upon  the  table,  which,  from  its  singular  ap- 
pearance, attracted  my  particular  attention. 
it  remained  for  a  little  while  quite  immove- 
able, as  if  stunned  or  frightened,  but  began 
soon  to  crawl  very  slowly  and  steadily.  I 
then  caught  it,  put  it  into  a  box,  and  left  it 
confined  there  for  a  day  or  two.  One  even- 
ing, going  to  look  at  it,  and  happening  to 
stand  between  the  light  and  the  box,  so  that 
inv  shadow  fell  upon  the  insect,  I  observed, 
to  my  great  astonishment,  the  globes  of  the 
antenna:,  like  two  lanthorns,  spreading  a  dim 
phire])horic  light.  This  singular  pheilomenon 
raised  niv  curiosity,  and,  after  having  ex- 
amined it  several  times  that  night,  I  resolved 
to  repeat  my  researches  the  following  day. 
]5ut  the  anin»l  being  exhausted,  died  Ijefore 
the  morning,  and  the  light  disappeared ;  and 
afterwards,  not  being  able  to  fmd  any  more 
specimens,  I  was  prevented  from  ascertaining 
the  f<ict  by  reiterated  experiments  at  different 
times." 

PAWLE,  in  a  ship,  a  small  piece  of  iron 
1)olted  to  one  end  of  the  beams  of  the  deck, 
close  to  the  capstan  ;  but  yet  so  easily,  as 
that  it  can  turn  about.  Its  use  is,  to  stop  the 
capstan  from  turning  back,  by  being  made  to 
catch  hold  of  the  whelps  :  they  therefore  say, 
heave  a  pawie  ;  that  is,  heave  a  little  more, 
for  the  pawIe  to  get  hold  of  the  whelps  :  and 
this  they  call  pawling  the  capstan. 

PAVVX,  a  pledge  lodged  for  the  security 
of  the  payment  of  a  sum  of  money  borrowed. 
As  the  party  that  pawns  the  goods  has  a  ge- 
neral property  tlierein,  they  cannot  be  for- 
feited by  the  person  that  has  them  in  pawn, 
for  anv  offence  of  his  ;  neithiT  can  they  bo 
taken  in  execution  for  his  debt  ;  on  the  other 
liaiitl,  where  goods  are  repawneil  for  nioijev, 
if  after  judgment  is    obtained   against   the 


r  E  A 

pawner  for  di'bt,  the  goods  in  th'-  pawnee's 
iiantls  are  not  liable  to  execution  until  such 
time  as  the  money  leiit  is  paid  to  the  pawnee, 
lie  that  borrows  money  on  a  pawn  is  to  have 
again  the  pledge,  when  he  repays  the  same, 
or  he  may  bring  an  action  for  detaining  it  ; 
and  his  very  tender  of  the  money  revests  the 
special  property  in  him.  ],ike«i»e  it  has 
been  held,  that  wliere  a  broker  refuses,  on 
tendering  the  money,  to  redeliver  the  goods, 
he  thereupon  shall  be  indicted.  In  case 
goods  are  pawned  for  lent  money,  and  no 
day  lixcd  for  llieir  redemption,  they  are  said 
to  be  redeemable  at  any  time  during  the 
pawner's  life ;  and  though  they  may  not  be 
redeemed  after  his  deatji,  they  may  after  the 
death  of  the  pawnee.  Where  the  pawn  is 
redeemable  on  a  c^'rtain  day,  it  iiui»t  be 
strictly  observed,  or  upon  failure  of  ]xiymenl: 
it  may  be  sold.  Also  it  is  the  common  practice 
of  the  brokers,  when  no  day  is  fixed  tiir  re- 
deniplion,  not  to  stay  longer  than  a  year  lor 
their  money,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time 
tljey  usually  sell  the  goods.  See  also  39  and 
40  Geo.  111.  c.  99. 

PAY,  in  the  sea  language.  The  seamen 
say,  pay  more  cable,  when  they  mean  to  let 
out  more  cable. 

PAYING,  among  somen.  V.'hen  the 
seams  of  a  ship  are  laid  over  with  a  coat  of 
hot  pitch,  it  is  called  paying  her  ;  and  when 
this  is  done  with  canvas,  parcelling;  also 
w  hen,  after  she  is  graved,  and  die  soil  burned 
otf,  a  new  coat  of  tallow  and  soap,  or  one  of 
train-oil,  rosin,  and  brimstone  boiled  toge- 
ther, is  put  on  her,  thai  is  also  called  pay- 
ing of  a  ship. 

PAYMENT,  is  the  consideration  or  pur- 
chase-money for  goods,  and  may  be  made 
by  the  buyer  giving  to  the  seller  the  price 
agret^d  upon,  either  by  bill  or  note,  or  by 
money.  \Vhere  a  day  certain  is  appointed 
for  pavment,  the  party  bound  shall  be  al- 
lowed till  the  last  moment  of  the  day  to  pay 
it  in,  if  it  is  an  inland  bill.     4  T.  R.  1 73. 

Payment  of  money  before  the  day  is,  in 
law,  payment  at  the  day  ;  for  it  cannot,  in 
presumption  of  law,  be  any  prejudice  to  him 
to  whom  the  payment  is  made,  to  have  his 
money  before  the  time  ;  and  it  appears  by  the 
party's  receipt  of  it,  tliat  it  is  for  his  own  ad- 
vantage to  receive  it  tlien.     6  Co.  1 17. 

PEACE,  in  law,  signifies  a  ciuiet  and 
harmless  behaviour  towards  the  king  and  his 
people,  'i  he  king,  by  his  oftice  and  dignity 
royal,  is  the  principal  conservator  of  the 
peace  within  all  his  dominions,  and  may  give 
authority  to  any  other  to  see  th.e  peace  kept, 
and  to  punish  such  as  break  it :  hence  it  is 
usually  called  the  king's  peace.  All  the  great 
ollieers  of  state  are  generally  conservators  of 
tlie  peace  throughout  the  kingdom,  and  may 
commit  all  breakers  of  it,  or  bind  them  in 
recognizance  to  keep  it.  Also  the  sheriff, 
coroner,  constables,  and  titliingmen,  are  con- 
servators of  the  peace  w  ithin  their  own  juris- 
diction; and  may  apprehend  all  breakers  of 
the  peace,  and  commit  them  till  they  find 
sureties  to  keep  the  peace.     1  Black.  3.")0. 

PEACE,  /h.';//c'6\s  of  the,  are  persons  ap- 
pointed bv  die  king's  conimission  to  attend 
to  the  peace  of  the  county  where  they  dwell. 
Thev  were  called  guardians  of  the  peace  till 
the  30lh  year  of  Edw,  III.  c.  12,  where  they 
are  called  justices. 

A  iuitice  of  the  peace  must,  before  he 
Z  z  2 


r 


303 


cts,  take  the  oi!h  of  office,  wliicli  is  always 
done  at  the  gem-ral  ([uarler  sessions  for  the 
touiay,  by  virtue  of  a  dedinuis  potesUteiu 
out  of  chancery. 

Sheriffs^  coroners,  attorneys,  and  proctors, 
may  not  act  as  justices  of  the  peace. 

'i'he  power,  olfice,  and  duty  of  this  magis- 
trate, extends  to  an  almost  intinite  number  of 
inslances,  specified  in  some  hundreds  of  acts 
of  parliament,  and  every  year  accumulating. 

■^I'he  commission  of  the  peace  does  not  de- 
termine by  the  demise  of  the  king,  nor  until 
six  months  after,  unless  sooner  determined  by 
the  successor :  but  before  his  demise,  t)ie 
king  may  determine  it,  or  may  put  out  any 
paplicular  per  on  ;  which  is  most  conimonrv 
done  by  a  new  commission,  leaving  out  sucii 
person's  name. 

Justices  of  the  peace  can  only  be  appoint- 
ed by  the  king's  special  commission,  ami  sucli 
comini^>sion  must  be  in  his  name;  but  it  is 
not  requisite  that  there  should  be  a  special 
suit  or  application  to,  or  warrant  from,  the 
king  for  the  granting  thereof,  which  is  only 
rei|nisile  lor  such  as  are  of  a  particular  na- 
ture; as  constituting  the  mayor  of  such  3 
town,  and  his  successors,  perpetual  justices 
of  the  peace  within  their  liberties,  &c.  whicfi 
commissions  are  neither  revocable  by  the  king, 
nor  determinable  by  his  demise,  as  the  com- 
mon conimission  of  the  peace  is,  which  is 
ma<!e  of  course  by  the  lord  chancellor,  ac- 
cording to  his  discretion.     1  Lev.  ^  19. 

The  form  of  the  commission  of  the  peaces 
as  it  is  at  tills  day,  was,  according  to  Haw- 
kins, settled  by  the  judges  about  the  23  Eliz. 
4  Inst.  471. 

'iualijicafions.  On  renewing  the  conimis^ 
sion  of  the  peace  (which  generally  happens 
when  any  person  is  newly  brought  into  tlie 
same),  a  writ  of  dedimus  potestatem  is  issued 
out  of  chancery  to  take  the  oath  of  him 
who  is  newly  inserted,  which  is  usually  in  a 
schedule  annexed  ;  and  to  certify  the  same 
into  that  court  at  sncli  a  day  as  the  writ  com- 
mands. I'nto  «hi<h  oatfi  are  usually  an- 
nexed the  oatiis  of  allegiance  and  supremacy. 
Lamb.  53. 

Jurisdiction.  It  seems  now  to  be  settled, 
that  justices  of  the  peace  have  no  power  to 
hear  and  determine  felonies,  unless  they  are 
authorized  so  to  do  by  the  express  words  of 
their  commissions ;  and  that  their  jurisdic- 
tions to  hear  and  determine  murder, 
manslaughter,  and  other  felonies  and  trcs- 
l>asses,  is  by  force  of  the  word  assignavimui 
in  their  commission,  which  gives  them,  or 
two  of  them  (whereof one  is  of  t)ie  (luoiunO, 
power  to  hear  ajid  determine  felonies,  &c. 
2  Haw.  P.  C.  38.  Ami  h.eace  it  has  beea 
lately  adjudged,  tliat  the  caption  of  ao  i".* 
dictment  of  trespass  before  justices  of  the 
pe.ice,  without  adding,  necnon  ad  diversas 
felonias,  &c.  assignat,  is  nauglit.  Triu.  7  G. 
I.  iu  B.  K.  But  though  justices  of  the  peacv,, 
by  force  ui  their  conmiission,  have  a  ;tiiori'y 
to  hear  and  determine  murder  and  man- 
slaughter, vet  they  st-'dom  exorcise  a  jviri.<- 
diction  lierein,  or  in  any  other  offeiK«s  ia 
which  clergy  is  taken  away,  for  two  reasons 5 
I ,  Hy  reason  of  the  monilioft  and  clause  ia 
their  commissiiin,  vii.  in  cases  of  diSicu'ty  to 
expect  till'  presence  of  the  justices  of  assizii. 
9..  By  the  ulreclion  ot  the  statute  of  \  a»ul  f 
P.  aud  M.  c.  13,  whiiit.(liicct^ju;itic««iOi  tbc 


364 


P  E  A 


peace,  in  case  of  mans!a;ig!iter  and  oUk.!-  fc- 
loiiiei  to  take  tUe  examination  of  the  pri- 
soner, and  the  inlormation  of  tlie  fact,  and 
nut  the  same  in  writing ;  and  then  to  bail  the 
pii,oner  if  there  is  caiwe,  and  to  cerlny  the 
fame  with  tlie  bail  at  the  next  general  gaol- 
delivery  ;  and  therelore  in  cases  ol  great  nio- 
jnent  tliey  bind  over  tlie  prosecutors,  and  bai 
tiie  party,  if  bailable,  to  the  next  general 
"ool-delivery;  but  in  smaller  matters,  as 
pettv  larcenv,  and  in  some  other  cases,  they 
bind'  over  to"  the  sessions  ;  but  tins  is  only  in 
point  of  discretion  and  convenience,  not  be- 
cause they  have  not  jurisdiction  ol  tlie  crime. 

As  to  inferior  olVences,  the  jurisdiction 
herein  given  to  justices  r>!  the  peace  by  par- 
ticular siatnles,  is  so  various,  and  extends  to 
vich  a  multiplicity  of  cases,  that  it  would  be 
endless  .to  endeavour  to  emimeiate  tnem.  0 
Mod.  128.  It  has  been  held,  that  not  only 
assaults  and  batteries,  but  libels,  barr.ilry, 
and  common  night-walking,  and  haunting 
bawdy-houses,  and  such  like  olleiices,  which 
have  'a  direct  teiidciicy  to  cause  breaclies  ol 
the  peace,  are  cognizaljle  by  justices  of  the 
peace,  as  trespasses  within  the  prop'-r  ^""-l 
natural  meaning  of  the  word.  1  Lev.  139. 

DuVj.  Justices  of  the  peace  are  to  hold 
their  sessions  tuur  times  in  the  year,  viz.  the 
lirst  week  after  Michaelmas,  the  Epipliany, 
Easter,  and  St.  '^l  liomas.  They  are  justices 
of  record ;  tor  none  but  justices  of  record 
can  take  a  recognizance  of  the  peace.  Every 
justice  of  tlie  peace  has  a  separate  power,  and 
may  do  all  acts  concerning  his  olhce  apart 
and  by  himself,  and  even  may  commit  a  fel- 
low-justice upon  treason,  felony,  or  breach 
of  the  peace ;  and  this  is  the  antieiit  power 
which  conservators  of  the  peace  had  at  com- 
mon law.  Br  several  statutes  justices  niay 
act,  in  many  cases,  where  their  commission 
doe's  not  reach ;  the  statutes  themselves  be- 
in;^  a  sul'licient  commission.    Wood,  Inst.  79, 

so! 

Justices  of  the  peace  arc  authorized  to  do 
a!!  things  appertaining  to  their  office,  so  far 
as  they  relate  to  the  laws  for  the  relief,  main- 
tenance, and  settlement  of  the  poor ;  _  for 
passing  and  punishing  vagrants  ;  for  repair  of 
the  hig  iways  ;  or  to  any  other  laws  concern- 
ing parochial  taxes,  levies,  or  rates  ;  notwith- 
standing they  are  rated  or  chargeable  with 
the  rat<rs,  with  any  place  alfccted  by  such 
their  acts.  Provided  that  this  shall  not  em- 
i)Ower  any  jusli<-e  for  any  county  at  large  to 
act  in  the"  determination  of  any  appeal  tothe 
quarter-sessions  of  such  county,  from  any 
order,  matter,  or  thing,  relating  la  any  such 
parish,  township,  or  place,  where  such  justice 
is  so  charged  or  ch.irgeable.     16  Geo.  II.  c. 

IS. 

The  power  of  justices  is  ministerial,  when 
they  are  commanded  to  do  any  thing  by  a 
supe'ior  authority,  as  the  court  of  15.  U.  &c. 
In  all  other  cases  they  act  as  judgifs;  but 
Ihey  must  proceed  according  to  their  com- 
mission, &c.  Where  a  statute  requires  an 
act  to  be  done  by  two  justices,  it  is  an  estab- 
lished rule,  tliatif  the  act  is  of  aju<licial  na- 
l.ire,  or  the  result  of  discretion,  the  two  jus- 
tices must  be  pr.'sent  to  conceit  and  join  in 
it,  otiierwise  it  will  be  void  ;  as  in  the  orders 
of  removal  and  filiation,  the  appointment  of 
overseers,  and  tin-  allrtvance  of  the  indenture 
of  a  parisli  appreiilice;  but  where  the  act  is 
Dwrely  niiiiisle;  ial,  they  may  act  separately, 


P  E  A 

as  in  tlie  allowance  of  a  poor-rate.  This  is 
the  only  act  of  two  justices  which  has  been 
construed  to  be  ministerial ;  and  the  pro- 
priety of  this  construction  has  been  justly 
questioned.     4  Diiriif.  &  East,  3S0. 

■If  a  justice  of  the  peace  does  not  observe 
the  form  of  proceeding  directed  by  a  sta- 
tute, it  is  coram  nonjudice,  and  void  ;  but  if 
he  acts  according  to  the  direction  of  the  sta- 
tutes, neither  the  justices  in  sessions,  iior  15.  R. 
can  reverse  what  he  has  done.     Jones,  170. 

Wiiere  a  justice  shail  exceed  his  authority 
in  gnuiting  a'warrant,  the  oiiicor  must  exe- 
cute it,  and  he  is  indeiimified  for  so  doing; 
but  ii  It  is  in  a  case  wherein  he  has  no  juris- 
diction, or  in  a  matter  whereof  he  has  no 
cognizance,  tiie  officer  ought  not  to  execute 
.such  warrant ;  for  the  officer  is  bound  to  take 
notice  of  the  authority  and  jurisdiction  of  the 
justice.     10  Co.  76. 

Justices  acting  improperh/.    If  a  justice  of 

the  peace  will  not,  on  compl.iint  to  hnn  made, 

exL-cute  his  office,  or  if  he  siiall  misbi-havi- 

in  his  office,  the  party  grieved  may  move  the 

court  of  king's  bencli  for  an  information,  and 

aiterwards  may  apply  to  the  court  of  chan- 

I  eery  to  put  Ir.m  out  of  tiie  commission.     But 

tlie  most  usual  way  of  compeiling  justices  to 

'  execute  their  office,  in  any  case,  is  by  writ 

!  of  mandamus  out    of    the  court  of  king's 

I  bench. 

I      ^Vliere  t!ie  plaintiff  in  an  action  against  a 
I  justice,  shall  obtain  a  verdict,  and  the  judge 
I  shall,  in  open  court,  certify  on  the  back  of  the 
record,  that  the  injui'y  for  which  such  action 
was   brought,  was   wilfully  and   maliciously 
committed,  the  plaintiff   shall   have  double 
costs.     24  G.  II.  c.  44.     And  if  a  justice  of 
peace  acts  improperly,  knowingly,  informa- 
I  tion  shall  be  granted."    27  G.III.' 
I      No  justice  shall  be  liable  to  be  punished 
j  both  ways,  that  is,    criminally  and  civilly  ; 
[  but  before  the  court  will  grant  an  informa- 
tion, tliey  will  require  the  party  to  relinquish 
his  civil  action,  if  any  such  is  commenced: 
I  and  even  in  the  case  of  an  indictment,  and 
though  the  indictment  is  actually  found,  the 
I  attorney-general,  on  application  made  to  him, 
1  will  grant  a  noli  prosequi   upon  such  indicl- 
i  ment,  if  it  appears  to  him  that  the  prosecutor 
I  is  determined  to  carry  on  a  civil  action  at  the 
I  same  time.     Bur.  719. 
I      If  any  action  shall  be  brought  against  a 
justice  for  any  thing  done  bv  virtue  of  his 
office,  he  may  plead  the  general  issue,  and 
give  the  special  matter  in  evidence ;  and  if 
he  recovers  he  shall   have  double  costs.     7 
Tac.  c.  5.     S-.icli  action  shall  not  be  laid  but 
I  in  the  county  wiiere  the  fact  was  committed. 
21  'I'ac.  r.  12.     And  no  suit  shall  be  com- 
menced against  a  justice   of  the  peace  till 
I  after  one  month's  notice.     And  unless  it  is 
;  proved  upon  the  trial  that  such  notice  was 
given,  the  justice  shall  have  a  verdict  and 
costs.    And  no  action  shail  bfrbrouaht  against 
any  coiistai>le  or  other  officer,  or  any  person 
acting  by  his  order  and  in  his  aid,  for  any 
thing  done  in  obedience  to  the  war  ant  of  a 
justice,  till  demand  has  been  niade,  or  left  at 
the  usual  place  of  his  abode,  by  the  party  or 
by  his  atlorney,   in  writing,  signed   by  the 
parly  demanding  the  same,  of  the   perusal 
and  copy  of  such  warnuit,  and  the  same  has 
been  relused  or  neglected  for  six  days  after 
sucli  tlemaiul.  And  no  action  shall  be  brought 
against  any  justice  lor  any  thing  done  in  the 


PEA 

execution  of  Ids  office,  unless  commenced 
wiihiii  SIX  months  after  the  act  committed. 
24  G.  II.  c.  44. 

PEACH,  in  botany.    See  Amygdalvs. 

PiiACOCK.    See  Pavo. 

PEAK  OF  Derbyshire,  a  chain  of  very 
high  mountains  in  the  county  of  Derby  in 
England,  famous  for  the  mines  they  contain, 
and  lor  their  remarkable  caverns.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  are  Ponl's-hole  and  El- 
den-hole.  The  former  is  a  cave  at  the  foot  of 
a  high  hill  called  Coitmoss,  so  narrow  at  the 
entrance  that  passengers  are  obliged  to  creep 
on  all-ibuis;  but  it  soon  opens  to  a  consider- 
able height,  extending  to  above  a  quarter  of 
a  mile,  with  a  roof  somen  iiat  resembling  that 
of  an  antient  cathedral.  By  the  petrityiiig 
water  continually  dropping  in  many  parts  of 
the  cave,  are  tormed  a  variety  of  curious 
ligures,  and  representations  of  the  works  botii 
of  nature  and  art.  There  is  a  column  here 
as  clear  as  alabaster,  which  is  called  "tlie 
(pieen  of  Scots'  pillar,"  because  queen  Mary 
is  said  to  have  proceeded  thus  far  when  she 
visiteil  the  cavern.  It  seems,  the  curiosity  of 
that  piincess  had  led  her  thus  far  into  "the 
dark  abode,  and  indeed  there  are  few  ti'a- 
vellers  w  ho  care  to  venture  farther ;  but 
otiiers,  determined  to  see  the  end  of  all,  have 
gone  beyond  it.  Alter  ^lid;ng  down  the 
rock  a  little  w-ay,  is  found  the  dreary  cavity 
turned  upwards :  following  its  course,  and 
climbing  from  crag  to  crag,  the  traveller  ar- 
rives at  a  great  height,  till  the  rock,  closing 
over  his  head  on  all  sides,  puts  an  end  to  any 
further  subterraneous  journey.  Just  at  turn- 
ing to  descend,  the  attention  is  caught  bv  a 
chasm,  in  which  is  seen  a  candle  glimmering 
at  a  vast  depth  underneath.  Tiie  guides 
say,  that  the  light  is  at  a  place  near  Mary 
queen  of  Scots'  pillar,  and  no  less  than  80 
yards  below.  It  appears  frightfully  deep  in- 
[  deed  to  look  down  ;  but  perhaps  does  not 
measure  any  thing  like  what  it  is  said  to  do. 
If  a  pistol  is  lired  by  the  queen  of  Scots'  pil- 
lar, it  will  make  a  report  as  loud  as  a  cannon. 
Near  the  extremity  there  is  a  hollow  in  the 
roof,  called  "  the  needle's  eye  ;"  in  which  if 
a  candle  is  placed,  it  will  represent  a  star  iu 
the  (irniament  to  those  w  iio  are  below.  At  a 
little  distance  from  this  cave  are  two  small 
clear  streams,  consisting  of  hot  and  cold  wa- 
ter, so  near  each  other,  that  the  linger  and 
thumb  of  the  same  iiand  may  be  put,  the  one 
into  the  hot  water,  and  the  other  into  the 
cold.    - 

Elden-hole  is  a  dreadful  chasm  in  the  side 
of  a  mouniain  ;  wliieii,  before  the  latter  part 
of  tile  last  century,  was  thought  to  be  alto- 
getlier  unfathomable.  In  the  time  of  queen 
Elizabeth  a  poor  man  was  let  down  into  it  for 
200  yards;  but  he  was  drawn  up  in  a  frenzy, 
and  soon  after  died.  In  1682  it  was  cx-a- 
mined  by  captain  Collins,  and  in  1699  by 
captain  .Sturmy,  vvlio  published  their  ac- 
counts in  the  Philosophical  Transactions. 
The  latter  descended  by  ropes  /ixed  at  the 
top  of  an  old  lead-ore  pit,  lour  fathoms  al- 
most perpendirular,  ami  tln'nce  tUreiT  fa- 
thoms more  obliquely,  between  two  great 
rocks.  At  the  bottnm  of  this  he  found  an  en- 
trance into  a  very  S|)acious  cavern,  whence  he 
descended  along  with  a  miner  lor  2j  fatlunis 
|>frpendicu!ar.  At  last  they  came  to  a  great 
river  or  water,  which  he  fouml  to  be  twenty 
latlioms  broad  and  eight  fathoms  deep,     'i'lio 


PEA 

miner  who  accompaiiietl  liim,  insisted'  tliat 
tills  water  ebbed  and  llowod  witli  the  sea ; 
but  the  captain  disproved  this  assertion,  by 
remaiiiiiig  iu  the  place  thmi  three  hours  (lood 
to  two  iiours  ebb,  (hiring  which  time  there 
was  no  alteration  in  (he  Height  of  the  water. 
As  thev  walketl  by  the  side  ot  this  water, 
they  observed  a  hollow  in  the  rock  some  feet 
above  them.  I'he  miner  went  into  this 
place,  which  was  the  month  of  another  ca- 
vern; and  walked  for  about  7Cl  paces  in  it, 
till  he  jnst  lost  sight  of  the  captain.  He  then 
called  to  him,  that  he  had  fonnda  rich  mine, 
but  immediately  after  canie  riinnini;;  out,  and 
crying  that  he  liad  seen  an  evil  spirit ;  nor 
could  any  persuasions  induce  him  to  re- 
turn. The  tloor  of  tiiese  caverns  is  a  kind  of 
white  stone  enamelled  with  lead  ore,  and  the 
roofs  are  encrusted  with  shining  spar.  (_)n 
his  return  from  this  subterraneous  journey, 
captain  Suirmy  was  seized  v.ith  a  violent 
head-ache,  which,  after  continuing  four  days, 
terminated  in  a  fever,  of  wliich  he  died  in  a 
short  time. 

Several  years  ago  this  cavern  was  visited 
by  the  late  Mr.  James  Ferguson,  who  ttlls 
us,  tiiat  it  consists  of  two  hollows  one  over 
another  ;  but  tliat  the  mouth  of  the  lower- 
most IS  now  stopped  up  by  planks  of  timber 
laid  across  it,  on  which  is  a  heap  of  stones 
thrown  in  at  the  upper  month,  with  a  design 
to  (ill  up  the  cavern  entirely  ;  which,  how- 
ever, will  probably  be  never  accomplished, 
on  account  of  its  vast  size. 

PEAR,  in  botany.     See  Pyrus. 
PEARCII,  in  ichthyology.     See  Perca. 
PEARL,  in  natural  history,  a  hard,  white, 
shining  body,  usually  roundish,  found  in  va- 
rious kinds  of  testaceous  lishes. 

Pearls,  thougji  esteemed  of  the  number  of 
gems  by  our  jewellers,  and  highly  valued, 
not  only  at  this  time,  but  in  all  ages,  proceed 
only  from  a  di^temper  in  the  creature  that 
produces  them,  analogous  to  the  bezoars  and 
other  stony  concretions  in  several  animals  of 
other  kinds. 

The  hsh  in  which  the  largest  and  finest 
pearls  are  usually  produced,  is  the  East  In- 
dian pearl-oyster,  as  it  is  commonly  called. 
Besides  this  shell  there  are  many  others  that 
are  found  to  produce  pearls ;  as  the  common 
oyster,  the  musje,  and  sever.il  others,  the 
pearls  of  Which  are  often  very  good  ;  btit 
those  of  the  true  Indian  berberi,  or  pearl-oy- 
ster, are  in  general  superior  to  all.  The 
small  or  seed-pearls,  also  called  ounce-pearls, 
from  their  being  sold  by  the  ounce  and  not 
by  tale,  are  vastly  tiie  most  nnmerons  and 
common ;  but,  as  in  diamond^,  among  the 
multitudes  of  small  ones,  there  are  smaller 
numbers  and  larger  found,  so  in  pearls  there 
are  larger  and  larger  kinds;  but  as  they  in- 
crease in  size,  they  are  proportioiiably  less 
frequent :  and  this  is  one  reason  ol  their  great 
price.  We  have  Scotch  pearls  frequently  as 
large  as  a  little  tare,  some  as  big  as  a  large 
pea,  and  some  few  ef  the  size  of  a  horso 
bean  ;  but  these  are  usually  of  a  bad  sliape, 
and  of  little  value  in  projwrtion  to  their 
weight.  Philip  n.  of  Spain  had  a  pearl  per- 
fect in  its  shape  and  coloer,  and  ol  the  size  ol 
a  pigeon's  egg.  The  Ihiest,  and  v\hat  is  called 
the  true  shape  of  the  pearl,  is  a  perfect  round ; 
but  if  pearls  ol  a  considerable  size  are  of  the 
shape  of  a  pea-,  as  is  not  unfrequently  the 
case,  they  aie  not  less  valued,  as  they  serve 


PEA 


305 


for  ear-rings  and  oilier  ornamPiits.  Their 
colour  ouglit  to  be  a  pure  white ;  and  that 
not  a  dead  and  lifeless,  but  a  clear  and  bril- 
liant one:  they  must  be  perfectly  free  frjmi 
any  foulness,  spot,  or  stain;  and  their  sur- 
faces must  be  nattiraily  smooth  and  glossy; 
for  they  bring  their  natural  polish  with  them, 
which  art  is  not  able  to  improve. 

All  pearls  are  formed  ot  the  matter  of  the 
shell,  and  consist  of  a  number  of  coats  spread 
with  perfect  regularity  one  over  another,  in 
the  manner  of  the  several  coats  of  an  onion, 
or  like  the  several  strata  of  the  stones  found 
in  the  bladders  or  stomachs  of  animals,  only 
much  thinner. 

The  manner  of  lishing  for  pearls  in  the 
East  Indies  is  this:  1  ln're  are  two  seasons  for 
pearl-lishing  ;  the  first  is  in  March  and  April, 
and  the  last  in  August  and  September;  and 
the  more  r<an  th  -re  falls  in  the  year,  the 
more  plentiliil  are  these  fisheries.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  season  there  are  sometimes 
2jO  barks  ou  the  banks:  the  larger  barks 
have  two  divers,  and  tlie  smaller  one.  As 
soon  as  barks  arrive  at  the  place  where  the 
lish  lie,  and  have  cast  anchor,  each  diver 
binds  a  stone,  six  inches  thick  and  a  foot 
long,  under  his  body,  which  serves  him  as  a 
ballast,  prevents  his  being  driven  away  by 
the  motion  of  the  water,  and  enables  him  to 
walk  more  steadily  under  the  waves.  They 
also  tie  another  very  heavy  stone  to  one  foot, 
by  which  they  are  very  speeddy  sent  to  the 
bottom  of  the  sea:  and  as  the  oysters  are 
usually  firmly  fasiened  to  the  rocks,  they  arm 
their  hands  with  leather  mittens,  to  |)rev.ent 
their  being  "wounded  in  pulling  tliem  vio- 
lently off;  but  this  task  some  perform  with 
an  iron  rake.  In  the  last  place,  each  diver 
carries,  down  with  him  a  large  net,  in  the 
manner  of  a  sack,  tied  to  his  neck  by  a  long 
cord,  the  other  end  of  which  is  fastened  to 
the  side  of  the  bark.  This  net  is  to  hold  the 
oysters  gathered  trom  the  rock  ;  and  the  cord 
is  to  pull  up  the  diver  when  his  bag  is  full,  or 
when  he  wants  air.  In  this  e<|uipage  he  some- 
times precipitates  himself  sixty  feet  under 
water;  and  as  he  has  no  time  to  lose,  he  no 
sooner  arrives  at  liie  bottom,  than  he  begins 
to  run  from  side  to  side,  tearing  up  all  the 
oysters  he  meets  with,  and  cramming  them 
into  his  budget. 

At  whatever  deptli  the  divers  are,  the  light 
is  so  great,  that  they  easily  see  whatever 
passes  in  the  sea ;  and,  to  their  great  con- 
sternation, sometimes  perceive  monstrous 
lisaes,  from  which  all  their  address  in  mud- 
dying the  water,  &c.  will  not  save  them,  but 
they  unhappily  become  their  prey  :  and  of 
ail  the  dangers  of  the  fishery  this  is  one  of 
the  greatest  and  most  usual.  The  best  divers 
will  keep  under  water  near  half  an  hour,  and 
tlie  rest  do  not  stay  less  than  a  c[uarter. 
IJnring  this  time  they  hold  their  breath, 
wiihout  the  use  of  oils  or  any  other  liquors; 
only  acquiring  the  habit  by  long  practice. 
When  they  lind  themselves  straitened,  they 
pull  the  rope  to  which  the  bag  is  fastened, 
and  hold  fast  by  it  with  both  hands  ;  when 
tliose  in  the  bark,  taking  the  signal,  heave 
them  up  into  tlie  air,  and  unload  them  of 
their  fish ;  which  is  sometimes  500  oysters, 
and  sometimes  not  above  50.  Some  of  the 
divers  need  a  moment's  respite  to  recover 
breath  ;  otln'rs  jump  in  again  instantly,  con- 
tinuing this  violent  exercise  without  intermis- 
sion for  several  hours. 


0n  the  siiore  they  unload  their  barks,  and 
lay  their  oysters  in  an  infinite  number  of 
little  pits  dug  in  the  sand  four  or  five  feet 
square,  raising  lieaps  of  sand  over  them  to 
the  height  of  a  man ;  and  in  this  condllioii 
they  are  left  till  the  rain,  wind,  and  sun,  have 
obliged  them  to  open,  which  soon  kills  them  : 
upon  this  die  (iesh  rots  and  dries  ;'  and  the 
pearls,  thus  disengaged,  fall  into  the  pit  on 
their  taking  out  the  shells.  After  clearing 
the  pits  of  the  grosser  filth,  they  sift  the  sand 
several  times,  in  order  to  find  the  pearl ;  but, 
whatever  care  they  take,  they  always  lose  a 
great  many.  Alter  cleaning  and  drying  the 
pearls,  tliey  are  passed  through  a  kind  of 
sieve,  according  to  their  sizes  ;  the  smallest 
are  then  sold  as  seed  pearls,  and  the  rest  put 
up  to  auction,  and  sold  to  the  highest  bidder. 
See  also  Mya  :  and  for  the  composition  of 
the  pearl,  see  the  ne.xt  article. 

A/o;/j;r-o/ Pearl,  is  the  shell  not  of  (he 
pearl  oyster,  but  of  anottier  sea-fish  of  the 
oyster  kind.  This  shell  on  the  inside  is  ex- 
tremely smooth,  and  of  the  whiteness  and 
water  of  pearl  itself;  and  it  has  the  same 
lu>tr,-  on  the  outride,  alter  the  first  laminae  or 
scales  have  been  cleared  o(f  with  a(iuafortis, 
and  the  lapidary's  mill.  Mother-of-pearl  is 
used  in  inlaid  works,  and  ii*  several  toys,  ai> 
snulf-boxes,  &c. 

Mother-of-pearl  shells,  when  exposed  to 
a  red  heat,  crackle,  blacken,  and  emit  a 
strong  fetid  odour.  They  exfoliate,  and  be- 
come grey  and  white ;  when  immersed  in 
acids,  they  eVfervesce.  The  acids  take  up 
only  the  li'me,  and  leave  a  number  of  thin 
membranaceous  substances,  which  still  re- 
tain the  (brm  of  the  shell.  From  Mr. 
llatchett's  experiments  we  learn,  that  these 
membranes  have  die  properties  of  coagulated 
albumen.  Mother-of-pearl  shells  then  are 
comjiosed  of  alternate  layers  of  coagulated 
albumen  and  carbonat  of  lime,  beginning 
with  the  e))ideimis,  and  ending  with  the  last- 
formed  membrane.  The  animals  which  in- 
habit these  shells  increase  their  habitation  by 
the  addition  of  a  ^tratum  of  carbonat  of  lime, 
secured  by  a  new  membrane ;  and  as  every 
additional'  stratum  exceeds  in  extent  that 
which  was  previously  formed,  the  shell  be- 
comes stronger  as  it  becomes  larger. 

Though  this  in  general  is  the  structure  of. 
the  mother-of-pearl  shells,  yet  there  is  a  con- 
siderable tlilfereiice  between  the  proportion, 
of  the  component  parts,  and  the  consistency, 
of  the  albuminous  part.  Some  of  them,  as- 
the  common  oyster-shell,  approach  iiearly  to 
the  patella>,  the  albuminous  portion  being 
small,  and  its  consistence  nearly  gelatinous  ; 
while  others,  as  the  haliotis  iris,  the  turb»- 
olearius,  the  real  mother-of-pearl,  and  a  spe- 
cies of  fresh-water  muscle  analysed  by 
Hatchett,  the  membranes  are  distinct,  thin,, 
compact,  and  semitransparent.  Mother-of- 
pearl  contains 

66  carbonat  of  lime- 
34  membrane 

100,. 

The  pearl  w!>ich  is  formed  in  some  of  these- 
shells  (see  the  preceding  article)  resembles 
them  exactly  in  its  structure  and  composi- 
tion. It  is  a  beautiful  substance  of  a  blueish- 
white  colour,  iridescent,  and  brilliant..  It  is. 
composed  of  concentric  and  alternate  cost  a. 


3o,? 


P  K 


«f  lliii!  inrmbniiif  and  carbonat  of  lime. 
Tiii'ir  iii<ips;ei!ce  is  obviously  the  conse- 
q'.i'.'iice otihi;  lamellaled  sliucture. 

Mr.  U:itchett  found  that  what  is  called  the 
bone  of  the  cuttle-fish  is  e.xactlv  similar  to 
nwjlherof-pearl  shells  in  its  composition. 

From  the  comparative  analysis  of  shells 
and  bones  Mr.  Ilaitliett  was  induced  to  com- 
pare them  top;ether,  and  lias  sliewn  that  poi- 
celanous  shells  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to 
euame'.  oi  teeth,  while  mother-of-pearl  shells 
bear  the  same  rL-semblance  to  the  substance 
of  teeth  or  bone;  with  this  ditt'erence,  that 
in  enamel  and  bone  the  earthy  salt  is-phos- 
phat  of  lime,  whereas  hi  shells  it  is  pure  car- 
bonat of  lin;e. 

PEAIU-S,  wtijicial.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  lake  out  stains  from  pearls,  and  to 
render  the  foul  opaque-coloured  ones  equal 
in  lustre  to  the  Oriental.  Abujidanee  of  pro- 
cesses are  given  for  this  purpose  in  books  of 
secrets  and  travels ;  but  they  are  very  far 
from  answering  what  is  expected  from  them. 
Pearls  may  be  cleaned  indeed  from  any  ex- 
ternal foulnesses  by  washing  and  rubbing 
them  with  a  little  \'enice  soajj  and  warm  wa- 
ter, or  with  ground  rice  and  salt,  with  starch 
and  powder-blue,  plaister  of  Paris,  coral, 
white  vitriol  and  tartar,  cuttle-bone,  pumice- 
3lone,  and  other  similar  substances ;  but  a 
stain  tl^at  reaches  deep  into  the  substance  of 
pearls  is  impossible  to  be  taken  out.  Nor 
can  a  uumber  of  small  pearls  be  united  into 
a  mass  similar  to  an  entire  natural  one,  as 
some  pretend. 

There  are,  however,  methods  of  making 
artilicial  pearls,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be 
with  difricully  distinguished  from  the  best 
Oriental.  The  ingredient  used  lor  this  pur- 
pose was  long  kept  a  secret ;  but  it  is  now 
discovered  to  be  a  line  silver-like  substance 
found  upon  the  under  side  of  tise  scales  of 
the  blay  or  bleak.  The  scales,  taken  off  in 
the  usual  manner,  are  washed  and  rubbed 
with  fresh  parcels  of  fair  water,  and  the  se- 
veral ruiuors  suffered  to  settle:  tlie  water  be- 
ing then  poured  ot'f,  the  pearly  matter  re- 
Diains  at  tlie  bottom,  of  the  consistence  of 
oil,  called  by  the  Frencli  essence  d'orient,  A 
Jitlle  of  this  is  dropped  into  a  hollow  bead  of 
blueish  glass,  and  staken  about  so  as  to  line 
the  internal  surface  ;  after  which  the  cas'ity 
is  fdled  up  with  wax,  to  give  solidity  and 
weight.  Pearls  made  in  this  maimer  are  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  natural  only  by  their 
having  fewer  blemishes, 

PEAT,  a  well-kiiowit  inflammable  sub- 
stance, used  ill  many  parts  of  the  world  as 
fuel.     There  are  two  species. 

It  consists,  according  to  Kirwan,  of 
clay  mixed  with  calcareous  earths  ajid  py- 
rites ;  sometimej  also  it  contains  cenuiion 
salt.  While  soft  it  is  formed  into  oblong 
pieces  for  fuel,  after  the  pyritaceous  and 
ttony  matters  are  separated.  '  By  distillation 
it  vield«  water,  acid,  oil,  and  ammonia ;  the 
aenes  containing  a  small  proportion  of  fixed 
alkali ;  and  being  either  while  or  red,  accord- 
ing to  tl!(;  proportion  of  pyrites  contained  in 
tlie  sub.^fcsnce. 

The  oil  wliicli  13  obtained  from  peat  has  a 
Tcry  pungent  laste,  and  an  empvreumatic 
smell,  le^s  fetid  titan  that  of  animal  sub- 
stancrs,  but  more  so  than  that  of  mineral  bitu- 
mens: it  congeals  in  the  cold  into  a  pitchy 
fOKt,  which liqueiicsia  a  small  beat:  it  rea- 


r  V.  A 

dily  catches  five  from  a  candle,  but  burns  less 
vehemently  than  oiher  oils,  and  immediately 
goes  out  upon  removing  the  otenial  flame: 
it  dissolves  almost  totally  in  rectified  spirit  of 
wiiu-  into  a  dark  browiiish-red  liciuor. 

It  is  evident  that  peat  will  varv  as  to  com- 
position, according  to  situation  and  circum- 
stance ;  and  in  almost  every  place  will  be 
found  somewhat  dilfeivnt.  The  following  is 
an  account  of  the  peat  found  near  Newbury 
ill  Berkshire :  It  is  a  composition  of  the 
branches,  twigs,  leaves,  and  roots  of  trees,  with 
grass,  straw,  and  plants,  particularly  mo^s, 
which,  having  lain  long  in  w  ater,  is  formed  in 
a  mass  so  soft  as  to  be  cut  through  with  a 
sharp  spade.  The  colour  is  a  blackish  brown, 
and  it  is  used  in  many  places  for  tiring. 
There  is  a  stratum  of  this  peat  on  each  side 
of  the  Kennet,  near  Newbury  in  Berks, 
which  is  from  about  a  quarter  to  half  a  mile 
wide,  and  many  miles  long.  The  depth  be- 
low tlie  surface  of  the  ground  is  from  one  foot 
to  eight.  Great  numbers  of  entire  trees  are 
found  lying  irregularly  in  the  true  peat. 
Tliey  are  chietly  oaks,  alders,  willows,  and 
firs,  and  appear  to  have  been  torn  up  by  the 
roots :  many  horses'  heads,  and  bones  of  se- 
^■eral  kinds  of  deer ;  the  horns  of  the  anle- 
lojK',  the  heads  and  tusks  of  boars,  and  the 
heads  of  beavers,  are  also  found  in  it.  Not 
many  years  ago  an  urn  of  a  light-brown  co- 
lour, large  enough  to  hold  about  a  gallon, 
was  found  in  the  peat-pit  in  Speen  moor,  near 
Newbury,  at  abjut  10  feet  from  the  river, 
and  four  feet  below  the  level  of  the  neigh- 
bouring ground.  Just  over  thu  spot  where 
tlie  urn  was  found,  an  artificial  hill  was  rais- 
ed about  eight  feet  high  ;  and  as  this  hill 
consi>ted  both  of  peat  and  earth,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  peat  was  older  than  the  urn. 
From  the  side  of  the  river  several  semicircu- 
lar ridges  are  drawn  round  the  hill,  with 
trenches  between  them.  The  urn  was  broken 
to  shivers  by  the  peat-diggers  who  found  it, 
so  that  it  could  not  be  critically  exaniuied  ; 
nor  can  it  be  known  whether  any  thing  was 
contained  in  it. 

The  ashes,  properly  burnt,  are  ad\-an- 
tageously  used  tor  a  manure.   SeeIlusE.\ND- 

RV. 

There  are  many  low  grounds,  which, 
nearly  on  a  level  with  small  rivers,  and  some- 
times es'en  below  it,  are  alternately  covered 
wilh  earth  and  left  by  their  waters,  or  admit 
them  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  continually 
fermented  by  them.  These  grounds  pro- 
ducing an  enormous  (|uantitv  of  plants  crowd- 
ed together,  incessantly  growing,  and  annu- 
ally accumulating  layer  upon  layer,  their  soil 
becoines  loaded  to  a  greater  or  less  depth 
with  remains  of  vegetables,  or  herbaceous 
stalks,  interwoven  with  «ach  other  in  all  di- 
rections, of  a  black  and  coaly  colour,  and  of 
a  disagreeable  or  even  fetid  smell,  wliich  in- 
dicate a  considerably  advanced  stage  of  ve- 
getable decomposition. 

These  remains,  still  solid  and  combustible, 
are  known  by  the  name  of  turf  or  peat ;  and 
the  place  from  which  they  are  taken  aie 
called  bogs.  Though  peat  consists  of  cohe- 
rent masses,  belonging  to  a  much  larger  mass 
of  one  single  piece  of  a  subterranean  depo- 
sit, yet  by  separating  the  lilaments  which 
compose  their  texture,  we  may  distinguish 
several  of  the  |)lants  which  have  contributed 
to  tbeir  fonnaiion.    TUey  arc  separable  into 


]•  n  R 

long,  soft,  brown,  or  black  stalks,  some- 
times indeed  of  a  blueisli  or  violet  colour, 
which  haw  lost  the  natural  consislence  of  the 
plants  to  which  they  belonged,  and  are  mani- 
festly altered  in  tlieir  fexture  as  well  as  in 
their  nature. 

When  turf  is  heated  in  an  apparatus  for 
distillation,  we  obtain  from  it  a  yellow  or  red- 
dish fetid  water,  an  extremely  stinking  oil, 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  carbonated  In  - 
drogen  gas  of  a  very  disagreeable  snull. 
The  residuum  is  a  coal,  frequently  pyroph.o- 
ric,  from  which  some  salts  may  be  extracted 
after  incineration;  particularly  muriates  and 
sulphates  of  soda  and  potass,  mixed  with 
phosphate  of  lime,  calcareous  sulphate,  and 
oxides  of  iron  and  manganese,  livery  per- 
son knov.  s  the  manner  in  which  turf  burns  in 
fire-j)laces  and  furnaces,  the  ill  smell  it  emits, 
and  the  reddish  ferruginous  ashes  it  leaves. 
Attempts  have  been  made  with"  some  success 
to  divest  it  of  these  inconveniences,  by  half- 
burning  it  in  close  vessels,  so  as  to  char  it  like 
w-ood.  'I  his  process  has  certainly  its  advan- 
tage. It  must  be  mentioned,  however,  that 
this  charcoal  is  inferior  to  that  commonly 
niade  from  wood  ;  and  that  it  is  liable  to  lake 
fire  from  the  combined  action  of  air  and  wa- 
ter, so  that  it  ought  to  be  kept  for  use  in 
close  places  well  secured. 

Peat  therefore  is  in  reality  the  residuum  of 
plants  or  lierbs  half-decomposed,  h.alf-burned, 
ri'duced  almost  to  the  state  of  charcoal,  ana- 
logous ill  its  nature  to  fossil  wood,  wliich  M 
equally  carbonaceous.  It  is  used  as  fuel, 
wiiere  there  is  no  other.  It  mav  be  verv 
useful  in  forges:  its  ashes  are  employed  as 
manure.  By  lixiviatioii,  salts  of  use  in  the 
arts  may  be  oblaine  1  from  it.  There  are 
some  bogs  wliich  are  found  to  contain  like- 
wise sulphuret  of  iron,  or  pyrites.  This 
compound,  so  combustible  in  moist  air,  heats 
tlsem  when  they  are  exposed  to  it,  and  even 
occasions  them  to  take  lire.  Some  of  them, 
such  as  those  in  the  environs  of  Beauvais, 
are  even  capable  of  furnishing  bv  lixiviatioii 
sulphate  of  iron,  which  is  formed"  in  them  by 
exposure  to  the  air.  There  is  no  doubt  tlia"t 
most  peats  mav  be  employed  for  obtaining 
from  them  by  distillation  an  oil  analogous  to 
tar,  as  Becher  proposed  in  1(383. 

PEBBLES,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  fossils, 
distinguishf-d  from  the  flints  by  having  a  va- 
riety of  colours.  These  are  'defined  to  be 
stones  composed  of  a  crystalline  matter  de- 
based by  earths  of  various  kinds  in  the  same 
species;  and  then  subject  to  veins,  clouds, 
and  other  varie;;atioiis,  usually  formed  by  in- 
crustation round  a  central  nucleus,  but  some- 
times the  effect  of  a  simple  concretion  ;  and 
veineil  like  the  agates,  by  the  disposition 
which  the  motion  of  the  lluid  thev  were 
formed  hi  gave  their  differently-coloured  sub- 
stances. 

The  variety  of  pebbles  is  so  great,  that  a 
hasty  describer  would  be  apt  to  make  almost 
as  many  species  as  he  saw  specimens.  A 
careful  examination  will  teach  us,  lKnve\er, 
to  distinguish  them  ii.to  a  certain  number  of 
essentially  different  sp:cies,  to  which  all  the 
re^t  may  be  referred  as  accidental  varieties. 
V/lien  we  fiiul  the  same  colours,  or  those  re- 
sulting from  a  mixture  of  the  same,  jiich  .-is 
nature  frequently  makes  in  a  number  of 
stones,  ve  shall  easily  \v  able  to  deterniiiie 
that  these  are  all  ot  them  the  same  species. 


r  r;  c: 

Hioitijli  of  dll'lVroiit  ai)peai-dnrc5 !  ai'.fl  Uiis 
wlietiiir  liic  iTwUi'i-  is  ilisposcd  of  in  out:  or 
two,  or  ill  L'O  ciust.^,  laid  regular!'-  round  a 
micU'us;  or  tlirown  irrrriilariy,  uitliout  a 
micl'-u",  into  irresjiiiar  lines  ;  or,  lastly,  if 
blended  into  an  uniform  mass. 

''I'lii.sc  are  the  tUn-e  states  in  wliich  every 
pel>l>lo  is  found;  for  if  il  liiis  been  naturally 
and  regularly  formed  liy  incrustation  round 
a  certain  nucleus,  we  lind  tliat  always  the 
same  in  the  same  S|)ecies,  and  the  cn^ls  not 
less  regular  and  certain.  If  tlic  whole  has 
bLvn  more  hastily  formed,  and  the  result 
only  of  one  simple  concretion,  if  lliat  has 
)iap])ened  while  its  different  substances  were 
ull  moist  and  thin,  tliey  have  blended  toge- 
ther and  made  a  mixed  mass  of  the  joint  co- 
jour  of  them  all.  liut  if  they  have  been 
bomething  harder  when  this  has  happened, 
and  too  far  concreted  to  ditl'use  wholly 
among  one  another,  they  arc  found  tinown 
together  into  irregular  veins.  These  are  the 
natural  diffen-nces  of  all  the  pebbles  ;  and 
having  regard  to  these  in  their  several  varie- 
gations, all  the  known  pebbles  may  be  re- 
duced to  34  species. 

Such  pebbles  as  are  found  in  strata  near 
the  surface  of  the  eartli,  are  much  more 
brittle  tiian  those  whici:  lie  in  deeper  strata  ; 
and  the  more  clear  and  transparent  the  sand 
is  which  is  found  among  pebbles,  the  more 
beautiful  tire  pebbles  are  generally  observed 
to  be. 

PENCIIRLENDE,  one  of  the  ores  of 
uranium.     See  Uranium. 

PECORA,  in  zoology,  the  filth  order  of 
the  class  mammalia,  in  tlie  Linnaaii  system : 
they  are  thus  distinguished  •  fore-teeth  up- 
per, none;  lower,  cutting,  many;  feet  hoof- 
ed, cloven;  food  herbs,  which  they  plutk; 
chew  the  cud  ;  stomachs  four ;  the  paunch 
to  macerate  and  ruminate  the  f  lod  ;  the  bon- 
net, reticulate,  to  receive  it;  the  omasus,  or 
maniples  of  numerous  folds,  to  digest  it;  and 
the  abomasus  or  caille,  fasciate,  to  give  it 
acescency,  and  prevent  putrefaction.  In 
this  order  there  are  eight  genera,  viz.  the 
antelope,  bos,  camelopardalis,  camelus, 
ca))ra,  cervus,  moschus,  and  ovis. 

PECTEX,  the  sca!/o[)\  a  genus  of  shell- 
fish, the  characters  of  which  are  these:  the 
animal  is  a  tethys  ;  the  shell  bivalve  and  un- 
equal ;  the  hinge  toothless,  having  a  small 
ovated  hollow.  This  siiell-iish  is  one  of  the 
spinners,  having  the  power  of  spinning 
threads  like  the  muscles  ;  but  they  are  much 
siiorter  and  coarser  than  even  those  of  that 
fish,  so  that  they  can  never  be  wrought 
into  any  kind  of  work  like  the  longer  and 
liner  threads  of  the  pinna  marina.  T  he  use 
of  the  threads  which  are  spun  by  the  scallop 
is,  to  lix  the  creature  to  any  solid  b(jdy  near 
its  shell.  All  these  proceed,  as  in  the 
muscle,  from  one  common  trunk.  It  is  an 
evident  proof  that  the  tish  has  a  power  of 
fixing  itself  at  pleasure  to  any  solid  body  by 
means  of  these  tiireads,  that  after  storms  the 
scallops  are  often  found  tossed  upon  rocks, 
where  there  were  none  the  day  before  ;  and 
yet  these  are  tixed  by  their  tiireads,  as  well 
as  those  which  had  remained  ever  so  long 
in  their  place.  They  form  their  threads  in 
the  very  same  manner  with  the  muscle  ;  only 
their  organ  wliich  serves  for  spinning  is  short- 
er, and  has  a  wider  lioUo^v,  wlience  the 
threads  are  necessarily  thicker  and  shorter. 
11 


The  -pccten?,  such  as  the  sole  pectcn,  the 
ducal-iiianlle  pectcn,  the  knotted,  and  others, 
seem  to  be  in  general  inhabitant;  of  the  In- 
dian seas ;  some  of  them  frciiuent  those  of 
Africa,  and  liie  South  seas,  Tlie  most  re- 
markable species  is  the  maximus  or  great 
scallop,  being  the  same  with  what  Uarbut 
calls  the  ducal-mantle  pecten.  It  has  fourteen 
rays,  \ery  prominent  and  broad,  and  striated 
both  above  and  below.  They  are  nigged, 
and  imbricated  with  scales,  'i  hey  grow  to 
a  large  si/e,  are  found  in  beds  by  themselves, 
are  dredged  up,  and  barrelled  lor  sale.  The 
aiitients  say  that  they  have  a  power  of  re- 
moving themselves  from  place  to  place  by 
vast  springs  or  leaps.  This  fish  was  used 
botli  by  the  Greeks  and  Latins  as  a  food. 
Wiien  dressed  with  pej)i)er  and  cummin,  il 
was  taken  medicinally.  The  se;dlo[)  was 
commonly  worn  by  pilgrims  on  their  hat,  or 
the  cape  of  their  coat,  as  a  mark  that  they 
liad  crossed  the  sea  in  their  way  to  the  Holy 
Land,  or  some  distant  object  of  devotion. 

PEC  riS,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
syngenesia  polygamia  superliua,  'Ihc  cal, 
is  Jive-leaved,  "cylindric  ;  florets  in  the  ray 
live  ;  down  awned  ;  recept.  naked.  There 
are  tour  species,  annuals  of  the  West  Indies, 

PECULIAR,  in  the  canon  law,  signifies  a 
particular  parisli  or  church  that  has  jurisdic- 
tion within  itself  for  granting  jirobates  of 
wills,  and  administrations,  exempt  from  the 
ordinary  or  bishop's  courts.  The  king's 
chapel  is  a  royal  peculiar,  exempt  from  all 
spiritual  jurisdiction,  and  reserved  to  the 
visitation  aiiil  immediate  government  of  the 
king  himself.  There  is  likewise  the  arch- 
bishop's peculiar  ;  for  it  is  an  antient  privi- 
lege of  the  see  of  Canterbury,  that  wherever 
any  manors  or  advowsons  belong  to  it,  they 
forthwith  become  exempt  from  the  ordinary, 
and  are  reputed  peculiars  ;  there  are  litty- 
seven  such  peculiars  in  the  see  of  Canter- 
bury. Besides  these,  there  are  some  pe- 
culiars belonging  to  deans,  chapters,  and 
prebendaries,  wliich  are  only  exempted  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  archdeacon ;  tliese 
are  derived  from  the  bishop,  who  may  visit 
tliem,  and  to  whom  there  lies  an  appeal. 

PEDALS.     SeeOiiGAN, 

PEDALIUM,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  didynamia  angiospermia.  The  cal.  is 
(ive-parted ;  the  cor.  five-cleft ;  nect.  suba- 
ceous  ;  seeds  two.  I'here  is  one  species,  an 
annual  of  the  East  Indies. 

PEDESTAL.    See  Architecture. 

PEDtCELLARIA,  a  genus  of  insects,  of 
the  order  venues  inollusca  :  the  generic  cha- 
racter is,  body  soft  and  seated  on  a  rigid  pe- 
duncle ;  ajierture  single.  There  are  three 
species.  The  P.  tridens  inhabits  the  north 
seas,  among  the  spines  of  echini:  nect. 
smooth,  liyaline,  sometimes  reddish ;  lobes  of 
the  head  sometimes  four,  and  three  times  as 
long  as  the  neck,  rarely  unarmed  with  awn  ; 
peduncle  reddish,  and  three  times  as  long  as 
the  neck.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  319. 

PEDICl'LARIS,  red-mttk,  or  lotise- 
wort,  a  genus  of  ihe  didynamia  angiospermia 
class  of  plants,  the  corolla  whereof  consists 
of  a  single  ringent  petal;  the  tube  is  oblong 
and  gibbous ;  the  upper  iip  galeated,  erect, 
compressed,  and  emargiuated;  the  under 
one  is  patent,  plane,  semitritid,  and  obtuse  ; 
the  fruit  is  a  roundish  acuminated  capsule  ; 
the  seeds  are  numerous,  roundish,  conipress- 


p  r  D 


3^7 


ed  r.nd  coveret!,  Tliere  are  10  sp-cies-. 
This  plant  is  of  a  cooling  and  drying  nature, 
whence  it  is  recommen<led  in  fistulas  and 
other  sinous  uli  ers.  It  also  slops  hx-niorr- 
liages  and  the  menses. 

PEDICULUS,  louse,  a  genus  of  insects 
of  the  order  ajjtera :  the  generic  characler  is, 
leg5  six,  lorined  for  walking  ;  mouth  furnish- 
ed witii  an  exsertile  piercer ;  antennx  the 
length  of  the  thorax  ;  abdomen  depressed, 
sublobated. 

This  is  a  very  numerous  genus  of  insects, 
far  inore  remarkable  for  variety  than  ele- 
gance of  appearance.  Of  these  strange  and 
unpleasing  animals  some  infest  the  bodies  of 
iiuadrupeds,  others  of  birds,  and  some'evcii 
those  of  insects  themselves.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  here  observed,  that  many  small  in- 
sects, infesting  other  animals,  have  been 
often  referred  to  the  genus  pediculus,  which 
in  reality  belong  to  those  of  acarus,  moiio- 
culus,  oic.  Sic. 

The  pediculus  humanus,  or  common  louse, 
is  so  well  known  as  to  render  any  particular 
description  unnesessary.  As  a  species,  il  is 
distinguished  by  its  pale  livid  colour,  and  lo- 
batcd,  oval  abdomen.  Il  is  produced  from 
a  small  oval  egg,  properly  called  by  the 
name  of  a  nit,^\vhich  is  fastened  or  agglu- 
tinated by  its  smaller  end  to  tlie  hair  on 
which  il  is  deposited.  Eiom  this  egg  pro- 
ceeds the  uisecl,  complete  in  all  its  parts, 
and  dilVering  only  from  the  parent  animal  in 
its  sm:.ller  size.  Such  diminutive  specimens 
are  far  preferable,  for  wicrosco])ic  observa- 
tion, to  the  full-arown  insects,  shewing  in  a 
more  distinct  manner  the  disposition  of  the 
viscera,  muscles,  &c.  &c.  When  thus  ex- 
amined by  the  micixiscope,  the  principal  ap- 
pearances are  as  follow,  viz.  The  trunk  or  pro- 
boscis, which  is  generally  concealed  in  iU 
sheath  or  tube,  is  of  a  very  sharp  form,  and  is 
furnished  towards  its  upper  part  with  a  few 
reversed  aculei  or  prickles ;  the  eyes  are 
large,  smooth,  and  black :  the  stomach  and 
intestines^  which  possess  the  greater  part  of 
the  abdominal  cavity,  alford  an  extremely 
distinct  and  curious  view  of  the  peristaltic 
motion;  while  the  ramitications  ol  the 
trachea?,  or  respiratory  tubes,  appear  dispers- 
ed in  an  elegant  manner  throughout  various 
parts  of  the  animal,  and  are  parlicularl)  ob- 
servable towards  their  orilices  on  the  sides 
of  the  abdomen ;  the  legs  are  each  termi- 
nated by  a  double  claw,  not  greatly  unlike 
that  of  a  lobster,  but  of  a  much  sharper  form  ; 
and  the  whole  animal  is  every  where  covered 
by  a  strong  granulated  skin.  'It  is  affirmed  by 
Lewenhoek,  that  the  male  is  furnished  at 
the  extreniil\  of  the  abdomen  with  a  sting, 
and  that  it  "is  this  extremity  which  causc-s 
the  chief  irritation  suffered  frcm  these  ani- 
mals ;  the  suction  of  the  probo^(  is  hardly 
seeming  to  have  caused  any  perceptible  pain 
on  the  skin  of  his  hand.  The  male  is  readily 
distinguished  from  the  female  by  having  the 
tail  or  tip  of  the  abdomen  rounded  ;  in  the 
female  it  is  forked  or  bifid.  'I'he  sanieaccui-ale 
observer  (Lewenhoek),  being  desirous  of 
learning  the  proportion  and  time  of  the  in- 
creasing of  these  insects,  placed  two  fcmaks 
in  a  black  silk  stocking,  which  he  wore  day 
and  night  for  that  pur|)ose.  He  found  that 
in  six  days,  one  of  them  liad  laid  fifty  eggs, 
and  upon  dissecting  it,  he  found  as  many 
more  iiu  the  ovary  ;  he  theielbre  concluded 


30'8 


FED 


that  in  twelve  days  it  would  have  hiid  a 
hundred  egjrs ;  these  eggs,  hatciiing  in  six 
clays,  whicii  he  fcniiul  to  be  their"^ natural 
time,  would  probably  produce  fifty  males 
and  a;  many  females;  and  these '  females 
coming  to  their  full  growth  m  eighteen  days, 
might  eacliof  them  be  supposed,  after  twelve 
days  more,  to  lay  also  a  hundred  eggs ; 
wliich  in  six  days  farther  (tiie  time  required 
to  hatch  them)  might  produce  a  younger 
brood  of  five  thousand  ;  so  that  In  eight 
weeks  a  louse  might  see  live  thousand  of  its 
own  descendants. 

The  louse,  in  all  ages  enun.ierated  among 
the  pests  of  mankind,  has  been  sometimes  re- 
presented as  the  mere  punishment  of  personal 
negligence,  and  sometimes  commemorated 
as  one  of  the  most  humiliating  concomitants 
of  degraded  pride  ;  since,  exclusive  of  the 
memorable  and  impressive  descriptions  on 
this  subject  in  the  sacred  writings,  we  meet 
with  various  examples  of  characters  of  no 
small  degree  of  eminence  who  have  suffered 
from  the  attacks  of  this  odious  insect.  The 
disordiT,  however,  commonly  termed  phthi- 
riasis,  is  probably  more  owing  to  want  of  at- 
tention during  the  first  stages  of  its  appear- 
ance, than  to  any  real  constitutional  cause  in 
the  patient;  it  being  entirely  contrary  to 
the  nature  of  this  insect  to  get  under  the  cu- 
ticle, as  commonly  supposed ;  and  utterly 
inconceivable  that  a  com|)Uiint  merely  ex- 
ternal should  be  able  to  resist  mercurial  or 
other  preparations  outwardly  used ;  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  such  cases,  whenever 
they  occur,  would  be  effectually  removed  by 
a  proper  application  of  a  dilute  solution  of 
mercury  sublimate.  We  mlist  even  venture 
to  express  our  doubts  wlietlier  a  real  and 
genuine  phthiriasis,  considered  as  a  primary 
flisease,  has  ever  appeared.  Notwithstand- 
ing this,  we  are  told  by  Pliny  that  Pherecy- 
des  Sirius,  Sylla  the  dictator,  and  others,  have 
died  of  this  disorder. 

The  insects  of  this  genus  found  on  qua- 
drupeds and  birds,  may  be  considered  as  al- 
most equalling  the  number  of  the  animals 
themselves  ;  since  few  of  either  division  exist 
withou.t  one  or  more  species  peculiar  to  them- 
selves. 

PEniGRlCE.     See  Descent. 

PEDIMEXT.     See  Architecture. 

Prj>0.\IKTER,  or  PODOMETER,  foot- 
incasurer,  or  way-wiser  ;  a  mechanical  instru- 
ment, in  form  o'f  a  watch,  and  consisting  of 
various  wheels  and  teeth  ;  which,  by  means 
of  a  chain,  or  string,  fastened  to  a  man's 
foot,  or  to  the  wheel  of  a  chariot,  advance  a 
notch  each  step,  or  each  revolution  of  the 
wheel ;  by  which  it  numbers  the  paces  or 
revolutions,  and  so  the  distance  from  one 
place  to  another. 

Plate  Pedometer,  &c.  figs.  1,  2,  3,  c.x- 
plains  one  of  Spencer  and  Perkins's  pedome- 
ters or  way-wisers,  which  wh(;n  worked  in  the 
pocket  ascertains  the  number  of  steps  made 
by  the  wearer.  The  external  appearance, 
fig.  I .  is  soinewliat  like  that  of  a  watch :  in 
the  place  of  the  watch-chain- is  a  brass  lever 
A,  figs.  1  ando,  one  end  of  which  is  bent  into 
a  hook  ;  the  other  has  a  hole  a  through  it, 
as  shewn  in  fig.  3,  and  has  a  cleft  cut  in  it 
through  the  hole;  through  this  hole  a  wire 
passes,  which  wire  is  fixed  between  the  two 
studs  b  b,  figs.  1  and  2,  so  as  to  turn  round 
freely;  it  also  goes  through  the  two  arms  of 


FED 

the  ))icce  B,  fig.  2,  and  is  made  fast  toll-.em  so 
that  they  turn  with  it  tiiearmx,  whichis  high- 
er than  the  oilier,  and  has  a  nairow  opening 
cut  ill  it,  into  which  is  jointed  a  piece  of 
steel  1)  by  a  pin  through  its  lop  ;  the  end  of 
tne  lever  A  has  two  small  screws  in  .it  so  as 
to  close  up  the  hole  a,  and  pinch  the  wire 
which  jjasses  through  the  hole  tight.  Wlien 
the  lever  A  is  moved  backwards  and  for- 
wards, it  turns  the  wire  bv  friction,  and 
moves  the  piece  15  up  or  down  till  ii  is  stop- 
ped by  its  leaf  rf  coming  either  agaii.st  the 
under  side  of  the  dial,  or  against  the  back  of 
the  case,  as  shewn  in  fig.  ,3.  ;  tiie  lever  tiien 
slips  round  the  pin.  \V1ien  the  piece  IJ  is 
moved  up  or  down,  it  pushes  or  pulls  the 
piece  I)  in  or  out  of  the  case:  the  end  of 
this  is  in  two  branches  e/;  the  latter  ends 
in  the  plain  point,  the  other  is  bent  into  a 
hook  ;  these  bi'anches  take  on  each  side  of  a 
small  racket  wheel,  in  fig.  3,  which  has  10 
teeth.  ^\  lien  tlie  lever  A  is  moved  so  as  to 
draw  back  the  piece  D,  the  hook  e  takes  one 
of  the  teeth  of  the  racket  whi.'el  /;,  and  moves 
it  round  one  tooth :  at  the  same  time  the 
point  f  slips  over  the  sloping  side  the  op- 
posite tooth,  and  when  the  piece  D  is  pushed 
in,  it  also  moves  the  wheel  round  one  tooth 
in  the  same  direction  as  while  the  hoofe 
slips  over  the  teeth  ready  for  the  next  move- 
ment. The  racket  m  has  a  pinion  ot  (J  teeth 
oil  its  under  side,  which  tai-ks  into  a  wheel 
n  of  f)0  teeth  ;  on  the  spindle  of  this  wdieel 
(which  projects  through  the  dial),  is  fastened 
the  long  hand/,fig.  1.  Astiie  wheel  «i  makes 
one  revolution  lor  ten  strokes  of  the  lever 
A,  and  its  pinion  has  one-tenth  of  tlie  number 
of  teeth  in  the  wheel  n,  it  is  evident  that 
100  strokes  of  the  lever  will  be  required  for 
one  revolution  of  the  wheel  n,  and  hand  i. 
Tlie  wheel;!  has  a  pinion  of  si.x  leaves  on  it, 
which  gives  motion  to  a  wheel  o  of  60  teeth, 
which  turns  r  of  60  teeth,  on  whose  arbour 
the  hanti  t,  fig.  ! .  is  fastened :  the  wheel  o 
has  a  pinion  of  (j  leaves  on  the  under  side 
of  it,  which  moves  a  wheel  y  of  72  teeth, 
which  carries  the  hand  s,  fig.  1.  ;  by  this  ar- 
rangement the  hand  t  will  turn  once  round 
for  1000  strokes  of  the  lever  A;  its  dial  is 
divided  into  10  each,  answering  to  100,  or 
t  revolution  of  the  hand  i.  'J  he  index  s  will 
turn  round  once  for  1500  strokes  of  the 
lever;  and  its  circle  is  divided  into  12  parts, 
each  of  which  denotes  one  revolution  of  the 
hand  t,  or  100  strokes  of  the  lever;  the 
hands  are  not  fastened  to  their  S|)indle,  but 
can  be  turned  round  to  set  them  all  to  () 
when  it  is  going  to  be  used.  The  best  me- 
thod of  placing  the  machine,  is  with  a  case 
upon  the  thigh,  the  lever  A  brought  towards 
the  button  of  the  waistband,  and  if  possible, 
the  joints  of  the  lever  over  the  joints  of  the 
thigh  ;  that  the  lever  being  over  the  belly  is 
at  rest,  while  the  mnlion  uf  the  thigh  moves 
the  case  part  of  the  machine  at  every  step. 
Set  all  tlie  hands  to  C) ;  and  when  100  paces 
are  walked,  the  long  hand  will  have  made  one 
revolution,  and  the  hand  will  move  to  tlie 
figure  1,  and  so  on  as  before  described. 
Persons  of  middle  stature  are  found  to  make 
about  1000  paces  in  a  mile;  but  it  is  best  to 
walk  a  mile  several  times,  observing  each 
lime  by  the  maciiine,  the  number  of  paces 
each  time,  and  the  average  of  these  will 
serve  (o  calculate  by. 

PEEK,  in  the  sea- language,  is  a  word  used 
in  various  senses.     'I'hus  the  anchor  is  said 


PEE 

to  be  a-peek,  when  the  ship  being  about  to 
weigh,  comes  over  her  anchor  in  such  a  man- 
ner tnat  the  cable  hangs  perpenthculariy 
between  the  hawse  and  tlie  anchor.  To 
heave  a-peek,  is  to-  bring  the  peek  so  that 
the  anchor  may  hang  a-peek.  A  ship  is. 
said  to  ride  a-peek,  when  lying  with  her 
main  and  fore-yards  hoisted  ^ip,  one  aid  of 
her  yards  is  brought  down  to  the  shrourls, 
and  the  other  raised  up  on  end;  which  is 
chieliy  done  when  s!ie  lies  in  rivers,  lest 
other  ships  falling  foul  of  the  yards  should 
break  them.  Ruling  a  broad  jjee.k,  denotes 
much  the  same,  exce|)ting  thai  the  yards  are 
only  raised  to  halt  tiie  height.  Peek  is  also 
used  for  a  room  in  tiie  hold,  extending  from 
the  bits  torward  to  the  stem :  in  this  room 
men  of  war  keep  their  powder,  and  inercliant- 
nien  their  victuals. 

PEEKS,  in  our  common  law,  are  those 
who  arc  impannelled  in  an  inquest  upon  any 
man,  lor  the  convict,ng  or  clearing  him  of 
any  offence,  for  w  hich  he  is  called  in  question ; 
and  the  reason  is,  because  the  course  and 
custom  of  our  nation  is,  to  try  every  man  iu 
such  a  case  by  his  equals,  or  peers. 

Peers  of  ths  r.'ciim,  are  the  nobilitv  of 
the  kingdom,  and  lords  of  [-.ariiameiit ;  who  are 
divided  intodukes,  marquees,  earls,  viscounts, 
and  barons  ;  and  the  reason  why  thev  are 
called  peers  is,  because  notwithstanding 
there  is  a  distinction  of  dignities  in  our  no- 
bili'.y,  yet  in  all  public  actions  tliey  are 
equal,  as  in  their  votes  of  parliament,  and 
in  passing  upon  the  trial  of  any  nobleman. 

It  seems  clearly,  that  tlie  right  of  peerage 
was  originally  territorial ;  that  is,  annexed  to 
lands,  houses,  castles,  &c. ;  the  proprietors 
and  possessors  of  which  were,  in  right  of 
those  estates,  allowed  to  be  peers  of  the 
realm,  and  were  summoned  in  parliament  to 
do  suit  and  service  to  their  sovereign  ;  and, 
when  the  land  was  alienated,  the  dianily 
passed  with  its  appendant.  Thus  the  bishops 
still  sit  in  the  houre  of  lords,  in  right  of  suc- 
cession to  certain  ancient  baronies  annex- 
ed, or  supposed  to  be  annexed,  to  their 
episcopal  lands.  But  afterwards,  as  aliena- 
tions grew  irequent,  the  dignity  of  peerage 
was  confined  to  the  lineage  of  the  partv 
ennobled;  and  instead  of  teiritorial,  became 
personal.  Actual  proof  of  a  tenure  by 
barony  became  no  longer  necessary  to  con- 
stitute a  lord  of  parliament ;  but  the  record 
of  the  writ  of  summons  to-him,  or  his  ances- 
tors, was  admitted  as  a  sufficient  evidence  of 
the  tenure. 

Peers  are  now  created  either  by  writ,  or 
patent ;  for  those  who  claim  by  prescription 
must  suppose  either  a  writ  or  patent  made 
to  their  ancestors,  though  by  length  of  time 
it  may  be  lost.  The  creation  by  writ  or  the 
king's  letter,  is  a  summons  to  attend  the 
house  of  peers,  by  the  style  and  title  of  that 
barony  which  the  king  is  pleased  to  con- 
fer ;  that  by  jiatents  is  a  ro)  al  grant  to  a 
subject,  of  any  dignity  and  degree  of  peerage. 
The  creation  by  writ,  is  the  more  aiitient 
way  ;  but  a  man"  is  not  ennobled  by  it  unless 
he  actually  takes  his  seat  in  the  house  of 
lords ;  and  therefore  the  most  usual,  because 
the  surest  way,  is  to  grant  the  dignity  by 
patent,  which  ensures  to  a  man  and  his  heirs, 
according  (o  the  limitations  thereof,  thouali 
he  never  himself  makes  use  of  it.  1  Blaii. 
39i>. 


PEG 

In  criminal  cases,  a  nolilemriii  is  tiicJ  by 
liis  pcois.  I'ei-rs  shall  have  the  benelit  of 
clergy  for  (he  liijt  oileiice  of  felony  wiliiuut 
being  buiiieil  in  the  hand. 

PEF-IJICSS,  a  woiiiaii  who  is  noble  by 
descent,  creation  or  niarriaj;e.  [fa  ])eeress 
by  descent  or  creation,  marries  a  |Jersoa 
muler  tlie  degree  of  nobility,  she  still  con- 
tinues noble;  but  if  she  obtains  tliat  dignity 
only  bv  marriage,  she  loses  it,  on  her  after- 
wards marrying  a  comii'.oner ;  yet,  by  the 
curtesy  ^^  iingland,  slie  retains  the  title  of 
her  nobility.  No  peeress  can  be  arrested 
for  debt  or  trespass  ;  for  though  on  account 
of  tluir  sex,  |)eeresscs  cannot  sit  in  the 
house  of  lords,  yet  they  enjoy  the  privileges 
of  peers,  and  therefore  all  peeresses  by  birtli 
are  to  be  tried  by  their  peers. 

PEGANU.M,  zuUd-nir,  orfiarmcl,  a  genus 
of  the  dodecandria  niouogynia  class  of  pl.uits, 
the  (l.iwer  of  which  consists  of  live  oval 
petals;  and  its  fruit  is  a  trilocular  capsule 
containing  a  great  many  small  seeds. 
There  are  two  species. 

This  herb  is  said  to  have  an  inebriating 
and  soporilic  quality. 

PECj.VSUS,  in  astronomy,  a  constellation 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  in  form  of  a 
(King  horse;  said  by  different  authors  to 
coEilain  19,  20,  and  93  stars. 

Peg.\sus  is  also  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  order  nanles  :  the  generic  character 
is,  snout  elongated,  mouth  beneath;  i)ectoral 
(ins  l-irge,  ventral  singl. -rayed ;  body  de- 
pressed, mailed,  with  the  abdomen  divided 
into  bony  segments. 

Pegasus  draco,  dragon  pegasus.  The  prin- 
cipal species  of  this  genus,  the  pegasus  draco, 
is  a  small  fish  of  about  the  length  of  three 
or  four  inches,  and  is  remarkable  for  the 
size  of  its  pectoral  tins,  which  are  supposed 
to  enable  it,  like  the  exocaHi  and  some 
other  lishes,  to  support  itself  for  some  mo- 
ments in  the  air,  while  it  springs  occasion- 
ally over  the  surface  of  the  water:  the  thorax 
or  superior  part  of  the  body  is  of  a  broad, 
slightly  tlattened,  squarish  form,  and  is 
markeil  both  above  and  beneath  by  several 
radiated  shields  or  bony  tubercles  of  consi- 
derable size ;  from  each  side  of  the  abdomen 
springs  a  lengthened  cirrus,  which  mav  be 
considered  as  supplying  the  place  of  a 
vential  lin  ;  from  the  thorax  the  body  de- 
creases suddenly  in  diameter,  and  is  marked 
into  several  divisions  or  transverse  segments  ; 
the  tail  is  small  and  slightly  rounded  ;  the 
pectoral  fins,  as  before  observetl,  are  large 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  and 
of  a  rounded  shape,  with  a  kind  of  scalloped 
or  indented  outline  ;  the  eyes  are  large  and 
protuberant,  and  the  snout  of  a  subconical 
form,  but  wiih  a  slij-ht  dilatation  towards  the 
tip,  so  as  to  appear  spatule-shaped  when 
viewed  from  above  ;  the  colour  of  the  whole 
animal  is  whitish,  with  a  slight  cast  of  pale 
brown.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Indian  seas.  See 
Plate  Nal.  Hist.  lig.  3'JO. 

2.  Pegasus  volans :  length  about  three 
inches;  snout  much  elongated;  on  the 
liead  a  rhomboidal  depression,  and  behind 
it  two  deep  subpentagonal  cavities;  last 
joints  of  the  body,  next  the  tail,  pointed  on 
each  side.     Native  of  the  Indian  seas. 

3.  Pegasus  nutans :  length  tluee  or   four 
.  inches;  sliape  nmch  more  slender  than  that 

of  the  P.  volaus ;  colour  yellowish-brown. 
Vol..  II. 


PEL 

whitish  beneath.     Native  of  the  fi;dian  seas. 

PKL.'\(;i.A.NS,  a  Christian  sect  who  ap- 
peared before  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth,  or 
the  beginning  of  the  liith  century.  Pelagius, 
the  author  of  this  sect,  was  born  in  Wales, 
and  his  name  v\as  Morgan,  which  in  the 
Welsh  language  signlies  sea-born ;  whence 
he  had  h;^  Latin  name  Pelagius.  St.  .\ustin 
gives  him  the  character  of  a  very  pious  man, 
and  a  Christian  of  no  vulgar  rarjk :  acco:d- 
iiig  to  the  same  father,  he  travelled  to  Rome, 
where  he  asso  'iated  himself  with  persons  of 
the  greatest  learning  an'!  figure,  and  wrote 
his  commentaries  on  St.  i'aul's  espistles,  and 
his  letters  to  Melania  and  Demetrius;  but 
being  charged  with  heresy,  he  left  Rome, 
and  went  into  Africa,  and  tlience  to  Jerusa- 
lem, where  he  settled.  He  died  somewhere 
in  the  East,  but  where  is  un»:ertain.  ile  was 
charged  with  maintaining  the  following  doc- 
trine^s:  1.  Tiiat  Adam  was  by  nature  mortal, 
and  whether  he  had  simuxl  or  not,  would 
ceitainly  have  died.  2.  That  the  conse- 
quences of  Adam's  sin  were  confined  to  his 
own  person.  3.  That  new-l)orn  infmls  :ire 
in  the  same  condition  with  Adam  before  the 
fall.  4.  That  the  law  (lualilied  men  for  the 
kingdom  of  heaven,  and  was  founded  upon 
cpial  promises  wiUi  the  gospel.  5.  'I'hat 
tile  general  resurrection  of  the  dead  does 
not  follow  in  virtue  of  our  Saviour's  resur- 
rection, ii.  That  the  grace  of  God  is  given 
according  to  our  merits.  7.  That  this  grace 
is  not  granted  for  the  performance  of  every 
moral  act ;  the  liberty  of  the  will,  and  infor- 
mation in  points  of  duty,  being  sufficient, 
f^c.  Pelagius's  sentiments  were  condennied 
by  several  cotmcils  in  Afiica,  and  by  a  sy- 
nod at  Antioch. 

There  was  also  a  sect  of  semi-pelagians ; 
who,  with  the  orthodox,  allowed  of  original 
sin ;  but  deriied  that  the  liberty  of  the  will 
could  be  so  far  impaired  thereby,  that  men 
could  not  of  themselves  do  something  which 
might  induce  God  to  ad'ord  his  grace  to  one 
more  than  another;  and  as  to  election,  they 
held,  tliat  it  depended  on  our  perseverance; 
(jod  choosing  only  such  to  eternal  life,  as 
continued  stedfast  in  the  faith. 

PELECOIDES,  in  geometry,  a  figure  in 
form  of  a  hatchet :  such  is  the  figure 
BC DA,  (see  Plate  Miscel.  lig.  182.)  contained 
under  the  two  inverted  quadrantal  arcs  AB 
and  AD,  and  the  semicircle  BCD.  The 
area  of  the  pclecoides  is  demonstrated  to  be 
equal  to  the  square  AC,  and  that  again  to 
the  parallelogram  EB.  It  is  equal  to  the 
square  AC,  because  it  wants  of  the  square 
on  the  left  hand  the  two  segments  AB  and 
AC,  which  are  equal  to  the  two  segments 
BC  and  CD,  by  which  it  exceeds  on  the  right 
hand. 

PELICAN,  in  chemistry,  a  kind  of  double 
glass  \essi-l,  used  in  distilling  liquors  bv  cir- 
culation :  it  consists  of  a  cucurbit  and  alembic 
head,  with  two  tubes  bending  into  the  cu- 
curbit again. 

PEIdCANUS,  in  ornithology,  a  genus 
belonging  to  the  order  of  anseres.  The  bill 
is  straight,  without  teeth,  and  crooked  at  the 
point ;  the  face  is  naked  ;  and  the  feet  are 
])almated.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  321. 
Mr.  Latiiam  enumerates  no  less  than  30 
dilTerent  s|)ecies  of  this  genus,  besides  varie- 
ties. The  most  remarkable  seem  to  be  these 
that  follow : 

3A 


T-  E  h 


360 


1.  The  carbo,  or  cormora:it,  someliir.:.; 
exceeds  seven  |),)i;nds  in  weight;  the  length 
three  feet  tour;  the  extent  lour  Itet  two; 
the  bill  dusky,  five  inches  long,  distitute  of 
nostrils ;  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible  h 
covered  with  a  naked  yellow  skin,  tliat  ex- 
tends under  the  chin,  and  forms  a  sort  of 
pouch ;  a  loos ;  skin  of  the  same  colour 
reaches  from  the  utiper  mandible  round  the 
eyes  and  angles  of  the  month  ;  the  head  and 
neck  are  of  a  sooty  bhu'.kness,  but  under  the 
chin  of  the  male  the  feathers  are  white;  and 
the  head  in  thai  sex  is  adorned  with  a  short, 
looie,  pendant  crest ;  in  some  the  crest  and 
hind  part  of  the  head  are  streaked  with  white. 
The  coverts  of  the  wings,  the  scapulars,  and 
the  back,  are  of  a  deep  green,  edged  with 
black,  and  glossed  with  blue;  the  quill- 
feathers  and  tail  du-ky  ;  the  legs  are  snort, 
strong,  and  black  ;  the  middle  claw  serrated 
on  the  inside ;  the  irides  are  of  a  light  ash- 
colour. 

The  birds  occupy  the  highest  parts  of 
the  cliffs  that  impend  over  the  sea :  they 
make  their  nests  of  slicks,  sea-tang,  grass, 
&c.  and  lay  six  or  sevoii  white  eggs  of  an  ob- 
long form.  In  winter  they  disperse  along 
the  shores,  and  visit  the  fresh  waters,  where 
they  make  great  havock  among  the  fish. 
They  are  remarkably  voracious,  having  a 
most  sudden  digestion,  promoted  by  the  in- 
finite fpiantity  ot  small  worms  that  iiU  their 
intestines.  'I'he  cormorant  has  th  ,•  rankest 
and  mosc  disagreeable  smell  of  any  bird, 
even  when  alive.  Its  form  is  disagreeable, 
its  voice  hoarse  and  croaking,  and  its  quali- 
ties base.  These  biids,  however,  have  been 
trained  to  fish,  as  falcons  to  fowl.  White- 
lock  tells  us,  that  he  had  a  cast  of  them 
manned  like  hawks,  and  which  would  come 
to  hand.  He  took  much  pleasure  in  tliem; 
and  relates,  that  the  best  he  had  was  one 
presented  him  bv  Mr.  Wood,  master  of  the 
cormorants  to  Charles  I.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  Chinese  make  great  use  of  these 
birds,  or  a  congenerous  sort,  in  fishing ;  and 
that  not  for  amusement,  but  profit. 

2.  The  graculus,  or  shag,  is  much  inferior 
in  size  to  the  cormorant ;  the  length  is  27 
inches;  the  bn;adth  three  feet  six;  the 
weight  three  pounds  and  three  quarters.  The 
bill  is  about  four  inches  long,  and  more  slen- 
der than  that  of  the  preceding ;  the  head  is 
adorned  with  a  crest  two  inches  long,  point- 
ing backward;  the  whole  plumage  of  the 
upper  part  of  this  bird  is  of  a  fine  and  vei-y 
shining  green  ;  the  edge  of  the  feathers  a 
purpUsh  black ;  but  the  lower  part  of  the 
back,  the  head,  and  the  neck,  wholly  green  ; 
the  belly  is  dusky  ;  the  tail  of  a  dusky  hue, 
tinged  with  green ;  the  legs  are  black,  and 
like  those  of  the  cormorant.  Both  these 
kinds  agree  in  their  manners,  and  breed  in 
the  same  places  ;  and  what  is  very  strangeJn 
web-footed  birds,  will  perch  and  build  nj 
trees  ;  both  suim  uith  their  head  quite  erect, 
and  are  verv  difiicult  to  be  shot ,  tor,  like  the 
grebes  and  divers,  as  soon  ..s  tney  see  the 
ilash  of  a  gun,  they  pop  under  water,  and 
never  rise  but  at  a  considerable  distance. 

3.  The  bassairus,  gannet,  or  solan  goose, 
weigiis  seven  pounds;  the  length  is  thretj 
feel  one  inch ;  the  breadth  six  feet  two 
inches.  Tlie  bill  is  six  inches  long,  straight 
almost  to  the  point  where  it  inclines  down ; 
and  the  sides  are  irregularly  jagged,  tliat  it 


870  PEL 

may  hold  its  prey  with  more  security  ;  it 
has  no  nobtrils,  but  ill  their  place  a  long  fur- 
row, that  reaches  almost  to  the  end  ol  thi- 
bill;  the  wliole  is  of  a  dirt)-  white,  tinged 
wjtli  ash-colour. 

From  the  riirner  of  the  mouth  is  a  naiTow 
slip  of  black  bare  skin,  tliat  extends  to  the 
Irind  part  of  the  head ;  beneath  the  clnn  is 
another,  that,  like  the  pouch  of  the  pelican, 
is  dilatable,  and  ot  iize  sutiicient  to  contain 
live  or  six  entire  herririgs ;  which  in  the 
breeding  season  it  carries  at  oiice  to  its  mate 
or  its  VOUlll;. 

The  voiiii.;  birds,  during  the  Inst  year, 
differ  greatly  in  colour  from  the  old  ones ; 
being  of  a  du>,ky  :.,ue,  sp.  ckled  wilh  numer- 
ous Triangular  w'hite  spots ;  and  at  that  time 
reseiTib'.e  in  colour  the  speckled  diver.  Each 
bird,  if  left  undisturbed,  would  only  lay 
one  eg  in  the  year;  but  if  that  is  taken 
away, They  wih  lav  aiioilier ;  if  tint  is  also 
taken,  thc'n  a  lliird,  l)ut  never  more  that  sea- 
son. The  egg  is  white,  a»d  irttlier  less  tiian 
that  of  the  common  goose  ;  the  nest  is  large, 
and  fornv'd  ot  any  tiling  the  bird  linds  iioat- 
ing  on  the  water,  such  as  grass,  sea-plants, 
shavings,  &c.  Tnese  birds  Ireqnent  tlie  isle 
of  AlisVi,  in  the  frith  of  Clyde  ;  the  rocks  ad- 
jacent to  St.  Kilda ;  tlie  Stalks  of  So'iliskerry, 
near  the  Orkneys  :  the  .Skelg  i^l.-s  off  the 
coasts  of  Kerry,  Ireland;  and  the  ISass  isle 
in  the  ftilli  oi'Forth:  tlie  multitudes  that 
inhabit  these  inlands  are  prodigious. 

4.  The  snila,  or  booby,  is  somewhat  less 
than  a  goos'.--.  The  colo'urs  of  the  body  are 
brown  and  wiv.le ;  but  varied  so  in  diiieront 
individuals,  that  they  cannot  be  described 
by  them.  Their  wings  are  very  long  ;  their 
legs  and  feet  pale  yellow,  shaped  like  those 
ot  cormorants.  They  freijuent  the  Bahama  ' 
islands,  where  they  breed  all  months  in  the 
year,  laying  one, "  two,  or  three  eggs  on  the 
bare  rock.  \\'hile  young,  they  are  covered 
with  a  white  down,  and  continue  so  till  they  i 
are  almost  reads-  to  fly.  Thoy  feed  on  lisii 
like  the  rest  of 'this  genus;  but  h.ive  a  very 
troublesome  enemy  in  the  man-of-war  bird, 
which  lives  on  llie  spoils  obtained  tVom  otiier 
sea-birds,  particularly  the  booiiy.  As  soon 
as  this  rapacious  enemy  perceives  that  the 
booby  has  taken  a  fish,  he  flies  furiously  at 
liim.'upon  wiiich  the  fonncr  dives  to  avoid 
the  blow  ;  but  as  he  cannot  swallow  his  prey 
below  water,  he  is  soon  obliged  to  come  up 
again  willi  the  fish  in  his  bill  as  before,  when 
he  siiff'ei'S  a  new  assault ;  nor  does  his  enemy 
cease  io  persecute  him  till  he  lets  go  the  lish, 
which  Ihe  ®iher  immediately  carries  oif. 

5.  The  a.piilus,  or  man-of-war  bird,  is  in 
the  bcdy  abo-it  the  size  of  a  large  fowl;  in 
length  three  feet,  and  in  ba-adlli  fourteen. 
The  bill  is  slender,  five  inches  long,  and 
much  curred  at  the  point ;  tlie  colour  is 
du.k)  ;  from  the  under  mandible  hangs  a 
^f-irge  membranaceous  bag  attached  some  way 
'iAowii  tiie  throat,  as  in  the  pelican,  and  ap- 
plied to  the  same  uses ;  the  colour  of  this 
is  a  fine  deep  red,  sprinkled  ou  the  sides 
with  a  tew  scattered  fealheis;  the  wlmle 
plumage  is  jrowni-h  blaik,  except  the  wiag- 
coverts,  whicli  have  a  nifous  tinge ;  the  tail 
is  long  imd  much  forked  ;  the  outer  feathers 
are  eigh  eon  inc  .Cs  or  more  in  lcn,-;lh,  the 
middle  Ones  fioin  seven  to  eight;  the  legs 
are  sm;dl,  all  the  toes  are  webbed  together, 
-and  the  webs  are  dei  plv  indented  ;  the 
tolour  of  them  is  dusky  i-eJ. 


PEL 

The  I'rigate-pelican,  or  man-of-war  bird,  as 
it  is  by  some  called,  is  chiefly,  if  not  wholly, 
met  with  between  the  tropici,  and  evi.-r  out 
at  sea,  being  only  seen  on  the  "iiig.  Some- 
times it  soars  so  high  in  the  air  as  to  be 
scarcely  visible,  yet  at  other  times  approach- 
es the  surface  of  tlie  sea,  where,  hovering  at 
some  distance,  the  moment  he  spies  a  fish 
he  darts  down  on  it  with  the  utmost  rapi- 
dity, and  seldom  without  success,  flying  up- 
wards again  as  ([uick  as  he  descended.  It  is 
also  seen  to  attack  gulls  and  other  birds 
which  have  caught  a  fish,  when  it  obliges 
th.em  to  disgorge  it,  and  then  takes  care  to 
seize  It  before  it  tails  into  the  water. 

6.  The  onocrotalus,  or  pelican  of  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America  ;  tliough  Lmna'us  thinks 
that  the  pelican  of  America  m..y  possibly 
be  a  distinct  variety.  'I'liis  creature,  in 
Africa,  is  much  laiger  in  the  body  than 
a  swan,  and  somewhat  of  the  same  shape 
and  colour.  Its  lour  toes  are  all  webbetl 
together,  and  in  some  measure  resemble 
tho  se  of  a  swan  ;  but  that  singu  ar.ty 
in  which  it  differs  from  all  other  birds  is 
in  the  bill,  and  the  great  pouch  underneath. 
This  enormous  bill  is  15  inches  from  the 
])Oint  to  the  opening  of  the  moath,  which  is 
a  good  way  back  behind  the  eyes.  At  the 
base  ihe  bill  is  somewhat  greenish,  but  varies 
towards  t.ie  end,  being  of  a  reddish  blue. 
It  is  very  thick  in  the  beginning,  but  tapers 
olV  to  the  end,  where  it  hooks  downwards. 
The  under  chap  is  still  more  extraordaiary  ; 
for  to  the  lower  edges  of  it  hangs  a  b..g, 
reaching  the  whole  length  of  the  bill  to  the 
neck,  whicii  is  said  to  be  capable  of  contain- 
ing 15  quarts  of  water.  '1  his  bag  the  bird 
hiss  the  pjvver  of  wrinkling  up  into  the  hol- 
low rjf  the  under  chap  ;  but  by  opening  the 
bill,  and  pultifng  the  hand  down  into  tee  bag, 
it  may  be  di,4ended  at  pleasure.  The  first 
teiiii;"the  pelican  does  in  fishing  is,  to  fili  up 
the  bag ;  and  then  it  returns  to  digest  its 
burden  at  leisure.  Tertre  afVuins,  that  it 
will  hide  as  many  fish  as  will  serve  60  hungry 
me;r  at  a  meal. 

This  pelican  was  once  also  known  in 
Europe,  particularly  in  lUissia  ;  but  it  seems 
to  have  deserted  our  coasts.  This  is  the 
bird  o'  which  so  many  fabulous  ;  c  ounls  have 
been  propagated  ;  such  as  its  feeding  its  young 
witii  us  O'.vn  biood,  and  its  carr)  iiig  water  into 
the  desert  for  them  in  its  great  reservoir. 
Hut  the  absurdity  of  the  first  account  answers 
itself;  and  as  tor  the  latter,  the  pelican  uses 
its  bag  'for  very  rlili'erent  purposes  than  that 
of  liiiing  it  with  water. 

The  pelican  feeds  her  young  with  li-!i  ma- 
cerated lor  some  time  in  her  bag,  and  when 
they  cry,  flies  off  for  a  new  supply.  I,abat  j 
tells  us,  that  he  took  two  of  these  when  I 
very  vonng,  and  tied  them  by  the  leg  to  a 
post  stuck  in  the-  ground,  where  he  had  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  Ihe  old  one  for  several 
davs  come  to  feed  them,  remaining  with 
them  the  greatest  part  of  the  day,  and  spend- 
ing the  night  on  the  branch  of  a  tiee  that 
hung  over  th.ni.  By  these  means  they  were 
all  three  be<ome  so" familiar,  that  they  suf- 
fered then.-.rlves  to  be  handled;  and  the 
voting  ones  very  kindly  accepted  whatever 
iish  he  offered  them.  These  they  always 
put  lirst  into  their  bag,  and  then  swallowid 
at  their  leiure. 

It  sctuis,  however,  that  lliey  are  but  d)»- 


F  E  N 

agreeable  and  useless  domestics;  their  glut- 
tony can  scarcely  be  satisfied ;  their  flesh 
smells  very  rancid,  and  tastes  a  thou  aiul 
ti>nes  worse  than  it  smells.  The  native 
Americans  kill  vast  numbers;  not  to  eat,  for 
they  are  not  fit  even  for  the  banipiel  ol  a 
savage,  but  to  convert  their  large  bags  into 
purses  and  tobacco-pouches.  1  hey  bestow 
no  small  pains  in  dressing  the  skin  with  >alt 
and  ashes,  rubbing  it  well  w-ith  oil,  and  then 
forming  it  to  their  purpose.  It  thus  becomes 
so  soft  and  phant,  that  the  Spanish  w  omn 
sometinii  s  adorn  it  with  gold  and  mibroidery, 
to  make  work-bags  of. 

PELLICLE,  among  physicians,  &c.  de- 
notes a  thin  film,  or  fragment  of  a  mem- 
brane. 

When  any  liquor  is  evajiorated  in  a  gentle 

heat,  till  a  pellicle  arises  at  top,  it   is  called 

an  evaporation  to  a  pellicle ;  wlierciu  tliere 

j  is  just  licjuor  enough  lelt,  to  keep  the  salts 

ill  fusion. 

PELTAKIA,  a  genus  of  the  siliculosa 
order,  in  the  tetradynamia  class  of  pUmts; 
and  in  die  natural  method  ranking,  under  ilue 
3yth  order,  siiiquos;e.  'Ihe  silicula  is  entire, 
and  iie.rly  oib;culated,  compressed  plane, 
and  not  opening,  'there  are  two  species, 
Iwrbs  o.  the  Caj)^ 

PEL\  IS,  in  anatomy,  the  lower  pirt  of 
the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  thus  called  ironi- 
its  reseinL)lm:ce  to  a  bason,  or  ewer,  in  Latin 
called  pelvis.     See  Anatomy. 

PF.}<,  J'nmitain,  is  a  pen  made  of  silver, 
brass,  &c.  contrived  to  contain  a  considcralile 
quantity  ol  ink,  and  let  it  flow-  out  by  gentle 
degrees,  so  as  to  supply  the  writer  a  long 
time  without  being  under  the  necessity  of 
takhig  fresh  ink.  The  fountain-pen  is  com- 
posed of  several  pieces,  as  in  the  ;)late, 
where  tlie  middle  piece  F  carries  the  pen, 
which  is  screwe.l  into  the  inside  of  a  little 
pipe,  whxh  ag:iin  is  soldered  to  anottiec 
pipe  of  the  same  bigness  as  the  lid  G ;  in 
which  lid  is  solderctl  a  male  screw,  for  screw- 
ing on  the  cover,  as  also  for  stopping  a  little 
hole  at  the  place,  and  hindering  the  ink 
from  passing  through  it.  At  the  other  end 
of  the  pie<-e  F  is  a  little  pipe,  on  the  outside 
i  of  which  the  top-cover  fl  may  bescrewid; 
In  the  cover  there  goes  a  poit-cra\oii,  whicli 
is  to  be  screwed  into  tlic  last-mentioned 
pipe,  ill  order  to  stop  the  end  of  the  pipe, 
into  wliic  h  Ihe  ink  is  to  be  poured  by  a  fun- 
nel, 'io  use  the  pen,  the  cover  G  must  be 
taken  olf,  and  the  pen  a  little  shaken,  to 
make  the  ink  run  moi-e  freely. 

PEN.INCE,  in  our  canon  law,  is  an  ec- 
clesiastical puiiishnienl  chieilj  adjudged  to 
the  sin  of  forniCaliou.  The  |jum-hineiit  is 
thus  described  by  the  canons:  the  delinciueiit 
is  to  stand  in  the  church  porch  on  some 
Sunday,  bare-headed  and  barefoot,  in  a  white 
sheet,  with  a  white  wand  in  his  hand,  be- 
wailing himself,  and  begging  every  one  to 
pray  lor  him  ;  then  lie  is  to  enter  the  church, 
and  falling  down,  is  to  kiss  the  grouno  ;  and 
at  last  is  to  be  placed  ou  an  t'lnlnence  in  the 
middle  of  the  churcii,  over  ngu  list  ihe  n.iuis- 
ter,  who  is  to  dedere  the  foi.lue-s  of  his 
crime  which  is  odious  to  God,  and  scaiida>- 
lous  to  the  congregation.  It  the  crime  is 
not  notorious,  the  canons  allow  the  punish- 
ment to  be  commuted  at  the  party's  reipiest 
lor  a  pecuni;iry  iiudtl,  for  the  benefit  ol  tiU« 
poor,  i:c. 


IT.N.'KA,  a  pl;inl  of  (he  tctramlrla  mono- 
gyiiia  cl.iss,  \AiUi  a  inoiMiji.-lalous  caiiH)iini- 
iiirm  Uower;  and  a  quauragoiial  capsiilt  lo/ 
ils  tiiiit,  coiitaiiiiiif5  Ibur  tvlU,  uitlitwo  ob- 
long sirtls  ill  cacii.     'I'lieic  an;  nine  speiirs. 

'i  lii^  |jlr.iit  lias  bcini  eiTOiieously  siippos- 
'  ed  to  luu'c  pi'oili.ci.-ii  (he  sarcocolla  ot   tlu' 
Shop;. 

PKNDANT,  an  ornament  hanging  at  '.he 
ear,  IrctiiU'iuly  consisting;  of  diamonds,  pearls, 
aiid  other  precious  stones. 

Pesdavts,  in  heraldry,  parts  lianqing 
down  from  the  label,  to  the  number  of  threi;, 
four,  live,  or  ^ix  at  most,  resembling  the 
drops  in  the'  Doric  frieze. 

Pemd.\nts  of  a  ship,  are  those  streamers 
or  Ion;;  colours  whit  li  are  split  and  diviiU-d 
into  two  p.irls  ending  in  points,  and  hung  at 
the  heail  of  mast-,  or  at  llie  yiird-arm 
«ids. 

PKNT^ULUM,  in  iiH-chanics,  any  heavy 
body,  so  suspended  as  that  it  may  swing 
b<'.<t'.vards  and  Ibrwards,  about  soiiie  lixed 
jjoint,  by  the  force  of  gravity. 

These  alternate  asceiAs  and  descents  of  the 
pendulum,  are  called  its  c^cillations,  or  vi- 
brations ;  each  complete  oscilialion  being 
Ihe  descent  h'om  the  highest  point  on  one 
side,  down  to  the  lowest  point  of  the  arch, 
and  so  on,  uj)  to  the  highest  point  on  tiie 
otiier  side.  The  p  lint  round  wliicli  the  i>en- 
duluni  moves,  or  vibrates,  is  called  its  centre 
of  motion,  or  point  of  suspension  ;  and  a 
right  line  drawn  through  the  cent:e  of  mo- 
tion, parallel  to  the  horizon,  and  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  plane  in  which  the  pendulum 
moves,  is  called  the  a\is  of  oscillation. 
'1  here  is  also  a  certain  point  within  every 
pendulum,,  into  whicn,  if  all  the  inatler  th  t 
composes  tlie  pendulum  were  collected,  or 
roiideiised  as  into  a  point,  the  limes  in  which 
the  vibrations  would  be  performed,  would 
not  he  altered  by  such  condensation  ;  and 
this  point  is  called  centre  of  oscillation. 
Ilie  length  of  the  pen.hiUim  is  usually  esti- 
mated b\  th.e  distance  of  this  point  below  the 
centre  of  motion ;  being  always  near  tlie 
bottom  of  the  pendulum  ;  but  h.  a  cylinder, 
or  anv  other  uniform  prism  or  rod,  it  is  at 
the  dist.mce  of  one  third  from  the  bottom, 
©r  two  thirds  from  and  below  the  centre  ol 
motion. 

'I'he  length  of  a  pendulum,  so  measured 
to  its  centre  of  oscillation,  that  it  will  per- 
form each  vibration  in  a  second  of  time, 
thence  called  the  si'cond's  pendulum,  h.is,  in 
the  latitude  of  London  be,-n  generally  taken 
at  39f^  or  3!)-t-  inches  ;  but  by  some  very 
ingenious  and  accurate  experiments,  the  late 
celebrated  Mr.  George  Graham  ibund  the 
true  length  to  be  si)-^^-;?^,  inches,  or  39| 
inches  very  ne.irly- 

The  length  of  the  pendulum  vibrating  se- 
conds at  Paris,  was  found  by  ^'arin,  Des 
Ilays,  DcGl.os,  and  Godin,  tobe  440.^  lines: 
by  Picard  440^  lines ;  and  by  Mairan  440^J 
lines. 

Galileo  was  the  first  who  made  use  of  a 
hiavy  body  anne:^ed  to  a  thread,  and  sus- 
pended by  it,  for  measuring  time,  in  his  ex- 
penm.-nts  and  observations.  But  according 
to  Sturinius,  it  was  Riccioli  who  lirst  observ- 
ed the  isoclirouisin  of  pendulums,  and  made 
use  of  them  in  measuring  lime.  After  him, 
'I'yclio,   Langrene,   Weiideline,    Merscnne, 


P  E  N 

Kircher,  and  otlicrs,  observed  the  sim<: 
thing;  though  it  is  said,  wilhout  any  iuti- 
malioii  of  wh;it  had  been  done  by  Ificrioh. 
!!ut  it  was  the  celebrakd  Ihiygens  who  iT-t 
deuionslrv.lt(l  the  principles  and  properlie., 
of  pendulum-,  ami  proOtbly  the  (irst  who 
applied  them  to  clocks.  He'  demonstrated. 
Ih.it  if  the  centre  ol  motion  wan  |)erfeetly 
hved  and  immoveable,  and  all  manner  of 
friction,  and  resistance  of  the  air,  &c.  re- 
moved, then  a  pendulum,  once  set  in  mo- 
tion, would  for  ever  continue  to  vibrate  wilh- 
out any  decrease  of  motion,  and  that  ail  its 
vibrations  wouhl  be  [)crfectly  isochronal,  or 
performed  in  the  aaiiie  time.  Hence  the 
pendulum  has  univc-rsaily  been  considi-rcd  .is 
the  best  chrononictc'r  or  measurer  ol  time. 
And  as  M  pendulums  of  the  same  length 
perform  their  vib.ations  in  the  same  time, 
uidiout  regard  to  their  different  weights,  il 
has  been  suggested,  by  means  of  them,  to 
establish  an  universal  standard  for  all  coun- 
tries. 

Pendulums  are  either  simple  or  com- 
pound; ami  1  ach  oftln-se  may  b:-  considered 
either  in  theory,  or  as  in  practical  mechanics 
among  artisan.s. 

A  simple  pendulum,  in  theory,  consists 
of  a  single  weight,  as  A,  I'late  Mi-cel.  hg.  1S3.  ^ 
considered  as  a  point,  and  an  inliexible  right 
line  i\C,  supposed  void  of  gravity  or  weight, 
and  suspended  from"  a  (ixed  point  or  ventre, 
C,  about  which  il  moves.  ""^ 

A  ci>mpound  pendulum,  in  theory,  is 
a  pendukim  cons'sling  of  several  weights 
moveable  about  one  coiumon  centre  ol  mo- 
tion, but  connected  together  so  as  to  retain 
the  same  distance  both  from  one  another, 
and  from  the  centre  about  wl-.ich  they  vi- 
brate. 

The  doctrine  and  laws  of  pendulums.  1. 
A  pendulum  raided  to  B,  throOgh  the  arc  of 
'.he  circle  AB,  will  fall  and  rise  again, 
through  an  equal  arc,  to  a  point  equally  high, 
as  D  ;~  and  thence  will  fall  to  A,  and  agai:.i 
rise  to  B;  and  thus  continue  rising  and  fall- 
ing perpetually.  Tor  it  is  the  same  thing, 
whether  the  body  talis  down  tiie  inside  of  the 
curve  B.Al),  by  "the  fm-ce  of  gr..vity,  or  is 
retained  in  it  by  the  action  of  the  string; 
tor  they  will  both  have  the  same  efli-it ; 
and  it  is  otherwise  known,  from  the  oblique 
OL-scents  of  bodies,  that  the  body  will  descend 
and  ascend  along  the  curve  in  the  manner 
above  described. 

Experience  also  confirms  this  theory,  in 
any  finite  number  of  oscillations.  But  if 
they  are  supposed  infinitely  contimied,  a  dif- 
ference will  arise.  For  the  resistance  of  the 
air,  and  the  friction  and  rigidity  of  the 
string  about  the  centre  C,  will  take  olfpart 
of  tlie  force  acquired  in  falling  ;  whence  it 
ha|)pens  that  It  will  not  rise  precisely  to  the 
same  point  from  whence  it  fell. 

Thus,  the  acent  contimially  diminishing 
the  oscillation,  this  will  be  at  last  stoppeil, 
and  the  pendulum  will  hang  at  rest  in  its 
natural  direction,  which  is  perpendicular  to 
the  horizon. 

Now,  as  to  the  real  time  of  oscillation  in  a 
circular  arc  13.\D ;  it  is  demonstrated  by  mathe- 
jnaiiciaus,  that  if  />  =  ti.Mlei,  denote  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  circle  whoso  di.tm«er  is  1  ;  »■  = 
leJj-  feet,  or  193  inches,  the  space  a  heavy  body 
falls  in  the  (irst  second  of  time ;  and  >  =r  CA, 
the  iMisth  of  the  pendulum;  also  a  =;  At,  tlie 
3  A3 


V  E  N 


"7t 


hf!(jlit  of  the  f.rch  of  viliration  ;  then  the  tir.w 
of  eacli  oscillation   in   llic  arc   E.\D,  will  be 

equal  lo  l>ij       X  '"to  the  infinl-tc  series 

,     1'.,    ,    l^.«,'J    ,    1^3^.5V'    ,  , 

I  J- --\-    ,      , — ,,- i^c.  where  </ 

=:  '2r  is  the  diameter  of  the  arc  described,  or 
twice  the  length  of  the  pendulum. 

And  here,  when  the  arc  is  a  smtdl  one,  as  iir 
the  case  of  the  vibratiu);  panjulum  of  a  dork, 
all  the  terms  of  this  scries  after  the  2d  may  be 
omitted,  on  account  of  tlieir  smalhiess;  and  then 
the  time  pf  a  whole  vibration  will  be  nearly 


equal  lop,/—-  X   (1 


).       So   that    the 


times  of  vibration  of  a  pendulum  in  diff:rent 
small  arcs  nf  the  sa2ne  cliele,  arc  as.^r  -\- u :  or 
8  times  the  radius,  added  to  the  verted  sine  olf 
the  semi-arc. 

And  lariher,  if  D  denotes  the  number  of  de- 
grees in  the  semi-arc  AR,v.-hose  versed  sine  is  i, 
tlicn  the  quantity  last  mentioned,  for  the  time  of 

r 
a  wdiole  vibration,  is   changed   \o  p // X 


;2,5'J4 


).     And  therefore  the  times  of  vi- 


(1   -f. 

bration  in  difFerent  small  arcs,  arc  as  .5252^  -(- 
D',  or  as  the  number  ,)25'J4  added  to  tlie  square 
of  the  number  of  dctjiecs  in  the  semi-arc  AB. 

y.  Let  CU  be  a  semicycloid,  having  its 
base  KC  parallel  to  the  horizon,  ard  its  ver- 
tai  B  downwards  .  and  let  CD  be  (he  other  half 
of  the  cveloid,  in  a  similar  position  to  the  for- 
mer. Suppose  a  pendulum-string,  of  the  same 
length  with  th.e  curve  of  each  semicycloid  EC, 
or  CD,  havin;^  its  end  fixed  in  C,  and  ihe  thread 
applied  all  th.e  way  clfj^e  to  the  cycloidal  curve 
BC,  and  consequently  the  body  or  penduhim- 
weight  coinciding  with  the  point  B.  If  now  the 
body  is  let  go  from  B,  it  will  <le.=fcnd  by  ii» 
owa  gravity,  and  in  descending  it  will  unwilid 
the  string  from  oft" the  arch  EC,  as  at  the  pc.si- 
tion  CGH;  and  the  b.all  O  will  describe  a  semi- 
cvcloid  BI  lA,  equal  and  sitTiilar  to  BGC,  when 
it'  has  arrived  at  the  lowest  point  A  :  after  which, 
it  will  continue  its  motion,  and  ascend,  by  an- 
other equal  and  similar  semicycloid  AKD,  to 
the  same  height  D,  as  it  fell  from  at  B,  the  strin* 
now  wrapping  itself  upon  the  other  arch  CID. 
From  D  it  will  descend  again,  and  pass  .tlong; 
the  whole  cycloid  DAB,  to  the  poiat  B;  and 
thus  perform  continual  successive  oscillations 
between  B  and  I),  in  the  curve  of  a  cycloid  ;  as 
it  before  oscillated  in  the  curve  of  a  circle,  in 
the  fonner  case. 

This  contrivance  to  make  the  pendulum  oscil- 
late in  the  curve  of  a  cycloid,  is  the  invention 
of  the  celebrated  Huygens,  to  make  the  pendu-- 
lum  perform  all  its  vibrations  in  equ.-l  times, 
whether  the  arch,  or  extent  of  the  vibration.  Is 
great  or  small ;  which  is  not  the  casd  in  a  cii'cic, 
where  the  larger  arcs  take  a  longer  time  to  rui» 
through  them  than  the  smaller  ones  do,  as  is 
well  known  both  from  theory  and  practice. 

The  chief  properties  of  the  cycloidal  pcadq- 
lum  then,  as  demonstrated  by  Huygens,  arc  the 
following:  Ist.  That  the  time  of  an  oscillation 
in  all  arcs,  whetht-r  larger  or  smaller,  is  always 
the  same  o^nantity,  vi/..  whether  the  body  licgins 
to  deoceud  trom  the  point  IJ,  and  describes  the 
semiarch  B.V;  or  that  it  begins  at  H,  and  de- 
kcribcs  the  arch  H.Aii-or  that  it  sets  out  from 
any  other  point ;  as  it  will  still  descend  to  the 
lowest  point  .\  in  exactly  the  same  time.  And 
it  is  farther  proved,  th«t  the  time  of  a  whole  vi- 
bratisn  through  any  double  arc  BAD.  or  H.\K, 
&c.  is  in  'proportion  to  the  time  in  which  a 
I  heavy  body  will  freely  fall,  by  ll-.c  force  of  gra- 
i  vity,  rhroiigh  a  space  equal  to  iAC,  half  th* 
length  of  the  pcadulumi  «  the  circumference 


372 

of  a  circle  is  to  its  diameter.  So  t'lHt,  if  ^  = 
Ifi-pr  feet  denote?  the  space  aheavy  body  fills  in 
the  first  second  of  time,  p  =:  3.1 410  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  whose  diaiv.eter  is  1,  and 
,  =:  AC  the  length  of  the  pend-.:lum ;  then,  be- 
cause, by  the  nature   of  descents  by  gravity, 

\'s  '•  V"''  '.'.^'''.  V^T"'  •'^*'  "^'  '''^  ''"'*  '" 

which  a  body  will  fall  through  \r,  or  half  the 
lengtli  of  the  pendulum  ;  therefore,  by  the  above 

proportion,  as  1    ',  p  '.'.  V"^  '.  fV 7^'""^'^'=^ 

is  the  time  of  an  entire  oscillation  in  the  cy- 
cloid. 

And  this  conclusion  is  .nbundantly  confirmed 
bv  experience.  For  eitample :  if  we  consider  the 
time'  of  a  vibration  as  1  second,  to  find  the 
length  of  the  pendulum  that  will  so  oscillate  in 

r 

1  second  ;  this  will  give  the  equation  f  >/ ,~ 

.     .  IV  386 

=  1 ;  which  reduced,  gives  r  =:    y  =r  -    -  -  -  j 

inches  =;  39.11,  or  39-5-  inches,  for  the  length 
of  the  second's  j^cndulunt ;  which  the  best  ex- 
periments she\Y  to  be  about  3y^  inches. 

3.  Hence  also,  we  have  a  method  of  deter- 
miningjfrom  the  experiment  the  lenjrih  of  a  pen- 
dulum, the  space  a  heavy  body  will  fall  per- 
pendicularly through  in  a  given  time  ;  for,  since 


/V^: 


1,  therefore,  by  reduction,^  ;=  if-r 


is  the  space  a  body  will  f.dl  through  in  the  first 
second  of  time,  when  r  denotes  the  length  of  the 
second's  pendulum  ;  and  as  constant  experience 
she-.vs  that  thib  length  is  nearly  39^  inches,  in 
the  latitude  of  London,  in  this  case  g,  or  \p'rt 
becomes  i  X  3.1'11S=  X  39i  =  193.07  inches  =: 
16yV  feet,  very  nearly,  for  the  space  a  body 
will  fall  in  the  first  second  of  time,  in  the  lati- 
tude O!  London  :  a  tact  which  has  been  abund- 
antly confirmed  by  experiments  made  there. 
And  in  the  same  manner,  Mr.  lluygens  found 
the  same  space  fallen  through  at  Paris,  to  be  15 
trench  feet. 

The  whole  doctrine  of  pendulums  oscillating 
between  two  semicvcloids,  both  in  theory  and 
practice,  was  delivered  "by  that  author,  in  his 
Horologium  Oscillatorium,  sive  Dcmonstrationes 
dc  Motu  Pendulorum.  And  every  thing  that 
regards  the  motion  of  pendulums  has  since  been 
demonstrated  in  different  ways,  and  particul.irly 
by  Newton,  who  has  given  an  admirable  theory 
on  the  subject,  in  his  Principia,  v/herc  he  has 
extended  to  epicycloids  the  properties  demon- 
strated by  Huygens  of  the  cycloids. 

4.  As  the  cycloid  may  be  considered  as  coin- 
ciding in  A,  with  any  small  arc  of  a  circle  de- 
scribed from  the  centre  C,  passing  through  A, 
where  it  is  known  the  two  curves  have  the  same 
radius  and  curvature;  therefore  the  time  in  the 
sm:ill  arc  of  such  a  circle,  will  be  nearly  ei|ual 
to  the  time  in  the  cycloid;  50  that  the  times  in 
■/ery  small  circular  arcs  are  equal,  because  these 
small  arcs  may  be  considered  as  j)ortions  of  the 
cycloid,  as  well  as  of  the  circle.  And  this  is 
one  great  reason  why  the  pend^ilurhs  of  clocks 
are  made  to  oscillate  in  as  smallarcs  as  possible, 
viz.  that  their  oscillations  may  be  the  nearer  to 
a  constant  equality. 

This  may  also  be  deduced  from  a  comparison 
of  tlie  times  of  vibration  in  the  circle,  and  in 
the  cycloid,  as  laid  down  in  the  foregoing  arti- 
cles. It  has  there  been  shewn,  that  the  times  of 
vibratiuii  in  the  circle  and  cycloid  arc  thus,  viz. 

r  o 

lime  in  the  circle  nearly  *  */—  X  (1  ^ ). 

2g  or 


rENDUI.UM. 

time  in  the  cycloldal  arc  p  v', — ;  where  it  is  cvi- 

dent  that  the  former  always  exceeds  the  latter 

in  the  ratio  of  1  -I to  I  ;  but  tliis  ratio  al- 

ways  approaches  nearer  to  an  equality,  as  the 
arc,  or  as  its  versed  sine  a,  is  smaller ;  till  at 

length,  when  it  is  very  small,  the  term  ^-  may 
be  omitted,  and  then  the  times  of  vibration  be- 
come both  the  same   quantity,  viz.  f\/—- 

Farther,  by  the  sam.e  comparison,  it  appears, 
that  the  time  lost  in  each  second,  or  in  each  vi- 
bration of  the  seconds  pendulum,  by  vibrating 

in  a  circle,  instead  of  a   cycloid,  is  —  - ,    or 

Si- 

— .— ;    and   consequently  the  time   lost    in    a 

whole  day  of  24  hours,  is  '-D'  nearly.  In  like 
manner,  the  seconds  lost  per  day  by  vibrating 
in  the  arc  of  A  degrees,  is  '-A^  Therefore,  if 
the  pendulum  keeps  true  time  in  one  of  these 
arcs,  the  seconds  lost  or  gained  per  day,  by  vi- 
brating in  the  other,  will  be  4  (D-  —  A').  So, 
forexample,  if  a  pendulum  measures  true  time  in 
an  arc  of  3  degrees,  on  each  side  of  the  lowest 
point,  it  will  lose  llS  seconds  a  day  by  vibrat- 
ing 4  degrees  ;  and  i^Gy  seconds  a  day  by  vi- 
brating 5  degrees  ,  and  so  611 . 

5.  The  action  of  gravity  is  less  in  those  parts 
of  the  earth  where  the  oscillations  of  the  same 
pendulum  are  slower,  and  greater  where  these 
are  swifter  ;  for  the  time  of  oscillation  is  reci- 
procally proportional  to  ^/g.  And  it  being  found 
by  experiment,  that  the  oscillations  of  the  same 
pendulum  are  slower  near  the  equator,  than  in 
places  farther  from  it ;  it  follows  that  the  force 
of  gravity  is  less  there;  and  consequently  the 
parts  about  the  equator  are  higher  or  farther 
from  the  centre,  than  the  other  parts  and  the 
shape  of  the  earth  is  not  a  true  sphere,  but 
somewhat  like  an  oblate  spheroid,  flitted  at  the 
poles,  and  raised  gradually  towards  the  equator. 
And  hence  also  the  times  of  the  vibration  of  the 
same  pendulum,  in  different  latitudes,  atFord  a 
method  of  determining  the  true  figure  of  the 
earth,  .and  the  proportion  between  its  axis  and 
the  equatorial  diameter. 

Thus,  iVI.  Richer  found  by  an  experiment 
made  in  the  island  of  Cayenne,  about  4  degrees 
from  the  equator,  that  a  pendulum  3  feet  sf 
lines  long,  which  at  Paris  vibrated  seconds,  re- 
quired to  be  shortened  a  line  and  a  quarter  to 
make  it  vibrate  seconds.  And  many  other  ob- 
servations have  confirmed  the  same  principle. 
See  Newton's  Principia,  lib.  iii.  prop.  20.  By 
comparing  the  dilTcrent  observations  of  the 
French  .astronomers,  Newton  apprehends  that 
2  lines  may  be  considered  as  the  length  a  se- 
cond's pendulum  ought  to  be  decreased  at  the 
equator. 

From  some  observations  made  by  Mr.  Camp- 
bell, in  1731,  in  Black-river,  in  Jamaica,  18" 
north  latitude,  it  is  collected,  that  if  the  length 
of  a  simple  pendulum  that  swings  seconds  in 
London,  is  39.1'Jff  English  inches,  the  length  of 
one  at  the  equator  would  be  39.00,  and  at  the 
poles  39.20G. 

And  hence  Mr.  F.merson  has  computed  the 
following  Table,  shewing  the  length  of  a  pen- 
dulum that  swings  seconds  at  every  .'ith  degree' 
of  latitude,  as  also  the  length  of  the  degree  of 
latitude  thercj  in  Inglibh  miles. 


Degrees  of 

Length  of  Pen- 

Length of  the 

I.atitiidc. 

dulum. 

Degree. 

inches. 

mile;. 

0 

39.0i7 

W.-rZ'i 

r. 

39.029 

68.730 

10 

.39.032 

68.750 

15 

39.036 

68.783 

i'O 

39.044 

68.830 

25 

39.057 

6C.882 

so 

39.070 

68.950 

35 

39.084 

69.020 

40 

39.097 

69.097 

45 

39.111 

69.176 

50 

S9.I2G 

69.'iS<J 

55 

S9.142 

69.3:50 

60 

SS.l.^S 

69  401 

65 

39.163 

69  467 

70 

39.177 

69.522 

75 

.39.1K5 

69.568 

RO 

39.191 

69.601 

85 

39.195 

69.620 

90 



39.197 

69.628 

will  be  \r,  or 


=    9.TS1    inches;    and   the 


6.  If  two  pendulums  vibrate  in  similar  arcs, 
the  times  of  vibration  are  in  the  sub-duplicate 
ratio  of  their  lengths.  And  the  lengths  of  pen- 
dulums vibrating  in  similar  arcs,  are  in  the 
duplicate  ratio  of  the  times  of  a  vibration  di- 
rectly ;  or  in  the  reciprocal  duplicate  ratio  of 
the  number  of  oscillations  made  in  any  one  and 
the  same   time.     For,  the  tin.e  of  vibration   / 

y 

being  as  /  V  —■•  vvhere  /j  and ^  are  constant  or. 

given,  tlierefore  (  is  as  \^r,  and  r  as  t^.  Hence 
therefore  the  length  of  a  half-second  pendulum 
39| 
4 
length  of  the  quarter-second  pendulum  will  be 

39— 
•j-V''  ^=  ~^''-  ^=  2.4-45  inches  ;  and  so  of  others. 
IG 

7.  The  foregoing  laws,  &c.  of  the  motion 
of  peiidultiius,  cannot  strictly  hold  good,  . 
unless  the  thread  that  sustains  tlie  ball  is 
void  of  weight,  and  the  gravity  of  the  whole 
ball  is  collected  into  a  point.  In  practice, 
therefore,  a  very  fine  thn.al,  and  a  smail  ball, 
but  of  a  very  heavy  matter,  aie  to  be  used.  . 
Dut  a  thick  thread,  and  a  bulky  ball,  disturi) 
the  motion  very  nuicli;  for  in  that  case,  the 
simple  pei^dnk.m  becomes  a  coniponnd  one  ; 
it  being  much  the  same  thing,  as  if  several 
weights  were  applied  to  the  same  inllexible 
rod  in  several  places. 

8.  Mr.  Kralill,  in  tlie  new  Pctersburgh  Me- 
moirs, vols.  6  and  7,  has  given  the  result  of 
many  e.\periments  tipon  pendnhnns,  made 
in  dili'erent  parts  of  Kussia,  with  deductions 
liom  thiim,  tioiH  whence  he  derives  tliis  theo- 
rem: if  .r  is  the  lengili  of  a  pcnduhmi  that 
swings  seconds  in  an\  given  latitude  /,  and  in 
a  tempenitme  of  10  degrees  of  Keanimu's 
thermometer,  then  will  the  length  of  that 
pondnlimi,-  for  llial  latitude,  be  thus  ex- 
pressed, viz. 

X  =  (!;!9-l 78  +  2-321  -|-  sin.V)lines  ofa  French 
fool.  And  this  eNprcssion  agrees  very  nearly, 
not  only  with  all  the  ex|ieriinenl8  made  on 
the  pendulum  in  Unssi.i,  but  also  with  those 
ol  Mr.  (irahani,  and  those  of  Mr.  Lyons  in 
79'  W  north  hititndi-,  where  he  foiiiiU  its 
len!;tli  to  be  4-il-3S  lines. 

I'F.NDtLL'M,  .</«)/)/(■,  ill  meclianics,  an  ex- 
pression commonly  tlseTI  among  artists,  to 
tlistinguish  sucli  pendu'iims  as  liave  no  pro- 
vision for  correcting  tlie  tli'ects  of  heat  anil 


cold,  from  Uiosr  that  havp  siicli  provision. 
Als;)sini|jle  iKMidiiliim,  .ukI  di.'taihed  pendu- 
liriu,  aic  tiTiiis  SDMietiiiiL's  ust-d  to  denole  sm.'li 
])('iuUi!iinis  as  an-  not  connected  with  any 
clock,  or  clockwork.- 

I'exdulvm,  coiiiponnd.  m  mcciianic?,  is 
a  i>cn<lulnin  vvliose  rod  is  composed  of  two 
or  more  wires  or  bais  ot  nieUi!.  Tlies:-,  by 
iinderc.oiiig  diilereiitdegrees  ol  expansion  and 
♦■oiitraction,  when  exposed  to  tiie  same  heat 
or  cold,  have  the  diticrence  of  ex|jansion  or 
^contraction  made  to  act  in  suih  a  manner  as 
to  preserve  constantly  the  same  distance  be- 
tween the  ])oinl  of  suspension  and  centre  of 
OS  illation,  although  exposed  to  very  dilfe- 
r  'nt  and  varions  degrees  of  heat  or  cold. 
'I'nere  are  a  great  variety  oF  constructions 
for  this  ))nr|)Ose ;  but  they  nviy  be  all  re- 
thiced  to  the  gri<hron,  the  mercurial,  and  tlie 
Jever  pendiiUnn.  » 

It  ni.ny  be  just  observed  bv  the  way,  that 
the  vulgar  method  of  remedying  the  incon- 
venience arising  Ironi  the  extension  and  con- 
traelion  ot  the  rods  of  common  pendulnms, 
is  by  su)  pl_\  ing  the  bob,  or  small  b.  II,  with  a 
screw  at  the  lower  end;  by  wliich  n'eans  the 
jjenduluni  is  at  any  time  made  longer  or 
shorter,  as  the  ball  is  scre.\e<l  downwards  or 
upwards,  and  thus  the  time  of  its  vibration  is 
kept  continu.illy  the  same. 

The  gridiron  pendulum  was  tlie  invention 
of  Mr.  John  Harrison,  a  very  ingenious  art- 
ist, and  celebrated  for  his  hivenlivu  of  llie 
watch  forlinding  the  difference  of  longitude 
at  sea,  about  the  year  1723,  and  of  several 
other  timekeepers  and  watches  since  that 
time ;  for  all  which  he  received  the  parlia- 
nient.;ry  reward  of  between  20,000  and  30,000 
pounds.  It  coiisists  of  five  rods  of  steel,  and 
lour  of  brass,  placed  in  an  alternate  order, 
the  middle  rod  being  of  sleel,  by  whicli  the 
pendulum-ball  i^  su-pcnded;  tliese  rods  of 
brass  and  steel,  thus  placed  in  an  altern.ite 
order,  are  so  connected  with  each  other  at 
their  ends,  that  while  the  expansion  of  the 
steel  rods  has  a  tendency  to  lengthen  the 
pendulum,  the  expansion  of  the  brass  rods, 
aclnig  upwards,  tends  to  shorten  it.  And 
thus,  when  tlie  length  of  the  brass  and  sleel 
M'U  is  duly  proporlioned,  th^ir  expansions 
and  contraclions  will  exactiv  balance  and 
correct  each  other,  and  so  preserve  the  pcn- 
(hdum  invariably  of  the  same  length,  'llie 
simplicity  of  tliis  ingenious  contrivance  is 
miicli  in  its  favour;  and  the  difficulty  of  ad- 
justment seems  tlie  only  objection  to  it.  ■  See 

LOKGITUDE. 

Mr.  Harrison,  in  his  first  machine  for  mea- 
.<uring  time  at  sea,  applied  tliis  combination 
of  wires  of  brass  and  steel,  to  prevent  any 
alterations  by  heat  or  cold  ;  and  in  the  ma- 
chines or  clocks  he  has  made  for  this  pnr- 
jKise,  a  like  method  of  guarding  against  the 
irregularities  arising  from  this  cause  is  used. 

The  mercurial  pendulum  was  the  invention 
of  the  ingenious  Mr.  (jraham,  in  consequence 
of  several  expei  inients  relating  to  the  ma- 
terials of  which  pendulums  miglit  be  formed, 
in  1715.  .Its  rod  is  mad(*  of  brass,  and 
branched  towards  its  lower  end,  so  as  to  em- 
brace a  cylindric  glass  vessel  13  or  14  inches 
lor.g,  and  about  two  inches  diameter;  which 
being  filled  about  twelve  inches  deep  with 
mercury,  forms  the  weight  or  ball  of  the  pen- 
dulum. If  upon  trial  the  expansion  of  tiie 
rod  is  found  ioj  great  for  that  of  the  mer- 
cury, more  ineri.u.y*must  be  poured  into  the 


PENDULUM, 

vessel ;  if  the  expansion  of  the  mercury  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  rod,  so  as  to  occasion  the 
clock  to  go  fast  « ilh  'leat,  some  mercury  must 
be  taken  out  of  the  vessel,  so  as  to  shorten 
the  colunm.  And  thus  may  the  expansion 
and  contraction  ot  the  quicksilver  in  tiic  glass 
be  made  exactly  to  balance  the  expansion 
and  conlraclion  of  the  pentliilum-rod,  so  as 
to  preserve  llie  distance  of  the  centre  of  os- 
cillation from  the  point  of  suspension  invari- 
ably the  same. 

Mr.  Graham  niadea  clock  of  this  sort,  and 
compared  it  with  one  ot  the  best  of  the  com- 
mon sort,  (or  three  years  together;  when 
he  found  the  errors  of  his  own  but  about  one- 
eighth  part  of  those  of  the  latter. 

Mr.  John  ICllicotl  also,  in  the  year  1738, 
conslrnc'.ed  a  pendulum  on  the  s.mie  prin- 
ciple, l)ut  dill'ering  fr.im  Mr.  Graham's  in 
many  particulars.  The  rod  of  Mr.  Ellicott's 
pendulum  v,  as  composed  of  two  bars  only; 
the  one  <.i  brass,  and  the  olher  of  steel.  It 
had  two  levers,  each  sustaining  its  half  of  the 
ball  or  weight ;  with  a  spring  under  the  lower 
part  of  I  he  ball  to  relieve  the  levers  from  a 
considerable  part  of  its  weight,  and  so  to 
render  their  motion  more  smooth  and  easy. 
The  one  lever  in  Mr.  Graham's  construction 
was  above  the  ball ;  wliereas  both  the  levers 
in  Mr.  Ellicott's  were  within  the  ball,  and 
each  lever  had  an  adjusting  screw,  to  lengthen 
or  shorten  the  lever,  so  as  to  render  the  ail- 
justment  tlie  more  perfect. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  ingenuitv  dis- 
played by  these  very  eminent  artists  oil  this 
construction,  it  must  farther  be  observed,  in 
the  history  of  improvements  of  this  nature, 
that  Mr.  Cunnning,  another  eminent  artist, 
has  given,  in  his  Essays  on  the  Principles  of 
dock  and  Watch  AV  ork,  an  ample  descrip- 
tion, with  ))lales,  of  a  construction  of  a  pen- 
dulum with  levers,  in  which  it  seems  h(;  has 
united  the  properties  of  iSIr.  Graham's  and 
Mr.  Ellicott's,  without  being  liable  to  anv 
of  the  defects  ol  either.  The  rod  ol  this 
pendulum  is  composed  of  one  flat  bar  of 
brass,  and  two  of  steel ;  he  uses  three  levers 
within  the  ball  of  the  pendulum;  and,  among 
many  olher  ingenious  contrivances  for  the 
more  accurate  adjusting  of  this  pendulum  to 
mean  lime,  it  is  provided  with  a  small  ball 
•and  screw  below  the  principal  ball  or  weight, 
one  entire  revolution  of  which  on  its  screw 
will  only  alter  the  rate  of  the  clock's  going 
one  second  per  day;  audits  circumference 
is  divided  into  30,  one  of  which  divisions  will 
tlierefore  alter  its  rate  of  going  one  second 
in  a  montii. 

PtNDULUM-clock,  is. a  clock  having  its 
motion  regulated  by  the  vibration  of  a  pen- 
dulum. 

It  is  controverted  between  Galileo  and 
Huygens,  which  of  the  two  first  applied  the 
pendulum  to  a  clock. 

.'Vfter  Huygens  had  discovered,  that  (he 
vibration  made  in  arcs  of  a  cycloid,  however 
unequal  they  might  be  in  extent,  were  all 
equal  in  time ;  he  soon  perceived,  that  a 
pendulum  apjilied  to  a  clock,  so  as  to  make 
it  describe  arcs  of  a  cycloid,  would  rectilS' 
the  otherwise  unavoidable  irregularities  of 
the  motion  of  the  clock;  since,  though  the 
several  causes  of  those  irregularities  should 
occasion  the  pendulum  to  make  greater  or 
smaller  vibrations,  yet,  by  virtue  of  the  cv- 
tloid,  it  woidd  blill  niuke  them  perfectly  equal 


373 

in  point  of  time  ;  and  the  motion  of  the  clock 
governed  by  it,  would  Ihereiore  be  pre-erved 
perfectly  equable.  Ikit  the  dilliTullv  w  as, 
how  to  make  the  pendulum  describe  arcs  of 
a  cycloid;  lor  naturally  the  pendulum,  being 
tied  to  a  fixed  point,  can  only  describe  cir- 
cular arcs  aboni  •{. 

Here  Mr.  Huygens  contrived  to  fix  the 
iron  rod  <jr  wire,'  which  bears  the  ball  or 
weight  at  the  top,  to  a  silken  thread,  placed 
between  two  cycloidal  cheeks,  or  two  little 
arcs  of  a  cycloi(l,  made  of  metal.  Hence  tiie 
motion  of  vibration,  applying  successively 
from  one  of  those  arcs  to  the  other,  the  thread, 
which  is  extremely  flexible,  easily  assumes 
the  figure  of  them,  and  h\  that  means  causes 
the  ball  or  weiglit  at  the'  bottom  to  describe 
a  just  cycloidal  arc. 

'IT.is  is  doubtless  one  of  the  most  ingeni- 
ous and  useful  inventions  many  ages  fiave 
produced;  by  means  of  which'it  has  been 
asserted  there  have  been  clocks  that  would 
not  vary  a  single  second  in  several  days  ;  and 
the  same  invention  also  gave  rise  to  the  w  hole 
doctrine  of  involute  and  evolnte  curves,  witli 
the  radius  and  degree  of  curvature,  &c. 

It  is  true,  the  pendulum  is  s'.iil  I'ablc  to 
its  irri-gularities,  how  minute  soever  they 
may  be.  The  silken  thread  by  which  it  «a"s 
susixnded,  shortens  in  moist' weather,  and 
lengthens  in  dry;  by  which  means  the  lenglli 
of  the  whole  pendulum,  and  consequenilv 
the  times  of  the  vibrations,  are  somewna't 
varied. 

To  obviate  this  inconvenience,  M.  De  H 
Hire,  instead  of  a  silken  thread,  used  a  little 
fine  spring;  which  was  not  indeed  subject 
to  shorten  and  lengthen,  from  those  causes; 
yet  he  Ibund  it  giew  sliffer  in  cohl  weather, 
and  then  made'ils  vibrations  faster  than  i.T 
warm:  to  which  al~o  \ye  may  add  its  px- 
liansion  and  contraction  by  heat  and  cold. 
I  ie  (hcrelore  had  recourse  to  a  still'  wire  of 
rod,  lirm  from  one  ^end  to  the  olher.  In- 
deed, by  this  means  lie  renounced  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  cycloid;  but  he  found,  a; 
he  s;r\s,  by  experience,  that  the  vibraticin 
in  circular  arcs  are  );erformed  in  times  a; 
equal,  provided  tliey  are  not  of  too  great  e>- 
tent,  as  (hose  in  cycloids!  But  tlie  experi- 
ments of  sir  .lonas .'Moore,  and  other.--,  have 
demonstrated  (he  con(rarv. 

The  ordinary  causes  ot'die  irregularities  of 
pendulums  Dr!  Derhani  ascribes  to  the  alter- 
ations in  the  gravity  and  temperature  of 
the  air,  which  increase  and  dnijinisli  the 
weight  of  the  ball,  and  by  that  means  make 
the  viorations  greater  and  less;  an  accession 
of  weight  in  the  ball  being  found  'by  experi- 
ment to  acctlera(e  (he  n!o(ion  of  the  pen- 
dulum; for  a  weight  of  six  pounds  added  to 
the  ball.  Dr.  Derl-.am  found  made  his  clock, 
gain  thirteen  seconds  every  day. 

A  general  remedy  against  the  inconveni- 
ences of  pendulums,  is  to  make  them  long, 
the  b.tll  heavy,  and  to  vibrate  but  in  sniidl 
arcs.  These  are  the  usual  means  emploved 
in  England ;  tlie  cycloidal  cheeks  being  'ge- 
nerally neglected. 

I'endulum-clocks  resting  against  the  same 
rail  have  been  found  to  influence  each  other's 
motion.  .  bee  the  Philos.  Trans,  numb.  4.-)3, 
sects.  5  and  6,  where  Mr.  Ellicott  has  given 
a  curious  and  exact  account  of  this  i)heno- 
nienon. 

Pendulu.m,  roi/(d,  a  name  used  amon'» 
us  for  a  clock,  whose   pendulum  swiu'-'s  se^ 


874 


PEN 


coii'ls  and  goes  eight  (lavs  williout  winding 
u\> ;  sliewin^  the  hour,  miiuite,  and  second. 
The  numljers  in  snch  a  piece  are  thus  calcu- 
lated :  I'nsl  caat  up  tiie  seconds  in  tw eive 
honrs,  wliieli  are  tlie  beats  in  one  turn  of  tlie 
great  wlieel ;  ajid  tliey  will  be  found  to  be 
43'-'00  =1'2  X  60  X  60.  The  swing-v.lieel 
must  be  30,  to  swing  CO  seconds  in  one  of 
its  revolutions',  now  let  the  half  of  43-00, 
viz.  21600,  be  divided  by  30,  and  the  quo- 
tient wdi  be  "20,  which  must  be  separated 
into  quotients.  The  liist  of  these  must  be 
12,  for  the  great  wheel,  wljich  moves  round 
once  in  12  hours.  Now  720  divided  by  12, 
gives  60;  which  may  also  be  conveniently 
broken  into  two  quotients,  ai  10  and  6,  or 
12  and  5,  or  8  and  7i,  whicii  last  is  most 
con\eiiient;  and  if  the  pinions  are  all  taken  S, 
tlie  work  will  stand  tlui   : 

8  )  iW  (  13 
8  )  65  (  S 
8  )  60  (   7-J- 


30 

According  to  this  computation,  the  great 
wheel  will  go  round  once  in  12  hours,  to 
shew  the  hour ;  the  ni'xt  wheel  once  in  an 
Iiour,  to  shew  the  minnles;  and  the  swing- 
wheel  once  in  a  minute,  to  shew  the  seconds. 
See  Clockwork. 

I'KNEA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  tlie  mono- 
gvnia  order,  in  the  tetrandria  class  of  plants; 
and  in  the  natural  melliod  ranking  with  those 
of  which  the  order  is  doubtful.  The  calyx 
is  diphvllous  ;  the  corolla  campanulatcd; 
the  style  quadrangular;  the  capsule  teta-ago- 
nal,  quadrilocular,  and  octo^peiinous. 

1'I':N  ELOPE,  a  geinis  of  birds  of  the 
order  of  gullina-.  The  characters  of  which 
are  :  the  beak  is  bare  at  the  base  ;  the  head 
is  covered  with  feathers ;  the  neck  is  quite 
b.ire;  tiie  tail  consists  of  twelve  principal 
feathers ;  and  tlie  feet  are  for  the  most  part 
bare.  Linnseus,  in  tlie  Syslema  Natura^, 
enumerates  si.^  species:  1.  Penelope  mele- 
agris  satyra,  or  horned  pheasant.  Latham 
calls  it  the  horned  turk«y.  This  species  is 
larger  than  a  fowl,  and  -nudler  than  a  turkey. 
The  colour  of  the  bill  is  brown  ;  the  nostrils, 
forehead,  and  space  round  the  eyes  are  covered 
\v:th  slender  black  hairy  feathers;  the  top  of 
the  head  is  red.  Hehind  each  eye  there  is  a 
fleshy  callous  blue  subsUmce  like  a  horn, 
whicii  tends  backward.  On  the  forepart  of 
the  neck  and  tliroat  there  is  a  loose  llap,  of  a 
fine  bine  colour,  marked  with  orange  spots, 
the  lower  part  of  which  is  beset  with  a  few 
hairs;  dowji  the  middle  it  is  so;iiewhat  looser 
than  on  the  sides,  being  wrinkled.  The 
breast  and  upper  part  of  the  back  are  of  a 
full  red  colour.  The  neck  and  breast  are  in- 
clined to  yel!ow  ;  the  other  parts  of  the  plu- 
mage and  tail  are  of  a  rufous  biown,  m:irked 
all  over  with  white  spot^  encompassed  witli 
black.  The  legs  are  somewliat  white,  and 
furnished  with  a  spur  behind  each.  It  is  a 
native  of  Bengal. 

2.  The  pel. elope  meleagris  cristata,  is  about 
the  size  of  a  fowl,  being  about  two  leet  six 
iuches  long.  'I'he  bill  is  two  inches  long,  and 
of  a  black  colour  ;  th«  side,  of  the  head  are 
covered  with  a  naked  |)urpli;h  blue  skin,  ui 
which  the  c;yes  are  (ilaceJ  :  beneath  tin; 
tbroat,  for  an  inch  and  a  half,  the  skin  is  loo-e, 
of  a  tillered  colour,  and  covered  only  with  a 
fcsi-  bairs.     The  top  of  the  liead  is  furnished 


P  F,  N" 

with  long  fea'hers,  w'licli  the  bird  can  erect 
as  a  crest  at  pleasure;  tlie  general  colour  of 
the  plumage  is  brownish  black,  glossed  over 
witli  copper  in  some  lights ;  but  the  wing- 
coverts  have  a  greenish  and  violet  gloss. 
They  inhabit  Brasil  and  Guiana,  where  they 
are  oiten  ma<le  tame.  Tliey  frequently  make 
a  noise  not  unlike  the  word  jacu.  Tlieir 
tlesli  is  much  esteemed. 

3.  Penelope  crax  cuinan(;nsis,  called  by 
Latham,  &c.  yacou.  It  is  biager  than  a 
common  fowl.  Tlie  bill  is  black;  the  liead 
leathers  are  long,  pointed,  and  torm  a  crest, 
which  can  be  erected  at  pleasure.  It  has  a 
naked  membrane,  or  kind  of  wattle,  of  a  dull 
black  colour.  The  blue  skin  comes  forward 
on  the  bill,  but  h  not  liable  ti)  ciiaiige  colour 
like  that  of  tiie  turkey.  The  plumage  has 
not  much  variation;  it  is  chielly  brown,  with 
some  wliite  markings  on  the  neck,  breast, 
wing-coverts,  and  belly.  This  species  in- 
habits Cayenne,  but  is  a  very  rare  bird,  being 
met  with  only  in  the  inner  parts,  or  about 
the  Amazons'  country.  Those  seen  at  Cay- 
enne are  niostlv  tame  ones,  for  it  is  a  familiar 
bird,  and  will  breed  iu  tliat  state,  and  mix 
with  other  poultry.  It  makes  the  nest  on  tlxe 
ground,  and  hatches  the  young  there,  but  is 
at  other  times  mostly  seen  on  trees.  It  fre- 
quently erects  the  crest,  when  pleased,  or 
taken  notice  of,  and  likewise  spreads  the  tail 
upright  like  a  fan,  in  the  manner  of  the 
turkey. 

4.  The  pipile,  or  as  it  is  called,  crax  jiipile, 
is  black  in  the  beliy,  and  the  back  brown 
stained  with  black.  The  flesh  on  the  neck 
is  of  a  green  colour.  It  is  about  the  bigness 
of  the  former,  and  has  a  his>ing  noise.  The 
head  is  partly  black  and  partly  white,  and  is 
adorned  w  ith  a  short  crest.  T  he  space  about 
the  eves,  which  are  black,  is  white  ;  the  feet 
are  red.     It  inhabits  Guiana. 

5.  The  marail  is  about  the  size  of  a  fowl, 
and  shaped  somewhat  like  it.  The  space 
round  the  eyes  is  bare.,  and  of  a  pale  red; 
the  chin,  tliroat,  and  forepart  of  the  neck,  are 
scarcely  covered  with  leathers ;  but  the  throat 
itself  is  bari»,  and  the  membrane  elongated 
to  half  an  inch  or  more  ;  both  this  and  the 
skin  round  the  eyes  change  colour,  and  br- 
coiii"  deeper  and  thicker,  when  the  bird  is 
irritated.  The  head  feathers  are  longish, 
so  as  to  appear  like  a  crest  when  raised  up, 
which  the  bird  often  does  when  agitated;  at 
which  time  it  also  erects  those  of  the  whole 
bovly,  and  so  disfigures  its  If  as  to  be  scarcely 
known:  the  general  colour  of  the  plumage  is  a 
greenish  bku'k.  Tliis  species  iscoiinnou  in  the 
woods  of  Guiana,  at  a  distance  from  the  sea. 
The  female  makes  her  nest  on  some  low 
biisliy  tree,  as  near  the  trunk  as  possible, 
and  lays  three  or  four  e;>gs.  AV'hen  the 
young  'are  hatched,  they  (lesccnd  with  the 
mother  alter  ten  or  twelve  days.  The 
mother  acts  as  other  fowls,  scratching  on  the 
ground  like  a  hen,  and  brooding  tiie  young, 
whicii  quit  their  nurse  the  moment  they  can 
shift  tor  themselves.  Tluy  liav e  two  broods 
in  a  year;  one  in  December  or  January,  the 
other  in  May  or  June.  The  best  tinie  of 
luvling  these  birds  is  morning  or  evening, 
being  then  met  with  on  such  trees  whose  fruit 
iney  feed  on,  and  are  discovered  by  some 
of  It  falling  to  the  groiiiid.  The  youn^  birds 
are  easily  tamed,  and  seldom  forsake  the 
places  where  they  have  been  brought  iiji ; 


P  F,  N    • 

they  need  not  be  housed,  as  they  prefer  tlifr 
rojnting  on  tall  trees  to  any  otlier  place. 
Their  llesh  is  much  esteumetl. 

6.  The  vociferating  pniielope.  The  bill 
of  this  bird  is  of  a  greenish  colour:  the  back 
is  brown,  the  breast  green,  and  the  belly  of  a 
whitish  bro'.vn.  Latham  calls  it  the  crying 
curassow.     It  is  about  the  bigness  of  a  crow. 

PENGL'IN',  in  ornithology.     See  Alca. 

I'ENXAN die,  a  genus'  of  the  poly- 
gainia  dicecia  cla-ss  and  order.  There  is  no 
calyx;  the  corolla  i.s  live-petalled ;  stamina 
live:  j>erianthum  three-sided,  two-cellfd. 
There  is  one  species,  a  herb  of  New  Zea- 
land. 

PEVNATULA,  or  Sea-pen,  a  genus  of 
zoophyte,  which,  though  it  swims  about 
freely  in  the  sea,  approaches  near  to  the  iror- 
gonia.  This  genus  has  a  bone  along  the  liiid- 
dle  of  the  inside,  which  is  its  chief  support ; 
and  t!ii<  bone  receives  the  supply  of  its  osseous 
matter  by  the  same  polype-mouths  that  fur- 
ni>h  it  with  nourishment.  Linnsus  reckons 
seven  species.  It  is  certainly  an  animal,  and 
as  such  is  free  or  locomotive.  Its  body  gene- 
rally expands  into  processes  on  the  upper 
parts,  and  these  processes  or  branches  are 
furnished  with  rows  of  tubular  denticles; 
they  have  a  jiolype-head  proceeding  froiH 
each  tube. 

The  sea-pen  is  not  a  coralline,  but  distin- 
guished from  it  by  this  -pecihc  ditference; 
corals,  corallines,  alcvona,  and  all  that  order 
of  beings,  adhere  hriiily  by  their  bases  to 
submarine  substances,  but  the  sea-pen  either 
jwims  about  in  the  water  er  lioats  upon  the 
surface. 

Its  general  appearance  greatly  rcseinblea 
that  of  a  quill-feather  of  a  bird's  wins;  it  is 
about  four  inches  long,  and  of  a  reddish  co- 
lour; along  the  back  there  is  a  groove  from 
the  quill  part  to  the  extremity  of  the  fea- 
th.t'red  part,  as  there  is  in  a  pen;  the  feather- 
ed part  consists  of  fin.s  procec  ding  from  the 
stini.  The  tins  move  the  animal  backward 
and  forward  in  the  water,  and  are  furnish- 
ed .with  suckers  or  mouths  armed  with  fila- 
ments. 

Dr.  Boadsch  of  Prague  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  observing  one  of  these  animals  alive 
in  the  water,  and  he  gives  the  following  ac- 
count of  what  he  saw :  "  A  portion  of  the 
stem  contracted,  and  became  of  a  strong 
piir|)le  colour,  so  as  to  have  \ he. appearance 
of  a  hgature  round  it ;.  this  apparent  ligature, 
or  zone,  moved  upwards  and  dow  nwar<ls 
successively  through  the  whole  length  of  the 
stem,  as  well  the  feathered  as  the  naked  part ; 
it  began  at  the  bottom,  and  moving  upwards 
to  the  other  extremity,  it  there  disappeared, 
and  at  the  same  instant  appeared  again  at  the 
bottom,  and  ascended  as  br'fore ;  but  as  it 
ascended  Vhrougli  the  feathered  or  pinnated 
part,  it  became  paler."  When  this  zone  is 
much  constricted,  the  trunk  above  it  swells, 
and  acquiix's  the  form  of  an  onion  ;  the  con- 
striction of  the  trunk  gives  the  colour  lo  the 
zone,  for  the  intermectiate  parts  are  paler  in 
iirop'ortion  as  the  zone  becomes  d^'eptr. 
The  end  of  the  naked  trunk  is  sonietimeij 
euvved  like  a  hook  ;  and  at  its  extren',ity 
tiicri'  is  a  sinus  or  chink,  whicii  gi'ows  deeper 
whi'e  the  purple  ring  is  ascending,  and  shal- 
low r  as  it  is  coming  down.  The  fms  have 
lour  motion-;,  upward  and  downward,  aitd 
backward  and  forward,  from  right  to  left,  »nd 
(i 


P  K  M 

from  left  io  right.  Tiu-  llusliy  filim'nits,  or 
cluHs,  inov.MU  ;ill  dirrcl  cii-; ;"  an.l  witli  tli; 
cyliiuln -.il  pHrttVoiu  wliicli  tlufV  (jrocwd  aic 
sonu^liiR's  |in)U-u(ieil  from  the  liiis,  luul  bouic- 
tiincs  liiddi'ii  vvilh  tliem. 

Upon  iUssecuiii»  this  animal  the  jfoUowing 
phenomena  wi-rt-  •5h>:covc.TL'cl:  VA'lu-n  ihu 
trunk  was  opciuid  Itnglhwise,  a  saltish  li^iuor 
jlowcd  out  of  it,  so  viscid  as  to  hang  dovMi 
an  inch.  'I'lie  \\\\o\e.  trnnk  of  the  stciu  w.is 
fonnd  to  l)e  hollow,  the  outward  niembrane 
being  viMv  strong,  and  about  the  teiitli  part 
of  all  iiieh  thick  ;  within  tiiis  membrane  ap- 
peared another  nuK-h  tiiinner;  .aid  ln-tween 
tiiese  two  membranes,  in  the  pinnated  pa.t 
of  tlie  trunk,  innnmerable  Intle  jdlouisli 
eggs,  about  the  size  of  a  white  pO|'>py-seed, 
were  seen  floating  in  a  whitish  li'iuor;  about 
three  parts  of  the  cavity  within  the  iimer 
membrane  is  tilled  by  a  kind  of  yellowish 
l)one;  this  bone  i<  about  two  inches  and  a 
Iralf  long,  and  one  twentieth  of  an  inch  thick ; 
in  the  middle  it  is  square,  but  towards 
the  ends  it  grows  round  and  very  taper,  lliat 
fnd  being  iinest  which  is  next  tbe  pijmaled 
,  p:irt  of  the  trunk.  This  bone  is  eoverrd  in 
its  whole  length  with  a  clear  yellowUh  skin, 
vhich  at  each  end  runs  out  into  a  ligament  ; 
one  is  inserted  in  the  top  of  tlie  pinnated 
trunk,  and  tlie  otlier  in  the  top  of  tlie  nakeil 
trunk;  by  t!ie  help  of  the  n;;per  ligament  the 
end  of  the  bone  is  either  bent  into  an  arch, 
or  disposed  in  a  straight  line.  The  tins  are 
composeil  ot  two  skins ;  the  outward  one  is 
strong  and  leatliery,  and  covered  over  with 
an  infinite  number  of  crnii^on  streaks ;  the 
inner  skin  is  thin  and  transparent ;  the  suck- 
ers are  also  in  ihe  same  inuiuier  composed  ol 
two  skins,  but  the  outward  skin  is  something 
Softer.  15otli  the  has  anil  suckers  are  hollow, 
so  that  the  cavity  of  the  suckers  may  com- 
municate with  those  of  the  lins,  a-  the  cavity 
of  the  lins  docs  with  that  of  the  trunk.  Dr. 
Shaw,  in  th;-  Hislorv  of  Algiers,  says,  that 
these  animals  are  so  luminous  hi  the  water, 
that  in  the  night  the  lisliermen  discover  lislies 
swimming  about  in  various  depths  of  the 
sea  by  the  light  tliey  give.  From  this  extra- 
ordinary quality,  Linn;fus calls  this  species  of 
the  sea-pen  pennatula  phospliorea  ;  and  re- 
marks, alter  giving  the  synonyms  of  other 
audiors,  habitat  in  oceano  fundum  illunii- 
nans. 

'I'here  are  other  kinds  of  sea-jjens,  or  spt> 
cies  of  this  animal,  which  have  not  a  resem- 
blance to  a  pen. 

PICNNY,  formerly  a  silver,    but  now  a 
-  copper  coin. 

'Ihe  penny  was  the  first  silver  coin  struck  in 
England  by  our  Saxon  antestor^j  being  the 
l?4uth  part  of  their  pound,  and  its  true  weight 
was  about  2'.?i  grains  troy. 

In  EtliT'ldred's  time,  the  penny  was  the 
20th  part  of  the  troy  ounce,  and  ecpial  in 
wei^lit  to  our  threepence;  which  value  it 
retaineil  till  the  time  of  Edward  the  Third. 

Till  the  time  ot  king  Edward  tlie  First,  the 
penny  was  struck  with  across  so  deeply  sunk 
in  it,  that  it  might,  on  occasion,  be  easily 
broken,  and  pail<-(l  into  tsvo  halves,  thence 
called  halfpence ;  or  into  four,  thence  called 
fourthings,  or  larthings.  But  tiiat  prince 
coined  it  without  the  cross;  instead  ot  which 
lie  slruik  round  halfpence  and  farthiims: 
though  there  are  said  to  be  instance*  of  such 
fouud  halfpence  liavuig  been  made  Ju  the 


PEN 

reign  of  Henry  the  I'lrsi,  if  not  also  in  tiiose 
oi  the  two  ^\  ilii.ims. 

Edward  the  First  also  reduced  the  weight 
of  the  penny  to  a  standard ;  ordering  that  it 
should  weigh  32  grains  of  wh-al,  taken  o'.it 
of  the  middle  of  the  ear.  T  his  penny  was 
calleil  the  pi'imy  sterling;  and  20  of  them 
were  to  weigh  an  ounce,  whence  the  penny 
became  a  wi'iglit  as  well  as  a  coin. 

I5y  the  ytli  of  Edward  the  Third,  it  was 
diminislied  to  the  2()th  part  of  the  troy 
ounce;  by  the  L'd  of  Henry  the  Sixth  it  was 
'he  SL'nd'part:  by  the  ith  of  Kdwartl  the 
Fourth,  it  became  the  4()th,  and  also  by  (In- 
Jlilh  ol  Uenrv  the  Eighth,  and  afterwards 
the  45th;  but'by  the  '.^ud  of  Eiizabrth,  bO 
pemre  were  coined  out  of  the  ounce,  and 
during  her  reign  02,  which  last  proportion  is 
still  observed  in  our  times. 

Penny-weight,  a  troy  weight,  being 
the  20th  part  of  an  ounce,  contain'iig  24 
grains ;  each  grain  weighing  a  grain  of  wheat 
gathered  out  of  the  middle  of  the  ear,  well 
dried.  Tlje  name  took  its  rise  from  its  being 
actually  the  weight  of  one  of  our  ancient 
silvi-r  pennies.     See  J'exny. 

PENTAGON,  in  geometry,  a  iigure  of 
live  sides  and  live  angles. 

If  the  live  sides  aie  equal,  the  angles  are 
so  too,  and  the  figure  is  called  aregular  pen- 
t.igon;  such  is  Ai5CDE  (Plate  M'iscel.  lig. 
184),  inscribed  in  the  circle. 

The  most  considerable  property  of  a  pen- 
tagon is,  tliat  one  of  its  sides  DE,'  is  equal  in 
])ower  to  the  sides  of  a  hexagon  and  a  de- 
cagon, inscribed  in  the  sam^  circle  ABCDE; 
that  is,  the  square  ofithe  side  DE,  is  equal  to 
the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  sides  c^E  and 
Eh.      . 

The  area  of  a  pentagon,  like  that  of  any 
other  polygon,  may  he  obtained  by  rcsob'- 
iiig  it  into  triangles.  See  the  articles  Tri- 
ANc;i.F.  and  Polygon. 

Pappus  has  also  demonstrated,  that  twelve 
regular  pentagons  contain  more  than  twenty 
triangles  inscribed  in  the  same  circle. 

The  dodecahedron,  which  is  the  fourth 
regular  solid,  consists  of  twelve  pentacrons. 

In  fortilicalion,  pentagon  denotes"  a  fort 
with  five  ba^tions. 

PENTACKAPH,  or  Par.\llelogram, 
an  instrumrnt  whereby  designs  of  any  kind 
may  be  cojiied  in  w  hat  proportion  you  please, 
without  being  skilled  in  drawing. 

A  peiilagraph  is  composed  of  4  bars, 
AliDI'l,  Plate  Pedometer,  cV-c.  fig.  4,usually  of 
brass ;  the  bar  A  is  jointed  to  B  at  b  about  ;he 
middle,  and  at  a  it  is  connected  with  E;  tiie 
bar  B  is  the  same  length  as  A; and  at  d  is 
jointed  to  the  bar  D,  whose  end  is  connected 
witlith"  end  of  M;  these  four  bars  forma 
parallelogram  ;  thus,  ha  =:  D,  and  hd  =  E. 
To  the  other  end  of  the  bar  A,  a  tulie  1'  is 
soldered,  through  which  a  pointed  brass  rod  c, 
calf  (1  the  tracer,  is  put ;  the  end  of  the  bar 
B  has  a  slider  G  upon  it,  which  has  a  tube 
similar  to  F  ;  anotlier  slider  I  of  the  same 
kind  is  mounted  on  the  bar  D.  These  slicTers 
have  scri'w  s,  by  which  they  can  be  fixed  at 
any  di-tance.  I'nder  eacli  of  tbe  jtjints  of 
the  basi',  a  small  tube  is  ri.xed,  in  the  bottom 
of  which  is  a  small  castor  as  H,  which  makes 
the  lustrunient  run  easily  on  the  table.  When 
the  instrument  is  used,  the  two  sliders  GI 
must  be  set  exactly  in  a  line  with  the  tube 
F ;  w  hen  it  is  recjuired  to  make  a  copy  of  a 
drawuig  of  the  same  size,  the  sliders  must 


PEN 


375 


be  ^e(  JO  that  from  F  to  I  is  the  same  dis- 
tanc  •  as  from  I  to  G  ;  the  lube  1  must  then 
have  a  wire  put  through  it,  nlio^e  lowe^^  end 
is  fast  screwed  to  a  heavy  leaden  weight, 'L  ; 
this  must  iiave  three  s'harp  points  in  the 
under  side,  so  th;.t  when  it  is  set  on  the  t.  ble 
it  may  not  be  liable  to  move;  then  if  a  de.ign 
or  (Ir.iwing  is  la.d  under  the  tube  F,  and 
the  point  i>t  lie  trrrei  <ir^wn  ever  the  lines 
of  it,  the  point  of  the  pencil  at  G  will  de- 
scribe a  similar  figure.  If  the  diawing  is  to 
be  reduced  to  oie  -half  of  the  s  ze,  the  weight 
mii-t  be  put  lo  the  siiiler  C>,  and  the  pi-,  cil 
into  I,  without  moving  either  shder;  then 
the  <li^taiice  from  the  tracer  to  Ihe  fixed 
point  or  weight  1<,  is  twice  the  dislaiiceof  the 
pencil  lo  the  weight."  The  rule  for  selling 
the  sliders  for  any  propoilion  is,  as  the  dis- 
tance between  Ihe  tracer  e  and  the  fixed 
point  E,  is  to  the  distance  between  the  pencil 
G  an  I  the  s  ,me,  so  is  the  len-lh  of  my  'jiie 
described  by  the  tracer,  to  the  length  of  the 
line  at  the  same  time  described  by  the 
pencil,  'i'o  avoid  the  trouble  of  measuring 
these  distances  each  time,  the  bars  B  and  i> 
are  dividifd  into  ten  or  twenty  of  the  most 
common  proportions,  by  which  divisions  the 
slidei-s  are  lo  be  llxed. 

ihe  construction  of  one  of  the  sliders  is 
shewn  in  fig.  5:  wliere  M  is  a  piece  of  brass, 
to  one  corner  of  which  a  tube  g  is  soklcred ; 
an  opening  of  Ihe  same  width  ;rs  Ihe  bar  is 
cut  in  this,  and  a  cover  N  is  screwe<l  on  v.ilh 
two  screws:  this  cover  has  a  screw  with  a 
mill-Iiead  throuf'h  it,  by  which  the  sli<ler  is 
fixed.  A  piece  of  brass  O,  a  little  bent,  is  jnit 
between  Ihe  bar  and  Ihe  under  s  de  of  the 
cover,  and  whose  elasticity  prevents  the 
slider  moving  too  freely  when  the  screw  i» 
slack,  and  defendsthe  bar  from  being  scratch- 
ed by  the  ends  of  the  screw  when  it  is  iixe<l. 
I'ig.  ti,  describes  the  method  of  making 
tlie  joints  of  the  rods  :  P  is  the  end  of  onr; 
bar,  which  lias  a  sleel  spindle /)  screwed  fast 
to  it ;  the  other  bar  o  has  a  cock  r,  screw  ed 
on,  whose  upper  end  projects  over  the  tube 
t,  and  has  a  hole  through  it,  just  over  the  hole 
in  the  tiibe.  The  ends  of  the  spiruUe  P  are 
put  bet.'.cen  the  holes  in  the  cock  and  the 
iiole  in  the  tube  ;  if  the  spin<lles  are  well 
filled,  this  joint  is  very  sleadv,  and  without 
any  shake.  The  lower  end  of  th  •  lube  t  has 
a  hole  drilled  in  it,  into  which  the  spindle  \V 
ot  the  castor  is  put;  the  castor  is  ke|)t  (mm 
falling  out  of  the  tube,  by  tlie  point  ot  a  small 
screw  going  Ihroui^h  the  side  of  the  tube  I, 
wdiich  lakes  into  a  notch  cut  round  in  Ihe 
top  of  the  spindle  ir.  When  the  machine  is 
used,  a  fine  line,  KK,  is  put  through  rings  in 
the  cocks  hd,  and  tied  to  the  pencif;  Ihe 
other  end  has  a  loop  to  be  lioijked  over  Ihe 
thumb  of  the  operator,  by  pulling  which  he 
can  raise  the  pencil  at  D,  when  he  does  not 
wish  it  to  mark. 

PKNTAMEIER,  in  antient  poetry,  a 
kind  of  verse  consisting  of  five  feet,or  metres, 
whence  the  name. 

PEXT.ANDRIA,  in  botany,  one  of  Tin* 
na-us's  class  of  plants,  the  fifth  in  order;  the 
characters  of  which  are,  that  all  the  plants 
comprehended  in  it  have  hermaphrodite 
(lowers,  with  five  stamina  or  male  parts  ii> 
each;  they  are  subdivided  into  orders,  which 
are  denominated  monogynia,  digynia,  tri- 
gynia,  &c.  according  as  tliere  are  one,  two, 
three,  &c.  pistils,  or  female  parts,  iii  eacli 
iiower. 


37G 


PER 


PEXTAPETES,  a  genus  of  the  dode- 
candriu  order,  in  ihe  monadelpliia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natnral  method  ranking 
under  the  o7lh  order,  columniferx.  Tilt 
calvx  is  double;  the  stamina  are  15  in  num- 
ber, of  which  live  are  castrated  and  long; 
the  capsule  nuinquclociilar  and  polysper- 
nious.  There  is  but  one  species  known  in 
the  gardens  of  this  country,  viz.  the  phce- 
ricia,  with  halbert-i)ointed,  spear-shaped, 
sawed  leaves.  It  is  au  aimual  plant,  a  na- 
tive of  India. 

PENTHORUM,  a  genus  of  the  penta- 
gynia  order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants. 
Tiie  calyx  is  quini|uelid  ;  there  are  either  hve 
,)etals  or  none;  the  capsule  is  live-pointed 
and  quinquelocular.     There  is  one  species. 

PENTSLEMON,  a  genus  of  the  didy- 
namia  angiospennia  class  and  order.  The 
calyx  is  tive-leaved  ;  the  corolla  bilabiate, 
ventricose;  rudiment  of  a  5th  stamen,  beard- 
ed above  ;  capsules  two-celled.  There  are 
2  species. 

PENUMBHA,  in  astroiiomj-,  a  partial 
shade  observed  between  the  perfect  shadow 
and  the  full  light  in  an  eclipse. 

It  arises  from  the  magnitude  of  the  sun's 
bodv;  for  were  he  only  a  luminous  point, 
the  shadow  would  be  all'perfect;  but  by  rea- 
son of  the  diameter  of  the  sun,  it  happens 
that  a  place  which  is  not  illuminated  by  the 
whole  body  of  the  sun,  does  yet  receive  rays 
from  a  part  thereof.     See  Eclipse. 

PEPLIS,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order, 
in  the  hexaiidria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  17th  order, 
calvcanthema.-.  The  perianthitmi  is  cam- 
pamilaled;  the  mouth  clelt  in  12  parts; 
there  are  six  petals  inserted  into  the  calyx  ; 
the  capsule  is  bilocular.  There  are  2  species, 
creeping  plants. 

PEPPER.     See  Piper. 
PEHAMBULATOK,    in    surveying,    an 
instrument   for  measuring   distances,   called 
also  pedometer,    way-wiser,   and   surveying 
wheel. 

Plate  Perambulator,  &c.  figs.  1,  2,  and  3, 
represent  a  perambulator ;  AA,  fig.  1,  is  a 
wheel  of  mahogany,  tired  with  iron,  and 
made  very  strong;'  its  circumference  must 
be  exactly  ninety-nine  inches,  or  half  a  pole. 
This  is  placed  so  as  to  turn  round  in  an 
opening  cut  in  the  )>iecc  RD,  which  forms 
the  frame.  In  the  arm  I!,  a  groove  is  cul 
from  the  centre  of  the  wheel  to  tiie  "dial 
h ;  the  end  of  the  spindle  comes  through 
the  wood  into  this  groove,  and  has  a  small 
crown-wheil  of  eigiit  teeth  upon  it.  This 
works  another  wheel  of  eight  teeth  fixed  on 
a  long  si)iiKlle,  which  conveys  motion  from 
the  wlieel  beneath  to  the  dial  l.  The  groove 
containing  this  spindle  has  a  slip  of  wood 
screwed  over  it,  to  keep  out  diit,  &c.  ;  and 
the  end  of  this  spindle  has  a  square  hole  in 
it  into  which  is  put  the  square  end  of  tin- 
spindle  u  (lig.  2;.  This  has  an  endless 
screw  (/  upon  it,  which  works  a  worm-whet-l  c 
of  twenty-four  teeth,  having  a  pinion  of 
twelve  beneath  it :  and  below  this  has  a  wheel 
/ofthirtv-six.  The  pinion  works  the  wheel 
IT  of  fortv  ;  and  the  wliccl  /'turns  the  pinion 
A  of  twelve,  whose  spindle  carries  the  short 
hand  of  the  dial  (lig.  3).  The  arbour  of  the 
wheel  !r  comes  up  through  the  dial,  and  has 
tlie  hand  !•'  fig.  3  on  it ;  as  also  a  piuioii  of 


PER 

eight,  winch  turns  g  of  sixty-four.  Tn  the 
arbor  of  the  wheel  li,  is  a  pinion  i  of  six,  tak- 
ing into  k  of  seventy-two;  this  is  here  sup- 
posed tojbe  half  broken  away,  to  shew  the 
wheels  beneath.  The  spindle  of  this  is  hol- 
low, and  is  put  over  the  arbor  of  the  wheel 
g- ;  and  canies  llie  hand  G  lig.  3.  IIIIHH  ^ 
are  four  pillars,  by  which  the  two  plates  i 
forming  the  frame  for  the  wheels  are  held  to- 
gether. The  wheel  g  (tig.  2)  is  not  fixed  fast 
to  iis  spindle,  but  is  held  between  a  brass  j 
plate  /  and  another  beneath  ;  the  friction  of 
these  causes  the  wheel  to  turn  the  hand,  and 
at  the  same  lime  leaves  llie  hand  at  liberty 
to  be  set  without  moving  the  wheels.  The 
plate  /  has  a  pin  it  fixed  in  it ;  which  pin  takes 
against  a  projecting  part  of  the  handle  of  the 
iiammer  m,  so  as  to  lift  it  up  when  the  plate  is 
turned,  and  let  the  springy;  through  ::;  against 
the  bell  K. 

^^'h^•n  any  distance  is  to  be  measured  by 
this  machine,  the  operator  takes  hold  of  the 
handle,  and  wheels  it  along  in  as  straight  a 
line  as  he  can.  The  circumference  of  the 
wheel  being  ninety-nine  inches(or  half  a  pole), 
and  tiie  two  wheels  in  the  piece  being  equal, 
the  screw  d  (fig.  2)  will  turn  once  in  each 
turn  of  the  great  wlieel,  or  twice  for  every 
poll-  the  machine  is  wheeled.  Tliis  screw 
mu-st  be  so  cut  that  the  great  wheel  must 
turn  twenty-four  times  for  one  turn  of  the 
wheel  e,  and  al-o  the  wheel  f  on  the  same 
spindle  as  this  must  turn  a  pinion  h  of  one- 
third  of  its  number  of  teeth.  The  short 
hand  on  the  dial  which  it  carries  will  for 
every  revolution,  require  eight  turns  of  the 
great  wheel,  =  fi>ur  poles,  =  one  chain. 
The  circle  is  divided  into  100  parts,  each  = 
one  link.  The  pinion  of  twelve  on  the  arbor 
of  the  wheel  e,  turning  once  for  twenty-four 
tiu-ns  of  the  great  wheel,  makes  the  wheel  g 
require  for  each  revolution  eighty  turns  of  the 
great  wheel,  or  tor  the  machine  tube  wheeled 
ten  chains  (or  turns  of  the  short  haml)  =  40 
poles  (as  the  circle  of  its  hand  is  divided), 
=  one  furlong:  and  at  each  revolution  of  this 
wheel,  the  hammer  m  will  strike  the  bell  K. 
The  pmion  of  eight  on  the  arbor  of  the  wheel 
,;;,  woiks  /(  of  sixty-four;  and  its  pinion  i 
turns  K  of  seventy-two;  the  result  of  which 
will  be,  that  the  hand  on  the  spindle  of  A' 
w  ill  require  for  each  revolution  7680  turns  ot 
the  great  wheel,  or  for  the  machine  to  be 
wheeled  3S40  poles,  =  9t)0  chains  or  turns 
()(  the  short  hand,  =  96  furlongs  or  turns  of 
the  hand  F  and  strokes  on  the  bell,  =  twelve 
miles  as  the  dial  is  divided. 

The  use  of  this  instrument  is  obvious  from 
its  construction.  Us  proper  oftice  is  in  the 
surveying  ot  roads  and  la.ge  distances,  where 
a  great  deal  of  expedition,  antl  not  much 
accuracy,  is  retiuired.  It  is  evident,  that 
driving  "it  along,  and  observing  the  hands,  has 
the  same  effect  as  dragging  the  chain,  and 
taking  account  of  the  chauis  and  links. 

Its  advantages  are,  its  handiness  and  expe 


dition ;  its  contrivance  is  such,  that  it  may 
be  fitted  to  the  wheel  of  a  coach,  in  which 
slate  it  performs  its  office,  and  measures  the 
road  without  any  trouble. 

I'ERCA,  PiaicH,  agcnusof  fishes  of  the 
ord(<r  thoracici ;  the  generic  character  is, 
teetli  sharp,  incurvate;  gill-covers  triphyl- 
lous,  scaly,  serrated;  dorsal  fin  spiny  on  the 
fore  part ;  scales  (in  most  siiecies)  liard  and 
rough. 

1.  Perca  fluviatUis,  common  percb.    The 


PER 

perch  is  an  inhabitant  of  clear  rivers  and 
lakes  throughout  almost  all  parts  of  Europe, 
arrivirig  sf.inetinies  to  a  very  large  size,  and 
to  the  weiglit  of  eight;  nine,  or  ten  pouni!s  ; 
iis  general  size,  however,  is  far  smalL-r,  usu- 
ally measuring  from  six  to  fifteen  inches  in 
length,  and  weighing  from  two  ounces  to 
four  pounds.  Ihe  colour  of  the  perch  is 
brownish-olive,  somelimes  accompanied  by 
a  slight  gilded  tuige  on  the  sides,  iiud  com- 
monly marked  by  nve  or  six  moderately 
broad,  blackish,  tr.insverse,  semidecurrent 
bar^  ;  the  do;sal  fin  is  of  a  pale  violet-brown, 
marked  at  the  back  of  the  spiny  part  by  a 
roundidi  black  spotacconipaiiit-d  by  a  small- 
er one  ;  the  rest  of  the  fins,  with  the  tail,  aie 
red. 

The  )>erch  usually  sjiawns  in  the  early  part 
of  the  spring,  depositing  a  kind  of  extended 
bands  of  gluten,  throughout  which  are  dis- 
posed the  ova  in  a  sort  oi  reticular  direction. 
It  is  of  a  gregarious  disposition,  and  is  fond  of 
freciuentiiig  deep  holes  in  rivers  which  tlow 
with  a  gentle  current ;  it  is  extremely  vo- 
racious, and  bites  eagerly  at  a  bait ;  it  is  te- 
nacious of  lite,  and  may  be  carried  to  the 
distal. ce  of  sixty  miles  in  dry  straw,  and  yet 
survive  the  journey.  It  is  one  of  those  fishes 
whicii  were  held  in  repute  at  the  tables  of 
the  antient  Romans,  and  is  in  general  esteem 
at  the  present  day,  being  considered  as  firm 
and  delicate.  lu  some  of  the  northern  re- 
gions a  species  of  isinglass  is  prepared  from 
the  skin. 

2.  Perca  lucioperca,  sandre  perch.  Ge- 
neral length  from  one  to  two  feet,  but  said 
sometimes  to  arrive  at  four  feet ;  shape  long- 
er than  in  the  precedingspecies,  having  some- 
thing of  the  habit  of  a  pike,  the  head  being 
rather  produced,  and  the  mouth  furnished 
with  large  teeth:  general  colour  silvery  grey, 
deepest  on  the  back,  and  with  a  pretty  s'.roiig 
tinge  of  blue  on  the  head  and  gill-covers  ; 
sides  of  the  back  marked  by  pretty  numer- 
ous, slightly  decurrent,  blackish  bands ; 
dorsal  fins,  by  numerous  dusky  spots;  pec- 
toral fins,  reddish;  the  rest  di.sky.  Native 
of  clear  rivers  and  lakes  in  the  middle  parts 
of  Europe,  and  highly  esteemed  for  the 
table:  in  general  manners  said  to  resemble 
the  common  perch,  but  to  be  far  less  te- 
nacious of  life. 

3.  Perca  cernua,  rulTe  perch.  Length 
about  six  iuclies;  shape  more  slender  lliau 
that  of  the  common  perch;  head  rather  large, 
and  sonieu hat  flattened  ;  teeth  small;  colour 
subolivaceous,  with  numerous  dusky  spots 
disposed  over  the  body,  dorsal,  pectoral  fins, 
and  tail;  abdomen  whitish;  native  of  many 

'  parts  of  Europe  ;  chiefiy  frcqiicnting  clear 
rivers,  assembling  in  large  shoals,  and  keep- 
ing in  the  deepest  part  of  the  water.  There 
are  about  forty  species  of  this  genus.  See 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  figs.  3'^5,  324. 

PERCH,  in  land-measuring,  a  rod  or  pole 
of  \C)\  feet  in  length,  of  which  4()  in  length 
and  4  in  breadth  make  an  acre  of  ground. 
But,  hv  the  customs  of  several  counties,  there 
is  a  dilference  in  this  measure.  In  Slatford- 
shire  it  is  24  feet ;  and  in  the  forest  of  Sher- 
wood 2.')  feet,  the  foot  being  lliere  18  inches 
long  ;  and  in  Herefordshire  a  perch  of  <lilch- 
ing  is  21  feel,  the  perch  of  waUing  \(ik  feet, 
and  a  pole  of  dciishiercd  ground  is  12  feet, 
&c. 

PERCUSSION,  ill  mechanics,  the  iniprcs- 


PE-BOMETEJIio 


Z^ZI.&j9V^A. 


t'dtl. 


FrmtsiJ/iiuj-iScS ^'^■iA.-Bi.  YSSHfs  ITsw Brid^^JtJBhizk^Mrs. 


FuTtit  JC. 


Vion  a  bofly  nmkos  in  fnlliiis;  or  ?Ui1;in.^  iipnn' 
another,  or" Oil-  sliock  of  two  ixjtlics  in  motion. 
'  I'crciission  is  either  (hrect  or  oblique  ;  ili- 
fCcM,  when  the  inij)iils;'  is  u;iven  in  a  hne  per- 
iK'niliciiiar  to  the  point  of  eoiitaet  ;  anil  ob- 
lique, when  i(  is  given  in  a  lini-  oblique  to  the 
point  ol  contact. 

The  ratio  which  an  oblicine  stroke  bears 
to  a  perpentlicular  one,  is  as  the  sine  of  the 
angle  of  incidence  to  the  railius.  Thus,  let 
«')  (Plate  Miscel.  tig.  185)  be  the  side  of  any 
boclv  on  vliicli  an  oblique  force  falls,  witlillie 
direction  da\  driiw  r/c  at  riglit  angles  to  rfA, 
a  perpendicular  let  fall  from  d  totlic^  body  to 
be  moved,  and  make  (id  the  radius  of  a  circle  ; 
it  is  plain  that  the  oblique  force  dti,  by  the 
Ijws  of  Qoniposilion  and  resohilion  of  motions, 
will  bi;  resolved  intr)  the  two  forces  dc  and 
bd;  of  which  i/c.  being  p;n-allel  to  iib,  has 
no  energy  or  forcii  to  move  that  body  ;  and 
conse(]uently,  dh  expresses  all  the  power  of 
the  stroke  or  impulse  on  the  body  to  be 
moved.  Hut  db  is  the  right  sine  of  the  angle 
of  incidence  dah  ;  wherefore  the  oblique  | 
force  da,  to  one  falling  perpendicularly,  is  as 
tlie  sine  of  ifce  angle  of  incidence  to  the  radios. 
Percussion,  centre  of,  is  that  part  or 
point  of  a  pendulous  body,  which  will  make 
the  greatest  impresfi'jin  on  an  obstacle  that 
is  opposed  to  it  whilst  vibrating;  for  if  the 
ob-itacle  is  opposed  to  it  at  dui'errnt  distance^ 
fiom  the  point  of  suspension,  Ihestrokeor  per- 
tussioii  will  not  be  equa'Iy  powerful,  aiui  it 
will  soon  appear  that  this  centre  of  percussion 
does  uut  coincide  wiih  the  centre  of  gravity. 
The  force  of  percussion  is  the  same  as  the 
nionientnm,  or  quantity  of  motion,  and  is 
represented  by  tiie  product  arising  from  llie 
mass  or  quantity  of  matter  moved,  multi- 
plied by  the  velocity  of  its  motion  ;  and  that 
Without  uoy  regard  to  the  time  or  duration 
of  action  ;  for  its  action  is  considen.-d  tot.illy 
independ:nit  of  time,  or  but  as  for  an  instant, 
or  an  inlinitely  small  time. 

This-  consideration  will  enable  ns  to  re- 
solve a  quc^tion  that  has  been  greatly  can- 
vassed among  pliiloso|)hers  and  niathenia- 
ticians,  vi^.  what  is  the  relation  between  the 
force  of  percussion  and  mere  pressure  or 
weight?  Forwelience  infer,  tjiat  the  former 
force  is  inlinitely,  or  inconiparablv,  greater 
.than  tlio  latter.  For,  let  M  denote  anv  mass, 
body,  or  weight,  having  no  motion  or  ve- 
locity, but  simply  its  pressure;  then  will  that 
pressun^  or  force  be  denoted  by  M  itself, 
if  it  is  considered  as  acting  for  some  certain 
)4nite  assignable  time;  but,  considered  as  a 
torce  of  percussion,  that  is,  as  acting  but  for 
an  inlinitely  smalltime,  its  velo>itv  being  I), 
or  noihing,  its  percussive  force  v.ill  be  0  x 
M,  that  is  0,  or  nothing  ;  and  is  therefore 
Jess  than  any  the  smallest  percussive  force 
whatever.  Again,  let  us  consider  the  two 
forces,  viz.  of  percussion  and  pressure,  with 
respect  to  tlM"  eflifcts  they  produce.  Xow 
the  intensity  of  any  force  is  verv  well  mea- 
sured and  estimated  by  the  ell'ectit  produces 
in  a  given  time:  but  tlie  el'fect  of  the  pres- 
Kiiri'  M,  in  0  time,  or  an  inlinitely  small  lime, 
is  nothing  at  alt ;  that  is,  it  will  not,  in  an 
inlinitely  small  time,  produce,  for  example, 
any  motion,  either  in  itself,  or  in  any  olher 
body ;  il^  intensity,  therefore,  as  its  eflc'ct, 
is  infinitely  less  than  any  the  smallest  force 
of  percussion.  It  is  tr'ue,  indeed,  that  we 
see  motion  and  other  considerable  etlects 
produced  by  ijiere  pressure,  and  to  couiiter- 
VoL,  II. 


1  Eiicussrox. 

act  which  it  will  require  the  opposition  of 
some  consider.ilile  percussive  force ;  but  then 
it  must  be  observed,  that  the  former  has  been 
an  inlinitely  longer  lime  than  the  latter  in 
producing  itsett'ect;  and  it  is  no  wonder  in 
mathematics  that  an  inhnile  number  of  inli- 
nitely small  quantities  uii.krs  up  a  iinite  one 
It  has  therefore  only  been  for  want  of  con- 
sidering the  circumstance  of  time,  that  anv 
question  could  have  arisen  on  this  lieatf. 
Hence  the  two  forces  are  related  to  each 
other,  only  as  a  surfice  is  to  a  solid  or  body; 
by  the  motion  of  the  surface  through  an  in'li- 
nite  mniiber  of  ijoints,  or  through  a  finite 
right  line,  a  solid  or  body  is  generated  ;  and 
by  the  actiou  of  the  pressure  for  an  inlinile 
number  of  moments,  or  for  some  finite  ti'iie, 
a  quantity  equal  to  a  given  percussive  lorci 
is  generated  ;  but  the  surface  itseli  is  inli- 
nitely less  than  any  solid,  and  the  pressure 
iidinitely  less  than  any  percussive  fo"ce. 
Tills  point  may  be  easily  illtistrated  by  some 
familiar  instances,  wdiich  prove  at  least  tin- 
enormous  disproportion  between  the  two 
forces,  if  not  also  their  absolute  incom]-.ara- 
bility.  And  lirst,  the  blow  of  a  small  ham- 
mer, upon  the  head  of  a  nail,  will  drive  the 
nail  into  a  board  ;  wh.-ji  it  is  hard  to  couceivi- 
any  weight  so  great  as  will  produce  a  like 
elfect,  i.e.  that  will  sink  the  nail  as  tar  into 
the  board,  at  least  unless  it  is  left  to  act  for 
a  very  considerable  time;  and  even  after 
the  greatest  weight  has  been  laid  as  a  pres- 
sure on  the  head  of  the  nail,  and  has  sunk  it 
as  far  as  it  can  as  to  sense,  by  remaining  for 
a  long  time  there  without  producing  anv 
farther  sensible  elfect;  let  the  weiglit  lie  re- 
moved from  the  head  of  the  nail,  and  instead 
of  it,  let  it  be  struck  a  small  blow  with  a  ham- 
mer, and  the  nail  will  immediatelv  sink  far- 
ther into  the  wood.  Again,  it  is  also  well 
known,  that  a  ship-carpenter,  with  a  blow  of 
his  mallet,  will  drive  a  wedge  in  below  the 
greatest  ship  whatever,  lying  aground,  and 
so  overcome  her  weight,"  and  lift  her  up. 
Lastly,  let  us  consider  a  man  with  a  club  to 
strike  a  small  ball,  upwards  or  in  anv  other 
direction;  it  is  evident  that  the  ball  will  ac- 
quire a  certain  determinate  velocity  bv  the 
blow,  suppose  that  of  10  feet  per  secolid  or 
minute,  or  any  other  time  whatever  ;  now  it 
is  a  law,  universally  allowed  in  the  communi- 
cation of  motion,  that  when  different  bodies 
are  struck  with  equal  forces,  the  velocities 
communicated  are  reciprocally  as  the  weights 
of  the  bodies  that  are  struck;  that  is.  that 
a  double  body,  or  weight,  will  ac<|uire  half 
the  velocity  trom  an  equal  blow;  a  body 
ten  times  as  great,  one-tenth  of  the  velocity  ; 
a  body  100  limes  as  great,  the  100th  part 
of  the  veloiity ;  a  body  a  .million  times  as 
great,  the  millionth  part"of  the  velocity,  and 
so  on,  without  end;  from  whence  it  follows, 
that  there  is  no  body  or  weight,  how  great 
soever,  but  will  accpiire  some  finite  degree 
of  velocity,  and  be  overcome,  by  any  given 
small  Iinite  blow,  or  percussion. 

In  percussion,  we  distinguish  at  least  three 
several  sorts  of  bodies;  the  perfectly  hard, 
the  perfectly  soft,  and  the  perfectly 'ekisti. 
The  two  former  are  considered  as  utierK 
void  of  elasticity ;  having  no  force  to  se|)i- 
rate  or  throw  them  olf  from  each  otli  -r 
ar,ain,  after  collision  ;  and  therefire  eilh-r 
remaining  at  rest,  or  elseproceeding  imifor.n- 
ly  forward  together  as  one  body  or  mass  of 
matter.  '   ' 


3/7 

Tlie  laws  of  perriiss'oii  therefore  to  bo 
considered,  are  of  two  kinds;  (hose  for  elas- 
tic, and  th;>se  for  non-elastic  bodies. 

Tlie  one  only  general  priiici)>!c  fordeter- 
n,-;ning  the  mo'lions  of  Lodie-  from  percus- 
sion, and  which  belongs  e<|iirilly  to  both  the 
sorts  of  bodies,  i.e.  both  the  eL">iic  and  non- 
elastic,  is  this;  viz.  that  thefe  c.vi.sts  in  (he 
bodies  the  same  momentum,  or  ouanvity  of 
molioB,  estimated  in  any  one  and  the  sair."; 
direction,  both  before  the  stroke  and  after  it. 
And  t;-.is  principle  is  the  immediate  result 
of  the  third  law  ot  nature  or  motion,  that  re- 
action is  equal  to  action,  and  in  a  contrary 
direction;  from  whence  it  liap|x.'ns,  tha't 
whatever  motion  is  communicated  to  one 
body  by  the  action  of  anotlier,  exactly  the 
same  motion  does  this  jailer  lose  in  tiie"same 
direction,  or  exactly  tlie  same  does  the  former 
communicate  to  the  latter  in  tjie  contrary  di- 
rection. 

From  this  general  principle  too  it  results, 
tJiatno  alteration  takes  plaie  in  (he  comnioii 
centre  of  gravity  of  bodies  by  tljeir  actions 
upon  another;  bia  that  the  siid  common 
centre  of  gravity  perseveres  in  the  same  slate, 
whether  of  rest  or  of  uiiiliLirm  motion,  both 
before  and  after  the  shock  of  bodies. 

Now,  from  cither  ol  tln-se  two  laws,  viz. 
that  of  the  preservation  of  the  same  quantity 
ot  motion,  in  one  and  the  same  direction, 
and  that  of  the  pieservalion  of  the  same  slate 
ot  ihe  centre  of  gravity,  both  before  and  after 
the  shock,  all  the  circunistances  of  the  motions 
ol  both  the  kinds  of  bodies  after  collision  may 
be  made  out:  in  conjunction  with  their  ow"n 
pei-uliar  and  separate  constitutions,  namely, 
tlial  of.  the  one  sort  being  elastic,  and  the 
oilier  non-elastic. 

The  eli'ecls  of  these  diiferent  constitutions 
here  alluded  to,  are  Ihe-e:  that  non-elastic 
bodies,  on  tlieir  shock,  will  adliere  together, 
and  either  remain  at  rest,  or  else  move  to- 
gether as  one  mass  with  a  common  velocity  ; 
or  if  elastic,  they  will  separate  after  tlie 
shock,  with  tlie  very  same  relative  velocity 
with  which  they  met  and  sliocked.  Tli'e 
former  of  these  consequences  is  evident,  viz, 
that  non-elastic  bodies  keep  together  as'  one 
mass  after  they  meet;' because  there  exist* 
no  power  to  separate  them,  and  without  a, 
cause  there  canbe  no  efiect.  And  the  latter 
coiiseq  ence  results  immediately  from  the 
very  definition  and  essence  of  elasticity  itself, 
being  a  power  always  equal  to  the  torce  of 
compression  or  shock ;  and  which  restoring 
force  therefore,  acting  the  contrary  way,  wiU 
generate  the  same  relative  veloci"ty  betweeij 
the;  bodies,  or  the  same  quantity  of  matter, 
as  before  the  shod;,  and  the  'same  motioij 
also  of  their  common  centre  of  gravity. 


V, 

To  apply  rov  the  gcr.eral  principle  to  the  de- 
tonninatiiin  of  th.-  Rioiio;is  of  bodies  after  their 
shock  ;  let  B  and  i  be  any  two  bodies,  and  V 
and  -u  their  re.»pec:lve  velocitie3,  estimated  in 
the  direction  .W\  which  c-aantitics  V  and  « 
will  be  both  positive  if  the  bodies  botij  niove 
tovard?  D,  b:;t  one  of  tiiem  as  t  will  be  ae<~t- 
tive  if  t!ie  body  i  moves  towards  A,  and  v  wii! 
lie  z^  O  \i  ihe  body  i  is  at  rest.  Hence  tiien", 
BV  is  the  momentum  of  B  towards  D,  aud  also 
Ifj  is  the  mpmeatum  of  i  toivards  D,  whoje 
sum  is  BV  -f-  iv,  which  15  the  wI.qIc  quantit>'  of 
motion  in  the  direction  Ai),  and  v.Iech  momca- 
tum  piust  ?lsa  be  preserved  after  the  shock. 


3/t 


f  E  R 


Now,  if  the  bodies  have  no  elajtlcity,  they 
will  move  together  as  one  mass  B  -}-  i  after  tliey 
ineet,  with  sunie  common  velocity,  which  call  y, 
in  the  direction  AD  :  therefore  the  momentuni 
in  that  direction  alter  the  shock,  being  the  pro- 
duct of  the  mass  and  velocity,  will  he  (B  -|-  i) 
X  y-  But  the  momenta,  in  the  same  direction, 
before  and  after  the  impact,  arc  equal,  that  is, 
BV  -|-  /k/  r=  (B  +  i)  ^  ;  from  which  euuation 
any  one  of  the  quantities  may  be  determined 
wiien  the  rest  are  jjiven.  So,  if  we  would  find 
the  common  velocity  after  the  stroke,  it  will  be 

EV  -[-  iv  ,  ,  ,,    , 

V  := ,  equal  to  the  sum  ol  the  momenta 

B  +  i 
divided  by  the  sum  of  the  bodies  ;  which  is  also 
equal  to  the  velocity  of  the  common  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  two  todies,  both  before  and  after 
the  collision.  The  signs  of  the  terms,  in  this 
value  of  y,  will  be  all  positive,  as  above,  when 
the  bodies  move  both  the  same  way  AD  ;  but 
one  term  i-j  must  be  made  negative  when  the 
motion  of  i  is  the  contrary  way  ;  and  that  term 
»vill  be  absent  or  nothing,  when  i  is  at  rest  be- 
fore the  shock. 

Again,  for  the  case  of  elastic  bodies,  which 
will  separate  after  the  stroke,  with  certain  ve- 
locities, A-  and  ;:,  viz.  -v  the  velocity  of  B,  and  z 
the  velocitv  of  6  after  the  collision,  both  esti- 
mated in  the  direction  AD,  which  quantities  will 
be  either  positive,  or  negative,  or  nothing,  ac- 
cording to  the  circimistances  of  the  masses  B 
and  i^,  with  those  of  their  celerities  before  the 
stroke.  Hence  then,  Bv  and  iz  are  the  separate 
momenta  after  the  shock,  and  Bv-f-i;  their 
sum,  which  must  be  equal  to  the  sum  BV  -}-  iv 
in  the  same  direction  before  the  stroke  ;  also 
5-  —  .V  is  the  relative  velocity  with  which  the 
bodies  separate  after  the  blow,  and  which  must 
be  equal  to  V  —  w,  the  same  with  which  they 
meet ;  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  that  V  -|-  .v 
ziz  1'  -{-  ~  \  that  is,  the  sum  of  the  two  velocities 
of  the  one  body,  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  ve- 
locities of  the  other,  taken  before  and  after  the 
stroke ;  which  is  another  notable  theorem. 
Hence  then,  for  determining  the  two  unknown 
quantities  .v  and  z,  there  are  these  two  equa- 
tions, viz. 

BV-f-i-..  =  Bv-f-ii, 
and     V    —  V  z:z    z,  —  .v ; 
or     V    +  .V  =    T'  +  c ; 
the  resolution  of  which  equations  gives  those 
two  velocities  as  below, 

tbi,  +  (b  —  h)s 


•and  I  =; 


2bv  —  (b  —  /'J1' 


B  +i 

From  these  general  values  of  the  velocities, 
which  are  to  be  unilerstood  in  the  direction  AD, 
anv  particular  ca^es  may  easily  be  drawn.  As, 
if  t!te  two  bodies  B  and  b  are  equal,  then  E  —  l 
=  I)  and  B  -}-  i  z=.  2B,  and  the  two  velocities 
in  that  ca>e  become,  after  imj>uUe,  .v  z=  t,  and 
;s  ^  V,  the  very  ^ame  as  they  were  before,  but 
changed  to  the  contrary  bodies,  i.  e.  the  bodies 
liave  taken  each  other's  velocity  that  it  had  be- 
fore, and  with  the  same  sign  also.  So  that,  if 
the  equal  bodies  were  before  both  moving  the 
same  way,  or  towards  D,  they  will  do  the  same 
after,  but  with  interchanged  velocities.  But  if 
they  before  moved  contrary  ways,  B  towards  D, 
and  h  towards  A,  they  will  rebound  contrary 
ways,  B  back  towards  A,  and  b  towards!),  each 
with  the  other's  velocity.  And,  lastly,  if  oiis 
body,  as  b,  was  at  rest  before  the  stroke,  then 
the  other  B  will  be  at  rest  after  it,  and  h  will 
go  on  with  the  motion  that  B  had  before.  And 
thus  may  any  other  particular  cases  be  deduced 
from  the  first  general  values  of  .r  and  =. 

PliKDlCIU.M,  a  genus  of  tlie  tlass  and 
order  syiigcnesia  i)olyt;amia  siiperllua.  The 
cm  ill- (J  are  bilabiate;  (i.iwii  simple;  rc- 
cfj'laclt  nak,ed     There  art  ^'>'  species. 


PER 

PEUENNI.^L,  in  botany,  is  applied  to 
lliose  planls  whose  roots  will  abide  many 
years,  wlietlierlliey  retain  their  kaves  in  win- 
ter or  not;  those  wliicli  retain  their  leaves 
are  called  evergreens  ;  but  such  as  cast  tlieir 
leaves,  are  calk-d  deciduous. 

I'EUCJAI.ESIA,  a  genus  of  (lie  pentandria 
digynia  class  and  order.  Contorted  nect. 
sin  rounding  the  genitals  with  live-s;igitlated 
cups;  Corolla  salver-shaped,  'lliere  are  live 
species,  twining  plants  of  the  Cape,  i^c. 

PEKlAN'liiiUM.     See  Botany. 

PEHICARI>IUM.     See  Anatomy. 

PElUCAVPiUM,  among  botanists,  a  co- 
vering or  case  for  the  seeds  of  plants.  See 
Botany. 

PEKICUANIUM.     See  Anatomy. 

PEKIG^EUM,  PERiGEii.  See  Astro- 
nomy. 

PERIHELIUM.     See  Astronomy. 

PEKILI.A,  a  genus  of  the  class  aiul  order 
didynamia  gymnospermia.  U"he  calyx  upper- 
most ;  Si-gnient  very  short ;  stamiiKi  distant ; 
styles  two,  connected.  There  is  one  species, 
an  annual  of  the  East  Indies. 

PIlIvIMETEK,  in  geometry,  tlie  bounds 
or  limits  of  any  hgure  or  body.  The  pe- 
rimeters of  surfaces  or  iigtn-es  are  lines,  those 
of  bodies  are  surfaces.  In  circular  tigiu-es, 
instead  of  periineter,  we  say  circumference, 
or  periphery-. 

PERINiEUM,or  Perineum.  See  Ana- 
tomy. 

PERIOD,  in  astronomy,  tlie  tiine  taken 
up  by  a  star  or  planet  in  making  a  revolution 
round  the  sun;  or  the  duration  of  its  course 
till  it  returns  to  tiie  same  point  of  its  orbit. 
See  AsTRO.vOMY. 

Pekiod.     See  Chronology. 

Period,  in  grammar,  denotes  a  small  com- 
])ass  of  discourse,  containing  a  perfect  sen- 
tence, and  distinguislied  at  the  end  by  a  point, 
or  full  stop,  thus  (.);  and  its  members  or  di- 
visions marked  by  commas,  colons,  &c. 

PERICECI.     See  Geography. 

PERIOSTEUM.     See  Anatomy. 

PERiPUERV,  in  geometry,  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle,  ellipsis,  or  any  oth?r  re- 
gular curvilinear  figure.     See  Circle,  &c. 

PERIPLOCA,  r,)-<z«/«n  .vz/A-,  a  genus  of 
the  digynia  order,  in  tlie  ])('nlandria  class  of 
plant-;  and  in  the  natural  metliod  ranking 
under  the  30th  order,  contorta-.  The  nec- 
tariuni  surroimds  the  genitals,  and  sends  out 
live  tilaments.  I'licre  are  13  species,  some 
of  wliich  are  natives  of  warm  climates  :  one, 
however,  is  sufficiently  liardy  for  this  climate. 
The  periplocais  a  fine  climbing  plant,  that 
will  wind  itself  with  its  ligneous  branches 
about  whatever  tree,  liedge,  pale,  or  pole,  is 
near  it,  and  will  arise,  bv  the  assistance  of 
siicii  support,  to  tlie  height  ot  above  30  feet ; 
and  where  no  tree  or  support  is  at  hand  to 
wind  about,  it  will  knit  or  entangle  itself  to- 
gether in  a  most  complicated  manner.  The 
stalks  of  the  older  branches,  which  are  most 
woody,  are  covered  witli  a  dark-brown  bark, 
whilst  the  younger  shoots  are  more  mottled 
with  the  dilK'rent  colours  of  brown  and  grev, 
and  the  emls  of  the  youngest  shoots  are  often 
of  a  light  green.  'I'lie  leaves  are  the  greatest 
ornament  to  this  plant,  for  they  are  large,  and 
of  a  shining  green  colour  on  their  upper  stn-- 
face,  and  cause  a  variety  by  exhibiting  ihiir 
under  surface  of  a  hoar\  cast.  Their  ligure 
is  oblong,  or  rather  more  in<'litied  to  the  shape 
ol  a  spear;  as  their  ends  are  pointedj  and  li>ev 


PER 

stand  opposite,  by  paiis,  on  short  footstalks. 
Their  tiowers  alford  pleasure  to  the  curious 
examiner  of  nature.  Each  of  them  singly  has 
a  star-like  appearance ;  for,  though  it  is  com- 
posed of  one  petal  only,  yet  the  rim  is  dividetj 
nito  segments,  which  ex))and  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  forin  that  figure.  'I'lieir  inside  is 
hairy,  as  is  also  the  nectarium  which  sur- 
rounds the  petal.  'J'he  propagation  of  this 
ciniber  is  very  easy  ;  for,  if  the  cuttings  are 
planted  in  a  light  moist  soil,  in  tlie  autumn  or 
m  the  spring,  Fiiev  will  readilv  strike  root. 

PERIPNEIMONY.     See  Medicine. 

PEUIPTERE.     .See  Architlctlre. 

PERISCH.     SeeGEOGRAPHv. 

PERISTALTIC.     See  Physiology. 

PERIS  TYLE.     See  Architecture. 

PERrrON/EUM.     Sec  Anatomy. 

PEK!  rROCHlLM,     See  .Mechanics. 

PERJURE  ,  is  a  crime  conimatecl  when  a 
lawlid  oath  is  administered,  by  anv  one  who 
has  authorily,  to  a  person  in  any  jiidicial  pro- 
ceeding, wlio  swears  wihully,  absolutelv,  and 
falsely,  in  a  matter  material  to  the  issue  or 
cause  in  question,  by  his  own  act,  or  by  the 
subornation  of  others.  To  constitute  pcijnrV, 
it  is  essential  tiiat  the  oath  is  wilfully  taken ; 
that  it  is  in  a  judicial  proceeding,  or  soine 
other  public  proceeding  of  a  similar  nature  : 
tlie  oath  must  be  taken  before  persons  lawfully 
authorized  to  administer  it,  and  also  by  a 
person  sworn  to  depose  the  truth  ;  it  must  also 
be  taken  absolutely  and  directly,  and  upon 
something  material  to  the  point  in  issue.  It 
is  not  material  whelher  the  false  oath  is 
credited  or  not ;  or  wlietlier  the  party  in  whose 
prejudice  it  was  taken,  was  in  the  event  da- 
maged by  it;  for  the  prosecution  is  not 
gioundrd  upon  the  damage,  but  on  the  abuse 
of  public  justice.  By  stat.  .5  Eliz.  c.  9,  per- 
sons guilty  of  perjury,  or  subornation  of  per- 
jury, are  to  be  piinislied  with  one  year's  im- 
prisonment, and  stand  in  the  pillory  vTiere 
the  of/eiic('  was  committed.  This  offence  is 
also  punished  by  transportation. 

PERIWINKLE.     SeeTuRBO. 

PERMl'TA  TlOX  (1/ 7«,/«/i(;:tj,  In  alge- 
bra.   See  CeMBiNATiON. 

PERORATIOX.     See  Rhetoric. 

Pi'.RO  TIS,  a  genus  of  the  digynia  order,  in 
the  tnandria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  na- 
tural metliod  ranking  under  the  fourth  order, 
graniina.  There  is  no  calyx;  the  corolla 
consists  of  a  bivalvular  ghnne;  the  valves  are 
oblong,  acute,  somewhat  unetpial,  and  ter- 
minating in  a  sharp  beard.  'I'liere  are  two 
species,  natives  of  the  East  Indies. 

Pi-KOXIDE,  in  chemisti-y,  denotes  the 
maximum  of  uxidizcment.     See  Oxide. 

PEH  Pi:XDICULAR.     SeeGEOMETRY. 

Perpkndicui  ar  tn  a  puraliola,  is  a  right 
line  cutting  the  parabola  in  the  point  hi  which 
any  other  right  line  touches  it,  and  is  also  it- 
self perpendicular  to  that  tangent. 

PERPEl  Tl'l^',  in  annuities,  the  number 
ol  years  purchase  to  be  givi'U  for  an  annuitv 
which  is  to  continue  forever.  It  is  li>tind  by 
<lividing  1(10/.  by  the  rate  of  interest,  and, 
coiise.|uently,  is,  al  the  most  usual  rates,  as 
follow  s : 

At  3  per  cent.  33,.3333 
3i  2S,5714 

4  2.^,0000 

.'>  20,0000 

6  l(),(i(j()6 

14,2SJ7 


P  K  R 

TIiosp  are  tlie  number  of  years  piirdiasc  (o 
be  given  for  a  perpetual  annuity,  on  the  Mip- 
])o<itioii  tliat  it  is  rec('jval)le  yearly  ;  btit  as 
annniues  are  nui;:li  more  commonly  rceeiv- 
able  lialf-yearly,  and  the  interest  of  money  is 
likewise  usn^illy  paid  half-yearly,  the  per- 
pi;tiiity  under  these  lireimistanees  will  be 
greater  or  less  Ijuin  the  above,  as  the  periods 
at  vvhieli  the  annuity  is  payable  are  more  or 
less  fr.'cjuent  liuui  those  at  whicli  the  rale  of 
interest  IS  supposed  payable.  Exan^ple.  at  4 
l)er  cent,  inlei  est : 

Interest  Annuity  payable, 

payable.         Yearly.  llalf-yearlv. 

Yearly,  25,000000         i.'5,'J47.>i8 

llalf-vearlv,     L'4,751.'47j         2j, 000000 

(^ueierly,'        24,62S109         24,87.->(i'-'l 

Peiipetuity  is,  where  if  all  that  liave 
interest  join  in  the  conveyance,  yet  tliey  can- 
not b:u'  or  pass  the  estate  ;  tor,  if  by  concur- 
rence of  all  having  interest,  the  estate  may  be 
barred,  it  is  no  perpetuity.    1  Chan.  Ca.  213. 

PF.ltUON.    See  Architectuke. 

PRKKY,  a  drinit  made  of  pears,  in  the 
same  manner  as  cyder  ii>  made  from  apples. 
See  C'ynF.R. 

PERSICCL'TION,  is  any  pain  or  aOliclion 
which  a  jjcrsjn  designedly  iiilliets  upon  ano- 
ther; and,  in  a  more  restrained  sense,  the 
sulferings  of  Christians  on  account  of  their  re- 
ligion, liistoriaus  usually  reckon  ten  general 
persecution-;,  the  lirst  of  which  was  under  the 
emperor  Nero,  thirty-one  years  after  our 
I.,ord's  ascension  ;  when  that  emperor  having 
set  lire  to  the  city  of  Kome,  threw  the  odium 
of  that  execrable  action  on  the  Chrisliaus, 
who  under  that  pretence  were  wrapped  up  in 
the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  worried  and  de- 
voured by  dogs;  others  were  crucitied,  and 
others  burnt  alive.  The  second  was  under 
Domitian,  in  the  year  93.  In  this  pi-rsecu- 
tion  St.  John  the  apostle  was  sent  to  the  isle 
of  Patnios,  in  order  to  be  employed  in  dig- 
ging in  the  mines.  The  third  began  in  the 
third  year  of  Trajan,  in  the  year  100,  ami 
was  carried  on  wilii  great  violence  for  several 
years.  "The  fourth  was  undi-r  Antoninus  the 
philosopher,  when  the  Christians  were  banish- 
ed from  their  houses,  forbidden  to  shew  their 
heads,  reproached,  beaten,  hurried  from  place 
to  place,  plundered,  imprisoned,  and  stoned. 
The  tifth  began  in  the  year  197,  under  the 
emperor  Severus.  The  sixth  began  with  the 
reign  of  the  emperor  Maximinusin  2.35.  The 
seventh,  which  was  the  most  dreadful  perse- 
cution that  had  ever  been  known  in  the 
church,  Ijegan  in  the  year  250,  in  the  reign  of 
the  emperor  Decius,  wIk-ii  the  Christians 
were  in  all  |)lace3  driven  from  their  habita- 
tions, stripped  of  their  estates,  tormented  with 
racks,  &c.  The  eighth  began  in  the  year 
257,  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  em- 
peror Valerian.  The  ninth  was  under  the 
emperor  Aurelian,  A.  D.  274,  but  this  was 
very  inconsiderable;  and  the  tenth  began  in 
the  nineteenth  year  of  Dioclesian,  A.  IJ.  303. 
In  this  dreadful  persecution,  which  lasted  ten 
years,  houses  tilled  with  Christians  were  set 
on  fire,  and  whole  droves  were  tied  together 
with  ropes,  and  thrown  into  the  sea. 

PER»FA'S,  in  astronomy,  a  constellation 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  which,  accortling 
to  the  catalogues  of  Ptolemy  and  Tycho,  con- 
tains, twenty-nine  stars;  but  in  the  Ijritannic 
catalogue  sixty-seven. 

PF.USlAN  WHEEL,  an  engine,  or  wheel, 
turued  by  a  rivuletj  or  other  stream  ol  water, 


PER 

and  fitted  with  open  boxes  at  its  cogs,  to  ra!-e 
water  for  the  overflowing  of  lands,  or  oilier 
purposes.     See  HyDRAtn,rcs. 

ll  may  be  made  of  any  sine,  according  to 
the  height  the  water  is  to  be  raised  to,  and 
the  strength  of  the  stream  by  which  it  is 
turned.  this  wheel  is  placed  so  that  its 
bottom  only  is  immersed  in  the  stream, 
wherein  tin'  open  boxes  at  its  cogs  are  all  tilled 
one  alter  another  with  water,  wlii<'h  is  raised 
v\ith  them  to  the  upper  part  of  the  wheel's 
circuit,  and  then  naturally  empties  itself  into 
a  trough  which  carries  it  to  thij  land. 

PEUSlCARIA,  an  mart.  See  Polygo- 
num. ' 

PERSON,  in  granimar,  a  term  applied  to 
such  nouns  or  promnin-,  as  being  either  pre- 
fixed or  understood,  are  the  nominatives  in  all 
inllections  of  a  verii;  or  it  is  the  agent  or 
jiatient  in  all  finite  and  personal  verbs. 

PI:HS()NAL  goods.     See  Chattels. 

Pl'".RSON.'VrE,  is  the  reprc,.,enting  a  per- 
ison  by  a  fictitious  or  assumed  character,  so  as 
to  ixissforthe  person  represented.  Person- 
ating bail,  is  bv  stat.  21  Jac.  1.  c.  26,  a  ca- 
pital felony.  f5y  various  other  statutes,  per- 
sonatiiii;  seamen  entitled  to  wage--,  prize- 
money,  &c.  is  also  a  capital  feloiiv. 

P1':"R,->00N1A,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  letr.nidria  nionogynia.  There  is  no 
calyx  ;  petals  four  ;  glands  four,  at  the  base 
of  the  germ;  stigma  blunt;  drupe  one- 
seeded. 

PERSPECTIVE,  is  the  art  of  drawing  the 
picture  or  representation  of  any  visible  ob- 
ject on  a  plane  surface,  in  such  manner  as  it 
would  appear  on  some  transparent  surface, 
interposed  between  an  object  and  the  eye  of 
an  observer.  Hence  it  is  the  foundation  of 
true  painting,  and  is  so  far  necessary  in  re- 
gulating the  practical  designs  of  an  artist,  that, 
without  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  thereof, 
he  works  at  random,  in  not  keeping  to  the 
nicety  of  measures  and  proportions.  It  has 
geometry  for  its  fountlalioii,  and.consrquentlv, 
truth  for  its  support.  It  consists  in  determin- 
ing and  fixing  the  geometric  situation  of 
points  in  a  picture,  which  pomts  connected, 
produce  lines,  and  lines  (straight  and  cur- 
vilineal)  constitute  the  first  principles  of  a 
picture,  the  grand  outline  and  structure  which 
the  painter  is  to  dress  with  light  and  shade. 
Hence  it  is  perceivable  thatthemathematician 
directs  the  outlines,  but  does  not  finish  tiie 
piece ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  painter 
cannot  make  a  sure  beginning  without  the  j. 
mathematician's  rules. 

\\  e  do  not  mean  to  say  that  these  rules  are 
to  be  applied  to  the  minute  inllections  or 
curvatures  of  every  leafy  subject  of  a  land- 
scape, or  to  all  the  smaller  hollows  and  pio- 
minences  of  objects,  or  the  muscular  round- 
ness and  softness  of  li\  ing  creatures;  for  these, 
as  well  as  some  other  of  the  minutia;  of  art, 
are  to  be  determined  by  the  eye,  and  drawn 
by  a  steady  hand.  A  landscape-painter  may 
study  nature  in  the  inmost  recesses  of  a  forest, 
and  there  store  hismindwith  models  of  trees, 
shrubs,  and  foliage,  and  by  such  means  he 
may  become  iiualified  to  make  a  random  pic- 
ture of  an  individual  shrub,  or  a  group  of 
trees;  but  it  lie  would  go  further  and  repre- 
sent a  true  protraiture  ot  an  avenue  of  these 
subjei  t»,  he  must  study  the  perspective  di- 
minution of  the  most  remote  parts  thereof,  as 
well  asllieir  relative  posiiion-s,  or  his  proposed 
pitlure  will  become  an  aaauiorphuais.    He 

aiia  ' 


p  i;  R  .37^ 

inay  give  a  tolerable  direct  view  of  one  side 
of  a  iiuiluiiig,  but  he  can  do  no  more;  if  he 
Would  give  the  representation  of  more  than 
one  side  he  must  have  recourse  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  perspective. 

'J'he  practical  rules  of  perspective  are  in 
great  meabure  applied  to  the  delineation  of 
architectural  bodies,  and  other  right-lined 
figures;  and  a  knowledge  of  the  general  laws 
ot  this  science  is  sure  to  inform  tlie  judgment; 
of  the  manner  in  which  lines  should  run, 
whereto  they  should  lend,  and  where  I,  r- 
minate,  so  ;ls  to  jji'oduce  the  di'sired  et'feci, 

Per-pective  is  employed  both  in  represert- 
ing  the  ichnogiajihics  and  the  scenograplii's 
ot  objects;  and  the  former  is  frei|ue,)ily 
found  to  be  a  necessary  foundation  ot  the 
latter. 

We  mean  not  to  enter  into  an  elaborate 
liistorv  of  perspective,  and  say  who  it  w  is  ilijt 
first  discovered  the  pro|)erties  of  lines,  whi(  h, 
when  posited  in  certain  order,  would  fid  the 
representation  of  solid  bodies,  but  rallier  pro- 
ceed immediately  to  the  practical  ru!f  s,  after 
premising  that  all  the  |)ractical  geoi.letry  ne- 
cessary in  this  art  has  been  elucida';ed  in  our 
preceding  volume  under  that  head,  to  whicli 
we  refer  the  student. 

The  drawing-board,  covered  with  a  sheet 
of  paper,  may  be  termed  the  jjerspective 
plane,  wln'rcon  the  objects  are  to  lie  delineat- 
ed.    See  Plate  Perspective,  fig.  I. 

Parallel  to  the  bottom  of  tl  j-  plane  let  a 
pencil-line  be  drawn,  mark  it  All,  and  call  it 
the  ground-line. 

.'Vt  about  a  third  part,  or  son. ewhat  more, 
of  the  height  of  the  intended  pxture,  or  prin- 
cipal figure  in  the  picture,  diaw  (with  the 
help  of  a  T  s([uare)  a  pencil-line  parallel  to 
the  ground-line,  uiark  it  ha,  and  call  it  the 
horizontal  line.  The  height  of  this  line  will 
be  variable,  as  the  ground  on  which  the  ob- 
server stands  may  be  higher  or  lower  from  the 
base  of  the  principal  figure  ;  but,  in  general, 
when  the  draughtsman  can  choose  his  station, 
the  height  we  have  presciribeU  will  be  found 
the  most  convenient. 

On  that  part  of  the  grornd-line  wh.ich  the 
eye  is  su])posed  opposite  to  in  drawing  .any 
picture,  draw  another  pencil-line  perpendi- 
cular thereto,  as  at  C,  ceos^ingthe  horizontal 
line  at  D.  This  point  /)  is  called  the  point 
of  sight,  being  the  spot  which  the  eye  is  im- 
mediately opposite  to.,  lolh  in  lateral  and  per- 
pendicular position. 

The  grounddine,  and  its  perpendicular,  mar 
be  divided  into  scales  of  equal  parts,  whereof 
CI)  may  be  supposed  five  feet,  the  height  of 
the  eye. 

The  distance  of  the  eye  from  (he  principal 
object  must  be  set  off  ill  the  korizontal  line, 
both  ways  from  the  point  of  sight  D.  Thr 
choosing  a  proper  distance  is  so  essential  a 
requisite,  that,  williout  a  due  observance 
thereof,  a  faithful  representation  of  a  pio 
turesqtie  object  cannot  be  attained. 

'l"he  most  favourable  point  of  distance  seems 
to  be  that  which  is  a  mean  between  the  dii 
gonal  of  an  upper  quarter  of  the  picture  (as 
DG)  set  off  from  D  to  the  perpenaicidar  DE, 
continued  as  at  .r,  and  the  length  of  the  pic- 
ture set  off  from  G  to  the  perpendicular,  as- 
at//;  and  [the  mean  of  the  distance  will  be 
found  at  3,  which  will  be  somewhat  about 
four  limes  the  height  of  the  tye.  This  dis- 
tauce  iRUit  be  set  oit'  on  tUe  horlxoutaJ  liae 


sso 

also,  a';  before  mentioiie<5,  on  one  or  botli' 
sides  of  t!ie  point  of  sight. 

These  recjuisites  being  laid  down  on  the 
ilrawing-bjard,  we  may  proci-ed  to  examples 
of  finding  tiie  true  positions  of  points  and  lines 
on  the  picture,  froin  their  ichnography,  drawn 
out  of,  and  below,  the  baseline. 

S;:ppose  tiie  pentagon  ABDEF  (fig.  2.) 
vas  to  be  represented  by  the  rules  of  per- 
spective on  the  transparent  plane  VP,  i)la- 
i  ed  perpendicularly  on  tiio  horizontal  plane 
Ji  R  ;  doited  lines  are  imagined  to  pas;  from 
tlie  eve  C  to  each  point  of  the  pentagon,  as 
CA,  CI3,  CD,&c.  which  are  supposed  in  their 
pas-age  ihvoiigh  the  plane  PV,  to  leave  their 
traces  or  vestigia  in  the  points  a,  h,  d,  &c.  on 
the  plane,  and  thereby  to  deliii'-ate  the  pen- 
fa.gcii  ab.ltf;  which,  as  it  strikes  the  eye  by 
-the  fame  rays  that  the  original  p.'iitagou 
ABDEl'  does,  will  be  a  true  perspective  re- 
presentation of  it. 

The  business  of  perspective,  therefore,  ii 
to  lay  down  geometrical  rules  for  finding  the 
points  (i  'idi'J  upon  the  plane ;  and  hence, 
also,  we  have  a  mechanical  method  of  de- 
lineating any  object  very  accurately. 

Perspective  is  either  employed  in  repre- 
senting the  ichnographics,  or  ground-plots  of 
objects ;  or  the  scenographics,  or  represen- 
tations of  ifje  objects  tiiemselves. 

But  before  we  give  any  examples  of  either, 
it  will  be  proper  to  explain  some  technical'! 
terms  in  regard   to  ])erspective  in   general;] 
and,  first,  the  horizontal   line  is  that  supposed  I 
to  be  drawn  parallel  to  the  liorizon  through 
^he  eye  of  the  spectator;  or  rather  it  is  a  line] 
which  separates  the  heaven  from  the  earth, 
and  which  limits  the  sight.     Thus,  A,  B,  fig. 
3,  are  two  pillars  below  the  horizontal  line 
CD.by  reason  tiie  eye  is  elevated  above  them ; 
in  fig.  4,  they  are  said  to  be  etjual  with  it; 
and  in  iig.  5,  raited  above  it.     Tlr.'.s,  accord- 
ing to  the  ditferent  points  in  view,  the  objects 
will  be  either  hi  ;iier  or  lower  than  the  iiori- 
zontal  line.     Th°  point  of  sight.  A,  fig.  (i,  is 
that  which  makes  the  central  ray  on  the  ho- 
rizontal  line;  or,  it   is  the   point  where  all 
the  other  -vistial   raj-s,   D,  1),  unite.      The 
points  of  distance,  C,  C,  are  points  set  off  in 
tne  horizontal  line  ^^  equrd  distances  on  each 
side  of  the  point  of  sight.  A;  and,  in  the  s.inie 
fignre,  BB  represents  the  base  line,  or  funda- 
mental line;  EE  is  the  abridgment  of  the 
square,  of  which  D,  D,  are  the  sides  ;  F,  I', 
the  diagnn.il  lines,  wliich  go  to  the  points  of 
distance  C,  C.     Accidental  points,  are  those 
where  the  objects  end :   these  may  be  cast 
negligently,  because  neither   drawn    to  the 
point  of  sight,  nor  to  thoie  of  distance,   but 
jiteeting  each  other  in  the  liori-contal  line.  .For 
•.'xample,  two  pieci>s  of  square  timber,  G  and 
H,  fig.  7,  make  the  poiuts  I,  I,  1, 1,  on  the 
horizontal  line ;  but  go  not  to  the  point  of 
sight  K,  nor  to  the  points  of  distance  C,  C  : 
these  accidental  points  serve  likewise:  forcase- 
inents,   doors,   windows,  tables,  chairs,  &c. 
The  point  of  direct  view,  or  of  the  front,  is 
when  we  have  the  object  directly  before  us ; 
in  which  case,  it   shews  only  the  foreside ; 
and,  if  bolovv  the  horizon,  a  little  of  the  top, 
but  nothing  of  the  side;,  unless  the  object  is 
polygonous.     The  point  of  oblitpie  view,  is 
when  we  see  an  object  aside  of  us,  and  m  it 
were  aslant,  or  with  the  corner  of  thi;  eye; 
the  eye,  however,  being  all  tlie  whil.;  opposite 
to  the  point  of  sight ;  in  which  case,  we  see 
tilt  object  laterally,  and  it  presents  to  us  two 


PERSPECTIVE. 

sides  or  faces.     The  practice  is  the  same  in  | 
the  side-points,  as  in  the  Iront-poii.ts  ;  a  point 
of  sight,  points  of  distance,  ^;c.  being  laid 
down  in  the  one  as  well  as  in  the  other. 

We  shall  now  give  some  example;,  by 
which  it  will  aijpear  that  the  whole  practice 
of  perspective  is  built  upon  the  foundation  al- 
ready laid  down.  Thus,  to  find  the  jjer- 
speciive  appearance  of  a  triangle,  ABC,  fig. 
8,  between  the  eye  and  the  triiiugle  draw  the 
line  Di'",  which  is  called  the  fundamental  line ; 
from  '2  tlrav>'  2  V,  representing  the  per[)en- 
dicular  distance  of  the  eye  above  the  iunda- 
mental  line,  be  it  what  it  will ;  and  through 
\  draw,  nt  right  angles  to  2  \',  fill  parallel 
to  DE:  then  will  the  plane  DH HE  represent 
the  transparent  plane,  on  which  the  perspec- 
tive representation  is  to  be  made.  Next,  to 
find  tlie  perspective  points  of  the  angles  of  the 
triangle,  let  fall  perpendiculars  A  1,  C  2,  B3, 
from  the  angles  to  the  fuiidainenlal  DF. :  set 
oil"  tliese  perpendiculars  upon  the  fundamental 
opposite  to  the  point  of  distance  II,  to  B,  xV, 
C;  from  1,2,  3,  draw  lines  to  the  principal 
point  V;  and  from  the  points  A,  B,  and  C, 
on  the  fundamental  line,  draw  the  right  lines 
AH,  BII,  CM,  10  the  point  of  distance  II  ; 
wliich  is  so  called,  because  the  s|)eclator  ought 
to  be  so  far  removed  from  Uie  figure  or  paint- 
ing, as  it  is  distant  from  the  principal  point  V. 
Tlie  points  a,  h,  and  c,  where  tlie  visual  lines 
V  1,  V  2,  V3  intersect  the  lines  of  distance 
AC,  BII,  CH,  will  be  theangular  points  of  the 
triangle  dbc,  the  true  representation  of  ABC. 
By  proceeding  in  this  manner  with  the  an- 
gular points  of  any  right-lined  figure,  whether 
regular  or  irregular,  it  will  be  very  easy  to 
represent  it  in  perspective;  however,  in  prac- 
tice, several  cooipendioiis  iiijthods  will  oc- 
cur to  every  artist.  Again,  if  the  scenographic 
appearance  of  anv  solid  was  to  be  represent- 
ed, suppose  of  a  triangular  prism,  whose  base 
is  the  triangle  wjji,  fig.  9,  you  need  only  find 
the  upper  surface  of  it,  in  the  same  manner 
ai  you  found  the  lower,  or  base;  and  then 
joiiiuig  the  corresponding  points  by  right  lines, 
you  will  have  the  true  representation  of  the 
solid  in  perspective.  So  that  the  work  is  the 
same  as  before  ;  only  yoti  take  a  m-w  funda- 
mental line,  as  much  higher  flian  the  former, 
as  is  the  altitude  of  that  solid  whose  sceno- 
graphic representation  you  would  delineate. 

But  there  is  still  a' more  commodious  way, 
which  is  til's:  havuig  found,  as  above,  the 
base  or  ichnographic  plane  mno,  let  per- 
pendiculars be  erected  to  the  fundamental 
line  from  the  three  angular  points,  which  wdl 
express  the  altitudes  of  tiio.e  points.  But 
because  these  altitudes,  though  equal  in  the 
body  or  solid  itself,  will  appear  unequal  in  the 
scenographic  view,  the  farthest  off  appearing 
less  than  those  nearer  the  eye,  their  true  pro- 
portional heights  miy  be  thus  determined. 
.\iiy  where  in  tlie  fundamental  line,  let  AB 
be  erected  perpendicularly,  and  equal  to  the 
true  altitude;  or,  if  the  figure  has  diifereiit 
altitudes,  let  them  be  transferred  into  the 
perpendicular  AB;  and  from  the  points  ,'\ 
and  B,  and  from  all  the  points  of  intermediate 
altitudes,  if  there  are  any  such,  draw  right 
lini;s  lo  the  point  of  sight  V  r  these  lines, 
AV,  BV,  will  constitute  a  triangle  with  AB, 
within  which  all  the  |ioiiits  of  attitude  will  be 
contained.  Thiougli  the  points  n,  n,  m,  draw 
parallels  to  the  fundamental  line;  antl  from 
the  points  a,  a,  &:c.  erect  perpendiculars  to 
those  parallels ;  and  the  points  where  they 


intersect  the  lines  AV,  BV,  an  in  a,  a,  h,  h, 
&c.  will  ileteimine  the  apparent  height  of  the 
solid  in  that  scenographic  position  to  the  eve 
in  V. 

Parallel  perspeclive  is  where  the  picture  is 
supposed  to  be  so  situated,  as  to  be  parallel 
to  the  side  of  the  principal  object  in  the  pic- 
ture, as  a  building  for  instance.  '1  hen  the 
lines  on  those  sides  of  the  building  that  are 
parallel  to  each  other,  continue  parallel  on 
the  pictm-e,  and  <lo  not  vanish  into  any  point; 
while  the  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  former, 
vanish  into  the  centre  of  the  picture.  Tnis 
will  be  exemplified  in  fig.  10. 

The  picture  being  supposed  to  stand 
parallel  to  tlie  side  of  "the  house  ABC^D,  the 
lines  AB,  DC,  which  in  nature  are  parallel  lo 
each,  must  be  made  parallel  in  the  perspective 
representation.  But  the  lines  BE,  CI'",  which 
in  nature  are  at  right  angles  to  AB  and  DC, 
and  consequently  also  to  the  picture,  tend 
towards  a  point;  and  this  point  G,  towards 
which  they  tend,  is  the  centre  of  the  picture. 
Oblique  perspective,  is  when  the  plane  of 
the  picture  is  supposed  to  stand  oblique  to  the 
sides  of  the  objects  represented,  in  which 
case  the  representations  of  the  lines  upon  those 
sides  will  not  be  parallel  among  themselves, 
but  will  tend  towards  their  vanishing  point. 
This  kind  of  perspective  is  shewn  in  fig.  1 1 . 

A  bird's-eye  view,  is  a  view  supposed  to  be 
taken  in  the  air,  looking  dawn  upon  the  ob- 
ject, and  differs  from  the  usual  way  of  draw- 
ing perspective  views,  in  supposing  the  hori- 
zontal line  to  be  raised  much  higher. 

When  an  object  is  to  be  drawn  in  per- 
spective, all  its  parts  must  be  measured,  so 
that  we  may  be  able  to  lay  them  down  from 
a  scale  of  equal  parts. 

Having  determined  whether  it  is  to    be 
parallel  or  oblique  perspective,  the  first  thing, 
to  be  drawn  is  the  liorizontal  line,  wliich  is  to-, 
be  ptit  parallel  to  the  bottom  of  the  drawing, 
and  as  high  above  it  as  the  height  of  a  man'i 
head,  or  five  feet  six  inches,  as  HG,  fig.  10, 
wliich  is  (w't  feet  six  inches  above  the  bottom 
of  the  house.     Next,  determine  on  the  cen- 
tre of  the  picture  C,  which  must  be  placed  so 
as  to  leave  convenient  room  for  the  repre-; 
sentation.    Fix  on  C  the  nearest  corner  of  the 
object,  and  <lraw  the  perpendicular  CB:  lay 
olfCI)  eipial  to  the  length  of  the  building,, 
and  draw  DA  and  AB,     From  C,  the  nearest 
corner,  draw  CG,  to  the  centre  of  the  pic- 
ture.    CG  now  contains  the  line  which  repre^ 
seiits  the  bottom  of  the  end  of  the  house  ;  but 
this  is  an  indefinite  representation,  of  whick 
we  do  not  vet  know  the  exact  length.     The 
method  of  deteriivining  this  is  as  follows  :  Con- 
tinue the  line  DC  to  I,  and  make  CI  equal 
to  the  width   of  the  house.     From  G,  the 
centre  of  the  picture,  lay  oil'GK  equal  to  the, 
distance  of  the  pi<-ture,  the  choosing  of  which 
must  be  regulated  by  tasle.     Draw  IK,  cut- 
ting C(i  in  F;  then   is  CF  the  exact  width 
of  the  house  in  perspeclive,  which  was  equal 
to  CI.     To  find  the  middle  of  this  end  of  the 
house,  you  cannot  divide   it  by  your  com- 
passes, because  the  farthest  half  will  aopear 
less  than  the  nearer;  but  if  you  divide  CI 
into  two  etiiial  parts  iu  L,  and  draw   LK,  it 
will  cut  CF  into  two  equal  parts  perspectively. 
Or  it  may  be  found  more  sim|)ly  thus:  hav- 
ing drawn  the  lines  BE  and  CF  to  the  centre 
of  the  picture,  tlraw  the  diagonals  EC,  BE, 
crossing  eacli  other  in  M,  and  raise  the  jpcr- 


prncli(!ul;ir  MN,  which  is  in  the  midcUe  of  Uie  ! 

g.U).L--c'llll.  j 

Ti)   liiiil  llie   lR'ii»ht  of  the  galilc,  I<iy  its  , 
acUialheieht  al)0''i'  HE,  upon  Ihe  coriior  lint" 
I5C  coutijiiictl,   as   I50,  ;uul  draw  OO  ;    tliis 
ciossiiig  I!h- i)LM-|)iMiiliciihu- MN,  gives  N  the 
point  ot  the  g.ible.     'I'he  top  of  the  chimney 
mu^t  be  drawn  in  the  same  niainiei-,  liy  laying 
its  real  lu-iglit,  taken  from  u  scale,  on  i>\' ; 
and  drawing  PG,  lav  off  I^/«  and    1.;;,  each 
ctinal  to  lialf  the  widlh,  and  draw  from  these 
points   to  the  distance-point  K;   this  will  cut 
the  bottom  of  the  lionse  t'F,  in  the  points  o 
and  y) ;  from  tliese  draw  perpendirulavs,  which 
will  give  the  perspective  widlh  of  the  chim- 
iiev.     To  obtain  its  thickness,  lay   off  P(i 
eijual  to  its  thickness,  and   draw  <iG  ;  then 
drawing  from  a   the  line  iih,  you  obtain  the  j 
exact  width  of  the  chinniev.     From  /)   drawl 
he,  and  from  d  draw  di:     'I'iiu'  other  end  of  . 
tlie  gable  may   be   drawn  by   two  difl'erent 
methods.     The  iirst  is  by  supposing  the  front  ' 
of  the   house  transparent,  and  drawing  tlie 
ot!u  r  e:id  as  if  sp{'n  through  it,   in   tlie  same 
manner  as  tlie  end  we  have  described,  by  lay-  ! 
ing  its  width  from  1)  to   U,   and  drawing  to  j 
the  distance-point   K.     l>y   raising  the   per-  '• 
pendicular  in  the  middle,  yon  will  meet  the 
ridge-lini-  from  the  other  gable  in   d.     The  j 
other  method  isasfollow^:  'I'liroiigh  the  centre 
otliie  picture  G  draw  the  line  ST,  upwards  i 
and    downwards,  and  perpendicular    to   the  j 
horizontal  line.     Then  continue  the  line   ofi 
the  roof  Bi/  till  it  meets  ST  in  S.     From  A  j 
draw  AS,  which  will  give  the  otlier  ga!)le,  and  j 
S  will    be  the  vanishing-point   for   all   linr» 
parallel  to  \kl  and  Ad;    if  Nli  is  continued 
in  like  manner,  it  will  give  T  for  its  vanish- 
ing-point.    'Ihe  doors  and  windows  on  the 
side  .\BCD  are  laid  down  from  a  scale,  be- 
cause that  side  being  parallel  to  the  picture, 
dues  not  vary  from  its  geometrical  delineation, 
except  shewing  the  thickness  of  the   reveals, 
or  edges  of  the  iloors  and  windows.    If  there 
had  been  any  windows  in  the  side  BFFC, 
they  would  be  drawn  in  perspective  by  tlie 
same   method  that  was  used  tor  finding  the 
width  of  the  house  and  the  middle  of  the  end, 
viz.  by  laying  off  the  actual  dimensions  from 
C  upon  CI,  and  drawing  from   these  points 
to  the  distance-point  K,  which  would  transfer 
these  divisions  to   the  bottom  of  the  house 
CF,  and  then  perpendiculars  might  be  drawn 
upwards. 

This  practice  is  farther  explained  by  the 
following  rule  : 

To  divide  a  line  in  persp-ctive  which  is 
parallel  to  the  horizon,  and  which  tends  to  a 
vanishing-point,  into  any  number  of  eciual 
parts ;  or  to  divide  it  into  any  retpiired  pro- 
portion. 

I.et  AB  be  the  line  going  to-  its  vanishing- 
point  C,  fig.  I'i;  and  first  let  it  be  required 
to  divide  that  line  iato  si.x  e.puU  parts.  Let 
CD  be  the  horizontal  line, and  .\Ethe  ground- 
line,  drawn  parallel  to  it.  Lay  off,  at  i)lea- 
sure,  C  D  for  tl>e  distance  of  the  picture,  if  C 
is  the  centre  of  tne  picture.  Draw  a  line 
from  D,  touching  the  end  B  of  the  line  to  be 
divided:  draw  DBF,  cutting  the  ground-line 
ui  E.  Then  AE  represents  the  actual  dimen- 
sions of  the  line  AB,  which  is  seen  in  per- 
spective. (Here  it  may  be  observed,  that 
this  gives  a  rule  also  for  finding  the  real 
length  of  any  line  w  liich  tends  to  a  vanishing- 
point.)  Divide  AE  into  the  same  number  of 
(ji^ual  parts  into  which  you  proposed  to  divide 


rERSPECTIVE. 

the  given  line  AB  ;  as  Al,  1  2, 2  3,  &c.  Then 
from  these  dif/erent  divisions  draw  hues  to  D, 
cutting  tiie  line  AB  in  a,  b,  c.  d,  &c.  which 
will  repreient  the  recpiired  number  of  etpial 
parts,  but  diminishing  in  size  as  they  are 
farther  removed  from  the  eye.  If  it  is  wished 
to  divide  the  line  .-VB  into  any  number  of  un- 
ecpial  parts,  or  to  lay  off  doors,  windows,  &c. 
upon  it,  the  line  A!".,  found  as  before,  must 
be  divided  in  the  required  |)ropoition,  and 
lines  drawn  from  those  to  D  will  give  Ihe  re- 
(piired  divisions  on  AB,  from  which  perpen- 
iliculars  niay  be  drawn  for  the  doors,  win- 
dows. Sic. 

To  draw  a  circle  in  perspective. 
The  perspective  representation  of  every 
circle  is  a  regular  ellipsis,  when  the  eye  is 
without  the  circle;  which  may  be  demon- 
strated by  considering  that  the  rays  from  the 
circuinfereiice  of  the  circle  to  the  eye,  form 
an  ohliijue  cone.  But  it  is  well  kno-,vn  to 
those  who  are  ac(iuainled  with  conic  sections, 
that  every  section  of  a  cone,  whether  riglilor 
oblicpie,  is  a  true  ellipsis,  except  in  one  case 
only,  which  is,  when  the  section  is  taken  sub- 
contrary  to  its  base,  a  situation  which  hap- 
pens so  rarely  in  drawings  that  it  may  be  dis- 
regarvled  altogether,  and  the  section  of  a 
cone,  or  ths  perspective  of  a  circle,  in  all 
cases  considered  as  a  perfect  ellipsis. 

The  most  <:orrect  anil  easy  method  of  draw- 
ing an   ellipsis  is,  to  find  the  transverse  and 
conjugate  axes;  the  curve mav  then  be  com- 
pleted by  a  trammel,  or  by  hand.     But  as  it 
is    very   dillicult  to   lind  the   transverse   and 
conjugate  axes  of  the  ellipses  which  are  the 
perspective  representations  of  circles,  recourse 
IS  generally  had  to  another  method  of  obtain- 
ing the  curve.     The  circle  is  circumscribed 
by  a  square,  as  KLMN,  in  lig.  13,   and  the 
diagonals  and  the  lines  across  the  centre,  and 
parallel  to  the  sides,  are  drawn  ;  also  the  lines 
«/,  cd,  are  drawn  parallel  to  the  sides,  through 
the  points  where  the  circle  is  cut  bv  the  dia- 
gonals.    This  square,   with  all    these    lines 
drawn  across  it,  Ls  now  put  in  perspective  as 
follows  :  Draw  AB  for  the  horizontal  line,  and 
fix  B  for  the  centre  of  the  picture,  and  AB  for 
the  distance  of  the  picture.     Make  DC  ecpial 
to  the  width  of  the  square,  and  draw    CB, 
DB;  draw  CA  to  the  distance-point  A,  cut- 
ting olf  DG,  e.pialto  the  depth  of  th,' square  ; 
then  (haw  GF  parallel  to  DC,  which  com- 
pletes  the  per-pective   of  the  S(iuare;   aUo 
draw  the  diagonal    DF.     Take  now  the  dis- 
tances .Ma,  cN ;  and   transfer  them   to  D.r, 
oC  ;  from  these  points  .r  and  o,  draw  lines  to 
the  vanishing-point  B,  cutting  the  diagonals  of 
the  scjuare.      Ihe   points  in  this  reticulated 
scpiare  in   perspective,  which  correspond  to 
those  in  the  stiuare  KLMN,  where  the  circle 
passes  through,  must  now  be  observed,  and  a 
curve    traced   through  them   with   a    steady 
hand  it  will  be  the  perspective  reiiuired.  Even 
in  this   proces.s,   it  is  of  consideraljle  use  to 
know  that  the  curve  yon  are  tracing  is  a  re- 
gular ellipsis :  for  though  you  cannot  easily 
ascertain  tlie  axes  exactly,  yet  you  may  very 
nearly  ;  and  the  eye  very  soon  discovers  whi- 
ther the  curve  which  has  been  drawn  is  that 
of  a  regular  ellipsis  or  not. 

Upon  the  '^ame  principle  exactly,  the  row 
of  arches,  fig.  14,  is  drawn.  The  width  of 
the  arches  and  piers  is  obtained  in  the  ^ame 
manner  as  w.is  shewn  in  fig.  12,  viz.  by  lay- 
ing their  dimensions  upon  the  ground-line 
x\i3,  and  drawing  Hues  to  the  distauce-point. 


881 

The  curves  of  the  arches  are  then  found  by 
drawing  the  lines  which  concspond  to  tlio.-.e 
in  half  the  square,  fig.  13,  in  tlie  same  man- 
ner as  di'scribed  above  for  the  circle. 

Fig.  15  shews  liie  appearance  of  circles 
drawn  ujjon  a  cylinder,  when  MI  is  the  hori- 
zontal line.  The  circle  drawn  on  the  c\  Under 
at  that  place,  is  seen  exactly  edgewavs,  and 
appears  only  as  a  straight' line;  that  next 
above  it  i>  seen  a  little  uiulerneath  ;  the  next 
still  more ;  and  so  on,  as  they  rise  higher, 
appearing  like  so  many  ellipses  of  the  same 
transver.se  diameter,  but  whose  conjugate 
diameters  continually  increase  in  length,  as 
they  rise  above  tlie  horizontal  line.  ()n  the 
contrary,  you  see  the  under  sides  of  the  cir- 
cles drawn  below  the  horizontal  lines;  but 
they  observe  the  same  lav.,  being  so  many 
ellipses,  whose  conjugate  diameters  vary  in 
the  same  ])roporlion.  A  little  reflection  on 
this  simple  example,  will  enable  those  who 
draw^  to  avoid  many  ridiculous  mistakes  wh.icli 
are  sometimes  committed  ;  such  as  shewing 
the  two  ends  of  a  cask,  or  the  top  and  bottom 
of  a  cy  linder,  at  the  same  lime. 

Fig.   1 1   shews  the  method  of  drawing  a 
building,   or   other  object,    in   obhque  per- 
spective.    AB  is  the  horizontal  line,  and  CD 
the  ground-line,  parallel  to  it  as  before.  Here 
neither  of  the  siiles  of  the  house  is  parallel  to 
the  picture,  but  each  goes  to  its  respective 
vanishinL;-point.    Having  fixed  on  the  nearest 
corner  E,  draw  ER,  at  pleasure,  for  one  siile, 
and  choose  any  point  I'  for  the  centre  of  the 
picture;  then,  to  find  the  other  siile,  lav  off 
F(j  ecpial  tothe  (iistance  of  the  picture,  which, 
as  before,  depends  upon  taste  onlv  ;  draw  BG, 
and   G.V   perpendicular  to  BG,  cutting  the 
horizontal  line    in  A,  the    other  vanisliing- 
point.     Draw  now    EA  for  the  other  side.  . 
To  cut  ofl'the  several  widtlis  of  the  two  side"! 
of  the  house,  which  as  yet  are  only  drawn  lo- 
an indefinite  extent,  two  distance-pohit;  uiust 
be   laid  down,  viz.  one  for  eac),!  vanishing- 
point.    To  do  this,  extend  the  compasses  from 
B  to  G,  and  lay  the  distance  taken  in  il  from 
B  to   IL  which  will  give  H  for  the  disf.  nce- 
point  of  B,  and  which  is  to  cut  off  al!  the  di- 
visions  on    tlie  sidi-   EB.     Also   extend  the 
compasses  fiom  AG,  and  lav  down  Al.     I  is 
the  ili.stance-point  of  A,  and  is  used  for  trans- 
ferring all  divisions  u])on  the  side  F.A  from 
the  groun<l-line  GE.     These  points  and  lines 
being  adju-ited,  the  proce<s  is  not  much  dif- 
ferent  from  parallel  perspective;   only  here 
equal  divisions  on  each  side  of  the  building, 
as  doors,  windows,  diminish  as  thev  recede  in- 
the  same  way  as  on  the  side  BEFC,  fig.  lO; 
Lay  the  real  length  of  the  side  EL,  taken  from 
the  same  scale  u'-ed  for  laying  down  the  hori- 
zontal line,  and  lay  it  down  on  the  ground- 
line,  from  IC  to  C,  and  draw  CI,  cutting  olf 
EL  for  the  perspective  length  of  the  building. 
Fur  the  other  side  of  the  house,  lay  its  width 
down  in  the  same  manner,  from  E  to  D,  and 
draw  DH,  cutting  off  EN  for  the  perspective 
width.     Raise  the  perpendiculars  EM,  LK, 
and  NO,  for  the  tliree  angles  of  the  house. 
Lay  the  height  of  the  building  upon  the  corner 
that  comes  to  the  ground-line,  as  EM,  and. 
draw  MK  and  MU  to  their  several  vanishing- 
points.     Also  lay  all  the  heights  of  the  doors 
and  windows,  and  other  divisions,  upon  EM, 
and  draw  them  to  the  vanishing-points  A  and 
B.     To  lav  down  the  widths  of  the  doors  and 
windows,  put  their  actual  widths  upon   CE,, 
and  draw  from  them  to  the  distance-point  I,, 


3«'2 

which  cuts  off  all  divisions  upon  the  side'  LF', 
"  and  then  rai-e  the  perptudirulars.  'The  ga- 
ble-end is  found  e\actly  i;i  the  same  manner 
a?  has  been  described,  only  taking  care  to 
use  the  proper  di>tance-point  }1.  Ilu'  man- 
ner of  finding  llie  width  of  the  chimney  isil.t- 
fereut.  Lay  off  ba  for  the  lieiglit  of  the 
chimnev  above  riie  top  of  the  gable,  and  draw 
Of  parallel  to  tlie  iiori/ontal  line;  then  put  ac 
equal  to  the  actual  thickness  of  the  ciiimney, 
and  draw  n(i  to  the  vanishinp-point  A;  draw 
also  cd  to  the  distance-point  1,  culling  cii  ad 
in  d:  then  having  drawn  f  /  from  the  nearest 
corner  of  tlie  chinmey,  which  was  found  as  in 
fig.  10,  draw  df  to  the  vanishing-point  B, 
cutting  offej  for  the  exact  perspective  widdi. 
Fig.  16  represents  the  method  of  finding  the 
perspective  of  a  circle  in  oblique  perspective, 
AB  is  the  horizontal  line,  C  the  centre  of  the 
picture,  and  D,  K,  the  distance-poiiiH.  The 
proces-  is  exacdy  the  same  as  that  just  de- 
scribed ;  the  several  divisions  ot  the  rolictilaled 
square  in  fig.  13,  being  laid  upon  the  ground- 
line  FG,  and  from  these,  lines  are  drawn  to 
the  distance-points.  The  perspective  of  the 
square  is  then  dravvn  with  all  the  lines  across 
it,  and  the  curve  traced  through  the  dill'erent 
points. 

By  drawing  these  examples  frequently  over, 
to  a  large  scale,  and  rellei  ting  upon  them 
with  attention,the  studentwill  become  familiar 
with  their  use;  and  as  they  include  the  cases 
which  most  frecpiently  occur,  he  will  neces- 
sarily find  great  benefit  from  the  knowledge 
of  them. 

The  jjractical  part  of  perspective,  is  only 
the  application  of  these  rules  to  the  actual 
description  of  objects.  But,  as  this  part  is 
purely  mathematical,  its  assistance  towards 
drawing  is  alone  wiiat  can  be  performed  by 
rule  and  compass,  and  can  therelore  strictly 
serve  only  for  finding  the  images  of  points,  of 
which  they  are  conqwsed;  and,  as  these  are 
infinite,  it  is  endless  to  find  them  all  by  the 
strict  rules;  whence  it  becomes  necessary 
atter  a  snlficient  number  of  them  are  found, 
to  complete  the  image  by  the  help  of  dra.v- 
ing,  to  the  better  ertectnig  of  which  these 
points  serve  as  a  guide.  Thus,  when  a  cir- 
cle is  to  be  rlescribed,  the  practical  rules  serve 
to  find  a  sufficient  number  of  points  in  the 
circumference  ;  which,  being neallv  joined  b.v 
iiand,  will  peifecl  the  image,  so  that,  in  strict- 
in^ss,  nothing  m  this  image  is  found  by  ma- 
thematical rules,  save  tlie  tew  particular 
points;  the  rest  owes  its  being  to  the  hand  of 
the  drawer. 

Thus  also,  if  any  complicated  figure  is 
proposed,  it  may  not  be  easy  to  apply  the 
practical  rules  to  the  description  of  every 
minute  part ;  but  by  inclosing  that  figure  in  a 
regular  one,  properly  subdivided  and  reduced 
into  perspective,  that  will  serve  as  a  help, 
whereby  a  person  skilled  in  drawing,  may 
with  ease  describe  the  object  proposed.  I'pon 
the  whole,  where  tbe  boundaries  of  the  pro- 
jjosed  objects  consist  of  straight  lines  and  plane 
surfaces,  they  may  be  desiribed  directiv  by 
the  rules  of  perspective;  but  when  they  are 
curvilinear,  either  in  tln-ir  sides  or  surliices, 
the  practical  rules  can  only  serve  for  the  de- 
scription of  such  right-lined  cases  as  may  con- 
veniently inclose  the  objects,  and  which  will 
enable  the  designer  to  draw  them  within 
those  known  bounds  with  a  sufficieHt  degree 
»{  exactness. 


PERSPECTIVE. 

It  is  therefore  in  vain  to  seek,  by  the  prac- 
tical rules  of  perspective,  to  d  ■scribe  all  the 
little  hollows  and  prominences  of  objects,  the 
diffei'.'r.t  ligiit  and  shade  ol  their  pivt-,  or  their 
■^mailer  windings  and  turnings;  the  infinite 
variety  of  the  lolds  in  drapery  ;  of  the  boughs 
and  loaves  of  trees,  or  the  foattires  and  limbs 
of  men  and  animals  ;  much  less,  to  give  them 
that  roundness  and  softness,  that  force  and 
spirit,  that  easiness  and  freedom  of  posture, 
tliat  expression  and  grace,  w  hich  are  requisite 
to  a  good  picture.  Perspective  ninst  content 
itself  with  its  peculiar  province  of  exhibiting 
a  kind  of  rough  draught  to  serve  as  a  ground- 
work, and  to  ascertain  the  general  proportions 
and  place.s  of  the  objects,  according  to  their 
supposed  situations  ;  leavinj  the  rest  to  be 
finished,  beautified,  and  oruamenleii,  by  a 
hand  skilful  in  drawing. 

It  ii  true, perspective  is  of  most  use  where 
it  is  most  wanted,  aiul  where  a  deviation  from 
its  rules  would  be  the  mo^t  observable  ;  as  in 
describing  all  regular  figures,  pieces  of  archi- 
tecture, and  other  objects  of  that  ^orl,  where 
the  particular  tendency  of  the  several  lines  is 
most  remarkable;  the  rule  and  compass  in 
such  cases  being  nuicli  more  exact  than  aiiy 
description  madebv  hand:  but  still  the  figure, 
described  bv  the  perspective  rule>,  will  need 
many  lielps  from  drawing;  the  capitals,  and 
other  ornaments  of  pillars,  and  their  entabla- 
tures, the  strength  of  light  and  shade,  the 
apparent  roundness  and  protuberance  of  tlie 
several  parts,  must  owe  their  beauty  and 
finishing  to  the  designer's  hand  ;  but,  with  re- 
gard to  such  objects  as  have  no  constant  and 
certain  determinate  shape  or  size,  such  as 
clouds,  hi'ls,  trees,  rivers,  uneven  grounds, 
and  the  like,  there  is  a  much  larger  latitude 
allowable,  provided  the  general  bulk,  or  usual 
natural  shape  of  those  objects,  are  in  some 
measure  observed,  so  as  not  to  make  them 
appear  unnatural  or  monstrous.  See  Draw- 
ivc. 

But,  although  the  strict  practical  rules  of 
perspective  are  in  a  great  measure  confined 
to  the  description  of  right-lined  figures,  yet 
the  knowledge  of  the  general  laws  of  that 
science  is  of  great  and  necessary  use  to  inform 
the  judgment,  after  what  manner  the  images 
of  any  proposed  lines  should  run,  which  way 
they  shoald  tend,  and  where  terminate  ;  and 
thereby  enables  it  the  better  to  determine 
what  appearance  .any  objects  ought  to  put  on, 
according  to  their  dilli[Tent  situations  and 
distances;  it  accustoms  the  eve  to  judge  with 
greater  certainty  of  the  relations  between  real 
obje  ts  and  their  per>pective  descri|>tions,  and 
the  hand  to  draw  the  same  accordingly,  and 
directs  the  judgment  readily  to  dlsc.iver  any 
considerable  error  therein  which  might  other- 
wise escape  notice.  Besides  that,  when  the 
ground,  or  general  plan,  ami  the  prin- 
ci))al  parts  of  a  picture,  are  lirst  laid  down  ac- 
cordnig  to  the  rules,  every  thing  else  will 
more  naturally  fall  in  with  them,  and  every 
remarkable  deviation  from  the  just  rules  will 
be  the  more  readily  perceived,  and  the  easier 
avoided  or  rectified;  so  that  although  it  may 
be  infinitely  tedious,  or  absolutelv  imprac- 
ticable, to  describe  every  minute  part  of  a 
picture  by  the  strict  mechanical  rules,  yet  the 
employing  them,  where  they  can  he  the  most 
commodiously  used,  will  give  the  picture  in 
general  such  a  look,  as  will  guide  the  artist  in 
drawing  the  other  parts  without  any  obvious 
inconsistency. 


We  shall,  therefore,  give  such  rules  ns  jr« 
of  most  general  use  in  the  practice  of  per- 
spective. 1.  Let  every  line  which  in  the 
object  or  geometrical  figure  is  straight,  per- 
pendicular or  parallel  to  its  base,  be  so  also 
in  its  scenographic  delineation.  U.  Let  the 
lines,  which  in  the  objt^ct  return  at  right 
angles  from  tiie  tore-right  side,  be  drawn 
sctnographically  from  the  visual.ijoint.  3.  Let 
all  straight  lines,  which  in  the  object  return 
from  the  fore-right  side,  run  in  a  scenographic 
figure  ir.W  the  horizontal  line.  4.  Let  the 
object  you  intenti  to  delineate,  standing  on 
your  right  hand,  be  placed  also  on  the  right 
hand  ot  the  visual  point:  and  that  on  t'le  left 
hand,  on  the  left  hand  of  the  same  point;  and 
that  'vhich  is  just  before,  in  the  middle  of  it. 
.5.  Lei  those  lines  which  are  (in  the  object) 
equidistant  to  the  returning  line,  be  drawn  in 
the  scenographic  figure, from  that  point  found 
in  the  horizon.  6.  In  setting  ofi'  l1ie  altitude 
of  columns,  pedestals,  and  the  like,  measure 
tlie  height  trom  the  base-line  upward,  in  the 
front  or  tore-right  side;  and  a  visual  raydov.u 
that  point  in  liie  front  shall  limit  the  altitude 
of  the  column  or  piiiar,  ail  the  way  behind 
the  fore-right  side,  or  orthographic  appear- 
ance, even  to  the  visual  point.  This  rule  you 
must  observe  in  all  figures,  as  welUvhere  there 
is  a  tront  or  fcjre-right  side,  as  where  there  is 
none.  7.  In  iielineatingovals,  circles,  arches, 
crosses,  spirals,  and  cross  arche-,  or  any  other 
figure  in  the  roof  of  any  room,  fir>t  draw  it 
ichnogiaphically  ;  and  so  with  perpendiculars 
from  the  most  eminent  points  thereof,  carry 
it  up  into  the  ceiling;  from  which  several 
points  carry  on  the  figure.  8.  The  centre  in 
any  scenographic  regular  figure,  is  found  by 
drawing  cross  lines  from  opposite  angles  :  for 
the  point  where  the  diagonals  cio~s,  is  the 
centre.  9.  A  ground-plane  of  squares  is  alike, 
both  above  and  below  the  horizontal  line  ; 
only  the  more  it  is  distant  above  or  beneath 
the  horizon,  the  stpiares  will  be  so  much  the 
larger  or  wider.  10.  In  <lrawing  a  perspective 
figure,  where  many  lines  come  together,  you 
may,  for  the  directuig  of  your  eye,  draw  the 
diagonals  in  red:  the  visual  lines  in  black; 
the  perpendiculars  in  green,  or  other  dirt'erent 
colour  from  that  which  you  intend  the  figure 
shall  be  of.  1 1.  Having  considered  the  height, 
distance,  and  position  of  the  figure,  and  drawn 
it  accordingly,  with  side  or  angle  against  the 
base,  raise  perpendiculars  from  the  several 
angles  or  designed  points,  from  the  figure  to 
llie  base  ;  and  transfer  the  length  of  each  per- 
pendicular, from  the  place  where  it  touches 
the  base,  to  the  base  on  the  side  opposite  to 
the  point  of  (iMance;  so  will  the  diamelrals 
drawn  to  the  perpendiculars  in  the  base,  bv 
intersection  with  the  diagonals,  drawn  to  the 
several  transferred  distances,  give  the  angles 
of  th"  figures,  and  so  lines  drawn  from  point 
to  point  will  circumscribe  the  scenographic 
figure.  11?.  If  in  a  landscape  there  are  any 
standing  waters,  as  rivers,  ponds,  and  the  like, 
place  the  horizontal  line  level  with  the  farthest 
^iglit  or  appearance  of  it.  13.  If  therelire  any 
houses,  or  the  like,  in  the  picture,  consider 
their  position,  that  you  may  find  from  what 
point  in  (he  horizontal  litii's  to  draw  the  front 
and  sides  thereof.  14.  In  describing  thing-i 
at  a  great  distance,  observe  the  proportion 
both  in  magnitude  and  distance,  in  draught, 
which  appears  from  the  object  to  the  eye. 
1;>.  In  colournig  and  shadowing  of  every 
thing,  you  must  do  the  same  in  your  picture. 


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PER 

which  you  observe  witli  your  eye,  rspcciiilly 
(n  objects  lyiim  near;  but,  aciording  as  tlie 
distance  grows  greater  and  grcaU-r,  so  the  cu- 
loiirs  nuisl  bu  iainter  and  lainter,  till  at  last 
they  lose  themselves  in  a  darkish  sUy-coloiir. 
Ui.  'I'lie  catoptrics  are  best  seeji  in  a  comnioii 
looking-glass,  or  other  polished  matter,  wliere, 
if  the  glass  is  CNactly  flat,  the  object  is  ex- 
acllv  litieits  original  :  but,  if  tlie  glass  is  not 
llat,  tlie  resemblance  alters  troni  the  original; 
and  that  more  or  less,  according  as  the  glass 
dilf'ers  from  an  exact  plane.  17.  In  drawing 
tatoi)tric  lignres>  the  surface  of  the  glass  is  to 
be  considered,  upon  wliicliyou  mean  to  have 
the  rcilect'.on:  lor  which  you  must  make  a 
particular  iclmographical  draught  or  pro- 
jection, which  on  tiie  glass  must  appear  to  be 
a  plane  lull  of  squares  ;  on  which  projection 
traiisier  what  shall  be  ihawn  on  a  ijlane,  di- 
vided into  the  same  number  of  hke  S((uai"e.s, 
where  though  the  draught  may  appear  very 
conhised,  yet  the  reflection  of  it  on  the  glass 
will  be  very  regular,  prsporlional,  and  re- 
gularly composed.  IH.  The  dioptric,  or 
broken  beam,  may  be  seen  in  a  tube  through 
a  crystal  or  glass  which  has  its  surface  cut 
into  many  others,  whereby  the  rays  of  tin;  ob- 
ject are  broken.  For  to  the  flat  of  the  crystal, 
or  water,  the  rays  run  straight ;  but  then  they 
break  and  make  an  angle,  which  also  by  the 
refracted  beams  is  made  and  continued  on  the 
other  side  of  the  same  llat.  19.  ^Vlu■n  these 
faces  on  a  crystal  are  returned  towards  a  plane 
placed  direcllv  before  it,  they  separate  them- 
selves at  a  good  distance  on  the  plane,  be- 
cause they  are  all  directed  to  various  far-dis- 
tant places  of  the  same. 
I  Perspective  PLAJiE,  is  the  glassor  other 
transparent  surface,  PV,  (Plate  Perspective, 
l"ig.  2.)  supposed  to  be  placed  between  the  eye 
and  tlie  oliject,  perpendicularly  to  the  horizon. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  section,  table,  or 
glass. 

PERSPIRATION.  There  seems  to  be 
something  thrown  out  from  the  blood  during 
its  circulation  in  the  arteries,  at  lea^l  tlu'ougn 
those  vessels  which  are  near  the  surface  of  the 
body:  for  it  is  a  fact,  that  certain  substances 
are  constantly  emitted  from  the  skins  ol  ani- 
mals. '1  liese  substances  are  known  in  afneral 
by  the  name  of  perspirable  matter,  or  per- 
spiration. They  jiave  a  great  resemblance  to 
what  is  tmitled  m  the  lungs;  which  renders 
it  probable  that  both  excrttio.s  are  owing  to 
the  same  cause,  namely,  to  the  decomposition 
produced  in  the  blood  by  the  eifecls  of  respi- 
ration. Many  experiments  liave  been  made 
to  ascertain  tlie  ciuantlty  of  matter  perspired 
through  the  skin.  For  the  first  set,  and  not 
the  least  remarkable,  we  are  indebted  to 
Sanctor'iUi,  who  continued  them  for  no  less 
liian  thirty  years.  He  ascertained  his  own 
weight,  aiu!  (iie  weight  of  his  i'ood;  and  what- 
ever weight  he  lost  over  and  abo\'e  that  of 
liis  excrements,  he  ascribed  to  perspiration. 
A  similar  set  of  experiments  was  afterwards 
made  in  France  by  Dodart;  in  England  by 
Keil;  in  Ireland  by  Bryan  l^obevtsbn  and 
l?ve;  and  in  Carolina  by  Lining.  There- 
suit  of  all  these  experiments  has  been  col- 
lected by  Haller;  but  it  gives  us  no  precise 
estimate  of  the  a.mounl  of  the  transpiration, 
since  these  piniosopliers  have  not  dislinguinh- 
ed  betv.-een  wliat  is  lo.-.t  bv  the  skin  and  by  the 
lungs,  l^avoisier  and  Seguin  alone  have  at- 
tempted to  ascertain  the  amount  •,(  the  mat- 
ter pe»-sj)ired  lliio.igii  the  skill.     A  bag  coiii- 


P  E  R 

posed  of  varnished  silk,  and  perfeclly  air- 
tight, was  procured,  within  which  Seguin, 
who  was  usualh  the  subject  of  experiment, 
was  enclosed,  and  thi;  bag  was  clo.-ed  exactly 
over  his  head,  Tlr-re  was  a  slii  in  the  bag 
opposite  to  his  mouth,  and  the  edges  ofthi^ 
slit  wer  ■  accurately  cenienleil  round  the 
mouth  by  means  of  a  mixture  of  turpentine 
and  pitc  1.  Thus  every  thing  emitted  by  the 
body  was  retained  in  the  bag,  except  what 
made  its  escape  from  the  lungs  by  respiration. 
By  weighing  himself  in  a  delicate  balance  at 
the  commencement  of  the  experiment,  and 
again  after  lie  liad  ccntinued  for  some  time  in 
the  bag,  the  (juantily  of  matter  carried  off  by 
respiration  was  ascertained.  P>y  weighing 
himself  without  ill  s  varnished  covering,  and 
repeating  the  oi)eration  after  the  same  inter- 
val of  time  liad  elapsed  a.s  in  the  former  ex- 
periment, he  ascertained  the  loss  of  weight 
occasioneil  by  perspiration  and  respiration. 
I'v  subtracting  from  tliis  sum  the  loss  of 
u eight  indicated  by  the  first  experiment,  he 
obtained  tlie  (urantity  of  matter  which  made 
its  escape  by  per-piratioii  in  a  given  time. 
The  following  tacts  were  ascertained  by  these 
experiments:  1.  The  maximum  of  matter 
|)ir>pired  in  a  minute  amounted  to  2().'ij 
grains  troy  ;  the  minimum  to  9  grains:  which 
gives  17.1)3  grains  at  a  medium  m  the  mi- 
nute, or  .")?.82  ounces  in  the  J4  hours.  This 
quantity  dilf'ers  le.is  than  might  have  been  ex- 
pected from  the  result  of  former  experiments 
made  by  Dodart,  Keil,  Kye,  &c.  2.  The 
([uautily  perspired  is  increased  by  drink,  but 
not  by  solid  food.  3.  Perspiration  is  at  its 
minimum  immediately  after  a  repast.  It 
reaches   its  maximum  during  digestion.     See 

DiGLSTION. 

Tlie  quantity  of  matter  perspired  differs 
very  considerably  according  to  circumstances. 
It  has  been  shewn  to  be  greatest  in  hot  wea- 
ther, and  in  hot  climates,  and  after  great  ex- 
ercise; and  its  relation  to  the  quantity  of 
urine  has  been  long  known.  ^Vhen  the  mat- 
ter pcrspfred  is  great,  the  quantity  of  urine  is 
small,  and  vice  versa. 

To  ascertain  the  substance  thus  emitted  bv' 
perspiration  is  a  dilhcuit  task,  because  it 
passes  off  invisibly,  and  in  small  quantities  at 
a  time.  It  has,  notwithstancling,  been  ascer- 
tained that  water,  carbon,  and  an  oily  matter, 
are  emitted  ;  and  that  an  acid  supposed  to  be 
the  phosphoric,  phosphat  of  lime,  and  even 
urea,  are  sometimes  emitted  through  the 
skui. 

1.  The  most  accurate  experiments  on  this 
matter  that  have  been  made  are  those  of  Mr. 
Criiikshank.  He  put  his  hand  into  a  glass 
vessel,  and  luted  its  mouth  at  his  wri-;t  by 
means  of  a  bladder.  The  interior  surface  of 
the  vessel  became  gradually  dim,  and  drops 
of  water  trickled  down.  By  keeping  his 
hand  in  this  manner  for  an  hour,  he  collected 
thirty  grains  of  a  liquid,  which  possessed  all 
the  properties  of  pure  water.  On  repeating 
the  same  experiment  at  nine  in  the  evening 
(ihermometer  62'),  he  collected  only  1'2 
grains.  The  mean  of  these  is  21  grains. 
But  as  the  hand  is  more  exposed  than  the 
trunk  of  the  body,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  the  perspiration  from  it  is  greater  than 
that  from  the  hand.  Let  us  therefore  take 
30  grains  |)er  hour  as  the  mean;  and  let  us 
suppose,  with  Mr.  Cruikshank,  that  tiie  hand 
is  J^th  of  the  surface  of  the   body.     The 


P  E  II 


383 


])erspiration  in  an  hour  would  amount  to  1880 
grain-.,  and  in  24  hours  to  43,200  grams,  or 
7  pounds  0  ounces  troy.  This  is  almost 
double  the  quantity  ascertained  by  Lavoi- 
sier and  Seguin.  lience  we  may  conclude 
that  more  iuatter  is  pers|)ired  through  the 
hand  than  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  prfi- 
vided  Mr.  Cruikshank's  eslin.ate  of  the  ratio 
between  the  surface  of  the  hand  and  body  is 
not  erroneous. 

He  repeated  the  experiment  again  after 
hard  exercise,  and  collected  in  an  hour  4H 
grains  of  water.  He  found  also,  that  this 
ai|ueous  vapour  j'crvaded  his  stocking  whhout 
diliicultv;  and  that  it  made  its  was  through 
a  shamo"y-leatlier  glove,  and  even  through  a 
leather  boot,  though  in  a  much  smaller  (piaii- 
tity  than  when  the  leg  wanted  that  covering. 

It  is  not  difiicnlt  to  see  why  tlieciuantily  of 
waterv  vapour  dimini.'hes  with  cold.  ^\  hen 
the  surface  of  the  body  is  expo  ed  to  a  cold 
temperature,  the  capacity  of  the  cutaneous 
vessels  diminishes,  and'  consequently  the 
quantity  which  flows  through  them  must  de- 
crease. 

When  the  temi'erature,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  much  increased,  either  by  being  exposed  to 
a  hot  atmosphere,  or  by  violent  exercise,  the 
perspired  vapour  not  only  increases  in  quan- 
titv,  but  even  appears  in  a  liquid  form.  Tiiis 
is  'known  by  the  name  of  sweat.  la  what 
manner  sweat  is  produced,  is  not  at  present 
known;  but  we  can  see  a  very  important 
service  which  it  performs  to  the  animal.  No 
sooner  k-  it  thrown  upon  the  surface  of  the 
skin  than  it  begins  to  evaporate.  But  the 
change  into  vapour  requires  heat ;  according- 
ly a  ([uantitv  of  heat  is  absorbed,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  animal  is  lowered.  This 
is  the  reason  that  animals  can  endure  to  re- 
main for  some  time  in  a  much  higher  tempe- 
rature without  injury,  than  could  have  been 
supposed. 

The  experiments  of  TiUet,  and  the  still 
more  decisive  experiments  of  Fordyce  and 
his  associates,  are  well  known.  These  gen- 
tlemen remained  a  considerable  time  in  a 
temperature  exceeding  the  boiling-point  of 
water. 

2.  Besides  water,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  carbon  is  also  emitted  from  the  skin  ;  but 
in  what  state,  the  experiinents  hitherto  made 
do  not  enable  us  to  decide.  Mr.  Cruikshank 
found  that  the  air  of  the  glass  vessel  in  which 
his  hand  and  foot  had  been  confined  for  aa 
hour  contained  carbonic  acid  gas  ;  for  a  can- 
dle burned  dimly  in  it,  and  it  rendered  lime- 
water  turbid.  And  Mr.  J  urine  found  that  air 
which  hud  remained  for  some  time  in  contact 
with  the  skin,  consisted  almost  entirely  of 
carbonic  acid  gas.  The  same  conclusion 
may  be  drawn  from  the  expeiiments  of  Iii- 
genhouszand  Milly.  Trousset  has  lately  ob- 
served that  air  was  separated  copiously  from 
a  patient  of  his  while  bathing. 

Now  it  is  evident  that  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  which  appeared  during  Mr.  Cruikshank's 
experiment,  did  not  jireviously  exist  in  the 
glass  vessel;  consecjuently  it  must  have  either 
bex-n  transmitted  ready -formed  through  tlie 
skin,  or  formed  during  the  experiment  by  the 
ab^orption  .of  oxygen  gas,  and  the  consequent 
emi^sion  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  experi- 
ments ot  Mr.  J  urine  do  not  allow  us  to  suf)- 
pose  the  first  ot  these  to  be  true;  for  he 
found  tliat  the  quantity  of  air  allowed  to  rv- 


384 


PER 


main  in  contact  witli  tlie  skin  dici  not  increase. 
Consequenlly  the  appearance  ot  tlie  carbonic 
acid  gas  must  be  owing  eitli.T  to  tlie  emission 
.  of  carbon,  whicli  forms  carbonic  acid  gas  by 
combining  v.-illi  tlie  oxyscn  gas  of  the  air,  or 
to  the  absorption  of  oxygen  gas,  and  the  sub- 
sequent emission  of  carljonic  acid  gas;  pro- 
eiselv  in  tlie  same  manner,  and  for  the  same 
reason,  that  these  substances  are  emitted  Ijy 
the  lungs.  The  last  is  the  more  probable 
opinion;  but  the  experiments  hitherto  made 
do  not  enable  us  to  decide. 

3.  Besides  water  and  carbon,  or  carbonic 
Bcid  gas,  the  skin  emits  also  a  particular  odo- 
rous substance.  That  every  animal  has  a 
peculiar  smell,  is  well  known :  tlie  dog  can 
discover  his  master,  and  even  trace  him  to  a 
distance  by  the  scent.  A  dog,  chained  sonic 
Iiours  after  his  master  had  set  out  on  a  jonr- 
jiey  of  some  hundred  miles,  followed  his  foot- 
steps by  the  smell,  and  found  hiin  on  the 
third  day  in  the  midst  of  a  crowd.  Rut  it  is 
needless  to  multiply  instances  of  this  fact ; 
thev  are  too  well  known  to  every  one.  Now 
this  smell  must  be  owing  to  some  peculiar 
matter  which  is  constantly  emitted  ;  and  this 
matter  must  differ  somewliat  either  in  (juan- 
tity  or  some  other  property,  as  we  see  that 
the  dog  easily  distinguishes  the  individual  by 
means  of  it.  Mr.  C'ruikshank  has  made  it 
probable  that  this  matter  is  an  oily  substance  ; 
or  at  least  that  there  is  an  oily  substance 
emitted  by  the  skin.  He  wore  repeatedly, 
night  and  day  for  a  month,  the  same  vest  of 
fleecy  hosiery  during  the  hottest  part  of  the 
summer.  At  the  end  of  this  time  he  always 
found  an  oily  substance  accumulated  in  con- 
siderable masses  on  the  nap  of  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  vest,  in  the  fiM-ni  of  black  tears. 
AVhen  rubbed  on  paper,  it  makes  it  transpa- 
rent, and  hardens  on  it  like  grease.  It  burns 
with  a  white  flame,  and  leaves  behind  it  a 
charry  residuimi. 

4.  BerthoUet  has  observed  the  perspiration 
acid;  and  he  has  concluded  that  the  acid 
which  is  present  is  the  pliosphorie:  but  that 
has  not  been  proved.  Fuurcroy  and  Vau- 
ijuelin  have  ascertained  that  the  scurf  which 
collects  upon  the  skins  of  horses  consists 
ciiielly  of  phospliat  of  lime,  and  urea  is  even 
sometimes  mixed  with  it.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  sweat  has  u  salt  taste  ;  but  hitherto  it 
lias  not  been  analysed,  though  it  probably 
differs  from  the  transpiration. 

It  has  been  supposed  tiiat  the  skin  has  the 

Eroperty  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the  air; 
ut  this  opinion  lias  not  been  conhrmed  by 
experiments,  but  rather  the  contrary. 

The  chief  arguments  in  favour  of  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  skin,  have  been  drawn  from 
the  (quantity  of  iiioisturi-  discharged  by  urine 
being,  in  some  cases,  not  only  greater  than 
the  whole  drink  of  the  |).itienl,  but  even  the 
whole  of  his  drink  and  food.  But  it  ought  lo 
be  remembered  that,  in  diabetes,  the  disease 
liere  alluded  to,  the  weight  of  the  body  is 
continually  dhninishing,  and  therefore  part  of 
it  must  be  constantly  thrown  off.  Besides, 
it  is  scarcely  possible  in  that  disease  to  g.-t  an 
accurate  account  of  the  food  swallowed  by 
the  patients ;  and  in  those  cases  where  very 
accurate  accounts  have  been  kept,  and  w  here 
deception  was  not  so  niurli  practised,  the 
urine  was  found  to  excc-ed  the  cpiantity  of 
drink.  In  a  case  of  diabetes,  relati'd  with 
inucii  accuracy  by-  Dr.  (ierard,  tiie  patient 
yfii  b*Ui.t;d  regularly  during  Ihc  early  part  of 


PER 

{]>■'  di->pa=c  in  warm  water,  and  afterwards  in 
cold  «ati;r  :  he  was  w eiglicd  before  and  after 
balhuig,  and  no  sensible  difference  was  ever 
found  in  his  weight.  Coiise<pienlly,  in  that 
case,  the  tpiantity  absorbed,  it  any,  must  have 
been  very  small. 

It  is  well  known  that  thirst  is  much  allevi- 
ated by  cold  bathirg.  By  this  plan  captain 
Bligli  "kept  his  men  cool  and  in  good  health 
duung  their  very  extraordinary  voyage 
across  the  South  Sea.  This  has  been  con- 
sidered as  owing  to  the  absorption  of  w  ater  by 
the  skin.  But  Dr.  Currie  had  a  patient  who 
was  wasting  fa.-t  for  want  of  nourishment,  a 
tumour  in  the  u-sophagus  preventing  the  pos- 
sibility of  taking  food,  and  whose  thirst  was 
always  alley iatcd  by  badiing;  yet  no  sensible 
increase  of  weight,  but  rather  the  contrary, 
was  perceived  alter  bathing.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear then,  that  in  either  ot  these  cases  water 
was  ab=orl)ed.  The  aljaying  of  thirst  by  the 
cold  bathing  mnv  indeed  easily  be  accounted 
for,  by  the  lessening  of  tl'.e  temperature,  and 
the  prevention  of  perspiration. 

FurtluT,  Seguin  has  shewn  that  the  skin 
does  not  absorb  water  during  bathing,  by  a 
still  I'Kjre  complete  experiment;  he  dissolved 
some  mercurial  salt  in  water,  and  found  that 
th.e  mercury  produced  no  effect  upon  a  person 
that  bathed  in  the  water,  providi-d  no  part  of 
the  cuticle  was  injured;  but  upon  rubbing  off 
a  portion  of  the  cuticle,  the  mercurial  solu- 
tiim  was  absorbed,  and  the  el'fects  of  the  mer- 
cury became  evident  upon  the  body.  Hence 
it  follows  irresistibly,  that  water,  at  least  in 
the  state  of  water,'  is  not  absorbed  by  the 
skin  when  the  body  is  plunged  into  it,  unless 
tlie  cuticle  is  first  removed. 

This  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  a  com- 
plete proof'  that  no  such  thing  as  absor)>t,on 
is  pert )rmed  by  the  skin;  and  that  therefore 
the  appearance  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which 
takes  [Ainif  when  air  is  confunil  around  the 
skin,  must  be  owing  to  the  emission  of  car- 
bon, liut  it  ought  to  be  considered,  that  al- 
though the  skin  cannot  absorb  water,  this  is 
no  proof  that  it  cannot  ab^orb  other  sub- 
stances; particularly  that  it  cannot  absorb 
oxygen  gas,  which  is  very  different  from  wa- 
ter. It  is  well  known  that  water  will  not 
pass  through  bladders,  at  least  for  some  time: 
yet  Dr.  Priestley  found  that  venous  blood 
acquired  the  colour  of  arlcrial  blood  from 
owgen  gas,  as  readily  y  hen  these  substances 
Were  separated  by  a  bladder,  as  when  they 
were  in  actual  crontact.  He  found,  too,  that 
when  gases  were  confined  in  bladders,  they 
gradually  lost  their  properties.  It  is  clear 
from  these  facts,  that  oxygen  gas  can  per- 
vade bladders;  and  if  it  can  pervade  them, 
why  may  it  not  also  pervade  the  cutlcli-r 
Nay,  further,  we  know  ironi  the  experiments 
of  L'ruikshank,  that  the  vapour  perspired 
passes  through  leather,  even  when  pre- 
pared so  as  to  keep  out  moisture,  at  least  tor 
a  certain  time.  It  is  possible,  then,  that  wa- 
ter, when  hi  the  st  te  of  vapour,  or  when  dis- 
solved In  air,  may  be  absorbed,  although  wa- 
ter, wiiile  in  the  state  of  water,  inav  be  inca- 
pable of  pervading  the  cuticle.  Tlie  experi- 
ments, therefore,  which  have  hitherto  been 
marie  upon  the  absorption  of  the  skin,  are 
insufficient  ;o  prove  tiiat  air  and  vapour  can- 
not pervade  tlie  cuticle,  providcrl  there  are 
any  facts  to  render  the  contrary  supposition 
probable. 


P  E  T 

Now  that  there  are  such  fa'  ts,  cannol  lie 
denied.  \Vc  shall  not  indeed  produce  tin; 
experiment  of  \an  Moiis  as  a  fact  of  th.it 
kind,  because  it  is  liable  to  objections,  aiid  at 
best  is  very  indecisive.  Having  a  patient 
under  his  care  who,  from  a  wound  in  the 
throat,  was  incapable  for  several  days  of  tak- 
ing any  iiourishnienl,  he  kepi  hini  alive  dur- 
ing that  time,  by  applying  to  the  skin  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body,  several  times  a  day, 
a  sponge  di|jt  in  wine  or  strong  soup.  A 
fact  mentioned  by  Dr.  Watsrm  is  much  more 
important,  and  much  more  dvcisive.  A  lad 
at  Newmarket,  who  had  been  almost  starved 
in  order  to  bring  him  down  to  such  a  weight 
as  would  (pialify  him  for  running  a  horse- 
race, was  weighed  in  the  morning  of  the  race- 
day;  he  was  weighed  again  an  hour  after, 
and  was  found  to  have  gained  30  ounces  ot 
weight;  yet  in  the  interval  he  had  only  taken 
half  a  glass  of  wine.  Here  absorption  mu^t 
have  taken  place,  either  by  the  skin,  or  lungs, 
or  both,  'i  he  difficulties  in  either  case  are 
the  same;  and  whatever  renders  absorption 
by  one  probable,  will  eipiaily  strergth.^n  the 
probability  tliat  absorption  takes  place  by  the 
other.     See  Physiology. 

PEllUL.V,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
dioecia  polyandria.  There  is  one  -pecies,  a 
tree  of  New  Grenada. 

PETAL,  among  botanists,  an  aiipellatioii 
given  to  the  flower-leaves,  in  opposition  to 
the  folia,  or  common  leaves  of  the  plant. 
See  Botany. 

PiiTALO.M.V,  a  genus  of  the  decandiia 
monogynia  class  and  order:  the  calvx  is 
goblet-shaped,  live-toothed;  petals  five;  sta- 
mina on  margin  of  calyx;  berry  one-celled, 
seeds  one  or  four.  Tiiere  are  two  species, 
trees  of  Jamaica  and  Gi  iana. 

PET.\UD,  in  the  art  of  war,  a  metallire 
engine,  somewhat  resembiinga  higli-crowncd 
hat.  The  petard  may  be  considered  as  a 
piece  of  ordnance ;  it  is  made  of  copper  mixed 
with  brass,  or  of  lead  with  fin:  its  charge  is 
from  live  to  six  pounds  of  powder,  which 
reaches  to  within  three  lingcrs'-bieadlh  ot  the 
mouth;  the  vacancy  is  tilled  witii  tow,  and 
stopped  with  a  wooden  tompion,  the  moutk 
being  strongly  bound  up  with  cloth  tied  very 
tight  with  ropes.  It  is  covered  up  with  a 
madrier,  or  wooden  plank,  that  has  a  cavity 
to  receive  the  mouth  ot  the  petard,  and  fast- 
ened (low  n  w  itii  ropes. 

Its  use  is  in  a  chmdesline  attack  to  break 
down  gates,  bridges,  barriei's,  &c.  to  which  it 
is  hung ;  and  this  it  dues  by  means  of  tJie 
wooden  plank.  It  is  also  used  in  counter- 
mines to  bleak  through  the  eiienn's  gal- 
leries, and  g  ve  their  mines  vent.  The  in- 
yention  of  petards  is  ascribed  to  the  French 
Huguenots,  in  1579,  wlio  with  them  took  Ca- 
hors,  as  d'.\ubigne  tells  us. 

PETKCHLf,.  See  Medicixe. 
PEI  EU-PENCE,  an  anlienl  tax  of  a 
penny  on  each  house,  jiaid  to  the  pope.  It 
was  called  Peter-pence,  be( ause  collected  on 
the  day  of  St.  P<  tcr  ad  vimula,  ;iiid  sent  to 
Rome;  whence  it  v^as  also  calleil  Konie-scot, 
and  Konie-p<  nny. 

PETESIA,  a  genus  of  the  tetrandria  nio- 
nocynia  class  and  order:  the  corolla  is  one- 
petalled,  tun.  el-lorm,  stigma  bifid,  berry 
many-se>'ded.  There  are  three  species, shruM 
ofSouiii  Ameiica  aud  the  West  Indies. 


TKTIOI.K,  hi  bolmy,  llic  slender  stalk 
tliutsii|)|)i)its  tluf  U'avcs  of  a  i)lanl. 

PE  I  ri'IA,  a  genus  of  tlii;  class  and  order 
tiHrandria  moiioiiviira;  llie  calyx  Is  four- 
toothed,  inferior;  coroiUi  four-parted,  drupe 
with  a  two-cflled  nut.  'I'liere  is  one  species, 
a  small  tree  of  SI.  Domingo. 

PKrrriO  PUINCII'iI,  in  logic,  die  lak- 
in"-  a  tiling  for  true,  and  drawinu;  conclr.isions 
from  it  as  sucli,  wlien  it  is  really  false,  or  at 
!east  wants  to  be  proved,  before  any  inferences 
can  be  deduced  from  it. 

PKI'lTION.  No  petition  to  the  king,  or 
to  eitlim-  house  of  parliament,  for  any  aiuM'a- 
fioii  in  church  or  state,  shall  be  signed  by 
above  twenty  persons,  e.nU-ss  tlie  matter  there- 
of is  approved  by  three  justices  uf  the  peac.-, 
or  the  major  part  of  th.>  grand  jury  m  the 
counlrv;  and  in  lj)iidon  by  the  lord  mayor, 
.ald'.rm'en,  and  common  council:  nor  shall 
jinv  petition  be  presented  by  more  dian  ten 
persons  at  a  time. 

Petition  in  CH.\NcniiY,  a  retpiest  in 
writing,  directed  to  the  lord  chancellor  or 
mxister  of  the  rolls,  shewing  some  matter  or 
Ciiusc,  whereupon  the  [letitioner  prays  so-me- 
uhat  to  be  granted  him. 

PE'lUKKIA,  a  genus  of  the  tetra.rynia 
"Older,  ill  the  he.\aiidria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  uiuler  the  I'itli 
order,  holoracea'.  'I'he  caly.\  is  tetraphyl- 
lous  ;  there  is  no  corolla;  and  but  one  seed, 
With  rellexed  awns  at  the  top.  'rheie  are 
two  species  (Guinea  hen-weed),  herbs  of  the 
■\Vest  ludies. 

PKTKMV,  inl)otaiiy,ageiius  of  thedidvna- 
liiia  augiosperima  class  of  plants,  with  a  mo- 
nopetalous  flower,  divided  into  live  rounded 
segments  at  the  limb.  I'here  is  one  species, 
a  >hrnh  of  South  America. 

PEriUFAC  riON,  in  natural  history,  de- 
notes the  conversion  of  wood,  boues,  and 
other  substances,  principally  aii.mal  or  vege- 
table, iiHo  stone.  'I'liese  bodies  are  more  or 
less  altered  from  their  original  stale,  accord- 
ing to  the  diil'erent  substances  they  have  lain 
<Hiried  among  in  the  earth ;  some  of  them 
having  suffered  very  little  change,  and  others 
l>eing  so  higlily  impi-egnatod  with  crystalline, 
.sparry,  pyntical,  or  other  extraneous  matter, 
iis  to  appear  mere  masses  of  stone,  or  lumps 
of  the  matter  nf  the  common  pyrites;  but 
thev  are  generally  of  the  external  diuieii'iions, 
and  retain  more  or  less  of  the  internal  (igme, 
of  the  bodies  into  the  pores  of  which  this  mat- 
ter has  made  its  way.  The  animal  sub^tances 
thus  found  pelrilied'are  chielly  sea-shells ;  the 
teeth,  boiiy  palates,  and  bones  of  fish ;  the 
bones  of  lami-aniiuals,  l<cc.  These  are  found 
variously  altered,  bv  the  insinuation  of  stony 
and  mineral  matter  into  their  pores;  and  the 
substance  of  some  of  them  is  found  to  be 
wholly  £0ne,  there  being  only  stony,  sparry, 
ciT  other  remaining  matter  <leposited  in  the 
shape  and  form  of  the  original  matter,  which 
has  gradually  wasted  away,  and  these  may  be 
regarded  as  the  true  petrifactions. 

Respecting  thi"  matiner  ia  which  petri- 
faction ii  accomplished,  we  know  but  little. 
it  has  been  thought  by  many  philosophers, 
that  this  was  one  of  the  rare  processes  of  na- 
ture ;  and  accordiiigtv  such  places  as  have 
afforded  a  view  of  it,  have  been  looked  upon 
as  great  curiosities.  However,  it  is  now  dis- 
covered, that  petrifaction  is  exceedingly 
common;  and  that  every  kind  of  water  car- 
ries with  it  some  earthy  particles,  which  be- 

VOL.    II, 


rHTRIFACTIO>r. 

iiig  precipitated  fiom  it,  lyecome  slon»  of  a 
greater  or  lesser  degree  of  hardness;  and 
tliis  cpiality  is  most  remarkable  in  tjio-.e  wa- 
ters which  are  ir.ucl^  im[)reguated  with  sele- 
netic  matter.  Of  late,  it  has  aUo  been 
found  bv  some  observations  on  a  petrifaction 
ill  ICasl  t.othian  in  Scotland,  that  iron  contri- 
butes greatly  to  the  process:  and  this  it  may 
do  bv  Its  preci))ilation  of  any  aluminous  earth 
which  happens  to  bedissolve<l  in  the  water  by 
means  of  an  acid;  for  iron  has  the  propLTly  of 
precipitating  this  earth,  thoiigkit  cannot  pre- 
cipitate the  calcareous  kind.  The  calcare- 
ous kinds  of  earth,  however,  by  being  soluble 
in  water  without  any  acid,  must  contribute 
very  nnieli  to  the  process  of  petrifaction,  as 
they  are  capable  of  a  great  degree  of  hartl- 
iiess  by  means  only  of  being  joined  with  car- 
bonic acid,  on  which  depemK  I  he  solidity  of 
our  common  cement  or  mortar  used  in 
buil.ling  liouses. 

The  name  petrifaction  belongs  only,  as  we 
have  seen,  to  bodies  of  vegetable  or  animal 
origin;  and  in  order  to  determine  their  class 
and  genus,  or  even  species,  it  is  necessary 
that  their  texture,  their  ])rimitive  form,  a:id 
in  some  measure  their  organization,  are  still 
discernible.  Thus  we  ou'.;ht  not  to  place  the 
stony  kernels  moulded  in  tiie  cavity  of  some 
shell,  or  other  organized  body,  in  the  rank  of 
petrifactions  properly  so  called. 

Petrif:ictions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  are 
almost  all  either  gravellv  or  siliceous;  and 
are  found  in  gnllevs,  trendies,  &c.  Those 
wh'ch  strike  lire  with  steel  are  principally 
found  in  sandy  fissures;  those  which  elFer- 
ve-ce  in  acids  are  generally  of  animal  origin, 
and  are  ffiund  in  the  horizontal  beds  of  calca- 
reous earth,  and  sometimes  in  beds  of  chiy  or 
gravel;  in  which  case  the  nature  of  the  pe- 
trifaction is  diderent.  As  to  the  subvtanccs 
wliich  are  found  in  gT,-psum,  they  seldom 
undergo  anv  alteration,  either  with  respect  to 
figure  or  composition,  and  they  are  very 
rare. 

A  pi-lrilied  substance,  strictly  speaking, 
is  nothing  more  than  the  keleton,  or  perhaps 
iiiKige,  of  a  body  which  has  once  had  lile, 
either  animal  or  vegetable,  combined  with 
somi"  mineral.  Tims  petrilied  wood  is  no 
longer  wood,  properly  speaking.  ^\'hen 
wood  is  buried  in  certain  places,  lapidific  llu- 
ids,  extremely  divided  and  sometimes  colour- 
ed, insinuate  themselves  into  its  pores,  and 
fill  them  up.  These  fluids  are  afterwards 
moulded  and  condensed.  The  solid  part  of 
the  wood  is  decomposi'd  and  reduced  into 
powder,  which  is  expelled  without  the  mass 
by  a<iuenus  liUrations.  In  this  manner,  the 
places  which  were  formerly  occupied  by  the 
wootl  are  now  left  empty  in  the  form  of  pores. 
This  oper.ition  of  nature  produces  no  appa- 
rent difference  either  of  the  size  or  of  the 
shape;  but  it  occasions,  both  at  the  surface 
and  in  the  insi<le,  a  change  of  substance,  and 
the  ligiu-ous  texture  is  inverted;  that  is  to 
sav,  that  which  was  pore  in  the  natural  wood, 
becomes  solid  in  that  which  is  ]ielrilied  ;  and 
that  which  was  solid  or  hill  in  the  (irat  state, 
becomes  porous  in  the  second.  In  this  way, 
savs  M.  Musard,  petrified  wood  is  much  less 
eNtended  in  pores  than  solid  parts,  and  at  the 
same  time  formsabody  much  nvire  dense  and 
heavy  than  the  first.  jVs  the  pores  communi- 
cate from  the  circumference  to  the  centre, 
the  petrifaction  ought  to  begin  at  the  centre, 
aiivl  end  with  the  circumference  of  the  orjaii- 
3  C 


385 

ic  body  subjected  to  the  action  of  tlie  lapi 

dific  lUiids. 

In  proportion  to  the  tendeifties'i  and  bad 
quality  of  «ood,  it  imbibes  tlii:  greater  qnan- 
lilyol'water;  therefore  this  sort  will  umiues- 
tionably  petrify  more  easily  than  that  which 
is  hard.     It  is  thought  that  all  the  petrified 
wood  so  often  found  in  Hungary,  !ias  iieeii 
originally  soft,  such  as  firs  or  po))lars.     Sup- 
jiose  a  piece  of  wood  buried  in  the  earth  ;  if 
it  is  very  dry,  it  will  suck  up  tiie  moisttin-. 
whicli    surrounds   it   like    a  spunge.      Thii 
moisture,  by  penetrating  it,  will  dli;tle  all  the 
parts  of  which  it  is  composed.     The  trachia , 
or  air-vessels,  will  be  filled  first ;  and  tlien  the 
lymphatic  vessels,  and  those  which  contain 
the   succu*  projirius,    as  they  are   likewise 
empty.     The  water  which  forms  this  nioist:ire 
keep^'  in  solution  a  greater  or  a  less  cjuantily 
of  earth;  and  tliis  earth,  detached,  and  cav- 
rii-d  alov.gin  its  course,  is  reduced  to  su'chan 
attenuated  .sb.te,  that  it  escapes  our  eyes, 
and  keeps  itself  suspended,  whether  by  tlie 
medium  of  fixed  air  or  by  the  motion  of  the 
water.     Sucli  is  the   lap'idific  fluid.     Upon 
evaporation,   or  the  deparUne   of  themeu- 
slruum,  this  earth,  sand,  or  metal,  again  ap- 
pears in  the  form  of  precipitate  or  sediment  m 
the  cavities  of  the  vesseU,  which  by  degrees 
are  filled  with  it.     This  earth  is  there  mould- 
ed with    exactness:  tlie   lap-,e  of  time,   the 
simultaneous  and    partial   attraction  of   the 
jjiirticles,  make  them  adhere  to  one  another; 
the  lateral  suction  of  the  siinounding  (ibres, 
the  obstruction  of  the  moulds,  and  the  hard- 
ening of  the  moulded  eaith,  become  general ; 
and  there  consists  nothing  but  an  earthy  sub- 
stance  which   prevents    the   sinking   of  the 
neighbouring  parts.     If  the  deposit  is  formed 
ofa  matterin  gener;il  pretty  pure,  it  preserves, 
a  wliiter  and  clearer  colour  than  the   rest  of 
the  wood;  and   as  the  concentric  layers  are 
only  perceptible  and  distinct  in  the  wood,  be- 
caiise  the  vessels  are  there  more  apparent  on 
account  of  tlieir  size,  the  little  eartHy  cylin- 
ders, in  the  st.ale  of  polrified  wood,  must  be 
there  a  little  larger, and  conse<|ueiitly  must  re- 
present exactly  the  turnings  and  separation* 
of  these  layei-s.     At  the  jilacc  of  the  utriculi, 
globules  are  observed,  of  wh'ch  l!ie  shapes 
are  as  various  as  the  moulds  wher^hi  they  are 
formed.     The  anastomoses  of  the  proper  and 
lymphatic   vessels   form,  besides,    points   of 
s"u|)port  or  reunion  for  this  stony  substance. 

With  regard  to  holes  formed  by  worms  in 
any  bits  of  wood,  before  they  had  been  bu- 
ried in  the  earth,  the  lapidilii  fluid,  in  pene- 
trating these  great  cavities,  deposits  there  as 
easily^ the  earthy  scdimuit,  whicli  is  exactly 
moulded  in  tiiein.  These  vermiform  cylin- 
ders are  somewhat  less  in  bulk  than  the  holes 
in  which  thev  ore  found,  which  is  owing  to 
ttiei  retreat  of  the  more  refined  earth,  and  to 
its  drying  up. 

Let  any  one  represent  to  himself  this  col- 
lection ol'liltle  cylinders,  vertical,  horizontal, 
inclined  in  diil'erent  directions,  llie  stony 
luas.-es  of  utriculi  and  of  anastomoses,  and  lu; 
will  have  an  idea  of  the  stony  ^ubstance  which 
forms  the  ground-work  of  petrifaction.  Hi-  . 
therto  not  a  jingle  ligneous  part  is'destroved; 
thev  are'  all  existing,  but  surroundej  on 
evcM-y  side  with  earthy  deposits;  and  that 
body  which,  during  life,  was  composed  of  so- 
lid and  of  em[ity  parts,  is  now 'entirely  solid; 
its  destruction  and  decomposition  do  not 
take  place  till  after  the  fomia'don  of  these  Itltle 


365 

(kposits.  In  propnriron  ss  t!)C  water  aUSn- 
<loiis  them,  it  [HMic'liali'S  the  ligneous  sub- 
stan;'e,  and  destroys  it  insensibly.  'I'lie 
woody  libres  being  deconiijosed,  lorni  in  their 
turn  voids  and  interstices,  and  liiere  remains 
in  tlie  whole  piece  nothing  hut  little  stony  cv- 
liiiders.  But  in  pro|;ovtuin  as  thc>e  woody 
libres  disappear,  the  sunonnding  moisture, 
K)aded  with  e;:rth  in  the  state  ot  dissolulion, 
does  not  fail  to  jjenelrale  the  piece  of  wootl, 
aufl  to  remain  in  its  new  cavities.  'I  he  new 
depo>it  assumes  ex;ictiy  the  tonn  of  deconi- 
;)iBsed  iibres ;  it  enveiops  in  its  turn  the  little 
•  vylinders  which  were  formed  in  their  cavities, 
and  ends  by  incorpurating  with  iheiii.  \V» 
may  suppose  here,  tliat  in  proportion  as  it  de- 
composes, there  is  a  feaclion  of  U»e  ligneous 
part  against  the  l.ipidihc  lluid:  frum  tliis  re- 
action a  colour  arises  whi:h  stains  mure  or 
less-  the  new  deposit;  and  this  colour  will 
make  it  easily  dislingui^habh-  from  thatwiiirh 
lias  been  laid  in  the  inside  of  the  ves>els.  In 
all  petrified  wood  this  shade  is  generally  per- 
t -ptible.  ■ 

\Vc  have  tiien,  savs  M.  Moiigez,  four  dis- 
tinct epochs  in  the  process  by  which  nature 
converts  a  piece  of  wood  into  stone,  or,  to 
Speak  more  justly,  bv  which  she  -iub'titutes  a 
stony  depo>it  in  it<  place:  1.  Perfect  vege- 
table wood,  that  is  to  say,  wood  composed  of 
solid  and  of  empty  parts,  of  ligneous  libres, 
and  of  vessels  'J.  Wood  having  its  vessels 
obstructed  and  choked  up  by  an  eartliy  de- 
posit, while  its  solid  parts  remain  unaltered. 
3.  The  solid  parts  attacked  and  decomposed, 
forming  new  cavities  betwixt  the  stony  cy- 
linders, which  remain  in  the  same  state,  and 
which  support  the  whole  mass.  4.  These 
new  cavities  (illed  with  new  deposits,  whicii 
incorporate  with  the  cylinders,  and  compose 
nothing  else  but  one  general  earthy  mass,  re- 
presenting exactly  the  piece  of  wood. 

Among  t!ie  jjetrifactions  of  vegetables 
railed  dendrolites,  are  found  parts  of  shrubs, 
stems,  roots,  ])oitions  of  the  trunk,  some 
t'uits,  &c.  We  must  not,  however,  confound 
the  impressions  of  mosses,  ferns,  and  leaves, 
nor  incrustratious,  with  petrifactions. 

Among  the  petrifactions  of  animals,  we  find 
shells,  crustaceous  animals,  polyparii,  some 
Tiorms,  the  bony  parts  of  lishes  and  of  am- 
j)!iil)ioiis  animals,  few  or  no  real  insects, 
rarely  birds  and  (piadrnpeds,  together  with 
the  bony  portions  of  the  human  bodv.  The 
c'oniua  ainmonis  are  peliihed  serpents;  and 
with  regard  to  figured  and  accidental  bodies, 
these  are  lusiis  natura'. 

In  order,  says  M.  IJertrand,  in  Itis  Diction- 
naire  des  I'ossiles,  that  a  body  should  become 
petriiied,  it  is  necessary  that  it  is,^  1.  Capa- 
ble of  preservation  under  ground.  'J.  That 
It  is  sheltered  from  the  air  and  running  wa- 
ter (the  ruins  of  llerculaneum  prove  that  bo- 
dies which  have  no  connection  with  free  air 
preserve  themselves  untoiudied  and  entire). 
3.  That  it  is  secured  from  corrosive  exha- 
lations. 4.  That  it  is  in  a  place  where  there 
are  vapours  or  liquids,  loaded  eifhhcr  with 
I'.ietallic  or  stony  particles  in  a  state  of  disso- 
lution, and  which,  without  <lestioying  the 
Ixidy,  penetrate  it,  impregnate  it,  an<i  unite 
with  it  in  proportiou  as  its  parts  are  dissipated 
by  evaporation. 

It  is  a  ((uestion  of  great  importance  among 
nituralists,  to  know  the  time  which  nature 
emploi|;3  in  petrifying  botiies  of  an  urdiiuiry 


rKTni  FACTION'. 

slzV.  It  was  the  w  ish  of  the  late  emperor, 
duke  of  Lorraine,  that  some  means  ^l)ould  be 
taken  for  delemiining  this  question.  -\!.  le 
chevalier  de  Bailln,  director  of  the  cabinet  of 
natural  hisiory  of  his  im|)eriid  niajestv,  and 
some  other  naturalists,  had,  several  vears  be- 
fore, the  idea  ol  making  a  research  which 
might  throw  some  ligiit  upi)n  it.  His  impe- 
rial majesty  being  inlormed  by  the  unani- 
111. lus  observations  of  modi  rn  liistoriaii*  and 
geographer-i,  that  certain  pillar-  which  are 
actually  seen  in  the  Danube  in  (Jervia,  near 
Belgrade,  are  remains  of  the  l)ridge  which 
'IVajan  eiin>trucled  over  that  river,  presumed 
that  these  pillars  having  been  prcM-rved  for 
so  many  ages  must  be  petriiied,  and  that  they 
would  hirnish  some  information  with  regard 
to  the  time  which  nature  employs  in  clian- 
ghig  wood  into  stone.  The  emperor  thiuUing 
this  hope  well  founded,  and  wishing  to  satisfy 
his  curiosily,  orden-tl  his  amb;issaJor  at  the 
court  of  Constantinople  to  a-k  permission  to 
take  ui)  from  the  Danube  one  of  the  pillars 
of  Traian's  bridge.  The  petition  was  granted, 
and  one  of  the  pillars  was  acconlingK  taken 
up;  from  which  it  appeared  that  tlie  petri- 
faction had  only  advanced  three-fourtlis  of  an 
inch  in  the  space  of  15UU  years.  There  are, 
however,  certain  waters  in  which  the  trans- 
mutation is  more  readily  acconi|)libhed.  Pe- 
trifactions appear  to  be  formed  more  slowly 
in  earths  that  are  porous  and  iu  a  slight  de- 
gree moi^t  than  in  water  itself. 

\\hen  the  foundations  of  the  city  of  Que- 
bec in  Canada  were  dug  up,  a  pelrilied.sa- 
vage  was  found  among  the  last  beds  to  which 
they  pioceided.  Althotigh  there  was  no 
idea  ol  the  time  at  which  this  man  had  been 
buried  under  the  ruins,  it  is  however  true, 
that  his  quiver  and  arrows  were  still  well  pre- 
served. In  digging  a  lead-minif  in  Derby- 
shire in  1744,  a  human  skeleton  was  found 
among  stags'  horns.  It  is  impossible  to  say 
how  many  ages  this  carcase  had  lain  there. 
In  lli9J  the  entire  skeleton  of  an  elephant 
was  ling  up  near  Tonna,  iuTluiringia.  Some 
time  before  this  epoch  the  petriiied  skeleton 
of  a  crocodile  wa-  found  in  the  mines  of  thai 
country.  We  might  cite  another  fact  e(|ually 
curious  which  happened  at  the  beginning  of 
the  last  century.  John  ■Miinte,  curate  of 
Shvgarp  in  Scania,  and  several  of  his  parish- 
ioners, wishing  to  procure  turf  from  a  drained 
marshy  soil,  found,  some  feet  below  ground, 
an  entire  cart  with  the  skeletons  of  the  horses 
and  carter.  It  is  presumed  tliat  there  had 
formerly  been  a  lake  in  that  place,  and  that 
the  carter  attenqiting  to  pass  over  on  the  ice, 
had  by  that  means  probably  perisheiL  lii 
fine,  wood  partly  fossil,  and  partly  coaly,  has 
been  found  at  a  gre.it  depth,  in  the  clay  of 
which  tile  was  made  for  the  abbey  of  Foute- 
nav.  It  is  but  very  lately  that  fossil  wood 
was  discovered  at  the  depth  of  75  feet  in  a 
well  betwixt  Issi  and  N'auvres,  near  Paris. 
This  wood  was  in  s«nd  betwixt  a  bed  of  clav 
:md  pyrites,  and  water  was  found  four  leet 
lower  than  the  pvl'ites.  M.  de  Lainnont,  in- 
spector-general of  the  mines,  says  that  in  the 
leail-mine  at  Pontpean,  near  Itenues,  is  a  lis- 
sme,  perhaps  the  only  one-  of  its  kind.  In 
that  (issure,  sea-shells,  iounde<l  pebbles,  and 
an  entire  beech,  have  been  found  o4Q.fi.^.t 
deep.  This  beech  was  laid  horizontally  in 
the  direction  of  the  lissurc.  Its  bark  was 
converted  into  pyrites,  the  sap-wood  into  jet, 
and  Uie  centre  into  coal, 


A  great  many  pieces  of  petrified  wood  .ire 
found  in  dllVerent  counties  of  I'nuice  and> 
Savoy.  In  Cobourg  in  Saxony,  and  in  the 
mountains  of  Misnia,  trees  of  a  consideiabh; 
thickness  have  been  t^iken  from  the  earth, 
which  were  entirely  changed  into  a  very  line 
agate,  as  also  thiir  branches  and  their  roots. 
In  sawing  them,  the  annua!  circles  of  their 
growth  have  been  distinguished.  Pieces 
have  been  taken  up,  on  wide  h  it  wv.s  distinct- 
ly seen  that  tlie_\  had  been  gn.iwiil  by  worms  ; 
others  bear  visible  marks  of  tiie  hatciiet.  Iil 
line,  pieces  have  been  found  which  were  pe- 
Irifiei;!  at  one  end,  w  hile  the  other  stiil  re- 
mained in  the  state  of  wovxl  lit  for  being;, 
burned.  It  appears  then  that  petriiied  wood 
is  a  great  deal  less  rare  in  nature  than  is 
commonly  imagined. 

.Mr.  Kinvan  obseneson  the  subject  of  pe- 
trilications,  1 .  Those  of  shells  are  lound  on  or 
near  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  those  of  lisli 
deeper;  and  those  of  wood  deeper  still. 
Shells  in  substance  are  found  in  .vast  quanti- 
ties, and  at  considerable  depths.  2.  'I'lm 
substances  most  susceptible  of  petrifaction 
are  those  which  most  resist  the  pntrelactiva 
i)rocess;  of  which  kind  are  shells,  the  harder 
kinds  of  wood,  &c. ;  while  the  softer  parts  of 
animals,  which  easily  putrefy,  are  seldom  met 
within  a  petriiied  state.  3.  Tlfcy  are  most 
commonly  found  in  strata  of  marl,  chalk, 
limestone,  or  clay  ;  seldom  in  sandstone,  still 
more  seldom  in  gypsum;  and  never  in  gneissi 
granite,  basaltes,  rjr  schoeil.  Sometimes 
they  are  found  in  pyrites,  and  ores  of  iron, 
cupper,  and  silver;  consisting  almost  always 
of  that  kind  of  earth  or  other  mineral  wliick 
surrounds  them;  sometimes  of  silex,  agate, 
or  carnelian.  4.  They  are  found  in  climalci 
w  here  the  animals  themselves  could  not  have 
existed.  5.  Those  fouuil  in  slate  or  clay  are 
compressed  and  Uattened. 

The  dillerent  species  of  petrifactions,  ac- 
cording to  Cronstedt,  are, 

I.  Terne  larvata;;  extraneous  bodies 
changed  into  a  limy  substance,  or  calcareous 
changes.  These  are,  I.  Loose  or  friable. 
','.  Indurated.  The  former  are  of  a  chalky 
natiiir,  in  form  of  vegetables  or  animals;  the- 
secoiKUlilled  with  solid  limestone  in  the  same 
forms.  Some  are  found  entirely  changecL 
into  a  calcareous  spar. 

On  these  |)etrifactions  Cronstedt  observes, 
thi'.t  shells  and  corals  are  composed  of  limv 
matter  even  when  still  inhabited  by  their  ani- 
mals, but  they  are  classed  among  the  petri- 
factions as  soon  as  the  calcareous  particles 
have  obtained  a  new  arrangement:  for  ex- - 
ample,  when  they  have  become  sparry,  filled 
with  calcareous  earth  either  hardened  or 
loose,  or  w  hen  they  lie  in  the  strata  of  the 
earth.  "  These  (says  he)  form  the  greatest 
part  of  the  fossil  collections  which  are  so  in- 
dustriously made,  often  without  any  regard" 
to  the  principal  and  only  use  they  can  be  of, 
viz.  that  of  enriching  zoology.  Mineralo- 
gists are  satisfied  with  seeing  tlie  possibility  of 
the  changes  the  limestone  "undergoes  in  re- 
gard to  its  particles;  and  also  with  receiving 
some  insight  into  the  alteration  whiih  the 
earth  has  been  subject  to  from  the  state  of. 
the  strata  whiclt  are  now  found  in  it."  The 
calcined  shells,  where  the  ;)elrifac(ions  are  of 
a  limy  or  chalky  nature,  ;inswer  extremely 
well  as  a  m:inure;  but  the  indnratecl  kind 
serve  only  lor  making  grottass.     Cypsueus 


r  ET 

■|i('lrif.irtioiis  arc  oxtrciiiply  rarr;  Iiowovcr, 
Chardiii  iiilbrms  iis  tii.it  In-  ii;ul  si;i'ii  a  I'uaiil 
iiidoscil  ill  a  stoiiL'  of  llial  kiml  in  I'eisia. 

TI.  l^arva',  or  l)(Klics  cliangcd  Into  a  lliiily 
^iibstaiico.  'Jlu-se  are  all  iiuliiratt-d,  and  arc 
of  the  rollo\viii!{  species:  I.  ('anielians  in 
form  of  shells  from  the  river  'romin  in  Si- 
beria. 'J.  Agate  ill  form  of  wood  ;  a  piece  of 
which  is  said  to  be;  in  tlie  collection  of  llu; 
count  de  'I'essin.  3.  C'oralloids  of  white  (lint 
(millcpora)  found  in  Sweden.  4.  Wood  of 
vellow  Hint  found  in  Italy,  in  Turkey  near 
Ailrianople,  and  produced  by  the  waters  of 
[.oufih-neah  in  Ireland. 

III.  Larvx  ar^illace;c ;  where  the  bodies 
apiicar  to  be  cliaii<;ed  into  clay.  'I'hese  are 
found  either  loose  and  friable,  or  indurated. 
"Of  the  former  kind  is  a  piece  of  porcelain 
rlav  met  willi  in  a  certain  collection,  with  all 
the" marks  of  llie  root  of  a  tree  upon  it.  Of 
the  latter  kind  is  the  osteocolla  ;  whfch  is  said 
to  bi'  the  roots  of  the  |)0|)lar-tree  cliani^ed, 
and  not  to  consist  of  any  calcareous  snbst.mci?. 
A  sort  of  fossil  ivory,  with  all  the  properties 
of  clay,  is  said  likewise  to  be  found  in  some 
))laees. 

IV.  Larva'  insalita?;  where  the  s>ib-;lances  are 
impregnated  with  great  quantities  of  salts. 
Human  bodies  have  been  twice  found  imftren- 
jiated  with  vitriol  of  iron  in  the  mine  ol  fah- 
lun,  in  the  province  of  Dalarne  in  Sweden. 
One  of  thorn  was  kept  for  several  ye.irs  in  a 
glass-case,  but  at  last  began  to  moulder  and 
fall  to  pieces.  Turf  ami  roots  of  trees  are 
likewise  found  in  water  stroni^ly  impreg- 
iiated  with  vitriol.  Tlii:y  do  not  ilami',  but 
look  like  a  coal  in  a  strong  lire;  neither  do 
tliev  decay  in  the  air. 

V.  15odI<;s  penetrated  by  mineral  inllam- 
jiialjle  substances.  1.  By  iiit-coal,  such  as 
wood;  whence  some  have  imagined  coal  to 
liave  been  originally  produced  from  wood. 
Some  of  these  substances  are  fully  saturated 
with  the  coaly  matter;  others  not.  Among 
the  former  CIronstedt  reckons  jet;  among  the 
latter  the  substance  called  nuimia  ve^etablis  ; 
which  is  of  a  loose  texture,  resembling  am- 
ber, and  may  be  used  as  such.  '2.  Tlio>e  pe- 
netrated by  a;plialtum  or  rock-oil.  'I'he  only 
example  of  these  given  by  our  author  is  a 
kind  of  turf  in  the  province  of  Skone  in  Swe- 
den. The  Egvptiau  nuuiimies,  he  observes, 
cannot  have  any  placi-  among  this  species,  as 
they  are  impregnated  artificially  with  asphal- 
tuni,  in  a  manner  similar  to  w  Inl  happens  na- 
turally with  the  wood  and  coaly  matter  in  the 
last  species.  3.  Those  impregnated  with  sul- 
phur which  has  dissolved  iron,  or  with  pyrites. 
lluman  bodies,  bivalve  and  univalve  shells, 
and  insects,  have  been  all  found  in  this  state; 
and  the  last  are  found  in  tlie  alum  state  at 
AnJiarum,  in  llie  province  of  Skone  in  Swe- 
den. 

,  VI.  Larva;  metallifera- ;  where  the  bodies 
are  impregnated  with  metals.  These  are,  !. 
Covered  with  native  silver;  which  is  found  on 
the  surface  of  shells  in  England.  2.  Where 
the  metal  is  mineraliscHl  with  copper  and  sul- 
4)hur.  Of  this  kind  is  tlie  fahlerti!  or  grey 
silver-ore,  in  the  shape  of  ears  of  corn,  and 
supposed  to  be  vegetables,  found  in  argilla- 
ceous slate  at  Frankenbergand  Tahlitteren  in 
Hesse.  3.  Larv.i'  cuprifer;e,  whi-re  the  bo- 
dies are  imiireguated  with  copper.  To  this 
species  principally  belong  the  tupiuoise  or 
Turkey  stones,   improiJerly  so  called  ;  being 


r  E  T 

ivoi-\'  and  bones  of  the  elephant,  or  other 
animals,  impregnated  with  copper.  .\t  Si- 
more  in  Ijaiiguedoc  there  are  bones  ot  ani- 
mals ilug  up,  which,  during  calctnation,  as- 
liume  a  blue  colour;  but  according  to  Cron- 
sledt,  it  is  not  probable  that  ihi'se  ov.e  their 
colour  to  copper.  3.  With  mineralised  co))- 
per.  Of  these  inir  author  gives  two  ex- 
amples. One  is,  where  tile  copper  is  mine- 
ralised with  suli)hur  and  iron,  forming  a  yel- 
low marcajitical  ore.  \\'ith  this  some  shelU 
are  ini[iicgiiale<l,  which  lie  upon  a  bed  ot 
loadstone  in  Norwav.  Other  petrifactions  of 
this  kind  are  found  in  the  firm  of  li-.h  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Germany.  The  other  kind  is 
where  the  copper  is  impregnated  with  sulphur 
and  silver.  Of  this  kind  i->  the  grey  silver- 
ore,  like  ears  of  corn,  found  in  the  slate- 
(piarries  at  lles,e.  -1.  Lirv.-e  fcrrifera-,  with 
iron  in  form  of  a  calx,  which  hasassumeil  the 
-place  or  shape  of  eNtraiieous  bodies.  These 
are  either  loose;  or  iiuluratcd.  Of  the  loose 
kind  are  soirte  roots  of  trees  found  at  the 
lake  l^;(ugelma  in  I'lnland.  The  indurated 
kinds  are  even  exeniplilie<l  in  some  wood 
found  at  Orbissan  in  liohemia.  .').  A\'liere 
the  iron  is  mineralised,  as  in  the  pyritaceous 
larva-  alrea<ly  desc:ribed. 

MI.  Where  the  bodies  are  tending  to  de- 
composition, or  ill  a  way  of  devtrmlion. 
.\moiig  these,  our  author  enumerates  mould 
and  turf,  .'vc. 

PET«0(_'.\KYA,  a  genus  oftlie  class  and 
order  hcptaudria  inonogviiia.  The  calvx  is 
live-ch-ft,  turbinate;  corolla  tive-petalled; 
iilaments  twenty-four;  drujie  inclining,  and 
two-celled  nut.  There  are  two  species,  trees 
of  (Juiana. 

PErUOLElM.     See  Bitumen. 

I'h:'!  HO.M^'ZOX,  the  lumprei/,  a  genus 
of  lishes  belonging  to  the  class  of  auipliibia 
nantes.  It  has  seven  spiracula  at  the  side  of 
the  neck,  no  gills,  a  listula  on  the  top  of  the 
head,  and  no  breast  or  belly  tins.  There  are 
eigh.t  s|iecies,  distinguished  by  peculiarities 
in  their  back  fins. 

I.  The  mariuus,  or  sea-lamprey,  is  some- 
times found  so  large  as  to  weigh  four  or  live 
pounds.  It  greatly  re^embU•s  the  eel  in 
shiipe,  but  its  body  is  larger,'  and  its  snout 
longer,  narrower,  and  sharper  at  the  termi- 
nation. The  opening  of  the  throat  is  very 
wide;  each  jaw  is  furnished  with  a  single  row 
of  very  small  teeth;  in  the  middle  oftlie  pa- 
late arc  situated  one  or  two  other  teeth, 
which  are  longi  r,  stronger,  and  moveable  to- 
wards thi'  inside  ol  the  throat. 

The  lamprey  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  ocean, 
ascending  rivers  cliietiy  during  tlie  latter  part 
of  winter  and  the  early  uiouths  of  spring  ;  and 
after  a  residence  of  a  few  months  ia  fresh 
water,  again  returning  lo  the  s:a:  it  is  vivipa- 
rous, and  the  voung  are  observed  to  be  of 
slow  gnnvtli;  contrary  to  the  assertions  of 
some  wrilers,  v. ho  have  supposed  the  lam- 
prey to  be  a  short-lived  li^h.  When  in  mo- 
tion this  ti-h  is  observed  lo  swim  with  consi- 
derable vigour  and  rapidity,  but  it  is  more 
comuionlv  seen  attached  by  the  mouth  to 
some  large  stone  or  other  substance,  the  body 
hanging  at  rest,  or  obeying  the  motion  of  the 
current:  so  strong  is  the  power  of  adhesion 
exerted  bv  this  animal,  that  a  stone  of  the 
weight  of  more  than  twelve  pounds  may  be 
raised  without  forcing  the  lisli  to  forego  its 
hold.  The  general  iiabitsof  the  lamprey  seem 
pretty  nuithlo  resemble  those  of  the  eel,  and 
3  C  S 


r  i:  T 


S8;r 


it  is  supp<)sed  lo  live  principally  on  worms 
and  young  lish.  Like  Ihc  eel  it  is  remarkably 
tenacious  of  life;  the  several  parts,  wln-ii  cut 
in  pii'ces,  will  long  contimie  to  move;  and 
the  head  will  slrongl)  attaih  itself  for  several 
liours  lo  a  stone,  though  by  far  the  greater 
part  oftlie  body  iscul  away  from  il. 

.Among  the  cartilaginous  fishes  none  is  so 
destitute  of  all  aijpearancif  of  real  bone  as 
the  lamprey,  in  which  the  spine  itself  is  no 
other  than  a  mere  soft  cartil.ige,  without  any 
processes  or  protuberances  whatsoever. 
Among  other  particulars  in  its  anatomy,  it  is 
remarkable  that  the  heart,  instead  ot  being 
inclosed  in  a  solt  pericardium,  as  in  other 
animals,  is  guarded  by  a  strong  cartilaginous 
one:  the  liver,  which  is  of  an  oblong  form,  is 
of  a  tine  grass-green  colour,  somewiiat  deeper 
ill  the  female  lish,  and  may  be  used  for  the 
purpose  of  a  pigment. 

A  vulgar  eiror,  arising  from  inattentive 
inspection,  and  total  ignorance  of  the  nature 
oftlie  animal,  is  said  s:iiTictimes  to  prevail, 
viz.  that  the  lamprey  is  furnished  with  nine 
eyes  on  each  side  ;  this  mistake  ajipears  lo 
have  excited  unusual  indignation  m  sir  T. 
Brown. 

.'\s  an  article  of  food,  the  lamprey  has  for 
many  ages  mjintained  its  credit  as  an  exqui- 
site daintv;  and  has  uniformly  made  its  ap- 
l)earaiu:e'at  the  most  fjilemlid  of  our  antieut 
entertainiiieiits.  The  death  of  king  Henry 
the  First,  it  is  well  known,  is  attributed  to  a 
too  luxurious  indulgence  in  thiv  his  favorite, 
dish.  It  still  continues  to  be  in  high  eslv"m; 
and  we  are  told  by  Mr.  Pennant  thai  the  city 
of  Gloucester  contnuies  to  send  yearly,  at 
Christmas,  a  present  of  a  rich  lampiey-ple  to 
the  king.  It  sometimes  happens  that  lani- 
))reys  at  that  season  are  so  rare  that  a  guinea  is 
demanded  for  the  price  of  a  single  fisli.  They 
are  most  in  season  during  March,  -Vpril,  and 
May,  and  are  observed  to  be  much  more 
firm' when  fresh-arrived  from  sea  than  when 
they  have  been  a  considerable  lime  in  fresh 
water.  Tliev  are  found  in  several  of  the 
British  rivers,  but  that  which  is  most  cele- 
brated for  them  is  the  Severn.  In  the  mouths 
of  some  of  the  larger  European  rivers  they 
are  sometimes  taken  in  such  quantities  that 
it  is  impossible  to  use  tb^'.-.i  in  their  fresh 
state ;  they  are  therefore  grilled  and  mode- 
rately salted,  and  afterwards  barrelled  Up  for 
sale,'\vilh  the  addition  of  vinegar  and  spices. 

'J.  Petrouiyzon  lluviatilis,  lanijiern.  This 
species  is,  according  to  Dr.  Bloch,  an  inha- 
bitant of  the  sea,  and  ascends  in  spring-time 
most  of  the  European  rivers,  in  which  it  is 
found  much  more  frequently  and  plentifully 
tlian  the  great  lamprey.  With  us  it  is  found 
in  great  quantities  in  the  Thames,  the  Severn, 
and  the  Dee.  It  is  often  potted  with  the 
larger  lamprey,  and  is  by  some  preferred  to 
it,  as  being  milder-tasted.  Mr.  I'ennaiit  in- 
forms us  that  vast  (|uantities  are  taken  about 
.\lortlake,  and  sold  to  the  Dutch,  as  baits 
for  their  cod  and  turbot  fisheries.  .\ci  oiding 
lo  this  author  above  four  hun<lred  and  fifty 
thiiusand  have  been  sold  in  a  season,  at  forty 
shillings  per  thousand,  and  about  a  hundred 
thousand  have  been  occasionally  sent  lo  Har- 
wich for  the  same  purpose.  The  Dutch,  it 
is  added,  have  the  secret  of  preserving  them 
till  the  time  of  the  turbot-fishery.  Great 
quantities,  says  Dr.  Bloch,  are  taken  in  the 
march  of  Brandenburgh,  and  in  Pomerania, 
Silesia,  and  Prussia ji.  aad  after  li"yiu§,  are 


3S8 


P  E  W 


packed  in  barrels  by  layers,  between  each  of 
«hich  i.s  a  layer  ot  bay-ieaves,  and  spices, 
sj)rinkled  over-  witli  vinegar.  In  lliis  state 
tliey  are  sent  i;,to  many  oilier  parts  of  the 
German  empire.  In  tiio  river  Baiister  in 
C'onrland,  great  (juantities  are  taken  from 
beneatli  the  ice  with  nets;  they  are  inuch 
larger  than  iho.e  fouiid  elsewhere,  antl  are 
parked  in  snow,  and  sent  to  any  distance  ; 
and  vfiieii  put  nito  cold  water  recover  them- 
selves. Tills  s^.ecies  spawns  in  .March  and 
April,  ami  is  a  prolific  fisj.  U  is  so  tenacious 
of  life,  that  it  will  live  many  days  o.it  of 
vater. 

3.  Petromyzon  pfjieri,  Planer's  lamprey  : 
length  from  ii.e  or  six  to  ten  Inches  ;  general 
resemblance  tlial  of  tiie  lamuL'rn :  nalu'e  ot 
tlie  rivers  of  'I'iuiringia  and  oilier  parts  of  the 
Gerinan  empire.  Like  most  of  the  genus,  te- 
nacious of  hie,  hving  ior  the  space  of  a  (|uar- 
ter  of  an  hcur  wlien  i'mnerscd  in  spirits  of 
■wine,  and  moving  witli  violence  during  llie 
whole  time.  When  thus  killed  in  spirits,  the 
mouth  remains  open,  but  when  the  lish  dies 
in  wafer  it  is  shut. 

4.  Petromyzon  branrhialis,  minute  1am- 
'prey:  inluibiistlie  European  rivers;  in  Eng- 
land more  frequent  in  the  Isis  than  elsewhere. 
Instead  of  concealing  itself  under  stones,  this 
species  lodges  ftself  among  the  mud,  and  is 
not  observed  to  adhere  to  any  other  body 
like  the  rest  of  the  genus :  it  is  used  as  a 
bait  for  other  lish.  It  seems  to  have  been 
lir;t  distinctly  described  as  an  English  spe- 
cies by  Dr.  riot,  in  his  History  of  O.xlbrtl- 
shire.    . 

5.  Petromyzon  sanguisuga,  leech  lamprey. 
It  seems  in  many  points  so  nearly  to  resemble 
the  common  lamprey  as  to  leave  some  sus- 
picion of  its  being  ihe  young  ol  that  species  ; 
yet  Mons.  Noel  seems  convinced  of  its  being 
specifically  dill'erent.  It  is  said  to  be  found 
only  at  those  times  in  which  the  shad  (chipea 
alosa)  is  in  the  river.  These  lishes  it  perse- 
cutes, by  fastening  beneath  their  bellies,  and 
sucking  th-ir  blood  with  the  avidity  of  a 
leech:  its  body  being  constantly  found  full 
of  that  lluid  alone :  they  sometimes  attack 
salmon  in  a  similar  way,  i>ut  (rom  the  greater 
thickness  of  the  skin  in  those  h-hes,  are  able 
to  obtain  but  a  small  quantity  of  blood  from 
them. 

PETUX.5E,  in  natural  liistoi-j',  one  of  the 
two  substances  whereof  the  porcelain  or  Chi- 
iivware  is  made.  The  petunse  is  a  coarse 
kind  of  Hint  or  pebble,  the  surface  of  which 
is  not  so  smooth  when  broken  as  that  of  our 
common  iliiit.  See  Ston'EVV.^ke. 

PEL'CEDANUM,  Or  Sulphurwort, 
a  genus  of  the  digynia  order,  in  the  pentaii- 
dria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  me- 
thod ranking  under  the  4ith  order,  unibcllala-. 
The  huit  is  lobated,  striated  on  Ixjtli  sides, 
and  surrounded  by  a  membrane;  the  involu- 
cra  are  very  short.  There  are  10  species, 
none  of  which  have  any  remarkable  proper- 
ties excepting  the  oliicinalc,  or  coninioii 
hoj's-feimel,  growing  naturally  in  the  English 
salt  marshes.  The  roots,  when  bruised,  have 
a  strong  fetid  scent  like  sulphur,  and  an 
acrid,  bitterish,  unctuous  taste.  Wounded 
in  the  spring  they  yivid  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  yellow  juice,  which  dries  into  a  gum- 
my resin,  and  retains  the  strong  smell  of  III,? 
loot.  Tlie  expressed  juice  was  used  by  the 
antients  in  lethargic  disorders. 

PliW'l'EIJ,  a   factitious    metal,    iissd  in 


r  H  A 

making  domealic  utensils,  as  plates,  dishe.s, 
&c.     bee  Zi.vc. 

PEZIZ.^,  cup-mushroom,  a  genus  of  the 
natural  order  ot  fungi,  in  the  cryptogamia 
class  of  plants.  The  fungus  is  campainilaled 
.•".nd  sessile.  Linnaus enumerates  llsjiecieb; 
Dr.  M  ifliering,  -!0  IJritish  species. 

PH.-VC'A,  a  genus  of  the  decandria  order, 
in  the  diadelphia  class  of  plants;  and  in  the 
nati?ral  method  ranking  under  the  32d  order, 
papllionacea".  The  legumen  is  seniibilocular. 
There  are  1 1  species. 

PH.T.TIlIjSA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  syngenesia  polygamia  superllua.  The 
calyx  is  subcylindric,  many-leaved  ;  florets 
herniaplirochte;  recept.  chaffy  ;  seeds  visp^d. 
There  is  one  species,  a  tree  of  Virginia. 

PHAETON,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of 
birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  anseres,  the 
characters  of  which  are:  The  bill  is  sharp, 
straight,  and  pointed,  the  no^rils  are  oblong, 
and  the  hinder  toe  is  turned  forward.  'I'iiere 
are  two  species,  viz. 

1.  The  demersus,  or  red-footed  pinguin, 
has  a  tliick,  arched,  red  bill ;  the  head,  hind- 
part  of  the  neck,  and  the  back,  of  a  dusky 
purplish  huej  and  breast  and  belly  while; 
brown  wings,  with  the  tips  of  the  feathers 
white  ;  instead  of  a  tail,  a  lew  black  bristles  ; 
and  red  legs.  It  is  found  on  Pinguin  isle, 
near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  common  all 
over  the  youth  Seas,  and  is  about  the  size  of 
a  goose. 

~.  The  ethercus,  or  tropic  bird,  is  about 
the  size  of  a  partridge,  and  has  very  long 
wings.  The  bill  is  red,  with  an  angle  under 
the  lower  mandible.  The  eyes  are  encom- 
passed with  black,  which  ends  in  a  point  to- 
wards the  back  of  the  head.  Three  or  four 
of  the  larger  i|uill-teafhers  towards  their  ends 
are  black,  tipped  with  white ;  all  the  rest  of 
the  bird  is  uhite,  except  the  back,  which  is 
variegated  with  curved  lines  of  black.  The 
legs  and  feet  are  of  a  vermilion  red.  The 
toes  are  webbed.  The  tail  consists  of  two 
long  straight  narrow  I'eaUiers,  almost  of  ecpial 
breadth  from  their  quills  to  their  points. 

The  name  tropic  bird,  given  to  this  genus, 
arises  from  its  being  chiefly  found  within  the 
tropical  circles  ;  but  we  are  not  to  concliide 
that  they  n"ver  stray  vohintarily,  or  are 
driven  beyond  them:  lor  w'l-  have  met  with  a 
few  instances  to  prove  the  contrary.  It  is, 
however,  so  generally  found  within  the  tro- 
pical limits,  that  the  sight  of  this  bird  alone 
is  surticient  to  inform  the  mariner  of  a  very 
near  approach  to,  if  not  his  entrance  therein. 
It  has  also  been  thought  to  portend  the  con- 
tiguity of  land  ;  but  this  has  often  proved  fal- 
lacious, as  it  is  not  unffequently  found  at  very 
great  distances  from  if.  The  flight  of  this 
Ihrd  is  often  to  a  prodigious  height;  but  at 
other  times  it  is  seen  along  with  the  frigate- 
p;lican,  booby,  and  other  bii<ls,  attending 
the  flyini^-lishes  at  their  rise  from  the  water, 
driven  from  their  native  clement  into  the  air 
by  their  watery  enemies,  the  shark,  porpoise, 
aibicore,  bonit'o,  and  (lolj)hin,  which  pursue 
them  beneath,  and  prey  upon  them.  These 
birds  are  sometimes  observed  to  rest  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  have  been  now  and 
then  seen  in  calm  weather  upon  the  backs  of 
the  drowsy  tortoises,  supinely  floating  in  the 
sea,  so  that  they  have  been  easily  taken  by 
the  long-boat  manned.  On  shore  tlii'v  will 
perch  on  trees,  and  are  said  to  breeil  in  tin- 
woods,  on  the  sround  bcneatb:  hem.     They 

2 


V  11  \ 

have  been  met  with  in  plenty  on  the  islands  cf 
St.  Helena,  Ascension,  Mauritius,  New  Hol- 
land, and  various  places  in  the  South  Seas  ; 
but  in  no  place  so  mimerous  as  at  Puhneistoii 
island,  where  these  binls,  as  well  as  the  fri- 
gates, were  in  such  plenty,  that  the  ticf? 
were  absoltitely  loaded  with  them,  and  so 
fame,  that  they  sulfered  themselves  to  be 
taken  oil  the  boughs  with  the  hand.  At  Ota- 
heite,  and  in  the  Friendly  isles,  the  natives 
give  them  the  names  ot  baiiigoo  and  toolaiee. 
Some  ornithologi-ts  reckon  two  other  species 
(|)erhaps  varieties)  of  the  tropic  bird. 

Pil.VL.-EN.\,  niolli,  a  genus  of  insects  of 
ihe  order  lepidoptera:  the  generic  character 
is;  anleniue  setaceous,  gradually  lesseniiig 
from  ba^eto  tip;  wings  (when  sitting)  gene- 
sally  dellex  (flight  nocturnal).  Thisgeuus,  like 
that  of  papilio,  containing  a  vast  number  of 
species,  is  divided  intoassortments,  according 
to  the  ilifferent  habits  of  the  animals.  These 
a^jortments  are  as  follow,  viz. 

Attaci,  or  those  in  which  tlie  wings,  when 
at  ret,  are  spread  out  horizontally. 

Boiiibyces,  in  which  the  wings  are  incum- 
bent, and  the  anlenna-  pectinated. 

Noctua',  wilh  incumbent  wings  and  seta- 
ceous antennie. 

Geometra',  with  wings  horizontally  spread 
out,  nearly  as  in  the  attaci. 

Tortrices,  with  very  obtuse  wings,  curved 
on  the  exterior  margin. 

Pyialides,  with  wings  converging  info  a 
deltoid  and  slightly  furcated  hgure. 

Tinea%  with  wings  convoluted  into  a  cy- 
linder. 

Alucita",  with  wings  divided  into  distinct 
plumes. 

These  distributions,  like  those  of  the  genus 
papilio,  are  not  strictly  accurate,  and  "must 
therefore  be  regarded  with  a  proper  degree 
j  of  allowance. 

I  In  the  first  division  or  attaci  ranks  flie  most 
splendid,  and  largest,  of  all  the  phakena?  yet 
known,  viz.  the  phaf.vna  atlas,  an  insect  so 
large  that  the  extent  of  its  wings  measures 
not  less  than  eight  inches  and  a  half;  the 
ground-colour  is  a  very  fine  deep  oran^e- 
iirown,  and  in  the  middle  of  each  wing  is  a 
large  subfriangiilar  transparent  s|>ot  or  patch, 
resembling  tlie  appearance  of  a  piece  ol  Mus- 
covy talc  ;  each  of  these  transparent  parts  is 
succeeded  by  a  black  border,  and  across  all 
the  wings  run  lighter  and  darker  bars,  exhi- 
biting a  very  tine  as?-ortment  of  varying 
shades  ;  the  upper  wings  are  slightly  curyea 
downwards  at  their  tips  in  a  falcated  "manner, 
and  the  lower  wings  are  edged  with  a  borde» 
of  black  spots  on  a  pale  bull-colourc<l  ground; 
the  anteinur  are  widely  pectinated  w<ith  a 
ipiadruplc  series  of  hbres,  exhibiting  a  highly 
elegant  appea-ance.  'I'liis  inject  is  a  nativ  e 
of  both  the  Indies,  aini  occasionally  varies 
both  in  size  and  colours- 

Phakena  luna  is  an  American  species,  of 
large  size,  and  extremely  beautiful ;  its  co- 
lour is  a  most  elegant  pea-green,  wilh  a  small 
yellowish  eye-shaped  spot  with  a  transparent 
centre  in  the  middle  of  each  wing,  and  the 
lower  wings  are  produced  at  the  hottum  into 
a  long  and  bro;iil  tail  or  continuation:  the 
ridge  of  the  upper  wings  is  broad,  and  of  :t 
tine  pnrplc-brow  11  colour  ;  the  head  and  tho- 
rax yellowish  white,  and  the  body  milk-white. 
Of  the  Eiuopean  species  of  this  division 
beyoiul  comparison  the  finest  is  the  |)hala'na 
junonia  (ph.  pavoiiia  Lin-),  a  native  uf  ui,imy 


parts  of  Ccniiaiiy,  Ttaly,  Fniiice,  kc.  but  not 
jut  obscived  in  fcuijlaml.  It  iiK.'asiiiesLibDUt 
bix  iiichi's  iii  (.•NliNit  oi'  wing-;,  ami  i";  variud 
by  a  iiiu.sl  biaiUilul  assorliaoiit  of  the  most 
subfi"  colours,  coiibinlnii;  of  ililil.ri'iit  sluuk-s 
of  cl('0|)  ami  light  grey,  black,  brown,  &c.  On 
the  nmldle  ol  each  whig  is  an  eye-shaped 
spot,  haviiii;  ihe  disk  black,  shaded  on  one 
side  with  hUie,  surrounded  with  red-brown, 
and  the  whole  included  by  a  circle  of  black. 
J.aslly,  all  the  wings  are  bordered  by  a  deep 
cdg.ng  of  very  pale  brown,  with  a  whiter 
line  immediately  adjoining  to  the  darker  part 
of  the  wing:  the  anlenu.e  are  linely  pectniat- 
ed.  The  caterpillar,  which  feed>  on  tlie  ap- 
ple, pear,  Sic.  is  liardly  le.s  beautiful  than 
the  insect  itself:  it  ij  ol  a  tine  apple  or  yel- 
lowish-green colour,  with  each  segnn-nt  of 
the  body  ornamented  by  a  row  ot  upright 
inoniinences  of  a  bright  blue  colour,  with 
black  radiated  edges,  and  surrounded » by 
loug  black  iilamenis,  each  of  which  termi- 
nates ill  a  davaled  tip.  This  larva,  when 
ready  for  its  change,  envelops  itself  in  an  oval 
veb  with  a  pointed  e.\lremily,  and  trans- 
forms itself  into  a  large  short^clirysali.-,  out  of 
which  afterwards  emerges  the*niolh. 

The  phaheiia  pavonia  ininnr,  or  smaller 
peacock-moth,  is  a  native  ot  Knglund,  and  is 
conimoiily  called  the  emperor  mcth.  In 
every  respect,  except  size,  it  so  gre.itly  re- 
sembles the  former,  that  Linna-us  chose  (s 
consider  it  as  a  permanent  variety  only  ot 
the  same  species.  The  larva  and  pupa  are 
also  of  the  same  appearance  with  those  of 
the  preceding,  butona  much  smaller  scale. 

The  bombyccs  constitute  a  very  numerous 
tribe,  of  which  the  phah-ena  caja  or  great 
tiger-moth  may  serve  as  an  example.  This 
species  is  one  of  the  larger  ICnglish  moths, 
and  is  of  a  line  pale  cream-colour,  with  cho- 
colate-brow n  bars  and  spots;  the  lo,>er  wings 
red,  and  black  spols;  the  thorax  chocolate- 
brown,  with  a  red  collar  round  the  neck  ;  and 
the  body  red,  with  black  bai".  'I'he  caterpillar 
is  of  a  deep  brown,  with  white  specks;  ex- 
tremely hairy,  and  feeds  on  various  plants. 
It  changes  into  a  chrysalis  in  June,  and  the 
llv  appears  in  July. 

Phaixna  fuscicauda  or  the  browii-tail  moth 
is  remarkable  lor  the  ravages  which  its  cater- 
pillar commits,  by  destroying  the  foliage  of 
trees  and  hedges,  and  r^'ducing-  them  to  a 
perfectlv  bare. appearance.  The  moth  itself 
is  about  a  third  part  less  than  that  of  a  silk- 
worm, and  is  of  a  fie.e  satiny  white,  exce|)l 
the  hinder  part  of  the  body,  which  is  of  a  deep 
brown.  '1  he  caterpillar  is  brown,  with  fer- 
ruginous hairs,  a  row  of  wliite  spots  along 
each  sido,  and  two  red  spots  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  back  :  it  is  of  a  gre!;arious  nature, 
vast  numbers  residing  together  under  one 
common  web :  they  are  hatched  early  in 
autumn,  from  eggs  laid  by  the  parent  moths, 
and  iainiedialely  torm  for  thcni>e!ves  a  small 
web,  and  begin  feeding  on  the  foliage  of  the 
tree  or  shrub  on  which  they  were  placed  : 
they  marsh.il  ti.emselves  with  great  legula- 
rity  for  this  purpose  in  rows,  and  at  first  de- 
vour only  the  up|)er  pellicle  and  the  green 
parenchyma  of  the  leaves,  and  in  the  even- 
ing retire  to  their  web.  In  about  three  weeks 
they  cast  their  sk;n,  and  afterwards  proceed 
to  feed  as  before,  enlarging  their  web  from 
time  to  time,  and  forming  it  on  all  sides  a^ 
strong  and  secure  as  possible.  In  this  they 
remain  the  whole  winter  in  a  state  of  tgrpi- 


PH  A  ETC  NT. 

dity,  till  being  enlivened  by  (lie  warnilh  of 
the  returning  spriii'i,  they  again  issue  from 
their  covering,  and  being  now  grown  stronger, 
begin  to  devour  the  whole  substame  of  tin- 
leaves,  instead  of  contenling  themselves  with 
the  upper  part  as  in  their  very  young  slate. 
The  destruction  which  they  sometimes  cause 
to  the  verdure  of  the  country  may  be  judged 
of  by  their  ravages  in  the  year  l/S'i,  when, 
according  to  the  account  of  the  ingenious 
Mr.  Curtis,  author  of  tlie  Flora  I-ondiuensis, 
&c.  in  many  parishes  about  London  sub- 
scriptions were  opened,  and  the  poor  people 
employed,  to  cut  off  and  collect  the  «  ebs  at 
one  sl.iiliiig  per  bushel,  which  were  burned, 
unilcM-  the  m^piction  of  the  church-wardens, 
overseers,  or  beadles,  of  the  respective  pa- 
rishes. At  the  lirst  onset  of  tins  busines-, 
Mr.  Curt's  assures  us,  he  was  informed  that 
fourscore  bushels  were  collected  in  one  day 
in  the  parish  of  (.'laphaiu  alone,  ^\'hen  these 
caterpillars  are  arrived  at  full  growth,  w Inch 
is  Usually  about  the  beginning  of  June,  eacii 
spins  itself  a  separat"  web,  in  which  it  changes 
to  a  dark-brown  chrysalis,  out  of  which  in  the 
beginning  of  July  proceeds  the  motli.  '1  lie 
ravages  of  these  insects  in  the  current  year, 
ISOtj,  have  been  scarcely  less  than  those 
above  recorded. 

liiit  of  all  die  moths  of  the  tribe  bombyx 
the  phala'na  mori,  or  silkworm  moth,  is  by 
far  the  most  im|)ortaiit.  This  is  a  wliiti-.Ii 
moth,  with  a  broad  pale-brown  bar  across 
each  of  tlie  iijiper  wings.  The  caterpillar  or 
larva,  emphatically  known  by  the  title  of  the 
silkworm,  is,  when  full  grown,  nearly  three 
inches  long,  and  of  a  yellowish  grey  colour  ; 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  k'.st  joint  of  the  body 
is  a  horn-like  |  n:cess,  as  in  many  of  the 
sphinges.  It  feeds,  as  every  one  knows,  on 
the  haves  of  the  w  h.ti'  mulberry,  in  tiefect  of 
which  may  be  substituted  the  black  mul- 
berrv,  and  even,  in  some  instances,  the  let- 
tuce'and  a  few  other  plants.  The  silkworm 
remains  in  its  larva  state  about  six  weeks, 
changing  its  skin  four  times  during  that  jie- 
riod,  and,  like  other  caterpillars,  abstaining 
from  fooil  for  s-ome  time  before  each  change. 
When  fnll-gro  .1),  I  .e  animal  entirely  ceases 
to  feed,  and  begins  to  t'or.n  itself  a  loose  en- 
velopement  of  silken  fibres  in  some  conve- 
nient spot  which  it  has  chosen  for  that  [uir- 
pose ;  and  aiterwards  proceeds  to  enwrap  it- 
self in  a  much  closer  covering,  forming  an 
oval  yellow  silken  case  or  ball,  about  the  size 
of  a  pigeon's  egg,  iu  '.vliich. it  changes  to  a 
chrysalis,  and  alter  lyir.g  tiius  inclosed  lor 
the  space  oi  about  tifleen  ilxys,  gives  birth  to 
the  moth.  This  h  iwever  is  always  carefully 
prevented  when  tlie  animals  are  reared  for 
the  purpose  of  CO. imierce,  the  moth  greatly  i 
injuring  the  silk  of  the  ball  by  discharging  a 
<|uantity  of  coloured  fluid  before  it  leaves  the 
cell:  the  silk-bulis  arc  therefore  exposed  to  | 
such  a  degree  of  heat,  as  to  kill  the  inclossd  | 
ci.rvsalides,  a  few  only  being  saved  for  the 
breed  of  the  following  year.  The  moth, 
when  luitched,  is  a  very  short-lived  animal, 
breeding  soon  after  its  exclusion;  aiulwlitn 
the  lemales  have  f  id  iheir  egis,  they,  as  well 
as  Ihe  males,  survive  but  a  very  short  time. 

The  length  of  the  silken  fibre  or  thread 
drawn  by  the  silkworm  may  be  supposed  to 
d:U'er  considerably  in  dili'erent  silk-balls. 
According  to  I>o\  le,  as  quoted  by  Derham,  a 
lady,  on  malting  the  eNperinient,  lound  the 
length  of  tlie  L^al)  to  be  considerably  roore 


Ihan  300  yards,  though  Ihe  weight  « as  only 
two  grains  and  a  half.  The  abbe  La  I'luclii: 
informs  us,ll-.at  of  twobalUone  measured  'j'2A 
leel,  and  tl.e  other  9.!0.  It  may  be  proper  to 
add,  ll'.at  the  silk  througlicul  its  whole  length 
is  double,  or  composed  of  two  conjoined  or 
agglutinated  lilaments.  Sec  Silk  Manu- 
facture. 

In  the  next  divison,  or  noctt;x,  stands  tlie 
beautihil  phaheiia  nupta,  a  moderately  largo 
species,  will)  the  upper  wings  of  a  iiiic  grey 
colour,  elegantly  clouded  and  varied  witii 
shades  and  lines  of  dark -brown,  Sic.  and  ll  e 
under  wings  of  a  vivid  crimson,  with  two 
broad  transverse  black  bars;  the  body  ;s 
grey,  but  white  imderneatli.  The  caterpillar, 
whicli  is  of  a  pale  ilesh-co!oured  grey,  is  dis- 
tinguished by  a  dorsal  tubercle  on  the  fore 
part  of  the  body,  and  seeds  chielly  on  the 
willow;  it  changes  to  a  chrysalis  in  July, 
and  the  moth  appears  in  August  and  Se))- 
tember.  Ihe  division  noctua-,  like  thai  of 
bombyx,  is  extremely  numerous. 

As  an  example  of  the  geometrx,  we  may 
adduce  a  very  elegant  moth  often  seen  to- 
wards the  middle  of  summer  on  the  elder, 
and  culled  phaki'iia  sambncaria  ;  it  is  mode- 
rately large,  of  a  jjate  sulphur-colour,  with 
angular  wings,  marked  by  a  narrow  trans- 
verse brown  line  or  streak.  It  proceeds  from 
a  green  caterpillar,  whicii,  like  those  of  the 
rest  oi  this  section,  walks  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner, viz.  by  raising  up  the  body  at  each  pro- 
gressive movement  into  the  form  of  an  arch 
or  loop,  the  extremities  nearly  approaching 
each  oilier.  It  changes  in  May  and  June  into 
a  black  chrysalis,  out  of  which  in  June  or 
July  proceeds  the  moth. 

To  this  division  also  belongs  tliat  beautiful 
insect  called  the  currant-bush  moth,  or  plia- 
lana  grossulariata,  so  frequently  seen  in  gar- 
dens in  the  month  of  July.  It  has  somewhat 
the  appearance  of  a  butterHy,  with  roundiN-l 
white  wings,  marked  by  numeinus  black 
s]wts ;  the  tipper  pair  being  still  farther  deco- 
rated by  a  pair  of  deep- yellow  bands:  the 
body  also  is  of  a  deei> golden  yellow,  willi  ■ 
bhick  spots.  The  caterpillar  is  of  similar  co-  ■ 
lour,  and  the  chrysalis  black;- 

In  the  division  tortrices,  so  named  from 
the  faculty  whicli  their  caterpillars  possess  oi' 
rolling  or  twisting  the  leaves  of  the  vegetables 
they  inhabit,  into  a  tubular  form,  stands  the 
elegant  phahena  prasinana,  an  inhabitant  of 
the  oak,  and  sometimes  of  the  alder:  the 
tipper  wings  are  of  line  green,  with  two  ol)- 
liiliie  yellow  stripes;  the  lower  v.iugs  pale  or 
whitish.  The  caterpillar  is  of  a  yell-ov.isli,  - 
green,  with  w  bite  specks,  and  the  end  of  the 
body  orange-coloured. 

In  tlii?  division  pvralcs  stands  the  pha!a?n».  • 
farinalis,  distinguished  by  the  polished  sur- 
face of  its  wings,  which  have  a  large  glaucous- 
brown  middle  area  or  patch,  while  the  re- 
mainder is  marked  by  whitish  streaks.  This 
insect,  when  sitting,  has  an  obtusely  trian- 
gular outline,  and  the  abdomen  is  turned  up  • 
at  the  lip. 

The  division   called  tinea-,   comprehends  ■ 
those  moths  which  are  in  general  of  a  small 
size,  though  often  of  very   elegant  colours.  - 
Of  this  tribe  is  the  phala-na  padella  :  it  is  of  a  ■ 
pearly  white   colour,   with    very    numerous  ■ 
black" spots:  its  ci-.terpillar  is  gregarious,  ap- 
pearing in  great  ciuantities  on  various  sorts  of 
fruit-trees  dut.ng  live  decline  of  sununcr,  a;ij 


3(iO 


P  IT  A 


i-oimiiitrm!^  Rrciit  ravaa;os  on  the  Irnrcs : 
tliLve  catiM()illav.s  iiilial)il  aconimon  wi-b,  and 
us-'allv  move  'ni  hirge  gi-oupes  together; 
tlieir  eolour  is  a  pale  greyish  yellow,  witli 
iiiiiiierous  black  spots;  each  caterpillar,  at  the 
time  of  its  change  to  chrysalis,  envelops  it- 
self in  a  distinct  oval  weh  "with  pointed  extre- 
mities; and  many  of  these  are  stationed  close 
to  each  other,  lu'iiicting,  in  a  perpendicular 
direction,  from  the  internal  roof  of  the  ge- 
neral enclosing  web;  the  chrysalis  is  blackish, 
and  the  molh  appears  in  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember. 

'l"o  this  division  also  belong  the  moths  em- 
p'laticallv  -io  called,  or  cloth-moths.  Of  these 
the  prin'cipul  is  the  |)lial-ena  vtstianella, 
which,  in  it> caterpillar  state,  is  very  destruc- 
tive to  woollen  cloths,  the  substance  of  wliich 
it  devours,  forming  for  itself  a  tubular  case 
with  open  extremities,  and  generally  ap- 
proaching to  the  colour  of  the  cloth  on  which 
*  is  nourished.  This  mischievous  species 
changes  into  a  chrvsalis  in  .'\pril,  and  the 
motif,  whicli  is  nn'iver-^ally  known,  appears 
chiefly  in  Mav  and  June. 

In  the  lu>t  division,  called  alucitw,  is  one 
of  the  m.i^t  elegant  of  the  insei  t  tribe,  though  ■ 
i:ot  dislinguiNhed   either   by    large    size  or! 
lively  colours.     It  is  a  small  moth,  of  a  snowy  I 
whiteness,   and,  at  lirst  view,  catches  the  at- 1 
tention  of  the  observer  by  the  very  remark-  \ 
able  aspect   of  its  wing-,  which   are  divided: 
into  the  most  beautiful  distinct  plumes,  two 
in  each  u])per,  aiid  three  in  each  under  wing, 
and  formed  on  a  plan  resembling  that  of  tlie 
long  wing-feathers  of  bird-,  viz.  willi  a  strong 
middle  rib  or  shait,  and  innumerable  lateral 
fibres.     This    molh,  which    is  the    phalxna 
];e]itadactvla  of  Linu.i'us,  appears  chiefly   in 
the  montli  of  August.     Its  caterpillar,  which 
is  vellowish-green,  speckh-d  with  black,  feeds 
on  nettles,  and  changes  into  a  blackish  chry- 
balis  ejiveloped  in  a  white  web.  j 

Another  very  remarkable  species  of  this 
division  is  the  phala-na  hexadactyla  of  Lin- 
ji.tnis;  each  wing  consisting  of  six  distinct 
plumes.  The  insect  is  of  a  pale  grey-broun 
colour,  with  several  transverse  lines  or  bars 
across  the  feather-,  and  exhibiting  a  very  en-  ' 
rious  spectacle  in  the  microscope.  It  chiefly 
inake>  its  appearance  in  the  month  of  Sep- 
tenfl)er.  This  little  moth  is  by  the  English 
collectors  somewhat  improperly  called  the 
twenty-plumed  moth,  the  plumes  beiEig  in 
realitv  twentv-four  in  nunfl)er.  Sec  Plate 
X.it.  "I  list,  fliis.  .3V5,  .3-'(),  327,  32S.  i 

I'U.MAN'GIUM.  a  genus  of  insects  of 
lite  order  aptera.  The  generic  character  i;, 
lugs  eight;  eves  two  vertical,  and  two  la- 
tend  ;  front  furnished  with  cheliform  anten- 
n:c  ;  abdi.men  generally  rounded.  . 

Of  all   the    insects    in   the    order   aptera, ' 
few  p^Thaps  will  bi-  found  of  a  toini   more  re- 
|)ulsive    llian    that    of    the    pre.eni    geims ; 
which,  exclusive  of  its  spider-like   shape,  is, 
in  some  species,  armed  with  weapons  resem- 
bling those  of  thi-gentis  aranea,  hut  operating  1 
v,ilh  greater- malignity.     Tiie  phalangiadifltM- 1 
very  much  iji  size,  some   being  very  minute  j 
insects,  while  others  are  equal  in  magnitude 
to  the  larger  kind  of  s))iders.  | 

The  plialangiuui  reinforme  is  one  of  the 
hirgi'St  of  the  genus.  Tins  animal  is  a  luitive 
of  tiie  hotter  regions  of  the  fflobe,  being  lound 
in  Africa  and  South  America.  It  has  the  ge- 
neral appearance  of  a  very  large  s|)ider,  with 
the  thorax  heart-  (or  rallier  kidney-)  bhaped. 


P  H  .V 

and  the  abdomen  roundc'd  :  the  legs  are  very 
long,  and  tlie  palpi  or  claspers  are  strongly 
toothed  on  the  inner  side  by  several  sharp- 
pointed  curved  proci-sses:  tiie  first  ])air  of 
legs  have  all  the  ap])earanee  of  a  pair  of  an- 
lenmc;  far  exceeding  the  rest  in  length,  and 
being  of  a  slender  or  liliforni  shape.  The 
whole  insect  is  of  a  dec'p  chesnut-broun  co- 
lour, with  a  yellowish  cast  on  the  abdomen. 
Its  particular  history  seems  to  be  little  know  n, 
but  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  being  of  a 
predacious  nature,  living  probably  on  the 
smaller  insects. 

Phalangium  caudatum  is,  in  general,  of 
ratlxr  smaller  size  than  the  former,  and  of  a 
lengthened  shape,  with  shorter  limbs  in  pro- 
portion :  it  is  principally  distinguished  bv  the 
long  setaceous  process  in  which  the  abdo- 
men terminates;  the  chela'  or  claspers  are 
large,  and  toothed  on  the  inside  towards  the 
tijis.  'i'he  general  colour  of  the  animal  is 
chesnut-brown.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies. 

To  this  genus  l>eloug  those  well-knoun  in- 
sects calleil  long-legged,  shepherd,  or  har- 
vest spiders,  bemg  popularly  i-onsiclereil  as 
such,  tliough  dill'eriug  very  considi-rably  from 
spidi-is  properly  so  named.  The  mo-t  com- 
mon insect  of  this  kind  is  the  phalangium 
opilio  of  Linnaeus,  which,  during  the  autunm, 
may  be  observed  in  ganlens,  about  walls, 
&c.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  i>lump,  but  tlat- 
tish,  orbicular  body;  au'l  its  extremely  long 
and  slender  legs,  which  are  generally  so  car- 
ried, that  the  body  appears  suspended  or  ele- 
vated to  a  considerable  height  above  the  sm- 
face  on  which  the  animal  rests;  the  eyes  are 
situated  on  the  top  of  the  head,  and  resenfliU' 
t«o  very  minute  glassy  globules;  the  colour 
of  the  whole  animal  is  a  pale  greyish-browii. 
This  species  preys  on  the  smaller  kind  of  in- 
sects in  general. 

Among  the  minute  species  of  phalangium, 
the  most  remarkable  is  the  phalangium  can- 
croides  of  Linna'us.  a  very  small  insect,  of  a 
rc<idish-brown  colour,  and  of  slow  motion, 
occasionally  found  among  jiapers,  dried 
plants,  &c.  ice.  Its  shape  is  obtusely  oval, 
with  a  sharpened  front,  furnished  with  a  pair 
of  very  long  and  large  jointed  claspers,  which 
give  the  insect  a  very  remarkable  appear- 
ance ;  the  body  is  very  nuich  depressed. 
This  little  insi-cl  has  been  occasionally  refer- 
red to  very  different  genera.  It  is  a  species 
which  seems  to  vary  consideral)ly  in  size; 
those  which  are  found  in  our  own  country 
rarely  exceeding  the  length  of  the  tenth  of  an 
inch,  while  in  some  parts  of  ICurojje  it  appears 
to  arrive  at  twice  that  length.  It  is  said  by 
l.inn.rus,  but  )>robably  on  no  JAist  foundation, 
to  introduce  itself  occasionally  under  the  skin, 
and  to  excite  a  painful  tumour;  a  circum- 
stance which,  considering  the  size  of  the  ani- 
mal, seems  scarcely  jjossible.  It  preys  on 
smaller  and  weaker  insects.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  hi,'.  329. 

I'h.vi.anc.U'm.  See  Antiierioum. 
I'I1AI..\NX,  in  Grecian  anliipiity,  a 
scpiare  battalion,  consisting  of  SOOO  men,  witli 
tlu-ir  shields  jiiined,  and  pikes  crossing  each 
other,  so  that  it  was  next  to  impossible  to 
break  it, 

PI1.-\1,AI\IS,  or  C'anary-c;uass,  a  genus 
of  the  Irigynia  order,  in  the  triandria  class  of 
[)lants.  The  calyx  is  bivalved,  carinated, 
and  ei|ual  in  length,  cOEitaining  the  corolla. 
There''are   12  species,  of  whicli  the  most  re- 


P  H  A 

niarkable  are  the  canariensis,  or  manured 
canary-grass;  and  the  arundiiiacea,  or  reed 
cauary-grass.  'I  liese  an;  both  natives  of  Bri- 
tain. The  lirst  grows  by  the  load-sideS,  and 
is  frecpuMilly  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the 
seeds,  which  aie  found  to  be  the  best  food 
for  the  canary  and  other  small  birds.  The 
second  grows  on  the  banks  of  rivers.  It  i^ 
Used  for  thatching  ricks  or  cottages,  and  en- 
dures iiuich  longer  than  straw.  In  Scandi- 
navia they  mow  it  twice  a  year,  and  their 
cattle  eat  It.  There  is  a  variety  of  this  cul- 
tivated in  OUT  gardens  with  beautifully  strijjed 
leaves.  The  stripes  are  generally  green  and 
wliite;  but  sometmies  they  have  u  purplish 
cast.  This  is  commonly  called  painted  lady- 
grass,  ladies'  iresses?,  or  riband-grass. 

PIIAI.EIICIAN  VERSE,  in  antient poet- 
ry, a  kind  of  verse  which  consists  of  live  t'eet, 
the  lirst  of  which  is  a  spondee,  the  second  a 
dactyl,  and  tiie  three  last  trochees :  such  is 
the  following  one  of  .Martial: 

1  2  3  4  5 

Sunmiam  |  nee  metu  |  as  di  |  em,  nee  |  opte.s, 

PM.VLLUS,  the  morel,  a  genus  of  the  or- 
der (ff  fungi,  belonging  to  the  cryptogamia 
class  of  pants.  The  fungus  is  reticulated 
above  ami  smootli  belovv.  There  are  thre^ 
species;  tlie  most  remarkable  ar 

1.  The  esculentus,  or  esculeiit  morel,  is  "^ 
native  of  l?rit;',in.  growieg in  woods,  grove?, 
meadows,  pastures,  &;c.  1  he  substance, 
when  recent,  is  wax-like  and  friable;  thecR- 
lour  a  whitish  yellow,  turning  brownish  in 
decay;  the  height  of  the  whole  fundus,  about 
four  or  live  inches.  The  stalk  is  thick  and 
clumsy,  somewhat  tuberous  at  the  base,  and 
hollow  in  the  middle.  The  pileus  is  either 
round  or  conical ;  at  a  medium  about  the  si^e 
of  an  egg,  olten  much  larger  ;  liollow  within  ; 
its  base  united  to  the  slalk;  and  its  surface 
cellular,  or  latticed  with  irregular  sinuses. 
The  magnilied  seeds  are  oval.  It  is  much 
esteemed  at  table  both  recent  and  dried, 
being  commonly  used  as  an  ingredient  to 
heighten  the  tiavour  of  ragouts.  Wc  are 
informed  by  (Jleditsch,  that  morels  are  ob- 
served to  grow  in  the  woods  of  Germany  iu 
the  greatest  plenty  in  the  places  wliere 
charcoal  has  been  made.  Hence  the  good 
women  who  collect  them  to  sell,  receiving  a 
hint  how  to  encouiage  their  growth,  have 
been  accustomed  to  make  fires  in  certain 
places  ol  the  woods,  with  heath,  broom,  vac- 
cinium,  ami  other  materials,  in  order  to  ob- 
tain a  more  pleiitihil  crop.  This  strange 
method  of  cifllivating  morels  being  however 
sometimes  attended  with  dn-adful  eonse- 
(piences,  large  woods  having  been  set  on  lire 
and  destroyed  by  it,  the  magistrate  Ihouglit 
lit  to  interjiose  his  authority,  and  Ihi-  prac- 
tice is  now  iiiterdicteck 

2.  The  impudicus,  slinkini;  morel,  or  stink- 
horns,  is  also  a  native  of  IhUaiu.  aiul  foiuid  iu 
woods  and  on  banks.  It  ari-es  Irom  the  earth 
under  a  veil  or  volva,  shaped  i-xactly  like  a 
hen's  egg,  and  of  the  same  iiilour,  having  u 
long  librous  radicle  at  its  base.  This  eiii;- 
like  voha  is  composed  of  two  roats  or  mem- 
branes, the  space  between  which  is  full  of  a 
thick,  viscid,  transparent  matter,  wJiicli, 
when  dry,  glues  the  coats  logethiT,  and 
shines  like  vaiiiish.  In  (he  next  stage  of 
growth,  the  volva  suddenly  bursts  into  se- 
veral laceraleil  permanent  segments,  from 
the  teutrc  of  which  arises  an  erect,  white, 

4 


frlltilar,  IidIIow  ^tjk,  nbout  f\\\'  or  six  ir»clu>n 
hi^li  and  one  tliii:k,  ol  u  \va\-lik>;  fViablc  siib- 
staiu-c,  and  most  fcUd  cadaverous  siiu-ll,  co- 
nical at  each  end,  (lie  base  iiiseited  iji  a 
wbte,  concav(!,  nieiiibraiiaccous,  tmbinated 
fill),  and  tin-  smnni.t  capped  wllli  a  liollow, 
fiiiiical  pilcn^,  an  incli  long,  liaving  a  rclicii- 
laled  cellular  snrlaci',  its  base  (L'taclicd  from 
till'  Plalk,  and  its  summit  umbilicaled,  IIk; 
unil)ilicus  somclimcs  jjcrforated  and  some- 
times closed.  As  soon  as  tlie  voKa  bursts, 
i'.'.e  I'laiit  begins  to  dilfuse  its  inloli'rable 
oJoii.s,  wliicli  arc  so  powerful  and  widely 
expanded,  tlial  the  lun'Mis  may  be  readily 
discovered  by  the  scent  only,  before  it  ap- 
pears .to  the  siglit. 

PI1/\«MACV,  is  defined  the  art  of  pre- 
paring, cunipouiidiiig,  and  preserving  niedi- 
cinals. 

The  preservation  of  medicines  merely 
consists  in  tlK'  application  of  rules  for  collect- 
ing vegetable,  animal,  and  miiiernl  produc- 
tions, at  certain  seasons,  or  under  particular 
circuiiistances,  and  of  ensuring  them  aj'ainst 
the  injuries  ihey  would  suffer  bv  exposure  to 
light,  heat,  air,  moisttire,  &c.  tliis,  therefore. 


priARMAcy. 

order  (o  facililntc  the  n-eiicy  of  diemical  at- 
traction. In  tnluratioij,  the  same  ellcct  is 
pro<hiced  by  rubbing  in  place  vi  beatini;  tl 
inateiials  oj.craled  U|,(^m  ;  wlien  this  la^t  is 
carried  to  a  ci'rlain  iMent,  and  as^isted  bv 
the  addition  of  a  lluid  which  docs  not  act 
chemically  upon  this  material,  the  process  is 
denoinin-Ued  levigation. 

'I'he  aUne  processes  are  facilitated  by  se- 
parating, from  time  to  time,  the  ctjurser  from 
the  luicr  parts  of  the  materials :  henc<-  the 
utihty  of  sifting,  or  passing  the  powder  over 
sieves  with  apertures  of  various  diameters : 
hence  likewise  the  pharmaceutical  process  of 
washing,  or,  as  it  is  terni.-d,  elulrialion,  by 
which,  allhoui'h  in  a  dillcrent  mode,  the 
same  end  is  obtained  as  bv  sifting,  the  powder 
being  agitated  in  a  llnid  'which'  docs  not  act 
upon  it  as  a  solvent,  the  larger  particles  im- 
mediately sul)side,  from  which  the  lluid  sus- 
pending the  smaller  i..  poured  off,  and  suf- 
lered  to  remain  at  rest  until  these  last  are  all 
deposited. 

Most  of  the  metals  are  mechanicallv  di- 
videil  by  the  operation  called  griumlation  ; 
tins  consists  of  lirst  lilingor  beating  the  metal 


js  the  least  extensive,  and  peculiar  dep:n-t-  into  line  leaves ;  or  by  melting  it.^uid  duriii" 
meiit  ot  the  i)ii,irmaceutic  art.  It  is  tlie  pre-  !  its  stale  of  fusion,  pon'ring  it  into  water,  which 
paration  and  composition  of  medicinals  that  !  condenses  the  separate  globules:  this  process 
coiiitilute  tlie  principal  oiijects  of  that  science  is  denominated  granuhTtion,  on  ac:count  of 
of  which  we  are  her.  to  treat.  |  the  nietalli,-   particles   being'jejiarated  in  the 

To  prepare  medicines,  is  to  produce  an  j  ''^'i'"  "'  '^"'•'"  grains, 
arlilicial  arrangement  of  their  constituent!  -""i^  ^bove  then  are  the  principal  of  those 
principles,  by  which,  eillier  an  essential  i  '"<^'ehaiiical  operations  which  niav  be  regard- 
ed as_  auxiliary  or  preliminarv  "to  such  as 
more  immediately  promote  chemical  action, 
or  tend  toeffed'an  essential  changi;  in  bo- 
dies: of  tiiese  last  the  primarv  and  inost  im- 
portant is  solution. 

Solution,    like 
lirst  sight  to  bi 


change  is   effected  in  their  nature,  or 
ineilicinal  essence  is  preserved,   wiiile 


their 
their 
form  undergoes  a  new  modilication.  'J"he 
lirst  of  these  effects  is  invariably  the  result  of 
<-.iiemical  action  ;  the  latter  may  be  produced 
by  mechanical  and  chemical  agency,  either 
singlv  or  combined. 


pulveri/alion,   appears    at 
a  simple  process ;  it  is  how- 


In'  the  composition  of  medicines,  no  che-  "".^ '"'"'  '"  *''^^'  '"'  example  of  chemical  attrac- 
niical  union  is,  in  any  case,  effected  ;  for  a  j ''°" '^'•'^''''''''l '."''"'■'■"  'I"-'  particles  of  a  solid 
change  of  principle  is  involved  in  the  term  ; '''"'  '^'  "^  ''"'''  substance ;  and  altliough  the 
chemical  combination;  whereas,  by  com- '  "^''^ '""'?'"  •"'''^'S  P"wer  is  in  vnl^'ar  co;icep- 
pounding  medicines,  we  mean  merely  the  i*-'"" '"'"'''l"'''-''-' t"  Ihe  latter,  "  the  attraction 
mixing  of  tliem  together  for  the  purposes  of  i  "''^"-''^'^  *'"^  s"'"*'""  proceeds  is  reciprocal, 
increasing  or  d,jninishing,  or  otherwise  modi-  ;  ''""'  '*  "ot  niore  exerted  by  the  one  than  bv 
fying,  their  individual  agency',  of  disguising  '  \^^'^  other."  ^  Solution,  hinvever,  of  bodies 
their  table  and  oilour,  or  ol  giving  them  a  '"  "'^t''''.  differs  from  most  cases  of  chemical 
more  convenient  shape.  \  combination,  in  scarcely  effecting  an  actual 

Pliarmacy,  then,  has  the  materia  medica  '  J"'^'<'.i'g«'  ""  <he  properties  of  such  bodies, 
for  its  objects,   and  for  its  insti-uments,  the  '  .-'  '"^  process  therefore  may  be  regarded  as. 


means  by  which  mechanical  or  chemical 
change  is  operated  upon  tie  ingredients  of 
whii-h  the  materia  medica  is  composed.  The 
most  orderly  method,  therefore,  of  consider- 
ing this  subject  will  be,  first  to  describe  the 
mode  in  which  the  component  principles  of 
siibstances  are  developed,  separated  and 
combined,  to  enumerate  such  principles,  or 
give  the  analysis  of  medicinal  articles;  and 
eecondly,  to  detail  the  individual  processes  of 
jireparation,  separation,  and  combination, 
with  the  general  uses  and  average  doses  of 
medicines  thus  combined,  separated,  or 
prejiared. 

PART   I. 

riiurmaccutical  operations,  and  general  cna- 
h/sis  of  Ike  dijfereiit  substances  used  in 
ntedicine. 

Pulverization  is  a  process  too  simple  and 
eommon  to  require  dehnition  ;  it  consists  in 
reducing  substances  to  powder,  bv  beatin", 
W  forcibly  overcoming  the  aggregative,  fii 


in  some  measure,  an  exception  to  the  general 
law  of  cliemical  action.  .Solution  \>  aided  bv 
mechanical  division ;  it  is  accelerated  by  agi- 
tation, and  in  most  instances  ])roceeds  witfa 
rapidity  proportionate  to  tlie  degree  of  tem- 
perature to  which  the  solvent  "and  solvend 
are  subjected;  because,  bv  pulverization,  agi- 
tation, and  heat,  the  power  bv  which  the 
minute  particles  of  individual  bodies  are  held 
together  is  weakened,  and  thus  mutual  at- 
traction is  exjiedited. 

Solution  is  differently  denominated,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  either  of  the  solvent  or  sol- 
vend,  or  the  manner  in  which  the  process  is 
effected. 

When  we  have  a  combination  of  saline  or 
earthy  substances,  part  of  which  is  only  so- 
I  luble  in  one,  and  part  in   another  lluid,'  the 
lone   portion   may   be    separated    from'  the 
I  other  by  the   application  of  its  appropriate 
j  solvent:  such  mode  of  solution  is  denominat- 
ed lixiviation,  and  the  re-ult  obtained  a  ley. 
When  a  fluid  is  applied  to  anv  vegetable  or 
animal  matter,  so  as  to  dissolve  or  attract 


3(;1 

onlynart  of  its  principles,  th.e  operation  is 
called  extraction.  If  solution  is  etl'ected 
without  artificial  heat,  we  denominate  this 
])rocess  macenilion  ;  it  a  moderate  heal  is  em- 
ployed, digestion.  A)  hen  boiling  lluid  is 
penned  upon  a  substance,  and  the  vessel  co- 
vered till  the  solution  cools,  the  operation  is 
termed  infusion;  :;iid  decoction  if  the  fluid  is- 
actually  boiled  upon  the  materials  to  be  div 
s61vi-d. 

\Vhen  we  wish  to  obtain  the  sojid  matter 
that  has  been  dissolved,  the  solution  is  ex- 
posed lo  heal,  converted  into  vapour,  and 
that  part  not  capable  by  this  degree,  or 
mode  of  Iieat,  of  being  volatilized  or  evapo- 
rated, is  thus  obtained  in  a  solid  form:  this 
procejs  is  denominated  evaporation.  Many 
substances,  e-pecially  of  the  saline  class,. 
when  thus  treated,  after  the  evaporating  pro- 
cess has  been  carried  to  a  certain  extent,- 
concrete  into  hard  masses,  traiisiiarent,  and 
of  a  regular  form:  such  concretions  are- 
termed  crystals,  and  the  process  which  en- 
genders them  crvslallization.  Crystals  are- 
I'ljundantly  lormed  in  nature  by  slow  and 
spontaneous,  in  place  of  a  hasty  and  artiiicial 
evaporation;  inileed  it  has  rei'ei.tlv  been  ar- 
gued, that  every  modilication  ot'  material' 
substances  deserves  to  be  regarded  as  a  cry- 
'•■'      'I'he  figure  whith  the  body  as>umes  as 


,tal. 


the  result  of  crystallizafion  is  iiiv.iriable  and: 
peculiar  to  itself  Hence  the  classilication  of 
crystals,  according  to  their  form,  as  into 
prismatic,  rhomboidal,  &c.  Kxternal  circum- 
stances, however,  oltcn  interfere  witii  this 
regularity. 

I  he  transparency  of  crystals,  which  is  es- 
sential to  tlieir  existence,  <lei)ends  upon  a 
certain  quantity  of  water  dilfu-ed  through 
them,  called  tiierefore  their  water  of  crvstal- 
lization  ;  win  n  this  is  expelled,  bv  whatever 
means,  the  density,  pelUiciditv,  an'd  iigure  of 
the  crystal,  are  lost.  Wlun  c'rystals  are  thus 
destroyed,  in  consequence  of  exposure  to  air,, 
they  are  said  to  ellioresce.  A'l  hen  water  is- 
absorbed  by  a  crystal,  so  that  it  loses  its: 
crystalline,  and  assumes  a  moist  condition,  itu 
is  said  to  deli(|uesce. 

Precipitation  is  another  mean  by  which  a 
solid  is  separated  from  a  lluid  body".  If  lo  a 
sohilii  n  is  added  a  substance  having  a  more 
powen'ul  iitlraction  to  the  lluid  than  the  sol- 
vent, liie  latter  will  be  disunited,  and  thrown 
down  or  precipitated  in  a  solid  form  ;  or  the 
added  matter  may  enter  into  combination. 
with  the  solvent  itself,  and  i)rodirce  a  com- 
pound 110  longer  soluble,  which  will  conse- 
quently be  in  the  same  manner  precipitated. 

\\  hen  from  a  given  solution  or  mixture,, 
the  volatile  rather  than  the  li.xed  or  solid 
matter  is  wished  to  be  separated,  the  pro- 
cesses of  distillation  or  sublimation  are  had 
recourse  to:  in  the  former,  the  materials  are 
subjected  to  a  given  degree  of  heat  in  vessels 
formed  so  as  to  collect  the  vapour,  and  a'^ain 
condense  or  reduce  it  lo  lluidily ;  bv  the\t- 
ter,  the  volatile  matter  is  likeu'ije  separated, 
and  again  condensed,  but  liie  reduction  is- 
into  the  state  not  of  lluiditv  but  of  soliditv. 

After  solution,  fusion  is  the  next  ininiDort- 
ance  of  pharmaceutical  processes.  This  ope- 
ration is  usually  performed  in  vessels  called 
crucibles,  which  are  cups  formed  of  black 
leatl,  of  earthenware,  or  of  some  metal,  to 
which  heat  is  applied  generally  bv  a  furnace. 
Fusion  is  employed  in  order  to  et'Jt-ct-  cbv'ral^ 


cal  combination  among  maleria's  which  are 
iiisuUible,  ;it  k-uit  i;i  any  tlsijd  whicli  dues  not 
jnti^ilerL-  with  their  chemical  relations.  Heat, 
liimever,  may  be  apphi-d  so  as  to  promote 
union  among  l)odies,  though  it  is  not  so 
pjwert'iil  as  to  jiroduce  fusion ;  as  tor  eNam- 
pie  ill  calcination,  bv  which,  in  consequence 
<■>[  exposing  a  metal  to  a  high  temperature, 
it  attracts  oxygen  from  the  circumambient 
air.  Dellagration  is  a  process  in  some  mea- 
sure similar,:  this  consists  in  mixing  substances 
Milh  which  much  oxvgeu  is  combined,  by  a 
feeble  attractive  power,  with  intlannnable 
liulter,  and  subjecting  the  mixture  to  he.it ; 
such  substance  attracts  the  oxygen  from  the 
matter  witb  which  it  had  previously  been 
united,  and  thus  becomes  oxydated  or  deila- 
.gtated. 

The  above,  then,  are  the  chief  processes 
iof  phannacv ;  or  those  by  which  the  prin- 
ciples of  such  substances  as  enter  into  the 
iTiatcria  medica,  are  develope<l,  combined, 
jikI  separated.  A\  e  now  priiceed  to  our 
j>ropos(;d 

Analysis  t^f  medicinal  articles. 

On  this  subject  we  shall  be  as  brief  as  pos- 
■sible.  A  more  ample  analysis  of  tlie  respect- 
ive sub.-tances  treated  of,  will  be  found  un- 
<ier  their  names  as  they  occur  in  alphabetical 
order. 

la  analysing  tlie  diffi'rent  productions  of 
nature,  we  obtain  a  few  substances  whicli  are 
incapable  in  our  present  state  of  knowledge 
of furtiier  decomposition.  'Jhcso  substances' 
are  denominated  simple.  As,  however,  we 
have  Ko  mi'ans  of  ascertaining  whether,  at 
any  period  of  decomposition,  we  have  arrived 
at  the  ultimate  particles  of  bodies,  abso'ute 
■simplicity  can  never  be  predicated  of  any  sub- 
stance ;  and  by  the  term  simple,  we  merely 
■Jiiean  to  express  tlie  komogeneousness  of  any 
substance,  as  it  relates  to  onr  present  state 
of  cliemical  knowledge.     See  Chemistry. 

In  the  first  order  of  simple  substances,  and 
those  indeed  which  appear  to  prefer  the  high- 
est claim  to  the  character  of  simplicity,  are 
the  giises,  oxygen,  azote,  and  hydrogen ; 
which  are  solid"  materials  brought  into  a  gas- 
eous condition  bv  caloric. 

Of  these,  oxygen  is  the  most  important. 
Ijke  other  gases,  it  is  elastic  ami  invisible; 
.it  is  a  little  heavier  than  common  air.  Its 
<listingni>hing  properties  or  cliaracteristics, 
are  its  power  of  supporting  combustion  and 
animal  life,  'i'he  compounds  resulting  from 
the  union  of  oxygen  wUb  other  materials 
form  the  most  active  medicinal  agenls. 

Tluis,  for  example,  (piicksilver,  wiien  in  its 
metallic  state,  is  scarcely  possessed  of  any  act- 
ive properties  in  reference  to  the  animal 
.jeconomy ;  on  the  contrary,  when  combiiU'd 
with  oxygen,  it  constitutes  one  of  the  most 
powerful  agents  that  are  employed  in  medi- 
cine. 

Oxygon  constitutes  nearly  one-fourth  of  at- 
mospheric air;  united  in  a  certain  proportion 
v;ith  hydrogen,  it  fornjs  water;  and  with  cer- 
tain intlammabh-  substances,  acids.  Indeed 
the  element  derives  its  name  h'om  being 
•Jlie  acidifying  principle.  Ox) gen,  however, 
imitei  with  many  siibstanres  with.iut  render- 
ing them  acid ;  such  are  the  compounds 
whicli  this  eliMiient  forms  with  the  metals,  as 
well  as  with  large  numbers  of  both  vegetable- 
and  animal  productions 

Azote,  liliie  oxygen,  when  pure  and  un- 


THAHMACY. 

combined,  al-.vays  exists  in  a  gaseom  form  ; 
this  constitutes  the  remaining  tl-.i'ee-fourtlis 
of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  lighter  than  atmo- 
spheric air;  it  is  unable  to  support  respira- 
tion or  combustion  ;  and  in  the  strictest  sense 
it  is  not  inllammable.  Combined  with  oxy- 
gen, in  a  certain  proportion,  it  Ibrms,  as  j(rst 
Slated,  atmospheric  air;  in  that  proportion  in 
which  the  two  elements  are  saturated,  it  con- 
stitutes the  nitric  acid;  with  u  smaller  pro- 
portion, the  nitrous  acid:  and  we  may  here 
observe,  that  the  terminating  svllables  ic  anti 
ous,  are  used  in  all  cases  to  denote  iIk'  dif^ 
fereut  degrees  in  which  oxygen  enters  into 
the  composition  of  acids.  Thus  sulphur, 
with  a  larger  (|uantity  of  oxygen,  so  as  to 
constitute  it  a  more  perfect  acid,  is  called 
sulphuiv'c  ;  with  a  smaller  proportion  of  this 
principle,  it  is  named  sulphure;>.v.7  acid. 

A:?ote,  willi  a  certain  quantity  of  oNvgen, 
insullicient  to  create  <acidity,  tonus  mirous 
and  nitrous-oxyd  gases,  the  last  of  which  has 
been  but  very  lec  enlly  discovered,  anrl  has 
been  celebrated  by  its  extraordinary  powers 
on  the  animal  frame. 

Combined  with  hydrogen,  in  a  given  pro- 
portion, azote  forms  ammonia  or  volatile  al- 
kali. 

Lastly,  azote  is  an  abundant  principle  in 
animal  matter,  and  indeed  chiefly  occasions 
the  variation  in  composition  between  this  and 
vegetable  siib>tance. 

llydrogen,  the  last  of  the  sini])Ic  gases,  is 
extremely  light  and  inllammable  ;  its  most 
important  compound  is  water,  formed,  as  just 
slated,  by  its  union  in  a  certain  proportion 
with  oxygen.  A\'ater,  if  is  almost  unneces- 
sary to  observe,  is  one  of  the  most  imporlani 
agents  in  pharmacy. 

The  next  order  of  those  substances  which 
are  considered  as  simple,  are  the  three  in- 
llammable principles,  carbon,  suljihur,  and 
phosphori.is. 

Carbon  is  the  basis  of  common  charcoal. 
In  this  substance,  however,  it  is  combined 
with  some  oxygen;  and  it  has  lately  been 
demonstrated,  that  the  diamond  is  the  pure 
iiilbiumable  base  of  carbon.  Combined  w  ith 
a  larger  ([c.antity  of  oxygen,  carbon  con- 
stitutes the  gaseous  oxide  of  carbon  ;  when 
acttially  saturated  with  oxygen,  it  forms  tlie 
carbonic  acid  gas,  or  what  was  formerly 
called  fixed  air.  Carbon,  united  with  hy- 
drogen and  oxygen,  forms  several  peculiar 
compounds,  sucli  as  alcohol,  ether,  &c. 

Sulphur,  we  have  already  said,  in  combi- 
nation with  oxygen,  constitutes  the  suljihuric 
and  sul|)luireous  acids ;  the  latter  is  exten- 
sively employed  in  chemistry  and  pharmacy. 
Sulphur  and  hydrogen  form  a  gaseous 
compound  called  sulphuraleil  hydrogen, 
which  is  distinguished  by  a  peculiar  fcetor. 
Lastly,  sulphur  is  a  component  principle  of 
several  animal,  and  of  some  few  vegetable, 
substances. 

Phosphorus  has  not  been  detected  pure 
and  uncombined.  In  the  fossil  kingdom, 
however,  it  is  found  combined  both  with  se- 
veral of  the  earths  and  metals;  and  it  also 
enters  into  the  composition  of  many  animal 
and  vegetable  productions. 

There  are  three  acids,  the  muriatic,  (luoric, 
aiul  boracie,  which,  on  account  of  their  not 
having  liitherto  been  decomposed,  are  re- 
garded as  simple,  but  whi(  h  analogy  leads  us 
to  suppose  art-  constituted  iu  the  same  man- 


ner with  other  acvls,  viz.  by  the  vn'uin  of  their 
peculiar  principle  with  oxygen  :  it  is  only  the 
lirst  of  tliese  tiial  can  be  regarded  as  a  phar- 
maceutic agent.  It  exists  in  abundance  in 
.sea-salt.  \Vheii  in  a  gaseous  condition,  it  is 
remarkably  pungent.  It  is  capable  of  com- 
biiiiiig  witii  a  considerable  portion  of  ox_\gcii, 
so  as  to  form  the  oxymuriatio  acid,  which 
acts  with  energy  on  inhamin;il)le  substances. 

Metals  Ibrm  the  third  order  of  simple  sub- 
stances. 'I'he  distinguishing  properties  of 
tliese  are  opacity,  brilliancy,  ductility,  fusi- 
bility, malleability,  and  superior  specific  gra- 
vity to  that  of  any  other  substances.  Ttiey 
are  rendered  active  on  the  system  by  com- 
bination with  oxygen  or  with  acids  ;  the  most 
active  of  them,  as  we  have  already  observed, 
being  almost  inert  in  a  metallic  state.  Dif- 
ferent metals  are  capable  of  combining  with 
diliferent  quantities  of  oxygen  ;  four  of  them, 
arsenic,  molybdena,  tungsten,  and  tin,  may 
be  so  tar  oxygenated,  as  to  pass  into  the  form 
of  acids. 

The  last  order  of  simple  substances  is  the 
earths.  The  characters  of  these  are  insipi- 
dity, infusibihty,  not  being  intlammablc', 
and  scarcely  soluble,  saving  a  specific  gra- 
vity of  less  than  five  to  one,  and  being  ca- 
llable of  combination  with  acids  to  Ibrm  neu- 
tral salts. 

The  principal  earths  are  the  silex,  argil, 
magnesia,  lime,  barytcs,  and  strontiles.  Of 
these  the  magnesia  and  lime  are  in  the  most 
common  use  as  medicines;  the  argillaceoui 
compounds  an;  not  unfrequently  employed  ; 
and  falely  tlie  barytic  salts  have  been  intro- 
duced iiitojiractice. 

Alkalies   bear  some   resemblance   to    the 
earths.    'I'hey  have  a  penetrating  taste  ;  they 
change   the   vegetable   colours  to  a   green ; 
tliey  powerfully  attract  water,  unite  with  oils, 
and  Willi  the  acids  form  neutral  salts.     They 
aretlux-e;  potass,  soda,  and  ammonia:    the 
la-t  has  been  jiroved  to  be  compounded  of 
azote  and  hydrogen,  and  it  is  jirobable  that 
the  others  may  ere  long  be  demonstrateil  to 
be  compound  substances. 
I      All  the  alkalies  are  employed  in  medifflne  ; 
j  and  they  are  likewise    imp.Kiant   agents  in 
I  pharmacy.     The  names  of  the  neutral  salts 
!  which  are  formed  by  the  union  of  acids  w.th 
j  alkalie-,    earths,    and    metallic   oxides,    are 
I  chosen  partly  Irom  the  base  and  p.iitly  from 
j  the  acid.     All  (for  exami)le)  of  the  salts  com- 
I  posed  of  the  sulphuric  acid,  an  denominaled 
Uulphats;  as  the   sulphat  of  potass,  of  lime, 
I  &:c.      When  the  acid  forming  the  union   is 
I  less  pure,  or  w lien  it  is  the  sulphun'ous,  the 
j  resulthig    compounds  are    denominated    sul- 
pliiles;    and  tiiis   principle  of  nomenclature 
extends  through  the  whole  of  saline  compo- 
sitions. 

We  now  proceed, to  state  the  proximate 
and  ultimate  principles  of  the  vegetable  and 
animal  productions  of  nature ;  or  of  those 
substanc(-s  which  lesult  from  organization,  in 
contradistinction  to  those  of  inert  matter.  By 
the  proximate  principles  of  organic  matter, 
we  mean  those  iiy  the  combination  and  si;pa- 
rafion  of  wliich  a  compound  body  may  be 
formed  or  divided.  The  ultimate  principles 
are  the  elements  of  which  an  integral  body 
may  consist,  whether  more  or  less  complex 
ill  its  composition. 

The  proximate  principles  of  vegetables, 
wliich  suostaiices  are  the  most  common  ob- 
jects of  pliiirmaey,  may  be  separatc<l  or  uiia 


NATXTRA.1L    Hr STORY 


7e/ia/c/c 


tuuuj  draa^iM 


i/ya/telat  fa/aa/a. 


'^'  fn'tf  fio'/t^Aerai 


^eJt/re/^arta.'  /i(//e. 


'end 


.V.9 


i^/eneAyu  f/m'M/l 


^na/a^ia/  AeauiJitrlu/a 


325 


cfe^ica^  i^fjfy/a 


'  u/(ii/iai/i»i-     dy/^a /{.e^//etf 


^'/i/i/irnd  m/n//// 


310 


t''"Aa.'irn/i    aMfia/e/c 


Tmi2edJzznii-2^oSlvr'R\ckiT:(LFiaSsQtjieit'Bfui7e-fb:BUj^hanr 


I 


lyi'il  Ijv  move  o\|)ostirc  (o  hfr.t :  soinetiiiies 
(lie  atm"(i>-|.heiic  air  is  admitted  in  lOiijtiiic- 
lioM  Willi  lieat;  Iciiiientalioii  is  often  employ- 
ed to  si'|)arate  the  coiislitiieiit  principles  of 
)ii;itivials ;  lastly,  nitric  acid  is  much  used 
in  analysis,  by  which  ONvgen  is  coniniiini- 
catcd  to  llie  snhstance  operated  npoii ;  and 
h\  the  resiiltiiit;  tiinipoMiid,  the  nature  of  the 
acidiliable  basj  is  indicated. 

Glim  is  one  of  the  most  alnindaiil  among 
the  proximate  principles  of  vep;etubles.  It  is 
jiliilinons,  insipid,  without  odonr,  and  soluble 
in  water,  conslitutinf!;  a  viscid  solution,  deno- 
minated mucilage,  ll  ii  insolub'e  in  alcohol, 
etlu-r,  or  oil.  It  doe.-,  not  absorb  oxNgen 
tromthe  atmosphere;  it  is  neither  volatile 
iKir  fusible.  At  a  temperature  beyond  the 
hoiling  |)oint,  but  beneath  that  ot  ignition, 
gum  is  decomposed,  and  affords  an  impure 
acetous  acid,  ammonia,  caibonic  acid,  and 
carboaiated  hvdrogen  gases;  the  rcsiiUuim  is 
cirarcoal  witli  a  certain  ipiantity  of  lime. 

The  ultimate  principles  oi  gum  are  oxygen, 
In  drogen,  carbon,  azote,  and  lime.  'The  me- 
dicinal cpialities  of  gnni  are  trivial.  In  phar- 
macy it  is  employed  jjriiu'ipally  as  a  nii.-dium 
of  mi.xture  between  oils  and  water. 

Kedn.  This  is  aimiher  proximate  prin- 
(■ijjle  existing  in  abundance  in  veiielable  pro- 
<huts.  1*  is  generally,  but  not  alwav  -,  united 
with  gnin.  liesin  i^  not  soluble. in  water, 
but,  unlike  gum,  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether, 
and  oils.  Kesiii  does  not  absorb  oxygen; 
ivhen  heated  to  ignition  it  burns  ;  and  is  fu- 
sible by  a  heat  nearly  that  of  boiling  water. 
A\  hen  voLitilizeil,  howevi-r,  it  is  invariably 
decomposed:  its  products  are  water,  acetous 
acid,  a  burnt  oil,  and  a  charcoal  residuum. 
Its  ultimate  princi])les  are  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen. 

Resins  are  much  mon;  active  on  the  living 
system  than  gums.  The  virtues  of  many 
medicinal  substances  depend  exclusively  on 
their  resinous  part. 

'I'lic  extractive  matter  is  another  vegetable 
principle,  which  until  lately  was  contouiuled 
with  the  gnin  and  resin.  This  is  ei|ually  so- 
luble in  water  and  in  alcohol.  It  likewise, 
at  a  certain  temperature,  absorbs  oxygen. 
It  al'tbrds,  upon  being  exposed  to  heat,  eni- 
pvreumatic  acid  and  oil,  and  some  ammonia. 
its  elements  are  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
•and  azote. 

This  vegetable  principle  it  is  difficult  to 
obtain  pure  and  unmixed. 

Oil.  This  is  of  two  kinds,  expressed  or 
vuKtuons,  and  volatile  or  essential.  These 
have  some  ([ualities  in  common,  and  others 
characteristic  of  each.  Expressed  oils  are 
viscid,  almost  without  taste  or  odour:  they 
congeal  by  cold,  and  are  insoluble  either  in 
water  or  alcohol.  \\  ith  alkalies  they  form 
.soap.  At  a  temperature  of  212°,  they  are 
decomposed,  and  afford  water  and  carbonic 
acid.  Their  ultimate  principles  are  carbon, 
with  a  small  proportion  of  hydrogen. 

These  oils  are  generally  found  in  the  seeds 
and  fruits  of  vegetables,  Irom  which  they  are 
separated  by  mechanical  pressure,  or  by 
boding.  .Some  of  them  have  medicinal  vir- 
tues, but  they  are  commonly  employed 
merely  as  lubricants. 

^'olatile  or  essential  oils  are  quickly  dissi- 
pated bv  the  heat  of  boiling  water,  without 
suffering  decomposition.  They  are  more 
soluble  in  alcohol  than  in  water.     They  slow- 

YOL.  11. 


PHARMACY. 

ly  absorb  oxygen,  and  are  at  length  changed 
into  resinous  matter.  They  contain  more 
hydrogen  than  the  lixed  oils. 

Essential  oil  exists  in  abundance  in  the 
aromatic  plants,  and  ajjpears  to  constitute 
their  aroma,  although  soiiu"  chemists  iiave 
sii|)posed  this  last  to  be  a  ))eculiar  and  exclu- 
sive principle.  It  is  usually  extracted  from 
the  vegetable  by  distillation.  As  medicines, 
these  oils  are  highly  stnnulant.  The  naliirat 
combination  of  essential  oil  and  resin,  which 
exists  in  some  plants,  constitutes  balsam, 
which  in  some  cases  has  also  a  peculiar  acid 
in  its  composition. 

Camphor.  This  is  a  distinct  vegetable 
principle.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  is  so- 
luble in  alcohol,  oil,  and  ether.  It  evapo- 
rates even  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere.  When  distilled,  it  is  decom- 
posed, and  affords  a  pungent  volatile  oil, 
amounting  to  nearly  one-third  of  its  weight, 
while  carbonic  and  hydrocarbonic  acid  gases 
escape,  and  a  quantity  of  charcoal  remains. 
Camphor  then  appears  to  contain  a  greater 
pro[)ortion  of  carbon  and  perhaps  of  oxygen 
than  thi'  essential  oils.  The  medicinal  po\vi-rs 
of  camphor  are  very  Considerable. 

Vi'ax  is  a  solid,  tenacions,  and  inllanimaljle 
principle,  holding  nearly  the  same  relation  lo 
expressed,  that  camphor  docs  to  essential, 
oil. 

Eecula  is  an  important  principle  in  vege- 
tables. It  IS,  when  existing  separately,  mild 
aii,d  insipid.  It  is  not  soluble  in  cold  water. 
With  boiling  water,  it  forms  a  jelly.  It  is  in- 
soluble in  alcohol.  It  is  converted  bv  cer- 
tain processes  into  sugar.  I'"ecu'a  is  com- 
posed of  oxygen,  (arbon,  and  hvdrngt  n.  It 
is  by  far  the  most  nutritious  p:inciple  in  ve- 
getables. 

(JIuten.  A  thick  librous  substance  found 
in  the  farina  of  some  plants.  It  is  insipid, 
ela-tic,  insoluble  in  water,  and  but  sparingly 
soluble  in  alcohol.  Its  piouiinent  principle 
apiiears  to  be  azote. 

Albumen,  like  gluten,  is  named  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  principle  in  animal  matter. 
This  is  soluble  in  cold  water,  and  coagulated 
by  heat  or  alcohol.  It  aflords  much  ammo- 
nia on  exposure  to  heat. 

Saccharine  matter  is  generally  found  united 
with  gum  and  extract.  It  is  soluble  in  water, 
and  in  alcohol.  It  is  converted  by  termen- 
tation  into  alcohol ;  ami  this  last,  by  a  se- 
cond stage  of  fermentation,  becomes  acetous 
acid.  Saccharine  matter  consists  of  ox'ygen, 
carbon,  and  hvdrogen. 

The  saline  principle  in  vegetables  is  named 
their  essential  salt.  Essential  salts  are  either 
acids  or  neutrals. 

The  native  vegetable  acids  which  have 
been  detected,,  are  seven,  viz.  the  malic, 
which  is  contained  in  apples,  and  other  fruits, 
previous  to  their  maturity.  It  is  converted 
into  the  oxalic  acid  by  the  agency  of  nitrous 
acid. 

.  The  oxalic.  This  has  the  la'gest  propor- 
tion of  oxygen,  of  any  native  vegetable  acid. 
It  is  soluble,  and  capable  of  crystallization. 
Its  distinguishing  property  is  itsvery  strong 
attraction  for  lime. 

Tlie  citric.  This  attracts  the  earths  in 
general  more  forcibly  than  the  alkalies. 

The  tartarous,  which  is  extremely  soluble 
in    water,    and  cn'stallizable.     It  has  been 
imagined  to  contain  a  larger  portion  of  hv- 
?lrogeii  than  any  other  of  the  acids. 
3  D 


The  .Tcelou,?.  Tliis  rtcid  is  more  usually 
the  produce  of  fermenlalion.  ll  isliowirver 
found  unlive  in  the  sap  of  the  vine,  &<■.  It 
yields  upon  dccompo.-ition  a  snjalj  portion  of 
ammonia. 

l!en/oie  acid  is  found  in  several  balsams 
and  gum-resins.  This  is  soluble  in  boiling 
w  ater,  and  upon  cooling  separates  in  while 
Hakes. 

The  gallic  is  the  last  of  the  native  vegetable 
acids.  This  has  generally  bi  en  supposed  to 
constitute  the  principle  ol  aslringencv  in  ve- 
getables. It  exists  ^bundanlh  in  gall-nnts, 
and  other  vegetable  astringents.  Its  distin- 
gni^hing  jjroperty  is  its  forcible  attraction 
to  the  oxides  of  iron,  with  which  it  forms  a 
precipitate  of  a  very  deep  black.  Tlie  gallic 
acid  contains  a  large  (pianlity  of  carbon,  with 
some  oxygen,  and  a  very  small  quantity  »f 
hydrogen. 

7"he  tannin,  or  tanning  principle,  has  bee.* 
till  lately  confounded  with  the  gallic  acid.. 
This  |)rinciple  is  characterized  by  its  faculty 
of  combining  with  animal  jellv,  and  forming 
a  hard  insohible  substance.  'J'annin  is  found 
in  considerable  quantity  in  vegetable  astrin- 
gents, and  is  usually  united  with  the  gallic- 
acid. 

•  I'ojides  the  above  vegetable  acids,  several 
compounds  exist  in  some  vegetables,  formed 
by  the  juiKtion  of  snlplimic,  nitric,  muriatic, 
carbonic,  and  phosphoric  acids,  with  the  al- 
kalies and  earths. 

'1  he  ligneous  part,  or  fibre,  of  the  vege- 
table, is  enumerated  among  its  proximate 
l)rinci|.Ies.  This  is  in  a  maimer  the  basis  for 
the  atlacT.ment  of  its  other  principles.  It  is 
insipid  and  insoluble.  \\  illi  nitrous  acid  it 
affords  the  malic  and  oxalic  acids.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  principally  formed  of  carbon, 
combined  with  oxygen  and  hvdrogen. 

I'rom  the  above  enumeration  of  the  proxi- 
mate principles  in  vegetables,  the  utility  of 
tlios<'  pharmaceutical  processes  lo  which  they 
are  subjected,  may  with  facility  be  perceived. 
These  we  need  not  again  describe;  but  shall 
conclude  the  present  section  by  a  general 
!  notice  of  the  principles  of  such  animal  sub- 
stances as  are  medicinally  employed.  Thu 
number  of  articles  which  are  recei\'ed  into  the 
materia  medica  from  the  animal  kingdom  i.s 
comparatively  small.  Animal  have  the  same 
general  chemical  characters  with  vegetable 
products.  The  princi|Kil  difference  is  con- 
stituted by  Ihe  superior  disposition  of  the  for- 
mer lo  undergo  the  putrefactive  process,  and 
by  llieir  affording  a  largerquantity  of  aiumonia 
or  volatile  alkali  when  decomposed  by-  heat: 
these  peculiarities  appear  to  he  principally 
derived,  as  above  noti(  ed,  by  the  presence 
of  azote  in  a  much  larger  proportion  in  ani- 
mal than  in  vegetable  matter.  This  in  de- 
composition unites  with  the' hydrogen  which 
animal  substances  likewise  contain  in  abund- 
ance, and  thus  constitutes  the  ammonia. 
Animal  substances  contain  likewise  sulphur 
and  phosphorus ;  and  for  the  most  part  the 
carbon  which  enters  into  their  composition  is 
much  inferior  in  ciuantity  to  what  is  found  in 
vegetables. 

The  vegetable  gluten  and  albumen  we 
have  already  described  as  resembling  the  ani- 
mal. Animal  fat  bears  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  vegetable  oil.  Gelatine  is  like  mu- 
cilage or  fecula.  Milk  contains  a  principle 
similar  to  the  saccharine  raalter  in  the  vese- 


t  ib'e.      A  substance  having  an   afiinity   to  j 
i;s:!i  is  found  in  several  animal  si'creiions ; 
and  tlie  animal  acids  do  not  greatly  dilt'er 
from  the  vegetable  compounds  of  the  same 
class. 

We  now  proceed  to  our  detail  of  the  in- 
dividual processes  in  |)liarmacv.  In  so  doing 
\vl-  shall  pursue  the  p-an  atlopled  by  Mr. 
.^iu^ray  ;  of  giving,  not  atransiati.ni  of  each 
separate  process,  both  from  the  London  and 
Edinburgli  Pliarmacopceias ;  but  wherever  the 
formula  "of  the  lirst  defers  in  no  essential 
point  from  the  last,  we  shall  conline  our- 
selves to  a  staltmeiit  of  this  last,  and  give  at 
the  head  of  the  article  tlie  name  by  which  it 
is  distinguished  in  either.  We  have  thus 
chosen  the  Kciiuburgh  Pharmacopwia  as  in  a 
manner  the  basis  ot'the  present  article,  and 
this  nierelv  on  a<;<-()unt  of  its  more  recr-nt  re- 
vision thaii  that  of  the  London,  and  the  titles 
of  medicines  being  made  for  the  most  part 
more  conformable  to  tiie  present  improved 
condition  of  pharmateutical  chemistry.  AVith 
the  ahove-meritiont-d  author,  however,  we 
shall  point  out  when  it  occurs,  "  any  import- 
ant difference  either  in  proportion,  composi- 
tion, or  moele  of  conducting  tho  process,"  in 
the  directions  of  the  two  colleges,  and  .at  the 
«;n(l  of  each  division  add  those  preparations 
which  are  peculiar  to  the  Pliarmacopceia  Lon- 
dinensis. 

While  thus  we  sh.all  make  the  article  as 
brief  as  the  subject  will  admit  of,  we  shall  at 
the  same  time,  it  is  presumed,  ensure  the  ad- 
vantagei  of  a  treatise  more  in  detail. 

PAKT  II. 

THE  PREPAR.VTIO.N'S  AND  COMPOSITION'S 
OF  MEDICINES. 

Simplkium    quorundain     medicamentorum 
prcepara'ioncs. 

Preparation  of  some  simple  mediciin-s. 
Carbonas  calcis  prsparatus,  prepared  car- 
bonat  of  lime,  Ed.  Creta  pra-parata,  Lond. 
Carbonat  of  hme  (whether  the  softer  variety 
called  chalk,  or  the  harder,  crab's-stones 
and  cratfs-eyei).  being  reduced  to  powder 
m  an  iron  mortar,  and  levigated  on  a  por- 
ph\  ry-stone,  is  to  be  put  into  a  vessel  of 
considerable  size,  and  water  poured  upon 
it ;  after  the  vessel  has  been  freciuently  agi- 
tated, the  water  is  to  be  poured  off  loadi-d 
with  a  fine  powder,  which,  when  it  has  all 
subsided,  is  to  be  dried,  and  tlie  coarser 
particles  which'  the  water  could  not  sus- 
])end  are  to  be  again  leTigated  and  treated 
in  the  same  manner. 

Tiiese  calcareous  carbonates,  which  are 
all  ol  the  same  nature,  are  used  as  antacids. 
Dose  one  or  two  drachms. 

Carbonas  ferri  pra>paratus,   prejiared  car- 
bonat of  iron,  Ed.     I'erri  rubigo,  Lond. 
Puiified  iron  filings  to  be  frequently  moist- 
ened witl)  water,  till  they    become  rust, 
which  is  to  be  rubbed  to  a  line  jiowder. 
An  active.chalvbeate.     Dose  from  10  to 
20  grains. 

Carljonas  zinci  impurus  pracparatus,  pre- 
pared impure  carbonate  of  zinc,  Ed.  l^apis 
calaminans,  Lond. 

The  pre  laration  of  impure  carbonat  of  zinc 
roas'ed  bv  those  who  make  brass,  is  to  be 
con''ucle(l  in  the  same  manner  as  the  cai- 
hunat  of  lime. 


PHARMACY. 

This  powder  is  the  basis  o^  t!ie  common 
cerate.  It  is  sprinkled  on  the'  skin  in  the 
cutaneous  inflammations  of  children.' 

Eerri  limalura  piirificata,  purified  filings  of 

iron,  Ed. 

A  sieve  being  placed  over  the  filings,  a  mag- 
net is  to  be  applied  in  order  to  attract  the 
pure  iron  through  its  apertures  upwards. 

Ferri  oxiduni  nigrum  purificatum,  purified 

black  oxide  of  iron,  Ed. 

Let  the  scales  of  the  blacji  oxide  of-  iron, 
fouiul  at  the  anvils  of  workmen,  he  treated 
w  ilh  a  ma.-^iK  t  in  the  same  manner  ;  (oi  the 
magnet  attracts  only  tiie  more  small  and 
pure  scales,  leaving  those  which  are  larj,er 
ai.d  less  pure. 

O.xidum  zinci  impurum  prs'paratuni,  pre- 
pared  impure   oxide  oi  zinc,    Ed.      '1  ulia, 
Lond. 
To  be  prepared  as  the  carbonat  of  lime. 

Tutty  is  employed  willi  the  same  intention 
as  calamine. 

Sulphas  aUnninic  exsiccatus,  dried  sulph-at 
of  argil,  Ed.     Alunier.^ustum,  Lond. 
Let  sulphat  of  argil  be  melted  in  an  earthen 
or  iron  vessel,  and  heat  applied  until  the 
liquid  ceases  to  boil. 

This  pre|)aration  is  used  as  an  cscharotic. 
Sulphur  sublimatum  lolum,  washed   sub- 
limed sulphur,  Ed.      Flores  sulphuris    loti, 
Lond. 

Take  of  sublimed  sulphur  one  pound  ;  water 
four  pounds ;  boil  the  sulphur  a  little  willi 
the  water,  then  pour  tlie  water  off,  aiui  free 
the  sulphur  of  acid  b\  tlie  affusion  of  cold 
water;  lastly,  dry  the  sulphur. 

Tliis  perhaps  is  a  sui)eiHuous  process. 
Sulphur  prKcipitatum,  Loud. 
Take  of  sulphurated  kali  (sulphuretum  po- 
tasss)  six  ounces ;  distilled  water  one 
pound  and  a  half;  diluted  vitriolic  (sulphu- 
ric) acid  as  much  as  necessary;  boil  the 
sulphurated  kali  in  the  distilled  water  until 
it  is  dissolved:  filtre  the  liquor  through 
paper,  and  add  the  diluted  acid.  Wash 
the  precipitated  powder  until  it  becomes 
insipid. 

This  preparation  of  sulphur  is  from  its 
whiteness  useful  in  tbrming  ointment. 

Sulphuretum  antimonii   priparatum,  pre- 
pared sulphurel  of  antimony,  Ed.     Antimo- 
nium  prreparatum,  Lond. 
To  be  preparetl  in  the  same  manner  as  car- 
bonate of  lime. 

Mel  despuniatum,  clarified  honey. 
Liquify  honey  in  a  water-bath,  and  remove 
the  scum. 

lierbarum  ctflorum  exsiceutio,  drying  of 
herbs  and  flowers. 

Herb;  and  (lowers  are  to  be  dried  with  the 
gentle  heat  of  a  stove,  or  a  common  lire,  in 
such  a  quantity  that  the  exsiccation  may  be 
elliected  as  speedily  as  possible;  for  in  this 
manner  tlieir  virtues  are  best  preserved.  The 
indication  of  this  is  their  retaining  their  native 
colour.  The  leaves  of  hemlock,  and  other 
plants  containing  a  subtle  volatile  oil,  afier 
being  dried,  are  to  be  rubbed  to  powder, 
and  preserved  in  glass-vessels  well  slopped. 

Scilla  maritima  exsiccala,  dried   sea-quill, 
Ed.     Scilla  exsiccata,  Lond.    - 
Let  the  root  of  the  sca-stpiill  be  cut  trans- 
versely into  thin  slices,  after  its   external 


covering  has  been  removed,  and  dried  by 

a  gentle  he'at. 

if  when  rendered  friable,  the  s(|uill  retains 
its  biuerness  and  acrimony,  the  drying  pro- 
cess has  been  properly  conducted.  It  is  in 
this  state  tliat  the  squill  is  chielly  used  in  me- 
dicine.    Dose  from  one  to  three  grains. 

Pulparum  extfaclio,  extraction  of  pulps, 

Ed.     Pulparum  prieparat  o,  Lond. 

Boil  those  fruits  which  afford  [;ulp,  if  unripe 
or  if  ripe  and  dry,  wih  a  little  water;  then 
express  the  pulp  through  a  hair-sieve,  and 
gently  boil  it  in  an  earthen  vessel,  stirring 
it  fVequently  lest  it  burns,  until  it  assumes 
the  consistence  of  honey.  The  cassia  fis- 
tula pulp  is  to  be  boiled  fi'om  the  bruised 
pod,  and  the  water  evaporated  to  a  due 
consistence.  W  hen  fruits  are  ripe  and 
fresh,  the  pulp  may  be  squeezed  through  a 
sieve  without  previous  boiling. 

The  following  preparations  are  only  found 

in  tlie  London  Pharmacopceia: 

Auimoniaci  puriJicatio,  purification  of  gum 

ammoniac. 

Poll  im  jjure  ammoniac  in  wafer  until  it  softens, 
and  by  a  press  strain  it  through  a  hempen 
bag:  let  the  resinous  matter  iiave  time  to 
subside.  Evaporate  the  water,  mixing  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  evaporation  the  resin- 
ous and  gummy  parts.  Assatetida  and 
other  similar  gum-resins  may  be  purified 
in  the  same  way.  Any  gum  also  which 
melts  easily,  suih  as  galbanum,  may  be 
purified  by  putting  it  into  an  ox-bladder 
and  keeping  it  in  boiling  water,  till  it  be- 
comes so  soft  that  it  may  be  pressed  through 
strong  linen  cloth,  and  freed  from  its  im- 
purities. 
Styracis  purificatio,  purification  of  storax.' 

Having  dissolved  storax  in  alcohol,  strain  the 
liquor,  and  distil  it  with  a  gentle  heat  to  a 
proper  consistence. 
Cornu  cervi  ustio,  burning  of  hartshorn. 

Burn  pieces  of  hartshorn  until  they  become 
wh  te,  then  rub  them  to  a  very  fine  powiler. 

MiUepedx"  praparatio,  preparation  of  mil- 
lepedes. '; 
Suspend  these,  inclosed  in  a  thin  linen  bag, 
over  proof  spirit  heated  in  a  close  vessel, 
that   thei,   may  be  killed  by  the  vapour, 
and  rendered  triable. 
Spongix  ustio,  burning  of  spiinge. 
Bruise  sp.  nge  cutinto  small  pieces;  and  when 
freed  trum  strong  matter,  imrn  it  in  a  close 
iron  vessel  until  it  becomes  black  and  fri- 
able; then  rub  it  into  a  fine  powder. 

Conservit,  conserves. 

The  conserves  that  are  retained  in  the  Ph. 
Ed.  arc  the  conserva  corlicis  exterioris  re- 
centis  fructus  citri  auraiitii,  radul-a  abrasa; 
conserve  of  the  outer  rind  of  the  orauge^ 
rasped  by  a  gi'iitcr,  lid.  Conserva  aurantii 
hispanionalis  corticis  exterioris,  Lond.  Con- 
serva fructus  rosic  caninx  maturi,  a  semini- 
bus  eorunu]ue  pube  solhcite  purgati,  con- 
serve of  the  fruit  of  dog-hips  caretully  freed 
from  the  seeds  and  included  down,  Ed.  Con- 
ser\a  cynosbati,  Loiul. 

Conserva  I'osK  gallicic  nondum  explicito- 
rum,  conserve  of  the  unblown  petals  of  the 
red  rose,  IDd.     Conserva  rosiu  rubra",  Lond. 

In  each  of  these  the  vegetable  is  to  be  beat 
into  a  pulj),    and   iluring  I  he  beating  three 


limps  Its  wcig!;t  of  si:2ar  to  be  gradually 
artdi'd. 

In  addition  (o  the  above,  tlie  London  col- 
lege retain  conaerva  al)s;ntliii  niaritimi,  con- 
serve of  sea-\v(;rni\voo(i.  Coiiserva  lujiilir, 
conserve  of  wood-torrel.  Conseiva  ari,  con- 
serve of  arum.  Conserva  pruni  sjlvestris, 
conserve  of  sloes.  Cgnicrva  sdlla;,  conserve 
of  sciuills. 

Sitcci,  juices. 

Succus    coclilearia;  officinalis    rompositus, 
ronipound  juice  of  scurvy-grass,  Ed.     .Succus 
coclilearia;  conipositus,  Lond. 
Taiio  of  juice  of  scurvy-grass,  juice  ofwalcr- 
cresses   expressed   from   recenlly  galjjereil 
herbs,  juice  of  the  orangc-lruit,  of   each 
two  pounds  ;  spirit  of  luituipg  half  a  pound : 
mix  and  let  thcui  stand  initil   the  impuri- 
ties liave  subsided,  then  |)our  olf  the  liipior. 
This  preparation  is  scarcely  in  use. 

Succi  inspissati,  inspissated  juices  or  ex- 
tracts. 

Succus    spissatus   aconili    na[)e!li,    iiupis- 

sated  juice  of  aconite  or  wolfsbane,  Kd. 

Cruise  the  fresh  leaves,  and  press  tlie  juice 
strongly  through  a  heliipen  bag ;  which 
reduce,  by  evaporation  in  open  vessels 
lieated  by  boiling  water  saturated  with 
KHiriat  of  soda,  to  the  consistence  of  thick 
honey.  Arter  tlie  mass  has  cooled,  it  i-;  to 
be  kept  in  glazed  earthen  vessels,  and 
moistened  with  alcohol. 

A  remedy  chieily  employed  in  obstinate 

cases  of  chronic   rheumatism.      Dose  from 

five  to  six  or  more  grains. 

In  the  same  manner  are  to  be  prepared  the 

four  following : 

Succus   spissatus  atropaj    belladonna?,    in- 

■spissaled  juice  of  deadly-nightshade. 

This  has  been  used  in  convulsive  disorders 

and  in  schirrus.     Dose  one  grain,  gradually 

increased. 

Succus  spissatus  conii  maculati,  inspissated 

juice  of  hemlock,   Ed.     Succus  spiss.    cicu- 

t;c,  Loud. 

Recommended    by    Stork    of  Vienna   in 

scliirrus  and   cancer.     Dose  two  grains,  in- 
creased largely. 

Succus   spissatus  hyoscyami   nigri,  inspis- 
sated juice  of  black  henbane,  Ed. 
Dose  one  grain,  increased. 
Succus  spissatus  lacfusa"  virosa-,  inspissated 
jviice  of  strong-scented  lettuce,  Kd. 

Principally  used  in  Germany  for  dropsy. 
Dose  four  or  live  grains,  largely  increased. 

Succus  spissatu;  sambuci  nigrjp,  inspis- 
sated juice  or  rob  of  elder,  Ed.  Succus  S|)i3S. 
barca'  sambuci,  Lond. 

Five  pounds  of  eUk-r-berry  juice,  and  one 
pound  of  sugar,  are  to  be  gently  boiled  to 
the  consistence  of  thick  honey. 

This  is  by  no  means  an  eligible  prepara- 
tion. It  has  been  employed  as  a  laxative,  in 
the  dose  of  half  an  ounce  or  more. 

Succus  spissatus  momordicK  elaterii,  in- 
sp'ssaled  juice  of  wild  cucumber,  Ed.  Ela- 
terium,  Lond. 

(Sv.t  the  ripe  fruit  of  the  wild  cucumber,  and 
pass  the  expressed  juice  thro\igh  a  very 
line  Iiair  sieve.  Boil  it  a  little,  and  set  it 
aside  for  some  hours,  that  the  thick  parts 
may  subside.  Pour  off  th.e  thinner  parts, 
and  then  separate  the  remainder  by  strain- 
ing.    The  thicker  part  which  remains  is  to 


PMAIIMACY. 

bp  covered  with  a  linen  cloth,  and  dried  by 

a  gentle  heat. 

'1  his  preparation  has  been  employed  as 
a  ))ou  erful  catiiartic.   Dose  one  or  t  .vo  grains. 

'I'he    additional   preparations  in    the   Ph. 
Lond.  are,  succus  spissatus  ribis  nigri,  inspis- 
sated jthce  of  black  currant ;  and  succus  spis- 
satus limonis,  inspissated  juice  of  lemon. 
Gltajha,  fixed  oils. 

Oleum  amygdala;   communis,    Ed.      Ol. 
amygdala',  Lond. 
Take  any  (piantity  of  fresh  almonds,  bruise 

them  in  a  stone  motrar,  enclose  the  mass 

in  a  heniijeii  bag,  and  e-xpress  the  oil  by  a 

press  without  heat. 
In  the  same  manner  the  oleum  lini  iisitatis- 

sinii,  (,il  of  linseed,  I'id. ;  ol.   e  semine  lini. 

Load,  is  to  be  expressed. 
To  the  above,  the  London  college  add,  ol. 

riciiii,  castor-oil ;  and  ol.  sinapeos,   oi'l  of 

mustard. 

The  Ibrnier  of  these,  however,  is  usually 
prepared  by  decoction,  and  is  made  in  the 
West  Indies. 

Emulsione.i,  emulsions. 
Enuilsio    am}'gdake    communis,    almond 
emulsion,  l",d.     Lac  amygdal.T,  Lond. 
Take  of  sweit  almonds  (blanched)  an  ounce; 
water  two  i)Ounds  and  a  half ;  beat  the  al- 
monds in  a  stone  mortar,  and  gradually  add 
the  water,  then  strain. 
This  emidsion  is  employed  freely  as  a 
demulcent. 

Emnlsio  gummi  mimosx  nilotics,  Arabic 
emulsion. 
This  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner,  adding 

while  beating  the  almonds  two  ounces  of 

gum-arabic  mucilage. 

Employed  witii  the  same  intention  as 
the  above. 

Emnlsio  camphorata,  camphor  emulsion. 
Camphor  one  scruple,  blanched  sweet  al- 
monds two  drachm-',  refined  sugar  one 
drachm,  water  six  ounces;  to  he  mixed  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  almond  emulsion. 
Dose  two  ounces. 

Iiifusa,  infusioas. 
Infusum  cinchon.e    officinalis,    infusion   of 
Peruvian  bark. 

Take  of  Peruvian  bark  powdered  one  ounce ; 
water  one  pound,  ^lacel•ate  for  luur-and- 
tvventy  hours,  and  then  strain. 

This  contains  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  active  principle  of  the  bark.  Dose  two 
ounces. 

Infusum  digitalis  purpurea',  infusion  of  fox- 
glove. 

'lake  of  the  dried  leaves  of  foxglove  one 
drachm  ;  boiling  water  eight  ounces ;  spirit 
ot  cinnamon  one  ounce.  Mace  rate  for  four 
liours,  and  sti'ain.  Dose  in  dro|)sv  half  an 
ounce  twice  a  day,  gradually  increased. 
Infusum  gentians  lutcip  composituni,  com- 
pound infusion  of  gentian,  Ed.  Inl'us.  gen- 
tianjE  comp.  Lond. 

'lake  of  gentian  root  half  an  ounce;  dried 
orange-peel  one  drachm ;  coriander-seeils 
haif  a  drachm  ;  diluted  alcohol  four  ounces ; 
water  one  pound.  Pour  on  first  the  alco- 
hol, and  alter  three  hours  the  water  ;  then 
macerate  for  twelve  hours  without  heat, 
and  strain. 

An  useful  medicine  in  dyspepsia.  Dose 
twp  ounces. 

3D2 


Infusum  mimos*  catechu,  infusion  of  ca- 
techu. 

Take  of  extract  of  catechu  two  dra'-hms  and 
a  half;  cinnamon  half  a  drachm;  boihiig 
water  seven  ounces ;  simple  syrup  one 
ounce.  Macerate-  the  extract  and  cinna-- 
mon  with  the  wal>"r  in  a  close  vessel  for 
tuo  hours;  then  strain,  and  add  the  syrup. 
I'rincipally  employed  in  dianhaa.  Dosr 
one  ounce. 

Infusum  rliei  palmati,  infusion  of  rhubarb. 
Take  of  rhubarb  root  half  an  cunce;  boiling 
water  eight  ounces;  spirit  of  cinnamon 
o^ie  ounce.  Macerate  tlie  root  with  the 
water  i n  a  closed  vessel  for  twelve  hours; 
then,  the  spirit  being  added,  strain  the  li- 
(pior. 

Employed  as  a  mild  cithartic.     Dose 
two  ounces. 

Infusum  rosa;  gallica',  infusion  of  red  rose, 
Ed.  Infus.  rosa-,  Lond. 
Take  of  the  dried  petals  of  the  rose  two 
ounces;  boiling  water  five  pounds;  sul- 
phuric acid  one  drachm ;  refined  sugar  two 
ounces.  Macerate  the  rose  with  the 
water  in  an  earthen  vessel  (which  is  not 
glazed  with  lead)  for  twelve  hours;  then, 
liaving  poured  on  the  acid,  strain  the  liquor, 
and  add  the  sugar. 

Principally   used  as  a  mild   astringent 
gargle. 

Infusum    lamarinda;    indica;    cum     cassia 
senna,  infusion  of  tamarind  and  senna. 
Take  of  the  prepared  fruit  of  the  tamarind 
one  ounce;  senna-leaves  one  drachm;  co- 
riander-seeds  half    a  drachm ;    unrefined 
sugar  lialf  an  ounce  ;    boiling  water  eigiit 
ounces.      Macerate    in  a  closed   earthen 
vessel  not  glazed  w  ilh  lead,  w  hich  is  to  ba 
shaken   frecjuentlv,   and   after    four   hours 
standing,  the  liijuor  is  to  be  strained. 
This   is  a  miid  and  pleasant  purgative. 
The  whole  of   the  above  quantity  may   be 
taken  at  a  time. 

N.  B.  The  infusum  senn:e  simplex  of  the 
Ph.  Loud,  is  prepared  froin  senna  one  ounce 
and  a  half;  ginger  one  drachm;  boihng  water 
one  pint ;  macerated  for  an  hour  and  strained. 
The  infufuui  senna'  tarlarisatum,  is  pre- 
pared lioui  senna  one  ounce;  coriauder-sceds 
bruised  half  an  ounce;  acidulous  tartrite  of 
potass  (crystals  of  tartar)  two  drachms  ;  dis- 
tilled water  one  pint :  the  crystals  of  tartar 
to  be  dissolved  in  the  water  by  boiling,  and 
the  liquor  while  hot  poured  on  the  senna  and 
coriander,  the  maceration  being  continued  for 
an  hour  in  a  covered  vessel,  and  when  cold 
strained.  Dose  of  each  from  two  to  eight 
ounces. 

Potio  carbonatis  ca'cis,  chalk  potion,  Ed. 
Mistura  cret;:cea,  Lond. 
Take  of  jirepared  carbo.ialeoflime  an  oe.nce; 
refined  sugar  half  an  ounce :  mucilage  of 
gum  arable  two  ounces.  Eub  tliem  toge- 
ther, and  gradually  atld  two  jjouuds  and  a 
half  of  water,  and  spirit  of  cinnamon  two 
ounces. 

An  antacid.     Dose  one  or  two  ounces. 
The  four  following   mixtures    are  found 
only  m  the  Ph.  Lond. 

Mistura  camphorata,    camphorated   mix- 
ture. 

Take  of  camphor  one  drachm  ;  a  small  quait- 
titv  of  reclUi«li  spirit  of  wine;  reliued  su- 


396 

gar  half  an  ounce ;  boiling  distilk'tl  water 
one  point.  Ihilj  the  canii)lior  lirst  with 
tlic  spirit,  tlit^n  with  llie  suaur;  add  i;ra- 
{Jiiallvtln;  watL-r,  and  strain  the  mixture. 

Dose  an  ounce. 
Mi>tura  mosthata,  musk  mixture. 

Takeofmu.sk  two  scruples;  powdered  gum 
arabic,  refined  sugar,  of  each  a  drachm ; 
rose-water  six  ounces.  Rub  the  niusk  with 
the  sugar,  then  with  the  gum,  and  gradually 
add  the  rose-water.  Dose  an  ounce. 
Lac  anniioniaci,  milk  of  gum  ammoniac. 

Take  of  gum  ammoniac  two  drachms;  dis- 
tilled water  half  a  pint.  Triturate  the  gum 
with  tlie  water  poured  on  gradually. 

Dose  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce. 
Lac  assafo-tida',  niiik  of  assafocti<la. 

Prepared  in  the  same  manner.     Dose  half  an 
ounce  or  more. 
Mucilago    aunii,    starch    mucilage,    Ed. 

^^ucilago  anivli,  Lend. 

Take  of  starch  half  an  ounce;  water  one 
pound.  Jiub  llie  starch,  and  add  gradu- 
ally the  water  ;  then  boil  thcni  for  a  short 
time. 

Principally  employed    as  a  vehicle  for 

opium,  &c.  in  enema. 

Mucilago  astragali  tragacantha-,  mucilage 

of  gum  tragacanth,  Ed.     Mucilago  tragacan- 

thx,  Lond. 

Take  of  tragacanth  gtnii  powdereil  an  ounce  ; 
boiling  water  eight  ounces.  Macerate  for 
twenty-four  hours,  and  rub  carefully  the 
guin  so  that  it  may  be  dissolved;  then 
strain  it  through  lint-n. 

Used  chielly  in  making  troches. 
Mucilago    mimosa;   uilotics,   mucilage   of 

fimi  arable,  Ed.     Mucilago  gumnii  arabici, 
■ond. 
"i'akc  of  powdered  gum    arable   one    part ; 
boiling  water  one  part.     Digest  with  fre- 
(juent  shaking  until  the  gunr  is  dissolved ; 
tiieii  strain  through  linen. 

Employed   principally   as  a  demulcent, 
and  as  a  vehicle  for  suspending  oils,  &c. 

Mucilago  seminum  cydonii  mail,  Lond. 
mucilage  of  quince-seed. 
Take  of  quince-seed  one  drachm;  distilled 
water  eight  ounces.  Boil  with  a  gentle 
heat  for  ten  minutes,  and  strain  through 
liuen. 

This  is  seldom  employed  in  medicine. 

Aaua  calcis,  lime-water,  Ed.     Atp  calcis, 

I.^ona. 

Take  of  lime  recently  prepared  half  a  pound. 
Place  it  in  an  earthen  vessel,  and  sprinkle 
it  with  four  ounces  of  water,  keeping  the 
Tessel  covered  while  the  lime  becomes  hot 
and  pulverizes;  then  pour  on  Iwelve 
pounds  of  water,  and  by  agit  ition  mix  it 
with  the  lime.  I'his  agitation  is  to  be  n-- 
peated  after  the  lime  has  subsided,  which 
is  to  be  done  about  ten  times,  keeping  the 
vessel  closed  to  prevent  the  accession  of 
air.  Now  let  the  water  be  strained  through 
paper,  interposing  glass  rods  between  the 
Jiltre  and  the  funnel,  that  it  may  pass 
through  as  quickly  as  possible.  It  is  to  be 
kept  in  Ixjttles  well  slopped. 

Lime-water  is  used  as  a  tonic  and  asttin- 
gcnt.     Dose  from  one  to  two  pounds  daily. 

Dccoda,  decoctions. 
Decoctum  altluraj  oflitiimiis,  decoction  of 
althxa,  Ed. 


PHAR]\L\CY. 

Take  of  altha'a-root  dried  four  ounces;  rai- 
sins freed  from  their  seeds  two  ounces ; 
water  seven  pounds.  Boil  down  to  live 
pounds;  strain;  put  aside  the  strained  li- 
quor until  the  impurities  have  subsided, 
and  pour  off  the  clear  liciU'r. 

As  a  deuuilcent  to  be  drunk  ad  libitum. 
Decoctum  anthemidis  nobilis,  decoction  of 
camomile. 

Take  of  dried  camomile  flowers  an  ounce; 
caraway-seeds  half  an  ounce;  water  live 
pounds.  Boil  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
and  strain. 

The  d<-coctum  pro  enemate,  and  decoc- 
tum profoineiito,  of  the  London  Ph.  are  simi- 
lar to  the  above. 

Decoctum  cinchonic  officinalis,  decoction 
of  Peruvian  bark,  Ed.  Decoctum  cinchun.e, 
Lond. 

'I'ake  of  Peruvian  bark  in  powder  one  ounce; 
water  a  pound  and  a  half.  Boil  for  ten 
minutes  in  a  closed  vessel,  and  while  still 
hot  strain.  Dose  two  ounces. 
Decoctum  daphnes  mezerei,  decoction  of 
mezereon,  Ed. 

Take  of  the  mezereou-bark  two  drachms ;  of 
bruised  liquorice-root  half  an  ounce  ;  wa- 
ter three  pounds.  Boil  with  a  gentle  heat 
down  to  two  pounds,  and  strain. 

This  decoction  has  chielly  been  given  in 
cases  of  syphifs,  either  with  or  without  mer- 
cury.    Dose  six  or  eight  ounces. 

Decoctum  geofifraes  inermis,  decoction  of 
cabbage-tree  bark,  Ed. 

Take  of  the  cabbage-tree  bark  in  powder  an 
ounce ;  water  two  pounds.  Boil  gently 
to  one  pound,  and  strain. 

This  is  sometimes  given  as  an  anthel- 
mintic.    Dose  two  ounces. 

Decoctum  guaiaci  ofticinalis  compositum, 
compound  decoction  of  guaiac. 
Take  of  the  shavings  of  guaiac-wood  three 
ounces  ;  raisins  two  ounces  ;  sassafras-root, 
liquorice-root,  of  each  an  ounce  ;    water 
ten  pounds.  Boil  the  water  with  the  guaiac 
and  raisins  with  a  gentle  heat  to  five  pounds, 
and  towards  the  end  of  the  decoction  add 
the  roots;  then  strain  without  expression. 
It  is  chiefly  given  in  chronic  rheuma- 
tism.    Dose  two  or  three  pints  daily. 

Decoctum     ordei    distichi,    decoction   of 

barley,  Ed.     Decoct,  hordei,  Lond. 

Take  of  pearl-barley  two  ounces ;  wate.r^e 
pounds.  First  wash  off  with  colfl  wati  r 
the  flour  adhering  to  the  barley,' then  boil 
the  barley  for  a  short  time  with  about  half 
a  pound  of  water,  to  extract  the  colouiing 
matter.  Put  the  barley  tints  purilie<l  into 
five  pounds  of  boiling  water.  Boil  this  to 
one  half,  and  strain. 

A  conunon  diluent  in  fever.     In  the  Ph. 

Lond.  a  compound  decoction  is  ordered  with 

figs,  raisins,  and  liquorice. 

Di.-coctum  polygala;  senega;,  decoction  of 

seneka. 

Take  of  seneka-root  one  ounce;  water  two 
pounds.  Boil  to  sixtc  en  ounces,  and  strain. 

Dose  two  or  three  ounces. 
Decoctum  smilacis  sarsaparillx,  decoction 

of  sarsa;>arilla,  Ed.  Decoct.  sarsaparilUe,  Lon. 

Take  ot  cut  sari.aparilla  six  ounces ;  water 
e'glit  pounds  iJii^est  lor  two  hours  in  a 
heat  ot  about  lyj';  then  t.,ke  out  the  root 
and  bruise  it,  return  it  to  llie  liqu(.>r,  and 


boil  it  with  a  gentle  fire  to  two  poulids. 
Tlu-n  express  and  strain. 

Sarsapaiilla  in  this  fonn   is  eniploy(;d  in 
combination  w  ilh  mercury  in  syphilis. 

The  decoctions  ol  the  London,  which  are 
nut  in  the  Ed.  Ph.  are  the  follo\\iug: 

Decoctum  cornu  cervi,  decoction  of  harts- 
horn. 

Take  of  burnt  and  prepared  hartshorn  two 
ounces  ;  gum  arable  six  drachm^  ;  distilled 
water  three  pounds.  Boil,  stirring  con- 
stantly, down  to  two  pounds,  and  strain. 

This  is  a  useless  preparation. 
Decoctum  hellebori  aibi,  decoction  of  white 
hellebore. 

Take  of  white  hellebore  root  in  powder  one 
ounce;  distilled  water  two  pints;  rectified 
spirit  of  wine  two  ounces.  Boil  the  water 
with  the  root  to  one  pint,  and  when  the  li- 
quor is  cold,  strain  it  and  add  the  spirit. 
This  is  principally  employed  as  a  wash 
in  psora. 

l^ecoctum  sarsaparillse  compositum,  com- 
pound decoction  of  sarsaparilla. 
Take  of  sarsaparilla  root  slit  and  bruised  six 
ounces ;  bark  of  sassafras  root,  shavings  of 
guaiac  wood,  liquorice  root  bruised,  (.f  each 
one  ounce  ;  mezereon  three  drachms  ;  dis- 
tilled water  ten  [)ints.  Macerate  for  six> 
hours  with  a  gentle  heat ;  boil  to  hve  pints  ; 
towards  the  end  of  the  boiling  add  the  me- 
zereon, and  then  strain. 

An  improvement  upon  the  Lisbon  diet- 
drink.  Dose  four  or  six  ounces,  three  or 
four  times  a  day. 

Decoctum  ulmi,  decoction  of  elm. 
Take  of  the  elm  bark,  fresh  bruiscti,  four 
ounces  ;  distilled  water  four  pints.     Boil  to 
two  pints,  and  strain. 

This  has  been  used  in  cutaneous  affections. 

Si/rttpi,  syrups. 
Syrupus  simplex,  common  syrup. 
Take  of  relined  sugar,  powdered,  fitteen  parts  ; 
water  eight  parts.     Dissolve  the  sugar  with 
a  gentle  heat,  and  boil  it  a  short  time,  so 
as  to  form  syrup. 

Syrupus  acidi  acetosi,  acidulous  syrup. 
Take  of  acetous  acid  two  pounds  and  a  half; 
refined  sugar   three    pounds  and   a   half. 
Boil  so  as  to  form  syrup. 
Syrupus  altluca-  olHcinalis,  syrup  of  althaia, 
Ed.     Syr.  althaw,  Lond. 
Take  of  fresh  alllixa  root  cut,  one  pound; 
water    ten    pounds  ;    refined    sugar    four 
pounds.     Boil  the  water  with  the  root  to 
or.c-lialf,  and  strain  it  by  strong  pressure. 
Put  aside  the  strained  tiijuor,  that  the  im- 
purities may  subside  ;  and  to  the  purilied 
liquor  add  the  su!],ar :  then  boil,  so  as  to 
form  a  syrup. 

This  is'a  superfluous  preparation. 
Syrupus  amomi  zinziberis,  syrup  of  gin- 
p,er,  Ed.  Syru|)usziniziberis,  Lond. 
lake  of  ginger  root  beaten  three  ounces; 
boiling  water  lour  pounds;  refined  sugar 
seven  pounds  and  a  half.  Macerate  tiie 
root  in  the  water  in  a  closed  vessel  for 
twenty-four  hours :  then  to  the  strained 
liquor  add  the  pounded  sugar,  so  as  to. 
make  a  syrup. 

This  Ls  a  pleasant  and  useful  syrup. 
Syrupus   citri   aurantii,  syi  up   of  orange- 
peel,  Ed.     Syr   corticis  aurantii,  Lond. 
Tike  of  the  fresh  iHiler  rind  of  the   orange 
six  ounces ;  boiling  water  three  pounds  ; 


refined  sugnr  four  pounds.  Macerate  the 
riml  ill  till-'  walrr  liir  twt'Ive  lioiir^ ;  thru 
to  tlie  stiaiiuxl  li(iiii)r  add  tlie  pouiuU-d 
sugar ;  and  thus  form  a  syrup,  l>y  ap- 
plying a  gentle  heat. 

This  syrup,   like  the  former,  is  grateful 

and  aromatic. 

Synipus  citri  mcdicx,  syrup  of  lemon,  \'A. 

Syr.  limonis,  I.ond. 

'lake  ol  the  juice  of  lemons  strained,  after 
the  inipuiities  have  subsided,  three  parts  ; 
relined  sugar  five  parts.  Dissolve  the  su- 
gar so  as  to  form  a  syrup. 

This  syrup  is  used  to  sweeten  and  acidu- 
late mixtures. 

.Svrupus  colchii  autumnalis,  syrup  of  col- 

chium. 

Take  of  the  fresh  root  of  colcliinm,  sliced 
into  small  pieces,  one  ounce  ;  acetous  acid 
sixteen  ounces  ;  purilied  sugar  lwenty-si\ 
ounces.  Macerate  the  root  in  the  acid  for 
two  days,  occ.isionally  agitating  the  vessel  : 
then  strain  it  with  a  gentle  pressure  ;  to 
the  stramed  liijuor  add  the  sugar,  and  boil 
it  so  as  to  form  a  syrup. 

This  has  been  given   in  dropsy,  iu  the 

dose  of  from  half  an  ounce  to  one  ounce. 
Syrupus  dianthi  caryophilli,  syrup  of  clove 

July-tlower,   Ed.      Syrup  caryophilli   rubii, 

I.ond. 

'iake  of  the  fresh  petals  of  this  flower,  freed 
from  the  peels,  one  pound  ;  boiling  water 
four  pounds  ;  refined  sugar  seven  pounds. 
Macerate  the  petals  in  the  water  for  twelve 
Jiours ;  then,  when  the  licjuor  is  strained, 
add  the  i)oimded  sugar,  which  is  to  be  dis- 
solved with  a  gentle  heat,  so  as  to  form  a 
syrup. 

This  syrup  is  of  a  deep  red  colour,  and 

pleasant  flavour. 

Syrupus  papaveris  somniferi,  syrup  of  wliite 

poppy.     Syrup  papaveris  albi,  Lond. 

lake  of  the  dried  capsules  of  the  white  pop- 
py, freed  from  the  see<ls,  two  pounds ;  boil- 
ing water  thirty  pounds ;  relmcd  sugar 
four  pounds.  Macerate  the  sliced  cap- 
sules in  the  water  for  twelve  hours  ;  then 
boil  until  only  a  third  part  of  the  liquor  re- 
mains ;  ll:en  strain  by  strong  pressure. 
Uoil  the  strained  liipior  to  one-half,  and 
again  strain  :  tlie  sujar  being  then  added 
boil  a  little,  so  as  to  form  a  syrup. 

This  syrup  is  given  principally  as  an  ano- 
dyne to  children.     Dose  to  a  child  a  year  old 

one  drachm. 

Syrupus  rhamni  cathartici,  syrup  of  buck- 
thorn, Ed.     Syr.  spins  cervina',  Lond. 

Take  of  the  claritied  juice  of  ripe  buckthorn- 
berries  two  parts  ;  retined  sugar  one  part. 
Boil  so  as  to  make  syrup. 
This  is  given  as  a  cathartic.     Dose  an 

ounce  to  an  ounce  and  a  half. 

Syrupus  rosie  gallics,  syrup  of  red  rose. 

Take  the  dried  petals  of  the  red  rose-  seven 
ounces  ;  boiling  water  tive  poumls ;  puri- 
fied sugar  six  pounds.  Macerate  the  petals 
in  water  for  twelve  hours  ;  then  boil  them 
a  little,  and  strain  ;  to  the  strained  liquor 
add  the  sugar,  and  again  boil  it,  so  as  to 
make  syrup. 

This  syrup  is  not  in  much  use ;  it  is  very 

slightly  astringent. 
Syrupus  rosx  centifolise,  syrup  of  damask, 

or  pale,  rose,  Ed.     Syr.  ross,  Lond. 

Take  fresh  petals  of  the  pale  rose  one  pound ; 


PHARMACY, 

boiling  water  four  pounds;  refined  sugar 
Ihrec  pounds.  Macerate  tlie  petals  iu  the 
water  for  twelve  hours  :  liaving  strained 
the  li(iiinr,  add  the  sugar,  and  boil  so  as  to 
form  s\rup. 

A  mild  purgative  given  to  infants,  in  the 
quantity  ol  two  or  three  tea-spoonfuls. 

Syrupus  scilla?  maritima",  syrup  of  s<iuill. 
Take   of  the    vinegar  of  squill  two   pounds  ; 
pounded  relined  sugar  three  pounds  and  a 
half.     Let  the  sugar  be  dissolved  in  the  vi- 
negar by  a  gentle  heat. 

An  active  expectorant.  Dose  one  or 
two  drachms. 

Syrupus  toluifers-  balsami,  syrup  of  tolu 
balsam,  Ed.  Syr.  tolutani.  Loud. 
Take  of  common  syrup  two  pounds  ;  tincture 
of  tolu  one  ounce.  To  the  syrup  recentlv 
])repared  and  taken  from  the  fire,adil  by  de- 
grees the  tincture,  and  gently  agitate  them 
together. 

This  svrup  is  only  to  be  valued  Irom  its 
flavour. 

Syrupus  violir  odorat.e,  syrup  of  violet,  Ed. 
,Syr.  viohr,  Lond. 

'I  ake  ot  the  fresh  flowers  of  the  sweet-scent- 
ed violet, one  pound;  boiling  water  lour 
pounds  ;  purihed  sugar  seven  pounds  and 
a  half  Macerate  the  flowers  in  the  wa:er 
for  twenty-tour  hours,  in  a  coveretl  gla^s 
or  earthen  vessel;  then  strain  without  ex- 
pression, and  add  pounded  sugar,  so  as  to 
form  syrup. 

A  mild  laxative.  Dose  to  infants  one  or 
two  tea-spoonfuls.  The  London  Pharmaco- 
poeia has  the  syrupus  succi  fructus  mori,  sy- 
rup of  mulberry-juice.  Syrupus  succi  fruc- 
tus rubi  ida'i,  syrup  of  raspberry-juice.  Sy- 
rupus succi  fructus  ribis  nigri,  syrup  of  black 
currant  juice.  Syrupus  croci,  syrup  of  saf- 
fron. Syrupus  papaveris,  syrup  of  red  poppy. 
The  two  last  are  principally  employed  on  ac- 
count of  their  colour.  The  inel  acetatum, 
oxymel  colchici,  niel  rosa%  niel  scilla\  oxyniel 
scilUe,  vary  but  little  from  their  correspond- 
ing syrups. 

Fitia,  wines. 

'N'inum  aloes  socotorina",  wine  of  socotorine 

aloes,  Ed.     Vin.  aloes,  Lond. 

Take  of  socotorine  aloes  powdered  an  ounce  ; 
lesser  cardamom  seeds,  ginger  root,  of 
each  contused,  one  drachm  ;  Spanish  «  hile 
wine  two  pounds.  Digest  fer  seven  days, 
frequently  agitating,  and  strain. 

A  stimulating  cathartic.     Dose  from  one 

or  two  drachms  to  an  ounce. 

^'inum  gentians  compositum,   compound 

gentian  wine. 

Take  of  gentian  root  half  aa  ounce  ;  Peru- 
vian bark  one  ounce ;  orange-peel  dried 
two  drachms ;  canella  bark  one  drachm  ; 
diluted  alcohol  four  ounces  ;  Spanish  white 
wine  two  pounds  and  a  half  The  root  and 
barks  being  bruised,  pour  first  on  them  the 
diluted  alcoliol,  and  after  four-aiid-twenty 
hours  add  the  wine.  Macerate  for  seven 
days,  and  strain. 

Dose,  as  a  stomachic,  half  an  ounce,  or 

si.\  drachms. 
Vinum  ipecacuanhs,  ipecacuan  wine,  Ed. 

Vin.  ipecac.  Lond. 

Take  of  ipecacuan  root  bruised  one  ounce  ; 
Spanish  white  wine  fifteen  ounces.  Mace- 
rate, and  atter  seven  days  strain  through 
paper.    Dose  as  au  emetic  one  our.ce. 


Viimm  nicotians?  tahaci,  tobacco  wine. 
Take  of  tobacco  leaves  one  ounce  ;  Spanish 
white  wine  one  pound.      .Mace.ate,   and 
after  seven  days  strain  through  paper. 
Dose,  as   a  diuretic,   thirty   drops    in- 
creased. 

Vimini  rhei  palmati,  rhubarb  wine. 
Take  of  the  rluibaib  root  cut  two  ounces ; 
canella  baik  one  drachm  ;  diluted  alcohol 
two  ounces;  Spanish  wliite  wine  fifteen 
ounces.  Macerate  for  seven  dajs,  and 
strain  through  paper. 

Dose  lioni  hall  an  ounce  to  one  ounce. 

ylceta,  vinegars. 
Acetnin  aroniaticum,  aromatic  vinegar. 
Take  of  the  rosemary  tops  dried,  the  dried, 
leaves  of  sage,  of  each  four  ounces;  la- 
vetuler  flowers  dried  two  ounces  ;  cloves 
two  drachms ;  distilled  acetous  acid  eight, 
pounds.  Macerate  lor  seven  days,  and 
strain  the  expressed  liquor  through  paper. 

Principally  employed  as  a  perluiiie. 
Acidum  acetosum  caniphoratum,  campho- 
rated acetous  acid. 

Take  of  the  stronger  acetous  acid  six  ounces  ; 
camphor  half  an  ounce  ;  alcohol  as  much 
as  is  sutTicieut.  Kub  the  camphor  into 
powder  with  the  alcohol,  which  put  into  the 
acid,  so  as  to  dissolve  it. 

A     grateful    stimulant,  snulfed    iij)  thu 
nostrils. 

Acetum  scilla-  maritima-,  vinegar  of  squill,, 
Ed.  Acet.  scilla>,  Lond. 
Take  of  dried  s<iuill  two  ounces  ;  distilled 
acetous  acid  two  pounds  and  a  half;  alco- 
hol three  ounces.  Macerate  the  squill 
with  the  vinegar  for  three  days,  then  ex- 
])rcss  it ;  add  the  alcoliol;  and  when  the 
impurities  have  subsided  pour  olf  the  lir 
(pior. 

Dose  from  one  to  two  drachms. 

Tincturce,  tuictures. 
Tinctura  aloes  socotorins,  tincture  of  aloes, 

Ed.     Tiiict.  aloes,  Lond. 

Take  of  powdered  socotorine  aloes  half  an 
ounce  ;  extract  of  liquorice  an  ounce  and 
a  half;  alcohol  four  ounces  ;  water  one 
jiound.  Digest  with  a  gentle  heat  for  se- 
ven days  in  a  closed  vessel,  frequently 
shaking  it  (which  is  to  be  observed  in  tlie 
preparation  of  all  tinctures). 

Dc>se  one  ounce,  as  a  cithartic. 
Tinctura  aloes  fftherea,  etherial  tincture 

of  aloes. 

Take  of  myrrli,  socotorine  aloes,  of  each  an 
ounce  and  a  half;  English  saffron  one 
ounce  ;  spirit  of  sulphuric  a;ther  one 
pound.  Digest  the  myrrh  with  the  spirit 
for  four  days  in  a  closed  vessel ;  then  add 
tlie  aloes  and  saliron.  Again  digest  for 
four  days  ;  and  wlien  the  faxes  have  sub- 
sided pour  off  the  tincture. 

Dose  one  or  two  drachms. 
Tinctura  aloes    cum  myrrha,   tincture  of 

aloes  with  myrrh,  Ed.     Tinct.  aloes  conip.^ 

Lond. 

Take  of  powdered  myrrh  tsvo  ounces  ;  alco- 
hol one  pound  and  a  half;  water  half  a 
pound.  Mix  the  alcohol  with  the  water, 
then  add  the  myrrh.  Digest  for  four  days, 
and  now  add  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  soco- 
torine aloes,  and  one  ounce  of  English  saf- 
fron ;  again  digest  for  tliree  days,  and  pour 
olT  the  pure  tincture. 


■30S 

Tirxtiii-a  amonil  rcpciili%  tiiiclurc  of  car- 
damom, Ed.     'liiict.  ciuclamom,  LciiJ. 
'lake  of  carclamom  sueds  four  ounces;  cli- 
liiled  alcohol  two  pounds  ami  a  l:alf.     J)i- 
ge.-it  for    seven  days,  and  sUaui  through 

^''■'rhis  is  a  grateful  aromatic.  In  tlie  Ix)n- 
don  Ph.  a  compound »linrture  of  cardamom 
■is  o:dered,  in  which  are  introduced  caraway, 
cinnamon,  and  raisins. 

Tinctura  aristolocliiffi  serpentarix,  tincture 
cf  snake  root,  Ed.  Tiiict.  serpent.  Lond. 
Take  of  snake  root  two  ounces ;  cochmeal 
one  drachm;  diluted  alcohol  tsvo  pounds 
and  a  half.  Digest  for  seven  davs,  and 
liltre  through  paper. 

Dose  two  drachms. 
Tinctura  assafcetid;r,  tincture  of  assafa;li- 
'da,  Ed.     Tinct.  as.aftelid.  Lond. 
Take  of  assdfoc-tida  four  ounces:  alcohol  two 
pounds  and  a  lialf.     Digestfor  seven  days, 
—  and  strain  through  paper. 
Dose  one  drachm. 
Tinctura  ber.Koes  composita,    comi)ound 
■tincture   of  benzoin,   Ed.     Tinct.    benz.  c. 
Lond. 

'Take  of  benzoin  three  ounces;  reruvian 
balsam  two  ouiu-cs ;  hepatic  aloes  half  an 
oinice;  alcohol  two  pounds.  Digest  for 
seven  davs,  and  strain. 

This  tincture  is  in  vulgar  use  to  recent 
wounds. 

Tmclura  camphor.-e,  tincture  of  camphor, 
Ed.     Spirituscamphoratus,  Lond. 
"Take  of  camphor  one  ounce  ;  alcohol  one 
])ouud.     Mix  so  as  the  camphor  may  be 
dissolved. 

A  stimulant  embrocation. 
Linimontum    camphors',    camphor    lini- 
ment, Lond. 

Take  of  camphor  two  ounces  ;  water  of  am- 
monia six  ounces:  spirit  of  lavender  six- 
teen ounces.  Mix  the  spirit,  andwaterof 
;nnmo;iia  ;  and  distil  fro;n  a  glass  retort, 
with  a  gentle  heat,  sixteen  ounces. 

'I'his  liniment  is  niore  powerful  than  the 
preceding. 

Tinctura  cassia;  senna  composita,  tincture 
«f  senns,  Ed.     Tinct.  sennie,  Lond. 
Take  of  senna  leaves  two  ounces  ;  jalap  root 
one  ounce  ;  coriander  seeds  hall  an  ounce  ; 
diluted  alcohol  th.ree  pounds  and  a  half. 
Digest  for  seven  days,  and  to  the  tincture 
jiltred   through    paper   add    four    ounces 
of  rehned  sugar. 
Dose  an  ounce. 


I'HARMACY. 


Tinctura  castorei,  linclwrc  of  castor,   Ed. 
and  Lond. 
Take  of  Uussian  castor  an  ounce  and  a  half; 

alcohol    one    pound.      Digest   for  seven 

davs,  and  strain  through  pa[)cr. 

in  the  London   I'h.   diluted  alcohol   is 
cnijjloyed.     Dose  one  drachm. 

Tinctina    castorei    composita,  compoiuid 
tincture  <■(  castor, 
'lake  of  lUissiaii  castor  an  ounce ;  assafcetida 

half  an   ounce  ; .  ammoniated  alcohol    one 

j).iund.     D  gest  for  seven  days,  and  filtre 

tnrough  paper. 

Dose  one  drachm. 

Tinctura   cinchona'  officinalis,   tincture  of 
Peruvian  bark,  Ed.  Tinct.  cinchona-,  Lond. 
lake  of  Peruvian  bark  powdered  four  ounces 

ilihitcd  alcohol  two  pounds  and  a  half.   Di 


gest  for  seven  days,  and  iiltre  through  pa- 
per. 

Dose  tUo  di     K,i,  . 

Tinctura  cinciicr.iv  composita,  compound 
tincture  of  Peiuvian  bark,  Lo]i<l. 
Take  of  Peruvian  bark  jiowdcred  two  ounces 
and  alinlf;  dried  crange^etl  one  ounce 
"and   a  half;  Virginian   snake   root  three 
drachms;  salfron  one  drachm;  cochins'al 
in  powder  two  scruples  ;  proof  spirit  twen- 
ty ounces.  Digest  tor  four  days,  and  strain. 
This  is  the  PL:xham's  tincture.     Dose 
two  or  three  drachms. 

Tinctura  cinchon:v  ammoniata,  ammoniat- 
ed tincture  of  bark,  Lond. 
Take  of  powdered  Peruvian  bark  four  omiccs ; 
compound  spirit  of  ammonia  two  pound.«. 
Dicest  in  a  close  vessel  for  ten  days,  and 
strain. 

This  is  an  improper  [jreparation. 

Tinctura  colomb:e,   tincture  of  Colombo, 
Ed.     1  inct.  colomb.T,  Lond. 
Take  of  Colombo  root,  beaten  into  powder, 
tv.o  ounces ;  diluted  alcohol  two  pounds. 
Digest  for  seven  days,  and  strain. 

Dose  t'vvo  or  three  drachms. 
Tinctura  convolvuli  j'dlapie,  tincture  of  ja- 
lap, Ed.     'i'inct.  jala|)a',  Lond. 
lake  of  jalap  in  powder  three  ounces;  di- 
luted alcohol   fifteen   ounces.     Digest  for 
seven  days,  and  hltre  tliiough  paper. 
Tinctura  croci,  tincture  of  satlVon. 
Take  of  Er.giish  saftion  an  ounce ;  diluted 
alcohol  lifteen  ounces.     Digest  for  seven 
days,  and  liltre  through  paper. 

This  tincture  has  perhaps  no  other  virtue 
but  that  of  colour. 

Tnctura  di, 

foxglove. 

Take  of  the  leaves  of  foxglove  dried  an 
ounce  ;  diluted  alcohol  eight  ounces.  Di- 
gest for  seven  days,  and  strain  through 
paper. 

A  most  active  and  useful  medicine.  Doic 

ten  grains,  gradually  increased. 

Tinctura   gentianie   composita,  compound 
tincture  of  gentian,  Edin.  and  Loud. 
Take  of  the  gentian  root  two  ounces ;  orange- 
peel  an  ounce  ;  canella  bark  half  an  ounce  ; 
cochineal  lialf  a  drachm  ;  diluted  alcohcl 
two  pounds  and  a  half.     Digest  for  seven 
davs,  and  liltre  through  paper. 
Dose  two  or  three  d  achms. 
Tinctura  guaiaci,  tincture  of  guaiac. 
Take  of  guaiac  resin  one  pound ;  alcohol  two 
poiuids  and  a  half.     Digest  for  seven  days, 
and  filfre  through  paper. 
Do^e  two  or  three  drachms. 

Tinctura  guaiaci  ammoniata,  ammoniated 
tincture  of  guaiac,  Ed.  and  Lond. 
'i'ake  of  giraiac  resin   foiu'  ounces;  ammo- 
niated alcohol  a  pound  and  a  half.     Digest 
for  seven  days,  and  liltre  through  paper. 
This  is  a  useful  tinctmv  in  chronic  rheu- 
matism.    Dose  from  one  to  three  drachms. 

Tincturi  hellebori  nigri,   tincture  of  black 
hellebore,  Ed.  and  Lond. 
Take  of  black  lullebore  root  four  ounces; 
cochineal  half  a  dr.ichm  ;  diluted  alcohol 
two  pounds  and  a  half.     Digest  for  seven 
davs,  and  liltre  through  paper. 
Dose  one  drachm. 


Take  of  black  henbane  leaves  dried  an 
ounce  ;  dihutd  alcohol  eight  ounces.  Di- 
gist  for  seven  days,  and  strain  through 
jiaper. 

Tinctura  kino,  tincture  of  kino. 
Take  of  kino  two  ounces,  diluted  alcohol  one 
pound  a  half. 
Dose  a  drachm. 


jitalis    i^urpurea?,    tincture  of 


Tinctura  hyoscyami  nigri,  tincture  of  blacl 
henbane. 


Tinctura  lauri  cinnamomi,  tincture  of  cin- 
namon, Ed.  Tinct.  cinnam.  Lond. 
Take  of  cinnamon  bark  three  ounces;  di- 
luted alcohol  two  pounds  and  a  lialf.  Di- 
gest for  seven  days,  and  strain  through 
paper. 

Tinctura  lauri  cinnamomi  composita,  com- 
pound tincture   of  cinnamon,   Ed.      'I'inct. 
cin.  comp.  Lond. 
Take  of  th?  cinnamon  bark  and  cardamom 

seeds,  of  each  an  oiuice  ;  long  pepper  twj 

drachms  ;  diluted  alcohol  two  pounds  and 

a  half.     Digest  for  seven  days,  and  strain 

tiirough  paper. 

Tinctura  meloes  vcsicatorii,   tincture  of 
cantharides,  Ed.  linct.  cantiiaridis,  Lond. 
'lake  of  cantharides  one  drachm  ;  diluted  al- 

coliol  one  pound.     Digest  for  seven  days, 

and  strain  through  jiaper. 

Dose  ir.ternaily   from  fifteen  to  thirty 
drops. 

Tinctura  mimosa"  catechu,  tincture  of  ca- 
techu, Ed.     Tinct.  catechu,  Lond. 
Take   of  catechu  three  ounces;    cinnamon 

two  ounces;  diluted  alcohol  two  pounds 

and  a  half.     Digest  for  seven   days,  and 

strain  through  paper. 
Dose  one  drachm. 

Tinctura  myrrha',  tincture  of  myrrh,   Eil. 

and  Lond. 

'Pake  of  bruised  myrrh  three  ounces  ;  alco- 
hol twenty  ounces ;  water  ten  ounces. 
Digest  for  seven  days,  and  iillre  through 
paper. 

Tinctura  opii,  tincture  of  opium,  Ed.  and 
Lo!id. 
Take  of  opium  two  ounces;  diluted  alcohol 

two  poimds.     Digest  for  seven  days,  and 

filtre  through  paper. 

Dose  from  luteen  to  twenty-live  drops. 

Tinctura    opii   ammoniata,    ammoniated 

tincture  of  opium. 

lake  of  the  acid  of  benzoin,  and  English 
safi'ron,  of  each  three  drachms  ;  opium  two 
drarhms ;  volatile  oil  of  anise  half  a 
drachm  ;  ammoniated  alcohol  sixteen 
ounces.  Digest  for  seven  days  in  a  closed 
phi  d,  and  liilie  through  paper. 

Dose  from  half  a  drachm  to  a  dr.tchm. 
Tinctura    opii    campliorata,   camphorated 

tincture  of  opium,  Lond. 

'Pake  of  hard  purified  opium  powdered,  ben.' 
zoin  (lowers,  pf  each  one  drachm  ;  cam- 
phor two  scruples;  oil  of  anise  one  drachm  ; 
proof  spirit  two  poimds  by  measiu'e.  Di- 
gest tor  ten  days,  and  slrain._ 

This   is  the  cli.xir  paregoric.     Dose  one 

or  two  draciinis. 

'Piui-tura  rha'i  palmati,  tinctm-e  of  rhubarb, 

l'",d.     'Pinct.  rhabarbari,  Lond. 

Cake    of    the    rhubarb   root  three  ounces ; 
lessv»r  cardanio:ns  half  an   oinice ;  diluted 
alcohol  two   |)Ounds  and   a   half.     Digrst 
for  seven  days,  and  strain  through  paprr. 
Dose  halt' an  ounce. 


Tiiicdira  rlia?i  cum  aloe,    tincture  of  rlui- 

bail)  ami  aloi's. 

Take  of  rluiliarb  root  ten  -draclims  ;  socoto- 
nm-  aloes  six  clraclmis;  lfss;;r  cardamoms 
liaifaii  oimre  ;  diliiled  alcolioltwo  poimds 
and  a  half.  Digest  tor  sc-vui  d.ijs,  and 
strain  throngli  paper. 
Dose  si\  drachms. 

'I'inctara  rha'i    cimi  gcntiann,   tincture  of 

rliubarlj  witli  nenlian. 

'lake  of  rhubarb  root  two  ounces;  i^entian 
root  half  an  ourice  :  ddutjd  alcoliol  two 
]ionnds  and  a  half.  Digest  for  seven  davs, 
an<i  strain  tlii-ou^^li  pa|)er. 

Do-e  from  two  to  tour  drachms. 
Tin'  tura  rhabarbari  composita,  co.npound 

tincture  of  rhubarb,  Lond. 

'J'ake  of  cut  rhubarb  two  ounces  ;  bruised  li- 
quorice half  aji  ounce;  finger  in  powder, 
and  sall'ron,  of  each  two  drachms  ;  distilled 
water  cue  pound ;  proof  spirit  twelve 
ounces.  Digest  for  fourteen  days,  and 
strain. 

Dose  half  an  ounce. 

TinctiH'a   saponis,    tincture  of  soap,   Kd. 

Linimei.tum  saponis-compositum,  I.oiid. 

Take  of  soap  four  ounces;  camplior  two 
ounces  ;  essential  oil  of  rosemary  half  an 
ounce ;  alcohol  two  pounds.  Digest  the 
soap  in  the  alcohol  lor  thri?edajs;  then, 
the  li<iuor  being  slrain.'d,  add  the  camplior 
and  oil,  agitatin.;  the  liquor. 

Tinctura  saponis    cum  opio,  tincture   of 
soap  with  opium. 
To  be  made  in  the  same  manner  with  the 

last,  only  adding  from   the  beginning   an 

ounce  of  opium. 

Tinctura  toluifera-  balsami,  tincture  of  tolu 
balsam,  Kd.     Tinct.  bals.  tohit.  Lend. 
Take  ot   tolu  balsam  one  ounce  and  a  half; 

alcohol  one  pound.     Digest  until  the  bal- 
sam is  dissolved,  and  strain  througii  paper. 

■'I'inct'.ira  veratri  aibi,  tincture  of  white  hel- 
lebore. 
Take  of  white  hellebore  root   eight  ounces; 

diluted   alcohol   two   pounds   and   a   half. 

Digest  for  seven  days,  and  filtre  through 

p.iper.  ■ 

'i  Ills  is  too  violent  for  mternal  adminis- 
tration. 

The  following  are  tinctures  peculiar  to  the 
Ph.  Lond. 

Tinctura  corticisaurantii.tinctureof  orange- 
peel, 
lake   of  fresh  orange-peel    three    oinices; 

proof  spirit  tw-o  pounds.     Digest  for  three 

days,  and  strain. 

Tinctura  balsami  Peruviani,  tincture  of  Pe- 
ruvian balsam 
Take  of  Peruvian  balsam  four  ounces  ;  rec- 

tilied  spirit  one  pound.     Digest  until  the 

balsam  is  dissolved. 

Tinctura  cascariUa',  tincture  of  cascarilla. 
Take  of  cascarilla  in  powder  four  ounces  ; 

proof  spirit  two  pounds.     Digest  with  a 

gentle  lieat  for  eiglit  days,  and  strain. 

Tinctura  gaibani,  tincture  of  galbanum. 
Take  of  gulbaiunii  cut  into  small  pieces  two 

ounces  ;  proof  spirit  two  pounds.      Digest 

with  a  gentle  heat   for   eight   days,    and 

strain. 

Dose  one  to  two  drachms. 

Tinctiu'a    sabins    composita,    compound 
tincture  of  savin. 


PHARMACY. 

Take  of  savin  extract  one  ounce ;  tincture 

of  ca->tor  one  pound;   tincture  of  myirli 

lialf  a  pound.     Digest  untd  the  savni  is 

dissolved,  and  strain. 

Dose  half  a  drachm  to  one  drachm. 

Tinctura  scilke,  tincture  of  S(iuill. 
Take  of  recently  dried  s(|uill   lour  ounces ; 

jjroof  spirit  two  pounds.     Digest  for  eigiit 

days,  and  pour  oil'  tlic  liquor. 

Dose  from  twenty  drops  to  a, drachm. 

Tinctura  vaieriaiirr,  tincture  of  valerian. 
Take   of  wiki  valerian,  powdered  coarsely, 

foi:r  ounces  ;    proot   spirit    two    pounds. 

Di;>,eit  w  ith  a  gentle  heat  for  eight  days, 

and  strain. 

'i  inctura  Valerianae  ammoniafa,  ammoniat- 
ed  tincture  of  valerian. 
Take  of  the  coarse  powder  of  wild  valerian 

four  oiMiccs  ;  compound  spirit  of  ammonia 

two  pounds.     Digest  for  eight  days,  and 

strain. 

Dose  from  one  to  two  drachms. 

Tinctura  zinzibcris,  tincture  of  ginger. 
Take  of  powdered  ginger  two  ounces;  proof 
spirit  two  pounds.     Digest  with  a  g;.ntle 
licat  for  eight  days,  and  strain.  , 

F.xiructa,  extracts. 
I.  Extraca  per  aquam,  extracts  by  water. 

Extractuni  gentiana'  lutea;,  extract  of  gen- 
tian, Ed.     Ext.  gent.  Lond. 
Take  of  gentian  root  any  quantity  ;  add  to 
it,  when  cut'  and  bruised,   eight  parts  of 
distilled  water.     Boil  it  to  half,  and  with 
strong   pressure  strain.     Then  evaporate 
the  li(iuor  to  the  convistencc  of  tliicli  ho- 
ney bv  means  of  a  bath  of  boiling  water, 
saturated  witli  muriat  of  soda. 
In  the  same  manner  are  prepared  the  fol- 
lowing : 

F.xtractum  radicis  glycyrrhiz;E  glabra;,  ex- 
tract of  li<|uortce,  Ed.  Extr.  glvcvr.  Lond. 
—  Hellebori  nigri,  of  hellebore,  Ed.  and 
Lond. — Kolioium  ruta-  graveo'entis,  of  rue, 
Ed.   Extr.  rut;p,  Lond. — t'oliorum  cassia;  sen- 

n;e,  of  senna,  Ed.     Extr.  senn;r,  Lond. 

Florum  autheniidis  nobilis,  of  chamomile, 
Ed.  Extr.  cliam.  Lond. — Capitum  papaver- 
is  somniferi,  of  poppy,  Ed.  Extr.  p.ip.  all). 
Lond. — Ligni  lufmatoxyli  campechensis,  o1 
logwood,  Ed.     Extr.  ha-matoxyli,  Lond. 

Besides  these,  in  the  London  Ph.  we  have 
the  following  : 

Extractuai  cacuminis  genista?,  extract  of 
broom  tops.  Sabina?,  of  savin.  CinchonLe, 
of  Peruvian  bark  ;  which  last  is  ordered  to  be 
l^repaied  as  Ibllows : 

Take  of  Peruvian  bark  coarsely  powdered 
one  pound  ;  distilled  water  twelve  pounds. 
Boil  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  pour  off  the 
liquor;  which,  wliile  hot,  will  be  red  and 
jjfUucid,  but  as  it  cools  becomes  yellow 
and  turbid.  Pour  on  again  the  same  quan- 
tity of  water,  boil  as  formerly,  and  repeat 
the  boiling  until  the  liquor,  when  cold,  re- 
mains limpid.  Then  mix  all  the  liquors 
(strained)  together,  and  evaporate  to  a 
pioper  consistence.  The  e.xtract  should 
be  prepared  under  two  forms ;  one  soft, 
tit  to  form  pills  ;  the  other  hard,  so  that  it 
may  be  reduced  to  powder. 
Dose  iifteen  grains. 

2.  Extracta  per  aquam  ct  alcohol,  extracts 
by  water  and  alcohol. 


Extraclum  cinchona:  ofTuinalis,  extract  of 
Peruvian  bark,  Ed.  Extract.  '  cincliomi', 
Lond. 

Take  of  Peruvian  bark  in  powder  one  pound; 
alcohol  four  pounds.  Digest  for  four  davs, 
aid  pour  o,')  the  tincliire.  Boil  the  resi- 
duum in  live  pounds  of  water  lor  a  qu.ir- 
ler  of  an  hour,  and  wliiie  hot  strain  llirougli 
linen.  Bepeat  this  ilecoction  and  :iliain- 
ing  wilhihe  same  quantity  of  water,  and 
evaporate  llie  licuior  to  the  c<  nsislence  of 
thiiklioney.  ')  nen  mix  the  liquors  thus 
inspissated,  and  reduce  them  to  a  proper 
consistence  in  a  bath  of  boiling  water,  sa- 
turated with  muriat  of  soda. 
Dose  ten  or  fifteen  grains. 
Exlracluin  radicis  convolvuli  j.ilapa-,  ex- 
tract of  jalap,  Ed.  Extract,  jalapii,  Lond. 
To  be  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
last. 

Dose  ten  or  twelve  grains. 
Besides   tiiesf;  the  following   extracts  are 
peculiar  to  the  London  Ph. 
Extractum  cascarilla-,  extract  of  cascarilla. 
].)ose  twenty  or  thirty  grains. 

Extractum     colocynlhidis     compositiim, 

compound  extract  of  colocyntli. 

Take  of  the  pitii  of  colocyiith,  cut  small,  six 
drachms ;  socoloriuc  aloes  powdered  on« 
ounce  anil  a  half;  powdered  scammonv 
half  an  ounce;  lesser  cardamoms,  liee'd 
from  the  husks,  and  powdered,  one  drachm ; 
proof  spirit  one  poijiid.  Digest  the  colo- 
cynth  with  the  spirit,  with  a  gentle  heat, 
for  lour  days.  To  the  expressed  tincture 
add  the  sfainmony  and  aloes.  Tiiese  be- 
ing dissolved,  dra<\'  o'.l'  the  spirit  by  distil- 
ling ;  then.evaporate  the  w;iter,  and  "add  the 
seeds  towards  the  end -of  the  evaporation. 
Make  an  extract  proper  for  forming  pills. 
A  cathartic  of  considerable  power.  Dose 

from  (ive  grains  to  a  scruple. 

^  Opium  purifiratum,  pu.riiicd  opium. 
Take  of  opium,  cut  small,  one  pound  ;  proof 
spirit  twelve  pounds.  Digest  v/ith  a  gentle 
heat,  and  ireqiient  ;:gitation,  until  the  opiuni 
is  dissolved  ;  strain  the  tincture  ,thro.ugh 
paper,  and  distil  it  to  a  proper  consistence. 
Purilied  opiimi  should  be  kept  in  two 
forms  :  soft,  so  as  to  be  (it  to  make  pills  ; 
and  hard,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  reduction 
to  powder. 

lliis  is  an  unnecessary  preparation. . 

AfjUtE  stUkititln:,  distilled  wafers. 

Aqua  distillata,  distilled    water,  Ed.  and 
Lond. 
Let  water  be  distilled  in  close  vessels  until 

about  two-thirds  have  come  over. 

Aquacorticis  citri  aurantii,  water  of  orange- 
peel. 

Take  of  fresh  orange-peel  two  pounds  ;  pour 
on  these  as  much  water,  tliat  when  ten 
])Ounds  shall  have  been  drawn  off  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  shall  remain  to  prevent  em- 
pyreuma.  After  due  maceration,  let  ten 
pounds  be  distilled. 

In  the  same  manner  prepare  the  follow  in?, 
ten  pounds  of  water  being  drawn  oil'  froin 
each  of  the  annexed  quantities  : 

Aqua  corticis  fructus  citri  medics  recentis, 
fresh  lemon-peel  water  (with  two  pounds). 

corticis    lauvi    cassiiC,   cassia  wal«E 

(with  one  pound). 


4,00 

Aqua  cortitis  lawii  ciMnamomi,  cinnamon 
water.  Aq.  ciuuamonii,  Lond.  (w.Ui  one 
pound).  ^  . 

menths"  piperitic  ilorenlis,  peppermint 

water  (with  three  pounds).  Aq.  mcnthi-  pi- 
peritidis,  Lond. 

nuMillia-  pulegii  florentis  pennyroyal 

water    (with    three    pounds).     .\q.   puli-gn, 

Lond. 

fructus  inyrti  pinient.r,  pimento  wa- 
ter (with  hall  a  pound;.     Aq.  pimento,  Lond. 

pt-taloruni  rosa;  centitolia;  recentiuin, 

rose  water  (wilh  six  pounds).  Aq.rosx,  Lon(!. 

Besides   these  we  have  in  the  Ph.   Loud. 

Aqua  anethi,  dill  seed  water.— Aqua  fa-niculi, 

fennel   seed     water.— Aqua   mentiue   sativ;e 

Spearmint  water.     To  each  pound  ot  dwlilled 

'  water  let  half  an  ounce  be  added  of  diluted 

alcohol. 

Spirilus  stilldtilii,  distilled  spirits. 
Sijiritus  carui,  spirit  of  caraway,  Kd.     Sp. 
carui,  IjOiid. 

'lake  of  caraway  seeds  half  a  pound ;  pour 
on  them  nine'  pounds  of  diluted  alcohol. 
Nhicerate  in  a  closed  vessel  for  two  days  ; 
then  add  as  much  water  as  is  required  to 
prevent  empyreuma  ;  and  distil  over  nine 
pounds. 

lu  the  same  manner  are  to  be  prepared  the 
following  spirits,  nine  pounds  being  drawn 
from  the  quantities  allixed  to  each. 

Spiritus  corticis  lauri  cinnamoini,  cinna- 
mon spirit  (with  one  pound).  Sp.  cin.  Lond. 

mentha;   piperita;   liorentis,  spirit   of 

peppennint  (with  one  pound  and  a  half).  Sp. 
inenth.  p.  Lond. 

nucis  myristicx  moschatx,  nutmeg 

spirit  (with  two  ounces).  Spirit,  nuc.  mosch. 
Lond. 

fructus  niyrti  pimentic,  pimento  spi- 
rit (with  halt  a  pound).  Sp.  pimento,  Lond. 
In  the  Lond.  Ph.  the  following  are  added: 
Spiritus     mentluc  sativa-,    of  spear- 
mint.    Sp.  pulegii, of  pennyroyal. 

The  following  are  the  compound  spirits  of 
the  Pharmacopoeias: 

Spiritus  juniperi  communis  compositus, 
compound  spirit  of  juniper,  Ed.  Sp.  juni|). 
comp.  Lond. 

Take  of  bruised  juniper  berries  one  pound  ; 
caraway  seeds,  fennel  seeds,  of  each  one 
ounce  and  a  half;  diluted  alcohol  nine 
pounds.  Macerate  for  two  days,  and  add- 
ing water  sufficient  to  prevent  empyreuma, 
draw  over  nine  pounds. 
Spiritus  anisi  compositus,  compound  spirit 
of  anise.  Ph.  Lond. 

Take  of  anise  and  of  angelica  seeds,  of  each 
bruised  lialfa  pound;  proof  spirit  one  gal- 
lon ;  -water  suliicient  to  prevent  empyreu- 
ma. Distil  one  gallon. 
Spiritus  rapliani  compositus,  spirit  of  horse- 
radish, Lond. 

Take  of  fresh  horse-radish  Toot,  dried  orange- 
peel,  of  each  two  pounds  ;  fresh  garden 
scurvy-grass  four  pounds  ;  bruised  nutmegs 
one  ounce,;  proof  spirit  two  gallons;  w;i- 
tt^r  sutiicienl  to  prevent  em]>yreuma.  Dis- 
til over  two  gallons. 

'I'lic  following  are  distilled  with  pure  alco- 
liol : 

Spiritus  lavendula*  spica;  compositus,  com- 
pound spirit  of  lavender,  Ed.  Sp.  lavend. 
;omp.  Lood. 


riLVRMACY. 

Take  of  ipiritof  lavender  (which  is  prepared 
with  l«o  pounds  of  lavender  ilowcis,  and 
eight  jiouiids  of  alcohol,  se.eii  pounds  be- 
ing disliUe^l  over  in  a  watei-batli)  three 
pounds  ;  spirit  of  rosemary  one  pound  ; 
cinnamon  one  ounce;  cloves  two  draclims; 
nutmeg  half  an  ounce;  red  saunders  wood 
three  draihms.  Macerate  for  seven  days, 
and  strain. 
Spiritus    rorismarini    officinalis,    spirit    of 

rosemary,  Kd.     Sp.  rorism.  Lond. 

Take  ot  tre  ii  rosemary  tops  two  pounds; 
alcoliol  eight  pounds.  Draw  olf  seven 
pounds  by  distilling  in  a  water-bath. 

Alcnhnl.  In  the  London  Ph.  the  following 
process  is  ordered  lor  its  preparation  : 
Take  of  n-ctilied  spirit  of  wine  one  callon  ; 
prepared  kali  hot  one  ounce.  Mk  the 
spirit  with  the  pure  kali,  and  then  add  one 
pound  of  the  prepared  kali  while  hot ; 
agitate  and  digest  for  twenty-four  hours. 
Pour  oil'  the  spirit;  now  add'  the  remain- 
der of  the  prepared  kali,  and  distil  from  a 
water-bath.  The  alcohol  is  to  be  kept  in 
a  closely  stopped  vessel.  I'he  prepared 
kali  should  be  heated  to  300\  The  speci- 
fic gravity  of  alcohol  to  distilled  water  is  as 
815  to  lO'OO. 

Oka  vnhttilia,  volatile,  or  essential,  oils. 

Olea  lierba-  mentha'  piperita-  fiorentis,  oil 
of  pepjjermint,  VA,     0\.  inenth.  p.  Lond. 

herba' juniperi  sabin.c,  —    ot  savin, 

Ed. 

summitarum   florcntuni   rorismarini 

officinalis,  —  of  rosemary,  Ed.     Ol.  rorism. 
Lond. 

spicarum  lavendulx  fiorentium  spice, 

—  of  lavender,  Ed.     Ol.  lav.  Lond. 

seminum    pimpinelhe    anisi,    —    of 

anise,  Ed.     Ol.  ess.  anisi,  Lond. 

baccarum  juniperi  communis,  — of 

juniper,  Ed.     Ol.junip.  Lond. 

radicis  lauri  sassafras,  —  of  sassafras, 

Ed.     Ol.  rad.  sassaf.  Lond. 

. fructus  myrt;e  pimenta%  —  of  pi- 
mento, Ed. 

essentiale  carui,  —  of  caraway,  Lond. 

menthic  sativa-,  —  ofspearnfiiil,  Lond. 

origani,  of  wild  thyme,  Lond. 

pulegii,  of  i)pnnyroyal,  I>ond. 

These  oils  are  to  be  prepared  in  the  same 
manner  as  distilled  waters,  e.Ncept  that  a 
smaller  quanlitv  is  to  be  added  of  water. 
Seetls  or  roots  are  to  be  bruised  or  rasped. 
The  oil  comes  over  with  the  water;  and  ac- 
cording as  it  is  lighter  or  heavier,  it  swims  on 
the  surface,  or  falls  to  the  bottom.  It  is  after- 
wards to  be  separated. 

Oleum  succini  et  acidum  succinicum,  oil' 
and  acid  of  amber,  Ed.  Sal  et  ol.  sue,  Lond. 
'lake  of  amber  in  pow<ler,  and  pure  sand,  of 
each  equal  parts ;  place  them  mixed  in  a 
glass  r<Mort,  of  which  they  shall  fill  one- 
half.  Having  adapted  a  large  receiver, 
distil  from  a  sand-bath,  with  a  gradually 
raised  fire.  First  will  come  over  a  watery 
li<luorwith  a  little  yellow  oil;  l-hen  yellow 
oil  with  an  acid  salt ;  afterwards  a  reddish 
and  black  oil.  Let  the  li(|uor  be  poured 
out  of  tlie  receiver,  and  the  oil  si  paraled 
from  the  w-ater.  Letllie  acid  salt,  collect- 
ed fiom  the  sides  of  the  receiver  and  from 
the  neck  of  the  retort,  be  pressed  between 
folds  of  bibulous  paper,  aiid  freed  from  the 


adhering  oil.     Then   let  it  be  purified  by 
solution  in  hot  water  and  crystallization. 
Oleum  succini  puiissinjum,  purified  oil  of 

ambir,  Ed.     Ol.  succ.  rectiiic.  Loud. 

Distil  oil  of  amber,  mixed  with  water,  six 
times  its  ([uantily,  from  a  glass  retort,  iniMl 
two-thirds  have  pas-ed  ovi-r  into  the  re- 
ceiver. Then  separate  the  oil  from  thi- 
water,  and  preserve  it  in  vessels  effectuaJiy 
sopped. 
Oleum    terebinthinie  voUrtile  purissimunii 

rectified   oil    of  turpentine,  Ed.     Ol.    terib. 

rect.  Lond. 

Take  of  volatile  oil  of  turpentine  one  pound  ; 
water  tijur  pounds.     Distil  as  long  as  any 
oil  passes  over. 
Oleum  animale,  animal  oil,  Lond. 

Take  of  oil  of  hartshorn  one  ijound.     Distil 
three  times 
Oleum  pelrolei,  oil  of  mineral  tar,  Lond. 

Distil  petroleum  in  a  sand-balh. 

Oho  II,  oily  preparations. 
Oleum  ammoniatum,  ammoniated  oil. 
Take  of  olive  oil  two  ounces;  water  oi  am- 
monia two  drachms.     Mi.xthem. 

Tlie  linimenlum  ammoniar  fortius  of  the 
London  Ph.  is  prepared  wllli  water  of  pure 
ammonia  one  ounce  :  olive  oil  two  ounces. 

The  linim.  ammonia',  Pli.  Lond.  is  made 
with  water  of  carbonated  ammonia  half  an 
ounce  ;  olive  oil  an  ounce  and  a  half. 

These  are  all  used  as  rubefacients. 

Oleum  lini   cum    calce,  linseed   oil  with 
lime. 
Take  of  linseed  oil  and  lime  w  ater,  of  each 

equal  |)arts.     Mix  them. 
An  application  to  burns. 

Oleum  camphoratum,  camphorated  oil. 
Take  of  olive  oil  two  ounces  ;  cam|)hor  half 
an  ounce.     -Mix  so  as  to  dissolve  the  cam- 
phor. 

An  anodyne  and  stimulant  embrocation. 

Oleum  sulplunalum,  sulphurated  oil,  Ed. 
01.  suljih.  Lond. 
Take    of  olive  oil   eight  ounces ;    sublimed 

sulphur  one  ounce.     Boil  with  a  slow  fire 

in  a  huge  iron  pot,  stirring  constantly,  till 

they  unite. 

'i'his  preparation  is  discarded  from  prac- 
tice. 

In  the  London  Pharmacopa-ia  a  solution  of 
oil  in  petroleum,  petroleum  sulphuratum,  is 
ordered  to  be  made. 

Sali'-i  ct  mliii'i,  salts  and  saline  preparations. 

Acidum  acelosum  dislillafum,  distilled 
acetous  acid,  Ed.  Acetum  distill.  Loml. 
Distil  eight  pounds  of  acetous  acid  in  gla-;s 
vessels  with  a  slow  fire.  TIk-  lirst  two 
poiuxls  that  come  over  are  to  be  thrown 
away  as  too  watery;  the  four  pounds 
which  follow  are  the  distilled  vinegar  ;  (he 
residuum  gives  a  still  stronger,  but  a  too 
much  burnt  acid. 

.Acidum    acitosum   forte,    strong   acetous  . 

acid 

Take  of  dried  sulphate  of  iron  one  pound  ; 
acetite  of  lead  ten  ounces.  Hub  them  to- 
gether. Place  them  in  a  retort,  and  distil 
from  sand,  with  a  moderate  fire,  as  lung  as 
acid  is  produced. 


Acidiim  acptfwim,  acetous  acid,  l.oiid. 
Taki!  of  v(-rtli;»ris,  in  coarse  pmvd'  r,  two 
])()iiml4  ;  dry  it  j)erfc'tly  in  a  Ixitli  ol'watrr 
iaturati-il  wltli  sea  sail.  'I'luMi  distil  in  a 
sand-hatli,  and  distil  tin;  liiinor  a  s.cond 
time,  lis  spccilii;  gravity  is  as  lOiO  to 
1000. 

Acidnni    iKMizoicnni,    benzoic    acid,    F.d. 
Flores  benzocs,  Lond. 

Take  ol  benzoin,  in  powder,  any  (|iiantity. 
Place  it  in  an  eartlien  ))ot,  to  tin-  mouth 
of  which  lias  been  adapted  a  paper  cone  ; 
apply  a  gentle  (ire,  that  the  acid  may  l)e 
sublimed  :  if  it  is  contaminated  with  oil, 
it  is  to  be  purified  by  solution  in  hot  water 
and  crystallization,  or,  as  the  Ph.  Lond. 
directs,  bv  niising  it  with  wliite  clay,  and 
again  subliming. 

Acidum    nniriaticum,  muriatic  acid,  Ed. 
Acid,  muriat.  Lond. 

'lake  of  muriat  of  soda  two  pounds  ;  sulphu- 
ric acid  sixteen  ounces  ;  water  one  pound. 
First  CNpose  the  muriat  of  soda  in  a  pot  to 
a  red  heat  for  a  short  time  ;  when  cold  put 
it  into  a  retort.  Then  pmir  the  acid  mi\- 
ed  with  the  water  and  cold  on  the  muriat 
of  soda.  Distil  from  a  sand-bath,  with  a 
gentle  heat,  as  long  as  acid  comes  over. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  as  1170  to  1000. 
Acidum  nitrosuui,  nitrous  acid,  F.d.  and 
Lond. 

Take  of  pure  nitrat  of  potass  powdered  two 
pounds;  sulphuric  acid  sixteen  ounces; 
the  nitrat  of  potass  being  put  into  a  glass 
retort,  pour  upon  it  the  sulphuric  acid, 
and  distil  from  a  sand-bath,  with  a  lire  gra- 
dually raised,  until  the  iron  potisot  an  ob- 
scure red  heat.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1650 
to  1000. 

Acidum  nitrosum  dilutum,  diluted  nitrous 
acid,  Ed.  and  Lond. 

'lake  of  nitrous  acid,  water,  equal  weights. 
Mi.K  them,  avoiding  the  no.\ious  vapours. 
Aciduin  nitricum,  nitric  acid. 
Take  of  nitrous  acid  any  quantity  ;  put  it  into 
a  retort;  and  having  adapted  a  receiver, 
apply  a  very  gentle  heat,  until  the  reddest 
part  shall  have  passed  over,  and  the  acid 
remaining  in  the  retort  shall  have  become 
nitric. 

Spiritus  xtheris   nitrosi,  spirit   of  nitrous 
ether,  Ed.  and  Lond. 

'1  ake  of  alcohol  tliree  pounds;  nitrous  acid  one 
pound  ;  pour  the  alcohol  into  a  large  phial, 
placed  in  a  vessel  hlled  with  cold  water, 
and  add  the  acid  gradually  willi  constant 
agitation.  Close  lightly  the  phial,  and  set 
it  aside  for  seven  days  in  a  cool  place  ; 
then  distil  the  lii|iior  with  the  heat  of  boil- 
ing water  into  a  receiver  cooled  with  «aier 
or  snow,  as  long  as  any  spirit  shall  pass 
over. 

Dose  from  thirty  to  fifty  drops. 
Acidum  sulphuricum  dilutum,  diluted  sul- 
phuric  acid,   Ed.      Acid    vitriolicum    dilut. 
Lond. 

Take  of  sulphuric  acid  one  part ;  water  seven 
parts  (in  the  Ph.  Lond.  eight).     Mix  them. 

Dose  from  lifteen  to  thirty  drops. 
Acidum  sulphuricum  aromaticura,  aroma- 
tic sulphuric  acid. 

Take  of  alcohol  two  povinds;  sulphuric  acid 

six  ounces.     Drop  gradually  the  alcohol 

upon  the  acid.     Digest  the  liiixture  wilh  a 

Tery  gentle  heat  for  tliree  days  in  a  clo  c 

Vol..  II. 


riTARMACY. 

vessel ;  tiien  add  cinnairion  an  ounee  and 
a  half;  ginger  one  ounce.  Dige4  again 
in  a  dosed  vsssel  tor  six  days,  and  lillrc 
through  paper  witli  a  glass  funnel. 

Dose  about  Ih.irty  <lrop;. 
y^Uher  sulphuricus,  sulphuric  ether,    Ed. 

jF.th.  vitriolieus,  Lond. 

'lake  of  sulpiu-.ric  acid,  alcohol,  of  each  thir- 
ty-two ounces ;  pour  the  alcohol  into  a 
glass  retort,  capable  of  bearing  a  .sudden 
heat ;  then  pour  on  the  acid  in  a  (  oiilinued 
stream.  Mix  gradually  with  frequent  and 
gi-ntle  agitation;  then  iinmediatelvdistil  from 
a  sand-bath,  heated  previously,  into  a  re- 
ceiver kejil  cool  by  water  or  snow.  The 
tire  is  to  be  so  regulated,  that  the  liquor 
may  be  made  to  boil  as  soon  as  possible, 
and  continue  to  boil  until  sixteen  ounces 
have  distilled  over ;  then  remove  the  re- 
tort from  the  sand.  'I'o  the  distilled  licpior 
add  tw  o  drachms  of  potass  ;  then  again 
<listil  from  a  high-necked  retort,  with  a  v(;ry 
gentle  heat,  into  a  ri-ceiver  preserved  cool, 
until  ten  ounces  have  come  over.  If  after 
the  lirst  dislillation  sixteen  ounces  of  alco- 
hol are  added  to  the  acid  remaining  in  there- 
tort,  and  the  distillation  is  repeated,  ether 
will  again  be  produced  ;  and  this  process 
may  be  repeated  more  than  once. 
Dose  tiom  thirty  to  sixty  drops. 

/Ether  sulphuricus  cum  alcohole,  sulphuric 
ether  with  alcohol, 
'lake  of  sulphuric  ether  one  part ;    alcohol 

two  parts.     Mix  them. 
The  London  college  order  a  compound 
spirit  (sp.  Ktheris  vitriolici  comp.)  to  be  pre- 
pared by  mixing  two  pounds  of  unrectilied 
ether  with  three  drachms  of  oil  of  wine. 

^Ether  sulphuricus  cum  alcohole   aromati- 

cus,  aromatic  sulphuric  ether  with  alcohol. 

This  is  made  from  the  same  materials  and  in 
the  same  manner  with  the  compound  tinc- 
ture of  cinnamon,  unless  that  sulphuric 
ether  with  alcohol  is  employed  instead  of 
diluted  alcohol. 

These  are  useless  preparations. 
Carbonas  ammoi.rx',  carbonat  of  ammonia, 

Ed.     Ammonia  preparata,  Lond. 

Take  of  muriat  of  ammonia  one  pound;  car- 
bonat of  lime,  vulgarly  called  chalk,  dried, 
two  pounds.  Being  each  separate!  v  pow- 
dered, mix  them,  and  sublime  from  a  re- 
tort into  a  receiver  kept  cold. 

Dose  from  five  gr„ins  to  a  scruple. 

Aqua  carbonatis  animoni.e,  water  of  car- 
bonat of  ammonia,  Ed.  Aq.  ammoni.T,  Lond. 
Take  of  muriat  of  ammonia,  carbonat  of 
potass,  of  each  sixteen  ounces ;  w  aler  two 
pounds.  To  the  salts  mixed  and  put  into 
a  glass  retort  pour  on  the  water ;  then  dis- 
til to  dryness  irom  a  sand-bath,  with  a  lire 
gently  raised. 

Liquor  volatilis,  sal,  et  oleum  conui  cervi, 
volatile  liquor,  salt,  and  oil  of  hartshorn, 
Lond. 

Take  of  hartsliorn  ten  jwunds;  distil,  gra- 
dually increasing  the  lire.  A  volatile  li- 
quor, sail,  and  oil,  come  over.  The  oil  and 
the  salt  being  separated,  distil  the  Tuiuor 
three  times.  To  the  salt  add  an  ei[ual 
weight  of  prepared  chalk,  and  sublime 
three  times,  or  until  it  becomes  white. 
The  same  volatile  litiuor,  salt,  and  oil,  may 
be  procured  from  any  of  the  parts  of  ani- 
mals, except  fat. 

JE 


Aqua  ammonia^  wafer  of  ammonia,  Ed. 

Aqua  amiiioiiia-  pina',  Lond. 

Take  of  muriat  of  ainmonia  sixteen  ounces  ; 
lime  fresh-prirpared  two  pounds  ;  water  six 
pounds.  1  o  one  pound  of  water,  in  an 
iron  or  an  earthen  vessel,  add  thr-  Umr. 
broken  down,  and  close  the  vessel  for 
twi-nty-four  hou;s,  until  the  lime  tails  into 
powder,  which  is  to  be  put  into  a  retort. 
I'o  this  add  the  muriat  of  ammonia  dis- 
solved in  hve  pounds  of  water,  and,  shut- 
ting the  mouth  of  tiie  retort,  mix  them 
with  agitation.  Lastly,  distil  witli  such  a 
moderate  heat,  that  the  operator  can  easily 
apply  his  hand  to  the  retort  into  a  receiver 
kcot  cold,  until  twenty  ounces  have  distil- . 
lei]  over.  In  this  process  the  vessels  are  to 
be  so  luted,  as  that  the  penetrating  vapours 
may  be  efl'eclually  comined. 

Dose   about    twenty   diops  internally  ; 

outwardly  it  is  used  as  a  rubefacient. 

Alcohol  ammoniitum,  aiumoni.jted  alco- 
hol, Ed.  .Sp.  ammonia',  Lond. 
Take  of  diluteil  alcohol  four  pounds ;  muriat 
of  ammonia  four  ounces ;  carbonat  of 
l)otass  six  ounces.  Mix,  and  draw  olil  two 
pounds  by  distilling  with  a  gentle  lire. 

Alcohol  ammoniatum  aromatitnm,  aroma- 
tic   ammoniated    alcohol,    Ed.     Sp.    amni. 
comp.  Lond. 
Take  of  spirit   of   ammonia  eight  ounces ; 

volatile  oil  of  rosemary  a  drachm  and  a 

half;  volatile  oil  of  lemon    one   drachm. 

Mix  so  as  to  dissolve  the  oils.     In  the  Ph. 

Lond.  oil  of  cloves  is  ordered  instead  of 

the  rosemary  oil. 

Dose  from  twenty  to  forty  drops. 

Alcohol  ammoniatum  fa'tidum,  foetid  am- 
moniated alcohol,  Ed.  Sp.  ammonia'  fuctida', 
Lond. 

Take  of  spirit  of  ainmonia  eight  ounce; ;  assa- 
fcetida  half  an  ounce,  l^et  them  be  digested 
in  a  close  vessel  for  twelve  i'.ours ;  then 
bring  over  eight  ounces  by  the  heat  of  3 
water-bath. 

Dose  thirty  or  forty  drops. 
Spiritus  ammonia;  succiiiatus.  Ph.  Lond. 
Succii'.ated  spirit  of  ammonia, 
lake  ol  alcohol  one  ounce;  water  of  pure 
ammonia  four  ounces  ;  rectilied  oil  or  am- 
ber one  scruple  ;  soap  ten  grains.     Digest 
the  soap  and  the  oil  of  amber  in  the  aico- ' 
hoi  until  they  are  dissolved;  then  a<hl  the 
vater  of  pure  ainmonia,  and  mi.x  bv  agita- 
tion. 

This  has  been  named  eau  c'e  luce. 
Carbonas  potassa',  carbonat  of  potass,  Eii. 
Kali  pra'paialuiii,  Lond. 
Let  impure  carbonat  of  polass  (pearl-aslies) 
be  put  into  a  crucible,  and  brou^iht  to  a 
red  heat,  that  the  oily  impurities,  if  there 
are  any  present,  may  be  burnt  out ;  then 
rubbing  the  carbonat  with  an  c<|\ial  weight 
of  water,  let  them  be  well  mixed  by  -i^Wi- 
tion.  'I'he  liquor,  alter  the  impurities  iiave 
subsided,  being  poured  olf  into  a  clean  iron 
pot,  is  to  be  boiled  to  dryness;  towards 
the  end  of  (he  bmling  the  salt  is  to  be  kept 
constantly  stirred,  lest  any  adhere  to  the 
vessel. 

In  the  London  college  this  preparation 
is  better  ordered  by  dissolving  the  pearl- 
ashes,  and  evaporating  tiie  solution  till  a  p.-l- 
licle  appears  on  the  surtace  ;  then  immediately 
stttVig  It  aside,  previous  to  t'artlier  cvupori- 


402 

tion,  ti-.al  tlie  sulptiat  and  niuiiat  of  potass, 
whicli  tlic  pearl-Li^lii's  contain,  may  be  sepa- 
rated by  crysUUiiiatioii. 

Carbonas  polassa;  purissinuis,  pure  car- 
bonat  oi  potass  (salt  of  tartar). 
Take  ot  impure  supertarlite  of  potass  iny 
quantity.  Having  wrapped  it  in  moist  bi- 
bulous piper,  or  put  it  into  a  crucible, 
place  it  among  live  coals,  tliat  it  may  be 
burnt  into  a  black  mass.  Being  reduced 
"to  powder,  subject  it  to  a  moderate  heat 
in  an  oj)en  crucible,  until  it  becomes  white, 
or  cinder-like,  taking  can'  that  it  does  not 
Bielt.  'llien  let  it  be  dissolved  in  ■warm 
water,  the  li(iuor  strained  through  linen, 
and  evap  jrated  in  a  clean  iron  vessel, 
stirring  tUe  irtatter  assiduously  towards  the 
end  ot  the  evaporation  with  an  iron  spoon, 
that  it  may  not  adhere  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel.  A  very  white  salt  will  remain, 
which  is  to  be  left  for  some  time  on  the 
lire,  until  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  is  nearly 
of  a  red  heat.  When  cold,  the  salt  is  to  be 
preserved  in  a  gla^s  vessel  well  stopped. 
Aqua  potassa;,  water  of  potass,  Ed.  Aqua 
kali  puri.  Loud. 

Take  of  newly  prepared  lime  eight  ounces  ; 
oy-bonat  ot  pot..,s  six  ouncis.  Put  the 
lime  into  an  iron  or  earthen  vessel,  with 
twenty-eight  ounces  of  warm  water.  The 
ebullition  being  over,  immediately  add  the 
salt ;  and  the  whole  being  completelv  mix- 
ed, close  the  vessel  until  they  become 
cold.  Now  let  them  be  well  agitated,  and 
poured  into  a  glass  funnel,  the  throat  of 
vliich  is  obstructed  with  clean  linen.  Co- 
ver the  upjjcr  orilice  ol  the  funnel  while  its 
neck  is  inserted  in  another  glass  vessel, 
that  the  water  of  potass  may  gradually 
drop  through  the  linen  into  the  lower  ves- 
sel. When  it  lirst  ceases  to  drop,  pour 
into  the  tunnel  some  ounces  of  water,  cau- 
t;ou^ly,  that  it  may  swim  aliove  the  mat- 
ter. The  water  of  potass  will  now  again 
begin  to  drop.  In  this  manner  is  to  he  re- 
peated the  ati'usion  of  water  until  three 
pounds  have  been  liltred,  which  will  be 
in  the  space  of  two  or  three  days.  The 
upi'er  are  to  be  mixed  by  agil.ition  with 
the  lower  parts  of  the  liquor,  which  is  to 
be  kejjt  in  a  well  slopped  vessel. 
Aqua  supercnrhonatis  potassa',  water  of 
supercarbonat  of  potass. 
'lakeot  water  ten  pounds  ;  pure  carbonat  of 
potass  one  ouii'  e.  dissolve,  and  e\|)ose 
tiie  solution  to  a  stream  of  carbonic  acid 
jjas,  vviiicli  is  produced  from  carbonat  of 
M.\v.\  sulphuric  arid,  of  each  three  ounces, 
■with  three  pounds  of  water  cautiously  an(l 
^gradually  mixed.  'I  he  apparatus  iiiveiiti-d 
by  Ol-.  Xooth  u  well  adaptf<l  to  this  pre- 
p.iratiOi).  If  a  greater  quantity  is  rei|uired, 
AVoull'e's  apparatus  is  to  be  preferred.  In 
^jroportion  to  the  coldness  of  the  air,  and 
tlie  extent  of  pressure,  the  liquor  will  be 
better.  It  sluuld  be  kept  in  well  stopped 
vessels. 

Carbonas  sod.c,  carbonat  of  soda,  Ed.  Na- 
tron pta'paratuiii,  Lond. 
'Cake  of  impure  carhoiuit  of  soda  aiiv(]uan- 
ttty  ;  bruise  it,  andb.jil  it  in  water  uiitil  all 
the  suit  is  dissolvi'd.     Strain  the  solution 
through  uaper,  and  evaporate  it  in  an  iron 
vessel,  that,  after  cooling,   crystals    may 
lorni. 
The  barilla  of  coiriinerce. 


PHARMACY. 

Aqua  Bupercarbonatis  sodx,  water  of  su- 
percarbonat  of  soda. 
'I'his  is  prepared  from  ten  pounds  of  water, 

and  two  ounces  of  carbonat  of  soda,  in  the 

same  mode  as  the  supercarbonat  ol  potass. 

Aqua  acetitls  ammonia',  water  of  acetite  of 
ammonia,  Ed.  Aq.  ammonia"  acetats,  Lond. 
'lake  of  carbonat  of  aniinoiiia  any  quantity. 

Pour  on  It  as  much  distilled  acetous  acid 

as  may  be  necessary  exactly  to  saturate  the 

ammonia. 

Acetis  potass:e,  acetite  of  potass,  Ed.  Kali 

acetatum,  Lond. 

Take  of  pure  carbonat  of  potass  anv  quan- 
tity, lioil  it  with  a  gentle  heat  iiifouror 
five  times  its  weight  of  distilled  acetous 
acid,  and  at  different  times  add  more  acid, 
until  on  the  watery  part  of  the  former 
portion  being  nearly  evaporated,  the  acid 
newly  added  occasions  no  effervescence. 
Thi'i  will  be  the  ca-e  when  about  twenty 
parts  of  acid  have  been  connimed.  Then 
let  it  be  slowly  dried.  Let  the  remaining 
impure  salt  be  liquefied  With  a  gentle  heat 
(or  a  short  time;  then  dissolved  in  water, 
and  strained  thiougli  paper.  If  the  lique- 
faction has  been  properly  done,  the  strain. 
ed  liquor  will  be  limpid  ;  if  not.  it  w ill  be 
of  a  brown  colour.  Afterwards  ^.-vaporate 
this  liquor  with  a  gentle  heat  in  a  shallow 
glass  vessel,  well  closed,  Uiat  it  iiiay  not 
liquefy  by  the  air. 
Potassa,  potass,  Ed.     Kali  purum,  Lond. 

Take  of  water  of  potass  any  quantity  ;  eva- 
porate it  in  a  co\ered  clean  ve-sel  of  iron, 
until,  the  ebullition  being  linisheil,  the  sa- 
line matter  llows  smoothly  like  oil,  which 
will  be  the  case  before  the  vessel  is  at  a 
red  heat.  Then  pour  it  on  a  clean  iron 
plate  ;  cut  it  mto  small  masses  before  it 
becomes  hard,  and  immediately  put  them 
into  a  phial  well  stopped. 
Potassa  cum  calce,  potass  with  lime,  Ed. 

Calx  cum  kali  puro,  Lond. 

Take  of  water  ol  potass  any  quantity.  Eva- 
porate to  one-third  in  a  coveretl  iron  ves- 
sel ;  tlien  mi.x  with  ':  as  much  newly 
slaked  lime  as  may  sulhce  to  give  it  the 
consistence  of  a  solid  paste,  which  is  to  be 
kept  in  astopt  vessel. 
Sulphas  potasss,  sulphat   of   potass,  Ed. 

Kali  vitriolatuni,  Lond. 

Take  of  sulphuric  acid,  diluted  with  six 
times  its  weight  of  water,  any  quantity  ; 
put  it  into  a  large  glass  vessel ;  and  gradu- 
ally drop  into  it  of  carbonat  of  potass,  dis- 
solved in  six  times  its  weight  of  water,  as 
mueh  as  may  sutiice  perlectly  to  saturate 
the  acid.  '1  he  effervescence  being  linisli- 
ed,  lillre  the  liquor  through  paper ;  and, 
alter  due  exhalation,  put  it  aside  that  cry- 
stals m.iy  form.  1'his  salt  may  otherwise 
be  made  by  dissolving  the  residiiini)  of  the 
distillation  of  nitrous  acid  in  warm  water, 
and  saturating  it  with  caiboiuit  of  pol.iss. 
Sul|)has  potass:c  cum  sulpluire,  sulphat  of 

potas.  with  sulphur. 

'lake  of  nitrat  of  potass  in  powder,  sublimed 
sulphur,  cciual  weights.  '1  hrow  them  well 
mixed  into  a  red-hot  c  rinible,  by  small 
quantities  at  a  time.  Tlie  ilofl.igra'tion  be- 
ing over,  let  the  salt  cool.  Keep  it  in  a 
glass  pliial  well  stopped. 

lartris    potassx-,   farlritc    of   potass,   F.d 
Kal;  tartaris.ilu;n,  Lond. 


Take  of  carbonat  of  potass  one  pound :  su- 
pertartrite  of  potass  three  pounds,  or  as 
much  as  necessary  ;  boiling  water  fifteen 
pounds.  To  the  carbonat  of  potass  dis- 
solved in  the  \Nater  add  gradually  the  sii- 
pertartrite  of  potass  rubbed  to  hne  pow- 
der, as  long  as  effervescence  is  excited, 
which  generally  ceases  before  three  times 
its  weight  of  carbonat  of  potass  have  been 
thrown  in.  When  the  liquor  is  cold  liltre 
it  through  paper,  and  set  it  aside,  that 
crystals  may  be  formed. 

Dose  as  a  purgative  one  ounce. 
Tartris  potassa;  et  sod;e,  tarfrite  of  potass 
and  soda,  Ed.     Natron  tartarisatum,  Lond. 
This  is  to  be  prepared  from  carbonat  of  soda 
and  su|)ertartrite  of   potass,  in  the  same 
mode  as  tartrite  of  potass. 

A  pleasant  purgative.  Dose  an  ounce. 
Phosphas  soda?,  phosphat  of  soda;. 
Take  ot  bones  burnt  to  whiteness  and  pow- 
dered ten  pounds  ;  sulphuric  acid  six 
pounds;  water  nine  pounds.  Mix  the 
powder  with  the  acid  in  an  earthen  vessel ; 
then  add  the  water,  and  again  mix.  Keep 
the  vessel  in  a  water-bath  for  three  days  ; 
then  dilute  the  matter,  by  adding  nine 
pounds  more  of  boiling  water,  and  strain 
throHgh  a  strong  linen  cloth,  pouring  gra- 
dually over  it  boiling  water,  until  all  the 
acid  is  washed  out.  Put  aside  the  strained 
liquor  that  the  impurities  may  eubside, 
from  which  pour  it  off,  and  evaporate  to 
nine  pounds.  I'o  this  liquor,  again  poured 
off  from  its  impurities,  and  heated  in  an 
earthen  vessel,  add  carbonat  of  soda  dis- 
solved in  warm  water,  till  it  no  longer  ex- 
cites ellervescence.  Now  strain,  and  put 
it  aside,  that  crystals  may  form.  These 
being  removed,  atld,  if  necessary,  to  the  li- 
(|Uor,  a  little  carbonat  of  soda,  that  the 
phosphoric  acid  may  be  completely  satu- 
rated, and  again  |)repare  it  b)  evaporation 
to  form  crystals  as  long  as  these  can  be  i>ro- 
duced.  J^astly,  let  the  crystals  be  pre- 
served in  a  vessel  well  stopt. 
A  mild  and  useful  cathartic.  Dose  one 
ounce. 

Sulphas  soda-,  sulphat  of  soda,  Ed.  Na- 
tron vitriolatuni,  Lond.  (Glauber's  salt.) 
Dissolve  the  acidulous  salt,  which  remains 
alter  the  distillation  of  muriatic  acid,  in, 
water,  and  add  to  it  chalk,  in  order  to  re- 
move the  superfluous  acid.  Put  it  aside 
until  its  impurities  have  subsided;  then 
having  [lOured  olf  the  liquor,  and  strained 
it  throi;gh  paper,  reduce  it  by  evaporation, 
so  as  to  lorin  crystals. 

Dose  one  ounce,  or  more. 

Suljihuretum  potass;r,  sulphuret  of  potass, 

Ed.     Kali  sulphuratum.  Loud. 

lake  of  carbonat  of  potass,  sublimed  sul- 
pliur,  of  each  eight  ounces;  having  rubbed 
them  together,  let  them  be  put  into  a  larce 
coated  crucible,  to  which  a  cover  being 
ada|)ted,  apply  the  tire  cautiously,  until 
the  materials  melt  The  crucible,  when  it 
has  cooled,  is  to  be  broki  u,  and  the  sul- 
|)luiret  taken  out,  and  preserved  in  a  close- 
stopt  phial. 

Ilvdro-'^ulpluireluni  anmioni;e,  liydro-sul- 

pluiret  ot  ammonia. 

1  ake  of  water  of  ammonia  four  ounces.  Ex- 
pose it  in  a  chemical  apparatus  to  the 
stream  of  gas  wliicli  arises  from   sulphu- 


ret  of  iron  four  ounces,  imiri.itic  aciti  eight 
ounces,  previously  diluted  with  two  pounds 
and  ii  hall  of  uati-r.  'I'iie  svilpliuret  ot  iion 
for  this  purpose  is  conveniently  prepared 
from  three  i)arts  of  purilied  iron  tilings, 
and  one  of  buhlinied  sulphur,  mixed,  and 
exposed  in  a  covered  crucible  to  a  mode- 
rate (ire  until  they  unite. 

This  is  principally  given  in  diabetes,  in 
the  dose  of  four  or  five  drops. 

Murias  barytx,  niuriat  of  barytes. 
Take  of  sulphat  r)f  barytes  two  pounds  ;  pow- 
dered charcoal  four  ounces.  Hoast  the 
sulphat  that  it  luay  be  more  easilv  pow- 
dered fine;  then  mix  the  charcoal;  put 
the  matter  into  a  crucible,  to  which  adapt 
a  cover,  and  apply  a  vigorous  lire  for  some 
hours.  Put  the  matter  well  rubbed  into 
six  pounds  of  boiling  water,  in  a  closed 
glass  or  earthen  ve^sel,  and  mix  them  by 
agitation,  guarding  as  much  as  possible 
against  the  access  of  air.  Ix-t  the  vessel 
stand  in  a  water-bath  until  the  undissolved 
matter  has  subsided  ;  then  pour  olf  the  li- 
quor. Pour  four  pounds  of  boiling  water 
on  the  residuum,  wliicli  add  to  the  Ibrmer 
liquorafter  agitation  and  subsidence.  While 
it  is  still  hot  (or,  if  it  has  cooled,  after  it 
has  been  heated),  drop  into  it  muriatic  acid 
as  long  as  elfcrvesceiice  is  occasioned. 
Then  strain  and  evaporate  it  so  as  to  form 
chrystals. 

Solutio  niuriatis  baryta,  solution  of  muriat 

of  barytes. 

Take  of  muriat  of  barytes  one  part ;  distilled 
water  three  parts.     Dissolve. 

Dr.  Crawford  introduced  this  in  scro- 

phulous  atfections.  Dose  from  live  to  twenty 

drops. 

Solutio  muriatis  calcis,  solution  of  muriat 

of  lime. 

Take  of  pure  carbonat  of  lime  (white  marble) 
bruised  into  small  pieces  nine  ounces;  mu- 
riatic acid  sixteen  ounces ;  water  eight 
ounces.  Mix  the  acid  with  the  water,  and 
gradually  add  the  pieces  of  carbonat  of 
lime:  the  elfervescence  being  over,  digest 
for  an  hour.  Pour  oil"  the  liquor,  and  eva- 
porate to  dryness.  Dissolve  the  residuum 
ill  its  weight  and  a  half  of  water,  and  strain. 
This  has  been  recently  introduced  as  a 

tonic.     Dose  thirty  drojjs. 

Carbonas  magnesia;,  carbonat  of  magnesia, 

Ed.     Magnesia  alba.  Loud. 

Take  of  sulphat  of  magnesia,  carbonat  of 
potass,  of  eai  h  equal  weights.  Let  them 
be  separately  dls^olved  in  twice  their 
weight  of  warm  wrter,  and  either  strained 
or  otherwise  freed  from  impurities;  then 
mix  them,  and  add  eight  times  their  weight 
of  boiling  water,  lioil  the  liquor  a  little, 
and  stir  it  during  the  boiling  ;  then  allow 
it  to  rest  until  the  heat  is  in  soiue  measure 
diminished;  then  strain  through  linen, 
upon  which  the  salt  will  remain.  Let  it 
be  svashed  with  pure  water  until  it  is  per- 
fectly tasteless. 

Magnesia,  magnesia,  Ed.     Magnesia  usta. 
Loud. 
~Let  carbonal  of  magnesia  be  exposed  in  a 

crucible  to  a  red  heat  for  two  hours  ;  then 

let  it  be  preserved  in  glass  vessels  well 

stopped. 


PHARMACY. 

A/itall/'cii,  metallic  preparations. 
Kitras  argcnti,  nitrat  of  silver,   Ed.     Ar- 

gcntiiui  nitratum,  Loud. 

I'like  of  the  purest  silver,  extended  in  platen 
and  cut,  four  oiinrt-s  ;  diluted  nilroiis  acid 
<ij;lit  ounces ;  distilled  watiT  tour  ounce-. 
Dissolve  the  silver  with  a  gentle  heat  in  a 
pliial,  and  evaporate  thesolution  lodr_\  ness. 
Thi-n  put  the  mass  into  a  large  crucible, 
which  is  to  be  placeil  on  the  lire,  at  lirst 
gentle,  and  gradually  increased,  until  thi- 
mass  tlows  like  oil.  'I'hen  pour  it  into  iron 
pi[)(  s,  warmed  and  rubbed  with  grease. 
Keej)  it  in  a  glass  vessel  well  stopl. 
A  strong,  and  frequently  employed,  cau- 
stic. 

Sulpliuretum  antimonii,  |)repaied  or  sul- 

pluncled  antimony,   Ed.      Antiin.   pr.rpara- 

tum,  Lond. 

This  is  to  be  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as 
carbonat  ol  lime. 
Oxiduni  antimonii  cum  sulphure  vitrifica- 

tum,  vitrilied  sulphureted  oxide  of  anthnony, 

Ed.     .-Viitini.  vilrilitatnm,  Lond. 

Strew  sulphuret  of  antimony  coarsely  powder- 
ed liki-  sand  on  a  shallow  earthen  vessel 
not  glazed,  and  apply  to  it  a  moderate  lire 
that  the  sulphuret  ofantimony  mav  be  slow- 
ly heated  ;  at  the  same  time  stir  the  powder 
constantK-,  that  it  may  not  run  into  lumps. 
White  vapours  arise,  smelling  like  sulphur. 
When  these,  while  the  same  degree  ot  heat 
is  ke|)t  up,  cea>e,  augment  the  heat  in 
some  measure,  that  vapours  may  again  ex- 
hale. Proceed  in  this  manner  until  tlie 
powder,  now  raised  to  a  red  heat,  gives  out 
no  more  vapours.  This  ponder  being  put 
into  a  crucible,  is  to  be  melted  with  a 
strong  liie,  until  it  assumes  the  appearance 
of  fused  glass.  It  is  now  to  be  poured 
upon  a  heated  brass  plate. 
Oxidum  antimonii  vitrificatum  cum  cera, 

vitrified  oxide  ofantimony  with  wax. 

Take  of  yellow  w.ix  one  pound ;  vitrified 
sulphureted  oxidi-  of  antimony  eight  parts. 
To  the  wax  melted  in  an  iron  vessel,  add 
the  oxide  reduced  to  powder,  and  roast 
with  a  gentle  lire  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
constantly  stirring  with  a  spatula;  then 
pour  off  the  matter,  which  when  cold  is  to 
be  powdered. 

This  is  an  obsolete  remedy. 
Oxidum  antimonii  cum  ))liosphate  calcis, 

oxide  ofantimony  with  phosphat  of  lime,  Ed. 

Pulvis  anliinonialis,  Lond. 

Take  of  sulphuret  of  antimony  coarsely  pow- 
dered, hartshorn  shavings,  of  each  e<|ual 
parts.  Mix  and  throu  them  into  a  wide 
iron  pot  red-hot,  and  keep  them  constantly 
stirred  until  they  are  burnt  into  a  cinen- 
tious-coloured  matter,  which  is  to  be  re- 
moveil  from  the  (ire,  rubbed  ilito  a  powder, 
and  put  into  a  eoatird  crucible.  To  this 
crucible,  lute  another  inverted,  in  the  bot- 
tom of  which  is  drilled  a  small  hole;  apply 
the  lire,  which  is  to  be  oradually  raised  to 
a  white  heat,  and  kept  so  for  two  hour-. 
Lastly,  rub  the  matter  when  cold  into  a 
very  line  powder. 
This  preparation  is  nearly  the  same  as 

James's  pow  der.     Dose  five  or  six  grains. 

Sulphuretnm  antimonii  pra.>cipitatum,  pre- 
cipitated sulphuret  of  antimony,  Ed.  Sul- 
phur antimonii  pii'cipitatuni,  Lond. 

Take  of  water  of  poiass  four  pounds ;  water 
,■?  E  5 


403 

three  pounds ;  prepared  sulphuret  of  anti- 
mony two  pounds.  Boil  Ihein  in  a  co- 
vered iron  pot  on  a  gnitle  lire  lor  three 
liours,  stirring  fre(|uently  with  an  iron  spa- 
tula, an<l  addiii'.;  vater  occasionally.  Strain 
the  Tuiuor  while  hot  through  a  doublet! 
linen  clolh,  and  to  the  si  rained  l;qi!or  add 
as  mmh  as  may  be  necessary  to  precipi- 
tate the  sulphuret,  which  carefully  wash 
with  warm  water. 

A  precipitate  nearly  similar  to  this  has 
been  iiiuch  emploved  on  the  continent,  espe- 
cially under  the  nami'  i;f  kenne»  mineral, 
liolli  the  one  and  the  other  luui;  been  prin- 
cipally Used  as  alterative  or  diaphoretic. 
Their  operation  is  uncertain.  Dose  live  or 
six  grains. 

Oxidum  antimonii  cum  sulphure  per  ni- 
tratum potassa',  oxide  of  antimony  with  sul- 
phur and  nitrat  of  potass,  Ed.     Crocus  aHli- 

inonii,  LoikI. 

Take  of  sulphuret  of  .antimony,  nitrat  of  po- 
tass, of  each  ecpial  weights.  Triturate  them 
separately;  and  having  mixed  tliem  well 
together,  throw  them  into  a  red-hot  cru- 
cible. The  dellagration  being  finished, 
separate  the  reddidi  matter  from  die  white 
crust,  and  nib  il  into  powder,  which  is  to 
be  freipiently  washed  with  warm  water  un- 
til it  becomes  tasteless. 

This  is  used  in  some  of  the  other  prepa- 
rations; but  as  a  medicine  it  is  so  uncertain 
in  its  ojjeralion,  that  it  is  scarcely  employed. 

Antimoniuni  nniriatum,  muriat  of  anti- 
mony, Ed.  and  Lond. 

Take  of  oxide  of  antimony  with  suljihur, 
nitrat  of  potass,  sul[)huric  acid,  of  each  one 
pound  ;  dried  muriat  of  soda,  two  pounds. 
Pour  the  acid  into  a  retort,  adduig  by  de- 
grees the  muriat  of  soda,  and  the  oxide  of 
antimony  previously  mixed.  Then  distil 
from  warm  sand.  Expose  the  distilled  mat- 
ter for  some  days  to  the  air,  th.t  it  may 
liiiuefy  ;  then  pour  the  liquid  from  the  im- 
purities. 

Ihis  preparation  is  not  proper  for  inter- 
nal administration. 

Tartris  antimonii,  tartrite  of  antimony 
(tartar  emetic),  Ed.  Antimonium  tartarisa- 
tiim,  Lond. 

Take  of  oxide  of  antimony  with  sulphur  bv 
nitrat  of  potass  three  parts  ;    supertartriti; 
of  potass  four  parts ;  distilled  water  thirty- 
two  parts.     Boil  tliem  in  a  glass  vessel  lor 
a  quarter  of  an  hour;    strain  the  li<iuor 
through  paper,  and  set  it  aside  tliat  it  may 
form  crystals. 
The  most  certain  and  useful  of  all  anti- 
monial  preparations.      Dose,  as  an  emetic, 
trom  one  to  two  or  more  grains;   as  a  ui%- 
jihoretic,  a  quarter  of  a  graia. 

Vinum  tartritis  antimonii,  wine  of  tartrite 
ofantimony. 
Take  of  tartrite   of   antimony  twenty-four 

grains;  white  wine  one  pound.     .Mix  so  as 

to  dissolve  the  tartrite. 

Vinum  antimonii  tarlarisati.  Ph.  L.     Wine 

of  tartarised  antimony. 

Take  of  tartarised  antimony  two  simples; 
boiling  distilled  water  by  measure  two 
ounces;  Spanish  white  wine  eight  ounces. 
Dissolve  the  tartarised  ar.limonv  in  the 
boiling  distilled  water,  and  add  the  win:. 
The  two    last  preparation;    materially 


404 

diftL-r  ill  strength.     Do^c,  as  a  diaiilioiotic,  of 
the  farmer  about  40,  ofliie  latter  M,  drops. 

Viiiuni  antimonii,  aiitimoiiial  wine,  Pli.  L. 

Take  of  vitrified   antimony  powdered   one 

ounce;  Spanisli  wliite  wine  one  pound  and 

a  lialf.     Digest  fur  twelve  davs  witli  Irc- 

qiieni  agitation,  and  liltre  tlirongh  paper. 

TUh  is  a  preparation  of  very  uncertain 

strength. 

Antimonium  calcinatnm,  calcined  anti- 
incnv,  Pii.  L.  White  oxide  of  antimony. 
Take  of  antimony  in  powder  eight  ounces; 
powdered  nitre  two  pounds.  Mix  them, 
and  throw  the  mixture  gradually  into  a 
red-hot  crucible.  Burn  tlie  matter  which 
remains  after  tlie  d.-llagration  for  half  an 
hour,  and  when  cold  rub  it  to  powder; 
lljen  wash  it  with  distilled  water. 

This  has  been  eii^ployed  as  a  substitute 
for  James's' powder.  Us  dose  is  hbuever  un- 
certain. 

.•\mnionian-tum  cupri,  ammoniaret  of  cop- 
per (cuprum  animoniaci.m). 
Ti^ke  of  pure  sulphat  ot  copper  two  part'; ; 
carboiiat  of   ammonia  three  parts.      liub 
iheni  assiduously  in  a  glass  m:)rtar  until  all 
ril'ervesceiice  is  over,  and  they  form  into  a 
violet-coloured  mass,  which  b.-ing  wrapped 
ill  bibulous  paper,  is  to  be  dried  lirst  on  a 
chalksione  and    atterwards  by  means  of  a 
gentle  heat.      The   ammoniaret  is  to    be 
preserved  in  a  glass  phial  well  stopped. 
Dose  half  a  grain  at  lirst,  gradually  in- 
creased to  three  or  more  grains. 

Solutio   sulphatis    cupri    composita,  com- 
pound solution  of  sulphat  of  copper. 
Take  of  sulphat  of  copper  and  sulphat  of  alu- 
men,  of  each   three  ounces  ;    water   two 
pounds;  sulphuric  acid  one   ounce  and  a 
half.     Boil  tile  sulphats  in  water,  that  they 
niav  dissolve ;   then  to  the    liquor  liltred 
throui;li  water  add  the  acid. 
Aqua  cupri  annnoniati,  water  of  ammoni- 
ateil  copper,  Lond. 

Take  of  sal  ammoniac  (muriat  of  ammonia) 
one  drachm  ;  lime-water  one  pound.     Al- 
low til. m  to  remain  in  a  copper  vessel  un- 
'  til  the  ammonia  is  saturated  with  copper. 
This  is  employed  as  a  gentle  escharotic. 
Carbonas  ferri    prxcipilatus,   precipitated 
carbonat  of  iron. 

Take  of.sulphit  of  iron  four  ounces  ;  carbo- 
nat of  soda  live  ounces;  water  ten  pounds. 
Dissolve  the  sulphat  in  the  water;  then 
add  the  carbonat,  previously  dissolved  in  a 
quantity  of  water,  as  much  as  necessary, 
and  mix  them  well  together.  Let  the  car- 
bonat of  iron  which  is  precipitated  be 
washed  witli  warm  water  and  afterwards 
dried. 

Dr.  Griftiths's  preparation  of  steel  is  an 
extemporaneous  tormula  similar  to  the  above. 

Sulphas  ferri,  sulphat  of  iron,  Kd.     Ferrum 
vitriolatum,  Lond. 

'lake  of  purilied  filings  of  iron  six  ounces ; 
sulphuric  acid   eight  ounces ;    water   two 
pounds  and  a  huif.     Mix  them;    and  the 
efl'ervescence  being  finished,  digest  for  a 
short  time   in  a  sand-bath,     'i  hen  strain 
the  liquor  through  paper,  and  after  proper 
evaporation  put  it  on  one  side  in  order  to 
form  crystals. 
This  is  perha})s  the  most  active  and  use- 
ful of  the  cialybcattii.     Dose  irom  one  to 
lour  or  five  grains. 


PHARMACY. 

Sulplias  ferri  exsiccatus,  dried  swlphat  of 

iron. 

Take  of  sulphat  of  iron  any  quantity:  heat  it 
in  an  earthen  vessel  unglazed  on  a  gentle 
fire  until  it  becomes  white  and  periectly 
dry. 
Oxidum  ferri  rubruni,  red  oxide  of  iron. 

Let  dried  siilphat  of  iron  be  exposed  to  a  vio- 
lent heal  until  it  is  converted  into  a  red 
matter. 
Tinclura  muriatis  ferri,  tincture  of  muriat 

of  iron,  Kd.     Tinclura  ferri  muriali,  Lond. 

Take  of  tiie  purified  black  oxide  of  iron  pow- 
dered three  ounces;  muriatic  acid  about 
ten  ounces,  or  sufficient  to  dissolve  the 
powder.  Digest  with  a  gentle  heat,  and 
the  powder  being  dissolved,  adtl  sufficient 
quantitv  of  alcohol  to  make  the  whole  li- 
quor two  pounds  and  a  half. 

An  active  and  useful  preparation.    Dose 

fiom  ten  to  twenty  drops. 

Murias  ammoni;c  et  ferri,  muriat  of  ammo- 
nia   and  iron,    Ed.      t'errum   ammoniacale, 

Lond. 

Take  of  red  oxide  of  iron  washed  and  again 
dried  ;  muriat  of  ammonia,  of  each  equ^l 
parts.  Let  them  be  well  mixed,  and  sub- 
lime. 

This  preparation  is  not  much  in  use. 
Tinclura  ferri  ammoniacalis,  ?h.  Lond. 

Take  of  ammoniacal  iron  four  oimces;  proof 
spirit  bv  measure  one  pound.  Digest  anil 
strain. 

'1  his  is  a  superfluous  preparation. 
Ferrum  tartarisatum,  tartarised  iron.   Ph. 

Lond. 

Take  of  filings  of  iron  one  pound;  crystals 
of  tartar  powdered  two  pounds;  distilled 
water  one  pound.  Mix  them,  and  expose 
the  mixture  to  the  air  in  an  open  glass  ves- 
sel for  eight  days;  then  rub  the  matter 
dried  by  a  sand-bath  into  a  very  fine  pow- 
der. 

Dose  from  fivi-  to  ten  or  fifteen  grains. 

Vinum  ferri,  wine  of  iron,  Ph.  Lond. 
Take  of  iron   filings  four   ounces ;    Spanish 
white  wine  four    pounds.      Digest    tor    a 
month  with  frequent  agitation,  and  strain. 

Dose  one  or  two  drachms. 
Hydrargyrus   purificatus,   purified  quick- 
silver, Ed.  and  Lond. 

Take  ol  quicksilver  four  parts;  filings  of  iron 
one  part.  Rub  them  together,  and  distil 
from  an  iron  vessel. 

Acptis  hydrargyri,  acetite  of  quicksilver, 
Ed.  Hydrargyrus  acetatus,  Lond. 
Take  of  purified  quicksilver  three  ounces; 
diluted  nitrous  acid  four  ounces  and  a  half, 
or  a  little  more  than  may  suffice  to  dissolve 
the  (juick  ilver ;  acetite  of  potass  three 
ounces;  boiling  water  eight  pounds.  Mix 
the  ijuicksilver  with  the  diluted  nitrous 
acid,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  efferves- 
cence digest,  if  it  may  be  necessary,  with 
a  gentle  he,  t,  until  the  cpiicksilvcr  is  to- 
tally dissolved ;  then  dissolve  the  acetite 
ol  potass  in  boiling  water,  and  immediately 
on  this  solution  while  hot  pour  the  other, 
mixing  them  by  agitation.  Then  place 
the  mixture  on  one  side  that  crystals 
may  form.  These  being  put  into  a  funnel, 
wash  them  with  cold  distilled  water ;  and 
lastly  dry  them  with  a  very  gentle  heat.  In 
preparnig  tlie  acetite  of  quicksilver.  It  is 


necessary  flial  all  the  vessels  and  the  fun- 
nel whith  are  used,  are  of  glass. 

T  his  has  been  enqjloyed  as  an  ^ntisyphi- 
litic,  in  the  dose  of  a  grain  night  anrl  morning. 
Us  operation,  however,  is  pe. haps  not  to  be 
depended  on. 

Murias  hydrargyri,  muriat  of  mercury,  Ed. 
Ilydrargyru-.  muriatus,  Lond. 
Take  ot  purilied  quicksilver  two  pounds; 
sulphuric  acid  two  pounds  and  a  half;  mu- 
riat of  soda  dried  four  pounds.  Boil  the 
quicksilver  with  the  sulphuric  acid  in  a 
glass  vessel  placed  on  a  saiul-bath  till  the 
nuitter  becomes  dry.  When  cold,  mix  it 
with  the  muriat  of  soda ;  then  sublime  it 
in  a  glass  cucurbit,  with  a  heat  gradually 
raisecl.  Separate  the  sublimed  matter  from 
the  scoria-. 

Ihis  (the  corrosive  sublimate)  is  the 
most  active  of  all  the  mercurial  preparations. 
Do>e  about  a  fomth  of  a  grain.  It  is  not  now 
so  much  as  formerly  used  in  the  cure  of  sy- 
philis. 

Submurias  hydrargvri,  submuriat  of  quiet- 
silver,  Ed.  Calomelas,  Lond. 
Take  of  muriat  of  quicksilver  rulj- 
bed  to  powder  in  a  glass  mortar  four 
ounces;  purified  quicksilver  three  ounces. 
Let  them  in  a  glass  mortar  be  rublx'd  to- 
gether, with  a  very  little  water,  in  order  to 
guard  against  the  acrid  powder  vvh'ch 
would  without  this  precaution  arise,  until 
the  ([uicksilver  is  ext'iiiuished.  Put  the 
drii'd  pov\der  into  an  oblong  phial,  ot  which 
it  shall  occupy  one-third,  and  let  it  be  sub- 
limed in  a  sand-bath.  The  sublimation 
being  completed,  and  the  phial  broken,  the 
red  powder  about  the  bottom  and  white 
about  the  neck  of  it,  are  to  be  both 
rejected,  the  remaining  mass  is  again  to  be 
subhmetl  and  rubbed  into  a  fine  powder, 
which  is  lastly  to  be  washed  with  boiling 
distilleil  water. 

This  of  all  mercurial  preparations  is  the 
most  important  in  medicine.  Its  dose,  ac- 
cording to  the  different  diseases  and  circum- 
stances under  which  it  is  employed,  varies 
from  an  eighth  of  a  grain  to  ten  or  more 
grains.  It  ought  never  to  be  given  in  solu- 
tion. 

Submurias    hydrargyri    prffcipitalus,  pre- 
cipitated submuriat  of  mercury,    Ed.     Hy- 
drargyrus muriatus  mills,  Loncl. 
Take  of  diluted  nitrous  acid,  purified  quick- 
silver, of  each  eight  ounces  ;  muriat  ot  soda 
four  ounces  and  a  half;  boiling  water  eight 
pounds.     Mix  the  quicksilver  with  the  di- 
luted acid,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  ef- 
fervescence digest  with  a  gentle  heat,  fre- 
quently shaking  the  vessel.      U  is  neces- 
sary that  more  quicksilver  should  be  mixed 
with  the  aciil  than  this  can  dissolve,  that 
the  solution  may  be  obtained  completely 
saturali-d.     Dissolve  at  the  same  time  the 
muriat  of  soda  in  the  boiling  water  while  it 
is  warm;  |)our  on  it  the  other  solution,  and 
quickly   mix   them    together.      .Viler  the 
precipitation,   pour   oil'  the   saline  liquor, 
and  wash  the    submuriat  of  mercury  by 
fre(|uentlv  adding  warm  water,  pouring  it 
off  alter  each  lime  of  the  subsiding  of  the 
precipitate  until  it  conies  off  tasteless. 
This  pre|)aration  does  not  materially  dif- 
fer from  the  preei'ding. 

()\iihim  hy<lrargyri  cinereum,  ash-coloured 
oside  of  ([uicksilver. 


Take  of  |Kiri:lfil  quicksilver  four  parts;  ili- 
kitecl  lulrous  acn!  live  purls ;  (lis!illc-tl  water 
riltii'ii  pails  ;  waUr  ofcarbomit  of  amiiioiiia 
as  iiiucii  ai  siillicii.iit.    Dissolve  t!i('  ([iiick- 
silvcr  ill  tlic  acid  ;  adil   gradually  llie  dis- 
tilled waler;    tlien  pour  on  as  mucli  ol  tin- 
wa'er  ol  carlxinatot  ammonia  as  will  siirticc 
to  tlirow   down  Ihe  oxido   of  iiuii  ksilver, 
wliicli  is  thi.'i!  to  be  washed  with  pure  water 
and  dried. 
This  has   lately  been  recommended   by 
Dr.  Hoiiit  and  others  as  one  of  the  most  cfh- 
cacious  anil  permanent  of  antisyphilitic  reme- 
dies.    Dose  one  grain. 

Oxidum   hvdrargyri   riibrnni   per   aeidum 

nilrienm,  red  oxide  of  quicksilver  by  nitrous 

acid,  Ed.     llydrari^yrus  nitratus  ruber,  I,on. 

Take  of  purilied  quicksilver  one  pound  ;  of 

diluted  nitrous  acid  sixteen  ounces,     l.el 

the  quicksilver  be  dissolved,  and   with  a 

gentle    lire   evaporate  tlie   solution   into   a 

dry  white  mass,  which  rubbed  into  powder 

is  to  be  put  into  a  glass  cucurbit,  a  tiiick 

glass  plate  being  put  over  its  surface ;  then 

■    having  adapted  a  capital,  and  placed  the 

vessel  in  saiul,  let  it  be  roasted  with  a  lire 

gradually  raided  until  it  assumes  the  form  ol 

small  red  scales. 

This  is  used  as  an  escharotic. 

Subsulphas  hydrargyri  flavus,  yellow  sub- 

.snlphat   of  iiuicksilver,   Ed.      Ilydrargyrus 

vitriolatus,  l.ond. 

Take  of  purilied  quicksilver  four  ounces ; 
sulphuric  acid  six  ounces.  Put  them  into 
a  glass  cucurbit,  and  let  them  boll  in  a 
sand-bath  to  dryness  ;  the  white  matter  re- 
mainin'.j  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  being 
powdered,  is  to  be  thrown  into  boiling 
water  ;  it  will  thus  be  changed  into  a  yel- 
low, which  ought  to  be  frequently  washed 
with  warm  water. 

'I'liis  preparation,  formerly  denominated 

turpeth  mineral,  is  scarcely  at  present  em- 

ployed  in  medicine. 

Sulpluiretuin  hydrargyri  nigrum,  black  sul- 
phnret  of  <|uicksilver,  Ed.  Hydrargyruscum 
sulphure,  Lond 

Take  of  purilied  quicksilver  and  sublimed 
sulphur,  of  each  eipial  weights.  Let  them 
be  rubbed  together  in  a  glass  mortar  with 
a  glass  pestle,  until  the  globules  of  quick- 
silver entirely  disappear 

This  is  vulgarly  denominated  ethiops 
mineral.  It  is  the  least  activi'  of  all  the  mer- 
curial preparations,  and  is  not  much  in  use. 

The  following  additional  preparations  of 
mercury  are  found  exclusively  in  the  Ph. 
Loud. 

Ilydrargyrus  sulphuratus  ruber,  red  sul- 
phureted  quicksilver. 

Pake  of  purihed  quicksilver  forty  ounces ; 
sulphur  eight  ounces.  Mix  the  quicksilver 
with  the  melted  sulphur.  If  the  mixture 
intlames,  extinguish  it  by  covering  the  ves- 
sel. Powder  .aid  sublime  the  material. 
This  (cinnabar)  is  principally  used  to 
fumigate  venereal  ulcers. 

Hvdrargvrus  cuin  creta,  quicksilver  with 
fhalk. 

Take  of  pnritied  quicksilver  three  ounces; 
prepared  chalk  live  ounces.  Rub  them  to- 
gether till  the  globules  disappear. 

This  is  scarcely  employed. 
H}clrargyrus  calciuatus,  calcined  quick- 
silver. 


PHARMACY. 

Take  of  purified  (piicksilver  one  |)onnd.  Ex- 
pose it  in  a  glass  cucurbit  with  a  Hat  bot- 
tom, in  a  saiid-batli,  to  a  lieat  of  000°,  until 
it  concretes  into  a  red  pov.'der. 

This  has  been  rfcommended  in  doses 
of  half  a  grain  or  a  grain  in  con.'irmed  sy- 
philis, winch  has  appeared  to  oppose  other 
mercurial  preparations. 

Calx  hydrargyri  albi,  white  calx  of  quick- 
silver. 

lake  of  muriated  quicksilver,  sal  ammoniac, 
water  of  pnpari-d  kali,  of  each  hall  a 
pound.  First  dissolve  the  sal  ammoniac, 
and  then  llie  muriated  ipiicksilver,  in  dis- 
tilled water,  to  which  add  the  water  of 
prepared  kali.  Wash  the  powder  until  it 
is  tasteless. 

Wliile  precipitate,  as  tlie  above  prepara- 
tion is  commonly  called,  is  used  externally 
in  the  form  ofoinlment  in  psora,  and  other  af- 
fections of  Ihe  skill. 

Acetis  plumbi,  acetate  of  lead,  Ed.     Ce- 
russa  acetata,  Lond. 

Take  of  white  oxide  of  lead  any  tpiantitv, 
put  it  into  a  cucurbit,  and  upon  it  poiir 
twice  its  quantity  in  weight  of  distilled  ace- 
tous acid  ;  the  mixture  is  to  stand  on  warm 
sand,  until  the  acid  becomes  sweet:  then 
pour  it  off,  and  add  a  fresh  quantity  of  acid 
as  often  as  may  be  necessary,  until  it 
ceases  to  become  sweet;  then  the  whole 
liquor,  freed  troiii  impurities,  is  to  be  eva- 
porated to  the  consistence  of  tliiii  honev, 
and  put  aside  in  a  cool  place  that  crystals 
may  form,  which  are  to  be  dried  in  the 
shade.  Evaporate  the  remaining  liquor  so 
as  to  form  new  crystals,  and  repeat  this 
process,  till  the  liquor  ceases  to  crystal- 
lize. 

This  preparation  (the  sugar  of  lead)  is 
employed  chiefly  for  injections  and  collviia. 
Aqua  lithargyri  acetati,  water  of  acetated 
litharge,  Ph.  Loud. 

Tak  ■  of  litharge  two  pounds  and  four  ounces  ; 
distilled  vinegar  one  gallon.  Mix  them 
and  boil  to  six  poiuuls,  stirring  constantly  ; 
then  put  the  liquor  aside,  and  after  the  im- 
purities have  subsided,  strain  it. 

This  preparation  has  long  been  employ- 
ed under  the  denomination  of  Goulard's  ex- 
tract. It  is  applied  to  the  same  purposes 
with  the  preceding. 

Oxidum  zinci,  oxide  of  zinc. 
Let  a  large  crucible  be  placed  in  a  fnmace 
tilled  with  burning  coals,  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  shall  be  somewhat  inclined  to  its 
mouth;  and  when  the  bottom  of  the  cru- 
cible is  at  a  moderate  red  heat,  throw  in 
pieces  of  zinc,  each  of  them  about  the 
weight  of  a  drachm.  The  zinc  shortly 
intlames,  and  is  converted  into  white  lloc- 
culi,  which  from  time  to  time  are  to  be 
removed  from  the  surface  of  the  metal, 
with  an  iron  spatula,  that  the  combustion 
may  be  more  effectual;  when  the  iutiam- 
mation  ceases,  remove  the  oxide  of  zinc 
from  the  crucible.  Another  piece  being 
thrown  in,  renew  the  operation,  which 
repeat  as  olteii  as  may  be  necessary.  Last- 
ly, let  the  oxide  of  zinc  be  prepared  in  the 
same  manner  as  carbonat  of  lime. 

Dose  as  a  tonic,  from  2  to  3  or  more 
grains. 

Sulphas  zioci)  sulphat  of  2uc.     White 
vitriol. 


405 

Take  of  zinc,  rtit  into  small  pieces,  three 
ounces;  suljjhuric  acid,  li\e  ounces  ;  water, 
twenty  ounces.  .Mix  thenr,  and  the  coii- 
secjUent  eireivescence  being  over,  digest 
for  sometime  on  warm  sand.  Then  strain 
thioiiL^h  paj/er,  and  after  due  exhalation 
put  tiie  liquor  aside,  that  chrystiils  may 
tonn. 
This  is  often  used  as  an  injection  and 

collyrium. 

Solulio  sulphatis  zinci,  solution  of  sulphat 

of  zinc. 

Take  of  sulphat  of  zinc  sixteen  grains,  dis- 
tilled water  eight  ounces,  diluted  sulphuric 
a.-id  sixteiMi  drojjs.  Dissolve  the  sulphat 
of  zinc  in  the  water  ;  then  the  acid  being 
added,  liltre  through  paper. 
A<;iia  z:nci  vilriolati  ciiin  cam[>)iora,  water 

of  vitriolaledzinc  with  camphor.     Ph.  Lond. 

'Pake  of  vitriolated  zinc  hall  an  ounce,  cani- 
pliorated  spirit  half  an  ounce  by  measure, 
boiling  wati-r  by  uuMMire  two  ]jounds. 
Mix  them,  andrtlt.e  through  paper. 

'Phis  is  used  as  a  collyrium  ;  it  requires 

no  further  dilution. 

bolutio  acetitis  zinci,  solution  of  acetite  of 
zinc. 

'Pake  of  sulphat  of  zinc,  one  drachm  ;  dis- 
tilled water  ten  ounces.    Dissolve  it.  'J'ake 
then  of  acetite  of  lead,  four  scruples;  dis- 
tilled water,   ten   ounces;     dissolve  this. 
Mix  the  solutions;  and  when  the  liquor 
has  remained  some  time  at  rest,  strain  it. 
'Phe  solution  is  regarded  as  more  astrin- 
gent than  the  acetite  of  lead,  and  of  a  less 
irritating  nature  tluin  the  sulphat  of  zinc. 
Ptihen-s,  powders. 

Pulvis  aromaticus,  aromatic  powder.  Ed. 
and  Lond. 
'Pake  of  cinnamon,  smaller  cardamom  seeds, 

and  ginger,   of  each   equal  parts.      Rub 

them  into  a  very  hne  powder,  which  is  to 

be  preserved  in  a  glass  phial  well  stopped. 

In  the  Ph.  Lond.  the  proportion  of  ciuiia- 

mon  is  greater,  and  one  part  is  added  of 

long  pepper. 

Pulvis  asari  Europ.Ti  compositus,  com- 
pound powder  of  asarabacca,  Ed.  Pulv.  asari 
compos.  Lond. 

Take  of  asarabacca  leaves  three  parts  ;  the 
^  leaves  of  marjoram  and  lavender  flowers, 

of  each  one  part.  Rub  them  together  to  a 

powder. 

A  mild  errhine.. 

Pulvis  carbonatis  calcis  compositus,  chalk 
powder, 
'lake  of    prepared  carbonat   of  lime,   four 

ounces;    ol  cinnamon,  a   drachm   and    a 

half;    nutmeg,  half  a  drachm.     Rub  them 

together  to  powder. 

Pulvis  cretx  compositus,  compound  pow- 
der of  chalk.     Ph.  Lond. 
lake  of  prepared  chalk,  half  a  pound;  cin- 
namon, four  ounces  ;    tornieutil  and  gum 
arable,  of  each  three  ounces  ;  long  pep- 
per,   half  an  ounce.      Reduce    them  to 
powder  separately,  and  then  mix  them. 
Dose   of  either  of  the  above  aromatic 
astringents,  from  15  grains  to  half  a  drachm. 

Pulvis  e  creta  compositus  cum  opio. 
Pake  of  compound  pow  der  of  clialk,  eight 
ounces ;    hard  purilied  opium,  rubbed  to 
powder,   one  drachm   and  a   half.     Mix 
them. 

Dose,  one  scriipl  •,  or  half  a  drachin. 


400 

Pulvis  chflarum  cancel  compo^itiis,  com- 
iiouiid  poucitr  of  crab's  claws.    Pli.  Loiu!. 
lake  ut  prepared  crab's  claws  one  pound ; 
prepared  chalk,  prt-pared  coral,  of  each 
three  ounces.     Mix  them. 

This,  though  apparently  a  compound, 
is  in  reality  a  sniiple  preparation,  as  the  in- 
gredients are  all  mere  <arbonats  ot  lime. 

Pulvis  jalapx  compositus,  compound  pow- 
der of  jalap. 

Take  of  the  powder  of  jalap  one  part ;  super- 
tartrite  of  potass  two  parts ;  rub  tlieni  to- 
gether into  a  very  luie  powder. 

This,  in  the  dose  of  a  draclim  and  a  half, 
is  an  excellent  cathartic. 

Pulvis  ipecacuanha  et  opii,  powder  of  ipe- 
cacuan  and  opium,  Ed.     Pulvis  ipecacuanhx' 
compositus,  Lond.    (Dover's  powder.) 
Take  of  ipecacuan   powder   and   opium,  of 
each  equal  parts  ;    sidphat  of  potass  eight 
parts.     Rub  them  together  into  a  line  pow- 
der. 

Dose  from  15  grains  to  half  a  drachm. 
Pulvis  opiatus,  opiate  powder. 
Take  of  opium  one  part ;  prepared  carbonat 
of  lime  nine  parts.     Hub  the.u   togetlier 
to  a  tine  powder. 

Pulvis  opiatus,  opiate  powder,  Ph.  Lond. 
Take  of  hard  purihed  opium,  rubbed  to  pow- 
der, one  drachm;  prepared  burnt  harts- 
iiorn  nine  drachms.     iNlix  them. 
Pulvis  scammonii  compositus,  compound 
powder  of  scammony. 

Take  uf  scanmiouy,  supertartrite  of  potass 
of  each  equal  parts.  Rub  them  together 
into  a  very  line  powder. 

Dose  from  10  grains  to  a  scruple. 

Pulvis  scammonii  compositus,  compotmd 

powder  of  scammony.  Ph.  Lond. 

Take  of  scammony,  extract  of  jalap,  of  each 

two  ounces;  ginger  half  an  ounce.     Rub 

tliem  to  powder  separately,  and  mix  them. 

Dose  about  ten  grains. 
Pulvis  scammonii   compositus   cum   aloe, 
compound  powder  of  scammony  with  aloes. 
Ph.  Ivond. 

'lake  of  scammony  six  drachms ;  extract  of 
jalap,  socotorine  aloes,  of  each  one  ounce 
and  a  half;  ginger  half  an  ounce.  Hub 
them  to  powder  separately,  and  mix  them. 

Dose  lO  or  IS  grains. 
Pulvis  scammonii  cum  calomelane,  pow- 
der of  scammony  with  calomel.  Ph.  Lond. 
Take  of  scammony  half  an  ounce;  calomel 
and  refined  sugar,  of  each  two  drachms. 
Rub  them  separately  to  powder,  and  mix 
them. 

Dose  from  10  grains  to  15. 
Pulvis  sulphatis  alumin;e  compositus,  com- 
pound powder  of  suljjliat  of  argil. 
'Lake  ofsiil|)liat  of  argil  four  parts;  kino  one 
part.     Rub  them  into  a  line  powder. 
A  styptic  powder  principally  used  ex- 
ternally. 

Pulvis  aloes  cum  canella,  powder  of  aloes 
with  canella,  Ph.  Lond. 
Take  of  socotorine  aloes  one  pound ;  while 
canella    three  ounces.     Hub  them  sepa- 
rately ti)  powder,  and  mix  them. 

This  is  generally  given  in  spirits  as  a 
tincture. 

Pulvis  aloes  rum  guaiaco,  powder  of  aloes 
with  guaiac,  Ph.   Lond. 
'lake  of  socotorine  aloes  one  ounce  and  a 


riLS.UMACY. 

half;  guaiac  gum-resin  one  ounce;  arn- 
iiiilic  powder  half  an  ounce.  Hub  the 
aloes  and  guaiac  into  powder  separately, 
then  mix  them  witli  the  aromatic  pu«der. 
This  is  seldom  used:  dose  15  or  20 
grains. 

Pulvis  aloes  cum   ferro,  powder  of  aloes 
with  iron.  Ph.  Lond. 

Take  of  socotorine  aloes  an  ounce  and  a  half; 
m^rrh  two  ounee^;  dried  extract  of  gen- 
tian and  sulphal  of  iron,  of  each  an  ounce. 
Rub  them  separately  to  powder,  and  mix 
them. 

Dose  from  10  to  15  grains. 
Pulvis  cerussrc  compositus,  compound  pow- 
der of  ceruss.  Ph.  Lond. 
'lake  of  cerusse  live  ounces;    sarcocolla  one 
ounce  and   a    half:     tragacanth  half  an 
ounce.      Hub  them  together  into  powders. 
This  is  used  diliused  in  water  as  an  in- 
jection and  coUyrium. 

Pulvis  contraverva"  compositus,  compound 
powder  of  contraverva,  Ph.  Lond. 
lake  of  contrayerva  rubbed  M  powder,  five 
ounces;  compound  powder  of  crab's  claws 
one  pound  a  lialf. 

Tills  is  u  useless  combination. 
Pulvis     myrrha;    compositus,     compound 
powder  of  myrrh,  Ph.  Lond. 
Take  of  inyrrli,  dried  savin,  dried  rue,  Rus- 
sian ca^tor,  of  each  an  ounce.     Rub  them 
together  to  a  powder. 

Dose  a  scruple,  or  half  a  drachm. 
Pulvis  senna;  compositus,  compound  pow- 
der of  senna,  Ph.  Lond. 
Take  of  senna,  crystals  of  tartar,  of  each  two 
ounces;  scammony  half  an  ounce  ;  ginger 
two  drachms.  Rub  the  scammony  sepa- 
rately, the  others  together,  into  a  powder, 
and  mix  them. 

Dose  from  half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm. 
Pulvis  tragacantha-  compositus,  compound 
powderof  tragacanth.  Ph.  Lond. 
Take  of  tragacanth  powdered,  gum  arable, 
starch,  of  each  one  ounce  and  a  half  ;  re- 
fined sugar,  three  ounces.     Rub  them  into 
a  powder  togei  her. 
Dose  one  or  two  drachms. 

Electunria,  electuaries. 
Electuariuin  aroinaticum,  aromatic  electu- 
ary, Ed.     Confectio  aromatica,  Lond. 
Take  of  aromatic  powder  one  part  ;  syrup  of 
orange-peel  two  parts.     Mix  beating  them 
well  together  so  as  to  form  an  electuary. 
Electuarium    cassia'  fistula;,  electuary    of 
purging  cassia,  Ed.     El.  cassia-,  Lond. 
Take  of  cassia  pulp  in  pods  four  j)arts  ;  tama- 
rind pulp,  and  manna,  of  each  one  part ; 
syrup   of  pale  rose  four  parts.     Dissolve 
the  manna  beat  in  a  mortar,  in  the  syrup, 
with  a  gentle  heat;  then  add  the  pulps, 
and  by  continuing  the  heat,  reduce   the 
mixture  to  a  proper  consistence. 

This  is  scarcely  used. 
Electuarium  cassia  sennip,  electuary  of 
senna,  Ed.  Elect,  sennie,  Lond. 
Take  of  senna  leaves  eight  ounces ;  seeds 
of  coriander  four  ounces ;  ru|Uorice  root 
three  ounces  ;  ligs  one  pound  ;  pulp  of 
tamarind,  of  cassia,  and  of  prunis,  of 
each  half  a  pound :  sugar  two  pmiiids  ami 
a  half.  Hub  the  senna  with  the  coriander 
seeds;  and  sep. irate  hv  passing  through  a 
sieve,  ten  ounces  of  mixed  powders.     Let 


the  residuum  with  the  figs  and  liquorice  be 
boile  1  m  lour  pounds   of  water  down   to 
one-iiall,  then  express  and  strain.     Evapo- 
rate the  strained  liquor  to  about  one  pound 
and  a  half:  alterwards  add  the  sugar  so  as 
to  form  a  syrup  ;  add  the  s^ nip  gradually 
to  the  pulps,  and  lastly  mix  m  the  powder. 
This  is  the  well  known  lenitive  electu- 
ary.    Dose  tiom  liall  an  ounce  to  an  ounce. 
Electuarium  catechu,  electuary  ot  catechu. 
Take  of  catechu   extract  four  ounces ;  kino 
three  ounces;  cinnamon  and   nutmeg  of 
each  one  ounce;  opium,  dill'used  through 
asuliicieiit  (|uantity  ot  .Spanish  while  wine, 
one  drachm  and  a  lialf ;  syrup  ol  red  rose 
boiled  to   the  consistence  ol   honey,  two 
pounds  and  a  quaiter.     Reduce  to  powder 
the  solid  ingredients,  and  mixing  them  with 
the  opium  and  syrup,  form  an  electuary. 
In  this  electuary,  tormerly  called  japonic 
confection,  one  gram  ot  opium  is  contained 
in  rather  more  than  three  drachms  of  the 
mass. 

Electuarium    opiatum,  opiate    electuary, 

Ed.  Confectio  opiata,  Lond. 

Take  of  aromatic  powder  six  ounces;  Vir- 
ginian snake  root  linely  powuered,  three 
ounces ;  opium,  diffused  in  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  white  wine,  halt  an  ounce ; 
syrup  of  ginger,  one'  pound.  Mix  so  as  to 
make  an  eiectuary. 

This  preparation  has  been   inserted   in 

the  Pharmacopoeia,  in  the  place  of  the  com- 
plicated mithridate  of  the  antients,  and  the- 

riaca  .\ndroinaclii. 

Electuarium      scammonii,     electuary    of 

scaramony,  Ph.  Lond. 

Take  of  scammony  powdered  one  ounce  and 
a  half;  cloves  and  ginger,  of  each  six 
<lrachms  ;  oil  of  caraway  half  a  drachm ; 
syrup  of  roses  as  much  as  may  besuflicient. 
Mix  the  aromatics  rubbed  together  into  a 
powder,  with  the  syrup;  then  add  the 
scammony,  and  lastly  the  oil  of  caraway. 
A  stimulant  purgative  ;  dose  1  drachm 

or  more. 

Piliiltr,  pills. 
Pilula-  aloetica-,  aloctic  pills. 

Take  of  socotorine  aloes  in  powder,  soap,  of 
each  equal  parts,   lieat  them  with  coinmoa 
syrup,  so  as  to  form  a  mass  lit  to  be  made 
into  pills. 
Pilula;  aloes  composita,  compound  aloes 

pills.  Ph.  Lond. 

Take  of  socotorine  aloes  in  powder  one 
ounce;  extract  of  gentian  half  an  ounce  ; 
oil  of  caraway  two  scruples;  suup  of 
ginger  as  much  as  necessary.  Beat  them 
together. 

Dose  2  pills,  or  10  grains. 
Pilule  aloes  <  um  assafcctida,  pills  of  aloes 

witli  assafa-tida. 

Take  of  socotorine  aloes,  assafietida,  soap, 
ofeacli<(|ual  parts.  Heattbem  with  muci- 
lage of  gum  arable  into  a  mass. 

Dose  -  or  3  pilN. 
Pilul.e  aloes  cum  colocynthide,  pills  ofaloes 

with  I'olocynth. 

Take  of  socotorine  aloes,  scammony,  of  each 
eight  parts;  colocynlli  four  parts;  sulphat 
of  potass  with  sulphur,  oil  of  cloves,  ot 
eacli  one  part.  Let  the  aloes  and  scam- 
monv  with  the  salt  be  reduced  to  powder; 
then  lei  the  loIcK  ynlh  h<-  nibbed  into  a  line 
powder,  and  the  oil  be  added.     Lastly, 


beat  thcin  into  a  mass  with  tlie  mucilage  of 

giuii  arable. 

DoiC  2  pills.     It  is  a  powerful  catliartic. 

Pilukc  aloes  cuin  myrrlia,   pills  of  aloes 
witli  iiiyrrli,  Ed.  and  Loiul. 
Take  of  socotoriiie  aloes  four  parts;  myrrh 

two  parts;    saffron  one  part,     lieat  tlieni 

with  simple  syrnp  into  a  mass. 

This  is  in  Ireijuent  use  as  a  purgative. 
Dose  2  or  3  pills. 

Pilula;    assafcetidx  composita",   compound 
assafoetida  pills. 
Take  of  assafcttida,    galbanum,   inyrrh,    of 

each  eight   parts;  rectilied   oil    of  amber 

one  part.     i5eal  them  with   simple  syrnp 

into  a  mass. 

Dose-'  or 3  pills. 

Pilulx"  galbani  composita;,  compound  pills 
ofgalbanum,  I^nd. 
Take  ot  galbatium,  opoponax,  myrrh,  saga- 

penuni,  of  each  one  ounce ;     assafa-tida 

half  an  ounce;  syrup  of  salVron  as  much 

as  may  be  surticient.     Beat  thini  together. 
These  pills  are  nearly  similar  to  the  pre- 
ceding. 

Pilula;  animoniareti  cupri,  pills  of  ammonia- 
ret  of  copper. 

Take  of  ammoniaret  of  copper  si.xteeii 
grains;  crumb  of  bread  four  scruples;  water 
of  carbonat  of  ammonia,  as  much  as  is  suf- 
ficient. Beat  them  into  a  mass  which  is  to 
be  divided  into  thirty  pills. 
Dose  I  pill. 

Pilula-  hydrargyri,  mercurial  pills,  Ed.  and 

Ijind. 

Take  of  purified  quicksilver,  conserve  of  the 
red  rose,  of  each  one  ounce;  starch  two 
ounces.  Rub  the  quicksilver  with  the 
conserve  in  a  glass  mortar,  until  the  glo- 
bules disappear,  adding,  as  occasion  shall 
require,  a  little  gum  arable  nmcilage;  then 
add  tlie  starch,  and  beat  with  a  Utile  water 
into  a  mass,  which  immediately  divide  into 
480  pills. 

Dose  2  pills,  gradually  increased. 
Pilula-  opiata-,   opiate  pills,    Ed.      Pilula- 

opii,  Loiul. 

Take  of  opium  one  part;  extract  of  liquorice 
seven  parls ;  Jamaica  pepper  two  parts. 
Mix  separately  the  opium  and  the  extract, 
softened  with  diluted  alcohol,  and  beat 
them  into  a  pulp;  then  add  the  pepper 
previously  reduced  to  powder,  and  beat 
them  into  a  mass. 

In  the  Ph.  L.  the  pepper  is  omitted. 
Pilulx  rhsi  composita.-,  compound  rhubarb 

pills. 

Take  of  rhubarb  root  one  ounce ;  socotorine 
aloes  six  drachms;  myrrh  half  an  ounce  ; 
oil  of  peppermint  half  a  drachm.  Beat 
them  with  syrup  ot  orange-peel  into  a 
mass. 

Dose  2  pills. 
Piluke  scilliticx,   squill  pills,  Ed.      Pihihc 

scilla-,  Loud. 

'lake  of  dried  squills  powdeied  one  scruple  ; 
gum  ammoniac,  smaller  cardamom  seeds 
in  powder,  and  extract  of  liquorice,  of  each 
one  drachm.  Beat  them  into  a  mass  with 
simjt'.e  syrup. 
Dose  '2  pills. 

Trochisci,  troches,  or  lozenges. 
Trochisci  caibonatis  calcis,  troches  of  car- 
bonat of  lime,  Ed.    'I'rochisci  crets,  Lond. 


PHARMACY. 

Take  of  prepared  carbonat  of  lime  four 
ounces  ;  i;iijii  arabic  one  ounce  ;  nutmeg 
one  drachm;  re:ined  sugar  six  ounces. 
Hub  tlK•^e  into  po-.vder,  and  wiih  water 
form  it  into  a  mass  hi  for  making  troches. 
Troclii-.ci  glycyrrhi/a-,   liquorice   troches, 

Ed.  aiirl  Jxncl. 

Take  of  extract  of  liquorice  and  gum  arable, 
of  each  one  part  ;  relinf-d  sugar  two  parts. 
Let  the^e  br  <lis.solved  in  warm  water  and 
strained;  then  with  a  gentle  heat  evaporate 
the  solution  into  a  mass,  which  is  to  be 
divided  into  troches. 

Trochisci   glycyrrhiza-  cum  opio,  liquorice 

troches  with  opium. 

'lake  of  opium  two  drachms  ;  tincture  of 
tolu  balsam  half  an  ounce;  simple  syrup 
eight  ounces;  extract  of  liquorice  soften- 
ed with  warm  water,  and  gum  arabic  in 
powder,  of  each  live  ounces.  First  rub  the 
opium  with  the  tincture;  then  gradually 
add  the  s) nil)  and  the  extract;  afterwartfs 
sprinkle  in  by  degrees  the  gum  arabic 
powder,  ami  lastly  dry  the  mass,  that  it 
may  be  made  into  troches,  each  weighing 
ten  grains. 

These  are  useful   in  relieving  catarrhal 

cough. 

Trochisci  gummosi,  gum  troches. 

Take  of  gum  arable  four  parts;  starch  one 
part ;  refined  sugar  twelve  parts.     These, 
powdered,  are  to  be  formed  with  rose  water 
into  a  mass,  ht  for  making  troches. 
Trochisci  nitratis  potassa;,   troches  of  ni- 

trat  of  potass,  Ed.  Trochisci  nitri,  Lond. 

Take  of  nitrat  of  potass  one  part;  refined 
sugar  three  parts.  Beat  them  to  powder, 
and  make  them,  with  gum  tragacanth  mu- 
cilage, into  a  mass,  proper  for  forming 
troclies. 
Trochisci  amyli,  starch  troches,  Lond. 

Take  of  starch  one  ounce  and  a  half;  liquo- 
rice six  drachms  ;  Florentine  orris  half  an 
ounce ;  refined  sugar  one  pound  and  a 
half.  Rub  these  to  powder,  and  with 
tragacanth  mucilage  form  troches.  They 
may  be  made,  if  preferred,  without  the 
orris. 
1  rochisci     magnesijp,    magnesia   troches, 

Lond. 

Take  of  burnt  magnesia  four  ounces;  refined 
sugar  two  ounces;  powdered  ginger  one 
scruple.  Rub  them  together,  and  adding 
mucilage  of  gum  arabic,  form  tliem  into 
troches. 
Trochi-sci  snlphuris,  sulphur  troches,  Ph. 

Lond. 

lake  of  washed  flowers  of  sulphur  two 
ounces;  refined  sugar  four  ounces;  muci- 
lage of  quince  seeds  as  much  as  sufficient. 
Rub  them  together  and  form  troches. 

Liiiimt'iitd,  iingiientu,  et  ctrat a,  \m\ments, 
ointments,  and  cerates. 

lu  making  these  compositions,  fattv  and 
resinoiH  substances  aie  to  be  melted  with 
a  gcMitle  heat,  constantly  stirrins„  and 
sprinkling  in  the  dry  ingredients,  if  there 
are  any,  in  line  powder,  imtil  by  cooling 
the  mixture  acquires  a  stitfness  of  consist- 
ence. 
Linimentura  simplex,  simple  liniment. 

Take  of  olive  oil  four  parts  ;  white  wax  one 
part. 
Unguentum  simplex,  simple  ointment. 

Take  of  olive  oil  five  parts;  white  wax  two 
parts. 


4o; 

Ceratiim  simplex,  simple  cerate,  Ed.    Ce- 
latum  sjjermalis  celi,  Lond. 
Take  ot  olive  oil  six  parts;  white  wax  three 
parts;  spermaceti  one  part. 

The  above  three  compositions  only 
differ  in  consistence. 

I'nguentiim  adipis  suilla.-,  ointment  of 
hog's  l.ird,  I'll.  Lond. 

Take  of  prepared  hog's  lard  two  pounds;  rose 
water  llirec  ounces.  Beat  the  lard  with 
the  ro.si-  water  unlil  tliev  are  mixed,  then 
li<pief\  Willi  a  gentle  lu-at,  and  jjiit  it  aside 
that  the  water  may  subside.  After  pour 
off  the  ointment,  stirring  it  constantly 
until  it  has  cooled. 

I'nauenlum  resinosum,  resinous  ointment, 
Ed.     Ung.  resiiKctlava-,  Lond. 
Take  of  hog's  lard  eight  parts ;  white  resift 
live  part-:  yellow  wax  two  parts. 

'I  liis  ointment  is  used  principally  when 
suppuration  is  wished  to  be  promoted.' 

L  nguentuin  pulveris    meloes   vesicatorii*. 
ointment  of  the  powder  of  caiitharides,  Ed. 
Ceratum  cantharidis,  Lond. 
Take  of  resinous  ointimnt  seven  parts  ;  pow- 
der of  caiitharides,  oije  part. 

The  cantharidts  ointment  is  used  prin- 
(ipally  when  the  discharge,  excited  by  a 
blister,  is  wished  to  be  preserved  and  con- 
verted into  a  purulent  matter. 

Unguentum  infusi  meloes  vesicatorn,  oint- 
ment of  infusion  of  cantharides,  Ed.  Ung. 
cantharidis,  Lond. 

Take  of  cantharides,  white  resin,  yellow  wax, 
of  each  one  part;  Venice  turpentine  and 
hog's  lard,  of  each  two  parts  ;  boiling  water 
four  parts.  Macerate  the  cantharides  in 
the  water  for  a  night,  and  strain  the  liquor, 
pressing  it  strongly  :  having  added  the  lard 
boil  the  liquor  until  the  water  is  evapo- 
rated, then  add  the  wax  and  resin.  These 
being  melted  and  removed  from  the  fire, 
add  the  turpentine. 

This  is  milder  than  the  preceding. 
Unguentum  subacetitis  cupri,  ointment  of 
subacetite  of  copper  (verdigris). 
Take  of  resinous  ointment  fifteen  parts  ;  sub- 
acetite of  copper  one  part 

An  escharotic  applied  principally  to  fovri 
and  obstinate  ulcers. 

Unguentum  hydrargyri,  ointment  of  quick- 
silver (blue  ointment). 

Take  of  quicksilver,  mutton  suet,  of  each  one 
part;  hog's  lard  three  parts.  Carefully  rub^ 
them  in  a  mortar  until  the  quii  ksilve'r  glo- 
bules disap))ear.  Jt  may  be  made  with 
double  or  triple  the  quantity  of  quick- 
silver. 

Ungiientiifli  hydrargyri  fortius,  stronger 
ointment  of  quicksilver,  Ph.  Lond. 
Take  of  purified  quicksilver  two  pounds; 
prepared  hog's  lard  twenty-three  ounces; 
prejiared  tallow  one  ounce.  Riib  first  the 
quicksilver  with  the  tallow,  and  a  little  lard, 
uutil  the  globules  disappear.  'I  hen  add 
the  remaining  lard  so  as  to  torm  an  oint- 
ment. 

Unguentum     bydrargvri    milius,    milder 
ointment  of  quicksilver.  Ph.  Lond. 
Take  of  the  stronger  ointment  ot  quicksilver 
one  part;   prepared  hog's  lard  two  parts. 
Mix  tlum.     One  drachm  of  the  stronger 
ointment  to  be  introduced  by  fricticii ;  1I19 
weaker  ointments  aresuperfiuous. 
Unguentum oxidi  hydrargyri  cmerei,  oint- 
ment of  grey  oxide  of  quicksilver. 


403 

Take  of  grey  oxide  of  quicksilver  one  part ; 
liog's  lanl  tliate  parts. 

This  it  has  been  supposed  will  prove 
more  active  than  the  coniMioii  bUie  oinUiieiil, 
oil  account  or  the  qu.tlisilver  being  inor.; 
oxidiseil. 

Unguentum  oxidi   hydrargyri  rubri,  oint- 
ment ot  red  oxide  of  quicksilver. 
Take  of  red   oxide  of  quicksilver  by   nitric 
acid  one  part  ;  hoi's  Urd  eight  pans. 
This    is   chieliy    Used   to   remove  fungi 
from  ulcers. 

Unguentnm  calcis  hydrargyri  albi,  oint- 
ment of  wliitecalx  of  quicksilver,  Ph.  Loud. 
Take  of  white  calx  ofqihcksilver  one  drachm ; 
ointment  of  hog's  lard  one  ounce  and  a 
lialf.  Mix  them  so  as  to  form  an  oint- 
ment. 

Usjd  principally  in  psora. 
Unguentum   nitratis    hydrargyri    fortius, 
stronger  ointment   of  nitrat   ot   quicksilver, 
Kd.     Ung.  hydrargyri  nitrati,  LoikI. 
Take  of  purihed  quicksilver  one  part ;  ni- 
trous acid  two  parts;  hog's  lard  twelve  parts. 
J.)igest   the  quicksilver   with  the   nitrous 
acid  in   a    sand-bath,   until  a  solution    is 
obtained,  which  while  hot  is  to  be  mixed 
with  the  hog's  lard  meltcil,  and  beginning 
to  cool.     Beat  the  mixture  thoroughly  in 
a  glass  mortar,  so  as  to  make  an  ointment. 
Unguentum    nitratis    liydrargyri    mitius, 
.milder  ointm>'nt  of  nitrat  of  quicksilver. 

Thia  is  made  in  tlu'  same  manner  as  the 
last  with  a  triple  proportion  of  laid. 

Unguentum  acidi  nitrosi,  ointment  of  ni- 
trous acid. 

Take  of  liog's  lard  one  pound  ;  nitrous  acid 
six  drachms.  Mix  gradually  the  acid 
with  the  melted  lard,  and  during  the  cool- 
ing of  the  mi.xture,  beat  it  thoiouglily. 
Unguentum  oxidi  plumbi  albi,  ointment 
of  white  oxide  of  lead. 

'Jake  of  simple  ointment  five  parts ;    white 
oxide  of  lead  one  |)art. 
Unguentum  acelitis  plumbi,   ointment  of 
.acetite  of  lead,  Ed.     L'  ng.  cerussi'  acetala;, 
Lond . 

Take  of  simple  ointment  twenty  parts;  ace- 
tite of  lead  one  part. 

Ceratum  lithargyri  acetati  compositum, 
■compound  cerate  of  acetated  litharge,  Ph. 
Lond. 

Take  of  water  of  acetated  litharge  two  ounces 
and  a  half;  yellow  wax  four  ounces ;  olive 
oil  nine  ounces;  camphor  half  a  drachm. 
Knb  the  camphor  with  a  little  of  the  oil. 
Melt  the  wax  with  the  remaining  oil,  and 
as  soon  as  the  mixture  begins  to  thicken, 
pour  on  gradually  the  water  of  acetated 
litharge,  and  stir  constantly  until  the  mix- 
ture has  cooled ;  then  mix  with  it  the 
camphor  rubbed  with  oil. 

This  is  the  common  Goulard's  cerate. 
Geratum   carbonatis  zinci   impuri,   cerate 
of  impure  carbonat   of   zinc,   Ed.      Cerat. 
lapidis  calaminaris,  l,ond. 
Take  of  simple  cerate-  live  parts ;  prepared 
unpnre  carbonat  of  zinc  one  part. 

This  is  the  common  healing  cerate. 
Unguentum  oxidi  zinci  inq)uri,  ointment 
of  impure  oxide  of  zinc,  Ed.     Ung.  tutia', 
Lond. 

Take  of  simple  liniment  five  parts ;  prepared 
imjjure  oxide  of  zinc  one  part. 
Principally  employed  in  chronic  inilam- 
mation  of  the  eyes. 


riTARMACY. 

Unguentum  oxidi  zinci,  ointment  of  oxide  ] 
of /inc. 
i'.ike  of  simple  liniment  six  parts  ;  oxide-  c  i 

zinc  one  part. 

This  IS  emplovcd  likewise  inoplilhalmia. 

Unguentum   pici^,   ohilment   of  tar,   Ed. 
and  Lond. 

'lake  of  tar  five  parts  ;  yellow  wax  two  parts, 
'i'he  chief  use  of  tar  ointment  is  in  tinea 
capitis. 

Unguentum  sulphuris,  ointment  of  sulphur, 
Ed.  and  Lond. 

Take  of  hog's  lard  four  pai'ts;  sublimed  sul- 
phur one  part.  'I'o  each  pound  of  this 
ointment  add  essential  oil  of  lemon,  or  oil 
of  lavender,  h-alf  a  drachm. 

'I'his  is  deemed  one  ot  the  most  efficaci- 
ous ointments  in  psora. 

Unguentum  elemi  compo.situm,  compound 
ointment  of  elemi,  I'l;.  I^ond. 
Take  of  clenii  one  pound  ;  common  turpen- 
tine ten  ounces ;  prepared  suet  two  poumls; 
olive  oil  two  ounces.     Melt  the  elemi  with 
the  suet,  and  having  removed  it  from  the 
fire,  mix  it  immediately  with  the  turpen- 
tine aiul  oil,  then  strain  the  mixture. 
Unguentum    helleburi  albi,    ointment   of 
white  hellebore.  Ph.  Lond. 
Take  of  white  hellebore  rubbed  to  powder 
one  ounce;    ointment  of  hog's  lard  four 
ounces;  essence  of  lemon  half  a  scruple. 
Mix  them  so  as  to  form  an  ointment. 
Tliis  ointment    is   often    employed    in 
psora. 

Unguentum  sambuci,  ointment  of  elder, 
Ph.  Loud. 

Take  of  elder  flow'ers  four  pounds  ;  prepared 
mutton  suet  three  pounds ;  olive  oil  one 
pound.  Beat  the  elder  ilowers  with  the 
suet  and  oil,  until  they  become  friable ; 
then  pour  out  the  fiuid  and  strain  it. 
Ceratum  saponis,  cerate  of  soap.  Ph. 
Lond. 

Take  of  soap  eight  ounces;  yellow  wax  ten 
ounces;  litharge  in  powder  one  pound; 
olive  oil  one  pound;  vinegar  one  gallon. 
Boil  the  vinegar  with  the  litharge  on  a 
gentle  fire,  constantly  stirring,  until  the 
mi.Kture  becomes  uuitorm  luid  thick  ;  then 
mix  with  it  the  other  ingredients,  so  as  to 
forma  cerate. 

Empla.itrn,  plasters. 
Emplastrum  simplex,  simple  plaster,  Ed. 
Emp.  cera-  comp.  Lond. 
Take  of  yellow  wax  three   parts ;    mutton 
suet  and  resin  of  each  two  parts. 

This  is  principally  employed  as  an  ap- 
plication after  a  blister. 

Emplastrum  oxidi  plumbi  semivitrei,  plas- 
ter of  semivitreous  oxide  of  lead,  Ed.  Emp. 
lithargyri,  Lond. 

Take  of  the  semivitreous  oxide  of  lead  one 

part ;  olive  oil  two  pai'ts.     Having  added 

water,  boil  them,  stirring  constantly,  until 

the  oil  and  oxide  unite  and  form  plaster. 

This  is  chieliy  applied  to  excoriations  or 

trivial  wounds. 

Emplastrum   resinosum,   resinous  plaster, 
Ed.     Emp.  lithargyri  eum  reslna,  Lond. 
Take  of  plaster  of  semivitreous  oxide  of  lead 
ti\e  parts  ;  resin  one  part. 

This  is  the  common  adhesive  plaster. 
Em|)lastrum  oxidi  fi-rri  rubri. 
fake  of  plaster  of  semivitreous  oxide  of  lead 
twenty-four  parts  ;    resin  six  parts ;   yel- 
low wax,  olive  oil,   of  each  three  parts ; 


red  osidf  of  iron  eight  parts.  Ittib  the 
red  oxidi-  ot  iron  w.lli  die  oil,  and  add  to 
it  the  other  iuiiredieiits  melled. 

'11. <-  strengthening  plaster,  applied  prin-  . 
clpall)  m  lumbago. 

Emidastrum  assafa-tida-,  assafcttida  phaster. 
Take  ol  planter  of  semivitieous  oxide  of  lead, 
assafdtida,  gaibannm,  velluw  wax,  of  each 
equal  paits. 

This  is  sometimes  used  in  hysteric  com- 
plaints, applied  to  the  breast. 

Emplastrum  gununosuin,  gum  plaster-. 
Take  ol  plaster  ot  semivitreous  oxide  of  lead 
eight  parts  ;  ammoniac,  galbanum,  yellow- 
wax,  of  each  one  part. 

A  stimulant  plaster  employed  to  encou- 
rage suppuration. 

Emplastrum  hvdrargyii,  quicksilver  plas- 
ter, Ed.  Emp.  irthargvii  cum  hydrar-g\ro, 
Lond. 

Take  of  olive  oil,  resin,  of  each  one  part ; 
quicksilver  three  parts;  plaster  of  semi- 
vitreous oxide  of  lead  six  parts.  Rub  the 
quicksilver  with  the  oil  and  resin  nrelted 
together,  and  then  cooled,  until  the  glo- 
bules disappear ;  then  add  gradually  the 
plaster  of  semivili-eous  oxide  of  lead,  melt- 
ed, and  mix  them  all  together'. 

A  discutient  plaster. 
Emplastrum  saponacemn,  soap  plaster, 
Ed.  Emp.  saponis,  Lond. 
Take  of  plaster  of  semivitreous  oxide  of  lead 
four  parts  ;  gum  plaster  two  parts  ;  sliced 
soap  one  part.  Mix  the  soap  with  the 
plaster's  melted  together. 

This   as  a  discutient  is  inferior  to  the 
preceding. 

Emplastrum  meloes  veslcatorii,  plaster  of 
cantharides,  Ed.  Emp.  cantharidis,  Lond. 
Take  of  mutton  suet,  yellow  wax,  resin  and 
cantharides,  of  each'  equal  weights.  The 
Spanish  Hies  rubbed  with  fine  powder,  are 
to  be  used  with  other  ingredients,  melted 
togetiier,  and  removed  trom  the  fire. 

Common  blistering  plaster. 
Emplastrum   meloes   vesioatorii   composi- 
lum,  compnund  plaster  of  cantharides. 
Take  of  Burgundy  pitch  eighteen  parts;  tur- 
pentine and  cantharides    of   each   twelve 
parts;    subacetite    of  copper   two   parts; 
mustard  seed  ami  black  pep|)er  of  each  one 
part.     To  the  melted  Bui  gundy  pitch  and 
wax,   add    the    tui-pentine.       W  hen   the 
iKluefaction   is    complete,  and  while   the 
tluid  is   still  warm,  sprinkle   in  the  other 
ingredients,  powdei-ed  and  mixed,  stirring 
constanllv  so  as  to  form  plaster. 
Emplastrum  ammoniaci  cum  hydrai-gyro, 
plaster  of  amniorriac   with  quicksilver,   I'h. 
Lond. 

Take  of  str-ained  ammoniac  one  pound  ;  pu- 
rilied  quicksilver  three  ounces;  sulphu- 
rrtcd  oil  orre  drachm,  or  as  much  as  snf- 
ficii-nt.  Hub  the  cpiicksilvi-r  with  the 
suli)lun-eted  oil,  until  the  globules  disap- 
pe.ir;  then  graduallv  add  the  melted  ain- 
moni.ic  and  nri\  them. 
Emplastrum  cuniini,  cumin  plaster.  Ph. 
Lond. 

Take  of  cumin,   caraway,   bay    berries,   of 
each  three  ounces;  15urgundy  pitch  thi'ee 
poirnils;   yellow  wax  three  ounces.     ^\  ith 
the  pilch  and  wax  melted,  mix  the  other 
ingredients  rubbi d  to  powder. 
Emplastrum  ladaiii  compositum,  compound 
plaster  of  ladanum,  Ph.  Lond. 
I'ake  of  ladaniim  three  ounces ;  frankincense 
10 


r  H  A 

'one  minco  ;  cinnamon  in  iiowricr,  express- 
ed oil  of  niilnif;;,  ol  cacli  li;tlf  an  ounce; 
oil  of  sj)i'ariniiU  one  drachm.  'I'o  tlic 
inL'lled  frankini.i'iiso  add  lir-.l  (In?  laila- 
lunn,  sofU'ncd  by  hi-at,  tln'n  (hi:  c^pi'essi'cl 
oil  of  nirtiHi'i;;  aflcrwards  mix  those  and 
Ihr  cinnamon  willi  the  oil  of  mint,  and 
beat  them  in  a  warm  moilar.  Kci'p  llie 
plaster  in  a  clo>e  vessel. 
'I'liis  as  a  stimulant  apidicalion  is  su- 
j)erior  to  tlie  preceding. 

Emplastrum  lilliargyrl  composUimi,  com- 
pound lilliarge  plaster,  l*h.  l^ond. 
'I'ake  of  litharge  |)lasterlliree  pounds;  strain- 
ed galbamnn,  eight  ounces;  common  tur- 
))entine,  ten  drachms ;  frankincense,  three 
ounces.  Mi.v  tlie  frankincense,  rubbed  to 
powder,  with  the  gall)anum  and  turpentine 
melted,  and  add  the  litharge  plaster  melted 
with  a  slow  lire. 

Eniplastrum  picis  IVirgundicx  composi- 
tum,  compound  Burgundy  pitoli  plaster,  Ph. 
Lond. 

Take  nf  Curgundv  pilch  two  pounds  ;  lada- 
nnni,  cue  p'xiu'i ;  yellow  resin,  yellow  wax, 
of  each  four  ounces;  expressed  oil  of  nut- 
meg;, one  ounce.  To  the  pitch  resin  and 
wax  melted  together,  add  lirst  the  lada- 
nuni,  then  the  oil  of  nutmeg. 
Kmplastrum  tliuris  conioositnm,  com- 
pound frankincense  plaster.  Ph.  l.oud. 
'lake  of  frankincense  half  a  pound;  dragon's 
liiood,  three  ounces ;  litharge  plaster,  two 
pound-i.  To  the  litharge  plaster  melted, 
add  the  others  rubbed  to  powder. 

This  is  employed  as  a  strengtiiening 
plaster. 

Culaiilasmata,  cataplasms. 
Catajilasma    aluminis,    alum     cataplasm, 
Ph  I^)nd. 

'lake  the  whites  of  two  eggs,  agitate  them 
with  a  piece  of  alum  until  a  coagulum  is 
formed. 

Applied  in  some  kinds  of  ophthalmia. 
'Cafaplasmaeuunni,  cumin  calaplasu),  Pii. 
Lond. 

J'ake  of  cunitn  one  pound;  bav  berries, 
dried  scordium,  \'irginian  snake  root,  of 
each  three  ounces ;  cloves  one  ounce. 
Rub  them  all  together  into  powder,  and 
having  add(;d  three  limes  their  weight  of 
lioney,  form  a  cataplasm. 
C'ataplasma  sinapeos,  mustard  cataplasm. 
Ph.  Lond. 

'lake  of  mustard  in  powder,  crumbs  of  bread, 
of  each  half  a  pound;  warm  vinegar  as 
much  av>  is  suUicieiit.  Mix  so  as  to  form 
a  cataplasm. 

This  is  tlie  sinapism  which  is  usually  ap- 
plied to  the  soles  of  the  feet,  as  a  stimulant 
in  the  last  stages  of  typhoid  fever,  and  in  otlu^r 
affections  of  debility. 

^i  tabij  nh'-^iiivj;  ihc  qmniliti/  nf  npi'im, 
antimojii/,  and  qiiickfiilvcr,  in  tlie  dijfl  i  ciU 
compnund  mcd!ciii.:s  nf  tlie  Edinbur^li  iind 
L'liidnn  Plianimcnpivids. 

Viiium  tartritis  antimonii,  Ed.  has  two 
grains  of  tailrite  of  antimony  in  each  ounce. 
Viuum  antimomi  tartaiisiti,  Lond.  h.is  f-mr 
grains  of  the  tartrite  of  antimony  (antini. 
lart.)  in  each  ounce. 

1'inctura  opii,  Ed.  has  three  grains  and  a 

hal;  of  opium  to  one  drachm  of  the  tinclnre. 

'1  iuct.  ojiii,  Lond.  has  one  grain  of  opium  in 

each  thirteen  dro|)s  of  the  tincture. 

Tinct.  opii  ammunial.i,  Ed.  has  rather  iKorc 

Vol.  U. 


tnan  a  grain  of  opium  in  each  dracbm  of  tin? 
tincture.  Tincl.  opii  camphorata,  I.,onfl. 
has  a  grain  of  opium  to  half  an  ounce  of  the 
linclnie. 

'1  inctnra  saponis  cum  opio,  Ed.  has  a 
scruple  of  opium  in  each  ounce  of  the  liquid. 

Pidvis  ipecacuanh;e  et  opii,  V.d.  has  a  grain 
of  opium  in  ten  grains  of  the  powder.  Pulv. 
ipecaciianlKU  compoqtus,  Lond.  the  same. 

Pulvis  opiatus,  Kd.  and  Lond.  ten  grains 
contain  a  grain  of  opium. 

I'.lectuarium  catechu,  Ed.  has  in  each 
ounce  about  two  grains  and  a  half  of  opium. 

Electuarium  opiatum,  Ed.  lias  in  eacli 
drachm  a  grain  and  a  lialf  of  opium.  C'on- 
feclio  opiala,  J,ond.  has  one  grain  of  opium 
to  thirty-six  of  tlie  mass. 

Pilula-  hydrargyri,  Ed.  has  fifteen  grains  of 
mercury  to  each  drachm,  Lond.  a  grain  to 
each  two  grains  and  a  half. 

Pilulx  opiat;e,  I'.d.  Ten  grains  of  the  mass 
contain  a  grain  of  opium,  Lond.  five  grains 
coulaiu  a  grain. 

Trochisci  glycirrhiza;  cvnu  opio,  Ed.  One 
drachm  of  the  massiias  a  grain  of  opium. 

I'nguentum  nHratis  hydrargyri  fortius  et 
mitius,  I'aI.  The  lirst  has  in  each  drachm 
fowr  grains  of  quicksilver  and  eight  of  nitrous 
acid;  the  second  has  half  a  grain  of  cjuick- 
silvcr  and  one  of  nitrous  acid,  in  each  scru|)le. 

L'nguentum  hydrargyri,  Ed.  in  each 
drachm  iias  twelve  grains  of  quicksilver. 
Ung.  In,cl.  fortius,  Lond.  has  a  drachm  of 
cpiicksilver  in  two  of  the  mass  ;  the  mitius 
lias  a»drachm  in  hve  drachms. 

Em[)la>lnuii  hydrargyri,  Ed.  has  in  each 
drachm  about  sixteen  grains  of  quicksilver. 

Tiihle  nf  the.  gradations  in  doses  nf  medi- 
cine,J'rojii  Ml'.  Murnii/s  Materia  Medica. 

Suppose  that  the  4)rq5er  dose  of  the  me- 
dicine to  be  given  is  one  drachm: 

i'br  a  |)erson  from  14  to  21  years,  it  will  be 
two-thirds  ortwo  scruples. 

I'or  a  person  from  7  to  14  years,  it  will  be 
one-half  or  half  a  drachm. 

I'or  a  person  from  4  to  7  years,  it  will  be 
one-third  or  a  scruple. 

I''or  a  person  of  4  years,  it  will  be  one-  j 
fourth  or  lifteen  grains.  | 

Eor  a  person  of  3  years,  it  will  be  one- 
si.xth  or  half  a  scruple. 

Eor  a  person  of  2  years,  it  will  be  one- 
eighth,  or  eight  grains. 

Eor  a  person  of  1  year,  ft  will  be  one- 
twelfth  or  live  grains. 

PnARNACEl'M,  a  genus  of  the  pentan- 
dria  trinynia  class  of  jjlants,  without  any  co- 
rolla; bul  thecalyx  rt^embies  one,  being  co- 
loured on  the  inside,  and  its  edges  thin ;  the 
fruit  is  an  oval  capaule,  obscurely  trigonal, 
and  in  part  covered  by  the  cup  ;  it  consists 
of  three  cells,  in  which  are  contained  nume- 
rous nitul,  orbiculated,  and  depressed  seeds, 
surrounded  with  a  margin. 

PILMIO  is  the  name  of  a  game  of  chance. 
the  principal  rules  of  which  are:  the  banker 
liold*  a  pack  con-istiiig  of  5i!  cards ;  he  draws 
all  the  cards  one  after  the  other,  and  lavs  them 
down  alternately  at  his  ri«ht  and  left  hand ; 
then  the  punte  may  at  his  pleasure  set  one  or 
more  stakes  upon  one  or  more  cards,  either 
before  the  banker  has  begun  to  draw  the  card-, 
or  alter  he  has  drawn  any  number  of  couples. 
The  barker  wins  the  stake  of  the  ponte  when 
(he  card  of  the  ponte  comes  out  in  an  odd 
nlace  ou  his  right  hand,  but  loses  as  much  to 
3  F 


P  H  A 


40') 


(lie  ponte  when  it  comes  out  in  a;i  even  ])lacc 
on  his  le(t  hand.  The  banker  wins  half  tlie 
ponle's  stake  when  it  liajipens  to  be  twice  in 
one  couple.  When  the  card  of  the  jionle, 
being  but  once  in  the  stock,  liappensto  be  the 
last,  the  ponte  neither  wins  nor  loses;  and  the 
card  of  (he  ponte  being  but  twice  in  the  stock, 
and  the  last  couple  containing  his  card  twice, 
he  then  loses  his  whole  stake.  De  Moivre 
has  shewn  how  to  find  the  gain  of  the  banker 
in  any  circumstance  of  cards  remaining  in  the 
stock,  and  of  the  number  of  times  that  the 
ponte's  card  is  contained  in  it.  Of  this  pro- 
blem he  enumerates  four  cases,  viz.  when  the 
ponte's  card  is  once,  twice,  three,  or  four 
times  ill  the  stock.     In  the  first  case,  the  gain 

of  the  banker  is  — ,  «  being  the  number  of 

cards  in  the  stock.    In  the  second  case,  his  gain 

^n  -  1 

.  or  

—  J 


.    «  -  y  X  V     , 
n  X  "  —  1  ' 

supposing;;/  =:  |. 

3.V 

2  x'n  -   I 
In   (he  fourth 


or  ■ 


X  n  —  1  «  X  "  —  1 

In  the  third  ca«e,  his  gain  ij  ' 

-,  supposmg  y=\- 

n    X    ^  1 

case,   the  gain   of  the  banker. 


or  the  loss  of  the  ponte,  is  —  " y, 

2'i  —  r,  ,     ^ 

err ,  supposinjr  v  =  ^.   I/c 

Moivre  has  calculated  a  table,  exhibiting  thi? 
gain  or  loss  for  any  i)articular  circumstance  of 
the  play;  and  he  observes,  that  at  this  ])lay 
the  least  disadvantage  of  the  ponte,  under  the 
same  circumstance  of  cards  remaining  in  the 
stock,  is  when  the  card  of  the  ponte  is  but 
twice  in  it;  the  next  greater  when  three 
times,  the  next  when  once,  and  the  greatest 
when  four  times.  He  has  also  demonstrated, 
that  the  whole  gain  per  cent,  of  <he  banker 
upon  all  the  money  that  is  adventured  at  this 
game,  is  2/.  \9s.  IQd.  See  De  Moivre's  Doc- 
trine of  Chances,  p.  77. 

PILVRUS,  a  genus  of  the  hexandria  order, 
in  tlie  momccia  class  of  plants^  and  in  the  na- 
tural method  ranking  under  the  fourth  order, 
graniina.  1"he  male  calyx  is  a  bivaKed  uni- 
llorous  guimc ;  the  corolla,  a  bivalved  glume  ; 
the  female  calyx  the  same  with  the  male;  the 
comlla  an  unillorous,  long,  and  wrapping 
glume.  '1  here  is  but  one  seed.  There  are 
three  species,  grasses  of  the  East  and  West 
Indies 

PIIARYXX.     SeeAsATOMY. 

PIl.iSCU^L  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
order  of  musci,  belonging  to  the  crvptogamii 
class  of  plants.  'Ehe  anihera  is  operculated, 
with  a  ciliatetl  mouth;  the  calyptra;  are 
mimite. 

PUASEOLUS,  kidneii-hean,  agcnu;  of  the 
diadelpiiia  decandri.i  class  of  planls,  the  co- 
rolla whereof  is  papilionaceous;  the  vexillum 
is  cordated,  ob(use,  emarginated,  and  reclined 
with  rellex  •>ides;  the  akc  are  roundi-h,  of  the 
same  leiigdi  with  the  ycxdiuni,  and  stand 
upon  long  ungues ;  the  carina  is  narrow ,  and 
revolvi's  spir.Hlly  in  a  contrary  direction  to  (he 
sun  ;  the  fruit  is  a  long,  straight,  coriaceous, 
and  obtuse  pod;  tlie  seeds  aie  oblong,  com- 
pressed, and  kidney-shaped,  'i'lieiv  are  2\ 
species. 

PHASES.     See  AsTRONO.MV. 

PlLVStAXUS,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  be- 
longing to  the  order  of  callina;.  'I'he  chei-is 
are  covered  with  a  miioi^lU  naked  skia.    PUa- 


410 


V  H  A 


r  H  A 

have  not  met  wilb  cocks  and 


siai'.us  is  derived  frcm  tlie  river  Pliasis,  tlie  :  fcreiil  voyngt-rs 
banks  of  which  are  the  naiive  habitation  of   hens,  either  wild  or  tame;  and  mrntion  has 
the  pheasant.     The  siiecies  arc  :  hccn  particiilariy  made  of  finding  them  at  St. 

1.  'I'iic  gaOiis,  or  common  cock  and  hen,  Jago,  P'.ilo  (Jondore,  isle  of  Timor,  Pliihi)|)ine 
with  a  coniprewcd  carimcle,  or  tlesiiy  comb  and  Molucca  isles,  Sumatra  and  Java,  New 
ori  the  top  of  the  head,  and  two  caruncles  or  I  Guinea,  Tin>an,  and  mobt  of  the  isles  of  the 

2.  'i'iie  motmot, 


wattles  under  the  chin.  The  ears  are  naked,  I 
and  the  tail  is  c  uujivessed  and  erected.  Ot 
all  birds,  perhaps  this  species  ai'fnrds  the 
greatest  numb-.;r  of  varielics,  there  being 
scarcely  two  to  be  found  that  exactly  resem- 
ble each  other  in  plumage  and  form.  '1  he 
tail,  which  makes  such  a  bei.iitiful  figure  in 
the  generality  of  these  bird^,  is  yet  found  en- 
tirely wanting  in  others ;  and  not  only  the 
tail,  but  the  rump  also.  The  toes,  which  are 
iisuallv  four  in  all  animals  of  the  poultry  kind, 
yet  in  a  variety  of  the  cock  are  found  to 
amount  to  five.  The  feathers,  which  lie  so 
sleek  and  in  sucii  beautiful  order  in  most  of 
those  we  are  aci|uaintcd  with,  are  in  a  peculiar 
breed  all  inverltd,  and  stand  staring  the 
UTong  way.  Nay,  there  is  a  species  that 
comes  from  Japan,  v,Iii<ii,  instp:;d  of  feathers, 
seems  to  be  covered  over  with  hair. 

It  is  not  well  ascertained  v.  hen  the  rock 
was  first  made  domestic  in  Europe  ;  but  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  we  first  had  him  in  our 
western  world  from  the  kingdom  of  Persia. 
In  his  wild  condition,  his  plumage  is  black 
and  yellow,  and  his  eomb  and  wattles  yellow 
and  purple.  There  is  another  peculiarity  al.^o 
hi  those  of  the  Indian  wood.s;  their  b.mcs, 
whicli,  when  boiled,  with  us  are  while,  as 
every  body  knows,  in  those  are  as  black  as 
ebony. 

No  animal  in  the  world  has  greater  co\irnge 
than  the  game  cock,  when  opposed  to  one  of 
his  own  species;  and  in  every  part  of  the 
world  wliere  reiinenient  and  polished  man- 
ners have  not  enliiclv  taken  place,  cock- 
fightina:  is  a  pr.ncipal  diversion.  In  China, 
India,  the  Philippine  islands,  and  all  over  the 
East,  cock-fiahtuig  is  the  sport  and  amuse- 
.nxent  even  of  kin^s  and  piinces.  Witli  us  it 
is  declining  every  day;  and  it  is  hoped  it  will 
in  time  be  utterly  banished. 

The  cork  claps  his  wings  before  1;e  sings  or 
crows.  His  sight  is  very  piercing;  and  he 
never  fails  to  cry  in  a  peculiar  manner  when 
he  discovers  any  bird  of  prey  in  the  air.  His 
extraordinary  cour.ige  is  thought  to  proceed 
from  liis  being  llie  most  salacious  of  all  other 
birds  whatsoever.  A  single  cock  suffices  for 
"ten  or  a  dozen  hens. 

'liie  hen  seldom  dutches  a  broud  of  chick- 


have  been  known  in  which  they  have  pro- 
duced two.  Tin;  number  of  eggs.a  domestic 
hen  will  lay  in  the  year  are  above  two  hun- 
dred, providid  she  is  well  fed  and  supplied 
vith  water  and  liberty.  Ten  or  twelve  chick- 
ens are  the  greatest  number  that  a  good  lien 
can  rear  and  (hitch  at  a  lime;  but  as  this 
bears  no  proportion  to  the  nuaiber  of  her  eggs, 
jchemeshave  been  imagined  to  clutch  all  the 
eggs  of  a  lien,  and  thus  turn  her  produce  to 
the  greatest  advantage.     See  Hatching. 

Of  this  species  Mr.  Ivitlham  enumerates  no 
less  than  1.3  permanent  varieties,  beginnirn; 
with  the  wild  cock,  which  is  a  third  less  in  the 
body  than  the  domestic  cock.  This  variety 
he  imagines  to  he  tiie  original  slock  whence 
all  our  domestic  varieties  have  sprung.  Thev 
appear  to  be  natives  of  the  forests  of  India. 
Tliere  are  but  t.w  places,  however,  as  .Mr. 
Liitham  goes  on  to  observcj  wh.erc  tiic  dif- 


or  Guinea  jditasanl,  is 
brownish,  seniewhalred  below,  with  a  wedge- 
like tj\\,  and  wiints  spurs.  3.  The  colchicus 
is  red,  with  a  blue  head,  a  wedge-shaped  tail, 
p3])illou-,  clieeks.  It  is  a  native  of  Atric.i  and 
Asia.  4.  The  argus  is  yellowish,  with  black 
spots,  a  red  face,  and  a  blue  crest  on  the  back 
part  of  the  head.  It  is  found  in  Chinese 
Partarv.  5.  The  pictus  has  a  yellowish  crest, 
a  red  breast,  and  a  wedge-shaped  tail.  It  is 
a  native  of  Chijia.  bee  Plate  Nat.  Hist. 
fig.  331. 

Mr.  Latham  enumerates  nine  dilVerent 
species  of  pheasants,  and  of  the  common  phea- 
sant he  reckons  six  va''ieties.  The  first  which 
he  describes  is  the  superb  pheasant.  This 
bird  Linna'us  desciibed  from  the  various  re- 
presentations of  it  painted  on  paper-hangings 
and  China-ware ;  and  farther  confirmed  by 
a  figure  and  description  in  a  Chinese  book 
which  came  under  his  inspection. 

"  We  h.ive  lately  seen,-''  says  Latham,  "  a 
drawing  of  .the  tail  feather  of  a  bird  of  the 
pheasant  kill'!,  which  measured  above  six  feet 
m  length,  and  which,  it  is  probable,  must  have 
beloiiged-to  some  bird  not  hitherto  come  to 
our  knowledge.  The  drawing  is  in  the  pos- 
session of  major  Davies,  who  took  it  from  the 
original  leather  ;  two  of  which  were'in  the 
possession  of  a  gentleman  of  his  acquaintance, 
and  wen:  brought  from  Cliini.  They  are 
exactly  in  shape  of  the  two  middle  feathers  of 
the  painted  pheasant ;  tiie  general  colour  is 
that  of  a  fine  blue  grey,  margined  on  the  sides 
with  a  rufous  cream-colour,  and  marked  on 
each  side  the  sliaft  with  nuinerous  bars  of 
black;  between  70  and  80  bars  in  all.  tlio^e 
on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  shaft  seldom  cor- 
respondiirg  wilh  each  other. 

"  The  argus,  though  a  native  of  China,  is 
very  commonly  fouiul  in  the  woods  of  Suma- 
tra, where  il  is  called  coo-ow.  It  is  found 
extremely  dillicult  t.)  be  kept  alive  for  any 
considerable  time  after  catching  it  in  the 
woods;  never  for  more  than  a  montli.  It 
seems  to  have  an  antipathy  to  the  light,  being 
tpiite  inanimate  in  the  open  day  ;  but  when 
kept  ill  a  dark  place  it  appears  perfectly  at 
ease,  anci  sometimes  makes  its  note  or  cili, 
from  which  it  lakes  its  name,  and  which  is  ra- 
ther plaintive,  and  not  harsh  like  that  of  a 
peacock.  The  riesh  resembles  that  of  the 
common  pheasant." 

I'or 111"  parraka,  which  Mr. Latham  reckons 
a  variety  of  the  common  plieasant,  and  which 
is  found"  in  the  woods  of  America,  and  re- 
markable for  its  loud  cry,  see  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  fig.  330. 

PH.\S.MA,  a  gemis  of  insects  of  the  order 
hemiptera ;  the  generic  character  is,  head 
large;  antenuLC  filiform  ;  eyes  small,  rounded; 
Rtenimata  three,  between  the  e>cs;  wings 
four,  membranaceous,  tjie  upper  jiair  abbre- 
viated, the  lower  pleated  ;  leet  formed'  for 
walking. 

'I  his,  which  is  not,  sliictly  speaking,  a 
LinniEan  genus,  being  formed  from  some  of 
the  Linnxan  mantes,  dilfers  from  the  genus 
mantis  in  having  a'l  the  legs  equally  formed 
for  walking,  or  witiioul  tlie  fa'.(.if.^nii  joint, 


P  H  A 

which  distinguishes  thf  fore-h  gs  in  llic  genus 
mantis.  The  antenna;  are  setaceous,  and 
the  head  large  and  broad:  lo  these  characters 
may  be  added  the  shortness  of  the  upp>T 
wings  or  hemelytra,  which  scarcely  cover 
more  than  about  a  third  part  of  the  body, 
w  hile  the  lower  wings  are  often  v  ery  large  and 
long.  In  llii-ir  mode  &i  hie  the  pliasniata  dif- 
fer from  the  mantes;  lieding  eiUirely  on  »e- 
gelable  food,  in  the  e.xtraordinaiy  appear- 
ance ot  many  of  its  sjiecits  tiiis  genus  is  at 
least  cciua!  to  that  to  wliich  v^e allude. 

1  he  most  remarkable  is  the  [iliasma  gigas, 
or  giant  phasma.  (Mantis  gigas,  Lin.)     'Ihis 
insect  measures  six  or  eiglit  inches  in  length, 
and  is  of  a  very  h'ligtl.ened  sliape  both  in 
thorax   and  aOdomen,   which  are  of  a  sub- 
cylindric  form,  the  thoiax  being  roughened 
on  the  edges  and  upper  suriace  by  numerous 
small   spines   or  tubi-rc!es  ;    the  upper  wings 
are  small,  green,  and  veined  like  the  leai  es 
of  a  plant,  while  the  lower  are  very  ample, 
reachnii:  liah  the  length  of  the  body  or  fartlicr, 
of  a  very  pale  tran>|jaient  brown,   elegantly 
varied    and   lesselated   by    tlarker  spots  and 
patches:  the  legs  are  of  moderate  ieiiilh,  with 
the  joints  roughened  by   spines.     Tlie   larva 
and  pupa  of  this  species  bear  a  more  singular 
appearance  than   even  the  complete  in.^ect, 
greatly  reseniblhig,  on  a  general  y:ew,  a  piece 
of  dry  stick  with  several  small  broken  twigs 
adhering  to  it ;  for  this   reason  it  lias   been 
generally  known  in  collections  by  the  name 
of  the  walking-stick,  and  under  this  title  is 
figured  in   Edwards's  Gleanings  of  Nat:  r.'l 
History,  and  many  other  publiealions.     i;  ,>■, 
however,    probable,   that  though   of   a    pale 
brown  in  its  dry  state,  it  is  in  reality  preen 
when  living  ;  the  natural  colour  iading  alter 
death,  as  in  many  others  of  this  tribe.     It  is  a 
native  of  the  island  of  Amboina.     It  may  be 
added,  that  this  insect  either  runs  info  several 
varieties  as  to  size  and  some  other  particulars, 
or  that  there  exist  in  reality  many  distinct 
species,  which  have  been  confounded  under 
cue  common  name. 

The  phasma  dilataturo  is  another  extraor- 
dinary species,  and  seems  to  have  been  lirs-t 
described  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Linna'an  Society,  by  Mr.  John 
Parkinson. 

It  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  Asia,  and 
belongs  to  that  tribe  of  in-ects  which  Stoll  lias 
called  spectres,  and  which  constitute  a  dis- 
tinct genus  from  that  of  maitis.  It  measures  . 
six  inches  and  a  quarter  fron.  the  upper  part 
or  top  of  the  head  to  the  exiremi  y  of  the 
abdomen.  The  whole  animal  is  of  a  tijttened 
form,  more  especially  on  lli.'  abdomen,  winch 
measures  about  an  inch  and  a  half  across  in 
its  broadest  part :  the  thorax  is  of  an  obtusely 
rhomboidal  form,  the  slides  sloping  each  way, 
from  the  flattish  upper  part.  The  wliole  thorax 
is  not  oniy  ed^'ed  with  spines,  but  lias  also  se- 
vcrrd  very  sharp  ones  distantly  scattered  over 
its  surface.  The  head  rises  up  backwards  into 
an  obtusely  conic  shape,  and  has  several  very 
strong  and  lame  spines  or  processes,  'i'he 
abdomen  is  edged,  almost  throughout  its 
whole  length,  wiiji  a  continued  series  of  small 
spines,  to  the  iiumher  of  hve  on  the  side  of 
each  individual  segineiit:  the  extreme  seg- 
ments are  without  spines.  The  thighs  or  first 
joints  of  the  lower  pair  of  legs  are  in  this  in- 
sect remarkably  strong,  of  a  somewhat  trian- 
gular shape,  and  beset  with  some  strong 
spines ;  but  the  tibi;^  or  second  joints  are 


f  H  1 

armed  nitli  farlarjiitTand  slrongcr  ones.  The:  j 
general  colour  uf  llii-  thorax,  alxloincn,  and  i 
head,  is  brown  in  tlic  di*ail,  but  miglU  pro- 
bably have  beeji  grci-n  in  tlic  hvin;^,  animal. 
The  wings  an-  scarcely  laigi  r  than  the  elytra 
or  wing-slieatlis,  and  seem  originally  to  liave 
been  reddish  ;  the  tips  are  green,  'i'he-e 
nings  are  very  strongly  veined  with  brown 
fibres  ;  the  wing-cases  are  ot  a  stronj;  npake 
green,  and  were  doubtless  more  vivid  In  the 
living  insect:  they  have  a  great  reseniijlance 
to  a  pairol'  leaves.  The  nioiilh  has  tbur  paljii, 
wliicli  are  rather  long,  and  under  the  month 
are  situated  two  le.it'-sha|:ed  organ-,  perhaps 
belonging  to  the  action  ot  that  part.  The 
abdomen  is  terminated  l)y  a  kind  of  boat- 
shaped  organ,  the  keel  ot  which  possesses  a 
considerable  sp.ice  beneath  the  abdomen,  so 
that  fewer  segments  appear  on  that  [lart  than 
above.  The  concavity  of  this  organ  is  co- 
vered by  a  terminal  scale  and  biiid  process, 
constituting  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  on  tlie 
upper  part.  On  raising  this  valve,  an  ovum, 
nearly  of -the  size  of  a  pea,  but  of  a  more 
lengthened  form,  is  discnvered  lying  in  the 
cavity  beneatli  ;  and  on  inspecting  farther  into 
lheca>'ity  ot  the  abdomen,  a  great  many  more 
ova,  exactly  similar,  were  found,  to  th-  num- 
ber 01  five  or  six  and  twenty  :  these  eggs  are 
of  a  slightly  oblong  shape,  but  ilattened  at  one 
end ;  they  are  of  a  brown  colour,  and  marked 
all  over  with  numerous  impressed  points,  and 
have  on  one  side  a  mark  or  double  waved 
line,  so  dis])osed  as  to  re|)resent  a  kind  of 
cross,  as  if  carved  on  the  surface  ;  the  Ilattened 
end  is  surrounded  by  a  small  rim  or  ledge, 
and  seems  to  be  the  part  which  ojjens  at  tlie 
exclusion  of  the  larva,  since  it  readily  separates 
from  the  rest.  On  immersing  some  of  these 
ova  in  warm  water,  and  opening  tlunn,  the  in- 
cluded yolk,  of  a  deep  yellow  col<,ur,  and  of 
the  appearance  of  a  transparent  gum,  was 
discovered  ;  and  this,  when  burned,  allbrded 
the  usual  smell  of  animal  substances,  but  in 
some  it  w;is  accompanied  by  a  slight  degree 
ol  ii.ig ranee. 

Some  insects  of  this  genus,  like  the  pre- 
ceding, are  remarkable  for  the  extreme,  and 
even  deceptive  resemblance  which  their  upper 
wings  bear  to  leaves  of  trees.  This  is  a  wise 
provision  of  nature  for  the  security  of  the 
animal  against  the  attacks  of  birds,  aj  well  as 
for  the  more  ready  attainment  of  its  prev ; 
since  when  sitting  among  the  branches,  it 
eludes  the  notice  of  both. 

PlIKASANT.  See  I'h.^si.inus. 
l'Hi':Lt,ANnR!UM,  iMtcr-htmlock.  a 
genus  of  the  digynia  order,  in  the  pentantlria 
class  of  plants.  The  florets  of  the  disk,  aie 
smaller  ;  fruit  ovate,  even  crowned,  with  the 
periaiithium  and  pistiUum.  '1  here  are  two 
species,  one  of  which,  viz.  the  aiiuatirum,  is  a 
native  of  15ritain.  'I'his  grows  in  ditche".  and 
pi>nds,  luit  is  not  very  common.  The  stalk 
is  remarkably  thick  and  dichotomoui,  and 
grows  in  llie  water.  It  is  a  poison  to  iiorses, 
bringing  upon  them,  as  Linnicus  informs  us, 
a  kind  of  palsy,  which,  however,  he  supposes 
to  be  owing  not  so  much  to  the  noxious  ciua- 
lities  of  the  plant  itsidl,  as  to  th'i>e  of  an  in- 
sect tthicli  feeds  upon  il,  bn  ediiig  within  the 
stalks,  and  which  he  calls  curculio  paraplccti- 
cus. 

PHILADEI.PHirs,  the  pipc-tne,  or 
movk  nrdHi^c,  a  genusot  the  monogvnia  order, 
in  the  icosandria  clas;-  of  plants.  '1  he  species 
are : 


V  n  T, 

1.  Tliccoronarius,  while  syringa,  or  mo(k 
orange,  has  been  long  cultivated  in  the  gar- 
dens of  this  couiilry  as  a  (lowering  shrub;  it 
is  not  well  known  in  what  country  it  is  to  l)e 
found  native.  2.  The  scoparius.  3.  'I'lie 
aromaticus.  4.  The  laniger.  'Ihe  projiagatioii 
ot  all  the  sorts  is  very  easy  :  they  arc  increas- 
ed by  layers,  cuttings,  oi"  suckers. 

nilLLYREA,  m.orlc  privd,  a  genus  of 
the  monogynia  order,  in  tlv  diaudria  class  of 
plants.  Each  flower  contai.is  two  males  and 
one  female,  'J'liere  are  three  species,  all  of 
them  shrubby  plants,  and  natives  of  France 
or  Italy. 

1.  Pliillyrea  media,  the  oval-leaved  pliilly- 
rea,  or  mock  jirivet,  or  the  medical-leaved 
phillyrea,  a  tall  evergreen  shrub,  native  of 
the  south  of  Kuropi'.  '2.  Phillyrea  latifolia, 
the  broad-leavei!  phillyrea,  or  mock  privet,  a 
tall  evergreen  shrub,  native  of  the  south  of 
Europe,  o.  Piiillyrea  angustifolia,  the  nar- 
row-leaved philiyiea,  or  mock  privet,  a  de- 
ciduous shrub,  native  of  Spain  and  Italy. 

PIJIJ.OLOGY,  a  science,  or  rather  assem- 
blage of  several  sciences,  consisting  of  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  poetry,  antiquities,  history,  and 
criticism. 

PHILOSOPHY.  See  Experimental 
and  Natur.^l  Philosophy,  Ethics,  &c. 

riilLVDRUM,  a  g<M.iis  of  the  class  and 
order  monandria  monogynia.  The  spathe  is 
one-Howired  ;  periantliium  none  ;  corolla 
four-petalled,  irregular ;  capsule  three-celled, 
many-seeded.  'I  here  is  one  species,  a  herb 
of  China. 

PHLEROTOMY.    See  Surgery. 

PHLEUM,  ciii's-lail  L^russ,  a  gL-nus  of  the 
triandria  digynia  class  of  plants,  tlie  corolla  of 
which  consists  of  two  valves;  and  the  seed, 
which  is  single,  is  included  within  the  calyx 
and  corolla.  'I'here  are  four  sj)ecies.  See 
Husbandry. 

PH  LOAS,  a  genus  of  vermes  testacea ;  the 
animal  an  ascidia;  shell  bivalve,  divaricate, 
witii  several  lesser  ditferenllv  shaped  acces- 
sory ones  at  the  hinge  ;  hinges  recurved, 
united  by  a  cartilage:  in  the  inside,  beneath 
tiie  hinge,  is  an  incurved  tooth.  The  inlia- 
bitants  of  this  genus  perforate  clay,  spongy 
stones  and  wood,  while  in  the  younger  state  ; 
and  as  they  increase  in  size,  enlarge  their  ha- 
bitation within,  and  thus  become  inii)risoi)ed. 
'I'liey  contain  a  phosphorous  Ii'|uor  of  great 
brilliancy  in  the  dark,  and  ■whicli  illuminates 
whatever  it  touches  or  happens  to  tail  upon. 
'I'here  are  12  species. 

All  that  we  can  know  with  certainty  is,  that 
they  must  have  pc-netrated  these  substances 
wiien  very  small,  becai^se  the  entrance  of  the 
hole  in  whicli  the  phloas  lodges  is  always  much 
less  than  the  inner  part  of  it,  and  inileed  than 
the  shell  of  the  pliloas  itself.  Heiice  some 
have  supposed  that  they  were  hatched  in  holes 
accidentally  formed  in  stones,  and  that  tliev 
naturally  grew  of  such  a  shape  as  was  neces- 
sary to  till  the  cavity. 

The  holes  in  which  these  insects  lodg-^,  are 
usually  twice  as  deep,  at  least,  as  the  '■hells 
themselves  are  Irng;  the  figure  of  the  ho'i-s 
is  that  of  a  truncated  cone,  excepting  that 
they  are  terminated  at  tlie  botloai  by  a 
rounded  cavity,  and  their  position  is  usually 
somewhat  obli(|Ue  to  the  horizon.  Thecpeii- 
ings  of  these  holes  are  w  hat  betray  the  phloas 
bi'ing  in  the  stone  ;  but  they  are  alw  a'v  s  very 
small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  tiie  iisli. 
3  F  3 


P  II  4. 


AH 


There  seems  to  he  no  progressive  inotioii  of 
any  animal  in  na.ture  so  slow  as  that  of  th'e 
|.'hloas;'it  is  in:mersed  in  l!;e  hole,  and  lias 
no  movement  except  a  small  one  towards  tlie 
centre  ot  the  eartii;  and  this  is  only  pro- 
portioned to  l);e  growth  of  the  animal.  Its 
work  is  very  ditiicult  in  its  motion ;  but  it  has 
great  timi!  to  perform  it  in,  as  it  only  moves 
downwards,  sinking  itself  deeper  in  the  stone 
as  it  increases  itself  in  hulk.  That  part  by 
means  of  wfiich  it  performs  this  is  a  fleshy 
substance  placed  near  the  lower  extremity  of 
the  sb.eil ;  it  is  of  the  shape  of  a  lozenge,  and 
is  considerably  large  in  proportion  to  tiie  s:ze 
of  the  animal';  and  though  it  is  of  a  solt  si(b- 
stance,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  in  so 
long  a  time  it  is  able,  by  constant  work,  to 
bu:row  into  a  hard  stone.  Ihe  manner  of 
their  performing  this  may  be  seen  bv  taking 
one  of  them  out  of  the  stone,  and  placing  it 
upon  some  soft  clay  ;  for  ti.ey  will  immediately 
get  to  work  in  bending  and  exf  iiding  that 
part  allotted  to  dig  for  them,  and  in  a  fcv/ 
hours  they  will  bury  themselves  in  the  mud 
in  as  large  a  hole  as  they  had  taken  many 
years  to  make  in  the  stone.  They  find  little 
resistance  in  so  soft  a  substance ;  and  the  ne- 
cessity of  their  hiding  themselves  evidently 
ir.akes  them  hasten  their  work.  The  animal 
is  lodged  in  tlie  lower  half  of  the  hole  in  the 
stone,  and  the  upper  half  is  filled  up  by  a  pipe 
of  a  fleshy  substance  and  conical  figure,  trun- 
cated at  the  end.  This  they  usiiahy  extend 
to  the  orilice  of  the  hole,  and  place  on  a  level 
with  the  surface  of  the  stone;  but  they  sel- 
dom extend  it  any  farther  than  this.  'The 
pipe,  though  it  appears  single,  is  in  reality 
com|)osed  of  two  |)ipes,  or  at  least  it  is  com- 
posed of  two  parts  separated  by  a  membrane. 
I  he  use  of  this  pip<?  or  ])robo?cis  is  the  same 
with  that  of  the  proboscis  of  other  shell-fish,  to 
take  in  sea-water  into  their  bodies,  and  after- 
wards to  tluow  it  out  again,  fn  the  middle 
of  theirbodiesthey  havea  small  green  vessel, 
the  use  of  which  has  not  yet  been  discovered. 
Tills,  w  lien  plunged  in  spirit  of  wine,  becomes 
of  a  purple  colo;  r  ;  but  its  colour  on  linen 
will  not  beconm  j>urple  in  the  sun  like  (!iat  of 
the  murex  ;  and  even  if  it  would,  its  quantity 
is  too  small  to  make  it  worth  preserving. 

'ihe  phloas  is  remarkable  for  its  luminous 
qiiality.  'J'hat  thistish  is  luminous  was  no- 
ticed by  Pliny,  who  observes  that  il  shines  in 
the  moutli  of  tlie  person  who  eats  it ;  and  if  it 
touches  liis  hands  or  clothes,  it  makes  them 
luminous.  He  also  says  that  the  light  de- 
pends upon  its  moisture.  The  light  of  this 
lish  has  furnished  matter  for  various  observa- 
tions and  experiments  to  M.  Reaunmr  and  the 
Bolognian  academicians,  especially  Beccarius, 
who  took  so  much  pains  with  the  subject  of 
phosphoreal  liglit. 

M.  Heaumur  observes,  that  whereas  other 
fishes  give  light  wl.en  they  tend  to  putres- 
cence, this  is  more  limiinous  in  proportioH  to 
its  being  fresh  ;  that  when  they  are  dried, 
their  liglil  will  revive  if  they  are  moistened 
either  with  U\  sii  or  salt  water,  but  that  brands 
immediately  extinguishes  it.  He  endeavoured 
to  make  this  ligiit  permanent,  but  none  of  his 
schemes  succeeded. 

The  attention  of  the  Pologuian  acader.ii- 
ciar.s  was  engaged  to  tiiis  subject  by  M.  V. 
Marsilius,  in  1724,  who  brought  a  number  of 
these  lisl'.es,  and  the  stones  in  which  they 
were  enclosed,  to  Dologna,  on  puq^jse  far 
their  examination. 


412 


P  H  L 


Beccarlus  observed,  that  though  this  &h 
ceased  to  shine  when  it  becanie  putrid,  \et 
that  in  its  ino.^t  putrid  stjtif  it  would  siiiiie, 
and  ni.ike  ths  water  in  which  itwai  inimersed 
luminous  whtn  it  was  agitiited.  GaU-atius 
and  Montuis  found  that  wine  and  vinegar  ex- 
tinguished this  light ;  that  in  common  oil  it 
continued  some  days,  but  in  rcctitjed  spirit  of 
wine  or  urine,  hardly  a  minute. 

In  order  to  oiiserve  in  what  manner  this 
light  was  alVected  by  different  degrees  of  heat, 
tiiey  made  use  of  a'  Reaumur's  thermometer, 
and' found  tliat  water  rendered  luminou&by 
tiiese  lishes  increased  in  liglit  till  the  heat  ar- 
rived to  4j\  but  that  it  then  became  suddenly 
extinct,  and  could  not  be  revived  again. 

Ill  the  experiments  of  Beccarius,  a  solution 
of  sea-salt  increased  the  light  of  the  luminous 
water;  a  solution  of  uitre  did  not  increase  it 
ciuite  so  much.  Sal  ammoniac  diminished  it 
a  little,  oil  of  tartar  per  deliiiuium  nearly^  e.x- 
linguisiied  it,  anil  the  acids  entirely.  This 
water  poured  upon  fre^h  calcined  gypsum, 
rock  crystal,  ceruse,  or  sugar,  became  more 
luminous.  He  aUo  tried  the  effects  ol  it 
when  poured  upon  various  other  substances, 
but  there  was  nothing  very  remarkable  in 
them.  ^Mterwards,  using  luminous  milk,  he 
fouiul  that  oil  of  vitriol  extinguished  the  liglit, 
but  that  of  tartar  increased  it. 

This  gentleman  had  the  curiosity  to  try  how 
differentlv-coloured  substances  were  aifected 
by  this  kind  of  light;  and  having,  for  this 
purpose,  dipped  several  ribbons  in  it,  the 
white  came  out  the  brightest,  next  to  this  was 
tliE  yellow,  and  then  the  green ;  tlie  other 
colours  could  hardly  be  perceived.  It  was 
not,  however,  aiiv  particular  colour,  but  only 
light,  that  was  perceived  in  this  case.  IK- 
then  dipped  boards  painted  with  the  tlilierent 
colourSj  and  also  glass  tubes  Tilled  with  sub- 
stances of  dil'ferent  colours,  in  wati-r  rendered 
luminous  by  the  lishes.  In  both  these  cases, 
the  red  was' hardly  visible,  the  yellow  was  the 
brightest,  and  the  violet  the  dullest.  But  on 
the  boards,  the  blue  was  nearly  equal  to  the 
yellow,  and  the  green  more  languiil ;  whereas 
in  the  glasses,  the  blue  was  inferior  to  the 
green . 

Of  all  the  ru]UDrs  to  wliich  he  put  the 
phloades,  milk  was  rendered  the  most  lu- 
minous. A  single  phloa;-  made  seven  ounces 
of  milk  so  luminous,  that  the  faces  of  persons 
might  be  distinguished  by  it^ajul  it  looked  as 
if  it  was  transparent. 

.■\ir  appeared  to  be  necessary  to  this  light; 
for  when  Beccarius  i)ut  the  luminous  milk, 
into  glass  tribes,  no  agitation  would  make  it 
shine  unless  bubbles  of  airwi're  mixed  with  it. 
Also  MontiLrs  and  Galcatius  found,  that,  in  an 
exhausted  receiver,  the  phloas  !o>t  its  light, 
but  the  water  was  sometimes  made  more  lu- 
minous ;  which  tliey  ascribed  to  the  rising  of 
bubbles  of  air  through  it. 

Beccarius,  as  well  as  Reaumur,  had  many 
srbeni-.s  to  render  the  light  of  these  phloades 
pernmiient.  For  this  purpose  In;  kiieaded 
the  juice  into  a  kind  of  paste  with  flour,  and 
fouad  that  it  would  give  light  when  it  wasim- 
iriersed  in  warm,  water;  but  it  answered  best 
fo  preserve  the  fish  in  honey.  In  any  other 
method  of  preservation,  the  property  of  be- 
coining  luminous  would  not  coiitiu'.Kf  longer 
than  six  months,  but  in  honey  it  had  lasted 
above  a  year;  and  then  it  would,  when  plun- 
g'd  in  w-itiu  water,  civc  as  mutii  light  as  ever 
il  Iwd  duuc. 


P  H  O 

PIIL0M13,  th?  sagc-trce,  ox  JeruVtlan 
S(r^f,  a  geiuis  of  tne  gymnospermia  order,  in 
the  diilvnamia  class  ol  plants.  The  calyx  is 
angular;  cirolla,  upper  lip  incumbent,  com- 
pres'^ed,  villose.  There  are  '22  species,  all  of 
which  have  perennial  roots,  and  of  many  the 
stalks  also  are  perennial.  The  latter  rise  Irom 
two  to  live  or  six  feet  \\i%\\,  and  are  adorned 
with  vellow,  blue,  or  purple  flowers  in  whorls. 
They"  are  all  oniameut.il  [ilants,  and  deserve 
a  place  in  gardens  or  greenhouses.  Some  are 
sullicientiv  hardy  to  endure  the  or(hnary 
winters  iii  this  climate,  but  they  reipiire  a 
pretty  warm  situation. 

PHLOX,  lychnidai,  or  husliird  hichinn,  a 
genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  in  the  i).;n- 
tandria  class  of  plants.  The  corolla  is  salver- 
shaped  ;  hiam.  unequal ;  sligina  trilid;  calyx 
prismatical ;  capsules  three-celled,  one-seed- 
ed. There  are  12  species,  all  but  one  natives 
of  North  America.  They  have  perennial 
roots,  from  which  arise  herbaceous  stalks  from 
nine  inches  to  two  feet  iu  height,  adorned 
with  tubulated  (lowers  of  a  white  or  purple 
colour.  I'hey  are  propagatetl  by  offsets,  and 
willljearthe  winter  in  thiscountry.  They  re- 
<|uire  a  moist  rich  soil,  in  which  ihey  thrive 
better  and  grow  taller  than  in  any  other. 

PHOCA,  seal,  a  genus  of  iiuadiupeds  of 
the  order  ll'r.e.  The  generic  character  is, 
fore-teetli  in  the  upper  jaw  six,  pointed,  pa- 
rallel, the  exterior  larger  ;  in  tlie  lower  jaw 
four,  bluntish,  parallel,  distinct,  equal ;  ca- 
nine t:-eth  one  on  each  side  in  both  jaws,  large, 
poiiited;  the  upper  ones  dis_tinct  from  the 
cutting-teeth,  the  lower  fro.n  the  grinders  ; 
grinders  live  on  each  side  above,  six  below, 
oliiusely  tricuspidated.  This  genus  is  ma- 
rine. It  is,  however,  so  constituted  as  to  re- 
quire occasionally  some  intervals  of  repose, 
and  even  a  considerable  degree  of  continuance, 
on  dry  land  ;  forsaking,  at  particular  periods, 
the  water,  and  congregating  in  vast  mul- 
titudes on  the  shores,  on  floating  ice,  or  on 
insulated  rocks,  especially  during  the  season 
in  which  the  voung  are  produced.  See  Am- 
phibious. There  are  about  !9  species,  the 
most  noted  of  which  are  : 

1.  Phoca  vitulina,  the  common  seal,  is  a 
native  of  the  European  seas,  and  is  found 
about  all  the  coasts  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, and  even  extends  as  far  as  the  oppo- 
site one,  being  seen  in  vast  numbers  about  the 
southern  polar  regions.  It  also  inhabits  some 
fresh-water  lakes,'  as  that  of  Baikal,  Oron,  &:c. 
and  in  these  lakes  it  is  considerably  smaller, 
but  much  fatter,  llian  when  found  in  Hie  sea. 

The  size  of  the  seal  varies,  but  its  general 
lengtlv  seems  to  be  from  live  to  six  feet.  The 
head  is  large  and  round,  the  neck  small  and 
short;  on  each  side  the  mouth  are  situated 
several  strong  vibrissa!  or  whiskers,  each  hair 
being  marked  throunhout  its  whole  length 
with  numerous  alternate  contractions  and  di- 
lalions.  The  |)arls  about  the  slioulders  and 
breast  are  very  thick,  and  thence  the  body 
tapers  towards  the  taiJ.  The  eyes  are  large; 
there  are  no  external  ears ;  the  tongue  is 
bilid  or  cleft  at  the  tip.  The  legs  are  so  very 
short  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible;  and  the 
liindcH'  ones  are  so  placed  as  to  be  only  of  use 
to  the  animal  in  swimming,  or  but  very  little 
to  assist  it  ill  walking,  being  situated  at  the 
exireinily  of  the  bodv,  and  close  to  each 
oilier.  All  the  feet  are  strongly  webbed,  but 
the  hind  ones  much  more  widely  and  con- 


P  II  o 

splcuously  than  the  fore.  Tiic  foes  on  all  the 
feet  are  live  in.  number,  and  the  claws  are 
strong  and  sharp.  The  tail  is  very  short.  The 
whole  animal  is  covered  with  short  thick-set 
hair.  In  colour  the  seal  varies  considerably, 
being  sometimes  grey,  sometimes  brown  or 
blackish,  and  sometimes  variously  patched  or 
spotted  with  white  or  yellowish.  When  these 
animals  collect  together  in  great  numbirs  on 
the  shore,  they  dilfuse  a  very  strong  and  dis- 
agreeable smell. 

Seals  may  often  be  observed  sleeping  on  the 
tops  of  rocks,  near  the  coast;  but  when  ap- 
proached they  suddenly  ]5recipitate  them- 
selves into  the  water.  .Sometimes,  however,, 
their  sleep  is  very  profound,  and  it  is  even 
allirmed  by  some  that  the  seal  sleeps  more 
profoundly  than  most  other  quiulrupeds.  The 
seal  is  possessed  of  a  considerable  degree  of 
intelligence,  and  may  be  tamed,  so  as  to  be- 
come perfectly  familiar  with  those  to  whose 
care  it  is  committed,  and  even  to  exhibit  se- 
veral tricks  and  gesticulations.  Of  this  we 
have  numerous  ex.imples.  The  female  seaU 
produce  theiryoung  in  the  winter  season,  ani 
seldom  bring  more  than  two  at  a  birth.  It  is 
said  that  they  suckle  the  young  for  about  the 
space  of  a  fortnight  on  the  spot  where  they 
were  born,  after  which  they  take  them  out  to 
sea,  and  instruct  thein  in  swimming  and' 
seeking  for  their  food,  which  consists  not  only 
of  lish,  but  of  sea-weeds,  &c.  &c.  When  the 
young  aie  fatigued,  the  parent  is  said  to  carry 
them  on  its  back.  The  sealis  supposed  tobe 
a  long-lived  anhnal,  and  llulioM  is  even  in- 
clined to  suppose  that  it  may  attain  to  the  age 
of  a  hundred  years.  The  voice  of  a  full- 
grown  seal  is  a  hoarse  kind  of  sound,  not  un- 
like the  barking  of  a  dog:  that  of  the  young 
resembles  the  mew  ing  of  a  kitten.  Tliey  have, 
however,  like  most  other  quadrupeds,  va- 
rious inflections  of  voice,,  according  to  the 
passions  with  which  they  are  inspired.  They 
are  said  to  delight  in  thun(ler-stornii+,  and  ii 
such  periods  to  sit  on  the  rocks  and  contem- 
plate with  seeming  tlelight  the  convulsions  of 
the  elements;  in  this  respect  dill'eriiig  widely 
from  the  tcrrestrialquadrupeds,  which  are  e.x- 
traucly  terrified  at  such  times.  Seals  are  gi> 
nerally  very  fat,  and  are  hunted  in  the  north- 
ern regions  for  the  sake  of  their  oil,  whicli 
forms  a  great  article  of  commerce:  their  skins 
aho  are  much  used  for  various  a-conomical 
purposes.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  tig.  333. 

i.  Phoca  ursiua,  ursine  seal.  'I  his  is  one 
of  the  larger  seals,  growing,  to  the  length  of 
eight  feet,  and  weighing  tight  hundred  pounds. 
The  female  falls  far  short  of  the  size  and 
weight  of  the  male.  The  length  of  thp  fore 
legs  IS  about  twenty-four  inches,  and  they  are 
less  immersed  in  thk-  body  than  those  of  other 
seals;  the  feet  are  formed  wilh  toe<,  but  arc 
covered  with  a  n.iked  skin,  and  liave  merely 
the  rudiments  of  nail?,  giving  them  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  turtle's  fin  ;  the  hind  legs  are 
twenty-two  inches  long,  and  are  lixed  to  the 
body  behind,  but  are  capable  of  being  brought 
quite  forwards  tccasionally,  so  that  the  animal 
can  rub  its  head  with  them ;  these  feet  are 
dividid  into  five  toes,  separated  by  a  Isrgc 
web,  and  are  a  foot  broad:  the  tall  is  only 
two  inches  long.  The  hair  is  long  and  rough, 
and  beneath  it  is  a  soft  down  cf  a  bay  colour  ; 
on  the  neck  of  the  male  ll.e  hair  is  upright, 
and  a  little  longer  than  the  rest.  The  ge- 
neral colour  of  the  aiurual  is  black,  but  the 
hair  of  the  old. ones  is  tipped  with  grey,  owl 


P  H  O 

flip  fi'mult's  ai'P  cinpreous.  Tlic  flosli  of  (lie 
ffiii.'ilos  ami  tlie  yciinj;  is  s;\i(l  to  ri-sfiiilili" 
lamb,  and  tlie  young  are  said  to  be  as  good 
•a^  Slicking  pigs. 

Tlujy  live  in  f;miilies;  cacb  male  lia<i  from 
right  lo  liltv  female::,  whom  he  i;iiard:<  with 
the  jealousy  of  an  l'".a^tem  moiiareh.  'Ihou'^h 
tlipy  lie  1)V  thousaEuls  on  the  shore,  each 
family  keeps  itscll  separate  from  the  rest,  and 
is  sonietiines  so  mmierous  as  to  amount  to 
above  a  hundre.l  The  oid  animals  which 
liave  been  de>erli.(l  by  the  females,  are  said 
to  live  apail,  and  are  nioit  excessively  splene- 
tic anil  ciuanclsome.  They  are  extremi'ly 
fierce,  and  enormously  fat.  It  soiiielimes  hap- 
pens that  they  approach  orinlrnde  upon  each 
otiicfs  station,  in  which  case  a  battle  ensues 
belween  the  two  individuals;  and  they,inthe 
contlict,  dist\u-b  the  repose  of  some  of  their 
neighbours,  tdl  in  the  end  the  discord  beconu'S 
universal,  and  is  in  a  manner  :,])nMd  through 
the  whole  shore.  I'-Nclusive  of  the  contests 
b  'tw;-en  these  solitary  males,  similar  disai^ree- 
inents  take  place  belween  tho.e  who  live  in  a 
more  social  state,  eitlur  from  invading  each 
others'  seats,  endeavouring  to  allure  the  fe- 
males, or  interfering  in  the  dispvites  of  their 
neighboui's.  These  conflicts  are  very  vi.)leiU, 
and  the  wCTUids  they  receive  are  very  deep, 
and  resemble  the  cuts  of  a  sabre.  At  tlie  end 
of  the  fray  they  lling  them.^elics  into  the  sea 
lo  wash  away  the  blood.  They  shew  a  great 
allachment  to  their  young,  and  shew  all  the 
3i  nis  of  the  deepest  concern  on  losing  them. 

The  ur?.ine  seal  is  aninhabitant  of  the  islands 
HI  the  neighb.HU-hood  of  Kamtschatka.  In 
these  islands  they  are  seen  from  June  to  .Sep- 
tember, during  wiiich  time  they  breed  and 
*-.iucate  their  young.  In  September  they 
are  said  to  quit  their  statioutr,  and  to  retitrn. 
Some  to  the  Askitic,  and  some  to  the  American 
shore;  bat  are  generally  conlined  to  a  space 
in  those  seas  between  lat.  SO  and  jG.  'I'lu-y 
swim  very  swiltly,  at  the  rate  of  seven  miles 
an  hour,  and  are'very  lierce  and  strong.  They 
are  said  to  be  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  to 
live  a  fortnight  after  receiving  such  wounds  as 
would  imm  cKately  destroy  alniust  any  other 
animal. 

3.  i'hoca  leonina,  bottle-nosed  seal.'  This 
species  (in  the  male)  is  distniguished.by  its 
projectin'T  snout,  which  hangs  several  mches 
over  the  Tuwer  j  uv ;  the  upper  part  consisting 
of  a  loose  wrinkled  skin,  which  the  animal, 
when  angrv,  has  a  pov,-er  of  inflating,  so  as  to 
give  the  nose  an  arched  or  hooked  appear- 
ance. It  is  a  very  large  species,  the  male 
measuring  twenty,  and  the  female  about 
eighteen  leet  in  length.  The  feet  are  ihort: 
the  hinder  ones  webbed  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  resemble  a  kind  of  lins. 

In  the  British  Museum  is  a  tolerably  well 
preserved  skin  of  a  female,  which  formerly 
belonged  to  the  museum  of  the  Uoyal  Society. 
This  s|)ecies  inhabi's  the  seas  about  New  Zea- 
land, the  Island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  and  the 
Falkland  islands.  In  Juan  Fernandez,  during 
the  breeding-season,  viz.  in  June  and  July, 
they  are  seen  in  great  numb  ts  suckling  their 
yo  ing  on  the  shove.  They  bring  two  young 
at  a  Urth  ;  the  females  are  observed  to  be  ex- 
c-s-sively  herce  during  the  tinu!  of  rearing  the 
vonn;';' towards  evening  both  tin-  male  anil 
ii-nvale  swim  out  a  little  way  to  sea,  the  female 
bearing  the  young  on  her  back,  wliich  it  is  I 
said  the  mile"  frequently  pushes  off,  in  order  | 
tj-  oblige  them  to  exercise  Ihek  swimming  ' 


P  II  O 

powers.  On  the  ai  rival  of  the,  e  animals  on 
the  breeding-islands,  they  are  said  to  be  so  ex- 
cessively fat  as  to  resemble  skins  of  oil;  the 
tremulous  motion  of  the  blubber  being  plainly 
perceiv.ible  beneath  the  skin.  A  siniile  ani- 
mal has  been  known  to  yield  a  butt  of  oil,  and 
lo  be  so  full  of  blood  that  what  has  run  out  has 
liile<l  two  liogsheads.  'I  he  flesh  is  eatable. 
Lord  Anson's  sailors  ate  it  under  the  deno- 
mination of  beef,  to  distinguish  it  from  that  of 
the  beal,  which  they  termed  lamb. 

4.  Phocajubata,  sea  lion,  or  leonine  seal. 
This  is  so  termed  from  the  large  and  loose 
mane  or  floating  hairwilli  which  the  head  and 
neck  of  the  male  are  furnished.  'I'he  nose  is 
short  and  turns  up  a  little,  the  eyes  are  large, 
the  whiskers  very  large  and  strong,  the  hair 
on  the  whole  body  is  smooth,  short,  and 
glossy,  its  colour  is  a  deep  brown;  but 
ihose  of  this  species  which  are  found  in 
Kamtschatka  are  said  lo  be  reddish,  and  the 
females  tawnv.  'I'he  males  are  far  larger  thnn 
females,  and  grow  from  the  length  of  from  ten 
to  fourteen  leet;  the  females  are  from  six  to 
eight  feet,  and  of  a  more  slender  form  than 
the  males.  'I'he  weight  of  a  full-grown  male 
isfrom  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred  pounds.  A 
still  greater  size  has  been  ascribed  to  those  of 
Falkland  isles,  viz.  tl-.al  of  twenty-live  feet  in 
length,  and  nineteen  or  twenty  feet  round  the 
shoulderi. 

These  animals  inhabit,  in  vast  numbers,  the 
islands  called  Penguin  and  Seal  islands,  near 
C.'.pe  Desire,  on  the  coast  of  Patagonia  ;  and 
are  found  witiiin  the  Magellanic  straits,  and 
on  Falkland  islands,  but  liave  not  been  dis- 
covered in  any  other  part  of  the  southern 
hemisphere,  nor  in  any  other  place  nearer  than 
the  sea  betvireen  KamlsGhatka  and  America. 
'I'hey  live  in  families  distinct  from  the  ursine 
;uid  other  seals;  their  manners,  however,  are 
nearly  the  same;  they  are  polygamous,  each 
male  being  accompanied  by  from  two  to  thirty 
lemales.  Ihe  males  utter  a  snorting  sound, 
and  occasionally  roar  like  bulls  ;  the  voice  of 
the  females  resembles  that  of  calves,  and  the 
young  bleat  like  lambs.  The  food  of  the 
leonine  seal  consists  of  the  smaller  kinds  of 
penguins,  lish,  seals,  &c.  but  during  the 
breeding-season  they  are  said  to  fast  for  three 
or  four  months,  during  which  time  they  swal- 
low a-nnmber  of  large  stones,  in  order  to  keep 
their  stomachs  in  a  distendecl  state. 

5.  Phoca  Inpina,  urigne  seal.  This  is  a 
smaller  species  than  the  former,  being  found 
from  about  three  to  eight  feet  in  length.  The 
b'jdy  is  thick  at  the  shoulders,  and  gradually 
lessens  to  the  hind  legs.  The  head  r<:seinbles 
that  of  a  dog  with  close-cut  ears;  the  nose  is 
short  and  blunt;  in  the  mouth  art- six  cutting 
tfeth  above,  and  four  'oeUiw ;  the  fore  feet  have 
four  toes  inclosed  in  a  irtembranaceous  slieath, 
so  as  lo  resemble  fins;  and  the  hind  feet  are 
liid  in  a  continuation  of  the  skin  of  the  back, 
and  have  five  toes  of  uneijnal  length  like  the 
fingers  of  the  human  hand;  the  tail  is  three 
inches  long ;  the  skin  is  covered  with  two  sorts 
of  hair,  one  like  Ih.at  of  an  ox,  the  otiier 
harder;  the  colours  are  various.  These  ani- 
ma's  are  the  sea-wolves  mentioned  by  navi- 
gators off  the  island  of  Lobos  near  the  river 
Plata.  They  are  said  to  appear  there  in  vast 
multitudes,  and  to  meet  the  siiips,  and  even  to 
hang  at  the  ship's  side  by  their  paws,  seeming 
to  stare  at  aiul  admire  the  crew,  then  drop 
c:f  i;nd  return  to  their.  Ibnuer  haunts.    The 


P  II  (T. 


4\: 


nallves  of  C'liili  kill  Ihcm  for  the  sake  of  tlK-ir 
oil. 

PIICr.MCOPTF.m'S,  or  Flamini-o, 
in  ornithology,  a  genus  of  birds  belonging  la 
the  order  of  gralhe.  The  beak  is  naked, 
teethi'd,  and  bent,  as  if  it  was  broken;  the 
noslrili  are  linear;  the  feet  are  palmated, 
and  f'uir-toed.  'IImtc  is  but  one  species,, 
viz.  the  bahamensis  of  CatCiby,  u  native  of 
Africa  ami  America. 

'I'his  bird  resembles  the  heron  in  sh<ipe, 
excepting  the  bill,  which  is  of  a  very  singular" 
form.  It  is  two  years  old  before  it  arrives  at 
its  pel  feci  colour,  and  then  it  is  entirely  red,. 
exce))ling  the  (iuill-feal!;ers,  which  are  blatk. 
A  full-grown  one  is  of  ei^ual  weight  with  a 
wild  duck  ;  and  when  it  stands  erect,  it  is  five- 
feet  high.  'I'he  feet  arc  webbed,  'i'he  flesli 
is  delicate,  and  most  resembles  that  of  a  par- 
tridge in  taste.'  'I  he  tongue,  above  luiy  otht  r 
|>art,  was  in  the  highest  esteem  with  the  luxu- 
rious P.omans.  'J  hese  birds  m_akc  their  iiesf* 
on  l.illorks  in  shallow  water,  on  which  liny 
sit  w  ith  tlieir  legs  extended  down,  like  a  niati 
sitting  on  a  stool.  They  breed  on  the  coasts 
of  Cuba  and  the  Bahama  islands  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  fre<iuent  salt  waler  only.  From 
the  particular  shape  of  its  bill,  this  bird,  iiv 
eating,  twists  its  neck  from  sidf  to  side,  and 
makes  the  tipper  mandible  touch  the  ground. 
They  are  very  stupid,  and  will  not  rise  at  lli^; 
report  of  a  gun  ;  nor  is  it  any  warning  to- 
those  who  survive  that  they  seeothers  killetl 
by  their  side;  so  that,  by  keeping  himself 
out  of  sight,  a  fowler  may  kill  as  many  as  he 
pleases. 

I'hese  birds  prefer  a  warm  cUmate,     In  flie 
old  continent  they  are  not  often  met  with 
beyond  40  degrees  north  or  south.     They 
are  met  with   every   where  on  the  African- 
coast  and  adjacent  isles,  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope:  and  sometimes  on  the  coasts  of  Spain, 
Italy,  and  those  of  I'rance  lying  in  the  Me- 
dileiraneau  sea;  being  at  times  found  at  Mar- 
seilles, and  for  some  way  uj)  the  Rhone.     lu- 
some  seasons  they  frequent  Aleppo  and  liie,. 
j)arts  adj;'.cent.    They  are  seen  also  on   tht^- 
Persian  side  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  thence 
along  the  western  coast  as  far  as  the  Wolga  ; 
though  this  is  at  uncertain  times,  and  chiellv 
in  considerable  flocks  coming  from  the  nortii- 
east,  mostly  in  October  and  November;  but 
as  soon  as  ihe  wind  change.s  they  totally  dis- 
appear.    1  hey  breed  in  the  Cape  Verd  isles,- 
parlivularly  that  of  Sal.     They  go  for  fhe 
most  part  together  in  (locks,  except  in  breed- 
ing tune.     '1  hey  are  very  numerous  at  the 
Cape;  kcepini  in  tlje  day  on  the  borders  of 
the  lakes  and  rivers,  and  lodging  ih.emselves 
at  night  iu  tlie  long  grass  on  the  hills.     Thev 
are   also  co.iimon  to   various  plates  in  liie 
warmer  parts  of  America,   frecmi-nting  the 
same  latitudes   as   in  other  <iuarlers  of  the 
world;  being  found  at  Peru,  Chili,  Cayenne,.. 
and  the  coast  of  Brasil,  as  well  as  the  vari.nis 
islands   of  the  West   Indies.     Sloane  found 
them  jn  Jamaica.     When  seen  at  a  distance,, 
they  appear  as  a  regiment  of  soldiers,  being 
ranged   alongside  one  another,  on  l!ie  hor- ■ 
dels  ot  the  rivers,  searching  for  food,  which.- 
chielly  consists  of  small  fish,  or  the  eg-.;s  of 
them  ;  and  of  waler-ins-.-cts.  whicii  they  search  ■ 
after  by  plunging  in  the  bill  and  part  ol  Ihe-- 
head,  from  lime  to  time  tram]>ling  with  their-' 
feet  to  muddy  tlie  water,  that  ihi-ir  prey  niay 
be  raised  from  the  botlom.     Mhilstth'ey  a:e- 
fecding,  one  of  them  is  said  lo  statid  seuiiiie]}. 


4U 

and  (he  moiaeiil  Ik  souikU  the  alarm,  tlio 
whole  llock  Uikus  Mil),:;;.  Tiiis  bird,  when  at 
rest,  stamls  on  one  leg,  the  other  being  drawn 
i;p  close  to  t!ie  body,  with  the  head  placed 
under  the  wing  on  that  side  of  the  body  it 
stands  0:1.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  tig.  33  J.' 

'I'hey  are  sometimes  caught  yoimg,  an<l  are 
brought  n|)  tame ;  b\it  are  always  impatient  of 
cold;  and  in  this  slate  will  seldom  !i\e  a 
great  while,  gradually  losing  their  colour, 
llesh,  and  appetite,  and  dying  for  want  of 
that  tiio'd  wliich  in  a  slate  of  nature  at  large 
tiiev  W(  re  abundant  y  stpplied  with. 

riiU'.XIX,  in  a^t^onotny,  one  <,f  the  con- 
blvilations  of  the  southern  liiMuisphere,  un- 
known to  the  antients,  and  invisible  in  our 
liuilhern  parts.     See  Astkonomy. 

1'h(3;six,  the  great  palm  or  date-lrer,  a 
genus  ol  iilan'.s  belonging  to  the  order  palnii'. 
I'lie  ca!\.\  is  o-parteil; corolla3-peta!led;ma!e 
stamina  th.ree;  female  pist.  one,  drupe  ovate. 
There  is  orily  species,  viz.  the  dactylifera, 
or  common  dale-tree,  a  native  of  Africa  and 
the  lia^tern  cuuntries,  where  it  grows  to  50, 
:6i,  and  100  feet  high.  The  frank  is  round, 
\ipriglit,  and  studded  with  protuberances, 
which  are  the  vestiges  of  the  decayed  leaves. 
F.om  the  top  issues  forth  a  cluster  of  leaves 
or  branches  eight  or  nine  feet  long,  extend- 
ing all  round  like  an  umbrella,  and  bei.ding  a 
litUe  towards  the  earth.  The  bottom  part 
|iroduces  a  number  of  stalks  like  those  ot  the 
middle,  but  seldom  shooting  so  high  as  lour 
or  live  feet.  These  stalks,  says  Adanson, 
ditfuse  the  tree  very  considerably ;  so  that 
wherever  it  naturally  grows  in  forests,  it  is 
e\tremelv  diilicidt  to  o)jen  a  passage  through 
its  prickUTeaves.  Tlie  dale-tree  was  intro- 
duced into  Jamaica  soon  after  the  coiuiuest 
of  the  island  by  the  Spaniards,  'lliere  are, 
however,  but  fewoftliem  in  Jamaica  at  this 
time.  The  fruit  is  somewhat  in  the  shape 
of  an  acorn.  It  is  composed  of  a  thin,  light, 
and  glossv  membrane,  somewhat  pellucid 
and  yellow  ish,  u  liich  contains  a  line,  soft,  and 
pulpv  fruit,  which  is  lirm,  sweet,  and  some- 
what vinous  to  I  he  taste,  esculent,  and  whole- 
some; and  within  this  is  en.losed  a  solid, 
tough,  and  hard  kernel,  of  a  pale  grey  colour 
oil  the  outride,  and  finely  marbled  witliin  like 
the  nulmeg.  The  best  are  brought  from 
Tunis:  they  are  also  very  line  and  good  in 
Kgvpt,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  East.  'I'hose 
ot  Spain  and  I'Vance  look  well  ;  but  are  never 
jierfectly  ripe,  and  very  subject  to  decay. 
J)ales  have  always  been  esteemed  iiioile- 
ratelv  slrengtheiiiiig  and  astringent. 

Thotigii  tne  date-lree  grows  every  where 
indiscriminately  on   the   nortlierii   coasts  of 
Africe,  it  is  not  cultivated  with  care,  except 
be\ond  mount  Atlas;  because  the  heat  is  not 
suiiiciently  powerful  along  the  coast,;  to  bring 
the  fruits  to  proper  maturity.     We  shall  here 
extract  some  observations  from  M.  Des  Fon- 
taines re.pecting  the  manner   of  cnltivaiing 
It  in   i'.:roarv,  and  on  the  different  uses   to 
which   it    is   applied.     All  that  part -yf  the 
Zaara,  which   Is  ne.ir  mount  Atlas,    and   the 
only  part  of  I  liis  vast  desert  which  is  inhabit- 
<-d,  produces  very  little  corn;  the  soil  being 
f.iiidy,  and  b.irnl  up  by  the  sun,  is  almost  en- 
tirely unfit  fur  the   cultivation  of  grain,  its  ; 
onlv  productions  of  that  kind  being  a  little  | 
b.irley,  maize,  and   sorgo.     ^I'he  date-tree,  | 
however,   supplies  the  (lelicien.y  of  corn  to  i 
l!if!  mhabitanls  ofthe.se  countries,  and  fur-  ' 
niihtts  Ihjin  with  almost  tlu-  whole  of  tluir 


I'HCEKIX:. 

subsistence.  I'liey  have  flockg  of  sheep ; 
but  as  they  are  not  numerous,  they  preserve 
them  for  the  sake  of  their  wool;  I'c^ides,  the 
ilesh  of  these  animals  is  very  unwiiolesoine 
iood  in  countries  that  are  excessively  warm  ; 
and  tiiese  people,  tliou.gh  if^noK.iit,  have  pro- 
bably been  enabled  by  experience  to  know- 
that  it  was  salutary  for  them  to  abstain  from 
it.  The  date-trees  are  planted  without  any 
order,  at  the  distance  of  12  feet  one  irom  the 
other,  in  the  n.Mgliboi.rhood  of  rivulets  and 
stream--,  wluch  issue  from  the  sand,  l-'oresls 
of  liitni  may  be  seen  here  and  th.re,  some  of 
wiiich  are  several  leagues  in  circumference. 
The  extent  of  these  plantations  depends 
upon  the  cjuantity  of  water  which  can  be 
procured  to  water  them,  for  they  re<|uire 
much  moisture.  All  these  forests  are  inter- 
mixed wiih  orange,  almond,  and  ])omegra- 
nale  trees,  and  with  vines  which  twist  round 
the  trunks  of  the  date-trees;  and  the  heat  is 
strong  enough  to  ripen  the  fruit,  though  tliev 
are  never  exposed  to  tlie  sun. 

It  is  generally  in  winter  that  new  planta- 
tions of  this  tree  are  formed.  For  this  pur- 
pose those  who  cultivate  ihem  take  shouts  of 
those  which  produce  the  best  dates,  and  |)laiit 
them  at  a  small  distance  one  from  the  oiher. 
At  the  end  of  three  or  four  years,  theiie 
shoots,  if  ;hey  have  been  properly  taken  care 
of,  begin  to  bear  truit:  but  tliis  fruit  is  as  yet 
dry,  without  sweetness,  and  even  w-ithout 
kernels ;  they  never  reach  the  highest  degree 
of  perfection  of  wiiich  they  are  susceptible 
till  they  are  about  1 5  or  20  years  old. 

These  pl.uits  ::re,  however,  produced  froni 
the  seeds  taken  out  of  the  fruii,  provided 
they  are  fresh.  They  should  be  sown  in  pots 
tilled  witii  lii;ht  rich  earth,  and  plunged  inio 
a  moderate  h.ot-bed  of  tanner's  bark,  which 
should  be  kept  in  a  moderate  temperature  of 
heat,  and  the  earth  frequently  refreshed  with 
water.  When  the  plants  are  con-.e  up  to  a 
proper  size,  they  should  be  each  planted  in'a 
separate  small  pot,  filled  with  the  same  light 
earth,  and  plui;:<cil  info  a  hot-bed  again;  ob- 
serving to  refresh  them  with  water,  as  -al-:.)  l-> 
let  them  have  air  in  p'.-oi)ortion  to  the  w.  rii.tii 
of  the  season,  and  the  bed  in  which  they  are 
placed.  During  the  summer  time  they  siiould 
remain  in  tiie  same  liOt-bed;  but  in  (he  be- 
ginning of  August  they  should  have  a  great 
share  of  air  to  harden  them  against  the  ap- 
proach of  winter;  for  if  they  are  too  much 
forced,  they  will  be  so  tender  .is  not  to  be 
p,reserved  thi-ough  the -winter  without  much 
difliculty,  especially  if  you  have  not  the  con- 
veniency  of  a  bark-stove  to  keep  them  i-n. 

The  trees,  however,  which  s-pring  from 
seed,  never  produce  so  good  dates  as  those 
tiiat  are  raiseci  from  shoots,  thev  being  alwavs 
])Oor  and  il'.-tasted.  It  is  undoubtedly  by 
force  of  cu  tivation,  and  after  several  genera- 
tions, (hat  they  acipiire  a  good  quaiitv.  The 
date-trees  which  have  been  originallv  3own 
grow  rapiilly,  and  we  have  been  assured  that 
they  bear  fruit  in  the  fourth  or  liflh  year. 
Care  is  taken  to  cut  the  inferior  branches  of 
the  date-tree  in  proportion  as  they  rise  ;  and 
a  piece  of  the  root  is  always  left  of  some 
inches  in  length,  which  atfords  (he  easy  means 
of  climbing  to  tlie  summit.  These  trees  live 
a  long  time,  according  to  the  account  of  the 
Arabs ;  and  in  ortler  to  prove  it,  they  sav 
that  wlien  tliey  have  attained  to  their  fnfl 
groivti),  no  change  is  observed  in  them  far  the 
sji.ice  of  three  geneialioni. 


The  number  of  females  which  are  cnllivat- 
ed  is.niueh  superior  to  thL;tof  the  males,  be- 
cause they  are  much  more  prolitable.  Tin; 
sexual  organs  of  the  date-tree  grow-,  as  is  well 
known,  upon  ilill'erent  stalks,  and  these  treti 
llower  in  tlie  months  of  A|)ril  and  May,  at 
which  time  the  Arabs  cut  the  male  branches 
to  irr.piegnate  the  female.  For  this  purpose 
they  make  ;ui  incision  in  the  trunk  of  each 
branch  which  they  wish  to  produce  fiuit,  and 
pUice  in  it  a  stalk  of  male  liowers ;  without 
this  precanti'ii  the  date-lrce  would  produce 
only  aliortive  friiii.  In  some  cantons  the 
male  branches  are  only  shaken  o\erthete- 
maie.  '1  he  practice  of  impregnating  the 
date-tree  in  this  manner  is  very  ^ntieiil. 
Pliny  describes  it  very  accurately  in  thai  pai  t 
ot  his  work  where  he  treats  ot  the  palm-tree. 

There  is  scarcely  any  part  of  the  date-tree 
which  is  not  useful.  The  wood,  though  of  a 
spungy  texture,  1-Jsts  such  a  number  of  ycarr, 
that  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  say  i{  is  in- 
corruptible. They  employ  it  for  making 
beams  and  instruments  ot  hu-bandry;  it  burns 
slowly,  but  the  coals  which  result  from  its 
combustion  are  very  strong,  and  produce  a 
great  heat. 

The  Arabs  strip  the  bark  and  fibrous  parts 
from  the  >ouiig  date-trees,  and  eat  the  sub- 
stance, which  is  in  the  centre;  it  is  verv 
nourishing,  and  has  a  sweet  taste:  it  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  marrow  of  the  date-tree. 
'1  hey  eat  a'so  the  leaves,  when  they  are 
young  and  tender,  with  lemon-ju  ce;  the  olil 
ones  are  laid  o\it  to  dry,  and  are  employed  for 
making  mats  and  other  works  of  the  -same 
kind,  which  are  much  used,  and  with  wiiich 
they  carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in  the  in- 
terior parts  of  the  country.  From  the  sides 
of  liie  stumps  of  the  b:anclu-s  whiih  have 
been  left,  arise  a  great  number  ot  delicate 
filaments,  of  which  they,  make  ropes,  and 
which  mjglit  serv.'  to  fabricate  cloth. 

A  white  liquor,  known  by  the  name  of 
milk,  is  drawn  also  ironi  tlie  date-tne.  To 
obtain  ii,  all  tlie  branches  are  cut  from  (he 
summit  of  one  of  these  trees,  and  >irter  se- 
veral incisions  have  been  niade  in  it,  they  are 
co-v-tr;,-il  w-!th  leaves,  in  order  that  the  heat 
li.u.r  sua  may  not  dry  it.  The  snp  drops 
liwwa  into  a  vessel  placed  to  receive  it,  at 
the  bottom  of  a  circular  groove  made  below 
t!ie  incisions.  The  milk  of  the  date-tree  has 
a  -sweet  and  agreeable  taste  when  it  is  new  ; 
it  is  very  refreshing,  and  is  even  given  to 
sick  people  10  drins.,  but  it  generally  turns 
sour  at  the  end  oi  1'-';  hours.  Old  trees  au 
choien  for  tliiso-peialion,  because  the  culling 
of  tne  branches,  and  tlie  large  tiuantily  of  sap 
wliicli  flows  irum  them,  gieatly  exhaust  them, 
and  otlen  cause  them  to  decay. 

'ine  male  flowers  of  the  date-tree  are  also 
useful.  They  are  eaten  when  still  tender, 
mixed  up  w-ilh  a  little  lemon-juice.  'I  hey  are 
reckoneil  to  be  very  provocative;  the  otlour 
wiiich  they  exh.de  is  probably  the  caii-e  of 
this  projierly  being  asi  rihetl  to  them.  Tluse 
ilate-trees  are  very  lucrative  lo  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  desert.  Soiiie  of  them  produce 
:;20  bunches  of  dates;  but  care  is  always 
taken  10  lop  off  a  part  of  them,  that  those 
wiiich  remain  may  become  larg.-r ;  10  or  \'2 
bunches  only  are  left  on  the  most  vigorous 
treis.  It  is  reckoned  thai  a  good  tree  pr.i- 
diices,  one  year  \\ith  another,  about  tlij: 
value  of  10  or  1'2  shillings  to  the  ]>i-o,;rietor. 
.\  prelty  c-Jiisider-ble  trade  is  carrijd  on  with 


P  II  o 

ilitcs  ill  the  interior  part  of  tlie  ro-.:ntry,  «iid 
large  (luaiititics  of  tliein  are  exported  to 
Franco  and  Italy.  Tlif  crop  is  gatlnTecl  to- 
wards liip  end  of  November.  Wlieii  tlie 
bundles  are  tat.ei\  from  the  tree,  tliey  are 
bung  lip  in  some  very  dry  place  where  tliey 
may  lie  sheltered  and  secure  Irom  insects. 

Kven  the  stones,  tliough  very  hard,  are 
Kot  thrown  away.  They  give  them  to  their 
camels  and  sheep  as  food,  after  liiev  have 
bruised  tiiem  or  laid  them  to  soften  in'v.ater. 
'Ciie  dale,  as  wv.U  as  other  trees  which  are 
cultivated,  exhiljits  great  variety  in  its  fruit, 
with  respect  to  simpe,  size,  (|u  lily,  and  even 
colour.  There  are  reckoned  to  be  at  least 
Co  dilferent  varieties.  Dates  are  very  liable 
to  be  [lierced  by  worms,  and  they  soon  cor- 
rupt in  moist  or  rainy  weather. 

l-'rom  what  ha  been  said,  it  may  easily  be 
perceived  that  there  is,  perliaps,  no  tree 
whatever  used  for  so  many  and  so  valuable 
purposes  as  the  date-tree. 

PiI()Ri\!lUM,/((.i-/i/o«/,  a  genus  of  the 
class  and  order  liexandria  monogynia.  There 
is  no  calyx  ;  the  corolla  is  six-pi  tailed,  three 
inner  larger;  capsule  oblong,  three-sided  ; 
seeds  oblong,  compressed.  Of  this  plant 
there  is  one  species:  the  leaves  resemble 
liiosc  of  ilags;  the  llowers  are  in  one  variety 
yellow,  and  in  the  other  a  deep  red.  C>f  the 
leaves  of  these  plants,  with  very  little  prepa- 
ration, the  Ne^i'  Zealanders  iiialve  all  llieir 
common  appai'el,  and  also  their  strings,  lines, 
and  cordage,  for  every  purpose;  vvhicii  are 
so  much  stronger  than  any  thing  we  can  make 
with  hemp,  that  they  will  not  bear  a  compa- 
rison. From  the  same  plant,  by  another 
preparation,  they  draw  long  slender  fibres, 
which  shine  like  silk,  and  are  as  white  as 
snow.  Of  these,  which  are  very  strong,  they 
make  their  liiiest  cloths;  and  of  the  leaves, 
witaout  any  other  prepar.ition  than  splitting 
them  into  proper  breadths,  and  tying  the 
strip-;  together,  they  make  their  ii.hing-neis, 
some  of  which  are  of  an  enormous  size.  Tiic 
seeds  of  this  valuable  plant  have  been  brought 
over  into  Eni;land  ;  but  upon  trial  appeared 
to  liave  '.ost  iheir  vegetating  power. 

PHOSl'HATS,  salts  formed  by  the  phos- 
phoric acid,  with  the  alkalies,  earths,  antl  me- 
tallic oxides.  They  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  follo-ving  properties  :  (1 .)  When  heat- 
ed with  combustibles,  they  are  not  decom- 
posed, nor  is  phosphorus  obtained.  (2.)  Be- 
fore the  blowpijje  they  are  converted  into  a 
globule  of  glass,  which  in  some  cases  is  trans- 
parent, in  others  opaque.  (3.)  Soluble  in 
nitric  acid  witiiout  ei'fervescence,  and  preci- 
pitated from  that  solution  by  lime-water. 
(4.)  Decomposed,  at  least  partially,  by  sul- 
phuric acid;  and  their  acid,  which  is  separat- 
ed, when  mixed  with  charcoal  and  heated  to 
redness,  yields  phosphorus,  (o.)  After  being 
strongly  heated,  they  often  phosphoresce. 

The  phosphats  readi.y  combine  with  an 
excess  of  acid,  and  form  superpho-phat-i. 

The  phosphats  at  present  known  acioimt  to 
12;  two  of  which  are  triple  salts.  Some  of 
these  salts  occur  in  different  slates,  constitut- 
ing varieties. 

PIn.splml  nfhar-/tes.  It  n-.ay  be  prepared 
either  by  saturating  ph"sphoric  acid  with 
barytes  or  carhonat  of  of  barytcs,  or  bv  niix- 
iug  together  an  alkaline  phosphat  and  nitrat  or 
iDuriat  of  barytes.  In  either  case  the  phos- 
phat of  barytes  precipitates  imjnediatcly  in 
tiie  ionn  of  a  while  powder. 


r  II  o 

This  salt  is  tasteless,  incrjslallizable  by  art, 
insoluble  in  water,  and  not  altered  by  expo- 
sure to  tin-  air.  lis  specific  gravity  is'l.Sliti". 
When  strongly  heated,  it  iiidts  into  a  grey- 
coloured  enamel.  Tlie  proportion  of  its  cuiii- 
lioiient  parts  is  unknown. 

This  salt  has  not  been  applied  to  any  u'ie. 

A\'iicn  pho-]>horic  acid  is  dropt  into  a  solu- 
lion  of  baryle-,-water,  a  precipitate  of  jihos- 
pliat  of  bai'Ues  immediately  l"lls.  lint  this 
preciiiitate  is  l■edis^olved  ))y 'adding  an  e.\ce->s 
of  acid,  lience  it  follows,  that  this  salt  is 
capalile  of  combining  with  an  additional  do-se 
ot  acid,  and  forming  a  superphosphat  of 
barytes. 

Phoxphat  ofslronlian.  iJke  tlie  former,  it 
may  be  formed  by  dissolving  carbonat  of 
stroiUian  in  phosphoric  acid,  or  by  mixing  to- 
gether nitrat  of  stronlian  and  phos|)hat  of 
sod:.:.  A  white  precipitate  immedialely  falls, 
which  is  the  phosphat  of  strontian. 

This  salt  is  tasteless,  insoluble  in  w.iter,  and 
not  alterable  by  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is 
soluble  in  an  excess  of  phosphoric  acid  ;  a 
properly  which  distinguishe.,  it  from  phos- 
phat of  bar\tes.  Before  the  blowpipe  it  fuses 
into  a  white  cnanul,  and  at  the  same  time 
emits  a  phosphoric  light.  It  is  conipletelv 
decomposed  by  sulpi.uric  acid,  but  by  no 
Other.  According  to  Vaucpieiin,  it  is  com- 
posed of  41.24  acid 

58. 7t)  strontian. 


1'   11   O 


413 


100.00 


Pln.yihnt  nf  lime.  Of  this  salt  there  are 
two  varieties,  the  first  neutral,  the  other  a 
supeisalt. 

I.  Phosphat  of  lime.  As  this  salt  consti- 
tutes the  basis  of  bone.-i,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  prepare  it  artificially.  It  may  be  obtained 
in  a  state  of  purity  "by  the  following  pro- 
cess: Calcine  the  bones  to  whiteness,  reduce 
them  to  powder,  and  wash  them  repeatedly 
with  water,  to  sepaiv.te  several  soluble  salt> 
which  are  present.  Di-^solve  the  whole  in 
muriatic  acid,  and  precipitate  by  means  of 
ammonia.  The  precipitate,  when  well  wash- 
ed and  dried,  is  pure  phosphat  of  lime. 

Phosphat  of  lime,  thus  prepared,  is  alwavs 
in  the  state  of  a  white  pow  der  ;  but  it  is  found 
native  in  regular  ciystals.  In  that  state  it  is 
known  by  the  name  of  apatite.  The  primi- 
tive form  of  its  crystals  is,  accoidinc;  totiauy, 
the  regular  six-sided  prism;  and  the  primitive 
form  of  its  integrant  particles  is  a  tiuee-sided 
prism,  whose  bases  are  equilateral  triangles  : 
but  it  very  often  assumes  other  forms.  It  is 
destitute  of  taste,  insoluble  in  water,  and  not 
liable  to  be  altered  by  exposure  to  the  air. 
It  may  be  exposed  lo'a  strong  heat  without 
undergriingany  change;  butiira  very  violent 
heat  it  becomes  soft,  and  is  converted  into  a 
white  semitransparent  enamel,  or  rather 
po.celain.  According  to  the  experiments 
of  Saussure,  a  heat  of  378°  AV'edg.jwood  is 
necessary  to  produce  this  elVect. 

Sulphuiic,  nitric,  muriatic,  fluoric,  and 
seve:\.l  vegetable  acids,  are  capable  of  de- 
composing- phoFphat  of  lime;  but  the  de- 
composition is  only  partial.  Fourcroy  and 
Vauqueliii  have  ascertained,  that  these  acids 
are  only  capable  of  abstracting  0.40  parts  of 
the  lime,  while  the  remainder  continues  com- 
bined with  tlie  phosphoric  acid,  constituting 
a  superphosphat  of  lime.  Hence  the  reason 
that  phosphoric  acid  is  capable  also  of  de- 

11 


conipo;,ing  partially  the  combinations  of  these 
acids  with  hme;  it  abstracts  as  much  ot  the 
lime  as  is  suUicient  to  convi  rt  it  Into  suj)er- 
l)ho>phat.  I'hcsphat  of  lime,  accordiii!^  ta 
lourcroy  and  \'ai:quelin,  is  composed  oi' 

4l  acid 

5&  lime 

lot). 

C.  .Superphosphat  of  hme.  It  is  tm, -..it 
which  always  remains  in  llie  aqueous  solution 
when  calcined  bones  are  decomposed  bv 
means  of  sulphuric  acid  ;  and  it  may  be  form'- 
ed  arlilicially  by  dissolving  phoi-phat  of  lime 
in  phosphoric  acid,  till  the  acid  refuses  to 
take  tij)  any  more,  and  afterwards  evaporat- 
ing the  solution  till  the  salt  crystallizes.  Iti^ 
crystals  are  usually  thin  brilliant  plates,  re- 
sembling mother-of-pearl,  which  eas'ly  ad- 
here togetlier,  and  acquire  a  kiiui  of  gluey 
consistency.  Its  taste  isstronslv  acid.  Water 
dissolves  it,  and  in  a  greater  proportion  whin 
boilins-hot  than  when  cold  Hence  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  it  in  boi'.ing  water  crystal- 
lizes on  cooling.  It  attracts  :i  liltie  moisture 
when  exposed  to  the  air.  \\  hen  heated,  it 
readily  undergoes  the  watery  fusion,  then., 
swells  uj)  and  dries.  In  a  hig'h  temperature 
it  melts  into  a  semitranspareni  glass,  which  is 
tasteless  and  insoluble,  and  is  not  altered  bv 
exposure  to  the  air.  Wiieii  tlii,  salt  is  heateci 
to  redness  along  with  charcoal,  its  excess  of 
acid  is  decomposed,  and  converted  into  phos- 
phorus, and  phosphat  of  lime  remains  behind. 
It  is  trom  this  salt  that  );hospliorus  is  usuallv. 
obtained;  but  the  process  of  Fourcrov , 
which  consists  in  decomposing  the  super- 
phosphat of  lime  by  mean-  of  iicelut  of  lead, 
and  afterwards  decomposing  the  jiliosphat  oi 
lead  by  means  of  charcoal,  must  yield  ii 
much  greater  proportion  of  phospho:  us. 

No  acid  hitherto  tried  is  ca|)able  of  decom- 
posing this  salt,  excei)tthe  oxalic,  v.iiich  ab"- 
tracts  its  ba>ie  completely,  and  |jrccipi;:ile« 
with  it  ill  the  form  of  oxaUt  of  line,';  but  ii  ii. 
decomposed  and  reduced  to  the  state  of  phos- 
phat of  lime  by  all  the  alkaline  and  earthy 
bases  It  is  composed,  according  to  the  ana- 
lysis of  J''ourcroy  and  \'auqiielin,  of 

54  acid 

40  lime 

IDO. 

Phosphui  nf  potass.     Of  this  salt  lliere  .-re- 
two  varieties:  the  first,   which  contains   aii.. 
excess  of  acid,  and  is  in  reality  a  superphos- 
phat, lias  been  long  known,  .and  appears  to  . 
have  been  lirst  mentioned   by  Lavoisier  '\n 
1774;  but  it  is  to  \'au:|nchn  th;  t  we  are  in- 
debted ior  an  examination  of  its  properties. 
The   second,   which   is  a   neutral  sii'li,  was  , 
lately  discovered  by   Darracq.     1;  had  been 
formed  indeed   previously  by  Gu\ton  Mor- 
veau   and  Desormes ;  but  these   gentlemen 
had  mistaken  it  for  phosphat  of  lime. 

1.  Superphosphat  ofpota.is  is  prepared  by. 
dropping  carbonat  ot  potass  into  pliosphoric  ■ 
acid  till  all    effervescence  ceases,  and  then  . 
evaporating   to  the  proper  consistency,     it 
does  not  crystallize.    When  evaijoratei  suffi- 
ciently, it  assumes  the  form  of  a  jelly  ;.and  if, 
the  evaporation  is  carried  farther^  it  becomes  . 
dry   altogether.     Its  speri;'-  ;,;ra,it   .  v.  l;<-p.  . 
dry,  IS  2.S5.     It   is   ■ 
water,  aiid  when  dry  r. 


41d 

from  the  aiiiios|>l:ore,  ari<l  is  coiivrrlctl  iv.to 
a  viscid  liiiiiid.  Wlita  licatfil,  it  first  uikKt- 
goes  tlif  watery  fuiioii ;  llicii  allows  its  water 
.ot'crvstLillizatiJuto  evaporate,  and  is  reduced 
to  dnness.  In  a  higii  temi)enUure  il  meits 
.jnto  a  transparent  glass,  wliicli  deliiiiicsces 
aaain  when  exposed  to  llie  air. 

"it  is  ci)inpletely  decomposed  by  tlic  svil- 
plnirie,  nitric,  an'd  nun-ia'tic  acids;  and  l)y 
barvtes,  stronlian,  and  lime. 

'J.  Pliosphat  of  potass.  Tliis  salt  may  be 
formed  by  mixing  togethersnperpliospliat  of 
putassand  pnre  potass,  and  exposing  them  to 
u  strong  heat  in  a  platinum  crucible.  A 
white-coloured  substance  is  obtained,  which 
is  the  pliosphat  in  ipie^tioii.  Ihis  salt  is 
■tasteless  and  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  so- 
luble ill  hot  water,  and  il  precipitates  as  the 
sokilion  cools  in  a  gritty  brilliant  jjowder.  It 
i-  extremely  fusible;  meUing  belore  the  blow- 
pipe into  a'tran-parent  bead,  which  becomes 
opaque  on  coolmg.  It  is  soluble  in  nitric, 
jiiurialic,  and  phosphoric  acids:  the  solutions 
are  thick,  glutinous,  and  adhesive.  When 
sufliciently  diluted,  the  alkalies  occasion  no 
precipitate  in  these  solutions;  but  when  they 
are  concentrated,  a  precipitate  appears. 

Pknspliat  of  soda.  This  salt  exists  ready- 
formed  in  urine,  and  was  the  first  known  of 
.•=.!!  the  phosphals.  It  occupied  a  good  deal 
of  the  attention  of  chemists;  and  the  diiii- 
rulty  of  anaUsing  it  gave  occasion  to  various 
jivpotheics  concerning  its  nature.  Hcllol 
ivmarked  it  in  urine;  and  described  it  in 
i737,  as  a  salt  dilferent  from  those  that  liad 
r.suallv  been  observed.  Haupt  cfescribed  it 
;n  1740  under  the  ua«ie  of  salmiiabile  per- 
;aium,  or  "  wonderful  pcrlated  salt."  It  was 
railed perlated  from  the  grey,  opaque,  pearl- 
;ike  colour,  which  it  assumed  when  im-lted 
•i)V  the  blowpipe.  Margralf  examined  it  in 
J  74.5,  and  found  it  would  not'  yield  phospho- 
ri!<  wiicn  treated  with  cliarcoal,  as  the  oilier 
.-•aits  of  Mrine  did. 

Dr.  Pearson  afterwards  introduced  it  with 
great  advantage  into  medicine  as  a  purga- 
tive, lie  gives  the  following  process  tor 
ijreparing  it:  I)i<soive,  in  a  long-necked  ma- 
trass, 14!i0 '.grains  of  crystallized  carbonat  of 
soda,  in  "iWi  grains  of  w:Uer  at  tiie  tempe- 
rature of  150'.  Add  gradually  500  grains  ol 
piiosphoric  acid  of  the  spi;cilic  gravity  l.Sj. 
I'.oil  the  liijuor  f(]r  some  minutes;  and  while 
it  is  boiling-hot,  filtrate  il,  and  pour  it  into 
u  shallow  vessel.  Let  it  remain  in  a  cool 
place,  and  crystals  will  continue  to  form  for 
;everal  davs.  From  the  above  ciuaiilities  of 
-materials  lie  has  obtained  from  1450  to  1550 
grains  of  crystals. 

Its  crvslals  are  rhomboidal  prisms,  of 
wliich  tlie  acute  angles  are  00°,  and  the  ob- 
tuse angles  120',  lerminaledby  a  three-sided 
jiy.ramid.  Its  sjiecific  gravity  is  1.333.  Its 
<a-tc  is  almost  the  same  with  that  of  common 
salt.  It  is  soluble  at  the  temperature  of  60" 
in  about  four  parts  of  water,  and  in  two  parts 
of  boiling  water,  'lliis  solution  crystallize-, 
cm  cooling;  but  in  order  to  oblain  tiie  salt 
properly  "crystallized,  the  solution  should 
contain  a  slight  excess  of  alkali.  \V  lien  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  this  salt  very  soon  elllorcsces 
v\\  the  surface.  When  heaied,  it  undergoes 
Ihe  watery  fusion.  At  a  red  heat  it  melts 
into  a  white  enamel.  IJefore  the  blowpipe 
il  rnellK  into  a  transparent  globule,  which  be- 
comes opaque  on  cooling,  and  its  surface 
'.itipiircs  a  polyhedral  figure.  It  is  not  alteretl 


TT^OSPHATS. 

bv  rombiistlbles  nor  metals.  Willi  mclallic 
oxides  it  enters  into  fusion,  '■nd  forms  a  co- 
loured globule  of  glass.  Sulphuric,  nitric, 
and  muriatic  acids,  decompose  it  partially, 
and  convert  it  into  superphosphat  of  soda. 
In  this  state  it  is  more  soluble  in  water,  and 
not  so  easily  crystallized;  but  may  be  obtain- 
ed, by  proper  eVajjoration,  in  the  state  ot  thin 
scales,  not  unlike  boracic  acid. 

The  greater  number  of  earths  may  be 
fused  along  with  this  salt,  and  converted  into 
glass. 

I'his  salt  has  been  applied  to  various  uses. 
It  has  been  introduced  into  medicine  as  a 
purgative,  and  on  account  of  ils  pleasant 
taste  has  of  late  been  much  used.  It  is  usu- 
ally taken  in  broth,  which  it  is  employed  to 
season  instead  of  coniinon  salt.  Il  may  be 
substituted  for  borax  to  promote  the  solder- 
ing of  metals.  Mineralogists  employ  il  very 
much  as  a  flux  when  they  examine  the  ac- 
tion of  heat  on  minerals  by  means  of  the 
blowpipe. 

P/ionjihat  nf  ammovia.  It  exists  also  in 
urine,  a:n;l  seems  U>  liavc  been  first  accu- 
rately distinguished  by  Kouelle.  Il  is  usu- 
ally prepared  by  saturating  with  anniionia 
the  superphosphat  of  lime  obtained  from 
bones,  and  evajjorating  the  solution  to  such 
a  consistencv,  that  when  allowed  to  cool,  the 
pliosphat  of  iimmonia  is  obtained  in  crystals. 

It  crystallizes  in  four-sided  prisms,  termi- 
nated bv  ecjual-sided  pyramids.  Its  taste  is 
cooling,  salt,  and  ammoniacal.  Its  specific 
gravitv  is  l.SO.  Il  is  soluble  in  four  parts  of 
wateratlhe  temperature  of  (30',  and  in  ra- 
tlier  a  smaller  proportion  of  boiling  water. 
It  is  by  spontaneous  evaporation  that  it  is 
obtained  in  the  slate  of  regular  crystals.  It 
is  not  altered  by  exposure  to  the  air.  When 
heated,  it  undergoes  the  watery  fusion;  it 
then  dries;  but  if  the  heat  is  continued,  it 
swells  up,  losi  s  its  alkaline  base,  and  the  acid 
melts  into  a  transparent  glass.  It  is  the  only 
one  of  the  earthy  and  alkaline  phosphals 
which  can  be  decomposed  by  heal.  Hence 
the  reason  that  il  yields  phosphorus  when 
distilled  along  with  cliarcoal. 

Il  is  decomposed  by  the  sulphuric,  nitric, 
anil  muiialic  acids,  and  by  the  lixtd  alkalies 
and  alkaline  earths.  It  is  capable  of  com- 
bining w  itli  an  additional  do--e  of  acid,  and  of 
passing  into  the  state  of  a  superphosjihat. 

This  salt  is  much  .employed  as  a  llux  in 
experiments  with  the  blowpipe.  It  enters 
also  as  an  ingredient  in  tlio>e  coloured  glasses 
called  pastes,  which  are  made  in  imitation  of 
precious  stones. 

I'lin.sjihut  nf  mag/icmi.  It  is  usually  pre- 
pared bv  dissolving  carbonat  of  magnesia  in 
piiosiilu.ric  acid,  and  evaporating  the  solu- 
tion gradually  till  the  salt  crystallixes;  but  it 
may  lie  obtained  in  large  regular  crystals  by 
a  much  easier  process.  Mix  together  equal 
pails  of  the  acjueous  solutions  of  uhosphal  of 
soda  and  sulphal  of  magnesia.  No  apparent 
change  takes  pUice  at  first ;  but  in  a  few  hours 
large  transparent  crystals  of  phosphat  of 
magnesia  make  their  appearance  in  the  solu- 
tion. 

Its  crystals  are  six-sided  ])risms,  the  sides 
of  which  are  unecpial.  It  has  very  little  taste; 
however,  it  leaves  a  cooling  and  sweetish  im- 
pression upon  the  tongue.  Its  specific  gra- 
vity is  1.55.  It  reciuires  about  15  parts  of 
cold  water  to  dissolve  it.     It  is  more  soluble 


in  bo'.iing  water,  but  it  rryslalii/es  in  psi* 
as  the  solution  cools.  AVlien  expo-ed  to  the 
air  it  loses  its  water  of  rrvslallizalion,  and 
falls  down  in  powder.  \\  hen  healed  mode- 
rately, il  is  also  reduced  to  a  dry  powder,  in 
a  high  temperature  it  melts  into  a  transparent 
glass. 

I'linxpkut  ofgliwinri.  Il  isoblained  by  pour- 
ing pliosphat  of  soda  into  the  solution  of  glu- 
ciiia  in  sulphuric,  nitric,  or  muriatic  acids. 
The  pliosphat  of  tlucina  Is  precipitated  in 
the  slate  of  a  while  powdr.  It  dues  not  cr_\s- 
tallize.  It  is  tasteless,  insoluble  in  water 
unless  it  contains  an  excess  of  acid,  and  not 
liable  to  be  altered  by  exposure  to  the  air. 
When  heated  strongly,  it  melts  into  a  trans- 
parent glass. 

Phosphat  nfyttria.  Wljen  tiie  solution  of 
phosphat  of  soda  is  mixed  with  the  sulphat, 
nilrat,  or  muriat  of  yltria,  phos|ilial  of  Atlrij 
precipitates  in  gelatinous  flakes. 

Phosphat  of  alumina.  It  may  be  formed  by 
saturating  phosphoric  acid  with  alumina.  It 
is  a  tasteless  powder,  insoluble  in  water. 
Dis^olved  ill  phosphoric  acid  il  yields  a  gritty 
powder,  and  a  gummy  solution,  whicli  by 
heal  is  converted  into  a  transparent  glass. 

Plinspliat  of  .loda  and  ammonia,  known  to 
chemists  bv  the  names  of  inicrocosmic  salt, 
and  fusible  salt  of  urine,  was  extracted  from 
urine,  and  examined,  much  sooner  than  any 
of  the  other  phoaplnts;  it  was  long  before 
philosophers  w  ere  able  to  form  precise  no- 
tions concerning  ils  nature,  or  even  to  obtain 
il  in  a  slate  of  purity.  This  indeed  could 
not  be  e.xjiectcd  till  the  phospha's  of  soda 
and  of  anuiKinia  had  been  accurately  exa- 
mined, and  their  composition  ascertained. 
Fourcroy  was  the  first  who  gave  a  precisa 
account  of  the  proportion  of  ils  component 
parts.  According  to  him,  il  is  composed  of 
32  acid 

24  soda 

19  ammoma 

25  water 

100. 

The  properties  of  tliis  salt  are  nearly  those 
of  the  phosphat  of  soda  and  phospiiat  of  am- 
monia joined  together.  It  answers  better  than 
the  first  of  them  as  a  ilux  ;  because  the  heat 
soon  driv(;s  oil'  the  ammonia,  and  leaves  au 
excess  of  acid.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.5. 
\\  hen  exposed  to  the  air,  tills  salt  effloresces, 
and  gradually  loses  itsanuiionia. 

J'hnsphut  of  ammonia  and  tiuigne.iiti  was 
first  discovered  by  Fourcroy,  wlio  Riuiid  it  in 
a  calculous  concretion  formed  in  the  colon  of 
a  horse.  Since  this  discovery  Fourcroy  aiul 
N'autpielin  have  observed  il  also  in  human 
urine. 

Il  might  be  prepared  by  mixing  together 
solutions  of  the  phos|)lialsof  ammonia  and  of 
magnesia  in  water ;  the  triple  salt  imnu  di- 
ateiy  precipitates  in  the  state  of  a  while 
powder.  \\  hen  urine  is  allowed  to  remain 
a  considerable  time  in  close  vessels,  it  olten 
dejiosils  this  sail  in  regular  crystals  on  thi; 
sides  and  bottom  of  iIk-  vessel.  These  crvs- 
lals are  small  four-sided  prisms,  terminated 
by  irregular  four-sided  pyramid".  This  salt 
is  tasteless,  scarcely  soluble  in  water,  and  net 
liable  to  be  altered  by  exposure  to  the  air. 
When  healed  il  falls  to  piowder,  gives  out  its 
annnonia,  and  in  a  high  teni[)er.iture  melts 
into  a  traiiRparent  glolnilc.  11  is  composed  of 


r  H  (1 

33  phospliat  of  aiiimoiii* 
33  jilio'^pliat  of  niagiiCbU 
33  \yatcr 

09. 

Pliosplioric  add  ami  silica,  wlu'ii  mixi^d  to- 
gctluraiul  I'xposc-'d  to  a  suuiiglieal,  iiu-it  into 
a  iK'aiitilul  tr.insi)arc]it  glass,  wliicli  is  not  de- 
composed  tiilier  l)y  tlie  action  ol  acids  or  of 
alkalies.  Foincroy  lias  aiveii  this  compound 
tlie  ijainc'of  pliospluit  of  sili<a;  but  it  is  essen- 
tially different  frujn  sails,  and  ouglil  tlieretore 
rather  to  be  ranked  among  some  otlier  class  of 
bodies. 

PIJOSPIHTES,  salts  formed  witli  the 
nhosphorotis  acid  united  to  the  earths,  alka- 
lies, and  metallic  o.\ides.  These  salts  may 
be  distinguished  by  the  following  properties: 
1.  Wlieu  heated  ttiey  emit  a  phosphorescent 
flame.  2.  When  distilled  in  a  strong  heat, 
tliey  give  out  a  little  phosphorus,  and  are 
converted  into  phosphats.  3.  'I'hey  detonate 
vlien  healed  with  mtral  or  oxynimiat  of  po- 
tass, and  are  converted  into  phosphats.  4. 
Tliey  may  be  converted  into  plu)<pliats  by 
nitric  and  o\ymuri..tic  ac  id.  5.  'I'hey  are 
iusilile  in  a  vio'ent  lieat  into  glass. 

The  phosphites  at  prusciil  known  amount 
to  eight : 

1.  Pliosphite  of  lime.  This  salt  may  be 
foniied  by  dissolving  lime  in  phosphorous 
acid.  Wlien  the  saturation  is  complete,  the 
salt  precipitates  in  the  state  of  a  white 
powder.  It  is  tasteless  and  insoluble  in  wa- 
ter; but  it  dissolves  in  an  excess  of  acid,  and 
fonns  a  snperphosphite.  Tiiis  last  salt  may 
be  obtained  in  prismatic  crystals  by  evaporat- 
ing the  solution.  It  is  not  altered  by  expo- 
sure to  the  air.  AVhen  heated,  it  phospho- 
resces and  emits  a  little  phosphorus.  In  a 
violent  heat,  it  melts  into  a  transuitreiit  glo- 
bule. 

It  is  composed  of  34  acid 
.'i|  lime 
I.')  watL-r 

100. 

5.  Phosphite  of  barytes  may  be  formed  by 
pouring  phosphorous  acid  into  barvtes  water, 
or  this  last  water  into  a  soUition  of  phosphite 
of  soda.     In  either  cise  phosphite  of  barytes 

firecipitates  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder, 
t  is  tasteless,  and  but  very  sparingly  soluble 
in  water,  unless  there  is  an  excess  of  acid. 
it  is  not  altered  by  exposure  to  the  air.  Be- 
fore the  blowpipe  it  melts,  and  is  surrounded 
vith  a  light  so  brilliant  that  the  eye  can 
scarcely  bear  it.  The  globule  which  it  forms 
becomes  opaque  as  it  cool.;. 
It  is  composed  of  4 1.7  acid 

51.3  barytes 
7.0  water. 


p  n  o 

rrn'K  imnll  (elrahedral   rryslnli   are  prpr!]>!- 
tated,   When  exposed  to  the  air  it  efllorcscifs. 
When  heated  it  phosphoresces  and  melts  into 
a  glass,  which  beconu-s  opaipic  on  cooling. 
It  is  composed  of  44  acid 

;.'0  magnesia 
36  water 

100. 

4.  Phosphite  of  potass.  This  salt  is  formed 
by  dissolviiig  carbonat  of  potass  in  phospho- 
rous acid,  and  evaporating  ihe  solution  slowly 
till  it  deposits  crystals  of  phosphite  ufjiotass. 
It  crystallizes  in  four  -  sided  rectangular 
prisms,  terminated  by  dihedral  summits.  Its 
tasle  is  sharp  and  saline.  It  is  soluble  in  three 
parts  of  cold  water,  and  still  more  soluble  in 
boilaig  water.  It  is  not  altered  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  When  heated,  it  decrifpitates, 
and  llien  melts  into  a  transparent  globule, 
which  bi'comes  opaque  on  cooling.  It  does 
not  phosphoresce  so  evidently  as  the  other 
phosphites,  perhaps  because  it  contains  an 
excess  of  potass,  which  saturates  the  plios- 
plioric acid  as  it  forms. 

It  is  composed  of  39.5  acid 
49-5  potass 
110  water. 


P  I!  O 


^tr 


100.0 


5.  Phosphat  of  soda  maybe  prepared  ex- 

,  actly  iji  the  same  way  as  phosphite  of  potass. 

j  Ifs  crystals  are  irregular  tour-sided  prisms  or 

elongated  rhomboids.    Sometimes  it  assumes 

[  the    form    of  square  plates,  or  of  plumose 

I  crystals.     Its  taste  is  co'liiig  and  agreeable. 

'  It  IS  soluble  in  two  parts  of  cold  water,  and 

j  scarcely  more  soluble  in  boiling  water.  When 

exposed  to  the  air  it  elliore-ces.     Before  the 

I  blowpipe  it  emits  a  beauliiul  yellow  flame, 

and  melts   into  a  globule,   which  becomes 

opaque  on  cooling. 

It  is  composed  of  16.3  acid 
23.7  soda 
fiO.O  water. 


100.0 


3.  Phosphite  of  magnesia  is  best  formed  by 
mixu.g  together  aqueotis  solutions  of  phos- 
phite ol  potass  or  soda  and  sulj)hat  of  magne- 
sia; tue  pliosphite  ol  magnesia  gradually 
precipitates  in  oeautiful  white  Hakes.  It  lias 
no  sensible  tasie.  It  is  soluble  in  400  parts 
of  water  at  the  teiiiper.tiire  of  60',  and 
Kcarceh  mofe  soluble  in  boiling  water.  When 
its  solution  is  evaporated  slowly,  a  tran-pa- 
rent  pellicle  forms  on  it?  surface,  llakes  are 
d<'posiied,  and  tov,  ards  the  end  of  tJie  pro- 

\0L.  II. 


100.0 

6.  Phosphite  of  ammonia  may  be  prcp.ired 
by  the  same  processes  as  the  two  last-de- 
scribed phosphites.  It  crystallizes  sometimes 
in  long  transparent  neecfles,  and  sometimes 
in  four-sided  prisms  terminated  by  four- 
sided  pyramids.  It  lias  a  very  sharp  saline 
taste,  it  is  soluble  in  two  parts  of  waler  at 
the  temperature  of  (io\  and  still  more  soluble 
in  boiling  water.  \MiPn  exposed  to  the  air, 
it  attracts  moisture,  and  bei  omcs  slightly  de- 
licpiescent.  When  distilled  in  a  retort,  the 
ammonia  is  disenc;aged  partly  liquid  and 
i)artlv  in  the  state  of  gas,  hokiing  phosphorus 
in  soUition,  which  becomes  luminous  wlien 
mixed  with  oxygen  gas.  Before  the  blow- 
pipe on  charcoal,  it  boils,  and  lo^es  its  water 
of  crystallization;  it  becomes  surrounded 
with  a  phosphorescent  light ;  and  bubbles  of 
phosphureted  hydrogen  gas  are  emitted, 
which  burn  in  the  air  with  a  lively  flame,  and 
form  a  fine  coronet  of  phosphoric  acid  va- 
pour. This  gas  is  emitted  aiso  when  the  «alt 
IS  healed  in  a  small  glass  bulb,  the  tube  be- 
longing to  which  is  plunged  under  mercury. 

This  salt  is  composed  of  -6  acid 

.51  aniinonki 
23  water 


3.G 


100. 


7.  Phospliite  of  ammonia  and  magnesia. 
I'his  salt  may  be  formed  by  mixing  logethcT 
Ihe  a(|Ueous  solutions  of  its  tv.o  compoiieiit 
parts.  It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  aiid 
may  be  obtained  in  cnslals;  brt  its  propel* 
ties  have  not  been  exaiiiined  with  preib'on. 

S.  Phosphiie  ol  alinriina  may  be  piepared 
by  saturating  phosphorous  acid  with  alumina, 
and  then  evaporating  the  soluiion  to  a  pro- 
per consistence.  It  does  not  ciystalli/e,  Inn 
tonus  a  glutinous  mass,  which  dries  giadu- 
ally,  and  does  not  afterwards  attiact  moisture 
from  tlie  air.  Its  taste  is  astringent.  It  i^ 
verv  soluble  in  water.  When  hi-ated,  it  froili; 
ancl  gives  out  phosphorus-,  but  it  does  not 
rt'adilv  melt  into  a  globule  of  glass. 

PH():5P110KIC  ACID.  Piiospboiu- 
forms  ai)  acid  with  two  dilierent  p!0]io)t.o;is 
of  oxygen:  combined  with  the  largest  poi- 
tion  ol  oxygen,  it  constituteiipho?|)lioricacid, 
and  with  Uie  smaller  it  coiisfitutes  phosjiho 
rous  acid. 

1.  It  may  be  formed  by  setting  fire  to  a 
quantity  ol  phosphorus  contained  in  a  vessel 
idled  with  oxygen  gas.  The  ])ho.=;j;iiorus 
burns  with  great  rapidity,  and  a  great  miinbet? 
of  white  (lakes  are  deposited,  wliich  are  phos- 
phoric acid  in  a  stale  of  purity.  It  may  be 
obtained  too  by  heating  phospliorits  under 
water  till  it  melts,  and  then  causing  a  stream 
of  oxygen  gas  to  pass  through  it  by  means  of 
a  tube.  Ill  tliis  casi^  the  acid  as  it  lorms  com- 
bines witii  the  water;  but  the  li<puid  may  be 
evaporated  oil'  by  the  application  of  heat,  and 
then  the  a<-id  remains  bciiind  in  a  state  of 
puritv.  But  the  usual  method  of  procuring 
it  is,  to  throw  phosphorus  in  small  pieces  at  a 
lime  into  hot  nitric  acid.  A  violent  etVer- 
vcBconce  takes  place,  the  phosphorus  com- 
bines with  oxygen,  and  nitrous  gas  is  emit- 
ted. After  the  wlioly  of  the  phosphorus  is 
acidified,  the  liquid  is  to  be  evaporated  to 
dryness,  in  order  to  drive  off  the  remaiitv 
of  nitric  acid  which  may  not  have  been 
decomposed.  This  process  ".vas  lir.>t  put  in 
practice  by  Lavoisier.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  apply  too  much  lieat,  nor  to  add  too 
much  phosphorus  at  once,  and  not  to  have 
ilie  nitric  acid  too  stniiig;  ot'nerwise  tli« 
phosphorus  takes  lire,  and  usually  breaks  the. 
vessels  in  pieces, 

2.'  The  acid,  thus  prepared,  nviy  be  put 
into  a  platinum  crucible,  and  heated  to  red- 
ness to  drive  oil' all  the  water.  It  is  then  in 
a  state  of  purity.  It  is  solid,  colourless,  and 
transparent,  and  not  unlike  glass  'n  appear- 
ance, h  reddens  vegetable  Mues;  it  iias  iia 
smell:  its  taste  is  very  acid,  but  it  does  i;ol 
destroy  the  texture  of  org-auic  bodies. 

When  exposed  to  the  open  ;iir,  it  soon  at- 
tracts moisture,  and  deliquesces  into  a  iliick 
oily-like  liquid,  in  which  stato  ii  is  usually 
kept  by  chemists,  ^Vhen  exposed  to  tlie  tire 
in  a  platinum  erncihle,  its  water  ciadua'ilv 
evaporates,  and  leaves  it  in  tlie  state  of  a 
transparent  jelly.  If  tlie  lieat  is  increased  it 
boils  and  btibbfes  up,  uv.iiig  to  the  separatioii 
of  the  reniaindi;!'  of  its  water  acconipan.ivrt 
w ith  a  small  portion  of  acid.  At  a  red  heit 
it  rcmai;is  in  the  fon-n  of  a  transparent  liquid, 
and  whcu  cooled  iissumcs  ilie  form  of  the 
purest  crystal.  In  this  statu  it  is  "knt-'wii  Uy 
the  name  of-  phosphoric  glass,  Ti'-is  glas, ;» 
merely  pliospnoric  scid  lotaily  depvived  oj" 
wnter.'  !l  has  an  acid  taste,'  is  'toiuhle  ia 
water,  and  deliquesces  Vwien  exiiosed  to  »l* 
air. 


41S 


P  H  O 


Tlic  specific  gravity  of  tliis  acid,  in  a  state 
of  dryness,  is  2.t)87;  in  tiie  state  of  glass  2.85; 
in  tlie  state  of  deliquescence  14. 

3.  Tliis  acid  is  very  soluble  in  water. 
When  in  the  stale  of  white  flakes,  it  dissolves 
with  a  hissing  noise  similar  to  ihal  made  by 
red-hot  iron  pUmjed  into  water.  When  in 
the  state  of  glass  it  dissolves  mucii  more 
slowly.  The  heat  evolved  cUirlrig  the  com- 
bination of  this  acid  and  water,  is  much  infe- 
rior to  that  evolved  when  sulphuric  acid  en- 
ters into  a  similar  combination.  Phosphoric 
acid  obtained  by  deliquescence,  when  mixed 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  distilled  water,  ac- 
quired so  litde  he.:t  as  to  raise  the  thermo- 
meter only  one  degree,  as  Mr.  Sage  observ- 
ed. Mr.  Lavoisier  raised  the  therm. niieter 
from  50°  to  03',  by  mixing  phosphoric  acid 
boiled  to  the  consistence  of  a  syrup  with  an 
equal  t|uantity  of  water;  and  from  50'  to 
104"  when  the  acid  was  as  thick  as  turpen- 
tine. 

4.  0.>;vgpn  gas  has  no  action  on  phos- 
phoj'ic  acid,  whatever  is  the  temperature. 
Neither  is  it  decomposed  or  altered  by  any 
«f  the  simple  combustibles,  if  we  e.vcept  cliar- 
coal ;  which,  though  it  has  no  action  on  it 
while  cold,  at  a  red  heat  decomposes  it  com- 
pletely; carbonic  acid  is  formed,  and  phos- 
phorus sublimed.  This  is  the  conmion  pro- 
cess for  obtaining  phosphorus. 

5.  Neither  of  the  simple  inconibustibles 
has  any  particular  action  on  it. 

6.  This  arid,  wlien  in  a  liquid  state,  is  ca- 
pable of  oxidizing  some  of  the  metals,  espe- 
cially when  assisted  by  heat;  at  the  same 
time  hvdrogen  gas  is  emitted.  Hence  we 
see  that  the  oxid.zement  is  owing  to  the  de- 
composition of  water.  In  this  manner  it  o.k- 
idizes  iron,  tin,  lead,  zinc,  antimony,  bis- 
muth, manganese;  but  on  some  cf  these  it 
acts  very  slowly.  When  fused  with  several 
of  these  metals,  as  tin,  iron,  and  zinc,  it  is 
converted  into  phosphorus;  a  proof  that 
they  have  a  stronger  affinity  for  oxygen. 

It  does  not  act  upon  gold,  platinum,  silver, 
copper,  mercury,  arsenic,  cobalt,  nickel.  It 
appears,  however,  to  have  some  action  on 
gold  in  the  dry  way,  as  it  is  called ;  for  when 
ftjsed  with  gold-leaf  it  assumes  a  purple  co- 
lour, a  proof  that  tliegold  has  been  oxidized. 

7.  Phosphoric  acid  combines  with  alkalies, 
earths,  and  metallic  oxides,  and  forms  with 
them  salts  known  by  the  name  of  pliosphats. 

t.  Its  affinities  are  as  follow  : 

Rarytes, 
Strontian, 
Lime, 
Potass, 
Soda, 
Ammonia, 
Magnesia, 
Glucina, 
Alumina, 
Zirconia, 
IMetallic  oxides. 
Silica. 

0.  The  component  parts  of  this  acid  have 
been  ascertaine<l  in  a  more  satisfactory  man- 
ner than  almost  any  other  chemical  com- 
pound. Mr.  Lavoisier  proved,  that  45  parts 
of  phosphorus,  when  burnt  in  oxygen,  ab- 
sorbed ab'jiit  69.37,i  parts  ot  that  gas,  and 
produced  about  114  parts  of  phosphoric  acid 


P  H  O 

Hence  it  follows  that  this  acid  is  composed 
of  about  GO  oxyaen 

4o  pliosphorus 

100, 
or  3  parts  oxy:;en  to  2  parts  of  phosphorus. 

This  acid  is  looexpenive  to  be  brought 
into  common  use.  If  it  could  be  procured 
at  a  cheap  rate,  it  might  be  employed  with 
advantage,  not  only  in  several  important 
chemical  manufactures,  but  also  in  medicine, 
and  perhaps  even  in  domestic  economy. 

PHOSPHOROUS  ACID:  the  acid  obtain- 
ed by  the  burning  of  jihosphorus  diders  ac- 
cording to  the  rapidity  of  the  combustion  ; 
or,  wjiich  is  the  same  thing,  according  to  the 
temperature  in  which  tlie  proces:^  is  con- 
ducted. When  lieated  to  141"  it  burns  ra- 
pidly, and  tne  piocKict  is  plK)sphoric  acid  : 
when  allowed  to  burn  gradually,  at  the 
common  teiv.peruture  of  the  a:r,  the  pro- 
duct is  phosphorous  acid,  which  contams 
a  smaller  proportion  of  oxvgen.  The  differ- 
ence between  these  two  acids  had  been  re- 
marked by  Sage,  by  Proust,  and  by  .Mor- 
veau;  but  it  was  Lavoisier  who  first,  in  1777, 
demonstrated  that  they  form  dilic-rent  com- 
pounds with  other  bodies,  and  tliat  the  dif- 
ference between  them  is  owing  to  the  differ- 
ent proportionsof  oxygen  which  they  contain. 

1 .  Pliosphorous  acid  is  prepareil  by  expos- 
ing phosphorus  during  some  weeks  to  the 
ortiinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere. 
Even  in  winter  the  phosphorus  undergoes  a 
slow  combustion,  and  is  pradually  changed 
into  a  liquid  acid.  For  tliis  purpose,  it  is' 
usual  to  put  small  pieces  of  phosphorus  on 
the  inclined  side  of  a  glass  funnel,  througli 
which  the  liquor  which  is  formed  drops  into 
the  bottle  placed  to  receive  it.  From  one 
ounce  of  phosphorus  about  three  ounces  of 
acid  liquid  may  be  thus  prejjared. 

2.  Pliosphorous  acid,  thus  prepared,  is  a 
viscid  liquid,  of  different  degrees  of  con- 
sistence, adhering  like  oil  lo  the  sides  of  the 
glass  vessel  in  which  it  is  contained.  It  emits 
the  smell  of  garlic,  especially  when  heated. 
Its  taste  is  acid,  like  that  oi  phosplioric  acid, 
and  it  produces  the  same  eii'ect  upon  vege- 
table colo'.irs.  Its  specific  gravity  has  not 
been  determined. 

3.  It  combines  with  water  in  every  propor- 
tion ;  but  it  cannot,  like  phoiphoric  acid,  be 
obtaini'd  in  a  concrete  state. 

When  heatevl,  part  of  tlie  water  wliich  it 
contains  Is  at  first  evaporated.  When  large 
bubbles  of  air  rise  to  the  surface,  there  they 
break,  and  emit  a  dense  white  smok<-,  or  e\  en 
take  lire  if  the  experiment  is  peri'ormed  in 
an  open  vessel.  The  emission  of  these  bub- 
bles ol  phospliureted  hydrogen  gas  continues 
for  a  long  time.  When  the  process  is  finish- 
ed, tlie  acid  wliicli  remains  is  no  longer  phos- 
phorous, but  phosphoric  acid.  These  jihe- 
nomena  woukl  lead  one  to  suspect  that  phos- 
phorous acid  is  not,  as  has  been  hitherto 
sujiposed,  a  compound  of  phosphorus  and 
ox\gen;  but  that  it  is  jjliosphoric  acid  satu- 
rate{l  with  phosphirreled  hydrogen  gas. 

4.  This  acid  is  converted  into  phosphoric 
acid  by  exposure  to  air  or  oxygen  gas.  Tlie 
process  is  exceedingly  slow,  aiul  the  conver- 
sion is  never  complete.  Jt  succeeds  better 
uhen  lln^acid  is  diluted  with  a  great  propor- 
tion of  water. 

5.  Phosphorous  acid  is  not  acted  upon  by 
any  ol  the  siiujile  combustibles  except  char- 


r  n  o 

coal,  and  perhaps  also  hydrogen.  Charcoal 
liecomposes  it  at  a  red  heat  as  well  as  phos- 
l)horic  acid.  The  products  are  carbonic 
:  cid  and  phosphorus.  It  does  not  act  on  the 
simple  inconibustibles. 

tj.  Its  action  on  metals  is  exactly  similar,  to 
that  of  phosplior.c  acid,  excepting  only  that 
the  hydrogen  gas  evolved  during  the  oxv- 
disement  of  the  metals  has  a  fetid,smell,  aiul 
holds  phosphorus  in  solution. 

7.  It  comliines  with  alkalies,  earths,  and 
metallic  oxides,  and  forms  compounds  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  phosphites. 

8.  Sulphuric  acid  prodmres  no  change 
upon  it  while  cold ;  but  at  a  boiling  heat  it 
jiarts  with  some  of  its  oxyuen,  and  the  phos- 
phorous acid  is  converted  into  phosphoric. 
Mtric  acid  also,  when  assisted  by  heat,  con- 
verts it  readily  into  pliosphoric  acid.  This 
fmnislies  us  with  by  far  the  best  process  for 
obtaining  phosphoric  acid  at  present  known. 

9.  The  aflinities  of  phosphorous  acid,  as 
ascertained  by  Bergman,  Focrcroy,  and 
Vauqueiin,  observe  the  following  oixler: 

Lime, 

Parvtes, 

Strontian, 

Potass, 

Soda; 

Ammonia, 

Glucina, 

AUmiina, 

Zirconia. 
This  acid  has  not  hitherto  been  put  to  any 
use.  The  histon'  of  its  preparation  is  suffi- 
cient to  convince  us,  th'dt  it  is  composed  of 
the  same  constituents  as  phosphoric  a'id : 
but  the  exact  proportion  of  these  constituents 
has  not  hitherto  been  ascertained. 

PHOSPHOill'S,  in  chemistry,  a  combus- 
tible substance  remarkable  for  its  strong  at- 
traction for  oxygen,  and  which  consequently 
spontaneously  inllames  in  the  open  air  at  a 
moilerate  temperature. 

Hialnr'i  oj  il.i  discovery.  It  was  acciden- 
tally discovered  by  Brandt,  a  chemist  of 
Hamburgh,  in  the  year  l6(i9,  as  he  was  at- 
tempting to  extract  from  human  urine  a  liquid 
capable  of  converting  silver  into  gold.  He 
showed  a  specimen  of  it  to  Ktinkel.  a  Ger- 
man chemist  of  considerable  eminence,  who 
mentioned  the  fact  as  a  piece  of  news  to  one 
Kraft,  a  friend  of  his  at  Dresden.  Kraft  nu- 
mediately  repaired  to  Hamburgh,  and  pur- 
chased the  secret  from  Brandt  for  200  dol- 
lars, exacting  from  him  al  the  same  time  a 
promise  not  to  reveal  it  to  any  other  jierson. 
Soon  after  he  exliibited  his  phosphorus  pub- 
licly in  Britain  and  France,  expecting  doubt- 
less that  it  would  make  liis  fgrtune.  Kui.kel, 
who  had  mentioned  to  Kraft  his  intention  of 
getting  possession  of  the  process,  belnt;  vexed 
at  the  treacherous  conduct  of  his  friend,  at- 
teni|)ted  to  discover  it  himself;  and  about 
the  year  1674  he  succeeded,  though  he  only 
knew  from  Brandt  that  urine  was  the  sub- 
stance from  wliich  phosphorus  iiad  been  pro- 
cured. Accordingly  he  is  always  nckonedj. 
and  deservedly  too,  as  one  of  the  discoverers  i 
of  phosphorus. 

Boyle  likewise  discovered  phosphorus,  and 
revealed  the  process  to  Godtrey  Ilankwilz,  a 
London  apothecary,  who  conliiiued  lor  many 
years  to  supply  all  Europe  w  itli  phosphorus. 
Hence  it  was  known  to  chemists  by  the 
name  of  English  phosphorus. 
Phosphorus  uiay  be  procured  by  the  fuU 


V  IT  O 

limitif;  process ;  Let  a  ijuantity  of  I>oiies  be 
burnt,  or,  as  it  is  tcnnod  in  clieiiiisti-)',  cal- 
cined, till  they  ceiwe  to  smoke,  or  to  give 
out  any  odour,  and  lei  tti;;in  altcrwards  be  re- 
iluced  to  a  line  pOwder.  Put  100  parts  of 
tlus  powder  into  a  bason  of  porcelain  or 
fitoue  ware,  dilute  it  with  four  limes  its  wcii^ht 
ol  water,  and  tlien  add  gradually  (stirrini;  tlie 
mixture  after  every  addition)  40  parts  of 
sulpiiuric  acid.  Tile  mixture  becomes  hot, 
<iud  a  vast  number  of  air-bubbles  are  extri- 
cated. Leave  tlio  mixture  in  this  state  for 
24  hours;  taking;  care  to  stir  it  well  every 
now  and  then  with  a  glass  or  porcelain  roil, 
to  enable  the  acid  to  act  upon  the  powder. 

'I'he  whole  is  now  to  i)e  poured  on  a  liltre 
of  cloth;  the  liquid  which  runs  lhroui;h  the 
fillre  is  to  be  received  in  a  porcelain  bason; 
and  the  white  powder  which  remains  on  the 
liltre,  after  pure  water  has  been  poured  on  it 
repeatedly,  and  allowed  to  strain  into  the 
porcelain  bason  below,  being  of  no  use,-  may 
tie  thrown  away. 

Into  the  liiiuid  contained  in  the  porcelain 
bason,  which  lias  a  very  acid  taste,  sugar  of 
lead,  dissolved  in  water,  is  to  be  poured 
slowly;  a  white  powder  immediately  falls  to 
the  bottom:  the  sugar  of  lead  must  be  added 
as  loii^  as  any  of  this  powder  continues  to  be 
formed.  'Ihrow  the  whole  upon  a  liltre. 
The  white  powder  which  remains  upon  the 
liltre  is  to  be  well  washed,  allowed  to  dry, 
and  then  mixed  with  about  one-sixth  of  its 
wei;5ht  of  charcoal-powder.  This  mixture  is 
to  be  put  into  an  earthenware  retort.  The 
retort  is  to  be  put  into  a  sand-bath, and  the 
beak  of  it  plunged  into  a  vessel  of  water,  so  as 
to  i)e  just  under  the  surface.  Heat  is  now  to 
be  .ipplied  gradually  till  the  retort  is  made 
red-liot.  A  vast  number  of  air-bubbles  issue 
from  the  beak  of  the  retort,  some  of  which 
take  lire  when  ikey  come  to  the  surface  of 
the  water.  At  last  there  drops  out  a  sub- 
stance which  li.is  the  appearance  of  melted 
wax,  and  which  congeals  under  the  water. 
This  substance  is  i)hosphorus. 

Properties.  1.  Phosphorus,  when  pure,  is 
semitransjiarcnt,  and  of  a  yellowish  colour  ; 
bul  when  kept  some  lime  in  water,  it  becomes 
opaque  externally,  and  then  has  a  great  re- 
semblance to  white  wax.  Its  consiitence  is 
nearly  that  of  wax ;  it  may  be  cut  with  a 
knife,  or  twisted  to  pieces  with  the  fingere  (a 
dangerous  process).  It  is  insoluble  in  water. 
lt>  mean  specilic  gravity  is  1.77. 

'2.  It  melts  at  the  tenijierature  of  9?/- 
Care  mu'.t  be  taken  to  keep  phosphorus 
tuider  water  when  melted;  for  it  is  so  com- 
bustible, that  it  cannot  easily  be  melted  in 
the  open  air  without  taking  lire-  AVIien 
phosphorus  is  newly  prepareil,  it  is  always 
dirty,  being  mixed  with  a  (piantity  of  cliar- 
tonl-dust  and  other  impurities.  These  ini- 
Jjurities  may  be  separated  by  melting  it  under 
water,  and  then  stpieezing  it  through  a  piece 
of  clean  shamoy-leather.  It  maybe  formed 
into  sticks,  bv  pulling  it  into  a  glass  funnel 
with  a  long  tube,  stopjjed  at  the  bottom  with 
a  cork,  and  plunging  the  whole  under  warm 
water.  The  phosphorus  meils,  and  assumes 
the  shape  of  the  tube.  When  cold,  it  may 
be  easily  pusbed  out  with  a  bit  of  wood.  If 
air  is  excluded,  phosphorus  evaporates  at 
.2 1 9',  and  boils  at  '}5i\ 

3.  When  phosphorus  is  exposed  to  the  at- 
Vnosphere,  ))rovided  the  temperature  is  not 
lower  than  43°,  it  einils  a  white  smoke,  which 


P  H  O 

bas  thp -imell  of  garlic,  and  is  luminous  in  the 
dark.  'I'his  smoke  is  more  abundant  the 
higher  (he  temperature  is,  and  is  oc<'asioncd 
by  the  gradual  combustion  of  the  phospho- 
rus, which  at  last  disappcnirs  altogether. 

4.  When  a  bit  of  pnosphorus  is  put  into  a 
glass  jar  tilled  with  oxygen  gas,  part  of  the 
phosiihorus  is  dissolved  by  the  gas  at  the 
leniperatin-e  of  ()>7';  but  the  phosphorus  does 
not  hec«me  linninous  unless  its  temperature 
is  raised  lo  SO'.  Hence <re  learn,  that  |)hos- 
p!iOiUs  burns  at  a  lower  temperature  in  com- 
mon airlban  in  oxygen  gas.  This  slow  com- 
bustion ot  phosphorus,  at  the  common  tem- 
pi'rature  of  the  atmosphere,  renders  it  neces- 
sary to  kee[)  phosphorus  in  phials  filled  with 
water.  The  water  should  be  previously 
boiled  to  expel  a  little  air,  which  that  liquid 
usually  contains.  The  phials  should  be  kept 
in  a  dark  place ;  for  when  |)hosphorus  is  ex- 
posed to  the  light,  it  soon  becomes  of  a  while 
colour,  which  gradually  changes  to  a  dark 
brown.  When  thus  altered,  the  French 
chemists  give  it  the  name  of  oxide  of  phos- 
phorus ;  su|)posing  it  now  to  be  no  longer 
pure  ])hosphorus,  but  phosphorus  combined 
with  a  Utile  oxygen.  Phosphorus,  whiMi 
newly  prepare<l,  always  contains  some  of  this 
oxide  of  phosphorus  mixed  witli  it;  but  it 
may  be  easily  separated  by  plunging  the  mass 
into  water  heated  to  about  1 00".  The  phos- 
phorus melts,  while  the  oxide  remains  un- 
changed, and  swims  upon  the  surface  of  the 
melted  phosphorus. 

5.  ^V'llen  heated  to  148",  phosphorus  takes 
/ire  and  burns  with  a  very  bright  flame,  and 
gives  out  a  great  quantity  of  white  smoke, 
which  is  luminous  in  the  dark  ;  at  the  same 
lime  it  emits  an  odour  which  has  some  resem- 
blance to  that  of  garlic.  It  leaves  no  resi- 
duum; bul  the  wliite  smoke,  when  collected, 
is  found  to  be  an  acid. 

On  examining  the  acid  produced  during 
the  combustion  of  phosphorus,  it  is  found 
that  it  is  a  peculiar  acid,  now  known  by  the 
name  of  phosphoric  acid,  which  sec. 

The  combustion  of  phosphorus,  like  that 
of  sulphur,  is  nothing  else  than  it-;  combina- 
tion with  oxygen:  for  daring  the  process  no 
new  substance  appears,  except  the  acid,  ac- 
companied indeed  with  much  heat  and  light. 

6.  Phosphorus  combines  readily  with  sul- 
phur, and  the  two  substances  are  capalde  of 
iieing  mixed  in  different  proportions.  Sicven- 
ly-two  grains  of  plios|)horus  and  nine  of  sul- 
phur, when  heated  in  about  four  ounces  of 
water,  melt  with  a  gentle  heat.  The  com- 
pound rem:uns  lluid  till  it  is  cooled  down  to 
/  7",  and  then  becomes ,  solid.  These  sub- 
slances  were  combined  in  the  same  manner 
in  the  following  proportions : 

4  Phosphoru  )  .,  i     .^  -„. 

,  I.'  I  'I-  congeals  at  jQ' 

)   Sulphur       i       ° 

4  Pno-iphorus  )  .  .  ^» 

'2  Sulphur        S 

4  Phosplioru-  )  .  ,  , 

4  Sulphur        S  '    '     '•^^' 

4  Phosphorus^  _     _       .     ., 

I'J  Sulphur        ]  '""'y- 

When  the  phosphorus  predo;ninates,  this 
compound  is  called  phosphuret  of  sulphur  ; 
when  the  sulphur  exceeds,  it  is  called  snl- 
phuret  of  phosphorus. 

Phosphorus  and  sul|)hur  mav  be  combined 
also  by  melting  them  together  without  any 
water;  but  the  combination  lakes  place  so 
3  G  2 


T'  11  R 


41'«* 


rapidly,  that  they  are  apt  lo  rush  out  of  flie 
vessel  if  the  heat  is  not  exceedingly  iiiotli.'- 
rale. 

7.  Phosphorus  is  capable  likewise  of  com-* 
bining   with   many  other  bodies;  the  com- 
pomids   produced   are    called    pliospburets, 
which  see. 

8.  Phosphorus,  when  us<!d  internally,  is 
poisonous.  In  very  small  <|uantities  (as  one- 
fourth  of  a  grain),  yet  when  very  minutely 
divided,  it  is  said  by  I.eroi  lo  be  very  effica- 
cious in  restoring  and  estabiisliing  the  force 
of  y  onng  persons  exhausted  by  sensual  indul- 
gence. 

The  affmities  of  phosphorus  have  not  yet 
been  ascertained. 

PIIOSPIU'RKTS,  substances  formed  by 
an  union  of  the  alkalies,  earths,  and  metallic 
oxides,  with  phospUotus.  Thus  we  have  pho»* 
pliurift  of  lime.  Sec. 

Phospiiuriit  of  Antimom).  When  equal 
parts  of  antimony  and  pbos|)boric  glass  are 
mixed  together  with  a  little  charcoal-i)owder, 
and  melted  in  a  crucible,  phosphuret  of  anti- 
mony is  produced, 

Phosi'HURET  of  Tiarijtes  may  be  fonned 
by  putting  a  mixture  of  phosphorus  and  ba- 
ryles  into  a  glass  tube  close  at  one  end,  and 
beating  the  mixture  by  putting  the  tube  upon 
burning  coals.  These  instances  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  explain  the  nature  of  pliospburets 
in  general. 

PIIOTINIANS,  a  sect  of  Christians  in  the 
fourth  century,  so  called  from  Photinus,  their 
chief,  who  was  bishop  of  Sirmich,  and  main- 
tained that  Jesus  Christ  was  true  man,  but 
not  true  God,  nor  born  before  all  ages;  and 
that  he  only  began  to  be  Christ  when  the 
Holy  Spirit  descended  upon  him  in  the  river 
Jordan. 

PHOTOMETER,  Measurer  nf  Light, 
in  a  cloudy  or  bright  day,  or  between  differ- 
ent luminous  bodies.  A  good  instrument  of 
this  kind  is  still  a  desideratum  in  philosophy. 

PHRASE,  in  grammar,  a  manner  of 
speech  peculiarly  adapted  to  certain  occa- 
sions, arts,  languages,  &c. 

PHRENETIC  VESSELS.  See  Anato- 
my. 
PHREXSY.  See  MEnicmE. 
PHRYGANE.\,  a  genus  of  insects  oftlie 
order  neuroplera.  The  generic  character  is, 
mouth  williout  teeth,  with  four  feelers;  stem- 
mala  three ;  antennae  longer  than  thorax ; 
wings  incumbent,  the  lower  pair  pleated. 

Ihe  genus  phryganea  consists  of  insect-! 
which  in  point  of  habit  or  general  :ippear- 
an-e  bear  a  considerable  resemblance  to  some 
of  the  phatena-,  and  particularly  to  those  be- 
longing to  the  division  entitled  tineie.  They 
may  however  be  readily  distinguished  from 
moths  by  their  jinlpi  or  feelers,  as  well  as  by 
the  stemnr.ita  situated  on  the  top  of  the 
lieatl.  The  phryganea:  proceed  fromaqnatiq 
larva"  of  a  lengthened  shape,  residing  in  tubu- 
lar cases,  which  they  form  by  agglutinating 
various  fragments  of  vegetable  substances, 
particles  of  gravel,  &c.  I'icc.  These  tubular 
cases  are  lined  within  by  a  tissue  of  silken 
fi'ires,  and  are  open  at  each  extremity. 
The  iiicludeil  larva-,  when  feeding,  protrude 
the  head  and  fore  parts  of  the  body,  creep- 
ing along  the  bottom  of  the  waters  they  in- 
habit, by  means  of  si.x  short  and  slemler  legs : 
on  (he  upper  part  of  llie  back,  in  most  spe- 
cies, io  situated  au  upright  papilla  or  process, 


420 


P  TI  Y 


serving  as  a  kind  of  prop  or  stay,  prevf  iitin;?  ] 
lliL-  caM'  or  lube  horn  bl:pi)iiig  loo  lurwaidj 
tliir'mg  the  time  the  ani.iiiil  is  feeding. 

Of'the  Eij.oijeiiii  ijluyganex,  one  of  the 
langcbt  IS  the  ph'ryganea  gra;ul:s  of  lJnu:i'iis 
Bsuallv  iii.asunng  sonie\vh;'.t  more  tiian  an 
inch  in  lengtii,  and  having  very  much  the  ge- 
neral aspect  of  a  phaUena:  the  upper  wuigs 
lire  grev,  marked  by  various  darker  and 
liditer  streaks  and  specks,  and  the  under 
wTngs  yeilowish-brown  and  semitran^parent. 
'I'liiflarva,  wliich  measures  near  an  inch  and 
three  quarters  in  lengtli,  is  of  a  flesh-coloured 
grev,  with  brown  head  ami  legs,  and  inhabits 
a  -tube  composed  of  pieces  of  bark,  small 
fra-'mehls  of  grass-stalks,  or  other  sub^tances. 
Like  other  lai  va;  of  this  genus,  it  is  known  by 
the  name  of  cadew-worm,  or  cad-bait,  and  is 
freriuenily  used  l)y  anglers  as  a  bait.  \\'hen 
arrived  at  full  groutli,  it  fastens  the  case  or 
tube  by  several  silken  lllaments  to  the  stem  of 
some  water-plant,  or  other  convenient  sub- 
stance, in  s.ich  a  manner  as  to  project  a  htlle 
•above  the  surface  of  the  water ;  and  casting  its 
skin,  changes  to  a  chrvsalis  of  a  lengthi'iied 
shape,  and  displaying  'the  immature  iini!)s  of 
the  future  pln-yuahea,  which  in  the  space  of 
about  fourteen  days  emerges  from  its  confme- 

nient. 

Phrygania  rhombica  is  a  smaller  species 
than  the  for.ner,  and  is  of  a  yellowish-lirown 
colour,  w.th  two  obliquely  transverse  rhom- 
boid semitransparent  while  spots  on  each  up- 
per wing;  the  lower  wings  being  whitish, 
with  a  tinge  of  yellow-brown  towards  the  up- 
per edge.  The  larva  forms  its  case  of  small 
pieces  of  the  slender  stems  of  water-grasses  or 
other  plants,  curiously  disposed  in  an  oblique- 
ly transverse  direction.  It  is  of  a  greenish- 
brown  colour,  and  like  the  former,  is  found  m 
rivuletaand  stagnant  waters.  'I'he  hirva-  of 
the  phrvganes  in  general  feed  not  only  on  the 
smaller' water-insects,  but  on  tlie  spawn  of 
fishes,  and  eveiv  on  the  young  fry  itself. 
■I'here  are  iwentv-tour  species. 

PHRY.VIA,  a  genus  of  the  didynamia 
gymnospermia  class  and  order.  The  essen- 
tial character  is,  seed  one.  There  are  two 
species,  herbs  of  North  America  and  the 
Cape. 

PHRYN'iUM,  a  genus  of  the  monandria 
nionogvna  cla^s  and  order.  The  calyx  is 
three-leaved;  peta's  three,  equal;  nectarine; 
tube  filiform;  border  four-parted;  cap-;ule 
three-celled;  nuts  three.  I'here  is  one  spe- 
cies, a  plant  of  Maktbar. 

PH  IHISIS.  See  Medicint,. 
PIIYGICTIILON,  in  surgery,  a  broad, 
but  not  much  elevated  tumour,  of  the  same 
hature  with  the  bubo.  See  the  article  Bubo. 
Pm  LAC  TKKY,  in  anli<iuity,  a  charni 
or  amulet,  which  being  worn,  was  supposed 
to  preserve  people  Irom  certain  evils,  dis- 
eases, and  dang.rs.  'i'he  Jews  were  remark- 
able for  wearing  phylacteries  of  parchment, 
in  the  form  of  "slips  or  rolls  wherein  were 
written  certain  passages  of  the  law:  these 
thev  wore  upon  their  ii)ri'heads,  and  upon 
the 'wrists  of  their  left  arms.  The  modern 
Jews  think  themselves  under  no  obi  gation  to 
this  i)ractice,  which  they  observe  only  at 
morning  pravers. 

PHYLACHNR,  a  genus  of  the  dioecia 
monandria  cla-is  and  order.  The  calvx  is 
three.leaved,  superior;  corolla  funnel-form; 
fern,  stigma  four-cornered;  capsule  iuler.or, 
many-seeded.  'I'here  is  one  species,  a  small 
■lohsy  plant  of  Soulh  A  iicrica. 


P  II  Y 

PIIVLICW,  Luitiirfl  alatermit,  a  smiis 
of  the  inonogynia  order,  in  the  penlaiidria 
class  ot  plants  ;  the  penantlmim  fivt^parted, 
turbinate';  petals  none;  capsule  tricoccous. 
'i'here  are  twenty  species,  of  w  hich  three  are 
coinnioiily  kept  in  the  gardens  of  lliis  coun- 
try ;  but  being  natives  ot  wann  climates, 
they  reijuire  to  be  ke|Jt  in  puis,  and  housed 
in  winter.  .  'I'hey  are  all  shrubby  plants, 
rising  from  three  "to  live  or  six  feet  'high,  and 
adorned  with  beautiful  clusters  of  while  How- 
ers.     Thev  are  propagat'cd  by  cuttings. 

PIIYLLANTHUS,  ■■<c(i-<:idr  Im.-fl;  a  ge- 
nus of  the  triandria  ortler,  in  the  monacia 
class  of  plants.  The  male  calyx  is  six-parted, 
beil-shaped;  no  corolla;  female  calyx  six- 
parted^,  styles  three,  bifid;  capsules' three- 
celled;  seeds  solitarv,  roundish.  There  are 
eleven  species,  all  of  them  natives  of  warm 
climatjs;  and  rise  from  twelve  or  fourteen 
feet  to  the  heiglit  of  middling  trees.  They 
are  tender,  and  cannot  be  propagated  in  this 
country  without  artihcial  heal. 

PHYLLIS,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria  di- 
gyuia  class  and  order.  The  stigmas  are  his- 
pid, tructirications  scattered;  cal.  two-leaved, 
obsolete;  corolla  (ive-petalled;  seeds  two. 
1  here  is  one  species,  a  herb  of  the  Ca- 
naries. 

PHYSALIS,  the  ni'iiter  chcmj,  a  genus 
of  the  moiiogj  nia  order,  in  the  pentandria  j 
class  of  plants-.  'I'he  corolla  is  wheel-shaped ; 
stamina  converging;  berry  within  an  inllated 
calyx,  two-celled.  There  are  seventeen  spe- 
cies, of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  al-  | 
kekengi,  or  common  winter-cherry.  This  j 
grows  naturally  in  Spain  and  Italy.  The 
llowers  are  produced  from  the  wings,  standing 
upon  slender  footstalks ;  thev  are  of  a  white 
colour,  and  have  but  one  petal.  They  are 
succeeded  by  round  berries  about  the  size  of 
sniaU  cherries,  inclosed  in  an  inllated  blad- 
der, which  turns  red  in  autumn;  when  the  top 
opens  and  di-closes  the  red  berry,  which  is 
soft,  ptilpy,  and  hlled  with  tiat  kidney-shaped 
seeds.  The  plant  is  easily  propagated,  either 
by  seeds,  or  parting  the  roots ;  and  is  very 
hardy. 

PHYSF.TEU,  Cach.^i,ot,  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  order  cele.  The  generic  charac- 
ter is,  teeth  visible  in  the  lower  jaw  only  ; 
spiracle  on  the  head  or  snout.  1.  Physeter 
luacroeephahis,  blunt-headed  c.ichalot.  This 
w  hale,  which  is  one  of  the  largest  species,  is 
scarcely  inferior  in  size  to  tJie  great  inysticete, 
often  measuring  sixty  feet  or  more  in  length. 
'I'he  head  is  of  enormous  size,  constituting 
more  than  a  third  of  the  whole  animal;,  the 
mouth  wide;  the  upper  lip  rounded,  thiek'or 
high,  and  much  broader  than  the  lower; 
which  is  of  a  somewhat  sharpish  form,  hlting, 
in   a   manner,   into    a    longitudinal    bed   or 


groove  in  the  upper.  The  teeth,  at  least  the 
visible  ones,  as  mentioned  in  the  generic  cha- 
racter, are  situated  only  in  the  lower  jaw  ;  and 
when  the  mouth  is  closed,  are  received  into 
so  many  corresponding  holes  or  cavitie,^  in 
the  upper:  they  are  pretty  numerous,  rather 
blunt,  and  of  a  somewhat  conic  form,  with  a 
verv  slight  bend  or  inclination  inwards.  'I'here 
are'also,  arcording  to  Fabricius,  small,  curv- 
ed, tlattish,  concave,  and  sharp-pointed 
teeth,  lying  almost  horizontally  along  the 
upper  jaw  ;  though,  from  their  peculiar  situa- 
tion and  si/e,  they  are  not  visible  like  tlio^e 
of  the  lower;  being  imbedded  in  the  lleshy 
interstices   of  the  holes  which  receive   the 


PHY 

lower  teelh,  and  presenting  only  their  hit  crii4 
eumave  surtaees  lo  meet  the  latter  when  the 
mouth   is  closed.      The  front  ol  the  head  n 
very    abrupt,     descending     perpendicularly 
downwards;  and  on  its  lop,  which  has   been 
improperly  termed  the  neck  by  some  authors, 
is  an   elevation   or  angular  |)rominence  con- 
taining the  spiracle,  which  appears  e.Mernally 
simple,   but   is  double  within.     The  head  is 
distinguished  or  separated  from  the  body  by 
a   transverse  furrow  or  wrinkle.     'Die  eyes 
are  small  ..nd  bla(  k ;  and  the  ears  or  auditory 
passages  extremely   small.     About  the  mid- 
dle ot  the   back   is  a  kind  of  spurious  tin.  or 
ilorsal  tubercle,  of  a  callous  nature,  not  move- 
able,   and  somewhat  abrupt  or   tut   ort  be- 
hind.    The  tongue  is  of  the  shape   of  tlie 
lower  jaw,  clay -coloured  externally,  and  of 
a  dull  red  witlnn.     The  throat  is  but  small  in 
proportion  to  the  animal.     The  body  is  cy- 
lindrical  beyond   the   pectoral  tins,   growing 
narrower  towards  tlie  tail.     The  colour  of 
the  whole  animal  is  black,  but  when  advanced 
in   age    grows    whitish    beneath.      It    swims 
swittly,  and  is  said  to  be  a  violent  enemy  to 
the  squaluscarcharias,  or  while  shark,  which  is 
sometimes  driven  asnore  in  its  endeavours  to 
escape,  and  according  to  Fabricius,  will  not 
venture  to  approach  its  enemy,  even   when, 
dead,  though  lond  of  preying  on  other  dead 
whales.    '1  his  whale  a'so  devoins  tne  cyclo])- 
terus  lumpus,  or  lump-hsh,  an<l  many  olliers. 
The   Greenlanders   use  the  liesh,  S-..in,   oil,, 
tendons,  ic.  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of 
the  narwhal.     It  is  reckoned  very  didicult  ti> 
take,  being  very  tenacious  oi  liie,  and  surviv- 
ing for  several  days  the  wounds  it  receive* 
from  its  pursuers. 

It  is  in  a  vast  cavity  within  the  upper  part 
of  (he  head  of  this  whale,  that  the  substance 
called  spermaceti  is  founil,  which,  while  iresh 
and  in  its  natur.al  receptacle,  is  nearly  fluid  ; 
but  when  exposed  to  the  air,  concretes  iiiio 
opake  masses:  this  suiistance  being  so  uni- 
versally known,  it  becomes  unnecessary  to 
describe  it  tarllier. 

A  more  curious  and  valuable  production, 
the  origin  of  which  had  long  eluded  the  inves- 
tigation of  naturalists,  is  obtained  from  this 
animal,  viz.  the  celebrated  perfume  called 
ambergii":,  which  is  found  in  large  masses  in 
the  intestines,  being  in  reality  no  other  than 
the  faces. 

2.  Physeter  catodon,  small  cachalot.  Thi» 
species  is  of  far  interior  size  to  the  fo.mer, 
measuring  about  twenty-five  feet  in  lenglli. 
In  its  general  structure,  it  is  allied  to  the- 
preceding,  but  has  a  smaller  moulh  in  pro-  , 
portion,  and  is  witliont  any  visible  protube- 
rance on  the  back.  It  is  found  in  ihe  iiortli- 
ern  seas. 

3.  Physeter  microps,  small-eyed  caclia- 
lot.     This  is  of  equal,   and  sometmies  eveu 


superior  size  to  the  lirsl-described  species,  and 
is  a  native  ol  liie  northern  seas.  The  head  li 
very  large,  and  nearly  lialf  the  length  of  the 
body;  the  eyes  extremely  small,  and  the 
snout  slightly  obtuse:  on  the  back  is  a  loni 
and  somewhat  upright  narrow  and  pointed 
lui.  This  species  swims  swihly,  and  is  said 
to  be  a  great  enemy  to  the  porpoise,  which  It 
pursues  ind  pr(  ys  upon,  its  colour  is  black- 
ish above,  and  whitish  beneath.  Some  of 
the  su\)poscd  varietie.i  of  this  whale  are  said 
lo  grow  to  the  length  of  eighty  or  a  huiuired 
feel.  The  teeth  are  of  a  more  curved  form. 
|,han  the  rest  of  the  gcuus. 


PIT  Y 


Thyseter  tursio,  liigli-finm-d  cai  Iialot.  TliU 
is  p;uUL-u'arly  ilisliumii^ii-'d  by  llif  gri'iil 
ktiiitli  ami  narrow  toi'm  of  it-i  dorsal  liii,  whitli 
is  placed  almost  upright  cii  the  back,  and  is 
said  bv  some  authors  lo  appear  at  a  distaiux' 
like  iV.e  mast  of  a.  small  ship;  the  anuhal 
orouiiii?,  if  we  may  believe  report,  to  the 
leniill.  of  a  hiuidred  feet.  In  its  general  ap- 
peal ance  it  is  sail  much  to  resemble  the 
Ibriiier  spi-iies,  of  wliicli  it  may  perhaps  be  a 
variety  rather  than  truly  distinct;  bnt  so 
iiiucli'obscurily  slill  prevails  witii  respect  to 
the  cetaceous  aiiimals,  that  this  point  nni->t 
be  coi.iidered  a*  very  doubtful. 

PHYSICIANS.  'No  person  within  I.on- 
don,  nor  within  seven  miles  of  the  same,  shall 
exercise  as  a  physician  or  surgeon,  except  he 
is  examined  and  approved  by  the  bisliop  of 
Londr.n,  or  by  the  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  callini; 
to  tliem  four  doctors  of  physic,  and  for  s\ir- 
gerv,  othor  expert  persons  in  tir.'l  faculty,  o( 
theiii  that  have  been  approved;  upon  the 
pain  of  forfeit Ui-e  tor  eveiy  month  5/.  one 
halft.  the  kins,  ami  the'oth.-r  half  to  any 
that  Will  sue.     3  U.  Vlll.  c.  U. 

One  that  has  taken  his  degree  of  doc'or  of 
physic  in  eit-ier  of  the  universities,  may  not 
practise  in  I^ndon,  andwilliin  seven  nihes  of 
the  same,  without  licence  from  the  college  of 
physicians.  Audit  lias  been  held,  that  if  a 
person,  not  duly  authorized  to  be  a  pliysician 
or  surjeoji,  nn  lertakes  acure.and  the  patient 
dies  under  his  hands,  he  is  truilty  of  felony: 
but  he  is  not  excluded  from  the  benefit  of 
clerj.y. 

PHYSICS,  called  also  physiology,  and 
natural  philosopliy,  is  the  doctrine  oi'  natural 
bodies,  th-^ir  phenomena,  causes,  and  effects, 
witii  theii-  various  a.fections,  mo  ions,  opera- 
tions, &c.  bo  tliat  the  immediate  and  proper 
objects  of  physics,  are  t)ody,  space,  and  mo- 
tion. 

PHYSIOLOGY  is  a  word  which,  in  its 
Ctvinoloiiical  sii;iiilication,  comprehends  the 
sdence  of  nature  in  general;  modern  use, 
however,  has  restricted  it  to  that  de[)artme:it 
of  physical  kiiowledpie  which  has  alone  reli, 
ti<jn  to  organic  existence;  and,  indeed,  when 
employed  as  a  generic  term,  without  any 
specific  indication,  it  is  made  excki>-!vely  to 
tteiiote  the  science  of  animal  life.  Natural- 
ly organized  bodies  are  thoie  which  have 
"  an  origin  by  generation,  a  growth  hy  nu- 
trition, and  a  termination  l)y  deatli."  In  en- 
deavotiring,  however,  to  mark  the  precise 
distiiulioii  between  living  <n-  organic,  and 
matter  which  js  .inanimate  or  destitute  of  vi- 
tality, it  v,'\\  be  found  of  considerable  import 
to  ascertain  the  prime  characteristic  of  either. 
or  that  to  whicli  all  other  laws  intluenciny 
them  act  in  subordination. 

It  ib  indivisibility,  or  miitual  connection  of 
parts  witii  the  whole,  wliicli  appears  to  con- 
stitute the  essential  character  of  a  living  or- 
ganized body.  "  The  nii<Je  of  existence  in 
each  part  of  inanimate  matter  belongs  to  itself, 
but  in  living  bodies  it  resides  in  the  wliole." 
Separate  a  single  branch  from  a  tree  in  the 
full  vigour  of  vegetation,  and  the  part  thus 
separated  shall  immediately  droop,  and  sliall 
shortly  die;  that  is,  it  will  cease  to  be  intiu- 
enccd  as  formerly  by  air,  heat,  and  other 
powers  whii'li  support  vegetation ;  will  no 
longer  display  those  phenomena  which  had 
previously  resulted  Jrom  the  aijency  ol  such 
powers ;  will  become,  in  the  language  of  the 
U 


r  T-i  Y 

Bnuioiiian  pliilosnpliy,  iinexcilablc,  ami  sub- 
ject to  the  government  of  new  laws.  In  the  ani- 
mal creation,  also,  the  same  effect  will  result 
from  liie  same  process :    if  a  limb  is  sepa- 
rated Irom  an  animal  body,  the  life  of  such 
limb,  without  i'ny  apparent  injury  to  its  or- 
ganization,   will  "be     inevitably    destroyed. 
Supposing  we  have  thus  reduced  organic  to 
inorgnn-c,  living  to  dead  matter,  in  an  ajii- 
Mial  body,  f.)r  instance,  let  us  pursue  our  ex- 
periments on  the  material  thus  changed;  let 
the  part  to  which  we  have  given  a  new  mode 
of  exigence  be  itself  divided,  and  wc;  shall 
now  find  nothing  of  the  like  result,  as  in  the 
lir.«t  process,  to  take  place ;  its  <pi-ahty  by  this 
last  o])eration  will   only  be  altered  i'nasniucii 
as  Its  (piantity  is  diminished.     I'^-ach  part  will 
be  found  to  have  a  separate  and  independanl 
exist<'nre.     There  has  been   no  conm-cling 
integral  principle  interfered  with  ;  and,  place^l 
exactly    under  the   same  external   circum- 
stances, an  identity  in  the  mode  of  existence 
would  be  retained'to  llie  end  of  time  by  each 
division.      Let  ns   pursue   our  experiments 
slill  further.     Let  us  subject  the  two  parts  to 
a   dl.ference  of  external  circumstance  ;  en- 
close one  in  an  atmo-phere  of  40"  of  heat,  the 
other  in  100°,  and  the  conse<|uence  will  be  a 
d:'piivatiou  of  that  identity  which   till  now 
tliey  had  retained.      Kacli  part  will  not  con- 
tinue the  same  mass  of  dead  matter,  but  will 
assume  a  new  character.     Now   it  will  be 
evident  that  in  these  experiments  we  have 
opLiMtcd  an  esBi'ntial  change  ;  and  in  each,  of 
an  esse.itially  different  nature.     I!y  seper.it- 
ing  a  part  Irom  the  whole  of  an  organic  body, 
we  effect  the  loss  of  its  vitality,  even  tliough 
SUCH  external  agents  shall  continue  to  be  ap- 
plied  as    i)reviously    operated    its    life    and 
growth.     By  a  further  mechanical  separation 
we  do  not  effect  an  alteration   in  qualify,  in 
any  other  way  than  as  this  will  ilepend  on 
quantity,  uniii  we  occasion  a  change  in  exte- 
rior agents  ;  bv  which  change,  however,  we 
linallv  ensure  an  actual  alleration  of  principle 
or    composition,    as    well    as    of   aggregate 
power. 

We  have  thus  end -avoured  to  illnstratethe 
simple  and  prime  charactrr'stic  of  organic  as 
separated  from  inorganic  being.     Hut  physi- 
ology we  have  said,  accOiding  to  the  general 
acceptation  of  the  word,  conlinesits  researches 
to  animal  life;    what  this  last  has  peculiar  to 
itself,  it  will  be  proper  hirther  to  state.     The 
iiiiial  divi'.ion  of  organized   existence  is  into 
animal  and  vegetable;  t!ie  former  possessing 
those  faculties  from  which   result  sensation 
and  loco-motion  ;  the  latter  being  destitute  of 
such  faculties:  an  opinion  indeed  has  recently 
been  hazarded  that  such  divisitin  is  unfounded 
and  artificial ;  that  vegetable  and  animal  life 
are  subject  to  the  same  laws;  that  plants  are 
not  merely  organized,  but  animalizi-d;  that 
their  motions  indicate  sensation  and  con«e- 
(pient  volition.     To  empiire  in'.o  the  grountls 
of  these  assumptions,  does  not  tall  witliin  the 
province  of  tiie  present  article ;  we  are  to  take 
tor  granted  the  negative  of  the  proposition, 
and  proceed  to  consider  first,  the  primary  fa- 
culties, and  s  condly,  the  resulting  functions, 
of  those  existences  which  are  universally  ac- 
knowledged to  be  possess :'d  of  the  powers  of 
feeling  and  o!  motion,  and  are  trulv  and  evi- 
dently anmialized. 

Of  Sensibiiili/,    IrrUubilitij,  and    the  Vital 
Principic. 
Sensibilitv  has  been  dclined,  the  faculty 


r  n  Y 


421 


which  organs  Iiave  of  feeling;  the  aptitude 
they  possess  of  perceiving,  by  the  contact  of 
an  extraneous  body,  an  impression  more  or 
less  powerful,  which  changes  the  order  of 
their   motions,  accelerates  or  retards,  •tup- 
presses  or  completes  them.     "This  f:icully," 
says  the  author  from  whom  we  have  taken 
the  definition  (M.  Kicherand),  "generally 
diflused  in  our  organs,  does  not  exist  in  all  lo 
the  same  degree.     In  some  it  is  obscure  and 
scarcely  apparent,   and  seems  reduced  lo  a 
degree  absolutely  indispensable  tor  the  tluid.s 
to  determine  tlie  actions   necessary  to  the 
functions  they  ought  to  pertbriu.     It  shoul.l 
seem  that  no  part  of  the  body  can  do  with.^ut 
this  s-nsibility  absolutely  necesyary  for  life. 
Vv'itliout  it,  how  could  various  organs   act 
upon  the  blood,  to  draw  from  it  the  means  of 
their  nutrition,  or  materials  for  the  different 
sei-retionsr   'I  herefore   this  degree   of  sen  i- 
bility  is-  common  lo  every  thing  which  lias 
lite;  to  animals  and  vegetables;  to   a  man 
when  asleep  and  awake;  'to  the  foetus  and  the 
infant :  to  the  organs  of  assimilating  fi.nclions ; 
and  to  those  which  put  us  on  a  level  with  sur- 
rounding beings.      Phis  low  degree  of  sensa- 
tion could  not  have  bePiisefficient  for  the  ex- 
istence of  man,    and  of   beitigs  resemiding 
him,  exposed  to  numerous  connections  with 
every  tiling  lliat  surrounds  them;  therefore 
they    possess   a   sensibil.ty  far  superior,  by 
which  the  impressions  affecting  certain  orjjana 
are  perceived,  judged,  compared,  &c.      Iliis 
sort  of  sensibility  would   be  more  prcpirly 
called  perceptibility,   or  llie  faculty  of  ju'lg- 
ing  of  the  motions  experienced.     U  requiies 
a  c  entre  to  which  llie  nnpressions  have  a  nm- 
Uial  relation  ;  therefore  it  only  exists  in  ani- 
mals which,  like  man.  have  a  brain,  or  some- 
thing etinivalent  in  ils  place ;  whilst  zoophytes 
and  vegetables,  not  possessing  this  central  or- 
gan, are  both  destitute  of  this  faculty;  how- 
ever, polypi,  and  sweral  plants,  as  the  sensi- 
tive, have  certain  spontaneous  motions,  which 
seem  to  indicate  the  exigence  of  volition,  and 
consequently  of  perceptibility  ;  but  these  ac- 
tions, like  that  of  a  muscle  from  the  thigh  of 
a  frog  excited  by  the  gal  .aiiic  stimulus,  are 
occasioned  by  an  imj)ression  that  does  not 
extend  beyond  liie  pari  itself,  and  in  which 
sensibilitv  and  contractility  exist  in  a  con- 
fused state.''      Elements  of  Physioloav  by 
A.  Richerand,  translated  edition. 

By  the  above  definition  and  description  of 
simple  sensibility,  as  opposed  to  percepti- 
bilitv,  it  will  appear  that  our  author  does  not 
consider  sensation  as  the  necessary  conse- 
(pience  of  the  faculty  which  he  terms  sensi- 
bility. 

'I  he    ai'thor,    however,   wlmrn    we    have 
quoted,  adnnts  that  this  kind  of  latent  and 
imperceptible  sensdiility  "  cannot  be  exactly 
compared   to  that  of  vegetables,  since  the 
parts  in  which  it  resides,  generally  possessing 
such  a  small  share  of  sensibility  in  a  stale  of 
health,  have  an  inci eased  or  percipient  de- 
gree of  sensibility  when  in  a  state  of  disease;" 
and  after  giving  examples  of  this,   he  adds,   . 
"  should  it  not  be  suspected  that  if  we  have 
not  a  consciousness  of  impressions  made  upon 
our  organs  by  the  fluids  contained  in  them 
during  hea'th,  it  is  from  our  being  accustom- 
ed to  the  sensations  they  excite  almost  unin- 
terruptedly, of  which   we  have  oaly  a  con- 
fusi'd  ])er<-eption,  tliat  lermine.tes  inpercep- 
tibh  ?  .And  may  we  not  be  permitted  in  this 
point  of  view  to   compare  lliese  organs  to 


■tliose  in  uliicli  re;klo'Vl5e  senses  of  vision, 
lieiiring,  smell,  taste,  and  l'eeUn<r,  whicii  <;an 
no  longer  be  excited  by  habitual  stimuli  to 
which   they  have  been'lonj^  accustomed  r" 
A\e  lind,  however,  some  difiicully  in  admit- 
tin--"  this  principle  even  with  tiie  niodihcatio.i 
proposed.  If  sensibility  becomes  in  this  man- 
ner latent,  or  we  cease  to  lake  cognizance  ot 
such  function'!  as  are  exercised  independantly 
of  tlie  will  merely  by  the  force  of  habit,  does 
it  not  follow  that  the  origin  of  these  lunctions, 
at  least  in  tlieir  aggregate,  would  have  been 
accompanied  bv  more  sensation  thau'  is  con- 
sistent with  the' healthy  stater    Thus  the  mo- 
ment an  animal  became  conscious  ol  exist- 
ence, it  would  be  tlie  subject  of  impression 
suliiciently  violent  to  destroy,  or  at  least  to 
derange  life.     JJoes  it  not  appear  that  invo- 
luntary living  action  resuhs  from  a  principle 
dissimilar  to  that  wliich  is  preceded  by  sensa- 
tion ;  and  that  the  sensibility  liere  spoken  of  is 
a  kind  of  intermetliate  facility  between  that 
which  gives  sensation  and  volition,  and  that 
upon  which  muscular  irritation  or  contrac- 
tion f.om  stimuli  depends?      Wiien  tiie  gal- 
vanic experimenter    excites   actions   in  the 
muscles  on  tlie  insulated  thigh  of  a  frog,  it 
cannot  be  supposed  that  sucli  actions  are  at- 
tended bv  perception  (for,  as  it  has  been  pro- 
perly observed  by  iM.  Cuvier,   "  it  appears 
repugnant  to  the  notions  we  entertain  of  self, 
an'd  of  the   unity  of  our  being,  to  admit  the 
posses5ii)n  of  sensation  by  these  fragments")  ; 
althong'n  the  actions  arc  excited  through  the 
medium  of  nervous  excitability,  and  are  of  a 
did'erent  nature  from  those  wliich  woulcl  fol- 
,low  a  mere  irritation  of  the. muscular  libre. 
May  we  not  then  conclude  that  the  nervous 
organization   is  endowed  with  a  susceptibility 
indepenilantly  of  actual,  or  what  M.   Riche- 
raiid  p  rli.i])-."  improperly  denominates  perci- 
pient, sen<il)ility ;  and  tfiat  it  is  through  the 
medium  of  this'tiiculty  that  the  incessant  and 
iinperceived  performance  of  the  vital  functions 
■is  accomplished?     vVhen  the  voluntary  fa- 
culty ceases  ti>  acknowledge  its  accustomed 
and  appropriate  stimuli ;  when  sensation  for  a 
time  is  totally  suspended,  as  in  apoplexy,  or 
in  experinieu'ts  on  frogs  by  pouring  opium  on 
the  brain  of  these  animals;  the  functions  of  vi- 
tality are  still  preserved  by  means  of  the  sus- 
ceptibility now  alluded  to.     We  have  else- 
where endeavoured  to  prove  that  convulsive 
agitation,  whether  taking  place  in  the  muscles 
ef  volition,  or  in  those  organs  which  are  inde- 
pendant  of  the  will,  results  from  deiicient  or 
transient  excitement  (see  Medicine,  section 
ycrvnui-  Di-scau-.i)  ;  and  such  defective  ex- 
tilenienl  seems  to  result  from  an  unhealthy 
condition  of  this  nervous  susceptibility,  which, 
in  instanci.'s  of  sudden  death  produced  by  an 
ai)rupt  and  entire  abolition  of  the  sentient  and 
loco-motive  faculty,  for  sometime  longer  lin- 
gers in  the  system',  deranged  indeed,  but  not 
yet  destroyed,  and  produces  those  Sjjasmodic 
motions   which   are   observed  in  an  animal 
body  under  the  circumstances  which  we  are 
now  supposing.     When,  for  instance,  a  do- 
mestic ibwl  is  deprived  of  life,  either  by  its 
•iiead  being  severed  from  its  body,  or  by  the 
more  common  mode  of  screwing  the  neck, 
a  spasmodic  convulsive  kind  of  vellications 
will  be  observed,  and  indicate  the  remains  of 
this  s.isceptibility  of  action,  for  some  lime 
after  perception  or  actual  sensation  is  gone. 
If  the  princi|)le  now  contended  for  is  admit- 
ted, o.ic  compassion  for  the  animal  in  this 
3 


WltSIOLOGY. 

state  would  be  misapplii.'d  ;  and  it  must  like- 
wise follow  that  the  notion  which  lias  been 
maintained  by  some  is  altogelner  erroneous, 
of  death  from  decaijilation  being  a  lingering, 
and  therefore  cruel,  mode  of  terminating  ex- 
istence. In  the  case,  however,  of  articu- 
lated worms,  a  like  separation  of  parts  does 
not  appear  to  ojjeiate  the  same  imniediale 
destruction  of  the  sensitive  and  loco-motive 
faculty  ;  for  as  in  them  there  is  no  single  brain, 
but  ganglia,  as  the  centres  of  sensation  and 
commencing  points  of  volition.  Each  part 
of  a  divided  worm  is  thus  a  distinct  living 
and  sentient  being.  From  the  remains  of 
this  principle  of  susceptibility  may  orig.nate 
those  convulsive  affections  which  almost 
invariably  precede  death  in  the  course  of 
nature,  and  which  are  oftentimes  exhibited 
in  a  violent  degree  for  some  time  posterior  to 
the  departure  of  the  sentient  or  perceiving 
faculty  ;  but  which  last  is  itself  destroyed  prior 
to  the  total  destruction  of  muscul.u- irritability, 
or  the  vis  insitii  of  Haller.  This  last  (Hal- 
lerian  irritability)  is  denominated  by  modern 
physiologists,  contracldity.  As  actual  sen- 
sation is  demonstrably  produced  through  the 
medium  of  nerve,  so  "  the  general  organ  of 
motion  is  the  tleshv  or  niu>cuiar  libre.  This 
libre  contracts  itself  by  volition,  but  the  will 
only  exercises  this  [jower  through  the  medium 
of  the  nerves.  Every  fleshy  hhre  receives  a 
nervous  filament,  and  the  obedience  of  the 
lil)re  ceases  wiien  the  connnunication  of  that 
filament  with  the  rest  of  the  system  is  inter- 
rupted. Certain  external  agents  applied  im- 
mediately to  the  fibre  likewise  cause  contrac- 
tions, and  they  preserve  their  action  upon  it 


in  the  philosophy  of  the  present  period,  t« 
strain  the  analogy  between  vegetable  and 
animal  life.  M.  Delamctherie^  a  l-'iench 
l)li)siologist,  carries  this  doctrine  to  the  ex- 
tent ol  denying  the  exi>tence  in  toto  of  any 
disunct  muscular  fibre.  The  substance  which 
has  been  ordinarily  considered  to  be  muscle, 
he  considers  as  "  a  congeries  o!  blood-vessels, 
lymphatics,  and  nervous  filaments,  bound  to- 
gether by  cellular  membrane,  in  the  inter- 
ntices  of  which  are  deposited  animal  gelatine 
and  fat."  Considerations  sur  les  Etres  organi- 
ses, &c. 

It  appears  to  us,  however,  that  sensibility 
and  in'itability,  although  intimately  connect- 
ed,aiul  never  separate  in  a  living  animal  body, 
are  yet  distinct  principles;  at  least,  that  more 
and  stronger  facts  than  have  hitherto  been 
advanced,  are  rec]uisiie  to  the  full  establish- 
ment of  the  modern  doctrine,  "  that  ihev 
are  in  effect  the  same  properly." 

Irritability,  or  the  power  of  contraction  upon 
the  application  of  stimuli,  has  been  divided 
into  two  species ;  tiie  one  has  been  named 
by  some  pnysioloaists  the, ionic  power,  the 
other  nuisculosity  :  this  dilTerence,  however, 
rather  reters  to  the  dilfiiieiice  of  exciting 
pow  er,  by  which  is  calietl  into  action  the  one 
and  the  other ;  "  the  slow,  gradual,  and  lonic- 
like  action  of  the  bladder  in  expelling  the 
urine,"  seems  principally  to  vary  Iroin  that 
of  the  voluntary  muscles  by  being  more 
beyond  the  Iniluence  and  caprices  of  the 
will. 

The  most  remarkable  characteristic  both 
of  sensibility  and  irritability  (forming  toge 


even  al^er  the'section  of  its  nerve,  or  its  total  1  t'lervital  exc-itabihty)  is,  that  as  they  are  sub- 


separation  from  the  body,  during  a  period  j 
which  ii  longer  or  shorter  in  difi'erent  species  i 
of  animals.  This  faculty  of  the  fibre  is  called 
its  irritabilitv.  Does  it  in  the  latter  case  de- 
pend upon  the  portion  of  the  nerve  remain- 
ing in  the  fibre  after  its  section,  whicli  always 
forms  an  essential  part  of  it?  or  is  the  influ- 
ence of  the  will  only  apa.ticular  circum- 
stance, and  the  etl'ect  of  an  irritating  action  of 
the  nerve  on  a  faculty  inherent  in  the  muscu- 
lar fibrj  ?  Half-r  and  his  followers  have 
adopted  the  latter  opinion;  but  every  day 
seems  to  add  to  the  probability  of  the  oppo- 
site theory." — Cuvier's.  Comparative  Ana- 
tomy. 

If,  however,  we  resort  to  analogy,  which,  in 
the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  with  re- 
spect to  the  composition  of  muscular  fibre,  is 
all  the  aid  with  which  we  are  furnished  to 
solve  the  question  of  distinct  or  separate  resi- 
dences of  nervous  and  muscular  power,  we 
should  perhaps  be  compelled  to  revert  to 
something  like  the  Ilallerian  doctrine  of  a  vis 
msila,  or  independant  excitability,  and  con- 
clude that  the  nerves  are  merely  instruments 
bv  which  the  faculty  of  coiitracti'ily  is  deve- 
loped, and  that  this  faculty  may  otherwise  be 
produced  by  extraneous  stimuli,  without  the 
interference  of  the  nerves.  Many  plants  are 
possessed  of  contractile,  although  not  (as  it  ap- 
pears) of  actually  sensitive  and  loco-motive 
power:  this  contractility,  from  the  mode  of  ils 
excitation,  and  from  the  phenomena  whicli  it 
exhibits,  seems  in  everyway  similar  to  the  ir- 
ritabililvot  the  animal  fibre,  nevertheless  nei- 
ther brain  nor  nerves  have  hitherto  been  dcled- 
ed  in  vegetables.  The  attempts  to  prove  that 
irritability  aiKl  sensibility  are  one,  seem  to 
proceed  irom  the   general  tendency  observeil 


servient  to  ditttreiit  purposes,  and  resident 
in  various  organs,  they  are  susceptible  of  de- 
veloperaent  or  excitation,  by  peculiiir  and 
respective  agents.  Thus  light  is  a  stimulus 
to  the  eye,  sound  to  the  ear,  a  sapid  sub- 
stance to  the  taste,  and  an  odoriferous  body 
the  smell.  Thus  mercury  will  stimulate 
the  hepatic,  foxglove  the  renal  viscus,  al- 
though in  each  instance  the  indivisible  facul- 
ties of  sensibility  or  irritability  are  called  ■ 
iiUo  play  ;  and  no  difference  indicating  pe- 
culiar excitability  can  be  traced  by  the  ana- 
tomist in  the  arrangement,  or  the  demist  in 
the  composition,  of  the  uUimate  (ibrilke  con- 
stituting either  the  nerves  or  the  contractile 
organs  of  these  respecti\'e  parts. 

'I'he  animal  frame  is  thus  supported  in  the 
same  manner  as  a  piece  of  coinpl'cated 
machinery,  composed  of  -several  springs, 
each  of  w  hich  is  kept  in  exercise  by  a  prin- 
ciple peculiar  to  itself,  while  the  combined 
effect  of  them  all  is  one  resulting  whole, 
ell'ected  by  one  prime  and  operating  prin- 
ciple ;  tills,  in  the  living  machine,  is  named 
the  vital  principle,  of  which  we  are  now  to 
speak. 

Ke-earohes  into  the  nature  and  cause  of 
living  actions,  appear  to  have  been  impeded 
by  error,  arising  from  dil'ferent,  and  in  one 
sense,  opposite  sources ;  the  one  of  old,  the 
other  of  modern  date.  The  earliest  philo- 
sophers could  not  have  been  long  in  ob- 
serving, while'contemiil  iling  the  phenomena 
of  life,  "that  it  exhibits  an  order  of  truths 
peculiar  to  itself,  which  is  no  where  to  be 
lound  beyond  the  sphere  of  living  exisleiKe." 
(Dumas.)  Before  the  proper  boundaries 
were  discovered  of  human  research,  ami 
the  true  nature  of  philosophizing  ascevtaiiicd. 


lliese  plionomena  were  accounted  t'orbytUj 
siipposilion  of  ail  occult  agency  endowed  with 
iiilelligeiico,  and  aclMig  witli  design  ;  hence 
(lie  ungiii  ol  llie  vague  terms  arclia-us,  or  pre- 
siding power,  vis  natur.c  medicatrix,  nature, 
and  oilier  expressions,  the  inventors  of  wliicli 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  conscious  Uiat  they 
nut  merely  amount  to  a  confession  of  igno- 
rance, hut  mislead  the  judgment  by  attaching  it 
to  cerlaiu  jireconceived  systems  framed  tVom 
ideal  knowledge.  It  is  the  province  ol  plii- 
lo<o])hy  not  to  imagine  but  to  infer.  W'lien 
ills  ob>ervitd,  that  life  in  all  its  modiiRMtioHs 
and  stages,  requires  for  its  develop  ■iiienl  and 
inainteiiance  tlie  incessant  aggncy  of  jiecuiiar 
powers  cm  uiattcr  peculiarly  constructed,  as 
in  llie  experiments  before  alluded  to,  we  are 
not  merely  justilied  in  concluding,  but  we 
are  irresistibly  impelled  to  the  infere.ice, 
that  the  conbination  of  effects  la  which  we 
have  applied  the  term  life  results  from  such 
agency  on  sucli  organized  matter.  'l"he  na- 
ture of  ihe  link  which  constitutes  this  cou- 
iieclion  may  for  ever  be  concealed,  bul  the 
connection  itself  is  demoiislrated.  '['he  idea 
of  life  then  is  not  to  be  confounded  cillier 
with  the  abstract  nature  of  the  matter  acted 
upon,  or  the  agents  through  the  medium  of 
which  it  is  produced.  "  '1  here  is  no  ihterior 
indejiendanl  spring  of  action  cr  support,"  Llieie 
is  no  exterior  abstract  power.  In  the  em- 
ployment then  of  the  term  vital  principle,  we 
ought  to  be  regarded  as  simply  announcing  a 
fact,  not  as  conveying  a  notion  of  cause;  and 
in  this  view  it  will  appear,  coiUrary  even  to  the 
sentiments  of  some  authors  from  whom  it 
is  almost  temerity  to  dil'f.'r,  that  the  passive 
rather  than  the  active  voice  of  verbs, 
should  he  made  use  of  in  calculations  on 
vital  forces  and  effects.  See  the  articles 
ISKUNo.sjiAN  System  ;  and  likewise  Medi- 
ci n'e,  section  /Vrer. 

Hut  an  error  from  a  difierent  source  than 
that  jusl  alluded  to.  appears  to  liave  insinu- 
ated itself  into  the  physiology  of  the  present 
day,  VIZ.  that  of  too  hastily  registering  under 
one  head,  facts  which  both  in  their  origin 
and  1  esuit,  are  of  a  nature  essentially  dilier- 
eiit.  We  allude  to  the  chemico-animal  phi- 
losophy wliicji  has  recently  become  so  pre- 
valent, especially  in  the  French  and  Geniian 
schools.  Against  tills  p'lysiology  we  do  not 
think  it  right  to  urge  the  objection  which 
has  been  advanced,  that  it  encourages  ma- 
terialism, and  leads  to  conclusions  destruc- 
ti\e  of  morality ;  for  besides  that  we  dotibt 
the  justness  of  the  accusation,  it  ought  al- 
v.ays  to  be  recollected,  that  it  is  not  until 
physiology  terminates,  that  metaphysic  com- 
meiices. 

In  consequence  of  the  radical  change 
which  has  recently  been  effected  in  the  whole 
body  of  chemical  science,  physiological  re- 
searches have  received  a  fresh  impulse  and 
a  new  direction.  By  modern  chemistry 
many  facts  in  the  animal  economy  have  beeii 
fully  developed,  whicii  were  before  con- 
cealed. Such,  however,  is  the  proneness  of 
mankind  to  extremes,  that  in  this  as  in  other 
instances,  the  auxiliary  has  been  made  to 
usurp  the  rights  of  the  principal ;  chemical 
aftinity  has  been  supposed  fully  explicative 
of  living  actions,  and  the  idea  of  animation 
being  regulated  by  a  distinct  principle  ridi- 
culed as  visionary.  We  believe,  however, 
the  riilicnle  to  have  been  misapplied;  and 
thougli  equally  ready  with  our  modern  physi- 
ologists to  opjjose  the  admission  of  "  an  oc- 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

I  cult  cause''  as  the  cause  of  life,  wemustsiill 
maintain  (hat  the  altiaclions  of  matter,  in  the 
mode  (hey  contend  for,  are  of  a  nature  very 
different  Ironi  those  resulting  from  the  a.gency 
of  the  liS-producing  powers  on  an  organized 
body.  I'or  example  :  muscular  contraction 
is  generati.'d  by  an  a'uMidant  variety  ot  ex- 
ternal stimuli  ;  among  these,  oxygen  has 
been  found  to  be  one  of  the  most  active  ; 
the  eflect  of  the  above  agent  has  been  there- 
fore preposterously  contounded  with  the 
agent  itseif,  oxygen  Iras  been  imagined  to  be 
IIk:  prineiple  of  irritability,  and  the  <levelopc- 
mciit  of  hie  by  conseciuence  li.is  been  sup- 
posed immediately  to  result  from  its  combi- 
nation with  (he  animal  libre  :  with  equal 
justice  might  opium  or  any  other  f.timului 
be  ill  this  manner  as  it  were  vitalized. 

ISut  it  will  be  urged  that  the  oxygenous 
theory  of  life  has  been  abandoned ;  nor  should 
we  perhaps  be  justiiied  in  bringing  it  to 
notice,  did  it  not  appear  that  those  hypothe- 
ses which  are  at  this  instant  in  repute  are 
I'ound'-d  upon  precisely  the  same  principles 
witli  the  conjectures  which  originated  with 
Dr.  (lirtaiiner.  Thus  it  has  been  infenvtl 
that  the  newly  discovered  source  of  nervous 
excitation  operates  upon  the  muscles,  by 
virtue  of  an  attractive  power  in  (lie  muscu- 
lar libje  for  the  galvanic  fluid,  much  in  the 
same  manner  as  an  acid  rushes  into  combi- 
nation with  an  alkali,  or  as  •oxygen  unites 
itself  with  an  iniiammable  base.'  "  1  sup- 
pose, (snys  M.  Delainetherie)  that  mus- 
cular coiilraction  is  produced  by  the  iieat 
whicli  accompanies  the  extrication  of  the 
galvanic  fluid,  upon  the  same  principle  lliat 
a  piece  of  skin  contracts  wliich  is  brought 
near  the  lire,  or  on  which  is  poured  a  con- 
centrated acid,  a  caustic  alkali,  or  any  other 
caustic  body." 

From  such  mode  of  reasoning  it  has  been 
inferred,  that  the  science  of  medicine  is  re- 
solvable into  a  combin.ition  and  separation  of 
principles  as  in  the  chemist's  laboratory  ;  and 
tiiat  lite  and  health  are  to  be  pri:served  and 
rest'ied  in  the  same  manner  as  a  iiuid  body 
is  made  viscid  by  the  introduction  of  a  fo- 
rei.jn  principle.  Thus  we  have  fnind  in  the 
writings  of  medical  systematics  of  this  class 
tiie  processes  described,  and  the  results  con- 
fidently amitipated,  of  oxygenating,  deoxy- 
gtnatuig,  h)peioxygena(ing,and  galvanizing, 
llie  anima!"tranie. 

It  is  however  obvious,  that  these  specu- 
lations are  fund.amentally  erroneous ;  for 
lite  and  iiealth  are  built  upon  a  liriner  basis 
tluiii  liiat  chher  of  aggregative  or  chemical 
attraction.  'J"he  intimate  bond  of  union  be- 
tween every  the  most  minute  portion  of  a 
living  body,  must  be  severed,  the  indivisi- 
bility of  the  frame  inuit  lirst  be  dissolved,  in 
a  word  life  must  have  deserted  the  body,  be- 
fore the  above  powers  can  be  admitted.  In 
what  manner,  according  to  the  tenets  we  are 
now  canvasiiig,  could  that  remarkable  pro- 
perty of  animal  life  (caloricile)  be  preserved, 
of  retaining  a  regular  (juantily  of  interior, 
amidst  all  the  vicissitudes  ot  exterior,  heat  > 
Almost  every  chemical  combination  is  eifect- 
ed  by  a  variation,  and  in  very  many  cases, 
a  trivial  variation,  in  temperature  ;  but  the 
living  body  is  capable  of  sustaining  or  of  re- 
sisting heat  to  a  degree  whicli  would  imme- 
diately change  animal  or  vegetable  substance 
deprived  of  life  into  substance  of  a  totally 
diftierent  nature. 
Life,  in  the  systems  we  are  commenting 


423 

upon,  appears,  a;  beforeobservod,  to  be  coii- 
foundccl  with  (hat  which  produces  or  elicits 
life.  X'ital  phenomena  me  not  observed  and 
arranged  in  their  natural  aii'l  regular  se- 
quence ;  enquiries  are  inslimted  froiii'a  wrong 
point ;  thus,  alliiongii  we  even  accede  to  tlw 
position  of  M.  Cuvier,  "  that  the  living  and' 
contracted  muscular  libre  is  not,  sirictlv 
speaking,  the  same  body,  nor  composed  of 
tiie  same  chemical  materials,  as  ihe  relaxed 
or  inactive  libre,''  we  tie  not  therefore  com- 
pelled to  the  alternative  of  referring  the  coni-- 
meiiccinolit  of  muscular  action  to  a  c'langc  ■ 
ot  ahinity  ;  or  wiili  liun.boldt  and  others,  to 
acknowledge  that  tlje  primary  opeialioii  of. 
every  agent  on  living  inader  is  virtually  an- 
instance  ol  chemical  combination. 

Let  u:  tollcnv  in  idea,  the  inlluence  of  the  • 
niost.minute  portion  oi  some  materials  which 
eilvct  aiv  instantaneous  change  on  every  liie 
most  distant  fibre  of  the  body,  we  shaii'oileii 
liiid,  for  instance,   an  imiiic'diate  excKatioii 
ol  ;.ll  the  vital  iuncfions,  result  from  tl-.eir  re- 
ception info  the  stomach  ;  now,  allowing  tiiat 
the  change  tlius  operated  occasions  an  abund- 
ance of  new  combinations  strictly  chemical, . 
in  the  llnids    and  solids,   does 'it  Iheiefore 
follow  that  t!i(i  j)rim4;-y  impulse  on  the  e.\- 
citaljiiity  is  a  cliemica'l  jirocess?  if  so,  how- 
could  a  similar  result  be  obtained  from  a 
cause  ab  oiigine  menUd  r  or  how  could  the  • 
mandates  of  llie  will  contract  the  fibre? 

Without  further  enlargement,  therefore, 
(and  was  it  not  for  the  practical  import- 
ance of  the  subject,  we  should  conceive 
an  apology  already  due  to  the  reader,)  we 
trust  we  may  be  permittf  d  to  conclude, . 
that  as  the  natural  jihilosopher  deinonstrales 
a  particular  quality  in  bodies  to  be  jjropor- 
tioned  to  their  quantity,  and  de^iglla(es  this 
princijjle  by  the  teriii  gravitation  ;  as  the 
ciiemist  linds  the  mixture  of  two  different 
bodies  to  form  a  liiird,  and  refers  it  to  the 
afiinily  of  their  -minute  particles ;  so  the 
physiofogist,  recognizing  the  diiierence  of 
character  in  fhe^phenohiena  of  life  Iroiii 
cither  of  the  above  modifications  of  being, 
makes  a  separate  register  or  classification  of 
such  plienoinena,  under  the  comprehensive 
title  of  the  vital  principle ;  in  other  words, 
tiiat  "  the  primary  motions  of  matter 
(or  rather  we  shoukl  say,  laws  of  nature)  are 
capable  of  division  into  Ihe  three  classes  of 
gravitation,  clieniistry,  and  life." 

In  the  above  sketch  we  have  confined  our 
observations  to  wliat  may  be  regarded  the 
great  characteristic  of  living  existence,  indi- 
visibility ;  under  the  immediate  influence 
of  which  the  individual  is  preserved,  and  the 
species  propagated,;  or  the  seconilary  facul- 
ties are  exercised,  of  assimilation  and  gener- 
ation ;  these  faculties  we  might  now  pro- 
ceed to  notice  ;  but  as  they  branch  out  into 
several  functions,  it  will  be  more  consistent 
with  our  limits  to  rci'er  their  consideration, 
to  such  functions  whicli  we  are  now  to  de.-  - 
scribe,  together  with  lho;c  resulting  from  sen- 
sibility and  irritability,  which  it  was  how- 
ever first  necessary  to  view  a-  in  a  manner 
constituent  parts  ot  an  indivisible  whole. 

The  loilowing  table  (which  we  have  taken  . 
from  M.  Richer>:nd)  presents,  perhaps,  ihe 
most  comprehensive  and  accurate  plan  whicli  . 
has  been  lornied  of  vital  functions ;  we  shall  -. 
therefore  follow  it>  arrangement,  and  in  in- 
stances where  these  tunc  ions  have  been  . 
treated  of  under  separate  heads,  refer  to  tlicm.i 
under  their  respective. lilies. 


•iU 


"3 


■a 
>5 


■3 


•s. 


Order  I. 

Functions  which 
assiiiiilalc  the  ali- 
raciit  by  which  the 
body  is  uouiishecl. 
(Assiiuitalin^,  in- 
tcrruil,  or  di^cntixe 
Junctions.) 


Genus  1 .  Digestion  extracts 
the  nutritive  puit. 


Genus  *.  Absorption  carries 
it  into  the  mass  of  jiuniours. 


Genus  3.    Circulation   prO' 
pels  it  towards  tlie  organs. 


PIIYSIOLOGY, 

'■  V\tLfi  of  a  new  Classification  of  the  FunctiDns  of  Life, 

'l?ecpptioii  of  the  food, 
Maslxaliun, 
Solution  by  the  saliva, 
DfsjUiUtion, 
\  Digestion  in  the  stomach, 
I  fiuodfiiuin 

j  intestines, 

^~  Excretion  of  the  fices  and  urine. 
lulialation  of  chyle, 

lymph. 
Action  of  vessels, 
glands, 

the  thoracic  duct. 
Action  of  the  heart, 
)  arteries, 

\  capillary  vessels, 

'  veins. 

C  Action  of  the  parietes  of  the  thorax, 
Genus  4.  Respiration  com-  \  hmgs, 

bines  it  with  atmospheric  oxy-<  Alteration  of  the  air, 
gen.  J  in  the  blood, 

'  Disengagement  of  animal  heat. 
Genus  5.    Secretion  causes  f  ExhalaiJDn, 
it  to  pass  through  several  mo-  ;  Secretion  by  follicles, 
dilicatioiis.  t  '  glands.     , 

Genus  6.   Nutrition  applies  \ 
it  to  organs,  to  which  it  is  to  (^Different  in  every  part  according  to  the  peculiar 
supply     growth     and    restore  (      composition  of  each. 


^  their  U 


} 


e 


I 


Genus 

form  the 
sciice. 


Organs  oi-i 


1 .      Semotiont    ii 
beiflg  ol  their  pre- J 


Order  II. 

Functions  which 
form     connections 
with     surrounding"^ 
oWects. 
(^External  or  rela- 

tivc  Junctions.) 


the  sight, 
hearing, 
smell, 
y  taste, 

'  feeling. 

Action  of  nerves, 

the  brain. 
Human  understanding. 
Sleep  and  watching. 
Dreaming  and  sleep-walking, 
Sympathy, 
l-Habit. 
Organs  and  muscular  motion, 
The  skeleton. 
Articulations, 
Place, 

f  M'alkin^, 
I  Kunnini;, 
JiimpinEc, 
Swimming, 
Flying, 
Creeping, 
l'~.        ,        ^Articulated,  or  speech. 
Genus    3.    The  f'oice    and     ^  "^  ^'°'^'^'    ( Modulated,  or  singing. 
Speech  cause  it  to  communi-  j  Stammering, 
cate  with  similar  beings  with- ]  Limping, 
out  change  of  place.  Dumbness, 

l^Ventrilocjiiism. 


Genu 
towards 
them. 


?.  Motions  approach  ' 
or    remove    it  from- 


Progressive  motions,  -< 


.5  fc- 


;»  5j  a. 


,1)ER  I.  T 

lions  which f  „ 

the  concur- K""'"'"?'' 


Order  I. 

Functions 
require  tl 

renccof  both  sexes.  * 
f 


JS 


Order  II. 
Functions  wiiich 
exclusively  belong" 
to  females. 


on  and  Generation. 


Gestation. 


Delivery, 
Lactation, 

Growth, 


f  General  differences  of  the  sexes, 

■!  Ilermaphrodism, 

(  Systems  relative  to  generation, 

I  Of  the  uterus  in  a  state  of  impregnation, 

-|  History  of  the  embryo, 

(_  '  fcEtus  and  its  membranes. 

5  Of  the  uterus  after  deli\cry. 
The  lochia-. 
S  Action  of  the  breasts, 
.Milk. 

Infancy — dentition,  ossification, 
t-rty — menstruation, 
scence, 


ilntancy- 
Huh^rty- 
Adole^ci 
Youth, 


firilili/. 


PHYSIOLOGr, 


Temperaments, 


'lif. 


Decrease^ 


Ofdigestimt, 
Digestion,  or  tlial  function  by  vliicli  the 
dissolution  of  the  alini(--nt  is  anoinplislied, 
and  food  is  thus  lilted  ior  the  laeteal  absorb- 
tiils,  wiU  be  ionnd  described  under  liie  ar- 
ticle of  Uigfstion,  Vol.  I.  page  150;  and  tor 
lliose  varieties  in  the  digestive  as  of  all 
other  organs  observed  in  different  animals, 
the  reader    is   referred    to   Comparative 

Of  absorption. 
Absorption  is  that  process  by  which  tlie 
incessant  waste  of  the  system  from  the  vari- 
ous secretions  and  excretions  is  constantly 
repaired.  Thus  alter  digestion  has  converted 
the  aliment  into  chyle,  this  lluid  h  taken 
up  by  the  lacteals  or  mesenteric  absirbeiits, 
undergoes  a  fartlier  preparation  in  tliese 
■vessels,  is  thence  comeyed  to  the  thoracic 
duct,  and  at  length  entei's  the  mass  of  cir- 
culating blood,  to  furnish  the  requisite  se- 
cretions, excretions,  and  exhalations  ;  in 
this  maimer  a  pevjietnal  change  is  operated 
in  the  materials  ot  which  aij  animal  body  is 
composed,  •'  for  it  should  never  be  forgotten 
that  organized  living  matter  compounds  and 
decompouiuls  itself  continually."  But  this 
composition  and  decomposition  are  per|)etu- 
ally  under  the  inlluence  of  librous  stimula- 
tion. "  Each  orifice  of  a  lacteal  and  Ivni- 
phatic,  endued  with  a  peculiar  degree  of  sen- 
sibility (susceptibility  r)  and  power  of  con- 
traction, dilates  or  contracts,  absorbs  or  re- 
jects, according  to  the  mode  in  which  it  is 
atfecled  by  substances  that  are  ajjplieil  to 
it."  J  hus  when  the  chyle  is  applied  to  the 
entices  of  the  lacteal  vessels  (which  have 
been  termed  chylous  absorbents),  it  is  not 
solely  by  means  of  capillary  or  aiiv  other 
species  of  attraction,  that  this  iluid  is  niado 
to  enter  its  api)ropriate  vessels,  but  such  en- 
trance is  gained  in  virtue  <if  the  power  pos- 
sessed by  chyle  of  stimulating  these  organs  ; 
a  demonstration  of  which  princi])le  is  tur- 
lii-hed  from  those  substances  being  rejected 
w'iich  have  not  the  power  of  producing  that 
■<hlatation  and  contraction  just  spoken  of. 

Another  curious  fact  in  support  of  the 
principle  that  some  tiibstances  are  not  capa- 
ble of  exciting  the  absorbent  vessels,  is 
furnished  by  tiiose  marks  which  sailors  and 
others  are  accustonied  (o  imprint  on  their 
skin,  'these  are  generally  formed  bv  tirst 
pricking  holes  in  the  cuticle,  and  theii  rub- 
bmg  the  part  over  witli  charcoal  or  gun- 
powder, substances  which  remain  undissolv- 
k1  in  llietUiids,  uuaijsorbed  in  the  lymphatics, 
and  therefore  continue  through  lite.  lu- 
Kleed  solution  is  a  necessary  prelude  to  every 
rase  both,  of  lymphatic  aiid  lacleal  absorii- 
VW..11. 


Idiosyncracy. 

Human  race. 

(  Age  of  decrease. 

.?  Old  age. 

f  Decrepitude. 

Death. 

Putrefaction. 


^  Sanguitip. 

\  Musci'lar, 

<■  Hiliai  y  melaiicUoIicj 

1  I.yinphalic, 


_  Nervous. 

(  European, 
)  Negro, 
■  Mongol, 


1  M(i 
(h.v 


perbolean. 


tion.  It  is  (hen  by  the  peculiar  action  of 
the  lymphatics  on  exhaled  (tuids,  that  lymph 
is  formed  ;  and  of  the  lacteals  on  the  chjle. 
that  tills  Fast  becomes  animalized.  T  hose 
glandular  bodies  which  are  observed  in  these 
vessels  are  supposed  to  have  a  very  import- 
ant inlluence  on  their  contained  lluids  ;  and 
"although  it  is  not  known  p'eciselv  in  what 
these  alterations  consist  of  lymph  and  chyle,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  object  of  the  glands  seems 
to  be,  to  occasion  the  most  intimate  mixture, 
the  most  perfect  combination  of  elements ; 
to  impress  a  certain  degree  of  animahzation, 
as  j>roved  by  the  greater  concrescibilily  of 
lymph  taken  from  the  vasa  etl'erentia,  or 
those  which  pass  from  glands;  to  deprive 
them  of  mere  heterogeneous  principles,  or, 
at  least,  to  alter  them  that  they  may  not  be- 
come hurtful  ill  passing  into  the  mass  of  hu- 
mours." Thus  we  lind,  that  after  absorption 
has  been  in  the  iirst  instance  eliected  by  vital 
action,  the  contents  of  the  absorbing  vessels, 
still,  however,  under  the  same  inlluencing 
principle,  are  the  subjects  of  a  species  of 
animal  chemistry. 

As  the  course  of  the  lymph  and  the  chyle 
is  less  rapid  than  that  of  the  blood,  the 
dilatations,  curvatvires,  and  frequent  com- 
munications of  the  lymphatics,  must  consi- 
derably obstruct  the  ]nogress  of  their  con- 
tents ;  but  the  principal  cause  of  retardation 
is  in  the  numerous  glands  just  mentioned, 
which  every  particle  of  lymph  and  chyle  has 
to  pass  through  previously  to  its  entering 
the  blood-vessels. 

There  are  two  (juestions  reuiaining  at 
issue  respecting  the  physiology  ot  the  ab- 
sorbuit  system:  1st,  \\  liether  the  distribu- 
tion of  lliese  vessels  is  universal  ;  and  '2i\, 
\\  hetlier  cutaneous  absorption  is  eliected  in- 
dependantly  of  mechanical  violence  done  to 
the  cuticle.  Anatomy  has  not  hitherto  de- 
tect cd  absorlients  in  the  substance  of  the 
brain;  but  analogy,  as  well  as  l!ie  circum- 
stances attendant  on  diseases,  disposes  us  to 
infer  almost  with  certainly,  their  existence 
in  every  part.  ']"he  second  iiuestioii,  allhough 
it  has  recently  been  negatived  by  high  au- 
thority (Dr.  Housseau,  Dr.  C'urrie,  jil  Se- 
guin  and  others),  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
det-ided  in  the  aflirmalive.  'Ihe  princi|Kil 
facts  in  support  of  the  latter  opinion  are,  "  the 
increase  ot  weight  in  the  body  alter  a  walk 
in  damp  weather.,  the  abundant  secretion  of 
the  urine  alter  remaining  for  some  time  in 
a  bath,  the  evident  swellings  of  the  inguinal 
glands  after  long-coniinued  immersion  of 
the  ieet  in  water,  the  effects  of  mercury  ad- 
ministered by  friction,  the  external  applica- 
liou  of  turpentine  without  friction  altering  liic 
3  11 


urine,  even  when,  according  to  sottte,  its  en- 
trance into  the  system  by  the  lungs  had  been 
guarded  against,  &c."  to  which  Ur.  Watson's 
expennient  may  be  ad.ded,  of  .giving  a  New- 
niarkel  jockey ,'previous  to  a  race,  a  glass  of 
wine,  about  an  ot.nce  in  weight,  and  lindincj 
immediately  alter  the  course,  he  had  gained 
111  weight  3U  ounces. 

Whether  actual  nutriment  is  introduced 
into  the  system  in  the  way  of  cutaneous  ab- 
sorption, is  perhaps  extreme'y  problematical. 
Dr.  Darwin, however, inclines  lothisi>i)imon, 
and  among  the  nulrienlia  in  li  s  maleria 
niedica,  classes  both  substances  tlu;t  are  lakeii 
by  the  surface  and  likewise  by  the  lungs, 
cithers  have  supposed,  and  perhaps  withjuf- 
tice,  that  all  matter  whicii  is  nulritive  n.u^fc 
be  received  through  the  medium  of  the  lac« 
teals. 

Ofllic  circidatinn. 

As  absorption  to  digestion,  so  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  blood's  circulation  naturally  fol- 
lows to  absorption,  in  tracing  the  mysterious 
round  of  animal  functions.  In  descr.b.ng  the 
circulation,  we  shall,  pursuina;  the  order  of 
the  above  table,  speak  liist  of  the  action  of 
the  heart;  secondly,  of  the  arteries  and 
capillary  vessels  ;  and  thirdly,  of  the  veins. 

(Jf  the  (ictinn  of  the  heart.  By  reterrinK 
totiie  article  Anatomy,  the  reader  will  find 
the  heart  described  as  consisting  of  four  large 
cavities,  all  of  which  have  a  communication 
with  each  other  ;  of  these  the  two  ventricles 
are  in  a  manner  the  principal,  the  auricles 
the  accessary  cavities.  In  following  the 
blood's  course  through  these  dilferent  divi- 
sions, it  will  be  necessary  in  llie  hrst  instance 
to  suppose,  tliat  each  cavity  is  filled  and 
emi)tied  in  a  successive  order.  We  then 
coiiimeiice  the  description  of  the  circulation, 
with  the  blood  returning  fiom  every  part  of 
the  body,  and  collected  in  the  two  vena-  cavs 
inferior  and  superior;  these  joining  at  their 
entrance  into  the  right  auricle,  pour  their 
blood  into  this  ai.ricle,  whicli  by  consequence 
immediately  contracts,  and  torces  the  re- 
ceived blood  principally  into  the  contiguous 
ventricle  :  a  small  part,'  however.  Hews  back 
into  the  cava-.  The  right  ventricle  now  dis- 
tinded  likewise  immediately  contracts,  and 
the  blood  is  prevented  from  returning  by  the 
tricuspid  valve,  so  that  only  a  small  part 
(lows  back,  while  the  principal  stream  passes 
on  into  the  pulmonary  artery,  at  the  en- 
trance of  w  hich  lire  the  sigiru^id  valves.  The 
blood  is  now  impelled  forwards  through  all 
the  very  minute  thvisions  of  the  puhnonary 
artery,'  and  by  consequence  through  the 
lungs';  in  these  organs  it  is  exposed  to  the 
air  by  the  intervention  of  only  a  very  lliia 


426 

membrane.  It  now  returns  essentially  alter- 
td.liirougli  tlie  pulmonary  veins,  intotlie  leftor 
inorcf  properly  posterior  auricle  ;  this  cavity 
tontracts  in  the  same  manner  with  the  right 
or  anterior  ;  there  is  a  very  partial  rethix  nf 
blood  into  the  pulmonary  veins,  while  tlie 
j^reater  portion  is  conveyed  to  the  lelt  ven- 
tricle, whence  it  circulates  tlirough  all  the  parts 
of  the  body  ;  its  return  into  the  auricle  being 
prevented  by  the  tricusj-.id,  into  the  venlricle 
h'om  the  aorta  by  the  semilunar  valves. 

Ill  the  natural  course  of  circulation,  the 
above  order  of  successive  motions  is  not  pur- 
sued ;  lor  the  contraction  of  both  auricK's  is 
simultaneous,  as  well  as  of  the  ventricles, 
while  the  dilatation  and  contraction  of  the 
auricles  and  ventricles  are  alternate  to  each 
other. 

The  quantity  of  b'ood  propelled  by  each  ven- 
tr'cuUir  contraction  cuiiiot  nuicli  excted  two 
oiuK'es ;  the  force  by  which  the  heait  acts 
)ia5  been  made  a  matter  of  muthematical  cal- 
culal  ons  ;  but  all  these  calculations,  like  the 
Rl)eculalions  of  the  chemical  physiologist, 
cannjl  tail  to  be  erroneous,  while  the  pe- 
cui'ar  nature  of  the  vital  force  and  action  is 
disr. ga:ded.  Keil  estimated  the  power  of 
t!i(:  heart  to  be  some  ounces,  while  Borelli 
calculates  it  at  180,000  pouiulsl 

Dr.  Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the  circu- 
lation, conceived  the  whole  of  the  circulatory 
process  to  be  effected  bv  t!ie  heart ;  in  tliis, 
however,  he  was  erroneous,  for  the  function  is 
like  .vise  greatly  dependant  upon — 

The  action  of  tin-  <irteries.  These  vessels, 
as  it  respects  the  number,  distribution,  and 
coats,  have  already  Hjeen  described  in  Ana- 
tomy. It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  as  stated  by 
Mr.  J.  Hunter,  that  the  elastic  power  is  al- 
most the  only  one  with  which  the  parietes  of 
the  larger  arteries  are  furnished;  while  in 
those  of  smaller  diameters,  muscularifv  or 
irritability  predominates:  and  that  tliis  last  in 
the  capillary  vessels  exists  almost  exclusive- 
ly. "  Thus  the  passage  of  the  blood  into 
the  large  trunks  in  the  vicinity  of  the  heart 
is  principally  occasioned  by  the  nro|)ulsiou 
communicated  by  this  organ  ;  and  the  circu- 
lation in  the  large  vessels,  as  mentioned  by 
Lazarius,  is  rather  an  hydraulic  than  a  me- 
dical phenomenon  ;  but  in  proportion  as  it 
becomes  distant  from  the  centre  several 
cause;  retard  it ;  and  the  blood  ccv.ijd  not  ar- 
rive at  every  part,  were  not  the  arteries, 
which  are  more  active  in  proportion  to  their 
sniallness  and  distance  from  the  lieart,  to  act 
and  propel  it  towards  all  the  organs." 
(Kicherand.)  So  erroneous  was  the  opinion 
ol  Br.  Harvey. 

The  mschanical  sources  of  the  blood's  re- 
tardation are,  Ut,  increase  ot  spate  occupied 
by  tl.e  arteries ;  for  the  collection  of  all 
tiie  branches  from  a  trunk  would  form  a 
larger  area  than  that  of  the  parent  brancli. 
2d,  The  resistance  made  by  the  curvatures 
of  the  arteries ;  this  mechanism,  its  cause 
and  etfect,  are  beautifully  ilUutrated  in  the 
tortuous  course  observed  in  the  internal 
carotid  which  goes  to  the  brain ;  by  such 
mechanism  an  inordinate  flow  of  blood  into 
this  organ  is  in  a  great  measure  obviate  I. 
3J,  Friction  is  said  to  imjiede  the  blood's 
motion ;  and  lastly,  its  course  is  retarded  by 
the  angular  distribution  of  the  arterial  rami- 
fications. 

The  pulse  oi' the  arteries  is  vuljirly  attri- 


PHYSIOLOGY, 

butcd  to  the  alternate  contractions  and  dila- 
tations of  the  heart  ;  but  it  is  principalh-  oc- 
casioned by  that  portion  of  the  blood  which 
is  propelled  into  the  aorta,  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  antecedent  coiuntos  (for  the 
arteries  are  always  full),  and  thus  coinmuui- 
<  ating  an  impulse  ;  but  being  obstructed  by 
this  resistance,  it  forces  itself  against  the 
s'des  of  the  vessels,  and  gives  them  their  pul- 
satory motion. 

'I  he  pulse  is  more  frequent  in  children, 
in  females,  and  in  persons  of  much  irritabi- 
lity. In  man,  and  individuals  who  are  cha- 
racterizjd  by  strengtii  and  regularity  of  ex- 
citement, it  is  less  frequent  but  more  vigor- 
ous. In  early  infancy,  the  pulsations  are 
from  110  to  IjO  in  a  minute;  towards  the 
end  of  the  second  year,  they  are  about  100  ; 
at  puberty  80,  manhood  70  to  75,  and  in 
elderly  persons  60  or  under.  There  are 
great  varieties  in  this  respect ;  Mr.  Astley 
Cooper  mentions  iii  his  lectures  having  seen 
an  aciult  with  a  natural  pulse  as  low  as  27, 
and  it  sometimes  is  more  than  100. 

Capillary  vessels.  Aiieries  are  described 
by  some  physiologists  as  termiuatiug  in  anas- 
toniois,  ill  exhalants,  in  veins,  in  cellular 
texture,  and  in  glands;  others  view  the  only 
proper  terminations  of  these  vessels  to  be 
that  of  their  continuation  into  veins,  which 
are  connected  with  the  arteries  by  the  inter- 
vention of  the  capillary  vessels.  "  The  ori- 
gin of  the  veins  is  only  from  the  most  mi- 
nute extremities  of  the  arteries,  which  are 
become  cajjillary  from  the  great  number  of 
divisions,  and  return  upon  themselves  with  a 
change  of  structure." 

Dr.  Harvey  supposed  that  this  communi- 
cation was  effected  by  an  intermediate  cellu- 
lar substance  ;  this,  however,  is  the  case  only 
in  some  parts  of  the  body,  as  in  the  placenta, 
the  spleen,  and  corpora  cavernosa  penis. 

In  the  capillary  vessels  the  colour  of  the 
biood  is  lost,  there  not  being  here  a  suflicient 
mass  of  fluid  to  circulate  such  a  collection 
of  red  globules  as  is  necessary  to  constitute 
redness. 

Action  of  veins.  The  venous  is  much 
more  capacious  than  the  arterial  system  of 
vessels.  "  It  is  ebtimated  that  out  of  twentv- 
eight  or  thirty  pounds  of  blood,  which  is  about 
the  (ifth  part  of  the  weight  of  the  bodv  in  an 
adult  man,  nine  parts  are  contained  in  the 
veins,  and  four  only  in  the  arteries." 

In  the  arteries  the  circulation  is  ellected  by 
the  action  of  the  heart,  or  of  their  own  mus- 
cular and  contractile  power;  in  the  veins, 
however,  these  circulatory  powers  have  so 
trivial  an  energy,  that  nature  lias  guarded 
against  impediments  in  the  course  of  the  blood 
through  these  last,  in  some  instances,  indeed, 
has  facilitated  this  course,  by  such  a  distribu- 
tion of  the  vessels  as  shall  ensure  an  action  of 
the  muscles  in  propelling  the  vital  lluid.  The 
motion  too  of  the  neighbouring  arteries  as- 
sists the  venal  circulation,  as  also  the  valves, 
in  like  manner  with  lho.se  of  the  lymphatics, 
which  divide  the  column  of  fluid  into  a  num- 
ber of  small  streams,  eouivalent  to  the  dia- 
meters of  the  spaces  tluis'formed. 

Although  on  account  of  the  comparative 
tardiness  of  venal  circulation,  and  its  not  hav- 
ing such  obstacles  as  arterial,  there  is  no  pulse 
in  the  veins;  yet,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  heart, 
a  sjjecies  of  undulatory  motion  is  communi- 
cated to  these  vessels,  principally  occasioned 
by  the  reilux  of  blood  before  spukcn  uf. 


Dcmnustraiinns  of  I  lit-  circulation.  If  air 
artery  is  opened,  the  blood  is  thrown  out 
from  the  side  next  the  heart ;  if  a  vein  is' 
pierced,  the  contrary  is  observed.  If,  again, 
a  ligature  is  made  on  an  artery,  the  course 
of  the  blood  is  arrested  above  the  ligature; 
if  on  a  vehi,  below  it.  Moreover  in  the  semi- 
transparent  vessels  of  frogs  aud  some  other 
aniniai:-,  tlie  direct  passage  of  the  blood  from 
the  heart  to  the  arteries,  and  thence  to  the 
veins,  may  be  actually  seen  by  tiie  aid  of  a 
microscope. 

Of  the  blood. 

The  blood  circulating  in  its  vessels  has  the 
character  of  an  homogeneous  fluid  ;  wiien  se- 
parated, however,  from  the  body,  or  with- 
drawn from  the  sphere  of  vital  influence,  it 
shortly  divides  itself  into  dillerent  parts.  Im- 
mediately upon  separation  it  exhales  a  strong 
vapour,  to  the  presence  of  which  have,  witli 
some  inaccuracy  of  language,  beeu  attributed 
all  its  vital  properties.  Aiter  reinaiuing  a 
short  time  at  rest,  the  blood  separates  into 
two  distinct  parts:  the  serum,  whicli,  accord- 
ing to  the  experiments  of  modern  chemists, 
hu-ds dissolved  albumen,  gelatine,  soda,  phos* 
phat  and  nuiriat  of  soda,  nitrat  of  potash,  and 
muriat  of  lime  ;  and  the  crassamentum,  con- 
sisting of  the  colouring  part,  which  is  con- 
sidered as  an  albumen  more  oxygenated  and 
more  concrescible  than  that  of  serum,  holding 
in  solution  soda,  pliosphat  of  lime,  and  an  ex- 
cess of  iron.  Secondly,  ofthe  libriiie,  lormerly 
called  coagulable  lymph,  which  has  a  con- 
siderable analogy  to  muscular  libre,  and  when 
distilled  gives  out  a  great  quantity  ol  ammo- 
niac al  carbonat. 

1  he  above  principles  exfst  in  the  blood  in 
a  greater  or  diminished  proportion,  according 
to  the  constitution  and  health  of  the  in- 
dividual. In  pale  dropsical  habits  the  serum 
is  by  far  more  considerable  in  quantity  than 
its  other  parts;  while  the  oxygenated  albumen, 
or  colouring  part  coiitaln'iig  iron,  is  under 
these  circumstances  deticient.  In  diseases  at- 
tended with  high  excitement,  the  iibrine  is  in 
greateat  propoitionate  abundance. 

The  order  we  have  observed  would  now 
lead  us  to  describe  tiie  respiratory  process, 
and  the  several  purpo-es  it  serves  in  the  ;;n;- 
mal  economy  ;  to  notice  in  detail  the  action 
of  the  thorax,  of  the  lungs,  the  alteration  of 
air  effected  bv  resjii ration,  the  consequent 
alteration  in  the  blood,  and  tlie  disengagement 
of  animal  heat;  for  these  particulars,  how- 
ever, we  refer  to  the  article  KtsPfRATiON, 
and  proceed  to  enquire  into  the  tuuction — 

Ofsecvciion. 

Secretion  is  that  process  by  which  is  se- 
parated from  the  blood-vessels  generally,  but 
in  one  or  two  instances,  directly  from  the 
lymphatics,  every  species  of  ai.imal  lluid. 
These  are  divided  by  Fourcroy,  and  other 
physiologists,  into,  1st,  the  saline,  as  the 
sweat  and  urine ;  Cd,  the  oleaginous,  or  in- 
flammable, as  the  fat  cerumenof  the  ears,  &c. 
Jd,  the  saponaceous,  as  bile  and  milk ;  4tli, 
the  mucous,  as  those  which  are  found  on 
the  surface  of  the  intestincb;  5th,  the  albu- 
minous, among  which  is  classed  the  scrum  of 
the  blood ;  6th,  the  fibrous,  another  part  of 
the  last-mentioned  lluid. 

One  of  the  most  important  and  astonishing 
facts  connected  with  secretion  is,  that  from 
precisely  the  same  lluid  (the  blood),  are  ela- 


PHYSIOLOGY, 


4':7 


l)oratcd  fliiith  of  a  nature  widely  different 
Irom  Aril  i)li..'!%  a«  well  as  from  Unit  vvlieiire 
tliey  proeied.  Tlnis,  vvliat  can  be  more  un- 
like lliaii  llie  urine  and  i!h.-  blood  from  wliicli 
ills  prepared;  or  lliau  the  urine  itself,  and 
every  other  secretion  ?  This  variety  of  re- 
sult, like  others,  has  been  referred  to  a  me- 
chanical (illration,  and  to  chemical  action; 
but  a  knowledge  of  the  mechanism  of  the  dif- 
ferent glandiiLr  organs,  still  leaves  us  igno- 
rant of  the  actual  manner  in  which  is  operated 
this  extraordinary  change  of  co^iibination. 
Secretion  is,  therefore,  a  vital  action;  and 
with  this,  as  an  ultimate  fact,  the  physiologist 
must  rest  contenle{|,  while  he  is  justiiieuin 
institutino;  a  research  respecting  the  chemical 
composition  of  tlie  funds  foimed,  and  in 
tracing,  as  accurately  as  may  be,  the  steps  of 
tl.eir  lurmation. 

Secretory  processes  are  divided  into  th.ree 
kinds:  I  St,  serous  transudation,  which  is 
eifected  by  a  mere  termination  of  arteries  on 
the  surfaces  upon  whicli  the  iinid  is  poured 
«ut,  witliout  any  internieuiale  structure ;  as 
on  the  surface  of  tlie  body,  furnishing  the 
fSweat;  and  on  tlie  membranes  of  joints,  lur- 
iiishing  the  lubricating  (luids  of  these  organs. 
i.'d,  Secretion  by  follicles,  cryptie,  or  lacuna-, 
^'hich  are  supplied  \vi(h  a  great  ciuantity  of 
vessels  and  nerves  terminating  on  tlieir  sur- 
faces, and  an  excretory  duct  originating  Irom 
the  follicles,  itc.  in  the  form  ol  a  vas  eflerens. 
']  his  kii.d  of  gland  is  found  in  the  ear,  in  the 
tonsils,  aiid  in  all  parts  which  secrete  mucus, 
'i'he  more  complicated  glands  which  serve 
for  the  third  kind  of  secretion,  are  visceral 
masses,  constituted  of  an  assemblage  of  nerves, 
mid  all  kinds  of  vessels,  disposed  in  packets, 
and  united  together  by  cellular  iiicmbrane. 
These  are  called  conglvimerate  glands  ;  those 
of  a  more  simple  and  smooth  structure  are 
named  congloliale. 

Sr-crtiion  nfili^fat.  F.ver.y  fibre  of  the 
body  is  connected,  and  every  organ  enyelop- 
ed  by  cellular  tc.\ture.  'i  his  membrane, 
however,  does  not  merely  serve  the  purpose 
.of  cciinection  and  envelopment,  it  is  likewise 
the  secretory  oigan  of  the  adeps,  which  is 
found  enclosed  in  separate  cells  .in  almost 
fvery  part  of  the  body.  During  life  this 
substance  is  in  a  state  "of  semilluiditv,  but 
•concretes  after  death  from  the  cessation  of 
vital  action,  and  the  immediate  reduction  of 
animal  temperature.  The  secretion  of  fat, 
both  as  to  (|uautiiy  and,  in  some  measure,  as 
to  .-luahty,  is  differently  regulated  at  different 
periods  of  life,  in  dilierent  parts  of  the  body, 
.and  under  various  circumstances  of  lieallii. 
In  early  life  the  secretion  is  more  abundant 
imniediatdy  under  the  skin;  hence  the  plump 
;i|)pearance  of  infmts.  In  more  advanced 
ye^rs  the  surface  of  the  body  is  almost  desti- 
tute of  adeps,  while  the  tendency  to  its  de- 
posit is  more  internal.  In  an  adult  man 
in  healtli,  'lie  adipose  substance  is  averaged 
at  about  tlie  twentieth  part  of  the  body'.s 
weight. 

A  chemical  analysis  of  tliis  fluid,  proves  it 
to  partake  more  of  those  principles  which  are 
generally  predoiuinant  in  vegetable  tiuids, 
than  other  animal  secretions ;  that  is,  it  con- 
tains but  a  small  proportion  of  azote,  and  an 
abundance  of  hydrogen  and  carbon.  Thiscir- 
tumstance,  with  tlie  phenomena  accompany- 
ing its  deposit  and  reabsorplion,  seem  to 
favour  the  supposition  of  its  being  '•  a  kind  of 
iilennedimn  tor  a  portion  of  the  uulritive 


matter  extracted  from    the    food,    through  j  villi  our  inferences  from  viewing  the  process 
w'li^h  itimi^t  necessarily  pass  before  it  is  as-     of  nutritive  elimination  as  a  pi';ces;  iiierelv 

of  chemistry 


similated  to  the  individual,  of  wh.icli  it  is 
destined  to  repair  the  loss."  Thus  an  in- 
dividual with  much  fat  is  able  to  abstain  from 
fond  much  longer  than  another  without,  lliis 
supply,  and,  during  such  abstinence,'  the 
collected  fat  is  rapidly  reabsorbed. 

Adeps,  however,  serves  other  ptirposes  in 
the  animal  economy.  Fat  persons  sulfer  less 
from  cold  than  others ;  this  appears  to  arise 
from  animal  oil  being  a  bad  conductor  of 
caloric.  It  serves  likewise  to  facilitate  mo- 
tion, and  by  surrounding  the  extremities  of 
the  nerves,  obviates  inordinate  sensibility. 

Of  nutrition. 

Digestion,  by  wliich  the  aliment  received 
into  the  stomach  is  deprived  of  its  nutritious 
particles;  absorption,  whicli  conve_\s  such 
nutritious  portions  into  the  faiids  ;  and  the 
circulation,  by  which  it  is  further  conveyed 
to  the  respective  parts  in  order  to  undergo 
depuration  by  the  various  secretor)'  organs  ; 
are  all  preliminary  and  subservient  to  tiie 
luuction  now  to  be  considered. 

The  indivisibility  and  individuality  of  the 
living  body  can  only  l)e  maintained  bv  an  in- 
cessant change  of  the  ])articles  whicli  enter  its 
composition.     "'J'liusthe  animal  machine  is 
coiiiinuully  destroyed,  and  at  distant  periods 
of  iite  does  not  contain  a  sin::le  particle  of  the 
same    constituent  ])arts."  "The  most  <  om- 
monly  adduced  evidence  in  favour  of  whicli, 
IS  the  efiect  resulting  from  feeding  animals 
with  m.idder;  for  during  the  time  that   this 
substance  is  made  part  of  the  food,  the  bones 
become  of  a  red  colour,  which  is  again  lost 
it  the  madder  is  only  tor  a  short  time  sus- 
pended: proving  that  there  is  a  constant  de- 
composition  and   reformation  even  ol  those 
portions  of  the  frame,  which,  from  their  com- 
pact texture,  must  be  supposed  the  least  sus- 
ceptible of  change.     As  then  the  part^  of  the 
body  are  constantly  destroyed,  new  parts  of 
the  same  nature  are  as  constantly   retiuired, 
and   to  supply  this  demand  is  the  olilce  of 
nutrition.     "  A  bone,  lor  example,  is  a  se- 
cretory organ  that  becomes  incrusted  with 
pho-j5hat  of  lime:  the  lymphatic  vessels,  which 
in  the  work  of  nutrition  perform  the  office  of 
excretor)'  ducts,  remove  this  salt  after  it  has 
remained  a  certain  time  in  the  areohe  of  its 
texture.     !t  is  the  same  in  muscles  with  re- 
spect to  fibrine,   and  in  the  brain  with  albu- 
men."    ^^  e,  therefore,  find  animal  nutrition 
and  organization,  to  consist  in  this:  that  the 
aliments    having   been  converted    !ir>t    into 
chy.e,  and  then  into  blood,  and  from  this  last 
having  been  furnished  the  various  parts,  solid 
and  riiiid,  of  which  the  anim.il  is  coni]iosefl, 
such  parts  are  at  length  separated  by  the  pe- 
culiar action  of  their  respective  organs :  thus 
tiie  body  is  supported  by  intussusception  as  it 
lias  been  denominated  ;  a  process  very  far  dif- 
ferent from  that  union  effected  bv  mechanical 
juxtaposition    of  particles,  or  "operated   by 
chemical  allinity. 

It  has  ever  been  the  aim  of  the  ])hysio- 
logist,  more  especially  of  recent  times,  to  de- 
tect the  prime,  and,  in  a  manner,  common 
principle  subservient  to  nutrition,  in  order  to 
cvtimate  the  proportionate  quantity  of  nutrient 
maaer  furnished  by  different  alimentary  sub- 
stances. We  must,liowever,assiduouslv  guard 
against  tliat  fallacy  which  would  conncci  itself 
J  112 


pi';cess  merely 
'J'he  separation  and  assinii- 
ation  of  nutritive  matter,  may  be  prononncetl 
to  have  greater  reference  to  "vital  action  than 
even  to  tlie  siibstarces  themselves  from  which 
nutrition  is  extracled.  for  e.vaniple  :  I^^tus 
suppose,  with  I.)r  Cullen  and  many  others, 
that  the  common  principle  drawn  irom  ali- 
mentary matter  is  saccharine  ;  let  it  even  be 
demonstiated  that  sucli  is  the  ca,se  ;  it  by  no 
means  thence  follows  that  the  administra'tion 
of  saccharine  matter  in  any  form  would  be 
the  mean  of  conveying  into  the  system  the 
largest  portion  of  nutrition. 

'I'his   doctrine   it  will    not  be    improper 
further  to  illustrate,  by  calling  the  reader's 
attention   to  circumstances  connected  witU 
one   or    two    ciironic  maiadifes.     Diabetes, 
whether  originating  from  a  disordered  state 
of  the  assimilative  organs,  from  an  improper 
action  of  tiie  kidneys,  or,  a-  appears  most 
probable,  from  the  conjunctiou  of  these  two, 
is  occasioned  more  immediately,  or  at  least 
the  ein.iciation  which  characterizes  it,  by  a 
deprivation  of  saccharine  matter  from  the 
frame  ;  but  the  remedy  for  diabetes  is  not  of 
a  sacclurine  nature:   on  the  contrary,  if  the 
disease  admits  of  cure,  such  cure  appears  to 
be  best  ensured  by  an  abstinence  from  all  ve- 
getable diet,  by  the  exclusive  use  of  animal 
food,  and  by   the  adiuinistration  of  certain 
astringent  medicines.     Again,  in  the  rickets 
of  infancy,  which  has  an  unquestionable  de- 
pendaiice  upon  a  loss  to  the  bones  of  their 
due  portion  of  phosphat  of  lime,  the   pkvsi- 
cijin's  obji-ct  is  not  iminedi:itely  to  convey  Ibis 
matter  into  tlie  blood,  but  to  restore  that  de- 
gree and  kind  of  excitement  in  the  osseous 
vessels,  from  wiiich  the  secretion  results;  and 
tliis  will  be  eifected  by  materials  wi<lely  dif- 
ferent,   both    in   composition    and    abstract 
agency,  from  the  substance,  the  deficiency  of 
which  is  to  be  remedied.     ^Vhat  quantity  of 
phosphat  of   lime  is    discoverable    bv    the 
chemist  in  the  common   chalybeate  "prepa- 
tions,  or  in  the  nutritive  aliment,  which,  pio- 
periy  administered,  prove  of  such  obvious  and 
extensive  utility   in   the  management  of  the 
complaint  in  question?    Hence,  in  anotlier 
place,  we  were  induced  to  remark,  that  the 
proximate  cause  of  rickets  does  not  so  pro- 
perly consist  ill  "  a  deficiency  of  tiiat  matter 
which  ^liould  fjim  the  solids"ot  the  system," 
as  a  deficiency  of'  iliat  excitation  upoii  which 
the  formation   and  deposit   of  sui-h    matter 
are  momentarily  dependant.     See  Ixf,vn-ov. 
M.   Riclierand,   in  iiis  excellent  v.ovk  on 
physiology,  states  tiiat  "  the  marine  plant, 
the  ashes  of  which  form  soda,  if  sown  in  a  !)OX 
filled  with  earth  thatdoi^  not  contain  a  par- 
ticle of  tliat  alkali,  and  moistened  with  dis- 
tilled water,  furnishes  it  in  as  great  quantity 
as  if  the  p'ant  had  been  growing  on  tlie  bor- 
ders of  the   sea,  in   a  svvaiiqjy  sod,  always 
inundated  by  b:-ackisli  or  salt  water."     Now 
what  w  ould  lollow  a  deprivation  lor  a  time  of 
oxygen,   light,    or  water,  from  such  plant? 
Certainly  adebililated  action,  and  consequent 
interruption  of  function.   To  remedy  the  dis- 
order thus  produced,  we  should  not,  how- 
ever, apply  to  the  ])laiit  tlie  matter  of  which 
itself  is  composed  ;  but  restore  th.ose  agents, 
through  the  medium  of  which  it  had  preserved 
its  due  vitality.     Have  not  these  facts  of  the 
subserviency  of  vital  support  ta  vital  action.' 
been  too  much  overlooked  in  the  reeoiunienda-    .  • 


4M 

t  ion  and  imagined  modus  operandi  olsoinerne- 
dicines  ol  modern  phjsiciaiis?  W  iiun  Dr.  Dar- 
\vi]i  inferred  that  calcareous  earth  contnljutes 
to  llie  nonrisliinent  ot  animals  and  vegstaljles, 
because  "  whatever  lias  composed  a  part  of 
an  animal  or  vegetable,  may  again,  alter  its 
cliemical  solution,  become  a  part  of  another 
vegetable  or  animal,"  was  not  this  vital  agency 
and  power  of  actually  conrerting  materials 
into  liiose  of  an  opposite  nature,  in  some  mea- 
sure disregarded?  Hut  tuis  is  not  the  place 
lor  speculation.  It  i>  our  business  rather  to 
compress  than  dilate  :  and  we  sliall  conclude 
by  observing,  that  the  principle  now  con- 
tended for,  however  important,  is  not  to  be 
received  or  acted  upon,  either  in  articles  of 
f  lod  or  medicine,  in  an  un-iualiiied  or  un- 
Iniiited  sense.  Adiie  supply  of  appropriate  fuel 
as  well  as  of  stimulus,  is  necessary  to  sui)port 
the  flame  of  life.     See  Matekia'.Medica. 

It  will  be  proper  before  quitting  this  suij- 
jeet,  to  observe,  that  as  animal  matter  has 
been  |)roved  principally  to  dil'ier  from  ve- 
getable, in  containing  a  larger  proportion  of 
u/ole  than  the  latter,  and  tiie  vital  process  of 
luitntion  or  animalizalion,  however  ellected, 
has  been  judged  to  be  a  species  of  azotili- 
cation,  the  loUowiiig  extract  on  this  subject  is 
gVven  from  the  work  just  alluded  to  of  M. 
Sicherand:  "  Halle  believes  that  the  hydro- 
carbonated  oxide,  or  principle  of  nutrition, 
is  combined  with  oxygen  in  tlie  stomach  and 
intestinal  canal  ;  whether  the  latter  principle 
is  introduced  with  the  food  into  the  prinue 
vi;e,  orfurni-.hed  by  the  decomposed  humours. 
'I'he  intestinal  fluids  sufl'er  their  azote  to  be 
<'.'sengaged,  which  is  carried  to  the  alimentary 
base,  and  replaces  the  carbon  that  h.id  been 
attracted  b\  oxygen  to  form  the  carbonic 
acid.  This  gas,  when  in  the  lungs,  and  again 
hubjectedto  the  action  ofalmo  pliericoxygen, 
carries  off  a  certain  portion  of  its  carbon;  and 
as  it  disengages  the  azote  from  venous  blood, 
it  effects  a  new  combination  of  this  principle 
V'ith  the  chyle ;  and  when  propelled  to  the 
skin,  the  atmospheric  oxygen  again  disen- 
gages its  carljon,  an:^  completes  its  azotili- 
cation.  Perhaps  even  the  cutaneous  organ 
answers  similar  purposes  to  the  lymphatic 
system,  as  the  pulmonary  organ  may  ell'ect 
to  the  sanguiferous  system." 

It  will  be  obvious  to  the  reader,  that  the 
above  theory  sup|)o-.e»  nutrition  to  consist  in 
the  constant  loss  of  carbon,  and  constant 
supply  of  azote.  It  is  admitted,  however,  not 
to  ac<'OUnt  for  the  formation  of  piiosphoric 
salts,  adejfs,  and  many  other  substances.  Jt 
is,  tlierelbre,  at  least  defective. 

On  sensations. 
The  arrangement  we  have  adopted  now 
Jeads  lis  to  notice  those  functions  "  which 
connect  us  with  surrounding  objects ;"  and  it 
was  our  original  design  in  the  present  article 
to  have  treated  at  length  on  the  physiology 
of  the  senses,  esjK'cially  of  sij;lit  and  hearing. 
As  these  last  subjects,  however,  could  not  be 
made  interesting  or  even  intelligible,  without 
connecting  them  with  the  piiilosophy  of  light 
and  of  sound,  it  has  been  judged  more  ex- 
pedient, in  order  to  avoid  repetition,  to  con- 
line  their  consideration  exclusively  to  the 
articles  Onics  and  ijouNDS.  The  anatomy 
of  the  organs  will  be  found  under  the  article 

As  ATOM  V. 

O/xiiiill.  A.  ttie  expansion  of  the  optic 
ser^'t  into  the  retina,  constitutes  iKe  inune- 


t-HYSIOLOGY. 

diate  instrsinieiit  of  vision,  by  being  pccntiai  1  y 
invested  with  the  faculty  of  perceiving  light; 
as  the  portio  mollis  of  "the  auditory  nerve,  is 
in  like  manner  the  direct  medium' for  tians- 
mitting  tae  see.sation  of  sounds  to  the  sen- 
sorium  commune;  so  the  organ  of  smell,  con- 
stituted by  a  distribution  of  the  olfactory 
nerves  on  that  membrune  which  lines  the 
nasal  fossa-,  is  formed  to  receive,  exclusively, 
the  sensation  of  odours.  It  is  apparently  in 
])ropurlion  to  the  depth  and  extent  of  these 
toss.T,  (alibrding  a  larger  snrface  to  the 
pituitary  membrane,)  that  the  perception  of 
smell  is'varinusly  regulated  in  dillerent  ani- 
mals, and  in  some  measure  in  dillerent  in- 
dividuals of  the  same  species  ;  and  the  mem- 
brane itself  recjuires  to  be  in  a  perpetual  state 
of  moisture. 

It  is  supposed  by  some  that  the  olfactory 
nerves  do  not  extend  into  the  sinuses,  but 
that  these  cavities  merely  assist  the  sense  by 
longer  retaining  a  greater  mass  of  air,  which 
is  loaded  with  those  odoriferous  particles  that 
constitute  the  exciting  cause  of  this  percep- 
tion. The  nasal  organs  are  supplied  with 
numerous  small  branches  arising  from  the 
tilth  pair  of  cerebral  nerves ;  but  these 
branches  do  not,  according  to  M.  Kicherand, 
answer  any  further  end,  than  that  of  con- 
tributing to  gene.al  sensibility.  The  excita- 
bility to  odours  exists,  according  to  our  au- 
thor, exclusively  in  those  whicli  are  com- 
monly denominated  olfactory  nerves. 

OJ'tiiste.  Every  sense  has  been  said  to  be 
strictly  a  modification  of  ieelin.g :  that  of  taste, 
however,  approaches  nearer  than  any  other 
of  the  senses,  even  in  its  organization,  to  liiat 
of  simple  or  proper  fe  eing;  the  surlace  of 
the  tongue,  which  is  the  principal  residence 
of  this  perceptibility,  only  varying  from  the 
common  integuments  in  being  thinner,  more 
vascular,  and  having  cryptx',  or  follicles, 
which  secrete  the  mucus  ot  the  tongue.  'I'hese 
are  situated  in  greatest  number  near  its  tip, 
and  are  erected  "  when  we  masticate  high- 
flavoured  food,  or  have  a  strong  desire  tor 
any  savoury  dish."  "  It  is  observed  that  the 
sense  of  taste  in  dillerent  animals  is  more 
perfect  in  proportion  as  the  nerves  of  the 
tongue  are  larger,  the  skin  liner  and  more 
moist,  its  texture  llexible,  surlace  extensive, 
motions  more  easy  and  varied.  The  sense 
of  taste  in  man  would,  perhaps,  be  more  de- 
licate than  that  of  any  other  animal,  if  he 
was  not  to  blunt  its  sensibility  early  m  lite 
by  strong  drinks,  spicy  ragouts,  and  all  the 
relinemeuls  of  luxury  that  are  daily  invented." 
"  Is  the  lingual  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of 
nerves  alone  adapted  for  the  perception  of 
taste?  Do  not  llie  ninth  (lair  eipially  serve 
for  the  same  purpose?"  This  last  (lueslion 
of  M.  Ui(  herand  has,  we  believe,  generally 
been  answered  in  the  negative.  It  is  from 
the  tiflh  [lair  that  the  erypla-,  just  spoken  of, 
are  supplied. 

On  touch.  This  has  been  with  some  pro- 
priety denominated  the  elementary  sense, 
and  all  olht  rs  considered  as  merely  modili- 
calions  accommodated  to  certain  properties 
ot  bodies.  "  Kvery  thing  that  is  not  light, 
sound,  odour,  or  savour,  is  appreciated  by 
the  touch."  This  sense  resides  throughout 
the  whole  extent  of  the  nervous  system  ;  the 
peculiarorgan,  however,  of  touch,  or  that  by 
which  we  come  to  a  knowledge  of  the  ()ua- 
lilies  of  objects,  is  the  cutis,  spreatl  on  er  the 


external  surface  pf  the  body,  fn  some  parf, 
this  sense  is  peculiarly  mndilied;  in  the  skin, 
for  example,  coveiing  the  apices  of  the  ling- 
ers; and  m  such  parts  we  meet  with  something 
resembling  the  papilla;  on  the  tongue  ;  but, 
perhaps,  not  exactly  similar,  as  tliey  are  ra- 
ther constituted  of  nervous  projections,  than 
of  glandular  crypta-:  they  are  surrounded  by 
an  extremely  fine  vascular  membrane.  \\  heu 
the  sense  of  leeling  is  exercised,  tliese  papilUe 
are  supposed  to  swell  and  elevate  the  epider- 
mis, which  ill  itself  is  totally  insensible  to  ail 
such  stimuli  as  act  exclusively  On  living  libre. 
The  epidermis,  like  the  nails' and  hair,  which 
last  proceed  from  it,  is  a  meredelence  of  the 
body,  unorganized,  and  consequently  de- 
stitute of  excitability. 

ylciioit  nf  the  nerves.  On  this  subject 
every  thing  is  conjectural.  We  have  not  in 
this  instance  the  "assistance  of  anatomy  for 
any  thing  farther  than  the  tact,  that  the  nerves 
are  the  organs  through  which  the  sensitive 
faculty  is  developed.  The  form,  appearance, 
and  mode  of  attachment  of  the  nerves,  are 
sufiicient  evidences  that  they  do  not  act  as 
vibratory  chords,  according  to  the  supposition 
of  some'  theorists ;  that  tiiey  are  tubes  tor 
conveying  a  lluid  from  and  to  the  cerebral 
mass,  IS  inconsistent  with  what  has  been  dis- 
covered respecting  the  minuteness  of  divisi- 
bility in  their  librilla: ;  it  likewise  appears 
inco'mpatible  with  what  may  be  called  the 
reacting  communications  between  the  centre 
or  centres  ot  sensation,  and  the  sensitive 
organs  :  and  we  have  already  had  occasion 
to  say,  that  the  extensive  anci  very  important 
discoveries  of  modern  chemistry,  have  only 
brought  us  acquainted  with  a  greater  number 
of  exciting  agents;  they  do  not  appear  to 
have  cast  ai.y  iiaht  upon  the  (piestion  respect- 
ing the  actual  mode  of  nervuus  or  muscular 
excitation. 

With  respect  to  the  analysis  of  our  sen- 
sations, the  production  of  ideas,  and  the  com- 
parative estimate  of  the  human  understanding 
with  that  of  the  instinctive  and  sensitivt" 
faculties  of  the  interior  animals,  we  cannot 
be  expected  m  this  place  to  institute  any  in- 
(luiiy.  We  must  be  content  with  expressing 
our  opinion,  that  endeavours  to  establish  an 
ideiititv  of  faculty  in  the  man  and  the  brute 
([(  the'  dispute  is'  not  a  mere  logomachy), 
have  failed  ot  their  object ;  and  as  we  believe 
that  the  fables  of  the  Hamadryades  are  not 
realized  in  the  "  trees  of  our  fo'rests,"  "so  we 
still  tlatler ourselves,  notwithstanding  the  in 
dications  of  reason,  and  the  great  powers  of 
imitation  which  have  been  exhibited  by  some 
individuals  of  the  ape  species,  that  the  human 
intellect  is  of  a  nature  essentially  different  from 
that  of  the  monkey.' 

Of  sleep,  (Ireiwiing,  sninnitmbuUsm,  sym- 
pathies, hiibit.  The"  condition  and  the  ex- 
citing causes  of  sU'ep,  need  no  di  scri|)tion  ; 
its  proximate  cause  must  necessarily  lie  in  the 
same  obsciiritv  with  those  of  other  brainiilar 
and  nervous  aileetions.  The  artilicial  slerp 
wiiich  has  been  procured  by  pressure  on  the 
brain,  proves  nothing  witii  re-pect  to  tlie 
actual  condition  of  this  org«n  in  the  sleep  of 
nature ;  it  is  rather  ajioplexy  than  sleep  that 
is  thus  occasioned.  VVith  respect  to  the 
phenomena  attendant  upon  sleep,  it  has  been 
wellobserved,  that  "  the  human  body  presents 
with  tolerable  accuracy  the  model  of  the 
centripetal  and  centrilugal  powers  of  antient 
philosoiihv.    The  moliou  of  several  of  the 


(i\M(em<tliateiiterink)it'istrurtiirp,  isdiiTrtPcl 
li-oin  Ihe  cculix'  to  the  circcimlt-reiice  ;  it  is  a 
true  exluhtioii  that  expels  the  produce  and 
continual  destruction  of  organs ;  such  is  thi' 
action  ot'  tlie  heart,  arteries,  and  all  secretory 
glands.  Other  actions,  on  the  contrary,  are 
directed  from  the  circnnitVrcnce  towards  the 
centr.' ;  and  it  is  by  these  means  '.hat  we  con- 
timiallv  receive,  from  the  ailments  introduced 
into  the  digestive  organs,  the  air  that  |)ene- 
tratei  Into  the  internal  structure  of  the  lungs, 
and  surrounds  the  surface  of  the  body,  the 
elements  ofits  growth  and  reparation,  riv.'sc 
two  motions  in  an  opposite  direction,  con- 
tinually balance  each  other,  and  aUernately 
preponderate  according  to  age,  se\,  sleep,  or 
waking.  During  slee|),  the  motions  are  di' 
rected  from  the  circumference  towards  the 
tentre  (motus  in  somno  iniro  verguut,  Hip- 
pocrates) ;  and  if  the  organs  that  connect  our 
intercourse  with  external  objects,  repose,  the 
internal  parts  act  with  greater  advaiita.ge." 
Hence  our  author  would  explain,  or  rather 
trace,  the  connection  of  repos ;  with  corpu- 
lence; and  of  inordinate  mental  or  bodily 
exercise  with  leanness.  Sleep  may,  indeed, 
be  so  indulged  as  to  reduce  man  to  a  con- 
dition of  mere  brutal  exisience,  as  in  a  case 
related  by  the  author  of  the  above  extract, 
that  of  a  man  sleeping  tive-sixths  of  the  day, 
with  a  digestion  always  active  and  easy,  and 
with  "moral  affections  circumscribed  ni  the 
desire  of  aliment  and  repose." 

Dreiiming  is  a  state  intermediate  between 
sleep  and  waking.  It  is  the  continued  activity 
of  some  organs  while  others  are  in  a  state  of 
tjuietucle;  hence  incongruous  associations, 
and  all  their  consequences.  For  sonmam- 
bulism  (sleep-walking),  see  Incuhu.i,  in 
Medicine.  Siinqialliies  are,  1st,  between 
two  organs  which  perform  the  same  function, 
as  between  the  kidneys ;  2d,  those  whicli 
have  been  attributed  to  the  continuity  of 
membranes,  as  the  pain  in  the  glans  penis 
from  calculary  affections  of  the  bladder ;  3d, 
from  the  extension  of  local  irritation,  in  the 
manner  that  the  excretory  duct  of  the  parotid 
gland  occasions  an  irritation,  which  is  pro- 
pagated in  its  substance,  and  augments  its 
secretion  ;  4th,  exerted  between  part.,  which 
do  not  appear  to  be  connected  either  by 
nerves,  membranes,  or  vessels;  as  when  the 
nostrils  are  initated,  the  diaphragm  contracts 
and  occasions  sneezing;  jtli,  those  which  are 
consi<lered  as  resulting  from  the  agency  of 
the  vital  principle,  as  when  the  rectum  con- 
tracts by  the  stimulus  of  excrement. 

J/ahit.  Of  the  powerand  inliuence  of  habit, 
every  one  is  sensible.  Its  operation  m  the 
animal  economy,  in  relation  both  to  the  p;;- 
thology  of  disease  and  the  pr.actice  of  me- 
dicine, requires  assiduous  attention.  For  ex- 
ample: a  premature  propulsion  of  the  foetus 
disposes  to  a  return  of  the  same  accident,  at 
the  same  period  of  pregnancy  ;  thus,  at  ,lhis 
time,  e-pecial  care  is  requisite  in  order  to 
obviate  this  acquired  propensity. 

The  termination  of  life  has  been  referred 
to  the  power  of  habit,  blunting  gradually,  and 
at  length  destroying,  susceptibility  of  im- 
pression from  the  agents  by  which  the  vital 
.  principle  had  hitherto  been  supported.  •'  Life, 
dependant  on  the  continual  excitement  of 
the  living  solid,  by  the  Huids  that  are  con- 
veyed to  it,  ceases,  because  after  being  ac- 
customed totheimpre^sions  that  these  licjuids 
produce  on  them,  irritable  aud  sensible  parts 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

b'come  at  length  no  longer  able  to  perceivs 
th"m ;  their  aciion,  gradually  destroyed, 
would,  perhaps,  revive,  if  the  stimulating 
powers  were  to  ac<;uire  additional  force." 

For  a  general  view  of  the  organs  subser- 
vient to  animal  motion-,  (the  next  subject  in 
the  order  of  our  arrangement)  consult  Com- 
parative Anatomy,  Vol.  I.  page  4l4. 

Of  THE  VOICE,  AND  SPEECH. 

\'oire  is  produced  by  that  air  which  is  ex- 
pelled from  the  lungs,  being  made  to  vibrate 
in  passing  ihivnicdi  the  glotti.s. 

'•  Do  the  different  modiiications  wf  which 
the  vcjice  is  susceptible  depend  on  the  large- 
ness or  s.iiallness  of  the  glottis,  or  on  the  ten- 
sion and  relaxation  of  the  ligaments  that  form 
the  sides  of  the  aperture  from  the  jjlottis  into 
the  mouth?"  which  last  is,  indeed,  the  true 
organ  of  this  function  ;  for  when  an  opening  is 
made  in  the  larynx  below  it,  no  sound  is 
produced  by  the  passage  of  the  air.  It  ap- 
pears, however,  tliat  both  the  size  of  this 
oprMiing,  and  the  tense  or  relaxed  condition 
of  the  parietes  of  the  larynx,  contribute  to 
modify  voice,  or,  as  it  has  been  expressed, 
tiiat  the  larynx  is  both  a  wind  and  a  string  in- 
strument; voice  being  always  acute  in  fe- 
males, and  in  young  persons  previously  to  the 
age  of  pubertv,  at  which  time'the  diameter 
of  the  apertiire  in  males  undergoes  a  re- 
markable enlargement,  and  thestate  of  tension 
in  the  ligaments  of  the  glottis  is  always  in 
correspondence  with  the  narrowness  of  this 
opening. 

\v\cc  has  a  further  dependance  upon  the 
length  of  the  trachea.  "  A  singer  who  wishes 
to  run  through  the  whole  ganrut,  by  passing 
from  the  upper  to  the  lower  notes,  evidently 
shortens  the  nock  aud  trachea,  but,  vice 
versa,  lengthens  them  to  produce  a  contrary 
ellect. 

"The  strength  then  of  the  voice  depends 
upon  the  volume  of  air  that  can  be  expelled 
from  the  lungs,  and  on  the  greater  or  less 
power  of  vibration  of  which  the  parietes  of 
the  canal  are  possessed  in  its  passing  out- 
wards. Birds,  the  body  of  which  is  mo-tly 
aerial,  have  a  voice  very  strong  when  com- 
pared to  tlieir  si/e;  their  trachea  provided 
with  a  double  lai-ynx,  is  almost  entirely  car- 
tilaginous, particiilarly  in  certain  chattering 
birds,  as  the  jay  and  some  others;  while  it  is 
nearly  membi-anous  in  the  hedgiiiog,  the 
noise  of  which  is  almost  imperceptible." 

Speecli  is  the  prei'ogative  solely  of  Ihe  hu- 
man species.  It  is  constituted  by  modifi- 
cations which  the  voice  is  made  to  pass 
through,  from  the  motions  of  the  tongue,  lips, 
Uc.  "  The  ape,  in  which  these  parts  are 
formed  as  in  man,  would  speak  like  him,  if 
tire  air  in  passing  out  of  the  larynx  did  not 
rush  into  the  liyothy  roid  sacs,  in  some  animals 
membranous,  but  cartilaginous  in  others,  and 
even  osseous  in  the  alouette  or  purr,  whose 
howl  is  so  hoarse  and  frightful.  Every  time 
the  animal  wishes  to  cry,"these  sacs  become 
distended,  then  emptied,  so  that  it  cannot 
furnish  the  diiferent  jjarts  of  the  mouth  with 
sounds  to  be  articulated." 

Articulated  sounds  are  constituted  by 
vowels,  the  consonants  are  merely  for  the 
purpose  of  connecting  vowels  together.  The 
utterance  of  consonants  is  necessarily  more 
forced  and  unnatural  than  that  of  vowels ; 
hence  the  superior  harmony  of  those   lan- 


gtiages  which  have  (h::  Kreatesl  number  of 
such  letters,  as  in  Ihe  ancient  Uaiguage  of  tin; 
Greeks,  '•  quibus  dedit  ore  rolundo  musu 
locini."  Hor.  Hence,  on  the  otiier  hand,  fhi? 
harshness  of  the  German,  Dutch,  and  other 
languages.  "  It  would  be  tliiiicull,"  says  M. 
niclierand,  "  to  accumulate  a  gi'ealer  num- 
ber of  corisonaiits  in  one  word,"  (and,  con- 
seqilenlly,  to  seh-ct  a  word  of  more  difficult 
proiinncialion),  "  than  is  found  in  the  proper 
name  of  a  German,  called  Schmidfgen. ' 

Siiii^hii;,  slammeriiig,  lisping,  diimbiifss, 
and  i-entritnquism.  Singing  is  performed  by 
an  enlargement  or  contraction  of  the  glottis; 
by  an  elevation  or  depression  of  the  larynx  ; 
by  an  elongalioa  or  shortening  of  the  neck; 
by  an  accelerated,  prolonged,  or  retarded  in- 
spiration ;  and  bv  either  long  or  i-hort,  and 
abrupt  expirations.  "  'Ihe  agreeableness 
then,'  or  liie  ju  -tiu'ss  of  the  voice,  the  extent 
and  variety  of  inllexions  of  which  it  is  ca- 
IKible,  depend  on  the  correct  conformation  of 
its  organs,  on  the  llexibility  of  the  glottis, 
elasticity  of  its  carlilaiTes,  and  paiiicular  dis- 
jjosilion'of  dilli-rent  parts  of  the  mouth,  nasal 
passages,  ic.  If  the  two  halves  ol  I  he  larynx 
or  nasal  fossa;  are  unetiually  disposed,  it  is 
suilicient  to  occasion  a  defect  in  precision 
and  neatness  of  the  voice." 

Stanmiering  and  lisping  are  occasioned  by 
a  tongue  too  large,  its  fncaum  being  too  long  ; 
and  by  deficiency  or  bad  arrangement  in  the 
teeth.  When  the  apex  of  the  tongue  is  pre- 
vented from  striking  properly  the  tore  part  of 
the  roof  of  the  mouth,  an  inability  is  pro- 
duced of  pronouncing  the  letter  r. 

Natural  dumbness  is  almost  invariably  con- 
se(|r.ent  upon  deafness,  aud  does  not  arise 
fi'oiu  an  inability  to  articulate,  but  from  an 
entire  ignorance  of  sounds.  SeeDvMSXESs, 
and  Deafness. 

For  the  naure  of  those  sounds  produced 
by  the  ventrilo.(uist,   see  likewise  the  article-' 

X'ENTRILOaUISM. 

Of  GENERATION. 

We  now  proceed  to  notice  tho  e  functions 
which  nature  has  provided  for  the  preservation  ■ 
not  of  the  individual  but  of  the  species. 

Dilftreaces  nf  llie  seres.  During  infancy 
we  find  the  general  cliaracters  of  sex  coin- 
liaratively  so  indistinct,  that  some  writers 
have  been  disposed  to  refer  the  successive 
developement  of  the  male  and  female  pecu- 
liarities solely  to  the  genital  organs.  "Propter 
solum  uteruni  nrulier  est  id,  quod  est."  \'an 
Ilelmont.  It  has,  however,  been  wellobserv- 
ed,  that  we  liiid  from  birtli  an  independant 
variety  of  conformation  in  the  male  and  tire 
female;  the  former  having  less  mobility  of 
constitution,  and  less  delicacy  and  roundness 
of  form  than  the  latter.  The  muscles  of  man 
are  larger  and  firmer,  the  asperities  of  the 
bones  are  observable  in  a  greater  degree,  the 
clavicle  is  luore  curved,  tire  shoulders  broad- 
er, the  pelvis  smaller,  and  the  thigh-bones 
have  a  more  outward  directitm.  It  is  well 
known  to  the  anatomist,  that  by  examining 
attentively  the  skeleton,  even  previously  to 
the  age  of  puberty,  the  sex  may  generally  be 
traced. 

Even  venereal  desires  have  been  imasined 
by    some   physiologists   to   be   evolved   in- 
dependantly  of  the  evolution  of  the  genital  ■ 
or-Tans.    M'  Richerand,  from  Calliot,  adduces 
the  instance  of  a  female,  who,  "  when  ad-. 


430 

viinced  to  the  age  of  twentj'-one,  wished  (o 
Siilisfy  the  desirfts  of  nature,  but  in  vain,  sh-,- 
having  nothing  but  the  vulva  pvoperly  foniK'd; 
n  small  ranal  about  two  lines  in  diameter  oc- 
cupied the  p'ace  of  the  vaaina,  and  terminated 
in  a  cul-de-sac,  an  inch  ni  depth,  'liic  niosi 
attentive  examinations  i;iadc  by  introducing 
a  catheter  into  tne  bladder,  and  the  inde\ 
into  the  rectum,  could  not  lind  an  uterus." 
In  this  instance,  however,  we  are  disjiosed  to 
thiuk  that  the  defect  was  in  tlie  position  and 
communication  of  the  uterus,  not  in  its  total 
absence  ;  for,  as  opposed  to  this  example,  we 
remember  to  have  lieard  a  celebrated  ana- 
tomist relate  that  he  dissected  a  female,  uho, 
vithcut  venereal  defies,  though  she  lived 
tome  time  beyond  the  age  of  puberty,  had 
evei7  external  and  internal  part  of  the  uterine 
system  in  perfection,  excepting  the  ovaria. 
"Nulla  cu])ido  est  propter  viiia  organorum>" 

Hci-mnphr.idism,  \n  a  pr-.iper  sense,  has 
never  existed  iii  man,  nor  even  in  the  interior 
animah,  the  structure  of  whose  srenital  organs 
are  in  the  smallest  measure  analogous  to  man. 
All  imperfection  of  organs,  so  as  to  render 
the  sex  doubtful,  has,  indeed,  in  some  very 
few  instances  presented  itself;  but  not,  as  in 
many  of  the  lower  order  of  aiiiinals  and 
plan'ls,  a  capability  if  self-impregnation. 

Some  physiolog!-.li  have  endeavoured  to 
trace  an  analogv  between  the  sexual  organi- 
zation of  the  Miale  and  female,  comparing  the 
ovaria  of  the  latter  with  tlie  testicles  of  the 
former,  the  Fallopian  tubes  with  the  vasa  de- 
ferentia,  the  uterus  with  the  vesicula;  semi- 
jiales,  the  clitoris  and  vagina  whh  the  penis. 
These  resemblances  are  in  some  measure 
correct:  tlius,  the  ovaria  and  te-ticles  both 
secrete  aseniinal  lluid,  the  Fallopian  tubes  and 
vasa  defereutia  both  convey  such  iluid  into 
appointed  reservoirs — the  uterus  in  tiie  fe- 
male, and  the  vesiculsseniinales  in  the  male. 

Tne  generative  procees  in  man  is  effected 
by  an  elimination  from  the  blood  of  ihe  se- 
ui-n  by  the  testicles;  the  semen  immediately 
noon  it's  serretion  passes  througii  the  semi- 
niferous duct,  into  tiie  vasa  deferentia,  wiiich, 
after  entering  the  abdomen,  terminate  in  the 
veVieulffi  seniinales,  and  there  deposit  their 
contents.  These  vesicles  furnish  reservoirs 
for  the  semen  ;  and  we  tind  those  animals  that 
are  destitute  of  them,  do.;s  for  example,  con- 
tinue a  long  time  in  sexual  contact,  on  ac- 
count of  the  semen,  secreted  during  the  act 
of  copul.ition,  being  directly  transmitted  from 
the  testicles.  As  the  semen  in  man  passes 
through  the  prostate  gland,  it  is  mixed  witii 
the  mucus  which  this  gland  secretes,  and,  thus 
mixed,  enters  the  nreUira  to  be  ejected. 

Willi  respect  lo  t'le  part  which  the  femal  ■ 
performs  in  the  pncess  of  generation,  the 
following  questions  have  been  proposed. 
"  Does  the  ovarium  secrete  a  liquor,  that, 
mixi  ;g  with  the  in  ile  semen,  produces  the 
ne.v  being?  or  is  tliere  detached  from  it,  at 
the  moment  of  conception,  an  ovuoi  whicli  is 
viviiied  bv  the  semen'"  "  Whatever  part,'' 
says  M.  Uicherand,  "  is  taken  in  this  dis- 
cussion, we  shall  be  forced  to  admit  that  the 
ovarium  prepares  something  essential  to  ge- 
n'-ration,  since  its  re.noval  renders  the  female 
steriie.  It  is  doubtless,  likewise,"  continu'-s 
o'lr  author,  "that  this  something  furnished 
bv  the  ovaries,  passes  through  the  Fallopian 
tiibes  into  the  uterus,  which  receives  one  of 
their  .-xire  itus.  while  th^  other,  large-,  e.x- 
jjaaded,  and  fringed  at  its  margin,  lloats  in 


rHYSIOLOGY. 

(he  cavity  of  the  pelvis,  supported  by  a  small 
deplicature  of  the  peritoneum,  but  contracts 
on  itself,  is  closely  applied  to  the  ovarium 
dui'ing  coition,  and  then  constitutes  a  direct 
clianiiel  between  this  organ  and  the  internal 
));u-t  of  the  uterus.  The  external  orilice  of 
the  Fallo;iian  tube,  or  its  tringed  parts,  lias 
been  found  closely  inves;hig  the  ovarium  in 
certain  females  0[)ened  immediately  alter  co- 
pulation. It  may  happen  from  seme  organic 
defect  that  the  Fallopian  tube  cannot  embrace 
the  ovarium.  In  dissecting  a  subject  at  La 
Charite,  that  had  been  sterile,  I  found  the 
fringed  margins,  or  expanded  extrimities  of 
the  tubes,  adhering  to  the  lateral  and  superior 
parts  of  the  pelvis,  so  that  it  had  been  im- 
possilde  for  them  to  perform  their  motions.' 

Althoi»gh  the  semen  is  conveyed  into  the 
uterus,  the  penis  does  not  actually  enter  this 
cavity;  it  is  prevented  by  the  smallness  of 
the  OS  tincy,  and  it  would  be  diflicult  to  con- 
ceive even  the  ])assage  ol  the  semen,  "  if  we 
did  not  know  that  the  uterus,  during  copu- 
lation, is  irriliiled,  kept  in  agitation,  and  at- 
tracts the  semen  by  a  real  aspiration." 

Witli  regard  to  the  theory  of  conception,  the 
greatest  obscurity  prevails.  Analogy  with  what 
is  observed  in  inferior  animals,  furnishes  the 
principal  assistance  to  the  physiologist  in  this 
particular.  It  is  well  known  that  eggs  laid 
by  a  lien  which  has  had  no  intercourse  with 
the  cock,  are  incapable  of  being  hatched,  al- 
though they  contain  the  rudiments  of  the 
chick  ;  hence  it  has  been  inferred,  and  almost  | 
demonstrated,  that  it  is  the  office  of  the  male 
in  general  to"  furnish  the  vivifying  principle; 
that  is,  to  animate  the  individuals,  the  germs 
of  which  are  produced  by  the  female." 

This  fecundation  of  the  ovum  is  supposed 
to  be  effected  in  tlie  ovarium,  the  seminal 
liquor  received  into  the  uterus  having  passed 
hither  through  the  Fallopian  tubes.  This  last 
supposition,  however,  has  not  perhaps  been 
fully   verili^-d. 

In  the  ovaria,  after  each  conception,  a  «mall 
body  is  tijund  (corpus  luteuni),  which  ilailer 
proved  to  be  the  remains  of  a  vesicle  rup- 
tured at  the  moment  of  conception,  and  per- 
mitting its  contents  to  escape.  The  matter 
then  which  thus  escapes,  constitutes  ih.-  germ 
iif  the  fietus.  It  will  be  evident  that  the 
Fallopian  tubes  require  tobepervious,  in  order 
tliat  conception  ma)'  take  place.  It  is  ob- 
served by  Morgagni,  that  they  are  often 
dosed  in  courtezans,  in  consequence  of  habi- 
tual excitement 

"  Semen,  «  hen  examined  bv  a  microscope, 
exhibits  aniniaicula  with  a  round  head  and 
slender  tail,  tnat  move  with  rapidity;"  hence 
the  curious  conjecture-;  of  Levvenliock,  lloer- 
haave,  Cowper,  and  other-,  that  every  part 
of  the  seminal  liquor  is  capable  of  becoinins 
a  being  resembling  that  t'roiii  which  it  was 
formed.  "  These  aniniaicula  pass  in  a  cur- 
rent through  the  Fallopian  tubes  lo  the  ovaria, 
where  they  enter  int-j  a  violent  contest,  in 
wnicli  all  are  killed  except  one,  which  lieing 
left  champion  in  the  lield  of  battle,  penetrates 
into  the  ovarium  df^tined  to  receive  it." 
.\ecording  to  the  hypothesis  of  M.  Buffon, 
every  pirt  of  the  buuv  furnisiios  its  appro- 
priate mo'ecula;  to  compose  thesenien ;  "and 
these  atoms  coming  from  the  eyes,  ears,  &c. 
ot  the  man  and  woman,  arrange  themselves 
round  the  internal  mould,  the  existence  of 
which  he  admits,  believes  it  to  form  tlic  base 
(3 


of  the  edifice,  and  to  arise  from  the  male,  if 
It  should  be  a  boy,  and  from  the  female,  if  a 
giil."^ 

It  it  was  necessary  to  offer  any  objection 
to  this  fanciful  hypoliiesis,  it  would  sutlice  lo 
say  that  infants  are  citen  born  perfectly  or- 
taiiized,  the  parents  of  vihom  have  had  de- 
lects ill  struclure. 

I'or  the  history  of  gestation,  delivery,  Sic. 
fOnsult  the  article  Midwjfery. 

On  ages,  temperaments,  varieties  in  the  hu- 
man species,  Sj-c. 

The  last  subjects  treated  of  by  ^I.  Richer- 
and,  very  little  remains  to  he  said  of  in  the 
present  place. 

Of  jniancy,  its  peculiarities  and  disease.', 
see  the  article  Infancy.  'I'lie  process  of 
dentition  (or  the  most  part  commences  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  seventh  month,  earlier 
or  later,  according  to  the  constitution  of  the 
!nf;nt.  The  middle  uicisores  of  tlie  upper 
jaw  are  the  lirst  to  appear;  shortly  afterwards 
the  incisoies  of  the  inferior  maxilla;  thf  a 
the  lateral  incisors  of  the  upper,  afterwards 
of  tiie  under  jaw;  then  the  canine  teeth  in 
the  same  order;  and  between  eighteen  months 
and  two  years,  but  in  the  inverse  order,  tlie 
niolares.  'i  his  completes  the  first  dentition. 
'I'owards  the  end  of  the  fovirth  year,  two 
other  molares  come  to  be  added.  I'hese  last 
remain  during  life,  but  tlie  lirst  teeth  fall  out 
nearly  in  tlie  order  of  their  appearance,  and 
are  succeeded  by  others  larger  and  better 
formeil.  Towards  the  ninth  year,  two  addi- 
tional large  niolares  apjiear  beyond  t!ie  form- 
er ;  and  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and 
thirty,  two  teeth  perforate  the  gums  at  the 
extremitx-  of  the  alveolar  processes :  these  are 
the  dentes  sapienlia;. 

Each  row-  of  teeth  exists  at  the  same  time 
in  the  maxilla;  of  the  foctu^,  each  alveola 
containing  two  membranous  follicles,  'i'hat 
wliich  is  to  constitute  the  primary  tooth  lirst 
swells,  a  calcareous  matter  encrusts  on  its 
surface  and  forms  the  body  of  the  tooth,  by 
which  the  follicle  is  obscured  which  secretes 
the  osseous  part,  so  that  when  the  small  bone 
is  fully  formed,  the  meuibranous  vesicle  on 
the  sides  of  which  the  dental  vessels  and 
nerves  are  spread  out,  is  in  the  centre  of  its 
body,  and  adheres  to  the  parietes  of  its  in- 
ternal cavity. 

Ossification  is  effected  by  a  deposit  of 
bony  matler,  (which,  as  we  have  already  ob- 
served, is  principally  formed  of  phosphat  of 
lime,)  in  the  centres  of  the  cartilages,  which 
gradually  proceeds  to  their  extremities  or 
circumferences.  Although  ossification  is  some 
years  before  it  is  completed,  there  has  been 
siiflicient  bony  matter  d.eposited  in  the  car- 
tilages, to  enable  the  child  to  stand  and  walk, 
in  the  course  of  twelve  months,  or  less,  trom 
birth.  " 'I'lie  vit.d  motions  of  infancy  tend 
towards  the  head,"  hence  the  frequency  of 
disease  in  this  part. 

Of  pulnri!/.  In  England  the  season  of  pu- 
berty is  scarcely  before  the  hf.eenth  year, 
sooner  or  later,  according  to  constitutional 
variety.  The  jirincipal  marks  of  puberty  in 
tlie  male  are  ih  ■  change  of  voice,  which 
arises  from  a  sudden  dilatation  of  the  aperture 
hi  the  glottis,  aln.-ady  spoken  of  In  females, 
the  menstrual  discharge  forms  the  chief  index 
of  the  change  alluded  to.  This  discharge  i« 
not  u  mere  llow  of  blood  as  from  ruptured 


PHY 

vessels,  but  is  a  pruprr  sccivtion  frnin  tlif 
aiterifs  which  li-'riniiiatu  on  the  nilcriial  Mu- 
faLi'  of  the  iilerus.  'I'hc  liual  cau~c  <)(  im-ii- 
striiation  is  iin(|Ut'slioi)ably  to  Imiiish  Hit; 
foetus  with  its  rriiuisiti'  sii|)|)ort  diiriiii;  gesta- 
tion. I'lie  hypothi-si-s  which  have  been  pro- 
poseil  to  account  for  nienslrnatioii,  as  tlic  in 
fliience  of  the  moon,  i^c.  are  too  frivolous 
ami  antiiiualed  to  require  refutation  or  no- 
tice. 

The  state  of  virility  siicceocls  to  that  of 
puberty,  ami  now  thecon'^titiitional  character 
la  fully  and  f:rnily  cslabli-^hed.  I'lie  aiilieiits, 
observin;^  a  great  diversity  among  individuals, 
and  supposing  that  such  varieties  must  de- 
pend upon  some  elementary  niatter  with  which 
the  body  is  impivijnatcd,  instituted  a  general 
division  of  constitution  into  four  classes,  which 
in  compliance  with  their  mode  of  judgiug  re- 
specting the  origin  of  such  diiferences  tliev 
tailed  temperaments;  a  word  retained,  while 
the  theories  uliicii  introduced  it  are  aban- 
doned. The  sanguine,  the  mehuicliolic,  the 
choleric,  and  the  phlegmatic  C(;nslitutioiis  of 
authors,  with  tlieir  endless  inter.nixturei,  do 
nut  require  description  in  this  place.  M. 
Kicherand  has  proposed  a  classilication  wliicli 
will  be  seen  by  n.-ferring  to  the  above  table, 
1  and  which  is,  perhaps,  more  accurate  in  re- 
lation to  appearances,  certainly  much  more 
S9  as  it  regards  the  origin  of  difference,  tliun 
the  ancient  distinctions.  We  are  peroUaded, 
that  to  the  physician,  the  arrangement  of  iii- 
diiidual  peculiarity  would  be  most  useful, 
which  should  be  founded  on  those  marks  in- 
dicating an  liereditary  tendency  to  lymphatic, 
nervous,  and  sanguineous  ailections 

The  natio:ial  varieties  of  man  are,  accord- 
ing to  our  author,  the  Arab-European,  "with 
face  oval,  or  nearly  oval,  in  a  vertical  direc- 
tion, the  nose  long,  the  forehead  projecting, 
hair  long,  and  generally  lank,  skin  more  or 
less  white."  Tliese  iiindamental  characters 
■are  no  where  so  well  marked  as  in  the  north 
of  civilized  Europe. 

The  Mongol  race,  with  "  the  forehead 
fl.it,  the  cranium  not  very  prominent,  the 
eyes  directed  a  little  obliquely  outwards,  and 
the  oval  formed  by  the  face,  instead  of  beins 
from  the  forehead  to  the  chin,  is  from  one 
«heek  to  the  other."  This  is  the  most  nu- 
merous race,  comprehending  the  Chinese, 
Tartars,  Jjpanese,  &e. 

The  Hyperb,>rean  race,  "  with  flat  face, 
Sijuat  body,  and  very  short  stature,"  is  for:n- 
ed  of  the  Greeulanders,  Saraoiedc.>  and  Lap- 
landers. The  A.mericau  Indian,  M.  llicher- 
and  conjectures  to  be  a  race  from  the  other 
continents.  On  the  Negro,  he  has  the  fol- 
lowing remarks:  "  tue  small  progress  of  this 
race  in  the  study  of  the  sciences  and  in  civili- 
zation; their  decided  taste  and  singular  apti- 
tude for  all  the  arts  that  require  more  addie-s 
than  understandin;;;  and  reflection,  as  dan- 
cing, music,  fencing,  ^cc.  ;  the  form  of  their 
liead,  which  is  a  medium  between  the  Eu- 
ropean and  orang-outang;  the  existence  of 
intermaxillary  bones,  at  an  age  when  in  us  the 
I  traces  of  their  separation  are  completely  ob- 
I  literated  ;  the  high  situation  and  smallness  of 
the  calf  or  the  leg,  &c.,  have  been  advance<l 
as  arguments  which,  however,  are  less  solid 
'than  specious,  bv  those  who  have  endeavour- 
ted  to  degrade  this  portion  of  the  human 
species,  with  a  view  of  justifying  the  com- 
merce made  of  them  by  civilized  nations, 
ajid  tlie  slavery  to  which  they  are  reduced. 


V  TI  Y 

"  WItli.oiit  admitting  this  position,"  says  our 
author,  '•  believrd  by  the  avarice  of  riches, 
wo  caiiiK.t  but  allow  that  the  diiferences  in 
organization  induce  (should  hi- not  have  s.^id, 
area<com|:anied  with  ?)  an  obvious  iiiecp  alilv 
in  tlie  perfection  of  ihr  inon.l  and  iiitcllectual 
faculties,  'i  his  truth  will  be  cuiuplctclv  elu- 
cidated if  we  can  point  out  their  moral  dif- 
ferences to  be  equally  real  and  strongly 
marked  as  the  pliv.ical  characters  of  tlie  lui- 
man  races  that  have  been  just  recapitulated; 
oppose  European  activity,  versatility,  and 
resllcssness,  to  Asiatic  indolence,  phlegm,  and 
patie.ice;  examine  what  effects  may  be 
produced  on  the  character  of  nations  by  the 
fertility  of  the  sod,  serenity  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  mildness  of  the  climate ;  shew  by 
what  obligalion  of  physical  and  moral  cause's 
the  inlluence  of  custom  has  so  much  power 
over  Eastern  people,  that  in  India  and  China 
we  find  tlie  same  laws,  manners,  and  forms  of 
woij,hip,  as  existed  long  before  Hie  commence- 
ment of  our  a  ra;  investigate  by  what  .singu- 
larity these  laws,  manners,  and  religions,  have 
sulTvred  no  alteration  amidst  the  revolutions 
that  have  so  fre(|ueiitiy  overturned  those  rich 
countries,  whicji  have  been  several  times 
coiuiuered  by  the  .warlike  Tartars  ;  denion- 
strate  that  ignorant  and  ferocious  coiu;ueiors, 
by  the  irresistible  ascendancy  of  wisdom  aiui 
information,  have  ado'pted  the  customs  of  the 
nations  they  have  subjugated;  and  prove  tfiat 
the  stationary  state  of  tlie  arts  and  sciences, 
ill  people  w  ho  have  enjoyed  tiie  benefits  of 
society  and  the  advantag.  s  of  civilization  be- 
fore us,  i.i  not  ,vo  i.'Mch  to  be  (lilribnUd  to  llie 
iinptrfcctiim  rftk:ir  ors:aiiizalioii,  as  to  tlie 
huiiiili  ting  yoke  of  a  religion,  abounding  in 
absurd  practices,  and  which  makes  learning 
the  exclusive  appendage  of  a  privileged 
cast." 

For  physiology  of  plants^  see  Pl.^nts, 
phi/.'iinlogi/  if'. 

ITiY.sSOl'HORA,  a  genus  of  vermes 
mollusca ;  the  generic  character  is,  the 
body  gelatinous,  pendant  from  an  aerial 
vesicle,  with  gelatinous  members  at  the 
sides,  and  numerous  tentacula  beneath. 
These  are  nearly  allied  to  the  medusa',  and 
might  without  much  impropriety  be  remov- 
ed to  that  genus.     There  are  three  species. 

PIIYTEUMA,  crdlc  nimpions,  in  bo- 
tany, a  genus  of  the  pentandria  monog)  oia 
class  of  plants,  the  flower  of  which  is  com- 
posed of  a  single  stellated  pet;d  ;  the  fruit  is 
a  roundish  capsule,  and  contains  three  cells, 
witii  numerous  seeds.  There  are  sixteen 
species. 

PHYTOLACCA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  decandria  decagynia  class  of  plants,  the 
corolla  whereof  consists  of  five  roundish, 
hollow,  patent  petals;  the  fruit  is  anoibiii- 
lated  depressed  berry,  witk  ten  longitudinal 
furrows,  and  as  many  cells,  in  each  of  which 
is  a  single  kidney-shaped  seed.  There  are 
six  species.  In  Virginia  and  other  parts  of 
America  the  inhabitants  boil  the  leaves,  and 
eat  them  in  the  manner  of  spinach.  TJiey 
are  said  to  have  an  anodyne  quality,  and 
the  juice  of  the  root  is  violently  cathartic. 
The  stems  when  boiled  are  as  good  as  as- 
paragus. The  Portuguese  had  formerly  a 
trick  of  mixing  the  juice  of  the  berries  with 
their  red  wines,  in  order  to  give  tJiema 
deeper  colour  ;  but  as  it  was  found  to  debase 
the  flavour,  and  to  make  the  wine  deleteri- 
ous, the  matter  was  represented  to  his  Por- 


r  1  c 


'131 


(ugiiofp  majeMy,  wlio  ordered  ail  (he  stemu 
to  be  cut  d.Aui  yearly  belore  they  jjiodu- 
ced  flowers,  thereby  to  pieveiit  any  liutlier 
adulteration.  '1  he  s.ime  i)raclice  was  com- 
inoi;  in  France  till  it  was  [jroliibited  by  an 
edict  of  Louis  WI.  and  Jiis  pn-deccssor 
under  [Uiiii  ol  death.  'I  his  plant  has  been 
said  to  cure  cancers  ;  but  the  trufli  of  liiis 
assertion  has  not  been  indlspulably  proved, 
and  does  not  a|)pear  very  probable. 

PH\'l  OL()G\',  a  ilicowrse  concerning 
the  kinds  and  virtues  of  plants. 

PIIYTOTAMA,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
order  passeres ;  tiie  generic  char;icier  is, 
bill  conic,  straiglit,  serrate;  nostrils  oval; 
tongue  short,  obiuse  ;  feel  four-toed.  There 
is  only  a  single  species,  viz.  P.  rara,  that  in- 
habits Chili,  nearly  eipial  in  size  to  tin- quail ; 
has  a  harsh  interrupted  cry,  resembling  liie 
syllables  ra,  ra ;  feeds  on'  fresh  vi'gelables 
which  It  cuts  down  near  the  roots  with  its 
bill  as  with  a  saw,  and  is  ou  that  account  a 
great  pest  to  gardens  ;  builds  in  liigli  shady 
trees,  in  retired  places  ;  eggs  white  spotted 
with  led. 

PIA  MATER.     See  Anatomy. 
PICA.     See  Mus. 

PICJC,  the  second  order  of  birds,  accord- 
ingto  the  Linna;au  syslein.  ^I'liey  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  bill  sharp-edged,  convex 
above;  Irgs  short,  strong;  feet  formed  for 
walking,  perching,  or  ciinibing;  body  toush- 
ish,  impure;  food  various,  filthy  substances v 
nesL  in  trees ;  the  male  feeds  the  female  while 
she  is  sitting.  They  live  in  pairs.  Of  this 
order  there  are  twenty-six  g"nera,  viz.  alcedo, 
buceros,  bc.cco,  buphago,  certhia,  roracias, 
coryus,  crotophaga,  ciiculus,  galbnla,  glau- 
copis,  gracuia,  me.ops,  momotus,  orioius, 
paradisea,  picus,  psittacus,  rhamphastos, 
scythrops,  sitta,  todus,  tiochilus,  trogoii, 
upupa,  yunx. 

PICKET,  PicKQi'ET,  or  Piquet,  in  for- 
tification, a  painted  staff  shod  with  iron;  used 
in  marking  out  the  angles  and  principid  parts 
of  a  fortiluation,  when  the  engineer  is  tracing  . 
out  a  plan  upon  the  ground. 

P!C()UET,  a  celebrated  game  at  cards 
played  between  two  persons,  with  onlvthirtv- 
two  cards;  all  the  twos,  threes,  fours',  five's, 
and  sixes,  being  set  aside. 

In  playing  at  this  game,  twelve  cards  are 
dealt  to  each,  and  the  re.st  laid  on  the  table: 
when  if  one  of  the  game^ers  finds  he  lias  not 
court-card  in  his  hand,  he  is  to  declare  that 
he  has  carte-blanche,  and  tell  how  many  cards 
he  will  lay  out,  and  desire  the  other 'to  dis- 
card, that  he  may  shew  his  game,  and  satisfy 
his  autagonist,  tiiat  the  carte-blanche  is  real'; 
for  which  he  reckons  ten.  And  here  the 
eldest  hand  may  take  in  three,  four,  err  five, 
discarding  as  many  of  his  ow  ii  for  them,  after 
which  the  other  m.iy  take  in  all  the  remainder 
if  he  pleases.  Afl'er  discarding,  the  eldest 
hand  examines  what  suit  he  has  most  cards 
of;  and,  reckoning  how  many  points  he  has 
in  that  suit,  if  the  other  has  liot  so  many  in 
that,  or  any  other  suit,  he  reckons  one  for 
every  ten  in  that  suit,  and  he  who  thus  reck- 
ons most  is  said  to  win  the  point.  It  is  to  be 
observed,  that  ia  thus  reckoning  the  cards, 
every  card  goes  for  the  number  it  Uais;  as 
a  ten  for  ten  ;  only  all  court-cards  go  for  ten, 
and  the  ace  for  eleven,  and  the  usual  game  is 
one  hundred  up.     The  point  being  over,  each 


432 


I  C 


1»  I  C 


examines  what  sequences  lie  has  of  the  same 
Miit,  viz.  how  many  tierces,  or  sequences  of 
three  cards;  quarw,  or  sequences  of  four 
cards;  quuites,  or  sequences  of  five  cards, 
Src.  he  has.  These  several  sequences  are 
distinguished  in  dignity  by  the  cards  tliey  be- 
gin from:  thus,  ace,  king,  and  queen,  are 
stiled  tierce  major ;  king,  queen,  and  knave, 
tierce  to  a  king;  knave,  ten,  and  nine,  tierce 
to  a  knave ;  and  tiie  best  tierce,  quarte,  or 
quinte  prevails,  so  as  to  make  all  others  in 
that  liand  good,  and  to  destroy  all  those  in 
the  other  hand.  In  like  manner  a  quarte  in 
one  hand  sets  aside  a  tierce  in  the  other. 


The  sequences  over,  they  proceed  to  ex- 
aniuie  how  many  aces,  kings,  (jueens,  knaves 
and  tens  each  holds;  reckoning  for  every 
three  of  any  sort  three;  but  here  too,  as  in 
Sequences,  he  that  with  t!ie  same  number  ol 
threes  or  fours,  has  one  that  is  higher  than 
•nnv  the  other  has,  makes  his  own  good,  and 
sets  aside  all  his  adversary's ;  but  four  of  any 
sort,  whicli  is  called  a  ([ualorze,  because  four- 
teen are  reckoned  for  it,  always  set  aside 
three. 

The  game  in  hand  being  thus  reckoned, 
the  eldest  proceeds  to  play,  reckoning  one 
.for  <;\'ery  card  he  plays  above  nine,  while  the 
other  follows  him  in  the  suit:  but  unless  a 
card  is  won  by  one  above  nine,  except  it  is 
the  last  trick,  nothing  is  reckoned  for  it.  The 
cards  being  played  out,  he  that  has  mosttricks 
reckons  ten  forwimuugthe  cards:  but  if  they 
Jiave  tricks  alike,  neither  reckons  any  thing. 
If  one  of  them  wins  all  the  tricks,  instead  of 
ten,  which  is  his  right  for  winning  the  cards, 
.fee  reckons  forty,  and  this  is  called  capot. 

The  deal  being  finished,  each  person  sets 
tip  his  game:  they  then  proceed  to  deal  again 
as  before ;  cutting  afresh  each  time  for  the 
tleal:  if  both  parties  are  within  a  few  points 
of  being  up,  the  carte-blanche  is  the  lir--tthat 
reckons,  tlien  the  point,  then  the  sequences, 
then  the  quat'>rzes,  then  the  tierces,  and  then 
the  tenth  cards.     He  that  can  re<kon  thirty 
in  hand  by  carte-blanche,  points,  (]uintes.  Sec. 
without  playing,   before  the  other  has  reck- 
oned any  tiling,  reckons  ninety  for  them,  and 
.this   is   called  a  fepike;  and  if  he  reckons 
above   thirty,    he    reckons   so  nianv  above 
nuiety.     If  he  can  make  up  thirty,  part  in 
liand,  and  part  in  play,  before  the  other  has 
lold  i-.ny  thing,   he  reckons  for  them  si.\tv  ; 
and  this  is  railed  a  pique,  whence  the  name 
of  the  game.     .Mr.  de   Moivre,   in  his  due- 
trine  of  chances,  has  resolved,  among  others, 
the  following  jivoblems:    1.  To  find,  at  pic- 
quet,  the  probability  which  the  dealer  has  for 
taking  one   ace  or  more  in  three  cards,  he 
liaving   none  in   his   hands,     lie   concludes 
from  his  coaiputation,  tliat  it  is  29  to  28  that 
tlie  dealer  takes  one  ace  or  more.     2.  'I'o 
lind   at   piccp.iet   the  probability  which  the 
eldest  has  of  taking  an  ace  or  more  in  hve 
cards,  li:-  having  no  ace  in  his  hands.    An- 
swer; 23?  to  91,  or  5  to  2,  nearly.     3.  To 
iind   at  picquet   the   probability   which  the 
eldest  has  of  taking  both  an  ace  and  a  king  in 
five  cards,  he  having  none  in  his  h.uid.     An- 
swer; the  odds  against  the  elde-t  hand  tak- 
ing an  ace  and  a  king  ;ire  .J.Jl  to  .31"),  or  21  to 
2^1  ne.irly.     4.  To  liud  at  picket  the  proba- 
bility of  having  twelve  cards  dealt  to,  withoiil 
kinii,  queen,  or  knave;  which  c;isc  is  com- 
monly called  carles-hlanclies.     Answer;  the 
.odd*    against     carles-blandics    are    3-'J   to 


.^7B,956,  or  1791  to  1  neatly.  5.  To  find 
how  many  dilTerent  sets  essentially  diflerent 
Irom  one  another,  one  may  have  at  picquet 
before  taking  in.  Answer;'2S,907,27f<.  This 
number  falls  short  of  the  sum  of  all  the  dis- 
tinct combinations,  whereby  twelve  cards  may 
be  taken  out  of  3',',  this  number  02,'), 79'^', h4u; 
but  it  ought  to  be  considered,  that  in  that 
number  several  sets  of  the  same  import,  but 
dilTcring  in  suit,  might  be  taken,  which  would 
not  introduce  an  essential  dhference  anioiig 
the  sets. 

PICRAMNIA,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria 
order,  in  the  diaecia  class  of  plants;  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  uith  those  that 
are  doubtful.  The  c.ily.x  is  tripartite ;  the 
corolla  has  three  petals;  the  stan  .na  from 
three  to  ftve,  awl-shaped,  and  seem  to  join 
together  at  the  base;  there  are  two  styli, 
which  are  short  ami  bent  backwards;  the 
berry  is  roundish,  and  contains  tv.o  obi  mg 
seeds,  and  sometimes  one  seed  only.  There 
are  two  species:  The  antidesma,  or  nuirjoe 
bush,  if?  frequent  in  copses  and  about  the 
skirts  of  woods  in  Jamaica,  rising  about  eight 
or  nine  feet  from  the  ground.  Tiie  leaves 
are  of  an  oval  form,  pointed,  and  ])laced  in 
an  alternate  form  along  the  branches;  the 
llower-spikes  are  long,  pendulous,  and  slen- 
der; the  florets  small  and  while:  the  berries 
are  numerous,  at  tirst  red,  then  of  a  jet 
black  colour  ;  the  pulp  is  soft,  and  of  a  i)ur- 
ple  complexion.  The  whole  plant  is  bitter, 
and  especially  the  berry.  The  negroes  make 
a  decoction  of  them,  and  use  it  in  weaknesses 
of  the  stomach  and  in  venereal  cases. 

PICRIS,  nr-toitgiu;  a  genus  of  the  poly- 
gamia  xqualis  order,  in  the  syngeui'sia  class 
of  plants.  Tiie  calyx  is  calycled  ;  receptacle 
naked;  seed  transversely  grooved;  down 
feathered.  There  are  six  sjiecies,  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  is  the  echioides,  or  com- 
mon o.x-tongue,  growing  spontaneously  in 
corn-fields  in  I5ritain.  It  has  undivided  leaves 
emiiracing  the  stem,  with  yellow  blossoms, 
which  sometimes  close  soon  after  noon,  at 
other  times  remain  open  till  nine  at  night.  It 
is  an  agreeable  pol-lierb  while  young.  Tiie 
juice  is  milky,  but  not  too  acrid. 

PICRIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mb- 
nogynia  order,  in  the  tetrandria  class  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
wiih  those  that  are  doubtful.  The  calyx  is 
monophyllous  and  ((uinquefid;  the  corolla 
monopetalous,  and  its  tube  issliort;  tlv  fila- 
ments are  four  in  lumiber,  and  hooded  at  the 
pla'-e  of  thrir  iiiseiliou;  the  sljle  long  and 
thick;  the  stignia  bilanicllated;  the  capsule 
is  ro'ind,  biva'.ved,  and  contains  a  number  of 
small  seeds.  There  are  two  species,  viz.  the 
spicatum  and  raniosum;  both  natives  of  Gui- 
ana. Uolli  species  are  bitter,  and  emp'oyed 
in  dyspepsy,  and  to  promote  the  menses: 
they  are  aUo  recommendeded  in  visceral  ob- 
slrnctious. 

PICTIS,  the  zinodpfckiT,  in  orn'thology, 
a  genus  belonging  to  the  order  of  pica*.  The 
beak  is  straight,  and  consists  of  many  sides, 
and  like  a  wedge  ;il  the  point :  the  nostrils 
are  covered  with  br  stly  feathers  ;  the  tongue 
is  roun  1  like  a  worm,  very  long,  and  shar|) 
at  the  point,  which  is  bi'set  with  iiristles  bent 
backwards.     See  I'h.te  .\at.  lli>l.  tig.  337. 

The  grand  characteristic  of  these  birds  is 
the  tongue,  the  muscles  ueces.sary  to  the 
motions  of  whicii  are  ..incular  and  woilliv  of 


p  r  c 

notice,  affording  the  animal  means  of  dart- 
ing it  forwards  the  whole  length,  or  drawing 
it  within  the  mouth  at  will,  l.atliain  enu- 
merates no  less  than  hfty  diflerent  species 
oi  woodpeckers,  besides  varieties  of  some  of 
them  which  amount  to  nine  more.  The  mott 
remarkable  are  as  follows  : 

1.  The  picns  martins,  or  greatest  black 
woodpecker,  is  about  the  size  of  a  jackdaw, 
being  about  17  inches  long  ;  the  bill  is  nearly 
two  inches  and  a  half  in  lenglh,  of  a  dark 
ash-colour  ;  the  whole  bird  is  black,  except 
the  crown  of  the  head,  which  is  vermilion. 
The  female  ditlers  from  the  male  in  liaving 
the  hind  head  only  red,  and  not  the  whole 
crown  of  the  head  ;  aiid  the  general  colour 
of  the  plumage  has  a  strong  cast  of  brown 
ill  it.  It  has  likewise  been  observed,  that 
the  red  on  the  hind  head  has  been  wholly 
wanting ;  and  indeed  both  male  and  female 
are  apt  much  to  vary  in  dilferent  subjects, 
some  having  a  much  greater  proportion  of 
red  on  tlie  head  than  others.  This  species 
is  found  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  but  not 
in  plenty  except  in  Geimany. 

It  is  said  to  build  in  old  ash  and  poplar 
trees,  nnikiug  large  and  deep  nests ;  and 
Friesch  observes,  that  they  often  so  excavatc- 
■A  tree,  that  it  is  soon  after  blown  down  with, 
the  wind  ;  and  that  under  the  liole  of  this 
bird,  may  often  be  found  a  bushel  of  dust 
and  bits  of  wood.  The  female  lays  two  or 
three  white  eggs,  the  colour  of  which,  as 
Willuglibv  observes,  is  jjeculiar  to  the  whole 
woodpecker  genus,  or  at  least  all  those  whicU 
have  come  under  his  inspection. 

2.  The  picus  principalis,  or  white-billed 
woodpecker,  is  somewliat  bigger  than  the. 
last,  being  ecpial  in  size  to  a  crow.  It  is  six- 
teen inches  long,  and  weighs  about  twenty 
ounces.  The  bill  is  white  as  ivory  ;  the  heau 
itself,  and  the  body  in  general,  are  black. 

This  species  inhabits  Carolina,  Virginia, 
New  Spain,  and  lirazil:  and  is  called  by  the  : 
Spaniards  carpenter,  and  not  without  rea- 
son ;  as  lliis  as  well  as  most  of  the  other  spe-  - 
cies  make  a  great  noise  with  the  l>ill  I 
against  the  trees  in  the  woods,  wiiere  • 
thev  may  be  heard  at  a  great  distance,  as  iff 
carpenters  were  at  work  ;  making,  accordii^  j 
to  Catesby,  in  an  hour  or  two,  a  bushel  off 
chips. 

3.  The   picus  erythrocephalus,    or    red-- 


headed 


Ipecker,   is  about  eight  inches' 


three  cpiart -rs  long,  and  weighs  two  ounces. 
The  bill  is  an  inch  and  a  cjuarter  in  length, 
of  a  lead-colour  ;  the  head  and  tlie  iiec:k  are 
of  a  mo.it  beautihil  crimson  ;  the  back  and  ; 
w  ings  are  black  ;  the  rump,  breast,  and  belly 
are  while.  'I'he  cock  and  hen  are  very  near- 
ly alike. 

'i  his  species  inhabits  N'irginia,  t'arolina,, 
Canada,  and  most  of  the  parts  of  North 
.-Vmerica  ;  but  at  the  approach  of  w.nler,  il 
migrates  mure  or  less  to  the  southward,  ac- 
cording to  the  severity  of  the  season  ;  am 
upon  this  circumstance  the  people  ol  Nortl 
.iVnicrica  forelel  the  rigi.iir  or  clemency  n 
the  ensuing  winter.  During  the  winnr  the; 
are  very  tame,  and  are  fr-cpiently  known  ti 
come  into  the  liousi-s  in  the  same  m.iunera 
the  redbreast  is  wont  to 'do  in  England.  1 
is  obser\ed  that  this  species  is  iound  chifll; 
ill  old  trees ;  and  the  noi^e  the)  make  wit 
their  bills  may  be  heard  above  a  mile  distant 
It  builds  the 'earliest  ol  all  the  woodpetkcn 
4 


r  I  c 

niul  t;oncr;\11y  pretty  high  from  the  ground. 
'Jt  is  iitcoiiuted  by  many  people  very  gootl 
fating. 

4.  Tlie  pieiis  piibescens,  or  little  wood- 
pciker,  weighs  only  one  ounce  and  a  iialt'. 
'I'he  top  of  the  head  is  blarlv,  and  on  each 
side  above  the  eye  is  a  white  hne  ;  the  hind 
liead  is  red  ;  llie  hind  part  of  the  neck,  the 
back,  and  rump,  arc  black,  which  is  di- 
viilcd  into  two  parts  by  a  line  of  wh.te  pass- 
ing down  the  nmldle  to  the  rump  The  fe- 
male has  no  red  on  tlie  hind  head.  It  abonnds 
in  New  Jersey,  where  it  is  esteemed  most 
dangerous  to  orchards,  and  is  the  most  dar- 
ing. As  soon  as  it  has  pecked  one  liole  in  a 
tree,  it  makes  another  close  to  the  iirst,  in 
an  hori/:ontal  direction,  proceeiling  till  it 
lus  made  a  circle  of  holes  <|uite  round  the 
tree;  and  the  apple-trees  in  the  orchards 
have  often  several  of  these  rings  of  holes 
rounti  the  stem,  insomuch  that  the  tree  fre- 
(juenlly  dries  up  and  deca\s. 

5.  The  yL'llow  woodpecker  is  about  nine 
inches  long.  The  hind  head  is  crested; 
the  head  itself,  the  neck,  and  whole  body, 
are  covered  with  flirty-white  feathers ; 
from  the  lower  jaw  to  the  ears,  on  each  side, 
there  is  a  red  stripe.  This  s|)ecies  is  com- 
mon at  Cayenne,  and  is  called  there  char- 
pentier  jaune.  It  makes  its  nest  in  okl  trees 
which  are  rotten  within.  The  note  of  this 
binl  is  a  kind  of  whistle  six  times  repeated, 
of  which  the  two  or  three  last  are  in  a  graver 
accent  than  the  others.  The  female  wants 
the  red  band  on  the  side  of  tlie  head  which 
is  seen  in  the  male. 

6.  The  viridis,  or  green  woodpecker, 
weighs  six  ounces  and  a  halt ;  its  length  is 
thirteen  inches,  the  breadth  twenty  and  a 
half;  the  bill  is  dusky,  triangular,  and  near 
two  inches  long  ;  the  crown  of  the  head  is 
crimson,  spotted  with  black  ;  the  eyes  are 
surrounded  with  black,  and  the  males  have 
a  rich  crimson  mark  beneath  the  blackness; 
the  lump  is  of  a  pale  yellow;  the  whole  of 
the  under  part  of  the  body  is  of  a  very  pale 
gieen.  Tliese  birds  feed  entirely  on  insects; 
and  their  principal  action  is  that  of  climbing 
i\\>  and  down  the  bodies  or  boughs  of  trees. 
This  species   feeds   oltener   on  the  ground 

"'than  any  other  of  the  genus:  all  of  them 
make  their  nests  in  the  hollows  of  trees ; 
and  lay  live  or  six  eggs,  of  a  beautiful  semi- 
transparent  wliite.  The  young  ones  climb 
up  and  down  the  trees  before  they  can  fly. 
It  is  common  in  England. 

7.  The  major,  or  great  spotted  wood- 
pecker, weighs  two  ounces  three  (piarters ; 
the  length  is  nine  inches  ;  the  breadth  is  six- 
teen. The  forehead  is  of  a  pale  bulf-colour; 
the  crown  of  the  head  a  glossy  black ;  tin: 
hind-part  marked  with  a  rich  deep  crimson 
spot.  The  cheeks  are  white,  bounded  be- 
neath by  a  black  line  that  passes  from  the 
torner  of  the  mouth  and  surrounds  the  hind 
part  of  the  head.  The  neck  is  encircled 
with  a  black  colour.  The  throat  and  brea>t 
are  of  a  yellowish  white;  the  vent-feathers 
of  a  fine  light  clim^on.  The  back,  rump, 
and  coverts  of  the  tail,  and  lesser  coverts  of 
the  wings,  are  black;  the  scapular  featliers 
and  coverts  adjoining  to  them  are  wliite.  The 
quill-fcalhers  are  black,  elegantly  marked  on 
each  web  with  round  wliite  spots.  The  fe- 
inalf  wants  the  beautitui  crimson  spot  on  the 
beadu  in  other  respects  the  colours  of  both 

Vou  II. 


P  I  L 

agrPF,  This  species  is  much  more  uncom- 
mon than  the  ))rccediiig,  and  keep^  altoge- 
ther in  till-  woods,  'lliis  bird  is  found  in 
Knglainl,  I'Vance,  and  Ciermanv,  and  other 
|)arts  of  Kurope,  fre(iuentiiig  tlie  woods  like 
the  rest  of  its  genus,  and  is  likewise  met  with 
in  America,  it  is  a  very  cunning  bird  ;  lor, 
when  a  person  has  seen  one  on  a  tree,  he  is 
almost  sure  to  lose  sight  of  it,  if  the  tree  is 
large,  and  the  observer  not  very  attentive  ; 
lur,  till'  moment  it  spies  any  one,  it  will  creep 
behiml  a  braiich,  and  there  lie  secure  till  the 
danger  is  over. 

PlEl'OUlJKt;  (Coi'i-t  of),  the  lowest, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  most  expeditious, 
court  of  justice  known  to  the  law  of  Englaiul. 
It  is  called  piepoudre  (curia  pedis  pulveri- 
sali)  from  the  dusty  feet  of  the  suitors.  IJut 
the  etymology  given  us  by  a  harned  modern 
writer  is  much  more  ingenious  and  satisfac- 
tory ;  it  being  derived,  according  to  him, 
from  pied  inildreaux,  "  a  pedlar,"  in  old 
French,  aiitl  therefore  signifying  the  court  of 
such  petty  (hapiuen  as  resort  to  fairs  or 
markets.  It  is  a  court  of  record,  incident  to 
every  fair  and  market;  of  wliich  the  steward 
of  limi  who  owns  or  holds  the  toll  of  the  mar- 
ket is  the  judge.  It  was  instituted  to  admi- 
nister justice  for  all  conunercial  injurie-.  done 
in  that  very  fair  or  market,  and  not  in  am 
preceding  one;  so  that  the  injury  must  be 
done,  com])laine(l  of,  heard,  and  determined, 
within  the  compass  of  one  and  the  same  dav, 
unless  the  fair  continues  longer.  The  court 
has  cognizance  of  all  matters  of  contract  that 
can  possibly  arise  within  the  precinct  of  that 
fair  or  market;  and  the  plaintilf  must  make 
oath  that  the  cause  of  action  arose  there. 
FVoni  this  court  a  writ  of  error  lies,  in  the  na- 
ture of  an  appeal,  to  the  courts  at  West- 
minster. 

PIGF.OXS.  Every  person  who  shall 
shoot  at,  kill,  or  destroy  a  pigeon,  may  be 
committed  to  the  common  jail  for  ihiee 
months,  by  twoj  ustices  of  the  peace,  or  pay 
~0s.  to  the  jjoor.     1  Jac.  I.  c.  27. 

PIKE,  an  olfensive  weapon,  consisting  of 
a  shaft  of  wooil,  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  long, 
headed  with  a  fl.it-pointed  steel,  called  the 
spear.  The  pike  was  a  long  time  in  use 
among  the  infantry,  to  enable  them  to  sustain 
the  attack  of  the  cavalry;  but  it  is  now  taken 
from  them,  and  the  bayonet,  which  iixes  on 
at  the  end  of  the  carabine,  is  substituted  in  its 
place.  Yet  the  pike  still  continues  the  weap- 
on of  the  Serjeants  of  foot,  who  perform  no 
motions  with  it  but  in  charging. 

PII.j^.S  TER.     See  Architecture. 

PILE,  in  artillery,  denotes  a  collection 
or  heap  of  shot  or  shells,  pi'.ed  up  by  hori- 
zontal courses  into  either  a  pvramidal  or  i  Ise 
a  wedgelike  form  ;  the  base  being  an  equi- 
lateral triangle,  a  square,  or  a  rectam^lc.  In 
the  triangle  and  square,  the  pile  terminates 
in  a  single  ball  or  point,  and  forms  a  pyra- 
mid. 

In  the  triangular  and  square  piles,  the 
number  of  horizontal  rows,  or  courses,  or  the 
number  countetl  on  one  of  the  angles  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top,  is  always  equal  to 
the  nuv.iber  counted  on  one  side,  in  thi- 
bottom  row.  And  in  rectangular  |)iles,  th.- 
number  of  rows,  or  courses,  is  equal  to  the 
number  of  balls  in  the  breadth  of  the  bottom 
row,  or  shorter  side  of  the  ba>-e  ;  aiss  in  thi^ 
case,  the  number  in  the  top  row,  or  edge,  is 
3  I 


P  I  T, 


-43?, 


one  more  than  the  dillerence  between  tlic 
length  and  breadth  of  the  base. 

The  courses  in  these  piles  art  figurative 
mimbers. 

In  a  triangular  pile,  each  horizontal  course 
is  a  triangular  number,  produced  by  taking 
the  successive  sums  of  the  oidinata  uumbeis, 
viz. 

I  =     1 

1+2  =3 

1  -L  2  -I-  3  =6 

I  4-  -  +  •'  +  ''  =  "''  *=^- 
And  the  niimbc-r  of  shot  in  the  trnnc:ii!ar 
pile,  is  the  sum  of  all  these  Iriangiiliir  numbers, 
taken  as  far, or  to  rs  many  terms,  as  the  number 
in  one  side  of  the  base.  And  therefore,  to  find 
this  sum,  or  the  number  of  all  the  shot  in  the 
pile,  multiply  contimially  togctlicr  the  number 
in  one  side  of  the  base  row,  and  that  number 
increased  by  1,  and  the  same  number  increased 
by  2 ;  then  ';  of  the  last  product  will  be  the  an- 
swer, or  number  of  all  the  shot  in  the  pile. 

....        .      n  .  ri  -(-.  I  .  fi  -\-  "2  .      ,  , 

1  hat  IS, ■ —  IS  the  sum ;  where 

n  is  the  number  in  the  bottom  row, 

A^^ain,  in  square  pik-s,  vacii  liori/.ontal  course 
is  a  squar^.  number,  produced  by  taking  the 
square  of  the  number  in  its  side,  or  the  succes- 
sive sunib  of  the  odd  numbers,  thus, 

I  =     1 

1+3  =4 

!+:!  +  ,';  :=     9 

1  +  ;l  +  •;  +  7  =  lo',  &c. 
And  the  number  of  shot  in  the  square  pile  Vm 
the  sum  of  all  these  square  numbers,  continued 
so  far,  (u"  to  as  many  terms,  as  the  number  in 
one  side  of  the  base.  And  therefore,  to  find  this 
sum,  multiply  continually  together  the  number 
in  one  ^ide  of  the  bottom  course,  and  that  num- 
ber increased  by  I,  and  double  the  same  num- 
ber Increased  by  1  ;  then  |-  of  the  last  product 
will  be  the  sum  or  answer. 


That  is. 


+  1  .  2«  +  1 


is  the  sum. 


In  a  rectangular  pile,  each  horizontal  course 
is  a  rectangle,  whose  two  sides  have  always  the 
same  difference  as  those  of  the  base  course,  and 
the  breadth  <if  the  top  row,  or  edge,  being  only 
1  ;  because  eath  course  in  ascending  has  its 
length  and  breadth  always  Itss  by  1  than  the 
course  next  below  it.  And  these  rectangular 
courses  are  found  by  midtiplying  successively 
the  terms  cr  breadths  1,  'J, :!,  4,  S;c.  by  the  ia;ne 
terms  added  to  the  constant  difference  of  tlie 
two  sides  d\  thus, 

1  .  1  +d=     1  +    </ 

2.2-\-Jz=.  4  -I-  -JJ 
■i  .?,-\-d=  9  -f  S<y 
4  .4-j-  </=  16-)-4i/,  S:c. 

And  the  number  of  shot  in  the  rectangular 
pile  is  the  sum  of  all  these  rectangles,  which,  it 
is  evident,  consist  of  the  sum  of  the  squares,  t«- 
gether  with  the  sum  of  an  arithmetical  progres- 
sion, continued  till  the  number  of  terms  Is  the 
dilFerence  between  the  length  and  breadth  of 
the  base,  and  1  less  than  the  edge  or  top  row. 
.And  therefore,  to  find  this  sum,  muhiply  c.  .a- 
tinually  together  the  number  in  the  breadth  of 
the  base  row,  the  same  number  increased  by  I, 
and  double  the  same  number  increased  by  1, 
and  also  increased  by  triple  the  difference  be- 
tween the  length  and  breadth  of  the  base;  tbe^ 
i  of  the  last  product  will  be  the  answer. 

A.i  +  1  .a/.  +  3./+i 

where  h  is  the  brjai'.h  of  llie  base,  and  d  tlie 
difference  between  the  length  and  breadth  of 
the  bottqm  course. 


That  is, 


;  the  sum : 


434 


P  1  M 


PILE,  in  building,  is  used  fof  alars^e  sfake 
raiiiiiied  into  the  ground  in  tlie  bottom  of  ri- 
vers, or  in  marsliy  land,  for  u  foiuidatioii  to 
bnild  upon. 

PiLB  Engine.     S.?e  Engime. 

Pile,  in  coinage,  denotes  a  kind  of  pun- 
cheon, which  in  the  old  wav  of  coiu'-ng  witli 
tlie  hammer,  contained  the  arms,  or  o'.her 
fi£;ure  anrl  inscription,  to  be  struck  on  the 
coin.  Accordingly  we  i-tiU  call  the  arins  side 
of  a  piece  of  money  the  pik-,  and  tlie  head 
.the  cross;  because  in  ancient  coins,  a  cross 
usually  took  the  place  of  the  head  in  ours: 
but  some  will  have  it  called  pile,  from  the 
impression  of  a  ship  built  on  piles,  struck  on 
-this  side  of  our  ancient  coins. 

PiLLAR.     See  Architecture. 

PILOT,  a  person  employed  to  conduct 
ships  over  I'ars  and  sands,  or  through  intricate 
channels,  into  a  road  or  harbour.  Pdots  are 
no  constant  and  standing  officers  aboard  our 
■vessels,  but  are  called  in  occasionally,  on 
coa-ts  or  shores  unknown  to  the  master  ;  and 
Jiaving  piloted  in  the  vessel,  they  return  to  the 
shore  where  they  reside. 

Pilots  taking  upon  tliem  to  conduct  ships 
lip  the  Thames,  are  to  be  examined  anil  ap- 
proved by  the  master  and  wardens  of  the 
'J'nnity-liouse  at  Deptford,  or  shall  be  lialile  to 
torfeit  10/.  for  the  hrst  olVence,  and  20/.  for 
the  second,  &c.  and  the  like  penalty,  if  tliev 
act  without  licence  from  the  said  master  and 
Vardens;  and  if  by  their  negligence  they  lose 
a  ship,  they  shall  be  for  ever  disabled.  3 
Geo.  I.  and  5  Geo.  II.  c.  20. 

PILl^L.\RI.-\,  a  genus  of  the  cryptoga- 
mialilices.     There  is  one  species. 

PIMELIA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
coleoptera.  The  generic  character  is,  anten- 
ji»  filiform;  feelers  four;  thorax  plano-con- 
vex, margined;  head  exserted ;  shells  rather 
rigid;  'wings  usually  none.  It  is  divided  into 
sections  :  A,  antenna;  moniliiorm  at  the  tip; 
B,  entirely  filiform. 

PIMELITE,  a  mineral  distinguished  by  a 
fine  apple-gieen  colour:  according  to  Klap- 
roth,  it  is  composed  of 

35.00  silica 

1.5.62  oxide  of  nickel 
5.00  alumina 
4.58  oxide  of  iron 
l.'^5  magnesia 

37.01  water. 

99.36 

PIMENTA,  or  Pimento,  Jamaica pep- 
-per,  ov  allspice.     See  Mvrtus. 

PIM PIN  ELLA,  burnet  .lax/frage,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  digynia  order,  in  the  pentandria 
class  of  plants.  The  petals  are  bent  in  ;  stig- 
ma subglobular  ;  fruit  ovate,  oblong.  Tiiere 
are  nine  species;  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  are:  1.  The  m:i)or.  or  greater  burnet 
saxifrage,  growing  naturally  in  chalky  woods, 
and  on  the  sides  of  the  banks  near  hediics,  in 
several  parts  of  England.  2.  The  ansium  or 
common  anise,  an  annual  plant,  which  grows 
naturally  in  Egypt;  but  is  cultivated  in  Klalta 
and  Spain,  whence  the  seeds  are  annually  im- 
ported into  Britain. 

Both  these  species  are  used  in  medicine. 
The  roots  of  pimpinella  h.ave  a  grateful, 
warni,  very  pungent  taste, 'which  is  entirely 
extracted  by  rectified  spirit:  in  distillation 
the  menstruum  arises,  leaving  all  that  it  liud 


P  I  N 

taken  up  from  the  root  united  into  a  pungent 
aromatic  refill.  Thrs  root  promises,  from  its 
sensible  qualities,  to  be  a  n.edicine  of  consi- 
derable utility,  though  little  regarded  in  com- 
mon practice:  the  only  ollicinal  composition 
in  which  it  is  an  ingredient  is  the  pubis  ari 
compositus.  Stahl,  lloriiii.m,  and  o'-her  Ger- 
man physicians,  are  extremely  fond  of  it ;  and 
recommend  it  as  an  excellent  stomachic,  re- 
>oK'ent,  detergent,  diuretic,  diaphoretic,  and 
alexipharmic. 

Aniseeds  have  an  aromatic  smell,  and  a 
pleasant  v.arm  tuste,  accompanied  with  a  de- 
gree of  sweetness.  Water  extracts  very  little 
o"  their  flavour ;  rectified  spirit,  the  whole, 
i'hes..'  seeds  are  in  the  number  of  the  four 
greater  hot  seeds:  their  principal  use  is  in 
cold  flatulent  disorders,  where  tenacious 
phlegm  abounds,  and  in  the  gripes  to  which 
young  children  are  subject. .  Frederic  Ilotl- 
man  strongly  recommends  them  in  weakness 
of  the  stomach,  diarrhceas,  and  for  strength- 
ening tile  tone  of  the  viscera  in  general  ;  and 
thinks  they  well  deserve  the  appellation 
given  them  by  Ilelmont,  int'-slinorum  sola- 
men.  The  smaller  kind  of  aniseeds  brought 
from  Spain  are  preferred. 

PIN,  in  commerce,  a  little  necessary  in- 
strument made  of  brass  wire,  chiefly  used  by 
women  in  adjusting  their  dress.  In  the  year 
1543,  by  statute  34  and  35  of  Henry  Vlll. 
cap.  vi,  it  was  enacted,  "  that  no  person 
sha'l  put  to  sale  any  pinnes  but  only  such  as 
shall  be  double-headed,  and  have  the  heads 
soldered  fast  to  the  shank  of  the  pins,  well 
smoothed,  the  shank  well  shapen,  tlie  points 
well  and  round  filed,  canted,  and  shavpeneil." 
From  the  above  extract  it  should  appcir  that 
the  art  of  pin-making  was  but  of  late  inven- 
tion, probably  introduced  from  France;  and 
that  our  manufactories  since  that  period  have 
wonderfully  iniproveil. 

Though  pins  are  apparently  simple,  their 
manufacture  is,  however,  not  a  little  curious 
and  complex.  When  the  brass  wire,  of 
which  the  pins  are  formed,  is  first  received  at 
the  manufactory,  it  is  generally  too  thick  (or 
the  purpose  of  being  cut  into  pins.  The  first 
operation  therefore  is  that  of  winding  it  off 
from  one  wdieel  to  another  with  great  velo- 
city, and  causing  it  to  pass  between  the  two, 
through  a  circle  in  a  piece  of  iron  of  smaller 
diameter:  the  wire  being  thus  reduced  to  its 
proper  dimensions,  is  straightened  by  draw- 
ing it  between  iron  pins,  fixed  in  a  board  in  a 
zigzag  manner,  but  so  as  to  leave  a  straight 
line  between  them:  aiterwards  it  is  cut  into 
lengths  of  three  or  four  yards,  and  then  into 
smaller  ones,  every  length  being  sufficient  to 
make  six  pins  ;  each  end  of  these  is  ground  to 
a  point,  which  is  commonly  performed  by 
boys,  who  sit  each  with  two  small  grinding- 
stones  before  him,  turned  by  a  wheel.  Tak- 
ing up  a  handful,  he  appli.;s  the  ends  to  the 
coarsest  of  the  two  stones,  being  careful  at 
the  same  time  to  keep  each  piece  moving 
round  between  his  fingers,  so  that  the  points 
may  not  become  Hat :  he  then  gives  them  a 
smoother  and  sharperpoint,  by  applying  them 
to  the  other  stone,  and  by  thai  means  a  lad 
of  twelve  or  fourteen  years  of  age  is  enabled 
to  point  about  U),000  pins  in  an  hour.  When 
the  wire  is  thus  pointed,  a  pin  is  taken  off 
from  each  end,  and  this  is  repi'ated  till  it  is 
cut  into  six  pieces.  The  next  operation  is 
that  of  forming  the  heads,  or,  as  they  term  it, 
head-spiiuiing  ;  which  is  done  by  means  of  a 


P  I  N 

spinning-wheel,  one  piece  of  wire  being  tlin* 
witii  astonishing  rapid. ty,  wound  round  ano- 
ther, and  the  interior  one  being  tlrsAvn  out 
leaves  a  hollow  tube  between  the  circ.iinvoiu- 
tions:  it  is  then  cut  with  shears,  every  Iv.o 
circumvolutions  or  turns  of  the  wire  formint: 
one  head:  these  are  solteiied  by  throwing 
them  into  iron  pans,  and  placing  them  in  a 
furnace  till  they  aie  red-liot.  As  soon  as  tiiey 
are  cold,  they  are  distiibuted  to  children, 
who  si!  with  anvils  and  hammers  belore  (hem,, 
wiiicli  they  work  with  tiieir  feet,  by  meai.s  of 
a  lathe ;  and  taking  up  one  of  tlie  length"!, 
they  thrust  the  blunt  end  into  a  <;uaiitit\  of 
me  heads  which  he  before  them  ;  and  catch- 
ing one  at  the  extremity,  they  applv  (h:'in  im- 
mediately to  the  anvil  anil  Hammer;  rr.d  by 
a  motion  or  two  of  thefoot,  the  point  and  the 
head  are  fixed  together  in  much  less  time 
than  it  can  be  described,  and  w  itli  a  dexte- 
rity only  to  be  acipiired  by  practice  v  the 
spectator  being  in  continual  apprehension  for 
tlie  safety  c;f  their  fingers'  ends.  'I  he  pin  is 
now  finished  as  to  its  form,  but  stili  it  is 
merely  brass ;  it  is  therefore-  tlirown  into  a 
copper,  containing  a  solution  of  tin  and  the 
le%  s  of  wine.  Here  it  remains  for  some  time ;. 
and  wlien  taken  out  assumes  a  white,  though 
dull  appearance  :  in  order  therefore  to  give  a 
IJolish,  It  is  put  into  a  tub  containing  a  cpian- 
tity  of  bran,  wliich  is  set  in  motion  by  turn- 
ing a  sliait  that  runs  through  its  centre  ;  and 
tluis  by  means  of  friction  it  b"conies  pe ifeclly 
bright.  The  pin  bemg  complete,  nothing  re- 
mains but  to- separate  it  from  the  bran  ;  wiiich 
is  performed  by  a  mode  exactly  similar  to  the 
winnowing  of  corn,  the  bran  flying  off,  and 
leaving  the  pin  behind  fit  for  immediate 
sale. 

PINCHBECK,  an  alloy  containing  three 
parts  of  zinc,  and  four  of  copper:  it  assumes 
the  colour  of  gold,  but  it  is  not  so  inalleabltr 
as  brass.     See  Zinc. 

PINE.     See  Pinus. 

PiNE-ArPLE.     See  Eromelia. 

Pl.NEAL  GLAND.     See.AxATOMy. 

PINGUICULA,  butter'xnrl,  a  genus  of 
the  nionogynia  order,  in  the  diandria  class  of 
plants.  1  lie  corolla  is  ringent,  with  a  s|)iir  ; 
calyx  two-lipped,  five-cieit ;  capsuh-  one- 
celled.  There  are  five  species,  of  which  thef 
most  remarkable  is  the  vulgaris,  or  common 
butterwort,  growing  commonly  on  bogs  or 
low  moist  grounds  in  England  and  Scotland. 
Its  leaves  are  covered  with  soft  upright  pel- 
lucid prickles,  secreting  a  glutinous  liquor. 
I'he  flowers  are  pale  red,  purple,  or  tleej> 
violet-colour,  and  iiairy  within.  If  the  fresh- 
gathered  leaves  of  this  plant  are  put  into  the 
strainer  through  which  warm  milk  from  the 
cow  is  poured,  and  the  milk  is  set  by  for  a  day 
or  two  to  become  acescent,  it  acquires  a  con- 
sistency and  tenacity,  and  neither  whey  nor 
cream  si-parates  from  it.  In  this  state  it  is  an 
extremely  grateful  food,  and  as  such  is  used 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  north  of  Sweden. 
There  is  no  further  occasion  to  have  recourse 
to  the  leaves;  tor  half  a  spoonful  of  this  pre- 
pared milk,  mixed  with  fresh  warm  milk,  will 
convert  it  to  ifs  own  nature,  and  this  again 
will  change  another  ([uantity  of  fresh  milk, 
and  so  on  without  end.  The  juice  of  the 
leaves  kills  lice ;  and  the  common  people  use 
it  to  cure  the  cracks  or  chops  in  cows'  ud- 
ders. The  plant  is  generally  supposed  inju- 
rious to  sheep,  by  occasioning  in  them  that 
disease  called  the  rot ;  but  from  cxperuncut* 


r  I  \' 

mafle  on  purpose,  ami  coiuUicteil  wiUi  acou- 
racv,  it  iippt-.irs  tlial  iieilla-r  ilu.-i-p,  cowt, 
goats,  li;i;sc;s,  iioi'  b'.viiu",  will  tVcd  upon  this 
])laiil.  Wlierever  tliis  plant,  callt-ii  also 
Y'lrk-iliirc  ■saniclc,  is  found,  it  is  a  certain  in- 
dication of  a  boggy  soil.  From  tlie  idea  tliat 
tlie  c(Hniti'y-i)<;ople  have  of  its  noxious  opi'ra- 
tion  on  sheep,  this  plant  has  been  called  the 
\vhite  rot ;  since,  as  they  iniac;ine,  it  gives 
them  the  rot  whenever  they  eat  it,  which 
4hey  will  not  do  bvit  from  great  necessity. 

The  Laplanders,  like  the  Swedes  with  the 
milk  ol  cows,  receive  that  of  the  rein-deer 
upon  the  Iresh  leaves  of  this  plant,  which 
tliey  immediately  strain  off,  and  set  it  aside 
till  it  becomes  somewhat  acescent ;  and  the 
whole  ae(|iiires  ui  a  dav  or  two  the  consist- 
ence of  cream,  wilhoe.t  separating  tin;  sernni, 
and  thus  becomes  an  agreeable  food.  When 
lluis  prepared,  a  small  (piaiUity  of  the  same 
li.is  the  property  of  rennet  in  producing  the 
Jdce  change  on  liesh  milk. 

PINGUIN,  or  Penguim,  in  ornithology, 
a  g-nus  of  birds  of  the  order  of  anseres,  dis- 
tinguish.■<!  by  the  lollowing  characters:  The 
•bill  IS  strong,  straight,  more  or  less  bending 
towards  the  point,  and  furrowed  on  the  sides: 
the  noslrds  aie  line.ir,  and  placed  in  the  fur- 
rons;  the  tongue  is  covc:red  with  strong 
spines,  pointing  backwards;  the  wings  are 
small,  very  like  fins,  and  covered  with  no 
longer  fcitiiere  than  the  rest  of  the  body,  and 
are  useless  in  llight ;  the  body  is  clothed  with 
thick  short  feathers,  having  broad  shafts,  and 
placed  as  compactly  as  the  scales  of  fishes; 
the  legs  are  short,  thick,  and  placed  very 
near  the  vent ;  the  toes  are  four,  and  are  all 
placed  forwards ;  the  interior  are  loose,  and 
the  rest  are  webbed ;  the  tail  is  very  stitf, 
cjnsistingof  broad  shafts  scarcely  webbed. 

It  is  agreed  that  pingnins  are  inliabitantsof 
sonthern  latitudes  only  ;  being,  as  far  as  is 
\el  knoun,  found  only  on  the  coasts  of  South 
i\merica,  from  Port  Desire  to  the  Straits  of 
Magellan ;  and  Frezier  savs  they  are  tbund 
on  the  w'estern  shore  as  high  as  Conception. 
In  Africa  they  seem  to  be  unknown,  except 
on  a  small  isle  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
which  takes  its  name  fiom  them.  Tliey  are 
I'ound  ill  vast  numbers  on  land  during  the 
breeding-season,  for  they  seldom  come  on 
shore  but  at  that  time:  they  form  burrows 
Vnder  ground  like  rabbits;  and  the  isle<  they 
frequent  are  perfectly  undermined  by  them. 

Tlieir  attitude  on  land  is  fpiite  erect,  and 
on  that  account  tliey  have  been  compared  by 
■iome  to  pigmies,  by  others  to  children  with 
vviiile  bibs.  'I'hey  are  very  tame,  and  may 
be  driven  like  a  dock  of  slieep.  In  water 
they  are  remarkably  active,  and  swim  willi 
vast  strength,  assisted  by  their  wings, 
which  serve  instead  of  fins ;  their  food  in  gc-- 
neral  is  fish  ;  not  but  that  they  will  eat  grass 
like  geese. 

Mr.  Latham  remarks,  that  this  genus  a]i- 
jjears  to  hold  the  same  place  in  the  southern 
diYision  of  the  earth  tli.it  the  awks  do  in  the 
jiortherii;  and  that,  however  authors  may 
difler  in  opinion  on  this  head,  they  ought  not 
to  be  coufounde<l  with  one  another.  The 
pinguin  is  never  seen  but  in  the  temperate  and 
trigid  zones  south  of  the  ecjuator,  while  the 
awk  only  appears  in  the  parallel  latitudes 
north  of  the  equator  ;  for  neither  of  these  ge- 
nera has  yet  been  observed  withiu  the  tro- 


P  I  N 

The  wings  of  the  pinguin  are  -carcely  any 
thing  else  than  mere  fins,  while  the  awk  ha, 
real  wings  and  gills,  though  they  are  but 
small.  'Ihe  Iwriner  has  four  toes  on  each 
fool,  the  lalteronly  three.  VVhileswimiiiing, 
tlie  pinguin  sinks  wholly  above  the  breast, 
the  head  ami  neck  only  appearing  out  of  the 
water;  while  the  awk,  like  most  other  birds, 
swims  on  the  surface.  There  are  several 
other  peculiarities  which  serve  to  distinguish 
the  two  genera,  but  what  we  have  mentioned 
are  doubtless  sufiicient. 

The  bodies  of  the  pinguin  tribe  are  com- 
monly so  well  and  closely  covered  with  fea- 
thers that  no  wet  can  penetrate;  and  as  thfy 
are  ill  general  excessively  fat,  these  circiini- 
staiices  united  secure  tluin  from  cold.  They 
have  often  been  found  above  700  leagues 
from  land,  and  fr(5]uently  on  the  mountains 
of  ice,  on  which  they  seem  to  ascend  without 
dilJiculty,  as  the  soles  of  their  feet  are  very 
rough,  and  suited  1o  the  purpose.  Mr.  La- 
tham enumerates  nine  different  species  of  this 
genus,  besides  two  varieties  of  the  black- 
looLed  pinguin  or  diomedea. 

1.  The  first,  which  is  a  very  beautiful  spe- 
cies,'our  author  calls  the  crested  pinguin. 
'I'lie  birds  of  this  species  are  twenty-three 
inches  long ;  the  bill  is  three  inches  long, 
and  of  a  red  colour;  the  head,  neck,  back, 
and  sides,  are  black.  Over  each  eye  there  is 
a  stripe  of  pale  yellow  feathers,  which  length- 
ens into  a  crest  behind,  nearly  four  inches 
long.  The  female  has  a  streak  of  pale  yel- 
low over  the  eye,  but  it  is  not  prolonged  into 
a  crest  behind  as  in  the  male. 

This  species  inhabits  Falkland  Islands,  and 
was  likewise  met  with  in  Kergiielen's  Land, 
or  Isle  of  Desolation,  as  well  as  at  \an  Die- 
men's  Land,  and  New  Holland,  particularly 
in  Adventure-bay,  They  are  called  liopjiing 
pinguins,  and  jumping  Jacks,  from  their  ac- 
tion of  leaping  quite  out  of  the  water,  on 
meeting  with  the  least  obstacle,  for  three  or 
four  feet  at  least;  and  indeed,  without  any 
seeming  cause,  they  often  do  the  same,  ap- 
pearing chieMy  to  advance  by  that  means. 
This  species  seems  to  have  a  greater  air  of 
liveliness  in  its  countenance  than  others,  yet 
is  in  fart  a  very  stupid  bird,  so  much  so  as  to 
suffer  itself  to  "be  knocked  on  the  head  with  a 
stick  when  on  land.  Forster  says  he  found 
them  dilficult  to  kill ;  and  when  provoked,  he 
adds,  they  ran  at  the  sailors  in  flocks,  and 
pecked  their  legs,  and  spoiled  their  clothes. 
\\'hen  angered  too,  they  erect  their  crests  in 
a  beautiful  manner.  These  birds  make  their 
nests  aniQug  those  of  the  pelican  tribe,  living 
in  tolerable  harmony  with  them  ;  and  lay  sel- 
dom more  than  one  egg,  which  is  white,  and 
larger  than  that  of  a  duck.  'I'hey  are  mostly 
seen  by  themselves,  seldom  mixing  with  other 
pinguins,  and  often  met  with  in  great  num- 
bers on  the  outer  shores,  where  they  have 
been  bred. 

2.  The  second  species  mentioned  by  La- 
tham is  the  Patagonian.  It  is  distinguished 
by  this  name  not  only  because  it  is  found  on 
tliat  coast,  but  also  because  it  exceeds  in 
bulk  the  common  pinguins  as  much  as  the  na- 
tives are  said  to  do  the  common  race  of  men. 
ft  was  first  discovered  by  captain  Macbride, 
who  brought  one  of  them  from  Falkland 
Islands,  off  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The 
length  of  the  stutl'ed  skin  of  this  particular 
bird  measured  lour  feet  lliree  inches,  and  the 

*  3  1 8  ■ 


P  I  N 


4)1 


bulk  of  the  body  seemed  to  exceed  that  of  a 
swan. 

This  species,  which  was,  as  we  have  seen, 
first  met  with  in  Falkland  Islands,  lias  since 
b.cii  sein  in  Kerguelen's  I>and,  Nev.-  Geor- 
gia, and  New(Juinea.  M.  IJongaiiivillc  caught 
one,  which  boon  became  so  tame  as  to  follow 
and  know  the|)erson  wjiohadtl.e  care  of  :t ;  it 
led  on  llesh,  lish,  and  bread;  but  after  a  tiuiR 
grew  lean,  pined  away,  and  died.  Tlieir 
chiif  food,  when  at  large,  is  thought  to  bv 
lish  ;  tlie  remains  of  which,  as  well  as  crabs, 
shell-fi:,)!,  and  niolliisc:e,  were  found  in  the 
slomach.  This  species  is  the  fattest  of  the 
tribe;  and  therefore  most  so  in  January, 
when  they  moult.  'I'hey  are  supposed  to  lay 
and  sit  in  October,  'liiey  are  met  with  in 
the  most  deserted  places.  Tlieir  flesh  in 
black,  though  not  very  unpalatable.  Thi.s 
has  been  considered  as  a  solitary  species,  but 
has  now  and  tiien  been  met  with  in  consider- 
able ilo-ks. 

3.  The  Magellanic  species  is  about  two 
feet,  and  sometimes  two  teet  and  a  half,  long, 
and  weighs  eleven  pounds.  The  bill  is  black, 
having  a  transverse  band  across  neai'  its  tip  ; 
the  head  and  neck  are  black,  cxcejH  a  few 
markings  here  and  there  ;  the  upper  parts  of 
the  body  and  wings  are  of  the  same  colour; 
the  under  parts  of  both  an:  white  from  the 
breast.  This  species,  which  is  very  nume- 
rous, inhabits  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  Stateii 
Land,  Terra  del  Fuego,and  Falkland  Islands. 
Far  from  being  timid,  these  birds  will  otten 
attack  a  man,  and  peck  his  legs.  As  food 
they  are  not  at  all  unpalatable.  They  often 
mix  with  sea-wolves  among  the  rushes,  bur- 
rowing in  holes  like  a  f.ix.  'I'hey  swim  with 
|)rodigious  swiftness.  They  lay  their  eggs  in 
collective  bodies,  resorting  in  incretiible 
numbers  to  certain  spots,  which  their  long  re- 
sidence lias  freed  from-^rass,  and  to  which 
were  given  the  names  of  towns.  Penrose  ob- 
serves, that  they  composed  their  nests  of 
mud,  a  foot  in  height,  and  placed  as  near  one 
another  as  may  be.  It  is  possible  that  they 
may  have  ditlerent  ways  ot  nesting,  accord- 
ing to  the  places  they  inhabit;  or  periiaps  the 
manners  ot  this  may  be  blended  with  those 
of  another.  "  Here,  (says  he,  i.  e.  in  the 
places  they  frequent)  during  the  breeding- 
season,  we  were  presented  with  a  sight  which 
conveyed  a  most  dreary,  and  I  may  say  aw- 
ful, idea  of  the  desertion  of  these  islan<!s  bv 
the  human  species:  a  general  stillness  pre- 
vailed in  these  towns ;  and  whenever  we  took 
our  walks  among  them,  in  order  to  provide 
ourselves  w  itli  eggs,  we  were  regarded  indeed 
with  side-long  glances,  but  we  carried  no  ter- 
ror with  us.  I'iie  eggs  are  rather  larger  tliaii 
those  of  a  goose,  and  laid  in  pairs.  '\\  lieu 
wi:  took  them  once,  and  sometimes  twice  in  a 
season,  they  were  as  often  replaced  by  the 
birds  ;  but  prudence  would  not  permit  us  to 
jilunder  too  far,  lest  a  future  stipjily  in  the 
next  year's  brood  might  be  prevented."  They 
lay  some  time  in  November,  driving  away 
the  albatrosses,  which  have  hatched  their 
young  in  turn  before  them.  The  eggs  were 
thought  palatable  food,  and  were  preserved 
good  for  three  or  four  months." 

PINION,  in  mechanics,  an  arbor,  or 
spindle,  in  the  body  whereof  are  several 
notches,  which  catch  the  teeth  of  a  wheel 
that  serves  to  turn  it  round ;  or  it  is  a  lesser 
wheel  wliich  plays  ui  the  teeth  of  a  larger. 


436 


r  I  N 


FINITE,  a  niiiif-ral  tliat  ha?  received  Us 
naiiK-  from  Piiii  in  S^axonv,  where  it  has  been 
found  in  granite.  Its  colour  is  redili^li- 
brown,  or  blaik;  always  in  crystals,  eitlier 
rhomboidal  prisna*,  or  six-sided  pri-nis  ; 
sometimes  entire;  sometimes  luiving  lljeir  al- 
ternate lateral  edges  irinicated  ;  sometimes 
whole;  surface  smootli  and  brilliant ;  iracttire 
uneven,  passing  to  conehoidal ;  spi  citir  gra- 
vity 2.-9.  It  melts  at  153'  of  Wedgewood, 
into  a  black  compact  gla=s,  the  s«irlace  ol 
•which  is  reddish.  It  consists,  accoriling  to 
Klaproth,  of 

63. OD  alumina 

29.50  silica 
fi.75  iron. 

9925 

PINK,  a  yessel  used  at  sea,  mailed  and 
rigged  like  other  ships,  only  that  this  is  built 
witli  a  round  stern  ;  the  bends  and  ribs  com- 
"^assing  so  as  that  her  sides  bulge  out  very 
jnuch.  This  disposition  renders  the  pinks 
tlifticult  to  he  boarded,  and  also  enables  them 
to  carry  greater  burdens  than  others,  whence 
they  are  often  used  for  store-ships,  and  hos- 
jjjtal-ships,  in  the  fleet. 

PINK.     See  Dianthus. 

PINN.A,  in  zoology  ;  a  genus  belonging 
to  the  order  of  vennes  testacea.  The  animal 
is  a  slug.  The  shell  is  bivalve,  fragile,  and 
furnislied  with  a  beard :  gapes  at  one  end ; 
the  valves  hinge  without  a  tooth.  They  in- 
habit the  coasts  of  Provence,  Italy,  and  the 
Indian  ocean.  Tlie  largest  and  most  remark- 
able species  inhabits  the  Mediterranean.  It 
is  blind,  as  are  all  of  the  genus  ;  but  furnish- 
ed with  very  strong  calcareous  valves.  The 
cuttle-iish,  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  sea,  is 
a  deadly  foe  to  this  anini.il :  as  soon  as  the 
pinna  opens  its  shell,  he  rushes  upon  her  like 
a  lion  ;  and  would  always  devour  her,  but  fur 
another  animal  whom  she  protects  within  her 
shell,  and  from  whom  in  return  she  receives 
very  important  services.  It  is  an  animal  of 
the  crab  kind  (see  Ca.nce.'j),  naked  like  the 
hermit,  and  very  quick-sighted.  'Puis  cancer 
or  crab  the  pinna  receives  into  her  covering, 
and,  when  she  opens  her  valves  in  cpiest  of 
food,  lets  him  oirt  to  look  for  prey.  During 
this  the  cuttle-hsr.  apijroaciies ;  the  crab  re- 
turns with  the  utmost  speed  and  anxiety  to 
liis  hostess,  who  being  tlius  warned  ot  the 
danger  shuts  her  doors,  and  keeps  out  the 
«;iiemy.  That  very  sagacious  observer  Dr. 
Hasseiipiist,  in  his  voyage  towards  Palestine, 
beheld  this  curious  phenonenon,  which 
though  '.veil  known  to  the  antients,  had  es- 
caped the  moderns. 

The  piiinjE  marina'  differ  less  from  muscles 
in  the  siz^'  of  their  shells,  than  in  (he  fineness 
and  numbi  r  of  cert.iin  brown  threads  which 
attach  them  to  the  rocks,  hold  them  in  a  lixed 
silu.ation,  se<'uie  thrm  from  the  rolling  of  tlie 
■waves,  especially  in  tempests,  and  assist  them 
in  laying  hold  of  slime.  See  Mytilcs. 
T!'.ese  threads,  says  Kondelet,  are  as  tine, 
compared  with  those  of  muscles,  ,is  the  fine:,t 
flax  is  .compared  with  tow.  M.  de  Reaumur 
says,  that  these  threaeis  .nv  nearly  as  fine  .uid 
beautiful  a?  silk  from  the  silk-worm,  and 
lielice  he  calls  them  the  silk-worms  of  the  sea. 
Sliitls,  and  several  kinds  of  beautiful  manu- 
f.^clure,are  made  of  tliese  threads  at  Palermo; 
ill  many  places  they  are  tlie  chief  object  of 
fcluuij,  and  become  a  bilk  proper  lyr.iuany 


V  I  N 

purposes.  It  re<iuircs  a  considerable  rnmher 
of  the  pinna;  maiinx  lor  one  pair  of  stockings. 
Noll-.ing  can  equal  the  delicacy  of  this  singu- 
lar thread.  It  is  so  hue,  tliat  a  pair  of  stock- 
ings made  of  it  can  be  easily  contained  in 
a  snutf-box  of  an  ordinary  size.  In  1754,  a 
pair  of  gloves  or  stockings  of  these  materials 
was  presented  to  pope  Benedict  XI\'.  which, 
notwithstanding  their  extreme  fineness,  se- 
cured the  leg  both  from  cold  and  heat.  A 
robe  of  the  same  singular  materials  was  the 
gift  of  a  Koman  emperor  to  the  satrap  of 
.•\rmeuia.  A  great  many  manufactviiers  are 
employed  in  maiuifacturingtiiese  threatis  into 
various  stuffs  at  Palermo  and  other  places. 

The  men  who  are  employed  in  fishing  up 
the  pinna;  mariie  inform  us,  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  break  tli:;  tuft  of  threads.  They  are 
lislied  up  at  Toulon,  from  the  depth  of  15, 
20,  and  sometimes  more  than  30  feet,  with 
an  instrument  c  died  a  cr.imp.  This  is  a 
kind  of  fork  of  iron,  of  which  the  prongs  are 
l)erpendicular  with  respect  to  the  handle. 
Each  of  them  is  about  eight  feet  in  length,  and 
there  is  a  space  between  them  of  about  six 
inches  ;  tiie  length  of  the  handle  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  depth  of  the  water  ;  the  pinna' 
are  seized,  separated  from  the  rock,  and 
raised  to  the  surface,  by  means  of  this  instru- 
ment. The  tuft  of  silk  issues  directly  from 
the  body  of  the  animal ;  it  comes  from  the 
shell  at  the  place  yvhere  it  opens,  about  four 
or  live  inches  from  the  summit  or  point  in  the 
large  pinns. 

PINNACE,  a  small  vessel  used  at  sea, 
witli  a  square  stern,  having  sails  and  oars, 
and  carrying  three  masts,  chiefly  used  as  a 
scout  for  intelligence,  and  for  landing  of  men, 
&c.  One  of  the  boats  belonging  to  a  great 
man  of  war,  serving  to  carry  the  ofticers  to 
and  from  the  shore,  is  also  called  the  pin- 
nace. 

PINNACLE,  in  architecture,  the  top  or 
roof  of  a  house,  terminating  in  a  point. 
This  kind  of  roof,  among  the  antients,  was  ap- 
propriated to  temples ;  their  ordinary  roots 
were  all  tiat,  or  made  in  tlie  platform  way. 
It  was  f.om  the  pinnacle  that  the  form  of  the 
pediment  took  its  rise. 
PINNATED  LEAVES.  See  Botany. 
PINUS,  the  pim-tre^,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nadelphia  order,  in  the  monttcia  class  of 
plants.  The  male  calyx  is  four-leaved  ;  no 
corolla ;  stamina  very  many,  with  naked 
anthers;  fern.  cal.  shobiles,  with  a  two-How- 
ered  scale;  corolla  none;  pistil  om- ;  nut 
with  a  membraneous  wing.  'I'here  are  21 
species  of  this  genus  ;  of  which  tliQ  most  re- 
markable are  the  following: 

1.  The  pinea  pineaster,  or  wild  pine,  grows 
naturally  on  the  mountains  in  Italy  and  the 
south  of  Fiance.  It  grows  to  tlie  si/e  of  a 
large  tree ;  the  branches  extend  to  a  consi- 
derable distance;  and  while  the  trees  are 
you  ig,  they  are  full  of  leaves,  especially 
where  Ihey  are  not  so  close  as  to  exi  hide  the 
air  from  those  within;  but  as  they  advance 
in  age,  the  brambes  appiar  n.iked,  and  all 
those  which  arc  situated  b<  low  become  un- 
sightly in  a  few  years;  for  which  reason  Ihey 
are  now  nuich  less  in  esteem  than  formerly. 

2.  The  pinus  pinea,  or  stone  piiie,  is  a 
tall  evergreen  tree,  native  of  Italy  and  Spain. 
It  delights  in  a  sandy  loam,  though  like  most 
others  it  will  grow  well  in  almost  aiiv  land. 
Respecting  the  usts  of  this  species,  llaiibury 


r  I  N 

tells  lis  that  "  tlw  kernels  are  eatable,  and  by 
many  preferred  to  almonds.  In  Italy  they 
are  served  up  at  table  in  their  desserts.  They 
are  exceedhigly  wholesome,  being  good  for 
coughs,  colds,  consumptions,  &c.  on  which 
account  only  this  tree  deserves  to  be  propa- 
gated." 

3.  The  rubra,  commonly  called  the  Scots- 
fir  or  pine.  It  is  common  throughout  Scot- 
land, whence  its  name,  though  it  is  also  found 
ill  most  of  the  other  countries  of  Europe. 
M.  du  Hamel,  of  the  Koval  Academy  of 
Sciences,  mentions  his  having  received  some' 
seeds  of  it  from  St.  Domingo  in  the  West 
Indies;  and  thence  concludes,  that  it  grows 
indifferently  in  the  temperate,  frigid,  and- 
torrid  zones.  The  wood  of  this  tree  is  the 
red  or  yellow  deal,  which  is  the  most  durable 
of  any  ot  the  kinds  yet  known.  The  leaves 
of  this  tree  are  much  shorter  and  broader 
than  those  of  the  lormer  sort,  of  a  greyish  co- 
lour, growing  two  out  of  one  sheath ;  the 
cones  are  small,  pyramidal,  and  end  in  nar- 
row-points; they  are  of  a  light  colour,  and 
the  seeds  are  small. 

4.  The  pinus  jjicea,  or  yew-leaved  fir,  is  a~ 
tall  evergreen,  and  a  native  of  Scotland, 
Sweden,  and  Germany.  This  species  in- 
cludes the  silver  fir,  and  the  balm  of  Gilead 
fir.  The  first  of  these  is  a  noble  upright 
tree.  Mr.  Marsham  says,  "  The  tallest 
trees  I  have  seen  weie  spruce  and  silver  firs 
in  the  valleys  in  S\\itzeriand.  I  saw  several 
firs  in  tbe  dock-yards  in  Venice  40  yards 
long;  and  one  of  39  yards  was  18  inches  di- 
ameter at  the  small,  i  was  told  they  came  . 
from  .Switzerland."  The  branches  are  not 
very  numerous,  and  the  bark  is  smooth  and 
delicate.  Tlie  leaves  grow  singly  on  the 
branches,  and  their  ends  are  slightly  indent- 
ed. Their  npjier  surface  is  of  a  fine  strong 
green  colour,  and  their  under  has  an  orna- 
ment of  two  white  lines  running  lengthwise  on 
each  side  the  mid-rib  ;  on  account  of  which 
silvery  look  this  sort  is  called  the  silver  fir. 
'I  he  cones  are  laige,  and  groyv  erect;  and 
yvlien  the  warm  weather  comes  on,  they  soon 
shed  their  seeds,  which  should  be  a  caution 
to  all  who  wish,  to  raise  this  plant,  to  gather 
the  cones  before  that  happens. 

The  balm  of  Gilead  fir  has  of  all  the  sorts 
been  most  coveted,  on  account  of  the  great 
fragrance  of  its  leaves,  though  this  is  not  its 
only  good  property  ;  lor  it  is  a  very  beauti- 
ful tree,  naturally  of  an  upright  groyvth,  and 
the  branches  are  so  ornamented  with  their 
balmy  leaves  as  to  exceed  any  of  the  other 
sorts  in  beauty. 

The  silver  lir  is  very  hardy,  and  will  grow 
in  any  soil  or  situation,  but  always  makes  the 
greatest  progress  in  rieli  loainy  earth.  The 
balm  ol  Gilead  fir  must  be  planted  in  deep, 
rich,  good  earth  ;  nor  will  it  live  long  in  any 
other.  The  soil  may  be  a  black  mould,  or  of 
a  sand V  nature,  if  it  is  deep  enough,  and  if 
the  roots  have  room  enough  to  strike  tieely-. 

5.  The  pinus  abies,  or  Euroiiean  spruce 
fir,  a  native  of  tlie  northern  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  includes  tlie  Norway  spruce  and 
long-coned  Cornish  fir.  '1  he  former  of  these 
is  a  tree  of  as  much  beauty  while  growing,  -as- 
its  timber  is  valuable  when  propagated  on 
that  account.  Its  growth  is  naturally  like 
the  silver,  upright ;  and  the  height  it  will  as^ 
pire  to  may  be  easily  conceivwl,  when  we 
say  that  the  while  deal,  so  iiuich  coveted,  by. 


tlio  joiners,  kc.  is  (lie  wood  of  tliis  tree  ;  and 
il  may  peHiaps  salisly  Ihi- ctirioiis  iiuder  lu 
know,  thai  liMiii  lliis  In-  piti  ii  is  drawn.  'I'lie 
leaves  are  ol  a  darik-<>reen  colour ;  thcv  stand 
f-ingiy  on  tlie  Ijranciies.  ')'Ik\  are  very  nar- 
row, tli.ir  ends  are  ))ointed,'  and  tliey  are 
possessed  ol  sncli  beauties  as  to  excite  admi- 
ration. 'I'lie  com-s  are  eight  or  ten  ii.elies 
long,  and  liang  downwards, 

6.  'I  lie  pinus  Canadensis,  Ameiiean  or 
Kewfoiindland  spruce  lir,  a  native  ol  Canada, 
JVnnsylvania,    and    other    parts    of    North 


PIN'US, 

leaved  American  swamp-pine.  ed,Tlie  two- 
leaved  Anieriian  pine.  3d,  'llie  yellow 
Aimrican  pine,  the  \ei|ow  tough  pine,  and 
tlie  tongli  p.nc  of  the  plains;  aniong  whiih 
lliere  is  hut  l.llle  variety.  4th,  'J  he'inislaid 
pine.  5lh,  'ihe  traiikincense  pine,  (ith, 
'1  he  dwnif  pine. 

11.  'I'lie  |)iniis  cedrns  is  that  popularly 
called  by  us  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  ;  by  the 
antients  cedrus  ini-.gna,  or  the  great  cedar- 


It 

sort,  bearing  large  roundish  cones  of  smooth 
America,  includes  three  varieties  ;    tlie-  white    scales,  standing  creel,  (he  leaves  beirc  small 


437 

Hiilain.  It  is  of  quic  k  growth,  and  the  trunk 
riM-s  to  .'jO  feet  <ir  more;  the  liiaiiches  are 
sh'nder,  their  ends  generally  hanging  down- 
ward. Ill  the  nuiitii  of  April  the  nials  flow- 
eis  a])pear,  winch  are  disposed  in  form  of 
small  (ones;  the  female  (lowers  are  collected 
into  o\al  obtuse  cones,  ^^hi(■h  in  some  species 
have  blight  jiurple  tops,  and  in  otlxTs  they 
are  while:  these  diflcrences  are  accidental ; 
the  cones  arc  about  an  inch  long,  obtuse  at 


a  conitero'.is  evergreen,  of  the  bigger     '^'"'ir  points;  the  scales  are  smooth,  and  lie 


Newloundland  spruce,  the  reil  Newfoundland 
spruce,  and  Ihe  black  Newlonndland  spruce. 
'J'hese,  however,  dilli>r  so  little,  that  one  de- 
scription is  CO  union  to  them  all.  Thev  are 
of  a  genteel  upright  growth,  tjiough  they  do 
not  shoot  so  freely,  nor  grow  so  fast,  with  us, 
as  the  Norway  spruce. 

7.  The  piniis  balsamea,  or  hemlock  fir,  a 
native  of  X'irginia  and  Canada,  ])0ssesses  as 
little  beauty  as  any  of  tlie  lir  tribe  ;  though, 
being  rather  scarce  in  pioporlion,  it  is  deem- 
ed valuable.  It  is  called  by  some  ihe  yew- 
leaved  fir,  from  the  resemblance  ol  the  leaves  '  ^ients  used  cedar  tablets  to  write  upon,  espe- 
to  those  of  the  yew-tree.  It  is  a  tree  of  low  ^i'lH.Y  for  things  of  importance,  as  appears 
growth,  with  but  lew  liranclies  ;  and  these  are  '  '''."'"  '''^*  expression  of  I'ersius,  "  Et  cedrit 
long  and  slender,  and  spread  abroad  without  i  'lign"  lo'cutus."  A  juice  was  also  drawn  from 
order.  The  cones  are  very  small  and  round-  ;  t'^dar,  with  which  they  smeared  their  books 
ed;  they  are  about  lialf  an  inch  long,  and  |  "'"'  writing-,  or  other  matters,  to  preserve- 
the  scales  are  loosely  arranged.     AVe  receive  '  "^'""'' ''"°'"  rotting. 

these  cones  from  America,  by  which  we  raise  |  Solomon's  temple,  as  well  as  his  palace, 
the  plants  ;  though  this  caution  should  be  w  ere  both  of  tliis  wood.  "  The  statue  (says 
given  to  the  planter,  that  this  tree  is  fond  of  Ilanbury)  of  the  great  goddess  at  Ephesus 
moist  rich  ground,  and  in  such  a  kind  of  soil  \  was  made   of  this  material ;  and  if  this  tree 


narrow,  and  thick-set.  They  sometimes 
couiiterfeil  cedar,  by  dying  wood  of  a  reddish 
hue:  but  the  smell 'discovers  the  cheat,  that 
of  true  cedar  being  very  aromatic.  In  some 
places,  the  wood  of  the'ciijou  tree  passes  un- 
der the  name  of  cedar,  on  account  of  its  red- 
disii  colour  and  its  aromatic  smell,  which 
.somewhat  nsemble  that  of  saiital.  Cedar 
wood  is  reputed  almost  immortal  and  incor- 
ruptible ;  a  prerogative  wliicli  il  owes  chielly 
to  its  bitter  taste,  which  the  worms  canno't 
endure.     For  this  reason  it  was  that  the  an- 


will  make  the  g.-eatest  progress. 

8.  The  pinus  Orieiitalis,  or  Oriental  lir,  a! 
native  of  the  East,  is  a  low  but  elegant  tree.  '■ 
The  leaves  are  very  short,  and  nearlv  square. 
The  Iruit  is  exceedingly  small,  and  hangs  [ 
downward ;  and  ihe  whole  tree  makes  an  j 
agreeable  variety  w  ilh  the  other  kinds.  i 

9.' The  strobus,  lord  Weymouth's  pine,  or 
North   American  white  pine,   grows  some-  ' 
limes  to  the  height  of  100  feet,  and  upwards,  ; 
und  is  highly  valued  on  account  of  its  beauty. 
The  bark  of  the  tree  is  very  smooth  and  deli-  ' 
cate,  especially  when  young ;  the  leaves  are  : 
long   and  sleniler,  five  growing  out  of  one  ' 
sheath,   and   thus  make  a  tine   appearance. 
The  cones  are  long,  slender,  and  very  loose, 
opening  with  the  first  warmth  of  the  spring; 
so  that,  if  they  are  not  gathered  in  winter, 
the  scales  open,  and  let  out  the  seeds.     Tlie 


abounded  with  us  in  great  jilenty,  it  might 
have  a  principal  share  in  our  m"ost  superb 
edihces."  It  is  remarkable  that  this  tree  is 
not  to  be  found  as  a  native  in  any  other  part 
of  the  world  than  mount  Libanus,  as  far  as 
has  yet  been  discovered.  What  we  find 
mentioned  in  Scripture  of  the  lofty  cedars, 
can  be  nowise  applicable  to  the  'commoH 
growth  of  this  tree;  since,  from  ihe  experi- 
ence we  have  of  those  now  growing  in  Eng- 
land, as  also  from  the  testimony  of  several 
travellers  w  ho  have  visited  those  lew-  remain- 
ing trees  on  mount  Libanus,  they  are  not  in- 
clined to  grow  very  lofty,  but'on  the  con- 
trary extend  their  branches  very  far. 

Maundrel,  in  his  Travels,  says  there  were 
but  16  large  trees  remaining  when  he  visited 
mount  Libanus,  some  of  which  were  of  a 
prodigious  bulk,  but  that  there  were  many 


wood  of  this  sort  is  esteemed  for  making  masts  I  more  young  ones  of  a  smaller  size  :  he  mea 
for  ships.  In  queen  Anne's  time  there  was  a  j  sured  one  of  the  largest,  and  found  it  to  be 
law  made  for  the  preservation  of  these  trees, 


and  for  the  encouragement  of  their  growth  in 
America.  Within  these  last  30  years  they 
have  been  propagated  in  Britain  in  consider- 
able plenty. 

The  soil  the  Weymouth  pine  delights  in 
most  is  a  sandy  loam  ;  but  it  likes  other  soils 
of  an  interior  nature,  although  it  is  not  gene- 
rally to  be  planted  on  all  lands  like  the 
Scotch  tir.  On  stony  and  slaty  ground,  like- 
wise, there  are  some  very  fine  trees  ;  so  that 
whoever  is  desirous  of  heaving  plantations  of 
this  pine,  need  not  be  too  curious  m  the 
dioice  of  his  ground. 

10.  The  pinus  ta;da,.  or  swamp-pine,  is  a 
tall  evergreen  tree,  a  native  of  the  suanips  of  I 
Virginia  and  Canada.     There  are  several  va- 
rieties  of  this  genus  which  Hanbury  enume- 
rates aud  describes,  sMiih  is,  Ist,  The  three-  I 

1 


12  yards  »ix  inches  in  girth,  and  yet  sound, 
and  37  yards  in  the  spread^f  its  boughs.  At 
about  five  or  six  yards  from  the  ground  it 
was  divided  into  five  limbs,  each  of  which 
was  e(|ual  to  a  great  tree.  A\'hat  Maundrel 
iias  related  was  confirmed  bv  a  gentleman 
who  was  there  in  the  year  1720,  with  this  dif- 
ference only,  viz.  in  'the  dimeniions  of  the 
branches  of  the  largest  tree  ;  which  he  mea- 
sured, and  found  to  be  '-'J  yards  diameter. 
Now  wiiether  Mr.  Maundrel  meant  37  yards 
in  circumlerence  of  the  spreading  branches, 
or  the  diameter  of  them,  cani.ol  be  determin- 
ed by  his  words;  yet  either  of  them  well 
agrees  with  this  last  account. 

12.  The  larix,  or  larch-tree,  with  decidu- 
ous leaves,  and  oval  obtuse  cones.     It  grows 
naturally  upon  the  Alps  and  Apennines,  and 
of  late  has  been  very  much  propagated  in 
8 


over  each  other:  under  each  scale  there  are 
generally  lodged  two  seeds,  which  have 
wings.  '1  here  are  two  other  varieties  of  this 
tree,  one  of  which  is  a  native  of  America,  and 
the  other  of  Siberia.  The  cones  of  the 
Aiiierican  kind  which  have  been  l)rou,^Jit  to 
Britain,  seem  in  general  to  be  larger  than 
those  of  the  common  sort. 

From  the  larch-tree  is  extracted  what  we 
erroneously  call\'eiiice  turpentine.  'J'his  sub- 
staiK  e,  <ir  n;itural  balsam,  flows  at  first  with- 
out incision  ;  and  when  it  has  done  (hopping, 
the  poor  people  who  wait  in  the  lir  v.(x)ds 
make  incisions  at  about  two  or  three  feet 
from  the  ground  into  the  trunks  of  the  trees, 
into  which  thev  fix  narrow  troughs  about  20 
inches  long.  The  enil  of  these  troughs  is 
hollowed  like  a  ladle;  and  in  the  midiile  is  a 
small  hole  bored  for  ihe  turpentine  to  run 
into  the  receiver  which  is  placed  below  it. 
As  the  gummy  substance  runs  from  the  trees, . 
it  passes  along  the  sloping  gutter  or  trough 
to  the  ladle,  and  from  thence  runs  through 
the  lioles  into  the  receiver.  The  people  who 
gather  it  visit  the  trees  morning  and  evening 
from  the  end  of  May  to  September,  to  col- 
lect the  turpentine  out  of  the  receivers. 
When  it  flows  out  of  the  tree,  A'eiiice  turpen- 
tine is  cli  ar  like  water,  and  of  a  yellowish- 
white  ;  but,  as  it  grows  older,  it  thickens  and 
becomes  of  a  citron-colour.  It  is  jirocured 
in  the  greatest  abundance  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Lyons  ;  and  in  ihe  valley  of  St.  Mar- 
tin, near  St.  Lucerii,  in  Switzerland. 

All  the  sorts  of  pines  are  propagated  by 
seeds  produced  in  hard  wo(xly  cones.  The 
way  to  get  the  seeds  out  of  these  cones  is,  to 
lay  them  before  a  gentle  fire,  which  will 
cause  the  cells  to  open,  and  then  the  seeds 
may  be  easily  taken  out.  If  the  cones  are 
kept  entire,  the  seeds  will  remain  good  for 
some  years;  so  that  the  surest  way  of  pre- 
serving them  is  to  let  them  remain  in  the 
cones  till  the  time  lor  sowing  the  seeds.  If 
the  cones  are  kept  in  a  warm  place  in  sum- 
mer, they  will  open  and  emit  the  seeds  ;  but 
if  they  are  not  exposed  to  the  heat,  they  will 
remain  close  for  a  long  time.  T  he  best  sea- 
son for  sowing  the  pines  is  about  the  end  of 
March.  When  the  seed*  are  sown,  the 
place  should  be  covered  with  nets  to  keep  off 
the  birds  ;  otherwise,  when  the  plants  begin 
to  appear  with  the  husk  of  the  seed  on  the  ■ 
top  of  them,  the  birds  will  peck  off  the  tops, 
and  thus  destroy  them. 

From  the  first  species  is  extracted  the 
common  turpentine,  much  used  by  farriers, 
andtrom  whu  h  is  drawn  the  oil  of  that  name. 
The  proce^s  of  making  pitch,  tar,  resin,  and  ; 
turpentine,  from  tliese  tre«,  is  this :  In  the 
spring  time,  when  the  sap  is  most  free  in 
running,  they  pare  otif  the  bark  ot  the  pine- 
tree,  to  make  the  sap  run  down  into  a  hole 
which  they  cut  at  the  bottom  to  reteive  it. 
In  the  way,  as  it  runs  down,  it  leaves  a  white 


433 


V  I  N 


V  I  P 


matter  like  cream,  but  a  little  thicker.     This  j  When  they  have  occasion  to  use  if,  they  first 
js  very  dirterent  from  all  the  kinds  of  resin    toast  it  at  llie  fire,  then  grind,  and  after  stee|)- 


and  turpentine  in  use ;  and  is  generally  sold 
to  be  used  in  the  making  of  llambeaux,  in- 
stead of  white  bees'-wax.  Tiie  matter  that  is 
received  in  the  liole  at  the  bottom  is  taken  up 
with  ladles,  and  put  in  a  large  basket;  a 
great  part  of  this  immediately  runs  through, 
and  this  is  the  common  turpentine.  This  is 
received  into  stone  or  earthen  pots,  and  is 
ready  for  sale.  The  thicker  matter,  which 
remains  in  the  basket,  they  put  into  a  com- 
mon alembic,  adding  a  large  (piantity  of  wa- 
ter. They  distil  this  as  long  as  any  oil  is 
seen  swimming  on  the  water.  This  oil  they 
separate  from  the  surface  in  large  quantities, 
and  this  is  the  common  oil  or  spirit  of  turpen- 
tine. The  remaining  matter  at  tlie  bottom 
of  the  still  is  common  yellow  resin.  When 
tliey  have  thus  obtained  all  they  can  from 
thesap  of  tlie  tree,  tlii'v  cut  it  down;  and, 
hewing  the  wood  into  billets,  they  fill  a  pit 
flug  in"  the  earth  witli  tliese  billets ;  and  set- 
ting them  on  fire,  there  runs  from  them, 
while  they  are  burning,  a  black  thick  matter. 
This  naturally  falls  to  tlie  l)ottom  of  the  pit, 
and  this  is  the  tar.  The  top  of  the  pit  is  co- 
vered with  tiles,  to  keep  in  the  iieat ;  and 
there  is  at  the  buttonr  a  httle  hole,  out  at 
which  the  tar  runs  like  oil.  If  this  hole  is 
made  too  large,  it  sets  the  wliole  quantity  of 
the  tar  on  fire;  but  if  small  enough,  it  runs 
quietly  out. 

The  tar,  being  thus  made,  is  put  up  in  bar- 
rels; and  if  it  is  to  be  made  into  pitch,  they 
put  it  into  large  boiling-vessels,  without  add- 
ins  anv  thing  to  it.  It  is  then  suffered  to 
boll  awliile,  and  being  then  let  out,  js  found 
vhen  cold  to  be  what  we  call  pitch. 

A  decoction  of  the  nuts  or  seeds  of  the 
first  species  in  milk,  or  of  the  extremitie^  of 
the  brandies  pulled  in  spring,  is  said,  with  a 
proper  regimen,  to  cure  tlie  most  inveterate 
scurvy.  The  wood  of  this  species  is  not  va- 
lued;'but  tliat  of  the  Scots  pine  is  su])erior 
to  any  of  the  rest.  It  is  observable  of  tlie 
Scots  pine,  that  when  planted  in  bogs,  or  in  a 
moist  soil,  though  the  plants  make  great  pro- 
gress, yet  the  wood  is  white,  soft,  and  little 
esteemed ;  but  when  planted  in  a  dry  soil, 
though  the  growth  of  the  trees  is  there  very 
slow,  yet  the  wo- id  is  pmportionabiy  better. 
Few  trees  have  been  applied  to  more  uses 
than  this.  The  tallest  and  straightest  are 
formed  by  nature  for  masts  to  our  navy.  The 
timber  is  resinous,  durable,  and  applicable  to 
numberless  domestic  purposes,  such  as  lloor- 
itig  and  wainscoting  of  rooms,  making  of 
beds,  chests,  tables,  boxes,  ^Scc.  From  the 
trunk  and  branches  of  tliis,  as  well  as  most 
others  of  the  pine  tribe,  tar  -.'.nd  pitch  are  ob- 


ing  the  Hour  in  warm  watei  to  take  otf  ti 
resinous  taste,  tliey  make  it  into  tliin  cakes, 
which  are  baked  for  use.  On  this  strange  food 
tlie  poorinhabitantsare  sometimes  constrained 
to  live  for  awliole  year;  and  we  are  told, 
tlirough  custom,  become  at  last  even  fond  ol 
it.  Liima'us  remarks,  that  tliis  tame  bavk- 
bread  will  fatten  swine;  and  humanity  obliges 
us  to  wish,  that  men  niiglit  never  be  reduced 
to  the  necessity  of  robbing  them  of  such  a 
food.  Tlie  interior  bark,  of  which  the  above- 
mentioned  bread  is  made,  the  Sw  edish  boys 
frecjui'ntly  peel  olf  the  trees  in  the  spring,  and 
eat  raw  with  a  greedy  appetite.  From  the 
cones  of  this  tree  are  prepared  a  diuri'tic  oil, 
like  the  oil  of  turpentine,  and  a  resinous  ex- 
tract, which  has  similar  virtues  with  the  bal- 
sam of  I'<;ru.  An  infusion  or  tea  of  the  buds 
is  highly  commended  as  an  antiscorbutic. 
The  tarina,  or  yellow  powder,  of  the  male 
fiowers,  is  sometimes  in  the  spring  carried 
away  by  the  winds,  in  such  quantities,  where 
the  trees  abound,  as  to  alarm  the  ignorant 
with  the  notion  of  its  raining  bri:nstone.  The 
tree  lives  to  a  great  age;  Linna.'us  aflirms,  to 
400  years. 

PIONF.F.RS,  in  the  art  of  war,  are  such 
as  are  commanded  in  from  the  country,  to 
march  with  an  army  for  mending  the  ways, 
lor  working  on  intrenchmenls  and  fortifica- 
tions, and  tor  making  mines  and  approaches. 
The  soldiers  are  likewise  emplo\ed  for  all 
these  purposes.  Most  of  the  foreign  regi- 
ments of  artillery  have  lialf  a  company  of 
pioneers,  well  instructed  in  that  important 
branch  of  duty.  Our  regiments  of  infantry 
and  cavalry  have  about  tw  enty  pioneers  each, 
provided  with  aprons,  hatchets,  saws,  spades, 
and  pick-axes.  Each  pioneer  must  have  an 
ax,  a  saw,  and  an  apron  ;  a  cap  with  a  lea- 
ther crown,  and  a  black  bear-skin  front,  on 
which  is  to  be  the  king's  crest  in  wliile,  on  a 
red  ground;  and  the  immber  of  tlie  regiment 
is  to  be  on  tlie  back  part  of  it. 

PIP,  or  Pep,  pepia,  a  disease  among 
poultry,  consisting  of  a  white  thin  skin,  or 
film,  that  grows  under  the  tip  of  the  tongue, 
and  hinders  their  feeding.  It  usually  arises 
from  want  of  water,  or  from  drinking  puddle- 
water,  or  eating  filthy  meat.  It  is  cured  liy 
pulling  ojj'lhe  lilm  with  the  fingers,  and  rub- 
bing the  tongue  witli  salt.  Hawks  are  parti- 
cularly liable  to  this  disease,  especially  from 
feeding  on  stinking  fiesh. 

PIPE,  in  building,  &c.  a  canal,  or  conduit, 
for  the  conveyance  of  water  and  other  fin  ids. 
Pipes  for  water,  water-engines,  &c.  are  usually 
of  lead,  iron,  earth,  or  wood:  the  latter  are 
commonlv  made  of  oak  or  elder.      Thuje  of 


tained.  By  incision,  barras,  Burgurnly  pitcli,  I  iron  are  cast  in  forges;  their  usual  length  is 
and  tur|)entine,  are  accpiired  and  prepared.  '  about  tw.)  Iceland  a  half:  several  of  these  are 
The  resinous  roots  are  dug  out  of  tlie  ground  j  commonly  fastened  together  by  means  of  four 
in  many  parts  of  the  Highlands,  and,  being  1  screws  at  each  end,  with  Icatlier  or  old  hat 
ilivided  into  small  splinters,  are  used  by  the    brtueen  them,  to  sto|)  the  water.     Tliose  of 


inhabitants  to  burn  instead  of  candles.  At 
Lo;  h-I'room,  in  l^oss-shire,  the  fishermen 
make  ropes  of  the  inner  b.uk  ;  but  hard  ne- 
cessity has  taught  the  iiihabilants  of  fjweden, 
Laplaiul,  and  Kamtschatka,  to  convert  the 
same  into  bread.  To  effect  this,  they,  in  the 
spring  season,  make  rlioue  of  the  lalh'st  and 
fairest  trees  ;  then  stripping  oil'  carefully  the 
outer  bark,  they  collect  the  soft,  white,  suc- 
culent, Ulterior  bark,  and  dr)  il  in  tlie  shade. 


eartli  are  made  by  the  potters;  tliese  are 
fitted  into  one  another,  one  end  being  always 
made  wider  than  the  other.  To  join  them 
the  closer,  and  prevent  their  breaking,  thev 
are  covered  witli  tow  and  pitch:  their  length 
is  usually  about  that  of  the  iron  pipes.  The 
wooden  pipes  are  trees  bored  with  large  iron 
augurs,  of  dill'erent  sizes,  bi'ginning  with  a 
less,  and  then  proceeding  with  a  larger  suc- 
cessively ;  the  lirst  being  pointed,  the  rest 


P  I  P 

formed  like  5poons,  iucreasing  in  diame- 
ter, from  one  to  six  inches  or  more:  lliey 
are  fitted  into  the  extremities  of  each  other, 
and  are  sold  by  the  fool. 

Pipe-Boring.      AA,  Plate  Perambulator, 
&c.  fig.  4,   are  two  beams  laid  on  each  side 
of  a  pit,  into  which  the  chips  are  to   fall. 
L'pon  the  edges  of  these,   the  wlieels   of  a 
frame  DE  run.     I'liis  frame  has  fjur  pieces, 
ddati,   across    it ;     and   two   windlases,  bh, 
wliich  have  chains  round  them,   going  over 
the  piece  of  timber  F  which  is  to  be  bored. 
The  two  end-pieces  dd  have  uprights  ee  in 
them;  between  which  the  tree  is  laid,  and  is 
secured  with  wedges  in  dill'erent  places  as 
tlie  occasion  requires.     G  is  a  piece  lying 
across  the  two  beams  AA :  this  is  connected 
w  ith  the  frame  ]iE  by  two  iron  bars,//,  which 
are  fastened  to  it ;  and  go  through  holes  iu 
the  piece  </,  and  are  held  there  by  pins  put 
through  holes  in  both.     'Ihe  piece  G  lias  two 
uprights  in  it,  between  wliich  is  a  brass  pulley 
to    support     the    weight   of  the    boring-bar 
U.g/ii  is  a  wheel,  witli  handles  on  its  circum- 
ference to  turn  it  by  ;  on  its  axis  I  a  rope  is 
coiled  ;  one  end  ot  wiiich  goes  over  a  pulley 
(not  seen),  and  is  fastened  to  the  carriage 
DE.     At  /  the  otlier  end  goes  over  a  similar 
pulley,  and  is  tied  to  the  other  end  of  the 
carnage  DE.     'I'lie  machine  is  put  into  some 
place  where  there  is  a  crane,   by  which  the 
tree  can  be  lifted  on  to  the  carriage ;  first 
withdrawing  the  carriage    from  tiie  boring- 
bar,  by  turning  tin-  wheel  from  si  to  i,  and 
sepaiuling  it  from  the  piece  G  by  taking  out 
the  pins.     Il  is  tlien  wedged  into  its  place, 
and    secured    by   tiie    windlases   bl).      The 
wheel    is    next   turned    back,   the  carriage 
drawn  up  to  the  borer,  and  the  piece  G  pin- 
ned in.     The  machine  (either  horses,  water, 
steam,  &c.)  which  turns  the  borer  is  then  set 
to  wo:k;  and  a  man  constantly  attends  at 
the  wheel  g/i/,' to  draw  the  pipe  up  to  the 
liorer.     The  use  of  the  wheel  in  the  piece  G 
is,  to  support  the  borer  just  where  it  enters  the 
pipe,  and  make  it  work  steady.     When  the 
pipe  is  bored  tlirough,   it  is  withdrawn,  and 
another  tree  is  placed  on  the  carriage  as  be- 
fore. 

Pipes  of  ait  Organ.  See  Organ. 
Pipes,  tohiicc:),  are  made  of  various 
fashions;  long,  short,  plain,  worked,  white, 
varnished,  unvarnished,  and  of  various  co- 
lours, &c.  The  Turks  use  pipes  three  or 
four  feet  long,  made  of  rushes,  or  of  wood 
bored,  at  the  end  whereof  tl-.ey  dx  a  kind  of 
pot  of  baked  earth,  which  serves  as  a  bowl, 
and  which  they  take  off  after  smoking. 

Pipe  also  denotes  a  vessel  or  measure  for 
wine,  containing  iy(i gallons. 

Pipb-Offioe  [•,  an  olfice  wherein  a  person 
called  the  clerk  of  tlie  |)ipe  makes  out  leases 
of  crown  lands,  by  warrant  from  the  lord- 
treasurer,  or  commissoners  of  the  treasury, 
or  chancellor  of  tlie  exchequer.  The  ( lerk 
of  the  pipe  makes  out  also  accounts  of  she- 
riffs, vVc.  and  gives  the  accoiiiplanls  their 
(piietus  est.  To  this  oflice  are  brought  all 
accounts  which  pass  the  remembrancer's  of- 
fice, and  remain  there,  that  if  any  stated  debt 
is  due  from  any  person,  the  same  may  ba 
drawn  down  into  the  great  roll  of  the  [lipe; 
upon  which  the  comptroller  issues  out  a  writ, 
called  tlie  sunmions  of  iju'  (lip'',  for  recovery 
thereof;  and  if  there  are  no  goods  or  chat- 
tels, the  clerk  then  draws  down  the  debts  to 
the  lord-trcasuicr's  remenibiajiter,  to  write 


N  A T  U  R  A  L    II I  S  T  O  K  T, 

Y/itt^M /!//,>  ///I /■/•///■// 

337 


ff 


40- ~Z  > 


^'2v/^  ^Ya^naA/'/i/ 


YYoixz/  /n^Y/na^ 
Jea  tSfYY 


r'/Ala  aY/tYij^/i^ 


339 


m 


I 


Hma^- 


r  r  p 

estreats  against  tlicii-  lands.  AH  Uitlies  which 
vouch  tliL- iiayment  of  any  sum  coiUaiiR-il  m 
sucli  arcouiits,  are  fxamincd  ami  allo\vi;il  by 
tlu''/liict,e(Oiiilary  ol  the  pipt-.  Bosiiles  llie 
chid  clerk  in  tliis  olhce,  thiTe  are  fight  at- 
torney s,  or  sworn  '-lerki,  and  a  convptroller. 

Pli'EK,  pepi'Br;  a  c;cniis  of  the  tri,c;ynia 
order,  in  tin'  diandria  class  ot' jjlants.  'I'lu-re 
is  no  calyx  or  coiolla;  Ihe  berry  is  one-seed- 
ed. There  are  tii)  specie-,  ol  wliich  the  most 
remarkable  is  the  sinboa,  with  oval,  heart- 
sliaped,  nerved  leaves,  and  rellexed  spikes. 
'Ihis  is  the  plant  which  produces  the  p'-pper 
so  jnucli  nseil  in  food.  It  is  a  shrnb  whose 
root  is  small,  (ibrons,  and  llexibk; ;  it  rises 
into  a  stem,  which  requires  a  tree  or  jirop  to 
sup|)ort  It.  Its  wood  has  the  same  sort  ot 
knots  as  the  vine;  and  uhen  it  is  dry,  it  ex- 
actly resembles  tlie  vine-branch.  The  leaves, 
which  luive  a  stroiig  smell  and  a  pims^ent 
taste,  are  of  an  oval  shape  ;  but  thc-y  diminish 
towards  the  extremity,  and  terminate  in  a 
point.  From  the  tloweK-bnds,  which  are 
white,  and  are  sometimes  placed  in  the  mid- 
dle and  sometimes  at  the  extremity  of  the 
branches,  are  prodnced  small  berries  resem- 
bling those  of  the  currant.  Kach  of  these 
contains  between  20  and  30  corns  of  pe|)per ; 
they  are  commonly  gathered  in  October, 
and  exposed  to  the  sim  seven  or  eight  days, 
'i'iie  h'uit,  which  was  green  at  first,  and  after- 
war<ls  reel,  when  stripped  of  its  covering  as- 
scnnes  the  appearance  it  has  when  we  see  it. 
The  largest,  heaviest,  and  least  shrivelled,  is 
the  best.  The  pepper-plant  flourishes  in  tlie 
islands  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Ceylon,  and 
more  particularly  on  the  Malabar  coast.  It 
is  not  sown,  but  planted  ;  and  great  nicety  is 
ri'i|ulrcd  iii  the  choice  of  the  shoots.  It  pro- 
duces no  truii  till  the  end  of  three  years;  but 
bears  so  plentifully  the  three  succeeding 
years,  that  -ome  plants  yield  between  six  and 
seven  pounds  oi  pepper.  Tlie  bark  then 
begins  to  shrink ;  and  the  shrub  declines  so 
fast,  that  in  12  years  time  it  ceases  bearing. 

Retle,  or  betel,  is  a  species  of  this  genus. 
It  is  a  crcepnig  and  climbing  plant  like  the 
ivy ;  and  its  leaves  a  good  deal  resemble 
tliose  of  the  citron,  though  they  are  longer 
and  narrower  at  the  extremity.  It  grows  in 
all  parts  of  India,  but  thrives  best  in  moist 
places.  The  natives  cultivate  it  as  we  do 
the  vine,  placing  props  for  it  to  run  and 
climb  upon ;  and  it  is  a  common  practice  to 
plant  it  against  the  tree  which  bears  the  areca 
nut.  At  all  times  of  the  day,  and  even  in 
the  night,  tlie  Indians  chew  the  leaves  of  the 
betel,  the  bitterness  of  which  is  corrected 
bv  the  arera  that  is  wrapped  up  in  them. 
There  is  conslSnitly  mixed  with  it  the  chinani, 
a  kind  of  burnt  lime  made  of  shells.  The 
rich  fre(|uently  add  perfumes,  either  to  gra- 
tify their  vanity  or  their  sensuality- 
It  would  be  thought  a  breach  of  politeness 
among  the  Indian.--  to  take  leave  for  any  long 
time,  without  presenting  each  other  with  a 
purse  of  betel.  It  is  a  pledge  of  friendship 
that  relieves  the  pain  of  absence.  No  one 
dares  to  speak  to  a  superior  unles  his  mouth 
is  perfumed  with  betel;  it  would  even  be 
rude  to  neglect  this  precaution  with  an  equal. 
The  women  of  gallantry  are  the  most  lavish 
in  the  use  of  betel.  Betel  is  taken  after 
meals;  it  is  chewed  during  a  visit;  it  is  of- 
fered when  you  meet,  anci  when  you  sepa- 
rate; in  short,  nothing  is  to  be  done  without 
betel.     If  it   ii  prejudicial  to  the  teetli,  it 


T'  I  P 

.issista  and  slr<"ni;lhpns  the  slo-.narh.  .At 
least,  it  is  a  general  fasnion  that  piwads 
tiiroughout  India. 

'I  lie  piper  iiignim,  or  black  pepper,  and 
the  piper  lonunim,  or  loiig  pepper,  ot  Ja- 
maica, with  some  other  species,  are  indige- 
nous, and  known  by  the  naiiKJS  of  joint  wood, 
or  pep|)eiy  eklers.  The  first  beais  a  small 
spike,  on  which  are  attached  a  nu.i.bL-r  ot 
small  seeds  of  the  size  of  mu-taid.  The 
whole  of  t:ie  plant  has  the  exact  taste  of  the 
Kast  Iiidi.1  black  pepper.  The  long-pepper 
bush  grows  taller  than  Ihe  nigrum.  1  he 
leaves  are  br.)ad,  smooth,  and  shining;  tlie 
fruit  is  s  milar  to  the  lo:ig  pe|)per  of  tiie  siiops, 
but  smaller.  The  common  people  in  Ja- 
m.iica  season  their  messes  with  the  black 
pepper.  To  preserve  both,  the  fruit  may  be 
slightly  scalded  when  green,  theu  dried,  and 
wrajiped  in  piper. 

Pll'K.V,  the  n-utnakin,  a  scnuis  pf  birds  of 
the  order  of  pas;eres.  Latlwrn  describes 
2.')  dillirent  species,  and  five  varieties.  The 
general  character  ot  the  genus  is,  that  the  bill 
is  short,  strong,  iiar<l,  and  slightly  incurvated, 
and  the  nostrils  are  naked.  The  middle  toe 
is  connected  to  the  outer  as  far  as  the  third 
joint ;  this  chai'acter,  however,  is  not  alto- 
gether universal,  some  of  the  species  difler- 
ing  in  this  particular.  The  tail  is  short.  This 
genus  has  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the 
genus  parus,  or  titmouse.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  inhabit  South  America  only  ;  but 
this  is  not  true,  for  Mr.  Latham  assures  lis 
that  he  has  seen  many  of  those  species  which 
he  has  described  which  came  from  other 
parts,  but  which  nevertheless  certainly  belong 
to  this  genus. 

1 .  The  pipra  rupicola,  or  crested  manakin, 
is  about  the  size  of  a  small  pigeon,  being 
about  ten  or  twelve  inches  long.  The  bill 
is  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  long,  and  of 
a  yellowish  colour.  The  head  is  furnished 
with  a  double  round  crest ;  the  general  co- 
lour of  the  plumage  is  orange,  inclining  to 
saffron;  the  wing-coverts  are  loose  and 
fringed.  The  female  is  altogether  brown, 
except  the  under  wing-coverts,  which  are  of 
a  rufous  orange  ;  the  crest  is  neither  so  com- 
plete nor  rounded  as  that  of  the  male.  Roth 
males  and  females  are  at  first  grey,  or  of  a 
very  pale  yellow,  inclining  to  brown.  The 
male  does  not  acquire  the  orange  colour  till 
the  ••econd  year,  neither  does  the  female  the 
full  brown.  See  Plate  Kat.  Hist.  fig.  3.)7. 
This  beautihil  species  inhabits  various  parts 
ol  Surinam,  Cayenne,  and  Guiana,  in  rocky 
situations;  but  is  no  where  so  frequent  as  in 
the  mountain  Luca,  near  the  river  Oyapoc, 
and  in  the  mountain  Conrouaye,  near  the  river 
Aprouack,  where  they  build  in  the  cavernous 
hollows  and  the  darkest  recesses. 

2.  The  next  species  Mr.  Latham  calls  the 
tuneful  manakin.  Its  length  is  four  inch.es; 
the  bill  is  dusky,  the  forehead  yellow,  and 
the  crown  and  nape  blue ;  the  chin,  sides  of 
the  he, id  below  the  eyes,  and  the  throat,  are 
black;  the  upper  part  of  the  hack,  the  wings, 
and  the  tail,  are  cKiskv  black.  It  is  a  native 
of  St,  Domingo,  where  it  has  gained  the  name 
of  organiste  trom  its  note,  forming  the  com- 
plete octave  in  the  most  agreeable  manner, 
one  note  successively  after  another.  It  is 
said  not  to  be  uncommon,  but  not  easy  to  be 
shot,  as  like  the  creeper,  it  perpetually  shifts 
to  the  opposite  p,.rt  of  the  branch  from  the 
spectatoi^'s  eye,  so  as  to  elude  his  vigilance. 


T-  I  S 


■i-g 


3.  7"lie  albifrons  inhabits  .South  America. 
See  Plaie  Nat.  Hist.  lig.  3J(J.  There  are 
about  30  -pecics. 

PiRATK.  By  Stat  2«  H.  Vfll,  c.  15,  all 
treasons,  felonies,  robberies,  nuirders,  iind 
confederacies  committed  i  pon  the  sea,  or 
ill  any  haven,  creek,  or  plac  e  where  the  ad- 
mnal  has  jurisdiction,  shall  be  tried  in  «U'li 
shires  or  plai  es  as  the  king  shall  apjjo  nl  by 
his  commission  in  like  forms,  as  ,f  su-li  oi- 
leiue  iiad  bien  committed  upon  land,  and 
accorrhng  to  the  ^ou  se  ot  liv  common  law, 
and  the  oUenders  shall  suiter  deatii  without 
benefit  of  clergy,  y\nd  by  stat  6  Geo.  I, 
made  perpetual,'  it  is  enacted,  that  if  any  of 
his  majesty's  natiiral-ijoin  subjects,  or  deni- 
zens of  th;s  kingdom,  shall  commit  any  pi- 
racy or  robbery,  or  any  act  of  ho4ility, 
agaiiust  other  his  majesty's  subjects  upon  the 
sea,  under  colour  of  any  commission  from 
any  prince  or  state,  or  pretence  of  authority 
from  any  person  whatsoever,  such  oHender 
shall  be  decMwd  to  be  a  pirate,  felon,  and 
robber;  and  being  duly  convicted  thereof 
according  to  this  act,  or  the  aforesaifl  act  of 
2,>  II.  VI (1,  shall  have  and  suIIlt  such  pains 
of  death,  loss  of  lands,  goods,  and  chattels, 
as  pirates,  felons,  and  robbers  upon  the  seas, 
ought  to  have  and  sutler.  I?y  18  Geo.  M. 
c.  30.  personscomiiiitting  hostihties,  oraidinir 
enemies  at  sea,  may  be  tried  as  pirates.  Pi- 
racies at  sea  are  excepted  out  ot  the  general 
pardon,  by  20  Geo.  II.  c.  52. 

Pirate's  goods,  go  to  the  admiral  by- 
grant  ;  but  not  piratical  goods,  which  go  to 
the  king  if  the  owner  is  not  known. 

PISCES,  in  astronomy,  the  twelfth  sign 
or  constellation  of  the  zodiac.  The  stars  in 
Pisces,  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue,  are  3H  ;  in 
Tvcho's,  33  ;  and  in  the  Britannic  ca  alogue, 

1LI9. 

PISCIDIA,  a  genus  of  the  decandria 
order,  in  the  diadclphia  class  of  plants. 
The  stigma  is  acute;  the  legume  winged 
four  ways.  There  are  two  species,  viz.  1. 
The  erythrina  or  dog-wood  tree.  This  grows 
plentifully  in  Jamaica,  where  it  rises  to  the 
height  of  twenty-five  feet  or  more;  the  stem 
is  almost  as  large  as  a  man's  body,  covered 
with  a  light-coloured  smooth  bark,  and  send- 
ing out  several  branches  at  the  top  without 
order.  The  flowers  are  of  a  dirty-white  co- 
lour ;  they  are  succeeded  by  o.blong  pods 
which  contain  the  see.ls.  2.  /'he  Cartliagini- 
en^is,  with  oblong  oval  leaves,  is  also  a  native 
of  the  West  Indies.  It  diflersfrom  the  form- 
er only  ill  the  shape  and  consistence  of  the 
leaves,  which  are  more  oblong  and  stilfer; 
but  in  other  respects  they  are  very  similar. 
Both  species  are  easily  propagatetl  by  seeds  ; 
but  require  artificial  heat  to  preserve  them 
in  this  country.  The  negroes  in  the  West 
Indies  make  use  of  the  bark  of  the  first 
species  to  intoxicate  fish.  \V'hen  any  nuin- 
l>er  of  gentlemen  have  an  inclination  to  divert 
themselves  with  fishing,  or,  more  properly 
speaking,  with  fish-hunting,  they  send  each 
of  them  a  negro-slave  to  the  woods,  in  order 
to  fetch  some  of  the  bxuk  of  the  dog-wood 
tree.  This  bark  is  next  morning  pounded 
very  small  with  stones,  put  into  old  sacks, 
carried  into  rocky  parts  of  the  sea,  steeped 
till  thoroughly  soaked  with  salt  water,  and 
then  well  squeezed  by  the  negroes  to  express 
the  juice.  This  juice  immediately  colours 
the  sea  with  a  reddish  hue;  and,  being  of  a 


440 


P  I  S 


poisonous  nature,  will  in  an  liom-'stlme  make 
the  tishes,  such  as  groopeis,  rock-tisli,  old- 
wive?,  Welshnu'i!,  &c.  so  intoxicated,  as  lo 
swim  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  (juite  heed- 
less of  the  danger;  the  gentlemen  then  send 
in  their  negroes,  who  pursue,  both  swinnning 
and  diving,  the  inehriated  lishes,  till  they 
catch  them  with  their  liands ;  their  masters 
in  the  mean  time  standing  by,  on  high  rocks, 
to  see  the  pastime.  It  is  remarkai)Ie,  that 
though  this  poison  kills  millions  of  the  small 
frv,  it  has  never  been  known  to  im|)art  any 
bad  ipiality  to  the  fish  which  have  been 
•cauglit  in  consequence  of  the  intu\ication. 
The  wood  of  this  tree,  although  pretty  hard, 
is  on'y  fit  for  fuel. 

PISCIS  VOL-^N"^,  a  small  constellation 
of  the  southern  hemisphere,  unknown  lo  the 
antients,  and  invisible  to  us  in  these  northern 
j-egions. 

PISOLITE,  a  mineral  found  at  Carlsbad 
in  Bohemia.  It  has  the  form  of  round  masses 
composed  of  concentric  layers,  and  contain- 
ing a  grain  of  sand  in  their  centre.  Colour 
white,  often  greyish,  reddish,  or  yellowish. 
The  round  bodies  are  collected  together  like 
a  bunch  of  grapes. 

Pl!SONI.\,  a  genus  of  the  polygamia  di- 
acia  class  of  plants,  the  corolla  whereof  is 
of  an  infiMidibuliform  shape ;  the  lube  is  short ; 
the  limb  is  seniiiiuinc|uelid,  acute,  and  patu- 
lous ;  the  fruit  is  an  oval  (iuin(|uangular  cap- 
sule, formed  of  five  valves,  and  containing 
onlv  one  cell;  the  seed  is  single,  smooth, 
and  ovato-oblong.  There  are  live  species, 
trees  of  the  West  Indies. 

PISTACIIL\,  iurpeiitiiK--trec,  pisttichia- 
niif,  ma.it/ch-tree;  a  genus  of  the  pentandria 
order,  in  the  dioccia  class  of  plants.  The 
male  is  an  ament. ;  cal.  five- cleft;  cor.  none; 
fern,  distinct ;  cal.  trifid  ;  cor.  none;  styles 
two;  drupe  one-seeded.  There  are  six  spe- 
cies;  of  which  the  most  remarkable  are:  1. 
The  terebinthus,  or  pistachia-tree.  This 
grows  naturally  in  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Syria, 
whence  the  nuts  are  annually  brought  to 
Europe.  In  those  countries  it  grows  to  the 
height  of  2 J  or  30  feet;  the  bark  of  the  stem 
and  old  branches  is  of  a  dark  russet  colour, 
but  that  of  the  young  branchi-s  is  of  a  light 
brown.  Some  of  these  trees  produce  male 
and  others  female  llowers,  and  some  have 
botli  male  and  female  on  the  same  tree.  The 
male  llowers  come  out  from  the  sides  of  the 
branches  in  loose  bunches  or  catkins.  They 
have  no  petals,  but  five  small  stamina.  The 
female  fioweis  come  out  in  clusters  from  the 
sides  of  the  branches;  they  have  no  |)etals; 
but  a  large  oval  germen  supporting  three  re- 
llexed  styles,  and  are  succeoiled  by  oval 
nuts.  2.  The  lentiscus,  or  common  niasticli- 
tree,  grows  naturally  in  Portugal,  Spain,  and 
Italy.  Being  an  evergreen,  it  lias  been  pre- 
served in  this  country  in  order  to  adorn  the 
green-houses.  In  the  countries  where  it  is 
a  native,  it  rises  to  the  height  of  eighteen  or 
twenty  fe(.'t.  3.  The  orientalis,  or  true  mas- 
tich-tree  of  t\u:  Levant,  from  which  the  ma»- 
tich  is  gathered,  has  been  confounded  by 
m  1st  botanical  writers  with  the  lenliseus,  or 
common  mastich-tree,  abt>ve  described, 
tliough  there  are  considerable  differences 
between  tlieni. 

Tlie  first  species  is  pro|)agafed  by  its  nuts: 
which  sliould  be  planted  in  pots  filled  with 
light  kitchen-garden  earth,  and  |)lunged  into 
a  moderate  hotbed  lo  bring  up  the  plants. 


r  I  S 

The  second  sort  is  conimonlv  proptrrited 
by  l.iying  down  the  branches,  tiiough  it  may 
also  be  raised  from  the  seed  in  the  maimer 
already  directed  for  the  pistachia-nul  tree  ; 
and  in  this  maimer  aUo  may  the  Irye  mas- 
tich-tree be  raised.  Put  t!iis,  being  mure 
tender  than  any  of  the  other  sorts,  reipiires  lo 
be  constanily  sheltered  in  winter,  and  to  have 
a  warm  situation  in  summer. 

Pislacliia-nuts  have  a  pleasant,  sweet,  unc- 
tuous t, isle,  resembling  liiat  of  almonds;  and 
they  abound  with  a  sweet  and  well-tasted 
oil,  wiiich  they  yield  in  great  abundance  on 
beuig  pressed  niter  bruising  them;  they  are 
reckoned  among-.t  tlie  aruileptics,  and  are 
wholesome  and  nutritive,  and  are  by  some 
esteemed  very  proper  to  b(;  prescribed  by 
way  of  restoratives,  eaten  in  small  quantity, 
■to  people  emaciated  by  long  illness. 

PIST1.\,  a  genus  of  the  monadelphia  oc- 
'tandria  class  and  order.  There  is  no  caly.x  ; 
the  corolla  is  onc-p(.'talled,  tongue-shaped, 
entire;  anthers  six  or  eight;  style  one; 
ca|)sule  one-celled.  There  is  one  species, 
an  a(|uatic  of  Senegal. 

PISTIL.     See  Botany. 

PISTON.     See  Pumi-. 

PISUM,  pea;  a  genus  of  the  decan- 
dria  order,  in  the  diadelphia  class  of  plants. 
The  style  is  triangular,  above  one-celled,  pu- 
bescent ;  calyx  has  the  two  upper  segments 
shorter.  The  species  are,  1.  The  sativum, 
or  garden  pea.  '_'.  The  maritimum,  or  sea- 
pea,  with  footstalks  which  are  plain  on  their 
upper  side,  an  angular  stalk,  arrow-pointed 
stipuhv,  and  footstalks  bearing  many  llowers. 
3.  The  ochrus,  with  membranaceous  running 
footstalks,  having  two  leaves  and  one  Hower 
upon  a  footstalk. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  garden-peas 
now  cultivated  in  Britain,  which  are  distin- 
guished by  the  gardeners  and  seedsmen,  and 
have  their  different  titles  ;  but  as  great  part 
of  these  have  been  seminal  variations,  so,  if 
they  are  not  very  carefiilly  managed,  by  tak- 
ing away  all  those  i)lant>  which  have  a  ten- 
dency to  alter  before  the  seeds  are  formed, 
they  will  degenerate  into  their  original  state ; 
therefore  all  those  persons  who  are  curious 
in  the  ch(jice  of  seeds,  look  carefullv  over 
those  which  they  design  for  seeds  at  the  time 
when  they  begin  to  Hower,  and  draw  out  all 
the  plants  which  thev  dislike  from  the  other. 
This  is  what  they  call  roguing  their  peas; 
meaning  the  taking  out  all  tiie  bad  plants 
from  the  good,  that  the  farina  of  the  former 
imiy  not  im|)regnale  the  latter;  to  prevent 
which,  they  always  do  it  before  the  llowers 
open.  By  thus  diligently  drawing  out  the 
bad,  reserving  those  which  come  earliest  to 
Hower,  they  have  greatly  improved  their 
peas  of  late  years,  and  are  constantly  endea- 
vouring to  get  forwartler  varieties;  so  that 
it  would  be  to  hide  purpose  in  this  place 
to  attempt  giving  a  particular  account  of  all 
the  v-arielies  now  cultivated;  we  sliall  thi-ri'- 
fore  only  mention  the  names  bv  which  lliev 
areconimonlv  known,  placing  them  accord- 
ing tti  their  time  of  coming  to  the  table,  or 
gathering  for  use. 

The  golden  hotspur.  Nonpareil. 

The  ( liarllon.  Sugar  dwarf. 

TJie  Reading  hotspur.  Sickle  pea. 

Master's  hotspur.  Marrowfat. 

Lssex  hotspur.  Uose  or  crown  pea. 

Ilie  dwarf  pea.  Kounceval  pea. 


P  I  T 

Ttie  sugar  pea.  fJrey  pea. 

Sp.inisli  .Morollo  Pig  pea. 

Among  the  new  varieties  we  may  specify 
an  uncommonly  line  species  of  m'ariowfat, 
raised  by  that  truly  philosophical  gardener, 
K.  P.  Rnight,  est]",  and  lobe  had  at  Mr. 
M.ison's,  Fietjt-.-.treet. 

I  he  I'jiglish  sea-pea  is  found  wild  upun 
the  shore  in  Sussex  and  several  otiier  coun- 
ties in  England,  and  is  undoubtedly  a  differ- 
ent species  from  the  common  pea.' 

The  third  sort  is  annual,  and  grows  natu- 
rally among  the  corn  in  Sicily  and  some  parts 
of  Italy,  but  is  here  preserved  in  botanic  gar- 
dens lor  tiie  sake  ol  variety.  It  has  an  an- 
gular stalk,  rising  near  three  feet  high;  the 
leaves  stand  upon  winged  footstalks,  eac  li 
sustaining  two  oblong  lobes.  The  llowers 
are  of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  sha|x-d  like  those 
of  the  other  sort  ot  pea,  but  are  small,  each 
footstalk  sustaining  one  llosver;  ihese  are 
succeeded  by  poils  about  two  inches  loin;, 
containing  five  or  six  roundish  seeds,  whicli 
are  a  little  compressed  on  their  sides.  Ihesc 
are  by  some  persons  eaten  green;  but  un- 
less liiey  are  gathered  very  young,  they  are 
coarse,  and  at  best  not  so  good  as  die  com- 
mon |)ea.  It  may  be  sown  and  managed  in 
the  same  way  as  tlie  garden  pea. 

PITCAIKNIA,  a  genus  of  the  hexandria 
monogynia  class  and  order.  The  calyx  is 
three-leaved,  half-superior;  corolla  tliree- 
petalled,  w  ilh  a  scale  at  the  base  of  each  ; 
stigmas  three,  contorted;  capsules  three, 
oi)ening  inwards;  seeds  winged.  There  are 
three  species,  herbs  of  the  West  Indies. 

Pl'ICfl,  a  tenacious  oily  substance,  drawn 
chielly  from  pines  and  furs,  and  used  in  ship- 
ping, medicine,  and  various  other  arts;  or  it 
is  more  properly  tar,  inspissated  by  boiling 
it  over  a  slow-lire.     See  PiNus. 

Pitch,  mineral,  has  a  strong  resemblance 
to  common  pitch.  Colour  black,  dark- 
brown,  or  reddish.  Specific  gravity  from 
1.45  to  2.  Does  not  slain  the  fingers.  On 
a  white  iron  it  tlames  with  a  strong  smell, 
and   leaves  a  ciuanlity  of  grey  ashes.     See 

BiTUIMKN, 

PiTcnSTOXE.  This  stone,  whicli  oc- 
curs in  dilierciit  parts  of  Germany,  Eraiice, 
and  other  countries,  has  obtained  its  name 
from  some  resemblance  which  it  has  been 
sup|iosed  to  have  to  pitch.  It  is  most  usually 
in  aniorplious  pieces  of  dilferent  sizes. 

Us  fracture  is  conchoidal  and  uneven,  and 
sometimes  approaches  the  splintery.  Ex- 
ceedingly brittle;  it  yields  even  to  the  nail 
of  the  finger.  Specific  gravity  2.5  to  l.i>. 
Its  colours  are  numerous  ;  greyi;h  black, 
bluish  grey,  green,  red,  yellow  of  ilillereut 
shades.  Sometimes  several  of  these  coloiir't 
appear  together  in  the  same  stone.  A  spiti- 
nien  of  pitelislone,  analysed  by  Mr.  kla. 
proth,  contained 
7). Hi)  silica 
H.jU  alumina 

1.00  lim  • 

1.00  oxide  of  iron 

0. 1 0  oxide  of  manganese 

1.75  soda 

8.50  water. 


<)9  8j 

PITH,  in  vegetation,  the  soft  spongy  sob- 
slance  contained  in  the  central  pans  of  plants 
and  trees.     See  Plants,  plijaiology  of. 


PEll/\MBlT]LATOR .  kv 


Faro'jun''  d^i 


Prdil^d  IToKi-l^oS  /£r  Ricliard  itoDips.  JV^w  Srid^e  SuBhuJe^riarj^, 


JyrtB'r   j-c. 


P  L  A 

PITTOSPORUM,  ill  botany,  a  gpnus  of 
f lie  inonogynia  order,  in  tlie  peiitandria  class 
<)t'  plants.  The  calyx  is  piMitaphylloii^  in- 
ferior, ami  deciduous.  The  petals  are  five 
ill  number;  the  style  tlircad-sliaped;  the 
capsule  soniewiiat  angular,  trilocular,  and 
coiitainin;.^  tliree  or  tour  angulatcd  seeds, 
adheririg  to  tlie  capsule  by  means  ot  a  liquid 
resin  in  tiie  loculaineiits.  Of  tliis  there  are 
three  species,  viz.  1.  'renuifoliuni.  '2.  Vm- 
liellatuui.  3.  Coriaceuni.  The  llrst  and 
second  are  natives  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Mope ;  the  tiiird  grows  in  Madeira,  and 
Oowers  in  May  and  June. 

PITl'i  TAKY  Gland:     See  Anatomy. 

PLACENTA.     See  Anatomy  and  Mid- 

■WIFERV. 

PLAGIANTHUS,  a  eenus  of  the  class 
and  order  monadelphia  dodecaiidria.  The 
<mIvx  is  tive-cleft ;  petals  five;  berry. 
'I'liere  is  one  species,  a  native  of  New  Zea- 
land. 

PLAGUE,  Pf.stile.vce,  or  Pestilen- 
tial FE\  ER.     See  Medicine. 

Plague-water,  one  of  the  compound 
waters  of  the  shops,  distilled  from  mint,  rose- 
mary, angelica-roots,  &c. 

PLAIN,  in  general,  an  appellation  given 
to  whatever  is  smootii  and  even,  or  simple, 
obvious,  and  easy  to  be  under-tood ;  and, 
conseijueiitly,  stands  opposed  to  rough,  en- 
riched, or  laboured. 

A  phiin  figure,  in  geometry,  is  an  uniform 
surface ;  from  every  point  of  whose  peri- 
meter, right  lines  may  be  drawn  to  every 
other  point  in  the  safr.e. 

A  plain  angle  is  one  contained  under  the 
two  lines  or  surface^,  in  contradistinction  to 
a  solid  angle.  I'he  doctrine  of  plain  tri- 
angles, as  those  included  under  three  right 
lines,  is  termed  plain  trigonometry.  See 
Trigonometry. 

Plain  chart.     See  Chart. 

Plain  sailing.     See  Navigation. 

Plain  SCALE.     See  Scale. 

Plain  table,  in  Surveying,  a  vervsini|)le 
instrument,  whereby  the  draught  of  a  held 
is  taken  on  the  spot,  w  ithout  any  future  pro- 
traction. It  is  generally  of  au  oblong  rect- 
angular figure,  and  supported  by  a  fulcrum, 
so  as  to  turn  every  way  by  means  of  a  ball 
and  socket.  It  has  a  moveable  frame  whit  h 
serves  to  hold  fast  a  clean  paper;  and  the 
sides  of  this  frame,  facing  the  paper,  are  di- 
vided into  etpial  parts  every  way.  It  has 
also  a  box  with  a  magnetical  needle,  and  a 
large  index  with  two  sights;  and,  lastly,  on 
the  edge  of  the  frame,  are  marked  degrees 
and  minutes.     See  Surveying. 

Plain  number,  is  a  number  that  may  be 
produced  by  the  niulti|)lication  of  two  num- 
bers into  one  another;  thus  30  is  a  plain 
number  produced  by  the  multiplication  of 
5  into  4. 

Plain  place,  locus  planus,  or  locus  ad 
planum,  among  the  antient  geometricians, 
tlenoted  a  geometrical  locus,  when  it  was  a 
right  line  or  a  circle,  in  opposition  to  a  solid 
place,  which  was  an  ellipsis,  parabola,  or  hy- 
perbola. These  the  moderns  distinguished 
into  loci  ad  rectum,  and  loci  ad  circuhmi. 

Plain  problem,  in  mathematics,  is  such 
a  problem  as  cannot  be  solved  geometri- 
cally, but  by  the  intersection  either  of  aright 
line  and  a  circle,  or  of  the  circumferences  of 
two  circles ;  as,  given  the  greatest  sitle,  and 

Vol.  II. 


P  L  A 

the  sum  of  tlie  other  two  sides  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle,  to  find  the  triangle,  as  also 
to  describe  a  trape/iinn  that  shall  make  a 
given  area  of  lour  given  lines.  Such  pro- 
blems can  only  have  two  solutions,  in  regani 
a  right  line  can  only  cut  a  circle,  or  one  cir- 
cle cut  anollicr,  in  two  jwints. 

PLAIS  TEK  ofPiiria.    See  Sulphat  of 

LIME. 

PI /AN,  in  general,  denotes  the  represen- 
tation of  sometliing  drawn  on  a  plane ;  such 
are  maps,  cluirts,  iciuiographies,  &c.  See 
Map,  CJhart,  cS;c. 

The  term  plan,  however,  is  particularly 
used  for  a  draught  of  a  buikling,  sucji  as  it 
appears,  or  is  intenrled  to  ap])ear,  on  the 
ground ;  shewing  the  extent,  division,  and 
distribution  of  its  area,  or  ground-plot,  into 
apartments,  rooms,  passages,  &.C.  See  Ar- 
chitecture. 

PLANA  HI  A,  a  genus  of  vermes  intestina  ; 
tlie  generic  character  is,  liody  gelalinous, 
llattisii,  with  a  double  ventral  pote,  mouth 
terminal;  this  genus  contains  many  sjiecies, 
and  is  divided  into  sections. 

Tlie  section  A  is  without  eyes  ;    planaria 
gulo,  body  long,  pellucid,  and  truncate  be- 
fore; inhabits  stagnant  water,  uniler  duck- 
weed ;  body  grev  ;  the  margin  all  round  is 
tesselate  with  very  hne  stria; ;  it  swallows  the 
cyclidia  which  inhabit  the  same  waters,  and 
after  a  time  discharges  tliem  again.     Planaria 
operculata   inhabits  the  sandy   shores,    and 
among  fuci  in  the  bays  of  Norway;  something 
resembles   a  coffee    berry  ;    and   moves   by 
bending  its  margin,  and  by  means  of  its  mar- 
ginal folds  fixes  itself  to  and  ascends  other 
bodies.     The  section  B,  with  a  single  eye : 
C  witli  two  eves;  D  with  three  eyes,  and 
E  with  four  eyes. 
PLANE.    See  Geometry. 
Plane,  in  joinery,  an  edged  tool,  or  in- 
strument  for   paring   and  shaving   of  wood 
smooth.     It  consists  of  a  piece  of  wood,  very 
smooth  at  bottom,  as  a  stock  or  shaft ;  in  the 
middle  of  wliich  is  an  aperture,  through  which 
a  j'eel-edge,    or    chisel,    placed   obliquely, 
passes,  which  being  very  sharp,  takes  off  the 
inequalities    of    the  wood  it   is    slid   along. 
Planes  have  various  names,  according  to  their 
various  forms,  sizes,  and  uses  ;    as  ! .  The 
fore-plane,  which  is  a  very  long  one,  and  is 
usually  that  which  is  lir>t  used ;  the  edge  of 
its  iron  or  cliisel  is  not  ground  straight,  but 
rises  with  a  convex  arch  in  the  middle ;  its 
use  is  to  take  off  the  greater  irregularities 
of  the  stuff,  and  to  prepare  it  for  the  sniootli- 
ing-plane.     2.  The  smoothing-plane  is  short 
and  small,  its  chisel  being  liner;  its  use  is  to 
take  ofl'  the  greater  irregularities  left  by  the 
fore-plane,  and  to  prepare  the  wood  for  the 
jointer.     3.  The  jointer  is  the  longest  of  all ; 
its  edge  is  very  fine,  aiul  does  not  stand  out 
above  a  hair's  breadth;  it  is  chietly  used  for 
shooting  the  edge  of  a  board  perfectly  straight, 
for  jointing  tables,  &c.     4.  The  strike-block, 
wiiicli  is  lil<e  the  jointer,  but  shorter;  its  use 
is  to  shoot  short  joints.     5.  The  rabljit-plane, 
which  is  used  in  cutting  the  upper  edge  of 
a  board,  straight  or  square,  down  into  the 
stuff,  so  that  tlie  edge  of  another  cut  after  the 
same  manner,  may  join  in  with  it,  on  the 
scjuare ;  it  is  also   used  in  striking  facias  on 
mouldings ;  the  iron  or  cliisel  of  this  plane 
is  as  broad  as  its  stock,  that  the  angle  niav 
cut  straight,  and  it  delivers  its  shavings  at 
the  sides,  and  not  at  tlie  top,  like  the  others. 
3  K 


TLA 


'«41 


6.  The  plough,  which  is  a  narrow  rabbit- 
plane,  with  the  addition  of  two  staves,  on 
w  hich  are  shoulders ;  its  use  is  to  plow  a 
iiarrov/  square  gniove  on  the  edge  of  a  board. 

7.  Moulding-planes,  which  are  of  various 
kinds,  accommodafed  to  the  various  forms 
and  profiles  of  the  moulding  ;  as  the  rouiiil- 
plaiie,  tlie  hollow-plain-,  the  ogee,  the  snipe'j 
bill,  &c.  wliich  are  ail  ot  several  siiies,  hoin 
half  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half. 

I'LANET.  See  Astronomy. 
PLANETARII'M,  an  astronomical  ma- 
chine, madi'  to  represi'nt  the  motions  of  the 
planets,  and  their  sutellites,  as  they  really  are 
11)  nature.  We  have  in  some  degree  ex- 
plained the  theory  of  the  planetarium,  under 
the  article  Orrery;  we  shall  now  (lescribe 
a  perspective  view  of  the  macliine  itself,  and 
shew  the  nature  and  structure  of  the  wheels 
by  which  the  motion  of  the  whole  is  produ- 
ced.    See  Plate  Planetarium. 

In  the  pkim  tariuin  exhibited  in  the  plate, 
A  rejiresents  the  Sun,  which  is  fixed  hrmly 
to  a  wire  a,   and  has  no  motion ;  B   is   the 
])lanet  Mercury,  revolving  round  the  Sun; 
D  is   the  jilanet  X'enus ;    E  represifnts  the 
Earth,  and  c  the   Moon  revolving  round  it; 
f  is  a  segment   of  brass  called   the   Earth's 
terminator,  which  shews  that  all  the  parts  of 
the  Earth  liehind  it  are  not  illuminated  by 
the  Sun;  F  is  the  planet  Mars;  G,  Jupiter  and 
his  four  satellites;  H,  Saturn,  with  his  Ring 
and  seven  satellites;    K  the  Ilerschel,  antl 
six  satellites.      L  is  a  small  winch,   which 
when  turned  gives  motion  to  Mercury  and 
\'enus,  and  shews  the  Earth's  annual  motion 
round  the  Sun,  its  diurnal  motion,  and  the 
Moon's  motion  round  the  Earth.     The  pro- 
jection in  the  middle  of  the  circular  board 
M,  coiisiats   of  the  following  parts:    a  steel 
wire  a,   whose  lower  end   is  screwed  to  a 
bridge  under  the  board,  and  which  carries 
the  Sun;  over  this  is  put  a  tube,  on  whose 
lower  end  a  worm-wheel,  worked  by  a  worm 
on  the  arbor  of  the  winch  L  above-mention 
eil,  is  fixed;  and  to  the  upper  end  the  frame 
of  wheels   N,   with   the  Earth   and  Moon. 
Over  these  is  a  conical  tube,  which  has  a 
flaunch  at  its  lower  end,  and  is  fastened  to 
the  board  M  by  three  strews;  the  arms  car- 
rying the  planets  Mars  F,  Jupiter  G,  Saturn 
II,  and  the  Ilerschel  K,  are  fitted  stiflly  upon 
this  tube,  so  as  not  to  turn  unless  they  are 
moved.     These   planets    do  not   move    by 
turning  the  winch,  but  are  to  be  set  bv  hand  ; 
as   also   their   satellites.      In    the   fnuiie  of 
wheels  N  (tigs.  1  and  '2)  g  is  tiie  first  wheel ; 
which  is  fixed  to  the  wire  a   (fig.  1),   and  is 
without  any  motion  :  this  works  into  another 
wheel  !i  of  tlie  same  size,  fixed  to  the  spindle 
/.     The  wheel  h  works  another  wheel  k  of 
the  same  size,  on  whose  sjiindle  ;/  (fig.  1)  the 
Earth  is  fixed.      Besides  the  wheel  h,   the 
spindle  i  has  three  other  w  heels  /  m  n,  fixed 
on  it.     The  wheel  /  turns  o,  which  works 
a  pillion  beneath  the  wheel  g-,  carrying  the 
planet  Mercury  B  (fig.  I) :  this  pinion  has  a 
hollow  spindle,  and  goes  over  the  wire  a. 
The  wheel  m  on  the  spindle  i  works  into  p; 
which  gives  motion  to  the  pinion  g  (whose 
spindle  goes  over  the  spindle  of  the  pinion 
wliich  carries  ^Iercury),  and  has  the  planet 
Venus  (D  fig.  1)  fixed  to  it.  The  large  wheel 
n   on  the   spindle  i  turns,  by  intermediate 
wheels,  the  pinion  S,  whose  arbor  goes  over 
the  spindle  carrying  the  Earth :  this  has  an 
arm  tor  the  Moon  fixed  to  it.     The  wiie  t. 


442 


P  L  A 


to  whicli  (lie  Moon  is  fixed,  slides  up  and 
down  through  a  hole  in  the  endtjf  the  arm; 
and  ih«  lower -end  of  tiie  wiie  re-^ts  on  a  cir- 
cular ring  I',  whose  plane  is  paralk-l  to  the 
pljne  of  the  Moon's  orbit;  so  that  as  the 
aim  turns  round,  the  wire  is  pushed  up  by 
the  inclination  of  the  ring,  and  falls  bv  its  own 
vciglit.  Beneath  this  is  a  ring  with  "divisions 
on  it,  shewing  the  Moon's  age.  When  the 
winch  L  is  turned,  it  works  the  wortn-wheel 
beneath  the  board  M,  and  moves  the  frame 
N  (fig.  1)  with  the  Earth  round  the  .Sun; 
and  as  the  wheel  "•  is  tixed,  the  wheel  h  is 
turned  by  rolling  round  it ;  and  as  k  (which 
it  works)  is  of  the  same  size  with  the  other 
two,  it  turns  the  Earth  so  that  its  axis  always 
poii;ts  to  the  pole.  The  wheel  /,  by  means 
of  the  wheel  o,  turns  the  pinion  which  car- 
ries Mercury  B  (fig.  I).  The  wheel  ?«wifh  the 
wheel  /)  turns  a:,  and  the  planet  Venus  ]J  (lig. 
1)  ;  and  the  wheel  «  turns  the  pinion  ,v,  and 
the  Moon  an  before  described.  The  number 
of  teeth  in  the  wheels  and  pinions  respec- 
tively, must  be  so  proportioned,  tliat  each 
planet  may  revolve  in  the  same  periods  as 
we  have  described  under  Astronomy. 

PLAXIMETRY,  that  part  of  geometry 
which  considers  lines  and  plane  figures,  witli- 
out  any  regard  to  heights  or  depths.  Plani- 
metry is  particularly  restricted  to  the  mensu- 
ration of  planes  and  other  surfaces  ;  as  con- 
tradistinguished from  stereometry,  or  the 
mensuration  of  solids,  or  capacities  of  length, 
breadth,  and  depth.  Planimetry  is  formed 
by  means  of  the  squares  of  long  measures, 
•AS  square  inclies,  square  feet,  square  vards, 
&c.  that  is,  by  squares  whose  side  is  an"  inch, 
a  foot,  a  yard,  &c.  So  tliat  the  area  or  con- 
tent of  any  surface  is  said  to  be  found,  when 
it  is  known  how  many  such  scjuare  inches, 
feet,  yards,  &:c.  it  contains. 

PLANISPHERE,  signifies  a  projection 
of  the  sphere,  and  its  various  circles  on  a 
iplane;  in  which  sense  maps,  wherein  arc  ex- 
hibited the  meridians,  and  other  circl.'S  of 
the  sphere,  are  planispheres.  See  Map, 
Projectio.v,  &c. 

Planisphere,  is  more  particularly  used 
for  an  astronomical  instrument  used  "in  ob- 
serving tlie  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
It  consists  of  a  projection  of  the  celestial 
sphere  upon  a  plane,  represent ing  the  stars, 
constellations,  &c.  in  their  iiroper  order; 
fome  being  projected  on  the  meridian,  and 
others  on  the  equator. 

PLANTAGO,  PLAMT.-MN';  a  genus  of 
the  monogynla  order,  in  the  tetrandria  class 
of  plants.  The  calyx  is  four-cleft;  corolla 
four-cleft;  border  re'tiex ;  stamina  v.-ry  long; 
capsules  two-celled,  cut  transversely.  "There 
arc  3S  species,  of  whicli  the  most  luitcd  are : 
1.  'Ihc  common  broad-leaved  plantain,  called 
wey  bread  ;2.tliegreatlK)ary  plantain,  or  lamb's 
tongiie;  3.  live  narrow-leaved  plantain,  or 
ribwort;  and  the  following  varietits  have 
also  bee.i  found  in  England,  which  are  act  i- 
denlal ;  the  besom-plantain  and  rose-plantain. 
'I'he  plantains  grow  naturally  in  pastiin-s  in 
most  parts  of  luigland,  and  are  frequently 
very  troublesome  weeds.  Tlie  common 
plantain  and  ribwort-plantain  are  Ixith  used 
m  medicine,  and  are  so  well  known  as  to 
need  no  description.  They  are  said  to  be 
slightly  astringent ;  and  the  green  leaves  are 
coFnmonly  applieiJ  to  fresh  wounds  by  the 
■common  people 


P  L  A 

there  are  t(vo  varieties  grouing  in  England, 
viz.  the  common  buck's-horn,\vhirli  grows 
pk-nlitully  on  heaths  every  where;  and  the 
narrow-leaved  Welsh  sort,  which  is  found 
upon  many  of  the  Welsh  mountains.  Tiie 
first  of  these  was  formerly  cultivated  as  a 
salad  herb  in  gardens,  but"has  been  long  ba- 
nished for  its  rank  disagreeable  flavour ;  it  is 
sometimes  used  in  medicine. 

PLANTING,  in  agriculture  and  garden- 
ing.    The  first  thing  in  planting  is  to  prepare 
the  ground  before  the  trees  or  plants  are  taken 
out  of  the  earth,  that  they  may  remain  out 
of  the  ground  as  short  a  time  as  pos-ible, 
and  the  next  is  to  take  up  the  trees  or  plants 
in  order  to  their  being  transplanted.     In  tak- 
ing up  the  trees,  caret'ully  dig  away  the  earth 
round  the  roots,  so  as  to  come  at  their  seve- 
ral parts  to  cut  them  off;  for  if  they  are  torn 
out  of  the   ground  without  care,  the  roots 
will  be  broken  and  bmiseil  to  the  great  in- 
jury of  the  trees.     When   you  have  taken 
them  up,  the  next  thing  is  to  prepare  them 
for  planting  by  pruning  the  roots  and  heads. 
And  first,  prune  off  all  the  bruised  or  broken 
roots,  all  such   as  are  irregular,  and  cross 
each  other,  and  all  downright  roots,  especi- 
ally  in  fruit-trees ;  shorten  the  larger  roots 
in  proportion  to  the  age,  the  strength,  and 
nature  of  the  tree:  observing  that  the  wal- 
nut, mulberry,  and  <ome  other  tender-rooted 
kinds,  should  not  be  pruned  so  close  as  tlie 
more  hardy  sorts  of  fruit  and  forest-trees ;  in 
young  fruit-trees,   such   as    pears,    apples, 
plumbs,  peaches,  &c.  that  are  one  vrar  old 
from  the  time  of  their  budding  or  grafting, 
the  roots  may  be   left  only  about  eight  or 
nine  inches  long ;   but  in  older  trees  they 
must  be  left  of  a  much  greater  length:  but 
this  is  only  to  be  understood  of  the  larger 
roots  ;  for  the  small  ones  must  be  chiefly  cut 
quite  out,  or  pruned  very  short.     The  next 
thing  is  the  pruning  of  their  heads,  which 
must  be   dilierenlly   performed  in  dilTerent 
trees;  and  the  di?sign  of  the  trees  must  also 
be  considered  :  thus,  if  they  are  designed  for 
walls  or  espaliers,  it  is  best  to  plant  them  with 
the  greate>t  part  of  their  heads,  which  should 
remain  on  till  they  begin   to  shoot  in  the 
spring,  when  they  must  be  cut  down  to  five 
or  six  eyes,  at  the  same  time  taking  care  not 
'to  disturb  the  roots.     But  if  the  trees  are  de- 
signed for  stanJards,  you  should  prune  oil  all 
the  small  branches  close  to  the  place  where 
they  are  produced,  as  also  the  irregular  ones 
which  cross  each  other ;    and  after  having 
displaced  these  branches,  you  should  also  cut 
ofl'all  such  parts  of  brandies,  as  have  by  anv 
accident  been   broken  or  wounded  ;  but  by 
no  means  cut   olf  the   main  leading   shoots 
which  are  necessary  to  attract  from  the  root, 
and  thus  promote    the   growth   of  the  tree. 
Having  thus  prepared  the  trees  for  planting, 
you  must  now  proceed  to  place  them  in  llie 
earth  ;  but  ifthelirst  trees  have  been  long  out 
of  theground.sothatthe  fibresof  the  roots  are 
dried,  place  them  eig!it  or  ten  hours  in  water 
biifore  they  are   planted,   with  their  he;ids 
erect,  and  the  roots  only  immersed  in  it; 
which  will  swell  the  dried  vessels  of  the  roots, 
and   prepare  tlii.iu  to   imbibe  nourishnient 
from   the  earth.      In   planting  them,   gre-at 
regard  should  be   had  to  the  nature  ot'  the 
soil;  for  if  that  is  cold  and  moist,  the  tn-es 
should  be  planted  very  shallow  ;  and  if  it  is  a 
hard  rock  or  gravel,  it  will  bo  better  to  raise 


Of  the  coroiiopus,  or  buck's-horn  plantain,  [  a  hill  of  eartirwhere  each  tree  is'to  be  plaiit- 


P  L  A 

ed,  ilian  to  dig  into  the  rock  or  gravel,  and 
fill  it  up  with  earth,  as  is  too  often  practised, 
by  which  means  the  trees  are  planted  as  in  a 
tub,  and  have  but  little  room  to  extend  their 
roots.     'J  he  next  thing  to  be  observed  is, 
to  place  the  trees  in  the  hole  in  suc^i  a  nikn- 
ner,  that  the  roots  may  be  about  the  same- 
depth  in  the  ground,  as  before  they  were 
taken  up  ;  then  break  the  earth  fine  with  a 
spade,  and  scatter  it  into  the  hole,  so  that  it 
may  fall  in  between  every  root,  that  there 
may  be  no  hoUowness  in  t'he  earth.     Haviu" 
filled  up  the  whole,  gently  tread  down  the 
earth  with  j-our  feet,  but  do  not  make  it  too 
hard  ;  which  is  a  great  fault,  especially  if  the 
ground  is  strong  or  wet.     Having  thus  plant- 
ed the  trees,  tliey  should  be  fastened  to  sta.kej 
driven  into  the  ground,  to  prevent  their  bein" 
displaced  by  the  wind,  and  some  mulch  laid 
about  the  surface  of  the  ground  about  their 
roots :  as  to  such  as  are  planted  against  walls, 
their  roots   should  be  placed  about  a  foot 
from  the  wall,  to  which  their  heads  should 
be  nailed  to  prevent  their  being  blown  up 
by  the  wind.     The  seasons  tor  planting  are 
various,  according  to  the  different  sorts  of 
trees,  or  the  soil  in  which  they  are  planted  ; 
for  tiie  trees  wliose  leaves  fall  off  in  winter, 
the  best  time  is  the  beginning  of  October, 
l)r(jvided  the  soil  is  dry ;  but  if  it  is  a  very 
wet  soil,  it  is  better  to' defer  it  till  the  latter 
end  of  Eebruary,  or  the  beginning  of  March  ; 
and  for  many  kinds  of  evergreens,  the  begin- 
ning  of  April   is   by  far   the    best  season  ; 
though  they  may  be  safely  removed  at  M  id- 
summer,  provided  they  are  not  to  be  carried 
very  tar;  but  you  should  always  make  choice 
of  a  cloudy  wet  season. 

PLANTS,  phjsiolngi/  of.  The  constitu- 
ent or  elementary  principles  of  vegetables 
in  general,  are  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  char- 
coal. These,  as  far  as  our  observations  have 
hitherto  extended,  are  common  to  all  vege- 
tables. 'I'here  are  some  other  substances, 
such  as  lime,  potass,  iron,  and  azote,  which 
are  occasionally  found  in  vegetables  ;  but  a* 
they  are  not  common  to  all  plants,  they  can- 
nut  be  considered  as  essential  to  the  consti- 
tution of  vegetable  matter. 

I'lie  parts  of  vegetables  which  naturalists 
are  accustomed  to  consider  as  distinct  in  their 
nature  and  functions,  are  six  :  the  stem  or 
trunk,  the  root,  tlie  leaf,  the  flower,  the  fruit, 
and  the  seed.  In  many  vegetables  the  root 
appears  nearly  similar,  in  all  its  constituent 
parts  and  principles,  to  the  stem  or  trunk, 
and  iiuleed  the  one  seems  a  continuation  of 
the  other ;  which  must  be  our  apology  for 
reversing  in  some  degree  the  order  of  nature, 
and  treating  first  of  that  part ;  which,  though 
it  seems  to  proceed  or  s|)ring  immediately 
from  the  other,  is  yet  the  most  perfect  in  its 
organization,  and  is  in  general  of  tlie  greatest 
iLse  and  importame  to  man. 

I.  The  stem  or  trunk,  which  includes  also 
tlif  branches,  we  might  say  all  the  more  solid 
and  substantial  parts  of  a  tree  oi-  plant,  con- 
sists of  three  parts,  the  Ixirk^  the  wood,  and 
tin'  pith. 

1st.  The  bark  is  protected  on  the  outside 
by  a  cuticle,  epidermis,  or  scarf-skin,  wiiicli 
consists  sometimes  of  numerous  layers,  and 
dilfers  in  thickness  in  dilCerent  plants.  This 
skin  or  cuticle  is  an  oii>anized  body,  com- 
posed of  very  minute  bladders,  interspersed 
with  longitudinal  libres,  as  in  the  nettle, 
thistle,  and  tht  generality  of  herbs.     It  con- 


L 


\ 


■taun  alsoloiigiUuliiial  vessels,  anrl  is  visibly 
porous  in  sonic  plaiiU,  and  particiiiarly  the 
cane. 

'J.  On  removing  llie  cnlicie,  tin*  (rnc  bark 
appears,  and  may  bf*  considt-red  as  a  con;;^- 
iii's  of  pnip  or  t-t"llnlar  snbstance,  in  wliii  li 
;ir?  plaoni  a  nunilii'r  of  vessels,  as  well  as 
longimdinal  iil'res.  The  vessels  of  tlie  baik 
an;  dillt-nntly  sitnaleH,  and  dv.'slini;d  for 
various  uses,  in  differtnt  plants.  In  tlie  bark 
of  tlie  pine,  for  instance,  the  inmost  are 
lynipli-dnits,  exceedingly  minute;  tlio^e 
nearest  the  surface  are  gum  or  resiniferous 
Tessels,  for  the  secretion  of  tlie  turpentine, 
and  these  are  so  large  as  to  be  visible  to  tlie 
naked  eve. 

3d.  '1  lie  wood  lies  between  the  bark  and 
the  pith.  Its  substance  is  denser  than  that 
of  the  bark,  and  its  structure  m-ire  diliicalt 
to  be  understood.  It  is  however  geiieralh 
supposed  to  consist  of  two  substances,  tiie 
parenchymatous  or  cellular,  and  the  ligneous. 
I'he  ligncoii<;  parts  are  no  more  than  a  con- 
geries of  old  dried  lymph-ducts.  Between 
the  bark  and  tlie  woocl  a  new  ring  of  these 
tlucts  is  formed  every  year,  which  gradually 
loses  its  softness  as  the  cold  seaiion  ap- 
proaches, and  towards  the  middle  of  winter 
IS  condensed  into  a  solid  ring  of  wood.  'I'liese 
annual  rings,  which  are  visible  hi  most  trees 
ulien  cut  iransversely,  serve  as  marks  to  de- 
termine their  age.  They  seem  to  decrease 
in  breadth,  as  the  tree  advances  in  age  ;  and 
as  they  are  founil  to  be  very  unequal  in  size 
throughout,  their  breadth  probably  varies 
according  as  the  season  is  favourable  or  other- 
wise. 

Dr.  Darwin  distinguishes  the  wood  into 
two  parts,  the  sap-wood  or  alburnum,  and 
the  heart.  "^Ihe  former  is  much  less  duiable, 
jmd  is  most  abundant  in  thriving  trees.  In  an 
oak-tree  the  division  between  these  parts  is 
very  dislinguishable.  The  alburnum  is  gra- 
dually converted  into  heart ;  but  we  do  not 
recollect  to  have  met  with  any  observations 
whicli  tli-termine  the  number  of  years  in 
which  I  his  conversion  takes  place. 

Dr.  Darn  in  attributes  to  the  sap-wood  the 
oflice  of  nourishing  the  embrvon  buds. 

"  We  may  conclude,"  savs  this  author, 
*'  that  the  umbilical  vessels  of  the  new  bucl 
are  formed  along  with  a  reservoir  of  nutri- 
tious aliment  about  midsummer  in  the  bark, 
wiiich  constitutes  the  long  caudex  of  the 
parent  bud,  in  the  same  manner  asa  reservoir 
<■!  nutritious  matter  is  formed  in  tfie  root  or 
broad  caudex  of  the  turnip  or  oniim,  for  the; 
iiourishm-nt  of  the  rising  stem;  ami  that 
these  umbilical  vessels  of  the  enibrvou  bud, 
and  the  reservoir  of  nutriment  laid  up  for  it, 
which  is  secreted  by  the  glands  of  the  pa- 
rent bud,  and  now  intermixed  with  the  pre- 
sent bark  of  the  tree,  become  gradually 
changed  into  alburnum,  or  sap-wood,  as  the 
season  advances,  in  part  even  before  the  end 
of  the  summer,  and  entirely  during  the  whi- 
ter months. 

"  That  the  alburnum  of  trees,  which  exists 
beneath  the  bark  both  of  the  trunk  and  roots 
ot  them,  contains  the  nutritious  matter  di;- 
Jiosited  by  the  miiture  leaves,  or  parent  buds, 
tortile  use  of  the  embrvon  buds,  appears  not 
only  from  the  saccharine  liquor  which  oozes 
trom  the  wounds  made  in  the  vernal  months 
through  the  bark  into  the  alburnum  of  the 
birch  and  maple,  betula  et  acer;  but  also 
from  the  foUowmg  experiment,  which  was 


PLAfvTS. 

conducted  in  the  winter,  before  (he  vernal 

ba])-iuice  rises. 

"  Part  of  a  branch  of  an  oak  tree  in  Ja- 
nuary was  cut  off,  and  <livlded  can/fullv  into 
three  parts;  the  bark,  the  alburnum,  and  the 
heart.  These  were  shaved  or  rasped,  and 
separately  boiled  for  a  time  in  water,  and 
then  set  m  a  warm  room  to  ferment ;  and  it 
was  seen  that  the  decoction  of  the  alburnum 
or  sap-wood  passed  inio  rapid  fermentation, 
and  became  at  length  acetous,  but  not  <;ither 
of  the  other,  which  evinces  the  existence 
Ixilii  of  sugar  and  mucilage  in  the  alburnum 
during  the  winter  months;  since  a  modern 
French  chemist  has  shewn  bv  experiments, 
that  sugar  alone  will  not  pass  into  the  vinous 
fernientalion,  lint  that  a  mixture  of  mucilage 
IS  also  reiiuired  ;  and  from  tliis  experiment 
it  may  be  concluded,  that  in  years  ol  scarcity 
the  sap-wood  of  those  trees  which  are  not 
acrid  to  tlie  taste,  might  afford  nutriment  by 
the  preparation  of  being  rasped  to  powder, 
and  made  into  bread  by  a  mixture  of  Hour, 
or  by  extracting  their  sugar  and  mucilage 
by  boiling  water.  These  observations  have 
been  since  confirmed  by  the  very  accurate 
experiments  of  Mr.  Knight,  who  has  shewn 
that  all  the  saccharine  matter  of  fruit  trees  is 
elaborated  in  the  leaves  of  the  preceding 
year,  and  tleposited  in  the  alburnum,  whence 
it  is  drawn  in  the  following  spring  for  the 
perfecting  of  the  ilower  and  the  fruit.  An 
essential  caution  (by  the  way)  to  unskilful 
pruners  (such  as  the  bulk  of  common  gar- 
deners are),  who  in  cutting  ofi"  the  new  wood, 
or  alburnum,  in  the  spring,  just  cut  off  so 
much  of  the  fruit  (see  Pritn  TNG);  and  when 
gardeners  (falsely  so  called)  pull  off  the 
leaves  of  vines,  and  other  fruit-trees,  they 
destroy  the  crop  of  the  succeeding  year. 

One  striking  dili'erence  between  the  wood 
and  the  bark  is,  that  the  former  is  possessed 
of  sjjiral  vessels  which  run  from  one  end  of 
the  tree  to  the  other.  From  the  great  re- 
semblance of  these  vessels  to  the  air-vessels 
of  insects,  they  are  supposed  to  be  subservi- 
ent to  the  same  function.  'J'lie  stem  of  some 
plants  is  entirely  hollow  ;  partly,  it  is  suppos- 
ed, from  these  plants,  which  are  generally 
of  a(|uick  growth,  requiring  a  more  than  or- 
dinary supply  of  air. 

Dr.  Darwin  considers  the  spiral  vessels 
above  alluded  to  as  lymphatics.  He  admits 
that  air  is  observed  to  issue  both  from  green 
and  dry  wood  cut  transversely,  which  is  dis- 
tinctly seen  bv  plunging  the  wood  in  water,, 
and  removing  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
by  the  air-puiii|).  This  circumstance,  bow- 
ever,  he  attributes  to  the  rigidity  otthe  libres 
of  wood,  which,  when  divided,  sulTer  the  sap 
to  esca])e,  when,  as  the  vessels  cannot  col- 
lapse, the  air  consequently  enters  in  its  place. 
He  illustrates  and  conlirms  his  opinion  with 
his  accustomed  ingenuity,  and  among  other 
observations  relates  the  following  experi- 
ment; "  I  placed,  in  the  summer  of  1781, 
some  twigs  of  a  fig-tree  witii  leaves  on  tlicm, 
about  an  inch  deep  in  a  decoction  of  madder, 
and  others  in  a  decoction  of  log-wood,  along 
with  some  sprig's  cut  ott'  from  a  plant  of  pieris. 
The^e  plants  were  chosen  because  their 
blood  is  wliite.  After  some  hours,  on  the 
next  day,  on  taking  out  either  of  these,  and 
cutting  off  from  its  bottom  about  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  of  the  stalk,  an  internal  circle  of 
red  points  appeared,  which  I  believed  to  be 
the^cnds  of  absorbent  vessels  coloured  red 
3KS 


443 

with  the  decoction,  and  which  probably  exist- 
ed in  the  newly-formed  alburmini,  or  sap- 
wood  ;  while  an  external  ring  of  arteries  was 
seen  to  bleed  out  hastily  a  milky  juice,  and  at 
once  evinced  both  the  absorbent  and  arterial 
system. 

Dr.  Darwin  admits  the  existence  of  air- 
vessels  which  pass  through  the  bark  to  the 
sap-wood  ;  but  these  run  transversely,  and 
not  in  the  direction  of  the  trunk  or  arms. 
Du  Hainel  likewise  observed  large  vessels, 
some  round  and  some  oval,  which  in  the 
birch-lree  stand  prominent,  and  pierce  the 
outer  br^rk. 

4lh.  The  pith  is  situated  in  the  centre  of 
the  stem,  and  in  young  plants  it  is  very  abun- 
dant. It  is  said  by  some  authors  to  consist 
of  exactly  the  same  snbstance  as  the  paren- 
chyma or  cellular  substance  of  the  bark ;  and 
to  be  composed  of  small  cells  or  bladdens, 
generally  of  a  circular  ligure,  though  in  some 
plants,  as  the  borage  and  thistle,  they  are 
angular.  In  most  plants  the  pith  graifually 
dies  away  as  they  approach  to  maturity  ;  and 
in  oUl  trees  it  is  almost  entirely  obliterated. 
The  pith  ajipears  to  be  essential  to  the  lite 
of  the  other  parts  in  young  shoots.  In  those 
plants  which  have  hollow  stems,  this  central 
cavity,  though  not  tilled  with  the  pith  or 
medulla,  appears  to  be  lined  with  it. 

Such  are  the  solid  parts  of  plants;  but  to 
render  their  organization  more  clearly  under- 
stood, in  I'late  .\Iiscel.  tig.  186,  is  the  section 
ofa  branch  ofasli  cut  Iransversely,  as  it  appears 
to  the  eye.  I'ig.  1  S7,  is  the  same  section  mag- 
nilied  :  AA  the  bark  ;  B15  an  arched  ring  of 
sap-vessels  next  the  cuticle;  CCC  the  cel- 
lular substance  of  llie  bark,  with  another 
arched  row  of  sap-vessels ;  DD  a  circular 
line  of  Ivmph-dncts  next  the  wood  ;  EK  the 
wood;  K  the  lirst  year's  growth;  G  the  se- 
cond; H  tlie  third  ;  HI  the  true  wood  ;  KK 
the  great  air-vessels;  LL  the  lesser  air-ves- 
sels ;  N  the  ijith. 

^riiere  is  reason  to  believe  (hat  the  proper 
entrance  of  the  air  to  plants,  is  through  the 
cuticle ;  which  is  proved  to  be  a  vascular 
substance,  since,  when  under  an  exhausted 
recei\er,  it  issues  directly  through  the  cuticle. 
'J'hat  the  air  is  neces<ary  to  the  suslejiance 
of  plants,  appears  from  the  experiments  of 
Dr.  liell.  In  the  winter  season  he  covered 
several  young  trees  with  varnish,  leaving  the 
tops  of  the  branches  only  exposed  (o  (he  air. 
They  remained  in  (his  situation  during  the 
following  summer,  when  some  of  (hem  livcl, 
though  in  a  languid  stale;  but  tlio^^e  from 
which  the  air  had  been  more  accuratefv  ex- 
cluded, died  without  a  single  exception.  'I'o 
(his  proof  the  same  author  adds,  that  trees 
overgrown  w itii  moss  have  few  leaves,  weak 
shoots,  and  scarcely  any  fruit ;  and  that  it 
is  the  common  practice  of  all  judicious  gar- 
deners to  strip  the  moss  from  the  bark  of 
aged  trees,  which  by  admitting  the  air  gene- 
rally restores  tlicm  to  vigour  and  fruitfulness. 

II.  1  he  root,  which  fixes  the  plant  to  the 
earth,  and  is  the  chief  source  of  its  nourish- 
ment, diliers  much  in  dit'ferent  species  of 
vegetables.  All  roots  agree  in  being  librous 
at  tli'-ir  extremities,  and  it  is  by  tlieir  libres 
chiellv  that  they  are  titled  to  draw  nourish- 
ment'from  Ihe  earth.  The  internal  struc- 
ture e.f  the  root,  or  rather  of  its  fibres,  ditlcrs 
iiol  vei  V  materially  in  g^^neral  from  that  of 
the  stem.  It  consists  of  a  cuticle,  bark, 
wood,  and  commonly  of  a  small  portion  of 


4(4 


PLANTS. 


pith;  tlioiigli  there  are  some  roots  which  have 
no  pith  at  all ;  while  there  are  others  which 
have  little  or  none  at  the  extremitic";,  but  a 
considerable  quantity  near  the  trunk.  The 
cuticle,  in  all  roots,  at  a  certain  age,  is  dou- 
ble ;  the  cortical  substance,  or  bark,  differs 
greatly  in  its  quantity  and  disposition  in  dif- 
icrent  plants.  The  roots,  as  well  as  the 
trunk  of  plants,  are  furnished  with  a  variety 
of  vessels  for  the  purpose  of  conveving  and 
circulating  air  and  the  juices  necessary  to 
their  nourishment. 

In  tig.  1 SS.  is  a  section  of  the  root  of  worm- 
vood,  as  it  appears  to  the  eye;  and  fig. 
189.  is  the  same  magnified.  AA,  the  skin 
with  its  vessels;  BR,  the  bark;  CCC,  the 
Jyniph-ducts  of  the  bark;  the  other  holes 
are  small  cells  or  sap-vessels.  DDD,  pa- 
renchymatous insertions  from  the  bark  ; 
EEE,  the  rays  of  the  wood,  with  thu:  air- 
vessels.     This  root  has  no  pith. 

III.  The  leaves  are  organs  essential  to  the 
existence  of  plants.  Trees  perish  wlien  to- 
tally divested  of  them  ;  and  in  general,  when 
stript  of  any  considerable  proportion  of  their 
leaves,  they  do  not  shoot  vigorously.  The 
leaves  exhibit  a  beautiful  appearance  when 
the  intermediate  parenchymatous  matter  is 
consumed  by  putrefaction.  Both  surfaces 
of  the  leaf  are  covered  with  a  membrane, 
which  is  a  thin  bark,  continued  from  tlic 
scarf-skin  of  the  stalk. 

IV.  The  flower  consists  of  four  parts,  the 
calyx,  the  corolld,  the  stamina,  and  the  pis- 
tillum.  The  calyx  or  tlower-cup  is  almost 
always  of  a  green  colour,  and  is  that  which 
surrounds  and  supports  all  the  other  parts 
of  the  flower.  The  corolla  is  of  various  co- 
lours, is  variously  shaped  in  different  vege- 
tables, and  is  tliat  which  constitutes  the  most 
conspicuous  part  of  the  flower.  It  sometimes 
consists  of  one  continued  substance,  but  more 
fre<|uently  of  several  jjortions,  which  are 
called  petals.  The  stamina  are  supposed  to 
be  the  male  part  of  the  flower.  Linni-us 
defines  them  to  be  an  entrail  of  the  plant, 
designed  for  the  preparation  of  the  pollen. 
Each  stamen  consists  of  two  parts  ;  the  fial- 
mentum  or  fine  thread  which  supports  the 
anthera,  and  the  anthera  itself,  wliich  con- 
tains within  it  the  pollen,  and  when  come  to 
maturity  bursts  and  discharges  it  for  the  im- 
pregnation of  the  germen.  From  the  sup- 
j)osed  function  of  the  stamina,  lliey  alford 
the  chief  foundation  of  the  distribution  of  the 
vegetable  system  into  classes.  .Such  flowers 
as  want  this  part  are  called  female  ;  such  as 
have  it,  but  want  the  pistillum,  are  male; 
such  as  have  them  both,  iierinaphrodite  ;  and 
such  as  have  neither,  neuter. 

The  pistillum  or  pointal  is  supposed  to  be 
the  female  part  of  the  flower ;  it  is  defined 
by  Linnieus  to  be  an  eutrail  of  the  plant, 
designed  for  the  reception  of  the  pollen.  It 
consists  of  three  parts,  the  germen,  the  style, 
and  the  stigma.  The  germen  is  the  rudi- 
ment of  the  fruit  accompanying  the  ilewer, 
but  not  yet  arrived  at  maturity.  'i"he  style 
is  the  part  which  serves  to  elevate  the  stigma 
from  the  germen.  'J'he  stigma  is  the  sum- 
mit of  the  pistillum,  and  is  covered  with  a 
moisture  for  the  breaking  of  the  pollen.  See 
Botany. 

The  pericarpiiun  or  seed-',  essel  is  the  ger- 
men grown  to  maturity.  Such  are  the  con- 
stituent parts  of  the  iiower;  they  are  how- 


ever infinitely  varied,  and  serve  both  to  di- 
versify the  face  of  nature,  and  to  interest  and 
delight  the  curiosity  of  mai..  One  curious 
fact  it  is  necessary  to  notice,  before  we  dis- 
miss this  branch  of  the  siibiect,  and  that  is, 
that  in  the  perennial  plants  especially,  every 
flower  is  perfectly  formed  many  months  be- 
fore it  makes  its  appearance.  Thus  the  flow- 
ers which  appear  in  this  year  are  not  properly 
the  productions  of  this  year  ;  the  mezereon 
flowers  in  January,  but  the  flowers  are  com- 
pletely formed  in  the  bud  m  the  preceding 
autumn:  the  same  is  obvious  in  the  kalinir 
and  rhododendron.  If  the  coats  of  the  tulip- 
root  also  are  carefully  separated  about  the 
beginning  of  Sei)tember,  the  nascent  flower, 
which  is  to  appear  in  the  following  spring, 
will  be  found  in  a  small  cell,  formed  by  the 
innermost  coats,  as  represented  in  plate  fig. 
190,  where  the  young  flower  A  appears  to- 
wards the  bottom  of  the  root. 

V.  The  fruit  consists  of  nearly  the  same 
parts  as  are  found  in  the  stem  ;  of  a  skin  or 
cuticle,  wliich  is  a  production  or  continuation 
of  the  skin  of  the  bark ;  and  of  an  outer  paren- 
chyma, which  is  the  same  substance  conti- 
nued from  the  bark,  only  that  its  vesicles  are 
larger  and  more  succulent  or  juicy.  Next 
the  core  there  is  commonly  an  inner  pulp  or 
parenchyma;  and  the  core  is  no  more  than 
a  hard  woody  membrane,  which  incloses  the 
seed.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that 
the  organization  of  fruit  is  very  various;  in 
some  the  seeds  are  dispersed  through  the 
parenchymatous  or  pulpy  substance;  in 
some,  instead  of  a  core,  we  find  a  strong 
woody  substance,  inclosing  the  seed  or  ker- 
nel, which  from  its  great  hardness  is  termed 
the  stone;  in  some,  there  are  a  number  of 
seeds ;  and  in  others,  only  a  single  seed,  in- 
closed in  a  large  mass  of  parenchymatous 
matter. 

VI.  The  seed  is  a  deciduous  part  of  a  ve- 
getable, containing  the  rudiment  of  a  new 
one.  The  essence  of  the  seed  consists  in  the 
corculum  or  little  heart,  which  is  fastened  to 
the  cotyledones  or  lobes,  and  involved  in 
them,  and  closely  covered  by  its  proper 
tunic.  The  corculum  consists  in  the  p!u- 
mula,  which  is  the  vital  speck  of  the  future 
plant,  extremely  small  in  its  dimensions,  but 
increasing  like  a  bud  to  infinity.  The  ros- 
tellum,  however,  must  be  included,  which  is 
the  base  of  the  plumula;  it  descends  and 
strikes  root,  and  is  the  part  of  the  seed  ori- 
ginally contiguous  to  the  mother-plant.  It 
is  commonly  supposed,  and  with  some  reason, 
that  tlie  perfect  plant,  or  at  least  all  the  or- 
ganizatioiiwliich  is  requisite  toa  perfect  plant, 
e.xisti  in  the  seed  surrounded  by  a  quantity 
of  farinaceous  matter,  which  serve->  to  ab- 
sorb moisture,  and  to  furnish  nourishment  to 
the  corculum  till  its  ))arls  are  suflicienfly  un- 
folded to  ilraw  support  from  the  soil.  A  kid- 
ney-bean, or  lupin,  when  it  has  been  soaked 
for  some  time  in  water,  and  begun  to  swell, 
is  easily  separated  into  its  two  lobes ;  and 
between  these  is  displayed  the  nascent  plant. 
The  naked  eye  can  easily  discern  the  stem, 
and  its  connection  with  the  lobes.  Through 
the  lobes  are  diil'used  innumerable  vessels, 
which  immediately  communicate  with  the 
embryo  plant.  On  the  external  surface  of 
the  seed  are  absorbent  vessels,  which  attract 
the  moisture;  by  this  moisture  a  degree  of 
fermentation  is  produced;  and  thus  a  juice 
is  prepared  by  a  natural  process,  iu  every 


respfct  proper  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
plant  in  its  first  efforts  to  extend  its  tender 
frame.  The  plant  in  its  infancy  is  almost  a 
gelatinous  substance,  and  increases  and  indu- 
rates by  degrees  :  and  in  general  the  hardness 
of  w  ood  bears  a  pretty  exact  proportion  to 
the  slowness  with  which  a  jjlant  increases. 
That  part  of  the  stem  which  is  next  the  root 
is  the  first  which  assumes  the  woody  texture. 
M.  Bonnet,  in  order  to  ascertain  how  far 
the  lobes  of  the  seed  were  necessary  to  the 
growth  and  health  of  the  corculum,  detached 
them  with  great  dexterity  without  a  vital 
injury  to  the  infant  plant.  Some  French 
beans  treated  in  this  manner,  and  sowed  in 
a  light  soil,  grew  ;  but  the  consequence  was, 
that  not  only  the  first  leaves  were  much 
smaller,  but  the  plants  were  uniformly  w  eaker 
in  every  part  of  their  growth  than  others, 
which  for  the  sake  of  comparison  were  sown 
at  the  same  time  without  being  mutilated. 
The  plants  from  the  seeds  which  were  de- 
prived of  the  lobes  put  fortli  fewer  blossoms, 
and  produced  less  seed.  The  seeds  of 
mosses  are  naturally  devoid  of  lobes.  The 
first  leaves  which  make  their  apppearance, 
and  which  are  called  seminal,  appear  not 
less  necessary  to  the  perfection  of  the  plant 
than  the  farinaceous  lobes.  If  they  happen 
to  be  broken  off,  the  plant  experiences  a 
proportional  loss  of  vigour. 

It  is  matter  of  curious  observation,  that 
seed,  thrown  into  the  ground  at  random, 
should  al«  ays  come  up  in  the  proper  direc- 
tion. M.  Dodart  has  offered  an  ingenious 
explanation  of  this  fact,  which  consists  in 
suppo  ing  that  the  rostellum  contracts  bv 
humidity,  and  that  the  plumula  on  the  coii- 
trary  contracts  by  dryness.  According  to 
this  idea,  when  a  seed  is  put  into  the  ground 
the  wrong  way,  the  rostellum,  which  then 
points  upwards,  contracts  itself  towards  the 
part  where  there  is  most  humidity,  and  there- 
fore turns  downwards.  I'he  plumula  on  the 
contrary  pointing  downwards,  turns  itself  to- 
wards the  part  of  the  soil  which  is  driest,  and 
therefore  rises  towards  the  surface.  1  his 
explanation,  however,  evidently  rests  on  no 
better  basis  than  conjecture;  the  experiments 
in  which  the  truly  piiilosophical  Mr.  Knight 
is  now  engaged,  will  probably  decide  the 
question. 

Ind-.-pendant  of  the  seed,  there  are  two 
other  methods  by  which  plants  are  propa- 
gated, by  slips  and  suckers;  and  manv  plants 
naturally  make  an  etfort  to  propagate  them- 
selves in  this  manner.  The  bulbous-rooted  |J 
plants  in  general  increase  by  offsets.  When 
a  tulip  is  nist  planted  in  the  spring,  the  stem 
issues  from  tiie  inner  part  of  the  bulbous 
root  ;  but  wiien  the  tulip  is  taken  up  in  the 
autumn,  the  stem  no  longer  proceeds  from 
that  part  of  the  root,  biit  seems  attaclied  to 
one  side.  The  fact  is,  that  the  root  which  is 
taken  up  is  only  a  part  of  that  vvhich  was 
planted.  Some  of  the  outer  layers  of  the 
original  root  have  decayed,  by  having  the  sub- 
stance  absorbed  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
blossom,  and  tVom  the  remaimler  what  mav 
be  termed  a  new  root  has  been  provided  tor 
the  future  year. 

Besides  tlu-  p.irls  above-mentioned,  some 
writers  have  treated  of  the  nerves  and  muscles, 
of  vegetables.  T  lie.se,  it  is  confessed,  have 
never  been  demonstrated,  but  their  existence 
has  been  interred  from  the  motions  of  peculiar 
parts  of  vegetables,  and  more  particularly 


those  of  (he  flower.  The  greater  miniljcr  of 
j)laiits  close,  either  partly  or  entirely,  their 
l)etals  towards  night,  or  on  the  approacii  of 
toUl  or  wet  weallier.  The  liedysarum  gy- 
rans  whirls  its  leaves  in  varions  directions, 
when  the  air  is  still,  by  an  apparently  volun- 
tarv  elfort.  The  dion.ea  niusiipula,  V'enus's 
ll)-trap,  closes  its  leaves  from  the  stimulus 
of  insects  which  cr.iwl  upon  them,  and 
pierces  them  with  its  pricCl 's.  I'he  phe- 
nomena of  the  connnoii  sensitive  plant,  the 
moit  distant  branches  of  which  close  their 
leaves  on  any  violence  being  oll'ered  to  ajiy 
])art  of  it,  are  commonly  known  and  ad- 
mired. Whether  these  appearances  are  (he 
consecpiences  of  sensation  in  the  vegetable, 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  ;  but  tliey  are 
so  similar  to  what  we  observe  in  animated 
beings,  that  the  term  sensitive  plant  is  very 
appropriate.  If  the  distant  parts  of  the  plant 
are  affected  throu^^h  the  medium  of  nerves, 
their  action  seems  to  he  much  les-,  ipnck  than 
those  of  animals,  as  the  half  or  the  whole  of 
a  minute  generally  elapses  in  this  climate 
before  the  whole  of  the  plant  droops,  but 
it  is  said  to  be  otherwise  in  their  native  cli- 
mate. 

Fluids  of  planU.  As  the  true  course  of 
the  fluids  in  animals,  and  the  power  by 
which  the  circulation  is  performed,  are  mo- 
dern discoveries,  so  we  liave  still  to  learn  a 
satisfactory  explanation  of  (he  corresponding 
circurasL^nces  in  vegetable  life.  '1  hat  the 
juices  of  plants  pass  from  one  part  to  another, 
a<lmits  of  no  doubt  ;  but  the  observations  of 
naturalists  have  been  so  various  and  incon- 
sistent, that  no  theory  can  be  framed  suffi- 
ciently comprehensive  to  embrace  their  se- 
veral conclusions.  It  may  indeed  be  con- 
cluded, that  as  the  life  of  a  vegetable  is  more 
obscure,  so  we  cannot  expect  the  same  en- 
ergy of  action  which  is  manifested  in  the  cir- 
culating organs  of  animals. 

It  is  manifest  to  common  observation,  that 
there  does  not  exist  the  same  ijitimate  union 
between  the  ditiferent  parts  of  a  vegetable  as 
we  find  between  those  of  animuU:  different 
parts  of  the  same  plant  will  put  forth  leaves 
and  ripen  fruit  at  very  different  seasons  of 
tiie  year,  according  to  the  particular  tempe- 
ralure  in  which  each  branch  is  placed.  A 
branch  of  a  vine  introduced  into  a  hot-house 
will  vegetate  in  the  midst  of  winter;  while 
the  rest  of  the  plant,  which  remains  exposed 
to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  climate,  will  evince 
little  or  no  sympathy.  We  know  of  nothing 
like  this  in  the  animal  kingdom,  and  there- 
fore it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that 
there  is  not  in  a  vegetable  any  thing  analo- 
gous to  a  heart,  from  and  to  which,  as  a  com- 
mon centre,  its  fluids  are  directed. 

It  has  been  assumed  by  many  botanists, 
that  there  is  a  succus  communis,  or  universal 
sap,  differing  little  froin  water,  and  the  same 
ui  all  plants.  It  seems  more  consonant,  how- 
ever, to  observation,  to  conclude  that  the 
iluiJs  differ  in  difl'erent  genera  of  vegetables. 
There  is  an  infinite  variety  in  the  obvious 
properties  of  the  juices  of  plants,  some  of 
which,  in-tead  of  resembling  water,  are  more 
of  the  consistency  of  mdk.  Grafts  only  g-ow 
on  kindred  stocks,  which  may  reasonably  be 
attri!)uted  to  an  unfitness  of  the  juices  of  other 
genera  of  plants. 

With  respect  to  what  has  been  called  the 
succus  proprius  of  plants,  which  alone  has 


PLANTS. 

been  said  to  differ  in  different  plants,  it  seems 
to  be  nothing  more  than  the  product  of  a  pro- 
cess analogous  to  that  of  secretion  in  animals  ; 
thus  a  plant  «f  mint  nourished  by  water  alone, 
will  still  elaborate,  by  its  vegetative  power, 
an  essential  oil  peculiar  in  odour  to  its  own 
species. 

The  juices  of  many  plants  abound  so  much 
in  a  mucila'.^nous  an<l  .-.accharine  |)rinciple  as 
to  he  fermentable.  The  sap  of  the  birch-tree 
drawn  in  spring  by  tapping  has  been  long 
employed  to  make  wine.  A  species  of  the 
maple  affords  sugar;  but  no  plant  abounds 
so  nuich  in  this  vegetable  product  as  the 
sugar-cane.  The  mucilaginous  or  gummy 
principle  prevails  more  partictflarly  in  the  dil- 
ii-rent  sorts  of  plum.  I5y  the  experiment  on 
the  sap-wood  of  the  oak,  related  above,  it  ap- 
pears that  there  are  both  sugar  and  muci'age 
in  the  juices  of  a  tree  remarkable  for  its  bit- 
terness. 

Aiucilage  and  sugar  seem  to  exist  dillused 
in  the  general  mass  of  fluids  in  vegetables ; 
on  the  other  hand,  turpentine,  resin,  express- 
eil  an<l  essential  oil,  andwh.it  is  called  the  ex- 
tractiv<>  ])rinciple,  seem  to  be  the  product  of 
secretion;  but  the  fluids  deposited  in  ci>ts 
are  so  often  necessarily  mixed  with  the  other 
juices,  by  the  processes  of  extraction,  that 
there  must  remain  considerable  doubt  as  to 
(lie  accuracy  of  this  [larticular  distribution. 
It  may  generally  be  remarked,  that  the  pro- 
ducts of  secretion  in  plants  are  of  an  iiitlam- 
mahle  nature.  The  seeds  of  plants  generally 
abound  in  a  heavy  oil  which  may  be  obkiined 
by  pressure,  such  as  oil  of  almonds,  linseed, 
and  palma  christi  or  castor  oil.  'I'he  essen- 
tial oils,  or  tho^e  obtained  by  distillation, 
are  in  general  extremely  acrid  ;  so  much  so, 
that  they  produce  a  wound  when  inadvert- 
ently api)lied  to  the  tongue  in  an  undiluted 
state.  Oil  of  cloves  is  employed  to  destroy 
(he  exposed  nerve  in  decaving  teeth,  in  onler 
to  cure  the  tooth-ache;  but  its  use  requires 
considerable  caution,  as  it  is  liable  to  injure 
the  teeth  adjoining  to  that  which  is  diseased. 
The  bitter,  narcotic,  and  acid  [irinciples,  are 
also  to  be  considered  as  the  products  of  se- 
cretion. 

Few  tpiestions  ha\e  excited  greater  atten- 
tion than  those  respecting  the  course  of  the 
fluids  in  vegetables.  W^lien  wounds  have 
been  made  in  trees,  it  is  found  that  the  sap 
flows  more  copiously  from  the  upper  side,  or 
that  part  of  tlie  wound  which  is  nearest  the 
branches.  From  whatever  cause  this  may 
proceed,  it  seems  to  be  intimately  united 
with  another  fact.  If  a  wound  is  made 
through  the  bark  of  a  growing  tree,  the  effort 
which  takes  place  to  heal  the  wound  is  made 
from  above.  The  lower  lip  of  the  wound 
remains  shrivelled  and  inactive;  and  if  the 
wound  has  been  extensile,  seems  from  year 
to  year  rather  to  sutler  decay  ;  the  upper  lip, 
on  the  contrary,  becomes  turgid,  and  extends 
itself  downwards  to  repair  the  breach.  This 
elfort  is  particularly  remarkable  in  wood 
which  has  suffered  compression  from  the  em- 
braces of  the  honeysuckle.  Dr.  Darwin,  in 
his  Phytologia,  attempts  to  explain  this  and 
many  other  phenomena  by  the  ingenious 
idea,  that  a  tree  is  a  complex  being  com- 
posed of  many  individuals  ;  for  he  con-iders 
every  bud  of  a  tree  as  having  an  indepeiulant 
vegetative  power.  The  effort  above-men- 
tioned he  considers  as  caused  by  the  buds  of 
the  tree  sending  down  tlieir  vessels,  and  pro- 


445 

pcUing  their  fluids  toward,  (he  root.  Vet  it 
seems  generally  to  have  been  concluded,  (h;it 
the  sap  rises  upwards  in  the  spring  from  the 
root  towards  the  bianch<;s.  Early  iu  the  sea- 
son Or.  Hope  made  incisions  of  different  al- 
titudes into  the  root  and  stem  of  a  birch.  As 
the  sap  rose,  it  first  liu'.ied  from  the  superior 
margin  of  the  lowest  incision,  and  then  in  re- 
gular succession,  from  the  ujiper  margins  of 
the  other  incisions,  till  at  last  it  reached  the 
highest.  It  <loes  not  appear,  however,  to  be 
satisfactorily  ascertained  whether  tl'.e  sap  in 
this  experiment  pioceedi'd  from  the  root,  or 
whether  it  was  successively  put  in  motion 
higher  and  higher  as  the  [jrocess  of  vegita- 
tion  took  place;  for  the  upper  parts  of  a  tree 
are  more  e.xposed  to  cold,  and  vegetation 
may  on  that  account  be  retarded.  Dr.  Hales 
cut  olf  the  stems  of  vines  in  the  spring,  ami 
then  by  fixing  tubes  on  the  stumps,  was  able 
to  asce'rtain  with  what  force  the  sap  was  pro- 
pelled. In  some  trials  the  sap  ro^e  to  the 
height  of  3j  feet.  Tubes  have  been  fixed  to 
the  large  arteries  of  ai.imals,  as  near  as  pos- 
sible to  the  heart,  in  whii  U.  the  blood  did  not 
rise  higher  than  nine  leet. 

Sucii  being  the  force  with  which  the  juices 
of  vegetables  are  propelled,  it  can  scarcely 
be  doubted  that  their  sa|)  is  contained  in  ves- 
sels. Yet  differences  ot  opinion  have  arisen 
even. as  to  this  particular;  and  as  (he  vefseli 
of  vegetables  have  not  been  sali.4'actorilr 
traced,  it  has  been  advanced  that  there  exists 
no  oilier  circuhaion  th.ui  a  transmission  of 
fluids  through  cellular  substance.  A  circula- 
tion, however,  so  \igorous  as  that  of  a  thriv- 
ing vegetable,  cannot  be  conceived  to  be  con- 
ducted, except  through  a  limited  and  well  de- 
fined channel.  It  must  be  conlessed,  that 
considerable  dilficulties  attend  this  iiujuiry  ; 
but  the  existence  of  vessels,  at  least  in  the 
leaves  of  plants,  is  proved  by  the  following 
simple  experiment,  which  may  be  satistacto- 
rilv  tried  on  plants  having  coloured  sap : 
Tear  asunder  a  fig-leaf,  for  instance,  and  the 
white  fluid  will  be  observed  to  flow  from  cer- 
tain points  which  are  doubtless  the  extremi- 
ties of  broken  vessels. 

I'rom  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Hales  above-' 
mentioned  it  api)ears,  that  the  si^p  of  the  vino 
rose  in  a  tube  to  35  feet,  or  abuui  the  same 
height  as  a  column  of  water  equal  in  weight 
to  the  atmosphere.  The  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  known  to  assist  animals  in  suck- 
ling ;  and  whether  some  modification  of  the 
same  jiower  may  not  assist  vegetable  absorp- 
tion, may  be  the  subject  of  future  inquiry. 

Dr.  Hales,  in  his  statical  experim'eiits, 
mentions  several,  in  which  he  tried  to  change 
the  natural  flavour  of  fruits,  and  to  commu- 
nicate those  of  several  spirituous  liquors,  and 
of  different  odoriferous  infusiuus.  \\  ith  this 
intention  he  plunged  iu  different  lii|Uors 
branches  loaded  with  fruit,  and  left  them 
there  for  some  time,  without  being  able  to 
perceive  that  the  taste  of  the  fruits  was  in  tlie 
least  altered,  whether  the  experiment  was 
made  upon  them  ripe  or  unripe.  But  he 
almost  always  perceived  the  smell  of  the  li- 
quors or  infusions  in  the  stalks  of  the  leave.s, 
and  in  the  wood.  He  conjectures,  with  much 
probability,  that  the  vessels  near  the  fruit 
become  so  fine  as  not  to  admit  the  odoriferous 
particles. 

M.  Bonnet  made  experiments  on  flowers 
similar  to  those  which  Dr.  Hales  made  on 
fruits.     He  chose  such  flowers  as  have  uatu- 


4-16 

rally  litlle  pci-fuinc,  a<  the  iliffrrent  spprios  of 
Fajiitli begins.  Sti-ius  willi  lliL'st  (lowt'is  were 
imiiiei'scd  ill  tubes,  soiiii'  of  which  were  filled 
with  s])irit  of  wine,  others  with  Hungary 
water,  &c.  In  about  '.'4  hours  the  flowers 
were  faded,  and  thev  had  already  aequired 
i;i  a  very  sensible  degree  the  odours  oftlie 
liiuors  which  they  had  imbibed.  Tlie  odour 
became  much  more  reinarkable  a  lew  days 
afterwards.  M.  Bonnet  also  (ouiid  tliat  the 
leaves  of  the  apricot-tree  acquired  a  seu-ible 
odour  from  the  li(iuors  into  which  branches 
of  that  tree  were  plunged. 

Fiinctioiix  of  plunls.  The  leaves  of  plants 
liave  been  not  improperly  compared  with 
the  lungs  of  animals.  "  i'lants,  as  well  as 
animals,"  says  an  author  whom  we  have  al  rea- 
lly ([uobed  with  approbation,  "  perspire.  ..nd 
in  both  cases  this  lunction  is  essential  to 
health.  By  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Hales 
«nd  M.  Guettard,  it  apj)ears  that  the  perspi- 
rable matter  of  vegetables  differs  in  no  re- 
spect from  pure  water,  excepting  that  it  be- 
comes ratlier  sooner  putriil.  The  quantity 
jierspired  varies,  according  to  the  e.xtent  of 
the  surface  from  which  it  is  emitted,  the  lem- 
jieiature  of  the  air,  the  time  of  the  dav,  and 
the  humidity  of  the  almosi)here.  As  the 
leaves  form  the  greatest  part  of  the  surface,  it 
is  natural  to  suppose,  that  the  ([uantity  of 
these  will  very  materially  alfect  the  quantity 
of  the  perspiration.  Accordingly,  the  expe- 
riments of  Dr.  Hales  have  ascertained,  that 
the  perspiration  of  vegetables  is  increased  or 
diminished,  chiefly  in  proportion  to  the  in- 
crease or  diminution  of  their  foliage.  The 
degree  of  heat  in  wliich  the  plant  was  kept, 
according  to  the  same  author,  varied  the 
quantity  «f  matter  perspired;  tliis  being 
greater,  in  proportion  to  the  greater  lieat  of 
the  surrounding  atmosphere.  The  degree  of 
light  has  likewise  considerable  influence  in 
this  respect;  for  Mr.  Philip  Miller's  experi- 
ments prove,  that  plants  uniformly  perspire 
most  in  the  forenoon,  though  the  temperature 
of  the  air  in  which  they  are  placed  should 
be  unvaried.  M.  Guettard  likewise  informs 
us,  that  a  plant  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun 
has  its  perspiration  increased  to  a  mucli 
greater  degree,  tlianif  it  had  been  exposed  to 
the  same  heat  binder  the  shade.  Finally,  the 
perspiration  of  vegetables  is  increased  in  pro- 
portion as  the  atmosphere  is  dry,  or  in  other 
words,  diminished  in  proportion  as  the  atmo- 
spliere  is  humid." 

Dr.  Hales  found  that  a  sun-flower,  weigh- 
ing three  pounds,  perspired  '2'2  ounces  during 
iJ4  hours.  Dr.  Keil  perspired  .31  ounces  in 
iJ4  hours.  The  (luanlity  therefore  perspired 
by  the  suii-flower  was  much  greater,  in  pro- 
portion to  its  weight,  than  that  perspired 
from  the  hum  n  body.  Dr.  keil  ate  and 
drank  four  pounds  ten  ounces  in  24  hours. 
Seventeen  times  more  nourishment  was  taken 
in  by  the  root  of  the  sunflower,  than  was 
taken  in  by  the  man.  If  the  perspiration  of 
vegetables  is  cliecked,  they  speedily  fade.  It 
is  checked  from  gltitinous  substances  adher- 
ing to  their  surface  :  hence  the  advantage  of 
washing  them.  The  more  healthy  and  vigo- 
rous the  plant,  the  more  copious  the  perspira- 
tion; though  an  excess,  as  well  as  a  defect  ol 
it,  seems  prejudicial  and  even  destructive  to 
vegetables.  It  bears  also  a  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  leaves,  these  being  tlie  principal 
ergans  of  perspiration. 

i'he  odoriferous  exhalation  of  leaves  and 


PLANTS. 

flowers  forms  an  atmosphere  rounS  vege- 
tables, wiiich  strikes  our  senses,  and  which 
the  contact  of  a  body  on  lire  is  sometimes 
capable  of  inflaming,  as  has  been  observed 
with  regard  to  the  traxineila. 

The    experiments   of  Dr.  Priestley  have 
sudiciently  shewn   that  vegetables  have  the 
power  of  correcting  bad  air  ;  and  Dr.  Ingen- 
liouz  has  ])roved  that  they  liavt?  tlie  faculty 
of  juoducing  oxygen  gas,  only  when  acted  on 
by  the  rays  of  "light.     If  a  vegetable  is  im- 
mersed in  water,  and  the  rays  of  the  sun  di- 
rected on  it,  air-bubbles  will  be  observed  to 
collect  on  the   leaves,  and  at  length  rise  to 
the  surface  of  the  water.     This  appearance 
is  most  remarkable  in  the  morning,  as  the 
leaves  have  not   then   been   previously  ex- 
liau-ted  by  the  action  of  light.     Oxygen  air 
of  a  great  degree  of  purity  may  be  obtained 
in  the  summer  time,  by  inverting  a  jar  filled 
with  water  in  such  a  manner  as  to  receive 
the   air-bubbles   as  they  arise.     All  plants, 
however,  do  not  emit  this  air  with  the  same 
facility  ;  there  are  some  uhich  emit   it  the 
moment  the  rays  of  the  sun  act  upon  them, 
and  this  is  the  case  with  lavender.      Some 
aquatic  phiiits  allbrd  oxygen  air  with   great 
facility,  some   more  slowly,  but  n^ne  later 
than  eight  or  ten  minutes,  provided  tiie  sun's 
light  is  strong.     The  air  is  almost  entirely 
furnished  by  the  inferior  surface  of  the  leaves 
of  trees ;  herbaceous   plants  afford   it  fi'om 
almost    the   whole    of  their  surface.      The 
leaves  afilbrd  more  air  when  attached  to  the 
plant,  than  when  gathered  ;  and  the  (luanlity 
is  greater,  the  fresher  and  sounder  thev  are. 
Young  leaves  afford  but  a  small  quantity  of 
oxygen  air;  those  which  are  full  grown"  af- 
ford more,  and   the  more  the  greener  thev 
are.     The  epidermis,  the  bark,   and  petals, 
do  not  afford  it,  and  in  general  oxygen  pro- 
ceeds only  from  those  jiarts  of  plants  which 
are  of  a  green  colour,     'i'luis  green  corn  and 
green  fruits  allord  this  air,  but  it  is  not  pro- 
duced by  those  which  are  ripe;  and  flowers 
in   general  render  the  air  noxious.     These 
facts  may  serve  to  explain  the  manner  in 
which  the  light  of  the  sun  operates  in  ma- 
turing fruits,  viz.    by  expelling  the   super- 
fluous oxygen,  and  thus  changing  them  from 
a  harsh  ami  sour,  into  a  mild  and  sweet  sub- 
stance.    Aquatic   plants,  and  such  ;is  grow 
in  moist  places,  are  remarkable  not  only  for 
alii)rding  a  large  quantilv  of  oxvgen  gas,  but 
also  for  absorbing  hvdiogen    g.is,    and  are 
therefore  in  all  respects  calculated  for  puri- 
fying the  air  of  marshy  situations.     A  very 
extraordinary  power  of  absorbing  hydrogen 
air  was  observed  in  the  willow  by  Dr.  Priest- 
ley; and  this  fact  seems  connected  with  the 
rapid  growth  of  that  plant  in  marshy  situa- 
tions, where  much  of  this  air  is  produced. 
M.  Sennabier  found  that  plants  yield  much 
more  oxygen  air  in  distilled  water  impreg- 
naled  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  than  in  sinqile 
distilled  water. 

It  appears  further,  from  the  experiments 
of  Dr.  Priestley,  that  |)lants  will  bear  a  greater 
proportion  of  liydrogen  than  of  cariionic  acid 
air,  and  that  oxygen  gas  appeared  generally 
injurious  to  plants.  A  sprig  of  mint  growing 
in  water,  placed  over  a  fermenting  liciuor,  anil 
of  course  exposed  to  carbonic  acid  air,  be- 
came quite  dead  in  one  day;  a  red  rose  be- 
came of  a  purple  colour  in  24  hours.  Plants 
die  very  soon  iioth  in  nitrous  air,  and  in  com- 
mon air  when  saturated  with  it.    Air  aj)pears 


uniformly  to  have  been  purified  by  healtTij 
plants  vegetating  in  it;  but  liiese  experi- 
ments recpiire  great  nicely,  as  the  least  <le- 
gree  of  jiutrefactiun  will  injure  the  air.  The 
air  contained  in  the  bladders  of  marine  plants 
was  found  considerably  purer  tjiau  coninioii 
air. 

Atmospheric  air  is  restored,  after  being 
injured  by  respiration  or  combustion,  by  a 
plant  vegetating  in  it.  This  restoration  of 
air  depends  upon  the  vegetating  state  of  the 
plant;  for  a  number  of  mint-leaves  fiesh-ga- 
ihered  being  kept  in  air  in  \\  hicn  candles  liad 
burnt  out,  did  not  restore  the  air.  Any  plant 
will  effect  this  purpose,  but  tho->e  of  the 
quickest  growth  in  the  most  expeditious  man- 
ner. 

That  plants  have  a  property  of  producing 
pure  air  from  water,  is  evident  from  an  ex- 
periment of  Dr.  Priestley's.  Tiie  green 
matter  which  is  to  be  observed  in  water  is 
doubtless  a  vegetable  production.  \\'ater 
containing  this  green  matter  always  afforded 
oxygen  air  in  a  large  quantity;  but  water 
which  had  it  not  afj'orded  none.  It  lias  been 
frei]ueiitly  observed  that  vegetables  do  not 
tl!n\o  in  the  dark.  A  receiver  was  therefore 
filled  with  water,  and  kept  tid  it  was  in  a 
state  of  giving  air  copiously ;  after  tliis  it 
was  removed  into  a  dark  room,  and  from  th;it 
time  the  production  of  air  entirely  ceased. 
When  placed  again  in  the  sun,  it  afforded 
no  air  till  about  ten  days  after,  when  it  had 
more  green  matter ;  the  former  plants  being 
probably  all  dead,  and  no  air  could  be  pro- 
duced till  new  ones  were  formed. 

From  various  experiments  if  appeared  that 
dii'l'erent  animal  and  vegetabli-  putrescent 
substances  afforded  a  very  copious  pabulum 
for  this  green  vegetable  matter,  which  pro- 
duced so  freely  the  oxygen  air;  whence  the 
philosophic  author  of  tliis  discovery  is  led  to 
the  follow  ing  conclusions :  "  It  is  impossible," 
says  he,  "  not  to  observe  from  these  exper- 
ments  the  admirable  provision  in  nature,  to 
prevent  or  lessen  the  fatal  effects  of  putre- 
faction ;  e^pecially  in  hot  countries,  where  the 
rays  of  the  sun  are  most  direct,  and  the  heat 
most  intense.  Animal  and  veg<-lable  sub- 
stances, by  simply  putrefying,  would  neces- 
sarily taint  great  masses  of  air,  and  render 
it  unlit  for  respiration,  did  not  the  same  sub- 
stances, putrefying  in  water,  supply  a  most 
abundant  pabulum  for  this  wonderful  vege- 
table substance,  the  seeds  of  which  seem  to 
exist  throughout  the  atmosphere.  By  these 
means,  instead  of  the  atmosphere  being  cor- 
rupted, a  large  quantity  of  the  purest  air  is 
continually  thrown  into  it.  By  the  same 
means  also,  stagnant  waters  are  rendered 
much  less  offensive  and  unwholesome  than 
they  would  otherwise  be.  That  froth  which 
we  observe  on  the  surface  of  such  waters, 
and  which  is  apt  to  excite  disgust,  generally 
consists  of  the  jiurest  air,  supplied  by  aipiatic 
plants.  When  the  sun  shines,  this  air  m.iy 
be  observed  to  issue  from  them.  Even  when 
animal  and  vegetable  substances  putrefy  in 
air,  as  they  have  generally  some  moisture  in 
them,  various  other  vegetable  productions, 
in  the  form  of  mold,  itc.  find  a  propei  nutri- 
ment in  them,  and  by  converting  a  consi- 
derable part  of  the  noxious  eflUiviainto  their 
own  substance,  arrest  it  in  its  progress  to  cor- 
rupt the  atmosphere." 

The  same  vegetables  w  liidi  afford  oxygen 


a!r  vn-y  jjlciUifulIy  in  tlie  liglit  of  (hu  sun, 
atibrd  ill  the  sliiulc  ;iirloss[nire  tliLin  tlial  of  tlie 
atmosphere.  'Iliis  .-.tiikiii^;  eM'cct  of  lif^lit  on 
vegetables  is  a  strong  argument  in  favour  of 
tlie  opinion,  that  the  nif)tiuii  of  llie  jiiio-s  of 
vcgclaliles  is  performed  by  vessels,  whieh, 
lil^e  those  of  animals,  possess  irritability,  and 
are  excited  to  action  by  stinuilating  sub- 
stances. 

The  effect  of  vegetation  in  producing  the 
oxygen  air  which  was  aflinded  in  the  lire- 
ceding  experiments,  seemed  in  some  mea- 
sure (kibious  to  count  Uuintbrd,  who  extracl- 
fd  vital  air  by  immersing  in  water  a  variety 
of  substances,  as  raw  silk,  cotton,  wool,  eider- 
down, hare's  fur,  sliecp's  wool,  raveilings  of 
linen,  and  hinnan  hair.  lie  was  led,  from  the 
result  of  these  trials,  to  suspixt  that  the  pure 
air  was  merely  separated  Iroiii  the  water  ;  and 
tli.it  any  snbstaiue  wliich  would  act  bv  a  ca- 
pillary attrac  tion,  so  as  to  separate  lli'e  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  water,  would  effect  the 
production  of  pure  air.  He  therefore  pro- 
cured a  cpiantity  of  spun  glass,  which  con- 
sists of  minute  tubes,  and  immersed  it  in  wa- 
ter, but  the  quanlily  of  pure  air  produced 
was  very  tritliiig.  Hence  lie  concludes,  that 
fliere  is  sometiiing  in  tliose  substances  which 
operates  in  producing  pure  air,  and  tliat  it  is 
Tiut  merely  a  mechanical  separation  of  tiie 
component  parts  of  water. 

The  light  oflamiw  produced  the  same  ef- 
fect as  the  sun's  light;  air  in  great  quantities 
was  produced,  and  perfectly  pure.  'Vege- 
tables will  also,  with  any  strong  light,  pro- 
duce oxygen  air  as  well  as  with  the  light  of 
the  sun.  The  air  from  silk  was  much  supe- 
rior to  that  from  vegetables. 

Plants  have  a  remarkable  sensibility  to 
light;  tiiey  unfold  their  llowers  to  tlie'sun, 
they  follow  his  course  by  turning  on  their 
steins,  and  are  closed  as  soon  as  lie  disap- 
pears. Vegetables  placed  in  rooms  wliere 
they  receive  light  only  in  one  direction,  al- 
ways extend  theniselv'es  tlu.t  way.  If  they 
receive  light  in  two  directions,  tiiey  direct 
their  course  towards  the  strongest.  Trees 
growing  in  thick  forests,  where  thev  only  re- 
ceive hght  from  above,  direct  their  sh  lots 
^liiiost  invariably  upwards,  and  therefore  be- 
come niucli  taller  and  less  spreading  liian 
such  as  stand  single.  This  affertion  foi-  light 
seems  to  explain  ihe  upright  growth  of  vege- 
tables, a  curious  phenomenon,  too  common 
to  be  much  attended  to.  It  has  been  ascer- 
tained by  repeated  experiments,  that  the 
^reen  colour  of  plants  is  entirely  owing  to 
light;  for  plant<;  reared  in  the  dark  are  well 
known  to  be  perfectly  white. 

If  we  take  a  succulent  plant,  and  express 
its  juice,  the  liipiur  appears  at  first  uniformlv 
green;  but  allow  it  to  stand,  and  tlie  green 
colour  separates  from  the  waterv  Huid,  and 
falls  to  the  bottom  in  a  sediment.'  If  we  col- 
lect this  sediment  it  will  be?  found  to  be  otiin 
oily  nature,  for  it  does  not  dissolve  in  water; 
h'.it  it  will  in  spirit  of  wine,  or  oil,  to  which  it 
imparts  a  green  colour.  As  the  sun  pro- 
duces the  green  colour  in  plants,  and  as  this 
resides  in  an  oily  matter,  it  was  forinerlv 
concluded  that  light  produces  the  oily  matter 
of  vegetaldes,  and  that  it  effects  this  by  fui'- 
nishing  the  priiKipIe  of  inllammabilitv.  'Tlie 
new  chemical  doctrines,  however,  airord  a 
Jnucli  more  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
'  eilect  of  the  sun's  rays  in  producing  the  oily 


PLANTS. 

matter  in  vegetables.  Vegetable  matter  con- 
sists in  general  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  ox- 
ygen ;  (he  sun's  ray  produce  a  disengage- 
ment of  the  hitter 'principle  in  the  li)riii"  of 
vital  air,  and  the  two  former  are  the  consti- 
tuent principles  of  oil. 

M.  ISonnet  made  a  series  of  experiments 
in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  superior  or 
till-  inferior  surfaces  of  leaves  have  a  greater 
share  in  performing  perspiral ion.  From  the 
trials  which  he  made,  he  concludes  that  tlie 
inferior  surface  of  the  leaf  is  in  general  by 
far  the  most  active  in  this  respect,  though  in 
one  or  two  species  of  vegetables  this  differ- 
ence was  much  less  remarkable.  The  nuil- 
low-  was  the  only  vegetable  the  leaves  of 
»  hich  perspired  more  by  the  upper  than  the 
interior  surface.  The  method  which  he  em- 
ployed to  ascertain  the  comparative  effect  of 
the  two  surfaces  was,,  to  cover  tirst  one  and 
then  the  other  surface  with  oil.  The  leaves 
were  then  immersed  in  lubes  fiiled  with  wa- 
ter, and  the  cpiantity  of  perspired  matter  was 
nieasured  by  the  length  of  the  tube  emptied 
in  a  given  time.  The  oil,  by  stopping  up  the 
|)ores,  prevented  perspiration  from  the  sur- 
face to  which  it  was  applied.  Some  large 
leaves  of  the  white  mulberry-tree  being 
kept  suspended  on  water  wilh  their  iipi)er 
surfaces  in  contact  with  the  fluid,  faded  in 
live  days;  some  teaves  of  the  same  tree, 
being  placed  in  a  similar  situation,  but  wilh 
the  inferior  surface  toucliiiig  the  water,  were 
preserved  green  for  nearly  six  months. 

The  sexual  system  has  been  the  prevalent 
system  of  botany  for  many  years.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  'palm  is  of  tliat  class  of  vege- 
tables which  has  flowers  of  ditleient  sexes  on 
different  trees.  The  peasants  in  the  Levant, 
whether  acquainted  with  this  fact,  or  whether 
directed  to  the  practice  by  accident  alone, 
have  been  accu-.tonn"d  to  break  branches 
from  the  male  palm  while  in  (lower,  and  at- 
tach them  to  the  female  plant,  which  they 
find  to  be  constantly  productive  of  an  abun'- 
dant  crop.  This  fact  has  also  been  proved 
by  a  most  decisive  experiment  of  M.  Gled- 
it'-ch.  There  was  in  the  royal  garden  at 
Berlin  a  beautiful  palm-tree,  a  female  plant, 
which,  however,  though  2i  years  old,  had 
been  always  barren.  There  was  another  palm 
at  Leii)sic  of  the  male  kind,  which  blossomed 
every  year.  The  ingenious  botanist  under- 
took to  fecundate  the  palm  at  lierlin  from 
that  at  Leipsic,  and  had  some  of  the  blos- 
soms conveyed  by  the  post.  The  conse- 
quence was',  that  he  produced  that  season 
excellent  dales;  and  the  experiment,  prose- 
cuted with  some  variation  tor  several  suc- 
ceeding years,  was  attended  with  the  same 
success. 

It  has  been  said,  that  the  pollen  was  des- 
tined foi-  the  inqM-egnation  of  the  germen. 
This  is  |>erformcd  m  the  following  manner; 
The  anthene,  wiiich  at  the  first  opening  of 
tlu'  flower  are  whole,  burst  soon  after,  "and 
disch.irge  the  pollen.  B,  ing  dispersed  about 
the  flower,  part  of  the  pollen  lodges  on  tl-,e 
surface  of  the  stigma,  where  it  is  cletaincd  by 
the  moisture  with  which  that  part  is  covered. 
Each  single  grain  or  atom  of  the  pollen  has 
been  observed  by  the  microscrope  to  burst 
in  this  liuid,  and  is  supposed  to  discharge 
sometJiing  which  impregnates  the  germen 
below.  W'luit  Ihe  substance  is  which  is  so 
discharged,  and  whether  it  actually  passes 
through  the  stv'e  into  the  germen,  seem  yet 


At? 

iiiidftermincd,  from  the  great  (lifluuiiy  of 
observing  sucli  luinule  parts  and  operations. 
In  some  vegetables,  the  stamina  move  to- 
vyardsthe  pistiUum;  and  a  very  evident  mo- 
tion of  thein  is  observed  in  Ihe'tiowers  of  the 
common  berberry,  on  touching  them  with 
the  point  ol  a  pin. 

As  vegetables,  hke  animals,  are  liable  lo 
decline,  and  ultimately  to  per^h  by  age,  tlie 
ofiices  of  the  parts  of  fructification  are  of'  the 
most  important  nature.  If  trees  had  been 
capable  of  increase  only  by  grafts,  layers,  or 
cuttings,  it  seems  prol/able  that  they  would 
lon^  ago  have  been  lost.  An  ingenious  and 
philosophical  botanist,  Mr.  Knight,  has  par- 
ticularized several  sorts  of  apples,  which  a 
century  ago  were  extremely  thriving  and  in 
high  repute,  some  of  which  are  at  this  time 
wholly  lost,  and  others  are  in  such  a  state 
of  decline  and  imperfection  as  to  be  lilfly 
esteemed.  By  the  fertility  of  seeds,  however 
new  varieties  of  this  as  vvell  as  of  all  otliei' 
fruits  and  trees  are  continually  produced. 
A  tree  produced  from  a  cutting  exactlv  re- 
sembles the  parent  plant;  not  so  one  raised 
from  a  seed,  which  generally  derives  its 
origin  from  more  than  one  parent,  and 
in  dioecious  plants  must  always  do  so. 
Hence  She  endless  variety  which  in'terests  the 
fJorist.  When  this  cause  is  considered  as 
ha\  ing  operated  for  ages,  we  cease  to  wonder 
at  the  diversified  appearances  which  we  ob- 
serve in  a  bed  of  seedling  plants.  Mr.  Kiii<dit. 
strongly  advises  to  take  grafts  from  indn-:- 
duals  lately  raised  from  seeds,  which  he  as- 
sures us  possess  a  vigour  of  grow  th  never  met 
with  in  old  varieties.  Strawberries  and  po- 
tatoes also  become  unproductive,  unless  the 
old  varieties  are  replaced  bv  others  raised 
from  seed. 

The  nourishment  of  vegetables,  as  it  is  so 
intimately  connected  with  the  important 
science  of  agriculture,  has  deservedly  attract- 
ed consideiable  attention.  Mr.  Boyle  dried 
in  an  oven  a  quantity  of  earth  proper  for  ve- 
getation, antl  after  carefully  weighing  it, 
planted  in  it  the  seed  of  a  gourd;  he  watered 
It  witli  pure  rain-water,  and  it  produced  a 
plant  which  weighed  fourteen  pounds,  Ihougli 
the  earth  had  suffered  no  sensible  diminu- 
tion. 

A  willow-tree  was  plantetl  bv  Van  IJ<-I- 
mont  in  a  pot  containing  100  pou'iids  of  earlli. 
This  was  in  general  watered  with  distilled 
water,  or  sometimes  with  rain-water  which 
appeared  perfectly  pure.  The  vessel  con- 
taining the  plant  was  covered  in  such  a  luan- 
ner  as  totally  to  exclude  the  entrance  of  all 
solid  matter.  At  the  end  of  five  vears,  upon 
taking  out  Ihe  ])lant,  he  found  it'lo  have  in- 
creased in  weight  not  less  than  1  la  pounds, 
though  the  eai"th  had  lost  only  two  ounces  of 
its  original  weight. 

These  experiments  would  admit  of  some 
doubt,  and  must  have  remaiiKjd  in  a  great 
measure  inexplicable,  but  for  the  experi- 
ments of  Mr.  Cavendish,  a:ul  the  facts  re- 
lated by  Dr.  Priestley,  vihich  place  it  be- 
yond a  doubt,  that  vegetables  have  a  power 
of  decomposing  water,  and  converting  it, 
with  what  they  derive  from  tlie  atmo^pherc, 
into  almost  all  the  difi'erent  matters  found  to 
e.xisl  ill  their  substance. 

.Ml  the  proper  juices  of  vegetables  depend 
on  the  organization,  as  it  is  evident  from  the 
operation  of  gralting.     From  the  raaJeiials.  of 


44=5 

simple  water  and  air,  are  proJuced  those 
wonderful  divers,ili«  of  peculiar  juices  and 
fruits,  which  llie  vegetable  world  altords; 
and  the  innnense  variety  of  tastes,  smells, 
&;c.  In  the  same  vegetable  what  a  variety  is 
found  !  The  baik  is  difi'erent  in  taste  fiom 
the  wood,  the  peculiar  juices  have  something 
ditlerent  from  them  both,  and  the  pith  of 
some  plants  affords  a  matter  which  could  not 
liave  b.-en  expected  from  their  exterior  ipia- 
Jities.  'I'iie  rootle  otlen  difi'erent  iiom 'the 
stem,  and  the  fruit  from  bolh,  in  all  tlieir  sen- 
sible qualities. 

•  In  whatever  way  the  nourishment  ot  vege- 
tables is  received,  it  may  fairly  be  said  to 
<  oiisist  principallv  of  water.  W  e  are  inclined 
to  believe,  however,  that  calcareous  earth, 
in  small  portions,  mav  enter  into  tlie  compo- 
sition of  at  least  many  vegetables;  since  ani- 
mals which  exi>t  entirely  on  vegetable  food 
are  found  to  have  in  tiieir  solid  parts,  tiie 
bones  for  instance,  a  considerable  portion  of 
this  sub.-tance  ;  thoug;'.  it  must  be  confessed 
that  chemical  analysis,  as  far  as  it  has  hitherto 
gone,  does  not  warrant  us  in  supposing  cal- 
careous earth  to  be  an  essential  constiluenl 
of  all  vegetable  matter.  It  may  be  said  fur- 
liiur,  that  on  some  occasions  tl;e  addition  ot 
other  matters,  as  of  dufereiitkiiidsof  mimure, 
adds  greatly  to  the  growth  of  vegetables  ;  but 
in  whatever  degree  a  rich  soil  or  dung  may 
add  to  the  luxuriance  of  growth,  other  lacts 
seem  to  prove  that  it  is  not  essential  'o  vege- 
tation. It  is  well  known  that  many  herbs 
Uourish  in  pure  water  ;  and  that  pear,  plum, 
and  cherry-trees,  plaiiled  in  pure  moss,  have 
arrived  at  such  perfection  as  to  produce  good 
fruit. 

.Different  theories  have  been  advanced  to 
account  for  the  operation  of  manures  in  pro- 
moting the  growth  of  vegetables,  none  of 
which  seem  altogether  satisfactory.  The 
common  opinion  is,  that  tlie  substances  em- 
ployed as  manures  contain  those  principles 
whfch  constitute  the  food  of  plants,  and 
which  are  absorbed  by  their  roots.  This  hy- 
pothesis is  doubtless  true  to  a  certain  extent, 
especially  when  it  is  considered  that  carbon 
forms  a  great  part  of  ir.any  manures.  An- 
other opinion  is,  that  manures  act  by  bring- 
ing soils  to  such  a  consistence  as  is  favourable 
to  the  growth  of  the  roots  of  vegetables,  and 
to  the  alfording  of  tliem  water  in  a  proper 
ciuantity.  A  third  opinion  is,  that  manuies 
act  as  stimuli  on  the  roots  of  vegetables,  and 
tiius  excite  them  to  more  vigorous  action. 
Some  authors  think  that  manures  act  as  sol- 
vents on  matters  previously  contained  in  the 
soil,  and  thus  fit  them  for  entering  the  roots 
ofnlaiits;  and  others,  that  they  act  chemi- 
cal! •,  by  forming  combinations  which  are 
favourable  to  vegetation.  Which  of  these 
hypotheses  is  best  founded,  it  is  dilhcult  to 
determine;  but  it  does  not  seem  unlikely 
that  they  may  all  have  some  foundation  in 
fact. 

When  we  attempt  to  discover  the  compo- 
nent principles  of  the  objects  around  in,  and 
the  sources  vvhcnce  they  were  supported,  we 
are  lost  in  the  greatness  and  diversity  of  (he 
sci-nes  pre-eiited  to  us.  We  see  animals 
n  urished  by  vegetables,  vegetables  ajipa- 
riiitly  by  tne  remains  of  animals,  and  fossils 
composed  of  the  relics  of  both  of  these  king- 
doms. It  seems  certain,  however,  that  ve- 
gi  tables  preceded  animals.  \  seed  of  mois 
kJgin^  in  a  crevice  of  a  bare  rock  is  nou- 


PLANTS. 


rished  by  the  atmosphere,  and  the  moisture 
alforded  by  the  rains  and  dews.  It  comes 
to  perfection,  and  sheds  its  seeds  in  the 
mouldering  remains  of  its  own  substance. 
Its  offspring  do  the  same,  till  a  crust  of  vege- 
table mould  is  formed  sufliciently  thick  lor 
the  support  of  grass  and  other  vegetables  ot 
the  same  growth.  The  same  process  going 
forward,  shrubs,  and  lastly  the  largest  trees, 
may  iind  a  iirm  support  on  the  once  barren 
rock,  and  brave  the  elforts  of  the  tempest. 

From  the  advantages  derived  from  a  change 
of  crops  in  agriculture,  it  lias  been  supposed 
that   dilfereiit     ve-etables    derive    dilferent 
kinds  of  nourishment  ficmi  tl;e  same  soil,  se- 
lecting what  is  best  adapted  to  their  own  sup- 
port, a'ld  leaving  a  supply  of  nourishment  of 
another  kind  for' vegetables  of  another  genus. 
Was    this,    however,    the    case,    vegetables 
would   not    so    much   impede  each   other's 
growth  when  placed  near  together.     And  in 
the  operation  of  grafting,  we  have  a  clear 
proof  that  the  juices  received  by  the  root  of 
one  species  of' tree  may,  by  the  organization 
of  the  inserted  twig,  be  subservient  to  the 
growth  of  leaves,  tlowers,  and  fruit,  of  a  dif- 
ferent kind.     The  advantage  derived  from  a 
change  of  crops  mav  be  belter  explained  on 
other  principles:   so.iie  plants  extend   their 
roots  horizontally  on  the  sm-face  ol  the  sml, 
others  strike  them  downwards  to  a  consider- 
able depth.     Some  plains  are  found  to  bind 
or  harden  the  soil,  others  to  loosen  it.    Tims, 
for  example,  wheat  and  rye-grass  render  a 
soil  stiff;  while  pulse,   clover,  and   turnips, 
pulverize  it.     By    varying  the  crops,  there- 
fore, the  soil  is  preserv'ed  in  a  middle  state, 
betu-ecn  too  much  stiffness  and  too  much  tri- 
abi'.ity.      Nor  is  this  the   only  good   e|fect 
arisiiig  from  this  dilt'erence  of  roots.     Imoui 
this  circumstance  some  vegetables  draw  their 
nourishment   from  the  surface   of  the  earlii, 
while  others  derive  it  partly  from  a  greater 
depth  ;  so  that  by  a  change  of  crops,  a  larger 
portion  of  the  soil  is  made  to  contribute  to 
the   nourishment  of  plants  than  could  have 
been  effected  bv  the  cultivation  of  any  single 
species.     One  other  advantage  to  be  derived 
from  a  change  of  crops  is  this:  Some  plants 
extract  almost  the  whole  of  their  nourish- 
ment from  the  soil;  and  this  is  particularly 
the  case  with  those  which  are  most  valuable, 
and  which  contain  the  greatest  quantity  of 
solid  matter.  Bv  the  repetition  of  such  crops, 
liowever,  the  'soil  is  found  to  become  too 
much  exhausted.     There   are  other   plants 
which  derive  a  large  proportion  of  their  nou- 
rishment from  the  air;  by  such  therefore  the 
soil  will  be  much  less  exhausted,  and  under 
a  crop  of  them  will  be  in  some  measure  at 
rest.     The  good  effects  of  a  change  of  crops 
may  therefore  be  sulTiciently  explanied,  with- 
out supposing  that  each  particular  species  of 
veselables  is  nourished  by  a  (lilferent  kind  of 
food.    This  opinion  is  alsij  necessarily  aUeiul- 
ed  with  two  great  diliiculties;  one  is,  that 
there  exists   in   every  soil  as  many  distinct 
kinds  of  nourishment  as  there  are  species  of 
plants  capable  of  growing  in  that  soil ;  the 
other,  that  plants  are  endued  with  the  facuHy 
of  s..-lecting,  from  all  these  kinds,  their  own 
proper  nourishment.     The  former  of  Ihese 
suppositions  is  too  absurd  to  merit  the  h'ast 
attention;  and  the  latter  ha--  been  disproved 
by  actual   experiment,  since   planls  are  not 
ai)le  to   prevent  their  roots  from  absorbing 
such  mailers  as  prove  poisonous  to  them. 


Other  writers,  however,  have  been  more  mo- 
derate ;  and  though  they  have  rejected  the 
idea  of  specihc  nourishment  in  general,  have 
nevertheless  imagined  that  ihe  hypothesis 
might  be  well  founded  with  respect  to  parti- 
cufar  species  of  vegetables.  '1  his  they  infer 
from  tiie  existence  of  specific  manures,  as 
soot  for  saintfoin,  ashes  for  white  clover,  and 
some  others.  It  does  not  seem  possible, 
however,  to  draw  a  line  of  distinction  ;  and 
if  we  reject  the  idea  of  a  specific  nourish- 
ment in  general,  we  cannot  admit  it  in  parti- 
cular instances. 

In  order  to  discover  whether  p'ants  have 
an  actual  po\\er  ofdistirgui^hing  matters  pre- 
sented to  their  root?,  a  gentleman  of  science 
made,  among  others,  the  following  experi- 
ment: 

A  vigorous  plant  of  mint  was  placed  in  a 
two-omice  phial,  filled  with  filtiated  well-wa- 
ter, to  w  hicli  were  added  four  drops  of  a  mode- 
rately strong  solution  of  sul|)hate  of  iron.  On 
examining  the  plant  the  following  day,  no 
other  fct'fect  was  observed,  (ium  that  the  very 
tipsof  the  radicles  were  withered  and  bUuk. 
Four  mori-  drops  of  tlie  solution  were  now 
added.  On  the  third  day  the  appearances 
were  the  same ;  and  no  new  change  t.king 
place  on  the  fourth,  twelve  more  drops  of  the 
solution  were  added.  On  the  fifth  day  the 
roots  appeared  of  a  yellowisli-green  colour, 
am!  the  top  drooped  very  much.  '1  he  larger 
leaves  were  jiretly  imicli  withered  and  black- 
ened. The  absorption  of  the  water  apjieared 
to  be  in  some  measure  impeded,  but  not  en- 
tirely prevented.  On  the  sixth  day  the 
whole  plant  was  withering  very  fa-l ;  the 
roots  became  of  a  dark  ohve-green  colour, 
and  the  larger  leaves  were  become  very 
black,  especia-Iy  the  footstalks  and  the  pro- 
jecting fibres.  On  the  seventh  day  the  blaik- 
'ness  ifad  made  still  further  progress,  and  the 
plant  was  dead.  A  sufficient  proof  that  some 
of  the  iron  was  absorbed  by  the  plant,  may 
be  drawn  from  the  following  circumstance  : 
Its  leaves,  when  macerated  in  distilled  water, 
produced  a  black  colour  with  galls.  The 
leaves  of  a  plant  of  mint,  which  had  been 
nourished  by  water  alone,  when  tried  by  tlie 
same  test,  'produced  no  colour  \vhale\cr. 
This  experiment  proves  two  points;  that 
plants  have  not  the  power  of  rejecting  even 
injurious  matters  when  presented  to  their 
roots,  and  that  other  matters  besides  water 
and  air  are  capable  of  being  absorbed  by 
them. 

Tlie  benefit  produced  by  the  common  cus- 
tom of  letling  lands  lie  tallow,  has  not  yet 
ix-en  satisfactorily  explained.  Something 
may  no  doubt  be  attributed  to  the  destruction 
of  weeds,  but  more  probably  to  some  change 
produced  in  the  soil  by  its  beiii"  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  sun  and  air.  The  manage- 
ment of  nitre-beds  may  tend  to  throw  some 
light  on  this  subject.  "These  are  composed 
of  calcareous  earth  and  dung  cemenlid  to- 
gether. After  being  exposed  for  some  months 
to  the  air,  they  are  found  to  contain  a  (pian- 
lity  of  nitric  acid,  which,  uniting  to  the  calca- 
reiius  earth,  forms  a  kind  of  salt,  which  is , 
extracted  by  lixiviation.  Now  calcareous 
earth  and  dung  are  two  of  (he  most  powerful 
kinds  of  manure,  and  it  does  not  seem  im- 
probable (hat  tlieir  fertilizing  powers  may  be 
in  some  manner  comu-cteil  with  their  prp- 
[)ertv  of  affording  nitrous  acid. 


I 


P  L  A 

fegdahk  substances.  I'laiils  contain  va- 
tioiis"salliiL'  iiKitters;  such  as  the  vegetable 
acids,  and  the  tlnee  allvalies,  amniojiia, 
potass,  and  soda;  also  gum,  sugar,  Cat  oils, 
essential  oils,  balsams,  camphor,  resin,  tai;, 
farina,  narculic,  and  colouring  niatlui's ;  all 
which  the  reader  will  lind  treated  of  under 
iheir  respective  heads.  But  dili'erenl  kinds  of 
plants  contain  matters  peculiar  to  themselves, 
which  an  ingenious  and  profound  modern 
chemist  (Ur.  Thomson)  has  classed  under  tlie 
general  term  extractive  principle,  and  to 
which  he  ascribes  the  following  general  pro- 
]ierties:  1st.  Soluble  in  water,  and  the  solu- 
tion is  always  coloured.  When  the  water 
is  slowly  evaporated,  the  extractive  matter  is 
obtained  in  a  solid  stale,  and  transparent ;  but 
when  the  evaporation  is  rapid  the  matter  is 
opaiiue.  'J.  'l"he  taste  of  extractive  is  al- 
ways strong;  but  it  is  very  dil'l'erent,  accord- 
ing to  the  plant  from  which   it  is   obtained. 

3.  Soluble  in  alcohol,  but  insoluble  in  ether. 

4.  By  rc])eated  solutions  and  evaporations, 
the  extractive  matter  acquires  a  deeper  co- 
lour, and  becomes  insoluble  in  water.  This 
change  is  considered  as  t;ie  consequence  of 
the  absorption  of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, for  which  the  extracti\e  principle  has 
a  strong  allinity :  but  if  the  solution  is  left  to 
itself,  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  the  extract 
is  totally  destroyed  in  conseiiuence  of  a  kind 
of  putrefaction  which  speedily  commences. 

5.  When  oxymuriatic  acid  is  poured  into  a 
solution  containing  extractive,  a  very  copious 
dark-yellow  precipitate  is  thrown  down,  and 
the  liipiid  retains  but  a  light  lemon-colour. 
These  flakes  are  the  oxygenized  extractive. 
It  is  now  insoluble  in  water  ;  but  hot  alcohol 
still  dissolves  it.  6.  The  extractive  principle 
imites  with  alumina,  and  forms  with  it  an  in- 
soluble compound.  Accordingly,  if  sulphat 
or  muriat  of  alumina  is  mixed  with  a  solution 
ot' extractive,  a  llaky  insoluble  precipitate  ap- 
pears, at  least  when  the  licjuid  is  boiled  ;  but 
If  an  excess  of  acid  is  present,  the  precipitate 
does  not  always  appear.  7.  It  is  precipitated 
from  water  by  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
muriatic  acid,  and  probably  by  several  other 
acids.  VVheii  the  experiment  is  made  with 
S'alpliuric  acid,  the  fumes  of  vinegar  generally 
becoLue  sensible.  8.  Alkalies  readily  unite 
with  extractive,  and  form  compounds  which 
are  soluble  in  water.  9.  The  greater  number 
of  metallic  oxides  form  insoluble  compounds 
with  extractive.  Hence  many  of  them,  w  hen 
thrown  into  its  solution,  are  capable  of  sepa- 
rating it  from  water.  Hence  also  the  me- 
tallic salts  mostly  precipitate  extractive. 
Muriat  of  tin  possesses  this  property  in  an 
eminent  degeee.  It  throws  down  a  brown 
powder,  perfectly  insoluble,  <:omposed  of  the 
oxide  of  tin  and  vegetable  matter.  10.  If 
wool,  cotton,  or  thread,  is  impregnated  with 
alum,  and  then  plunged  into  a  solution  of 
extractive,  they  are  dyed  of  a  fawn-brown 
colour,  and  the  liquid  loses  much  of  its  e.x- 
(tractive  matter.  This  colour  is  permanent. 
■The  same  effect  is  produced  if  nniriat  of  tin 
is  e\nployed  instead  of  alum.  This  effect  is 
still  more  complete  if  the  cloth  is  soaked  in 
.oxymuriatic  acid,  and  then  <rii>t  into  the  in- 
•iusion  of  extractive.  Hence  we  see  that  the 
extractive  matter  re(\uires  no  other  niordant 
than  oxygen  to  fix  it  on  cloth.  11.  When 
(listilled,  extractive  yields  an  acid  liquid  im- 
pregnated with  annnonia. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  Lliat  there  are   manv 
Vol.  II. 


I'  L  A 

difierenf  species  of  extractive  matter;  though 
tlie  dilllculty  of  ob'aining  each  sejiarately 
has  prevented  chemists  from  ascertaining  its 
nature  v/ith  precision.  Extracts  in  phar- 
macy are  usually  obtained  by  treatiug  the 
vegetable  substance  from  which  they  arc  to 
be  procured  with  v.ater,  and  then  evaporat- 
ing the  watery  soiutioji  slowly  to  dryness. 
All  extracts  obtained  by  this  method  have  an 
ac'd  taste,  and  redden  the  infusion  of  lilmus. 
They  all  yield  a  precipitate  while  licpiid,  if 
they  are  mixed  with  ammonia.  'Ihis  pnxi- 
pitate  is  a  compound  of  lime  and  insoluble 
extractive.  Lime  always  causes  them  to 
exhale  the  odour  of  annnonia.  It  has  been 
ascertained  that  the  extractive  principle  is 
more  abundant  in  plants  that  have  grown  to 
maturity  than  in  young  plants. 

As  the  extracts  of  vegeta!)les  prepared  by 
apothecaries    for  medical   purposes,  besides 
the  extractive  princi|)le,  always  contain  other  , 
bodies,  frequently  to  the  number  of  eiiiht  or 
more,  and  as  the  greater  number  of  them  are 
still  but  imperfectly  examined,  we  shall  sa-  ' 
tisfy  ourselves  at  present  with  pointing  out 
some  of  those    vegetable  substances  .which  , 
have  been  ascertained  to  contain  extractive  ' 
principle,  ajid  stating  the  constituents  of  such  j 
as  have  been  analysed. 

1.  E.xtractive  prineiple  is  not  au  uncom- ' 
mon  ingredient  in  the  sap  of  trees.     Indeed,  1 
Deyeux  and  Vauquelin  found  it  in  almost  all  ' 
those  which  they  examined.     It  is  usually 
thrown  down  when  the  sap  is  mixed  with 
oxymuriatic  acid,  and  it  precipitates  in  brown 
flakes  while  tlie  sap  is  evaporating  on  a  sand- 
bath.  I 
2.'  It  forms  a  constituent  of  the  bark  of  all 
trees  hitherto  examined.    This  was  evidently 
the  cas.;  with  all  the  barks  which  Mr.  Davy 
subjected  to  experiment,  namely,  those  of  the 
oak,  Leicester  willow,  Spanish  chesnut,  elm, 
common  willow,   and  undoubtedly  all  barks 
which  have  an  astringent  taste  ;  for  tan  and 
extractive  seeni  scarcely  ever  to  be  found 
separate. 

3.  The  infusion  of  catechu  contains  an  ex- 
tractive principle,  united  chiefly  to  tan.  It 
may  be  obtained  in  a  state  of  purity  by  wash- 
ing the  catechu  in  powder  repeate<Uy  with 
water  till  the  fluids  obtamed  cease  to  preci- 
pitate gelatine.  What  remains  is  extractive. 
It  is  of  a  pale  reddish-brown  colour,  and  a 
slightly  astringent  taste,  leaving  in  the  mouth 
a  sensation  of  sweetness.  It  has  no  smell. 
Its  solution  in  water  is  at  first  yellow-brown  ; 
but  it  accpiircs  a  tint  of  red  when  left  exposed 
to  tlie  air.  The  solution  in  alcohol  is  of  a 
dirty  brown.  It  does  not  affect  vegetable 
blues.  Alkalies  brighten  its  colour;  but  nei- 
ther these  bodies  nor  the  alkaline  earths  pre- 
cipitate it  from  water.  Nitrat  of  alumina 
and  muriat  of  tin  render  the  solution  slightly 
turljid.  Nitrat  of  lead  throws  down  a  (Tense 
light-brown  precipitate.  It  renders  the  oxysul- 
])lrat  of  iron  green,  and  throws  down  a  green 
precipitate,  becoming  black  by  exposure  to 
the  air.  Linen,  when  boiled  hi  the  solution, 
takes  away  almost  the  whole  of  the  extractive, 
and  acquu'es  a  light  red-brow  ii  colour'.  When 
this  extractive  is,  expose<l  to  heat,  it  softens, 
and  its  colour  becomes  darker,  but  it  does 
not  melt.  When  distilled,  it  yields  carbonic 
and  carbureted  hydrogen  gas,  weak  acetic 
acid,  and  a  little  unaltered  extractive.  A 
porous  charcoal  remains. 


I'  L  A 


44^ 


4.  The  infusion  of  senna  copfain' a  matter 
of  a  very  peculiar  iiatiin,-,  but  which  may  be 
considered  as  a  species  of  extractive.  The 
senna  of  connnerce  consists  of  the  dried  leaves 
of  the  cassia  senna,  a  shrublike  annua!,  culti- 
vated in  Egypt.  Water,  at  the  ordinary 
lem[)erature  of  the  atmosphere,  dissolves 
nearly  one-half  of  the  substance  of  these 
leaves.  TLn'  infusion  obtained  has  a  brov.ii 
colour,  a  bitter  taste,  and  a  peculiar  aromatic 
odour.  It  contains  a  considerable  propor- 
tion ofcarbonat  of  lime,  sulphat  of  pota.ss, 
andcarbouat  of  magnesia,  besides  »  little  sili- 
ca. l;ut  the  most  curious  ot  its  constituents 
is  tlie  extractive.  When  common  air  is  made 
to  pass  for  some  hours  through  tlie  infusion, 
a  yellow -coloured  precipitate  appears:  the 
same  substance  is  thrown  down  iinmetliately 
by  muriatic  acid  and  oxymuriatic  acid,  ft 
appears  a^o  when  a  current  of  oxygen  gas  is 
made  to  traverse  the  infusion.  This  substance 
is  the  extractive  alt'-red  bv  its  combination 
with  o.xygen.  It  has  a  slight  bitter  taste.  It 
is  no  longer  soluble  in  water.  Alcohol  dis- 
solves it,  but  lets  it  fall  when  diluted.  The 
alkalies  dissolve  it,  and  form  a  deep-brown 
solution.  On  burning  coals,  it  emits  a  thick 
smoke,  exhales  an  aromatic  odour,  and 
leaves  a  spongy  charcoal.  These  properties 
indicate  a  very  decided  approach  to  the  resin- 
ous state. 

5.  Tiie  infusion  of  Peruvian  bark  likewise 
yields  an  extractive  matter  of  a  peculiar  na- 
ture, which  assumes  a  fine  red  colour  wiieii 
united  to  oxygen ;  and  like  the  extractive  of 
senna,  acquires  nearly  the  jiroperties  of  a 
resin.  It  was  obtained  by  Fourcroy  from 
the  einchona  of  St.  Domingo.  Water,  boiled 
on  it  till  it  rehised  to  dissolve  any  thing  more, 
was  slowly  evaporated,  and  the  extract  ob- 
tained was  dissolved  in  alcohol.  The  alcohol, 
by  evaporation,  deposited  the  peculiar  ex- 
tractive. Its  colour  was  brown,  its  taste  bit- 
ter, insoluble  in  cold,  but  very  soluble  in  hot, 
water.     It  was  soluble  in  alcohol.    \Vhen  dry 

I  it  was  black,  brittle,  and  broke  with  a  polish- 
I  ed  fracture.  Lime-water  precipitated  it  in  the 
state  of  a  red  powder  ;  oxymuriatic  acid  threw 
it  down  in  the  state  of  a  fine  red  powder, 
neither  soluble  in  water  nor  alcohol,  but  ca- 
paklile  of  uniting  with  alkalies.  A  stronger  dose 
I  of  oxymuriatic  acid  renders  it  yellow. 

6.  Saffron  yields  extractive  matter  in  great 
abiuidaiice.  This  substance  consists  of  the 
summits  of  the  pistils  of  the  crocus  sativus^ 
iVlmost  the  w  hole  of  it  is  soluble  in  w  ater. 

The  resemblance  between  extractive  bo- 
dies ;md  the  colouring  matter  of  plants  is  suf- 
liciendy  striking,  it  is  more  than  probable, 
that  when  this  last  set  of  bodies  have  been 
examined  with  more  precision  by  chemists, 
they  wit!  be  found  lo  belong  to  tlie  saine 
cla  s. 

PLASHING  of  quickset  hedges,  an  ope- 
ration verv  necessary  to  promote  the  growth 
and  continuance  of  old  hedges. 

It  is  performed  in  this  manner:  The  old 
stuijs  must  be  cut  off,  &c.  within  two  or  three 
incites  of  tiie  ground,  and  the  bist  and  longest 
ol  the  middle-sized  shoots  must  b:-  left  to  lay 
down.  Some  of  the  strongest  of  the-e  must 
aKo  be  left  to  answer  the  purpose  of  stakes. 
These  are  to  be  cut  off  to  the  height  at  which 
the  hedge  is  intended  to  be  left;  and  tltey 
are  to  stand  at  ten  feet  distance  one  frotu 
another ;    whcR  thejie  are  not  ^.-roper  slioots 


4^0 


r  L  A 


for  these  at  the  due  distanocf,  their  places 
must  be  supplied  with  coumvjn  stakes  ot  dead 
wood.  The  hedge  is  to  b,'  tirst  tiiiiiiied,  by 
cutting  away  all  those  shoots  wliicli  are  iii- 
tendecf  to  be  used  either  as  stakes  or  the 
other  work  of  the  plasliing :  the  ditch  is  to  be 
cleaned  out  with  the  spade  ;  and  it  must  be 
now  dug  as  at  lirst,  with  sloping  sides  each 
way ;  and  when  there  is  any  ci-.vity  on  the 
haiik  on  which  the  hedge  gro-.vs,  or  the  earth 
iias  been  washed  away  troni  the  roots  of  the 
shrubs,  it  is  to  be  made  good  by  facing  it,  as 
they  express  it,  with  the  mould  dug  Irom  the 
upper  part  of  the  ditch  :  all  the  rest  of  the 
earth  dug  out  of  the  ditch  is  to  be  laid  upon 
the  top  of  the  bank,  and  the  owner  should 
look  carefully  into  it  that  this  is  done  ;  for  the 
workman,  to  spare  themselves  trouble,  are 
apt  to  throw  as  much  as  they  can  upon  the 
lace  of  the  bank;  which  beii>g  by  this  means 
overloaded,  is  soon  washed  o!f'  into  the  ditch 
again,  and  a  very  great  part  of  the  work  un- 
done ;  whereas,  wliat  'is  laid  on  the  top  of  the 
bank  alwavs  remains  there,  and  makes  a  good 
fence  of  an  indilferent  hedge. 

PLASTER.     See  Pharmacy. 

Plasters  are  combinations  of  oils  and  me- 
tallic oxides  destined  to  be  spread  upon 
leather  or  cloth,  and  in  that  state  to  be  ap- 
plied as  a  covering  of  ulcers,  &c.  They 
ought  to  be  solid  bodies,  not  so  hard  as  to  re- 
fuse to  spread  easily  and  equally,  nor  so  soit 
as  to  run  into  oil  when  heated  by  the  skhi. 
Tiiey  ought  to  admit  of  being  easily  kneaded 
when  heated  with  the  hand,  to  adhere  tirmly 
to  the  skin,  but  to  be  capal)le  of  being  re- 
moved without  leaving  behind  them  any 
stain.  ^Vilhout  these  pro|)ertie5  they  do  not 
answer  the  purpose  for  .which  they  are  des- 
tined, which  is  chielly  arlhesion. 

The  only  chemist  who  has  hitherto  ex- 
amined plasters  with  attention  is  Deyeux,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  some  excellent 
observations  on  the  method  of  preparing 
them. 

Tiie  oxides  hitherto  employed  tor  making 
plasters  are  those  of  lead  ;  and  litharge  is 
Usually  considered  as  the  best  ada|ited  for 
that  purpose,  of  any  of  these  oxides.  But 
the  oxides  of  several  of  the  other  metals,  as 
bismuth  and  mercury,  are  also  capable  of 
forming  plasters,  antl  mi  .;ht  periiaps  in  some 
cases  be  employed  with  advantage.  .Some 
nielailic  oxides,  however,  as  those  of  iron, 
lire  not  susceptibie  of  that  kind  of  combina- 
tion with  oils  which  constitutes  plasters. 

AU  the  fixed  oils  are  capable  of  forming 
plasters;  but  they  do  nc)l  all  form  plasters 
with  tlie  same  properties.  'J'he  drying  oils, 
linseed-oil  for  instance,  form  jjlasters  of  a 
much  sti.'ter  cousistency  than  the  fat  oils ; 
i)ut  these  last  a«]uire  the  sane  properties  as 
the  drying  oils,  if  they  are  combined  with  mu- 
f  iiage.  Thus  oliveoil,  boiled  for  some  time 
■«vit:i  linseed  or  fenugrcc,  tbrnis  with  litharge 
plasters  ?s  sott  as  those  gomposed  of  linseed- 
oil  and  litharge.  According  to  Deyeux, 
olive-oil  answers  better  for  plasters  than  any 
other. 

'I'here  are  tliree  different  ways  of  forming 
plasters.  'I'lic  hist  consists  in  simply  mixing 
together  od  and  litharge  in  proper  propor- 
tions, and  alii-Aving  the  mixture  to  remain  a 
i-oiiiiderable  lime  in  the  common  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmospliere,  agitating  il  occasion- 
••allj.     TUe  oxide  gradually  loses  its  colour^^ 


Y'  L  A 

and  combine;  with  tl;e  oil.  and  the  mixture 
acquires  coiuistence.  This  process  is  tedious, 
and  does  not  furnish  plasters  sufficiently  solid 
to  answer  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  in- 
tended.    It  is  not  therefore  employed. 

The  second  method  consists  m  throwing 
the  oxide  into  the  oil  while  boiling.  Piasters 
lormed  by  this  process  have  alwavs  a  deep 
colour,  and  a  pecul.ar  odour,  occasioned  by 
the  decomposition  of  a  portion  of  the  oii. 
When  this  process  is  followed,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  oxide  should  be  in  the  state  of  a  fine 
powder ;  and  that  by  agitation  it  should  be 
made  to  combine  with  the  oil  as  fast  as  pos- 
sible, otlierwise  the  metal  will  be  revived 
altogether,  in  consequence  of  the  strong  tend- 
ency which  oil  has  to  combine  with  oxygen 
when  raised  to  a  high  temperature. 

'I'he  third  method  is  most  fre(|ueiitly  prac- 
tised, because  it  is  not  liable  to  the  sani^-  in- 
conveniences as  the  other  two.  This  method 
consists  in  boiling  the  oil  and  the  oxide  toge- 
ther in  a  sufticient  quantity  of  water.  By  this 
liquid  the  heat  is  moderated  at  hrst  till  the 
oil  and  oxide  combine,  which  prevents  the 
i-evival  of  the  metal;  and  alterwards  when 
the  water  is  dissipated,  the  temperature  is 
sufficiently  high  to  give  the  plaster  the  requi- 
site consistency. 

Plasters,  wlien  long  kept,  become  often  too 
hard  to  be  ht  for  use,  especially  if  the  requi- 
site proportion  of  oil  has  not  been  employed 
at  hrst.  This  defect  is  easily  remedied,  by 
melting  them  with  a  small  portion  of  new  oil. 
Plasters,  when  long  kept,  likewise  change 
their  colour,  and  most  of  their  sensible  pro- 
pertiei;  owing  either  to  the  absorption  of 
oxygen,  or  to  some  change  produced  in  their 
component  parts  by  the  action  of  the  air. 

PL.ASTICE,  the  plastic  art,  a  branch  of 
sculpture,  being  the  art  of  forming  figures  of 
men,  birds,  beasis,  fishes,  &c.  in  plaister, 
clay,  stucco,  or  the  like.     See  Sculpture. 

Plastice  dilters  from  carving  in  this,  that 
the  figures  are  made  by  the  addition  of  what  is 
wanting;  but  in  carving  always  by  subtract- 
ing what  is  superfl  lions.  The  plastic  art  is 
now  chielly  used  among  us  in  fret-work  ceil- 
ings; but  the  Italians  apply  it  also  to  the 
mantlings  of  chimneys  willi  great  figures. 

PLAlALE.V,  the  spnonhitt,  in  ornitho- 
logy, a  genus  belonging  to  the  order  of  gral- 
le. "  The  beak  is  plain,  and  dilates  towards 
the  i)0!nt  into  an  orbicular  form  ;  the  feet 
have  three  toes,  and  are  half-palmated.  There 
are  three  species,  distinguislu-d  by  their  co- 
lour: and  of  these  species  there  are  three  va- 
rieties ;  two  of  whicli  are  called  the  w'hite  spe- 
cies, and  one  of  the  roseate. 

1.  The  white  species,  which  I.innseus  calls 
platalea  leucorodia,  is  about  the  size  of  a 
heron,  but  somewhat  shorter  in  the  neck  and 
legs.  The  bill  is  more  than  half  a  loot  long, 
and,  like  that  of  the  rest  of  the  genus,  is 
shaped  like  a  spoon  :  the  colour  of  the  bill  is 
very  various,  l>eing  in  some  birds  black,  in 
others  brown  ;  the  plumage  is  entirely  white, 
though  there  have  been  specimens  where  the 
(piills  were  tipped  with  black;  the  legs  are 
generally  cither  black  or  of  a  greyish-brown 
colour;  between  the  toes  there  is  a  mem- 
brane connected  to  the  outer  one  as  far  as 
liie  second  joint,  and  to  the  inner  as  far  as 
the  first. 

This  bird  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
Old  Continent,  and  from  the  I'erro  isles  near 
IccUmd  to  tlie  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     It  fre- 


P  L  A 

quents  !!ie  neighbourhood  of  the  seSj  and  has 
been  met  with  on  the  coasts  of  France;  at 
Sevenhuys,  near  I.eyden,  once  in  great  plen- 
ty, annually  breeduig  in  a  wood  there.  'I  he 
r.est  IS  placed  on  hi^h  trees  near  the  sea-side. 
The  female  lays  three  or  four  white  eggs, 
powdered  with  a  few  pale-red  ^pots,  and  of 
the  size  of  those  of  a  lien.  1  hey  are  veiy 
noisy  during  breeding-time,  like  our  rooks; 
are  seldom  found  high  up  the  rivers,  chiefly 
frequenting  the  mouths  of  them.  Their  food 
is  fish,  which  they  are  said  not  unfrequently 
to  take  from  other  birds,  in  the  manner  of  the 
bald  eagle;  also  mussels  and  other  shell-fish, 
being  found  in  greatest  numbers  where  these 
are  plenty ;  and  they  w  ill  also  devour  frogs 
and  snakes,  and  even  grass  and  weeds,  which 
grow  in  the  water,  as  well  as  the  roots  of 
reeds.  They  are  migratory,  retiring  to  the 
warmer  parts  as  tlie  winter  approaches,  aiul 
are  rarely  seen  in  England.  '1  heir  llcsh  is 
said  to  have  the  flavour  of  a  goose,  and  is 
eaten  by  some;  and  the  young  birds  have 
l>een  thought  good  food. 

'2.  The  roseate  species,  or  platalea  ajaia,  is 
less  than  the  white.  The  bill  is  marked  all 
round  with  a  furrow  parallel  to  the  edge,  and 
is  of  a  greyish-white  colour,  so  transparent  as 
to  show  the  ramification  of  the  blood-vessel* 
belonging  to  it :  the  forehead  is  of  a  whitish 
colour  between  the  bill,  and  eyes, and  throat ; 
the  plumage  is  a  fine  rose-colour,  deepest  on 
the  wings.  A  variety  of  this  species  is  entire- 
ly of  a  beautiful  red  colour,  having  a  collar 
of  black  at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  ;  the 
irides  are  red.  It  is  said  to  be  of  a  blackish 
chesnut  the  first  year,  becomes  rose-coloured 
the  second,  and  of  a  deep  scarlet  the  third. 
It  lives  on  small  fish. 

3.  The  dwarf  species,  or  platalea  pigmea, 
is  about  the  size  of  a  sparrow.  The  bill  is 
black,  longer  than  the  head,  flat  at  the  end, 
and  nearly  of  a  rhomboidal  form  ;  the  body- 
is  brown  above  and  white  beneath.  It  inha- 
bits Surinam  and  Guiana. 

PLATAN  I' S,  the  plane-tree,  a  genus  of 
the  polyandria  order,  in  the  monoecia  class  of 
plants.  The  male  calyx  is  an  ameni,  globu- 
lar ;  corolla  scarcely  apparent ;  anthers  grow- 
ins  round  the  filament.  Female  calyx  anient, 
globular;  corolla  many-petalled :  stigma  re- 
moved ;  seeds  roundish,  marcomate  w  ith  the 
style,  papposeat  the  base.     The  species  are: 

1 .  I'he  orientalis,  oriental  or  Eastern  plane- 
tree,  rises  w  ith  a  very  straight  smooth  branch- 
ing stein  to  a  great  lieighl.  It  has  pahuated 
leaves,  six  or  eight  inches  long  and  as  much 
oioad,  diviileil  into  five  large  segments ;  hav- 
ing the  siile  ones  cut  into  two  smaller,  greeu 
above,  and  pale  underneath  ;  and  long  pen- 
dulous pedunculi,  each  sustaining  several 
round  heads  of  close^sitting  very  small  (low- 
ers, succeeded  by  numerous  downy  seeds, 
collected  into  round,  rough,  hard  balls,  k 
is  a  native  of  Asia  and  many  parts  of  the  East, 
and  grows  in  great  plenty  in  the  Levant. 

2.  The occidentalis,  occidental  or  Western 
plane-lree,  rises  with  a  straight  smooth  stem 
to  a  great  height,  branching  widely  round ; 
it  has  lobated  leaves,  seven  or  eight  inches 
long,  and  from  nine  or  ten  to  twelve  or  tour- 
teen  broad,  divideil  into  three  large  lobes; 
and  very  small  llowers,  tollected  into  round 
heads,  succeeded  by  round  rough  balls  of 
seed,  it  is  a  native  of  Virginia  and  other 
parts  of  North  America,  where  it  attains  »d 
enormous  size,  auU  is  remarkable  for  luiving. 


PL  A 

It?  stem  all  of  an  equal  (;irt  fiir  a  consideraWe 
|i;iigtii :  we  have  an  ateouDt  of  some  trees 
.being  eii«lit  or  nine  yards  in  cjrcunilerence, 
and  v.liieli,  when  felled,  afforded  twenty  loads 
of  wood. 

The  vaiieties  of  these  two  species  are  the 
Spanish  or  middle  plane-tree,  having  remark- 
ably large  haves  of  three  or  live  narrower 
segments  ;  and  the  maple-leaved  plane-tree, 
Jiaving  smaller  leaves,  sunievvhal  lobatc-d  into 
live  segments,  resembling  the  maple-tree 
leaf. 

All  these  elegant  trees  are  of  hardy  tempe- 
ralme,  so  as  to  prosper  here  in  any  eomnion 
<oil  and  exposure  in  our  open  plaiitaliuns, 
&i:.  and  are  some  of  the  most  desirable  trees 
of  the  deiiduoiis  tribe.  Tlieir  propagation  is 
by  seed,  layers,  and  cuttings.  All  the  sorts 
will  take  loleiably  by  lutting  otf  the  strong 
young  shoots  ;  but  the  plataiius  occicli'ulalis 
more  freely  tlnm  the  oriental  kind.  Autumn 
is  the  best  season :  as  soon  as  the  leaf  tails, 
choose  strong  young  shoots,  and  plant  thcin 
in  a  moist  soil;  many  of  them  will  grow,  .md 
make  tolerable  plants  by  ne.\t  autumn. 

PLATBAND  nf  a  door  or  xiindoiv,  is 
used  for  the  lintel,  where  that  is  made  square, 
or  not  much  arched:  these  platbands  are  usu- 
ally crossed  with  bars  of  iron  when  they  have 
a  great  bearing,  but  it  is  much  better  to  ease 
them  by  arches  of  discharge  built  over  them. 
PLATFORM,  in  the  military  art,  an  ele- 
vation of  earth,  on  which  cannon  is  placed  to 
fire  on  the  enemy :  such  are  the  mounts  in 
the  middle  of  curtins.  On  the  ramparts  there 
is  always  a  platform,  where  the  cannon  are 
mounted.  It  is  made  by  the  heaping  up  of 
earth  on  the  rampart ;  or  by  an  arrangement 
of  madriers,  rising  insensibly,  for  the  cannon 
to  roll  on,  either  in  a  casement  or  on  attack 
in  the  outworks.  All  practitioners  are  agreed 
that  no  shot  can  be  depended  on,  unless  the 
piece  can  be  placed  on  a  solid  platform ;  for 
if  tlie  platform  shakes  with  the  lirst  impidse 
of  the  powder,  the  piece  must  likewise  shake, 
which  will  alter  its  direction,  and  render  the 
shot  uncertain. 

Platform,  or  Orlop,  in  a  ship  of  war,  a 
place  on  the  lower  deck,  abaft  the  main-mast, 
between  it  and  the  cockpit,  and  round  about 
the  main  capstan,  where  provision  is  made 
for  the  wounded  men  in  time  of  action. 
PLATINA.     See  Platinum. 
PLATING,  is  the  art  of  covering  baser 
metals  with  a  thin  plate  of  silver  eitlier  for 
use  or  for  ornament.     It  is  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  a  siiur-maker,  not  for  show  but 
for  real  utility.     Till  then  the  more  elegant 
spurs  in  common  use  were  made  of  solid  sil- 
ver; and  from  the  ile.xibility  of  that  metal, 
they  were  liable  lo  be  bent  into  incoiiveuieut 
forms  by  the  slightest  accident.     To  remedy 
this  defect,  a  workman  at  Birmingham  con- 
trived to  make  the  branches  of  a  pair  of  spurs 
liollow,  and  to  lill  that  hollow  witli  a  slender 
rod  of  steel  or  iron.     Finding  this  a  great  im- 
provement, and  being  desirous  to  add  cheap- 
ness to  utility,  he  coutinued  to  make  the  liol- 
iow  larger,  and  of  course  the  iron  thicker  and 
thicker,  till  at  last  he  discovered  the  means 
of  coating  an  iron  spur  with  silver  in  such  a 
jnainier  as  to  make  it  equally  elegant  with 
those  which  were  made  w  holly  of  that  metal. 
The  invention  was  quickly  applied  to  other 
purpeses;  and  to  numberless  utensils  which 
were  formerly  made  of  brass  or  iron  are  bow 


p  r,  \ 

given  the  strength  of  these  metals,  wij  tlio 
elegance  of  silver,  for  a  small  additional  e.\- 
pence. 

The  silver  plate  was  formerly  made  to  ad- 
here to  the  baser  metal  by  means  of  solder; 
which  is  of  two  kinds,  the'.-,oft  and  the  hanl, 
or  the  tin  and  silver  solders.  The  lormer  of 
these  consists  of  tin  alone,  the  latter  generally 
of  three  parts  of  silver  and  one  of  brass. 
Wiien  a  buckle,  for  uistance,  is  to  be  plated 
by  means  of  the  soft  soldi  r,  the  ring,  before 
it  is  bent,  is  lirst  tinned,  and  then  tlie  silver- 
plate  is  gi  iitly  hammered  upon  it,  the  ham- 
mer employed  being  always  covered  with  a 
piece  ot  cloth.  The  silver  now  forms,  as  it 
were,  a  mould  to  the  ring,  and  whatever  of  it 
is  not  inteiuled  to  be  u-ed  is  cut  o(f.  ^I  his 
mould  is  fa^tene<l  to  the  ring  of  the  buckle  by 
two  or  three  Clamps  of  iioii  wire;  after  which 
the  buckle,  with  the  plated  side  undermost, 
is  laid  ujjon  a  plate  ot  iron  sulficienfly  liot  to 
melt  the  tin,  but  not  the  silver.  The  buckle 
is  then  covered  with  powdered  resin,  or 
anointed  with  turpentine;  and  lest  tliere 
should  be  a  deliciency  of  tin,  a  small  portion 
of  rolled  tin  is  likewise  melted  on  it.  The 
buckle  is  now  taken  olf  with  tongs,  and 
conmionly  laid  on  a  bid  of  sand;  where  the 
plate  and  the  ring,  while  the  solder  it  yet  in 
a  state  of  fusion,  are  more  closely  compressed 
by  a  smart  stroke  w  ith  a  block  ot  wood.  Tlie 
buckle  is  afterwards  bent  iiiid  finished. 

The  mode  of  plating  at  present  is,  to  fasten 
plates  of  silver  upon  thicker  plates  of  copper, 
and  then  rolling  them  together  into  thin 
plates.  'l"he  copper  is  twelve  times  thicker 
than  the  silver,  and  one  ounce  of  silver  is 
rolled  to  a  surface  of  three  feet  or  more. 
The  plates  being  thus  made,  they  are  then 
stanqjed  by  a  single  stroke  into  the  size  and 
form  of  buckles,  buttons,  spoons,  &:c. 

PLATINUM,  one  of  the  perfect  metals, 
has  hitherto  been  found  only  in  Peru,  and  in 
the  mine  Santa  Fe,  near  Carlhagena.  The 
workmen  of  these  mines  must  no  doiibt  have 
been  early  acquainted  with  it ;  but  they  seem 
to  have  |)aid  very  little  attention  (o  it.  It 
was  unknown  in  Europe  till  Mr.  Wood 
brought  some  of  it  from  Jamaica  in  1741.  in 
1  748  it  was  noticeil  by  don  Antonio  de  L'l- 
loa,  a  Spanish  mathematician,  who  had  ac- 
companied the  French  academicians  to  Peru, 
in  their  voyage  to  mea.sure  a  degree  of  the 
meridian.  Several  papers  on  it  were  pub- 
lished by  Dr.  Watson  in  the  46th  volume  of 
the  Philosophical  Transactions.  Tliese  im- 
mediately attracted  the  attention  of  the  most 
eminent  chemists.  In  17j2,  Mr.  Scheffer  of 
Sweden  published  the  tirst  accurate  examina- 
tion of  its  properties.  He  proved  it  to  be  a 
new  metal,  a|)proacliing  very  much  to  t!ie 
nature  of  gold,  and  therelure  gave  it  the 
name  of  auiiim  album,  white  gold. 

1.  I .  Platinum,  w  hen  pure,  is  of  a  white  co- 
lour like  silver,  but  not  so  b.ight.  It  has  no 
taste  nor  smell. 

2.  Its  hardness  is  8.  Its  specific  gravity, 
after  being  Irammered,  is  SJ.dOO;  so  that  it'is 
by  far  the  heaviest  body  known 

3.  It  is  exceedingly  ductile  anil  malleable: 
it  may  l)e  hammered  out  into  verv  thin  plates, 
and  drawn  into  wires  not  exceeding  _-<!-,_ 
inch  in  diameter,  lu  these  pro[)erties  it  is 
probably  inferior  to  gold,  but  it  seems  to  sur- 
pass all  the  other  metals. 

4.  Its  tenacity  is  such,  that  a  wire  of  pla- 
tiuutn  0.07&  inch  in  diameter,  is  capable  of 

3  L  S  '        ■  ^ 


P  L  A  45| 

'  siipportine;  a  weight  of  274.31  lbs.  avoirdu- 
pois without  breaking.' 

;■'.  It  is  the  most  infusible  of  all  metals,  anrl 
cannot  be  melted,  in  any  quantity  at  least, 
by  the  strongest  aitificial  heat  which  can  be 
produced.  Macquer  and  Iiaum6  melted  smalf 
|)article«  of  it  by  means  of  a  blow  pipe,  and 
Lavoisier  by  exposing  them  on  red-hot  char- 
coal to  a  stream  ol  oxygen  cas.  [t  may  in- 
deed be  melted  without  difficulty  when  com- 
bined or  nii.\ed  with  other  bodies  ;  but  then 
it  is  not  in  a  stale  of  purity.  Pieces  of  plati- 
num, when  Iieated  to  whiteness,  may  be 
welded  together  by  hammering  in  the  same 
manner  as  hot  iron. 

6.  'i'liis  metal  is  not  in  the  smallest  degree 
altere<l  by  the  action  of  air  or  water. 

II.  It  cannot  be  combined  with  oxygen 
and  converted  into  an  oxide  by  the  strongest 
artificial  heat  of  our  furnacts.  I'latinum,  in- 
deed, in  the  stale  in  which  it  is  brought  from 
America,  may  be  partially  oxidated  bv  ex- 
posure to  a  violint  ileal,  as  numerous  expe- 
riments have  proved;  but  in  that  state  it  !«• 
not  pure,  but  combined  with  a  quantity  of 
iron.  It  cannot  be  doubted,  however,  that  if 
we  could  subject  it  to  a  sullicient  heat,  pla-^ 
tiniim  would  burn  and  be  oxidated  like  ot;,er 
melals:  for  when  Nan  Maruin  exposed  j 
wire  of  platinmn  to  the  action  of  his  powerful 
electrical  machine,  it  burnt  with  a  laint  white 
flame,  and  was  dissipated  into  a  si-ecies  of 
dust,  which  proved  to  be  the  oxide  of  plati- 
num. By  putting  a  platintim  wire  into  the 
flame  produced  by  the  comb^i^tlon  ol  hydro- 
gen gas  mixed  w  it'll  oxygen,  it  was  made  to 
burn  with  all  the  brilliancy  of  iron  wire,  and 
lo  emit  sparks  in  abundance.  Ibis  metal 
may  be  oxidated  in  any  quantity  by  boiling 
it  in  16  times  its  weight  of  nitro-iiiurratic  acid 
(aqua  regia).  The  acid  dissolves  it,  and  as- 
sumes lirst  a  yellow,  and  afterwards  a  deep 
red  or  rather  brown  colour.  On  the  addition 
of  lime  lo  the  solution,  a  yellow  jiowder  falls, 
to  the  bottom.  This  powder  is  the  oxide  of 
platinum.  Its  properties  have  not  been  ex- 
amined with  snfiicient  accuracy.  It  seems  to 
contain  but  a  small  proportion  of  oxvgen  ; 
probably  not  more  than  0.07:  yet  it  is' in  all 
probability  a  peroxide. 

This  oxide  may  be  decomposed,  and  the  ox- 
ygen driven  off,  by  exposing  it  lo  violent  heat. 
III.  Neither  carbon  nor  hydrogen  can  be 
combined  witli  platinum  ;  but  M.'Proust  has 
found  it  combined  with  sulphur  in  native  pla- 
tinum, and  it  unites  without  difficulty  to  phos- 
phorus. By  mixing  together  an  ounce  of 
platinum,  an  ounce  of  phosphoric  glass,  and 
a  drain  of  pov.dered  charcoal,  and  applving  a 
heat  of  about  32°  Wedgcworth,  M.  Pe'lletier 
formed  a  pho-;)huret  of  platinum  weighing 
more  than  an  ounce.  It  was  partlv  in  the 
form  of  a  button,  and  partly  in  cubic  cr\- 
stals.  It  was  covered  above  by  a  blackish 
glass.  It  was  of  a  silver-white  colour,  very 
brittle,  and  hard  enough  to  strike  fire  with 
steel.  When  exposed  to  a  lire  strong  enougb 
to  melt  it,  the  phosphorus  was  disengaged, 
and  burnt  on  the  surface. 

He  found  also,  that  when  phosphorus  was 
projected  on  red-hot  platwiuiii,  the  metal  in- 
stantly fused,  and  formed  a  phosphuret.  As 
heat  expels  the  phosphorus,  Mr.  Pelletier  has 
proposed  this  as  an  easy  melliod  of  purilying 
platinum. 

W .  Platinum,  as  far  as  is  known,  does  not 
combine  with  the  simple  incombusUblcs. 


452 


P  L  A 

!h  most  of  the  meta'.s 


V.   It  combines  w 
and  ibiins  alloys. 

■\Vh-i)  gold  and  ijlatlimm  are  exposed  to  a 
strong  lieat,  tiiev  combine,  ami  form  an  alloy 
of  gold  and  platininn.  If  the  p'.stiiuiiu  ex- 
ceeds J,  of  the  go  d,  the  colour  of  the  alloy 
is  mucii  paler  than  gold ;  but  if  it  is  muler 
JL.,  the  colonr  of  the  gold  is  not  sensibly  , 
slltered.  Ne.tiier  is  theie  any  alteration  in 
the  ductility  of  the  cold.  Plaiina;n  may  be 
alloved  With  a  considerable  pro;.onioa  of 
gold,  vvitiicut  senslblv  altering  its  colonr.  j 

VI.  The  allinities  of  pb-.tinum  are  at  pre- 1 
sent  unknown.  If  this  meial  could  be  ob- 
tained at  a  ciicao  rr.te,  it  would  furnish  very 
useful  vessels,  tiiat  might  be  exposed  to  tl-.e 
greatest  heat  without  alteration. 

PLATONIC  YE.iR,  or  the  great  year, 
is  a  period  of  time  determined  by  the  revi 


P  L  E 

rather  short  and  obtuse,  with  an  almost  bifid 
tere.iination ;  it  is  broader  at  the  base,  and 
"iraduallv  lessens  to  the  tip,   and    is  about 
three  inciies  in  length  ;    its  colour  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  body.     The  length  of  the  whole 
animal  from  the  ti))  of  the  beak  to  that  of  the 
t:fil  is  13  inches;   of  the  ber.ic  an  inch  and  a 
half.     The  legs  are  very  sliort,  terminating 
in  a  btoad  v.eb,  wiiich  on  the  foie  feet  ex- 
tends to  a  considerable  distance  beyond  tlie 
claws ;  but  on  the  hind-feet  reaches  no  far- 
ther thin  ti'.e  roots  of  the  claws.     On  the 
fore-feet  are  live  claws,  straight,  strong,  and 
I  sharp-pointed ;  the  two  exterior  oncssom- 
what  shorter  than  the  three  middle  ones.    On 
the  hind-feet  are  six  claws,  longer  and  more 
I  inclining  to  a  curved  form  than  tho-e  on  tiie 
I  fore-feet ;  the  exterior  toe  and  claw  are  con- 
'  siderablv  shorter  than  the  four  middle  ones; 
the  interior  or  sixth  is  seated  much  higher  up 


Jutioi)  of  the  equinoxes,  or  the  space  wherein    jj^g^^  ^j^^  ^^^^^  ^^^j  resembles  a  strong  sharp 


spur.  All  the  legs  are  hairy  above;  the  fore- 
feet are  naked  both  above  ami  below ;  but 
the  hind-feet  are  hairy  above,  and  naked  be- 
low. The  internal  edges  of  the  under  man- 
dible (which  is  narrower  than  the  upper)  are 
serrated  or  channeled   with  nnnierous  strix. 


the  stars  and  consieilations  return  to  their 
former    places  in  respect  of  the  equinoxes. 
'l"he    Platonic    rear,    according   to    Tycho 
Brahe,    is    '25816,    according   to^  Ricciohis 
259J0,  and  according  to  Cassini  24800  years. 
PLATOON,  in  the  military  art,  a  small 
square  body  of  forty  or  titty  men,  drawn  out    as  in  a  duck's  bill.     The  nostrils  are  small 
ot  a  battalion  of  foot,  and  placed  between  the  '  mij  round,  and  are  situated  about  a  qiiarte 
squadrons  of  horse,   to  sustain  them;  or  in  [  Qf  an  inch  from  the  tip  of  the  bill,  and  are 
ambuscades,     straits,     and     defiles,     where  i  ^i^out  the  eighth  of  an  inch  distant  from  each 
there  is  not  room  for  whole  baltalions  or  re-  |  other.     There  is  no  appearance  of  teeth;  the 
o-iments.     Platoons  are  also  used  when  they  !  palate  is  removed,.but  seems  to  have  reseiv 

form   the  hollow  square,   to  strengthen   the      '      •  '      ' 

angles.    The  grenadiers  are  generally  posted 
in  i>latoons. 

PLATYLOBIUM,  a  genus  of  the  diadel- 
phia  decandria  class  and  order.     The  calyx 

is  bell-shaped,  five-clefL ;  the  two  upper  seg- -^---c 

ments  very  lar.^e;  legume  pedicelled,  com-  ,  part  ot  the  head,  on  each  side,  a  little  beyond 
•        7    .  .1  _   1 — 1-      T^i-—"  :■""<>;  the  beak,  are  situated  two  smalli-^h  oval  white 

I  spots ;  in  the  lower  part  of  each  of  which  are 
I  imbedded  the  eyes,  or  at  least  the  parts  allot- 
ted to  the  animal  for  some  kind  of  vision ; 
for  from  the  thickness  of  the  fur,  and  the 
smallness  of  the  organs,  they  seem  to  have 
been  but  obscurely  calculated  for  distinct  vi- 
sion, and  are  probably  like  those  of  moles, 


bled  that  of  a  duck;  the  tongue  also  is  want- 
ing in  the  specimen.  The  ears,  or  auditory 
foramina,  are  placed  about  an  inch  beyond 
the  eyes ;  they  appear  like  a  pair  of  oval 
holes,  of  the  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
there  being  no  external  ear.     On  the  upper 


pressed,  winged  at  the  back.     There  is  one  | 
species,  a  shrub  of  South  Wales.  | 

PLATYPUS,  a  quadruped  of  the  order 
of  bruta.  The  generic  character  is,  mouth 
shaped  like  the  bill  of  a  duck ;  feet  webbed. 
Of  this  extraordinary  genus  two  specimens 
have  been  sent  from  New  Holland  to  sir 
Joseph  Banks  by  governor  Hunter. 

Of  all  the  mammilia  yet  known,  this  seems 
the  moit  extraordinary  in  its  conformation; 
exhibiting  the  perfect  resemblance  of  the  beak 
of  a  duck  engrafted  on  the  head  of  aquadru- 


P  L  E  i 

peace.      Common  pleas  are  tiiose  that  are 
held  between  common  persons. 

Common  pleas  are  either  dilatory,  or  pleas 
to  the  action. 

PK-as  dilatory  are  such  as  tend  merely  to 
delay  or  put  oil'  the  suit,  by  cpiestioning  the 
propriety  of  the  remedy  rather  than  by  de- 
nying the  injury. 
'  Pl.?as  to  the  action  are  such  as  dispute  the 
very  causi  of  suit.  3  Black.  301.  See  Tidd's 
K.  i^.  Practice. 

PLKADINGS,  in  general,  signify  the  al-  ■ 
legations  of  parties  to  suits  when  they  are 
put  into  a  propi-r  and  legal  form  ;  and  aie 
d!->tingnished  in  resjject  to  the  parlies  who 
plead  them,  by  the  naiues  of  bars,  replica- 
tions, rejoinders,  sur-rejoinders,  rebuiter.', 
sur-ivbntters,  &c.  and  though  the  matter  in 
the  declaration  of  court  does  not  properly 
come  under  the  name  of  pleading,  yel,  being 
often  cciiiiprehended  in  the  exten<led  sense 
of  the  w  ord,  it  is  generally  cons;dered  under 
this  head.     See  Tidd's  K.  B.  Practice. 

PLEBISCITUM,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
law  enacted  by  the  common  people,  at  the 
request  of  the  tribune,  or  oliier  plebeian  ma- 
gistrate, without  the  intervention  of  the  se- 
nate. 

PLECTRANTHUS,  a  genus  of  the  pym- 
nospeimia  order,  in  the  didynamia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  42d  order,  verliciilats.  The  calys 
is  monophyllous,  short,  and  bilabiated ;  liie 
upper  lip  ot  whicli  is  large,  oval,  and  bent 
upwards;  the  interior  lip  is  quadriiid,  and 
divideil  into  two  lacinix :  the  corolla  is  mo- 
iio])etalous,  ringent,  and  turned  back ;  the 
labue  look  different  ways,  and  irom  the  base, 
ot  tne  tube  there  is  a  nectarium  like  a  spur: 
the  filaments  are  in  a  declining  situation, 
with  simple  anthers:  the  stylus  riliform  ;  the 
rtigma  bifid.  It  has  four  seeds,  covered  only 
by  the  calyx.  There  are  five  species:  ihe 
fruticosus  is  a  native  of  the  Cape  ot  Good 
Hope;  the  punctatus  is  a  native  of  Africa. 
1  he  lirst  liowers  from  June  to  September, 
the  latter  from  January  to  May. 

PLECTROMIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 


and  some  other  animals  of  that  tribe  ;  or  per-    ^rder  pentandria  monogvnia.   The  petab  arc 
haps  even  subcutaneous;  the  whole  apparent  I  j^^ p.    ^erry   two-seeded,  interior.     There  is 
diameter  of  the  cavity  in  which  they  were  •  ^^p  species,  a  tree  of  the  Cape, 
placed  not  exceeding  the  tenth  of  an  inch.  PLEIADES,  in  astronomy,  an  assemblage 

When  we  consider  the  general  form  of  this  I  ^f  ^j^rs  in  the  neck  ot  the  constellation  Tau- 
animal,  and  particularly  its  bill  and  webbed  ^us.  See  Astronomy. 
feet,  we  shall  readily  perceive  that  it  must  be  I  pLENE  AD.MINISTRAVIT,  a  plea 
a  resident  in  watery  situations  ;  that  it  has  the  i  pj^aded  by  an  executor  or  administrator, 
habits  of  digging  or  burrowing  m  the  banks  '  ^^,|,gre  they  have  administered  the  deceased's 
of  rivers  or  under  ground ;  and  that  its  food  I  ^^^^^^  faitfifullv  and  justly  before  the  action 
consists  of  aquatic  plants  and  animals.     This    ijfy^i^i^j  a^ains't  them. 


ped.     So  accurate  is  the  similitude,  that,  at 

Jirst  view,  it  naturally   e.\cites  the  idea  of 

some    deceptive    preparation     by    artificial 

means ;  the  very  epidermis,  proportion,  ser- 

ratiires,  manner  of  opening,  and  other  par- 
ticulars of  the  beak  of  a  shovi-ler,  or  other 

broad-billed  species  of  duck,  presenting  them-    .__  .  . 

selves  to  the  view  :  nor  is  it  without  the  most  '  is  all  that  can  at  present  be  reasonabh'  guessed 

minute  and  ri"id  examination  that  we  can 'at:  future  observations,  made  in  its  native 
nersuade  ourselves  of  its  being  the  real  beak  !  regions,   will,   it  is  hoped,  alTord   iis   more 

ur  snout  of  a  quadruped.  ample  information,  and  will  make   us  fully 

The  body  is  depressed,  and  has  some  re-  acquainted  with  th  _•  natural  history  of  an  am- 
semblance  to  that  of  an  otter  in  miniature,  j  mal  wlii.li  dilfers  so  widely  from  all  other 
It  is  covered  with  a  very  thick,  soft,  and  i  quadrupeds,  and  which  verifies,  in  a  most 
beaver-like  fur,  and  is  of  a  moderately  dark  ;  striking  manner,  the  observation  of  Bullon, 
brov  1  above,  and  of  a  subferruginous  white  i  viz.  that  whatever  was  possible  for  nature  to 
bene'ith  'I'he  head  is  flattisli,  and  rather  I  produce,  has  actually  been  produced, 
small  than  large;  the  mouth  or  snout,  as  be-  The  platypus  is  a  native  of  Australasia  or 
f<,re  observed!  so  exactly  resembles  that  of   New  Holland. 

fome  broad-billed  species  of  duck,  that  it  PLKA,  that  which  either  party  alleges  for 
niiaht  be  mistaken  for  such:  round  the  base  himself  in  court.  These  are  divid-d  into 
is  a  flat  circular  membrane,  somewhat  deeper    pleas  of  the  crown  and  common  pleas.  ^ 

wider  below  than  above,  viz.  below  iniarly  ,  Pleas  of  the  crown  are  all  suits  in  the  king  s 
the  fit^h  of  an  inch,  and  above  about  an  ,  name,  against  olTvnces  committed  against  his 
eighth 


'  Tiie  tail  is  flat,  furry  like  the  body,  }  crown  ami  dignity,  or  against  his  crown  and 


PLENUM,  in  physics,  denotes,  according 
to  the  Cartesians,  that  slate  ot  things  wherein 
ever)'  part  of  spare  is  supposetl  to  be  full  of 
matter;  in  opposition  to  a  vacuum. 

PLENUS  FLOS.  See  Botany,  Vol.  I. 
p.  231. 

PLETHORA.    See  Medicine. 

PLEURA.     See  Anatomy. 

PLEURISY.    See  Medicine: 

PLEURONECI  r.S,_/lmtn(hr,  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  order  thoracici,  of  which  there 
are  17  species.  The  generic  character  is, 
eyes  both  on  the  same  side  ol  the  head  ;  body 
compressed,  one  side  representing  the  back, 
and  the  other  the  .ibdomen. 
I  The  singular  structure  of  this  gemis  is  justly 
considered  as  oiie  of  the  most  curious  devia- 
'  3 


PLEURO.XECTES. 


■timis  from  the  ^('ncra\  imiforiiiify  or  regularity 
ol)SL'i"ved  by  rjaiiir''  i[i  tlic  t\U-rnal  dj^uri"  of 
aimnal;.,  in  which  (cxrcpt  in  a  very  lew  hi- 
slaiicfs)  both  sicK's  of  the  body  art.'  ixrffclly 
similar:  but  in  th<'  f;cmis  picurom ctes  the 
animal  is  so  roiisliUitnl,  that  one  tide  ap- 
prars  to  n-presciU  the  back,  and  the  opposite 
sule  111"  alKloiiien.  'I'liey  swim  lateral!),  and 
the  ryes  aie  always  placed  on  one  side.  It 
is  from  this  circmiistaiiee  that  the  division  of 
the  species  is  conducted,  viz.  into  those  wliicli 
liave  the  eyes  dcNtroiis,  or  toward,  the  rinht, 
when  the  lish  is  laid  with  its  coloured  side 
upwards  widi  its  abdo.i:en  towards  tiie  spec- 
tator; and  sinistrous  when  the  e^es  are  to- 
wards tiie  left  in  the  ab'ue  situation  of  the 
fish.  It  is  said,  however,  tli  ,t  instances  have 
sometimes  occurred  in  which  this  natural 
situation  has  been  reversed ;  but  such  in- 
stances must  be  considered  as  extremely 
rare. 

1.  Pleuroni'Ctcs  Iii|)poglossus,  liolibut,  wi'h 
*ves  towards  the  rii^ht.  This  species  not 
only  exceeds  in  size  all  tiie  rest  of  the  pre- 
sent genus,  but  may  even  be  consideretl  as 
one  of  the  larffest  of-  lishes ;  having  been 
sometiiiies  found  of  the  weight  of  (hrei-,  and 
even,  according  to  Suiiie  accounts,  Inur  hun- 
dred pounds.  It  is  a  native  of  tlie  Mediter- 
ranean and  northern  seas,  and  appears  to  ar- 
rive at  its  greatest  size  in  tlie  latter.  It  is  con- 
sidered as  the  most  vorac'ous  of  its  tribe ; 
preying  on  a  variety  of  oth>r  lishes,  as  well  as 
on  dilferent  kinds  of  craiis,  shell-lish,  &c. 
The  liolibut  is,  however,  ot  a  longer  or  more 
slenoer  form  than  most  other  flat  hsh  :  its  co- 
lour is  dci'p-brown  .;bove,  and  white  beneath; 
the  borlv  be'ng  quite  smooth,  and  covered 
villi  model ately  small  scales.  As  a  food  it  is 
considered  as  verv  coarse  in  comparison  with 
many  others  of  this  nenus.  In  the  London 
markets  this  lisii  is  usually  cut  into  large 
pieces  when  exposed  to  sale.  Tlie  Gn-en- 
landers  are  said  to  cut  it  into  thin  slips,  which 
they  drv  in  the  sun,  and  thus  preserve  for 
winter  use. 

2.  Pleurouectes  iilafes5a,plaise.  This  species 
is,  in  general,  easily  distinguished  at  lirst  sight 
from  others  of  the  genus  by  its  shape  and  co- 
lours ;  being  very  broad  and  Hat,  and  of  a  fine  I 
palish  brown  above,  marked  both  on  the  body 
and  tins  by  prelt)  nuuieious,  but  rather  dis-  ' 
taut,  round,  and  moderately  large,  orange- 
coloured  spots:  the  under  side  is  wliite  ;  be- 
hind the  left  eye  is  a  row  of  six  tubercles, 
reaching  as  far  as  the  co  iimencement  ol'.the 
lateral  line;  the  mouth  is  rather  small,  the 
lower  jaw  loiigei-  than  the  uiijier,  an'i  lirth 
furnished  with  a  row  ot  small  and  rather 
blunt  teeth. 

The  plaise  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, ISaltic,  and  northern  seas,  and  is  found 
in  considerable  plenty  about  our  own  coasts. 
Mr.  Pennant  observes,  that  it  is  sometimes 
taken  of  the  weight  of  1j  pounds;  but  its 
more  general  weight  is  far  sliort  ot  this,  one 
of  eight  or  nine  pounds  being  reckoned  a 
large  tish.  The  best  are  said  to  be  taken  off 
Eye  on  the  coast  of  Sussex,  and  about  the 
Dutch  coasts.  They  spawn  in  the  beginning 
of  May.  1  heir  general  food  consists  of  small 
fishes,  sea-insects,  and  the  smaller  kinds  of 
slieli-lish. 

The  plaise  is  in  considerable  esteem  as  a 
food,  though  far  inferior  to  the  sole  and  tur-  I 
but.    Those  are  luost  esteemed  wlijch  are  ol  I 


moderate  size,  the  smaller  ones  beine  less 
iirin  than  those  of  more  advanced  growth. 

3.  Pleurouectes  limanda,  dab.  The  dab 
is  of  a  very  broad  ovate  shape,  of  a  yeliovvisli 
brown  colour  above,  and  white  henoatli.  It 
IS  covered  withiuoLleralely  large  rough  scales. 
'I  lie  head  IS  small,  and  the  eyes  large;  the 
mouth  .mall,  and  tiie  teeth  are  more" nume- 
rous ill  the  up|jer  jaw  than  in  the  lower; -the 
dorsal  i'nd  anal  tins  are  of  moderate  width, 
and  the  tail  uearU  even  at  tiie  end  ;  the  late- 
ral line  curves  (lownv.ards  over  the  pectoral 
/ins,  and  fn;m"  thence  runs  strai"!a  to  the 
tail._ 

This  species  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, the  iJallic,  and  the  northern  seas, 
but  is  less  common  than  eitner  the  plaise, or 
ilound''r,  to  both  of  which  it  is  superior  as  a 
food,  though  interior  in  its  general  size.  It 
is  in  its  highest  season  in  tlie  months  of  Fe- 
bruary, March,  and  April,  after  which  it  is 
observed  to  .grow  less  linn.  It  spawns  in 
May,  or,  if  the  spring  proves  cold,  in  June. 

4.  Pk-uronecles  liesus.  The  tlouiider  is 
allied  to  the  jdaise  in  shape,  but  is  generally 
of  smaller  size  anl  of  more  obscure  colours'; 
the  upper  side  being  of  a  dull  brown,  marbled 
with  paler  and  darker  variegations,  and  the 
under  side  of  a  dull  white,  sometimes  ob- 
scurely varied  with  brown ;  the  body  is  co- 
vered with  very  small  scales;  and  along  the 
back,  at  the  base  of  the  dorsal  fm,  runs  a 
row  of  small  sharp  spines;  a  similar  row  runs 

along  tht  base  of  the  anal  fin:  the  lateral  line  _     ._   __     ..^^  „i 

is  m  iked  b\  a  thTd.  row,  continued  almost  !  our  tishernien  by  the  Dutch,  to*"  the  anneal 
to  the  base  of  the  tail,  which  is  slightly  round-  I  amount  o(  not  less  than  70(J  pounds.     Tlicy 

ire  chielly  taken  about   Moitlake,  and  sold 


•453- 

ing  to  Mr.  Pennant,  is  at  Brixliam  in  Tor- 
bay. 

6.  Pleuronectcs  tubercnlatus,  with  eves 
towards  the  lelt.  The  tiirbot,  genciallv  con- 
sidered as  superior  to  .verv  oliier  .species  as 
an  r.rliclc  ol  lood,  is  an  inhabitant  ol  tiie  .Me- 
diterranean and  Northern  seas,  where  it  ottcii 
ariives  at  a  very  large  size,  li  is,  however, 
!ar  mr.rior  in  this  rps|ject  to  the  holihut,  and 
IS  thereiore  not  very  happily  di,tinguislied 
by  Limiicus  under  tli'e  name 'of  iileuroiiectcs 
maximus.  It  is  of  a  broader  and  sqiiarer 
form  tiian  any  other  of  the  genus,  except  the 
p.;arl ;  and  is  ot  a  dark  brow  ii  above,  marbled 
with  blackish  spots  ol  ditf'erent  sizes,  and 
while  beneath  ;  the  scales  are  so  small  as  to 
be  scarcely  observable,  hut  the  skin  is  of  a 
wrinkled  apjjearance,  and  covered  with  pretty 
numerous  and  moderately  large  pointed  lu- 
1h  rcles  or  abrii])!  spines,  those  on  the  upper 
or  coloured  side  being  lar  larger  than  those 
on  the  under  side:  the  lateral  line  forms  an 
arch  over  the  pectoral  fins,  and  liience  runs 
straight  to  the  tail. 

Like  the  rest  of  tiiis  genus,  the  tyrbot  ge-  - 
neraily  lies  in  deep  water,  l)reying  on  worms, 
shell-lish,  and  marine  insects,"  as  well  as  on 
various  kinds  of  small  fi-hes.  It  is  taken  in 
great  quantities  about  the  northern  coasts  of 
England,  as  w^ell  as  on  liio.se  of  France,  Hol- 
land, &c.  and  is  baited  ibrwitii  pieces  of  her-  ■ 
ring,  haddock,  &c.  but  more  parti,  ularly 
with  the  smaller  or  river  lamprey,  vasi  quan- 
tities of  which  are  said  to  be  purchased  of 


edattheeno:  at  the  commencemeiit  of  the 
anal  hn  is  a  pretty  strong  spine. 

Tiie  firiunderis  an  inhabitant  of  the  North- 


to  the  Dutch  as  bait  for  the  cod  lishery  ;  but 

-   that  people  are  said   to  liave  the  art'of  pre- 

erii,  Baltic,  and  Medilerranean  seas.     About  i  serving  tiiem  till  the  commencement  of  tUc 


our  own  coasts  it  is  xtreniely  common,  and 
even  frequents  our  rivers  at  a  great  distance 
from  the  salt  waters.  It  is  jii  considerable 
e4eem  as  a  food,  though  much  interior  to 
some  otiiersof  the  genus. 

T  lie  pieuronectes  passer  of  Linna'us,  con- 
sidered by  Mr.  Pennant  and  some  others  as 
a  variety  of  the  llounder,  having  the  eyes  on 
the  left  'side,  is  at  present  allowed  to  consti- 
tute a  distinct  species. 

5.  Pl.'uronectis  solea.  The  sole  is  an  in- 
habitant of  the  North.ern,  I.altic,  and  Aiiieri- 
can  seas,  and  grows  to  the  length  of  more 
than  two  feet,  and  to  the  weight  of  eight 
pounds.  Its  general  size,  however,  is  much 
smaller.  Its  shape  is  that  of  a  very  long  oval ; 
its  colour  obscure  brown  above,  and  while 
beneath.  It  is  covered  with  small  rough 
scahs  of  an  oblong  form,  each  terminated  by 
numerous  spines,  and  very  strongly  fastened 
to  the  skin.  These  scales' from  the  elegance 
of  their  structure,  form  a  favourite  microsco- 
pic object ;  and  an  erroneous  idea  sometimes 
prevails,  that  the  spiny  end  oi  ihe  scale  is  that 
by  which  it  was  inserted  into  tlie  skin.  Tlie 
pectoral  tins,  especially  that  on  the  upper 
side,  are  commonly  tipped  with  black. 

Next  to  the  turhot,  this  lish  is  considered 
as  the  most  delicate  of  the  genus,  and  is 
by  many  even  prtferjcd  to  the  former, 
the  llesli  being  remarkably  lirm,  white, 
and  well-llavoured:  tliose  of  moderate  size 
are  in  general  most  esteemed.  The  sole  de- 
lights in  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  coasts 
winch  it  frequents,  preying  on  small  shell-hsh, 
spawn,  sea-i!isects,  &c.  and  is  generally  taken 
by  the  trawl-iict.     The  chief  lishery,  accord- 


turboi-lishery. 

1  he.  gene'ral  manner  in  which  the  turbot- 
fishery  is  practised  at  Scarborough,  is  thus 
del  il.-d  by  .Mr.  Pennant,  in  the  British  Zoo- 
logy, from  the  corr.munications  of  Mr,  Travis  ■ 
of  that  place: 

"  U  hen  they  go  out  to  fish,  eacli  man  is 
provided  with  three  lines.     Each  man's  lines 
are  fairly  coiled  upon  a  flat  oblong  piece  of 
wicker-work;    t!ie   liooks  being  baited,   and 
pliced  very   regularly  in  the  cenire  of  the 
coil.      Each  line  is  furnished  with  fourteen 
score  of  hooks,  at  the  <listance  of  six  feet  two 
inches  from  eath  other.     The  hooks  are  fast- 
ened  to  the  lines    ujion   sneads  of  twisted 
horse  hair  17  inciies  in  length.     When  fisi  ing 
there  are  always  three  men  in  each  coble; 
and  consequently  nine  of'these  lines  are  fast- 
ened together,  and  usr<l  as  one  line,  extend- 
ing in  length  nearly  tlv.'-e  rnile.s,  and  furnished 
with  2520  hooks.     An  anchor  and  a  buo)  are 
hxed  at  the  first  end  of  the  line,   anri  one 
more  at  each  end  ol  each  man's  lines,  in  all 
four  anchors,  which  are  conuni.niv  perforated 
stones,  and  four  buoys,  made  of  leadier  and 
cork.     The  line  is  ah,  a\s  laid  across  t!i    cur- 
rent.    The  tides  of  Hood  and  ebb  continue 
an  equal  nine  upon  our  coast  ;  and  when  un- 
disturiied  by  winds,  run  each  way  about  six 
hours:  they  are  so  rapid,  that  the  tisliermeii 
can  only  shoot  and  haul  their  lines  at  each 
turu  of  the  tide  ;  and  thereiore  the  liiu^  al- 
ways remain  on  the  ground  about  six  fiours. 
The  same  rapidlt)  of  the  tide  prev.  n.s  their 
using   ii.ind-lines ;   ani  t'-.erefore  two  o;   the 
peo|i  e   conimoniy  v  ri>p  themselves  in    the 
sail  and  sleep,  wlidc  tiie  other  keeps  a  strict  ^ 


454 


P  L  U 


look-out,  for  fear  of  beiiip;  run  down  by  sliips, 
and  to  observe  llio  weatlicr;  for  storms  often 
rise  so  suddenly,  tliat  it  is  with  exlieine  dilii- 
culty  tlipy  can  escape  to  shore,  leaving  their 
lines  bell  nd.  The  coble  is  twenty  feet  six 
inrlii-s  long,  and  live  feet  in  extreme  breadth  : 
it  is  jljoiit  oiic  ton  burthen,  rowed  with  three 
pair  of  oars,  and  admirably  constructed  for 
the  purposes  of  encountering  a  niountiinous 
sea.     Thev  hoist  sail  when  the  wind  suits." 

PLIC  APOLOXICA.     S-e  .Medicine. 

PLINF.A,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  poly- 
andria  monogvjiia  class.  The  enipalenient 
is  divided  into  tire  segments  ;  the  flower  con- 
sists of  five  petals  ;  the  stamina  are  numerous 
filaments,  slender,  and  as  long  as  the  flower; 
the  anthera;  are  small,  and  so  is  the  germen 
oi  the  jjisiil ;  the  st^le  is  subulated,  and  of 
the  length  of  the  stamina ;  the  stigma  -is 
siin|)le ;  the  iniit  is  a  large  globose  berry,  of 
a  striated  or  suKated  surface,  containing  onlv 
one  cell,  in  which  is  a  very  large,  smooth, 
ar.d  globose  seed.  There  are  two  species, 
trees  ot.Vmerica. 

PLINTH.     See  Architecture. 

PLOCAMA,  a  genus  of  the  monogvnia 
order,  in  the  pcntandria  class  of  plants.  The 
calyx  is  quinquedentate ;  the  fruit  a  berry 
and  trilocular,  with  solitary  seeds.  Of  this 
there  is  only  one  species,  viz.  the  pendula,  a 
native  of  tlie  Canaries. 

PLOTTING,  among  surveyors,  is  the  art 
of  laying  dow-n  on  pap.er,  &c.  the  several 
ae.gles  and  lines  of  a  tract  of  ground  surveyed 
by  a  theodolite,  Sec.  and  a  chain.  See  Sur- 
veying. 

PI.O  IL'S,  or  Darter,  a  genus  of  birds 
ot  the  order  anseres.  The  generic  character 
is,  bill  straiglit,  pointed,  toothed ;  nostrils  a 
slit  near  the  base  ;  face  and  chin  naked  ;  legs 
short,  all  the  toes  connected.  Of  this  genus 
there  are  three  species. 

P.  anhinga :  head  smooth  ;  belly  white  : 
inhabits  Brasil ;  two  feet  ten  inches  long ; 
builds  on  trees,  and  is  hardly  ever  seen  on 
tlie  ground :  when  at  rest,  sits  with  the  neck 
drawn  in  between  the  shoulders;  flesh  oily 
nnd  rancid. 

P.  melaiiogaster,  inhibits  Ceylon  and  Java; 
about  three  feet  long:  and  the  "P.  surinamen- 
i-is,  has  its  head  crested,  and  belly  white ;  it 
inhabits  Surinam  ;  is  13  inches  long;  is  do- 
mesticated, and  feeds  on  fish,  insects,  csp;- 
rially  flies,  which  it  catclies  with  great  dex- 
terity, and  is  very  active. 

PLOVER.     See  Charadrius. 

PLOUGH.     See  Husbandry. 

I'LOUGHING.     See  Husbandry. 

PLUKENE  riA,  a  genus  of  the  nionn-cia 
monadeiphia  class  and  order.  The  male  and 
female  llowers  are  produced  separately  on 
the  same  plant;  the  corolla  is  composed  of 
f  inr  oval  and  pati'ut  petals,  and  the  stamina 
lo;in  a  short  |)vrami<lal  body  :  the  fruit  is  a 
depressed  (|uadrangular  capsule,  containing  a 
single  roundish  aiitl  compressed  seed.  There 
is  one  species. 

PLUM-'IKKK.    See  Prunus. 

PLUMBAGO,  lead-Kort,  a  genus  of  the 
nionogynia  order,  in  the  pcntandria  class  of 
plants.  The  corolla  is  funnel-form;  stamina 
inserted  in  sc  lies,  inclosing  the  base  of  the 
corolla  ;  stigma  (ive-cle't ;  seed  one.  There 
are  seven  species,  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  are  the  Europaa  and  Zeylonica.  The 
lirst  grows  naturally  in  the  southern  parts  of 


P  L  U 

Europe,  and  lias  a  perennial  rorit  striking 
deep  in  the  ground.  There  are  many  slen- 
der enamelled  stalks,  about  threi'  feet  high, 
terminated  by  tufts  of  small  funnel-shaped 
flowers,  of  a  blue  or  white  colour.  The  se- 
cond grows  natnra'ly  in  both  the  Indies.  The 
upper  part  of  the  stalk  and  enipa'ement  are 
covered  with  a  glulnious  jiuce,  winch  catches 
the  small  liies  that  hght  upon  il.  'I'lie  for- 
mer species  is  propagated  by  parting  the 
roots,  and  bv  seeds;  but  f!ie  latler  is  too 
tender  to  thrive  in  the  open  air  in  this  coun- 

Plumbago,  carburet  of  iron.  I  his  mine- 
ral is  found  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and 
.'\merica.  It  occurs  in  kidney-form  lumps  of 
various  sizes,  lis  colour  is  dark  iron-grey, 
or  brownish-black  ;  when  cut,  blueish-grey. 
Opac|ue  and  slaty;  texture  line-grained; 
brittle;  speciric  gravity  from  1.93  to  2.09; 
feels  somewhat  greasy;  stains  the  ringers,  and 
marks  strongly,  'i'he  use  of  this  mineral, 
when  manufactured  into  pencils,  is  knuwn  to 
every  person.  It  consists  of 
90  of  carbon 
10  of  iron 

100. 

PLUMBERY,  the  art  of  casting  and  work- 
ing lead,  and  using  it  in  buildings. 

As  this  metal  melts  very  easily,  it  is  easy  to 
cast  it  into  figures  of  any  kind,  by  running 
it  into  moulds  of  brass,  clay,  plaister,  &c.  But 
the  cliief  article  in  plumbery  is  sheets  and 
pipes  of  lead ;  and  as  these  make  the  basis  of 
the  plumbei-'s  work,  we  shall  liere  give  the 
process  of  making  them. 

In  casting  sheet-lead,  a  table  or  mould  is 
made  use  of,  which  consists  of  large  pieces  of 
wood  well  jointed,  and  bound  with  bars  of 
iron  at  the  ends ;  on  the  sides  of  which  runs  a 
frame  consisting  of  a  ledge  or  border  of 
wood,  two  or  tliree  inches  thick,  and  two  or 
three  inclies  liigh  from  tlie  mould,  called  the 
sharps :  the  ordinary  w  idtli  of  the  mould, 
within  these  sharps,  is  from  three  to  four  feet, 
audits  length  is  16,  17,  or  18  feet.  Tiiis 
should  be  something  longer  than  the  sheets 
are  intended  to  be,  in  order  that  the  end 
where  the  metal  runs  oif  from  the  mould  may 
be  cut  off;  because  it  is  commonly  thin,  or 
uneven,  or  ragged  at  the  end.  It  must  stand 
very  even  or  level  in  breadth,  and  something 
falling  from  the  end  in  which  the  metal  is 
poured  in,  viz.  about  an  inch  or  an  inch  and 
a  half,  in  the  length  of  16  or  17  inclies.  At 
the  upper  end  of  the  mould  stands  the  pan, 
whicli  IS  a  concave  triangular  prism,  com- 
posed of  two  planks  nailed  together  at  right 
angles,  and  two  triangular  pieces  fitted  in  be- 
tween them  at  the  ends.  The  length  of  this 
pan  is  the  whole  breadth  of  the  mould  in 
which  the  sheets  are  cast ;  it  stands  with  its 
bottom,  which  is  a  sharp  edge,  on  a  fiu'in  at 
the  end  of  the  mould,  leaning  with  one  side 
against  it  ;  and  on  the  opposite  side  is  a  han- 
dle to  lift  it  up  by,  to  pour  out  the  melted 
lead ;  and  on  that  side  of  the  pan  next  the 
mould,  are  two  iron  hooks  to  lake  hold  of 
the  mould,  and  prevent  the  jian  from  slip- 
ping, while  the  melted  lead  is  pouring  out  of 
it  into  the  mould.  This  pan  is  lined  on  the 
inside  with  moistened  sand,  to  prevent  it  from 
being  fired  by  the  hot  melal.  The  mould  is 
also  spread  over,  about  two-thirds  of  an  inch 
thick,  with  sand  sifted  and  moistened,  which 
is  rendered  perfectly  level  by  moving  over  il 


P  L  U 

a  pieae  of  wood  called  a  strike,  by  tramplini; 
upon  it  with  the  feet,  anil  smootUiug  it  over 
w  ith  a  smoothing-plane ;  which  is  a  thick  plate 
of  polished  brass,  about  nine  inches  square, 
turned  up  on  all  the  four  edges,  and  with  a 
handle  fitted  on  to  the  upper  or  concave 
side.  The  sand  being  thus  smooUied,  it  is  fit 
for  casting  shi;ets  ot  lead  ;  but  if  they  would 
cast  a  ci.slern,  they  measure  out  the  size  of 
the  four  sides,  and  having  taken  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  front  or  fore-part,  make  mould- 
ings by  pressing  long  slips  of  wood,  whicli 
contain  the  same  mouldings  into  the  level 
sand  ;  and  form  tlie  figures  of  birds,  beasts, 
&c.  by  pressing  in  the  same  manner  leaden 
hgures  upon  it,  and  then  t.iking  them  olf, 
and  at  the  same  time  smoothing  the  surface 
where  any  of  the  sand  is  raised  up  by  mak- 
ing these  impressions  upon  it.  The' rest  of 
the  operation  is  the  same  in  castuig  either 
cisterns  or  plain  slieets  of  lead.  But  before 
we  proceed  to  mention  the  manner  in  whicli 
that  is  perlormed,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give 
a  more  particular  description  of  the  strike. 

^I'lie  strike  then  is  a  piece  of  board  about  five 
inches  broad,  and  something  longer  than  the 
breath  of  the  mould  on  the  inside ;  and  at 
each  end  is  cut  a  notch,  about  two  inches 
deep,  so  that  when  it  is  used,  it  rides  upon  the 
sharps  with  tliose  notches.  Before  they  be- 
gin to  cast,  the  strike  is  made  ready  by  tack- 
ing two  |)ik;ces  of  an  old  hat  on  the  notches, 
or  by  slipping  a  case  of  leather  over  each  end, 
in  order  to  raise  the  under  side  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch,  or  something  more,  above 
the  sand,  according  as  they  would  have  the 
sheet  to  be  in  thickness;  then  they  tallow  the 
under  edge  of  the  strike,  and  lay  it  across  the 
mould.  The  lead  being  melted,  it  is  laded 
into  the  pan,  in  which,  when  tliere  is  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  for  the  present  purpose,  the 
scuin  of  the  .metal  is  swept  off  with  a  piece  of 
board  to  the  edge  of  the  pan,  letting  it  settle 
on  the  sand,  which  is  by  this  means  prevent- 
ed from  falling  into  tlie  mould  at  the  pourins 
out  of  the  metal.  \\  hen  the  lead  is  cool 
enough,  which  is  known  by  its  beginning  to 
stand  w  ith  a  shell  or  wall  on  the  sand  round 
the  pan,  two  men  take  the  pan  by  the  han- 
dle, or  else  one  of  them  lifts  it  up  by  a  bar 
and  chain  fixed  to  a  beam  in  the  ceiling,  and 
pour  it  into  the  mould,  while  another  man 
stands  ready  with  the  strike,  and,  as  soon  as 
they  have  done  pouring  in  the  metal,  jiuts  oii 
the  mouUl,  sweeps  the  lead  forward,  and 
draws  the  overplus  into  a  trough  prepared 
to  receive  it.  i'he  sheets  being  thus  cast, 
nothing  remains  but  to  planish  the  edges,  in 
order  to  render  them  smooth  and  straiglit ; 
but  if  it  is  a  cistern,  it  is  bent  into  four  sides, 
so  that  the  two  ends  may  join  iLe  baik, 
where  they  are  soldered  together,  after  which 
the  bottom  is  solderc<l  up. 

The  mtlhod  of  cutting  pipes  Kithout  snl- 
diTit)}!:.  To  make  these  pipes,  they  have  a 
kind  of  little  mill,  w  ith  arms  or  levers  to  turn 
it  with.  The  moulds  are  of  brass,  and  con-  ■ 
sist  of  two  pieces,  which  open  and  shut  by 
means  of  hooks  and  hinges,  their  inward  ca- 
liber or  diameter  beinc;  according  to  the  size 
of  the  pipe  to  be  made,  and  their  length  is 
usually  two  feet  and  a  half.  In  the  middle 
is  placed  a  core,  or  round  piece  of  brass  or 
iron,  somewhat  longer  than  the  mould,  and 
of  the  thickness  of  the  inward  diameter  of  the 
pipe.  This  core  is  jiassed  lliroiinh  two  cop- 
per-rundles,  one  at  each  cud  of  the  uioulil^ 


1'  J,  u 

w'l'icli  tliey  serve  to  tlose ;  and  to  these  H 
idiiifd  ;i  littlp  coppor  tube  al)out  two  inches 
Icng,  andot'lhe  tliitkness  the  leaden  pipe  is 
intended  to  be  of.  liy  means  of  tiu-se  tubes 
tlic  core  is  retained  in  tlie  middle  of  tiic  ca- 
vity of  the  mouUl.  'I'ljc  core  bein^  in  the 
mould,  witli  tlie  nmdies  at  its  two  ends,  and 
the  lead  melted  in  the  furnace,  they  take  it 
lip  in  a  ladle  and  pour  it  into  the  mould  by  a 
little  aperture  at  one  end,  mai'.e  in  the  lorm 
of  a  funnel.  When  the  mould  is  full,  thi-y 
pa^s  a  hook  into  the  did  of  tlie  core,  and 
tinning  tlu^  mill,  draw  it  out ;  and  tlien  o])en- 
ingthe  mould,  take  out  the  pipe.  If  they 
desire  to  have  tlu'  p'pe  lengthened,  they  put 
one  end  of  it  in  the  lower  end  of  the  nxiuld, 
and  pass  the  end  of  the  core  into  it ;  tlien 
shut  the  mould  again,  and  aiiply  its  rundle 
and  tube  as  before,  the  pipe  just  cast  serving 
for  rundle,  &c.  at  the  other  end  Things 
being  thus  replaced,  they  pour  in  fresh  metal, 
and  repeat  Ihe  operation  till  they  have  got  a 
pipe  of  the  length  required. 

For  makmg  pipes  uf  sheet-lead,  the  plumb- 
ers have  wooden  cvlindi;rs  of  the  length  and 
thickness  required,  and  on  these  they  form 
their  pi|)es  bv  wrapping  the  sheet  around 
them,  and  soldering  up  the  edges  all  along 
them.     See  Pipe. 

PLl'MKRLA,  a  ccnus  of  the  pentandria 
monosynia  class  of  plants,  (he  corolla  of 
which  consists  of  a  singh'  funnel-like  petal, 
with  a  long  tube,  and  divided  into  live  ob- 
long segments  at  the  limb  :  the  fruit  is  com- 
posed of  two  jointed  and  ventricose  follicles, 
formed  of  a  single  valve  each,  and  containing 
numerous  oblong  seeds.  There  are  four 
species. 

PLUMMET,  plumb-rule  or  plumb-line, 
an  instrument  used  bv  carpenters,  masons, 
&:c.  in  order  to  judge  whether  walls.  <Sic.  are 
upright  i)l,ines,  horizontal,  or  the  like.  It 
is  tluis  called  from  a  piece  of  lead,  plimi- 
bum,  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  cord,  which 
usually  constitutes  this  instnunent.  Some- 
times the  string  descen<Is  along  a  wooden 
ruler,  &:c.  raised  prrpi'ndicularly  on  another, 
in  which  case  it  becomes  a  level.  See 
Level. 

PLU.MMING,  among  miners,  is  the  me- 
thod of  using  a  mine-dial,  in  order  to  know 
the  exact  ])lace  of  the  work  where  to  sink 
down  an  air  shat't,  or  to  bring  an  adit  to  the 
work,  or  to  know  which  way  the  load  in- 
clines when  any  liexure  happens  in  it. 

It  is  performed  in  this  manner:  .\  skilful 
person,  with  an  assistant,  and  with  pen,  ink, 
and  paper,  and  a  long  luie,  and  a  sun-dial, 
after  his  guess  of  the  place  above   ground, 
descends  into  the  adit  or  work,  and  tliere 
fastens  one  end  of  the  line    to  some   fixed 
thing  in  it;  then  the  incited  needle  is  let  to 
rest,  and   the  exact  point  where  it  rests  is 
'  marked  with  a  pen  ;  he  then  goes  on  farther 
in  the  line  still  fastened,  and  at  the  next  liex- 
ure on  the  adit  he  makes  a  mark  on  the  line 
I  by  a  knot   or  otherwise;  and    then   letting 
1  down  the  dial  again,   he  there  likewise  notes 
'  down  that  point  at  which  the  needle  stands  in 
■  this  second  position.       In   this   manner  he 
proceeds,  from  turning  to  turning,  marking 
down  the  points,  and  marking  tlie  line,  till 
he  comes  to  the  intended  place  ;  this  done, 
he  ascends  and  begins  to  work  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth  what  he  did  in  the  adit,  bring- 
ing the  first  knot  in  the  line  to  iuch  a  place 


V  L  IT 

wlirr^  the  mark  of  the  place  of  the  needle 
will  again  auswiT  its  pointing,  ami  continues 
this  till  he  comes  to  the  desired  place  above 
ground,  which  is  certain  to  be  iierpendicu- 
iarly  over  the  part  of  the  mine  into  which 
the  air-shaft  is  to  be  sunk. 

PLUNCiEH,  in  me<  lianics,  the  same  with 
the  forcer  of  a  pump.     See  I'uMP. 

PLURALITY.  If  any  person  having  one 
benelice  with  cure  of  souls  of  eight  pounds  a 
year  in  the  king's  books,  shall  accept  another 
of  wliatsoev-er  value,  and  be  instituted  and 
inducted  into  the  same,  the  former  benelice 
shall  be  vo.d  ;  unless  he  has  a  dispensation 
from  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  has 
power  to  grant  dispensations  to  chaplains  of 
nob'emen  and  others  under  proper  qualihca- 
lions,  to  hohl  two  livings,  provided  they  are 
not  more  than  tliirty  mi'es  di-tant  from  each 
other,  and  piovided  that  he  resides  in  each 
for  a  reasonable  time  every  year,  and  that  he 
keeps  a  suHieient  curate  in  that  in  which  he 
iloes  not  orilinarilv  reside. 

PLU.S,  in  algebra,  a  character  marked 
thus  +,  used  for  the  sign  of  addition.  See 
Character. 

PLUSH,  in  commerce,  &c.  a  kind  of 
stulT  leaving  a  sort  of  velvet  knap,  or  shag, 
on  one  sitle,  composed  regnlarlv  of  a  woof 
of  a  single  woollen  thread,  and  a  double  warp, 
the  one  wool,  of  two  threads  twisted,  the 
other  goats  or  camel's  hair;  though  there 
are  some  plushes  entirely  of  worsted,  and 
others  composed  wliolly  of  hair. 

Plush  is  manufactured,  like  velvet,  on  a 
loom  with  three  treadles;  two  of  these  se- 
parate and  de))ress  tlie  wiollen  warp,  and 
the  third  raises  the  hair  war)),  upon  which 
tlie  workman  throwing  the  shuttle,  passes 
the  woof  between  the  woollen  and  hair  war)); 
and  afterwards  laying  a  brass  broach,  or 
needle,  under  that  of  the  hair,  he  cuts  it 
with  a  knife  destined  for  that  use  ;  conducting 
the  knife  on  the  broach,  which  is  made  a 
little  hollow  all  its  length,  and  thus  gives 
the  surface  of  the  plush  an  appearance  of 
velvet.     See  Velvet. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  plush,  all  of  silk  ; 
some  of  which  have  a  ])ietty  long  knap  on 
one  side,  and  some  on  both. 

PLll^  lAMETER,  a  machine  for  mea- 
suring the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls.  Fig.  16, 
Plate  I.  Pueumatcs,  shews  the  section  of  a  very 
good  ))luviameter.  It  consists  of  a  hollow 
cylinder,  having  within  it  a  cork  ball  attach- 
ed to  a  wooden  stem,  which  passes  through 
a  suiail  opening  at  top,  on  which  is  jilaced 
a  laige  funnel.  When  this  instrument  is 
))laced  in  the  open  air  in  a  free  place,  the 
rain  that  falls  within  the  circuniterence  of 
the  funnel  will  run  down  into  the  tube,  and 
cause  the  cork  to  lloat,  and  the  (piantity  ol 
water  in  tiie  tube  may  be  seen  by  the  height 
to  which  the  stem  of  the  float  is  raised. 
The  stem  of  the  tloat  is  so  graduated,  as  to 
shew  by  its  divisions  the  number  of  perpen- 
dicular inches  of  water  which  fell  on,  the 
surface  of  the  earth  since  the  last  obser- 
vation. 

A  very  simple  pluvianieter,  and  which  will 
answer  all  practical  purposes,  consists 
simply  of  a  copper  tunnel,  the  area  of  whose 
opening  is  exactly  ten  inches ;  this  funnel  is 
fixed  in  a  bottle,  and  the  cjuantity  of  rain 
caught  is  ascertained  by  multiplying  the 
weight  in  ounces  by.  173,  which  gives  the 
depth  in  inches  aud  £arts  of  an  inch. 


P  N  E  /1 5.0 

PNT.UM.\T[CS.  'I'hongh  tiie  word 
jineunutics  means,  strictly,  the  science 
which  tveuts  of  the  |)ro])erlies  of  air  in  gene- 
ral, yet  it  is  commonly  used  to  exjjress  the 
mechanical  ))ropertics  of  elastic  or  aeriform 
fluids  ;  such  as  their  weight,  density,  coin- 
jiressibility,  and  elasticity.  'I  he  other  pro- 
])rrties  of  elastic  lliiids  are  treated  of  under 
Chemistry  and  Air. 

Tlie  air  is  a  fluid  in  which  we  live  and 
breathe :  it  entirely  envelopes  our  globe, 
and  extends  to  a  considerable  heiaht  aiomid 
it.  Together  with  the  clouds  and  vapours 
that  float  in  it,  it  is  called  the  atmosphere. 
As  it  is  possessed  of  gravity  in  common  witii 
all  other  lluids,  it  n.ust  press  iqjon  bodies 
in  proportion  to  the  <le))th  at  which  they  are 
immersed  in  it  ;  and  it  also  presses  in  every 
direction,  in  common  with  all  other  fluids. 

It  diflirs  from  all  other  fluids  in  the  four 
following  jxirticulars:  1.  It  can  be  compress- 
ed into  a  much  less  si)ace  than  it  naturally 
possesses;  2.  It  cannot  be  congealed  or 
fixed  as  other  fluids  -nay  ;  3.  It  is  of  a  difTer- 
cnt  density  in  every  ))art  upward  from  tlie 
earth's  surface  ;  decreasing  in  its  weight,  bulk 
for  bulk,  the  higher  it  rises  ;  4.  It"  is  of  an 
elastic  or  springy  nature,  and  the  force  of  its 
spring  is  equal  to  its  weight. 

Fi-w  people  who  are  unacquainted  with  the 
principles  of  natuial  philosojihy,  sup))ose 
that  the  air  by  which  we  are  surrounded  is 
a  material  substance,  like  water,  or  anv  other 
visible  matter.  Being  perfectly  invisible, 
and  affording  no  resistance  to  the  touch,  it 
must  seem  to  them  extraordinary,  to  consider 
it  as  a  solid  and  inat>rial  substance  ;  and  yet 
a  few  simiile  exp<'rinients  will  convince  any 
one  that  it  is  really  matter,  and  possesses- 
weight,  and  the  power  of  resisting  other  bo- 
dies that  press  agaii.st  it. 

Take  a  bladder  that  has  not  the  neck  tied, 
and  you  may  press  the  sides  together, 
and  squeeze  it  into  any  shape.  Fill  this 
bladder  villi  air,  by  blowing  into  it,  and 
tie  a  string  fast  round  the' neck:  Youthen 
find  that  you  cannot,  without  breaking  the 
bladder,  press  the  rides  together,  and  that 
you  can  scarcely  alter  its  figure  by  any 
pressure.  \\  hence  then  arise  these  e'lfects"? 
When  the  bladder  was  empty,  you  could 
press  it  into  any  form ;  but  the  air  with 
which  it  is  filled,  prevents  this :  the  resist- 
ance you  experience  when  it  is  filled  with 
air,  proves  that  tliat  is  real  matter  as  well  as 
any  other  substance  that  we  are  acquainted 
witli. 

We  are  accustomed  to  say,  that  a  vessel  is 
empty,  when  we  have  poured  out  of  it  the 
water  which  it  contained.  Throw  a  bit  of 
cork  upon  a  bason  of  water,  and  having  put 
an  empty  tumbler  over  it  with  the  nioulh 
downwards,  force  it  down  through  the  wa- 
ter ;  the  cork  will  shew  the  surface  of  the 
water  within  the  tumblrr,  and  you  will  see 
that  it  will  not  rise  so  high  within  as  without 
the  glass  ;  nor,  if  you  press  ever  so  hard, 
will  it  rise  to  the  same  level.  Tiie  water 
is,  therefore,  prevented  from  rising  within, 
the  tumbler,  by  some  other  substance  which 
already  occupies  the  inside  ;  which  substance 
is  the  air  that  filled  the  tumbler  when  it  was 
inverted,  and  which  could  not  escape,  on  ac- 
count of  the  superior  pressure  of  the  water. 

In  like  manner,  having  opened  a  pair  of: 
conunon   bellows,  stop   up  tlje  nozzle   se-- 


A56 

CMViAy,  and  you  v;\\\  find  that  you  cannot 
sluit  tlie  bellows,  which  seems  to  lie  tilled 
with  something  that  yields  a  little,  like  wool ; 
but  if  yon  imstop  the  nozzle,  the  air  will 
be  expelled,  and  may  be  felt  against  the 
hand. 

When  the  air  is  at  rest,  we  can  move  in 
it  witli  the  utmost  facility ;  nor  does  it  offer 
to  us  a  sensible  resistance,  except  the  motion 
is  quick,  or  the  surface  opposed  to  it  con- 
siderable ;  but  when  that  is  tlie  case,  its  re- 
sistance is  very  sensible,  as  may  be  easily 
perceived  by  the  motion  of  a  fan. 

When  air  is  in  motion,  it  constitutes  wind  ; 
which  is  notliing  more  than  a  current  or 
Stream  of  air,  varying  in  its  force,  according 
to  the  velocity  with  whicli  it  liows. 

The  invisibility  of  air,  therefore,  is  only 
the  conse<[uence  of  its  transparency  ;  but  it 
is  possessed  of  all  the  common  properties  of 
'matter.  When  a  vessel  is  empty,  in  the 
usual  way  of  speaking,  it  is  in  f.ict  still  filled 
■with  air. 

But  it  is  possible  to  .empty  a  vessel  even 
of  the  air  which  it  contains,  by  which  means 
*'e  shall  be  able  to  discover  several  proper- 
ties of  this  fluid.  The  instrument,  or  ma- 
chine, by  w'liicli  this  operation  is  performed, 
is  called  an  air-pump.  As  it  is  by  means  of 
•this  useful  instrument  that  all  the  mechani- 
cal properties  of  air  are  demonstrated,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  describe  its  construction, 
and  the  manner  of  using  it,  before  we  pro- 
ceed to  the  experiments  that  are  made  v/ith 
it. 

Plate  I.  Pneumatics,  tig.  1.  is  the  air-pump 
that  is  now  most  in  use.  AA  are  two  brass 
ban'els,  each  containing  a  piston,  with  a 
A'alve  opening  upwards.  They  are  worked 
bv  means  of  the  winch  B,  wliicii  has  a  pinion 
that  fits  into  the  teeth  of  the  racks  CC,  which 
are  made  upon  the  ends  of  tiie  pistons,  and 
by  tif's  means  moves  them  up  and  down  al- 
ternately. 

On  the  square  wooden  frame  DE,  there  are 
placed  a  brass  plate  G,  ground  |)erfeclly  flat. 


and  also  a  brass  tub-',  let  into  the  wood, 
communicating  with  the  two  barrels  and  the 
cock  1,  and  opening  into  the  centre  of 
the  brass  plate  at  a.  The  glass  vessel  K,  to 
be  en>ptied  or  exhausted  of  air,  lias  its  rim 
ground  quite  flat,  and  rubbed  with  a  little 
pomatum,  or  hog's-lard,  to  make  it  (it  more 
closely  upon  the  brass  plate  of  the  pump. 
These  vessels  are  called  receivers.  Having 
shut  the  cock  1,  (he  pistons  are  worked  by 
'the  winch  ;  and  tlie  air  i-eing  suiU'efed  to  es- 
cape when  (lie  piston  is  forced  down,  be- 
cause the  vaive  opi-ns  upwards,  but  prevent- 
-ed  from  returning  into  the  vessel  lor  tli^'  same 
reason,  the  rccriver  is  gradually  exhausted, 
and  will  (lien  be  (ixetl  fast  upon  the  pump- 
plate.  By  opening  the  cock  I,  the  air  rushes 
■again  into  the  receiver. 

"  As  light  as  air,"  is  a  common  saying; 
yet  air  can  be  shewn  to  have  more  weight 
than  is  generally  supposed.  Take  a  hollow 
coiipv  r  ball,  or  other  vessel,  which  holds  a 
wine  quart,  having  a  neck  to  screw  on  the 
l)late  of  the  air-punipi;  and  after  weighing  it 
"wlien  full  of  air,  exhaust  it,  and  weigh  it 
vhen  empty  ;  it  will  be  found  to  have  lost 
<(i\tepn  grains,  whicli  shews  that  this  is  the 
weight  of  a  <|uart  of  air.  But  a  quart  of  wa- 
ter wcig'is  l4C-'l  grains:  this  divided  by  l6, 
^]uotes  914  in  round  numbers ;  so  that  water 


•PNEUMATIC?!. 

is  914  times  as  heavy  as  air  near  the  surface 
of  the  eardi.  This  supposes  airal  a  medlmn 
temperature  and  density;  for  these,  as  will 
be  seen  afterwards,  are  variable. 

When  th.e  receiver  is  jjlaced  upon  the 
plate  of  the  air-pump  without  exhausting  it, 
it  may  be  removed  again  with  the  utmost 
facility,  because  there  is  a  mass  of  air  under 
it,  that  resists  by  its  elasticity  the  pressure 
on  the  outside ;  but  exhaust  the  receiver, 
thus  removing  the  counter-pressure,  and  it 
will  be  held  down  to  tiie  plate  by  the  weight 
of  the  air  upon  it. 

AVhat  the  pressure  of  the  air  amounts  to, 
is  exactly  determined  in  tlie  following  man- 
ner : 

Vvhen  the  surface  of  a  fluid  is  exposed  to 
the  air,  it  is  pressed  by  the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere  equally  on  every  part,  and  con- 
sequently remains  at  rest.  But  if  the  pres- 
sure is  removed  from  any  particular  part, 
the  fluid  must  yield  in  that  part,  and  be 
forced  out  of  its  situation. 

Into  the  receiver  A  (fig.  2.)  put  a  small 
vessel  witli  quicksilver,  or  any  other  fluid, 
and  through  the  collar  of  leathers  at  B,  sus- 
pend a  glass  tube,  closed,  or  hennetically 
sealed,  as  it  is  called,  over  the  small  vessel. 
Having  exhausted  the  receiver,  let  down 
the  tube  into  the  quicksilver,  which  will 
not  rise  into  the  tube  as  long  as  the  receiver 
continues  empty.  But  re-admit  the  air, 
and  the  quicksilver  will  immediately  ascend. 
The  reason  of  this  is,  that  upon  exhausting 
the  receiver,  the  tube  is  likewise  emptied  of 
air ;  and  therefore,  when  it  is  immersed  in 
the  quicksilver,  and  the  air  re-admitted  into 
the  receiver,  all  the  surface  of  the  quick- 
silver is  pressed  upon  by  tlie  air,  except  that 
portion  which  lies  above  the  orifice  of  the 
tube  ;  consequently,  it  must  rise  in  the  tube, 
and  continue  so  to  do,  until  the  weight  of 
the  elevated  quicksilver  presses  as  forciblv 
on  that  portion  which  lies  beneath  the  tube, 
as  the  weight  of  the  air  does  on  every  otiier 
equal  portion  without  the  tube. 

Take  a  common  syrini;e  of  any  kind,  and 
having  pushed  the  piston  to  the  farthest  end, 
immerse  it  into  water;  then  draw  up  the 
piston,  and  the  water  will  follow  it.  This  is 
owing  to  the  same  cause  as  the  last :  when 
the  piston  is  pulleil  up,  the  air  is  drawn  out 
of  the  syringe  with  it,  and  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  is  removed  trom  the  part 
of  the  water  iiumediately  undo.'  it ;  conse- 
quently the  water  is  obliged  to  yield  in  that 
part  to  the  pressure  on  the  sin+.ice. 

It  is  up;)n  th.is  principle  that  all  those 
pumps  called  sucking-pumps  act :  the  piston 
fitting  tightly  the  inside  of  the  barrel,  by 
being  raised  u]i,  removes  the  |)ressin"e  of  (he 
atmosphere  from  that  part,  and  consi'quenlly 
the  water  is  drawn  up  by  the  pressure  upon 
the  surface. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  phi- 
losophers were  of  opinion  that  the  ascent 
of  water  in  pumps,  was  owing  to  what  Ihev 
called  "  Natu.re's  abhorrence  of  a  vacuum  \" 
and  that,  by  means  of  suction,  fluids  might 
be  raised  to  any  height  whatever. 

Galileo  was  the  first  who  discovered  that 
it  was  impossible  to  raise  water  higher  than 
thirty-three  feet  by  suction  only  ;  and  thence 
concluded,  that  not  the  power  of  suction, 
but  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  was  the 
cause  of  the  ascent  of  water  in  pumps;  th..t 
a  column  of  water  thirtv-three  feet  high  was 


a  counterpoise  to  one  as  high  as  (he  atmo- 
sphere ;  and  that,  tor  this  reason,  the  'water 
would  not  follow  the  sucker  any  farther. 

His  pupil  Torrireili,  considered  that  asii 
mer<:ury  was  fourteen  times  as  heavy  as  wa— , 
ter,  a  column  of  tliat  fluid  need  only  be  one- 
I'ourtecnth  of  the  length  of  one  of  water,  to 
form  an  ocjual  couiiler[)oise  to  the  pressure 
of  the  air ;  and  accordingly,  having  filled 
with  mercury  a  glass  tube  about  three  feet 
loii2',  hermetically  sealed  at  one  end,  he  iii- 
vert:ed  it  into  a  small  bason  of  mercui-y,  and 
found,  as  he  expected,  that  tlie  mercury 
subsided  to  the  height  of  about  twenty-nine 
iiiciies  and  a  half,  and  there  remained  sus- 
pended, leaving  a  space  at  the  top  of  tlv 
tube  a  perfect  vacuum;  which  has  been  call- 
ed, from  the  inventor,  the  Torricellian 
vacuum. 

It  was,  however,  some  tune  after  this  ex- 
periment had  been  made,  and  even  after  it 
liad  been  universally  agreed  that  the  sus- 
pension of  the  mercury  was  owing  to  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere,  before  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  column  of  mercury  varied 
in  height,  and  consequently  that  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  was  different  at  different 
times. 

Tiiis  phenomenon  was,  however,  too  re- 
markable to  be  long  unobserved.  It  was 
impossible  to  avoid  observing  also,  that  the 
changes  in  the  height  of  the  mercury  w  ere 
accompanied,  or  very  quickly  succeeded,  by 
alterations  in  the  weather.  Hence  the  in- 
strument obtained  the  name  of  weather-glass ; 
and  from  its  also  measuring  the  weight  of  tiie 
atmosphere,  it  is  called  the  barometer.  It 
is  mere'v  a  tube  filled  with  mercury,  and  in- 
verted into  a  bason  of  the  same,  having  a 
scale  fixed  at  the  top  to  ascertain  the  rising 
and  falling  ot  the  mercury,  by  the  changes 
in  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere.  A  more 
particular  account  of  the  construction  and 
use  of  this  instrument  is  given  under  Baro- 
meter. 

I'hese  effects  arising  from  the  weight  and 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  have  been  ab- 
surdly attributed  to  suction;  a  word  which 
ought  to  be  exploded,  as  it  conveys  a  false 
notion  of  the  cause  of  these  and  sinvtar  i)1k- 
nomena.     To  prove  that  an   exhausted   re- 
ceiver is  held  down  by  the  pre  sure  of  I'v 
atmosphere,  ti.ke  one  open  at  top,  and  groiind 
cpiite  liat,  as  A  fig.  3,  and  covered  with  a., 
brass  plate  B,  which  has  u  brass  rod  pass- 
ing througii  it,  working  in  a  collar  of  leather, 
so  as  to  be  air-tiglit;  to  this  rod  suspend  a 
small  receiver  within  the  large  one,  a  little' 
way   from  the  bottom  ;   place  the  receiver 
A  "upon   the  pump-plate,   and  exhaust  it: 
it  will  now  be  lixecl  fiist  down  ;  but  the  small 
receiver  may  be  pulled  up   or  down   with 
perfect  ease,  as  it  is  itself  exhausted,  and  all 
the  air  whicii  surrounded  it  removed,  con- 
sequently it  cannot  be  exposed  to  any  pres- 
sure ;  then  let  the  small  one  down  upon  tlje 
plate,  but  not   over  the  hole  by  which  the 
air  is  extracted,  and   re-admit  the  air  intr 
the  large  receiver,  which  may  then  be  rC' 
moved;  it  will  be  found  that  the  small  one 
being  itself  exhausted,  it  held  down  fast  bj 
the  air,  which   is  now   admitted  round  thi 
outside.     If  the  large  receiver  is  again  pu 
over  it  and  exhausted,  the  small   one  wil 
be  at  liberty  ;  and  so  on,  as  often  as  the  ex- 
periment is  repealed. 


A  square  rolumn  of  quick-jilviT  Iwfnty- 
niiie  and  a  halt'  inches  liiftli,  and  an  incli  thick, 
weighs  just  (ifteen  pouiuis,  conseqiieiilly,  tht 
air  presses  with  a  weight  equal  to  lifteeii 
pounds  upon  every  s(|uare  inch  of  the  eailli's 
surface:  and  144  times  as  much,  or  21G0 
pounds,  upon  every  square  foot. 

The  eavlii's  siirface  contains  in  round  num- 
bers, 200,Oui),000  square  miles;  and  as  every 
scjuare  mile  contains  27,876,400  square  feet, 
there  must  be  5, :)7j, 080, 000, 000, 000  s;iuare 
feet  on  thi'  eartli's  surface ;  which  number 
inuUiplicd  by  21  GO  pouiids  (the  pressure 
on  earli  square  foot),  gives  12,043,463,800, 
(100,000,000  pounds  for  the  pressure,  or 
whok-  weight,  of  the  atmosphere. 

Kcckoning  the  surface  of  a  middle-sized 
man  to  be  about  14  square  feet,  he  sustains 
a  pressure  from  the  air  equal  to  30,240  pounds 
Troy,  or  1 1  tons  2  cwt.  and  ISi  lbs.  It  may 
be  asked,  how  it  liappens  that  we  arc  not 
sensible  of  so  great  a  pressure?  The  rea- 
son is,  that  sucli  pressures  only  are  perceived 
by  us,  as  move  our  fibres,  and  put  them  out 
of  tht-ir  natural  situations.  Now  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  being  e<|ual  on  all  parts  of 
the  body,  it  cannot  possibly  displace  any  of 
the  fibres,  but  on  the  contrary,  braces,  and 
keeps  them  all  in  their  relative  situations. 
ISut  if  the  pressure  is  removed  from  any 
particular  part,  tlie  pressure  on  the  neigh- 
bouring parts  immediately  becomes  sensible. 
Thus,  if  you  take  a  receiver  open  at  the  top, 
and  cover  it  with  your  band,  upon  exhaust- 
ing the  receiver,  and  so  taking  olt"  the  pres- 
sure from  the  palm  of  the  hand,  yjiu  will 
feel  it  pressed  down  by  an  immense  weight, 
so  as  to  give  pain  that  would  be  insupport- 
able, and  endanger  the  breaking  of  your 
hand. 

If  the  top  of  the  receiver  is  covered  by  a 
piece  of  Hat  glass,  upon  exhausting  it,  the 
glass  will  be  broken  to  pieces  by  the  incum- 
bent weight ;  and  this  would  happen  to  the 
receiver  itself,  but  for  the  arched  top,  that 
resists  the  weight  much  more  than  a  fiat  sur- 
face. 

This  experiment  may  be  varied,  by  tying 
a  piece  of  wet  bladder  over  tlie  open  mouth 
of  the  receiver,  and  leaving  it  to  dry  till  it 
becomes  as  tight  as  a  drum.  Upon  exhaust- 
ing the  receiver,  you  will  perceive  the  blad- 
der rendered  concave,  and  it  will  yield  more 
and  more,  until  it  breaks  with  a  loud  report, 
which  is  occasioned  by  the  air  striking  for- 
cibly against  the  inside  of  tlie  receiver, 
upon  being  re-admitted. 

Air  is  one  of  the  most  elastic  bodies  in 
nature;  tb.it  is,  it  is  easily  compressed  into 
less  compass,  and  when  the  pressure  is  re- 
moved, it  immediately  regains  its  former 
bulk. 

Let  mercury  be  poured  into  a  bent  tube 
ABCD  (tig.  4,)  open  at  both  ends,  to  a 
small  height  as  BC  ;  then  stopping  the  end 
D  with  a  cork,  or  otherwise,  air-tight,  mea- 
sure the  length  of  confined  air  DC,  and  pour 
mercury  into  the  other  leg  Ali,  till  the 
•height  above  the  surface  of  that  in  CD  is 
equal  to  the  Iieight  at  wjiich  it  stands  in  the 
barometer  at  the  time.  Then  it  is  plain,  that 
the  air  in  the  shorter  leg  will  be  compressed 
with  a  force  twice  as  great  as  at  first,  when 
it  possessed  the  whole  space  CD;  for  then 
it  was  coiTipressed  only  with  the  weight  of 
Vol.  II. 


PXEUMATICS. 

tlie  almo-p'.iere,  but  now  it  is  compressed 
by  that  weight,  and  the  additional  ecjual 
weight  of  the  column  of  mercury.  The  sur- 
face of  the  mercury  will  now  be  at  E;  and 
it  will  be  found,  upon  measuring  it,  that 
the  space  DK,  into  which  the  air  is  com- 
pressed, is  just  half  the  llormer  CD.  If 
another  column  of  mercury  was  adde<l, 
equal  to  the  former,  it  would  be  reduced 
into  one-third  of  the  space  it  formerly  oc- 
cupied. 

Hence  the  density  of  the  air  is  proportional 
to  the  force  that  compresses  it. 

As  all  the  parts  of  the  atmosphere  gravi- 
tate, or  press  upon  each  other,  it  is  easy  to 
conceive,  that  the  air  next  the  surface  of 
the  earth  is  more  compressed  and  denser 
than  what  it  is  at  some  height  above  it ;  in  the 
same  manner  as  if  wool  was  thrown  into  a 
deep  pit  uilil  it  reached  the  top.  The 
wool  at  the  bottom  having  all  the  weight  of 
what  was  above  it,  would  be  sqtieczed  into  a 
less  compass;  the  layer,  or  stratum  above 
it,  would  not  be  presse;l  quite  so  much, 
the  one  above  that  still  less,  and  so  on;  till 
the  upper  one,  having  no  weight  over  it, 
would  l)e  in  its  natural  state.  This  is  the 
case  with  the  air,  or  atmosphere,  that  sur- 
rounds our  earth,  and  accompanies  it  in  its 
motion  round  the  sun.  On  the  tops  of  lolty 
buildings,  but  still  more  on  those  of  moun- 
tains, tlie  air  is  found  to  be  considerably 
less  dense  than  at  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  height  ot  the  atmosphere  has  never 
vet  been  exactly  ascertained ;  indeed,  on 
account  of  its  great  elasticity,  it  may  extend 
to  an  immense  distance,  becoming,  however, 
rarer,  in  proportion  to  its  distance  trom  the 
earth. 

It  is  observed,  that  at  a  greater  height 
than  forty-live  miles,  it  does  not  refract  the 
rays  of  light  from  the  sun  ;  and  this  is  usu- 
ally considered  as  the  limit  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. In  a  rarer  state,  however,  it  may 
extend  much  farther.  And  this  is  by  somi; 
thought  to  be  the  case,  from  the  appear- 
ance of  certain  meteors  which  have  been 
reckoned  to  be  70  or  SO  miles  dibtant. 

Dr.  Cotes  has  demonstrated,  that  if  al- 
titudes in  the  air  are  taken  in  arithmetical 
proportion,  the  rarity  of  the  air  will  be  in 
geometrical  proportion.     For  instani;e, 

A 

16 

64 

256 

1024 

-  4096 

-  16384 

-  65536 
262144 

1048576 

4194304 

16777216 

67108864 

268435456 

1073741824 

4294967296 

17179S69184 

68719476736 

274877906944 

1099511627776 

And  hence  it  is  easy  to  prove  by  calcula- 
tion, that  a   cubic  inch  of  such  air  as   we 
3x\I 


/ 

■f- 

14 

•_ 

21 

'F: 

28 

5 

35 

^ 

45 

^ 

0 

40 

i3 

1^ 

0 

-0 

56 

i 

63 

"" 

H 

70 

c 

rt 

IJ 

V 

77 

tJ 

■£ 

84 

tl 

< 

91 
98 

1; 

105 

112 

^ 

11>I 

-9 

126 

r 

133 

r= 

140 

" 

457 

breathe,  would  be  so  n-.iich  rarefied  at  the 
attitude  of  500  miles,  that  it  would  till  a 
sphere  equal  in  diameter  to  (he  orbit  of  Sa- 
turn. 

The  elastic  power  of  the  air  is  always 
equivalent  to  the  lorce  which  compresses  it'. 
for  if  it  was  less,  it  would  yield  to  the  pres- 
sure, and  be  more  compressed ;  was  it 
greater,  it  would  not  be  so  much  reduced  ; 
tor  action  and  re-action  are  always  equal ; 
so  that  the  elastic  force  of  any  small  i)ortion 
of  the  air  we  breathe,  is  equal  to  the  weight 
of  the  incumbent  part  of  the  atmosphere ; 
that  weight  being  tlie  force  whicn  conliiies  it 
to  the  dimeiisiuns  it  possesses. 

'I  o  prove  this  by  an  experiment,  pour 
somi'  quicksilver  into  the  small  bottle  A  (hg. 
5.)  and  screw  the  brass  collar  c  of  the  tube 
liC  into  the  brass  neck  of  the  bottle,  and 
the  lower  end  of  the  tube  will  be  immersed 
into  the  ipiicksilver,  so  that  the  air  above 
the  quicksilver  in  the  bottle  will  be  confined 
there.  This  tul)e  is  opi-n  at  top,  and  is  co- 
vered by  the  receiver  (j,  and  large  tube 
ICl';  which  tube  is  lixed  by  brass  collars  to 
the  receiver,  and  is  closed  at  top.  This 
preparation  being  made,  exhaust  the  air  out 
of  the  receiver  G,  and  its  tube,  by  putting 
it  upon  the  plate  of  the  air-pump,  and  the 
air  will,  by  the  same  means,  be  exl.austed 
out  of  the  inner  tube  BC,  through  its  open 
top  at  C.  As  the  receiver  and  tubes  are 
exhausting,  the  air  that  is  conlined  in  the 
glass  bottle  A,  will  jiress  so  by  its  spring,  as 
to  raise  the  <|uicksilver  in  the  inner  tube  ti» 
the  same  height  as  it  stands  at  in  the  baro- 
meter. 

J//.vc'(  lliuKnus  expctinicnis. 

There  is  a  little  machine,  consisting  of 
two  mills,  a  and  /;,  which  are  of  equal 
weights,  indepeiidant  of  each  other,  and 
turn  equally  free  on  tlicir  axles  in  the  frame. 
Kacli  mill  has  lour  thin  arms  or  sails,  (lig.  6.) 
fixed  into  the  axis:  those  of  tlie  mill  11,  have 
their  planes  at  right  angles  to  its  axis,  and 
those  of  b  have  their  planes  parallel  to  it. 
As  the  mill  a  tlierefore  turns  round  in  com- 
mon air,  it  is  but  little  resisted  by  it,  be- 
cause its  sails  cut  the  air  with  their  thia 
edges  ;  but  the  mill  h  is  much  resisted,  bc' 
cause  the  broad  side  of  its  sails  moves  against 
the  air  when  it  turns  round.  In  each  axle 
is  a  line  pin  near  the  middle  of  the  frame, 
which  goes  quite  through  the  axle,  anil 
stands  out  a  little  on  each  side  of  it  :  under 
these  pins  a  slider  may  be  made  to  bear,  and 
so  hinder  the  mills  from  going,  when  a 
strong  spring  is  set  or  bent  against  the  oppo- 
site ends  of  the  pins. 

Having  set  this  machine  upon  the  pump- 
plate,  iig.  1.  draw  up  tlie  slider  to  the  pins  on 
one  side,  and  set  the  sju-ing  at  bend  on  the  op- 
posite ends  of  the  pins  ;  then  push  down  tlie 
slider,  and  the  spring  acting  equally  strong 
upon  each  mill,  will  set  them  both  going 
with  equal  forces  and  velocities ;  but  the 
mill  u  will  run  much  longer  than  the  mill 
/),  because  the  air  makes  much  less  resist- 
ance against  the  edges  of  its  sails  than 
against  the  sides  of  the  sails  of  b. 

Draw  up  the  slider  again,  and  set  the 
spring  upon  the  pins  as  before ;  then  cover 
the  machine  with  the  receiver  upon  the, 
pump-plate :  and  having  exhausted  the  re- 
ceiver of  air,  push  down  the  wire  (through 
the  collar  of  leathers  in  the  neck)  iijion  the 


4i8 

slitler,  whifh  will  disengage  it  from  tlie  pins, 
aud  allow  tlie  mUls  to  turn  round  by  tlie  im- 
jiulse  of  t'.ie  spring ;  and  as  there  is  no  air  in 
the  receiver  to  make  any  sensible  resistance 
against  them,  they  will'  both  move  a  consi- 
derable time  longer  than  they  did  in  tlie 
ni)cii  air,  and  the  moment  thdt  one  stops  tlie 
oliier  will  do  so  lo.>.  'I'liis  siicws  that  air 
vcbists  bodies  in  motion  ;  and  that  ecjual  bo- 
dies meet  with  diit'erent  degrees  ot  resistance, 
according  as  they  present  greater  or  less 
surfaces  to  the  air. 

Take  a  tall  receiver  A,  covered  at  top 
by  a  brass  plate,  through  which  works  a  rod 
in  a  collar  o:  leathers,  Clig.  7.)  and  to  the 
bottom  of  which  Ihcrv-  is  a  particular  con- 
trivance tor  su|)porting  a  guinea  and  a  feather, 
and  for  letting  them  drop  at  the  same  in- 
stant. If  they  are  let  fall  while  the  receiver 
U  full  of  air,  tiie  gnin.ea  will  fall  niueli  quicker 
than  the  featlier';  but  if  tlie  receiver  is  first 
fxhausted,  it  will  be  found  that  they  both 
arrive  at  the  bottom  at  the  same  instant : 
which  pro-.-es  tiiat  all  bodies  would  fall  to  the 
gromi.l  with  the  sa;ne  velocity,  if  it  was  not 
forth.-  resistance  of  the  air, Which  impedes 
)no:-t  oi  the  motion  of  those  bodies  that  have 
the  least  momentum.  In  this  experiment 
the  observers  ou;;ht  not  to  look  at  the  top, 
but  at  the  bottom  of  the  receiver  ;  otherwise, 
on  account  of  the  quickness  of  their  motion, 
they  will  not  be  al)le  to  see  whether  the 
guiiiea  and  feather  fall  at  the  same  instant. 

3.  Take  a  receiver,  having  a  brass  cap  fit- 
ted to  the  top  with  a  hole  in  it;  fit  one  end 
of  a  dry  lia/.el-branch  about  an  inch  long, 
tight  into  the  hole,  and  the  other  end  tight 
into  a  hole  quite  through  the  bottom  oi  a 
small  wooden  cup  ;  then  pour  some  quick- 
silver into  the  cup,  and  exhaust  the  receiver 
of  air;  and  the  pressure  of  tlie  outward  air  on 
the  surface  of  the  quicksilver,  w-ill  force  it 
through  the  pores  of  the  hazel,  whence  it 
will  descend  in  a  beautiml  shower,  into  a 
glass  cup  placed  under  the  receiver  to  catch 
it. 

Put  a  wire  through  the  collar  of  leath-rs 
<m  the  top  of  the  receiver,  and  lix  a  bit  of 
<lry  wood  on  the  en<l  of  the  wire  within  the 
receiver  ;  then  exhaust  tlie  air,  an<l  push  the 
wire  down,  so  as  to  immerse  the  wood  into 
:i  jar  of  quicksilver  on  the  pump-plate;  this 
«loue,  let  in  the  air ;  and  upon  taking  the 
wood  out  of  the  jar,  and  splitting  it,  its 
pores  will  be  found  full  of  (luicksilver,  wliich. 
tiie  force  of  the  a  r,  upon  being  let  into  the 
quicksilver,  drove  into  the  wood. 

Join  the  two  brass  hemispherical  cups  A 
and  15  together  (hg.  S,)  with  a  wet  leather 
betv^een  them,  having  a  hole  in  tiie  middle 
of  it ;  tlw'ii  liaving  screwed  olT  tli'.-  handle  at 
C,  put  botli  the  hemispheres  together  and 
screw  them  into  the  ])ump-plate,  and  turn 
t'le  cock  E,  so  that  the  pipe  may  be  open 
all  the  way  into  the  cavity  of  the  hcmi- 
splieres ;  then  exhaii  ,t  the  air  out  of  them, 
and  turn  the  cock ;  unscrew  the  hemi- 
spheres from  the  pump,  and  I'.aviivg  put 
on  the  handle'^,  let  two  strong  men  t'y  to 
pull  the  heiuisphercs  asunder  by  the  rings, 
which  they  will  find  hard  to  do  ;  for  if  tlie 
diameter  of  the  hemispheres  is  four  inches, 
they  will  be  pressed  together  by  the  external 
air  with  a  force  equal  to  190  pounds;  and 
to  siiew  that  it  is  the  pressure  of  the  air 
that    keeps  them  to»^ctl>er,  kang  them    by 


PNEUMATICS. 

either  of  the  rings  upon  the  liook  of  the 
wire  in  the  receiver  A  (fig.  3.)  and,  upon 
exllau^ting  the  air  out  of  the  receiver,  they 
will  fall  asunder  of  themselves. 

Screw  the  end  A  of  the  brass  pipe  AB  (fig. 
9.)  iiUo  the  pump-plate,  and  turn  the  cock 
c  until  the  pipe  is  open ;  then  put  a  wet 
leather  on  the  plate  c  n,  fixed  on  the  jiipe, 
and  cover  it  with  the  tall  receiver  <jli, 
which  is  close  at  top ;  then  exhaust  the  air 
out  of  the  receiver,  and  turn  the  cock  f  to 
keep  it  out ;  which  done,  unscrew  the  jiipe 
from  the  pump,  and  set  its  end  A  into  a 
bason  of  water,  and  turn  the  cock  c  to  open 
the  pipe ;  on  which,  a-i  there  is  no  air  in  the 
receiver,  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on 
the  water  in  the  bason  will  drive  the  water 
forcibly  through  the  pipe,  and  make  it  play 
up  in  a  jet  to  the  top  of  the  receiver. 

S.'t  a  square  phial  upon  the  pump-plate, 
and  having  covered  it  with  a  wire  cage,  put 
a  close  receiver  over  it,  and  exhaust  the 
air  out  of  the  receiver  ;  in  doing  which,  the 
air  will  also  make  its  way  out  of  the  phial, 
through  a  small  valve  m  its  neck.  \\  hen 
the  air  is  exhau-ted,  turn  the  cock  below  the 
plate  to  re-admit  the  air  into  the  receiver ; 
and  as  it  cannot  get  into  the  phial  again, 
because  of  the  valve,  the  phial  will  be  broken 
into  some  thous-mls  of  pieces  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  upon  it.  flail  the  ])hial  been  I 
of  a  round  form,  it  would  liavesust-ained  this 
pressure  like  an  arch,  without  breaking-; 
but  as  its  sides  are  Hat  it  cannot. 

To  shew  the  elasticity  or  spring  of  the  air: 
tie  up  a  very  small  <[uanlity  of  air  in  a  blad- 
der, and  put  it  under  the  receiver  ;  then  ex- 
haust the  air  out  of  the  receiver,  and  the  air 
which  is  confined  in  the  bladder  (having 
nothing  to  act  against  it)  will  expand  by  the 
force  of  its  spring,  so  as  to  fill  the  bladder 
c(mipletely.  But  upon  letting  the  air  into 
the  n-ceiver  again,  it  will  overpower  that  in 
the  bladder,  and  press  its-  sides  close  toge- 
ther. 

If  the  bladder  so  tied  up  is  put  into  a 
wooden  box,  and  has  twenty  or  thirty  pounds 
weight  of  lead  placed  upon  it,  and  the  box 
is  covereil  with  a  close  receiver ;  upon  ex- 
hausting the  air  out  of  the  receiver,  that 
which  is  confined  in  the  bladder  will  expand 
itself  so  as  to  raise  up  all  the  lead  by  the 
force  of  its  spring. 

Screw  the  pipe  AB  (fir.  9,)  into  the 
pump-plate;  place  the  tall  receiver  Gil  upon 
the  plate  c  «,  as  before,  and  exhaust  the  air 
out  of  the  receiver  ;  then  turn  the  cock  c  to 
keep  out  the  air,  unscrew  the  pipe  from  the 
pump,  and.  screw  it  into  the  mouth  of  the 
copper  vessel  C  (li^;.  10.),  tin;  vessel  having 
been  first  about  half  filled  with  water.  Tlieii 
open  the  cock  e;  and  the  spring  of  the  air 
which  is  confined  in  the  copper  vessel  will 
force  the  water  up  through  the  pipe  Ali  in 
a  jet  into  the  exhausted  receiver,  as  strongly 
as  it  did  by  its  pressure  on-  the  surface  of 
the  water. 

If  a  rat,  mouse,  or  bird,  is  put  under  a  re- 
ceiver, and  the  air  is  exhausted,  the  animal 
will  be  at  first  oppressed  as  with  a  great 
weight,  then  arow  convulsed,  and  at  hist  ex- 
])ire  in  all  the  agonies  of  a  most  bitter  and 
cruel  death.  But  as  this  experiment  is  too 
shocking  to  most  spectators,  it  is  common  to 


substitute  a  machine  called  tlic  lungs-glass 
in  place  of  the  animal. 

If  a  butterlly  is  suspended  in  a  receiver, . 
by  a  fine  thread  tied  to  one  of  its  liorHS,  it 
w  ill  lly  about  in  the  receiver  as  long  as  it 
continues  full  of  air;  but  if  the  air  is  ex- 
hausted, tliongh  the  animal  will  not  die, 
and  will  conlinue  to  fiutler  its  wings,  it  cai,- 
not  remove  itself  troni  the  place  wliere  it 
hangs,  in  tlie  middle  of  the  receiver,  ciUii 
the  air  is  let  in  again,  and  then  the  animal 
will  fly  about  as  betore. 

Put  a  coik  into  a  square  phial,  and  i.\ 
it  in  'V.ith  wax  or  cement  ;  and  put  the  ]ihial 
on  the  pump-pLte  with  the  wire  cage,  and 
cover  it  with  a  close  receiver;,  tiien  exh;n--.t 
the  air  out  of  the  receiver,  aiul  the  air  tiiat 
was  corked  up  in  the  phial  will  break  it  viw- 
wards  by  the  force  of  its  sjiring,  beci^use 
there  is  no  air  left  on  the  outude  of  ike 
phial,  to  act  against  that  within  it. 

Put  a  shrivelled  ajiple  under  a  close  re- 
ceiver, and  exhaust  the  air ;  the  spring  of 
air  within  the  ajiple  will  plump  it  out,  so  iii 
to  cause  all  the  wrinkles  to  disappear  ;  but. 
upon  letting  the  air  into  the  receiver  apain,. 
to  press  upon  the  apple,  it  will  instantK  le- 
turn  to  its  former  decayed  and  shrivelled, 
state. 

Take  a  fresh  egg,  and  cut  off  a  little  of 
the  shell  and  him  troni  its  smallest  end,  then 
put  the  egg  under  a  receiver,  and  pump  out 
the  air ;  upon  which  all  the  contents  of  the 
egg  will  be  forced  out  into  the  receiver,  by 
the  expansion  of  a  small  bubble  of  air  con- 
tained in  the  great  eiul,  between  the  shell 
and  film. 

J\it  some  warm  beer  into  a  glass,  and  hav- 
ing set  it  on  the  pump,  cover  it  with  a  close 
receiver,  and  then  exhaust  tlie  air.  A\  liiist 
this  is  doing,  and  the  pressure  more  and 
more  taken  olf  trom  the  beer  in  the  glass, 
tiie  air  in  it  will  expand  itself,  and  rise  u.) 
in  innunimerable  buboles  to  the  surface  of  tlia 
beer;  and  thence  it  will  be  taken  away  with 
the  other  air  in  the  receiver.  When  tiie 
receiver  is  nearly  exhausted,  the  air  in  the 
beer,  which  couki  not  disentangle  itself  quick 
enough  to  get  off  with  the  rest,  will  now 
expand  itseh  so,  as  to  cause  the  beej  to  have 
all  the  appearance  ot  boiling  ;  and  the  great- 
est part  ot  it  will  go  over  the  glass. 

Put  some  water  into  a  glass,  and  a  bit  of 
dry  wain.-cot  or  other  wood  into  the  water; 
tlien  cover  the  glass  with  a  close  receiver, 
and  exhaust  the  air  ;  upon  which  the  air  in 
the  wood,  having  liberty  to  expand  itself, 
will  come  out  plentifully,  and  make  all  the 
water  to  bubble  about  the  wood,  especially 
aboist  the  ends,  because  the  pores  lie  lengtii- 
wise.  A  cubic  inch  of  dry  wainscot  has  so 
much  air  in  it  that  it  will  continue  bubbling 
for  near  half  an  hour. 

i^et  a  large  piece  of  cork  be  suspended  by 
a  thread  at  one  end  of  a  balance,  and  coun- 
lerpobed  by  a  leaden  weight,  suspended  in 
the  same  manner,  at  the  other.  Let  this 
balance  be  hung  to  the  inside  of  the  top  of  a. 
large  receiver ;  wliieh  being  set  on  the 
pump,  and  the  air  exhausted,  the  cork  will 
preponderate,  and  shew  itself  to  be  heavier 
than  the  lead  ;  but  upon  letting  in  the  air 
again  the  equilibrium  will  be  restored.  '1  he 
reason  of  this  is,  that  since  the  air  is  a  fluid, 
aud  all  bodies  lose  as  much  of  their  alisolulc 
weight  in  it  as  is  e.pial  to  the  w  eight  of  their 
bulk  of  the  lluid,  the  cork  being  the  largrt 


1ir,il\-,  liise;  ninre  of  iU  n>al  wciftlit  ilicci  the 
Iciuf  do'-s;  and  tlicn'tbiv  imisl  in  f:ict  l)i! 
lioavi'.T,  to  InilaiKx-  il  lUuliT  tin-  (l;'..rilvanlac;<; 
ol  loMii;;  soiiu.'  of  its  wi-iglit ;  wliicli  (\\<[vl- 
viiwlagi'  b&.i'j;  talvL-ii  nil'ljv  rciiiovin,:;  I  In-  air, 
•Ihc  IxKiics  tlieii  RiMvitaLc  accorcliii;;  to  llu'ir 
n-ai  (luanlities  of  nialtcr,  and  Uk  corlv  wliicli 
balulicx-d  tliL-  lead  in  air,  siiews  iUclt"  lo  be 
l)cavicr  when  in  vacuo. 

Set  a  iiq;lilt'd  canilli;  upon  ihe  pnnip,  and 
coviM-  it  wl'lli  a  tail  rccciviM'.  Iftiit;  n-c-eivi-r 
lioldi  a  Kallon,  tlie  candU:  will  hnrn  a  mi- 
nnli-;  and  liien,  aflcr  liaving  gradnally  dc- 
(■a\rd  from  tliL-  lirst  instant,  it  will  go  out, 
wliii  11  slicwi  that  a  constant  supply  ol  I'resli 
nir  is  as  necessary  to  li-cd  llanu",  as  animal 
life. 

'I'lio  moment  when  the  candle  goes  oi:t, 
the  snioke  will  be  seen  to  ascend  to  the  top 
of  the  receiver,  and  there  it  will  form  :i  sort 
ofilotid;  but  upon  eshausting  the  air,  the 
smoke  will  fall  down  to  .tlie  Ijoltoni  of  the 
receiver,  and  leave  it  as  clear  at  the  lop  as 
it  was  before  it  was  set  upon  the  piiinp. 
This  shews  that  smoke  does  not  a^celld  on 
account  of  its  being  'positively  h^iit,  but 
because  it  is  lighter  than  air;  audits  falling 
to  the  bottom  when  the  air  is  taken  away, 
shews  that  it  is  not  dcititute  of  weis;lit. 
So  most  sorts  of  wood  ascend  or  swim  in 
water ;  and  yet  there  are  none  who  doubt  of 
t'iiewootl's  liavmg  gravity  or  weight. 

Set  a  bell  on  the  pump  |)lale,  having  a 
contrivance  so  as  to  ring  it  at  pleasure,  and 
<:over  it  with  a  receiver;  then  make  the 
clapper  strike  agiiinst  the  bell,  an<l  the  sound 
will  be  very  well  heard  ;  but  eshatist  the 
receiver  of  air,  and  then,  if  the  clapj.er  is 
made  to  strike  ever  so  hard  against  the  bell, 
it  will  make  no  sound  ;  which  shews  that 
air  is  absolutely  necessary  lor  the  propaga- 
tion of  sound. 

Of  ci)ii:lfn'!fd  air.  It  has  been  shewn, 
th;!t  air  can  be  rarelied,  or  made  to  e.xpar.d: 
we  now  proceed  to  shew  that  it  can  also  be 
condensed,  or  pressed  into  less  space  than  it 
generally  occupies.  Tiie  in-itrument  used 
for  this  purpose  is  called  a  condenser. 

l'"ig.  1-',  represents  a  machine  of  this  kind  ; 
it  consists  of  a  brass  barrel  containing  a  pis- 
ton, which  has  a  valve  opening  downwards  ; 
.so  that  as  tin-  piston  is  raised,  the  air  pas>es 
through  the  «alve;  but  as  the  piston  is  pushed 
down,  th'iair  cannot  return,  and  is  therefore 
forced  through  a  v.ilve  at  the  botloai  of  the 
barrel,  that  allows  it  to  pass  through  into  the 
receiver  B,  but  prevents  it  from  returning. 
Thtis,  at  every  stroke  of  the  piston,  more  air 
is  thrown  into  the  receiver,  wiiich  is  of  very 
thick  and  strong  glass.  l"he  receiver  is  held 
down  upon  the  plate  C  by  the  cross  piece 
D,  and  the  screws  EF.  The  air  is  let  out 
of  the  receiver  by  the  cock  G,  which  coiu- 
niunicates  with  it. 

A  great  variety  of  experiments  may  be 
performed  by  means  of  condensed  air,  a  few 
of  which  we  shall  here  enumerate. 

The  sound  of  a  bell  is  niucli  louder  in 
^condensed  than  in  common  air; 

A  phial  that  would  bear  the  pressure  of 
the  common  atmosphere,  when  the  air  is 
(e.xhausled  from  the  inside,  will  be  broken  by 
condensing  the  air  round  it. 

A  very  Ijeautiful  fountain  may  be  made 
by  condensed  air.  Procure  a  strong  copper 
"vessel,  lig.  13,  having  a  tube  that  screws 
4nlo  the  neck  of  it  so  as  to  be  air-tight,  and 


I'XEUMATICS. 

lort:^  pm'.igh  to  reach  to  near  the  lioi.lom. 
Having  poured  a  quantity  of  water  into  tf.c 
vessel,  but  not  enougli  to  till  it,  and  screwed 
ill  the  lube,  adapt  lo  it  a  conJeiwing  synnge, 
and  condense  the  air  in  the  vessel  ;  shut  the 
stop-cock,  and  unscrew  the  syringe  ;  then,  on 
opi-ning  the  stop-cock,  the  air  acting  upon 
the  water  in  the  ves,el,  will  force  it  out  Into 
a  jet  of  very  great  height.  A  number  of 
dilferent  kind's  of  jets  may  be  screwed  on  the 
tube,  sucli  as  stars,  wheels,  ic.  forming  a 
very  phrasing  appearance. 

Dr.   Hook  invented  the  gage,  or  instru- 
ment  for  measuring  the  degree  of  rarefac- 
tion, or  exhaustion,  produced  in  the  receiver, 
and  wliich  is  a  necessary   appendage  lo  the 
air-pump.      If  a  barometer  is  included  be- 
neath the  receiver,  the  mercury  will  stand  at 
the  same  height  as  in  the  open  air  ;  but  when 
the    receiver  begins  lo   be    exhausted,    the 
mercury  \Vill  descend,  ar.d  rest  at  a  lieight 
which  "  is,    ill    proj)orlioii     to     its     lo.nier 
lu-iilit,  as  the  spring  of  the  air  remaining  in 
the    rece'Ver,    to    its   spring  before  exhaus-  j 
lion.     Thus,   if  the  height  of  the  mercury,  | 
after  exhaustion,    is  the  thousandth  part  of 
what  it  was  before,  we  say  tiial  the  a:r  in  the  ! 
riH-eiver  is  rarefied  1000  times.     On  account 
of  tile  inconvenience  of  including  a  baionie- ' 
ter   in  a   receiver,  a  tube,  of  six   or   eight  ' 
inches  in  length,  is  filled  with  mercury,  and  '■ 
inveited  in  the  same  manner  as   the  baro- | 
meter.      This   being   included,   answers  the  [ 
sume  purpose,  with  no  other  dilfereuce,  than  .' 
that  tlie  mercury  does  not  begin  lo  descend  i 
till  about  three-tinirliis  of  the  air  is  exl-.aust- 
ed  ;  it   is  called  the  short    baroiiicter-gage. 
This  is  !;encrallv  placed  detached,  but  com- 
municatins  with  the  receiver  by  a  tube  con- 
cealed ill  the  frame,  as  is  represented  at  fig. 
1.     Others  place  a  tube  of  a  greater  length 
llian  the  barometer,  with  its  lower  end  in   a 
vessel  of  mercury,  expoed  to  the  pressure 
of  the   air,  while   its   upper  end  communi- 
cates with  the  receiver.     Here  the  mercury 
rises  as   the  exhaustion  proceeds,    and  the 
pressure  of   its  remaining  air    is  shewn  by 
the  difference  between  tiie  height  and  that 
of  a  barometer  in  the  room :  tliis  is  called 
the  long  barometer-gage. 

These  gages  are  not  often  constructed  so 
as  to  answer  the  purpose  of  shewing  great 
degree  s  of  exhaustion  ;  for  the  mercury, 
though  at  lirst  boiled  to  clear  it  of  the  air 
and  moisture  that  adhere  to  it,  and  render 
it  sensibly  lighter,  gradually  becomes  again 
contaniiuatcd  by  exposure  to  the  air  in  the 
bason  ol  t.-itlier  gage.  'Ihey  cannot,  there- 
fore, in  strictness,  be  compared  to  a  good 
barometer,  in  which  this  (kies  not  happen. 
If  the  tulies  of  the  gages  are  le^s  than  half  an 
inch  in  diameter,  the  mercury  will  be  sensi- 
bly re])elled  downwards,  so  as  to  recpiire  a 
correction  for  the  long  gage  when  compared 
with  a  barometer  whose  tube  is  of  a  dilfer- 
ent  bore,  and  to  render  the  short  gage  use- 
less in  great  exhaustions. 

Thus,  for  example,  if  the  short  gage  has 
a  tube  of  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
the  mercury  will  fall  to  the  level  of  the 
bai-ou,  wheii  the  exhaustion  is  liO  times,  and 
will  stand  below  the  level  for  all  greater  de- 
crees of  rarefaction.  These  difliculties  niay 
be  all  removed,  by  making  the  short  gage  in 
the  form  of  an  inverted  s\plion,  with  one  leg 
oocn,   and   the    other    hermetically   sealed. 

'  3  M  2 


It  must  be  confessed,  liow^trer,  (Iiat  it  is  dif- 
ficult lo  boll  the  nirrciiry  :ii  these. 

In  using  the  aifpump,  every  substance 
containing jiioirtiue  should  be  n moved  from 
till- pump-plate,  a  water  assumes  the  form 
of  an  elastic  vapour  when  the  pres.sure  of  the 
at.Mosphire  is  taken  awav.  'I  he  receivers 
used  tormerly  to  be  placed  upon  the  pump- 
plate,  on  leathers  soaked  in  water  or  oil ; 
but  Mr.  Nairne  discovered  that  an  elastic 
vapour  arose  from  this,  that  considerably  af- 
fected tiie  gage,  and  prevented  it  from  sfiew- 
iiig  tlie  real  degree  of  rarefaction  of  the  air. 
Instead  of  the  leathers  to  place  under  the  re- 
ceiver, the  best  w.iy  is,  to  have  the  pump- 
plate  ground  perfectly  llat,  and  also  the  edge 
of  the  receiver,  which  should  be  rubbed  with 
a  little  hog's-laiil  or  soft  pomituni,  whick 
wiil  perlectly  exclude  the  air,  and  will  not 
aiford  any  ir.oisture.  The  pump-plate  and 
the  receiver  should  be  wiped  very  clean. 

^Vhen  leathers  are  used,  the  barometer- 
gages  will  not  shew  the  degree  of  rareij'C- 
tioii  of  the  air;  which,  however,  may  be  e.-:- 
ceiiained  by  a  gage  iiiven'ed  by  Mr.  biv.ca- 
ton,  and  called,  from  its  form,  tne  pear-gage. 
It  consists  of  a  gl.-iss  vessel,  in  the  form  of 
a  pear,  lig.  11,  and  sufficient  to  hold  about 
half  a  pound  of  mercury  '■  il  is  0|;en  at  one 
end,  and  at  '.he  ether  end  is  a  lube  lierme* 
tically  closerl  at  top.  The  tube  is  graduatetl, 
so  as  lo  represent  proportionate  parts  of  tlie 
whole  capacity,  'i'his  gage,  dlir.ng  the  ex.» 
iiaustion  of  the  receiver,  is  suspended  in  it 
by  a  sii])  of  wire,  over  a  cistern  of  mercury, 
placed  also  in  the  receiver.  When  the  ])Uiiip 
is  worked  as  much  as  is  thought  necessary, 
the  gage  is  lit  down  into  the  mercury,  and. 
the  air  rc-admilted.  'I'lie  mercury  will  im- 
mediately rise  in  the  gage :  but  if  any  air 
remained  in  the  receiver,  a  certain  portion  of 
it  woiild  be  in  the  gage  ;  and  as  it  would 
occupy  the  top  of  the  tube  above  the  iiier- 
cur\ ,  il  would  sl-.ew  by  its  size  the  degi<-e 
of  exhaustion  ;  for  the  bubble  of  air  would 
be  to  the  whole  contents  of  the  gage,  as  the 
quantity  of  air  in  the  exhausted  receiver 
would  to  an  equal  volume  of  the  conimon  al- 
mospheric  air.  If  the  receiver  contdned 
any  elastic  vapour  generated  during  the 
rarefaction,  it  would  be  condensed  upon  the 
re-admission  of  the  atmospheric  air,  as  it  can- 
not ^ubsist  in  the  usual  pressure.  The  pear- 
gage,  therefore,  sliews  the  true  quantity  of 
atmospheric  air  left  in  the  receiver.  Hence 
it  will  sometimes  indicate  that  all  the  per- 
manent air  is  exhausted  from  the  receiver, 
except  about  .^^^  part,  when  the  oilier 
gages  do  not  shew  a  degree  of  eNluui.-tioa 
of  more  than  COO  limes,  and  sometimes  much 
less. 

Particular  care  should  be  taken,  after  mak- 
ing any  experiments  where  vapour  has  been 
generated,  to  clear  the  pump  of  it,  before 
any  other  experiments  are  attempted  ;  for 
the  vapour  reinaiiis  not  only  i"  the  receiver, 
but  also  in  the  tubes  and  barrels  of  the 
pump,  and  will,  when  the  air  is  again  rare- 
lied,  expand  as  before.  To  clear  the  pump 
of  this  vapour,  take  a  large  receiver,  and 
wipini;  it  very  dry,  exhaust  il  as  tar  as 
possible.  The  expansible  vapour  which  re- 
maine-d  in  the  barrels  and  the  pipes,  will  now 
be  diffused  through  the  receiver ;  and,  con- 
sequently, will  be  as  much  rarer  than  it  was 
belor'e,  as  the  aggregate  capacity  of  the  re- 


4C0 

ceiver  is  larger  Oiaii  tliat  of  the  piinip  and 
|)ip('3.  If  tiie  re;eiver  is  large,  one  exhaus- 
tion will  be  suflicient  lo  clear  the  pump  so 
(ar,  that  what  remains  can  be  of  no  conse- 
quence. If  the  receiver  is  sniall,  the  opera- 
tion should  be  repeated  two  or  three  times. 

in  all  mercurial  experiments  with  the  air- 
pump,  a  short  pipe  nuist  be  screwed  into 
the  hole  of  tiie  pump-plate,  so  as  to  rise 
above  it  about  half  an  inch,  to  prevent  the 
([uicksilver  from  i^eifing  into  the  air-pipe 
and  barrels,  in  case  anv~ should  accidentallv 
be  spilt  over  the  jar;  for  if  it  acts  into  the 
barrels,  it  spoils  tiu-m,  by  loosening  the  sold- 
er, and  corroding  the  bras«. 

With  re.spect  to  iheleathei-s,  if  your  pump- 
plate  is  not  ground,  thev  are  absolutely  ne- 
cessary ;  they  should  be  previously  soaked 
in  oil  from  which  the  moisture  bus  been  ex- 
pelled by  boilinj,  or  liog's-lard  with  a  little 
bee's-wax,  whicli  gives  a  clamminess  very 
proper  for  tlie  purpose. 

It  is  evident,  that  the  vacuum  in  the  re- 
ceiver of  the  air-pump,  can  never  be  per- 
fect, that  is,  the  air  can  never  be  entirely 
exhausted  ;  for  it  is  the  spring  of  the  aiV 
in  the  receiver,  that  raises  tlie  valve,  and 
forces  its  way  into  the  barrel ;  and  the  bar- 
rel at  each  suction  can  o:ily  take  away  a 
certain  part  of  the  remaining  air,  which  is 
in  |)roportion  to  the  quantity  before  the 
stroke,  as  the  capacity  of  the  barrel  is  to 
that  of  the  barrel  and  receiver  added  toge- 
ther. 

This,  however,   is  an  imperfection  that  is 
seldom  of  much  consequence   in   practice, 
because  most  air-pumps,  at  a  certain  period 
of  the  exhaustion,  cease  to  act,  on  account 
of    their    imperfect    construction  ;    for    the 
valves    usually  consist  of  a  piece  of  oiled 
bladder  tied  over  a  hole,   so  that  the  air  is 
at  i'.l)erty  to  pass  by  lifting   up  the  bladder, 
but  cannot  return  again  ;  and  thus  there  will 
unavoidably  be  a  small  space  left   between 
tlie  lower  valve  and  the  piston,  when  down. 
Now,  it  will  happen,  when  the  air  in  tiie 
receiver  is    very  rare,   that    its  spring   uili 
not  be  strong  enough  to  overcome  the  ad- 
hesion  of  the   bladtler   t'orming    the    lower 
valve,  which  consequently   will  remain  shut 
and    the  exhaustion  cannot   proceed.      Or, 
lK;fore  this  period,  it  may  happen,  that  the 
air  (jetween  the  valves  when  tlie  piston  is 
lip,  may  be  so  sniall  as  to  lie  in  the  space 
between  the  two  valves  when  the  piston   is 
jjov.'n,  without  being  sufficiently  condensed 
for  its  spring  to  overcome  the  adhesion  of 
the  bladder  forming  the  upper  valve,  and  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere  that  presses  it :  in 
this  case,  the  upper  valve  will  remain  shut, 
and  the  exhaustion  cannot  |)roceed. 

Various  modern  improvements  in  the  air- 
pump,  obviate  these  inconveniences  in  a 
great  degree.  Mr.  Smeaton,  a  very  iiigeni- 
(jus  mechanic,  enlarged  tlnf  size  of  the  lov,'er 
valve  ;  and,  to  strengthen  it,  supported  it  on 
a  brass  grating,  resembling  a  honey-comb. 
'Ihis  allowed  llis  valve  to  rise  more  easilv. 
He  also  covered  the  top  of  the  barrel,  mak- 
ing tlie  piston-rod  work  through  a  collar  of 
leathers,  by  which  he  took  ol'ftiie  pressure  of 
the  atmos[)here  from  the  piston-valve,  which 
acted  against  the  rarefied  air  in  the  receiver. 
Pumps  on  this  conftruction  have  been  made 
bv  Nairiic,  and  other  artists  in  London,  and 
hiive  a:jiv/erud  extremely  well. 


PNEUMATICS. 

The  cnr-;^iin.  This  pneumalical  instru- 
ment is  an  ingenious  contrivance,  which  will 
drive  a  bullet  with  great  vio'xace,  by  means 
of  condensed  air,  forced  into  an  iron  ball  by 
a  condenser.  V'ig.  14.  represenls  the  con- 
denser for  forcing  the  air  into  the  ball.  At 
the  end  a  of  this  instrument  is  a  male  screw, 
on  which  the  hollow  ball  /;  is  sc-rewed,  in 
order  to  be  hlled  with  condensed  air.  In 
the  inside  of  this  ball  is  a  valve,  to  hiiidi-r 
the  air  after  it  is  injected  from  making  its 
escape,  until  it  is  forced  opon  by  a  pin, 
against  which  the  hammer  of  tiie  lock  strikes  ; 
which  then  lets  v)ut  as  much  air  as  will  drive 
a  ball  with  considerable  force  lo  a  great 
distance. 

\Vhen  you  condense  the  air  in  the  ball, 
place  vou'r  feet  on  the  iron  cross  h  li,  to  which 
the  p'islon-rod  d  is  lixed  ;  then  lift  up  the 
barrel  ca,  by  the  h^Midles  /.  i,  until  the  enil 
of  the  piston  is  brought  between  c  and  c; 
the  barrel  a  c  will  then  be  tilled  with  air 
through  the  hole  c  Tlien  thrust  down  the 
barrel  ac  by  the  handles  ii,  until  the  piston 
e  joins  with"  the  neck  of  the  iron  ball  at  ii : 
the  air,  being  thus  condensed  between  c 
and  a,  will  force  open  the  valve  in  the  ball ; 
and  when  the  handles  i  i  are  lifted  up  again, 
the  valve  will  close,  and  keep  in  the  air ;  so 
by  ra|ii<l!y  continuing  the  stroke  up  and 
down,  the  ball  will  presently  be  tilled  ;  after 
which,  unscrew  the  ball  o;f  the  condenser, 
and  screw  it  upon  another  male  screw,  which 
is  connected  with  the  barrel,  and  goes 
through  the  stock  of  the  gun,  as  represented 
tig.  15.  Twelve  dwts.  of  air  have  betn  inject- 
ed into  a  ball  of  3  75  inches  diameter,  which 
has  discharged  15  bullets  with  considerable 
force. 

There  are  many  contrivances  in  construct- 
ing air-guns ;  sonle  have  a  small  barrel  con- 
tamed  witlini  a  large  one,  and  the  space  be- 
tween the  two  barrels  serves  for  the  reception 
of  condensed  air.  In  this  sort,  a  valve  is 
hxed  at  a,  (lig.  15,)  with  a  condenser  fixed 
to  the  barrel,  and  continued  through  the 
butt-end  to  c,  where  the  jiiston-rod  may  be 
always  left  in.  Place  your  feet  on  the  jiin, 
and  "the  whole  gun  s"erves  instead  of  the 
handles  ii  (lig.  14.)  to  condense  the  air  in 
the  barrel. 

Fig.  17.  is  a  section  of  the  gun,  by  whicli 
the  [jrinciple  of  its  action  may  be  fully  un- 
derstood:  the  inside  barrel  K."  is  of  a  small 
bore  from  which  the  bullets  are  shot,  and 
a  larger  barrel  CDSH  is  on  the  outside  of  it. 
In  the  stock  of  the  gun  is  a  syringe  S,  which 
forces  in  the  air  thiough  the  valve  El' into 
the  cavity  between  the  two  barrels.  The 
ball  K  is  "put  into  its  place  in  the  same  way 
as  in  another  gun.  'there  is  a  valve  at  SL, 
which,  being  opened  by  the  trigger  (),  per- 
mits the  air  to  come  behind  the  bullet,  so  as 
to  drive  it  out  with  great  force.  If  the 
valve  is  suddenly  o|)eiied  and  closed,  one 
charge  of  condensed  air  may  make  several 
discharges  of  bullets ;  because  only  pait  of 
the  air  will  go  out  at  a  time,  and  a  fresh  bul- 
let may   be  |)ut  into  the  place  K. 

The  magazine  air-gun  difli'rs  from  the  com- 
mon one,  only  by  having  a  serpentine  bar- 
rel, which  contains  ten  or  twelve  balls; 
these  are  brought  into  the  shooting  barrel 
successively,  by  means  of  a  lever  ;  and  they 
may  be  discharged  so  fast  as  to  be  nearly  of 
the  same  use  as  so  many  diiferciit  guns. 


Fig.  IS.  shews  a  section  of  the  gun,  or  at 
least,  as  much  of  it  as  is  necessary  lo  give  a 
complete  idea  of  the  whole.     A"K  is  part  of 
the  stock  ;  O  the  end  of  the  injection  sj  ringe, 
with  its  valve   H,  opening  into   the  cavity 
FF  between  the  barrels.     KK  is  the  smaji 
or  shooting  barrel,  wlncli  receives  the  bullet;, 
one  at  a  time,  from  the  magazine  ED,  which 
is  a  serpentine  cavity,   wliere  the  bullets  aie 
lodged  and  closed  at  the  end  D  ;  the  circu- 
lar part  is  the  key  of  a  cock,  having  a  cy- 
lindrical hole,  IK,"  through  it,   etiual  to  the 
bore  of  the  small  barn  1,  and  forming  a  part 
of  it.    When  the  lock  is  ta;^en  off,  the  several 
parts  come  in  view,  by  ii:eans  ol  which  the 
disdiarge  is  made,    by  pushing  up  the  j^in 
?  p,  which  rises  and  oj>ens  a  valve,  V,  to  let 
ill  the  air  against  the  bullet  1,  from  the  ca- 
vity   FF,  winch  vake  is  immediately  shut 
down  again  bv  means  of  a  long  spring   of 
brass,  IsN.     This  valve  \',  being  a  conical 
piece  of  bri',ss,  ground  very  true,  ttill  be  suf- 
ficient to  confine  the  air.     To  make  a  dis- 
charge, pull  the  trigger  ZZ,  which  throws  ii)) 
the  seer  tj  x,  and  disengages  it  from  the  notcfi 
x,  upon  which  the  strong  spring  \V\V  movis 
the  tumbler  T,  to  which  the  cock   is  fixed. 
The  end  ii.  of  this  tumbler,   bears  down  the 
end  V  of  the  tumbling  lever  11,  which  by  iis 
other  end  iii  raises  the  flat  end,  /,  of  the  ho- 
rizontal  lever  Q,  by  which  means  the  p:u 
P  /)  is  pushed  up,  aiid  opening  the  valve  V  , 
discharges   the   bullet.      'lo  bring   another 
bullet  instantly  to  succeed  to  I,  there  is  a 
part  II  called  the  hammer,  represented   in 
lig.  Ii).  which  turns  the  cock  so  as  to  place- 
the  cylindric  bore  of  the  key   I  k  hi  any  si- 
tuation reiiuired.     '^I'hus  when  the  bullet  is 
in   the   gun,  the  bore  of  the  key  coincides, 
with  that  of  the  barrel  KK  ;  but  when  it  is 
discharged,    the    hammer     II    is    instantly 
brought  down  to  shut  the  pan  of  the  gun  ; 
by  which  motion  the  bore  o;  the  key  is  turn- 
ed into  tlie  situation  il:,  so  as  to  coincu',.,' 
with  liic- orifice  of  tiie  magazij.e;  iiiid  upoii 
lifting  the   gun    upriglit,  the  ball   next   tl:e 
key  tumbles  into 'its^cavily,  and  falling  be- 
hind two  small  springs  i- s  tig.  18.  is  by  tlieiu 
detained. 

American  uii-jnimp.  It  would  not  come 
within  the  limits  of  this  work,  to  enumerate 
all  the  improvements,  and  diliereiit  inod.-i 
of  construction,  used  in  this  instrumei.t. 
'the  latest  are  tiie  air-pumps  made  by  Haas 
and  Ilurter,  Cuthbertson,  and  Prince,  each 
of  which  has  particular  advantages. 

We  shall  however  give  a  perspective  view  of 
the  air-pump  invented  by  Mr.  Cuthbertson, 
which  IS  so  excelU'iit  in  "its  structure,  and  so 
powerful  in  its  cfl'ects,  as  to  demand  in  the 
present  improved  state  of  science,  a  particular 
notice  and  description.  See  Plate  11.  Pneu- 
matics, Cuthberisons  air-pump.  The  two 
princijial  gages  of  this  pump  are  screwed 
in  their  places ;  but  il  is  not  necessary  that 
these  should  be  used  together,  except  in 
experiments  that  reepiire  great  nicety,  and 
verv  exact  exhaustion.  In  common  cases 
eith'er  of  them  may  lie  taken  away,  and  a 
stop-screw  put  into  its  place.  \Vlien  the 
peav-gace,  which  has  been  already  ilescrib- 
ed,  i>"used,  a  small  round  plate,  laige  enough 
for  the  receiver  to  stand  upon,  must  firsl  be 
screwed  into  a  hole  at  a,  bA  when  this  gage 
is  not  used  this  hole  must  be  closed  with  a 
siop-sciew.    When  all  these  gages  are  used, 


JP  NJK  U  MAT  ;[  V  .i. 


JiihlirhtrJ  Xrr'  ,1  j^iH!  /n-  H  PhilAfu  Jlrr,/.i.-  .itm-f  /tLiHlWarf  l.^iu^vi 


and  the  receiver  U  exliai)?k'<l,  tlie  stop- 
scruw  B,  at  tht;  lioUom  of  (In;  ]nnii|),  must 
be  Uiiscn.'wed,  lo  admit  tin;  air  iiilo  llu;  re- 
<  fiver ;  but  wlicn  the  fj;;igcs  are  not  all  iiseil, 

I  he  st()|)-.screw  alrt,  or  either  of'llie  others  in 
the  place  ol  gases,  may  be  unscrewed  for 
this  [jurpijse.  '1  lie  mecliaiii-iii  and  ol)jeet  of 
the  barrels  i),  D,  the  racks  C,  C,  the  plate 
1 1,  a;id  handle  11,  will  be  easily  iindc-rstood 
troiii  the  ligiire.  CD  lig.  L'.  represents  a  sec- 
tion of  one  of  the  barrels  of  tlie  pump,  !■' the 
<:)llar  of  leathers  which  re.iders  it  air-tiaht, 
(i  a  hollow  cylindrical  vessel  to  contain  oil  ; 
K  is  also  an  oil-vessel,  wliieh  receives  tlie 
o'l  that  is  driven  with  air  throiifi;h  the  hole 
(I  7,  when  the  piston  is  drawn  ii|)war(ls;  and 
when  this  falls,  llie  oil  is  carried  over  with  the 
air  along  the  tube  '1',  into  the  oil-vessel  G  r 
c  c  is  a  wire  which  is  driven  upwards  from 
the  hole  a  a  by  the  passage  of  tlu:  air ;  and 
as  soon  as  this  is  escaped,  falls  down  again 
by  its  own  weight,  shuts  up  the  hole,  and 
prevents  any  air  fioiii  returning  bv  that  way 
into  the  barrel  ;  at  d  d  are  li\ed  two  pieces 
of  brass,  to  keep  the  wire  c  c  in  stieh  a  direc- 
tion as  may  preserve  the  hole  air-tiglit.  11 
is  a  cyliadricd  wire,  which  carries  the  ])i^ton 
J,  and  is  made  hollow  to  receive  a  long  wire 
(/  f/,  that  opens  and  closes  the  hole  L,  which 
forms  the  comuiunicatiou  with  the  receiver 
standing  on  the  plate  :  m  is  jjart  of  a  pipe, 
one  end  of  which  is  screwed  into  tlie  wire 
(/ 1],  that  opens  and  shuts  the  hole  L ;  and 
upon  the  other  end  O,  is  screwed  a  nut, 
« iiich,  stopping  in  the  smaller  part  of  the 
hole,  prevents  tlie  wire  from  being  li,ted  too 
high.  This  wire  and  screw  are  more  clearlv 
Seen  in  lig.  3.  ;  they  slide  through  a  collar 
of  leathers  rr  (see  figs.  3  and  j,)  in  the 
middle  of  the  piston.  Figures  5  and  ti,  are 
the  two  main  [larts  which  compose  the  pis- 
ton ;  and  when  the  pieces  in  ligs.  7  and  4 
are  added  to  it,  the  whole  is  represented  in 
tig.  3.  I''ig'.ire  j  is  a  piece  of  brass,  turned 
ill  a  conical  form,  with  a  shoulder  or  ledge  at 
the  bottom  ;  a  lung  female  screw  is  cut  into 
it,  about  two-thirds  of  its  lengtli  ;  and  the 
remaining  part  of  the  hole,  in  which  there 
is  no  screw,  is  about  the  same-sized  diame- 
ter as  the  screw  p.u't ;  except  a  liiin  plate  at 
tiie  Q\\<\,  \yliicli  is  of  a  breadth  exactly 
pi|ual  to  the  thickness  of  (^  .7  lig.  '2.  That 
part  of  the  inside  of  the  conical  piece  of 
brass,  in  which  no  thread  is  cut,  is  iilled  with 
oiled  leathers  with  holes  in  them,  through 
u  hi(di :/  q  can  slide  air-tight  ;  there  is  also  a 
male  screw  with  a  hole  in  it  which  is  ritted  to 

II  '/,  and  serves  to  press  down  the  leathers 
>■  r.  In  lig.  6,  aaaa  is  the  outside  of  the 
|Ji^ton,  the  inside  of  which  is  turned  exactly 
to  lit  the  outside  of  fig.  5  ;  b  b  are  rounS 
leathers,  c  c  is  a  circular  plate  of  brass  of 
the  size  of  the  leathers,  and  dd'n  a  screw 
which  serves  to  press  them  down  as  tight  as 
it  is  necessary.  Tiie  male  screw  at  the  end 
of  (ig.  7,  is  made  to  lit  the  screw  in  hg.  5. 
If  lig.  4.  is  put  into  lig.  5,  and  that  again 
into  lig.  6,  and  fig.  7  screwed  into  the  end 
of  lig.  5,  these  will  compose  the  whole  pis- 
ton as  represented  by  lig.  3.     II  in  fig.  2,  is 

•  that  part  to  which  the  rack  is  fixed.  If  this, 
tiierefore,  is  drawn  upwards,  it  will  make 
lig.  5  shut  close  to  lig.  ti,  and  drive  out  the 
a!r  above  it ;  and  when  it  is  pushed  down- 
wards, it  will  open  as  far  as  the  shoulders  a  a 
will  allow,  and  suiter  the  air  to  pass  througli. 
Ai\  fig,  8.  i£  the  receiver-plute  ;  B  is  a  long 


PNEUMATICS, 

s-]iiare  piece  of  glass  screwed  to  the  under- 
most side  of  the  plate,  through  which  a  hole 
is  drilled,  corresponding  with  that  in  the 
centre  of  the  receiver-plale,  and  with  the 
three  female  screws  /;  />  c. 

To  conceive  how  the  rarefaction  of  the  air 
is  ellected,  siijjpose  the  piston  to  be  at  the 
bottom  of  the  ijarri'l,  and  a  receiver  to  stand 
upon  the  phite  ;  the  inside  of  the  barrel  from 
the  top  of  the  piston  to  11  is  full  of  air,  and 
the  piston  shut:  when  drawn  upwards,  by 
the  cylindrical  wire  It,  it  will  drive  the  air 
before  it  through  the  liole  a  a  into  the  oil- 
vessel  U,  and  (Hit  into  the  atmosiihere  by 
the  tube  T.  The  piston  will  then  be  at  the 
top  of  the  barrel  at  a,  and  the  wire  /j  7  will 
stiiiid  nearly  as  it  is  represented  in  the 
lig>;re,  just  raised  from  the  tube  L,  and  pre- 
vented from  ri>i.ig  higher  by  nieans  of  the  nut 
o.  While  the  piston  is  moved  upwards,  the 
air  will  expand  in  the  receiver,  and  be  driven 
along  the  bent  tube  m  into  the  iii-ide  of  tlie 
barrel.  Titus  tlie  barrel  will  be  lliled  w^itli 
air,  which,  as  the  piston  rises,  w  ill  be  rare- 
lied  in  j)roportion  as  the  capacity  of  the  re- 
ceiver, pipe's,  and  barrel,  is  to  the  capacity 
of  the  barrel  alone.  When  the  piston  is 
moved  downwards  again  by  11,  it  will  force 
the  conical  part  fig.  3,  out  of  the  hollow 
part  fig.  6,  as  far  as  the  shoulders  tia. ;  fig. 
3.  will  rest  upon  a  a,  fig.  fi,  which  will  then 
be  so  far  open  as  to  permit  the  air  to  pass 
freely  through  it,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
end  7  7  is  forced  against  the  top  of  the  hole, 
and  closes  it  in  order  to  prevent  any  air 
from  returning  into  the  receiver.  Thus  the 
|)istoii,  while  moved  downwards,  suffers  the 
air  to  pass  out  between  the  figs.  6  and  5, 
and  when  it  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  barrel, 
will  have  the  column  of  the  air  above  it ; 
and,  consecpiently,  when  drawn  upwards,  it 
will  shut  and  drive  out  this  air,  ami  by  open- 
ing the  hole  L,  give  a  free  passage  to  more 
air  from  the  receiver.  This  process  being 
continued,  the  air  will  be  exiuustcd  out  of  the 
receiver  as  far  as  the  expansive  power  will 
permit :  for  in  this  instrument  there  are  no 
valves,  as  in  conrinon  air-pumps,  to  be  forced 
open  by  the  air  in  the  receiver,  which,  when 
its  ehsticitv  is  dhniirbhed,  it  becomes  unabie 
to  effect ;  nor  is  there  any  thing  to  prevent 
the  air  from  expanding  to  the  greatest  de- 
gree. 

The  oil-vessel  G,  fig.  2,  must  be  always 
kept  about  halt-full  of  oil ;  and  when  it  has 
stijod  long  without  using,  it  will  be  right  to 
draw  a  table-spoonful  or  more  through  il,  by 
pouring  it  into  the  hole  a,  in  the  middle  of 
the  receiver-plate,  fig.  I.  when  the  piston  is 
at  the  bottom  of  the  barrel;  then  by  moving 
the  winch  H  backwards  and  forwards,  the 
oil  will  be  drawn  through  all  the  parts  of 
the  machine^  and  the  supcrl'uous  part  will 
be  forced  out  through  the  tube  T,  into  the 
oil-vessel  G.  Near  the  top  of  tlie  cylindri- 
cal wire  H,  fig.  -,  is  a  square  hole,  which  is 
intended  to  let  in  some  of  the  oil  from  the 
vessel  G,  tliat  the  oiled  leathers,  through 
which  the  wire  77  slides,  may  always  be 
duly  supplied  with  it.  Fig.  9-  is  a  repre- 
sentation of  a  condensing  -  apparatus  u^ed 
w;tli  this  pump. 

Mr.  Cuthbertson  has  by  many  experiments 
shewn  the  great  powers  of  exhaustion  of 
which    this  pump    is    capable.      Vi'ith    the 


k6\ 

double  syphon-gage,  and  also  with  the  long 
gage,  compared  witli  an  attached  barometer 
111  wliich  the  mercury  has  been  well  boiled, 
the  dilference  between  the  heiglils  of  the 
mercurial  column  |)roved  no  more  than  ^'jy 
of  an  inch:  thi:  b.irometer  staiicling  at  .!<) 
inclies,  which  is  an  exhaustion  of  I2U0  times ; 
and  on  some  occasioni,  wiien  the  air  w;rs 
very  dry,  he  observed  the  dilliMence  to  be 
as  low  as  —yj.-of  an  inch,  which  gives  nwrc 
than  double  tnat  degree  01  rarefaction. 

A\'e  must  not  omit  the  American  air-pump, 
invented  by  Mi'.  I'mice,  wli:)  fust  loiik  av.ay 
the  valves,  wliicii  v,  1  re  long  known  to  pre- 
vent the  air  from  iiiterir.g  the  barrel  above 
the  piston.     His  next  attempt  was  to  expi  I 
the  air  more  ]>erfeclly  out  of  the  barrel  Ihaii- 
Mr.  Smeaton  had  done,  by  making  a  belter 
vacuum  between    tlie    piston  and    the   top 
plate,  so  that  more  of  the  air  might  be  al- 
lowed to  expand  itself  into  the  barrel  from 
the  receiver.     .\lr.  Prince  also  contrived  to 
connect  the  valves  on  the  top  [ilate  with  the 
receiver  occasionally  by  meaiii  of  a  pipe  and 
cock,  by  tlve  turning  of  wliicii  the  machine 
might   be  made  to  exhaust  or  condense  at 
pleasure.     In  order  to  remove  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  from  the  valve  on  the  top 
plate,  so  that  this  valve  might  open  as  easily 
as  the  piston-valve,  he  connected  with  the 
duct  on  the  bottom  piece,  which  conveys  the 
air  from  the  valves   to   the  cock,    a   small 
pump  of  the  same  construction  as  the  large 
one,  having  the  barrel  opening  into  the  cis-. 
tern  ;  the  pist  ,n-rod,  wiiich  is  solid,  moving 
through  a  c  illar  of  leathers,  and  a  valve  near 
the  toj),  through  which  tiie  air  is  forced  into 
the  atiiios))here.    This  pump  with  one  barrel 
is  called  the  valvc-ptimp  ;  its  chief  use  being 
to  rarefy  the  air  above  the  valves,  or  to  re- 
move  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  from 
them.     AVhen  this  valve-pump  is  used,  the 
passage  through   the  cock   is  shut  up;   and, 
therefore,   instead  of  placing    three    dtuts 
at  equal   d:st:mces   round  the  cock  in   the 
manner  of  Mr.  Smeaton's,  Mr.  Prince  divid- 
ed the  whole  into  t\ve  equal  ])arts,  leaving 
live  distance  of  one-fifth  part   between  the 
ducts  leading  from  the  cistern  and  valves  to 
tlie   cock,  and  two-fifths   between    each   of 
these  and  the  one  leading  from  the  cock  to 
the  receiver.     Ry  this  adjustment,  when  the 
communication  is  open  between  the  receiver 
and  the  valves  for   condensation,  the  other 
hole  through  the  cock -opens  the  cistern  to 
the  atmosphere ;  but  when  the  communica- 
tion is  made  between   the  cisterns   and  the 
receiver  lor  exhaustion,  a  solid  part  of  th.e 
key  comes  agtiinst  the  duct  leading  to  the 
valve  and  shuts  it   up,  and  the  air  which  is 
forced  out  of  the  barrel,  passes  through  tl;e 
atmosphere  into    the   valve-pump  ;    for  the 
valve  of  the  small  pump  m;iy  be  kept  open 
while  the  great  one  is  worked. 

Upon  this  construction,  the  pump  with  twa 
barrels  may  be  made  like  the  common  prmip, 
which  cannot  be  conveniently  clone  where  tiie 
lower  valve  is  retained.  In  this  pump,  the 
pistons  do  not  move  the  whole  lenglh  of  the 
barrels;  an  horizontiil  section  being  made  in 
them  a  little  more  Hum  half-way  from  the 
bottom,  where  the  top  plates  are  insertet!. 
The  pump  is  thus  made  more  convenient  and 
simple  ;  as  the  head  of  it  is  brought  down 
upon  the  top  of  the  barrels,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  in  the  common  air-pump.    1  he  barrels 


452 


p  N  :•: 


alio  stand  upon  the  sanip  plane  with  the  re- 
c-iver-plate,  and  this  p'ane  is  raised  high 
enough  to  admit  the  conunon  gage  of  3'i  or 
33  inehci  to  stand  under  it  wiliiout  incon- 
venience in  working  the  pump  ;  as  the  winch 
moves  through  a  less  porlion  of  an  arch  at 
each  stroke,  than  it  would  do  if  the  pistons 
moved  through  the  whole  length  of  the  bar- 
rels. 

A  g.;ge  for  measuring  the  (fcgree  of  con- 
densation, having  a  free  communication  witii 
the  valves,  cock,  &c.  is  placed  between  thf 
barrels   in  this  pump;   and  the  gage  is  so 
constructed  that  it  will  al.^o  serve  to  measure 
the  ruri-f.iction  above  the  valves  when  the  air 
is  worked  ufC  by  the  valve-pump.     It  consists 
of  a  prdestal,  the  die  of  which   is  made  of 
glass,  which  forjiis  a  cistern  for  the  mercury  ; 
a  hollow  brass  pillar;  and  glass  tube  herme'li- 
cally  sealed    at  one  eiu\,    which  moves  up 
and  down  in  the  pillar  through  a  collar  of 
leathers.     Wlien  the  pump  is  u>ed  as  a  con- 
denser, the  degree  of  condensation  is  shewn 
by  a  scale  nrarked  on  one  edj;e  of  the  pillar; 
when  it  is  used  as  an  e.^hauster,  the  degree  of 
rarefaction  of  the  air   above  the  valves,  is 
shewn  by  a  scale  on  tiie  other  edge  of  the 
pillar,     ''rhis  gage  will  also  shew,  when  the 
valves   have  done    playing,   either  with  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere  "on  thenj  or  taken 
olf,  in  the  manner  which  the  author  has  de- 
scribed.    The  degree   of  condensation  may 
be  also  measured  by  the  number  of  strokes 
of  the  winch.    For  the  purposes  of  great  con- 
densation, iMr.  Prince  has  ,'itted  a  condenser 
of  a  smaller  bore  than  the  barrel  of  the  great 
pump  to  the  cistern  of  the  valve-pump,  to  be 
screwed  on  occasionallv.     Or,  \sithout  this 
condenser,  the  valve-pump  may  be  adapted 
to  the  purpose  by  being  made  a  little  larger, 
ami  byliavinga  plate  made  to  screw  into  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder,  with  a  valve  on  it 
opening  into  the  cistern;  a  hole  must  be 
made  to  be  oi)ened  on  the  same  occasion 
near  the  top  ol  the  cylinder,  to  let  air  in  be- 
low the  piston  when'this  is  drawn  up  above 
it. 

The  coninnn  gage,  wliich  is  generally 
placed  under  the  receiver-plate,  is  placed  iii 
the  front  of  this  piunp,  that  it  may  be  seen  by 
the  person  who  work>  it,  and  tliat  the  ]date 
may  be  left  free  for  other  uses.  The  plate  is 
.so  h.Kcd  to  the  pipe  leading  to  the  cock,  that 
it  may  be  taken  off  at  pleasure,  ami  used  as 
a  transferer  ;  and  it  may  also  serve  for  other 
purposes. 

The  head  of  this  pump  is  made  whole,  ex- 
cept a  small  piece  on  the  back,  where  the 
w-heifl  is  let  in ;  and  the  wlieel  is  freed  from 
the  piston-rods  by  pu  hing  it  into  the  back 
part  of  the  head,  and  it  is  kepi  in  its  place  by 
H  button  screwed  into  the  socket  of  the  a\is 
behind.  ]>y  tliis  apparatus,  the  piston-rods 
are  dislodged  from  the  wheel,  and  let  d  )wn 
into  the  cist.-'rns,  when  the  putnp  is  not  u^ed; 
and  in  tlutse  cisterns  thev  niav  also  havi-  tin' 
a'lvaiitage  of  being  covered  with  oil.  The  j 
principal  joints  of  this  pump  are  smik  into  ; 
sockets,  that  tiie  le.ithers  which  close  thi-m  i 
may  be  covered  witli  oil  to  prevent  leaking. 
'J"he  lower  part  of  the  putnp  is  lilted  witli 
drawers  to  contain  tlie  necessary  apparatus. 

We  shall  close  our  account  of  the  two 
pumps  of  Prince  an. I  Cuthberfson,  with  the 
•olloviing  juflicious  remarks  of  .Mr.  .Nicholson 
oij  their  respective  merits  and  imperfi-ctions  : 
"  There  ii>  no  provision  to  open  the  iii)ptr 


V  N  E 

fixed  valve  of  Prince's  greater  barrel,  except 
the  difl'erirRce  between  the  pressures  of  Ine 
elastic  iluid  on  each  side  of  tlje  strip  of  blaii- 
der;  and  this  may  reasonably  be  interred  to 
I  limit  tJie  power  oi  his  sniiill  pump.  ]ii  Cuth- 
I  bertson'spump,  the  iaine  valve  is  exposed  to 
j  the  action  uf  the  atmosphere,  together  with 
I  that  of  a  column  of  oil  in  the  oil-vessel.  Tlie 
mischief  in  litiier  instrument  is  ]n<>bably  tri- 
fling, but  iu  both  the  valve  might  have  been 
opened  niechaiiically.  If  this  were  done,  the 
small  pump  ot  Prince  might,  perhaps,  be  un- 
iK  cessary  in  most  states  of  the  atuiospliere. 
With  regard  to  the  lower  valves,  Cuthbertson, 
by  an  admirable  display  of  talejits  as  a  work- 
man, has  ensured  their  action.  Prince,  cm 
the  other  hand,  has,  by  the  process  of  reason- 
ing, so  far  improved  the  instrument,  that  no 
valves  are  wanted.  In  this  rcsjiect,  he  has 
the  advantage  of  sim|)lici'v  and  cheapni  ss 
with  e<|ual  eflect.  The  mechanical  combi- 
nation of  Cutlibertson's  pump,  reduces  the 
Ojieiation  to  one  simple  act  of  the  handle ; 
but  Prince's  engine  requires  some  manipula- 
tion with  regard  to  the  play  of  the  small 
pump,  though  this  might  have  been  remedied 
b}'  a  more  skilful  disposition  of  the  iirst 
mover. 

"  The  most  perfect  scheme  for  an  air- 
pump,  taking  advantage  of  the  laljours  of 
these  judicious  operators,  seems  to  be  that  in 
which  two  pistons  of  the  construction  of 
Prince  should  work  in  one  barrel,  one  piston 
being  fixed  at  the  lower  e'nd  of  the  rod,  and 
the  other  at  the  middle.  The  lower  piston 
must  come  clear  out  ot  the  barrel  w  hen  down, 
and  work  air- tight  through  a  diaphragm  at  an 
equal  distance  from  the  elTective  ends  of  the 
barrel.  In  the  diaphragm  must  be  a  metallic 
valve  of  the  fnrmoi  Cutlibertson's  low  cr  valve, 
but  with  a  siiort  tail  beneath,  that  it  may  be 
mechanically  opened  when  the  piston  conies 
up.  Above  the  diaphragm  mu.t  woik  the 
other  piston,  similar  to  riie  first ;  but  as  it 
cannot  tp-t  the  barrel  when  down,  a  small 
portion  of  the  barrel  must  be  enlarged  just 
above  the  diaphragm,  so  that  the  leathers 
may  be  clear  in  that  position.  Lastly,  the 
top  of  the  barrel  must  be  closed  andfitted 
with  a  valve  and  cil-vessel,  according  to  the 
excelli-iit  contrivance  of  Cuthbertson. 

"  It  wc  suppose  the  workmanship  of  such  a 
pump  to  leave  the  space  between  the  dia- 
phragm and  lower  piston,  when  up,  equal  to 
o:ie-thousandlli  |iart  of  the  space  passed 
through  by  the  stroke  of  tliat  piston,  the 
rari'faclion  produced  by  this  part  of  the  en- 
gine will,  in  theory,  bear  the  same  proportion 
to  that  of  the  external  air;  and  the  same 
supposition  applied  to  the  upper  piston, 
would  increase  the  el'ii-ct  one  thousanil  times 
more  ;  whence  the  rarefaction  would  be  one 
million  times.  How  far  tlie  practical  effect 
mighl  fall  short  of  this,  from  the  imperfection 
of  workniaiiship,  or  the  nature  of  the  air, 
wdjicli,  ill  high  raref.iitions,  may  not  difliise 
i^--lf  e,|ually  through  the  containing  spaces,  or 
from  other,  yet  imobsi.-rved  circumstances, 
cannot  be  deihic;ed  from  mere  reasoning,  with- 
out experiment. 

PNRlJ.VlOlt.V,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the 
order  hemiptera.  The  generic  character  is, 
body  ovale,  inflated,  diaplianous;  head  in- 
llected,  armed  with  jaws ;  thorax  convex, 
carinate  beni'ath  ;  wing-cases  dellected,  mem- 
branaceoiis :  legs  formed  for  running.  The 
insects  of  this  genus  appear  to  consist  of  a 


r  <)  1) 

'  iiverc  hollow  inflated  membrane.  By  rubbini; 
together  their  toothed  h'gs,  they  make  a  shri'l 
kind  of  noise  morning  and  evi-ning,  and  fol- 
low a  light.  They  are  so  neariy  allied  to  the 
cricket  tribe,  tli.it  Fabricius  has  einnnerat<-(| 
tliem  under  the  genus  giyllus.  There  are 
three  s[)ecies. 

POA,  meado-.v-^rnsa,  a  genus  of  t)ie  digy- 
nia  order,  in  the  penlandna  class  of  plants, 
aiKl  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
(ourth  order,  grainina.  'I  he  calyx  is  bivalved 
and  niultilioious;  ihe  spicula  or  partial  spike 
is  ovate.with  the  valvules  scarious,  and  a  little 
sharp  or  thin  on  the  margin.  There  are  71 
species,  most  of  them  grasses,  and  very  agree- 
able lood  for  cattle;  tor  one  species,  which 
grows  in  marshes,  the  cattle  will  frequeiitlv 
go  so  deep  as  to  endanger  their  lives.  This 
IS  called  tlie  acpiatica,  or  water  reed-grass.  It 
is  the  largest  of  the  British  grasses,  growing  to 
the  height  of  five  or  six  feet.  The  leaves  are 
smootii,  and  Iiali  an  inch  wide  or  more.  The 
pani(  le  is  eiglit  or  ten  inches  long,  greatly 
branched,  and  decked  with  numerous  sp-cula  ; 
these  are  of  a  reddish  brown  colour  inter- 
mixed with  green,  of  a  compressed  lanceolate 
form,  imbricated  with  about  six  tlowers  f.)r 
the  most  part,  but  varying  from  live  to  ten. 
See  IlvsB.v.VDUY,  and'  Plates  LXVIII.  and 
LXIX. 

POCKKT,  in  the  wopllen  trade,  a  word 
used  to  denote  a  larger  sort  of  bag,  in  which 
w  ool  is  [lacked  up  to  be  sent  from  one  part 
of  the  kingtlom  to  another.  The  |)ocket  con- 
tains usually  twenty-live  hundredweight  of 
wool.  The  pocket  of  hops  is  also  a  small 
bag  usually  containing  the  best  hops. 

I'ocKhT-insti'ununts,  in  surgery.  See  Ix- 
sTRUMi-;.vr. 

PODOPHYLLUM,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  in  the  polyaiulria  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  metho:!  ranking 
under  the  i-'7lh  order  rhxa-dea'.  The  corolla 
has  nine  petals;  the  calyx  is  tiiphytlous;  tlie 
berry  unilocular,  crowned  with  the  stigma. 
There  are  two  species,  creeping  plants  of 
North  America. 

PODUHA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
aptcra.  'I'lie  generic  character  is,  legs  six, 
forme<l  for  running  ;  eves  two,  composed  of 
eight:  tail  forked,  foinied  for  leaping,  in- 
flected; antenna' setaceous,  elongated.  The 
podura-  are  small  insects  which,  in  general, 
are  found  in  damp  places,  under  stones,  on 
the  bark  of  trees,  iVc.  Wlu.'n  disturbed,  they 
suddenly  spring  to  a  small  distance  by  the 
help  of  a  long,  forked  process,  which  is 
doubled  under  the  alxlomcn,  and  which  is 
suddenly  thrown  out  during  the  act  of  leap- 
ing. 

One  of  the  nn-t  common  of  this  genus  is 
the  podura  aquatica  of  Liimanis,  measuring 
scarcely  tlie  tweltlii  part  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  entirely  of  a  black  ci.>lour.  This  a  gre- 
garious species,  and  is  occasionally  seen  as- 
semliled  in  vast  numbers,  particularly  near 
the  brinks  of  ponds,  <-overiiig  tlie  ground  to 
the  distance  of  several  feet,  and  sometimes 
even  the  surface  of  tiie  water  itself.  On  the 
ground  its  legions,  on  a  cursory  view,  have 
the  appearance  of  scattere.l  grains  of  gun-, 
powder ;  and,  if  closely  examined,  will  be 
fiiuiid  in  an  almost  continual  skipping  mo- 
tion. 

Podura  fiinetaria  so  perfectly  resembles  the 
pri'cediiig  in  all  respects  except  colour,  be- 
ing perfectly  white,   that  no  other  specific 


.;P  N  E  V  M  A  T  I  V  .^ 


VL.ir. 


('///////r//s/>//.'v      . ///'       J'ujiifi 


!^;:if*>:  --(  r  T'iicJijtCfl  I'lullips  JKr«   £nd^f  .ftrtrl  JUatJci'mir^ 


-*fl 


r  o  E 

difference  ran  be  observed.  It  is  almost 
eqnally  conuiiuii  in  clanij)  siUiations  witii  the 
former. 

Podura  atra  is  of  a  short,  suI)!^lobular 
%!iapc,  with  Icngtheni-d  anlcujia- :  ils  coIdiu- 
is  a  glossy  black.  It  is  found  on  the  bark  of 
trees,  &c. 

I'oclnra  plnmbea  is  of  a  bUioisli  blarU  or 
deep  Icad-coloiM-,  and  is  found  in  simil.ir 
situations. 

I'odura  arborea  is  of  a  len^tliened  form, 
and  of  a  black  colour,  with  the  feet  and  cm- 
dal  fork  white.  It  is  cliic-lly  lound  on  the 
l);irk  of  trees,  anion^  mosses,  Stc.  'I'here  are 
1 4  species. 

rOKM.     See  Poetrv. 

I'Ol'.lHY  is  that  kind  of  literary  com- 
p  )sition  whicli  is  characterised  by  metrical 
harmony.  Various  liave  been  the  attributes 
nnd  pretLMisions  assigned  to  poetry.  I'y  some 
i'l  has  been  made  to  consist  in  lid  ion,  by  others 
in  imitation.  By  one  critic  it  has  been  ela- 
borately designated  as  "tlieart  of  illustrating 
in  metrical  numbers  every  being  in  nature, 
and  every  object  of  imagination,  for  tlie  de- 
light and  nnproveineut  of  mankind."  JSy  a 
more  judicious  writer  it  is  assumed  to  be  "  the 
language  of  passion,  or  of  enlivened  imagi- 
nation, formed  most  commonly  into  regular 
numbers;"  and  this  delinition,  thougli  not 
perfectly  correct,  is,  perluips,  less  cxception- 
a!)le  than  any  other  wiiich  has  beeusub- 
uult('d  to  investigation. 

I'oetrv  is  commonly  called  an  art,  yet  is 
not  uufreijuently  classed  with  tiie  sciences  ;  a 
dignity  perpetuated  to  it  by  traditional  au- 
thoritv,  from  the  early  ages,  wlien  the  bard 
was  a  ijersoiKige  sacred  as  the  priest,  ajid  all 
tlie  knowledge  or  the  wisdom  extant  was  en- 
veloped in  fable,  or  unfolded  in  numbers. 

In  the  progress  of  society  from  barbarism 
to  relinement,  it  was  impossible  tliat  the  ana- 
logies subsisting  between  certain  operations 
of  intellect  should  be  overlooked  ;  and  the 
mytlio'iogy  of  Greece,  wliich  embodied  even 
the  ab-tractions  of  science,  gave  tt)  these  me- 
laplivsieal  relations  a  personal  character  cor- 
responduig  with  the  sunpathies  and  depend- 
ances  of  domestic  lue.  In  these  jjopular 
personifications,  a  remarkablepredilection  ap- 
pears for  the  trij)U:  numbers.  'I'he  Parcav 
the  Furies,  the  Graces,,  and  originally  tlie 
nuises,  were  composed  of  si.^lerly  triaiK.  In 
like  manni-r,.  uiusic,  poetry ,  and  painting,  from 
the  intimate  connection  observed  between  the 
tv,o  first  of  these  arts,  and  tlieir  supposed  alii- 
iiity  to  the  last,  were  united  in  the  same  bond 
of  union;  and  the  legitimacy  of  the  relation 
on  which  this  elegant  allegory  was  founded,  is 
vet  recognized  in  popular  language  as  an  un- 
eciuivocal  and  undisputed  Irulli. 

Of  these  kindred  arts,  mu-ic  and  poetry 
issued  from  the  same  woods,  cherihed  and 
respected  by  the  rudest  and  most  uncultivated 
generations  of  men.  'i'he  metre  ot  poetn'  is 
evidently  borrowed  from  tbe  simple  meloUies 
of  music;  and  it  may  be  presumed,  was  pro- 
duced in  the  (irst  eitbrts  to  combine  vocal 
with  instrumental  sounds.  The  ambition  of 
the  i)riiuiti»c  poet  must  have  been  limited  to 
that  artiticial  modulation  of  language  which 
is  now  considered  as  the  least  and  lowest  of 
poetical  attaiunieiits,  but  which  uiupicstion- 
ably  forms  a  radical  part  in  the  constitution  of 
poetry.  The  origin  of  painting  is  not  equally 
remote.  Manv  subordinate  arts,  concomitant 
vtilh  the  progress  of  civilization,  mu^t  have 


P  O  E 

previously  existed  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that 
poetry  insi)ired  enthusiasm  and  veneration, 
not  only  in  the  ferocious  tribes  of  Scandinavia, 
but  in  the  Hebrews  and  the  .\rabs,  to  w-honi 
the  delineation  of  the  human  form  was  an  art 
proscril)ed  by  legislative  authorilv,  or  con- 
temned by  national  prejudice.  'I'he  first  spe- 
cimens of  poetry  could  not  but  be  rude  as 
the  society  for  which  thev  were  composed 
Alliteration  appears  to  have  been  an  initial 
character  of  verse  ;  and  the  rudiments  even 
of  rhyme  are  discernible  in  tliose  similar  or 
id.'iitical  tenninations  adopted  bv  the  Celtic 
and  Runic  bards,  and  exemplified  in  the 
practice  of  Oriental  antiquity,  liv  the  agency 
of  metre,  a, poetical  style  was  gradually  pro- 
duced; and  in  the  labour  of  balancing  and  ad- 
justing liis  seiiteiu.<.'s,  the  poet  insensibly  ac- 
(piired  vigilance,  discriniinalion,  and  taste. 
Figurative  language,  which  is  familiar  to  a 
primitive  state  of  society,  has  sujiplied  to 
every  [K'ople  some  of  tlie  purest  elements  of 
poetry,  jjut  this  lansuage  is  not  the  ex- 
clusive property  of  the  jxjet;  it  belongs  to 
eviTy  waiter  of  imagination;  and  though  more 
essential  to  verse,  is  almost  equally  becoming 
in  prose;  nor  would  it  be  dillicult  to  produce 
bom  Hacon  and  .leremy  Taylor  in  one  age, 
from  Burke  and  Gibbon  in  another,  as  bril- 
liant combinatiorusoftliought  as  any  that  have 
been  exhibited  in  verse. 

The  following  passage  from  Shakspeare, 
though  written  in  prose,  is  as  rich  in  imagery 
as  any  part  of  his  metrical  conipoiitions: 
"  This  goodly  frame,  the  earth,  seems  to  me  a 
sterile  promontory  ;  this  most  excellent  cano- 
py, the  air;  this  majestical  roof,  fretted  with 
golden  fire,  whv  it  appears  no  other  thing  to 
me  than  a  foul  and  pestilential  congregation 
of  vapours.  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  ! 
Ilo'.vnoble  in  reason  ;  how  inlinite  in  faculties; 
in  form  and  moving,  how  express  and  admi- 
rable; in  action,  how  like  an  angel ;  in  ajjpre- 
hension,  how  l:ke  a  god  !"  The  ligiires  of  rhe- 
toric, therefore,  (see  Khetoric,)  including 
all  the  varieties  of  metaphor,  allegory,  and 
simile,  are  common  to  all  the  higher  orders  of 
literary  composition  ;  the  mechanism  of  verse 
being,  perhaps,  the  only  positive  line  of  de- 
marcation, bv  which  the  boundaries  of  prose 
and  verse  are  distinguished  from  each  other. 


r  o  £ 


-tf^a 


Antknt  I'roclrij. 

That  tlie  higher  order  of  poetry  is  not  un- 
atlaiualile  in  an  uncultivated  age,  is  a  truth 
<'mineiitly  illustrated  by  the  example  of  the 
Hebrew  people.  Admitting  language  to  be, 
as  Mr.  Richardson  ingeniously  observes,  the 
barometer  of  society,  by  which  its  comparative 
barbarism  or  civilization  is  indicateil,  it  will 
be  obvious  that  the  bards  of  bion  comjjosed 
their  loftv  sonas  for  a  primitive  nation,  tena- 
cioub  of  its  customs  and  opinions,  unenlight- 
ened bv  science,  uncorrected  by  taste,  and  as 
little  acciuainted  with  the  arts  as  tbe  refine- 
ments of  polished  life. 

The  simplicity  and  energy  of  the  Hebrew 
language,  accorded  happily  with  the  sublime 
nature^of  sacred  poetry;  and  to  the  pecu- 
liarities in  its  constitution  it  is,  perhaps,  owing 
that  the  primitive  character  of  its  composition 
is  tenaciously  preserved  to  whatever  language 
transferred, 'or  with  whatever  idioms  assi- 
milated. The  musical  harmony  of  the  He- 
brew language  is  now  but  imperfectly  known ; 
its   prosody   is,  however,  sufficiently  under- 


stood to  suggest  a  comparison  between  its 
rhymes,  and  the  wild  measures  familiar  to 
tlie  bcandinavian  nation.  Alliteration  was 
freely  admitted  in  their  verse,  as  were  iden- 
tical terminations  and  other  artificial  em- 
bellishments; but  its  distinctive  feature  was 
a  symmetrical  disposition  of  the  sejitences, 
which  were  cast  into  parallel  verses  of 
ecpial  length,  and  correspondent  in  sense 
and  sound:  the  sentiment  ex'pressed  in  tin- 
first  distich  being  repeated  and  amplified  in 
the  second,  as  in  the  lol'owing  examples: 
"  The  Lord  rewardeth  me  according  to 
my  righteousness:  according  to  the  clean- 
ness of  my  hand  he  hath  recompensed  me. 
The  statutes  of  the  I/ird  are  right,  rejoicing 
the  heart:  the  comm:indment  ot  the  Lord  i-> 
pure,  and  enlighteneth  the  eyes.  The  fear  of 
the  Lord  is  clean,  enduring  for  ever:  the, 
judgments  of  the  Lord  are  pure  and  righteous 
altogetlier."  This  practice,  which  appears 
to  have  been  peculiar  to  the  Hebrews,  wa» 
derived  from  their  rites  of  worsliip  ;  in  which 
the  sacred  hymns  were  ch-umted  by  b.inds  of 
singers,  who  alternately  responded  to  each 
otiier. 

'I'he  Hebrew  bards  employ  few  epithets: 
tlie  brevity  of  their  style  renders  itssuljlimily 
conspicuous;  their  imagery  is  boid  and  ener- 
getic; tiieir  magnificent  conceptions  issue 
from  the  nund  in  native  majesty  and  strength ; 
their  imagination  is  ever  rich  and  exuberant; 
and  to  tlieni,  metaphors  s|)oiitaneouslv  arise 
on  every  subject,  in  inexhaustible  beauty  and 
fertility. 

Although  Hebrew  poetry  presents  nothing 
that  in  critical  language  can  be  classed  willl 
epic  or  dramafic  compos  tion,  it  affords  innu- 
merable examples  of  llie  I  vric,  tile  elegiac,  and 
the  didactic  style.  In  the  propiiecies,  the 
favourite  figure  is  allegory:  the  Hebrew  shav-  • 
ing,  in  common  with  oilier  Oriental  nations,  a 
decided  predilection  for  the  parabolic  specius 
of  writing.  It  would  be  injustice  to  the  sacred 
bard,  not  to  remember  in  what  counlrv  he 
wrote,  and  with  what  people  he  lived.  (Jil 
exaafination,  his  images  will  be  found  to  have 
been  faitlihdiy  transcribeil  from  nature,  and 
beautifully  to-  have  harmonized  with  the 
scenes  and  manners  familiar  to  his  observa- 
tion and  experience;  but  the  pure  and  un- 
corrupfed  theism  m.iintained  bv  the  inspired 
bard,  is  liis  most  exalted  attribute,  and  is  evi- 
dently the  cause  of  his  jire-eminence  in  sub- 
limitv  over  all  other  Ctriental  writers. 

'Ihe  .■\rabj  were  nol,  like  the  Hebrews,  a 
stationary  people,  insulated  from  tiie  rest  of 
mankind.  Alternately  engaged  in  commercu 
and  in  war,  their  erratic  chiefs  visited  distant 
regions ;  and  in  llieir  iutervals  of  leisure,  w  ere 
no  less  ambitious  to  obtain  poetical  distinction, 
than  they  had  been  to  secure  military  fan,ie. 

Poetry,  which  constituted  thcs.icred  science 
of  the  Hel'reivs,  became  with  the  Arabs  a  po- 
lite accomplishment ;  and  as  the  copiousness 
of  their  language  supplied  all  the  aptitudes 
of  numbers,  it  is  not  surprizing  that  im- 
provisatori  bards  should  ha^e  been  found  in 
their  deserts.  The  distich,  and  many  other, 
forms  of  metrical  composition,  adapted  to 
familiar  occasions,  were  of  Arabian  invention  ;. 
and  it  is  the  plausible  suggestion  of  sir  Wil- 
liam Jones,  that  rhymes  were  borrowed  froia 
Eastern  literature  by  the  Proven<;al  and  Cas- 
tilian  poets,  through  whose  infiuence  they  - 
were  naturalized  to  I'urope.  W  ith  all  the 
copiousness  and  tlexibility  of  the  Arabic,  tiie- 


464 

Persic  language  is  found  to  possess  an  ame- 
nity ai«l  ;<ii  elegance  which  render  it  emi- 
nently susceptible  of  poetical  beauty.  Its 
poets',  like  those  of  antient  Greece,  have  the 
power  of  renderiiiE;  language  subservient  to 
their  pleasure,  and^^of  clothing  original  con- 
ceptions in  a  new-created  word. 

Several  Arabic  aud  Persian  poems  are  of 
the  epic  and  dramatic  cast;  but  the  comjio- 
sitions  most  invitins  to  the  European  lur 
translation,  are  of  au  amatory,  elegiac,  and 
lyric  character.  In  general.  Oriental  poetry 
ileviates  from  the  primitive  simplicity  so  con- 
spicuous in  Hebrew  compositions,  and  often 
degenerates  into  aftectalion  and  bombast.  In 
their  most  admireil  authors  i.-,deed,  a  passion 
for  the  gaudy  and  the  gorgeous  is  ever  predo- 
minant. The  magnificence  of  their  materials  is 
disguised  by  their  fantastic  arrangement;  and 
the°  eye  wliich  has  dwelt  with  delight  on  the 
chaste  graces  of  classical  literature,  soon 
turns  with  dissust  from  the  jewelled  tmban 
and  the  barbaric  gold.  There  are,  however, 
Kome  passages,  particularly  in  braminical  po- 
etry, which  are  perfectly  simple  and  sub- 
lime. Of  these  a  noble  "specimen  is  given 
by  sir  William  Jones  in  the  hymn  to  Nar- 
rayna. 

Of  classical  poetrij. 


POETRY. 


Tlie  n-erms  of  genius  scattered  through 
Orientafcompositions  with  wild  luxuriance, 
appear  in  classical  poetry  disjjlayed  in  full 
perfection  and  beauty.  'I'o  what  causes  the 
pre-eminence  of  antient  Greece  in  this  part 
of  literature  is  tobe  attributed,  it  would  here 
be  futile  to  conjecture.  From  the  suscepti- 
bility of  his  language,  the  poet  was  enabled  to 
exhibit  the  same  idea  under  a  new  aspect, 
and  to  give  to  every  lluctuation  of  feeliiio,  a 
permanent  expression.  If  the  vivacity  of  his 
descriptions  fascinated  the  imagination,  his 
numbers  dwelt  with  no  less'  enchantment  on 
the  ear.  The  length  and  shortness  of  sylla- 
bles in  the  Greek  and  Roman  languages, 
i\hich  constituted  their  quantities,  was  detcr- 
iiiined  by  rules  no  less  accurate  than  the 
notes  in  music ;  and  on  the  proper  distribu- 
tion and  adjustment  of  these  quantities,  the 
harmony  of  their  metre  depended.  A  stated 
interval  of  time  was  allowed  to  the  pronun- 
ciation of  every  verse.  To  facilitate  the  la- 
bour of  composition,  artificial  combinations  of 
svllables  bv  the  name  of  feet,  were  invented  ; 
and  bv  thenumber  of  these,  and  the  quantities 
included  in  them,  the  character  of  the  verse 
was  ascertained. 

To  these  combinations  various  names  were 
given  ;  the  most  i^nportant  were  the  spondee, 
composed  of  two  "long  syllsbles,  and  the 
dactyl,  form(;d  by  one  long  and  two  short 
syllables.  These  were  solely  employed  in 
the  construction  of  the  hexameter  verse,  of 
which  an  imitation  has  been  vainly  attempt- 
ed in  the  English  language.  The  pronunci- 
ation of  the  CJreek  and  T.itin  languages  is, 
indeed,  almost  as  totally  lost  to  us,  as  that  of 
the  Hebrew ;  but  such  is  the  exiiuiMle  me- 
chanism of  their  nu-tre,  that  their  verses  can- 
not be  read  without  producing  a  rich  and 
often  a  melodious  intonation,  perceptible 
even  to  the  unlettered  ear. 

In  the  happy  regions  of  Greece,  it  is  un- 
certain what  soecies  of  poetry  was  first  cul- 
tivated. I'ables  were  compositions  of  great 
antiquity ;  the  ode  formed  a  i)art  of  religious 


worship  ;  the  pastoral  must  have  been  in- 
troduced in  an  age  sulficiently  refined  to 
relish  simplicity.  I'he  immortal  poems  of 
Homer  were  composed  at  an  early  epoch  of 
Grecian  literature,  and,  as  is  well  known, 
transmitted  by  oral  tradition  to  a  more  po- 
lished age.  df  this  extraordinary  man,  so 
much  has  been  said,  that  it  would  appear  difti- 
cult  to  say  any  thing  which  should  not  now  be 
trivial  or  impertinent.  This  arduous  task  the 
perseverance  of  modern  criticism  has,  how- 
ever, achieved  ;  and  a  scholastic  sect  is  now- 
known  to  exist  who  would  sacrilegiously  re- 
move the  shrine  of  Homer  from  the  temple  of 
fame,  and  abandon  to  superstitious  credulity 
a  name  sanctilied  by  the  enthusiasm  and  \e- 
neration  of  preceding  ages. 

It  is  pretended  that  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey 
v.'ere  conipo -ed  at  different  eras,  by  various 
authors ;  and  i  hat  these  desultory  tales  of  Troy 
were  at  length  collocated  and  edited  by  some 
ingenious   critic,   who  might  possibly   have 
been  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of  Ho- 
mer.    The  novelty,  "and,  perhaps,  the  exUa- 
va^ance  of  this  hyp'othesis,  have  obtained  for  it 
partisans  among'those  professed  sceptics  and 
sc^regatists  who  can  perceive  no  difference 
beUveeu  vulgar  errors  and  popular  opinions, 
and  whose  ambition  it  is  to  recede  as  far  as 
possible  from   all   participation   in  the  sen- 
timents or  convictions  of  other  men.     It  is 
generally  admitted  that   the   excellence  in 
which  the  supposed  Homer  stands  unrivalled, 
is  the  energy  of  his  conceptions,  which  gives 
to  his  personages,  his  scenes,  and  l.is  descrip- 
tions, a  real  and  individual  e.xi^tence.     AVith 
such  felicity  are  his  characters  cast,  thatno 
reader  of  feeling  can  be  at  a  loss  to  conceive 
how  Achilles  would  look,  or  Nestor  speak,  or 
Ulys-es  act,  on  any  imaginary  occasion.  1  he 
unprejudiced  will  "decide  whether  such   ex- 
quisite liarmony  of  design  could  have  been 
the  result  of  chance,  or  whether  each  book 
had  its  separate  Homer,  or  whether  they  were 
all  planned  and  executed  by  one. 

In  lyrical  composition,  the  most  popular 
was  the  heroic  ode.     The  name  of  Pindar  has 
descended  to  us  with  honour ;  but  the  poems 
which  inspired  in  his  compatriots  the  most 
exalted  enthusiasm,  are  but  imperfectly  un- 
derstood by  the  student,  and  are  almost  im- 
practicable to  translation.     The  public  reci- 
tation of  the  ode  was  accompanied  both  by 
music  and  dancing:  a  circumstance  to  whicli 
its  structure  was  obviously  adapted.  The  two 
first  stanzas,  called  the  strophe  and  the  anti- 
strophe,  were  of  equal  length.     In  the  first 
part  the  performers  approached  the  altars  ot 
their  god ;   in  the  latter,  the  dance  being  in- 
verted, they  measured  back   their   steps  to 
their  forme'r   place,  where  whilst  they  sung 
the  epodc  they  stood  still.     It   appears  that 
this   form   was    peculiar  to  the  heroic  ode. 
There  were  other   lyrical  compositir.ns  of  a 
dijferent  cast.     Sappho's  poems  respire  only 
tender,  impassioned  sentiment;  those  ol  Ana- 
creon,   whether   amatory   or  convivial,    are 
equally  remote  from  the  sublimity  of  Pindar, 
and  the  melting  softness  of  Sappho.     The 
fervid  imagination  of  Pindar  is  compared  by 
Horace  to  the  impetuosity   of  a   mountain 
torrent : 


Pindar,  like  some  fierce  torrent  swoln  with 

showers, 
Or  sudden  cataracts  of  melting  snow, 
Which  from  Ine  Alps  its  headlong  deluge 

pours, 
And  foams  and  thunders  o'er  the  vales  below, 
\Vith  desultory  fury  borne  along, 
KoUs  his  impetuous",  vast,  unfathomable  song. 

^\est. 


Monte  decurrens  velut  aninis,  imbres 
Quern  super  notas  aluere  ripas, 
Fervet,  immensusque  ruit  profundo 
I'iiularus  ore : 


The  heroic  ode  is  evidently  of  a  dramatic 
character,  and  was  the  primitive  source  from 
whence   the  regular  drama  was  produced. 
'Iragrdy   originated  in  the   hymns  sung   in 
honour  of  Bacchus ;  and  its  "name  was  de- 
rived from  the  goat,  which  was  the  victim 
consecrated  to  that  deity.     The  invention  of 
dialogue  and  action  belongs  to  Eschylus ;  the 
original  ode  was  preserved  in  the  chorus, 
which  constituted  the  popular  part  of  the  en- 
tertainment.    The  chorus,  like  the  band  of  a 
modern  orchestra,  was  conqxised  of  several 
persons  who  recited  in  a  difl'erent  manner 
trom  the  other  performers.     N\'e  learn  trum 
Horace  that  their  business  was  to  deduce  trom 
the  passing  scene  some  lesson  of  morality,  or 
to  inculcate  on  the  spectator  some  religious 
precept.     'Fhe  intervention  of  the  chorus, 
which  is  now  rejected  by  the  most  zealous 
votaries  of  Greece,  is  not"  more  repugnant  to 
c-ur  ideas  of  propriety  than  many  other  usages 
of  the  antient  stage:"  the  pertormers  appear- 
ed in  masks;  in  their  recitations  they  were 
constantly  accompanied  by   musical  instru- 
ments, by  which  the  \oice  was  sustained,  and 
the  melolly  of  the  verse  rendered  sensible  to 
an  immense  audience.     The  rules  of  the  an- 
tient  drama  were  suited    to  its  institution. 
The  unities  of  time  and  place  were  necessary 
in  a  performance  to  which  tlie  auxiliary  re- 
sources of  modern  machinery  were  wantinu', 
and  from  which  all  the  magical  illusions  ol  the 
modern  scene  were  precluded.  The  tragedies 
of  Euripides  and    Sophocles  were   master- 
pieces in  their  kind,  birt.  would  now  probably 
be  little  relished  even  by  scholars  and  scho- 
lastic enthusiasts. 

Comedy,  like  tragedy,  originally  consisted 
of  a  chorus,  which  derived  its  name  from  the 
god  Comus.  The  rudiments  of  the  comic  art 
may,  perhaps,  be  detected  in  the  satyrs,  a 
sort  of  inteilude  annexed  to  tragedies,  in 
which  the  scene  was  rural,  and  the  person,- 
aires  Satyrs,  or  sylvan  deities.  In  the  plays 
of  Aristo"phanes,  living  characters  were  intro- 
duced, and  Socrates  beheld  himself  ridiculed 
on  the  stage.  This  abuse  a  better  taste  cor- 
rected ;  and  the  comedies  of  Menander, 
which  were  imitated  by  Terence,  exhibitetl 
only  interesting  picture's  of  domestic  lite, 
'l  he  chorus  at  first  appendant  on  comedv) 
was  gradually  changed  into  the  prologue,  a 
persona<;e  who  carefully  apprized  the  spec- 
tators ot'all  they  were  to  see  on  the  stage. 

The  Homan  writers  were  modelled  on  those 
of  (Jreece,  and  it  was  long  before  they  at- 
teini)ted  to  emulate  their  masters;  yet  Ennius, 
one  of  their  elder  poets,  produced  the  satire, 
a  species  of  miscellaneous  poetry  purely  I\o- 
nian,  whiih  wa>  destined  to  receive  perfec- 
tion from  Hora-e.  With  ecpial  originality, 
Lucretius  wrote  his  nu-taphysical  poem,  in 
which  are  developed  the  philosophical  systems 
of  his  age  ;  but  it  was  not  till  the  era  of  Au- 
gustus that  the  bards  of  Latium  established 
their  equality  with  those  ottJreece.  It  was 
then  that  Huraci',  not  satisfied  with  having 


♦ffimplantod  nil  the  lyno  ijcaulies  to  Iiis  odes, 
opened  a  rich  vein  of  suliric  poi.'try  ;  and 
Virgil,  liaving  equalled  i  lieocritus,  "without 
tcnieril}'  aspired  to  emulate  Homer,  livthe 
jEiieid  it  may  be  acknowledged  that  he  some- 
times tell  short  of  his  master.  His  characters 
possess  not  the  same  features  of  durahilily 
and  grandeur;  nor  are  his  scenes  equally 
animated  and  dramatic.  To  atone  for  these 
defects,  he  unites  every  charm  that  gives  in- 
terest to  narrative  or  lends  eiichiintnK'nt  to 
description  ;  occasionally  lie  rises  to  the  sub- 

-  lime,  but  the  beautiful  is  his  natural  element; 
he  can  excite  terror,  but  iie  is  more  prone  to 
iiispire  tenderness  and  pity.  •  In  the  delicate 
touches  of  nature  and  pathos,  lie  seems  to 
have  grown  enamovwed  of  Ws  subject,  and  to 
have  lingered  affectionately  on  the  endearing 
scenes  and  charities  of  domestic  life.  The 
four  iiist  books  of  the  .'Eneid  contain  a  tale  so 
"sweetly  toh.l,  that  was  it  translerred  to  a  rude 
language  totally  i:nsusceptible  of  its  literary 

, ,  graces,  it  would  still  be  read  and  remember- 
ed', by  all  who  had  capacities  for  sympathy 
and  tenderness. 

In  I  he  Georgics,  Vira)il  has  left  a  model  of 
difractic  composition,  ennobled  by  a  strain  of 
philosophical  sentiment,  pure,  graceful,  and 
,  persuasive.  Ovid,  whose  talents  were  not 
less  versatile  than  thoseof  his  contemporaries, 
adorned  ttie  fables  of  mythology  with  de- 
scription, and  illustrated  in  his  epistles  almost 
e-.-erv  romantic  slery  of  antiquity.  '1  he  style 
of  his  elegies  is  not  unlike  that  of  his  epistles : 
he  paints  to  the  eye,  but  he  has  often  tt)o 
nmcli  wit  and  fancy  to  touch  the  heart. 

Tibv.lUis  has  exceeded  every  other  elegiac 
v\riler  in  simplicity  and  tenderness.  Lucan 
and  .Statins  were  afso  epic  poets,  but,  they  are 
seldom  quoted,  and  not  oiten  read.  Lucan 
possessed  a  genius  of  an  exalted  order;  but  iiis 
subject  was  peculiarly  unfortunate,  and  his 
be.iulies  are  now  neglected  because  they  are 
found  in  scenes  repulsive  to  tlie  imagination, 
and  uncongenial  with  the  feelings. 

Among  the  last  poets  of  Rtmie,  appeared 
Jiivenal  and  Persius,  of  whom  the  former  was 
one  of  the  most  original  writers  she  had  pro- 
duced, lie  professes  to  exhibit  a  picture  of 
his  times  ;  and  there  is  in  his  manner  an  un- 
dissembled  and  almost  a  holy  fei~v('ur  that 
atones  for  his  occasional  niggedne.ss  and  as- 
perity. 

Origin  ofmndirn  poctri/. 

The  Gothic  nations 'who  over-ran  Home, 
though  ignorant  of  the  polite  arts,  were  not 
insensible  to  the  charms  of  poetry.     Their 

-  bards  were  no  less  venerated  than  their  priests; 
and  whatever  instruction  they  received,  what- 
ever knowledge  they  possessed,  was  com- 
municated in  metre,  and  probably  in  rhyme. 

In  the  age  of  Charlemagne,  the  minstrels 
■of  Priivence,  or,  as  they  were  called,  the 
troubadours,  introduced  the  metrical  tales 
or  ballads,  whicl',  from  the  dialect  in  which 
they  were  written,  actiuired  the  name  of  ro- 
mances. Their  poems  were  all  composed  in 
rhyme ;  but  whether  this  practice  was  bor- 
rowed from  the  Arabs  or  the  Goths,  is  uncer- 
tain. Tile  Italian  language,  which  of  all  the 
corrupt  dialects  introduced  by  the  barbarians, 
assimilated  most  with  the  Koman,  soon  ac- 

I  quired  a  tincture  of  elegance.  In  the  middle 
ages  Dante  wrote ;  Ariosto  followed ;  and  Pe- 
trarch, the  enthusiastical  votary  of  classical 
'genius,  appeared  among  the  tirst  founders  of 
modern  literature.  The  passion  for  al- 
\0L.  II. 


POETRY. 

legory,  so  long  the  characteristic  of  the 
Italian  school,  was  l)y  Chaucer  rentWred  as 
|)revalent  in  England  as  it  had  previously 
been  on  tlie  continent.  During  several  ages, 
Italy  continued  to  be  the  Poets'  Land  of  Eu- 
rope; and  iivtluit  mterval  was  produced  the 
Jtiusalem  Delivered,  a  poem  not  unworthy 
of  a  Homan  bard,  or  an  Augustan  age. 

In  Spain,  poetrv  was  early  cultivated,  but 
wilb  httle  attention  to  classical  taste.  In 
1' ranee,  it  emerged  not  from  barbarism  till 
the  reign  of  Francis  the  First,  and  arrived  at 
its  ultimate  point  of  perfection  in  the  era  of 
Louis  the  Fourteenth.  La  Fontaine  and 
lioileau,  Corneille  and  Ilacine,  had  then  lived, 
and  produced  works  destined  to  immortalize 
their  names.  Unfortunately  for  French  poets, 
criticism  was  then  almost  coeval  with  poetry; 
and  a  pedantic  attention  to  rules  was  soon 
permitted  to  repress  the  native  energies  of 
genius.  Tlie  modern  drama,  it  is  well  known, 
originated  in  themysteries';  a  sort  of  religious 
farce,  imported  from  the  East.  To  die 
mysterias  succeeded  allegoriral  plays,  called 
moralities :  these  produced  the  ina^k,  which 
became  the  favourite  amusemei;J;  of  the  court 
in  the  time  of  Charles  the  l''iist,  and  is  re- 
deemed from  opprobrium  and  oblivion  by- 
Milton's  Comus.  Gondibert,  written  by- 
lord  Sackville,  was  the  first  tragedy  repre- 
sentedon  an  English  stage.  Till  tlie  com- 
mencement of  the  eighteenth  century,  tbe 
German  language  was  almost  a  stranger  to 
poeli-y.  Klopstock  invented  hexameter  verse, 
in  w-bich  the  mechanism  of  classical  numbers 
is  rather  perceived  tlian  felt  by  the  reader. 
I'Vom  that  era,  Germany  has  b(!en  more  pro- 
ductive of  books  than  all  the  rest  of  Europe; 
and  during  tliis  ptriod,  many  line  writers 
have  arisen  of  real  and  original  genius :  but 
-the  literary  commerce  of  the  country  is 
chiefly  supported  by  translation  ;  the  Ger- 
mans liaving  arrived  at  no  less  distinction  as 
the  general  translators,  than  did  their  neigh- 
bours the  Dutch  as  the  carriers,  of  Europe. 

Of  English  versijication. 

In  the  English  language,  versification  de- 
pends not  on  the  quantities,  or  the  length  and 
shortness, of  the  syllables:  but  on  the  modula- 
tion of  the  accents,  and  the  disposition  of  the 
pauses;  to  which  is  generally  added  the  re- 
currence of  rhyme.  The  heroic  verse  consists 
of  ten  syllatiles  ;  its  harmony  is  produced  by 
a  certain  proportionate  distribution  of  accent- 
ed and  unaccented  syllables ;  and  its  specitic 
character,  whether  lively  or  solemn,  soft  or 
slow,  is  determined  by  their  order  and  ar- 
rangement. When  unaccented  and  accented 
syllables  are  regularly  alternated,  it  is  called 
the  iambic  verse ;  as, 

"  A  shepherd's  boy,  he  seeks  nohigher  name, 
Led  forth  his  l^.ock  beside  the  silver  Thame." 
When  this  order  is  inverted,  and  tlie  unac- 
cented is  preceded  by  the  accented  syllable, 
it  is  called  a  trochaic  verse;  as, 
"Ambition  first  sprung  from  the  blest  abodes." 
"  Take,  holy  earth,   all  that  my  soul  holds 

dear." 
The  frequent  intervention  of  the  trochaic  is 
a|)t  to  produce  harshness.  The  monoton-\- 
wliich  it  might  be  expected  shoidd  result 
from  a  succession  of  iambic  lines,  is  obviated 
bv  the  freedom  with  which  the  pause  is  trans- 
ferred from  one  syllable  to  another  ;  a  free- 
dom wiiich  constitutes  tlig  charm,  and  pro- 
3N  ^ 


duces  all  llie  variety,  r-f  English  verse.  The 
])ause  or  cesiira  is  that  interval  of  susjiensiou 
w4iic!i  must  naturally  arise  in  every  verse, 
the  position  of  which  the  English  pfiet  is  al- 
lowed to  change  and  diversify  at  pleasure. 
When  the  pause  falls  on  the  fourth  syllable, 
the  strain  is  smooth  and  airy;  as, 

"  Soft  is  the  strain  |  when  Zephyr  gently 
blows. 

And  the  smootli  stream  |  in  smoother  num- 
bers flows." 

When  it  falls  on  the  second  it  is  commonly 
accelerated;  as, 

"  Not  so  I  when  swift  Camilla  scours  the 
plain." 

Occasionally  the  pause  dwells  on  the  first, 
second,  or  penultimate  syllable: 

"  O  friend  1  (  may   each   domestic  bliss  be 

thine: 
Po  no  unpleasing  melancholy  |  mine. 
Me  I  let  the  tender  office  lolig  engage. 
To  rock  the  cradle  of  declining  age." 

A  second  pause  is  sometimes  happily  intro- 
duced: 

"  O  ever  beauteous  [  ever  lovely!  |  tell. 
Is  it  in  heaven  a  crime  to  love  too  well;" 

In  tjie  following  examples,  the  first  passage 
has  all  the  spirit  and  energy  of  the  ode;  the 
second,  the  slow  and  plaintive  melody  of  the 
elegiac  strain: 

"  Come  then,  my  friend,  my  geniu«,  come 

along, 
O  master  of  the  poet  and  the  song  1 
And  w  l)ile  the  muse  now  stoop.s,  |  and  now 

ascends. 
To  man's  low  passior,3,  j  or  tiieir  glorlou* 

ends, 
Teach  me.  like  thee,  |  in  various  natnre  wise. 
To  fall  with  dignity,  |  with  temper  rise; 
I'orni'd  by  tiiy  converse,  |  happily  to  steer 
I-'iom  grave  to  gay,  |  from  lively  to  severe  ; 
Correct  with  spirit,  j  eloquent  with  ease. 
Intent  to  reason,  |  or  polite  to  please." 

"  In  these  deep  solitudes,  |  and  awful  cells^ 
Where   heavenly   pensive    contemplation  | 

dwells. 
And  ever-musing  melancholy  reigns." 

The  heroic  verse  is  often  diversified  by  (lie 
intervention  of  an  Alexandrine  line  of  twelve 
syllables,  which  is  liberally  used  bv  Drvden  : 
its  abuse  is  pointedly  censured  by  Pope: 
"  A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song. 
Which,  like  a  Wounded  snake,  d.ags  its  slow 

length  along." 

It  forms  a  noble  termiiiation: 

"  Teach  ine  to  love  and  to  forgive; 

Exact  my  own  defects  to  scan. 

What  others   are  to   feel,  and  know  myself 

a  man.^' 

Triplets  often  occur  in  heroic  verse ;  a  prac- 
tice to  which  Diyden  was  stronglv  addicted, 
btit  which  is  now  generally  avoided  by  cor- 
rect writers. 

The  stanza  of  nine  lines,  in  imitation  of 
the  Italian,  was  introduced  by  Spenser.  Of 
this  verse,  which,  if  not  impracticable,  -was  at 
least  repugnant,  to  the  English  language, 
the  followmg  extract  is  a  favourable  speci- 
men : 

"  A  gentle  knight  was  pricking  on  the  plaine, 
Yclad  in  mi§hti«  arms,  and  silver  shield, 


469 

Wherein  oM-ilintes  of  deep  wouncWs  did  re- 
main. 
The  cruel  marks  of  m:iiiy  a  bloody  field; 
Yet  irr.ns  tiiltliat  time 'did  lie  never  wield. 
His  angry  >teed  did  cliiile  his  foaming  bitt. 
As  much  disdaining  to  tlie  curb  to  yield : 
A  jollv  knight  lie  seeni'd,  ami  I'aire  did  sit, 
As  oiie  fur  knightly  guests  and  liertc  en- 
counters htt." 

A  stanza  more  polished  in  its  struttnre  is 
adopted  by  Mr.  Sc)tj-.(;by  in  Ins  adui'rable 
transtaliun'of  Wieland's  Olieron.  Tlie  fol- 
ing  passase  ■Jescribc-s  Kezia's  lirst  nilerview 
with  the  Hermit  • 

"  Rejiia,  at  once  entranced  in  holy  bliss, 
Aw'd  bv  his  look,  that  beams  celestial  grace, 
Bows,  as  before  the  genius  of  the  place, 
And  prints  his  wrinkled  hand  with  pious  kiss. 
Toucheil  by  his  gracious  mien  or  friendly  air, 
His  beard  that  swept  his  breast  with  silver 

hair, 
Iler  soul  this  stranger  as  her  sire  reveres ; 
A  se^cond  look  has  banisli'd  all  her  fears : 
Each  reatU   the    other's  lieart,  nor  finds  a 
stranger  there.'' 

Tiie  most  popular  stanza  is  that  appropriate 
to  theballa-l,  which  is  composed  of  four  lines 
with  interchanging  rhymes.  Such  is  the  mea- 
sure of  Goldsmith's  beautiful  talc  of  Edwin 
and  Angelina: 

"  Turn,  gentle  liermjt  of  the  dale, 
And  guide  my  lonely  way. 

To  where  yon  taper  cheers  the  vale 
"With  hospitable  ray." 
And  such,  with  the  remission  of  rhyme  in  tlie 
first  and  tliird  lines,  is  the  measure  of  Chevy 
Chace: 

"  God  save  the  king,  and  bless  tlie  land, 
In  plenty, joy,  and  peace; 

And.  gVant'hencefortn  thit  foul  debate 
'Twixt  noblemen  may  cease  !'' 

The  elegiac  stanza  consists  of  four  alter- 
nately responsive  lines  often  syllables  each: 
it  is  well  adapted  to  short  poems;  but  in  co:u- 
po-itions  of  any  length,  its  ;  low  monotonous 
cadence  becomes  oppres-ive  to  the  ear.  In 
the  celebr.ited  elegy  of  Gray,  its  defects, 
however,  are  all  concealed  by  a  profudon  of 
poetical  beauties  ;  -md  by  the  graceful  muse 
of  Hammonfi  its  tetters  are  rendered  elegant 
and  ornamental : 
"  Why  should  the  lover  quit  his  pleasing 

home, 
In  scsircli  of  dvinger  on  some  foreign  ground  ? 

Or  from  iiis  weeping  fair  ungrateiui  roam, 
An.d  risk  in  every  siroke  a  double  wound  ? 

Ah !  better  lar,"beneath  tin-  spreading  sliade. 
With  cheeruil  friends  to  drain 'he  sprightly 
bowl. 

To  laiig  liie  beauties  of  my  darling  maid. 
And  on  tlie  sweet  idea  feast  my  •/nil." 

The  common  anapestic  verse,  of  eleven  and 
twel.'e  syllables,  in  which  the  accoiit  falls  on 
every  tiiird  syllable,  has  generally  been  ap- 
propriated to  humorous  subjects  :  when 
formed  uilo  tliestaiiza,  it  assumes  a  different 
character.  In  the  noble  wir-song  of  Burns  it 
IS  however  a  strain  truly  sublime;  and  in  the 
following  passage  Hows  with  equal  sweetness 
und  patiioi : 

"  'Ti   .nglit,  and  the  landscape  is  lovely 

no  m  Jle-; 
I  mourn,  but,  ye  woodlands,  I  mourn  not  for 
vou  ; 


POETRY. 

Fur  v.ioru  is  approaching,  your  cliarms  (o 
re>tore, 
Perfum'd  with  fresh  fragrance,  and  glittering 
with  dew. 
Nor  yet  for  the  ravage  of  winter  I  mourn ; 
Kind  nature  the  embryo  blossom  will  save  : 
But  valuta  shall  spring  visit  the  mouldering 
urn  ? 
Oh  I  wiien  siiail  it  dawn  on  the  night  of  the 
grave :-'' 

This  stanza  is,  from  the  intractable  nature 
of  the  anaiicstic  measure,  of  diUicult  e.vccii- 
tiou.  In  tlial  employed  by  Cowper  in  the 
following  instance,  constructed  on  similar 
principles,  tlie  syllables  are  less  numerous, 
and  tlie  cadence  is  in  general  more  harmuiii- 
0U3 : 

"  I  am  monarcli  of  all  I  survey. 
My  r'.glit  there  is  none  to  dispute; 

i'rom  the  centre,  all  round  to  the  sea, 
I  am  lord  of  the  fowl  and  tiie  brute. 
U  .^Solitude  I  where  are  the  charais 
That  sages  have  seen  in  thy  face? 

Better  dwell  in  the  midst  of  alarms 
Than  reign  in  this  desolate  place." 
The  occurrence  of  double  rhymes  is  nei- 
ther very  frequent  nor  very  easy  in  English 
verse ;  they  are  chletly  employed  in  songs, 
and  are  seldom  achnilted  in  the  higher  order 
of  lyrical  composition.  The  following  pas- 
sage from  Dryden's  ode  on  St.  Cecilia's 
day,  affords  the"  moia  happy  example  of  this 
kind  of  verse  in  our  language  : 

"  Softly  sweet  in  Lydian  measures. 
Soon  he  sooth'd  his  soul  to  pleasures; 
^V'ar,  he  sung,  is  toil  anil  trouble. 
Honour  but  an  empty  bubble; 
Never  ending,  still  brglnning. 
Fighting  still,  and  still  destroying: 
If  the  world  be  worth  thy  winning. 
Think,  oh  !  tliiiik  it  worili  enjoying.  " 

The  simplest  and  most  fluent  of  all  verse  is 
the  couplet  of  eight  syllables.  In  this  mea- 
sure Milton  has  wriiten  his  two  exquisite 
poems,  the  Allegro  and  IVnseroso  : 

"  And  may  at  length  my  weary  age 
Find  out  tiie  peaceful  hermitage, 
'i  lie  hairy  gown  and  mossy  cell, 
■^V'here  1  may  sit,  and  rightly  spell 
Of  every  star  tiiat  heaven  doth  shew. 
And  every  herb  that  sips  the  dew. 
Till  old  experience  do  attain 
To  something  like  prophetic  strain !" 
Pope  and  Gray  are  generally  considered  as 
the   luosl  correct  writers   of    rhjnie;     and 
Dryden,  vviiokiiew  the  atTlnence  of  the  Eng- 
lish language,   has  in  his  own  compositions 
exhibited  all  its  various  capacities   of  har- 
mony and  versilication. 

Blank  verse 
Is  composetl  of  lines  of  ten  syllables 
each,  which  How  into  each  other  without  the 
intervention  of  rhymes ;  its  metrical  prin- 
ciple resides  in  its  pauses,  which  should  be 
so  judiciouslv  spread  as  never  to  suffer  the 
accom))animent  of  rhyme  lobe  missed.  Of  the 
few  poels  who  have  attempted  this  species  of 
composition,  Milton  first,  and  after  iiini, 
Thomson,  Armstrong,  Akenside,  an.l  Cowpei;, 
are  pre  eminent,  'i  he  amplitude  of  Milton's 
verse  is  uiiec|ualled:  it  dilates  with  the  au- 
thor's llv'ughl,  it  harmonizes  with  the  rea- 
der's sentnuent,  and  its  varied  cadence  alter- 
nately rolls  with  majesty,  or  falls  iii  a  melli- 


fluent strain  of  melody  on  the  unwearied  and 
unsated  ear.  The  Principle  of  this  eNqmsitii 
mechanism  has  been  lately  referred  by  a  jii- 
dicieus  critic  (the  Kev.  jSlr.  Crowe,  in  his 
Lectures  at  the  Hoyal  Institution),  to  Milton's 
bold  practice  of  distributing  in  separate  lines, 
words  so  nearly  connected  (such  as  llie  prepo- 
sition governing  the  noun,  and  the  pronoen 
att-ichecl  to  the  verb)  as  almost  to  appei.r 
indivisible.  Tiiat  this  practice,  which  .Mr. 
Crowe  calls  breaking  the  mitural  joint  of  llie 
xeiUc-ncc',  is  favourable  to  the  freedom  of 
blank  verse,  cannot  be  disputed;  but  it  niav 
be  questioned  whether  tiie  poet  was  himself 
conscious  of  the  mechanism  which  he  em- 
ployed, or  was  directed  by  any  other  princi- 
ple than  his  own  acute  sensibility  to  harvuony. 
'1  he  following  short  extracts  may  illustrate 
tlie  difference  of  style  perceptible  in  the 
various  writers  of  blank  verse  : 

"  Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree  whose  mortal  taste 
lirouglit  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  woe, 
\\  itli  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat. 
Sing,  heavenly  muse  that  on  the  secret  top 
Of  Oreb,  or  of  Sinai,  didst  inspire 
The  shepherd  who  first  taught    the  chosen 

seed. 
In  the  beginning  how  the  heavens  and  earth 
Rose  out  of  chaos;  or  if  Sion  hill 
Delight  thee  more,  and  Siloa's  brook  that 

flowed 
Fast  by  tlie  oracle  of  God,  I  thence 
Invoke  thy  aid  to  my  adventurous  song  ; 
That  with  no  middle  flight  intends  to  soar 
Above  the  Aoniai.1  mount,  while  it  pursues 
riiings  unaltempted  yet  in  prose  or  rhyme.'? 

MlLlOt-'. 

"  lie  conies!  he  comes!  in  every  breeze,  the 

power 
Ol  philosophic  melancholy  comes  r 
His  near  approach  the  sudden-starting  tear, 
The  glowing  cheek,  the  mild  dejected  air. 
The  soften'd  feature,  and  the  beating  heart 
P'lerc'd  deep  with  many  a  virtuous  pang,  de- 
clare. 
O'er  all  the  soul  his  sacred  influence  breathes. 
Inflames  imagination,  through  the  breast 
Infuses  every  tenderness,  and  far 
Beyond    dim     earth     exalts    the     swelling 
tliouglit."  Tho.mson. 

"  From    heaven    my    strains    begin ;  from 

heaven  descends 
The  Hame  of  genius  to  the  chosen  heart. 
And  beauty  with  poetic  wonder  join'd 
And  inspiration.     Ere  the  rising  sun 
Shone  o'er  the  deep,  or  mid  the  vault  of 

night 
The  moon  her  silver  lamp  suspended  ;  ere 
The  vales  with  spring  were  watered,  or  with 

groves 
Of  oak,  or  pine,  the  antienthiljs  were  crovvn'«l; 
Then  the  great  Spirit  whom  his  works  adore, 
^Viihin,  his   own   deep    essence  view'd   the 

forms. 
The  forms  eternal  of  created  things  : 
The  radiant  sun,  the  moon's  nocturnal  lamp. 
The  mountains  and  the  streams,  the  ample 

stores 
Of  earth,  of  heaven,  of  nature.  From  the  first. 
On  that  full  scene  his  love  divine  he  fix'd. 
His  admiration  ;  ti'l  in  time  complete, 
\\  hat  he  admired  and  lov'd,  his  vital  power 
Unfolded  into  be'uig." 

Akensjde. 


*J'u  tvuft  tli»in'-*.  «)■  (irii»iui  n.u(i:iio''y  i'a'k-i) ! 
<'oyrt  not  lljif  luxury «f  1«!1WT  lliousrlil ; 
iSor  A^cm  it  imp'uju's  to  f jigot  llio?c  pain* 
'J'litit  iiiiil  llu!  livii'p,  liougiit  avail  llu;  ci-ead. 
Co,  soft  c-iillj<js'.ast,  (|Uit  Iho  cypress  gvovea; 
>ior  (o  llif  rivulfl's  lonely  moaninijs  tune 
Your  sad  Loniplaint.     Go,  seek  the  tlieeiful 

haunts 
Of  men,  and  iiiinLde  with  the  btistliiig  crowd; 
Lav  sc-hcnies  fur  ucalth,  or  power,  or  fame— 

the  \vi^h 
Of  nobler  mind;:,  and  push  them  night  and 

day; 
Or  join  the  caravan,  in  nuest  of  scenes 
New  to  your  eves,  and  shifting  every  liiiur, 
ll<.)onu  the  Afps,  beyond  the  Appenines." 
Armstrong. 

<'  O  winter,  mler  of  the  inverted  year,    ■ 
Thy  scattered  hair,  with  slecl  ilke'^shesfill'd, 
Tliy  breath  congeal'd    upon    thy   lips,   thy 

thccks       ^ 
Fring'd  with  a  beard  made  while  with  other 

snows 
Than  those  of  age,   thy  forehead  wrapt  in 

clouds, 
A  li'afleps  branch  thy  sceptre,  and  thy  throne 
A  slidhig  car  indibled  to  no  wlieels. 
But  nri^'il  by  storms  along  its  slippery  way ! 
I  love  thee,"all  unlovely  as  thou  seem'st, 
Aiid  dreaded  as  thou  art.     Thou  hold'st  the 

Sim 
A  pris'ner  in  the  yet  undawning  east, 
Shorl'ning  his  journey  between  morn  and 

noon. 
And  hurrying  him,  impatient  of  his  slay, 
Down  to  the  ro>y  west ;  but  kindly  still 
Compensating  his  loss  with  added  hours 
Of  social  convene,  and  instructive  ease." 

COWPER. 

The  defect  of  Young's  blank  verse  is,  that 
the  sense  conini only  closes  with  tlie  line,  and 
tluit  it  has  too  much  of  the  systematical  >ini- 
lorniily,  wiUiont  the  musical  varieties,  of 
rhyme.  \\  hether  rhyme  cr  blank  verse  is 
entitled  to  pn-emir.ence,  is  a  cpiestion  which 
iiiu-,t  ullinuitrly  be  determined  by  individual 
taste.  In  the  choice  of  his  measure,  the  poet 
must  obviously  be  influenced  by  the  nature 
of  his  subject;  and  rhyme  or  blank  verfc  will 
alternately  obla'n  his  preference.  In  all  the 
gay  and  airv  excursions  of  fancy,  or  the 
jigiiler  touclies  of  feeling,  he  will  (ind  in 
rhyme  an  auxiliary  eijually  pleasing  and  im- 
j!ortai!l.  'i  o  such  compositions  as  rctiuire  a 
nierisure  of  spirited  and  vivac  ions  movement, 
rhyme  is  an  indispensable  a|-i)endage.  To 
s.ilire  it  adds  jioignancy,  to  h'.miour  it  gives 
e!e;;ance;  it  imparts  renovation  to  old  ideas, 
and  lends  attraction  to  trivial  sentiments;  it 
reiKiers  fauiiliar- illustration  graceful,  and 
plain  sense  eloijuent.  In  all  but  the  Alpine 
regions  of  poetry,  rhyme  is  a  fence  no  less 
useful  than  ornamental,  cnrich.ing  and  en- 
livening every  object.  In  the  Allegro  and 
Penserosn,  even  Milton  conceived  itnodere- 
lu'tion  of  ])oetical  freedc  m  to  have  pursued 
the  path  tiaced  out  by  his  predecessors  :  but 
in  his  I'aradise  I-ost,  when  "  he  soared  beyond 
the  visible  diurnal  sphere;'"  Ills  deviation  into 
blank  verse  was  as  judicious  as  fortunate  ;  be- 
cause his  subject  was  then  too  sublinie,  his 
conceptions  leo  gigantic,  for  the  narrow  limits 
and  demarcations  of  rhyme.  V>'herever 
much  originality  of  thought  e.\isls,  this  me- 
trical charm  is  unnecessary;  and  where  iniagi- 


I 


tin<.'i)t,  iii  nosnii  tyi'iM.'iu-n'n'tl'!  j>oi««=,  SUi- 
ton  awppjue  to  Jiave  bei-n  iiKniinbered  s.vilh 
the  dignity  of  hiii  thou.^its;  and  bhakti)eare, 
perj>lexe(f  by  tl-.e  vichnesi  and  variety  of  his 
comljinations,  is  apt  to  become  aliecled  when 
he  quits  blank  verse.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  enlarge  the  limits  of  blar.k  verse,  by 
the  inlioduclion  of  various  measures  Analo- 
gous to  ih.ose  emj)loyed  in  rhyme:  but  to  all 
these  cl'tbrts  the  genius  of  the  language  dis- 
covers an  invincible  repugnance;  vainly  are 
varietici  presented  to  the  eye,  which  arc  im- 
perceptible to  the  mind)  au'd  untasted  by  the 
car.  All  rhymeies.s  numbers  either  flow  into 
good  blank  verse,  or  form  lines  harsh  and 
n:tractabie;  a  succession  of  abrupt  sounds 
and  mutilated  sentences,  which  by  no  art  of 
typography,  by  no  imposition  of  noiiiencla- 
turo,  can  be  made  to  constitute  any  metre  at 
alk 

Poetical  dwisiftadion. 

The  primitive  sources  of  moden)  poetry 
may  be  traced  to  the  old  romance  ;  whence 
was  derived  the  simple  ballad  so  popular  in 
England  a!id  Scotland,  and  und<-r  various 
nan)es  and  forms  universally  adopted  in  Eu- 
rope. On  the  revival  of  letters,  when  the 
study  and  imitation  of  the  classics  became  the 
passion  of  all  literary  men,  their  nomenclature 
was  eagerly  assumed;  and  volumes  of  poetry 
were  soon  composed,  which  the  high-sounding 
names  of  odes,  pastorals,  satires,  and  epic 
poems,  have  not  saved  from  oblivion;  vo- 
hinies  of  criticism  were  also  compiled,  to  sliew 
how  pastorals,  odes,  and  satires,  ought  to 
have  been  written. 

P.'iSTO K  A r.  poetry  is,  above  all  other,  the 
most  limited  iu  its  object ;  and  when  formed 
oti  the  model  presented  to  us  by  \  irgil  and 
Theocritus,  should  Ije  a  descri|)lion  of  rural 
scenes  and  nainral  feelings,  enriched  with 
elegant  languag'',  and  adorned  by  the  most 
melodious  inimbers. 

Few  English  pastorals  will  be  recognized 
in  this  delinition;  the  scenes  they  re|)reseiit 
are  artilicial,  and  the  sentiments  factitious,  be- 
cause thiv  are  iniiiatedliom  other  poets,  the 
natives  of  a  luxuriant  region,  accustomed  to 
the  living  tints  and  glowing  azure  of  a  cloud- 
less sky.  From  this  censure,  liowever,  the 
pusloral  drama  of  Allan  Kamsay  must  be 
excepted,  as  should  .Shenstone's  celebrated 
ballad.  'i"he  ballad  is  perhaps  the  happiest 
vehicle  of  pastoral  poetry,  and  there  are  in 
our  language  many  ballads  of  exquisite  beau- 
ty. Some  of  our  pastorals  are  elegiac;  such 
is  Milton's  monody  on  Lycidas: 

"  Together    both,   ere   the  high   lawns   ap- 

]iear"d 
Tender  the  opening  eyelid  of  the  ^l0^l, 
'Ve drove  alicld; ami  both  together  I  »-'.rd 
AVhat   lime   the   grey   fly  wipds  her  sultry 

horn, 
Batt'ning  our  flocks  with  the  fresh  dews  of 

night, 
Olt  till  the  star  that  rose  at  evening  bright, 
Towards  heaven's   descent  had    slop'd    his 

westering  wheel." 

The  conclusion  of  this  poem  is  in  the  true 
spirit  of  elegant  pastoral : 

"  Thus  stmg  the  uncouth  swain  to  th'  oaks 

and  rills. 
When  the  slillMorn  wi^nt  out  in  sandals  grev ; 
.3  N  2 


\%'\th  <'ag<T^i.oiiKiit,ttijrWing1'.iT;I>>ric  li^y; 
And  iiow  till!  siin  Lad  strelch'd  oiit  all  tlie 

(mis. 
M>(\  now  was  dropt  into  the  western  bay. 
M  last  he  lose,  and  tttitclied  his  inantle  blue. 
To-morrow   to    fresh  woods,   and    pastures 

new." 

The  naivie  of  J'lt.cc  y  was  originally  given  to 
funereal  monody,  but  was allervviuds  attached 
to  all  pl.iinlive  strains.  In  the  Latin  language 
it  was  aluays  writteH  in  hexameter  an<f  pen- 
tameter verse.  By  the  mcderns  an  elegiac 
stanza  was  invented,  assimilating  as  nearly 
as  possible  with  those  slow  melodious  iium- 
beis.  Many  elegies,  and  perhaps  the  best, 
are  expressive  only  of  soothing  tenderness. 
Such  are  those  of  'l  ibullus,  so  happily  imi- 
tated by  Hauifnond.  The  Jesse  of  "Shen- 
slone,  which  has  perhajis  never  been  sur- 
passed, is  all  pathos.  'I'he  celebrated  elegy 
of  Gray  combines  every  cl.arm  of  description 
ami  sentiment.  1  he  elegiac  stanza,  the  mo- 
notony of  w  hich  soon  becomes  oppressive  ta 
the  ear,  is  sometimes  hamiily  exchanged  for 
a  lighter  measure,  as  in  Cowper's  Juan  Fer- 
nandez ; 

"  ^'e  w  inds  that  have  made  me  your  sport» 
Convey  to  this  desolate  shore 

,Souie  cordial  endearing  report 
Of  a  laud  I  shall  visit  no  more. 

My  friends  tlo  they  now  and  then  .'^end 
A  wish  or  a  thought  after  me  > 

Oh  1  tell  me  1  yet  have  a  friend, 

Tliough  a  friend  I  am  never  to  see."' 

'Ilie  SoNN'ET  represents  in  an  abridged  form 
the  aiitient  elegy;  the  same  slow  stanza  is  as- 
signed to  each,  and  the  sentiments  suital>lc 
to  the  one  are  appropriate  to  the  other.  'J'hc 
sonnet  is  derived  from  the  Italian  school,  and 
was  much  cultivated  in  England  during  Ihe 
seventeenth  century.  It  is  always  limited  to 
fourteen  lines,  an  artificial  character  which 
should  seem  to  iiuhcate  anOriental  extraction. 
Thetijilowing,  by  ^iilton,  is  a  line  specimen 
of  the  English  sonnet  in  the  Italian  manner : 

"  O  nightingale,  that  on  yon  h-afv  spray 
Wast  blest  at  eve,  when  all  the  woods  are  still ! 
Thou  with  fresh  hopes  the  lovei-'s  heart  dost 

till, 
When  the  jolly  Hours  lead  on  propitiousMav. 
Thy  rK)ui(l  notes,  that  clo  e  the  eye  of  Day, 
First  h.'ard  before  the  shallow  cuckoo's  bill. 
Portend  success  in  love.     Oh  !  if  Jove's  wilt 
Have  link'd  that  amorous  power  to  thy  soft 

lay. 
Now  time'v  sing,  ere  the  rude  bird  of  hate 
Foretell  my   hopeless  doom  in  some  grove 

nigh. 

As  thou  from  year  to  year  iiast  sung  too  late 
p'or  mv  relief,  yet  hadstno  nason  why. 
Whether  the  muse  or  Love  call  thee  his  male, 
I5olh  them  I  serve,  and  of  their  train  am  I." 

In  the  following  sonnet,  which  is  of  a  mo- 
dern dale,  the  stanza  is  happily  accommodat- 
ed to  the  English  language  : 

A\'ritlen  in  the  church-yard  of  Middleton, 

Sussex. 

"  Press'd  by   the  moon,   mute  arbitress  of 

ti.les, 
Whilst  the  loud  equinox  it?  power  combines 
Tlie  sea  no  more  its  swelling  surge  tontines, 
lUit  o'er  the  shrinking  land  sublimely  rides. 


46S 

The  wild  blast  rising  from  the  western  cave, 
Drives  the  huge  billows  i'lom  tlieir  heavina 

bed, 
Tears  from  tlieir  grassy   tombs  the  villagt 

dead. 
And  Linaks  the  silent  sabbath  of  the  grave. 
AVitli  shL-Us  and   sea-weid  mingled  On  the 

shore, 
Lo!  theirbones  whiten  on  the  frequent  wave. 
But  vain  to  them  the  winds  and  waters  rave, 
Thev  hear  the  warring  elements  no  more  ; 
"While  I  am  doom'd,  bv.liies  long  storm  op- 

prest. 
To  gaze  with  cnvj-  on  their  gloomy  rest." 

Pope's  Elegy  to  an  Unfortunate  Lady,  an 
■  his  Eloisa,  are  in  heroic  verse  ;  which,  ui  the 
hands  of  th.at  great  master,  is  adequate  to  the 
expression  of  every  feeling. 

Lyric  poetry  is  versatile  and  miscel- 
,  laaeous,  admitting  almost  every  divei-sity 
wf  measure  and  of  subject.  Love  and  he- 
roism,, friendship  and  devotional  sentiment, 
the  triumphs  of  beauty  and  the  praises 
.of  patriotism,  are  ail  appropriate  to  Ijrical 
composition.  The  soul  of  enthusiasm,  the 
spirit  of  philosophy,  the  voice  of  sympathy, 
may  all  breatlie  in  the  same  ode.  Of  our 
Ivrical  writers,  Dryden  is  confessedly  emi- 
nent; Gray  is  distinguished  by  the  majesty 
and  delicacy  of  his  expression,  and  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  stvle;  Collins  is  occasionally 
anima(ed  by  a  portion  oi  Pindaric  spirit. 
Among  our  heroic  odes  there  are,  perhaps, 
none  that  breathe  a  loftier  strain  than  the 
following  patriotic  invocation  by  Burns : 

"  Scots,  who  have  with  Wallace  bled, 
Scots,  whom  Bruce  hath  often  led, 
Welcome  to  the  gory  bed, 

Or  to  glorious  victory. 
Now's  the  day,  and  now's  the  hour, 
See  the  front  of  battle  lower ; 
See  api^roach  proud  ICdward's  power, 

Edward's  chains  and  slavery. 
\^'h6  will  be  a  traitor  knave  ? 
Who  can  ask  a  coward's  grave? 
Who  so  base  to  be  a  slave  ? 

Traitor,  coward,  turn  and  flee. 
AVho  for  Scotland,  king,  and  law, 
Freedom's  sword  will  strongly  draw, 
Freeman  stand,  and  freeman  fii'  ? 

Caledonian,  on  wi'  me. 
By  oppressions,  woes,  ajid  pains. 
By  your  master's  servile  chains, 
Vv'e  will  draw  our  dearest  veins, 

But  they  shall  be,  shall  be  free. 
Lay  the  proud  usurpers  low ;  . 
Tyrants  fall  in  every  foe. 
Liberty's  in  eve^ )'  blow : 

'i'orward  let  us  do,  or  die." 

In  the  minor  lyrics  are  included  Songs,  a 
species  of  composition  se<luU,usly  cultivated 
by  English  writere.  The  themes  of  songs  are 
in  general  amatory  or  convivial;  there  are 


POETRY. 

classical  eminence    have  been  supplied  by 
Stfven«,  SlienUan,  and  Burns. 

DtDACiic  poetry  is  minutely  prec»»ptive, 
and  professes  to  convey  uselol  nistructiun  on 
some  particular  subject.  It  is  obviously  not 
easy  to  discover  situations  in  which  an  author 
maj  becouie  a  practical  teacher,  without  ceas- 
ing to  be  the  poet:  and  this  dil'ritullj  is  ag- 
gravatetl  lo  the  English  writer,  who  has  not 
the  resources  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  in  the 
Kit  trical  capacities  oi  his  language. 

A'Mgil's  georgical  poem  is  the  performance 
of  the   first  master,  operating  with  the   l)est 
I  materials.    In  imitation  of  \  irgil,  a  poem  was 
,  rcompcsed  by  Joim  Pliillips  on  cjder,  which 
is  now  little  read.     Towards  the  midale  of 
the  last  century,  when  the  didactic  muse  had 
most  votaries,  polemics,  physics,  and  meta- 
physics,   were    successively    expounded    in 
verse.    But  verse  is  not  the  medium  by  which 
information  can  be  communicated  w  ith  most 
advantage;  and  is  less  suitably  employed  in 
elucidating  abstract  speculation,  than  in  en- 
forcing  popular  and   acknowledged   truths. 
The  philosophy  ot  Akeiiside  is  relished  only 
for  his  imagery    and  harmonious   language. 
The  ajihorisms  of  Armstrong  are  remember- 
ed only  where  the  aulhor  was  more  sensible 
to  the  iniluences  of  Apollo  than  of  Escula- 
pius.'      The  Economy  of  N'egetaiion,    and 
the  Loves  of  llie  Plants,  are  formed  on  a  plan 
not  only  original,  but  new.     It  is  probable, 
that  the  primary  idea  of  this  work  was  sug- 
gested to  the  author  by  the  perusal  of  Cow- 
ley's Garden;  but  on  that  simple    site   he 
has  erected  a  magnihcent  palace,   in  which 
no    vestige  of  the  antient    edihce   remains. 
With  an  imagination  luxuriant  as  that  oi  Ovid, 
and  with  powers  of  detcription  scarcely  less 
universal,  he  has  invented  a  machineiy   ap- 
propriate  to  his  subject,  and  w^liich  is  also 
derived  solely  from  the  philosophy  of  mo- 
dern times.  From  the   extensive   notes    ap- 
pended to  his  poems,   it  is  however  obvious, 
that  though  he  might  thus  en. body  the  prin- 
ciples of  science  to  the  eye  of  fancy,  he  de- 
spaired of  rendering  them  intelligible  with- 
out the  agency   of  prose.     Mason's  English 
Gaiden  is  more   descriptive , than  didactic. 
De  Lille's  Jardins  is  a  chef-d'oeuvre  in  its 
kind.     In  the  Essay  on  Criticism,  Pope  has 
most  happ-ily  enlivened  didactic  style  with 
wit  and  ^atire. 

bATiaiCAL  poetry  is  descriptive  of  men 
and  manners;  its  aim  is  to  delineate  the 
follies  and  chastise  the  vices  of  the  age. 
Satire  is  evidently  the  ollspring  of  "polished 
times;  and,  unlike  otiier  poets,  the  satirist 
finds  his  empire  enlarged,  and  his  infijience 
exts^nded,  by  the  progress  oi  society. 

bitire  is  either  pointed  or  oblique:  elo- 
quence is  the  soul  ot  tlie  one,  ridicule  of  the 
other.  TlU'  one  rushes  on  its  object  m  a  tor- 
rent of  vehcHience  and  declamation ;  the 
other  pursues  a  smooth  tortuous  course,  oc- 
casion,lly  retlecting  to  tht-  mind  the  most 
nioiiieiitous  trutiis  m  tiie  plaj  iul  aspect  of 


patriotic  and  martial;  and  not  a  few  are  oi 
the  humorous  cast,  Shakspeare,  Jon- 
son,  and  our  other  elder  bartls,  have  be- 
queathed to  us  songs  of  e.Kquisite  beauty.  In 
the  last  cei.lury  the  iivost  iMpiUar  song-writer 
was  Gay.  Allan  Ramsay  lias  left  sv>  ne  en- 
chanting airs.  Percy's  collection  iias  restored 
many  lyrical  pieces  of  inimitabie  pithosand 
simplicity.     In  latter  tiracs,  many  song,  ol 


however  some,  of  which  the  strain  is  purely,  wit  and  humour.     In  the  lliidibrasof  Butler, 


theLutrinof  Boilean,  and  the  Rape  of  the 
Luck,  the  ellt.".  t  ot  OJUjue  satire  is  height- 
ened by  an  assumption  of  the  heroic  style, 
tiie  perv.'r.-,ion  ol  wliiih  produces  an  ell'ect 
exquisitely  ludicroii.>.  Gay's  Shepherd'sWeek 
I  anu  G re  set's  Vi.r-vert  belong  to  this  species, 
as  do  many  of  \'olt<iire's  lighter  poems,  and 
many  of  La  Fontaine's  tales.  Sv/il't's  satire  '^ 
co'nunonly  of  a  similar  cast.  The  satire  of 
5 


Young  is  always  pointed  and  saturnine,  I«  , 
Churchill  the  pointed  and  the  oblique  are 
happily  united ;  as  they  are  in  Dryden  and 
Pope,  the  two  great  original  masters  oi  Eng- 
lisli  satire,  who  both  |)ossesied  with  wit  and 
fancy  a  knowledge  of  men  and  manners,  and 
an  intuitive  discernment  of  characters.with  the 
aptitude  of  describing  them,  which  are  its 
first  requisites.  'I'he  follow  hig  extracts  ali'ord 
a  specimen  of  the  manner  ot  each  in  the 
delineation  of  character :  i-t  must,  however, 
be  remembered,  that  Pope  moralizes  whilst 
Dryden  declaims  : 
"  Some  of  their  chiefs  were  leaders  of  the 

land: 
In  the  Ilrst  rank  of  these  did  Zimri  stand  ; 
A  man  so  various,  that  lie  seem'd  to  be 
Not  one,  but  all  mankinu's  epitome. 
Siilfin  opinion,  alwa\sin  the  wrong, 
Was  every  thing  by  starts,  and  nothing  long; 
Put  in  liie  course  oi  one  rev.  Iving  moon, 
\\  as  chemist,  fidler,  statesman,  and  buflbon ; 
Then    all  for  women,    painting,    rhyming, 

drinking, 
Beside  ten  thousand  freaks  that  dfed  in  think- 
ing. 
Blest   madman  !  who  could  every  hour  cm- 
ploy 
\\  ith  something  new  to  wish,  or  to  enjoy. 
Railing  and  praising  uere  his  usual  themes;       i 
And  both  to  shew  his  judgment  in  extremes. 
Is  ever  violent,  or  ever  civil,  ' 

That  every  man  with  him  was  God  or  devil. 
In  squandering  wealth  was  his  peculiar  art ; 
Nothing  went  unrewarded  but  desert : 
Beagar'd  by  fools,  whom  still  he  found  loo 

iate, 
He  had  hisjest,  and  they  had  his  estate. 
He  laugh'd  himself  from  court ;  then  sought 

relief 
In  forming  parties,  but  would  ne'er  be  chief." 

Dryden. 
"  In  the  worst  inn's  worst  room,  with  m.»t. 

hail-hung, 
1  he  walls  of  plaister,  and  the  floor  of  dung ; 
(  'n  once  a  fiock-bed,  now  repair'd  with  straw, 
Wilh    tape-tied   curtains     never    meant    to 

draw  ; 
The  George  and  garter  dangling  from    liis 

■head,  ' 

Where  tawdrj'  yellow  strove  with  dirty  red  ;, 
Great  Villiers  lies:  alas!  howchangd  tronoi 

him 
The  life  of  pleasure,  and  the  soul  of  whim, 
Gallant  and    gay,  in   Cliveden's  proud  al 

cove. 
The  bower  of  wanton  Slnewsbury,  and  love:] 
Or  just  as  gay  at  council,  in  a  ring 
Of  mimic  statesmen  and  their  merry  king. 
No  wit  to  flatter  left  of  all  his  store  ; 
No  fool  to  laugh  at,  which  he  valued  more,.  : 
'I  he  victor  of  his  health,  his  fortune,  Iriends,  i 
And  tame,this  lord  of  useless  thousands  ends. 
It  would  be  amusing  lo  pursue  the  comp; 
rison  between  those  two  grei.t  poets  hii  th 
Dunciad   and    Mac  Flecnoe  ;    to  observ 
the  uiipruiied  exuberance  aud  careless  vi:'oi 
o!  the  elder  bard,  and  the  exquisite  judgmei 
of  his  incomparable  imitator. " 

Epic  poetry  concentrates  allthat.is  sublin: 
in  action,  description,  or  sentiment.  In  tl 
structureof  a  regular  epic  poem,  criticism  r 
quires  that  I'le  fable  should  be  founded 
fact,  and  that  fiction  should  fill  tii--  picture 
which  the  outline  is  traced  by  truth.  In  tl 
conduct  of  the  poem,  it  is  exacted  (hat  tl 
inacliLuery  be  subservient  to  the  main  desig 


and  tluil  the  arfion  «liouUl  be  simple  and  imi- 
forni.  Ill  the  Iliad,  the  action  is  lniiil"d  to  tlic 
li'^'^truLtioii  ot  'IVoy,  wliicii  is  only  to  l)e  cl- 
fected  by  l\w  conciliation  of  Achilles  Vo  the 
coinnion  cause.     In  the  Odyssey,  it  is  the 
establishment  of  I'lysst-s  in  llh.ica;   an  event 
wJiich,   after  innumerable  diliicullies,   he   is 
finally  cnabli'd  to  accomplish.    In  the  .Eneid 
the  hero  is  destined  to  found  a  'I'lojan  colony 
in   Latiuni.     In  the   Jerusalem    Oelivered, 
the  oliject  of  the  poem  from  its  commence- 
mt-nt  to  its  close,  is  the  re-toration  of  that 
city  to  the  Christians.     Cntin^^ni   retpiires 
also  that  poetical  justice  should  l)e  dispensed 
to  all   parties,  success  being  awarded  to  the 
•uirluous,  and   punishmenf  iiiiiicled   on  the 
guilty.     On   these   principles,  three  authors 
onlyl  Homer,  Virgil,  and  'I'asso,  have  pro- 
duced epic  works.    Thcrirare  however  many 
poems  of  the  epic  or  heroic  cast  to  which 
criticism   has    hitherto   assigned   no    name. 
Such  are  theLusiad  ofCamoens.andtheHen- 
riade  .if  \'oltaire;  and  in  the  Paradise  Lost, 
Milton  appears  in  solitary  majesty  and  mag- 
nificence.    He  maintains  a  lofty  independ- 
ance  of  rules  and  systems,   and  eternizes  to 
himself  a  distinction  superior  to  all   that  cri- 
ticism lias  to  withhold  or  to  bi'stow.  The  In- 
ferno of  Dante,  the  Orlando  of  Ariosto,  the 
Fairy  Queen  of  Spenser,  are   romances  ;  a 
sp'fi.'ies  of  composition   purely   lictitious,  in 
which  no  otlier  restriction  is  imposedon  the 
poet's  fancy  than  that  he  shall  continue  to  in- 
terest and   amuse  his  reader.      Several   ro- 
mances of  a  .ecent  date  are  intitled  to  praise: 
such  as  the  Oberon  of  Wielancf,  ably  trans- 
lated   by    Mr.    Sotheby  ;    the  Tlialaba    of 
Southc),  of  which    the   beauties  wojild  be 
more  generally  appreciated  if  the  work  was 
less  tinged  with  gloom;  and  the  Lay  of  the 
Last  Min-itrel,  in  which  a  fable  of  the  most 
superticial  texture  is  drawn  out  in  a  succes- 
sion   ot   scenes   which   perpetually   animate 
and  delight  the  imagination.     It  is  obvious. 


.POETRY. 

Beaumont   and    Fletcher,    and   even   Shak- 
speare,   belong  to  this  order.     'I'he   English 
drama  dv-viales  ess-entially  from  that  of  classi-. 
cal  antiquity  ;  and  independant  of  the  division 
of  acts  and  scenes,  ther«  is  liide  resemblance 
between  them.     The  triple  unities  of  time, 
place,  and  action,  are  seldom  observed  on  the 
English  stage ;  and  our  best  writers  have  al- 
lowed, that  between  the  acts  any  change  of 
scene  is  admissible.     In  reality  this  operation 
is  perfurmed  in  most  tragedies  and  all  come- 
dies, at  any  season,  w  ithout  cither  condition 
or  restriction  ;   nor  is,  perhaps,  any  change 
censurable,  the  cause  and  object  of  which  is 
immediately  comprehended  by  the  audience. 
To  the  limitation  of  time  more  attention  is 
paid.     In  many   tragedies  the  action   is  in- 
cluded in  one  day.     Unity  of  design  is  ob- 
viously an  obligation  imposed  by  good  sense; 
and  Shakspeare,  guide<i    only  by  his    feel- 
ings of  [iropriety,  is  in  general  careful  to  e.\- 
clude  from   his  plays  a  divided  interest,  an 
error  perpetually  committed  by    Beaumont 
and  Fletcher,  and  his  other  dramatic  contem- 
poraries.   To  construct  a  truly  dramatic  fable 
is  no  easy  task.     The  antlior  lias  to  provide 
sources  of  constantly   augmenting   interest, 
to  present  characters,    to  suggest  situations 
capable  of  extortihg  from  the  spectators  an 
active  participation  in  the  scene  ;  above  all, 
to   supply  a  series   of  natural  incidents,  the 
springs  of  dramatic  action,  by  which  all  the 
life  and  motion  of  the  piece' are   produced. 
The  dramatic  style   should  indiibe  its  cha- 
racter from  that  of  tlie  individuals  presented 
in  the  scene,  and  transmit  the  impression  of 
every  feeling  which  is  there  pourtrayed.    On 
tliis  e.Kcellence  is  founded  the  superiority  of 
Shakspeare   to    all  other  dramatists;    from 
him  each  passion  receives  its  appropriate  lan- 
guage. With  a  few  masterly  touches,  he  lays 
open  the  heart,  exhibits  its  most  secret  move- 
ments, and   excites  in  every  bosom  corres- 
pondent emotions.     The  poet  who,  next  to 


that   the   poetical  nomenclature  established    Shakspeare,  has  excelled   in    the   dramatic 

style,  is  Otway.  The  tragedies  of  Rowe  pos- 
se'ss  extraordinary  merit.  In  the  plays  of 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  and  Massinger,  are 
innumerable  passages  of  high  poetical  beau- 
ty; and  in  tho^e  of  Drytlen  are  discovered  the 
what  name  shall  we  designate  the 'i  ravelU-r 'most  hrilliaht  combinations  of  thought  and 
and  the  Deserted  Village,  the    Pleasures   ofjiancy:  but  the   touclies   of  nature   are   still 


on■cUl3^icdl  authority,  is  not  sufticiently  eX' 
tensive  to  include  all  the  compositions  of 
modern  times.  To  what  classical  school 
fhall  we  veler  the  noble  ethics  of  Pope  in  his 
Epistles,  and  oi  Cow|,er  in  his  Task?     By 


Memory,  the  Pleasures  of  Hope,  fneither  of 
which  is",  like  the  Pleasures  of  imagination,  in- 
cluded in  the  didactic  species),  with  many 


wanting  ;  that  true  dramatic  idiom  which  is 
instantly  understood  by  the  heart,  and  the 
3b<^eiice  o;  which  is  notcompen!;atecl  bv  beau- 


other  exquisite  protluctions  ?   Ossiaii's  poems  |  titul  imagery,  or  the  most  retined  graces  of 
have  been   classed  with  epic  compositions,  I  composition".     Dramatic  blank  verse,  when 


but  are  more  analogous  to  the  old  heroic  lays 
chanted  by  the  M:alds,  bards,  and  minstrels. 
The  relics  of  Scandinavian  lileraturi:  aflbrti 
many  -pecimens  of  poetry  which,  though  in- 
ferior in  beauty,  are  obviously  of  similar  origin 
and  execution. 

Originally  the  I'.i.\ma  was  a  metrical  com- 
position, and  exhibited  all  the  critical  rehne- 
ments  of  p  letry.  The  title  of  poet  is  still  giv- 
en to  every  diamatic  author,  although  he 
should  have  written  in  prose,  and  although 
the  highest  dramatic  powers  may  exist  without 
the  smallest  talent  for  poetry.  The  avowed 
object  of  the  drama  is  to  developethe  passi- 
ons, or  to  delineate  tiic  manners  of  mankinds 
tragedv  effects  the  one,  and  comedy  the  other. 
In  the"  F.nglish  language  are  many  popular 
dramas  of  a  mixed  j;-haracter,  which  are  writ- 
ten in  ver^e,  intermingled  with  prose,  and 
which  ate  called /J«(/5,    The  best  pieces  in 


flowing  with  fr(e<lom  and  facility,  is  more 
happily  adapted  than  prose  to  the  expression 
of  iM long  emotion;  il  is  not  only  more  har- 
moniou-,  but  more  concise;  and  being  ex- 
onerated Irom  that  metrical  precision  which 
is  expected  in  otiier  poetry,  is  simply  the 
language  of  impassioned  feeline.  _  Much  of 
the  imagery  which  might  delight  in  the 
closet,  would  ori'end  on  the  stage  :  yet  figura- 
tive language  is  oiten  employed  with  great 
effect  in  describing  tlie  tempestuous  passions. 
In  a  state  of  agitation  the  mind  becomes  pe- 
culiarly susceptible  of  new  combinations. 
Grief  is  elocpieiit :  and  though  the  chain  of 
thought  is  too  tenacious  to  be  broken  by  sen- 
si'ole  impressions,  it  discovers  in  every  ex- 
ternal object  some  ty|;ical  illustration  of  its 
own  sutierings  ;  some  image  which,  by  a  kind 
of  fictitious  'sympathy,  seems  respoiident  to 
its  individual  feelings.    Thus  Lear,  though 


469 

insensible  to  the  storni,  invokes  the  elements, 
revcMiing  to  the  contumely  hehasexperiencetl: 
"  I  tax  not  you,  ye  elements,  with  unkind- 

ness; 
I  never  gave  you  kingdom,  call'd  you  chil- 
dren ; 
You  owe  rae  no  subscription." 

In  impassioned  language,  even  a  mixture 
of  metaphors  is  not  indtfensible ;  in  a  mo- 
ineiit  of  distraction  the  mind  is  versatile,  and 
indistinct  in  its  i>erceptions;  andconse(|uenlly 
becomes  liable  to  foim  abinpt,  desultorv,  an'd 
even  incongruous  associations. 

Ofjnctrical  kaniionij  and  poclical  emotion. 

Metrical  harmony  is  but  the  medium  by 
which  the  poet  transmits  his  ideas  and  senti- 
ments: it  constitutes  thefab.ic  iiilo  which  his 
conceptions  are  wrought,  (he  iorm  in  which 
his  sentiments  are  exhibited.  Melrical  har- 
mony is  common  to  all  who  assume  the  name 
of  poets  ;  from  the  humble  \ers;lier  creeping 
through  heilge-rovvs  of  rhyme  at  the  foot  of 
Parnassus,  to  tiie  son  of' genius,  who  has 
drunk  of  inspiration  at  its  source,  and  rides 

"  Upon  the  seraph  wing  of  ecstacy." 

It  has  appeared  diiricult  to  suggest  a  proper 
mode  of  dlslinction  between  these  two  orders 
of  writers  ;  and  it  has  been  often  asked,  what 
the  real  diiference  is  between  the  legitimate 
bard  and  a  maker  of  pretty  verses:  their  re- 
spective pretensions  might,  it  should  seem, 
be  amici.bly  adjusted,  by  leaving  to  the  fofiner 
an  exclusive  right  to  tlie  character  of  poet, 
and  assigning  the  rank  of  metTiciil  potts  to 
the  latter.  There  is  in  metrical  Karmonv  a 
charm  that  often  renders  a  trivial  thought 
pleasing.  I'here  are  also  certain  agreeable 
epithets  which,  if  not  egregiously  misplaced, 
must  always  call  to  the  mind  grateful  associa- 
tions; and  which  when  aided  by  melodious 
verse,  will  generally  impart  some  transient  sen- 
sation of  pleasure.  To  awaken  strong  and  per- 
manent feelings  of  delight,  is  the  prerogative 
only  of  the  original  bard.  Poetical  emotion 
springs  from  admiration  or  from  svinpathv, 
and  may  be  awakened  by  the  novelty  or  tl'ie 
renovation  of  sensation.  It  may  ari'se  from 
combinations  new  to  the  fancy,  or  from  re- 
collections interesiing  to  the  heart.  In  the 
energy  oi  his  conceptio.ns,  and  in  the  charm  of 
his  expression,  resides  all  the  poet's  power. 
There  are  no  features  of  sublimity  and  mag- 
nificence, no  touches  of  tendernes"s.or  palho°, 
bu'  may  be  traced  to  those  two  sources  of 
poetical  excellence.  Sublimity  originates  in 
the  amplitude  of  the  poet's  mind,  an<!.is  dis- 
covered in  the  majesty  of  h.s  images,  or  the 
grandeur  of  his  sentiment:  a  sensation  of 
terror,  mingled  with  admiration,  also  belongs, 
to  the  subilme.  Such  is  the  sensation  awak- 
ened by  Milton's  awful  description  of  the 
infernal  portals : 

"  On  a  sudden  open  fly 
\^'idl  impetuous  recoil,  andjarring  sound. 
Til'  Hifernal  doors,  and  on  tiieir  hinges  grate 
Harsh  thunder,  that  the  lowest  bottom  shook 
Of  Erebus." 

AVhat  follows  is  in  the  true  spirit  of  ter- 
rific sublimity  : 
"  She  opened  ;  but  to  shut 
Exceh'd  her  power.  The  gates  wide  open 

stood ; 
That  with  extended  whig  a  bannered  host. 


470 

I'jiclcr  spread  ensigns  marching,  mig^it  pass 

thriugh 
W'.tii  hoise  and  chariots  rank'd  in  loose  ar- 
ia v. 
So  wicie  they  it  )(.d ;  and  like  a  fiirnace-nioutli 
C'ist.  loi(h    leUoumling   smoke,   and  ruddy 

flane. 
Biforc  Uieir  (>ye^  iiisudden  view  a))pear 
The  secrets  oT  the  lioary  deep  ;  a  ihuk 
Illiiintable  ocean,  wilhout  l)0'.ind, 
■Without  dinieiisio!!,  where  length,  bieadth, 

ajid  liighth, 
And  tinic,'and  place,  are  lost." 

Sublimity  is  produced  by  grandeur  of  sen- 
timent : 

"  Farewell,  happy  fields, 
V.'lH-reioy  !or  ever  dwells.  Il.iil,  horrors]  liai!, 
Infernal  world  !  and  thou,  profoundest  hell, 
Kece'.ve  thy  new  possessor,  one  who  brhigs 
A  mind  not  to  be  ciiang'd  by  place  or  time. 
Tlie  mind  is  itti  own  place ;  and  in  iuelfj 
Can  make  a  heaven  of  hell,  a  hell  of  heaven." 

In  sublime  composition  no  image  should 
be  introduced  wliich  is  not  calculated  to  im- 
press the  mind  with  feelings  of  solemnity. 
Tlie  following  description  of  Satan  exempli- 
fies the  union  of  subluiie  imagery,  with  sub- 
Ihnilv  of  sentiment.  There  is  even  something 
like  pathos  in  tlie  concluding  passage  : 

"  lie,  above  the  rest 
In  shape  and  gesturi'  proiully  eminent, 
Stood  like  a  tower.  His  forn'i  had  not  yet  lost 
All  her  original  brightness ;  nor  appear'd 
Tcss  than  arch-angel  ruined,  and  the  excess 
Of  glorv  obscur'd;  as  when  the  sun, new-risen, 
Looks  tl'.rough  theliorizonta!  misty  air, 
Sliorn  of  his  beams;  or  from  behind  the  moon, 
In  dim  eclipse,  disastrous  twilight  sheds 
On  half  the  nations,  and  with  fear  of  change 
Perplexes  monarchs.  Darkened,  so  yet  shone 
Above  thcm"all  the  arcli-angel ;  but  his  face 
Deep  scars  oi  tiumder  had  entrench'il,  and 

care 
Sat  on  his  faded  cheek  ;  but  imdcr  brows 
Of  dauntless  courage,  and  considerate  pride 
AVaitiug  revenge  ;  cruel  his  eye,  but  cast 
Signs  of  remorse  and  passion,  to  behold 
The  fellows  of  his  crime  (the  followers  rather) 
Far  other  once  beheld  iji  bliss,  conderan'd 
For  ever  now  to  have  their  lot  in  pain. 
Millions  of  spirit;,  for  his  fault,  amerc'd 
Of  heaven,  and  from  eternal  splendour  tlung, 
"(•'or  his  revolt  ;  yet  faithful  how  lliey  stood  ; 
Their  glorv  witliered,  as  when  heaven's  lire 
Hath  scatlied  the  furest  oak,  or  mountain 

pine. 
With  singed  top  their  stately  growth,  Ihotigh 

iiare. 
Si  anils  on  the  blasted  heath.    He  now  pre- 
pared 
To  speak,  whereat  their  double  ranks  they 

bend 
From   wing  to  wing,  and    half-inclose  him 

round 
With  all  his  peers :  attention  held  them  mule. 
'I'hrice  he  assay'd;  and  llirice,  in  spite  of 

s'orii, 
Tears,  such  as  angels  weep,  burst  forlii :  at 

last 
Words,  interwove  with  sighs,  found  out  their 
way." 

An  energetic  simplicity  is  essential  to  the 
sublime,  wiiich  disclaims  artilicial  oriiamenl. 
Description  inc  ludes  manv  of  the  elemenls 
ef  poetry,  and  alternately  produces  emotions 


rOETTY. 

of   niblim'ity  and   beauty.     Tiic  figv.raflve  | 
st^  le  is  often  as-umcd,  in  order  lo  give  niorc  1 
richness  and  vividness  to  descript!o;>.     The  j 
elements  are  thus  embodied    and  mom  and  | 
evening  are  perpctuslly   rcpiesented  mK>r 
some   popular  and  pleasing   image.      '1  hus 
MiUon  peisonifiei  the  nio.ning: 
"  Now  Morn,  her  early  ;teps  in  (Irj  eastern 

clime 
Advancirg,  sowed    the    earth    will)   orient 

pearl." 
And  Shakspeare; 

"  Hut  see,  the  Morn,  in  russet  mantle  cln-1, 
M  alks  o'er  the  dews  of  yon  high  eastern  hill." 

Description  is  sometimes  rendered  more 
lively  bv  the  introduction  of  a  liguralive  allu- 
sion.' Thus,  nthe  Allegro,  Milton  illustrates 
his  description  of  sun-nic  : 

"  Sometimes  walking  not  unseen, 
r,y  hedge-row  elms,  or  hillocks  green, 
R'lolit  against  the  eastern  gate, 
AVhere  the  great  sun  begins  his  state, 
Ixob'd  in  ilanies  and  amber  bright, 
The  clouds  in  thousand  liveries  dight." 

In  II  Penseroso  he  again  enhvens  his  imc»' 
gery  by  an  interesting  allusion : 
"  Missing  thee,  I  walk  unseen 
On  the  dry  smooth-shaven  green. 
To  behold  the  wandering  moon 
Hiding  near  her  highest  nojn, 
J.ikeone  that  l.ad  been  led  astray 
'I'lirough  the  heaven's  wide  pathless  way; 
And  ok  as  if  her  head  she  bow'd. 
Stooping  through  a  lleecy  cloud." 
In  Dryden's'  poem  of  the  Flower  and  the 
Leaf  is  the  following  beautiful  illustration  of 
the  spring  : 

"  When  lirjt  the  tender  blades  of  grass  ap- 
pear. 
And  buds,  that  vet  the  breath  of  Euros  fear, 
Stand  at  the  duJr  of  life,  and  ask  to  clothe  the 
year." 

Poetical  description  is  either  general  or 
local,  and  admits  of  artificial  or  simple  iina- 
gerv.  In  the  two  following  passages  Pope 
exe'mplilies  tlie  dilference  ot  general  and  local 
deseripti^ni: 
"  Thy  trees,  fair  Windsor,  now  shall  leave 

their  wood, 
And  half  thy  forests  rusli  into  my  flood; 
Bear  Pritaii'i's  thunder,  and  her  cross  display, 
To  thebiiglit  regions  of  the  rising  day; 
Temjit  icv  seas,  uhere  scarce  the  waters  roll. 
Where  ciearw  llaines  glow  round  the  frozen 

pole  ; 
Or  under  soutliern  skies  exalt  their  sails, 
Led  by  new  stars,  and  borne  by  spicy  gales. 
Kor  me  the  bahn  shall  bleed,  the  amber  flow, 
The  coral  redden,  and  the  ruby  glow. 
The  pearly  shell  its  lucid  globe  enfoUl, 
And  Pha-bus  warm  the  rip'uiug  ore  to  gold." 
Here  the  author  dwells  not  sudiciently  long 
on  any  object  to  leave  a  distinct  picture  on 
the  iriind.     I5ut  in  the  ensuing  lines  the  de- 
lineation is  too  bold  to  be  missed  : 

"In  genial  spring,  beneath  the  ciuiv'ring  shade. 
Where  cooling   vapours    breathe   aloifg  the 

mead, 
The  patient  ^l^her  takes  his  silent  stand. 
Intent,  his  angle  trembling  in  his  hand  ; 
U'ith  looks    unmov'd  he   hopes  the    scaly 

breed, 
.\jid  eyes  the  dancing  cork  and  bending  reed. 


Our  plf ,  tPoi:s  slfoShis  a  vsr'dus  race  fUj-p'yt 
Tlie  bright-ey'd  perch,  with  tins  of  'lyiiaa 
dye; 

The  \ilver  eel,  in  sV.ining  volumes  ro'l'd ; 
The  yellow  carp,  in  scales  bednjpt  with  gold." 

The  two  following  extracts  from  Milton 
happily  illustrate  the  di;l'erence  of  artilicial 
■and  simple  imagery  1 

"  Now  tlie  bright  morning-star,  day's  har- 
binger, 
Comes  dancing  from  the  east,  and  leads  v.ith. 

lier 
The  flower)-  May,  who  from  her  green  lap 

tiirovs 
The  yellow  cowslip,  and  the  pale  primrosei 
liail,'  ijeauteous  ^lay,  that  doth  inspire 
Mirth,  and  youth,  and  .arm  desire! 
\\'ood>and  groves  are  of  thy  dressing, 
Hill  and  dale  doth  boast  thy  blessing." 

"  While  the  plowman  near  at  haml, 
Wiiistles  o'er  the  furrow'd  larn.1; 
And  the  milkmaid  singcth  blithe, 
And  tl'.e  mower  wliels  liis  silhe, 
.\iid  everv  shepherd  tells  his  tale 
Under  the  hawthorn  in  the  dale." 

In.general  description,  it  is  the  poet's  ob- 
ject to  force  on  the  mind  a  variety  of  bril- 
liant ideas  and  vivid  impressions.  In  his  local 
or  individual  delineations,  he  presents  images 
palpable  to  the  imagination,  and  almost  to 
the  senses;  he  stimujates  latent  feelings,  or 
renovates  forgotten  sensations.  In  the  com- 
bination of  artilicial  imagery,  he  employs  the 
power  of  novelty  ;  in  that  ol  simple  images, 
he  relies  on  the  charm  of  truth.  With  the  one 
the  attention  is  awakened,  by  the  other  it  \i 
absorbed.  Ihe  reader  perceives  in  himself 
a  capacity  for  forming  associations  till  tlien 
unknown';  but  he  is  yet  more  pleased  to 
retrace  scenes  and  sentiments  familiar  to 
memorv,  and  dear  to  the  heart.  In  one  in- 
stance "he  is  astonished  by  the  variety  of 
the  jioet's  conceptions,  in  (he  other  he  is 
encliantcd  by  the  fldelity  of  his  imitations, 
Ihe  magniheence  of  hgurative  language  and 
metaphoncal  description  extorts  admiration  ; 
the  saiiplicity  of  natural  images  inspires  de- 
light. In  local  description  tlie  poet  shouUl 
iiUroduee  only  such  objects  as  harnionizo 
i'; 


jorfectly  with' his  design.  Thus  in  his  deli- 
cious hcndscape  of  Eden,  .Milioii  carefully 
uoids  the  intrusion  of  exotic  imagery  : 


"  Thus  was  tills  place 

A  happy  rural  seat,  of  various  views  : 

Groves,  whose  rich  trees  wept  odorous  gums 

and  balms; 
Otliers,  whose  fruit   burnished  with  golden 

rind 
Iluicg  amiable,  Hesperian  fables  true 
(If  true),  here  only,  and  ( i"  delicious  taste. 
Betvdxt  tliem,  lawns,  or   level   downs,   and 

flocks 
( Jrazing  the  tender  herb  w'ere  interpase.l. 
Or  palmy  hillock,  or  the  flow'ry  top 
Of  some'irriguous  valley,  spreads  her  store  ; 
Flowers   of  all  hue,  and  without  thorn  the 

rose. 

"  .\uothersidc  umbrageous  grots  and  caves 
Ofeool  recess,  o'er  wliieli  the  mantling  vine 
Lays  liv.th  her  purple  grape,  and  gently  creep< 
Luxuriant:    meanwhile,  murmuring  waters 

fall 
Down  tlie  slope  hill  dispers'd  ;  or  in  a  lake 


I'  O  E 

i'ringfcl    bunk. 


w'ltli  mvi'tle 


Tiint    (o    the 

crccvMiM, 
IlcrcryS',;;!  minor  liQlds'iuiteliicir streams." 

There  is  in  local  description  a  charm  that 
renders  ohjocts,  iji  thcinseivcs  iiiiCon<;eiiial, 
engaging  to  the  mind.  The  following  pas- 
sage presents  few  nnaijes  of  beaiilv :  but 
in  cmtcmpUiting  it  who  docs  not  feel,  that 
wi'.lioiit  being  removed  from  the  common 
walk  <f  nature,  he  is  visited  l)y  the  iniUienccs 
of  |)octry  i 

"  'I'he  day  is  come,  when  I  aa:aii)  repose 
Here  iiii'er  this  dark  sycamore,  and  view 
'J'ho^.'  plots  ol  cottage  ground,  the  orchard 

tufts, 
AVhich  at  this  season,  with  their  unripe  fruits, 
AnvMi:;  the  woods  and  copses  lose  them- 
selves. 
Nor  with  their  green  and  simnle  hues  disturb 
The  wild  green  landscape.  Once  again  [  see 
l]edge-rows,  then  hardly  hedge-rows,  little 

liiies 
Of-portive  wood  run  wild.    The^^e  ])astoral 

farms 
Grecii   to  the   very    do.<r,  and  wreathes  of 

smoke 
Sent  up  in  silence  from  among  the  trees  ; 
Wiiii  some  uncertain  notice,  as  might  seem, 
■Of  vagrant  dwellers  in  the  fenceless  woods  ; 
Or  c)t  some  hermit's  cave,  where  by  his  fire 
Tire' hermit  sits  alone." 

If  such  is  the  cliarm  of  local  scenery,  vet 
greater  is  the  captivation  of  that  individual 
and  cliaracteristic  sentiment,  which,  from  its 
appropriiition  to  the  drama,  has  been  called 
dranuitic.  Such  indei'd  is  its  enchantment, 
tliat  It  has  been  found  capable  of  [jroducing 
flie  most  exquisite  eraotiou,  witiiout  any  aux- 
iliary ernbeilishmenls  from  figurative  lan- 
gua-;e  or  "picturesi|ue  imagery.  We  are 
never  more  deligiiteil  with  the  poet  than 
when  thus  intimately  admitted  to  his  coi;li- 
dcnce,  when  we  aresulfered  to  commune  with 
his  lieari,  lo  explore  his  mostr  etired  thoughts, 
and  partake  his  most  sacred  feelhigs.  This 
charm  of  individuality  was  in  some  of  his 
poems  eminently  possessed  by  Chaucer  and 
■some  of  our  elder  bards  ;  it  constituted  the 
Leading  feature  in  Cowper's  lavs-  it  formed 
the  magic  of  Burns ;  and  it  distinguishes 
the  author  of  the  Lyrical  BalLds.  '1  he  pa- 
thetic, like  tlie  sublime,  must  be  concise 
and  simple.  It  depends  not  so  much  on  the 
thought  as  the  expression.  Virgil's  descrip- 
tion of  Andromache  on  recogni/ing  .Eneas  at 
tlie  tomb  of  Hector,  is  strikingly  beautiful : 

■"  Verane  tua  facies?  &  verus  mihi  nunciusaf- 

fersr 
Nate  dea,  vivisne  ?  aut,  si  lux  alma  recessit, 
I'bi  Hector  est.-" 


T'  O  I 

"  And  60  he'll  die  ;  and  iisingso  agahi, 
W  hen  1  shall  meet  him  in  the  court  of  heaven 
I  sh.ill  nol  know  him ;  therefore  never,  m:\vr, 
Must  I  behold  niy  pretty  Arthur  more." 

'J'he  curinndf.licitas,  that  charm  or  felicity 
of  expression  which  Horace  so  happily  e\- 
eniplihed,  is  one  ot  the  most  powerful  agents 
in  producing  poetical  emoti;.n.     It  is  the  at- 
tribute which  belongs  only  to  the  poet  of  fia- 
ture  ;  and  is  the  eil'usion  of  some  fortunate 
moments,  wheii  cojisummate  judgment   has 
been  impelled  and  ir.spired  by  excpiisite  feel- 
ing.    It  is  impossible  but  (hat  the  readers  of 
Shakspeare  and  Milton  must  recollect  innu- 
merable examples  of  this  kind  of  cxcc-Ueuce. 
Who  has  not  felt  the  enchantment  conve)  ed 
by    tjhiikspeare's     "heaven-kissing     hil'l  ?" 
NVhat  lover  of  nature  has  not  in  some  bright 
auliunnal   morjiing,    whih;   ( onlenipkitmg  a 
rural  scene,   expctrienced  that  mixed  sensa- 
tion of  enjoyment  and  stillness  which  is   all 
desciibed  in  "  the  air  smells  wooingly  r"  Fe- 
licity of  expression  is  the-  native  itliom  of  geni- 
us ;  and  as  the  godde^s  oi  beauty  was  discover- 
ed by  her  hrst  niovcnients,  the  genuine  ])oet 
may  be  detected  by  a  single  epithet.     The 
spirit  of  poetry  is  not  conhned  to  subjects  of 
dignity  and  importance:  it  may  be  perceived 
in  a  sitnpl"  lay,  and  even  m  a  sportive  song. 
It  visited   Sappho,  as  it  had   sojourned  with 
Pindar;   and  was  as  truly   the  attend.ant  of 
Theocritus  as  of  Homer.     Nor   is  poetical 
emotion  inspired  only  by  the  song  of  heroes 
and  of  Gods.     It  may  be  awakened  even  by 
the  strain  of  playful  tenderness,  in  which  the 
lover  celebrates  some  darling  of  his  mistress. 
The  requisites  of  the  ti  ue  poetical  character 
are  thus  happily  summed  up  by  the  duke  of 
Buckingham  : 


r  o  I 


4-1 


The  whole  passage  is  atfecling,  but  the  pa- 
thos dwells  ui  the  "  ubi  Hector  est  ?'  Fi'ni- 
lative  language  is  often  happily  employed  in 
tae  description  of  impassioned  feeling.  Some- 
times it  appears  to  be  the  riatural  overflowing 
of  tenderness: 

"  Thy  cave  should  be  a  lover's  bower. 
Though  raging  winter  rent  the  air; 

And  she  a  lovely  little  flowei'. 
That  I  would  tend,  and  shelter  there." 

In  general,  however,  the  simple  and  un- 
adorned style  is  most  appropriate  to  pathos 
aril)  tenderness.  Thus  Constance,  in  her 
touching  appeal  to  the  Cardinals,  exclaims  of 
her  son  • 


"  '  I'is  not  a  tla»h  of  fancy,  which  sometimes. 
Dazzling  our  minds,   sets  olf    the  slightest 

rhymes. 
Bright  as  a  bl;ize,  but  in  a  moment  done. 
True  wit  is  everlasting,  like  the  sun, 
Which,  though  sometimes  beliind  a  cloud  re- 

lir'd. 
Breaks  out  again,  and  is  by  all  admii  'd ; 
Number,  and  rhyme,   and  that  harmonious 

sound 
Which  not  the  nicest    ear  with  harshness 

wound. 
Are  necessary,  yet  but  vulgar  arts  ; 
And  all  in  vain  these  superficial  parts 
Cnntril)ute  to  the  structure  of  the  whole, 
Without  a  genius  too,  for  that's  the  soul  ; 
A  spirit  which  inspires  the  work  throughout. 
As  that  of  nature  move»  the  world  about  ; 
A  llame  that  glows  amid  conceptions  (it, 
Kven  something  of  divine,  and'more  than  wit: 
Itself  unseen,  )  et  all  things  by  it  shewn. 
Describing  all  ihings,  but'dcscrib'd  by  none.' 


POULIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
cryptogamia  musci,  included  in  the  br^onia 
ot  Linna?us. 

POINCIANA,  J^orh'idocxjlniirr-fencf,  a 
genus  of  the  nionogynia  order,  in  the  decai;- 
dria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  33d  order,  lomentacea-. 
The  calyx  is  pentaphyllous  ;  the  petais  live, 
the  uppermost  larger  than  the  rest ;  the  sta- 
mina long,  and  all  fertile  ;  the  seed-vessci  a 
legumen.  'Iheie  is  only  one  species,  viz. 
the  pulcherrimn,  a  native  of  both  Indies.  It 
rises  with  a  straight  stalk  10  or  12  feet  hi<rh  ; 
the  branches  are  terminated  by  loose  spikes 
of  flowers,  wbicii  are  sometimes  forraeU  into 


a  kind  of  [.vnimid,  and  at  others  di  pose'/ 
more  in  the  form  of  an  umbel.  The  loot- 
stalk  cf  eadi  flovier  is  nearthreeincl.es  long; 
the  llower  is  composed  of  five  petals,  which 
are  roundish  at  the  top,  but  are  ccntracted  to 
narrow  tails  at  the  base.  They  (Spread  open, 
anil  are  beaiitihilly  variegated  with  a  deep 
red  or  orange  colour,  yellow,  and  sonic  spot  ^ 
ofgieen;  anil  <-init  a  very  agreeable  odoin-. 
After  (he  flower  is  past,  the  germen  btconies 
a  broad  flat  |jod  three  inches  long,  divided 
into  three  or  I  cur  cells  l)y  transverse  parti- 
tions, each  iiKleding  one  flatti  h  irrpgid.ir 
seed.  'J  he  plant  is  propagated  by  seeds; 
but,  l;eing  tcn<ler,  is  to  be  coaistantly  kept  in 
the  bark-stovp. 

POINT,  in  geometry,  as  defined  by  Eu- 
clid, is  a  (iiiantlty  which  has  no  parish  or 
which  is  indivi-.ible.  Points  are  the  ends  or 
extremities  of  lines.  If  a  point  is  supposed 
to  be  moved  any  way,  it  will,  by  its  motion, 
describe  a  line. 

Point  of  conlranj  Jlexure.     See   Fle.x- 

URK. 

Point,  in  music.  This  word,  as  conjoined 

with  otiiers,  has  various  signitication';.     The 
dilleieiit  uses  to  which  points  were  formerly- 
applied,  render  the  perusal  of  old  composi- 
tions extremely  dillicult  and  perplexing.     Iii 
thoie  works  we   meet  with  the  point  of  per- 
lectien,  point  of  augmentation,  point  of  ilivi- 
sion,  ^lul  point  of  alteration.     Tlie  point  of 
pertei  tion  was  added  to  tho?.e  notes  which 
were  denoted  by  the  modal  signs  to  be  pev- 
tect,  or  equal  to  three  notes  of  the  same  va- 
lue,  but  which  were  rendered  imperlect  by 
position.     1  he  point  of  augmentation  is  tha't 
in  modern  use,  which  the  old  masters  used 
only  in  common,  or  imperfect,  time.     The 
point  of  division,  or  imperfection,  was  placed 
between  two  shorter  notes  that  followed,  ni.d 
were   succeeded  by,   two  longer   in   perfect 
modes,  to  render  both  the  long  notes  imper- 
fect.    The  point  of  alteration,  or  of  dupli- 
cation, was  placed  before  two  shorter  notes 
preceding  a   longer,   in  order  to  tlouble  the 
ieilgth  ot  the  second  short  note.     In  modern 
music,    the    point,    taken   as   an   increased 
power  of  the  note,  is  always  equal  to  the 
iuilf  of  the  note  to  which  it  appertains. 

Point,  in  aslronomv,  a  term  applied  to 
certain  points  or  places",  maikecL  in  the  hea- 
vens,  and  distinguished  by  proper  epithets. 
The  four  grand  points  or  divisions  of  the  ho- 
rizon, viz.  the  east,   west,  north,  and  south, 
are  called  the  cardinal  points.     See  Hori- 
zon, E.4ST,  ^\  KST,  Sec.     The   zenith    and 
nadir    are   the    vertical   points;    the  points  ' 
wherein   the   orbits  of  the   planets   cut  liie 
plane  of  the  ecli|);ic,  are  called  the  nodes :  the 
points  wherein  the  equator  and  ecliptic  inter- 
sect, are  calleil  the  etpiiuoctial  points;  par- 
ticularly, that  wdience   the  sun  ascends  to- 
wards the  north  pole,  is  called  the  vernal 
point ;  and  tlu:t  by  which  he  tlescee.ds  to  the 
south  pole,  the  autumnal  point.     'I  he  points 
of  the  ecliptic,  where  the  sun's  ascent  above 
the  equator,  and  descent  below  it,  terminate, 
are   called  five   solstitial  points;  particularly 
tlie  fonner  of  them,  the  estival  or  summer 
point ;    the    latter,    the   brumal    or  winter 
point. 

Points,  in  heraldry,  are  the  several  dif- 
ferent parts  of  an  escutcheon,  denoting  the 
local  positions  of  any  ligtue.  See  Herau>- 
RT. 


■i^i 


r  0  I 


Point  is-also  an  iron  or  steel  instrument, 
used  witli  some  variety  in  several  arts.  En- 
gravers, etchers,  cutlers  in  wootl,  &^c.  use 
points  to  trace  tlieir  designs  on  the  copper, 
wood,  stone,  &c.    See  Engraving,  &.c. 

Point,  in  ilie  manufactories,  is  a  general 
term,  used  for  all  kinds  of  laces  wj-ougiit  with 
the  needle;  such  are  the  point  de'\'enice, 
poijit  de  France,  point  de  Genoa,  &c.  wiiich 
are  distingiiislied  by  llie  pkrticular  economy 
and  arrangement  of  their  points. 

Poi.N'x-Bi-ANK,  in  gunnery,  denotes  the 
shot  of  a  gun  levelled  horizontally. 

POFNl'JNG  the  cahh;  in  the  sea-lan- 
guage, is  tmtwisting  it  at  the  end,  lessening 
the_\ar]i,  twilling  it  again,  and  making  all 
last  v.iili  a  piece  of  marline,  to  keep  it  troni 
ravel  ing  out._ 

POISONS.  .  Poisons  are  commonly   di- 
vided into  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral 
•  kinds. 

r.  Poisoss,  animal.  Several  animals 
are  furnished  with  licjiud  juices  of  a  poison- 
ous nature,  which  wlien  poured  into  fresh 
■wounds,  occasion  the  disease  or  death  of  the 
wounded  animal.  Serpents,  bees,  scorpions, 
and  spiders,  are  well-known  examples  of  such 
animals.  The  chemical  properties  of  these 
poisonous  juices  deserve  peculiar  attention  ; 
because  lit  is  only  from  such  an  investigation 
that  we  can  hope  to  explain  the  fatal  changes 
which  they  induce  on  the  animal  economy, 
or  to  discover  an  antidote  sufficiently  power- 
ful to  counteract  their  baneful  influence. 
Unfortunately  the  task  is  difficult,  and  per- 
haps surpasses  our  cheinical  powers.  For 
the  i)rogress  already  made  in  the  investiga- 
tion, we  are  indebted  almost  entirely  to  tire 
labours  of  Fonlana. 


1.  The  poison  of  the  viper  is  a  yellow 
liquid,  whicii  lodges  in  two  small  vesicles  in 
the  animal's  mouth.  These  communieaie  by 
atube  v.it+i  the  crooked  fangs,  whicli  are  hoi- 
low,  and  terminate  in  a  sniaU  cavitv.  When 
the  animal  bits,  the  vesicles  are  squeezed, 
and  the  poison  forced  ihrougli  the  fangs  into 
the  \\ound.  This  structure  was  partly  ob- 
served by  Eedi,  an  Italian  philosopher;  and 
his  discoveries  were  completed  andconlirmed 
by  the  experiments  and  observations  of  Fran- 
cini,  Tysson,  Mead,  and  Fontana. 

This  poisonous  juice  occasions  the  fatal 
effects  of  the  viper's  bite.  If  the  vesicles  are 
extracted,  or  the  liciuid  is  prevented  from 
flowing  into  the  wound,  the  bite  is  harmless. 
If  it  is  infused  into  womids  made  by  sharp  in- 
struments, it  proves  as  fatal  as  when  intro- 
duced by  the  viper  itself.  Some  of  the  pro- 
perties of  this  liquid  were  i)ointed  out  by 
Mead ;  -but  it  was  Fontana  who  first  subjectecl 
it  to  a  chemical  examination,  sacrilicing 
many  Iwndred  vipers  to  his  experiments. 
The  (piantity  contained  in  a  single  vesicle 
scarcely  exceeds  a  drop. 

It  has  a  yellow  colour,  has  no  taste;  but 
when  applied  to  the  tongue,  occasions  numb- 
ness. It  has  the  appearance  of  oil  before  the 
microscope,  but  it  tniites  readily  with  water. 
It  produces  no  change  on  vegetable  blues. 

Wlien  exposed  to  the  air,  the  watery  part 
gradually  evaporates,  and  a  yellowish-brown 
snb^tance  remains,  which  has  the  appearance 
of  gum  arable.  In  this  state  it  feels  viscid, 
like  gum,  between  the  teeth ;  it  dissolves 
readily  in  water,  but  not  in  alcohol ;  and  a  - 
■cohol  throws  it  down  in  a  white  powder  from 


1'  O  T 

water.  Neither  acids  nor  alkalies  have  mticll 
eh'ectupon  it.  It  does  not  unite  with  vola- 
tile oils,  nor  sniphurel'  of  potass.  When 
heated,  it  does  not  melt,  but  swells,  and  docs 
not  intiaiue  till  it  has  become  black.  These 
properties  arc.  similar  to  the  properties  of 
gum,  and  indicate  the  gummv  nature  of  this 
poisonous  subsUuice.  Fonlana  made  a  set  of 
experiments  on  tlie  dry  poison  of  the  viper, 
and  a  similar  set  on  gum  arable,  and  obtained 
the  same  results. 

From  the  late  observations  of  Dr.  Eussel, 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  poisonous 
juices  of  tiie  other  serpents  are  similar  in  tlieir 
properties  to  those  of  the  viper. 

This  striking  resemblance  between  gums 
and  the  poison  of  the  viper,  two  substances  of 
so  opposite  a  nature  in  their  ell'ccts  upon  the 
living  body,  is  a  humiliating  proof  of  the 
small  progress  we  have  made  in  the  chemical 
knowledge  of  these  intricate  substiinces.  The 
poison  of  the  viiJcr,  and  of  serpents  in  genc- 
nal,  is  most  hurtful  when  nrixed  wiih  the 
blood.  Taken  into-the  stomach,  it  kills  if  the 
quantity  is  considerable.  Fontana  has  ascer- 
tained that  its  .fatal  fll'ects  are  proportional 
to  its  .quantilv,  compare<l  witli  the  qnantity 
of  the  blood.  Hence  the  danger  diminishes 
as  the  size  of  the  animal  increases.  Small 
birds  and  quadrupeds  die  immediately  when 
they  are  bitten  by  a  viper;  but  to  a  full-sized 
man  the  bite  seldom  proves  fatal. 

Ammonia  has  been  proposed  as  an  anti- 
dote to  the  bite  of  the  viper.  It  was  intro- 
duced ill  consequence  of  the  theory  of  IJr. 
Mead,  that  the  poison  was  of  an  acid  nature. 
The  nimicrous  trials  of  that  medicine  by  Fon- 
lana robbed  it  of  all  its  celebrity  ;  but  it  Iras 
been  lately  revived  and  recommended  by 
Jvr.  Ramsay  as  a  certain  cure  for  the  bite  of 
the  rattlesnake. 

2.  The  venom  of  the  bee  and  the  wasp  is 
also  a  liquid  contained  in  a  small  vesicle, 
forced  through  the  hollow  tube  of  the  sting 
info  the  wound  inflicted  by  that  instrument. 
From  the  experiments  of  Fontana,  we  learn 
that  it  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
poison  of  the  viper.  That  of  the  beo'is  much 
longer  in  drying  when  exposed  to  the  air  than 
the  venom  of  the  wasp. 

3.  The  poison  of  the  scorpion  resembles 
that  of  the  viper  also  ;  but  its  taste  is  hot 
and  acrid,  which  is  the  case  also  with  the  ve- 
nom of  the  bee  andthe  wasp. 

4.  No  experiments  upoii.which  we  can  re- 
ly have  been  made  upon  the  ])oison  of  the 
spider  tribe.  From  the  rapidity  with  which 
these  animals  destroy  their  prey,  and  even 
one  another,  we  cannot  doubt  that  their  poi- 
son is  sufficiently  virulent. 


II.  Poisons,  vegetable,  seem  in  general  to 
prove  fatal  from  an  excess  of  narcotic  matter ; 
but  this  is  a  subject  which  requires  still  farther 
examination.     See  Narcotic  princii'le. 

JII.  Poisons,  mineral.  In  general  these 
substances,  as  arsenic  and  corrosive  mercury, 
seem  to  attack  the  solid  parts  of  the  stomadi, 
and  to  produce  death  by  eroding  its  sub- 
stance ;  but  the  antimonials  seem  rather  to 
attack  the  nerves,  and  to  kill  by  throwing  the 
whole  system  into  convulsions. 

Poison  of  copper.  This  metal,  though 
whim  in  an  undissolved  sl;ate  it  produces  no 
sensible  effects,  becomes  exceedingly  active 
when  di«solved  ;  and  siieh  is  the  facility  with 
which  the  solution  is  effected,  that  it  becomes 


l'«0  1 

a  inatter  of  some  consot|uence  to  prevcij(  (lit 
metal  from  being  taken  into  the  lunnan  body 
even  in  it.>  proper  form.     It  does  f  ot,  how- 
ever, appear  that   the  poison  of  copper  is 
equally  pernicious  with  those  of  arsenic  or 
lead.     '1  he  fe;ison  of  this  Is,  tjiat  it  excites 
vomiting  so  speedily  as  to  be  expelled,  evca 
though  taken  in  considerable  quantity,  before 
it  has  time  to  corrode  the  stomiich.     Blue 
vitriol,  whicii  is  a  solution  of  copper  in  the 
vitriolic  acid,  has  been  used  as  a  medicine  in 
some  diseases  with  great  success.     Verdigris 
also,  w-hic!i  isanother  very  active  preparation 
of  the  metal,  has  been  by  some  physicians  - 
prescribed  as  aii  emetic,  especially  in  cases 
where  other  poisons  had  been  swallowed,  iu 
order '»j  procure  the  irrost  speedy  evacuation  • 
ot  them  by  vomit.     Where  copper  is  not  used 
with  thi?  view,  it  has  been  employed  as  a  to-' 
nic  and  aiitispasmodir,  with  which  view  it  is 
admitted  into  the.  Edinbuigh   Dispensatory 
under  the  title  of  cuprum  ammoniacale.  'Jlie 
elie<ts  of  the  metal,  however,  when  taken  in 
a  pretty  lai-ge  quantity,  and  in  a  dissolved 
state,  or  when  th.-  stomach  abounds  w ith  acid 
juices  sufficient  to  dissolve  it,  are  very  disa- 
greeable, and  even  dangerous ;  as  "it  occasions 
violent  vomitings,  pains  in  the  stomach,  faint- 
ings,  and  sometimes  convulsions  and  death. 
T  he  only  cure  for  these  symptoms  is,  to  expel ' 
the  poison   by  vomiting  as  soon  as  possible, 
and  to  obtnnd  its  acrimony  ;  for  which  pur- 
pose drinking  warm  milk  will  probably   be 
Ibund  the  most  efficacious   remedy.     In  or- 
der to  prevent  tlie  entrance  of  the  poison  into 
the  body,  no  copper  vessels  should  be  used  in 
preparing  food   but  such  as  are  either  well 
tinned,   or    kept    exceedingly   clean.     I'he 
practice  of  giving  a  line  blue  or  green  colour 
to  pickles  by  preparing  liiem  in  copper  ves- 
sels, ou2;ht  not  to  be  tolerated;  for  Dr.   Fal- 
coner, in  a  treatise  on  this  subject,  assures  us, 
that  these  are  sometimes  so  strongly  impreg- 
nated by  this  method  of  preparing  them,  that 
a  small  quaiUity  of  them  will  produce  nausea. 
Mortars  ot  mass  or  bell-metal  ouglit,  for  the 
same  reason,  to  be  avoided ;  as  by  this  means 
a  considerable  quantity  of  the  pernicious  me- 
tal may  be  mixed  with  om*  food,  or  w  ith  me- 
dicines.    In   other   cases,   an  equal  caution 
ought  to  be  used.     The  custom  of  keeping 
pins  in  the  mouth,  of  giving  copper  halfpence 
to  children  to  play  with,  &c.  ought  to  be 
avoided  ;  as  thus  a  quantity   of  the  metal 
may  be  insensibly  taken  into  the  body,  after  ■ 
which  its  eliects  liuist  be  uncertain.    It  is  pro- 
per to  observe,  however,  thatcopper  is  much 
more  easily  dissolved  when  cold  than  v.  hen 
hot ;  imd  therefore  the  greatest  care  should  i 
he  taken  never  to  let  any  thing  designed  fori 
food,  even  common  water,  remain  long  in 
copper  vessels  w  hen  cold  ;  for  it  is  observed, 
tli.it  though  the  confectioners  can  safely  pre- 
pare the  most  acid  syrups  in  clean  copper  ves- 
sels without  tlieir  receiving  any  detriment 
whilst  hot,  yet  if  the  same  syrups  are  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  vessels  till  (piile  cold,  they 
become  im])regnated  with  the  pernicious  qua- 
lities of  the  metal. 

Poison  of  lead.  This  metal,  when  taken 
slowly  into  the  stomach  with  our  food,  is  ca-' 
pable  of  producing  the  disease  usually  called 
Devonshire  colic,  wliich,  after  a  length  ot 
lime,  is  succeeded  by  palsy.  Dr.  Iloulston, 
in  his  Essay  on  Poisons,  has  given  a  remark- 
able instance  of  a  whole  family  w  ho,  havinj 
successively  fallen  a  prey  to  paralytic  dis- 


1'  (>  1. 

•r.li'i';,  alter  a  series  nf  years,  tlie  cause  w'as 
ili-;'.  ovcrcil  lo  l)e  tlieir  liaviiig  ir;cd  the  water 
of  a  leaden  ])Uin|>,  wliicli  liad  been  gradually 
dis'-iolved,  and  lluis  reiKleied  (he  water  ))ui- 
sonous.  For  tlic  lrcatiiic;iit  of  colic  and  palH) 
see'  Mkdicine.  Calomel  adniijiistered  in 
small  doses,  till  ptyahsm  is  produced,  is  t!ie 
ino-^L  eilecUial  way  of  restoring  sensibility  to 
the  nerves,  wlien  lost  from  tliis  cau^e. 

We  cainiol  sul'llciently  express  our  ablior- 
rence  of  the  cruel,  the  detestable  evpcrimcnts 
nude  l)y  certain  piactiliouers  upon  poor 
thimb  crealtn-es,  to  ascertain  the  effects  <>f 
poisons ;  experiments  made  in  general  to 
gratify  an  idle  curiosity,  but  which  no  motive 
call  justify.  We  feel  an  lionesl  pride  in  re^ 
lloctiiig  that  few  of  these  experimentalists 
liave  been  Kuirlishmen  ;  and  as  our  work  is 
addressed  to  that  generous  and  huinime  na- 
tion, we  have  not  outraged  their  feelings  by 
the  shocking  detail. 

POLE,  in  spherics,  a  point  equally  <listant 
from  every  part  of  the  circumference  of  a 
areat  circle  of  the  sphere,  as  the  centre  is  in 
ii  ])lane  ligm  i; ;  or  it  is  a  point  90°  distant 
from  the  plane  of  a  circle,  and  in  a  line, 
called  the  axis,  passing  perpendicularly 
through  the  centre.  The  zenith  and  nadir 
are  the  |)oles  of  the  horizon  ;  and  the  poles 
of  the  equator  are  the  same  with  those  of  the 
iphere.  See  Globe. 
Poles.  See  Ecliptic. 
Poles.  See  Magnetism. 
Pole  or  veitcx  nf  a  glass,  in  optics,  is 
tlie  thickest  part  of  a  convex,  or  the  tl.innest 
im'  a  concave  glass.  If  the  glass  is  truly 
ground,  the  pole  will  be  exactly  in  the  Jiiic[- 
tlle  of  its  surface. 

Pole,  Perch,  or  Rod,  in  surveying,  is  a 
measure  containing  sixteen  feet  and  ;i  half 

Pole  or  jiol'a-  star,  is  a  star  of  the  se- 
cond magnitude,  the  last  in  the  tail  of  ursa 
minor,  lis  longitude  Mr.  Flamsteed  makes 
v4>  14'  41// ;  it,  latitude  GG"  4'  1 1". 

Pole-Cat.     See  Viveera. 

POLEiMONIUM,  Grtek  v<ii  rinn,  or 
Jamb's  ladder:  a  genus  of  the  iiionogynia 
order,  in  the  pentaiidria  class  ot  plants;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
39th  order,  campanace.T.  The  corolla  is 
«^iiin(|uepartite ;  the  stamina  inserted  into 
scales,  which  close  the  bottom  ot  the  corolla; 
the  stigma  is  trllid;  the  capsule  bilocnlar  su- 
perior. ■(  here  are  five  spt'cies,  ofwhchthe 
mo>t  remarkable  is  the  csruleum,  with  an 
c.iipalement  longer  tiian  the  llower.  It  grows 
naturally  in  some  places  of  England;  its 
beantv,  however,  has  obtained  it  a  place  in 
the  gardens.  There  are  three  varieties;  one 
with  a  white,  another  with  a  blue,  and  ano- 
ther with  a  variegated  ilower;  also  a  kimi 
with  variegated  leaves.  They  are  easilv  pro- 
pagated by  seeds  ;  but  that  kind  with  varie- 
gated leaves  is  pteserved  by  parting  its  roots, 
because  the  plants  raised  from  seeds  would  be 
apt  to  degenerate  and  become  plain, 

POLEMOSCOPK,  in  optics,  a  kind  of 
retlectiiig  perspective-glass  nivente<l  by  Ile- 
Telius,  who  commends  it  as  useful  in  sieges. 
Zee.  for  discovering  w-hat  the  enemy  is  do- 
ing, while  tin;  sp^cti'.tor  lies  hid  behind  an 
obstacle.  Its  description  is  this:  'I'hc  iuter- 
val  between  the  object-glass  and  the  specu- 
bim,  is  enlarged  by  a.  tube,  of  a  length 
•sufficient  lo  project  the  spccuium  beyoml 
Vol.  IJ. 


f  O  L 

the  obstacle  that  covers  the  observer.  And 
for  a  ftn-ther  convenience  of  looking  for- 
ward, as  It  were,  he  proi)oses  to  [>h.Le 
anotl'.er  plane  speculum  at'  the  other  end 
of  the  tube,  to  reliect  the  rays  through  a 
hole  ill  its  side,  :n  a  direction  parallel 
to  the  incident  rays;  and  to  place  llie 
concave  eye-glass  in  this  hole.  Uy  this 
niCuns,  the  object  will  still  appear  upright, 
and  magnified  just  as  much  as  If  the  two  spe- 
culumswere  rcuioveJ,  and  the  same  eye-glass 
was  phiced  in  the  axis  of  the  tube, 

POIJANTHES,  the  tuhcrose :  a  genus  of 
the  monogynia  order,   in  the  hexandria  class 
of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
liiulcr  the  10th   order,  coronariic.     The  co- 
rolla is  funnel-shaped,  incurvated,  and  equal ; 
the  filaments  are  inserted  into  the  throat  of 
the  corolla,  in  the  bottom  of  which  the  ger- 
inen  is  situated.     'J'here  is  but  one  species, 
consisting  of  some  varieties;  all  of  wliich,  be- 
ing exotics  of  tender  quality,  rc<jnire  aid  of 
artificial  heat,   tinder  shelter  of  frames'  and 
glasses,  &c.  to  bring  them  to  flower  in  perfec- 
tion in  this  Country.     The  varieties  are  the 
conunon    tuberose",    with      single    flowers  ; 
double-Howered,    dwarf-stalked,    variegated- 
leaved.     They  all  Hower  here  in  June,  July, 
and  August:  the  llowers  arc   funnel  or  bell- 
shaped  ;  on  the  upper  part  of  tlie  stem  is  a 
long  spike,  consisting  of  from   10  to  i'O  or 
more  separate  in  alternate  arrangements,  the 
lower  (lowers  opening  lirst,  v\  hich  are  suc- 
ceeded by  those  above,  in  regular  order,  mak- 
nig  in  the  whole  a  most  beautiful  appearance, 
iiighly  enriched  wuli  a  most  fragrant  odour, 
'i  he  common  single-fiowered  tuberose  is  the 
sort  the  most  connnonly  cultivated,  as  it  ge- 
nerally blow-,  the  most  freely,  and  possesses 
llie   iinest  tragraiice.     The  double-llowered 
kind  also  highly   merits  culture,   as  when  it 
blows  fair  it  inaKes  a  singuiarlv  fine  'appear- 
ance.    ']'he  dwaif  and  the  variegated  khuls 
are  inferior  lo  ihe  other  two,  but  may  be  cul- 
tivated for  variety.     All  the  varieties  being 
exotics  from  warm  countries,  although  they 
are  made  to  flower  in  great  perfection  in  our  J 
gardens  by  tiie  assistance  of  hotbeds,  they  r 
will  not  prosper  in  the  open  ground,  and  do  ' 
not  increase  treely  in  England ;  so  that  a  sup-  i 
ply  of  (he  roots  is  imported  hither  annually 
Ironi  Genoa,  and  other  parts  of  Italy.     The  i 
principal  season  for  planting  them  is  Maicii 
and  April:  observing,  however,  that  in  order 
to  continue  a  long  succession  of  the  bloom,  it 
is    proper   to  make  t.vo  or   three  dii'fereiit 
plantings,  at  about  a  month  interval ;  one  in 
March,  another  in  April,  and  a  tliird  the  be- 
ginning of  May,  whereby  the  bloom  may  be 
continued   from  June  until  September  ;'  ob- 
scr\  ing,  as  above  mentioned,  they  may  be 
flowered  eillie.  by  aid  of  a  common  dung  or 
bark  Iiotbed,  or  in  a  hot-house. 

POLICY  OP  ASSUKANCE.  The  deed 
or  iustrumenL  by  which  a  contract  of  assur- 
ance is  ell'ecjtt  c>v"  The  premium  or  considera- 
lion  paid  for  the  risk  or  hazard  assured 
against,  must  be  iiiferted  in  the  policv,  and 
likewise  the  day,  m^nth,  and  year,  on  which 
the  policy  is  executed,  and  it  must  be  duly 
stamped.  Policies  for  assurance  against  tJie 
risks  of  the  sea  are  distinguished  into  valued 
and  open  policies ;  in  the  tbrmer  the  goods  or 
property  ;issured  are  valued  at  prime  cost  at 
the  time  of  effecting  Ihe  policy  ;  in  the  lat- 
ter, the  value  is  not  mentiooed,  but  is  left  to 
30 


P  O   L 


H.H 


be  af!erw;'rJs  declared,  or  lo  l,e  proved  in  llie 
event  of  a  claim.  Jn  a  valued  policy,  the 
proper  effect  of  (lie  valuation  is,  tlie  fi.xiiig  the 
amount  of  tlie  prime  cost,  in  the  same  manner 
as  if  the  parties  had  admitted  it  at  a  trial;  but 
for  every  other  ptirpose,  it  must  be  taken  th:il 
the  value  was  fixed  in  such  a  manner  as  lli.it 
the  insured  meant  to  have  an  indemnity  and 
no  more.  'J'he  practice  of  permitting  the  in- 
sured on  a  valued  policy  to  recover  tiie  who'e 
sum  insured  ujjon  a  total  loss,  Ihougli  his  in-  . 
terest  is  less  than  that  sum,  is  against  the 
statute,  A  valued  policy  on  profits  expccteil 
upon  a  voyage  is  not  within  the  act,  the  ob- 
ject of  an  insurance  being  an  indemnity.  When 
a  policy  is  once  executed,  it  cannot  be  altered 
by  either  party,  as  this  would  open  a  door  to  au 
infinite  variety  of  frauds,  and  introduce  unc4ir- 
tainly  into  a  species  of  contract,  of  which  cer- 
tainty and  precision  are  the  most  essential  rc- 
<iuisiies.  If,  however,  a  policy  is  filled  u))  by 
mistake  different  from  the  original  agreeiiK  nt, 
it  may,  even  idler  signing,  be  corrected  b^ 
the  consent  of  both  parlies.  An  underwriter 
may,  however,  shift  the  insurance,  or  any  part 
of  It,  from  himself  to  other  insurers,  by  caus- 
ing a  re-insurance  to  be  made  on  the  same 
risk,  and  the  liew  insurers  Will  be  responsible 
to  him,  in  case  of  loss,  lo  the  amount  of  the 
re-insurance ;  but  the  re-insurer  is  only  re- 
sponsible to  the  original  insurer,  an<l  not  t* 
the  original  insured.  Tlie  form  of  the  po- 
licies ill  com  noil  use  by  th.f  underwritert 
ot  London,  for'  sea-assurances,  is  nearly  the 
same  wliich  was  adopted  two  hundred  years 
ago  ;  but  Mr.  Park  remarks  that  its  antiquity 
cannot  preserve  it  from  just  censure,  it  being 
very  irregular  and  confused,  and  frequently 
ambiguous,  from  making  use  of  the  same 
words  ill  dili'erent  senses.  The  policies  se- 
nerally  used  forassurances  on  lives,  or  aijainst 
fire,  are  much  more  correct  and  intelligible, 

l'()LIEKSIIIEFER,a  mineral  body  found 
chiefly  at  Menil  Montant,  near  Paris,  Co- 
lour grey  ;  often  reddisli :  sometimes  spntlcd 
or  slrii)e;l  brownish-bjack,  and  lemon-vellow. 
Found  in  strata;  texture  earthy;  fracture 
conchoidal;  structure  shistose ;  very  soft; 
easily  broken ;  adheres  strongly  to  the 
tongue;  feel  harsh;  specif'.c  gravity  2. OS; 
absorbs  water  with  avidity  ;  melts  to  a  black- 
ish slag ;  constituents, 

6(3.50  silica 

7.00  alunnna 

1.50  magnesiii 

1.25  lime 

S.50  oxide  of  uon 
19.00  water. 


97.75 


rOLISflER,  or  burncslar,  among  mr- 
chanics,  an  instrument  for  polishing  an<rburn- 
ishing  things  proper  to  take  a  ixtlisli.  The 
gilders  use  an  iron  polisher  to  prepare  tl-.eir 
metals  before  gilding,  and  the  blood-stone  t» 
give  them  the  bright  polish  after  gilding. 

The  polishers  among  cutlers,  are  a  kind  of 
wooden  wheels  made  of  walnut-trsc ,  about  au 
inch  thick,  and  of  a  dianitt.-r  at  pleasure, 
which  are  turned  round  by  the  great  wheel ; 
njioii  ihese  they  smooth  and  polish  ti:eir  work 
wilii  emery  and  putty. 

The  polishers  for  glass  consist  of  two  pieces 
of  wowd;  Uie  one  Hat,  covered  with  old  iiat; 


474 


POL 


the  other  long  anj  lialf-round,  fastened  on 
tiie  former,  whose  ctlgv;  it  exceeds  on  both 
sides  by  some  ini-hes,  wliich  serve  llie  work- 
men to  take  hold  of,  and  to  work  backwards 
and  forwards  by. 

The  polisliers  used  by  spectacle-makers 
are  pieces  of  woo;l  a  foot  U)ng,  seven  or  eiglit 
inciu's  broad,  and  an  inch  and  a  hah  thitk_,  co- 
vered -With  old  beaver-hat,  on  wiiich  thev 
polish  the  sliell  and  iiorn  frames  their  specta- 
cle-glasses are  to  be  set  in. 

-POLISHING,  ill  general,  the  operation  of 
giving  a  gloss  or  lustre  to  certain  substances, 
as  metals,  glass,  marblo,  &zc. 

The  operation  of  polishing  optic  glasses, 
aftf  r  beitig  prop.'rly  groun-J,  is  one  of  the 
most  difiicult  points  of  the  whole  process. 
Beiore  the  polishing  is  begini,  it  is  proper  to 
stretch  an  even  vveil-wrou'^ht  piece  ot  linen 
over  the  tool,  dusting  upon  it  some  very  fine 
tripoli.  Then  taking  the  gla-)S  in  your  hand, 
rim  it  romid  forty  Or  lifiy  times  upon  flie  tool, 
to  take  off  the  roughness  of  the  glass  about  the 
border  of  it.  This  cloth  is  then  to  be  re- 
moved, and  the  glass. to  be  polished  upon  the 
naked  tool,  wiih  a  compound  powder  made 
of  four  parts  tripoli  nii.\e<l  with  one  of  fine 
blue  vitriol ;  six  or  eiahl  grains  of  which  mix- 
ture are  suiHcient  ibr  a  glass  live  inches  broad. 
This  powder  inus;  bi-v.etted  with  eight  or  ten 
dr  >ps  of  clear  viueg.ir,  in  the  middle  of  the 
tool ;  being  first  niix-d  and  softened  thoi  ouj;h- 
Jy  with  a  Vlm'v  fine  small  mulfet.  Then  '.sith 
a  nice  brusli,  having  spread  this  mixture 
thinly  and  equably  upon  the  tool,  tai.e  some 
very  line  tripoli,  and  strew  it  thinly  and  e<iua- 
bly  upon  th.-  toul  so  prepared;  after  which, 
take  the  glass  to  be  polished,  wiped  very 
clean,  and  apply  it  on  the  tool,  and  move  it 
gently  tw-ice  or  thrice  in  a  straight  line  back- 
wards and  forwards ;  then  take  it  off,  and 
observe  whether  the  marks  of  the  tripoli, 
sticking  to  the  glass,  are  ji-qiiably  spread  over 
the  whole  surface;  if  not,  it  is  a  sign  that 
either  the  tool  or  glass  is  too  warm,  in  which 
case  you  must  wait  aw'hiie  and  try  again,  till 
you  "find  the  glass  takes  the  tripoli  eveiy 
vhere  alike.  Ths-n  you  may  begin  to  polish 
boldly,  there  being  no  danger  ot  spoiling  the 
figure  of  the  glass,  which  in  the  other  case 
would  infallibly  happen.  This  is  Mr.  Huy- 
gens's  method;  but  it  ought  to  be  observed, 
that  almost  every  operator  has  a  peculiar  one 
of  his  own,  and  ol  which  some  of  them  make 
a  mighty  secret. 

Sir  Isaac  N-  wlon  no  where  expressly  de- 
scribes his  methotl  ofpolishii.'g  Ojjlical  glasses ; 
but  his  method  of  polishing  reflecting  metals 
he  thus  describes  in  his  Oi)tics.  lie  liad  two 
round  cojiper  plates,  each  si.x  inches  in  di- 
ameter, the  one  convex,  the  other  concave, 
ground  very  true  to  one  another.  On  the 
con\ex  one  he  ground  the  objcct-inctal,  or 
concave  which  was  to  be  polished,  till  it  had 
taken  tiie  figure  of  the'convex,  and  was  ready 
for  a  polish.  He  then  pitched  over  the  con- 
vex very  thinly,  by  dropping  mell<>d  pit<h 
upon  it,  and  warming  it  to  keep  the  pilch 
Soft,  whilst  lie  ground  it  with  the  concave 
copper  wetted,  to  make  it  spread  evenly  all 
ever  the  convex,  till  it  was  no  thicker  than  a 
groat-piece;  aid  after  the  convex  was  cold 
he  ground  it  again,  to  give  it  as  true  a  figure 
as  possible.  He  then  ground  it  witli  very 
iiic  putty,  till  it  made  no  noise ;  and  then 


POL 

upon  the  pitcli  he  ground  the  object-mf  tal 
v/  th  a  brisk  motion  tor  two  or  three  minutes ; 
when  laying  fresh  putty  upon  the  pitch,  he 
ground  it  again  till  it  had  done  making  a 
noise,  and  afterwards  ground  the  object- 
metal  upon  the  pitch  as  before:  and  this 
operation  he  repeated  till  the  metal  was  per- 
fectly polished. 

POLITICAL  ARITHMETIC,  calcula- 
tions relating  to  the  wealth  of  nations.  Poli- 
tical arithmetic  does  not  determine  in  wiiat 
national  wealth  truly  consists,  but  estimates 
the  value  of  whatever  passes  under  this  name, 
and  distinguishes  the  proportions  in  which 
the  component  articles  nuiy  be  applied  to 
purposes  conducive  to  the  safety  or  prospe- 
rity of  the  community.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  in  the  appiiralion  of  arithmetic  to  the  sub- 
jects of  political  economy,  it  unavoid.ibly 
loses  much  of  its  precision,  from  the  tluctu- 
ating  nature  of  most  ilescriptions  of  property, 
both  with  respect  to  di;tribution  and  value, 
'die  slate  of  which  it  is  one  of  its  chief  objects 
to  estimate;  it  however  retains  a  sufficient 
degree  of  certainty  to  become  an  interesting 
subject  to  every  individual  who  wishes  to  ac- 
quire a  just  idea  of  the  strength  and  resources 
either  of  tne  coimnunily  to  which  he  belongs, 
or  of  other  nations. 

If  the  particulars  which  it  is  necessary  to 
assume  as  facts  could  be  obtained  correct,  the 
conclusions  drawn  from  them  would  be  nearly 
as  determinate  and  invariable  as  in  any  other 
branch  o;  arithmetic ;  but  if  the  former  a:  e 
nut  strictly  true,  the  latter  will  be  but  ap- 
proximations, however  near  they  may  co.ne 
to  the  truih.  Such  approximations,  however, 
may  be  sufficient  for  most  useful  purposes; 
though  it  must  be  confessed  that  a  greater 
degree  of  certainty,  which  would  render  our 
kn-jwledge  on  this  subject  more  valualde,  is 
higiily  des  rable  ;  at  the  same  time  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  attain,  as  it  does  not  depend  so  much 
.on  the  labours  or  investigations  of  individu- 
als, as  on  t!ie  mea.sures  adopted  by  the  go 
vernments  of  d.ilferent  countries,  who  alone 
possess  the  means  of  ascertaining  with  great- 
er precision  the  principal  assumptions  on 
which  political  computations  are  founded. 

The  strict  amount  of  the  wealth  of  a  coun- 
try cannot  be  known  without  an  exact  inven- 
tory of  all  the  particulars  that  compose  it,  a 
thing  uttej'ly  impractrcable  in  large,  and  par- 
liciiiarly  in  commercial  states,  and  which,  if 
it  were  possible  to  be  obtained  perh'clly  true, 
even  in  the  most  minute  particulars,  would 
not  remain  so  during  the  time  necessary  to 
make  out  the  account,  and  therefore  might 
not  be  of  more  utilitv  tliaaa  tolerable  correct 
estimate,  which,  being  considered  as  a  m.di- 
um  between  small  variations,  will,  for  a  con- 
sid.  rable  lime,  furnish  sul'ficient  ground  for 
useful  conclusions.  So  far,  indeed,  are  we 
from  having  exact  accounts  of  the  wealth  of 
ditterent  countries,  that  even  such  of  the  ma- 
terials necessary  to  form  an  estimate  as  we  do 
|)osseis,  though  furnished  pursuant  to  legisla- 
tive authority,  are  scarce,  in  any  instance, 
siiictly  correct,  and  being  generally  formed 
for  pyticular  purposes,  as,  with  a  view  to 
some  commercial  or  financial  regululion,  are 
frequently  ill  adapted  to  any  other  use:  from 
such  documents,  however,  we  must  be  con- 
tent to  draw  our  principal  information  ;  and 
if  the  nature  of  tlie  subject  [;recludes  strict 
demonstration,  we  may,  at  Itaal,  (.'uJeavour, 


POL 

by  proceeding  on  rational  grounds,  (o  arrive 
at  conclusions  consistent  widi  probability. 

Political  arithmetic  has  been  much  culti- 
vated ot  late  ycais  in  Germany,  France,  and 
other  parts  ot  Europe,  but  as  its  application 
to  the  wealth  and  strength  of  dilferent  states 
is  very  similar,  we  shah  endeavour  to  ilUis- 
trate  it  in  an  attempt  to  determine  the  in- 
crease and  present  state  oi  the  national 
w  ealth  of  Great  Britain,  which  will  be  consi- 
dered as  consisting  in  the  value  of  the  limd 
and  of  the  slock,  the  latter  term  compre- 
hending all  useful  realizations  of  past  inihis- 
try,  except  improvements  of  the  soil,  which 
make  part  of  Uie  presptit  value  of  the  land; 
and  if  the  amount  of  tlie  national  capital  can 
be  ascertained,  it  will  naturally  lead  to  an  in- 
vestigation of  the  general  income,  both  as 
arising  from  such  capital,  and  from  the  pro- 
fits of  labour. 

In  all  incpiiries  of  this  kind,  the  state  of  th.e 
papulation  otthe  country  is  an  object  of  pri- 
mary-importai.ce;  lor  it  is  the  number  of  in- 
hab'tants  which  a  country  maintains,  that 
gives  the  laud  itself  the  chief  pa  t  ot  its  va- 
lue, of  which  we  have  many  proofs  in  the 
former  and  present  state  oi  different  parts  of 
Eurojje,  and  in  the  riJe  of  the  value  ot  land 
with  tiie  iiKTrase  of  population  in  ouV  own 
island.  That  Great  Britain  is  now  more  tuily 
inhabited  than  in  the  early  period-i  of  its  his- 
tory, few  ])ersons  will  doubt,  whatever  may 
be  their  opinion  respecting  its  advance  or  de- 
cline in  this  respect  or  late  years.  At  the  time 
of  the  Norman  conquest,  the  people  of  Eng- 
land are  suppo.ed  to  ha\e  been  somewhat 
above  2,000,0f)0;  and  from  their  depressed 
condition,  the  frequency  of  foreign  and  do- 
mestic wars,  and  of  pestilential  distempers, 
their  increase  during  many  ot  tiie  su:  ceeding 
reigns  may  be  reasuuabiv  doubieii,  though 
there  are  no  means  of  ascertaining  with  any 
])recision  the  real  state  of  the  |)opulation  at 
those  periods.  From  an  account  of  the  pro- 
duce of  a  poll-tax,  an  estimate  has  been 
termed  i)y  Mr.  Chalmers  of  the  number  of  in- 
habitants in  1377,  and  as  the  addition:  which 
he  has  made  to  the  number  m  the  return  cer- 
tainly do  not  app' ar  too  small,  the  total, 
which  amounts  to  2,3o3,203,  cannot  be  less 
than  the  whole  number  of  the  people  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales  ai  tliat  time,  if  the  account  on 
which  it  is  founded  is  to  be  depended  on. 
Mr.  Chiilmers  observes,  that  the  civil  wars 
during  tlie  greater  part  of  the  fifteenth  centu- 
ry must  have  caused  a  great  waste  of  inhabit- 
ants: this  loss,  however,  was  soon  recovered 
on  their  termination  ;  and  the  suppression  of 
monasterii  s  by  Henry  the  Vlllth,  with  the 
repeal  of  all  positive  laws  against  tiie  marriage 
of  priests  by  Edwa'rd  the  Vlth,  continued  to 
promote  m.itrimony,  and  of  course  to  increase 
the  population.  From  documents  in  the 
British  Museum,  it  appears,  that  during  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  accounts  w  ere  often  t.iken 
of  the  people.  Harrison  gives  the  result  of 
the  musters  of  1.575,  wlien  the  number  of 
fighting  men  was  found  to  be  1.172,674, 
adding,  that  it  was  believed  a  full  third  had 
been  omitted.  Sir  Walter  Kaleign  asserts 
that  there  was  a  general  review  in  1383  of  all 
the  men  in  England  capable  of  bearing  .unis,. 
who  wore  found  to  amount  to  1,172,000. 
These  accounts  evidently  refer  to  the  s.une- 
enumeralion,  though  they  dill'er  In  tlie  date; 
and  if  the  number  is  multiplod  by  4,  it  would 


lirove  thf  (otal  miinber  of  inlial)itants  to  harp 
l)C('n  4,688,000.  'I'liis  lumiber  iiiciL-ased  dur- 
inu;  tlie  sevciiteeiuh  century,  auf.l  was  coiii- 
jiiiU'il  by  Me.  (Jrognry  King  to  amount  in 
Hi!/  to  3,500,000  ;'  while  Dr.  Davenant  esli- 
ni:\to(l  the  population  at  the  wiiiie  period  as 
hi£;ii  as  7,000,000.  This  disagreement  be- 
tween two  very  accurate  M'ritcrs,  shews  the 
great  uncertainty  which  prevailed  on  this 
subject,  and  in  fact  there  was  scarce  any  par- 
ticular relatijif!  to  the  state  of  the  country  on 
which  such  opposite  0|)inions  were  held  as  on 
the  actual  number  of  inhabitants  at  particular 
periods,  and  their  diminution  or  increase. 
The  point  has  at  Icnnth  been  determined  by 
the  results  of  an  act  passed  the  .31st  of  De- 
cember, 1800,  for  ascertaining  the  population 
of  Great  Britain,  and  the  increase  or  diminu- 
tion thereof.  From  the  returns  thus  obtained, 
it  appeared,  that  the  total  population  of  Great 
Britain,  including  the  army  and  navy,  and 
seamen  in  the  merchants'  service,  was 
10,!)42,64f);  but  deducting  tlie  proportion  of 
soldiers  and  se;mien  belonging  to  Irelanil,  it 
may  be  more  correctly  stated  at  10,820,370. 

Assuming  this  number  as  a  sufficiently  ac- 
curate return  of  the  total  population,  it  may 
not  be  very  ditlicult  to  distinguish  lu-arl)'  the 
pvoportiou  of  tliose  who  sulisist  by  liie  labour 
of  others,  to  those  by  whom  they  are  sup- 
ported; and  of  the  unproductive,  though  in 
most  instances  useful,  labourers,  to  those  on 
wliose  labour  the  annual  produce,  and  couse- 
tiuently  all  additions  to  the  national  stock,  de- 
pends. 

From  several  accounts  it  appears,  that,  of 
the  whole  number  of  persons  living,  more 
thjn  one-louith  are  children  under  ten  years 
of  age,  who  therefore  c.nitribute  little  or  no- 
thiDg  to  their  own  mantenauce;  for  though 
in  some  few  manufactures,  children  under  this 
age  are  employed,  tiiey  are  more  than  couu- 
terl>a'anced  by  the  greater  number  who  re- 
main unemployed  (otherwise  than  in  educa- 
tion) :or  several  years  beyond  the  age  often. 
After  deducting  2,705,095,  the  number  of 
these  luture  labour(  rs,  it  will  be  found  that 
about  one  in  28  ot  the  remainder,  or  2S9,83I 
are  incapacitated  by  old  age  or  inlirmities 
from  uselul  labour,  including  all  persons  in 
thii  dilferent  hospitals  and  uilirmaries,  and 
most  of  the  inhabitants  of  aim  .-houses,  and 
other  charitable  est  iblishments.  Hut  of  those 
who  are  supported  by  the  labour  of  others,  or 
by  the  property  of  others,  which  is  equivalent, 
there  are  many  who  follow  a  species  of  em- 
ployment, by  which  tiiey  obtain  this  proper- 
ty, which  employment  is,  however,  of  no  be- 
iielit  to  the  country,  as  it  is  not  only  unpro- 
ductive, but  useless,'and  in  many  uistances  in- 
jurious to  the  community  ;  such  are  gamblers, 
swindlei's,  thieves,prostitutes,beggars,  gipsies, 
&c.  whose  aggregate  number,  according  to 
Mr.  Colquhoun's  estimate  for  the  metropolis, 
probably  exceeds  considerably  150, 000. The 
convicts  and  prisoners  conlined  in  the  dilfer- 
ent prisons  of  Great  Britains,  and  on  board 
hulks,  are  usually  about  10,000  persons, 
,  whose  labouris  lost  to  tiie  community,  for  the 
vork  which  is  performed  in  some  of  our  jails 
scarcely  deserves  mention.  There  is  also  a 
class  ot  a  very  different  description,  who  are 
supported  by  the  labour  of  others:  this  is  the 
•lobility  and  gentry,  whose  exempti-on  from 
labour  is  considered  as  a  part  of  their  honour 
aad  distinction ;  somcj  it  is  true,  hold  em- 


POLITICAL  AHITHMETIC. 

jiloyments  under  (he  government,  and  a  few 
are  engaged  in  agriculture  or  trade;  but  the 
majority,  who  subsist  on  the  income  they 
jjosseis,  without  following  any  useful  occu])a- 
lion,  is  probably  not  less  than  5000. 

These  numbers  include  persona  of  both 
sexes,  and  arc  all  rather  below  the  truth 
than  beyond  it;  they  amount  together  to 
3,159,923  persons,  and  being  deducted  from 
tlie  whole  population  of  10,820,37p,  sh<'w 
the  numberof  those  whowork  tobe7,()fiO,447. 
But  it  is  well  known  that  of  those  who  gain 
a  substance  by  their  labour,  many  follow  em- 
ployments which,  thikigh  mori'or  less  neces- 
sary and  useful,  cio  not,  in  the  least  degree, 
increase  the  quantity  or  value  of  the  produce 
of  the  country  ;  the  number  of  these  unpro- 
ductive labotu'ers  is  nearly  as  follows  : 

The  army,  ofilccrs  and  pri\'ates,  in- 
cluding half-pay,  commissaries, 
agents,  &c.  -  -  200,000 

The  navy,  ditto  -  -  127,000 

Ollicers  and  clerks  employed  in  col- 
lecting the  revenue,  and  in  other 
offices  under  government     -  6,500 

Clergy  of  the  churches  of  lingland 

and  Scotland  -  '-  18,000 

Ditto,  dissenters  of  every  denomi- 
nation ...  14,000 

Schoolmasters  (exclusive  of  clergy. 

men)  and  schoolmistresses    -  20,000 

Judges,  counsel,  attorneys,  sherilT's 
ollicers,  jailors,  and  all  persons 
employed  in  the  execution  of  the 
laws,  except  constables,  headbo- 
roughs,  &c.  -  -  14,000 

Players,  musicians,  dancing  masters, 
_&c.  .  .  -  5,000 

Women  supported  by  their  hus- 
bands' labour  -  -  500,000 

Female  servants  of  all  descriptions    650,000 

-Male  servants  -  '-  150,000 


Total     -    -     1,704,500 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  number  of 
some  of  these  classes  of  persons  cannot  be 
ascertained  with  much  precision:  this,  how- 
ever, i->  ot  no  great  importance,  if  the  total  is 
not  far  from  the  truth,  as  the  object  is  chiefly 
to  siiew  the  proportion  of  productive  to  un- 
produetive  labourers;  the  latter  nuw  be  dis- 
tinguished accordmg  to  the  following  state- 
ment: 

Merchants,    brokers,    factors,   and 

others  depending  on  foreign  trade     25,000 

Clerks  to  ditto,  and  in  the  offices  of 
commercial  companies  -  40,000 

Seamen  in  the  merchants'  service, 
including  the  coasting-trade  and 
fisheries         ...  144,000 

Lightermen,  watermen,  &c.    -  3,500 

Persons  employed  in  the  different 

manufactures  -  -        1,800,000 

Mechanics  not  immediately  belong- 
ing to  the  manufactures,  such  as 
carpenters,  bricklayers,  masons, 
wheelwrights,  shipwrights,  boat- 
builders,  &c.  -  -  50,000 

Painters,   engravers,   carvers,   and 

other  artists  -  -  5,000 

Shopkeepers,  viz.  butchers,  bakers, 
publicans,  fishmongers,  poulte- 
rers, pastrycooks,  grocers,  chand- 
lers, pawnbroker"?,  apothecaries, 
&c.  -  -  -  150,000 

3  0i' 


*7^ 

Farn-:rr?,  gr.lzier';,  and  all  otlicr  per- 
sons employed  in  agriculture,  in- 
cluding millers,  inealineii,  iarri-  , 
crs,  horse-doctors,  &c.         -       2,000,000 

\'>ives  and  fannlies  of  most  of  the 
above  classes  assisting  in  their  oc' 
cupatioiis,  or  following  other  en-.- 
plojmtiits  of  profit  -        1,738,44T 


Total         -      5,955,947 
The  whole  population  of  the  country  will 
thus  appear  to  consist  of  nearly  the  following 
proportions: 

Supported  by  others'  labour  3,159,923 

Unproductive  labourers  -         1,704,500 

Productive  labourers  -        5,955,94T 


Total 


10,820,270 

It  thus  appears  that  the  whole  of  the  jieople 
de|)end  tor  subsistence,  and, all  the  conve- 
niences of  life,  on  the  labour  of  little  more 
than  one-half;  and  the  increase  or  dexTcase 
of  this  number,  and  of  the  effect  produced  by 
the  individuals  who  compose  it,  is  the  mea- 
sure of  the  increase  or  decline  of  national 
strength.  Of  the  unproductive  labourers,  or 
those  who  gain  a  subsi-terce  by  defending, 
instructing,  or  serving  others, ''the  greater 
part  are  liighly  useful  to  the  community,  and 
in  the  present  state  of  society  a  nation  could 
not  exist  without  them  ;  but  as'they  do  not  con- 
tribute to  the  production  of  any  of  the  neces- 
saries of  life,  or  articles  of  commerce,  it  is 
evident  that  they  depend  entirely  on  the  ex- 
ertions of  the  productive  labourers,  who  are 
the  source  not  only  of  the  general  subsistence 
and  of  the  means  of  conmierce,  but  of  all  ac- 
cumulation of  stock,  which  is  in  fact  the  sur- 
plus of  former  produce  beyond  the  consump- 
tion. The  power  of  acquiring  national 
wealth,  therefore,  depinds  principally  on  tlie 
proportion  of  productive  labourers'  to  tlie 
whole  number  of inhabtants;  for  though  the 
population  of  a  country  should  liaTe  creatly 
increased,  if  it  had  been  chieHy  by  an  addi- 
tion of  idle  hands,  the  produce  would  remaiu 
the  same,  and,  the  consumption  bi:ing  much 
greater,  the  country  must  become  poorer: 
but  it  likewise  depends,  in  a  great  measure, 
on  the  facility  with  which  labour  is  perform- 
ed ;  for  if  a  country  contiiiiied  only  half  the 
number  of  labouring  inhabitants,  with  the 
same  number  of  other  persons  it  had  at  a 
former  period,  but  this  half,  by  means  of 
machinery  and  other  improvements,  could 
produce  the  same  eflt;ct  as  the  wliole  num- 
ber before,  such  a  country  would  become 
considerably  richer,  though'  the  toml  popula- 
tion was  diminished,  and  the  proportion  of 
unproductive  to  productive  persons  increased ; 
for  there  would  be  the  same  supply  and  a 
much  less  consumption :  and  where'ver  the 
produce  or  supply  exceeds  the  consumption, 
there  will  be  an  actiuisition  of  stock;  for,  un- 
less the  surplus  could  be  reserved  for  some 
useful  or  desirable  purpose,  it  would  soon 
cease  to  be  produced,  by  the  supply  falling 
to  tlie  level  of  thedcBiand  for  consumption. 
I'lie  soi-plus  reserved  or  converted  into  stock, 
is  a  fund  for  supporting  an  increase  ot  exet- 
tioii,  or  for  supplying  the  means  of  fufure 
enjoyment. 

It  has  been  shewn,  that  the  \vhole  number 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain  is  undoubt- 
edly greater  tlian  at  fonner  distant  periods ; 
but  the  proportioa  of  unproductive  haid^) 


476 

who  siibsiat  liv  n-r  lalxnir  of  others,  lip.s  aUo 
proliabK  iiiuLh  iiureas.ecl ;  the  ellectotthis 
uulavoiirable  <  irniiuslaiice  has  however  been 
amijiv  coin|ieii>atecl  by  the  great  iin))roxe- 
inei't's  in  (hrterent  arts  anil  nianiilactuves,  b_v 
which  the  prodnce  of  the  country  has  been 
increased  in  iiiianlity,  and  renilered  much 
superior  in  quality;  "so  tliat  after  suppyitig 
all  our  new  factitious  wants,  and  enablinj;  n-. 
to  defray  expensive  wars,  it  has  left  a  con- 
siderable surplus,  which,  gradually  accvniui-. 
lating,  lias  formed  the  present  national  stocli 
or  capital. 

Previously  to  an  inquiry  into  its  increased 
amount,  it  may  not  be  uiiinteresting  to  view 
il>  former  computed  value,  according  to  ';i«e 
estimate  of  sir  William  Petty,  who  certainly 
taniiQt  be  suspected  of  having  drawn  an  un- 
favourable statement : 

Computation  of  the  Xisalth  qf  Engiiiid  aud 
mdts  hi  1664. 

Value  of  the  land:  24  millions 

of  acres,  yielding  8  niiilions  ^ 

per  ann.  rent,  woith  at  IS 

years  purchase         -         -         144,000,000 

PIcjuses,  reckoning  those  within 
the  bills  of  mortality  e<]ual 
in  value  to  one-third  of  the 
whole  -  -  30,000,000 

Sliipping:  500,000  tons,  at  0/. 
per  ton,  including  riggins, 
ordnance,  &c.  -         "   -      3,000,000 

Stock  of  cattle  on  the  24  mil- 
lion acres,  and  the  \va-.te  be- 
longing thereto,  including 
parks,  fisheries,  warrens,  &c.    -  36,000,000 

Gold  and  silver  coin,  scarce         -     6,000,000 

Vares,  merchandi,!e,  plate, fur- 
.  mture,&c.  -  -         31,000,000 


Total 


^250,000,000 

In  comparing  this  estimate  with  similar 
■accounts  at  present,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  a  great  alteration  has  gradually  taken 
place  in  the  noininal  value  of  all  commodities, 
which,  with  respect  to  the  above  pwiod,  ap- 
.  pears,  from  a  table  formed  by  sir  G.  S.  Eve- 
lyn, to  be  in  the  proportion  of  about  live  to 
fourteen  ;  the  total  of  the  wealth  of  England 
and  Wales,  in  1664,  would  therefore  have 
amounted  to  700,000,000/.,  according  to  the 
present  value  of  money. 

The  value  of  land  has  progressively  in- 
creased, in  consecjuence  of  improvements  in 
cultivation,  and  the  increased  consumption  of 
the  produce  of  land.  Before  England  be- 
came a  trading  nation,  the  general  price  of 
land  was  twelve  years  purcliase.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  last  century,  it  sold  for  about 
sixteen  years  purchase:  sir  W.  Petty  valued 
it  at  eighteen  years  purchase:  and  at  the 
commencement'  of  the  last  century,  it  had 
advanced  to  twenty  years  purchase.  About 
the  year  1730,  it  had  risen  to  twenty-iive 
\ears  purcliase ;  and  at  present  is  from  twen- 
ty-eight to  thirty  years  purchase.  The  m- 
crease  of  the  number  of  years  purchase  paid 
for  land,  is  the  most  obvious  proof  ot  its  aug- 
mented value;  but  it  does  not  shew  the 
wliole  augmentation  of  the  national  wealth  on 
this  account,  which  in  part  arises  from  the 
increase  of  the  total  rental  beyond  the  ad- 
vance that  is  caused  merely  by  the  dilJi'rencc 
in  the  value  of  money.  This  real  increase  of 
the  rental  proceeds  from  a  greater  proportion 


rOLI'llC.VL  ARITILMEIIC. 

of  land  being  br-iught  into  cultivaHon,  and 
that  which  was  beiore  cultivated  being  im- 
proved. 'I'he  whole  landed  rei\lal  <:i  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  and  the  Lowlands  of  iScol- 
land,  was  stated  by  sir  W.  Petty  at  about 
9,000,000/. ;  and  it  cannot  be  supposed  thai, 
if  lie  had  included  the  pliglilands  of  Scot- 
land, he  would  have  made  the  rental  of  the 
whole  island  r.iore  than  9,500,000/.  G.  King 
and  Dr.  Davenant,  in  cpieen  Anne's  reign, 
staled  the  rental  of  England  and  Wales  at 
14,000,000/.;  and  it  may  be  presumed  this 
was  nearly  the  truth  at  the  t.me:  but  it  soon 
began  to  appear  too  low ;  and  between  twen- 
ty and  thirLv  years  ago  if  was  generally  reck- 
<>i-;t<l  at  20,000,000/.  At  present,  however, 
it  considerably  exceeds  this  sum. 

The  chief  difficulty  of  forming  an  estimate 
of  the  land  rental  consists  in  assigning  an 
average  value  to  tlie  different  descriptions  of 
land.  '1  he  total  niimber  of  acres  in  England 
and  Wales  has  been  computed  by  sir  W. 
Petty  to  be  28,000,000;  by  Dr.  Grew, 
46,01)0,000;  by  Dr.  HaUey,'  39,938,500; 
bv  Mr.  Taiipieman,  31,648,000;  by  Mr. 
A'rtluiT  Youns,  4(),9l6,000;  and  by  the  Rev. 
II.  Heeke,  3s".'498,572.  Mr.  Beeke's  calcu- 
lation appears  to  be  by  far  tlie  most  accu- 
rate :  it  is  therefore  fallen  as  the  foundation 
of  the  following  statement  ;  the  proportions 
cultivated  for  dni'erent  purposes  being  nearly 
as  given  by  Mr.  Middleton,  in  his  Vie*'  of 
the  Agriculture  of  the  County  of  Middle- 
sex ; 

Acres. 

Wheat             -            -            -  3,160,000 

Barley  and  rye             -             -  8fi  1,000 

Oats  'i'Jid  beans             -              -  2,872,000 

Clover,  r\e-grass,  &c.  -  1,149,000 
Roots  an<l  cabbages  cultivated  by 

the  plough              -               -  ■  1,150,000 

Fallow             -             -             -  2,297,000 

Ilop-arounds             -              -  38,000 

Nurserv  grounds  -  -  9,000 
Fruit  aiid"  kitchen-gardens,  culti- 

yated  by  the  spaile               -  41,000 

Pleasure-grounds         -             -  16,000 

Land  depastured  by  cattle      -  17,479,000 

Hedge-rows,  copse's,  and  woods  1,641,000 

Ways,  water,  &c.          -          -  1,316,000 


the  landlord,  and  the  part   paid  to  the  tythe 
proprietor. 

'1  he  value  of  the  houses  ol  (Jreat  Britain 
is  peri;aps  more  diflicult  to  ascertain  than 
that  of  the  land:  but  the  following  slatei vnt 
of  their  rent,  (.'unded  on  the  number  relurn- 
ecl  under  the  population  act,  will  not  be 
thought  too  high : 

100,000  houses,  at  3C/.  per  ann.  £  3,000,000 
500,000  ,  IG/.  5,000,000 

iJSO.OOO  5/.  1 ,250,000 

600  000  2/.  1,200,000 

425,000  1/.  10,j.  637,500 


Cultivated  land 
Connnons  and  waste  lands 


32,027,000 
6,473,000 


Total  acres  in  Eng'and  and  Wales  38,500,000 

If  the  commons  and  waste  lands  are  con- 
sidered as  equal  in  annual  value  to  only  one 
million  of  cultivated  acres,  the  whole  may 
be  taken  at  33  millions.  The  average  rent 
has  been  stated  at  15*.  per  acr-",  which  ap- 
pears to  be  a  moderate  computation,  and 
makes  the  rental  ainouut  to  24,750, QOOi.,  the 
value  of  wliich,  at  28  yeai-s  purchase,  is 
693,000,000/.  The  niu'nber  of  cultivated 
acres  in  Scotland  is  upwards  of  9,690,000  ; 
and  of  uncultivated,  about  11,310,000:  a 
great  part  of  th<^  latter  is  of  very  hllle  use; 
but  if  it  is  wholly  excluded,  and  th,>  culti- 
vated |)art  rated  at  an  aver.ige  of  \0s.  per 
acre,  which  makes  4,845,000/.  per  annum,  the 
total  rental  of  th.!  island  will  be  29,.595,000/.. 
and  the  value  of  the  land  828,660,000/.  This 
must  be  understood  as  including  the  value  of 
tythes,  it  being  uimecessary  in  this  ])oiiit  of 
view  to  distinguish  between  the  rent  paid  to 


1,875,000  Total  rent     oi  11,087,500 

The  total  rent,  if  valued  at  only  18  year* 
purchase,  makes  the  value  of  all  the  liouses 
m  Great  Britain  199,575,000/. 

In  order  to  form  an  idea  of  the  value  of 
cattle  ar.d  farming-slock  on  the  land,  we  mar 
consider  the  black  cattle  and  calves,  sheep 
and  iambs,  sv  ine,  p'gs,  and  poultry,  anijeally 
cou  umed  in  Lonoon,  as  worth  0,000,000/.,- 
which  cannot  be  more  than  a  sevenlli  part  of 
the  whole  consumption,  amounting  therefore 
in  value<to  42,000,000/. ;  but  tiie  whole  num- 
ber of  cattle  existing  must  be  more  than 
double  Uie  quantity  brought  to  market;  so 
that,  including  hors -s,  asses,  cows  kept  for 
milk,  and  oxen  employed  in  agriculture,  the 
whole  value  of  the  cattle  cannot  be  less  than- 
90,000,000/. 

Taking  the  annua!  consum]ition  of  gra'n  of 
all  sorts  at  16,000,000  quarters,  which  is  pro- 
bably below  the  truth,  we  may  presume,  that 
in  geneial  there  is  at  least  three  or  four 
months  supply  on  hand,  which,  at-  only  35;. 
per  quai  ter,  will  amount  to  at  least  7.000,000/. 
The  value  of  h.iy  ami  straw,  and  all  kinds  of 
fodder,  and  of  all  implements  of  husbandry,, 
cannot  be  less  than  hve  or  six  millions,  and. 
with  the  former  sum  cannot  be  less  than 
12,500,000/.  The  total  value  of  cattle  and 
famiing-stock  is  therefore  102,500,000/. 

The  value  oi  toe  shipping  belonging  to 
Great  Britain  may  be  calculated  with  more 
■accuracy.  It  appears  from  the  accounts  laid 
before  parliament,  that  exclusive  of  Ireland 
and  the  plantations,  the  number  of  ve>sels 
in  the  merchants' service,  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  on  the  30th  September  1804,  was 
17,809;  and  the  amount  of  their  tonnage, 
2,018,999  tons:  taking  it  at  2,000,0t;0,  ;.t 
8/.  per  ton,  it  makes  16,000,000/.,  whi(  h  is 
certainly  below  the  real  value.  The  shipping 
of  the  navy  may  at  least  be  est.matetl  at 
4,000,0(10/. ;  making  with  the  Cornier  sum, 
i;o,000,do0/. ;  to  wliich  some  addition  should 
be  made  for  the  value  ol  ships  builtlina  in  all 
the  dock-yards,  and  tor  small  craft  emplojed 
on  the  rivers  and  canals. 

The  quantity  of  money  in  tiie  country  hat 
at  different  times  been  a  subject  of  dis|)Ute, 
and  has  never  been  deternuned  with  preci- 
sion. It  was,  however,  pretty  well  ascer- 
tained by  the  re-coinage  in  the  years  1773, 
1774,  and  1776.  The  value  of  the  light  gold 
delivered  into  the  bank  under  the  different 
proclamations,  amounted  to  15,563,593/.; 
and  it  was  geiKTally  admitted  that  somewhat 
more  than  two  millions  of  heavy  guineas  re- 
mained out  in  circulation,  which,  with  the 
silver  and  copper  coin,  made  the  whole. at 
that  time  about  20  millions;  at  which  sum 
Mr.  Chalmers  estim.ited  it  in  the  ye.ir  1788.. 
lucJtuUng  the  cash  in  the  coffers  ol  Ihe  byiJt 


it  npps^T";,  that  at  llio  (iiiir  of  Ihr  rr.(  niiin:;f 
the  \.liole  iii'MU-y  in  Die  country  was  ratlu'i 
aliove  tlian  under  tlu"  sum  just  slateri:  :\ikI 
Jroni  the  sums  ai  nnally  (•nincd  since  llr.il 
time,  it  might  he  prosvnned  th:at  the  <nlantil^ 
Li  circiilalion  at  present  wa-i  onsiderahls 
greater.  Mr.  Uose  ha^  st.ited  it  al  no  less 
than  41,000,000/.  ;  l^it  llioi.gh  our  co;innercc 
lias  (■i)nsideral)l_v  increased,  it  will  hardly  be 
thouglit,  considering  the  (ur  greater  qtianlity 
of  sm.i'.l  bank,  notes  in  circulation,  that,  i:  'Sv, 
millions  of  coin  was  snlliciciil.  in  177G  or 
I78(i,  we  can  at  present  have  occasiou  for 
more  th  in  23  millions  at  the  utiwost. 

Of  the  value  of  the  merduuidize  and  ma- 
nufactures usua'ly  in  tlie  iiands  of  the  mer- 
chants, wholesale  dealers,  shopkeepers,  and 
manulaclurers,  it  is  very  dilikult  to  form  a 
satisfactory  idea.  'I'he  total  ani.nint  of  I  lie 
imports  in"  the  year  ISO-l-  was  i\y,20 1,490/., 
and  of  the  exports,  34,4jl,3C7/.,  according 
to  the  customhouse  accounts;  but  it  lias 
long  l)een  known  that  tiieseacciiunts  are  coii- 
sideial)l_v  below  the  true  value,  and  particu- 
larly since  pass'ng  the  convoy  ai:t,  in  the  ex  • 
cutiuii  of  wliich  it  has  app."ared  that  the  de- 
clared value  of  liritish  manufactures  exported 
is  about  71  percent,  greater  than  the  value 
in  the  inspector-general's  register;  and,  with 
respect  to  the  foreign  merchandize  imporlcd, 
the  diii'erence  on  the  wh.-ile  m.iv  not  l;e  much 
less;  for  it  is  certain  that  some  of  the  artides 
are  al  present  considerably  more  than  71 
per  cent,  above  the  value  at  which  llie\  arc 
rated.  'I'aking  the  whole,  however,  hs  r,.ted 
only  60  per  cent,  Uinler  the  present  values, 
the  annual  amount  of  foreign  trade  will  be 
101,844,571/.,  to  wiiich  some  addition  should 
be  made  for  sun  ggled  goods.  It  was  the 
opinion  of  a  iiunn'rous  meeting  of  merchants 
in  the  y^'ar  171)7.  thai  there  is  A  all  times  at 
the  lea>t  two  months  supply  of  export  and 
import  merchandi/e  in  the"  custody  of  the 
merchants  and  trade:s,  which,  accoriiing  to 
the  above  total,  w'M  amount  to  1(!,974,095/. ; 
to  which  some  addition  should  be  inatle  for 
property  in  the  hands  of  f  ireigi)  merchanls, 
on  account  of  the  merchants  of  this  country 
generall_^  giving  longer  c:  d:t  than  they  aie 
«llowed  Irom  other  countries.  But  though 
the  value  of  goods  in  the  hands  of  iTii-rchants 
jnd  wholesale  dealers  appears  so  consitlerable, 
it  musi  b.'  exceeded  bv  the  goods  in  the 
hands  ol  the  nianuf icturers  and  of  retail 
tradfr-:  lor  thougli  many  of  our  prhicipil 
nianufaclures  d-.pend  greatlvon  foreign  trade, 
tlieir  main  support  is  the  home  consumption. 
The  official  value  of  British  produce  and  ma- 
nufaclun-s  exported  in  the  year  lSi)4,  was 
23,935,793/.;  but  the  real  value,  as  far  as  it 
can  be  ascertaineil,  amounted  to  40,349,t)4'2/. 
Tliis.  it  may  be  presumed,  cannot  be  more 
than  half  of  the  whole  prodiiceof  our  mamifiic- 
tures,  which  will  lluis  amount  lo  S0,699.S.S4/., 
sf  which  but  a  small  proportion  is  included 
in'the  value  before-mentioned  in  the  hands 
of  the  merchants;  which  consi-ts  chiefly  of 
foreign  merchandize  and  materials  for"  the 
different  manufactures,  as  they  can  generally 
(ibtain  manufactured  goods  for  exportation 
at  a  short  notice,  deducting,  however, 
3,000,000/.  on  this  account:  of  "the  remain- 
der it  is  probable  that  there  is  much  more 
than  three  monihs  supply  in  the  hands  of  the 
manufacturer,  in  ilifferent  stages  from  the 
raw  material  to  finished  goods,  and  in  the 
Jjossessiou  of  retail   traders,   who,    m  manv 


rOLlTICAL  AUI'IHMETIC. 

branches,  arp  obliged  to  keep  a  large  assort- 
ment ;  but  taking  it  only  in  this  proportion  it 
amounts  to  19,424,821/.' 

1  here  still  remains  to  be  valued  tint  pari 
of  the  properly  of  individuals  which  consists 
in  hou.-ehold  lurniiure,  wearing  apparel 
plate,  jiw-els  and  trinkets,  books,  provisions, 
;uel,  carriages,  &c. ;  with  respect  to  which 
the  mo.^t  that  can  be  done  is  to  form  a  con- 
jeciure  th.it  slia'l  be  generally  admitted  as 
not  esteedin.g  the  truth;  and  certainly  this 
general  kind  of  propc-rty,  of  which  every  in- 
diviilual  mu-t  possess  or  enjoy  the  use  of 
some  share,  will  not  be  Ih.ought  over-rated 
at  three  times  the  yearly  rent  of  tiie  houses 
which  contain,  it,  or' 33,262, 500/.  in  all  Great 
Britain. 

lla\ing  thus  yalued  (he  dilf'ercnt  descrip- 
tions of  stock,  or  actual  capital,  its  lotd 
amount  will  appear  as  follows: 

\'a!ue  of  the  land  of  Great  Bri- 
tain -  -  -     of  8?S,660,000 

Houses        -  -  .         199,575,000 

Cattle,  and  ail  kinds  of  farming 

slock        -  -  -         102,500,000 

Shipiiing:   navy  and  merchant 

ships  -  -         -  20,000,000 

Money         -  -  -  ^5,000,000 

Goods  in  the  Innds  of  mer- 
chants anti  wholesale  dealers      16,974,000 

Goods  in  the  hands  of  manu- 
facturers and  retail  traders  19.424,000 

Furniture,  apparel,  &;c.  -        33,262,000 


I'otal 


-     o£  1245,395,000 

T'pon  thiscapital  all  other  species  of  wealth, 
wheilar  consisting  in  the  securities  of  govern- 
ment or  iiidividuaN,  or  of  any  other  descrip- 
tion, ultimately  dejjends ;  for  private  and 
public  loans,  in  which  mode  a  great  part  of 
the  pro|;erly  of  many  persons  is  invested, 
implying  an  obligation  on  the  part  of  the 
borjowerto  repay  at  a  future  period  a  certain 
sum  of  money  which  is  the  measure  and  re- 
presentadve  of  all  other  species  of  property, 
or  to  pay  an  income  arising  from  this  sum 
till  the  capital  is  repaid,  tlie  borrower  is  no 
otherwise  richer  than  by  the  greater  income 
he  can  make  from  the  money  than  what  he 
agrees  to  pay  for  it:  as  the  capital,  in  what- 
ever manner  he  invests  it,  still  belongs  to  the 
lender,  who,  though  he  may  not  by  the  laws 
of  the  country  be  jjermitled  to  take  posses- 
sion of  the  property  into  which  his  money  has 
been  converti'd,  may,  if  necessary,  bring  it 
to  sale,  for  the  purpose  of  re-converting  it 
into  the  sum  equivalent  to  what  he  had  lent. 
If  tJierefore,  the  whole  of  the  land,  b-juse», 
cattl?,  and  all  other  articles  composing  the 
wealth  of  the  country,  was  in  the  hands  of 
ojie  half  of  the  inhabitants,  who  had  borrowed 
the  above  sum  of  1345,395,000/.  from  tlie 
other  half,  it  is  evident  that  the  whole  real 
capital  of  the  country  would  in  fact  be  the 
property,  not  of  those  in  possession  of  it,  but 
of  those  to  whom  they  were  indebted.  I'his 
is  the  case  with  respect  to  a  considerable  part 
of  the  capital  ot  G'reat  Britain  ;  and  the  debts 
ol  tlie  goviM-nment  have  greatly  contributed 
to  bring  it  into  this  state:  for  though  tlicse 
debts  are  not  contracted  under  aii  obligation 
to  repay  the  principal  at  any  tixed  period, 
they  rest  on  the  right  which  the  government 
possesses,  to  claim,  if  it  sliould  ever  be  neces- 
sar}',  a  portion  of  the  general  property  sufti- 
tient  for  this  purpose,  and  till  that  time  to 


'i77 

rais?  '.i.fticitnt  contributions  to  -[,zy  an  an- 
nuity e(|iiivalent  in  value  to  such  principal. 

The  above  estimate  shews,  that,  notwJlj- 
staniiing  the  expensive  wars  in  which  the 
country  has  been  engaged,  which,  by  draw- 
ing much  money  cut  of  the  country,  has 
greatly  diminished  the  prof.ts  that  "would 
otherwise  have  remained,  there  has  been  a, 
great  accumulation ;  though,  at  the  same 
lime,  the  people  in  general  appear  to  live  ia 
a  much  more  expensive  manner  liiaii  their 
ancisloi-s.  We  have  seen  that  in  the  year 
1664,,  the  whole  national  capital  did  not  ex- 
ceed 700,000,000/.,  ac<-ordi;ig  to  the  oreseHt 
value  of  mom-y  :  there  has  therefore  been  ao 
average  gain  sinci?  that  time  of  nearly  four 
millions  per  annum,  a  very  considtrabfe  part 
of  which  must  have  "risen  from  foreign  com- 
merce; for  commerce  would  not  be  carried 
on  without  gain  ;  and  whatever  profits  have 
been  saved  or  converted  into  stock,  must 
appear  in  the  foregoing  account :  even  th« 
increased  value  of  the  land  and  houses  is  in  a 
great  measure  owing  to  the  assistance  of  ca- 
pitals acquired  in  trade. 

The  great  increase  of  the  annual  income  i» 
a  further  proof  that  thi-re  must  have  been 
such  an  accumulating  surplus  as  is  here 
stated.  Sir  \V.  Petty  computed  the  whole 
income  of  the  country  to  be  42,000,000/. ; 
Mr.  G.  King  estimated  it  at  43,500,000/. ; 
Dr.  Da  venant,  in  1 70 1 ,  stated  itat  49,000,000/i 
These  accounts  are  exclusive  of  Scotland  ; 
but  after  making  a  sufFicient  addition  on  this 
account,  it  Mill  ajipear  that  there  has  been  a 
very  consider.ible  increase.  Sir  .lohn  Sinclair, 
in.  1783,  observed  that  the  income  of  the 
country  arising  from  lands,  con)merce,  and 
nianut;iciurcs,"\'fas  comhionlv  calculated  at 
100,000,000/.,  which  he  considered  rath.er  a 
low  valuation  ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  of  late  years  th.e  prolit  derived  from 
each  of  these  sources  has  been  greatly  aug- 
mented. 

A  part  of  the  national  stock  or  capital  pro- 
duces no  income ;  such  as  the  money  in  cir- 
culation, furniture,  apparel,  Src. ;  and  on  the- 
cnnlrary  much  income  arises  without  capi- 
til,  beii.g  solely  the  rccompence  of  labour.. 
A  very  considerable  proportion  arises  Ironi- 
capital  and  labour  united,  such  as  that  of 
most  fiirmers,  merchants,  and  retail  traders, 
and  the  difficulty  of  distinguishing,  in  many 
cases,  that  pail  of  the  income  ot  individuals 
which  is  the  wages  of  their  labour,  from  the 
part  which  should  be  considered  as  the  pro- 
hts  of  their  capital,  must  render  every  attempt 
to  particularize  the  amount  of  the'  diflereut 
braiiclies  ol  income  liable  to  objeclions.  The 
following  statement  is,  however,  presumed  to 
be  not  very  inaccurate  : 

From  rent  of  lands  -         .£■29.595,000" 

From  rent  of  houses         -         -      11,0S7,000 
Piohls  of  farming,  or  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  laii<l  -  -         6,120,00(J 
Income  of  labourers  in  agricul- 
ture           -             -         '  -         18,000,000 
Prohts  of  mines,   collieries,  and 

inland  navigation  -  2,000,000 

Prolits  of  >hi|iping  in   the   mor- 

chants'  service,  and  small  craft  1,000,000 
Income  of  stockholders  -  18,925,000' 

From  mortgages  and  other  mo- 
ney lent  on  private  securities       2,500,000 


Carried,  ever 


,S9,227,0(>a. 


I 


4,-3 


r  o  I. 


Brought  over  -     ^.•■9;-'27,Oi10 

Profits  of  tbieign  trade  -         11,250,000 

Ditto  of  manufactures  -         13,300,000 

Pay  of  the  arjny  and  navy,  and 
seamen  in  the  merchants'  ser-    ■ 
vice 

Income  of  the-  clergy  of  all  de- 
scriptions 

Income  of  the  judges,  and  all  sub- 
ord  nate  officers  of  the  law 

Professors,  schoolmasters,  tutors, 
&c.  -  -  - 

Retail  trades  not  immediately 
connected  witli  foreign  trade, 
or  any  manufacture 

Various  other  professions  and  em- 
ployments 

Male  "and  female  sei"vaut5 


5,500,000 

2,200,000 

1,800,000 

600,000 

6,000,000 

2,000.000 
2,000,000 


1'  0  L 

trade  was  of  this  description,  the  excess  of   For  subsistence 


POL 


Total  -         ■£  133,877,000 

Of  this  annual  sum,  the  part  drawn  from, 
other   countries   bv  connnerce  is    stated  at 
1 1 ,250,000/.  whicli'  is  founded  on  a  supposi- 
tion that  the  capita!  employed  cannot  be  less 
than  75,000,000/. ;  and  that  the  profits  there- 
on, including  those  of  all  persons  immediate- 
ly depending  on  foreign  trade,  may  be  taken 
at  15  per  cent.     It  must  not,  however,  be 
sujjposed  that  the  nation  receives  an  afces- 
sion  ofAvealth  to  the  amount  of  1 1,250,000/. 
annually  from   tins   source:    whatever  pay- 
ments are  made  to  other  countries  for  the 
dividends  on  the  share  foreigm-rs  hold  of  the 
public  debt?,  or  as  subsidies  to  their  govern- 
ments, or  spent  therein  in  the  maintenance 
of  troops,  or  bv  British  subjects  occasionally 
resident  there, "operates  to  the  diminution  of 
this  prolit  in  a  national  view.    The  actual 
wealth  whidi  the  country  a'.quircs  by  its  in- 
tercouise  with  other  nations,  may  be  very 
different  from  the  profits  of  the  individuals 
concerned  in  trade  ;  as  a  sum  equal  to  a  great 
part,  or  even  the  whole,  of  such  prolit;,  may 
be  sent  abroad  in  the  various  ways  just  men- 
tioned.    The  balance  of  trade  in  favour  of 
the  country  has   usually  been   estimated  by 
the  excess  of  the  exports  beyond  the  imports, 
and  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  the  lat- 
ter-has  been    considered  ,  highly  desirable. 
This  is  a  concise  mode  of  determining  a  very 
important  point.     But  even  if  the  custom- 
house accounts  were  much  better  ada[jted  to 
the  pur()Ose  than  they  are,  the  justness  of  the 
ctfnclusions  thus  drawn  from  them  would  be 
very  doubtful :  for  it  may  be  easily  shewn 
thai  in  many  cases,  if  the  imports  even  ex- 
ceeded the  exports,  there    might    notwith- 
standing be  a  considerable  gain.     Thus,  sup- 
posing the  merchants  of  this  country  to  pur- 
chase British  manufactures  for  exportation 
on    their    own    account,   to    the    value    of 
l.'0,000,000/.,  the  net  proceeds  thereof  in  the 
countries  to  which  they  are  exported  camiot 
be  considered  as  less  th?n  22,000,000/. ;  and 
this  sum  bejnjj  invested   in  foreign  produce, 
and  imported  into  this  counti'y,  will  amount, 
after  repaving  the  diities  and  all  expences, 
to  at  least' 24,200,000/.,  returning  the  iner- 
ch.uits  the  capit.ll  originally  advanced,  with  a 
profit  of  21  percent.      In  like  manner,  when- 
ever the  merchandize  imported  :n  return  for 
any  quantity  ex|)orted   is  of  greater  actual 
value  in  tins    country,  or  yields   a  greater 
price,  after  allowing  for  all  charges  and  the 
interest  of  the  cajjilal  em|)!oyed,  the  surplus 
must  be  an  adiliiion  to  the  wealth  of  the 
aountry;  and  if  the  whole  of  the  foreign 


the  imports  would  shew  the  profit  or  the  wealth 
acquired  by  the  exchange  of  connnoditics 
with  other  nations. 

It  has  been  shewn,  that  the  total  mcome 
of  the  country  is  at  present  upwards  of 
1. 33,000,000.''. ;  and  that  it  cannot  be  less 
than  this  sum,  may  be  inferred  trom  the  ge- 
neral expenditure.  Sir  W.  Petty  reckoned 
the  average  expence  of  men,  women,  and 
children,  in  England  and  Wales,  at  6/.  13.v 
4d  per  annum,  for  food,  housing,  clothes, 
and  ail  other  necessaries;  Dr.  Davenant 
took  the  average  expence  at  7/.,  which,  yc- 
cordins;  to  the  dilfereuce  in  the  value  ot  mo- 
ney, is  "equal  to  upwards  of  It)/,  for  each  per- 
son at  present.  jMr.  Jonas  Kanway,  aljout 
3:,  vears  ago,  estimated  the  expence  ot  tiie 
people  of  England  and  Wales  on  an  average 
about  <)/.  eacii ;  but  this  must  be  too  low  at 
present:  and  the  following  estimate  will  pro- 
bably approach  nearer  to  th''  truth,  witli  re- 
spect to  the  mere  expence  of  sub-,i:,teno',  or 
of  eating  and  drinking,  particuiarly  as  we  are 
not  to  consider  what  is  absolutely  necessary 
(or  support,  but  what  is  actually  expended  in 
this  way : 
Persons. 


300,000  at 

16(/. 

per 

day 

^  7,300,000 

700,000 

12d. 

- 

12,775,000 

1,500,000 

9d. 

- 

20,531,250 

2,000,000 

6d. 

- 

18,250,000 

2,500,000 

Ad. 

- 

15,208,333 

2,000,000 

2d. 

- 

6,083,333 

1,500,000 

Id. 

2,281,249 

10,500,000 

c£S2,4-'9,165 

for  house-rent 

l;'or  clothing 

I'or  miscellaneous  expcjices 

Total 


^  82,-'tOO,00« 

9,500,000 

2t),000,000 

1 2,500,000 

X  130,400,000 


\A'hen  the  price  of  most  of  the  necessaries 
of  life  is  considered,  it  will  not  be  thought 
that  the  expence  of  subsistence  is  over-rated 
in  the  lowest  classes;  and  if  this  is  admitted, 
it  cannot  be  too  high  in  the  other  classes, 
when  it  includes  strong  beer,  spirits,  wine, 
and  a  variety  of  luxuries.  To  the  expences 
of  living  must  be  added  those  of  house-rent, 
clothing,  and  superfluous  expences,  in  order 
to  arrive  at  the  whole  actual  expenditure. 
The  lirst  of  these  articles  has  been  stated  at 
11,087,500/.;  and  allowing  for  the  rent  of 
shops,  warehouses,  and  other  buildings  ap- 
propriateil  wholly  to  trade,  it  may  be  taken 
at  y, 500, 000/.  '  The  expence  of  clothing, 
including  every  article  of  dress,  or  personal 
decoration,  will,  on  a  very  moderate  compu- 
tation, amount  to  2t)  millions,  viz. 

150,000  persons  at 20/.  peran.  ^3,000,000 
300,000  ""  -/-.,...,-,-. 

750,000 

1,300,000 

2,800,000 

4,000,000 

1,500,000 


12/. 

3,000,000 

8/. 

6,000,000 

4/. 

5,200,000 

30.,-. 

4,200,000 

20s. 

4,000,000 

0 

10,800,000  ,£26,000,000 

With  respect  to  superlluons  expences, 
when  the  sums  spent  by  the  nobility  and 
people  of  fashion  in  plays,  operas,  conceits, 
routs,  gambling,  horses.'  carriages,  and  other 
amusements  and  luxuries,  are  considered,  it 
will  certainly  be  thought  a  very  moderate 
assumption,  that,  including  what  is  spent  by 
others  on  objects  more  rational,  though  nol 
absolutely  requisite,  there  are  half  a  million 
of  persons  wlio,  one  with  another,  spend  25/. 
per  anmim  in  unnecessary  expences,  making 
12,500,000/.   The  total  expence  will  then  be : 


The  difference  between  this  expenditure 
and  the  general  income  shews  the  annual 
gain  of  the  country,  or  the  sum  applicable  to 
the  extension  of  commerce,  the  reservation 
of  a  greater  (|uantity  ot  foreign  articles,  the 
increase  of  ship{)ing  and  buildings,  agricul- 
tural or  mechanical  improvements,  or  other 
augmeiilations  of  th.e  general  stock.  With- 
out such  a  surplus,  few  improvements  could 
be  carried  on,  nor  could  there  be  any  increase 
of  wealth;  and  if  this  latter  circun'isiance  is 
thought  essential  to  national  advancement, 
it  becomes  an  object  of  much  impoitance, 
that  the  expences  "of  the  government  should 
be  restrained  within  such  bounds,  and  pro- 
vided for  in  such  manner,  as  to  intrench  as 
little  as  possible  on  the  annual  surplus  tiiat 
would  otherwise  be  converted  into  perinaneut 
capital. 

FOLIUM,  pnley-mnuntain,  in  botany,  a 
species  of  teucrium,  with  oblong,  obtuse, "ere- 
uated,  and  sessile  leaves.     See  Teucrium. 

POLL,  a  word  used  in  antient  writings  for 
the  head:  hence  to  poll  is  eitner  to  vote  or 
to  enter  down  the  names  of  those  persons 
who  give  in  their  votes  at  an  election. 

Poll-money,  a  capitation  or  tax  imposed 
by  the  authority  of  parli.unent  on  thi-  Uead  or 
person  either  of  all  inditierently,  or  according 
to  some  known  mark  of  distinction. 

POLLIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
hexandria  monogynia.  The  carolla  is  infe- 
rior, six-petal  led;  berry  many-seeded.  There 
is  one  species,  an  herbaceous  plant  of  Japan. 

POLLICHIA,  a  genus  of  the  nionandria 
monogynia  class  and  order.  The  calyx  is 
one-leafed,  five-toothed;  corolla,  tive  petals; 
seed  solitary;  receptacle  sucmlent,  aggre- 
gate scales.  There  is  one  species,  of'llie 
Caj^e. 

POLLL'X,  in  astronomy,  a  fixed  star  of 
the  second  magnitude  in  the  constellation 
Gemini,  or  the  '1  wins.     See  Astronomy. 

POLYADELPHIA  (from  isoXvi,  mam/, 
and  aStXfia,  brotlurhrod),  many  brother- 
hoods; the  name  of  the  18th  class  of  Lin- 
nanis's  sexual  system,  consisting  of  plants 
Tvilh  hermaphrodite  tlowers,  in  which  several 
stamina  or  male  organs  are  united  bv  their 
filaments  into  three  or  more  distinct  bun- 
dles. 

POLYANDRIA  (from  noXut,  inawi,  and 
«v!f,  a  iiKin  or  liushandj,  many  husbands; 
the  name  of  the  13th  class  in  Liniwus's  .sex- 
ual method,  consisting  of  plants  with  herma- 
phrodite (lowers,  which  are  furnished  with 
several  stamina  that  are  inserted  into  the 
common  receptacle  of  the  (lower. 

POL"^CARDIA,  a  genus- of  the  class  and 
order  penlandria  monogynia.  Tlie  petals  are 
five;  stigma  lobed  ;  capsules  (ive-celkxl ; 
seeds  ariUed.  There  is  one  species,  a  shrub 
of  Madagascar. 

POL'l'CAUPON,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  triandria  trigynia.  The  cal_\x  is  (ive- 
leaved;  petals  five;  capsule  one-celled; 
serds  many.     There  is  one  sjiecies. 

POLVCNKMU.M,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia order,  in  the  triandria  class  of  plants^ 


T  O  L 

and  in  the  iiatuiiil  method  ranking  uiidcr  the 
l'2ih  ordei',  lioloi'acea;.  'J'lie  cal_\x  is  triplisi- 
loiis  ;  and  tiierc  are  five  calcitbriii  pclals, 
with  one  seed  almost  naked,  'i'liere  arc  live 
sptcii's,  oi  no  note. 

POLVGALA,  inHlrjjort,  a  geuiis  of  the 
octanthia  order,  in  tlie  diadelphia  class  ot 
plants,  anil  in  the  natural  metlKKJ  ranking 
inidt"'-  the  33d  order,  louientaieie.  'J'he  ca- 
Ivx  is  penlaphvllous,  with  two  of  its  leallets 
wnig-shaped  and  eoloured  ;  the  leguimii  is 
obcordale  and  bilocular.  There  are  4j  spe- 
cies, ot  vdiieh  the  most  remarkable  are: 

1.  'I'he  vulgaris,  or  conmioii  milkwort,  is 
a  native  oi'  the  British  lieaths  and  pastures. 
'I'he  root  uf  this  plant  has  a  bitter  taste,  and 
has  been,  found  to  possess  tlie  virtues  of  tiie 
Ameriean  rattlesnake  root.  It  purj;es  with- 
out danger,  and  is  also  emetic  and  diuretic; 
sometimes  opeiating  all  tlie  three  ways  at 
once.  A  spoonful  of  the  decoction  maile  by 
boduig  an  ounce  of  the  herb  in  a  pint  of  wa- 
ter till  one-half  has  exhaled,  has  been  found 
serviceable  in  pleurisies  and  fevers,  by  pro- 
liioting  a  diaphoresis  and  expectoration  ;  and 
thr'C  spoonfuls  of  the  same  taken  once  an 
hour,'  has  proved  benelicial  in  the  dropsy  and 
anasarca.  It  has  also  been  found  serviceable 
ill  consumptive  complaints. 

2.  I'he  senega,  or  scneka,  rattlesnake- 
wort,  grows  naturally  in  most  parts  of  North 
America.  Tiie  root  of  this  species  operates 
ino;e  powerhilly  tliKU  tlie  last;  but  besides 
the  virtues  of  a  purgative,  einetic,  and  diu- 
retic, it  lias  been  recommended  as  an  anti- 
dote against  the  poison  of  a  rattlesnake  ;  but 
this  opinion  is  now  exploded.  It  still,  how- 
ever, maintains  its  character  in  several  dis- 
orders. Its  efficacy,  particularly  in  pleuri- 
sies, is  most  fully  established  in  Mrginia: 
formerly  near  iiity  out  of  one  hundred  died 
of  that  di^empe:  ;  but  by  the  happy  use  of 
tiiis  root  hartily  three  out  of  the  same  iiumbeB 
have  been  lost. 

As  the  seeds  of  the  rattlesnake-wort  sel- 
dom succeed  even  in  the  countries  where  the 
plant  is  a  native,  the  best  method  of  propa- 
gating it  is  to  procuiv  the  roots  from  Ame- 
rica, and  plant  them  in  a  bed  of  light  earth  in 
a  sheltered  situation,  where  they  will  thrive 
without  any  other  cultr.re  than  keeping  them 
free  fro.n  weeds.  But  though  the  plant  will 
stand  out  ordinary  vv'inters,  it  will  be  proper 
to  cover  it  duiiiig  that  season  with  old  tan- 
ner's bark,  or  other  mulch,  to  keep  out  the 
£i'ost. 

POL"\XtAMIA  I'lioXi'f,  7iian:/,  and  7«/*ot, 
mwriufxt ) .  This  term,  expressing  an  laii  r- 
tonimunication  of  sexes,  is  applied,  by  I-in- 
iia-us,  both  to  plants  and  tlowers.  A  polyga- 
iiious  plant  is  that  which  bears  both  herma- 
iiiaphrodite  flowers'  and  male  or  female,  or 
both. 

POLYGAMY,  the  plurality  of  wives  or 
husbands,  in  the  possession  of  one  man  or 
woman,  at  the  same  time.  By  the  laws  of 
England,  polygamy  is  made  felony,  except 
in  the  case  of  absence  beyond  the  seas  for 
seven  years ;  and  where  the  absent  person  is 
living  in  England,  Wales,  or  .Scotland,  and 
the  other  paity  has  notice  of  it,  such  marry- 
ing is  felony  liy  the  statute  1  Jac.  1.  c.  11. 

POLYGLOT']',  among  divines  and  cri- 
tics, chiefly  denotes  a  bible  printed  in  several 
lai.guages.  In  these  editions  of  the  holy 
scriptures,  the  text  in  eaclx  language  is  ranged 
bi  opposite  coUunus. 


?  O  7. 

The  first  polyglott  bible  wan  that  of 
cardinal  Ximenes,'  printed  in  l.'jl?,  whiili 
contains  the  Hebrew  text,  the  C'haldec  para- 
phr.ise  on  the  penlaleuch,  the  Greek  version 
oftlieLW,  and  the  antient  Latin  version. 
After  this,  there  were  many  others :  as  the 
bible  of  Justiniani,  bishop  ol  Nebio,  in  He- 
brew, Chaldee,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Arabic: 
the  psalter,  by  John  Potken,  in  Hebrew, 
(jreek,  Elhin|)ic,  and  Latin;  Plantin's  pol_\- 
;;lolt  bible,  in  IJebn  w,  Chaldee,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  with  the  Syriac  version  of  the  New 
lestament ;  M.  Le  J.iy's  bible  in  Hebrew, 
Samaritan,' Chaldee,  Greek,  Syriac,  Latin, 
and  Arabic;  Walton's  polygloti,  which  is  a 
new  edition  of  Le  Ja\'s  polyglott,  more  cor- 
rect, extensive,  and  perfect,  with  several 
nevv  Oriental  versions,  and  a  large  collection 
of  various  readings,  &:c. 

POLYGON,  ill  geometry,  a  figure  with 
many  sides,  or  whose  perimeter  consists  of 
more  than  four  sides  at  least:  such  are  the 
pentagon,  hexagon,  heptagon,  &c. 

Every  polygon  may  be  divided  into  as 
many  triangles  as  it  has  sides :  for  if  you  as- 
sume a  point,  as  a  (Plate  Miscel.  fig.  191), 
any  where  within  the  polygon,  and  from 
thence  draw  lines  to  every  angle  al>,  ac,  ad, 
&:c.  they  shall  make  as  many  triangles  as  the 
figure  has  sides.  Thus,  if  the  polygon  has 
six  sides  (as  in  the  figure  above),  tlie  double 
of  that  is  twelve,  from  whence  take  four,  and 
there  remain  eight :  then  all  the  angles  h,  c, 
d,  c,J,  g,  of  that  polygon,  taken  together, 
are  equal  to  eight  right  angles.  For  the 
polygon  having  six  sitles,  is  divided  into  six 
triangles ;  and  the  three  angles  of  each,   by 

1.  o'J  Lucl.  are  equal  to  two  nglit  ones;  so 
that  all  the  angles  together  ;iiake  twelve  right 
ones:  but  each  of  these  triangles  has  one 
angle  in  the  point  (t.  and  by  it  they  complete 
the  space  roi.nd  the  same  point ;  and  all  the 
angles  about  a  point  are  known  to  be  equal 
to  four  right  ones;  wherefore  those  four  taken 
from  twelve,  leave  eight,  the  sum  of  the  right 
anples  of  the  hexagon. 

So  it  is  plain  the  figure  has  twice  as  many 
right  angles  as   it   has    sides,  except   four. 

2.  K.  D. 

Every  polygon  circumscribed  about  a  cir- 
cle is  e<iu.'.l  to  a  rectangled  triangle,  one  of 
whose  legs  shall  be  the  radius  of  the  circle, 
and  the  oth-r  the  perimeter  (or  sum  of  all 
the  sides)  oi  the  polygon.  Hence  every  re- 
gular polygon  is  equal  to  a  rectangled  tri- 
angle, one  of  whose  legs  is  the  perimeter  of 
tiie  polygon,  and  the  other  a  perpendii-iilar 
drawn  from  the  centre  to  one  of  the  sides  ot 
the  polygon.  And  every  polygon  circum- 
scribed about  a  circle  is  bigger  than  it,  and 
every  polygon  inserted  is  less  than  the  circle; 
as  is  manifest,  because  the  thing  containing  is 
always  less  than  the  thing  contained. 

The  perimeter  of  every  polygon  circum- 
scribed about  a  circle  is  greater  than  the  cir- 
lumference  of  that  circli',  and  the  perimeter 
of  every  polygon  inscribed  is  less.  Keiice,  a 
circle  is  equal  to  a  right-angled  triangle,  whose 
base  is  the  ciicuniierence  of  the  circle,  and 
Is  iieight  the  radius  of  it. 

For  this  triangle  will  be  less  than  any  po- 
lygon circu;r.scribed,  and  greater  than  any 
inscribed  ;  because  the  circumference  of  the 
circle,  whicli  is  the  base  of  the  triangle,  is 
'greater  than  the  compass  of  any  inscribed, 
lliereiore  it  will  be  equal  to  the  circle.  For, 
if  this  tiiaiigje  is  greater  than  any  thing  that 


r  o  L 


4;<) 


ii  less  than  the  circle,  and  Iom  than  any 
thing  that  is  greater  than  the  circle,  it  fol- 
lowii  that  it  nuisl  be  equal  to  the  cncle.  Tlii* 
is  called  the  quadrature  or  stpiaring  of  the 
circle ;  that  is,  to  find  a  rittlit-lined  figure 
equal  lo  a  lircle,  upon  a  supp<nition  that  the 
basis  given  is  equal  lo  the  circuitilerpi.ee  of 
die  circle:  but  actually  to  find  a  right  hne 
equal  lo  the  circtinih  reiiee  of  a  cin  le,  is  not 
v-t  discovered  geometrically.     Sec  CiRCLt. 

Pr'M-ini  cmu-!:rnint;  pill  ■s.rm.  1.  On  a 
regular  |;oly.^on  lo  circumscribe  a  circle,  or 
to  ciiciiiiisciibe  a  regular  polygon  upun  a 
ciicle.  IJisecl  two  of  the  angles  of  tJie  rriven 
polygon  A  and  IJ  (Plat.-  Miscell.  Iig.  IU2), 
by  the  right  line's  AF,  I'l'';  and  on  the  point 
F,  where  they  meet,  with  the  rad  us  Af,  de- 
scribe a  circle  which  will  cin  umscribe  the 
polygon.  Next  to  circumscribe  a  polygon, 
divide  3G0  by  the  number  of  sides  re<iuired, 
to  find  c  F  d'\  which  set  ofT  from  the  centre 
1'',  anil  draw  the  line  de,  on  which  construct 
the  polygon  as  in  the  following  piolilem. 
2.  On  a  given  line  to  describe  any  given  re- 
gular polygon.  Find  the  angle  of  the  poly- 
gon In  the  fable,  and  in  E  set  off  an  ang'e 
equal  thereto;  then  drawing  F.l  =  KL), 
through  the  points  E,  A,  O,  desciibe  a  circle, 
and  in  this  applying  the  given  right  line  as 
otten  as  yon  can,  the  polygon  will  be  de- 
scrii)ed.  3.  To  find  tlie  sum  of  all  the  an- 
gles in  any  given  regular  polygon.  Multiply 
the  number  of  sides  by  180°;  from  the  pro- 
duct subtract  36o°,  and  the  remainder  is  the 
sum  required :  Ihtjs,  in  a  pentagon,  180  x  5 
=  1)00,  and  goo  —  360  =  540  =  the  sum  of 
all  the  angles  in  a  pentagon.  4.  lo  find  the 
area  of  a  regular  polygon.  Multiply  one  side 
of  the  polygon  by  hall  the  number  of  sides; 
and  then  multiply  this  product  by  a  perpen- 
dicular let  fall  from  the  centre  of  the  circum- 
scribing circle,  and  the  product  will  be  the 
area  required  :  thus,  if  AH  (the  side  of  a  pen- 
tagon) =  34  X  2i=  \ob,  and  135  X  29 
(tiie  perpendicular)  =  3915  ■=.  the  area  re- 
quired. 5.  To  find  the  area  of  an  irregular 
polygon,  let  it  be  resolveii  into  triangles,  and 
the  sum  of  the  areas  of  these  will  be  the  area 
of  tiie  polygon. 

The  foliowiiig  Tabic  exhibits  the  most  re- 
markable particulars  in  all  the  polygons,  up  lo 
the  doiiecagoi!  of  12  sides  ;  viz.  the  angle  at  the 
centre,  the  angle  of  the  polysron.  and  the  area 
of  the  polygon,  when  each  sice  is  1. 


No.of    Name  of 

Angle 

Aa^y^oi 

Area. 

sides.j    polvgon. 

at  cent 

polyg. 

3     1  "J'rigon 

120° 

60=' 

0.'l:>.'^C-!i7 

4     j  Tetra,0;ou 

90 

90 

1  .OOOCXXJ 

5     1  Pentapoa 

72 

103 

l.T2a!774 

6      Hexagon 

60 

120 

2  .5980762 

7      Heptagon 

.513 

12S4 

3.6339124 

8       Octagon 

45' 

135 

4.P26'J27l 

9      Noaagon 

40 

IIO 

fi.'"  18242 

10     j  Decagon 

35 

144 

7.6;'42088 

1 1       Urdecagon 

S-.J, 

147  J- 
'  1 1 

9.;%.56399 

1 2      Dodecagon 

30 

150 

11.1951524 

Polygon,  in  fortii'cafion,  denotes  the 
figure  of  a  town  or  ot!.?r  lortr-  ss. 

The  exterior  or  cxieriial  polygon  is  bound- 
ed by  lines  dra«n  from  the  po'ut  cf  ea-  h  ba- 
stion lo  t.ie  points  of  the  adjacent  b  stions.. 
And  the  interior  polygon  is  formed  by  hues- 
joining  the  centres  of  the  bastions. 

Line  ofVoLYHOKs,  oil  the  Freucb  sectors^ 


-J'O 


V'O  h 


.  U  a  line    foiit..iiiin_^  the  h.imologoii;    si  U" 
()i  liie  lirst  nine   rcijukir  poivgoiis  in:-cribe(l 

.ui  the  sanitr  <-iiclrf;  that  i^,  from  an  equilate- 

.ral  triangle  to  a  djclecagou. 

POLYGONAL  NUMBERS,  are  so  call- 
k'\  because  the  nnits  wbereof  they  consist 
may  be  disposetl  in  such  a  manner  as  to  re- 
}>  esent  severa!  regular  polygtms. 

The  si'-!»  ot  a  jiolygoiia!  number  is  the 
luiinher  ot  terms  ot  the  arithmetical  progres- 
sion that  compose  it ;  and  tiie  number  ot  an- 
sjies  is  that  which  shews  how  many  angh's 
mat  liJiire  has,  whence  the  polygonal  num- 
brr  tjkes  Its  name. 

To  iiml  a  polygonal  nuiiiber,  the  si<le  and 
number  of  its  anj5ks  being  given,  the  canoii 
1.-  tliis :  the  polygonal  lunuoer  is  the  semi- 
<lii:'erence  oi  the  tactums  of  the  square  of  the 
sa.e  into  liie  number  ot  angles  (iiniiuished  l)y 
twi)  units,  and" of  the  side  itself  into  the  iium- 
bvr  of  angles  diminished  by  four  units. 

Tiie  Several  sorts  of  polygonal  numbers, 
viz.  the  triangles,  stpiares,  pentagons,  hexa- 
gons, &c.  are  formed  from  tin;  aikiit  on  of 
tiie  terms  of  llie  arillin!eti;"il  series,  having 
ft  spectively  (heir  common  difference  1,2,3, 
4,  &CC.  ;  viz.  if  the  (  onmion  dilierence  of  the 
arilhnielicais  is  I,  the  sums  of  their  terms  will 
iorni  the  triangles;  if:;?,  the  stpiares  ;  if  3, 
llie  pentagons;  if  4,  ilie  hexagons,  &c. 
Thus : 

S  Arith.  Pro.^.  1,2,  ^,  4,  .S  ,  (i ,  7. 
>  1  rian.  Xos'.  1,3,  () ,  Id  ,  1  j  ,  ;3I  ,  2K  . 
V  Arith  Prog.  1,3,  5  ,  7,  9,  II  ,  13. 
)  ..Square  Nos.  1,4,  9,16,23,36,49. 
5  Ariih.  Prog.  1,4,  7  ,  10  ,  1^  ,  Itj,  19. 
"(  Peiitaa.  Nos.  1  ,  .■) ,  1  ■>  ,  22  ,  3.5  ,  .1 1  ,  70  . 
^  Ar.th.'Prog.  1  ,  j  ,  9  ,  13  ,  17  ,  S!  ,  i?j  . 
i  Me.xae.  No<.  I  ,  6  ,  15  ,  28  ,  4>  ,  <36  ,  01  . 

The  sums  of  polygonal  numbers  collected 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  j)ol agonal  num- 
bers themselves  are,  ot;t  of  aritlurielica'  pro- 
gressions, are  called  pyramidal  numbers. 

POLYGONL'NL  kmit-grusi-,  a  genns  of 
tlie  trigyi:ia  order,  in  the  octandria  cla-s  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
.li.ider  the  1 2tii  order,  holoracea-..  There  is 
310  caU"x ;  tiie  corolla  is  quin(|uepartite  and 
calycine,  or  serving  instead  of  a  calyx  ;  there  , 
is  one  angt'.late.-i  seed.  There  are  36  spe- 
cies ;  but  tl'.e  most  remarkable  are: 

;.  The  iMsloita,  bi.slort,  or  greater  snake- 
weed. 2.  The  viviparum,  or  smaller  bistort. 
lioth  these  perennials  flower  in  May  and 
June,  succeeded  by  ripe  seeds  in  August. 
They  grow  wild  i:i  Lnglaiid,  &c.  ;  the  lirst 
in  moist,  the  other  in  mountainous  situations. 
3.  Oriental  polygonum,  commonly  called 
pcrsicariiU  4.  Fagojiyruni,  buck-wheat  or 
briiik,  rises  with  an  ipright,  smooth,  branchy 
stem,  fro  11  about  <i  foot  and  a  Jiall  to  a  yard 
high,  hearl-shaped  sagittated  leaves,  and  the 
branches  terminated  by  cluster-;  of  whitish 
flowers,  succeeded -by  hirge  angular  seeds, 
<?xce,h'iit  for  feeding  pigeons  and  most  sorts 
of  poultry. 

Th"  root  of  a  kind  of  bistort,  according  to 
Omelin,  is  used  in  Siberia  for  ordinary  food. 
This  species  is  by  Mailer  called  bistorta  foliis 
ad  Oram  nervosis,  and  by  some  other  bota- 
nists bistora  niontana  minor.  The  natives 
cull  it  luouka:  a  id  so  indole;!)!  are  thi-y,  that, 
to  save  them^elves  tin;  trouble  of  digging  it 
outof  the  eiulli,  they  go  in  spring  and  pillage 
Hie  holes  of  the  mountain  rats,  which  thev 
Hud  Jjllcd  with  tlitjc  roots.    Ju  our  couutj'j', 


POL 

biilorl  \s  usfd  ?.s  ?.  medicine.  All  the  pa.ls 
of  bistort  ha\e  a  ringh  austere  taste,  pa,  li- 
cularly  the  root,  •vh'ci!  is  one  of  the  strcngest 
of  the  veg(t::ble  astringent-..  It  is  employed 
in  all  kinds  ot  immoderate  ha?morrhages  luid 
other  fluxes,  both  internal'y  and  externally, 
where  astringency  is  the  only  indication.  It 
is  certainly  a  very  powerful  styptic,  and  is  to 
be  looked  0:1  simply  as  such ;  the  sudorilic, 
anti-pestilential,  and  o!hT  like  virtues  ascii- 
b«vl  to  it,  it  has  no  other  claun  to,  than  in 
consec|uence  of  its  astringency,  and  of  the 
antiseptic  power  which  it  lias  in  common 
with  ether  vegetable  styptics.  The  largest 
dose  of  the  root  in  pov.der  h  a  single  drachm. 

POLYGYXIA,  among  botjinst^,  denotes 
an  order  or  subdivision  of  a  class  of  plants; 
com|)rehendiiig  such,  plants  of  that  c'ass  as 
have  a  great  number  of  pistils,  or  female  or- 
gans of  generation.     See  HoTANY. 

POLYHF,l:)RON,  in  geomelry,  denotes  a 
body  or  solid  comprehended  under  many 
sides  or  planes.  A  gnomic  polyhedron  is  a 
stone'v.itli  "ievera!  faces,  whereon  are  de- 
scribed various  kinds  of  dioN. 

PoLYH EDl'.o>!,  po'i/xctrpc,  in  optics,  is  a 
iruiltiplying-gl..ssor  lens,  consisting  of  several 
plane  surfaces  disposed  into  a  convex  form. 
See  Optics. 

P(.)i,YMNTA,  a  genus  of  the  polygamia 
necessaria  order,  in  the  syngcnesia  cla-:s  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ra;ikii:g 
under  the  40ih  order,  composita-.  'llie  re- 
ceptacle is  pa'eiiceous;  there  is  no  pappus; 
the  exterior  calyx  is  telraplr.llous,  or  ])eiita- 
plyllous  ;  the  interior  decaplij  llous,  and  com- 
peted of  concave  leaflets.  There  are  five 
species. 

POLYNEMUS,  pob/nemr,  a  genus  of 
(ishes  of  the  order  abdominales.  The  gene- 
ric character  is,  head  compressed,  covered 
with  scales;  snout  very  obtuse  and  promi- 
nent; gill-numbrane  five  or  seven-raved; 
separate  filaments  or  setaceous  processes'near 
the  base  of  the  pectoral  fins. 

1.  Polynomus  paradiseus.  T|-,e  genus  po- 
lynemus  m.iy  be  considered  as  holding  the 
same  station  among  the  abdominal  fislies 
which  the  genus  trigla  does  among  tlie  tho- 
racic; being  distinguished  by  a  similar  cir- 
cumstance, viz.  that  of  being  furnish.ed  on 
each  side,  near  the  ba^e  of  the  pectoral  fin=, 
with  several  separate  processes  or  arli<ulated 
rays:  these  are,  in  general,  much  longer  and 
more  setaceous  than  in  the  trigla-,  ?nd,in  some 
species,  even  exceed  the  length  of  tlie  whole 
body,  'llie  species  of  polyncme  are  not 
very  numerous,  and  are  chieliy  confined  to 
the  warmer  latitudes. 

The  p,o!ynemus  p:u-adisens,  or  mango-fish, 
PS  it  is  generally  called,  vdiicli  seems  to  have 
been  one  of  the  fir>t  of  the  genus  known  to 
the  JCuropeans,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Indian 
and  .\nierican  seas,  and  grows  to  the  lenglli 
of  about  12  or  15  inches,  it  is  a  fish  of  an 
elegant  shape,  moderately  broad  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  gradually  tapering  tov.-ards  the  tail, 
which  is  viry  deeply  forked  ;  tlie  scales  are 
of  moderat-,'  size,  those  towards  the  head  and 
tail  smaller  than  the  rest;  the  tlioracir  fila- 
ments arc  of  excessive  length,  the  superior  or 
outward  ones  often  extending  far  beyoi.d  t';e 
tail;  the  others  gradually  shorten,  the  first  or 
lowermost  extending  about  half  the  length  of 
the  body.  The  colour  of  this  fish  is  gene- 
rally described  as  yellow,  and  its  popular 
name  of  niango-tish  Is  supposed  to  have  been 


POL 

given  it  from  that  circumstance,  SR  rt^ein- 
bling  the  colour  of  a  ripe  mango.     Dr.  I!i  , 
sel,  in  his  work  on  l!ie  Indian  hslie;,  inforn  . 
us,  that  the  inaugo-lisli  is  reckoned  by  miitii 
the  most  delicate  of  any  found  at  Calcutta. 

2.  Poljnemus  pleheius.  (General  appear- 
ance that  of  a  mullet,  but  with  the  head  very 
obtuse  in  front,  the  mouth  appearing  as  if 
placed  beneath ;  colour  silvery  grey,  «ith  x 
dusky  tinge  on  the  upper  parts,  and  several 
dusky  lines  running  from  hei.d  to  tail  above 
the  lateral  line  ;  scales  rather  large  ;  all  the 
fins  scaly  to  some  distance  from  the/l>ase; 
tail  forked;  thoracic  filaments  live  in  mmi- 
ber  on  each  side;  the  first  of  these  is  said  by 
Gmelin  to  exceed  the  length  of  the  body, 
the  re.st  decreasing  gradually. 

Ihis  species  is  a  native  of  the  Indian 
and  American  seas,  and  is  found  about  the 
coasts  of  several  of  the  sout'iein  islands.  It 
arrives  at  a  veiy  large  size,  measuring  up- 
w;»rds  of  four  feet  in  length.  It  is  considered 
as  an  excellent  fish  for  the  tiible,  and  .is  in 
much  esteem  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Malabar  coa»t.  It  is  dressed  in  various  v.  avs, 
and  is  soir.etimes  dried  and  salted  fjr  sak-. 
Dr.  Bloch  informs  us,  on  the  authority  of  a 
correspondent  on  whom  he  could  rely',  that 
this  fish  is  commonly  known  in  India  by  the 
title  of  royal  fish,  on  account  of  its  excel- 
lence, and  laments  that  Broussonet  (who 
seems  to  have  named  it  from  its  want  of  par- 
ticular splendour)  should  have  given  it  the 
title  of  P.  ^ilebeiiis. 

3.  Polynemus  niloticus.  This,  according 
to  .Mr.  Ikuce,  who  describes  and  figures  it  in 
the  Appendix  to  his  Travels,  is  a  large  spe- 
cies, and  may  vie,  for  the  elegance  both  of 
its  form  and  taste,  with  any  fish  inhabiting 
the  rivers  running  either  into  the  .Mediterra- 
nean or  the  ocean.  The  specimen  from 
whicli  Mr.  Bruce's  figure  was  taken  weighed 
32  ])Ounds,  but  is  saitl  often  to  arrive  at  the 
weight  of  70  or  more.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of 
tl;e  river  Nile,  where  it  is  by  no  means  un- 
common as  far  up  the  river  as  Syene  and 
the  first  c;itaract.  The  whole  body  is  cover- 
ed with  scales  of  a  brilliant  silver-colour,  so 
as  to  resemble  spangles  lying  close  together ; 
and  there  is  no  vari^-ly  of  tinge  on  the  fish, 
except  a  shade  of  red  on  the  end  of  the  nose, 
whicli  is  fat  and  tiesliy. 

We  are  informed  by  Mr.  Bruce,  that  in 
order  to  take  this  fish,  tlie  Egyptian  peasants 
prepare  a  pretty  large  inass  or  cake,  consist- 
ing of  oil,  clay,  flour,  honey,  and  straw, 
kneading  it  with  tiieir  feet  ti'l  it  is  well  incor- 
porated. 'I'hey  llien  take  two  handfuls  of 
dates  and  break'  lh( m  into  pieces  about  the 
si.-^e  of  the  point  of  a  finger,  and  slick  them 
in  diderent  parts  of  the  inass ;  into  the  heart 
<.f  which  they  put  seven  or  eight  hooks  with 
dates  U]ion  them,  and  a  string  of  strong  whip- 
cord to  each.  This  mass  of  pa^te  is  tlun 
conveyed  by  tlie  fisherman  or  shepherd  into 
the  stream,  the  man  sitting  for  this  purpose 
on  a  blown  up  goat-skin.  When  arrived  at 
the  middle,  he  drops  the  mass  in  fiie  deepest 
])art  of  the  stream  ;  and  cautiously  holding 
the  ends  r.f  each  of  the  strings  slack,  so  as 
not  to  puU  the  dates  and  hooks  out  of  the 
middle  of  the  composition,  lie  makes  to  shore 
again,  a  little  below  the  spot  where  he  has 
sunkithe  mass;  and  separating  the  ends  of  the 
strings,  ties  each  of  them,  without  straining, 
to  a  palm-braiich  fa'stcned  on  the  shore,  to 
the  end  of  wliich  is  fastened  a  small  bcU. 


P  O  1, 

ITu  llien  goes  and  feeds  his  catllc,  or  digs  liis 
trendies,  or  lies  down  to  sleep.  In  tliemean 
time  the  cake  be:;;niung  to  dissolve,  the  small 
pieces  of  date  falf  oil',  and  Uowing  down  the 
stream,  are  c^ige^-ly  seized  on  by  the  lishes  as 
li)ey  pass :  they  nisli  up  the  stream,  piikir.g 
Tip  the  Ileal ing  pieces  as  they  go,  till  at 
length  they  arrive  ai  the  cake  ilsel.',  and  vo- 
raciously falling  to  work  at  the  dates  which 
are  buried  in  it,  each  fish,  in  swallowing  a 
date,  swallows  also  the  hook  in  it,  and  leciiiig 
himself  fast,  makes  off  as  speedily  as  possible: 
the  conse(|iience  is,  that  in  enaeavonring  to 
escape  from  the  line  by  whicli  he  is  held,  he 
pulls  the  palm-brani  h  to  which  it  is  faslenc  d, 
and  thus  gives  notice  of  his  capture  by  ring- 
ing the  bell.  The  lislierman  runs,  and  hav- 
ing secured  the  tisli,  puts  a  strong  iron  ring 
through  his  jaw,  lies  a  tew  yards  of  cord  to  it, 
and  again  commits  him  to  the  water,  fasten- 
ing the  cord  well  to  the  shore.  This  is  prac- 
tised in  ortler  to  preserve  the  fish  readv  for 
sale,  since  lish  in  general,  when  dead,  will 
not  keep  long  in  these  ngions.  It  is  rarely 
that  on  these  occasions  a  single  hook  is  found 
empty.  The  inhabitants  of  tiie  towns  of  Ach- 
mini,  Girge,  and  others,  repair  at  intervals  to 
tile  shores  as  to  a  rish-markct,  and  are  thus 
supplied  by  the  country -people.  There  are 
other  species. 

POLVPODIUM,  in  botany,  a  gentis  of  the 
order  of  tilices,  in  the  cryptogamia  class  of 
■  jjlanls.  The  fruclilications  are  in  roundish 
points,  scattered  over  tlie  inferior  disc  of  the 
irons  or  leaf.  There  are  137  species,  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  is  the  lilix  mas,  or  com- 
mon male  fern.  This  grows  in  great  plenty 
throughout  Britain,  in  woods  and  stony  un- 
cultivated soils.  The  greatest  part  of  the 
root  lies  horizontally,  and  has  a  great  num- 
ber of  appendages  placed  close  to  each  otlier 
in  a  vertical  direction,  while  a  number  of 
small  fibres  strike  downwards.  The  stalks 
are  covered  with  brown  filmy  scales.  The 
frucfific.itions  are  kidney-shaped,  and  cover- 
ed with  a  permanent  scaly  shield  or  invohi- 
crum.  The  capsules  are  of  a  i)ale  brown, 
surrounded  witii  a  saffron-coloured  elastic 
ring-  . 

This  fern  has  nearly  the  same  qualities, 
and  is  used  for  most  of  the  same  intentions, 
as  the  pteris  acpulina.  They  are  both  burnt 
together  for  the  sake  of  their  ashes,  which  are 
purchased  by  the  soap  and  glass-makers'. 
In  the  island  of  Jura  are  exported  annually 
150/. -worth  of  these  ashes.  Gunner  relates, 
in  his  Flor.  Noveg.  that  the  young  curleil 
leaves,  at  their  first  appearance  out  of  the 
ground,  are  by  some  boiled  and  eaten  like 
asparagus  ;  and  that  the  poorer  Norwegians 
cut  off  those  succulent  lamina»,  like  the  nails 
of  the  finger  at  the  crown  of  the  root,  which 
are  the  bases  of  the  future  stalks,  and  brew 
tliem  into  beer,  adding  a  third  portion  of 
malt,  and  iu  times  of  great  scarcity  mix  the 
same  in  their  bread.  The  same  author  adds, 
that  this  fern  cut  green,  and  dried  in  the  o[)eH 
air,  affords  not  only  an  excellent  litter  for 
cattle,  but,  if  infused  in  hot  water,  becomes 
no  contemptible  fodder  to  goats,  sheep,  and 
other  cattle,  which  will  readily  eat  and  some- 
times grow  fat  upon  it.  But  the  anthelmintic 
quality  of  the  root  of  the  male  fern  is  that  for 
which  it  is  chieHy  to  be  valued,  and  of  which 
an  accouat  is  given  in  the  French  publica- 
tions ot  madame  Nouffer,  who  eniploved 
this  remedy  with  great  success.     Dr.  Sun- 

VOL.  11. 


P  O  M 

jmons  a!-:o  lias  described  the  mode  of  aifini- 
I  mstering  the  fcrn-ioot  in  liis  treatise  on  the 
tape-worm. 

POLYPRKMUM,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  in  the  tetrandria  class  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
TJ(\  order,  caryophyllei.  T'he  caly.x  is  te- 
Iraphyllous ;  the  corolla  quadrifid  and  rotace- 
ous,  with  its  lobes  obcordati; ;  the  capsule 
is  compressed,  emarginated,  and  bilocular. 
There  is  one  species,  an  arniual  of  Cnsolim. 

POJAPUS,  the  popular  name!  for  those 
fresh-water  insects,  wliich  ;lass  under  the 
genus  of  hydra,  of  the  order  of  vermes 
/oophytte.  The  name  of  hydra  was  given 
them  by  Umianis  on  account' of  the  property 
they  have  of  reproducing  themselves  wheii 
cut  in  pieci.'s,  every  part  soon  becoming  a 
perfect  animal.  Dr.  Mill  called  them  biota, 
on  account  of  the  strong  principle  of  lite  with 
wliich  every  part  of  them  is  endowed.     See 

livDRA. 

Polypus,  or  Polypus  of  the  heart.  See 
Medicine. 

PoLvi'us  of  the  nose.    See  Surgery. 

POLYPASTON,  in  mechanics,  a  ma- 
chine consisting  of  an  assemblage  of  several 
pulleys  ;  for  the  nature  and  force  of  whic  h, 
see  M!!;cH.4Nics. 

POLYSPEKMOUS.     Sec  Bot.\ny. 

POLYTRICHUM,  a  genus  of  the  order 
of  musci,  in  the  cryptogamia  class  of  plants.  , 
The  aiithera  is  operculated,  and  placed  U])on 
a  very  small  apophysis  or  articulation;    tin,' 
calyptra  villous;  the  star  of  the  female  is  on  ' 
a  distinct  individual.     There  are  19  sjiecies  ;  ' 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  com-  . 
mune,   or    great    golden   maiden-hair,   fre-  i 
quenily  to  be  met  with  in  the  bogs  and  wet  : 
places  of  this  country.     It  grows  in  patches,  j 
the  stalks   erect,    generally   single   aijd   un- 1 
branched,  from  three   inches  to  a   foot,  or  j 
even  a  yard,  high.     It  is  sometimes  used  in 
England  and   Holland  to  make  brooms  or  I 
brushes;  and  the  Laplanders,  when  obliged  to  j 
sleep  in  desert  places,  frequently  make  of  it  a 
speedy  and  convenient  bed.     Theu'  manner 
of  doing  it  is  curious :  Where  this  moss  grows  | 
thick  together,   they  mark  out  with  a  knife  a  j 
piece  of  ground,  about  two  yards  square,  or  i 
of  the  size  of  a  common  blanket;  then  be-  i 
ginning  at  one  corner,  they  gently  sever  the  j 
turf  from  the  ground  ;  and  as  the  roots  of  i 
the  moss  are  closely  interwoven  and  matted  } 
together,  thev  by  degrees  strip  ol"f  the  whole 
circum-cribed  turf  in  one  entire  piece  ;  after- 
wards they  mark  and  draw  up  another  piece, 
exactly  corresponding  with  the  first;  then, 
shaking   tliein   both  with  their  hands,  they 
lav  one  upon  the  ground,  with  the  moss  up- 
penii05t,  instead  of  a  mattress,  and  the  other 
over  it,  with  the  moss  downwards,  instead  of 
a  rug;  and  between  them  both  take  a  com- 
fortable nap,  free  from  fleas  and  bugs,  and 
without  fear  of  contagious  distempers.     It  is 
probable  they  might  take  the  hint  of  making 
such  a  bed  iron  the  bear,  a  cohabitant  of 
their  countrv,   which   prepares    his    winter- 
quarters  wi'Ji  a  large  collection  of  this  moss. 
POME!  lA,  a  genus  of  the  monoecia  hex- 
andria  class  and  order.     The  calyx  is  one-  i 
leaved,  six-cleft ;  petals  six ;    maie  stamina  \ 
six ;  female,  berry  globular,  one  seed  in  the  j 
centre.     There  are  two  species. 

POMMF.REULIA,  a  genu<  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order.  In  tlie  triandria  class  of  plants; 


P  O  () 


4<L 


(ind  in  (lio  natural  metliod  raiikijig  under  the 
fourth  ordir,  gramma.  'J'liu  calyx  is  bi- 
valved,  and  shaped  like  a  lop;  tlie  valviila 
quadrifid,  and  beauled  on  the  back.  Th'- 
corolla  has  two  unequal  valves;  thefilamenli 
three,  with  long  pointed  anthenc  ;  the  style 
simple.  Th(;  whole  (lower  forms  itself  into 
a  sharp  point,  and  the  corolla  serves  as  a  co- 
vering to  the  seed,  which  is  long,  clear,  and 
smooth.  There  is  only  one  species,  a  grasi 
of  the  East  Indies. 

l'ON(K.\,  a  gemu  of  the  octandria  tri- 
gynia  class  and  oider.  The  calyx  is  five- 
jjarted,  spreading ;  petals  four;  germ. 
Ihrei'-sided ;  capsules  three-winged,  three- 
ci-lled.  There  is  one  species,  a  tree  of  Gui- 
ana. 

PONTEDERTA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
tha  monogyiiia  order,  in  the  fie.xandria  class 
of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  sixth  order,  ensata:.  The  corolla, 
is  monopetalous,  sextid,  bilabiate;  there  are 
tliree  stan/ina  inserted  into  the  top,  and  tlireB 
into  the  tube  of  the  corolla;  the  capsule  h 
bilocular.  There  are  seven  species,  aquatics 
of  the  East  Indies. 

PON'i'OX,  or  PovTooN,  in  war,  denotes 
a  little  lloating  bridge  made  of  boats  and 
planks.  The  ponton  is  a  machine  consisting 
of  two  vessels,  at  a  little  distance,  joined  by 
beams,  with  planks  laid  across  for  the  pas- 
sage of  the  cavalry,  the  camion,  infantry,  &c. 
over  a  river,  or  an  arm  ot  the  sea,  &c.  The 
late-invented  ponton  is  of  copper,  furnished 
with  an  anchor,  &c.  to  l\\  to  it.  To  make  a 
bridge,  several  of  the^e  are  disposed  two 
yards  asunder,  w  illi  beams  across  them  ;  and 
over  those  are  put  boards  or  planks.  They 
are  also  linked  to  each  other,  and  fastened  oa 
each  side  the  river  by  a  rope  run  through  a 
ring  in  each  of  their  heads,  and  fixed  to  a 
tree  or  stake  on  either  shore ;  the  whole 
makes  one  firm  uniform  bridge,  over  which  a 
train  of  artillery  may  pass. 

POOP,  the  stern  of  a  ship,  or  the  highest, 
uppermost,  and  hinder  part  of  the  ship's  hull. 
POOR,  in  law.  Where  the  last  legal  set- 
tlement of  the  father  of  a  legitimate  child  is 
not  known,  the  cliild  may  be  sent  to  the 
place  of  its  birth,  as  well  as  an  iHegitimate 
one.     Blackerby,  2-16. 

A  legitimate  child  shall  necessarily  follow 
the  settlement  of  its  parents  as  a  nurse-child 
or  as  part  of  the  family,  only  till  it  is  seven 
years  of  age ;  and  after  tliat  age,  it  shall  not 
be  removed  as  part  of  the  father's  family; 
but  with  an  adjudication  of  the  place  of  it! 
own  legal  settlement,  as  being  deemed  ca- 
pable at  that  age  of  having  gained  a  settle- 
ment of  his  own. 

If  a  person  is  bound  apprentice  by  inden- 
ture, wherever  he  continues  forty  days  in 
the  service  of  his  master  or  mistress,  tiiere 
sucli  apprentice  gains  a  settlement ;  and 
where  any  person  serves  the  last  forty  days 
of  his  apprenticeship,  that  is  the  place  of  His 
last  legal  settlement. 

The  8  and  9  \V.  3.  c.  30  explains,  that  as 
some  doubts  had  arisen  touciiing  the  settle- 
ment of  unmarried  persons,  not  having  child, 
or  children,  lawfully  hired  into  any  parish  or 
town  for  one  year,  it  was  enacted,  tliat  no 
such  person  so  hired  as  atbresaid,  should  be 
deemed  to  have  a  good  stutlement  in  any 
such  parish  or  township,  unless  such  person 
sliould  continue  and  abide  in  such  i.crvice 
duriui;  the  space  of  one  whole  yuac. 


483 


F  O  O 


A  general  hiring,  williout  any  particular 
time  agr^eil  upon,  is  construed  to  be  a  hir- 
iii:<  tor  a  vear,  and  tlieretore  sullicient. 

\  is  not  tliq  terms  of  the  hiring,  but  the 
intention,  that  is  the  criterion  ;  for  tliongh  a 
servant  mav  be  iiired  for  so  much  per  week, 
vet  if  it  is  linderstooJ  at  the  time,  tliat  he  is 
to  continue  tor  the  year  if  approved  of,  it  u 
eqnal  to  a  hiring  for  a  year. 

A  woman  inarrving  a  h-isbaiul  wno  has  a 
known  settlement,  "shall  follow  her  husbands 
settlement.  , 

The  act  of  9  and  10  W.  c.  11.  does  not 
require  a  person  renting  a  tenement  of  10/.  a 
vear,  to  occupv  it ;  it  is  enough  if  he  rents 
ft  and  resides  to'rtv  davs  in  the  parish 

PooR's-RATE.'a  tax  levied    i:i    Lngland 
and  Wales,  for  the  relief  or  snpport  ot  siicn 
persons  as  from  age,  inlinnily,  or  poverty, 
cannot  themselves  procure  th.-  means  oi  sub- 
sistence.   Tlie  first  law   made   in   U-ngland 
resnecting  paupers  was  in  l4y();  it  'lire^^ts. 
"  liiat  every  beggar,  not  able  to  work,  shall 
resort  to  the  hundred  where  he  last  dwelt,  is 
best  knov-n,  or  was  born;  and  shall  tiiere  re- 
main, upon  pain  of  being  set  in  the  stocks  three 
davs  and  three  nigiits,  with  only  bread  and 
water,  and  tlien  sh:ill  be  put  out  ot  town. 
TliL-  monasteries  and  nunneries  with  whicli 
the  country  then  abounded,  were  the  principal 
sources  from  which  tlir  poor  obtaine;!  rehet. 
In  1531  an   act  w?s  passed,   by  which  Uie 
iustices    of  every  county  were  empowered 
to  grant  licer.ces'to  poor,  aged,  and  impotent 
Demons,  to  beg  within  a  certain  precinct; 
and    such  as    should  beg   without    licence 
or  bevond  their  limits,  were  to  be  severely  pu- 
nislied      This  regulation  was  soon  found  in- 
cfectual;  and  in  153f),  the  officers  of  coun- 
ties, towns,  and  parishes,  were  directed  to 
provide  for  the  support  of  all  aged,  poor, 
and  impotent  persons,  who  had  resided  three 
yeaisin  one  p!ace,  bv  means  of  voluntary 
contributions  to  be  rai-ed  for  this  purpose 
in  everv  parish.     In  15-i"  and  in  1555,  acts 
were  passed  for  tlie  providing  for  the  poor, 
bv  means  of  weekly   collections  from    the 
charitably  disposed  inhabitants  of  eacli  parish ; 
but  this"  provision  was    found  to   be   very 
insufficient,  particularly   as  the    number  of 
bcears  had  increased  considerably  upon  tne 
suppression  of  the  monasteries,  from  whenc-e 
many  of  them  derived  their  principal  support. 
It  was  therefore  found  necessary  in  150j,  to 
ao  a  step  further,  by  providing,  that  it  any 
parishioner  shall  refuse  to  contribute  volun- 
tarily towards  the  relief  of  the  poor;  "the 
ju.tires  of  the  peace  at  their  (|uaiter-sessions, 
"may  tax  him  to  a  reasonable  weekly  sum, 
which  if  he  refuses  to  pay!  they  may  commit 
him  to  prison."     This  may  be  considered  as 
the  commencement  of  the  poors  rate,  whi-.h 
uasrenderi'd  more  general  m   1572,  by  an 
act   directing,   that  ^sessments   should    be 
made  of  the  parishioners  of  every  parish,  for 
Die  rehef  of  the  poor.     In  lt)01,  nearly  the 
present  inorle  of  collecting  this  rate  was  esta- 
blished ;  the  churchwardens  and  overseers  of 
the  poorof  everv  |>arish,  or  the  greater  part  of 
Hiem  (witli  the  consent  of  two  justices)  being 
empowered  to  raise  weekly,  or  otherwise,  by 
taxation  of  every  inhabitant,  parson,   vicar, 
and  other,  and  ol  every  occupier  of  lands  or 
houses,  m;iterials  for  employing  the  poor,  and 
compi  tent  Slims  for  their  relict.    Notice  to  be 
piven  in  chur(  h  of  every  such  rate,  the  Iiext 
bunday  alter  it  is  allowed.    'I'Ue  rate  lo  be 


P  O  ? 

levied  bv  distress,  on  those  who  refuse  to 
pay  it;  inft  appeals  against  it  may  be  made 
bv' those  who  ihmk  iliemselves  aggrieved. 

'  In  1735,  a  commiltte  of  the  house  ot  com- 
mons wai  appointed,  to  consider  the  existing 
laws  relative  10  the  ma  utenance  and  settle- 
ment of  the  poor:  who  recommended  the 
establishment  of  workhouses,  hospitals,  and 
houses  of  correction,  to  be  under  tlie  muuge- 
ment  of  proper  persons,  who  should  be  one 
body  politic  ,  and  that  the  laws  relating  to 
the  "[Hior  sliould  be  reduced  into  one  act  ol 
parliament. 

Return  mule  to  parliament  of  the  money 
raised  for  maintenance  of    the   poor,  Irom 

Easter  1775  to  Easter  1776. 

Monev  raised  in  England  .i  1,678,0!."'   U  4 
Ditto     -      Wales  40.114     1  0 


£  1,719,0'39  15  4 
In  1S!^4,  a  more  particular  account  was 
obtai.ied,  in  consequence  of  an  act  passed 
"for  procuring  returns  relative  to  the  e\- 
penc-"  and  maintenance  of  the  poor  in  Eng- 
land :"  from  which  it  appeared,  that  the 
numb -r  of  persons  receiving  relief  from  the 
poor's-rate,  was  as  follows : 

1.  Persons  relieved  permanently  : 
Out  of  any  house  of  industry,  work- 
horse, &c.  -  336,199 

In  any  house  of  industry,    work- 
house, &c.  -  83,468 

2.  Ch.  Idien  of  persons  relieved 
permanently  out  of  the  house,  and 
other  children  maintained  out  of  the 
house : 

Under  5  years  of  age  -  120,036 

From  5  lo  14  years  of  age  194,914 

3.  Persons  relieved  occasionally :  305,899 


1,040,716 
This  number,  great  as  it  appears,   is  ex- 
clusive  of  194,052   persons   who  were   not 
parishioners,  the  greater  part  of  whom  are 
supposed  to  have  been  vagrants. 

The  total  sum  raised  by  the  poor's-rate  and 
other  parish  rates  in  England  and  ^\'ales,  in 
the  year  ending  Easter,-  1S03,  w-as, 
5,34S,205/  9<.  3id.  ;  of  which  4,257,965/. 
9s.  2d.  was  expended  on  account  of  tlie  poor. 
The  average  rate  in  the  pound  of  the 
prior  s-rate.  for  the  year  1803,  was  in  all  Eng- 
land 4s-.  4irf,  in  W  ales,  7.$.  Ihl. 

POi^E,  Papa,  Father,  the  sovereign 
pontiff,  or  supreme  head  of  the  Ilomish 
diurch.  The  appellation  of  po|)e  was  an- 
tiently  given  lo  all  christian  l)isliops ;  but 
about' the  latter  end  of  the  eleventh  century, 
in  the  poiiilicate  of  Gregory  \'Ii.  it  was 
usurped  bv  the  bishop  of  Rome,  whose^  pe- 
culiar title' It  has  ever  since  continued,  'llie 
spiritual  moiiarchy  of  Koine  sprung  up 
soon  after  the  decfension  oi  the  Romiui  em- 
pire. This  sovereign  is  addressed  under  the 
term  holiness,  and  in  the  council  of  the  Eate- 
ran  held  under  Innocent  III.  he  was  di-clared 
ordinary  of  ordinaries.  Tlie  pope  was  an 
absolute  monarch  in  his  Italian  dominions, 
and  his  power  was  very  considerable;  being 
able,  in  case  of  necessity,  to  put  lifty  thou- 
sand men  into  the  fiehf,  besides  lus  naval 
strength  in  gallejs.  The  French  rcvokUion, 
which  has  revei-sed  all  order,  and  overthrown 
every  government  where  its  power  extended, 
and  substituted  a  barbarous  and  military  ty- 
jaiiny  in  its  place,  has  greatly  impaired  llie 


POP 

splendour,  dignity,  and  power  of  the  pope; 
nor  sUall  we  be  'at  all  surprised  lo  see  the 
pap.il  throne  entirely  reversed,  and  the  terri- 
tories added  to  some  of  tlie  subordinate 
kingdoms  lately  erected  by  tlie  usurper  of 
France. 

POPLIT.Krs.     See  An'atomy. 
POl'El  TEA.     See  Anatomv. 
POPPY.     See  Papaver. 
POPL'EATION,  the  slate  of  a  country 
with  respect  to  the  number  of  inhabitants. 
The  greater  number  of  persons  any  country 
contains,  the  greater  are  the  means  it  pos- 
sesses of  carrying  agriculture,  maiuilactures, 
and  commerce,  to  a  great  extent,  and  like- 
wise ot  delendmg   itself  against  any  hostile 
attempts  of  otiier  slates ;  a  high  degree  of 
popul.ilion  has  therefore  been  generally  con- 
sidered as  conducive  to  n..tional  prosperity 
and  security;  and  almost  ad  writvrs  on  po- 
litical economy,  have  assumed  an  increasing 
population  as'  one  of  the  principal   objects 
which  the  internal  regulations  ot  a  country 
should  be   calculated  to  promote.     A  very 
diiierent  view  of   tlie  subject  has  been  lately 
given  by  Mr.  Malthus,   who,  adoiJting  as  a 
principle,  "  the  constant  tendency  in  all  ani- 
mated life  to  increase  beyond  the  nourish- 
ment prepared  for  h,"  traces  to  this  souice 
a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  vice  and. 
miserV;    and  of  that  unequal  distribution  of 
the  bounties  of  nature,  which  it  has  been  the 
unceasing  object  of  the  enlightened  plula:.- 
throijist  in  all  ages  to  correct.       The  sub- 
ject will  perhaps  be  seen  in  a  clearer  light, 
"if  we  endeavour  to  ascertain,  what  would  be 
the  natural  increase  of  population,  if  left  to 
exert  itself  with  perfect  freedom  ;  and  what 
might  be  expected  to  be  the  rate  of  increase 
in  the  proiiuctions  of  the  earth,  under  the 
most  favourable  circumstances  of  human  in- 
dustry.    It  will  be  allowed,  that  uo  country 
has  hitherto  been  known,  where  the  manners 
were  so  pure  and  simple,  and  the  means  of 
subsistence  so  abundant,  that  no  check  what- 
ever has  existed  to  early  marriages,  from  the 
difliculty  of  providing  "for  a  family  ;  and  no 
waste  ot'the  human  species  has  been  occasion- 
ed afterwards  by  vicious  customs,  by  towns, 
by  unhealthy  occupations,  or  too  severe  la- 
bour ;  consequently  in  no  state  that  we  have 
yet  known,  has  the  "power  of  population  been 
left  to  exert  itself  w  ith  perfect  ireedom.     In 
the  northern  states  of  America,  where  the 
means  of  subsistence  have  been  more  ample, 
the  manners  of  the  people  more  pure,  iiid 
the  checks  to  early  marriages  fewer,  than  in 
any  of  the  modern  states  oi  Europe,  the  popu- 
h;t"ion  was  found  to  double  itself  for  some 
successive  periods,  every  twenty-five  years. 
In  the  bai  k  settlements,  this  eff.-ct  took  place 
in  fifteen  yeai-s.     Sir  W.  Petty  supposed   a 
doubling  possible  in   so  short  a   time  as  ten 
years;  but  to  be  sure  of  being  within   the 
truth,  Mr.  Malthus  takes  the  .slowest  ofthe.se 
rates  of  inc  rease,  and  thus  assumes  that  popu- 
lation, when   unchecked,  goes   on    doubling 
itself  every   twenty-five  years,  or  increases 
in  a  geometrical  ra"tio.      'The  rate  according 
to  wiiich  the  iiroductions  of  the  earth  may 
be  supposed  to  increase,  is  not  so  easily  de- 
termined; but  it   is  certain,  that  when  acre 
has  been  added  to  acre,  till  all  the  fertile 
land  is  occupied,  the  yearly  increase  of  food 
must  depend  upon  the  amelioration  of  the 
land  already  in  cultivation;    this  is  a  stream 
which,  I'roiu  the  nature  of  all  soils,  instead  of 


incrensiiicT,  must  be  Rmdiially  diiniiii^liiiin; ; 
but  po|)uluti()ii,  coiilil  it  bi-  supplied  with 
fuoil,  would  go  oil  with  iincxliaust<'(l  viu;oiir, 
and  tin-  incn'.ise  of  oni-  period  would  funiisll 
tliu  power  (;1  a  greater  iiiireasc  tlic  iii'M,  and 
tliis  without  any  hunt.  In  order  to  iliustrati.- 
this  point,  111  it  lie  supposed  that  by  tin;  best 
])us-il)le  policy,  and  great  encouragements 
to  agriculture,  the  annual  produce  of  CJreat 
liritaiu  covild  be  doubled  in  the  lirst  Itt'enty- 
)iv-'  years;  in  the  next  twenty-live  years,  it 
is  impossible  to  suppose,  tliat  t!ie  produce 
couKI  l)L"  (juadrupied  ;  it  would  be  contrary 
to  all  knowledg;?  of  the  piOfierties  of  lan<l. 
Let  it  tl;e[i  he  supposed,  that  the  yearly  ad- 
ditions H  liich  migiit  be  niade  to  tiie  former 
average  produce,  instead  of  decreasing, 
wliich  they  certainly  wuidd  do,  were  to  re- 
main tin-  same;  and  tliat  the  produce  of 
Cireiit  !5ritain  might  be  increased  every  twen- 
ty-(ive  years,  by  a  (jiiantily  ecjual  to  what  it 
at  present  i-roduces.  The  most  enthusi- 
astic speculator  cannot  suppose  a  greater 
increase  than  tliis  ;  in  a  few  centuries  it  woied 
make  every  acre  of  land  in  the  island  like  a 
garden.  If  this  supposition  is  applied  to  the 
whole  earth,  it  will  ajipear  that  the  means  of 
sul)sisteuce,  under,  circnmstiinccs  tl'.e  most 
(avourablc  to  human  industry,  could  not  pos- 
liibly  be  made  to  increase  faster  than  in  an 
urithmi-tical  ratio. 

Mr.  Mallluis  shews  the  necessary  etFects 
of  these  two  dilTerent  rates  of  increase,  and 
observes,  that  taking  the  whole  earth,  by 
which  means  emigiati.)n  is  excluded,  and 
suppo  ing  the  present  population  equal  to 
ti  thousand  millions,  the  human  species  would 
increase  as  the  numbers  1,2,  4,  8,  16,  3'-!, 
64,  128,  25G,  and  subsistence  as  1,  'J,  3,  4, 
5,  (i,  7,  8,  y.  In  two  centuries,  the  popu- 
lation would  be  to  the  means  of  snbsi-tenre 
CIS  '2j()  lot);  in  three  centuries,  as  4006  to 
13  ;  and  in  two  thousand  years  the  difference 
would  be  almost  incalculable.  In  this  sup- 
position, w.  limits  wli.itever  are  placed  to  tin: 
produce  of  the  earth.  It  mav  increase  for 
ever,  and  be  greater  than  anv  assignable 
quantity  ;  yet  still  the  power  of  po|nilation 
being  in  every  period  so  much  sajjerior,  the 
increase  of  th.'  hitman  species  can  only  be 
kept  <lown  to  the  level  of  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence, by  the  constant  operation  of  the 
strong  law  of  necessity,  acting  as  a  check 
\ipon  the  greater  power. 

I''roni  these  priiiciple>,  Mr.  Ajalthus  de- 
<leces  the  fol'owing  propositions:  1.  Popu- 
lation is  necessarily  limited  bv  the  means  of 
subsistence.  2.  Population  invariably  in- 
"creas.'s,  w  liere  the  mei'.ns  of  subsistence  in- 
crease, unless  prevented  by  some  very  pow- 
erful and  obvious  checks.  3.  The  chi'cks 
which  repress  the  superior  power  of  popu- 
lati.in,  and  keep  its  eli'ects  on  a  level  with  the 
means  of  subsistence,  are  all  resolvable  into 
m;)ral  restraint,  vice,  and  misery. 

Mural  restraint,  or  the  determination  to 
defer  or  decline  matrimony  from  a  consider- 
ation of  tlie  inconveniences  or  deprivalijiis 
to  which  a  large  poition  of  the  community 
would  subject  themselves  by  pursuing  the 
dictate  of  nature,  Mr.  Malthus  denominates 
the  preventive  check ;  and  whatever  con- 
tributes to  shorten  the  natural  duration  of 
human  life  (as  all  unwholesome  occupations, 
severe  labour,  and  exposur.-  to  the  seasons; 
extreme  poverty,  bad  nursing  of  children, 
great  towns,  e.xcesses  of  all  kinds,  the  svhole 


POPULATION". 

(rain  of  common  diseases  and  epidemics, 
wjis,  ])estilence,  plai^ue,  and  (amine)  are  the 
positive  checks  to  pojjulalion.  I'Voni  a  re- 
v;ew  of  the  tornier  and  present  slate  of  so- 
ciety in  dillVrent  countries,  it  appears,  that 
in  modern  liurope,  the  jjosilive  checks  to 
poi)ulaiioii  prevail  less,  and  the  preventive 
clieck  more,  than  in  past  time,  and  in  llic 
more  uncivilized  parts  of  the  world. 

In  the  actual  state  of  every  society,  the 
natural  progress  of  po|)uiatioii  lias  tlins  been 
constantly  and  powerfully  restrained;  and 
as  no  form  of  government,  however  excellent, 
no  plans  of  emigration,  no  benevolent  insti- 
tutions, no  degree  or  direction  of  national  in- 
dustry, can  prevent  the  action  of  a  great 
check  to  increase  in  some  form  or  other  ;  as 
we  must  submit  to  it  as  an  inevitable  law  of 
nature  ;  it  becomes  highly  desirable  to  ascer- 
tain how  it  luay  take  place  with  the  least 
possible  prejudice  to  the  virtue  and  happi- 
ness of  huiiuui  society.  Now,  as  it  is  ciearlv 
better  that  the  check  to  population  should 
arise  from  a  foresight  of  tiic  difliculty  of 
rearing  a  family,  and  the  fear  of  di-jjendant 
poverty,  than  from  the  actual  piesi.-nce  of 
pain  ami  sickness;  moral  restraint  is  a  virtue, 
tlie  practice  of  which  is  most  earnestly  to 
be  encouraged.  If  no  man  was  to  marry, 
who  had  not  a  fair  prospect  of  providing  for 
the  presumptive  issue  of  his  marriage,  popu- 
lati  •  \  would  be  kept  within  bounds  by  the 
preventive  clieck ;  men  and  women  w  ould 
many  later  in  life,  but  in  the  full  hope  of 
their  reward ;  they  would  acqe.ire  habits  of 
industry  and  frugality,  and  inculcate  the  same 
in  the  minds  of  their  children.  .Mr.  Mal- 
thus does  not  go  so  far  as  to  propose,  that 
any  restraint  upon  marriage  between  two 
persons  of  proper  age  shoulil  be  enforced  by 
law,  but  insists,  that  the  contract  of  mar- 
riages between  persons  who  have  no  other 
prospect  of  providing  for  their  otTspring  than 
by  throwing  them  on  a  parish,  should  not 
be,  as  it  is  at  present,  encouraged  liy  law. 
One  of  the  effects  of  the  poor-laws,  is  to  en- 
courage marriage  between  persons  of  tills 
description  ;  who  well  know  that,  it  they  can- 
not providi'  for  their  own  children,  the  pa- 
rish must  take  the,ii  oil  their  hands.  These 
laws  thus  create  mouths,  but  are  perfectly 
incompetent  to  procure  food  tor  thenj:  in- 
stead of  raising  the  real  [jrice  of  labour,  by 
increasing  the  demand  lor  labourer^,  they 
tend  to  overstock  the  market,  to  reduce  the 
demand,  and  diminish  (he  value.  They 
raise  the  pi  ice  of  provisions  bv  increasing  the 
consumption,  and  by  supplying  the  parochial 
pensioners  with  the  means  of  obtaining 
them.  In  x:onse(iuence  of  this,  the  class  of 
industrious  labourers  who  are  above  solicit- 
ing assistance,  are  oftentimes  sunk  in  the 
scale  of  tnisery,  much  lower  than  others  who 
have  thrown  olf  all  sense  of  shame,  and  all 
the  honest  feelings  of  independance.  In  a 
moral  point  of  view^,  the  effects  of  lliese  laws 
are  equally  injurious  to  the  best  interests  of 
society.  Mr.  .Malthus,  however,  is  aware, 
that  tilt!  immediate  and  abrupt  abolition  of 
the  present  system,  would  produce  much 
temporary  distress;  he  suggests  therefore  a 
plan  f'.r  the  gradual  abolition  of  these  laws, 
liy  proposing,  that  no  child  born  from  any 
niariiage  taking  place  after  the  expiration  of 
a  year  bom  the  date  of  the  law,  anil  no  ille- 
gitimate child  born  two  years  from  the  same 
Sate,  should  be  entitled  to  parish-assistance. 
3  P2 


483 

This,  lit!  remarks,  would  npcratp  as  a  fair, 
distinct,  and  precise  notice,  vsliich  no  man 
could  mistake;  anrl  without  pressing  iiard 
upon  any  particular  individual,  would  at 
once  throw  od'tlte  rising  generation  from  that 
iiii-.erabie  ami  helpless  dipnidance  upon  the 
government  and  the  rich,  the  moral  as  well 
as  the  physical  con:>W|uences  of  which,  arc 
almost  uicalculable. 

The  progress  of  the  population  of  (he 
world,  and  its  present  total  amount,  cannot 
be  ascertained  with  much  |)recision  ;  as  tlierp 
are  no  suOicieiit  grounds  on  which  such  a 
computation  can  l)e  formed,  till  «itl)i:i  a  very 
late  iieriod,  and  that  oidy  in  a  few  countries. 
Sir  \V.  Petty,  in  16S2,  stated  the  population 
of  the  world  at  only  3'2U  millions :  it  has 
been  estimated  by  some  writers  at  about 
730  millions,  by  others  at  upwards  of  <J00 
niillious.  Mr.  \Vallace,  of  Kdinburgh,  con- 
jectured it  miidit  ;unounl  to  1000  millions; 
and  this  number  has  since  been  generally 
adopted  bv  those  who  have  noticed  the  sub- 
ject. It  is  a  point  on  which  accuracy  cannot 
be  expected,  but  a  nearer  approximation  to 
the  truth  appears  by  no  mi'ans  impracti- 
cable. A  strong  presumption  that  (heinhabi- 
tants  of  the  earth  at  present  exceed  con-ider- 
ably  a  thousand  millions,  arises  from  the  cir- 
cumstance, that,  in  almost  every  country 
where  tlie  peojde  have  been  numbered,  or 
suflicienl  data  furnished  for  computing  their 
number,  it  lias  been  found  considerably 
greater  than  it  had  been  previously  sup- 
posed. In  Great  I'ritain,  the  most  correct 
estimates  did  not  make  the  population  ex- 
ceed seven  or  eight  millions;  whereas,  by 
the  late  enumeration,  it  appears  to  amount 
to  yerv  near  eleven  luillions.  France,  the 
popukitioii  of  wliich  was  estimated  by  Mr. 
Susmilch  at  sixteen  millions,  by  M.  Des- 
laiitles  and  by  Mr.  Gibbonat  20  millions,  and 
which  M.  Messance  endeavoured  to  ])rove 
amounted  to  near  24  millions,  appeared  from 
the  returns  of  births  and  burials,  to  contain 
at  the  commencement  of  the  revohition  near 
30  millions  of  inhabitants.  Spain,  which  with 
Portugal  had  been  estimated  by  M.  ^es- 
landes  to  contain  only  six  millions  of  persons, 
and  by  Mr.  Gibbon  eight  millions,  was  foOiid 
by  the  enumeration  in  17S7,  to  contain  alone 
10,409,8*9.  Russia,  about  the  year  I75>, 
was  supposed  to  contain  about  ij  millions 
of  inhabitants;  but  according  to  the  calcu- 
lation given  by  Mr.  Coxe,  groimdedupon  an 
authentic  list  of  the  persons  iiay.ng  the  poll- 
tax,  they  amounted  to  2t),7tit),360,  and  in- 
cluding the  provinces  not  subject  to  the  poll- 
tax,  the  calculation  for  the  year  179b 
amounted  to  36,000,000  inhabitants.  A  great 
part  of  this  vast  impire  is  in  Asia  ;  but  there 
appears  from  these  anil  similar  accounts  great 
reason  to  conclude,  that  the  population  of 
Europe,  which  has  usually  been  supposed  to 
be  about  100  millions,  Is  considerably  great- 
er; and  the  following  statement  is  probably 
not  far  from  tlie  truth  : 

Spain                      -  10,500,000 

I'ortugal            -  -■  2,300,000 

France            -  -  2.-.,000,000 

Italy  and  its  islands  -  1 1 ,000,000 

Switzerland        -  -  1.800,000 

Germany            -  -  20,000,000 

Holland            -  -  2,800.000 

Flanders            -  -  LSOO.fwi'j 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  1 5, 1 00,000 


.•tS4 


P  O  P 


.Denmark  ami  Xorvvay 

Sweden 

Prussia 

^Russia  in  Europe 

'I'urkey  iii  Kurupe 


3,700,000 
3,000,000 
0,000.000 
,20,000,000 
7,000,000 


Total  130,000,000. 
The  act  for  ascertaining  the  population  of 
Cr.-at  Britain,  was  passed  on  the  last  day  of 
the  year  IbOU  ;  it  directed  a  general  enume- 
ration of  houses,  families,  and  persons;  and 
the  proper  olTicer.s  of  the  several  parishes  and 
places  were  ordered  to  take  the  account,  on 
the  lOtUof  March,  180),  in  England  and 
Wales ;  and  in  Scotland  as  soon  as  possible 
after  tliat  day.  This  difference  was  neces- 
sary, because  in  the  colder  climate  of  Scot- 
land, it  was  not  certain  that  all  parts  of  the 
country  would  be  easily  accessible  so  early 
in  the  year.  An  abstract  of  the  returns  was 
laid  before  both  houses  of  parliament;  and 
the  sununarv  of  the  enumeration  appeared 
to  be  as  follows : 


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The  total  population  of  Great  Rritain  pro- 
bably exceeds  the  number  of  persons  speci- 
fied in  the  above  summary,  as  there  were 
some 'parishes  from  vhich  no  returns  were 
received.  'I'he  islands  of  Guernsey,  Jersey, 
Alclerney,  and  Sark,  the  Scilly  islands,  and 
the  isle  of  .Man,  were  n.)t  eompriseii  in  the 
enumeration;  the  total  population  of  these 
islands  has  been  usually  estimated  at  about 
Ji(»,000  persons. 

The  number  of  houses  in  Ireland  has  been 
nearly  ascertained  by  the  collection  of  a 
hearth  money  tax,  from  which  it  has  been 
CoinputeJ,  that  the  jxjpulation  of  that  part 
<  the  United  Kin^jilom  somewhat  exceeds 
jour  mtUioiis  of  persons. 


POP 

On  these  considerations,  with  a  very  mo- 
derate allowance  for  onTissions  in  the  returns, 
the  total  population  of  the  uniteil  kingdom 
of  Great  Uritain  and  Irehuiil,  amounts  to 
15,100,000  persons;  and,  besides  these,  its 
eastern  and  western  possessions  and  colo;iies 
contain  many  natives  of  the  Hritish  isles. 

The  proportion   of  persons  to  a   house  ap- 
peared by  the  returns  to  be  as  follows  : 
In  England         -        -        -        5\ 
Wales  ...         .5 

Scotland  .         .         -  -       Sx 

Great  Britain  -         .         5' 

Population  of  the  principal   Sea  Ports  and  Ma- 
nufacturing Towns  of  Great  Britain,  and  of 
France. 
GREAT  BR1T.\IN.  FRANCE. 


Inhabitants. 

I 

nhabitauts. 

London      - 

. 

So-!,?.!.? 

Paris      -     - 

. 

546,8,56 

Manchester 

. 

s-i,oiia 

Bourdeaux 

- 

112  344 

Edinburgh 

. 

8'J,5fiO 

Lyons  -     - 

. 

105,500 

Liverpool 

. 

77,6.W 

Marseilles 

. 

111,130 

Gla.sjow    - 

. 

77,385 

Rouen 

. 

87,000 

Birmingham 

. 

73,670 

Nantes 

- 

73,649 

Bristol 

- 

G3  645 

Brussels 

- 

66,227 

Leeds    -     - 

. 

53,162 

Lisle      -     - 

- 

54,756 

Plymouth 

- 

43,194 

Toulouse   - 

- 

50,171 

Norwich    - 

- 

3fi,S32 

.Strasbu  rg 

. 

49,056 

Purtsmouth 

. 

3J,16G 

Cologne 

. 

38,844 

Sheffield    - 

- 

31,314 

Bruges 

- 

33,700 

Hull      -    - 

- 

29,516 

Dunkirk     - 

- 

2I,15S 

Nottingharri 

. 

28,S61 

Brest     -     - 

. 

27,000 

Newcastle 

- 

2S,36G 

Toulon 

. 

20,500 

POPULUS,  the  Poplar,  a  genus  of  the 
octandria  order,  in  the  ditecia  class  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
59th  order,  amentacex.  The  calyx  of  the 
amentum  is  a  lacerated,  ob'ong,  and  squamous 
leaf;  the  corolla  is  turbinated,  oblique,  and 
entire.  The  iemale  has  the  calyx  of  the 
amentum  and  corolla  the  same  as  in  the 
male;  the  stigma  is  quadriiid;  the  capsule 
bilocular,  with  many  pappoiH  seeds,  'f'here 
are  eleven  species  ;   the  most  noted  are: 

1.  The  alba,  or  abele-tree,  grows  naturally 
in  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe.  Its  leaves 
are  large,  and  divided  into  three,  four,  or 
five  lobes,  indented  on  their  edges,  of  a  very 
dark  colour  on  their  upper  side,  but  very 
white  and  down  v  on  the  under  side ;  standing 
upon  footstalks  an  inch  long.  The  young 
brant^hes  have  a  purple  bark,  and  are  cover- 
ed with  a  white  down  ;  but  the  bark  of  the 
stem  and  older  branches  is  grey.  2.  The  ma- 
jor, or  white  poplar,  has  its  leaves  rounder 
than  the  first,  and  not  much  above  half  their 
size;  they  are  indented  on  their  edges,  and 
are  downy  on  their  under  side,  but  not  so 
white  as  those  of  the  former,  nor  are  their 
upper  surfaces  of  such  a  deep  green  colour. 
3.  The  nigra,  or  black  poplar,  has  oval  heart- 
shaped  leaves,  slightly  crenated  on  llieir 
edges  ;  they  are  smooth  on  both  sides,  and 
of  a  light-green  colour.  4.  The  tremiila,  or 
aspen-tree,  has  roundish,  angularly  indente.l 
leaves :  they  are  smooth  on  both  sides,  and 
stand  on  long  fooLstalks,  and  so  are  shaken 
by  the  lea,t  wind;  whence  it  has  the  title  of 
the  trembling  poplar,  or  aspen-tree.  5.  The 
balsamifera,  or  Carolina  poplar,  is  a  native 
of  Carolina,  w'h're  it  becomes  a  large  tree. 
The  shoots  of  this  sort  grow  very  strong  in 
Britain,  and  are  generally  angular ;  with  a 
light  green  bark  like  the  willow.  The  leaves 
on  young  trees,  and  also  those  on  the  lower 
shoots,  are  verv  large,  almost  heart-shaped, 
and  treaateJ ;  but  tlio se  upon  the  older  trees 


POP 

arc  smaller :  as  the  trees  advance,  their  bark 
becomes  lighter,  appro:. ehing  to  a  greyish 
colour.  6.  ']  he  tacamahaca  grows  naturally 
■11  Canad:i  and  other  parts  of  North  Ame- 
rica. This  is  a  tree  of  a  middling  growth, 
sending  out  on  every  side  many  short  thick 
shoots,  which  are  covered  with  a  light-brown 
bark,  with  leaves  differing  from  one  another 
in  shape  and  size;  most  of  them  are  almost 
heart-shaped,  but  some  are  oval,  and  others 
nearly  spear-shaped  ;  they  are  whitish  on 
their  under  side,  but  green  on  the  upper.  7. 
The  Lombardy  poplar  (delctata),  well  known. 

1  hese  trees  may  be  pro|)asateii  either  by 
layers  or  cultings,  as  also  from  the  suckers 
which  the  white  poplars  send  up  from  their 
roots  in  great  plenty.  The  best  ti:ne  lor 
transplanting  these  suckers  is  in  October, 
when  liieir  leaves  begin  to  decav. 

The  wood  of  these  trees,  especially  of  the 
abele,  is  good  for  laying  ilowers,  where  it 
will  last  for  many  years,  and,  on  account  of 
its  extreme  whiteness,  is  by  many  piefened 
to  oak;  y  et,  on  account  of  its  soft  contexture, 
being  very  subject  to  take  the  impression  of 
nails,  Sic.  it  is  less  proper  on  tliis  account 
than  the  harder  woods.  The  abele  likewise 
deserve-  particular  notict;,  on  account  of  the 
virtue  of  its  bark  in  curiug  intermitting  fe- 
vers, as  stated  by  the  reverend  Mr.  Stone, 
in  Phil.  Trans,  vol.  liii.  p.  195.  Tliis  bark 
will  also  tan  leather. 

'Jlie  inner  bark  of  the  black  poplar  is  used 
by  the  inliabilants  of  Kamtscliatka  as  a  ma- 
terial for  bread;  and  paper  has  sometimes 
been  made  of  the  cottony  down  of  the  seeds. 
The  roots  have  been  observed  to  dissolve  into 
a  kind  of  gelatinous  substance,  and  to  be  coat- 
ed over  with  a  tubular  crustaceous  spar, 
called  by  naturalists  osteocolla,  formerly 
imagined  to  have  some  virtue  in  producing 
the  callus  of  a  fractured  bone.  The  buds  of 
the  sixth  species  arc  covered  with  a  glutinous 
resin,  which  smells  very  strong,  and  is  the 
gum  tacamahaca  of  the  shops.  -  The  best, 
called  (from  its  being  collected  in  a  kind  of 
gourd-sliells)  tacamahaca  in  shells,  is  some- 
what unctuous  and  sottish,  of  a  pale  yellowish 
or  greenish  colour,  an  aromatic  taste,  and  a 
fragrant  delightlul  smell,  approaching  to  that 
of  lavender  or  ambergris.  This  sort  is  very 
rare ;  that  commonly  found  in  the  shops  is 
in  semitrans|)arent  globes  or  grains,  of  a 
whitish,  yellowish,  brownish,  or  greenish 
colour,  of  a  less  grateful  smell  than  the  fore- 
going. This  resin  is  said  to  be  employed 
extern.illy  bv  the  Indians  for  discussing  and 
maturating  tumours,  and  abating  pains  in  the 
limbs.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  some  anodyne, 
hysteric,  cephalic,  and  stomachic  plasters  ;  but 
the  fragrance  of  the  liner  sort  sufficiently 
points  out  its  utilitv  in  other  respects. 

M.  Kougeroux  de  Bondaroy,  from  a  set  of 
experiments  on  the  subject,  gives  an  account 
of  the  uses  of  the  several  kinds  of  poplar, 
the  substance  of  which  is  as  follows :  Hcf 
funis  that  the  wood  of  the  black  poplar  is 
good  anti  useful  for  many  purposes  ;  that  the 
Lombardy  poplar,  is  of  very  little  value  ; 
that  the  Mrginia  poplar,  populus  Virginiana, 
affords  a  wood  of  excellent  <|uality,  that  may 
be  applied  to  ni;.iiy  uses.  The  Carolina 
poplar,  populus  Caroliiiensis  heterophvlla 
(Lin.),  is  a  very  tpiick  grower;  beautiful  when 
sound,  but  liable  to  be  hurt  by  coUl.  Its 
wood  appears  to  M.  tie  Bondaroy  to  be  of 
little  value;   but  M.  jMalesheibes,   who  cut 


! 


P  U  11 

down  a  large  tive  of  Ibis  sort,  was  asstireil  by 
liis  carprjiler  ll..it  the  wood  \v us  very  good. 
Tliac  IIk'  tacuniahaca  is  a  dwarfish  plant  of 
little  value.  'I'lial  the  Hard,  popiihis  Cana- 
densis, is  a  lar^e  tree,  the  wood  light,  not 
easy  to  he  liplit,  and  fit  for  several  uses.  That 
the  white  poplar,  is  a  large-growing  tree, 
8t<'or<ll>ig  a  wood  of  excellent  c|uality,  and 
is  amang  the  most  valuable  of  this  s|)ecies. 
That  the  tre.ubliiig  p.iplar  is  neither  so  largo 
a  free,  nor  affords  such  good  wood,  as  the 
fonner.  These  are  in  few  words  the  principal 
results  of  the  experini'-nts  of  t.'iis  gentleman 
on  this  class  ol  plants.  A  few  other  sorts 
are  nieniioned,  but  nothing  decisive  with  re- 
gard to  them  is  determined. 

From  some  cvperiments  maiJe  by  M. 
Daniliyurney,  it  appears  t!iat  tlie  poplar  may 
be  usefully  eniploycd  in  dyeing.  The  Ita- 
lian or  Lonibardy  p'lplar  gives  a  dye  ol  as 
fine  a  lustre,  and  e<]uahy  durable,  as  that  ol 
the  finest  yellow  wood,  and  its  colour  is  more 
easily  extracted.  It  is  likewise  very  apt  to 
tinite  with  other  colours  in  composition. 
Besides  this,  M.  Dambourney  tried  also  the 
black  poplar,  tlie  Virginian,  the  balsam  or 
Hard,  the  white,  and  the  trembling  poplar; 
and  found  that  all  these  dyed  wool  of  a  nut- 
colour,  fawn-colour  (vigogne),  Nankin, 
musk,  and  other  grave  shades,  according  to 
the  qn  nitity  of  wood  employed,  and  the 
length  of  time  it  was  boiled. 

POHANA,  a  genus  of  the  monogvnia 
order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants.  The 
corolla  is  eampaiuilated  ;  the  calyx  is  quin- 
qnefid,  and  larger  than  the  fruit ;  the  style 
Seinibihd,  long,  and  permanent;  the  stig- 
mata globular;  the  perianthiuin  bivalvetl. 
There  is  one  species,  a  shrub  of  the  Kast 
Indies. 

PORCELAIN,  a  fine  kind  of  earthen- 
ware, chietiv  manufactured  in  China,  and 
thence  called  Ciiina-ware.  All  earthenwares 
which  are  white  and  semitransparent  are  ge- 
nerally called  porcelain  ;  but  amongst  these 
so  great  differences  may  be  observed,  that, 
notwithstanding  the  similarity  of  their  exter- 
nal appearance,  they  cannot  be  considered  as 
matters  of  the  same  kind.  These  <liff"erences 
are  so  evident,  that  even  persons  who  are 
not  connoisseurs  in  this  way  prefer  much  the 
porcelain  of  some  countries  to  that  of  others. 

The  word  porcelain  is  of  European  deri- 
vation ;  none  of  the  syllables  wiiich  compose 
it  can  even  be  pronounced  or  written  by  the 
Chinese,  whose  language  comprehtyids  no 
such  sounds.  It  is  probable  that  we  are  in- 
debted to  the  Pol•tugue^e  for  it ;  the  word 
porcellana,  however,  in  their  language,  signi- 
fies properly  a  cup  or  dish  ;  and  they  them- 
selves dijtinguish  all  works  of  porcelain  by 
the  general  name  of  loca.  Porcelain  is  calle^l 
in  China  tse-ki. 

The  art  of  making  porcel.iin  is  one  of  those 
in  which  Europe  has  been  excelled  by  the  Ori- 
ental nations.  Tiie  tirs,t  porcelain  that  was 
seen  in  Europe  was  brought  from  Japan  and 
China.  The  whiteness,  transparency,  fine- 
ness, neatness,  and  even  magnificence  of  this 
pottiry,  which  soon  bxanie  the  ornament 
of  sumptuous  tables,  did  not  fail  to  excite  the 
admiration  and  industry  of  Europeans  ;  and 
tlieir  attem^its  have  succeeded  so  well,  that 
in  ditfereut  parts  of  Europ.-  eavthenwares 
have  been  made  so  like  the  Oriental,  that 
tliey  have  acx^uired  the  name  of  porcelain. 


r  o  R 

The  first  European  porcelains  were  made  in 
Saxony  and  in  France ;  and  afterwards  in 
England,  Germany,  and  Italy;  but  as  all 
these  were  different  from  the  Japanese,  so 
each  of  them  had  its  |)eculiar  character. 

The  finest  and  best  |jorcelain  of  China  is 
made  in  a  village  called  King-te-tcliing,  in 
the  province  of  Kiang-si.  This  celebrated 
village  is  a  league  and  a  half  in  leugtli,  and 
we  are  assured  that  it  contains  a  million  of 
inhabitants.  The  workmen  of  King-te-tching, 
invited  by  the  attracting  allureuients  of  the 
European  trade,  have  est.iblibhed  manuiac- 
tories  also  in  the  provinces  of  i''o-kien  and 
Canton;  but  this  porcelain  is  not  esteemed. 

W'eare  indebted  to  father  d'EntrecoUes, 
a  Romish  missionary,  for  a  very  accurate 
account  of  the  manner  in  wliich  porcelain  is 
made  in  China  ;  and  as  he  lived  in  King-te- 
tching,  his  information  must  have  been  the 
very  best  possible.  We  shall  therefore  give 
his  account  of  the  Chinese  manner  of  making 
it,  as  abridged  by  Grosier  in  his  General  De- 
scription of  C'hina.  The  principal  ingredi- 
ents of  the  fine  porcelain  are  pe-tun-tse  and 
kao-lin,  two  kuuis  of  earth,  from  the  mixture 
of  which  the  pa^te  is  producei.1.  The  kao- 
lin is  intermi.xed  with  small  shining  particles  ; 
the  other  is  purely  white,  and  very  line  to  the 
toucli.  These  first  materials  are  carried  to 
the  manufactories  in  the  shape  of  bricks.  The 
pe-tun-tse,  which  is  so  fine,  is  nothing  else 
but  fragments  of  rock  taken  from  certain 
quarries,  and  reduced  to  powder.  Every 
kind  of  stone  is  not  fit  for  this  purpose.  The 
colour  of  that  which  is  good,  say  the  Chinese, 
ought  (o  incline  a  little  towards  green.  A 
large  iron  club  is  used  lor  breaking  these 
pieces  of  rock  :  they  are  afterwards  put  into 
mortars ;  and,  by  means  of  levers  headed 
with  stone  bound  round  with  iron,  they  are 
reduced  to  a  very  tine  powder.  These  le- 
vers are  put  in  action  either  by  the  labour  of 
men,  or  by  water,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
hammers  of  our  paper-mills.  The  duit  after- 
wards collected  is  thrown  into  a  large  vessel 
full  of  water,  which  is  strongly  stirred  with 
an  iron  shovel.  When  it  has  been  left  to 
settle  for  some  time,  a  kind  of  cream  rises  on 
tlie  top,  about  tour  inches  in  thickness,  which 
is  skimmed  off,  and  poured  into  another  ves- 
sel tilled  with  water  ;  the  water  in  the  first 
vessel  is  stirred  several  times  ;  and  the  cream 
which  arises  is  still  collected,  until  nothing 
remains  but  the  coarse  dregs,  which,  by  their 
own  weight,  precipitate  to  tlie  bottom  ;  these 
dregs  are  carefully  collected,  and  pounded 
anew. 

With  regard  to  what  is  taken  from  the  first 
vessel,  it  is  suffered  to  remain  in  the  second 
until  it  is  formed  into  a  kind  of  crust  at  the 
bottom.  When  the  water  above  it  seems 
quite  clear,  it  is  poured  off  by  gently  inclin- 
ing the  vessel,  that  the  sevliment  may  not  be 
disturbed  ;  and  the  paste  is  thrown  into  large 
moulds  proper  for  drying  it.  Before  it  is  en- 
tirely hard,  it  is  divided  into  small  square 
cakes,  which  are  sold  by  the  hundred.  The 
colour  of  this  paste,  and  its  form,  have  oc- 
casioned it  to  receive  the  name  of  pe-tun- 
tse. 

The  kao-lin,  which  is  used  in  the  compo- 
sition of  porcelain,  requires  less  labour  than 
the  pe-tun-tse.  Nature  has  a  greater  share 
in  the  prepaiation  of  it.  There  are  large 
mines  of  it  in  tiie  bosoms  of  certain  moun- 


r  o  R 


4SS 


tains,  the  exterior  strata  of  wliich  consist  of 
a  kind  of  red  earth.  'I'iiese  mines  are  very 
deep,  and  the  kao-lin  is  found  in  small  lumps, 
that  are  tormed  into  bricks  alter  liaving  gone 
through  the  same  process  as  t!ie  pe-tun-tse. 
I'atlier  d'EntrecoUes  tinnks,  that  the  earth 
called  terre  de  Malte,  or  St.  Paul's  earth, 
has  much  affinity  to  the  kao-lin,  althougli 
those  small  shining  particles  are  not  ob.erved 
in  it  wiiicli  are  intei  spersed  in  the  latter. 

It  is  from  the  kao-lin  that  fine  porcelain 
derives  all  its  strength;  if  we  niav  be  al- 
lowed the  expression,  it  stands  it  m  Ihe  slt-ad 
ol  nerves.  It  is  very  extraordinary,  that  a. 
soft  earth  should  give  strength  and  consist- 
ency to  the  pe-tun-ts<>,  «ii:ch  is  procured 
from  ihe  hardest  rocks.  A  rich  Chinese 
merciiant  told  lather  d'I'mtrecolles,  that  the 
English  and  Dutch  had  purcliascd  some  of 
the  pe-tun-tse,  which  they  transported  to 
Europe  with  a  design  of  making  porcelain; 
but  having  carried  with  them  none  of  tin; 
kao-hn,  tlieir  attempt  proved  abortive,  as 
they  have  since  acknowledged.  ''  They 
wanted,"  said  this  Chinese  "laughing,  "  to 
form  a  body,  the  flesh  ol  which  should  sup- 
port itself  without  bon-s." 

T  he  Chinese  have  discovered,  within  these 
few  years,  a  new  substance  proper  to  be  em- 
ployed in  the  conipo.i'ion  of  porcela.u.  It 
is  a  stone,  or  rather  species  of  chalk,  called 
hoa-che,  from  which  the  physicians  jnepare 
a  khid  of  draught  that  is  satd'to  be  detersive, 
aperient,  and  cooling.  'Ihe  manufacturers 
of  porcelain  have  thought  proper  to  employ 
this  stone  instead  of  kao-lin.  It  is  called  boa,, 
because  it  is  glutinous,  and  has  a  great  re- 
semblance to  soap.  Porcelain  made  with 
hoa-c'he  is  very  rare,  and  much  dearer  than 
any  other.  It  lias  an  exceedingly  fine  grain  ; 
and  witli  regafd  to  the  painting,  if  it  is  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  common  porcelain,  it 
appears  to  surpass  it  as  much  as  vehuin  does 
paper.  'I'his  porcelain  is,  besides,  so  light, 
that  it  surprises  those  who  are  accustomed 
to  handle  other  kinds  ;  it  is  ahio  much  more 
brittle  ;  and  it  is  very  difScult  to  hit  upon 
the  proper  degree  of  tempering  it. 

Hoa-che  is  seldom  Used  in  forming  tlie 
body  of  the  woik;  the  artist  is  contente(f 
sometimes  with  making  it  into  a  very  fine 
size,  in  which  tlie  vessel  is  plunged  when  drv, 
in  order  that  it  may  receive  a  coal  betbie- 
it  is  painted  and  varnished  ;  by  these  means 
it  acquires  a  superior  degree  of  beauty. 

W  hen  hoa-che  is  taken  from  the  mine,  it 
is  washed  in  rain  or  river  water,  to  separate 
it  from  a  kind  of  yellow  earth  which  adiieres 
to  it.  It  IS  then  pounded,  |)ut  into  a  tub 
filled  with  water  to  di-solve  it,  and  afterwards 
formed  into  cakes  like  kao-lin.  We  are  as- 
sured that  lio.a-che,  when  prepared  in  this 
manner,  without  the  mi.xture  of  any  other 
earth,  is  alone  sufficient  to  make  porcelain. 
It  serves  instead  of  kao-lin;  but  it  is  mucli, 
dearer.  Kao-lin  costs  only  ten-pence  ster- 
ling ;  the  price  of  hoa-che  is  half-a-crown  ; 
this  difference,  therefore,  greatly  enhances^ 
the  value  of  porcelain  made  with  the  latter. 

To  pe-tun-tie  and  kao-!in,  the  two  princi- 
pal elements,  must  be  added  the  oil  or  var- 
nish from  which  it  derives  its  splendour  and 
wiiiteness.  This  oil  is  of  a  whitish  colour, 
and  is  e.xtractcd  from  the  same  kind  of  stone 
which  produces  the  pe-tun-tse ;  but  the 
whitest  is  always  chosen,  and  that  whieli  has 
the  greenest  spots.     The  oil  is  obtained  from. 


%Hr> 


V  o 


ii.  by  tlie  same  process  vised  in  making  llio 
l)','-(ui)-lse:  tlie  slone  is  tii'at  waslicnl  and  |n\i- 
\eris«il ;  it  is  lliiMi  tin-own  into  water,  iind 
alter  it  lias  been  jiuriiieil  it  llirows  up  a  kind 
oi  cn-aiii.  To  100  ponnds  of  tliis  cream  is 
udded  one  pound  of  clie-kao,  a  mineral  sonie- 
Ihing  like  aluiii,  wincli  is  ])nt  into  ihe  liie 
till  it  becomes  red-liut,  and  llien  pounded. 
Tills  mineral  is  a  kind  of  rnnnet,  aiul  i;ives  a 
consistence  to  tlie  oil,  wliicli  is  however  care- 
lully  preserved  in  its  slate  of  fluidity.  The 
oil  thus  prepared  is  never  employed  alone  ; 
another  oil  must  be  mixed  with  it,  which  is 
CNtracted  from  lime  and  fern-ashes,  to  100 
'pounds  of  which  is  also  added  a  pound  of 
clie-kao.  When  these  two  oils  are  mixed, 
they  must  be  equally  thick  ;  and  in  order  to 
ascertain  this,,  the  workmen  dip  into  each  of 
them  some  cak  .s  of  the  pe-tun-tse,  and,  by  in- 
specting; their  surfaces  closely  after  they  are 
drawn  out,  thence  judge  of  the  thickness  of 
the  liquors.  With  regard  to  the  quantity  ne- 
cessary to  be  employed,  it  is  usual  to  mix 
ten  measures  of  slone-oil  with  one  measure 
of  the  oil  made  from  lime  and  fern  ashes. 

In  forming  vessels  of  porcelain,  the  first 
thing  is  to  purify  the  pe-tun-tse  and  kao-lin, 
which,  for  the  lirst,  is  done  after  the  manner 
already  described  in  preparing  the  squares  ; 
for  the  second  it  is  sullicient  to  plunge  it  into 
an  urn  of  water,  in  an  open  b.isket,  as  it 
will  easily  dissolve.  The  dregs  that  remain 
are  perfectly  useless,  and  are  emptied  out  of 
the  work-house  when  a  quantity  is  got  to- 
gether. 

To  make  a  just  mixture  of  pe-tun-tse  and 
kao-lin,  regard  must  be  had  to  the  fineness  of 
the  porcelain  to  be  made  ;  for  the  liner 
porcelain  they  use  equal  quantities ;  four 
parts  of  kao-lin  to  six  of  pe-tun-tse  for  mode- 
rate ones  ;  and  never  less  than  one  of  kao-lin 
to  three  or  pe-tun-tse  for  the  coarsest.  '^Fhe 
harde.-t  part  of  the  work  is  the  kneading 
and  tewing  the  two  earths  together,  which  is 
done  till  the  mass  is  well  mixed,  and  grows 
hard,  by  the  workmen  trampling  it  continu- 
ally witli  their  feet.  Then  being  taken  out 
of  tlie  basons  or  pits  wherein  it  is  kneaded, 
it  is  done  over  a  second  time,  but  piecemeal, 
and  with  the  hands,  on  large  slates  for  tliat 
purpose  :  and  on  this  preparation  it  is,  that 
the  perfection  of  the  work  depends ;  the 
least  heterogeneous  body  remaining  in  the 
matter,  or  tlie  least  vacuity  that' may  be 
found  in  it,  being  enough  to  spoil  the  whole. 
The  porcelain  is  fashioned  or  formed  either 
with  t!ie  wheel  like  our  eirthenwaie,  or  in 
moulds.     See  Stone-ware. 

Smooth  pieces,  as  urns,  cu;)s,  dishes,  &;c. 
arc  made  with  the  wheel  ;  the  rest,  such  as 
are  in  reiievo,  as  figures  of  men,  animaN,  &c. 
■  are  formed  in  moulds,  but  (inislied  with  the 
chisel.  The  large  pieces  are  made  at  two 
operations  :  one  piece  is  raised  with  the  wheel 
by  three  or  four  workmen,  who  hold  till  it 
has  acquired  its  proper  ligure:  whicli  do.-;e, 
they  apply  to  it  the  other  half,  which  has 
been  formed  in  the  same  manner,  uniting  the 
two  with  porcelain-earth  made  liquid  by  add- 
ing water  to  it,  and  polishing  tlie  jniiclure 
with  a  kind  of  iron  spatula.  After  the  same 
manner  it  is  that  they  join  the  several  pieces 
ol  porcelain  formed  in  moulds,  or  by  the 
Jiand  ;  and  that  they  add  handles,  &c.  to  Ihe 
cujjs,  and  other  works  formed  by  the  wheel. 

riu:  moulds  are  made  after  the  same  man- 
lier with  tho^eof  our  sculptors,  viz.  of«Jivers 


I'  O  R 

pieces  which  severally  give  their  respective 
ligure  to  Ihe  several  parts  of  the  modrl  io-b»- 
re|)resenled,  aiul  which  are  alterwartis  miited 
to  form  a  mould  lor  an  entire  hgitre,  '1  he 
earth  they  are  made  of  is  yellow,  and  fat. 
Is  is  kneaded  like  ])otter's-earth  ;  and  when 
sufiicienlly  mellow,  hue,  and  moderately  dry, 
beating  it  stoutly,  tliev  form  it  into  moulds, 
according  to  the  works  required,  either  by 
hand,  or  on  the  wheel. 

All  the  works  that  are  made  in  moulds  are 
finislied  by  the  hands,  with  several  instruments 
proper  to  dig,  smooth,  polish,  and  to  touch 
up,  the  strokes  that  escape  the  mould,  so  that 
it  is  rather  a  work  of  sculpture  than  of  pot- 
tery, "^riiere.  are  some  works  whereon  re- 
lievos are  added,  ready-made,  as  dragons, 
(lowers,  ice.  others  that  have  an  impression 
in  creux,  which  last  are  engraved  with  a  kind 
of  puncheons.  In  general,  all  porcelain-works 
are  to  be  sheltered  from  the  cold;  their  na- 
tural humidity  making  them  liable  to  break 
wlien  they  dry  unequally. 

POUC'f  I.     See  Architecture. 

POKCUl'lNK.     See  Histrix. 

Pt)KE,  )'/;  (iiKitoiiii/,  a  little  interstice  or 
space  between  the  parts  of  the  skin,  serving 
for  perspiration.  See  Cutis,  Perspira- 
tion, PnvsiotOGy,  &:c. 

PORELLA,  in  botanv,  a  genus  of  mosses, 
the  anthera  of  which  is  multilocular  and  fo- 
raminose. 

POROSTE.M.\,  a  genus  of  the  [>olya- 
delphia  pohandria  class  and  order.  The 
calyx  is  six-parted;  no  corolla;  lilainents 
nine,  with  four  anthers  on  each ;  capsules 
covered,  six-celled.  There  is  one  species, 
a  tree  of  Guiana. 

POUPIIYKY,  a  genus  of  stones  belong" 
ing  to  the  order  of  saxa.  It  is  found  of  se" 
veral  different  colours,  as  green,  deep  red> 
purple,  black,  dark  brow  n,  and  grey.  Under 
the  name  of  porphyry,  Mr.  Kirwan  and  M. 
de  Saussure  include  those  stones  which  con- 
tain either  feltspar,  schoerl,  quartz,  or  mica, 
with  other  species  of  crystallized  stone  on  a 
siliceous  or  calcareous  ground.  There  are  a 
great  many  different  kinds.  M.  Ferber  de- 
scribes tw  eiity  varieties  under  four  species  ; 
but  in  general  it  is  considered  with  rek.tion 
to  its  ground,  which  is  met  with  of  the  co- 
lours already  mentioned.  When  the  ground 
is  of  jasper,  the  porphyry  is  commonly  very 
hard ;  the  red  generally  contains  feltspar  in 
small  white  dots  or  specks,  and  frequently, 
together  with  tliese,  black  spots  of  sclioerl. 
I'lie  green  is  often  magnetic,  and  is  cither  a 
jasper  or  schoerl,  with  spots  of  (piartz.  Some- 
times a  porphyry  of  one  colour  contains  a 
fragment  of  another  of  a  different  colour. 
Those  that  have  chert  for  their  grcnind  are 
fusible  per  se.  The  calcareous  porphyry 
consists  of  quartz,  feltspar,  and  mica,  in  sepa- 
rate grains,  united  bv  a  calcareous  cement ; 
and,  lastly,  the  micaceous  por|)hyry  consists 
of  a  greenish  giX'y  micaceous  ground,  in 
which  red  feltspar  and  greenish  soap-rock 
are  inserted. 

The  porphyry  of  the  antients  is  a  most 
elegant  massof  an  -extremely  iirm  and  com- 
pact structur.',  remarkably  heavy,  and  of  a 
tine  strong  purple,  variegated  more  or  less 
with  -pale  red  and  white  ;  its  purple  is  of  all 
degrees,  from  the  claret-colour  to  thai  of  Ihe 
violet  ;  and  its  variegations  are  rarely  dis- 
posed ill  veins,  but  spots,  sometimes  very 


P  C)  II 

small,  and  at  others  running  into  lar(»e 
blotclies.  It  is  le»s  line  than  many  of  tliu 
ordinary  marbles ;  but  it  excels  them  all  in 
hardness,  ;uid  is  capable  of  a  most  elegant 
polish.  It  is  still  found  in  iumii.nse  strata  in 
Egypt.  The  liard  re<Mead  coloured  por- 
phyry, variegated  with  black,  white,  and 
green,  is'a  most  beautiful  and  valuable  sub- 
stance, h  lias  the  hardness  and  all  the  otiier 
charactersoftheOriental  porphyry  ;  and  even 
greatly  excels  it  in  brightness  and  in  ihebeanly 
and  variegation  of  its  colours.  It  is  found  in 
great  plenty  in  the  island  of  Minorca  ;  and  is 
well  worth  importing,  being  greatly  superior 
to  all  the  Italian  marbles.  'I  he  iiard,  pale- 
red  porphyry,  variegated  with  black,  white, 
and  green,  is  of  a  pale  tiesh-colour,  often 
approaching  to  white.  It  is  variegated  in 
blotches  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  broad. 
It  takes  a  high  polish,  and  emulates  all  the 
qualities  of  the  Oriental  porphyry,  it  is  found 
in  iimiie.ise  strata  in  Arabia  Petrtua,  ai.d  in 
the  Upper  Egypt ;  and  in  sej.-arale  nodules 
in  Germany,  England,  and  Ireland. 

Ficoroni  takes  notice  of  two  exquisitely 
fine  columns  of  black  porphyry  in  a  churcii 
at  Rome.  In  Egypt  there  are  three  cele- 
brated obelisks^  or  pillars  of  por))hyry  ;  one 
near  Cairo,  and  two  at  Alexandria.  'Ihe 
French  call  tliem  aguglias,  and  in  England 
they  are  called  Cleopatra's  needles. 

The  art  of  cutting  porphyry,  practised  by 
the  aiitients,  appears  now  to  be  lost.  Indeed 
it  isdilhcuit  to  conceive  what  tools  they  u^ed 
for  fashioning  those  huge  columns  and  other 
porphyry-works,  in  some  of  t!ie  antient  build- 
ings in  Rome. 

Da  Costa,  however,  supposes,  that  the 
method  used  by  the  antients  in  cutting  and 
engraving  porphyry  was  extremely  simple,- 
and  that  it  was  performed  without  the  aid  of 
any  scientific  means  that  are  now  lost.  He 
imagines,  that,  by  unwearied  diligence,  and 
with  numbers  of  common  tools  at  great  ex- 
pellee, they  rudely  hewi;d  or  broke  the  stone 
into  the  intended  figures,  and  by  continued 
application  reduced  them  into  more  regular 
de>igns;  and  that  they  completed  the  work 
by  polishing  it  with  great  lalmur,  by  the  a.d 
of  particular  hard  sands  lound  in  E^ypt.  And 
he  thinks,  that  in  the  porphyry-quarries  there 
were  layers  of  grit  or  loose  disunited  i)ar- 
ticles,  analogous  to  the  porphyry,  which  they 
carehilly  sought  for,  and  used  for  this  work. 

PORT,  a  harbour  or  place  of  shelter, 
where  ships  arrive  with  their  freight,  and 
customs  from  goods  are  taken. 

Port-holes,  in  a  ship,  are  the  holes  in 
the  side  of  the  vessel,  through  which  are  put 
the  muzzles  of  the  great  guns.  These  arc 
shut  up  in  storms,  to  prevent  the  water  from 
driving  through  them.  'Phe  ICnglish,  Dutch, 
and  I'reiuh  slii|)s,  have  tin'  valves  or  ca^e- 
meuts  fastened  at  the  top  of  the  port-holes, 
and  the  Spanish  vessels  aside  of  tliem. 

Port-royai.,  the  name  of  two  montis- 
teries  of  cistercian  nuns,  in  the  diocese  of 
Paris;  the  one  near  Chevreuse,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  live  leagues  from  Paris,  called  I'ort 
royal  of  tlie  lields,  and  ihe  other  in  Paris,  in 
the  suburbs  of  St.  James's. 

The  nuns  of  the  former  of  these  monaste- 
ries, proving  refractory,  « ere  dispersed;  when 
many  ecclesiastics,  ami  others,  who  were  of 
the  same  sentiments  as  these  religious,  retir- 
ed to  Port  Koyal,    took  aiiaitinents  there. 


r  o  R 

ami  priutOil  manv  book-; ;  lionco  (!ie  name  of 
I'lirl-roviilistswas  giu-n  to  all  their  p.'irty,  and 
lliL-ir  Ijooks  were  t.alled  bi/oks  of  Vorl-rcnal  ; 
lifiice  ue  say  the  writers  of  I'oi t-r(>\al, 
nies.'ieurs  cje  I'ort-royal,  and  the  translations 
and  e.raniniars  nf  I'orl  royal. 

I'OHTA.or  vr  xAi'OR'iA.  SeeANATOMY. 

POIlTKUACi:.  15y  stut.  39  Geo.  III.  e. 
r)8,  no  inn-kcej)cr,  warehouse-keeper,  or  other 
person,  to  whom  any  i>ox,  basket,  package, 
'parcel,  truss,  gann-,  or  other  thing  whatso- 
ever, not  ONCteding  lilty-six  poiuuis  weiglit, 
or  any  porter  or  other  person  employed  by 
snth inn-keeper,  warehonse-keeper,  or  other 
perion,  in  porterag*',  or  delivery  of  any  such 
box,  parcel,  ike.  within  the  cities  of  I^ondon, 
Westminster,  or  borongh  of  Sonthw.'.rk,  and 
their  respective  siibnrbs,  ami  ether  parts  con- 
tiguous, not  exceeding  half  a  mile  from  the 
end  of  the  earriage-pavenn-nt,  in  the  several 
streets  and  places  within  the  abovenientioned 
limits,  shall  ask  or  demand,  or  receive  or  lake, 
in  respect  of  such  porterage  or  rlelivery,  any 
greater  rale  or  [irice  llii'.n  as  follow^: 
Not  exceeding  a    quarter  of  a  mile       3cl. 

half  a  mile  4rf. 

. one  mile  6r/. 

one  mile  and  a  half    Hd. 

■ two  miles  !()(/. 

For  every  further  distance,  not  exceeding 
half  a  mile,  three-pence  additional. 

Persons  asking  or  receiving  more  than  (lie 
above  rates,  shall  for  every  such  ollence,  for- 
feit a  sum  not  exceeding  20.«.  nor  less  than 
5s. 

POKTICO.  See  Architecture. 
^  PORTLAND  STONE  is  a  doll  wliitish 
species  much  used  in  buildings  about  Lon- 
don. It  is  composed  of  a  coarse  grit,  ce- 
mented together  by  an  earthy  spar.  It  will 
not  strike  tire  with  steel,  but  makes  a  violent 
effervescence  with  nitric  acid.  See  Free- 
stone. ■» 

PORTLANDIA,  a  genus  of  the  nionogy- 
nia  order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plaiUs, 
and  hi  the  natural  method  ranking  with  those 
of  which  the  order  is  doubtful.  The  corolla 
is  elevated  and  funnel-shaped ;  the  antlier;c 
are  longitudinal ;  the  capsule  pentagonal, 
and  retuse  at  top,  bilocular,  and  cnmned 
with  a  pentaphiUous  calyx.  There  are  four 
species.  The  grandiflora  has  been  particularly 
described  bv  Dr.  Browne,  who  has  also  given 
a  good  ligure  of  it.  It  has  frequently  flowered 
•  in  the  royal  garilen  at  Kew,  and  in  Dr.  Pit- 
cairn's  at  Islington.  The  external  bark  is 
remarkably  rougii,  furrowed,  and  thick:  it 
has  no  taste.  'I'he  inner  bark  is  very  thin, 
and  of  a  dark-brown  colour.  Its  ta^te  is  bitter 
and  astringent,  and  its  virtues  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  Jesuits'  bark.  Infused  in  spirits 
or  wine  with  a  little  orange-peel,  it  makes  an 
excellent  stojnachic  tincture. 

PORTRAIT.  .See  Painting. 
■  POR  rULACA,  /).7)-.v/i;n(',  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  in  the  dodecandria  cly^s  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  13th  order,  succulenta.'.  The  <o- 
rolla  is  peiitapetajous  ;  the  calyx  bifid  ;  tiie 
capsule  unilocular,  and  cut  round.  There 
are  \'2  species,  but  the  two  following  are  the 
most  remarkable :  1.  The  oleracea,  annual, 
or  common  cuhnary  purslane.  There  are 
two  varieties ;  one  with  deep-green  leaves, 
the  other  with  yellow  leaves  ;  both  of  which 
rise  from  the  same  seed.  3.  The  anacam|)- 
seros,  peremiial,  or  shrubby  Cape  puisiane. 


P  O  S 

Poth  llicse  plants  are  of  a  succulent  nature: 
thelirsl  isan  heibaceous  annual,  for  culinary 
uses;  and  the  second  a  shrubby  peienmal, 
raised  by  the  curious  for  variety.  'J'hey  are 
both  cxoliis  of  a  tender  (,i:ality,  of  the  tem- 
perature of  greeiiliouse  or  stove  plants.  'I  he 
common  culinary  purslane  is  rai>ed  ani'ualiy 
from  seed  for  summer  u>e,  and  is  an  excellent 
iiigredii  nt  in  summer  salads,  but  improper 
fir  winter  on  account  of  its  cold  moist  nature. 
The  plant  being  tender,  must  be  raised  either 
on  a  iiotbed  or  in  a  warm  borilcr. 

POiniLACAKIA,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  order  pentandria  trigynia.  The  calyx  is 
two-leaved  ;  the  petals  live  ;  seed  one,  three- 
sided  and  winged,  'lliere  is  one  species, 
called  purslane-tree. 

POSITION.     See  Architecture. 

Position,  or  the  riitt:  oj  Jake  posilion, 
otiierwise  called  the  ruic  of  juUcliood,  in 
arilhmelic,  is  a  rule  so  called,  because  in  cal- 
culating on  several  false  numbers  taken  at 
random,  as  if  they  were  the  true  ones,  and 
from  the  dil'ferences  found  therein,  the  num- 
ber s'ought  is  determined.  I'his  rule  is  either 
single  or  double.  Single  position  is  when 
there  happens  in  the  proposition  some  par- 
tition of  numbers  into  parts  proportional,  in 
which  case  the  question  may  be  resolved  at 
one  operation,  by  this  rule :  Imagine  a  num- 
ber at  pleasure,  and  work  therewith  accord- 
ing to  llie  tejior  of  the  question,  as  if  it  were 
the  true  number;  and  what  proportion  theie 
is  between  the  false  conclusion  and  the  false 
])ro|)ortion,  such  ])roportion  the  given  num- 
ber has  to  the  number  sought. 

Therefore  the  number  found  by  argumen- 
tation, shall  be  the  lirst  term  of  the  rule  of 
three  ;  the  second  number  supposed,  the  se- 
cond term  ;  and  the  given  number,  the  third. 
SeeARiTHMETrc.  Or  the  result  is  to  be 
regulated  by  this  proportion,  viz.  As  the 
total  arising  from  the  error,  to  t!ie  true  total, 
so  is  the  supj)osed  part,  to  the  true  one.  Ex- 
ample :  A,  ii,  and  C,  designing  to  buy  a  quan- 
tity of  lead  to  the  value  of  146/.  agree  that  B 
shall  pav  as  much  again  as  A,  and  C  as  much 
again  as  R  ;  what  then  must  each  pay? 

Now  suppose  A  to  pay  lOi.  tlien  B  must 
pav  20/.  and  C  4ti/.  tiie  total  of  wliich  is  70/. 
but  it  should  be  l4u/.  Therefore,  if  70/.  should 
be  140/.  what  should  10/.  ber 

Answer,  'Xl.  for  A's  share,  which  doubled, 
makes  4o/.  for  B's  share,  and  that  again 
doubled,  gives  SO/,  for  C's  share,  the  total  of 
which  is  1-iO/. 

Double  i)osilion,  is  when  there  can  be  no 
partition  in  the  numbersto  make  a  proportion. 
In  this  case,  therefore,  you  must  make  a  sup- 
position twice,  proceeding  therein  according 
to  the  tenor  of  the  question.  If  neither  of 
the  s  ipposed  numbers  solves  the  proportion, 
observe  the  errors,  and  whether  they  are 
greater  or  less  than  the  suppo.-ition  requires, 
and  mark  ttie  errors  accordingly  with  the  sign 
-|-  or — .     See  Character. 

Then  multiply  contrariwise  the  one  position 
bv  the  other  error  ;  and  if  the  errors  are  both 
too  great,  or  both  too  little,  subtract  the  one 
pnxlurt  from  tlie  otlier,  and  divide  the  dif- 
tcrence  of  the  |)roducts  by  the  difference  of 
the  errors.  If  the  errors  are  unlike,  as  the  one 
-|-  and  the  other  — ,  add  the  products,  and 
divide  the  sum  thereof  by  the  sum  of  the 
errors  ailded  together;  for  the  proportion  of 
the  errors  is  the  same  with  (he  proportion  of 
the  e.^cesses  or  defects  of  the  numbers  sup- 


r  o  s 


4b7 


]?oscd  to  he  the  numbers  sought;  or  ll'.e  snp- 
l)osiiions  and  tiieir  errors  being  placed  as  be- 
lore,  work  by  this  proportion  as  a  general 
nde,  viz.  as  the  dil(er<nce  of  the  errors  if 
al.ke,  or  their  sum  if  alike,  to  the  diflierence 
ol  tlie  suppositions,  so  either  error,  to  a  four. 1* 
iiuniber:  uhicli  accordingly  added  to  or  sub- 
tracted i;om  the  siipposnioii  agajiist  it,  will 
ansver  tl'.e  ipiestion. 

PosinoN,  in  geometry,  is  a  term  somc- 
liines  used  in  contradi^tillCt:on  to  magnitude  : 
thus,  a  line  is  said  to  be  given  in  position, 
positione  data,  when  its  situation,  bearing,  or 
direction,  with  reuard  to  some  other  line,  is 
given;  on  the  contrary,  aline  is  given  in 
magnitude  when  its  length  is  given,  but  not 
its  situation. 

POS>F  co.MiTATLS.  See  Power  or 
THE  County. 

POSSK.SSION  is  two-fold,  actual  and  in 
law.  Actual  possession  is  when  a  man  ac- 
tually enters  iiito  lands  ami  tenements  to  hiia 
<lescended.  Possession  in  law,  is  when  the 
lands  or  tenements  are  descoiuled  to  a  man, 
and  he  has  not  as  yet  actually  entered  mto 
them.     Staundf.  198. 

POST,  a  military  station.  Thus  the  de- 
tachments established  in  front  i,f  tiie  army  are 
termed  out-posts  ;  the  stations  on  the  wings  of 
the  army  are  said  to  be  the  posts  of  honour, 
as  being  the  most  cunsj)lcuous  and  most  ex- 
posed. But  in  the  operations  of  a  campaign, 
a  post  properlv  signilies  any  spot  of  ground- 
capable  ot  lodging  soldiei^  ;  or  any  situation, 
wliether  fortined  or  not,  where  a  body  of 
men  may  make  a  stand  and  engage  the  enemy 
to  advantage.  The  great  a  ivaiitages  of  good 
posts,  in  carrying  on  war,  as  well  ;:s  the  mode 
of  securing  them,  are  only  learned  by  expe- 
rience. Barbarous  nation^  disdain  the  cho;c« 
of  posts,  or  at  least  are  conti-nted  with  siiciv 
as  immediately  fall  in  their  way  ;  they  trust 
solely  or  chietly  to  strength  and  courage  : 
and  lience  the  late  of  a  kingdom  may  be  de- 
cided by  the  event  of  a  battle.  But  enlight- 
ened and  experienced  officers  make  the 
choice  of  posts  a  principal  object  of  attention. 
The  use  of  them  is  chieily  felt  in  a  deiensive 
war  against  an  invading  enemy ;  as,  by  carry- 
ing on  a  war  of  posts  in  a  country  where  this 
can  be  done  to  advantage,  the  mo>t  form- 
idable army  maybe  so  harassed  and  reduce;, 
that  all  its  enterprises  may  be  rsndei-ed  aboi - 
live. 

In  the  choice  of  a  post,  the  general  rules 
to  be  attended  to  are,  that  it  should  be  con- 
venient for  sending  out  parties  to  recoiinoilre, 
surprise,  or  interCL-pt  the  enemy;  that  if  pos- 
sible it  may  have  some  natural  defence,  as  a. 
wood,  a  river,  or  a  morass,  in  front  or  flank, 
or  at  least  that  it  be  difficult  of  access,  and 
susceptible  of  speedy  fortilicatiou  ;  tliat  it- 
shall  be  so  situated  as  to  pl•e^erve  a  commu- 
nication with  the  main  army,  and  have  co- 
vered places  in  the  rear  to  tavour  a  retreat ; 
that  it  may  command  a  view  of  all  the  ap- 
proaches 10  it,  so  that  the  enemy  camiot  ad- 
vance unperceived  and  rest  concealed, 
while  the  detachment  stationed  in  the  pos- 
are  toiced  to  remain  under  arms  ;  that  it  is 
not  commanded  by  any  neighbouring  heights; 
and  proportioned  in  extent  to  the  number  of 
men  who  are  to  occupy  and  defend  it.  It  is 
not  to  be  expected  that  all  these  advantages 
will  often  be  found  united  ;  but  those  posts 
ought  to  be  selected  which  offer  the  greatest, 
number  of  Uiem.' 


4S8 

Post,  an  operation  in  book-keepiug.    See 

BOOK-KEEPIMG. 

Post,  a  conveyance  for  letters  or  dis- 
patches. England  appears  to  be  the  lirst 
country  in  Europe,  whicli  formed  a  regular 
establishment  for  this  pi;r]iose:  though  it  was 
not  till  a  late  period  tliat  it  assumed  ;-.ny  thing 
like  a  regular  form  even  here.  In  the  reign 
of  Edward  ^'I.,  however,  some  species  of 
posts  must  have  been  set  up,  as  an  act  of 
parliament  passed  in  154S,  fixing  the  rate  of 
post-hoi'ses  at  one  penny  per  mile:  the  post- 
horses  here  ri^lerred  to  were,  it  is  jjrobable, 
chietiy  for  travelling,  and  the  carriage  of  let- 
ters or  packets  only  an  occasional  service. 
In  1581,  we  liiid  in  Camden'sAnnals  mention 
made  of  a  tliief  postmaster  for  England  being 
Eppointed.  How  his  office  was  managed, 
does  not  clearly  appear  ;  the  limited  state  of 
the  coiTespondence  of  the  country  probably 
rendered  it  of  trifling  conseciuence.  King 
James  I.  originally  erected  a  post-ofi\ce  under 
the  controul  of  one  Matthew  de  Quester,  or 
de  I'Equester,  for  the  conveyance  of  letters  to 
and  from  foreign  jiarts ;  which  office  was 
afterwards  claimed  by  lord  Stanhope,  but  was 
confirmed  and  continued  to  William  Frizel 
and  Thomas  Witheiings,  by  king  Oliarles  I., 
in  1632.  Previous  to  this  time,  it  would  ap- 
pear that  private  persons  were  in  the  habit 
of  conveying  letters  to  and  from  foreign  parts; 
all  such  interference  wilh  the  postmaster's 
o.'Kce  is,  therefore,  expressly  prohibited.  King 
Charles,  in  1635,  erected  a  letter-oflicefor 
England  and  Scotland,  under  the  direction  of 
the  above  Thomas  VVitherings.  The  rates 
of  p-xtage  then  established  were,  two-pence 
for  every  single  letter  for  a  distance  under 
80  miles ;  four-pence  from  80  to  140  miles  ; 
six-pence  above  140  miles.  'I'he  allowance 
to  the  post-ma'-ters  on  the  road  for  horses 
employed  in  these  posts,  was  fixed  at  two- 
pence halfpenny  per  mile  for  every  single 
iiorse.  All  private  inland  posts  were  dis- 
charged at  this  time  ;  and  in  1637,  all  piivate 
ioreiiin  posts  were  in  like  manner  prohibited. 
The  posts  thus  established,  however,  extended 
only  to  a  fev/  of  the  principal  roads ;  and 
the  times  of  transmission  were  not  in  every 
case  so  certain  as  ihey  ought  to  have  been. 

Witherings  was  superseded  for  abuses  in 
the  execution  of  his  oftices  in  1640,  and  they 
■were  sequestrated  into  the  hands  of  Philip 
burlamachy,  to  be  exercised  under  the  c^ire 
and  oversight  of  the  king's  principal  secretary 
of  state.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
war,  great  confusions  and  interruiJtions  were 
iieces'iarily  occasioned  in  the  conduct  of  the 
Jetter-pffice ;  but  it  was  about  that  time  that 
the  outline  of  the  present  more  extended  and 
regular  plan  seems  to  have  been  conceived 
by  .Mr.  Edmond  Prideaiix,whowasafterwards 
appointed  attorney-general  to  the  common- 
wealth. He  wa-i  chairman  of  a  committee  in 
1C42,  for  considering  the  rate  of  po.stcge  to 
be  set  upon  inland  letters ;  and  some  time 
was  appointed  postmaster  by  an  ordinance 
of  both  housts  of  parliament,  in  the  execu- 
tion of  which  office  he  first  established  a 
Weekly  conveyance  of  letters  into  all  parts  of 
the  nation.  In  1653,  this  revenue  was  farm- 
ed for  10,000/.  for  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland  ;  and  after  th'-  charge  of  maintaining 
postmasters,  to  the  amount  of  7U00/.  per  an- 
num was  saved  to  the  public.  Prideaux's 
emoluments  being  considerable,  the  common 
council  of  Loudon  endcavotired  to  erect  ano- 


IHYsT. 

therpo-tofTice  in  opposition  (o  his;  but  they 
were  checked  by  a  icsolution  of  the  house  of 
commons,  declaring  that  the  office  of  post- 
master is,  and  ought  to  be,  in  the  sole  power 
and  disposal  of  the  piirliament.     This  office 
was  fumed  by  one  iMaubey,  in   1654.     In 
16j6,  a  new  and  regular  general  post-office 
was  erected  by  the  authority  of  the  I'rotecior 
and   his  parliament,  upon   nearly  the  same 
model  that  has  beeji  ever  since  adopted,  with 
the  following  rates  of  postage  :  for  SO  miles 
distance,  a  single   letter   two-pence;    for  a 
greater  distance,  not  out  of  England,  three- 
pence; to  Scotland,  four-pence.     Rv  an  act 
of  parli.i.ment  passed  soon  after  the  Restora- 
tion in  1660,  the  regulations  settled  in  1656 
were  re-established,  and  a  general  post-olfice 
similar  to  the  former,  but  with  some  improve- 
ments, was  erected.     In  1663,  the  revenue  of 
the  post-office  was  found  to  produce  2 1,500/. 
annually.     In  16S5,  it  was  made  over  to  the 
king,  as  a  branch  of  his  private  income,  and 
was  then  estimated  at  65,000/.  per  annum. 
The  year  after  the  Kevolution,  the  amount  of 
the  post-office  revenue  was  90,504/.  10.y.  6d. 
At  the  Union,  the  produce  of  the  Rnglish  post- 
oliiccwas  stated  to  be  101,101/.    In  I'll, the 
former  establishments  of  separate  post-offices 
for  England   and   Scotland  were  abolished; 
and   by  the  stat.  9  Anne,  c.  10.  one  general 
post-ofiice,  and  one  postmaster-general,  were 
established  for  the   whole  united  kingdom  ; 
and  this  postmaster  was  empowered  to  erect 
chief  letter-offices  at  Edinburgh,  at  Dublin, 
at  Xew  York,   and  other  proper  places  in 
America,  and  the  West  Indies.     The  rates  of 
postage  were  also   increased  at  ths  time,  as 
follows:   In  England,  for  all  distances  under 
80  miles,  three-pence  ;   above  80  miles,  four- 
pence.     From   Loudon  to   Edinburgh,   six- 
pence.    In  Scotland,  under  50  miles,  two- 
pence; from   50  to  SO  miles,  three-pence; 
above   80    miles,   four-pence.      In   Ireland, 
under  40  miles,  two-pence  ;  above  40  miles, 
four-pence.     By  the  above  act,  all  persons, 
except  those  employed  by  the  postmaster, 
were  strictly  prohibited  from  conveying  let- 
ters.    That  year  the  gross  amount  of  the 
post-office  was  1 1 1,46U.  17s.  lOrf.     The  net 
amount,  on  a  medium  of  the  three  jireceding 
years,  was,  in  the  printed  report  of  the  com- 
missioners for  the  equivalent,  stated  to  be  for 
England,  62,000/.,  and  for  Scotland,  2000'. 
In  1754,  the  gross  revenue  of  the  post-office 
for  Great  Britain  amounted  to  210,663/.  ;   in 
1764,  to  281,535/.  ;  and  m  1774  to  345,321 /. 
'1  he  privilege  of  franking  letters  had  been  en- 
joyed by  members  of  parliament  from  the 
first  erection  of  the  post-office ;  the  original 
design   of  this  exemption    was,    that    they 
migiit  correspond  freely  with  their  constitu- 
ents on  the  business  of  the  nation.     By  de- 
grees tiie  privilege  came  to  be  shamefully 
abused,  and  was  carried  so  far,  that  it  was  not 
uncommon  for  the  servants  of  members  of 
parliament  to    procure  a  number  of  franks 
for  the  |)urpose  of  selling  them;   an  abuse 
wliich  was  easily  practised,  as  nothing  more 
was  recpiired   for  a  letter's  passing  free  than 
the  subs<ription  of  a  member  on  the  cover. 
To  restrain  these  fraud.?,  it  was  enacted,  in 
1764,  that-  no  letter  should  pass  free  unless 
the  whole   direction  was  of  the  member's 
writing,  and  his  subscription  annexed.     Even 
this  was  found  too  great  a  latitude;  and  by  a 
new   regulation  in    1 784,  no  letter  was  j/er- 
niitted  to  go  free,  uuless  tlie  date  was  marked 


1 


on  the  cover   in  the  member'?  own  hand- 
writing, and  the  letter  put  into  the  office  the  ' 
same  day.     T  hat  year  the  rates  of  postage 
were  raised  in  tlie  following  proportions:  an    . 
addition  of  one  penny  for  a  single  stage  ;  one 
penny   from   London   to   Edinburgh ;     one 
penny  for  any  distance  under,  and  two-pence    • 
lor  any  jlistance  above  150  miles.     An  ad-    ' 
dition  to   the  revenue  of  120,000/.  was  esti- 
mated to  arise  from  these  regulations  and  ad- 
ditional rates.     In  all  the  statements  of  duties 
upon  postage  of  letters  given  in  this  account, 
the   rates  mentioned  are  thuse  upon  single 
letters:  double  letters  pay  double,  treble  let- 
ters treble,  an  ounce  weiglit  quadruple  post- 
age ;   all  above  are  charged  by  the  weight,  iit 
the  same  proportion. 

About  tlie  year  1784,  a  great  improvement 
was  made  in  the  mode  of  conveying  the  mails, 
upon  a  plan  first  suggested  in  1782,  by  Mr. 
John  Palmer.     Diligences  and  stage-coacnes, 
he  observed,  were  established  to  every  town 
of  note  in  the  kingdom ;   and  he  proposed 
that  governniint,  instead  of  sending,  the  mails 
in  the  old  motle,  by  a  boy  on  horseback,  and 
in  carts,  should  contract  with  the  masters  of 
these  diligences  to  carry  the  mail,  along  with 
a  guard  for  its  protection.     This  plan,    he 
shewed,  could  not  fail  to  ensure  much  more 
expeditious  conveyance,  the  rate  of  travelling 
in  diligences  being  far  quicker  than  the  rate 
j  of  the  post;  and  it  was  easy  to  carry  it  into 
execution  with  little  additional  expence,  as 
!  the  coach-owners  would  have  a  strong  induce- 
I  ment  to  contract  at  a  cheap  rate  for  convey- 
ing the  mail,   on   account  of  the  additional 
recommendation  to  passengers,  their  carriages 
would  thereby  acquire  in  point  of  security, 
regularity,  and   dispatch.     Though  govern- 
ment heartily  approved  of  this  plan,  and  the 
public  at  large  were  satisfied  of  its  utility,  yet, 
like  all  new  schemes   however  beneficial,    it 
met  with  a  strong  opposition  :  it  was  repre- 
sented by  a  number  of  the  oldest  and  ablest 
officers  in  the  post-offiice,  not  only  as  im- 
practicable, but  dangerous  to  conmierce  and 
the  revenue.  Notwithstanding  this  opposition, 
however,  it  was  at  last  established,  and  gra- 
dually extended  to  many   dilterent  parts  of 
the  kingdom  ;  and,  upon  a  fair  comparison, 
it  appeared  that  the  revenue  was  very  con- 
siderably  improved,   though    Mr.   Palmer's 
numerous  reforms,  and  the  giTat  number  of 
'  new  appointments  which  they  rendered  ne- 
I  cessary,  greatly  increased  the  former  expence 
j  of    management.      The  conveyance   of  the 
^  mails  on  the   new  plan  was  contracted  for, 
I  after  tlie  two  first  years  trial,  at  20,000/.  per 
i  annum  less  than  the  sura  first  estimated  by 
Mr.  Palmer. 

Tlie  present  establishment  of  the  general 
post-olfice  for  Great  Britain,  consists  of  a 
postmaster-general,  to  the  duties  of  which 
station  there  have,  for  maiu'  years  past,  been 
two  persons  appointed,  under  the  title  of 
joint  postmasters-general ;  a  secretary  ;  up- 
wards of  150  assistants  and  clerks  lor  the 
head  letter-olfice  in  London,  under  the  di- 
rection of  a  superi:itcnding  president  of  the 
inland-letter  department ;  and  a  comptroller 
of  the  foreign-letter  office.  Near  600  deputy- 
postmasters,  throughout  the  kingdom,  act 
underone  principal  and  nine  riding  surveyors. 
There  are  also  distinct  offices  and  clerks, 
acting  under  an  accountant-general  and  a 
receiver-general ;  a<  v.'ell  as  a  separate  esta- 
blishment for  the  two-penny,  formerly  the 


P  o  s 

*ennr-po<;t,  wliich,  since  tlio  al)olition  of  Mr. 
rulnii,-i-'.sa;)|)oiiitmint  of'survcyor  ;iiul  compt- 
roller-general, has  been  new  iiioclelled  and 
greatly  improved  In  all  its  branches.  There 
is  likewise  a  postinasti-r-st-nerul  of  Scotland, 
with  a  secretary,  co.np' roller,  surveyors,  and 
a  separate  establi4inient  of  all  the  requisite 
bflii.ersand  clerks  at  Edinburgh, acting  under 
the  orders  of  the  Joint  poslniaiters-general  in 
London.  The  animal  expence  of  manage- 
ment is  al)<-nit  IfiO.OOO/.  and  the  gross  pro- 
duce exceeds  700,000/.  a  year. 

For  the  present  rales  of  postage,  and  the 
laws  respecting  frankin:?,  see  Lkttkk. 

No  action  can  be  maintained  against  the 
postmaster-general  for  the  loss  of  bills  or  ar- 
ticles sent  "in  letters  by  the  post,  and  lost. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  by  post- 
masters in  country  towns,  to  charge  an  lialf- 
penny  or  penny  each  letter,  on  delivery  at 
the  houses  in  the  town,  abovi'  the  parliament- 
ary rates,  under  pretence  that  they  were  not 
obliged  to  carry  letters  out  of  the  office 
gratis;  but  it  has  been  repeatedlv  decided, 
.  that  such  denia.ul  is  illegal,  and  that  they  are 
bound  to  deliver  the  letters  to  the  inhabitants 
\vithin  the  usual  and  established  limits  of  the 
town,  without  any  adilition  to  the  rate  of 
postage.     5  Ijur.  5709. 

Post  tti-.y-p.-mi!/,  a  post  established  for  the 
benefit  of  London,  and  other  parts  adjacent, 
whereby  any  letter  or  small  parcel  is  speedily 
and  safely  convey(;d  to  and  from  all  jjlaces 
witliin  the  bills  of  mortality,  or  within  ten 
miles  of  the  city.  It  is  now  managed  by  the 
general  post-ol'tiee.  and  receiving-houses  are 
established  in  most  of  the  principal  streets 
for  the  more  convenient  transmission  of  the 

(letters. 
'  Letters  were  originally  conveyed  by  fliis 
office  at  the  rate  of  one-penny  ;   but  the  rate 
has  been  lately  raised  to  tuo-pence,  and  for 
letters  olV  the  stones  the  rate  is  three-pence. 

Post,  a  particular  mode  of  travelling.  A 
person  is  said  to  travel  post,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  common  journey  travelling,  when, 
in  place  of  going  on  during  his  whole  journey 
in  the  same  vehicle,  and  with  the  same 
horses,  he  stops  at  ditTerent  stages,  to  pro- 
vide fresh  horses  or  carriages,  for  the  sake  of 
greater  convenience  and  expedition.  As  he 
thus  uses  the  same  mode  of  travelling  that  is 
employed  for  the  common  post,  he  is  said 
to  travel  post,  or  in  post,  i.  e.  in  the  manner 
of  a  post. 

In  tracing  the  origin  of  ])osts,  it  appears 
that  the  more  antient  establishments  ot  this 
kind  were  fully  as  much  for  travelling  sta- 
tions as  the  conveyance  of  letters.  The  re- 
lays of  horses  provided  at  these  public  sta- 
tions for  the  messengers  of  the  prince,  were 
occasionally,  by  special  licence,  allowed  to 
be  used  bv  other  travellers  who  had  sufficient 
interest  ai  court.  Frequent  demands  of  this 
nature  would  suggest  the  expedient  of  having 
in  readiness  supplies  of  fresli  horses  or  car- 
riages over  and  above  what  the  public  service 
rc(|uired,  to  be  hired  out  to  other  travellers 
on  payment  of  an  adetpiate  jirice.  We  find, 
therefore,  that  in  former  times,  the  post- 
masters alone  were  in  use  to  let  out  horses 
for  riding  post,  the  rates  of  which  were  fixed 
in  1548,  by  a  statute  of  Edward  ^"I.,  at  one- 
penny  per  mile.  In  what  situation  the  state 
of  the  kingdom  was  with  regard  to  travelling 
post  for  more  than  a  century  after  this  period, 
we  cannot  now  certainly  discover;  but  in 
"        Vol.  U, 


P  O  S 

thi*  statute  re-e' lablishin;,'  (lie  po_sf-oiTire  in 
H)<iO,  it  is  enacted,  that  none  but  the  post- 
master, his  deputies,  or  assigns,  shall  furnish 
post-horses  for  Iravellers;  with  a  |)rovisu, 
however,  that  if  he  has  them  not  ready  in 
half  an  hour  after  being  demanded,  the  tra- 
veller shall  be  at  liberty  to  provide  himself 
elsewheic.  The  same prohil)ition  is  contain- 
ed in  the  act  establishing  the  Scots  post-oiiice 
in  Ifiyj,  as  well  as  in  the  sifi^sequent  act  of 
queen  Anne,  erecting  the  general  ollice  for 
the  united  kingdom.  It  iscionbtfiil,  however, 
whether  it  ever  was  strictly  enlorced.  I5y  an 
exj)lanatory  act  of -'ti  Geo.  1  [.  the  prohibition 
is  confined  to  |)Ost  horses  only,  and  every 
person  declared  to  be  at  liberty  to  furnish 
carriages  of  every  kind  for  riding  post.  This 
regulation  iias,  in  fact,  done  away  tlie  pro- 
hibition, as  hardly  any  person  now  thinks  of 
travelling  post,  except  in  a  carriage. 

The  rate  fixed  bv  the  act  lfi!).'i,  in  Scotland, 
for  a  horse  riding  ])ost,  was  three-pence  per 
Scotch  mile.  By  the  act  0.  Anne,  c.  10. 
three-pence  a  mile  without,  and  tour-pence  a 
mile  with,  a  guide,  was  the  sum  fixed  tor  each 
liorse  riding  post.  The  increase  of  com- 
merce, and  necessity  for  a  speedy  communi- 
cation between  dilicrent  parts  of  the  king- 
dom, liave  brought  the  mode  of  travellinr; 
post  so  much  into  use,  that  upon  every  great 
road  in  the  kingdom,  post  chaises  are  now  in 
readiness  at  proper  distances;  and  the  con- 
venience of  posting  is  enjoyed  in  I'.ritaiu  to  a 
degree  far  superior  to  what  is  to  be  met  witii 
in  any  otiier  country  whatever. 

Posting  at  last  appeared  to  the  legislature  a 
proper  object  of  taxation.  In  1779  the  first 
act  was  passed,  imposing  duties  on  horses 
liired  eitlier  by  themselves  or  to  run  in  car- 
riages travelling  post;  the  duties  were,  one 
penny  [ler  mile  on  each  horse  if  hired  bv  the 
mile  or  stage,  and  one  shilling  per  day  if  hired 
by  the  day.  Every  person  letting  out  such 
liorses  was  also  obliged  to  take  out  a  licence 
at  five  shiUinga  per  annum.  These  duties 
were  next  year  repealed,  and  new  duties  im- 
posed, of  one  penny  jier  mile  on  each  horse 
hired  by  the  mile  or  stage,  and  one  shilling 
and  six-pence  on  each  if  hired  by  the  day. 
A  number  of  additional  regulations  were  at 
the  same  time  enacted  for  securing  these 
duties.  An  addition  of  one  halfpenny  per 
mile,  or  three-pence  per  day,  for  each  horse 
riding  post,  was  imposed  in  17Sj,  by  stat.  25 
Geo.  III.  c.  51.  The  duty  is  stcured  by 
obliging  every  letter  of  horses  to  deliver  to 
tlie  person  hiring  them  a  ticket,  expressing 
the  number  of  horses  hired,  and  eitlier  the 
distance  in  miles  to  be  travelled,  or  that  the 
horses  are  hired  by  the  day,  as  the  case  hap- 
pens to  be.  Tl-.ese  tickets  must  be  delivered 
t">  the  bar-keeper  at  the  first  turnpike  through 
which  tile  traveller  passLs;  and  the  turnpike- 
keeper  gives,  it  demanded,  w hat  is  termed  an 
exchange  ticket,  to  be  |)roduced  at  the  next 
turnpike.  The  stamp-office  issues  to  the  per- 
son licenced  to  let  po«t  horses  such  a  niiniber 
of  these  tickeis  as  is  rc(|u:red,  and  these  must 
be  regularly  accounted  (or  by  the  person  to 
whom  tliey  are  issued.  As  an  etfectiial  check 
upon  his  account,  the  turnpike-kei'per  is 
obliged  to  return  back  to  the  stainp-oifice  all 
the  tickets  he  takes  up  Irom  travellers.  Inva- 
sions are  by  tliese  means  rendered  difficult  to 
be  practised  without  running  a  great  risk  of 
detection,  in  17S7,  for  the  more  effectually 
levying  the  post-horse  duties,  a  law  was  passed 
3  <4 


P  O  ^ 


4St1 


atilh«risii,g  tlie  coiiimissicners  of  O.te  stamp- 
office  to  let  them  to  farm  by  public  auction, 
for  a  sum  not  less  than  the  produce  in  t.'ie 
year  ending  I i,t  August  1786, 

In  (he  advertisement  published  by  tlie 
cemmissioners  in  consequence  of  this  law, 
previous  to  the  receiving  proposals  for  farm- 
ing them,  the  total  amount  of  the  duly  lor 
Great  Britain  is  staled  to  have  been,  at  the 
period  above  referred  to,  110,873/.  The  sum 
tor  which  that  duly  was  farmed  in  17ft4, 
amouted  in  all  to  1.5o,030/.  of  which  the  dis- 
trict of  North  Pritain  was  6000/. 

POSr  DISSEISIN,  a  writ  for  him  that 
having  recovenil  land  or  t<-nemenls  by  prce- 
ci|ie  quod  reddal,  upon  default  of  reddilion 
is  again  disseised  by  the  former  disseisor.        v 

POSTivA,  is  tlie  return  of  the  proceedings 
by  nisi  ])ries  into  the  court  of  common  pleas 
.liter  a  verdict,  and  there  afterwards  recorded. 
Plowd.  i.'ll. 

POSTERN,  in  fortification,  is  a  small 
gate  generally  made  in  the  angle  of  the  fiaiik 
of  a  bastion,  or  in  tliat  of  the  curlin,  or  near 
the  orillon,  descending  into  the  ditch;  by 
w  hich  the  garrison  may  ni;>rch  in  and  out  un- 
percei\  ed  by  the  enemy,  either  to  relieve  the 
works,  or  to  make  private  sallies.  Sec. 

POSTULATE,  in  mathematics,  fcc,  i% 
described  to  be  such  an  easy,  and  self-evidpiit 
supposition,  as  needs  no  explication  or  illus- 
tration to  render  it  intelligible;  as.  that  a 
right  line  may  be  drawn  from  one  point  to 
anotlier. 

POTAMOGETON,  portd-nved.a  genus 
of  the  tetrandria  tetragy  nia  class  of  plants, 
the  corolla  whereof  consists  of  four  roundisli 
obtuse,  hollow,  patent,  and  iinguiculated  pe- 
tals: there  is  no  |)ericarpium  ;  the  seeds  are 
four  in  number,  roundish  and  accuminaled,  gib- 
bous OH  one  side,  and  comi)re5sed  and  angu- 
lated  on  the  otlier.  'I  his  plant  has  a  relri- 
gerating  virtue,  and  is  recommended  in  tlie 
cureof  old  ulcers.     'J'here  are  14  species. 

POTASS.  If  a  sufficient  quantilv  of  wood 
is  burnt  to  ashes,  and  these  ashes  atlerwards 
washed  repeatedly  with  water  till  it  comes  oil" 
free  from  any  taste,  and  if  this  li<|uidis  likrated 
and  evajiorated  to  dryness,  the  substance 
which  remains  behind  is  potass;  not,  liow- 
ever,  in  a  state  of  purity,  lor  it  is  contami- 
nated with  several  other  substances,  butsufii- 
ciently  pure  to  exhibit  many  of  its  properties. 
In  this  state  it  occurs  in  commerce  under  the 
name  of  potash.  \\  hen  heated  to  redness, 
many  of  its  impurities  are  burnt  olf ;  it  be- 
comes much  whiter  than  betore,  and  is  then 
known  in  commerce  by  the  nameof  pearl  ash. 
Still,  however,  it  is  contaminated  witli  many 
foreign  bodies,  r.nd  is  itself  combined  with 
carbonic  acid  gas.  which  blunts  all  its  pro- 
[lerties.  It  may  be  obtained  perlectly  pure 
by  the  following  jjiocess: 

1.  Mix  it  wilii  twice  its  weight  of  quick- 
lime, and  ten  times  its  weight  of  pure  water. 
Boil  the  mixture  for  some  hours  in  a  clean 
iron  vessel,  or  allow  it  to  remain  for  48  liours 
in  a  close  glass  vessel,  shaking  it  occasionally. 
Then  pass  it  through  a  iilter.  Iioil  the  liquid 
obtained  in  a  silver  vessel  very  rajjidly,  till  it 
is  so  much  concentratet!  as  to  assume  when 
cold  the  consistence  of  honey,  'i'hen  pour 
upon  it  a  quantity  of  aUohol  ecjual  in  weight 
to  one-third  ot  the  ])earl-ash  employed.  Shake 
the  mixture,  put  it  on  the  fire,  It-t  it  boil  tor 
a  minute  or  two,  thai  pour  it  into  a  glass  ves-  ■ 


4pO 

sel  and  cork  it  up.  The.  solution  gradually 
separates  itself  into  two  strata:  the  lowest 
consists  of  tlie  impurities,  partly  dissolved  in 
water  and  partly  in  a  solid  stale  ;  the  upper- 
most consists  ot  the  pure  potass  dissolved  in 
alcohol,  and  is  of  a  reddish-brown  colour. 
Decant  this  alcohol  solution  into  a  silver  ba- 
son, and  evaporate  it  rapidly  till  a  black 
cliarry  crust  fonns  on  the  surface,  and  the 
li(juid  below  acquires  such  consistence  as  to 
become  solid  on  cooling.  Then  remove  the 
black  crust,  and  pour  the  solution  into  a  por- 
celabi  vessel.  \\'hen  cold,  it  concretes  into 
a  line  white  substance,  \vl>ich  is  pure  potass. 
It  must  be  broken  to  pieces,  and  put  into  an 
air-tight  phial. 

For  this  process  we  are  indebted  to  Ber- 
thollet.  The  following,  which  was  proposed 
bv  Lowitz  of  Petersburgh,  is  less  expensive. 
The  potash  of  commerce  antl  quicklime  are 
to  be  boiled  together  as  above  described. 
The  filtered  liquor  is  then  to  be  evaporated 
till  a  thick  pellicle  appears  on  its  surface,  and 
attervvards  allowed  to  cool ;  and  all  the  crys- 
tals which  have  formed  are  to  be  separated, 
for  they  consist  of  foreign  salts.  The  evapo- 
ration is  then  to  be  continued  in  an  iron  pot ; 
and,  during  the  process,  the  pellicle  which 
forms  on  the  surface  is  to  be  carefully  taken 
oiTwithan  iron  skimmer.  When  no  more 
pellicle  appears,  and  when  the  matter  ceases 
to  boil,  il  :s  to  be  taken  off  the  hie,  and  must 
be  con^antly  agitated  with  an  iron  spatula 
wiiile  cooling.  It  is  then  to  be  dissolved  in 
doub'e  its  own  weight  of  cold  water.  This 
solution  is  to  be  hltered  and  evaporated  in  a 
retort  (not  of  glass,  because  potass  in  tliis 
state  dissolves  glass),  till  it  begins  to  deposit 
regular  crystals.  If  the  mass  consolidates 
ever  so  little  by  cooling,  a  small  quantity  of 
water  is  to  be  added,  and  it  must  be  heated 
again.  When  a  sufficient  number  of  crystals 
have  been  formed,  the  liquor  which  swims 
over  them,  and  which  has  assumed  a  very 
brown  colour,  must  be  decanted  olt^  and  kept 
in  a  well-closed  bottle  till  the  brown  matter 
has  subsided,  and  then  it  may  be  evaporated 
as  before,  and  more  crystals  obtained. 

The  theory  of  these  processes  is  obvious:' 
the  lime  separates  the  carbonic  ;icid,  for  which 
it  has  a  stronger  aflinity  ;   aiul  the  alcohol  or 
the  evaporation  separate  all  the  otlier  foreign 
ingredients. 

As  potass  is  never  obtained  at  first  in  a  state 
of  purity,  but  always  combined  with  carbonic 
acid,  it  was  long  before  chemists  understood 
to  what  the  changes  produced  ujjon  it  bv 
lime  were  owing.  At  last,  in  l/i'ie,  Dr.  Clack 
proved,  by  the  most  ingenious  and  satisfac- 
tory analysis,  that  tlie  potass  which  the  world 
iiad  considered  as  a  simple  sub=tance,  was 
really  a  compound,  consisting  of  potass  and 
carbonic  acid ;  that  lime  deprived  it  of  this 
acid ;  and  that  it  became  more  active  by  be- 
coming more  simple. 

That  jjotass  was  known  to  the  antient 
Gauls  and  Germans  cannot  be  doubted,  as 
they  were  the  inventors  of  soap,  which,  Pliny 
iiifornu  u's,  they  composed  of  ashes  and 
tallow.  These  ashes  (for  he  mentions  the 
ashes  of  the  beech  tree  particularly),  were 
nothing  else  but  potass ;  not,  liowever,  in  a 
state  of  purity.  The  «»»'«,  too,  mentioned  by 
Arirt  .|>;  .mes  and  Plato,  appears  to  have 
been  a  ley  made  of  the  same  kind  of  ashes. 
The  alcliymi.^tswere  well  acquainted  with  il ; 
and  it  has  been  in  every  period  very  imith 


PQTASS. 

employed  in  chemical  researche?,  It  was 
long  distinguished  among  us  by  the  name  of 
vegetable  alkali,  because  it  is  obtained  front 
vegetables,  and  because  it  was  long  thought 
to  be  peculiar  to  the  vegetable  kingdom  ;  but 
this  is  now  known  to  be  a  mistake.  It  was 
called  also  salt  of  tartar,  because  it  may  be 
obtained  by  burning  the  salt  called  tartar. 
Mr.  Kirwan  has  given  it  the  name  of  tartarin. 
Dr.  Pearson  has  called  it  vegalkali,  Klaproth 
kali,  and  Dr.  Black  lixiva.  By  niost  British 
cliemists  it  is  called  potash :  but  this  term,  in 
commoii  language,  signilies  the  carbonat  ot 
jiotass,  or  the  potass  of  commerce.  For  in 
fact,  till  Berthollet  published  his  process  in 
the  year  17S6,  chemists  had  never  examined 
potass  iu  a  slate  ot  complete  purity. 

2.  Potass  is  a  brittle  substance  of  a  white 
colour,  and  a  smell  resembling  that  which  is 
perceived  during  tlie  slacking  of  (luicklime. 
Its  tasle  is  remarkably  acrid ;  and  it  is  so  ex- 
ceedingly corrosive,  that  when  applied  to  any 
part  of  the  body,  it  destroys  it  almost  instant- 
aneously. On  account  of  this  properly,  it 
has  been  called  caustic,  and  is  ot'ten  used  by 
surgeons  under  the  name  of  the  potential 
cautery,  to  open  abcesses,  and  to  destroy 
useless  or  hurtful  exci'escences.  Its  speciiic 
gravity  is  1.70. 

When  heated  it  melts;  at  a  red  heat  it 
swells,  and  evaporates  slowly  in  a  white  acrid 
smoke.  A  strong  heat  gives  it  a  greenish 
tinge,  but  produces  no  other  alteration  in  it. 
Potass  is  not  altered  by  exposure  to  light. 

AVlien  exposed  to  the  air,  it  soon  attracts 
moisture,  and  is  converted  into  a  liquid;  at 
the  same  time  it  combines  with  carbonic  acid, 
for  which  it  has  a  strong  affinity. 

3.  It  has  a  very  strong  aflinity  for  water. 
At  the  common  temperature  of  the  air,  one 
part  of  water  dissolves  two  parts  of  potass. 
The  solution  is  transparent,  very  dense,  and 
almost  of  the  consistence  of  oil.  It  is  in  this 
state  that  potass  is  usually  employed  by 
chemists.  When  four  parts  of  potass  in  pow- 
der, and  one  of  snow  are  mixerl  together,  the 
mixture  becomes  liquid,  and  at  the  same 
time  absorbs  a  quantity  of  caloric.  This 
mixture  was  employed  by  Louilz  to  produce 
artificial  cold.  When  the  aqueous  solution 
of  potass  is  evaporated  to  a  proper  consist- 
ency, the  potass  crystallizes.  The  shape  of 
its  crystals  is  very  ditferent,  according  to  the 
way  in  which  they  have  been  produced.  When 
allowed  to  form  spontaneously,  they  are 
octahedrons  in  groups,  and  contain  0.43  of 
water.  V\  hen  formed  by  evaporation  on  the 
fire,  they  assume  the  ligure  of  very  thin 
transparent  blades  of  extraorduiary  magni- 
tude, which,  by  an  assemblage  of  lines  cross- 
ing each  other  in  prodigious  lumibers,  present 
an  aggregate  of  cells  or  cavities,  commonly  so 
very  dose,  that  the  vessel  may  be  inverted 
without  losing  one  drop  of  the  liquid  which  it 
Contains. 

4.  Potass  shews  no  disposition  to  unite  with 
oxygi  n,  neither  is  it  altered  by  the  action  of 
any  of  tlie  compounds  into  wliich  oxygen 
enters,  though  it  has  a  strong  tendency  to 
unite  with  several  of  these  compounds. 

5.  It  unites  with  none  of  the  simple  com- 
bustibles except  sulphur.  Carbon  and  hydro- 
gi'ii  do  not  act  upon  it  at  all ;  neither  does  it 
jiroduce  any  alteration  in  Ihem,  but  it  acts 
upon  |)hospliorus  with  considerable  I'liergy. 

When  three  parls  of  sulphur  and  one  of 
potass    are  triturated   togetlier  iii    a    glass 


mortar,  the  sulplmr  acquires  a  green  colon;-, 
the  mixture  becomes  hot,  ancl  exhales  art 
aliaceous  odour.  It  gradually  attracts  aois- 
ture  from  the  air,  and  is  toially  soluble  in 
water.  V\  hen  two  parts  of  potass  and  one  of 
sulphur  are  heated  in  a  crucible,  they  mc't 
aiiij  combine,  and  lorm  suli)huret  of  potass. 
The  potash  of  commerce  may  be  also  em- 
ployed; for  the  carbonic  acid  separates  in  the 
form  of  a  gas  during  ihe  combiiialion  of  the 
potass  and  sulphur.  M  hen  the  fusion  is  com- 
plete, the  sulphuret  is  to  be  poured  upon  a 
marble  slab  ;  and  as  soon  as  it  congeals,  it 
must  be  broken  to  pieces,  and  set  by  into  a 
wcUcorked  phial. 

Sulphuret  of  potass,  thus  prepared,  is  of  a 
brown  colour,  not  unlike  the  liver  of  animals. 
Hence  it  was  formerly  called  heparsulphuris. 
"  liver  of  sulphur  ;"  but  when  exposed  to  the 
air,  it  soon  becomes  green,  and  even  white. 
It  is  hard,  brittle,  and  has  a  glassy  fracture. 
Its  taste  is  acrid,  caustic,  and  bilter,  and  it 
leaves  a  brown  stain  upon  the  skin.  It  has 
no  odier  smell  than  that  of  sublimed  sulphur. 
When  exposed  to  a  violent  heat  the  sulphur 
sublimes,  and  the  potass  remains  in  a  state  of 
purity.  This  su!i)liuret  converts  vegetable 
blues  to  green,  and  soon  destroys  tlieni. 
When  heated  with  charcoal,  it  dissolves,  and 
combines  with  it. 

When  suljihuret  of  potass  is  exposed  to  the 
air,  or  when  it  is  moistened  with  water,  its  pro- 
perties very  soon  change.  It  acquires  a  green 
colour,  and  exhales  the  odour  of  sulphureled 
iiydrogen  gas.  This  change  is  owing  to  the 
lurmation  of  a  quantity  of  sulphureled  hydro- 
gen, in  consequence  of  the  decomposition  of 
the  water.  This  new-formed  subs'tance  com- 
bines with  the  sulphuret,  and  converts  it  into 
iiydrogenated  sulphuret  of  potass,  which  is 
soluble  in  water,  and  has  a  brownish  greca 
colour.  It  may  be  formed  also  by  boiling  in 
water  two  parts  of  potass  and  one  part  of  sul- 
phur. Sulphuret  of  potass  produces  no 
change  upon  air,  but  hydrogenaled  sulphuret" 
gradually  absorbs  oxygen.  When  inclosed 
in  a  vessel  with  a  quantity  of  air,  it  soon  ab- 
sorbs all  the  oxygen  of  that  portion,  and 
leaves  nothing  but  azotic  gas.  This  fact, 
which  was  lirst  observed  by  Scheele,  induced 
him  to  use  hydrogenaled  suljihuret  to  mea- 
sure the  quantity  of  oxygen  contained  in  any 
given  jiorticn  of  atmospheric  air.  Hydrogen- 
aled sulphuret  is  capable  of  oxydizing  and 
dissolving  almost  all  the  metals.  We  are  in- 
debted to  M.  BertlioUet  for  the  first  accurate 
account  of  the  difference  between  lliese  t\v©- 
substances. 

Potass  cannot  be  combined  with  phos- 
phorus by  any  method  at  present  known. 
But  when  potass,  dissolved  in  water,  is  lieated 
over  phosphorus  in  a  retort,  the  water  is  gra- 
dually decomposed,  part  of  the  phosphorus  is 
converted  into  phosphoric  acid,  and  a  great 
(piantity  of  phosphuretcd  Indiogen  gas  is 
emittcid,  which  lakes  fire  as  usual  as  soon  as 
it  comes  into  contact  with  the  air  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. It  was  by  this  process  that  Genigem- 
bre  first  obtained  pliosphun.led  Iiydrogen 
gas. 

G.  It  docs  not  a^ipear  that  potass  is  capable 
of  uniting  with  azote,  or  even  of  acting  on  it 
at  all  ;  but  with  muriatic  acid  it  unites  very 
readily,  and  forms  the  compound  known  by 
the  name  of  muriat  of  soda. ' 

7.  Potass  does  not  combine  with  any  of 
the  metals ;  but  some  of  the  inetals  wlucti  . 


POT 

have  a  strong  aflinity  for  oxygen,  when  put 
into  a  solution  of  potass  in  water,  es])i,'(ially 
if  lieat  is  applied,  are  gradually  oxydi/eil. 
This  is  the  case  with  niolybuciiuiii,  zinc,  and 
iron.  Tin  also  is  oxydized  in  a  ve;'y  small 
proportion ;  and  this  seeins  also  to"  be  the 
case  with  manganese. 

It  is  capable  of  dissolving  a  considerable 
number  ot  the  metallic  oxides ;  and  in  some 
cases  it  deprives  them  of  a  dose  of  their 
oxygen.  1 1ms,  when  poured  upon  the  red 
oxide  of  iron  it  soon  converts  it  into  the  black. 
The  cause  of  this  change  is  unknown.  It  lias 
been  ascertained,  that  the  oxides  of  the  fol- 
lo\virig  metals  are  soluble  m  potass. 
Tin,  Arsenic, 

Nickel,  Cobalt, 

Zinc,  Manganese, 

Antimony,  Tungsten, 

Tellurium,  Molybdenum. 

But  the  nature  of  these  solutions  has  not 
hillicrto  been  examined  with  any  degree  of 
•attention  ;  though  the  subject  is  remarkably 
curious,  and  promises  to  throw  light  both 
upon  the  nature  of  alkalies  and  metals. 
The  affinities  of  potass  are  as  follow: 


Sulphuric  acid, 

Nitric, 

Muriatic, 

Phosphoric, 

Fluoric, 

Oxalic, 

Tartaric, 

Arsenic, 

Succinic, 


Citric, 

Lactic, 

Benzoic, 

Sulphurous, 

Acetic, 

Sadactic, 

Boracic, 

Carbonic, 

Prussic. 


Potass  has  never  yet  been  decomposed.  Se 
■veral   chemists,   indeed,   have   conjectured,  I 
1  hat  it  is  a  compound  of  lime  and  azote ;  and  i 
some  persons  have  even  endeavoured  to  prove  I 
this  by  experiment;   but  none  of  their  proofs  ! 
■are  at  all  satisfactory.     We  ought,  therefore,  I 
perhaps,  in  strict  propriety,  to  have  assigned 
it  a  place  among  our  enumeration  of  simple 
bodies  iti  the  article  chemistry;  but  as  it  is 
excluded  by  inost  of  the  foreign  chemists,  we  I 
thought  it  least  likely  to  promote  confusion 
to  follow  their  arrangement.    Besides,  wearc 
certain,  from  a  variety  of  facts,  that  all  the 
alkalies  are  compounds.     One  of  them  has  j 
actually  been  decompounded  ;  and  the  other 
two  have  been  detected  in  the  act  of  forma- 
tion, though  the  ingredients  which  compose 
Ihf-ni   have  not  hitherto  been    discovered. 
■Morveau  and  Desormes  indeed  announced,  I 
some  time  ago,  that  they  considered  potass  I 
as  a  compound  of  liydrogen  and  lime.    Their  i 
chief  proofs  were  the  appearance  of  lime, 
vhen  the  salt,  composed  of  hyperoxygenized 
muriatic  acid  and  potass,  is  "strongly  heated  ' 
with  phosphoric  acid  in  a  crucible  of  platinum;  I 
and  a  manifest  combustion  together  with  the  | 
deposition  of  lime,  when  charcoal  and  potass  | 
are  in  like  manner  exposed  to  a  strong  heat  j 
in  a  platinum  {■rucible.     Bu't  these,  and  the  I 
other  experimental 'proofs,  being  examined  j 
l)y  Darracq,  (hat  accurate  chemist  ascertain-  , 
<-d  that  the  results  obtained  by  Desomies  and 
Morveau  were  owing,  in  mo'st  cases,  to  the 
inipln-ity  of  the  potass  with  which  they  had  ! 
made  their  experiments;  while  in  others",  ti.ey  1 
liad  drawn  wrong  inferences  from  mistaken 
resemblances,     Thv-ir   hypothesis  of    course 
cannot  be  maintained.    '  j 

Potass  is  of  the  highest  importance,  not  only 
in  chemistry,  where  it  is  employed  for  a  great  J 
variety  of  purpoies,  but  also  ui  many  arts,  aiicl- 


P  O  T 

manufactures;  aswashhig,  blciching,  dying, 
glass-making,  and  others,  as  will  appear  on  aii 
inspection  ot  these  articles.  It  is  employed 
also  in  surgery  and  medicine. 

P0TA1  Oli.     See  Solaj^um. 

POTKX T,  or  PoTENCE,  in  heraldry,  a 
term  for  a  kind  of  a  cross,  whose  ends  all  ter- 
niiiiate  like  the  head  of  a  crutch, 

l'0'i.'KKV\l.LA,.iiher-Kail,tiililttm.i(!/, 
or  cinqucfoil,  a  genus  of  the  pentagynia  or- 
der, in  the  icosandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  uniler  the  3,")lh 
order  senticosx.  The  calyx  is  deccmlid ; 
tliere  are  live  petals;  the  seeds  rouj^dish, 
naketl,  and  aflixed  to  a  small  dry  receptacle. 
'I'here  are  32  species,  the  most  noted  are: 

1.  The  fruticosa,  or  shrubby  potenlijla, 
commonly  called  shrub-ciiHjuefoil.  This  is  a 
beautifu!  deciduous  lioweiing  shrub,  worthy 
a  place  in  every  curious  collection.  It  grows 
wild  in  Yorkshire,  and  other  northern  parts  of 
Ki^gland,  &c.  but  has  been  long  cultivated  in 
gardens  as  an  ornamentul  shrub.  '2.  The 
reptans,  or  creeping  common  five-leaved  po- 
tejililla,  or  five-leaved  grass.  3.  Tiie  rupes- 
tris,  or  mountain  uprigiit  cinquefoil,  liaving 
the  stalks  terminated  by  small  white  (lowers. 
4.  The  recta,  or  erect  scven-lobed  yellow 
cinquefoil,  has  the  stalks-  terminated  by  co- 
rymbose clusters  of  yellow  flowers.  5.  The 
fragaroides,  or  strawberry-like  trailing  poten- 
tilla.  'I'his  species  bears  a  great  resemblance 
to  the  small  sterile  strawberry  plants.  6.  The 
argentea,  silvery  upright  potenlilla,  with  small 
yellow  tlo^vers, 

All  these  plants  flower  in  June  and  July ; 
the  flowers  are  composed  each  of  five  round- 
ish petals,  and  about  20  stamina.  They  are 
all  very  liardy,  and  may  be  employed  in 
the  different  compartments  of  the  pleasure 
ground.     Their  propagatioii  is  very  easy. 

POTERIl  i\],  garden  burnet,  a.  genus  of 
the  polyandria  order,  in  the  iiionoccia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  54th  order,  miscellane;e.  The  male 
caiv.x  is  Iclraphyllous;  the  corolla  quadri- 
partite ;  and  there  are  from  30  to  40  stamina, 
i'he  femaU;  calyx  is  tetraiihyllous  ;  the  corolla 
quadripartite ;  there  are  two  pistils ;  the  berry- 
is  formed  of  the  indurated  lube  of  the  corolla. 
There  are  five  species,  the  most  remarkable 
are:  1,  The  sanguisorba,  or  common  gar- 
den burnet.  This  species  grows  wild  in  Eng- 
land in  chalky  soils,  bvt  has  been  long  culti- 
vated as  a  sallad-herb  for  winter  and  spring 
use,  it  being  of  a  wann  nature;  the  young 
leaves  are  tlie  useful  parts.  It  is  perennial  in 
root,  and  retains  its  radical  leaves  all  the 
year,  but  the  ^talks  are  annual.  2,  The 
liybridum,  hybrid  agrimony-leaved  Mont- 
pelier  burnet.  This  species  often  proves 
biennial ;  but,  by  cutting  down  some  'of  th(: 
stalks  before  they  flower,  it  will  cause  it  to 
multiply  at  bottom,  and  become  abiding. 
3.  Poteriuni  spinosum,  shrubby  spinous  bur- 
net of  Crete. 

Burnet  is  of  a  cordial  nature;  in  summer, 
the  leaves  are  used  for  cool  tankards,  to  give 
the  wine  an  agreeable  flavour.  The  powder 
of  the  root  of  the  first  species  is  commended 
against  spitting  of  blood,  bleeding  at  the  nose, 
dysenteries,  and  diseases  alleuded  with  vio- 
lent secretions.  In  winter  and  spring,  the 
young  tender  leaves  are  \ised  in  salads.  Its 
uses  as  food  for  cattle  are  well  known. 

POTHOS,  a  genus  of  the  polyandria  or- 
der, in  the  gyiiandria  class  of  plants.    Tiie 
3Q2 


p  o  t: 


4yt 


spaiha  or  slicalh  is  a  simple  spadix  covered  { 
no  calyx,  but  four  petals',  and  as 


spaltia  0 
there  is 


many  stamina ;   the  berries  dispermous. 

PO'I  STONE,  a  mincial  found  in  ne>ls  and 
beds,  and  is  always  amorphous.  Its  strucUire 
is  often  slaly;  fracture  undulatingly  (olialed, 
greasy  and  brittle.  Specific  gravity  fronj 
2.85  to  3.02.  Colour  grey,  with  a  shade  of 
green,  an<l  sometimes  ot  red  or  yellow,  some- 
times leek-green  and  soinetiines  speckled  w  ith 
red.  Potstone  is  not  much  afl'ecled  by  tin-  fire, 
and  is  made  into  utensils  for  boiling  water : 
hence  its  name.     It  consists  of 

38  magnesia 

38  silica 
7  alunfina  ' 

5  iron 

I  carbonat  of  lime 
1  fluoric  acid. 
POTTERY,  the  inainifaclure  of  earthen 
ware,  or  the  art  of  making  earthen  ve>«  l.s. 
In  a  general  sense,  therefore,  it  applies  to  all 
the  dilferent  branches.  Si;e  Dti.FT-WARK, 
Stone-wakk,  and  Porcelain,  &,c.  In  a 
more  particular  sense  it  is  confined  to  the 
coai-ser  kinds,  sucli  as  the  making  off 
pots,  Sec.  The  wheel  and  lathe  are  th 
and  almost  the  only  instrunienls  in  poo' 1 1  -. 
the  first  for  large  works,  and  the  last  lor  small. 
The  potter's  wheel  consists  principally  in  ''>>• 
nut,  which  is  a  beam  or  axis,  whose  h^f  .  r 
pivot,  plays  perpendiculaily  on  a  fre.  :  ,:_■ 
sole  or  bottom,  i-'rom  the  four  corners  ol  this 
beam,  which  does  not  exceed  two  feet  in 
height,  arise  four  iron  bars,  called  the  spokes 
of  the  wheel ;  which  forming  diagonal  lineS 
with  the  beam,  descend,  and  are  fastened  at 
bottom  to  the  edges  of  a  strong  wooden  cir- 
cle, four  feirt  in  diameter,  perfectly  like  the 
felloe  of  a  coach-wheel,  except  that  it  has 
neither  axis  nor  radii,  andis  only  joined  to  thi; 
beam,  which  serves  it  as  an  axis  by  the  iron 
bars.  The  top  of  the  nut  is  flat,  of  a  circular 
figure,  and  a  foot  iii  diameter ;  and  on  this  is 
laid  the  day  whicli  is  to  be  turned  and  fa- 
shioned. The  wheel  thus  disposed  is  encom- 
passed with  four  sides  of  four  dilferent  pieces 
of  wood  fastened  on  ^  wooden  frame;  the 
hind-piece,  which  is  that  on  which  the  work- 
man sits,  is  made  a  little' inclining  towards 
the  wheel ;  on  the  fore-piece  is  placetl  the 
prepared  earth;  on  the  side-pieces  he  rests 
his  feet,  and  these  are  made  inclining  to  give 
him  more  or  less  room.  Having  prepared 
the  earth,  the  potter  lays  a  round  piece  of  it 
on  the  circular  head  ot  the  nut,  and,  sitting 
down,  turns  the  whed  with  his  feet  till  it  has 
got  tlie  proper  velocity;  then,  wetting  his 
hands  with  water,  he  presses  his  fist  or  his 
fingers-ends  into  the  middle  of  the  lump,  and 
thus  forms  the  cavity  of  the  vessel,  continuing 
to  widen  it  from  the'middle  ;  and  thus  turning 
the  inside  into  form  with  one  hand,  while  he 
proportions  the  outside  withlhe  other,  the 
wheel  constantly  turning  all  the  while,  and  he 
wetting  his  hands  from  time  to  time.  \\l>en 
the  vessel  is  too  thick,  he  uses  a  (iat  piece  of 
iron,  somewhat  sharp  on  the  edge,  to  pare  oft' 
what  is  redundant ;  and  when  it  is  finished,  it 
is  taken  off  from  the  circular  head  by  a  wire 
passed  under  the  vessel. 

The  potter's  lathe  is  also  a  kind  of  wheel, 
but  more  simple  and  slight  than  the  former  : 
its  three  chief  members  are  an  iron  beam  or 
axis  three  feet  and  a  half  high,  -and  two  feet 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  placed  horizontally  at 
the  top  of  tiie  beam,  and  serving  to  form  Ike 


403 


P  O  \V 


,  Ttssel  upon;  and  another  larger  woodi'i: 
wheel,  all  of  a  piece,  ihree  inches  Ihiek,  and 
two  or  three  feet  broad,  fastened  to  tiie  kiuu 
beam  at  tiie  bottom,  and  parallel  to  the  ho- 
rizon. The  beam  or  axis  tiirns  by  a  pivot  at 
the  botio;n  in  an  iron  stand.  The  workman 
gives  tlie  raoiion  to  the  lathe  with  liis  feet,  by 
pashinglhe  great  wheel  ahernately  with  each 
loot,  still  giving  it  a  greater  or  lesser  degiee 
^of  motion  as  iiis  work  requires.  They  work 
with  the  lathe  with  the  same  instruments,  and 
after  the  same  manner  as  with  the  wheel. 
The  mouldings  an*  formed  by  holding  a  piece 
tii  wood  or  iron,  cut  in  tiie  form  of  the  nionld- 
ii:ij  to  the  vessel,  while  the  wheel  is  turning 
ro.Mid  ;  but  the  feet  and  handles  are  made  by 
themselves,  and  set  on  with  the  hand;  and  il 
there  is  any  sculpture  in  the  work,  it  is 
usually  done  in  wooden  mouldf,  and  stuck  on 
piece  by  piece  on  the  outside  of  the  vessel. 
For  the  glazing  of  the  work,  see  Gl.\zing, 
Vol.  l,page  853. 

Pf)(.'N'CF,,  gum  sandarach  pounded  and 
sifted  VK,y  line,  to  rub  on  ]japer,  in  order  to 
preserve  it  from  sinking,  and  to  make  it  more 
lit  to  write  upon.  Pounce  is  also  a  liitle  heap 
of  charcoal  dust,  inclosed  ill  a  piece  of  muslin 
or  some  other  0|)en  sliilT,  to  be  passed  over 
holes  pricked  in  a  work,  in  order  to  mark  the 
lines  or  designs  on  paper,  silk,  &c.  placeil 
underneath;  which  are  to  be  afterwards 
liuished  with  a  pen  and  ink,  a  needle,  or  tiie 
like.  This  kind  of  pounce  is  much  used  by 
embroiderers,  to  transfer  their  patterns  upon 
siuil's ;  by  1  ice-niakei"s,  and  sometimes  also 
bv  e;iaravpr  i. 

PtIUND,  a  standard-weight,  for  the  pro- 
portion    and    subdivisions    of    wiiicii,    see 

W'f.IGHT. 

Pound  also  denotes  a  money  of  account ; 
so  called  becauic  the  anti-nt  pound  of  silver 
weighed  a  pound  troy.     See  Mo.VEy. 

POURSUIVANT,  or  Pursuivant,  in 
heraldry,  the  lowest  order  of  ofiicers  at  arms. 
The  poursuivants  are  properly  attendants  on 
tl)e  heralds,  when  they  marshal  public  cere- 
ijionies.  Of  these,  in  England,  there  were 
formerly  many,  but  a:  present  there  are  only 
four,  v.z.  blue-mantle,  rouge-cross,  rouge- 
dragon,  and  portcuUice.  In  Sco'land,  there 
is  only  one  king  at  arms,  who  is  stileil  lion, 
and  has  no  less  than  six  heralds,  and  as  inany 
poursuivants,  and  a  great  many  inessengers 
at  arms  under  irn7i. 

POW  P^R,  in  mechanics,  denotes  any  force, 
whetlier  of  a  man,  ahorse,  a  spring,  the  wind, 
vratT,  ."i-'c.  which  being  applied  to  a  machine, 
tends  to  produce  motion. 

POWERS,  in  arithmetic  and  algebra,  are  no- 
thing but  the  products  arising;  from  the  con- 
tinual multii)li'atipn  of  a  number,  or  quantity, 
into  itself:  thus,  •_>,  4,  8,  16,  32,  &c.  are  the 
powers  of  the  number  '2;  and  </,  a^y  «\  ti\  &c. 
the  powers  of  the  quantity  u  ;  which  operation 
is  called  involution. 

Powers  of  the  same  quantity  .'.re  multiplied 
l»y  only  adding  their  exponents,  anil  making 
ihcir  sum  the  ciponent  of  the  ])roduct :  thus, 

a'  X  "=  "  =  ""•    Again,  the  rule  for  di- 

vidinnj  powers  of  the  same  tiuan^ity,  is  to  sub- 
tract the  exponents,  and  make  the  difl'crence  the 

u"  '■  —  ^ 

exponent  of  the  quotient :  thus,     .-  =  a 

=  "'■ 

Negative  powers,  as  well  as  positive,  arc  mul- 
tiplied by  adding,  and  divided  by  subtracting 
Ihcir  cjpoacnts,  as  above.    And,  in  general,  any 


P  R   /7L 

positive  power  of  a ,  multiplied  by  a  negative 
power  of  i7,  of  an  equal  exponent,  gives  unit  for 
the  product  ;  for  tiie  positive  and  negative  de- 
stroy each  other,  and  the  product  is  a°,  which  is 

<!  -  '  —  '  +  ■ 

equal  to  unit.     Likewise,  ,  =:  a  = 

a 

■,          1            ,"-'  -'+'' 

a  ~      -^z  -  ---  \  and 1=^  a  :=:    u     zrz 

-  —J-     And,  in  general,  any  quantity  placed  in 

the  denominator  of  a  fraction,  may  be  trans- 
posed to  the  numerator,  if  the  sign  of  its  expo- 
nent be  changed  ;    thus,  — r-  =  a  ~  ',  ?nd  -^. 


The  quantitv  <7     expresses  any  power  of  a,  in 
general ;  the  exponent  w  being  undetermined  : 

—  m  1 

and  ti  expresses  — ,  or  a  negative  pov^'er 


of  a,  of  an  equal  exponent :  and  a'    x  " 
=  a  =3.1°:=  I.    Again,  a 

other  power  of  a  ;  and  a      x    " 

fn 
a  "".  —  n 

and   —  z=  a 
« 

a 

To  raise  any  simple  quantity  to  its  second, 
third,  or  foyrth  power,  is  to  add  its  exponent 
tw  Ice,  thrice,  or  four  times  to  itself;  so  that  the 
second  pov%'er  of  anv  ijuantity  is  had  by  doubling 
its  exponent ;  and  the  third,  by  tripling  its  ex- 
ponent ;  and,  in  general,  the  power  expressed 
by  >!!,  of  any  quantity,  is  had  by  inuhiplying 
the  exponent  by  m  :  thus  the  second  power,  or 

square  of  .:,  is  j  =  .2^ ;   its  third   power, 

'  X  '  -  ,    ,  ■  ,      .      «;  X  1 

a  =  ''" ;  anti  the  wzth  power  of  a,  is  « 


z=  ,j°  ;=  I.    Again,  a    expresses  any 
m  -X-  1: 


and  the  roth 


:=  a   .     Also  the  square  of  a^,  is 

'  X  ■* 

the  cube  of  a".,  is  n  ;=•;'- 

power  of  a",  is  a  .     The  square  of  a  he,  is 

o^  b^  c' ;  its  cube  a'  i^  f' ;  and  the  mth  power, 

m     m     fn 

a      b      c    .     See  Ai.GEBR.4. 

Power,  in  law,  is  an  authority  wliich  one 
man  gives  to  another  to  act  for  him  ;  and  it 
is  sometimes  a  reservation  which  a  pcrscn 
makes  in  a  conveyance  for  himself  to  do 
?on«e  acts,  as  to  make  leases  or  the  like. 
1'  Lil.  Abr.  339-  1  bus  power  of  attorney,  an 
instrutnent  or  deed  whereby  a  person  is  au- 
thorized to  act  for  another,  either  generally, 
or  in  a  specific  transaction.  See  Agent, 
Broker,  Deed. 

Power  of  the  count'/,  contains  the  aid 
and  attendance  of  all  knights,  gentltnicii, 
yeomen,  labourers,  servants,  apprentices,  and 
all  others  above  the  age  of  lilteen  years  w  ithin 
the  county.  This  the  sherili'at  any  time  may 
raise  to  assist  him  in  the  execution  of  a  pre- 
cept of  restitution.  The  power  of  the  county 
is  also  called  the  posse  comitatus. 

POX,  or  Small-po.x.    See  Medicine. 

PU.VCTICK,  or  rules  of  practice,  are 
certain  compendious  ways  of  working  the 
■rule   of  proportkin,   or   golden    rule.      See 

.VRITIl.M.'iTtC. 

PH.'l'.CIPE,  a  writ  commanding  the  de- 
iendant  to  do  the  thing  required,  or  lo  shew 
cuiise  why  he  h  ilh  not  dune  il. 


PR  E 

PU.f.MUNIRE.  This  pimMiment  is  in- 
dicted upon  him  who  deuiej  the  king's  su- 
premacy the  second  time  ;  upon  him  wlio  al- 
iirms  the  authority  of  the  pope,  or  refuses  to 
take  liie  oath  ol  supreinacy  ;  upon  such  as 
are  seditious  talkers  of  the  luheritaiice  of  the 
cro«n  ;  and  upon  such  as  affirm  that  there  is 
any  obligation  by  any  oath,  covenant,  or  en- 
^agemeiit  whatsoever,  to  endeavour  a  change 
orgoverninent  either  in  church  or  state;  or 
that  both  or  either  house  or  parliament  have 
or  has  a  legislative  power  witiioul  the  king, 
&c. 

The  judgment  in  praemunire  at  the  suit  of 
the  king,  against  the  defendant  being  in  prison, 
is,  th.-t  he  shall  be  out  of  the  kuig's  pro- 
tection; that  his  lands  and  tenements,  gootis 
and  chatties,  shall  be  forfeited  to  the  king; 
and  that  his  body  shall  remain  in  pri.on  at 
the  kinii's  pleasure;  but  if  the  defendant  is 
condemned  upon  bis  default  of  not  appear- 
ing, whether  at  the  suit  of  the  kitig  or  party, 
tlie  same  judgment  shall  be  given  as  to  the 
being  out  of  the  king's  protection  and  the  for- 
feiture ;  but  instead  of  the  clause  that  the 
body  shall  remain  in  prison,  there  shall  bean 
award  ofa  capiatur.  Co.  Lit.  1^9.  I'pon  an 
indictment  of  a  pra'munire,  a  peer  of  the  realm 
shall  not  be  tried  by  his  peers.    1-  Co.  92. 

PKAGMATIC  SANCTION,  in  the  civil 
law,  is  defined  to  be  a  rescript,  or  answer  of 
the  sovereign,  delivered  by  advice  of  his 
council,  to  s  ime  college,  order,  or  body  of 
people,  tijion  consulting  him  on  some  case  of 
their  community.  The  like  answer  given  to 
any  particular  person,  is  called  simply  re- 
script. 

The  term  pragmatic  sanction,  is  chiefly  ap- 
plied to  a  settleniint  ot  Charles  \I.  emperor 
of  Germany,  who,  in  the  year  1722,  having 
no  sons,  settled  his  hereditary  dominions  011 
Ills  eldest  daughter,  tiie  archducliess  Maria 
Theresa,  which  was  confirmed  b)  the  diet  of 
the  empire,  and  guaranteed  by  Great  Britain, 
France,  the  StatCf-Geiieral,  and  most  of  the 
powers  in  Europe. 

PRASE,  ill  mineralogy.     See  Quartz. 

PRASIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
gymnospermia  order,  in  the  did) namia  class 
of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  rankiug 
under  the  42d  order  verticillata-.  There  are 
four  monospermous  berries.  'I'here  are  two 
species. 

PREBENDARY,  an  ecclesiastic  who  en- 
joys a  ]jrebcnd.  The  dilference  between  a 
prebendary  and  a  canon  is,  that  the  former 
receives  his  prebend  in  consideration  of  his 
officiating  in  the  church;  but  the  latter 
merely  by  his  being  received  into  the  cathe- 
dral or  college. 

PRECEDENCE,  or  Precedency,  a 
place  of  honour  to  which  a  person  is  entitled : 
this  is  either  of  courtesy  or  ot  right.  Ihi 
former  is  that  which  is  due  to  age,  estate,  &c. 
which  is  regulated  by  custom  and  civility :  the 
latter  is  settled  by  authority,  and  when  broken 
in  upon  gives  an  action  at  law.  The  follow- 
ing table  will  exhibit  the  order  of  precedency  : 

/-/  tabic  of  prcct  dciici/  of  men  and  womot. 

The  king. 

Prince  of  W  ales. 

King's  sons. 

King's  brothers. 

King's  uncles. 

King's  grandsons. 

King's  brotliers  or  bistv.Ts  soiij, 


Lord 


Younger  sons  cit  knights  batcliclors. 
GtiUlciiien  entitled  to  bear  arms. 
CIprgynien,  bairislers  at  law,  oflicers  in  tiie 
»*vy  and  army,  who  are  all  gentlemen  bv 
profession. 

Citizens. 
Burgesses. 

J.  tuljk  of  preccihnaj  of  ivnmcH. 

The  queen. 

Princess  of  \\'ales. 


V  R  y. 

Arclibishop  of  Caiite.burv,  lod  prima  e  of 

all  lu^land. 

[.ord  liigli  clia;i','ellor,  or  lord  keeper. 

Arehbiii\.ip  Lif  York,  primate  of  Engl.m<l. 

Lord  hiidi  treasurer.  '^     „  • 

president  of  (he  privy  (  J"""^  "* 

couneil.  '      •    )■  H'O'l'-R'-'-e 

Lord  privy  seal,  )    "*  '^•"■'"'^• 

Lord  hi.511  constable. 

Iv.irl  marshal. 
Lord  high  admiral. 
Lord  stew.irdof  hi-:  ujajesty's  houseliold. 
Lord  cha;nberlain  of  his  niaiesly's  liouseliold. 
Ookes  according  to  tlieir  patents. 
Marcjuisses  aceordinQ;  to  their  patents. 
Dukes  eldest  sons. 
Earls  according  lo  tiieir  patents. 
^Llr([uisses  ekieat  sons. 
Dukes  younger  sons. 
Viscounts  accordaig  lo  tlieir  patents. 
Rarls  eULst  sons. 
Marcjuiss^s  younger  sons. 
Bishops   of   Londo  1,    Duruam,    W'nichesti.-r, 
and  all  oth,;r  bishop;  according   to   their 
seniority  of  ci.ns..'cralion. 

1$  irons  a:':or  ling  to  t:i;-ir  patents. 

Speaker  of  the  iiouse  of  commons. 

N'iseounts  eldest  sons. 

Karls  younger  sous. 

Raroos  eldest  sons. 

Knights  of  the  garter. 

Privy  councillors. 

Chancellor  of  tlie  e.\'lie:|ner. 

Chancel  or  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster. 

Lord  chief  justice  of  tlie  king's  bencn. 

^t  is'er  of  the  roils. 

Lord  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas. 

Lord  chief  baron  of  the  exchetpier. 

Judge-;  and  barons  of  the  degree  of  the  coife 

of  the  said  cou.t  ace  )rding  to  seniority. 
Bannerets  made  by  tlie  king  himself  in  person 
under  the  royal  standard  displayed  i'l  an 
army  royal,  in  open  war,  for  the  term   of 
their  lives  and  ni  longer. 

Vi-rcounts  younger  sons, 

B;vrons  younger  sons. 

Raronets. 

B-iMnerets  not  made  by  the  king  himself  in 

person. 

Knights  of  the  Bath. 

Kniglits  balchelors. 

Eldest  sons  of  the  younger  sons  of  peers. 

Baronets  eldest  sons. 

Knights  of  the  garter's  eldest  sons. 

IJannerets  eldest  sons. 

Knights  of  the  batli's  eldest  sons. 

Knights  eldest  sons. 

Baronets  younger  sons. 

Esi|uires  of  the  king's  body. 

Oentlem- n  of  the  privy-chamber. 

Esquires  of  the  knights'of  the  bath. 

Esquires  by  creation. 

Esquires  by  office. 

Younger  sons  of  knights  of  the  garter. 

Younger  sons  of  bannerets  of  both  kinds. 

Younger  sons  of  knights  of  the  bath. 


p  n  E 

Princesses  daughters  of  the  knig. 
Princesses  and  <I^K•hes^es,  wives  ol  the  king's 
soils. 
Mives  of  the  king's  brothers. 
Wives  of  the  kings  uncles. 
Wives  of  the  eldest  sons  of  dukes  of  the  Wood 
royal. 
Daufjhlers  of  dukes  of  the  blood  roval. 
\\  ives  of  the  king's  brothers  or  sisters' sons. 
Duchesses. 
Marchionesses. 
Wives  of  the  elde>t  sons  of  dukes. 
Daughters  of  dukes. 
Countesses. 
Wives  of  the  eldest  soiisof  marquisscs. 
Dane'  ■ 


gliters  of  n;arc|uisse  . 
Wives  of  the  youiig-st  sons  of  dukes. 
V  iscouiilesses. 
Wives  of  th''  eldest  sons  of  earls. 
Daughters  ol  earls. 
Wives  of  the  younger  sons  of  marquisscs. 
Baronesses. 
M'ives  of  the  eldest  son*  of  viscounts. 
Daughters  of  viscounts. 
^\■ives  of  the  younger  sons  of  earls. 
\\  nes  of  the  eldest  sons  of  barons. 
Daughters  of  barons. 
Maids  of  honour. 
Wives  of  tliir  younger  suns  of  viscounts. 
Wives  of  the  younger  sons  of  barons. 
ISaronetesses. 
Wives  of  knights  of  the  g;frter. 
Wives  of  baiini-rets  of  each  kind. 
Wives  of  the  knights  of  the  bath. 
M'ivcs  of  knights  b.Uclielors. 
\Vive3  of  the  eldest  sons  of  the  younger  sons 
of  peers. 
Wives  of  the  eldest  sons  of  baronets. 
Daughters  of  baronets. 
Wives  of  the  eldest  sons  of  knights  of  the 
garter. 
Daughters  of  knights  of  the  garter. 
A\  ives  of  the  eldest  sons  of  bannerets. 
Daughters  of  bannerets. 
Wives  of  the  eldest  sons  of  knights  of  the  bath. 

Daughters  of  knights  of  the  batli. 

Wives  of  the  eldest  sons  of  knights  bachelors. 

Daughters  of  k:iiglUs  bachelors. 

Wives  of  the  younger  sons  of  baronets. 

Daughters  of  knights. 

Wives  of  the  esquires  of  the  king's  body. 

Wives  of  the  escjuires  to  the  knights  of  the 

bath. 

V.'ives  of  esquires  by  creation. 

\S'ives  of  esquires  by  oHice. 

Wives  of  the  yuui;ger  sons  of  knights  of  the 

garter. 

Wives  of  the  younger  sons  of  bannerets. 

Wives  of  the  younger  sons  of  knights  of  the 

'bath. 

W  ives  oftlie  younger  sons  of  knights  bachelors. 

Wives  of  gentlemen  entitled  to  bear  arms. 

Daughters  of  esquires  entitled  to  bear  arms, 

who  are  gentlewomen  by  birth. 
Daughters  of  gentlemen  entitled  (o  bear  arms, 

who  are  gentlewomen  by  birth. 

\Mves  of  clergymen,  barristers  at  law,  officers 

in  the  navy  and  array. 

Wives  of  citizens. 

Wives  of  burgesses. 

PRECEPT,  in  law,  a  command  in  writing 

sent  by  a  chief  justice,  justice  oftlie  peace, 

&:c.  for  bringing  a  person,  record,  or  other 

matter,  before  hnn. 

Prec  e|)t  is  also  used  for  tlie  command  or 
incitement  by  which  one  man  stirs  up  another 
to  commit  felony,  theft,  &c. 


r  R  r,  Ayj 

I      PRECE-SftlON.    :^(ei;av;NoxE.s. 

PKECIPIIATION,  r.  process  In  chf- 
mi^lry,  which  is' a  separation  whereby  tin; 
JKirti.  les  of  a  body  dissfdved  and  suspended 
in  any  iii|iior,  are  detached  fiom  it  and  fall 
<lowM  to  the  bottom  of  tlic  vessel,  bee 
Chemistry. 

PBIX'ORDIA.    See  Anatomy. 

PREDIAL  TITHES,  those  which  are  pnid 
of  things  ari>ing  and  growing  from  Ihe  ground 
only,  as  corn,  liay,  Iruil  of  trees,  and  the 
like. 

PREDFCAI  E.  in  logic,  that  part  cf  a 
proposition  which  aflirmsor  denies  sometliinij 
o(  the  subject :  thus,  in  these  proposit  ons, 
snow  is  while,  ink  is  not  white,  whiteness  is 
the  predicate  which  is  alHimed  of  snow,  and 
denied  of  ink.     See  Pkoi'Osition. 

It  is  a  celebrated  law  in  predicates,  ll-.at 
nothing  is  esteemed  to  be  absolutely  afiirmeU 
of  another,  unless  it  is  aflirmedinsiicli  ainar.- 
ner  as  wants  nothing  either  in  the  subject, 
prediiate,  or  copula  to  make  it  true,  iliia 
ah.o  is  a  noted  |<ropeily  ot  a  predicate,  that 
it  contains  in  some  measure  its  own  subject; 
tliiis,  metal  contains  goUl,  silver,  copper',  &c. 
of  which  it  is  predicated.  Every  predicate  h 
indeed  an  attribute ;  but  every  attribute  is 
not  a  predicate  ;  thus,  soul,  learning,  are  at- 
tributed to  man,  but  not  predicated  of  liini. 

PREGNANCY,  is  a  plea  in  stay  of  exe- 
cution, when  a  woman  is  convicted  of  a  ca- 
pital crime,  alledging  that  she  is  with  child  ; 
in  which  case,  the  judge  must  direct  a  jury  of 
twelve  discreet  women  lo  enquire  of  the  iai  1 : 
and  if  they  bring  in  iheir  vertlict  (piick  wilfl 
child  (for  barely  with  child  is  not  sulViciei.t), 
execution  shall  be  staid  generally,  till  either 
she  is  delivered,  or  ]noves  by  the  course  of  n.a- 
ture,  not  to  have  been  with  child.  4  Black.  , 
3y5. 

PREIlNiTE.  Though  this  stone  had 
been  mentioned  by  Sage,  Rome  de  Lisle,  and 
odier  mineralogists,  W  erner  was  the  lirst  wlio 
properly  distinguished  it  from  other  minerals, 
and  made  it  3  distinct  species.  The  specimen 
which  lie  examined  was  brought  troni  Ihe 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  Colonel  Prehn ; 
hence  the  name  prehnite,  bv  which  he  dis- 
tinguished it.  It  was  found  near  Dunbarton 
by  Mr.  Grotche;  and  since  that  time  it  lias 
been  observed  in  other  parts  ot  Sc  olland. 

It  is  both  amorphous  and  crystallizerl.  The 
crystals  are  in  groujis,  and  contused;  they 
seem  to  be  foiir-siiled  prisms  with  dihedral 
suimiiits.  Sometimes  they  are  irregular  six- 
sided  plates,  and  sometimes  tiat  rhoiuboidal 
parallelopipeds 

Its  te.xture  is  foliated;   fracture  uneven; 
internal  lustre  pearly  ;  brittle.     Specific  gra- 
vity 2.f)  to  2.09.     Colour  apple  green,  or 
greenish  grev.     Before  the  blow -pipe  it  froths 
more  violently  than  zeolite,  and  melts  into  a 
brown    enamel.     A   specimen   of    prehnite, 
analysed  by  Klapiothj  was  composed  of 
43.SJ  silica 
30.3.3  alumina 
IS. 3.3  lime 
.'1.00  oxide  of  iron 
l.iti  air  and  water 


99-31. 


Whereas  .Mr.  IlaiseuhvU  found  in  anothec 
specimen 


45-1 


P  R  K 

't^.O  silicai 
20,4  altimiiia 
U^.3  lime 
4  9  iron 

.9  water 

.j  inagiieaia 


100.0. 


The  mineral  known  bs-  the  name  of  kou- 
})!iol!tp  is  a  variety  of  the  prehnite. 

PREMISSES,  is  that  pari  of  the  beginning 
of  a  deeJ,  the  otlice  of  which  is  to  express  the 
grantor  and  grantee,  and  the  land  or  thing 
granted.     5  Rep.  55.     See  Deed. 

PREMXA,  a  genns  of  the  didyniiniia  au- 
gio-^permia  class  and  order.  The  calvx  is 
two-lobed ;  corolla  four-cl<-ft ;  berrv  four- 
celled;  seeds  solitary.  ~  There  are  two  spe- 
cies, small  trees  of  the  East  Indies. 

PREMUXIRE.     See  Pr.«;.munire. 

PREAN'THES,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
polygamia  as-iualii  order,  in'  the  syngenesia 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  49th  order,  composite. 
The  receptacle  is  naked ;  the  calyx  calycn- 
lated  ;  the  pappus  is  simple,  and  almost  ses- 
sile; the  florets  are  placed  in  a  single  series. 
There  are  19  spedes,  some  of  them  natives 
of  England. 

PREPENSE,  in  law,  denotes  fore-thought : 
thus,  when  a  nian  is  sl.iin  upon  a  sudden 
qnari-el,  if  there  was  malice  prepense  former- 
ly between  their.,  it  makes  it  murder. 

PREPUSE.  See  Anatomy. 
.  PREROG.VTIVE,  is  a  word  of  large  ex- 
■tent,  including  all  the  rights  and  privileges 
■which  by  law  the  king  lias  as  chief  of  tlie 
■commonwealth,  and  as  intrusted  with  the 
execution  of  the  laws.     4  Back.  Abr.  149. 

All  jurisdiction  exercised  in  these  kingdoms 
that  are  in  obedience  to  our  king,  is  derived 
from  the  crown  ;  and  the  laws,  whether  of  a 
temporal,  ecclesiast-cal,  or  military  nature, 
are  called  his  laws;  and  it  is  his  prerogative 
to  take  care  of  the  due  execution  of  them. 
Hence  all  judijes  must  derive  their  authority 
from  the  crown,  by  some  commission  war- 
ranted by  law ;  and  must  exercise  it  in  a 
lawful  manner,  and  without  any  the  least  de- 
viation from  liie  known  and  stated  forms. 

The  kine,  as  the  fountain  of  justice,  has  an 
undoubted  prerogative  in  erecting  officers, 
and  all  ofiicers  are  said  to  derive  their  autho- 
rity mediately,  or  iniinecii.it  tly  from  him ;  but 
thougli  all  such  ofiicers  derive  their  authority 
from  the  crown,  and  whence  the  king  is  term- 
ed the  universal  ofiicer  or  disposer  of  justice, 
yet  it  has  been  held,  that  he  has  not  the  office 
in  hmi  to  execute  it  himself,  but  is  only  to 
grant  or  nominate;  nor  can  the  king  grant 
any  new  powers  or  privileges  to  any"  such 
ofiicers,  but  they  must  execute  their  offices 
according  to  the  rules  established  and  pre- 
scribed them  by  law.     Co.  Lit.  1 14. 

Prkrooative  court,  the  court  wherein 
all  wills  are  proved,  and  all  administralions 
taken  which  belong  to  the  archbishop  by  his 
prerogalive;  that  is  in  case  where  the  de- 
ceased had  goods  of  any  considerable  value 
out  of  the  diocese  wherein  he  died ;  and  thnt 
value  is  ordinarily  5l.  exc.-pt  it  is  otherwise 
by  composition  helween  the  said  arc  hbisliop 
and  some  olh  r  biihop,  as  in  the  diocese  of 
I^ndon  it  is  10/.  and  if  any  contention  grow 
Uc  tween  two  or  more,  touching  any  such  will 


PRE 

or  administration,  tlie  cause  is  properly  de- 
bated and  decided  in  this  court.  4  inst.  335. 

PKESBY  TERLVNS,  a  sect  of  protestants, 
so  called  from  their  mainti:iuii!g  that  the  go- 
vernment of  the  church  ap|)oinlcd  in  the  new 
testa;!ient  was  by  presbyteries;  tiiat  is,  by 
ministers  and  ruling  elders,  associated  for  its 
government  and  discipline. 

Th.e  presbyterians  'aflirm  that  there  is  no 
order  in  the  church  as  established  by  Christ 
and  his  apostles,  superior  to  that  of  pres- 
byters; that  all  ministers-being  ambassadors 
of  Christ,  are  equal  by  their  commis'^ion  ; 
and  that  elder  or  presbyter,  and  bisiiop  are 
tlie  same  in  name  and  office,  for  which  tli'-y 
alledge,  Acts  xx.  3S,  &c.  The  only  differ- 
ence between  them  and  the  church  of  Eng- 
land, relates  to  discipline  and  church  govern- 
ment. Their  highest  assembly  is  a  synod, 
wiiich  may  be  provincial,  national,  or  O'lU- 
menical ;  "and  they  allow  of  appeals  fro  u  in- 
ferior to  superior^  assemblies,  according  to 
Acts  XV.  2,  6,  22,  23.  The  next  assembly  is 
composed  of  a  number  ofministers  and  elders, 
associated  for  governing  the  churches  within 
certain  bounds.  Tiiis  authority  they  found 
upon  Acts  xi.  30,  Acts  xv.  4,'6,  &c.  The 
lowest  of  their  assemblies  or  pre^byteries, 
consists  of  the  mini.Nler  and  eiders  of  a  con- 
gregation, who  have  power  to  cite  before 
them  any  member,  and  to  admonish,  instruct, 
rebuke,  and  suspend  him  from  -the  eucharist. 
They  have  also  a  deacon,  whose  office  is  to 
taki:  care  of  the  poor. 

The  orilination  of  their  ministers  is  bv 
prayer,  fasting,  and  imposition  of  the  bands  of 
tlie  presbytery.  This  is  now  the  discipline  of 
tiie  church  of  Scotland. 

But  the  appellation  presbvterian,  is  in  Eng- 
land appropriated  to  a  large  denomination  of 
dissenters,  who  have  no  attachment  to  the 
Scotch  mode  of  church  government  any  more 
than  to  episcopacy  among  us  ;  and,  therefore, 
to  this  body  of  Clirislians  the  term  presby- 
terian  is  improperly  applied.  English  pres- 
byterians adopt  the  same  mode  of  ciuirch 
government  with  the  independents.  See 
Independents. 

PRESCRIPTION,  in  law,  is  a  right  or 
title  acquired  by  use  and  time,  introduced  for 
assuring  the  property  of  effects,  in  favour  of 
persons  who  have  for  a  cer  ain  time  had  them 
in  tlieir  possession.  Prescription  has  been 
called  a  penalty  imposed  by  the  iav\s  upon 
negligence;  but  the  law  of  prescription  does 
not  punish  the  indolence  of  proprietors,  but 
only  interprets  theii"  silence  for  their  consent, 
presuming  that  a  man  who  neglects  to  assert 
his  ;  ight  for  a  series  of  years,  gives  it  up;  In 
the  common  law,  prescription  is  usually  un- 
derstood of  a  jKi^session  from  time  immemo- 
rial, or  beyond  the  memory  of  man  ;  but  in 
the  civil  law,  and  even  in  our  statute  law, 
there  are  prescriptions  of  a  much  shorter  date. 
The  things  a  person  may  make  title  to  by 
lirescription  are,  a  fair,  market,  toll,  way, 
water,  rent,  common,  park,  warren,  franchise, 
court-leet,  waifs,  estrays,  &c.  I'here  is  likc- 
wiseaprescription  againstactions  and  statutes: 
thus,  by  the  31  Eliz.  c.  1.  it  is  ordained  that 
all  actions,  &c.  that  are  brought  upon  statutes, 
the  penalty  whereof  belongs  to  the  king, 
shall  be  brought  within  two  years  after  the 
offence  is  committed,  or  shall"  be  voitL  I5y 
our  statutes  also,  a  judge  or  clerk  convicteil 
of  false  entering  of  pleas,  &c.  may  be  sued 
wilhiji  two  years;  but  the  crime "  of  main- 


PR  E 

1  tcnauce  or  embracery,  whereby  perjury  is 
committed  by  a  jury,  must  be  proscciited     ^ 
within  six  days,  or  otiierwise  the  parties  pre- 
scribe-.    Se,' the  article  Limitation. 

PRESENIA'IION,  in  law,  the  act  of  a 
patron  offering  his  clerk  to  be  instituted  in  a 
benefice  of  his  gift,  the  same  being  void.  Ail 
persons  that  have  ability  to  make  a  purchase  I 
or  grant,  may  also  present  to  vacant  benefices  ■ 
in  their  gift;  though  where  a  clergyman  is  ~ 
patron  of  a  church,  he  cannot  present  him-  . 
self,  but  may  pray  to  be  admitted  by  the 
bishop,  and  tiie  admission  sliall  be  effectual. 
An  infant  of  any  age  may  ajso  present  in  his 
own  name ;  but  a  presentation  by  a  feme 
covert  must  be  in  the  name  of  both  hus.band 
and  wife.  As  coparceners  make  but  one 
p::tron,  they  are  eitlu-r  to  present  jointly,  or 
the  eldest  may  present  f;;st,  and  the  rest  in 
their  turn.  Joint-tenants  must  also  join  in  a 
presentation ;  and  when  a  corporation  pre- 
sents, it  must  be  unlcr  their  common  seal. 
Aliens  born  and  papists  cannot  present  to  be- 
nefices, whicli  are  presented  to  by  tlie  uni- 
versities ;  but  a  popish  recusant  may  grant 
his  patronage  to  another,  who  may  present 
where  there  is  no  fraud.  A  patron  may  re- 
voke his  presentation  before  institution,  but 
not  afterwards ;  and  a  right  of  presenting  to 
tlie  next  avoidance  of  a  church,  whether 
granted  by  will  or  deed,  will  pass ;  but  a 
presentation  whilst  the  church  is  full,  is 
judged  void. 

PRESENTMENT  of  ofinces,  is  that 
which  the  grand  jury  find  of  their  own  know- 
ledge, and  present  to  the  court,  without  any 
hill  of  indictment  laid  before  them  at  the  suit 
of  the  king,  as  a  presentment  of  a  nuisance,  a 
libel,  and  the  like,  upon  which  tlie  officer  of 
tlie  court  must  afterwards  frame  an  indict- 
ment before  the  party  presented  can  be  pu); 
to  answer  it.  There  are  also  presentments  by 
justices  of  the  peace,  constables,  surveyprs 
of  tlie  highways,  church-wardens.  Sec. 

PRESIDENT,  an  officer  created  or  elect- 
ed to  preside  over  a  conijiany,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  other  members,  who  are  called 
residents.  ^ 

The  lord  presiclent  of  the  council  is  the 
foiirtli  great  officer  of  the  crown,  as  anticnt  as 
king  .lohn,  when  he  was  stiled  conciliarius 
capitalis.  •  His  office  is  to  attend  on  tlie  kiiig, 
propose  business  at  the  council  table,  and  re- 
port the  transactions  there  to  the  king. 

The  lord  president  of  the  coi»;  t  of  session 
in  Scotland,  is  the  first  of  the  fiftcei}  lords 
who  jiresi'des  in  that  august  assembly,  which 
is  the  sujireme  court  ol  justice,  in  that  king- 
dom. 

PRESS,  in  the  mechanic  arts,  a  machine 
made  of  iron  or  wood,  serving  to  squeeze  or 
compress  any  body  very  close.  The  ordi- 
nary presses'  consists  of  six  members,  or 
pieces,  viz.  twC  flat  smooth  planks,  between 
wiiich  the  things  to  be  jiressed  are  laid  ;  two 
screws  or  worms,  fastened  to  the  lower  plank, 
and  passing  through  two  holes  in  the  upper ; 
and  two  nuts,  in  form  of  an  S,  serving  to 
drive  the  upper  plank,  wiiich  is  niovedBlf, 
against  the  lower,  wiiich  is  stable,  and  withqut 
motion. 

Press  used  hi/  in/ai/er.i,  resembles  Vlie 
joiner's  press,  except  that  the  pieces  of  wood 
are  thicker,  and  that  only  one  of  them  is 
moveable;  the  other,  which  is  in  foi'a>  of  a 
tressel,  being  sustained  by  two  legs  or  pillars, 
jointed  into  it  at  eucli  end.   This  press  serves 


F  K  K 

them  for  sawing  and  cleaving  tlie  piecfs  of 
wooil  required  in  marquetry  or  inlai<l  work. 

Press,  fiyuuder's,  is  a  strong  s<|iKire  frame;, 
consisting  of  four  |jieces  of  wood  (irmly  joined 
togetiier  witli  tenons,  &c.  Tliis  press  is  of 
various  sizes,  according  to  the  sizes  of  the 
iniHilds;  two  of  them  are  re(|uired  to  eacli 
mould,  at  the  two  extninies  whereof  tliey  are 
placed  ;  so  as  thai,  by  driving  wooden  wedges 
Ijctweeii  the  mould  and  the  "ides'  of  the 
|)resses,  the  two  parts  of  the  mould  wherein 
the  ni(  tal  is  to  he  run  may  be  pressed  close 
together. 

Prkss,  printing.     See  Printing-press. 

Press,  rollin<r,  is  a  machine  used  for  the 
taking  otl"  prints  from  copper  plates.  It  is 
much  less  complete  than  that  of  the  letter- 
printers.  See  its  description  and  use  under 
the  article  Rolling-pn'is  Printing. 

Press,  in  cnining,  is  one  of  the  machines 
used  in  striking  of  money,  dill'ering  from  the 
balance  in  t!iat  it  haj  only  one  iron  bar  to 
give  it  motion,  and  press  the  moulds  or  coins ; 
it  is  not  chargedwith  lead  at  its  extremes, 
nor  drawn  by  cordage.     See  Coining. 

Binder's  culti»g-?RESs,  is  a  inachine  used 
equally  by  bookbinders,  stationers,  and  i)aste- 
board-m.ikers  ;  consisting  of  two  largi'  pieces 
of  wood,  in  form  of  cheelcs,  connected  hi-  two 
strong  wooden  screws,  which,  being  turned 
by  an.iron  bar,  draw  together,  or  set  asunder, 
the  cheeks,  as  much  as  is  necessary  for  llie 
putting  in  the  books  or  paper  to  be  cut.  The 
cheeks  are  placed  lengthwise  on  a  wooden 
stand,  in  the  form  of  a  chest,  into  wliicli  the 
cuttings  f.ill.  Aside  of  the  cheeks  .ire  two 
pieces  of  wood,  of  the  same  length  w  ith  tiie 
screws,  serving  to  direct  the  ciieeks,  and  pre- 
vent their  opening  unequally.  Upon  the 
cheeks  the  plough  moves,  to  "which  the  cut- 
lilig-knife  is  fastened  by  a  screw;  which  has 
its  key,  to  dismount  it  on  occasion  to  be 
sharpened. 

The  plough  consists  of  several  parts ; 
among  the  rest  a  wooden  screw  or  worm, 
which,  catching  within  the  nuts  of  the  two 
feet  that  sustain  it  on  the  cheeks,  brings  the 
knife  to  the  book  or  paper  which  is  fastened 
in  the  press  between  two  boards.  This 
screw,  which  is  pretty  long,  has  two  direc- 
tories, which  resemble  those  of  the  screws 
of  the  j)ress.  To  make  the  plough  slide 
Ecjuare  and  even  on  the  cheeks,  so  that 
the  knife  may  make  an  equal  paring,  that 
foot  of  the  plougii  where  the  knife  is  not  fix- 
ed, slides  in  a  kind  of  groove,  fastened  along 
one  of  the  cheeks.  Lastly,  the  knife  is  a 
piece  of  steel,  six  or  seven  inches  long,  flat, 
thin,  and  sharp,  terminatuig  at  one  end  in  a 
point,  like  that  of  a  sword,  and  at  the  other 
in  a  square  form,  which  serves  to  fasten  it  to 
th-.>  plough.     See  Bookbinding. 

As  the  long  knives  used  by  us  in  the  cut- 
ting of  books  or  paper  are  apt  to  jump  in 
the  cutting  thickbooks,  the  Dutch  are  said 
to  use  circular  knives,  with  an  edge  all  round, 
whid]^  not  only  cut  more  steadily,  but  last 
lyBger  without  grinding. 

Press,  in  the  wonliai  manufactory,  is  a 
large  wooden  machine,  serving  to  press  cloths, 
serges,  rateens,  &c.  thereby  to  render  them 
smooth  and  even,  and  to  give  them  a  gloss. 
This  machine  consists  of  several  members ; 
theprincipal  whereof  are  the  cheeks,  the  nut, 
and  the  worm  or  screw,  accompanied  with 
its  bar,  which  serves  to  turn  it  round,  and 


P  R  li 

make  it  dosrend  perpendicularly  on  the 
middle  of  a  thick  wooden  plank,  under  which 
the  sluffs  to  be  pres.ed  are  placed.  The 
calender  is  also  a  kind  of  press,  serving  to 
press  or  calender  linens,  silks,  &.-c. 

Presses  used  for  expressing  of  liquors 
are  of  various  kind-;;  some,  in  most  respects, 
the  same  with  the  common  presses,  except- 
ing that  the  under  plank  is  perloratcd  with  a 
great  nuinber  of  holes,  to  let  the  juice  ex- 
pressed run  through  into  a  tub  or  receiver 
underneath. 

Plate,  Presses,  fig.  1,  is  a  siiii])le  packing 
l)ress,  described  by  M.  Busrhenderf,  in  Les 
Aimales  des  Arts.  A15D  is  a  strong  frame  of 
wood;  through  the  upper  bar  \)  u  strong  iron 
rack  K,  similar  to  a  saw,  slides  a  small  click 
e,  pushed  by  a  spring,  prevents  it  rising  after 
the  lever  I''  has  pressed  it  down:  the  lower 
enti  of  this  rack  has  the  bed  of  the  press  K 
fixed  to  it,  under  which  the  goods  G  to  be 
pressed  are  put.  1  he  lever  I'  has  a  mortise 
through  it,  to  a;lmit  the  rack  K;  and  a  click 
J,  wliich  takes  into  its  teeth  the  lever,  moves 
round  a  bolt  g,  as  a  centre,  which  can  be  put 
through  any  of  the  holes  iu  the  beum,  accord- 
ing to  the  quantity  of  the  goods  to  be  press- 
ed. The  machine  operates  as  follows.  When 
the  lever  F  is  lilted  up,  its  click  /  slips  over 
the  sloping  side  of  the  teeth,  and  when  it  is 
pulled  down,  the  click  takes  hold  of  the  teeth 
and  draws  the  rack  down  with  it  another 
tooth  :  the  click  e  then  holds  it,  while  the 
lever  is  raised  to  take  another  tooth  as  be- 
fore. The  only  objection  to  tliis  simple  press 
is  a  want  of  powe-  for  pr.-'ssing  many  articles, 
and  that  ilie  tet-th  of  tiie  rack  could  not  be 
n.ade  fine  e.iough  for  a  man  to  press  down  a 
wiiole  tooth  without  resting.  To  remedy  the 
first  inconvenience,  it  has  occurlVd  to  us  that 
a  bolt  h  nvght  be  put  through  two  of  the 
beams,  and  the  end  of  a  common  handspike 
Hput  under  it.  This  handspike  might  be  con- 
nected with  F  by  an  endless  chain  put  over 
both:  this  chain  might  have  a  hook  at  the 
end,  so  as  to  shorten  or  lengthen  it  by  hook- 
ing it  into  aiiotiier  link,  as  occasion  required. 
For  the  second  inconvenience  a  plate  of  iron 
i,  with  teeth  in  it,  might  be  fastened  to  the 
lever  F,  and  a  long  click  I,  connected  with 
the  frame,  might  fall  into  tiieni,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  lever  rising.  Hy  this  means  each 
tooth  of  tl;e  rack  may  be  divided  into  lour  or 
five  parts;  and  when  ihe  fiick  ("takes  hold  of 
a  nevi  tooth,  the  long  click  I  may  be  lifted 
up,  and  the  lever  raised.  As  before,  the  click 
might  be  hooked  up  when  the  press  I  is  used 
as  above  described  :  the  chain  or  handspike 
may  be  taken  away,  and  replaced  in  a  very 
short  time. 

Fig.  2.  is  a  screw-press,  used  for  expressing 
some  kinds  of  oil ;  the  :'raine  ADB  is  formed  of 
one  piece  of  cast-iron,  the  upper  piece  has  a 
brass  nut  fixed  in  it,  through  which  the  screw 
E  works;  the  screw  has  holes  throuah  its 
lower  end,  to  put  in  a  long  iron  lever  Y,  by 
which  the  screw  is  turned.  The  substance 
from  which  the  oil  is  to  be  pressed  is  tied  uj) 
in  horse-hair  bags,  and  laid  under  the  bed  of 
the  press  G,  with  a  warm  iron  plate  between 
each  bag  :  the  screw  is  then  turnetl  by  men, 
as  long  as  they  can  mo'  e  't:  a  rope  is  then 
hooked  to  the  end  of  the  lever,  and  the  power 
of  a  windlass  or  capstan  is  used  to  assist  the 
lever:  the  oil  weeps  out  of  the  bags,  and 
reus  down  through  a  spout  into  tlie  reservoir 
II,  placed  to  raise  it 


1-  U  E 


495 


Fig.  3.  is  a  representation  of  the  hydro- 
static press  for  which  Mr.  Braniah  to  jkoul  a 
patent  in  I'yti.  The  fraiue  of  this  is  like  a 
coirunon  press;  the  bed  A  is  fastened  to  the 
pi'..ton  li  of  a  stout  brass  barrel  D,  the  lower 
eni\  of  which  coniniuniiales  by  a  pipe  li, 
with  a  forcing  pump  within  the  cjlindric, 
vcssil  F;  the  piston// of  this  is  cut  liollow, 
and  has  the  com.  •cling  rod  ^jointed  within 
side  of  it.  'I  he  lever  b,  wiiich  works  the 
pump,  isji/itited  to  the  lower  end  of  this  rod, 
so  that  the  circular  motion  o(  the  lever  is  al- 
lowed by  llie  connecting  rod  ij  m-jvinginor 
out  of  the  hollow  in  the  |)istoii  rod ;  and  the 
paralltlism  of  the  piston  is  preserved  by  a 
collar  a. 

Fig  4.  explains  the  constniction  of  the 
pump  within  the  cistern  F;  1  is  the  barrel  of 
brass,  this  has  the  i>ifcc  J  screwed  into  it 
lower,  and  this  piece  J  is  screwed  into  the 
end  of  the  pipe  F,  and  contains  within  it  a 
valve  opening  downwards.  To  the  l)art  L 
of  the  buirel,  the  piece  K  containing  a  valve 
opening  inwards  is  screwed;  this  is  open  to 
the  water,  oil,  &c.  contained  in  the  cistern  V, 
when  the  lever  G  is  raised,  the  barrel  fills 
with  water  through  the  valve  K,  and  when  it 
is  pushed  down,  the  valve  K  shuts,  J  opens, 
and  the  water  is  forced  through  the  pipes  E 
into  the  large  barrel  D,  and  by  pushing  out 
its  piston  B,  presses  the  goods  laid  upon  thu 
bed  A  of  the  press.  When  the  goods  are 
sulliciently  pressed,  the  lever  G  is  pushed 
down,  and  the  lower  end  of  the  jjiston  opens 
the  valves  JK,  and  the  dettent  A-  pushes  to- 
wards the  piston,  opens  the  valves  R,  wliicli 
allows  the  water  to  pass  back  into  the  reservoir^ 
the  bed  of  the  press  falls  down,  tlie  valves 
are  composed  of  a  small  brass  cone,  fig.  4. 
which  exactly  fits  its  seat,  and  is  kept  in  its 
place  by  a  «'ire  fastened  to  it ;  this  w  ire  is  cut 
flat  on  one  side  to  allow  the  water  to  pass 
through  when  the  vaUe  is  open,  and  a  small 
spiral  spring  closes  it. 

Press  usid  hi/ Joiners,  to  keep  close  the 
pieces  they  have  glued,  especially  pannels, 
isic.  of  wainscot,  is  very  simple,  consistuig.of 
four  members,  viz.  two  screws,  and  two  pieces 
of  wood,  four  or  five  inches  square,  and  two 
or  three  feet  long ;  w  hereof  the  holes  at  the 
two  ends  serve  for  nnts  to  the  screws. 

PKEhSING,  in  the  manufactures,  is  the 
violently  squeezing  a  cloth,  stulT,  &c.  to 
render  it  smooth  and  glossy  There  are  twot- 
methods  of  pressing,  viz.  cold  or  hot.  As  to 
the  former,  or  cold-pressing,  after  the  stuff 
has  been  scoured,  fulled,  and  shorn,  it  is 
folded  square  in  equal  plaits,  and  a  skin  of 
vellum,  or  pasteboard,  put  between  each 
plait.  Over  the  whole  is  laid  a  square  wooden 
plank,  and  so  put  into  the  press,  which  is 
{screwed  down  tight  by  means  of  a  lever. 
After  it  has  lain  a  sufficient  time  in  the  press, 
they  take  it  out,  removing  the  pasteboards, , 
and  lay  it  up  to  keep.  Sonrt  only  lay  the 
stuff  on  a  firm  tabic,  after  plaiting  and  paste- 
boarding,  cover  the  whole  with  a  wooden 
plank,  and  load  it  with  a  proper  weight. 

The  method  of  pressing  hot  is  this :  when 
tlie  stulf  ha«  received  the  above  preparations, 
it  is  sprinkled  a  litlle  with  water,  sometimes  . 
gum-water,  then  plaited  equally,  and  between 
each  iwo  plaits  are  put  leaves  of  pasteboard  ;  . 
and  beiw  een  every  sixth  or  seventh  plait,  as 
well  s  over  the  whole,  an  iron  or  brass-plate 
w  ell  I  eated  in  a  kind  of  furnace.  This  tlonej 
it  is  Lid  upon  the  press^  aud  forcibly  screwed 
U 


4"i) 


V  R  I 


ri  ;v. :i,  I'nJrr  t'lli  pn-.-.s  aie  l.i':*!  Ave,  six, 
fee.  piete.i  at  (lie  same  time,  all  iurnislietl 
wiili  (heir  pasteboards  and  iroii-plr.tes.  VVIieii 
t.ii*  plates  arc  w  t-U  cold,  the  stiilis  are  taken 
<Ait  liiid  slitclied  a  Utile  to^ellier  to  keep 
tliem  in  tlie  plaits.  Tliis  manner  of  pressing 
'.vas  only  inveiited  to  caver  the  delects  oi  t!ie 
stiilTa;  and  accordingly  it  has  bi;en  fiei[uently 
prohibited. 

PKEVWRICATiON,  in  thL>  civil  law,  is 
wlieretlie  iiiforiner  colludes  v.iih  ihe  defend- 
ants, and  so  makes  oniy  a  slum  prosecution. 

PUICKING,  in  the  sea-language,  is  to 
make  a  pi.nt  on  the  plan  or  chart,  near  about 
where  tlie  ^liip  then  is,  or  is  to  b»  at  such  a 
time,  in  order  to  iiiid  the  cui.rae  tluy  are  to 
ster-r. 

DUM.E  VLE,  among  physicians,  deriote 
the  vvliole  alimentary  duct;  including  the 
o  sdphac^iis,  stomach,  and  intesthies,  uitH 
tlieir  appendoges. 

PRIM.VrES,  the  first  order  of  mammaria 
in  t!ie  Lin;iean  system;  thi>v  are  distini^uished 
by  fore-teeth  cuUiiig,  upper  four  parallel 
(except  in  some  species  of  bats,  vvhicli  have 
two  or  none)  ;  tusks  solitary,  that  is,  one  on 
each  si.ie,  in  ea:  h  jaw,  teats  two,  jjecloral: 
feet  two,  are  hands;  nails,  usually  llalteiied, 
oval;  food  fruits,  except  a  few  that  use  aiii- 
inal  food.  There  are  four  genera,  viz.  homo, 
lemur,  siinia.  and  vespertilio. 

I'UI.MING,  or  prime  of  <ia:iii!,  is  the  gmi- 
powder  put  into  the  pan  or  touch-hole  of  a 
piece,  to  };ive  it  tire  tliereby  ;  and  this  is  the 
last  thing  done  in  charging. 

For  pieces  of  ordnance  they  have  a  pointed 
iron-rod,  to  pierce  the  cartridge  throush  the 
touch-hole,  called  primer  or  priming-iron. 

I'lUMOGENITUlU-:,  the  right  of  first- 
born. This  right  seems  to  be  an  unjust  pre- 
rogative, and  contrary  to  the  natural  right  ; 
for  since  it  is  birth  alone  gives  children  a  title 
to  t!ie  paternal  succe^sioll,  the  chance  of  pri- 
inogenilure  should  not  throw  any  inequality 
among  them. 

It  was  not  till  the  race  of  Hugh  Capet, 
that  the  prerogative  of  succession  to  the 
crown  was  a])propriated  lo  the  first-liorn.  By 
flie  antient  custom  of  gavel-kind,  still  pre- 
served in  some  parts  of  our  island,  and  we  be- 
lieve lliroughout  the  United  States  of  Ame- 
rica, primo.^eniture  is  of  no  account,  tlie  pa- 
ternal estate  being  ecpially  shared  among  the 
sons.     Sei- (Javki.-kixd. 

PKIMUL.V,  the  primrose,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  in  the  pentamlria  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  21st  order,  precis.  The  involu- 
crum  lies  under  a  simjjle  umbel ;  the  tube  of 
the  corolla  cylindrical,  with  the  mouth  or 
limb  patulous.  This  genus,  including  also 
the  polyanthus  and  auricula,  furnishes  an  ex- 
cellent collection  of  low,  fibrous-roofed,  her- 
baceous, flowery  perennials,  extending  to  '20 
specjes,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  are : 

1.  Tliepriniula  vulgaris,  or  spring  primrose, 
has  thick  and  very  fib-.oiis  ro'.U,  ciowuedby 
a  cluster  of  large  oblong  indented  rough  leaves', 
and  numerous  llo.ver-stalks,  from  about  three 
or  four,  to  five  or  six  inches  high,  each  ti-r- 
minated  commonly  by  one  llov/er.  Ihe  va- 
rieties are,  common  yellow-llowered  prim- 
rose of  the  woods,  white  primrose,  paper 
white,  red,  double  red,  double  yifllow,  and 
xloiible  white.  All  thr-se  tiower  abundantly 
in  Marclj  and  April,  and  continue  for  a  mouth 
10 


1'  R  1 

or  six  week'.  2.  Primula  cITicuialis.  1  lie 
paigle  or  cowslip  has  very  thick  hijrous  roots, 
crowned  by  a  cluster  of  oblong,  indent- 
ed, round  leaves,  and  upright,  firm  ilower 
stalks  five  or  six  inciies  high,  terminated  each 
by  a  cluster  of  small  ilowers.  Tlie  varieties 
are,  common  single  yellow  cowslip  of  tlie 
meadows,  double  yellow  cowslip,  scarlet 
cowslip,  ho-e  ;;nd  hose-cowslip  ;  one  flower 
growing  out  of  the  bosom  ot  anollier,  the 
lowermost  serving  as  a  calyx,  all  ol  which 
varieties  have  the  flower-slslks  crowned  by 
many  Ilowers  in  branches.  They  flower  in 
April  and  May,  continuing  in  succession  a 
nionlli  or  six  weeks.  3.  Primula  elatis,  the 
great  cowslip,  oxtip.  'Ihe  polyanthus,  so 
long. and  so  much  cultivated  in  English  gar- 
dens, is  a  variety  ot  these.  'I he  polyai.tiius 
is  one  of  the  noted  prize  flowers  among  tiie 
florists,  many  of  wh.im  are  remarkably  in- 
dustrious in  raising  a  considerable  variety  of 
different  sorts,  as  well  as  in  using  every  art  to 
blow  them  with  all  requisite  perfection;  for 
among  the  virtuosi,  a  polyanthus  must  pos- 
sess several  peculiar  properties  in  order  to 
be  admitted  in  their  collections.  The  chief 
properties  required  in  a  florist's  polyanthus, 
are:  1.  Tlie  stem  or  llower-slalk  shall  be 
upright,  moderately  tall,  with  strength  in 
proportion,  and  crowned  by  a  good  regular 
bunch  of  dowers  on  short  pedales,  strong 
enough  to  support  them  nearly  in  an  upright  I 
position.  2.  The  florets  of  each  branch 
should  be  equally  large,  spreading  open  flat, 
with  the  colours  exquisite,  and  the  stripes  \ 
and  variegations  lively  and  regular.  3.  The  j 
eye  in  the  centre  of  each  floret  should  be 
large,  regular,  and  bright;  and  the  anlhera% 
by  the  florists  called  the  thrum,  should  rise 
high  enough  to  cover  the  moulh  of  the  lube 
or  hollow  part  in  the  middle  of  the  florets, 
and  render  them  what  they  call  thrum-eyed; 
but  when  the  style  elevates  the  stigma  above 
the  antherir,  the  eye  of  the  tube  gei.erally 
appears  hollow,  showing  the  sligma  in  tile 
middle,  like  the  head  of  a  pin,  and  is  rejected 
as  an  incomplete  flower,  though  its  xither 
properties  sliould  be  ever  so  perfect.  This 
pin-eyed  polyanthus,  however,  though  re- 
jected by  the  doiists,  is  the  flower  in  its  most 
perfect  state,  and  great  numbers  of  tl;-.-m  are 
of  as  beautiful  forms  and  colours  as  the  thrum- 
eyed  varieties. 

4.  Primula  auricula  has  a  thick  fibrous  root, 
crowned  by  a  cluster  of  oblong,  Heshv,  broad, 
serrated,  smooth  leaves,  resembling  the  shape 
of  a  bear's  ear ;  and  amidst  them  ninight 
flower-stalks  from  about  three  or  four  to  six 
or  eight  inclies  high,  terminated  bv  an  um- 
bellate cluster  of  beautiful  flowers,  of  many 
different  colours  in  the  varieties.  All  of  fhese 
have  a  circular  eye  in  the  middle  of  ea<  li 
tiower,  and  of  which  there  are  different  co- 
lours; whence  the  auriculas  are  distinguished 
info  yellow-eyed,  white-eyed,  &c.  'i  he  pe- 
tals of  most  of  the  kinds  are  powdered  with 
an  exceeding  fine  farina  or  mealy  jiowder, 
which  contributes  greatly  to  ihe  beauty  of 
the  flower.  They  all  flower  in  .April  or  Ma\ , 
continuing  a  month  or  six  weeks  in  beauty, 
and  ripening  plenty  of  seeds  in  June. 

All   the   varieties  of  the   common  spring 
primrose  multiply  so  fast  by  the  roots,  that  it  ' 
is  scarci-ly  worth  while    to   raise  them  from  ' 
seeds.     Ilowever,  though  many  single  kiiuls 
may  be  raised   from   seed,  yet   parting   the 
roots  is  tlie  only  method  by  which  the  double  ' 


!■  11  I 

kind  can  be  preserved  ;  and  the  same  thing  ii 
to  lie  observed  ot  all  the  rest. 

PUlNC!'"s  .\1K  TAL,  a  mixture  of  copper 
and  zinc,  in  imitation  of  gold.  beeZi.xc. 

PRINCIPAL  POINT.     y,e   pEUsrec- 

TIVE. 

PRINCIPLE     EXTUACTHE.       Sec 

Plants,  plii/.siologi/  of. 

PlJINO.S,  a  genus  of  the  monogvnia  or- 
der, in  the  hexandria  class  of  plantjj  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  tlie  43d 
order,  dumosx\  The  cal_\x  is  sexfid ;  the 
corolla  monopetalous,  and  rotaceous ;  the 
belly  hexaspermous.  '1  here  are  seven  species, 
natives  of  the  West  Indies. 

PRINT,  the  impression  taken  from  a  cop- 
per-plate.    See  Printi.stg. 

A  print  may  be  taken  off,  so  as  that  the 
outlines  and  principal  strokes  may  be  ex- 
actly copied  lor  engiaving,  in  tlie'lbllowijig 
manner.  If  the  print  is  not  aliove  a  year  or 
two  old,  the  paper  need  only  be  well' moist- 
ened wiih  water,  as  for  printing,  but  if  it  ii 
more  antient,  it  should  be  laid  to  soak  all 
night  ill  water,  and  aft.  rwards  hung  in  the  air 
till  it  becomes  dry  enough  for  the  press.  'I  lie 
paper  thus  jirepared  is  to  be  laid  with  its 
printed  side  next  to  the  plale,  thinly  cased 
over  with  white  wax  ;  and  is  thus  to  be  com- 
niunicated  to  the  rolling-press,  wherebv  aa 
niipression  of  the  cut  will  be  gaintd. 

PRINTING,  the  art  of  taking  iniprdssions 
from  characters  or  figures  noveable,  or  im- 
moveable, on  paper,  linnen,  silk,  &c.  'I  here 
are  three  kinds  of  printing,  the  one  from 
movcalile  letters  for  books;  the  otlier  from 
copper-plates  for  pictures  ;  and  the  last  from 
blocks,  in  which  Ihe  representation  of  birds, 
houers,  &c.  are  cut  lor  printing  calicoes, 
linnens,  &c.  the  first,  called  common  press- 
printing,  tl'.e  second  rolling  press-printing, 
and  the  last  calico,  &c.  priming.  1  he  prin- 
cipal difference  between  the  three  consists  in 
this,  that  the  tust  is  cast  in  relievo  in  distinct 
pieces,  the  second  engraven  in  creux,  and  the 
tliird  cut  in  relievo,  and  generally  stamped, 
by  placing  the  bloc  k  upon  the  materials  to  be 
prnted  and  striking  upon  tlie  back  of  it.  Jiee 
Calico  Primti.n'G. 

Printing,  ]irrgrcss  nf.  Who  the  first 
inventors  of  the  European  method  of  printing 
books  were,  in  what  city,  and  what  year  it 
was  set  on  foot,  are  questions  long  dis]-iited 
among  the  learned.  In  effi-ct,  as  the  Gre- 
cian cities  contended  for  the  biith  of  Homer, 
so  dotheG'ernian  for  that  of  printing.  Mi  ntz, 
llaerlem,  and  Strasburg,  are  the  warmest  on 
this  ))oint  of  honour,  and  these  are  left  in 
possession  of  the  question,  which  is  not  yet 
decided :  though  it  niusi  be  owned  tliat  Mentz 
has  always  had  tlie  majority  of  voices.  John 
Guttembnrg,  and  John  Kust  ol  Mentz,  John 
Mentel  of  tStrasburg,  and  L.  John  Kosler  of 
ilaerlem,  are  the  persons  to  whom  Ihi^  ho- 
nour is  severally  ascribed,  by  their  respec- 
tive countryme'n  ;  and  they  have  all  their  ad- 
vocates among  the  learnecl.  Ilowever,  their 
first  essays  were  made  on  wooden  bloc|Bj 
after  the  Chinese  manner.  The  book  at 
ilaerlem,  the  vocabulary  called  Catholicon, 
and  the  pieces  in  the  Rodleian  library,  and 
that  of  liennet  college,  are  all  perlorn'ied  in 
this  way;  and  the  impression  appears  to  have 
been  only  given  on  one  side  of  the  leaves ; 
after  which  the  two  blank  sides  were  pasted 
together.    But  they  soon  foutid  the  incouv*- 


FRES3ES  o 


I 


jpillilllllliiliniiiiii'i*!""'""" 


1^ 


"    'i  i^-B-- 


^liit 


T-rinizd.  Dic^-iSoS.  ^ar  BicKard  PHn±ps  Jf^^  3-n^s  J'f.BlaJcfi'iarj-, 


iiii'iircJ  of  Uiis  mctbocl,  and  tlicrofni-p  an  :m- 
[irovi'inent  v\;is  suggested,  wIiIlIi  was,  by 
iiiakiiii;  single  k-tlers  dislinct  from  one  an- 
olher,  and  lliese  bcini;  (iiM  dune  in  wood, 
gave  room  fur  a  second  iniprovcnii.-nt,  wliicii 
was  making  tlii-m  of  nielal;  and  in  order  to 
that,  forming  moulds,  matrices,  he.  for  cast- 
ing them.     St'e'lYPK. 

l''roni  tliis  ingenious  contrivance  we  ought 
to  date  tlie  origin  of  Dn'  present:  art  of  print- 
ing, contradiblniguished  from  the  method 
practised  by  the  Chinese.  And  of  tliis 
ijchoelfer,  or  Sclieffer,  llrst  servant,  and  after- 
wards partner  and  son-in-law  of  Fust,  at 
Mentz,  aljove-meutioned,  is  generally  allow- 
ed to  be  the  inventor;  so  tliat  lie  may  pro- 
perly be  reckoned  the  lirst  printer,  and  the 
liiblc  which  was  printed  with  moveable  let- 
ters in  l4j0,  till/'.  iH'st  printed  book;  the  next 
was  Augustine  deCivitate  Dei,  then 'I'ldlv's 
Oliice.i,  printed  about  the  year  UOl.  Inther.e 
books  tliey  left  the  places  of  the  initial  letters 
blank,  aud  gave  them  to  the  illuminers  to 
have  them  ornamented  and  painted  in  gold 
and  a/ane,  in  order  to  render  the  work  more 
beautiful,  ai;d,  as  some  think,  to  make  their 
books  pass  for  manuscripts.  Thus  at  pre- 
sent, in  some  curious  works,  tiie  initial  Iciler 
at  the  beginning  of  a  book  or  chapter,  is 
sometimes  left  out,  and  a  space  is  lelt  lor  its 
being  afterwards  [irinted  with  various  orna- 
ments from  a  copper-plate. 

Some  authors  tell  us,  that  Fu^t  carr\  ing  a 
parcel  of  IJibles  with  him  to  I'aris,  and  oiti'r- 
ing  them  to  sale  as  manuscripts;  the  I'Vench, 
upon  considering  the  number  of  books,  and 
tlieir  exact  conli)rniity  to  each  other,  even  to 
a  point,  and  that  it  uasimpossiijie  tor  the  bust 
book-writers  to  be  so  exact,  concluded  then' 
waswitch-rafl  in  the  case,  and  bv  their  actu- 
ally indicting  hau  as  a  conjurer,  or  threaten- 
ing to  do  so,  extorted  from  inm  the  secret; 
aud  hence  the  origin  of  the  popular  story  of 
Dr.  J'aUbtus. 

I'rom  Mentz,  the  art  of  printing  soon 
spread  itself  tinoughout  a  good  part  of  Eu- 
rope; Ilaerlem  aiid  Strasburg  had  it  very 
♦■arly  ;  from  Haerlem  it  passed  to  Rome  in 
]4t)7;  and  into  j-jigland  in  l46s,  by  means  of 
Thos.  l5ourchier,  arclibishop  of  Canterburv, 
>vho  sent  \V.  Turner,  ma^ter  of  tiie  robes, 
and  \y .  C'axton,  merchant,  to  Ilaerlem  to 
learn  the  art.  'I'hese  privately  preva  ling 
with  CorieiUes,  an  under-workman,  to  come 
ever,  a  pre^s  was  set  up  at  Oxford,  and  an 
edition  ot  Itulfinus  on  the  Creed  was  printed 
the  same  year  in  octavo.  From  Oxford, 
Caxton  brought  it  to  London  about  the  year 
1470,  and  the  same  year  it  was  earned  to 
Palis.  ILtiierto  there  had  been  nothing 
printed  but  in  Latin,  and  the  vulgar  tongues; 
and  this  first  in  Roman  characters,  then  in 
Gothic,  and  at  last  in  italic;  but  in  l4S0,the 
Italians  cait  a  set  of  Greek  types,  and  they 
liave  also  the  honour  uf  the  ("irst  Hebrew 
editi-ms,  v.liich  were  printe.l  about  tliesanie 
time  with  tiie  Greek.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century  tlicre  appeared  various 
editions  01  books  in  Syriac,  Araliic,  Persian, 
Ar»iienian,  Coptic,  or  Egvplian  characte-rs, 
^me  to  gratily  t!ie  curiosity  of  the  learned, 
and  others  for  the  use  of  the  Christians  of 
(h(?  Levant.  Out  of  F.urope,  the  art  of  print- 
ing has  lieeri  carried  into  tiie  three  other  pai  ts 
ot  the  world. 

,  Printing,  methodof:  the  printing-letters, 
or  types  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are 
Vol.  n. 


PRIXTING. 

described,   as  well  as  tlie  method  of  forming 
and  casting  tli(  ni,  under  the  article  Type. 

The  workmen  employed  in  the  art  of  print- 
ing are  of  two  kinds;  coinijositors,  who  laiigc 
and  dispose  the  letters  into  words,  lines, 
pages,  &c.  according  to  the  copy  delivered 
them  by  the  author;  and  ])rcssni(-ii,  who  ap- 
ply ink  upon  tlie  same,  and  take  off  the  im- 
pression. Tlie  types  being  cast,  the  compo- 
sitor disiributes  each  kind  by  itself  among 
the  divisions  of  two  wooden  frames,  an  upper 
and  an  under  one,  called  cases,  each  of  wiiich 
is  tlivided  into  little  cells  or  boxes.  Those 
of  tiie  upper  case  are  in  number  ninety-eight ; 
these  are  all  of  the  same  size,  and  in  them  are 
disposed  tire  capitals,  small  capitals,  accented 
letters,  figures,  &c.  the  capitals  being  placed 
in  alphabetical  order.  In  the  cells  of  the 
lower  case,  which  are  fifty-four,  are  placed 
the  small  Jelters  with  the  points,  s))aces,  &c. 
Tiie  boxes  are  here  of  dili'ereut  sizes,  the 
largest  being  for  the  letters  most  used;  and 
these  boxes  are  not  in  alphabetical  order,  but 
the  cells  which  contain  the  letters  oflcnesl 
wanted,  are  nearest  the  ccyipositor's  hand. 
F-acli  case  is  placed  a  little  a^lope,  that  the 
compositor  inav  the  more  easily  reach  the 
upper  b  )xcs.  The  instrument  in  wliich  lh(- 
leitersare  set  is  called  a  composing-stick,  see 
Plato  .Miscel.  lig.  193;  which  consists  of  a 
long  and  narrow  plate  of  brass  or  iron,  &c.  c, 
on  the  right  side  of  which  arises  a  ledge  hb, 
wliich  runs  the  whole  length  of  the  plate, 
and  serves  to  sustain  the  letters,  the  sides  of 
wliirh  are  to  rest  against  it:  along  this  ledge 
is  a  row  of  holes,  which  serve  for  introducing 
the  screw  «  in  order  to  lengthen  or  shorten 
tlie  i-xtcntofthe  line,  by  moving  the  slider; 
he  farther  from,  or  nearer  to,  the  short  ledge 
at  tlie  end  d.  Where  marginal  notes  are  re- 
(iiiired  in  a  work,  the  two  sliding-pieees  he 
are  opened  to  a  proper  distance  from  each 
other;  in  such  a  manner  as  that  while  the 
distance  between  b  ami  c  forms  tlie  length  of 
the  line  in  the  text,  the  distance  between  the 
two  sliiling-picces  forms  the  length  of  the 
lines  for  the  notps  on  the  side  of  the  page. 
Uefoie  the  conijiositor  proceeds  to  compose, 
he  puts  a  rule,  or  thin  slip  of  brass  plate,  cut 
to  the  length  of  the  line,  and  of  the  same 
height  as  the  letter,  in  the  composing  stick, 
against  the  ledge,  for  the  letter  to  bear 
against.  'I'hings  tluis  prepare<l,  the  compo- 
sitor having  the  copy  lying  before  lum,  and 
his  stick  in  his  leit  hand,  his  thumb  being 
over  the  slider  c  ;  with  the  right  he  takes  up 
the  letters,  spaces,  &c.  one  by  one,  and  places 
them  against  the  rule,  while  he  supports  them 
with  his  left  thumb  by  pressing  them  to  the 
end  of  the  slider  c,  the  other  hand  being  con- 
stantly employed  insetting  in  more  letters: 
the  whole  being  performed  with  a  degree  of 
expedition  and  addiess  not  easy  to  be  ima- 
gined. 

A  line  being  thus  composed,  if  it  ends  witli 
a  word  or  s\  liable,  and  exactly  tills  the  mea- 
sure, there  needs  no  farthei- care;  othenvise 
more  spaces  are  to  be  put  in,  or  else  the  dis- 
tances lessened  lietween  the  several  words, 
in  order  to  in;:ke  the  measure  quite  full ;  so 
that  every  line  may  end  even.  The  spaces 
here  used  are  pieces  of  metal  exactly  shaped 
like  the  shtiuks  of  the  letters;  tliese  are  of 
various  thicknesses,  and  serve  to  support  the 
letters,  and  to  preserve  a  proper  distance  be- 
tween the  words:  but  not  reaching  so  high  as 
the  letters,  thev  make  no  impression  when 
'SB 


4y7 

the  work  is  prinkid.  Tl'.e  first  lino  being 
thus  finished;  tiie  conijjositor  proceeds  to  the 
next;  in  orcler  to  wliitli  he  moves  the  brasv 
rule  from  behind  the  former,  and  places  il 
before  if,  and  thus  composes  another  lim; 
against  it,  after  the  ■^ame  manner  as  before  ; 
going  en  thus  till  his  stick  is  full,  whi-n  lie 
empties  all  the  lines  contained  in  il  into  the 
galley  ;  which  is  a  frame  lormed  ofan  oblong 
scjuare  board,  with  a  ledge  on  three  sides, 
and  a  groove  to  admit  a  false  bottom.  '1  he 
compositor  then  (ills  and  empties  his 
composing-stick  as  before,  till  a  complete 
pasr  is  tbrmed  ;  w  hen  he.  ties  it  up  with  a  cord 
or  packthread,  and  setting  it  by,  proceeds  to 
the  next,  till  tl;e  number  of  pages  to  be  con- 
tained in  a  sheet  is  completed ;  which  done, 
he  carries  thein  to  the  imposing-stone,  ti'ere 
to  be  ranged  in  order,  and  fastened  together 
in  a  frame  called  a  chase,  and  this  is  termed 
imposing.  The  ch;ise  is  a  rectangular  iron 
frame,  of  dilferent  dimensions  according  tu 
the  size  of  the  paper  to  be  printed ;  having 
two  cross  pieces  of  the  same  metal,  called  a 
long  and  short  cross,  mortised  at  each  end, 
o  as  to  be  taken  out  occasionally.  Piv  the 
diflercnt  situation  of  these  crosses  the  chase  is 
titled  lor  dillerent  volumes;  for  quartos  and 
octavos,  one  traverses  the  middle  length- 
wise, the  other  broadwise,  so  as  to  intersect 
each  other  in  the  centre ;  for  twelves  and 
twenty-fours  the  short  cross  is  shifted  nearer 
to  one  end  of  the  chase ;  for  folios  the  long 
cross  is  left  entirely  out,  and  the  short  one 
left  in  the  middle;  and  for  broadsides  bwth 
cros-,es  are  set  aside.  'I'o  dress  the  chase,  or 
range  and  lix  the  ))ages  therein,  the  compo- 
sitor makes  use  of  a  set  of  furniture,  consist- 
ing of  slips  of  wood  of  dilfereiit  dimensions, 
and  ;;l)out  half  an  inch  high  that  they  may 
be  lower  than  the  letters:  some  of  tht-^e  are 
placed  at  the  top  of  the  pages,  and  callecl 
head-sticks;  others  between  them  to  form 
the  inner  margin;  otliers  on  the  sides  of  the 
crosses  to  form  the  outer  margin,  where  the 
paper  is  to  be  doubled;  and  others  In  the 
form  of  wedges  to  the  sides  and  bottom  c:f 
the  pages.  'I'hus  all  the  pages  being  placed 
at  their  pro]]er  distances,  and  secured  from 
being  injured  by  the  chase  and  furnilur* 
pUrced  about  them,  thev  are  all  untied,  and 
lastened  together  bv  driving  small  pieces  of 
wood  called  (]Uoins,  cut  in  the  wedge-form, 
up  between  the  slanting  side  of  the  foot  and 
side-sticks  and  the  chase,  by  means  of  a 
piece  of  hard  wood  and  a  mallet;  and  all 
being  thus  bound  fast  together,  so  that  none 
of  the  letters  will  fall  out,  il  is  ready  to  be 
committed  to  the  pr.  ssman.  In  this  condi- 
tion the  work  is  called  a  form  ;  and  as  there 
;ire  two  of  these  forms  retpiired  for  every 
sheet,  when  both  sides  are  to  be  printed,  it  is 
necessary  lliat  the  distances  betw een  llie  pages 
in  each  form  should  be  placed  w  ithsuch  exact- 
ness, tlnit  the  impression  of  the  pages  in  one 
form  shall  fall  exactly  on  the  back  of  the 
pages  of  the  other,  which  is  called  register. 

As  it  is  impossible  but  that  there  must  be 
some  mistakes  in.  the  work,  either  through 
the  oversight  of  the  compositor,  or  by  the 
casual  transposition  of  letters  in  the  case,  a 
sheet  is  printed  oil",  which  is  called  a  proof, 
and  given  to  the  corrector,  who  leadiag  it 
over,  and  rectifying  it  by  the  copy,  by  mak- 
ing the  alterations  in  the  margin,  it  is  deli- 
I  vered  back  to  the  compositor  to  be  correct- 
ed.    For  the  characters  used  m  correcting  a 


4(j3 

sheet  for  the  compositor,  see  Correc- 
tion. 

The  compositor  then  unlocking  the  form 
upon  the  conecting-stone,  by  loosening  the 
quoins  or  wedges  which  bound  the  letters  lo- 
gellier,  rectities  the  mistakes  by  picking  out 
ttie  fanltv  or  wrong  letters  with  a  slejuler 
sharp-poimed  steel  bodkin,  and  puU  others 
into  their  pla;es;  but  when  tliere  are  coii- 
sidera!)le  alterations,  and  parucularly  \.  here 
insertions  or  omissions  ai'^  to  be  made,  lie  is 
under  a  nece-sity  of  over-running.  'Vhus,  if 
one  or  more  words  to  be  inserted  in  a  line 
canr.ot  be  got  in  .by  changing  the  spaces 
for  lesser  ones,  part  of  ti.e  line  must  be  put 
back  into  liie  close  of  i.ie  iirocediug  one,  or 
forward  into  the  beginning  of  the  subsequent 
one,  and  this  continued  till  the  words  are  got 
in.  After  this  another  proof  is  made,  sent  to 
the  author,  and  corrected  as  before:  and, 
la'itly,  there  is  another  proof,  called  a  revise, 
which  is  made  in  order  to  see  whether  all  the 
mistakes  marked  m  the  last  proof  are  cor- 
rected. 

'ihe  pressman's  business  is,  to  work  olTthe 
forms  thus  prepared  and  corrected  by  the 
compositor;  in  domg  which  there  are  four 
things  required,  paper,  ink,  balls,  and  a  press. 
To  prejja're  the  paper  for  use,  it  is  to  be  first 
wetted  by  dipping  several  sheets  together  in 
water ;  these  are  afterwards  laid  in  a  heap 
over  each  other ;  and  to  make  them  take  the 
water  equally,  they  are  all  pressed  close 
down  with  a  weiglit  at  the  top.  The  ink  is 
made  of  oil  and  lamp-black,  for  the  man- 
ner of  preparing  wliich  see  Ink. 

The  balls  by  which  the  ink  is  applied  on 
the  forms,  are  a  kind  of  wooden  funnels  with 
handles,  the  cavities  of  which  are  filled  with 
wool  or  hair  ;  also  a  piece  of  alum-leatlier 
or  pelt  is  nailed  over  the  cavity,  and  made 
extremely  soft  by  soaking  in  urine,  and  by 
being  weil  nibbed.  One  of  these  the  press- 
man takes  in  each  hand,  and  applying  one  of 
them  to  the  iiik-block,  dabs  and  works  them 
together  to  distribute  the  ink  equally ;  and 
then  blackens  the  form  which  is  placed  on 
the  press,  by  beating  with  the  balls  upon  tlie 
face  of  the  letter. 

The  printing-press  represented  in  the  Plate, 
fig.  19-i,  is  a  very  curious,  though  complex 
inachiriC;  the  body  consists  of  two  strong 
cheeks  aa,  placed  ptrpen;liculaily,  and  join- 
ed together  by  four  cross-pieces;  the  cap  h  ; 
the  head  c,  whicii  is  moveable,  being  partly- 
sustained  by  two  iron  pins  or  long  bolts,  that 
jrass  the  cap;  the  idl  or  shelf  (W,  by  which 
the  spindle  and  its  afparatHsa-.e  kept  in  tin  ir 
proper  positi;)n ;  arul  (he  winter  c,  which 
bears  the  carriage,  and  snstain>  the  etfort  of 
the  press  beneath.  The  -pindle/  is  an  upr'ght 
piece  of  iron  pointed  with  steel,  having  a 
male  screv/  whi  l>  coes  irito  the  fenud(  one 
in  thi!  head  about  t'our  inches.  Through  liie 
t-yeg  of  this  spindle  is  fastened  the  bar  k,  by 
which  the  pressman  makes  the  impression. 
1'he  spinole  passes  through  a  liole  in  the 
middle  of  tlve  till  ;  and  its  point  works  into  a 
brass  pan  or  nut,  supplied  witli  oil,  which  is 
fixe'!  to  an  iron  plate  let  into  ti  e  top  of  the 
pi  itten.  The  body  of  the  spindle  is  sus- 
tained ill  the  centre  of  an  open  fr;;me  of  po- 
li-,hed  iron,  I,  1,  2,  2.  3,  .^,  hxed  to  it  in  snch 
a  manner  as,  witho.it  obstm<ting  its  free 
play,  tok>'ep  it  in  a  steady  diri-rtion,  .iikI  at 
thi'  same  lime  to  serve  for  suspending  the 
platteii.   This  frame  consists  of  two  parts ;  the 


PRINTING. 

upper,  called  the  garter,  1,1;  and  the  under, 
called  the  crane,  2,  2.  These  are  connected 
together  by  two  short  legs  or  bolts,  3,  3, 
which  being  fixed  below  m  the  two  ends  of 
the  crane,  pass  upwards  through  two  holes 
in  the  till,  and  are  received  at  top  into  two 
eyes  at  the  ends  of  the  garter,  where  they  are 
secured  by  screws.  The  carriage  //  is  placed 
a  foot  below  the  platten,  iiaving  its  fore  part 
supported  by  a  prop  called  the  tore  stay, 
wl'iile  the  other  rests  on  the  winter.  On  this 
carriage,  which  sustains  the  plank,  are  n.iiled 
two  long  iron  bars  or  rib;  ;and  on  the  plank  are 
nailed  short  pieces  of  iron  or  steel,  called 
cramp-irons,  equally  tempered  with  tiie  ribs, 
and  which  slide  upon  them  when  the  plank  is 
turned  in  or  out.  Under  the  carriage  is  lixed 
a  iong  piece  of  iron  called  the  ^plt,  with  a 
double  wheel  in  the  middle,  round  which 
leath'-r  girths  are  fastened,  nailed  to  each  end 
of  the  pfank ;  and  to  the  outside  of  the  spit  is 
fixi.d  a  rounce/H,  or  handle,  to  turnroundthe 
wheel.  Upon  the  plank  is  a  square  frame  or 
cotfin,  in  which  is  inclosed  a  polished  stone, 
on  which  the  form  u  is  laid ;  at  the  end  of 
the  coffin  are  three  frames,  viz.  the  two  tym- 
pansand  frisket;  the  tympans  n  are  square, 
and  maile  of  three  slips  of  very  thin  wood, 
and  at  the  top  a  piece  of  iron  still  thinner : 
that  called  the  outer  tympan  is  t"a  tened  with 
hinges  to  tiie  cofiin;  they  are  both  covered 
with  parchment ;  and  between  the  two  are 
placed  blankets,  which  are  necessar'y  to  take 
olf  the  impression  of  the  letters  upon  tlie 
paper.  '1  he  Iri-ket  /)  is  a  sijuare  frame  of 
thin  iron,  fastened  with  hinges  to  the  tym- 
pan :  it  IS  covered  witli  paper  cut  in  the  ne- 
cessary places,  that  the  sheet  which  is  put 
between  the  frisket  and  the  great  or  outwar.i 
tvmpan  may  receive  the  ink,  and  that  no- 
thing may  iuirt  the  margins.  To  regulate 
the  margins,  a  sheet  of  paper  is  fastened 
upon  this  tympan,  which  is  called  the  tym- 
pan-slieet  ;  and  on  each  side  is  fixed  an  iron 
point,  wliich  makes  two  holes  in  the  sheet, 
which  is  to  be  placed  on  the  same  points 
when  the  impression  is  to  be  made  on  the 
other  side.  In  preparing  the  press  for  work- 
ing, the  parchment  wliich  covers  the  outi-r 
tympan  is  wetted  till  it  is  very  soil,  in  order 
to  render  the  imiiression  more  equable  ;  the 
blankets  are  then  put  in,  and  secured  from 
slip|)ing  bv  the  inner  tympan  :  then  while 
one  pressman  is  beating  the  letter  with  the 
balls  q,  covered  witli  ink  taken  IVoni  the  ink- 
block,  the  other  man  places  a  sheet  of 
white  paper  on  the  tunpan-.^heet,  turns  down 
the  frisket  upon  it 'to  keep  the  [japer  clean 
and  prevent  its  slipping,  then  bringing  the 
tvmp.ins  upon  the  form,  and  luming  the 
rouiue,  he  brings  tlie  erni  with  the  stone, 
&c.  weighing  about  3i)0ibs.  weight,  under 
the  platten  ;  pulls  with  the  bar,  by  wldch 
meuis  the  platten  presses  the  blankets  and 
paper  dose  u|>on  the  letter,  whereby  half  tlie 
torm  is  p;  mted  ;  then  easing  the  bar,  he  draws 
the  form  still  forw:ud,  gives  a  secorl  pull  ; 
and  letting  go  the  bar,  turns  back  t:ie  form, 
takes  up  ihe  tyiu[ians  ai;d  fri-ket,  t.ikes  out 
the  printed  sheet,  and  lays  on  ar  tifdi  one; 
and  this  is  repeated  tiP  he  has  taken  oil  thi: 
impression  upon  the  full  numljer  of  sheets 
the  edition  is  to  consist  of.  One  side  v\  the 
sheet  being  thus  printed,  the  form  lor  the 
other  is  laid  upon  the  jness,  anil  worked  oH 
in  the  same  manner.  See  tiTEREOTVPE. 
PRiNTiNe,   Uuiicsc,   is   performcil  from 


wooden  planks  or  blocks,  ci.t  like  those  used 
in  pnulii'ig  of  callicij,  ]!a|)er,  cards,  &c. 

Frintino,  jDlliiig-prcss,  is  employed  in 
taking  oil  prints  or  inipressioi.s  from  coj  per- 
plates  engraved,  etched,  or  scraped,  as  in 
mezzotintos.  See  Kngkaving.  j'his  art  is 
saiu  to  h.'.ve  been  as  anlient  as  the  year  lj40  ; 
and  to  owe  its  origin  to  finiguerra,  a  lloren- 
tine  goldsmith,  who  pouniig  some  melted 
brimstone  on  an  engraved  plate,  found  the 
exact  impression  of  the  engraving  left  in  the 
cold  brimstone,  maiked  v,  itii  blatk  taken  out 
of  the  strokes  bv  the  liquid  sulphur:  upon 
tliis-  he  attempted  to  do  the  same  on  silver 
plates  witii  wet  paper,  by  rolling  it  smoothly 
with  a  roller,  and  this  suc<ei  deci :  but  this  .irt 
was  not  emploved  in  Engl.iud  till  the  reign  of 
king  James  I,,  when  it  was  brought  from  Ant- 
werp bv  Speed.  The  torm  ot  the  rolling- 
press,  the  composition  of  the  ink  used  in  it, 
and  tile  manner  of  applying  both  in  taking  off 
prints,  are  as  follow  : 

'I'he  roUmg-piess  AL,  Plate  I9."i,maybe 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  body  and  cat  riage;. 
the  body  consists  of  two  wooden  cheeks  P!*, 
placed  perpendicularly  on  a  stand  or  foot 
LM,  which  sustains  the  whole  press.  From, 
the  foot  likewise  rise  four  other  perpendicular 
pieces  c,  c,  c,  f ,  joined  by  other  cross  o?  ho- 
rizontal ones  d,  d,  d,  which  serve  to  sustain 
a  smooth  even  plank  or  table  II IK.  about 
four  feet  and  a  half  long,  two  feet  and  a  half 
broad,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  thick.  Into 
the  cheeks  go  two  wooden  c}linders  or  roll- 
ers, DEFG,  about  six  inches  in  diameter, 
borne  up  at  each  end  by  the  cheeks  ;  whose 
ends,  which  are  lessened  to  about  two  inches 
diameter,  and  called  trunnions,  furn  in  the 
cheeks  about  two  pieces  of  wood  in  form  of 
half-moons,  lined  with  polished  iron  to  lacili- 
tate  their  motion.  Lastly,  to  one  of  the  trun- 
nions of  the  upper  roller  is  fastened  a  cross, 
consisting  of  two  levers  AB,  or  pieces  of  wood, 
traversing  each  other  ;  the  arms  of  which  cross 
serve  instead  of  the  bar  or  handle  of  the  let. 
tcr-press,  by  turning  the  upper  roller  ;  and 
when  the  piank  is  between  the  two  rollers, 
giving  the  same  motion  to  the  under  one,  by 
drawing  the  plank  forward  and  backward. 

'i'iie  ink  used  lor  copper  plates  is  a  c  onipo- 
sition  made  of  the  stones  otlieaches  and  apri- 
cots, th'>  biMK  s  of  slieep,  and  ivory,  all  well 
burnt,  and  called  Frankiort  black,  mixed  witli 
nut-oil  that  has  been  weil  boiled,  and  croiiiuli 
together  on  a  marble  in  the  same  manner 
as  painters  do  their  colours. 

1  he  method  of  print. iig  from  copper-plates- 
is  as  follows:  They  take  a  small  quantity  of 
this  ink  on  a  rubber  made  of  liuen  rags 
strong'v  bound  about  each  other,  and  with  it 
smear  the  whole  face  of  the  plate  as  it  lies  on 
a  grate  over  a  charcoal  fire.  The  plate  being 
snfiicienlly  inked,  they  tiist  wipe  it  over  willi 
a  foul  ragi  then  with  the  palm  of  their  left 
hand,  and  then  with  that  of  the  right;  and  to 
drv  the  hand  and  tbrward  the  wiping,  they 
mi)  it  Irom  time  to  time  in  whiting.  In  wip- 
ing the  plate  perfectly  clean,  yet  without  tak- 
ing the  ink  out  of  the  engraving,  the  addres» 
of  the  workman  consists.  'Ihe  plate  thus- 
prepared,  is  laid  on  tin- plank  ot  the  press; 
over  the  plate  is  laid  the  paper,  first  well 
moistened  to  receive  the  impression;  and 
over  the  paper  two  or  three  folds  of  llannel. 
Things  iluis  disposed,  the  arms  of  the  cross 
are  pulled,  and  by  that  means  the  plate  with 
its  Uunilure  is  passed  through  between  tlia 


.VI  I  ^i  i-  H 


i.-l,<ti.  U   JiJ'hUii/v.  /In.£/.-  Sunt  liUi>^H.irr  /^■n.A'n  . 


1'  R  r 

collars ;  \v!iii.-h  piiicliiiis  very  strongly,  vet 
C(|uall\,  press  tlie  iiii)i.U-iu-il  pupi-r  into 
till'  sliokc^  ol  (lie  engraving,  wlicucc  it  ;ib- 
si)]b>i  till'  ink 

I'ltlSM,  in  geometry,  an  oblong  solid, 
co:itauR-d  under  more  tlum  (our  planes, 
whose  bases  are  equal,  parallel,  and  aliUe  si- 
tu.;ted.     bee  (Jeomktry. 

PiusM,  in  dioptrics.  See  Optics. 
I'UISOX,  a  gaol,  or  place  ot Conlinenient. 
See  (JAOL.  Lord  Coke  observes,  that  a 
prison  is  only  a  place  of  sale  custody,  salva 
ctistodia,  not  a  place  of  punislnnent.  Any 
place  where  a  person  is  conlined  may  be 
saul  to  be  a  prison :  and  when  a  process  is 
issued  against  one,  he  must,  when  arrested 
thereon,  either  be  comniitled  to  prison,  or 
lie  bound  in  a  recogiii/iance  witli  sureties, 
or  else  give  bail,  according  to  the  nature  of 
tlic  case,  to  appear  at  a  certain  day  in  ( r)urt, 
thore  to  make  answer  to  uhat  is  alleged 
against  him.  When  a  person  is  t.dsen  ;!nd 
sent  to  prison  in  a  civil  c.cse,  lie  may  be  re- 
leased by  the  plaintili'  in  the  suit;  but  if  il 
is  for  treason  or  felony,  he  may  not  rcgnhu'lv 
be  di-clurged  until  he  is  indicted  of  tiie  fact 
and  acijuitted. 

The  gjod  policy  of  imprisonment  for  debt 
lias  been  frequently  called  in  (piestioii  (pro- 
bably by  those  who  were  most  in  danger  of 
sultering  from  it).  We  are  of  opinion,  liow- 
t'ver,  that  it  is  in  the  whole  productivi,-  of 
salutary  conse(pienccs  in  a  state,  and  the 
terror  of  a  gaol  is  is  many  cases  an  iisefid 
moral  restraint.  The  following  paper,  how- 
ever, S(^t  forth  by  the  laudable  society  for 
the  discliarge  and  reliet  of  persons  imprison- 
ed for  small  debt<,  will  excite  various  reflec- 
tions in  dill'erent  readers ;  and  witjiout  any 
comment  we  submit  it  as  a  curious  docu- 
ment to  the  statesman,  or  political  arith- 
metician, as  throwing  some  light  on  the 
manners  and  character  of  the  age. 

A  summary  view  of  the  money  annuallv 
expended  by  the  society  for  the  discharge 
and  relief  of  persons  imprisoned  for  small 
debts,  Craven-street,  Strand,  from  the  insti- 
tution in  1772,  to  the  31st  of  Marcli,  1804. 
J772  No.  of  debtors  dischar- 


isno 

648 

1801 

1SS.> 

181)'..^ 

lUT. 

ISO.? 

9'27 

1804 

916 

i.'0,OnG  debtors, 
will)  had  l'..',,"i4f)  wives 
and  ,;j,(J9t)  children 


to 

ged  and  relieved. 

Expended. 
£■     .v.  d. 

J  774 

1772  for  the  sum  of  4(1?-'  17  1 

1775 

9()6 

17i?4  1  11 

1776 

(173 

1S42  13  3 

1777 

877 

1729  19  7 

I77S 

779 

1764  0  11 

1779 

811 

iGll  15  3 

ITSO 

fi2S 

12SS  17  1 

1781 

331 

828  15  9 

17S'> 

389 

935  3  9 

1783 

547 

1121  12  0 

1784 

535 

990  12  3 

17S5 

463 

9iU  9  1 

1786 

339 

715  8  9 

1787 

343 

719  9  10 

1788 

710 

1561)  4  2x 

1789 

612 

19-M)  3  3'i 

1790 

798 

■2303    9  3 

1791 

666 

1777  0  6 

1792 

4(J0 

1297  14  7 

1793 

568 

1870   1  5 

17!)4 

540 

1S44  14  9{ 

J  793 

434 

1438  6  1 

1796 

481 

1 756  0  5 

1797 

490 

1606  15  0 

1798 

645 

i;ooi  13  6 

>799 

578 

1533  14  5 

r  K  I 

JIOC  16  10 
28  711     4     4 
i.'607   II      1 
2892   14    0 
2586     2     I 
69, 1  1 5  persons 
immediately    be- 
ne(ite<lfor5478lA 
3v.  b{d. 
''he  average  for  the  debts  ol  the  above 
20,905  debtors  is  2/.  12.y  4jf/.  each,  and  lor 
each  individual  relieved  I5.v.  \d. 

I'lUS  1  IS,  or  saw -lish,  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  order  chondropterigii :  the  generic 
character  is,  snout  long,  Hat,  spinous  down 
the  edges,  spiracles  lateral ;  body  oblong, 
roundish,  covered  with  a  rough,  coriaceous 
skin;  month  beneath;  nostrils  before  the 
mouth,  hall-covered  with  a  membranaceous 
llap  ;  behind  the  eyes  two  oval  orilices  ; 
ventral  (ins  approximate.  There  are  live 
species : 

1.  I'ristis  antiquorum.     The  head  is  rather 
l!;i-  at  top  ;  the  eves  large,  with  yellow  irides; 
behind  eai  h   is  a  hole,  which  some  have  sup- 
posed may  lead  to  an  organ  ot  hearing.  'I  he 
mouth  is  well  furnished  with  tei-tli,  but  thi'y 
are  blunt,  serving  rather  to  bruise  its  prey 
than   to   divide   it  by   rutting.     Before  the 
mouth  are  two  foramina,  supposed  to  be  the 
nostrils.     The  rostrum,  beak,  or  snout,  is  in 
gener.il  about  one-third  of  the  total  length 
of  the  lisli,  and  contains  in  some  eighteen, 
in     others      twenty -three    or    twenty -four, 
spines  on  each   side  ;  these  are  very  stout, 
much  thicker  at  the  back  part,  and  channel- 
led,   inclining  to  an  edge   forwards.      The 
fins  are  seven  in   number,   viz.   two  dorsal, 
placed  at  some  distance  from  each  other ; 
two   pectoral,  taking    rise  Just  behind   the 
breathing-holes,  which  are  live  in  number; 
two  ventral,  situated  almost  underneath  the 
first  dorsal ;  and  lastly,  the  caudal,  occupv- 
ing  the   tail  both  above  and  beneath,   but 
lo.igest  on  the  upper  part.     The  general  co- 
lour of  the  body  is  a  dull  grey,  or  brownish, 
grov.'in,;  paler  as   it  approaches    the  belly, 
wni^re  it   is   nearly  white.      2.    Pectinutus, 
which,  with  the  former  species,  gi'ows  to  the 
largest  size  of  anv  il-.at  have  yet  come  under 
the  inspection  of  the  n-iii^ralist,   some  spe- 
cimens  measuring    15  feel   in  !ef;;.li.      The 
])i-ctinatus  differs   from    thi'   pristis  autiri-io- 
nnn,  in  having   the  snout  more  narrow  in 
projiortion  at  the  base,  «nd  tlie  w  hole  of  it 
more  slender  in  all   its  parts  ;  whereas  the 
lirst  is  very  broad  at   the  base,   and  tapers 
considerably  from  thence  to  the  point.    The 
spines  on   each  side   are  longer   and  more 
slender,  an<l  vary  from  twenty-live  to  thirty- 
four  in   the   difierent    specimens :  we   have 
indeed  been  informed  of  one  which  contained 
no  less  than  thirty-six  spines  on  each  side  of 
the  snout ;  but  we  must  confess  that  we  have 
never  been  fortunate  enough  to  have  seen 
such  a  specimen.     3.  Cuspidatus,   of  wiiicli 
we  have  only  seen  two  specimens,  the  one 
about    a    fool  and    a  half   in  length,    and 
the  other  more  than   two    feet  and  a  half. 
In  both  of  these  were  twenty-eight   spines 
on  each  side  ;  but  the  distinguishing  feature 
is  in  the  spines  themselves  being  particular- 
ly  Hat  and  broad,  and  shaped  at  the  point 
more   like  the  lancet  used  by  surgeons  in 
bleeding,  than  any  other  figure.  We  believe 
that  no  other  author  has   hitherto  taken  no- 
tice of  this  species.    4.  Microdon,  of  wUich 
5  R  2 


r 


4.09 


fhe  total  length  is  twenty-ciaht  inches,  the 
snout  occupying  ten  ;  Irom  tl'.e  base  of  this 
to  that  ofiiie  pectoral  lins  four  inches ;_  Ix'- 
tween  the  (lectoral  and  ventral  finssl.x.     'I  he 
two  doral  fins  occupy  nearly  the  same  pro- 
portions in   respect  to  each  other;  but  the 
hinder  one  i.s  the  smallest,  and  all  of  tliem  are 
greatly  hollowed  out  at  the  back  part,  niach 
more  "so  than  in  the  two  first  species.     The 
snout  differs  from  that  of  every  other,  in  se- 
veral particular?:  it  is  longer  in  proiiortion, 
being  more  than  one-third  of  the  whole  iish. 
The  spines  do  not  stand  out  from  the  sides 
more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  and  from 
this  circumstance  seem  far   less  capable  of 
doing  injury    than    any   other    species    yet 
known.       5.    Cirratus,   of  vrhiih    we  have 
only   met    with    one   specimen,  which   was 
brought  from    Port  Jackson   in  New    Hol- 
land.    It   is  a  male,    and   the  total   length 
about  40  inches  ;    the  snout,  from  the   tip 
of  it  to  the  eye,  eleven :  the  spines  widely 
different  from  "any  of  the  others ;  they  are 
indeed  placi-d,   as   usual,   on   the  edge,  but 
are   continued  on   each   side  even    beyond 
the    eyes.      The   longer  ones    are  slender, 
sharp,  sumewhat    bent,    and   about  twenty 
in   number  ;  and   between  these  are  others 
not    half    the    length  of   the    primal  ones, 
between  some  three  or  four,  between  others 
as  far  as  six  ;  and  in  general  the  middle  one 
of  these  smaller  series  is  the  longest:  beside 
these  a   series  of  minute  ones  may  be  per- 
ceived beneath,  at  the  very  edge.     In  the 
snout    likewise    another  singularity  occurs: 
about  the  middle  of  it,  on  each  side,  near  the 
edge,  arises  a  lle.xible,  ligamentous  cord,  about 
three  inches  and  a  halt  in  length,  appearing 
not  unlike  the  beards  at  the  mouth  of  some 
of  the  gadus  or  cod  genus,  and  no  doubt  as 
pliant  in  the  recent  state.      The  colour  of 
the  fish  is  a  pale  brown  ;  the  breathing  aper- 
tures four  in  number  ;  the  mouth  furnished 
with  five  rows  of  minute,  but  very  sharp  teeth. 
PRIVE  r,  in  botany.     See  Ligustru.m. 
PKIVIEECtE,  in  law,  some  peculiar  be- 
nefit granted  to  certain  persons  or  places, 
contrary  to  the  usual  course  of  the  law. 
I        Privileges  are  suid  to   be  personal  or  real. 
Pergonal  privileges  are  such  as  are  extended 
I  to   peers,  ambassadors,  members    of   p'.rlia- 
:  ment  and  of  the  convocation,  and  their  nie- 
!  nial  servants,  &:c.     A  real  ])rivilege  is  that 
:  granted  to    some  particular  pla'c ;    as  the 
I  king's  p:dace,  the  courts  at  Westminster,  tiie 
t  uuiviTsities,  &.C. 

PRl\'V,  inlaw,  denotes  one  who  is  par- 
taker, or  has  an  interest,  in  an  affair. 

Priv  Y  Cou.N'Ci!.,  is  the  principal  council 
belonging  to  the  king,  and  is  generally  called 
by  way  of  eminence  tlie  council. 
"  Privy  counsellors  are  made  by  the  king's 
nomination  without  either  patenter  grant; 
and  on  taking  the  necessary  oaths,  they  be- 
come immediately  privy  counsellors  during 
the  life  of  the  king  thai  chooses  thetn,  but 
subject  to  removal  at  his  discretion.  No 
inconvenience  now  arises  from  the  exten- 
sion of  the  number  of  the  privy  council,  as 
those  only  attend  who  are  especially  sum- 
moned for' that  particular  occasion. 

PmvY  SEAL,  is  a  seal  that  the  king  uses  to 
such  grants,  or  other  things,  as  pass  the  great 
seal. 

PRIZE,  or  Prise,  in  maritime  affairs,  a 
vessel  taken  at  sea  from  the  enemies  of  a 
state,  or  from  pirates ;  and  that  either  by  a 


£00 


r  )->  o 


sTi'ii  of  war,  a  pi-ivutrer,  &cc.  liavinj  a  com- 
mission fwr  that  piir|)i)S7'. 

Vessels  are  lovki'tl  on  as  pvize,  if  tlii'V 
fifcht  uiik-r  any  other  sta-ndard  than  that  o( 
the  state  from  wiiich  they  iiave  llieir  coni- 
mi  sion  ;  if  ^hev  have  no  charter  party,  in- 
voice, or  bitt'of  lainii'j,  aboard;  if  loaded 
with  effects  be!ona;ins'  lo  the  l^inp.N  eneniies, 
or  with  contrabaii.!  goiid^.  Tho^e  of  tlie  king's 
subjects  recovered  fiom  the  eneni\,  alter 
remaining  tw-cntv-four  hours  in  their  hands, 
are  deeniei!  'aAliil  pri-e. 

Vessels  that  refuse  to  strike,  may  be  con- 
strained ;  and  if  they  make  resistance  and 
liht,  become  lawful  prize  if  taken. 

Ill  ships  of  war,  the  prizes  are  to  be  di- 
vided among  the  otlu  ers,  seamen,  i»:c.  as  his 
Ni.ijesty  shall  appoint  by  proclamation;  bnt 
among  privateers,  the  division  is  according 
to  theai^reement  between  the  ovvnrrs. 

By  Stat.  13  Geo.  11.  c.  4.  judges  and  of- 
ficers, fjiling  of  their  duty,  in  resjiect  to  llie 
fondemnation  of  prizes,  lorfeit  live  Inindred 
pounds,  with  full  costs  of  suit :  one  moiety 
to  the  king,  and  iii-  other  to  the  informer. 

PKOA,  Jii/inj;,  m  navigation,  is  a  name 
given  to  a  vessel  used  in  the  South  Seas,  be- 
cause with  a  brisk  trade-wind  it  sails  near 
twentY  uiiles  an  hour.  In  the  construction 
of  the  proa,  the  head  and  stern  are  exactly 
alike,  but  the  sides  are  very  different ;  the 
side  intended  to  be  always  the  lee-side  being 
flat ;  and  the  windward  side  made  rounding, 
in  tlie  manner  of  other  vessels ;  and  to  pre- 
vent her  oversetting,  which  from  her  small 
bre.idth,  and  the  straiglit  run  of  her  leeward 
side,  would,  witliout  this  precaution,  infal- 
libly happi-n,  there  is  a  fra.ne  laid  out  of  her 
from  windward,  to  the  end  of  which  is  fasten- 
ed a  log,  fishioned  in  the  shape  of  a  small 
boat  and  made  liollow.  The  weight  of  the 
frame  is  intended  to  balance  the  proa,  and 
the  small  boat  is  by  its  buoyancy  (as  it  is 
always  in  the  water)  to  prevent  her  ovei-set- 
ting  to  windward ;  and  this  frame  is  usually 
called  an  outrigger.  Tiie  body  of  the  vessel 
is  made  of  two  pieces  joined  endwise,  and 
sewed  together  with  bark,  for  there  is  no 
iron  used  about  her ;  she  is  about  two  inches 
thick  at  tlie  bottom,  which  at  the  gunwale 
is  n-iluced  to  le^s  tlian  one.  The  sail  is  made 
of  mat  iug,  and  the  mast,  yard,  boom,  and 
outriggers,  are  all  made  of  bamboo. 

PROlUBILITY  of  an  event,  in  the  doc- 
trine of  chances,  is  greater  or  less  according 
to  the  number  of  chances  by  iviiich  it  may 
happen  or  fail.  (See  Expf.ct  n'lON.)  Tlie 
pribability  of  lii'e  is  liable  to  rules  of  compu- 
tation, in  the  Encyclopedie  Methodique, 
we  find  a  table  of  the  probabilities  of  the 
tinration  of  life,  constructed  from  that  which 
is  lo  be  found  in  the  seventh  volume  of  th.e 
Supp'emens  a  I'llistoirede  M.  de  liuffon,  of 
which  the  following  is  an  abridgement. 

Of  23.99  i  childriMi  born  at  the  same  time, 
there  will  probably  die, 

J      In  one  vear        -  7998 

I  (Remaining  ,}  or  15996 
i  i      In  eight  years         -  11297 

i  i  Hemainmg  \  or  1 1937 
|j      In  thirty-eight  years    -      1599o 
-J  (  Remaining  J-  or  7998 
■i  i      111  li.tv  years        -  17994 

I- 1  Remaining  i  or  5999 
J.  (      In  sixty-one  years      -       19995 
'  I  Remaining  .}.  or  3992 


p  n  O 

JL^<i      In  seventy  years     -      -    2i:95 
ir_  (  R.emaining  Jg.  or  2399 
1-1  (      In  eighty  \  ears     -       -      22395 
^'_  ■(  Remaining  ^V  °''  ^^^ 

23914 


P 


o 


3  ^"^ 


\  Remaining  .^1-  or  b* 
In  a  hundred  veai-s     - 


23992 


Remaining  - 


Oioooo        "• 

PROR.VTE.     See  Will. 

PHOiJE,  a  surg  oil's  instrument  for  ex- 
amining the  circuiistances  of  wounds,  &c. 
See  Sdrgery. 

PROBLU..M,  in  Kigic,  a  proposition  that 
neither  appears  absolutely  true  nor  false  ;  and 
conseqiu-ntiy  may  be  asserted  either  in  the 
alhrniative  or  negative. 

Problem,  in  geometry,  is  a  proposition 
wherein  some  operation  or  construction  is  re- 
quired ;  as  to  divide  a  line  or  ansle,  erect  or 
let  fall  pcT|)endiculars,  &c.  See  GiiOMETRY. 

Problem,  in  algebra,  is  a  (pieslion  or  pro- 
position which  requires  some  unknown  truth 
to  be  investigated,  and  the  truth  of  the  dis- 
covery demonstrated. 

Problem,  A'e-p/f)-'.?,  in  astronomy,  is  the 
determining  a  planet's  residence  from  the 
time ;  so  called  from  Kepler,  who  first  pro- 
posed it.  It  was  this  :  to  tind  the  position  of 
a  right  line,  which,  passing  through  one 
of  the  foci  of  an  ellipsis,  shall  cut  olf  an 
area  described  by  its  motion,  which  shall 
be  in  anv  given  proportion  to  the  whole  area 
of  the  ellipsis. 

The  proposer  knew  no  way  of  solving 
the  problem  but  by  an  indirect  method  ;  but 
sir  Isaac  Newton,  Dr.  Keil,  &c.  have  since 
solved  it  directly  and  geometrically  several 
wavs. 

PROBLEMATICAL  resolution,  in 
algebra,  a  method  of  solving  diflicultquestions 
by  certain  rules,  called  canons. 

PROBOSCIS,  in  natural  history,  is  the- 
trunk  or  snout  of  an  elepliant,  and  some  other 
beasts  and  insects. 

PROCEDENDO,  in  law,  a  writ  whereby 
a  plea  or  cause,  formerly  called  from  ;  :i  in- 
ferior court  to  the  court  of  c'lancery,  king's 
bench,  or  court  of  common  pleas,  by  writ 
of  privilege,  hab>-;:s  corpus,  or  certiorari,  is 
released,  and  returned  to  the  other  court  to 
be  proceeded  in,  upon  its  appearing  that  the 
defendant  has  no  cause  of  privilege,  or  that 
the  matter  in  the  party's  allegation  is  not 
well  proved. 

PROCELLARIA,  in  ornithology  ;  a  genus 
of  birds,  belonging  to  the  order  of  anseres. 
Tlie  beak  is  somewhat  compressed,  and  with- 
out teeth  ;  the  mandibles  are  eipial,  the  su- 
perior one  being  ciooki^l  at  the  point ;  the 
feet  are  palmated,  the  hind  claw  being  sessile, 
without  any  toe.  Mr.  Latham  enumerati-s 
twenlv-four  species,  which  an-  principally 
distinguished  by  their  colour.  The  most  re- 
markable are  : 

1.  The  onicrea,  petrel,  or  fulmar.  The 
size  of  this  bird  is  rather  superior  to  that  of 
the  common  gull :  the  bill  very  strong,  much 
hooked  at  the  end,  and  of  a  yellow  colour. 
The  nostrils  are  composed  of  two  large 
tubes,  lodged  in  one  sheath :  the  head,  neck, 
whole  under  side  of  the  body,  and  tail,  are 
white  ;  the  back  and  coverts  ot  the  wings 
ash-coloured;  the  (piill-feathers  dusky;  and 
the  legs  vellowtsh.  In  lieu  of  a  back  toe, 
it  lias  only  a  sort  of  spur,  or  sharp  straight 


nail.  Tliesfi  birds  feed  on  the  blubber  o* 
fat  of  whales,  &c.  which  being  soon  coiner- 
tible  into  oil,  supplies  them  constantly  with 
means  of  defence,  as  well  as  provision  for 
liieir  young,  which  they  cast  up  into  their 
mouths.  '1  hey  are  likewise  said  t'o  feed  on 
sorrel,  whicii  they  use  lo  iiualify  the  unctuous 
diet  they  live  on.  This  species  inhabits 
the  isle  of  S-..  Kilda;  makes  its  appearance 
there  in  November,  and  continues  the  whole 
yi'.ir,  e.Kcept  Se[)tem!ier  and  Octiiber ;  it 
lays  a  large,  white,  and  very  brittle  egg,  and 
the  young  are'  hatched  the  middle  of  June. 
No  bird  is  of  such  use  to  the  islanders  as 
this:  the  fulmar  supplies  them  with  oil  for 
their  lamps,  down  for  their  beds,  a  delicac- 
for  their  tables,  a  balm  for  their  wounds,  anit 
a  medicine  for  their  distempers,  'i'he  fulmar 
is  also  a  certain  prognoslicator  of  the  change 
of  the  wind :  if  it  conies  to  land,  no  w  est 
wind  is  expected  for  siine  time  ;  and  the 
contrary  wIumi  it  returns  and  keeps  the  sen. 
The  whole  genus  of  petrels  have  a  peculiar 
faculty  of  spouting  from  their  bills  to  a  con- 
siderable distance,  a  large  quantity  of  pure 
oil ;  which  they  do  by  way  of  defence,  into 
the  face  of  any  one  that  attempts  lo  take 
them;  so  that  they  are,  for  the  sake  of  this 
panacea,  seized  by  surprise ;  as  this  oil  is 
subservient  to  the  above-mentioned  medical 
purposes.  Martin  tells  us,  it  has  been  used 
in  London  and  Edinburgh  with  success  in 
rheumatic  cases.  Frederick  Martens,  who 
had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  vast  numbers  of 
these  birds  in  Spitzbergen,  observes,  that 
they  are  very  bold,  and  resort  after  the 
whale-fishers  in  great  Hocks ;  and  that,  when 
a  whale  is  taken,  they  will,  in  spite  of  all  en- 
deavom's,  light  on.  it  and  pick  out  laig« 
lumps  of  fat,  even  when  the  animal  is  alive: 
that  the  whales  are  often  discovered  at  sea 
by  the  muititudes  of  them  tlying;  and  that 
when  one  of  the  former  is  wounded,  prodi- 
gious multitudes  immediately  follow  its 
bloody  track.  He  adds,  that  it  is  a  most 
gluttonous  bird,  eating  till  it  is  forced  to  dis- 
gorge itself. 

2.  The  puffinus,  or  shear-water,  is  fifteen 
inches  in  length;  the  breadth  thirty-one; 
the  weight  seventeen  ounces;  the  bill  is  an 
inch  and  three  quarters  long  ;  nostrils  tubu- 
lar, but  not  very  prominent ;  the  head,  and 
whole  upper  sides  of  the  body,  wings,  tail, 
and  thighs,  are  of  a  sooty  blackness;  the  un- 
der side  from  chin  to  tail,  and  inner  coverts 
of  the  wings,  white  ;  the  legs  weak,  and  com- 
pressed sideways  ;  dusky  behind,  whitish  be- 
fore. These  birds  are  found  in  the  Calf  of 
Man;  and,  as  Mr.  Ray  supposes,  in  the 
Scilly  isles.  They  resort  to  the  former 
in  February,  take  a  short  possession  of  the 
rabbit-burrows  there,  and  then  disappear  till 
.April,  'i'liey  lay  one  egg,  white,  and  blunt 
at  each  end  ;  and  the  young  are  (it  to  be 
taken  the  beginning  ol  August,  when  great 
numbers  are  killed  by  the  person  who  larms 
the  island ;  they  are  sailed  and  barrelled  ; 
and  when  they  are  boiled,  are  eaten  with 
potatoes.  During  the  day  they  keep  at  sea, 
fishing  ;  and  towards  evening  return  to  their 
young,  whom  they  feed  by  discharging  the 
contents  of  their  stomachs  into  their  mouths, 
which  by  thai  time  is  turned  into  oil  :  from 
the  backward  situation  ot  their  legs,  they  sit 
quite  erect.  They  quit  tlit;  island  tlie  latter 
end  of  August,  or  beginning  of  Se|>tember  ; 
and  we  have  reanou  to  jmaginc  that,  bk«  (he 


r  11  o 

(ifonri-liii'li,   tlipy    an;    dispei'sed   over    tlie 
wiiuk'  Allanlic  ocean. 

3,  The  jjclagica,  or  stormy  petrtl,  is  about 
till:  bulk  of  the  liouse-swallow  ;  llie  length 
six  iuciics  ;  the  extent  of  wings  thirteen. 
The  whole  bird  is  lilaek,  eNXept  ihe  coverts 
of  llie  tail  and  vent-feathers,  wluth  are  white; 
the  bill  is  liodked  at  liie  end ;  tlie  nostrils 
tubular;  the  h-gs  slender  and  long.  Il  has 
the  same  faeullv  of  spouting  oil  from  its  bill 
a-.  Ihe  olherspc-eies ;  and  Mr,  Brinnheh  telU 
lis,  that  the  ndiab.tants  ol  the  Ferroe  islands 
make  this  bird  serve  tJie  pur|)oses  of  a 
caudle,  by  drawing  a  wick  through  the 
inoulii  and  ruin|},  wliich  being,  lisrhted,  the 
Jlanie  is  ted  by  tlie  fat  and  oil  of  the  body. 
Kxeept  iu  breeding-time,  it  is  always  at  sea, 
and  is  seen  all  o-.er  the  vast  Atlantic  ocean, 
at  the  greatest  distance  from  land ;  often 
following  tlie  vessels  in  great  tlocks,  to  pick 
tip  any  thing  tliat  falls  from  on  boartl :  for 
trial  sake,  cl)op[)Cil  straw  has  been  llung  over, 
wliich  they  would  stand  on  with  expanded 
wings,  but  were  never  observed  to  settle  or 
swim  ill  the  water:  it  presages  bad  weather, 
and  cautions  tlie  seamen  of  the  approach  of  a 
t'.-nipest,  by  collecting  under  llie  stern  of  the 
s.ii|)s;  it  braves  the  utmost  lury  of  the  storm, 
,  sjmetinies  skimming  with  incredible  velo- 
city along  tlie  hollows  of  the  w^ves,  some- 
times on  tlie  summits. 

PROCESS,  is  tlie  manner  of  proceeding 
in  every  cause,  being  the  writs  and  precepts 
-that  proceed  or  go  forth  upon  the  original 
in  every  action,  being  either  original  or  judi- 
ci.d.  Hritton,  138.  Process  is  only  meant 
to  bring  the  defendant  into  court,  in  order 
to  contest  the  suit,  and  abide  the  determina- 
tion of  the  law.     See  Impey's  Practice. 

PllOCKlA,  a  genus  of  the  polyandria 
monogynia  class  and  order.  The  cal.  is 
three-leaved;  cor.  none;  berrv  five-corner- 
ed, many-seeded.  'I'here  is  one  species,  a 
shrub  ot  Santa  Cruz. 

PROCLAMATION,  a  public  notice 
given  of  any  thing  of  which  tlie  king  thinks 
proper  to  advertise  his  suli'ects.  Procla- 
mations are  a  branch  of  the  King's  preroga- 
tive, and  110  person  can  make  them  without 
the  king's  autliority,  except  mavors  of  to\<  us, 
&c.  by  custom  or  prnilege.  Proclamations 
which  ri  quire  the  people  to  do,  or  not  to 
»Io,  certain  things,  have  tiie  force  of  laws ; 
but  then  they  are  supposed  to  be  consistent 
with  tue  laws  already  in  being,  otherwise  they 
are  superseded. 

PROCRKATION.     See  Physiology. 

PROCTOR,  a  person  commissioned  to 
manage  another  person's  cause  in  any  court  of 
'the  civil  or  ecclesiastical  law.  The  proctors 
of  the  clergy,  are  the  repre3entative>  chosen 
by  the  clergy  to  sit  in  the  lower  house  of 
convocation;  of  these  there  are  two  for  each 
Uioci-se,  and  one  for  each  collegiate  church. 

PROCURATOR,  a  person  who  has  a 
charge  committed  to  him  to  act  for  another. 
Thus  the  proxies  of  the  lords  in  parliament 
are,  in  our  law-books,  called  procurators; 
the  bishijps  are  sometimes  called  procnra- 
tores  ecclesiaruin ;  and  tli-i  representatives 
sent  by  the  clergy  to  convocation,  piocura- 
,  tores  cleriei.  The  word  is  also  used  fur  a 
vicar  or  lieutenant ;  and  we  read  or  a  pro- 
curator regiu.  who  was  an  antieut  magistrate. 
Tbose  who  manage  causes  in  Doctors'  Com- 


P  n  O 

innns,  are  also  called  procurators  or  prortors. 
In  our  statutes,  he  wlio  gathers  the  fruits 
of  a  benelice  for  another  is  jrjrticnlaily  call- 
ed a  procurator,  and  the  iiislrument  impow- 
ering  him  to  receive  them  is  termed  a  jn-u- 
curacy. 

PROC^'ON,  in  astronomy,  a  fixed  star  of 
the  second  n-.agnitiide  in  the  constellation 
calh  (1  caiiis  minor.     See  Cams. 

PHODtiClNG,  in  geometry,  signifies  the 
drawing  out  a  line  farther  till  il  has  any  as- 
sig.ied  length. 

PRO  DUCT,  in  arillimetic  and  geometry, 
the  factum  of  two  or  more  numbers,  or  lines. 
Sec.  into  one  another:  thus  j  x  4  =; -'0  the 
product  recjuiied. 

In  lines  it  is  al.vays  (and  in  numbers  some- 
times) called  the  rectangle  between  the  two 
lines,  or  numbers,  multiplied  bv  one  ano- 
ther. 

PROFILE,  the  draught  of  a  building,  for- 
tification, &c.     See  Architectiire. 

Profile  also  denotes  the  outline  of  a 
figure,  building,  member  of  architecture, 
&c. 

Profii.k,  in  sculpture  and  painting,  <Ie- 
notes  a  iiea'l,  portrait,  ike.  when  repre-eiil- 
cd  sideways,  or  in  a  side  view.  On  alni.i^t 
all  nied-ils,  faces  are  represented  in  profile. 

PllOGRESSION,  an  orderly  advancing  or 
proceeding  in  the  same  manner,  course,  tenor, 
projjortion,  &c. 

Progression  is  either  arithmetical,  or  geome- 
trical. 

Arithy/;riiciil  Proc  ession.  is  a  series  of  quan- 
tities proceeding  by  continued  equal  differences, 
either  increa  ing  or  decreasing.     Thus, 

increasing      1,     .'?,     5,     7,     9,  &c.  or 
decreasing  21,  18,  15,  Vi.     9,  &.C ; 

where  the  former  pr  tjression  increases  contlnn- 
allv  by  the  common  difference  2,  nnd  the  latter 
series  or  progression  decreases  continually  by 
the  common  difference  3. 

1.  And  hence,  to  construct  an  arithmetical 
progression, from  any  given  first  term,  and  with 
a  given  common  difference  add  the  common 
dlffirence  to  the  first  term,  to  give  the  '_'d  ■  to 
the  ifd,  to  give  the  :'d  to  the  yd,  to  give  the 
4th  ;  and  so  on  ;  when  the  series  is  ascending  or 
increasing  :  but  subtract  the  common  difference 
continually,  wiien  the  series  is  a  descending  one. 

2.  The  chief  property  of  an  arithTTietical  pro- 
gression, and  which  arises  immediately  from  the 
nature  of  its  construction,  is  this  ;  that  the  sum 
of  its  extremes,  or  first  and  last  terms,  is  equal 
to  the  sum  of  every  pair  of  intermediate  terms 
that  are  equidistant  from  the  extremes,  or  to  the 
double  of  tlie  middle  term  when  there  is  an  un- 
even number  of  the  terms. 


f  R  0  501 

Tims,      1,     3,     5,     7,     9,  II,  1-3, 

13,  If,    9,    7,    .-;,    ;j.    I, 

Sums    14    14    14    14    14    14    14, 
where  the  sum  of  every  pair  of  terms  is  the  same 
number,  14. 

Also,,/.  a-\-   J,    a-\-2i/,    a -{- 3J,    a-f-la", 

a-\-'IJ,    a-f.V,    «-|-y^,    a-f    J,    a 

sums  2a  -^-  'iJ  2a  -\'  4J  ia  -\-  U  2a  +  'id  'J.,-\^^. 

3.  And  hence  it  follows,  that  double  the  sum 
of  all  the  terms  in  the  series,  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  two  extremes  multiplied  bv  the  number 
of  the  terms  :  and  consequently,  that  the  single 
sum  of  all  the  terms  of  the  scries,  is  equal  to 
half  the  said  product.  So  the  sum  of  the  7  terms 

1,  ;!,  r,,  7,  9,  11,  1.'?, 
is   1  +  l:ix|-=  V  X7=49. 
And  the  sum  of  the  five  tcrm'5 

a,  a  -f-  J,  a  -\-  2^,  a  4-  <.',J,  a  +  '\J. 
is  ,/  -f  4:/  X  f 

4.  Hence  also,  if  the  first  term  of  the  progres- 
sion is  0,  the  sum  of  the  scries  will  be  ecjiial  to  ■ 
half  the  product  of  the  last  term  multiplied  by 
the  number  of  terms :  /.  i.  the  sum  of 

O  4-  a'  4-  2,/  -f  ,'!7  4-  4//  -  - 


ii~  i.d 


1  .,/, 


where  n  is  the  number  of  terms,  snppcsing  0  to 
be  one  of  them.  That  is,  in  other  v/ords,  the 
sum  of  an  arithmetical  progression,  whether  fi- 
nite or  infinite,  whose  first  term  is  0,  is  to  the 
sum  of  as  many  times  the  greatest  term,  in  the 
ratio  of  1  to  2. 

.".  In  like  manner,  the  sum  of  the  squares  of 
the  terms  of  such  a  series,  beginning  at  0,  is  to 
the  sum  of  as  many  terms  each  equal  to  the 
greatest,  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  3.     And, 

6.  The  sum  of  the  cubes  of  the  terms  of  such 
a  series,  is  to  the  sum  of  as  many  times  the 
greatest  term,  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  4. 

7.  And  universally,  if  every  term  of  such  a 
progre';sion  is  raised  to  the  --vtii  jiower,  tlien  the 
sum  of  all  those  powers  will  be  to  the  sum  of  at 
many  terms  equal  to  the  greatest,  in  the  ratio  oi  - 
OT  -j-  1  to  1.     'Ihat  is, 

the  sum  0    +  </   +  2</ -|- 3,/ /, 

is  to  /•"  -j-  /"•  -)-/'.■'  TJ-  ^i /'I, 

in  the  ratio  of  1  to  w;  -|-  '  ■ 

8.  A  synopsis  of  all  the  theorems,  or  relations, 
in  an  arithmetical  progression,  between  the  ex- 
tremes or  first  and  last  term,  the  sum  of  the  se- 
ries, the  number  of  terms,  and  the  common  dif- 
ference,- is  as  follows  :  viz.  if 

a  denotes  the  least  term, 

=  the  greatest  term, 

d  the  common  difference, 

n  the  number  of  terms, 

J    the  sum  of  the  scries ; 
then  will  each  of  these  five  quantities  be  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  the  others,  as  below  ; 


\  .d  . 


n  —  1 


■v/i"'+=r  -  ids  +  \d. 


d  = 


:  +  «  —    \  .d  = 
z.  —  /»  s  —  na 

I  —  1  ~  IT—  1 


—  s        2 


n  —  1 


,,'  ii-J)^  _i.    d,   -   II 


■■  +  ' 


2j  —  a  —  z 


■  _       2^        _ld-  a  -\-  ^/i     -  ^'  -\- 2dj  _  i_d -{- ^  —  A/jd  -f  z)^  —  d, 

"^       ~  T+T  ""  d  '  ~  d 


2,1  +  «  —  1  .  J  2z  —  n  —  I  .  d 

— — n  = 1 

2  2 


503 


PRO 


I'  fv  O 


Aiul  most  of  these  expressions  w-ill  become  much 
simpler  if  the  first  term  is  0  instead  of  a. 

G((j;fff^r/Vj/ PjioGHESsjON,  IS  a  serics  of  quan- 
tities proceeding;  in  tlie  same  continual  ratio  or 
proportion,  either  increasiuj^  or  decreasiufj  ;  or 
it  is  a  series  of  i|uanti[ies  that  are  continually 
proportional;  or  which  increase  by  one  common 
multiplier,  or  decrease  by  one  common  divisor  ; 
v.hich  common  multiplier  or  divisor  is  called 
the  common  ratio.     As, 

increasing,     1,    '-',    4,    8,     IG,    &c. 

decreasing,  81,  27,     D,     3,       1,     &c. ; 
where  the  former  progression  increases  continu- 
ally by  the  common  multiplier  L',  and  the  latter 
decreases  by  the  common  divisor  3. 

Or  ascending,    a,   r^r,     r^a,    r^a,  &c. 


or  descending,  a,  - 


where  the  first  te«>n  is  <j,  and  common  ratio  r. 

1.  Hence,  the  same  principal  properties  ob- 
tain in  a  geometrical  progression,  as  have  been 
remarked  of  the  arithmetical  one,  using  only 
multiplication  in  the  geometricals  for  addition 
in  the  arithmeticaU,  and  division  in  the  fornior 
for  subtraction  in  the  latter.  So  that,  to  con- 
struct a  geometrical  progression,  from  any 
given  first  term.,  and  with  a  given  common  ra- 
tio ;  multiplv  the  1st  ternt  continually  by  the 
Common  ratio  for  the  rest  of  the  terms,  when 
the  series  is  an  ascending  one  ;  or  divide  con- 
tinually by  the  common  ratio,  when  it  is  a  de- 
scending progression. 

2.  In  every  geometrical  progression,  the  pro- 
duct of  the  extreme  terms  is  equal  to  the  pro- 
duct of  every  pair  of  the  intermediate  terms 
tliat  are  equidistant  from  the  extremes,  and  also 
fijual  to  the  square  of  the  middle  term  when 
there  is  a  middle  one,  or  an  uaeven  number  of 
the  terms. 

Thus,      I,     2,     4,     8,     16, 
lU      8      4      2        1 


5.  The  first  or  least  term  of  a  geometriral 
progression,  is  to  the  sum  of  all  the  terms,  ai 
the  ratio  minus  1,  to  the  nth  power  of  the  ratio 
minus  1  ;  thnt  is,  -i  ;  j  ; ;  r  —   1  ;  r"  —  1. 

Other  relations  among  the  five  quantities  n,  i, 
V,  n,  J,  where 

a  denotes  the  least  term, 
~  the  greatest  term, 
r  the  common  ratio, 
»  the  number  of  terms, 
.1   the  sum  of  the  progression, 
are  as  below  ;  vii. 

"  =  7^  =--r   -{r-   IV  =   ;'„~^'. 


:  Jr"  -  1  =: 


+  ('  -   !> 


- .  -  .  -    V  ^ 

log   '~        log. 
a 

~"  log-     r   ~~ 
log. 


+  (-• 


prod.    IC    lU    16    16      16. 


Also, 


r'a 


prod.    ;'j'    r\i^     T^a^     r'j"      j 'a^ 

3.  The  last  term  of  a  geometrical  progression, 
is  equal  to  the  first  term  multiplied,  or  divided, 
by  the  ratio  raised  to  the  power  whose  exponent 
js  less  bv  1  than  the  number  of  terms  in  the  se- 
ries ;  so'  z  1=  ar"  —  ',  when  the  series  is  an  a.s- 

cending  one,  or  i  =  i>  —  <•  ^"'^'^  ■'  '^  *  '^^' 
ecending  progression. 

4.  As  the  sum  of  all  the  antecedents,  or  all 
the  terms  except  the  least,  is  to  the  sum  of  all 
the  consfitiuents,  or  all  the  terms  except  the 
greatest,  so  is  1  to  r,  the  ratio.     For, 

if  a  -\-  ra  -\-  r'a-\-  r  a  are  all  except  the  last, 
then  rii  -{-  r'a  -|-r'(j4-  r\?  are  all  except  the  first ; 
where  it  is  evident  that  the  former  in  to  tlie  lat- 
ter as  I  to  1,  or  the  former  ruiltiplied  by  »  gives 
the  latter.  .So  that,  r  demiting  the  la.>t  term,  n 
the  first  term,  and  <■  the  ratio,  aUo  i  the  sum  of 
all  the  terms ;    then  j  —  ~  ',  '  —  "  '  I  '  !  '>  or 

-  —  «  =  /  —  2  .  r.  Apd  from  this  equation  all 
the  relations  among  the  four  quanlities  a,  i, ,-,  / 

*j!re  easily  derived  :  such  as,  s  =; 


log-,  r 


log. 


s  —  ~  .  a 


z  —  a    _  r"  —  1 
—  1     ~    r  — T' 


_  1  ' 

piuitiply  the  greatest  term  by  the  ratio,  subtract 
the  least  te.ni  from  tiie  product,  then  the  re- 
mainder divided  by  1  loss  than  the  ratio,  will 
give  the  mm  of  the  serics.  And  if  the  least 
lerni  a  i»  0,  which  happens  when  the  descend- 
ing progresiiion  is  ti>rinitel^  cuiilinued,  theu  the 


mm  is  barclv  ■ —    . 
■   r  —  1 


As  in   tlie  infinite  pro- 
0 


And  the  other  values  of  a,  i,  and  r,  are  to  be 
found  from  these  equations,  viz. 

X  S 

r' r-1 , 


r"  —  r"  ~  *   = .  See  Spries. 

J  —  Z  J  —   z 

PROIiiaiTION,  is  a  writ  properly  issu- 
ing only  out  of  tin-  court  of  kini^'s  bnith, 
being  tlie  king's  prerogative  writ  ;  but,  for 
the  turlherance  ot  jtistlce,  it  may  now  also 
lie  had  in  some  cii^es  out  of  the  court  of 
chancery,  common  picas,  or  exchequer,  di- 
rected to  the  judge  and  parties  of  a  suit  in 
an  interior  couit,  commaniliiig  tliem  to  cease 
from  the  prosecution  thereof,  upon  a  sugges- 
tion, that  either  the  cases  xiriginallv,  or  some 
collateral  matter  arising  therein,  tloes  not 
belong  to  tliat  jurisdiction,  but  the  coguiz- 
ance  ot  some  other  court.     3  lilack.  112. 

Upon  the  court  being  salislied  that  the 
matter  alleged  by  the  suggestion  is  sufticient, 
the  writ  ol  prohibition  immediately  issues  ; 
commanding  the  judge  not  to  hold,  and  the 
puily  not  to  piosecute,  tlie  plea.  .And  it 
either  tlie  judge  or  p..rty  sliali  proceed  atter 
such  pioluliilion,  an  atta(  linient  may  be 
had  against  tl-.em  for  the  contempt,  bv  the 
court  liiat  awai'deil  it,  and  an  action  will  lie 
against  them  to  repair  the  partv  in  damages. 
3  HIack.  ll.J. 

PROjr.CriLE,  or  Project,  in  mechanics,  is 
any  body  which,  being  jiut  into  a  violent  mo- 
tion by  an  external  force  impressed  upon  it,  is 
dismissed  from  the  agent,  and  left  to  pursue  its 
course  ;  such  as  a  stone  thrr>\vn  out  ot  the  l-.and 
or  a  sling,  an  arrow  from  a  bow,  a  ball  from  a 
gun,  &L-. 


PRO  J 

PROJ7.Cni.ES,  the  science  of  the  motion, 
velocity,  night,  range,  &c.  of  a  |jroiic;ile  put 
into  violent  motion  by  some  external  cause,  ai 
the  force  of  gunpowder,  .kc.  This  is  the  foun- 
dation of  gunnery,  under  which  article  mry  be 
found  all  that  relates  peculiarly  to  that  branclu 
All  bodies,  being  indifrerent  as  to  motion  or 
rest,  will  necessarily  continue  the  state  they  are 
put  into,  except  so  far  as  they  are  hindered,  and 
forced  to  change  it  by  some  new  cause.  Hence, 
a  projectile,  put  in  motion,  must  continue  eter- 
nally to  move  on  in  the  same  right  line,and  with 
the  same  uniform  or  constant  velocity,  were  it 
to  meet  with  no  resistance  from  the  medium, 
nor  had  any  force  of  gravity  to  encounter. 

In  the  first  case,  the  theory  of  projectiles 
would  be  very  simple  indeed  ;  for  there  would 
be  nothing  more  to  do,  than  to  compute  the 
space  passed  over  in  a  given  time  bv  a  given 
constant  velocity  or  either  of  these,  from  the 
other  two  being  given. 

But  by  the  constant  action  of  gravity,  the 
projectile  is  continually  deflected  more  and  more 
from  its  right-lined  course,  and  that  with  an  ac- 
celerated velocity  which,  being  combined  with 
its  projectile  impulse,  causes  the  body  to  move 
in  a  curvilineal  path,  with  a  variable  motion, 
which  path  is  the  curve  of  a  parabola,  as  will 
be  proved  below  :  and  the  determination  of  the 
range,  time  of  flight,  angle  of  projection,  and 
variable  velocity,  constitutes  what  is  usually 
meant  by  the  doctrine  of  projectiles,  in  the  com-  _ 
mon  acceptation  of  the  word. 

What  ih  said  above,  however,  is  to  be  under- 
stood of  piojectiles  moving  in  a  non-resisting 
medium  ;  for  when  the  resistance  of  the  air  is 
also  considered,  which  is  enormously  great,  and 
v.'hich  very  much  impedes  the  first  projectile  ve- 
locity, the  path  deviates  greatly  from  the  para- 
bola, and  the  determination  of  the  circumstances 
of  its  inotifm  bec-tmies  one  of  the  most  complex 
and  ditiicult  problems  in  nature. 

In  the  first  place,  thereftire,  it  will  be  proper 
to  consider  the  common  doctrine  of  projectiles, 
or  tiiat  on  the  parabolic  theory,  or  as  depending 
only  on  the  nature  of  gravitv  and  the  projectile 
motion,  as  abstracted  from  the  resistance  of  th» 
medium. 

little  more  than  200  years  ago,  philosophers 
took  the  Hue  described  by  a  bofty  projected 
horizontally,  such  as  a  bullet  out  of  a  cannon, 
while  the  force  of  the  pov.-der  greatly  exceeded 
tha  weight  of  the  bullet,  to  be  a  right' line,  after 
which  they  allowed  it  became  a  curve.  Nicholas 
Tartajjlia  was  tlie  first  who  perceived  the  mis- 
take, maintaining  that  the  path  of  the  bullet 
viAi  a  curved  line  through  the  whole  of  its  ex- 
tent. But  it  was  (Jalileo  who  first  determined 
what  jjarticular  curve  it  is  that  a  projectile  de- 
scribes :  shewing  that  the  path  of  a  bullet  pro- 
jected horizontally  from  an  eminence,  was  a 
parabola,  the  vertex  of  which  is  the  point 
where  the  bullet  quits  the  cannon.  And  the 
same  is  proved  generally,  in  the  2d  article  fol- 
lowing, when  the  projection  is  made  in  any  di- 
rection whatever,  viz.  that  the  curve  is  aKvava 
a  parabola,  sup|)osing  the  body  moves  in  a  noil- 
resisting  medium. 

77'f  Laivs  efihe  A-fot/ott  of  Projectiles. 

I.  If  a  heavy  body  is  projected  perpendicu- 
larly, it  will  continue  to  ascend  or  descend  per- 
pendicularly;  because  both  the  projecting  and 
the  gravitating  force  are  found  in  the  same  line 
ot  direction 

II.  If  a  body  is  projected  in  free  space,  either 
parallel  to  the  hiuizon,  or  in  any  oblique  di- 
rection ;  it  will,  by  this  motion  in  conjunction 
with  the  actiim  of  gravity,  describe  the  curve 
line  of  a  ixirabela.     (fig.  I.)  . 

I'or,  let  the  body  be  i>rojected  from  A,  in  the 
dii  eclion  Al),  with  any  ur.iform  velocitv  ;  then 
in  any  equal  portions  of  time  it  would,' by  that 
impulse  alune,  dcseribc  the  equal   spaces  AB, 


EC,  CD,  &c.  !n   till?  lljip  AT>,  if    it    WS1  not 
drawn  continually  clown  below  that  line  by  the 
action  of  gravity'     iJiaw  BE,  CF,  DG,  &c.  in 
the  direction  of  gravity,  or  pcrpentticiilar  to  tlie 
horizon  ;  and   take    BK,  Ci'',  L)G,  &c.  ci]iial  to 
the  bpaccs  through  which   the  boily  would  d'--- 
sccnd  by  its  gravity  in  the  same  times  in  wliich 
it  -woulu   uniformly  pa^s  over  the  sjjaccs  AB, 
AC,  AD,  iScc.  by  the  projectile  motion.    Then, 
since  by  these  motions,  the  body  is  carried  over 
the  space  AB  in  the  same  time  as  the  space  BK, 
and  the  space  AC  in  tiie  same  time  as  the  space 
CF,  and  the  space  AD  in  tlie  same  liijie  as  the 
space  DG,  &c. ;  therefore,  by  the  composititm 
of  motions,  at  the  end  of  those  times  the  body 
will  be  found  respectively  in  the  points  E,  I'',  C», 
_&c.  and  consequeniiy  the  real  path  of  tlie  pro- 
jectile will  be  the  curve  line  AEb'G,  &c.     But 
the  spaces  AB,  AC,  AD,  &c.    being  dcscri'.ied 
by  uniform  motion,  are  as  tlie  times  of  descrip- 
tion ;  and  the  spaces  BK,  CF,  DG,  &c.  described 
in  tile  same  time,  by  tlie  accelerating  force  of 
gravity,  are  as  the  squares  of  the  times;  conse- 
ipiently  the  perpendicular  descents  are  as  the 
stpiares  of  the  spaces  in  AD, 
that  is,        •        -        -       BE,    CF,    DG,     &c, 
are  respectively  propor- 
tional to  -        -       AB',  AC,  AD',  &c. 
wliich  is  the  same  as  the  prooerty  of  the  para- 
bola.   Therefore  the  patli  of  the  projectile  is  the 
parabolic  line  AEI'G,  &c.    to  which  AD  is  a 
tangent  at  the  point  A. 

Hence,  1.  'l"he  horizontal  velocity  of  a  pro- 
jectile is  always  the  same  constant  quantity,  in 
every  point  of  the  curve  ;  because  the  horizon- 
tal motion  is  in  a  constant  ratio  to  the  motion  in 
AU,  which  is  the  uniform  projectile  motion; 
viz.  the  constant  horizontal  velocity  being  to 
tlie  projectile  velocity,  as  radius  to  the  cosine 
of  the  angle  DAH,  or  angle  of  elevation  or  de- 
pression of  the  piece  above  or  below  the  hori- 
zontal line  AH. 

'_'.  The  velocity  of  the  projectile  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  curve,  or  of  its  tangent,  at  anv  point 
A,  is  as  the  secant  of  its  angle  B  -M  of  direction 
above  the  horizon.  For  the  motion  in  the  hori- 
zontal direction  AI  being  constant,  and  AI  be- 
ing to  AB  as  radius  to  the  secant  of  the  angle 
A ;  therefore  the  ntotion  at  A,  in  AB,  is  as  the 
secant  of  the  angle  A. 

3.  The  velocity  in  the  direction  DG  of  gra- 
vity, or  perpendicular  to  the  horizoii,  at  any 
point  G  of  tlie  curve,  is  to  tlie  first  uniform  pro- 
jectile velocity  at  A,  as  ^GD  to  AD.  For  tiie 
times  of  describing  AD  and  DG  being  equal, 
and  the  velocity  acquired  by  freely  descending 
through  DG  being  such  as  w.iuld  carry  the 
body  uniformly  over  twice  I)<  i  in  an  equal  time, 
and  the  spaces  described  with  uniform  motions 
being  as  the  velocities,  it  follows  that  the  space 
AD  is  to  the  space  iJDG,  as  the  projectile  velo- 
city at  A  is  to  the  perpendicular  velocity  at  G. 
HI.  The  velocity  in  the  direction  ot  the  curve, 
at  any  point  of  it,  as  A,  is  equal  to  that  which 
Is  generated  by  gravity  in  freely  descending 
through  a  space  which  is  equal  to  one-fourth  of 
the  parameter  of  the  diameter  to  the  parabola 
at  that  point.     (Fig.  o.) 

Let  PA  or  AH  be  the  height  due  to  the  velo- 
city of  the  projectile  at  any  jioint  A,  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  curve  or  tangent  AC,  or  the  ve- 
locity acquired  by  falling  through  that  height ; 
and  complete  the  parallelogram  ACDB.  Ihcn 
is  CD  rr:  AB  or  AP.  the  height  due  to  the  velo- 
city in  the  curve  at  A  ;  ,mtl  CD  is  also  the  heigh: 
due  to  the  perpendicul.ir  velocity  at  D,  which 
will  therefcire  be  equal  to  the  former  :  but,  by 
the  last  corollary,  the  velocity  at  A  is  to  the 
perpendicular  velocity  at  D,  as  AC  to  2CD  ; 
and  as  these  velocities  are  equal,  therefore  AC 
or  Bli  Is  equal  to  t?CD  or  2AB;  and  hence  AB 
or  AP  is  equal  to  -^BD,  or  ~  of  the  parameter  of 
the  diameter  AB,  by  the  nature  of  the  parabola. 
Hence,  1.  If  through  the  point  P,  tJie  line  PL 


PnOJECTION. 

is  drawn  perpendicular  to  AP  ;  then  the  velo- 
city in  the  curve  at  every  point,  will  be  equal  to 
(he  velocity  aci|uircd  by  falling  through  the 
perpendicular  distance  of  the  [joint  from  the 
said  line  PL;  that  is,  a  body  falling  freely 
through 

V.\,  acquires  the  velocity  in  the  curve  at  A, 
KF,  -  -  -  -         atF, 

KD,  -  -  -  -         at  D, 

LH,  -  -  -  -        at  H. 

The  reason  of  which  is,  that  the  line  PF,  is  what 
is  called  the  directrix  of  the  parabola;  the  pro- 
perty of  which  is,  that  the  perpendicular  to  it, 
from  every  point  of  the  curve,  is  equal  to  one- 
fourth  of  the  parameter  of  the  diameter  at  that 
point,  viz. 

PA  =.  ^  the  parameter  of  the  diameter  .at  A, 
EF  =  -  -  -  -      at  F, 

KD  =  -  -  .   ■  -      at  L, 

LII  =r  -  -  -  -      at  H. 

'2.  If  a  body,  after  f,dling  through  the  height 
PA,  which  is  equal  to  AB,  and  when  it  ai'rives 
at  A,  if  its  course  is  changed,  bv  reHectlon 
from  a  firm  plane  AI,  or  otherwise,  into  any  di- 
rection AC,  wiiliout  altering  the  velocity;  and 
if  AC  is  taken  equ.il  to  2AP  or  2AB,  and  the 
parallelogram  is  completed;  the  body  will  de- 
scribe the  parabola  passing  through  the  point  D. 

;!.  Because  AC  =  ^AB,  or  -.'CD,  or  2.\P  . 
therefore  AC"  =:  2AP  .  2CD,  or  AP  .  4CD  ; 
and  because  all  the  perpendiculars  EF,  CD,  GH, 
are  as  AE',  ACS  AG'  therefore,  also  AP  .  -lEF 
=  AE-,  and  AP  .  -iGM  =  A(;',  &c. ;  ami  be- 
cause the  rectangle  of  the  extremes  is  equal  to 
the  rectangle  of  the  means,  of  four  proportionals, 
therefore  it  is  always, 

AP :  AE  ::  ae  ;  -ief, 

and  AP  •  AC  ■•  AC  ;   4CD, 
and  AP  I  AG  ; ;  AG  ;   IGH, 

and  so  on. 

IV.  Having  given  the  direction  of  a  projectile, 
and  the  impetus  or  altitude  due  to  the  first  ve- 
locity :  to  determine  the  greatest  height  to 
•which  it  will  rise,  and  the  random  or  horizontal 
range.  (Fig.  3  ) 

Let  AP  be  the  height  due  to  the  projectile 
velocity  at  A,  or  the  height  which  a  body  must 
fall  to  acquire  the  same  velocity  as  the  projectile 
has  in  the  curve  at  A  ;  also  AG  the  direction, 
and  All  the  horizon.  Upon  AG  let  fall  the  per- 
pendicular PO,  and  on  AP  the  perpendicular 
OR  ;  so  shall  .-VR  be  ec|ual  to  the  greatest  alti- 
tTide  CV,  and  -IRQ  equal  to  the  horizontal 
range  AU.  Or,  having  drawn  Py  perpendicu- 
lar to  AG,  take  AG  =  4A(1,  and  dr.aw  GH 
perpendicular  to  AH;  then  AH  is  the  range. 
For.bv  the  last  cor.  AP  ;  AG  ; ;  AG  ;  4GH, 
and  b)'sim.  triangles,  AP  ;  AG  "  AQ  ;  GH, 
or  AP  :  AG  ::  4.^0  :  4GH; 
therefore  AG  :=;  4AQ  ;  and,  by  similar  triangles, 
AH  =:  IRQ. 

Also,  if  V  is  the  vertex  of  the  parabola,  then 
AB  or  |AC;  =:  2Ay,  or  AQ  =  QB;  conse- 
quently AR  ;=  BV,  wiiich  is  =  CV  by  the  na- 
ture of  the  parabola. 

Hence,  I.  Because  the  angle  Q  is  a  right  an- 
gle, which  is  the  .angle  in  a  semicircle  tliere- 
ftire  if  upon  AP  as  a  diameter  a  semicircle  is 
Jcscrlbed,  it  will  pass  through  the  point  Q. 
(Fig.  4.) 

2.  If  the  horizontal  range  and  the  projectile 
velocity  are  given,  the  direction  of  the  piece  so 
as  to  hit  the  object  H  will  be  thus  easily  found  ; 
Take  AD  =:  J.-^H,  anddraw  DO  perpendicular 
to  AH,  meeting  the  semicircle  described  on  the 
diameter  AP  in  Q  and  j  then  either  AQ  or  Ag 
will  be  the  direction  of  the  jiiece.  And  hence 
it  appears,  that  there  are  two  directions  AB  and 
AA  which,  with  tlie  same  projectile  velocity, 
give  the  very  same  horizontal  range  AH  ;  and 
these  two  dircctioos  make  equal  angles  jAD  and 


50.3 

Q.AP  v.-lth  AH  and  AP,  because  the  arc  PQ  is 
equal  to  i  he  arc  Aj. 

:>,.  Or  if  the  range  AH  and  direction  AB  are 
given,  to  find  the  altitude  and  velocity  or  im- 
petus :  'lake  AD  —  f .\H,and  erect  the  perpen- 
dicular DQ  meeiiiig  AB  in  Q;  so  shall  DQ  be 
equal  to  the  greatest  altitude  CV.  Also  erect 
AP  perpendicular  to  AH,  and  QP  to  AQ  ,  80 
shall  AP  be  the  helglil  due  to  the  velocity. 

4.  When  the  b.idy  is  projected  with  the  same 
velocity,  but  in  dld'erent  directions  the  hori- 
zontal ranges  AH  will  be  as  the  sines  of  double 
the  angles  of  elevation;  or,  which  is  the  same 
thing,  as  the  rectangle  of  the  sine  and  cosine  of 
elevation.  For  AD  or  RQ,  which  is  iAII,  i» 
the  sine  of  the  arc  AQ,  which  measures  double 
the  angle  QAiJ  of  elevation. 

And  when  the  direction  is  the  same,  but  the 
velocities  diflVrent,  the  horizontal  ranges  are  as 
the  square  of  the  velocities,  or  as  the  height  AP, 
which  is  as  the  square  of  the  velocity;  for  the 
sine  .-^D  or  RQ,  or  iAH,  is  as  the  radius,  or  a* 
llie  diameter  AP. 

Therefiire,  when  both  are  different,  the  ranges 
are  in  the  compound  ratio  of  the  squares  of  the 
velocities,  and  the  sines  of  double  the  angles  of 
elevation. 

5.  The  greatest  range  is  when  the  angle  of 
elevation  is  half  a  rigl'it  angle,  or  4.r\  For  the 
double  of  4.";  is  90",  which  has  the  greatest  sine. 
Or  the  radius  OS,  which  is  \  of  the  range,  is  the 
greatest  sine. 

And  hence  the  greatest  range,  or  that  at  an 
elevation  of  4.1°,  is  just  double  the  altitude  AP, 
which  is  due  to  the  velocity,  or  equal  to  4VC. 
.^nd  consequently,  in  tli.it  case,  C  is  the  focus 
of  the  parabola,  and  AH  its  parameter. 

And  the  ranges  are  equal  at  augles  equally 
above  and  below  4j°. 

K.  When  the  elevation  is  l.";",  the  double  of 
which,  or  ?a",  having  its  sine  eqtjal  to  half  the 
radius,  consequently  its  range  will  be  equal  to 
AP,  or  half  the  greatest  range  at  the  elevation 
of  4.?' ;  that  is,  the  range  at  I.'°  is  equal  to  the 
impetus  or  height  due  to  the  projectile  velocity. 
7.  The  greatest  altitude  CV,  being  equal  to 
AR,  is  as  the  versed  sine  of  double  the  angle  of 
elevation,  and  also  as  AP  or  the  square  of  the 
velocity.  Or  as  the  square  of  the  sine  of  eleva- 
tion, and  the  square  of  the  velocity;  for  the 
.square  of  the  sine  is  as  the  versed  sine  of  the 
double  angle. 

H.  The  time  of  flight  of  the  projectile,  whicti 
is  equal  to  the  time  of  a  body  falling  freely 
through  GH  or  4CV,  4  time*  the  altitude,  is 
therefore  as  the  square  root  of  the  altitude,  or 
as  the  projectile  velocity  and  sine  of  the  eleva- 
tion. 

9.  Anil  hence  may  be  deduced  the  following 
set  of  theorems,  for  finding  all  the  circumstances 
relating  to  projectiles  on  horizontal  planes,  hav- 
ing any  two  of  them  given^     'I'hus,  let 

J,  t,  J  =  sine,  cosine,  and  tang,  of  elevation-, 
S,  V  =:  sine  and  vers  of  double  the  elevation, 
R  the  horizontal  rage,  T  the  time  of  flight,  V 
the  projectile  velocity,  H  the  greatest  height  of 

the  projectile,  g  =  H^tV  f^^"-  ^"<*  •'  =  ''"^  ''"" 
petus  or  the  altitude  due  to  the  velocity  V. 
Then, 

sv'        irv'  get-  ^T^ 

'"  ~~    ""  ~  2s   ~    z     ~     '     ~    * 
_  ^" 
( 

V  =  v'4.,^  =  V^-^  - -V^— -    ,    -      /" 


T  =  =  2i  v'  — 


:,^-=^ii=2,4 


H: 


:  hi'j  : 
■   4  ■ 


i-'R  = 


■k 


■i£. 


501 


P  It  O 


AivJ  from  any  of  these,  the  angle'  of  direction 
may  be  found. 

V.  To  determine  the  range  on  an  oblique 
plane  ;  having  given  tiie  impL-fjs  or  the  velo- 
cIl/,  and  the  angle  of  direction. 

Let  AE  be  the  oblique  plane,  at  a  given  angle 
abive  or  below  the  horizontal  plane  AH  ;  AG 
the  direction  of  the  piece  ;  and  AP  the  altitude 
due  to  the  projectile  velocity  at  A.    (I'ig.  ^.) 

By  the  la;-t  prop,  find  the  horizontal  range 
AHto  the  given  velocity  and  direction  ilraw 
HE  perpend'cular  to  AH,  meeting  the  oblique 
plane  in  £;  draw  EV  parallel  to  the  direction 
AG,  and  FI  p-r.'-llel  to  HE ;  so  .shall  the  pro- 
jectile pass  through  1,  and  the  range  on  the  ob- 
lique pi.uie  will  be  A'.  This  is  evident  from  the 
priiperlies  cf  the  parabol.^  :  see  Comc  Sections, 
xvliere  it  is  proved  that  if  AH,  A!,  are  any  two 
line?  •.erminated  at  the  curve,  and  IF,  HE,  are 
par;iUel  to  the  axis ;  then  is  EF  parallel  to  the 
tan'^cnt  AC;.  (1-igs.  6  and  7  ) 

lience,  I.  if  AO  is  drawn  perpendicular  to 
the  plane  AT,  and  AP  is  bisected  by  tlie  per- 
pe.idicuUr  S'l'O  ;  then  with  the  centre  O  de- 
scribing a  circle  through  A  and  P,the  same  will 
als)  pass  through  7;  because  the  angle  GAI, 
formed  by  the  tangent  AG  and  AI,  is  equal  to 
the  angle  APy,  which  will  therefore  stand  upon 
the  same  arc  An. 

2.  If  there  are  given  the  range  and  velocity, 
or  t!ie  impetus,  the  direction  will  then  be  eisily 
f.Hind  tluis:  Take  Ai  =  ^Al ;  draw  ti;  perpen- 
dicular to  AH,meeiiug  the  circle  described  with 
the  radius  AO  in  two  points  g  and  g ;  then  Ag 
or  Ag  will  be  the  direction  of  the  piece.  And 
hence  it  appears  that  there  are  two  directions, 
which,  with  the  same  impetus,  give  the  very- 
same  range  AI,  on  the  oblique  plane.  And  these 
tvTO  directions  make  equal  angles  with  A!  and 
AP,  the  (ilane  and  the  perpendicular,  because 
the  arc  P7  :=  the  arc  A7.  They  also  make 
equal  angles  with  a  line  drawn  from  A  through 
S,  because  the  arc  S?  =  the  arc  Sy. 

3  Or,  if  there  are  given  the  ringe  AI,  and 
the  direction  Ag,  to  find  the  velocity  or  impe- 
tus Take  A*  ==  ^Al ;  and  erect  iy  perpendi- 
cular to  AH,  meeting  the  line  of  direction  in  g  : 
then  draw  yP,  raakiog  the  angle  AgV  =  the  an- 
gle A*.7  ;  sn  shall  AP  be  the  impetus,  or  alti- 
tude due  to  tlie  projectile  velocity. 

4.  The  range  on  an  oblique  plane,  with  a 
given  elevation,  is  directly  as  the  rectangle  of 
the  cosine  of  the  direction'of  the  piece  above  the 
horizi'n,  and  the  sine  of  the  direction  above  the 
oblique  plane,  a-.id  recijjrocally  as  the  square 
of  the  cosine  of  the  angle  of  the  plane  above  or 
below  the  horizon. 
For, put  i  =:  sin.   Z.  7AI  or  AP7, 

c  z=z  COS.  ^  7-\H  or  sin.  PA7, 
C  =:  COS.  /.  lAH  or  sui.  AW  or  Aij  or 
A7P. 
Then,  in  thetri.APy,  C   :  1  ■■:  AP  ;  A7, 
and  in  the  trian.  Ate,  C    :  ;  ::  A7  :  At, 
therefore  by  ctnnpos.  C"  :  ci  ■■■  AP  :  AM  =  -'AI, 

ct 
80   that  the   oblitpie  range  AI  =  ^  X  4AP. 

Hence  the  ra.nge  is  the  greatest  w^hen  At  is 
tlie  greatest,  that  is,  v,'lien  kg  touches  the  circle 
in  the  ;iiiddle  point  S ;  and  then  the  line  of  di- 
rection passes  through  S,  and  bisects  the  angle 
f..rmed  by  the  oblii|ue  plane  and  the  vertex. 
Also  the  ran.;es  are  equal  at  ecpial  angles  above 
and  belov/  this  direction  f<n'  tl\e  maxinnun. 
^5    The  greatest  height  tv  or  Itg  of  t'le  jjrojcc- 

tile,  above  the  plane,  is  equal  to   ,  X  AP.  And 

therefore  it  is  as  the  inipetus  and  square  of  the 
siuL.- oi' direction  above  the  plane  directly,  and 
square  of  the  cosine  of  the  plane's  inclination 
reciprocally. 

For,  C  ':«i:i-  A7P)  :  /  (sin.  AP7)  ; :  AP  :  A7, 


P  R   O 

6.  The  time  of  flight  in  the  curve  A-.I  i:  = 

Of  ^p 

—  V — ,  where ^  =  IG  j-'j- feet.  And  there- 
c         s 

fore  it  is  as  the  velocity  and  sine  of  direction 
above  the  plane  directly,  and  cosine  of  the 
plane's  inclination  reciprocally.  For  the  time 
of  describing  the  curve,  is  equal  to  the  tim.e  of 

falling  freely  through  GI,  or  'ilg,  or  -  ,   x  AP. 

C' 

Therefore,  the  time  being  as  the  square  root  of 

'2s  2s  AV 

the  distance,  \^^  ;  ---  v'AP  ••  1"  •  —  ^ — 
c  ■  c         ^ 

the  time  of  flight. 

7.  From  the  foregoing  corollaries  may  be  col- 
lected the  following  set  of  theorems,  relating  to 
proiectiles  made  on  any  given  inclined  planes, 
either  above  or  below  the  horizontal  plane  ;  in 
v/hich  the  letters  denote  as  before,  namely, 

c   r::  cos.  of  direction  above  the  horizon, 

C  iz=  cos.  of  inclination  of  the  plane, 

s   r:z  sin.  of  direction  above  the  plane, 

R       the  range  on  the  oblique  plane, 

T        the  :ime  of  flight, 

V       the  projectile  velocity, 

II       the  greatest  height  aliove  the  plane, 

a         the  impetus,  or  alt.  due  to  the  velocity  V, 

c  =  ICiVfeet.    Then 

4.' 


C  Co- 


-T'  = 


II. 


H  —   -,<!  = 


4-JC' 


ii  4 


V  =  ^4.,^ 


./'''- = 


-T  — 


Vj^H. 


and  C  (sin.  Atg)   ;  s  (sin.  M7) 
Vhercforc  by  co.iip.  C  ',  s'   ','. 


Ag 
AP   • 


And  from  nny  of  these,  the  an^Ie  of  direction 
i  may  be  found. 

Of  the  Puih  of  Projectiles,  as  dcpcnd'irg  on  tljc 
Rest  tance  of  t'le  A'tr,  ' 

For  a  long  time  after  G.ilileo,  philosophers  I 
seemed  to  be  satisfied  with  tiic  parabolic  theory 
of  projectiles,  deemino;  the  i.*irect  o5the  air'-  re- 
;  sistance  on  the  path  as  of  no  con-sequence.  In 
process  of  time,  however,  as  the  true  philosophy 
be;?an  to  dawn  they  be^an  to  suspi-ct  that  the 
resistance  of  the  medium  m\t,^ht  liave  some  ef- 
fect upon  the  proiectile  curve,  and  they  set 
themselves  to  consider  this  subject  with  some  at- 
tention. 

Huygens,  supposinj^  that  the  resistance  of  the 
air  was  proportronal  to  the  velocity  of  tlie  mov- 
inaf  body,  concluded  that  the  line  described  by 
it  would  be  a  kind  of  lo^rarithmic  curve. 

But  Newton,  havinjj^  cicirly  proved,  that  the 
resistance  to  the  body  is  not  proportional  to  the 
velocity  itself,  but  to  the  s.juarc  of  it,  shews,  in 
h's  Vrincipla,  that  the  line  a  projectile  describes, 
approaches  neurcr  to  an  hyperbola  than  a  para- 
bola 

Mr.  Robins  has  shewn  that,  in  some  cases,  tho, 
resistance  to  a  cannon-ball  amounts  to  more 
than  20  times  the  \veio:ht  of  the  b:dl ;  and  Dr. 
llutton,  havintf  prosecuted  this  subject  far  be- 
yond any  former  example,  has  sometimes  found 
this  resistance  amount  to  near  100  times  the 
weight  of  the  ball,  viz.  when  it  moved  with  a 
veUjcitv  of  200'J  feet  per  second,  which  is  a  rate 
of  alm:>st  23  miles  in  a  minute. 

Mr.  Robins  has  not  only  detected  tlic  errors 
of  the  p:ir;iliulic  theory  of  ginuiery,  which  takes 
no  account  of  the  res'stance  of  the  air,  but 
shews  how  to  compute  the  real  range  of  resisted 
bodies. 

'I'liere  is  an  fuUl  circumstance  which  often 
takes  place  in  the  motion  of  bodies  projected 
with  considerable  force,  which  shev/s  the  great 
complication  and  dlHictdty  of  thissubjnrt;  nam  Li- 
ly, that  bullets  in  their  lli,t;ht  arc  U'lt  onlv  de- 
pressed beneath  their  original  direction  by  the 


PRO 

act'ion  of  gravity,  but  are  also  frequently  driven      ' 
to  the  right  or  left  of  that  direction  by  the  ac- 

tii'U  of  some  other  force. 

Now  if  rt  was  true  that  bullets  varied  their 
direction  by  the  action  of  gravity  only,  then  it 
ought  to  happen  that  the  errors' in  their  flight 
to  the  right  or  left  of  t!ie  mark  they  were  aimed 
at,  should  increase  in  the  proporllcn  of  the  dis- 
tance of  tl'-e  mark  from  the  piece  only.  But  this 
IS  contrary  to  all  experience  :  the  s.imc  piece 
which  will  carry  its  bullet  within  an  inch  of  the 
intended  mark  at  10  yards  distance,  cannot  be 
relied  on  to  10  inches  in  ICO  yards,  much  kss 
to  ;J0  in  :>00  yards. 

And  this  inequality  can  only  ari§e  from  the 
track  of  the  bulltt  being  incurvated  sideways  as 
v/e^l  as  downwards  ;  for  by  this  means  the  dis- 
tance between  the  incurvated  line  and  the  Hue 
of  direction,  will  increase  in  a  much  greater 
ratio  than  tliat  of  the  distance  ;  these  lines  coin- 
ciding at  the  mouth  of  the  piece,  and  afterwards 
separating  in  the  manner  of  a  curve  from  iis 
tangent,  if  the  mouth  of  the  piece  is  considered 
as  th.e  point  of  contact. 

This  is  i>«t  beyond  a  doubt  from  the  experi- 
ments made  by  Mr.  Robina ;  v.'ho  found  also 
that  the  direction  of  the  shot  in  the  perpendi- 
cular line  was  not  less  uncertain,  falbng  some- 
times t^CO  yards  short  of  what  it  did  at  other 
times,  although  there  was  no  visible  cause  of  dif- 
ference in  making  the  experiment.  See  Riflk. 
PROJKCTION,  in  mechanics,  the  act  of  giv- 
ing a  projecttie  its  motion. 

If  the  direction  of  the  force,  by  which  the 
projectile  is  put  in  motion,  is  perpendicular  to 
the  horizon,  the  projection  is  said  to  be  perpen- 
dicular; if  par:iUel  to  the  apparent  horizon,  it 
is  said  to  be  an  horizontal  projection ;  and  if  it 
makes  an  obiiipie  angle  with  the  horizon,  the 
projectif-n  is  obliiuie.  In  all  cases,  the  angle 
which  ihs  line  of  direction  makes  with  the  horl- 
zonlr.l  line,  is  called  the  angle  of  elevation  of 
the  projectile,  or  of  depression  wiicn  the  line  of 
direction  points  below  the  horizontal  Ime. 

PitojECTiox,  in  perspective,  denotes  the  ap- 
pearance or  representation  of  an  object  on  tlie 
perspective  plane.  So,  the  projection  of  a  point, 
is  a  point  where  the  optic  ray  pa.sscs  from  the 
objeciive  point  through  the  plane  to  tiiccye; 
or  it  is  the  point  where  the  plane  cuts  the  optic 
ray.  And  hence  it  is  easy  to  conceive  what  Is 
meant  by  the  projection  of  a  line,  a  plane,  or  a 
solid. 

P:?ojF.CTioN  ff  the'  Sfjbere  it  Planc^  is  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  several  points  or  places  of  the 
surface  of  the  sphere,  and  of  the  circles  descrihed 
upon  it,  upon  a  transparent  plane  placed  be- 
tween the  eve  and  the  sphere,  or  such  as  they 
appear  ro  the  eye  placed  at  a  given  distance. 
For  the  laws  of  this  projection,  see  Phrsi-ec- 
TivF,  ;  the  projection  of  the  sphere  being  only  a 
[^articular  ca.se  of  perspective. 

'J*he  chief  use  of  the  projection  of  the  spher?, 
is  in  the  construction  of  planispheres,  maps,  and 
charts  which  are  said  to  be  of  this  or  that  pro- 
jection, according  to  the  several  situations  of 
the  eye,  and  the  perspective  plane,  with  regard 
to  the  meridians,  parallels,  and  other  points  or 
places  to  be  represented. 

The  most  Uoual  projection  of  maps  of  the 
worhi,  is  that  on  the  plane  of  the  meridian, 
which  exhibits  a  riglu  sphere  ;  the  fifst  meridian 
being  the  horizon.  'I'honext  is  that  on  tlie  plane 
of  the  equator,  which  has  the  pole  in  the  centre, 
and  the  meridians  the  radii  of  a  circle,  &c.  and 
tins  represents  a  parallel  sphere.    See  Mai*. 

The  projection  of  tlie  sphere  is  usually  di- 
vided into  ortho'^raphic  and  stereographic  \  to 
which  may  be  added  gnomonic. 

PKOjr.crioN  ott'in^raphicy  is  that  in  which  the 
surface  of  the  sphere  is  drawn  upon  a  jdane, 
,-utting  it  in  the  middle*  the  eye  being  placed 
at  an  iuiiilte  distance  vertically  to  one  of  the 
he  misphevcs.    And, 


PRO 

_  Proji-ctidn  sleredjrrapUc  of  the  sphere,  Is  that 
111  wliicli  tlic  surface  and  circles  ol'  tlic  o.larf 
arc  drawn  upon  iLe  plane  of  a  f^reat  cl.clc,  the 
eye  heing  ni  tlie  pole-  of  tint  circle. 

I'noji.:ciioN.»;.wMmVa/  «f  the  iphir,,  is  that  in 
wli.ch  the  surface  of  the  sphere  i?  drawn  i.pon 
a  plane  wuhoutside  of  it,  commonly  tonchin-r 
It,  the  eye  heing  at  the  centre  of  the  splierc.  " 
Latui  if  the  irth-traphk  projection. — ).  'fhe 
ray?  cont.njj  from  tljc  eye,  being  at  an  infinite 
distance, and  making  the  projection,  are  parallel 
to  each  other,  and  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of 
projection. 

y.  A  right  line  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of 
projection,  is  projected  into  a  point  where  that 
line  meets  the  said  plane.     (l'"ig.«.) 

:).  A  right  line,  as  AB,  or  CD,  not  perpcndi- 
cular,  but  either  parallel  or  oblii|nc  to  the  plane 
o!  the  projection,  is  projected  into  a  right  line, 
as  lii'  or  C;H,  and  is  ahvays  comprehended  be- 
tween the  extreme  perpendiculars  AE  and  Bf 
or  CC;  and  DM. 

4.  ■I'he  projection  of  the  right  line  .A.I3  is  the 
greatest,  when  AB  is  parallel  to  the  iiiane  of  the 
projection. 

,5.  Hence  it  is  evident,  that  a  line  parallel  to 
the  plane  of  the  projection,  is  jirojected  into  a 
right  hue  equal  to  itself;  but  a  line  that  is  ob- 
lique to  the  plane  of  projection,  is  projected 
into  one  that  is  less  than  itself.     (Fig  fl.) 

G.  A  plane  surface,  as  ACEU,  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  the  projection,  is  projected  into 
the  right  line,  as  A  B,  in  which  it  cuts  that  plane. 
Hence  it  is  evident,  that  the  circle  ACBD  per- 
pendicular to  the  pl.me  of  projection,  jj.i^sino- 
through  its  centre,  is  projected  into  th.:tdiainc" 
ter  AB  in  which  it  cuts  the  plane  of  the  projec- 
tion. Also  any  arch  as  Cc  is  projected  into  Oo, 
equal  to  c.i,  the  right  sine  of  that  arch  ;  and  the 
complemcntal  are  rB  is  projected  into  oB,  the 
versed  sine  of  the  same  arc  c'H. 

7.  A  circle  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  projec- 
tion, IS  projected  into  a  circle  equal  to  itself, 
having  Its  centre  the  same  with  the  centre  of  the 
projection,  and  its  radius  equal  to  the  cosine  of 
Its  distance  from  the  plane.  And  a  circle  ob- 
lique to  the  plane  of  the  projection,  is  projected 
into  an  ellipsis,  wlio,,e  greater  axis  is  equal  to 
the  diameter  of  the  circle,  and  its  less  axis  equal 
to  double  t!ie  cosine  of  the  ohliqniiv  of  the  cir- 
cle to  a  radius  equal  to  half  the  greater  axis. 

Properties     of  the  sterer.^rafhie  frrfaion.—  l.   la 

this  projection  a  right  circle,  or  one  perpendi- 
cular to  the  plane  of  projection,  and  passing 
through  the  eye,  is  projected  into  a  line  of  half- 
tangents. 

2.  The  projections  of  all  other  circles,  not 
passing  through  the  projecting  point,  whether 
parallel  or  oblique,  are  projected  into  circles, 
figs.  10,  n.and  \-2. 

Thus,  let  ACEDE  represent  a  sphere,  cut  by 
a  plane  R.S,  passing  through  the  centre  I,  per- 
pendicul.ir  to  the  diameter  EH,  drawn  from  E 
the  place  of  the  eye  ;  and  let  the  section  of  the 
sphere  by  the  plane   R.S  be  the  circle  CFDL, 

•  whose  poles  are  H  and  E.  .Snp|)ose  now  ACJb' 
1  IS  a  circle  on  the  sphere  to  be  projected,  whose 
;pole  most   remote  from  the  eve  is  P;  and  the 

visual  rays  from  the  circle  Ht*B  meeting  in  E 
1  Mrm  the  cone  AGBE,  of  which  the   tnangle 

•  AEB  IS  a  section  through  the  vertex  E,  and  dia- 

•  meter  of  the  base  Ah  then  will  the  fit.  ure  «,./,/, 
'Which  IS  the  projection  of  the  circle  AGB,  be  it- 
■self  a  circle.   Hence,  the  middle  of  the  projected 

diameter  is  the  centre  of  the  projected  circle 
'Whether  it  is  a  great  circle  or  a  small  one  :  also 
the  poles  and  centres  of  all  circles  parallel  to 
the  plane  of  projection,  fall  in  the  centre  of  the 
projection ;  and  all  oblique  great  circles  cut  the 
primitive  circle  iu  two  points  diametrically  ou- 
posite.  ■'     "^ 

3.  The  projected  diameter  of  any  circle  sub- 
tends an  angle  at  the  eye  equal  to  the  distance 
of  that  circle  from  its  nearest  pole,  taken  on  the 

Vol  IJ. 


U  O 


ii  O 


sphere;  .ind  tliat  angle  is  bisected  bv  .t  nVhe 
liuejomingiheeveanc  that  pole.  Th'us.letthe 
plane  Rb  („g.  I;)}  cut  the  sphere  HEKC  throuH. 
Its  centre  I  ;  an<l  h-t  ABC  be  anv  i-bliqne  grAt 
circle  whose  dianieier  AC  i.,  piojecied  inio  ,„; 
and  kOL  any  small  circle  panillel  to  ABC 
whose  diameter  KJ,  is  projected  in  /.'.  -J-he  dis- 
tances of  those  circles  from  their  pole  PJieino- 
the  arcs  AHI',  KHP,  and  the  .-.ngles  Je,  la, 
are  the  aiig  ys  at  the  eye,  sublended  by  their 
projected  diameters,  a.-  and  U.  ■|-hen  is  the 
ange.,I^r  measured  by  the  arc  AIIP,  and  the 
angeiE/ measured  by  the  arc  Kill',  and  those 
J  angles  are  bisected  by  E P. 

;i.  Any  jioim  of  a  sphere  is  projected  at  such 
a  distance  from  the  centre  of  projection,  as  is 
equal  to  the  tangent  of  half  the  arc  intercepted 
between  that  p,.i„t  ,o,<i  t|,e  pole  opposite  to  the 
eye,  the  semidiameterof  the  spl-.ere  being  radius. 
Thus,  let  C!,V.\i  (fig.  l-l)  be  a  great  circle  of  the 
Sjihere,  whose  centre  is  e  ;  GH  the  plane  of  pro- 
jection cutting  ihe  di.iineter  of  the  sphere  in  i 
and  B;  also  ]■:  ami  C  ihc  poles  of  the  sectiim  by 
tliat  jilane  ;  and  ,;  the  i.rojection  of  .\.  Then  c., 
IS  equal  to  the  t.ingent  ol  half  the  arc  AC  as  is 
evident  by  drawing  CI-  =  the  tangent  of  half 
that  arc,  and  joining  cV. 

■i.  The  angle  made  by  two  projected  circles,  is 
equal  to  the  angle  which  thesecirclcsmakeon  the 
sphere,  lor  let  I.\CE  ,flg.  15) and  ABi.  be  two 
circles  on  a  sphere  intersecting  in  A  ;  E  the  pro- 
jecting point ;  and  RS  the  plane  of  projection, 
in  which  the  point  A  is  projected  in  a,  in  the 
ine  IC,  the  diameter  of  the  circle  ACE.  Also 
let  DH  and  FA  be  tangents  to  the  circles  ACE 
andAEL.  ihen  wdl  the  projected  angled./- 
be  equal  to  the  spherical  angle  EAC. 

5.  The  distance  between  the  poles  of  the  pri- 
mitive circle  and  an  oblique  circle,  is  equal  to 
the  tangent  of  half  the  inclination  of  those  cir- 
cles; and  the  distance  of  their  centres  is  equal 
to  the  tangent  of  their  inclination,  the  scniidi- 
ameter  of  tl;e  primitive  being  radius.  For  let  AC 
(fig.  16)  be  the  diameter  of  a  circle,  whose  poles 
are  P  and  Q,  and  inclined  to  the  plane  of  pro- 
jection in  the  angle  AIF;  and  let  ,i, ../.,  be  the 
projections  of  the  points  A,  C,  P;  also  let  WuV. 
I;e  the  projected  oblique  circle,  whose  centre  is 
7.  Now  when  the  |)lane  of  projection  becomes 
the  primitive  circle,  whose  pole  is  I,  then  is 
I/.  =  tangent  of  half  the  angle  AIF,  or  of  half 
the  arch  AF  and  Ij,  —  tangent  of  AF,  or  of  the 
angle  FU,(  =  AIF. 

_  6.  If  through  any  given   point  in  the  primi- 
tive   circle,    an    oblique     circle     is   described, 
then  the   centres   of   all   other  oblique  circles 
passing  through    that  point,  will   be  in  a  right 
line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  the  first  ob- 
lique circle,  and  perpendicular  to  a  line  passing 
through  that  centre,  the  given   jioint,  and  the 
centre  of  the  primitive  circle.     Thus,  let  GAC£ 
(lig.  17)  be  the  primitivecircle,  and  ADEI  a  gre.it 
circle  described  through  D,  its  centre  being  B. 
HK  is  a  right  hue  drawn  through  B.  perpendi- 
cular to  a  right  line  CI  passing  through  D  and  B 
and  the  centre  of  the  primitive  circle.     Then 
the  centres  of  all  other  g"  eat   circles,  as  FDG 
passing  through  D,  will  fall  in  the  line  HK.         ' 
7.  Equal  arcs  of  any  two  great  circles  of  the 
sphere  will  be  intercepted  between  two  other 
circles  drawn  on  the  sphere  through  the  remotest 
poles  of  those  greatcircles.  For  let  PBEA  (fi<».  iri 
be  a  sphere,  on  which  AGE  and  CFD  are"  two 
great  circles,  whose  remotest  poles  are  E  and  P- 
and  through    these  poles  let    the  great    circle 
PBEC  and  the  small  circle  PGE  be  drawn    cu;- 
tmg  the  great  circl-s  AGB  and  CFD  in  the  points 
B,  G,  D,  F.     ThdV  are  the  intercepted  arcs  BG 
and  1)K  equal  to  one  another. 

S.  If  lines  are  drawn  from  the  projectedi pole 
of  raiy  grctit  circle,  cutting  the  peripheries  of 
the  projected  circle  and  [.lane  of  proiection 
the  intercepted  arcs  of  those  periiilieries  arc 
equal;  lliat  is,  tlic  arc  BG  r=j7; 


^OS 


■  ""■  -  f'"^  rtidiin  of  any  lesser  circle,  who  .p  pl^iiw 
IS  I  S'  f  dicular  to  that  of  the  primitive  circle, 
>s  ee  .1  10  tjic  tangent  of  that  Ic-sser  circW. 
lbs) ^-^  ■«.  from  its  pole;  and  the  secant  of  diat 
d.^taS  e  u  equal  to  the  distance  of  the  centre* 
ul  ih';^rii:!itivc  and  leaser  cirele  For  let  P  (fig 
19)  be  Uie  pile  and  AB  the  diameter  of  a  lesser 
circle,  U.S  plane  being  perpendicular  to  that  of 
the  prnnitive  circle,  whose  eemic  is  C :  then  J 
being  tin  centre  of  the  projected  !cs-,er  circle,  c/j 
IS  equal  fo  the  tangent  of  the  arc  PA,  and  JC  = 
the  secant  of  PA. 

I'KOJKCI'I'RF:.     Sce  AncHiTECTURE. 

l'iU)l..VI'SUS.     .S-f  buRGERy. 

I'KOJ-ATK,  ill  gc-oiuL-tiy,  an  epithet  ap- 
plied to  a  spheroid  jjioduced  by  tin;  rtvoln- 
tion  of  :i  SL-iiii-L-llipsis  about  it's  larger  dia- 
meter. 

PROMISE,  is  where,  upon  a  valuable 
consideration,  jiersoiis  bind  lliemselves  by 
words  to  do  or  perform  such  a  tliiiig  aoreed 
on:  It  is  ill  (he  nature  01  a  verbal  covenant, 
and  wants  only  the  soleuiuilv  of  writing  and 
sealing  to  uialie  it  absoluteK' the  stuiie.  Vet 
for  the  breatli  of  if,  th.ereiiiedv  is  diiferent  ; 
lor  instead  of  an  action  of  coveiiant,  tlie::- 
lies  only  an  action  upon  the  case,  the  da- 
intiges  ttliereof  are  to  be  ebtimated  and  de- 
ti  .'■mined  by  the  jury. 

P)!()Ml's.S0KY'N0rE.     .Sec  Kills  of 

E.XCHA.VGE. 

PKOXOt'N,  ill  giai'imar,  a  decIinaWo 
part  ot  sjieech,  which  bei:  g  put  instead  01  » 
iiuun,  points  out  some  person  or  thiiig. 

PHCK)!',  the  sliewinu-  or  inalviua;  plain  the 
truth  o!  any  matter  aih  ged  ;  either'in  giving 
evidence  to  a  jury  on  "a  trial,  or  else  on  !\?- 
lcrroi;atories  or  by  cop.es  ol  ivcords,  or 
e.xempiilicatioiisoi  t'heni.     8ee  I'.viijenck. 

Proof  rif  cidli':,  and  iwall  aniu,  is  a 
trial  vvlietlur  ll-.ey  stand  the  (luanlilv  of  pow- 
der allotted  for  that  purpose,  'j  he  rule  of 
liie  board  ot  onlnaiice  is,  that  all  suns  under 
a4-poundersare  loaded  with  powder  as  nr.ich 
as  their  shot  weighs;  thai  is,  a  brass  r4- 
])oundei  with  a  I  lb.  a  brass  32-pouiider  willi 
'J61b.  12oz.  and  a  42-pounder  with  311b. 
80Z.  the  iron  'i4-poiinuer  willi  IS  lb.  the 
3L'-pouiider  witli  '21  lb.  8  oz.  and  tiie  42- 
pounder  with  2.")  lb. 

'I'l.e  brass  bgl^t' *elcKpieccs  are  proved 
with  powder  that  weiglis  half  a^  nurch  a* 
their  hot,  except  lhe'24-pounder,  wlikh  is 
loaded  with  10  lb.  only. 

Governriient  allows  II  bullets  of  lead  in 
tile  poitiid  tor  the  proof  of  nuiskels;  and  ]'i..\, 
ortwenty-i-iiiein  (wo,  for  service  ;  seveiileeij 
in  the  pound  for  the  proof  of  carbines,  and 
twenty  (or  service  ;  twentv-,i!>ht  in  (he  i;ound 
(or  the  proof  of  pi.stols,' and  thirty -(bur  ior 
service. 

Wlien  guns  of  a  new  melal,  or  of  lighter 
con-truclion,  are  proved;  then,  besides  ilitf 
common  proof,  they  are  tired  2U0  or  300 
times,  as  quick  as  tjiey  can  be  loaded  with 
(he  common  rharH:e  giVen  in  actual  service. 
()m- light  six- poinidcrs  Were  iirul  300  tiintb 
in  three  hours  and  twentv-^even  niiniK.-s, 
'oade.l  witii  lib.  4oz.,  without  recei\ina 
any  damage. 


t'        o"*  '■■■■ 

I  ROOF  of  pozidn;  is  in  order  to  try  its 
goodness  and  strength.     .See  Glnpowuer. 

Proof  of  c/uiunn,  is  niade  to  ascertain 
their  b.;ing  well  cast,  their  having  no  cavities 
in  the  metal,  and  in  a  word,  tjieir  being  tit 
(o  resist  the  elfoit  of  their  charge  of  poH^ler. 
In  tnaking  this  proof,  the  piece  is  !;iid  upo« 


60(5 


PRO 


the  ground,  supported  only  by  a  piece  of 
wood  in  llie  middle,  of  about  live  or  six 
indies  thick,  to  raise  the  muzzle  a  little, 
and  then  the  piece  is  tired  against  a  solid 
butt  of  earth. 

Proof  of  mortars  andlwxitzers,  is  made 
to  ascertain  their  being  well  cast,  and  ot 
strength  to  re^ist  the  ellbrt  of  their  charge. 
For  this  purpose  the  mortar  or  howitzer  is 
placed  upon  the  ground,  with  some  part  of 
the  trunnions  or  breech  sunk  below  the 
surface,  and  resting  on  wooden  billets  at  an 
elevation  of  about  seventy  degrees.  The 
mirror  is  generally  the  only  instrument  to 
discover  the  defects  in  mortars  and  howitzers. 
In  order  to  use  it,  the  sun  must  shine;  the 
breech  nuist  be  placed  towards  the  sun,  and 
the  glass  over-against  the  mouth  of  the  piece 
which  illuminates  the  bore  and  chamber  suf- 
ficiently to  discover  the  flaws  in  it. 

Proof  of  foreign  brass  arlilltri/.     1st, 
The   Prussians.      '1  heir  battering-train   and 
garrison  artillery  are  proved  with  a'quautity 
of  powder  equal   to   half  the  weight  of  the 
shot,  and  tired  seventy-live  rounds  as  fast  as 
in  real  service  ;  that  is,  two  or  three  rounds 
in  a  minute.     Their  li:.;ht  lield-train,  from  a 
12-pounder  upwards,  are  proved  with  a  quaii- 
titv  of   powder  =  l-3il  of  the  weight  of  tiie 
shot,  and  li red  150  rounds,  at  three  or  four 
rounds  in   a  minute.     From  a    12-pounder 
downwards,     are    proved  with    a    quantity 
=  l-5th  of  the  shot's  weight,  and  tired  300 
rounds,  at  five  or  six  rounds  each  minute, 
properly  spunged  and  loaded.      '1  heir  mor- 
tars are'  proved  with  the  chambers  full   of 
powder,  and  the  shells  loaded.  Three  rounds 
are    tired  as  quick  as  possible.      2d,   'I  he 
Dutch  prove  all  their  artillery  by  firing  each 
piece  live  times  :  the  two  first  rounds  with  a 
quantity  of  powder  ze  2-3ds  of  the  weight 
of  the  shot;  and  the  three  last  rounds   with 
a  quantity  of  jjowder  =  half  the  weight  of 
the  shot.     3d,    The  f'rench  the  same  as  the 
Dutch. 

Proof,  in  brandy  and  other  spirituous 
liquors,  is  a  little  white  froth  which  appears 
on  the  top  of  the  lK|Uor  when  poured  into  a 
glass.  This  froth,  as  it  diiuinishes,  forms 
itself  into  a  circle  called  by  the  French  the 
chapelet,  and  by  the  English  the  bead  or 
bubble. 

PROPOLIS.     SeeHEsiMS. 

PROPORTION,  in  arithmetic,  &c.  See  Al- 
CEBRA,  p.  .51. 

Proportion  is  often  confounded  with  ratio  ; 
but  they  are  quite  different  thini;s.  I'or,  ratio 
is  properly  the  relation  of  two  magnitudes  or 
quantities  of  one  and  I  he  same  kind;  as  the  ratio 
of  4  to  8,  or  of  15  to  .TO,  or  of  1  to  2  and  so 
implies  or  respects  only  two  terms  or  things. 
But  proportion  respects  four  terms  or  things, 
or  two  ratios  which  have  each  two  terms : 
though  the  middle  term  may  he  common  to 
both  "ratios,  and  then  the  proportion  is  expressed 
by  three  terms  only,  as  4,  S,t;i,  where  4  is  to  8 
at  8  to  64. 

Proportion  is  also  sometimes  confounded  with 
progression.  In  fact,  the  two  often  coincide  ; 
the  difference  between  them  only  consisting  in 
this,  that  projcrcMsion  is  a  particular  species  of 
proportion,  being  indeed  a  continued  propor- 
tion, or  such  as  has  all  the  terms  in  the  same 
ratio,  viz  the  1st  to  the  'id,  the  2d  to  the  ;ld, 
the  3d  to  the,  -Ith,  &c  ;  as  the  terms  'J,  4, 8,  Ui, 
&c.  so  that  'progression  is  a  series  or  continu- 
ation of  proportions.     See  Prugkession. 


PRO 

Proportion  is  cither  continual,  or  discrete,  or 
interrupted. 

1  he  proportion  is  contin"al  when  every  two 
adjacent  terms  have  the  same  ratio,  or  when  the 
consei]"ent  of  each  ratio  is  the  antecedent  of  the 
next  following  ratio,  and  so  all  the  terms  form  a 
progression;  as  2,  4,  8,  l(i,  &c.;  where  2  is  to  4 
as 4  to  8,  and  as  8  to  IG,  &c. 

Discrete  or  interrupted  proportion,  is  when 
the  consequent  of  the  first  ratio  is  dilTerent  from 
the  antecedent  of  the  2d,  &c. ;  as  2,  4,  and  ."?,  G. 


PRO 


■  i.\h- 


Proportion  is  also  either  direct  or  inverse. 
Direct    proportion   is    when    more    requires 
more,  or  less  requires  less;  as    it  will   require 
more  men  to  perform  more  work,  or  fewer  men 
for  less  work,  in  the  same  time. 

Inverse  or  reciprocal  proportion,  is  when 
more  requires  less,  or  less  requires  more.  As  it 
will  require  more  men  to  perform  the  same 
work  in  less  time,  or  fewer  men  in  more  time. 
Ex.  If  (j  men  can  perform  a  piece  of  work  in  15 
days,  how  many  men  can  do  the  same  in  10 
days  ?     Then, 

reciprocally     as  y\  to  r~g  so  is  6  ;  9^  the  an- 
or  inversely     as  10  to  15  so  is  6  *  9^    swer. 
Proportion,  again,  is  distinguished  into  arith- 
metical, geometrical,  and  harmonical. 

Arithmetical  proportion  is  the  equality  of 
two  arithmetical  ratios,  or  differences;  as  in 
the  numbers  12,  9,  6  ;  where  the  difference 
between  12  and  9,  is  the  same  as  the  difference 
between  9  and  6,  viz.  3. 

And  here  the  sum  of  the  extreme  terms  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  means,  or  to  double  the 
single  mean  when  there  is  but  one.  As  12  -^  6 
=  9-f9=18. 

Geometrical  proportion  is  the  equality  be- 
tween two  geometrical  ratios,  or  between  the 
quotients  of  the  terms.  As  in  the  three  9,  H,  4, 
where  9  is  to  6  as  6  is  to  4,  thus  denoted  9  \  6 
"6  *  4 :  for  a.  =  A,  being  each  equal  ^  or 
li 

And  in  this  proportion,  the  rectangle  or  pro- 
duct of  the  extreme  terms,  is  equal  to  that  of 
the  two  means,  or  the  square  of  the  single  me;in 
when  there  is  but  one.  For  9x4  =  6xt>^ 
36. 

Harmonical  proportion,  is  when  the  first  term 
is  to  the  third,  as  the  difference  between  the  1st 
and  2d  is  to  the  difference  between  the  t2d  and 
:Jd  ;  or  in  four  terms,  when  the  1st  is  to  the  4th, 
as  the  difference  between  the  Ist  and  *2d  is  to  the 
difference  between  the  ;3d  and  4th :  or  the  re- 
ciprocals of  an  arithmetical  proportion  are  iu 
harmonical  proportion.  As  6,4,3,  because 
G  [  3  [[  6  —  4  =  2  I  4  ~  3  ^=  I ,  or  because 
i,  ^,  I",  are  in  arithmetical  proportion,  making 
1  -|-  J.=  ^  +  i  =  ^.  Also  the  four  24,  16, 
12,  9,  are  in  harmoiilcal  proportion,  because  24  ; 

9::  8;  3. 

PROPORTIONAL  compa^.es,  are  compasses 
with  two  pair  of  opposite  legs,  like  a  St.  An- 
drew's cross,  by  which  any  space  is  enlarged  or 
diminished  in  any  proportion. 

Proportional  scala,  called  also  logarithmic 
scales,  are  the  logarithms,  or  artificial  numbers, 
placed  on  lines,  for  the  ease  and  advantage  of 
multiplying  and  dividing,  &c.  by  means  of  com- 
passes, or  of  sliding  rulers.  These  are  in  effect 
so  many  lines  of  numbers,  as  tliey  are  called  by 
GuntLT,  but  made  single,  double,  triple,  or  qua- 
druple; beyond  wliicli  they  SL-ldom  go. 

PKOPOR  nONALS,  are  the  terms  of  a  pro- 
portion: consisting  of  two  extremes,  which  are 
the  first  and  last  terms  of  the  set,  and  theme.ms, 
which  are  the  rest  of  the  terms.  These  propur- 
tionah  may  be  either  arithmeticals,  geomctricals, 
or  liarmonicals,  and  in  any  mi.nber  above  two, 
and  also  either  continued  or  disconiinut'd. 

Pappus  gives  this  beautiful  and  simple  com- 
panion of  the  three  kinds  of  proportionaN, 
arithmetical,  geometrical,  and  haimouical,  viz. 


(1,  b,  e,  being  the  first,  second,  a  r.d  third  terms  in 
any  such  proportion,  then 
In  the  arithmetical, 
in  the  geometrical^, 
in  the  liarmonicals, 
Continued  proportionals  form  what  is  called 
a  progres'.ion.     See  Pkogression. 

I.   Propcrtie-i  of  ar'iihmciical proportionals. 
For   what    respects     progressions   and  mean. 
proportionals  of   all  sorts,   see  Mean  and  Pro- 
gression. 

1 .  Four  arithmetical  proportions,  as  2,  3,  4,  5, 
are  still  proportionals  when  inversely  5,  4,  3,2; 
or  alternately,  thus,  -  2,4,3,5; 
or  inversely  and  alternately,  thus,  5,  3,  4,  2, 

2.  If  two  arithmeticals  are  added  to  the  like 
terms  of  other  two  arithmeticals,  of  the  same 
difference  or  arithmetical  ratio,  the  sums  will 
have  double  the  same  difference  or  arithmetical 
ratio. 

So,  to  3  and   5,  whose  difference  is  3, 

add  7  and   9,  whose  difference  is  also  2, 

the  sums  10  and  14  have  a  double  diff.  viz.  4,  ' 
And  if  to  these  sums  are  added  two  other  num- 
bers also  in  the  same  difference,  the  next  sums 
will  have  a  triple  ratio  or  difference  ;  and  so  on. 
Also,  whatever  are  the  ratios  of  the  terms  that 
are  added,  whether  the  same  or  different,  the 
sums  of  the  terms  will  have  such  arithmetical 
ratio  as  is  composed  of  the  sums  of  the  otherc 
that  are  added. 

So  3  ,  5,  whose  diff.  is  2 
and  7  ,  10,  whose  diff.  is  3 
and  12     ,     16,  whose  diff.  is  4 


make  22     ,     31,  whose  diff.  is  9. 
On  the  contrary,  if  from  two  arithmeticals  are 
subtracted  others,  the  difference  will  have  such 
arithmetical    ratio  as  is  equal  to  the  differences 
of  those. 

So  from  12  and  16,  whose  dlf.  is     4 
take  7  and  10,  whose  dif.  is    3 

leaves      5  and    6,  whose  dif.  is      1 


Also  from  7  and 
take  3  and 


9,  whose  dif.  is     2 
5,  whose  dif.  is     2 


f  " 


leaves      4  and     4,  whose  dif.  is     0 

Hence,  if  arithmetical  proportionals  are  multi- 
plied or  divided  by  the  same  number,  their  diffe- 
rence, or  arithmetical  ratio,  is  also  multiplied  or 
divided  by  the  same  number. 

II.  Properties  of  geometrical  proporti-nals. 
The  properties  relating  to  mean  propor- 
tionals are  given  under  the  term  Mean  Pro- 
portional; some  are  also  given  under  the  ar- 
ticle Propohtion  ;  and  some  additional  onea 
are  as  below : 

l.To  find  a  3d  proportional  to  two  given  num- 
bers, or  a  4th  proportional  to  three  in  the 
former  case,  multiply  the  2d  term  by  itself,  and 
divide  the  jjroduct  by  the  Ist  ;  and  m  the  latter 
case,  multiply  the  2d  term  by  the  3d,  and  divide 
the  product  by  the  Ist. 

So     2  \G  \\Q\  18,  the  3d  prop,  to  2  and  6: 
and  2  ;  6  ;•  5  ;  15,  the-lthprop.  to2,6,and5. 
2.  If  the  terms  of  any  geometrical  ratio  arft 
augmented  or  diminished  by  any  others  in  the 
same  ratio,  or  proportion,  the  sums  or  differencet 
will  still  be  in  the  same  ratio  or  proportion. 
So  if    a\b\\c\d, 
then  '"^^  ^^\h  \\  a-\^c  \b  -^dW  c\  il. 
And  if  tiie  terms  of  a  ratio,  or  proportion,  art 
multiplied  or  divided  by  any  one  and  the  same 
luunber,  (he  products   and  tiuoiieuts  will  &liU 
be  iu  the  same  ratio,  or  proportion. 

Thus,  a\h  ,\na\nh\\      -    \    -. 


FffiOJEClinrJES,  &e„ 


A  J3         C  13 


B 


/ 

/ 

B 

4 

w^ 

fr- 

~~~^~^^^ 

lO 


IZ 


M 


E 


.5 


\ 


o 


A        d 


8 


\ 


Eg 


B 


D 


R 


Y 


D  JO 


Jt^^ 


Trmtii  Di^.i-iSsf.  fc^  -RicTiira  PWl^-  s  .  Nin,7iridpe.  St.Slack/nam 


p  n  o 

S  If  a  vt  orcontliined  jiroportionnlasre  citliPr 
aujfmt-nteJ   or  dimiiiisliccl  by  the  same  part  or 
parti  cif  themselves,  tlie  sunio  or  diiTcrences  will 
also  lie  proportionals. 
Thus  If,/,  b,  c,       o',^<c.  arepropors. 

ihenare  J  i      ,  i,  +  -,  t,  +     \  &c.-  also  pro- 
II  n  n 

portionals,  where  the  common  ratio  is  I  +  -. 

M 

And  if  any  single  quantity  is  either  augment- 
ed or  diminished  by  some  part  of  itself,  and  the 
result  is  also  increased  or  diminished  bv  the 
same  part  of  itself.and  this  third  quantity  treated 
in  the  same  manner,  and  so  on;  then  shall  all 
these  quantities  be  continued  proportionals.  .So, 
beginning  with  the  quantity  ,;,  and  taking  al- 
ways the  nth  part,  then  shall 


-»- 


+ 


&c.    be 


propo 


tionals,  ori;,cj  +     .  (a  +        )',  (,i -|-         ),  &c. 
It  n  n 

proportionals  the  common  ratio  being  1  +    • 

4.  If  one  set  of  proportionals  is  nuiltiplicd  or 
divided  by  any  other  set  of  proporticmals,  each 
term  by  each,  the  products  or" quotients  will 
alio  be  proportionals. 


Thus, 
and 
then  is 

and 


if 


:  !• : 
:"  bd  i 


lib, 

?7lb' 


f).  If  tliere  are  several  coiitimied  proportion- 
als, then  wiiatever  r;itio  the  1st  has  to  the  'Jd, 
the  1st  to  the  ;Jd  shall  have  tliu  duplicate  ot  tlie 
ratio,  the  Ibt  to  the  -Jtli  the  triplicate  of  it,  and 
•o  on. 

So  in  (7,  na,  «^<2,  n^a,  &c.  the  ratio  being'  n  ; 

tlien  a  •  «'ii,  or  1  to  «^,  tlie  duplicate  ratio, 

and    a  \  n^a^  or  1  to  n^,  the  triplicate  ratio, 
and  so  on. 

(j.  In  three  continued  proportionals,  the  dif- 
ference between  the  1st  and  'Jd  term,  is  a  mean 
proportional  between  the  1st  term,  and  the  se- 
cond difference  of  all  tlie  terms. 

Thus,  in  the  three  propor.  a,  na^  n^a  ; 


Terms 
n'a 


1st  difs. 


2d.  dif. 


f  —  2;;.i  -^  rt, 


then  a  \ 

Or  in  the  numbers  2,  G,  18  ; 


+  ' 


8  the  2d  difference  j 


then  2,  4,  8  are  proportionals. 

7.  M'hen  four  quantities  are  in  proportion, 
they  are  also  in  proportion  by  inversion,  com- 
position, division,  &c. ;  thus,  a,  ?.'tf,  b^  nby  beinjj  in 
proportion, viz. 


1,                                                   a  \  lia 

\    i;)ii;theaby 

2.  Inversion                  tia  \    a 

:>*:*; 

S.  Alternation                 a  \    b 

'  na  \  nb ; 

4.  Composition     a  -\-  n.i  \  na 

*     b  -  -  nb  \  nb  \ 

5.  Conversion       a  -|-  tui  I    a 

' ;     bJ^nh\     b\ 

«6.  Division         5"  ~  ""  [    " 

:     b—nb\     b\ 
'     b  —  "^  r  '^^  \ 

HI.  Properties  of  harmouical  proportiomth, 

1.  If  three  or  four  numbers  in  harmonica! 
(^oportion,  are  either  multiplied  or  divided  bv 
lany  number,  the  products  or  quotients  will  also 
fibe  harmonical  proportions. 

Thus,    G,  3,  2,  being  harmon.  propor. 
then    12,  6,  4,  are  also  harmon.  propor. 
and      A,    ',  1.  are  also  harmon.  propor. 

2.  In  the  three  harmonical  proportionals,  a,  b, 
.-,  whea  any  two  of  these  are  given,  the  third  can 


PRO 

be  found  from  the  definition  of  them,  viz.  that 

(I  \  c  \\  a  —  b  \b  —  c\  for  hence 

*2.ic 

b  =:   — — •  the  harmonical  mean  and 

"+' 

.lb 

c  =z    .         ,  tlie  tliird  harmon.  to  a  and  k. 

^a  —  b 

;?.  And  of  the  four  harmonicals,  a,  b,  c,  d,  any 
three  hcing  given,  the  fourth  can  be  found  from 
the  definition  of  them,  viz.  that  a  ',  d  ',',  u  —  b  ', 
c  —  rf;  for  thence  the  three  b,  c,  d,  will  be  thus 
found,  viz. 


PRO 


507 


•ind  —  Hc 
•    d 


<2ad  —  bl 


•:''=. 


ab 


■■2,,  —  b 
4.  If  there  are  four  numbers  disposed  in  order, 

as  2,  r,,  4,  f),  of  which  one  extreme  and  the  two 
middle  terms  are  in  arltlmietlcal  proportion, 
and  the  other  extreme  and  the  same  middle 
terms  are  in  harmonic. .1  proportion  ;  then  are 
the  four  terms  in  geometrical  proportion ;  so 
here 

the  three  2,  .T,  4  are  arithmeticals, 

and  the  three    f5,  4,  G  are  harmonicals, 

then  the  four   2,  3,  4,  6  are  geometricals. 

a.  If  between  any  two  numliers,  as  2  and  G, 
there  are  interposed  an  arithmetical  mean  ^,  and 
also  a  harmonical  mean  :!,  the  four  will  then  be 
geometricals,  viz.  2  ;  3  ; ;  4  ;  G. 

G.  Between  the  three  kinds  of  proportion, 
there  is  this  remarkable  dilTerence  viz.  that 
from  any  given  number  there  can  be  raised  a 
continued  arithmetical  series  increasing  ad  in- 
finitum, but  not  decreasing  .  while  the  harmoni- 
cal can  be  decreased  ad  nifinltum,  but  not  in- 
creased ;  and  the  geometrical  admits  of  both. 

Proportions  of  the  huni.ui  body.  See 
Drawing. 

PkoroRTioNs  of  the  antique  statues.  See 
Statues,  and  Sculpture. 

PROPOSITION,  in  logic,  part  of  an  ar- 
gument wlieiein  some  quality,  either  nega- 
tive or  positive,  is  attributed  to  a  subject  ;"or 
according  to  Cliauvinus,  it  is  a  complete  con- 
sistent sentence,  indicating  or  expressing 
something  either  true  or  false,  witlioiit  ambi- 
gtiily  ;  as,  God  is  just. 

Proposition,  in  matliematics,  is  either 
some  truth  advanced  and  shewn  to  be  such 
by  demonstration,  or  some  operation  pro- 
posed and  its  solution  shewn.  Iftlic  jjropo- 
sition  is  deduced  from  several  theoretical 
dclinitions  compared  together,  it  is  called  a 
theorem  ;  if  from  a  praxis,  or  series  of  opera- 
tions, it  is  called  a  problem. 

PUOSERPINACA,  a  genus  of  thetrigynia 
order,  in  the  triandria  class  of  plants;  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  15th 
order,  inuiidata'.  The  cab,  x  is  tripartite  su- 
perior ;  there  is  no  corolla  ;  there  is  one  tri- 
locular  seed.  There  is  one  species,  a  marsli 
plant  of  ^'il■ginia. 

PiiOSODY,  that  part  of  grammar  wliich 
treats  of  the  quantities  and  accents  of  sylla- 
bles, and  the  manner  of  making  verses. 

PROSOPiS,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  tlie  decaudria  class  of  plants.  'The 
calyx  is  liemisphcrical  and  quadridentatc; 
tlip  stigma  is  simple,  the  legumen  inflated 
and  monospermous.  There  is  one  species,  a 
tree  of  the  East  Indies. 

PROSOPOPffilA,  a  figure  in  rlietoric, 
wliereby  we  raise  qualities,  or  things  inani- 
mate, into  persons.     See  Rhetoric. 

PROSTAT-IC.     See  Anatomy. 

PROSTYLE,  in  antient  architecture,  a 
range  of  columns  in  front  of  a  temple. 

PROTEST,  when  one  openly  aflirms,  that 
he  does  either  not  at  all,  or  but  conditionallv, 
3S2 


yield  liis  consent  to  any  act,  or  unto  tliR 
proceeding  of  a  judgi;  m  court  wlierein  his 
jurisdiction  is  doulillul,  or  to  answer  upon 
his  oath  any  farther  than  by  law  he  is  bomid. 

PROii-.si-,  is  also  that  act  by  which  Ibe 
holdi-r  of  a  loreigu  1)111  of  exchange  declares 
that  such  bill  is  dishonoured. 

Protest,  is  also  that  act  of  a  master,  on 
his  arrival  with  his  ship  from  parts  beyoini 
the  seas,  to  save  him  and  his  o  meis  harmless 
and  iiidemiiirie<l  from  any  damage  sustained 
in  tlie  goods  of  lier  lading,  on  account  of 
storms.  See  Pills  of  Exchange,  and  In- 
surance. 

PHOl  ESTANT,  a  name  first  given  in 
Ocrmany  to  those  wlio  adhered  to  the  doc- 
trine of  Luther;  because  in  l.')29,  they  pri>- 
tested  against  a  decree  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  and  the  diet  of  Spires;  declaring 
that  they  appealed  to  a  general  coimcil. 
The  same  name  al  o  has  been  given  to  those 
of  the  sentiments  of  Calvin,  and  is  now  be- 
come a  common  denomination  for  all  those 
of  the  reformed  churches. 

PRO  IE. \,  iV.e  .sihi'r-trce,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  in  the  It  trandria  class  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  47th  order,  stellata'.  'I  here  is 
one  quadrilid  petal  surrcnmding  the  germ  ; 
there  is  no  proper  calyx  ;  the  receptacle  is 
paleaceous.  '1  here  are  sixty-lour  species, 
chielly  natives  of  the  Cape  of  (jood  Ho|)e  ; 
of  which  the  most  remarkable  are,  1.  'I'he 
conilera,  with  linear,  spear-shaped,  entire 
leaves,  grows  to  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve 
leet,  with  a  slraight  regular  stem.  The 
branches  naturally  form  a  large  regular  head. 
The  leaves  are  long  and  narrow,  of  a  shining 
silver-colour,  and,  as  they  remain  the  whole 
year,  make  a  line  appearance  in  the  green- 
house. 2.  The  argentea,  commonlv  called 
silver-tree,  has  a  strong  upright  stem  co- 
vered with  purplish  bark,  dividing  into  sever- 
al brandies  which  grow  erect,  with  broad, 
shining,  silver) ,  leaves,  which  make  aiine  Uj)- 
pearance  when  intermixed  with  other  e.xotics. 
Through  the  wiiole  year  it  exnibits  its  glossy 
white  or  silvery  leaves.  It  has  at  first  a  very 
uncommon  and  beautiful  appearance;  and 
sometimes  in  the  course  of  twelve  or  fifteen 
years,  reaches  tlie  height  of  twenty  feet, 
which  it  never  exceeds.  In  a  ricli  soil  it 
grows  twice  as  quick,  and  is  by  far  the  lar- 
gest of  the  protea  kind.  They  are  generally 
planted  near  some  farms,  and  verv  seldom 
grow  wild  ;  Mr.  Sparrman  thinks  it  was  pro- 
bably brought  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
from  Anamac|ua ;  for  he  had  travelled  over 
the  whole  north-east  side  of  Hottentots'  Hol- 
land, without  (indiiig  it  either  in  its  wild 
state  or  planted.  3.  The  nitida,  or  wage- 
boom,  greatly  resembles  the  second  sort  ; 
flie  leaves  are  very  silky  and  white,  with 
erect  purple  branches. 

All  these  plants  being  tender  exotics,  re- 
quire to  be  continually  kept  in  the  green- 
house during  winter.  The  lirst  may  be  pro- 
pagated by  cuttings,  which  should  be  cut  oiT 
in  April,  'just  before  the  plants  begin  to 
shoot  ;  the  second  and  third  sorts  may  be 
propagated  by  seeds. 

PROTHOXOTARY,  a  term  which  pro- 
perly signifies  first  notary,  and  which  was 
antiently  the  title  of  the  principal  notaries  of 
the  emperors  of  Constantinople. 

Prothouotary  with  us  is  used  for  an  ofJicer 
in  the  courts  of  king's  bench  aud  commoa 


.SfW 


P  R  U 


Pl 


■as:  th'>  foriiKT  of  wliicli  courl?  Im  one,  '  would  have  been 
an.l  the  UUci-  three.     The  |irollionot,iry  of, 
llio  king's  bfiK-li,  rec-orih  ;ill  civii  aclu)iH  >uetl  j 
ill  tiiat  court,  as  the  clmk  ot  the  crowii-i.nhe 
diiwall  crcniiiKit  CMSJS.     'i'he  prothmiotark'S 
I)!  the  common j)leas  enter  and  inrol.  a'l  <le 
clarations,  pleadings,  a^size^i,  jiKlanienls  an<i 
actions ;   thev   also    make    ont  all  jnch.cial 
writs   except    writs  of  haiieas-orpiis,    aiitl 
(listriiii^as  r.iratt>r,  lor  which  there  is  a  parti- 
cular oltic'e,  called  tlie  h.ibeas  corpora  oliice; 
they  Kkevvise  enter   ivcu.^iiiz.'.nci  s  acknow- 
ledged,  and  all  ciminion"  recoveries  ;  make 
exeniolifications  of  records,  &c. 

PiVOJOXlu'l':,  in  chemistry,  a  term  ti-ed 
to  denote  llic  inininunii  of  oxidizenienl.    ^ee 

OxiIJE. 

PKi)TRACTIOX,  the  same  with  plotlnii;. 

Sec  .-uRvnvtKo. 

riiO'lKAC'lOR.  the  name  of  an  instru- 
ment ■•iM.-d  iur  prolr;iclini^  or  taying  down  oti 
jiaper  the  angles  of  a  lield,  or  other  ligure. 
"Kee  l.vsTR^■IV!^,^:T. 

PiiOVISO,  in  law,  a  condition  inserted  in 
a  (!i-ed,  upon  the  oljservance  whereof  the  va- 
lid.tv  oi  tiie  deed  depends. 

I'iiOVCS'i",  an  odicer,  whereof  there  are 
■clivers  kinds,  civil,  military,  &c. 

IV-ovosT  of  a  city  or  to-.vn,  is  the  chief 
muiticipai  nuiijislrate  In  several  tradina;  cities, 
))art!cula'lv  Kdniburgh,  Gi'.s^ow,  &:c.  I)ein!> 
iniich  the  s.nue  with  mayoi  in  other  places 
lie  presides  in  city-c(;;;:ls,  and,  together 
witii  ijie  haillies,  who  are  his  deputies,  de- 
tevnnnes  in  al!  ditleieiices  that  arise  among 
citizen*. 

Provost  marvidl  of  u.i  a 


V  R  U 

formed. 


is  an  ollicer 
appoinCed  Jo  seize  and  secin-e  deserteis,  and 
al!  other  cnminals.  lie  is  to  hinder  soldiers 
from  pillaging,  to  inilict  ortt;nders,  and  see 
the  seiitetice  passed  on  tlxni  executed.  He 
also  re;inljtes  tlie  weights  and  measures,  and 
the  ijrice  of  provisions,  &c.  in  the  army. 
For  the  discharge  of  his  office,  he  has  a  lieu- 
te;'ant,  a  clerk,  and  a  troop  of  inarshshnen 
on  horseback,  as  also  an  executioner.  There 
is  also  a  provost  marshal  in  the  navy,  who 
lias  charge  over  prisoners,  Ji;c. 

PROW,  in  navigation,  denotes  the  head 
or  fore  part  of  a  ship,  particularly  in  a  galley, 
hiring  that  which  is  opposite  the  jjoop  or 
stem. 

PRUXELL.'V,  self-hue,  a  genus  of  the 
gymnospermia  order,  \\\  tlie  didynamiai^lass 
oi()lants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  I'Jth  order,  Jioloracea?.  The  tila- 
jneiils  iue  bifurcated,  with  an  anthera  only 
on  one  point ;  the  stigma  is  bitid.  There  are 
three  sjK'cies,  herbs  of  Europe. 

Prunelle  sal,  in  pharmacy,  a  prepara- 
Jion  of  pnrilied  saltpetre. 

PRUNES,  in  commerce,  are  plums  dried 
in  the  sunshine,  or  m  an  oven. 

PRl'N'lXG  li-aV-trm.  Of  this  "  mas- 
ter work  of  ganlening,"  it  has  l)eei>  said, 
"  that  gentlemen  jjrune  too  little,  and  garden- 
ers too  much;"  these  extremes  are  to  be 
avoided,  as  attended  with  peculiar  evil-, 
equally  mischievous:  wall-trei:s  arc  presently 
fpoilcd  by  eitlier  practice.  If  they  are  too 
lull  of  w.jod,  the  shoots  ;uid  fruits  cannot  be 
properly  ripened:  and  iftliey  are  loo  thin  (the 
greater  evil  of  the  two),  the  consequence  it' 
tlie  cutting  that  lias  made  tliem  so,  is  the 
j>iod'.rct:-.)n  ot Woo  I  rather  tli.in  truit ;  IjiciiiL! 
out  jihoots,    where  otherwise  blosaoiu-bud 


'he  designation 
of  trees  to  a  wall  (from  the  su|)erabmidaiU 
heal)  necessaiily  occasion'  culling,  and  on 
the  skilful  ii>e  o!  the  knife  much  depi'uds. 

Every  one  w  ho  has  wall-trees  cannot  keep  a 
professed  gard-ner :  nor  is  every,  one  wno 
calls  liims  -ll  so,  (pialilied  to  prune.  It  is.a 
great  mortitication  to  a  man  wlio  wislics  to 
see  his  trees  in  order,  not  to  be  able  to  pro- 
cure an  operator  to  attend  them  ;  Itl  hiui 
then  resolve  to  learn  the  art  himself,  and  the 
ability  will  be  very  gratitying  to  hiin. 

As  many  words  must  be  used  on  lliis  article 
of  i)runing,  for  the  sake  of  order,  the  busi- 
ness of  managing  wall-trees  may  be,  1.  t'on- 
cerning  the  iorm.  '2.  The  health.  3.  '1  lie 
iruillulness  of  them, 

1.  As  to  the  form,  or  general  appearances 
of  the  wall-trees.  If  a  tree  is  young  and 
newly  planted,  the  (irst  thnig  i-'to  head  it 
down,  by  cutting  otf  (if  it  is  a  nectarine, 
peach,  (ir  aprico'.)  all  the  shoots,  and  the 
stem  itself,  down  to  a  few  eyes,  that  the  tower 
pail  of  the  wall  may  befurni-lied  with  new 
and  strong  wood.  "Make  the  cut  sloping, 
and  behind  the  tree,  taking  care  (by  placing 
the  loot  on  the  root,  and  the  left  hand  on  tlie 
stem)  not  to  disturl)  the  tree  by  the  pu'l  of 
the  knife.  Plaster  the  part  with  a  bit  ot  cow- 
dung,  clav,  or  stiff  earth.  It  is  evident  from 
this  lliat  maiden  stocks  are  the  best  to  plant. 

The  heading  down  is  to  be  made  so  as  to 
leave  two  or  three  eyes,  or  four  if  a  high 
wall,  on  each  side  of'  the  stem,  from  which 
shoots  w  ill  come  properly  placed  for  training. 
The  number  of  eyes  may  be  also  according  to 
the  strength  of  the  tree,  and  its  roots.  If 
there  are  not  two  well-jdaced  eyes  on  each 
side  of  the  stem,  two  sho.-.ts,  thus  situated, 
may  be  left,  cutting  them  short  to  two  or  three 
eyes  each.  Eyes  or  shoots  behind  or  before, 
consider  as  ofiio  use,  and  let  them  be  early 
displaced  by  rubbing  or  cutting.  This  work 
is  to  be  performed  in  spring,  when  the  tree  is 
putting  forth  shoots ;  i.  e.  about  the  begin- 
ning of  .'Vpril. 

If  towards  the  end  of  May  there  should  be 
wanting  shoots  on  either  side  the  tree,  having 
perhaps  only  one  put  forth  where  two  were 
expected,  tliis  one  shoot  should  be  cut,  or 
pinched  down,  to  two  or  three  eyes;  and  be- 
fore summer  is  over  there  will  be  found  good 
shoots  from  them,  and  thus  a  proper  head  be 
obtained.  This  work  of  shortening  shoots  of 
the  year  may  be  done  any  time  before  Mid- 
sununer  ;  but  in  this  case,  all  ill-placed  orsu- 
pertluous  growths  must  be  rubbed  olf  as  soon 
as  seen,  that  those  to  be  re^erved  may  be  the 
stronger,  receiving  more  nourishment. 

As""  tlie  laterarshoots  grow,  let  them  be 
timely  nailed  to  the  wall,  close,  straight,  and 
equidistant,  but  use  no  force.  If  they  are 
Hiiitewell  placed, they  will  need  no  bending; 
but  sometinii-s  shoots  must  be  laid  in  which 
are  not  perfectly  so.  L.ty  in  as  many  good 
moderate-sizi'd  shoals  as  may  be  throughout 
the  summer,  for  choice  at  winter  pruniu'.;,  yet 
do  not  crowd  the  tree.  As  the  shoots  pro- 
ceeil  in  leiigth,  nail  them  to  the  wall,  that  no 
material  dangling  of  them  may  be  seen  ;  but 
avoid  using  too  many  shreds. 

In  the  formation  of  a  tree,  keep  each  side 
as  n-.'.irly  as  can  be  <;qual  in  wood  ;  and  the 
shoots  incliiiing.downwards,  which  is  a  mode 
,•>)  trainins  necessary  to  lill  the  lower  pari  ol 


1'  R  IT 

to  chock  the  too  free  motion  of  the  sflp,  which 
wall-trees  are  liable  to  from  their  warm  silu.i. 
lion  and  continual  <'ulliiig.  All  llie  brandies 
should  have  an  horizontal  tendency,  thougl* 
the  upper  cannot  have  it  so  mueli  as  tiie 
lower  ones.  'I'liose  that  are  per|ieiidicnlar, 
or  nearly  so,  mount  the  wall  too  last,  and  run 
away  with  the  food  that  slumld  jiass  to  thu 
horizontals ;  wli  cli  being  impoverished  by  the 
vigorous  middle  branches,  gradually  become 
too  weak  to  extend  themselves,  and  nourish 
the  tru  t.  The  pruner,  tlureloie,  must  be 
content  to  have  some  of  the  wall,  over  the 
mldd  e  of  the  tree,  unoccupied;  or,  at  least, 
surfer  none  but  weak  or  very  moderate  shoots 
to  find  a  place  lliere. 

The  idea  of  a  well  formed  tree  is  somewhat 
represented  by  the  ribs  of  a  spread  fan,  or 
the  finders  of  the  hand  extendetl.  Regularity 
is  allowed  to  be  so  necessary  to  the  beauty  of 
a  wall-tree,  that  some  have  even  drawn  lines 
for  a  giiide  to  train  by;  but  nature  (ever  free 
and  casv)  will  not  submit  to  so  much  formali- 
ty, and  such  a  pertect  disposition  of  the 
branches  is  not  necessary.  A  tree  may  be 
regular  witliout  being  linear,  and  the  proper 
useful  shoots  are  not  to  be  sacrilic:ed  to  a  tan- 
ciful  precision.  Though  crossing  of  branches 
is  against  rule,  yet  casi-s  may  happen  (as  in 
want  of  wood  or  fruit)  where  even  this  awk- 
wardness may  be  permitted.  The  object  is 
fruit;  and  to  obtain  this  end,  form  mustsoiiie- 
times  give  place. 

All  foreright  and  back  shoots,  and  other 
useless  wood,  should  be  displaced  in  time,  for 
they  exhaust  the  strength  of  the  tree  to  no 
purpose,  and  occasion  a  rude  appearance.  It 
is  a  very  exi)editious  method  to  displace  su- 
perfluoits  young  shoots,  by  pusliing  or  break- 
ing them  olf;  but  when  they  get  woody  it  is 
apt  to  tear  the  bark,  and  in  this  case  the  knife 
must  be  used  :  the  better  way  is  to  disbud  by 
rubbing;  yet  a  young  luxuriant  tree  should 
be  suffered  to  grow  a  little  w  ild  to  spend  the 
sap.  There  is  one  evil,  however,  attending 
on  disbudding,  and  rubbing  off  young  fore- 
rights,  that  some  fruit  spurs  are  tluis  lost ; 
for  apricots  are  apt  to  bear  on  little  short 
shoots  of  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  (or 
more),  and  theie  are  peaches  which  do  the 
same;  so  that  it  is  a  rule  with  some  pruners 
to  wait  to  disiingi'ish  spurs  from  shoots,  and 
then  to  use  the  knife,  yet  use  it  as  little  as 
may  be  in  summer. 

In  regulating  a  tree  at  any  time,  begin  at 
the  bottom  ami  middle,  and  work  the  way  or- 
derly upward  and  outn  ard.  Never  shorten  in 
summer  (which  would  produce  fresh  shoots), 
except  a  forward  shoot  where  wood  may  be 
wanting ;  but  where  the  tree  is  really  too 
thick,  cut  clean  out  \vhat  may  be  spared. 
None  of  the  shools  produced  ;\fter  midium- 
mer  should  be  nailed  in,  except  where  wood 
is  wanting  to  till  a  naked  place.  They  never 
bear  fruit. 

2.  The  health  of  wall-trees  is  greatly  pro- 
vided for  by  observing  the  directions  already 
given  concerning  their  form  ;  lor  it  observed, 
each  shoot  w  ill  have  the  proper  benefit  of  sun 
and  air,  to  concoct  its  juices  and  prepare  it 
for  fruiting. 

It  injures  a  tender  shoot  when  it  presses 
hard  against  a  nail.  If  the  hammer  strikes  a 
shool,  and  bruises  the  bark,  it  often  spoils  if 
not   kills   it,   bv   til.'   pait   cankering.     The 


till-  wall  (none  of  wiiich  should  be  lo.:),  aui 


1    sineils  m  IV  lie'  too  tight,  so  that  the  sli)ot> 


cannot  j^roperly  swell ;  niul  if  »lirc(U  are  to.) 
hroAi\  ami  Um  numerous,  llifv  arc  U|)L  lo  oc- 
c.i-^ioii  sickMC5«;,  aii'l  proVL-  a  liaibour  lor  iri- 
Si'fl'  ami  liUii ;  let  tlit-  nunib'-r  be  lesseiieil  at 
all  opportunities.  A  slip  ol  liio  kuite  niav 
wound  a  nL'i;4libouriii^  branrli,  and  uiakt  it 
.gum,  caiikiT,  or  dx:  It  w\\\  re(|uire  care, 
and  sonic  practice,  to  avoid  lliisa;  c-ident ;  and 
in  order  to  it,  keep  the  point  of  tlie  knife 
sharp,  and  mind  tlie  position  of  it  wlion  cut- 
;  ting.  Cut  close  and  slopinji;  behind  the  eye; 
.liei'.lier  so'near  a>  to  injure  it,  norsuv\idcas 
to  leave  a  stub. 

The  bending  of  a  branch  much  is  a  violence 
to  be  avoi<lril ;  so  tiiat  every  shoot  should  be 
kept  from  the  lirst  in  llie  direction  it  is  lo 
grow  in. 

Luxuriant  wood  must  be  particularlv  at- 
tended to,  to  get  rid  of  it  in  time,  liel'ore  it 
lias  rubbeil  the  weaker  branches  too  much. 
'I'hat  is  luxuriant  wood  which,  accorduig  to 
the  general  habit  of  tli:.'  tree,  is  much  larger 
than  the  rest ;  for  a  shoot  tli.il  is  ileemed  lux- 
uriant in  one  tree  ni.iy  not  be  so  iti  another. 
If  strong  wood,  that  is  not  very  luxuriant, 
li  ippens  to  be  at  the  bottom  of  tlie  tree,  so 
that  it  can  be  train--d  (piile  horizijiitallv,  it 
may  often  be  us<.-d  lo  good  purpose,  as  this 
poiitioii  checks  the  sap.  A  luxuriant  sleiot 
may  be  kept  in  summer  where  it  is  not  de- 
signed to  retain  it,  merely  to  cut  it  down  at 
winter-pruning  to  two  or  three  eyes,  for  get- 
ting wood  where  w  anted  the  next  year ;  or 
this  shortening  may  take  place  in  June,  to 
have  new  shoots  the  present  year.  Lu.vuri- 
aut  shoots  may  be  sometimes  retained  for  a 
time,  merely  as  waste  pipes. 

All  diseased,  damaged,  very  weak,  or  worn 
out  branches  (as  they  occur),  sliould  be  cut 
out,  to  make  way  for  better;  but  if  a  tree  is 
generally  di>eased,  some  caution  must  be 
used  not  to  cut  out  too  much  at  once,  jf  there 
is  any  liope  of  restoring  it.  A  very  old  tree, 
or  a  y.jungone  that  does  not  thrive,  ma)  be 
cut  a  great  deal ;  l.ut  prune  it  so  as  to  have  a 
general  sprinkling  ot  tlie  best  of  the  brancoes, 
:ijid  keep  short  lengths  of  an  eye  or  two  of 
the  weaker  ones,  in  a  sort  of  alternale  order. 

Young  trees  are  very  apt  to  decline,  and 
sometimes  die,  if  sulfered  to  overbear  them- 
selves the  first  year  or  iwo  oftruiting.  'I'he 
remedy  is  obviom,  and  should  resohilelv  be 
applied. 

A  weak  tree  is  help^^d  much  by  training  it 
more  erectly  than  usual,  as  less  check  is  thus 
given  to  the  sap,  and  so  the  shoots  are  more 
likely  to  swell :  such  a  tree  should  be  kept 
thin  of  branches,  an<i  always  pruned  e..rly  in 
autumn,  keeping  the  tup  free  lioin  such  wood 
as  is  stronger  tlian  that  wliicii  is  in  general  be- 
Jow,  and  all  the  shoots  sliorter  t!ian  usual. 

Old  decaying  trees  should  be  lessened  a 
little  every  year,  and  constantly  watched,  to 
observe  where  young  and  strong  shoots  are 
putting  out  below,  in  order  to  cut  down  to 
them;  and  thou:;h  the  time  for  doing  this  is 
commonly  at  autumn  or  winter  pruning,  vet 
it  may  be  best  done  in  sumnii-r,  as  the  shoots 
would  thrive  tlr,-  better;  ob-eiving  to  put 
some  grafting-clay  or  cow-dung  to  th."?  p^rt, 
to  pr.'vcnt  gumming,  which  summer  pruning 
is  apt  to  occasion.  A  judicious  pruner  m  iv 
bring  the  old-st  an  1  m  )st  ill-conditioned  tree 
to  a  healthy  and  beari  ig  state  if  all  is  but 
right  at  the  root,  ii  hav.ng  a  good  soil  aboi; 
it. 


PPaJNINC. 

Keep  all  wall-trees  clean,  and  particularly 
weak  oiu's,  (roni  moss,  coliwebs,  or  otheV 
liltli ;  and  attend  to  insects,  snails,  c:aferpil- 
lars,  aiiil  smother  flies.  Any  bark  lliat  is  de- 
cayed by  cracks,  &c.  must  be  cle.ired  away 
to  the  quick,  either  by  rubbing,  or  the  knife, 
as  tilth  and  insects  are  apt  particularly  to  ga- 
ther there:  wipe  the  p.irt  clean  with  si)unge 
and  soap. 

Consi<ler  the  soil  aliout  an  unlhriftv  tree, 
and  if  it  is  thought  bad,  improve  it  bv  mov- 
ing away  as  much  of  the  old  as  conveniently 
can  be  done,  'i'he  roots  niav  b  ■  laid  care- 
fully (|uile  bare,  and  examined,  in  order  to 
cut  oil' decayed  or  cankered  parts,  and  to  ap- 
pl\  immedi.itily  to  them  Kome  hni'  and  gooil 
fn-sb  eailh,  with  a  little  tliorough-rotteu  dung 
ill  it,  and  a  spi  inkling  of  soot  or  wood  ashes, 
llog-dung  ai'p'ied  flesh  is  said  to  liave  a  pe- 
culiar eflicacy  m  recovering  weak  trees;  and 
co'.'-dung  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  do 
good  if  the  soil  is  a  warm  or  hungry  one  ;  and 
il  not  so,  the  liog-dung  is  not  so  proper,  aS  it  is 
a  cold  dressing.  If  the  soil  is  a  strong  one,  a 
compost  of  low  I's  or  sheep's  dung,  lime,  with 
any  fresh  light  earth,  (one  part  ol  each  of  the 
former,  and  three  of  the  lattej-,  mixed  with 
the  soil  that  il  taken  oil',)  will  be  a  ju'oper  ma- 
nure, to  which  a  little  sharp  sand  mav  be 
added.  All  these  applications  should  be 
made  late  in  autumn,  or  early  iu  spring. 

Tlie  constitution  of  a  tree  is  sometimes  na- 
turally barren  ;  or  the  soil  that  the  roots  have 
got  into  may  be  so  dcdelerious  that  no  pains 
or  persever.ince  w.U  avail  any  thing;  but 
continumg  fruitless  and  s'lcklv,  admonishes 
the  owner  to  take  it  up  and  trv  another 
plant,  rectifying  the  soil  tiioroughlv  if  the 
evil  is  tliought  to  arise  there.  The  smother- 
fty  sometimes  repeatedly  attacks  the  same 
tree,  which  is  a  sign  of  inherent  weakness, 
for  the  juices  of  a  sickly  tree  are  sweeter  than 
those  of  a  sound  one,  and  so  more  liable  to 
sec  h  attacks.  Sometimes  a  tree  of  this  kind, 
when  removed  to  a  good  soil,  and  pruned 
greatly  down,  docs  very  well.  A  soil  too 
rich  of  dung  olten  occasions  trees  to  be 
blighted,  and  the  remedy  is  to  impoverish  it 
with  a  sharp  sand. 

In  orderto  health  and  strength,  a  tree  must 
not  be  kept  too  lull  during  summer,  as  it  pre- 
vents the  proper  ripening  of  the  wood,  and 
makes  the  slioots  long-jointed.  If  moie  than 
one  shoot  proceeds  Ironi  the  same  eye,  re- 
serve only  the  strongest  and  best-situated. 
A  crowded  tree  cannot  be  healthy,  and  it  be- 
comes both  lodging  and  food  for  insects.  The 
blossom-buds  oi  a  tree  being  alwavs  formed 
the  year  before,  they  will  be  few  and  weak  in 
a  thicket  of  leaves,  as  debarred  of  the  neces- 
sary sun  and  air  ;  but  in  order  to  a\oi.l  an 
over-fulness,  do  not  make  any  great  amputa- 
tions in  summer.         « 

In  clearing  a  tree  of  superabundant  wood, 
take  care  not  to  cut  olf  the  leading  shoot  of  a 
branch.  All  shoots  after  midsummer  should 
be  displaced  as  they  arise,  except  where 
wanted  to  fill  up  a  vacancy.  In  a  too  vigo- 
n\is  tree,  the  iiiid^umnuT  shoots  may  be  left 
for  a  while  on  those  branches  that  are  to  be 
cut  out  at  winter  pnuiing,  as  cutting  such 
trees  in  summer  is  to  be  amidecl  a-,  much  as 
po-sible;  so  th  it  a  little  rudeness  in  a  liixuri- 
iiit  trej  may  be  pei milted  as  a  iicces.trN 
■vil,  provided  it  becomes  jiot  too  shadv  or 
lus  giily.     N>'atoniig  wall-trees  with  an'  cii- 


SOf) 

giiic  si'.;artly  on  a  »uminpr"s  evening  is  roh- 
diiciv.'  lo  their  IichIiIi,  i.nd  fices  them  lioin 
instils. 

3.  The  fruitfulness  of  wall-trees  (Ihe  tilti- 
inute  object  of  plaining  and  training  them) 
comes  now  to  be  spoken  of.  'I  heir  proper 
form  and  health  being  good,  the  foun  latiuii  iil 
laid,  but  several  tilings  are  yet  to  be  doue  to 
obtain  the  end  proposed  ;  and  tliis  chietiy  re- 
gards the  priiKipal  culling,  or  what  is  called 
winter  or  spring  pruning. 

If  trees  have  been  planted  far  enough  asun- 
der, it  is  a  liapi)y  circumstance,  as  llie  proper 
horizontal  I'oim,  and  the  open  middle,  may  be 
pre^erved..  Tiie  longer  the  horizontals  are, 
the  more  necessary  it  is  to  be  careful  to  suffer 
none  but  weak  branches  in  the  centre  up- 
rightly. It  trees  are  coniiiied  as  to  length  of 
wall,  they  of  course  take  a  more  erect  form, 
but  still  strong  wood  should  not  iiiouiil  jusl  ia 
the  middle. 

A  tree  is  to  be  thinned  of  damaged,  unpro" 
nli^ing,  and  ill-placed  shoots,  and  of  woody 
branches  that  lu*.-  decaying  or  reacu  far  with- 
out fruitful  shoots  on  t'liem,  and  always  some 
ol  the  old  wood  should  be  cut  out  where  there 
is  )  onnj'  to  follow  or  supply  its  place.  Of  tin? 
.air  and  well-placed  shoots  also,  the  super- 
abuiKlance  is  to  be  taken  away,  so  as  gene- 
rally to  leave  the  good  ones  at  four,  live,  or 
six  inches  asunder,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  wood  and  fruit. 

Luxuriant  wood,  /.  e.  those  shoots  that  are 
gigantic,  must  be  taken  out  from  the  rest,  as 
tliey  w  uiild  impoverish  the  good,  and  destroy 
the  Weak  brandies,  and  are  never  fruithd; 
but  if  a  tree  is  generally  luxuriant  it  must  lie 
borne  witii ;  and  the  less  it  is  cut,  conijiara- 
tively  speaking,  the  belter.  .Such  a  tree,  af- 
ter a  few  years,  may  come  to  bear  well;  and 
when  it  begins  to  shout  moderatelv,  some  of 
the  larg^'St  wood  may  be  taken'  out  each 
year,  or  shortened  down  to  two  or  three  eyes, 
and  so  brouijht  into  order.  'J"hc  more  hori- 
zontally free-shouting  trees  are  irai-ned,  the 
better,  as  the  bending  of  the  shoots  checks  the 
sap. 

As  the  pruner  i^  to  begin  below,  and  to- 
wards the  stem,  so  the  object  in  thinninn  must 
be  to  preler  and  to  leave  those  shoots  that  are 
placed  lowest  on  the  branches,  that  so  the 
tree  may  be  furni-hed  towards  the  centre. 
See  that  those  lelt  are  sound,  and  not  too 
weak  or  over-strong,  for  the  moderate  shoots 
generally  bear  best.  \\'eak  shoots  are  al- 
ways more  fruitful  than  stnmg  ones;  and  if 
they  are  furnished  with  fair  blossoms,  should 
be  kept  where  a  tree  is  full  of  wood,  and  even 
prefei  redlo  moderate  ones  on  a  very  flourish- 
ing tree. 

The  next  object  is,  to  furnish  a  tree.  In  or- 
der to  this,  the  tiiinising  of  oKl  wood,  young 
being  ready  (or  easily  to  be  procured)  to  ft)r- 
low,  has  already  been  mentioned ;  but  the 
principal  step  is'tlie  shorteirng  of  the  shoots, 
which  occasions  them  to  throw  cut  below  the 
(111,  for  future  use.  If  thev  were  not  to  he 
shortened,  the  tree  would  present  iv  extend  a 
great  way,  be.iring  chelly  al  the  extremities  ; 
and  all  over  the  niidJie  it  would  be  verv  thin 
of  fruit,  and  thus  a  great  part  of  the  «all 
lost. 

Tlie  mode  of  bearing  iu  peaches,  necta- 
rines, and  apr  cots,  is  o  .  the  last  vear's  wood  ;' 
which  makes  t  necess-ry  lo  shorten,  in  or- 
der to  a  certain  supply  oj  shoots  li.r  hcniir- 


the  I'.ext  vcar,  and  tliu5  -to  liarc  succession- 
wood  in  every  part  of  tlie  tree. 

Tlie  nil!.'  f.)r  sliorteiiing  is  this;  Consider 
tiie  strenglli  of  tlie  trw  ;  and  tlie  more  vigo- 
rous the  slioois  are,  cut  oi"f  tiie  li-ss.  If  a  Uix- 
iiiiant  tree  was  to  have  its  shoots  much 
shortened,  it  would  throw  out  nothing  but 
wood;  and  if  a  weak  tree  was  not  pretty 
much  cut,  it  would  not  have  strength  to  bear. 
Flora  vigorous  shoots  one-fointh  may  be  cut 
olf;  from  middling  ones  one-third;  and  from 
weak  ones  one-halt^ 

In  shortening,  make  the  cut  at  a  leading 
shoot-bud,  which  is  known  by  having  a  blos- 
som-bud on  the  side  of  it,  or,  whicli  is  better, 
one  on  each  side.  Blossom-buds  are  rounder 
and  fuller  tlian  leaf-buds,  and  are  discernible 
even  at  the  fall  of  tlie  leaf,  and  plainly  seen 
early  in  the  spring.  It  is  desirable  to  make 
the  cut  at  twin  blossoms,  yet  as  this  cannot 
alwavs  be  done,  the  due  proportion  of  length 
must  gener.Llly  determine.  It  often  hap- 
pens, that  the  blossom-buds  are  chiefly,  and 
sometimes  all,  at  the  end  of  the  shoot ;  but 
still  it  should  be  shortened  if  it  is  at  all  long. 
Is'ever  cut  where  there  is  only  a  blossom- 
bud  ;  and  prefer  those  shoots  that  are  shortest- 
jointed,  and  have  the  blossoms  most  in  tlie 
miildle.  The  shoots  that  he  well  and  are 
fruitful  or  healthv,  and  but  a  few  indies  long, 
may  be  left  whole.  Always  contrive  to  have 
a  g'lod  leader  at  tin;  end  of  every  principal 
blanch. 

Young  trees  (as  of  the  first  year  of  branch- 
ing) should  have  the  lower  shoots  left  longer 
in  proportion,  and  the  upper  shorter,  in  or- 
tler  to  form  the  tree  better  to  the  Idling  of  the 
wall:  the  lower  shoots  may  have  three  or 
four  eyes  more  than  the  upper. 

In  furnislung  a   tree,   consider   where   it 
wants  wood,  and  cut  the  nearest  mibearing 
branch  (or  if  necessary,  a  bearing  one)  down 
to  one,  two,  or  more  eyes,  according  to  the  ; 
number  of  shoots  desired,  tiir  in  such  close  . 
shortening,  a  shoot  will  come  from  each  eye.  i 
With  a  view  to  wood  for  lilling  up  a  nated  ; 
l-dace,  a  shoot  formed  after  midsummer  mav  ! 
be  thus  shortened  ;  though  the  general  rule 
is,  to  displace  all  such  late  shoots  as  useless,  | 
the  depcndance  for  blossoms  being  on  the 
early-formed  shoots.  I 

The  time  for  t!ie  principal,  or  w  inter  prun- , 
\nz,  is  by  some  gardeners  hel<t  indiil'erent,  if 
the  weather  is  mild  at  the  time;  but  a  mode- 
rate winter's  day  is  often  cjuickly  followed  by  I 
a  severe  frost,    wliivh  may  hurt  tlie  eye  ami ! 
blossom  next  the  cut.     The  best  lime  is  Fe- 
bruary, if  it  is  mild,  or  as  soon  after  as  possi- 
ble; for  when  the  blossom-buds  get  swelled, 
they  are  ajit  to  be  knocked  off  by  a  little 
touch  or  jar  of  the  hanmier. 

Apricots  should  not  be  so  much  shortened 
as  peaches,  nor  do  they  so  well  endure  the 
knife.  Shoots  of  the  apricot,  if  under  a  foot, 
iiiav  be  left  uncut,  if  there  is  room.  The 
*purs  of  apricots  should  be  spaved,  if  not  too 
long  or  numerous,  for  they  bear  well,  and 
continue  for  years.  Some  soits  of  peaches 
;ire  also  apt  to  put  out  fruit-spurs,  and  must 
be  managed  accordingly. 

Vine.s  re()une  frequent  attention,  as  to 
pruning  and  training;  but  all  will  avail  little  if 
they,  have  not  a  warm  soil  and  full  sun,  or 
some  accidental  advantage,  as  being  planted 
at  the  back  of  a  warm  chimney  ;  ami  though 
they  will  grow  and  bear  leaves  any  where, 


PRUNING. 

they  will  not  fruit  well  in  Fngland  without  a 
favourable  season,  or  hot  suimaer. 

^  ouiig  new -planted  vines  should  be  pruned 
quite  short  for  two  or  tliree  years,  that  they 
may  get  strong.  If  the  plant  has  a  weak 
root,  not  above  one  shoot  ought  to  grow  the 
first  year,  which  should  be  cut  down  in  au- 
tumn, or  to  two  or  three  eyes. 

The  best  time  for  the  principal,  or  winter 
pruning  of  vines,  is  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  olf, 
or  the  leaves  falling.  November  does  very 
well,  and  if  this  month  passes,  February 
should  be  adopted  rather  than  quite  in  the 
winter.  Late  in  the  spring  they  are  apt  to 
bleed  by  cutting,  which  greatly  weakens 
them. 

The  mode  of  bearing  in  vines  is  only  on 
shoots  of  the  present  year,  proceeding  trom 
year-old  wood.  The  rule,  therefore,  at  win- 
ter pruning  is,  to  reserve  those  shoots  of  the 
year  that  are  best  situated  as  to  room,  for 
training  of  those  shoots  that  are  to  come 
from  them,  wliich  will  be  almost  one  from 
every  eye.  ?ilake  choice  of  those  that  are 
placed  most  towards  the  middle,  or  stem  of 
the  vine,  that  all  the  wall  may  be  covered 
w  itii  bearing  wood  ;  and  every  year  cut  some 
old  wood  out  that  reaches  far,  to  make  room 
for  younger  tofollow. 

The  shortening  of  the  shoots  should  be  ac- 
cording to  their  strength,  and  tlie  space  there 
is  for  training  those  shoots  that  will  be  pro- 
duced, which  always  grow  very  louj;.  If 
there  is  room,  three,  four,  or  live  eyes  mav  be 
left ;  but  not  more  to  any  shoot,  except  it  is 
desirable  to  extend  some  shoot  to  a  distance 
to  fill  up  a  particular  ,>pace  :  ami  then  eight  or 
nine  eyes  may  be  lett,  which  being  repeated 
again  another  year,  and  so  on,  a  vine  will 
soon  reach  far. 

Sometimes  vines  are  trained  on  low  walls 
by  a  long-extended  horizontal  branch,  a  few 
inches  from  the  ground,  as  a  mollier-bearer. 
Those  shoots  that  come  from  this  horizontal 
are  to  be  trained  perpendicularly,  and  cut 
down  to  one  or  two  eyes  every  year,  that 
tliey  may  not  encroach  too  fast  on  the  space 
above  them.  If  the  vine  is  confined  to  a 
narrow  but  lofty  space,  it  is  to  be  trained  to 
an  extended  perpendicular  mother-bearer, 
having  short  lateral  shoots  pruned  down  to  a 
single  eye,  or  at  mo^t  two.  The  manage- 
ment of  vines  requires  severe  cutting,  that 
they  may  not  be  too  full  in  the  summer,  for 
they  put  out  a  great  deal  of  wood,  and  ex- 
tend their  shoots  to  a  great  length ;  and 
therefore  the  young  primer  must  resolve  to 
cut  out  enough. 

An  alternate  mode  of  pruning  vines  is 
practised  by  some,  one  shoot  short,  and  ano- 
ther long,  ;.  c.  one  with  two  eyes,  and  ano- 
ther with  four  or  five.  Severe  cutting  does 
not  hurt  vims,  and  make  them  nntVnitful,  as 
it  does  other  trees;  and  therefore,  where 
short  of  room,  they  may  be  pruned  down  to 
a  single  bud,  as  the  case  requires. 

The  summer  management  of  vines  must  be 
carefully  alti-nded  to.  As  soon  as  the  young 
shoots  can  be  nailed  to  the  wall,  let  them  not 
be  neglected  ;  but  reniemher  they  are  very 
tender,  and  will  not  bear  much  bending: 
train  in  only  the  well-placed  shoots,  rubbing 
or  breaking  off  the  others.  The  embryo 
fruit  is  soon  seen  in  the  bosom  of  tlie  shoot  ; 
and  those  thus  furnished  are  of  course  to  be 
laid  in,  as  many  as  can  be  fouiul  room  for,  in 


prefiu-ence  (o  (hose  slinols  thai  are  barren  ; 
which  nevertheless  should  also  be  trained,  if 
they  are  strong  and  well  placed,  and  there  is 
S|)ace  for  them.  Hub  oft  all  shoots  from  old 
wood,  except  any  tolerable  one  that  pro- 
ceeds from  a  part  where  wood  is  wanting  to 
fill  u|)  some  vacant  space.  If  two  shoots  pro- 
ceed from  one  eye,  di^,place  the  weakest,  or 
the  outermost  if' they  are  bolli  alike,  and  the 
fruit  should  not  duett  otherwise.  \  inesgrow 
rapidly  ;  and  must  be  nailed  to  the  wall,  troin 
lime  to  lime,  as  they  proceed,  that  there  mav 
be  no  rude  dangling,  which  wcxild  not  only 
have  a  slovenly  appearance,  but  in  several 
respects  be  injurious. 

The  stopping  of  the  shoots  is  to  take  place, 
both  as  to  time  and  measure,  according  to 
the  strength  and  situation  of  them,  or  whe- 
ther fruitful  or  barren.  Those  weak  shoots 
that  have  fruit,  and  are  rather  ill  placed,  or 
confined  for  room,  mav  be  stopped  at  the 
second,  or  even  first,  Joint  above  the  fiuil, 
early  in  the  summer;  but  those  shoots  that 
are  strong  and  have  room  to  grow,  should 
not  be  stopped  till  they  are  in  llower  (in 
July),  and  at  the  third  or  fourth  joint  above 
the  fruit.  In  shortening  the  shoots  of  the 
vine,  do  it  about  half  an  inch  above  an  e^  e, 
sloping  behind  a  plump  and  sound  o:ie.  'I'lie 
barren  shoots  are  to  be  trained  at  full  length, 
and  not  stopped  at  all  if  tiiere  is  room  tor 
them,  or,  at  least,  but  a  little  shortened  to- 
wards autumn,  as  in  August,  becaue  they 
would  put  out  a  numberof  useless  and  strong 
side-shoots  if  cut  before. 

The  side-shoots,  j.  e.  those  little  ones  put 
out  by  the  eyes  that  are  formed  for  next  year, 
are  commonly  directed  to  be  immediately 
displaced  by  rubbing  oft',  as  soon  as  they  ap- 
pear; and  if  the  vme  is  large,  and  the  shoots 
slender,  it  is  very  proper;  but  if  otherwise, 
their  being  left  to  grow  awhile  (so  as  not  to 
get  too  rude  and  crowding)  is  rather  an  ad- 
vautaLje,  in  detaining  the  sap  from  pushing 
the  shoots  out  immoderately  long;  and  when 
these  are  taken  ofi',  the  low  er  eye  of  each  may 
be  left  with  the  same  view.  But  the  side 
shoot  that  proceeds  from  the  top  of  each 
shortened  branch,  should  be  left  on,  and 
when  it  gets  long,  then  shortened  down  to  an 
eye  or  two. 

In  order  to  fruitfulness,  vines  will  need 
dressing  with  some  sort  of  manure;  for  though 
they  grow  in  vineyard  countries  on  rockv 
hills,  and  in  very  shallow  soils,  and  havedon'« 
so  on  some  chalky,  hot,  gravelly  hills  in  Kng- 
land,  yet  some  warm  manure  they  must  ge- 
nerally have  applied;  or  they  will  produce 
little  good  fruit. 

Some  people  are  very  fond  of  exposing  the 
fruit  of  the  vine  to  the  hill  sun,  by  stripping 
olV leaves;  but  this  should  not  be  [u-actised 
till  the  bunches  have  attained  their  proper 
size,  needing  only  to  be  ripened,  and  even 
then  but  little  should  be  done  in  this  way. 
The  loss  of  leaves  is  an  injury  to  every  plaiit, 
as  it  prevents  the  elaborating  of  the  saccha- 
rine juices  necessary  to  perfect  the  Iruit. 

Fig-trees  are  be^t  pruned  early  in  spring, 
as  after  an  autumn  cultiiig  (if  late)  they  are 
apt  to  die  down.  The  uuKle  of  bearing  in 
the  fig  is,  that  fruit  chiefly  comes  the  present 
year  on  the  little  shoots  from  woorl  of  the 
preceding,  and  that  towards  the  ends  of  the 
branches,  which  circumstances  dictate  the 
rules  tor  pruning.  Two-years-old  wood  wiU 
bear  some,  but  older  wood  never. 


Tlio  slionls,  (hirini^  siniimpr,  arp  to  he  laid 
in  at  full  length,  pli-utilully,  as  room  will  pi-r- 
mit.  'I'lie  weak,  ill-iilacpd,  oi-  siiperaljiUKlaiit 
ones,  cut  clean  out;  yet  rather  break,  or  rub 
th'.'in  olf,  in  an  early  state  of  growth,  for  cut- 
tinu;  branches  or  shoots  in  suuinier  is  a|)t  lo 
make  them  bleed  as  it  is  called,  /.  e.  the  »ap 
run  ;  when  cut  in  autumn,  the  tig  will  some- 
times bleed  for  a  day,  but  if  late-cul  in  spring, 
the  ooi^ing  will  continue  perhaps  a  week. 

At  the  principal  pruning,  the  strongest  and 
the  closest-jointed  sliOi)ls  are  to  be  preferred, 
and  lelt  about  seven  or  eight  inches  asunder, 
without  shortening.  Let  the  spare  shoots  be 
cut  out  close  and  smooth,  and  as  much  of  the 
old  wood  as  may  be;  for  the  trPe  will  increase 
too  fast,  and  gc  t  too  naked  of  bearing  wood  in 
tlieniiddle,  if  this  is  not  freely  done;  and  the  es- 
sential point  in  the  management  of  the  fig-tree 
is  (as  indeed  of  all  wall-trees)  to  have  young 
wood  all  over  it,  and  particularly  in  the  iiud- 
dle,  and  towards  the  bottom.  Wood  is  sel- 
dom wanted  in  a  lig-tree  ;  but  wliere  it  is,  the 
shorti'ning  of  a  shoot,  ]iroperly  situated  (by 
taking  olf  the  leading  bud,  or'culting  lower, 
as  the  case  requires),  is  sure  to  produce  it. 
Do  this  in  April,  as  the  best  time. 

When  hard  frosts  are  expected,  strew  some 
ashes  and  some  litter  over  the  roots  of  fig- 
trees.  Mats  should  be  nailed  over  their 
branches  (lirst  pullitigoff  the  tigs),  as  the  suc- 
culent nature  of  their  wood  makes  them  ten- 
der. The^e  coverings  are  to  remain  till  the 
frosts  are  judged  to  be  over,  and  then  let 
them  be  covered  up  at  nigiit,  and  not  bv  day, 
for  a  week  or  two,  to  harden  them  by  de- 
grees. 

But  fig-trees  will  mostly  survive  hard  win- 
ters w  hen  in  standards,  without  covering  ;  and 
though  shoots  trained  to  a  wall  are  tenderer, 
yet  ipeas-Iiaulm  hung  close  among  the 
branciies  (at  the  approach  of  sharp  trosts) 
will  preserve  them.  This  sort  of  protection, 
as  alfordnig  plenty  of  air,  is  by  many  good 
garileners  preferred  to  the  «iore  common 
practice  of  matting.  Hut  if  mats  were  con- 
trived to  roll  up  and  down,  or  kept  a  little 
distance  from  the  tree,  so  as  to  give  more  or 
less  air  as  the  weather  is,  the  healtii  and  Iruit- 
fnlness  of  tlie  tree  would  be  better  ensured, 
for  too  close  (and,  as  it  commonly  happens  in 
conse,;',ience,  too  long)  covering  is  injurious 
to  both.  Fig-trees  that  have  been  close  co- 
vered are  often  hint  by  an  early  uncoverinn-, 
and  yet  die  spring  air,  as  soon  "as  possible,  is 
desirable. 

Pears  being  planted  against  a  wall  in  au- 
tumn, should  not  be  cut  down  till  spring, 
when  the  head  is  to  be  reduced  according  to 
the  goodness  of  the  root,  and  so  as  to  lay  a 
proper  foundation  for  covering  the  wall. 

The  mode  of  bearing  in  pear-trees  is  on 
short  spurs,  which  appear  first  towards  the 
ends,  and  then  form  themselves  all  along  the 
branches,  which  do  not  produce  blossonia  for 
three  or  four  years  from  planting,  and  some- 
times (accortfing  to  the  sort,  or  perhaps  soil) 
for  seveial  years  more.  When  they  are 
come  to  fruiting,  some  pears  bear  prettv 
much  on  year-old  wood,  some  on  two,  others 
on  three.  The  same  branches  continue  to 
bi-ur  on  spurs  from  year  to  year,  and  most 
when  rive  or  six  years  old;  but  as  in  course 
of  time  the  branches  may  become  diseased 
:iiid  b  rren,  and  not  produce  so  fine  fruit  as 
}  uunger  wood,  it  is  always  proper  to  procure 


rnuNiNG. 

a  succession  of  young  bearers,  as  the  oppor- 
tunity of  good  shoots  olfer,  cutting  out  ohi 
wood. 

The  time  for  general  or  winter  pruning  of 
pear-lrees  ought  to  be  November,  as'tlie 
bU)ssoms  are  tlien  very  discernible,  and  at 
si)rn)g  pruning  Ihi'y  gel'so  turgid  a[id  tender, 
that  almost  the  lea4  touch  knocks  them  olf, 
or  even  tlie  jarring  of  the  tree. 

Apples  are  sometimes  t)lantpd  against 
walls,  and  what  lias  been  said  of  pruning  and 
managing  pears  is  applicable  to  them  ;  the 
branches,  however,  may  be  laid  in  somewhat 
closer,  as  they  will  not  require  so  much 
room  ;  yet  Ihey  ought  to  have  from  twentv- 
live  feet  in  length  of  a  low  wall,  or  on  a  high 
one  something  less. 

Mulberries  require  good  room,  as  their 
mode  of  bearing  is  mostly  at  the  end  of  the 
trained  shoots,  which  are  tlierefore  not  to  be 
shortened.  Twenty  or  twenty-five  feet 
shouhl  he  allowed  tiu-m,  and  a  liew-plauted 
tree  is  to  be  headed  down  as  directed  for 
pears,  Sec.  A  succession  of  new  wood  must 
be  always  coming  forward,  and  of  course  some 
old  taken  out,  for  the  fruit  is  produced  chieliy 
on  year  and  two-year  old  wood;  and  as  it 
comes  on  spurs,  and  also  small  shoots  of  the 
same  year,  the  leaving  short  stubs  (of  mode- 
rate wood)  in  pruning,  seems  justified,  though 
by  some  condemned. 

Cherry-trees,  if  against  a  wall,  should  be 
trained  at  length,  four  or  five  inches  asunder. 
'I'he  fruit  comes  from  spurs  all  along  the 
shoots,  on  one  and  two  years  old  wood,  which 
will  continue  to  bear.  In  pnming,  have  an 
eye,  however,  to  some  fair  shoots  for  succes- 
sors to  tiiose  that  are  getting  diseased,  or 
worn  out.  Some  cut  all  superfluous  shoots 
ch-an  away,  and  others  leave  a  sprinkling 
of  short  stubs,  which  may  be  allowed  ;  but 
let  ihem  not  advance  far  foreright. 

Plums  of  the  finer  sorts  are  often  planted 
against  walls,  and  deserve  a  good  one.  For 
the  pruning  of  plum-trees,  the  directions 
uiven  for  c  berries  apply  to  them,  only  that  the 
branches  should  be  laid  somewhat  wider,  i.  e. 
at  five  or  six  inches,  according  to  the  sort,  as 
free  or  less  free  in  their  growtli. 

Currants  and  gooseberries  bear  ft'uit  upon 
}oung  wood,  and  on  little  spurs  of  the  old. 
Superihious  shoots  are  to  be  cut  down  to 
little  stubs  or  spurs,  about  half  an  inch  long, 
which  will  throw  out  fruit-shoots  and  spurs. 
The  mother-branches  of  currants  and  goose- 
berries will  last  many  years;  but  when  good 
young  wood  can  be  brought  in  for  principals, 
a  renewal  every  three  or  tour  years  is  neces- 
sary to  produce  fine  fruit. 

'Ihe  work  of  pruning  espalier-trees  is  much 
the  same  as  for  wall-trees. 

As  trees  planted  for  espalier  training  should 
be  young,  let  great  care  be  taken  to  set  them 
off  riglit  at  first,  by  regular  shoots,  full  fur- 
nished immediately  from  the  stem,  which  is 
effected  by  proper  beading  down.  Apples, 
pears,  plums,  cherries,  &c.  in  general, 
need  not  to  be  so  much  freed  of  all  branches 
at  planting,  as  peaches,  nectarines,  and  apri- 
cots. There  are,  however,  gardeners  who 
prune  down  to  the  stem  all  sorts  of  wall  and 
es))alier  trees,  as  peaches  are. 

The  principle  of  pruning  standard  trees  is 
the  same,  whether  full,  half,  or  dwarf  stand- 
ards ;  and  the  object  is,  to  form  a  compact 
haiidsoiue  rouiul  and  open  head,  rather  small 


511 

than  large,  crpial  on  all  sides,  with  tolerably 
erect  wood,  capable  (as  far  as  the  art  of  the 
primer  can  go)  of  supporting  the  fruit  wiih- 
out  mncli  bending.  Perfect  symmetry  imheil 
is  nr,t  necessary  :  but  confusion  of  branches, 
weak  and  crossing,  crowded  and  <langling,  is 
to  be  prevented  by  pruning  ;  f<jr  a  proper 
use  of  the  knife  is  capable  of  doing  much 
towards  the  beauty  and  fruitfulness  of  stand- 
ard trees.  A  little  pruning  of  standards 
every  year,  and  a  g.-neral  one  every  three  or 
four  years,  to  cut  out  what  is  decayed,  and 
some  of  the  older  wood  where  a  snccessional 
supply  of  young  may  be  obtained  to  succeed, 
is  the  way  to  keep  them  in  vigour,  and  have 
the  be  t  of  fruit  ;  for  that  whicu  grows  on  old 
wood  gets  small  and  austere.  To  take  oil 
large  branches,  a  thin  broad  chisel  is  proper  ; 
but  if  a  saw  is  used,  smooth  the  part  with  a 
knife. 

Clear  trees  from  moss,  by  scraping  them 
with  a  long  narrow-bladed  blunt  kniie,  on  a 
bit  of  hard  wood  ;  and  cut  or  rub  off  bits  of 
tl(;cayed  bark,  in  which  insects  are  apt  to 
breed,  and  wipe  the  part  clean.  Some  use  a 
scouring-brush,  the  long  end-hairs  of  which 
are  well  adapted  to  clean  the  forky  parts.  A 
bit  of  hair  cloth  is  also  used  for  the  purpose; 
and  a  finish  is  properly  made  to  do  the  busi- 
ness well,  with  a  brush  and  soap  and  water. 

Of  pruning  sliniha.  Many  slirubs  are  cul- 
tivated for  their  ornament,  and  some  for  lluir 
fruit ;  of  the  latter  kind  are  raspberries  and 
barberries. 

Raspberries  bear  fruit  on  little  side  shiwjts 
of  the  present  year,  proceeding  from  stems  of 
the  last,  and  sometimes  produce  a  little  ou 
those  of  the  same  year.  To  prune  or  dress 
the  shrub,  therefore,  first  cut  out  all  the  old 
bearers,  whose  wood  dies  ;  then  cut  out,  close 
to  the  stool,  all  the  new  shoots,  except  three 
or  four  of  the  strongest,  which  may  be  care- 
fully twisted  horn  the  bottom  upwards,  or 
tied  together  at  the  top,  or  if  upright  and 
strong,  left  to  sujiport  themselves  singly. 

Tlie  barberry  is  a  beautiful  and  somrwiiat, 
large  shrub,  which  should  be  surfiered  to  grow 
w  ith  a  full  head,  like  a  dwarf  standard  tree. 
It  bears  along  the  sides  of  both  young  and  old 
wood,  but  chiefly  towards  the  ends^  and  its 
branches  sliouhl  therefore  not  be  shortened» 
except  with  a  view  to  th.'ow  out  wood.  Keep 
the  root  free  from  suckers,  and  the  stem  I'roiu 
shoots  in  its  lower  part,  and  prune  out  weak, 
lu.xuriant,  straggling,  and  crossing  branches, 
forming  it  to  a  somewhat  round  head,  which 
keep  moderately  open.  Let  the  stem  be- 
freed  from  low  er  branches  to  the  hei'^ht  of 
three,  four,  or  five  feet,  accorduig  a?  the 
shrub  may  be  desired  to  approach  to  a  tree. 

Flowering  shrubs  are  of  great  variety,  and 
the  method  of  pruning  them  is  to  be'dcter- 
nfined  according  to  the  several  modes  of 
bearing,  of  which  consider  chiefiy  thesi;;  tliat 
is,  whether  they  produce  their  flowers  upon 
tlie  last  year's  shoots  or  tlie  present,  on  the 
ends  or  the  sides  of  their  branches.  If  a 
shrub  bears  on  the  last  year's  shoots,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  it  must  be  cut  awav  no  more  than  is 
necessary  to  keep  it  within  bounds,  ojien  and 
handsome  as  to  its  form ;  in  this  case  it  is  the 
business  to  cut  clean  out,  or  very  low,  what  is 
to  be  spared.  If  a  shrub  bears  on  the  present 
year's  shoots,  (he  old  wood  may  and  must  be 
cut  down  freely,  so  however  as  to  leave  eves 
enough  for  new  siioots  lo  proceed  from,'  td 


S13 


P  R  U 


make  a  sufficient  head  and  show.  If  the 
shiui)  bears  altogether  or  chielly  at  its  ends, 
110  shortening  imist  iat;e  place  ;  hut  it  some  ol 
the  branches  are  too  long,  they  may  be 
ciiher  cut  out,  or  quite  low,  leaving  the 
shorter  ^jne.s  to  hear.  If  the  shrub  b:'ars 
along  its  sides,  the  shortening  is  ot  no  eouse- 
^quence,  and  the  desired  form  may  br  frcelv 
piovided  lor  at  pleasvire. 

The  season  for  pruning  slirubs  is  general!  v 
the  sprir^g;  but  autumn  is  better,  if  not  too 
near  winter,  as  at  this  Inne  sharp  weather 
might  occasion  some  of  the  sorts  (as  jasmines 
and  honeysuckles)  to  die  down.  'Ihe  time 
of  lh)wering  must  in  some  measure  direct  the 
tiniex>f  pruning.  Shrub;  that  llower  in  win- 
ter (as  the  lanrustinus)  should  be  cut  in 
spring.  Those  tiiat  liower  in  spring  m.iv  be 
pruned  immediately  after  their  blow,  or  in 
summer.  Those  that  llowev  in  sunnner 
should  be  pruned  in  autumn  ;  and  thosejhut 
ilower  in  aulumn  should  be  prui.ed  either 
soon  alter  flowering,  or  in  spring. 

He  sure  to  take  olf  in  time,  /.'  e.  as  soon  as 
discovered,  all  suckers  and  over-strong  shoots 
from  shrubs;  for' by  their  luxiiriancv  the\ 
greatly  impoverish  the  proper-sized  br.mches, 
which  are  the  fruitful  ones,  and  such  large 
sajjpy  wood  looks  very  luisightly. 

The  heiglit  of  shrubs  in  certain  situations 
is  material,  and  to  provide  for  this,  the  artol 
p.nning  is  in  a  great  measure  competent. 
'I'o  keep  them  low,  cuttini;  down  is  of  course 
necessary  ;  but  it  will  be  well  also  to  make 
the  soil  poor  if  too  rich.  To  encourage 
them  to  mount,  keep  trimming  off  close  the 
lower  branches,  and  improve  the  ground  by 
digging  and  dressing  occasionally. 

Koses  bear  upon  shoots  of  the  present 
rear,  and  upon  those  formed  after  midsum- 
mer in  tlie  past  year,  but  cliiefly  upon  the 
former.  Th  refore  they  liiay,  or  rather 
sliould,  be  cut  down  low,  leaving  only  three  or 
four  eyes  to  a  shoot;  except  some  of  those 
si'.ort  shoots  formed  the  last  year  too  late  to 
blow  then,  leave  whole.  If  rose-trees  are  not 
close  pruned,  they  will  be  unable  to  suppoit 
their  tiowers  properly.  Use  a  sharp  knile, 
and  cut  close  beliind  an  eye  or  bud.  Uose< 
for  forcing  should  be  pruned  in  July  and 
August. 

Honeysuckles  flower  on  shoots  of  the  pre- 
sent year,  and  theref)re  whether  train"d  to 
Tialls,  or  kept  in  bushes,  should  be  also  [jruned 
close ;  but  not  so  short  in  the  latter  ca^e  as  the 
former,  for  those  against  walls  should  be  cut 
down  to  an  eye  or  two,  and  those  in  bushes  to 
three  or  four  eyes. 

Sweetbriars  flower  on  shoots  of  the  present 
year,  and  therefore  should  be  cut  after  the 
manner  of  honeysuckles.  Tliese  shrubs  (and 
most  others)  are  seldom  pruned  down  enough, 
so  that  in  a  few  years  they  get  very  rambling 
and  unsightly  ;  but  if  kejit  compact,  we  have 
beauty  as  veil  as  sweetness,  to  recompense 
our  care.  In  all  cases,  a  less  number  of  line 
flowers  obtaineil  by  short  and  open  pruning, 
IS  certainly  preferable  to  many  indifferent 
ones. 

Lilacs  bear  their  flowers  at  the  ends  of 
shoots  of  the  last  year,  so  of  course  at  spring 
must  not  be  shortened.  If  rambling  and 
crowded,  fut  either  clean  out,  or  very  low, 
what  may  be  superllnous.  If  they  nc^^^\ 
■luch  reduction,  let  them  be  cut  down  as 


P  R  U 

soon  as  (or  somewhat  before)   they  Irave  got 
off  llower. 

To  enter  further  into  the  deU'.il  of  shrubs 
would  be  imonsistent  wilh  our  limits.  The 
reader  will  lind  some  directions  occasionally 
under  the  separate  articles,  and  will  com- 
monly act  safely  under  the  general  directions 
above. 

PUrNUS,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  or- 
der, in  the  icosandna  class  of  plants;  and  in 
the  natural  metlud  ranking  under  the  3iJlh 
order,  poinacea;.  The  calyx  is  quinquelid, 
■  inferior;  there  are  five  petals ;  the  fruit  is  a 
plum,  having  a  kernel  with  prominent  su- 
tures. There  are  tiiirty-three  species,  of 
which  six  are  cultivated  in  Ikitain  :  they  are 
originally  natives  of  America  and  Siberia. 

1.  Tlie  domeslica,  or  common  piuni  tree, 
grows  i!0  or  30  feet  high,  with  oval  spear- 
shaped  leaves,  and  with  the  pedunculi  for  the 
most  part  single,  terininab-d  by  liowers,  suc- 
ceeded by  plums  of  manv  diltereiit  colours, 
sizes,  and  shapes,  in  the  varieties.  2.  The  in- 
sititia,  wild-plum,  or  hullace-tree  grows  I'J  or 
1 5  feel  high  ;  the  branches  somewhat  s|)inous ; 
the  leaves  oval,  liairy  unileroeath;  and  tiie 
pedunculi  by  jjau's,  terminated  l)y  white 
liowers  succeeded  by  small,  round,  plum- 
like fruit,  ot  different  colours  in  the  varieties. 
3.  The  spinosa,  bLick-th.irn,  or  sloe-tree, 
grows  10  or  1^  feet  high,  very  branchy  and 
bushy  quite  from  the  bottom,  armed  with 
strong,  sharp  sp.iies,  small,  spear-shaped, 
smooth  leaves,  pedunculi  growing  singly,  ter- 
minated by  liowers,  succeeded  by  small, 
round,  black  cherries  in  autumn.  It  grows 
wild  every  where  in  hedges  and  woods  ;  and 
is  very  proper  for  planting  field-hedges,  be- 
ing of  very  quick  and  close  growth.  4.  The 
cerasus,  or  common  cheny-tree,  grows  20 
feet  br  more  in  height,  with  oval  clusters  of 
lanceolate  smooth  leaves,  umbellate  flowers, 
succeeded  by  clusters  of  red  roundish  fruit,  ot 
different  sizes  and  properties  in  the  varieties. 
Ilanbury  savs,  "  were  this  tree  scarce,  and 
with  inucli  dilliculty  propagated,  everv  man, 
though  possessed  of  a  sin^il  ■  tree  only,  would 
look  upon  it  as  a  treasure;  for  besides  the 
charming  appearance  these  trees  have  when 
besnowed,  as  it  were,  all  over  with  bloom  in 
the  spring,  can  any  tree  in  the  veL^-tablc  tribe 
be  conceived  more  beautiful,  striking,  and 
grand,  than  a  well-giown  and  liealtiiv  cherry- 
tree,  at  that  p^'riod  wiien  tiie  fruii  is  ripe  .'" 

Tlie  cherry-trees  afford  an  almost  endless 
variety  ;  all  differing  in  some  respect  in  tlieir 
manner  of  shooting,  leaves,  flowers,  and  Iruit: 
two  in  particular  demand  admission  inlo  the 
pleasure-garden,  the  douh'e-bios,omed  and 
the  red-llowering.  The  pk'asing  show  the 
common  cherry-tree  makes  when  in  blow  is 
known  to  all ;  but  that  of  the  double-li!o— 
some<l  is  much  more  eiulianting.  It  blos- 
soms like  the  otlier  in  May  ;  the  tlowi'rs  ar  ■ 
[iioduced  in  large  and  noble  clusters;  for 
each  separate  flcwer  is  as  double  as  a  rose, 
is  very  large,  and  placed  on  long  and  slender 
footstalks,  so  as  to  occasion  the  hrant'lies  to 
have  an  air  of  ease  and  freedom.  They  are 
of  a  pure  white  ;  and  the  trees  will  be  so  pro- 
fusely covered  with  them,  as  to  charm  the 
imagination.  Standards  of  these  trees,  when 
viewed  at  a  distance,  have  been  compared  to 
balls  of  snow;  and  the  nearer  we  approacli, 
the  griMter  jileasiu'e  we  receive.  These  trees 
may  be  kept  as  dwarls,  or  trained  up  to  stan- 


r  R  IT 

<lards;  s9  thai  if.ere  is  no  garden  or  plan- 
tation to  which  they  will  not  be  suitable. 
Hy  the  multiplicity  of  the  petals,  the  organs 
ol  generation  are  destroyed ;  so  that  those 
lloWers  which  are  really  full  are  never  suc- 
ceeded b',  any  fruit. 

'I  he  red-flowering  cherry-lree  differs  in  no 
respect  troin  the  common  cherr\-tree,  only 
lii.it  the  liowers  are  of  a  pale-red  colour,  and 
h\  many  are  esteemed  on  that  account.  Be- 
sides the  ornament  iind  utility  afforded  us 
by  the  flowers  and  fruit  of  the  cherry,  its 
timber  is  a  further  induienient  for  propagat- 
ing it;  moreespecially  that  of  the  small  black 
wilding  sort,  which  may  perhaps  with  pro- 
pruty  be  cousidijred  as  the  genuine  species, 
and  a  native  of  this  island,  lie  this  as  it  may, 
it  will  grow  in  a  soil  and  situation  it  affects, 
to  he  a  large  tiuiher-trce ;  and  il  taken  iu  its 
priiv.e  before  it  becomes  tainted  at  tf.e  heart, 
will  tuin  out  perhaps  not  less  than  a  ton  of 
valuable  materials,  peculiarly  ad.ipted  to  the 
purposes  of  furniture.  'Ihe  grain  is  line,  and 
the  colour  nearly  approacliing  to  that  ot  nia- 
hog.iny,  to  which  valuable  wood  it  comes 
nearer  ihan  any  othi-r  whicli  this  country 
produces.  5.  The  avium,  or  great  wilding 
cherrj-tree,  grows  40  or  JO  feel  liigh,  having 
oval  or  spear-shaped  leaves,  downy  under- 
neai  h,  with  umbellate  sessile  clusters  of  v.  hite 
flowers,  succeeded  by  small  round  fruit  of 
diirerent  properties  in  the  varieties.  0.  The 
padus,  or  common  bird  cherry-tree,  grow* 
13  or  20  feet  I'.iah,  of  a  shrub-like  growth, 
with  a  spreading  head,  large,  oblong,  rough, 
serrated  leaves,  having  two  glands  at  llie 
back  of  the  base  like  the  oilier,  and  wilh 
shorter,  more  compact,  clusters  of  liowers, 
succeeded  by  large  red  fruit.  This  grows 
wild  in  hedges  in  the  north  part  of  Kngland. 
7.  The  Virginiana,  or  \'irginiau  bird-cherry, 
grows  30  feet  high,  dividing  inlo  a  very 
br.  nchy  head,  having  a  dark-purple  bark, 
oval,  slightly  serrated,  shining  green  leaves, 
hav'iig  two  glands  at  the  fore  part  of  the  base, 
and  lon-.f  clustei's  of  white  liowers,  succeeiled 
by  sm.ill,  round,  berry-like,  black  fruit.  8. 
Canadensis,  or  Canada  dwarf  bird-cherry, 
grows  but  four  or  live  feet  high,  branching 
horzontally  near  the  ground  with  smooth 
branches;  broad,  spear-shaped,  rough,  downy 
leaves  without  glands;  and  long  clusters  of 
white  liowers,  succeedc-d  by  small,  rfiuiid, 
berry-like  black  fruit,  ripe  in  autumn.  9. 
The  mahaleb,  or  perfumed  cherry,  grows  10 
■  ir  15  feet  higii,  with  smooth  whitish  branches, 
small,  ov.il,  siiining,  green  leaves,  and  co- 
rymboas  clusters  of  wliite  flowers,  succeeded 
by  small  fruit.  10.  The  armeniaca,  or  apri- 
cot-tree, grows  20  feet  high,  wilh  a  large 
spreading  head,  ha\ing  reddish  shoots,  large, 
nearly  heart-shaped  leaves,  close-sitting  pale- 
red  lliuvers  rising  all  along  the  sides  ol  the 
young  branches,  succeeded  by  large  round- 
isii  fruit  of  a  yellow  and  reddish  colour  in  dif- 
ferent varielii's.  The  fruit  and  the  kernels  of 
the  primus  Siberica,  when  ealen,  excite  a 
c<Mitinued  head-ache:  the  kernels,  infused  in 
brandy,  commimicate  an  agreeable  llavour. 

All  Ihe  dift(Tent  varieties  of  plums  have  at 
first  been  raised  from  the  stones,  anil  are  af- 
terwards preser\ed  by  budding  and  grafting 
on  any  plum-stock.  The  same  method  is 
applicable  to  cherries;  only  these  are  grafted 
to  most  advantage  upon  stocks  of  Ihe  wild 
black  and  red  cherry  raised  from  the  stones 
of  the  fruit.  Tlie  "apricol-trecs  are  propa- 
10 


I'RUSSIATS. 


.cnf'-'l  by   buddini;   on   any    kind  of  plum- 

SlDI'ks. 

I'Kl'.SSIA'rS,  salts  riii-incd  with  prussic 
■acid.     Ol  these  thi-  most  ini|)iirliinl  are, 

\.  Pnis.iiid  kJ  lim!\Uni\,vA  l)v  dissolving 
linn-  in  prussic  a<;id,  filiriiiiT  the  so'hilion,  and 
!;e|)ai-atiniT  the  niicoinbined  lijue.  It  is  de- 
composed by  all  the  other  a^ids,  and  by  al- 
kalies. 

2.  Prus\i(tt  qf  masfiicsia.  I'liis  salt  may 
be  li)rni;-d  by  pnltint;  pure  nuii;iiesia  into 
pnissic  acid.  U\  a  i^a  days  the  earth  is 
dis-.olved,  and  the  ccmponnd  (orjiied.  Tile 
magnesia  is  precipitated  l)y  the  alkalies  and 
lime,  and  by  e.\posiire  to  the  air. 

3.  Pruas'itits  oj  ii-ui.  As  the  prnssiats  of 
iron  enter  as  ingredients  into  the  triple  salts 
formi'd  by  the  prussic  acid,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  give  some  account  of  them  before 

-entering  upon  the  consideration  of  these  triple 
salts. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  by  chemists,  that 
thei-e  are  no  fe\',cr  than  four  p'russials  ot  iron  ; 
uaniel), 

I.   V)  hite  prussiaf, 
".  Blue  prussi.it, 

3.  Yellow  prussiat, 

4.  Green  prussiat. 
The  while    prussiat   discovered    by   ]\Ir. 

Proust  i;  composed  of  prussic  acid  aiid  pro- 
toxid.'  of  iron.  It  becomes  gradually  blue 
wlien  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  because  the 
oxide  absorbs  o\_\  gen,  and  is  converted  into 
peroxide. 

Blue  prussiat,  or  Prussian  blue,  is  com- 
posed of  prussic  acid  and  peroxide  of  iron. 
It  is  a  deep-bhe  |)owder,  insoluble  in  water, 
and  scarcely  soluble  in  acids.  It  is  com- 
,posed,  according  to  the  most  accurate  expe- 
riments hitherto  m.ide,  of  equal  parts  of 
oxide  of  iron  and  prussic  acid.  It  is  not  af- 
fected by  exi)osure  to  the  air.  Heat  decom- 
poses it  by  destroying  the  acid,  and  llie  oxide 
■of  iron  remains  behind.  Tiie  Pnl^sian  blue 
of  commerce,  besides  other  impurities,  con- 
.tains  mixed  with  it  a  great  i|uaiitity  of  alu- 
mina. 

\  ellow  pruisiat  is  composed  of  prussic  acid 
combined  with  an  excess  of  peroxide  of  iron  : 
It  is  therei'ore  a  sub-prussiat  of  iron.  This 
prussiat  is  soluble  in  acids.  It  nia_\  be  ob- 
t-iined  by  digesting  the  alkalies  or  'alkaline 
earths  with  Prussian  blue,  ['art  of  the  acid 
is  carried  olf  by  these  bodies,  and  the  yellow 
Jirussiat  remains  in  the  state  of  a  powder. 

Green  prussiat,  (ir»t  disco\ered  by  Mr. 
Berthollet,  is  composed  of  i»cvpru-sic  acid, 
and  peroxide  of  iron.  It  is  therefore  iu  fact 
111  oxyprussiat. 

4.  Fnitmiiil  of  hari/tts  (ind  iron.  For  the 
first  accurate  description  of  this  salt,  we  are 
indebted  to  the  ingenious  Mr.  M'illiam 
lleury.  It  may  be  lormed  by  addina  I'rus- 
M.iii  blue  to  hot'barytes  water  till  it  ceases  to 
bi'  discoloured.  The  solution,  when  tiltred 
and  gently  evaporated,  yields  crystals  of 
I'russiat  01  barytes  and  iroii. 

These  crystals  have  the  figure  of  rliom- 
hoidal  prims:  they  have  a  yellow  colour, 
.in  I  are  soluble  in  iO.'O  parts  of  cold  water, 
-liid  in  about  100  part-  of  boiling  water.  In 
•1  led  heat  they  are  decoiii;iosed,  the  acid 
oeiiig  deslioved.  They  are  soluble  in  nitric 
aiul  muriatic  acids :  sulpliiiric  acid  occasions 
•T  I'lecipitateof  siilphat  of  barytes. 

'■>■  I'fussiut  of  Uitic  and  iron.  This  salt  was 
perhaps  tirst  lueiUiuned  by  l\lr.  Ilaeen;  but 

Vol.  II.  ^     '         , 


we  are  indebted  to  Morveau  for  the  first  ac- 
curate account  ol  its  properties  and  |)rei)ara- 
lion. 

I'pon  two  parts  of  Prussian  blue  of  com- 
merce, previously  well  washi-dwitha  sutli- 
cient  c|uantity  of  boiling  water  to  separate  all 
the  fo.i-ign  salts,  about  .'.(>  parts  of  lime-water 
j  are  to  be  poured,  and  the  mixture  must  be 
I  boiled  for  a  short  time  till  the  lime  is  satu- 
I  rated  with  the  prussic  acid,  which  is  known 
i  bv  its  no  l(;nger  altering  paper  stained  with 
■  turmeric  :  it  is  then  to  be  lillred. 
I  'I  his  lir|uid,  which  contains  the  triple  prtis- 
;  siat  ot  lime  in  solution,  h.is  a  greenish-yellow 
I  colour:  its  specilic  gravitv  is  l.DO;, ;  audit 
I  has  an  unpleasant  bitterish  iaste.  \\  hen  eva- 
I  porated  to  dryness,  it  yields  small  crvstalline 
!  grains,  soluble  wilhout'aUeralion  in  water.  It 
!  is  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

This  trii)le  prussiat  may  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage as  a  test  to  ascertain  the  presence  of 
metals  held  in  solution.  The  only  iinpuritv 
which  it  contains  is  a  little  sulpliat  of  lime. 

().  Prii.s.siid  of  potas.saiid  iron.     'I'his  salt, 
known  also  by  the  names  of  Prussian  alkali' 
phlogisticateil    alkali,    I'russian    test,   triple 
prussiat  of  potass,  &c.  has  been  chosen  by 
chemists  as  the  best  combination  of  prussic 
acid  for  detecting  the  presence  of  metals,  and 
more  especially  tor  detecting  the   existence 
of  iron.     To  cliemists  and  mineralogists,  it  is 
one  of  the  most  important  instrunienls  ever 
invented  ;  as,  when  properly   prepared,  it  is 
capable  of  indicating  wliether   any   metallic 
substance  (platinum  excepted)  is  present  in 
any  solution  whatever,  and  even  of  pointing 
out  the  particular  metal,  and  of  ascertaining 
its  quantity.     This  it  does  by  precipitating 
the  metals  from  their  solution  in  consequence 
of  the  insoluble  compound    which  it  iorms 
w  ith  them ;    and  the  colour  of  the  precipi- 
^  tate  in<licates   the  particular  metal,  wliile  its 
quantity  enables  us  to  judge  of  the  propor- 
j  tion  of  metallic  oxide  contained  in  any  solu- 
tion. -^ 
In  order  to  be  certain  of  the  accuracy  of 
I  these  results,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  Prii'- 
j  .sian  alkali  perfectly  pure,  "and  to  be  certain 
I  bcioreliand  of  the  quantity,  or  rather  of  the 
I  proportions,  of  its  ingredients.     To  obtain  a 
j  test  of  this  kind  has  been  the  object  of  che- 
I  mists  ever  since  the  discoveries  of  Macquer 
l);iinted  out  its  importance.     It  is  to  the  use 
of  impure  tests  that  a  great  part  of  the  con- 
tiadictoiy  results  of  mineralogic  al  analysis  by 
dillerent  chemists  is  to  be  ascribed. 

The  great  object  of  chemists  at  first  was 
to  obtain  this  prussiat  entirely  free  from  iron ; 
but  their  attempts  uniformly  failed,  because 
the  oxide  of  iron  is  one  ot  its  necessary  com- 
ponent parts.  This  was  first  properly  pointed 
out  by  Alorveau. 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  this  test  mav 
be  rendered  impure,' besides  the  introductioii 
ot  foreign  ingredients,  which  it  is  needless  to 
mention,  because  it  is  obvious  that  it  must 
be  guarded  against.  1.  There  may  be  a  su- 
perabundance of  alkali  present,  or,  which  is 
the  same  tiling,  there  may  be  mixed  with  the 
Prussian  test  a  quantity  "of  pure  alkali:  or, 
2. 'I'here  maybe  contained  in  it  a  (|uantitv 
of  yellow  pi  ussiat  of  iron,  for  which  |)russiat 
of  potass  has  also  a  considerable  atilnii  v. 

If  the  Prussian  test  contains  a  superabun- 
dance of  alkali,  two  inconveniences  follow. 
This  superabundant  quantity  will  precipitate 


5i.y 

those  eartliy  salts  w  liidi  arc  liabJc  torontain  an 
excess  of  acid,  and  which  are  only  soluble  bv 
that  excess:  hence  alumina  and'barjtes  w.il 
be  precij)itated.  It  is  to  the  u-.e  ol  impure 
tests  of  this  kind  that  we  owe  the  opinion, 
that  barytes  and  alumina  are  precipitated  by 
the  Prussian  alkali,  and  the  conse(|ueiit  theo- 
ries of  tlie  metallic  nature  of  these  earth.. 
This  mistake  was  (irst  corrected  by  Meyer  oi" 
Steinl. 

Another  inconvenience  arising  from  tlie 
superabundance  of  alkali  in  the  Pnissian  test 
is,  that  it  gradually  decomposes  the  blue 
prussiat  which  the  test  contains,  and  converts 
It  into  yellow-  prussiat.  In  what  majiner  it 
does  this  will  he  understood,  after  what  has 
been  said,  without  any  exjjlanation. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  ti,e  I'russian  al- 
kali contains  a  i|uanlity  of  yellow  prussiat  of 
iron,  as  great  inconve'niences  follow.  This 
yellow  prussiat  h;is  an  aflinity  for  prussic  acid, 
which,  though  iiifeiior  to  liiat  of  the  pota.-s' 
IS  still  considerable  ;  and,  on  the  odier  hand) 
tin- potass  has  a  stronger  affinity  for  every 
other  acid  than  for  the  prussic.  \\  hen,  tlierc-- 
fore,  the  test  is  ex])osed  to  the  air,  the  car- 
bonic acid  which  the  atmosi)here  always  con- 
tains, assisted  bv  the  affinity  between  the 
yellow  prussiat  and  the  prussic  acid,  decom- 
poses the  i)rus,iat  of  potass  in  the  te,l,  and 
the  yellow  ]>russiat  is  precipitated  in  the  form 
ot  I  russian  blue;  and  everv  other  acid  pro- 
duces the  same  effect.  A 'test  of  this  kind 
would  iiiiiicate  the  presence  of  iron  in  every 
mixture  wliich  contains  an  acid  Ctor  a  preci- 
pitation of  Prussian  blue  would  appear),  and 
could  not  therefore  be  emploved  with  an v 
conlidence.  ' 

'i'o  describe  the  various  metliods  proposed 
by  chemists  for  preparing  this  salt  would  be 
unnecessary,  as  the  greater  number  do  not 
answer  tlie  purpose  intended.  The  method 
practised  bv  Klaproth,  lirst  made  known  to 
chemists  by  Westrum,  and  alterwards  de- 
scribed in  our  language  by  Kir«an,  is  con- 
sidered as  one  of  tlie  best.  '  It  is  as  follows: 

Prepare  pure  potass,  by  gradually  project- 
ing into  a  large  crucible,  heated  to  whit,  ness, 
a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  purilied  nitre  and 
crystals  of  tartar  ;  when  the  whole  is  iniected, 
let  it  be  kept  at  a  white  heat  for  half  an  lioiirl 
to  burn  oft  the  coal.     Detach  the  alkali  tiuij 
obtained  from  the  <  rucible,  reduce  it  to  |)ow- 
der,  spread  it  on  a  inullle,  and  expose  it  to  a 
white  heat  for  baiJ  an   hour.     iJissolve  it  in 
SIX  times   its  weitjht  of  water,  and  riltre  the 
solution  while  warm.     Pour  this  solution  into 
a  glass  receiver,    placed   in    a   sand-furnace 
heated  to  170"  or  ISO";  and  then  gradually 
add  the  best  Prussian  blue  in  powder,  inject- 
ing new  portions  according  as  the  former  be- 
come grey,  and  supplying  water  as  fast  as  it 
evaporates  ;    continue'  until  the  added  por- 
tions are  no  longer  discoloured,  then  increase 
the  heat  to  21,",  and  continue  it  for  half  an 
hour.     Filtre  the  ley  thus  obtained,  and  sa- 
turate it  witli  sulphuric  acid  moderately  di- 
luted ;  a  precipiiiite  will  appear:  when  tJiis 
ceases,  filtre  off  the  whole,  and  wash  the  pre- 
cipitate.     Evaporate  the  filtred    liquor    to 
about  one  quarter,  and  set  it  bv  to  crystal- 
lize :  after  a  few  days,  yellowish  'crystals  of  a 
cubic  or  quadraiig'ular"  form  will    be  found, 
mixed  with  some  sulphat  of  potass  and  oxide 
of  iron ;  pick  out  the  yellowish  crystals,  lay 
llicin  on  blotting-paper,  and  re-dissolve  thera 


i4 


II  U 


i:i  (bur  limPs  (heir  u eight  of  cold  water,  to 
(.■xcliicii'  thi'sulphat  of  pottiss. 

A-say  u  few  (.Iroj)"!  of  this  solution  with  ba- 
ryles  waier,  to  >ee  whether  it  contains  aiiv 
sulphuric  acid,  and  add  soiiie  barytes  water 
to  the  remainder  if  necessary:  filtre  o(f  the 
SjUuion  from  llie  sulphat  of  barvles,  which 
will  have  precipitated,  and  set  it  by  to  crv- 
staliize  for  a  few  days;  that  the  barvtes,  if 
anv  should  remain,  may  be  [irecipilated.  If 
the  crystals  now  ol)tained  are  of  a  pale  yellow 
colour,  and  discover  no  bhiei  h  stri-'aks  when 
sprinkled  over  wllh  muriatic  acid,  tliev  are 
ht  for  use ;  but  if  they  still  discover  blueish 
or  green  streaks,  the  solutions  and  crystalli- 
zations must  be  repeateil. 

I'liese  crystals  must  be  kept  in  a  well- 
stopped  bottle,  which,  to  preserve  them  from 
the  air,  should  be  filled  witli  alcohol,  as  thev 
are  insoluble  in  it. 

Before  they  are  used,,  the  quantity  of  iron 
they  contain  should  be  ascertained,  by  heating 
100  grains  to  redness  for  half  an  hour  in  an 
open  crucible :  the  prussic  ucitl  will  be  con- 
sumed, and  the  iron  will  remain  in  the  state 
of  a  reddish-brov,  u  magnetic  oxide,  which 
should  be  weighed  and  noted.  Tliis  oxide  is 
half  the  weight  of  the  Prussian  blue  atiforded 
bv  the  Prussian  alkali :  its  weight  must  there- 
fore be  subtracted  from  that  of  metallic  pre- 
cipitates formed  by  this  test.  Hence  the 
weight  of  the  crystals,  in  a  given  nuantity  of 
the  solution,  siiould  be  noted,  that  the  quan- 
titv  employed  in  precipitation  may  be  knuwn. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  continue  the  calcina- 
tion till  the  oxide  of  iron  becomes  brown; 
for  while  it  is  black,  it  weighs  considerably 
more  than  it  should. 

Another  good  method  of  preparing  this  salt 
lias  been  lately  given  by  Mr.  Henry ;  but  it 
is  rather  too  expensive  for  general  use.  It 
consists  in  lirst  forming  a  triple  prnssiat  of 
barytes,  and  adding  it  in  crystals  to  a  solution 
of  carbonat  of  potass  till  the  solution  no  long- 
er restores  the  colour  of  reddened  litmus 
paper.  After  digesting  the  mixture  for  half 
an  hour,  filtre  the  liquid,  and  evaporate  it 
gently.  The  triple  prnssiat  of  potass  crystal- 
lizes. 

PRUSSIC  ACID,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant instruments  which  the  chemist  pos- 
sesses. It  was  discovered  about  a  century 
ago  by  Diesbach  at  Berlin ;  and  a  method  of 
preiiaring  it  was  published  by  ^\'oodward  in 
the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  l7'24,which 
he  said  he  had  got  from  o'le  of  his  friends  in 
Germany.  This  method  was  as  follows : 
Detonate  together  four  ounces  of  nitre  and 
as  mm  h  tartar,  in  order  to  procure  an  exteni- 
jjiraneous  alkali;  then  add  four  ounces  of 
dried  bullock's  blood ;  mi.x  the  ingredients 
well  together,  and  put  Iheni  into  a  crucible 
covered  with  a  lid,  in  v.hicli  there  is  a  small 
liole ;  calcine  with  a  moderate  lire  till  the 
blood  emits  no  more  smoke  or  lliinie  capable 
of  blackening  any  white  body  exposed  to  it ; 
increase  the  lire  towards  the  end,  so  that  the 
whole  matter  contained  in  the  crucible  shall 
lie  moderately  but  sensibly  red.  In  this  state 
throw  it  into  two  pints  of  water,  and  boil  it 
for  half  an  hjur.  Decant  off  this  water,  and 
continue  to  pour  on  more  till  it  comes  olf  in- 
sipid. Add  all  these  liquids  together,  and 
boil  thein  down  to  two  pints.  Dissolve  two 
ounces  of  sulphat  of  iron  anil  eight  ounces  of 
alum  in  two  pints  of  boiling  water  ;  mix  this 
vifli  the  former  liipior   while  bull)  are  hot. 


r  R  u 

An  effervescence  takes  place,  and  a  powder 
is  precipitated,  of  a  green  colour  mixed  with 
blue.  Sjeparate  this  precipitate  by  tilt  ration, 
and  pour  muriatic  acid  upon  it  till  it  becomes 
of  a  beaiiliiul  blue;  then  wash  it  with  water 
and  dry  it. 

Dillerent  explanations  were  given  of  the 
nature  of  this  precipitate  by  dilferent  che- 
mists. All  of  them  acknowledged  that  it 
contained  iron  ;  but  to  account  for  the  colour 
was  tlie  diliicult  point.  Brown,  and  Geof- 
froy,  and  Ncuman,  discovered  in  succession, 
that  a  great  many  other  animal  substances 
besides  blood  communicated  to  alkalies  the 
property  of  forming  Prussian  blue;  but  the 
theories  by  which  they  attempted  to  account 
lor  its  formation  were  altogether  nugatory. 
At  last  a  very  important  step  was  made  in 
the  investigation  o.  this  compound  by  Mac- 
quer,  who  published  a  dissertation  on  it  in 
the  year  1752. 

'1  his  celebrated  chemist  ascertained  the 
following  facts:  1.  ^Vhen  an  alkali  is  added 
to  a  solution  of  iron  in  any  acid,  the  iron  is 
precipitated  ot  a  yellow  colour,  and  soluble 
in  acids ;  but  if  iron  is  precipitated  from  an 
acid  by  an  alkali  prepared  bv  calcination  with 
blood  (which  has  been  called  a  Prussian  al- 
kali), it  is  of  a  green  colour.  2.  Acids  dis- 
solve only  a  part  of  this  precipitate,  and  leave 
behind  an  insoluble  powder,  which  is  of  an 
intense  blue  colour.  The  g'een  precipi- 
tate, therefore,  is  composed  of  two  dilferent 
substances,  one   of  which  is   Prussian  blue. 

3.  The  other  is  the  brown  or  vellow  oxide  of 
iron ;  and  the  green  colour  is  owing  to  the 
mixture  of  the   blue  and   yellow  substances. 

4.  \Vhen  heat  is  applied  to  this  I-'russian  blue, 
its  blue  colour  is  destroyed,  and  it  becomes 
exactly  similar  to  common  oxide  of  iron.  It 
is  composed,  therefore,  of  iron  and  some 
other  substance,  which  heat  has  the  property 
of  driving  off  5.  If  it  is  boiled  with  a  pure 
alkali,  it  loses  its  blue  colour  also,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  alkali  acquires  the  property  of 
])recipitating  of  a  blue  colour  solutions  of 
iron  in  acids,  or  it  has  become  precisely  the 
same  with  the  Prussian  alkali.  ti.  Prussian 
blue,  therefore,  is  composed  of  iron  and 
something  which  a  pure  alkali  can  separate 
from  it,  something  w  hich  lias  a  greater  affi- 
nity for  alkali  than  for  iron.  7.  By  boiling  a 
<|uantitv  of  alkali  with  Prussian  blue,  it  may 
be  <  oiupletely  saturated  with  this  something, 
which     may   be     called    colouring    matter. 

8.  No  acid  can  separate  this  colouring  mat- 
ter from  iron  after  it  is  once  united  with  it. 

9.  When  iron  dissolved  in  an  acid  is  mixed 
with  an  alkali  saturated  with  the  colouring 
matter,  a  double  decomposition  takes,  place, 
the  .-.cid  unites  with  the  alkali,  and  the  co- 
louring matter  with  the  iron,  and  form;.  Prus- 
sian blue.  10.  The  reason  that,  in  the  com- 
mon method  of  preparing  Prussian  blue,  a 
cpiantitv  of  yellow  oxide  is  pieci|)itated,  is, 
that  there  is  not  a  sulUcient  quantity  of  co- 
louring matter  (for  the  alkali  is  never  satu- 
rated with  it)  to  saturate  all  the  iron  displaced 
by  the  alkdi ;  a  part  of  it,  therefore,  is  mixed 
with  Prussian  blue.  Muriatic  acid  dissolves 
this  oxide,  carries  it  olf,  and  leaves  the  blue 
in  a  state  of  purity. 

Such  were  the  tonclusions  which  Macipicr 
drew  from  his  cxpi'rimeiits;  exi)criiiiiiils 
which  not  only  discovered  the  composition 
of  I'russian  blue,  but  threw  a  ray  of  light  on 
the  nature  of  affmiiies,  which  has'  contributed 


P  R  U 

much  towards  the  advancement  of  that  ira 
portant  branch  of  chemistry. 

The  nature  of  the  colouring  matter,  how. 
ever,  was  stillunknown.  At  length,  in  1772- 
Morveau  announced  bis  suspicion  that  the 
colouring  matter  was  probably  an  acid. 

Such  was  the  knowledge  of  chemists  re- 
specting the  nature  of  this  colouring  matter, 
when  Scheele  all  at' once  removed  tlie  veil, 
and  explained  its  [jroperties  and  composition. 
He  observed  thai  the  Prussian  alkali,  alter 
being  exposed  for  some  time  to  the  air,  lost 
the  property  of  forming  I'russian  blue;  the 
colouring  matter  must  liicrefore  have  left  it. 
lie  put  a  small  quantity  of  it  into  a  large  glass 
globe,  corked  it  up,  and  kept  it  some  time ; 
but  no  change  was  produceil  either  in  tlie 
air  or  the  Prussian  alkali.  Something  must 
therefore  displace  the  colouring  matter  when 
the  alkali  is  exposed  to  the  open  air,  whicli  is 
not  present  in  a  glass  vessel.  \\'as  it  carbo- 
nic acid  gas?  \o  ascertain  this,  he  put  a 
([uantity  of  Prussian  alkali  into  a  glass  glol/e 
Idled  with  that  gas,  and  in  24  hours  the  al- 
kali was  incapable  of  producing  Prus-ian  blue. 
It  is  therelore  carbonic  acid  gas  which  di>- 
places  the  colouring  matter.  He  repeated 
this  experiment  with  this  ditVerence,  that  he- 
hung  in  the  globe  a  bit  of  paper  which  had 
been  previously  dipped  into  a  solution  of  suP 
phat  of  iron,  and  on  which  he  had  let  fall  two 
drops  of  an  alkaline  lixivium  in  order  to  pre- 
cipitate the  iron.  This  paper  was  taken  out 
in  two  hours,  and  became  covered  with  a  fine 
blue  on  adding  a  little  muriatic  acid.  Car- 
bonic acid,  then,  has  the  property  of  sepa- 
rating the  colouring  matter  from  alkali  withr 
out  decomposing  it. 

He  found.. also  (hat  other  acids  produce 
the  same  eil'ect.  Hence  he  concluded,  that 
the  colouring  matter  might  be  obtained  in  a 
separate  state.  Accordingly  he  made  a  great 
many  attempts  to  procure  it  in  that  state, 
and  at  last  discovered  the  following  method, 
which  succeeds  perfectly  ; 

Mix  together  ten  parts  of  Prussian  blue  in 
powder,  live  parts  of  the  red  oxide  ot  mer- 
curv,  and  thirty  parts  of  water,  and  boil  tlie 
mixture  for  some  minutes  in  a  glass  vessel. 
The  blue  colour  disappears,  and  the  mixture 
becomes  yellowish-green.  Pour  it  uiJon  a 
filtre  ;  and  alter  all  the  liquid  part  has  passed, 
pour  ten  parts  of  hot  water  through  the  filtre 
to  wash  the  residuum  completely.  The  ox- 
ide of  mercury  decomposes  Prussian  blue, 
sepaiates  its  colouring  matter,  and  fornB 
with  it  a  salt  soluble  in  water.  The  liquid, 
therefore,  which  has  passed  through  the  filtre 
contains  the  colouring  matter  combined  with 
mercury.  The  other  component  parts  of  the 
Prussian  blue,  being  insoluble,  do  not  pass 
tludiiijli  the  liltre.  Pour  this  mercurial  liquid 
upon  2i  parts  of  clean  iron  tilings,  (piite  tj'ee 
from  rust.  Add  at  the  same  Ihiie  one  part 
of  concentrated  stilphuric  acid,  and  shake  the 
mixture.  The  iron  filings  are  dissolved,  and 
tlie  mercury  formerly  held  in  solution  is  pre- 
cipitateil  in  the  metallic  state.  The  cause  of 
this  sudden  change  is  obvious:  the  iron  de- 
oxidizes the  mercury,  and  is  at  the  same  instant 
<lissolved  by  the  sulphuric  acid,  which  has  a 
stronger  alVmity  for  it  than  the  colouring 
m;ittir  has.  There  remain  in  solution 
therefore,  only  sulphat  of  iron  and  the  co 
louring  matter. 

Now  the  coloiuing  matter  being  Tolatile 
3 


I'RUSSIC  ACID. 


xvliich  Uio  siilpliat  of  iron  is  not,  it  was  M'sy 
to  obtain  it  apart  hy  distillation.  A(corii- 
ingly  lilt  distilled  the  niixiiire  in  a  identic 
Jieat:  llie  colouring  matter  came  over  by  tl\e 
time  that  one-tomth  of  the  li(|iior  had  passctl 
'into  tile  rec(Mver.  It  was  mixed,  however, 
with  a  small  ipiantity  of  snlplunic  acid; 
Ircnn  which  he  separated  it  by  distillint;  a 
second  time  Over  a  (|iiaritity  ot  carbonal;  of 
lime.  '1  he  sulphuric  acid  conibuies  with  the 
lime,  and  remauis  behiud,  wliich  the  colonr- 
iii'T  mailer  cannot  do,  because  carl)onic  acid 
has  a  stronger  altinity  for  lime  tlian  it  has. 
']  bus  he  obtained  tiie  colouring  nuitti'r  in  a 
state  of  |)urily. 

It  remauu-d  now  to  discover  its  component 
])arts.  iJc  lormed  a  very  pure  Prussian  blue', 
which  he  distilled,  and  increased  the  lire  till 
the  vessel  liecame  red.  The  small  ciuantity 
of  water  uliicli  he  had  put  into  tlie  receiver 
contauied  a  portion  of  the  blue  colouring 
matter  and  ol  ammonia;  and  the  air  of  the 
receiver  consisted  of  azote,  carbonic  acid  gas, 
and  the  colouring  matter,  lie  conchided, 
friim  this  and  other  experiments,  that  the 
colouring  matter  is  a  comjiound  of  ammonia 
and  oil.  But  wlien  he  attempted  to  verify 
this  theory  by  combining  together  annnonia 
and  oil,  he  could  not  succeed  in  forming  co- 
louring matter.  I'liis  obliged  him  to  change 
his  opinion ;  and  at  last  lie  concluded  that 
the  colouring  matter  is  a  compound  of  am- 
monia and  charcoal.  He  mixed  together 
equal  cpiantities  of  pounded  charcoal  and 
potass,  put  the  mixture  into  a  crucible,  and 
kept  it  red-hot  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour:  he 
then  added  a  quantity  of  sal  ammoniac  in 
small  pieces,  which  he  pushed  to  the  bottom 
of  the  melted  mixture,  kept  it  in  the  fire  for 
two  minutes  till  it  had  ceased  to  give  out  va- 
pours ot  ammonia,  and  then  threw  it  into  a 
quantity  of  water.  The  solution  possessed 
all  the  properties  of  the  Prussian  alkali.  Thus 
Mr.  Scheele  succeeded  in  forming  the  coloui- 
ing  matter. 

This  colouring  matter  was  called  prnssic 
acid  by  Morveau,  in  the  first  volume  of  tlie 
chemical  part  of  tlie  Encyclopedie  Metho-' 
di(|ue  ;  an  appellation  which  is  now  generalh' 
received. 

These  admirable  experiments  of  Scheele 
were  repeated  and  carried  still  farther,  by 
Berthollet  in  1787,  who  applied  to  the  expla- 
nation of  tlie  composition  of  the  colouring 
matter  the  light  which  had  resulted  from  his 
previous  experiments  on  the  component  part- 
«f  ammonia.  This  illustrious  chemist,  scarce- 
ly inf;:nor  to  Scheele  in  ingenuity  and  ad- 
tlress,  ascertained,  in  the  first  place,  that  tlie 
prussic  alkali  is  a  triple  salt,  composed  of 
prnssic  acid,  tlie  alkali,  and  oxide  of  iron  ; 
that  it  may  be  obtained  in  octahedral  crv- 
stals ;  and  that  when  mixed  with  sulphuric 
acid,  and  exposed  to  the  light,  it  lets  fall  a 
precipitate  at  Prussian  blue.  His  next  object 
was,  to  ascertain  the  component  parts  of 
prussic  acid.  When  oxymunatic  acid  is 
poured  into  prussic  acid  obtained  bv  Scheele's 
process,  it  loses  its  oxygen,  and  is  converted 
into  common  muriatic  acid.  At  the  same 
time  tlie  prussic  acid  becomes  more  odorous 
and  more  volatile,  less  capable  of  combining 
with  alkalies,  aiid  precipitates  iron  from  its 
solutions,  not  blue,  but  green.  Thus  prussic 
acid,  by  combining  with  oxygen,  .acquires 
new  properties,  and  is  converted  into  a  new 
5ubstance,  which  may  be  called  oxyprussic 


acid.  If  more  oxymurialic  acid  gas  is  made 
to  pass  into  prns>ic  aciil,  and  it  is  exposed 
to  the  light,  tin-  prussic  acid  separates  from 
the  water  with  which  it  was  oombiiied,  and  I 
pre<'i])ilates  to  the  bot\om  in  the  form  of  an 
aromatic  oil;  which  lieut  converts  into  a  va- 
pour insoluble  in  water,  and  incapable  of 
conibining  with  iron.  Wlien  the  green  pre- 
cipitate, composed  of  oxyprussic  acid  and 
iron,  is  mixed  with  a  pure  lixed  alkali,  the 
oxyprussic  aci<l  is  decomposed,  and  con- 
verted into  t;arbonat  of  ammonia. 

I'rom  these  experiments,  Berthollet  con- 
cluded, tliat  prussic  acid  does  not  contain 
ammonia  ready-formed  ;  but  that  it  is  a  triple 
compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  azote, 
in  proportions  which  lie  was  not  able  to  as- 
certain. Tliis  conclusion  has  been  still  far- 
ther verified  by  Mr.  Clouet,  who  found  that 
when  animoniacal  gas  is  made  to  pass  through 
a  red-hot  porcelain  lube  containing  charcoal, 
a  cpiantity  of  prussic  acid  is  formed.  This 
experiment  does  not  succeed  miless  a  pretty 
strong  heat  is  applied  to  the  tube. 

Fourcroy  and  several  otiier  chemistii  be- 
lieve, that  the  prnssic  acid  contains  also  a 
portion  of  oxygen  in  its  composition,  resting 
chieily  upon  the  following  experiments  of 
Vanquelin: 

Exper.  I.  Put  into  a  retort  100  parts  of 
the  inuriat  of  ammonia,  50  parts  of  lime,  and 
2j  parts  of  charcoal  in  line  powder ;  ada|)t  to 
the  retort  a  receiver  containing  a  sliglit  so- 
lution of  the  sulphat  of  iron,  and  immerse 
into  it  the  beak  of  the  retort ;  then  apply  a 
brisk  heat,  and  continue  the  action  of  the  iire 
until  nothing  more  is  disengaged. 

Exper.  II.  Put  into  a  retort  100  parts  of 
the  muriat  of  ammonia,  50  parts  of  semi- 
vitreous  oxide  of  lead,  and  1'5  parts  of  char- 
coal: adapt  a  receiver  containing  a  solution 
of  sulphat  of  iron,  and  proceed  as  before. 
Stir  well  the  liquors  contained  in  the  re- 
ceivers, and  expose  them  to  the  air  for  seve- 
ral days,  in  order  that  the  combination  be- 
tween the  oxide  of  iron  and  the  j)nissic  acid 
may  be  ]>erfect,  and  that  tlie  prussiat  of  iron 
may  absorb  as  much  oxygen  as  is  necessary 
for  its  passing  to  the  state  of  blue  prussiat, 
and  for  its  being  proof  against  acids:  tlien 
pour  into  these  liquors  equal  quantities  of  sul- 
phuric acid  well  diluted  with  water,  and  you 
will  have  Prussian  blue,  the  quantities  of 
which  will  be  as  one  to  six;  that  is  to  say, 
the  Prussian  blue  of  the  experiment  in  which 
\'auquelin  employed  oxide  of  lead,  was  six 
times  more  abundant  than  that  of  the  expe- 
riment in  which  he  employed  only  lime  to 
disensage  tlie  anmionia. 

Having  thus  traced  the  gradual  progress  of 
philosophers  in  ascertaining  the  nature  of  the 
prussic  acid,  it  only  remains  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  its  properties,  which  were  first  exa- 
mined by  the  indefatigable  Scheele. 

Prussic  acid  obtained  by  Scheele's  process 
is  a  colourless  liquid  like  water.  It  has  a 
strong  odour,  resembling  that  of  the  flowers 
of  the  peach,  or  of  bitter  almonds.  Its  taste 
is  sweetish,  acrid,  and  hot,  and  apt  to  excite 
cough.  It  does  not  alter  the  colour  of  vege- 
table blues. 

It  is  exceedingly  volatile,  and  evidently 
capable  of  assuming  the  gaseous  form  ;  though 
it  has  never  been  obtained  apart,  nor  ex"a- 
mined  in  that  state.  At  a  high  temperature 
(when  united  to  a  base),  it  is  decomposed 
3T2 


and  converted  mio  ammonia,  carbonic  acid, 
anil  carbureted  hydrogen  gas. 

It  unites  tlillicultly  with  alkalies  and  earllis, 
and  is  scjiarated  from  t'lem  mneli  more  easily 
tiian  from  nn-lallic  oxides.  More  cxpo.-un; 
to  the  light  of  the  sun,  or  to  a  heat  of  1 1 0",  is 
sniiicient  for  that  purpose.  '1  hese  combina- 
tions are  decomposed  also  by  all  the  acids. 

It  has  no  action  on  metals;  but  it  unites 
with  tlieir  oxides,  and  forms  with  them  salts, 
«hi(h  are  almost  all  insoluble,  if  we  except 
prussiats  of  mercury  and  mangantse.  These 
compounds  arc  not  decMiipo-ed  by  acids, 
"^'ct  the  jirussic  acid  is  not  capable  of  taking 
the  metallic  oxides  from  the  other  acids. 

Prussic  acid  has  a  groat  tendency  to  enter 
into  triple  compounds,  combining  at  once 
with  an  alkali  and  a  metallic  oxide;  and 
these  compounds  are  much  more  permanent 
and  di'llcult  to  decompose  than  its  single 
combinations. 

The  aflinilies  of  this  acid,  as  far  as  they 
have  been  ascertained,  are  ai  follows: 

Barytes, 

Stroiitian, 

Potass, 

Soda, 

Lime, 

Magnesia, 

Ammonia. 

It  does  not  seem  capable  of  combining  with 
akiniina. 

This  acid  is  of  great  importance  to  the  che- 
mist, in  consequence  of  tlie  property  which 
it  has  of  forming  insoluble  compounds  with 
metallic  oxides,  and  almost  with  metallic 
oxides  alone.  'ITiis  puts  it  in  our  |)Owerto 
ascertain  the  presence  of  a  metallic  body 
held  in  solution.  \Vhen  the  prussic  acid  is 
dropt  in,  a  precipitate  appears  if  a  metal  is 
present.  1  he  colour  of  this  precipitate  indi- 
cates the  metal,  and  the  quantity  of  it  enables 
us  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  metal  con- 
tained in  the  solution.  It  is  used  especially 
to  indicate  the  presence  of  iron,  which  it  does 
by  the  blue  colour  that  the  solution  assumes; 
and  to  free  solutions  from  iron,  which  it  does 
by  precipitating  the  iron  in  the  form  of  Pnis- 
siaii  blue. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  pure  prus- 
sic acid  cannot  be  employed  for  these  jiur- 
poses,  because  it  is  incapable  of  taking  me- 
tallic oxides  from  other  acids.  It  Is  always 
employed  combined  with  an  alkaline  or 
earthy  basis.  In  that  state  it  decomposes  all 
metallic  salts  by  a  compound  atiinity.  The 
base  most  commonly  employed  is  ])otass  or 
lime;  and  indeed  it  is  most  usually  employed 
in  the  state  of  a  triple  salt,  composed  of  prus- 
sic acid,  potass,  and  oxide  of  iron,  which  is 
preferred  because  it  is  not  apt  to  be  decom- 
posed by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere. 

Of  all  the  metallic  solutions  tried  by 
Scheele,  pure  prussic  acid  occasioned  only  a 
precipitate  in  three,  namely, 

I.  Nitrat  of  silver  precipitated  white. 

L'.  Nitrat  of  mercury    .    .  .  black. 

3.  Carbonat  of  iron  .  .  .  green  becom- 
ing blue. 

It  has  no  action  on  the  oxides  of 

Platinum,  Antimonv, 

Iron,  Manganese, 

Tin,  Arsenic  acid. 

Lead,  Moljbdjc  acid. 

Bisiiiutli, 


5-iO 


1'  S  I 


Gold  precipitated  by  the  alkaline  carbo- 
nats,  is  rendered  wliile  by  this  acid. 

It  di^engages  carl)onic  acid  troiir  tlie  oxide 
of  silver  precipitated  by  the  same  alkalies  ; 
but  the  oxide  remains  uhite. 

It  dissolves  red  oxide  of  merciirv,  and 
forms  with  it  a  salt  «hicii  niay  be  obtained  in 
crystals. 

Oxide  of  copper  precipitated  by  carbonat 
of  potass,  e(ivr\  esci-'s  in  it,  and  acquires  a 
slight  orange-yellow  coloiu'. 

Oxide  of  iion  precipitated  from  the  sul- 
phat  of  iron  by  carbonat  of  potass,  effervesces 
in  it,  and  becomes  blue. 

Oxide  ol  cobalt  precipitated  by  the  same 
alkali,  gives  in  it  some  marks  of  eHervescence, 
and  becomes  yellowish-brown. 

Tiie  compounds  which  prussic  acid  makes 
with  zirconia  and  yttria,  seem  aUo  to  be  in- 
soluble ;  for  these  earths  are  precipitated 
from  their  solutions  by  prussiat  of  potass ;  a 
circumstance  in  which  they  dilVer  from  all 
the  other  earths  and  alkalies,  and  which  in- 
dicates a  coincidence  between  them  and  the 
metallic  oxides. 

PKYTANEUjM,  in  Grecian  antiipiity,  a 
large  building  in  Athens,  where  the  council 
of  the  prytanes,  or  presidents  of  tlie  senate, 
assembled,  and  where  those  who  had  ren- 
dered any  signal  service  to  the  common- 
wealth were  maintained  at  the  public  ex- 
pence. 

P.SIDIUM,  the  giitnti,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nflg)  Ilia  order,  in  the  icosaiidria  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  IQl'i  order,  hesperideic.  The  ca- 
lyx is  C|uinquelkl,  superior:  there  are  live 
petals :  the  berry  is  unilocular  and  mono- 
spermous.  There  are  eight  species.  The 
.most  remarkable  are : 

1.  The  ])yriferuiTi,  or  white  gnava.  2.  The 
pomiferuni,  or  red  guava.  I3olli  these  are 
however  thought  by  some  to  be  only  varieties 
of  the  same  plant.  The  red  guava  rises  to 
the  height  of  'JO  feet,  and  is  covered  with  a 
smooth  bark  ;  tlie  branches  are  angular,  co- 
vered with  oval  leaves,  having  a  strong  mid- 
rib, and  many  veins  running  louards  the 
sides,  of  a  light-gveeii  colour,  standuig  oppo- 
site upon  very  short  footstalks.  From  the 
wings  of  the  leaves  the  flowers  come  out  upon 
footitalks  an  inch  and  a  half  long:  they  are 
composed  of  live  large  roundish  concave  pe- 
tals, within  which  are  a  great  number  of  sta- 
mina shorter  than  the  pt-tals,  and  tipped  w  ith 
pjle-yellow  tops.  After  the  tlower  is  past, 
the  gernien  becomes  a  large  oval  fruit  shaped 
like  3  pomegranate. 

A  decoction  of  the  roofs  of  guava  is  em- 
ployed with  success  in  dysenteries:  a  bath 
of  a  decoction  of  the  leaves  is  said  to  cure 
the  itch,  and  other  cutaneous  eruptions. 
Guayava,  or  guava,  is  distiugui-hed  from  the 
colour  of  the  pulp,  into  the  two  species  above- 
mentioned,  the  white  and  the  red  ;  and,  from 
the  hgure  of  the  fruit,  into  the  round  and  the 
peaf-fashioned  or  perfumed  guava.  The  lat- 
ter lias  a  thicker  rind,  and  a  more  delicate- 
taste,  than  the  other.  The  fruit  is  aboiit  the 
bigness  of  a  large  tennis-ball  ;  the  rind  or  skin 
generally  of  a  russet  stained  with  red.  The 
pulp  wiihin  the  thick  rind  is  of  an  agreeable 
flavour,  and  inlerspersed  with  a  number  of 
small  while  seeds.  'I  Ik;  riml,  wlieii  stewed, 
is  eaten  witliinilk,  and  preferred  to  any  other 
ttcwcd  fruit.     From   the  same  jiart  is  made 


P  S  I 

marmalade  ;  and  from  the  whole  fruit  is  pre- 
pared a  rine  jelly.  The  fruit  is  very  astrin- 
gent, and  nearly  of  the  same  tjualitv  w  ith  the 
pomegranate,  and  should  be  avoided  by  all 
who  are  subject  to  costivene.ss.  The  seeds 
are  so  hard  as  not  to  be  affected  by  the  fer- 
mentation in  the  stomachs  of  animals;  so  that 
when  voided  with  the  excrements,  tliev  take 
root,  germinate,  and  produce  thriving  trees. 
^^  hole  meadows  in  the  "West  Indies  are  co- 
vered with  guavas,  which  have  been  propa- 
gated in  this  manner.  The  buds  of  guava, 
boiled  with  barley  and  liciuorice,  produce  an 
excellent  jitisan  for  diarrlia-as,  and  even  the 
bloody  flux,  when  not  too  inveterate.  The 
wood  of  tlie  tree,  employed  as  fuel,  makes  a 
lively,  ardent,  and  lasting  lire. 

PSriTACl'S,  or  parrot,  a  genus  belong- 
ing to  the  order  of  pic;e.  The  bill  in  this 
genus  is  hooked  from  tlie  base  ;  and  tlie  u))- 
per  mandible  is  moveable:  the  nostrils  are 
round,  placed  in  the  base  of  the  bill,  wliich 
in  some  species  is  furnished  with  a  kind  of 
cere ;  the  tongue  is  broad,  and  blunt  at  one 
end  ;  the  head  is  large,  and  the  croun  llat  ; 
the  legs  are  short,  the  toes  placed  two  before 
and  two  behind.  It  might  seem  a  woiuicr 
why  nature  has  destined  to  this,  which  is  not 
nalurally  a  bird  of  pre_\,  but  feeds  on  fruits 
anil  vegetable  substances,  the  crooked  Ije.ik 
allotted  to  the  liav.k  and  other  carnivorous 
birds;  lint  the  reason  seems  to  be,  that  the 
parrot  being  a  heavy  bird,  and  its  legs  not 
very  fit  for  service,  it  climbs  up  and  down 
trees  by  the  help  of  this  sharp  and  liot.>ked 
bill,  with  which  it  lays  hold  of  any  th.ng  and 
secures  itself  before  it  stirs  a  foot ;  and  be- 
sides this,  it  helps  itself  fonvard  very  much, 
hy  pulling  its  body  on  with  this  hold. 

Parrots  are  found  almost  every  where  with- 
in the  tropics ;  and  in  their  nalural  state  thev 
live  on  fruits  and  seeds,  though,  when  tame, 
they  will  eat  fiesli  and  even  fish. 

In  the  East  and  A\'est  Indies  they  are  very 
common ;  and  in  sach  warm  climates  are 
very  brisk  and  lively :  here,  however,  they 
lose  much  of  their  vigour.  'i'liey  seldom 
make  nests,  but  breed  like  owls  in  hollow 
trees:  they  lay  two  eggs.  At  particular 
limes  they  lly  in  very  large  troops,  but  st.U 
they  keep  two  and  two  together.  The  genus 
consists  of  inlinitv  variety,  not  so  much  ow- 
ing to  mixture  of  species,  however,  as  mii;ht 
b^-  supposed.  They  seem  to  run  vastly  into 
one  another,  so  as  to  appear  to  be  related', 
thoufrh  received  from  dill'erent  parts  of  tlie 
world;  this,  however,  may  possibly  be  occa- 
sioned by  their  being  carried  from  one  p'ace 
to  :iiiollier  tor  the  sake  of  sale. 

Bulloii  ranges  the  parrot  in  two  great 
ilasses;  the  first  of  which  comprehends  those 
of  the  Old  Continent,  and  the  second  those 
of  the  New.  Tlie  Ibrnier  he  subdivides  into 
live  families;  the  cockatoos,  the  parrots  pro- 
perly so  called,  the  lories,  the  long-tailed 
paro<|uets,  and  the  short-tailed  ones;  and  the 
latter  into  six,  viz.  the  iiiacaos,  the  ania/o- 
niaiis,  the  creeks,  the  popinjays,  tlie  long- 
tailed  paroquets,  and  the  sliort-lailed  ones. 

Mr.  Latham  has  iiureased  the  genus  from 
47  to  163;  and  since  the  time  he  wrote  his 
Index,  at  least  20  more  have  been  discovered. 
They  are  very  generally  divided  into  three 
kinds:  1.  The  larger,  which  are  as  big  as  a 
moderate  fowl,  called  macaos  and  cockatoos  ; 
these  h-ave  very  long  tails.  2.  The  middle- 
sized  ones,  commonly  called  parrots,  which 


P  s  o 

have  short  tails,  and  are  a  iit'tle  larger  than  a,-- 
pigeon.  And,  3.  1  he  tmail  ones,  which  are 
called  paroc|uets,  and  iiave  long  tails,  and  are 
not  larger  than  a  lark  or  bhickbir.d.  '1  he  lol- 
lowing  are  the  most  rem.akable  : 

1.  'i'he  psittacus  macao,  or  red  ami  blue 
macao,  is  red,  except  the  wiiig-(|uill8,  which 
above  are  blue,  btiore  rutous';  the  scapular- 
leathers  are  variegated  wiili  blue  and  green; 
tlie  cheeks  aie  naked  and  wrinkled.  It  is 
about  two  feet  seven  inches  and  a  half  long,, 
and  about  as  big  as  a  capon.  Kdwards  says,, 
when  perfect,  it  will  measure  a  lull  ya.d  lioiu 
bill  to  tail.  It  inhabits  Brasil,  (iuuiiia,  and 
other  parts  of  South  .\iiierica.  It  was  for- 
merly very  common  in  JSt.  Don.ingo,  but  is- 
now  rarely  found  there.  It  generally  lives  in 
moist  woodi,  especially  sui  h  as  are  olanted 
wilh  a  particular  kinil  of  palm,  perha;>s  what 
is  called  the  inacav>-lree.  It  does  not  in  ge- 
neral learn  to  speak,  and  its  voice  is  parti- 
cularly rough  and  disagreeable.  Tlie  flesh. 
is  hard,  black,  and  unsavoury,,  but  makes 
good  SOUJ3,  antl  is  much  used  by  the  inhalii- 
lants  of  Cayenne  and  other  places.  This 
speci's,  in  common  with  other  parrotn,  is 
subject  to  lits  when  tamed;  and  though  it. 
v/il!  live  for  many  ye^irs,  yet  if  the  returns 
are  |jrefty  frequent,  it  will  generally  fall  a  vic- 
tim to  tiiat  disease  at  last.  The  Americaui. 
call  it  gonzalo. 

'J.  'I  lie  psittacus  araraunav  or  blue  and 
yellow  macaw,  is  blue  above,  and  yellow  be- 
low, and  th.e  cheeks  are  naked,  with  feathery 
lines.  It  is  about  the  same  size  with  the  last, 
and  inhabits  .lamaica, .  Guiana,  Brasil,  aiicl 
Surinam. 

3.  The  psittacus  severus,  or  Ria»ilian  green 
macaw,  is  blaek,  with  a  greenish  splendour; 
the  bill  and  eyes  are  reddish,  and  the  legs  are 
yellow.  It  is  about  one  foot  and  hve  inches 
long,  and  is  conimon  in  Jamaica,  Guiana, and 
Brasil.  It  is  howe\er  comparaiiveLy  rare:  it 
is  extremely  beautiful,  and  of  a  very  amiable 
and  sociable  temper  when  familiar  and  ac- 
quainted; but  it  can  neither  bear  strangers 
nor  rivals:  its  voice  is  not  strong,  nor  does  it 
artisulate  very  di^lillclly  the  word  ara.  See 
Plate  Is'at.  Hist.  hgs.  338,  33yi 

4.  The  psittacus  aurora,  or  yellow  ama- 
zon.  is  about  13  inches  long,  ot  a  green  co- 
lour, with  blue  u  iiig-(]uills,  and  a  white  front ; 
ils  orbits  are  snowy.  It  inlialiits  Mexico  er 
Brazil;  but  ui  all  probalidity  the- latter,  Irom 
the  one  which  Salerne  sa-*,  and  winch  pro- 
nounced Portuguese  words.  The  ps  tfacus 
giiineeiisis,  or  yellow  lory,,  is  about  ten  iii- 
i  lies  long,,  and  is  an  inhabitant  of  Guinea. 
The  bill  IS  of  a  blaiJc  colour;  the  cere,  the 
throat,  and  space  about  the  eyes,  are  white;, 
above  the  c-ye  there  is  a  patch  of  yellow,  ancl 
the  rest  of  ihe  head  and  neck  is  crimson. 
The  breast  is  yellow,  wing-coverts  green, 
and  the  (|uills  are  blue,  edged  wilh  yellow. 
I'nder  the  w.ings,  belly,  ihighs,.  vent,  and 
to  Ihe  under  part  ot  the  tail,  the  colour  is 
white,  "  hich  last  is  tijiped  with  red;  the  legs 
are  ilus-ky.  and  the  claws  black. 

I'SOPIIIA,  a  genus  belonging  to  the  or^ 
der  gallina-.  The  bill  is  moderate  ;  the  up- 
per mandible  is  convex;  tlie  nostrils  are  ob- 
long, sunk,  and  perv'ous;  the  tongue  is  car- 
tilaginous, tlat,  and  fringed  at  the  end;  and 
the  legs  are  naked  a  I'ttlc  above  the  knees. 
The  toes  are  lliree  before  and  one  behind; 
the  last  of  which  is  small,  with  a  round  pro- 
tuberance beneath  if,  whicii  is  at  a  little  dis- 


I 


P  s  o 

lance  from  the  grounel.     Mr.  Latham  only 
enumerates  two  spifcies : 

1.  Pbophia  crepitans,  or  goUl-brcasted 
trumpeter.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  340. 
Its  liead  .'iiul  breast  are  smooth  and  shiiiing 
gree/i.  B_v  the  Spaniards  of  Ma)nas  it  is 
called  trompetero,  and  by  the  French  at 
Cayenne  agami,  tmiUr  uhieh  last  name  linli'un 
describes  it.  It  inhabits  parts  of  Soulh  Ame- 
rica, Brasil,  Gui.iiia,  .Surinam,  &f.  but  it  is 
most  plenty  in  the  .V.iia/ons'  country.  It  is 
about  'J(i  inches  long,  being  about  the  size  of 
a  large  towl»  and  lays  eggs  ratln.'r  larger,  of  a 
blue-gieen  colour.  It  is  met  with  in  the 
Carribet'  islands,  where  it  is  called  a  plu-iv 
sant,  and  its  llesh  is  reckoned  as  good  as  that 
ot  a  plieasaiit.  The  most  characteristic  and 
veiiiarkable  property  of  these  birds  consists 
in  the  '.vonderful  noise  they  make  either  of 
themselvi's,  or  when  urged  by  the  keepers  of 
the  menagerie.  Some  have  supposed  it  to 
proceed  Ironi  the  anus,  and.  some  from  the 
belly.  It  is  now  certain,  howuvcr,  that  this 
noise  proceeds  from  tlie  lungs.  Another  very 
remarkable  circumstance  is,  that  thev  follow 
pi-ople  through  the  streets,  and  out  of  town, 
and  sometimes  e\eii  perfect  strangers.  It  is 
diliieull  to  get  rid  of  them  ;  for  if  you  enter 
a  house,  tlu-y  will  wait  your  return,  and  again 
join  yon,  though  often  alter  an  interval  of 
three  hours.  "  I  have  sometime;  (says  .M. 
de  la  Borde)  betaken  myself  to  my  heels ; 
but  they  ran  faster,  and  always  got  before 
lue ;  and  when  I  sto|>ped,  they  stopped  also. 
I  know  one  (continues  he)  which  invarliblv 
follows  all  tlie  strangeps  who  enter  his  mas- 
ter's house,,  accompanies  them  into  the  gar- 
den, takes  as  many  turns  as  they  do,  and  at- 
tends them  back  again." 

2..  Psophia  undulataf,  or  undulated  trum- 
peter, is  about  the  size  of  a  goose.  The  up- 
per part  of  the  body  is  of  a  pale  reddish 
brown-colour,  beautifully  undulated  with 
black.  The  head  is  adorned  with  a  depen- 
dant crest.  On  each  side  of  the  neck,  be- 
neath the  ears,  begins  a  list  of  black,  widen- 
ing as  it  descends,  aixl  meeting  on  the  lower 
part  before,,  where  the  feathers  become 
greatly  elongated,  and  hang  loosely  down. 
The  under  parts  are  generally  white ;  the 
legs  are  ol  a  dusky  blue  colour,  like  the  bill. 
It  is  a  native  of  Africa.  Mr.  Latham's  spe- 
cimen came  from  Tripoli. 

PSOKA.  SeeMKDiciNE. 
•  PSOH.VLK.'V,  a  genus  of  the  decandria 
•rder,  in  the  diadelphia  class  of  plants,  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  jL'd 
order,  papilionacea-.  The  calyx  is  powdered 
with  callous  points,  and  as  long  as  the  mono- 
spermous  legumen.  There  are  33  species. 
The  most  rcmaikaJble  are: 

1.  The  pinnata,  or  pinnated  psora'ea,  with 
a  woodv  soft  stem,  branching  tive  or  s  x  feet 
higli,  |iiniiated  leaves  of  three  or  four  pair  of 
narrow  lobes  terniinatevl  by  mi  o.ld  one,  and 
at  the  axillas  dose-sitting  blue  tlowers  with 
white  keels.     It  is  a  native  ot  Ethiopia. 

2.  The  bituminosa,  or  bituminous  trifoliate 
psoralea,  rises  with  a  shrubby  stalk,  branching 
S))aringly  about  two  or  three  feet  high,  with 
tcrnate  or  three-lobi'd  leaves  of  a  bituniinotis 
scent,  and  blue  ilowers  in  close  heads.  It 
grows  in  Italy  and  in  France. 

3.  The  aculeata,  or  aculeated  prickly  pso- 
ralea,  rises  with  a  shrubby  branching  stem 
three  or  lour  feet  liigii,  with  teriiate  leaves. 


P  T  R 

having  wedge-shaped  lobes,  terminating  in  a 
recurved  sharp  point,  and  the  branches  ter- 
minated by  roundish  heads  of  blue  tlowers. 
It  grows  in  F.thiopia.  These  phiiits  (lower 
her.'  every  summer;  llie  first  sort  the  ureatest 
pait  of  that  season,  and  the  others  in  July 
and  August;  all  ol  which  are  succeeded  by 
seeds  in  autumn.  Keep  them  in  pots  in  order 
for  removing  into  the  greenhouse  in  winter. 
^I'hey  are  propagated  by  seeds,  sown  in  a  hot- 
bed in  the  spring;  and  when  the  plants  are 
two  or  three  inches  iiigh,  nrick  them  in  sepa- 
ral..' small  spots,  and  gradually  harden  them 
to  the  open  air,  so  as  to  be-ar  it  ftilly  by  the 
end  of  May  or  beginniiig  of  June.  'Ihey 
may  also  be  propagated  by  cuttings  any  time 
in  summer,  planted  in  pots,  and  phniged  in 
a  little  heat  ;  or  covered  close  with  liand- 
glasses,  sinuled  Ironi  tne  sun,  and  watered. 

PSYCTIOTKI.V,  a  genu;  of  the  monogy- 
nia  ordiT,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
47tli  order,  stellatie.  The  calyx  is  quinque- 
denlate,  persisting,  and  crowning  the  fruit ; 
the  corolla  is  tubuhited  ;  the  berry  globose, 
with  two  heHiis[>lierical  sulcited  seeds.  The 
species  are  39,  chielly  ilirubs  of  the  West 
Indies, 

P  r.VHMICA,  sncfze-iiort,  a  genus  of  the 
syngenesia  polygamia  superflua  class  of 
])l;:iits,  the  comp.nmd  (lower  whereof  is  ra- 
diated, and  tlie  i>eculiar  hermaphrodite  ones 
of  a  fuiiuel-sliape,  with  a  patulous  quin(|ue- 
fid  limb  ;  the  stamina  are  live  capillary  very 
short  filaments;  and  the  see(ls,.oiie  of'whicii 
succeeds  each  hermaphrodite  (lower,  are  con- 
tained in  the  cup.  'i'he  leaves  of  this  plant 
are  sometimes  used  in  sallad ;  ami  when 
dried  and  reduced  to  powder,  they  nrake  a 
good  sternutatory. 

PTEtJCA,  shnih-trifoil ,  a  geiHis  of  the 
monogynia  order,- in  the  tetrandria  class  of 
plants,  aiTd  in  the'  natural  methcnl  ranking 
with  those- of  which  the  order  is  doubtful. 
The  corolki  is  tetrapetalous ;  the  calvx  (|ua- 
dripartite  inferior ;  the  fruit  is  monusper- 
mous,.  with  a  roundish  membrane  in  the  mid- 
dle. 

There  is  one  speciesj,  viz.  the  trifoliata,  or 
Carolina  shrub-trefoil.     It  has  a  shrubby  up- 
right   stem,    dividing    into   a    branchy' head 
eight  or  ten  feet  high,  covered  with  a  smooth 
purplish   bark,    triloliate    lea^jes,   formed   of 
oval  spear-shaped  folioles,  and  the  branches 
terminated    by    large   bunches  of  greenish- 
white  dowers,   succeeded  by  roundish,  bor- 
dered   capsules.       It  is  a    hardy   deciduous  i 
shrub,  and  a  [iroper  plant  for  the  shruble.y  I 
and  other  ornamenlal  plantations  to  increase! 
the  variety.    It  is  propagated  by  seeds,  layers, 
and  cuttuigs.  '         I 

PTEKIS,  a  genus  of  the  order  of  filices,in 
the  cryptogamia  cla>s  of  plants.  The  fructi- 
fications are  in  lines  under  the  margin.  There 
are  34  species.  The  most  remarkable  is  the  ' 
aciuilina,  or  common  female  fern.  Tlve  root  ! 
ot  this  is  viscid,  nauseous  und  bitterish;  and 
like  all  the  rest  of  the  fern  tribe,  has  a  salt, 
mucilaginous  taste.  It  creeps  under  the 
ground  in  some  rich  soils  to  the  depth  of  five 
or  six  h'et,  and  is  very  difficult  to  be  destroy- 
ed. Fieiiuent  iinn>ing  in  pasture-grounds, 
plentiful  dunging  in  arable  lands,  and  above 
all,  pouring  urine  upon  it,  are  the  most  ap- 
proved methods  of  killing  it.  It  has,  how- 
ever, many  good  qualities  to  counterbalance 


P  T  E 


.517 


(he  few  bad  ones.  T'ern  cut  while  green,  and 
'eft  to  rot  upon  the  ground,  is  a  good  im- 
prover of  land ;  and  its  ashi-s,  if  burnt,  will 
yield  the  double  ouantity  of  salt  that  most 
olh(-r  vegetables  will.  Fein  is  also  an  e.-.c-e!- 
lent  manure  for  potatoes;  for  if  buried  be- 
neath their  roots,  it  never  fails  to  produce  a 
good  crop.  Its  astringeiuy  is  so  great,  that 
it  is  used  in  many  jilaces  abroad  in  dressing 
and  preparing  kid  and  chamois  leatlier.  In 
several  places  in  the  north,  the  inhabitants 
mow  it  green,  and,  burning  it  to  ashes,  inaku 
those  ashes  up  into  balls,  with  a  little  water, 
wliii-h  they  dry  in  the  iun,  and  make  use  of 
tlieni  to  wash  their  linen  instead  of  ^oap.  In 
many  of  the  Western  Isles,  the  people  gain  a 
yery  considerable  jirolit  from  (lie  sale  of  (lie 
ashes  to  soap  and  glass-makvrs.  In  Gleii- 
Elgin  Inverness  shire,  and  other  places,  the 
peojilc  thatch  their  houses  with  the  stalks  of 
this  fern,  and  fasten  them  down  with  ropes 
made  either  of  birch,  bark,  or  heath.  Sviiue 
are  (biidof  the  roots,  es|)eciaily  if  boiled  in  their 
wash.  In  some  part.-  of  Norniandvwe  read  that 
the  poor  have  been  reduced  to  the  miserable 
necessity  of  mixing  (hem  with  their  bread;  and' 
in  Siberia,  and  some  other  northern  coun- 
tries, the  inhabitants  brew  them  in  their  ale,. 
iiiiNing  one-third  of  the  roots  to  two-thirds 
of  malt.  The  antieiits  used  the  root  of  this 
fern,  and  the  whole  pUint,  in  decoctions  and 
di(  t-drinks,  in  chronic  disordersof  all-kinds,- 
arising  from  obstructions  of  the' viscera  ami 
the  spleen.  Some  of  the  moderns  have  given- 
it  a  high  character  in  the  same- intentions, 
but  it  IS  rarely  used  in  the  present  pr;u:tice. 
The  countrv -people,  however,  still  continue' 
to  retain  some  of  its  antient  uses;  for  they 
give  the  jjowder  of  it  to  destroy  worms,  and 
look  upon  a  bed  of  the  green  plant  as  a  so- 
vereign cure  for  the  rickets  in  childrin. 

PI  EKOCAIUT'.S,  a  genus  of  the  decan- 
dria  order,  in  the  diadelphia  class  of  plants, 
and  in  thenatmal  method  ranking  un<k-r  the 
32(1  order,  papilionaceie.  The  calyx  is  quiu- 
quedeniate  ;  the  capsule  falcated,  liliacc  ous, 
varicose.  The  seeds  are  few  and  solitary. 
There  are  six.  species.  The  most  remark- 
able are : 

1.  Draco  2.  Ecastaphrlliim.  3.  Luna-- 
(t)s.  .Vnd,  4.  Santalinus.  This  last  is  called 
red  Saunders ;  and  the  wood  is  brought  from 
the  East  Indies  in  large  billets,  of  a  compact 
texture,  a  dull  red,  almost  blackish  colom-  on 
the  outside,  and  a  deep  brighter  red  vvithin. 
This  wood  has  no  inanitest  smell,  and  litlk-  or 
no  taste. 

'Ilie  princip.d  use  of  i^ed  saunders  is  as  a 
colouring  <lrug ;  with  which  intention  it  is 
employed  in  some  fornuilx,  particularh  in 
the  tinctura  lavenduke  coniposita.  It  com- 
municates a  deep  red  to  rectified  .spirit,,  but 
gives  no  tinge  to  atpieous  liquors ;-.  a  small 
quantity  of  the  resin,  extrailed  by  means  of 
spirit,  tinges  a  large  one  of  ficsli  spirit  of  an 
elegant  blood-red.  'I'here  is  scarcely  any  oil,, 
that  of  lavender  excepted,  to  which  it  com- 
municates its  colour.  Geoffroy  arrd  others 
take  notice,  that  the  Brazil  woecb  are  some- 
times substituted  for  red.  saunders ;  and  the 
college  of  Brussels  are  in  doubt  whether  all 
that  is  sold  among  them  for  saniHlcrs  is  not 
really  a  wood  of  that  kind. 

P'i'ERONlA,  a  genus  of  the  polygamia 
■jcqtialis  order,  in  the  syngenesia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  4yth  order,  coniposita'.     The  re- 


5!  8 


P  T  I 


•  P  U  L 


P  U  L 


<:opt;irle  is  full  of  multipartite  bristles;  tlie 
pappus  a  lift!;"  plujuy  ;  tlio  calyx  imhricatcd. 
Tli'-Ti;  are  iS  sppcics,  shrubs  of  tin;  Cape. 

FlF.ROl-fPEKMrM,  a  genus  of  the  po- 
Ivamlria  order,  in  the  monadclphia  class  of 
j)l  Hits,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
nndi'r  the  37th  order,  columnifej-s.  The 
caljxis  iiuin<|uepartite ;  the  corolla  Gonsivts 
of  live  oblong  spreading  petals.  The  lila- 
ineiils  are  abo-.it  liiteen,  wiijch  unite  towards 
the  base  into  a  tube.  'I'lie  style  is  c\lindri- 
"jal ;  the  capsule  is  oval,  woody,  and  quin- 
<|ue!ocular,  each  ot  which  are  bivalved,  con- 
taining many  oblong,  compressed,  and  winged 
seeds.  There  are  two  species,  natives  of  the 
Kast  Indies;  the  wood  of  wliich  is  very  hard, 
and  verv  like  that  of  tlie  boUv-tree. 

P'lE'UOTRACllEA,  a  genus  of  the  ver- 
.ines  moUusca.  Body  -detached,  gelatinous, 
with  a  moveable  (in  at  the  abdomen  or  tail; 
eytrs  two,  platrcil  within  the  head.  There  are 
four  species,  that  inhabit  chieHy  the  Archipe- 
laiio. 

PTINUS,  a  gemis  of- insects -belonging  to 
the  order  coleoptera.  The  generic  charac- 
ter is,  anteinia;  hliform,  with  the  three  last 
joints  largest ;  thorax  roundish,  w  ithout  di- 
stinct margin,  receiving  occasionally  the 
hea<l. 

The  genus  ptii;us,  like  that  of  dermcstes, 
con-islsof  small  insects,  which,  in  general, 
liave  similar  habits,  living  botli  in  their  lar\ii 
and  complete  slate  among  dry  animal  sub- 
stances ;  and  some  species  in  dry  v.  nod,  com- 
iiiltling  great  l)avc)C  among  the  older  articles 
.  of  furniture,  whicli  they  pierce  with  innu- 
merable holes,  tlius  causing  their  gi-adual 
destruction. 

To  this  genus  belongs  the  celebrated  in- 
sect, distinguished  by  the  title  of  the  death- 
watch,  or  ptinns  fatidicus.     Among  the  po- 
pular superstitions  which  the  almost  general 
illumination  of  modern  times  hffs  not  been 
able  to  obliterate,  the  dread  of  the  death- 
watch  may  well  be  considered  as  one  of  the 
most  predoniinant,  and  still  contnuies  to  dis- 
turb the  habitations  of  rural  (rancpiillitv  witn 
groundless  fears  and  absurd  apprehemious. 
It  is  not  indeed  to  be  imagined  that  those 
who  are  engaged  in  the  more  important  cares 
of  providing   the  immediate   necessaries  of 
life,  should  have  either  leisure  or  inchnation 
to  investigate  with  philosophic  exactness  tlie 
r.:iuses  of  a  particular  sound;  yet  t  must  be 
allowed  to  he  a  very  singul.ir  circiimstance 
that   an  animal  so   connnon   should   not    be 
more  nniver>ally   known,   and  the   peculiar 
noise  which   it  occa^ionally   makes   be  more 
imivcrsally  understood.     It  is  chie'lv  in  the 
advaiued  state  of  spring  that  this  ala.muig 
Jittle  animal  commences  its  sotmd,  which  is 
no  other  than  the  call  or  signal  by  which  the 
male  and  female  are  led  to  each  other,  and 
which  may  be  considered  as  analo  -ous  to  the 
call  of  birds,  Ihongli  not  owing  to  tlie  voice 
of  the  insect,  but  to  its  beating  on  any  hard 
substance  with  the  shield  or  tore-part  of  its 
head.      I'he    prevailing  number  of  distinct 
strokes  which  it  beats  is  from  Seven  to  nine 
or   eleven;    which   very   circumstance   may 
perhaps  still  add  in  some  degree  to  the  omi- 
nous character  which  it  bears  among  the  vul- 
gar.     'I'liese  sounds  or  beats  an;  given  in 
pretty  quick  succession,  and  are  repeated  at 
uncertain  intervals;  and  in  old  houses  where 
the  insects  are  numerous,  may  be  heard  at 
almost  every  hour  of  the  day,  especially  if 


the  wentlier  is  -(varm.  Tiie  sound  exactly 
resembles  that  which  maybe  made  by  beat- 
ing moderately  hard  with  ,i  nail  on  a  (able. 
The  insect  is  ofa  colour  so  nearly  resembling 
that  of  decayed  wood,-viE.  an  obscure  grey- 
isii  brown,  tiiat  it  may  for  a  con^iderable  time 
elude  the  seanli  of  the  en(|uirer.  It  is 
about  a  f|Ui:rU'r  of  an  inch  in  lengtii,  and  is 
moderately  thick  in  proportion,  and  the  wing- 
shells  are  marked  with  nuni(-rous  irregular 
variegations  of  a  lighter  or  greyer  cast  than 
the  ground-colour. 

\V'e  imi«t  be  careful  not  to  confound  this 
animal,  which  is  the  real  death-watch  of  the 
vulgar,  emphatically  so  called,  with  a  niucli 
smaller  insect  of  a  very  different  genus,  which 
makes  a  sound  like  the  ticking  of  a  watch, 
and  continues  it  for  a  long  time  without  in- 
termission. It  belongs  to  a  totally  different 
order,  and  is  the  termes  pulsatorium  of  f^iii- 
na-ns. 

We  cannot  conclude  this  slight  account  of 
the  death-\>atch  w-ithout  ([uoting  a  sentence 
from  tliat  celebrated  work  the  Pseudodo.xia  | 
Epidemica  of  the  learned  sir  Thomas  lirown,  [ 
who  on  this  subject  expresses  himself  in  words  , 
like  these:  "  He  that  could  eradicate  this  ' 
error  from  the  minds  of  the  people,  would  i 
save  from  many  a  cold  sw-eat  the  meticulous 
heads  of  iiuises  and  grandniotliers." 

A  very  destructive  little  species  of  ptinus 
is  often  seen  in  collections  of  dried  plants, 
&c.  remarkalde  for  the  ravages  it  commits 
both  in  iK  Uirva  and  perfect  state.  The  'arva 
resembles  that  ofa  beetle  in  miniature,  being 
about  the  eighth  of  an  inch  long,  and  of  a 
thickish  form,  lying  with  the  body  bent,  and 
is  of  a  white  co'our.  The  perfect  insect  is 
very  small,  measuring  only  about  the  tenth 
of  an  incii,  and  is  slender,  of  a  pale  yellowish 
chesnut-colour,  appearing,  when  magnified, 
beset  with  small  short  hairs,  with  the  wing- 
covers  linely  stri]jed  by  rows  of  small  im- 
pressed points  or  dots.  The  ravages  of  the 
larva  are  most  remarkable  during  the  summer. 

Tlie  ptinns  fur  of  Linnxus  is  another  verv 
destructive  species.  Us  length  is  somewhat  j 
more  than  the  tenth  of  an  in-.h,  and  its  co- 
lour pale  chesnut-biown,  sometimes  marked 
on  the  w  ing-covers  by  a  pair  of  grevish  bands ; 
the  antenna;  are  rather  long  and  slender;  the 
body  remarkably  convex  ;  and  the  thorax, 
when  magnified,  appears  to  have  a  projecting 
point  on  each  side.  Its  larva  resembles  that 
of  the  preceding  species,  and  is  found  in  si- 
milar situations. 

PTOLE.MAIC',  or  Pinlemcan  system  nf 
astrnnnnvi,  is  tliat  invented  by  Claudius  Pto- 
lema-iis,  a  celebratL-d  astronomer  and  mathe- 
matician of  Pelusium  in  Egypt,  who  lived  in 
the  beginning  of  the  second  century  of  the 
Cliri^tian  a^a. 

This   hypothesis   supposes  t'le    earth  ini- 

moveably  lixed  in  the  centre,  not  of  the  world 

only,  but  also  of  the   universe  ;  and  that  tlie 

sun,  the  moon,  the  planet-,  and  stars,  all  move 

about  it  from  east  to  west,  once  in  24  hours, 

in  the  order  following,  viz.   the  moon  next 

to  the  Earth,  then  Mercury,  X'eiius,  the  Sim, 

Mars,  .Iu])iler,   Saturn,  the  lixed  stars,  the 

hrst  and  second  crystalline  heavens,  and  above 

all,  the  fiction  of  their  prinuim  mobile. 

Pri5ES.     See  Anatomy. 

PUCEKON.     SeeAi'His. 

PUIyl'"X,  lhe.//f«,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the 

order  aptera.     The  generic  character  is,  legs 

six,  formed  for  leaping ;  eyes  two ;  antenna: 


filiform';  n-ioiilli  furnished  w ifh  an  inHecIed, 
setaceous  snoul,  concealing  a  piercer  ;  abdo- 
men ci;nipre-ised. 

This  genus  is  one  of  the  most  iinanlar  in 
the  order  aptera.  The  pulex  irritans,  or 
common  flea,  so  well  known  in  its  complete 
state  in  every  region  of  the  globe,  is  remark- 
able for  undergoing  tlie  several  changes  ex- 
perienced by  the  major  part  of  the  insect 
r.ice  of  other  tribes;  being  produced  from  an 
egg,  in  the  form  of  a  minute  worm  or  larva, 
which  changes  to  a  chrysalis,  in  order  to  give 
birth  to  ihe  perfect  animal.  The  female  tlea 
deposits,  or  rather  drops,  her  eggs  at  distant 
intervals,  in  any  favourable  situation:  they 
are  very  small,  of  an  oval  shape,  of  a  white 
colour,  and  a  polished  surface.  From  these, 
ill  tlie  space  ot  six  days,  are  hatched  the  lar- 
va-, which  are  destitute  of  feet,  of  a  length- 
ened worm-ake  shape,  beset  with  distant 
hairs,  and  furnished  at  the  head  with  a  pair  of 
short  antenniB  or  tentacula,  and  at  the  tail 
with  a  pair  ol  slightly  curved  forksor  iiolders. 
Their  colour  is  white,  with  a  reddish  cast, 
and  their  motions  quick  and  tortuous.  These 
larva;  are  very  frequently  found  in  the  nesls 
of  various  birds,  and,  in  particular,  of  pigeons, 
where  they  I  isten  occasionally  to  the  young 
brood,  and  saturate  tncmselves  with  blood. 
In  the  space  of  ten  or  twelve  days,  they  ar- 
rive at  their  full  growth,  when  they  usually 
measure  near  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length. 
At  this  period  they  cease  to  feed,  and,  casting 
their  skin,  change  inio  the  state  of  a  chry- 
salis, which  is  of  a  wliite  colour,  and  of  an 
oval  shape,  wilh  a  slightly  pointed  extremity, 
and  exhibits  the  immature  limbs  of  the  in- 
cluded insect.  The  larvx  are  said  to  spin 
themselves  up  in  an  oval  cotton-like  cover- 
ing before  they  undergo  their  change.  This, 
how-ever,  is  not  always  the  ca=e.  After  ly- 
ing for  the  space  of  twelvi-  days  in  chry- 
salii,  the  coniplet-  insect  emerges  in  its  per- 
fect form.  It  now  begins  to  exert  its  lively 
motions;  and  employs  the  shai-p  proboscis 
with  which  nature  has  ftirnislied  it,  in  order 
to  obtain  nourishment  Iroin  the  first  man, 
bird,  or  quadruped,  to  which  it  can  gain  ac- 
cess. The  time  required  for  the  evolntion  of 
this  animal  varies  considerably  according  to 
the  season  of  the  year,  and  in  the  winter 
months  is  of  much  longer  dur.ition  than  the 
period  abc.ve-mentioneci ;  the  egg  scarcely 
hatching  under  twelve  days,  and  the  larvse 
lying  ne.irly  twice  the  usual  time  in  chrysalis. 

Among  the  chief  singularities  observable 
in  the  structure  of  the  tli-a,  may  be  noticed 
the  extraordinary  situation  of  thelirst  pair  of 
legs,  which,  instead  ot  being  placed  beneath 
the  thorax,  as  in  most  other  insects,  are  situ- 
ated immediately  lieneath  the  head ;  the  au- 
tt-nna-  are  short,  hiury,  and  consist  of  five 
joints;  and  at  a  small  distance  beneath  there 
is  placed  (he  proboscis,  which  is  strong,  sharp- 
pointed,  tubular,  and  placed  betw-een  a  p;iir 
of  jointed  guards  or  slu-aths,  which  are  still 
I  farther  strengthened  at  the  base  by  a  pair  of 
'  pointed  scales ;  the  eyes  are  large,  round, 
I  and  black.  The  general  ajipearance  of  the 
I  animal  is  too  w-ell  known  to  require  purtictl- 
l.ir  description:  i(  may  on'y  be  necesvary  to 
observe,  that  (he  male  lscon^iderably  sm.iller 
than  the  female,  with  the  back  rather  sinking 
than  convex,  as  it  always  is  in  the  female  in- 
sect. Nothing  can  exceed  the  curious  dis- 
position and  polislied  elegance  of  the  shelly 
armour  with  which  the    animal  is  covereo. 


V  U  M 

nor  can  the  stinittiirc  of  tlie  legs  be  tonlem- 
[jl.ited  without  admiration. 

'I'lioiigli  it  would  perhaps  be  dillicult  to 
prove  tliat  there  exists  in  luirope  more  tliaii 
one  genuine  species  of  Ilea,  yet  it  is  certain 
that  some  peiinanerit  varieties  or  races  may 
be  traced,  wliich  a  practised  eye  can  readily 
distinguisli  Irom  the  comman  domestic  kii'.d. 
Of  these  the  most  remarkal)le  seems  to  be 
that  infesting  some  of  liie  smallc'r  (luadrujx-ds, 
and  particularly  mice  and  bal;.  'i'iiis  varielv 
is  of  a  more  slender  form  than  the  connnon 
Ilea,  and  of  a  paler  colour,  dilfering  from  that 
insect  nearly  in  the  same  prop:)rtion  that  a 
gri-yliound  does  Irom  the  more  connnon  race 
of  (logs, 

l'ule\  penetrans,  or  chigger,  is  a  native  of 
South  America  and  the  \\'est  hidian  islands. 
According  to  Catesby's  microscopic  figure  of 
this  insect,  it  may  properly  l)e  arranged  un- 
<ler  the  present  genus ;  but  it  is  probable, 
fron>  the  dil'ferent  descriptions  ot  authors, 
that  some  in.iccts  of  the  gemis  acarus,  wliich 
excite  similar  swellings  under  the  skin,  li.ive 
been  conliumded  with  it  under  the  general 
name  of  chigger  or  chigoe.  Catesby's  ac- 
count runs  as  follows: 

"  It  is  a  very  small  ilea,  that  is  found  only 
in  warm  climates.  It  is  a  very  troublesome 
insect,  especially  to  negroes,  and  others  that 
go  barefoot  and  are  slovenly.  They  pene- 
trate the  skill,  under  which  Ihev  lay  a  bnncli 
or  bag  of  eggs,  which  swell  to  ihe  bigness  of 
a  sm.ill  pea  or  tare,  and  give  great  pain  till 
taken  out ;  to  perform  whicli  great  care  is 
recjuired,  for  fear  of  breaking  the  bag,  which 
endangers  a  mortilication,  and  the  loss  of  a 
leg,  and  sometimes  life  itself.  'I'his  insect,  in 
its  natural  size,  is  not  above  a  fourth  part  so 
big  as  llie  common  ilea.  From  tlie  mouth 
issues  a  hollow  tube  like  that  of  the  common 
Ilea,  between  a  pair  of  anteniKv.  It  has  six 
jointed  legs,  and  something  resembling  a  tail. 
The  egg  is  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  dis- 
cerned by  the  naked  eye.  Thi-se  chegoes 
are  a  nuisance  to  most  parts  of  America  be- 
tween the  tropics." 

PULLliY.     See  Mechanics. 
_  PULMONAIUA,  htiigivort,   a    genus  of 
the  moiiogyiiia  order,  in  the  pentandria  class 
of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  41st  order,  asperifolia?.      I'he  co- 
rolla  is   funnel-shaped,  with  its  throat  per- 
■  vious  ;  the  calyx  is  prismatic  and  pentagonal. 
There  are  seven  species,  of  whicli  the  most 
remarkable  is  the  oflicinalis,  common  spotted 
lungwort,  or  Jerusalem  cowslip.     Tiiis  is  a 
native  of  woods  and  shady  places  in  Italy  and 
Germany,  but  has  been  cultivated  in  Britain 
for  medical  use.     The  leaves  are  of  a  green 
colour,  spotted  witli  wliite ;  and  of  a  muci- 
laginous taste,  without  any  smell.     They  are 
recommended  in  phtliisis,  ulcers  of  the  lungs, 
&c.  but  their  virtues  in  these  diseases  are 
iiot  warranted  by  experience. 
PULSATILLA.     See  Anemone. 
PLUjSE,  in  the  animal  economy,  denotes 
the  beating  or  throbbing  of  the  heart  and  ar- 
'  teries.     See  Physiology. 
Pulse.     SeeLEouMEN. 
PULTEN.EA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  decandria  monogynia.     The  calyx  is 
five-toothed  ;    corolla    papilionaceous ;     le- 
gume one   cell,  two-seeds.      There  are  six 
species,  shrubs  of  New  Holland. 

PUMICE-STONE,    or  porous  gla.'iir.i. 
.  W  hen  the  compact  glasses  are  exposed  to  the 


r  u  M 

h<'a(  of  onr  furnaces,  they  emit  a  great  num- 
ber ol  air-bubbles,  which  renders  them 
porous  ;  such  is  the  origin  of  pumice.  It 
lias  the  same  base  as  compact  glass.  The 
te\lurc  is  librous  ;  the  fibres  have  a  silky 
lustre.  Colours  various  ;  wliite,  brown,  yel- 
low, black.  Uefore  the  blow-|)ipe,  tliey 
melt  into  a  white  enamel.  According  to 
Kiaprotli,  the  piiinici;  consists  of 
77., 50  silica 
17,,5()  alumina 

1.75  oxide  of  iron 

3.00  potass 

99  75.     See  Fulmin'.^tion. 

PUMP,  an  hydraulic  machine  for  raising 
water  by  means  ol  the  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
'phere.  It  would  be  an  entertaining  and  not 
an  uniiHtru<tive  piece  of  information  to  learn 
the  progressive  steps  by  which  the  ingenuity 
of  man  has  invented  the  various  methods  of 
raising  water.  A  pump  must  be  considered 
as  tlie  last  step  of  this  progress.  Common 
as  it  is,  and'  overlooked  even  by  the  curious, 
it  is  a  very  abstruse  and  refined  invention. 
Nothing  like  it  has  been  found  in  any  of  the 
rude  nations  whom  the  Europeans  have  dis- 
covered, either  in  the  new  continent  ot 
America  or  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Nay,  it  was  unknown  in  the  cultivated  em- 
pire of  China  at  the  tin-.e  of  our  arrival  there 
by  sea;  and  it  is  still  a  rarity  every  where  in 
Asia,  in  places  unfrequented  by  the  Euro- 
peans. It  iloes  not  appear  to  have  been 
known  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  earlv 
times ;  and  perhaps  it  came  from  Alexandria, 
where  physical  and  mathematical  science 
was  much  cultivated  by  the  Greek  school 
under  the  protection  of  the  Ptolemies.  The 
performances  of  Ctesibius  and  Hero  are 
spoken  of  by  Pliny  and  Vitruvius  as  curious 
novelties.  'Ihere  are  two  sorts  of  pumps, 
which  essentially  dilit-r  ;  and  all  the  varieties 
are  but  modifications  of  these.  One  iias  a 
piston  with  a  perforation  and  valve  ;  theoth.-"r 
has  a  solid  piston:  to  the  former  is  given  the 
n;ime  of  the  common  sucking-pump  ;  the 
latter  is  denominated  tlie  forcing-pump. 

I'lg.  1 .  represents  the  common  sucking- 
pump,  AA  is  a  cylinder  of  cast  iron,  bored 
smooth  withinside;  it  lias  a  flanch  at  the  top, 
by  which  it  is  screwed  to  the  wooden  cistern 
15,  which  conveys  the  water  away  from  the 
pump.  It  has  also  a  flanch  D  at  its  lower 
end,  to  screw  on  the  pipe  E,  which  brings 
the  water  to  the  pump.  In  the  same  llanch 
is  a  pair  of  valves,  mi  ;  and  the  bucket  or 
piston  F,  wliich  slides  within  the  barrel,  has 
another  similar  pair  of  valves  in  it.  This 
bucket  is  screwed  to  an  iron  rod  G,  whicli  is 
moved  up  and  down  by  some  machine. 
When  the  bucket  F  descends,  its  valves  bb 
open  as  in  the  ligure,  and  allow  the  water 
which  fills  the  barrel  to  pass,  through  them. 
When  the  bucket  arrives  at  the  bottom  of 
the  barrel,  it  is  drawn  up  again  ;  and  as  the 
valves  shut,  and  prevent  the  water  from  re- 
turning through  the  bucket,  it  lifts  all  the 
water  contained  in  the  barrel  into  the  cis- 
tern B.  At  the  same  time  the  bucket,  in 
rising,  makes  a  vacuum  beneath  it:  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  surface  of 
the  water  in  the  well,  causes  it  to  mount  up 
througii  the  pipe  E,  open  the  valves  an,  and 
till  the  barrel  A.\.  When  the  buck-jt  begins 
to  descend,  the  column  of  w.tter  beneath  it 
descends  also,  tiU  it  is  stopped  by  the  shiit- 


P  U  M 


519 


ting  of  the  valves  <■/« ;  the  valves  bb  llieii 
open,  and  allow  the  water  to  pass  througii 
as  belbre. 

Fig.  2  is  a  forcing-pump.  In  this  the  bar- 
rel A.V  is  screwed  u|)oii  a  stpiare  box  BB, 
wliich  has  a  pair  of  vaives  aa  at  the  top  of 
the  jjipe  C,  bringing  water  trom  the  well  ; 
an<l  another  similar  pair  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  jjipe  i),  whii h  is  liki:v\ise  screwed  to  the 
sijuaie  box,  'i'he  plunger  E  is  solid:  \^•hen 
it  is  drawn  up  it  makes  a  vacuum  in  the  bar- 
rel, and  draws  the  water  up  througii  the 
valves  aa  from  the  well  to  till  the  liarrcl. 
The  plunger  is  then  forced  down,  the  valves  «a 
shut,  and  as  the  water  has  no  other  way  out  of 
tiiebjx,  it  passes  through  bb  up  the  pipe  I). 
The  plunger  is  then  drawn  up,  the  valves  bb 
shut,  and  ua  open  to  supply  the  barrel  as 
betore. 

Fig.  3  is  a  lift-pump.  The  barrel  AA  is 
screw  L-d  by  its  top  to  a  shorter  barrel  H, 
from  w-hich  the  crooked  pipe  B  proceeds. 
Acover /i  IS  screwed  over  the  lop  oi  the  bar- 
rel II,  with  a  stulfing-box  in  tiie  middle  of 
it ;  which  is  a  box  cnntaimiig  cotton,  or  other 
light  substances,  througii  which  the  piston-rod 
V,  passes.  '1  he  piston  F  has  two  valves  h'> 
hi  it,  similar  to  tig.  1  ;  and  at  the  bottom  of 
Uie  barrel  are  two  valves  similar  to  cm  (fig- 
1).  \V'hen  the  piston  descends,  the  lower 
valves  prevent  the  water  Irom  g'jmg  out  of  the 
barrel:  and  the  valves  bb  open, "to  let  the 
water  press  through  them.  When  the  piston  . 
returns,  the  valves  in  it  shut,  and  it  raises 
the  water  through  the  pipe  B ;  the  stulting-box 
preventing  its  getting  out  at  the  top  ol  the 
barrel,  by  the  side  of  the  piston-rod,  as  in  fig. 
1  ;  and  at  the  s.une  time,  by  making  a  vacu- 
um beneath  it,  tilling  the  barrel  through  the 
lower  valves  in  the  same  manner  as  the  suck- 
ing-pump. 'J'he  piston  then  descends,  the 
lower  valves  shut,  ami  //A  open  as  before.  In 
all  the  figures,  W  represents  a  hole  in  ths 
bottom  of  the  |iump,  to  get  at  the  valves  to 
repair  them  ;  and  when  the  pump  is  at  work, 
a  cover  is  screwed  over  it,  as  shewn  in  lig.  3. 
Pumps  constructed  as  in  the  drawing  are 
seldom  less  than  one  or  two  feet  in  the  bore 
of  the  barrel. 

The  common  sucking-piinip  mav,  by  a 
small  addition,  be  converted  into  a  lifting- 
pump,  litted  for  propelling  the  water  to  any 
distance,  and  whh  any  velocity.  Fig.  4,  is  a 
sucking-pump  on  a  small  scale, -whose  woik- 
iiig-barrel  AB  has  a  lateral. pipe  C,  connect- 
ed with  it  close  to  the  top.  'I'his  terminates 
in  a  main  or  rising  pipe,  furnisheil  or  not 
with  a  valve.  The  top  of  the  working-barrel 
AB  is  shut  by  a  strong  pi.ite,  having  u  hollow 
neck  terminating  in  a  small  llanch,  .  The 
piston-rod  passes  tin'ough  this  neck,  and  is 
nicely  turned  and  polished.  A  number  of 
ring^:  of  leather  are  put  over  the  rod,  and 
strongly  compressed  round  it  by  another 
ilauch  and  several  screwed  bolts.  By  this 
contrivance,  the  rod  is  closely  grasped  by 
the  leathers;  but  may  be  e;isily  draw  n  up  and 
down,  while  all  passage  of  air  or  water  is  ef- 
fectually prevented.  'Jlie  piston  is  perfo- 
rated, and  furnished  with  a  valve  opening 
upwards.  There  is  also  a  valve,  T,  on  the 
top  of  the  suction-pipe;  and  it  will  be  of 
advantage,  though  not  absolutely  necessary, 
to  put  a  valve  L  at  the  bottom  of  the  rising- 
pipe.  Now,  suppose  the  piston  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  working-barrel  ;  when  it  is  drawn 
up,  it  tends  to  compress  the  aii'  above  it,  be- 


520 

cauoP  the  valve  in  tlie  jiHloii  rmiaiii';  shut  by 
its  own  woiglit.  'I'iie  air,  iIiltl-'.oil-,  is  diivi-n 
through  tlie  valve  L,  into  tlie  rising-pipe, 
and  escapes.  In  the  mean  time,  the  air 
wliich  occe.pie:!  the  small  space  hetween  the 
pislon  and  the  valve  T,  expands  into  the 
tipper  part  of  the  working-barrel  ;  and  its 
elasiicity  is  so  much  dimniished  thereby, 
that  the  atmo>phere  presses  the  v.ater  of  the 
cistern  into  the  smtion-pipe,  where  it  rises 
until  an  ecpiilibrium  is  again  pro(hiC{"d.  The 
liext  stroke  of  the  piston  d.iwnwards,  allows 
the  air  which  iiad  come  from  tU- suction-pipe 
into  the  barrel  dnring  tlie  ascent  of  the 
piston,  to  get  througli  its  valve.  Upon  draw- 
ing up  the  piston,  the  air  is  alsa  drawn  off 
through  the  rising-pipe.  Ri-peatnig  this  pro- 
cess, brings  the  water  at  last  into  tlie  working- 
barrel,  and  it  is  then  driven  along  the  rising- 
pipe  b\  tlie  piston. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  forms  of  a  pump. 
The  rarefaction  may  be  very  perfect,  becaii^e 
^the  piston  can  be  brought  so  near  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  working-barrel:  and  for  forcing 
water  in  opposition  to  great  pressures,  it  ap- 
pears preferable  to  the  common  forcing- 
■pump  ;  because  in  that,  the  piston-rod  is 
compressed  and  exposed  to  bending,  wliicli 
greatly  hurts  the  pump,  by  wearing  tiie  piston 
and  barrel  on  one  side.  'I'his  soon  renders 
it  less  tight,  and  much  water  si(uirls  out  by 
the  sides  of  the  pi-ton.  But  in  this  pump  the 
piston-rod  is  alwavs  drawn,  or  jiulled,  which 
Keeps  it  straight,  and  rods  exert  a  much 
greater  force  in  opposition  to  a  pull  thai!  to 
compression.  The  collar  of  le.ither  round 
the  piston-rod,  is  found  by  experience  to  be 
very  impervious  to  water;  and  though  it 
"needs  but  litUe  repair,  \  et  the  whole  is  very 
accessible;  and  in  tliis  respect  much  prefer- 
able to  the  common  pump,  in  deep  mines, 
where  every  fault  of  the  piston  obliges  us 
to  draw  up  some  hundred  feet  of  pi-ton- 
rods.  By  this  addition  too,  any  common 
pump,  for  the  service  of  a  house,  may  be 
converted  into  an  engine  lor  extinguisiiing 
fire,  or  may  be  made  to  con\  ev  the  water 
to  ever_\  part  of  the  house  ;  and  this  without 
hurting  or  ob-tructing  its  common  uses.  All 
that  is  necessary,  is  to  have  a  large  cock  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  working-barrel,  opoo- 
site  to  the  lateral  pipe  in  this  figure.  This 
cock  serves  for  a  s|)onl,  when  the  pump  is 
used  tor  common  purposes;  and  the  merely 
shutting  this  cock,  converts  the  whole  into 
■an  engine  for  extinguishing  fire,  or  ibr  sup- 
plying tlistant  places  witli  water.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  add,  that,  for  these 
services,  it  will  be  recpiisite  to  connect  an 
uir-vessel  with  some  convenient  part  of  the 
.rising-i)ipe,  in  order  that  the  current  of 
water  may  be  continual. 

Jt  is  of  considerable  importance,  that  as 
,ec]uablea  motion  as  possible  is  produced  in  the 
main-pipe,  which  diminishes  those  strains 
which  it  is  otherwise  liable  to.  The  appli- 
cation of  an  air-vessel  at  the  beginning  of  the 
pipe,  answers  this  pur|)ose.  In  great  works, 
ic  IS  Usual  to  irlfect  Uiis  by  iiie  alternate  action 
of  two  pumps,  it  w  ill  be  rendnvd  still  more 
uniform,  if  fjiir  pumps  are  employed,  su<- 
ceediiig  each  oilier  at  the  interval  of  one 
tjuarter  of  the  lime  of  a  complete  stroke. 

liiit  ingenious  men  have  attempted  the 
same  thing  with  a  single  punij)  ;  and  man\ 
tlillereiit  conslru!  lions  lor  this  purpose  havi' 
bcfu  proposed  an<l  c.xecutetl,     r'ij;.  j,   re- 


PUMP. 

presents  one  of  the  best.  It  consist'?  of  a 
working-barrel,  ah,  closed  at  both  ends  ;  the 
piston  c  is  solid,  and  the  piston-rod  passes 
through  a  collar  of  leathers  at  the  lop  of  the 
barrel.  This  barrel  communicates  laterally 
with  two  pipes,  II  and  k,  the  communications 
being  as  near  to  Ihe  top  and  bottom  of  the 
barrel  as  ])ossible.  At  each  of  the  coniinuni- 
cations  are  two  valves,  opening  upwards. 
The  two  pipes  uniti-  in  a  larger  rising-pipe  at 
l>,  which  bends  a  little  back,  to  give  room 
for  the  pi--ton-rod.  Suppose  the  piston  down 
close  to  the  entry  of  the  lateral  pipe  // ;  when 
it  is  drawn  up,  it  compresses  the  air  above 
it,  and  drives  u  through  the  valve  in  the  pipe 
^■,  whence  it  escapes  through  the  rising-pipe; 
at  the  same  time  it  rareties  the  air  below  it. 
Therefore  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  shuts 
the  valve  m,  and  causes  the  water  in  th;'  cis- 
tern to  risi>  through  the  valve  ii,  and  till  the 
lower  part  of  the  pump.  \N  hen  the  piston  is 
pushed  down  again,  this  water  is  liist  driven 
througli  the  valve  m,  bccausi-  ii  immediately 
sliuts  ;  and  then  most  of  the  air  which  was 
ill  this  part  ot  the  pump  at  the  beginniiis,  goes 
lip  through  it,  some  of  the  water  coming  back 
in  its  stead.  In  the  mean  time,  tiie  air  which 
remained  in  the  upper  part  of  the  pump  after 
the  ascent  of  tlie  piston,  is  rarefied  by  its 
descent;  because  tlie  valve  o  shuts  as  soon 
as  the  piston  begins  to  descend,  the  valve  p 
opens,  the  air  in  the  suction-pipe  A  expands 
into  the  barrel,  ami  tlie  water  rises  iiiio  the 
l)ipes  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  next  rise  of  the  piston  must  bring  more 
water  into  the  lower  part  of  the  l>arrel,  and 
must  drive  a  little  more  air  through  the  valve 
o,  namely,  part  of  that  which  hail  come  out 
of  the  suction-pipe  /(  ;  and  the  next  descent 
of  the  piston  must  drive  more  water  into  tli ' 
rising-pipe  k;  and  along  with  it,  most,  if  nut 
all,  of  the  air  which  remained  below  the 
piston,  and  must  rarefy  still  more  the  air 
remaining  above  the  piston  ;  and  more  water 
will  come  in  through  the  pipe  /(,  and  get  into 
the  barrel,  it  is  eviileiit,  that  a  lew  repe- 
titions will  at  last  till  the  barrel  on  both  sides 
of  the  piston  with  water.  When  this  is  ac- 
complished, there  isnodilliculty  in  perceiving 
how,  at  every  rise  of  Ihe  pislon,  the  water  oi 
the  cistern  v.ill  come  in  by  the  valve  h,  and 
the  water  in  the  upper  part  of  the  barrel  will 
be  driven  through  the  v..lve  o;  and  in  every 
descent  of  the  piston,  tiie  water  of  Ihe 
cistern  will  come  into  the  barrel  by  the  valve 
yi,  and  the  water  below  the  piston  will  be 
driven  thnaigh  the  valve  }>i  ;  and  lliiis  there 
will  beacontimwl  iiilluxiiitothe barrel  through 
the  valves  ((  and  yi.  and  a  i-oiitiniial  discharge 
along  the  rising-pipe  I  through  tlie  valvi-s 
m  and  o. 

This  machine  is  certainly  equivalent  to 
two  forcing-pumps,  although  it  has  but  one 
barrel  and  one  piston  ;  but  it  has  no  sort  of 
superiority.  It  is  not  even  more  economical, 
ill  most  cases ;  because,  probably,  the  ex- 
pence  of  the  a<ldilional  workmanship  will 
ecpial  that  of  the  barrel  and  piston,  which  is 
saved.  '1  here  is,  indeed,  a  saving  in  the  rest 
of  the  machinery,  because  one  lever  pro- 
duces both  motions.  It  Iherel'ore  cannot  be 
called  interior  to  two  pumps ;  and  tln-rc  is 
undoubtedly  some  ingenuity  in  the  coiilri- 
vaiice. 

l''ig.  0,  is  another  pump  for  furnishing  a 
conlimied  stream,  inventi-d  by  Mr.  Nobh'. 
AH,  Ihi;  working-barrel,  coiilains  two  pistons. 


C  and  B,  which  are  moved  up  and  down  al-' 
leriiately  by  the  rods  lixed  to  the  lower  F. 
The  rod  of  the  piston  H,  is  carried  through 
Ihe  piston  or  bucket  C.  This  pump  is  very 
simple  in  its  principle,  and  may  be  executed 
at  little  expence. 

The  pump  invented  by  M.  De  la  Hire, 
raises  water  ecpially  quick  by  the  descent  as 
by  the  ascent  ot  tne  jji»;oii  in  the  pump- 
barreL 

AA  (tig-  7),  is  a  well,  in  which  the  lower 
ends  of  the  pipes  15  and  C  are  placed.  D  is 
the  [iiimp-barrd,  into  the  lowermost  end  of 
which  the  top  of  the  open  pipe  B  is  soldered, 
and  in  the  uppermost  eiul  the  lio!low  pipe  S 
is  soldered,  v-  liich  oi)ens  into  the  barrel  ;  iud 
the  top  of  tl'.e  pipe  C  is  soldered  into  tliat 
piece.  Ivach  of  these  pipes  has  a  valve  on 
its  top,  and  so  have  the  ciooked  pipes  E  and 

F,  whose  lo-.viT  ends  are  open  into  the  punip- 
barrrel,  and  their  upper  ends  into  the  bu.x 

G.  L  is  tlie  piston-rod,  which  moves  up 
and  down  through  a  collar  of  leather  in  the 
neck  M  ;  K  is  a  solid  plunger,  fastened  to 
the  rod  or  spear  T  ;  the  plunger  never  goes 
higher  than  K,  nor  lower  ttian  D ;  so  that 
from  K  to  D  is  the  length  of  the  stroke. 

As  the  plunger  rises  from  D  to  K,  the  at- 
mosphere (pressing  on  live  surface  of  the 
water  AA  in  tlie  weil)  forces  the  water  up  the 
pipe  B,  through  the  valve  /),  and  nils  the 
piimp-banel  with  water  up  to  the  plunger; 
and  (hiring  this  time,  the  valves  t  and  S  lie 
close  and  air-tight  on  the  tops  of  the  pipes 
E  and  C. 

Allien  the  plunger  is  up  to  its  greatest 
height,  at  K,  it  stops  there  for  an  instant,  and 
in  that  instant  the  valve  h  falls,  and  stops  Dhe 
|jipe  15  at  top.  Then,  as  the  plunger  goes 
down,  it  cannot  force  the  water  between  K 
and  1)  back  through  the  close  valve  b;  but 
forces  all  that  water  up  the  crooked  pipe  E, 
through  the  valve  c,  which  then  opens  up- 
ward by  the  force  of  the  water :  and  this 
water,  after  having  tilled  the  box  G,  rises  into 
tlie  |)i|)e  N,  and  runs  olf  bv  the  spout  at  O. 

During  the  desci  lit  ot  the  plunger  K,  the 
valvef  fa  Is  down,  and  covers  tile  top  ot  the 
crooked  pipe  F  ;  and  lli.-  |)ressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere on  the  well  A.\  forces  the  water 
up  the  pipe  C,  through  the  valve  S,  which 
then  opens  upward  bv  the  force  of  the  as- 
cending water ;  and  ihis  water  runs  from  S 
into  Ihe  pump-barrel,  and  fills  all  Uie  space  lu 
it  above  the  plunger. 

When  Ihe  plunger  is  down  to  its  lowest 
descent  at  I),  ami  slops  there  for  an  instant, 
in  that  instant  the  valve  .S  falls  dovvc,  and 
shuts  the  IO]i  of  tlie  pipe  C  :  and  then,  as  the 
pliiiieer  is  raised,  it  cannot  tbiw  the  water 
above  it  back  througli  the  valve  S,  but  drive* 
all  that  water  up  to  the  crooked  pipe  K, 
through  the  valve./",  wlikh  opens  iqiward  by 
the  force  of  the  ascending  water;  which 
water,  after  lillinc;  the  box  G,  is  forced  up 
from  iheiice  into  the  pipe  N,  and  runs  olf  by 
the  spout  at  (). 

And  thus,  as  tin-  plunger  descends,  it  forces 
the  water  below  it  up  the  pipe  K;  and  as  it 
ascends,  it  forces  the  water  above  it  up  the 
pipe  F;  the  pressure  of  Ihe  atmosphere  tilling 
I  lie  pump  barrel  below  the  |>liiiiger,  llirou^h 
the  |)ipe  B,  uhiletlie  plunger  ascends;  and 
lining  the  barrel  with  wat«r  above  the  plun- 
ger, lliroughihe  pipe  C'.as  the  plunger  goes 
ijown. 

'i'hus  tliere  is  as  much  water  forced  up  tbm 


ffipe  N,  fo  the  spout  O,  by  '.lie  dcsf  rut  of  the  ] 
|)hiiif;iT,  as  by  its  ascriil ;  and,  In  i-arh  case, 
as  inucli  water  i^  ili^charm'd  at  ( ),  a>  lilU  that 
jiart  of  Ihf  |)iiin|i-barn'l  wliich  llie  pkmgur 
moves  ii|)  aijd  dew  n  in. 

On  the  tf)|)  ot  ihe  pipe  ()  is  a  close  aii'-ves- 
sel  1'.  W  heii  the  watei'  is  loreed  up  above 
the  spoilt  (),  it  compresses  the  air  in  the  ves- 
sel P;  and  tliis  air,  by  the  force  of  its  spring 
acting  on  the  water,  causes  the  water  to  run 
olT  by  the  spout  O,  in  a  coiistunl  and  (very 
nearly)  ecjnal  stream. 

Whatever  the  heiL^ht  of  tlie  spout  O  is 
above  the  surface  of  the  well,  the  lop  S,  of 
the  pipe  C,  must  not  be  32  feet  aliove  tliat 
surface;  because  if  that  pipe  could  l)e  en- 
tirely exhausted  of  air,  the  pressure  of  the 
atmoiplure  in  the  well  would  not  force  the 
water  up  the  pipe  to  a  greater  height  than 
32  feet  ;  and  if  S  is  within  L'i  fi'ct  of'the  sur- 
face of  the  well,  the  pump  will  be  so  much 
tlie  belter. 

As  Ihe  collar  of  leathers  within  the  neck 
M,  is  a|)t  to  dry  and  shrink  when  the  pump 
is  not  used,  and  conse(|ueullv  to  let  air  get 
into  the  pump-barrel,  which  would  stop  iiie 
operation  of  the  almosphere  in  the  ])ipe  C  ; 
collars  of  old  hats  miglit  be  used  instead  of 
leathers,  as  they  would  not  be  liable  to  that 
inconvenience. 

It  matters  Utile  what  the  size  of  the  pipe 
N  is,  through  which  the  water  is  forced  up  to 
the  spout ;  but  a  great  deal  depends  on  the 
iize  of  the  pump-barrel  ;  and  according  to 
the  height  of  ihe  s|)out  O,  above  the  surface 
of  the  well,  the  diameter  of  the  bore  of  the 
barrel  should  be  as  follows : 

For  10  feet  high  the  bore  should  he  6.9 
inches;  for  15  feet  5.6;  for  i'O  feet  4.0;  for 
25  feet  4.4  ;  for  30  feet  4.0 ;  for  35  feet  3.7  ; 
for  40  feet  3.5  ;  for  45  feet  3.3 ;  for  50  feel 
3.1 ;  for  55  feet  2.0;  for  60  feet  2.S;  for  (i5 
feet  2.7;  for  70  feet  'J.6;  for  75  feet  2.5  ; 
for  80  feet  2.5  will  do ;  for  S5  feet  2.4;  for 
90  feet  2.3  ;  for  !}5  feet  2.2  ;  and  for  100  fed, 
the  diameter  of  the  bore  shoulil  not  exceed 
f.l  or  2.2  inches  at  most,  if  these  propor- 
tions are  attended  to,  a  man  of  common 
>trenglh  may  raise  water  100  feet  high  by 
one  pump,  as  easily  as  he  could  raise  it  teii 
feet  high  by  another. 

In  this  pump  the  pipes  I>  and  C  jeem  to 
be  rather  too  small  ;  which  will  cause  the 
water  rising  in  them  to  have  a  great  deal  of 
friction  from  the  quickness  of  its  motion ; 
and  whoever  makes  such  a  pump,  will  liud  it 
very  dilTiciilt  to  make  the  leather  in  the  neck 
M  water-tight,  so  that  no  water  shall  be  for- 
cfd  out  that  wav  when  the  piston  is  drawn 

The  hair  rope  machine  for  raising  water 
was  invented  by  sieur  \'era: 

A  (fig.  8),  is  a  wheel  four  feet  over,  having 
an  axis  and  a  winch  ;  CC,  a  hair-rope,  near 
ene  incli  diauieter  ;  D,  a  reservoir  to  collect 
the  water :  E,  a  S])out  to  tfonvey  tlie  water 
li'oin  the  reservoir  ;  G,  the  surface  of  the 
wuler  in  the  well;  I,  a  pulley  under  which 
the  rope  runs,  in  order  to  keep  it  tight. 

When  the  handle  is  turned  about  with  a 
considerable  velocity,  (he  water  which  ad- 
heres to  the  rope,  in"  wells  of  no  great  dejjlh, 
is  very  considerable:  the  rope  tlius  pusses 
Ihiough  the  tubes  in  D,  which,  bemg  hve  or 
.I.V  inches  l]i>.her  ihaii  the  bollcni  of  the  rc- 

VOL.    II. 


PUMP. 

sprvoir,  hinders  the  water  from  returning 
back  inio  the  well,  and  is  conveyed  in  a  con- 
tinual stream  linou^h  the  spout  iC.  .Some  of 
the  .ibove  engines,  improved  bv  Mr.  Stam- 
ford, have  rai>cd  a  greater  (|uaiiiity  of  water 
than  any  person  uuskilhil  in  livdra'iilics  couM 
suppose,  in  the  same  time,  froiii  such  a  simple 
contrivance. 

'I  he  chain-pump  consists  of  two  square,  or 
cylindrical  barrels,  through  which  a  chain 
passes,  having  a  great  number  of  Hal  pistons, 
or  valves,  lixed  upon  it  at  (iroper  distances. 
This  chain  passes  round  a  kind  ol  w  heel-work, 
lixed  at  one  end  of  the  machine.  'J'he  teeth 
of  this  are  so  contrived  as  to  receive  one- 
half  of  the  Hat  jiistons,  which  go  free  of  the 
sides  of  Ihe  barrel  by  near  a  ipiarter  of  an 
inch,  and  let  them  fold  in,  and  they  take  hold 
of  the  links  as  they  rise.  A  whole  row  of 
the  pistons,  which  go  free  of  the  sides  of 
the  barrel  by  near  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  are 
always  lihing  when  the  ijunip  is  at  work; 
.ind  as  this  machine  is  generallv  worked 
Willi  briskness,  they  bring  up  a  full  liore  of 
water  in  the  puni)).  It  is  wrought  either  by 
one  or  two  liandles,  according  to  the  labour 
recpiired. 

The  many  fatal  accidents  which  happen  to 
ships  from  the  choking  of  their  pumps,  makes 
it  .III  important  object,  in  naval  all'airs,  to  find 
synie  machine  for  freeing  ships  from  water, 
not  liable  to  so  dangerous  a  defect.  The 
chain- pump  being  louiid  least  exciptionable  in 
tills  respect,  was  adopted  in  the  I'.ritish  navy  ; 
but  the  chain-pump  itself  is  not  free  horn  im- 
perfections. If  the  valves  are  not  well  lilted 
to  the  cylinder  through  which  Ihev  move, 
much  w.iler  will  fall  back  ;  if  they  'are  well 
lilted,  the  friction  of  many  valves  must  be 
considerable,  besides  the  friction  of  the  cli.iin 
round  the  sprocket-wheels,  and  that  of  the 
wheels  themselves.  'I'o  which  mav  be  added, 
the  great  wear  of  leathers,  and  the  disad- 
vantage which  attends  the  surging  and  break- 
ing of  the  chain.  'Ihe  preference,  therefore, 
which  has  been  given  to  chain-pumps  over 
those  which  work  by  the  pressure  ot  the  at- 
mosphere, must  have  arisen  from  one  circum- 
stance, that  they  have  been  found  less  liable 
to  choke. 

Ill  ])oint  of  friction,  of  coolnesi,  and  of 
cheapness,  the  sucking-pump  has  so  evidenllv 
the  advantage  over  tlie  chain-pum;),  that  ft 
will  not  fail  to  gain  the  prelerence,  whenever 
it  shall  be  no  longer  liable  to  be  choked  with 
gravel  and  with  chips. 

Buchanan's  pump,  which,  like  the  common 
pump,  acts  by  the  pres.-ureoflhe  atmosphere, 
is  not  liable  to  the  defects  mcident  to  oilier 
pumps  upon  that  jji-inciph!,  being  esseiUiallv 
UiliVrenl  irom  any  now  in  use. 

The  jirincipal  object  of  ils  invention  was 
to  remove  the  iuiperfcction  of  its  choking. 
In  attaining  this  impoitant  end,  a  varietv 
of  collateral  advantage^  have  also  been  pnJ- 
duced,  which  enhance  its  utility. 

I'lie  points  in  which  it  dilfers  essentially 
from  the  common  pump,  and  bv  which  ft 
excels,  are,  that  it  discharges  tin*  water  be- 
low the  piston,  and  lias  ils  vahxs  King  near 
each  other. 

The  advantages  of  this  arrangement  are, 
that  the  sand  or  other  matter,  which  mav  !)■• 
in  the  water,  is  discliarged  without  iniuring 
the  barrel  or  the  piston  leathers;  w  tliat  be- 
sides avoiding  unuecessarv  wear  and  tear. 
3U      ' 


521 

tl.e  pov,crof  the  pump  is  preserved',  and  not 
a  pi  lo  be  diminished  or  destroyed  in  momenls 
ol  danger,  as  is  often  the  case  with  (he  coni- 
inon  and  chain  jjumps :  that  the  valves  are 
not  conlined  to  any  particular  dimensions, 
Init  may  be  made  capable  of  discharging 
every  thing  that  can  rise  in  the  suction" 
piece,  without  clanger  of  being  choked:  Hut 
if  there  should  happen  upon  any  occasion  to 
be  an  obstruction  in  the  valves,  they  are  both 
within  the  reach  of  a  person's  hand,  and  may 
be  cleared  at  once,  without  (lie  disjunction  of 
any  part  of  the  pump  :  and  that  the  pump  is 
rendered  capable  of  being  instantaneously 
(;on%erled  iiilo  an  engine  Ibr  extinguishin'/- 
lire,  liesides,  it  occujiies  very  lillle  space  iii 
the  hold,  and  thus  saves  room  lor  stowage. 

Hut  this  pump  is  not  conlined  to  nautical 
uses  alone;  its  adaptation  extends  to  the 
ra'singof  water  in  all  situations,  and  with  pe- 
culiar advantage  where  it  happens  to  be  mixed 
with  sand  or  substances  which  destroy  other 
pumps,  as,  lor  instance,  in  alum-woVks.  hi 
mines,  in  quarries,  or  in  l!i.' clearing  of  foun- 
dations; and  in  ils  double  cajiacity  it  will 
be  very  convenient  in  gardens,  bieaching- 
grounds,  in  stable  and  farm  yards,  and  in  all 
manufactories,  or  other  places,  where  ilient 
arc  a  necessity  lor  raising  water  and  the  risk 
of  lire. 

■\Vith  all  these  advantages,  if  is  a  simptc 
and  durable  pump,  and  may  be  made  either 
of  metal  or  wood  at  a  moderate  e.xpcnce. 

Tig.  9,  is  a  vertical  section  of  the  |)uiiip,  as 
made  of  metal,  in  wiiich  A  is  th«  suclioii- 
piece,  B  the  inner  valve,  C  the  outer  valve. 

The  valves  are  of  the  kind  called  clai  k- 
valves.  Their  hinges  are  generallv  made  of 
metal,  as  being  more  durable  thairiealhcr. 

D  is  the  working-barrel,  K  the  piston,  and 
G  the  spout. 

The  lollowing  parts  are  necessary  only 
when  the  pump  is  intended  to  act  a/a  lire- 
engine: 

H  an  air-vessel,  which  is  screv.e<l  like  a 
liose-pipe,  that  it  may,  at  pleasure,  ihe  more 
readily  be  lixed  or  uiilixeif. 

There  is  a  perforated  stopple  for  Ihe-spoiit, 
made  for  receiving  such  pipes  as  are  com- 
mon to  firp-i-ngines.  !t  is  oval  ami  tapere.l, 
and  being  inlroducecl  transverseS-,  upon  beli-."- 
Jiulled  back  becomes  iimiiediatPiv  light.        ^ 

Tlipse  parts  being  provided,  afl  that  is  ne- 
cessary lo  make  the  pump  a<-t  as  a  liie-en- 
aine  after  having  been  used  as  a  s.uckir."-- 
[Hiinp,  is  to  plug  up  the  sjiout  with  the  stop- 
ple. 

\o  particular  mode  being  essential  in  the 
working  of  this  pump,  it  niay,  according  to 
choice  or  circumstances,  be  wrougiit  b\^  all 
the  methods  practised  with  the  coimnon 
pump,  in  many  cases,  however,  it  mav  be 
advanlageous  to  have  two  of  them  so  Von- 
neiled,  as  to  ha\e  an  alteniate  motion  ;  in 
which  case,  one  air-vessel,  and  even  one 
suction-piece,  might  serve  both. 

Its  principles  admit  of  variniii  modillca- 
tions;  but  as  what  is  already  iiieiitioned  in.ir 
be  sullicieiit  lo  indicate  its  superiority  over 
Ihe  common  and  chain  pumps,  and  the  ad- 
vantages likely  to  result  fro:n  its  general  um, 
a  further  detail  is  unnecessary. 

To  this  weniay  add,  that  the  testimon'i-s 
of  several  navigators  conlirm  in  liie  hu'uii 
manner,  the  liopi?s  thai  were  conceived  of  ns 


tiliUly,  and  \rarraiit  the  •Feco;Timen()3t!on  of 
it,  as'the  best  adapted  for  the  piirpoii!  of  any 
puiii])  hitherto  invented. 

'rtie  great  desideratir.n  in  a  i)iston  is,  tint  it 
i-;  as  ti^iit  as  po^sib!'.-,  and  lias  as  little 
fiiclion  as  is  coiisisteut  with  this  indispen- 
sable quaiity. 

The  com'iiion  fonn,  when  carefully  e^ce- 
culed,  has-the.-e  propertii-s  in  an  eminent  de- 
gree, and  accordingly  keeps  its  ground  amidst 
all  the  improi-enieniswhich  ingenioiH  artists 
have  niaile.  It  consists  of  a  hollow  cyhnder, 
having  a  piece  of  strong  leather  fastened 
roand  it, to  mike  it  fit  exactly  t!ie  bore  of  the 
Ix'.rrel,  aiid  a  valve  or  (iap  to  cover  tlie  hole 
tiirouirh  which  thewater  rises.  The  greatest 
diiii^-ulty  in  the  construction  of  a  piston,  is 
to  give  a  passage  ti)rongh  it  for  the  water, 
and  yet  allow  a  linn  support  for  the  valve  and 
ijxture  for  tiie  piston-rod.  It  occasions  a 
considerable  expence  of  thv  moving;  power 
to  force  a  piston  with  a  narrow  perforation 
tlirough  the  water  lovlged  in  the  working- 
barrel.  When  we  are  raising  water  to  a 
sivi,;ll  lij'ight,  suclias  10  or  2'J  feet,  the- power 
so  expended  amounts  to  a  tourlh  part  of  the 
v.-.hole,  if  the  water-way  in  the  piston  is  less 
tiian  onc-liulf  of  the  suction  of  the  barrel,  and 
the  velocitv  of  the  piston  two  feet  per  second, 
which  is  very  moderate.  There  can  bono 
doabt,  there'lore,  that  metal  pistons  are  pre- 
feiable,  because  their  greater  strength  allows 
much  wider  apertures.  For  common  jjur- 
poscs,  however,  they  are  made  of  wojtl,  as 
aim  or  beech. 

There  are  many  ingenious  contrivances  to 
avoid  the  hiction  of  the  piston  in  the  pumps; 
but  this  is  of  little  importance  in  great  works, 
because  the  friction  which  is  completely  sufti- 
cient  to  prevent  all  escape  of  water  in  a  well- 
constructed  pump,  is  but  a  very  trilling  part 
of  the  whoje  force. 

In  tlie  great  pumps  which  are  used  in 
mines,  and  are  W(;rked  by  a  steam-engine, 
it  is  very  usual  to  make  the  pistons  and  valves 
withoutauy  leather wlialever.  Tl-.e  working- 
barrel  is  "bon.'d  truly  cylindrical,  and  the 
pistjn  is  made  of  metal,  of  a  size  that  will 
just  pass  along  it  wilhott  Sticking.  When 
this  is  drawn  up  with  a  velocity  competent  to 
a  properly  loaded  machine,  the  quantity  of 
water  whicil  escapes  round  the  piston  is  insig- 
nificant. ''J'he  piston  is  made  without  lea- 
thers ;  not  to  avoid  friction,  which  is  also  in- 
significant in  such  works,  but  to  avoid  the 
frequent  necessity  of  drawing  it  up  for  re- 
pairs through  such  a  length  of  pipes. _ 

If  a  pumj)  absolutely  without  friction  is 
wanted,  the  following  seems  preferable,  for 
simplicity  and  performance,  to  any  we  have 
seen,  when  made  use  of  in  proper  situations. 
Let  NO  (fig.  \0),  be  the  surface  of  the  water 
ill  the  pit,  and  K  the  place  of  delivering. 
The  pit  must  be  as  deep  in  water  as  from  K 
to  SO.  A  is  a  wooden  trunk,  round  or 
wpiare,  open  at  both  ends,  and  having  a 
valve,  P,  at  the  bottom.  The  top  of  tliis 
trunk  must  be  in  a  level  with  K,  and  has  a 
small  cistern,  F.  It  a!-o  cominunicates  late- 
rally with  a  rising-pipe  G,  furnished  widi  a 
valve  ojjening  upwards.  I,  is  a  beam  of 
limber,  so  fitted  to  the  trunk,  as  to  fill  it 
•without  sticking,  and  is  of  at  least  equal 
length.  It  hangs  by  a  chain  from  a  working- 
beam,  and  is  loaded  on  the  top  with  weights 
exceeding  that  of  the  columii  of  water  wlfich 
it  displaces. 


PUiMP. 

Now,  appose  this  beam  to  descend  from 

the  position  in  which  if  is  drawn  in  the  fi- 
gure ;  the  water  must  rise  all  ro;:nd  it,  in  the 
crevice  whirl]  is  between  it  and  tiie  trunk, 
and  also  in  the  rising-pipe;  because  the  valve 
P  shuts,  and  O  opens;  so  that  when  the 
plunger  J^  has  got  to  the  bottom,  thewater 
will  stand  at  the  level  of  K.  When  the 
plunger  is  again  drawn  up  to  the  to])  by  the 
action  of  the  moving  power,  the  water  sinks 
again  in  the  trunk,  but  not  in  the  rising-pi])e, 
because  it  is  stopped  by  the  valve  O.  'i"h.-n 
allowing  the  plunger  to  descend  again,  the 
water  must  again  rise  in  the  trunk  to  tlie 
level  of  K,  and  it  must  now  flow  out  at  ti.  ; 
and  the  quantity  discharged  will  be  equal  to 
tiie  part  of  the  beam  below  the  surface  of  the 
pit-water,  d;.-ducting  tl:e  (piantity  wliich  rills 
the  s;nall  space  between  the  beam  and  the 
trunk.  This  quantity  may  be  reduced  al- 
most to  nothing;  for  if  the  inside-  of  the  trunk, 
and  the  outside  of  the  beam,  are  made  taper- 
ing, tlie  beam  may  be  let  down  till  they  ex- 
actly lit;  and  as  this  may  be  done  in  square 
work,  a  good  workman  may  make  it  exceed- 
ing accurate.  But,  in  this  case,  the  lower 
half  of  the  beam,  and  trunk,  must  not  taper  ; 
and  this  part  of  the  trunk  must  be  of  suffici- 
ent width  I'cund  the  beam,  to  allow  tree 
passage  into  the  rising-pipe ;  or,  which  is 
l)etter,  the  rising-pipe  must  branch  off  from 
the  bottom  of  the  trunk.  A  discharge  may 
be'made  from  the  cistern  F,  so  that  as  little 
water  as  possible  may  descend  along  t!ie 
trunk  when  the  piston  is  raised. 

The  requisites  of  a  valve  are,  that  it  is 
tight,  and  of  sufficient  strength  lo  resist  the 
great  pressures  to  which  it  is  exposed;  tnat 
it  affords  a  free  passage  to  the  water;  and  that 
it  does  not  allow  much  to  go  back  whilst  n  is 
shutting.  The  clack-valve  is  otall  others  tin- 
most  obvious  and  common.  It  consists 
merelv  of  a  leather  flap  covering  the  aper- 
ture, and  having  a  jiiece  of  metal  on  the  up- 
per side,  both  lo  strengthen  and  to  make  it 
iieavier,  that  it  may  shut  of  itself  Some- 
times the  hinge  is  of  metal.  The  hinge 
being  liable  to  be  worn  by  such  incessant 
motion  ;  and  as  it  is  troublesome,  especially 
in  deep  mines,  and  under  water,  to  inuio 
the  joint  of  the  pump,  in  order  to  put  in  a 
new  valve ;  it  is  frequently  annexed  to  a  box 
like  a  piston,  made  a  little  conical  on  the 
outside,  and  dropt  into  a  conical  seat  made 
for  it  in  the  pipe,  w  here  it  sticks  fast ;  and  to 
draw  it  up  again,  there  is  a  handle  like  that 
of  a  basket,  fixed  to  it,  which  can  be  laid  hold 
of  by  a  long  grappling-iron.  The  only  de- 
fect of  this  valve  is,  tliat  by  oi)ening  very 
wide  when  pushed  up  by  the  stream  of  water, 
it  allows  a  good  deal  to  go  back  during  its 
shutting  again. 

Tlie  butterfly-valve  is  free  from  most  of 
these  inconveniences,  and  seems  lo  be  the 
most  perfect  of  the  clack-valves.  It  consists 
of  two  semicircular  flaps  revolving'  round 
their  diameters,  which  are  lixed  to  a  bar 
placed  across  the  opening  through  the  pis- 
ton. Some  engineers  make  their  great  valves 
of  a  pyramidal  form,  consisting  of  four 
clacks,  whose  hinges  are  in  the  circumference 
of  the  water-way,  and  which  meet  with  their 
points  in  the  middle,  and  are  supported  by 
four  ribs,  which  rise  up  fVoin  the  sides,  and 
unite  in  tlie  middle.  This  is  a  most  e.Kcel- 
leiit  form,  alfording  a  more  spacious  water- 
wax  .  '^iiid  siuittin:;  very  readily. 


Tiicre  is  another  form  of  a  valve,  called 
the  button  or  tail  valve.  Ft  consists  of  a 
plate  of  metal  turned  conical  on  the  edge,  so 
as  exactly  to  fit  the  conical  cavity  of  its  box. 
A  tail  projects  from  the  under  side,  which 
passes  through  a  cross  bar  in  the  bt.ttom  of 
the  box,  and  has  a  little  knob  at  the  end,  to 
liinder  the  valve  from  rising  too  high.  This 
valve,  when  nicely  made,  is  uneNceptionable. 
It  has  great  strength,  and  is  therefore  proper 
for  all  severe  strains  ;  and  it  may  b,.-  made 
perfectly  tight  by  grinding.  Accordingly, 
it  is  used  in  all  cases  wJiere  tiglitness  is  oi'  in- 
dispensable conse(|ucnce.  It,  is  most  dur- 
able, and  the  only  kind  tiiat  will  do  for  pas- 
sages where  steam  or  hot  water  is  to  pass 
through. 

The  pre.^sure  on  the  pipes  in  pump-work, 

is  in  proportion  to  the  standing  height  of  the 
fluid  above  the  part  considered ;  but  the 
weight  incumbent  on  the  bucket  for  moving 
valve)  of  a  pump  in  action,  is  nearly  propor- 
tionable to  that  of  a  column  of  water  raised  ; 
for  though  the  push  of  the  atmosphere  on  the 
surface  of  the  spiing,  when  the  bucket  rises-, 
is  really  equal  to  tiie  weight  of  33  feet  of 
water ;  yet  is  this  resistance  counterbalanced 
exactly  by  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere, 
ever  incumbent  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
thereby  raised;  so  that  in  fact,  all  the  ad- 
vantage to  be  obtained  by  hydraulic  ma- 
chines, as  well  indeed  as  from  all  other  pieces 
of  nieclianism  wliatever,  is  only  the  putting 
matters  into  a  convenient  method  of  being 
executed  ;  and  the  per.'brmance  depends  on. 
the  moving  power  entirely,  under  the  disad- 
vantage of  friction  always  "against  it. 

A  pump  intended  to  raise  water  to  any 
heiglit  whatever,  will  always  woik  as  easv, 
and  require  no  greater  power  to  give  motion> 
to  the  t)ucket,  if  both  the  valves  are  placed, 
towards  tiie  bottom  of  the  pipe,  than  if  they 
were  fixed  33  feel  above  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

The  playing  of  the  piston  thus  low  in  tiie 
pipe  will,  besides,  prevent  an  inconvenience, 
wliich  might  happen  was  it  placed  above, 
viz.  in  case  of  a  leak  beneath  the  bucket, 
whicli,  in  a  great  length  of  pipe,  may  very 
easily  happen,  the  outward  air  getting 
through,  would  hinder  the  necessary  rare- 
faction of  the  air  in  the  barrel  on  moving  the 
piston,  and  consequently  the  pump  might 
tail  in  its  operation.  This  can  only  effectu- 
ally be  jn-evented,  by  placing  the  pump- 
work  in  or  near  the  water;  in  wiiich  ca.-e, 
should  any  leak  happen  upward,  in  will  only 
occasion  the  loss  of  some  of  the  water,  with- 
out any  otiier  inconvenience ;  and  the  lea- 
ther valves  being  kept  underwater,  will  al- 
ways be  found  supple,  pliant,  and  in  cou- 
diliim  to  perform  their  office. 

Placing  the  pump-work  (that  is,  the  valve 
and  piston)  pretty  low  and  near  together, 
will  also  prevent  the  inconvenience  of  not 
being  able  in  all  cases,  lo  fetch  up  water  from 
the  spring  by  the  ordinary  pump,  when  of  an 
ei|ual  bore,  by  reason  of  the  shortness  of  the- 
stroke;  which  therefore  cannot  rarefy  the 
air  sufficiently  lo  bring  the  water  up  to  the 
|)iston  from  the  lower  valve.  For  instance :- 
Take  a  smooth-barrelled  pump,  21  feet  long, 
having  its  piston  fetching,  suppose  a  foot" 
stroke,  placed  above,  and  the  clack  or  fixed 
valve  at  the  other  end  below,  liy  the  play- 
ing of  the  piston,  admit  it  possible  tor  watilp, 


■to  rise  1 1  friL'l ;  or  ff  you  will,  let  water  be 
poiirpil  on  tlic  clatk,  to' (lie  lu-iglit  of  1 1  feet, 
and  rflil  the  piston  ;  tln-re  will  remain  slill 
nine  feet  of  an-  between  it  aiul  tlie  water, 
wliieli  cannot  he  snificiently  rarelied  by  a 
foot  stroke  to  open  tlie  clack,  or  fell  li  up 
more  water  :  for  in  tliis  case  the  air  can  only 
bo  rarelied  in  tlie  piojiortion  of  9  to  10; 
whereas,  to  make  u  baree'.|nilibrium  wilh  the 
atmosphere,  it  ought  to  be  as  9  to  ISS;  since, 
as  iJ2  (or  the  coiiiplennnl  cf  1 1  to  33  feel  of 
water,  ihe  weight  of  the  whole  atmosphere),  is 
to  33  feet  or  the  atmosphere,  so  is  the  inter- 
val S])oken  of,  9  to  134;  to  complete  which, 
the  htvoke  oui^ht  to  be  at  least  4^  feet  loni;. 
llowevi-r,  by  lillinu:  the  whoh'  void  be- 
tween tlie  pi>lon  and  clack  at  fir>l  with  water, 
this  last  oljjectioirmight  be  removed. 

In  some  eases,  the  pumi)  cannot  be  placed 
'convcnienlly  perpendicular  to  the  well.  l''or 
example:  lieing  to  raise  water  out  of  Iheuetl 
at  A,  by  means  of  a  pump  at  U  (lig.  1 1),  the 
best  wav  will  be  to  carry  the  barrel  as  low  as 
the  spring  is,  communicating  liierewith  by 
means  ot  the  pipe  at  C.  The  bucket  then 
playing  in  the  barrel  liC,  will  have  the  same 
cll'ect  as  if  the  well  was  made  p;,Tpendicular 
to  theijuinp;  because  the  water,  by  its  pro- 
per W'eighl,  will  always  replenish  BC 

And  if  it  should  ha])pen,  from  some  con- 
sidirrable  impediment,  that  the  barrel  cannot 
.  get  down  to  ihe  well  directly,  it  may  be 
li-d  about  any  other  way  ioi'  convenience. 
And  then  making  the  pipe  of  conveyance,  E, 
less  in  diameter  than  the  barrel,  it  will  soon;r 
be  exhausted  ut  air,  by  moving  the  piston; 
and  the  water  « ill  follow  very  briskly,  as  by 
the  leaden  pump  at  B. 

It  will,  however,  always  be  more  easy  to 
draw  watiT  with  pipes  that  are  large,  and  of 
an  equal  bore  throughout,  because  the  water 
w  ill  have  a  less  velocity  in  them,  and  the  fric- 
tion will  be  in  proportion  less.  Upon  this 
account,  the  common  pumps  made  by  plumb- 
ers, do  no',  work  so  easy  as  those  bored  out 
of  trees;  because,  by  making  the  |)ipe  that 
brings  up  water  from  the  spring  nuicli  less 
than  the  bucket,  they,  as  it  were,  wiredraw 
the  water  raised,  (f  the  barrel,  for  instance, 
is  fonr  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  pijie  of 
conduct  one,  it  will  in  rising  move  sixteen 
limes  as  fast  througli  the  kitter  as  it  will 
througli  the  former ;  an<l  at  the  expcnce  of 
needless  labour,  as  well  as  the  great  wear  and 
friction  of  the  machine. 

In  practice,  however,  it  is  generally  ob- 
serveii,  that  such  leaden  pumps  as  work 
pleasantly,  and  are  light  on  the  hand,  have 
the  water-way  in  the  sucking-pipe  nearly 
,  cc|iial  to  one-fomthof  the  area  ol  the  barrel ; 
and  accordingly,  an  inch-and-a-half  pipe  will 
pretty  well  supply  a  three-inch  barrel ;  and 
a  four  inch  barrel  sliould  liave  a  leailiiig-pipe 
aiearly  two  inches  in  diameter. 

In  forcing-pumps,  it  is  of  the  nimost  con- 
se(|nence  tn  avoid  all  contractions  in  the 
pipes.  The  nii'.iu  y.  hich  leads  from  the 
lorcing-pumps,  should  be  e<;u.!!  to  the  work- 
ing-barrel. If  it  is  only  half  the  diameter, 
it  has  but  one-fourth  of  the  area;  the  vido- 
cilv  in  the  main  is  four  times  greater  than 
that  of  the  piston  ;  and  the  force  necessary 
for  discharging  the  same  ipiantity  of  water  is 
si.\teen  times  greater. 

Me  shall,  before  we  close  the  article  on 
pumps,  giye  a»i  account  of  Mr.  Boulton's 


PUMI'. 

apparatus  raising  water.  The  principle  for 
a'.lion  of  this  in.niiiiiery  may  be  illustrated 
in  the  following  niinner: 

.\  horizontal  pipe  is  formed  of  iron  or  any 
other  substance  snlliciently  strong,  expand- 
ing at  one  end  like  the  mouth  of  a  trumpet, 
and  at  the  other  furnished  with  a  valve  that 
may  be  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure ;  near  this 
sm.iller  extremity  is  let  in  a  vertical  pipe,  at 
right  angles  to  the  horizontal  one,  furnislu^d 
at  thejuncture  v.  ilh  a  valve  opening  upwards, 
and  open  at  the  other  end.  This  machine 
is  let  down  into  a  stream  of  water,  so  deep  as 
to  cover  the  horizontal  pipe,  the  trumpet- 
like mouth  of  which  is  placed  so  as  to  meet 
the  current:  in  this  situation  tlie  valve  being 
open,  a  current  passes  through  the  pipe,  of 
equal  velocity  wilh  the  current  of  the 
stream  ;  if  the  valve  is  then  suddenl'v  closed, 
the  recoil  of  the  current  will  force  opeivthe 
valve  of  the  vertical  pipe,  through  which  will 
rush  a  column  of  wati-r:  the  force  of  the  re- 
coil soon  subsiding,  the  vertical  colemn  will 
press  on  the  valve  at  its  bottom,  and  cause 
it  to  close  the  end  of  the  vertical  pipe,  in 
which  the  ascending  column  of  water  will 
be  detained.  The  horizontal  valve  being 
tln'ii  opened,  the  current  will  reconini'Mice 
through  tin-  horizontal  pipe,  and  upon  closing 
the  valve  a  reco:l  will  happi'n  as  before,  and 
an  additional  ipiaiitity  of  water  will  rise  in  the 
vertical  pipe:  by  a  repetition  of  the  above 
process,  the  water  rising  through  the  pipe 
will  overliow  into  any  vessel  placed  to  receive 
the  water,  fonning  a  perpetual  pump.  The 
contrivances  by  which  this  instrument  is 
made  to  draw  water,  from  a  depth  below  that 
of  the  impelling  current,  and  to  raise  it  to 
any  height,  w-ill  be  mentioned  hereafter. 
I'he  uses  to  which  this  engine  may  be  a])- 
|)lied,  are  serious;  besides  the  raising  of 
water  for  the  use  of  brewers,  &c.  it  may  be 
employed  in  raising  water  from  the  sea  for 
salt-work,  ill  draining  marshes  and  pumping 
ships,  and  supplying  with  water  those  canals 
that  are  carried  over  or  by  the  side  of  rivers. 

For  the  more  clear  description  of  this  in- 
vention, it  is  proper  to  stale  its  physical  prin- 
ciple of  action,  as  follows: 

First,  when  water  moves  or  runs  tinough  a 
pipe,  or  close  channel,  or  lube,  if  the  end  at 
which  the  water  issues  is  suddenly  stopped, 
the  water  will  (by  its  acquired  motion,  mo- 
meiilum,  or  im|)etus)  act  upon  the  sides  or 
cireumference  of  the  pipe;  which  being  sup- 
posed strong  enough  to  resist  that  impetus, 
the  water  will  issue,  with  violence  or  ve- 
locity, at  any  aperture  which  may  exi.4  in 
or  near  the  shut  end  of  the  pipe;  and  if  to 
that  aperture  an  ascending  pipe  is  joined,  a 
;5orlion  of  water  will  rise  in  it. 

Secondly,  if  a  pipe,  open  at  both  ends, 
with  an  ascending  pipe,  such  as  has  been  de- 
scribed, is  moved  along,  through  standing 
water,  in  the  direction  of  its  length  ;  upon 
shutting  the  hinder  pait  of  the  pipe,  a  por- 
tion of  the  water  will  rise  in  the  ascending- 
pipe,  in  the  manner  which  has  been  stated 
in  the  former  case,  because  the  water  is  rela- 
tively in  motion  in  respect  to  the  pipe. 

Thirdly,  if  in  either  of  the  cases  recited,  a 
pipe  comnuinicaling  with  water  at  any  lower 
level  is  joined  to  the  main  pipe,  at  or  near 
the  end  at  which  water  enter.,  into  it ;  and  if, 
when  such  water  has  acquired  motion  rela- 
tively to  that  pipe  (bv  the  pipe  being  put  in 
3U2 


62:i 

motion),  the  mo'.Uli  or  end  at  which  the  water 
enters  is  siuldenly  shut;  the  water,  continuing 
its  motion  relatively  to  llie  pipe,  will  draw  or 
suck  up  water  fron'i  the  lower  level,  throngli 
the  ascending  pipe,  in  order  to  lill  up  the 
vacuity  occasioned  by  the  water  in  the  main 
pipes,  persevering  in  its  previous  motion. 
\V'liat  has  been  said  respecthig  water,  Ls  also 
true  in  respect  to  other  fluids. 

The  several  cases  above  stated  are  resolv- 
able into  the  general  ))iinciple  of  (he  resist- 
iuice  which  water  and  other  fluids  (and  in 
general  all  bodies)  make  to  a  change  of  their 
state  of  rest,  or  motion,  whether  absolute  or 
relative  ;  and  this  principle  has  heretofore 
been  applied  to  the  raising  of  water  only 
in  a  coinpar.aively  small  and  weak  degree, 
and  in  a  detective  manner.  But  the  improved 
apparatus  continues  its  own  action  when 
once  set  going,  unless  some  accident  should 
stop  or  derange  it ;  and  is  capable  of 
raising  water  in  great  quantities,  ami  to  great 
heights,  and  ihey  also  ditilier,  in  otlier  respect^-, 
from  any  thing  which  has  been  executed  hi- 
therto. 

The  nature  of  the  said  improved  i.nventioit 
consists  in  u>ing  valves,  of  varioiis  construc- 
tions, instead  of  cocks,  to  open  or  shut  the 
end,  or  cndi,  of  a  main  pipe  :  and  in  tf.e  ap- 
plication of  meehanisni,  or  contrivances  to 
assist  in  opening  ar.d  shutting  the  valves  at 
proper  times  ;  whereby  water  is  raised  in- 
dependantly  of  any  other  power  than  a  cur- 
rent of  water  through  the  main  Jjipe. 

'J  he  manner  in  which  the  said  invention 
is  to  be  performed,  and  the  said  improved 
apparatus  and  methods  carried  iiKo  effect, 
is  as  follows,  viz. : 

The  first  and  most  simple  method  is  shewn 
in  tig.  12,  in  which  CC  is  the  main  pipe  ; 
DD  the  ascending  pipe  ;  A  the  valve  of  exit 
for  the  water  to  be  raised  ;  B  the  stop-valve  ; 
and  E  a  weight  which,  by  the  lever  F,  at- 
tached to  the  axis  G  of  the  stop- valve  B,  ojjens 
it  at  tl;e  proper  time.  The  said  apparatus 
acts  in  the  following  manner:  The  mam  pipe 
being  sitiialed  or  fixed  in  a  current  or  stream 
of  water,  eitiier  produced  by  the  natural  cur- 
rent or  declivity  of  the  river  or  other  stream ; 
or  (w  liicli  is  preferable)  by  penning  up  water 
by  a  dam,  weir,  or  bank,  and  by  inserting 
the  end  of  the  main  pipe  through  the  said 
dam,  weir,  or  bank,  so  as  to  obtain  the 
greatest  head  or  current  of  water  the  natural 
circumstances  admit  of;  the  stop-valve  being 
opened  to  the  position  shewn  in  the  figures, 
the  water  will  run  througli  the  main  pipe, 
until,  bv  its  action  upon  the  stop-valve  in 
its  reclined  position,  it  raises  thi;  weight, 
shuls  the  stop-valve,  and  the  water,  by  its 
impetus  or  momenUim,  opens  the  exit-valve, 
and  a  ))ortion  of  it  rises  in  the  ascending 
pipe;  alter  which,  the  last-mentioned  valve 
shuts,  the  water  in  the  main  pipe  recoils,  the 
weight  descends  and  opens  the  stop-valves, 
and  the  water  in  the  main-pipe  regains 
ils  velocity.  The  like  operations  are  re- 
peated, anil  the  water  gradually  rises  in  the 
ascending  pipe,  until  it  reaches  its  summit, 
and  a  quantity"  issues  thence  every  stroke; 
which  quantity  is  more  or  less,  according  as 
the  height  to  which  it  is  raised  is  less  or 
g  eater. 

J  is  an  air-vessel,  or  reservoir  of  a;r,  where- 
by the  bursting  of  the  pipes  is  prevented,  or 
tlie  danger  thereof  mucli  diminished.    Inta 


su 


r  u  N 


thi?  air-ve;<;el  l!-:e  wa'er  from  t!ie  miiiii  pipe 
e.i'ers  througii  the  e\it-v,i!ve,  and  coiiipresses 
ii]f  air  in  the  vt-s-t-l  ;  wliicli  again,  !)y  its  ex- 
pansion or  elasticity,  acts  upon  tlie  water 
(Ibe  reirress  of  whi'ch  is  prevented  by  the 
slniltin<;  of  tlic  cxil-vaKe);  and  t!ic  water 
rise!)  lhrou"li  tlie  ascending  pip:-,  and  liy  re- 
peated strokes  at  tiuires  tlie  desired  hciqiit. 

Tlie  dimensions  of  tlie  air-vessel,  as  well 
as  its  form  and  position,  whether  above,  or 
laterallv  aflixed  to,  the  main  pipe,  are  in 
great  iiii-asiire  arbitrary  ;  but  its  contents  of 
air  onirht  not  to  be  much  less  than  ten  times 
tiie  quantity  of  water  to  be  raised  throuirh 
the  ascending  pipe  each  stroke  ;  and  if  much 
larger  >tdl  llie  belter,  the  principal  boundary 
being  expence. 

The  stop-valve  may  be  opened  and  shut, 
as  has  been  described  in  the  hrst  method,  by 
liie  mechanism  shewn  in  the  li^ure,  or  by 
anv  of  the  mechanism  as  shall  be  adapted 
to 'the  opening  of  valves. 

Another  method  is  shewn  by  figs.  13,  14, 
and  15,  and  is  applicable  in  cases  where  the 
water  to  be  raised  is  below  the  level  of  the 
main  pipe,  and  is  to  be  discharged  at  that 
level :  which  cases  occur  in  the  drainage  of 
marshy  la-.id.'.,  where  the  action  of  the  cur- 
rent of  water  of  an  embanked  river,  or  other 
stream  or  source  of  water  on  a  higher  level, 
can  be  employed  ;  or  this  method  can  be  ap- 
plied in  raising  water  out  of  the  holds  of 
ships,  or  other  vessels,  by  the  motion  of 
the  vessel  through  the  water. 

Thi'^is  explained  by  ligs.  13,  14,  and  15, 
xviiere  C  is  t!ie  main-pipe,  A  is  the  receiving 
valve,  B  the  stop-valve,  opening  outwards, 
I)  the  ascendiiTg  or  s\icking  pipe,  J  the  air- 
vessel,  and  E  the  weight. 

The  water  in  the  ma'H  pipe  having  ac- 
quired a  proper  velocity,  the  stop- valve 
snuts:  the  water  in  the  main  pipe,  continu- 
ing its  iiiotion  for  a  time,  draws  air  out  of 
the  air-vessel.  Then  the  momentum  of  the 
water  in  the  main  pipe  being  expended,  the 
receiving  valve  shuts,  and  the  stop-valve 
opens,  the  water  regains  its  velocity,  and  the 
operation  is  repeated  ;  and  thus,  in  a  few 
strokes,  (the  exhaustion  increasing,)  the  air- 
vessel  sucks  uj)  water  from  below,  by  the 
ascending  pipe;  and  this  being  continued, 
the  latter  pipe  lilts  by  degrees  to  the  top ; 
alter  which,  at  every  successive  stroke,  a  por- 
tion of  flu;  water  from  below  passes  into  the 
main  pipe,  and  is  carried  off,  with  the  upper 
water,  to  the  place  of  delivery. 

.•/?V-PuMP.     See  Pkeumatics. 

rLNCIJEOX,  a  Utile  block  or  piece  of 
steel,  on  one  end  whereof  is  some  (igure, 
lettev,  or  mark,  engraveil  either  in  creux  or 
relievo,  impressions  of  which  are  taken  on 
metal,  or  some  other  matter,  by  striking  it 
with  a  hammer  on  the  end  not  engraved. 
There  are  various  kinds  of  these  punc  heoiis 
used  in  the  mechanical  arts  ;  such  for  instance 
are  those  of  goldsmiths,  cullers,  pewlerers, 
&c.     hiee  also  Coining. 

PuNCHEOM,  in  carpentry,  is  a  piece  of 
timber  placed  upright  between  two  posts, 
whose  bearing  is  loo  great,  serving,  together 
with  them,  to  sustain  some  large  weights. 
'i"h'S  term  is  also  used  for  a  piece  of  limber 
raised  upright,  under  the  ridge  of  a  building, 
wherein  tlie  little  forces,  &c   are  jointed. 

Puncheon  is  also  used  for  the  arbor,  or 
principal  part  of  a  machine,  whereon  it  turns 
vcrlically,  as  UiU  o-;  a  crane,  ice. 


V  U  K 

Pi'KciiF.ox  is  also  a  mcasivre  for  liquids, 
containing  a  hogshead  and  one-thiid,  or 
eighty-four  gallons. 

FCNICA,  ihe pnmrg7Ciiuih-fire :  a  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order,  in  ihe  icosaiulria 
class  of  plai.ts,  and  in  the  natural  method 
far. king  under  Ihe  39th  order,  poniace;e. 
The  caiyx  is  c|uiiKiuelid,  supi-rior  ;  tin  re  are 
hve  petals;  the  fruit  is  a  multilocular  and 
polyspcniious  apple. 

.Ihe  species  are,  1 .  The  granatuin,  or 
connnon  pomegranate,  with  a  tree  stem, 
blanching  numerously  all  the  way  from  the 
bottom,  growing  eighteen  or  twenty  feet 
high  ;  with  spear-shaped,  narrow,  ojiposite 
leaves ;  and  the  branches  terminated  by 
most  beauliful  large  red  liower-,  succeeded 
by  large  roundish  fruit  as  big  as  an  orange, 
having  a  hard  rind  rilled  with  soft  pulp  and 
numerous  seeds.  There  is  a  variety  with 
double  flower  s,  remarkably  beautiful  ;  and 
one  with  striped  flowers.  9.  The  nana,  or 
dwarf  American  pomegranate,  with  a  shrubby 
stem,  branching  four  or  five  feet  hii;h,  with 
narrow  short  leaves,  and  small  red  tlowers 
succeeded  by  small  fruit  ;  begins  flowering 
in  June,  and  continues  till  October.  Both 
these  species  are  propagated  hv  lavers  :  the 
young  branches  are  to  be  chosen  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  autumn  is  the  proper  time  for  lay- 
ing them. 

The  dried  flowers  of  the  double-Howered 
pomegranate  are  possessed  of  an  astringent 
quality  ;  for  which  reason  they  are  recom- 
mended in  diarrhceas,  dvsenteries.  Sec.  where 
astringent  meilicines  are  proper.  The  rind 
of  the  fruit  is  also  a  strong  astringent,  and 
as  such  is  occasionally  made  use  of. 

Pupil.  See  Akatomy,  Optics,  and  Phy- 

SIOLOGV. 

PURCHASE,  in  law,  the  buying  or  ac- 
quiring of  lands,  &c.  with  money,  by  deed 
or  agreement,  and  not  by  descent  or  right  of 
inheritance.  A  joint  purchase  is  when  tw9 
or  more  persons  join  together  in  the  pur- 
chase. Purchasers  of  lands  are  to  take  no- 
tice of  all  charges  thereon  :  there  are,  how- 
ever, certain  statutes  to  guard  against  frau- 
dulent incumbrances.  The  court  of  chan- 
cery will  relieve  the  purchaser  of  a  term 
against  a  title  tliat  lay  dormant,  where  money 
has  been  laid  out  on  improvements. 

Purchase,  in  the  sea-language,  is  the 
same  as  draw  in  :  thus  when  they  say  the 
capstan  purchases  apace,  they  only  mean  it 
draws  in  tlie  cable  apace. 

PURITAN,  a  name  formerly  given  in  de- 
rision to  the  dissenters  from  the  church  of 
England,  on  account  of  their  professing  to 
follow  the  pure  word  of  God,  in  opposition 
to  all  traditions  and  human  constitutions. 

PUlUdNS,  in  building,  those  pieces  of 
timber  that  lie  across  the  rafters  on  the  in- 
side, to  keep  them  from  sinking  in  the  middle 
of  their  length. 

PURPI-E,  a  colour  composed  of  a  mix- 
ture of  red  and  blue. 

A  beautiful  transparent  purple  for  painting 
may  be  made  by  boiling  four  ounces  of 
rasped  l?rasil-wood  in  a  pint  of  stale  beer, 
and  half  an  ounce  of  logwood,  till  the  liquor 
is  heinhteued  to  the  colour  you  desire,  which 
may  be  known  by  dipping  a  piece  of  paper 
in  it.  Jfyou  find  it  loo  red,  add  a  quarter 
of  an  ounce  more  of  logwood,  which  will 
render  it  still  deeper ;  and  by  this  method 
you  may  bring  it  to  anv  degree  of  purple, 
'     U) 


PUS 

by  iwtlipj»  eitli(r  more  or  less  logwood  »<; 
llie  lormer  composition,  and  fixing  it  wit)« 
alum.  This  will  produce  such  a  clear  purple, 
as  no  mixture  of  reds  and  blues  will  pro- 
duce. Madam  Mariana  of  Anisierdam,  fa- 
mous for  paaitiiig  in  miniature,  and  for  her 
excellent  inaiiiierof  illuuiinaliiig  prints,  say, 
that  tlie  be>t  purple  that  <-an  be  made,  may 
be  composed  between  the  carmine  and  iri- 
<ligo  ;  to  strenglheu  wliicii  on  the  red  side, 
you  may  add  lake,  between  the  lighter  and 
daiker  part:  and  lake,  when  it  is  used  in 
the  same  way  on  the  fon-goinc  purple,  pro- 
duces a  verv  fine  effect.     See  Dyeing. 

PURPURA.    See  Mui«CA. 

PURSER,  an  oflicer  aboard  a  man  of  war, 
who  receives  her  victuals  from  the  victualler, 
^ees  that  it  is  well  stowed,  and  keeps  an  ac- 
count of  what  he  eveiy  day  delivers  to  the 
steward.  lie  also  keeps  a  list  of  the  ship's 
company,  and  sets  down  exactly  the  day  of 
each  man's  admission,  in  order  to  regulate 
the  i|uautity  of  provisions  to  be  delivered  out ; 
and  that  Ihe  paymaster  or  treasurer  of  tin' 
navy  may  issue  out  the  disbursements,  and 
pay  offtlie  men,  according  to  his  book. 

PUS.  The  liquid  called  pus  is  secreted 
from  the  surface  of  an  inflamed  part,  and 
usually  moderates  and  Icniiinates  the  in- 
flamnialioii.  it  assumes  different  appear- 
ances according  to  the  state  of  the  s<jre. 
U  hen  it  indicates  a  healing  sore,  it  is  called 
healthy  or  good-conditioned  pus.  This  li- 
cjuid  possesses  the  following  properties : 

It  is  of  a  yellowish-white  colour,  and  of 
the  consistence  ol  cream.  Its  taste  is  insipid, 
and  it  has  no  taste  when  cold.  Before  the 
microsco|)e  it  exhibits  the  appearance  of 
white  globules  swimming  in  a  transparent 
fluid. 

It  produces  no  change  on  vegetable  blues. 
When  exposed  to  a  moderate  heat  it  gra- 
dually dries,  and  assumes  the  appearance  of 
horn.  When  exposed  to  destructive  distil- 
lation, Bergman  obtained  first  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  pus  in  the  state  of  insipid  wa- 
ter. On  increasing  the  fire,  a  liquid  came 
over  containing  abundance  of  ammonia,  and 
accompanied  by  gaseous  bodies,  which  were 
not  examined.  Some  concrete  carbonat  of 
ammonia  sublimed,  accompanied  by  empv- 
leumatic  oil.  A  light  brilliant  coal  remained 
of  difficult  incineration.  The  ashes  gave 
traces  of  iron. 

W  hen  pus  is  left  exposed  to  the  air,  it 
gradually  becomes  acid,  according  to  Plilde- 
brant ;  and  Haller  affirms  that  it  sometimes 
gives  a  red  colour  to  litmus  even  when  re- 
cent. \Vhen  thrown  into  water  it  sinks  to 
the  bottom.  When  agitated,  the  mixture 
becomes  milky  ;  but  the  pus  separates  again 
when  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed.  By 
repeated  agitation,  however,  and  especially 
by  the  application  of  heat,  a  milky  liquid  is 
ol)taiiied,  which  passes  in  that  state  through 
the  liltre. 

.\lcohol  thickens  pus,  but  does  not  dis- 
solve it  ;  neither  does  pus  unite  with  oils. 

Sulphuric  acid  dissolves  it,  and  forms  a 
purple-coloured  solution.  W  hen  diluted  with 
water,  the  dark  colour  disappears,  and  the 
pus  separates  ;  either  sinking  to  the  bottom, 
or  rising  lo  the  surface,  according  to  the 
iiuantity  of  waler  added,  and  the  thne  that 
the  solution  has  been  allowed  to  stand.  Di- 
luted suljihuric  acid  docs  not  act  upon  it. 


jp  V  M  y 


Jointed tvr  Ricliard  Phillips^l^r  Bndifc  Street  IHackmnrs . 


1  I 


PUS 

•  Conce;itiMl<-.l  nitric  iu'id  crrfvvfsfc'  witli 
it,  aiwl  ioniis  a  Ni'ilu'.v  suliilioii,  wliicli  when 
recent  is  deconiposed  by  water,  tli;;  pus 
subsiilin;^  in  the  utatc  of  i^ri'y  ll^ikcs. 

Min'iatic  acid  dissolves  it  wiicn  heated, 
and  tlie  pus  is  separated  by  water. 

Willi  the  lixed  alkalijie  leys  it  forms  a 
whiti'-li  ropy  fluid,  wliich  is  decomposed  by 
water,  the  pus  precipitating.  I'lire  annnonia 
reduces  it  to  a  transparent  jelly,  and  gra- 
dually dissolves  a  considerable  portion  of 
it. 

When  nitrat  of  silver  is  dropt  into  tlie  so- 
lution of  pus  in  water,  a  white  precipitate  se- 
parates. Nitrat  and  oxynnniat  ot  mercury 
occasion  a  mucli  more  copious  llaky  preci- 
pitate. 

Sucli  are  the  properties  of  healthy  pus  hi- 
therto observed  by  ciiemists.  Various  ob- 
servations luve  been  made  to  enable  |)hysi- 
cians  to  di^lingnish  pus  from  tlie  mucu-i  of 
the  internal  cavities,  especially  of  the  lungs. 
In  cases  of  copious  expectoration,  it  is  some- 
times of  consequence  to  know  whether  the 
matter  thrown  out  of  the  lungs  is  pus  or 
mucus.  Mr.  Charles  Darwin  m.ule  a  set  ol 
experiments  on  the  subject,  and  pointed  out 
three  criteria  to  distingni-h  pus:  1.  Sul- 
phuric acid  dissolves  it.  When  the  solution 
is  diluted,  the  pus  precip'.tates ;  but  mucus 
treated  in  the  same  manner  swims.  But  this 
distinction  depends  upon  tiie  cpimtity  of 
water  added,  and  is  therefore  ambiguous.  2. 
Pns  is  dill'usible  through  tliluted  sulphuric 
acid,  through  water,  and  tnrough  brine  ;  but 
mucus  is  not.  3.  Alkaline  leys  dissolve  pus; 
water  precipitates  pus  thus  dissolved,  but  not 
mucus.  How  far  these  two  last  distinctions 
prevail  is  ratlier  doubtful.  Grasmeyer  has  pro- 
posed the  following  method,  which  he  con- 
siders as  complete  :  Triturate  the  substance 
to  be  tried,  with  an  equal  quantity  of  warm 
water;  then  add  to  it  an  equal  portion  of  a 
saturated  solution  of  carbonat  of  potass,  and 
set  the  mixture  aside.  If  it  contains  pus,  a 
transparent  jelly  subsides  in  a  few  hours  ; 
but  this  does  not  happen  if  only  mucus  is 
present. 

2.  When  the  ulcer  is  ill-continued,  the  pus 
secreted  in  it  possesses  different  properties. 
It  has  usually  a  fetid  smell,  is  much  thinner, 
and  to  a  certain  degree  acrid.  We  are  in 
possession  of  two  sets  of  experiments  on  this 
unhealthy  pns:  one  by  Mr.  Cruickshank  on 
the  pus  discharged  from  what  is  called  the 
hospital  sore ;  another  by  Dr.  Crawford  on 
the  matter  of  cancers. 

The  pus  from  the  hospital  sore  possesses 
most  ot  the  properties  of  healthy  pus ;  but 
is  distinguished  by  its  odour,  and  bv  some 
shades  of  difference  when  exposed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  metallic  precipitates.  Lime- 
water  changes  its  fetid  odour,  but  does  not 
destroy  it;  sulphuric  acid  increases  it,  as  do 
alcohol  and  the  solution  of  oxide  of  arsenic 
In  potass.  Bark  has  no  effect  upon  it ;  but 
it  is  destroyed  by  the  nitrat  and  oxymc.riat 
of  mercury,  by  nitric  acid,  and  by  oxvnuiri- 
atic  acid.  Nitrat  of  silver  does  not  destroy 
it.  Mr.  Cruickshank  supposes  that  the  fetid 
smell  is  occasioned  by  the  alteration  of  some 
part  of  true  pus.  lie  considers  tlie  pus  of 
the  hospital  sore  as  a  matter  sui  generis, 
which  IS  capable  of  generating  more,  and 
even  of  producing  an  alteration  in  the  sys- 
tem.    Hence   to  heal  the   sore  the  matter 


P  U  T 

imrt  1)3  destroyed,  and  prevented  from  up- 
pearing  ag;iin.  This  was  done  by  washing 
the  sores  with  nitrat  of  mercury,  diluted 
nitric  acid,  and  o"(\  muriatic  aciil,  at  every 
dressing.  This  metluxl  constantly  succeeded 
with  Dr.  Itollo,  except  when  the  sore  was 
too  large  to  admit  it  to  be  put  in  practice 
comj)lelely. 

.3.  'l"he  matter  of  cancer,  examined  by 
Dr.  Crawford,  gave  a  green  colour  to  syrup 
of  violets.  Potass  prodnred  no  change;  but 
sulphuric  acid  extricatetl  a  gas  which  possess- 
ed many  of  the  properties  of  sulpliureted 
hulrogen.  This  gas  he  suppose*  to  exist  in 
the  matter  united  to  ammonia.  The  pre- 
sence of  this  compound  explains  the  effiects 
of  the  matter  of  cancer  and  virulent  matter 
in  general  upon  metallic  salts.  Dr.  Craw- 
ford found  that  the  odour  of  this  matter  was 
conipletelv  destroyed  by  oxyinuriatic  acid; 
and  tle-relore  recominends  it  as  a  proper  sub- 
stance for  washing  cancerous  ulcers. 

4.  Besides  the  species  mentioned  above, 
there  are  many  others  which  we  know  from 
their  eifects  to  be  peculiar,  though  we  can- 
not hnd  any  chemical  distinctions  between 
them  siifliciently  well  marked.  But  that  they 
are  specilic;illy  ditfereiit  cannot  be  <loubte(l, 
if  we  consider  that  every  one  of  them  pro- 
duces a  dise;ise  peculiar  to  itself.  The  mat- 
ter of  small  pox,  of  venereal  ulcers,  of  cow- 
pox,  &c.  may  be  mentioned  as  instances. 

The  rK|Uor  which  lills  the  cavities  of  the 
body  in  dropsy  has  a  yellowisli-green  colour, 
and  is  sometimes  turbiil,  sometimes  nearly 
transparent.  As  far  as  it  has  been  examined, 
it  agrees  exactiv  with  the  serum  of  the  blood  ; 
and  the  luiuid  which  makes  its  appearance 
when  the  epidermis  is  raised  into  blisters,  is 
perfectly  transparent  and  liquid.  When  the 
blisters  are  artilicial,  it  is  usually  yellow,  and 
has  the  odourof  the  blistering-plaster.  From 
the  experiments  of  -Margueron,  we  learn  that 
it  is  composed  of  the  same  constituents  as 
the  serum  of  the  blood.  From  200  parts  of 
this  liquid  he  obtained 

36  albumen 
4mnriat  of  soda 
2  carbonat  of  soda 
2  phosphat  of  lime 
1 56  water 

•200. 

PUTLOGS,  or  Putlocks,  in  building, 
are  short  pieces  of  timber  about  seven  feet 
long,  used  in  building  scaffolds.  They  lie 
at  right  angles  to  the  wall,  with'one  of  their 
ends  resting  upon  it,  and  the  other  upon  the 
poles  which  lie  parallel  to  the  side  of  the  wall 
of  the  building. 

PL'TIUCKACTION.  The  rapidity  with 
which  animal  bodies  undergo  decomposition, 
and  the  disgusting  fetor  which  accompanies 
this  decomposition,  have  long  been  consider- 
ed as  some  of  their  most  striking  peculiari- 
ties. This  spontaneous  destruction  is  deno- 
minated putrefaction.  Considerable  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  to  it  by  chemists.  Bee- 
char  and  Stahl  have  described  with  fidelity 
the  phenomena  with  which  it  is  attended, 
and  the  circumstances  necessary  for  its  tak- 
ing place.  To  sir  John  Pringle  we  are  in- 
debted for  some  important  experiments  on 
the  method  of  retarding  putrefaction  ;  neither 
are  the  experiments  of  Dr.  .Macbride  less 
valuable,  tliough  the  conseqiie.jces  which  he 


PUT 


52.5 


drew  from  them  were  erroneous.  We  are 
indebted  aUo  to  Crell  and  l'rie->tley  for  many 
valuable  facts ;  and  to  Bertholht  and  La- 
voiMcrfor  ihe  first  attenqjls  to  determine  the 
real  changes  which  take  place,  and  the  man. 
ner  in  which  the  new  products  which  apjiear 
during  |)utrcfaction  are  formed.  But  not- 
withstanding the  labours  of  these  philoso- 
phers, and  of  many  others,  much  is  still  want- 
ing to  enable  us  to  trace  the  comphcated 
<,hanges  which  take  place  during  putrefac- 
tion, and  to  account  tor  them  in  a  satisfitCT 
tory  manner. 

It  has  been  ascertained  long  ago,  that  pu- 
tretaction  never  t.ikes  place  in  those  animal 
substances  which  contain  only  two  or  three 
ingredients,  such  as  oils,  resins,  sugar  ;  they 
must  always  be  more  complicated  in  their 
texture  ;  and,  perhaps,  in  all  cases,  a  mixture 
of  two  or  more  compound  bodies  is  neces- 
sary for  speedy  decomposition.  But  how- 
ever complicated  the  animal  substance  may 
be,  it  does  not  putrefy  unless  moisture  is 
present ;  for  dry  animal  substanci-s  are  not 
su«'eptible  of  alteration.  A  certain  degree 
of  he:it  is  also  necessary.  Ainmal  bodies 
mav  be  kept  without  decomposing  for  any 
length  of  time  at  the  freezing  temperature. 
In  genera,  the  higher  the  temperature,  the 
more  rapid  is  the  putrefaction,  provided  the 
heat  is  not  great  enough  to  reduce  the  ani- 
mal body  to  dryness.  It  has  been  observed, 
too,  that  putrefaction  advances  with  more 
rapi  -lity  in  the  open  air  :  bi.t  exposure  to  the 
air  is  not  necessary,  though  it  raodilies  the 
decomposition. 

A\hen  these  conditions  are  observed,  and 
dead  animal  matter  is  left  to  itself,  its  co- 
lour becomes  gradually  paler,  and  its  con- 
sistence diminishes ;  if  it  is  a  solid  part,  such 
as  flesh,  it  softens,  and  a  serous  matter  sweats 
out,  the  colour  of  whicli  quickly  changes; 
the  texture  of  the  part  becomes  relaxed,  and 
its  organization  destroyed  ;  it  acquires  a  dis- 
agreeable smell ;  the  substance  gradually 
sinks  down,  and  is  diminished  in  bulk ;  its 
smell  becomes  stronger  and  ammoniacal.  If 
the  subject  is  contained  hi  a  close  vessel,  the 
progress  of  putrefaction,  at  this  stage,  seems 
to  slacken  ;  no  other  smell  but  that  of  a 
pungent  alkali  is  perceived  ;  the  matter  ef- 
feriesces  with  acijls,  and  converts  syrup  of 
violets  to  a  green.  But  if  the  communica- 
tion with  the  air  is  admitted,  the  urinous  ex- 
halation is  dissipated,  and  a  peculiar  putrid 
smell  is  spread  around  with  a  kind  of  impe- 
tuosity :  a  smell  of  the  most  insupportable 
kind,  which  lasts  a  long  time,  and  pervades 
every  place,  affecting  the  bodies  of  living 
animals  after  the  manner  of  a  ferment,  capa- 
ble of  altering  the  fluids ;  this  smell  is  cor- 
rected, and  in  a  manner  confined,  by  am- 
monia. When  the  latter  is  volatilized,  the 
putrefactive  process  becomes  active  a  second 
time,  and  the  substance  suddenly  swells  up, 
becomes  tilled  with  bubbles  of  air,  and  soon 
after  subsides  again.  Its  colour  changes,  the 
fibrous  texture  cf  the  flesh  being  then  scarce- 
ly distinguishable ;  and  the  w  hole  is  changed 
into  a  soft  brnvn,  or  greenish  matter,  of  the 
consistence  of  a  poultice,  whose  smell  is 
faint,  nauseous,  and  very  active  on  the  bodies 
of  animals.  'i"he  odorant  principle  gradually 
loses  its  force:  the  fluid  portion  of  the  flesh 
assuiiies  a  kind  of  consistence,  its  col.j-ir  be- 
comes deeper,  and  it  is  finally  reduced  into 
a  triable  matter,  rather  deliquescent ;  vihick 


626 


PUT 


bein^  ruUbeJ  lielwceii  tlie  fingers,  'breaks 
iiito-a  foniss  powder  Uke  eartli.  This  is  the 
last  state  observed  in  the  putrefaction  of 
animal  substances ;  tliey  do  not  arrive  at  this 
term  but  at  the  end  of  a  considerable  time. 

During  this  decomposition,  a  variety  of 
caseous  i)o(lies  are  emitted ;  tliese  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  substance  exposed  to  putre- 
faction"; but  thty  consist  chietly  of  hydrogen 
gas,  holding  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  car- 
bon, in  solution  ;  of  ammonia,  water,  and  car- 
bonic acid,  and  perliaps  also  of  azotic  gas. 
Nitric  acid  seems  in  some  cases  to  be  formed 
and  emitted.  Tl;e  earthy-like  residcum, 
which  remains  after  the  'decomposition  is 
completeil,  consists  of  the  iixed  (larts  of  the 
auiuial  sub-lance,  mi.xed  with  charcoal,  oil, 
and  ammonia.  Th<:s  it  appe.irs  that  putre- 
faction consists  in  a  total  decomposilion  of 
the  animal  body ;  tiie  elements  of  wliich 
tombinij  together  two  and  two,  and  tlius 
form  a  neu'  set  of  less  complicated  hodies. 
But  any  attempt  to  explain  tlie  niamier  in 
whicli  these  changes  take  place  would  be 
e.xceedingiy  imperfect  indeed  ;  not  only  be- 
cause we  are  ignorant  of  the  strengtli  of  the 
affinities  of  the  diii'erent  elementary  parts  of 
animal  bodies  for  each  other,  but  because 
we  do  not  even  know  the  manner  in  which 
these  elemeiits  are  combined,  and  conse- 
quently we  cannot  know  by  what  particular 
forces  these  compounds  are  destioyed. 

In  carcases  buried  in  the  earth,  putrefac- 
tion takes  place  much  more  slowly;  but  it 
is  scarcely  possible  to  observe  its  progress 
with  accuracy.  The  abdomen  is  grach\ally 
dilated  with  elastic  tluids  which  m:'ke  their 
appearance  in  it,  and  at  last  it  bursts  and 
discharges  a  horribly  fetid  and  noxious  gas  ; 
at  the  same  time  a  dark-coloured  liquid 
fiows  out.  If  tlie  earth  is  very  dry,  and  the 
heat  considerable,  the  moisture  is  oifen  ab- 
sorbed so  rapidly,  that  the  carcase,  instead 
of  putrefying,  dries,  and  is  transformed  into 
what  is  called  a  mummy. 

Such  are  the  phenomena  when  dead  bodies 
are  left  to  putrefy  separately  ;  but  when 
great  numbers  of  carcases  are  crowded  to- 
gether in  one  place,  and  are  so  abundant  as 
to  exclude  the  action  of  external  air  and 
other  foreign  agents,  their  decomposition  is 
entirely  the  consequence  of  the  reciprocal 
action  of  tiieir  ingredients  themselves  upon 
each  other,  and  the  result  is  very  diflerent. 
The  body  is  not  entirely  dissipated  or  re- 
duced to  mould,  but  all  the  so'.t  ])arts  are 
found  diminislicd  remarkably  in  size,  and 
converted  into  a  peculiar  saponaceous  mai- 
ler. This  singular  change  was  tir>t  accu- 
rately observed   in    the   year  17S6. 

The  burial-ground  of  the  Innocents  in 
Paris  having  become  noxious  to  those  who 
lived  in  its  neighbourho'id,  on  account  of 
tlie  disagreeable  and  hurtful  odour  which  it 
exiialed,  it  was  found  necessary  to  remove 
the  carcases  to  another  place.  It  liad  been 
usual  to  dig  very  large  pits  in  the  burial- 
ground,  and  to  (ill  them  with  the  carcases  of 
the  poorer  sort  of  people,  each  in  its  proper 
bier;  and  when  they  were  quite  full,  to  cover 
them  with  about  a  foot  deep  of  earth,  and  to 
dig  another  similar  p;l,  and  lill  it  in  the  same 
manner.  Kacli  pit  held  between  one  thou- 
saud  and  fifteen  liundred  bodies.  It  was  in 
removing  the  bodies  from  these  pits  that  this 
saponaceous   substance    was    found.       Tlie 


P  U  T 

grave-diggers  had  ascertained  by  long  expe-' 
ricnce.  Hint  about  thirty  years  were  required 
before  all  bodies  had  undergone  this  change 
in  its  full  extent.  Kverj  part  of  the  body 
acquired  the  properties  of  this  substance. 
The  intestines  and  viscera  of  the  thorax  had 
completely  di^appeared;  but  what  is  singular 
enough,  the  brain  had  lost  but  little  ot'  its 
size  or  appearanpe,  ihuugji  it  was  also  con- 
verted into  the  same  substance. 

This  sponaceous  matter  was  of  a  white 
colour,  soft  and  unctuous  to  the  touch,  and 
melted,  when  heated,  like  tallow.  Ft  exhi- 
bited ail  the  propctUes  of  a  soap,  containing, 
however,  an  excess  of  fatly  matter.  I'our- 
croy,  who  analysed  it,  found  that  it  was  com- 
posed of  a  fatly  matter  combined  with  am- 
monia, and  that  it  contained  also  some  phos- 
phat  of  lime  and  ammonia.  Diluted  acids 
decomposed  it,  and  separated  the  fatty  mat- 
ter ;  alkalies  and  lime,  on  the  other  hand, 
drove  o(V  the  ammonia.  \\  hen  exposed  to 
the  air,  it  gradually  lost  its  white  colour ;  the 
ammonia,  in  a  great  measure,  evaporated  ; 
and  what  remained  had  something  of  the 
appearance  of  wax.  It  absorbed  water  with 
great  avidity,  and  did  not  part  with  it  readily. 
Its  wl-.ite  colour  was  owing  to  the  presence 
of  that  liquid.  Tlie  oily  matter,  when  sepa- 
rated by  means  of  a  diluted  acid,  was  con- 
crete, and  of  a  while  colour,  owing  to  the 
mixture  of  a  quantity  of  water.  A\'hen 
dried,  itacquires  a  greyish-brown  colour,  with 
a  lamellar  and  crystalline  texture,  like  that 
of  spermaceti  ;  but  if  it  has  been  rapidly 
dried,  it  assumes  the  appearance  of  wax.  It 
melts  when  heated  to  126'';  when  properly 
purified,  by  passing  it  through  a  linen  cloth 
while  riuld,  it  has  scarcely  any  smell.  Al- 
cohol does  not  act  upon  it  while  cold,  but  at 
the  temperature  of  120''  it  dissolves  it :  when 
the  solution  cools,  the  fatty  matter  precipi- 
tates, and  forms  a  gritty  mass.  With  alka- 
lies it  forms  a  soap  ;  and  when  set  on  lire  it 
burns  precisely  like  oil  or  fat,  only  that  it 
exhales  a  more  unpleasant  odour. 

Mr.  Smith  Gibbes  found  the  same  sub- 
stance in  the  pit  into  which  animal  matters 
are  thrown  at  Oxford  after  riissection.  A 
small  stream  of  water  constantly  passes 
through  this  pit ;  a  circumstance  which  in- 
duced him  to  try  whether  animal  muscle  e.x- 
po^ed  to  the  action  of  a  running  stream  un- 
derwent the  same  change.  1  he  exprrimeiit 
succeedeil  completely:  he  attempted,  in  con- 
sequence, to  render  this  substance,  to  which' 
he  gave  the  name  of  spermace'.i,  useful  in 
those  manufactures  which  retjuirc  tallow; 
but  the  fetid  odour  which  it  constantly  exhales 
was  an  insurmountable  ohjection.  Attempts 
were  indeed  made  to  get  over  it ;  and  a 
manufacture  of  Mr.  Smith  (jiblies's  sperma- 
ceti was  even  established  at  Bristol. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  retard 
the  destructive  progress  of  putrefaction,  in 
order  to  preserve  aniijial  bodies  either  as 
food  or  for  other  useful  purposes;  and  se- 
veral methods  have  been  ascertained  which 
prevent  it  from  operating  for  a  considerable 
time. 

1.  The  freezing  temperature  is  a  complete 
preservation  from  puU'efaction,  as  long  as 
the  animal  substance  is  exposed  to  it.  Hence 
the  common  practice  ot  keeping  meat  in 
snow  in  the  frozen  dimales  of  ihe  north  ; 
and  of  packing  fish  in  ice,  and  sending  them 


P  U  7> 


in  that  state  from  Scotland  to  the   London ' 
market. 

•J.  Almost  all  bodies  \viiich  have  a  strong 
aAinity  for  water  retard  putrefaction  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  lime,  doubtless  by  depriv- 
ing the  animal  substances  of  their  water,  or 
preventing  that  lic|uid  from  acting  upon  these 
bodies  in  its  usual  manner.  Iij  this  way  thir 
acids,  sugar,  alcohol,  &c.  seem  to  prevent  or 
retard  piitrefaction. 

3.  It  is  well  known  lliat  common  salt  is  a 
powerful  antiseptic.  '  Hence  the  practice  of 
salting  meat,  and  the  length  of  time  wliii  !i 
meat  liial  has  undergone  this  operation  niav 
be  kept.  Several  other  salts,  especially  nitre, 
possess  the  same  properly.  In  what  ii  anm  r 
:hese  bodies  act  has  not  been  ascertained  ; 
but  they  undoubtedly  produce  some  chemi- 
cal change  upon  the  meat ;  for  they  alter 
its  taste,  its  colour,  and  other  sensible  pro- 
perties. 

4.  Many  aromatics,  such  as  cam|)lior,  re- 
sins, volatile  oils,  bitumens,  and  other  similar 
bodies,  act  v.  ith  considerable  efficacy  in  pre- 
serving animal  bodies  from  putrefaction. 
Hence  their  utility  in  embalming.  In  what 
the  action  of  these  substances  consists  has 
nut  been  ascertained.  Part  of  their  ellicacy 
is  doubtless  ow  ing  to  the  rapidly  with  which 
the  animal  substances  to  which  they  are  a[>- 
plied  lose  their  moisture ;  and  something 
may  be  ascribed  likewise  to  their  odour, 
w  liicli  keeps  insects  at  a  distance,  and  thus 
prevents  the  lodging  of  e.xcrementilious  mat- 
ter, \\  hich  ;;lways  acts  powerfully  as  a  putre- 
factive ferment. 

PUTI  carq/a,  in  botaivy,  is  a  genus  of  In- 
dian plants,  of  which  the  characters,  as  given 
by  sir  W  illiam  .loiies  in  the  Asiatic  Research- 
es, vol.  ii.  p.  331.  are  tliese:  The  calyx  is 
hve-clefl ;  the  corolla  has  live  equal  iietals; 
the  pericarpium  a  thorny  legumen  and  two 
seeds,  the  leaves  oval  and  pinnated,  and  the 
stem  armed.  "  The  seeds  (says  the  learned 
president)  are  very  bitter,  and  perhaps  tonic; 
since  one  of  then.',  bruised  and  given  in  two 
doses,  will  cure  liie  intermittent  fever." 

PUTTY,  in  thei.rts.  A\hen  tin  is  melted 
in  an  open  vessel,  its  surface  soon  becomes 
covered  with  a  grey  powder,  which  is  lui 
oxide  of  the  metal.  If  the  heat  is  continued, 
the  colour  of  the  powder  giadually  changes, 
and  at  last  becomes  yellow.  In  this  state  it 
is  known  by  the  name  of  putty,  and  enqdoy- 
ed  in  pollsliliig  glass  and  other  hard  sub- 
stances. 

Putty  is  also  a  kind  of  paste  compounded 
of  whiiins  and  Imseed-oil,  beaten  together  to' 
the  consistence  of  a  thick  dough,  it  is  used 
bv  glaziers  for  the  fastening  in  the  sijuares 
iif  alass  ill  sash-windows,  and  by  pa!iiter.>  for 
stopping  up  the  crevices  and  clefts  in  timber 
and  wainscots,  iVc. 

PUZZULANA  or  PozzoLAhfA,  term,  or 
terraa,  is  a  gre\isli  kind  of  earth  used  ia 
Italy  for  building  under  water.  The  best  is 
found  about  I'uteoh,  Ikuic,  and  Cunia^  in 
the  kiuf^tlom  of  Naples,  irom  the  first  of 
which  places  it  derives  its  name,  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  volcanic  product,  composed  of 
heterogeneous  sub.stances,  thrown  out  from 
the  burning  mouths  of  volcanoes  in  the  Idiin 
of  ashes  ;  sometimes  in  such  large  quantities, 
and  with  so  great  violence,  that  w'bole  pro- 
vinces luive  be'  n  covered  with  it  at  a  con" 
sider.ible  disl.ince.     'I'liis  volcanic  earth  is  of 


T  Y  !l 

c  i^w,  brown,  or  blackish  colour ;  of  a  loose, 
giunii'lar,  or  dusty  and  rough,  porous,  or 
syon^^y,  texture,  resemljliut;  a  clay  hardened  . 
b)  liiv,  and  tlien  reduced  to  a  gross  powder. 
It  contains  various  heteroureiieous  substances 
nixed  witli  it.  Its  specilic  gravity  is  from 
2jOO  to  2800  ;  and  it  is,  in  some  degree, 
magnetic  :  it  scarcely  effervfeoces  witl?  acid.-., 
though  partially  soluble  in  them,  (t  easily 
melts  per  sc  ;  but  its  jnost  dintin^'uishing  pro- 
perty is,  that  it  hardens  very  suddenly  when 
mixed  with  one-third  of  lis  weight  of  lime 
and  wat'-r,  and  forms  a  cement  wliich  is 
IHore  durable  in  water  than  any  other. 

According  to  Bergman's  analysis,  100 
parts  of  it  contain  from  55  to  6o  of  silica,  ^} 
of  alumina,  live  or  six  of  lime,  and  from  15 
to  JO  of  iron.  Its  elfects,  however,  in  ce- 
ment, uny  perlia])s  depend  only  on  the  iron 
whicli  has  been  reduced  into  a  particular 
sub,4ance  by  means  of  subterraneous  iircs ; 
evident  signs  ol  which  are  observable  in  the 
places  where  it  is  obtained.  If  the  slate  in 
rienneberg  or  KejinekuUe,  in  llie  province  of 
We.'lerg  illland,  should  happen  to  get  lire, 
the  npijermosl  stratum,  winch  now  consists 
of  a  mixture  of  iron  and  dill'erent  kinds  of 
rocks,  called  graberg  in  the  accoiu;t  given 
of  them,  might  perhaps  be  changed  part- 
ly into  slag  and  partv  into  terra  puzzolana. 

It  is  evidently  a  martial  argillaceous  marl, 
that  has  suffered  a  moderate  heat.  Its  hai-d- 
ening  power  arises  from  the  dry  state  of  tin; 
half-baked  argillaceous  particles,  which 
makes  them  imbibe  the  water  very  rapidly, 
and  thus  accelerates  the  desiccation  of  the 
calcareous  part.  It  is  found  not  only  in 
Italv  but  in  France,  and  tiie  provinces  of 
Auvergne  and  Limoges  ;  and  also  in  England 
and  elsewhere. 
PYLORUS.  See  Anatomy. 
PYRAMID,  in  geometry,  a  solid  stand- 
ing on  a  triangular,  square,  or  |)olygonal 
basis,  and  terminating  in  a  point  at  the  top  ;'or 
according  to  Kui-lid.  it  is  a  solid  figure,  con- 
sisting of  several  triangles,  whose  bases  are 
all  in  the  same  plane,  and  which  have  one 
eoinmon  vertex. 

Hence  the  superficies  of  a  given  pyramid 
is  easily  found  by  measuring  these  triangles 
separately  ;  fortlnir  sum  added  to  the  area  of 
the  base,  is  the  surface  of  the  pyianiid  re- 
quired. 

It  is  no  less  easy  (o  find  the  solid  content 
of  a  given  pyramid  ;  for  the  area  of  the  base 
being  found,  let  it  be  multiplied  by  the  third 
part  of  the  "fleighi  of  the  pyramid,  or  the 
third  part  of  the  base  by  llie  height,  .nnd  the 
product  will  give  the  solid  contei.t,  as  is  de- 
monstrated by  Euclid,  lib.  12.  prop.  7. 

If  the  solid  content  of  a  frustum  of  a  py- 
ramid is  required,  first  let  the  solid  conlent 
of  tlie  wliole  pyramid  be  found  ;  from  which 
subtract  the  solid  content  of  the  part  that 
is  wanting,  and  the  sohd  conlent  of  the  frus- 
tum or  broken  pyramid  will  remain. 

Every  pyramid  is  equal  to  one-third  of  its 
subscribing  prism,  or  one  that  has  the  same 
base  and  lieight.  All  pyramids  are  in  a  ratio 
compounded  of  their  liases  and  altitudes  ;  so 
that,  if  their  bases  are  equal,  they  are  in  pro- 
tportlon  to  tlieir  altitudes  ;  and  vice  versa. 

Equal  (jvramids  reciprocate  their  bases 
and  altitude's  ;  that  is,  the  altitude  of  one  is  to 
that  of  the  other,  as  the  base  of  the  one  is  to 
■that  of  the  other. 


FY  R 

PvtxAMiw,  in  architecture,  a  solid  massive 
building,  which  from  a  square,  triangular,  or 
other  base,  rises  diminishing  to  a  vertex  or 
point. 

Pyramids  are  sometimes  used  to  praserve 
the  memory   of  singular  events;  and  sonie- 
times  to  transmit  to  posterity  the  glory  and 
magnificence  of  princes.      But   as  they  are 
esteemed  a  symbol  of  inmiortality,  they  are 
most  commonly  used  as  funeral  monuments. 
Srich  are  that  of  Ceslius  of  Roine  ;  and  those 
very  celebrated  pyramids  of  Egypt,   as  fa- 
mous for  the  enormity  of  their  size  as  their 
aiitiquitv.     These  are  situated  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Nile,  almost  opposite  to  Grand 
Cairo;  the  base  of  the  largest  covers  more 
than  ten  acres  of  ground  ;  and  itjs,  according  I 
to   some,    near  seven    hundred   feet   high,  j 
though  others  make  it  six  hundred,  and  some  i 
but  little  more  than  five  hundred,     'the  py- 
ramid is  said  to  have  be.n,  among  the  Egyp-  ! 
tians,  a  symbol  of  lumian  life  ;  the  beginning  1 
of  which  is  represented  by  the  b;'se,  and  the  j 
end  hv  the  apex  ;  on   which  account  it  was,  j 
that  they  used  to  erect  them  over  sepulchres. ' 

PYRAMIDALIA  corpora.    See  Ana-' 

TOMY. 

P^'R1TES,  a  cenus  of  inllammable  sub- 
stances, composed  of  sul])hur,  which  has 
dissolved  or  saturated  itself  with  metals. 
Thus  there  are  many  kinds  of  pyrites  ;  as  of 
gold,  arsenic,  iion, '&c.  It  is  also  the  prin- 
cipal ore  of  sulphur  ;  particularly  that  called 
martial  pyrites,  copperas-stone,  or  marcasite. 
This  is  very  common,  containing  a  quan- 
tity of  sulphur  in  proportion  to  the  iroji ; 
and,  when  thoroughly  infiamed,  burns  by  it- 
self. It  is  either  of  a  compact  texture,  steel- 
grained,  coarse-grained,  or  crystallised.  In 
this  last  form,  it  shoots  mostly  into  cube 
and  octahedral  figures,  though  it  is  met  with 
also  in  innumeral)le  other  forms.  The  liver- 
coloured  marcasite  has  an  appearance  be- 
tween that  of  the  preceding  and  the  blue 
copper-ore.  The  iron  predominates  in  this 
kind,  so  that  it  is  less  fit  than  the  other  for 
extracting  sulphur  for  it,  or  for  the  smelting 
of  cop[)er  ores,  it  is  formed  of  a  compact 
texture,  coarse-grained,  and  steel-grained. 
See  SuLPHURETS,  Iron,  S;c. 

PYROLA,  iiinter-greeii,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  in  the  decandria  class  of 
plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  ISth  order,  bicornes.  Tiie  calyx 
is  quinqucpartite  ;  there  are  five  petals  ;  the 
capsule  is  quiuquelocular,  opening  at  the 
angles.  There  are  six  species,  natives  of 
Britain. 

PYROMETER,  an  instrument  for  mea- 
suring the  expansion  of  bodies  by  heat. 
Muscliejibroeck,  who  was  the  original  in- 
ventor of  this  machine,  has  given  a  table  of 
the  expansion  of  the  different  metals  in  the 
same  degree  of  heat.  Having  prepared  cy- 
lindric  rods  of  iron,  steel,  copper,  b/ass,  tin, 
and  lead,  he  exposed  them  first  to  a  pyro-  j 
meter  with  ene  fiame  in  the  middle ;  then 
with  two  fiames ;  and  successively  to  one 
w  ith  three,  four,  and  five  llames.  But  pre- 
vious to  this  trial,  he  took  care  to  cool  them 
ecpiallv,  by  exposing  them  some  time  upon 
the  same  stone,  when  it  began  to  freeze, 
and  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  was  at  thirty- 
two  degrees.  The  effects  of  this  experi- 
ment are  digtsted  in  the  following  table, 
4. 


P  Y  R 


527 


where  the  degrees  of  expansion  are  marked 
in  parts  equal  to  l-125t-0tl)  part  of  an  inch. 


Expmitioti  cf 

Inn 

Sttcl 

Ccpf. 

Brait 

T,n 

Lead 

By  1  ilanie. 

80 

85 

89 

11 0 

153 

155 

By  2  llames 
placed  close 
together. 

117 

123 

115 

220 

274 

By  2  flames 
2|  inches 
distant. 

109 

94 

92 

141 

219 

263 

By  3  llames 
placed  close 
together. 

142 

168 

193 

275 

By  4  llames 
placed  close 
together. 

211 

270 

273 

361 

By  5  names. 

230 

310 

310 

377 

It  is  to  be  observed  of  tin,  that  it  will 
easily  melt  when  heated  by  two  llames  r.iaced 
together.  Lead  commonly  melts  with  three 
llames  placed  together,  especially  if  they 
burn  long. 

From  these  experiments,  it  appears  at  first 
view  that  iron  is  the  least  rarelied  of  any  of 
these  metals,  whether  it  is  heated  by  one  or 
more  fiames ;  and  theref.ire  is  most  proper  tor 
making  machines  or  instruments  which  v,e 
would  have  free  from  any  alterations  by  heat 
or  cold,  as  the  rods  of  pendulums  for  clock',  ■ 
&;c.  So  likeW'ise  the  measures  of  yards  or 
feet  should  be  made  of  iron,  that  their  length 
may  be  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same 
in  sunuiier  and  in  winter.  The  expansion  of 
lead  and  tliat  of  tin  are  nearly  the  same  ;  that 
is,  almost  double  of  the  expansion  of  iron. 
It  is  likewise  observable,'  that  the  tiames  pla- 
ced together,  cause  a  greater  rarefaction  than 
when  they  have  a  sensible  interval  between 
them ;  iron  in  the  former  case  being  ex- 
panded 117  degrees,  and  only  109  in  the 
latter;  tiie  reason  of  which  ditference  is  ob- 
vious. 

By  conijvaring  the  expansions  of  the  same 
metal  produced  by  one,  two,  three,  or  more 
flames,  it  appears  that  two  llames  do  not 
cause  double  the  expansion  of  one,  nor  three 
(lames  three  times  that  expansion,  but  always 
less ;  and  these  expansions  dili'er  so  much 
the  more  from  the  ratio  of  the  number  of 
flames,  as  there  are  more  llames  acting  at  the 
same  time. 

It  is  also  observable,  that  metals  are  not 
expanded  equally  at  the  time  of  th.elr  meltins, 
but  so:iie  more  and  some  less.  Thus  tin  began 
to  run  when  rarefied  219  degrees;  whereas 
brass  was  expanded  377  tlegrees,  and'yet" 
was  far  from  melting. 

Mr.  EUicot  found,  upon  a  medium,  that 
the  expansion  of  bars  of  different  metals,  as  ' 
nearly  of  the  same  dimensions  as  possible,  by 
the  same  degree  of  heat,  were  as  follow  : 
Gold,  Silver,   Biass,  Copper,  Iron,  Steel, 

73        103        95  89        60       56 

Lead 
149 

The  great  difference  between  tin?  expan- 
sions of  iron  and  brass  has  been  applied  with 
good  success  to  remedy  the  irregularities  in  . 
pendulums  arising  from  heat. 

Mv.  Grahum  used  to  measure  the  minute-; 


i-is- 


v  y  n 


a'.tei-alion  in  leiiijtli  of  mc-tal  bars,  br  ad- 
van  -iiiu-  llie  po:iit  ot  a  inirroinLHer-sorew, 
till  It  stnsiblv  stop|)i;il  again-l  tli_-  end  of  tlie 
l)ur  to  be  nira^iireii.  'I'liisscivw,  l)eing  small 
and  very  lightly  hun?,  was  capable  of  agret-- 
n-.ent  w'itluii  tlie  three  or  tbur-thousandth 
part  of  an  iuch.  On  this  general  principle 
Mr.  rim  ■atoii  contrived  his  pyrometer,  in 
which  tl>e  measures  are  determined  by  the 
contact  of  a  piece  of  metal  with  Ihe  point  ot 
a  niicromt  ter-screw. 

The  following  table  shews  how  much  a 
foot  in  lengtli  of  each  metal  grows  longer  by 
an  ijicrease  of  heat  corresponding  to  ISO 
of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  or  to  the  c!,f- 
ference  between  freezing  and  boiling  water, 
expressed  in  parts  of  which  the  unit  is  equal 
to  tlie  10,OLlOtli  part  of  an  inch. 
I.  While  glass  barometer-tube,  -  lOn 
i,'.  Martiafregulus  of  antimony,      -         130 

138 
.147 
151 
l«i7 
1'04 
■J  IS 
2, '5 


3.  Blistered  steel,            -  -         - 

4.  Hard  steel,  .  -  -  - 
."i.  Iron,  -  -  -  -  " 
0.  Bismuth.            -        .  .         - 

7.  Copper  hammered, 

8.  Copper  eight  parts,  witii  tin  one 

9.  Cast  brUbs,         -         -  - 
10.  Brass  si.\teen  parts,  with  tin  one, 


1 1.  Brass-wire, 

1  .'.  Speculum-metal,  -         -         -3- 

13.  Spelter-iolder,  viz.  brass  two  parts, 

■  ^17 

zmc  one,  -         -        "  ~_\ 

3  4.  Fine  pewter,  -         -         -         2/4 

I").  Gram  tin,  -         -        -         298 

Iti.  Soft  soldi-r,  viz  lead  two,  tin  one,  3U1 
17.  Zinc  eight   parts,  with  tin   one,  a 

little  hammered,  -         -         ■'-•^ 

1 V  Lead,  .        -        -        -        344 

10.  Zinc  or  spelter,  -        -        -        ^^^ 

CO.  Zinc  hammered   half  an   inch  per 

foot, 373 

PYUOPS,  a  mineral  found  in  Bohemi.i, 
which  was  formerly  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  Bohemian  garnet.  It  is  never  found 
rrvstallized,  but  only  in  round  or  angular 
fr.igments,  usually  small.  Colour  deep  re(l, 
wliTch  passes  to  'orange  when  the  mineral  is 
exposed  to  the  sun.  It  is  very  hard  ;  the 
specific  gravity  is  from  3.7  to  3.9.  I'lacture 
<o-irho>dal  and  very  brilliant.     It  is  compos- 

t-J  of 

40.00  silica 
2S..50  alumina 
10.00  magnesia 
.3. .ill  lime 

16.50  oxivle  of  iron 
0.25  oxide  of  manganese. 


DS.75 

PYROPIIORUS,  a  substance  which  has 
the  property  of  catching  fire  whenever  it  is 
exi)osed  to  the  open  air.     See  Sui.riiATs. 

l'VK()SrRl.\,  a  genus  of  the  tetrandria 
monogynia  class  und  order.  The  cal.  is  tour- 
toothed  ;  cor.  bell-shaped ;  nuts  eight,  one- 
seeded.  There  is  one  species,  a  small  tree 
of  Mauritius. 

I'YRO.  li^CHNY,  the  art  of  fire,  or  a 
science  which  teaches  the  management  and 
application  of  lire  in  several  operations  But 
the  term  is  more  particularly  used  to  denote 
the  doctrine  of  artificial  fireworks. 

Of  iii-j,ri:dlvnls  and  cnmpositiniu. 

1.  Saltpetre  is  the  principal  ingredient  in 
<ire-works  ;  but  will  not  answer  so  well  when 
foul  and   gross    as    when  purified   from   its 


P  T   R 

crude  and  earthy  parts,  which  greatly  retard 
its  velocity  ;  wh'eii,  therefore,  any  (|Uantily 
of  fire-works  are  to  be  made,  it  should  be 
examined;  for  if  it  is  not  well  cleansed,  and 
of  a  good  sort,  your  works  will  not  have  their 
proper  effect ;  neither  will  it  agree  with  the 
standing  proportions  of  compo.-itions. 

To  refine  it,  put  into  a  copper,  or  any 
other  vessel,  100  lb.  of  rough  nitre  with  14 
gallons  of  clean  water  ;  let  it  bo:l  gently  halt 
an  hour,  and  as  it  boils  lake  off  the  scum  ; 
then  stir  it,  and  before  it  settles  |nit  it  into 
your  nltring-bags,  which  must  be  liung  on 
a  rack,  with  glazed  earthen  pans  under  tliem, 
in  which  nuVst  be  sticks  laid  across  for  the 
crystals  to  adhere  to :  it  must  stand  in  the 
pans  two  or  tliree  davs  to  shoot ;  then  take 
out  the  crystals,  and  let  them  dry.  The 
water  that  remains  in  the  pans  boil  again  an 
hour,  and  strain  it  into  the  pans  as  before, 
and  the  saltpetre  will  be  <iuite  clear  and 
transparent ;  if  not,  it  wants  more  refining  ; 
to  do  which  proceed  as  usual,  till  it  is  well 
cleansed  of  all  its  earthy  parts. 

N.  B.  Those  who  do  not  chuse  to  procure 
their  saltpetre  by  the  above  method,  may 
buy  it  ready-done,  which  lor  fire-works  in 
general  will  answer. 

To  pulveri-e  saltpetre.  Take  a  copper 
kettle,  whose  lioltom  nlu^t  be  spherical,  ami 
put  into  it  14  lb.  of  refined  saltpetre,  with  2 
([uarts  or  five  pints  of  clean  water :  then  put 
the  kettle  on  a  slow  fire,  and  when  the  salt- 
petre is  dissolved,  if  any  impurities  arise, 
skim  themolf,  and  keep  constantly  stirring  it 
with  two  large  spatulas,  till  all  the  water  e.y- 
hales  ;  ami  when  done  enough,  it  will  appear 
like  white  sand,  as  fine  as  Hour;  but  if  it 
should  boil  too  fast,  take  the  kettle  olf  the 
fire,  and  set  it  on  some  wet  sand,  winch  will 
prevent  the  nitre  from  sticking  to  the  kettle. 
When  vou  have  pulverised  atjuantity  of  salt- 
petre, te  careful  to  keep  it  in  a  dry  place. 

2.  Sulphur  is  one  of  the  principal  ingredi- 
ents in  gunpowder,  and  almost  in  all  com- 
positions of  fire-works;  and  therefore  great 
care  must  be  taken  of  its  being  good,  and 
brought  to  the  highest  pcrfeilion.  To  know- 
when  sulphur  is  good,  you  are  to  observe 
that  it  is  of  a  higiryellow";  and  if,  when  held 
in  one's  hand,  it  crackles  and  bounces,  it  is 
a  sign  that  it  is  fresh  and  good :  but  as  the 
method  of  reducing  brimslone  to  a  posvd.-r  is 
very  troublesome,  it  is  better  to  buy  the 
floiir  ready-made,  which  is  done  in  large 
quantities,  and  in  great  perfection  ;  though 
when  a  grand  collection  of  fire-works  is  to  be 
made,  flie  strongest  and  best  sulphur  is  tlie 
lump-brimstnne  well  ground. 

.!.  Charcoal  for  lire-works  must  always  be 
soft  and  well  burnt,  which  may  be  bought 
ready-done. 

4.  See  GuNPOwDKRin  the  order  of  the 
alphabet.  It  is  mealed  or  ground  in  mortars, 
&c. 

5.  Camphor  may  be  had  in  thejhops;  and 
is  of  two  kimls,  differing  in  regard  to  the 
degree  of  their  jjurity,  and  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  rough  and  refined.  Refmerl 
cami)hor  must  be  chosen  of  a  perfecily  clean 
white  colour,  very  bright  and  pellucid,  of  the 
same  smell  and  taste  with  the  rough,  but 
more  acrid  and  pungent. 

ti.  Benjamhi  is  one  of  the  ingredients  in 
odoriferous  fire-works,  when  reduced  to  a  fine 
flour ;  which  may  be  done  by  pulling   into 


r  Y  n 

a  deep  and  narrow  cartlien  pnt  b.^tween  Ihrrs  ' 
and  lour  ounces  of  benjamin  grossly  pound- 
ed; cover  the  pot  with  paper,  which  tie 
very  closely  round  the  edge  ;  then  set  the 
pot  on  a  slow  file,  and  once  in  an  hour  take 
olf  Ihe  paper,  and  you  will  find  some  flour 
sticking  to  it,  w  liich  return  again  in  the  pot ; 
this  you  must  continue  till  the  flour  ap;.ears 
white  and  fine.  There  is  also  an  oil  of  ben- 
jamin, which  is  sometimes  drawn  from  tlie 
dregs  of  the  flour ;  it  affords  a  very  good 
scenl,  and  may  be  used  in  wet  compositions. 
7.  Spur-fire.'  As  the  beauty  of  this  compo- 
sition cannot  be  seen  at  so  great  a  distance 
as  brilliant  fire,  it  has  a  belter  effect  in  a 
room  than  in  the  open  air,  anJ  may  be  fired 
in  a  chamber  without  any  danger:  it  is  of 
so  innocent  a  nature,  that,  though  with  an 
improper  phrase,  it  may  be  called  a  cold 
lire ;  and  so  extraordinary  is  the  fire  pro- 
duced from  this  composilion,  t!nt,  if  well 
made,  the  sparics  will  not  burn  a  handker- 
chief when  held  in  the  midst  of  them  ;  you 
may  hold  them  in  your  hand  while  burning, 
with  as  much  safety  as  a  candle;  and  if  you 
put  vour  hand  wiliiiu  a  foot  of  tlie  mouth  of 
the  case,  you  will  feel  the  sparks  like  drops 
of  rain.  When  any  of  these  spur-fires  are 
lired  singly,  they  are  called  artificial  fiower- 
pots ;  but  some  of  them  placed  round  a 
transparent  pyramid  of  pa|)er,  and  fired  in  a 
large  ro  iin,  make  a  very  pretty  appeal'* 
ance. 

The  composition  consists  of  saltpetre  41b. 
8  oz.,  sulphur  C  lb.  and  lamp-black  1  Ih.  S  oz. ; 
or,  saltpetre,  lib.,  sulphur  ^  lb.  and  lamp-black 
quarts.  This  composition  is  very  difiicult  to 
mix.  The  saltpetre  and  brimstone  must  be 
first  sifted  together,  and  tf.en  put  into  a 
marble  mortar,  and  the  lamp-black  willi 
them,  with  you  work  down  by. degrees  with  a 
wooden  pestle,  till  all  the  ingredients  appear 
of  one  colour,  which  will  be  something 
greyish,  but  very  near  black  :  then  drive  a 
iiltle  into  a  cas'e  for  trial,  and  fire  it  in  a 
dark  [jlace  ;  and  if  the  sparks,  which  are 
called  stars,  or  pinks,  come  out  in  clusters, 
and  afterwards  sjiread  well  without  any  other 
sparks,  it  is  a  sign  of  its  being  good,  other- 
wise not  ;  for  if  any  drossy  sparks  appear, 
and  the  stars  not  full,  it  "is  then  not  mixed 
enough  ;  but  if  the  pinks  are  very  small,  and 
soon  break,  it  is  a  sign  that  you  have  rulihed 
it  too  much.  The  reason  of  its  being  called 
spur-fire,  is  because  the  sparks  it  yields  have 
a  great  resemblance  to  the  rowel  of  a  spur. 

8.  To  prepare  cast  iron  for  gerbes,  white 
fountains,  and  Chinese  fire.  Cast  iron  being 
of  so  hard  a  nature  as  not  to  be  cut  by  a  file, 
we  are  obliged  to  reduce  it  into  grains, 
though  somewhat  difiicult  to  ijcrform  ;  hut 
if  we  consider  what  beautiful  sparks  this 
sort  of  iron  yields,  no  pains  should  be  spared 
lo  granulate  such  an  essential  material:  to 
<lo  which,  get  at  an  iron-foundry  some  thin 
|)ieces  of  iron,  such  as  generally  run  over 
the  mould  at  the  time  of  casting:  then  have 
a  scpiari:  block  made  of  cast  iron,  and  an 
iron  square  hammer  about  four  pounds  weight ; 
then,  h  iving  covered  the  lloor  with  clolh  or 
something  to  catch  the  beatings,  lay  the  Ihiu 
pieces  of  iron  on  the  block,  and  iieal  tliem 
with  the  hammiM-  till  reduced  into  small 
grains;  which  afterwards  searce  with  a  very 
fine  sieve,  to  separalt;  the  fine  dust,  which  is 
somelimes  used  in  small  cases  of  brilliant  firi» 
instead  of  sle.d-dust ;  and  when  you  have  got 


out  i>^l  ilii"  (Uiit,  sift  wlwt  r?i:i:iiii3  willi  a  sieve 
a  little  Uirj^tr,  and  so  on  willi  sieves  of  tlif- 
ferent  sizes,  till  the  iron  passes  lliroiigh  about 
the  bigness  of  small  biid-sliot :  your  iron 
lliiis  beaten  and  silted,  jmt  caelisort  into 
wooden  boxes  or  oiled  paper,  to  keep  it 
ffoni  rustijig.  VVIieii  you  use  il,  observe 
the  dUi'erence  of  its  si/e,  in  proportion  to  the 
cases  for  which  the  eharge  is  intended ;  for 
the  coarse  sort  is  only  designed  for  very 
large  gerbes  of  6  or  8lb. 

9.  Charges  for  sky-rockets,  &c.  Kockets 
of  four  oinices.  Mealed  powder  one  lb. 
four  oz.  saltpetre  fonroz.  and  charcoal  two 
oz.  Kockets  of  eight  ounces.  1.  Mealed 
powder  one  lb.  saltpetre  lour  oz.  brimstone 
three  oz.  and  charcoal  one  and  ;;  half  oz.  II. 
Meal-powder  one  and  a  half  lb.  and  charcoal 
foiM'  and  a  halfoz.  Rockets  of  one  jjound. 
Me,il-[iowder  two  lb.  saltpetre  eight  oz.  brim- 
stone lour  oz.  charcoal  two  oz.  and  steel  fil- 
ings one  and  a  halfoz.  Sky-rockets  in  ge- 
neral. I.  Saltpetre  four  lb.  briinstoni!  one  lb. 
and  charcoal  one  and  a  half  lb.  II.  ,Salt[)elre 
tour  lb.  brimstone  one  and  a  half  lb.  charcoal 
one  lb.  twelve  oz.  and  meal-powder  two 
oz.  Large  sky-rockets.  Saltpetre  four  lb. 
<)ieal-po\\ der  one  lb.  and  brimstone  one  lb. 
Hockets  of  a  middling  size.  1.  Saltpetre  eight 
)b.  s;  Ipluir  three  lb.  meal-powder  three  lb. 
II.  Saltpetre  three  lb.  stdphur  tv.o  lb.  meal- 
powder  one  lb.  charcoal  one  lb. 

10.  For  rocket-stars.  White  stars.  Meal- 
powder  four  oz.  saltpetre  twelve  oz.  sulphur 
■vivmn  six  oz.  oil  of  spike  two  oz.  and  cam- 
phor live  oz.  Blue  tars.  Mi-al-powder  eight 
oz.  saltpetre  four,  sul|)luir  two,  spirit  of  wine 
'two,  and  oil  of  spike  two.  Colouretl  or  va- 
riegated stars.  Meal-powder  eight  diams, 
rochpelre  lour  oz.  sulphur  vivuni  two,  and 
camphor  two.  Brilliant  stars.  iSaltpi  tre  three 
and  a  haif  oz.  sulphur  one  and  a  half,  and 
meal-powder  Ihree-tourth^,  worked  i.p  with, 
spirits  o.  wine  only.  C-mnion  stars.  Salt- 
petre one  lb  brimstone  four  oz.  antimony 
four  and  three-fourths,  i>inglass  a  half,  cam- 
phor a  half,  and  spirit  of  wine  three-fourths. 
Tailed  stars.  .Meal-powder  three  oz.  brim- 
stone two,  saltpetre  one,  and  charcoal  (coarse- 
Jy  ground)  three-fourths.  Drove  stars.  I. 
Saltpitre  three  lb.  sulphur  one  lb.  brass-dust 
twelve  oz.  antimony  three.  II.  Saltpetre 
«ne  lb.  antimony  fouroz.  and  sulphur  eight. 
¥\\ed  pointed  stars.  Sallpt-tre  eight  and  a 
Jialt  oz.  sulplnir  two,  antimony  one  oz.  ten 
«ir.  Stars  of  a  line  colour.  Sulphur  one  oz. 
meal  powder  one,  saltpetre  one,  camphor 
four  dr.  oil  of  turpentine  four  dr. 

I  I.Rains.  Gold  rain  for  sky-rockets.  I. 
Saltpetre  one  lb.  meal-powder  foui-  oz.  stil- 
]<hur  four,  brass-dust  one,  saw-dust  two  and 
a  quarter,  and  glass-dust  six  dr.  II.  Meal- 
}i')wder  twelve  oz.  saltpetre  two,  charcoal 
four.  III.  Saltpetre  eight  oz.  brimstone  two, 
glass-dust  one,  antimony  three-fourths,  brass- 
dust  onp-(|uarter,  and  saw-dust  12  dr.  Silver 
rain.  I.  Saltpetre  four  oz.  sulphur,  mea'- 
jiowdcr,  and  antimony,  of  each  two  oz.  sal 
jirunflla  one  half  Oi.  II.  Saltpetre  one  half 
!1>.  brimstone  two  oz.  and  charcoal  f.jur.  'II. 
Saltpetre  one  lb.  brimstone  one  quarter  lb. 
antimiuy  six  oz.  IV.  Saltpetre  four  oz. 
brimstone  one,  powder  two,  and  steel-dust 
three-fourth  oz. 

12.  Water-rockets.     I.  Meal-powder  six  lb. 
Killpetre  four,  brimstone  three,  charcoal  five. 
Vol.  II. 


I'YROTECHNY. 

IF.  Salti)etie  one  lb.  brimstone  four  and  a 
half  oz.  cljarcoal  six.  JII.  Sa!t|)elie  one  lb. 
brimstone  four  oz.  charcoal  twelve.  IV. 
Saltpetre  4  lb.  brimstone  IJIb.  charcoal  one 
lb.  twelve  oz.  V.  Brimstone  two  lb.  saltpetre 
four  lb.  and  meal-powder  four.  VI.  Saltpetre 
one  lb.  nieid-powder  fuuroz.  brimstone  eight 
and  a  half,  charcoartwo.  ^'I[.  Meal-powder 
one  lb.  saltpetre  three,  briiii.stone  one  ;  sea- 
coal  one  oz.  charcoal  eight  and  a  half,  saw- 
<lust  three-fourths,  steel-dust  one-half,  and 
coarse  charcoal  one-fourth  oz.  VIII.  \Ieal- 
powdcr  one  and  tliree-founhs  lb.  saltpetre 
three,  sulphur  one  and  a  half,  charcoal  twelve 
cz.  saw-dust  two.  Sinking  charge  for  water 
rockets.  Meal-powder  eight  oz.  charcoal 
Ihree-iburths  oz. 

13.  Of  wheels.  Wheel-cases  from  two 
ounces  to  four  pounds.  I.  Meal-jjowdcr  two 
lb.  salti)etre  fouroz.  Iron-filings  seven  oz.  II. 
Meal-powder  iJib.  saltpetre  12  oz.  sulphur  4, 
steel-tiust  3.  III.  Meal-powder  tour  lb.  salt- 
petre one  lb.  brimstone  eight  oz.  charcoal 
four  and  a  half.  IV.  Meal-powder  « jght  oz. 
saltpetre  four,  saw-dust  one  and  a  half,  sea- 
coal  three-fourths.  V.  .Meal-powder  one  lb. 
four  oz.  brimstone  four  oz.  ten  dr.  saltpetre 
eight  oz.  glass-dust  two  and  a  half.  VI. 
Meal-powder  twelve  oz.  charcoal  one,  saw- 
dust oiu-half.  VII.  Saltpetre  one  lb.  nine 
oz.  brimstone  four  oz.  charcoal  four  and  a 
half.  Vin.  Meal-powder  two  lb.  saltpetre 
one,  brimstone  one-half,  and  sea-coal  two. 
IX.  Saltpetre  two  lb.  brimstone  one,  meal- 
powder  four,  and  glass-dust  four  oz.  X. 
Meal-powder  one  lb.  saltpetre  two  oz.  and 
steel-dust  three  and  one-half.  XI.  Meal- 
powder  two  lb.  and  sleel-diist  two  and  one- 
half  oz.  with  two  and  one-half  of  the  line 
dust  of  beat  iron,  XFI.  Saltpetre  two  lb. 
thirteen  oz.  brimstone  eight  oz.  and  charcoal. 
Slow  fire  for  wheels.  1.  Saltpetre  four  oz. 
brimstone  two,  and  meal-powder  one  and  a 
half.  11.  Saltpetre  four  oz.  brimstone  one, 
and  antimony  one  oz.  six  dr.  III.  Saltpetre 
four  and  one-half  oz.  brimstone  one  oz.  and 
meal-powder  one  and  a  half.  Dead  tire  for 
wheels.  I.  Saltpetre  one  one-fourth  oz.  brim- 
stone one-fourth,  lapis-calaminaris  one-fourth, 
and  antimony  two  dr. 

14  Standing  or  fixed  cases,  f.  Mcal-pow- 
der  four  lb.  saltpetre  two,  brimstone  and 
charcoal  one.  II.  Meal-powder  two  lb.  salt- 
petre one,  and  sleel-dust  eight  oz.  III.  Meal- 
powder  one  lb.  four  oz.  and  charcoal  four  oz. 
IV.  Meal-powtler  one  lb;  and  steel-dust  lour 
oz.  \'.  Meal-powder  two  and  one-half  lb. 
brimstone  lour  oz.  and  sea-coal  six.  VI. 
Meal-powder  (hree  lb.  charcoal  live  oz.  and 
saw-dust  one  and  a  half. 

Ij.  Sun-cases.  I.  Meal-powder  eight  and 
one-half  lb.  saltpetre  one  lb.  two  oz.  steel- 
dust  two  lb.  ten  oz.  brimstone  four.  II.  Meal- 
powder  three  lb.  saltpetre  si.\  oz.  and  steel- 
dust  Seven  and  one-half. 

16.  ,\  brilliant  fire.  Meal-powder  eleven 
lb.  saltpetre  one,  brimstone  four  oz.  steel- 
dust  one  and  a  half. 

17.  Gerbes.  Meal-powder  si.\  lb.  and  beat 
iron  two  lb.  one  and  a  halfoz. 

18.  Chinese  fire.  Saltpetre  twelve  oz.  nicil- 
powder  two  lb.  brimstoiie  one  lb,  two  oz,  and 
beat  iron  twelve  os;. 

19.  Touibillons.  Charge  for  four-ounce 
tourlullons.  Meal-powder  two  lb.  fotir  oz. 
and  charcoal  four  and  one-eighth  oz.  Eight- 
ounce  totirbilkms.  Meal-powder  two  lb.  and 

3X 


5Z3 

charcoal  four  and  tliree-fourths  oz.  Large 
lourbillons.  Meal-powder  two  lb.  saltpetre 
one,  brimstone  eie'it  oz.  and  beat-iron  eight, 
'fourbillons  way  Le  made  v<ry  large,  and  of 
different  coloured  fires :  only  you  have  to 
observe,  that  the  larger  they  aie,  tlie  weaker 
must  be  the  charge;  and,  on  the  coniiurv, 
the  smaller,  the  stronger  their  charge. 

20.  Water  balloons.  I.  Saltpetre  four  lb. 
brimstone  t«o,  meal-powder  two,  antimony 
tour  oz.  saw-dnst  four,  glass-dust  one  anil 
one-half,  II.  Saltpetre  liine  lb.  brimstone 
three  lb,  mea!-pov.(ier  six  lb.  rosin  tv/elveoz. 
and  antimony  eight  oz. 

21.  Water  squibs.  I,  Meal-powder  one  lb. 
and  cliarcqai  one  lb,  II,  Meal-powder  one 
lb,  and  charcoal  nine  oz. 

22.  Mine  1)1)1  ts  or  serpents,  L  Meal-pow- 
der one  lb.  ami  cluircoal  one  oz,  II.  Meal- 
powder  nine  oz.  charcoal  one  oz. 

23.  Port-fins.  Tor  firing  rockets,  &c.  I. 
Saltpetre  twelve  oz.  brimstone  four  oz.  and 
nieal-powdcr  two  oz.  11.  Saltpetre  eight  oz. 
brimstone  four  oz.  and  meal-powder  two  oz. 
III.  Saltpetre  one  lb.  meal-powder  one  and 
one-half  and  brimstone  ten  oz.  ,  Tliis  com- 
|)o4tion  must  be  mo'stened  with  one  gill  of 
linseed  oil.  IV,  Meal- powder  six  oz,  salt- 
petre two  lb.  two  oz.  and  brimstone  ten  oz. 
y.  Saltpetre  one  lb.  four  oz  meal-powder 
four  oz.  brimstone  liveoz.  saw-dust  eight  oz. 
VI.  S..ltpetie  eight  oz.  brimstone  tv.o  oz.  and 
meal-powder  two  oz.  For  illuminations. 
.Saltpetre  one  lb,  briinstone  eight  oz,  and 
meal-powder  six  oz. 

24.  Cones  or  spiral  tvheeh.  Salti)etre  one 
and  one-half  lb.  brim.stone  six  oz.  meal  pow- 
der fourteen  oz.  and  glass-du-t  fourteen  oz. 

2j.  Crozi'iis  or  gluhes.  Saltpetre  six  oz. 
briinstone  two  lb.  antimony  four  oz.  and  cam- 
phor twooz. 

211.  Air-bal'uanfuzes.  I,  Saltpetre  one  lb. 
ten  qz.  brimstone  eight  oz.  and  meal-powder 
one  lb.  six  oz.  II.  S:dtpetie  one  and  one-half^ 
brimstone  eight  oz,  and  meal-powder  one  lb. 
eight  oz, 

27,  Serpents  for  pntr.deshrins.  Meal-ptw- 
der  one  lb.  eight  oz.  saltpetre  twelve  oz,  and 
charcoal  two  oz. 

28.  Fire  pump.i.  I.  Saltfjetre  five  lb,  brim- 
stone  one  lb.  meal-powder  one  and  one-half 
IL).  and  glass-dust  one  lb.  II.  Saltpetre  five 
lb.  eight  oz.  brimstone  two  lb.  mcal-po.i  der 
one  lb.  eight  oz.  and  glass-dust  one  lb,  ei^ht 
oz. 

2Q.  A.'iloxa'xhiteflame.  I.  Saltpetre  twa 
lb,  brimstone  three  lb.  antimony  .one  lb.  II. 
Saltpetre  three  .^nd  one-half  lb.  snlphur  two 
and  one-lvJiflb.  meal-powder  one  lb.  anti- 
mony one  lb.  glass-dust  four  oz.  brass-dust 
one  oz.  N.  B.  These  compositions,  driven 
one-fourth  incii  in  a  one-oz.  case,  will  burn 
one  minute ;  which  is  much  longer  time  thau 
an  equal  quantity  of  any  compositicni  yet 
known  will  last. 

30.  Athjier  lights.  Meai-];owder  nine  02. 
amber  three  oi,  Tliis  charge  may  be  drove 
in  small  cases,  (or  illuminations. 

3!,  Zig/ii.s  qf  another  kind.  Saltpetre 
tlirfe  lb.  brimstone  one  lb.  meal-powder  one 
lb.  antimony  tea  and  one-iialf  oz.  All  these 
must  be  mi.\ed  with  tlie  oil  of  spike, 

33.  A  red  fire.  Meal-powdor  three  lb, 
charcoal  twelve  oz.  and  saw-dusi  eight  oz. 

33.  A  common  fire.  Saltpetre  three  ik. 
charcoal  teu  6.:.  a;;d  brim»to«e  two  o* 


530 

34.  To  make  an  artificial  fnTihqiuike.  Mix 
the  following  iii-redif iits  to  a  paite  with  wa- 
ter, ami  then  bury  it  in  the  grouml,  and  in  a 
tew  hours  the  earth  will  break  ami  opLMi  hi 
several  places.  The  compositioii:  sulpliur 
41b.  and  steel-dust  4tb. 

35.  Compositions  for  sldm  of  diff'er.nt  co- 
lotir.i.  i  ■  Meal-powder  4  oz.  saltpetre  2  oz. 
brimstone  2oz.  steel-du>t  1  joz.  and  camphor, 
white  amber,  antimony,  and  mercury  sub- 
limate, of  each  half  an  ounce.  C.  Rochepetre 
10  oz.  brimstone,  charcoal,  antimony,  meal- 
powder,  and  camphor,  of  each  -J  oz.  moisten- 
ed with  oil  of  turpentine.  These  compo- 
sitions are  made  into  slar^;,  by  working  into  a 
pa^te,  with  aipia  vit.c,  in  which  h.is  been  dis- 
solved some  gum  tragac.mth  ;  after  you  have 
rolled  them  in  powder,  make  a  hole  through 
the  middle  of  each,  and  string  them  on 
quick-match,  leaving  two  inches  between  each. 

3.  Saltpetre  S  oz.  biimstone  2  oz.  yellow  am- 
ber  1  oz.  antimony   1  oz.  and  |)owder  3  o/.. 

4.  Brimstone  -i  oz.  saltpetre  6  oz.  olibaiium 
or  frankincense  in  drops  4  oz. ;  mastic,  and 
jiiercui-y  subhmate,  of  each  4oz.  mea!-powder 
5  oz.  white  am'jer,  yellow  amber,  and  cam- 
phor, of  each  I  oz.  antimony  and  orpiment 
5  oz.  each.  5.  Saltpetre  1  lb.  brimstone  ^  lb. 
and  meal-powder  8  oz.  moistened  with  petro- 
lio-oil.  6.  Powder  \  lb.  brimstone  and  salt- 
petre of  each  4  oz.  7.  Saltpetre  4  oz.  brim- 
stone 2  oz.  and  meal-powder  1  oz. 

Siars  that  carnj  taiU  of  spark.!.  1.  Brim- 
stone 6  oz.  antimony  criule  2  oz.  saltpetre 
4oz.  and  rosin  4  oz.  2.  Saltpetre,  rosin,  and 
charcoal,  of  each  2  oz.  brimstone  1  oz.  and 
pitch  1  oz.  These  compositions  are  some- 
times melted  in  an  earthen  pan,  and  mi.Ked 
with  chopped  cotton  malch,  before  they  are 
rolled  into  stars :  but  will  do  a^  well  if  wetted, 
and  worked  up  in  the  usual  manner. 

Stars  that  yield -inme  sparks.  1.  Camphor 
2  oz.  saltpetre  1  oz.  meil-powder  1  oz. 
".  Saltpetre  I  oz.  ditto  inelteil  tOZ.  and  cam- 
phor 2  oz.  When  you  would  make  stars  of 
cither  of  these  compositions,  you  must  wet 
them  with  gum  water,  or  spirit  of  wine,  in 
which  has  been  dissolved  some  gum  arable, 
or  gum  tragacanth,  that  the  wdiole  may  have 
the  consistence  of  a  pretty  thick  liquid ;  hav- 
ing thus  done,  take  1  oz.  of  lint,  and  stir  it 
about  in  the  composition  till  it  becomes  dry 
enougli  to  roll  into  star 


Stars  nf  a  yeiln-j;isli 


Take  4  oz. 


of  gum  tragacanth  or  gum  arable,  pounded 
and  sifted  through  a  fine  sieve,  camphor  dis- 
solved in  brandy  2oz.  saltpetre  1  lb.  sulphur 
\  lb.  coarse  powder  of  glass  4  oz.  wliite  am- 
ber lioz.  orpiment  2  oz.  Being  well  incor- 
porated, make  them  into  stars  after  the  com- 
mon method. 

Stars  -f  another  kind.  Take  1  lb.  of  cam- 
phor, and  melt  it  in  a  pint  of  spirit  of  wine 
over  a  slow  lire;  then  add  to  it  1  lb.  of  gum 
arable  that  has  been  dissolved  ;  with  this  li- 
quor mix  lib.  of  saltpetre,  6  oz.  ofsidphur, 
and  J  oz.  meal-po.vder  ;  and  ai'ter  you  have 
stirred  them  well  together,  roll  them  into 
stars  proportionable  to  the  rockets  for  whicli 
yo  1  intend  them. 

36.  Colours  prodived  h'l  tin-  different  cem- 
pos-tinns.  As  variety  of  fires  adds  greatly  to 
a  collection  of  works,  it  is  necessary  that 
every  artist  should  knjw  the  different  effect 
of  each  ingredieat.  For  this  reason  we 
shall  here  explain  tliu  colours  they  produce  of 


PYROTECHKY. 

themselves,  and  likewise  how  to  make  them 
retain  the  same  when  mixed  with  other  bodies. 
As,  for  example,  sulphur  gives  a  blue,  cam- 
phor a  white  or  pale  colour,  saltpetre  a  clear 
white  yellow,  amber  a  colour  inclining  to 
vellosvj  sal  ammoniac  a  green,  antimony  a 
ieddish,  rosin  a  copper-colour,  and  Greek 
pitcli  a  kind  of  bronze,  or  between  red  and 
yellow.  All  these  ingredients  are  such  as 
show  themselves  in  a  (iame,  viz. 

mite  flame.  Saltpetre,  sulpliur,  meal- 
powder,  and  camphor:  the  saltpetre  must  be 
the  cliief  part. 

Blue  flame.  Meal-powder,  saltpetre,  and 
su'phur  vivum  ;  sulphur  must  be  the  chiet: 
or  meal-powder,  saltpetre,  brimstone,  spirit 
of  wine,  and  oil  of  spike  ;  but  let  the  powder 
be  the  principal  part. 

Flume  inclininsr  to  red.  Saltpetre,  sulphur, 
antimony,  and  Greek  pitch:  saltpetre  the 
chief. 

By  the  above  method  may  be  made  va- 
rious colours  of  lire,  as  the  practitioner 
pleases ;  for,  by  making  a  few  Iri.ds,  he  may 
cause  any  ingredient  to  be  predominant  in 
colour. 

37.  Ingredients  that  shotc  in  sparks  vjhen 
rammed  in  chouked  eases.  Tiie  set  colours 
of  lire  produced  by  sparks  are  divided  into 
four  sorts,  viz.  the  black,  white,  grey,  and 
red.  The  black  charges  are  composed  of 
two  ingredients,  which  are  meal-powder  ami 
charcoal :  the  white  of  three,  viz.  saltpetre, 
sulphur,  and  charcoal :  the  grey  of  four,  viz. 
meal-powder,  saltpetre,  brimstone,  and  ch.n- 
coal;  and  the  red  of  three,  viz.  meal-powder, 
charcoal,  and  saw-dust . 

38.  Cotton  quick-match,  is  generally  made 
of  such  cotton  as  is  put  in  candles,  of  several 
sizes,  from  one  to  six  threads  thick,  according 
to  the  pipe  it  is  designed  for;  which  pipe 
must  be  large  enough  for  the  match,  when 
made,  to  be  pushed  in  easily  without  break- 
ing it. 

The  ingredients  for  the  match  are,  cotton 
1  lb.  12  oz.  saltpetre  1  lb.  sjiirit  of  wine  2 
quarts,  water  3  ipiarts,  isingh.ss  3  gills,  and 
meal-powder  lOlb.  To  dissolve  4  oz.  of 
isinglass,  take  3  pints  of  water. 

39.  Touch-paper  for  capping  of  serpents, 
crackers,  ifC.  Dissolve  in  spirit  of  wine  or 
vinegar,  a  little  saltpetre ;  then  take  some 
purple  or  blue  paper,  and  wet  it  with  this  li- 
quor, and  when  dry  it  will  be  lit  for  use. 
AVhen  you  paste  this  paper  on  any  of  your 
works,  take  care  that  the  paste  does  not 
touch  that  part  which  is  to  burn. 


DiMENSioKS  for  RocKrr  Moulds  if  the 
Rockets  arc  rammed  solid. 


Weight    l.cngtli  of  the 

Interior  dia- 

Heijjlit 

of        moulds    witli- 

meter  of  the 

of  the 

rockets.  out  their  feet. 

moulds 

nipples. 

lbs.  oz. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

6       0 

.14,7 

;),.) 

1,5 

4       0 

:i8,(i 

i,'J 

1.4 

2        0 

l:i,;!5 

2,1 

1,0 

1        0 

12,'J,5 

1.7 

0,9$ 

0       8 

10,1 -25 

1,M3,  Sec. 

0,6 

0       4 

7,75 

1,125 

0.5 

0       '2 

e,2 

0,9 

0,45 

0        1 

4,9 

0,7 

0,35 

0       i 

.1,9 

0,15 

0,25 

G  drams 

:13 

0,.? 

0,225 

4  drams 

2,'i 

0,f? 

0,2 

Of  moulds,  eases,  mixture,  instruments,  ire. 

40.  Rockei-mnitlds.  As  the  performance 
of  rockets  depends  much  on  their  moulds,  it 
is  requisite  to  give  a  deiinition  of  them,  and 
their  proportions.  They  are  made  and  pro- 
portioned l)y  the  diameter  of  their  onfke, 
which  is  divided  into  equal  parts. 

Rammers  must  have  a  collar  of  brass  at  the 
bottom,  to  keep  the  wood  from  spreading  or 
splitting,  and  the  same  proportion  must  be 
given  to  all  moiiJds,  from  1  oz.  totilb.  As  to 
the  handles  of  the  rammers,  if  their  diameter 
is  equal  to  the  bore  of  the  mould,  and  two 
diameters  long,  it  will  be  a  very  gooil  pro- 
])ortion;  but  the  shorter  you  can  use  them 
the  better;  for  the  longer  the  drift,  the  less 
will  be  the  pressure  on  the  composition  by 
the  blow  given  with  the  mallet. 


41.  Moulds  for  wheil-rases  or  serpents. 
This  sort  of  moulds  are  made  of  any  length 
or  diameter,  according  as  the  cases  are  re- 
quired ;  but  the  diameter  of  the  rollers  must 
be  equal  to  halt  the  bore,  and  the  rammers 
made  quite  solid. 

42.  To  roll  rocket  and  other  cases.     Sky- 
rocket cases  are  to  be  made  O^  of  their  ex- 
terior diameter  long ;  and  all  other  cases  that 
are  to  be  hlled  in  moulds  must  be  as  long  as 
the  moulds,  within  half  its  interior  diameter. 
Rocket-cases,  from  the  smallest  to  4  or  6  lb. 
are  generally  made  of  the  strongest  sort  of 
cartridge-paper,  and  rolled  dry  ;  but  the  large 
sort  are  made  of  pasted  pasteboard.     As  it  is 
verv   difhcult  to  roll  the  ends  of  the  caset 
quite  even,  the  best  way   will  be  to  keep  a 
pattern  of  the  paper  for  the  dillercnt  sorts  of 
cases,    wiiich  pattern   should  be    somewhat 
longer  than  the  case  it  is  designed  for,  and  on 
it  marked  the  number  of  sheets  required, 
which  will   prevent  any  paper  being  cut  to 
waste.     Having  cut  your  papers  of  a  proper 
size,  and  the  last  sheet  for  each  case  witli  ;i 
slope  at  one  en<.\,  so  that  w  hen  the  cases  arc 
rolled  it  may  form  a  spiral  line  round  lh»f 
outside,  ;;nd'that  this  slope  may  always  be  tlu; 
same,  let  the  pattern  be  so  cut  for  a  guide. 
Before  yon  begin  to  roll,  fold  down  one  end 
of  the  lirst  sheet,  so  far  tliat  the  fold  will  go 
two  or  three  times  round  the  former  ;   tlieii, 
on  the  double  edge,  lay  the  former  with  its 
handle  ot4'  the  table;   and  when   you  have 
rolled  on  the  paper  within  two  or  three  turns, 
lay  the  next  sheet  on  that  part  wJnch  is  loose, 
aiid  roll  it  all  on.    Having  thus  done,   you 
must  have  a  smooth  board,  about  20  inches 
long,  and  equal  in  breadth  to  the  length  of  the 
case.     In  the  middle  of  this  board  must  be 
a  handle  placed  lengthwise.    Under  this  board 
lav  your  case,  and  let  one  end  of  the  boartl 
lie  c'n  tlie  table;  then  press  hard  on  it,  and 
push  it  forwards,  which  will  roll   the  paper 
veiy  tight:  do  this  three  or  four  times  before 
you  roll  on  any  more  paper.     This  must  be 
repeated  every  other  shct-t  of  paper,  till  \hi 
case  is  thick  enough  ;  but  if  the  rolling-board 
is  drawn  backwarcU,  it  will  loosen  the  paper: 
von  arc  to  observe  when  you  roll  on  the  last 
sheet,  that  tlie  point  of  the  slope  may  be 
placed  at  the  small  end  of  the  roller.     When 
the  cases  are  hard  to  choak,  let  each  sheet  of 
paper  (except  the  tirst  and  last,  in  that  part 
where  the  nixk  is  tormed),  be  a  little  moist- 
ened with  wat'-  r ;  immediately  after  you  liave 
struck  the  concave  stroke,  bind  the  neck  of 
the  case  round  with  small  twine,  which  must 


nnt  be  tied  in  a  knot,  but  fastened  vvitli  t^vo 
or  tlirec  hitclu's. 

Having  thus  pinched  and  tied  the  rase  so 
as  not  to  give  way,  put  it  into  the  mould 
without  its  loot,  and  with  a  inalict  drive  the 
former  hard  on  the  end  piece,  wliicli  will  force 
the  neck  close  and  smooth.  This  done,  cut 
tlie  case  to  its  proper  len'j,th,  allowing  from 
the  neck  to  the  edge  of  the  mouth  half  a  dia- 
nieter,  which  is  e((ual  to  the  height  of  the 
nil)ple;  then  take  out  tlic  former,  and  drive 
the  case  over  the  piercer  with  the  long  ram- 
mer, and  the  vent  will  lie  of  a  proper  size. 
Wheel-cases  must  he  driven  on  a  nipple  with 
a  point  to  close  the  neck,  and  make  the  vcut 
of  the  size  required  ;  which,  in  most  cases, 
is  generally  one-c|uarter  of  their  interior  dia- 
meter. As  it  is  very  often  diffn/iilt,  when  the 
Ciises  are  rolled,  to  draw  the  roller  out,  \o[\ 
may  make  a  hole  through  the  handle,  and  put 
in  it  a  small  iron  pin,  by  which  you  may 
easily  turn  the  former  round  and  pull  it  out. 
Cases  are  commonly  rolled  wet,  for  wheels 
and  lixed  pieces ;  and  when  th.ey  are  re- 
quired to  contaai  a  great  length  of  charge, 
the  method  of  making  those  cases  is  thus: 
your  p-jper  must  be  cut  as  usual,  only  the  last 
iiieet  must  not  be  cut  with  a  slope;  having 
Your  paper  re.idy,  |)aste  each  sheet  on  one 
side:  then  fold  down  the  first  sheet  as  before 
directed;  bill  be  careful  thai  the  |)aste  does 
not  touch  the  upper  part  of  llic  fold,  for  if  the 
roller  is  welled,  it  will  tear  the  pp.per  in  draw- 
ing it  out.  In  pasting  the  hist  sheet,  obsej-ve 
not  to  wet  the  last  turn  or  two  in  thai  part 
where  it  is  to  be  pinched  ;  for  if  that  part  is 
(lamp,  the  pinching-coid  will  stick  to  it,  and 
tear  the  paper;  therefore,  when  von  choak 
those  cases,  roll  a  bit  of  dry  paper  once  round 
the  case  b  -lore  you  put  on  llie  pinching-cord  ; 
but  this  bit  of  paper  must  be  taken  off  after 
the  case  is  choaked.  The  rolling-board,  and 
all  other  metliods,  according  to  the  former 
directions  for  the  rolling  and  pinching  of  cases, 
must  be  used  to  these  as  well  as  all  other 
cases. 

43.  To  mnkc  foiirhill'in-c/iseif.  This  sort 
of  cases  are  generally  made  about  eight  dia- 
meters long;  but  if  very  large,  seven  will  be 
fiullicient.     Tourbillons  will  answer  very  well 

,  from  4  oz.  to  2  lb.  but  when  larger  there  is  no 
certainty.  The  cases  are  best  rolled  wet  wi'Ji 
paste,  and  the  last  sheet  must  have  a  straight 
edge,  so  that  the  case  may  be  all  of  a  thick- 
ness. When  you  have  rolled  your  cases  alter 
the  miiuner  of  wheel-cases,  pinch  them  at  one 
end  quite  close  ;  tiien  with  the  rammer  drive 
the  ends  down  flat,  and  afterwards  ram  in 
about  one-third  of  a  diameter  of  dried  clav. 
Tlie  diameter  of  the  former  for  these  cases 
must  be  the  same  as  for  skv-roekets. 

44.  Ikdloon-cases,  or  pufitr  sliclls.  First, 
you  must  have  an  oval  former  turned  of 
smoolh  wood;  then  paste  a  (juaiitity  of  brown 
or  cartridge  p.iper,  and  let  it  lie  till"  the  paste 
lias  quite  soaked  through :  this  done,  rub  the 
former  with  soap  or  grease,  to  prevent  the 
paper  fmiii  sticking  to  it ;  then  lav  the  paper 
on  in  small  sli|)5,  till  you  have  made  it  one- 
third  of  the  thickness  of  the  shell  intended. 

.Having  thus  done,  set  it  to  dry,  and  when 
dry,  cut  it  round  the  middle,  and  the  two 
halves  will  easily  come  off;  but  observe, 
when  you  cut,  to  leave  aiiout  One  inch  not  cut, 
which  will  make  the  halves  join  much  better 
than  if  quite  separated.  AVhen  you  have 
•ome  ready  to  join,  place  the  hahcs  even  to- 
5 


PYROTECHNY. 

[  gether,  paste  a  >lip  of  paper  round  the  open- 
j  ing  to  hold  them  together,  and  let  that  dry  ; 
[  then  lay  on  paper  all  over  as  before,  every 
where  e.iual,  exeepling  that  end  wh.ch  goes 
downwards  in  the  mortar,  which  may  be  a 
little  tiiicker  than  the  rest ;  for  that  part 
which  receives  the  blow  tioin  the  powder  in 
the  chamber  of  the  mortar  consequently  re- 
quires the  greatest  strength.  When  the  shell 
is  thoroughly  dry,  burn  a  round  vent  at  top, 
with  an  iron  large  enough  for  the  fuze  :  thi ; 
method  will  do  for  balloons  from  4  inches 
i.'-5ths,  to  8  inches  diameter ;  but  if  they  are 
larger,  or  required  to  be  thrown  a  great  heigiit, 
let  the  first  shell  be  turned  of  elm,  instead  of 
being  made  of  paper.  l''or  a  balloon  of  4 
inches  ;J-.>tlis,  let  the  former  be  3  inches  1-Sth 
diameter,  and  3^  inches  long.  For  a  balloon 
of  j^  inches,  the  diameter  ot  the  former  must 
be  4  inches,  and  8  inches  long.  For  a  balloon 
of  8  inches,  let  the  diameter  of  the  former  be 
5  inches  and  15-ltiths,  and  11  inches  7-8lhs 
long.  For  a  10-incli  balloon,  let  the  former 
be  7  inciieso-Kiths  diameter,  and  I4-|-  inches 
long.  I'he  thickness  of  a  shell  for  a  balloon 
of  4  inches  2-jtlis  must  be  halt  an  inch.  For 
a  balloon  of  6-'  inches,  let  the  thickness  of  the 
paper  be  j-bths  of  an  inch;  for  an  S-incii 
balloon,  7-8lliS  of  an  inch  ;  and  for  a  10-iiich 
balloon,  let  the  shell  be  1  inch  1-Sth  thick. 
Shells  that  are  designed  for  stars  only,  may  be 
made  quite  round,  and  the  thinner  they  are 
at  the  opening,  the  belter ;  for  il'  they  are  too 
strong,  the  stars  are  apt  to  break  at  the  burst- 
ing ot  the  shell.  When  you  are  making  the 
shell,  make  use  of  a  pair  of  calibres,  or  a 
round  gage,  so  that  you  may  not  lay  the 
paper  thicker  in  one  place  than  another;  and 
also  to  know  when  the  shell  is  of  a  proper 
thickness.  Balloons  must  always  be  made  to 
go  easy  into  the  mortars. 

Case!:  far  iihwdnalinii  pnri-fircs.  These 
must  be  made  very  thin  of  paper,  and  roiled 
on  formers  from  2  to  5-Sths  of  an  inch  dia- 
meter, and  from  2  to  C  inches  long;  they  are 
pinched  close  at  one  end,  and  left  open  at  the 
other.  When  you  fill  them,  put  in  but  a 
liltle  composition  at  a  time,  and  ram  it  in 
lightly,  so  as  not  to  break  the  case:  three  or 
four  rounds  of  paper,  with  the  last  round 
pasted,  will  be  strong  enough  for  these  cases. 

Cases  and  monhls  for  cnnmion  pnrl-ftres. 
Common  port-fires  are  intended  ])urposely 
to  lire  the  works,  their  tire  being  very  slow, 
and  the  heat  of  the  tlame  so  intense,  that,  if 
applied  to  rockets,  leaders,  &c.  il  will  fire 
them  immediately.  Port-fires  may  be  made 
of  any  length,  but  are  seldom  made  more 
than  21  inches  long:  the  interior  diameter  of 
l)art-lire  moulds  should  be  I0-l6tlis  of  an 
inch,  and  the  diameter  of  the  former  half  an 
inch.  The  cases  must  be  rolled  wet  with 
paste,  anil  one  end  pinched,  or  folded  down. 
The  moulds  should  be  made  of  brass,  and  to 
take  in  two  pieces  lengthwise;  when  the  case 
is  ill  the  two  sides,  they  are  held  together  by 
brass  rings,  or  hoops,  which  are  made  to  fit 
over  the  outside.  The  bore  of  the  mould 
must  not  be  made  quite  through,  so  that  there 
will  be  no  occasion  for  a  foot.  Those  port- 
fires, when  used,  are  held  in  copper  sockets, 
fi.\cd  on  the  end  of  a  long  stick  :  these  sockets 
are  made  like  port-crayons,  only  with  a  screw- 
instead  of  a  ring. 

45.  (!f  miring  the  compositions.  The  per- 
formance of  the  principal  part  of  iire-works 
3  X  i' 


531 

j  depends  much  on  the  Compositions  being  well 
mi.ved  ;  therefore  great  care  must  'lie  taken 
in  this  part  of  the  w  ork,  particularly  for  the 
composition  for  sky-rockets.  When  you  have 
four  or  iwe  pounds  of  ingredients  to  ini.x, 
which  is  a  '■uflicieiit  quantity  at  a  time,  first 
put  the  different  ingredients  together,  then 
work  them  about  with  your  hands  till  you 
think  the^  are  pretty  well  incorporated;  after 
svhicli  put  them  into  a  lawn  sie\e  with  a  re- 
ceiver and  top  to  it ;  and  if,  after  il  is  sifted, 
any  remains  that  will  not  pass  through  the 
sieve,  grind  it  again  till  fine  enough,  and  if  it 
is  twice  sifted  it  will  not  be  amiss;  but  the 
compositions  fur  wheels  and  common  works 
are  not  so  material,  nor  need  be  so  fine,  liut 
in  all  fixed  works,  from  which  the  fire  is  to 
play  regulariy,  the  ingredients  must  be  very 
fine,  and  great  care  taken  in  mixing  them 
well  together;  and  observe,  that  in  all  com- 
positions wherein  are  steel  or  iron  filings,  the 
hands  must  not  touch:  nor  will  any  works 
which  have  iron  or  si  eel  in  tlieir  charge  keep 
long  in  damp  weather,  unless  properly  pre- 
pared, according  to  the  following  directions: 
46.  TnnresiiTc  si'el  nr  irntililings.  Melt 
in  a  glazed  earthen  pan  some  brimstone  over 
a  slow  lire,  and  when  melted  throw  in  some 
lllings,  whieii  keep  stirring  about  till  they  are 
covered  with  brimstone:  this  you  must  do 
while  it  Is  on  tin-  fire;  then  take  il  ofi',  and 
stir  it  very  ([uiek  till  cold,  when  you  must 
roll  it  on  a  board  with  a  wooden  roller  till  you 
have  broken  it  as  line  as  corn-powder  ;  after 
which  silt  from  it  as  much  ot  tlie  brimstone  as 
you  can.  'I'lieie  is  anollur  method  of  pre- 
paring filings,  so  as  to  keep  two  or  three 
montlis  in  winter:  this  may  be  done  by  rub- 
bing them  betw  ecu  the  strongest  sort  ol'browrt 
paper,  whicli  before  has  been  moistened  with 
linseed  oil. 


*.5 

S 


Poise  from 

the  point  of 

tiie  cone. 

'J 

-  cT  cT  -^  c  i:'  -rT  c  o  -^ 

Square 

at 
bottom. 

c 

1.T  liTj  l_'^ 

»J^  (M  Ol  t-  Ifi  Vi  lO  O  ^ 

t-.  ^. '-1  oin  =1 "- "1 -1  . 

oooooooooo 

Breadth 
at  top. 

Inches. 

^  O        O  C^'»-'l  "O  »-".  O  fc^ 

-«  -  ~  d  c  cT  d  c  c  o" 

1  *j 

■Me- 

He" 

~0 

o 

'-■^  ^>^  01        I-        '•1  :;^ 

^  rJ:  ^  o"  d  o"  d"  d"  d"  cT 

br.-=  .U 

- 

-r  -M  a  X  "C  L-^  -^  C^,  -1  <-i 

Weight 
rocket. 

3 

<C  *  01  — 

To  load  air-balloons,  ■u.ilhtlic  number  of  stars, 
serpents,  snalccs,  rain-falls,  >yc.  in  slieils 
ofeadi  nature. 

43.  Mortars  to  throxe  aigrettes,  S^c.  When 
you  fill  your  shells,  you  must  tir^t  put  in  the 
serpent^,  rains,  stars.  See.  or  whatever  they 
are  composed  of,  then  the  blowins;  powder; 
but  the  jhdls  mnit  not  be  quite  filled.     All 


332 

tliose  things  must  b?  piifin  at  the  fiize  Iioli-; 
but  marouiis  ui'iiig  loo  large  to  go  in  ;it  t!ie 
fiiz>'-holf,  must  be  put  in  bei'ort  the  insitle 
sliall  be  joined.  When  the  sliell?  ;ire  loaiii.'il, 
glue  and  drive  in  the  fuzes  very  tight.  P'or  a 
toehoni  balloon,  let  the  diameter  of  the  fuze- 
hole  be  -Jllis  of  an  inch;  for  a  royal  balloon, 
v.hii-h  is  near  j^  inches  in  diameter,  make  the 
fu/c-hole  1  inch  i  diameter ;  for  an  S-inch 
balloon,  1  inch|.tli3:  and  for  a  10-iuch  bal- 
loon, 1  inch  fins. 

49.  Tniiuikc  kdlmn-fazes.  Fuzes  for  air- 
balloons  arc  somelinies  turned  out  of  dry 
beech,  with  a  cup  at  top  to  hold  the  iiuitk- 
inatc!) ;  but  if  made  with  paslc"d  paper,  they 
will  lb  as  well.  'I'he  diameter  of  the  Ibrmei- 
,for  fuzes  for  coehorn  balloons  must  be  *  an 
inch;  for  a  royal  fuze,  fths  of  an  inch  ;  for  an 
S-incIi  fuze,  |ths  of  an  inch  ;  and  for  a  10- 
inch  fuze,  |ths  of  an  inch.  Having  rolled 
your  cases,  pinch  aii'd  tie  them  almost  c'ose 
at  one  end  ;  then  drive  them  down,  and  let 
them  dry.  Before  you  begin  to  fill  them, 
mark  on  the  outside  "of  the  case  the  length  of 
tiie  charge  required,  aiiowing  for  the  thick- 
ness of  the  bottom  ;  and  when  you  have 
rammed  in  the  composition,  take  two  pieces 
of  quick-match  about  six  inches  long,  and  lay 
one  end  of  each  on  the  charge,  and  then  a 
litt'.e  meal-powder,  which  ram  down  hard; 
tiie  Ioo;e  ends  of  the  match  double  up  inlo 
the  top  of  the  fuze,  and  cover  it  with  a  paper 
cap  to  keep  it  dry.  When  you  put  tlie  sliells 
in  the  mortars,  uncap  tlie  fuzes,  and  pull  out 
the  loose  ends  of  the  matcji,  and  let  them 
hang  on  the  sides  of  the  balloons. 

50.  Toi/rhillnns.  Having  filled  some  cases 
with  about  1*  diameter,  drive  in  a  ladleful  of 
clay,  tlien  pinch  their  ends  close,  and  drive 
them  do.vo  w  ith  a  mallet.     When  done,  find 

-  tht:  cenire  of  gravity  of  each  case,  where  you 
must  nail  and  tie  a  stick,  which  should  be  half 
an  inch  broad  at  the  middle,  an<l  run  a  little 
narrow  to  the  ends :  these  sticks  must  have 
their  ends  turned  upwards,  so  that  the  cases 
may  luvii  horizontally  on  their  centres.  At 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  cases,  at  each  end, 
bcire  a  hole 'close  to  the  clay  with  a  gimlet, 
the  size  of  the  neck  of  a  cominoij  case  of  the 
sBiue  nature;  from  these  boles  draw  a  line 
round  tiie  case,  and  at  ihe  under  part  of  the 
case  bore  a  hole  with  the  same  gimlet,  within 
one-half  diameter  of  eaiMi  line  towards  the 
centre  ;  then  from  one  hole  to  the  oilier  draw 
a  right  line.  When  you  lire  tourbillons,  lay 
tlwm  Oil  a  smooth  table,  with  tlieir  sticks 
doAUwards,  and  burn  the  leader  through  tlie 
middle  with  a  port-iire.  They  should  spin 
three  or  four  seconds  on  the  table  before  they 
rise,  which  is  about  the  time  tiie  composition 
will  be  burning  from  the  side-holes  to  those  at 
bottom. 

To  tourbillons  may  be  fixed  reports  in  this 
manner:  In  the  cenire  of  the  case  at  top 
make  :i  small  hole,  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
repjrl  make  another;  then  place  them  to 
g  -ilier,  and  lie  on  the  rejxjrt,  and  wilba  sin- 
gle paper  secm'e  it  from  lire  :  this  'lone,  your 
tourbillou  is  completed.  Uy  this  method  you 
may  li>c  on  tourbillons  snull  cones  of  stars, 
lain,  Sic.  but  be  careful  nol  to  load  them  too 
much.  One-eij;hth  of  an  inch  will  be  enough 
for  the  thickness  of  the  sticks,  and  tlieir  length 
eijiial  to  tuit  of  Ihe  cases. 

51.  (}J  polH  dvs  hrini.  These  are  formed 
of  pisteboard,  and  must  be  rolled  pretty 
thick.    'I'liey  are  usually  made  lliree  o»  four 


PYROTECrLNTY, 

inches  ia  diameter,  and  four  diainetei's  long, 
and  pinched  with  a  neck  at  one  end,  like  com- 
mon cases.  A  number  of  these  are  placed  on 
a  plank,  thus:  Having  lixed  on  a  plank  two 
rows  of  wooden  pegs,  cut  in  the  bottom  of  the 
plank  a  groove  the  whole  length  under  eacii 
row  of  pegs ;  then,  through  the  centre  of  each 
peg,  bore  a  hole  down  to  the  groove  at  bot- 
tom, and  on  every  peg  fix  and  glue  a  pot, 
whose  mouth  must  fit  tight  on  the  peg; 
through  all  the  holes  run  a  quick-match,  one 
end  of  which  must  go  into  liie  pot,  and  the 
other  into  the  groove,  which  must  have  a 
match  laid  in  it  from  end  to  eml,  and  covered 
with  paper,  so  that  when  lighted  at  one  end 
it  may  discharge  the  whole  almost  instan- 
taneously. In  all  the  pots  put  about  1  oz.  of 
meal  and  coin  powder,  then  put  in  some 
stars,  and  in  others  rains,  snakes,  serpents, 
crackei's,  &c. ;  when  they  are  all  loaded, 
paste  paper  over  their  mouths.  Two  or  three 
hundred  of  these  pots  being  lired  together 
make  a  very  pretty  show,  by  alfording  so  great 
a  variety  of  fires. 

52.  Pots  cbs  saucissniis.  These  are  gene- 
rally fired  out  of  large  mortars  witliout  ciiam- 
bers,  the  same  as  those  for  aigrettes',  only  some- 
what stronger.  Saucissons  are  made  of  one 
and  two  ounce  cases,  five  or  si.K  hiclics  long, 
and  choked  in  the  sasne  manner  as  serpents. 
Half  the  number  which  the  mortar  contains 
must  be  driven  1-|  diameter  with  composition, 
and  the  other  half  two  diiuneters,  so  lliat 
when  fired  they  may  give  two  volleys  of  re- 
ports. 

Different  kinds  of  rockets. 

53.  To  fix. one  rocket  on  the  top  of  another. 
When  sky-rockets  are  thus  managed,  they 
are  called  towering  roekels,  on  account  of 
their  mounting  so.  very  high.  l^owering 
rockets  are  made  after  this  manner:  Fix  on  a 
pound-rocket  a  hei;d  witliout  a  collar;  then 
take  a  four-ounce  rocket,  which  may  be 
headed  or  bounced,  and  rub  the  mouth  of  it 
witli  meal-powder,  wetted  with  spirit  of  wine ; 
when  done,  put  it  in  the  head  of  the  large 
rocket  with  its  mouth  downwards;  but  before 
you  put  it  in,  stick  a  bit  of  quick-match  in 
llie  liole  of  the  clay  of  the  pound-rocket, 
which  match  should  be  long  enough  to  go  a 
little  way  up  the  bore  of  the  small  rocket,  to 
tire  it  when  the  large  one  is  burnt  out.  The 
tour-ounce  rocket  being  loo  small  to  fill  the 
head  of  the  other,  roll  round  it  as  much  tow 
as  will  make  it  stand  upright  in  t!ie  centre  of 
the  head:  the  rocket  being  ihus  fixed,  paste 
a  single  paper  round  the  opening  of  the  top 
of  the  hc^ad  of  the  large  rocket.  The  large 
rocket  must  have  only  half  a  diameter  of 
charge  rammed  above  the  piercer  ;  for,  if 
fillcxi  to  the  usual  lieigiit,  it  would  turn  before 
the  small  one  takes  fire,  and  entirely  destroy 
the  intended  elfect.  When  one  rocket  is 
headed  with  another,  there  will  be  nooccasion 
for  any  blowing  powder ;  for  the  Ibrce  with 
which  it  sets  oif  will  be  sufficient  to  disengage 
it  from  the  Ii?a<l  of  the  first-fired  rocket.  Tlie 
sticks  for  these  rockets  must  be  a  little  longer 
than  for  those  headed  with  stars,  rains,  &c. 

54.  (.'iidiiceiis  rockets,  in  rising,  form  two 
spiral  lines,  or  a  double  worm,  by  reason  of 
their  being  placed  obliquely,  one  opposite  the 
other;  and  tlieir  counterpoise  in  their  centre, 
which  causes  tiiem  to  rise  in  a- vertical  direc- 
tion. Rockets  for  this  purpose  iiiusl  have 
their  cuds  choked  close,  w  itlioul  either  head 


or  bounce,  for  a  weight  at  (op  would  be  a 

great  obstruction  to  their  niouiiliiir. 

5.').  fiignid  sk:j-rocl;ets  are  made  of  fc- 
vpial  kinds,  according  to  the  dilfi^rent  signal* 
intended  to  be  given ;  but  in  artificial  fire- 
works, two  sorts  only  are  used,  wl  ich  are  one 
with  reports  and  theotlier  without;  but  those 
for  the  use  of  the  navy  and  army  are  headed 
with  stars,  serpents,  &c.  liockets  which  are 
to  be  bounced  must  have  their  cases  made 
I -J  or  2  diameters  longer  than  the  common 
proportion;  and  after  they  are  tilled,  drive  in 
a  double  quantity  of  clay,  then  liounce  and 
pinch  them  after  the  usual  manner,  and  fix 
on  each  a  cap.  ;>igiial  sky-rockets  witliout 
bounces,  are  only  sky-rockets  closed  and 
capped.  These  are  very  light,  therefore  do 
not  refiuire  such  heavy  sticks  as  tho^e  with 
loaded  heads  ;  for  which  reason  you  may  cut 
one  length  of  the  rocket  off  the  stick,  of  else  • 
make  them  thinner.  Signal  rockets  with  re- 
ports are  fired  in  small  flights;  and  often  botl>  ; 
the»>e,  and  those  without  reports,  are  used  for 
a  signal  to  begin  firing  a  collection  of  works.- 

5(i.  To Jire  sky-rockets  iL-iihout  sticks.  You-  , 
roust  have  a  stand  of  a  block  of  wood,  a  foot 
diameter,  and  make  the  bottom  fiat,  so  that 
it  may  stand  steady.     In  the  centre  of  the 
top   of  this  block   draw  a  circle  2^  inches  . 
diameter,  and  divide  the  circumference  of  it 
inlo  three  equal  parts  ;  then  take  3  pieces  oi> 
thick  iron  wire,  each  about  3  feet  long,  and. 
drive  them   inlo  the  block,  )    at  each  point 
made  on  the  circle;  when  these  wires  are 
driven  in  deep  enough  to  hold  ihem  fast  and  . 
upright,  so  that  the  distance  from  one  to  the  ■ 
other  is  the  same  at  top  as  at  bottom,  the' 
stand   is    complete.     The   stand  being  thus 
made,  prepai  e  your  rockets  thus :  take  some 
common  sky-rockets,  of  any  size,  and  head 
them  as  you  please  ;   then  get  some  balls  of 
lead,  ami  tie  to  each  a  small  w  ire  2  or  2^  feet 
long,  and  the  other  end  of  eacii  wire  tie  to. 
the  neck  of  a   rocket.     These  balls  answer 
the  purpose  of  sticks  when  made  of  a  proper 
weight,  which  is  about  2-3ds  the  weight  of 
the  rocket;  but  when  they  are  of  a  proper 
iize,  they  will  balance  the  rocket  in  tiie  same 
manner  as  a  stick,  at  the  usual  point  of  poise.. 
To  fire  these,  hang  them  one  at  a  time,  be- 
tween the  tops  of  the  wires,  letting  their  heads 
rest  on  the  point  of  the  wires,  and  the  balls.  . 
hang   down   between  ihem.      If   the   wires 
should  be  too  wide  tor  the  rockets,  press  thenr 
togctiier  till  they  fit;   and  if  too  close,  force- 
them  open.     The  wires  for  this  purpose  must 
be  softened,  so  as  not  to  have  any  spring,  or-, 
they  will  not  keep  tlieir  position  when  pressed- , 
close  or  opened. 

Jquatic  fire-xaorks. 
57.  IFidcr  rockets  mty  be  made  from  4oz, 
to  2  lb.  If  larger  they  are  loo  heavy,  so-  • 
that  it  will  be  cJifficult  to  make  them  'keep  , 
above  water  without  a  cork  float,  which  mus6 
be  tied  tolhe  neck  oftlic  case ;  but  the  rockets 
will  not  drive  so  well  with  as  without  lloats.; 
Cases  for  these  are  made  in  the  same  manner 
and  propo.  lion  as  for  fky-rockels,  oiily'a  little 
thicker  of  paper.  When  you  till  diose  whiclt 
are  driven  solid,  put  in  first  one  ladleful  of 
slow  fire,  then  two  of  the  proper  charge,  and 
on  tliat  one  or  two  ladles  of  sinking  charge, 
llien  the  propif  charge,  then  the  siiikine- 
charge  again,  and  so  on  till  you  have  fillcdr 
the  case  within  three  diameters;  then  ilrive- 
on    the  composilion  oue  ladleful  of  tlay,i 


p  y  R 

Ihroilgli  wliitli  m;'.ke  a  siii;ill  liolc  to  the 
r.liari];o  ;  tUeii  fill  the  c;i>e  within  Ijalt'  a  dia- 
meter with  coni-p.iwder,  on  \\liii;li  turn  down 
two  or  three  rounds  of  t!ie  case  in  the  inside  ; 
tlicn  ninch  and  tic  the  end  very  tight :  hdi- 
iiig  (illed  your  rockets  according  to  the  above 
(hrectiiinSj  dip  thv'ir  ends  in  melted  rosin  or 
seaiiiig-wax,^  or  else  secure  them  well  with 
yre.ise,  VV'iien  you  lire  tliose  rockets,  throw 
111  six  or  eight  at  a  time;  bu(,  il  you  wou'd 
have  tiicni  all  sink,  or  swim,  at  llie  same 
time,  you  mvist  drive  them  v.'ith  an  e<jua1 
ciu:mtity  orcomposition,  and  fire  them  all  to- 
gether. 

58.  To  make  pipes  of  communlction,  zL-hich 
mti;/  be  u-ied  under  water.  Pipes  for  lliis 
purpose  must  l)e  a  little  tliitker  of  paper  thun 
those  for  land.  Having  rolled  a  sudielent 
number  of  pij)es,  and  kept  them  till  dry,  wasli 
them  over  vvitli  drying  oil,  and  set  them  to 
dry;  but  when  you  oil  them,  leave  about 
l.i  inch  at  each  end  dry,  for  joints:  if  they 
were  oiled  all  over,  when  you  come  to  join 
them  tlie  paste  would  riOt  stick  where  tlie 
paper  is  greasy.  After  tlie  leaders  are  joined, 
and  the  paste  tiry,  oil  the  joints.  These  pipes 
will  lie  many  hours  under  water,  witiiou'l  re- 
ceiving any  damage. 

59.  Horizontal  Kheets  for  th'.  VMter.  First 
get  a  large  W'Ooden  bo.vl  without  a  handle; 
then  have  an  octagon  wheel  ni.ide  of  a  Hat 
board  1 8  inches  in  diameter,  >i0  that  tlie  length 
of  each  side  will  be  near  seven  inches:  in  all 
the  sides  cut  a  groove  for  the  cases  to  lie  in. 
'I'liis  wheel  bcnig  made,  nail  it  on  the  top  of 
the  bowl;  then  take  four  8-oz.  cases,  tilled 
with  a  proper  charge,  each  about  six  inches 
in  length.  Now,  to  clothe  the  wheel  with 
these  cases,  get  some  v,hitish-bi\)wn  paper, 
and  cut  it  into  slips  four  or  live  inclies  broad 
and  seven  or  eight  long.  I'he-e  slips  being 
pasted  all  over  on  one  side,  take  one  of  the 
Cases,  and  roll  one  of  the  slips  of  paper  about 
1^- inch  on  its.  end,  so  th.\t  there  will  renisin 
about  2.^  inches  of  the  paper  hollow  from  the 
end  of  the  case :  this  case  tie  on  one  of  the 
sides  of  the  wheel,  near  the  corners  of  which 
must  be  holes  bored,  through  whi.h  you  put 
the  packthread  to  tie  the  cases,  [laving  tied 
on  the  first  case  at  the  neck  and  end,  put  a 
little  meal-powder  in  the  hollow  pajier  ;  then 
paste  a  slip  of  paper  on  the  end  of  another 
case,  the  head  of  whicii  put  into  the  hollow 
paper  on  the  first,  aJlowing  a  sufficient  dis- 
tance from  the  tail  of  one  to  the  head  of  the 
other  for  the  pasted  paper  to  bend  without 
tearing;  the  second  case  tie  on  as  you  did 
tiie  first,  and  so  on  with  the-  rest,  except  the 
last,  wdiich  must  be  closed  at  the  end,  unless 
it  is  to  comnmnicate  to  any  thing  on  the  top 
of  the  wheel,  such  as  fire-pumps  or  brilliant 
fires,  fixed  in  holes  cut  in  the  wheel,  and 
fired  by  tlie  last  or  second  case,  as  the  fancy 
directs ;  six,  eight,  or  any  number,  may  be 
placed  on  the  top  of  the  wheei,  provided  they 
are  not  too  heavy  for  the  bowl.  Before  you 
tie  on  the  cases,  cut  the  upper  part  of  all 
their  ends,  ex<-ept  the  last,  a  little  shelving, 
that  the  fire  from  one  may  play  over  the 
pther,  witnout  being  obstructed  by  the  case. 
Wheel-cases  have  no  clay  driven  in  thi;ir 
ends,  nor  pinched,  but  are  always  left  open  ; 
«nly  the  last,  or  those  which  are  not  to  lead 
^re",  which  must  be  well  secured. 

1  li-  devices  ur  fire-works  are  endless,  vary- 
ing with  the  fancy  of  the  operator ;  but  in  (he 
above  sketch  we  have  given  all  tlie  theory, 


p  y  n 

and  enough  of  the  practice  to  enable  any 
[)erson  to  adopt  with  ease  whatever  in  the  aft 
lie  may  chance  to  see  practised  by  others. 

PYUUs,  the  pcar-lrce,  a  genus  of  the 
pentagyu.a  order,  in  the  icosandria  class  of 
jdants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  3filh  order,  pomacea.'.  The  calyx 
is  quintpielid  ;  there  arc  five  petals;  tlie  friiit 
is  an  apple,  interior,  quinquelocnlar,  and 
p'jjyspermous.  To  this  genus  Linna;us  has 
joined  the  apple  and  ([uince.  There  are  13 
species ;  the  most  remarkable  are  : 

1.  'I'hc  commuras,  or  conmion  pear-tree. 
I'nder  this  species  are  coihprelieiided  almost 
endless  vari  ties.  They  bear  their  flowers 
and  fniit  upon  spurs,  aris'ing  from  the  sides  o( 
the  branches  from  two  or  three  years  old  and 
upwards ;  the  same  branches  aiid  spurs  con- 
tinuing fruitful  for  a  great  number  of  years. 
'l"he  different  varieties  furnish  fiuit  fo'r  use 
from  the  beginning  of  July  till  the  months  of 
May  and  June  next  year;  which,  according 
to  their  times  of  ripening,  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes,  summer-pears',  autumn-pears, 
and  winter-pears.  The  summer-pears  ripen 
in  different  sorts  from  the  beginning  of  Julv 
until  the  middle  or  end  of  Septeinber,  and 
are  generally  fit  to  eat  from  the  tree,  or  at 
least  do  not  keep  a  week  or  two  before  I  hey 
rot.  The  antuum-pears  come  to  their  per- 
fection in  October,  November,  and  Uecem- 
ber ;  some  ripening  nearly  on  the  tree  in 
October  and  the  beginning  of  November, 
oihers  recpiiring  to  he  some  time  in  the 
fruitery,  while  some  will  keep  two  months; 
but  all  the  \Vinter-pears,  though  they  attain 
their  foil  growth  on  the  tree  by  the  end  of 
October  and  in  November,  yet  do  not  acquire 
perfection  tor  eatuig  till  from  the  end  of  No- 
vember to  April  and  May.  Those  of  each 
class  have  different  properties;  some  being 
melting,  others  breaking,  some  mealy,  and 
some  hard  and  austere  fit  only  for  kitchen 
uses.  As  many  of  the  finest  sorls  w-ere  first 
obtained  from  J'rance,  they  are  stil!  continued 
in  most  catalogues  hy  french  names. 

2.  The  mains,  or  common  apple-lrec.  The 
varieties  of  this  species  are  amazingly  great 
with  r(?spect  to  tlie  dilTerence  of  the  fruit. 
The  botanists  contend  that  the  wildim;,  or 
crab-apple  of  the  woods  and  hedges,  i"  the 
original  kind,  and  from  tlie  seeds  of  ^-hich  the 
cultivated  apple  was  first  obtained.  The  va- 
rieties of  this  last  no  doubt  are  multiplied  to 
some  hundreds  in  different  pUu:eS,  having 
been  all  first  accidentally  obtained  from  the 
seed  or  kernels  of  the  fruit,  and  the  approved 
sorts  continued  and  increased  by  grafting 
upon  crabs  or  auy  kind  of  apple-stocks  ;  but 
although  the  number  of  varieties  is  very  con- 
siderable, there  are  not  above  40  or  50  sorts 
retained  in  the  nurserymen's  catalogues.  These 
varieties  arrive  at  full  growth  in  successive 
order  from  July  to  the  end  of  October,  im- 
prove in  perfection  after  being  gathered,  and 
several  of  the  winter  kinds  in  i)arlicular  keep 

'good  for  many  months,  even  till  the  arrival  of 
apples  the  next  summer. 

Among  these  various  kinds  of  apples',,  some 
are  used  for  the  dessert,  some  for  tJie. kitchen, 
and  some  for  cyder-making.  Those  used  for 
the  dessert  are  tlie  following,  placed  as  they 
successively  ripen  after  one  another.  The 
white  genneting,  the  niargaref  apple,  the  sum- 
mer pearmain,  the  summer  queening,  the 
embroidered  apple,  the  golden  rennet,  the 
su.mmcr    white    calviilc,  tlie  sumracc    red 


p  y  T 


533 


calville,  the  silver  pippin,  the  aromatic 
pippin,  la  reinelte  grisc,  la  haute  bor,t6, 
the  royal  russeling,  \Vheelei'srus-et,  Sharp's 
russet,  the  spine  apple,  the  gdlden  pip- 
pin, the  nonpareil,  and  the  I'api  or  ponnn* 
d'api.  Those  for  the  kitchen  use,  in 
the  order  of  their  ripening,  are  these :  the 
codlin,  the  summer  marygold,  the  summer 
red  pearmain,  the  Holland  pippin,  the  Kent- 
ish pippin,  the  courpendu,  Xxjan's  pearmain, 
the  French  rennet,  the  I'rencli  jiippin,  th» 
royal  russet,  the  monstrous  rennet,  the  winter 
pearmain,  the  pome  violette,  Spencer's  pip- 
pin, the  stone  pipjjin,  and  the  oaken  pijjpin. 
Those  most  esteemed  for  cyder  are,  the  De- 
vonshire royal  wihliiig,  the'  redstrcak  apple, 
the  whitsour,  the  Herefordshire  undcr-ieaf } 
and  the  John  apple,  or  deux  annes,  everlast- 
ing hanger,  and  geiniet  inoyle. 

The  juice  of  apples  is  'a  mensfrnnm  for 
iron.  A  solution  of  iron  in  tlie  juice  of  the 
apples  called  golden  rennets,  evaporated  to  a 
tliiek  consistence,  proves  an  elegant  chaly- 
beate, which  keeps  well. 

The  best  method  of  preserving  apples  for 
winter  use,  is  to  let  them  hang  upon  the  trees 
until  there  is  danger  of  frost,  to  gather  them 
in  dry  weather,  and  then  to  lay  them  in  large 
Ivaps  to  sweat  for  a  monlli  or  six  weeks. 
I'iiey  ought  then  to  be  carefully  looked  over., 
all  w  Ivch  have  the  least  appearance  Of  decay 
taken  out,  the  sounil  fruit  wiped  drv,  an'rt 
packed  up  in  large  oil-jars,  wliicli  have  been 
thorouglily  scalded  and  dry,  and  then  slopped 
close  to  exclude  the  air.  If  this  plan  is  duly  ■ 
observed,  the  fruit  will  keep  a  long  time- 
sound, and  theirflesh  remain  plump ;  wherea.s, 
wlien  exposed  to  the  air,  their  skins  uill 
shrivel,  and  their  ])ulp  soften. 

3.  The  coronaria,  or  sweet-scented  crab  of 
Virginia,  grows  13  or  15  feet  high,  bavins; 
angular,  serrated  leaves,  pedunculated  umbels 
of  whitish-re(',  sweet-scented  llower.^  suc- 
ceeded by  small  round  crabs,  remarkably 
sour  and  austere,  "^rhere  is  one  variety,  called 
the  evergreen  Virginian  crab-tree. 

4.  The  cydonia,  or  quinces,  of.  which  there 
are  three  varieties. 

All  the  varieties  of  the  pear-tree  are  hardy, 
and  w-iil  succeed  in  any  common  soil  of  a 
garden  or  cnliard.  Thi.'v  are  propagated  by 
grafting  and  butlding  npin  any  kind  of  pear- 
storks  ;  also  occasionally  upon  quinee-stocks, 
and  sometimes  upon  wh'itc-tborn  stocks.;  but 
pear-storks  are.  generally  preferable  to  all 
others  for  general  use.  'Ail  kinds  of  apples 
are  propagated  in  the  same  manner,  using 
apple-stocks  instead  of  pear-stocks.  .  Tiiey 
will  succeed  hi  any  common  soil  of  a  sardeu 
or  orchard,  and  in  any  free  situation,  except 
in  a  low  and  very  moist  soil,  in  which  they 
are  apt  to  canker,  and  verv  soon  go  off.  In 
a  friable  loam  they  ;ue  generally  very,  suc- 
cessful. ■ 

PYTHtAN  GAMES,  in  antiquity;  solemn 
games  celebrated  near  Delphi,  in  'honour  of 
Apollo,  and  in  remenibrauce  of  his  kivm:'- 
killed  the  serpent  Python.    .  "^ 

These  were  held  every  two  vears,  abou 
the  month  of  Elaphebolion,  uh'ich  ausweet 
to  our  February.  The  celebration  of  these 
games  was  attended' with  the  Pvthian  son"-,  in 
which  v/as  celebrated  the  fight'of  Apoilo'and 
the  serpent..  The  victors  were  crowned  with 
branches  of  laurel ;  though,  at  the  first  in- 
stitution, the  crown  was  of  beech-'leaves.  See 
Game.   . 

.VI  . 


53* 


Q  V  A 


Q  U  A 


Q  U  A 


Q 


1^  or  q,  the  s'l-xii-ciith  letter  of  our  alpln- 
^  V  5  bet.  As  anuineral  it  jtandsfor  500  ;  and 
witli  a  (lash  over  it,  ttins  Q7  for  500000.  Used 
z<  an  abbreviature,  q  sigiiities  quantity,  or 
quaiiluui:  thus,  among  pliysitisns,  q.  pi.  is 
quaMtum  placi-t,  /.  <-.  as  mu'cli  as  you  please 
of  a  tiling ;  and  q.  ?.  quantum  sullicit,  ^.  e.  as 
much  as  is  necessary.  Q.  li^.  D.  anions  nia- 
Iheniaticians,  is  (|nod  erat  demonstrandum, 
7,  e.  whiih  was  to  be  demonstrated ;  and  Q. 
E.  K.  ([Uod  •■rat  tacienduiu,  /.  e.  which  was  to 
be  done.  Q.  D.  among  grammarians,  is 
quasi  dictum,  /.  c.  a^  it  it  was  said,  or,  as  wlio 
should  say.  In  the  notes  of  the  antients,  Q 
-stands  forQuintns,  orQiiintius;  Q.  B.  \  .  for 
quod  bene  vertat;  (^.  S.  .S.  S.  for  quae  supra 
scriptii  sunt;  Q.  M.  for  Quintus  Mutius,  or 
quomodo;  Quint,  for  Quintilius  ;  and  Qu;cs. 
for  (jun'stor. 

QU.VDRANGLE,  in  geometry,  the  same 
with  a  quadrilateral  (igure,  or  one  consisting 
of  four  sides  and  four  angles. 

QU.\DR.\NS,  the  quarter  or  fourth  part 
of  any  tiling,  particularly  the  as,  or  pound. 

qC'-VDRANT,  in  geometry,  is  eitlier  the 
quarter  or  fourth  part  of  a  circle,  or  the  fourth 
part  of  its  circumference;  the  arch  of  which 
therefore  contains  90  degrees. 

QfADR.ANT  also  dcuotes  a  mathematical 
instrument,  of  great  use  in  astronomy  and 
navigation,  for  taking  the  altitudes  of  the  sun 
and  stars,  as  also  taking  angles  in  surveying, 
lieii^hts  and  distances,  &c. 

1  ill's  instrument  is  variously  contrived,  and 
furnished  with  dilferent  apparatus,  according 
to  the  various  uses  it  is  intended  for;  but  they 
have  all  tliis  in  common,  that  they  consi  t  of 
the  miarter  of  a  circle,  whose  limb  or  arch  is 
divided  into  90",  &c.  Some  have  a  plummet 
suspended  from  the  centre,  and  are  furnished 
either  with  plain  sights,  or  a  telescope  to  look 
through. 

The  principal  and  most  useful  quadrants 
are  as  follows : 

QvADRANT,  thf  common,  nr  .siirveiiing. 
This  instrument  .\HC,lig.  1.  Plate  Quadrants, 
is  made  of  brass,  or  wood,  &c. :  the  limb  or 
arch  of  which  15C  is  divided  into  90°,  and 
each  of  tlirsc  is  farther  divided  into  as  many 
equal  parts  as  the  space  will  allow,  either  dia- 
gonally or  otlierviise.  To  one  of  the  radii 
AC,  are  litted  two  movcaljle  sights;  and  lo 
the  centre  is  sometimes  also  anne.\ed  a  laliel, 
or  moveable  index,  AD,  bearing  two  other 
sights  ;  but  instead  of  these  last  sights,  there  is 
sometimes  fitted  a  telescope.  Also  from  the 
centre  hangs  a  thread  with  a  plummet ;  and 
on  the  uiiier  side  or  face  of  the  instrument 
are  litted  a  ball  and  socket,  l>y  means  of  whicli 
it  may  he  put  into  any  position.  The  general 
Use  of  it  is  lo,  taking  angles  in  a  vertical  plane, 
comprehended  under  right  lines  going  Irom 
the  centre  of  the  instrument,  one  of  which 
i*  horizoni  il,  and  the  other  is  directe<l  to 
»ome  visible  point.  But  besides  the  parts 
above  (Icnaibed,  ibcrc  is  often  added  on  the 


lace,  near  the  centre,  a  knid  of  conip-irlnjer^t 
E1-",  called  a  quadrat,  or  geometrical  square, 
whicli  is  a  kind  of  separate  instrunT-nt,  and  is 
particularly  useful  in  altimetry  and  loiigi- 
metry,  or  measuring  heights  and  distances. 

This  quadrant  may  be  used  in  dilTerent 
situations  ;  in  each  of  them,  the  plane  of  the 
instrument  mu4  be  set  parallel  to  tliat  of  the 
eye  and  the  objects  whose  angular  distance  is 
to  be  taken.  Thus,  for  ol)serving  heiglits  or 
depths,  its  plane  must  be  disposed  vertically, 
or  perpendicular  to  the  horizon ;  but  lo  take 
horizontal  angles  or  distances,  its  plane  must 
be  disposed  parallel  to  the  horizon. 

Again,  heiglits  and  distances  may  be  taken 
two  ways,  viz.  by  means  of  the  lixed  sights 
and  pkiinmet,  or  by  the  label ;  as  also,  either 
bvthe  degrees  on  the  limb,  or  by  the  quadrat. 
I'hus,  lig.  '2  shews  the  manner  of  taking  an 
angle  of  elevation  with  this  <|uadranl;  the  eye 
is  applied  at  C,  and  the  instrument  turned 
vertically  about  the  centre  A,  till  the  object 
R  is  seen  through  the  sights  on  the  radius 
."VC  ;  then  the  angle  of  elevation  RAH,  made 
with  the  horizontal  line  KAll,  is  equal  to  the 
angle  BAD,  made  by  the  plumb  line  and  the 
other  radius  of  the  quadrant,  and  the  quantity 
of  it  is  shewn  by  the  degrees  in  tiie  arch  BD 
cut  oil"  by  the  plumb  line  AD. 

Quadrant,  astronomical.  See  Obser- 
vatory. 

Ql'ADRAN'T,  Col'-i,  is  a  very  useful  in- 
strument, invented  by  Mr.  Benianiiii  Cole. 
It  consists  of  six  parts,  viz.  the  staff  AC,  fig.  3 ; 
the  quadrantal  arch  DE;  three  vanes  A,  B, 
C  ;  and  their  vernier  FG.  The  staff  is  a 
bar  of  wood  about  two  feet  long,  an  inch  and 
a  quarter  broad,  and  of  a  suftiricnt  thickness 
to  prevent  it  from  bending  or  warping.  The 
<|uadrant.il  arch  is  also  of  wood,  and  is  divided 
into  degrees  and  third  parts  of  degrees,  to  a 
radius  of  about  nine  inches;  and  to  its  ex- 
tremities are  fitted  two  radii,  which  meet  in 
the  centre  of  the  quadrant  by  a  jiin,  about" 
which  it  easily  moves.  The  siglit-vaue  A  is  a 
thin  piece  of  brass,  near  two  inches  in  height 
and  one  broad,  set  perpendiculaily  on  the 
end  of  the  staff  A,  by  means  of  two  screws 
passing  through  its  foot.  In  the  middle  of 
this  vane  isdrilled  a  small  hole,  thmughwhich 
the  coincidence  or  meeting  of  the  horizon 
and  solar  spot  is  to  be  viewed.  The  horizontal 
vane  B  is  about  an  inch  broad,  and  two  iiulies 
and  a  half  high,  having  a  slit  cut  through  it 
of  near  an  inch  long,  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
broad  ;  this  vane  is  rixed  in  the  centre-pin  of 
the  instrument,  in  a  perpendicular  position, 
by  means  of  two  screws  passing  through  its 
toot,  by  which  its  position  with  respect  to  the 
sight-vane  is  always  the  same,  their  angle  of 
inclination  being  ecpial  lo  45  degrees.  The 
sliade-vane  C  is  composed  of  two  brass  plates. 
The  one  which  serves  as  an  arm,  is  about 
•li  inches  long,  and  ^  of  an  inch  broad  ;  being 
pinned  at  one  end  to  the  upper  limb  of  the 
quadrant  by  »  screw,  about  which  it  has  a 


'■  small  motion  ;  (he  other  end  lies  in  the-arrh, 
I  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  arm  is  directer!  to 
!  the  middle  of  the  centre-pin.  'I'he  other  plate, 
which  isproperly  the  vane,  is  about  two  inches 
long,  being  lixed  perpendicularly  totiie  other 
plate,  at  about  half  an  incli  ill  si  ante  from  that 
end  next  the  arch ;  this  vane  may  be  used 
either  by  its  shade,  or'  by  the  solar  spot  cast 
by  a  convex  lens  placed  in  it.  And  bocausts 
the  wood-work  is  often  subject  to  war[)  or 
twist,  tiierefore  this  vane  may  be  rectihed  by 
means  of  a  screw,  so  th  .1  llie  warping  of  the 
instrument  may  occasion  no  e.ror  in  the  ob- 
servation, whicli  is  performed  in  tlie  ibllowing 
manner:  set  the  line  G  on  tiie  vernier  against 
a  degree  of  the  upper  limb  of  the  quadrant ; 
and  turn  the  screw  on  the  backside  of  the 
limb  forward  or  backward,  till  the  hole  in  the 
sight-vane,  the  centre  of  the  glass,  and  the 
sunk  spot  in  the  horizon-vane,  he  in  a  right 
line. 

Tofindthe  sun's  tillitude  b>j  this  iitstrumciit. 
Turn  your  back  to  the  sun,  iiolding  the  stall' 
of  the  instrument  with  the  rigiit  iiaud,  so  that 
it  is  in  a  vertical  plane  passing  through  ths 
sun;  apply  one  eye  to  the  sight-vane  looking 
through  "that  and  the  horivon-vane  till  the 
horizon  is  seen;  with  the  le.t  hand  slide  the 
quadrantal  arch  upwards,  till  the  solar  spot 
or  shade,  cast  by  the  shade-vane,  falls  directly 
upon  the  spot  or  slit  in  the  horizon-vane; 
then  will  that  part  of  the  quadrantal  arch 
which  is  raised  above  G  or  S  (according  as 
the  observation  respects  eitlier  the  solar  spot 
or  shade),  shew  the  altitude  of  the  sun  at  that 
time.  Hut  ior  the  mericUan  altitude.'tho  ob- 
servation must  be  continued  ;  and  as  the  fun 
approaches  the  meridian,  tlie  sea  will  .appear 
through  the  horizon-vane,  which  completes 
the  observation;  and  fhedegreesand  minutes, 
counted  as  belore,  will  give  the  sun's  me- 
ridian altiiude;  or  the  degrees  counted  from 
the  lower  limb  upwards,  will  give  the  zenith 
distance. 

QuAtiRAXT,  Collins's  or  Sutton's,  fig.  4, 
is  a  stereo^raphic  projection  of  one  quarter 
of  the  sphere  between  the  tropics,  upon  the 
plane  ot  the  ecliptic,  the  eye  being  in  its  north 
pole  ;  and  litte<l  to  the  latitude  ot  London, 
rile  hues  running  from  right  to  left,  are  pa- 
rallels of  altitude;  and  those  crossing  them 
arc  azimuths.  The  siinUer  of  the  two  circles 
bounding  the  projection,  is  one  quarter  of  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn ;  and  the  greater  is  a 
qiiarti-r  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer.  The  two 
ecliptics  are  drawn  from  a  point  on  the  left 
edge  of  the  quadrant,  with  the  characters  of 
the  signs  upon  them  ;  and  the  two  horizons 
are  drawn  from  tlie  same  point.  The  limb  is 
divided  both  into  degrees  and  time;  aufl  by 
having  the  sun's  altitude,  the  hour  of  the  day- 
may  iiere  be  found  to  a  minute.  The  (pia- 
draiital  arches  next  the  centre  contain  the 
calendar  of  moiil lis;  and  under  them,  in  iiiio- 
ther  arch,  is  the  sun's  declination.  On  the 
projection  are  placed  several  of  the  most  re- 
markable fi.\cd  stars  between  the  tropics ;  and 


the  next  below  the  projection  are  the  qua- 
drant and  line  of  shadows.  „ 

Tojiiid  the  /iiiic  of  tkcs  n's  risinz;  or  set- 
ting, ln>i  amplitiul!-,  his  mi/nuth,  hour  nflhc 
(iui/,  <)'C.  by  lids  quadrant.  Lay  Ihti  threail 
on  the  day  of  the  moiitli,  and  bring  thi- 
head  to  the  proper  ecliptic,  either  of  sinnmer 
or  winter,  according  lo  llie  season,  vviiich  is 
called  rectifying;  thc-n  by  moving  the  lliread 
Ining  the  bead  to  the  hori/on,  in  which  ca»e 
the  tliroud  will  cut  the  limbia  the  point  of  the 
time  of  the  sini's  rising  or  setting  before  or 
after  0;  and  at  the  same  time  the  bead  will 
tilt  the  horizon  ni  the  degrees  of  the  suii's 
amplitude.  Again,  observing  the  sun's  alti- 
tude with  ihe  (inadrant,  anil  supposing  it 
found  to  be  ij"  on  the  jth  of  May,  lay  the 
thread  over  the  jth  of  May,  then  bring  the 
bead  to  the  summer  ecliptic,  and  carry  it  to 
the  parallel  of  altitude  4j";  in  uliich  case  the 
thread  will  cut  the  limb  at  Sj"  15',  and  the 
hour  will  be  seen  among  the  hour-lines  to  be 
either  4l  m.  past  ;)  in  the  morning,  or  19  m. 
past  2  ill  the  afternoon.  J.astly,  the  bead 
shews  among  the  azimuths  the  sun's  distance 
from  the  south  50°  41'. 

Hut  if  the  sun's  altitude  is  less  than  what 
it  is  at  6  o'clock,  the  operation  must  be  per- 
formed among  those  parallels  above  the  uj)|ier 
horizon ;  the  bead  being  rectilied  to  tiie 
winter  ecliptic. 

Qv.\DRANT,  guxncrs,  fig.  5,  sometimes 
called  the  gunner  s  scpiare,  is  used  for  elevat- 
ing and  pointing  cannon,  mortars,  &c.  and 
consists  of  two  branches,  either  of  wood  or 
bra-s,  between  which  is  a  quadrantal  arch 
divided  into  90°,  and  furnished  with  a  thread 
and  plumnret. 

'I'he  u^e  of  this  instrument  is  very  easy  ;  for 
if  the  longer  branch,  or  bar,  is  placed  in  the 
mouth  of  tiie  piece,  and  it  is  elevated  till  the 
plummet  cuts  the  di-gree  necessary  to  hit  a 
proposed  object,  the  thing  is  done. 

Sometimes  on  the  sides  of  the  longer  bar, 
are  noted  the  division  of  diameters  and 
weights  of  iron  balls,  as  also  the  bores  of 
pieces. 

Quadrant,  Gimlci^s,  so  called  from  its 
inventor,  lidmund  Gunter,  (lig.  6)  besides 
llie  apparatus  of  other  .jualrauts,  has  a  ste- 
reographie  projection  of  the  sphere  on  the 
phme  of  the  equinoctial;  and  also  a  calendar 
of  the  months,  next  to  the  divisions  of  the 
limb;  by  which,  besides  the  common  pur- 
poses of  other  quadrants,  several  useful  ques- 
tions in  astronomy,  &c.  are  easily  resolved. 

Use  of  Giin'cr's  quadrant.  1.  To  find  the 
sun's  meridian  altitude  for  any  given  day,  or 
conversely  the  day  of  the  year  answering  to 
any  given  meridian  altitude.  Lay  the  thread 
to  the  day  of  the  month  in  the  scale  next  the 
limb  ;  then  the  degree  it  cuts  in  the  limb  is 
the  sun's  meridian  altitude.  And,  contrari- 
\vise,  the  tliread  being  set  to  the  meridian  al- 
titude, it  shews  the  day  of  the  month. 

2.  To  find  the  hour  of  the  day.  Having 
put  the  bead,  which  slides  on  the  thread,  to 
the  sun's  place  in  the  ecliptic,  observe  the 
sun's  altitude  by  the  quadrant  ;  then  if  the 
iead  is  laid  over  the  same  in  the  limb,  the 
bead  will  fall  upon  the  hour  required.  On 
the  contrary,  laying  the  be.id  on  a  given  hour, 
having  hrst  rectilied  or  set  it  to  the  sun's 
place,  the  degree  cut  by  the  thread  on  tlic 
Jiinb  gives  the  altitude. 

Note:  the  bead  may  be  rectified  otherwise. 


QUADRANT. 

by  bringing  the  thread  to  the  day  of  tiie  , 
month,  aniT  the  bead  to  the  hour-line  of  12.     | 

3.  To  lind  the  sun's  declination  from  his 
place  given,  and  the  contrary.  Uring  the 
nead  to  the  siiii'i  place  in  the  ecli])tic,  and 
move  the  thread  to  the  line  of  declination 
Kl",  so  shall  Ihe  bead  cut  the  degn-e  of  de- 
clination reipiired.  On  the  contrary,  the 
bead  being  adjusted  to  a  given  di-clination, 
and  the  thread  moved  lo  the  ecliptic,  the 
bead  will  cut  the  sun's  place. 

4.  The  sun's  plac-e  being  given,  to  find  Ihe 
right  ascension,  or  conlrariwi-e.  Lay  the 
thread  on  the  sun's  place  in  llie  ecliptic,  and 
the  degree  it  cuts  on  the  limb  is  the  right  as- 
cension sought.     And  the  converse. 

5.  The  sun's  altitude  being  given,  to  find  his 
azimuth,  and  contrariwise.  Rectify  the  bead 
for  the  time,  as  in  the  second  article,  and  ob- 
serve the  sun's  altitude;  bring  the  thread  to 
the  complement  of  that  altitude  ;  then  the 
bead  will  give  the  azimuth  sought,  among  the 
azimuth-lines. 

(iuADRANT,  Hadlri/'s,  (lig.  7)  so  called 
from  its  inventor,  Joiiii  lladley,  escp  is  now 
universally  used,  as  the  best  of  any  for  nautical 
and  other  observation-^. 

Description  of  Iliullei/'s  quadrant,  fig. 
7,  represents  a  ipiadraiit,  or  octant,  of 
the  common  construction.  The  following 
parts  are  those  which  re(iuire  the  particular 
attention  of  the  observer: 
r.         BC  the  arc. 

II.  AD  the  index,  ab  the  nonius  scale. 

III.  E  the  index-glass. 

IV.  !■'  the  fore  horizon-glass. 

V.  G  the  back,  horizon-glass. 
VL     K  the  dark  glasses  or  screens. 
VIL    HI  the  vanes  or  sights. 

VIIL  The  arc  BC  is  called  the  limb  or  qua- 
drantal arc  ;  the  arc  cd,  lying  from  n 
towards  the  right,  is  called  the  arc  of 
excess. 

The  quadrant  consists  of  an  arc  BC,  (irmly 
attached  to  two  radii,  or  bars,  AB,  AC, 
which  are  strengthened  and  bound  together 
by  the  two  braces  L^L 

The  index  D  is  a  Hat  bar  of  brass,  that 
turns  on  the  centre  of  the  octant.  At  the 
lower  end  of  the  inde.x  there  is  an  oblong 
opening?  to  one  side  of  this  opening  a  vernier 
is  iixcd,  to  subdivide  the  divisions  of  the  arc; 
at  the  botto;ii  or  end  of  the  index  there  is  a 
piece  of  bras--,  which  bends  uiider  the  arc, 
carryinga  spring  to  make  the  vernier  lie  close 
to  t'lie  divisions:  it  is  also  furnished  with  a 
screw  to  fix  the  index  in  any  desired  position. 
See  V'ernier. 

The  circular  arcs  on  the  arc  of  the  qua- 
drant are  drawn  from  tiie  centre  on  which  the 
inde.x  turns :  the  smallest  excen'ricity  in  the 
axis  of  the  index  would  be  productive-of  con- 
siderable errors. 

Tlie  position  of  the  index  on  the  arc  after 
an  observation,  points  out  the  number  of  de- 
grees and  minutes  contained  in  the  observed 
angle. 

I'pon  the  index  E,  and  near  its  axis,  is 
fixed  a  plain  speculum,  or  mirror  of  glass, 
quicksilvered.  It  is  set  in  a  brass  frame,  and 
is  placed  so  that  the  face  of  it  is  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  the  instrument;  this  mirror  be- 
ing fixed  to  the  index,  moves  along  with  it, 
and  Ikis  its  direction  changed  by  the  motion 
thereof 

''i'his  glass  is  designed  to  receive  the  image 
of  the  sun,  or  any  other  object,  S,  and  reflect 


it  iipoH  either  of  the  two  horizon-glasses  F 
and  (i,  according  lo  the  nature  of  the  ob- 
servation. 

The  brass  frame  with  tlie  glass  is  fixed  to 
tlie  index  by  the  screw  C ;  the  other  screw 
serves  to  replace  it  in  a  perpendicular  position, 
if  by  any  accident  it  has  been  deranged. 

The  index-glass  is  often  <!i\idedinto  two 
parts,  tlie  one  silvered,  the  other  black  with  a 
small  screen  in  front.  A  single  black  surface 
h  IS  indeed  some  advantages ;  but  if  the  glasses 
are  well  selected,  there  is  little  danger  to  be 
apprelieiide<l  of  error  from  a  want  of  parallel- 
ism ;  more  is  to  be  feared  from  the  surfaces 
not  being  llat. 

On  the  radius  AB  of  the  octant,  are  two- 
small  sjieculums  V  and  G.  The  surface  ot 
the  uj)|)er  oni-  is  [laraliel  to  the  index-glass, 
when  the  counting  division  of  the  index  is  at 
o  on  the  arc  ;  but  tlie  surface  of  the  lower 
one  is  periiendicularlo  the  index-glass,  when 
the  index  is  at  0  degrees  on  the  arc ;  these 
mirrors  receive  the  rcllected  rays  from  tlie 
object,  and  transmit  them  to  the  observer. 

The  horizon-glasses  are  not  entirely  quick- 
silvered; the  iqiper  one  1'',  is  on!)  silvered 
on  its  lower  part,  or  that  half  next  the  qua- 
drant, the  other  luilf  being  transparent ;  and 
the  back  part  of  the  frame  is  cut  away,  that 
nothing  may  inijiede  the  sight  through  the 
unsilvered  part  of  the  glass.  The  edge  of 
the  toil  of  this  glass  is  nearly  parallel  to  the 
[ilane  of  the  instrument,  and  ought  to  be  very 
s'uirp,  and  witiiout  a  (law. 

Tlie  other  liorizon-glass  G,  is  silvered  at 
both  ends;  in  the  middle  there  is  a  trans- 
jKirent  slit,  through  which  the  horizon,  or 
oilier  object,  may  be  seen. 

Each  of  these  ghisses  is  set  in  a  brass  frame,, 
to  which  there  is  an  axis;  this  axis  passes 
through  the  wood-work,  and  is  fitted  to  a 
lever  on  the  under  side  of  the  (juadrant;  by 
this  lever  the  glass  m.iy  be  turned  a  few  de- 
grees on  its  axis,  in  order  to  set  it  parallel  to 
the  index-glass.  The  lever  has  a  contrivance 
to  turn  it  slowly,  and  a  button  to  fix  it.  To 
set  the  glasses  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of 
the  quadrant,  tliere  are  two  sunk  screws,  one 
before  and  one  behind  each  glass;  these 
screws  pass  through  the  plate  on  which  the 
frame  is  fixed,  into  another  plate  ;  so  that  by 
loosening  one  and  tightening  the  other  of 
these  screws,  the  direction  of  the  frame  with 
its  mirror  may  be  altered,  and  thus  be  set 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  instrument. 

There  are  two  red  or  dark  glasses,  and  one 
green  one  K;  they  are  used  to  prevent  the 
bright  ravs  of  the  sun,  or  the  glare  of  the 
moon,  from  hurting  the  eye  at  the  time  of  ob- 
servation. They  are  each  of  them  set  hi  a 
brass  frame,  which  turns  on  a  centre;  so  tha 
they  may  be  used  separately,  or  together,  as 
the  brightness  of  the  sun  may  require.  The 
green  glass  may  be  used  also  alone,  if  tlie  sun 
is  verv  faint;  it  is  also  used  for  taking  the 
altitiufe  of  the  moon,  and  in  ascertaining  her 
distance  from  a  fixed  star. 

When  these  glasses  are  used  for  the  fore 
observation,  they  are  fixed  as  at  K ;  when- 
used  for  the  back  observation,  they  are  re- 
moved to  N. 

Each  of  the  vanes  H  and  T,  is  a  perforated 
piece  of  brass,  designed  to  direct  the  sight 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  quadrant.  That 
which  is  fixed  at  I  is  used  tor  the  fore,  the 
otiier  for  the  back,  observatioa. 


5.15 

The  vane  [  Ins  t«-o  holes:  one  exactly  st 
the  height  of  tiie  quicksilvered  edi^e  ot  llit 
borizoii-glass  ;  th-  other  sosp.e'.vhit  higher,  to 
direct  the  sight  to  the  middle  ot"  tiie  trans- 
parent part  pf  the  mirror,  for  those  objecte 
Vkhickare  bright  euoiigh  to  be  reflected  irom 
^he.iinsilverecT  part  of  the  mirror. 

'Dirrctior.s  to  Jiold  the  instrumeKt.     It  is 

-recommended  to  support  the  weight  of  the 

.instrument  by  the  right  hand,  and  reserve  thc 

"lei't  to   govern  tiie  index.     Place  the  thumb 

of  the  right  hand  -against  the  edge  of  the 

cjuadrant,  under  the  swelling  part  of  which 

the  fore  sight  1  stands,  extending  the  lingers 

across  the  back  of  the  quadrant,  so  as  to  lay 

.hold  on  the  opposite  edge,  -placing  the  fon: 

ijnger  above,  and  the  other  lingers  below  the 

■  swelling  part,  or  near  the  fore  horizon,-glass ; 
•  thus  \o\.\  may  support  the  instrimi-'nl  con- 

Tenieiillv,  ir.  a  vertical  position,  by  the  right 
hand  only;  bv  resting  tiie  thumb  of  the  lelt 
hand  against  the  side,  or  the  lingers  against 

^  the  miiidie  bar,  you  may  move  the  index  gra- 

.  dually  either  way. 

In  the  back  observation,  the  instrument 
should  he  supported  by  the  left  hand,  and  the 
index  be  governed  by  the  right. 

Of  the  two  objects  wliich  are  made  to  coin- 

-  cide  by  this  instrument,  the .  one  is  seen 
direcllv  bv  a  ray  passing  through,  the  other 
by  a  ray'  reflected  from,  the  same  point  of 
the  horizon-glass  to  the  eye.  This  ray  is 
called  the  visual  ray ;   but  when  it  is  con- 

■  sUleicd  merely  as  a  line  drawn  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  liorfzon-glass  to  (lie  eye-hole  of  the 
si^ht  vane,  it  is  called  the  axis  of  vision. 

The  axis  of  a  tube,  or  telescope,  used  to 
direct  the  sight,  is  also  called  the  axis  of 
vision. 

The  quadrant,  if  it  is  held  as  before  direct- 
ed, may  be  easily  turned  round  between  the 
(infers  and  thumb,  and  thus  nearly  on  a  line 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  vision  ;  thus'  the  plane 
of  the  quadrant  will  pass  through  tiie  two  ob- 
jects wlicn  ail  observation  is  made,  a  circuni- 
stance  absolutely  necessary,  and  which  is 
more  readily  eflccled  when  the  instrument  is 
furnished  w'ilh  a  telescope.  Williin  the  tele- 
scope are  two  parallel  wires,  which  by  turning 
the  eve-glass  tube  may  be  Ijrought  parallel  to 
the  plane  of  the  quadrant,  so  that  by  bring- 
ing the  object  to  the  middle  between  them, 
yon  are  certain  of  having  the  axis  of  vision 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  ciuadrant. 

Of  the  ohitivatioiis.  There  are  two  sorts 
of  observations  to  be  made  with  this  instru- 
nienl:  the  one  is  when  the  back  of  tlie  ob- 
server is  turned  towards  tin:  obj  x't,  and  there- 
fore called  the  back  observation  ;  the  other 
when  the  face  of  the  observer  is  turn-d  to- 
wards the  object,  which  is  called  the  fore  ob- 
servation. 

To  recti/;/ III?  instnimrnt  for  the  fore  oh- 
.lerv/ition.  Slacken  the  screw  in  the  middle 
of  the  handle  behind  the  glass  F;  briiiT;  the 
Index  close  to  the  button  h  ;  hold  the  instru- 
ment in  a  verlfcal  position,  with  the  arch 
downwards;  look  through  the  ri^ht-hand  liole 
in  the  vane  I,  and  tlin)Ugh  the  transparent 
iMrt  of  the  glass  l",  lor  the  horizon  ;  and  il  it 
lii-s  in  the  sami;  right  line  with  the  image  of  the 
horizon  seen  on  the  silvenid  pari,  the  glass  V 
is  rightly  adjusted  ;  hut  if  the  two  hon/unlal 
lines  <lis;igieK,  turn  the  screw  which  is  at  tin- 
end  of  the  handle  backward  or  forward,  till 
ihtti:  hues  coincide;  then  faulun  the  middle 


QUADR.\NT. 


screw  of  the  handle,  and  the  glass  is  rightly 
a;lju-led. 

To  take  the  sun's  allitude  hj  the  fore  ob- 
servation, fjaving  fixed  the  screens  above 
the  horizon-glass  !•',  and  suited  them  pro- 
poitiona'iy  to  tiie  strength  of  the  sun's  r:iys, 
turn  your"  face  towards  the  sun,  holding  (he 
i;:strjmeiit  with  your  right  hand,  by  the 
braces  I-  and  M,  in  a  vertical  position,  with 
the  arch  downvvard  ;  put  your  cy."  close  to 
the  right-hand  hole  in  the  vane  I,  and  vievv  tlie 
horizon  through  the  transparent  part  ot  the 
horizon-iilass  i',  at  flie  same  time  moving  the 
index  D^vith  the  lelt  iiand,  till  the  rellex  so- 
lar spot  coincides  with  the  line  of  the  horizon ; 
then  the  degrees  counted  from  that  end 
next  your  body,  will  give  the  sun's  altitude 
at  that  lime,  observing  to  add  or  subtract  16 
minutes  according  as  ilie  upper  or  lower  etlge 
of  the  sun's  reliex  image  is  made  use  of. 

But  to  get  the  sun's  meridian  altitude, 
which  is  the  thing  wanted  lor  tinding  the  lati- 
tude, the  observations  must  be  continued; 
and  as  the  sun  approaches  the  meridian,  the 
index  D  niusl  be  continually  moved  towards 
[5,  to  maintain  the  coincidence  between  the 
retiex  solar  spot  and  the  horizon  ;  and  con- 
sequently as  long  as  this  motion  can  maintain 
the  same  coincidence,  the  observation  n)ust 
be  continued  till  the  sun  has  reacl.ed  the 
meridian,  and  begins  to  descend,  when  the 
coincidence  will  require  a  retrograde  motion 
of  th.e  index,  or  towards  C ;  and  then  the  olj- 
servation  is  limshed,  and  the  degrees  counted 
as  before  w  ill  give  the  sun's  meridian  altitude, 
or  those  from  B  will  give  the  zenith  distance; 
observing  to  add  the  seinidiameter,  or  Itj', 
when  his'lower  edge  is  brought  to  the  hori- 
zon, or  to  subtract  16  when  the  horizon -and 
upper  edge  coincide. 

To  take  the  attitude  of  a  star  hi  the  fore 
observation.  Throiigii  the  vane  II,  and  the 
transparent  slit  in  tlie  glass  G,  look  directly 
tb  the  star;  and  at  the  same  time  move  tlie 
index,  till  the  image  of  the  horizon  behind 
you,  being  reflected  by  the  great  speculum, 
IS  seen  in  the  silvered  part  of  G,  and  meets 
the  star;  then  will  the  index  shew  the  de- 
grees of  the  star's  altitud  _•. 

To  rectify  the  imtrnment  for  the  back  ob- 
servation. Slacken  the  screw  in  the  middle 
of  the  handle,  behind  the  glass  G  ;  turn  tlie 
button  /(  on  one  side,  and  bring  the  index  as 
mr.ny  degrees  before  0  as  are  ecpuU  to  tloub'.e 
the  dip  of  tile  hirizon  at  your  height  above 
the  water;  hold  the  instrument  vertical,  with 
th'arch  downward;  look  through  the  hole  of 
the  vaue  il ;  and  if  the  iiorizon  seen  tln'ough 
the  transparent  slit  in  the  glass  G,  coincides 
with  the  image  of  the  horizon  seen  in  the  sil- 
vered part  of  the  same  glass,  then  the  glass 
G  is  in  its  proper  iicsition  ;  but  if  not,  set  it 
by  the  handle,  and  fasten  the  screw  as  be- 
fore. 

To  take  the  sun's  altitHdc  b'j  the  back  oh- 
serratiiin.  Put  the  screens  as  at  K;  and  in 
proportion  to  the  strength  or  faintness  of  the 
sun's  rays,  let  either  one  or  both  or  neither  of 
the  frames  of  those  glasses  be  turned  close  to 
the  face  of  the  limb ;  hold  the  instrument  in 
a  vertical  position,  with  the  arch  downward, 
by  the  braces  J^  and  M,  wilh  the  left  hand  ; 
turn  your  back  to  the  sun,  and  put  one  eye 
close  to  the  hole  in  the  vane  11,  observing 
the  horizon  through  the  tr.iiisparent  slit  in  the 
horizon- glass  G ;   with  the  right  hand  move 


the  index  T),  til!  the  reflected  image  of  the  s»» 
is  seen   in   tlie  silvered  part  of  tiie  glass  G, 


mkI  in  a  right  line  with  the  horizon ;  swing 
your  body  to  and  fro,  and  if  the  observation 
is  well  made,  tlie  sun's  image  will  be  observ- 
ed to  bru-^li  the  horizon,  and  the  degrees 
reckoned  from  C,  or  that  part  <5f  the  arcli 
farthest  from  your  body,  will  give  the  sun's 
altitude  at  the  "time  of  observation;  observing 
to  add  16',  or  the  sun's  semidiameter,  if  the 
sun's  upper  edge  is  used,  and  subtract  the 
same  for  the  lower  edge. 

The  direction  just  given,  for  taking  alti- 
tudes at  sea,  would  be  sufTicieiit,  but  for  two 
corrections  tiiat  are  necessary  to  be  made 
before  the  allitude  can  be  accurately  deter- 
mined, viz.  one  on  account  of  the  observer's 
eye  being  raised  above  tiie  level  of  the  sea, 
and  the  other  on  account  of  the  refraction  of 
the  atmosphere,  especially  in  small  altitudes. 

The  following  ta'ules,  therefore,  show  the 
corrections  to  be  made  on  both  these  ac- 
counts : 


TABLE  I. 


TABLE  U. 


Dip  of  the  hori- 

Refractions of  t 

ic  stars,  &c. 

zon  of  the  sea. 

ia  altitude. 

Heii/htJ 

Dip  of 

Appar. 

^PP-  refrac- 

of  the 
eye. 

the  ho-  , 
rizon. 

alf.t.  m 
deg. 

tion.     1 

■f'"    tion. 

deg. 

Feet. 

'    //    ' 

0 

/       // 

0 

/      Il 

1 

0     57 

0 

33       0 

1) 

4     47 

2 

1      21 

i 

SO     35 

12 

4     23 

3 

1     39 

-i 

2S     22 

15 

3     30 

5 

2       S 

1 

24     29  , 

20 

2     35 

10 

3       1 

2 

18     35 

25 

3       2 

15 

3     42 

3 

14     SS 

30 

1     3» 

20 

4     16 

4 

11     51 

35 

1     21 

25 

4     46 

5 

9     54 

40 

1       8 

SO 

5     14 

6 

8     29 

45 

0    57 

85        5     39 

7 

7     20 

.50 

0    48 

40        6       2 

8 

6     29       60 

0     35 

45     1  6     24 

9 

-  5     48       70 

0     21 

50 

1-6     44 

10 

5     15 

1   FO 

0     10 

General  rules  for  these  cornctioiis.  I .  lu 
the  fore  obiervations,  add  the  sum  of  both 
corrections  to  the  observed  zenith  distance, 
for  the  true  zenith  distance ;  or  subtract  the 
said  sura  from  the  observed  aliitudej  for  the 
true  one.  2.  In  the  back  observation,  add 
tlie  dip  and  subtiact  the  relraction  tor  alti- 
tudes; and  for  zenith  distances  do  the  con- 
trary, viz.  subtract  the  dip,  and  add  the  re- 
fraction. 

Example.  By  a  back  observation,  the  alti- 
tude of  the  sun's  lower  edge  was  found  by 
iladley's  quadrant  to  be  C3"  12',  the  eye 
being  -30  leet  above  tlie  horizon.  By  tlic 
tables,  the  dip  on  ,30  feet  is  5'  W,  ami  the 
refraction  on  25°  12' is  2'  1".  Hence 
Appar.  alt.  lower  limb  25"  12'  I 
Sun's  seinidiameter,  sub.  0     10     0 


Appar.  alt.  of  centre 
Uip  of  horizon,  add 


24 
0 

56     .3 

.-.    14 

25 

0 

1  14 

2  1 

Hefraclion,  subtract 


True  alt.  of  centre  24     59    13 

In  the  case  of  the  moon,  besiiles  the  (wo 

corrections  above,  another  is  to  be  made  for 

her  parallaxes,     liut  ior  all  these  particulars, 

see  the  requisite  tables  for  the  Nautical  Al- 


QUA 

manac ;  also  Kohertsoii's  Navigation,  vol  2, 
j).i.  J4(),  .Ic.  edit.  17s«). 

^'.  Siiiical  (]iia(lraiit  is  <iiie  of  some  use  in 
navigation.  It  consists  of  several  concentric 
qiiadrantal  arclies,  divided  into  eiglit  equal 
jjjrts  l)_v  means  of  radii,  wiUi  parallel  ric;lit 
Inies  crossing  each  otiier  at  rij>lit  angles.  Now 
any  one  of  tlie  arches,  as  I5(.',h^,  S.  in  the  Plate, 
may  represent  a  (piadrajit  of  any  s^reat  circle 
ol  the  spliere,  but  is  chielly  used  for  the  ho- 
rizon or  meridian.  If  then  BC'  is  taken  for  a 
i|ua<lrant  oftlie  horizon,  either  of  the  sides, 
as  Ail,  may  represent  the  meridian,  and  tlie 
other  side  AC  will  represent  a  parallel,  or 
line  of  east  and  west;  all  (he  otlier  lines  pa- 
rallel to  Alj  will  lie  also  meiidians ;  and  all 
those  parallel  to  At',  east  and  west  lines,  or 
jjarallels.  Again,  the  eight  sp(;eies  into  which 
the  arches  are  divided  by  the  radii,  represent 
the  eight  points  of  the  compass  in  a  iiuarter 
of  the  hori/.on  ;  each  contaiinng  11°  15'.  'I'lie 
arch  Lie  is  likewise  divided  into  W,  and  each 
degree  subdivided  into  ]'2',  diagonidwise. 
'1  o  the  centre  is  lixed  a  thread,  which  being 
laid  over  atiy  degree  of  the  ipiadrant,  serves 
to  divide  the  horizon. 

Jf  the  sinical  (juadrant  is  fakeli  for  a  fourtli 
part  of  the  meridian,  one  side  of  it  AH  may 
betaken  tor  the  common  radius  of  the  meri- 
dian and  equator;  and  then  the  other,  AC, 
will  be  half  the  axis  oftli<'  world.  The  de- 
grees of  the  circumfcrenci-  Be  will  represent 
degrees  of  latitude;  and  the  parallels  to  the 
side  AB  assumed  from  every  point  of  latitude 
to  the  axis,  AC,  will  be  radii  of  the  parallels 
of  latitudes,  as  likewise  the  co»ine  of  those 
latitudes. 

Hence,  suppose  it  is  required  to  find  the 
degrees  of  longitude  contained  in  83  of  the 
lesser  leagues  in  the  parallel  of  48°;  lay  the 
thread  over  48°  of  latitude  on  the  circumfe- 
rence, and  count  thence  the  S3  leagues  on 
AB,  beginning  at  A;  this  will  terminate  in  II, 
allowing  every  small  interval  four  Kagues. 
'J  hen  tracing  out  the  parallel  HE,  from  the 
point  H  to  the  thread;  the  part  AE  of  the 
thread  shews  that  l"j  greater  or  equinoctial 
leagues  make  t5"  Ij';  and  therefore  that  t!ie 
83  lesser  leagues  All,  which  make  the  dif- 
ference of  longitude  of  the  course,  and  are 
equal  to  the  radius  of  the  parallel  HE,  make 
6°  Ij'  of  the  said  parallel. 

When  the  ship  sails  upon  an  oblique 
course,  such  course,  beside  the  north  and 
south  greater  leagues,  gives  lesser  leagues 
easterly  and  westerly,  to  be  reduced  to  de- 
grees of  longitude  of  the  equator.  But  these 
leagues  being  made  neither  on  the  parallel 
of  departure,  nor  on  that  of  arrival,  but  on  all 
the  intermediate  ones,  there  must  be  found  a 
mean  proportional  parallel  between  them. 
I'o  find  this,  there  is  on  the  instrument  a 
scale  of  cioss  latitudes.  Suppose  then  it  were 
required  to  lind  a  me;in  parallel  between  the 
parallels  of  40"  and  tJO";  lake  with  the  com- 
passes the  middle  between  the  4i)th  and  (ioth 
degree  on  the  scale;  this  middle  point  will 
terminate  against  the  51st  degree,  wliich  is 
■  the  mean  parallel  sovight. 

The  chief  use  of  the  sinical  quadrant  is,  to 
form  upon  it  triangles  similar  to  those  made 
by  a  ship's  way  with  the  meridians  and  pa- 
rallelii;  the  sides  of  which  triangles  arc  mea- 
sured by  the  equal  intervals  between  the  con- 
centric quadrants,  and  the  lines  N  and  S,  E 
and  VV;  and  every  5th  line  and  arch  are  made 
deeper  than  the  rest.  Now  suppose  a  ship 
Vol.  H. 


1 00  :  40  : 


«  L    A 

lui!  sailed  l"iO  leagues  north-east  by  north,  tiiat  is,  RO  ;  Uii) ; 
or  m.iking  an  angle  of  3.1°  45'  with  tin'  north 
|)art  of  the  meridian;  here  are  given  the 
course  and  di-tance  sailed,  by  which  a  tri- 
angle may  be  formed  on  the  instrument  si- 
milar to  that  made  by  the  ship's  course  ;  and 
heiire  the  unknown  parts  of  the  triangle  may 
be  found.  Thus,  supposing  the  centre  A  to 
represent  the  place  of  departure,  count  by 
means  of  the  concentric  circles  along  the 
point  theshipsailetl on,  viz.  AAl),  150 leagues; 
then  in  the  triangle  AEI),  similar  to  that  of 
the  ship's  course,  find  AE  =:  difference  of 
latitude,  and  1)E  =:  dilfirence  of  longitude, 
which  must  be  reduced  according  to  llie  pa- 
rallel of  latitude  come  to. 

Quadrant  of  atlitiidc  is  an  appendix 
to  the  artilicial  globe,  consisting  ol  a  thin 
slip  of  brass,  the  length  of  a  quarter  part  of 
one  of  the  great  circles  of  the  globe,  and  gra- 
duated. At  the  end,  where  the  division  ter- 
minates, is  a  nut  riveted  on,  and  furnished 
with  a  screw,  by  means  of  which  the  instru- 
ment is  titled  on  the  meridian,  and  moveable 
round  upon  the  rivet  to  all  points  of  the  ho- 
rizon, as  represented  in  the  ligiirc  refc  rred  to. 
Its  use  is  to  serve  as  a  scale  in  measuring  of 
altitudes,  amplitudes,  azimuths,  Sec. 

QUADU.VN  TAL,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
vessel  every  way  sipiare  like  a  die,  serving  as 
a  measure  of  liipiidb;  its  capacity  was  eiglity 
libra;  or  pounds  of  water,  which  made  48  sex- 
taries,  two  urnie,  or  eight  congii. 

QUADKAT,  a  mathematical  instrument, 
called  also  a  geometrical  sipiare,  and  line  of 
shadows ;  it  is  frequently  an  additional  mem- 
ber on  the  face  of  the  common  tpuidrant,  as 
also  on  those  of  Gunter's  and  Sutton's  quad- 
rant; but  we  shall  describe  it  by  itself,  as  be- 
ing a  distinct  instrument. 

It  is  made  of  any  solid  matter,  as  brass, 
wood,  &c.  or  of  any  l<)ur  plane  rules  joined 
together  at  right  angles,  as  represented  in 
Plate  Quadranfs  tig.  9,  where  A  is  the  centre, 
from  w  hicli  hangs  a  thread  w  ith  a  small  weight 
at  the  end,  serving  as  a  plummet.  Each  of 
the  sides  BE  and  DE  is  divided  into  a  hun- 
dred equal  parts,  or  if  the  sides  are  long  enough 
to  admit  of  it,  into  a  thousand  parts ;  C  and 
!•'  are  two  sights,  lixed  on  the  side  AD. 
There  is,  moreover,  an  index  All,  which, 
when  there  is  occasion,  is  joined  to  the  centre 
A,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  be  moved 
freely  round,  and  remain  in  any  given  situa- 
tion. On  this  inslrunienl  are  two  sights  K,  E, 
perpendicular  to  the  right  line  goiiig  from  the 
centre  of  the  instrument.  Tlie  side  DE  is 
called  the  upright  side,  or  the  line  of  the  di- 
rect or  uprighf  shadows  ;  and  the  side  BE  is 
termed  the  reclining  side,  or  the  line  of  the 
versed  or  back  shadows. 

To  measure  an  accessible  height  AR,  fig. 
10.  bv  the  quadrat,  let  the  dis.ance  BD  be 
ineasuretl,  which  suppose  =i  96  feet,  and  let 
the  height  of  the  observer's  eye  be  six  feet ; 
then  holding  the  instrument  with  a  steady 
hand,  or  rather  resting  it  on  a  support,  let  it 
be  directed  towards  the  summit  A,  so  that  it 
may  be  seen  clearly  through  both  sights  ;  the 
perpendicular  or  piumb-line  meanwhile  hang- 
ing free,  and  touching  the  surface  of  the  in- 
strument;  let  now  the  perpendicular  be  sup- 
posed to  cut  off  on  the  upright  side  KN  SO 
equal  parts;  it  is  evident  tiiat  LKN,  ACK, 
are  similar  triangles,  and  bv  prop.  4  lib.  6. 
of  Euclid,  NK  :  KL  :  :  KC  \i.  e.  BD)  ;  CA ; 
3  Y 


Q  U  A  53; 

.'  96  ;  CA  ;  therefore  liv  the 

1       r  .1  /-.  .        9GXI00 

rule  of  three,  CA=  — ^- — —  120  feet;  and 

Cn,the  height  of  the  observer's  eye,  =  6  feet 
being  added,  the  whole  height  l!A  is  126  feel! 

It  the  observer's  distance,  as  DE,  is  such 
that,  when  the  instrument  is  directed  as  fon- 
merly  towards  the  summit  A,  ihe  perpendi- 
cular falls  on  the  angle  P,  and  the  distance  I5E 
or  CG  is  Il'O  feet,  CA  will  also  be  l'.'0  feet  • 
lor  PG:GI1::C;C:  CA;  but  PG  =  GH, 
therefore  GC  =  CA  ;  that  is,  CA  will  be  120 
feet,  and  the  whole  height  BA=  120  feet  as 
before. 

But  let  the  distance  BF  be  300  feet,  and 
the  perpendicular  or  plumb-line  cut  olf  40 
equal  pirts  from  the  recliningside.  Is'ow,  in 
this  case,  the  angles  QAC,  QZI,  are  equal 
(29.  I.  Each),  as  are  also  the  angles  QZI, 
/IS  ;  therefore  /L  ZIS  =  QAC ;  but  ZSI  = 
QCA,  as  being  both  right:  hence,  in  the 
e<|uiaiigolar  triangles  ACQ,  SZI,  we  have 
(by  4.  0.  Eucl.)  ZS :  SI : :  CQ  :  CA  ;   that  is. 


300:CA,orCA=i2><222=,20; 
100 


and  by  adding  six  feet,  tlie  observei's  height, 
tlie  whole  height  BAwill  be  126  feet. 

To  iiuu.iiirc  am/  disluncv  al  land  or  .tea  In/ 
lluijiuuhal.  In  this  operation  the  index  AH, 
lig.  9,  is  to  be  ap])lied  to  the  instrument,  as 
was  sliown  in  the  description ;  and  by  the  help 
of  a  support,  the  instrument  is  to  be  placed 
horizontally  at  the  point  A,  lig.  11.  then  let  it 
be  turned  till  the  reinote  point  F,  whose  dis- 
tance IS  to  be  measured,  is  seen  through  II. e 
lixed  sights ;  and  bringing  the  index  to  be 
l)arallel  with  the  other  side  of  the  instrument, 
observe  through  its  sights  any  accessibli-mark 
B,  at  a  distance ;  then  carrying  the  i  stru- 
nient  to  the  point  B,  let  tlie  immoveable 
sights  be  directed  to  the  lirst  station  A.  and 
the  sights  of  the  iiulex  to  the  point  F.  If  tlie 
index  cuts  the  right  side  of  the  square,  as  in 
K,  the  proportion  will  be  (by  4.  6.)  RR  :  KK 
:  :  BA  (the  distance  of  the  stations  to  be  mea- 
sured with  a  chain)  :  AF,  the  distance  sought. 
But  if  the  index  cuts  tl'.e  rcciined  side  01  the 
scpiare  in  the  point  L,  then  the  proportion  is, 
l.S:  SB  :  :  BA  :  AG,  the  distance  sought; 
wiiich  accordingly  mav  be  found  bv  tlie  ruh; 
of  three. 

Quadrat,  in  printius,  a  piece  of  metal 
cast  like  the  letters,  tolill  up  tiie  void  spaces 
between  words,  &;c.  'I  here  are  quadrats  of 
ditieient  sizes,  as  m  ipiadrats,  n  (piadrats,  &:c. 
uliich  are  respectively  of  the  dimensions  of 
these  letters. 

QUADRATIC  EQUATION,  that  where- 
in the  unknown  e<iijalily  is  of  two  dimensions, 
orraised  to  the  second  power.  See  Algebra. 
Ql'ADHATL'RE,  in  geometry,  denotes 
the  squaring,  or  reducing  a  ligure  to  a  square, 
'ihus  the  liiiding  of  a  square  which  sliall 
contain  just  as  inu<h  surface  or  area  as  a  cir- 
cle, an  ellipsis,  a  triangle,  ic.  is  the  qua- 
drature of  a  circle,  ellipsis,  &c. 

The  ([uadrature  ot  curvilinear  spaces,  aij 
t!ie  circle,  ellipsis,  parabola,  \:c.  is  a  matter 
of  much  deejjcr  speculation,  making  a  part  of 
the  higher  geometry;  wlierein  the  doctrine  of 
Uuxions  is  of  singular  use.     See  Fluxiom. 

Case  I.Let  ARC  (Plate  Quadrant,  iig.  li.)  be  a 
curve  of  any  kind,  whose  ordinates  Ri,  CU,  are 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  AB.  Imagine  a  ri^ht 
line  IRg,  perpendicular  to  AB,  to  nmve  parallel 
to  itself  from  A  towards  B ;  and  let  the  velocity 
thereof,  or  the  fluxion  of  tlie  absci>s  A^  in  any 


538 


QUA 


nroposed  pesUion  of  that  line,  be  denoted  by 
tJ;  then  %vill  fo.the  rectangle  under  bd.  and  the 
ordinate  iR,  express  the  corresponding  fluxion 
of  the  generating  area  AoR:  which  fluxion,  if 


At  =  V,  and  iR  =  v.  will  be  yx 


From  whence, 
by  substitutinp:  for  y  or  x,  ^according  to  the 
equation  of  tiie  curve,  and  taking  the  fluent, 
the  area  itself  AiR  will  become  known. 

Put  in  order  to  render  this  still  Jnore  plain, 
we  shall  give  some  examples,  wherein  x,  y,  2, 
and  .Y,  are  all  along  put  to  denote  the  absciss, 
ordinate,  curve  line,  and  the  area,  respectively, 
'ihus,  if  the  area  of  a  right-angled  triangle  is 
jequired,  pat  the  base  AH  (fig.  13,')  =  "■,  the 
perpendicular  HM  =  i,  and  let  AB  =  v  be 
any  portion  of  the  base  considered  as  1  flowing 
quaniitj-;  and  let  BR  =  v,  be  the  ordinate,  or 
perpend'cular  corresponding.  Tiaen,  liecanse  of 
the  similar  triangles  AHM  and^ABR,  we  shall 


the 


have  1  :  i  : :  X  :  >■  =  — .      whence,   y  .v. 

fluxion  of  the  area  ABR,  is,  in  this  case,  equal 

to  —  i  and  consequently  the  fluent  thereof,  or 
a 

the  area  itself,  =    —  :    which,  therefore,  when 

X  =  J,  and  13R  coincides  with  KM,  will  become 

ab  _  MIX  ""  _  j^g  3^g^  „f  jhe  whole   trl- 
2  2 

angle  AHM  ;  as  is  also  demonstrable  from  the 
principles   of    common    geomciry. 

Again,  let  the  curve  ARMH  (Sg  H,)  whose 
area  vou  would  find,  be  :he  common  parabola  ; 
in  which  case,  if  A3  =  v,  and  BR  1=  v,  and 
the  parameter  =  a,  we  shall  hitvejp    =:  j.,  and 

y  ^a~'  x'^  :  and  therefore  u  (=1  y  v)  =  a^  a-  ^  .i- ; 

i      3 


whence  u  := 


_  T 


X  'y' 


:=  ^  ,j  2    V  2    X  >•  ^  ^ 


V.r  =  i  X  AB  X  BR.  Hence  a  jjarabola  is  two- 
thirds^of  a  rectangle  of  the  same  base  and  alti- 
tude. 

The  same  conclusion  might  have  been  found 

/ 
more  e.Tsily  in  terras  of  y  :  for  x  =  — 


and 


_2y> 


-y 


whence  «  =  -^  = 


and  consequently  ,,  (^i=y:)  ^^  — 

'2y        y         2v  a 

X  AB  X  BR,  as  before. 

Qi.'.\DRATURE,  in  a'itroiiomy,  tliat  aspect 
of  the  moon  wht-n  she  is  90'  ilisi,;nt  from  the 
sun;  or  wlieii  she  is  in  ;i  iniiUUe  point  of  her 
orbit,  between  the  points  of  cDnjiniction  anil 
opposition,  namely,  in  the  lirst  and  tlunl 
«iuariers. 

QiiADR.\TURE  LINES  are  two  lines  placed 
on  Giinters  sector:  tliey  are  marked  with 
Q.  and  3,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10:  of  whi:  li  Q.  signilies 
the  side  ot  the  sijuare,  and  tlie  otlier  ligiires 
the  side  of  the  polygons  of  5,  6,  7,  &c.  sides, 
is,  on  the  same  inslrmiient,  staiuls  for  the  se- 
jjrdiamrter  of  a  circle,  and  1)0  for  a  line  equal 
to  90'  in  circmiiference. 

<H'ADU.\TL'S,  in  anatomy,  a  name 
given  to  several  muscles  on  account  of  their 
liiuare  liguies. 

Ql'.\ORlG.\,  ill  antiquity,  a  car  or  cha- 
riot drawn  h\  four  horses.  On  the  reverse 
of  medals  we  n-i|uently  seethe  emperor  or 
Viitory  in  a  <pia.lrii;.i,  hol.iing  the  reins  ot 
tilt-  Ivjrses ;  vliencc  these  coins  are,  ainon^  tlie 
ciiroilii,  called  numini  quadrigati,  and  Victo- 
riati. 

Ql'ADniLATKH.AT.,  in  geometry,  a 
figure  wh  --'■  periiicjtcr  consists  of  four  right 
liucs,  iHukuig  four  angles ;  wlumce  it  is  also 


QUA 

called  a  quadrangular  figure.  Tlie  quadrila- 
teral (igures  are  either  a  parallelogram,  tra- 
pezium, rectangle,  square,  rhombus,  or  rliom- 
boide-;. 

QUADRILLE,  a  gan :^  at  canls,  -ome- 
times  called  ombre  by  lour  ;  which  chn'H_\  dif- 
fers from  ombre  bv  three,  in  being  played  b\ 
tour  persons;  arid' having  all  th"  fort)  cards 
dealt  out,  to  each  person,  at  ten  I'nch. 

The  general  laws  of  tiiis  game  are,  1 .  It  is 
not  permitted  to  deal  liic  cards  any  othi'ru  i-e 
than  tour  b\  three,  the  dealer  beuig  at  lilierly 
to  begin  with  which  of  those  i:iiinl>ers  he 
pleases.  2.  If  he  who  pla\  s  •.■illier  sans  prendre, 
or  calling  a  king,  names  a  Irmiip  ot  a  dit- 
fereiit  suit  trom  tnat  his  game  is  in,  ornaiijes 
two  several  suits,  tliat  whr  h  he  In-.t  naineil 
must  be  the  trump.  3.  lie  who  pla\s  must 
name  the  trump  h\  its  proper  name,  a^  he 
likewise  must  the  king  he  calU.  4.  lie  who 
has  said  I  pass,  must  i.ot  be  again  admitted  to 
play,  ex.~t  pt  he  plays  by  to;ce,  upon  account 
of  liis  hav'ii.g'spadille.  j.  He  who  lias  asked 
tiic  question,  and  has  leave  given  him  to 
play,  IS  obliged  to  do  it;  but  he  must  not  play 
^ans  preuflre  e.xcepl  he  is  lorced  to  do  it.  6. 
lie  wi:o  has  the  four  kings  mavcall  li'.equeen 
of  either  of  his  kings.  7.  Neither  the  king 
nor  queen  of  the  suit  which  is  trumps  must 
be  called.  8.  He  wl.o  has  one  or  several 
king-,  may  call  any  king  he  has  in  his  hand  ; 
in  such  case,  if  he  wins,  he  alone  must  make 
SIX  tricks  ;  if  he  wins,  it  is  all  his  own;  and  ii' 
he  loses  he  pays  all  by  himself.  9.  Evevv 
one  ougbt  to  play  in  his  turn,  but  for  having 
done  otherwise  no  one  must  be  beasted.  10. 
lie,  howevtr,  whose  turn  it  is  not  to  plav, 
having  in  his  hand  the  king  the  ombre  liiis 
called,  and  who  shall  tnimp  about  with  either 
spadille,  manille,  or  basto,  01  shall  even  play 
down  the  king  tliat  was  called,  to  give  notice 
ol  his  being  the  fni-nd,  must  not  pretend  to 
undertake  the  vole  ;  nay,  he  must  be  con- 
demned to  be  beasted  if  it  appears  that  he 
did  it  with  any  fraudulent  design.  1 1 .  He 
who  lias  drawn  a  card  from  Ins  game,  and 
proented  it  0|>enly  in  order  to  play  it,  is 
obliged  so  to  do,  if  his  retaining  it  may  be 
either  prejutlicial  to  the  g.nie,  nr  give" any 
intimation  to  the  friend,  especially  if  the  card 
is  a  matadore  ;  but  he  wlio  play's  sans  pren- 
dre, or  calls  his  own  king,  is  niit  subject  to 
this  law.  \'2.  None  ought  to  look  upon  the 
tricks,  nor  to  count  alotid  what  has  been  play- 
ed, except  when  it  is  his  turn  to  play,  bi.it  "to 
let  every  one  reckon  for  himself. '  13.  He 
who,  instead  of  turning  up  the  tricks  before 
any  one  of  his  players,  shall  turn  up  and  dis- 
cover his  game,  miist  be  e<iually  beasted  with 
him  whose  canls  he  had  so  discovered,  the 
one  paving  one  half  and  the  other  the  like. 

14.  He  who  iviiuuiices  must  be  beasted  as 
many  times  as  he  lias  so  tloiie,  but  if  ihe 
cards  are  mixed  he  is   to  pay  but  one  beast. 

15.  It  the  renounce  prejudices  llie  game,  and 
the  deal  is  nut  p'aved  out,  everyone  may 
tak.  up  his  cards."  beginning  at  tiie  trick 
wlierc  the  re:iouncewas  made,  and  play  them 
over  again.  I(i.  He  who  shews  the"  game 
belort  the  deal  is  out  must  be  beasted,  ex- 
cept lie  plays  sans  prendre.  17.  None  ol  the 
three  matadores  can  be  commanded  down 
by  an  inh-rior  trump.  18.  It  he  who  pl.iys 
sans  prendre  with  the  matadores  in  his  hand, 
demands  only  one  of  llieiii,  he  must  receive- 
only  tliat  he  mmtioned.  I<)  He  who,  instcul 
of  sans  prendre,  shall  tleiiuiid  uiatadoics,  not 


QUA 

bavins  tliem  ;  or  he  who  shall  demand  sanf  ; 
prendre  instead  of  matadores  ;  cannot  compel 
the  players  to  pa\  him  what  is  really  his  due, 
'-'0.  Matadores  areonlv  paid  wl  eii  they  are 
in  the  hands  ot  the  ombre,  or  of  the  kin'g  his 
ally,  whether  all  in  one  hand,  or  se|)aiale'lv  ia 
both.  21.  He  wh.'.undeitakes  the  vole 'and 
does  not  m..ke  it,  mu.-,t  pay  as  much  as  he 
would  have  received  had  lie'won  it.  22.  He- 
wlici  plays  and  does  not  nii:ke  three  tricks  is 
to  be  beaded  alone,  and  must  pay  all  tliat  is- 
to  be  pai<l;  and  if  he  makes  no  tricks  at  all, 
he  iKii  t  also  pay  to  his  two  adversaries  tlis 
vole,  but  not  to'his  friend. 

QUADKLPLDS^  in  zoology,  a  class  ef 
land  animals,  with  hairy  bodies,  and  lour 
liMibs  or  legs  proceeding  from  the  trunk  of 
their  bodies ;  add  to  (his,  tliat  the  females  of 
this  class  are  viviparous,  or  bring  Ibith  their 
young  alive,  and  nourish  them  v/ith  milli 
trom  their  teats. 

Ql  ADRUPLE,  a  sum  ov  number  multi- 
plied by  four,  or  taken  four  times. 

QUAtERj).  Hy  Stat.  7  and  8  W.  III.  c.  27, 
and  S  G.  I.  c.  (J.  quakers  making  and  sul,- 
scribing  the  declaration  of  lidelitv  mentioned 
in  \  \\  .  and  -\1.  -[al\  not  h.-  liable  to  the  pe- 
nalty against  others  ref  sing  to  take  such 
i_atlis:  and  not  subscribing  tlie  d  tiarationof 
fidelity,  iic.  they  are  disa'bled  to  vote  at  the- 
election  o;  members  of  parliament. 

By  7  and  3  W  .  Ill-  c.  34,  made  perpetual 
by  1  (i.  I.  c.  6,  quakers,  where  an  oath  is  re- 
([uired,  are  permitted  to  make  a  solemn  aftir- 
mation  or  declaration  ot  the  truth  of  any  fact; 
but  they  are  not  capable  ot  being  witnesses  iti 
any  cr.minal  cause,  serving  on  iuries,  or 
bearing  any  office  or  place  "of  proiit  under 
goverumeiit,  luih-ss  they  are  sworn  lite  other 
prutestants ;  but  this  clause  does  not  extend  to 
the  tVeedomofa  corporation.  I  Lord  Kaym» 
337. 

By  Stat.  22  G^II.  c.  46.  an  affirmation  shall 
be  allowed  in  all  cases  (except  criminal> 
wht-re  by  any  act  of  parliament  an  oath  is  re- 
quired, tiiough  1U1  provision  is  therein  m  de 
lor  admitting  a  quaker  to  make  his  afliima- 
tion.     See  Friends. 

QUALE.\,  a  genu;  of  tlie  monnndria  nio- 
nogynia  class  ;md  order.  The  calyx  is  tour- 
parted;  corolla  two-petalled  ;  fruit  a  berry» 
1  here  are  two  species,  trees  of  Guiana. 

(iUAMDIU  SE  BENE  GESSERIT,  a 
clau-e  frequently  to  be  found  in  letters  patent 
of  the  grant  of  'oflkes,  as  iu  those  to  the  ba- 
rons ot  the  exchequer,  &c.  where  it  intimates- 
that  they  shall  hold  the  same  as  long  as  they 
shall  behave  themselves  welL  It  is  said  that 
these  words  intend  what  the  law  would  imply 
it  an  office  was  granted  duriixg  hfe. 

QUAX  rU.Vl  MERUi  r,  in  law,  is  an  ac- 
tion tipon  the  c-a.se,  founded  on  tlie  necessity 
of  p  ying  a  person  for  doing  any  imng  as- 
much  as  he  deserves. 

(H  .ARF^  in  law,  a  term  affixed  to  the  title 
ot  several  writs:  as,  1.  Quarc  cjccll  infra  ter- 
miiunn,  is  a  writ  thai  lies  lor  a  lessee  cast  out 
of  Ins  farm  U-fore  his  term  is  expired.  2. 
Qu.iie  imped'.t,  a  writ  that  lies  fur  a  persoik 
that  has  puri  based  an  advowson,  against  liiui 
who  disturbs  liiminthe  right  thereot  by  pre- 
senting a  clerk  to  it  when  the  church  "is  va- 
cant. This  writ  dili'ers  from  what  is  called  a 
darrein  presentment,  because  that  is  brought 
wlu-re  a  person  or  his  ancestors  forniC'  Iv  pre- 
sented ;  but  this  lies  l<ir  liiiu  that  is  pun"  baser 
himself.     \ct  in  both  these  writs,  the  plaiu- 


Q   V  A  ID   R    A  N  ^'I'   S    . 


27/c  Iviiiiiwn. 
I 

\ — 13_ 


o 

B 


.\'llllllll\     (JllllilliKll 
I 


K       \ 
C 


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(''iiiiiiiT.f   QikkIiiiiiI 


Colr'.f  OiMJmnt 

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^■^^m^ 


Siriieal 

8 

16      no  -    Tit     g|o      an      3K>      a&      «io     dia 

;t---. 


A  J  </ 


Qimthat 
9 


Quadrature 
13 


'Cr-t' 


.*i.- 


fa.- 


Q  IT  A 

tiff  recovers  the  pif'scnlatioii  and  daniai^M; 
thmif;li  Uu.'  tilli'  to  llu?  ailvowson  i»  rpfoviTcd 
oiily  l)y  a  iinarc  imp'-diL.  3.  Quart'  iiituin- 
bravit  IS  a  will  that  lu's  against  a  l)islio|),  who, 
viilliiu  six  moutlis  atl>;r  llie  vacancy  of  a  bf- 
uclici',  conliTs  it  on  Ins  clerk,  wliile  two 
others  are  contc_4irif;  the  right  of  presenta- 
tion. 4.  Quare  non  adniisit  is  a  writ  that 
lies  wliere  any  one  has  recovered  an  atlvovv- 
son  or  presentation,  and  sending  his  clerk  to 
be  adniitled,  the  hishop  refuses  to  admit 
him;  in  which  case  the  person  that  has  the 
presentation  may  have  this  writ  agaist  the  bi- 
shop. 5.  (Jiiarenoii  pennittit  is  a  writ  that 
lies  for  one  who  has  a  right  to  present  tor  a 
turn  against  the  projirielary,  6.  Quaie  ob- 
struxit,  is  a  writ  that  lies  lor  him  who,  having, 
a  right  to  pass  through  another's  ground-,  can- 
not enjoy  the  same,  because  the  owner  iias 
I'enced  them  up. 

Ql'AKTEK,  the  fourth  part  of  any  thing, 
♦he  fractional  expression  lor  which  is  J, 
Quarter,  in  weights,  is  generally  used  for  the 
fourth  part  of  a  IrUiidrcdweight  avoirdupois, 
orL'SJii. 

Used  as  the  name  of  a  drv  measure,  quarter 
is  the  fourth  part  of  a  ton  in  weight,  or  eight 
bushels. 

QuARTF.R,  in  heraldry,  is  applied  to  tlie 
parts  or  members  of  the  lir.;t  division  of  a 
coat  that  is  quartered  or  divided  into  four 
quarters. 

Quarter  nf  a  point,  in  navigation,  is  the 
fourth  part  of  the  distance  between  two  car- 
dinal points,  which  is  'J'  48'. 

Quarter  nf  a  ship,  is  that  part  of  a  ship's 
hold  which  lies  between  the  sleerage-rooin 
and  the  transom. 

Quarter-masters,  or  quurtecrs,  in  a 
ship  of  war,  aieoliicers  whose  business  it  is  to 
rummage,  stow,  and  trim,  the  sliip  in  the 
hold  ",  to  overlook  the  steward  in  hi:,  delivery 
of  victuals  to  the  cook,  and  in  pumping  or 
drawing  out  beer,  or  the  likif.  '\  hey  are  also 
to  keep  their  watch  duly,  in  conning  the  sldp, 
or  any  other  duty. 

Quarter-sessions.  See  Sessions. 

QUARTtlUNG,  in  gunnery,  is  when  a 
•piece  of  orduauce  is  so  traversed  that  it  will 
shoot  on  the  ?ame  line,  or  on  the  same  point 
of  tlie  compass,  as  Uie  ship's  quarter  bears. 

Quartering,  in  heraldry,  is  dividing  a 
<oat  into  four  or  more  quarters,  or  quarter- 
ings,  by  parting,  couping,  &c.  that  is,  by  per- 
pendicular and  horizontal  lines,  &c. 

QUARTI'^RS,  a  name  given  at  sea  to  the 
several  stations  where  the  officers  anil  crew  of 
a  ship  of  war  are  posted  iu  action. 

The  number  of  men  appointed  to  manage 
the  artillery  is  always  in  proportion  to  the 
nature  of  the  guns,  and  the  number  and  con- 
dition of  the  ship's  crew.  'Ihcy  are,  in  ge- 
neral, as  follow,  when  the  ship  is  well  man- 
j>ed,  so  as  to  light  both  sides  at  once  occa- 
tioaally : 

Pounder        No.  of  men. 

To  a  42  -  15 

32         -  13 

24  -  U 

18-9 

12-7 

9  -  6 

6  -  5 

4  -  4 

3  -  3 


QUA 

This  number,  (o  which  is  often  adiled  a  boy 
to  bring  powder  to  every  gun,  may  be  orea- 
sioiially  reduced,  mm\  the  guns  neverlheh-s-, 
well  managed.  'I'he  number  of  men  appoint- 
ed to  the  small  arms  on  board  his  majesty's 
ships  and  sloops  of  uar,  bv  order  oi'lhe  aihiii- 
ralty,  are; 

Rate  of  the  ship.  No.  of  men  to  the 

small  arms. 
1st  ...         150 

I'd  -         -         -  120 

3d  of aO  guns  -         ion 

—  ol  70  guns  -  80 

4th  ol  00  cnns         -  70 

4lh         -"      -         -  tiO 

jth         ...  50 

f)th         ...  40 

Sloops  of  war  -  30 

The  lieutenants  are  usually  stationed  to 
command  the  dil'li-rent  batteries,  and  direct 
IlK.'ir  erii)rts  against  the  enemy.  T  he  nia-ter 
superintends  the  movements  of  the  ship,  and 
w  halever  relati'S  to  the  sails.  The  boatswain, 
and  a  suliicient  number  of  men,  are  ^lalioll^d 
to  repair  the  damaged  rigging;  and  tlie  gun- 
ner and  carpinter,  wherever  necessary,  ac- 
cording to  their  respective  oUices. 

(Quarters,  close,  in  a  ship,  those  places 
where  the  seamen  quarter  themselves,  incase 
of  boarding,  for  their  own  defence,  and  for 
clearing  the  decks,  &c. 

Ql'.\l{  rZ.  This  stone,  which  is  very  com- 
mon ill  most  mounluinnus  countries,  is  some- 
times crystallized,  and  sonntim<'s  amor- 
phous. 'I'he  primitive  form  of  its  crystals, 
according  to  Sir.  Hauy,  is  a  rhomboidal  pa- 
rallelopiped,  the  angles  of  whose  rhombs  are 
94'  and  86',  so  that  it  does  not  difler  much 
from  a  cube.  The  most  common  variety  is 
a  dodecahedron,  com|K)sed  of  two  six-sided 
pyramids,  applied  base  to  base,  whose  sides 
are  isosceles  triangles,  having  the  angle  at 
the  vertex  4o",  and  each  of  the  angles  at  the 
base  70";  the  inclination  of  a  side  of  one  pyra- 
mid to  the  contiguous  side  of  the  other  pyra- 
mid is  104'.  'I'liere  is  ofleu  a  six-sided  prism 
interijosed  between  the  two  pyramids,  the 
sides  of  which  alw  ays  correspond  with  those 
of  the  pyramids.  For  a  description  and 
ligure  of  t'lieotlier  varieties  of  quartz  crystals, 
and  for  a  demonstration  ofthe  law  which  they 
have  followed  in  crystallizing,  we  refer  the 
reader  to  Kome  de  Lisle  and  Mr.  Hauy. 

The  texture  of  quartz  is  more  or  less  foli- 
ated. Fracture  conchoidal  or  splintery.  Its 
lustre  v.iries,  and  also  its  transparency,  and 
in  some  cases  it  is  opac{ue.  It  causes  a 
tlouble  refraction.  Specilic  gravity  from  2.(i4 
to  2.67,  and  in  one  variety  2. (it).  Its  colour 
and  appearance  are  exceedingly  various : 
this  has  induced  mineralogists  to  divide  it  into 
numerous  varieties.  The  common  division 
is  into  live  subspecies. 

1.  Amethyst,  Colour  viotet,  of  different 
degrees  of 'intensity,  sometimes  greenish. 
Commonly  found  in  crystals  in  the  hollow 
cavities  of  agates.  Composed,  according  to 
Rose,  of    97.50  silica 

0.26  aUmiina 

0.50  oxide  of  iron  and  manganese 


QUA 


539 


98.25 


2.  Rock  crystal.  Colourless,  or  white  with 
different  shades  of  grey,  yellow,  brown,  and 
red.     Uiually  crystallizeu  in  tlie  hollows  of 
3  Y2 


vciiij.    Transparency  3,  4.   Composed,  ac- 
cording to  Bergman,  of 
93  silica 
(5  alumina 
1  lime 

100. 

3.  Milk  and  rosy  red  quartz.  Colour  usu- 
ally red.  .Mways  in  mass,  never  crystaili/ed. 
Liisire  grea^-y.  Transparency  2,3.  Found 
in  Bavaria  and  Finland.  Supposed  to  con- 
tain manganese. 

4.  Common  quartz.  Acon^ituent  ofmaiiy 
mountains.  Colours  exceedingly  numerous, 
while,  grev,  brown,  yellow,  red,  green  of  va- 
rious shades.  Usually  amorplious ;  some- 
times crystallized.  It.-,'  transpareiicy  chielly 
distinguishes  it  from 'jck  crystal.  See  Crys- 
tal 

5.  Trase:  usually  lake-green,  sometimes- 
olive  and  pist.ichio  green.  Commonly  in  mass; 
rarely  crystallized. 

Cronstedt  observes,  that  quartz  in  general, 

and  especially  its  crystals,  are  very  comnionly 

sup])osed,  wlien  ve't  in  their  suit  and  dissolv- 

;  ed  state,  to  have'iucludcd  within  them  some. 

I  vegetables  ;   for   instance,   grass    and   moss.- 

I  "  This  (savs  he)  1  ca.mot  absolutely  deny; 

1  but  it  dese'rvcs  cavetuUy  to  be  examined,  if 

'<  that  which  is   shown  as 'a  grass  is  not  an  as- 

I  bestos,  or  a  striated  cockle ;  and  the  moss 

only   branched    varieties   filled    with   earth, 

I  which,  by  their  being  ramose,  bear  a  vege- 

\  table  ajipearauce.      It  is   very   common  in 

■  agates,  and  makes  them  of  less  value  than 
!  they  otherwise  would  be.  This  is  most  gene- 
:  r.illy  the  case   with   those  stones  which  are 

shown  as  including  vegetables;  and  for  my 
own  part,  1  have  never  been  so  fortunate  as  to 
meet  with  any  others." 

M.  Magelkm  remarks,  that  quartz  is  one  of 
the   principal    kinds   of  stone   which  contain 
metals.     Some  of  the  Hungarian  veins  con- 
sist entirely  of  it,  and  the  gold  is  so  minutely 
dispersed,  that  it  cannot  be  discerned  by  the 
best  microscopes   before   it   is  sep.irated  by 
pounding   and  washing.     The  width  of  the 
veins,  some  of  which  are  half  a  fathom,  and 
some  still  more,  repay  the  trouble  and  ex- 
'  pences,  which    the   small   quantity   of  gold 
:  would  not  otherwise  counterbalance.    Nature 
•  has  not   any   where   produced  mountains  of 
I  pure  (piarlz;  for  though  some  rocks  in  Swe- 
I  den  are  ranked  among  the  quartzes,  they  are 
[  undoubtedly  mixed  w  ith  heterogeneous  mat- 
I  ters.   Near  "L^utei  berg  upon  the   liartz   are 
1  veins  of  this  stone  from  one  to  three  fathoms 
wide,  consisting  of  a  loose  sand,  in  iwhich  they 
lind  the  copper  ore  in  nejts.     In  tlie  Dani-ii 
I  isle  of  Anhalt  we  meet  with  triangular  quartz 
:  ])ebbles.  There  are  likewise  crystals  of  quartz 
\  having  water  enclosed  in  them;  some  (in« 
I  pieces  of  this  kind  are  to  be  met  with  JH  the 

■  nnperial  cabinet  at  \'ienna,  &c. 

Rocl^  crystals  are  generally  found  \i;x)n  or 
among  quartz,  and  are  to  be  met  with  in  ail 
parts  of  the  world.  The  greatest  number 
are  furnished  to  the  F.uropean  countries  from 
mount  Saint  Gothard  in  Switzerland.     Here 

I  large  pieces,  weighing  from  5  to  800  pounds, 
were   found  at   Grimselberg;   one   of  120O 

I  pounds  was  found  some  years  ago  atFrisbach 

I  in  the  V'alais;  and  a  piece  six  feet  long,  four 
broad,  and  equally  thick,  was  found  in  tlie 

.  island  of  Madagascar,  a  place  where  these 
natural  productioas  are  of  tiie  mo»t  extCL- 
ordinary  size  and  perfection. 


(5-iO 

When  grpat  nv.antilics  of  quartz  are  conti- 1 
nually  ag  tated  by  the  sea  or  river  water, 
they  are  sometiniL-s  reduced  to  sucli  very] 
niiiiute  parts  as  to  bf  easily  eanied  away,  j 
suspended  in  ilie  water ;  an<i  tliere  are  sands 
ot'so  minute  a  size  as  to  measure  les-tlian 
tlie  two  or  three  hundreutli  part  ot  an  incii. 
'1  hese  are  called  quick-sands.  Imnionsc 
tracts  of  land  consist  only  of  loose  sands,  par- 
ticularly along  the  sea-sliore  in  many  parts  of 
Kurope.  When  sand  is  about  as  big  as  peas, 
it  is  called  gravel ;  and  when  it  is  free  from 
saline  and  heterogeneous  particles,  it  is  em- 
ployed in  making  mortar,  and  for  other  eco- 
nomical purposes.  Tliat  which  is  very  pure 
serves  for  making  tlint-gla^s,  with  red  calces 
of  lead,  and  the  proper  alkaline  tiux;  but 
when  mixed  with  ferruginous-black  sand,  the 
glass  assumes  a  greenish-black  colour.  "  This 
(says  M.  Magellen)  I  have  seen  among  the 
various  specimens  of  glass  made  by  Mr.  E. 
Delaval,  F.  R.  S.  who  produced  a  very  fme 
transparent  and  colourless  glass  out  of  the 
same  sand  with  vvhici;  he  had  made  some  of 
tl'.at  black  glass,  and  this  only  by  separating 
from  it  all  the  ferruginous  m'ixture." 

QUASSIA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  or- 
<li:r,  in  the  decandria  cla^s  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  l4th 
order,  gruinales.  The  calyx  is  pentaphyl- 
loiis;  -there  are  five  petals;  'the  ncctarium  is 
pentaphyllous;  there  are  from  two  to  five 
seed-cases,  >landing  asunder,  and  monsper- 
Miou>.  There  are  three  species,  the  amara, 
ti  naruba,  and  excelsa. 

1.  The  quassia  amara  grows  to  the  height 
of  several  feet,  and  sends  ort'  many  strong 
brandies.  Tlie  wood  is  nf  a  w  hite  coloiu'  and 
l:glit ;  the  bark  is  thui  and  grey;  the  leaves  are 
placed  alternately  on  the  branches,  and  con- 
sist of  two  pair  ol  opposite  pifflia-,  witli  an 
odd  one  at  the  enil  :  the  (lowers  are  all  iier- 
maphrotlite,  ofa  bright  red  colour,  and  ter- 
minate the  branches  in  long  spikes.  It  is  a 
native  of  South  America,  particularly  of  Su- 
rina!n,  and  also  of  some  of  tiie  West  Indian 
islands.  The  root,  bark,  and  wood,  of  this 
tn-e,  have  all  places  in  the  materia  medica. 
The  wood  is  most  generally  used,  and  is  said 
to  be  a  tonic,  stomachic,  antiseptic,  and  fe- 
brifuge. 

2.  The  quassia  simaniba  is  common  in  all 
the  woody  lands  in  Jamaica.  It  grows  to  a 
great  height  and  considerable  thickness.  'J'he 
trunks  of  the  old  trees  are  black  and  a  little 
furrowed.  Those  of  the  yoiuig  trees  are 
smooth  and  grey,  with  here  and  there  a  broad 
yellow  spot.  The  inside  bark  of  the  trunk 
and  branches  is  white,  fibrous,  and  tough.  It 
tastes  slightly  bitter.  The  wood  is  hard,  and 
useful  for  buddings.  It  splits  freely,  and  makes 
excellent  staves  tor  sugar-liogsheads.  It  has 
no  sensible  bitter  taste.  The  branches  are 
alternate  and  spreading.  The  leaves  are  nu- 
merous and  alternate.  The  llowers  are  of  a 
yf-llow  colour,  and  placed  on  spikes  beauti- 
nilly  branched. 

The  fruit  is  of  that  kind  called  a  drupa,  and 
n  ripe  towards  tiie  end  of  May.  It  is  of  an 
oval  shape,  is  black,  smooth,  and  shining. 
Ti.e  pulp  is  Heshy  and  soft ;  the  taste  nau 
s  c  us  and  sweet.  The  nut  is  llatteiied,  an. 
on  one  side  winged.  Tiie  kernel  is  small,  tlat, 
:<■■  d  tastes  sweet.  The  natural  number  ol 
t  fldrupiis  five  on  each  common  rocep 
I.  cle  ;  but  for  the  m  >st  part  there  are  only 


QUASSIA. 

two  or  tliree.    The  roots  are  thick,  and  rin 

at  a  small  deptii  under  the  surface  of  tlie 
ground  to  a  considerable  distance.  The  hark 
is  rough,  scaly,  and  wartjd.  The  inside 
wlien  tresh  is  a  full  yellow,  but  when  dry 
paler.  It  has  but  lillfe  smell.  Tlie  taste  is 
bitter,  but  not  very  disagreeable.  This  is 
the  true  cortex  simarubs  of  the  shops.  The 
sliops  are  supplied  with  this  bark  from  Gui- 
ana ;  but  now  ^ve  may  have  it  from  our  ou  n 
isiandi  at  a  moderate  expence. 

Most  authors  who  have  written  on  the 
simaruba  agree,  that  in  fluxes  it  restores  the 
lost  tone  of  the  intestines,  allays  tlu-ir  spas- 
modic motion,  promotes  tlie  secretions  by 
urine  and  perspiration,  removes  that  lowness 
of  spirits  attending  dvsenteries,  and  disposes 
the  patient  to  sleep;  the  gripes  and  tenesmus 
are  taken  otif,  and  the  stools  changed  to  their 
natural  colour  and  consistence.  In  a  mode- 
rate dose  it  occasions  no  disturbance  or  unea- 
siness; but  in  a  large  dose  it  produces  sick- 
ness at  stomach  and  vomiting.  Negroes  are 
less  affected  by  it  than  wliite  people.  Dr. 
CuUen,  however,  says,  "  We  can  perceive 
nothing  in  this  bark  but  that  of  a  simple  bit- 
ter; the  virtues  ascribed  to  it  in  dysentery 
have  not  been  confirmed  by  my  experience, 
or  tliat  of  the  practitioners  in  this  country; 
and  leaving  what  otliers  are  said  to  have  ex- 
perienced to  be  further  examined  and  consi- 
ilered  by  practitioners,  1  can  only  at  present 
sav,  that  my  account  of  the  elTect  of  bitters 
will  perhaps  explain  the  virtues  ascribed  to 
simaruba.  In  dysentery  I  have  found  an  in- 
fusion of  camomile-tlowers  a  more  useful 
remedy. 

3.  The  qviassia  excelsa,  or  polygama,  was 
named  by  sir  Josepli  Banks,  Dr.  Solander, 
and  Dr.  Wright.  It  is  very  common  in  the 
woodlands  of  .'amaica,  is  beautiful,  tall,  and 
stately,  some  being  100  feet  long,  and  10  feet 
in  circumference  eight  feet  above  the  ground. 
The  trunk  is  straight,  smooth,  and  tapering, 
sending  off  its  branches  towards  the  top. 
The  outside  bark  is  pretty  smooth,  of  a  iiglit 
grey  or  ash-colour,  from  various  lichens. 
The  bark  of  tlie  roots  is  of  a  yellow  cast, 
somewhat  like  the  cortex  simaruba.  The 
wool  is  of  a  yellow  colowr,  tough,  but  not 
very  hard.  It  takes  a  good  polish,  and  is 
usetl  as  flooring.  TJie  flowers  are  small,  of 
a  yeUowish-green  colour,  with  a  very  small 
calyx.  The  male  or  barren  tree  has  flowers 
nearly  similar  to  tlie  hermaphrodite,  but  in  it 
there  are  only  the  rudiments  ofa  style.  The 
fruit  is  a  smooth  black  drupa,  round-shaped, 
and  of  the  size  of  a  pea.  Except  tlie  pulp  of 
the  fruit,  every  other  part  of  this  tree  has  an 
intensely  bitter  taste.  In  taste  and  virtues  it 
is  nearly  equal  to  the  quassia  of  Surinam. 
The  happiest  effects  resultfrom  the  use  of  this 
medicine  in  obstinate  remitting  fevers  from 
marsh-miasmata,  in  agues  which  had  resisted 
the  use  of  Jesuits'  baik,  and  in  dysenteries  of 
longstanding.  It  isin  daily  practice  in  dropsies 
from  debility,  either  in  simple  infusions  or 
tincture  by  itself,  or  joined  with  aromatics 
and  chalybeates.  Dr.  Drummond,  an  emi- 
nent physician  in  Jamaica,  prescribes  it  with 
great  success  in  the  above  cases,  as  well  as  in 
aincnorrhoc.1,  chlorosis,  dyspepsia,  and  in  that 
species  of  pica  called  diii-eating,  so  fatal  to  a 
number  of  negroes. 

The  bark  of  the  (|uassia  poh'gama,  but  es- 
pecially tlie  wood,  is  intensely' bitter.  They 
may  both  be  used  in  various  forms.     In  cer- 


tain cases  of  dropsy,  aromatics  and  prrpara- 
lions  are  joined  to  11,  also  m  anieuurrhiea  ad 
chlorosis;  and  in  worin  fevers,  the  cabbage- 
bark,  or  other  vegetable  anthelmintics. 

Qi'Assi.'.,  in  chemistry.  Many  vegetable 
substani cs  have  an  intensely  bitter  taste,  and 
on  that  account  are  employed  in  metlicine, 
by  brewers,  &c.  This  is  the  case  with  the 
w'ood  of  the  quassia  amara  and  excelsa,  the 
common  quassia  of  the  shops;  with  the  roots 
of  the  gentiana  lutea,  common  gentian;  the 
leaves  of  the  humulus  lupulus  or  hop  ;  the 
bark  and  wood  of  the  spartium  scoparlum,  or  . 
common  bniom;  the  flowers  and  leaves  of'- 
the  aiitheiiiis  uobilis  or  chamomile  ;  and  many 
other  substaiHes.  1  hese  bodies  ov.  e  their 
bitter  taste  to  the  presence  of  a  peculiar  ve^ 
gelable  substance  differing  from  every  other, 
wliic  h  may  be  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
the  bitter  principle. 

No  chemical  examination  of  tliis  substance 
has  been  hitlierto  published;  nor  indeed  are 
we  in  possession  of  any  method  of  separating 
it  from  other  bodies,  or  of  ascertaining  its 
presence.  At  the  same  time  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  it  possesses  pe(*uliar  characters  ; 
and  its  action  on  the  animal  economy  renders 
it  an  object  ot  importance. 

1.  When  water  is  digested  over  quassia  for 
some  time,  it  acquires  an  intensely  bitter 
taste  and  a  yellow  colour,  but  no  smell. 
When  water  thus  impregnated  is  evaporated 
to  dryness  in  a  low  heat,  it  leaves  a  brownish- 
yellow  substance,  which  retains  a  certain  de- 
gree of  transparency.  It  continues  ductile 
tor  some  time,  but  at  last  becomes  brittle. 
This  substance  we  might  consider  as  the  bit- 
ter principle  in  a  state  of  purity.  If  it  con- 
tains any  foreign  body  it  must  be  in  a  very 
minute  proportion.  This  substance  is  found 
to  possess  the  following  properties:  I.  Its 
taste  is  intensely  bitter.  Colour  brownish- 
yellow.  2.  W'hen  heated,  softens,  and  swells, 
and  blackens  ;  then  burns  away  without  flam- 
ing much,  and  leaves  a  small  quantity  of 
ashes.  3.  Very  soluble  in  water  and  in  al- 
cohol, -i.  Does  not  alter  tlie  colour  of  in- 
fusion of  litmus.  5.  Lime  water,  barytas 
water,  and  strontian  water,  occasion  no  pre- 
cipitate. Neither  is  any  jirecipitale  thrown 
down  by  silicated  potass,  aluminated  potass, 
or  sulphat  of  magnesia.  6.  The  alkalies  oc- 
casion no  change  in  the  diluted  solution  of 
the  bitter  principle.  7.  Oxalat  of  ammonia 
occasions  no  precipitate.  8.  Nitrat  of  silver 
renders  the  solution  muddy,  and  a  very  soft 
flaky  yellow  precipitate  falls  slowly  to  the 
bottom.  9.  Neither  corrosive  sublimate  nor 
nitrat  of  mercury  occasions  any  precipitate. 
10.  Nitrat  of  copper,  and  the  amnioniacal 
solution  of  copper,  produce  no  change;  but 
muriat  of  copper  gives  the  white  precipitate, 
which  falls  when  this  li(piid  salt  is  dropt  into 
water.  11.  Sulphat  and  oxymuriat  of  iron 
occasion  no  change.  12.  Muriat  of  tin  ren- 
ders the  solution  muddy,  but  occasions  no 
precipitate,  unless  the  solution  is  concen- 
trated; in  that  case  a  copious  precipitate 
falls.  13.  Acetat  of  lead  occasions  a  very 
copious  white  jirecipitate.  But  the  nitrat  of 
lead  produces  no  change.  14.  Muriat  of 
zinc  occasions  no  change.  15.  Nitrat  of  bis- 
muth produces  no  change,  though  when  the 
salt  is  dropt  into  pure  water  a  copious  white 
precipitate  appears.  It).  Tartar  emetic  pro- 
duces no  change;  but  when  the  muriat  of 
antimony  is  usetl,  the  while  precipilate  ap- 


Q  U  E 

pears,  wliic'h  oKvays  l\x\U  when  lliis  salt  is 
dropt  iiilo  pure  wutrr.  17.  Miiriat  ami  ur- 
seiual  ot  roiialt  occa^iioii  no  cliange.  18.  Ain:- 
liial  of  |)olass  pioduLL-.i  noc-llfct.  19.  'I'iiic- 
ture  of  niitgalls,  inlii<>'.on  ol  nutgalls,  gallic 
acid,  occasion  no  cl'lect. 

These  proppilics  arc  suflicient  to  convince 
us  tli.it  the  bllt:'!'  principle  is  a  snbstance 
differing  considc  ralilv  troui  all  the  other  ve- 
getable principles.  'I'he  little  effect  of  the 
dillerent  reagents  is  remarkable.  Nitrat  of 
silver  and  acetat  of  lead  are  tlie  only  two 
bodies  which  throw  it  down.  'I'liis  precipita- 
tion cannot  be  ascribed  to  the  presence  of 
muriatic  acid  ;  for  it  muriatic  acid  was  pre- 
sent, nitrat  of  lead  would  also  be  thrown 
down.  Besides,  the  tlakes  introduced  by 
nitrat  of  silver  are  too  light,  and  indeed  have 
no  resemblance  wliate\er  to  mnriat  of  silver. 
'J'he  precipitate  by  acetat  ot  lead  is  very  co- 
pious. '1  his  salt  is  therefore  the  best  sub- 
stance for  detecting  the  presence  of  the  bitter 
principle,  when  we  are  certain  that  no  other 
substance  is  present  whicli  throws  down  lead. 

QITjEN,  a  woman  who  holds  a  crown 
singly.  The  title  of  ipieen  is  also  given  by 
way  of  courtesy  to  her  that  is  married  to  a 
king,  who  is  called  by  way  of  distinction 
queen-consort. 

A  queen-consort  is  inferior  to  the  king,  and 
is  really  his  subject,  tiiough,  as  the  king's 
wife,  she  has  several  prerogatives  above  other 
women.  Though  an  alien,  she  may  purchase 
lands  in  fee-simple,  without  either  naturaliza- 
tion or  denization.  She  may  present  to  a 
benefice.  She  shall  not  be  amerced  if  she  is 
nonsuited  in  any  action;  and  may  not  be 
impleaded  till  first  petitioned.  To  conspire 
her  death,  or  violate  her  chastity,  is  high 
treason.  She  iias  an  antient  peculiar  revenue 
called  queen-gold;  besides  a  very  large 
dower,  with  a  royal  court,  and  officers  of  her 
own.  No  person  here  must  marry  a  queen 
dowager  without  the  licence  of  the  succeed- 
ing king,  on  pain  of  forleiting  his  lands  and 
goods;  but  though  she  marry  any  of  the  no- 
bility, or  even  one  under  that  degree,  she 
does  not  lose  her  dignity. 

QUERCUS,  the  oak-tree,  a  genus  of  the 
polyandria  order,  in  the  monoecia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  50th  order,  amentacea.  The  calyx- 
is  nearly  quinquefid  ;  there  is  no  corolla  ;  tlie 
stamina  are  from  fire  to  ten  in  number.  The 
female  calyx  is  monophyllous,  very  entire, 
and  scabrous.  There  is  no  corolla;  the  styles 
are  from  two  to  five;  and  there  is  an  ovate 
seed. 

There  are  26  species ;  the  most  remarkable 
are ;  1 .  The  robur,  or  common  English  oak, 
from  about  60  or  70  to  100  feet  high,  with  a 
prodigious  large  trunk  and  spreading  head. 
There  is  a  variety  having  the  leaves  finely 
striped  with  white.  This  species  grows  in 
great  abundance  all  over  England,  in  woods, 
forest,  and  hedge-rows,  and  is  supposed  to 
continue  its  growth  many  centuries.  2.  The 
prinus,  or  chesnut-leaved  American  oak, 
grows  30  or  60  feet  high;  having  large  ob- 
long-oval smooth  leaves,  pointed  both  ways, 
the  edges  sinuated-serrated,  with  the  sinuses 
uniformly  round.  3.  The  phellos,  or  willow- 
leaved  American  oak,  grows  40  or  50  feet 
high,  having  long,  narrow,  smooth,  entire 
leaves,  uke  ttiose  of  the  willow.  There  is  a 
variety  called  the  dwarf  willow-leaved  oak. 
4.  The  alba,  or  white  Virginian  oak,  grows 
10 


QUE 

30  or  iO  feet  high,  having  a  whitish  bark,  with 
long  obliquelv  piimatihd  ligiit-green  leaves, 
tlie  sinuses  and  angles  obtuse.  5.  '1  he  nigra, 
or  black  Virginian  o;;k,  grows  30  or  40  teet 
high,  liaving  a  dark-colo'ired  bark,  large 
wedge-sh::ped  slightly-trilobated  leaves.  C. 
Tlie  rubra,  or  red  \irginian  oak,  grows  about 
60  feet  liigh,  havingadark-grevish  bark,  long 
obtusely-sinnated  leaves,  witji  the  sinuses 
terminated  by  bristly  points,  ;.nd  sometimes 
red  spotted  veins,  but  generally  dying  in 
autumn  to  a  reddish  colour,  remaining  on  the 
trees  late  in  the  season.  .7.  The  esiuliisof 
I'liny,  or  cut-leaved  Italian  oak,  grows  about 
30  feet  liigli,  having  a  purplish  bark,  oblong 
deeply-sinuated  smooth  leaves,  and  long 
slender  close-sitting  acorns  in  very  large 
cups.  8.  /Egilops,  or  large  prickly-cupped 
Spanish  oak,  grows  70  or  80  feet  high,  or 
more,  with  a  very  large  trunk,  and  widely 
spreading  head,  having  a  whitish  bark,  large 
oblong-oval  deeply-serrated  smooth  leaves, 
the  serratures  bowed  backward,  and  large 
acorns  pUu  ed  in  singularly  large  prickly-cups. 
This  is  a  noble  species,  almost  equal  in  grow  tli 
to  our  common  English  oak.  9.  Cerris, 
or  smaller  prickly-tupped  Spanish  oak,  grows 
30  or  40  leet  higli,  and  has  olilong  lyre-shaped 
pinnatifid  transversely-jagged  leaves,  downy 
underneath,  and  small  acorns  placed  in 
prickly  cups.  10.  The  ilex,  or  common 
evergreen  oak,  grows  40  or  50  feet  high,  hav- 
ing a  smooth  bai  k,  oval  and  oblons;  undivided 
serrated  petiolated  leaves,  downy  and  whitish 
underneath.  'I'he  varieties  are,  broad-leav- 
ed, narrow-leaved,  and  sometimes  both  sorts, 
and  other  different-shaped  leaves  on  the  jame 
tree;  also  sometimej  with  sawed  and  prickly 
leaves.  11.  The  gramuntia,  or  Montpelier 
holly-leaved  evergreen  oak,  grows  40  or  50 
feet  high ;  and  has  oblong-oval,  close-sitting, 
sinuated,  spinous  leaves,  downy  underneath, 
bearing  a  resemblance  to  the  leaves  of  iiollv. 
12.  The  suber,  or  cork-tree,  grows  30  or  40 
feet  high,  having  a  thick,  rough,  fungous, 
cleft  bark,andoblong-oval,  undivided,  serrat- 
ed leaves,  downy  underneath.  This  species 
furnishes  that  useful  material  cork,  'it  being 
the  bark  of  the  tree  ;  which  becoming  of  a 
thick  fungous  nature,  under  which,  at  the 
same  time,  is  formed  a  new  bark,  and  the 
old  being  detached  far  use,  the  tree  still  lives, 
and  the  succeeding  young  bark  becomes  also 
of  the  same  thick  spongy  nature  in  six  or 
seven  years,  fit  for  barking,  having  likewise 
another  fresh  bark  forming  under  it,  b  com- 
ing cork  like  the  others  in  the  like  period  of 
time:  and  in  this  manner  these  trees  wonder- 
fully furnish  the  cork  for  use.  The  tree 
grows  in  great  plenty  in  Spain  and  Portugal, 
and  from  these  countries  we  receive  the  cork. 
The  Spaniards  burn  it,  to  make  that  kind  of 
light  black  we  call  Spanish  black,  used  by 
painters.  Cups  made  of  cork  are  said  to  be 
good  for  hectical  persons  to  drink  out  of.  The 
Egyptians  made  coffins  of  cork,  which  beins 
lined  with  a  resinous  composition,  preserved 
dead  bodies  uncorrupted.  The  Spaniards 
line  stone  walls  with  it,  which  not  only  ren- 
ders them  very  warm,  but  corrects  the  moist- 
ure of  the  air.  13.  The  coccifera,  scarlet, 
or  kermes  oak,  grows  but  14  or  15  feet  high, 
branching  all  the  way,  and  of  bushy  growth, 
with  large  oval,  undivided,  indented,  spinous 
leaves,  and  producing  small  glandular  ex- 
crescences, called  kermes,  or  scarlet  grain, 
used  by  the  dyers.    The  small  scarlet  glands 


Q  U  E 


511 


found  in  this  tree  are  the  effect  of  certain  in- 
sects de|)ositing  their  eggs  betwixt  the  bark  of 
the  branches  and  leaves,  causing  an  extrava- 
sation ot  the  sap,  and  forming  the  excres- 
cence or  substance  in  qu'stion,  which  being 
dried  is  the  kermes  or  scarlet  pastel.  14.  Ihe 
Molucca,  Moluccan  oak,  comraonlv  called 
American  live  cak,  grows  about  4U  teet  iiigh, 
having  oval,  spear-shaped,  smooth,  entire 
leaves,  and  small,  oblong,  eatable  acorns. 

All  the  above  |)rotluce  flowers  annually  in 
thes|)ring,  about  April  or  May,  of  a  \ellow- 
ish  colour,  but  make  no  ornamental  appear- 
ance, and  are  males  and  lemales  separated  in 
the  same  tree,  tlie  males  being  in  loose  amen- 
tuin^,  and  the  fc-ma!es  sitting  close  to  the  buds 
in  thick  leathery  hemispherical  calyxes,  suc- 
ceeded by  the  fruit  or  acorns. 

'1  he  English  oak  claims  precedence  as  a 
timber-tree,  for  its  prodigious  height  and 
bulk,  and  superior  worth  of  its  wood.  Kverj- 
jjossessor  of  considerable  estates  ought  there- 
tore  to  be-  particularly  assiduous  in  raising 
woods  of  them  ;  which"  is  effected  by  sowing 
the  acorns  eidier  in  a  nursery  and  the  plants 
transplanted  where  they  are  to  remain,  or 
sown  at  once  in  the  places  where  thev  are 
always  to  stand.  All  the  sorts  will  prosper  in 
any  middling  soil  and  open  situation,  though 
in  a  loamy  soil  they  are  generally  more  ))ros- 
perous;  however,  tiiereare  but  few  soils  in 
which  oaks  will  not  grow  ;  tliey  will  evert 
thrive  tolerably  in  gravelly,  sandv,  and  clavey 
land,  as  may  be  observed  in  inany  parts  of 
this  country  of  the  common  oak. 

'ihe  oak  is  remarkable  for  its  slowness  of 
growth,  bulk,  and  longevity.  It  has  beea 
remarked  tliat  the  trunk  has  attained  to  the 
size  only  of  fourteen  inches  in  diameter, 
and  some  to  tw  enty,  in  the  space  of  four- 
score years.  As  to  bulk,  we  have  an  ac- 
count of  an  oak  belonging  to  lord  Powis, 
growing  in  Broomfield-wood,  near  Ludlow' 
in  Shro|)siiire,  in  the  year  1764,  the  trunk 
of  which  measured  68  feet  in  girlh,  23  in 
length,  and  which,  reckoning  90  feet  for 
the  larger  branches,  contained  in  the  whole 
1455  teet  of  timber,  round  measure,  or  2<t 
loads  and  five  feet,  at  50  feet  to  a  load. 

In  the  opinion  of  many,  the  Cowthorp  oak 
near  Wetherby,  in  Yorkshire,  is  the  father  of 
the  forest.  Dr.  Hunter,  in  his  edition  of 
Evelyn,  has  given  an  engraving  of  it.  Within 
three  feet  of  the  surface,  he  says,  it  measures 
16  yards,  and  close  to  the  ground  26.  In 
1776,  though  in  a  ruinous  condition,  it  was 
85  feet  high,  and  its  principal  limb  extended 
16  yards  from  the  bole.  Tlie  foliage  was 
very  thin.  If  this  measurement  was  taken  as 
the  dimensions  of  the  real  stem,  the  size  of 
this  tree  would  be  enormous;  but,  like  most 
very  large  trees,  its  stem  is  short,  spreading 
wide  at  the  base,  the  roots  rising  above  the 
ground  like  buttresses  to  the  trunk,  which  is 
similar  not  to  a  cylinder  but  to  the  frustum  of 
a  cone.  Mr.  Marsham  says,  "  I  found  it  hi 
1768,  at  four  feet,  40  feet  6  inches;  at  rive 
feet,  36  feet  6  inches ;  and  at  six  feet,  32  feet 
linch."  In  the  principal  dimensions  then,  the 
size  of  the  stem,  it  is  exceeded  by  the  Bent- 
ley  oak,  of  which  the  same  writer  gives  the 
foilowiug  account:  "  In  1759  the  oak  in 
Holt-forest,  near  Bentley,  was  at  seven  feet, 
34  feet.  There  is  a  large  excrescence  at  live 
and  six  feel  that  would  render  the  measure 
unfair.  In  1778  this  tree  was  increased  half 
aniucliin  10  years.    It  does  not  appear  to 


542 


Q  U  E 


be  hollow,  but  by  the  trifling  increase  I  cor.- 
clude  it  not  soun<l.".  These  climeiisioiis, 
however,  are  exceeded  by  those  of  the  Bod- 
dington  ouk.  It  grows  in  a  piece  of  rich  grass 
knd,  called  the  old  orchard  ground,  be- 
loiignij  to  Boddiiigtou  manor-farm,  lying 
near  tiie  tumpike-road  between  Cheltenham 
and  Tewksbury,  in  the  vale  of  Gloucester. 
The  stem  r;  remarkably  collected  at  the  root, 
the  sides  of  its  trunk  being  much  more  up- 
right than  those  of  large  trees  in  genial ;  and 
vet  its  circumference  at  the  ground  is  about 
'20  paces;  measuring  with  a  two-foot  rule,  it 
is  more  than  1 S  vards.  At  three  feet  higli  it 
is  4-2  feet,  and  where  smallest,  i.  t:  troni  five 
to  six  feet  high,  it  is  36  fi-et.  At  six  feet  it 
swells  out  larger,  and  forms  an  cnonnous 
Jiead,  which  lias  been  furnished  with  huge, 
and  probably  exlensive,  arms.  But  time  and 
the  furj'  of  the  wind  have  robbed  it  of  much 
of  its  grandeur,  and  the  greatest  extent  of 
arm  in  17S3  was  eight  yards  from  the  stem. 

In  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  for  May 
1794,  we  liave  an  account  of  an  oak-tree 
growing  in  Penshurst-park  in  Kent,  together 
with  an  engraving.  It  is  called  the  bear  or 
bare  oak,  from  b>ing  supposed  to  resemble 
that  which  Camden  lliouglit  gave  name  to 
the  county  of  i5erkshirc.  Tlie  dimensions  of 
tlie  tree  are  tlicse : 

feet.  Inches. 
Girth  close  to  the  ground  35  6 

Ditto  one  foot  from  ditto  -7  6 

Ditto  five  feet  from  ditto  ;.'4  0 

Height  taken  by  shadow  T.j  0 

Oirlii  of  lowest,   but  not  largest 

liinb  6  9 

With  respect  to  longevity,  Linnieus  gives, 
account  of  an  oak  260  years  old ;  but  we  iiave 
had  traditions  of  some  in  England  (how  I'ar  to 
be  depended  iipiwi  we  know  not)  that  have 
attained  to  more  than  double  that  age.  .\[r. 
ilarsliam,  io  a  letter  to  Thomas  Beev'or,  Ksq. 
15at!i  Papers,  vol.  i.  p.  79,  makes  some  very 
ingenious  calculations  on  tlie  age  of  trees, 
and  concludes  from  the  incre-ise  of  the  Bcnt- 
Jey  oak,  &c.  that  the  Fortworth  che>nut  is 
ll'oo  \ears  old. 

Besides  the  grand  purposes  to  which  the 
timber  is  applied  in  navigation  and  architec- 
ture, a«d  tlie  bark  in  laniiiiig  of  h  ather, 
there  are  other  uses  ,of  less  c()n^el|lle^u■e,  to 
which  the  different  parts  of  this  tree  have 
been  referred.  Tlie  liiglilandeis  use  the  baik 
to  dye  their  yarn  of  a  brown  colour,  or,  mix- 
ed with  copjieraj:,  of  a  bhick  colour.  Oak 
saw-dust  U  ako  a  principal  ingredient  in  dye- 
ing drabs,  especially  in  ftKtian.  'I'he  acorns 
are  a  good  food  to  fatten  swine  and  turkeys; 
and  after  the  seVere  winter  of  the  year  1709, 
the  poor  people  in  France  Bci'e  iiiis»ral)lv 
constrained  to  eat  them  themsclve*.  Then- 
are,  however,  acorns  produced  from  another 
cp*"cies  of  oak,  which  are  eaten  to  this  dav  in 
frpali}  and  Greece,  with  at  inucli  pleasure  as 
0 


Q  U  I 

chcinul?,  without  the  dreadful  compulsion  of 
hunger. 

QuERCUs  MARINA,  the  Sea  oak.  See  Fv- 
crs. 

QLT.RIA,  a  genus  of  the  trigynia  order, 
in  the  triandria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  na- 
tural method  ranking  under  the  2-'d  order, 
caryophyllei.  The  calyx  is  pentapliyllous  ; 
there  is  no  corolla  ;  the  capsule  is  unilocular, 
and  trivalved,  with  one  seed.  There  are 
three  species,  viz.  hispanica,  c-.inadeiwis,  and 
ti  iciKitoma. 

QUICK,  or  Quickset  hedge,  among 
gardeners,  denotes  all  live  hedges,  of  what- 
soever sort  of  plants  they  are  composed,  to 
distinguish  them  from  dead  hedges;  but  in  a 
more  strict  sense  of  the  word,  it  is  restrained 
to  those  planted  with  the  hawthorn,  or  cra- 
t;egiis  oxvacantha,  under  which  name  tlicse 
young  plants,  or  sets,  are  sold  by  the  nursery- 
gardeners,  who  raise  them  for  sale.  SecL'R.^^- 

T^CUS. 

Qvick-silver.    See  Mercury. 

QUILTING,  a  method  of  sewing  two 
pieces  of  silk,  linen,  or  stuff,  on  each  other, 
with  woo!  or  cotton  between  them;  by  work- 
ing them  all  over  in  the  form  of  chec^uer  or 
diamond  work,  or  in  ilowers.  The  same 
name  is  also  given  to  the  stuff  so  worked. 

QllNCE.     SeePvRus. 

QUINCIIAMALIA,  a  genus  of  the  pen- 
taiulria  monogyniacla<,s  and  order.  The  calyx 
is  inferior,  (ive-toothed ;  corolla  tubular,  su- 
perior; anth.  sessile;  seed  one.  There  is 
one  sjiecies,  a  herb  of  Chili. 

QUINCUNX,  in  Roman  antiquity,  de- 
notes  any  thing  that  consists  of  five-t\vellth 
parts  of  another,  but  particularly  of  tlie  as. 

Quincunx  order,  in  gardening,  a  plan- 
tation of  trees,  disposed  originally  in  a  bquare, 
and  consisting  of  five  trees,  one  at  each  cor- 
ner, and  a  tiftli  in  the  middle:  or  a  quincunx 
is  the  figure  of  a  plantation  of  trees,  disposed 
in  several  rows,  both  length  and  breadthwise, 
in  such  a  manner,  that  the  first  tree  in  the  se- 
cond row  commences  in  the  centre  of  the 
sijuare  formed  by  the  two  lirst  trees  in  the 
lirst  row,  and  liie  two  lirst  in  the  third,  re- 
sembling tli<-  ligure  of  the  five  at  cards. 

QUINDKC.VGON,  in  geometry,  a  plane 
figure  with  liflem  sides  and  Ij  angles,  which, 
if  the  sidi's  are  all  equal,  is  termed  a  regular 
<iuindecag(>ii,  and  irregular  when  otherwise. 

The  side  of  u  regular  quindecagon  inscrib- 
ed in  a  circle  is  equal  in  pow  er  to  the  half-dif- 
ference between  the  side  of  the  equilateral 
triangle,  and  the  side  of  the  pentagon  in- 
scribed ui  the  samp  circle;  also  the  diU'erence 
of  the  perpendiculars  let  fall  pn  both  sides, 
taken  together. 

QUINQUINA.     See   Cinchona,    and 

Pll  AltMACY. 

(iUlNTII.E,  in  astronomy,  an  aspect  of 
the  pl.uiets  when  they  are  75  degrees  tlistanl 
from  one  auolher,  or  a  fifth  part  of  tin;  zodiac. 


QUO 

QUIKK  of  pai>cr,  a  quantity  of  24  or  25 
-beets. 

(iUlSQUALIS,  a  genus  of  the  mouogmia 
order,  in  the  decandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  iiatmal  method  ranking  under  the  31st 
order,  vcprecuhi".  The  calyx  is  quiiiqui  lid 
and  tili!orm ;  the  petals  live;  the  fruit  is 
a  quini[ue-angular  plum.  There  is  only  one 
species,  viz.  Iiidica,  a  shrub  of  the  East  In- 
dies. 

QUI  TAM,  in  law,  is  where  an  action  is 
brought,  or  an  information  exhibited,  ag.iinst 
a  person,  on  a  penal  statute,  at  the  suit  of  the 
king  and  the  party  or  informer,  when  the 
penallv  for  breach  of  the  statute  is  directed 
to  be  divided  between  them  ;  in  that  case,  the 
informer  prosecutes  as  well  for  the  king  as 
himself. 

QU1T-CL.-\1M,  in  law,  signifies  a  release 
of  any  action  that  one  person  has  against  an- 
other. It  signihes  also  a  quitting  a  claim  or 
title  to  lands,  &c. 

Quit-rent,  in  law,  a  small  rent  that  is 
pavabh-  by  the  tenants  of  most  manors, 
whereby  the  tenant  goes  quit  and  free  from 
all  other  services.  Antiently  this  payment 
was  called  while-rent,  on  account  that  it  was 
paid  in  silver  coin,  and  to  distinguish  it  from 
rent-corn. 

QUOIN,  or  Coin,  on  board  a  ship,  a 
wedge  fastened  on  the  deck  close  to  the 
breech  of  the  carriage  of  a  gun,  to  keep  it 
firm  up  to  the  ship's  side. 

QUOITS,  a  kind  of  exercise  or  game 
known  among  the  antients  under  the  name 
discus. 

QUO  MINUS,  is  a  writ  which  issues  out 
of  the  court  of  exchequer  to  the  king's  farmer 
or  debtor,  for  debt,  trespass,  iVc.  Though 
this  writ  was  formerl)'  granted  only  to  the 
king's  tenants  or  debtors,  the  practice  now  is 
become  general  for  the  plaintiff  to  surmise, 
that  by  the  wrong  the  defendant  does  him, 
he  is  the  less  able  to  satisfy  his  debt  to  the 
king,  by  which  means  jurisdiction  is  given  to 
the  court  of  exchequer  to  determine  the 
cause.  This  writ  is  to  take  the  body  of  tiie 
deleiulanl  m  hke  manner  as  the  capias  in  the 
comnioi!  pli-as,  and  the  writ  of  latitat  in  the 
king's  bench. 

Qvo-WARRAN'TO,  ill  law,  a  writ  which 
lies  against  a  person  or  corporation  that 
Usurps  any  franchise  or  liberty  against  the 
king;  .as  to  liave  a  fair,  market,  or  the  like, 
in  order  to  oblige  the  usurper  to  shew  by 
wliat  right  and  title  he  holds  or  claims  sucli 
fr.mtliise.  This  writ  also  lies  for  mis-user  or 
non-user  of  privileges  granted.  The  attor- 
ney-general may  exhibit  a  quo-warranto  in 
the  crown-ofiice  against  any  particular  per- 
sons, or  bodies  politic  or  corjjurate,  who  use 
any  franchise  or  privilege  w  ill(out  having  a 
legal  grant  or  prescription  for  the  same  ;  anej 
ajudgiiii  lit  obtained  upon  it  it>  liiial,  as  being 
a  writ  of  riyht. 


HAP 


RAJ 


R  A  J 


243 


] 


i. 


T>  tlu'  scvpiitonilli  UUcr  of  otir  alpliahi'l. 
■'■*•?  Ill  (lie  Dolos  o!  till"  antieiitN,  U.  ui'  HO. 
siiniiliL--;  .  Roma  ;  U.  C  Honiaiia  civitas  ; 
R.  (r.  C  rei  gciciKla"  caus.i;  U.  F.  IC.  I). 
ivctf  lactiini  et  dictum;  K.  (r.  F.  ic^i^  lil'ms ; 
If.  P.  r<'«  piil)lica,  or  Uuinani  piiiKipoa;  and 
K. U.K.I''. I''. F.  res  Komaiia  met  t'eno,  fanip, 
flajiima. 

Used  as  a  numeral,  R  antieiitly  stood  for 

eighty,  and  witli  a  dash  over  it,  thus  R,  tor 
Si(J,()6l);  hilt  till!  Greek  r,  or  j,  sigiiilied  100 

111  the  i^ri  seriptious  of  physicians,  R  or  [y. 
stands  lor  recipe,  i.  e.  tal-:e. 

l!.-\liBFrijNG,  in  carpeiitrv,  the  planing 
or  culting  of  channels  or  grooves  in  boa^d^. 
In  shi[)-carpentry,  it  sigiiities  the  letliug-iii  of 
the  |)lanks  oftiieship  uiio  the  keel;  wliich,  in 
the  rake  and  run  of  a  ship,  is  hollowed  away, 
that  the  planks  may  join  tlie  closer. 

R.\iil'.n  .     See  l.n-us. 

R.VClirriS.     Sie  .Medicine. 

RACI\.     See  Arrack. 

R.\(  KOON.     See  Ursvs. 

K.VDIAL  CTRVES,  are  curves  of  the 
spiral  kind,  whose  ordhiates,  if  they  m;iy  be 
so  called,  all  terminate  in  the  centre  of  the 
iiK hiding  circle,  appearing  like  radii  of  that 
circle,  whence  the  name. 

HADJALIS,   or   Kadi.eu3.      See   Ana- 

TOJIY. 

RAni.\NT.     See  Heraldry. 

RADIATED  FLOWERS.  See  Rot  an  v. 

R.VDIATION,  the  act  ot  a  body  emitting 
or  diffusing  rays  of  light  all  round,  as  from  a 
teiitrc. 

KADICIjE.  See  Ti  Asrs, phi/siohgy  of, 
BorANY,  and  Germination. 

RADIUS,  in  geometry,  the  semidianie- 
ter  ot  a  circle,  or  a  right  line  drawTi  from  the 
centre  to  the  circumleience.  See  Chicle, 
and  GeoiMetry. 

Radius.     See  Anatomv. 

R.\l"l",  a  sort  of  tloat,  formed  by  an  as- 
semblage of  various  planks  or  pieces  ot  tim- 
ber k.slened  together  side  by  side,  so  as  to 
be  conveyed  more  commodiously  to  any 
short  distance  in  a  h„rbour  or  road  than  it 
thev  were  separate.  The-  timber  and  plank 
wilh  whicii  men.lj.inl-sliips  are  ladeu  in  the 
dilfeienl  parts  ol  tlie  lialtic  Sea,  are  atfacheil 
together  in  this  manner,  in  order  to  lloat 
them  oft  to  tin?  snipping. 

RAF  I  ERS,  in.  building,  are  pieces  of  tiin- 
,  ber,  wlii(  h  staiidiiw;  l)y  pairs  on  the  rasing- 
piece,  meet  iu  au  angle  at  the  top,  and  loini 
the  toot  ot  a  building.  It  is  a  rule  in  build- 
ing, tliat  no  rafters  should  stand  taither  Ihjii 
12  inches  irom  one  anotner:  and  as  to  their 
sizes  or  scantlings,  it  is  provided  by  act  ot 
parliaini-nt,  that  principal  rafters,  from  12  leel 
sbviiKlies  to  14  te^t  s  x  inches  long,  sliall  be 
five  inches  broad  at  t.i-  top,  and  e,.»ht  at  tJie 
bottom,  and  six  inches  thick.  "J  iiose  from 
14  feet  six  incnes  to  '•  3  feet  six  inches  long, 
to  be  uine  inches  broad  at  the  footj  seven 


indies  at  llie  lop,  and  seven  Indies  thick ; 
and  those  from  18  teet  six  iii.hes,  to  t'l  feet 
six  inches  long,  to  be  10  inches  broad  at  the 
foot,  eight  al  the  top,  and  ciglit  thick.  Single 
rafti-rs,  eight  feet  in  length,  nin-,t  have  four 
incites  and  a  half,  and  three  inches  three 
quarters,  in  then'  square.  'I'hose  of  nine  feet 
long,  must  be  live  and  four  inches  square. 

Principal  rafters  should  be  nearly  as  thick 
at  the  bottom  as  the  beam,  and  should  dimi- 
nish in  their  length  one-lifth  or  one-sixth  of 
llieir  breadth  ;  the  king-posts  should  be  as 
thick  as  the  principal  rafters;  and  their 
briadth  according  to  the  size  of  those  that 
are  intended  to  be  let  into  tlu-m,  the  middle 
part  being  left  somewhat  broader  than  the 
thickness. 

H. AG  WORT.     SeeSF.NEcis. 

KAGti,  roiilfi/,  a  genus  of  stones  belong- 
ing to  the  siliceous  class.  It  is  of  a  dusky  or 
ilark-giey  colour,  with  many  small  shining 
crystals,  having  a  granular  texture,  and  ac- 
quiring an  ochrv  crust  by  exijosure  to  the 
air.  'i'he  specilic  gravity  is  L'.748.  It  be- 
comes magnetic  by  being  heated  in  an  ojjeii 
lire.  In  a  strong  lire  it  melts  without  addi- 
tion, but  with  more  dilficully  than  basalles. 
It  was  analysed  by  Dr.  VViihermg,  who  found 
that  lOOparlsof  it  contain  47.5  of  siliceous 
earth,  32.5  of  argil,  and  20  of  iron. 

K.'VJ.A,  >(!'/,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  class 
amphibia,  and  ot  the  order  nantes.  ^I'he  ge- 
neric character  is,  mouth  situated  beneath 
the  heatl,  tl•ansver^e,  beset  with  teeth  ;  spi- 
racles beneath,  hve  on  each  side  the  neck  ; 
boily  in  most  species  sub-rlwmboidal. 

'i'his  genus,  of  which  tliere  are  19  species, 
is  distinguished  by  the  remarkable  breadth 
and  thinness  of  the  body,  the  pectoral  /ins 
appearing  like  a  continuation  of  the  sides 
tiiemselves,  bi-'ing  covered  with  the  common 
skin.  Their  rays  are  cartiUigiuous,  straiaht, 
and  furnished  with  numerous  swellings  or 
knots ;  the  teeth  are  very  nurierous,  small, 
and  placeil  in  ranges  over  the  lips  or  edges 
of  the  mouth;  the  ey«s  are  furni>hcd  with 
a  nictitating  membrane  or  skin,  whicli  can  at 
pleasure  be  drawn  over  them  like  an  c\elid; 
and  at  some  distance  above  the  eyes  arc  situ- 
ated the  nostrils,  each  appearing  like  a  large 
and  somewhat  semilunar  opening  edged  with 
a  reticulated  skrn,  ai.d  furnished  internally 
with  a  great  many  laminated  processes  di- 
vided by  a  middle  p..rtilion;  they  are  guard- 
ed by  au  exterior  valve  :  behind  the  e\  es  are 
also  a  pair  of  holes  tomnninicating  with  the 
n.outh  and  giUs :  these  hitler,  taken  together. 
,  [jresent  a  viist  extent  of  surtace  :  the  voung 
are  contained  in  oblong  square  capsules,  with 
lengthened  corners,  and  are  discharged  a< 
dist.nt  intervals,  the  young  animal  gradual'v 
liberating  it>ell  from  its  confineinent,  and  atl- 
hering  lor  some  time  by  the  umbilical  ves- 
sels.   The  rajs  in  geueraifeed  co  the  smaller 


kinri  of  crabs,  tesfacea,  marine  insects,  and 
lishes.  They  are  coiisiant  inhabitants  of  the 
sea,  lying  concealed  during  part  of  the  win- 
ter aniong  the  iniid  or  sand,  trom  which  they 
occasionally  emerge  and  swim  to  unhmitetV 
distances. 

1'.  Raja  l.atis,  of  a  rhomboid  shape.  The 
skate  is  one  of  the  f  rgest  of  the  European 
rays,  sometimes  wiighing  from  one  to  two 
hundred  pounds,  anil  even,  according  to 
some  accounts,  not  less  than  three.  Its  ge- 
neraf  colour  on  the  noper  parts  b  a  pale 
cinereous  brown,  varied  with  several  darker 
or  blackish  un<lulations;  the  under  part  is 
white,  marked  with  numerous,  distant,  black, 
specks ;  in  the  male,  the  pectoral  tins  are 
beset  towards  their  tips  or  edges- with  nume- 
rons  small  spines;  on  each  side  the  tail,  aC 
some  distance  from  the  base,  is  a  sharp  spine  ; 
several  very  strong  ones  run  down  the  back- 
ofthe  tail,  and  hi  some  specimens  a  row  of 
sm.iller  ones  is  visible  on  each  side.  As  an 
edible  lish,  the  skate  is  considered  as  one  of 
the  best  of  its  trilie,  and  is  an  established  ar- 
ticle in  the  European  markets,  being  found 
in  great  plenty  in  tlie  adjoining  seas,  where  it 
usu.dly  ireque'iits  the  shores  in  the  manner  of 
Hat  lish.  It  breeds  in  the  month  of  March 
and  April,  and  deposits  its  ova  from  May  to 
September.  We  are  informed  by  .Mr.  Wil' 
higliby,  that  a  skate  of  200  pounds  weight 
wiissold  in  the  lish-market  at  Cambridge  to- 
the  cook  of  St.  John's  college  in  thai  univer- 
sity, and  was  tound  sufficient  to  dine  the 
whole  society,  consisting  of  more  than  120 
persons.  In"  Octolx-r  the  skate  is  usually 
poor  and  thin,  begins  to  improve  in  Novem- 
ber, and  grows  gradually  better  till  May, 
when  it  is  considered  as  "in  its  highest  per- 
fection. 

2.  Raja  clavata,  the  thornback,  grows  to  a 
very  considerable  size,  though  rarely  equal 
in  magnitude  to  the  skate.  In  its  general 
ai)peai-ance  it  resembles  that  fish,  but  is  some- 
what broader  in  proportion,  and  is  easily 
distinguished  from  the  skate  by  the  very 
strong  curved  spines  with  which  its  upper 
surface  is  covered;  these  are  most  conspi- 
cuous down  the  middle  and  on  each  side  of 
the  back,  where  four  or  six,  of  much  larger 
s  ze  than  the  rest,  are  generally  seen  ;  the 
remaining  parts  being  furnished  wilh  many 
scattered  spines  of  smaller  slzi-,  intei mixed 
with  still  more  minute  ones,  and  the  whole- 
skin  is  of  a  rough  or  shagreen-like  surface  j 
the  back  is  marked  with  an  uncertain  number 
of  pale  or  whilish  round  spots,  of  d  Hi  rent 
sixths,  and  which  are  coh'uionly  surroni  ded 
w  ith  a  blackisii  or  dark-coloured  edge  ;  these 
spots  are  said  to  be  caused  by  the  shedding. 
o!  the  spines  at  different  intervals;  along  the- 
micldle  ol  the  back  runs  a  single  row  of  strong 
spnies,  continued  to  the  lip  ol  llie  tail ;  and  it 
oiteii  happens  that  there  are  three  or  evem 
live  rows  of  spines  on  this  part;  the  colouc 


5U 

of  tlie  skin  is  a  brov.ii'sli  grey,  with  inegiil-ir 
blackish  or  dusky  vai  iegalions ;  tiie  under 
part  is  white,  with  a  slight  castof  lle$h-colour; 
and  about  tlie  middle  of  the  body,  as  well  as 
Oil  the  fins,  are  disposed  sevenil  sijines,  simi- 
lar to  those  on  the  upper  side,  but  less 
strong:  the  cartilage  divi.ding  the  upper  and 
lower  portions  of  tiie  body,  is  in  this  species 
remarkably  conspicuous ;  but  since  a  similar 
appearance  exists  in  several  other  species,  it 
cannot  be  of  nmch  importance  in  the  specific 
character. 

The  thornback  is  an  inhabitant  of  tlie  Me- 
diterranean and  otiier  seas,  and  is  in  some 
esteem  as  a  food,  though  not  equal  to  the 
skate  in  goodness. 

3.  Raja  chasrinea,  shagreen  ray.  Body 
le.s3  broad  in  proportion  than  in  most  others 
of  this  division ;  snout  long  and  pointed, 
and  furnished  with  two  rows  of  spines ;  se- 
veral others  are  placed  in  a  semicircle  to- 
wards the  eves,  of  which  the  iris  is  sapphire- 
coloured  ;  both  sides  of  the  tail  are  armed 
with  numerous  smaller  ones ;  the  whole  up- 
per surface  of  tJ»e  animal  is  roughened  by 
numerous  small  granules  like  those  on  the  skin 
of  some  of  the  shark-tribe,  ard  particularly  of 
tUe  great  dog-shark,  of  the  skin  of  which  is 
prepared  the  substance  known  by  the  name 
of  shagreen;  colour  above  cinereous  brown, 
beneath  white.  Native  of  the  European 
seas. 

4.  Raja  pastinaca,  sting  ray,  with  slender 
tail,  generally  armed  with  a  spine.  Shape 
«ubrhomboidal,  but  somewhat  approaching 
to  ovate,  the  pectoral  lins  being  less  pointed 
than  in  some  of  this  division  ;  snout  pointed  ; 
body  more  convex  than  in  the  preceding 
rays;  colour  of  the  whole  animal  above  yel- 
lowish-olive, with  the  back  darkest,  and  ap- 
proaching, in  some  specimens,  to  a  blueish 
brown;  beneath  whitish;  tail  without  (in,  of 
considerable  length,  verv  thick  at  the  base, 
and  gradually  tapering  to  the  extremity, 
which  is  very  slender ;  near  the;  middle  it'is 
armed,  on  thi-  upper  part,  with  a  very  long, 
flattened,  and  very  sharp-pointed  bine  or 
spine,  finely  serrated  in  a  reversed  direction 
on  both  sides;  with  this  the  animal  is  capable 
of  inflicting  very  severe  wounds  on  sucli  as 
incautiously  attempt  to  handle  it ;  and  it  an- 
swers tlie  purpose  both  of  an  offensive  and 
defensive  weapon :  it  is  annually  cast,  and  as 
it  frecjuently  liajipens  Ihat  tlie  new  spine  has 
arrived  at  a  considerable  size  before  tlie  old 
one  iias  been  ea^t,  the  animal  is  occasionally 
found  with  two,  in  which  state  it  has  been 
sometimes  erroneously  considered  as  a  <li- 
stinct  species.  This  fish  is  said  not  to  grow 
to  so  hirge  a  size  as  many  others  of  tlie  genus : 
it  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Mediterranean,  ,\t- 
lanlic,  and  Indian  seas,  and  is  luniibered 
among  the  edible  rays.  On  account  of  the 
clanger  attending  the  wounds  inliicted  bv  the 
spine,  it  is  usual  with  tlie  fishermen  to  cut  oil" 
the  tail  as  soon  as  the  fish  is  taken  ;  and  it  is 
said  to  be  illegal  in  France,  and  some  other 
countries,  to  sell  the  animal  uitli  the  tail  still 
adhering.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  observe, 
that  the  spine  is  perfectly  void  ofanv  venom- 
ous (juality,  thougli  formerly  supposed  to 
■contain  a  most  active  poison;  and  Ihat  the 
effects  sometimes  produced  by  it  are  entirely 
those  arising  from  deep  puncture  and  lacera- 
tion, which,  if  taking  [ilace  in  a  tendinous 
part,  or  among  the  largc-r  nerves  and  blood- 
i<;sseJs,  lave  oflen  proved  fata). 


RAJA. 

Tlie  general  habits  of  tliL-  animal  arc  simi- 
lar to  tiiose  of  the  rc>t  of  the  genus,  often 
lying  flat  and  in  ambuscade  on  the  solt  mud 
at  tiie  bottom  of  the  shores  which  it  frequents, 
and  seizing  its  prey  by  surprise,  and  at  other 
times  pursuing  it  tlu'ough  the  depths  of  the 
ocean. 

5.  Raja  aquila,  eagle  ray.  Tliis  species 
grows  to  a  very  great  size,  sometimes  mear 
suring  ten,  twelve,  or  even  fifteen  feet  in 
length. 

G.  Kaja  sephen,  pearled  ray.  Shape  sub- 
rhomboid  ;  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  mea- 
sured from  the  tips  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which 
are  obtuse,  forming  a  half-riioinb  ;  the  lower 
part,  from  the  tips  of  the  pectoral  fins  to  tlie 
tail,  forming  a  half-circle;  snout  small  and 
slightly  pointed  ;  ventral  fins  rather  small  and 
rounded  ;  tail  more  than  twice  the  lengtli  of 
the  body,  gradually  tapering  to  a  fine  point, 
furnished  beneath  the  middle  part  with  a 
sliallowfin  running  to  a  considerable  distance, 
and  above  with  a  strong  and  sharp  spine,  as 
in  the  sting  ray  and  many  others,  and  some- 
times two  spines  are  found  instead  of  one ; 
back,  from  between  the  eyes  to  some  dis- 
tance beyond  the  base  of  the  tail,  covered 
with  pretty  close-set  tubercles  or  granules, 
three  of  which,  in  the  middle  of  tlie  back, 
are  far  larger  than  the  rest,  and  resemble 
three  pearls  disposed  in  a  longitudinal  direc- 
tion on  that  part:  colour  of  the  whole  animal 
deep  cinereous-brownabove,  and  reddish  white 
beneath:  grows  to  a  large  size,  sometimes 
measuring  eleven  feet  from  the  snout  to  the 
end  of  the  tail.     Native  of  tlie  Red  Sea. 

It  is  from  the  skin  of  this  species,  accord- 
ing to  C'epede,  that  the  beautiful  substance 
called  galuchat  by  the  French  is  prepared  ; 
and  which  being  coloured  with  blue,  green, 
or  red,  accoriling  to  the  fancy  of  the  artist, 
and  afterwards  polished,  is  so  fre(]uently  used 
for  various  kinds  of  cases,  telescope-tubes, 
dc.  For  tills  purpose  tlie  smaller  or  younger 
specimens  are  preferred  ;  the  tubercles  in  the 
more  advanced  or  fnll-gi"os>'n  animals  being 
too  large  for  the  uses  above-mentioneil. 

7.  Raja  diaboliis,  demon  ray,  willi  bilobate 
front.  This  highly  singular  animal,  in  point 
of  general  shape,  is  allied  to  the  eagle  ray, 
but  with  a  much  greater  extent  of  perioral 
lins,  appearing  extremely  broad  in  propor- 
tion to  its  length;  the  head,  which  is  of  mo- 
derate size,  is  straiglit  or  rectilinear  in  front, 
each  side  projecting  into  a  vertically  llutlened 
and  slightly  pointetl  lobe  or  wattle,  of  nearly 
two  feet  in  length,  and  giving  somewliat  the 
appearance  of  a  pair  of  horns  ;  the  pectoral 
lins  are  of  a  subtriangular  figure,  curving 
downwards  on  each  side,  'and  terminating  in 
a  point ;  the  back  is  very  slightly  elevated 
irito  a  somewhat  pyramidal  form  ;  ami  at  its 
lower  part  is  situated  the  dorsal  lin,  which  is 
of  a  lengthened  shape,  and  inclines  back- 
wards. 'I'liis  species  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Mediterranean,  Atlantic,  and  Indian  seas.  It 
is  said  to  be  cliiellv  observed  about  the 
Azores,  where  it  is  known  by  the  name  uf 
mobular. 

8.  Raja  torpedo,  of  a  rounded  shape.  Tlie 
torpedo  has  been  celebrated  botli  by  antients 
and  moderns  fo,-  its  wonderful  lacully  of 
causing  a  sudden  numbness  or  paiiilul  sensa- 
lion  in  the  limbs  of  I  hose  vi  ho  touch  or  handle 
it.  This  power  the  antients,  uiiac<iuainted 
with  the  theorv  of  electricity,  were  contented 
to  admire,  without  attempting  to  explain  ; 


and,  as  is  usual  in  similar  cr.ses,  macniHed  it 
into  an  effect  little  short  of  what  is  conuiioiilv 
ascribed  to  enchantment.  1  lius  we  are  told 
by  Oppian,  that  the  tcupedo,  conscious  of  Ins 
latent  faculty,  when  Couglit  by  a  hook,  exens 
it  in  sucli  a  manner,  that,  passing  along  ti.e 
line -and  rod,  it  lunumbs  the  astonisheil  fish- 
erman, and  suddenly  reduces  him  to  a  state 
of  helpless  stupefaction,  tiee  Electricity, 
and  Galvanism. 

The  body  of  the  torpedo  is  of  a  sonii what 
circular  form,  perfectly  smooth,  slightly  coa- 
vex  above,  and  marked  along  each  side  of 
the  spine  by  sevi-ral  smad  pjies  or  foramina  ; 
tlie  colour  of  the  upper  surface  is  usually  a 
pale  reddish-brown,  sometimes  marked  by 
l\Ye  large,  e(iuidisfant,  circular,  dusky  spots 
with  paler  centres;  the  under  surface'is  whi- 
tish, or  flesh-coloured.  The  torpedo,  ho'w- 
ever,  is  observed  to  vary  considerably  in  the 
cast  and  intensify  of  its  colours.  Tlie  gene- 
ral length  of  the  torpedo  seems  to  be  about 
eighteen  inches  or  two  feet,  but  it  is  occa- 
sionally found  of  far  larger  dimensions  ;  spe- 
cimens having  been  taken  on  our  own  coasts 
of  the  weight  of  fifty,  sixty,  and  even  eighty 
pounds. 

The  torpedo  is  art  inhabitant  of  most  seas, 
but  seems  to  arrive  at  a  larger  size  in  the 
Mediterranean  than  elsewhere.  It  is  gene-* 
rally  taken  with  the  trawl,  but  has  been 
sometimes  known  to  take  a  bait.  It  com- 
monU  lies  in  water  of  about  forty  fathoms 
depth,  in  company  with  others  of  this  genus. 
It  preys  on  smaller  fish,  and  according  to 
Mr.  Pennant,  a  surmullet  and  a  plaise  have 
been  found  in  the  stomach  of  two  of  them  : 
the  surmullet,  as  Mr.  Pennant  well  observes, 
is  a  fish  of  that  swiftness,  that  it  would  be  im- 
possible for  the  torpedo  to  take  it  by  pursuit; 
we  must  therefore  suppose  that  it  stupefies 
its  prey  by  exerting  its  electric  faculty.  The 
torpedo  often  inhabits  sandy  places,  bur\ing 
itself  superficially,  by  flinging  the  sand  over 
it,  by  a  quick  flapping  of  all  the  extremities. 
It  is  in  this  situation  that  it  gives  its  most  for- 
cible shock,  which  is  said  to  throw  down  the 
astonished  passenger  that  inadvertently  treads 
on  the  animal. 

The  torpedo,  with  respect  to  its  general 
anatomy,  does  not  materially  differ  from  the 
rest  of  the  ray  tribe,  except  in  its  electric  or 
galvanic  organs. 

It  appears  that  tlie  electric  organs  of  the 
torpedo  constitute  a  pair  of  galvanic  batte- 
rie'^,  dis|)Osed  in  the  form  of  perpendicular 
hexagonal  columns.  In  the  gymnotus  elec- 
Iricus,  on  the  contrary,  the  galvanic  battery 
is  disposed  lengthwise  on  the  lower  part  of 
tin-  animal. 

Spallanzani  hiforms  us,  that  some  few  mi- 
nutes  before  the  torpedo  expires,  the  shocks 
which  it  conmiunicates,  instead  of  being  given 
at  distant  intervals,  take  place  in  cpiick  suc- 
cession, like  the  pulsations  of  the  heart;  they 
are  weak,  indeed,  but  jierfectly  [lerceiilible 
to  the  hand  when  laid  on  the  fish  at  this  junc- 
ture, anti  resemble  very  small  electric  shocks. 
In  the  space  uf  seven  minutes,  no  less  than 
.3f)0  (if  these  small  shocks  were  perceived. 
Spallanzani  also  assure;,  us  of  another  highly 
curious  fact,  which  he  had  occasion  to  verily 
from  his  own  cxperi<'nce,  viz.  that  the  young 
torpedo  can  not  only  exercise  its  ilectric 
faculty  as  soon  as  born,  but  even  while  it  is 
yet  a  lo-tus  in  the  body  of  the  parent  animal. 
'Plus  fuel  was  ascertained  by  Spallanzani  on 


R  A  T 

di^scctin!;  a  torpedo  in  a  pi-cgnant  state,  ancT 
wliitli  contained  in  its  ovarium  sm-eral  nnim!- 
isii  cgi^s  of  dii'li'rfiit  sizes,  and  al'io  two  per- 
t'eclly  lomicd  lii'tuses,  wliicli,  whou  tried  in 
tlie  UMial  nianiKT,  coninujiiicatcd  a  very  seii- 
Rible  electric  siiocl<,  this  was  still  more 
jierceptible  wlien  the  little  animals  were  in- 
sulated by  being  p'ared  on  a  ))late  of  glass. 

'riie  electricity  of  the  torpedo  is  altogether 
Tolunkiry,  and  sometimes,  if  tlie  animal  is 
not  irritated,  it  may  be  touclied  or  even  han- 
dled without  being  provoked  to  exert  itselec- 
tiic  inlluence. 

Q.  Haja  rliinobatos,  of  a  lojigthoned  sha|)c. 
This  remarkable  species  seems  from  its  habit 
U)  connect  in  some  degree  the  genera  of  raja 
and  s<nialns,  the  body  being  much  longer 
than  in  the  preceding  kinds  of  ray  :  the  snout 
i«  lengtliened,  but  not  very  sharp  ;  and  the 
body,  which  is  moderately  convex  above, 
an<l  llat  beneath,  gradually  tapers  trom  the 
shoulders  to  the  tail,  which"  is  furnished  abuse 
with  two  lins,  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  situ- 
ated at  a  considerable  (Ii5lance  tVo:n  each 
other;  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  also  dilated  into 
an  oblong  fin.  The  colour  of  the  whole  ani- 
mal is  a  dull  earthy-brown,  paler  beneath, 
and  the  skin  is  every  where  roughened  by 
minute  tubercles.  T  his  lish  is  said  to  grow 
to  the  length  of  about  four  feet,  and  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  European  seas.  It  is  observed  to 
be  more  freqtieiit  about  the  coasts  of  Naples 
than  elsewhere. 

KA.IANI.V,  a  genus  of  the  he.xandria  or- 
der, in  the  dio:<'ia  class  of  plants,  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  tnider  the  I  1th  order, 
sarntcjitace*.     The  ni.tie  calyx  is  sexpartite  ; 
there  is  no  coro.la.     Tlie  f«male  calyx  as  in 
the   mide,    without   any  corolla ;    there   are 
three  styles;    the  huit  is  roimdish,  with  an 
oblique  wing,  inferior.     There  are  seven  spe- 
cies, ( limbirg  plants  of  the  West  Indies. 
RAIL,  in  ornithology.     See  Rallus. 
RAIN.     See  Meteorology. 
RAINBOW.     See  Optics. 
RAISING-PIECES,  in  architecture,  are 
pieces  that  lie  under  the  beams,  and  over  the 
posts  or  puncheons. 

RAISINS,  grapes  prepared  by  suffering 
them  to  remain  on  the  vine  till  they  are  per- 
fectly ripe,  and  then  drying  them  in  the  sun, 
or  by  the  heat  of  an  oven.  The  difference 
between  raisins  dried  in  the  sun,  and  those 
dried  in  ovens,  is  very  obvious:  the  former 
are  sweet  and  pleasant ;  but  the  latter  have  a 
latent  acidity  with  the  sweetness,  that  renders 
them  much  less  agreeable. 

The  commcui  way  of  drving  grapes  for  rai- 
sins is,  to  tie  two  or  three  bunches  of  tliem 
together  while  yet  on  the  vine,  and  dip  tliem 
into  a  hot  lixivium  of  wood-ashes  with  a  little 
of  the  oil  of  olives  in  it.  This  disposes  them 
to  shrink  and  wrinkle  ;  and  after  this  they  are 
.  left  on  the  vine  three  or  tour  days  separated 
on  sticks  in  an  horizontal  situation,  and  then 
dried  in  tlie  sun  at  leisure,  after  being  cut 
from  the  tree.  The  linest  and  best  raisins 
are  those  called  in  some  places  Damascus 
and  Jube  raisins;  v.hich  are  distinguished 
from  the  others  by  their  size  and  tigurcs: 
these  are  flat  and  wrinkled  on  the  surface, 
soft  ajid  juicy  within,  and  near  an  inch  long  ; 
and  when  fresh  and  growing  on  the  buncli, 
are  of  the  size  and  shape  of  a  large  olive. 

The  raisins  of  the  sun,  and  jar-raisins,  are 
all  dried  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  ;  and  these 
are  the  sorts  used  in  medicine. 
Vol.  U. 


R  A  L 

RAKE  qfa  ship,  is  all  that  part  of  her  hull 
which  hangs  over  both  ends  of  her  keel.  That 
which  is  before  is  called  the  fore-rake,  or 
rake-forward;  ami  that  part  whicli  is  at  the 
setting  on  of  the  stern-post,  is  called  the  rake- 
aft  or  afteiward. 

RALLl'S,  the  rail,  in  ornithology,  a  ge- 
nus belonging  to  the  order  of  gralhe.  'I  he 
beak  is  thickest  at  the  base,  compressed, 
equal,  acute,  and  somewhat  sharp  on  the 
back  near  the  point;  the  no.-trils  are  oval ; 
the  feet  have  four  toes,  without  any  web;  and 
the  body  is  compressed.  Mr.  Latham,  in  his 
Index  Ornithologicus,  enumerates  34  species, 
besides  some  varieties.  They  are  cliielly 
distinguished  by  their  colour.  " 'I'hcse  birds 
(says  IJulfbn)  constitute  a  large  family,  and 
their  habits  are  different  from  those  of  the 
other  shore-birds  which  reside  on  sands  and 
gravel.  The  rails,  on  the  contrary,  inhabit 
only  the  slimy  margins  of  pools  and  rivers, 
especially  low  grounds  covered  with  Hags 
and  other  large  marsh-])lants.  T  his  mode  of 
living  is  habitual,  and  ronimon  to  all  the  spe- 
cies of  water-rails.  T  he  land-rail  frequents 
meadows;  and  from  the  disagreeable  cry,  or 
rather  rattling  in  the  throat,  of  this  bird,  is 
derived  the  generic  name.  In  all  the  rails, 
the  body  is  slender,  and  shrunk  at  the  sides ; 
the  tail  extremely  short ;  the  head  small ; 
the  bill  like  that  of  the  g-aliinaceous  kind, 
though  much  longer,  and  not  so  thick;  a 
portion  of  the  leg  above  the  knee  is  bare  ; 
the  three  fore-toes  without  membrane-,  and 
very  lung;  they  do  not,  like  other  birds,  draw 
their  feet  under  their  belly  in  Hying,  but  allow 
them  to  hang  down ;  tiieir  wings  are  small, 
and  very  concave,  and  their  tlight  is  short, 
^rhey  seem  to  be  more  diffused  than  varied ; 
and  natu.-e  has  produced  or  transported  them 
over  the  most  distant  lands.  Captain  Cook 
found  them  at  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  in  dif- 
ferent islands  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  at 
Anamoka,  at  Tanna,  and  at  the  isle  of  Nor- 
folk. In  the  Society  Islands  there  are  two 
species  of  rails;  a  little  black-spotted  one 
(pooaiiee),  and  a  little  red-eyed  one  (nioi- 
ho).  It  appears  diat  the  two  acolins  of  Fer- 
nandez, which  he  denominates  water-quails, 
are  of  a  species  of  rails  peculiar  to  the  great 
lake  of  Mexico.  The  colins,  which  might 
be  confounded  with  these,  are  a  Icind  of  par- 
tridges."   The  principal  species  are, 

1.  The  aquaticus,  or  water-rail,  a  bird  of  a 
long  slender  body,  ^vith  short  concave  wings. 
It  delights  less  in  tlying  than  running,  wliich 
it  does  very  swiftly  along  the  edges  of  brooks 
covered  with  bushes ;  as  it  runs,  it  every  now 
and  then  flirts  up  its  tail,  and  in  flying  hangs 
down  its  legs,  actions  it  has  hi  common  w^th 
the  water-hen.  Its  weight  is  four  ounces  and 
a  half.  The  length  to  the  end  of  the  tail  is 
V2  inches;  the  breadth  16.  The  bill  is  slender, 
slightly  incurvated,  an  inch  and  three  quar- 
ters long ;  the  head,  hind  part  of  the  neck, 
the  back,  and  coverts  of  the  wings  and  tail, 
are  black,  edged  with  olive-brown ;  the 
throat,  breast,  and  upper  part  of  the  belly, 
are  ash-coloured  ;  the  sides  under  the  wings 
as  far  as  the  rump,  finely  varied  with  black 
and  white  bars.  '1  he  tail  is  very  short,  and 
consists  of  twelve  black  feathers.  "  Yi'ater- 
rails  (says  Buil'on)  are  seen  near  the  peren- 
nial fountains  during  the  greatest  part  of  the 
winter,  yet  like  the  land-rails  they  have  their 
regular  migrations.  They  pass  ^lalta  in  the 
spring  and  autumn.  The  viscount  Ue  Quer- 
3  Z 


R  A  I, 


i'lS 


hoent  saw  some  fiftv  leagues  off  the  coasts  of 
Portugal  on  the  l7th  of  A]>ril.  'I'liey  were 
so  fatigued,  that  they  suffered  theinsclves  to 
be  ciuight  by  thehan'd.  Gmelin  found  these 
birds  in  the  countries  watered  by  the  Don. 
belon  calls  tin  ni  black  rails,  and  says  they 
are  every  where  known,  and  that  the  specien 
is  more  numerous  than  the  red  rail  or  land- 
rail. The  flesh  of  the  water-rail  is  not  so  de- 
licate as  that  of  tlie  land-rail,  and  has  even  a 
marshy  taste,  nearly  like  tliat  of  the  gallinule. 
It  continues  the  whole  year  in  England." 

2.  The  porzana,  or  "gallinule,  is  not  very- 
frequent  in  Great  Britain,  and  is  said  to  be 
migratory.  It  inhabits  the  sides  of  snialj 
streams,  concealing  itself  among  the  bushes. 
Us  length  is  nine  inches;  its  breadth  fifteen; 
it  weighs  four  ounces  live  drachms.  The' 
head  is  brown,  spotted  with  black ;  the  neck 
a  deep  olive,  spotted  with  white  ;  the  fi-a- 
thersof  the  back  are  black  next  their  shafts, 
then  olive-coloured,  and  edged  with  white  ; 
the  scapulars  are  oli\e,  finely  niaiked  witli 
two  small  white  spots  on  eacli  web;  the  legs 
of  a  yellowish  green.  "  Its  habits  (says  But- 
ton) wild,  its  instinct  stupid,  the  porzana  is 
unsusceptible  of  education,  nor  is  even  ca- 
pable' of  being  tamed.  We  raised  one,  how- 
ever, which  lived  a  w  hole  summer  on  crumbs 
of  bread  and  hemp-seed:  when  by  itself,  iC 
kept  constantly  in  a  large  bowl  of  water; 
but  if  a  person  entered  the  closet  where  it 
was  shut,  it  nm  to  conceal  itself  in  a  small 
dark  corner,  without  venting  cries  or  mur- 
murs. In  the  state  of  liberty,  however,  it 
has  a  sharp  piercing  voice,  much  like  the 
scream  of  a  young  bird  of  prey;  and  tliougli 
it  has  no  propensity  to  society,  as  soon  as 
one  cr'es,  another  repeats  the  s(nind,,«liich 
is  thus  conveyed  through  all  the  rest  in  the 
district.  Like  all  the  rails,  it  is  so  obstinate- 
ly averse  to  rise,  that  the  sportsman  often 
seizes  it  with  his  hand,  or  fells  it  with  a  stick. 
If  it  fiiids  a  bush  in  its  retreat,  it  climbs  upon 
it,  and  from  the  top  of  its  asylum  beholds  the 
dogs  brushing  along  in  lault:  this  habit  is 
common  to  it  and  to  the  water-rail.  It  dives, 
swims,  and  even  swims  under  water,  when 
liard  pushed." 

3.  The  crex,  crake,  or  corn-crek,  has  l>cen 
supposed  bv  some  to  be  the  same  with  the 
water-rail,  and  that  it  dilfers  only  by  a  change 
of  colour  at  a  certain  season  of  the  year:  this 
error  is  owing  to  inattention  to  their  charac- 
ters and  nature,  both  which  ditVer  entirely. 
The  bill  of  this  species  is  short,  strong,  and 
thick,  formed  exactly  like  that  of  the  water- 
hen,  and  makes  a  generical  distinction.  Tt 
never  frequents  watery  places;  but  is  always 
found  among  corn,  grass,  broom,  or  furze,  it 
quits  the  kfugdom" before  winter;  but  the 
water-rail  endures  our  sharpest  seasons. 
They  agree  in  their  aversion  to  flight  ;  and 
the  legs,  which  are  remarkably  long  tor  the 
size  of  the  bird,  hang  down  wiiilsl  they  are 
on  the  wing :  lliey  trust  their  safi  ty  to  their 
swiftness  on  foot,  and  seldom  are  -prung  » 
second  time  but  with  great  diflicuity.  '1  he 
land-rail  lays  from  twelve  to  twenty  eggs,  of 
a  dull  white  colour,  marked  with  a  few  yel- 
low spots:  notwitiistanding  this  they  are  very 
numerous  in  this  kingdom.     Their  note  is 

1  very  singular;  and,  like  the  quail,  it  is  dc- 
coved  into  a  net  by  the  imitation  of  its  cry, 
cri-k  ciek  crek,  by  rubbing  hard  the  b'ade  of 
a  knife  on  an  indented  bone.  Most  of  the 
names  given   in  dilVerent  languages  to  this 


546 


R  A  M 


biril  are  evidently  formed  to  imitate  this  sin- 
gular cry. 

They  are  in  greatest  plenty  in  Anglesey, 
where  tijey  appear  about  the  20th  of  April, 
supposed  to  pass  over  from  Ireland,  wiiere 
they  abound.  At  their  first  arrival,  it  is 
common  to  shoot  seven  or  eight  in  a  morning. 
Thev  are  found  in  most  of  the  Hebrides,  and 
the  Orkneys.  On  their  arrival  they  are  very 
lean,  weighing  only  six  ounces ;  but  before 
they  leave  this  island,  grow  so  fat  as  to  weigh 
above  eight.  The  feathers  on  th^  crown  of 
the  head  ;  •  d  hind  part  of  the  neck  are  black, 
edged  with  i)ay-colour;  the  coverts  of  tlie 
wings  of  the  same  colour,  but  not  spotted ; 
the  tail  is  short,  and  of  a  deep  bay ;  tlie  belly 
white  ;  the  legs  asli-coloured. 

KALIATNG,  in  war,  re-assembling  or 
calling  together  troops  broken  and  put  to 
Sight. 

RA.VI,  in  zoology.     See  Ovis. 

R.^M,  in  astronoiTty.     See  Aries. 

R.'VM,  butterine:,  in  antiquity,  a  militaiy 
engine  used  to  batter  and  beat  down  the  walls 
of  places  besieged. 

The  battering  ram  was  of  two  sorts  -.^  the 
one  rude  and  plain,  the  other  compound.  The 
former  seems  to  have  been  no  more  than  a 
great  beam  which  the  soldiers  bore  on  their 
arms  and  shoulders,  and  with  one  end  of  it 
by  main  force  assailed  tlie  wall.  The  com- 
pound ram  is  thus  described  byJosephus: 
It  is  a  vast  beam,  like  tlic  mast  of  a  ship, 
strengthened  at  one  end  by  a  head  of  iron, 
something  resembling  that  of  a  ram,  whence 
it  took  its  name.  See  Plate  Miscel.  llg.  196. 
This  was  hung  by  the  middle  with  ropes  to 
another  beam  which  lay  across  two  posts; 
and  hanging  thus  equally  balanced,  it  was 
by  a  great  number  of  men  drawn  backwards 
and  pushed  forwards,  striking  the  wall  with 
its  iron  head. 

Plutarch  informs  us,  that  Mark  Anthony, 
in  the  Parthian  war,  made  use  of  a  ram  four- 
score feet  long ;  and  \'itruvius  tells  us,  that 
they  were  sometimes  106,  and  sometimes 
)20  feel  in  length;  and  to  this,  perhaps,  the 
force  and  strength  of  the  engine  was  in  a 
great  measure  owing.  The  ram  was  ma- 
naged at  one  time  by  a  whole  century  of  sol- 
diers, and  they  being  spent,  were  seconded 
by  another  century,  so  that  it  played  conti- 
nually without  any  intermission. 

In  order  to  calculate  the  force  of  the  bat- 
/  tering-ram  R,  suppose  it  to  be  -8  inches  in 
diameter,  and  ISO  feet  long;  and  conse(|uent- 
ly  its  solid  content  750  cubic  feet;  which, 
alloviring  50  pounds  for  each  foot,  will  weigh 
37500  pounds :  and  suppose  its  head  of  cast- 
iron,  together  with  three  iron-hoops,  &c.  to 
be  3f)l2  pounds.  Now  all  these  weights 
added  together,  make  41112  pounds,  equal 
the  weight  of  the  whole  ram  ;  which  will  re- 
•(uire  1000  men  to  move  it  so  as  to  cause  it 
to  strike  agaii^st  the  point  L  of  the  wall 
AHItji'2,  each  man  moving  a  weight  of  41 
pounds.  The  quantity  of  motion  prodii'cd 
by  this  action,  when  the  ram  moves  one  loot 
in  a  lerond,  may  be  expressed  by  the  num- 
ber 41 11'.';  which  motion  or  force  compared 
with  the  tpiantity  of  motion  in  the  iron  ball 
M,  shot  out  of  llie  cannon  C,  will  be  found 
cqial  to  it:  for  a  cannon-ball  is  known  to 
movir  as  f.ist  as  sound  for  about  the  space  ot 
a  mile ;  and  if  you  multiply  3fi  pounds,  ihe 
weight  of  the  bait,  by  1142,  the  number  of 


R  A  IVf 

feet  which  sound  moves  in  one  second,  ^ou 
will  have  the  number  41 112  for  the  quantity 
of  motion  or  force,  in  tlie  ball  15  striking  at 
L.  And  if,  after  a  few  strokes  given  by  the 
battering-ram,  the  mortar  or  cement  is  so 
loosened,  that  the  pioce  of  the  wall  ADDFE 
is  at  la?t  by  a  stroke  of  the  lam  cairieil  for- 
ward from  F  to  K,  and  so  beaten  down  ;  the 
same  thing  will  be  performed  bv  a  cannon- 
ball,  after  an  equal  number  of  strokes. 

This  shews  how  advantageous  the  invention 
of  gunpowder  is  ;  since  we  are  th.'reby  ena- 
bled to  give  such  a  prodigious  velocity  to  a 
small  body,  that  it  shall  have  as  great  a  quan- 
titv  of  motion  as  a  body  immensely  greater, 
and  requiring  more  lunds  to  work  it :  for 
three  men  will  manage  a  cannon  uliich  shall 
do  as  mucii  execution  as  the  above  battiring- 
ram,  wrought  by  1000.  The  ram  whose 
force  is  here  calculated,  is  taken  at -a  mean  ; 
being  larger  than  some,  and  less  than  oilieis, 
of  those  used  by  the  antients. 

Ram's-head,  in  a  ship,  is  a  great  block 
belonging  to  the  fore  and  main  halyards.  It 
has  three  shivers  in  it,  into  which  the  hal- 
yards are  put,  and  in  a  hole  at  the  end  of  it 
are  reeved  the  ties. 

RAMADAN,  a  solemn  season  of  fasting 
among  the  Mahometans,  kept  in  the  ninth 
month  of  the  Arabic  year. 

RAMPANT..    See  Heraldry. 

RAMPART,  in  fortification,  is  an  elevation 
of  earth  round  a  place  capable  of  resisting 
the  cannon  of  an  enemy;  and  formed  into 
bastions,  curtins,  &c.     See  Fortification. 

RAMPHASTOS,  in  ornithology,  a  genus 
belonging  to  th.e  order  of  pica-.  The  bill  is 
very  large,  and  serrated  outwardly.  The 
nostrils  are  situated  behind  the  base  of  the 
beak  ;  and  in  most  of  the  -pecies  the  feet  are 
toed,  and  placetl  two  forwards  and  two  back- 
wards. 'The  tongue  is  long,  narrow,  and 
feathered  on  the  edges.  Mr.  Latham  enu- 
merates fifteen  different  species,  of  which  the 
toucans  are  the  most  remarkable,  and  were 
formerly  divided  into  four  or  five  varieties, 
tiiough  Mr.  Latham  makes  them  distinct  spe- 
cies, of  which  we  shall  only  describe  that 
called  the  red-beaked  toucan. 

This  bird  is  about  the  size  of  a  jack-daw, 
and  of  a  similar  shape,  with  a  large  head  to 
supjxirt  its  monstrous  bill.  This  biU,  from 
the  angles  of  the  mouth  to  its  point,  is  six 
inches  and  a  half;  and  its  breadth  in  tiie 
thickest  part  is  a  little  move  than  two.  Its 
thickness  near  the  head  is  one  inch  and  a 
quarter;  audit  is  a  little  rounded  along  the 
top  of  llie  upper  chap,  the  under  side  being 
round  also  ;  the  whole  of  tlu- bill  extremely 
slight,  and  but  a  little  thicker  lh;m  paich- 
ment.  The  upper  chap  is  of  a  bright  yel- 
low, except  on  each  siile,.  which  is  of  a  fine 
scarlet  colour  ;  as  is  also  the  lower  chap,  ex- 
cept at  the  base,  which  is  purple.  Betueen 
the  head  and  the  bill  there  is  a  black  line  of 
separatioii  all  round  the  base  of  the  bill;  in 
the  up|K-r  part  of  .which  the  nostrils  are 
placed,  and  are  almost  covered  with  feathers; 
which  has  occasioned  some  writers  to  say 
that  the  toucan  has  no  nostrils.  Round  the 
eyes  on  each  side  of  the  head,  is  a  space  of 
bineish  skill,  void  of  feathers  ;  above  u  hich 
the  head  is  black,  except  a  white  spot  on  each 
side  joining  to  the  base  of  the  upper  chap. 
The  hinder  part  of  the  neck,  the  back,  wings, 
tail,  belly,  and  thighs,  arc  black.    The  luicler 


RAN 

side  of  the  head,  throat,  and  the  beginning  of 
the  breast,  are  white.  iJclwven  the  «hite  on 
the  breast,  and  the  black  on  the  belly,  is  a 
space  of  red  feathers,  in  thi-  form  ot  a  new 
moon,  with  its  burns  upwards.  The  legs, 
feet,  and  claws,  are  of  an  ash-colour ;  and 
the  toes  stantl  like  those  of  parrots,  two  be- 
fore and  two  behind. 

It  is  reported  by  travellei-s,  that  this  bird, 
(hough  furnished  with  so  formidable  a  beak> 
is  haimless  and  gentle,  being  so  easily  made 
lame  as  to  sit  and  hatch  its  young  in  houses. 
It  feeds  chicliy  upon  pepper,  wliich  it  de- 
vours very  greedily.      It  builds  its  nest  in 
holes  of  trees,  which   have  been   previously 
scoojjed  out  for  this   purpose.     There  is   no 
bird  secures  its.  young  better  from  external 
injury  than  the  toucan.    It  has  not  only  birds, 
men,  and  serpents,  to  guard  against,  but  a. 
numerous  tribe  of  monkeys,  still  more  pry- 
ing, iiMschievous,  and   hungry,   tiian  all  the 
rest.     The  toucan,  however,  scoops  out  its; 
nest  into   the  hollow   of  some  tree,    leavin"' 
only  a  hole  large  enough  to  go  in  and  out  a!.. 
There  it  sits,  with  its  great  beak,   guarding 
the  entrance;  and,,  if  the  monkey  ventures, 
to  offer  a  visit  of  curiosity,  the  toucan  gives- 
him  such  a  welcome,  that  he  presently  tJiinks. 
proper  to  retire,  and  is  glad  to  escape  with; 
safety. 

This  bird  is  only  found  in  the  warm  cli-- 
mates  of  South  America,  where  it  is  in  greati 
request,  both  for  the  delicacy  of  its  Hesh,. 
which  is  tender  and  nourishing,  and  for  the 
beauty  of  its  plumage,  particularly  tiie  fea-- 
thers  of  the  breast.  The  skin  of  this  part  the- 
Indians  pluck  oil',  and  when  dry  glue  to  their 
cheeks  ;  and  this  tiiey  consider  as  an  irresist-  • 
ible  addition  to  their  beauty.  See  Plate  Nat,. 
Hist.  fig.  342.. 

R.ANA,  J  log,  a  genus  of  amphibia  of  the- 
order  reptiles;  the  generic  character  is,  body, 
four-footed,  without  tail,  and  naked,  or  with- 
out any  integument  but  the  skin. 

This  genus  may  I.e  divided  into  three  sec- 
tions, viz.  1.  Frogs,  common'y  so  called,  or 
rana.-,  with  light  active  bodies,  and  which  leap, 
when  disturbed.  2.  Slender-limbed  frogs, 
hyla:-,  calaiwita-,  or  rans  arbort  ;e,  viz,  such 
as  have  light  bodies,  very  slender  limbs,  and 
toes  terminating  in  Hat,  circularly,  expanded, 
tips,  enabling  the  animivis  to  lulhere  at  plea- 
sure to  the  surface  even  of  the  smoothest  bo- 
dies. Several  of  this  division  geiierallv  reside 
on  trees,  adhering  by  their  toes  to  the  lower 
surfaces  of  the  leaves  and  branches.  3.  Toads, 
bufones,  or  such  as  ha'-e  large  heavy  bodies,, 
sliort  thick  limbs,  and  which  ratlier  crawl 
than  leap  when  disturbed. 

1.  Rana  temporaria,  the  conuiion  frog,  is 
the  most  common  of  all  the  European  spe- 
cies, being  almost  every  where  seen  in  moi>t 
situations,  or  wherever  it  can  command  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  Insijcts,  worms,  &c.  oil 
which  it  feeds.  In  colour  it  varies  consider- 
ably, but  its  general  tinge  is  olive-brown,  va- 
riegated on  tlio  upper  parts  of  the  liodj  and 
limbs  with  irregular  blackish  spots;  those  cu 
the  limbs  being  mostly  disposed  in  a  trans- 
verse diivction:  beneath  each  eye  is  a  long- 
ish  mark  or  patch,  reaching  to  the  setting  oi» 
of  the  fore-legs,  and  which  >ecms  to  form  one 
oijts  principal  si-ecilic  distinctions. 

It  is  gt.-iu-rally  in  the  month  of  March  that 
the  frog  deposits  its  ova  or  spawn,  consisting 
of  a  large  heap  or  clustered  mass  of  gelati- 
nous transparent  eggs,  in  each  of  which  is 


irimt'dded  l\i6  cnil)!-yf),  or  (adjjolc,  in  the 
funn  ot  d  roiiiid  bla(  k  tjloljulc.      1  lu;  spnwn 
curnnKHily  lit'S  uioiv  than  ;l  niontli,  oi"  souie- 
timcs  (ivo  wt'L-ks,  before  tlm  l.irva^  or  tatlpolus 
Brt- liulclied  from  it;  and  durini;  this  m'riod 
each  cgn  gradually  milai  ges  In  al/.c,  and  a  i'i:w 
days  l)i:tbre  the  time  of  exclusion  llie  young 
animah-;  may  be  perceived  to  move  aljoiil  in 
the.sMrrmmding  gluten.     When  lirst  hatched, 
Ihey  feed  on  the  remains  of  the  ghiteo  in 
Whieh  they  were  imbedded  ;  and  in  the  space 
of  a  lew  days,  if  narrowly  examined,  thvy  will 
be  found  to  bo  furnished,  on  each  side  the 
iiead,  with   a  pair  of  raniifie<l   branchi;u  or 
temporary   organs,   which    again    disappear 
after  a  certain  space.     These  tadpoles  are  so 
.jX'rfectly  unlike  the  animals  iu  their  coijiplele 
state,  that  a  person  not  conversant  in  natural 
Jiistory  wouUI  hardly  suppose  them  to  bear 
any  relationship  to  the  frog ;  since,  on  a  ge- 
neral view,  they  appear  to  consist  merely  of 
head  and  tail.     Their  motions  are  extremelv 
lively,  and  they  are  often  seen  in  such  vast 
numbers  as  to  blacken  the  whole  water  with 
their  legions.      They  live  ou  tlie  leaves  of 
duckweed  and  other  small   water-plants,  as 
well  as  on  various  kinds  of  animalcules,  &c. 
•nd  when  arrived  at  a  larger  size,  (hev  may 
even  be  heard  to  gnaw  the  edges  of  the  leaves 
on  which  they  feed,  their  moijths  being  fur- 
nished with  extremely  minute  teeth  or  den- 
liculations.      The  tadpole  is  also  furnished 
with   a   smsll  kind   of  tubular  sphincter  or 
ericker  beneath  the  lower  jaw,  by  die  help  of 
which  it  hangs  at  pleasure  to  the  under  sur- 
face of  aciuatic  plants,  &:c.     From  this  part 
it  also  occasionally  hangs,  when  very  young, 
by  a  thread  of  gluten,  whicli  it  seems  to  ma- 
nage  in   the   same  manner  as  some  of  the 
smaller  slugs  have  been  observed  to  practise. 
Its  interior  organs  differ,  if  closelv  inspected, 
from  those  of  the  future  frog,  in  many  re- 
spects ;  the  intestines  in  particular  are  always 
coiled  into  a  flat  spiral,  in  the  manner  of  a 
cable  in  miniature. 

When  the  tadpoles  have  arrived  at  the  age 
of  about  five  or  six  weeks,  the  hind  legs  make 
their  appearance,  gradually  increasing  in 
length  and  size ;  and,  in  about  a  fortnight 
afterwards,  or  sometimes  later,  are  succeeded 
by  the  fore  legs,  which  are  indeed  formed 
beneath  the  skin  much  sooner,  and  are  occa- 
sionally jirotrnded  and  again  retracted  by  the 
bnimal  through  a  small  foramen  on  each  side 
of  the  breast,  and  are  not  completely  stretch- 
ed forth  till  the  time  just  mentioned.  The 
animal  now  bears  a  kind  of  ambiguous  ap- 
pearance, partaking  of  the  form  of  a  frog  and 
a  lizard.  The  tail  at  this  period  begins  to 
decrease,  at  lirst  very  gradually,  and  at  length 
so  rapidly  as  to  become  quite  obliterated  in 
the  space  of  a  day  or  two  afterwards.  Tiie 
animal  now  ventures  Upon  land,  and  is  seen 
■wandering  about  the  brinks  of  its  parent  wa- 
ters, and  sometimes  in  such  multitudes  as  to 
cover  a  space  of  many  yards  in  extent.  'I'his 
■Is  the  phenomenon  which  lias  so  frec|uently 
«nibarrassed  the  minds  not  on'y  of  the  vul- 
gar, but  even  of  some  snperior'characters  in 
the  philosophic  world;  who,  unable  to  ac- 
count for  the  legions  of  these'  animalg^^wMth 
which  the  ground  is .  occasiofially  covered  in 
certain  spots,  at  the  close  of  summer,  li^^e 
■been  led  into  the  popular  belief  of  their  hav- 
ing descended  from  the  clouds  in  showers. 

As  soon  as  the  frog  has  thus  assumed  its 
^lerfect  form,  it  feeds  no  longer  on  veijctables 


rana. 

but  oil  animal  food  ;  snpportinct  itself  on 
small  snails,  worms,  &c.  and  insects.  For 
the  readi.-r  obtaining  its  prey,  the  structure 
of  its  tongue  is  extremely  well  i:alcnlaled, 
being  so  situated  that  the'root  is  attached  to 
the  fore  rather  than  the  hind  part  of  the 
moutli;  and  when  at  rest,  lies  backwards, 
as  if  the  animal  was  swallowing  the  tip.  By 
this  means  the  creature  is  enabled  to  throw  it 
out  to  some  distance  from  th^'  mouth,  wliicli 
is  done  with  great  celerity,  and  the  bilid  and 
glutinous  extremity  secures  riie  prey,  which 
is  swallowed  with  an  instantaneous  'motion, 
so  i|uick  that  the  eye  can  scarcely  follow  it. 

"^I  he  frog  can  hanlly  be  said  to  arrive  at  its 
full  size  till  the  age  of  about  live  years,  and 
is  supposed  to  live  at  least  twelve'  or  (illeen 
years. 

The  frog  is  extremely  tenacious  of  life, 
and,  like  other  amphibia,  will  survive  for  a 
considerable  space  the  loss  of  many  of  its  or- 
gans. If  confined  entirely  under  wati>r,  it  is 
still  enabled  to  support  its  existence  for  seve- 
ral days,  as  appears  by  sir  Thomas  Brown's 
experiment,  who  kept  a  frog  under  water  six 
days.  On  the  contrary,  it  cannot  so  well 
dispense  with  the  want  of  water,  and  is  unable 
to  survive  too  long  an  exposure  to  a  dry  air 
and  a  hot  sun.  It  is,  therefore,  particularly 
careful  to  secure  a  retreat  where  it  mav  en- 
joy the  benefit  of  shade  and  a  sufficient  sup-  I 
ply  of  moisture.  It  delights,  however,  to  | 
bask  occasionally  in  a  moderate  sunshine, 
and  is  unable  to  support  severe  cold. 

2.  Eana  esculenta,   green  frog.     This  spe- 
cies is  the  largest  of  the  European  frogs,  and 
is  found  plentifully   in  France,   Italy,   Ger- 
many, and  many  other  parts  of  Europe,  but 
is  a  rare  animal  in  England.     In  its  general 
appearance  it  extren'.eiy  resembles  the  com- 
mon frog,  but  is  of  larger  size,  and  of  an  olive- 
green  colour,  distinctly  and  strongly  marked 
on  the  upper  parts  of  tlie  body  with  mode- 
rately large   and  somewhat    rounded  black  I 
spots  or  patches;    the   limbs  are  elegantlv  ' 
marked  or  barred  transversely  with  bands  of ; 
the  same  colour.     The  head  is  rather  la-i-ger  ! 
and  sharper  in  proportion  than  that  of  the  i 
common   frog  ;     and   tlie   long   deep-brown  ' 
patch  under  each  eye,  which  forms  so  con-  j 
slant  and  conspicuous  a  ciiaracter  in  that  ani-  ! 
mal,   is  much   less   distinct,  and  sometimes  ■ 
even  entirely  wanting.     Tlie  proportion  of  \ 
the  limbs  is  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  com-  I 
mon  frog,  and  the  hind  feet  are  very  strongly  | 
palmated.  ""  i 

The  green  frog  is  a  very  voracious  animal,  I 
and  will  occasionally  seize  on  young  birds  of 
various  kinds,  mice,  and  even  young  duck- 
lings which  happen  to  stray  too  far  from  their 
parents,  Swallowing  them  whole  like  the  rest 
of  its  prey.  It  arrives  at  its  full  growth  in 
about  four  years,  begins  to  breed  at  the  age 
of  live  years,  and  lives  to  about  sixteen. 

3.  liana  catcsbeiana,  bull-frog.  This  re- 
markable species  is  not  uncommon  in  many 
parts  of  North  .\merica,  where  it  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  bull-frog,  its  voice  resem- 
bling the  distant  lowing  ot  that  animal.  It 
grows  to  a  very  large  size,  and  is  about  18 
inches  from  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  hind 
feet.  Its  colour,  on  the  upper  parts,  is  -a 
dusky  olive  or  brownish,  somewiiat  irregu- 
larly marked  with  lunnerous  deep-brown 
spots ;  while  the  under  parts  are  of  a  pale  or 
whitish  cast,  with  a  tincture  of  yellowish 
green, 

5Z3 


Sir 

4.  Wana  Tgn''!,  fire-frog,  is  a  native  of  Ger- 
many, Italy,  and  many  other  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, but  is  not  found  in  England.  Its  col  juc 
on  the  upper  parts  is  a  dull  olive-brown,  the 
skin  being  marked  with  large  and  small  tu- 
bercles ;  round  the  edges  of  the  mouth  i? 
placed  a  row  of  blackish  streaks  or  jjerpendi- 
cular  spirts.  The  under  pints  both  of  the 
body  and  limbs  are  orange-coloured,  spotted 
or  variegated  witli  irregular  markings  of  dull 
blue.  It  is  fiom  the  colour ol  the  under  sur' 
face  tliat  this  species  has  obtained  its  titles  of 
bufo  igneus,  (ire-frog,  &c. 

This  animal  may  be  considered  rather  ag 
an  aquatic  than  terrestrial  species,  beinjj 
rarely  (bund  on  land,  but  chielly  inhabilinj* 
turbid  stagnant  waters,  in  whii-h,  in  the 
month  of  June,  it  deposits  its  spawn,  the  ova 
being  much  larger  in  proportion  than  in  most 
others  of  the  genus.  The  tadpoles  are  hatch- 
ed towards  the  end  of  June,  and  are  of  a  pal<; 
yellowish-brow  n  colour ;  and  w  hen  young 
are  often  observ<>d  to  hang  from  the  surface 
of  leaves,  &c.  by  a  glutinous  thread  proceed- 
ing from  the  small  Itibe  or  sucker  beneath  the 
lower  lip. 

The  fire-frog  is  a  lively,  active  animal; 
leaping  and  swimming  with  equal  or  eve« 
superior  agility  to  the  common  (rog.  When 
surprised  on  land,  or  unable  to  escape,  it  squats 
close  to  the  gro\ind,  at  the  same  time  turn- 
ing back  its  head  and  limbs  in  a  singular  man« 
ner ;  and  if  farther  teased  or  irritated,  eva- 
cuates from  the  hinder  part  of  the  thighs  a 
kind  of  saponaceous  frothy  fluid,  of  no  bad 
scent,  but  which  in  some  circumstances  ha^ 
been  found  to  excite  a  slight  sensation  of  acrV- 
niony  in  the  eyes  and  nostrils.  This  species 
is  observed  to  breed  at  the  age  of  three 
years,  and  may  be  supposed  to  live  about 
ten  ;  but  this  is  not  entirely  ascertained.  Its 
voice,  according  to  Roesel,  is  sharper  or 
lighter  than  in  other  frogs,  less  disagreeable, 
and  in  some  degree  resembling  a  kind  of 
laugh:  according  to  authors,  however,  it 
rather  resembles  the  tone  of  a  bell,  or  the 
note  of  a  cuckoo  ;  for  which  reason  the  ani- 
mal has  been  called  rana  bombina.  The 
male  only  is  vocal, 

5.  Rana  piscis,  lan'a,  or  tadpole.  This  ani-  ^ 
mal  is  a  native  of  South  America,  and  seems 
to  be  more  particulaily  found  in  Surinam 
than  in  other  parts.  In  its  general  form  it 
very  much  resembles  the  rana  temporaria, 
or  common  European  frog;  and  is,  when  \i\'- 
ing,  of  a  yellowish  olive-colour,  spotted  and 
variegated  on  the  body  and  limbs  with  ru- 
fous or  yellowish  brown  ;  the  principal  mark 
of  distinction  from  others  of  the  genus  being 
the  somewhat  oblique  longitudinal  stripes  ou 
the  liiiid  legs:  the  fore  feet  have  only  four 
toes,  and  are  unw ebbed;  but  the  hind  feet 
liave  rive,  and  arc  very  deeply  palmated  to 
the  very  ends  or  tips  ol  the  toes ;  and  near 
the  thumb  or  shortest  toe  is  an  oblona  callus, 
resembling  an  additional  or  spurious  toe. 

The  tadpole  of  this  frog,  f  oin  its  very  larg« 
size,  the  strong  and  muscular  appearance  of 
the  tail,  and  the  ambiguous  aspect  which  it 
exhibits  in  the  latter  part  of  its  progress  to- 
ward its  complete  or  ultimate  form,  has  long 
continued  to  constitute  the  paradox  of  Eu- 
ropean naturalists ;  w  ho,  however  strong  and 
well-grounded  their  suspicions  might  be  rela- 
tive io  it;  real  nature,  and  the  mistake  of 
mosttJe^gribejs,  were  yet  obliged,  iu  tome 


MS 

nicasure,  to  acquiesce  in  tlie  general  testi- 
iiiony  of  those  mIio  had  seen  it  in  its  native 
waters,  and  who  declared  it  to  be  at  length 
transmuted,  not  into  a  iVog,  hut  a  lish  !  and 
it  was  even  added  by  some,  tliat  it  aitei  wards 
reverted  to  its  tadpole  form  again  ! !  That  it 
is  really  no  other  than  a  frog  in  its  larva  or 
.  tadpole  state,  will  be  evident  to  every  one 
who  considers  its  structure ;  and  more  espe- 
cially, if  it  is  collated  with  tlie  tadpole  even 
of  some  European  frogs.  Like  our  European 
tadpoles,  this  animal,  according  to  the  more 
or  less  advanced  state  in  which  it  is  found,  is 
furnished  either  with  all  the  four  legs,  or 
with  only  the  two  hinder  ones :  it  also  some- 
times happens  that  in  the  largest-sized  of 
these  tadpoics,  exceeding  perhaps  the  length 
of  six  or  eight  indies,  the  hind  legs  alone  ap- 
pear; while  in  those  of  far  smaller  size  both 
tiie  fore  and  hind  legs  are  equally  conspicu- 
ous. 

It  will  readily  appear  that  the  larva  of  this 
frog  is  larger  in  proportion  to  the  complete 
animal  than  in  any  other  species  hitherto  dis- 
covered. It  may  also  l)e  not  improper  to 
observe,  that  periiaps  all  tiie  specimens  of 
these  very  large  tajpoks  occurring  in  mu- 
seums, may  not  be  tliose  of  the  rana  para- 
doxa  in  particular,  !)ut  of  some  other  Ame- 
rican,  African,  or  Asiatic  frogs,  as  the  B. 
ocellata,  marina,  &;c.  See  Frog-fish,  Vol. 
I.  p.  780. 

Hi/It,  or  frogs  with  rather  slea<ler  bodies, 
long  limbs,  and  the  tips  of  the  toes  ;lat,  orbi- 
cular, ai.d  dilated. 

6.  Kana  zebra,  zebra-frog,  appears  to  be 
by  far  the  largest  of  all  the  hyla-,  or  slender- 
bodied  frogs,  and  is,  according  to  Seba,  a 
native  of  Carolina  and  Virginia.  iLs  colour 
is  an  elegant  pale  rufous-brown,  beautifully 
narked  on  the  t«;ck  and  limbs,  and  even  to 
the  ends  of  the  toes,  with  traus\erse  chesnut- 
coloured  bands,  which  c:i  the  limbs  are  dou- 
ble and  much  more  numerous  than  on  the 
back;  the  fore  feet  are  tetradactylous,  and 
the  hind  pentadactylous ;  the  head  is  large 
ill  proportion,  the  eyes  protuberant,  and  the 
inouth  wide.     It  measures  about  live  inches. 

7.  Rana  arborea,  tree-frog.  In  the  beauty 
of  its  colours,  as  well  as  in  tlie  elegance  of  its 
fonnand  the  agility  of  its  movements,  the  tree- 
frog  exceeds  every  other  European  species. 
It  is  a  native  of  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and 
many  other  European  regions,'  but  is  not 
found  in  the  British  islands.  Its  principal 
residence,  during  the  summer  nionllis,  is  on 
the  upi)er  parts  of  trees,  where  it  wanders 
among  the  foliage  in  quest  of  insects,  which 
it  catches  with  e.xtrenie  celerity,  stealing  soft- 
ly toward  its  prey  in  the  manner  of  a  cat  to- 
wards a  mouse,  and  when  at  tlie  jjroper  dis- 
tance, seizing  it  with  a  sudden  spring,  fre- 
quently of  more  than  a  foot  in  height.  It 
often  suspends  itself  to  the  under  parts  of  the 
leaves,  liius  continuing  concealed  beneath 
their  shade.  Its  size  is  smaller  than  any 
other  European  frog,  except  the  (ire-frog. 
its  colour  on  the  upper  parts  is  grccri,  more 
or  less  bright  in  dilTerent  individuals;  the 
abdomen  is  whitish,  and  marked  by  nume- 
rous granules.;  the  under  surface  of  the  limbs 
is  reddish,  and  the  body  marked  on  each  side 
by  alongi'udinil  blackish  or  violet-coloured 
streak.  The  liodv  is  snioolh  above,  and 
W'lderalely  short  above ;  the  hind  h'gs  are 
very  long  and  slender ;  the  fore  feet  have 
ftturaBd  lilt:  hiaid  fcctdve  toes,  ajl  of  which 


KANA. 

terminate  in  rounded.  Hat,  and  dilated  lips, 
the  under  surface  of  which,  being  soft  and 
glutinous,  enables  tlie  animal  to  liar.g  with 
perfect  security  noni  the  leaves  of  trees,  &c. 
I'he  skin  of  the  abdomen  is  also  admirably 
calculated  by  nature  for  this  peculiar  power 
of  adhe>ion,  being  covered  with  small  glan- 
dular granules  in  such  a  manner  as  to  Listen 
closelv  even  to  the  most  polished  surlace; 
and  the  animal  can  adhere  at  pleasure  to 
that  of  glass,  in  whatever  position  or  inclina- 
tion it  is  placed,  by  merely  pressing  itself 
against  it. 

Though  the  tree-frog  inhabits  the  woods 
during  tlie  summer  months,  yet  on  the  ap- 
proacii  of  winter  it  retires  to  tiie  waters,  and 
there  subinergjig  itself  in  the  soft  mud,  or 
concealing  itself  beneath  the  banks,  remains 
in  a  state  of  torpidity,  and  again  emerges  in 
the  Spring,  at  wliicli  period  it  deposits  its 
spawn  in  the  waters,  like  the  rest  of  this 
genus.  During  their  residence  among  the 
trees,  they  are  observed  to  be  particularly 
noisy  on  the  approach  of  rain  ;  so  that  they 
i  may  be  considered,  in  some  measure,  as  a 
I  kincl  of  living  barometers ;  more  especially 
j  the  males,  which,  if  kept  in  glasses,  and  sup-' 
I  plied  with  proper  food,  will  allbrd  an  iiiial- 
i  lihle  presage  of  the  changes  of  weather. 
I  Toads.  8.  Kana  bufo,  common  toad.  Of 
all  the  European  toads,  this  seems  to  be  the 
most  universally  known  ;  at  least,  in  its  com- 
plete or  perfect  form.  It  is  found  in  gardens, 
woods,  and  fields;  and  fr.quently  makes  its 
way  into  cellars,  or  any  oiiscure  recesses  in 
which  it  may  occasionally  conceal  itseli,  and 
where  it  may  find  a  supply  of  food,  or  a  se- 
curity from  too  great  a  degree  of  cold.  In 
the  early  part  of  spring,  like  others  of  this  ge- 
nus, it  retires  to  the  waters,  where  it  conttnues 
during  the  breeding-season,  and  deposits  its 
ova  or  spawn  in  the  form  of  doub'e  necklace- 
like chains  or  strings  of  beautifully  transparent 
gluten,  and  of  the  length  ot  three  or  tour  feet. 
The  toad  is  an  animal  too  well  known  to 
require  any  very  particular  description  of  its 
form.  It  may  be  necessary  to  observe  that 
it  is  always  covered  by  tubercles,  or  eleva- 
tions on  the  skin,  of  larger  or  smaller  size  in 
different  individuals  ;  and  tiiat  thi?  general 
colour  of  the  animal  is  an  obscure  brown 
above,  much  paler  and  irregularly  spotted 
beneath. 

The  toad  arrives  at  a  considerable  age;  its 
general  term  of  life  being  su)>posed  to  extend 
to  15  or  even  20  years  :  and  Mr.  P.'nnant,  in 
his  British  Zoology,  gives  us  a  curious  ac- 
count, communicated  by  a  Mr.  Arscott  of 
Tehott  in  Devonsiiire,  of  a  toad's  having 
lived,  in  a  kind  of  doiTie.>tic  stalw-,  for  the 
space  of  more  than  40  years,  and  of  having 
been  in  a  great  degree  tamed,  or  reclaimetl 
from  its  natural  shy  ness  or  desire  of  conceal- 
ment; since  it  would  always  regularly  come 
out  of  its  hole  at  the  approach  of  its  master, 
&c.  in  order  to  be  fed.  It  grew  to  a  very 
large  size,  and  was  considered  as  so  singular 
a  curiosity,  that  even  ladies,  laying  aside 
Ihoir  usual  aversion  and  piejudiccs,  request- 
ed to  see  the  favourite  toad.  It  was,  there- 
fore, often  brought  to  table,  ar.d  fed  with 
various  insects,  which  it  seized  with  great 
celerity,  ami  wi:hout  seeming  to  be  embar- 
rassed by  the  presence  .  of  company.  1  his 
extraordinary  animal  generally  resided  in  a 
hole  beneath  the  steps  of  llie  house-door, 


fronting  the  garden ;  and  ndght  probably 
liave  survived  many  \ears  longer,  had  it  not 
been  severely  wounded  by  a  raven,  whii  h 
seized  it  before  it  could  take  retuge  in  its 
hole ;  and  notwithstanding  it  was  liberated, 
from  its  captor,  it  never  again  enjoyed  its 
Usual  health,  though  it  continued  to  live 
above  a  year  after  the  accident  happened. 

With  respect  to  the  supposed  venomous 
qualities  of  the  toad,  from  the  experiments  of 
Eaurenti,  it  appears  that  small  lizards,  on 
biting  the  conimcn  toad,  were  for  some  time 
disordered  and  paralytic,  and  even  ai)peared 
to  be  dead,  but  in  a  lew  hours  were  com- 
pletely recoverad. 

It  is  also  observed,  that  dogs,  on  seizing  a 
toad,  and  carrying  it  for  some  little  time  in 
their  mouth,  « ill  appear  to  be  allccted  with 
a  very  slight  swelling  ol  the  lips,  accompa- 
nied by  an  increased  evacuation  of  saliva ; 
the  mere  eifect  of  the  slightly  acrimonious 
fluid  vshich  tiie  toad  on  irritation  exudes 
from  its  skin,  and  which  seems,  in  tills  coun- 
try at  least,  to  produce  no  dangerous  symp- 
toms in  such  ai.imals  as  happen  to  taste  or 
swallow  it.  Thj  limpid  fluid  also,  which 
tills  animal  discharges  when  disturbed,  is  a 
mere  watiy  liquor,  perfectly  free  fi'om  any 
acrimoniois  or  noxious  qualities,  and  appear- 
ing to  be  no  utlier  than  ihe  conteic.s  oi  a  pe- 
culiar reservoir,  cuniiuon  to  this  tribe,  des- 
tined fur  some  purpose  in  the  economy  of 
the  animals  wliich  does  not  jct  ajipear  lobe 
clearly  understood.  The  >ommon  toad  may 
therefore  be  pronounced  innoxious,  or  per- 
ffcctiy  free  from  any  poisonous  properties,  at 
least  .with  respect  to  any  oi  tlie  larger  ani- 
mals ;  and  the  innumerabl"  tales  recited  by 
the  older  writers  of  its  supposed  vtiiom,  ap- 
pear to  be  either  gross  exaggeiutions,  or  else 
to  have  related  to  the  etiects  of  some  other 
species  mistaken  for  the  common  toad ;  it 
being  certain  that  some  of  this  genus  e.xude 
Iroin  their  skin  a  highly  acrimonious  fluid. 
It  might  seem  iinpardon..ble  to  conclude 

I  the  history  of  this  .■.uinial  without  mentioning 
the    very    extraordinary  circumstance  of  its 

!  having  been  occasioiuUy  discovered  enclosed 
or  imbedded,  without  any  visible  outlet,  or 

I  even  any  passage  for  air,  in  the  substance  of 
wood,  and  even  in  tliat  of  stone  or  blocks  of 
nuable. 

On  this  subject  a  curious  experiment  was 
made  by  Mons.  Herrissant  of  the  French 
academy,  in  consequence  of  an  assertion,  that 
in  the  year  1771,  on  pulling  down  a  wall  at  a 
seat  belonging  to  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and 
which  had  Leen  built  40  years,  a  living  toad. 
had  been  found  in  it ;  its  hind  feet  being 
conliued  or  imbeddefl  in  the  mortar.  M^ 
Herrissant  thereiore.  hi  the  presence  of  the 
academy,  ii  <  losed  three  toads  in  as  many 
bo.xes,  wliich  were  immediately  covered  with 
a  thick  coat  of  plaistcr  or  mortar,  and  kept 
in  the  apartments  of  the  academy.  On 
opening  these  boxes  eighteen  inonilis  after- 
wards, two  of  the  toaus  were  found  still  liv- 
ing :  these  were  immediately  re-iiUlosed ; 
but  on  being  again  opened  some  months 
after,  were  found  dead.  These  experiments, 
are  perhaps  not  very  conclusive;  and  only 
appe.ir  to  prove  uliat  was  letorewcll  known,. 
v^.  that  the  toad,  like  m.  ny  other  amphi- 
bia, can  suppint  a  long  ab'tmeiice,  aiul  re- 
tpi'ris  but  a  small  quantity  of  air:  but  in  the< 
accouuls  generally  given  of  toads  discovered 
ui  stones,  wood,  &:c.  the  animals  are  said,  to 


RAN 

have  been  eom|ik'tcly  impacteJ  or  imbedded, 
and  wilhoul  any  vpacc  fur  air. 
_  0.  Ii;.iia  viridis.  Tjio  gn>i>n  toad  is  a  na- 
tive of  Gpimaiiy  and  some  otiier  jjavts  of 
Europe,  and  seems  to  li;ive  been  first  de- 
scribed l)y  Valisneri,  and  afterwards  by  I.au- 
renti,  wlio  informs  ns  that  it  inli.i!)its  "the  ca- 
vities of  walls  about  \'ieiina,  and  is  distin- 
giiislwd  Ijy  its  greeniili  and  conliiient  spots 
on  tlie  njjper  parts,  disposed  on  a  pale  or 
whitish  groinul,  and  scattered  over  with  tu- 
bercles. Eacli  of  the  green  spots  or  patches 
is  also  bounded  by  a  blackish  margin,  and 
the  whole  pattern  hm  a  somewhat  rudely 
geograpliical  or  mapdike  appearance.  Tlie 
odour  ot  this  species  is  very  strong;  resem- 
blinj;;  that  of  the  cominoii"  black  or  garden 
nightshade,  but  much  mor<-  powerful,  so  as 
to  liU  a  whole  room.  The  female  is  of  a 
l)rowner  cast  Iha'i  the  male.  In  winter  tliis 
species  retires  under  ground,  and,  like  others 
6{  the  genus,  freciuents  the  v\-aters  at  the 
breeding  sea>:on. 

10.  Rana  duliia,  or  musica.  Of  this  ani- 
mal a  specimen  is  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum,  under  the  title  ol  rana  musica  :  its 
size  is  that  of  a  common  toad,  but  the  shape 
of  the  body  difiiers,  seemmg  gradually  to  de- 
crease from  the  shoulders  to  the  hind  legs, 
somewhat  in  the  manner  o{  the  hy'a?  or  tree- 
frogs.  Its  colour,  so  far  as  can  be  deter- 
mined fiom  the  specimen  long  preserved  in 
spirit  of  wine,  appears  to  have  b  ea  a  mode- 
rately deep  brown  above,  and  pale  or  whitish 
beneath,  slightly  marbled  or  variegated  with 
brown.  Tlie  whole  upper  surface  is  beset 
with  distinct  oval  pustules  or  tubercles. 

Whether  this  is  the  species  intended  by 
Linnx'us,  under  the  name  of  rana  musica, 
may  perhaps  be  questioned.  In  the  Sy sterna 
Natura:  he  refers  to  no  author  or  figure,  but 
informs  us  that  tiie  animal  is  a  native  of  Su- 
rinam, and  that  it  has  a  musical  voice.  See 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  (ig.  344. 

11.  Rana  coruuta,  horned  toad.  Among 
the  who'.e  iribe  of  amphihia,  it  is,  perhaps, 
difiicult  to  find  an  animal  of  a  more  singular 
appearance  than  this,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  of  a  more  deformed  and  hideous  aspect 
tliiin  even  the  pipa,  or  toad  of  .Surinam.  This 
arises  not  so  much  fro]n  the  general  shape  of 
the  animal,  as  from  the  eNtraordinary  struc- 
ture of  the  upper  eyelids,  which  are  so  iormed 
as  to  retemble  a  pair  of  short  shaip-pointecl 
horns;  wliile  tlie  widtii  of  the  mouth  is  such 
as  to  exceed  that  cf  any  other  species,  and 
even  to  equal  half  the  lenaf'di  of  the  bodv  it- 
self. The  skin  of  the  body,  both  above  and 
below,  is  of  a  cinereous  yellow,  striped  with 
lines  of  obscure  greyish  brown.  Along  the 
Lack  nms  a  broad  w  hite  band,  commencing 
at  the  head,  and  thence  decreasing  graduallv, 
so  as  to  appear  narrow  over  the  hind  parts: 
it  is  also  beset  with  small  specks  like  pearls. 
All  the  rest  of  the  body  is  rough,  with  sharp 
spines,  except  the  head,  which  is  varieg.  ted 
with  white,  and  the  abdomen,  wliich  is  ol  a 
deep  rufous  yellow.  The  legs  are  surround- 
ed by  a  kind  of  bauds  or  fillets  ;  and  the  toes 
are  marked  in  a  similar  manner,  and  resemble 
in  some  deifree  the  human  lingers,  and  are 
fourdn  number  on  the  fore  legs,  and  five  on 
the  hind:  the  hind  feet  are  also  webbed. 
The  head  is  very  large  and  thick,  and  when 
the  mouth  is  opened,  exhibits  a  broad  and 
thick  tongue,  shaped  somewliat  .like  an  oy- 
«ter,  and  fastened  in  front  to  the  lower  jaw, 


RAN 

but  loose  behind  as  in  frogs;  it  is  also  co- 
vered over  with  papilhe.  The  female  agrees 
in  all  res|)ects  witn  the  male,  except  thai  the 
mouth  is  still  wider,  and  the  front  is  varie- 
gated in  a  somewhat  dillerent  manner.  Sec 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  343. 

Seba  seems  to  have  been  misinformed  as 
to  the  native  country  of  this  species,  which 
he  imagined  to  be  Virginia  ;  but  the  animal 
is  now  known  to  be  a  native  of  South  Ame- 
rica only. 

12.  Rana  pipa.  This  also  is  one  of  those 
animals  which,  at  first  view,  every  one  pro- 
nounces deformed  and  hideous;  iLe  general 
uncouthness  of  its  shape  being  often  aggra- 
valetl  by  a  phenomenon  unexampled  in  the 
rest  of  the  animal  world,  viz.  the  young  in 
various  stages  of  exclusion,  proceeding  liom 
cells  dispersed  over  the  back  of  the  parent. 

The  size  of  the  pipa  considerably  exceeds 
that  of  the  common  toad:  the  body  is  of  a 
flatfish  form;  the  head  snbtriangnlar ;  the 
mouth  very  wide,  with  the  edges  or  corners 
furnished  with  a  kind  of  short  cutaneous  and 
lacerated  appendage  on  each  side:  in  the 
male,  however,  the  head  is  rather  oval  than 
triangular,  and  the  parts  just  mentioned  less 
distiuci  ;  the  fore  feet  arc  tetradactjious,  the 
toes  long  and  thin,  and  each  divided  at  the 
tip  into  four  distinct  portions  or  processes, 
each  of  which,  if  narrowly  inspected  with  a 
magnifier,  will  be  found  to  be  again  obscure- 
ly subdi\ided  almost  in  a  similar  manner; 
the  hind  feet  are  rive-toed,  and  very  v\idely 
webbed  ;  the  web  reaching  to  the  very  tips 
of  the  toes.  The  male  pipa  is  larger  than  the 
female,  measuring  sometimes  not  less  than 
seven  inches  from  the  nose  to  the  end  ot  the 
body  ;  the  nose  in  both  se.xes  is  of  a  some- 
what truncated  form,  like  that  of  a  mole  or 
hog,  and  the  eyes  extremely  small ;  from 
each  eye,  in  the  female,  run  two  rows  of 
graimles,  or  glandular  points,  to  the  middle  of 
the  back  ;  tlie  whole  body  is  also  covered 
with  similar  points  or  glandules,  bnt  smaller 
than  the  former:  in  the  male  a  single  row  of 
granules  proceeds  from  each  eye  down  the 
back,  instead  of  a  double  row  as  in  the  fe- 
male: these  points  or  granules  are  also  larger 
than  in  the  female,  and  gradually  decrease  in 
size  as  they  approach  the  lower  part  of  the 
back:  the  skin  round  the  neck,  in  both  sexes, 
forms  a  kind  of  loose  or  wrinkled  collar:  the 
I  abdomen  of  the  male  is  of  a  browner  tinge 
than  that  of  the  feiriale,  and  is  sometimes  ob- 
scurelv  spotted  with  yellow;  but  the  general 
colour,  both  of  the  male  and  female  pipa,  is 
a  dark  or  blackish  brown. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  supposed  that  the 
ova  of  this  extraordinary  animal  were  pro- 
duced in  the  dorsal  cells,  without  having  been 
first  excluded  in  the  form  of  spawn ;  but  later 
observations  have  proved  that  a  still  more 
extraorilinary  process  takes  place ;  and  that 
the  spawn  alter  exclusion  is  received  into  the 
open  cells  ol  the  back,  and  there  concealed 
til!  tlie  young  have  arrived  at  maturity.  The 
fem.de  pipa  deposits  her  eggs  or  spawn  atthe 
brink  of  some  stagnant  water;  and  the  male 
!  collects  or  amasses  the  heap  of  ova,  and  de- 
posits them  with  great  care  on  the  back  of 
the  I'c-male,  where,  after  impregnation,  they 
are  pressed  into  the  cellules,  which  are  at  that 
period  open  for  their  reception,  and  after- 
wards close  over  them;  thus  retaining  tlieiri 
till  the  period  of  'tlieir  second  birth ;  which 


,11  A  N 


W9 


happens  in  somewhat  less  than  three  months, 
when  they  emerge  irom  the  back  of  the  pa- 
rent ill  their  complete  state.  During  the 
time  of  their  contealmeni,  however,  lliey 
undergo  the  usual  change  of  the  rest  of  tint 
genus,  being  iirst  tialched  from  the  egg  in 
tlie  form  of  a  tadpole ;  and  gradually  acijuire 
their  complete  sliupe  some  iinie  betore  llieir 
exclusion. 

According  to  Fermin,  the  pipa  is  calcu- 
lated by  na.ure  for  producing  but  one  brood 
of  young;  and,  compared  with  the  rest  of 
the  genus,  it  can  by  no  means  be  considered 
as  a  very  prolific  animal ;  the  number  of 
young  produced  by  the  female  which  he  ob- 
served, amounted  to  75,  and  were  all  ex- 
cluded within  the  spacfe  of  five  day^. 

KANCIDITY.     See  Oils. 

RANi:)OM  SHOT,  in  gunnerj-,  is  a  shot 
made  when  the  muzzle  ot  a  gun  is  raised 
above  the  horizontiil  line,  and  is  not  design- 
ed to  shoot  directly  or  point-blank.  '1  he 
utniosl  landoin  ol  any  piece  is  about  ten 
times  as  lar  as  the  bullet  will  go  point-blank. 
The  builet  will  go  farthest  when  the  piece  is 
mounted  to  about  4.5°  above  the  level,  range. 
See  Gijnnery,  and  Projectiles.         , 

RANGE,  in  gunnery,  the  path  of  a  bullet, 
or  the  line  it  describes 'from  the  mouth  of  the 
piece  to  the  point  where  it  lodges.  If  life 
piece  is  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  horizoir,  it  is 
called  the  right  or  level  range:  if  it  is  mount- 
ed to  45",  \tU  said  to  have  the  utmost  range; 
all  others  between  00  and  45'  are  called  the 
intermediate  ranges. 

RANGER,  a  sworn  officer  of  a  forest,  ap- 
pointed by  the  king's  letters-patent,  whose 
business  is  to  walk  through  his  charge,  to 
drive  back  the  deer  out  ot  the  purlieus,  &c. 
and  to  pie<ent  all  trespasses  within  his  juris- 
diction at  the  iie.xt  foresi-court. 

RANGES,  in  a  ship,  two  pieces  of  timber 
that  go  across  from  siile  to  side ;  the  one  on 
the  forecastle,  a  little  abaft  the  fore-mast ; 
and  the  other  in  the  beak-head,  before  the 
wouldings  of  the  bow-ipiit. 

RaNK,  in  war,  is  a  row  of  soldiers  placed 
side  by  side. 

To  double  the  ranks  is  to  put  two  ranks 
into  one.  To  close  the  ranks  is  to  bring  the 
men  nearer :  and  to  open  them,  is  to  set  them 
farther  apart. 

Rank,  tne  order  or  jilace  assigned  a  per- 
son suitable  to  his  quality  or  merit.  See 
Preceoesce. 

Ramk  mid  prcccdi-nce,  in  the  army  and 
navy,  are  as  follow  : 

Engineers'  rank.  Chief,  as  colonel ;  di- 
rector, as  lieutenant-colonel ;  sub-director,  as 
major;  engineer  m  ordinary-,  as  captain  ;  en- 
gineer exiraordinarv ,  as  captain-heutenant ; 
sub-engineer,  as  lieutenant ;  practitioner  en- 
gineer, as  ensign. 

Navy  rank.  Admiral,  or  commander-in- 
chief  of  his  inajesty's  fleet,  has  the  rank  of 
a  field-marshal ;  admirals  with  their  Hags  on 
the  main-top-mast  head,  rank  with  generals  of 
horse  and  foot;  vice-admirals,  with  lieute- 
nant-generals ;  retir-admirals,  as  major-gene- 
rals ;  commodores  with  broad  pendants,  as 
brigadier-generals  ;  captains  of  post-ships,  af- 
ter three  years  from  the  date  of  their  first 
commission,  as  colonels  ;  other  captains 
commanding  post  ships,  as  lieutenant-colo- 
nels ;  captains  not  taking  post,  ~as  majors ; 
ILeiitenaiits,  as  captains.  • 


3jrt 


Jl  A  N 


P.  AT 
PaWK  bchvpen  tlie  Army,  Ka\'v,  ami  GoveniCiis. 


R  A  S 


Hkmy. 

.\AVV. 

trO\  tKNORS. 

General  in  cliiof 

Admiral  in  chief 

Commander  in  chief  of  the  forces  in  America 

Generals  of  horse 

Admiral  with  a  flag  at 
the  main-top-nia^t 

Captain-generals  of  provinces 

Lieutenant- gent-rals 

Mce-admirals 

Lieutsnant-generals  of  provinces 

iMajor- generals 

Rear-admirals 

Lieutenant-governors  and  presidents 

Colonels 

Post-captains  of  3  years 

Lieutenant-governors  not  commanding 

Lieutenant-colonels 

Post-captains 

Governors  of  charter  colonies 

Majors 

Captains 

Deputy-governors 

Captains 

Lieutenants 

Established  by  the  king,   1 760. 

.  "T^ANUNCULUS,  crnxvfnnt,  a  genus  nf 
"the  polygamia  order,  in  the  jiolyandria  class 
of  plants ;  and  in  tlie  natural  method  ranking 
Under  the  26th  order,  multisiliqux.  The  ca- 
'  ]yx  is  pentaphyllous;  there  are  five  petals, 
each  with  a  melliferous  pore  on  the  inside  of 
the  heel;  the  seeds  naked. 

There  are  59  differenl  species  of  this  genus ; 
si.\  or  eight  of  which  claim  general  esteem  as 
liowery  plants  for  ornamenting  the  gardens. 
The  rest,  as  the  common  crowfoot,  &c.  are 
common  weeds  in  the  fields,  waters,  and  pas- 
ture-ground, not  having  merit  for  garden-cul- 
ture. Of  the  garden  kindsj  the  principal  sort 
is  the  A-iaticus  or  Turkey  and  Pereian  ra- 
nunculus, which  comprises  many  hundred 
varieties  of  large,  double,  most  beautiful  fioiv- 
crs,  of  various  colours:  but  several  other  spe- 
cies having  varieties  with  fine  double  flowers, 
make  a  good  appearance  in  a  collection; 
though  as  those  of  each  species  consist  only  of 
one  colour,  some  white,  others  yellow,  they 
are  inferior  to  the  Asiatic  ranunculus,  wljich 
is  large,  and  diversified  a  thousand  ways  in 
rich  colours,  in  diirerent  varieties.  All  the 
garden  kinds,  however,  in  general  effect  a 
■very  agreeable  diversity  in  assemblage  in  the 
I'ower  compartments,  &c.  and  thev  beiiig 
all  very  hardy,  succeed  in  any  open  beds  and 
borders,  &c. 

The  Asiatic  species  in  all  its  varieties  will 
succeed  in  any  ligiit,  rich,  garden  eartli;  but 
the  florists  often  |>repare  a  particular  compost 
for  the  fnie  varieties,  consisting  of  good  gar- 
den-mould or  pasture-earth,  sward  and  all,  a 
fourth  part  of  rotted  cow-dung,  and  the  like 
portion  of  sea-sand ;  and  with  this  they  pre- 

Eare  beds  four  feet  wide,  and  two  diep: 
owever,  in  default  of  such  compost,  use  be<ls 
of  any  good  light  earth  of  your  garden  ;  or,  if 
necessary,  it  may  be  made  light  and  rich 
*»ith  a  portion  of  drift-sand  and  rotten  dung, 
cow-dung  is  most  commonly  recommcndicl ; 
but  they  will  also  thrive  in  beds  of  well- 
wrought  kitchen-garden  i-arth,  and  they  often 
'prosper  welkin  the  common  flower-borders. 
'I'iic  season  for  planting  the  roots  is  spring; 
and  it  may  be  performed  any  time  in  J'ebru- 
ary ,  or  a»  soon  as  the  weather  is  settled. 

■  All  the  varieties  of  the  Asiatic  ranunculus 
propagate  abundantly  by  offsets  from  the 
root ;  and  new  varieties  are  gained  by  seed. 
'J'hc  juice  of  many  species  of  ranunculus  is  so 
acrid  a»  to  raise  blisters  on  the  skin,  and  yet 
the  roots  may  be  uileii  witli  safety  wlicn 
hoikd. 


RAPE.  See  Brassica. 
Raff,  in  law,  is  where  a  man  has  carnal 
knowledge  of  a  woman  by  force,  and  against 
her  will;  by  IS  Eliz.  c.  7,  if  any  person  shall 
unlawfully  and  carnally  know  and  abuse  any 
wonian-cliild  under  the  age  of  ten  years,  whe- 
ther with  her  consent  or  against  it,  he  shall  be 
punished  as  for  a  rape.  And  it  is  not  a  suf- 
licient  excuse  in  the  ravisher,  to  prove  that 
she  is  a  common  strumpet;  for  she  is  still 
under  the  protection  of  the  law,  and  may  not 
be  forced.  Nor  is  the  offence  of  a  rape  mi- 
tigated by  shewing  that  the  woman  at  last 
yielded  to  the  violence,  if  such  her  consent 
was  forced  by  fear  of  death  or  duress  ;  nor  is 
it  any  excuse  that  she  consented  after  the 
fact.     1  Haw.  108. 

The  civilians  make  another  kind  of  rape, 
called  rape  of  subordination  or  seduction  ; 
which  is  seducing  a  maid  either  to  unclean- 
ness  or  marriage,  and  that  by  gentle  means, 
provided  there  is  a  considerable  disparity  in 
the  age  and  circumstances  of  the  parties. " 

Rape  is  also  a  name  given  to  a  division  of 
a  county,  and  sometimes  means  the  same  as 
a  hundred,  and  at  other  times  signifies  a  di- 
vision consistinj^  of  several  hundreds  ;  thus 
Sussex  is  dividi.-d  into  six  rapes,  every  one  of 
which,  besides  its  hundresls,  has  a  castle,  a 
river,  and  a  forest,  belonging  to  it.  The  like 
parts  in  other  counties  are  called  titliings, 
lathes,  or  wapentakes, 

ILVPHANUS,  radi.'ih,  a  genus  of  the  sili- 
qiii'sa  order,  in  the  tetradyuamia  class  of 
pl.mts;  and  in  the  natural  method  rankinc 
under  the  .iDtli  order,  sili(-|UOs;e.  The  calyx 
is  close:  the  siliijua  (orose,  or  swelling  out  in 
knots,  subarticulated,  and  round.  There  are 
two  melliferous  glandules  between  the  shorter 
stamina  aud  the  pistil,  and  two  between  the 
longer  stamina  and  the  calyx.  There  are  six 
species ;  the  sativus,  or  common  garden-ra-" 
dish,  is  best  known,  and  of  this  there  are  se- 
veral vari-lies.  They  are  annual  plants, 
which  being  sown  in  the  spring,  attain  perfec- 
tion in  two  or  three  months,  aud  shoot  up 
soon  after  into  stalk  for  flower  and  seed, 
which,  ripening  in  autumn,  the  wholi;  plant, 
root  and  toj),  [jeilshe-: ;  so  that  a  fresh  supply 
must  be  raised  annually  from  seed  in  the 
spring,  performing  the  'rowings  at  several  dil- 
ferent_  times,  from  about  Christinas  until 
.May,  in  order  to  continue  a  regular  succes- 
sion of  young  tender  radislies  throughout  the 
seasoTi;  allowing  only    ;i  fortnight  or  three 


weeks  interval  between  the  sowings ;  for  one 
cro[)  will  not  continue  good  longer  than  th^t 
space  of  time,  before  they  will  either  run  to 
seed,  or  become  tough,  sticky,  and  too  hot  t'j 
eat. 

RAPHIDIA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  or- 
der iieuroptera.  The  generic  character  is, 
mouth  with  two  teeth;  head  depressed, 
horny;  feelers  four;  stemmata  three;  wings 
deliex;  antenna;  the  length  of  thorax,  whic^j, 
is  cyliudric,  and  elongated  in  front;  tail  of  the 
female  furnished  with  a  recurved  lax  bristle. 
This  genus  contains  but  few  species,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  is  the  raphidia  ophiopsii 
of  Linna'us;  a  smallish  tly,  with  rather  large 
transparent  wings,  and  a  narrow  thorax, 
stretching  forwards  in  a  remarkable  manner. 
It  is  found  on  trees,  &c.  in  summer,  but  is  ra- 
ther a  rare  hisect:  the  pupa,  accsrding  to 
Liiina-us,  resembles  the  complete  insect,  but 
is  destitute  of  wings. 

Raphidia  cornuta  is  a  large  species,  equal 
in  size  to  one  of  the  larger  dragou-llies,  and  is 
distinguished  by  its  very  long  hornlike  jaws, 
whicli  extend  far  beyond  tlie  thorax,  and  are 
terminated  by  a  bifid  tii;:  the  wings  are 
large,  reticulated,  and  semitransparent.  It  is 
a  native  of  North  America, 

Raphidia  mautispa  is  a  small  species,  bet 
little  superior  is  size  to  the  R.  ophiopsis,  an  I 
is  a  native  of  some  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
ICurojje.  It  has  the  habit  of  the  genus  man- 
tis, and  it  is  even  doubtful  whether  it  should 
not  more  properly  be  referred  to  that  genus. 

RAREFACTION,  in  physics,  the  act 
whereby  a  body  is  brought  to  i)os.-,ess  moie 
room,  or  appear  under  a  larger  bulk,  without 
the  accession  of  any  new-  matter.  This  i» 
commonly  the  effect  of  caloric,  as  has  long 
been  universally  allowed.  In  many  cases, 
however,  philosophers  have  attributed  it  la 
the  action  of  a  repulsive  principle.  How- 
ever, from  the  many  discoveries  concerning 
tlie  nature  and  properties  of  the  electric 
fluid  and  calofic,  there  is  the  greatest  reasoa 
to  believe  that  this  repulsive  principle  is  no 
other  than  caloric  or  tire, 

1L\S.\NT,  or    Uazant,  in  fortification. 
Rasant  llank,  or  line,  is  that  part  of  the  cur-'; 
till  or  flank  whence  the  shot  exploded  rase,  or 
ghiiice  along,  the  surface  of  the  opposite  bas- 
tion. 

K.ASII,  in  medicine,  an  eruption  upon  the 
skin,  thrown  out  in  fevers  or  surfeits.  St;* 
Mecicing, 


Tt  A  T 

RAT.     See  Mfs. 

RA  rAKlA,  ;i  spiriUioiis  li(|iior,  prepnrcd 
from  the  kernels,  iVc.  of  several  kinds  of 
■  fruit,  partit  ulariy  of  cherries  and  aprieots. 
Riitalia  uf  clierries  U  prepared  by  bruising  llie 
cherries,  and  putting  them  into  a  vessel  wliere- 
in  brandy  has  been  lung  kept ;  th<'n  adding  to 
them  the  kernels  of  tlu-rriirs,  with  strawber- 
ries, sugar,  cinnamon,  white  pepjier,  luit- 
megs,  ck)vei;  and  to  tuentv  pounds  of  cher- 
ries, tell  (piarts  of  brandy.  'Vhti  vessel  is  left 
open  ten  or  twelve  days,  aiid  then  stopped 
close  for  two  mouths  before  it  is  tapped.  Ua- 
fcdiu  of  apricots  is  prepared  two  ways,  vix. 
either  by  l)oiling  the  apricots  in  while  wine, 
adding  to  the  liquor  an  equal  quantity  of 
brandy  with  sug.ir,  cinnamon,  mace,  and  tiie  j 
kernels  of  apricots;  infusing  the  whole  for 
eiglit  or  ten  d.iys,  then  straining  the  liquor,  1 
and  putting  It  up  for  use:  or  else  by  infusing  i 
the  apricots  <  ill  in  pieces  in  brandy,  foraday  | 
or  two,  passing  it  through  a  straining  bag,  and 
then  putting  in  the  usual  ingredients. 

KATCIi,  or  IL\sH,  in  clock  wijrk,  a  sort 
of  wheel  having  twelve  fangs,  wliich  serve  to 
lift  up  the  detents  every  hour,  and  make  the 
clock  strike.     See  Clock-wouk.  ' 

UATCIIEI'S,  in  a  walch,  are  the  small 
teeth  at  the  botlom  of  the  fusee,  or  barrel, 
which  slops  it  in  winding  up. 

RATF.S,  in  the  navy,  the  orders  or  classes 
into  which  the  ships  of  war  are  divided,  ac- 
cording to  then'  force  and  magnitude.  The 
regulation  which  limits  tlie  rates  of  men  of 
war  to  thesmallest  number  possible,  seems  to 
have  been  dictated  by  considerations  of  po- 
litical economy,  or  of  the  simplicity  of 
the  service  in  the  royal  dock-yards.  The 
British  fleet  is  accordingly  distributed  into  six 
rates,  exclusive  of  flic  inferior  vessels  that 
usually  attend  on  naval  armaments;  as  sloops 
of  war,  armed  ships,  bomb-ketches,  fire-ships 
and  cutters,  or  schooners  commanded  by 
lieutenants.  Ships  of  the  first  rate  mount 
100  can, ion,  having  42-poiinder3  on  the 
lower  deck,  24-pounders  on  the  middle  deck, 
12-pouiiders  on  the  upper  deck,  and  g-pound- 
ers  on  the  tpiarter-deck  and  forecastle.  Tliey 
are  manned  with  SjO  men,  including  their 
officers,  seamen,  marines,  and  servants. 

Jn  general,  the  ships  of  every  rate,  besides 
the  captains,  have  the  master,  the  boatswain, 
the  gunner,  the  chaplain,  the  purser,  the  sur- 
geon-, and  the  carpenter ;  all  of  whom,  ex- 
cept the  captain,  have  their  mates  or  assist- 
ants, in  which  are  comprehended  the  sail- 
maker,  the  master  at  arms,  the  armourer,  the 
captain's  clerk,  the  gunsmith,  £cc.  The 
number  of  other  oliicers  is  always  in  propor- 
tion to  the  rate  of  the -.ship.  Tlius  a  first-rate 
has  six  lieutenants, six  master's  mates,  twenty- 
four  midsiiipnien,  and  hve  surgeon's  mates, 
who  are  considered  as  gentlemen :  besides 
the  following  petty  officers;  quarter-masters 
and  their  mates,  lourteen  ;  boatswain's  mates 
and  yeomen,  eight ;  gunner's  mates  and  as- 
sistants, six;  quarter-gunners,  twenty-five; 
carpenter's  mates,  two,  besides  fourteen  as- 
sistants; with  one  steward,  and  steward's 
mate  to  the  f>urser. 

If  the  diiiiensions  of  all  ships  of  the  same 
rate  were  /ipial,  it  would  l)e  the  simple^t  and 
most  perspicuous  method  to  collect  them 
into  one  point  of  view  in  a  table :  but  as 
there  is  no  invariable  rule  for  the  general  di- 
mensions, we  must  content  ourselves  with  but 
.a  few  remarks  on  ships  of  each  rate,  so  as  to 


n  A  T 

give  a  general  idea  of  the  difference  between 
them. 

The  \'ictory,  one  of  the  last-built  of  our 
first-rales,  and  ever  memorable  for  being 
commanded  l)y  lord  Nelson  in  the  glorious 
battle  of  Trafalgar,  is  'J'2U  feet  6  inches  in 
length,  from  the  head  to  the  stern  ;  the  length 
other  keel,  131  feet  3  inches;  tliat  of  her 
gun-deck,  or  lower  deck,  ISO  feet;  her  ex- 
treme breadth  is  51  feet  10  inches;  her  depth 
in  the  hold,  21  feet  0  inches;  her  burthen 
2lfi2tons;  and  her  poop  reaches  6  feet  be- 
fore the  mizell-ma^t. 

Ships  of  the  second  rate  carry  90  guns 
upon  three  detk-s,  of  which  those  on  the 
lower  battery  aie  32-pounders;  those  on  tlie 
middle,  1  S-pomiders ;  on'  the  upper  deck, 
12-pounders;  and  those  on  the  quarter-deck, 
tj-pounders,  which  usually  amount  to  four  or 
six.  Their  complement  of  men  is  730,  in 
which  there  are  6  lieutenants,  four  master  s- 
mates,  24  midshipmen,  and  four  surgeon's- 
mates,  14  quarter-masters  and  their  niotes, 
eiglit  boatswain's  mates  and  yeomen,  six  gun- 
ner's mates  and  yeomen,  with  22  quarter-gun- 
ners, two  carpenler's-mates  witli  10  assist- 
ants, and  one  steward  and  steward's  mate. 

Ships  of  the  third  rate  carry  from  64  to  80 
cannon,  which  are  31,  IS,  and  9-pounders. 
'I'he  SO-gun  ships,  however,  begin  to  grow 
out  of  repute,  and  togive  way  to  those  of 
74,  70,  &c.  wiiich  have  only  two  whole  bat- 
teries; whereas  the  former  have  three,  with 
28  guns  planted  on  each,  the  cannon  of  their 
upper  deck  being  the  same  as  those  on  the 
quader-deck  and  forecaslle  of  the  latter, 
which  are  9-pounders.  The  complement  in  a 
74  is  630,  and  in  a  64,  500  men;  having,  in 
peace,  four  lieutenants,  but  in  war,  live  ;  and 
when  an  admiral  is  ab'jard,  six.  They  iiave 
three  master' s-mates,  16  midsliipmen,  three 
surgeon's-mates,  1 0  (piarter-mabters  and  their 
mates,  six  boafe.vain's-mates  and  yeomen, 
four  gunner' s-inales  and  yeomen,  u.th  IS 
c|uarter-gunners,  one  carpenter's-raate  with 
eight  assistants,  and  one  steward  and  stew- 
ard's-mate  under  the  purser. 

Ships  of  the  fourdi  rate  mount  from  60  to 
50  guns,  upon  two  decks,  and  the  quarter- 
deck. The  lower  tier  is  composed  of  24- 
pounders,  the  upper  tier  of  r2-pounders,  and 
the  cannon  on  the  quarter-decls.  and  fore- 
castle are  6-pounders.  The  complement  of 
a  30-gun  ship  is  330  men,  in  which  there  are 
three  lieutenants,  two  master's-mates,  10 
midshipmen,  two  surgeon's-mates,  eight 
quarter-masters  and  their  mates,  four  boat- 
s\vaiii's  mates  and  yeomen,  one  gunner's- 
mate  and  one  yeoman,  with  f2  quarter-gun- 
ner's, one  carpenter's-mafe  and  six  assistants, 
and  a  steward  and  steward's-inale. 

Vessels  of  war  under  the  fourth  rate,  and 
above  the  rate  of  sloops,  are  usually  com- 
prehended under  the  general  name  of  fri- 
gates, and  never  appear  in  the  line  of  hattie. 
'I'hey  are  divided  into  the  lifth  and  si.xth  rates; 
the  former  mounting  frjm  30  to  32  guns,  and 
the  latter  from  28  to  20.  The  largest  of  the 
tilth,  rate  have  two  decks  of  cannon,  the 
lower  Iwttery  being  of  18-pounders,  and  that; 
of  the  U|.'per-de(  k  ol  9-pounders  ;  but  those  of 
36  and  32  guns  have  one  complete  deck  of 
guns,  mounting  12  pounders,  besides,  the 
quarterdeck  and  forecastle,  which  carrv 
6-pounders.  The  complement  of  a  ship  of 
44  guns  is  230  men;  and  th;it  of  a  friu'ate  of 


R  A  T 


53  i 


36  guns,  240  men.  The  first  has  three,  and 
the  second  two  lieutenants;  and  both  have 
two  niastei's-mates,  six  midshipmen,  two 
surgeon's-mates,  six  (piarler-masters  and  their 
mates,  two  boatswain's  mates  and  one  yeo- 
man, one  gunner's  mate  ^nd  one  yeuman, 
Willi  10  or  II  quarter-gunners,  and  one  purs- 
er's steward. 

trigaies  of  the  6ih  rate  carry  Opounders, 
those  of  28  guns  hav;:]g  3-pounders  on  ih.-ir 
([uarter-tieck,  with  200  men  for  their  con  p'.e- 
lueiit;  and  those  of  24,  160  men:  the  former 
have  two  lieuten.nls,  the  latter  one .  and  ootli 
have  two  masters-males,  tour  mid-.,hipmei;, 
one  surgeon's-maie,  tour  quarte.-n.asters  and 
dieir  mates,  one  boatswains-mate  and  one 
yeoman,  one  gunner' s-male  aiiU  one  yeoman, 
with  six  or  seven  quarter-gunners,  and  one 
purser's-steward. 

1  he  sloops  of  war  carry  from  18  to  8  can- 
non :  the  largest  have  sixpounders  ;  and  the 
smallest,  viz.  those  of  8  or  10  guns,  four- 
pounders.  I'heir  officers  are  generally  the 
same  as  in  the  6di  rales.  With  little  variation  ; 
and  their  coiiijjlemenls  of  men  are  from  129 
to  60,  in  proportion  to  their  force  or  magni- 
tude. Bomb-vessels  are  on  the  same  estabhsh- 
ment  as  sloops ;  but  Jire-ships  and  hospital- 
ships  are  on  lliat  of  fifth  rates. 

Nothing  more  evidently  manifests  the  great 
improvement  of  tliC  marine  art,  and  the  de- 
gree of  perfection  to  which  it  has  arrived  in 
Britain,  than  the  facility  of  managing  our  first 
rates;  which  were  formerly  esteemed  incapa- 
ble of  government,  unless  in  the  mo?t  fa- 
vourable weather  of  the  summer.  Ships  of 
the  second  rate,  and  tlioseof  the  third,  which 
have  three  decks,  carry  their  sails  remarka- 
biy  well,  and  labour  very  little  at  sea.  They 
are  excellent  in  a  general  action,  or  in  can- 
nonaamg  a  fortress.  'I'liose  of  the  third  ■ 
rate,  which  Ivave  two  tiers,  are  fit  for  the  line 
of  battle,  to  lead  the  convoys  and  squadrons 
of  ships  of  war  in  action,  and  in  general  to 
suit  the  diff'pient  exigencies  of  the  naval  ser- 
vice. Tlie  fourth-rales  may  be  employed  on 
the  same  occasions  as  the  third-rates,  and  may  . 
be  also  destined  amongst  the  foreign  colonies,' 
or  on  expeditions  of  great  (iistance;  since 
these  vess,els  are  usually  excellent  for  keep- 
ing and  sustaining  the  sea.  Vessels  of  the  - 
fifth  rate  are  loo  w  cak  to  suffer  the  shock  of  a 
line  of  battle  ;  but  they  may  be  destined  to 
lead  the  convoys  of  merchant-s'nips,  to  pro- 
tect the  commerce  in  the  colonies,  to  cruize  in 
different  stations,  to  accompany  squadrons,  or 
be  sent  express  with  necessary  intelligence 
and  orders.  The  same  may  be  observed  of 
the  sixth-rates.  ■  The  frigates,  which  mount 
from  2si  to  36-guiis  upon-  one  -decky-with  live 
fiuartej-deck,  are  extremely  prober  tor  cruiz- 
ing against  privateers,  or  iop  short  expedi- 
tions, being  light,  long,  and  usually  excellent 
sailers. 

RATF.EN,  in  commerce,  a  thick  woollen 
stuff',  quilled,  woven  on-,  a  loom  with  four 
treadles,  like  serges,  and  other  stuffs,  that 
have  the  whale  or  quilling.  There  are  some 
raleens  <lressed  and  jjrepared  like  cloths; 
others. left  simply  in  the  hair,  and  others 
where  the  hair  or  knap  is  frized. 

K-A'l  10,  in  arithmetic  and  geometry,  h 
that  relatii  n  of  homogt  neous  things  w  hie  !i 
determines  thf  quantity  cf  one  from  the 
quantity  ot  another,  with  ut  the  interven- 
tion of  a  tli  rd. 
I     Two  nun  bers,  lines,  or  tiVi:'ntilie?,  A  and 


552 


R  A  T 


B,  being  proposed,  their  relation  one  to  an- 
other may  be  considered  under  one  of  these 
two  heads  :  1 .  How  much  A  exceeds  B,  or 
B  exceeds  A:  and  this  is  found  by  taking  A 
from  B  or  B  ho-n  A,  and  is  called  arithmetical 
reason,  or  ratio.  2.  Or  how  many  limes, 
and  parts  of  a  lime,  A  contains  13,  or  B  con- 
tains A;  and  this  is  called  geometric  reason  or 
ratio;  (or,  as  Euclid  defines  it,  it  is  the  mu- 
tual habitude,  or  respect,  of  two  magnitudes 
of  the  same  Kind,  according  to  quantity;  that 
is,  as  to  how  often  the  one  contains,  or  is 
contained  in,  the  other  ;)  and  is  found  by  di- 
viding A  by  B,  or  B  by  A;  and  here  note, 
that  that  quantity  whicii  is  referred  to  anotlier 
quantity,  is  called  the  antecedent  of  tlie  ra- 
tio; and  that  to  which  the  other  is  referred, 
is  called  the  consequent  of  the  ralio:  as^  in 
the  ratio  of  A  to  B,  A  is  the  antecedent,  and 
B the  consequent.  Therefore  any  quantity, 
as  antecedent,  divided  by  any  quanity  as  a 
consequent,  gives  ihe  ratio  of  that  antecedent 
to  the  consequent. 

Thus  the  ratio  of  A  to  B  is  — ,  but  the  ratio 


ef  B  to  A  is 


and,  in  numbers,  the  ratio 


H 


of  12  to  4  is  -^  =:  3,  or  triple;  but  the  ratio 


•f  4  to  12  is 


I  or  subtriple. 


_    1 
12  ~    3 

The  quantities  thus  compared  must  be  of 
the  same  kind;  that  is,  such  which,  by  mul- 
tiplication, may  be  made  to  exceed  one  the 
other;  or  as  the^e  quantities  are  said  to  liave  a 
ratio  between  them,  which,  being  niulliplied, 
may  be  made  to  exceed  one  another.  Thus 
a  line,  liow  short  soever,  may  be  multiplied, 
that  is,  produced  so  long  a=,  to  exceed  in 
lengtli  any  given  right  line,  and  conse(|uently 
these  may  be  compared  together,  and  the 
ratio  expressed  ;  but  as  a  line  can  never,  by 
any  multiplication  whatever,  be  made  to  have 
breadth,  that  is,  to  be  made  equal  to  a  super- 
ficies, how  small  soever  ;  these  can  therefore 
never  be  compared  together,  and  conse- 
quently have  no  ratio  or  respect  one  to  an- 
other, according  to  quantity:  that  is,  as  to 
how  often  the  one  contains,  oris  contained  in, 
the  other.     See  Proportion. 

RATION,  a  certain  allowance  which  is 
given  In  bread,  &c.  or  forage,  when  troops 
are  on  service,  for  an  officer  or  soldier. 

Complete  ration  nflhe  small  species. 

Flour,  or  bread  -  1  i  lbs. 

Beef        -  .        .      i' 

or  pork      -        -         -        r 

Peas         ....     I  pint 

Butter,  or  cheese         -  l  oz. 

Rice  -  -  -  -  1  oz. 
When  the  small  species  are  not  issued,  \\ 
Ibi.  of  Hour  or  bread,  with  \\  lbs.  of  beef,  or 
10  oz.  of  pork,  forms  a  complete  ration  ;  or 
3  lbs.  of  b.^ef,  or  2  lbs.  of  cheese,  or  half  a 
poinul  of  rice,  forms  a  complete  ration. 

The  deductions  to  b.;  taken  for  provisions 
from  the  pay  of  ofTicei-s,  non-commiisioned 
ollicers,  or  men,  are  the  same  for  all  ranks, 
and  in  all  corps,  under  the  like  ciirurnstaiices 
of  service,  when  serviujj  out  of  Great  Britain, 
oil  slation-i  wh'TC  provisions  are  supplied  by 
tin-  public;  also,  when  embarked  in  trans'- 
porli  or  other  vi-ssels,  (ixcepl  wh(;ii  ^erTing 
a>  m.irinei;)  aKo  wiien  prisoners  of  war  are 
maintained  at  the  expence  of  Great  Britain  ; 


RAY 

also  wlien  in  general  hospitals,  whether  at 
home  or  abroad,  a  deduction  of  sixpence  per 
day. 

A  deduction  of  threepence  halfpenny  from 
the  pay  of  every  non-con. missioned  officer 
and  private  in  Jamaica,  in  New  South  Wales, 
or  Gibraltar.  Non-commissioned  offi<-ers 
and  soldiers  serving  as  marines  shall  not  be 
liable  to  any  deduction  from  liieir  full  pay  on 
account  of  provisions. 

Eatioii  for  a  horse  on  home  service  in  1796, 
14  lbs.  of  liay,  10  lbs.  of  oats,  4  lbs.  of  straw, 
for  which  a  stoppage  is  made  of  sixpence. 

The  French  use  the  same  term,  viz.  ralian 
de  Join,  a  ration  of  bay ;  double  ration, 
double  ration;  dsmi-ration,  a  half-ration. 

RATIONAL  is  applied  to  integral,  frac- 
tional, and  mixt  numbers ;  thus  we  say,  ra- 
tional fraction,  rational  integer,  and  rational 
mixt  number. 

Rational  is  applied  to  the  true  horizon,  in 
opposition  to  the  sensible  or  apparent  one. 

RxVTlONALE,  a  solution,  or  account  of 
the  principles  of  some  opinion,  action,  hypo- 
thesis, phx-iiomeiion,  or  the  like. 

RAI'LINES,  or,  as  the  seamen  call  them. 
Ratlins,  those  lines  which  m  ke  the  ladder- 
steps  to  get  up  the  shrouds  and  futtoclvs, 
hence  called  the  ratlins  of  the  shrouds. 

RATTLE-SNAKE.     See  Crotalus. 

RAVELIN,  in  fortification,  was  antiently 
a  flat  bastion,  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  cur- 
tin;  but  now  a  detached  work  composed  only 
of  two  faces,  which  make  a  saliant  angle, 
without  anv  llanks,  and  raised  before  the  cur- 
tin  on  the  counterscarp  of  the  p'ace.  A 
ravelin  is  a  triangular  work,  resembling  the 
point  of  a  bastion  with  the  flanks  cut  off. 
See  Fortification. 

Its  use  before  a  curtin  is,  to  cover  the  oppo- 
site flanks  of  the  two  next  bastions.  It  is 
used  also  to  cover  a  bridge,  or  a  gate,  and  is 
always  placed  williout  the  moat.  There  are 
also  double  ravelins  that  serve  to  cover  each 
other;  they  are  said  to  be  double  when  they 
are  joined  by  a  curtin. 

RAVEN.    SeeCoRvus. 

RAUW'OLFIA,  a  genus  of  the  pentan- 
dria  monogynia  class  of  plants,  the  corolla  of 
which  consists  of  a  single  funnel-fashioned 
petal,  with  a  large  limb,  divided  into  live 
ianceolated  segincnts  ;  tin-  fruit  is  a  succulent 
bc;rry,  with  two  seeds.  There  are  four  spe- 
cies, trees  of  South  America. 

RAY,  abeam  of  light  emitted  from  a  ra- 
diant or  luminous  body.     See  Optics. 

Ravs  of  light,  colour  and  lirat  of.  Dr. 
Ilerschel  had  been  employed  in  making  ob- 
servations on  the  sun  by  means  of  telescopes. 
To  prevent  the  inconvenience  arising  from 
the  heat,  he  used  coloured  glasses  ;  hut  these 
glasses,  when  they  were  deep  enough  colour- 
ed to  intercept  the  light,  very  soon  cracked 
and  broke  in  pieces.  This  circumstance  in- 
duced him  to  examine  the  heating  power  of 
the  dillerent  coloured  rays.  He  made  each 
of  them  in  its  turn  fall  upon  the  bulb  of  a 
thermometer,  near  which  two  other  thermo- 
meters were  placed  to  serve  as  a  slandard. 
The  number  of  degrees  which  the  thermo- 
mi  ter  exposed  to  the  coloured  ray  rose  above 
the  other  two  thermometers,  indicated  the 
heating  power  of  that  ray.  He  found  that 
the  most  refrangible  rays  liave  the  least 
heating  power;  and  that  the  heating  power 
gradually  uicrcases  as  the  refrangibility  di- 


R  A  Y 

minishes.     The  violet  ray  therefore  lias  fli'' 
smallest  heating  power,  and  the  red  ray  li 
greatest.     Dr.  Herschel  found  that  the  lie; ' 
ing  power  of  the  violet,  green,  and  red  ra%-, 
are  to  each  other  as  the  following  numbers  : 
Violet  =  16 
Green  —  '2'2A 
Red     =  55 
It  struck  Dr.  Herschel  as  remarkable,  that 
the  illuminating  power  and  the  heating  powi-r 
of  the  rays  follow  such   different  laws,     'i  l.c 
first  exists  in  greatest  perfection  in  the  miu- 
dle   of  the  spectrum,  and  diminishes  as  «e 
approach  either  extremity ;  but  the  second 
increases  constantly  from  the  violet  end,  and 
is  greatest  at  the  red  end.     This  led  him  to 
suspect  that  perhaps  the  heating  power  dots 
not  slop  at  the  end  of  the  visible  spectrum, 
but  is  continued  beyond  it.     He  placed  the 
thermometer   completely  beyond  the  boun- 
dary of  the  red  ray,  but  still  in  the  line  of 
the' spectrum  ;  and' it  rose  still  higher  than  it 
had  done  when  exposed  to  the  red  ray.     On 
shifting  the  thermometer  still  farther,  it  con- 
tinued to  rise  ;  and  the  rise  d:d  not  re.,ch  its 
maximum  till  the  thermometer  was  half  an 
inch  beyond  the  utmost  extremity  of  the  red 
ray.     VVhen   shifted   still  farther,   it  sunk  a 
little;  but  the  power  of  heating  was  sensible 
at  the  distance  of  1^  inch  from  tlie  red  ray. 

These  important  txpcriments  hav*  been 
lately  repeated  and  fully  conhrmed  by  sir 
Henry  Englelield,  in  the  presence  of  some 
very  good  judges.  The  apparatus  was  very 
ditilerent  from  that  of  Dr.  Herschel,  and  con- 
trived on  pu'pose  to  obviate  certain  objec- 
tions whicli  had  been  made  to  the  conclusions 
drawn  bv  tliat  illustrious  philosopher.  The 
bulbs  of  the  thermometers  used  were  mostly 
bhuktned.  1  lie  followii.g  table  exhibits 
the  result  obtained  in  one  of  these  experi- 
ments : 
Thermometer  in  the  blue 

ray  rose  in  -        3'  from  55°  to  Sfi* 

green  3 

yellow  3 

■full  red  2i 

confines  of  red  2^ 
beyond  the  visible  light  2i 

The  thermometer  with  its  bulb  blackened, 
rose  much  more  when  placed  in  the  same  cir- 
cumstances, than  the  thermometer  whose 
bulb  was  either  naked  or  whitened  with 
paint.  This  will  be  apparent  from  the  fol- 
lowing table: 


54 

58 

50 

62 

56 

72 

58 

73 

61 

79 

„    ,                       f  Black  therm. 

Red  ray     -     -     |v\'hl;e  therm. 

Time. 
3' 

frdm 
5,5 

To 

1,1° 
5S 

P^     ,                        t  Black  therm. 
Dark     -     -     -     ^  White  therm. 

3 

r>9 

58 

64 

5b? 

„     ^          -      .    C  Black  therm. 
Confines  of  red    J^hite  therm. 

3 

5f> 
5-i 

71 
b-Oi 

Both  Dr.  Herschel  and  sir  Henry  Engle- 
field  take  notice  of  a  faint  blush  of  red  of  a 
semi-oval  form,  visible  when  the  rays  beyond 
the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  were  collected 
by  a  lens. 

From  these  experiments  it  seems  to  follow, 
that  there  are  ra\s  emitted  from  the  suiij 
which  produce  heat,  but  have  not  the  power 
i)f  illuminaliug;  and  Hut  these  are  Ihe  rays 
which  produce  the  .greatest  (luantity  of  heat. 
CoujefiueiUlv  caloric'is  emitted  from  the  sua 


h  my-,  and  Uie  ray;  of  caloric  are  not  the 
s;inic  with  the  rays  of  liplit. 

Oil  i_\aiiiiaii]^'  tin;  otfie-r  extremily  of  the 
s;n'cliimi,  Dr.  iliTschel  astcrtaiiied  llul  no 
I'^i)'^  ot"  caloric  can  be  traci;d  bcvond  tlie 
vluk't  ray.  He  Iiad  found,  iiovvevcr,  as  Scn- 
r.i-bicr  iiad  done  before  iiim,  that  all  the  co- 
lunred  rays  of  the  spectrum  h.avc  tin;  power 
ol  heating :  it  may  be  (piestioned  therelorc 
wliethcrthere  are  any  rays  wliich  do  not  warm. 
The  coioureci  rays  must  either  liave  the  pro- 
[lerty  of  exciting  heat  as  rays  of  hght,  or  thev 
must  derive  that  properly  from  a  mixture  ot 
rays  of  caloric.  If  tlie  first  of  these  supposi- 
tions was  true,  lighl  ought  to  excite  Jieat  in 
all  cases;  but  it  has  bi-eii  long  known  to  phi- 
losophers tliat  the  light  of  tlie  moon  does  not 
produce  the  least  sensible  lu^at,  even  when 
i^onccnlraled  so  strongly  as  to  surpass,  in 
pi)iiit  of  illumination,  the  brightest  caudles 
or  lamps,  and  yet  these  produce  a  very  sen- 
sibli'  heat.  Here  then  are  rays  of  light  which 
donoi  produce  heat;  ray.s,  too,  composed  of 
all  the  seven  prismatic  coloiu-ed  rays.  We 
must  concUidf,  from  this  well-known  fact, 
t!iat  rays  of  light  do  not  excite  tieat  ;  and 
consequently  ihal  the  coloured  rays  froiii  the 
6ini  and  couil)ustil)!e  bo. lies,  since  thev  ex- 
cite heat,  must  consist  of  a  mixture  of  rays 
of  light  and  rays  of  caloric.  That  this  is  the 
cas(?  was  denionslraled  long  ag.)  by  Dr. 
llooke,  and  afterwards  by  Scheele,  who  se- 
parated the  two  species  from  each  other  by  a 
very  simple  nv.'thokl.  If  a  glass  mirror  is 
held  before  a  lire,  it  reelects  tiie  ray>  of  light, 
but  not  tne  rays  of  cal.irlc  ;  a  metallic  mirror, 
on  the  other  hand,  rell.'cts  both.  'I'he  gla-.s 
minor  hecxime.^  hot;  Ihe  metallic  miiior  (ioe> 
n'>t  alterits  temperature.  If  a  p'.ate  ol  glassis 
suddenly  interposed  between  a  glowing  lire 
and  the  face,  it  intercepts  coniph-telv  the 
warming  po.ver  of  the  lire,  without  causing 
any  sensible  diminution  of  its  brilliancv  ;  con- 
secjuenlly  it  intercepts  the  ravs  of  caloric, 
but  allows  the  rays  of  light  to"  pa-.s.  If  the 
glass  is  allowed  to  remain  in  its  station  till  its 
temperature  has  reached  its  maximum,  in 
that  situation  it  ceases  to  intercept  the  rays 
of  caloric,  but  allows  them  to  pa^s  as  freely 
as  the  rays  of  liglit.  This  curious  fact,  which 
shews  us  that  glass  only  intercepts  tlie  rays 
of  caloric  till  it  is  saturated  with  them,  was 
discovered  long  ago  by  Dr.  Robi-.on,  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  in  the  univeisitv  of 
Edinburgh.  Tliese  facts  are  sufficient  to  con- 
vince us  that  the  rays  of  light  and  of  caloric 
are  ditferent,  and  that  the  coloured  rays  de- 
rive their  heating  power  from  the  rays  of  ca- 
loric which  they  contain.  Thus  it  appears 
that  solar  light  is  composed  of  three  sets  of 
rays,  the  colorilic,  the  calorilic,  and  tlie  de- 
oxidi;!ing. 

The  rays  of  caloric  are  r(>fracted  by  trans- 
parent bodies  just  as  the  ravs  of  light.  \\'e 
see,  too,  that,  like  the  rays  of  light,  thev  differ 
ill  their  refrangibility;  that  some  of  them  are 
as  refrangible  as  the  violet  rays,  but  that  the 
greater  number  of  them  are  less  refrangible 
than  the  red  rays.  AVhetlier  they  are  trans- 
mitted through  all  transparent  bodies  has  not 
been  ascertained  ;  neither  has  the  difference 
of  their  refraction  in  difli'rent  mediums  been 
examined.  We  are  certain,  however,  that 
they  are  transmitted  and  rehactcd  bv  all 
transparent  boches  which  have  been  employ- 
ed as  burning-glasses.  Dr.  Ilerschel  has  also 
Pfovcd,  by  expprim«^iit,  that  it  is  not  onh  the 

Vol.  II. 


RAYS. 

caloric  emitted  by  the  sun  which  is  refran- 
gible, but  likewise  the  rays  emitted  by  com- 
mon Ities,  by  caudles,  by  hot  iron,  and  even 
by  hot  water. 

Tlie  rays  of  caloric  are  reflected  by  po- 
lished surfac(;s  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
rays  of  light.  This  was  lately  proved  by 
Ilerschel  ;  but  it  had  been  demonstrated  long 
before  by  Scheele,  who  had  even  ascertained 
that  the  angle  of  their  ivllection  is  equal  to 
the  angle  ot  their  incidence.  Mr.  I'iclct 
also  had  made  a  set  of  very  ingenious  expe- 
riments on  this  subject,  aliout  tlie  year  1790, 
which  led  to  the  same  conclusion.  lie  placed 
two  concave  mirrors  of  tin,  of  nine  inches 
focus,  at  the  distance  of  twelve  feet  (wo  inches 
from  one  another.  In  the  focus  of  one  of 
them  he  placed  a  ball  of  iron  two  inchesin 
diameter,  heated  so  as  not  to  be  visdiie  in 
the  dark;  in  the  other  was  placed  the  bulb 
of  a  thermoineler.  In  si.x  minutes  tlie  ther- 
mometer rose  J',''.  A  lighted  candle,  which 
was  substituted  for  the  ball  of  iron,  ])roduced 
nearly  the  same  ellect.  In  this  case  both 
light  and  heat  appeared  to  act.  In  order  to 
separate  them,  he  interposed  between  the 
two  mirrors  a  plate  of  clear  glass.  Tiie  Iher- 
mometer  sunk  in  nine  minutes  14";  and  when 
the  glass  was  again  removed,  it  ro<e  in  seven 
minutes  about  t,'  ;  yet  the  light  which  fell  on 
the  thermometer  did  not  seem  at  all  dimi- 
nished by  the  glass.  Mr.  I'ictet  therefore 
concluded,  that  the  caloric  had  been  retlected 
by  the  minor,  and  that  it  had  been  the  cause 
of  the  rise  of  the  thermometer.  In  another 
experiment,  a  glass  matrass  was  sulistituted 
for  the  iron  ball,  nearly  of  the  same  diameter 
with  it,  a'l.l  coiilainiug  •20ii  grains  of  boiling 
water.  'I'wo  minutes  after  a  thick  screen  of 
silk,  which  had  been  interposed  betw-een  the 
two  mirrors,  was  removed,  the  thermoineter 
rose  from  47'  to  SO-j,  and  descended  again 
the  moment  the  matrass  was  removed  from 
the  focus. 

The  mirrors  of  tin  were  now  placed  at  the 
distance  of  'JO  inches  from  each  other;  the 
matrass  with  the  boiling  water  in  one  of  the 
foci,  and  a  very  sensible  air-thermometer  in 
the  other,  every  degree  of  which  was  equal 
to  about  -'_  of  a  degree  of  Fahrenheit.  Ex- 
actly in  the  middle  space  between  the  two 
mirrors  there  \va^  placed  a  very  thin  common 
glass  mirror,  suspended  in  such  a  luanner 
that  either  side  could  be  turned  towards  the 
matrass.  When  the  polished  side  of  this 
mirror  %vas  turned  to  the  matrass,  the  thermo- 
meter rose  onlv  0.5';  but  when  the  side  cover- 
ed with  tin  foil,  and  which  had  been  blackened 
with  ink  and  smoke,  was  turned  towards  the 
matrass,  the  thermometer  rose  to  .3.5'.  In 
another  experiment,  when  the  polished  side 
of  the  mirnir  was  turned  to  the  matrass,  the 
tliermometer  rose  3',  when  the  other  side 
9.2".  On  rubbing  off  the  tin  foil,  and  repeat- 
ing tlie  experiment,  the  thermometer  rose 
IS".  On  substituting  for  the  glass  mirror  a 
piece  of  thm  white  pasteboaril  of  the  same 
dimensions  with  it,  th.-  thermometer  rose  10°. 

As  the  rays  ol  light  and  of  caloric  emitted 
bv  the  sun  accompany  each  other,  it  cannot 
be  doubted  that  they  move  with  the  same 
velocity.  The  rays  of  caloric,  therefore, 
move  at  the  rate  of  aImo>t  Jo.i.ooo  iniles  in  a 
second.  This  is  conlirmed  by  an  experiment 
of  Mr.  Pictet.  He  placecl  two  concave  mir- 
rors at  the  distance  of  (i9  feet  from  each 
other;  the  one  of  tin  as  belore,  tlie  other  of 
4  A 


553 

plaislcrgiU,  and  18  inches  in  diameter.  Into 
the  focus  of  this  last  minor  lie  put  an  air- 
t)ieniiomel--r,  and  a  hot  bullet  of  inn  into 
that  ol  the  other.  A  few  inches  from  the 
face  of  the  tin  mirror  tl-.ere  was  placed  a  thitk 
screen,  wiiich  was  removed  as  soon  as  the 
bullet  reached  the  focus.  The  thermometer 
rose  the  instant  tlie  screen  was  removed, 
withmit  any  perceptible  interval;  conse- 
quently the  lime  which  caloric  takes  in  mov- 
ing Oy'  feet  is  too  minute  to  be  measured. 
\\  e  see  at  once  that  this  must  be  the  case 
when  wc  recollect  that  caloric  moves  at  the 
rate  of  l.'00,000  miles  in  a  second. 

Th(;  velocity  of  caloric  being  equal  to  that 
of  light,  its  |)articles  must  be  equally  minute. 
Therefore  neitiier  the  addition  of  caloric  nor 
its  abstraction  can  sensibly  allect  the  weight 
of  bodies.  As  this  follows  neces>^arily  a's  a 
consei|U('nce  from  Dr.  Herschel's  experi- 
ments, was  it  possible  to  prove  by  experi- 
ment that  caloric  a llects  the  weight  of  bodies, 
tlie  llieory  foundul  on  Dr.  IlVrschel's  dis- 
coveries woulil  be  overturned  :  but  such  de- 
ductions have  been  drawn  from  the  expeii- 
mei.ts  of  De  Luc,  Fordyce,  Morveaii,  and 
Chaussier.  Acci^rding  to  these  philoso))hers, 
bodies  become  absolutely  lighter  by  being 
heated.  The  experiment  of  Fordyce,  which 
seems  to  have  been  made  with  tlie  greatest 
care,  was  conducted  in  the  following  manner: 

lie  took  a  glass  globe  three  inches  in  dia- 
meter, with  a  short  neck,  and  weighing  451 
grains ;  iioured  into  it  1700  grains  of  water 
from  the  New  Kiver,  Loiulon,  and  then  seal- 
ed it  hermetically.  The  wiiole  weighed 
2 ijOii  grains  at  the  temperature  of32\  it 
w.is  put  for  twenty  minutes  into  a  freezing 
ir.ixture  of  snow  and  salt  till  some  of  it  wa* 
frozen;  it  was  then,  after  being  wiped  hrst 
with  a  dry  linen  cloth,  next  with  cliju 
washed  dry  leather,  immediately  w>  ipj.ed, 
and  lound  to  be -'-of  a  grain  lieavier  th.ui 
before.  This  was  repeated  exactly  in  the 
same  manner  live  dilieieiit  times  ;' at  eac;:. 
more  of  the  water  w  as  frozen,  and  more  weisjl-: 
gained.  W  hen  the  whole  water  was  frozen, 
itwasJj.llis  of  a  grain  heavier  than  it  had 
been  when  fluid.  A  thermometer  applied  to 
the  globe  stood  at  10°.  Whcnallowcd  to  re-- 
main  till  the  thermometer  rose  to  32',  it 
weighed  ^'hs  of  a  grain  more  than  it  did  st 
the  same  temperature  when  fluid.  It  will 
be  seen  afterwards,  that  ice  contains  less  ca^ 
loric  than  water  of  the  same  tempcrat'ire 
with  it.  The  balance  used  was  nice  enough 
to  mark  ^-Jjj^th  part  of  a  grain. 

This  subject  had  attracted  the  attention  of 
Lavoi--ier,  a  jihilosopher  distinguished  b\  tie 
uncommon  accuracy  of  his  reseaiclu  s.  His 
exjKiiments,  which  were  published  in  tiie 
Memoirs  ol  the  French  Academy  tor  1783, 
led  him  to  conclude  that  the  w  eight  of  bodies 
is  not  altered  by  heating  or  cooling  them, 
and  consequently  that  caloric  produces  no 
sensible  change  on  the  weight  of  bodies. 
Count  Rumford's  experiments  on  the  same' 
subji'ct,  which  were  made  about  the  year 
1797,  are  perfectly  decisive.  He  repeated 
the  experiment  of  Dr.  Fordyce  with  the  most 
scrupulous  caution;  and  by  a  number  or  the 
most  ingenious  contrivances,  demonstrated, 
that  neither  the  addition  nor  the  abstraction 
of  calonc  makes  any  sensible  ;ilteralion  in  il^x 
weight  ol  bodies. 


53i 


R  E  A 


Caloric  not  only  possesses  the  velocity  of ' 
I'glit,  but  agrees  with  it  also  in  aiiotlier  pro- 
perty no  less  peculiar.  Its  pai ticks  are 
never  found  cohering  together  i;i  ir.asses; 
auU  whenever  ihey  are  forcibly  accumulated, 
tliey  lly  oft"  in  all  directions,  and  separate 
from  each  other  witli  inconceivable  rapidity. 
This  property  necessarily  supposes  the  exist- 
ence of  a  mutual  reinilsiun  between  the  par- 
ticles of  caloric. 

Thus  it  appears  that  caloric  and  light  re- 
semble each  other  in  a  great  number  of  pro- 
perties. Both  are  emitted  from  the  sun  in 
rays,  with  the  vjocily  of  200,000  miles  in  a 
second;  botii  of  them  are  refracted  by  trans- 
parent bodies,  and  reflected  by  polisheil  siir- 
laces  ;  both  of  them  consist  of  particles  which 
mutually  repel  each  other,  and  which  pro- 
duce no  sensible  effect  upon  the  weight  of 
otber  bodies.  They  differ,  however,  in  tiiis 
piirticnlar;  light  produces  in  us  the  sensation 
of  vision  ;  caloric,  on  the  contrary,  the  sen- 
sation of  lieat. 

Upon  the  whole,  we  are  authorized  by  the 
above  statement  of  facts,  to  conclude,  lliat 
tl'.e  solar  light  is  comjjosed  of  three  distinct 
substances,  in  some  measure  separable  by  the 
prism  on  account  of  the  difference  of  their 
refrangibility.  The  calorific  rays  are  the  least 
refrangible,  the  deoxidizing  rays  are  most  re- 
frangible, and  the  coloriric  rays  possess  a 
mean  degree  of  refrangibility.  Hence  the 
rays  in  tlie  Hiiddle  of  the  spectrum  have  the 
greatest  illuminat'ng  power,  tiiose  beyond 
me  red  end  the  greate>t  healing  power,  and 
those  bevond  the  violet  end  the  greatest  de- 
«xidiziiig  power:  and  the  heating  power  on 
the  one  hand,  and  Uie  deoxidizing  jiower  on 
the  other,  gradually  increase  as  we  ajijiroach 
that  end  of  the  spectrum  where  the  maximum 
of  each  is  concentrated.  Tliese  different  bo- 
<lies  resemble  each  other  in  so  many  particu- 
lars, that  the  same  reasoning  respecting  re- 
fraiiglbility,  Teflexibility,  &c.  may  be  applied 
to  all ;  but  they  produce  different  effects 
upon  those  bodies  on  which  they  act.  Little 
progress  has  yet  been  made  in  the  hivestiga- 
tion  of  these  eftects;  but  we  may  look  for- 
ward to  tliis  subject  as  likely  to  correct  many 
vague  and  unmeaning  opinions  which  are  at 
present  in  repute  among  philosophers. 

RAZOR-BILL.  See  Ai.k.\.  * 

RE.'VCH,  in  the  sea  language,  signifies  the 
fllstaiice  between  any  two  points  of  land, 
I^ing  nearly  in  a  riglit  line. 

RIv ACTION,  in  (jhysiology,  the  resist- 
ance made  by  all  bodies  to  the  action  or  im- 
pulse of  others,  that  endeavour  to  change 
its  state  whether  of  motion  or  rest.  See 
Motion. 

RE.A.LGAR,  a  mineral  found  in  Sicily  and 
various  parts  of  (Jerman^-.  It  is  either  mas- 
sive or  crystallized.  'Ihe  primitive  form  of 
the  crystal  is  an  octahedron  with  scalene  tri- 
angles, and  it  counnonly  appears  in  4,  fj.  8, 
It),  or  12  sided  prisms,  terminated  by  four- 
si-.lcd  summits.  Colour  red.  Streak  yellow- 
ish-red. Specific  gravity  3.3J8.  It  is  elec- 
tric per  se,  and  becomes  negatively  electric 
by  friction.  Ilefon;  the  blowpip(.'  it  melts 
easily,  burns  with  a  blue  (lame,  and  soon  eva- 
j)nrnles.  it  is  also  the  old  name  for  a  sul- 
phuret  of  arsenic,  found  native  in  different 
pa'ts  of  Europe.  It  has  a  scarlet  colour,  and 
IS  oflen  crystallized  in  transparent  prisms. 
lis  specific  gravity  is  3.".     It  is  composed  of 


Y.  T.  A 

80  parts  of  arsenic,  and  20  of  sulphur,  and  it 
13  som-times  used  as  a  piirt. 

RE.-VU,  a  term  freipienlly  used  in  comjio- 
sition,  to  denote  something  behind,  or  back- 
wards, in  respect  of  another,  in  opposition  to 
van:  thus,  in  a  military  sense,  it  is  used  for 
the  hind  part  of  an  army,  in  opposition  to  the 
front,  for  llie  rear-guard,  rear  lialf-lUes, 
rear-line,  rear-rank,  and  rear-a'.lmiral. 

RE-ATrACI-LMEN"T,  a  second  attach^ 
mcnt  of  him  that  v  as  formerly  attached  and 
dismissed  the  court  without  day,  as  by  the 
not  coming  -of  the  justices,  or  some  such  ca- 
sualty. 

REAUMURIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  polyandria  pentagynia.  'I  he  calyx  is 
six-leaved ;  petals  five  ;  caps,  one-celled,  ti\'e- 
valved,  many-seeded.  There  is  one  species, 
an  annual  ol  Egypt. 

REBATE,  or  Reb.'^tement,  in  com- 
merce, a  term  much  used  at  Amsterdam,  for 
an  abatement  in  the  price  of  several  commo- 
dities, when  the  buyer,  instead  of  taking 
time,  advances  reaily  money. 

RERELLION,  taking  up  arms  traitorously 
against  the  king,  be  it  by  natural  subjects,  or 
bv  others  once  subdued.  See  Riot. 

'rebut  rEU,  is  the  answer  of  the  defend- 
ant to  the  plaintilf 's  sur-rejoinder. 

RECAIT'IULATION,  in  oratory,  &c.  is 
a  summary,  or  a  concie  and  traiisiciit  enu- 
meration, of  the  principal  things  insisted  on 
in  the  preceding  discourse,  whereby  the 
force  of  the  whole  is  collected  into  one  view. 

RECAPITON.  ^^■here  one  has  deprived 
another  of  his  property,  the  owner  may  law- 
fully claim  and  retake  it  wherever  h.e  hap- 
pens to  find  it,  so  that  it  shall  be  not  in  a 
riotous  manner,  or  attended  wilh  any  breach 
of  the  peace. 

RECEIPTS,  are  acknowledgments  in 
writing  of  having  received  a  sum  of  money  or 
other  value.  A  receipt  is  either  a  voucher 
for  an  obligation  discharged  or  one  incurred. 
Receipts  tor  money  above  40.v.  must  be  on 
stamps:  but  on  llie  backof  a  bill  of  exchange 
or  promissory  note  which  is  already  stamp- 
ed, is  good  without  a  farther  duty.  Writing 
a  receipt  on  a  stamp  of  greater  value  than  the 
law  requires,  incurs  no  penalty,  and  the  re- 
ceipt is  good  ;  but  if  on  a  stamp  of  a  lower 
value,  or  on  unstamped  paper,  then  a  re- 
ceipt is  no  discharge,  and  incurs  a  penalty. 
See  Stamp. 

RECEU  ER,  in  pneumatics,  a  glass  ves- 
sel for  containing  the  thing  on  which  an 
experiment  in  the  air-pump  is  to  be  made. 
See  P.s'EUM.iTics. 

Receiver,  in  chemistry,  a  vessel  of  earth, 
glass,  &c.  for  receiving  any  distilled  liquor. 

Receiver.  Receiving  stolen  goods,  know- 
ing them  to  be  stolen,  is  a  high  misdemea- 
nour at  the  common  law  ;  and  by  several  sta- 
tutes is  made  felony  and  transportation  ;  and 
in  some  particular  instances,  felony  without 
benefit  of  clergy. 

Receiver  also  signifies  an  ofiicer,  of 
which  there  are  several  kinds,  denominated 
from  the  particular  matters  they  receive,  the 
places  wliere,  or  the  persons  from  whom,  &c. 
1.  Receiver  of  the  lines  is  an  ofiicer  appoint- 
ed to  receive  the  money  of  such  persons  as 
compound  with  the  king,  upon  original  writs 
sued  out  of  chancery.  ^2.  Receiver-general 
of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  is  an  ofiicer  be- 
longing to  the  duchy  court,  who  collects  all 
the  revenues,  lines,  forfeitures,  sad  assess- 


R  F,  C 

ment?,  witliin  that  duchy.  3.  Receiver-ge- 
neral of  the  public  revenue,  is  an  ofhcer  ap- 
pointed in  every  count),  to  receive  the  taxe* 
granted  by  parliament,  aud  remit  the  money 
tj  Ihe  treasury. 

R  EC  I  PI'',  in  medicine,  a  prescription  or 
remedy,  to  be  taken  by  a  patient;  so  t-a!'ed 
because  always  beginning  with  the  word  re- 
cipe, i.  e.  take ;  which  is  generally  denoted 
bv  the  al)l>reviatnre  1^. 

KEClPL'iNGLE,  or  Recipie.st  a.n'cle, 
a  mathematical  instrument,  serving  to  mea- 
sure re-en'.ering  and  saliant  angles,  especially 
in  fortification. 

It  usually  consists  of  two  amis,  or  rulers, 
AC,andBC  (Plate  Miscel.  fig.  I<)7)  riveted 
together  at  C,  and  capable  of  being  opened 
and  closed,  like  a  sectoi\  To  take  an  angle 
with  it,  they  lay  the  centre  ofa  protractor  over 
the  joint  C,  and  apply  its  diameter  to  one  of 
the  rulers;  then  the  degrees  cut  by  the  edge 
of  the  other  ruler,  shew  the  (luai.lity  of  the 
angle. 

There  are  other  forms  of  this  instrument ; 
that  represented  fig.  198,  has  a  graduated 
circle,  by  which  the  angles  may  be  readily 
measured  by  hs  index;  and  fig.  199,  fs 
another  kind  composed  of  four  equal  rulers 
of  brass,  riveted  togcth.er  by  their  ends,  so  as 
to  form  a  parallelogram ;  and  on  one  of  the 
rulers  is  fixed  a  graduated  semicircle,  which 
measures  the  opposite  angle  of  the  parallelo- 
gram, by  means  of  one  of  the  rulers  produced 
so  as  to  serve  instead  of  an  inde.x. 

RECIPROCAL  TERMS,  among  logicians, 
are  those  which  have  the  same  signifitation  ; 
aid  consequently  are  convertible,  or  may  be 
used  for  each  other. 

Reciprocal  FiGt;REs, in  geometrv-,  those 
which  have  the  antecedenis  and  consequents 
of  the  same  ratio,  in  both  ligures.  Thus, 
(Plate  Miscel.  fig.  200,)  A:B::C:D:  or 
12:4:  :g:  3;  that  is,  as  much  as  the  side 
A,  in  the  first  rectangle,  is  longer  than  B,  so 
much  deeper  is  the  side  C,  in  the  second  rect- 
angle, than  the  side  D  in  the  first ;  and,  con- 
sequently, the  greater  length  of  the  one  is 
compensated  by  tlie  greater  breadth  or  depth 
of  the  other;  for  as  the  side  A  is  5  loneer 
than  C,  so  B  is  :|:  longer  than  D,  and  the 
rectangles  of  cour  e  ctpial ;  that  is,  A  -p  D 
=  BxC,  or  12x3  =  4x9  =  30. 

This  is  the  fouiidaiiuii  of  thai  capital  theo- 
rem, viz.  that  the  rectangle  of  the  extremes  is 
always  equal  to  that  of  the  means  ;  and,  ccn- 
sequently,  the  reason  of  the  rule  of  three. 

Hen;:e  it  follows,  that  if  any  two  triangles, 
parallelograms,  prisms,  parallelepipeds,  py^ 
ramids,  cones,  or  cylinders,  Jiave  liieir  bases 
and  altitudes  reciprocally  proportional,  those 
two  figures  or  solids  arc'equal  to  each  other; 
and,  vice  versa,  if  they  are  equal,  ihen  their 
bases  and  altiludes  are  reciprocally  propor- 
tional. See  Triangle,  Parallelogram, 
&c. 

Reciprocal  proportion,  in  arilhmetic, 
is  when,  in  four  numbers,  the  fourth  is  less 
than  the  second,  by  so  much  as  the  third  is 
greater  than  the  first ;  and  vice  versa. 

This  is  the  Ibnndation  of  Ihe  inverse,  or  in- 
direct, rule  of  three :  thus,  4:  10  : :  8  :  5. 

It  is  applied  also  to  quantities  which,  being 

multiplied  together,  produce   unity.    Thus  — 

X 

,    1  . 

and  .V,  y  and  — ,  wc  rceiprocjl  quanUUes,  be- 


ft  E  C 


CSUSO  -  -    X    .V    =r 


1,  and 


X   y  =■ 


KI'XIT.VI'IN'O,  01-  Recitativt,  in  imi- 
sic,  ii  kiiiil  of  sir.gnig,  that  ilillirs  but  little 
fVo.ii  oi-(linary  prominciatiou,  siicli  as  that  in 
winch  the  several  parts  of  the  liturgy  are  ic- 
liL'iirsed  in  cat!io<iral>;  or  that  in  wiiich  the 
actors  foniniouly  dtliver  Hicmsolves  on  the 
theatre  at  the  opera,  when  they  are  to  express 
some  action  or  passion,  to  relate  sonic  event, 
or  reveal  some  design.  Notwithstanding  this 
tort  of  composition  is  noted  in  true  tini;;,  the 
pcrlbrnier  is  at  liljcrty  to  alter  the  bars  of  ' 
measure,  and  make  sonic  long  and  others  I 
short,  as  his  subject  recpiires;  licnce  the  I 
tiioroiigh  -  bass  to  the  recitative  is  usually 
placed  below  the  otiier,  to  the  end  that  he, 
who  is  to  accoini)any  the  voi(.:e,  may  rather 
observe  and  follow  the  singer,  llian  the  person 
(h.it  licats  the  time. 

RECKONING,  or  a  Ship's  Reckon- 
ing, in  navigation,  is  that  account  by  which 
at  any  time  it  may  be  known  where  the  ship 
is,  and  on  what  course  or  courses  slic  is  to 
steer  in  older  to  s^ain  her  port ;  and  that  ac- 
count taken  from  the  loi;-boJrd  is  called  the 
dead-ieckor.inp;.     Seo  Navigation. 

RECMNliU,  or  Reclining  dial.  See 
Dialling. 
\  RI'XOONISAXCE,  is  an  obligation  of 
record,  which  a  man  enters  into  b:-lore  some 
court  of  rcvord,  or  magistrate  duly  autlio- 
rized,  with  condition  to  some  particular  ;-,ct; 
a^  to  appear  at  the  assizes  or  quarter-sessions, 
to  keep  thf  peace,  &c. 

RECOIL,  or  Rebound,  the  starting  baclc- 
■w:ird  of  a  firs-arm,  after  an  explosion.  Mer- 
sennus  tells  us.  tliat  a  cannon  12  feet  in  length, 
weiji^hing;  fi-iOO  ib.  gives  a  ball  of  21  lb.  an  uni- 
form velocity  of  6i0  feet  per  second.  Putting, 
therefore,  W  z=  6400,  •»  =;  21,  V  =r  G40,  and 
V  :=  the  velocity  with  which  the  cannon  re- 
coils ;  we  sIi.'iU  have  (because  the  momenta  of 
tlie  cannon  and  ball  are  equal)  W'x;  x=  ■jiV  :  and 

TiiV        24  X  G4  ,        .      . 

io  'J  =z     -  =^  —    =   2,   4 ;    that   is,   it 

w  640'J 

would  recoil  at  the  rate  of  S-j^o  f*^*^'  P'^''  second' 
if  free  to  move. 

RECORD.  An  act  committed  to  writing 
in  any  of  tiie  king's  courts,  during  the  term 
wherein  it  is  written,  is  alterable,  being  no 
record  ;  but  tiiat  term  once  ended,  and  the  act 
duly  enrolled,  it  is  a  record,  and  of  that 
cred.it  which  ailmits  of  no  alteration  or  proof 
lo  the  contrary. 

RECORD.iRE  facias,  a  writ  directed  to 
the  sherii}',  to  remove  a  cause  out  of  an  in- 
ferior court,  into  the  king's-bench  or  common- 
pleas. 

RiX'ORDICR,  a  person  whom  the  mayor 
and  other  magistrates  pf  a  citv  or  corporation 
assocate  to  them,  tor  their  better  direction  in 
matters  of  justice,  and  proceedings  in  law; 
on  which  account  this  person  is  generally  a 
counsellor,  or  other  person  well  skilled  in  the 
law.  The  recorder  of  London  is  chosen  bv 
the  l()rLl-ma\or  and  aldermen  ;  and,  as  he  is 
held  to  be  tiie  mouth.of  the  city,  he  delivers 
the  judgment  of  the  courts,  and  records  and 
certifies  the  city  customs. 

RECOVERV,  in  law,  is  obtaining  any 
thing  by  judgment  or  trial  at  law. 

A  recovery  resembles  a  line  so  far  as  being 
an  action  real  or  Iklitious,  and  in  that  lands 


11  EC 

are  recovered  again.st  the  tenant  of  the  free- 
hold, and  an  absiilute  fee-simple  is  vested  in 
the  recoverer;  init  it  is  carried  on  through 
every  stage  of  proceeding,  instead  of  being 
comproniised  like  a  line.     See  Fine. 

This  invention  we  owe  to  the  ingenuity  of 
the  ecclesiastics,  to  evade  the  statute  of  mort- 
main, which  proliibited  them  from  purchasing 
or  receiving,  under  pretence  ot  a  free  oitt, 
any  lands  or  tenements  whatsoever ;  and  as 
judgment  was  trivon  for  religious  houses,  they 
were  presumed  to  have  recovered  the  lanus 
by  sentence  of  law,  on  a  supposed  prior  title, 
and  were  held  not  to  come  within  tlie  statute, 
'i'he  convenience  of  those  recoveries  was  soon 
discovered,  and  made  use  of  l)y  lay  persons 
as  a  common  niotle  of  transterring  lands; 
but  the  want  of  moderation  on  tiie  part  of  the 
ecclesiastics,  in  their  frequent  recourse  to 
feigned  Vecoveries,  was  such  as  to  call  for 
parliamentary  interference,  and  gave  rise  to 
the  act  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the  First,  calletl 
Uie  statute  of  Westminster;  which  enacts, 
that  in  all  cases  wiiere  ecclesiastical  persons 
recovered  lands  by  default,  a  jury  should  try 
the  right ;  and  if  ihe  demandants  were  fiiund 
lo  have  no  title,  tlie  land  should  be  forfeited 
to  the  lord  of  the  fee,  according  to  the  statute 
of  mortmain. 

This  act  threw  llic  recoveries  into  disuse, 
till  they  were  resumed  as  a  mode  of  evading 
tlie  strictness  of  the  statute  de  donis  con- 
ditionalibus,  which  lays  a  general  restraint 
Oil  alienation.  The  people  made  many  at- 
tempts to  procure  a  repeal  of  this  statute, 
but  in  vain;  but  as  tlie  inconveniences  were 
manifest,  the  judges  always  endeavoured  to 
CO  drive  means  ol  evading  it;  and  it  was  de- 
cided in  a  case  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV. 
that  a  common  recovery  suffered  by  a  tenant 
intail,  should  operate  as  an  effectual  bar  to 
his  estate  tail,  and  to  all  remainders  and  rever- 
sions depending  thereon;  by  which  means 
tenants  in  tail  are  now  enabled  to  dispose  of 
their  estates,  or  convert  tlieiii  into  estates  in 
fee-simple ;  and  it  may  be  sulfered  of  all 
things,  whereof  a  writ  of  covenant  may  be 
brought  for  the  purpose  of  levying  a  line. 
'I'here  are  three  persons  reciuired  to  form 
a  recovery;  the  demandant,  tenant,  and 
vouchee.  The  demandant  is  he  who  brings 
the  writ  of  entry ;  the  tenant  is  he  against 
whom  the  writ  is  lirought ;  and  the  vouchee  is 
he  whom  the  tenant  vouches  .•ul  calls  to 
warranty  ;  but  this  may  be  belter  understootl 
by  ijupposing  John  Jacob>  to  be  teutiiit  of  the 
freehold,  and  desirous  ol  sulieving  a  recovery 
to  cutori  all  entails  ami  reversions,  and  to  con- 
vey the  estate  in  lee-simpie to JaniesJenkiiis. 
Jenkins  sues  out  awriioi  pretii)e<iuod  reudat, 
as  in  the  case  ot  a  line,  uni  >  harg^-s  that  the 
defendant  has  no  title,  hut  came  into  pos- 
stssion  after  Hugh  Hunt  had  turned  the 
plaintiff  out  of  It.  'Ihc  |)ioceeding:i  are  ir.ade 
up  on  the  recovery-roll,  in  wnich  the  writ  .md 
complaint  of  the  demandant  aie  recited,  the 
tenant  then  appear>  and  calls  upon  one 
Charles  Rrowniiig,  who  is  supposed  at  the 
original  purchase  to  have  warranted  the  title 
to  the  tenant,  and  who  is  denonmiated  tiie 
vouchee:  the  voucdiee  then  appears,  is  im- 
ple.;ded,  and  dciends  the  the  tide.  Jenkins, 
the  demandant,  craves  eave  to  imparl,  which 
is  granted ;  the  plaii.tilf  tlien  returns  into 
court,  but  the  vouchee  di  a|.  pears  and  makes 
default;  jiidament  is  ot  com  e  given  lor  Jen- 
kins, and  Jacobs  is  t  •  "-over  tJie  value  ot  tne 
4  A2 


R  E  C  55.5 

land  from  Charlre  Urowning,  as  lie  lost  them 
through  his  default.  I'ut  on  enquiry,  it  is 
ahvivs  found  that  Urowniiig  (who  i>  merely 
an  olllcer  of  the  court,  and  dem)niiiiated  the 
common  vouchee,  from  being  always  vouch- 
ed), has  no  lands,  so  that  Jacobs,  now  called 
the  reeovrcc,  has  but  a  nominal  recom])encc; 
and  the  plaintilij  who  is  now  wcovcrer,  lias 
the  lar.ds  vested  in  him  by  judgment  of  iJie 
court,  and  seisin  delivered  by  the  sheriif. 

A  recovery  is  sometimes  with  double  or 
trel)le  voucher,  or  even  more  if  necessary. 
And,  indeed,  a  double  voucher  is  the  most 
common,  by  lirst  conveying  an  estate  to  any 
third  person,  against  whom  the  writ  is  isiued, 
he  then  vouclies  the  tenant  in  tail  who 
vouches  over  the  cninmon  vouchee  ;  for  if 
the  recovery  is  had  iminediat  Iv  against  the 
teiiint  in  tail,  it  bars  only  such  estate  in 
the  premises  of  which  he  is  then  actually 
seized  ;  but  if  the  recovery  is  had  against  a 
third  person,  and  the  tenant:  in  t.iil  is  the  lirst 
vouchee,  it  bars  every  latent  riglit  and  in- 
terest wliich  he  may  have  in  the  lands  re- 
covered. If  an  iniant  suf((."rs  a  recovery  in 
person,  he  may  reverse  it,  but  tlicti  the  writ 
of  error  must  be  brought  during  his  minority. 
Sometimes,  though  but  seldom,  the  court 
permits  the  iniant  to  ajjpear  by  guardian, 
wliere  the  leeovery  is  ot  mamlest  advaiUage 
to  the  infant ;  and  when  this  has  been  allowed 
by  the  judges,  the  infant  cannot  set  it  aside; 
but  if  it  is  to  the  pnjudicc  of  the  infant,  he 
has  a  remedy  by  action  against  the  guaid'an. 
This  ajjpears  from  several  cases,  if  the  in- 
fant appears  by  attorney,  he  may  rever^e  the 
recovery  after  he  is  of  age,  because  it  may  be 
here  discovered  by  trial  whether  the  wauant 
of  attorney  was  made  by  him  while  an  in- 
fiint.  A  married  woman  joining  with  her 
husband  in  siitiering  a  recovery,  will  bar  her 
remainder  ;  because  as  she  is  examined  i<ri- 
vately  as  to  her  consent,  it  takes  away  the 
presumption  in  law  lh.il  it  is  done  by  the 
compulsion  of  her  husband. 

All  persons  have  power  to  suffer  a  recovery 
except  the  king  (lor  it  he  does,  lie  must  eiilier 
be  tenant  or  \ouchee,  and  in  both  cases  the 
plaintiff  must  count  against  him,  wiiich  the 
law  does  not  allow),  infants,  jier-ons  non 
compos,  and  women  who  an-  po-.->essed  of 
dower;  who  are  prohibited  by  the  statute  of 
1 1  Henry  \  U.  c.  i'l',  which  enacts  that  a  re- 
covery sulfered  by  any  w  oiiian  ol  lands  set- 
tled on  her  by  her  husband,  or  settled  on  lier 
hubliand  and  lier  by  any  of  hts  ancestors,  shall 
be  void. 

The  eflect  of  common  recoveries  may 
appear  to  be  an  absohile  bar  uot  only  of  all 
estates  tail,  but  of  rtniEinders  and  reversions 
ex;)ectaat  on  the  determin.tion  of  si  ch 
estates.  So  that  a  tenant  in  tail  may  convey 
lands  in  tad  to  the  reco\erer,  Iree  and  ds- 
cha;ged  of  ail  conditions  and  appointments  in 
tail,  and  ol  ail  remaiiiders  and  reversions.  But 
as  is  betort  nienlioiietl,  awoiiii.n  possessed  of 
dower  is  pre  en  ted  by  the  statute;  and  by 
the  statute  of  1 .  Eiiz  c.  ^,  no  tenant  lor  liic 
Ol  any  sort  can  sutler  a  recov-  ry,  so  as  lo  bind 
them  in  reniainder  or  reversion.  I'or  which 
itaron,  if  there  is  a  tenant  foi  li'e  with  re- 
mainder ill  tail,  and  ulier  lenaindeis  over, 
and  tne  lenant  tor  ii  e  i?  desirous  lo  sufler  a 
valid  recovery,  e.liier  he  or  ihc  tenant  to  the 
])recipe  must  v.iuch  the  lemaiLdef-maii  in 
tai:.  It  '.^  an  essential  part  ol  a  ivcovery,  that 
the  teuaut  to  the  precipe  should  be  actualljr 


SoO 


n  E  c 


R  E  C 


^eiseil  of  the  freehoUl ;  but  by  14  G;-a  11.  | 
thoiu;!i  the  legal  freehold  sUoi-.Ul  be  vpiteii  in 
les  es,  vet  those  who  are  iiititletl  to  the  next 
tr.  I'holcl  es'P-te  in  reniniiKler  or  reversion  niav 
make  a  gooil  tenant  to  the  precipe;  and 
thoii"h  the  deed  or  tine  which  creates  such 
tenant  should  be  sub-eqoeiit  to  the  judgment 
of  recoverv,  if  it  is  in  tiie  same  term,  the  re- 
covery is  valid  ;  and  (hat  though  the  recovery 
itself  <loes  not  appear  to  be  entered,  or  not 
regularly  entered  on  record:  yet  the  deed 
to  make  a  tenant  to  the  precipe  and  declare 
the  uses  of  the  recovery,  witn  twenty  years 
possession,  s'.iaU  be  sufficient  evidence  ot  the 
recovery.  If  a  recoverv  is  levied  without  any 
good  co'nsideration  or  tiie  uses  declared,  they 
only  enure  to  tl:e  use  of  him  who  levies  them ; 
and  if  th  -re  is  a  consideration,  yet  as  the 
most  usual  ruie,sur  cognizance  dedroitcomme 
ces,  &c.  conveys  an  absolute  estate  witnnit 
limitations,  t'.iese  conveyances  could  not  be 
made  to  answer  the  purposes  of  family  settle- 
ments (wherein  a  variety  of  uses  and  desgn- 
ations  is  often  necessary),  unless  their  force 
and  effect  were  made  subiect  to  the  direction 
of  more  coinplicated  deeds.  These  deeds,  if 
made  previous  to  the  judgment,  are  called 
deeds  to  lead  the  uses;  if  subsequent,  to  de- 
clare tliem. 

RECTAXGLF,,  in  geometry,  the  same 
with  :•.  right-angled  parallelogram. 

RECTAXGLED,  Rectavgulaii,  or 
Right-angled,  appellations  given  to  figures 
and  solids  which  have  one  or  more  right 
angles:  thus  a  triangle  with  one  right  angle, 
is  termed  a  rectangled  triangle;  also  parallel- 
ograms with  ri^ht  angles,  squares,  cubes,  &:c. 
are  rectangular.  Solids,  as  cones,  cylinders, 
Sec.  are  also  said  to  be  rectangu'ar  with  re- 
spect to  their  situation,  when  their  axes  are 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  horizon. 

RECTIFICATION,  in  geometry,  is  tlie 
finding  a  right  line,  equal  in  length  to  a 
cur\e.     See  the  article  Curve. 

The  rectification  of  curves  is  a  branch  of 
the  higher  geometry,  where  the  use  of  the 
inverse  method  of  fluxions  is  very  con- 
spicuous. 

Case  I.  Let  ACG,  (Plate  Miscel.  fig. 
201)  be  any  kind  of  curve,  whose  ordinates 
are  parallel'  to  themselves,  and  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  AQ.  Then  if  the  fluxion  of  the 
absciss  AM  is  denoted  by  Mm,  or  by  C/! 
(equal  and  parallel  to  Mm),  and  ns,  equal  and 
pariliel  to  Cr,  is  the  representation  of  the 
corresponding  lluxion  of  the  ordinate  MC  ; 
tUeri  will  the  diagonal  CS,  touching  the  curve 
ill  C,  be  the  line  which  the  generating  point 
;j  would  de-cribp,  was  its  motion  to  become 
uniform  at  C ;  which  line,  therefore,  truly 
expresses  the  fluxion  of  the  space  AC,  gone 
over.     See  the  article  Fluxions. 

Hence,  putting  AM  =  a-,  CM  =:  y,  and  AC 
r=  s;  we  have  ss  =:  CS  =:  \/Cn'  -)-  Sn'  =; 
/^x'  +  v' ;  from  which,  and  the  equation  of 
the  curve,  the  v.ilue  of  s  may  be  determined. 
Thus,  let  the  curve  proposed  be  a  pnrabola  of 
any  kind,  the  general  equation  for  which  is  x=: 


=jX   1- 


'^i 


' ;    the  fluent   "f  which. 


universally  expressed  in   an   infinite   series, 
,  2«  —  1  4n  —  3 


_i_    "y 

y  + 


&,  —  1  X  2<2 


2/1- 


■ii  —  3  X  8<J 


&C.  : 


4n  —  4 


6r.  —  3  X   ISa 

Case  II.  Let  all  the  ordinates  of  the  proposed 
curve  ARM, fig.  '20'.',  be  referred  to  a  centre  C : 
then,  putting  the  tangent  RP  (intercepted  by  the 
perpendicular  CP)  =  (,  the  arch,  B>J,of  a  circle, 
described  about  the  centre  C,  ^  .v  ;  and  the  ra- 
dius CN  (or  CB)  =  d  ;  we  have  a'.y  y.y  (OR) 

;  t  (RP)  ;  and,  consequently,  i  =  - —  ;    from 

whence  the  value  of  z  may  be  found,  if  the  re- 
lation of  jy  and  t  is  given.'  But,  in  other  cases, 
it  will  be  better  to  work  from  the  following 


»  —  1. 

' ;  and  hence  x  = ~ 

—  l'  n—  1 


'.'/,  -  2., 


fore 


.(_=^y+x')=^/f  +  "\^f 


equation,  viz.  z  : 


,  and  there- 


/• 


+  ■ 


which    is 


thus  derived  ;  let  the  right  line  CR  be  conceived 
to  revolve  about  the  centre  C  ;  then,  since  the 
celerity  of  the  generating  point  R,  in  a  direc- 
tion perpendicular  to  CR,  is  to  (v)  the  celeritv 
of  the  point  N,  as  CR   (>)  to  CN  («),  it  will 

therefore  be  truly  represented  by  -  - 


which 


being  to  (j)  the  celerity  in  the  direction  of  CR 
produced,  as  CB  (.)  :  RP  (0,  it  follows  that^^ 

.    •:    •  •   jJ   •  t' ;  whence,  by  composition,  '-— p 

v'  v^ 
-hf   '.   ^'   "  ''  +  ''  (y')   '.   *''  therefore  ^-^ 


-\- y  =~,  and  consequently  »  /  — ^"  -j- 


J 


(=  ^)  =:  i.     O,  E.  D. 

Rectification,  in  chemislry,  the  repe- 
tition of  a  distillation  or  sublimation  several 
times,  ill  order  to  render  the  substance  purer, 
finer,  and  freer  from  aqueous  or  earthy  parts. 
See  Distillation. 

RECTI  LIN  EA I?,  in  geometry,  right-lined; 
thus  figures  whose  perinioier  consists  of  right 
lines,  are  said  to  be  rectilinear. 

RECTO,  in  law,  a  writ  of  right,  which  is  of 
so  high  a  nature,  th;it  whereas  other  wTits  in 
real  actions  are  only  to  recover  the  posses- 
sion of  the  land  or  tenements  in  cpiestioii, 
which  have  been  lost  by  our  ancestors  or  our- 
selves; this  aims  to  recover  both  the  seisin 
which  some  of  our  ancestors  or  we  liad,  and 
also  tlie  property  of  the  hiring  whereof  the 
ancestor  died  not  seised  as  of  tee ;  and  where- 
by are  pleaded  and  tried  both  their  rights  to- 
gether, viz.  as  well  of  possession  as  of  pro- 
perty ;  so  tliat  if  a  man  ever  loses  his  cause 
upon  this  writ,  either  by  judgment,  or  assize 
he  is  without  remedy.     I'r;ut.  Lib.  5, 

Recto  de  advocatione  ecclesi/k,  a 
writ  of  right,  lying  wheie  a  man  has  a  ngh( 
of  advowson,  and  the  parson  of  the  church 
dyhig,  a  stranger  preiieiits  his  d^rk  to  the 
church  ;  and  he  not  liaviug  brought  his  action 
ofipiare  impedit,  nor  darrein  presentment, 
williiii  six  mouths,  but  suffered  the  stranger  to 
usurp  upon  him. 
Recto  de  dote,  a  writ  of  right  of  dower, 


R  E  C 

wliich  lies  for  a  woman  who  lias  received 
part  of  her  dower,  arid  jiurposes  to  demand 
tlie  remainder  in  the  same  town,  against  the 
heir,  or  his  guardian  if  he  is  a  ward. 

Recto  de  dote  unde  nihil  habet,  a 
writ  of  right  which  lies  in  a  case,  where  tlie 
husband  having  divers  lands  or  tenements,  li;is 
assured  no  dower  to  his  wife,  and  she  thereby 
is  driven  to  sue  for  her  thirds,  against  the 
hen-  or  his  guardian. 

Recto  (Hando  domincs  re.misit,  a 
writ  of  right,  which  lies  in  cases,  where  lands 
or  tenements  in  the  seigniory  of  any  lord  are 
in  demand  by  a  writ  of  right. 

RECTOR,  a  term  applied  to  several  per- 
sons whose  ofllices  are  very  different;  as, 
1.  The  rector  of  a  parish  is  a  clergyman  tiiat 
has  the  charge  and  cure  of  a  paiiaii,  and  pos- 
sesses all  the  tithes,  &;c.  2.  The  same  name 
is  also  given  to  the  chief  elective  officer  in  se- 
veral foreign  universities,  particularly  in  that 
of  Paris.  3.  Rector  is  also  used  in  several 
convents  for  the  superior  ofiicer  who  governs 
the  house;  and  the  Jesuits  give  this  name  to 
tlie  su))eriors  of  such  of  their  houses  as  are 
either  seminaries  or  colleges. 

RECTOR'^',  a  parish  church,  parsonage, 
or  spiritual  living,  with  all  its  rights,  tylhes, 
and  glebes. 

RECTUM,  in  anatomy,  the  third  and  last 
of  the  large  intestines.     See  Anatomy. 

RF.Cl  RVIROSTHA,  in  ornithology,  a 
genus  belonging  lo  the  order  of  gralla'.  '1  he 
bill  is  long,  subulated,  bent  back,  sliarp  and 
flexible  at  the  point.  The  feet  are  webbed, 
and  furnished  with  three  toes  fcrwards,  and  a 
short  one  behind.  Mr.  Latham  notes  of  this 
genus  three  species,  viz.  the  avosetta,  or  the 
one  commonly  known,  the  Americana,  and 
the  alba.  'I  his  last,  it  is  probable,  has  son;e 
affinity  to  the  Americana.  The  recurvirostra 
avosetta  is  about  the  si/e  of  a  lapwing  in' 
bodv,  but  has  very  long  legs.  The  substance 
ol  tile  bill  is  soft,  ami  almost  membranous  at 
ils  tip  ;  it  is  thin,  weak,  slender,  compressed 
horizontallv,  and  inciipable  of  defi  r.ce  or 
effort.  '1  hese  birds  are  variegated  with  black 
and  white,  and  during  llie  winter  are  frctjuent 
on  the  eastern  shores  ol  Great  Britain.  They 
visit  also  the  Severn,  and  somelimesthc:  pools 
of  Siiropshire.  They  teed  on  worms  and  in- 
sects, which  they  scoop  out  of  the  sand  with 
tiieir  bills.  Tliey  lay  two  eggs,  white,  with  a 
greenish  hue,  anci  large  spots  of  black,  about 
the  size  of  a  pigeon's.  They  are  found  also 
in  various  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe, 
in  Russi.i,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  but  thi-y 
are  not  numerous.  They  are  also  found  in 
Siberia,  but  cftener  about  the  salt  lakes  of 
the  Tartarian  desert,  and  about  (lie  Caspian 
sea ;  likewise  oil  the  coasts  of  Picardy  in 
France,  in  April  and  November,  and  at  Or- 
leans, but  rarely.  !n  breeding-time thev  are 
very  plentiful  on  the  coasts  of  Has  Poictou. 
They  do  not  ai)i)ear  to  wander  further  south 
in  Europe  than  llaly.  Whether  from  timidity 
or  address,  the  avosci  shuns  snares,  and  is  nc>t 
easily  taken.  The  American  avoset  is  rather 
larger  and  longer  than  the  last.  Tlie  bill  is 
siiiidar,  and  its  colour  black;  the  forehead  is 
dusky  white  ;  the  head,  neck,  and  upper  part 
of  the  breast,  are  of  a  deep  cream-colour ;  the 
lower  parts  of  the  neck  behind  white;  the 
back  is  black,  and  the  under  parts  from  the 
breast  pure  while;  tlie  wings  are  partly 
black,  partly  while,  and  partly  ash-coloured. 
These  biids  inhabit  North  iViiierica ;  and  were 


RED 

foilncl  bv  Danip'i-r  in  Sharks -bni',  on  llir 
fo;i-.l  ofNuw  UoHancl.  Sec  I'latc  \at.  Iliit. 
iig.  345. 

The  rcc'.irvirostra,  or  scolopax  alba,  is 
aboul  14  iiiclii.s  ami  a  qiiaili'i'  long,  itscoloui' 
while,  till-  interior  coverts  of  its  wings  diisk- 
isli,  its  bill  orange,  its  legs  brown,  tuhvards 
remarks  tliat  the  bill  of  this  bird  is  bent  n|)- 
wards,  as  in  the  avosL-t :  its  bill  black  at  the 
li|),  and  orange  liie  rest  of  its  length  ;  all  the 
jiln.iias!);  is  white,  except  a  lint  of  yel!ow'i^h 
on  til:,  gre.il  (juills  of  the  wing  and  oi  the  tail. 
Edwards  sujjpo.ses  that  tli;;  whiteness  is  pro- 
duced by  the  cold  climate  of  11  jdsons-bay, 
from  which  lie  received  it,  and  that  they  re- 
sume their  brown  feathers  dnriiig  the  sum- 
laer.  It  appears  that  several  species  of  this 
bird  have  spread  further  into  America,  and 
liave  even  reached  the  southern  provinces. 

A  bird  of  this  kind,  Mr.  Latluun  says,  was 
sent  from  Jiudsons-bay,  and  from  tlie  (ignre, 
has  every  appearance  of  an  avoset.  In  Ed- 
wards's ])lalc,  however,  the  toes  appear  cloveji 
to  the  bottom;  a  circumstance  seeming  to 
overturn  tlie  supposition,  and  only  to  be  au- 
thenticated wlien  other  specimens  shall  have 
come  under  the  eye  of  the  well-informed 
naturalist. 

IvECT'SANT,  a  person  who  refuses  to  go 
to  church,  and  worship  God  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  church  of  England,  as  by  law  esta- 
blished ;  to  which  is  anjiexed  the  penalty  of 
'JOl.  a  month  for  nonconformity.  23  Ehz. 
c.  1. 

RED,  in  dyeing,  is  one  of  the  five  simple  or 
mother  colours.     See  Dyeing. 

KED-i.iiAD.     See  Lead,  oxii/cnf. 

1', KD-BOOK  of  the  exchecjuer,  an  antient 
record  or  manuscript  volume,  in  the  keeping 
of  the  king's  remembrancer,  containing  divers 
niiscellar.eous  treatises  relating  to  the  times  be- 
fore the  CoiKpiest. 

RF.DDEN  Dl'.M,  in  our  law,  is  used  sub- 
stantively for  the  clause  in  a  lease  wherein 
the  rent  is  reserved  to  the  lessor.     The  pro- 
per place  for  it  is  next  after  the  limitation 
.  ofesta'c. 

R  EDEMPTIOX,  in  law,  a  faculty  or  right 
of  re  entering  upon  lands,  &;c.  that  have  been 
sold  and  assigned,  upon  reimbursing  the  pur- 
chase-money with  legal  costs.  Bargains  where- 
in the  faculty,  or,  as  some  call  it,  the  equity, 
of  redemption  is  reserved,  are  only  a  kind  of 
pignorative  contracts.  A  certain  time  is 
limited  within  which  the  faculty  of  redemption 
shall  be  exercised,  and  beyond  which  it  shall 
not  extend. 

REDENS,  Rbdans,  or  Eepant,  in  for- 
tification, a  kind  of  work  indented  in  form  of 
the  teeth  of  a  saw,  with  saliant  and  re-entering 
angles,  to  the  end  that  one  part  may  flank  or 
tlel'end  another.  It  is  called  saw-work,  and 
indented  work.  Reclens  are  frequently  used 
in  the  fortifying  of  walls,  where  it  is  not  ne- 
cessary to  be  at  the  cxpence  of  building  bas- 
tions ;  as  when  they  stand  on  the  side  of  a 
river,  a  marsh,  the  sea,  S:c. 

REDOUBT,  orIlEDOUTE,in  fortification, 
a  small  sipiare  fort,  without  any  defence  but 
in  front,  used  in  trenches,  lines  of  circum- 
vallation,  contravallation,  and  approach,  as 
also  for  the  lodgings  of  corps  de  garde,  and  to 
defend  passages.  In  mar.hy  grounds,  re- 
doubts are  frequently  made  of  stone-works, 
for  the  security  of  the  neinhbourhood;  their 
face  consists  of  from  10  to  15  fallioms,  the 


RED 

ditch  round  them  from  8  to  9  feet  broad  and 
deep,  and  the'r  parapets  have  the  same  thick- 
ness. 

RICDUC'l,  or  Rkduit,  a  military  term 
signifying  an  advantageous  piece  of  ground, 
entrenched  and  Separated  from  the  rest  ot 
the  place,  camp,  &c.  for  an  arjiiy,  garrison, 
&c.  to  retire  to  in  case  of  a  surprize. 

REDUCTION,  tn.it  rule  by  which  num- 
bers ol  dilierent  denominations  are  brought 
into  one  denomination.     See  Auitiimei  ic. 

RFnucTiON  rf  a  figure,  design,  <:r 
(lr(iiiy;lit,  is  the  making  a  copy  of  it  eillur 
larger  or  smaller  than  the  original,  still  ))re- 
servingthe  form  and  proportion.  'I'iie  great 
use  of  the  |?roportional  compasses  is  the  re- 
duction of  ligures,  &.c.  w  hence  ihey  are  called 
compasses  ol  reduction. 

There  are  various  methods  of  reducing 
(igures,  &c.  The  most  easy  is  by  means  of  the 
penlagra|ih,  or  parallelogram  ;  but  this  has 
its  delects.     See  rE>,T,V(;RAi-H. 

The  best  and  n.ost  usual  mrthods  of  re- 
duction are  as  fo  iows:  I.  'i'o  reduce  a 
figure,  as  ABC  DE  (Plate  Miscel.  fig.  203) 
into  a  less  compass.  About  the  middle  of  the 
ligurc,  as  z,  pitch  on  a  point,  and  trom  this 
point  draw  lines  to  its  several  angles  A,  B, 
C,  ^c.  then  drawing  the  line  «/;  parallel  to 
AB,  he  parallel  to  BC,  &c.  you  will  have  the 
figure  ahcdc-  similar  to  ABCDE. 

If  the  figure  iihcdt-  had  been  recpiired  to  be 
enlarged,  there  needed  nothing  but  to  produce 
the  lines  from  th/  point  beyonil  ti'e  angles,  as 
cD,  :C,  &c.  audio  draw  lines,  viz.  DC,  CB, 
See.  |)arallel  to  the  sides  dc,  cb,  &c. 

2.  To  reduce  a  figure  by  the  angle  of  pro- 
portion, suppose  the  ligure  ABC  DE,(fig.  204) 
required  to  be  diminished  in  the  proportion 
of  the  line  AB  to  (d),  (Iig.  205).  Draw  the  in- 
delinite  line  GM,  (Iig.  206)  and  from  fi  to  II 
set  off  the  line  AB.  On  G  describe  the  arch 
III.  Set  off  the  line  ab  as  a  chord  on  HI, 
and  draw  C;i.  Then  with  the  angle  IGH, 
you  have  all  the  meisur^s  of  the  figure  to  be 
drawn.  Thus,  to  lav  down  the  point  c,  take 
the  interval  i)C,  and  upon  the  point  G,  de- 
scribe the  arch  Ki/.  Also  on  the  point  G, 
describe  MN  ;  and  u|>on  A,  with  the  distance 
MN,  describe  an  arch  cutting  the  preceding 
one  in  c,  which  will  determine  the  siile  be. 
And  after  the  same  manner  are  the  other  sides 
and  angles  to  be  de>cribed.  The  same  pro- 
cess will  also  serve  to  enlarge  the  figure. 

3.  To  reduce  a  figure  by  a  scale.  Mea- 
sure all  the  sides  of  the  figure,  as  ABCDE, 
fig.  204,  by  a  scale,  and  lay  down  the  same 
measures  respectively  from  a  smallerscale  in 
the  proportion  recjuired. 

4.  To  reduce  a  map,  design,  or  figure,  by 
squares.  Divide  the  oi'iginal  into  little 
squares;  and  di\ide  a  fresh  paper  of  the  di- 
n;ensions  required  into  the  same  number  of 
squares,  which  are  to  be  larger  or  less  than 
the  former,  as  the  map  is  to  be  enlarged  or 
diminished.  This  done,  in  every  square  of 
the  second  figme  draw  what  you  find  in  its 
correspondent  one  in  the  first. 

R  EDUCTION,  in  metaHurgy,  is  the  bringing 
back  metalline  substances  which  have  been 
changed  into  scorix  or  oxides,  into  their  na- 
tural and  original  state  of  metals  again.  See 
Chemistry. 

Reduction,  in  surgery,  denotes  an  ope- 
ration bv  which  a  dislocated,  luxated,  or 
fractured" bone,  is  restored  to  its  former  state 
or  place 


R  F.  F 


5v7 


R1:DUNDAN"1'  hyierkoi-a,  is  ?.  curM,- 
ol  the  higher  kir.d,  thui  called  1  ecausc  it  ex- 
ceeds the  conic  section  of  that  name,  in  tin: 
number  of  its  hyperbolical  legs;  bi'iiig  n 
triple  hvp(  rbola  with  six  l.vp-rbol.cal  legs. 

RElJLPl.lCAllON,  M  louic,  a  kiiril  of 
condition  exjiresicd  in  a  propo-itioii  indicat- 
ing or  assigning  th.c  manner  in  wliidi  tlie 
predicate  is  attributed  to  the  subject.  Jlcnce 
reduplicative  jiropositions  ure  such  wherein 
the  subject  is  repealed  with  some  circmu- 
stance  or  condition,  thus:  Mrn,  \i.i  men,  are 
rational ;  Kings,  as  kings,  are  subject  to  none 
but  God. 

REi'^l").     SeeAitusRO. 

REEF,  a  term  in  navigatirni.  Wlien  there 
is  a  great  gale  of  wind,  they  comnlonly  roll 
up  part  of  the  sail  below,  that  by  lliis  nieans 
it  may  become  the  r.arrowi  1-  ;;i'.'.  i.'.i  liii/v. 
so  much  wind  ;  wiiich  cci.^ 
up  the  sail  they  call  a  re.  :  ,   ' 

sail ;  so  also  when  a  lop-masi  is  sprung,  as 
they  call  it,  tliat  is,  when  it  is  cracked,  or  al- 
most bioken  in  the  cap,  they  cut  off  Ihe 
lower  piece  that  was  neaily  broken  oil',  and 
letting  the  other  pait,  now  much  shorter,  in 
the  step  again,  they  call  it  a  reefed  top- 
mast. 

REEL,  in  the  manufactories.  Tliere  are 
various  kinds  of  reels,  some  very  simple, 
others  very  complex.  Of  the  former  kinds 
those  most  m  use  are:  1.  A  little  reel  held  in 
the  hand,  consisting  of  three  pieces  of  wood, 
the  biggest  and  longest  w  hereof  (which  does 
not  exceed  a  foot  and  a  lialf  in  length,  and  .T 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter)  is  traversed  by 
two  other  pieces  disposed  dilierent  ways. 
2.  The  common  reel,  or  windlass,  which 
turns  upon  a  pivot,  and  has  four  flights  tra- 
versed by  long  pins  or  sticks,  whereon  the 
skain  to  be  reeled  is  put,  and  which  are 
drawn  closer  or  opened  wider  according  to 
the  skain.  A  representation  of  the  common- 
reel  may  be  seen  in  Plate  Miscel.  fig.  207, 
where  A  is  the  bench  or  seal  of  the  reel,  B  tht: 
two  uprights  ;  C  the  arms  of  the  reel,  its 
arbor  turning,  and  hitching  its  little  lantern 
of  four  notches  in  the  teeth  of  the  wheel  ;  D 
two  wheels,  the  upper  one  of  which  moves 
the  lower  by  means  of  a  pinion  ;  E  a  ham- 
mer, the  handle  whereof  is  lowered  by  a  peg 
at  the  bottom  of  the  low  er  w  heel ;  E  a  cord 
which  is  rolled  round  the  axle  of  the  lower 
wheels,  and  supports  a  weight  which  stops 
after  a  certain  number  of  turns,  to  regulate 
the  work-woman. 

REELING,  in  the  manufactories,  tiie 
winding  of  thread,  silk,  cotton,  or  the  like, 
into  a  skain,  or  upon  a  bottom,  to  prevent  its 
entangling.  It  is  also  used  ior  the  charging 
or  discharging  of  bobbins  or  quills,  to  use 
them  in  the  manufacture  o;  different  stuffs,  as 
thread,  silks,  cotton,  &c. 

RE-ENTRY,  in  law,  signifies  the  resum- 
ing or  retaking  that  possession  which  any  om? 
had  lately  foregone;  as  where  a  person  makes 
a  lease  of  lands  to  another,  the  lessor  thereby 
quits  the  possession,  and  the  lessee  covenants 
that  upon  non-payment  of  the  rent  reserved, 
the  lessor  may  lawfully  re-enter. 

REEVING,  in  the  sea  language,  t!ie  put- 
ting a  rope  through  a  block ;  lience  to  pull  a 
rope  out  of  a  block,  is  called  unreeving. 

REFINING,  in  general,  is  the  art  of  puri- 
fying a  tniiig;  including  not  only  the  assay- 
ing or  reliuilig  of  metaU,  but  likewise  the  di- 


558 


R  E  F 


be 

C0|> 


pura!!CMiorc'a;iiicalioii  of  liquors.  Gold  an;l 
silver  liiay  be  reiineJ  by  several  rnsthotis, 
wlilcli  are  ait  to'.mi.IcJ  on  the  essential  pro- 
per i  so  these  metal?,  and  acquire  diiferent 
lu  :i  •-  a'co.i'':i|  to  tiieir  r-inds.  'I'tiii'?,  tor 
in^^tjn -e,  gjkl  havnig  the  property  wiiicli  no 
otii '[  m.la!.  not  even  silver,  has,  of  resisting 
the  ;;;;tiOiioi:  j.iiphur,  of  antimony,  of  iiilrou'. 
ai;id,  of  marine  acid,  nia^'  be  puriiied  by  tlicie 
a;eals  fro  n  al!  oilier  uietalHc  suostan-es,  and 
f.M^cj'iently  may'  be  reiined.  These  ope- 
r;U;');j-a;e '(li-!;n»iiished  by  pr.iper  name-.,  as 
piai-.ra  ;^!i  of  gold  by  ai^timuny,  pa.iing, 
coi:c;::'.Lratcd  jjarljlj,  dry  parsing.  In  a 
similar  manner,  as  silver  !:as  the  propeity, 
v.hicii  li'.e  iniiJ^-rfVct  metals  h-.ve  not,  of  le- 
si  ;  :<;  t!i  ■  ;:  i  r,  ■);  p.iire,  it  may  be  refilled 
b\  liis  sai; :  !)m'.  :■,:  term  rciining  is  cliieily 
applied  iotiie  pnriilcatioii  of  gold  and  silver 
by  lead  in  tiie  oiip>d.  This  is  performed  by 
the  dnstri!ctio:i,v.lriricafion,  andscoritication, 
ot  all  t.ie  extraneous  and  destructible  metallic 
substances  '.vit^  whi;;li  tii:;y  a  e  allayed. 

A>  none  but  the  perfect  melals  can  redst 
the  CO  nbined  aclton  of  air  and  lire,  vvitliout 
loiing  their  iiifla'ii;!Vi!>le  principle  and  being 
c:ian'4id  into  eartiiy  or  vitreous  matters,  in- 
capable of  remaining  any  longer  united  with 
sujsirances  in  a  meluilic  state,  tliere  is  then  a 
po;stbilnv  of  purif-.'.ng  gold  and  silver  from 
all  allay  of  imperfect  metals  merely  by  the 
arti.m  of  lira  an  1  air,  only  by  keeijing  them 
lu>eu  1 11  all  tiie  aiiav  is  destroyed  ;  but  tlis 
puriii-ation  woull  be  very  expensive,  from 
the  great  co.isnmptio:!  of  tuel,  and  wouU 
Cviceding'iy  tjilior.5.  Silver  allayed  with 
per  lias  been  exposed  longer  tiian  60  hoirs  to 
a  g'ass-house  hre  wi'hoit  being  perfectly  re- 
lined-  the  reason  of  which  is,  tliat  wiien  a 
sm.d!  C|'iantity  oidy  of  imp'"irf"i'ct  metal  re- 
mains united  with  e;'j!d  or  silver,  it  is  covered 
and  protected  from  the  action  of  the  air, 
wiiicli  is  necessary  for  the  combuslion  of  the 
imp-.;rfect  metals,  as  of  all  combustible  mat- 
ters. 

This  refining  of  gold  and  silver  merely  by 
the  action  of  lire,  wliich  was  the  only  method 
antiently  known,  was  very  long,  rliffi' adt,  ex- 
pensive, and  iinjje.fect;  but  a  much  slio'ter 
and  more  advantageous  method  has  beea  dis- 
covered. This  meihod  consists  in  adding  to 
the  ailaved  g;dd  and  silver  a  certani  quantity 
of  lead,  and  ex|)osing  a.ter.vards  this  mixture 
I )  the  action  of  the  tire.  Lead  is  one  of  the 
metals  which  losis  most  quickiy  and  easily  a 
^ulfitdent  quantity  of  its  inda  nm  ihle  piin- 
ciple  to  cease  to  lie  in  a  metallic  state ;  but, 
at  tlie  sani ;  time,  this  metal  has  the  remark- 
able property  of  letahiing,  notwithstanding 
the  ac  ion  of  th  •  lire,  enough  of  this  same 
Uillainmah'e  princ  ih-  to  be  very  easily  melt- 
ed into  a  vilrii.ed  and  powerfully  vitrifying 
matter,  c.illed  liiiiarge. 

'I'lie  I'd  I  lien  winch  is  'o  be  added  to  the 
gild  and  silver  to  b^  refm  "d,  or  whicli  liap- 
p.:ni  n  iturally  to  be  mixed  with  tlie>e  metals, 
prodii  es  in  their  refining  the  following  ail- 
vantage;;  I.  By  increasing  th"  pioporlion 
of  imperfect  metals,  it  prevenis  t  'cm  from 
being  so  well  covered  and  proucte  I  by  I  le 
perfect  metals.  'J.  By  uniting  wit  i  these  ini- 
p.-rfect  ra-.;lals,  it  co.mnunicati-s  to  tiieiii  a 
properly  it  ha;  of  losing  v  'ry  easily  a  great 
part  of  its  iiill.miaiable  pri  iciplc.  3.  By  Us 
vllrifyim  and  fusing  property  which  il  exer- 
cises with  all  its  force  upon  Ihe  calcined  and 
naturally  reliaclory  parts  of  the  other  metals. 


R  E  F 

it  facilitates  and  accelerates  the  fusion,  the 
scorilication,  and  the  separation,  of  these 
metals.  '1  liese  are  Ihe  advaiitKges  procured 
bv  lead  in  the  relining  of  gold  and  silver. 

The  lead,  whicli  in  this  oppration  is  scorifi- 
ed, and  scurififs  along  with  it  the  iiuiHrlect 
metals,  separates  from  the  metallic  mass, 
w.th  which  it  is  then  incapable  of  remaining 
united.  It  lloats  upon  tiie  surf.:ce  of  ti:^: 
melted  mass,  because,  by  losing  part  of  its 
piilogiston,  it  loses  also  part  of  its  specific 
gravily,  and  lastly  it  vitrifies. 

These  vitrified  and  melted  maitcrs  acciir 
inuiating  more  and  more  upon  the  surface  ol 
the  nietalwhile  the  operation  advi-nccs,  would 
protect  this  surface  from  the  co  '.act  of  air 
which  is  so  absolutely  uece.isary  to.  the  scori- 
lication of  tiie  rest,  and  would  thus  stop  thj 
progress  of  tiie  operation,  which  could  never 
lie  finished  if  a  method  had  not  been  ceii- 
trived  fir  tiieir  removal.  This  removal  of 
the  vitrified  matter  is  procured  eiiher  by  the 
nature  of  the  vessid  in-  which  the  melied 
matter  is  cont.-iined,  and  wiiich  being  porous, 
absorbs  and  imbibes  the  scorified  matter  as 
fast  as  it  is  foriiieu ;  or  by  a  channel  cut  in  tlie 
edge  of  the  vessel,  tliroiigh  whicli  tlie  matter 
flows  out. 

The  vessel  in  which  the  refining  is  per- 
formed is  flat  and  shallow,  that  the  matter 
wiiich  it  contains  ma_\  present  to  the  air  the 
g^eate^t  surface  possble.  '1  iiis  for  ii  resem- 
bles that  of  a  cup,  and  hence  it  lias  been 
called  cupel.  The  furnace  ought  to  be 
vaulted,  that  the  heat  may  be  applied  upon 
the  surface  of  the  nutid  during  tlie  whole 
time  of  the  operation.  Upon,  this  surlace  a 
crust  of  daik-coloured  peuicle  is  contlnualiy 
forming.  In  the  iiisiaiit  when  all  tne  im- 
pe.f.ct  inetni  is  de-troyed,  and  consequently 
the  scorification  caes,  the  suriace  of  the 
perfect ineia's  is  seea,  and  appears  clean  and 
brdiiant.  '1  his  forms  a  kii.d  of  u'guiation 
or  coruscation :  by  this  mark,  the  metal  is 
known  to  be  r. -lined.  If  the  operation  is  so 
conducted  that  tiie  metal  sus'.ains  oniy  the 
precise  '.egree  of  heat  necessary  to  keep  it 
fused  before  it  is  perfectly  refined,  we  may 
observe  that  it  fixes  or  becomes  solid  all  at 
once  in  Uie  very  instant  of  the  coruscation; 
because  a  greater  lieat  is  required  to  keep 
silver  or  goi<l  in  fusion  when  they  are  pure 
than  when  alliyed  with  lead. 

The  operation  of  reiinina:  maybe  perf  irmed 
in  small  or  m  large  quantities  u;ion  tiie  same 
principi'.'s,  but  only  with  some  diderences  in 
the  maiiag-nuMit.  As  the  refi.iiiig  of  small 
c]uant:tios  of  perfect  met.ih  is  pi-r(ormed  in 
the  same  maiin.  r  as  these  metals  are  assayed, 
the  assav  being  only  a  \'ei'y  accurate  refining, 
we  refer  to  the  article  Assaying. 

1U':FLKCTI0N  n/the  .■•«•/.?  of  Uglt,  in 
caloptr.cs,  is  their  return,  after  approaching 
so  neir  the  surfaces  of  bodies,  as  to  be  re- 
pelled, or  driven  backwards.     See  Optics. 

Reflector,  a  mirnir  or  looking-a:l  iss. 
For  tiiC  laws  of  rellexion  see  Optics;  and  for 
the  method  of  silvering  or  loliatin:;  glass  to 
mike  it  reiliMt,  see  VoLiATlua  of  Ijulciii^- 
g/t«.5«.  Vol.  I.  p.  758. 

1!  FFUACTION  rftlic  rm,s  oflie;ht.  See 
Optics. 

REFRACTipN'.iii  astronomy,  isaninfle'^tion 
of  till-  ray,  of  ;:ghl  procecling  Irom  tlie  hea- 
venly bodies,  ill  passing  through  the  atmo- 


R  E  G 

sphere,  by  which  their  apparent  altifudea  aru 
increased.  See  Astronomy,  Vol.  1.  page 
171. 

E  EFi' ACTION"  in  iiland  cr>;i;t'il.  There  is 
ai  double  reiractioii  in  this  ivibstance,  con- 
trary'.vays,  by  wliich  not  only  oblique  rays 
are  divided  into  two,  and  lefr.icted  luto  op- 
posite parts,  but  even  perpendicular  rays 
are  one-half  refracted. 

RICFRAKGH'.ILITY  of  U^h\  Ihe  dis- 
po-.ilio'i  of  ravs  to  be  reir.icted.   15  c  Optics. 

RI'.GALIA,  in  law,  the  r;.-;his  and  pre- 
rogatives of  a  king;  which,  according  to  ci- 
vilians, arc  six,  viz.l,  the  power  ot  judicature; 
2,  the  jio.vcr  of  liie  and  death ;  3,  the  power 
of  peace  and  war ;  4,  a  right  to  such  goods 
as  have'  no  owner,  as  waifs,  cstrays,  &c. 
5,  assessments;  and,  6,  tlie  coinage  of  mo- 
ney. 

Regalia  is  also  used  for  the  apparatus  of  a 
coronation,  as  the  crown,  the  sceptre  with  the 
cross,  tiu.t  with  tlie  dove,  St.  Edward's  staff, 
the  globe,  and  the  orb  with  the  cross,  four 
Several  swords,  &c. 

REGARD.^lNT,  in  heraldry,  signifies 
looking  behind ;  and  is  used  tor  a  lion,  or 
otiicr  beast,  with  his  face  turned  towards  liis 
tail.     See  UERAi.DaY. 

Iv F.GENT,  one  who  governs  a  kingdom 
during  the  minority  or  ab>ence  of  the  king, 
in  France,  the  queen  mother  has  the  regency 
of  tlie  kingdom  during  the  minority  of  the 
king,  under  tlie  tilie  o:  queen-regent. 

iREGE.VT  also  signifies  a  professor  of  arts 
and  sciences  in  a  college,  who  has  a  set  of 
pupils  under  his  cave;  but  here  regent  is 
generally  restrained  to  the  lower  cla-ses,  as 
regent  of  rhetoric,  regent  of  logic,  &c.  those 
of  philosopliy  are  radier  called  professors.  The 
foreign  universities  are  generally  composed  of 
doctors,  professors,  and  regints. 

REGIMEN,  the  regulation  of  diet,  and 
in  a  more  general  sense,  of  all  the  non-na- 
turals, with  a  view  to  preserve  or  restore 
health.  See  Materia  Medica,  article 
Dieti-tics. 

Regimen',  in  grammar,  that  part  of 
syntax  or  constn  ction  wh:ch  rfguUitcs  the 
depeiidancy  of  word--,  and  ihe  aittiations 
which  one  occasions  in  another. 

REGIMEN  1",  a  term  applied  to  any  body 
of  troops :  whi(  h,  if  cavalry,  consists  of  one 
or  more  squadrons,  comniaiKled  bj  a  colonel ; 
and,  if  infantry,  of  one  or  more  battalions, 
each  commanded  in  the  same  manner.  The 
squadrons  in  cavalry  regiincnls  are  divided, 
somelimes  into  six,  and  sometimes  into  nine 
troops.  The  battalions  of  i'jritisli  inlantry 
aregeneraily  divided  Into  ten  companies,  t-.io 
of  wliich  are  called  the  flanks;  one  on  the 
right  consisting  oi'  grenadiers,  iind  another  on 
the  left  lormed  of  light  troops.  There  is  not, 
lioaever,  any  estai.lblied  rule  on  this  head; 
as  both  cavalry  and  inlaiUry  regiments  differ 
according  to  the  exigencies  of  service  in  time 
of  war,  or  the  principles  of  economy  in  time 
of  peace.  We  are  humbly  of  npinoii,  that 
every  regiment  of  foot  shuuld  consist  ol  2400 
men,  making  three  batt.ilions  of  800  each. 
The  German  regiments  frequ^-ntly  consist  of 
2000  men;  and  the  regiment  ot  Picardv  in 
the  old  Fr.-nch  service  had  fiOOO.  The  French 
have  made  a  distinction  b.-tween  the  com-^ 
mandiiig  ofiicer  of  a  regiment  of  cavilry,  ant^ 
Ihe  conimaiidiiig  ofiicer  of  a  regiment  vf  in- 
laiilry:  the  lormer  was  stih-d  mestre  de 
camp;  the  latter  colonel,  as  with  u* 


n  E  G 

Acronliji;  to  (lie  cstablisimienl  of  t'.ie  pre- 
sent IVcncli  army,  the  tt-nii  of  n-giinent  is 

<  onliiK-t!  to  tlio  cavalry  and  arlillrry,  and  llie 
ii  in.c  ol  lialf-biigadt;  is  glvi-n  to  tlic  infantry; 
s:j  that  clicf  de  brigadi-,  cliipf  of  lirigade,  eor- 
j'C5|K)iidi  with  om-  colonel  of  a  reginunt  of 
iiiiantry.  'i'ln;  ilonominiit. on  of  colonel  is 
s.ii;l  rcudnc'd  in  tilt  Frwic!!  cavalry. 

Willi  rj'sp'jct  to  llie  dvrivation  of  the  word, 
it  appears  tluit  the  best  clymoiogy  is  from 
(lie  l''rcn';li  v/ord  rtjgie,  in.inagcmciit,  which 
1  )nicb  fro:ii  the  Latin  rcgcre,  to  govern. 
1  Iciice  a  regiment  i<  said  to  he  governed  by 
'oloiiel.     iM.  Ikiietoii,  a  celehrated  Froncli 

<  iymoiogist,  difl'ei'S  from  this  explanation. 
JJe  traces  it  from  the  I'rciich  regime,  which 
si'j^nhies  system,  regimen,  adminiNtration,  and 
vviiich  is  again  derived  from  the  Latin  regi- 
men, bearing  tlie  same  import.  In  a  physical 
acceptation  of  the  term,  regime  (iinde  regi- 
men) is  ii<ed  to  express  any  body  that  is 
co!nposed  of  several  otliers.  iiut  this  is  mere 
conjecture  on  his  part. 

liEGJSTEU,  a  public  book,  in  which  are 
entered  and  recorded  memuir^^  acts,  and  mi- 
nutes, to  be  had  recourse  to  oce^'.sionally,  for 
knowing  and  proving  matters  of  fact. 

Of  these  there  are  several  kinds;  as,  1. 
Registers  of  deeds  in  Yorkshire  and  Middle- 
sex, in  whicli  are  registered  all  deeds,  con- 
vejances,  will-,  &c.  that  all'ect  any  lands  or 
tenements  in  those  counties,  wliicli  are  other- 
wise void  again.^t  any  subsccjuent  purchasei'S, 
or  mortgagees,  &c.  but  this  docs  not  extend 
to  any  copyhold  estate,  nor  to  leases  at  a 
rack-rent,  or  where  they  do  not  exceed  21 
years.  The  registered  memorials  must  be  in- 
grossed  on  parchment,  under  the  hand  and 
seal  of  some  of  the  grantors  or  grantees,  at- 
tested by  witne  ses  wlio  are  to  prove  tlie 
signing  or  realing  of  them,  and  the  execution 
ot  the  deed. 

But  tliese  registers  which  are  conCned  to 
two  counties,  are  in  Scotland  general,  bv 
which  the  laws  of  North  Britain  are  rendered 
very  easy  and  regular.  Of  these  there  are 
two  kinds;  the  one  general,  rixed  at  Edin- 
burgh, under  the  direction  of  the  lord-re- 
gister; and  the  otlier  kept  in  the  several 
shires,  stewartries,  and  regalities,  the  clerks  of 
which  are  obliged  to  transmit  the  registers  of 
theirrespective  courts  to  the  general  register. 
Is'o  man  in  Scotland  can  have  -a  riglit  to  any 
estate,  but  it  must  become  registered  within 
40  days  of  his  becoming  seised  thereof,  by 
w  h  cli  means  all  secret  conveyances  are  cut 
off.  2.  Parish  registers,  are  bcjks  in  which 
are  register.^  tlie  baptisms,  marriages,  ari'd 
burials,  of  each  parisli.  The  dissenters  of  all 
denominations  register  the  births  of  their  chil. 
dren  at  Dr.  VViiliams's  library  hi  Red  Cross 
street,  Cripplegate. 

RegisTi^r  is  also  used  for  the  clerk  or 
keeper  of  a  register.  Of  these  we  have  se- 
veral, denominated  from  the  ri>gisters  they 
keep  ;  as  register  of  the  high  court  of  dele- 
gates ;  register  of  the  arciies  court  of  Can- 
terbury; register  of  the  court  of  admiralty; 
agister  of  the  prerogative  court;  register  "of 
the  garter,  &c. 

RiicisTER  SHIPS,  in  comnierce,  are  ves- 
sels whiih  obtain  a  permission  either  from 
the  k.  v;  uf  Spain,  or  the  council  of  the  Indies, 
totralikin  tl:e  ports  of  the  Spanish  West 
Indies,  which  are  thus  called  from  their  being 
rei^istered  before  they  set  sail  from  Cadiz  for 
Puenos  Ayres.    Each  of  these  permisaions 


costs  30,000  pieces  of  eight;  and  by  the  tenor 
of  the  cedilla,  or  iK;rniit,  they  are  not  to  ex- 
ceed ^00  tons:  but  there  is  such  a  good  un. 
derstaiu'jng  !);'lwi.'en  the  merchanls  and  the 
council  of  the  Iiidi<'s,  that  ships  of  a  or  600 
tuns  fre(|Ueiilly  pasn  unnoticed  ;  and  though 
tiie  quanlity  and  quality  of  the  merchandize 
on  board  :.'.re  always  expressed,  yet,  by 
means  of  presents,  the  ofllcers  both  in  Spain 
and  the  Indies  allow  then-  to  load  and  un- 
load vastly  more  than  the  permission  ex- 
presses. 

Registrr,  in  printing,  is  disjiosing  the 
forms  on  the  press,  so  that  the  iini's  and  pages 
printed  on  one  side  of  the  sheet  fall  exactly 
on  those  ol  the  other. 

Registek,  among  letter-founders,  is  one 
of  tiie  inner  parts  ol  the  mould  in  which  the 
printing-types  are  cast.  Its  use  is  to  direct 
the  joining  the  mould  justly  together  again, 
after  opening  it  to  take  out  tiie  new-cast 
letter. 

.  REGLETS,  or  Rici.f.ts,  in  piinting,  are 
thin  slips  of  wood,  exactly  planed  to  the  size 
of  the  bo. ly  of  the  letter.  Tlie  smaller  sorts 
are  placed  between  the  lines  of  i)oelry ;  and 
both  tiiose  and  the  larger  are  used  in  tilling 
up  short  pages,  in  forming  the  whites  or  dis- 
tances between  tlie  lines  of  titles,  and  in  ad- 
justing tlie  distances  of  the  pages  in  the  chase 
so  as  to  ibrm  register. 

REGUATOR,  or  Recrater,  in  law, 
formerly  signitied  one  who  bon  f  nt  wholesale, 
or  by  the  great,  and  sold  again  by  retail;  but 
the  term  is  now  used  for  one  w  iio  buys  any 
wares  or  victuals,  and  sells  them  again  in  the 
same  market  or  fair,  or  within  tive  miles 
round  it.     See  FoKESTALtiNG. 

Regrator,  is  also  u-ed  lor  one  wdio  fur- 
bishes up  old  moveables  to  make  tliem  pass 
for  new.  And  masons  who  take  oti"  the  out- 
ward surface  of  hewn  stone,  in  order  to  w  hiten 
it,  or  make  it  look  fresh  again,  are  said  to  re- 
grate. 

REGULAR,  denotes  any  tiling  that  is 
agreeable  to  the  rules  of  art:  thus  we  say  a 
regular  building,  verb,  &cc. 

A  regular  ligure  in  geometry  is  one  whose 
sides,  and  consequently  angles,  are  etjual ; 
and  a  regular  figure  with  three  or  four  sides, 
is  commonly  termed  an  equilateral  triangle 
or  scpiare,  as  all  others  with  more  sides  are 
called  regular  polygons. 

All  regular  figures  may  be  inscribed  in  a 
circle.  A  regular  solid,  called  also  a  Platonic 
body,  is  that  terminated  on  all  sides  by  re- 
gular and  etijial  planes,  and  whose  3oli<i 
angles  are  all  etjual. 

Tiie  regular  bodies  are  the  five  following  : 
1.  The  tetrahedron,  whicli  is  a  pyramid 
comprehended  under  four  equal  ami  e(|uiUi- 
teral  triangles.  2.  The  hexahedron,  or  cube, 
whose  surface  is  composed  of  six  equ.il 
squares.  3.  The  octahedron,  which  is  bound- 
ed by  eight  equal  and  e(|uilateral  triangles. 

4.  Tlie  dodecahedron,  which  is  contained 
under  twelve  equal  and  equilateral  pentagons. 

5.  The  icosihedron,  consisting  of  20  equal 
and  equilateral  triangles.  These  live  are  all 
the  regular  bodies  in  nature.  See  Tetrahe- 
dron, &c. 

Proportion  of  the  five  rescular  bodies 
inscribed  in  tlie  same  (circle  from  Peter  Ho- 
rigon.  Cursus  Math.  vol.  i.  p.  779.  .and  Bar- 
row's Euclid,  lib.  xiii.) : 


R  E  .T 


5Sg 


The  diameter  of  the  sphere  being  2, 
The  circumference  of  the  greatest    • 

circle  is  -  -  _  6.28318 

Superticies  of  the  greatest  circle  3.  l4l  59 
Superlicies  of  the  sphere        .-  12.5()C37 

Solidity  of  the  sphere  -  4.1S859 

Sideof  the  tetrahedron  -  l.fi23f)9 

Superficies  of  a  tetrahedron  -  4.61  o« 
Solidity  of  a  tetraliedron  -  O.I.jI.J3 

Side  of  acubeor  hexaliedion  -  I.lj47 
Superlicies  of  the  hexahedron  8. 

Solidity  of  the  hexahedron         -  1.5396 

Side  of  an  octahedron        -  -     1.41421 

Superficies  of  the  octahedron  -  6.9282 
Solidity  of  the  octahedron        -  1.33333 

Side  of  the  dodecahedron         -  0.71364 

Superlicies  of  the  dodecahedron  10  51462 
Solidity  of  the  dodecahedron  2.78516 

Side  of  the  icosihedron  -  1.05146' 

Superficies  of  the  icosihedron  y. 57454 

Solidity  of  the  ico.>ihcdron        -         2.53615 

If  one  of  these  five  regular  bodies  was  rc- 
riuired  to  be  cut  out  of  the  sphere  of  any 
other  diameter,  it  wid  be.  As  the  diameter  of 
the  sphere  (2),  is  to  the  side  of  any  one  solid 
inscribed  in  the  same  (suppose  the  cube, 
1 . ;  547),  so  is  the  diameter  of  any  one  sphere 
(suppose  8),  to  9.2376,  the  side  of  the  cube. 
insciibed  in  this  hitter  sphere. 

Let  dr  (Plate  Miscel.  fig.  208.)  be  the  dia- 
nu-ter  of  any  sphire,  and  (Lt  ^  of  it  z=/ilj=!ir. 
Erect  the  perpendiculars  ae,  if,  and  hg,  and 
draw  di-,  df,  ir,Jr,  and  ;;)■.  Then  will 

1.  re  be  the  sideof  the  tetrahedron. 

2.  dj  be  the  side  of  the  hexahedron. 

3.  dc  be  the  side  of  the  octahedron. 

4.  Cut  dc  in  extreme  and  mean  proportion 
in  li,  and  ch  will  be  the  side  of  the  do.ieca- 
liedron. 

5.  Set  the  diameter  dr  \\\^.  pernendicu- 
lariy,  at  r  ;  and  from  the  centre  c,  to  its  top, 
draw  the  line  eg,  cutting  the  circle  in  g. 
Let  fall  the  perpendicular  gb,  then  is  br  tiie 
side  of  the  icosihedron. 

Regular  cur-ci-s,  such  as  proceed  gradu- 
ally in  the  same  geometrical  manner  with  re- 
gard to  their  curv  ities.     See  Curve. 

REGULATOR   of  a  natch,   the   s:n?ll  ' 
spring  belonging  to  the  balance;  serving  to 
adjust  its  motions,  and  make  it  go  faster  or 
slower.     See  Clockwork. 

REGL^LUS,  in  chemistry,  an  imperfect 
metaliic  substance  that  falls  to  the  bottom  of 
the  crucible  in  the  nielting  of  ore.s,  or  impure 
metallic  substances.  The  regi. his  is  now  un- 
derstood to  be  the  pure  metai. 

Regulus,  in  astronomy,  a  star  of  the  first 
magiiituue,  in  the  conslejiation  Leo ;  called 
also  from  its  situation,  cor  leonis,  or  the  lion's 
heart.     See  AsTRONORiy. 

REiN-DE.KR.  SeeCERVus. 

REJOINDER,  in  law,  is  the  defendant's 
answer  to  the  plaintiff's  replicat'on  or  reply. 
J'hus,  in  the  court  of  chancery,  the  deiendar.t 
puts  in  an  answer  to  the  plainliff  s  bill,  which' 
IS  -ometimes  also  called  an  exception ;  the 
plaintirt's  ansv;cr  to  this  is  called  a  replica- 
tion, and  the  defendant's  answer  to  that  a  re- 
joinder. 

RIUOSNTING,  in  architecture,  filling  up 
the  joints  of  .the  stones  in  buildings.  This 
ought  to  be  performed  with  the  best  mortar, 
IS  that  of  lime  and  cement  ;  and  soinetimes 
with  plaister,  as  in  the  joints  of  vaults. 


500 


U  E  M 


11  E  M 


RELATIVF,  TERMS,  in  I.>?;c,  are  word, 
wiikii  ii!i|)iy  a  relation;  such  are  master  aiul 
f  'rvaiit,  h'.i>';)a:Kl  ami  v.ife,  &c. 

In  gi-.-.ii;;iiar,  relative  \vor<ls  are  those 
which  a.is-.ier  lo  some  other  word  foregoing, 
called  the  antecedent;  such  are  the  relative 
pronouns  qui,  qux',  quod,  &:c.  and  in  i'.ngiish, 
who,  whonij  which,  &c.  The  nord  answering 
to  the.-.e  relatives  is  nften  understood  as,  I 
know  whom  you  mean,  for,  I  know  (tiie  per- 
son) whom  YOU  moan. 

RELEASE,  ill  lav.-,  is  an  instrument  in 
writing,  bv  which  elates,  rights  titles  enlries, 
actions,  ;ind  tjllKr  things,  are  extinguished 
and  discliaiged  ;  and  sometimes  transferred, 
abridged,  or  enlarged  ;  and  in  general,  it  sig- 
iiilies  one  person's"  giving  up  or  discliurging 
the  right  or  action  he  has,  or  claims  to  have, 
a<»3in,t  another,  or  his  lands,  &c. 

°A  reli-ase  may  be  either  in  fact  or  in  law  ; 
a  release  in  fact  is  «  here  it  is  expressly  declar- 
ed, by  the  very  words,  as  the  act  and  deed 
of  the  party  ;'and  a  release  in  law  is  that 
v.-hicii  acquits  bv  "ay  of  consequence,  as 
vhere  a  feme  creditoV  'tak(;3  the  debtor  to  be 
her  husband. 

RELUAMA,  a  genus  of  the  class  ^and 
order  syngenesia  polygamia  supcrllua.  The 
-calyx  is  imbricate,  scariose  ;  corollets  of  the 
rav  manv;  pappus  membranaceous;  recei)t. 
charty.    'There  are  16  species,  herbs  of  tlie 

C'ar.e.  .  ^ 

RELIEF,  in  law,  a  certain  sum  ot  mouey 
which  the  tenant  holding  by  kii'ght's  service, 
grand  seijeantn-,  or  other  temue  (for  which 
homa-^e,  or  legal  service,  is  due),  and  being  at 
iuU  ag;-  at  the  death  of  his  ancestor,  paid  to 
■his  loril  at  liis  entrance. 

RELIEVE,  in  a  military  sense,  is  lo  send 
oir  those  men  that  arc  vipon  duty,  and  to 
brin"  others  to  take  their  place  ;  thus,  to  re- 
lieve the  guard,  the  trenches  Sec.  is  to  bring 
freih  menupon  duty,  and  to  discharge  those 
vho  were  upon  duty  before. 

RELIEVO,  and  Ukuef,  are  terms  ap- 
pr,  a  to  that  mode  of  working  in  sculpture  by 
which  figures  are  made  to  project  from  the 
Ground  'or  body  on  which  they  are  formed, 
and  to  which  ■ihfv  remain  attached.  I  he 
sime  lenv.  is  used,  whether  the  ligure  is  cut 
with  the  chisel,  modelled  in  clay,  or  cut  in 
iiieial  or  plaister. 

Tlu-re  are  three  kinds  of  relievo  : 
.Mlo-relievo,   or   high    relief,    when    the 
fi-rures  are  so  prominent  from  the  ground, 
th'at  merely  a  small   part   of  them  remains 
atUchedtoit. 

Mezzo-relievo,  or  liali -relief,  when  one 
haiif  of  the  fiffure  rises  from  the  uround,  in 
such  a  manner  that  the    ligure  appears  di- 

vifled  bv  it.  ,.  <•  „  r  fs 

Basso-relievo,  or  bas-relief  (low  relief), 
when  l\v  work  is  raised  but  lillle  from  the 
-round,  as  in  medals,  and  generally  in  Inezes 
7iM\  other  ornamented  parts  of  buildings. 

Bas-riiief  is  the  compielieiisive  term  by 
wh'ch  all  works  in  relievo  are  denominated 
i„r|iscriuiinilelv.     See  ScuirruRE. 

Rkmevo,  or  Ihlnf,  in  pai.ilmg,  is  the  de- 
srrpcol  boldness  with  whith  the  ligures  seem 
(hi!-   ili-t.in':e,    lo  stand    out   from 
See  P.MN'TINC, 


th< 


at   a 

around  of  till- |)ainting 

KI-'.I.K'K'N.  Seditious  words  in  deroga 
tionofilie  e^.iblished  religion  are  indiclable, 
astendiiK?  loal)ri-a<h  ofthepeace.  1  Haw. 7. 

RliMALNDEK,  in  law,  \-  an  estate  limited 


in  lands,  tenements,  or  rents,  lo  be  tinjoyed 
a:ter  the  expirat  on  of  Snot  ler  particular 
estate.  ; 

An  estate  in  remainder  is  an  estate  limited  | 
to  take  effect  and  be  enjoyed  alter  anotlier  j 
estate  is  dvteriiiined.     As  if  a  man  seised  in  ■ 
fee  sir,5ple  grants  lands  to  one  !or  '.'0  years,  j 
and  aitrt-  the  delermiiialion  of  the  said  teriil,  j 
then  to  another  and  his  heirs  for  ever  -.  l-.cre 
the  former  is  tenant  for  years,  remainder  to  . 
the  latter  in  fee.     In  llie'liisl  place,  an  eslate 
fn-  years  is  created  or  carve<!  cut  of  the-  tee, 
and' given  to  the  former,  and  ti;e  residue  and 
the  remainder  of  it  is  g;vi;n  lo  the  latter.  Bolii 
their  interests  are  in  fact  only  one  eslate  ;  the 
present  term  of  years,  and  llic  remainder  af- 
terwards, when  "added  together,  being  equal 
only  to  one  estate  in  fee.  U  Black,  c.  II. 

The  word  remainder  is  no  term  of  art,  nor 
is  it  necessary  to  create  a  remainder,  f-'o 
that  anv  words  sullicient  to  shew  the  intent 
of  the  'pra-tv,  will  <rcate  a  rem.iirider;  be- 
cause such  estates  lake  their  denomination  of 
remainder  more  from  the  nature  aiul  manner 
of  their  existence  after  they  are  limited,  than 
from  any  previous  (luality  iuheiei-.t  in  the 
word.  See  Fearne  on  Remainders. 

There  is  this  difference  between  a  re- 
mainder and  a  reversion  i  in  case  of  a  rever- 
sion,,the  estate  granted,  after  the  limited  time, 
reverts  to  the  grantor  or  his  heirs;  but  by  a 
remainder  it  goes  to  some  third  i)erson,  or  a 
stranger. 

REMEMBRANCERS,  antiently  called 
clerks  of  the  remembrance,  certain  olliccrs  in 
the  exchequer,  uh<;veof  three  are  distinguish- 
ed by  the  names  of  the  king's  remembrancer, 
the  lord  treasurer's  remembrancer,  and  the 
remenibrancer  of  tlie  first  fruits.^  'I'lie  king's 
remenibi-anc(.-r  enters  in  his  oilice  all  recog- 
nizances taken  before  the  barons,  for  any  of 
the  king's  debts,  for  appearances,  or  ob;crv- 
ing  of  orders;  he  also  takes  all  bonds  for  the 
king's  debts,  &c.  and  makes  o-at  processes 
ther.::on.  lie  likewise  i,sues  proce-ses  against 
the  collectors  of  t!ie  customs,  excise,  and 
others,  for  their  accounts ;  and  intonnatioiis 
upon  penal  st.itules  are  enle:  ed  and  sued  in 
his  office,  where  all  proceeding  in  niatters 
upon  English  bills  in  the  exchequer-chamber 
remain.  His  <liity  further  is  to  make  out  the 
bills  of  compositions  upon  penal  laws,  to  lake 
the  statement  of  debts ;  and  into  his  office 
are  delivered  all  kinds  of  indentures  and 
other  evidences,  which  concern  the  assuring 
of  any  lands  to  the  crown.  He  every  year, 
in  cr'aslino  Aniniarum,  reads  in  open  court 
the  statute  for  election  of  sheriffs ;  and  like- 
wise openly  reads  in  court,  tlje  oaths  of  all 
the  ofiicers,  when  they  are  admitted. 

The  lord  treasurer's  remembrancer  is 
charged  lo  make  out  process  against  all  she- 
riffs, eschealors,  receivers,  and  baililfs,  for 
their  accounts.  He  also  makes  out  writs  of 
fieri  facias,  and  extent  for  debts  due  to  the 
king,  cither  in  the  pipe  or  with  the  auditors ; 
and  process  for  all  such  revenue  as  is  due  lo 
the  king,  on  account  of  his  tenures.  He 
takes  the  account  otsheriffs  ;  and  also  keeps  a 
record,  by  which  il  appi-ars  wheUier  the  she- 
rill's  or  otiii-r  accounlants  pay  their  profers 
due  at  I-^aster  and  .Miih.ielmas ;  and  at  the 
same  time  he  makes  a  record,  whereby  the 
sheriffs  or  other  accounlants  keep  their  pre- 
lixed  days;  there  are  likewise  brought  into 
this  oliice  all  the  accounts  of  customers, 
comptrollers,  and  accountants,  in  order  to 


REN 

make  entry  thereof  o:»  record;  aUo  aTt 
estreats  and  an.crccmeiUs  are  certified  here, 
&c. 

The  remembrancer  of  tlie  first  fruits  takes 
all  compositions  and  bonds  for  ihe  payment 
of  first  tiuits  and  tenths ;  and  leakes  out  pro- 
cess against  such  as  do  not  pay  the  ranie. 

REMIT,  in  conmierce.  'i'o  remit  a  sum 
of  inoney,  bid,  or  llic  like,  is  to  send  the  sum 
of  money,  &c. 

REMIITER,  ill  law,  is  where  one  Ihit 
has  a  ri^ht  to  lands,  but  is  out  of  possession, 
has  aftenvartls  the  freeh.old  cast  upon  him  by 
some  subsecjuent  defective  title,  and  enters 
bv  virtue  of  that  title ;  in  this  case  the  law 
remits  him  to  his  antient  aiKl  more  certain 
ri"ht,  and  by  an  equitable  fiction  supposes 
i  him  to  have  aained  possession  in  consequence 
and  iiy  virtue  thereof;  and  this  because  ho 
'  caniiol possibly  obtain  judgment  at  law,  lobe 
restored  to  his  prior  riglit,  since  he  is  himsilt 
the  tenant  of  the  land.     3  Dlack.  190. 

REMORA,  the  .■iiicking-Jish.    See  Eche- 

NEIS. 

REMOVE'R,  in  law,  is  where  a  suit  is  re- 
moved or  taken  out  of  one  court  into  another; 
and  is  Ihe  oi)pos!te  of  remanding  a  cause,  or 
sending  it  back  into  the  same  court  whence  it 
was  hrst  called. 

RENDEK,  in  law,  is  used  in  levying  a 
fine:  which  is  either  single,  whereby  nothing 
is  granted  or  rendered  back  again  by  the 
cognizee  to  the  cognizor ;  or  double,  which 
coniains  a  grant  or  render  Irack  again  of  some 
real  common,  or  other  thing,  out  of  the  l.nid 
itself  to  the  coi>nizor. 

RENDEZVOL'S,  or  riFxr^r.voes,  a 
place  appointed  to  meet  in,  at  a  certaiii  day 
and  hour. 

RENICALMIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
nionogvnia  or<ler,  belonging  to  the  nionan- 
dria  class  of  plants.     The  corolla  is  tritid  ; 


lous;  the  anlhera  sessile,  opposite  lo  the 
nectarium  ;  the  berry  is  fleshy.  There  is 
only  one  species,  a  native  oi'Surinam. 

RENT,  is  a  certain  profit  issuing  yearly, 
out  of  lands  and  tenement  corporeal. 

There  are  at  common  law  tliree  kinds  of 
rents ;  rent  service,  rent  charge,  and  rent  seek, 
or  rack  r.-nt. 

Rent  service  is  where  the  tenant  holds  his 
land  of  his  lord  by  feally  and  certain  rent;  or 
bv  homage,  fealty,  and  certain  rent;  or  by 
other  service  and  certain  rent ;  and  it  is  called 
a  rent  service,  because  it  has  some  cor,  o.al 
service  incident  to  it,  which  at  least  is  tc-ally. 
Kent  charge  is  so  called  because  the  land  for 
payment  of  it  is  charged  with  a  distress. 
Kent  seek,  or  rack  rent,  is  where  the  land  is 
granted  without  any  clause  of  distress  for  the 
same,   f  Inst.  l4l. 

Th?  time  for  payment  of  rent,  a  id  conse- 
quently for  a  demand,  is  such  a  convenient 
time  before  the  sun-sefting  of  the  last  day, 
as  will  bi*  sufficient  to  have  the  money  count- 
eil ;  but  if  the  tenant  meets  the  lessor 
on  the  land  at  anytime  oflhc  last  day  of 
])aymeiit,  and  lenders  the  rent,  that  is  suffi- 
cient tender,  because  the  money  is  to  be 
paid  iiuhlinitely  on  that  day,  and  therefore  a 
lender  on  that  day  is  sufficient,  See  Djs- 
ruEss. 

REN  ri-~.KINC;,  in  the  manufaclories,  the 
ame  with  line-drawing.  It  consists  in  sewina; 
wo  pieces  of  cloth  edge  to  edge,  without 
doubling  them,  so  that  the  seam  scarcely  ai>- 


REP 

jjfar*;  ami  licncc  it  is  (l(-iiomin:;ted  fmc- 
tli.iuing.  It  is  a  l''i'<-i)rli  word  meanim;  (lie 
saint'  tiling,  aud  is  derived  from  tliL-  Latin 
rclraher<',  or  re,  in,  and  tralierc,  because  tlie 
seam  is  drawn  in  or  covered.  It  is  said,  tlial 
in  tin;  East  Indies,  if  a  pica-  of  line  mnsliii  is 
torn,  and  afterwards  mended  by  tlie  Inic- 
drawers,  it  will  be  impossiiile  to  discover 
wliere  the  rent  was.  In  tliis  conntry  the 
dexterity  of  the  line-drawers  is  not  so  great 
as  tliat  lif  (liosc  in  the  Kast;  hut  it  is  still  snrh 
as  to  enable  Ihem  to  difraiid  the  revenue, 
liV  sevvint;  a  head  or  sli|)  of  ICnglisli  clolh  on 
apiece  ol  Dutch,  Spanish,  or  other  lorei'.;n 
doth  ;  or  a  slip  of  foreir;n  doth  on  a  ])ipce  of 
English,  so  as  to  pass  the  w  hole  as  of  a  piece, 
and  by  tliat  means  avoid  the  duties,  penal- 
ties, &<■.  The  trick  was  first  discovered  in 
I'raiice  by  M.  Savary. 

Kentering,  in  tapestry,  is  the  working 
new  warp  into  a  jiiece  of  damaged  lapesfry, 
whelher  eaten  by  the  rats  or  otherwise  de- 
stro)ed,  and  on  this  warp  to  restore  the  an- 
tient  pattern  or  design.  The  warp  is  to  be 
of  woollen,  not  linen.  Among  the  titles  of 
the  l''reiich  tapestry-makers  is  included  that 
of  renterers. 

lUCNVEUSE'./rercr/frf.  See  Heraldry. 
1<EPx\RATlONE  FACIENDA,  a  writ 
■ji'hich  lies  in  divers  cases,  one  of  which  is, 
where  three  are  tenants  in  common  or  joint 
tenants,  as  pro  indiviso,  of  a  mill  or  house 
wliicli  is  fallen  into  decay,  and  the  one  being 
willing  to  repair  it,  the  o'ther  two  w  ill  not ;  in 
this  case,  the  party  willing  shall  have  this 
writ  against  the  other  two.  F.  N.  15.  1J7. 

REPARATIONS.  A  tenant  for  life  or 
years,  may  cut  down  timber  trees  to  inal^e 
reparations,  although  he  is  not  compelled 
thereto  ;  as  where  a  house  is  ruinous  at  the 
time  of  the  lease  made,  and  the  lessee  suf- 
fers it  to  fall,  he  is  not  bound  to  rebuild  it, 
and  yet  if  he  tells  timber  for  reparations  he 
mayjustify  the  same.  Co.  Litt.  j4. 

REPEAT,  in  music,  a  character  shewing 
that  what  was  last  played  or  sung  must  be 
repeated  or  gone  over  again. 

REPELLENTS,  medicines  supposed  to 
have  the  power  of  sending  back  into  the  mass 
•of  the  blood  such  morbid  humours  as  had 
been  secreted  from  it.  The  term  is  now  left 
out  of  the  materia  niedica. 
■  REPERCUSSION,  in  mechanics.  See 
■Reflection. 

Repercussion,  in  music,  a  frequent  re- 
petition of  the  same  sound. 
'  REPERTORY,  a  place  in  which  things 
are  orderly  disposed,  so  as  to  be  easily  found 
Iwhen  wauled.  The  indexes  of  books  are  re- 
pertories, shewing  where  the  matters  sought 
for  are  treated  of.  Commonplace  books  are 
also  kinds  of  repertories. 

REPETEND,  in  arithmetic,  denotes  that 
part  of  an  inlinite  decimal  fraction,  which  is 
.continually  repeated.     Thus  in  the  mmibi-rs 
2.131313,  the  figures  13  are  the  repetend. 
These  repetends  chiefly  arise  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  vulgar  fractions  to   decimals,  as  J.  := 
,0.142S57  i42Sj7  14J857,  and  so  on,  forever. 
A  single  repetend  is  that  in  which  only  cue 
tigure  repeats,  as  j  =..  333  ;  and  a  compound 
.rep^tenil  is  that  in  wiiich  two  or  morefi'Tures 
.  are  repeated,  as  .||  =.  1 3 1 3 1 3,  &c.    T6  find 
the  value  of  any  repetend,  or  to  reduce  it  to  a 
•  !\,u'igar  fraction,  "  t;iken  the  given  repeating 
Vol.  II. 


REP 

fieure  or  figures  for  a  numerator;  and  for 
the  denominator,  lake  as  many  ys  as  there 
are  figures  in  the  repetend  :  tlius  the  fraction 
answering  to    123123,  &c.  is .^—./-J^. 

REPETITION,  in  music,  tleno'is  .i  re'<- 
teraling  or  playing  over  again  the  same  part 
of  a  comjjoaition,  whether  it  is  a  whole  strain, 
part  of  a  strain,  or  double  strain,  ic.  The 
repetition  is  denoted  by  a  character  called  a 
repeat,  which  is  varied  so  as  to  express  the 
various  circumstances  of  a  repeat. 

Rkpetition,  in  rlieloric,  a  figure  which 
gracefully  anil  emphatically  repi'ats  eillicr 
Ihe  same  worJ,  or  the  same  sense  in  different 
words. 

REPLEADER.  Whenever  a  repleader  is 
grant!  d,  the  pleadings  must  begin  de  novo 
-at  that  stage  of  Iheni,  whether  it  is  the  plea, 
replication,  rejoinder,  or  whatever  else, 
wherein  there  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
default,  or  deviation  from  the  regular  course. 
When  a  rejileader  is  awarded,  it  must  be  w  ith- 
out  costs.     3  Black.  39.i. 

REPLETION.  See  Medicine. 
REPLE\'IN,  is  the  writ  called  replegiar<> 
facias  by  him  who  has  cattle  or  other  goods 
disfrained  by  anotlier,  for  any  cause,  ami  put- 
ting in  surely  to  the  sheriff,  tiia'  upon  delivery 
of  the  thing  distrained,  he  will  prosecute  the 
actir)n  against  the  distrainer.  Co.  Lit.  12. 

In  this  writ  or  action,  both  the  plaintiff 
and  defendant  are  called  actors ;  the  one, 
that  is,  tlie  plaintilf,  suing  for  damages,  aiul 
the  avowant  or  defendant  to  have  a  return  of 
the  goods  or  cattle.  2  Bond,  84. 

That  the  avowant  is  in  the  nature  of  a 
plaintiff,  appears,  1st.  from  his  being  called 
an  actor,  which  is  a  term  in  the  civil  law,  and 
signifies  plaintiff:  2dly,  from  his  being  enti- 
tled to  have  judgment  de  retorno  habendo, 
a;id  damages  as  plaintiff's ;  3dly,  from  this, 
that  the  pliintilf  miglit  plead  in  abatement  of 
the  avowry,  and  consetjuently  such  avowry 
must  be  in  the  nature  of  an  action.  Carth. 
112. 

Replevins  by  writ,  issue  properly  out  of 
chancery,  returnable  into  the  courts  of  K.  B. 
and  C.  B.  at  Westminster.  In  order  to  ob- 
tain a  replevin,  application  must  be  made  to 
the  sheriff;  or  one  of  his  deputies,  and  securi- 
ty given  that  tiie  party  replevying  will  pur- 
sue his  action  against  tlie  distrainer ;  for  which 
purpose,  l\y  the  antient  law,  he  is  required  to 
put  in  pledges  to  prosecute;  and  that  if  the 
right  is  determined  against  him,  he  will  re- 
turn tlie  distress  again,  for  which  purpose  he 
is  to  find  pledges  to  make  return.  These 
pledges  are  discretionary,  and  at  the  penl  of 
theslieritf.  3  Black.  147. 

After  the  goods  are  delivered  back  to  the 
party  replevying,  he  is  then  bound  to  bring 
his  action  of  replevin  against  the  distrainer, 
which  may  be  prosecuted  in  the  county  court, 
be  the  distress  of  what  value  it  may;  but  either 
party  may  remove  it  to  the  superior  courts  of 
king's-bench  or  common-pleas,  the  plaintirt 
at  pleasure,  and  the  defendant  upon  reason- 
able cause.  3  Black.  149. 

If  the  sherift"is  shewn  a  strangei-'s  goods, 
and  he  takes  them,  an  action  of  trespass  lies 
against  him,  for  otherwise  he  could  have  no 
remedy;  for  being  a  stranger  he  cannot  have 
the  writ  de  proprietate  prolianda  ;  and  was  he 
not  infilled  to  this  remedy,  it  would  be  in 
the  power  of  the  sheriff  to  strip  a  man's  house 
of  all  his  goods.  2  Rol.  Abr.  552. 
if  it  is  determined  tor  the  plaintiff,  aamelv, 
4  B 


REP 


'jCA 


that  the  di-tress  was  wrongfully  taken,  he  has 
aheady  got  his  goods  baik  into  his  own  pos- 
se^^ion,  and  shall  keep  Iheni,  and  moreover 
recover  damages.  But  if  the  defendant  pre- 
vails by  the  default  or  nonsuit  of  the  plain- 
tiff, then  he  shall  have  a  writ  de  retorno  ha- 
bendo, by  which  the  goods  or  chattels  which 
were  distrained  and  then  replevied,  are  re- 
turned again  into  his  custody,  to  be  sold,  or 
otherwise  disposed  of,  as  if  no  replevin  had 
been  made.  If  the  distr(;>.s  wad<n' damage 
feasant,  the  di-lrainor  may  k(jep  the  goods  so 
returni-d,  until  tender  shall  be  made  of  sufli- 
cient  amends.     Rol.  Ahr.  14(). 

On  a  retorno  habendo  awarded,  the  party 
desiring  to  have  the  cattle  or  goods  reolored, 
must  sliew  them  to  the  sheriff,  for  otherwise 
the  sheriff  may  not  know  them. 

RICPLICA'VlON,  in  logic,  the  assuming 
or  using  the  same  term  twice  in  the  same  pro- 
position. 

IJeplication,  an  exception  or  answer  of 
the  ])laintiff  in  a  suit  to  the  defendant's  plea  ; 
and  is  also  that  wliicli  the  conqilainant  replies 
to  the  defendant's  answer  in  chancery,  Sec. 
The  replication  is  to  contain  cerlaiirty,  and 
not  fo  vary  from  the  declaration,  but  niu->t 
pursue  and  maintain  the  cause  of  the  plain- 
tiff's  action ;  otherwise  it  will  be  a  de|)arture 
in  pleading,  and  going  to  another  matter. 
1  Inst.  304. 

REPORT,  in  law,  is  a  public  relation  of 
cases  judicially  argued,  debated,  resolved,  or 
adjudged,  in  any  of  the  king's  courts  of  jusr 
lice,  with  the  causes  and  reasons  of  tlie  same, 
as  delivered  by  the  judges.  Also  when  the 
court  of  chancery,  or  any  other  court,  retera 
the  stating  of  a  case,  or  the  comparing  of  an 
account,  to  a  master  in  chancery,  or  other  re? 
feree,  his  certificate  thereon  is  called  a  n-- 
port. 

REPOSE,  in  painting,  certain  mnsses  or 
large  assemblages  of  light  and  shade,  which 
being  well  conducted,  prevent  the  confu-.ion 
of  objects  and  figures,  by  engaging  and  fixing 
the  eye  so  that  it  cannot  attend  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  painting  for  sometime;  andthuj 
leading  it  to  consider  the  several  groups  gra- 
dually proceeding  from  stage  to  stage. 

HEPRESENIATION."  There  is  an  heir 
by  representation,  where  the  father  dies,  in 
tlie  life  of  the  grandfather,  leaving  a  son,  vhu 
shall  inherit  the  grandfather's  estate  before 
the  father's  brother,  &c. 

REPRIEVE,  to  suspend  a  prisoner  from 
the  execution  and  proceeding  of  the  law  at 
that  time.  Every  judge  who  has  po'ver  tu 
order  any  execution,  has  power  to  reprieve. 
REPRISALS.  See  Letters  of  iWARavE. 
REPRISE,  or  REPRiiE,  at  sea,  is  a  mer- 
thant-ship,  which,  after  its  being  taken  by  a 
corsair,  privateer,  or  other  enemy,  is  retaken 
by  the  opposite  party. 

'  If  a  vessel  thus  retaken  has  been  24  hours 
in  the  possession  of  tlie  enemy,  it  is  deemed 
a  lawful  prize ;  but  if  it  is  retaken  within  that 
time,  it  is  to  be  restored  to  the  proprietor, 
witli  every  thing  in  it,  upon  his  allowing  one- 
third  to  "the  vessel  which  made  die  reprise. 
Also  if  the  reprise  has  h.een  abandoned  by 
the  enemy,  either  in  a  tempest  or  from  any 
other  cause,  before  it  has  been  le;l  into  any 
port,  it  is  to  be  restored  to  th.e  proprietor. 

REPRODUCTION",  is  usually  under- 
stood to  mean  the  restoration  of  a'  thing  be- 
fore  existing,  and  since  destroyed.  It  is  very 
.well  !kiiu\vu  that  tre^  ski4  plaate  way  b<^ 


4C2 

a:sel  from  slips  and  ciitliiigs;  and  sninc  late 
obs-.Tvalions  have  slio\u),  thai  tliire  aiv  soine 
aniiTiuls  wiiicli  liave  tlie  r-aiue  [jroperty.  'i  iie 
jjoU  pe  (see  roLTriis)  was  tlie  lirst  mi>1  nee 
wt'liad  of  this;  but  wc  hud  starcelv  time  to 
wonder  at  the  discovery  Mr.  'i'n-ini)!ey  h;;d 
made,  when  Mr.  liouil'l  disiovered  the  same 
pri)])erl_v  in  a  species  ol  water-worm.  Amongst 
tiic  plailts  wliieh  may  he  raised  trom  cuttiiif^s, 
there  arc  some  whicli  seem  to  posssess  tliis 
qiiahiy  in  so  eminent  a  d  gree,  that  the 
smallebt  porlio:i  of  tliem  will  become  a  com- 
plete tree  .iga  n. 

It  deserves  incpiirv,  whether  thisreprodnc- 
tionwill  or  will  not' lake  place  in  wiiatever 
p.irt  the  worm  is  cut?  In  order  to  try  tliis, 
Mr.  15onett  entered  on  a  course  of  many  ex- 
p.-riinents  on  the  water-svorms  which  have 
■this  proi),rtv.  'I'liese  are,  at  their  common 
(jroAtli,  froin  two  to  three  mches  long,  and 
of  a  browni^h  colour,  with  a  cast  of  reddish. 
I'romone  of  these  worms  he  culofftlie  head 
pnd  tail,  taking  from  each  e.\tremily  only  a 
small  piece  of  a  twelftli  of  an  inch  in  length  ; 
but  neither  of  these  pieces  was  able  to  re- 
produce what  was  wanting.  They  both  pe- 
risried  in  about  '24  hours;  the  tail  lir^it,  and 
afterwards  the  head.  As  to  tlie  body  of  tlie 
w  orfn  from  which  these  pieces  were  separat- 
ed, it  lived  as  well  as  before,  and  seemed  in- 
deed to  sutler  nothing  by  the  loss,  the  head- 
part  be.ng  immediately  used  as  if  the  head 
was  on,  boring  the  creature's  way  into  the 
mud.  There  are,  besides  this,  two  other 
points  in  w  hicli  the  reproductioji  will  not  take 
place  ;  the  one  of  the^e  is  about  tlie  filth  or 
lixth  ring  from  the  head,  and  the  other  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  tail ;  ami  in  all  proba- 
bility the  condition  of  the  great  artery  in 
the/e  parts  is  the  cause  of  this. 

What  is  said  of  tlie  want  of  the  reproduc- 
tive power  of  tliese  parts,  relates  only  to  the 
head  and  tail  ends;  for,  as  to  the  body,  it 
li-els  very  little  inconvenience  from  the  loss 
of  what  is  taken  off,  and  very  speedily  re- 
produces those  parts.  Where  then  does  the 
principle  ot  life  reside  in  sucli  worms,  whicli, 
after  having  their  heads  cut  off,  will  have  not 
oiilv  the  same  motions,  but  even  the  inclina- 
tions, that  they  had  before'  And  yet  this  dif- 
Jieultv  is  vcrv  small,  compared  to  several 
«:  hers.  Is  this  wonderful  re|)roductiou  of  parts 
oiilv  a  natural  consei|uence  of  tlie  laws  ot 
motion;  or  is  there  lodged  in  the  body  of 
the  creature  a  chain  of  minute  buds  or  shoots, 
a  sort  of  little  embryos,  already  formed,  and 
placed  in  such  parts  when-  the  reproductions 
are  to  begin .'  Are  these  worms  only  mere 
madilnes,  or  are  tliev,  like  more  perlect  ani- 
mals, a  sort  of  compound,  the  springs  of 
whose  motions  are  actuated  or  regulated  by 
a  sort  of  soul?  And  if  they  have  themselves 
such  a  principle,  how  is  it  that  this  principle 
IS  multiplied,  and  is  found  in  every  separate 
piece  .*  Are  we  to  believe  with  Maipif/hi,  that 
lliese  sorts  of  worms  an;  all  heart  and  biain 
from  one  end  to  the  otiier  >  'This  may  be  ; 
but  yet  if  we  knew  that  it  was  so,  we  should 
know  in  reality  but  very  little  the  more  for 
knowing  it:  and  it  seems,  after  all,  that,  in 
cases  of  this  kind,  we  are  only  to  ailinire  the 
works  of  the  great  Creator,  and  sit  down  in 
iilencc. 

The  nice  sense  of  feeling  in  spiders  has 
been  much  talked  of  by  naturalists ;  but  it 
appears  that  these  worms  have  yet  s  jinc- 
wliat  more  surpri:>iii{;  iu  tlieiu  in  regard  to 


REPRODUCTION. 

this  particular.  If  a  pieci;  of  stick,  or  any 
o'.licr  substance,  is  broiiuht  near  them,  they 
do  not  Slav  for  its  touching  them,  but  begin 
to  leap  and  irisk  .'.bout  a>  s'mjii  as  it  comes 
towards  tliein.  There  want,  however,  some 
further  e\pe!imejits  to  ascertain  whether  this 
15  really  owing  to  feeling  or  sight ;  tor  though 
we  can  discover  no  distinct  organs  ol  sight  in 
these  creatures,  yet  they  seem  affected  by 
the  light  of  the  sun  or  a  "candle,  and  always 
frisk  about  in  the  same  manner  at  the  ap- 
proach of  either ;  nay,  even  the  moonlight 
has  some  elfect  upon  them. 

A  twig  of  will.'W,  |ioplar,  or  many  other 
trees,  being  planted  in  the  earth,  takes  root, 
and  becomes  a  tree,  every  piece  ot  which 
will  in  the  same  manner  produce  otiier  trees. 
'i  he  case  is  the  same  with  these  worms;  they 
are  cut  to  pieces,  and  these  several  pieces 
become  pencct  animals;  and  each  of  these 
mav  be  again  cut  into  a  number  ot  pieces, 
each  of  which  will  in  I  he  >ame  manner  pro- 
duce an  animal.  ]t  has  been  supposed  by 
some  that  these  worms  were  oviparous;  but 
Mr.  Bonett,  on  cutting  one  of  them  to  pieces, 
having  observed  a  slender  substance,  re- 
sembling a  small  hlament,  to  inove  at  the  end 
of  one  of  tiie  pieces,  separated  it;  and  on 
examining  it  with  glasses,  fotnid  it  to  be  a 
perfect  worm,  of  the  same  form  with  its  pa- 
rent, which  lived  and  grew  larger  in  a  vessel 
of  water  into  which  he  put  it.  These  small 
bodies  are  easily  divided,  and  very  readily 
complete  themselves  again,  a  day  u>ually 
serving  for  the  production  of  a  heail  to  the 
part  that  wants  one;  and,  in  general,  the  smaller 
and  more  slender  the  worms  are,  the  sooner 
they  complete  themselves  after  this  opera- 
tion. WJien  the  bodies  of  the  large  worms 
are  examined  by  the  microscope,  it  is  very 
easy  to  see  the  appearance  of  the  young 
worms  alive,  and  moving  about  within  them  ; 
but  it  retpiires  great  precision  and  exactness 
to  be  certain  of  this ;  since  the  ramifications 
of  tlie  great  artery  have  very  much  the  ap- 
pearance of  young  worms,  and  they  are  kept 
in  a  sort  of  continual  motion  by  the  systoles 
and  diastoles  of  the  several  portions  of  the 
artery,  which  serve  as  so  many  hearts,  it  is 
vcrv  certain,  that  what  we  force  in  regard  to 
these  animals  by  our  operations,  is  done  also 
naturally  every  day  in  the  brooks  ami  ditches 
where  they  live.  A  curious  observer  will 
find  in  these  places  many  of  them  without 
heads  or  tails,  and  some  without  either ;  as 
al~o  other  fragments  of  various  kinds,  all 
w  liicli  are  then  in  the  act  of  completing  them- 
selves; but  whether  accidents  liave  reduced 
tliem  to  this  state,  or  they  thus  purposely 
throw  off  |)arls  of  their  own  body  for  the  re- 
production of  more  animals,  it  is  not  easy  to 
determine.  They  are  plainly  liable  to  many 
accidents,  by  winch  tiiey  lose  the  several 
parts  of  their  body,  and  must  perish  very 
early  if  they  had  not  a  power  of  reproducing 
what  was  lost ;  they  olten  are  broken  into 
two  pl(?ces,  by  the  resistance  of  some"  hard 
piece  of  mud  which  they  enter ;  and  they 
are  subject  to  a  disease,  a  kind  of  gangrene, 
rotting  off  the  several  parts  of  tlieir  bodies, 
and  mn^t  inevitably  perish  by  it,  had  they 
not  this  surprising  pro|)ertv. 

This  worm  was  a  second  instance,  after  the 
poly|)e,  o(  the  sur|)rising  power  in  an  animal 
of  recovering  its  most  essential  parts  when 
lost.  I!ul  nature  does  not  seem  to  have 
limited  licr  bcneiitciice  iu  this  respect  to 


those  two  cicutufes.  Mr.  5V)riett  tried  tl)<s 
same  experiments  on  another  species  of  wa- 
ter-worm, differing  from  the  former  in  bein;; 
much  thicker,  'this  kind  ot  worm,  when 
divided  in  the  summer  .'ea>on,  very  ofteu 
shows  the  ^-ame  property;  for  if  it  is  cut  into 
three  or  four  pieces,  the  pieces  will  lie  lik<; 
dead  for  a  loj.g  time,  but  afterwanls  will 
move  about  again;  and  will  be  found  in  this 
state  of  rest  to  have  reeoveied  a  head,  or  a 
tail,  or  both.  After  recovering  their  parts, 
they  mo\e  very  little;  and  according  to  this 
gentleman's  experiments,  seldom  live  more 
than  a  month. 

It  should  s(  cm,  that  the  more  difficult  suc- 
cess of  this  last  kind  of  worm,  after  cutting, 
aiul  the  long  dme  it  takes  to  recover  the  lost 
|)arts,  if  it  does  recover  theiii  at  all,  are  owing 
to  its  thickness;  since  we  always  lind  in  that 
S|)ecies  of  worms  wiiicli  succeeds  best  of  all, 
that  those  wliich  are  thinnest  recover  their 
parts  much  sooner  than  the  others. 

The  water-insects  also  are  not  the  only 
creatures  w  hich  have  this  power  of  recover- 
ing the  lost  parts.  The  earth  affords  us  some 
already  discovered  to  grow  in  this  manner 
from  their  cuttings,  and  these  not  le-s  de- 
serving our  admiration  than  those  of  the  wa- 
ter: the  common  earth-worms  are  of  this 
kind.  Some  of  these  worms  have  been  di- 
vided into  two,  others  into  three  or  four, 
pieces  ;  and  some  of  these  pieces,  after  havi 
ing  passed  two  or  three  months  without  any 
appearance  of  lite  or  motion,  have  then  be- 
gun to  reproduce  a  head  or  tail,  or  both. 
1  he  reproduction  of  the  anus,  after  such  a 
state  of  rest,  is  no  long  work;  a  lew  days  do 
it ;  but  it  is  otherwise  with  the  head,  that 
does  not  seem  to  perform  its  fiuictions  in  the 
divided  pieces  till  about  seven  mouLlis  aftec 
the  separation.  It  is  to  be  observed,  that  in 
all  these  operations,  both  on  earth  and  water- 
worms,  the  hinder  part  suffers  greatly  mors 
than  the  fore  part  in  the  cutlhig;  for  it  al- 
ways twists  itself  about  a  long  time,  as  if  ac- 
tuated by  strong  convulsions;  whereas  the 
head  usually  crawls  away  without  the  appear- 
ance of  any  great  uneasiness. 

The  reprotluction  of  several  parts  of  lob- 
sters, crabs,  &c.  makes  also  one  of  the  great 
curiosities  in  natural  history.  That,  in  lieu 
of  an  organical  jiart  of  an  auiinal  broken  otT, 
another  shall  rise  perfectly  like  it,  may  seem 
inconsistent  w  ith  the  modern  system  of  gene- 
ration, where  the  animal  is  supposed  to  life 
wholly  formed  in  the  egg.  "let  has  the 
matter  of  fact  been  well  attested  by  the  fishei;- 
men,  and  even  by  several  virtuosoes  who  , 
have  taken  the  point  into  examination,  par- 
ticularly M.  de  Keaumur  and  M.  Perrault", 
wliosi;  skill  and  exactucss  iu  things  of  this 
nature  will  hardly  be  i.iuestione<l.  The  leg« 
of  lobsters,  &c.  consist  iMch  of  five  articula- 
tions: now,  when  any  legs  happen  to  break 
by  any  accident,  as  in  walking,  &c.  whicU 
fre(|uently  happens,  the  fracture  is  always 
found  to  be  in  a  part  near  the  fourth,  articu- 
l.ation  ;  and  what  they  thus  lose  is  precisely 
reproduceil  some  time  afterwards  ;  that  is,  3 
part  of  a  leg  shoots  out,  consisting  of  four 
articulations,  the  lirst  of  which  has  two  claws 
as  before,  so  that  the  loss  is  entirely  repaired, 
tfa  lobsli-r's  leg  is  broken  off  by  design  at 
the  fdurlh  or  fifth  articulation,  what  is  thus 
broken  olf  always  tximes  again  ;  but  it  is  not 
so  if  the  Iraclure  is  made  in  the  fust,  second, 
or  third  articulation.  In  Iho^e  ca>es^  the  ro- 
ll 


R  K  f 

production  is  very  rare  if  lliiii;;s  canlimie  as 
tlie)  -Mi:  liiil  uiiat  i>  cNcciMiiif^lv  siir))iis- 
iiig  IS,  thai  tluy  do  not;  f.jr,  ii|)o'ii  vi>iliii;i 
the  lubbliT  iiiaijuccl  in  these  harn'ii  and  nii- 
happy  arlniihitioiis,  at  the  end  ol  two  or  Ihiro 
day^,  all  the  otlu-r  articulations  are  fouijd 
broken  oil'  to  the  fourth;  and  it  is  suspected 
they  have  pertornied  tiie  operation  on  them- 
si'lves,  to  make  the  reproduction  of  a  leg 
certain. 

'1  lie  p;!rt  reproduced  is  not  only  perfectly 
like  tlial  letienchfd,  but  also,  in'  a  certain 
space  ot  lime,  grows  e<iual  lo  it.  Flence  it  is 
that  we  Ireciuentiy  ice  lobsters  which  liave 
their  two  large  legs  nne<|i!al,  and  that  in  all 
j)roiiortions.  Ihis  stlow^  the  smaller  leg  to 
be  a  new  one. 

A  part  thus  reproduced  being  broken, 
tliere  is  a  second  reiiroduction.  The  snm- 
jncr,  which  is  the  only  season  of  the  year 
when  t)ie  lobsters  eat,  is  tlie  most  favourable 
time  lor  the  reproduction.  It  is  then  jier- 
forined  in  lour  or  live  weeks  ;  vvliereas  it  takes 
ii|)  eight  or  nine  montlis  in  any  other  season. 
'i  he  small  legs  are  sometimes  re|)roduced, 
but  more  rarely,  as  well  as  iiioie  slowly,  than 
the  great  ones  ;  the  horns  do  the  same.  'Ihe 
experiment  is  most  easily  tried  on  tlie  com- 
mon crab. 

KEPTILES,  in  natural  history,  an  order 
of  amphibia,  the  character  of  which  is,  that 
lliey  Ineathe  through  the  mouth  ;   have  feel, 
and  Hat  naked  ears,  without  auricles.  There 
are  live  genera  of  reptiles,  viz. 
Testudo 
Draco 
Lacerta 
Bana 
Siren. 

HEPULSION,  in  physics,  that  property 
in  bodies,  by  which,  if  they  are  placed  just 
beyond  the  sphere  of  each  other's  attraction 
ot  cohesion,  they  mutually  lly  from  each 
other. 

That  there  is  a  force  which  opposes  the 
approach  of  bodies  towards  each  other,  and 
which  teiifls  to  separate  ihem  farther  from 
each  other,  is  obvious  from  the  slightest  view 
of  the  phenomena  of  nature.  When  we  pre- 
sent the  north  pole  of  a  magnet  A  to  the  same 
pole  of  another  magnet  15,  suspended  on  a 
pivot,  and  at  liberty  to  move,  the  magnet  B 
recedes  as  the  other  approaches;  and  by  fol- 
lowing it  with  A  at  a  proper  distance,  it  niav 
be  made  to  turn  round  on  its  pivot  with  con- 
siderable velocity.  In  this  case  there  is  evi- 
tlcntly  some  force  which  opposes  the  ap- 
proach of  the  north  poles  of  A  and  li,  and 
which  causes  the  moveable  magnet  to  retire 
before  the  other.  There  is  then  a  repulsion 
between  the  two  magnets,  a  repulsion  which 
increases  with  the  power  of  tlie  magnets  ;  and 
this  power  has  been  made  so  great,  by  a  pro- 
per combination  of  magnets,  that  all  Ih.;  force 
of  a  strong  man  is  iiisulUcieiit  to  make  the  two 
north  poles  touch  each  other.  The  same 
repulsion  is  e<iually  obvious  on  electrical  bo- 
dies ;  and  indeed  it  is  by  means  of  it  alone 
that  the  quantity  of  ele"ctricity  is  measured 
by  philosophers.  If  two  cork  balls  are  sus- 
pended from  a  body  with  silk  threads,  so  as  lo 
touch  each  other;  if  we  charge  the  body  with 
electricity,  tlie  cork  balls  separate  froni  each 
other,  and  stand  at  a  distance  proportional 
to  the  ([uantity  of  electricity  with  which  the 
body  is  charged;  the  balls  of  course  repel 
eucli  otlier.    See  Electricitv. 


R  r,  p 

lait  it  is  not  in  electric  and  mngliptic  bo- 
dies only  that  repuls'on  is  perceived.  New- 
ton has  shewn  that  it  exists  also  between  two 
pieces  of  glass.  H,.  found  that  when  a  con- 
vex lens  is  put  upon  a  Hat  glass,  it  ri'inaii  s 
at  the  distance  ol  llie_.<yth  part  of  an  inch, 
and  a  very  considerable  pressure  is  re(iuired 
to  diminish  Ihis  distance;  nor  does  any  force 
which  can  be  applied  bring  them  into  actual 
mathematical  i-ontart;  a  force  niav  indeed 
be  applied  suflicient  to  break  the  glasses  in 
pieces;  but  it  may  be  demonstrated  that  it 
does  not  diminish  tfieir  distance  much  be\ond 
^'''-'  To'oo"'  P-"'^  o'  ""  "ich.  Thei-e  is,  tdere- 
tore,  a  lorce  of  repulsion  which  prevents  the 
two  glasses  from  touching  each  other. 

'i'hat  the  particles  of  air  repel  each  other 
is  evident;  for  a  considerable  force  is  rc.juir- 
ed  to  keep  them  as  near  each  oilier  asue 
find  them  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  and 
when  this  force  is  removed,  Ihev  sejjarate 
from  eacli  otlier,  that  is  to  sav,  llie  air  ex- 
pands. Nor  is  it  known  how  tar  this  expan- 
sion extends.  Air  has  been  artili.ially  ex- 
panded to  300(1  times  its  usual  bulk,  and 
doubtless  at  great  heights  in  the  atmosphere 
its  expansion  is  still  much  greater  than  that. 
On  the  other  hand,  air  may  be  forcibly  con- 
densed, that  is  to  say,  its  particles  may  be 
made  to  approach  nearer  each  other  ;  but  a 
considerable  force  is  required  to  produce  this 
effect ;  and  this  force  increases  nearly  as  the 
density:  if  it  is  removed,  the  particles  again 
separate,  and  the  air  assumes  its  former  bulk. 
What  are  the  limits  of  this  condensation  is 
not  known;  but  air  has  been  forcibly  com- 
pressed to  lOonth  part  of  its  natural  bulk. 
Thus  we  see  that  the  particles  of  air  may  be 
made  to  approach  16  times  nearer  each  other. 
The  elasticity  of  air,  or  the  effort  which  it 
makes  when  compressed  to  resume  its  former 
bulk,  is  evidently  the  consequence  of  a  re- 
pulsive force  which  its  particles  exert.  All 
gaseous  fluids  possess  the  same  repulsive 
force,  and  are  indebted  to  it  for  their  elas- 
ticity. 

The  particles  of  solid  elastic  bodies  likewise 
repel  each  other;  for  they  also,  when  forcibly 
compressed,  resume  their  former  si.-:e,  and  of 
course  their  pai  tides  repel  I'ach  otlier.  It 
has  been  demonstrated  by  philosophers,  that 
all  liquids  are  capable  ot  a  certain  degree  of 
compression,  and  that  when  the  compressing 
force  is  removed  they  rcsnme  their  former 
bulk;  consequently  the  particles  of  these  bo- 
dies also  repel  each  other. 

All  bodies  then  possess  a  repulsive  force, 
which  exerts  itself  either  at  sensible  distances 
oral  insensible  distances;  of  course  the  repul- 
sions may  be  divided  into  two  classes. 

The  only  sensible  repulsions  with  which 
we  are  acquainted,  take  place  at  small  dis- 
tances. They  may  be  reduced  to  two  kinds, 
namely,  electricity  and  magnetism.  It  has 
been  ascertained,'  that  bodies  possessed  of 
the  same  kind  of  electricity  repel  each  other; 
and  likewise  the  same  magnetic  poles  of  bo- 
dies repel  each  other;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  dill'erently  electrified  bodies,  and  the 
dilferent  poles  of  magnetic  bodies,  attract  each 
other.  Repulsion  increases,  as  far  as  has 
been  ascertained,  inversely  as  the  square  of 
the  distance;  consequently,  at  the  point  of 
contact  it  is  intinite. 

Insensible  repulsion  is  most  conspicuous  in 
elastic  fluids,  as  air  and  the  gases:  but  it  is 
4B2 


R  E 


5Ci3 


exliibited  also  by  elastic  bodies  in  general. 
In  these,  if  a  judgment  can  be  foinied  from 
the   experiments   on    air,   the  repulsion  in- 
creases nearly  at  the  rate  of     - 
ad  ■ 

Insensible  repulsion  may  either  be  .1  force 
inherent  in  the  particle,  oi  bodies,  or  it  may 
b(  long  exclusively  to  some  particular  body 
combined  with  these  particles.  The  first  of 
these  hypotheses  seems  to  have  been  adopt- 
ed by  Newton. 

Other  philosopliers  have  supposed  that  re- 
pulsion is  not  a  jiroperty  inhc  rent  in  all  mat- 
ter, but  confined  to  a  peculiar  substance 
which  has  been  generally  considered  as  ca- 
loric. According  to  tins  hypothesis,  there 
are  two  kinds  of  matter,  one'whose  particles 
attract,  anothc  r  vvho.se  partich's  repel.  Let 
us  call  the  iirst  cohesive  mailer,  and  the  other 
caloric;  and  let  us  suppose  also,  what  must  be 
the  case,  that  cohesive  matter  and  caloiic  at- 
tract each  other  with  a  certain  force,  in  cer- 
tain circumstances.  This  will  explain  the 
expansive  power  of  caloric,  which  combining 
with  the  particles  of  other  cohesive  matter, 
destroys  the  cohesion  of  lliose  particles,  and 
acts  upon  the  body  as  a  repulsive  force ;  unci 
this  appears  at  least  to  explain  the  rc-pulsion 
\\hicli  exists  in  elastic,  and,  perhaps,  other 
fluids. 

Before  we  quit  this  subject,  it  will  be  worth 
while  to  shew,  bv  an  example,  that  the  repul- 
sion between  the  particlc-s  of  caloric  oiteu 
acts  as  a  real  chemical  force,  and  that  it  af- 
fords a  key  to  explain  several  phenomena 
which  at  iirst  sight  appear  nearly  contradic- 
tory. Why  do  i.>c«lies  recpiire  different  tem- 
peratures in  order  to  unite?  and  why  does 
the  presence  of  caloric  in  many  cases  favour, 
or  rather  produce,  union,  while  it  prevents 
or  destroys  it  in  others  > 

Some  substances,  phosphorus  for  instance, 
combine  with  oxygen  at  the  common  tem- 
perature of  the  atmosphere;  others,  as  car- 
bon, recpiire  a  higher  temperature;  and 
others,  as  hydrogen  and  azc/tic  gas,  do  not 
combine,  except  at  a  very  high  ten.peraiure. 
To  what  are  these  differences  owing  r 

It  is  evident,  that  whatever  diminishes  the 
cohesion  which  exists  between  the  ]jarticle» 
of  any  body,  must  tend  to  facilitate  their  che- 
mical union  with  the  particles  of  other  bo- 
dies. 1  his  is  the  reason  that  bodies  combine 
more  easily  when  held  in  solution  by  water, 
or  when  they  have  been  previously  reduced 
to  a  fine  powder.  Now  caloric  jiossesses  the 
property  of  diminir.hing  cohesion  :  ai.d  one 
reason  why  some  bodies  require  a  high  t»m- 
perature  to  cause  them  to  combine  is,  that  nt 
a  low  temperature  the  allraction  of  cohesion 
is  in  them  sujierior  to  that  of  alTinity;  accord- 
ingly, it  becomes  necessary  to  weaken  that 
attraction  by  cHloric  till  it  becomes  inferiar 
to  tliat  of  afiinity.  The  quantity  of  caloric 
neci^ssary  for  this  purpose  must  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  strength  ol  the  cohesion  and  uf  the 
afiinity;  it  must  be  inversely  as  Ute  affinity, 
and  tlirtctly  as  tlie  cohesion.  Wherefore,  if 
we  knew  precisely  the  force  of  the  cohesioa 
between  the  particles  of  any  body,  and  of  the 
afllnity  between  the  particles  of  that  bo<ly  and 
of  any  other,  »c  could  easily  reditce  the  tem- 
perature necessary  to  calculation. 

That  caloric  or  temperature  acts  in  (hit 
manner,  cannot  be  doubted,  if  we  considee 
that  stlier  luethodi  at  diuiini^ing  the  alti:ao> 


5&1 


R  E  P^ 


R  E  P 


RK  a 


lion  of  roli.'s'.on   niaviie  suUstitvitfc!  for  it  ff posed,  becaisc  its  Jiglit  is  dis^ipatt-tl,  but  be-  |  of  liydrogcn  is  gioatcr  for  oNvgfB  flmn  (or 


witli  success.  A  lar^e  Hiiiij)  of  cliarco  d,  f':/r 
instance-,  will  not  unite  ^itl'.o.wgeiiat  so  low  a 
ti'inpersture  as  the  ^anic  charcoal  will  dowhen 
rciiLiced  lo  a  very  fiiif  iJOwtUr  ;  and  cliarcoal 
^vill  combine  with  oxygen  at  a  still  lower 
tcmperatuiv,  if  it  is  reduced  to  its  integrant 
jxirticle.-.  by  precipitating  it  from  alcohol,  as 
Dr.  Priastiev  did  by  passing  the  akolio! 
through  red-hot  cop-per.  And  to  shew  that 
there  is  nothing  in  the  nature  of  o.wgen  and 
carbon  wliic!!  renders  a  higlv  temperature 
i;.'Ct-ssarv  forlheir  union,  il  they  are  prcsei't- 
cd  to  ea;  h  otiier  in  difi'erent  circumstances, 
thev  coMib'i.e  at  tlie  common  temperature  of 
the'  atmosphere  ;  for  if  jiitric  acid,  at  the 
temperature  of  C,  is  pour<;d  upon  cliarcoal-  i 
po'.vder,  well  dried  in  a  close  crucible,  the 
charcoal  lakes  fire,  owing  to  its  combininr  j 
\»ilh  the  oxvgen  of  the  acid.  And  in  some 
other  situ;Uiiins,  carlwn  is  so  completely  di- 
vided that  it  is  capable  of  combining  with  the 
oxygen  of  ti;e  atmosphere,  or,  which  is  the 
same  thing,  of  catching  lire  at  tlie  common 
temperature:  tliis  seems  to  be  the  case  witii 
it  in  those  p\rophori  that  are  formed  by  dis- 
tilling lo  dryness  several  of  the  neutral  salts 
vhich  contain  acetous  acid.  'I'lieie  observa- 
tions are  sul'ticient  to  shew,  that  caloric  is  in 
many  cases  necessary  in  order  to  diminish 
the  attraction  of  cohesion. 

But  there  is  a  difficulty  still  remaining. 
How  conies  it  that  certain  bodies  will  com- 
bine with  oxygen  without  the  assistance  of 
any  foreign  heat,  provided  the  combination  is 
once  begun,  though  a  quantity  of  caloric  is 
necessary  to  begin  the  combination  ;  and  that 
other  bodies  require  to  be  surrounded  by  a 
great  quantity  of  caloric  during  the  w  hole 
time  of  their  combining  with  oxygen  ?  Alco- 
hol, for  instance,  if  once  kindled,  burns  till  it  is 
quite  consumed ;  and  this  is  the  case  with 
oils  also,  provided  they  are  furnished  with  a 
wick. 

VV'e  should  err  very  much,  were  we  to  sup- 


laiuse  the  coal  cannot  bo  converted  into  va- 
pour bv  the  degree  of  heat  which  it  contains, 
and  because  the  cohesion  of  it,  jjarticles  is 
too  great  to  allow  it  to  combine  with  oxygen 
without  some  such  change.  There  are  some 
coals,  however,  which  tonlain  such  a  quaii- 
tilv  of  bitumen,  that  tliey  will  Inirn  i^ven  in 
th.'  situation  si,|)posed  by  Dv.  llutlon,  and 
continue  to  bum,  provided  they  are  furnished 
with  any  thing  lo  act  as  a  wick.'  It  is  need- 
less to  add,  that  bitumen,  like  oil,  is  easily 
convf  ted  into  vapour. 

But  this  explanation,   instead  of  removing 

our  difticiiltie.s,  has  only  served  lo  increase 

tlieni :  for  if  caloric  only  acts  by  d'minishing 

j  the  attraction   of  cohesion,   and  converting 

these  substances  into  vapour,  why  do  nut  ail 

elastic  lluids  combine  at  once  without  any  ad- 

I  ditional  caloric?  why  do  not  oxygen  and  hy- 

I  drogen,  w  hen  mixed  together  in  the  state  of 

j  gas,  unite  at  once  and  form  water?  and  why 

'  clo  not  oxvgen  and  azote,  which  are  constantly 

j  in  contact  in  the  atmosphere,  unite  also  and 

form  nitrous  gas  ?  Surely  it  cannot  be  the 

attraction   of    cohesion    that    prevents    this 

'  union.     And  if  it  is  ascribed  to  tlieir  being 

I  already  combined  with  caloric,  how  comes  it 

that  an  additional  dose  of  one  of  tlie  ingredi- 

'  ents  of  a  compound  decomposes  it  r  .Surely, 

as  Mr.  .Moiige  has  observed,  this  is  contrary 

to  all  the  other  operations  in  chemistry. 

That  the  particles  of  fluids  aie  not  desti- 
tute of  an  attraction  for  each  other,  is  evident 
rom  numbei  less  facts.  The  particles  of  wa- 
ter draw  one  another  after  them  in  cases  of 
capillary  attraction;  which  is  probably  owing 
to  the  attraction  of  cohesion.  It  is  owing  to 
the  attraction  of  cohesion,  too,  that  small 
quantities  of  water  form  themselves  into 
spheres;  nor  is  this  attraction  so  weak  as  not 
to  be  perceptible.  If  a  small  plate  of  glass  is 
laid  upon  a  globule  of  mercury,  the  globule, 
notwithstanding  the  pressure,  continues  to 
preserve  its  round  ligure.     If  the  plate  is  gra- 


tiie  caloric  which  gives  it  its  gas'eous  form  ; 
but  the  oxygen  is  also  combined  with  caloric, 
and  there  e\ists  an  allraction  of  cohesion  be- 
tween Ihe  particles  of  the  h\diogiii  gas  and 
oxygen  gas;  the  same  attraction  siibsLsts  be- 
tween those  of  o.xygen  gas  and  hydrogen  gas. 
Now  Ihe  sum  of  all  these  aii.nilies  (namely, 
the  afiinity  between  bydrogei>  and  caloric, 
Ihe  allinity  between  oxygen  and  caloric,  the- 
cohesion  of  the  particles  of  the  hydrogen,  and 
llie  coliesion  ot  the  particles  of  oxvgen)  iy 
greater  than  the  aflinity  between  the  In  dro- 
gen and  oxygen;  and  therefore  r.o  decom- 
position can  take  place.  Let  the  afiinity  be- 
tween 

Oxygen  and  caloric  be 
Hydrogen  and  caloric 
Cohesion  of  oxygen  for  hydrogen 
Cohesion  of  hv  drogen 


50 

50 

4 

2 

106 


pose  that  a  high  temperature  is  not  as  neces- .  dually  charged  with  weights  one  after  an- 
aary  to  these  substances  during  the  whole  of!  other,  the  mercury  becomes  thinner  and  thin- 
their  combustion  as  at  the  commencement  of  {  ner,  and  extends  itself  in  the  form  of  a  plate 


it:  for  Mr.  Monge  found,  on  making  the 
trial,  that  a  candle  would  not  bum  after  the 
temperature  of  the  air  around  it  was  reduced 
below  a  certain  point. 

All  substances  which  continue  to  burn  after 
being  once  kindled  are  volatile,  and  Ihey 
burn  the  easier  in  proportion  to  that  volati- 
lity. Tlie-application  of  a  certain  (piantity 
of  caloric  to  alcohol  volatiliz'  s  part  of  it,  that 
is,  diniinislics  the  attraction  of  its  cohesion,  so 
jiiuch  that  it  combines  with  oxvgen.  'I  he 
oxygen  which  enters  into  this  combination 
gives  out  as  much  heat  as  volatilizes  another 
portion  of  the  alcohol,  which  combines  with 
oxygen  in  its  turn,  more  lieat  is  given  out; 
and  thus  the  process  goes  on.  Oils  and  tal- 
low exhibit  the  very  same  phenomena;  only 
as  they  are  less  volatile,  it  is  necessary  lo 
assist  the  process  by  means  of  the  capillary 
attraction  of  the  wick,  which  conlincs  the  ac- 
tion of  the  caloric  evolved  to  a  small  quan- 
tity of  oil,  and  thus  enables  it  to  produce  tin- 
proper  ell'ect.  In  short,  then,  every  sub- 
stance which  is  capable  of  continuing  to  burn 

nffr...  1.  .: ■-._  I.:. -  li.. .1  ■     i_.ri  II       ! 


but  as  soon  as  the  weights  are  removed,  it 
recovers  its  globular  figure  again,  and  pushes 
up  the  glass  before  it.  Here  we  see  the  at- 
traction of  cohesion,  not  only  superior  to  gra- 
vitation, but  actually  overco:iiing  an  external 
force.  And  if  the  workman,  alter  charging 
his  plate  of  glass  with  weights,  when  he  is 
forming  mirrors,  happens  to  remove  these 
weights,  the  mercury  which  had  been  forced 
from  under  the  glass,  and  was  going  to  sepa- 
rate, is  drawn  back  to  its  place,  and  Ihe  glass 
again  pushed  up.  Nor  is  the  attraction  of 
cohesion  confined  to  solids  and  liquids;  it 
cannot  be  doubted,  that  it  exists  also  in  gases; 
at  lea^t  it  is  evident,  that  there  subsists  an 
allraction  between  gases  of  a  different  kind  ; 
for  although  oxygen  and  azotic  gas  are  of  <lif- 
ferent  gravities,  and  ought  theretore  to  occu- 
py dil'lerent  parts  of  the  atmosphere,  we  find 
them  always  mixed  together;  and  this  can 
only  be  ascribed  lo  an  attraction. 

It  seems  evident,  in  the  first  place,  that 
the  afiinity  betwet  n  the  bases  of  the  gases 
under  consideration  and  oxygen,   is  greater 


after  b-ing  once  kindled  is  volatile,  or  capable  ;  than   Ihi-ir  affinity  for  that   dose  of  calori 
of  being  converted  into  vapour   by  the  de-    which  produces  their  elastic  form;  for  when 
gree  of  beat  at  first  applieil.     The  reason  that  i  they  are  combined  with 


a  live  coal  will  not  burn  when  suspended  in 

tulaleil  in  the  air,  is^  not,  as  Dr.  il'Uton  sup-  j  lake  hydrogen  for  an  in.-tautt 


oxygen,  the  same 
j  dose  will  not  separate  them  again.     Let  us 

Tlie  alfiniiy 


Sum  of  quiescent  affinities 

The  affinity  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  103- 

The  quiescent  affinities  being  greater  than  the 
divellent  affinities,  no  decomposition  can  take 
place. 

Let  now  a  quantity  of  caloric  be  added 
to  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  gas,  it  has  the 
properly  of  expanding  them,  and  of  course 
of  diminishing  their  cohesion;  while  its  affi- 
nity for  them  is  so  small,  that  it  may  be  neg- 
lected. Let  us  suppose  that  it  diminishes  the 
cohesion  of  the  o.xygeii  I ,  and  of  the  hy- 
drogen also  1,  their  cohesion  will  now  be'3 
and  1  ;  and  Ihe  quiescent  affinities  being, only 
104,  while  Ihe  divellent  arelO  j,  decomposition 
would  of  course  lake  place,  and  a  (|uantily  of 
c.Tloric  would  thus  be  set  at  liberty  lo  pro- 
duce the  same  eli'ects  upon  the  neighbouring 
particles. 

Thus,  then,  caloric  acts  oiJy  by  diminish- 
ing cohesion ;  and  the  reason  that  it  is  re- 
quired so  much  in  gaseous  substances,  and 
in  those  combinations  into  which  oxvgen  en- 
ters, is  the  strong  affinity  of  oxygen  and  the 
other  bases  of  the  gases  for  caloric ;  for  owing 
to  the  repulsion  which  exists  between  the 
particles  of  that  subtile  substance,  an  etTect  is 
produced  by  adding  large  doses  of  it,  con- 
trary to  what  happens  in  other  cases.  The 
more  of  it  is  accumulated,  the  stronger  is  the 
repulsion  between  its  particles,  and  there- 
fore the  more  powerful  is  its  tendency  to  fly 
off:  and  as  this  tendency  is  opposed  by  its 
affinity  for  die  body  and  the  cohesion  of  its- 
jKirlicles,  it  must  diminish  both  these  attrac- 
tions. 

1<  EPUT.'^TION,  or  Fame.  The  security 
of  reputation,  or  good  name,  from  the  arts  of 
detraction  and  slander,  is  a  right  to  which 
everv'  man  is  intitled,  by  reason  and  natural 
justice;  since,  without  this,  it  is  impossible 
lo  have  the  perfect  enjoyment  of  any  oilier 
advantage  or  right.   1  RIack.  134. 

I'.eputation  is  properly  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  law,  as  all  persons  ha,  can  interest 
in  their  good  name,  and  scandal  and  defama- 
tion are  injurious  lo  il ;  though  defamatory 
w ords  aje  not  actionable,  otherwise  tlian  as 
they  are  a  damage  lo  the  c-slate  of  the  person 
injured.  Wood's  Just.  37. 

HIiiQUESTS,  Coiiit  of,  an  antient  court 
of  equity,  instituted  about  the  nineteenth 
year  of  Henry  \  II.     See  Court. 

In  tin-  lortieth  and  forty-first  years  of  queen 
Elii!abelh,  il  was  adjudged,  ui)ou  solemn  ar- 


K  E  S 

giiiiioiit,  ill  till?  ourt  of  common. piras,  lliat 
till--  luiirt  of  r«iufst.  was  t)i,  ii  no  court  of 
^•ouitv.  ^ 

KLSCUIPT,  an  answrr  ch-livcrcd  I)y  an 
emperor,  or  a  pope,  v.Irmi  consulted  liy  par- 
ticular persons,  on  sonic  diliirull  (incslioii,  or 
point  otlaw,_  to  serve  as  a  decision  tlieroof. 

RhSCUIC,  or  IvKscous,  is  llie  taking 
away  and  setting  r,t  lil)erly  against  law,  any 
tlistrcss  tatcen  for  rent,  or  services,  or  damage 
feasant;  but  (lie  more  general  notion  of  rt's- 
COVI5  is,  the  forcibly  freeing  anotlicr  from  an 
arrest  or  some  legal  commilment ;  wliicli  be- 
ing a  liigli  oifence,  siibj.vts  tlie  olli.Mider  not 
only  to  an  action  at  tlie  suit  of  the  party  in- 
jiu-ed,  but  likewise  to  fine  and  imprisonment 
at  the  suit  of  liie  king.     Co.  Lil.  Kid. 

If  :',oods  are  distrained  without  caiise,  or 
contrary  to  law,  the  owner  may  make  rescue; 
but  if  lliey  are  onte  impounded,  cr  even 
tliough  taken  without  any  cai'se,  the  owner 
inay  not  i)reak  the  pound  and  take  lliem  out, 
for  then  thev  are  in  <:u>torl\  of  the  law.  1 
Black.  12.     See  Disrr.Ess, 

KESEAIlCll,  in  music,  is  a  kind  of  pre- 
lude or  voluntary  played  on  the  organ.  &c. 
vherein  the  performer  seems  to  search  or 
look  out  for  the  s! rains  and  touches  of  iiar- 
liiony,  wlccli  he  is  to  use  in  the  regular  piece 
to  be  played  afterwards. 

or  uild-ivood,  a  genus  of  tlie  order  of  trigy- 
Jiia,  in  the  dodecandria  class  of  plants ;  aiid 
in  the  natural  nirthod  ranking  under 
54th  order,  miscellanea\  The  calyx  is  mo- 
iiophyllous  and  partite;  the  petals  laciniated; 
tlie  capsule  unilocular,  and  opening  at  the 
mouth.  Tliere  are  15  species;  of  \vhicii  the 
inost^  remarkable  is  the  luteola,  or  common 
dyer's  weed,  growing  naturallv  in  waste 
places  in  many  parts  of  Britain.  "The  young 
leaves  are  often  undulated;  the  stalk  is  a 
yard  bigh,  or  more,  terminated  with  a  long 
naked  spike  of  yellowish-green  flowers:  the 
l)laiit  is  cultivated  and  much  used  for  dyeiii" 
silk  and  wool  of  a  yellow  colour.  'I'he  greal 
recommendation  of  the  plant  is,  that  it  will 
grow  with  very  lillle  trouble,  without  dung, 
and  on  the  very  worst  soils.  For  this  reason 
it  is  commonly  sown  with,  or  inmiediately 
after,  barley  or  oats,  without  any  additional 
care  except  drawing  a  bush  over'it  to  harrow 
it  in.  The  reaping  of  the  corn  does,  it  little 
or  no  hurt,  as  it  grows  but  little  the  first 
year;  and  the  next  summer-  it  is  pulled  and 
<iried  like  llax.  Much  care  and  lucety,  how- 
ever, is  requisite,  so  as  not  to  injure  either 
the  seed  or  stalk;  or,  wliich  sometimes  iiap- 
pens,  damaging  both,  by  letting  it  stand  too 
long,  or  pulliiu;  it  too  green.  To  avoid 
these  inconven,.nces,  a  better  metiiod  ot 
culture  has  been  devised.     This  new  method 


a  Ji  s 

EESERVE,  hodii  n/,  or  covp^  dr  r.r.inrvc, 
in  military  afliiirs,  the  third  or  la>t  line  of  an 
army,  drawn  up  lor  batth-;  so  called  becausi! 
they  >.re  reserved  to  sustain  the  rest,  as  occa- 
sion re(|uires  ;  and  not  to  euijage,  but  in  case 
of  necessity. 

IJI'^SIDENCE,  is  the  continuance  of  a 
par.ion  or  vicar  on  his  benclice.  By  statute 
43d  Geo.  III.  chap.  84,  it  is  enacted  that 
llie  statute  1.3th  Eliz.  c.  20,  and  its  continu- 
ing statutes,  are  rei)ealcd  ;  and  tiiat  th.i;  penal- 
ties for  non-n  sideiice  under  the  act  i'lit' 
Uen.  \]ll.  are  repealed;  and  lliat  every  spi- 
ritual person  possessed  of  any  arclidea<onry, 
or  other  dignity,  benefice,  curacy,  or  clia- 
pelry,  who  shall,  witJiout  exemption,  or  suf- 
ficient cause,  as  is  specified  in  the  acts  of  the 
21st,  25th,  and  2titn  Hen.  Mil.,  absent  him- 
self from  his  benefice  for  more  than  three 
months  in  tlie  year  (unless  he  resides  at  some 
place  wh'.Te  he  ha^  oi  her  dignity  or  benefice), 
and  less  ihan  six,  shall  pay  one-third  of  the 
annual  value  (dcductmg  all  out-goings,  ex- 
cept curate's  pay);  when  eight  months,  two- 
thirds  ;  and  when  the  whole  year,  three- 
fourths.  The  penalty,  with  costs,  to  go  to 
the  informer;  but  tlie  jienalty  for  non-resi- 
dence cannot  be  recoveii-d,  if'ihe  parson  has 
resided  a  whole  year  w  ithout  absence  before 
the  action  is  brought. 

Besides  the  exemptions  contained  in  the 
above-mentioned  act,  the  following  persons 
tlie  ar*"*".'^L'inpt:  clerk,  or  de|>uty  cierk,  of  the 
king's  closet;  chaplain  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons; chaplain- general  of  the  forces;  bri- 
gade-chaplain on  foreign  service  ;  chaplains 
of  ships  of  the  dock-yards,  of  garrisons,  or  of 
the  corps  of  artillery,  during  the  time  of  at- 
tending such  offices";  chaplain  to  any  l^ritish 
factory,  or  in  the  howschold  of  any  British 
minister,  abroad;  chancellor,  or  vicar-gene- 
ral, or  in  his  absence,  the  surrogate,  or  of- 
ficial, in  an  ecclesiastical  court;  minor  ca- 
non, vicar,  choral,  or  other  officer,  in  any 
cathedral  or  collegiate  cluifch  ;  dean?,  sub- 
deans,  priests,  or  readers,  in  the  king's  pri- 
vate chapels;  chaplain  of  the  military  asylum, 
of  the  hospitals  of  Chelsea,  Greenw'ich,  Has- 
lar,  and  Plymouth,  while  attending  their 
duty;  preaclier  or  reader  at  the  inns  of  court 
or  tlie  rolls;  t!ie  bursar,  dean,  vice-presi- 
dent, public  tutor,  or  chaplain,  or  such  other 
public  officere,  in  the  universities,  or  at  Eton, 
or  A\'iiichester,  or  schoolmaster  or  usher  in 
tin;  same,  or  at  Westminster;  and  persons 
entitled  by  the  la.,t  of  the  above-mentioned 
statutes  to  tiie  privilege  of  non-residence,  till 
after  forty  years  of  age,  shall  not  be  entitled 
to  it  after  thirty.  The  bishops  may,  if 
they  think  fit,  grar.t  licences  for  non-resi- 
dence in   certain   cases,  the  fee  for   which 


RES 


Sf>r, 


is,  to  plough  and  harrow  the  ground  very  j  ^'""  ""'  '^^  more  than  ten  shillings,  inde 


fine,  without  dung,  as  equallvas  possible  •  and 
then  sowing  about  a  gallon  "of  seed,  which  is 
very  small,  upon  an  acre,  some  time  in  the 
month  of  Augu,,t.  In  about  two  months  it 
will  be  high  enough  to  hoe,  wliich  mu-t  be 
carefully  done,  and  the  plants  left  about  six 
inches  asunder.  In  March  it  is  to  be  hoed 
again,  and  this  labour  is  to  be  repealed  a  I'n  d 
tmie  in  May.  About  the  close  of  June, 
when  the  flower  is  in  lull  vigour,  and  the 
stalk  is  become  of  a  greenish  yellow,  it 
should  be  pulled;  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
stems  being  left  growing  for  seed  till  Sep- 
I  tember. 


pendant  of  stamp-duty;  and  if  the  bishop  re- 
fuses to  grant  the  licence,  the  party  who 
thinks  himself  aggrieved  may  appeal  to  the 
archb'shop,  on  giving  securit-,  lor  paying 
the  ex[)ences  of  the  appeal :  the  reasons  for 
granting  the  licences  sliall  be  transmitted  (.• 
the  archbishop,  for  his  examination  and  al- 
lov.ance  ;  and  during  the  vacancy  of  anv  see, 
tlie  vicar-general  may  grant  them,  and"  thev 
shall  not  be  void  on 'the  death  or  removal  of 
the  granter,  unless  revoked  by  his  successor. 
A  person,  although  fie  may  reside  on  tlie 
living,  is  yet  liable  to  the  jienalties  of  non- 
resiclcuce,  if  he  resides  in  any  other  house 


than  that  api>oiiite(l  for  his  residence,  e.Wi-pt 
by  such  licence  from  the  diocesan  as  lias 
been  stateil,  or  while  the  tenant  to  whom  the. 
house  of  residence  has  been  let  continues  in 
possession. 

HESIDUAE  l-\C,V ]{[■:,  in  geometry,  the 
figure  remaining  after  sublracling  a  lesser 
tfoin  a  greater. 

Residual  Root,  in  algebra,  a  root  com- 
posed of  two  parts  or  members,  connected 
together  by  the  sign  — . 

Thus  .1' — !/  is  a  residual  root,  so  called  be- 
cause its  value  is  no  more  than  the  dilVerencf 
between  its  parts  j  and  !/. 

1!ESK;NAT10N,  in  the  canon  law,  the 
surrendering  a  benefice  into  the  liaiids  of  the 
collator,  or  bisliop. 

RliSlGNEE,  inlaw,  the  person  to  whom 
a  thing  is  resigned. 

KESIN,  in  natural  history,  a  viscid  juice 
oozing  either  spontaneously,  or  by  incision, 
from  several  trees,  as  the  pine,  fir,  Sec. 

Hesins.  It  is  at  present  the  opinion  of 
chemists,  that  resins  >tand  in  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  volatile  oils  that  wax  does  to  the 
fixed.  Wax  is  considered  as  a  fixed  oil  sa- 
turated with  oxygen;  resins  as  volatile  oils 
saturated  with  the  same  principle. 

The  resins  are  very  numerous;  and  on  ac- 
count of  the  various  purposes  to  which  they 
are  applied,  and  the  peculiarity  of  their  pro^ 
perties,  constitute  one  of  the  most  important 
genera  of  vegetable  substances,  'fill  lately 
they  have  been  very  much  overlooked  by 
chemists,  who  satisfied  themselves  with  glean- 
ing doubtful  information  from  artists  and 
manufacturers.  Many  erroneous  opinions 
concerning  them  have  of  course  been  admit- 
ted into  every  system  of  chemistry.  The 
subject  has  lately  engaged  the  attention  of  Mr. 
Hatcliett,  whose consunnnate  skill  and  happy 
talent  for  obsenation  peculiarly  fitted  him 
for  the  task. 

Resins  often  exude  spontaneously  from 
trees;  they  often  flow  from  artificial  wounds; 
an<l  not  uncommonly  are  combined  at  first 
with  volatile  oil,  from  which  they  are  sepa- 
rated by  distillation.  The  re.-.der  can  be  at 
no  loss  to  form  a  notion  of  what  is  meant  by 
resin,  when  he  is  informed  that  common  rosin 
fnrnislies  a  very  perfect  example  of  a  resin, 
and  that  it  is  from  this  substance  that  the 
whole  genus  derived  their  name:  for  rosin  is 
vei-y  frequently  denominated  resin. 

Resins  may  be  distinguished  by  the  fol- 
lowing properties: 

They  are  solid  substances,  naturally  brittle; 
have  a  certain  degree  of  traii«|3arency,  and  a 
colour  most  commonly  inc'ining  to  vellow. 
'i'heir  taste  is  more  or  less  acrid,  and  hot  like 
that  of  volatile  oils;  but  thev  have  no  smell 
unless  they  iiappen  to  contain  some  foreign 
body.  Tiiey  are  all  heavier  tiian  water. 
Their  specific  gravity  varies  from  I.OISO  to 
1.2289.  They  are  u'.l  non-conductors  of 
electricity;  and  when  excited  by  friction, 
their  electricity  is  negative. 

When  exposed  to  heat,  they  melt;  and  if 
the  heat  i-.  increase:!,  they  take  fire;  and 
burn  with  a  strong  yellow  flame,  emitting 
at  the  same  time  a  vast  quantity  of  smoke. 

They  are  all  insolu'ole  in  water,  whether 
cold  or  hot:  but  when  they  are  melted  alone 
with  water,  or  mixed  \iitii  volatile  oil  and 
thcn.distilled  with  water,  they  see.Ti  to  unite 


s&i 

■  with  a  portion  of  that  liquid ;  for  (hoy  1)C- 
roiue  opjqiie,  and  lose  much  ol  liu;ir  britlle- 
ness.  '1  Ins  at  lei>t  IS  the  ca^e  with  common 
rosin.  They  are  all,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
soluble  in  alcohol,  esijccially  when  assisted  by 
lii'at.  The  solution  is  u>ii.illy  transparent; 
and  when  the  alcohol  is  evaporated,  tiie  resin 
is  obtained  unaltered  in  its  properties.  \\  hen 
the  solution  is  mixed  with  water,  it  becomes 
inilkv,  and  the  resin  falls  in  the  state  of  a 
white  powder.  They  are  soluble  also  in  sul- 
phuric ether.     Many  of  them  are  soluble  in 

■  Several  of  the  fixed  oils,  especially  in  the  dry- 
ing oils.  The  greater  number  are  soluble  in 
the  volatile  oils ;  at  least  in  oil  ot  turpentine, 
the  one  commonly  employed. 

Hitherto  it  has  been  ailirmed  by  all  che- 
mists, both  antient  and  modern,  that  tb.e  al- 
kalies do  not  exert  action  on  the  resins. 
Fourcroy,  for  instance,  in  his  last  work,  af- 
firms this  in  the  most  po^itive  manner ;  but 
the  experiments  of  Mr.  Hatchett  have  de- 
monstrated this  opinion  to  be  completely  er- 
roneous. He  reduced  a  quantily  of  common 
rosin  to  powder,  and  gradually  added  it  to  a 
boiling  lixivium  of  carbonat  of  potass  ;  a  per- 
fect Solution  was  obtained  of  a  clear  yellow 
colour,  which  continued  permanent  after 
Jong  exposure  to  the  air.  The  experiment 
suceeided  equally  w.thcarboriat  of  soda,  and 
with  solutions  of  pure  potass  or  soda.  Dvery 
other  resin  tried  was  dissolved  as  well  as  ro- 
sin. Mr  Hatchetl's  discovery  must  l;-ad  to 
verv  important  consecpienees.  'I'lie  well- 
known  laet,  that  the  soap-makers  in  this  coun- 
try con.itantly  mix  rosin  with  tlieir  soap;  that 
it  owes  its  yellow  colour,  its  odour,  and  its 
easy  solubility  iu  water,  to  this  addition ; 
ought  to  have  led  chemists  to  have  suspected 
the  solubility  of  resins  in  alkalies.  No  such 
consequence,  however,  was  ilrawn  from  this 
notorious  fact. 

It  has  been  supposed  also  tliat  the  acids  are 
ir.capable  of  ailing  upon  the  resins.  Four- 
croy  is  eijually  positive  with  regard  to  this; 
and  Gren  speaks  of  it  in  such  a  manner^ 
that  every  reader  must  eonchide  that  he  had 
tried  the  ciVect  of  nitric  acid  upon  resins. 
^'et  Mr.  Hatciielt  has  ascertained  this  opi- 
nion likewise  to  be  erroneous,  at  least  as  lar 
as  nitric  acid  is  concerned.  He  found  thai 
resins  are  thrown  down  from  their  solutions 
in  alkalies  in  the  state  of  a  curdy  precipitate  ; 
-but  when  nitric  acid  is  added  in  exce-s,  the 
whole  of  the  precipitate  is  redissolved  in  a 
boiling  heat,  'i'his  remarkable  fact,  which 
did  not  hold  when  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acids 
were  used,  led  liim  to  try  whether  the  resins 
-^vere  soluble  in  nitric  acid.  He  poured  ni- 
tric acid,  of  the  specific  gravity  1.3t!,  on 
powden.'cl  rosin  in  a  tubulated  retort;  and  by 
repeated  diitillalion  formed  a  complete  solu- 
tion of  a  brownish  yellow  colour.  The  solu- 
tion took  place  much  sooner  in  an  open  ma- 
trass than  ill  close  vessels.  The  solution  con- 
tinues permanent,  though  l.-ft  exposed  to  the 
air.  It  becomes  turbid  when  wati.-r  is  added  ; 
but  when  the  mixture  is  boiled,  the  whole  is 
redissolved.  When  Mr.  Hatchett  collected 
the  precipitate  thrown  tlowii  by  water  by  lil- 
tration,  he  found  tliat  it  still  possessed  the 
properties  of  resin.  Tiie  resin  is  thrown 
down  Iroiii  nitric  acid  by  potass,  soda,  and 
ammonia  ;  but  an  excess  ol  these  alkal  es  le- 
dissolves  the  precipitate,  aiul  forms  bromiish 
vrangecolonred  liipiids.  When  Mr.  Hatch- 
ed ditiiolvud  icsin  in  boilinj;  nitric  acid,  the 


RE3JNS. 

soUit'on  was  attended  with  a  copious  dis- 
charge of  nitrous  gas ;  and  when  tiie  pow- 
dered resin  was  thrown  into  cold  nitric  acid, 
a  considerable  eli'erv  escence  soon  look  place, 
and  a  porous  mass  was  formed,  commonly  ot 
a  deep  orange-colour. 

^^'he^  resins  are  subjected  to  destru'tive 
distillation,  we  obtain,  according  to  G  en, 
carbureted  hydrogen  and  carbonic  acid  gas, 
a  verv  small  portion  of  acidulous  water,  and 
much  emp\reumatic  oil.  I'he  charcoJ  is 
light  and  brilliant,  and  contains  no  alkali. 

When  volatile  oils  are  exposed  for  some 
time  to  theact'.onof  the  atmosphere,  they  ac- 
quire consistency,  and  as>ume  the  properties 
of  resins.  During  tliis  cliange  they  absorb  a 
quantity  of  oxsgen  from  the  air.  Westrum 
put  30  grains  ot  oil  of  turpentine  into  40  cu- 
bic inchesof  oxyniuriatic  acid  gas.  Heat  was 
evolved;  the  oil  gradually  evaporated,  and 
assumed  the  forn  of  yellow  resin.  Mr. 
Proust  observed,  that  wlu-n  volatile  oil  is  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  it  is  partly  converted  into  a 
resin,  and  partly  into  a  cnstallized  acid; 
usually  t!ie  benzoic  or  the  ca.nphoric.  Hence 
we  see  that  the  oil  is  converted  into  two  dis- 
tinct substances.  During  this  change  oxy- 
gen is  absorbed  ;  and  Fourcroy  hjs  observed 
that  a  portion  of  water  is  also  formed.  It  is 
probable,  from  these  facts,  that  resin  is  vola- 
tile oil  deprived  of  a  portion  of  its  hydrogen, 
and  combined  with  oxygen. 

Hermstadt  afiirms,  that  to  know  whether 
any  vegetable  substance  contains  resin,  we 
have  only  to  pour  some  sulpliuric  ether  upon 
it  in  powder,  and  expose  the  intusion  to  the 
light.  If  any  resin  is  present,  the  ether  will 
assume  a  brown  colour. 

Having  now  described  the  general  proper- 
lies  of  resinous  l)odies,  it  will  be  proper  to 
take  a  more  particular  view  of  those  of  them 
which  are  of  the  most  importance,  that 
we  may  ascertain  how  far  each  possesses  the 
general  characters  of  resins,  and  by  what  pe- 
culiarities it  is  distinguished  from  the  rest. 
Tlie  most  distinguished  of  the  resins  are  the 
following : 

1.  Rosin.  This  substance  is  obtained] 
from  tlil'ferent  species  of  lir ;  as  the  pinus 
abies,  sylvestris,  larix,  balsaniea.  It  is  well 
known  that  a  resinous  juice  exudes  from  the 
pinus  sylvestris,  or  common  Scotch  tir,  whx'li 
hanlens  into  tears.  The  same  exudation  ;ip- 
pears  in  the  pinus  abies,  or  spruce  fir.  These 
tears  constitute  the  substance  called  thus,  or 
common  frankincense.  "When  a  portion  of 
bark  is  stripped  off  th'se  trees,  a  licjuid juice 
Hows  out,  which  grailually  hardens.  This 
juice  has  obtained  diKerent  names  according 
to  the  plant  from  which  it  comes.  'I'he  pinus 
sylvestris  yields  common  turpentine  ;  the  la- 
rix, Nenice turpentine;  thebalsamea,  balsam 
of  Canada,  &c.  All  these  juices,  which  are 
commonly  dislingiiisheil  by  the  name  of  tur- 
pentine, are  composed  of  two  ingre<lients; 
namely,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  rosin.  When 
the  turpentine  is  ilistilled,  the  oil  comes  over. 
an<l  the  rosin  remains  behind.  AVhen  the 
distillation  is  continued  to  dry  ness,  the  resi- 
duum is  known  bv  the  name  of  common  ro- 
sin, or  colophonium ;  but  when  water  is  mi\ed 
with  it  while  vet  Muid,  and  incorporated  by 
violent  agitation,  the  mass  is  called  yellovv 
rosin.  During  winter  the  wounds  m.ide  in 
llie  tir-trees  become  incrusled  with  a  wUitir 
brittle  iubstance  culled  lianas    or    galipot. 


consisting  of  rosin  united  to  a  small  portian  of 
oil.  'I'lie  yellow  rosin  made  by  melting  and 
agitating  this  substance  in  water,  is  preferred 
lor  mo^t  purposes;  because  it  is  more  duc- 
tile, owing  probably  to  its  still  containin;^ 
some  oil.  'Ice  properties  of  rosin  are  those 
which  have  been  delailed  in  the  former  part 
of  this  article.  Its  usc-s  are  numerous  and 
well  known. 

2.  Afiislicli.  This  resin  is  obtained  from 
the  ])islacea  lentiscus  ;  a  tree  which  grows  in 
the  Levant,  particularly  in  the  island  of 
Ciiios.  When  transverse  incisions  are  made 
into  this  tree,  a  fluid  exudes,  which  soon  con- 
cretes into  yellowish  seniitransj)arent  brittle 
grains.  In  this  state  it  is  sold  under  the 
name  of  mastich.  It  softens  when  kept  in  the 
mouth,  but  imparts  very  little  taste.  '1  his 
has  iiuluced  surgeons  to  employ  it  to  fill  up 
the  cavities  of  carious  teetli,wliich  it  does  to- 
leiablv  well.  When  heated,  it  melts,  and  ex- 
hales \i  fragrant  odour.  It  contains  a  little 
volatile  oil.  It  dissolves  readily  m  fixed  oils 
and  ill  alcohol;  but  is  too  fusible  and  opaque 
to  answer  as  a  varnish.  Mr.  Hatchett  found 
it  soluble  in  alkalies  and  nitric  acid  with  the 
phenomena  described  in  the  former  part  of 
this  article.     Its  specific  gravity  is  1.074. 

3.  Sundiracli.  This  resin  is  obtained!  from 
the  juniperus  communis,  or  common  juniper. 
It  exudes  spontaneously,  and  is  usually  in  the 
state  of  small  round  tears  of  a  brown  colour, 
and  semitransparent,  not  unlike  mastich.  but 
rather  more  transparent  and  brittle.  Besides 
the  resinous  ])art,  it  contains  a  peculiar  prin- 
ciple. Mr.  Hatchett  found  the  resin  of  juni- 
per soluble  in  alkalies  and  nitric  acid.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  1.092. 

4.  Elemi.  This  resin  is  obtained  from  the 
amvris  elemifera;  a  tree  which  grows  in  Ca- 
nada and  Spanish  America.  Incisions  nr^ 
made  in  the  bark  duringdry  weather,  and  the 
resinous  juice  which  exudes  is  left  to  harden 
in  the  sun.  It  comes  to  this  couutiT  in  long 
roundish  cakes  wrapped  in  (lag-leaves.  It  is 
of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  semitransparent ;  at 
first  softisii,  but  it  hardens  by  keeping.  Its 
smell  is  at  first  strong  and  fragrant,  but  it 
gradually  diminishes.  When  distilled,  it 
\ields  a  portion  of  volatile  oil.  The  residu- 
um is  a  pure  resin.  Its  spt-cific  gravity  is 
I.OIS. 

5.  Tttcamahac.  This  resin  is  obtained 
from  the  fagara  octandra,  and  likewise  it  is 
supposed  from  the  populus  balsamifera.  It 
comes  from  America  in  large  oblong  masses 
wrapt  in  flag-leaves.  It  is  of  a  light-brown 
colour,  verv'britlle,  and  easily  melted  when 
luated.  Mr.  Hatchett  found  it  soluble  in 
alkalies  and  nitric  acid  with  the  u-nal  pheno- 
mena.    Its  specific  gravity  is  1 .04tx 

6.  Jn/mc.  This  resin  is  obtained  from 
the  liymena-a  courbaril  or  lucust  tree,  which 
is  a  native  of  NoiMi  America.  Aniine  re- 
sembles copal  very  much  in  its  a])pearance ; 
but  is  readi'y  soluble  in  alcohol,  which  cop.il 
is  not:  this  readilv  distinguishes  them.  It  is 
said  to  be  very  frecpiently  employed  in  tho 
making  of  varnishes.  Its'specilic  gravity,  ac- 
cording to  Bristol),  is  1.02S. 

7.  J,iuhiiium,  or  luhdimum.  This  resin  i» 
obtain.'d  from  the  cystus  creticus,  a  shrub 
which  grows  in  Syria  and  ihe  Grecian  islands. 
See  Lauuanl'm. 

8.  Opobalmiaum,  or  balm  of  Gileail. 
This  resin  is  obtained  from  the  amyris  Gi- 


n  E  s 

ItatlpiiMS  a  tre'?  w'lich  R^ows  in  Apibia,  es- 
pcciallv  niMF  Mi'cca.  U  is  so  imicli  valiicd 
l)v  t:io' Turlcs  that  it  is  seldom  or  never  im- 
p.'.rtca  into  Knrope.  We  are  of  course  ig- 
norant of  its  coiuiiinitioii.  It  is  said  to  be  at 
Jiist  turbid  and  wliitc;  and  of  a  strong  aroma- 
tic smell,  and  bitter,  arrid,  a'^lnnsjent  taste; 
but  by  keeping,  it  b.-co  nes  Iniipid  and  tbin, 
and  its  colour  changes  lirst  to  ajreen,  then  to 
1  ellow,  and  at  last  it  assumes  llie  colour  of  ho- 
jiey. 

9.  CMiiiva,  or  hiilium  of  cifaha.  This 
resin  is  obtained  from  the  cop.iilera  oC.u-ina- 
lis;  a  tree  whicii  ^yo\\<.  in  >»Hilh  America, 
and  some  of  the  West  Indian  islands.  1  be 
resinou-i  juice  LNudes  from  inciiions  made  in 
tlie  trnnl.  of  tlie  tree.  The  juice  thus  ob- 
taiii'jd  1-.  lran-[)arent,  of  a  yellowish  colour, 
an  anreeable  smell,  a  pnni^ent  ta  te,  at  first  of 
the  consistence  of  oil,  but  it  gradually  be- 
comes as  thick  as  honey.  It  is  a  comljmalioii 
of  vol  itile  oil  and  resin  ;  the  oil  is  easily  ob- 
tained by  distillation  with  water.  It  is  em- 
ployed ill  niediciiie. 

10.  Drat^'in'x  binod.  This  resin  is  obtain- 
ed from  dirt'erent  plants,  as  the  calamus  ro- 
tanz,  dracxna  draco,  and  plerocarpus  draco. 
It  comes  both  from  the  Ea>t  Indies  and  Spa- 
nish America;  and  itcauiiol  be  doubted  that 
dit'ferenl  vegetable  substances  liave  been  con- 
founded under  the  same  name,  the  red  colour 
having  been  for  nerlv  considered  as  sufficient 
t.j  constitute  dragon""-  blood.  The  substance 
of  that  name  described  by  French  writers  h.is 
an  astringent  taste,  and  is  partly  soluble  in 
water.  This  seems  to  be  the  d;  agon's  blood 
of  America,  in  wliich  Troust  detected  abund- 
ance of  tan.  The  dragon's  blood  which 
comes  to  this  country  from  llie  East  Indies  is 
tasteless,  and  insoluble  in  water  ;  but  it  dis- 
solves in  alcohol,  which  it  tinges  of  a  fine 
crimson.  It  dissolves  also  in  fixed  oils, 
tin.-^ing  them  red.  It  is  in  small  masses 
wrapt"  in  lea\es.  Colour  dark  red.  Powder 
<rlmson.  Brittle.  Fracture  glassy.  Opaiiue. 
Melts  when  heated,  and  readily  burns.  '1  hese 
properties  prove  it  to  be  a  resin.  We  must, 
then,  distinguish  two  distinct  su'ostances  hi- 
Iheit'o  confounded  under  the  same  name. 
According-  to  Bns»on,  the  specific  gravity  of 
dragon's  blood  (probably  the  species  which 
contains  Ian)  is  1  -204. 

11.  G'laiuc.  This  resin  is  obtained  from 
the  guaiacum  officinale,  a  treee  which  is  a 
native  of  tiie  West  Indies.  The  resin  exudes 
spontaneously,  and  is  driven  out  melted  by 
heating  one  end  of  the  wood  in  billets  previ- 
ously bored  longitudinally;  the  melted  resin 
runs  out  at  the  'extremity  farthest  from  the 
lire.  Guaiac  is  of  a  green  colour,  has  some 
transnarencv,  and  is  brittle.  Its  fracture  is  vi- 
treous. When  heated,  it  melts.  It  has  no 
smell,  and  scarcely  any  taste.  Alcohol  dis- 
solves it;  but  water  has  no  effect  upon  it. 
When  thrown  on  burning  coals,  it  diffuses  a 
fragrant  odour.  V\  lien  swallowed  in  powder, 
jt  causes  a  burning  sensation  in  the  throat. 

12.  Hotami  Rail  resin.  This  resin  is  said 
to  be  the  produce  of  the  acarois  resinifera  ;  a 
tree  which  grows  abundantly  in  New  Holland, 
especially  near  I'otanv  Bay.  Specimens  of  it 
were  brought  to  London  about  the  year  1*99, 
where  it  was  tried  as  a  medicine.  Some  ac- 
count was  given  of  it  in  governor  Philips's 
Voyage,  and  in  White's  Journal  of  a  ^■oyage 
to  New  South  Wales;  but  it  is  to  professor 


n  E  s 

Lichteiistein  tliat  we  are  indebted  for  an  ac- 
count of  its  chemical  properties.     The  resin 
exudes  spontaneously  from  the  trunk  ot  the 
singuhir  tree  which  yields  it,  especially  if  the 
baA  is  wounded.     It  is  at  first  llnid,  but  be- 
comes gradually  solid  wlii'ii  drie<l  in  the  sun. 
According  to  governor  Philips,  it  is  collect- 
ed usually  in  llie  soil  which   surrouiuls  tlie 
tree,   having  doubtless  run  down  sponlane-' 
ously  to  thi-  gitnind.      It  consists  of  pieces  ot 
varivHis  sizes,  of  a  yellow  colour  unless  when 
covered   with  a  greenish-grey    crust.     It  is 
firm,  yet  brittle;  and  when  pounded,   does 
not  slick  to  the  mortar  nor  cake.     In  ihe 
mouth  il  is  easily  reduced  to  powder  without 
^ticking  to  the  teeth.  It  communicates  merely 
a  slight  sweetish  astrlng  'nt  taste.     \\\ki\  iik)- 
der.U.dy  healed,   it    melts;  on   hot  coals   it 
burns  to  a  coal,  emitling  a  white  smoke  which 
has  a  fragrant  odour  something   like  stor.ix. 
VVh I'll  thrown   into  the  tire,   it  increases  the 
(lame  like  pitch.     It  communicates  to  water 
tiie  flavour  of  storax,  but  is  insoluble  in  th.it 
liquid.      When  digested  in  alcohol,  two-thirds 
di-solve:  the  remaining  third  con5i^ts  of  one 
part  of  extractive  matter,  soluble  in  water, 
;ind  having  an  astringent  taste;  and  two  parts 
of  woody    fibre  and  other   impurities,    per- 
fectly tasteless  and  insoluble.     The  solution 
has  a  brown  colour,  and  exhibits  the  apjiear- 
ance  and  the  smell  of  a  solution  of  benzoin. 
Water  throws   it   down    unaltered.      AMien 
distilled,  the   products  were  water,  an  empy- 
rLUmatic  oil,  and  i  harcoal ;  but  it  gives  no 
traces  of    any   acid,    alkali,    or    sail,     even 
when  di'lilled  with  water. 

Twelve  parts  were  boiled  in  a  solution  of 
pure  soda  in  water.  Two  parts  of  the  resin 
were  dissolved  ;  the  remaining  ten  parts  were 
floating  on  the  solution,  cohering  together  in 
clots.  No  crystals  were  obtained  by  evapo- 
rating part  of  ihi;  solution  ;  and  when  sulphu- 
ric acid  was  dropt  into  another  portion,  resin 
separated  unaltered.  When  mixed  with 
twice  its  w  eight  of  nitric  acid,  the  resin  swims 
unaltered  on" the  surface;  but  when  heat  is 
applied,  a  considerable  effervescence  takes 
place.  The  digestion  was  continued  till  the 
effervescence  stopped,  and  the  resin  swam  on 
ihesurfaccof  the  liquid,  collected  together  in 
clots.  It  w  as  then  separated  by  filtration.  It 
had  lost  -ij-th  of  its  weight.  The  resin  thus 
treated  had  acquired  a  bitterisli  taste,  w  as  not 
so  easily  melted  as  before,  and  alcohol  w  as 
capable'of  dissolving  only  one-half  of  it.  Tiie 
solution  was  brown,  tasted  like  bitter  al- 
monds ;  and  when  mixed  with  water,  let  fall 
a  yellow  resinous  precipitate  of  a  very  bitter 
ta-te.  The  insoluble  portion  mixed  with 
water,  but  formed  a  turbid  lu|uid,  which 
passed  through  the  filtre.  The  nitric  acid  so- 
lution separated  from  the  resin  by  filtration, 
was  transparent ;  its  colour  was  yellow  ;  its 
taste  bitter;  and  it  tinged  substances  dipped 
into  it  of  a  yellow  colour.  15y  evaporation  it 
yielded  oxalic  acid,  and  deposited  a  yellow, 
earthy-like  powder.  This  last  substance  w  as 
insoluble  in  water,  and  scarcely  soluble  in  al- 
cohol. Its  ta'-te  was  exquisitely  bitter,  like 
quassia.'  It  mixed  with  the  saliva,  and  rea- 
dilv  stained  th'- skin  and  paper  yellow.  The 
resiilnum  continued  bitter  and  yellow,  but 
yielded  no  precipitate  with  potass  and  nitrat 
of  lime.  'Ihe  bitter  substance,  into  which 
this  resin  was  thus  converted  by  nitric  acid, 
deserves  particular  attention.  lie  suspect-, 
that    it  is  capable  of  producing  tlie   same 


R  I.  S 


5(37 


clianpes  on  all  the  resins:  but  this  conjectur<: 
ha;  been  verified  only  with  regard  to  colo- 
phonium,  which  lie  found  to  yield  equally  a 
yellow  bitter  sub>lance. 

13.  The"grcc7i  r«//i  which  constitutes  llie 
colouring  matter  of  the  leaves  of  trees,  and 
almost  ail  vegetables,  is  in-<olubIe  in  water, 
and  soluble  m  alcohol.  I'rom  tlie  experi- 
ments of  Proust  we  learn,  that  when  treated 
with  oxymurialic  ac;<i  if  a-sumes  the  colour  of 
a  withereil  leaf,  an<l  ac()uires  the  resinous  pro- 
perties in  greater  perfection. 

14.  Copid.  This  substance,  which  de- 
serves particular  attention  from  it'-im|)ortanc(r 
as  a  varnish,  and  which  at  lirst  sight  seems  to 
belong  to  a  distinct  d  ss  from  the  resin,  is 
obtained  from  the  rluis  copallinum,  a  tre- 
whicli  i*  a  native  of  Noith  Aine.ica  ;  but  the 
best  sort  of  copal  is  said  to  come  from  Sjoa- 
iiish  America.  Co[Ki1  is  a  beautiful  trans- 
parent resinous-like  substance,  with  a  sliuht 
tinge  of  brown.  Win  n  heated  it  ine'.ls  like 
other  resins;  but  it  differs  from  them  in  not 
being  soluble  in  alcohol,  nor  in  oil  of  turpeii-  • 
tine  without  peculiar  management.  Neither 
does  it  dissolve  in  the  fixed  oils  with  the  same- 
ease  as  the  other  resins.  It  resembles  gum  - 
anim6  exactly  in  appearance ;  but  is  easily- 
distinguished  "by  till-  solubility  of  this  last  ill 
alcohol.  The  "specific  gravity  of  copal  ya- 
ries. 

KESISTAN'CE,  nrresi.i/ ins-force,  in  phi- 
losophy, denotes,  in  general,  any  power 
which  acts  in  an  opposite  direction  to  another, 
so  as  to  destroy  or  diminish  Us  elfect. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  resistance  aris- 
ing from  the  various  natures  and  properties 
olthe  resisting  bodies,  and  governed  by  vari- 
ous laws  ;  a^,  the  resi-tame  ofsofuls,  the  re- 
sistance of  fluids,  the  resistance  of  the  air, 
&c. 

Resistance  nf  unlich,  in  mechanics,  i'; 
the  force  with  whicli  the  quiescent  part-;  o: 
solid  bodies  oppose  the  molion  of  others  con- 
tiguous to  them. 

Of  these  there  are  two  kinds  :  The  first 
where  the  resisting  und  the  resisted  parts,  i.e. 
the  moving  and  (|uiescent  bodiw,  are  only 
contiguous,  and  do  not  cohere  ;  constituting 
separate  bodies  or  masses.  This  resistance 
is  what  Leibnitz  calls  resistance  of  llie  sur- 
face, but  which  is  more  propeily  called  fric- 
tion ;  for  the  kiws  of  whitli,  sec  the  article 
Friciio.x. 

The  second  c.ise  of  resistance,  is  wher» 
the  resisting  and  resisted  paits  are  nut  only 
contiguous,-  but  cohere,  being  parts  of  the 
same  continued  body  or  mass.  This  resist- 
ance was  first  consid'ered  by  •  Galileo,  and 
may  properly  be  called  renitency. 

Tluon/  of  the: rcsistuncc  of  the  fibres  of 
solid  bodies. .-.  To  -conceive  an  idea  of  this 
resistance,  or  renitency  of  the  parts,  suppose 
a  cylindrical  body  su'spended  vertically  by 
one  end.-!  Here  all  its  parts,  being  heavy, 
tend  downwards,  and  emleavour  to  separate 
the  two  contiguous  planes  or  surfaces  where 
the  body  is  the  weakest;  but  a'.l  the  parts  of 
them  resist  this  separation  by  the  force  witii 
which  thev  cohere,  or  are  bound  together. 
Here  then  are  two  opposite  powers,  vi/. 
the  weight  of  the  cylinder,  wluc^  tends  to 
break  it;  and  the  force  of  cohesion  of  the 
parts,  wliich  resists  the  fracture. 

If  now  the  base  of  the  cylinder  is  increased: 
witltout  increasing  its  length,    it  is  evidei^/ 


■5* 

that  both  tlip  rirshiance  and  the  weight  will 
Iw  increased  in  the  same  ratio  as  the  ha.-c ; 
'and  hence  it  appears  that  all  cyliiulei-s  of  the 
same  matter  and  length,  whatever  their  bases 
*lTe,  iiave  an  equal  resistance,  when  vertically 
suspended. 

But  if  the  length  of  the  cylinder  is  increas- 
■ed  without  increasing  its  base,  its  weight  is 
increased,  while  the  resistance  or  strL-nglh 
continues  unaltered;  consequently  the  lengtii- 
ening  has  llie  eifiCt  of  weakening  it,  or  in- 
creases its  tendency  to  break. 

Hence,  to  find  the  greatest  length  a  cylinder 
of  any  matter  may  have,  when  it  just  breaks 
with  the  addition  of  another  given  weight,  we 
need  only  take  any  cylinder  of  the  same  matter, 
and  fasten  to  it  the  least  weight  that  is  just  suf- 
ficient to  break  it ;  and  then  consider  how  nuich 
it  must  be  lengtliened,  so  that  the  weight  of  the 
part  added,  together  with  the  given  weight, 
may  be  just  equal  to  tliat  weight,  and  the  thing 
is  done.  Thus,  let  .'  denote  the  first  length  of 
the  cylinder,  c  its  weight,  g  the  given  weiglit 
the  lengthened  cvlinder  is  to  bear,  and  t*-  tlie 
least  weight  that  breaks  the  cylinder  .',al50  .v  the 

ex 
length  sought  ;  then  as  /  *  .v  "  c  ;    ---  =    the 

weight  of  the  longest  cyhnder  sought ;  and  this, 
together  with  the  given  weighty,  must  be  equal 
to  ;,  together  with  the  weight  le ;  hence  then 

— — I-  »  =  1,  +  «• ;  therefore  x  =.  ' 

/=:  the  whole  length  of  the  cylinder  sought. 
If  the  cylinder  must  just  break  with  its  own 
■weight,  tlien  is  ^  :^  0,  and  in  that  case  j:  =: 

■^ —  /  is  the  whole  length  that  just  breaks  by 

its  own  weight.  By  this  means  Galileo  found 
that  a  copper  wire,  and  of  consequence  any 
other  cylinder  of  copper,  might  be  extended  to 
4801  fathoms  of  6  feet  each. 

If  the  cyhnder  is  fixed  by  one  end  into  a  wall, 
with  the  axis  horizontally  ;  the  force  to  break 
it,  and  its  resistance  to  fracture,  will  here  be 
both  diiferent;  as  both  the  weight  to  cause  the 
fracture,  and  the  resistance  of  the  fibres  to  op- 
pose it,  are  combined  with  the  eiTects  of  the  le- 
^  er  ;  for  the  weight  to  cause  the  fracture,  whe- 
ther of  the  weight  of  the  beam  alone,  or  com- 
bined with  an  additional  weight  hung  to  it,  is  to 
be  supposed  collected  into  the  centre  of  gravity, 
where  it  is  considered  .is  acting  by  a  lever  equal 
to  the  distance  of  that  centre  beyond  the  face 
of  the  wall  where  the  cylinder  or  other  prism  is 
fixed;  and  then  the  prod\ict  of  the  said  whole 
weight  and  distance,  will  be  the  momentum  or 
force  to  break  the  prism.  Again, the  resistance 
of  the  fibres  may  be  supposed  collected  into  the 
centre  of  the  transverse  section,  and  all  acting 
there  at  the  end  of  a  lever  equal  to  the  vertical 
semidiametcr  of  the  section,  the  lowest  point  of 
that  diameter  being  immoveable,  and  about 
which  the  whole  diameter  turns  when  the  pri^m 
breaks;  and  hence  the  product  of  the  adhesive 
force  of  the  fibres,  mnltiphed  by  the  said  semi- 
diameter,  will  be  the  momentimi  of  resistance, 
and  must  be  equal  to  the  former  momentum 

•when  the  prism  just  breaks. 

Hence,  to  find  tlie  length  a  prism  will  bear, 
fixed  so  horizontally,  betore  it  breaks,  either  bv 

■its  own  weight,  or  by  the  addition  of  any  ad- 
ventitious weight ;  t-alcc  any  length  of  such  a 
prikm,andload  it  with  weights  tdl  it  just  brcalu. 

illCD,   put 

I  =  the  length  of  this  prism, 
c  =  its  weight, 

•w  =  the  weight  that  breaks  it, 
m  =  distance  of  weight  -.u 
g  =:  any  given  weight  to  be  borne, 
W  =  its  distance, 
;r  :=  the  Uugth  rci^uircd  to  break. 


RESTSTAI^'CE, 
Then  /  ;  V  ; ;  c  ;  —  the  weight  of  the  prism 

,    ex-  cy^  .  , 

.V,  and  —  X  -J  v  =  -r  ^  its  momentum  ;  also 
Jg  =  the  momentum  of  the  weighty;  therefore 
— I  ~f"  ^  '5  ^1^*^  momentum  of  the  prism  .v  and 

its  added  weight.  In  like  manner  id  -f-  nvt  is 
that  of  the  formerorshortprism,  and  the  weight 

that  broke  it;  consequently  — -  •\-dg  =  \cl-\- 


and 


=  V- 


,+^cl-J. 


X   2/    is   the 


length  sought,  that  just  breaks  with  the  vv-eight 
g  at  the  distauce  J.  If  this  weight  g  is  nothing, 
a7u  -f  {.'1 


then  .V  =  \/ - 


X  2/  is  the  length  of 


the  prism  that  just  breaks  with  its  own  weight. 
If  two  prisms  of  the  same  matter,  having 
their  bases  and  lengths  in  the  same  propor- 
tion, are  suspended  horizontally;  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  greater  has  more  weight  than 
tlie  lesser,  both  on  account  of  its  length,  and 
of  its  base  ;  but  it  has  less  resistance  on  ac- 
coimt  of  its  length,  considered  as  a  longer 
arm  of  a  lever,  and  has  only  more  resistance 
on  account  of  its  base  ;  therefore  it  exceeds 
the  lesser  in  its  momentimi  more  than  it  does 
in  it?  resistance,  and  consequently  it  must 
break  more  easily. 

Hence  appears  the  reason  why,  in  making 
small  machines  and  models,  people  are  apt 
to  be  mistaken  as  to  the  resistance  and 
strength  of  certain  horizontal  pieces,  when 
they  come  to  execute  their  designs  in  large, 
by  observing  the  same  proportions  as  in  the 
small. 

When  the  prism,  fixed  vertically,  is  just 
about  to  break,  there  is  an  equilibrium  be- 
tween its  positive  and  relative  weight;  and 
conser|uently  those  two  opposite  powers  are 
to  each  other  reciprocally  ;is  the  arms  of  the 
lever  to  which  they  are  applied,  tliat  is,  as 
half  tlie  diameter  to  halt  the  axis  of  the 
prism.  On  the  other  hand,  the  resistance 
of  a  body  is  always  equal  to  the  greatest 
weight  which  it  will  just  sustain  in  a  vertical 
position,  that  is,  to  its  absolute  weight. 
Therefore,  substituting  tlie  absolute  weight 
for  the  resistance,  it  appears,  that  the  abso- 
lute weight  of  a  body,  suspended  horizon- 
tally, is  to  its  relative  weight,  as  the  distance 
of  its  centre  of  grav  ity  from  the  fixed  point 
or  axis  of  motion,  is  to  the  distance  of  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  its  base  from  the  same. 

The  discovery'  of  this  important  truth,  at 
least  of  an  equivalent  to  it,  and  to  which  this 
is  reducible,  we  owe  to  Galileo.  On  this 
system  of  resistance  of  that  autlior,  ^^ariotte 
made  an  ingenious  remark,  which  gave  birth 
to  a  new  system.  Galileo  supposes  that 
wliere  the  body  breaks,  all  the  fibres  bieak 
at  once  ;  so  that  the  body  always  resists  with 
its  whole  absolute  force,  or  the  whole  force 
that  all  its  libres  have  in  the  place  where  it 
breaks.  Hut  Mariotte,  finding  that  all 
bodies,  even  glass  itself,  bend  before  they 
brenk,  shews  that  fibres  are  to  be  considered 
as  so  many  little  bent  springs,  whiMi  never 
exert  their  whole  force  till  stretched  to  a 
ceitain  point,  and  never  break  till  entirely 
unl.'ciit.  Hence  tho-e  nearest  the  fidcnun  of 
the  lever,  or  hiwest  point  of  the  fractun-,  are 
Stretched  less  than  those  farther  oiT,  and  con- 
sequently enq-loy  a  less  part  of  their  force, 
and  break  Utcr. 


This  consideration  only  takes  plac  id  tha 
horizontal  situation  of  the  body  ;  in  the  ver- 
tical, the  fibres  of  the  base  all  break  at  once  ; 
so  that  the  absolute  weight  of  the  body  mu^t 
exceed  the  united  resistance  of  all  its  fibres  ; 
a  greater  weight  is  therefore  required  iiere 
than  in  the  horizontal  situation;  that  is,  a 
greater  weight  is  reepiired  to  overcome  their 
united  resistance,  than  to  overcome  their 
several  resistances  one  after  another.  See 
Timber,  streiiglli  of. 

Rksist.\nce  of  fluids,  is  the  force  with 
which  bodies,  moving  in  llnid  mediums,  are 
impeded  and  retarded  in  their  motion. 

A  body  moving  in  a  iluid  is  resisted  from 
two  causes.  Tlie  lirst  of  these  is  tlie  cohesion 
of  the  parts  of  the  iluid.  For  a  body,  in  its 
motion,  separating  the  jiarts  of  a  Iluid,  must 
overcome  the  force  with  which  those  parts 
cohere.  The  second  is  the  inertia  or  in- 
activity of  matter,  by  which  a  certain  force 
is  rec|uirijd  to  move  the  particles  from  tlieir 
places  in  order  to  let  the  body  pass. 

The  retardation  from  the  lirst  cause  is  al- 
ways the  same  in  the  same  space,  whatever 
the  velocity  may  be,  tlie  body  remaining  the 
same  ;  that  is,  the  resistance  is  as  the  space 
run  through  in  the  same  time ;  but  the  ve- 
locity is  also  in  the  same  ratio  of  the  space 
run  over  in  the  same  time  ;  and  therefore  tlie 
resistance  from  this  cause,  is  as  the  velocity 
itself. 

The  resistance  from  the  second  cause, 
\vlien  a  body  moves  through  the  same  fluid 
with  dillirrent  velocities,  is  as  the  square  of 
the  velocity.  l-'or,  first,  the  resistance  in- 
creases according  to  the  number  of  particles 
or  quantity  of  the  tiuid  atruek  in  the  same 
time ;  w  hich  nundier  must  be  as  the  space 
run  through  in  that  time,  that  is,  as  the  ve- 
locity :  but  the  resistance  also  increases  in 
proportion  to  the  force  with  which  the  body 
strikes  against  every  part;  which  force  is 
also  as  the  velocity  of  the  body,  so  as  to  be 
double  with  a  double  velocity,  and  triple 
with  a  triple  one,  S..C. ;  therefore,  on  both 
these  accounts,  the  resistance  is  as  the  ve- 
locity multiplied  by  the  velocity,  or  as  the 
square  of  the  velocity.  Upon  the  whole 
therefore,  on  account  of  both  causes,  viz.  the 
tenacity  and  inertia  of  the  fluid,  the  body  \i 
resisted  partly  as  the  velocity  and  partly  as 
the  square  of  the  velocity. 

But  when  the  same  body  moves  through 
diiferent  fluids  with  the  same  velocitv,  the 
resistance  from  the  second  cause  follows  tlie 
proportion  of  the  matter  to  be  removed  in 
the  same  time,  which  is  as  the  density  of  the 
Iluid. 
Hence  therefore,  if  d  denotes  the  density 
of  the  fluid, 

V  the  velocity  of  tlie 
body, 

and  a  and  h  constant  co- 
cfllcients : 
then  adv^  +  ''"'  "'"  ^^  proportional  to  the 
whole  resistance  to  the  same  body,  moving 
withdilTerent  velocities,  in  the  same  direction, 
through  fluids  of  dill'erent  densities,  but  of 
the  same  tenacity. 

]5ut  to  take  in  the  consideration  of  difi'er- 
cnt  tenacities  of  tluids;  if  i  denotes  the  te- 
nacity, or  the  cohesion  of  the  parts  of  the 
Iluid,  then  adv'  -\-  blv  will  be  as  the  said 
whole  resistance. 

Indeed  the  (piantily  of  resistance  from  the 
cohesion  of  the  parts  of  fluids,  except  iji  gluti- 


no'is  oiif  5,  is  very  small  in  rfsprct  of  the  other 
resislaiice  ;  ami  it  ul«o  iiicreases  in  a  mucli 
lower  degree,  he'.wj;  only  as  llie  velocity, 
while  llie  oilier  iiiereases  as  thf  stumve  of 
the  velocity,  an<l  ratlier  more.  Hence  then 
■the  term  htv  is  very  small  in  respect  of  the 
other  term  aclv';  ami  consequently  the  re- 
sistance is  neaily  as  this  latter  term,  or  near- 
ly as  the  square  of  the  velocity.  Thi-.  rule 
lias  been  employed  by  most  authors,  and  is 
very  near  the  truth  iii  slow  motions  ;  but  i]i 
ver'v  rapid  ones,  it  dillVrs  considerably  from 
the' trii'Ji,  as  we  shall  perceive  below;  not 
iiule.'d  from  the  omission  of  the  small  term 
<7T',  due  to  tile  lolu-Mon,  but  from  the  want 
of  the  full  eounterpr;ssure  on  the  hinder 
part  of  the  body;  a  vacuum,  either  jierfect  or 
partial,  being  left  behind  the  body  in  its 
motion  ;  and  also  perhaps  to  some  compres- 
sion or  accumulation  of  the  lluid  against  the 
fore  part  of  the  body. 

Resistance  and  I'etardation  are  used  indif- 
ferently for  each  other,  as  behi!?  both  in  the 
same  proportion,  and  the  same  re>istai;ce 
always  generaling  the  same  retardation.  15ut 
witli'rcgard  to  dilfeient  bodies,  the  same  re- 
sistance frei[uently  generates  dili'.-rent  retar- 
dations ;  the  resistance  being  as  the  quuiuity 
of  motion,  and  the  retardation  as  that  «f  tlie 
c<lerity. 

Tlie  retardations  from  this  rcsistnnce  may  be 
compared  toj^cther,  by  comparinR-  the  resistance 
with  the  j;Tavity  or  quantity  of  matter.  It  is 
demonstrated  that  the  resistance  of  a  cylinder, 
which  moves  in  the  direction  of  its  axis,  is  equal 
to  the  wei«;ht  of  a  coluiru  of  the  fluid,  wlio^e 
base  is  equal  to  that  of  tlie  cylinder,  and  its  al- 
titude equal  to  the  height  through  which  a  body 
must  fall  in  vacuo,  by  the  force  of  gravity,  to 
acijuire  the  velocity  of  the  moving  body.  So 
that,  if  .1  denotes  the  area  of  the  face  or  end  of 
the  cylinder,  or  other  prism,  I'its  velocity,  and 
ij  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fluid;  then,  the  alti- 
tude due  to  the  velocity  :•  being  — ,  the  whole 
resistance,  or  motive  force  w,  witl  be  «  X  '^  X 

feet,  or  the  space  a  body  falls,  in  vacuo,  in  the 
first  second  of  time.  And  the  rci^tanre  to  a 
globe  of  the  same  diameter  v/ould  be  the  half 
of  this.  Let  a  ball,  for  instance,  of  :'<  inches 
diameter,  be  moved  in  water  with  a  celerity  of 
IG  feet  per  second  of  time:  now  from  experi- 
ments on  pendulums,  and  on  falling  bodies,  it 
has  been  found,  that  this  is  the  celerity  which  a 
body  actpiires  in  falling  from  the  height  of  4 
feet ;  therefore  the  weight  of  a  cylinder  of  water 
of  ^J  inches  diameter,  and  4  feet  higli,  that  is,  a 
weight  of  about  I'Jlb.  4  o/,.,  is  equal  to  the  re- 
tistancc  of  the  cylinder;  and  consequently  the 
half  of  it,  or   Clb.   'Juz.,   is  that  of  the    ball. 

Or,  the  formula gives 

.7854  X    9  X   1000  X    16  X   16    _ 

rS  X  4  X   16  ~ 

l<)6o7..,  or  12  lb.  4o7.-,  for  tlie  resistance  of  the 
tylinder,  or  6' lb.  i!  oz.  for  that  of  the  hall,  the 
same  as  before. 

Let  now  the  resistance,  so  discovered,  be  dl- 
%'ided  by  the  weight  of  the  bouv,  and  the  cpio- 
tieut  will  shew  the  ratio  of  the  retardation  to 
the  force  of  gravity.  So  if  the  said  ball,  of  S 
inches  diameter,  is  of  cast  iron,  it  will  weigh 
nearly  61  ounces,  or  3^  lb. ;  and  the  resistance 
being  (J  lb.  2  07,.,  or  98  ounces,  therefore  the 
resistance  lieing  to  the  gravity  as  ;»M  to  (Jl,  the 
retardation,  or  retarding  force,  will  be  2Ji,  or 
ii,  the  force  of  gravity  being  1.  Or  thus ;  bc- 
Vot.   II.       . 


nivSI'^T.VXCE. 

crtuff  d  the  area  of  a  great  circle  of  the  ball,  is 
;=/i  ,  where  J  is  the  diameter,  and  p  z=  .'H5'i, 
thorciore  the    resistance   to   the  ball    is  m   = 


the    quantity  g    being   =    "'tV 


pnd'v 


;  and  bccauiw  its  polid   content  is   w  = 


ipC,  and  its  weight  ^N/)i/\  where  N  denotes 
Its  specific  gravity,  therefore  dividing  the  re- 
sistance or  motive  force  m  by  the  weight  ■:e,  gives 

tn  .>JW  ^    ,  ,     ■  ,. 

—  z=  — —  r=y  the  retardation,  or  retarding 
tv  IGN':^ 

force,  that  of  gravity  being  1  :  which  is  there- 
fore as  tiie  square  of  the  velocity  directly,  and 
as  the  diameter  inversely;  and  this  is  the  reason 
whv  a  large  bail  overcomes  llie  resistance  betier 
than  a  small  one,  of  the  same  density. 

Resistance  t^f  Fluid  I\^Lflimns  to  thr  Nlut'ton  ff 
F.iiinr,  BoJi.:'.  A  body  freely  descending  in  a 
fluid,  is  accelerated  by  the  relative  gravity  of 
the  body,  (that  is,  the  difference  between  Its 
own  absolute  gravity  and  that  of  a  like  Indlc  of 
the  duid.)  which  continually  acts  upon  it,  yet 
not  equably,  as  in  a  vacuum  :  the  resistance  of 
the  fluid  occasions  a  retardation,  or  diminution 
of  acceleration,  which  diminution  increases  with 
the  velocity  of  the  body.  Hence  it  hafipens, 
that  there  is  a  certain  velocity,  which  is  the 
greatest  that  a  body  can  acquire  by  falling  ;  for 
if  its  veleicity  is  such,  that  the  resistance  aris- 
ing fnun  it  becomes  ctpial  to  the  relative  weight 
of  the  body,  its  motion  can  be  no  longer  acce- 
lerated ;  for  the  motion  here  continually  genc- 
r.ited  by  the  relative  gravity,  will  be  destroyed 
by  the  resistance  ;  or  the  force  of  resistance  will 
be  e<|ual  to  the  relative  gravity,  and  the  body 
forced  to  go  on  equably  :  for,  after  the  velocity 
is  ariiTed  at  such  a  degree,  that  the  resisting 
force  is  equal  to  the  weight  th;<t  iirge.i  it,  it  will 
increase  no  hmger,  and  the  globe  must  after- 
ward continue  to  descend  with  that  velocity 
uniformly.  A  body  continually  comes  nearer 
and  nearer  to  this  greatest  celerity,  but  can  ne- 
ver attain  accurately  to  it.  Now.  N  and  /;  being 
the  specific  gravities  of  the  globe  and  fluid, 
N  —  n  will  be  the  relative  gravity  of  the  globe 
in  the  fluid,  and  therefore  ii'  =r  \l>J^  (N  —  /,)  is 
the  weight  by  which  it  is  urged  downward;  also 

pnJ'  ti'    .     ,  .  ,  , 

m  :::;  ' 15  the  resistance,  as  above  ;  tliere- 

fore  these  two  must  be  equal  when  the  velocity 
can  be  no  farther  increased,  ox  m  ■=.  -.r,  that  is 


n),    or    rv'    =     '-/..V 


(N  —  n)  :  and  hence 


is  the  s.aid  uniform  or  greatest  velocity  to  which 
the  body  may  attain  ■  which  is  evidently  the 
greater  In  the  subduplicate  proportion  of  i>  the 
diameter  of  the  ball.  But  -u  is  always  =  \/i;;fi, 
the  velocity  generated  by  any  accelerative  force 
/  in  describing  the  space/;  which  being  com- 
pared with  the  former,  it  gives  s  =:  ±</,  wheny 

X  —  "...  ... 

IS  = ■ ;   that  IS,   the   greatest   velocity   is 

jt 

that  which  is  generated  by  the  accelerating  force 

' in  passing  over  the  space  ^rl,  or  i  of  the 

dhameter  of  the  ball,  or  it  is  equal  to  the  velo- 
city generated  by  gravity  in  describing  the  space 

X  4^.     For  example :   if  the  ball  is  of 

lead,  which  i>  about  11 J  times  the  density  of 

water;  then  N=::  llj,  n 


,.n-,  =  ^-:a 


=  lOi  =;  V.  anJ  '^ y.    »J    =  ^  d  = 

4  n  J  4 

U|./j  that  is,  the  uniform  or  greatest  velocity 


50() 

of  a  ball  of  lead,  descending  in  water,  is  equal 
to  that  whicli  a  heavy  body  aci]uirc»  bv  l;.lli  ig 
in  Tacuo  through  a  space  equal  to  l:Jj  of  the 
diameter  of  the  ball,  which  velocity  is  v  =  2 

S,/ ^'g  X  — ^"  =  2  V~i^d^  =  8   VlSfrf 

nearly,  or  8  times  the  root  of  the  same  space. 

Hence  it  appears,  how  soon  small  bodie* 
come  to  their  greatest  or  uniform  velocity  in 
descending  iu  a  lluid,  as  water,  and  how  very 
small  that  veloc'ry  ie  .  which  explains  the  reason 
of  the  dow  precipitation  of  mud,  and  small  par- 
ticles, in  water  .  .i.i  alsowliy,  in  precipitations, 
the  larger  and  gross  particles  descend  soonest, 
and  the  lowest. 

Farther,  where  N  :=  n,  or  the  density  of  the 
fluid  is  equal  to  that  of  the  body,  then  N  —  /t 
:=  0,  consequently  (he  velocity  and  distance  de- 
scended are  each  nothing,  and  the  body  will 
just  float  in  any  part  of  the  fluid. 

Moreover,  when  the  body  is  lighter  than  the 
fluid,  then  N  is  le.ss  than  if,  and  N  — ■  n  becomes 
a  negative  quantity,  or  the  force  and  motion 
tend  the  contrary  way,  that  is,  the  hall  will  as- 
scend  up  towards  the  top  of  the  fluid  by  a  mo- 
tive force  w  hich  is  as  n  —  N.  In  this  case,  then, 
the  body  ascending  by  the  action  of  the  fluid,  is 
moved  exactly  bv  the  same  laws  as  a  heavier 
biidv  falling  in  the  fluid.  Wherever  the  body 
Is  pfaced.  It  is  sustained  by  the  fluid,  ar:d  car- 
ried up  with  a  force  equal  to  the  difterencc  of 
the  weight  of  a  quantity  of  the  fluid  of  the  same 
bullc  as  the  body,  from  the  weight  of  the  body  ; 
there  is  therefore  a  t\irce  which  continually  acta 
eijuably  upon  the  body;  by  which  not  only  the 
.aciloii  of  gravity  tif  the  body  Is  counteracted,  so 
as  that  it  is  not  to  be  considered  in  this  case; 
but  the  body  is  also  carried  up.wards  by  a  mo- 
tion eijuablv  accelerated,  in  tiic  lame  manner  as 
a  body  heavier  than  a  fluid  descc .  ds  by  its  re- 
lative gravity:  but  the  equabiiiiy  of  accelera- 
tliin  Is  destroved  in  the  same  manner  by  the  re- 
.si^tance.  In  the  ascent  of  a  body  tighter  than  the 
fluid,  as  it  is  destroyed  in  the  descent  of  a  body 
that  is  heavier. 

For  the  circumstances  of  the  correspoiident 
velocity,  space,  and  time,  &c.  of  a  body  moving 
in  a  fluid  in  wdiich  it  is  projected  with  a  given 
velocity,  or  descending  by  its  own  weight,  &c. 
see  Dr.  Huttim's  Select  Exercises,  prop.  29,  30, 
.'^1,  and  '3J,  page  221,  &c. 

Resistance  of  the  Air, h  the  force  with  whicli 
the  motion  of  bodies,  particularly  of  projectiles, 
is  ret.irded  bv  tlie  opposition  of  the  air  or  at- 
mosiihere.     .See  Gunneiiv,  Projectiles,  &.C. 

'I'he  air  being  a  fluid,  the  general  laws  of  ths 
resistance  of  fluids  obtain  in  it ;  subject  only  to 
some  variations  and  irregularities  fnmi  the  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  density  in  the  difVerent  stationi 
or  regions  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  resistance  of  the  air  is  chiefly  of  use  in 
military  iirojectiles.  In  order  to  allow  for  the 
dhrerenccs  caused  in  their  flight  and  range  by 
it.  Before  the  £l;ne  of  Mr.  Robins,  it  was 
thought  that  this  resistance  to  the  motion  of 
.such  heavy  bodies  as  iron  b.dls  and  shells,  wr» 
too  Inciinsidernble  to  be  regarded;  and  that  the 
rules  and  conclusions  derived  from  the  common 
parabolic  theory,  were  suiTiciently  exact  for  the 
common  practice  of  gunnery.  But  that  gentle- 
man shcv/ed.  In  Ids  New  Principles  of  Gunnery, 
that,  so  far  from  being  inconsiderable,  it  is  in 
reality  enormously  great,  and  bv  no  means  to 
be  rejected  without  incurring  the  grossest  er- 
rors ;  so  much  so,  that  balls  or  shells  wdiicli 
range,  at  the  most,  in  the  air,  to  the  distance 
of  two  or  three  miles,  would  in  a  vacuum  range 
to  20  or  ;TJ)  miles,  or  more.  To  determine  the 
quantity  of  this  resistance,  in  the  case  of  dif- 
ferent velocities,  Mr.  Robins  discharged  musket- 
balls,  with  various  degrees  of  known  velocity, 
agaiust  his  balisiic  peuduiuiBS,  placed  at  several 


5/0 

different  distances,  and  so  discovereil  by  eiperi- 
niei-t  the  qiiantity  of  velocity  lost,  when  piissing; 
throujfU  those  distances,  or  spaces  of  air,  vi-ith 
the  sevenl  known  degrees  of  celerity.  For  hav- 
ia^  thus  known,  the  velocity  lost  or  destroyed, 
in  passing  over  a  certain  space,  in  a  certain 
time,  (which  time  is  very  nearly  equal  to  the 
^juotlent  of  the  space  divided  by  the  medium 
velocity  between  the  greatest  and  least,  or  be- 
tween the  velocity  at  the  month  of  the  gun  and 
tnit  at  the  pendulum);  th.»t  is,  Itnowinof  the 
velocitv  V,  the  space  s,  and  time  /;  the  resisting 
force   is  thence  easily  kaown,  being  equal  to 

~  or  — - ,  where  6  denotes  the  weight  of  the 

ball,  and  V  the  medium  velocity  above-men- 
tioned. The  balls  employed  upon  this  occasion 
by  Mr.  Robins,  were  leaden  ones,  of  -~  of  a 
pound  weight,  and  4  of  so  inch  diameter  ;  and 
lo  the  medium  velocity  uf 

1600  feet,  the  resistance  v/as  II  lb., 
1035  feet, -  -  it  was    L'^. ; 

but  by  the  theory  of  Newton,  before  laid  down. 
tlie  former  of  these  should  be  only  +§  lb  ,  and 
tlie  latter  2  lb.;  so  that,  in  the  former  case  the 
real  resistance  is  more  than  double  of  thyt  bv 
the  theory,  being  increased  as  9  to  22  ;  and  in 
the  lesser  velocity  the  increase  is  from  2  to  2* , 
»r  as  5  to  7  only. 

Mr.  Euler  has  shewn,  that  tlie  com- 
mon doctrine  of  resistance  answers  pretly 
well  vvlK-n  the  motion  is  not  very  swilt,  but 
in  swift  motions  it  gives  tlie  resistance  k-ss 
tlian  it  oui^lit  to  be,  on  two  accounts:  1. 
]5ecanse  in  quick  motions,  the  air  does  not 
iill  ii|)  tlie  space  behind  \he  body  fastenoiijh 
to  pre^s'on  the  iiluder  part?,  to  counlerbalance 
the  weis^ht  of'  tlie  atmosphere  on  the  fore 
part.  2.  The  density  of  the  air  before  the 
ball  being  increased  by  the  qnick  motion, 
«'iil  press  more  strongly  on  the  fore  part,  and 
so  will  resijt  more  than  lighter  air  in  its  na- 
tural state.  lie  has  shewn  that  .Vlr.  Robins 
lias  restrained  his  rule  to  velocities  not  ex- 
ceeding 1670  feet  per  second;  whereas  had 
lie  extended  it  to  greater  velocities,  the  re- 
sult must  have  been  erroneous  ;  and  he  gives 
another  formula  himself,  and  deduces  con- 
clusions differing  from  those  of  Mr.  Robins. 

Mr.  Robins  having  proved  that,  in  very 
great  changes  of  velocity,  the  resistance  does 
pot  aceuraiely  follow  the  duplicate  ratio  of 
the  velocity,  lays  down  two  positions,  which 
he  thought  might  be  of  some  service  in  the 
practice  of  artillery,  till  a  more  complete  and 
accurate  theory  of  resistance,  and  the  changes 
of  its  augmentation,  niav  be  obtained.  The 
first  of  thee  is,  that  tifl  the  velocity  of  the 
projectile  surpasse.s  1 100  or  1200  feet  in  a  se- 
cond, tlie  reii>lance  may  be  esteemed  to  be 
ill  lUe  duplicate  ratio  of  the  velocity ;  and  the 
second  is,  that  when  the  velocity  e.\cceds 
1 100  or  1200  feet,  then  the  ab.soUite  ([uantity 
of  the  resistance  will  be  near  3  times  as  great 
as  it  should  be  by  a  comparison  witii  tiie 
smaller  velocities.  I'pon  these  principlea  he 
prtjceeds  in  approximating  to  the  actual 
ranges  of  pieces  whh  small  angles  of  eleva- 
tions, viz.  such  as  do  not  exceed  8°  or  1 0', 
which  he  sets  down  in  a  table,  compared  with 
their  corresponding  potential  ranges.  But 
we  shall  see  presently  that  these  jiositions  are 
both  without  foimJation;  that  (here  is  no 
such  thing  as  a  sudden  or  abrupt  change  iji 
the  law  of  resistance,  from  the  square  of  the 
velocity  to  one  that  gives  a  quantity  three 
<imf>  aa  luuth ;  but  that  the  change"  is  slow 


RESISTANCE. 

and  gradual,  continually  from  the  smallest  to 
the  highest  velocities  ;  and  that  the  incieascd 
real  resistance  no  wliere  rises  higher  than  to 
about  double  of  that  which  Newton's  theory 
gives  it. 

The  sub;ect  of  the  resistance  of  the  air, 
as  begun  by  Uobins,  has  been  prosecuted  by 
Dr.  lUitton,  to  a  very  great  extent  and  va- 
riety, both  witii  the  whirling-machine,  and 
with  cannon-bails  of  all  sizes,  from  lib  to 
Gib.  weight,  as  well  as  with  figures  of  many 


other  different  shapes,  both  on  the  fore  part^ 
and  hind  \y.:it  of  them,  and  with  planes  set  at 
all  varieties  of  angles  of  inclinatioji  lo  the 
path  or  motion  of  the  same  ;  from  all  which 
he  has  obtaiiiel  the  real  resistance  to  bodies 
for  all  velocilie;,  from  1  up  to  '.'000  feet  pi:r 
second  ;  together  with  the  law  of  the  resist- 
ance to  the  same  body  for  all  diilerent  veloci- 
ties, and  for  different  sizes  with  t!ie  same  ve- 
locity, and  also  for  all  angles  ot  iaclinaiiou. 


RESISTANCES  O?  DIFFERENT  BODIES. 


Velocity 
per 

Small 
hemis. 

Large  heniisph. 

Cone. 

Resistance 

as  the 
power  of 

flat 

round 

Cylinder. 

Whol  e 
globe. 

second. 

flat  side. 

side. 

side. 

vertex. 

base. 

tl-.e  velocity 

feet. 

oz. 

oz. 

oz. 

oz. 

oz. 

oz. 

oz. 

3 

.028 

.051 

.020 

.028 

.064 

.050 

.027 

4 

.043 

.096 

.039 

.043 

.109 

.090 

.047 

5 

.072 

.143 

.063 

.071 

.162 

.143 

.068 

C 

.10.S 

.211 

.092 

.098 

.225 

.205 

.094 

7 

.141 

.2S4 

.123 

.129 

.298 

.278 

.125 

8 

.184 

.368 

.160 

.168 

.382 

..360 

.162 

9 

.233 

.464 

.199 

.211 

.478 

.456 

.205 

10 

.2S7 

.573 

.242 

.260 

.537  . 

.565 

.2,55 

11 

.  3-!9 

.693 

.292 

.315 

.712 

.688 

.310 

2.0.52 

12 

.413 

.8^:6 

.347 

.376 

.850 

.826 

.370 

2.042 

1:! 

.492 

.938 

.409 

.440 

1.000 

.979 

.  435 

2.03S 

14 

.573 

l.l.M 

.478 

.512 

1.J66 

1. 145 

..505 

2.031 

1.1 

.661 

1..336 

.552 

.589 

1.346 

1.327 

.531 

2.031 

If; 

.754 

l.,538 

.634 

.673 

1..546 

1.52S 

.663 

2.033 

17 

.853 

1.757 

.722 

.762 

1.763 

1.7-15 

.752 

2.038 

18 

.959 

1.998 

.818 

.858 

2.002 

1.986 

-848 

2.014 

19 

1.073 

2.258 

.922 

.959 

2.260 

2.246 

.949 

2.047 

20 

1. 196 

2.542 

1 .0.-JS 

1.069 

2.540 

2.52S 

1.057 

2.051 

Mean 

proper. 

HO 

28  S 

119 

126 

291 

2.';  5 

124 

2.040 

Nos. 

1       t 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

In  this  table  are  contained  the  resistances 
to  several  forms  of  bodies,  when  moved  with 
several  degrees  of  velocitv^  from  three  feet 
per  second  to  twenty.  'I'he  names  of  the 
bodies  are  at  the  tops  of  the  columns,  as  also 
which  end  went  foremost  through  the  air ; 
the  different  velocities  are  in  the  first  column, 
and  the  resistances  on  the  same  line,  in  their 
several  columns,  in  avoirdupois  ounces  and 
decimal  parts.  So  on  the  first  line  are  con- 
tained the  resistances  when  the  bodies  move 
with  a  velocity  of  three  feet  in  a  second,  viz. 
in  the  second  column  for  the  small  hemi- 
sphere, of  4'  inches  diameter,  its  resistance 
.028  ounces  when  the  Hat  side  went  fore- 
most;  in  the  third  and  fourth  columns  the 
resistances  lo  a  larger  hemisphere,  first  with 
the  llat  side,  and  next  the  round  side  fore- 
most ;  the  diameter  of  this,  as  well  as  all  the 
iollowing  figures,  being  G|-  incites,  and  there- 
fore the  area  of  the  great  circle  =:  32  square 
inches,  or  ^  of  a  square  foot ;  then  in  the 
jth  and  6th  columns  are  the  resistances  to  a 
cone,  first  its  vertex,  and  then  its  base  fore- 
most, the  altitude  of  the  cone  bemg  ii^  inches, 
the  same  as  the  diameter  of  its  base  ;  in  the 
seventh  cohunii  the  resistance  to  (he  end  of 
the  cylinder,  and  in  tlie  eighth,  that  against 
the  whole  globe  or  sphere.  All  the  numbers 
shew  the  real  weights  which  are  equal  to  tlie 
lesislances ;  and  at  the  bottoms  of  the  co- 
hnnns  are  placed  proportional  numbers, 
which  shew  the  mean  proportions  of  the  re- 
sistances of  all  the  iiguits  lo  one  another. 


with  any  velocity.  Lastly,  in  the  ninth  co- 
lumn are  placed  the  exponents  of  the  power 
of  the  velocity  which  the  resistances  m  the 
eighth  colnnni  bear  to  each  othei",  viz.  which 
that  of  the  ten-feet  velocity  bears  to  each  of 
the  following  ones,  tlie  medium  of  allot  them 
being  as  the  2.04  power  of  the  velocity,  that 
is,  very  little  above  the  sfjuare  or  second 
power  of  the  velocity,  so  far  as  the  velocities 
in  thi.s  table  extend. 

From  this  table  the  fallowing  inferences 
are  easily  deduced : 

1.  That  the  resistance  is  nearly  in  the  same 
proportion  as  the  surfaces  ;  a  small  increase 
only  taking  place  in  the  greater  "surfaces,  and 
lor  the  greater  velocities.  Thns,  by  coni- 
p.aing  together  the  numbers  in  the  second 
and  third  columns,  for  the  bases  of  the  two 
hemispheres,  the  areas  of  which  bases  are  iu 
the  proportion  of  17j  to  32,  or  5  to  9  yery 
nearly,  it  appears  that  the  numbers  in  those 
two  columns,  expressing  the  resistances,  are 
nearly  as  1  to  2  or  j  to  1 0,  as  far  as  the  ve- 
locity of  1  2  feet ;  but  alter  that,  the-  resist- 
ances un  the  greater  surface  increase  gradu- 
ally more  and  more  above  that  proportion. 

2.  'Ihe  resistance  to  the  same  surface 
with  different  velocities,  is,  in  these  slow 
motions,  nearly  as  the  square  of  the  velocity ; 
but  gradually  increases  more  and  more  above 
that  proportion  as  the  velocity  increases. 
'Ihis  is  manifest  from  all  the  columns  :  and 
the  index  of  the  power  of  the  velocity  is  sc^t 
down  iu  tlie  ninth  column,  for  the  rtjj islance* 

3 


RES 

I))  (hi!  ei^^hlh,  the  n\L'diuin  biiing  2.04;  by 
*'lii(  li  it  appears  tluit  the  ix-sistance  to  tht- 
siime  bolv  i<,  in  tliese  slow  motions,  as  llie 
3.04  [jowi'-r  of  lilt;  velocity,  or  nearly  as  the 
square  ot  il. 

3.  The  ronnd  ends,  and  shari)  ends,  of 
solid-;,  suffer  less  resistance  than  the  flat  or 
plane  ends,  of  the  same  diameter ;  but  the 
shaiper  end  has  nut  always  the  less  resistance. 
'I'luis,  the  cylinder, 'and' tlie  flat  end.?  of  the 
lieiuisphere  ajid  cone,  liave  more  resistance, 
tluwi  the  round  or  sharp  ends  of  tlie  same  ; 
but  the  round  side  of  the  htn?isphere  has  less 
resistance  than  the  sharper  end  of  the  cone. 

4.  The  resistance  on  the  base  of  the  hemi- 
splitre,  is  to  that  on  the  round,  or  whole 
sphere,  as  2-J  to  1,  instead  of  2  to  i,  as 
the  theory  gives  that  relation.  Also  the  ex- 
perimented resistance,  on  each  of  the.se,  is 
nearly  i  more  than  the  quantity  assigned  by 
the  theory. 

5.  The  resistance  on  the  base  of  the  cone, 
is  to  that  on  the  vertex',  nearly  as  2  .j^  lo  1  ; 
and  in  the  same  ratio  is  radius  to  the  sine  ot 
tlie  angle  of  inclination  of  the  side  of  the 
cone  to  its  path  or  axis.  So  that,  in  this 
instance,  the  resistance  is  directly  as  the 
sine  of  the  angle  of  incidence,  the  transverse 
section  being  the  same. 

6.  When  the  hinder  parts  of  bodies  are  of 
diff.-rent  forms,  the  resistances  are  ditl'erent, 
though  the  fore-parts  are  exactly  alike  and 
equal ;  owing  probably  to  the  different  pres- 
sures of  the  air  on  the  hinder  parts.  Thus, 
the  resistance  to  the  fore-part  of  the  cylinder, 
is  less  than  on  the  equal  llat  surface  of  the 
cone,  or  of  the  hetnisphere;  because  the 
hinder  part  of  the  cyliiKler  is  more  \)ressed 
or  pushed  by  the  f.jliowing  air  than  those  of 
the  other  two  figures ;  also,  for  tlie  same 
reason,  the  base  of  the  hemisphere  suffers 
a  less  resistance  than  that  of  the  cone,  and 
the  round  side  of  the  hemisphere  le^s  than 
the-whole  sphere. 

KEsist.^NCE  of  the  fibres  of  solid  bodies 
is  more  ])roperly  called  cohesion. 

■RESOLUTION,  in  chemistry,  &c.  the 
reduction  of  a  mixed  bo.lv  into  its  compo- 
nent parts,  or  first  principles,  by  a  proper 
analysis. 

Resolution,  in  music,  is  when  a 
canon  or  perpetual  fugue  is  not  written  on 
a  line,  or  in  one  part,  but  all  the  voices  that 
are  to  follow  the  guide  or  first  voice  are 
written  separately  either  in  score,  that  is  in 
separate  hnes,  or  in  separate  parts,  with  the 
pauses  each  is  to  observe,  and  in  the  proper 
tone  to  each. 

RESPIRATION  consists  in  drawing  a 
certain  quantity  of  air  into  the  lungs, 'and 
throwing  it  out  again  alternately.  Whenever 
thi.s  function  is  suspended,  even  for  a  very 
short  time,  the  animal  dies. 

Tlie  fluid  respired  by  animals  is  common 
atmospherical  air  ;  and  it  has  been  ascertained 
by  experiment,  that  no  other  gaseous  body 
with  which  we  are  acquainted,  can  be  sub- 
stituted for  it.  All  the  known  gases  have 
been  tried ;  but  Ihoy  all  prove  fatal  to  the 
animal  which  is  made  to  breathe  them 
Gaseous  bodies,  as  far  as  respiration  is  con- 
cerned, may  be  divided  into  two  classes: 
1.  Unrespirable  gases  ; -S.  Respirable  gases. 
See  Air. 

J.  The  gases  belonging  to  the  first  class 
»re  of  such   a  nature   that  they  cannot  be 


u   R  S 

drawii  into  the  Ui.)7.i  of  an  animal  at  all ;  the 
epiglottis  closing  spasmodically  whenever 
they  are  applied  to  it.  To  this  class  belong 
carbonic  acid,  and  probably  all  the  other 
acid  g.ises,  a$  has  been  ascertained  by  the 
experiments  of  I'ilatrede  Rozier.  Ammoni- 
acal  gas  belongs  to  the  same  class-;  for  the 
lungs  of  animals  suffocated  by  it  were  found 
by  I'ilatre  not  to  give  a  green  colour  to  vege- 
table blues. 

II.  The  ga^es  belonging  to  the  second  class 
may  be  drawn  into  the  lungs,  and  thrown  out 
again,  without  any  opposition  from  the  res)>i- 
ratory  organs ;  of  course  the  animal  is  ca- 
pable m"  respiring  them.  They  may  be  di- 
vided into  four  subordinate  classes;  1.  The 
first  set  of  gases  occasion  death  immediately, 
but  produce  no  visible  change  in  the  blood. 
Tliev  occasion  the  animal's  death  merely  by 
de|3riving  him  of  air,  in  the  same  way  as  he 
would  be  suffocated  by  being  kept  under 
water.  The  only  gases  which  belong  to  this 
class  are  hydrogen  and  azotic.  2.  The  se- 
cond set  of  gases  occasion  death  immediate- 
ly, but  at  the  same  time  they  produce  Cer- 
tain changes  in  the  blood,  and  therefore  kill, 
not  merely  by  depriving  the  animal  of  air, 
but  by  certain  specific  properties.  'Ihe  gases 
belonging  to  this  class  are  carbureted  hydro- 
gen, sulphureted  hydrogen,  carbonic  oxide, 
and  perhaps  also  nitrous  gas.  3.  The  third 
set  of  gases  may  be  breathed  for  some  time 
without  destroying  the  animal ;  but  death  en- 
sues at  last,  provided  their  action  is  long 
enough  continued.  To  this  class  belong  the 
nitrous  oxide  and  oxygen  gas.  4.  The  fourth 
set  may  be  breathed  any  length  of  time  with- 
out injuring  the  animal.  Air  is  the  only 
gaseous  body  belonging  to  this  class. 

It  has  been  long  known  that  an  animal  can 
onlv  breathe  a  certain  quantity  of  air  for  a 
limited  time;  after  which  it  becomes  the 
most  deadly  poison,  and  produces  suffocation 
as  effectually  as  the  most  noxious  gas,  or  a 
total  absence  of  air.  It  was  suspected  long 
ago,  that  this  change  is  owing  to  the  ab- 
sorption of  a  part  of  the  air;  and  Mayow 
made  a  number  of  very  ingenious  experi- 
ments in  order  to  prove  the  fact.  Dr. 
Priestley  and  Mr.  Sclieele  demonstrated,  that 
the  quantity  of  oxygen  gas  in  atmospheric  air 
is  di:nini=hed  ;  and  Lavoisier  demonstrated, 
in  1776,  that  a  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  dill  not  previously  exist  in  it,  was  found 
ill  air  after  it  had  been  (or  some  lime  re- 
spired. It  was  afterwards  proved  by  Lavoi- 
sier, and  many  other  philosophers,  who  cou- 
firmed  and  extended  his  facts,  that  no  ani- 
mal can  live  in  air  totally  destitute  of  oxy- 
gen. Even  fish,  whiih  do  not  sensibly  re- 
spire, die  very  soon  if  the  water  in  which 
thev  live  is  deprived  of  oxygen  gas.  Frogs, 
which  can  suspend  their  respiration  at  plea- 
sure, die  in  about  forty  minutes,  if  the  water 
in  which  they  have  been  confined  is  covered 
over  with  oil.  Insects  and  worms,  as  Vau- 
quelin  has  proved,  exhibit  precisely  the  same 
phenomena.  They  require  air  as  well  as 
other  animals,  and  die  like  them  if  they  are 
deprived  of  it.  They  diminish  the  quantity 
of  oxvgen  in  the  air  in  which  they  live,  and 
give  out,  by  respiration,  the  very  same  pro- 
ducts as  other  animals.  Worms, 'which  are 
more  retentive  of  life  than  most  other  ani- 
mals, or  at  least  not  so  much  affected  by 
poisonous  gases,  absorb  every  particle  of  the 
oxvgen  contained  in  the  air  iu  which  theyare 
4C2 


RES 


sri 


confined,  before  they  die.  Mr.  Vauquelin'n 
experiments  were  made  on  tin:  gr)lliis  yiii- 
dissimus,  the  Umax  fiavus,  and  heli.x  po- 
matia. 

The  quantity  of  air  respired  differs  very 
much  in  different  animals.  Man  and  hot- 
blooded  animals  are  under  the  necessity  of 
breathing  constantly ;  whereas  amphibious 
animals  have  a  certain  power  over  respiration, 
andean  suspend  the  func'don  altogether  for 
a  limited  time.  Dr.  Barclay  has  ascertained 
that  these  animals  accpiire  a  much  greater 
command  over  their  respiratory  organs  by 
habit.  Fish  do  not  breathe  at  all,  and  con- 
sume so  little  air,  that  the  small  portion  of 
it  held  in  solution  by  the  water  in  which  they 
swim  is  sufficient  for  them.  It  appears  that 
the  nu;nber  of  respirations  made  in  a  given 
time  dilfVi-s  considerably  in  dillereiit  men. 
Dr.  Hales  reckons  them  at  20  in  a  minute. 
A  man  on  whom  Dr.  Menzies  made  experi- 
ments, breathed  only  14  times  in  a  minute. 
Mr.  Davy  informs  us  that  he  makes  between 
26  and  27  in  a  minute. 

Tlie  quantity  of  air  drawn  in  and  emitted 
at  every  respiration  must  differ  considerably 
with  the  size  of  the  man  and  the  capacity  of 
his  lungs.  Dr.  .Vlen/ies  found  that  a  man 
draws  in  at  a  medium  43.77  cubic  inches  of 
air  at  every  inspiration.  Dr.  Goodwin  ha.? 
concluded,  from  his  experiments,  that,  after 
a  natural  expiration,  the  mean  quantity  of 
air  which  remains  in  the  lungs  amounts  to 
109  cubic  inches  ;  but  Menzies  has  endea- 
voured to  prove  that  the  number  ought  to 
have  been  179.  Mr.  Davy  has  ascertained 
that  his  lungs,  after  a  forced  expiration,  still 
retain  41  cubic  inches  of  air ;  altera  natural 
expiration  they  contain 

1 1 8  cubic  inches 
After  a  natural  inspiration  133 
After  a  forced  inspiration  V54 
By  a  full  forced   expiration  after  a  forced 
inspiration,  hethrewout        190  cubic  inches 
After  a  natural.inspiration  78. 5" 
After  a  natural  expiration    67.5 
Let  us  now  endeavour  to  trace  the  changes 
produced  by  respiration.     These  are  of  two 
kinds,  namely  :     1.   The  changes  produced 
upon  the   air  respired.     2.  Changes  produ- 
ced upon  the  blood  exposed  to  this  air.  Lack 
of  these  naturally  claims  our  attention. 

1.  For  our  knowledge  of  the  changes  pro- 
duced upon  the  air  by  respiration,  we  are 
chiefly  indebted  to  I'rieslley,  Cigna,  Men- 
zies, Lavoisier  and  Seguin,  and  Mr.  Davy. 
These  changes  are  the  following:  1.  Part  of 
the  air  respired  disappears.  2.  It  becomes 
impregnated  with  rarbonic  acid.  3.  It  is 
loaded  with  water  in  the  state  of  vapour. 

1.  From  theexperlnicnts  of  Dr.  Menzies, 
it  follows,  that  one-tvieulielh  of  the  air  in- 
spired disappears  in  the  lungs.  This  agrees 
pretty  nearly  with  tiie  experiments  made 
with  great  care  by  Lavoi.sier ;  an  account  of 
which  he  was  empioved  in  drawing  upwhep. 
he  was  imirderetl  by  order  of  the  French 
usurpers  of  tnat  period.  Neither  do  th>- 
experiments  published  lately  by  Mr.  Davy, 
and  which  appear  to  have  been  performed 
with  much  precision,  differ  much  from  those 
of  Dr.  Menzies.  According  to  Mr.  Davy, 
about  -J^^'h  of  the  air  inspired  disappeais  dur- 
ing respiration. 

Concerning  the  portion  of  the  air  which 
disappears,  it  has  liitherlo  been  the  general 


572 

opinion  tliat  it  is  the  oxygen  on'.y,  and  that 
tKe  azote  remains  the  ssnie  after  respiration 
ai  be;ore  it.  'I  ht'se  conclusions  were  tl-,e 
consequence  of  the  experiments  of  Lavoisier, 
who  announced  the  non-alteration  of  the 
azote  of  the  atmosphere  at  a  very  early  period 
of  liii  resea;ches.  This  cojicUision  seems  to 
have  been  the  conietpience  of  the  opinion 
which  he  entertained,  that  air  is  merely  a 
ni'  chanical  mi\tu:«  of  the  two  gases,  oxygen 
and  azotic;  for  when  he  first  adopted  it,  his 
apparatus  was  not  delicate  enougli  to  mea- 
sure small  changes ;  and  he  does  not  appear 
to  Irave  afterwards  examined  the  azotic  re- 
siduum with  much  attention.  Mr.  Davy 
has  rendered  it  probable  that  a  portion  of  the 
azote  of  the  air  as  well  as  its  oxygen  disap- 
pears during  respiration. 

According  to  Dr.  Menzies,  at  every  resiji- 
ration  2.  ISSj  cubic  inches  of  oxygen  gas  are 
consumed.  Now,  2.1835  cubic  inches  of 
that  gas  amount  to  0.686ti9  grains  troy. 
Supi>osing,  with  Hales,  that  a  man  makes 
1200  respirations  in  an  hour,  the  ijuantity  of 
oxvgen  gas  consumed  in  an  hour  will  amount 
to  Si'i.OS'*  grains,  and  in  24  hours  to 
1977ri.(jrj  grains,  or  41.2104  ounces  Iroy. 
This  quanti'ty  exceeds  that  found  by  other 
chemi^ts  considerably;  but  the  allowance  of 
oxygen  for  every  respiration  is  rather  too 
great.  Indeed,  from  the  nature  of  Dr. 
Menzie's  apparatus,  it  was  scarcely  possible 
to  measure  it  accurately.  According  to  the 
last  cxperimenls  of  Lavoisier  and  Seguin,  a 
man,  at  an  average,  consumes  in  twenty-tour 
hours,  bv  respiration,  32.48437  ounces  troy 
ef  oxvgen  gas:  that  is  to  say,  that  a  quan- 
tity of  oxygen  gas,  ec|ual  to  that  weight,  di>- 
apjjears  from  the  air  whi;h  he  respires  in  :.?4 
hours.  According  to  Mr.  Davy,  the  ave- 
rage quantity  of  air  which  disappears  dar- 
ing every  respiration  is  1.4  cubic  inch;  of 
which  0.2  are  azute  and  1.2  oxygen.  Tin-, 
allowing  26  respirations  prr  ni  nute,  as  was 
the  case  with  Mr.  Davy  (the  subject  of  the  ex- 
periment), amounts  in24 hours  to  rather  more 
than  38  ounces  of  air  ;  or  precisely  to  4.68 
ouncesof  azote,  and  33.54  of  oxygen.  This 
does  not  differ  far  from  the  result  obtained  by 
Lavoi-iier,  excepting  in  the  azote,  which  the 
French  chemist  neglec'ed  altogether.  We 
may  consider  it  therefore  as  approximating 
to  the  truth  as  nearly  as  can  be  expected  in 
the  present  state  of  the  science. 

2.  That  the  air  thrown  out  of  the  lungs 
Contains  carbonic  acid,  may  be  easilv  ascer- 
tained by  blowing  it  truough  a  tube  into 
li:ne  -  water,  which  immediately  becomes 
milky  ;  and  the  bulk  of  the  gas  may  be  esti- 
mated by  p.ilting  a  portion  of  air  from  the 
lungs  into  a  graduated  jar  standing  over  mer- 
cury, introducing  a  little  barytic  water,  or 
pure  soda,  to  absorb  the  carbonic  acid,  and 
obicrving  the  diminution  of  bulk  in  conse- 
fjHence  of  this  ab-orption.  According  to 
T^voisier,  a  man  in  24  hours  throws  out  from 
his  lungs  at  an  average  about  I.t.73  ounces 
troy  ol  carJwnic  acid.  From  the  experi- 
ments of  Mr.  Davy,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
lbllr>ws,  that  at  every  expiration  about  1.1 
cub"- inch  of  carbonic  acid  is  emitted,  which 
amounts  in  24  hours  to  no  less  than  37 
ouncOT.  The  difference  between  these  two 
sets  of  experiments  is  enormous,  and  claim? 
a  more  c.implete  experimental  investigation 
to  determine,  whether  the  proportion  of  this 
gas  fmilled  by  dilTecciU  iiidtvidiials,  or  bv 


TxESPIRATION. 

the  same  individual  at  ditTerent  times,  does 
not  dilfer  essentially.  This  supposition  is 
surely  very  probable,  as  it  tallies  with  what 
we  know  to  be  the  case  in  other  excretions ; 
and  if  it  proves  true,  would  throw  mo.e  liyht 
upon  the  nature  of  respiration  than  any  thing 
which  has  hitheito  been  ascertained.  In  the 
mean  time,  till  farther  experiments  decide 
llie  point,  we  may  consider  Mr.  Dav\ 's  con- 
clusions as  nearest  the  medium  of  the  two, 
because  they  corre  pond  with  the  earlier  ex- 
periments of  Lavoisier,  and  remove  a  very 
striking  anomalv  wiiich  appears  wheu  we 
compare  Lavoisier's  experinien  s  on  the  re- 
spiration of  the  guinea-pig  with  those  on  the 
respiration  of  man.  He  put  a  guinea-pig 
into  70S.9b9  ^raiu-i  troy  of  oxygen  ;  and  after 
the  animal  had  breathed  the  gas  for  an  h.jur, 
he  took  it  out.     He  found  that  the  o.xygen 

gas  now  amounted  only  to  592.253  gi". 

Consequently  there    had   disap- 
peared -  116.736 

The  carbonicacid  -rjas  formed  was  130.472 
'I'he  guinea-pig   consumed   in 

£"4  hours  -  5.836S  oz. 

troy  of  oxygen  gas,  and  emitted    6.5236  oz. 

of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Man,  on  the  other 
hand,  consumes  in  the  same  time  32.48437  oz. 
of  oxygen  gas,  and  emits  only  15.73  oz  of 
carbonic  acid  gas.  The  oxygen  gas  con- 
sumed by  the  pig  is  to  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
emitted  as  1.00  :  1.12  ;  whereiis  in  man  it  is 
as  1.000  :  0.484.  If  we  could  depend  upon 
the  accuracy  of  each  of  these  experiments, 
thev  would  prove,  beyond  a  doubt,  that  the 
changes  produced  by  the  respiration  of  tlie 
|)ig  are  diifcrent,  at  least  in  degree,  from 
those  produced  in  man  ;  but  it  is  more  pro- 
bable tliat  some  mistake  has  happened  in 
one  or  other  of  the  experiments. 

3.  It  is  not  so  easy  to  deterniine  the  pro- 
portion of  water  emitted  from  the  lungs 
mix-ed  with  the  air  expired,  as  it  is  that  of 
the  carbonic  arid.  According  to  the  experi- 
ments of  Dr.  Hales,  it  amounts  in  a  day  to 
20.4  oz. ;  but  his  method  was  not  susceptible 
of  great  accuracy.  Mr.  Lavoisier,  on  the 
other  hand,  estimates  it  at  28.55  ounces ; 
but  this  proportion  seems  rather  to  have 
been  the  result  of  calculation  than  of  any 
direct  measurement.  It  can  only  be  con- 
sidered therefore  as  an  ap])roximation  to  the 
truth,  and  most  probably  a  very  imperfect 
one. 

III.  Let  us  now  endeavour  to  ascertain  the 
changes  produced  on  the  blood  by  respira- 
tion. The  wiiole  of  the  blood  is  propelled 
from  the  heart  to  the  lungs,  circulates 
through  the  vessels  of  that  organ,  and  during 
that  circulation  it  is  exposed  to  the  intlu- 
eiice  of  the  air  which  the  animal  is  constantly 
drawing  into  the  lungs.  Now  certain 
changes  are  produced  upon  it  by  this  action, 
which  have  been  partly  traced  by  the  experi- 
ments of  Priestley,  Cigna,  Fouicroy,  llas- 
senfratz,  Beddoes,  Watt,  and  al)ove  all  by 
those  of  Mr.  Davy.  These  changes,  as  far 
as  we  are  acquainted  with  them,  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 1.  The  blood  absorbs  air.  2.  It 
ac(piires  a  tlorid  red  colour,  and  the  chyle 
disappears.  3.  It  emits  carbonic  acid,  and 
perhaps  carbon.  4.  It  emits  water,  and  per- 
liaps  hydrogen. 

As  the  azote  which  has  separated  from  the 
air  during  respiration  is  not  to  be  found  in 
the  products  of  respiration,  we  must,  conclude 


that  it  has  been  absorbed  bv  tlie  blood.  The 
experiments  of  Mr.   Davy  have  rendered  it 
exceedingly  probable  that  the  air  is  absorb- 
ed unaltered  by  the  blood  ;  that  it  is  aftei- 
wards  decompo'sed  by  that  li(|uid ;  and  that 
the  portion  of  azote  which  is  useless  isgiveiv 
out   again,  and    mixed   with  llie  air  in  iim 
lungs.     The  following  facts  render  this  opi- 
nion probable  :    When  hydrogen  gas  is  re- 
spired, no  part  of  it  is  absorbed  or  di  ap- 
pears, nor  are  any  positive  changes  proiluced 
on  the  blood.     But  wheii  the  gaseous  oxide  of 
azote  is  respired,   it  diniinisiies  in  quantify, 
while    at   the    same   time    carbonic    arid    is 
ivolved  as  usual,  and  a  quantity  of  azotic 
gas   niakes  its   appearance.      Now,   as  this 
azotic  gas  did  not  exi-t  separately  in  the  air 
before  respiration,  it  ii!U->l  irave  iieen   pro- 
duced by  the  decomposition  of  the  oxide  of 
azute;  but  its  quantity  being  much  less  than 
the  azote  contained   in   the"  oxide  of  azote 
which    had   disappeared,    it  follows  tliat   at 
least  a  part  of  tins  last  gas  had  been  absorbetl 
by    the  blood  unaltered ;    and   if  a  part   is 
thus  abso; bed,  why  not  the  w holer    In  that 
case  the  azotic  gas  must  have  been  separated 
from  the  blood,  in  consequence  of  the  sub- 
sequent ilecomposition  of  the  oxide  of  azote 
ab>orbed.     Now,  as  air  is  composed  of  pre- 
cisely the  same  ingredients  with  the  oxide 
of  azote  ;  and  as  a  portion  of  the  azote,  as 
well   as  of  the  oxygen,  of  the  air  res])ired, 
disappears  ;   it  is   reasonable  to  suppose  tliat 
the  air  is  absorbed  by  the  ulood,  and  that  the 
azotic  gas  which  is  "developed  is  thrown  out 
of  the  blood  in  consetpieiiee  of  the  decom- 
position of  tlie  air  absorbed.     But  farther,   if 
the  oxygen  nf  the  air  was  alone  absorbed  by 
the  blood  during  respiration  wliilc  the  azote 
remains  unaltered,  oxygen  gas  ought  to  an- 
swer the  same  purposes  as   air.      This  gas, 
liowever,   cannot  be   respired  without  occa- 
sioning death    at  last;   and  \\ hen  it  is  respir- 
ed, the  proportion   of  oxygen  which  disap- 
pears in  a  given  time  is  much  smaller  than 
when  the  air  is  respired.     Thus  when  IS^ 
cubic  inches   of  oxygen   gas   were  breathed 
by  -Mr.  Davy  for  half  a  minute,  11.4  cubic 
inches  of  the  gas  disappeared,  whereas  15.6 
cubic  inches  disappear  in  the  same  time  when 
conim.m  air  is  respired.     This  is  a  demon- 
stration that  the  whole  of  air  is  useful  in  re^ 
spiration,  and  not  merely  its  oxygen  ;   and 
if  so,  the  air  must  be  absorbed. 

2.  It  has  been  long  known  that  the  blood 
which  flows  in  the  veins  is  of  a  <lark-reddish 
purple  colour,  whereas  the  arterial  blood  is 
of  a  llorid  scarlet  colour.  Ixjwer  observed 
that  the  colour  of  venous  blood  was  converted 
into  that  of  arterial  during  its  passage  thioiigh. 
thejungs.  No  chyle  can  be  tlistini;ui5hed  by 
its  white  colour  in  the  blood  after  it  has  pass- 
ed through  the  lungs.  The  changes,  then, 
which  take  place  upon  the  appearance  of  the 
blood,  are  two  :  1 .  Il  acquires  a  florid  red 
<olour ;  2.  the  chyle  totally  disappeare. 
Lower  himself  knew  that  the  change  was 
produceil  by  the  air,  and  .Mavow  attempted 
to  prove  that  it  was  by  absoriiing  a  part  of 
the  air.  Hut  it  was  not  till  Dr.  Priestley 
discovered  that  venous  blood  acquires  a 
scarlet  colour  when  |)ut  in  contact  with  oxy- 
gen gas,  and  arterial  blood  a  dark  n'd  co- 
lour when  put  in  contact  with  hydrogen 
gas;  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  (hat  oxy- 
gen gas  instantly  gives  venous  blood  the 
colour  of  arterial,    and  hydrogen,  an    tha 


confran',  g'ves  artprial  Idood  tlif  colour  of 
venous  L)loi>il  ;  it  was  not  till  tlu'li  lliat  |)hi- 
losopln-Ts  bffi,dn  to  iit(on!|>t  any  lliin'^  like 
aij  •  xplanatioi)  of  the  |)lieiioini-n.i  r,i  le-ui- 
ralion. 

'I'liL'  iilood  is  a  fluid  of  so  complex  a  nature 
tli..t  it  IS  u"t  easy  to  ascerlaln  tlie  i,liauf;es 
produced  in  it  Ijy  exposure  to  diil'ereut  ijases 
out  of  the  hody  ;  ami  even  if  that  could  l)r 
done,  we  have  no  imlhod  of  proviu'^  that 
the  effects  of  the  ,e  jraseous  bodies  upon  the 
coagulatvd  blootl  are  the  same  as  they  would 
be  on,  the  blood  in  its  natural  slate,  circu- 
latiiig  in  the  vessels  of  a  living  ahinval.  The 
tacts  wliicli  have  been  ascertaijicd  arc  the 
foilowinj;: 

1st.  It  appears  from  tlie  expeiinienls  of 
Priestley,  Girtanuer,  and  Ilassenfralz,  that 
when  venous  bloo'i  is  exposed  to  oxvgen 
gas  confined  over  it,  the  l)lood  instantlV  as- 
sumes a  scarlet  coloiu-,  anrl  the  gas  is  dimi- 
nislied  in  bulk  ;  therefore  part  of  the  gas 
lias  been  absorbed.  Mr.  Davy  indeed  could 
not  perceive  any  sensible  diminution  of  the 
bulk  of  the  gas. 

2d.  I'he  same  change  of  colour  takes 
place  when  blood  is  exposed  to  common 
air ;  and  in  that  case  the  iliminution  of  the 
bulk  of  the  air  is  rather  more  sensible. 

3d.  Venous  blood  exposed  to  the  action 
of  azotic  gas  continues  unaltered  in  colour ; 
neither  does  any  perceptible  diminution  of 
the  gas  ensue. 

4th.  Venous  blood  exposed  to  the  action 
of  nitrous  gas  becomes  of  a  deep  |)urple,  and 
about  one-eighth  of  the  gas  is  absorbed. 

5tli.  Venous  blood  exposed  to  nitrous 
oxide  becomes  of  a  brighter  purple,  especi- 
ally on  the  surface,  and  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  gas  is  absorbed. 

6th.  ^'enous  blood  exposed  to  carbonic 
acid  gas  becomes  of  a  brownish-red  colour, 
much  darker  than  usual,  and  the  gas  is  slight- 
ly diminished  in  b\ilk. 

7tli.  Carbureted  hydrogen  gas  gives  venous 
blood  a  tine  red  colour,  a  sliaile  darker  than 
oxygen  gas  does,  as  was  first  observed  by 
Dr.  Beddoes,  and  at  the  same  lime  a  small 
portion  of  the  gas  is  absorbed.  This  gas 
has  the  property  of  preventing,  or  at  least 
greatly  retarding,  the  putrefaction  of  blood, 
as  was  (irst  observed  by  Mr.  Watt. 

8th.  When  arterial  iilood  is  jjut  in  contact 
with  azotic  gas,  or  carbonic  acid  gas,  it  gra- 
dually assimies  the  dark  colour  of  venous 
blood,  as  Dr.  Priestley  found.  The  same 
philosoplier  also  observed,  that  arterial  blood 
■acquired  the  colour  of  venous  blood 
when  placed  in  vacuo.  Consetiueutly  this 
alteration  of  colour  is  owing  to  some  cjiange 
'.viiich  lakes  jdace  in  the  blood  itself,  inde- 
pendant  of  any  external  agent. 

The  arterial  blood  becomes  much  more 
rapialy  and  deeply  daik-coloured  when  it  is 
left  in  contact  with  hydrogen  gas  placed 
above  it.  We  must  suppose,  therefore,  that 
the  presence  of  this  gas  accelerates  and  in- 
creases the  change,  which  would  have  taken 
place  upon  the  blood  without  any  external 
agent. 

yth.  If  arterial  blood  is  left  in  contact  with 
oxygen  gas,  it  graduallv  assumes  the  same 
dark  colour  which  it  woiild  have  aciiuin-d  in 
vacuo,  or  in  contact  with  hydrogen  ;  and 
after  this  change  oxygen  can  no  longer  re- 
ston:  its  scarlet  colour.  It  is  thereiore  only 
upoa  a  part  of  the  blood  tliat  the  oxvgeli 


RESPIRATION. 

acts;  and  after  tlii.  part  has  undergftne  flie 
change  which  occa  ions  the  dark  culoiir,  llic 
blood  loses  the  power  ot  being  allected  by 
oxygen. 

ioiii.  Mr.  Hassenfralz  poured  into  venous 
blood  a  (piantity  of  oxymuriatic  acid  ;  the 
blood  was  instantly  decomposed,  and  assum- 
ed a  deep  and  almost  black  c(ilour.  V\  hen 
he  pouretl  common  muriatic  acid  into  blood, 
the  colour  was  not  altered.  Now  oxymu- 
riatic acid  has  the  property  of  '^".'ing  out  its 
oxygen  readily  ;  Consetiuently  tiie  black  co- 
lour was  owing  to, the  instant  combination  of 
a  pan  of  the  blood  with  oxygen. 

Such  are  the  phenomena  produced  upon 
the  blood  by  the  dilferent  gases  out  of  the 
body  ;  but  tile  science  is  not  far  enou:;h  ad- 
vanced at  present  to  be  able  to  explain  them 
in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Tin-  obvious 
changes  produced  on  the  blood  in  the  lungs 
by  respiration,  are  the  llorid  red  colour,  and 
the  disappearing  of  the  chyle. 

3.  Thai  carbonic  acid  is  emitted  from  the 
lungs  during  expiration,  has  been  fully  ascer- 
tained; but  whether  it  is  formed  in  tiie  lungs, 
according  to  the  theory  of  Lavoisier,  by  the 
combination  of  the  oxygen  of  tlie  air  with 
carbon  emitted  by  the 'blood,  or  is  emitted 
readv-formed  from  the  blooti  at  the  same 
time  that  the  air  is  absorbed,  is  not  so  ob- 
vious; but  the  latter  opinion  is  more  proba- 
ble, and  indeed  follous  from  the  supposi- 
tion that  air  is  absorbed  without  decompo- 
sition. 

4.  It  is  much  more  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  the  watery  vapour  which  exhales  from 
the  lungs  along  with  the  air  expired,  has  been 
emitted  irom  the  blooil,  or  from  the  vessels 
of  the  lungs,  than  to  suppose  with  Lavoisier, 
that  it  is  formed  in  the  lungs  by  the  combi- 
nation oftheoxv^en  rjf  the  air  with  hydrogen 
emitted  from  the  blood. 

From  the  preceding  enumeration  of  facts, 
we  may  conclude  that  the  following  changes 
are  produced  by  respiration  :  The  blood,  as 
it  passes  through  the  lungs,  absorbs  a  portion 
of  air,  and  carries  it  along  with  it  througli 
the  blood-vessels.  During  the  circulation 
this  air  is  gradually  decomposed  by  tlie 
blood,  its  oxygen  and  part  of  its  azote  enter- 
ing into  new  combinations,  while  at  the  same 
time  a  portion  of  azote,  of  carbonic  acid, 
and  water,  is  evolved.  When  the  blood  re- 
turns to  the  lungs,  it  absorbs  a  new  dose  of 
air,  and  at  the  same  time  lets  go  the  azotic 
gas,  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  watery  vapour, 
which  had  been  formed  during  the  circula- 
tion. The  same  changes  are  again  repeated, 
and  the  same  substances  emitted,  every  time 
the  blood  comes  to  the  lungs. 

It  is  probable  that,  during  a  considerable 
part  of  the  dav,  there  is  a  constant  inllux  of 
chyle  into  the  blood  ;  and  we  are  certain  that 
lymph  is  constantly  flowing  into  it.  Now  it 
appears,  from  the  most  accurate  observa- 
tions hitherto  made,  that  neither  chyle  nor 
lymph  contains  librina,  which  forms  a  very 
conspicuous  part  of  the  blood.  This  librina 
is  employed  to  supply  the  waste  of  the 
muscles  ;  the  most  active  parts  of  the  body, 
and  therefore,  in  all  probability,  reipiiring 
the  most  frequent  sup])ly.  Nor  can  it  be 
doubted  that  it  is  employed  for  other  useful 
purposes.  The  quantitv  of  librina  in  the 
blood,  then,  must  be  conslantlv  diminishing, 
and  therefore  new  fabrina  must  be  constant- 
ly formed.    But  the  only  substances  out  of 


573 

which  it  can  }>••  fr,r;r>pd  are  the  cliylc  and 
lymph,  neithi-r  of  wiiich  contains  it.  'l'i>Hr« 
must,  therefore,  be  a  continual  <lecoii)posi- 
tioii  of  the  chyle  and  lymph  going  on  in  the 
b!ood-^  essels,  and  a  continual  new  lorinniioa 
of  librina.  Other  substances  also  niav  be 
formed;  but  we  arc  certain  that  this  musJt  be 
lorined  there,  beca'.;'r-  it  does  not  exist  pre- 
viously. Now,  one  great  end  of  respiration 
ITiust  undoubtedly  be,  to  assist  this  decom- 
position of  ch}  le,  and  complete  formation  of 
blood. 

It  follows,  from  the  experiments  of  Four- 
cr(jy,  that  librina  contains  more  azote,  and 
less  hydrogen  and  caibon,  than  any  of  the 
other  ingredients  of  the  blood,  and  conse- 
quently also  than  any  of  the  ingredients  of 
thechjle.  in  what  manner  the  chyle,  or  a 
part  of  it,  is  converted  into  fibrina,  it-  is  im- 
possible to  say  :  we  are  not  sufliciently  ac- 
i|uainted  with  the  subject  to  be  able  to  ex- 
pi, tin  the  process.  Ihit  we  can  see  at  least, 
that  carbon  and  h\drogen  must  be  abstracted 
from  that  part  of  the  cliyhi  which  is  to  be 
converted  into  librina  ;  and  we  know,  that 
these  substances  are  actually  thrown  out  by 
respiration.  We  may  conclude,  then,  that  one 
use  of  the  air  absorbed  is  to  abstract  a  quan- 
tity of  carbon  and  hydrogen  from  a  part  of 
the  chyle  by  compound  allliiity,  in  such 
proportions  that  the  remainder  becomes 
librina  :  therefore  one  end  of  respiration  is 
to  form  librina.  Doubtless  the  other  in- 
gredients of  the  blood  are  also  new-moditied, 
though  we  know  loo  little  of  the  subject  to. 
throw  any  light  upon  it. 

But  the  complete  formation  of  blood'  is  not 
the  only  advantiige  gained  by  respiration: 
the  temperature  ot  all  animals  depeiuls  upon 
it.  It  has  been  long  known,  that  those  ani- 
mals which  do  not  breathe  have  a  tem- 
perature but  very  little  superior  to  the 
medium  in  which  they  live.  Tliis  is  the 
case  with  lishes  and  many  insects.  Man, 
on  the  contrary,  and  (piadrupeds  whicli 
breathe,  have  a  temperature  considerably 
higher  than  the  atmosphere:  that  of  man 
is  98".  Birds,  who  breathe  in  proportion  a 
still  greater  (]uantity  of  air  than  man,  have 
a  temperature  equal  to  103°  or  104'.  It  has 
been  proved,  that  the  temperature  of  all  ani- 
mals is  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  air 
which  they  breathe  in  a  given  time. 

These  facts  are  sulhcient  to  demonstrate, 
that  the  heat  of  animals  de|)ends  upon  re- 
spiration. But  it  was  not  till  Dr.  Black'* 
doctrine  of  latent  heat  became  known  to  the 
world,  that  any  explanation  of  tlie  cause  of 
the  temperature  of  breathing  animals  was 
attempted.  That  illustrious  philosopher, 
whose  discoveries  form  the  ba.sis  upon  whirli 
all  the  scientilic  part  of  chemistry  has  been 
reared,  saw  at  once  the  light  which  his  doc- 
trine of  latent  heat  threw  upon  this  part  of 
physiology,  and  he  ap|)lied  it  very  early  to 
explain  the  tempeiature  ol  animals. 

According  to  him,  part  ot  the  latent  heat 
of  the  air  inspired  beconio  sensible  ;  and  of 
course  the  tempei  atiire  of  the  lungs,  and  tlie 
blood  that  passes  through  them,  must  be 
raised  :  and  the  blood,  thus  heated,  com- 
municates its  heat  to  the  whole  bodv.  This 
opinion  was  ingenious,  but  it  was  liable  to 
an  unanswerable  oljjection :  for  if  it  was 
true,  the  temperature  of  the  bodv  ought  to 
be  greatest  in  the  lungs,  and  to  diminish  gra- 
dually as    the  distance  from  the  liuig^  in- 


571 


RES 


ciiMses;  \\'i','.i)i<  not  (rue.  Tlie  theory,  in 
ociiJotiMcnc",  was  abandoned  even  by  Dr. 
Black  him-elf:  al  least  he  made  no  allenipt 
■  lo  suppoil  it. 

Cra-.vford  and  LavoiVier,  who   coniidered 
all   the  changes  operated  by  respiration  as 
•taking  p'ace   in    llie   Inngs,    accounted   for 
the  origin  of  animal  lieat  almost  precisely 
iii-the  same  manner  with  Dr.   Blaclf.     Ac- 
cording to  (hem  the  owgen  gas  of  the  air 
combines  in  the  lungs  with  the  liydrogen  and 
carbon  emitted  by  the  blood.     During  this 
combination,  t!ie  owgen  gives  out  a  great 
quantity  of  caloric,  'with  which  it  had  been 
combin'ed ;  and  this  caloric  is  not  only  suf- 
ficient  to  support   the   ten>perature   of  the 
bo:ly,   but  a!so  to  carry  oil  the  new-formed 
water  in  the   slati-   of  vapour,  and   to  raise 
considerably  the  temperature  of  the  air  in- 
spired.      According   to  tliese  philosophers, 
then,  the  wliole  of  the  caloric  wliich  supports 
the  temperature  of  the  body  is  evolved  in 
tiie  lungs.     Tiieir  theory   aVcovdingly   was 
liable  totlie  same  objection  with  Dr.  Black's  ; 
but  they  ol)viated  it  in  the  following  man- 
ner: Dr.  Crawford  foinid,  tlial  the  specilic 
caloric  of  arterial  blood  was   1.0300,  while 
that  of  veno'.!s  blood  was  only  0.8923.  Hence 
he  concluded,  that  the  instant  venous  blood 
is  changed  into   arterial  blood,  its  specific 
caloric   increases;  consequeiitly  it  requires 
an  additional  quantity  of  caloric  to  keep  its 
temperature  as  high  as  it  had  been  while  ve- 
nous blood.     This  addition  is  so  great,  that 
the  whole  new  caloric  evolved  is  employed  ; 
the  temperature  of  the  lungs  mast  necessari- 
ly remain  tlie  same  as  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
body.       During    the     circulation,     arterial 
blood  is  gradually  converted  into  venous  ; 
consequently  its  specific  caloric  diminishes, 
and  it  must' give  out  heat.     This  is  the  rea- 
son that  the  temperature  of  the  extreme  parts 
ef  the  body  does  not  diminish. 

This  explanation  is  certainly  ingenious, 
but  it  is  not  quite  satisfactory  :  for  the  dif- 
ference in  the  specific  caloric,  granting  it  to 
be  accurate,  is  too  small  to  account  for  the 

freat  quantity  of  heat  which  must  be  evolved. 
I  is  evident  that  it  nui--t  fall  to  the  ground 
altogether,  provided,  as  we  have  seen  reason 
to  suppose,  that  the  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
water  are  not  formed  in  the  lungs,  but  during 
(tiie  circul.ition. 

•Since  the  air  enters  the  blood,  and  com- 
bines with  it  in  the  state  of  gas,  it  is  evident 
that  it  will  only  part  at  first  with  some  of  its 
caloric;  and  this  portion  is  chiefly  employed 
in  carrying  olV  the  carbonic  acid  gis,  the 
azotic  gas,  and  the  water.  For  the  reason 
that  the  carbonic  acid  leaves  the  blood 
at  the  instant  that  the  air  enters  it,  seems  to 
be  this:  The  air  combines  with  the  blood, 
and  part  of  its  caloric  unites  at  the  same  in- 
stant to  tlie  carbonic  acid,  and  converts  it 
into  gas:  another  portion  converts  the  wa- 
ter into  vap'jur.  The  rest  of  the  caloric  is 
evolved  during  the  circul.ition,  when  the 
oxvgcn  of  the  air  combines  with  hydrogen 
and  carbon,  and  forms  water  and  carbonic 
acid  gas.  The  ((uantity  of  ca'oric  evolved  in 
the  lungs  seems  not  only  suilicient  to  carry 
off  the  carbonic  acid  and  water,  which  the 
diminution  of  the  specific  caloric  must  facili- 
tate ;  but  it  seems  also  lo  raise  the  temper- 
ature of  the  blood  a  little  higher  than  it  was 
t.-fore.     For   .Mr.  John    Hunter   constantly 


RET 

found,  that  the  hc.it  of  the  heart  in  animals 
was  a  degree  higher  than  any  other  part  ot 
the  body  which  he  examined.  Now  this 
could  scarcely  hapijen,  unh-ss  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  blood  was  somewnat  raised  during 
respiration. 

Thus  we  have  seen  two  uses  which  respir- 
ation seems  to  serve.  The  first  is  the  co:n- 
pletion  of  blood  by  the  formation  of  fibrina  ; 
ihe  becond  is  the  maintaining  of  the  temper- 
ature of  the  body  at  a  particular  standard, 
notwithstanding  the  he;it  whicii  is-contiiiuully 
giving  out  to  the  colder  surrounding  bodi-'s. 
But  there  is  a  third  purpose,  wiiioh  ex])lains 
why  the  animal  is  killed  so  suddenly  when 
respiration  is  stopped.  The  circulation  of 
the  blood  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
continuance  of  life.  Now  the  blood  is  cir- 
culated in  a  great  measure  by  the  alternate 
contractions  of  the  heart.  It  is  necessary 
that  the  heart  should  contract  regularly, 
otherwise  the  circulation  could  not  go  on.  But 
the  heart  is  stimulated  to  contract  by  the 
blood  :  and  unless  blood  is  made  to  undergo 
the  change  produced  by  respiration,  it  ceases 
almost  instantaneously  to  stimulate.  As  the 
blood  receives  oxygen  in  tiie  lungs,  we  may 
conclude  that  the  presence  of  oxygen  is  ne- 
cessary to  its  stimulating  power. 

UEST,  the  continuance  of  a  body  in  the 
same  place,  or  its  continual  application  or 
contig'iity  to  tiie  same  par's  of  the  ambient 
or  contiguous  bodies ;  and,  therefore,  is 
opposed  to  motion.  See  Motion. 
iREST,  in  music,  the  same  with  pause. 
RESTAURATION,  in  arcliitecture,  the 
act  of  repairing  those  parts  of  a  building  that 
are  gone  to  decay,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
give  it  its  original  strength  and  beauty,  bee 
Architecture. 

RESTIO,  a  genus  of  the  lri:indria  order, 
in  the  dioecia  class  of  plants.  'I'lie  male  calyx 
is  an  ovate  spike  of  membranaceous  scales ; 
the  corolla  is  proper,  hexapetalous,  and  per- 
sistent. The  lemale  calyx  and  corolla  are  as 
in  the  male;  the  gerinen  is  roundidi,  and 
is  sex-sulcated  ;  there  are  three  erect  and 
persistent  styles ;  the  capsule  is  roundish, 
with  six  plaits,  and  is  rostrated  and  trilocular; 
tiie  seeds  are  oblong  and  cylindrical.  There 
are  twenty-eight  species,  all  natives  of  tlie 
Cape,  some  oi  them  resembling  rushes  ;  and 
used  for  making  brooms,  thatching  houses, 
&c. 

RESTITUTION,  of  medals.  See  Me- 
dal. 

UESTOR.VTIVE.  See  Medicike,  and 
Materia  Medico. 

RETAINER,  in  law,  a  servant  who  does 
not  continually  (Kvell  in  the  house  of  his 
master,  but  only  attends  upon  special  occa- 
sions. 

RETAINING  fee,  tlie  first  fee  given  to 
a  Serjeant  or  counsellor  at  huv,  in  order  to 
make  him  sure,  and  prevent  his  pleading  on 
the  c.inlrarv  side. 

RE'IARD.VI  U)N,  in  physics,  the  act  of 
diminishing  the  velocity  of  a  moving  body. 
Sei:  Resistance. 

R  E 1  E  MiRABiLE,  in  anatomy,  a  small 
plexus,  or  net- work,  of  vessels  in  the  brain, 
surrounding  the  pituitary  gland.  Sec  Ana- 
tomy. 

Rrte  MuoosiTM.     See  Cutis. 

RE  lENTlDN,  is  defined,  bv  Mr.  Locke. 


11  E  T 

or  retains  those  shnple  ideiis  it  has  once  re- 
ceived by  sensation  or  relVclion. 

Ueteniion,  is  also  used  in  medicine,  &c. 
lor  the  state  of  contraction  in  the  soHds  or 
vascular  parts  of  llie  body,  which  makes 
them  hold  fast  their  proper  contents.  In  this 
sense  retention  is  opposed  to  evacuation  and 
excretion. 

RETICULA,  or  Reticule,  in  astrono- 
my, a  contrivance  for  the  exact  raeasurii;g 
the  quantity  of  eclipses. 

'Ihe  reticule  is  a  little  frame,  consisting 
of  thirteen  line  silken  llireads,  equidistant 
from  each  oliier,  and  parallel,  placed  in  the 
focus  of  object-glasses  of  telescopes  ;  that  is, 
iu  the  place  where  the  image  of  the  lumi- 
nary is  painted  in  its  full  extent ;  of  conse- 
quence, therefore,  the  diameter  of  the  sun 
or  moon  is  seen  divided  into  twelve  equal 
parts  or  digits ;  so  that  to  find  the  quantity 
of  the  eclipse,  there  is  nothing  to  do  but  to 
number  the  luminous  and  tlie  d.iik  parts. 
As  a  square  reticule  is  only  proper  for  the 
diameter,  not  for  the  circumference,  of  the 
luminary,  it  is  sometimes  made  circular  by 
drawing  six  concentric  e<]uidistant  cirdcs. 
This  represents  the  jjhases  of  the  eclipse 
perfectly. 

RETINA,  iu  anatomy,  the  expansion  of 
the  optic  nerve  on  the  internal  surlace  of  the 
eye,  whereupon  the  images  ot  objects  being 
painted,  are  impressed,  and  by  that  means 
conveyed  to  the  conuuon  sensory  in  the 
br..iii,  where  the  mind  views  and  contem- 
plates ;lieir  ideas.     See  Oprics. 

RETORT,  in  chemistry,  a  kind  of  hollow 
spherical  vessel.     See  Chemistry. 

RETRAXIT,  in  law,  is  where  a  plaintiff 
comes  in  person  to  the  court  where  his  ac- 
tion is  brought,  and  declares  he  will  not 
proceed  in  it,  in  whicli  case  the  action  is 
barred  forever.  A  retraxit  difl'ers  from  a  non- 
stjit  in  tills,  tiiat  it  is  always  where  the  plaintilT 
or  d'Tiiandaiit  is  personally  in  court.  See 
Nonsuit. 

RETRENCHMENT,  in  the  art  of  war, 
any  kind  of  work  raised  to  cover  a  post,  and 
fortify  it  against  the  enemy,  such  as  fascines 
loaded  with  earth,  gabions,  barrels  of  earths, 
sandbags,  and  generally  all  things  that  can 
cover  the  men  and  stop  the  enemy.  But 
retrenchment  is  more  ])articulaiiy  applicable 
to  a  fosse  bordered  with  a  parapet;  and  a 
post  fortified  thus  is  called  post  retrenched,- 
or  strong  post. 

R-etrenchmenls  are  either  general  or  ])ar- 
ticular  :  general  retrenchments  are  new  lor- 
tilicalions  made  in  a  place  besieged,  to  cover 
the  besiegers  when  the  enemy  become  mas- 
ters of  a  lodgment  on  the  fortification,  thai 
they  may  be  in  a  condition  of  disputing  the 
grouiul  inch  by  inch,  and  putting  a  stop  to 
the  enemy's  progress  in  expectation  of  re-- 
lief. 

R  ETROGRADATION,  or  Retrogres- 
sion, the  act  or  effect  of  a  thing  moving 
l)ackwards. 

'The  retrograde  motiim  of  the  planets  is  an 
apparent  motion,  wherein  they  seem,  to  an 
observer  placed  on  the  earth,  to  move  back- 
wards, or  contrary  to  the  signs.  See  Astro- 
nomy. 

KE'Tl'RN,  rcturna,  or  retorna,  in  law,  is 
used  in  divers  senses.  1.  Return  of  writ' by 
sherilfs  and  bailills  is  a  certilicate  made  by 
them  to  the  court,  of  what  they  have  done 


lo  be  a  faculty  of  the  mmd,  whereby  it  keeps    iji  relation  to  the  exicution  of  the  writ  di- 


R  E  T 

rcctecl  to  tlicm.  Tliis  is  wrote  on  the  ba(  k 
of  the  writ  by  tlie  otliccr,  who  thus  sends  the 
V  rit  bark  to  the  court  from  whence  it  issued, 
in  order  that  it  may  be  tiled.  '2.  Return  of 
a  comuiissiiiii  is  u  certificate  or  answer  sent 
to  tiie  comt  from  whence  the  commission 
issues,  couceining  wliat  has  been  dune  by  the 
commissioners.  3.  Returns^  or  days  in  Ijank, 
are  certain  davs  in  each  term,  appointed  for 
Ih-J  return  of  writs,  &c.  Tlius  Ililary  term 
has  four  returns,  viz.  in  the  king's  l)ench,  on 
the  da\  next  after  the  octave,  or  eighth  day 
alter  Hilary  day :  on  the  day  next  alter  the 
Jilteenth  day  from  St.  Hilary :  on  the  day 
after  (he  purilication  :  and  on  the  next  after 
the  octave  of  the  purihcation.  In  the  com- 
mon pleas,  in  eiglit  days  of  St.  Ililary:  from 
the  day  of  St.  ililary  in  fifteen  days:  on 
the  day  alter  the  purilication  :  in  eight  days 
ol  the  purilication.  Easter  term  has  live  re- 
turns, viz.  in  the  kind's  bench,  on  the  day 
next  after  the  (ifteenth  day  from  Easter:  on 
tile  day  next  after  one  month  from  Easter : 
on  the  day  next  after  live  weeks  from  F.aster: 
and  on  the  day  next  alter  the  day  following 
ascension-day.  In  the  common  pleas,  in  fit- 
tBen  days  from  tlie  feast  of  Easter  :  in  three 
weeks  from  the  feast  of  Easter:  in  one 
month  from  Easter  day :  in  five  weeks 
from  Easter  day :  on  the  day  aftiT  the 
ascension-day.  I'rinity  term  has  four  re- 
turns, vi/.  on  the  day  following  the  second 
<]av  after  'IVinitv  :  on  the  day  following  the 
eighth  day  after  Trinity :  on  the  day  next 
after  tlie  fifteenth  day  from  Trinity  :  on  the 
day  next  alter  three  weeks  from  'Irinity.  In 
the  common  pleas,  on  the  dav  after  Trinity  : 
in  eiglit  days  of  Trinity  :  in  lilteen  days  from 
Trinity:  in  three  weeks  from  Trinity.  Mi- 
chaelmas term  has  six  returns,  viz.  on  the 
tlay  next  after  three  weeks  from  St.  Michael  : 
on  the  day  next  after  one  month  of  St.  Mi- 
chael :  on  the  day  following  the  second  day 
after  All-souls:  on  the  d.iy  next  after  the 
Becond  day  after  St.  Martin:  on  the  day 
following  the  octave  of  St.  Martin :  on  tlie 
day  next  after  15  days  of  St.  Martin,  in  the 
common  pleas,  in  three  weeks  from  St.  Mi- 
chael:  in  one  month  from  St.  Michael:  on 
the  day  after  ."Mi-souls:  on  the  day  after  St. 
Martin :  on  the  octave  of  St.  Martin.-  in  fif- 
teen days  from  St.  Martin.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served, that,  as  in  the  king's  bench,  all  re- 
turns are  to  l)e  made  on  some  particular  day 
of  the  week  in  each  term,  care  must  betaken 
not  to  make  the  writs  out  of  that  court  return- 
able on  a  iion-judicial  dav  ;  such  as  Sunday, 
and  AU-saints,  in  Michaelmas  term,  the  pu- 
rification in  Hilary,  tlie  ascension  in  Easter, 
and  Midsummer-day  except  it  should  fall 
on  the  first  day  of  Trinity  term. 

RETrKNO  HABENDO  or  Returnum 
.  AVERioRUM,  is  a  writ  which  lies  for  a  person 
who  iias  avowed  a  distress  by  him  made, 
and  proved  the  same  to  be  lawfully  taken, 
for  returning  to  him  the  cattle  distrained 
which  were  before  replevied  by  the  party 
distrained  upon  surety  given  to  prosecute. 

RETURNUM  irreplegiabile,  a  writ 
for  the  final  return  of  cattle  to  the  owner, 
when  found  to  be  unjustly  distrained. 

RET/1.'\,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order 
ill  the  pentandria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the 
29th  natural  order,  canipanaceiE.  Tiir  cap- 
sule is  bilocular ;  the  corolla  cylindrical,  and 
villous  without ;  the  stigma  bifid.  There  is 
one  speciss  of  the  Cape,  frutescent. . 


REV 

TIEVE,  Reeve,  orGREVE,  tlie  bailiff  of 
a  franchise,  or  manor,  thus  called,  especially 
in  the  west  of  I'^jigland.  Hence  Shire-reve, 
slieriff,  port-greve,  &c. 

REVEILLE,  a  beat  of  drum  about  break 
of<lay,  to  give  notice  that  it  is  time  lor  the 
soldiers  to  arise,  and  that  tlie  sentries  are  to 
forbear  challenging. 

REVELS,  entertainnicnts  of  dancing, 
masking,  acting  comedies,  farces,  &c.  aiiti- 
ently  very  fretpient  in  the  inns  of  court,  and 
in  noblemen's  houses,  but  now  disused.  The 
officer  who  has  the  direction  of  the  revels 
at  court,  is  called  the  master  of  the  revels. 

RE\'ENUE,  PUBLIC,  the  yearly  income 
appropriated  to  the  exiiences  of  government. 
'Iliere  are  four  different  sources  of  public 
revenue:  1.  The  income  derived  from  pro- 
perty vested  in  the  public.  2.  The  emolu- 
ments of  lucrative  jirerogatives  annexed  to 
the  sovereignty.  3.  Voluntary  contributions 
bom  the  people.  4.  Ta-;es  or  imposts,  not 
spontaneously  given,  but  legally  exacted. 
Erom  one  or  other  of  these  great  sources 
all  public  revenue  must  arise. 

The  revenue  of  tlie  kings  of  England  con- 
sisted formerlv  of  various  branches  which 
were  inlurited  as  the  patrimony  of  the  crown. 
Of  these;,  the  rents  and  profits  of  the  demesne 
lands  of  the  crown  might  alone  have  furnisli- 
ed  a  very  considerable  income,  as  there 
are  few  estates  in  the  country  which  have 
not  at  some  period  or  omer  since  the  Con- 
quest been  in  the  hands  of  the  king.  The 
custody  of  the  lay  revenues,  lands,  and  tene- 
ments, of  bishoprics  during  tlii:ir  vacancy, 
and  of  the  temporalities  of  such  abbeys,  as 
were  of  royal  foundation,  was  made  a  pro- 
ductive source  of  revenue  by  some  of  the 
kings,  who  kept  the  sees  a  long  time  vacant 
to  enjoy  their  income ;  Elizabetii  kept  the 
see  of  Ely  vacant  nineteen  years  for  this 
purpose.  I'irst  fruits  and  tenths  of  tlie  liv- 
ings of  the  clergy,  were  originally  paid  to 
the  pope ;  but  upon  the  destruction  of  his 
•authority  in  England,  were  demanded  by  the 
king  as  his  successor  in  clerical  supremacy. 
The  other  branches  of  the  antient  revenue 
were,  the  profits  of  the  military  tenures ; 
with  the  right  of  purveyance  and  pre-emp- 
tion ;  and  a  claim  to  all  property  of  which 
no  other  person  had  any  legal  pretension, 
such  as  treasure-trove  or  nionev-plate,  or 
bullion  fomid  hidden  in  the  earth  ;  deodands, 
and  loileiturts  ol  lands  and  g._ods  for  oll'ences ; 
waifs,  or  goods  stolen  and  thrown  away  by 
the  thief  in  his  flight ;  estrays,  or  valuable 
animals  found  wandering  and  the  owner  un- 
known ;  goiids  wrecked,  if  no  proof  could  be 
made  within  a  certain  space  of  time  who 
were  the  legal  proprietors;  theright  to  mines 
of  silver  aiul  gold;  and  to  certain  fish,  as 
whales  and  sturgeons,  when  either  thrown  on 
shore,  or  cati  jht  near  the  coast.  These,  with 
fines  and  forfeitures  of  various  descriptions, 
and  fees  to  the  crown  in  a  variety  of  legal 
matters,  composed  the  ordinary  revenue  of 
the  kings  of  England  ;  but  in  the  times  of 
war,  and  on.otiier  occasions  of  extraordinary 
expence,  it  became  necessai'y  to  have  re- 
course to  more  general  and  efficient  modes 
of  raisina  money.  The  taxes  thus  occasion- 
ally collected  were  denominated  Danegeld  or 
Dane-money,  escuage  or  scutage,  hydage, 
talliage,  tenths  and  fifteenths,  and  subsidies. 
Subsidies  fell  into  disuse  during  the  civil  wars 


REV 


573 


in  the  reign  of  Cliarles  I.  when  tlie  parlia- 
ment introduced  weekly  and  monthly  assess- 
ments at  a  fixed  sum  upon  each  county, 
which  were  levied  by  a  pound-rate  both  iipoo 
lands  and  personal  estates.  The  sciitages, 
liydage,  talliage,  subsidies,  and  periodical  as- 
sessments, were  all  prop,  rly  land  -  taxes, 
though  not  so  generally  known  under  that 
name  as  the  more  general  imposition  by 
which  they  have  been  superseded. 

On  the  restoration  ot  Charles  H.  it  was 
deemed  expedient  to  abolish  the  feudal  rights 
anrl  profits  of  wardship,  mairiage,  livery,  and 
purveyance:  the  propriety  ot  this  measure 
was  generally  acknowledge<l ;  and  in  order 
to  make  up  the  deficiency  it  would  occasion 
in  the  king's  revenue,  an  excise  duty  of  fit- 
teen  pence  per  barrel  upon  all  beer  and  ale,. 
and  a  proportionable  sum  upon  other  li(|uors 
sold  in  the  kingdom,  was  established.  Excise- 
duties  had  been  introduced  by  the  Long  Par- 
liament: about  tlie  same  time  also,  consider- 
able additions  were  made  to  the  revenue  of 
the  customs  ;  the  post-office  was  established 
on  a  permanent  footing,  forming  a  new  and 
very  beneficial  branch  of  public  income;, 
the  land-tax  was  adopted  on  very  nearly  the 
plan  on  which  it  is  at  present  assessed  ;  and 
many  improvements  were  made  in  oilier 
brandies  of  the  revenue.  From  this  period 
the  progress  of  the  public  revenue  has  been 
very  rapid.  Tlie  depreciation  of  the  value  of 
iiMiiey,  and  the  consequent  advance  in  the 
price  of  all  articles  of  consumption;  the 
greater  -military  and  naval  establishments 
which  are  kept  up,  and  the  accumulation  of- 
public  debts  for  which  an  annual  interest 
must  be  paid  ;  have  increased  in  an  asto:.isli- 
ing  degree  the  sum  requisite  for  defraying, 
the  yearly  expences  of  government. 

Sir  John  Sinclair,  in  his  History  of  tlie 
Public  Revenue,  gives  the  following  view  of 
its  amount  at  the  commencement  of  eaclj. 
reign : 

Year.  Annual  income.- 

ot  400,000 

350,000 

300,000- 

250,000 

200,000 

150,000- 

100,000- 

80,000- 

150,000 

100,000- 

154,13<J' 

130,000 

100,000- 

76.643 

64,970 

100,000. 

400,000  ■ 
800,000 
400,000 
450,000 
500,000 
600,000 
895,819. 
L5 1 7,247 
1,800,000- 
2,001,855 , 
3,895,205 
5,691,803; 
6;v62,643j 


William  tlie  Conqueror, 

1066 

\\  illiam  Rutus 

10S7 

Henry  I. 

- 

1100 

Stephen 

. 

1135 

Henrv  11. 

_- 

M54 

Richard  1. 

- 

11S9 

John 

-- 

1199 

Henry  III. 

- 

1214 

Edward  I. 

- 

1272 

Edward  II. 

-- 

1307 

Edward  lU. 

- 

1347 

Richard  11. 

-. 

1377 

Henry  IW 

- 

1399 

Henrv  \'. 

. 

1413 

Heni-'y  \  1. 

-. 

1422. 

Edward  l\'. 

. 

1460-) 
1483  J- 
14S3^ 

FA^vM■d  V. 

- 

Richard  HI. 

.- 

Henry  VII. 

- 

14S5> 

Henry  VIII. 

. 

•1509 

Edward  Al. 

-, 

1547 

Mary 

- 

1553 

Elizabeth 

.. 

1558 

James  I. 

. 

1602 

Charles  I. 

- 

1625 

The  Commonw 
Charles  II. 

ealth  > 

164S    1 

James  11. 

. 

1684 

William  III. 

. 

1688 

Queen  Anne 

-. 

1706. 

Georg^I. 

- 

1714, 

976 

Georire  TI. 
Geome  111. 


K  E  V 


Year.  Annual  income- 

l'L'7    Jt8,5-22M0 
1760       8,S00,000 


The  above  statement  shews  a  vast  increase 
of.the  public  revenue,  particularly  from  tht- 
tiiiie  of  Charles  I.  but  its  progress  since  tlie 
vear  1760,  has  bjen  much  more  remarkable. 
Ill  1773  it  amounted  to  10,066,661/. ;  in  17S0 
it  had  advanced  to  12,2:,5,214.'.  ;  and  ui  1786 
wliesi  the  debts  incurred  by  the  Ann-ncau 
war  liad  been  fullv  provided  for,  it  amounted 
to  15,096,1 1-'/.  The  increase  of  commerce 
during  the  peace,  naturally  improved  sucli 
branches  of  the  revenue  as"  depended  there- 
on ;  so  that  in  17S)1,  its  total  produce  was 
16. 712,000'.  In  the  course  of  the  \»ar  with 
the  French  Republic,  tlie  old  taxes  iucreased 
in  produce,  noi  onlv  m  consequence  of  an 
increased  e.xpenditure,  which,  to  a  certaui 
f\tent,  alwa^s  increased  the  revenue,  but 
also  from  anuneNampled  series  of  commer- 
cial and  of  general  pro<iperity. 

In  former  wars  it  was  neve'r  eNpected,  that 
the  trade  and  n'.anufaclures  of  the  coun- 
try could  equal  their  e.\tent  in  peace  ;  but 
at  this  period,  various  circum-tance,.  contri- 
buted to  render  Gre.it  Britain  the  en)poriui\i 
of  Kurope,  and  almost  of  the  world.  At 
liome,  the  great  increase  of  pojudation,  en- 
abled the  country  to  have  in  pay  a  greater 
number  of  seamen  and  soldiers  than  at  any 
*ormer  period  of  its  history,  witliout  experi- 
t-ncing  any  want  of  bands  to  carry  on,  to  a 
greater  extent  than  ever,  a'iriculture,  manu- 
factures, and  commerce.  Great  ISritain  also 
aci|uired  abroad  manv  valuable  possessions 
of  the  l-'rench,  the  l)utch,  and  the  Spani- 
ards ;  and  bv  the  greatness  of  its  maritime 
power  held  the  complete  dominion  of  the 
sea.  Whilst  it  possessed  these  advantages, 
the  continent  of  Kurope  was  convulsed  with 
war,  unable  to  direct  its  attention  to  com- 
mercial industry,  and  had  no  market  but 
England  from  which  it  could  procure  the 
productions  of  both  the  Indies. 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  under 
fcudi  favourable  circiun^tauces  the  wealth  and 
income  of  the  nation  should  increase,  and 
tonseijuentK ,  that  the  old  taxes  sliould  be- 
come more  productive,  wliich  with  the  great 
niunber  of  new  duties  that  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  impose,  has  raised  the  nett  pro- 
iluce  of  the  permanent  and  annual  duties, 
rompo>irig  the  ordinary  public  revenue,  to 
the  vast  sum  of  3;>,3r4,l;)8/.  lOv.  ^d.;  in 
^dditioa  to  which  lliere  are  temporary  taxes 
of  very  ^■aMsideral)le  amount,  im|)osed  for  de- 
fraying part  of  th(f  increased  expenditure 
ihiring  the  war,  which  made  the  total  amount 
of  the  public  revenue  of  (jreat  Britain  for 
the  year  ending  jtli  Janna.ry  JS06,  as  fol- 
lows : 

Js'ett  produce  of  liie 
Customs 


REV 

Property-tax  .^•4,377,;>S5   1?     0' 

Arrears   of  luconic- 

dutv,  &:c.  -         -19,403     6     9| 


R  H  A 


Total  c£.48,S90,896  Ij     Hi 

In  addition  to  the  permanent  and  tempo- 
rary taxes,  constituting  the  jiublic  revenue, 
there  are  always  certain  incidental  receijjts 
ai)plicab:e  to  the  public  service  ;  such  as  the 
prohts  of  lotteries,  fees  of  the  regulated  e\- 
chequer-ofllce,  moneys  repaid  by  public  ac- 
countants, I've. 

REVEIUU: RATION,  in  physics,  the  act 
of  a  body  repelling  or  relleciing  anollier 
alter  its  impinging  ou  it. 

KEVEUBERATtMn",  or  RtvERBERAT- 

ING     FURNACE.       See   L  VRN  AC  E,  >ol.   I.    p. 
792,  2d  column. 

KFA'EUSE  of  a  medal,  coin,  S:c.  denotes 
the  second  or  back  Mile,  in  opposition  to  the 
head  or  princi|)al  ligure.     See  Medals. 

REVERSF,D,  in  heraldry,  a  thing  turned 
backwarils,  or  upside-down. 

RE\'EHSU)X,  in  law,  is  dehncd  to  !)e  re- 
turning of  lands,  &c.  into  the  possession  of 
the  donor,  or  iiis  heirs.  Reversion,  in  the 
law  of  I'.ngland,  has  two  significations ;  the 
one  of  which  is  an  estate  left,  which  continues 
during  a  particular  estate  in  being  ;  and  the 
other  is  the  returning  of  the  land,  &c.  after 
the  particular  estate  is  ended  ;  and  it  is  fur- 
ther said  to  be  an  interest  ih  lands,  when 
the  possession  of  it  fails  ;  or  where  the  estate 
whicli  was  for  a  time  parted  w  ith,  returns  to 
the  grantoi-s,  or  their  heirs.  But,  according 
to  the  usual  delinition  of  a  reversion,  it  is 
tlie  residue  of  an  estate  left  in  the  grantor, 
alter  a  particular  estate  granted  away  ceases, 
continuing  in  the  grantor  of  such  an  estate. 

The  dilference  between  a  remainder  and  a 
reversion,  consists  in  this;  that  the  remainder 
may  belong  to  any  man  except  the  grantor ; 
whereas  the  rever.^ion  returns  to  him  who 
conveyed  the  lands,  itc. 

In  order  to  render  the  doctrine  of  rever- 
sions easy,  we  shall  give  the  following  table; 
which  shews  the  present  value  of  one  pound, 
to  be  received  at  the  end  of  any  number  of 
years  not  exceeding  forty ;  discounting  at 
"the  rate  of  hve,  four,  aiul  three  per  cent, 
compound  interest.     See  Interest. 


Excise 
Stamps 
j.and  and  Assessed 

Taxes 
I'ost-odiee 

I'eusious  and  Salaries 
Hackney  CoachcK 
llawker.s  an<l  Pedlars 
{Small  branches  of  the 

hereditary  revenue 
iVar-taxes,  t'usloins, 

and  Excise 


/.7,W2,889  15   Hi 


1,6,3.V-',S8.-,   10   10 
4,li.'3,527     3 


6,261,778   10  4* 

1,237,004   10  lOi 

111,173     3     *>  • 

i(6,454  14  10 

8,444     2  H\ 

157,373   II  111  J 

8,992,377   13     8i 


Value 

Value 

Value 

Years. 

at  .)  per 

at  4  per 

at  3  per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

1 

.;i.'24 

.961,1 

.9709 

o 

.ooTO 

.g-M,'; 

.942G 

3 

.  S(J;",S 

.K89S 

.91.51 

4 

.K2'J7 

.S.ll.S 

.8885 

~i 

.7R:),1 

.8219 

.8626 

C 

.74(ii! 

.7903 

.8375 

7 

.7107 

.7.';99 

.8131 

V 

.(i7iiK 

.7:107 

.7S94 

9 

.614(; 

.70'Ja 

.7064 

10 

.(W.'W 

.G'.W 

.7441 

11 

..'iH17 

.fi49(i 

.7224 

I-' 

..l.'JiiH 

.(>24G 

.7014 

1.1 

.:,m:\ 

.600ti 

.  6809 

14 

.M5\ 

..')77,5 

.66U 

1.1 
XCi 

.1810 

.  5ryr,'^ 

.6419 

.4.W1 

..wsg 

.6-iS2 

17 

.4:!(;;! 

..■^IIM 

.  60.10 

IS 

.-11.';.'; 

.49;!(i 

.,5874 

i;» 

.•s9r,~i 

.4741) 

.5703 

W 

.a769 

.45(i4 

.5537 

23 
24 
25 

26 
27 
28 
29 
.30 

31 

32 
33 
34 
35 

"6 
37 
3S 
39 
40 


.3589 

.4388 

.5.37.7 

.3418 

.4219 

..5219 

.  3255 

.4057 

.5067 

.3100 

.3901 

.4919 

.2953 

.3757 

.4776 

.2812 

.3607 

.4637 

.2678 

.3468 

.4502 

.2551 

.3335 

.4371 

.2429 

.3206 

.4243 

.2314 

.3083 

.4120 

.2204 

.2965 

.4000 

.2099 

.2851 

.3883 

.1999 

.2741 

.3770 

.1903 

.26.36 

.3660 

.1813 

.1726 

.2534 

.3554 

.2437 

.34.50 

.1644 

.2343 

.3350 

.1566 

.2253 

.  3252 

.1491 

.2166 

.31.58 

.  1 420 

.20S3 

.3066 

The  use  of  the  preceding  table. — To  lind 
tlie  present  value  of  any  sum  to  be  received 
at  tlie  end  of  a  given  term  of  years,  discount- 
ing at  the  rate  of  three,  four,  or  five  per 
cent,  compound  interest.  Find  by  the  above 
table  the  present  value  of  one  pound  to  be 
receive<l  at  the  end  of  the  given  term,  whicli 
multi|)ly  by  the  nember  of  pounds  proposed 
(cutting  olf  lour  ligures  from  the  product  on 
account  ot  the  decimals),  then  the  result  will 
be  the  value  sought.  For  example  :  the  pre- 
sent value  of  10,000/.  to  be  received  ten 
years  hence,  and  the  rate  of  interest  live  per 
cent.  ise<iual  to  .6139  X  10,000:=6139.0000 
or  6139/.  Again,  the  present  value  of  10,000/. 
due  in  ten  years,  the  rate  of  interest  being 
three  per  cent,  is  ,7441  x  10,000  =  7441/. 

Reversion  nf  scries,  in  algebra,  a  kind 
of  reversed  operation  of  an  infinite  series. 

RE\'1FA\',  in  chancery,  is  used  for  a  bill 
where  a  cause  has  been  heard,  and  a  decree 
thereon  signed ;  hwt  some  error  in  law  ap- 
|)earing  upon  the  decree,  or  new  matter 
being  cliscovered  after  it  was  made,  this  bill 
is  given  for  a  fresh  examination  into  the  me- 
rits of  the  cause. 

Review,  in  war,  is  the  appearance  of  an 
army,  or  part  of  an  army,  hi  order  of  battle, 
and  their  being  viewed  by  the  general,  that 
he  may  know  the  condition  of  the  trooiis. 

Re\'1E\v,  is  also  the  name  of  one  kind  of 
])eriodic;;l  publications,  now  too  much  prosti- 
tuted (under  the  shelter  of  anon\nious  criti- 
cism) to  the  purposes  of  the  malice  of  rival 
authors,  and  the  petty  artifice  of  interested 
booksellers. 

RE\'ISE,  among  printers,  a  second  or 
third  proof  of  a  sheet  to  be  printed  ;  taken 
off  in  ordi-r  to  be  compared  willi  the  last 
proof,  to  see  whether  all  the  mistakes  mark- 
ed in  it  are  actually  corrected. 

RE\  IVOR,  bilioj,  in  chancery,  is  a  bill 
for  reviving  a  cause,  where  cither  of  the  par- 
ties dies  alter  tin'  bill  and  answer,  and  before 
the  cause  is  heanl;  or  if  heard,  before  the 
decree  is  inrolled :  in  which  case  this  bill 
must  be  brought,  praying  that  the  former 
proceeding  may  sland  revived,  and  be  put 
upon  the  same  looting  as  at  the  lime  of  the 
abatement. 

KE\OCATIOX,  in  law,  signifies  the  re- 
calling,  or  annulling  and  making  void, 
some  power,  grant,  deed,  &c.  made  be- 
fore. 

RUACillTIS.    Sec;  Medici.ne. 


R  M  A 

^IIAMNUS,  the  buckthorn,  a  K<*tni''  ff 
tlie  manogvnla  oriler,  in  llic  pfiUaiiilria  class 
ot  plant-;  ;  and  in  llu'  natural  mtthod  rank- 
ing uii<ler  till,'  fbrty-lliird  ordor,  diMiio=;.i'. 
'lln'  calyx  is  ttibnlous,  with  live  minute 
scales  siMTonndlng  the  stajnina;  there  is  no 
corolla;  the  fruit  is  a  Inrry.  There  are 
i'oity-t«'o  species;  of  which  the  most  remark- 
v.h\k  arc,  1.  The  catharliciis,  or  cojnmoii 
purging  bucktiiori),  growing  naturally  in 
some  parts  of  Britain.  'J'his  grows  to  the 
height  of  12  or  14  leel,  with  many  irregular 
branches  al  the  extremities.  The  leaves  are 
oval-lanceolate,  finely  serrated  on  the  edges, 
their  nerves  converging  together.  Tlie  llow- 
crs  ijrow  in  clusters,  one  m  each  footstalk, 
white;  and  in  this  species  divided  into  four 
segments ;  the  fruit  is  a  round  l)hck  berry, 
o.itaining  four  seeds.  The  juice  of  the  ber- 
iies  is  a  strong  pin-gative,  uiul  is  made  use 
of  for  making  the  common  syrup  of  buck- 
thorn kept  in  the  shops.  'l"hc'  bark  is  eme- 
■tic  ;  the  juice  of  the  unripe  berries  with  aluin 
dyes  yellow  ;  the  ripe  ones  a  line  green  ;  the 
bark  dyes  yellow.  Tlie  green  colour  yiekU-d 
by  the  berries,  called  bv  the  Krencli  verde- 
rissie,  is  much  esteemed  by  miniature-paint- 
ers. Of  this  species  there  are  two  varieties, 
viz.  the  dwarf  buckthorn,  a  shrub  of  about  a 
yard  high,  of  a  greenish  colour,  but  of  little 
sh'Hv;  and  the  long-leaved  dwarf  buckthorn, 
which  is  a  larger  shrub,  with  leaves  some- 
wh  it  larger,  but  in  other  respects  very  simi- 
lar to  the  dwarf  buckthorn.  2.  The  lotu-i 
has  the  leaves,  priikle-,  (lowers,  and  fruit,  of 
the  zizypluis  or  jubeb  ;  only  with  tiiis  diller- 
eiice:  that  the  fruit  is  here  round,  smaller, 
and  mure  luscious,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
branches,  like  those  of  the  paliurus,  are  nei- 
ther so  much  jointed  nor  crooked.  The 
fruit  is  in  great  repute,  and  tastes  somewhat 
like  gingerbread.  The  Arabs  call  it  aneb 
<^nta  el  seedra,  or  the  jubeb  of  the  seedra  : 
of  which  Olavus  Celsius  had  so  higli  an  opi- 
nion, tluit  he  has  described  it  as  the  diidaim 
of  the  Scriptures.  This  species  is  very  com- 
mon in  the  Jereede  and  other  parts  of  15om- 
bay  ;  and  has  been  sup|)osed  by  some  to  be 
the  s-ame  plant  with  tliat  celebrated  by  Ho- 
mer for  its  enchanting  property ;  though 
the  latter  is  more  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  a  species  of  diospyros.  It  is  proper, 
however,  to  distinguish  between  both  these 
shrubs  and  a  herb  often  mentioned  by  tlie 
ancients  under  the  name  of  lotus.  They 
are  also  different  from  the  Egyptian  lotus 
described  by  Herodotus;  for  which  see 
NviMPH^tA.  3.  The  frangula,  or  berry- 
bearing  alder,  is  a  deciduous  shrub,  a  native 
of  England  and  most  of  the  northern  parts 
of  Europe,  and  aflords  several  varieties.  4. 
The  alpine,  rough-leaved  frangula,  or  berrv- 
beaving  alder,  is  also  a  deciduous  shrub,  and 
native  of  the  Alps.  It  differs  in  no  respect 
from  the  common  sort,  except  that  it  has  no 
thorns,  and  that  it  will  grow  to  be  rather 
taller,  with  tough,  large,  and  double  laciniat- 
ed  leaves.  The  smooth-leaved  alpine  fran- 
gula is  a  variety  of  this  species,  with  smooth 
leaves  and  of  a  lower  growth.  5.  The  pali- 
urus, or  thorn  of  Christ,  is  a  deciduous  shrub 
or  tree,  a  native  of  Palestine,  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, and  Italy.  It  will  grow  to  nearly  the 
height  of  14  feet,  and  is  armed  with  sharp 
thorns,  two  of  which  are  situated  at  each 
joint,  one  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  straight, 
and  upright ;  the  other  is  scarcely  lialf  Uiat 

Vol.  II. 


R  n  E 

length,  and  bent  backward ;  and  between 
tlieiu  is  the  bud  for  next  year's  shoot.  "  This 
))laiit  (says  llanbury)  is  undoubtedly  the  sort 
of  which  the  crown  of  thorns  for  our  I'lessed 
Saviour  was  composed."  fi.  The  common 
alatermis  is  an  evergreen  tree,  and  native  ol 
the  south  of  Europe.  There  arc  several  va- 
rieties of  this  species;  the  mo>t  remarkable 
of  which  are  the  broad-leavd  and  the  jagged- 
leaved  alaternu-,  which  have  all  been  con- 
founded with  the  piiillyrea.  7.  The  insec- 
torius,  or  narrow-leaved  buckthorn,  is  an 
evergreen  shrub  or  tree,  and  native  of  Spain. 
It  grows  to  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet, 
and  sends  forth  several  branches  from  the 
bottom  to  the  top.  They  are  covered  with 
a  blackish  or  dark-coloiu'ed  bark,  and  each 
of  them  is  terminated  by  a  long  sharp  thorn. 
The  fruit  con'.'nues  on  the  trees  all  winter, 
making  a  beautiful  appearance  among  the 
narrow  clustered  leaves  at  that  season.  8. 
'I'he  oleoidcs,  or  olive-leaved  buck  horn,  is 
an  evergreen  shrub,  and  native  of  Spain,  and 
grows  to  the  height  of  eight  or  ten  I  -et.  It 
sends  forth  numerous  branches,  each  o'' which 
is  terminated  by  a  long  sharp  spine.  The 
(lowers  are  sniail,  of  a  wliili'-h-green  colour, 
and  are  succeeded  by  round  black  berries. 

KII.VPIS,  a  genus  of  the  moiiogynia 
order,  in  the  hexandria  c  lass  of  plants  ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  inider  the 
lirst  order,  palnuc.  The  calyx  is  a  mono- 
pin  llous  trihd  spatha :  the  corolla  inonope- 
talous  and  trilid.  There  are  2  species,  viz. 
1.  Flabelliformis,  or  ground-ratan,  a  native 
of  China;  2.  Arundinacca,  simple-leaved 
rhapis,  a  native  of  Carolina. 

KHEA  Aweficiimi,  the  American  ostrich, 
insizeis  very  littleinferiorto  the  common  one; 
the  bill  is  sloped  not  unlike  that  ol  a  goose, 
being  tlat  on  the  top  and  rounded  at  the 
end  ;  the  eyes  are  black,  and  the  lids  furnish- 
ed with  hairs ;  the  head  is  rounded,  and 
covered  with  downy  feathers ;  the  neck  is 
two  feet  eight  inches  long,  and  feathered 
also;  from  the  tip  of  one  wing  to  that  of  the 
other  extended,  the  length  is  eight  feet ;  but 
from  the  want  of  continiiily  of  the  webs  of 
the  feathers,  and  their  laxity  of  texture,  the 
bird  is  miable  to  raise  itself  from  the 
ground ;  it  is,  however,  capable  of  greatly 
assisting  itself  by  their  motion  in  running, 
w  liic<i  it  does  very  swiftly  ;  the  legs  are  stout, 
bare  of  feathers  above  the  knees,  and  furnish- 
ed with  three  toes,  all  placed  forwards,  each 
having  a  straight  and  stout  claw  as  in  the 
cassowary  ;  on  the  heel  is  a  callous  knob, 
serving  in  place  of  a  back  toe ;  the  general 
colour  of  the  plumage  is  dull  grey  mixed  with 
yvhite,  inclining  to  the  latter  on  the  under 
parts  ;  the  tail  is  very  short,  and  not  conspi- 
cuous, being  entirely  covered  with  long  loose 
and  floating  feathers,  having  its  origin  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  back  and  rump,  ami 
entirely  covering  it  ;  the  bill  and  legs  are 
brow  n. 

In  respect  to  manners,  it  is  said  to  be  a 
general  (ee<ler,  but  more  fond  of  flies,  which 
it  catches  with  great  dexterity,  and  will  also, 
like  the  common  ostrich,  swallow  bits  of  iron 
and  any  other  trash  olTered  to  it.  In  com- 
mon with  the  ostrich  of  the  Old  \\'orld,  it'lays 
a  number  of  eggs,  from  (brtv  to  sixty,  in  the 
sand,  each  of  them  holding  a  quart ;  but  it 
dilt'ers  from  that  bird  in  many  particulars,  es- 
pecially in  wanting  the  callosity  of  the  ster- 
num, and  spars  on  the  wing.  With  tliesc 
4D 


II  H  E 


57f 


last  the  coinmoi)  o;trich  is  known  \o  <1efenrf 
iself;  in  dtfect  of  them,  the  bird  here  treat- 
ed of  u^es  the  f.  t  witli  such  address,  as  to 
become  at  once  a  furious  and  dangerous  an- 
tagonist. '1  he  (emah;  calls  its  young  ones 
togetlier  with  a  kind  of  whistling  note  somc- 
wliat  similar  to  that  of  a  nii<n  ;  when  younc; 
it  is  very  tame,  fVe<|ueiitly  foUowiu"  the  first 
creature  it  meets  with.  '1  he  (lesli  of  this  b.rd 
is  said  to  be  viry  unpalatable.  It  is  (ot  iid 
in  various  parts  of  .South  America,  from  Psf- 
tagonia  to  (Juiana,  and  is  known  by  the  name 
of"clioi(]ue.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist. 

lUlEEDIA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  polyandria  class  of  jilants  ;  and 
hi  the  natural  method  ranking  svith  those  of 
whidi  the  order  is  doubtful.  The  corolla  is 
tetrapetalous ;  there  is  no  calyx ;  and  the 
fruit  is  a  tri.'perinous  berry.  There  is  one 
species,  a  tree. 

iniETOHIC,  in  the  most  extensive  sense 
of  (he  word,  denotes  the  art  of  composition, 
or  that  which  enables  us  to  apply  language  or 
speech  (o  the  best  possible  advantage.  Ac- 
cording to  etymology,  which  often  affords  tiie 
most  satisfactory  explanation  of  words,  it  sig- 
nifies the  art  of  pouring  forth  a  stream  of  sen- 
timent, and  conimunicaling  with  flucricy  our 
feelings'and  thoueUts  to  others.  It  'sdc-rived 
from  the  Greek  /»»,  to  speak  ;  and  this  again 
from  f%,  to  flow,  or  run  like  a  river.  Homer 
speaking  of  the  elocjuence  of  Nestor,  says 

T»  xaj  flCTro  ^\onjariS  yuEXirOf  7XvxjMy  puv  aySn. 

Ihad  I.  lii.'  49. 

"  And  out  of  his  mouth  flowed  an  har?.ngue 
sweeter  than  honey." 

Taken  in  this  point  of  view,  rhetoric  will 
comprehend  all  polite  literature,  poetry  per- 
liaps  excepted,  the  belles-lettres  of  the 
French,  the  pathetic  and  pleasant  of  every 
kind;  compositions  whose  aim  and  end  is 
not  so  nuk  h  to  inform  or  satisf  the  under- 
standing, as  to  move,  incline,  and  per- 
suade, by  addressing  the  imagination,  the 
all'ections,  and,  in  some  measure,  sensatiow 
its. 'If. 

There  cannot  be  a  better  rule  for  com- 
position, or  one  more  plain  and  practical,  than 
what  is  laid  down  by  Cicero  :  "  We  are  first 
to  consider  what  is  to  be  said ;  secondly,  how  ; 
thirdly,  in  what  words;  and,  lastly,  hjw  it  is 
to  be  ornamented."  We  will  venture  to  add, 
as  a  supplement  even  to  Cicero,  how  far  it 
ought  to  be  ornamented. 

The  matter  of  any  composition  does  not, 
properly  speaking,  fall  under  the  cognizance 
of  rhetoric,  any  farther  than  that  there  is  an 
intimate  connect;' n  between  the  subject  and 
the  style;  and  that  the  sentiments,  whatever 
they  are,  naturally  form,  and  raise  or  lower, 
swell  or  contract,  the  diction  ;  on  which  we 
shall  have  occasion  to  make  some  observations 
when  we  speak  of  style. 

But  the  second  point  in  Cicero's  rtile, 
arrangement  or  order,  is  the  most  important, 
beyond  all  com|)arison,  in  every  species  of 
composition.  It  is  in  this,  principally,  that 
the  mind  of  the  author  is  seen;  the  process 
of  his  thoughts  ;  tlie  connection  of  his  ideas 
with  one  another,  and  with  his  main  design. 

In  every  composition  it  is  required  that 
there  should  be  some  plan  or  object ;  just  as 
in  every  thing  we  do  or  say,  tiiere  is  some 
purpose  or  intention.  All  written  compo* 
sitions  may  be  divided  into  discourse  or  rea- 
souing,  poelr^',  and  history,  iucludiug  both 


3/8 

narration  and  description.  In  all,  unity  of 
design  is  indispensable.  In  discourse  or  rea- 
90B:ng,  tlie  object  \i  to  prove  and  impress  on 
the  mind  some  trutli  or  series  of  truths.  Here 
tlie  bond  of  connection  is  cau>e  and  effect : 
the  reason  whv  siicli  and  such  a  thing  must 
be  so  and  so,  and  cannot  be,  or  reasonably 
be  su;;posed  to  be,  otherwi.-e.  We  believe 
certain  things,  it  is  true,  on  authority,  or  the 
testimony  of  others;  but  then  it  must  be  ob- 
served w'e  jud^eof  evidence  by  reason. 

In  respect  to  unity  of  design,  there  is  a  very 
near  resemblance  between  epic  poetry  and 
history.  The  unity  of  design  and  acti.iii  re- 
quired in  both  diii'ers  not  in  kind  but  in  de- 
gree. In  epic  or  narrative  pjetry,  the  con- 
nection among  the  events  related  or  describ- 
ed is  more  close  and  sensible.  The  narra- 
tion is  not  carried  on  througu  such  a  length 
of  time;  and  the  actors  hasten  to  some  re- 
markable period  which  satisfies  the  cuiioiity 
of  the  rea.ler.  This  difference  between  the 
epic  poem  and  history,  depends  on  that  par- 
ticular situation  of  the  imaginauon  and  the 
passions  which  is  supposed  in  the  former. 
The  imagination  of  both  writer  and  reader  is 
more  enlivened,  and  the  passiens  more  in- 
Hamed,  than  in  history,  civil,  political,  or 
literary,  biography,  or  any  species  of  nar- 
ration that  confines  itself  to  strict  truth  and 
reality.  The  sa.ne  unity  of  design  that  runs 
through  the  epopeia,  must  also  run  through 
-dramatic  compositions,  whether  comic  or 
tragic.  Even  m  an  ode,  tnough  th  ■  poet 
rnav  be  hurried  from  his  plan  for  a  tim  •,  or 
periiaps  (as  is  someiimes  the  case,  even  with 
Horace)  drop  it  altogether,  there  must  appear 
some  aim  or  design  at  least  in  tlie  out^et. 

The  connecting  principle  among  tlie  se- 
veral events  or  circumstances  which  form  the 
•subject  of  a  poem,  may  be  very  diilerent  ac- 
cording to  til  •  dilieieiit  designs  of  tlie  poet. 
Th'-  .Vlelamorpho^es  of  Ovid  is  a  work  that 
ein'iraci-s  every  ti.bulo  s  transforii.ation  pro- 
duced by  the  pjwer  of  the  gods.  Thus,  his 
plan  is  formed  upon  the  connecting  principle 
of  resemblance.  The  subject  of  poetry  forms 
a  distinct  article  in  the  pi e^eiit  work;  but  as 
uuitv  ol  dv s  gii  is  a  principl.-  common  to  all 
kincfs  of  composition,  it  saves  repetition  to 
glance  at  piietical  as  well  as  rhetorical  or 
prosaic  composition,  as  far  as  this  universal 
principle  in  all  works  uf  art  is  concerned. 

As  tliere  may  be  difleient  connecting  prin- 
ciples in  p  )ctical,  so  ais.i  there  may  be  in  his- 
torical coin;)Osition  ;  and  In  every  species  of 
this  comp  isilion,  as  in  that,  there  must  be 
some  connecting  princiiile,  some  bond  of 
union  among  the  diilerent  parts.  Even  in  an 
epistle  communicating  or  requiring  informa- 
tion, there  is  a  i.nity  of  design.  In  grave 
*  and  serious  letters,  the  subject  is  naturally 
and  aImo>t  necessarily  one  ;  and  even  in  the 
most  liglit  and  familiar  epistles  there  is  this 
Hiiity;tliat  while  they  relate  to  a  thous  ind 
particulars  indiri'erent  loall  the  world  beside', 
they  all  of  them  relate  to  the  situation,  cir- 
ciini-.taiices,  and  feelings,  either  of  the  writer, 
«)r  the  frieiiil  lo  .ilioin  the  letter  is  a<ldressefl. 
Here  the  design  is  both  interesting  and  closely 
attended  to,  in  the  eye  of  the  parties  c  jii- 
ceriifd,  even  in  proportion  as  the  compo- 
sition appears  Ijolh  uninteresting  and  desult- 
ory to  otiiers.  In  memoirs  and  anecdotes 
loo,  though  apparently  a  meie  collc.tion  ol 
materials  for  buiMiiig  an  edilice,  there  is  an 
•iiiiy  of  design,  ill  as  iiiucii  us  tiiey  relate  to 


RHETORIC. 

some  one  person,  or  class  of  persons,  sonif 
distinct  time  or  period,  or  some  place  or 
country.  Tlius  we  have  Memoirs  of  Fre- 
deric the  Great  of  Prussia,  Curious  Collec- 
tions relating  to  the  State  cf  Society  in  the 
middle  Ages,  and  Anecdotes  of  the  Court  and 
Empire  ot  Russia.  In  biography,  the  unity 
of  design  is  manHest.  Tha't  Uicre  is  an  uiiiiy 
of  design  in  natural  liistory,  con-istliig  chieliy 
in  classification  as  well  as  description,  needs 
no  illustration. 

But  the  grand  province  of  liistory,  and 
what  is  generally  understood  by  the  term,  ifi, 
Histoi-f/  civi'l  and  jmliticol.  The  state, 
progress,  or  vicissitudes  of  society,  in  any 
p.nticular  period  or  country,  in  goveinmenl, 
science,  art,  manners,  and  general  civiliza- 
tion. The  annalist,  in  his  collections,  or  ra- 
ther selections,  (lor  it  would  be  as  al)surd,  as 
it  IS  impossible,  to  record  every  thing)  is 
guided  bv  tue  connection  of  contiguity  in 
time  or  jjlace;  the  philosophical,  the  true, 
and  legitimate  historian,  by  that  of  c. .use  and 
eliect.  "  He  traces  the  series  ot  actions,  ac- 
cording to  their  natural  order,  remounts  to 
their  secret  springs  and  principles,  and  deli- 
neates tlieir  mo>l  remote  consequences.  He 
chooses  tor  liis  subject  a  certain  portion  of 
that  great  chain  of  events  which  compose  the 
history  of  mankind.  Each  i ink  in  this  chain 
he  endeavours  to  touch  in  his  narration. 
Sometimes  unavoidable  ignorance  renders  all 
his  attempts  truitless ;  sninetiines  he  supplies 
by  conjecture  what  is  wanting  in  knowledge  , 
and  always  he  is  sensible  that  the  more  un- 
broken the  chain  is,  which  he  presents  to  his 
readers,  the  more  perfect  is  his  production. 
He  sees  that  the  knowledge  of  causes  is  not 
only  the  most  sali^factul■y,  (this  relation  or 
coimecuoii  being  tne  strongest  of  all);  but 
alsMhe  most  instructive:  lieiice  it  is  by  this 
knowledge  alone,  that  we  are  enabled  to 
controiil  events  and  govern  the  future." 
Hume's  Essays.    Association  of  Ideas. 

The  matter  of  a  compo>ition  being  pre- 
pared, and  the  general  design  ioriiie.!,  the 
ne.\t  thing  to  be  considered  is 

The  order  of  arrciiii^emfiit  of  the  par/s  of 
a  cnmp  siiion.  And  first  of  all,  on  this  head, 
it  may  be  observed  that  the  authors  of  wi  Itten 
compositions,  usually,  as  is  very  natural  and 
proper,  set  out  with  an  iiitrodiiitir'ii,  wh'llur 
in  the  form  of  a  preface,  or  address  to  the 
reader,  separate  from  tir-  body  of  the  work, 
or  in  the  beginning  of  the  work  itself,  without 
any  distinction  or  separaUon.  il  the  com- 
position is  addressed  to  the  ear,  the  orator 
uespeaks  the  candid  attention  of  his  hearers 
by  removing  any  prejudices  they  may  be 
supposed  to  have  conceived,  and  shewing  the 
interest  and  importance  of  the  sub]ect  of  his 
discourse.  He  considers  well  what  is  t!\e 
state  or  tone  of  mind  of  his  hearers.  To  this 
headdresses  himself  in  the  lirst  place;  and 
endeavours  to  cany  them  along  with  him  from 
one  step  or  stage  to  another,  til!  tlirou.di  a 
train  of  reasoii-ng  he  arrives  at  tlie  conclusion. 
There  is  a  familiar  illnslrati.m  ot  tin'  nature 
and  use  of  an  introduction  or  exordium  to  be 
met  with  every  day  in  our  house  of  com- 
mons; where  the  speakers  often  assure  the 
house,  when  it  begins  to  grow  late,  or  when, 
from  any  other  cause,  it  betrays  symptoms  ot 
impatience  or  inattention,  that  •'  they  will 
not  trespass  on  tlieir  time  for  more  than  a  very 
lew  minutes."  In  like  manner  the  writer  of 
a  discourse  or  essay  bespeaks  the  candid  at- 


tention of  his  readers,  by  giving  some  general 
account  of  the  nature  ol  his  design,  fi  it  is  a 
(piestion  in  history  or  philosophy,  that  is,  eon- 
cerning  either  matter  ol  fact,  or  rehilions  of 
ideas,  he  loUows  u|)  his  introduction  imme- 
diately with  a  itulciiK'iil  and  liMory  ot  the 
controversy.  In  some  instances  this  state- 
ment and  liistory  are  the  only  introduction; 
and,  indeed,  il  the  question  is  universally  and 
higiily  interesting,  there  is  no  other  intro- 
duction necessary:  there  can  be  none  belter. 
It  is  not  only  in  doctrinal  or  didactic  subjects 
that  some  introduction  is  required,  but  also 
even  in  most  poetical,  esi)ecially  the  epic,  and 
historical  com|)ositioiis.  'I'he  poet  announces 
and  gives  an  outline  of  his  subject  and  de- 
sign at  the  outset  ot  his  work,  in  order  to  in- 
terest his  reader  in  its  farther  developement. 
lie  awakens  curiosity  by  some  of  the  most 
striking  events  in  his  narrative.  Thus  Ho- 
mer tells  you  at  once  that  he  sings  of  the 
wrath  of  Achilles : 

"  That  wrath  which  hurl'd  to  Pluto's  dreary 

reign. 
The  souls  of  mighty  chiefs,  untimely  slain." 

Thus,  in  the  Odyssey,  he  interests  us  in  his 
design  by  a  glimpse  oi  the  charaiter  of 
l-'lysses,  and  his  adventures  after  the  re'luc- 
tion  of  Troy.  I  hus  V  irgil,  having  introduced 
himseli  to  the  reader,  by  letting  him  know 
who  he  was,  in  the  first  seven  lines  of  the 
.Eneid  gives  a  summary  view  ol  the  hard- 
ships, sufferings,  and  design;  of  iEneas.  He 
iiitroiiuces  him  lirst  near  the  period  wiien 
his  designs  were  accomplished;  designs  that 
could  n  t  fail  to  interest  every  Roman  ;  and 
alterwards  shews,  as  in  perspective,  the  more 
distant  events,  circiim.aances,  and  causes,  tiiat 
led  to  their  formation,  and  crowned  them 
with  success.  Thus  Milton  interests  the 
Christian  reai'er  by  letting  aim  know  .n  the 
outset  ot  Paradise  Lost,  tnat  he  sings 

"  Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Ofth.it  iorbidden  tree  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our 

woe. 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  bh.sstul  seat." 

Thus,  also,  Virgil  announces  his  diilerent  de- 
sii.'ns  in  the  exonliums  >.!  his  different  books 
of  Georgics  ;  and  thus  also  Thomson,  in  his 
Seasons. 

In  dramatic  pieces  there  is  no  aninincia- 
tion  of  a  design,  because  suspense  is  kept  up 
till  the  catastrophe.  In  tragedy,  the  design 
is,  however,  partly  announced  by  the  very 
name  or  nanus  of  the  illustrious  heroes  or 
princes  to  whom  it  relales;  and  in  comedy, 
tiie  design  is  in  some  iiu'asure  Irequeiitly  ex- 
pressed in  the  title;  as  in  Love  for  I.o.e,  the- 
Busybody;  the  raming  of  the  Shrew;  the 
('areless  Husband:  the  Jealous  Wile;  the 
School  for  Scandal,  &c.  &c. 

With  regard  to  that  most  extensive  and; 
important  branch  of  composition,  civil  and 
political  history,  here  too  an  iiilroiluction  or' 
annunciation  of  the  design  is  as  natural  as  in 
the  epo|)eia;  and  il  may  be  added,  it  is  pre- 
cisely ol  the  same  kind.  'l"he  general  eliect 
or  iiiipression,  the  most  striking  event,  truth,, 
infeiencc,  or  moral,  thai  iviuaius  uppermost 
in  the  mind,  aiier  leviewing  any  series  of, 
events,  and  whicli  serves  as  a  bond  of  unioiv, 
auiong    the    occiuTences    and    transactions-; 


wliicli  llio  lii-;torinn  iiivo!'/es  in  llif  siri'am 
ot  liis  n;iiTalive,  unpels  liiiii,  it  is  suppjied, 
(o  comimiiiicale  Ins  views,  soiitinK'iiN,  aii'l 
emotions,  to  otiii-is.  It  is  natural  tlii-re- 
foR',  and  as  it  is  natural  it  is  especlcvl.  that 
tliL'  iiiitorian,  in  most  cases,  should  intro- 
duce his  work  by  glancing  at  the  importance 
and  the  nature  of  his  wiain  design  or  ol)ject. 
'I'luis  I. ivy,  in  liis  ninch  admired  and  truly 
aduiiiahle  preface,  expresses  his  design  ol 
in<iuiriiig  int  >  llie  cause  by  which  the  Homan 
empire  was  e.Mended  over  the  world,  and 
reached  to  such  a  p  icli  of  greadu'-s  that  it 
seemed  to  toller  under  its  own  weight.  The 
design  was  noble  and  grand,  and  tlie  amnin- 
ciation  of  it  could  not  but  draw  attention. 
Tims  Sallu-.t  chooses  for  a  subject  tiie  Cati- 
linarian  conspiracy,  because  it  was  "  in  tlie 
highest  degree  memorable  on  account  of  the 
singularity,  and  the  danger  involved  in  tlie 
enormous  crime."  'Ihus  also  he  writes  an 
account  of  tlie  Jugurthine  war;  "  lirst,  be- 
cause it  was  great  and  terril)le,  and  the  success 
various  ;  and,  secondly,  because  a  check  was 
then  given,  lor  the  lirst  time,  to  the  insolence 
of  llie  nubility.'  In  both  cases  he  makes  an 
apolouy  tor  retiring  from  political  lite,  and 
empluymg  himself  in  the  composition  of  his- 
tory. 

2.  In  didactic  discourse,  the  speaker  or 
writer,  after  an  introduction,  stutis  die  truth 
which  he  propose-,  to  prove  or  illustrate,  and 
also  the  ciiiel  propositions  o"  points,  by  the 
establishment  of  which  he  forms  liis  toii- 
cUisioii.  This  serves  to  keep  up  the  attention 
of  the  hearer  or  reader  to  the  main  object,  and 
tiie  conni-ction  or  dependance  of  this  on  the 
intei  mediate  or  subordinate  propositions;  but 
the  lieads  iiuist  not  be  too  many,  for  other- 
wise tliey  would  run  into  the  embarrasment 
of  multiplicity,  and  in  fact  cease  to  be 
heads. 

3.  As  tothe  disposition  of argument^,or or- 
der of  placing  ihem,  it  is  generally  thought  the 
best  economy  to  place  the  weaker  (if  they 
are  not  rather  to  be  omitted  altogether)  in 
the  middle;  and  such  as  are  stronger,  in  order 
to  excite  attention  and  draw  esteem,  partly 
in  the  beginning,  and,  as  what  is  heard  or 
read  kiit  commonly  dwells  longest  on  the 
mind,  partly  at  the  end.  But  if  there  are  only 
two  arguments,  the  rule  is  to  place  the 
stronger  lir>l,  and  then  the  weaker;  and  after 
that  to  resume  and  insist  principally  on  the 
former. 

4.  In  matters  that  admit  of  doubt  or  dispu- 
tation, it  is  proper,  alter  i)roving  your  own 
position,  to  retute  the  arguments  urged  by 
gainsayers  or  adversaries. 

Lastly,  comes  the  conclusion  of  the  dis- 
course or  treatise,  or  whatever  it  is  called  ; 
whicli  con  ists  of  two  parts;  a  recapitulation 
of  the  principal  arguments  or  circumstances, 
and  an  address  to  the  passions. 

In  oratory  too,  it  is  observed  by  rhetori- 
cians, besides  die  part,  just  mentioned,  there 
is  room  lor 

Digression,  transition,  and  amplification. 
Where  a  subject  is  of  itself  but  unentertain- 
ingand  dry,  the  mind  is  relieved  and  restored 
to  the  exertion  oi  its  powers  by  amusing 
digression ;  which,  however,  it  is  evident, 
should  neither  be  too  fre(|uent  nor  too  long, 
e.\c  pt,  indeed,  when  the  cause  is  verv  barl, 
and  almost  hopeless;  for,  in  this  case,  it  is 
good  economy  to  divert  attention  as  much  as 


RHETORIC. 

posible  from  loo  nice  a  scrutiny  into  the  sub- 
ject. 

Transitions  are  defined  to  b  ■  "  forms  in 
speech  by  which  orators  tell  their  hearers 
111  a  few  words  both  what  they  iiave  said  al- 
readv,  and  what  they  next  des.gn  to  say." 
\\'hen  a  {li^course  consists  of  a  considerable 
number  of  parts,  and  especially  when  these 
are  of  considerable  length,  transitions  are 
iiecesvar\  ;  but  sometimes,  in  passing  from 
one  thing  to  another,  a  very  general  liiiit  is 
sullicient. 

Hv  amplilication  tlie  orator  enlarges  and 
expatiates  on  a  subject  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  represent  it  in  ihe  fullest  and  most  com- 
prehensive view,  and  so  that  it  may  strike 
tlie  mind  in  Ihe  most  forcible  manner,  and  iii- 
tliience  the  passions.  He  ascends  from  tilings 
particular  to  things  general,  or  descends  troi.i 
things  general  to  things  particular,  and  an 
eninneration  of  instances;  he  coniiects  his 
position  with  a  concurience  of  various  causes, 
and  on  the  olier  hand,  with  a  variety  ol 
etiects;  he  places  things  in  the  light  of  con- 
trast; he  amplilies  facts  from  the  circum- 
stances of  time,  place,  manner,  and  the  like. 

As  to  the  ordcT  of  historical  composition, 
the  general  elfect  or  impression  ol  the  whole 
of  the  materials,  wliii  h  serves  as  a  bond  of 
inion  among  the  events  which  the  historian 
weaves  into  his  narrative,  serves  him  also  as 
a  clue  by  which  he  winds  back  and  nnlolds 
the  concatenation  of  circumstances  which  pro- 
duced the  grand  event,  or  efliji  t  or  effects, 
that  lirst  interested  and  induced  him  to  trans- 
mit the  whole  to  posterity.  Every  legitimate 
history,  as  well  as  epic  |x)eni,  springs  from 
some  important  truth  or  moral,  as  from  ils 
root ;  and  shoots  fonh  into  various  branches, 
twigs,  leaves,  and  flowers,  until,  in  due  time, 
it  reproduces,  in  a  manner,  that  fruit  which 
gave  it  birth  ;  until  by  some  issue  or  catas- 
trophe, it  impresses  on  tlie  mind  the  doctrine, 
truth,  or  moral,  which  forms  its  principal  ob- 
ject; and  as  the  epic  poet,  after  brietly  an- 
nouncing the  subject  that  fires  his  soul,  does 
not  lly  (lirectly  and  rapidly  to  the  end  he  has 
in  view,  but  on  the  contrary,  keeps  long  on 
the  wing,  and  aims  in  his  tlight  to  warm  the 
mind  and  to  gratify  its  vast  desires  by  frequent 
views  of  the  grandeur,  magnificence,  and 
beautv  of  nature  ;  so  the  historian  diversities 
his  narrative  by  incidents,  circumstances,  and 
episodes  ;  various  scenes  are  opened,  various 
actors  introduced,  with  various  characters 
and  manners. 

As  the  historian  is  guided  by  his  taste  and 
judgment  in  the  selection  of  his  materials,  so 
according  to  the  measure   of  his  taste  and 
judgment   lie  assigns  them  their  place.     To 
the  order  in  whicli  an  inlinite  variety  of  ma- 
terials may  be  best  arranged  under  the  eye 
that  contemplates  them,  the  rulesor  resources 
of  rhetoric  scarcely  extend.   If  nothing  more, 
yet  certainly  nothing  better,  can  be  said  on 
ihe  subject  of  order  in   general,  than  what 
has  been  said  near  tw  o  thousand  years  ago  by 
Horace,  and  is  still  in  every  mouth  : 
Snniitemateriam,vestrisqui  scribitis,3Pquam 
\'i:  iinis ;  et  versate  diu  quid  ferre  recusent. 
Quid  valeant  humeri,  cui  lecta  potenter  erit 

res. 
Nee  facundia  deseret  hunc,  nee  lucidus  ordo. 
De  Arte  Poetica,  line  38—41. 
"O  ve  writers!  make  choice  of  a  subject 
suited  to  vour  powers ;  and  ponder  long  on 
what  your  shoulders  are  able  or  not  able  to 
4D3 


5/-D 

bear.  AVlic  re  there  i*  a  good  dioice,  neither 
eloquence  nor  nulhoil  w  ill  ever  be  wanting." 
'I  his  Is  in  truth  tne quinlesseiice ol  ilieloric. 
Tliere  is,  however,  as  Horace  iminedijtely 
observes,  room  lor  taste  or  judeineiil,  in  the 
l)referring  of  one  order  or  arrangi'irient  of 
particulars  to  another.  "  1  he  eliicaev  and 
grace  ot  method  consists  in  knowing  when  to 
say  any  thing,  whether  on  tlie  present,  or 
wli.  ther,  tliongli  peitinent  enough  to  the  jjre- 
seiit,  it  may  not  w  ith  advantage  be  reserved 
to  some  future  occasion."  'Ihe  same  just 
and  accomplished  critic  says  elsewhere,  more 
generally, 

bcribendi  rccte,  sapere  est  principium  et  fons: 
De  Arte  Poetica,  I.  299. 
"The  principle  and  spring  of  line  writing  a 
good  sense." 

As  good  sen^'e  will  prescribe  just  order  in 
composition,  so  also  it  will  suggest  just  and 
suitable'  sentiments. 

f>t:;l'.  A  style  should  correspond  to  tlie 
lone  of  mind  ot  tiie  ai.tlior,  and  the  lone  and 
tem|)er  he  wishes  to  conmuinicate  to  otlier.=.-, 
'I  he  connection  between  the  tone  ot  mind 
and  the  diction  is  decribed  by  the  same  Uo- 
nian  poc-t,  whose  gn-al  master  was  Aristcitle, 
in  so  just  and  connected  a  manner,  that  w<? 
shall  content  ourselves  on  the  present  point 
with  ipioting  a  small  pint  of  Horace,  and  re- 
ferring our  readers  to  the  poet  himself.  "  Evi-ry 
subject  should  have  a  style  appropriat'-  to 
itself  A  comic  ubject  does  not  admit  of  the 
jioinp  of  a  tragic  strain;  nor  the  bloodv  sup- 
per of  Tliyestes  bear  to  be  tuld  in  the  simple 
numbers  of  c  omedy.  Sometimes,  however, 
comedy  raises  her  voice;  andChremes  roused 
to  anger  and  rage,  givi-s  vent  to  liis  senti- 
ments in  a  higli  strain  of  indignation.  Tra- 
gedians, on  the  contrary,  lower  their  stvie  to 
express  their  grief.  It  is  natural  for  men  to 
laugh  with  those  -that  laugh,  and  weep  with 
those  that  weep  ;  Ihe  human  countenance 
to  vary  with  the  sympathetic  emotions  of  joy 
or  sorrow.  If  you  would  have  me  shed  tears, 
yon  must  first  shed  them  yourself.  Plaintive 
words  are  mo=t  correspondent  with  a  de- 
jected look.  Threats  come  well  from  a  per- 
son in  anger,  mirth  and  pleasantry  from  a 
facetious  temper,  and  grave  remonstrances 
from  a  severe  character."  See  De  Arte 
Poetica,  line  90— 118. 

Though  these  observations  are  made  here 
with  a  reference  to  poetical,  it  is  manifest  that 
the  spirit  of  them  (namely,  that  language 
should  be  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  subject) 
is  applicable  to  all  composition  ;  to  common 
prose,  to  oratorical  prose,  to  philosophical  or 
didactic  prose,  and  to  historical  prose;  ou 
each  of  which  it  is  proposed  to  make  a  few 
observations. 

But  we  premise  a  few  remarks  on  the 
qualities  that  should  prevail  in  style  in  gene- 
ral. They  may  berednccdto  tliese:  1, purity; 
2,  ])eispicuity;  .5,  vigour;  4,  harmony;  5, 
dignity  ;  6,  beauty. 

Puriti/  consists  in  the  choice  of  such  word* 
and  phraseology  as  are  agreeable  to  the  most 
general  and  approved  usuage  of  tlie  languaae 
in  which  we  write.  1  he  oiiences  against 
purity  are  accordingly  reduced  t.i  two,  bar- 
barisms and  solecisms;  the  former  of  which 
resijects  single  words,  the  latter  their  con- 
struction in  sentences.  The  words  and  phrases 
tliat  occ;ur  iu   writings,  though  ia  nwiiy  re- 


sso 

spccts  estimable,  are  not  all  of  tlieni  pure, 
b'.it  only  such  as  are  agreeable  to  the  iijagt- 
of  the 'most  distiuguished  writers;  writers 
w  hose  works  descend  Ironi  one  sreii.raticn  and 
one  a<»e  to  anotht-r,  without  losing  aught  oi 
tlieir  o^riginal  interest  and  beauty,  'liuis,  our 
Jinglish  translation  of  tiie  IVibleis  written  in  a 
pvire  style  ;  so  are  the  Spectators  and  other 
writings  of  Mr.  Addison,  and  the  letters  and 
pretaces  of  Mr.  Pope.  To  punty  of  style  it 
is  necessary  not  only  that  it  is  funned  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  of  philosophical  or  uni- 
versal "grammar,  but  according  to  the  parti- 
cular genius  or  idiom  of  the  language  in 
which  we  write.  Thus,  though  "  I  see  a 
voice"  il  allowable  in  tireek,  and  occurs  in 
the  twelfth  verse  of  the  inst  chapter  ot  I'm- 
Kevelations,  it  would  not  be  allowed  in  any 
original  compo-ition  in  English.  Hence  as  it 
depends  on  the  purity  of  a  style  whether  a 
composition  sli?.ll  not  become  soon  unin- 
teUigible  and  die  away,  or  penetrate  to  pos- 
terity, and  be  transmitted  to  future  ages,  this, 
of  all  the  good  (|ualities  of  style,  may  be  consi- 
dered as  the  most  important.  In  the  present 
dav,  in  our  country,  thirre  seems  tobe  a  wanton 
introduction  nut  only  of  phrases  degraded  by 
common  and  trivial  use,  but  of  what  may  be 
called  vulgar  slang  (if  slang  is  not  indeed  an 
txample  itself  of  the  abuse  here  noted),  into 
the  debates  in  parliament,  and  conse(iuently 
newspapers,  pamphlets,  and  a  deluge  of 
ephemeral  histories.  What  reader  of  the 
next  century  will  understand,  "  it  is  a  hoax : 
met  ting  my  idea;  making  up  my  mind; 
blinking  the  question,"  &c."&c.  ?  liven  Mr. 
ilume,  and  other  writers  of  note,  especially 
among  his  countrymen  the  Scots,  trespass 
greatly  against  purity,  when  they  admit  into 
their  English  style'  not  only  Scotticisms, 
against  which  they  are  now  pretty  generally 
on  their  guard,  but  so  many  Latin  idioms  and 
Gallicisms.  As  to  Latinity,  this  too  has 
been  used  even  immoderately  by  our  great 
Ixicog  rapher  Or.  Johnson. 

Piripicuitij,  like  purity,  consists  partly  in 
single  words,  and  partly  in  their  construction. 
As  to  single  words,  their  force  and  propriety 
are  to  be  judge''  ol  from  the  usage  cf  the  most 
generally  approved  writers  at  tlic  i;eriod  of 
our  writing.  I'or  tlirough  length  of  time, 
words  lose  their  original  signihcation,  and 
assume  a  new  one,  which  then  becomes  their 
proper  sense.  'I  bus  the  word  knave  antientlv 
signified  a  servant,  in  an  old  English  ver- 
sion of  the  Ne>\  1  estament  we  !ind,  "  Paul, 
the  knive  of  Jesus  Christ."  The  proper  and 
preclie  meaning  of  words,  nearly  synonimou^, 
is  to  be  distinguished  with  accuracy.  Eor  ex- 
ample :  mercy  and  jiity  are  sometimes  con- 
founded; though  mercy  is,  properly  s])eaking, 
exercised  towards  an  offender,  an<l  pil\  to- 
wards one  in  distress.  Uut  thoug  i  the  mean- 
ing of  all  the  words  in  a  sentence,  con  Ideri  d 
by  themselves,  may  be  ver)  obvious,  yet  the 
senseof  the  whole  may  be  obscured  b)  a  disord- 
erly arrangement,  ol  which  a  ver\'  apt  and  cu- 
rious exaii  pie  is  given  by  Quincliban.  " .\ 
certain  man  ordered  in  his  will  that  his  heir 
iliould  erect  for  him  a  statu  holding  a  spear 
matleofgoid  "  Aiiueslionheieotgreat  conse- 
cjuence  to  the  heir  arose  from  liie  nib  unity 
of  the  expres-ion  ;  as  it  admitted  oi  douiit 
whether  the  words,  "  made  of  gold, '  werf  to 
be  applied  to  the  statue,  01  to  the  spear.  Care, 
theretor<-,  must  be  taken  to  dispose  both  the 
Words  aud  parts  of  a  sentence  in  such  a  niaii- 


EHETORIC. 

ner  as  bc«t  agrees  with  their  mutual  con- 
nection and  dtpendaiice  on  each  other. 

f'/nDur,  or  energy  of  style,  depends  chiefly 
on  brevitv  and  a  judicious  use  of  tivpes  and 
liaures.  lirevity  consists  in  the  use  of  ge- 
neral proiiositio'ns  and  genera!  tcims,  which 
comprehend  a  great  number  of  particulars, 
tiie  enumeration  of  which  weakens  a  style,  as 
in  the  material  world  bodier,  are  weakened  by 
dilatation.  The  use  of  ligurative  language,  or 
tropes  and  figures,  is,  peihaps,  still  more  con- 
nected witli  dignity  and  beauty  of  sl_\le;  but 
we  embrace  the  first  occasion  of  making  some 
remarks  on  its  nature. 

Theaiitlent  rhetoricians,  wlio  were  fond  of 
niulti|)l_\  ing  distinctions  to  a  great  excess,  dis- 
tinguished a  trope  from  a  figure  ;  understand- 
ing by  a  trope  a  change  in  the  usual  meaning 
ot  wo'rds,  and  by  a  tigiire  a  change  or  de- 
viation from  the  usual  mode  of  constructing 
them  in  sentences;  but  they  arc  generally 
confounded  by  the  most  accurate  and  purest 
writers.  Both  these  kinds  of  changes,  how- 
ever, may  be  comjirehended,  even  according 
to  elvmology,  under  the  word  trope,  which 
in  Greek  signities  a  turn.  As  no  language 
contains  a  siiliicient  number  of  proper  woixls 
to  express  all  the  different  conceptions  of  our 
minds,  tropes  were  introduced  to  supply  the 
deiiciency  :  to  express  the  various  ideas  that 
occurred'  from  different  associations  and 
analogies  which  sprung  up  in  the  mind 
on  viewing  things  in  different  lights,  and 
comparing,  them  with  one  another,  required 
this  aid  to  language.  Among  the  principal 
tropes  are  metapiior,  allegory,  metonymy, 
irony, hyperbole,  climax,  inversion,  antithesis, 
iiilerrogation,  exclamation,  apostrophe,  and 
prosopopeia  or  personilication. 

A  metaphor  is  a  comparison  or  simile,  with- 
out any  words  implying  comparison,  and  com- 
monly reduced  to  a  single  word.  To  say  of 
a  man  that  he  is  like  a  fox  or  a  lion,  is  a 
simile ;  that  he  is  a  fox  or  a  lion,  a  uietaphor. 
.■\  metaphor  taken  from  a  simile  which  ascribes 
lite  and  action  to  things  inanimate,  and 
lengthened  out  into  many,  or  even  several 
circumstances,  is  an  alli:s;nrij.  In  metaphors 
and  allegories,  care  should  be  taki-n  that  the 
same  image  or  kind  of  troiie  is  cariied 
throughout  the  whole.  A  mixture  of  meta- 
phors IS  one  of  the  most  common,  as  well  as 
greatest,  deformities  in  composition,  though 
by  a  very  little  attention  it  might  certainly  be 
very  easily  avoided.  An  instance  ot  this, 
amounting  even  to  what  we  call  a  bull,  occurs 
in  .Mr.  Ilume,  though  on  the  whole  a  correct 
writer  :  "  The  farther  we  mount  up  into  an- 
tiquity, the  more  do  we  tind  maul  .ml  plunged 
into  idolatary."  Nat.  Hist,  Religion,  section 
1.  On  the'otlier  hand,  a  minute  attention 
to  resemblances  sometimes  leads  a  writer 
into  studiedand  far-fetched  conceits;  than 
which,  to  a  true  taste,  delighting  only  in  what 
is  great,  and,  consequently  simple,  there  can 
be  nothing  more  disgusting. 

A  meloni/mi/  is  a  trope  which  changes  the 
names  of  things  that  are  naturally  though  not 
essentially  united,  as  the  cause  lor  the  etti-ct, 
or  the  ell'ect  for  the  cause,  &c.  Thus,  Mars 
is  put  tor  war,  Ceres  for  corn,  and  Bacchus 
lor  w  ine : 
Implentur  veteris  Bacchi  pinguisque  farinx. 

\'irg. 
Thus,  in  common  discourse,  it  is  usual  to  say, 
"  this   is  such  a  Jierson's  hand,  1  know  his 
hand,"  that  is  his  writing. 


Irnri'j  is  a  trope  in  w  hich  one  thing  is  said, 
and  the  contrary  intended.  The  subjects  of 
irony  are  all  manner  of  vices  and  tollies,  which 
are  sometimes  exposed  in  this  way  more 
effectually  than  by  the  most  serious  reason- 
ing. In  iroin,  the  author  a^umes  the  air  of 
believing  as  others  do;  but  by  a  develope- 
ment  of  the  ground  of  belief,  of  the  pro  and 
the  con,  brings  out  the  trntli,  ami  leaves  the 
reader  or  hearer  himself  to  draw  the  con- 
clusion. We  listen  to  tiie  still  voice  of  our 
own  reason  and  conscience,  and  secretly 
condemn  our  own  tenets  or  our  own  conduct, 
when  pride  and  passion  might  raise  a  mi^t 
that  might  shade  us  from  tiie  light  that  shouM 
emanate  from  others,  'I  his  figure  of  speech 
was  used  so  much  by  Socrates,  that  he  got; 
the  apjiellation  of  Eiron  or  Droll,  The  most 
perfect  specimen  of  irony  in  the  English  lan- 
guage is  Swilt's  Directions  to  Servants. 

Hyptrhnle,  w  hich  exceeds  the  bounds  of  strict 
truth,  and  represents  things  as  either  greater 
or  less  than  they  really  are,  is  the  boldest  of 
all  tropes.  The  representation,  however,  is 
made  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  impose  on 
the  hearer.  It  has  always  a  very  considerable 
effect,  even  when  mo-t  extravagant;  as  it 
shews,  at  least,  the  opinion  entertained  by  the 
speaker  on  any  subject,  in  a  very  strong 
light ;  it  is  a  natural  expression  of  enlivened 
emotion.  We  meet  with  hyperboles  even  in 
the  Scripture:  "  1  bear)Ou  record,"  says  St. 
Paul  ill  his  ICpi'-tle  to  the  GJalatians,  chap.  iv. 
"  that  if  it  had  been  possible  ye  would  have 
plucked  out  your  ow  n  eyes  and  given  them 
to  me  ;"  and  the  Evangelist  John  concludes 
his  Gospel  in  these  word;.  "  There  are  also 
many  tilings  that  Jesus  did,  which  if  they 
should  be  written  every  one,  I  suppose  that 
even  the  world  itself  could  not  contain  the 
books  that  should  be  written." 

Climax  is  a  compound  sentence  in  which 
the  dii'lerent  parts  or  clauses  are  closely  con- 
nected, and  rise  gradually  in  importance 
above  one  another.  We  have  an  admirable 
example  of  this  trope  in  ih.at  jiassage  of  sacred 
writ,  where  it  is  said  of  tiie  joys  of  Heaven, 
"  that  eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  nei- 
ther hath  it  entered  into  the  heart  of  man  (o 
conceive."  We  hear  more  things  than  we 
see ;  but  the  imagination  can  form  to  itself 
an  hifinitiide  of  things  tiiat  do  not  fall  under 
the  cogni.^ance  of  any  of  our  senses.  The 
following  is  also  an  excellent  exemplilication 
ofilie  climax:  "  Whom  God  did  predestinatej 
them  he  also  called;  and  whom  he  called, 
them  he  alsojuslihcd  ;  and  whom  he  justilied, 
them  he  also  glorihed.'  Kom.  viii.  30,  But 
there  may  be  a  climax  of  periods  as  well  as 
of  sentences.  Here  also  we  are  furnished 
with  the  most  apt  and  splendid  examples  by 
the  Scriptures.  "  Eor  scarcely  for  a  righteous 
man  will  one  die,  yet,  peradventure,  tor  a 
good  man,  some  would  even  dare  to  die  ;  but 
God  conimeiideth  his  love  towanls  us,  in  that 
wliile  we  were  yet  sinners,  Clirist  died  lor  us." 
Rom.  V.  7,  8.  Tlie  contrary  of  a  cliin.ix  is  the 
bathos,  as  sunie  have  called  it  alter  Pope,  or 
the  sinking  in  composition,  otherwise  called 
an  anticlimax;  trom  which  misindjie  de- 
formity and  liisgrace,  authors  might  bt  ..avetl 
by  a  small  exertion  of  attention  and  commou 
sense : 

"Anil  thou,  Dalhousie,  thou  great  god  of  war, 
Licutcnaut-tolonel  to  the  pari  of  Mar." 

Blacikinors. 


Yet  tills  wai  not  Iniilcsqijp  ;  it  was  iiitcndoil 
for  a  seiious  and  liL-roic  poc-m.  In  sonic-  in- 
stunct'S  It  woultl  a|)|)ear  as  if  writcTs  vvltc  at 
pains  to  study  the  art  of  sinking.  Mr.  J.ane 
Macgrfgor  Biicliannan  nioaiinig  to  do  great 
lioiionr,  and  to  exlol  the  isk-  of  Jikye,  says, 
Vfdt  "  some  of  the  vasnals  (t)f  the  great  families 
thrre)  are  colonels,  majors,  taptains,  and 
lieutenants."  Maei;reg'ir  liuehanjian's  De- 
fence of  the  Highlanders,  page  SO. 

Dr.  Swift  <)l)served  the  just  onler  in  com- 
poaiii.m  when  lie  makes  one  tell  the  ladies 
who  entertained  iiini  in  a  tavern, 

"  Had  ye  been  cunning  stagers, 
^'o'lrselves  might  have  been  treated 
I>y  captains  and  iiy  majors." 

But  it  is  not  only  in  vvriUTs  of  the  very  lowest 
class  that  we  lind  the  amielimas.  V.'e  have 
an  exani])le  of  Ihisin  Dr.  Ueid,  where  he  says 
"  the  emotion  raised  by  grand  objects  is  awful, 
solemn,  and  serious.  The  order  of  these 
epithets  should  juat  have  been  inverted. 

Inversion  is  a  ligure  in  speech  in  which  the 
usual  arixingemeiit  of  wortls  in  a  sentence,  or 
of  sentences  in  a  compound  sinlence  or  pe- 
riod, is  inverted.  For  iiu  example  of  the  lirst 
kind,  see  Nisus  in  the  j'Eneid,  exclaiming.: 

"  Me,  me  :  adsum  qui  feci ;  in  me  convertite 

terruni." 

iEn.  lib.  ix. 
''  Me,  me :  here  I  ain  who  have   done  the 

deed ;  on  me  turn  your  steel." 

Under  extreme  agitation  the  usual  process 
both  of  thought  and  speech  is  interrupted. 
The  language  of  passion  is  broken  and  iiigo- 
herent.  'Che  impassioned  mind  rushes  ilirectly 
to  tlie  prini:i])al  'figure  or  object ;  from  the 
action  to  the  agent ;  from  the  attribute  to  the 
substance.  Of  the  second  kind,  wliere  the 
mind,  though  unru'.iled  and  discomposed,  and 
thuiking  in  a  regular  train,  is  animated  to 
great  conceptions,  we  have  an  instance  in  the 
Urot  sentence  ofllie  Paradise  Lost. 

Anlitlusis  is  the  illustration  of  one  thing  by 
another,  and  is,  we  presume,  universally  un- 
derstood. If  an  explanation  or  ilhistriit.on  of 
it  by  an  ''xample  is  wanted,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  three  last  verses  of  the  fourth 
chapter  of  St.  Paul's  Second  Kpistle  to  the 
Corinthians.  There  cannot  be  a  happier  ex- 
ample, and  the  book  referred  >o  is  in  e\  ery 
hand.  Neither  is  it  necessary  to  explain  iii- 
ienngation  or  exclrnniUion.  The  meaning  of 
these  figures  is  obvious  from  the  very  names 
to  every  one,  and  examples  o  eur  at  ever) 
turn  in  all  kinds  ofcomposition  and  discourse, 
written  or  spoken. 

In  an  aposlrnphe,  the  speaker  -brealis  off 
from  the  series  ol  his  discourse,  and  ad  lre^ses 
himself  to  some  particular  person,  present  or 
absent,  living  or  dead,  or  even  to  inanimate 
objects.  A  line  example  of  apostrophe  oc- 
curs in  the  second  book,  of  Paradise  Lost,  line 
681—7: 

"  Whence,    and   what  art    thou,   execrable 

shape?" 
And  a  still  finer  in  the  fourth  book,  line  720 — 
35: 
"Thus  at  their  shady  lodge  arrived,  both 

stood. 
Both  turn'd,  and  under  open  sky  ador'd 
The  God  that  made  both  sky,  and  eaitb,  and 

heaven. 


RHETOniC. 

Which  (hey  beheld;  the  moon's  resplendent 

globe, 
And  starry  pole  :  'Thou  also  mad'st  the  night, 
Malieronmipulenl,  and  thou  the  day,"  &c. 
See  also  the  much   adinireil  apostropiie  of 
yLneas  to  his  dejiaited  father  Anchises : 

"  lieu !    genitoreni,    omnis   curx    casOsque 

levamen, 
Amitto  Anchisem  ;  hie  me,  pater  optiine,  fes- 

sum 
Deseris,  hen !" 

j'Tjieid,  lib.  iii.  line  710. 

"  Here,  alas !  I  lose  my  father  Anchises, 
the  souther  ol  all  my  cares,  my  relief  in  every 
misfortune.  Here,  O  thou  best  of  parents! 
you  left  me  overcome  with  fatigue,"  6cc. 

J'ro.sopopi-in,  or  per>onil\cation,  either  in- 
troduces an  ab  ent  per- on  as  speaking,  or  one 
who  is  dead  as  it  he  was  alive  and  present,  or 
speech  is  attributed  to  some  inaniinale  being. 
The  sublime^t  example  of  the  [irosopopeia 
that  ever  was,  or  can  possibly  be  exhibile<l, 
IS  found  in  the  book  of  Job.  Joij,  on  a  re- 
view of  his  own  actions,  appeals  from  the 
criticisms  of  men  to  the  judgment  of  God. 
"  Then  the  Lord  answered  Job  out  of  the 
whirlwind  and  said,"  &c.  as  in  the  Book  of 
Job,  chap,  xxxviii — xli.  7. 

There  is  not  any  figure  better  adapted  to 
the  purposes  o!  the  higher  species  of  elo- 
(juence,  that  is.  the  pathetic  and  sublime,  than 
the  prosopopeia,  by  which  the  poet  or  orator 
may  call  all  nature  to  his  aid  ;  but  if  it  was 
introduced  in  any  otiier  than  a  highly  im- 
passionetl  strain,  it  would  lose  its  effect,  and 
even  appear  ridiculous.  In  all  things  the 
speaker  is  to  consider  well  for  what  he  has 
prepared  the  hearer. 

Did  our  limits  admit,  most  of  our  readers, 
and  among  these  t!ie  most  cultivated  and  in- 
telligent, woukl  excuse  us  from  following  the 
antlent  rhetoricians,  and  tho.->e  who  tread  in 
their  footsteps,  through  all  the  tropes  and 
figures  to  which  the  subtle  genius  of  Greece, 
w  lelding  the  most  copious  and  pliant  language 
tli.it  ever  «as  known  amongst  men,  has  given 
a  kind  of  noimnal  existence:  synecdoche, 
antonomr.sia,  litotes,  eupheniismus,  calachre- 
sis,  metalepsis,  asyndeton,  pleonasmus,  poly- 
sYiuleton,  anlanaclasis,  pioce,  epizeuxis,  &c. 
&c.  &c. 

On  looking  over  this  long  catalogue  of 
words,  of  so  little  practical  use,  we  are  almost 
inclined  to  say  w  ith  Butler, — 

"  P"or  all  a  rhetorician's  rules 

But  teach  him  how  to  name  his  tools." 

All  tropes  and  figures  rise  naturally  out  of  a 
well  stored  and  brilliant  imagination,  an 
earnestness  to  <--tabiish  the  truth,  and  the 
diffusive  influenci-  ol  tie  passions.  The  poet, 
the  orator,  animated  lumself,  extends  anima- 
tion, lite,  and  action  to  every  object  that 
comes  in  his  way.  'I'o  return  row  to  v.gour 
or  energy  of  st\  le. 

How  much  "this  is  promoted  by  figurative 
language  will  appear  from  this,  thai  m  pro- 
portion as  the  mind  labours  with  any  vivid 
emotion  or  conception  it  is  prone  to  give  it 
a  substantial  form,  to  clothe  it  in  metaphori- 
cal language.  Now,  a  lively  trope  conveys 
not  only  a  livelier,  but  often  a  juster  idea  of 
an  object,  than  can  be  communicated  by 
proper  words  in  tin-  most  copious  periphrasis. 
Thus,  when  Yirg^il  calls  filie  two  Scipios  two 


5S1 

thundarbolts  of  war,  he  exhibits  a  more 
lively  image  of  tiie  rapid  force  and  su<cess  of 
their  arms,  than  could  have  been  given  in  plain 
words.  The  next-mentioned  great  quality 
of  style,  was 

Ilurniomj.  As  in  music  we  require  sound, 
uniformity,,  variety,  and  proportion,  so  we 
also  rr<|!iire  them,  not  only  in  compositions 
adilressed  lo  the  ear,  but  al.io  in  written  com- 
positions; for  the  reader  conceives  of  what 
lie  reads  as  if  it  was  s]K)ken  by  Inmself  or  by 
others.  Jlisear,  in  some  measuri",  runs  over 
the  page  as  well  as  his  eye.  Numbers  are 
not  confined  to  poetry :  there  is  a  rythmus, 
though  of  a  more  slow  and  sober  kind,  in 
pro^e.  Here  too  we  require  sonorousness, 
uniformity,  and  variety  of  cadence.  For  these 
purposes  there  must  be  an  intermixture  of 
long  and  short  words,  and  long  and  short  sen- 
tences. As  to  the  modulation  of  the  voice  in 
speaking,  as  well  as  of  pronunciation,  looks, 
and  gesture,  these  belong  to  elocution,  of 
which  we  have  many  professors,  'i'he  sum 
and  substance  of  elocution  is,  to  speak  from 
feeling. — Si  vis  me  Here,  5cc. 

1  he  harmony  of  style  is  very  much  pro- 
moted by  the  use  and  invention  of  conipoun<l 
words,  which  any  one  is  at  liberty  to  contrive 
at  pleasure,  if  he  adheres  to  tue  analogy  of 
language.  As  an  example  of  all  this,  we 
produce  a  beautiful  passage,  which  is  a  rural 
and  domestic  scene  in  1  honison's  Seasons : 


"In  the  pond 


The  linely-chtquerfed  duck  before  lier  train 
Bows  garrulous.    The  stately-sailing  swan 
Gives  out  his  snowy  plumage  to  the  gale. 
And  arching  proud  his  neck,  with  oary  leet 
Bears  forward  fierce,  and  guards  his  o'sier-isie 
Protective  of  his  young.     The  turkey  nigh, 
Ix)ud-threatening  reddens;    while  the  pea- 
cock spreads 
His  every-coloured  glory  to  the  sun. 
And  swims  in  radiant  majesty  along." 

Spring,  line  773—37. 

Nothing  can  be  more  harmonious. 

Sublimity  of  style  consists  in  language  suit- 
able to  sublime  emotions.  Nav,  the  more 
plain  and  simple  the  images  appear,  the 
greater  the  >urprise,  wonder,  and  astonish- 
ment. It  sometimes  darts  forth  with  rapidity 
and  vehemence,  and  sometimes  reposes  on 
the  tranquillity  of  general  views,  exhibited  in 
general  terms. 

As  an  instance  of  the  power  of  simplieifv 
in  every  species  of  composition  that  aims  at 
the  sublime  and  beautiful,  w  e  may  contrast  the 
style  and  manner  of  Michael  Aiigelo  and 
Zuccero  in  painting.  Michael  Angelo  painted 
his  figures  naked;  Frederico  Zuccero,  who 
painted  the  cupola  of  Florence,  peopled  it 
with  a  multitude  of  both  sexes,  extremely 
well  dressed  in  the  fashion  of  the  times.  Tlie 
style  of  Michael  Angelo  was  sublime  and 
beautiful  ;  that  of  Zuccero  little,  and  in  pro- 
cevs  of  time  ridiculous. 

Instances  of  the  sublime  are  so  abundant  in 
poetry  both  sacred  and  profane,  and  in  ora- 
tory, at  least  by  that  of  the  antitnts,  that  we 
leave  the  ta^k  of  illu'-tration  on  these  two 
heads  to  our  readers;  but  description  and 
narration  too,  in  prose,  also  admit  of  the  sub- 
lime; and  here  it  will  be  found  to  consist 
chiefly  in  the  selection  of  the  gran,  est  objerts 
and  most  striking  circum>lances,  ngurative 
language,  brevity,  and,  what  is  very  •  loselv 
connected  with  brevity,  the  use  of  geueial 


532 

te'iiis.  For  example:  Dr.  J.  Heylyp,  speak- 
ing of  Johu  t'le  Ijapli  t,  say!  "  propliecy, 
vision,  and  miracle  rojiciirrecl  to  reiulev  liis 
birth  illuslrio'.*,  and  draw  attention,  and  raise 
expectation  with  regard  to  a  person  so  signally 
tlie  care  of  heaven.  Soon  after  his  birth  he 
was  carried  into  the  wilderness  to  escape  (as 
antient  writers  rel.ite),  the  slaugliter  which 
Herod  made  of  tlie  Jewish  children.  Thus 
the  desjrt  became  the  school  in  which  he 
leirnt  tc  nperance.  Want  taught  him  absti- 
nence, ti'l,  grace  and  reason  gaining  strength, 
lie  embraced  that  monification  with  a  de- 
hl)erate  choice,  in  wiiicli  he  had  been  en- 
gaged for  the  preservation  of  his  life.'  Hey- 
iyii  s  Theolog.  Lectures,  vol.  1,  p.  13. 

Another  example  of  the  sublime  in  narra- 
tion. "  It  i<  true,  king  Ferdinand  had  laid 
some  fomi.lation  for  the  future  greatness  of 
Spain;  for  wiii'^t  his  perpelu.d  ncrotiations 
and  intrigues  formed  him  many  able  states- 
men and  ministers,  liis  long  and  successful 
wars  in  tlie  kingdom  of  Grenada,  and  in 
Italv,  had  iiitro  iu -ed  such  excellent  order 
and  discipline  ii-.to  his  armies,  anvl  particular- 
Jy  amcngst  his  infantry,  that  either  in  suffer- 
ing hardihips,  or  in  battle,  the  world  could 
not  shew  its  equal.  These  were  the  ;!rms 
which,  at  Pavia  a)i'i  on  the  Elbe,  crowned  so 
great  a  work  of  fortune  with  the  highest  pilch 
of  glorv ;  and  afterwards  in  the  Low  Countries, 
supported  for  a  wliiie  its  declining  greatness." 
Political  Works  of  Fletcher  of  Saltown, 
page  133. 

Beauty  of  style  may  be  said  in  general  to 
consist  of  an  union  of  purify,  perspicuity,  a 
moderate  use  of  tropes,  and  in  harmony.  In 
the  energetic  or  pathetic,  and  tlie  sublime, 
the  mind  being  in  a  state  of  emotion  and  agi- 
tation, is  naturally  hurried  into  ligurative  lan- 
guage. In  the  contem|»lation  or  description 
ol  tiiose  objects  which  give  birth  to  emotions 
of  beauty,  we  are  calm  and  collected,  and 
are  not,  as  in  the  pathetic  and  sublime,  con- 
strained to  make  u=e  of  tropes  and  figures ; 
vet  it  is  in  this  calm  state  only  that  we  are  at 
leisure  (o  make  use  of  some  of  the  finest  and 
most  expressive  tropes  and  figures,  as  anti- 
theses, allegories,  similes,  and  metaphors,  if 
carried  beyond  a  single  word  How  much 
this  figurative  language  contributes  to  the 
beauty  of  style  and  compo^ition  is  exem- 
plified i)v  judge  Blackstoiie  in  the  following: 
"  Ueiievoiences  extorted  froui  tlie  subject, 
the  ari)itrary  impri=o1imeiit;  tor  refusal,  the 
exertion  of  martial  law  in  time  of  peace,  and 
other  domestic  grievances  clouded  the  morn- 
ing of  that  misguided  prince's  (Charles  1.) 
reign,  which,  though  its  noon  began  a  little  to 
brigliten.  at  last  went  down  in  blood,  and  left 
the  «  hole  kingdom  in  darkness."  ISIacksto.ie's 
Co  n.a  ntaries. 

Ol  the  metaphors  whicli  ascribe  life  and 
action  to  inanimate  beings,  we  have  an  ex- 
a.nple  in  a  metaphorical  description  of  the 
stea!ii  engine.  "  i  he  steam  engine,  approacli- 
ing  to  the  nature  of  a  perpetuu  n  mobile,  or 
rath  T  an  am  iial,  incapable  of  lassitude  as  of 
sens.itioii,  pr.)diices  coals,  moves  iii.ichines, 
works  metals,  and  is  certa'.nly  the  noblest 
drudge  that  was  ever  employed  by  the  hand 
of  art.  Thns  we  put  a  hook  in  the  nose  of 
the  leviathan  tJoo  xli.) ;  thus  we  play  with 
him  as  with  a  child,  and  take  him  for  a  ser- 
viiit  lor  ever;  thui  we  subdue  natu>e,  and 
derive  aid  and  comfort  from  the  el  -meiits  of 
earth'inake<."  \\u\.  Uevie-.v,  Ueirospect 
K 


RHETORIC. 

of  the  Active  World,  F>  b.  17<)7.  The 
melaphor  being  aptly  kept  uj),  givs  beauty 
to  the  two  first  sentences  here;  tiie  laU  rises 
into  a  style  somewhat  higher. 

Having  thus  treated  briefly  of  the  principal 
qualities  of  st\le  in  general,  we  come  now  to 
speak  of  the  varieties  of  .>t_\  le  most  proper  tor 
the  diffeient  kinds  of  prosaic  coiiipo<itinn, 
which  may  be  divided  into  four:  the  tamiliar 
or  colloquial,  the  rhetorical,  the  philosophi- 
cal, and  the  historical. 

The Jimii liar  or  ccl!oqiiiiihU\e,  is  that  ot 
common  but  genteel  and  polished  conversa- 
tion, of  letters,  meaning  epistles,  and  ot 
written  dialogue,  comical  or  serious.  The 
style  of  conversation  should  be  simple  and 
plain:  no  elaborate  sentences;  no  afiectation 
of  wit  or  eloquence ;  scarcely  any  great  at- 
tention to  grammatical  accuracy:  at  least  that 
attention  should  never  be  visible.  To  repeat 
what  has  been  said  ungrammatically,  tor 
the  purpose  of  correcting  him^ell,  as  is 
sometimes  done,  is  most  miserably  pe- 
dantic. The  greatest  powers  of  conversa- 
tion are  shewn  in  follouing  the  turn  and 
tone  of  j  conversation,  in  an  ingenious  and 
plea-ing  manner,  not  in  leading  it.  It  is 
easy  to  pour  forth  a  shew  of  knowledge,  if 
one'  is  allowed  to  lead  thr  conversation  ;  not 
so  easy  to  illustrate  any  topic  extempore.  The 
lormer  shews  only  reading,  the  latter  learn- 
ing. There  are  a  kind  of  babblers,  familiarly 
called  cocks  of  the  conversation,  who,  having 
furnished  and  loach-d  their  memories  at  home, 
in  set  conversatioiis  or  literary  meetings, 
however  denominated,  say  their  lessons  to  an 
auditory,  admiring,  if  stupid,  disgu'-ted,  if 
intelligent.  This  great  metropolis  abounds 
in  illustrations  of  this  position.  In  letters 
greater  care  and  preparation  is  both  allowable 
and  required.  Of  epistolary  writing  we  have 
some  excellent  models  in  the  correspondence 
of  Swift,  Pope,  Arbuthnot,  Gay,  and  other 
w  its  of  their  time  ;  but  none,  either  in  ling- 
land  or  France,  for  ease,  elegance,  and  energy 
of  style,  are  to  be  at  all  compared  with  the 
epistles  of  Cicero,  Brutus,  and  other  Romans 
of  high  rank  and  cultivated  genius.  As  to 
written  dialogue,  the  style  of  this  seems  to 
ho  d  a  middle  place  between  the  familiar  or 
colloquial,  and  the  rhetorical,  which  may  be 
divided  into  three  kinds  ;  the  style  proper  for 
short  and  popular  essays,  that  for  a  popular  as- 
sembly, the  senate  or  bar,  and  that  for  the 
pulpit.  The  subjects  of  the  first-mentioned 
species  of  writing,  are  moral,  critical,  or  en- 
tertaining; the  thoughts  must  be  condensed 
and  close,  and  every  thing  to  be  said,  said 
briefly,  because  the  whole  work  itself  is  but 
short,  and  suppo-ed  to  be  read  at  some  mo- 
ment of  leisure.  The  style  should  be  plain 
and  simple,  that  every  one  may  understand 
it;  yet  so  elegant  that  no  one  may  be  dis- 
gusted with  it.  The  best  nio.lel  of  essays,  in 
every  respect,  is  Mr.  A  ldi<on's  papers  in  the 
Spectator,  Guardian,  and  I'rei-hokler. 

The  style  of  eloquence  proper  for  a  public 
oration,  admits  of  ev  -ry  possible  variation  or 
inllection,  according  to  the  tone  and  tenijier 
of  the  auditory,  to  what  they  can  bear,  or 
may  be  brought  to  bear,  and  enter  into  or 
sympathize  with,  familiar,  easy  and  in  a  hu- 
morous vtraiii,  or  serious,  solemn,  rapid,  im- 
passioned, and  vehement.  This  ruh-  hold-:  in 
some  degree  in  speeches  address.-d  to  j'.irics 
and  to  our  iiouse  of  commons.     In  tin:  house 


of  jeers,  tlie  supreme  judges  in  civil  cases, 
and  that  biancli  of  the  legislature  which  nio- 
ilerates  and  ciiecks  any  ellirvescence  that 
may  appear  in  th.e  resolutions  of  tl;e  more 
popiilar  branch,  the  eloquence  of  the  orator 
should  be,  as  it  indeeii  is,  more  guarded, 
chastened,  and  sober. 

^\  e  have  instances  of  the  most  p:itlietic  and 
-ebl'iile  eloquence  among  savage  tribes.  Wit- 
ness the  celebrated  address  ot  Logan,  an  In- 
dian chief,  to  lord  Dunmon-,  gcnenior  of 
\  irgmia.  The  CJreek  and  Koman  orators 
uiiiced  the  bold  and  unconliiied  tone  of  the 
rudest,  with  the  knowledge  aiul  art  of  the 
most  retincd  nations.  The  circum^tallces  of 
climate,  and  torm  of  government,  in  which 
there  were  but  few  laws,  and  ihe  appeal  iu 
many,  nay,  most  cases,  made  to  equity,  ac- 
count, in  some  measme  at  least,  for  the  dif- 
lereiKe  between  antient  and  modern  oratory. 
But  the  move  an  English  orator  can  elevate 
his  tone,  and  by  a  rapid  stream  of  passion 
throw  his  audience  into  a  kind  of  dream,  or 
temporary  belief  of  every  thing  that  is  said, 
the  marer  he  arrives  at  the  summit  of  ex- 
cellence. 

The  eloquence  of  the  pulpit  is  altogether 
of  a  serious,  solenm,  pathetic,  and  sublime 
cast.  Here  no  rhetorical  artifices  are  either 
admissible  or  necessary;  the  preacher  must 
speak  the  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth; 
and  the  truths  pretlicated  are  so  interesting 
and  important,  so  sublime  and  awful,  that 
they  are  not  to  be  heightened  by  any  ex- 
aggerations of  fancy.  '1  lie  language  ol  scrip- 
ture too,  is  infinitely  more  energetic  and  im- 
pressive than  that  oi  any  human  composition. 
The  preacher  has  only  to  speak  from  believ- 
ing, and  to  convince  his  audience  that  he 
really  believes  what  he  sa\s,  by  the  shnpli- 
city,  purity,  and  heavenly-niindedness  of  his 
character  and  conduct.  This  is  the  charm 
that  gave  efficacy  to  the  preaching  of  the 
apostles  and  Christian  fathers,  and  success  to 
tile  missionaries  from  Rome  in  modern  times. 
Order  in  every  discourse  is  indispensable; 
and  this  will  arise  out  of  the  subject,  treated 
in  a  rational  and  sensible  manner.  Never 
was  any  English  divine  more  esteemed  and 
admired,  either  as  a  preacher  or  a  man,  than 
Dr.  Ileylyn,  a  prebendary  of  W  estmiiister, 
above  quoted.  In  what  diel  his  sratory  con- 
sist ?  "The  principal  rule  of  his  eloquence, 
(says  the  writer  of  a  preface  to  his  posthumous 
works)  was  to  carry  his  real  thoughts  to  the 
pulpit,  and  to  preach  as  if  he  was  speaking  to 
his  congregation  ;  while  his  action,  and  every 
look  and  gesture  was  adapted  to  the  nature 
and  variations  of  his  subject." 

Philosnphicul  nr  diiluclic  style.  In  pure 
mathematics,  and  experimental  philo-ophy 
illustrated  by  nialheniatics,  notliing  more  is 
requisite  or  proper  than  purity  and  perspi- 
cuity. But  moral  |)liilosophy,  which  is  a 
mixture  of  facts  and  principles,  as  natural 
philosophy  is  of  facts  ajid  mathematics,  ad- 
mits of  great  elo  pience,  and  shoald  be  made 
as  entertaining  as  possible. 

//isti'iicat  ■:ti/li:  History  may  be  divided 
into  three  heads.  1.  N.itural  history  2.  An- 
ecdotes, memoir<i>  annals  and  books  of  vov- 
.iges  and  travels,  all  of  then>  containing,  at 
least,  materials  for  histo'-y.  3.  Civil  history, 
or  the  condition,  actions,  vicissitudes,  ;inil 
improvements  of  men  united  in  society  under 
diflerent  lorms  of  governments.     To  each  of 


II  H  E 

(IiP'c  there  is  a  <ityle  in  some  measuri*  appro- 
pii.ilc,  tlioiin;li  in  ail  llie  style  slioiiUl   v.iry 
witli  the  variations  ot  the  siil)jcet.    In  natural 
history,  purity  or  propriety,  and  perspicuity 
of  style  is  sulhcient ;  notluna;  more  is  required. 
But  descriptions  of  natural  appearances  also 
admit  of   elejjance,   and  ev<Mi  sul'limily,   as 
well  a^  accuracy  ;    of  which  Bufluu  furjiL-hes 
;i  pleasing  example.     It   is   a   pily  that   so 
cliarming  a  writer  should  iudulgt-  so  much  in 
tlie   propensity   of  his  countrymen  to  mere 
theory.    His  obtrusion  of  theory,  often  whim- 
sical and  extravasanl,  is,  indeed,  so  olTensive 
to  a  sober  inquirer  into  the  productions  of 
nature,  Ih  it  a  strict  and  severe  philosopher  is 
rather  better   ph-ased  witli  the  plainness  of 
Pliiiv,  and  of  Linnirus,  whose  views  of  both 
]>lants  and  anim.'.ls  are  at  once  so  accurate 
and  so  extensive.     A;  to  anecdotes,  amials, 
memoirs,  voyages  and  travel-:,  as  there  is  no 
other  d.sign   in  such  writinc;  than   to  trea- 
sure up  any  tliinq  interesting  that  comes  in 
his  way,  no  other  qualities  of  style  are  re- 
quisite tlian  exactness  and  perspicuity,  thoui^h 
liere  too  the  style  naturally  rises  or  falls  with 
th'>  objects  described,  and  fads  whicli  are  | 
recorded,     fn  voyages  and  travels   it  rises  ! 
soiivtimes  into  the  dijnity  and  sublimity  of  ' 
epii!  poetry  ;  when,  under  the  arctic  circle,  j 
on  till'  boi-ders  ot  the  Frozen  Ocean,  nature 
Ian:»uislies,   vegetation  ceases,  the  elements  ! 
alone  appear,  and  the  "earth  is  contemplati'd  i 
only  as  forming  a  part  of  the  solar  system." 
Siznore  (jiuseppo  Acerbi's  'i  ravels   to  the 
Korth   Cape. — When,    at    the    stupejulous 
falls  otthe  Clyde,  "  doubling  a  tuft  of  wood,  j 
you  are  struck   .t  once  with  the  awful  scene  | 
whirli  suddenh  bursts  upon  your  sight,  your 
organs  of  perce  t  ion  are  hurried  along,  and  ; 
partake  ot  tne  turbulence  of  lue  roarins;  wa- 
ters.    The  powers  ot  recoiUction  remain  sus-  ! 
pended  by  this  sudden  Miork,  and  it  is  not  till 
after  a  cousidciab'e  time  tliat  yon  are  enabled 
to  contemplate   tlie  subhrne  ho'Tors  of  this 
awlul  s  ■cue."     Newte'sTour  in  England  and 
Scotland.  I 

On  viewing  tlie  same  scene,  the  reverend 
M; .  Hall  also  raises  his  tone.  "  After  seeing 
the  smoke  a-ctnding  for  more  than  a  mile  i 
as  I  advanced,  I  lirst  heard  and  then  saw  the 
Clyde  roaring  and  raging  a-i  if  provoked  at 
resistance.  The  question  started  in  my 
mind,  is  nature  tlien  so  bustling  and  noisy  in 
her  operations,  so  tumultuous,  rapid  and  im- 
petuous ?"  Tour  in  Scotland,  by  anunu-ual 
Route,  with  a  Trip  to  the  Orkneys  and  fie- 
brides. 

Civil  liistortj.  This  being  addressed  to  the 
whole  world,  to  every  country  and  every 
age,  to  philosophers,  legislators,  kings  and 
princes,  the  general  style,  air  or  tone, 
should  be  that  of  dignity  ;  but  it  should  not 
be  ahvavs  elevated.  It  should  vary  with  the 
particul'.'.r  subject  which  is  treated,  which 
may  be  done  without  descending  to  mean- 
ness. 

The  historian,  'Robertson,  whose  greatest 
excellence,  and  a  great  excellence  it  is,  con- 
sists in  the  close  and  beautiful  order  in  wliich 
he  deduc-  s  e,vents  from  the  causes  that  gave 
them  birth,  is,  perhaps,  not  sufficiently  va- 
tious  in»his  stvle.  He  never  sits  with  you  in 
a.  garden  chair,  or  by  the  iireside  ;  he  never 
descends  from  his  puljiit. 

It.  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  some 


R  H  E 

designs  admit  of  greater  variety  of  style  than 
others.     The  Abbe  St.   Real,  who  has  given 
so  tine  ^  specimen  of  the  concise  and  rapid 
style,  ill  his   History  of  the   Conspiracy  of 
\'enicc,  had   not  an  opportunity,  and   could 
not  with  propriety  vary  either  his   matter  or 
his  manner,  so   much  as   Mr.  Humi-  in   his 
History  of  ICn^land,  witli  occasional  Sketches 
of  the  princijjal  Slati-s  of  Kiiropc   for  seven 
lumdr-d    Years.      Neither  Thucvdides  nor 
Sallust,  conMned  by  their  designs  to  particu- 
lar  events  and  a  very  short  period  of  time, 
could  expatiate  at  leisure  on  a  variety  of  sub- 
jects like  Herodotus,  who  lecords  tii."  com- 
mon transactions  of  the  Greeks  and  Barba- 
rians for  a  long  period  of  time;  the  scenes  of 
wliose  narrative  is  extended  over  a  consider- 
able pait  of  the  three  grand  divisions  of  the 
antient  world,  and  to  a  period  of  two  cen- 
turies.    'J'Imcydidi's  writes   the  history  of  a 
single  war,  and  the  scene  of  the  events  is  con- 
lined  generally  to  the  narrow  spot  of  Greece. 
I  I'he  hi-ti)ries  of  Sallust  arc-  still  more  circum- 
-cribed  in  re.i)ect  of  both  action  and  space. 
'I'he  curiosity   of  the  reader  being  strongly 
I  I'xcited   by  the  conlemijlation  of  one  great 
!  event,  and  approachin?  catastrophe,  the  dig- 
nilied  conciseness  of  Thucydides  and  Sallust, 
j  forms  the  greatest  beauty.    The  arramjement 
of  Thucy(li(h"s,  who   divides  his  work   into 
I  summers  and  winters,  is  very  faulty;  but  his 
I  style  for  his  subject  and  design  is  admirable; 
yet  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  style  [jroper 
for  dilicrent  plans  or  designs  in  history,  admits 
of  modiricatioii  from  the  dill'erent  geniuses  of 
I  different  historians.     I'he   retreat  of  the  ten 
(  thousand  Greeks  was  a  single  event,  and  em- 
braced but  a  small  portion  of  time  ;  yet  the 
easy,  graceful,  and  sweetly-flowing  narrative 
of  Xenophon,  tiie  Athenian  bee,   is  also  ad- 
minible  in  its  kind,  though  different  from  the 
charming  simplicity  and  melody  of  Hero- 
dotus the  energy  of  Thucydides,  the  brevity 
of  Sallusf,  the  majesty  of  Livy,  and  his  happy 
imit..tors  among  the  moderns,  Mariana  ancl 
Buchaiinjii,  and  the  elegant  purity  and  pre- 
cision ot  Julius  Ca'sir.     In  a  word,   though 
tli-re  are  certain  general  ((ualities  of  style 
suited  to  a  general  subject,  that  style  is  agree- 
ably tinctured,  not  deformed  by  a  diversity 
of  genius. 

Non  una  quidein 
Nee  diversa  tamen  qualis  decet  esse  sororum. 

Now,  to  conclude,  by  recapitulating  what 
has  been  now  said  on  the  present  article. 
As  speech  is  the  power,  so  rhetoric  is  the  art 
of  communicating  our  sentiments  in  the  full- 
est and  most  impressive  manner.  As  the  ends 
for  which  we  communicate  our  sentiments  are 
various,  the  form,  style,  or  manner  of  dis- 
course, spoken  or  written,  i-  dill'erent  also; 
correspond'ng  with  the  emotions  to  be  ex- 
pressed and  excited,  whetlier  of  surprise,  com- 
placency, admiration,  wonder,  astonishment 
syni|)atliy,  ridicule,  honour,  or  shame.  The 
lirst  and  cardinal  point  in  every  composition,  is 
tobeni.i  ter  oft  he  subject;  tohave  a  clear  con- 
ception of  all  that  we  wish  to  say.  "  Out  ot 
the  fulness  ot  the  heart  the  mouth  speaketh."' 
As  the  analogies  of  language  were  formed 
before  the  rules  of  grammar,  so  literary  works 
were  composed  belore  the  canons  of  criticism 
and  rules  of  rhetoric.  These  rules  are  of 
more  use  in  preventing  the  false  glare  of 
turgidity,  fustian,  bombast,  and  conceit,  tlian 


R  H  E 


5£)a 


ofavail  to  uispire  the  most  excellent  (imilitiu 
ol  sjjeaking  or  writing.  An  altcn"on  to  these 
rules  will  obviate  blemishes.  A  wei.-inlbrm- 
ed  understanding,  with  a  lively  imagination 
and  a  feeling  heart,  are  tJie  grand  sources  of 
excellent  compo-itioii ;  a  taste  for  which  may 
be  farllier  improved  by  a  constant  perusal  of 
the  best  models,  in  the  same  manner  that  the 
constant  contemplation  of  '.he  best  pictures 
forms  insensibiy  a  just  and  nice  taste  (or 
painting;  but  it  should  never  be  forgotten 
iliat  the  liighest  excellences  of  style  are  never 
attained  where  the  fire  of  iii'iagination  is 
smothered  by  an  anxious  fear  of  oirending- 
against  any  rules ;  and  that  tlie  absence  of 
faults  and  blemishes  is  dearly  bought  by  the 
absence  of  elegance  and  every  beauty. 

RHEl.'M,  a  thin  serous  humour,  occa-, 
sionally  oozing  out  of  the  glands  about  the 
mouth  and  throat. 

lUlF.l'M,  rhiilmrh,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  in  die  enneaiidria  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
I'itli  order,  holorace;e.  There  is  no  calyx; 
the  corolla  is  sexhd  and  persistent ;  and  tli'cre 
is  one  triquetrous  seed.  'J'here  are  seven, 
species,      i'he  most  noted  are : 

I.  The  rhjpoiiticum,  or  common  rhubarb, 
lias  a  large,  thick,  Heshy,  branching,  deep- 
striking  root,  yellowish  within ;  crowned  by 
very  large,  roundish,  lieart-shapcd,  smoolii 
leaves,  on  thick,  slightly-furrowed,  foot- 
stalks ;  and  an  upright  strong  stem,  two  or 
three  feet  high,  terminated  bv  thick  close 
spikes  of  white  llowers.  It  grows  in  Thrace 
and  Scythia,  but  has  been  long  in  the  Eng- 
lish gardens.  Its  root  allbrds  a  gentle  purge. 
It  is,  however,  of  inferior  quality  to  some  of 
the  following  sorts ;  but  its  yount;  stalks  in 
spring  being  cut  and  peeled,  are  used  for 
tarts. 

2.  The  palmatum  (see  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig. 
346.),  palmated-leaved  true  Chinese  rhubarb, 
has  a  thick  ticshy  root,  yellow  within  ; 
crowned  with  very  large  jialmated  leaves, 
being  deeply  divided  into  acminated  seg- 
ments, expanded  like  an  open  hand;  uprigiit 
stems,  five  or  six  t'eet  high  or  more,  termi- 
natC!!  by  large  spikes  of  flowers.  This  is  now 
proved  to  be  the  true  foreign  rhubarb,  the 
purg.itive  quality  of  which  is  well  known. 

3.  The  compactum,  or  Tartarian  rhubarb,. 
has  a  large,  Heshy,  branched  root,  vellow 
within;  crowned  by  very  large,  heart-shaped 
somewhat  lobated,  sharply  indented,  smooth 
leaves,  and  an  upright  iargi-  stem,  tiveor  six 
feet  high,  branching  above ;  having  all  the 
branches  terminated  by  nodding  panicles  of 
wliite  flowers.  This  has  been  supposed  to  be 
t!ie  true  rhubarb:  which,  however,  though  of 
superior  quality  to  some  sorts,  is  accounted 
interior  to  the  rheum  palmatum. 

4.  The  undulatum,  undulated  or  waved- 
leaved  Chinese  riiubarb,  has  a  thick,  branchy, 
deep-striking  root,  yellow  within;  crowned 
with  large,  oblong,  undulate,  somewhat  hai'-y 
leaves,  having  equal  foot-.stalks,  and  an  up- 
right fiiTTi  stem,  four  feet  high,  terminated  by- 
long  loose  spikes  of  white  How  i-rs* 

5.  The  ribes,  or  currant  rhubarb  of  Mount 
Libanus,  has  a  thick  fleshy  lo  t,  very  broad 
leaves,  f u  I  of  granulated  protuberances,  and'. 
with  equal  foot-sta'ks  and  upright  firm  stems, 
three  or  four  leet  |.  gh,  terminate  d  by  -p  kes 
of  flowers,  succeeded  by  berrv-hke  seeiU, 
being  surrounded  by  a  pmp'e  pulp  All 
these  plants  are  perennial  in  root,  anU^  tue 


J^4 


R  H  E 


loaves  and  stalks  are  annual.  Tlie  roots 
being  lliick,  tlesliv,  generally  drfidecl,  slvikc 
deep  into  tiie  ground  ;  of  a  brownish  colour 
vitliout  and  yellow  within;  the  leaves  rise  in 
the  spring,  generally  come  up  in  a  large  head 
folded  together,  gritduully  expanding  them- 
selves, having  thick  fool-stalks;  and  grow 
from  one  to  two  feet  high,  or  more,  in  lengtli 
andbreadth.  spreading  all  round:  amidst  them 
rise  the  tiower-.-lems, tttaining their  fulllieight 
in  Jinie,  wh.en  t!iey  tlower,  and  are  succeeded 
by  large  triangular  seeds,  ripening  in  August. 
JSome  plants  of  each  surt  merit  culture  in 
gardens  for  variety ;  they  will  eil'eet  a  sin- 
gularitv  with  their  luKuriaut  foliage,  spikes, 
and  flower? ;  and,  as  medical  plants,  they 
demand  culture  both  for  private  and  public 
mse. 

Tliey  are  generally  propagated  by  seeds 
sown  in  autunui  soon  after  they  are  ripe,  or 
earlv  in  the  spring,  in  any  open  bed  of  light 
deep  earth.  Scatter  the  seeds  thinly,  either 
bv  broad-cast  all  over  the  siuface,  and  raked 
well  in,  or  in  slnillow  drills  a  foot  and  a  half 
distance,  cover'mg  them  near  an  inch  deep. 
-The  plants  will  ri^e  in  the  spring,  but  not 
Jlower  till  the  second  or  third  year:  wIkii 
tliev  are  come  up  two  or  three  inches  high, 
tliiii  thcni  to  ei^ht  or  ten  inches,  and  clear 
out  all  weeds  ;  tiiough  iho'^e  di:signed  always 
to  stanil  should  afteiwarils  be  hoed  out  to  a 
-loot  and  a  half  or  two  feet  distance;  observ- 
ing if  any  are  re(]uired  for  tlic  pleasure- 
ground,  &c.  for  variety,  they  should  be 
transplanted  where  they  are  to  remain  in 
autumn,  when  their  leaves  decay,  or  early 
in  spring,  before  they  shoot:  the  others  re- 
maining where  sown  must  have  the  gromid 
kept  clean  between  them;  and  in  autinnji, 
when  the  leaves  and  stalks  decay,  cut  them 
d.)wn,  and  slightly  dig  the  ground  between 
-tlie  rows  of  T)lants,  repeating  the  same  work 
every  year.  The  roots  remaining,  tliev  in- 
crease in  size  annually  ;  and  in  the  second  or 
third  year  many  of  them  will  shoot  up  stalks, 
flower,  and  perfect  seeds;  and  in  three  or 
tour  years  the  roots  will  be  arrived  to  a  large 
size,  though  older  roots  are  generally  prefer- 
able for  medical  use. 

Two  sorts  of  rhubarb  are  met  with  in  the 
shops.  The  first  is  imported  from  'I'urkey 
and  Russia,  in  roundish  pieces  freed  from  the 
bark,  with  a  hole  througii  the  middle  of  each: 
tlu:y  are  externally  of  a  yellowish  olour,  and 
on  cutting  api)i:ar  v.uiegated  with  lively  red- 
disli  streaks.  'J"he  other,  wliich  is  less  esteem- 
ed, comes  immediately  from  the  Kast  Indies, 
in  jjngish  pieces,  harder,  heavier,  and  more 
eompact  than  the  foregoing,  'llie  first  sort, 
unless  kept  very  dr_>,  is  apt  to  grow  nronldv 
and  worm -eaten ;  the  second  is  less  sulijeti 
tn  these  inconveniences.  Some  of  the  more 
mJuslrious  artists  are  saitl  to  till  up  the  worm- 
lioles  with  certain  mixtures,  and  to  colour 
tlie  outside  of  the  damaged  pieces  with  pow- 
der of  the  liner  sorts  of  rhubarb,  and  some- 
times «ilh  cheaper  m.ilerials:  this  is  often  so 
nicely  done  a<  eii'ectnally  to  impose  upon 
tue  buyer,  unless  he  very  carefully  examines 
eacli  piece.  The  miuks  of  good  rhubarb  are, 
that  it  i»  linn  and  solid,  but  not  llinty ;  that 
it  is  easily  pulveralile,  and  appears  when 
powdereil  of  a  fnie  bright  yellow  colour; 
that,  upon  .Seiiig  chewed,  it  impaits  to  the 
ipiltle  a  salfron  tinge,  without  proving  slimv 
ur  mucilaginous  in  llie  mouth,     lu  tusle  is 


R  £1  I 

subacrid,  bitterish,  and  somewiiat  astringent ; 
the  smell  lightly  aromatic. 

Rhubarb  is  a'  mild  cathartic,  which  operates 
without  violence  or  irritation,  and  may  be 
given  vith  safety  even  to  jM-egnant  women 
and  children,  fie.sides  its  purgative  (juality, 
it  is  celebrated  for  an  astringent  or.e,  by  w  hicli 
it  strengthens  the  tone  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines,  and  proves  useful  in  diarhieas  and 
disorders  proceeding  from  a  laxity  of  the 
libres.  Rhubarb  in  substance  operates  more 
powerfully  as  a  cathartic  than  any  of  the 
preparations  of  it.  ^^'atery  tinctures  jnirge 
more  than  tlie  spirituous  ones;  whilst  the 
latter  contain  in  greater  perfection  the  aro- 
matic, astringent,  ar.d  corroborating  virtues 
of  the  rhubarb.  The  dose,  when  intended 
as  a  purgative,  is  from  a  scruple  to  a  drachm 
or  more. 

The  Turkey  rhubarb  is,  among  us,  univer- 
sally preferred  to  the  East  India  sort,  though 
this  last  is  for  some  purposes  at  least  equal 
to  the  other;  it  is  manil'e-tly  more  astrin- 
gent, but  has  somewhat  less  of  an  aromatic 
Flavour,  'i'inctures  dra-^n  from  both  with 
rectified  spirit  have  nearly  the  same  taste: 
oil  distilling  off  the  menstruum,  the  extract 
left  from  tlie  tincture  of  the  East  India  rhu- 
barb proved  considerably  the  strongest. 

The  method  of  curing  the  true  rhubarb  is 
as  follows:  Take  the  roots  up  when  the  stalks 
are  withering  or  dying  away,  clean  from  the 
earth  with  a  dry  brush,  cut  them  in  small 
jiieces  of  about  four  or  live  inches  in  breadth, 
and  about  two  in  deptli,  taking  away  all  the 
bark,  and  make  a  hole  in  the  middle,  and 
string  them  on  packthread,  keeping  every 
piece  a|).ut ;  and  every  morning,  if  the  wea- 
ther is  clear  and  fine,  place  them  in  the  open 
part  of  the  garden  on  stages  erected  by  fixing 
small  posts  about  six  feel  high  in  the  ground, 
and  six  feet  asunder,  into  which  fix  horizontal 
pegs,  about  a  foot  apart,  beginning  at  the  top; 
and  the  rhubarb  being  strung  crosswise  on 
small  poles,  place  them  on  these  pegs ;  so 
that,  if  it  should  rain,  you  couUl  easily  re- 
move each  pole  with  the  susptn(le<!  pieces 
into  any  covered  iilace.  Never  suffer  them 
to  be  out  at  nitiht,  as  the  damps  at  this  season 
would  be  apt  to  mould  them. 

RHF.rMA'lIS.M.     See  Mepicike. 

BIIEXI.^,  a  genus  of  the  munogynia  or- 
der, in  the  octandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  meliiod  ranking  with  those  of  the 
1 7th  order  calycaiithema".  The  calyx  is  qua- 
drifid  with  four  petals  inserted  into  it;  the 
anthera'  are  declining;  the  capsule  is  quadri- 
locular,  within  the  belly  of  the  calyx.  There 
are  13  species,  annuals  and  shrubs  of  Ame- 
rica. 

RIIIN.VNTIIUS,  a  genus  of  the  angio- 
speniiia  order,  in  the  didvnamia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  4nili  order,  personate.  The  calyx 
is  quadrilid,  and  ventricose;  the  capsule  hi- 
locular,  obtuse,  and  compressed.  T  here  are 
eight  species,  among  which  is  the  yellow 
rattle,  a  weed  well  known. 

RIIIXOCI'.UOS.  a  genus  of  quadrupeds 
of  the  Older  bellua' :  the  aeneric  character  is, 
horn  solid,  perennial,  conical,  seated  on  the 
nose. 

I.  Rhinoceros  unicornis,  single-horned  rhi- 
noceros. The  rhinoceros  is  the  largest  of 
land  animals,  the  elephant  alone  exce|)ted. 
It  is  of  a  highly  uncouth  and  awkward  form. 
'J'he  i)atk,  iFistead  of  rising,  as  in  the  elephant. 


R  I!  1 

sinks  in  considerably:  the  head  is  moderate^ 
large  and  long;  the  uijjier  lip  protrudes  of 
hangs  over  the  lower  in  the  form  of  a  length- 
ened tip ;  and,  being  extremely  pliable,  an- 
swers the  end  of  a  small  proboscis,  and  is  use- 
ful to  the  animrd  in  catching  hold  of  th« 
shoots  of  vegetables.  &e.  and  delivering  them 
into  the  mouth,  (hi  the  nose  is  situated  a 
ver>  strong,  slightly  curved,  sharp-pointed 
horn,  which,  in  the  full-grown  animal,  is 
sometimes  three  feet  in  length,  and  eighteen 
inches  in  circumference  at  the  base,  'llie 
mouth  has  fo.ir  cutting-teeth,  which  are 
placed  at  each  corner  of  each  jaw  ;  there  are 
also  six  grinders  in  each  jaw,  of  which  the 
first  is  remote  from  the  cutting-teelh.  (hi 
strict  piopriety  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
the  four  teeth  first  mentioned  should  be  calletl 
by  the  title  of  cutting-teeth.)  The  ears  are 
moderately  large,  upright,  and  pointed  ;  the 
eyes  small ;  the  skin  naked,  rough,  and  tu- 
berculated,  or  marked  with  very  numerous, 
large,  callous  granulations;  it  is  destitute  of 
hair,  except  a  tew  straggling  and  very  coarse 
bristles  on  some  parts  of  the  liead,  &c.  About 
(he  neck  the  skin  is  disposed  into  several  large 
plaits  or  folds  ;  another  fold  of  the  same  kind 
passes  from  the  shoulders  to  the  fore  legs, 
and  another  from  the  hind  part  of  the  back 
to  the  thighs;  the  tail  is  slender,  liattened  at 
the  end,  and  covered  on  the  sides  with  very 
stiff  and  thick  black  hairs;  the  bellv  is  some- 
what pendulous,  or  shaped  like  that  of  a  hcg  ; 
the  legs  very  shorl,  strong,  and  thick;  the 
feet  marked  into  three  large  hoofs,  all  stand- 
ing forwards.  'i"he  general  height  of  the 
riiinoceros  is  about  eight  feet;  but  it  is  said 
that  some  have  been  seen  in  Sumatra  an<l 
.lava  which  nearly  t-tjualled  the  size  of  tlie 
elephant,  though  they  appeared  lower  on 
account  of  the  sinking  back,  the  pendulous 
abdomen,  and  short  legs. 

The  rhinoceros  is  a  native  of  several  |irrtj 
of  India,  as  well  as  of  the  islands  of  Java,  Su- 
matra, otc.  This  animal  falls  far  sliort  of  the 
elephant  in  sagacity  and  docility.  It  is,  how- 
ever, of  a  cjuiet  and  inoffensive  disposition, 
but  very  furious  and  dangerous  when  pro- 
voked or  attacked':  lie  is  said  to  run  with 
great  swiftness,  and,  from  his  strength  and 
impenetrable  covering,  is  capable  of  rushing 
with  resistless  violence  through  woods  and 
obstacles  of  every  kind  ;  the  trees  bending 
like  twigs  while. he  |)asses  between  them.  In 
general  habits  and  manner  of  feeding,  the 
rhinoceros  resembles  the  elephant,  residing 
in  cool  sequestered  spots,  near  waters,  and 
ill  shady  woods;  it  delights  in  rolling  occa- 
sionally in  the  mud,  in  the  manner  of  a  hog. 
Its  skin  is  so  hard  as  to  be  impenetrable  by 
any  common  weapons,  except  on  the  belly  : 
it  is  even  said,  that,  in  order  to  shoot  a  full- 
grown  rhinoceros  of  ad. anced  age,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  make  use  of  iron  bullets ;  those  of 
lead  liaving  been  known  to  be  llattgned 
against  (he  "^kiii. 

'J  he  bones  of  the  rhinoceros,  like  those  of 
the  ehphaiit,  are  often  found  in  a  fossil  state 
in  various  parts  of  the  world  ;  and  in  the 
year  1772,  an  entire  rhinoceros  was  found 
ijuried  in  the  banks  of  a  Siberian  river,  in  the 
antient  frozen  sjiil,  with  the  skin,  tendons, 
and  some  of  the  llesh,  in  the  highest  state  of 
preservation.  It  was  discovi'red  in  the  sandy 
banks  of  the  river  W'ilim,  which  falls  into  the 
Lena,  below  Jakiitsk,  in  north  hit.  (>4. 

'J.    Khiuoceros  bicoiuis,  the  two-liorncd 


R  H  I 

rhinoceros,  is  f.jimd  in  various  parts  of  Africa, 
and  seems  to  h^vc  been  the  kin<l  wliith  was 
known  to  the  iintient  Komiins,  and  by  them 
exhibited  in  their  public  shows  and  combats 
of  animals.  In  size  it  equals  the  conimoii  or 
single-horned  species;  and  its  habits  and 
manner  of  feeding  are  the  same  ;  but  it  <lif- 
fers  greatly  in  the  appearance  of  its  skin, 
which,  instead  of  the  vast  and  reenlarly 
marked  armour-like  folds  of  the  fermer,  has 
merely  a  very  »li^ht  wrinkle  across  the 
shoulders,  and  on  the  hinder  parts  with  a  few 
fainter  wrinkles  on  the  sid.'s,  so  that,  in  com- 
parison with  the  common  rhinocero-,  it  aj)- 
pears  almost  smooth  ;  the  skin,  however,  is 
rough  or  tubcrculated,  especially  in  the 
larger  specimen?  ;  but  wjiat  constitutes  the 
specific  or  principal  distinction  is,  that  the 
nose  is  furnished  with  two  horns,  one  of  which 
is  smaller  than  the  other,  and  situated  above 
it,  or  higher  up  on  tlie  front.  Tliese  horns 
are  said  to  be  loose  when  the  animal  is  in  a 
quiet  state,  but  to  become  tirm  and  immove- 
able when  it  is  enraged.  I'his  observation 
is  confirmed  by  Dr.  Sparman,  who  observed, 
in  a  specimen  which  lie  shot  in  Africa,  that 
Ihey  were  fi.xed  to  the  no>e  by  a  strong  ap- 
paratus of  muscles  and  tendons,  so  as  to  allow 
the, animal  the  power  of  giving  them  a  steadv 
fixture  on  proper  occasions.  Tliis,  indeed, 
is  treatetl  by  Mr.  Bruce,  the  celebrated  Abys- 
sinian traveller,  as  an  absurd  idea :  but,  on 
in-^pe-  ting  the  horns  and  skin  on  which  they 
are  seated,  it  does  not  appe  ir  that  they  are 
firmly  attached  to,  or  connected  with,  the 
bone  of  the  cranium.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist. 
fig.  347. 

Mr.  Bruce's  d^'scription  of  the  manner  of 
feeding,  as  well  as  o|  some  other  particulars 
relative  to  the  two-'iorned  rhinoceros,  seems 
highly  wortliy  of  notice.  He  informs  us, 
that,  "  besides  t!ie  trees  capable  of  most  re- 
sistance, there  are,  in  the  vast  forests  within 
the  rains,  .trees  of  a  softer  consistence,  and  of 
a  very  succulent  quality,  which  seem  to  be 
destmed  for  his  principal  food.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  gaining  the  highest  branches  of  these, 
))is  upper  lip  is  capable  of  being  lengthened 
out  sD  as  to  increase  his  power  of  laying  hold 
with  this  iii  the  same  manner  as  the"  elephant 
does  with  his  trunk.  With  this  lip,  and  the 
assistance  of  his  tongue,  he  pulls  down  the 
upper  branches  whicli  have  most  leaves,  and 
these  he  devours  iirst;  having  stripped  the 
tree  of  its  branches,  he  does  not,  therefore, 
abandon  it;  but,  placing  his  snout  as  low  in 
the  trunk  as  he  finds  his  horns  will  enter,  he 
rips  lip  the  body  of  the  tree,  and  reduces  it 
to  thin  pieces  like  so  many  laths;  and  when 
he  has  thus  prepared  it,  he  embraces  as  much 
ot  it  as  he  can  in  his  monstrous  jaws,  and 
twists  it  round  with  as  much  ease  as  an  ox 
would  do  a  root  of  celery,  or  any  such  pot- 
herb or  garden-stulT. 

"  When  pursued,  and  in  fear,  he  possesses 
an  astonishing  degree  of  swiftness,  consider- 
ing his  .size,  the  apparent  uinvieldiiiess  of  his 
body,  his  great  weiglit  before,  and  the  short- 
ness of  his  legs.  He  is  long,  and  has  a  kind 
of  trot,  which,  after  a  few  minutes,  increases 
in  a  great  proportion,  and  takes  in  a  great 
■  distance;  but  this  is  to  be  understood  with  a 
degree  of  moderation.  It  is  not  true,  that  in 
a  plain  he  beats  the  horse  in  swiftness.  I 
I  have  passed  him  with  ease,  and  <<een  many 
iworse  mounted  do  the  same,  and  though  it  is 
certaiiilv  true  that  a  horse  can  very  seldom 
Vol.  U. 


R  H  I 

coroe  up  with  him,  this  is  owing  to  his  cun- 
ning but  not  his  swiftness. 

"  'Hie  eyes  of  the  rhinoceros  are  very 
small,  and  he  seldom  turns  his  head,  and 
therefore  sees  nothing  but  what  is  before  him. 
To  this  he  owes  his  death,  and  never  escapes 
if  there  is  so  mucli  plain  as  to  enable  the 
horse  to  get  before  him.  His  pride  and 
furv,  then,  make  him  lay  aside  all  thoughts 
of  escaping,  but  by  victory  over  his  enemy. 
He  stands  for  a  moment  at  bay,  then,  at  a 
start,  runs  straight  forward  at  the  horse  like 
the  wild  boar,  whom,  in  his  manner  of  action, 
he  verv  much  resembles.  The  horse  easily 
avoids  him  by  turning  short  aside ;  and 
this  is  the  fatal  instant :  the  naked  man,  with 
tiie  sword,  drops  from  behind  the  principal 
horseman,  and,  unseen  by  the  rhinoceros, 
who  is  seeking  liis  enemy,  the  horse,  he  gives 
him  a  stroke  across  the  tendon  of  the  heel, 
w'hich  renders  him  incapable  of  further  flight 
or  resistance. 

"  In  speaking  of  the  great  quantity  of  food 
necessary  to  support  this  enormous  mass,  we 
must  likewise  consider  the  vast  quantity  of 
water  which  he  nce<ls.  No  country  but  that 
of  the  Shangalla,  which  he  possesses,  deluged 
with  six  months'  rain,  and  full  of  large  and 
deep  basons,  made  in  the  living  rock,  and 
shaded  by  dark  woods  from  evaporation,  or 
watered  by  large  and  deep  rivers,  which 
never  fall  low  or  to  a  state  of  dryness,  can 
supply  the  vast  draughts  of  this  monstrous 
creature.  But  it  is  not  for  drinking  alone 
that  he  frequents  wet  and  marshy  places: 
large,  fierce,  and  strong,  as  he  is,  he  must 
submit  to  prepare  himself  against  the  weak- 
est of  all  adversaries.  The  great  consump- 
tion he  constantly  makes  of  food  and  water 
necessarily  conhne  him  to  certain  limited 
spaces ;  for  it  is  not  every  place  that  can 
maintain  him;  he  cannot  emigrate,  or  seek 
his  defence  among  the  sands  of  Atbara." 

The  adversary  just  mentioned  is  a  fly  (pro- 
bably of  the  genus  oestrus),  which  attacks  the 
rhinoceros,  as  well  as  the  camel  and  many 
other  animals,  and  would,  according  to  Mr. 
Bruce,  as  easily  subdue  him,  but  for  the  stra- 
tagem which  he  practises  of  rolling  himself 
in  the  mud  by  night,  by  which  means  he 
clothes  himself  in  a  kind  of  case,  which  de- 
fends him  from  his  adversary  the  following 
day.  The  pleasure  that  he  receives  from 
thus  rolling  in  the  mud,  and  the  darkness  of 
the  night,  deprive  him  of  his  usual  vigilance 
and  attention.  The  hunters  steal  secretly 
upon  him,  and  while  lying  on  the  ground 
wound  him  with  their  javelins,  mostly  in  the 
belly,  where  the  wound  is  mortal. 

RH[NOM-\CEB,  a  genusof  insects  of  the 
order  coleoptera.  Tlie  generic  character  is, 
antenn;e  setaceous,  seated  on  the  snout;  feel- 
ers four,  growing  thicker  towards  the  end, 
the  last  joint  truncate.  There  are  three  spe- 
cies :  the  curculioides,  that  inhabits  Italy; 
the  attelaboides,  that  inhabits  Sweden  ;  and 
the  ca?ruleu5,  found  in  Calabria. 

RHIZOBAI.US,  a  genus  of  the  tetragy- 
nia  order,  in  the  polyandria  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
;?.3d  order,  trihilalE.  The  calyx  is  mono- 
phyllous,  fleshy,  and  downy;  the  corolla 
consists  of  five  petals,  which  are  round,  con- 
cave, fleshy,  and  much  larger  than  the  ca- 
Ivx  ;  the  stamina  are  very  numerous,  filitbrm, 
and  longer  than  the  corolla;  the  stili  are 
4E 


R  H  I 


583 


four,  filiform,  and  of  the  length  of  the  sta- 
mijia  ;  the  pericarpium  has  four  drupa;,  kid- 
ney-shaped, compressed,  with  a  lleshy  sub- 
stance inside,  and  in  the  middle  a  Hal  large 
nut,  contiiining  a  kidney-shaped  kernel.  Of 
this  there  are  two  species:  the  most  remark- 
able is  the  pekia.  The  nut  is  sold  in  the 
shops  as  American  nuts:  they  are  flat,  tu- 
bcrculated, and  kidney-shaped,  containing  a 
kernel  of  the  same  shape,  which  is  sweet  and 
agreeable. 

RIIIZOPHOK  A,  Ihe  mnngrme or  mangle, 
a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  ii;  the  <!o- 
riecandria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  12th  order,  holo- 
raceiB.  The  calyx  is  quadripartite,  the  co- 
rolla four-parted ;  there  is  one  seed,  very 
long,  and  carnous  at  the  base.  Therie  are  six 
species. 

These  plants  are  natives  of  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  and  often  grow  40  or  50  feet 
high.  They  grow  only  in  water  and  on  the 
banks  of  rivers,  where  the  tide  (lows  up  twice 
a  day.  They  preserve  the  verdure  of  their 
leaves  throughout  the  year.  From  the  low- 
est branches  issue  long  roots,  which  hang 
down  to  the  water,  and  penetrate  into  the 
earth.  In  this  position  they  resemble  so 
many  arcades,  from  five  to  ten  feet  high, 
which  serve  to  support  the  body  of  the  tree, 
and  even  to  advance  it  daily  into  the  bed  of 
the  waier.  These  arcades  are  so  closely  in- 
tertwisted one  with  another,  that  they  form  a 
kind  of  natural  and  transparent  terrace,  raised 
with  such  solidity  over  the  water,  that  one 
might  walk  upon  them,  was  it  not  tlial  the 
branches  are  too  much  incumbered  witli 
leaves.  The  most  natural  way  ol  propagat- 
ing these  trees  is  to  suffer  the  several  slender 
small  filaments  which  issue  from  the  main 
branches  to  take  root  in  the  earth.  Tlie 
most  common  method,  however,  is  that  of 
laying  the  small  lower  branches  in  baskets  of 
mould  or  earth  till  they  have  taken  root. 

The  descriplion  just  given  pertains  chiefly 
to  a  particular  species  of  inargrove,  R.  man- 
gle, termed  by  tlie  West  Indians  black  man- 
gles, on  account  of  the  brown  dusky  colour 
of  the  wood.  The  bark  is  very  brown,  smooth, 
pliant  when  green,  and  generally  used  in  the 
West  India  islands  for  tanning  of  leather. 
Below  this  bark  lies  a  cuticle  or  skin,  which 
is  lighter,  thinner,  and  more  tender.  The 
wood  is  nearly  of  the  same  colour  as  the 
bark ;  hard,  pliant,  and  very  heavy.  It  is 
frequently  used  for  fuel ;  the  fires  which  are 
made  of  this  wood  being  both  clearer,  more 
ardent  and  durable,  th;.n  those  made  of  any 
other  materials  whatever.  The  wood  is  al- 
most incorruptible,  never  splinters,  is  easily 
worked,  and  was  it  not  tor  its  enormous 
weight,  would  b-  commodiously  employed 
in  almost  all  kinds  of  work,  as  it  possesses 
every  propertv  of  good  timber.  To  the 
roots  and  branches  of  mangroves  that  are 
immersed  in  the  water,  oysters  frequently 
attach  themselves;  so  that  wherever  this  cu- 
rious plant  is  found  growing  on  the  sea-shore, 
oyster-lishing  is  very  easy ;  as  in  such  cases 
these  shell-lish  may  be  "literally  said  to  be 
gathered  upon  trees. 

The  red  mangle  or  mangrove,  a  variety  of 
the  above,  grows  on  the  sea-shore,  and  at 
the  mouth  of  large  rivers;  but  does  not  ad- 
vance, like  the  former,  into  the  water.  It 
generallv  rises  to  the  height  of  20  or  30  feet, 
with  crooked  knotty  branches,  wliich  proceed 


mo 


1\  K  O 


irom  all  parts  of  tlie  trunk.  The  bark  is 
>liiiilur,  ot  a  brown  colour,  and,  ulu'ii  younr, 
is  sinootli,  aiul  adlieres  very  closely  to  the 
wood;  but  when  old,  appears  quite  cracked, 
and  is  easily  detailed  Irom  it.  I'lider  Ihi^ 
bark  is  a  skin  as  thick  as  parchn.ent,  red,  and 
adhering  closely  to  the  wood,  Iro.n  which  il 
cannot  be  detached  tid  the  tree  is  felled  and 
drv.  Tlie  wood  is  hard,  compact,  heavy,  ot 
a  deep  red,  wiih  a  very  rine  grain.  The  pith 
or  heart  ot  the  wood  being  cut  into  small 
pieces,  and  boiled  in  water,  imparts  a  ver\ 
beautiful  red  to  the  licjuid,  which  communi- 
cates the  same  colour  to  wool  and  linen. 
Tlie  great  weight  and  hardness  of  the  wood 
prevent  it  from  being  generally  used.  From 
the  fruit  of  this  tree,  which,  when  ripe,  is  of  a 
violet-colour,  and  resembles  some  grapes  in 
taste,  is  prepared  an  agreeable  liquor,  iiuich 
«steeined  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Caribbee 
islands. 

White  mangle,  another  variety,  so  ternied 
from  the  colour  of  its  wood,  grows,  like  the 
two  former,  upon  the  banks  ot  rivers,  but  is 
seldom  found  near  the  sea.  The  bark  is 
grev ;  the  wood,  as  we  have  said,  white,  and 
when  green,  supple;  but  dries  as  soon  as  cut 
down, "and  becomes  very  light  and  brittle. 
'11ns  species  is  generally  called  rope-man- 
grove, irom  the  use  to  which  the  bark  is 
applied  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  AVest  In- 
dies. This  bark,  which,  from  the  great 
abundance  of  sap,  is  easily  detached  when 
green  irom  the  wood,  is  beaten  or  brui^tl 
betwixt  two  stones,  until  the  hard  and  woody 
part  is  totally  sejjarated  from  that  which  is 
soft  and  tender.  This  last,  wiiich  is  the  true 
cortical  substance,  is  twisted  into  ropes  of  all 
iizcs,  which  are  exceedingly  strong,  and  not 
ajji  to  rot  in  the  water. 
•  KliODIOLA,  roxc-ii-nrt,  a  genus  of  the 
oclaudria  order,  in  the  diatcia  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
13lh  oriier,  succulents.  The  male  calyx  is 
quadripartite,  the  corolla  tetrapelalous.  The 
female  calyx  is  (luadripartite,  and  there  is  no 
corolla;  the  nectaria  are  four;  the  pistils 
four;  and  there  are  four  polyspermous  cap- 
fules.  There  are  two  species,  the  rosea  and 
the  biternata;  the  first  grows  naturally  in 
the  clefts  of  the  rocks  and  rugged  mountains 
of  Wales,  Yorkshire,  and  Westmorland.  It 
has  a  very  thick  Heshy  root,  which  when  cut 
or  bruised  sends  out  an  odour  like  roses.  It 
has  thick  succulent  stalks,  like  those  of  or- 
pine, about  nine  inches  long,  with  thick  suc- 
culent leaves  indented  at  the  loj).  Tlie  stalk 
is  terminated  by  a  cluster  of  yellowish  herba- 
ceous llowers,  which  have  an  agreeable  scent, 
but  are  of  short  continuance.  The  second 
»ort  is  a  native  of  Cochin  China.  Roth  spe- 
cies are  easily  propagated  by  parting  their 
roots,  and  require  a  shady  situation  and  dry 
undnnged  soil.  The  fragrance  of  the  first 
jpecies,  however,  is  greatly  diminished  by 
cultivation. 

RHODODENDRUM,  dwarf  rnse-ki,/, 
a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  in  the  de- 
candria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  18th  order,  bi- 
corhes.  The  calyx  is  quinquepartite ;  the 
corolla  funnel-shaped  ;  the  stamina  declining ; 
the  capsule  tiuinqnelocular.  There  are  nine 
specie , ;  the  most  remarkable  of  which  arc, 

I.  1  he  hirMilicn,  with  naked  hairy  leaves, 
(fowi  i.uluully  ou  tile  Alp  i  and  tivvcrai  iiiuuii- 


R  n  o 

tains  of  Italy.  It  is  a  low  shrub,  which  sel-  j 
dom  rises  tw'o  feet  high,  sending  out  many  , 
ligneous  branches  covered  with  a  light-brow  n 
oark,  anil  oval  spear-shaped  leaves,  sHtmg 
prettv  close  to  the  branches,  'i'liey  are  en- 
tire, having  a  great  number  of  line  iron-co- 
loured hairs  on  their  edges  and  underside. 
The  tiow  ers  are  produced  in  bunches  ai  the 
end  of  the  branches  hi  May,  having  one  fun- 
:.el-shapcd  ])elal  cut  into"  live  obtuse  seg- 
ments, and  of  a  pale-red  colour.    • 

2.  The  ferrugineum,  with  smooth  leaves, 
liairy  on  their  underside,  is  a  native  ol  the 
Alps  and  Apeiuiines.  It  rises  witii  a  sin  ubby 
stalk  near  tiiree  feet  high,  sending  out  many 
irregular  branches  covered  with  a  purplish 
bark,  and  smooth  spear-shaped  entire  leaves, 
whose  borders  are  retlexed  backward;  the 
upper  side  is  of  a  light  lucid  green,  their  un- 
der side  of  an  iron-colour.  The  flowers  are 
produced  at  the  ends  of  the  brancheli,  are 
tunnel-shaped,  cut  into  live  segments,  and  of 
a  pale  roje-cjlour.  These  plants  are  propa- 
gated by  seeds  ;  but  being  natives  of  barren 
rocky  soils  and  cold  situations  they  do  not 
thrive  in  gardens,  and  fur  want  of  their  usual 
covering  of  snow  in  the  winter,  are  often 
killed  by  frost  in  this  country. 

3.  The  chama-cislus,  or  ciliated-leaved 
dwarf  rose-bay,  is  a  low  deciduous  shrub, 
native  of  mount  Baldus,  and  near  Saltzburg, 
in  Germany.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  about 
a  yard  ;  the"  branches  are  numerous,  produced 
irreguUirly,  and  covered  with  a  purplish  bark. 
The  leaves  are  oval,  spear-shaped,  small,  and 
i.i  the  under  surface  of  the  colour  of  iron. 
The  llowers  are  produced  at  the  end  of  the 
branches  in  bunches,  are  of  a  wheel-shaped 
figure,  pretty  large,  of  a  line  crimson  colour, 
and  handsome  appearance.  They  appear  in 
June. 

4.  The  dauricum,  or  Daurian  dwarf  rose- 
bay,  is  a  low  deciduous  shrub,  and  native  of 
Dauria.  Its  branches  are  numerous,  and 
covered  with  a  brownish  bark.  The  llowers 
are  wheel-shaped,  large,  and  of  a  beautiful 
rose-colour:  they  appear  in  May,  and  are 
succeeded  by  oval  capsules  full  of  seeds,  which 
in  England  do  not  always  ripen. 

5.  The  maximum,  or  American  mountain 
laurel,  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  and  native  of 
Virginia,  where  it  grows  naturally  on  the 
higfiest  mountains,  and  on  the  edges  of  cliffs, 
precipices,  &c.  where  it  reaches  the  size  of  a 
moderate  tree,  though  with  us  it  seldom  rises 
higher  than  six  feet.  The  llowers  continue 
by  succession  sometimes  more  than  two 
months,  and  are  succeeded  by  oval  capsules 
full  of  seeds. 

6.  The  ponticum,  or  pontic  dwarf  rose- 
bay,  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  native  of  the 
East,  and  of  most  shady  places  near  Gibral- 
tar. It  grows  to  the  height  of  lour  or  five 
feet.  The  leaves  are  spear-sh'ped,  glossy 
on  both  sides,  acute,  and  i)laced  on  short 
foot-stalks  on  the  branches:  the  flowers, 
which  are  produced  in  clusters,  are  bell- 
shajjed,  and  of  a  fine  purple  colour.  They 
appear  in  July,  and  are  succeeded  by  oval 
capsules  containing  seeds,  which  in  England 
seldom  attain  to  maturity. 

In  Siberia,  a  species  of  this  plant  is  used 
with  great  success  in  gouty  and  rheumatic 
affections  ;  and  the  inhubitanls  of  Siberia  call 
Ihi^  shrub  chei  or  lea,  from  tlieir  drinking  in 
common  a  weak  infusion  of  it,  as  we  do  the 
Chinese  plant  ol  that  name.    This  practice 


R  H  U 

shows  that  the  pbnt.used  in  small  quantities, 
must  be  innueeiil. 

1v1U)1j<.)RA,  a  genus  of  the  decandria 
inonogynia  class  anU  order.  The  calyx  is 
live-toothed;  petals  three,  unequal ;  stamina 
diitlined  ;  capsules  live-celled.  There  is  onu 
species,  a  shrub  of  Newfoundland. 

KllOPALA,  or  RuPALA,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  in  the  ti-trandria  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  inetliod  ranking 
with  those  that  are  doubtful.  '1  here  is  no 
calyx;  the  petals  are  lour,  oblong,  obtuse, 
and  narrowing  at  the  base;  the  stamina  arc 
four,  inserted  in  the  corolla,  and  have  large 
anthera; ;  the  seed-vessel  uiiLlocular,  and  con- 
tains one  seed.  There  are  only  two  species. 
The  montana  is  a  shrubby  plant  growing  in 
Guiana,  and  remarkable  for  the  great  num- 
ber of  branches  sent  otV  from  its  trunk  in 
every  direction,  and  lor  the  leliil  smell  of  the 
wood  and  bark  of  this  plant.  The  other  is  a 
native  of  Cayenne. 

KHO.MBOIDES.     See  Geometry. 
RHOMBUS.     See  Geometry. 
RHUBARB.      See   Rheum,  and  Ph.ir- 

MACY. 

RHUMB,  in  navigation,  a  vertical  circle 
of  any  given  place,  or  the  intvrsection  of  such 
a  circle  witlj  the  horizon-;  in  which  last  sense 
rhumb  is  the  same  with  a  point  of  the  com- 
pass. 

Rhumb-line,  is  also  used  for  the  line 
which  a  ship  describes  when  saihng  in  tin* 
same  collateral  point  of  the  compass,  or 
oblique  to  the  meridians.  See  Naviga- 
tion. 

RHUS,  stiinacl(,  a  genus  of  the  trigynia 
order,  in  the  pcntandria  class  of  plants,  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  43d 
order,  dumosa'.  The  cal)  x  is  quinquepar- 
tite ;  the  petals  l\\i.' ;  the  berry  monosper- 
mous.  Tliere  are  34  species,  of  which  the 
most  remarkable  are, 

J.  1  he  coriaria,  or  elm-leaved  sumacli, 
grows  naturally  in  Italy,  Spain,  Turkey,  Sy- 
ria, and  Palestine.  The  branches  of  this  tree 
are  used  instead  of  oak-bark  for  tanning  of 
leather;  and  it  is  said  that  the  Turkey  leather 
is  all  tanned  with  this  shrub.  It  has  a  lig- 
neous stalk,  which  divides  at  bottom  into 
many  irregular  branches,  rising  to  the  height 
of  eight  or  ten  feet ;  the  bark  is  hairy,  of  a 
herbaceous  brown  colour ;  the  leaves  are 
winged,  composed  of  seven  or  eight  pair  of 
lobes,  terminated  by  an  odd  one,  bluntly 
sawed  on  their  edges,  hairy  on  their  under 
side,  of  a  yellowish-green  colour,  and  placed 
alternately  on  the  branches ;  the  llowers  grow 
in  loose  panicles  on  the  end  of  the  branches, 
which  are  of  a  whitish  herbaceous  colour, 
each  panicle  behig  composed  of  several  spikes 
of  flowers  sitting  close  to  tlie  footstalks.  The 
leaves  and  seeds  of  this  sort  are  vised  in  me- 
dicine, and  are  esteemed  very  rcstringent 
and  styptic. 

'J.  Ihe  typhinum,  Virginian  sumach,  or 
vinegar-planl,  grows  naturally  in  almost  every 
part  of  North  America.  This  has  :i  woody 
stem,  with  many  irregular  branches,  which 
are  generally  crooked  and  deformed.  Th« 
young  branches  are  covered  with  a  soft  vel- 
vet-like down,  resembling  greatly  that  of  a 
young  stag's  horn,  both  in  colour  and  texture, 
whence  the  comnioii  people  have  given  it  the 
appell.iticn  of  stag's  horn ;  the  leaves  are 
v.mged,  composed  of  six  or  seven  pair  of  ob- 
it) 


R  IT  U 

long  lii'art-shapc<l  lohfs.  'I'lic  flowfrs  arr 
prodiicetl  in  close  lulls  al  llie  oml  of  llic 
bi-aiicliL-s,  ami  are  succeeiUd  by  seed:;,  in- 
clo-ied  ill  [niiplc  woollv  Mjtculeiit  covel's; 
so  Ihal  llie  biiiiclics  are  of  a  beaiililid  pur|)lc 
colour  ill  auUnnn ;  and  tlie  leaves,  befbic 
they  tall  in  aiituniii,  change  to  a  purplish  co- 
lour at  lirst,  and  before  tiiey  fall  to  a  fenille- 
mort.  It  lias  got  the  name  of  the  vinegar- 
plant  from  the  double  reason  of  the  young 
gernien  of  its  fruit,  when  fermented,  pro- 
ducing either  new  or  adding  to  the  stieni^lh 
of  old  weak  vinegar,  whilst  its  ripe  berries 
alibi d  an  airiveable  acid,  which  might  supply 
the  place  when  necessary  of  the  citric  acid'. 
The  powerful  astrinsi'iicy  of  tliis  plant  in  all 
its  parts  recommends  it  as  usehil  in  several 
of  the  arts.  As  for  example,  the  ripe  berries 
boiled  with  alum  make  a  good  dye  lor  hats. 
The  plant  in  all  its  parts  may  be  used  as  a 
succedaneuni  for  oak-bark  in  tanning,  espe- 
cially the  white  glove-leather.  It  will  like- 
vise  answer  to  prepare  a  dye  for  black,  green, 
and  yellow  colours;  and  with  marlial  vitriol 
it  makes  a  good  ink.  The  milky  juice  that 
Jlows  from  incisions  made  in  the  trunk  or 
branches,  makes,  when  dried,  the  basis  of  a 
varnish  little  inferior  to  the  Chinese,  liees 
are  remarkably  fond  of  its  llowers ;  and  it 
affords  more  honey  than  any  of  the  llowering 
slirubs.  The  natives  of  America  use  the 
dried  leaves  as  tobacco. 

3.  The  glabrnm,  with  winged  leaves,  grows 
naturally  in  many  parts  of  North  America  : 
this  is  commonly  called  by  the  gardeners 
New  England  sumach.  I'lie  stem  of  this 
is  stronger  and  rises  higher  than  that  of  the 
former ;  the  branches  spread  more  horizon- 
tally ;  the  llowers  are  disposed  m  loose  pan- 
icles, wdiich  are  of  an  herbaceous  colour. 

4.  Tlie  elcgans,  with  sawed  winged  leaves, 
grows  naturally  in  Carolina:  the  seeds  of  this 
were  brought  ilience  by  the  late  Mr.  Catesby. 
This  is  by  the  gardeners  called  the  scarlet 
Carolina  sumach:  it  rises  commonly  to  the 
height  of  seven  or  eight  feet,  dividing  into 
ninny  irregular  branches,  which  are  smooth, 
of  a  puri^le  colour,  and  pounced  over  with  a 
greyish  powder,  as  are  also  the  footstalks  of 
the  leaves.  The  leaves  are  composed  of 
seven  or  eight  pair  of  lobes  terminated  by  an 
odd  one.  'I'lie  upper  sides  of  the  lobes  are 
of  a  dark  green,  and  their  under  hoary  but 
smooth.  'The  flowers  are  produced  at  the 
end  of  the  branches  in  very  close  panicles, 
which  are  large,  and  of  a  bright-red  colour. 

5.  The  co])alliiuim,  or  narrow-leaved  su- 
mach, grows  naturally  in  most  parts  of  Nprlli 
America,  where  it  is  known  by  the  title  of 
beach  sumach,  probably  from  the  place 
where  it  grows.  This  is  of  humbler  growth 
than  either  of  the  former,  seldom  rising  more 
than  four  or  live  feel  high  in  Britain,  dividing 
into  many  spreading  branclv/s,  which  are 
smooth,  of  a  light  brown  colour,  with  winged 
leaves,  composed  of  four  or  live  pair  of  nar- 
row lobes,  terminated  by  an  odd  one;  they 
are  of  a  light  green  on  both  sides.  The 
llowers  are  produced  in  loose  panicles  at  the 
end  of  the  branches,  of  a  yellowish  herba- 
ceous colour. 

These  are  hardy  plants,  and  will  thrive  in 
the  open  air  here.  'I'he  first  and  fourth  sorts 
are  not  qinte  so  hardy  as  the  others,  so  must 
have  a  better  litualion,  otherwise  their 
branches  will  be  injured  by  severe  frost  in 
the  winter. 


R  I  r, 

fi.  Rffsides  these,  Linnanis  has  included  in 
tills  genus  the  toxicodendron,  or  poison  tree, 
under  the  name  of  rlius  veniiv,  or  pnison-ash. 
This  grows  naturally  in  \'irginia,  Pennsylva- 
nia, New  Kngland,  Carolina,  and  Japan, 
rising  with  a  strong  woody  stalk  to  tiie  height 
of  twenty  feet  and  upwards;  though  in  this 
country  it  is  seldom  seen  above  twelve,  by 
reason  of  the  plant's  being  extremely  tender. 
The  bark  is  brown,  inclining  to  grey  ;  the 
leaves  winged,  and  coni))Osed  of  three  or^ 
four  pair  ot  lobes,  t<'rminaled  by  an  odd  one. 
The  lobes  vary  greatly  in  their  shape,  but 
for  the  most  part  they  are  oval  and  spear- 
shapt:d.  The  footstalks  become  of  a  bright 
purple  towards  the  latter  part  of  summer, 
and  in  autumn  all  the  leaves  are  of  a  beauti- 
ful ))urple  before  they  fall  off. 

AH  the  species  of  sumach  abound  with  an 
acrid  milky  juice,  which  is  reci;oned  poison- 
ous; but  this  property  is  most  remarkable  in 
the  vernix. 

The  natives  are  said  to  distinguish  this  tree 
in  the  dark  by  its  extreme  coldness  to  the 
touch.  The  juice  of  some  kinds  of  sumacli, 
when  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  be- 
comes so  thick  and  clammy,  tliat  it  is  used 
for  bird-lime,  and  the  inspissated  juice  of  the 
poison-ash  is  said  to  be  tlie  line  varnish  of 
Japan.  A  cataplasm  made  with  the  fresh 
juice  of  the  poison-ash,  applied  to  the  feet, 
is  said  by  Hughes,  in  his  Natural  History  of 
Barbadoes,  to  kill  the  vermin  called  by  the 
West  Indians  chigers.  The  resin  called  gum 
copal  is  from  the  rhus  copallinum.  See  Co- 
r.\L. 
KHYME.  See  Poetry. 
RHYTHMICAL,  in  music,  an  epithet 
applied  to  the  properly  or  ciualily,  in  the  an- 
tient  melopa'ia  and  modern  melody,  by  which 
the  cadences,  accents,  and  quantities,  are  re- 
gulated and  determined. 

RIAL,  or  Ryal.     See  Coin. 
Rial,  or  Royal,  is  also  the  name  of  a 
piece  of  gold,  antiently  current  among  us  for 
ten  shillings. 

RI'5U.\ND,  or  Ribbon',  a  narrow^  sort  of 
silk,  chiefly  used  for  head-ornaments,  badges 
of  chivalry,  &:c. 

RIBES,  the  C!irra7i< 'and  gonscherrij-hiish, 
a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  in  the  pen- 
tanilria  class  of  pl.iiits,  and  in  the  natural  me- 
thod ranking  under  the  3<ith  order,  poniacea-. 
There  are  rive  petals,  and  stamina  inserted 
into  the  calyx;  the  style  is  bilid;  the  berry 
polyipernious,  inferior.  The  currant  and  the 
gooseberry  were  long  considered  each  as  a 
separate  genus ;  ribes  the  currant,  and  gros- 
sularia  the  gooseberry ;  but  they  are  now 
joined  together,  the  grossularia  being  made 
a  species  of  ribes  ;  all  the  currant  kinds  hav- 
ing incrmous  or  thornless  braiulu':;,  and  race- 
mous  clusters  ot  Mowers  and  fruit;  and  tlie 
gooseberry  iiaving  spinous  branches,  and 
flowers  and  fruit  tor  the  most  part  singly. 

There  are  ten  species  of  the  curranl-tree, 
two  of  which,  ;nid  their  varielies,  merit  cul- 
ture for  tlieir  fruit:  all  are  inermous  or  un- 
armed, having  no  thorns  on  the  branches. 

1.  The  rubrum,  grows  naturally  in  woods 
and  the  hedges  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  and 
comprises  all  sorts  of  red  and  white  currants; 
as  common  small  red  currant,  large-bunched 
red  currant,  Cliampaigne  pale-red  currant, 
common  small  white  currant,  large  white 
Dutch  currant,  yellow  blotclied-Ua\ed  cur- 
rant, silyer-striped-leaved,  gold-striped-leaved, 
4  E  2 


R  I  C 


Sfi/ 


goosebcrrv-Ieaved.  All  tliFse  <iorts  are  varie^ 
lies  of  one  species,  ribes  rubrum,  or  common 
red  currant ;  it  being  the  parent  from  which 
all  the  otlin's  were  lirst  obtained  from  the 
seed,  and  improved  by  culture. 

2.  The  nigrum,  or  black-currant  tree. 
The  fruit  of  this  species  being  of  a  strong 
flavour,  and  somewhat  physical  relish,  is  not 
generally  liked :  it,  however,  is  accounted 
very  wholesome.  'I'liere  is  also  made  of  it 
a  syrup  of  high  estimation  for  sore  throats 
and  quinsies.  There  is  a  variety  called  the 
Pennsylvanian  black  currant,  having  smaller 
shoots,  and  leaves  not  strong-scented,  and 
small  fruit  but  of  little  value. 

Of  the  gooseberry,  there  are  seven  species. 
Tiif  most  remarkable  are, 

1.  The  grossularia,  or  rough  hairy  goose- 
berry budi.  It  consists  of  many  varieties, 
of  diii'erent  sizes  and  colours. 

2.  The  reclinalum,  or  reclinaled  broad- 
leaved  goo.seberiy  bush. 

3.  The  oxyacanthoides,  or  oxyacantha- 
leaved  gooseberry,  w  itli  largish  trilobate  haw- 
thorn leaves. 

4.  'I'he  uva  crispa,  pr  smooth  gooseberry. 

5.  The  cynosbati,  or  prirkly-fruited  goosc- 
berry-bush.has  a  shrubby  stem  and  brandies, 
armed  with  spines,  mostly  al  the  axillas,  and 
prickly  fruit  in  clusters. 

RIBS.  See  Anatomy. 
RICCIA,  a  grmis  of  the  natural  order  of 
alga:,  belonging  to  the  cryplogamia  class  of 
plants.  There  is  no  calyx,  but  a  vesicular 
cavity  within  the  substance  of  the  leaf. 
There  is  no  corolla;  the  aiilhera;  are  cylin- 
drical and  sessile,  placed  on  the  geriiien, 
which  is  turbinated  ;  the  stile  is  filiform,  per- 
forating the  anthera ;  and  the  seed-case  is 
sidierical,  crowned  with  the  withered  anthe- 
ra' ;  the  seeds  are  hemispherical  and  pedi- 
ccllated.     There  are  live  species. 

RICHARDIA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  hexandria  class  of  plants,  :;ik1 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  47lh 
order,  stellata;.  The  calyx  is  sexpartite  ;  the 
corolla  monopetalous  and  subcylindrical;  and 
there  are  three  seeds.  There  is  one  species, 
a  herb  of  Vera  Cruz. 

RICHERIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der ditetia  pentandria.  The  capsule  is  cor- 
tical, six-valved,  three-celled  ;  se..:ds  soli- 
tary ;  stile  triiid.  There  is  one  species,  a 
tree  of  the  West  Indies. 

RICINL^S,  or  Palma  Christi,  a  genus 
of  the  monadelpliia  order,  in  the  momecia 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  38th  order,  tricocca;.  The 
male  calyx  is  quinquepartite ;  there  is  no 
corolla  ;  the  stamina  numerous.  The  fern  .Ic 
calvx  is  tripartite;  there  is  no  corolla,  but 
three  bifid  styles,  with  a  trilocular  cipsiile, 
and  a  single  seed.  There  are  six  species,  of 
which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  comimmis, 
or  common  palma  Christi.  This  tree  is  of  speedy 
grow  til,  as  in  one  year  it  arrives  at  its  full  height, 
which  seldom  exceeds  twenty  feet.  The 
trunk  is  subligneous  ;  the  pith  is  large  ;  the 
leaves  broad  and  palmaled  ;  the  flower-spike 
is  simple,  and  thickly  set  with  yellow  blo^- 
soms  in  the  shape  of  a  cone;  the  cap^^ules 
are  triangular  and  prickly,  containing  three 
smooth  "grey  mottled  seeds.  When  the 
bunches  begin  to  tvirn  black,  they  are  ga- 
thered, dried  in  the  sun,  and  the  seeds  picked 


SS8 


R  I  C 


R  I  F 


R  I  F 


out.     They  are  afterwards  put  up 
wanted,  or'for  exporialion. 

Castor  oil  is  obtained  either  by  expression 
or  by  decoction.  The  lirst  method  is  prac- 
tised in  England ;  the  latter  in  Jamaica.  It 
is  common  lirst  to  parch  the  nuts  or  seeds  m 
an  Iron  pot  over  tlie  fire ;  but  this  gives  the 
oil  an  empvreumatic  taste,  smell,  and  colour; 
and  it  is  bes't  prepared  inthefoUowing  manner; 
A  large  iron  pot  or  boiler  is  first  prepared,  and 
halt-filled  with  water.  The  nuts  are  then 
beaten  in  parcels  in  deep  wooden  mortals, 
and  after  a  c|uantitv  is  beaten,  it  is  tinown 
into  the  iron  vessel.'  The  fire  is  then  lighted, 
and  the  liquor  is  gently  boiled  tor  two  hours, 
and  kept  constantly  stirred.  xVboiit  this  time 
the  oil  begins  to  separate,  and  swims  on  the 
top,  mixed  with  a  white  froth,  and  is  skimmed 
orttiU  no  more  rises.  The  skimmings  are 
heated  in  a  small  iron  pot,  and  strained 
through  a  cloth.  \\'hen  cold,  it  is  put  up  m 
jars  or  bottles  for  use. 

Castor  oil,  thus  made,  is  clear  and  well 
flavoured,  and  if  put  into  proper  bottles  will 
keep  sweet  for  years.  The  expressed  castor 
oil  soon  turns  rancid,  because  the  mucilagi- 
nous and  acrid  parts  of  the  nut  are  squeezed 
out  with  the  oil.  On  this  account  the  pre- 
ference is  given  to  well-prepared  oil  by  de- 
coction. An  English  gallon  of  the  seeds 
yield  about  two  pounds  of  oil,  which  is  a 
great  proportion. 

Before  the  disturbances  in  America,  the 
planters  imported  train  oil  for  lamps  and 
other  purposes  about  sugar-works.  It  is  now 
found  that  the  castor  oil  can  be  procured  as 
cheap  as  the  fish  oil  of  America.  It  bums 
clearer,  and  has  not  any  offensive  smell.  This 
oil,  too,  is  fit  for  all'  the  purposes  of  the 
painter,  or  for  the  aputliecary  in  ointments 
and  plasters.  As  a  medicine,  it  purges  with- 
out stimulus,  and  is  so  miid  as  to  be  given  to 
infants  soon  after  birth.  All  oils  are  noxious 
to  insects,  but  the  castor  oil  kills  and  expels 
thein.  It  is  generally  given  as  a  purge  after 
using  tlie  cabbage-ba'ik  some  days. 

Tlie  ricinus  Americanus  grows  as  tall  as  a 
little  tree,  and  is  so  beautiful  that  Miller  says 
it  deserves  a  place  in  every  curious  garden, 
and  he  planted  it  himself  at 'Chelsea.  It  ex- 
pands into  many  branches;  the  leaves  are 
sometimes  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  stem 
as  large  as  a  middle-sized  broom-staff:  to- 
wards the  top  of  the  branch  it  has  a  cluster 
of  (lowers,  somewhat  resembling  a  bunch  of 
crapes ;  the  flowers  are  small  and  slaminous, 
but  on  the  body  of  the  plant  grow  bunches 
of  rough  triangular  husks,  each  containing 
three  speckled  seeds,  generally  somew  hat  less 
than  horse-beans;  the  shell  is  brittle,  and 
contains  while  kernels  of  a  sweet,  oily,  and 
nauseous  taste.  From  this  kiiuel  the  oil  is 
extracted;  and  if  the  medicine  should  be- 
come officinal,  the  seeds  may  be  imported  at 
a  reasonable  rate,  as  the  plant  grows  wild  and 
in  great  plenty  in  all  the  lirilish  and  French 
Ame-.ean  islands. 

Of  the  ricinus  communis,  there  are  a  great 
many  varieties;  all  of  them  fine  majestic 
plants,  annual,  or  at  most  biennial,  in  this 
country;  but  in  their  native  soil  they  are  said 
to  be  perennial  both  in  root  and  stem.  They 
arc  propagated  by  seeds  sown  on  a  hotbed, 
and  pipiire  the  same  treatment  as  other  ten- 
der i-xotirs. 

UICKETS.     See  Infancy. 

lUCOTlA,  a  genus  of  the  siliquosa  order. 


for  use  as  i  in  the  tettadynamia  class  of  plants,  and  in  |  grooves,  prevents  the  lead  from  being  cut 

I  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  39tli  by  them,  and  by  means  of  the  grease  sluies 
order,  siliquosa;.  The  siliqua  is  unilocular,  down,  without  its  being  necessary  to  use 
oblong,  and  compressed,  vith  pU.in  valvules,    any  violent  illorts,  which  would  destroy  the 


There  is  one  species 

RIDE,  in  the  sea  language,  is  a  term  va- 
riously applied:  thus,  a  ship  is  said  to  ride, 
when  her  anchors  hold  her  fast,  so  that  she 
does  not  drive  by  the  force  either  of  the  wind 
or  tide.  'A  ship'is  said  to  ride  across,  when 
she  rides  with  her  fore  and  main  yards  hoisted 
up  to  the  hounds,  and  both  yards  and  arms 
topped  alike.  Slie  is  said  to  ride  well,  when 
she  is  built  so  as  not  to  overheat  herself  in  a 
head-sea,  the  waves  over  raking  her  from 
stem  to  stern.  To  ride  athwart,  is  to  ride 
with  her  side  to  the  tide.  To  ride  betwixt 
wind  and  tide,  is  to  ride  so  that  the  wind  has 
equal  force  over  her  one  way,  and  the  tide 
the  contrary  way.  If  the  wind  has  more 
power  over 'the  ship  than  the  tide,  she  is  said 
to  ride  wind-road,  or  to  ride  a  great  wind. 

RIDEAU,  in  fortification,  is  a  small  ele- 
vation of  earth,  extending  lengthwise  on  a 
plain,  and  serving  to  cover  a  camp,  or  to  give 
an  advantage  to  a  post.  Rideaus  are  also 
convenient  for  those  who  w  ould  besiege  a 
place,  and  serve  to  secure  tlie  workmen  in 
their  approaches  to  the  foot  of  a  fortress. 

RIDERS,  in  a  ship,  are  large  timbers,  both 
in  the  hold  and  aloft,  bolted  on  to  other  tim- 
bers to  strengthen  them,  when  the  ship  is 
discovered  to  be  too  slightly  built. 

RIDING-CLERK,  one  of  the  six  clerks 
in  chancery,  who,  in  his  turn,  annually  keeps 
the  controlment-books  of  all  grants  that  pass 
the  great  seal  that  vcar. 

RIENS  ARREAR,  in  law,  is  a  plea  used 
in  an  action  of  debt,  for  arrearages  of  ac- 
counts, by  which  the  defendant  alleges,  that 
there  is  nothing  in  arrear. 

RIFLE,  a  fire-arm  which  has  the  inside  of 
its  barrel  cut  with  from  three  to  nine  or  ten 
spiral  grooves,  so  as  to  make  it  resemble  a 
female  screw,  varying  from  a  common  screw 
only  in  this,  that  its  grooves  or  rifles  are  less 
detlected,  and  approach  more  to  a  right  line ; 
it  being  now  usual  for  the  grooves  with  which 
the  best  riHed  barrels  are  cift,  to  take  about 
one  whole  turn  in  a  length  of  thirty  inches. 
The  number  of  these  grooves  ditrers  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  barrel  and  fancy  of  the 
workman  ;  and  their  depth  and  width  are  not 
regulated  by  any  invariable  rule. 

Rilles  are  said  to  have  been  known  as  far 
back  as  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
See  Plate  Rille,  &c.  fig.  1,  which  represents 
a  cast  taken  of  the  insiile  of  a  rifle-barrel 
thirty  indies  long  and  .^^  of  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter, and  in  which  the  grooves  take  one 
turn  in  the  whole  length.  It  will  of  course 
he  observed,  that  the  ribs  in  the  drawing 
reuresent  the  grooves  in  the  rille.  The  me- 
thod of  loading  them  is  as  tollows : 

When  the  proper  quantity  of  powder 
(one  drachm  avoirtlupois)  is  put  down  at 
the  muzzle,  and  a  piece  of  calico  or  linen 
is  gently  rammed  down  over  it  as  a  wad,  a 
circular  piece  of  strong  calico  is  greased  on 
one  side,  and  laid  on  the  mouth  of  the  piece 
with  the  greased  side  downwards;  and  a  bul- 
let of  the  same  size  as  the  bore  of  the  piece 
belbre  the  grooves  were  cut,  being  placed 
upon  it,  is  tlien  forced  gcntlv  down  the  bar- 
rel with  it;  by  which  means,  the  calico  in- 
closes the  lower  half  of  tju' bullet :  and  by 
its  interposition  between  the  bullet  and  the 


circular  shape  of  the  bullet. 

In  order  to  understand  the  cause  of  the 
superiority  of  a  rilie-barrel  gun  over  one  with 
a  smooth  barrel,  it  will  be  necessary  to  reter 
to  Mr.  Kobins's  discovery  of  the  cause  of 
the  irregularities  which  occur  in  the  (light  of 
projectiles  from  smooth  barrels,  which  we 
shall  give  in  his  own  words.  Tracts  on  Gun- 
nery, p.  196,  &c. 

"  Almost  every  projectile,  besides  the 
forces  we  have  hilherto  considered,  namelv, 
its  gravitation,  and  that  resistance  of  the  air 
which  directly  opposes  its  motion,  is  affected 
by  a  third  lorce  which  acts  obliquely  to  its 
motion,  and  in  a  variable  direction ;  and 
which  consequently  deflects  the  projectile 
from  its  regular  track,  and  from  the  vertical 
plane  in  which  it  began  to  move  ;  impelling  it 
sometimes  to  one  side,  and  sometimes  to  the 
other,  occasioning  thereby  very  great  ine- 
qualities ill  tlie  repeated  ranges  ot  the  same 
piece,  though  each  time  loaded  and  pointed 
in  the  same  manner  ;  and  this  force  operat- 
ing thus  irregularly,  I  conceive  to  be  the 
principal  source  of  all  that  unceitainty  and 
confusion  in  the  art  of  gunnery,  which  hath 
hitherto  been  usually  ascribed  to  the  dilTt- 
rence  of  powder.  The  reality  of  this  force, 
and  the  cause  wiiich  produces  it,  will,  I  hope, 
appear  from  the  following  considerations. 

"  It  will  easily  be  granted,  I  suppose,  that 
no  bullet  can  be  discharged  from  the  pieces 
generafly  in  use,  without  rubbing  against 
their  sides,  and  thereby  acquiring  a  whirling 
motion  as  well  as  a  progressive  one.  And  as 
this  whirl  will,  in  one  part  of  its  revolution, 
conspire  in  some  degree  with  the  progres- 
sive motion,  and  in  another  part  be  eciually 
opposed  to  it,  the  resistance  of  the  air  on 
tlie  fore  part  of  the  bullet  will  be  hereby  af- 
fected, and  will  be  increased  in  that  part 
where  the  whirling  motion  conspires  with  the 
progressive,  and  diminished  where  it  is  op- 
posed to  it.  And  by  this  means  the  whole 
clibrt  of  the  resistance,  instead  of  being  in  a 
direction  opposite  to  the  direction  of  the 
body,  will  become  oblique  thereto,  and  will 
l)roduce  those  eflects  already  mentioned.  If 
it  were  possible  to  predict  the  position  of  the 
axis  round  which  the  bullet  should  whirl,  and 
if  that  axis  were  unchangeable  during  the 
whole  flight  of  the  bullet,  then  the  aberration 
of  the  bullet  by  this  oblique  force  would  be  in 
a  given  direction,  and  the  incurvation  pio- 
duced  thereby  would  regularly  extend  the 
same  way,  iroin  one  end  of  its  track  to  the 
other.  For  instance:  if  the  axis  of  the  whirl 
were  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  then  the 
delleciiun  would  be  to  the  right  or  Kit ;  if 
that  axis  were  horizontal,  and  perjiendiciilar 
to  the  direction  of  the  bullet,  then  the  delloc* 
tioii  would  be  upwards  or  (lownwards.  But 
as  the  first  position  of  this  axis  is  uncertain, 
and  as  it  may  perpetually  shift  in  the  course 
ol  the  bullet's  (light,  the  deviation  of  the 
bullet  is  not  necessarily  in  one  certain  di- 
rection, nor  tending  to  the  same  side  in  one 
part  of  its  track  that  it  does  in  another  ;  but 
it  more  usually  is  continually  changing  the 
tendency  ol  its  deflection,  as  the  axis,  round 
which  it  whirls,  must  frequently  sjiitt  its  po- 
sition to  the  progressive  motion  by  many 
inevitable  accidents." 


To  prove  the  truth  of  his  theory,  Mr. 
Kobiiis  iTiJtle  the  following  rx|)eriinci)ts,  be- 
fore several  members  of  the   uoyal  Society  : 

"The  lirst  experiment,  exhibited  on  this 
occasion,  was  lo  evince,  that  tlie  whirling 
motion  of  a  ball,  combining  with  its  progres- 
sive motion,  would  produce  s\Kh  an  oblicpie 
resis(ance  and  deriective  powor,  as  is  herein 
mentioned.  For  this  purpose,  a  wooden 
b.i'.l,  4i  inches  diameter,  was  suspended  by 
:i  double  string  about  eight  or  nine  feet  long. 
Now  by  (nrning  round  the  ball,  and  twisting 
till*  d^mble  string,  the  ball,  when  left  to 
itself,  would  have  a  revolving  motion  given 
it  from  the  untwisting  of  the  suiug  again. 
And  if,  when  the  string  was  twisted,  the  ball 
vas  drawn  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
perpendicular,  and  there  let  go  ;  it  would  at 
first,  before  it  had  acipiired  its  revolving  mo- 
tion, vibrate  steadily  enough  in  the  same 
vertical  plane  in  which  it  lirst  began  to 
move;  but  when,  by  the  untwisting  of  the 
string,  it  had  acquired  a  sufiicient  degree  of 
its  whirling  motion,  it  constantly  dellected 
on  the  right  or  left  of  its  first  track,  and  some-  ! 
times  proceeded  so  far,  as  lo  have  its  three-  , 
tion  at  riglit  angles  to  that  in  which  it  began  , 
its  motion ;  and  this  deviation  was  not  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  the  string  itself,  but  : 
appeared  to  be  entirely  owing  to  the  resist-  j 
ance  being  greater  on  the  one  part  of  the 
leading  surtace  of  the  globe  tlian  on  the 
other.  For  the  deviation  continued  when 
the  string  was  totally  untwisted,  and  even  ; 
durng  the  time  that  the  string,  by  the  mo- 
tion the  globe  had  received,  was  twisting  the  ' 
contrary  wav.  And  it  was  always  easy  to 
predict' before  the  ball  was  let  go,  which  way 
it  would  deflect,  only  by  considering  on 
which  side  the  whir!  would  be  combined  with 
the  progressive  motion,  for  on  that  side 
alwavs  the  deflecting  power  acted ;  as  the 
resistance  was  greater  here,  than  on  the  side 
vhere  the  whirl  and  progressive  motion  were 
opposed  to  each  other. 

"  This  experiment  is  an  incontestable  proof, 
that,  if  any  bullet,  besides  its  progressive  mo- 
tion, hath  a  whirl  round  its  axis,  it  will  be 
delli'cted  in  tlie  manner  here  described. 
And  as  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  suppose,  but 
that  every  bullet,  disc  uirged  from  the  pieces 
now  in  common  use,  must  receive  such  a 
whirl  from  its  frit  tion  against  the  si  ks  of  the 
piece,  the  pri  position  might  perhaps  be 
safely  rested  on  this  sini»le  experiment.  But 
not  to  leave  any  thing  doubtful  in  a  sub;ect 
liable  to  so  much  contestation,  I  undertook 
to  evince,  I)y  an  ocular  proof,  the  reality  of 
this  deflection  in  mu>quet-bullets  even  in  so 
short  an  interval  as  a  hundred  yards,  .^nd 
these  experiments  having  succeeded  to  the 
general  satisfaction  of  those  who  honoured 
me  with  their  co'iipany,  I  shall  here  de- 
scribe, as  briefly  as  I  can,  the  manner  in 
which  they  were  tried,  and  the  conclusions 
resulting  from  them. 

"  As  all  projectiles  in  their  flight  are  acted 
on  bv  the  power  of  gravity,  the  deflection  of 
a  bullet  tram  its  primary  ilirection,  supposes 
that  detloction  to  be  upwards  or  downwards 
in  a  vertical  plane  ;  because,  in  the  vertical 
plane,  the  action  of  gravity  is  compounded 
and  entangled  with  the  deflective  force. 
And  for  this  reason,  my  experiments  have 
been  principally  directed  to  the  examination 
of  that  defiectio;i,  which  carries  the  bullet  to 


RIFLE. 

the  right  or  left  of  the  vertical  plane,  in 
which  it  began  to  move.  For  if  it  ap|)ears  at 
any  time,  that  the  bullet  has  shifted  from  that 
vertical  jilaix-,  in  wlii<  h  its  motion  began, 
this  will  be  an  incontestable  conlirniation  of 
what  we  asserted.  Since  no  other  puwir  but 
that  unequal  resistance,  which  we  liere  in- 
sist on,  can  ocxasion  a  body  in  motion  to 
deviate  from  the  vertical  plane,  in  which  it 
has  once  moved. 

"  Now  by  means  of  screens  of  exceedingly 
thin  pai)er,  placed  parallel  to  each  otiier  at 
proper  distances,  this  deflection  in  question 
may  be  many  ways  Investigated.  For  by 
tiring  bullets  wiiich  shall  traverse  these 
screens,  the  flight  of  the  bullet  may  be  traced 
out  ;  and  it  may  easily  appear,  whether  they 
do  or  do  not  keep  invariably  to  one  vertical 
plane.  This  examination  may  proceed  on 
three  different  principles,  wliich  I  shall  liere 
separately  explain. 

"  For  first,  an  exact  vertical  plane  may  be 
traced  out  upon  all  these  screens,  by  which 
the  deviation  of  any  single  bullet  may  be 
more  readily  investigated,  only  by  measuring 
the  horizontal  distance  of  its  trace  from  the 
vertical,  plane  thus  delineated,  and  by  this 
means  the  absolute  quantity  of  its  aberration 
may  be  known. 

"  Or  if  tlie  description  of  such  a  vertical 
plane  should  be  esteemed  a  matter  of  diffi- 
culty and  nicety,  a  second  method  may  be 
followed  ;  which  is  that  of  resting  the  piece 
in  some  fixed  notch  or  socket,  so  that  though 
the  piece  may  have  some  little  play  to  the 
right  and  left,  yet  all  the  lines,  in  which  the 
bullet  can  be  directed,  shall  intersect  each 
other  in  the  centre  of  that  fixed  socket  ;  by 
this  means,  if  two  diflerent  shot  are  fired  f^i-om 
the  piece  thus  situated,  the  horizontal  dis- 
tances of  the  traces  made  by  the  two  bul- 
lets on  any  two  screens,  ought  to  be  in  the 
same  proportion  to  each  other  as  the  respec- 
tive distances  of  these  screens  from  the  sock- 
et, in  which  the  piece  was  laid.  And  if 
these  horizontal  distances  differ  from  that 
proportion,  then  it  is  certain,  that  one  of 
these  shot  at  lea^t  hath  deviated  from  a  ver- 
tical plane,  although  the  absolute  quantity  of 
that  deviation  cannot  be  hence  assigned  ;  be- 
cause it  cannot  be  known,  what  part  of  it  is 
to  be  imputed  to  one  bullet,  and  what  to  the 
other. 

"  But  if  the  constant  and  invariable  po- 
sition of  the  notch  or  socket,  in  which  the 
piece  was  placed  is  thought  too  hard  an 
hypothesis  in  this  very  nice  affair  ;  the  third 
method,  and  which  is  the  simplest  of  all,  re- 
quires no  more  than,  that  two  shot  be  fired 
through  three  screens,  without  any  regard 
to  the  position  of  the  piece  each  time.  For, 
in  this  ca'C,  if  the  shots  diverge  from  each 
other,  and  both  keep  to  a  vertical  plane,  then 
if  the  horizontal  distances  of  their  traces  on 
the  first  screen  be  taken  from  the  like  hori- 
zontal distances  on  the  second  and  third,  the 
two  remainders  will  be  in  the  same  propor- 
tion with  the  distances  of  the  second  and 
third  screen  from  the  first.  And  if  they  are 
not  in  this  proportion,  then  it  will  be  certain, 
that  one  of  them  at  least  hath  been  deflected 
froBi  the  vertical  plane  ;  though  here,  as  in 
the  last  instance,  tne  (puintity  of  that  deflec- 
tion in  each  will  not  be  known. 

"  All  these  three  methods  I  have  mvself 
made  use  of  at  different  times,  and  have  ever 


i69 

found  tlie  Eiicce.'s  agreeable  to  my  expec- 
taiioii.  Hut  wliat  I  thought  the  most  eli- 
gible for  the  experiments,  which  1  proposed 
to  ihvw  to  tlie  society,  was  a  compound  of 
the  two  last,  and  the  apparatus  was  as  fol- 
lows : 

"  On ,  being  the  first  day  appointed 

for  these  trials,  the  weather  was  unfavourable, 
and  the  experiments  on  that  account  more 
conhised  than  could  have  been  wished, 
though  they  were  far  from  inconclusive. 
But  on  the  next  Thursday  two  screens  were 
set  up  in  the  large  walk  in  the-  Charter-house 
garden  ;  the  first  of  them  at  2'M  feet  distance 
irom  the  wall  (whicli  wall  was  to  serve  for 
a  third  screen),  and  the  second  two  hundred 
feet  from  the  same  wall.  And  at  fifty  feet 
before  the  first  screen,  or  at  300  feet  from 
the  wall,  there  was  placed  a  large  block, 
weighing  about  200lb.  weight,  and  havirg 
fixed  into  it  an  iron  bar  with  the  socket  at 
its  extremity,  in  which  tlie  piece  was  to  be 
laid.  The  piece  itself  was  of  a  common 
length,  and  w  as  bored  for  an  ounce  ball.  It 
was  each  time  loaded  with  a  ball  of  17  to  llie 
pound  (so  that  the  windage  was  extremely 
small)  and  with  a  quarter  ot  an  ounce  of  good 
powder.  'I'he  screens  were  made  of  the 
thinnest  tissue-paper;  and  the  resistance 
they  gave  to  the  bullet  (and  consequently 
their  probability  of  deflecting  it)  was  so  small, 
that  a  bullet  lighting  one  time  near  the  ex- 
tremity of  one  of  the  screens,  left  a  fine  thin 
fragment  of  it  towards  the  edge  entire,  which 
was  so  very  weak,  that  it  appeared  difficult 
to  handle  it  without  breaking.  1  hese  things 
thus  prepared,  five  shot  weie  made  with  the 
piece  rested  in  the  notch  described  above ; 
and  the  horizontal  distances  between  the  lirsl 
shot,  which  was  taken  as  a  standard,  and  the 
four  succeeding  ones,  both  on  the  first  and 
second  screen,  and  on  the  wall,  measured  in 
inches,  were  as  follows : 

1st  screen       2d  screen       wall 
lto2  1,75  R  3,15  R         16.7  R 

3  10,      L  15,6   L      69.25  L 

4  1,25  L  4,5    L       15,0    L 

5  l',15L  5,1    L      19,0    L 

"  Here  the  letters  R  and  L  denote,  that 
the  shot  in  cpicstion  went  either  to  the  right 
or  left  of  the  first. 

"  If  the  position  of  the  socket  in  which  the 
piece  was  placed,  be  supposed  fixed  (and  I 
presume  no  person  then  present  conceived, 
during  these  trials,  that  it  could  possibly  vary 
the  tenth  of  an  inch  from  its  first  situation), 
then  the  horizontal  distances,  measured 
above  on  the  first  and  second  screen,  and  on 
the  wall,  ought  to  be  in  the  proportion  of 
the  distances  of  the  1st  screen,  the  2d  screen, 
and  the  wall,  from  the  socket.  But,  bv  onlv 
looking  over  these  numbers,  it  appears,  that 
none  of  them  are  in  that  proportion  ;  the 
horizontal  distance  of  the  1st  and  3d  (for  in- 
stance) on  the  wall  being  above  nine  inches 
more  than  it  should  be  by  this  analogy. 

"If  without  supposing  the  invariable  po- 
sition of  the  socket,  we  examine  the  compa- 
rative horizontal  d  stances  according  to  the 
third  method  described  above,  we  shall  in 
this  case  discover  divarications  still  more 
extraordinary.  For  by  the  numbers  set 
dovn  it  appears,  that  the  horizontal  distances 
of  the  ''d.  and  3d  shot  on  the  two  screens,  and 
on  the  wall,  are  as  under : 


5<j.O 

l5tscr?en  5<1  screen  vail 

11,75  18,75'  S5,95 

"  Here,  if,  according  fo  the  rule  given 
above,  the  diii nice  on  the  first  screen'  he 
taken  from  the  distances  on  the  other  two, 
tlie  remainder  will  be  7,  and  74,2  ;  and  the>e 
luimhers,  if  eacli  shut  kept  to  a  vertical 
plane,  ought  lobe  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  5, 
th.al  being  the  proportion  of  tlic  distances  of 
t!ie  second  screen  and  of  tiie  wall  from  the 
lirst.  But  tlie  last  number  74,2  exceeds 
wiiat  it  ought  to  be  by  this  analogy,  by  39,2 ; 
so  that  between  them  there  is  a  deviation 
from  the  vertical  plane  of  above  39  inches, 
and  this  too  in  a  transit  of  little  more  than 
eighty  yards. 

"  But  further,  to  shew  that  tliese  irregu- 
larities do  not  dei)end  upon  any  accidental 
circtimstances  of  the  ball's  fitting  or  not  fit- 
ting the  piece,  there 'were  five  shot  more 
made  with  the  same  quantity  of  powder  as 
before;  but  with  smaller  bullets,  which  ran 
much  looser  in  the  piece.  And  tlie  hori- 
zorjtal  distances  being  measured  in  inches 
from  the  trace  of  the  first  bullet  to  each  of 
the  succeedirig  ones,  the  numbers  were  as 
follow : 

1st  screen      2d  screen       wall 
lto2  15,f)R  31,1     K        94,0  R 

3  6,4  L  12,75  L        23,0  L 

4  4,7  R  8,5    R         15,5  R 

5  12,0  R  24,0    R        63,5  R 
"Here  agiiin,  on  tlie  supposed  fixed  position 

of  tlie  piece,  the  horizontal  distance  on  the 
wall,  between  the  lirst  and  third,  will  be  found 
to  be  above  lifteen  inches  less  than  it  should 
be,  if  each  kept  to  a  vertical  plane.  And 
like  irregularities,  though  smaller,  occur  in 
even'  other  experiment.  Ami  if  they  are 
examined  according  to  the  third  method 
set  djwn  above,  and  the  horizontal  distances 
of  tlielifird  and  fourth,  for  instance,  are  com- 
pared, these  on  the  first  and  second  screen, 
and  on  tiie  w  all,  appear  to  be  thus : 

1st  screen  2d  screen  wall 

11,1  -21,25  38,5 

"  And  if  the  horizontal  distance  on  the 
first  screen  is  taken  from  the  othei'  two,  the 
remainders  will  be  10,15  and  27,4;  where 
the  1  ast  of  them,  instead  of  being  five  times 
the  first,  as  it  ought  to  be,  is  23,35  short  of  it. 
So  that  here  there  is  a  deviation  of  above  23 
inches. 

"  From  all  these  experiments  the  deflection 
in  question  seems  to  be  inconteslably  evinced. 
Hut  to  give  some  laitlier  liglit  to  this  subject, 
I  took  a  barrel  of  the  same  herewith  that 
Inlherto  used,  and  bent  it  at  about  three  or 
four  inches  from  its  muzzle  to  the  left,  the 
bend  making  an  angle  of  3°  or  4°  with  the 
axis  of  the  piece.  This  piece,  thus  bent, 
was  fired  with  a  loose  ball  and  the  same 
quantity  of  powder  hitherto  used,  the  screens 
of  the  last  experiment  being  still  continued. 
It  was  natural  to  expect  that  if  this  piece  was 
p.)inted  by  the  general  direction  of  its  axis, 
tlie  ball  would  lie 'canted  to  the  left  of  that 
direction  by  the  bend  near  its  moulh.  Hut 
as  the  bullet,  in  passing  through  that  bertl 
part,  would,  as  I  conceived,  be  forced  to  roll 
upon  the  right-hand  side  of  the  barrel  ;  and 
thereby  the  left  side  of  the  bullet  would  turn 
up  against  the  :.ir,  and  would  increase  the 
resistance  on  that  side ;  1  predicted  to  the 
company  thru  present,  tint  if  the  axis  on 
which  tlie  bullet  whirled  did  not  sliilt  its  po- 


RIFLE. 

sition  afler  it  was  separated  from  t!ic  piece, 
then,  notwithstanding  the  bend  of  liie  piece 
to  the  left,  the  bullet  itself  might  be  expected 
to  iiicuivate  towards  the  right;  and  this,  upon 
trial,  did  most  remarkably  happen.  For  one 
of  the  bullets  fired  from  tliis  bent  piece,  pass- 
ed through  the  first  screen  about  I5  inch 
distant  from  the  trace  of  one  of  th^  shot 
fired  from  the  straight  piece  in  the  last  set  of 
experiments.  On  the  second  screen  the 
traces  of  the  same  bullets  were  about  three 
inches  distant,  the  bullet  from  the  crooked 
piece  passing  on  botli  screens  to  the  lett  of 
the  other;  but  comparing  the  places  of  these 
bullets  on  the  wall,  it  appeared  that  the  bul- 
let from  the  crooked  piece,  though  it  diver- 
ged from  the  track  oi  the  other  on  the  two 
screens,  had  now  crossed  that  track,  and  was 
deiiected  considerably  to  the  riglit  of  it ;  so 
that  it  was  obvioii.-^,  that,  though  the  bu'let 
trom  the  crooked  piece  m.ght  at  first  be 
canted  to  tlie  left,  and  had  diverged  from  the 
track  of  the  other  bullet,  with  w l.ich  it  was 
compared  ;  yet  by  degrees  it  deviated  again 
to  the  right,  and  a  littie  beyond  the  second 
screen  crossed  that  track,  trom  which  it  be- 
fore diverged  ;  and  on  the  wall  was  deflected 
fourteen  inches,  as  I  reinemljer,  on  the  con- 
trary side.  And  this  experiment  is  not  only 
the  most  convincing  proof  of  the  reality  of' 
this  deflection  here  contended  lor ;  but  is 
likewise  the  strongest  confirmation,  that  it  is 
brought  about  in  the  ve.y  manner,  and  by 
the  very  circumstances,  which  we  have  all 
along  described. 

"  To  prevent  this  irregularity,  rifled  bar- 
rels are  made  use  of;  and  here  it  happens, 
that,  when  the  piece  is  fired,  tlie  zone  of  the 
bullet  follows  the  sweep  of  the  rilles ;  and 
thereby,  besides  its  progressive  motion,  ac- 
quires a  circular  motion  round  'the  axis  of 
the  piece,  which  circular  motion  will  be 
continued  to  the  bullet,  after  its  separation 
from  tlie  piece  ;  bv  which  means  a  bullet 
discharged  from  a  rifled  barrel  is  constantly 
made  to  whirl  round  an  axis,  which  is  coinci- 
dent with  the  line  of  its  flight.  .And  hence 
it  follows,  that  the  resistance  011  the  foremost 
surface  of  the  bullet  is  equally  distributed 
round  the  pole  of  its  circular  motion  ;  and 
acts  with  an  ecjual  effort  on  every  side  of  the 
line  of  direction  ;  so  that  this  resistance  can- 
produce  no  deviation  from  that  line.  And 
(which  is  still  of  more  importance),  if  by  the 
casual  irregularity  of  the  foremost  surface  of 
the  bullet,  or  by  any  other  accident,  the  re- 
sistance should  be  stronger  on  one  side  of 
the  pole  of  the  circular  motion  than  on  the 
other ;  yet,  as  the  place,  whi-re  this  greater 
resistance  acts,  must  perpetually  shift  its 
position  round  the  line  in  which  the  bifllel 
flics,  the  deflection,  which  this  inequality 
would  occasion,  if  it  acted  constantly  with 
the  same  given  tendency,  is  now  continually 
rectified  by  the  various  and  contrary  ten- 
dencies of  that  disturbing  force,  during  the 
course  of  one  revolution. 

"  This  perpetual  correction  of  a  deflective 
eftbrt  on  the  foremost  surface  of  the  bullet, 
in  consequence  of  the  revolution  of  the  bul- 
let round  the  line  of  its  direction,  may  per- 
haps be  exemplified,  by  considering  what 
happens  to  a  castle-top,  whilst  it  spins  upon 
its  point,  r'or  it  will  be  easily  acknowledg- 
ed, that  this,  without  its  revolving  motion, 
could  not  continue  for  the  least  portion  of 
time  in  that  situation.    And  if  we  examine 


how  this  h.ipprns,  we  s'lall  find,  tliaf,  lliougW 
its  centre  of  gravity  i,  not  exai  tly  over  the 
point  it  spins  on,  v-t  that  ineciuality  cannot 
j  instantly  bring  it  to  the  ground  according  to 
its  natural  eflort ;  because,  during  one  revo- 
lution, the  centre  of  gravity  preponderates  on 
ever)'  side  of  the  lop  ;  and  thenby  raises  it 
as  mucli  in  one  plaie,  as  it  depressed  it  in 
anotlier.  And  this  reasoning  (supposing 
that  the  tendency  of  the  centre  of  gia- 
vity  of  the  to|j  to  descend,  be  analogous  to 
the  action  of  the  unequal  resistance  on  the 
foremost  surface  of  a  bullet  fired  from  a 
rhled  barrel)  will  easily  explaiil  how,  not- 
withstanding that  inequality,  the  bullet  keeps 
true  to  its  track  without  deflection.  And 
what  is  here  advanced,  is  farther  confirmed 
by  the  general  practice  with  regard  to  ar- 
rows. For  it  is  well  known  to  every  archer, 
that  the  feathers  of  an  arrow  are  placed  in  a 
spiral  form,  so  as  to  make  the  arrow  spin 
round  its  axis;  without  which  it  would  be 
obvious  to  the  eye,  that  the  arrow  undu- 
lated in  the  air,  and  did  not  keep  accurate'y 
to  its  direction.  And  it  is  owing  to  the  same 
princip'e,  that  every  school-boy  finds  himself 
under  tiie  necessity  of  making  his  shuttle- 
cock spin,  before  fie  cm  depend  upon  the 
truth  of  its  fliglit. 

"  This  is  the  general  theory  of  the  motiou 
of  bullets  discharged  from  rilled  pieces ;  and 
it  is  found  by  experhiient,  that  their  actual 
motions  correspond  very  well  with  these 
spccuiations.  For  the  exactness  which  those 
who  are  dextrous  in  the  use  of  these  pieces 
attain  to,  is  indeed  wonderful  ;  and  that  at 
such  distances,  that  if  the  bullets  were  fired 
from  the  common  pieces,  in  which  the  custo- 
mary aberration  takes  place,  not  one  in 
twenty  of  them  could  ever  be  traced. 

"  1  his  may  suffice  as  to  tlie  general  idea 
of  the  form  and  convenience  of  a  rifled  piece; 
and  here  it  will  be  expedient  to  insert  some 
experiments,  by  which  it  will  appear,  how 
well  it  answers  the  jiurpose  I  have  men- 
tioned above  ;  I  mean  that  of  keeping  the 
ball  to  its  regular  track,  by  preventing  that 
deflection,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  takes 
place  in  the  bullets  fired  from  common  pie- 
ces. 

"  And  first  I  considered,  that  in  conse- 
quence of  the  reasoning  about  the  manner 
in  which  it  produces  this  eil'ect ;  it  should 
follow,  that  the  same  hemisphere  of  the  bul- 
let which  lies  foremost  in  the  piece,  must 
continue  foremost  during  the  whole  course 
of  its  flight. 

"  To  examine  this  particular,  I  took  a 
rifled  barrel  carrying  a  bullet  of  six  to 
the  pound  ;  but  instead  of  its  leaden  bullet, 
I  used  a  wooden  one  of  the  same  size,  matk' 
of  a  soft  springy  wood,  which  bent  itself 
easily  into  the  ritles  without  breaking.  And, 
firing  the  piece  thus  loaded  against  a  wall  at 
such  a  distance,  as  the  bullet  might  not  be 
shivered  by  the  blow;  I  always  found,  that 
the  same  surface,  which  lay  foremost  in  the 
piece,  continued  foremost  without  anv  sen- 
sible deflection,  during  the  time  of  its  flight. 
And  tliis  was  easy  to  be  observed,  by  e\- 
amining  the  bullet;  as  both  the  marks  of  the 
rifles,  and  the  inirt  that  impinged  on  the 
wall,  were  sulficieiitly  a|)parent. 

"  Now,  as  these  wooden  bullets  were  but 
the  sixteenth  part  of  the  weight  of  tho'e 
of  lead;  I  conclude,  that  if  there  had  been 
any  unequal  resislauce  or  dellejtivc  power. 


n  I  F 

it<  ellfei  ts  muit  have  boon  extremely  seii- 
siDle  upon  Ihisliglil  body  ;  <iii(J  coDsfcjui'iilly 
ill  some  of  the  inaU  1  inadi-,  llio  surlaix-, 
\Uiiili  ciuie  luremo-l  Iroiii  (lie  |Moce,  must 
limL'  been  tunieil  ic/unil  uitu  aiioliier  situa- 
tion. 

"  But  agiiin,  I  took  tlie  same  piece,  and 
loading  il  nosv  willi  a  leaden  ball,  1  sel  it 
nearly  [)er|-endicuUir,  sloping  it  only  three 
or  four  degrees  irom  the  perpendicular,  in 
Ihe  direction  ol  the  wind  ;  ami  tiring  it  in 
tliis  situation,  the  bullet  generally  continued 
about  hall'  a  minute  in  the  air,  it  rising  by 
compulation  to  near  turee  (piarters  of  a  mile 
perpendicular  height. 

"In  these  trials  1  founil,  that  the  bullet 
commonly  came  to  thi'  ground  to  the  lee- 
waid  of  the  piece,  and  at  such  a  distance 
Croiii  it,  as  nearly  corresponded  to  its  angle 
of  inclinat.oii,  and  to  Ihe  effort  of  the  wind  ; 
it  uiually  lalllng  not  neaier  to  the  piece  than 
a  hundred,  nor  liirther  Irom  it  than  a  hundred 
and  i.tty  yards.  And  tins  is  a  strong  coiilir- 
iiiation  of  the  almost  steady  flight  of  this 
bullet  for  about  a  mile  and  a  half.  For  were 
the  same  trial  made  witli  a  common  piece, 
I  doubt  not  tliat  the  deviation  would  olfen 
amount  to  half  a  mile,  and  perha|,-s  consider- 
ably more;  ihougli  this  e.xperiiiieut  would 
be  a  very  diflitnlt  one  to  e\amine,  on  ac- 
count of  the  little  chance  there  would  be  of 
discovering  where  the  ball  fell." 

It  now  remains  to  speak  of  the  sights, 
which,  althoiigii,  they  do  not  constitute  the 
essentuil  part  ot  a  rille,  as  tiiey  may  be  used 
with  a  plain  bored  barrel.;  yet  as  that  is 
seldom  done,  and  as  tin  y  are  always  used 
with  a  rille,  it  will  not  be  proper  to  omit  \ 
mentioning  them.  I 

It  may  be  strictly  said,  tlial  no  part  of  the 
path  of  the  bullet  when  lired  from  a  rille  or 
musket  is  in  a  right  line,  as  gravity  acts 
upon  the  bullet  the  instant  it  cjuils  tne  mouth 
ot  the  piece  ;  and  although  at  a  siiort  dis- 
tance the  elii-'ct  is  not  very  percepi  bie,  yet 
it  is  considerably  so  at  100  yards  ;  and  at 
SOU  yards,  the  ball  wotild  probably  strike 
the  ground  belore  it  coukl  reach  the  object  ! 
aimed  at.  'I'o  remedy  tins  inconvenience,  ' 
it  is  foimd  necessary  to  aim  exactly  at  such 
a  height  above  the  object,  as  tiie  ball  would 
liave  been  depressed  to,  by  the  power  of 
gravity,  had  it  been  aimed  at  it  poii.t-blank  ; 
so  that  if  we  suppose  this  depression  to  be  a 
foot  in  a  hunch'ed  yard-,  we  iiuist  aim  a  foot 
above  the  object.  But  here  another  incon- 
venience arises  ;  for  if  we  aim  above  the 
object  by  raising  the  nuizzle  of  the  piece, 
the  object  is  excluded  from  our  view  by  the 
intervention  of  the  barrel  ;  so  that  we  are 
prevented  from  measuring  the  distance  with 
the  eye,  and  instead  of  one,  are  liable  to 
aim  two  or  three  feet  above  it. 

This  second  difficulty  is  removed  by  de- 
pressing the  breech  ot  the  gun,  instead  of 
elevating  the  muzzle  ;  and  the  quantity  of 
tlie  depression  is  measured  with  great  nicety, 
by  what  are  called  the  sights. 

On  the  upper  surface  oi  the  barrel,  at  right 
angles  with  its  axis,  is  lixed  a  piece  ol  Hat 
thin  iron  (see  Plate  hg.  3),  about  six  inches 
from  the  breech,  and  on  the  centre  ot  its  top, 
a  small  square  notch  is  tiled.  Tn.s  is  called  the 
back  sight.  'Ihe  front  sight  is  notnnig  more 
tlian  the  small  knob  of  iron  or  bra^s,  which 
is  lixed  oil  all  fowling-pieces,  about  half  an 


II  I  M 

inch  from  the  muzzle.  M'hen  aim  is  taken, 
the  eye  is  raised  over  tiie  back  sight,  till  the 
front'sight  appears  through  the  notch,  which 
is  llien  Irought  upon  the  object,  and  forms 
tlieright  line  ABC  D,  Plate  lig.  2. 

I!ut  here  it  is  evident,  that  the  breech  of 
the  barrel  is  depressed  in  the  proportion  of 
the  height  of  the  back  sight  B  ;  that  the  axis 
of  the  barrel  forms  an  inclined  plane  with  the 
right  line  AI5C ;  that  the  course  of  the 
ball,  if  not  act-cl  upon  by  gravity,  would  be 
in  the  line  I'X'l'';  and  ihat  the  ball  would 
strike  at  G,  considerably  above  the  object 
1).  But  being  depressed  in  its  course  by 
the  law  of  gravity,  it  will  make  tlie  curve  II 
and  descend  to  I). 

By  looking  at  the  figure  It  is  immediately 
seen,  that  if  the  object  aimed  at  had  been  at 
J,  or  any  point  nearer  than  D,  the  ball 
would  have  i)assed  over  it ;  and  if  it  had  been 
at  K,  or  farther  than  D,  it  would  have  passed 
under  it.  'Ihe  height  of  the  back  sight  must 
I  be  regulated  by  experiment.  The  govern- 
ment rillrs  have  only  one  lixed  sight,  which 
j  are  intended  lor  200 'yards  ;  but  if  an  enemy 
is  seen  at  100  vards,  aim  must  be  laki;i  at 
I  the  knee;  ifatho,  below  the  mitklle.  At 
250  yards,  the  head  must  be  aimed  at;  and 
I  at  300,  the  sight  becomes  useless,  as  it  would 
be  necessary  to  aim  over  his  head,  and  then 
the  inconvenience  before  mentioned  recurs; 
to  jnevent  which,  the  folding  or  additional 
sights  are  used  as  in  hgure  3,  where  tlie  sight 
A  is  calculated  for  150,  B  for  200,  and  C  tor 
300  yards;  beyond  which  distance  it  be- 
come's  almost  useless  to  fire  at  any  object  of 
the  size  of  a  man. 

Mr.  Uobins,  who  has  done  more  on  this  sub- 
ject than  any  other  person,  concludes  an  excel- 
lent p;'perw'ifh  predicting,  that  whatever  state 
shall  thoroughly  comprehend  the  nature  and 
advantagi's  of  rifled-barrel  pieces;  and  hav- 
ing facilitated  and  completed  their  con- 
stivction,  shall  introduce  into  their  armies 
their  general  use,  with  a  dexterity  in  the 
m:  nagement  of  them  ;  will  by  this  means 
acquire  a  superiority,  which  will  almost  ecpial 
any  thing  that  has  been  done  at  any  time 
by'  the  particular  excellence  of  any  one  kind 
of  arms;  and  will  perhaps  fall  but 'little  short 
of  the  wonderhil  e.Tects,  which  history  re- 
lates to  have  been  formerly  produced,  by  the 
first  inventors 'of  fire-arms. 

RIGGING'  of  a  ship,  is  all  her  cordage 
and  ropes,  belonging  to  her  masts,  yai-ds,  &;c. 
See  Ship-building. 

RIGHT,  in  geometry,  signifies  the  same 
with  straight:  thus  a  straight  line  is  called  a 
right  one. 

Right,  in  law,  not  only  denotes  pro- 
perty, for  which  a  writ  of  right  lies,  but  also 
any  "tide  or  cUiim,  either  by  virtue  of  a  con- 
dition, mortgage,  &c.  for'  which  no  action 
is  given  by  law,  bat  an  entry  only. 

By  Stat".  1  Wil'.  and  Mar.  cap.  ii.  the  fol- 
low'ing  particulars  relating  to  the  ill  conduct 
of  king  James  II.  were  declared  to  be  illegal, 
and  contrary  to  the  antient  rights  and  liber- 
ties of  the  people,  viz.  his  exercising  a  power 
of  dispensing  with,  and  suspending  of,  laws  ; 
his  levying  money  without  consent  of  jjarlia- 
ment ;'  violating  the  freedom  of  elections ; 
causing  partial  and  corrupt  jurors  to  be  re- 
turned on  trials,  excessive  bail  to  be  taken, 
and  excessive  rines  to  be  imposed,  as  well  as 
.n-iifl  punishments  to  be  intlicted,  kc. 
iUM,  ill  a  watch,  or  clock,  the  edge  or 


n  I  O 


5Ql 


I  border  of  the  circumference  or  circular  part 
of  a  v.hec'l. 

KINCJ,  in  navigation  arid  astronomy,  a 
brass  instrument,  made  in  liie  form  of  a  ling, 
and  serving  to  lake  altitudes  of  the  sun.  Sec 
Plate  Miscel.  lig.  WJ. 

At  C  is  a  small  hole,  m  the  direction  C'D, 
which  is  perpendicular  to  CK;  this  hole  is 
precisely  4j'  Innn  A,  andCKis  parallel  to 
tlie  vertical  diameter  AB.  From  C,  as  a 
centre,  they  describe  a  ((uadrant  of  a  circle 
GFD;  which  being  nicely  divided  into  90% 
they  mark  upon  the  internal  surface  of  the 
ring  the  places  w  lure  rays,  drawn  from  C  to 
these  degrees,  cut  the  said  surface. 

To  use  this  ring,  they  iiold  it  up  by  the 
swivel,  and  turn  the  side  with  the  hole  C 
towards  the  sun  ;  and  then  the  sun-beams 
j)assing  through  the  hole,  make  a  Uiminouf 
spot  among  the  <legrees,  whereby  the  alti- 
tude is  tound.  Some  prefer  the  ring  to  Ihu 
astrolabe,  by  rea  on  its  divisions  are  larger; 
however,  it  is  far  from  being  exact  enough 
to  be  much  depended  on  in  astronomical 
observations,  w  liich  are  better  made  by  qua- 
drants     See  AsTROLADE,  and  Quadra.vt. 

RIOT,  in  law.  When  three  persons  or 
more  siiall  assemble  themselves  together, 
with  an  int(-nt  mutually  to  assist  one  another, 
against  any  who  shall  0])pose  them  in  the 
execution  of  some  enterprise  of  a  private 
nature,  with  torce  or  violence,  against  the 
jieace,  or  to  the  inani.i-st  terror  of  the  people, 
whether  the  act  intended  was  of  itself  lawful 
or  unlawliil;  if  they  only  meet  for  such  a 
purpose  or  intent,  though  they  shall  after 
depart  of  their  own  accord  without  doing  any 
tiling,  this  is  an  unlawful  assembly.     1  Haw. 

If  after  their  first  meeting,  they  shall  move 
forwards  towards  the  execution  of  any  such 
act,  whether  they  put  their  intended  pur- 
pose into  execution  or  not;  this  according  to 
the  general  opinion  is  a  riot.     Id. 

By  34  Ed.  Ire.  c.  1,  it  is  enacted,  that  if 
a  justice  find  persons  riotously  assembled, 
he  alone  has  not  only  power  to  arrest  the 
offenders,  and  bind  them  to  their  good  be- 
haviour, or  imprison  them  if  they  do  not 
olfer  good  bail :  but  he  ihay  also  authorize 
others  to  arrest  them,  by  a  bare  verbal  com- 
mand, without  other  warrant  ;  and  by  force 
thereof,  the  persons  so  commanded,  may  pur- 
sue and  arrest  the  offenders  in  his  absence  as 
well  as  presence.  It  is  also  said,  that  after 
any  riot  is  over,  any  one  justice  may  send 
his  warrant  to  arrest  any  pei^son  who  w:'.s 
concerned  in  it,  and  that  lie  may  send  him  to 
gaol  till  he  shall  find  sureties  for  his  good  be- 
haviour.    1  Haw.  IfiO. 

The  punishment  of  unlawful  assemblies,  if 
to  the  number  of  twelve,  may  be  capital,  ac- 
cording to  the  circumstances  which  attenil 
them:  but  from  the  number  of  three  to 
eleven,  is  by  fine  and  imprisonment  only. 
The  same  is  the  case  by  riots  and  routs  by 
the  common  law,  to  which  the  pillory  in  very 
enormous  cases  has  been  sometimes  super- 
added.    4  Black,  c.  11. 

By  stat.  1  Geo.  I.  cap.  5,  if  any  persons 
to  the  number  of  twelve  or  more,  unlawfully 
and  riotously  assembled,  continue  together 
for  an  hour,  after  being  reqiured,  by  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  or  other  magistrate,  to  disperse, 
they  shall  be  deemed  guilty  oi  fei'>ny  without 
beneiit  of  cleigy.     However,   prosecutions 


593 


R  I  V 


upon  this  statute  mvist  be  begun  within  one 
year  after  the  oiFence  !«  <o:nr.)iUed. 

RITE,  among  divines,  denotes  the  par- 
ticular manner  of  celebrating  divine  service, 
in  a  particular  couritry. 

RITTERA,  a  genns  of  the  class  and  order 
polyandria  nionogynia;  The  calyx  is  four- 
leaved  ;  petal  one  ;  legume  one-celled,  two- 
valved.  Tiiere  are  live  species,  trees  of  the 
\\  est  Indies. 

RITUAL,  a  book  directing  the  order  and 
manner  ta  be  observed  in  celebrating  religi- 
ous ceremonies,  and  performing  divine  ser- 
vice, in  a  particular  church,  diocese,  order, 
or  the  like. 

RIVERS.  With  any  person  who  has  care- 
fully observed  the  course  of  rivers,  and 
traced  them  to  their  sources,  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  they  are  formed  by  the  con- 
fl'ience  of  springs,  or  of  the  little  streams  or 
rivulets  that  issue  from  liiem  ;  with  perhaps 
the  cxcoplion  of  those  rivers  wliich  proceed 
from  lakes,  where  the  reservoir  is  ready- 
formed,  and  generally  by  the  same  means. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
the  phHosophica!  world  was  agitated  by  a 
debate  concerning  the  origin  of  those  waters 
which  are  necessary  for  the  supply  of  rivers, 
&c.  One  party  contended  strongly  for  the 
CNistence  of  a  large  mass  of  water  within  the 
bowels  of  the  earth,  which  supplied  not  only 
the  rivers  but  the  ocean  itself;  at  the  head  of 
these  we  may  place  the  ingenious  but  fanciful 
1'urnet.  The  French  philosophers,  on  the 
contrary,  asserted,  that  the  waters  of  the 
ocean  were  conveyed  back  by  some  subter- 
raneous passages  to  the  land,  and  being  fil- 
trated in  their' passage,  returned  again  to  the 
sea  in  the  course  of  the  rivers  ;  but  this  opi- 
nion appears  contrary  to  all  the  known  prin- 
ciple of  ludrostatics. 

In  opposition  to  these  hypotheses,  our  il- 
lustrious countrynran  Halley  contended  that 
the  process  of  evaporation,  and  the  immense 
deposition  of  water  in  consequence  of  it,  were 
fully  adequate  to  the  whole  supply.  If,  in- 
deed, we  consider  the  immense  quantity  of 
water  which  is  continually  carried  np  into 
the  atmosphere  bv  evaporation  (see  Evapo- 
ration), and  consider  that  this  is  a  process 
which  is  continually  going  on,  not  only  from 
tlie  ocean  but  from  the  rivers  themselves, 
and  from  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth,  we 
shall  see  but  little  reason  to  doubt  of  Dr. 
Halley's  hypothesis;  but  may  reasonably 
conclude,  that  this  kind  of  circulation  is  car- 
ried on  through  all  nature;  and  that  the  sea 
receives  back  again  througli  the  channel  of 
the  rivers,  that  water  which  it  parts  with  to 
the  atmosphere. 

All  rivers  have  their  source  cither  in  moun- 
tains, or  elevated  lakes ;  and  it  is  in  their 
descent  from  these,  that  they  acquire  that 
velocity  which  maintains  their  future  cur- 
rent. At  first  their  course  is  generally  rapid 
and  headlong  ;  but  it  is  retarded  in  its  journey 
by  the  conlimial  friction  against  its  banks, 
I))-  the  many  obstacles  it  meets  to  divert  its 
stream,  and  by  the  plane's  generally  becom- 
ing more  level  as  it  approaches  towards  the 
sea. 

Rivers,  as  every  body  has  seen,  are  always 
broadest  at  tlie  mouth,  and  narrower  towards 
their  source.  But  what  is  less  known,  and 
piobably  more  dcicrvijig  curiosity,  is,  that 
they  run  in  a  more  direct  channel  as  they 


R  1  V 

inimediately  leave  their  sources ;  and  that 
their  sinuosities  and  turnings  Ijecome  more 
numerous  as  they  proceed.  It  is  a  certain 
sign  among  the  savages  of  North  America, 
that  they  are  near  the  sea,  when  they  find 
the  rivers  wmding,  and  every  now  and  then 
changing  their  direction.  And  this  is  even 
now  become  an  indication  to  the  Europeans 
themselves,  in  their  journeys  through  those 
trackless  forests.  As  those  sinuosities,  there- 
fore, increase  as  the  river  approaches  the 
sea,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  tliat  they 
sometimes  divide,  and  thus  disembogue  by 
ditTerent  channels.  The  Danulje  disem- 
bogues into  the  Euxine  by  seven  mouths ; 
the  Nile,  by  the  same  number  ;  and  the 
W'olga,  by  seventy. 

The  largest  rivers  of  Europe  are,  first,  the 
Wolga,  which  is  about  six  hundred  and  fifty 
leagues  in  length,  extendhig  from  Reschow 
to  Astrachan.  It  is  remarkable  of  this  river, 
that  it  abounds  with  water  during  the  sum- 
mer months  of  May  and  June;  but  all  the 
rest  of  the  year  is  so  shallow  as  scarcely  to 
cover  its  bottom,  or  allow  a  passage  for  load- 
ed vessels  that  trade  up  its  stream.  The 
next  in  order  is  the  Danube.  The  cour^e 
of  this  is  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  leagues, 
from  the  mountains  of  Switzerland  to  the 
Black  Sea.  The  Don,  or  I'anais,  which  is 
four  hundred  leagues  from  the  source  of  that 
branch  of  it  called  the  Soflna,  to  its  mouth  in 


R  I  V 

their  devotions  to  the  river  as  to  a  god  ;  for 
savage  simplicity  is  always  known  to  mistake 
the  blessings  of  the  Deity  for  the  Deity  him- 
self. They  carry  their  dying  friends,  from 
distant  countries,  to  expire  on  its  banks,  and 
to  be  buried  iu  its  stream.  The  water  is 
lowest  in  April  or  May  ;  but  the  railis  bf- 
ginning  to  fall  soon  after,  the  flat  country  is 
overllo.:ed  for  several  miles,  till  about  il\e 
end  of  September ;  the  waters  then  begin  to 
retire,  leaving  a  prolific  sediment  behind, 
that  enriches  the  soil,  and,  in  a  few  days  time, 
gives  a  luxuriance  to  vegetation,  beyond 
what  can  be  conceived  by  an  European. 
Next  to  this  may  be  reckoned  the  still  uio.-e 
celebrated  river  Euphrates.  This  rises  from 
two  sources,  northward  of  the  city  Erzerum, 
in  Turcomania  ;  and  unites  about  three  days 
journey  below  the  same,  whence,  after  per- 
forming a  course  of  five  hundred  leagues,  it 
falls  into  the  Gulph  of  Persia,  fifty  miles  be- 
low the  city  of  Bassora  in  Arabia.  Tiie 
river  Indus  is  extended,  from  its  source  to 
its  discharge  into  the  Arabian  sea,  four  hun- 
dred leagues. 

The  largest  rivers  of  Africa  are  :  the  Sene- 
gal, whith  runs  a  course  ot  not  less  than 
eleven  hundred  leagues,  comprehending  the 
Niger,  which  some  have  supposed  to  fall 
into  it.  Later  accounts,  however,  seem  to 
aflirm  that  the  Niger  is  lost  in  the  sands, 
about  three  hundred  miles  up  from  the  west- 


the  Euxine  Sea.     In  one  part  of  its  course  it  |  em  coasts  of  Africa.     Be  this  as  it  niav,  the 


approaches  near  the  Wolga  ;  and  Peter  the 
Great  had  actually  begun  a  canal,  by  which 
he  intended  joining  those  two  rivers ;  but 
this  he  did  not  live  to  finish.  The  Nieper, 
or  Barysthenes,  which  rises  in  the  middle  of 
Muscovy,  and  runs  the  course  of  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  leagues,  to  empty  itself  into 
the  Black  Sea.  The  Old  Cossacks  inhabit 
the  banks  and  islands  of  this  river  ;  and  fre- 
quently cross  the  Black  Sea,  to  plunder  the 
maritime  places  on  the  coasts  of  Turkey. 
The  Dwina,  which  takes  its  rise  in  a  province 
of  the  same  name  in  Russia,  that  runs  a 
course  of  three  hundred  leagues,  and  disem- 
bogues into  the  White  Sea,  a  little  below 
Archangel. 

The  largest  rivers  of  Asia  are,  the  Hoanho, 
in  China,  which  is  eight  hundred  and  fifty 
le.igues  in  length,  computed  from  its  source 
at  Raja  Ribron,  to  its  mouth  in  the  Gulph 
of  Changi.  The  Jenisca  of  Taitary,  about 
eight  hundred  leagues  in  length,  from  the 
lake  Selinga  to  the  Icy  Sea.  This  river  is, 
by  some,  supposed  to  supply  most  of  that 
great  quantity  of  drift-wood"  which  is  seen 
floating  in  the  seas,  near  the  Arctic  circle. 
The  ()by,  of  five  hundred  leagues,  running 
from  the  lake  of  Kila  into  the  Northern  Sea. 
The  Amour,  in  Eastern  Tartary,  whose 
course  is  about  five  hundred  and  seventy-five 
leagues,  from  its  source  to  its  entrance  into  the 
sea  of  Kamtschatka.  The  Kiam,  in  China,  five 
hundred  and  fifty  leagues  in  length.  The 
Ganges,  one  of  the  most  noted  rivers  in  tlie 
world,  and  about  as  long  as  the  former.  It 
rises  in  the  mountains  which  separate  India 
from  Tartary  ;  and  running  through  the  do- 
minions of  the  Great  Mogul,  discharjres  it- 
self by  several  mouths  into  the  bay  ot  Ben- 
gal. It  is  not  only  esteemed  by  the  Indians 
for  tlie  depth  and  (lureness  of  its  stream,  but 
for  a  supposed  sanctity  which  they  believe 
to  be  in  its  wat.-i-s.  Il'is  visited  annually  by 
several  liundred  tiiousand  pilgrims,  who  pay 


Senegal  is  well  known  to  be  navigable   for 
more   tiian   three   hundr  d  leagues   up  the 
country  ;  and  how  much  higlier  it  may  reach 
is  not  yet  discovered,  as  the  dreadful  fatality 
of  the  inland  parts  of  Africa  not  only  det.  s 
curiosity,  but  even  avarice,  which  is  a  muck 
stronger  passion.     The  celebrated  river  N  ile 
is   said  to   be   nine   hundred    and    seventy 
leagues,  from  its  source  among  tlie  moun- 
tains of  the  Moon,  in  LT])per  Ethiopia,  to  its 
opening  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea.     I'pon 
its  arrival  in   the  kiniflnni  ot   Uopi'r  Egypt, 
it  rur.s  through  a  rocky  channel,  which  some 
late   travellers  have  inisiaki  n  tor  us  cata- 
racts.    In  the  beginning  of  its  course,  it  re- 
ceives many  lesser  rivers  into  it ;  and  Pliny 
was   mistaken,   in  saying    that   it   receiveH 
none.     In  the  beginning  also  of  its  course,  it 
has   many  windings;    but,  for  above  three 
hundred  leagues  from  the  sea,  runs  in  a  direct 
line.     Its  annual  overtlo-vings  arise   from  a 
very  obvious  cause,  which  is  almost  univer- 
sal with  the  great  rivers  that  take  their  source 
near  the  Line.     The  rainy  season,  which  is 
periodical  in  those  climates,  floods  the  rivers; 
and  as  tliis  always  happens  in  our  suninicr, 
so  the  Nile  is  at  that  time  overflown.     From 
these  inundations  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt 
derive  happiness  and  plenty  ;  and,  when  tli^' 
river  does    not    arrive    at   its   acciistomi  ; 
hejght,  they  prepare  for  an  indifterent  h.ir- 
vest.     It  begins  to  overllow  about  the   I'tli 
of  June;    it  generally  continues  to  augment 
lor   forty   days,    and  decrease   in   about  as 
many  more.     The  time  of  increase  and  de- 
crease, however,   is  much  more  iiicon>i<ler- 
able  now  than   it   was   among  the  antients. 
Herodotus  inlbrms  us,  that  it  was  a  hundred 
day  s  rising,  aiul  as  many  falling ;  which  shews 
that  the  inundation  was  much  greater  at  that 
time   than  at  present.     M.   Bulion   has  as- 
cribed the  present  diminution,  as  well  to  the 
lessening  of  the  mountains  of  the  Moon,  by 
their  substance  having  so  long  been  washed' 


rfown  witli  Oie  stream,  asto  (he  rising  of  the 
caiili  in  y.L'\\>l,  tliat  lias  lor  so  m;in_v  agi-s 
received  tlii>  c-\tiaiieoiis  sii[)|)ly.  lint  wo 
do  nol  liiul,  by  tlif  buildings  tiiat  li:ive  re- 
niaiiu'il  since  tlie  times  ol'  tlie  aiitieiits,  that 
the  earti)  ii  much  raised  since  then.  Besides 
the  Nile  in- Africa,  we  may  rerkon  Zara,  and 
the  C^oanza,  from  the  greatness  of  whose 
openings  into  the  sea,  and  the  rapidity  of 
whose  sireairis,  we  limn  an  estimate  oi  the 
great  distance  whence  they  come.  'J'hiir 
courses,  liov\ever,  are  spent  in  watering  <le- 
seils  and  savage  countries,  whose  poverty  or 
liercencss  have  kept  strangers  away. 

P)Ut  of  all  parts  of  the  world,  America,  as 
it  exhibits  the  nvst  lolly  mountains,  so  ;-.l-o 
it  supplies  the  largest  rivers.  The  princip.d 
of  these  is  the  great  river  Amazons,  which, 
from  its  som'ce  in  th''  lake  of  L;.micocha,  to 
its  disi;har,-,e  into  the  Western  Ocean',  per- 
forms a  course  of  more  than  twelve  hundred 
leagues.  'I'hi'  breadth  ami  depth  of  this  river 
is  answerable  to  its  vast  length  ;  and,  where 
its  width  is  must  contsac  ted,  its  depth  is  aug- 
mented in  propoition.  So  great  is  the  body 
of  its  waters,  that  oilier  rivers,  though  before 
tiie  objects  of  admiration,  are  lost  in  its  bo- 
sum.  It  proceeds  after  their  junction,  with 
its  i^sual  appearance,  without  any  visible 
cliaage  in  its  breadth  or  rapidity  ;  and,  if  we 
jnav  so  express  it,  remains  great  without  os- 
teulalion.  In  some  places  it  displays  its 
whole  niagnilicence,  dividing  into  several 
large  branches,  and  eiiconipassing  a  nndti- 
tude  of  islands ;  and  at  length,  diM-liarging 
jl~eif  into  the  ocean,  by  a  channel  of  an  hun- 
tired  and  hfty  miles  broad.  Another  river, 
that  may  almost  rival  the  former,  is  the  St. 
Lawrence,  in  Canada,  which  rising  in  the 
lake  Assiiiiboils,  passes  from  one  lake  to  an- 
other, from  Christinaux  to  Alempigo ;  and 
thence  to  lake  Superior ;  thence  to  the  lake 
lluions;  to  lake  Erie;  to  lake  Ontario; 
and,  at  last,  after  a  course  of  nine  hundred 
leagues,  |)Ours  tlicir  collected  waters  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  The  river  N[issis>ippi  is 
more  than  seven  liundred  leagues  in  length, 
beginning  at  its  source  near  the  lake  Assi- 
iiiboils, and  ending  at  its  opening  into  the 
Gulph  of  Mexico.  The  river  Plata  runs  a 
length  of  more  tlian  eight  hundred  leagues 
from  its  source  in  the  river  Parana,  to  its 
mouth.  'I'he  river  Oroonoko  is  seven  hun- 
dred and  fifty  leagues  in  length,  from  its 
source  near  Pasto,  to  its  discharge  into  the 
Atlantic  ocean. 

■  Such  is  tlie  amazing  length  of  the  greatest 
rivers ;  and  even  in  some  of  these,  the  most 
remote  sources  very  probably  yet  continue 
unknown.  In  fact,  if  we  consider  the  num- 
ber of  rivers  which  they  receive,  and  the  little 
ac(iuaintaiice  we  have  with  the  regions 
through  which  they  run,  it  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at  that  geographers  are  divided  con- 
cerning the  sources  of  most  of  them.  As 
among  a  number  of  roots  by  which  nourish- 
ment is  conveyed  to  a  stately  tree,  it  is  dif)i- 
cult  to  determine  precisely  that  by  which  the 
tree  is  chiellv  suijplied  ;  so  among  the  many 
branches  of  a  great  river,  it  is  eipially  dilfi- 
colt  to  tell  which  is  the  original.  Hence  it 
may  easilv  happen,  that  a  similar  branch  is 
taken  for  the  capital  stnam ;  and  its  nm- 
liiligs  are  pursued  and  delineated,  in  preju- 
dice of  some  other  branch  that  better  deserv- 
ed tlie  name  and  the  description.  In  this 
Vol.  II. 


manner,  in  Europe,  the  Danube  is  known 
to  receive  thirty  lesser  rivers;  the  \\'olg;t 
tliirty-two  or  thirty-tliree.  In  A-ia,  the  llo- 
hanno  receives  thirty-live  ;  the  Jenisca  above 
sixty  ;  the  Oby  as  many  ;  tiw  Amour  about 
forty  ;  the  TQawiniii  receives  thirty  rivers  ; 
tiie  Ganges  twenty;  and  the  Lnphrates 
about  eleven.  In  Africa,  the  Senegal  re- 
ceives more  than  twenty  rivers  ;  the  Nile 
receives  not  one  for  live  hundred  leagues 
upwards,  and  then  only  twelve  or  thirteen. 
In  America,  the  river  Amazons  receives 
above  sixty,  and  those  very  considerable  ; 
the  river  St.  Eawrence  about  forty,  counting 
those  which  fall  into  its  lake^ ;  the  Missis- 
sippi receives  forty  ;  and  the  river  Plata  above 
lilty. 

The  inundations  of  the  Ganges  and  the 
Nile  ha\e  been  already  mentioned,  and  it 
might  be  added,  that  almost  all  great  rivers 
have  their  periodical  inundations  from  simi- 
lar causes.  The  author  already  fpioted  ob- 
serves, that,  "  besides  these  annually  peri- 
odical inundations,  there  are  many  rivers 
tint  overllow  at  much  shorter  intervals. 
Thus  most  of  those  in  Peru  and  Chili  have 
scare*  any  motion  by  night;  but  upon  the; 
apijearanee  of  the  morning  sun  they  assume 
their  former  rapidity  ;  this  proceeds  from  the 
mountain  snows,  which,  melting  with  tln.^ 
heat,  encrease  the  stream,  and  continue  to 
drive  on  the  current  while  the  sun  continues 
to  dissolve  them." 

There  are  some  rivers  which  are  said  to 
lose  themselves  in  chasms  under  the  earth, 
and  to  How  for  several  miles  in  secret  and 
undiscovered  channels.  On  this  circum- 
stance is  founded  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
fables  of  anti(|uitv,  relative  to  the  fountain  of 
Arethusa,  in  Sicily.  The  same  thing  is  af- 
lirnicd  of  tlie  Rhine,  and  even  of  the  river 
Mole,  in  Surrey,  which,  from  this  circum- 
stance derives  its  name.  With  respect  to 
the  two  latter  rivers,  however,  some  doubts 
are  entertained  of  the  fact. 

On  this  subject  there  is  a  memoir  of  the 
academy  of  sciences  lately  published,  by  the 
abbe  G'uettard.  "  It  is  very  surprising  (he 
observes)  if  we  reflect  on  it,  that  a  river  in 
its  course,  which  is  very  often  \ery  extensive, 
should  not  meet  with  sjiongious  soils  to  swal- 
low up  its  waters,  or  gulplis  in  which  they  are 
lost;  nevertheless,  as  there  has  lieen  hitherto 
known  but  a  small  number  of  rivers  w hose 
waters  thus  disappear,  tills  phenomenon  has 
been  accounted  very  extraordinary,  both  by 
the  ancients  and  moderns.  Mr.  (juettard 
next  describes  what  he  has  observed  in  seve- 
ral rivers  of  Nonnaiidy,  which  are  lost  and 
afterwards  appear  a^aiii ;  these  are  live  in 
number,  viz.  the  Rille,  the  Ilhon,  the  Aure, 
the  river  of  Sap-Audre,  and  the  Drome. 
The  three  Jirst  disappear  gradually,  and  then 
come  in  sight  again ;  the  fourth  loses  itself 
entirely  by  degrees,  but  afterwards  re-ap- 
jjears;  the  lifth  loses  some  of  its  water  in  its 
course,  and  ends  by  precipitating  itself  into 
a  cavity,  whence  it  is  never  seen  to  rise 
again. 

What  seems  to  occasion  the  loss  of  the 
Rille,  the  Ithon,  and  the  Aure,  is  the  nature 
of  the  soil  through  which  they  pass.  M. 
Gnettard  has  observed  that  it  is  in  general 
porous,  atifl  comixjsed  of  a  thick  sand,  the 
grains  of  which  are  not  well  compacted  to- 
gether; it  sinks  suddenly  down  by  its  own 
■    ■    /,  F  • 


weight  in  flomf  places,  and  lliere  forms  gre.  t 
holes;  and  wl-.en  the  water  overilows  ih^ 
meadows,  it  freipiently  makes  many  cavitieit 
in  several  parls  of  them.  If  we  Ihercforr 
suppose  iiietjualitiis  in  the  channels  of  thes'* 
rivers,  and  that  there  are  certain  places  ift 
which  the  water  staninates  longer  than  in 
others,  it  mu.^t  there  dilute  the  ground,  if  we 
may  use  that  expression  ;  and  having  carried 
away  the  parts  which  united  the  grains  of 
sand  together,  those  grains  will  become  after- 
wards no  other  than  a  kind  of  sieve,  throi  gli 
which  the  waters  will  filtrate  themselves,  pro- 
vided nevertheless  that  they  find  a  passag"- 
under  ground  through  which  they  may  run. 
This  conjecture  appears  to  be  so  well  found- 
ed, that  each  of  these  three  rivei-s  loses  itself 
nearly  in  the  same  manner,  that  is,  throiigU 
cavities  which  the  people  of  the  country  caU 
betoirs,  and  which  swallow  up  more  or  lesi 
according  to  their  largeness.  M.  Guettard, 
who  has  carefully  examined  them,  remarks,/ 
that  these  betoirs  are  holes  in  the  form  of  a 
tunnel,  whose  diameter  and  aperture  is  at 
least  two  feet,  and  sometimes  exceeds  elevep ; 
and  whose  depth  varies  in  like  manner  (roin 
one  and  two  feet,  to  five,  six,  and  even 
twentv.  Thi-  Uille  during  the  sumnitrseason 
loses  almost  all  its  water  in  the  space  of  twf» 
short  leagues;  the  Ilhon  does  very  near  the 
same.  iUit  M.  Guettard  observes  somethinij 
curious  concerning  this  river,  that  form  rly 
it  was  not  lost,  but  kept  its  course  without 
anv  interruption,  as  appears  by  the  history  of 
the  country  ;  very  likely  the  mud,  wl.icti 
had  been  collecteil  together  in  several  parts 
of  its  channel,  might  have  occasioned  the 
waters  remaining  in  others,  and  have  caused 
many  betoirs.  This  is  the  more  hkely,  as 
the  mud  having  been  collected  together  in 
the  bed  of  the  river  Aure,  it  appears  that,  in 
conseijueiice,  tlie  cavities  were  greatly  en- 
creased,  which  makes  it  lose  itself  much 
sooner  than  formeily.  Besides,  possibly  an 
earthquake  happening  in  the  country  might 
liave  caused  several  subterraneous  canal* 
through  which  the  water-  of  the  Ithon  has 
forced  its  way.  In  elTect,  it  appears,  that  .a 
soil's  being  porous  is  not  suCicient  to  cause 
the  loss  of  a  river  ;  .for  if  it  was,  then  to  do 
so  it  would  occasion  many  fens  romid  about, 
nor  would  it  n^new  its  course  after  havir.g  dis- 
appeared a  certain  time;  it  niu--t  besides, 
iind  ways  underground  through  which  it  may- 
take  its  course.  M.  Guettard  seems  also 
niciih  inclined  to  believe,  that  there  are,, 
in  these  parts,  subterraneous  cavities  through 
whicli  the  waters  may  flow;  and  in  conse- 
(pience  of  this  he  reports  a  number  of  facts,, 
all  tending  to  prove  the  truth  of  it,  or  at 
lea:-t  to  prove  that  there  must  be  hollow  qiiar- 
'ries  serving  for  strainers  to  these  waters. 
I'pon  which  occasion  he  goes  into  a  discus- 
sion of  this  question  :  Are  there  any  subter- 
raneous rivers,  and  is  the  preixissession  of 
some  persons  in  favour  of  this  particular  well 
founded  .-  lie  makes  it  appear  by  several  in- 
stances which  he  quotes,  and  by  many  rea- 
sons w  hicli  lie  alleges,  that  there  are  at  least 
very  great  j)resum|jtions  in  favour  of  this 
opinion.  V'C  are  too  apt  not  to  look  be- 
vond  the  ext-  rior  of  things  :  we  feel  resist- 
ance upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  when  we 
go  deep,  wv'  often  find  it  compact,  ft  is_ 
therefore  hard  for  us  to  imagine  that  it  caij. 
contain  subti-rraneous  cavities  sufl'ieient  to 
form  channels  for  hidden  riverSj  or  for  anv 


504 

considerable  bod \- of  water;  in  a  wird,  that 
it  can  lontai  /  vli-t  caveius;  aii'l  y<.'t  fvcrv 
thing  seems  to  indicate  tlic  coiit.ar_. .  A  fart 
that^ii  oiiscrved  in  Hie  I)  (oirs  oi  tni'  river- 
concerning  which  we  have  spoken,  and  par- 
tit  .arly  of  the  Rille,  proves  in  so:iie  mea- 
sure that  there  are  con  iderable  lalces  ot  wa- 
ters in  the  nioiiiitains  which  hinit  its  cour-e  : 
this  '.act  is,  tliat  i-.r  winter  the  greatest  part  ot 
tlitir  betoirs  become  sppn-s,  which  siii)ply 
an.-w  the  river's  channel  with  as  mtich  water 
as  they  had  absorbed  from  it  diiriii"  the  snm- 
juer.  Now  froiu  whence  can  that  water 
«;omc,  uiih'ss  from  the  reservoir^  or  Uike> 
that  are  inclosed  in  the  mountains,  wliich 
beiii'J  '.ower  than  the  river  in  siminier,  absorb 
its  w^ier,  and  being  higlier  in  winter  by  the 
rain  tii 'V  leceive,  send  it  back  again  ni 
tlieir  turn  ■ 

M.  (Juettard  strengthens  this  conjecture 
bv  several  instances  tlut  render  it  veiy  pro- 
bable :  he  remarks  xt  the  same  time,  that 
this  alternate  elTect  of  the  betuirs  swallowing 
lip  tht;  water  and  restoring  it  again,  cavises 
p  riiaps  an  invincible  obstacle  to  the  re- 
straining of  the  water  within  the  channel  of 
the  river.  It  has  indeed  been  several  times 
attempted  to  stop  those  cavities ;  but  tlie 
water  returns  with  such  violence  in  winter, 
that  it  geiierally  carries  away  the  materials 
with  which  they  were  stopped. 

The  river  of  Sap-Andre  is  lost  in  part,  as 
we  have  before  said,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Ithon  and  the  Kille  ;  but  tliere  is  some- 
thing more  remarkable  in  it  than  in  tho<e 
rive^;  to  wit,  th.-.t  at  the  extremity  of  its 
course,  where  tl>.ere  is  no  perceptible  cavity, 
it  is  ingulphed,  but  without  any  fall;  the 
water  pusses  between  the  pebbles,  and  it  is 
impossil'le  to  force  a  stick  into  that  place  any 
further  lliai)  into  the  betoirs  of  wliich  we  have 
spoken.  What  makes  this  river  take  that 
S'jbterraueous  direction,  is  an  impediment 
which  its  stream  meets  with  in  that  place  ; 
it  is  there  stopped  by  a  rising  ground  six 
or  seven  f«;et  high,  whose  bottom  it  Iws  very 
likely  UDdermiiied,  to  gain  a  free  passage, 
not  having  been  ai»le  lo  make  it^  way  over 
it.  At  some  distance  it  appears  again  ;  but 
ill  winter,  as  there  is  a  greater  quantity  of 
water,  it  passes  over  that  eminence,  and 
keeps  an  uniuterrupleJ  course. 

I.-astlv,  the  Dro  ne,  after  having  lost  some 
of  its  water  in  its  course,  v.inishes  entirely 
near  the  pit  of  Soucy ;  in  tiiat  place  it  inee;.s 
with  a  s;>rt  of  sabte'vraneous  cavity  near  '2'3 
feet  wide,  and  more  than  15  deep,  where  the 
river  is  in  a  manner  stopped,  and  into  which 
it  enls-rs,  though  without  any  perceptible 
motion,  and  never  appears  again. 

M.  Guettard  finishes  this  memoir  with 
some  observations  upon  the  lerre.  This 
river  is  lost  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Kille  ; 
and  though  it  is  very  near  Paris,  this  singu- 
larity is  unknown  to  ahriost  every  body; 
was  It  not  for  the  account  of  M.  I'Abbt  "le 
B(K\if,  M.  Guettard  would  have  been  also 
ignorant  of  it.  AikI  as  he  thinks  the  chief 
object  ofanaluralist'sobservatlon  ousht  to  be 
the  public  good,  he  examines  the  means 
whien  might  be  emplovtd  to  restrain  the 
water  of  the  lerre.  'I'he  same  object  has 
made  him  add  a  description  of  tlie  maimer 
how  the  Rhone  is  lost,  or  rather  how  its 
course  isdiiliirb;-d  ;  for  it  is  now  very  cert.iin 
that  it  does  not  lose  itself,  JjuI  tliat  its  chamiel 


KIVERS. 


is  extremely  confined,  in  the  place  where  it  I  ci.rrent  of  a  river  or  canal  rei<Mves  all 


was  pretended  that  it  lo-t  itself,  by  two 
moiuuaiiis,  between  v.hose  fi.et  it  riins.  M. 
Guettard  makes  it  appear  that  it  might  not 
be  impo>sible  to  widen  that  place,  and  give 
a  sullici.'ut  channel  to  the  river ;  which 
would  niider  it  navigable,  and  be  of  vast 
utility  to  all  the  country. 

The  many  advantages  vvhicl)  accrue  to  a 
country  from  an  abundance  of  rivers,  especi- 
ally large  navigai)!e  ones,  are  too  obvious  lo 
lecjuireaiiy  jjaiticular  detail ;  but  the  disacl- 


percnsMonsol  llie  water  liiri/ugliuut  tiic  ttln,:  ; 
deptli,  and  will  hav<  an  equal  ve'.ocitv  v, i:'i 
that  ot  the  whole  current  Irom  tin-  siiiiaci  L  . 
the  bottom  at  the  place  wliere  it  is  put  ,i:  ; 
and  by  that  means  mas  be  found,  both  wi'i 
case  and  e.\ai  tiiess,  llie  mean  velocity  oi  ll,,  _ 
])arlot  the  river  forsus  deiernnna!e'di>iaiiec 
and  time. 

"  But  to  obtain  the  mean  velocity  of  llie 
whole  si-ctiwn  of  the  river,  the  instiumcut 
must  b'-  put  successiveiy  both  in  thi-  m:(i<lle 


antages  and  calamities  occasioned  by  t'lem  |  and. towards  the  sides,  because  the  veio.;t 


are   trequently    no   less    obvious  and   fatal 
Whole  tracts  of  country  are  sometimes  over- 
flowed on  a  sudden,  and  every  thing  swept 
away  at  once;  or  if  the  deUige  proceeds  not 
siicli  a   length,  yet  by  the  quantity  of  stag- 
nating water  wlVicli  is  left,  marshes  are  pro- 
duced, which  bring  on  diseases  in  the  neigh- 
bouring parts.     It  becomes  therefore  an  ob- 
ject well  worthy  the  public  attention,  how  to 
secure  the  banks  of  rivers,  or  to  form  their 
channels  in  such  a  manner  tliat  the  supei- 
fluous   water  may  be   carried  off    into  the 
ocean    without  producing  the    mischievous 
eli'ects  abovementioned.      In   a   treatise   on 
rivers   and   canals   published    in    the    Phil. 
Trans,  vol.  69.  by  Mr.  Mann,  he  treats  this 
subject  at  great  length.     Having  laid  down  ' 
a  number  of  theorems  coacerning  the  de- 
scent ot  the  water  in  rivers,  he  points  out  a 
melh.id  of  determining  whether  the  motion 
of  a  river  in  any  particular  place  is  derived 
from  the  inclination  of  the  bottom  of  its  chan- 
nel, or  merely  from  tiie  pressure  of  the  upper 
[laitsof  the  water  upon  the  lower.     "  Fortius 
purpose,"  says  he,   "  a  pole  must  be  thrust 
dawn  to  the  bottom,  and  hold   perpendicu- 
larly to  the  current  of  the  water,  with   its 
upper  end  above  the  surface;  if  the  water 
swells  and  rises  immediately  against  the  pole, 
it  shows  tliat  its  flowing  is  by  virtue  of  a  pre- 
ceding  declivity ;    if,  on   tiie  contrary,   the 
water  slops   for    some    moments   before    it 
begins  to  rise  against  the  pole,  it  is  a  proof 
that  it  Hows  by  means  of  the  compression  of 
the  upper  waters  upon  the  lower." 

The  best  and  most  simple  method  of  mea- 
suring the  velocity  of  tlie  current  of  a  river, 
according  to  our  autlior,  is  as  follows  : 
"  Take  a  cylindrical  piece  of  dry  light  wood, 
and  of  a  length  something  Uss  than  the  depth 
of  the  water  in  th,-  river  ;  round  one  end  of 
it  let  there  be  suspended  as  many  small 
weights  as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  up  the 
cylinder  in  a  perpendicular  situation  in  the 
water,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  the  other 
end  of  it  may  just  appear  ah'  ve  the  surface 
of  the  water.  Fix  to  the  centre  of  that  end 
which  appears  above  water  a  small  and 
straight  rod  precisely  in  the  direction  of  the 
cylinder's  axis;  to  the  end  that,  when  the 
instrument  is  suspended  in  the  water,  the 
deviations  of  the  rod  from  a  perpendicularity 
to  the  surface  of  it  may  indicate  which  end  of 
the  cylinder  advances  the  fastest,  whereby 
may  be  discovered  the  different  velocities  of 
the  water  at  different  depths  ;  for  if  the  rod 
inclines  forwards  according  to  tlie  direction 
of  tlie  current,  it  is  a  proof  lliat  the  surface 
of  till-  water  has  the  greatest  velo'ity  ;  but  if 
It  inclines  back,  it  shtiws  that  the  swiltest 
current  is  at  the  bottom  ;  if  it  remains  per- 
pendicular, it  IS  a  sign  that  the  velocities  at 
the-  surface  and  bottom  are  equal. 
"  Tliis  iustrument  being  placed  in  the 


at  those  |)laces  are  often  very  diiferert  h<.n> 
each  other.  Having  by  this  means  found 
the  dilierence  of  time  required  for  the  cur- 
leut i  to  run  over  an  etpial  -pace,  or  the  diffe- 
rent distances  run  ovi.-r  in  equal  times  ;  llie 
mean  proporlioual  of  all  these  trials,  uliicii  jj. 
found  by  dividing  th;-  conniion  sum  of  tlieiiL 
all  by  the  uiimber  of  trials,  will  be  tiie  UK-au 
velocity  of  tlie  river  or  canal. 

'■  If  it  is  required  to  lind  the  vclocitv  of  Ihe- 
current  only  at  the  surface,  or  at  the  "middle, 
or  at  the  bottom,  a  sphere  of  wood,  of  sutii  a. 
weight  as  will  remain  suspended  in  equi- 
librium with  the  watt-r  at  the  surface  or 
depth  which  we  want  lo  measure,  will  be 
better  for  the  purpose  than  a  c\  Under,  be- 
cause it  is  only  affected  by  the  water  of  th.it 
part  oi  the  cuirenl  whv-re  it  remains  suspend- 
ed. 

It  is  a  very  ea-v  guidi'  both  to  the  c\  linder 
and  the  globe  in  that  part  wliich  we  want  to 
measure,  by  means  of  two  tlire  uls,  or  small 
cords,  which  two  persons  must  luild  and  di- 
rect, one  on  each  side  of  the  river;  t.iking 
care  at  the  same  time  nciliier  to  retard  nor 
accelerate  the  inolion  of  the  iustrument." 

Our  author  next  proceeds  to  deduce  fi-om 
his  theory  the  best  methods  of  removing  the 
defects  and  inconyeniencies  which  must  ne- 
cessarily happen  to  rivers  and  canals  in  a 
series  of  years.  From  his  theory  he  draws 
the  following  conclusion:  that  the  deeptr 
the  waters  are  in  their  bed  in  proportion  to 
its  breadth,  the  more  their  motion  is  accele- 
rated ;  so  that  tlieir  velocity  increases  in  an 
inverse  ratio  of  the  breadth  of  the  bed,  and 
also  of  the  greatness  of  the  section;  whence 
are  deduced  the  two  following  universal  prac- 
tical rules:  '. st.  To  augment  the  vekicitv  of 
water  in  a  river  or  canal,  without  augment- 
ing tiie  declivity  of  the  bed,  we  must  increase 
the  ileptliand  diminish  the  breadth  of  its  bed. 
2dly.  I>ut  to  diminish  the  velocity  of  water  in 
a  river  or  canal,  we  must,  on  the  contrary, 
increase  the  breadth  and  dimiuisli  the  ileptli 
of  its  bed. 

The  above  proposition  is  perlectly  con- 
formable to  observation  and  experience:  for 
it  is  constantly  seen,  that  the  current  is  the 
swiftest  where  the  waters  are  deepest  and  the 
breadth  of  the  bed  the  least,  and  that  they 
flow  slowest  where  their  depth  is  the  least 
and  the  breadth  of  the  bed  the  greatest. 
"  The  velocity  of  the  waters"  says  M.  de 
IJulfon,  "  augments  in  the  same  proportion 
as  the  section  of  thi'  channel  through  which 
they  pass  diminishes,  tiie  force  of  impulsion, 
from  the  back  waleis  bring  supposed  always 
tiie  same.  Nothing,"  continues  he,  "  pro- 
duces so  great  a  diminution  in  the  swiftness 
of  a  current  as  its  growing  shallow  ;  and  oa 
the  contrary,  the  incr^•a^e  of  the  volume  of 
water  augments  its  velocity  more  thau  any 


■*tli.^r  rau?e  wlmtcvcr."  The  ci-lcl)nit<-il 
WolCc'  in  his  iiydriuilir-!  assure-;  iis,  thai  "  it 
is  a  constant  and  universal  practii-e,  for  ac- 
Cfli'rating  the  cmTciit  ot'  watrrs,  to  deepen 
tilt"  hed,  and  at  the  aanii;  time  to  render  it 
narrower." 

■Wlien  the  velocity  wliieli  a  riv^-r  has  ac- 
quired by  the  ekvation  ot  its  s|)rinn;s  and 
the  impulse  of  (iie  back  water,  is  at  last  to- 
tally destroyed  by  the  diliVrent  causes  of 
resistanci;  becjininu;  exactly  equal  ■  to,  or 
greater  than,  the  first,  the  b -d  and  current  at 
the  same  lime  b.-ing  horizonlal,  nothing  else 
remains  to  propa^aio  the  motion,  except  the 
sole  perpendictdar  compression  of  tlie  upper 
waters  upon  the  lower,  whicli  is  aUvavs  in  a 
<l.rect  ratio  of  their  depth.  But  this  neces- 
sary resource,  tlii-;  reniauiin;;  cause  of  motion 
in  riveis,  augmejits  in  proportion  as  all  the 
o'uiers  diminish,  and  as  the  want  of  it  in- 
creases; for  as  tiie  waters  of  rivers  in  ex- 
tensive plains  losi  the  acceleration  of  motion 
acquired  in  their  descent  from  I iieir  springs, 
their  quantity  accumulates  in  llie  same  bed 
by  (he  junction  of  several  streams  together, 
and  their  depth  increases  in  consequence. 
This  juiiction  and  successive  accumidation 
of  many  streams  in  the  same  bed,  which  ue 
see  universally  in  a  greater  or  lesser  degree 
in  all  rivers  throughout  the  known  world, 
and  whi.  h  is  so  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
iii')tion  of  their  waters,  can  only  be  atuibuted, 
says  .Sij;nor  Gugliehnini,  to  the  inrmile  wis- 
d-im  of  the  supreme  Autiior  of  Nature. 

'I'he  velocities  of  llowing  waters  is  very 
far  from  being  in  proportion  to  tiie  quantity 
of  declivity  in  their  bed.  If  it  w  as  a  river 
wlio^e  declivity  is  uniform  and  do'.ii)le  to  that 
of  anotiier,  it  ought  only  to  run  with  double 
the  swiftness  when  co.iipired  to  it ;  but  in 
eli'ect  it  is  found  to  have  a  much  greater,  and 
its  rapidity,  instead  of  being  only  doublf, 
will  be  triple,  quadruple,  and  sometimes 
even  more  ;  for  its  velOLily  depends  much 
more  on  tiie  quantity  and  depth  of  tlie.  water, 
and  on  the  compression  of  the  up|)er  waters 
on  the  liiv.er,  tlian  on  the  declivity  of  the 
bed.  Coiiseciuenllv,  whenever  the  bed  of  a 
river  or  canai  is  to  be  dug,  the  declivity 
mist  not  be  distributed  equally  tliroughout 
the  whole  length  ;  but,  to  pive  a  swifter  cur- 
rent to  the  water,  the  declivity  must  be 
much  greater  in  the  beginning  of  its  course 
than  towards  the  end  where  it  disiiuliogues 
itself,  and  where  the  declivity  must  be  almost 
insensible,  as  we  see  is  the  case  in  all  natural 
rivers ;  for  when  tiiey  approach  near  the  sea, 
their  declivity  is  little  or  nothing  ;  yet  Ihey 
■flow  with  a  rapidity  which  is  so  much  gri-ater, 
as  they  contain  a  greater  voltinie  of  water  ; 
so  that  in  great  rivers,  although  a  large  ex- 
tent of  then'  bed  ne.xt  the  sea  sliould  be  abso- 
lutely horizontal,  an  1  without  any  declivity 
at  all,  yet  their  waters  do  not  cease  to  flow, 
and  to  ilow  even  with  great  rapidity,  both 
from  the  impulsion  of  the  bacli-waters,  and 
from  the  compression  of  the  upper  waters 
"upon  the  lower  in  the  same  section. 

Whoever  is  well  acquainted  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  tlie  higher  geomotr_\ ,  will  easily 
perceive  that  it  would  be  no  dulicult  matter 
K)  to  dig  the  bed  of  a  canal  or  river,  that  the 
■velocity  of  the  current  should  be  every  where 
equal.  It  would  be  only  giving  it  in  the  form 
of  a  curve  along  which  a  moving  body  siiould 
recede  from  a  given  point,  and  describe 
spaces  every  where  proportional  to  the  times. 


mVKM. 

allowance  be'ng  math-  for  the  quantity  of 
effect  of  the  compression  of  the  up|;er  waters 
upon  the  lower.  This  <  i;rve  is  what  is  calleil 
the  horizontal  isnchronic,  being  tlie  flattest 
of  an  infinity  of  others  which  would  equally 
answer  the  probK'in  where  lluids  were  nyt 
concerned. 

All  obstacles  whatever  in  the  bed  of  a 
river  or  canal,  such  as  rocks,  trunks  of  trees, 
banks  of  sand  and  mud,  -Vc.  must  necessari- 
ly hinder  proportionably  the  free  running  olT 
of  tiic  water ;  for  it  is  evident,  that  tiie  v.  aters 
so  far  back  from  these  obstacles,  until  the 
horizontal  hvel  of  the  bottom  of  the  bed 
becomes  higher  tliaii  the  top  of  the  obstacles, 
must  be  entirely  kept  up  and  hindered  from 
running  off  in  proportion.  Now  as  the 
waters  must  continue  to  come  down  from 
their  sources,  if  their  free  running  off  is  hin- 
dered by  any  obstacles  whatever,  their  rela- 
tive heiijlil  back  from  them  must  necessarily 
be  incrv-ased  until  their  elevation,  combined 
with  the  velocity  of  tl'.eir  current  proceeding 
from  it,  is  arriv<<l  to  sucli  a  pitcli  at  the  point 
wiiere  the  obstacles  exist,  as  to  counterba- 
lance the  quantity  of  opposition  or  impedi- 
ment proceeding  tlience,  which  lre(iueiitly 
does  not  happen  until  all  the  lower  parts  of 
the  country  round  about  are  laitl  under 
water. 

Now  it  is  certain  from  all  experience,  that 
the  beds  of  rivers  and  canals  in  general  are 
subject  to  some  or  others  of  the  obstacli's 
above-meiilioned.  If  rocks  or  trees  do  not 
bar  their  channels,  at  least  the  ipiantity  of 
san<l,  earth,  and  mud,  which  their  streams 
never  fail  to  bring  down,  particularly  in 
floods,  and  which  are  unecpially  deposited 
according  to  the  various  windings  and  de- 
grees of  swiftness  in  the  current,  must  un- 
avoidably, in  course  of  time,  fill  up,  in  part, 
diflerent  places  in  the  channel,  and  hinder  the 
free  running  off  of  the  back-waters.  This  is 
certainly  the  case,  more  or  less,  in  all  rivers, 
and  in  all  canals  of  long  standing,  as  is  no- 
torious to  all  those  well  accjuainted  with 
tiiem.  Hence,  if  these  accidents  are  not 
carehilly  and  w  ith  a  constant  attention  pre- 
vented, inundations  occur  which  sometimes 
lay  waste  whole  districts,  and  ruin  the  finest 
tracts  of  ground,  by  covering  them  with 
sand ;  hence  rivers  become  unnavlgable,  and 
canals  useless  lor  the  purposes  for  which  they 
were  constructed.  Canals,  in  particular,  as 
tlieir  waters  for  the  most  part  remain  stagnant 
in  them,  are  still  more  liable  than  rivers  to 
have  their  beds  fill  up  by  the  subsiding  of 
mud,  and  that  especially  for  some  distance 
above  their  sluices  ;  insomuch,  that  if  con- 
tinual care  is  not  taken  to  prevent  it,  or  re- 
medy if  as  often  as  it  happens,  they  will  soon 
become  incapable  of  receiving  and  passing 
the  same  vessels  as  formerly.  Nay,  the 
very  sluices  themselves,  if  the  floors  of  their 
bottoms  are  not  of  a  depth  conformable  to 
the  bed  of  the  canal,  will  produce  the  sjiine 
accidents  as  those  we  have  been  speaking  of ; 
for  if  they  are  placed  too  low,  they  will  be 
conlinually  filling  uj)  with  sand  or  mud;  if 
too  high,  they  have  the  same  effect  as  banks 
or  bars  in  the  bed  of  a  river,  that  is,  thev 
hinder  all  the  back-waters  under  their  level 
from  running  oiY,  and  soon  fill  up  the  bed 
to  that  height  by  the  subsiding  of  mud. 
This  effect  is  much  accelerated  by  the  shut- 
ting of  the  lower  sluices,  which  makes  a  great 
voiunie  of  water  Ho.v  back  to  those  next 
4F2 


above  them,  till  fhe  whole  i?  filhul  ami  be. 
come  stagnant.  Now  it  is  evident,  that  thia 
state  of  things  must  contribute  far  more  to 
the  subsidency  of  mud,  and  all  other  maltera 
brought  down  by  the  waters  in  canals,  than 
laii  lie  the  case  in  rivers  whose  curieiils  con- 
stantly How. 

The  waters  of  all  rivers  and  canals  are 
from  time  to  lime  muddy ;  their  streams, 
particularly  during  rains  and  Hoods,  carry 
along  with  them  earth  and  other  substances 
whicli  subside  in  those  places  where  their 
currents  are  the  least,  bv  which  their  bed* 
are  continually  raised  ;  so  that  the  successive 
increase  of  inundations  in  rivers,  and  of  un- 
liiness  for  navigation  in  canals,  when  they 
are  neglected  and  left  to  themselves,  is  a  na- 
tural and  necessary  consequence  of  the  stale 
of  things,  which  no  intelligent  jierson  can  be 
at  a  loss  to  account  for;  and  vet  whole  coun- 
tries remain  in  this  habitual  state  of  negli- 
gence, to  their  very  great  detriment. 

Having  thus  shown  the  principal  accideii(« 
which  rivers  and  canals  are  liable  to,  with  the 
causes  of  them,  our  autlior  proceeds  to  poiirt 
out  the  most  efticaciou-;  methods  of  prevent- 
ing them,  or  at  least  of  diminisliing  their  c-f- 
lecls.  They  flow  immediately  from  tlie 
principles  laid  down  in  his  essay,  and  do  not 
need  many  words  to  inake  them  completely 
understood.  A  work  of  this  kind,  he,  ob- 
serves, if  it  is  properly  conducted,  must  be 
begun  at  the  lower  end  of  the  river  or  canal : 
that  is,  at  that  end  where  their  waters  are 
discharged  into  the  sea,  or  where  they  fall 
iii'o  some  other  greater  river  or  canai,- 
whence  tlieir  waters  are  cariied  off'  without 
further  hindrance.  If  it  is  a  river  whose 
bed,  'by  being  filled  up  with  sand,  mud,  or 
other  obstacles,  and  by  being  othcnvise  be- 
come irregular  in  its  course,  is  often  sul>ject 
to  its  inundations,  and  incapable  of  internal 
navigation,  the  point,  from  which  the  work 
must  be  begun  and  directed  tliroughout  all 
the  rest  of  the  channel,  is  from  the  lowest 
water-mark  of  spring-tides  on  the  shore  at  the 
motitii  of  the  river,  or  even  something  he- 
low  it,  if  it  can  be  done;  though  this  part 
will  sooii  fill  up  again  by  the  sand,  mud,  &c. 
which  the  tides  cease  not  to  roll  in. 

If  it  is  a  canal  whose  btd  is  to  be  dug 
anew,  or  one  already  made,  which  is  to  be 
cleaned  and  deepened  from  the  sea-shore  or 
some  large  river  back  hito  the  country,  and 
where  no  declivity  is  to  be  lost,  as  is  the  case 
in  all  flat  countries ;  the  work  must  be  be- 
gun, and  the  de|jth  of  the  whole  channel  di- 
rected, from  the  lower  water-mark  of  spiing- 
lides,  if  the  mouth  is  to  the  sea,  or  from 
such  a  depth  in  the  channel  of  the  river, 
if  the  canal  falls  into  one,  that  there  may  be 
such  a  communication  of  water  from  the  ca- 
nal to  the  river,  in  all  situations  of  the  cur- 
rent, as  may  let  boats  treely  pass  from  one 
to  the  oilier.  This,  of  course,  must  also 
direct  the  depth  of  the  floor  of  the  last  sluice 
to'.vanls  the  mouth  of  the  canal,  be  it  to  tho 
sea  or  into  a  river.  If  the  bottom  or  floop 
of  a  sluice  already  constructed  is  too  low, 
it  will  soon  fill  up  with  sand  or  mud,  and 
hinder  the  gates  from  opening,  unless  it  is 
continually  cleaned  out :  if,  on  the  contrary, 
this  floor  is  too  high,  and  in  a  canal  whose 
natural  declivity  is  too  little  for  the  free  cm> 
rent  of  the  water,  as  is  generally  the  case 
in  Holland  and  I'Umder^,  all  depth  of  thij 


bed  of  tlie  canal  below  the  Iiorizoiital  level 
ot  tlip  bottom  of  the  ?luicc  will  serve  to  no 
msniier  of  purpose,  either  for  navig;ilion,  or 
for  carrying  off  the  back-waters,  but  \till 
soon  fill  up  with  niutl,  in  ?pite  of  all  means 
used  to  the  contrary,  except  tliat  of  digging 
it  cojitiiiuallv  aiiew  to  no  manner  of  purpose. 
Setting  oil'  from  this  determinate  point, 
at  the  mouth  of  a  river,  or  at  tiie  liottoni  of 
the  last  sluice  upon  a  t-anal,  which  are  to  be 
cleaned  and  deepened;  the  work  must  be 
carried  on,  inconseipience  unifomily  through- 
cut  their  whole  course  backwards  into  the 
ceunlry  as  far  as  is  found  necessary  for  the 
purposes  intended,  'liiis  is  to  be  doiw;  after 
the  following  manner: 

1st.  One  must  dig  up  and  carry  away  al! 
irregularities  in  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the 
bed,  such  as  banks  of  sand  and  mud,  rocks, 
stumps  or  trunks  of  trees,  and  wlialever  else 
uiay  cause  an  obstacie  to  the  regular  motion 
of  the  water,  and  to  the  free  passage  of  ves- 
sels upon  it. 

2dly.  If  the  declivity  of  the  bed  should  be 
still  too  little  to  give  a  sufiicient  current  to 
carry  oJl'  the  water  as  often  and  as  fast  as  is 
necessary,  the  whole  bed  itself  must  be  regu- 
larly deepened,  and  what  is  dug  out  from  the 
bottom  must  be  laid  upon  tlie  sides,  to  ren- 
der it  narrower  in  i)ropoition  lo  its  depth. 

3illy.  Wherever   the  banks  are  too  low  to 
contain  the  stream  in  all  its  situations,  they 
must  l>e  suflicieiitly  raised  ;  which  may  be 
conveniently  done  uith  what  is  dug  out  from 
the  bed  ;  and  the  whole  being  covered  witli 
^reen  turf  will  render  these  batiks  lirm  and 
solid  against  the  corrosion  of  the  water.     It  j 
is  proper  at  all  times  to  lay  upon  the  banks  I 
what  is  dug  from  the  bed,  by  wliith  they  are  I 
continually  strengthened  against  the  force  of: 
the  current. 

4tlily.  It  is  often  necessary  to  diminish  the  i 
windings  aiid  sinuosities  in  the   channel   as  i 
much  as  possible,  by  making  new  cuts  wliere-  j 
by  its  course  may  approach  lowartls  a  right  i 
line.     This  is  a  great  resource  in  Hat  coun- 
fries  subject  to  inundations  ;  bi.-caiise  there-  j 
by  ail  the  declivity  of  a  great  e,\ti'iit  of  the  I 
rivei',  through  its  turns  and  windings,  may  i 
be  thrown  into  a  small  space  by  cutting  a  i 
new  channel  in  a  straight  line  ;   as  may  ge-  j 
Tieially  be  done   without  obstacle   in  such 
rounlries  as  we  are  speaking  of,  and  hereby 
tjie  velocity  of  the  ciu'rent  will  be  very  greatly 
augni'iited,  and  the  back-waters  carried  oii' 
to  a  surprising  degree. 

5lhly.  A\  lu-rever  there  is  a  confluence  ofi 
rivers  or  canals,  the  angle  of  thrir  junction  ! 
must  be  made  as  acute  as  possible,  or  else  [ 
the  worst  of  consecpiences  will   arise  from  \ 
the  corrosion  of   their  respective   streams  ; 
v/liat  they  carry  off  from  the  sidis  will  be 
thrown  into  irregular  banks  in  the  bottom  of 
the  bed.     Tliis  acute  angle  of  the  junction 
may  always  be  procured  by  taking  the  direc- 
tion at  some  distance  from  the  point  of  con- 
fluence. 

(itiily.  Wherever  the  sides  or  banks  of  a 
river  are  liable  to  a  more  particular  corro 
Jion,  eitlier  from  the  confluence  of  si  reams, 
or  Iroui  irremediable  windings  and  turns  in 
tJK-  chaimel,  they  miiit  be  secured  against 
♦t  as  much  as  possible  by  weirs :  for  this  cor- 
rosion not  only  destroys  the  banks,  and  alters 
bv  d<grees  the  course  of  the  river,  but  also 
u\\',  up  the  bed,  and  produces  all  the  bad 
•fleets  we  luive  sj)okcn  of  above. 


nivEns, 

7tlily.  Rut  the  i)rinripal  and  greatest' at- 
tention in  digging  the  beds  of  rivers  and  ca- 
nals must  be  had  to  the  quantity  and  form  of 
theirdeclivity.  This  must  t  j  done  uniformly 
throughout  their  whole  extent,  or  so  much 
of  it  as  is  necessary  for  the  purposes  in  hand, 
according  to  the  principles  laid  down.  Con- 
formable thereto,  the  depths  of  their  beds, 
and  of  thelloors  of  their  sluices,  at  the  mouths 
where  they  discharge  "tlieir  waters,  being 
lixed,  the  depth  of  the  rest  of  the  beds,  and 
the  quantity  of  declivity,  must  be  regulated 
in  consetpience  lliereof,  so  as  to  increase  re- 
gularly the  quantity  of  the  declivity  in  equal 
spaces  the  further  we  recede  from  their 
mouths,  and  proceed  towards  their  sources 
or  to  tlie  part  where  the  regular  current  is  to 
take  place. 

If  the  depth  and  volume  of  water  in  a  river 
or  canal  is  considerable,  it  will  suffice,  in  llie 
part  ne.xt  the  mouth,  to  allow  one  foot  per- 
pendicular of  declivity  througli  six,  eiglit,  or 
even,  according  to  Desclrales,  ten  thousand 
feet  in  horizontal  extent ;  at  most  it  must 
not  be  above  one  in  si.x  or  seven  thousanil. 
Hence  tlie  quantity  of  ileclivity  in  equal 
spaces  must  slowly  and  gradually  increase 
as  far  as  the  current  is  to  be  made  lit  for 
navigation  ;  but  in  such  a  manner,  as  that  at 
this  upper  end  tliere  may  not  be  above  one 
foot  of  perpendicular  declivity  in  four  thou- 
sand feet  of  horizontal  exti-nt.  If  it  is  made 
greater  than  that  in  a  regular  bed  containing 
a  considerable  volume  of  water,  the  current 
will  be  so  strong  as  to  be  found  very  unlit  for 
the  purposes  of  navigation. 

Mr.  Mann  calls  the  centre  of  the  current,  or 
more  properly,  line  of  greatest  current,  tiiat 
line  which  passes  tiirough  all  the  sections  of 
a  river,  in  the  point  wiiere  the  velocity  of 
the  current  is  tlie  greatest  of  all.  If  the  cur- 
rent of  a  river  is  regular,  and  in  a  right  line, 
its  centre  or  line  of  greatest  velocity  will  be 
precisely  in  the  centre  of  the  sections  ;  but 
on  the  contrary,  if  the  bed  is  irregular  and 
full  of  turns  and  windings,  the  centre,  or  line 
of  greatest  current,  will  likewise  be  irregu- 
lar, and  often  change^its  distance  and  direc- 
tion with  regard  to  the  centres  of  tlie  sec- 
tions through  which  the  waters  flow,  ap- 
proaching successively,  and  more  or  less,  to 
all  parts  of  the  bed,  l)ut  always  in  proportion 
and  conformably  to  the  irregularities  in  the 
bed  itself. 

This  deviation  of  the  line  of  greatest  cur- 
rent from  the  centres  of  the  sections  tlirough 
whicti  it  passes,  is  a  cause  of  many  and  great 
changes  in  the  beds  of  rivers,  such  as  the 
following : 

1st.  In  a  straight  and  regular  bed,  the 
greatest  corrosion  of  the  current  will  be  in  the 
middle  of  the  bottom  of  the  bed  ;  because  it 
is  that  part  wliich  is  nearest  to  the  line  of 
greatest  current,  and  at  the  same  lime 
which  is  most  acted  u])on  by  the  perpen- 
dicular compression  of  the  water.  In  this 
case,  whatever  mattei-s  are  carried  off 
from  the  bottom  will  be  thrown,  by  the 
force  of  the  current,  equally  toward  the  two 
sides,  where  the  velocity  'of  the  steam  is 
the  least  in  the  whole  section. 

2dly.  If  the  bed  is  irregular  and  winding 
the  line  of  greatest  current  will  be  thrown 
towards  one  side  of  the  river,  where  its  great- 
est force  will  be  everted  in  iiroporliou  to  Uie 


local  causes  which  turn  it  aside;  in  short 
(urns  of  a  river  there  will  be  a  g\ ration,  or 
laming  round  of  the  stream,  from  its  beating 
against  the  outer  side  of  the  angle  ;  this  part 
will  be  corrotled  away,  and  tiie  bottom  near 
it  excavated  to  a  great  depth.  'I  he  matters 
so  carried  off  will  be  thrown  against  the  op- 
posite bank  of  the  river  where  the  current  is 
the  least,  and  jnoduce  a  new  ground  called 
an  alluvion. 

3dly.  Ineijualities  at  the  bottom  of  a  river 
retain  and  diminish  the  velocity  of  tlie  wafer, 
and  sometimes  may  be  so  great  as  to  make 
them  reriow  ;  all  these  eliects  contribute  to 
the  subsiding  of  sand,  earth,  and  other  mat- 
ters, which  cease  not  to  augment  the  volume 
of  the  obstacles  themselves,  and  produce 
shallows  and  banks  in  the  channel.  These 
in  time,  and  by  a  continuance  of  the  causes, 
may  become  islands,  and  so  produce  great 
and  permanent  changes  and  irregularities  in 
the  beds  of  rivers. 

4thl3'.  The  percussions  of  the  centre  of  the 
current  against  the  sides  of  the  bed  are  so 
much  the  greater  as  they  are  made  under  a 
greater  angle  of  incidence  ;  whence  it  follows, 
that  the  force  of  percussion,  and  the  quantity 
of  corrosion  and  delriment  done  tothe  baiiivs 
and  weirs  of  rivers,  and  to  the  walls  oi  build- 
ings which  are  exposed  to  that  percussion, 
are  always  in  a  direct  compound  proportion 
of  the  angle  of  incidence,  ot  the  greatness 
and  depth  of  the  section  together,  and  of  the 
([Uantity  of  velocity  of  the  ciu'i-'Ut. 

5th!y.  It  mav  happen  in  time,  that  the  ex- 
cavation of  the  bottom,  and  the  corrosion  of 
the  sides,  will  have  so  changed  tlie  form  of 
the  bed  as  to  bring  tlie  force  of  percussion 
into  e(|uilil)rium  with  the  velocity  and  dircc-  . 
tioii  ol  the  current ;  in  that  case,  all  further 
corrosion  and  excavation  of  the  bed  ceases. 

6tlily.  This  gives  the  reason  why  when 
one  river  falls  into  another  almost  in  a  per- 
pendicular direction,  and  makes  with  it  too 
great  an  angle  of  incidence,  this  direclion  is 
changed  in  time,  by  corrosions  and  alluvions, 
into  an  angle  much  more  acute,  till  the 
whole  comes  into  equilibrium. 

7lhly.  So  great  and  such  continued  irre- 
gularities, from  local  causes,  may  happen  in 
tiie  motion  of  a  river  as  will  entirely  change 
its  antient  bed,  corrode  througli  the  banks 
where  they  are  exposed  to  the  greatest  vio- 
lence of  percussion  of  the  stream,  and  open 
new  beds  in  grounds  lower  than  the  old  one 
is  become. 

8lhly.  Hereupon  the  state  of  the  old  bed 
will  entirely  depend  on  the  quantity  of 
water,  and  on  tlie  velo<ity  and  direction  of 
the  current  in  the  new  one  ;  for  immediately 
after  this  division  of  the  waters  into  two  beds 
is  made,  the  velocity  of  the  current  in  the  old 
one  will  be  diminished  in  pro])ortion  to  its 
less  depth.  In  consequence,  the  wati  rs  will 
precipitate  more  of  their  nnid,  &c.  in  e<|ual 
spa(  es  than  they  did  before  ;  which  v/ill  more 
and  more  raise  up  the  bot'jm,  sometimes 
even  till  it  becomes  equal  with  the  suriace  of 
the  stream.  In  this  case,  all  the  water  of  the^ 
river  will  pass  into  the  new  bed,  and  the  old 
one  will  remain  entirely  dry.  It  is  well 
known  that  this  has  happened  to  the  Rhine 
ne.ir  I.eyden,  and  to  m.my  other  rivers. 

'Itlily.  Hence  the  cau;.e  of  the  formalioii 
of  the  new  branches  and  mouth,  by  which 
great  rivers  discharge  their  waters  into  the 
sva. 


•R  I  V 

Kv.t  ill  propoitioii  as  a  rivrr,  that  has  noiu; 
of  thi'Si;  ob^tjck-s  in  il-,  h(>il,  upnroaches  to- 
wards its  nl(^llth,  \vc  M-e  the  veloiity  of  its 
ciinont  angnieal,  al  the  same  film.'  that  tho 
ileL-iivi(\  of  the  bod  diminishes.  It  is  for  tiiis 
reason  that  iniindations  are  more  freciuciit 
and  lonMdcr  iljlo,  and  do  more  tlamage  in  the 
interior  parts  of  a  country,  than  towards  the 
moiitlis  of  most  rivers. 

In  till"  I'o,  for  pxani])le,  the  hrtajlit  of  tlic 
banks  made  to  keep  in  tlie  waters,  diminishes 
as  the  river  approaches  to  the  sea.  At  Fcr- 
rara,  they  arc  twenty  feet  hipth  i  wliereas, 
nearer  Hie  sea,  tiiey  do  not  exceed  ten  or 
twelve  feet,  althom-h  tile  cli:>nn(d  of  the  river 
is  not  larger  in  tiie  one  place  than  in  the 
other. 

The  mouths  of  rivers,  by  which  they  dis- 
charge tiieir  waters  into  the  sea,  are  liable  to 
great  variations,  which  produce  many  cliangcs 
iij  them. 

1st.  'I"he  velocity  and  direction  of  tt^c  cur- 
rent at  these  mouths  are  iii  a  continu.d  varia- 
tion, caused  by  the  tides,  whicli  alternately 
retard  and  accelerate  the  streavii. 

2flly.  During  the  (lowing  of  the  tide,  the 
current  of  the  river  is  lirst  stopped,  then 
turned  into  a  direction  entuciy  contrary 
tliroughout  a  considerable  extent :  if  we  may 
believe  M.  de  Bulfon,  ther-  ar-  Tivv-rs  i;i 
which  the  elfect  of  the   i;'.es  :  ;    j 

or  200  leagiies  from  the  si-a. 

3dlv.  Tiiis  state  ol  things  is  a  cause  ot  a 
a  great  quantity  of  sand,  mud,  &c.  beuig  pre- 
cipitated and  accumulated  in  llic  channel 
near  the  mouth.  'This  continually  raises  and 
widens  the  bed,  and  at  last  changes  it  entirely 
into  a  new  place,  or  at  least  opens  new 
mouths  to  discharge  t  .e  waters  at.  The 
Rliine,  the  Danube,  the  Wola;a,  the  Indus, 
the  Gangi-s,  the  Nde,  the  Mississippi,  and 
manv  otlier  rivei'S,  are  instances  of  this. 

4thlv.  All  these  effects  are  less  sensible  at 
the  mouths  of  little  rivers,  as  tlieir  currents 
oppose  no  sensible  obstacle  to  the  ilowing  of 
the  tides ;  so  that  the  ebb  carries  olf  again 
what  the  llow  had  brought  in. 

Whenever  the  course  of  a  river  through- 
out a  considerable  extent  of  country,  ap- 
proaches towards  a  right  i'ne,  its  <'urrei  t 
will  hav^-  a  very  groat  rapidity;  and  Ih.e  ve- 
locity wh'.-rewith  it  runs  diminishing  the  ef- 
fect of  its  natural  gravitation,  the  middle  of 
the  current  will  rise  up,  and  the  surface  of 
the  river  will  lorm  a  convex  curve  of  suffi- 
cient ilevalion  to  be  perceived  by  the  eye  ; 
the  highest  point  of  this  curve  is  always  di- 
rectly above  the  line  of  greatest  current  in 
the  stream. 

On  the  contrary,  when  rivers  approach 
near  enough  to  their  mouths  lor  a  sensible 
elfect  to  be  produced  in  them  bv  the  flowing 
of  the  lid^'i;  and  also,  when  in  other  parts  of 
their  course  they  meet  with  obst.icles  at  the 
sides  of  their  channel  ;  in  both  these  cases 
the  surface  of  the  water  at  tlie  sides  of  the 
current,  is  higher  than  in  the  middle,  even 
though  the  stream  should  be  rapid.  In  this 
situation  of  things,  the  surface  of  the  river 
forms  a  concave  curve,  the  lowest  point  of 
which,  or  that  of  intlection,  is  directly  over 
the  line  of  greatest  current.  The  reason  of 
this  IS,  that  there  are  in  this  case  two  dili'eient 
and  opposite  currents  in  the  river;  that  by 
which  the  waters  ilow  towards  the  sea,  and 
preserve  their  motion  even  to  a  considerable 


n  I  V 

distance ;  and  that  (if  the  waler?  whick  re- 
mount, either  by  the  lluwing  of  the  tide,  or 
by  tlieir  mectiiig'with  local  obstacles,  which 
form  a  counter  current. 

An  island  in  the  middle  of  a  river  produces 
the  same  effect  as  obstacles  at  the  sides,  re- 
gard being  had  to  the  dil'l'erelice  of  situation 
of  each. 

Eddi<'S  and  whirlpools  in  rivers,  in  the 
centre  of  \\  liicli  there  a|)pearsa  conical  or  spiral 
cavity,  and  about  whicli  the  water  turns  witli 
great  rapidity  and  sucks  hi  whatever  ap- 
proaches it,  proceed  in  general  from  the  mu- 
tual percussion  of  these  two  counter  currents; 
and  the  vacuity  in  the  middle  is  i)roduced 
by  the  action  of  the  centrifugal  force,  by 
wliich  tlie  water  endeavours  to  recede,  in  a 
direct  ratio  of  its  velocity,  from  the  centre 
about  which  it  moves. 

If  rivers  persevered  always  nearly  in  the 
same  state,  llie  best  means  of  dini'iiishing  the 
velpcity  of  the  current  when  it  is  lound  too 
gr(Mt  for  the  purposes  of  navigation,  would 
be  by  widening  the- channel ;  but  as  all  rivers 
are  subject  to  fr:'C|ueiit  increase  and  diminu- 
tion, and  conseipiently  to  very  dit'fereiit  de- 
crees of  velocity  and  I'orce  in  the  current, 
this  method  is  liable  to  produce  very  detri- 
mental elfects  ;  lor,  when  the  waters  are  low, 
if  the  chauncl  is  very  large  in  proportion, 
tlie  stream  will  excavate  a  part.euLir  bed, 
which,  according  to  the  irregularities  of  the 
botto'ni,  will  form  various  turnings  and  wind- 
ings with  regard  to  the  principal  bed  ;  and, 
when  the  waters  come  to  Increase,  they  wiil 
follow,  to  a  certain  degree,  tlie  directions 
which  the  bottom  waters  take  in  this  particu- 
lar bed,  and  thereby  will  strike  agaaist  the 
sides  of  the  channel,  so  as  to  destroy  the 
banks  and  cause  great  damages. 

It  would  be  ])0ssible  to  prevent  in  part 
the  bad  effects  proce..-ding  from  the  current 
striking  against  the  banks,  by  opening,  at 
those  places  where  it  strikes,  little  gulphs 
into  the  land,  dug  in  such  a  form  and  direc- 
tion as  that  the  striking  current  should  enter 
and  circulate  therein,  so  as  to  destroy,  or  at 
least,  greatly  diminish  its  velocity.  'I'his  ef- 
fect would  be  lelt  for  a  considerable  way 
ilown  the  river. 

This  same  method  might  probably  be  used 
with  success  against  the  destructian  of  bridges, 
weirs,  &c.  by  the  violence  of  the  stream  dur- 
ing tioods.  Such  gulfs  being  dug  into  the 
outer  side  of  those  turnings  in  the  river  which 
are  immediately  above  the  place  to  be  se- 
cured trom  the  violence  of  the  stream,  would 
successively  dimini-h  its  velocity,  its  force 
and  dangerous  elfects,  a  considerable  way 
down  the  river. 

RIVINA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order, 

in  the  tetrandria  class  of  plants.  The  peri- 
anthus  is  four-leaved,  coloured,  and  perma- 
nent, the  leallet  olilong  egg^ul  and  obtuse ; 
there  is  no  corolla,  unless  the  ca!\x  is  con- 
sidered as  such.  There  are  four  or  eight 
iilaments,  shorter  than  the  caly.x,  approach- 
ing by  pairs,  permanent ;  tne  anth.era;  are 
small.  The  germ  is  laroe  and  r.iundish  ;  the 
style  very  short;  the  stigma  simple  and  ob- 
tuse. The  berry  is  globular,  sittin<.j  on  the 
green  reflected  calyx,  one-celled  with  an  in- 
curved point.  Tliere  is  one  seed,  lensform, 
and  rugged.  There  are  four  species.  It 
grows- naturally  in  most  of  the  islands  of  the 
West  Indies.    The  juice  of  the  berries  of  the 


R  O  B 


5i)7 


plant  will  stain  paper  and  linen  of  a  bright 
red  colour,  and  many  ex|ierimenls  made  with 
it  to  colour  lloweis  have  succeeded  exlreuiu- 
ly  well  in  the  follow  iiig  manner ;  the  juice 
of  the  berries  was  pressed  out,  and  iiiixed 
with  common  water,  pulling  it  into  a  phial, 
shaking  it  well  together  for  some  time,  till 
the  water  was  thoroughly  tinged ;  then  the 
flowers,  fthich  were  while  and  just  fully 
blown,  were  cut  o)f,  and  their  stalks  placeil 
ii.to  the  phial ;  ami  in  one  night  the  (lowers 
have  been  liiiely  variegated  with  red;  the 
flowers  on  which  the  experiments  were  made, 
were  the  tuberose  and  the  double  while  nar- 
cissus. 

RIX-DOLLAR,  a  silver-coin  current  iu 
dillerent  parts  of  L^urope.     See  Coi.N. 
ROACH.     See  Cyi'RI.vus. 
ROAD,  in  navigation,  is  a  place  of  an- 
chorage at  some  distance  from  shore,  where 
vessels  usually  moor,  to  wait  for  a  wind  or 
tide  proper  to  carry  them  into  liarbour,  or 
to  set  sail.     When  thi'  bottom  is  firm,  clear 
of  rocks  and  shettered  from  the  wind,  it  is 
called  a  good  road  ;  and  svhen  there  is  but 
little  land  on  any  side,  it  is  termed  an  open 
road.     The  roads  in  his  majesty's  dominions 
arc  free  to  all  merchant  vcsseis,  belonging 
to   his  subje<ts  and   allies.      Captains    ana 
ma»teis  of  ships  wlio  are  forced  by  storms, 
&c.  to  cut  their  cables,  and  leave  ihi-ir  an- 
chors in  the  roads,  are  obliged  to  fix  marks 
or  buoys,  on  pain  of  forfeiting  their  anchors,. 
&c.     Masters  of  ships  coming  to  moor  in  a 
road,  must  cast  anchor  at  such  a  distance,  as 
that  the  cables,  &c.  do  not  niix,  on  pain  of 
answering   the    daiiiages ;    and   when   tliere 
are  several  vessels  in  the  same  road,  the  out- 
ermost to  the  sea-ward  is  obliged  to  keep  a 
light  in  Ills  lanthorn  In  the  night-time,  to  ap- 
prise vessels  coming  in  lioin  sea. 
ROASTING.    See  Metam.urgy. 
RC)B,  in   pharmacy,    the  juices    of  fruit 
purified  and  inspissated  till  it  is  of  the  con- 
sistence of  honey. 

ROBfjERY,' in  law  is  a  felonious  taking 
away  of  another  man's  goods  from  his  per- 
son or  presence  again  t  his  will,  putting  him 
in  fear,  and  of  purpose  to  steal  .tlie  same. 
M  est.  Symbol.  To  make  a  robberv  Uure- 
must  be  a  felonious  intention  ;  and  so  it  onglit 
to  be  laid  in  the  indictment.  1  H.  II.  532. 
It  is  immaterial  of  what  value  the  thing  taken 
is  ;  a  (lenny,  as  well  as  a  pound  thus  i,)rcibly- 
extorted,  makes  a  robbery.      I  naw\  34. 

If  a  man  forces  another  to  part  with  bis- 
property,  for  the  sake  of  preserving  his  cha- 
racter from  the  imputation  of  having  been 
guilty  of  an  unnatural  crime,  it  will  a.niount 
to  a  robbery,  cv-jn  thouah  the  ])arty  was  un- 
der no  appreliension  of  personal  danger.. 
Leacli's  Cro.  Law,  257. 

If  any  thing  is  snatched  suddenly  frnni  the- 
head,  hand,  or  pe  son  of  any  one,  without 
any  struggle  on  tiie  part  of  the  owner,  or 
without  any  evidence  of  force,  or  vio'encc 
b(-ing  exerted  by  the  t!;i';i,  't  does  not  amount 
to  robbery.  But  if  any  thing  is  broken  or 
lorn  in  consequence  of  the  sudden  seizure,  it 
would  be  evidence  of  such  ibrce  a-;  would 
constitute  a  robbery :  as  where  a  part  of  a- 
lady's  hair  was  lorn  away,  by  snatching  a 
diamond  pin  from  her  head,  and  an  ear  was 
torn  by  pulling  olf"  an  ear-ring  ;  each  of  these 
cases  was  determined  to  be  ai  robbery,. 
Leach's  Cro.  Law,  264. 
By  7  G.  II.  c.  21,  if  any  person  shall]  with 


593 


O  B 


anv  offensive  weapon  aswult,  or  by  menaces 
or'in  anv  ibrcible  or  violent  manner,  d/inaiul 
any  nioncv  or  goods,  with  a  felonious  intent 
to  rob  another,  lie  shall  be  guilty  of  felony, 
and  be  uansported  for  seven  years. 

It"  anv  person  being  out  of  prison,  shall 
commitanv  robberv,  and  afterwards  discover 
any  two  persons  guilty  of  robbery,  he  sliall 
have  the  king's  panloii- 

The  hundred  in  which  a  robbery  on  the 
hi"hwav  is  coinniilled,  is  liable  to  pay  the 
dania'^p  v.  hen  it  is  committed  between  the  ris- 
Hi"  a'nd  setting  of  the  sun,  in  any  dav,  ex- 
cept Sunday,  i"  tase  the  robbers  are  not 
taken  in  forty  days;  hue  and  <  ry  being  made 
after  the  robber.  And  he  who  apprehends 
and  piweoites  a  robber  on  the  hignv.ay,  so 
as  to  convict  him,  is  entitled  to  receive  of 
the  sheriit"  of  the  county  where  the  robbery 
was  committed,  the  sum  of  forty  pounds, 
witli  the  horse,  furniture,  arms,  &c.  upon 
such  pe«-3on's  producing  a  proper  cerlihcate 
from  the  judge  before  whom  tl>e  robber  was 
convirted. 

IUM5KUGTA,  a  gen'js  of  the  class  and 
order  decar.dria  pemagynia.  The  cal.  is 
five-parted;  pet.  five;  .Irupe  with  one-seed- 
ed nut  and  twovaivcd  shell.  There  is  oik- 
species  a  shrub  of  Guiana. 

R015IN[A,ifl's«  aciieia,  a  genus  of  the 
Jecandria  order,  in  the  diadclphia  class  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  3'id  order,  pa|)i!iona(ex.  The 
calvx  is  qKadrilid;  the  legumen  gibbous  and 
;elongated.  There  are  seventeen  species. 
The  most  remarkable  is  the  caragnana,  the 
]e  :ves  of  which  an:  conjugiited,  and  composed 
.of  a  number  of  small  folioles,  of  an  oval 
jigure,  and  ranged  by  pairs  on  one  common 
slock.  The  flowers  are  leguminous,  and  are 
clustered  on  a  Ijlament.  Kvery  (lower  con 
^ists  of  a  small  bell-s!i:iped  petal,  cut  into 
four  segments  at  the  edge,  the  upper  part 
being  rather  the  widest.  The  keel  is  small, 
vopeii,  ai;d  ronud£;d.  The  wings  are  large, 
oval,  and  a  little  raised.  Within  are  ten 
slaniina  united  at  the  base,  curved  towards 
Ihe  topj  and  roiuidcd  at  the  summit.  In 
the  midsfof  a  sh;'ath,  formed  by  the  nlaments 
of  the  stamina,  the  pistil  is  perceivable,  con- 
sisting of  an  oval  gerinen,  terminated  by  a 
kind  of  button.  This  gerinen  becomes  af- 
^ewsrds  an  oblong  flattish  curved  pod,  con- 
tain n.;  lour  or  live  seeds,  of  a  size  and  shape 
irregular  and  unef^ual  ;  yet  in  both  respects 
somewhat  resembling  a  lentil. 

This  tree  grows  natmally  in  the  severe 
riini:itei  of  Norliiern  .'Vsia,  in  a  sandy  soil 
mixed  with  bla-jk  light  earth.  It  is  paVticu- 
\kW  fr.nul  on  llie  banks  of  great  rivers,  as 
thc'Obv,  Jeuisia,  fic.  It  is  very  rarely  met 
with  in'tlie  inhabited  parts  ol  tlie  country,  be- 
cause cattle  are  very  fond  of  its  h'aves,  and 
hogs  of  its  roots  ;  an'd  it  is  so  hardy,  that  tin- 
Severest  winters  do  not  alfect  it.  Gnielin 
found  it  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tobolsk, 
buried  under  fifteen  feet  of  snow  and  ice,  yet 
had  it  not  suiTered  the  least  damage.  Its 
culture  con.iists  in  being  planted  or  sowed  in 
'a  lighlisii  sandy  soil,  which  must  on  no  ac- 
couiit  have  been  lately  manur.'d.  It  thrives 
best  near  a  river,  nr  eii  tin;  edije  of  a  brook 
.or  spring ;  but  p.csenlly  dies  it  pinnleil  in  a 
Jjiarshv  spot,  where  llie  water  st.ignates.  If 
it  in  pfanled  on  a  rich  soil,  well  tilled,  it  will 
^row  to  Uvc  height  of  twenty  feet,  and  in  a 


ROC 

very  few  years  will  be  as  big  as  a  coiumon 
bircli  tree. 

In  a  vei7  bad  soil  this  tree  degenerates, 
and  becoir.cs  a  mere  shrub  ;  the  leaves  grow- 
hard,  and  their  line  blight  gi-een  colour  is 
changed  to  a  dull  deep  green.  The  Tongu- 
siau  Tartars,  and  the  inhabilaiits  of  the  norlh- 
ern  parts  of  Siberia  are  very  fond  of  tlie  fruit 
of  this  tree,  it  being  almost  the  only  sort  of 
puKe  they  eat.  The  leaves  and  tender  shoots 
of  this  tree  make  excellent  fodder  for  sever- 
al sorts  of  cattle.  The  roots  bein.a  sweet  and 
su.cculent,  are  very  well  adapted  for  fattening 
hogs;  and  ll-.e  fruit  is  greedily  eaten  by  a'.l 
sorts  of  poultry.  After  several  exjK-riments 
somewhat  similar  to  the  methods  used  with 
anil  and  indigo,  a  fine  blue  colour  was  pro- 
cui'ed  from  its  leaves.  The  smaller  kind  of 
this  tree  seems  still  better  adapted  to  answer 
this  p.urpose.  The  striking  elegance  of  its 
foliage,  joined  to  the  pleasing  yellow  colour 
of  its  beautiful  flowers,  should,  one  would 
imagine,  bring  it  into  re<|uest  for  forming 
nose.gay-s,  or  for  speedily  making  an  elegant 
hedge.  I5e>ides  the  qualities  above  recited, 
it  possesses  the  uncommon  advantage  of  grow- 
ing exceedingly  (piick,  and  of  being  ea,sily 
tr.insplanted.  There  are  large  plantations 
of  it  HOW  in  Sweden,  Norway,  Lapland,  and 
{celaud. 

The  robinla  fpinosa  is  a  beautiful  Iiardy 
shrub,  and  on  account  of  its  robust  strong 
prickles,  might  be  introduced  info  this  coun- 
try as  a  hedge  plant,  with  much  propriety- 
It  resists  the  severest  cold  of  the  climate  of 
St.  Petersburgh,  and  perfects  its  seed  there, 
ft  rises  to  the  height  of  six  or  eight  feet ; 
does  not  send  out  suckers  from  the  root, 
nor  ramble  so  much  as  to  be  kept  with  diffi- 
culty within  bounds.  Its  flowers  are  yellow, 
and  the  general  colour  of  the  ])lant  a  light 
pleasing  green. 

UOBINSONIA,  a  genus  of  the  ico.^andria 
monogynia  class  and  order.  The  cal.  is  five- 
toothed ;  pet.  live;  berry  striated,  two-cell- 
ed ;  cells  one-seeded  ;  seeds  villose.  There 
is  one  species,  a  tree  of  Guiana. 

HOCIIFOKTIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  pentandria  digynia  ;  the  cal.  is  five- 
parted  ;  cor.  one-])elalled,  funnel-form,  in- 
ferior ;  fruit  two-celled,  many-seeded.  There 
are  two  species,  shrubs  of  Jamaica. 

BOCK-CRYSTAL.     See  Quaktz. 

KOCKK  T.     See  Pyroteckny. 

ROCKS  are  divided  into  five  classes: 
namely,  1.  Primitive  rocks;  2.  Hocks  of 
transition  ;  3.  Stratified,  or  se'.  ondary  rocks  ; 
4.  Alluvial  depositions  ;  5.  Volcanic  rocks. 

}!oc!cs  primitive. 
The  rocks  belonging  to  this  class  are  dis- 
tinguished from  all  others  in  containing  no 
rem-ain?  of  organic  bodies,  and  in  being  co- 
vered by  the  rocks  of  the  other  classes,  but 
never  themselves  covering  any  other  class  of 
rocks.  The  term  primitive  was  applied  by 
Leiunan,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  tlie 
first' scientific  division  of  rocks,  on  (he  sup- 
l)osition  that  the  rocks  so  denominated  were 
formed  before  any  other  ;  and  the  term  has 
been  continued  by  \\'erner,  because  he  has 
embraced  the  same  hypothesis.  The  follow- 
in"  table  contains  the  dil'l'erent  divisions  of 
primitive  rocks,  arranged  a  cording  to  the 
order  in  whicJi  Werner  tlfiuks  they  were 
formed.  tj 


1.  Granite,  7.  Serpentine, 

2.  Gneiss,  8.  Prii.iiivc  limestone 

3.  Micaceous  sliistus,  0-  Prii..itive  trap, 
4ArgiIlaceous  shis-  10.  (juart/, 

tus,  11.  Topa  fels, 

5.  Porphyry,  12.  Kicielscliiefer. 
13.  Sieiiite, 

Let  us  lake  a  view  of  each  of  these  ia 
order. 

Granite  is  composed  essentially  of  felspar, 
quartz,  and  mica,  crystallized  and  united  to 
each  otlier.  The  size  and  ])roportion  ot  the 
constituents  vary  exceedingly  ;  but  the  fels- 
par usually  predominates,  and  the  proportion 
of  mica  is  snialle.-,!.  Its  texture  is  granular, 
and  its  hanliiess  usually  very  considerable: 
hence  it  admits  a  fine  polish,  and  is  very 
beautiful  uiid  durable.  Granite  sometimes 
contains  schorl  accidentally  mixed  with  it, 
and  sti'l  more  rarely  garnets.  Granite  rocks 
are  sometimes  stratified,  and  sometimes  not. 
They  -are  very  common,  especially  in  great 
cha-iiis  of  mountains.  Granite  contains  few- 
ores.  Those  of  iron  and  tin  occur  most  fre- 
quently.    See  GR.tNiTE  and  Gneiss. 

Giiiiss,  like  granite,  is  composed  essential- 
ly of  felspar,  (piartz,  and  mica  ;  but  they 
form  plates  which  are  laid  on  each  other,  and 
separated  by  thin  layers  of  mica.  The  beds 
of  gneiss  sometimes  alternate  with  layers  of 
granular  limestone,  shisfose,  honibl.  ndc,  and 
porphyry. 

Micaceous  shislii.^.  This  rock  is  com- 
posed essentially  of  quartz  and  mica,  which 
alternate  in  plates.  The  mica  is  usually  most 
abundant.  It  is  grey  or  brown,  and  some- 
times greenish.  The  texture  of  micaceous 
shistus  is  essentially  shisto^e.  Its  stratifica- 
tion is  very  distinct.  It  very  frequently  con- 
lains  garnets,  and  sometimes  fel.-par,  cyanite, 
granatite,  and  tourmalines.  In  mountains, 
beds  of  micaceous  shistus  often  alternate 
with  those  of  granular  limestone  and  horn- 
blende shistus,  and  sometimes  with  (hose  of 
actinote,  pyrites,  galena,  and  other  metallic 
bodies.  Indeed  ahno.st  all  (he  metals  are 
found  in  it  either  in  beds  or  veins. 

^■Irgllluceow!  slii.stiis.  This  rock  is  com- 
posed essentially  of  slate  or  argillaceous  shis- 
tus ;  but  it  sometimes  contains  accidentally 
(piartz,  felspar,  shorl,  hornblende,  and  py- 
rites. It  is  always  shistose  ;  but  the  thick- 
ness of  (lie  layers  varies  considerably.  The 
b-eds  of  this  rock  are  often  interrupted  by 
subordinate  beds  of  other  minerals ;  the 
chief  of  these  are  chlorite-shislus,  talc-shistuj, 
zeichen-schiefer,  ahim-shisius.  These  fie- 
qiienlly  p  iss  iu(o  argillaceous  shistus.  Some- 
times also  beds  of  granular  limestone,  horn- 
blende, and  some  metallic  ores,  alternate 
with  ar.gillaceous  shistus.  This  roct  Usually 
covers  micaceous  shis' us. 

Ores  are  common  in  (his  rock,  but  less  so 
than  in  the  two  preceding.  They  are  usually 
in  veins. 

Pnrphiirtj.  The  term  porpliyry  is  applied 
(o  all  rocks  consisting  of  a  conipact  ground, 
in  which  <lis(inct  and  separate  crystals  of 
some  odier  .nib>(ance  are  embedded.  \S"er- 
ner  confines  it  to  certain  primitive  rocks 
which  belon.g  to  a  particular  formation. 
These,  considered  relative  to  their  ground, 
are  divided  info  five  species,  each  ot  which 
is  denominated  from  its  ground. 
'  1.  liornstone  porphyry.  Tlie  hornstone 
is  soinctinieii  coiichoidal,  somelimes  splintery, 


anil  of  a  red  or  green  colour.    Tlic  crystals 
are  quartz  and  felspar. 

'J.  l''els|.ar  |)or|)liuy.  Tlie  Rr'uir.il  is  \isii- 
ally  red.    Tlit-  crxstjl^  arc  felspar  and  iiuartz. 

3.  Sienite  |)or|>|i_yry.  1  he  ground  i-i  a 
niKtme  ol  ft;ls)iai  and  iioriiljlende.  Tln' 
er_v.-.tals  are  fclspai  and  tuiaitz. 

4.  I'ltch-itoni'  porplivry.  Tlie  ground  is 
red  or  green,  sonielinies  brown,  and  even 
black.  _ 

J.  Clay  porplixry.  Tlie  ground  Ls  an  in 
(linatcd  clay,  ciMumonlv  reddish,  whicli 
sometimes  passes  into  splintery  lioirislone. 
Tlie  crystals  arc  lelspar  and  quartz ;  some- 
times it  tontaii.s  lioriiblende,  and  more  rare- 
ly mica. 

Porpliyry  mountains  are  not  stratified,  and 
contain  no  beds  of  foreign  substances.  ']  luy 
are  not  rich  in  ores,  yet  ireijueutly  contaui 
veins  worlli  working. 

Sit'/i/lc.  This  rock  is  com|H)>ed  essentially 
of  crystals  of  felspar  and  iKirnbk-ade,  imme- 
diately aiul  intimately  united.  'I  lie  felspar 
U-sual.y  predi)uiiiuiles'.  When  the  felsp.ir  is 
com])act,  t'le  rock  assumes  a  porphyntic 
Structure.  It  sometimes  contains  accidenlally 
grains  of  (]uartz  and  mica,  but  in  a  very 
small  proportion.  Its  to\fure  is  granular, 
rarely  shiilose.  Seldom  stratified.  Does 
not  contaui  foreign  b.  d-.  It  sometimes  con- 
tains inetalhc  veins.  It  usually  covers  por- 
phyry. 

S  ■rprnliiif.  This  rock  is  essentially  siiupl^-. 
Sometimes  it  contains  accidentally  talc,  as- 
bestus,  and  steatites;  and  sometimes  mica, 
garnets,  and  granular  limestom;,  maenetic 
ironstone,  arsenical  pyrites,  &•<■.  Ser|)entine 
rocks  are  not  stratitied.  Seldom  contain 
beds  of  foreign  minerals.  1  hey  contain  few 
ores,  and  seKlom  any  worth  working. 

Prii/iit'-'i'e  liiiwiiimc.  'I  his  rock  is  essen- 
tially simple :  its  nuiss  is  granular  limestone 
of  a  areyish  white  colour.  Sometimes  it  is 
accidentally  mixed  with  mica,  quariz,  horn- 
blende, treniolite,  actinote,  asbestus,  talc, 
&c.  Its  texture  granular,  the  grains  have  a 
foliated  texture,  and  a  crystallized  appear- 
ance. This  rock  sometimes  contains  metal- 
lic veins;  chielly  of  s;alena,  magnetic  iron- 
stone, bf'nde,  and  pyrites. 

J'rimitiv.'  traps.  Tile  word  trap  is  Swed- 
ish, and  sianilies  a  stair.  It  was  applied  bv 
tl:e  Sw<\!ish  mineralogists  to  certain  rocks 
*hose  >trala  when  exposed,  the  one  jutting 
out  under  th?  other,  gave  an  appearance 
somewhat  like  a  stau'.  The  term  was  adopt- 
ed by  other  nations,  and  was  applied  iujiis- 
criniinatel\  to  a  great  variety  of  rocks  ; 
vhi(  h  yet  bore  a  certain  resemblance  to  each 
other.  This  generali/ation,  however,  int' o- 
duced  much  co.ifiision  into  the  subject,  which 
was  fir.st  cleared  up  by  Wei  ne;  and  liis  dis- 
ci|)Ies.  Under  the  term  traps  Werner  co,n- 
prehends  certain  series  of  rocks,  distinguished 
chiefly  by  the  hornblende,  which  they  all 
contain,  in  the  most  antient,  the  hornblende 
is  almost  pure ;  this  purity  gradually  di- 
minishes, and  in  the  most  recent  traps  the 
hornblende  degenerates  to  a  kind  of  indurat- 
ed clay.  There  are,  then,  tliree  fornuitions 
of  traps;  1,  Primitive  traps;  3.  Transition 
trans;  3.  Ser-ondary  traps.  Tlie  first  only 
occupy  our  attention  at  present. 

The  primitive  traps  are  composed  almost 
entirely  of  hornblende.  It  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  lelspur,  more  rarely  with  mica  and  py- 
jites.    There  are  four  species  ;  1.  Conuuun 


ROCKS. 

hornblemle  ;  2.  Shi^tose  hornblende;  3.  Pri- 
niiliye  cuinstein  ;  4.  .'shistose  gruustcin. 

1.  Common  hoi nlihhde  is  a  simple  rock. 
Its  grains  are  sonn-times  so  small  that  it  ap- 
pears compact.    Sor.ieliinc'S  it  contains  mica. 

2.  Shistose  hornlilende  occasionally  con- 
tains quartz,  actinote,  and  pyrites. 

3.  Priniilive  grunslein  is  a  mixture  of 
hornblende  and  felspar.  ll  i-  divided  into  rock,  wliich  has  a  strong  ri'^embl;  nee  to  ar- 
dill'ereiit  varieties,  according  as  its  texUire  is  KiHaccous  shistus,  but  dihi-ring  in  its  position, 
granular  or  conqjuit.  1st.  Conunon  grun-  't  forms  beds  which  alternate  with  common 
stein,  in   which  ihe  hornblende  and  tei.spar  grauwacke. 

intiniatelv   united.      It  resembles  a  sieii-        Grauwacke  ro<  ks  are  traversed  bv  veins 


^9 

Grautiackc.  There  are  two  species  of 
rocks  of  grauwacke,  commr n  and  shi'-iose. 

Comnion  grauwacke  is  a  sjindsfone  com- 
posed of  gi-ains  of  quartz,  kieselcii.efer,  and 
argillaceous  shistus  agglutiBated  by  a  cement 
ol  clay.  The  grains  are  sometimes  very 
small,  -ometinips  as  lav[:,e  as  a  fiazel  mit. 

Shistose  erauwacke   is  a  simple  shistose 


which  ihe 
are 

ite,  in  which  the  hornblende  predominates. 
2d.  Fine  grained  gruustein,  in  which  are  eiii- 
beddeil  crystals  ot  felspar.  Texture  at  once 
granular  and  porphyritic.  3d.  When  the 
grains  become  v<.ry  line,  the  gruustein  be- 
comes porphyritic.  4th.  NVlicn  the  mass  be- 
comes entirely  h(jiuogeni-ous,  we  have  the 
green  porph)  ry  of  the  antients. 

4.  Sliistose  gniustein  is  a  rock  composed 
of  con;paet   fels|)ar,  hornblende,  and  a  little 
mica;   ;onii  times   it   contains    also 
Us  le-.ttire  is  ^histosc.     The  iiorubleiide  and 
felspar  occur  neatly  in  equal  proportion. 

Gvunstein  often  contains  uiftailic  veins. 

Suiirlz.     Considerable  rocks  occur  com- 
posed entirely  of  quartz.      Sometimes,   in 


deed,  they  contain  accidentally  mica,  felsjiar,  '  and  globular  trap, 

«: :t...  'I'l...     .., „    ,.f     ll I  ;.  .       \r  ... 


of  quartz.  They  contain  sometiiiKjs  shells 
and  reeds  petrilii-d.  Tl.ty  contain  iio  tbreigii 
beds.  These  rocks  are 'distinctly  stralihcd. 
The  strata  do  not  run  parallel  to  those  of  the 
othT  rocks  <.!!  w  liicli  they  lie.  They  usually 
covcT  transition  limestone,  and  do  not  risa 
to  any  great  height.  'I'hey  are  rich  in  ores, 
Tr/iii.iili'n  trupi.  'Ihe"  principal  bae  of 
all  the  rotks  i)elongii;g  to  this  formation  is 
grunstein.  Th.is  coustiii.les  many  of  the 
quartz,  i  primitive  tnps ;  but  in  the  transition  traps, 
the  mixture  is  much  more  intimate,  the 
grain  is  much  finer,  and  tlie  mass  mticli  more 
homogeneous,  and  its  cou»tituents  are  more 
or  less  bleuded  togeflier.  Transition  traps 
consist  principally  of  two  species,  niaiidel.->leiii 


tin,  pyiites.     The  texture  of  these  ro.ks 
usually  compact,  but  somethnes  shi-tose. 

Topasfi-la.  'I'hisrock  is  composed  of  quartz, 
slioii,  topaz,  and  lilhomarga.  'Ihe  lirst  ; 
three  ingredieiils  alteniale  in  thin  bi^ds.  Its  ■ 
texture  is  granular;  its  struci lire  shi-tose.  i 
\'cry  rare.  It  has  been  found  only  in  Saxony,  i 
n.  ar  Awerbach,  forming  a  moiiiilain  called  j 
Schneckenslein.  It  rests  upon  granite,  and  ; 
coiit-iins  no  ores. 

Kiesilcluifer.     Kiesilchiefer,   or  siliceous 
shistus,    often     forms     considerable    rocks. 
Their  texture  is  compact.     They  are  often 
traversed  by  small  veins  of  quartz.     Tliey 
contain  no  metallic  substance. 
Rocks  oj  IraiisHion. 
The  rocks   belonging  to  this   class  agree 
with  those  of  the   first  in  containing  no  re- 
mains ol  organized  beings,   or  at  least  but 
seld.im  ;  but   they   have   a  consiilerable  re- 
semblance to  those  of  the  tliird  class.     Wer- 
ner considers  them  as  lor'iiing  the  passage  be- 
tween   tiie    first   and   third   class   of  rocks ; 
hence  their  name.     I'hc-  following  table  con- 
tains a  list  of  the  transition  rocks. 

1 .  Transition  limestone, 

2.  Grauwacke, 

3.  Transition  traps. 

Let  us  take  a  view  of  each  of  these  in 
order. 

TrciosUinn  limcttone.  This  rock  is  simple. 
Its  mass  is  a  limestone  ;  sometimes  granular, 
sometimes  compact,  according  as  its  age  ap- 
proaches to  primitive  or  secondary  limestone. 
Fracture  is  somewhat  splintery.  Somewhat 
transparent.  Its  colours  are  variously  ming- 
led ;  olten  red  or  black  with  white"  veins. 
Seldom  contains  forei^jn  substances.  Some- 
times shells  are  observed  in  its  superior  strata. 

Sometimes  it  alternates  with  beds  of  argil- 
laceous shistus,  and  sometimes  with  beds  of 
mandelstein,  as  in  Derbyshire.  It  usually 
covers  argillaceous  shistus.  Seldom  rises  to 
any  considerable  height.  Usually  stratified. 
Strata  very  thick.  Often  coulaias  metallic 
veiiis. 


1.  Mandelstein  or  amygdaloid.  By  this 
term  is  implied  all  rocks  coni|,o.sed  of  a"  com- 
pact ground,  containing  imbedded  in  it  mi- 
nerals of  a  round  or  almond  form,  or  con- 
taining eavities  of  that  form.  '1  hey  are  dis- 
iingiii-hed  into  primitive,  transition,  and  se- 
condary mandclsteins.  Transition  mandel- 
stein consists  of  a  ground  of  shistose  liorn- 
bleiuh',  deiomposed  aiui  reseinbiing  wackeu 
ar  terruginous  clay.  Tlu-  cavities  are  some- 
times empty,  sometimes  full,  and  then  they 
contain  (piaitz  and  clialccdony.  The  toad- 
stone  of  Deibysliire  i.s  referred  to  tJiis  spe- 
cie's. It  contains  round  masses  of  caicareoui 
spar. 

2.  Globular  trap.  This  is  a  shistose  grun- 
stein, partly  decomposed  and  reouced  to  the 
state  of  a  line  grained  wacken.  It  is  com- 
posed of  large  spherical  bodies,  consisting  of 
concentric  layers ;  the  central  part  being 
hardest. 

Transition  traps  are  not  slrafifii.d.  They 
form  separate  eonical  mountains,  u,uallv  near 
those  of  transition  limestone.  '1  hey  contain 
some  metallic  veins  of  copper,  iron,  tin,  &c, 

ci,.\ss  irr. 
Roeks  stronihirii. 
These  rocks  are  distinguished  by  the  re- 
mains of  organized  bodies,  which  they  con- 
tain abundaiidy.  '1  he\  are  usually  slralilied. 
The  foilowing  table  contains  a  list  of  these 
dilfereiit  rocks,  arranged  according  to  the 
supposeil  lime  of  their  foiination. 

1 .  Sandstone,  5.  T?ock  salt, 

2.  Secondary  lime-  (1  I'it  coal, 

stone,  7.  F.iseiUhoH, 

3.  Chalk,  8.  Secondary  traps. 

4.  Gypsum, 

Sanditonf.  This  rock  is  composed  of 
quartz,  varying  in  size  ;  sometimes  al:o  grains 
of  kieselschiefer,  and  very  rarely  ot  felspar. 
These  grains  are  cemented  together,  some- 
times by  means  of  clay,  sometimes  of  marl 
or  lime,  and  sometimes  of  quartz.  I'he  ce- 
ment varies  in  quantity,  but  never  predomi- 


ooo 

nates.  Tlie  size  of  tlu;  grain-;  v;irioi  much : 
\vhi;n  large,  the  rock  is  usually  called  pudd- 
ing slone. 

'j'iiis  rock  is  very  distiiicLly  stratified.  The 
beds  of  it  oftea  alternate  willi  beds  of  com- 
pact liniestonf ,  pit  coal,  oolite,  and  a  species 
of  sandstone  shistus  fine  grained,  and  mixed 
with  leaves  of  mica,  which  gives  it  tlr.^  ap- 
pearance of  micaceous  shistus.  It  contains 
few  metallic  ores  of  value.  Sometimes  co- 
bait  is  fouiid  in  it. 

Secnnd.mj  limestone.  This  rock  is  siriiple, 
and  composed  of  compact'  limestone.  Oc- 
ciisionally  it  contains  crystals  of  cpiartz,  .py- 
rites, S:c.  .SliL-lIs  occur  very  freviueiiMy  i" 
it.  It  is  very  distinctly  stratified.  Its  "beds 
are  sometimes  separated  by  beds  of  shistose 
bitumi-ious  marl  "and  sanclstonc,  and  by  tu- 
bercles of  hornstone  and  flint  often  arranged 
in  beds.  It  is  often  traversed  by  metallic 
veins,  cliifcfly  of  galena,  grey  copper  ore, 
malachite,  &c. 

CImllc.  The  strata  of  chalk  may  be  con- 
sidered perhaps  as  sub.mlinate  to  those  of 
secondary  limestone.  They  consist  entirely 
of  chalk,  sometimes  interrupted  by  tiiin  beds 
of  tiint  ill  tubercles.  Slndls  often  occur  con- 
verted into  siiiceoiis  matter,  and  sometimes 
pvrites  in  spherieal  masses.  No  metallic  ores 
ever  occur  in  them. 

Gifpfum.  The  strata  of  gypsLun  usually 
occur  in  mountains  alternating  with  those  of 
sandstone,  limestone,  marl,  clay,  rock  salt. 
T.iey  often  convai.)  foreign  crystals;  cliiedy 
quartz,  arragonite,  boracite,  garnet :  some- 
times they  contain  sulphur.  l''ew  petiefac- 
tions  are  found  in  them  except  the  bones  of 
tpiadrupeds.  They  contain  scarcely  any  me- 
tallic ores.     See  Sui.pH.vr  of  lime. 

Rock  iiilt.  The  mountains  which  contain 
strata  of  rock  salt  are  to  be  referred  to  a 
particular  fo-mation  of  gypsum,  with  whicli 
they  usually  alternate.  They  contain  no 
ores. 

Pit  coal  is  found  in  two  dilTerent  forma- 
tions. The  first  of  these  is  distinguished 
particularly  by,  the  name  of  coal  formation, 
or  mouni  L-iJs'  of  coal.  They  are  usually 
composed  of  beds  of,  I.  Verv  brittle  sand- 
stoo-.  containing  often  small  paiiicles  of 
mica;  2  Another  sandstone  orpuddmg  ston<' 
01  \  e.  y  large  grains :  3.  Sliistose  clay  ;  4. 
Marl;  5.  Limestone;  6.  An  argillaceous 
porplivry  distinguisiied  by  the  name  of  se- 
condary porphyry  ;  7.  Ferruginous  clay  ;  8. 
Coal.  The  beds  of  coal  vary  in  thickness 
and  in  number. 

This  fo/mation  of  coal  occupies  countries 
of  no  great  elevation.  They  occur  cliieflv 
-at  the  botiom  of  chains,  and  in  tlie  inter- 
mediate valle\s.  The  strata  of  coal  in  the 
north  of  Kngian<l  belong  to  it. 

Coal  is  found  m  otlier  situations,  especially 
ill  the  secondary  trap  formation,  'lliose  oi 
Scotland  belong  to  Hiis  class. 

^irtritlnciQUH  irnnstniit.  The  beds  of  this 
mineral  .usually  alternate  with  those  of  indu- 
rated clay,  shislose  clay,  marl,  brandschiefer, 
and 'Sandstone.  They  friHiueiitly  contain  ca- 
lamine mixed  with  galena.  The  impressions 
of  pl.iiit^  and  marine  petrefuctions  are  often 
observable  in  tlieni.  They  usually  form 
small  insulated  hills,  and  are  not  very  com- 
mon. 

Sccondufi/  traps.  The  mount.iins  of  se- 
condary traps  are  conipo.sed  of  various  roiks  ; 
some  of  wliicli  belong  exclusively  to  this  for- 


nocKs. 

niallon  ;  others  are  found  also  in  oilier  moun- 
tains. The  rocks  peculiar  to  secondary  traps 
are,  1.  Basalt;  ii.  U'acken  ;  3.  Basaltic  tuta  ; 
4.  Secondary  mandlestein  ;  3.  Porplivry  sl'.is- 
tus;  0.  Grausteia;  and,  7.  iiocoiKlary  griiii- 
stein.  . 

1.  Basalt,  considered  as  tlie  mass  of  a 
mountain,  is  a  rock  more  or  less  compouiul  ; 
usually  it  is  of  a  porphyritic  structure,  has  lor 
its  ground  tlie  mineral  called  basalt.  It  con- 
tains usually  grains  of  olivine,  augite,  basaltic 
hornblende,  magnclic  ironstone,  and  some- 
times leucile,  felspar,  cjuartz,  &c.  ;  sometimes 
also  mica,  actinote,  chalcedony.  Sometimes 
it  assumes  the  structure  of  maii'lelstein.  In 
that  case  its  cavities  are  tilled  with  zeolite, 
steatites,  limestone,  &c. 

it  usually  appears  in  large  separate  masses 
often  prismaiic.  It  is  very  common  often 
forming  detached  mountains. 

2.  Wacken  sometimes  forms  beds  in  the 
secondary  traps.  It  is  usually  between  clay 
and  basalt,  it  neither  contains  olivine  nor 
augite,  but  crystals  of  basaltic  hornblende, 
and  above  all  of  lilack  hexahedr.il  mica.  Tliis 
last  substance  distinguishes  wacken  from  ba- 
salt, which  very  seUlom  contains  it. 

3.  Basaltic  tufa  results  from  tne  decompo 
silion  of  certain  b:-.salts.  It  consists  of  frag- 
ments of  basalt,  pieces  of  olivine,  tlie  remains 
of  vegetables,  &c.  agglutinated  by  a  cement 
of  clay. 

4.  'the  amygdaloids  or  mandelsteins  of  the 
secondary  traps  have  tor  then-  base  a  clay 
which  seems  to  be  a  decomposed  gruii-jtein,- 
often  penetrated  with  siliceous  matter.  It 
has  a  good  deal  of  resemblance  to  wacken, 
and  sometimes  passes  into  it :  at  oilier  times 
it  assumes  a  more  compact  texlu.-e,  and  pass- 
es into  basalt.  Its  cavities  are  sometmies 
empty,  sometimes  liUed  witii  green  earth,  zeo- 
lite, limestone,  ^c. 

5.  Porphyry  shistus  isa  rock  w  hose  stiu--tuie 
is  sliistose,  and  its  t>'\ture  porphyritic.  Its 
base  is  kiingstein,  containing  grains  ol  felspar 
and  sometimes  of  hornblende.  It  has  a  good 
deal  of  resemblance  to  ba-ialt,  and  often  pa^SKS 
into  it  But  it  is  moie  ntarly  a  chemical 
compound,  being  more  transparent,  sonorous, 
and  hard. 

(J.  Grauslein  is  a  rock  co:iiposed  of  small 
grains  of  felspar  and  hornblende,  which  gra- 
duate into  each  other  and  form  a  mass  al- 
most homogeneous  of  an  ash  grey  colour.  It 
contains  olivine  and  augite. 

7.  Secondary  grunstein,  like  the  primitive 
and  transition,  is  composed  of  hornblende 
and  felspar;  but  its  grains  are  less  peifectly 
crystallised,  and  le^s  intimately  mi.xed.  it 
usually  covers  rocks  ot  basalt. 

Such  are  tlie  rocks  peculiar  to  the  second- 
ary traps.  They  have  all  less  or  more  of  a 
crystallized  slvuctm-e  ;  whereas  the  other  mi- 
nerals lound  in  secondary  traps,  but  not  pe- 
culiar to  them,  are  mechanical  depositions. 
^^  acken  ami  basalt  form  the  passage  irom  the 
one  to  the  other.  The  mechanical  deposi- 
tions, sand,  clay,  S:c.  are  usutiUy  lowermost  ; 
they  are  covered  by  wacken.  Some  "f  the 
other  substances  always  occupy  the  summits. 
Trap  mounlains  contain  abmulance  of  pe- 
Irefaclions,  but  no  ores  execpt  some  veins 
and  grains  of  iron.  They  are  usually  insu- 
lated; very  seldom  formnig  chains.  Thi; 
mountains  of  basalt  and  porplivrv  shistus  are 
usually  conical.  They  are  hardly  ever  cover- 
ed by  other  rocks.  '1  iiey  usually  cover  sand- 


stone, co;d,  secondary  limestone,  shisto:* 
clay  ;  and  veins  of  lliem  arc  not  uncommoji 
in  primitive  mounlains. 

CLASS  V. 

Hod  <i  x'ol:'a)iir. 
This  naine  is  given  to  all  the  minerals 
thrown  out  cklring  volcanic  eruptions.  'I'he 
most  complete  account  of  them  has  •been 
given  by  i.)ol<)micu,  who  de-votcd  the^greate-^t 
part  of"  his  life  to  tiie  study  of  volcanoes. 
Part  of  his  division  was  published  by  him  in 
the  Journal  de  Plly^,ir^ue  lor  1704  ;'  and  an 
abstract  of  the  whole  has  been  given  by  15ro- 
chant  from  notes  taken  durii*g  a  course  of 
geology  given  by  Do'omieu  in  1797.  Vol- 
canic products  "have  beeil  divided  by  this 
celebrated  geologist  into  live  classes:  1.  Mi- 
nerals modilied  by  the  lire  of  volcanoes ;  'J. 
Substanci^s  not  modilied  by  the  lire, or  throv/n 
out  unaltered  ;  3.  Substt.nces  sublimed  by 
the  hre  of  volcanoes ;  4.  Minerals  altered  by 
the  sulphurous  acid  vapours  of  volcanoes  ; 
5.  Volcanic  ininerafs  altered  by  tlie  action  ijif 
the  atmosphere. 

Minerals  modijifd  bi)  tlie  fire.  This  set 
of  minerals  is  subdivided  into  two  heads.  The 
iirst  comprehends  tho>e  minerals  which, 
though  they  have  been  molilied  by  lire,  yet 
exhiljit  no  appearance  of  its  action.  ')  he  S(^• 
cond  consists  ol  those  which  retain  obvious 
marks  of  the  action  of  lire.  Those  of  the 
lirst  head  have  been  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  comjiact  lavas  ;  those  of  the  second 
by  the  name  of  porous. 

Cfniipact  Ln-as  bear  so  close  a  reseni- 
bl.mce  to  certain  rocks  of  an  origin  not  vol- 
canic, that  it  is  e.\treniely  dilheult  to  distin- 
guish'them.  Some  have  the  ajipcarance  of 
basalt;  others  ot  granite,  porplnrv,  and  va- 
rious secondary  t:aj)s.  Dolomieu  divides 
them  into  four  species  according  to  their 
base. 

1.  Comprict  lavas  with  an  argillo-fermgi- 
nous  base.  Their  colour  is  usually  black. 
Fracture  imperiectly  conchoidal.  Texture 
very  compact.  Sonorous.  Smell  argillace- 
ous. Attract  tlw  magnetic  needle.  \  ery 
common  in  volcanic  countries.  Frequentlv 
contain  cryst.ls  o!  augite,  felspar,  hornblende, 
garnet,  leucile,  ol.yinc,  mica.  A  specimen 
of  the  lava  of  Catania  in  bieily,  analysed  by 
Dr.  Kennedy,  contained, 

51.0  silica, 

ly.li  alumina, 

14  3  o\ideot  iron, 

<).5  iime, 

4  t)  -oda, 

1.0  muriatic  acid, 

W.O. 
A  specimen  ot  the  lava  of  Sta.  Vcnere  in 
Sicily  he  Ibiind  lo  contain 
55-7S  sihc.T, 
17-.T(l  alumina, 
l4.C;i  oxide  ol  iron 
10. DO  lime, 
4.00  soila, 
1.00  muriatic  acid, 

'  y7.5. 
Compact  lava  with  a  pelro-iiliceous  base. 
Colour  very  varialtle,  gre\,  black,  and  white; 
but  all  become  white  betore  the  blow-pipe. 
I'raetiire  conchoidal.  Ciraiii  line  ami  coin- 
pail.  Smell  slightly  argillaceous.  Docs  not 
all'ect  the  magnctic.-iic<!tlle.   Contains  usually 


ROC 

gfa'ns  of  ft-I^par ;  soiiK-timcs  of  lioniblende, 
micii:   T.iicites  arc  niicoininon  in  it. 

Compact  lava^  with  a  i^rauite  basf.  So 
naiiieil  l)i'cause  tliey  resf.uljje  granite,  and 
contain  all  its  constiiiieiits.  Tiie  felspar  usu- 
ally preilominatos.  It  is  in  lamellar  niassi'S, 
srlilotu  in  crystals.  Tliis  species  contains 
crystals  of  liornblende,  mica,  augite. 

Com|)act  lavas  with  a  leucite  base.  These 
lav.is  are  uncommon.  No  current  of  lava 
lias  ever  been  observed  composed  entirely  of 
them.  'I'hey  occur  near  \esuvius.  In  them 
tjie  leucitesare  so  abundant  and  compressed, 
that  they  assume  a  com|jact  appearance, 
'rhev  sometimes  contain  crystals  of  horn- 
blende, augite,  mica. 

Compact  lavas  like  basalt  often  affect  a 
prismatic  forjii. 

Forou.^  lavas,  SfC.  This  second  head  con- 
sists according  to  Ddlomieu,  of  minerals  hav- 
im^  the  same  base  with  compact  lavas  ;  but 
these  liases  have  undergone  certain  niodili- 
cations,  in  which  the  action  of  lire  has  be- 
come evident.  IT.ese  modilications  are 
chielly  three;  swelling,  vitrification,  and  cal- 
cination. I'he  minerals  belon^^ing  to  this 
head  may  be  reduced  to  seven  species. 

1.  Porous  lavas.  The  lavas  on  the  surface 
of  1  urrenls  usually  assume  this  form  ;  espe- 
ciallv  the  surface  of  the  argillo-ferruginons 
lavas.  The  cavities  arc  usually  spheric  in 
them,  while  in  the  porous  lavas, 'formed  from 
the  other  compact  lavas,  the  cavities  are 
commonly  elongated.  ^I'hey  are  often  em- 
p!oved  as  millstones  and  in  buildings. 

''.  !^corias.  I'he  substances  distinguished 
by  this  name  have  more  ov  less  resemblance 
to  -metallic  scorias.  To  them  may  be  referr- 
ed the  substance  called  black  pou:!zolano.  It 
has  been  prod\iced  by  scorilicalion,  though 
it  no  longer  retains  the  characters  of  it. 

The  term  pouzzolano  (derived  from  the 
city  Ponzzoles),  has  been  usually  applied  to 
earthy  matters  ejected  by  volcanoos,  which 
make  an  excellent  mortar  with  lime.  See 
ruziOL.4.NA.  The  best  is  found  always  in 
the  antient  currents  ;  tliat  in  the  modern 
forms  bad  mortar.  Tliere  are  three  sorts  of 
pouzzolano  ;  the  black,  which  is  a  scoria  al- 
tered :  the  white,  which  is  composed  of  pu- 
mice; and  the  red,  which  belongs  to  the  pro- 
du;ts  of  calcination. 

Comp'.ct  glasses.  N'olcanic  vitrifications 
are  uncommon,  especially  com|)act  glasses. 
They  all  resemble  common  glass.  They 
are  more  or  less  transparent,  often  black, 
aosnetimes  blucish  or  greenish,  very  seldom 
colourless.     Sometimes  prismatic. 

Porous  glasses  or  pumice  atones.     ^Vhen 
I  fhe  co:np.'.ct  glass.^s  are  exposerl  to  the  heat 
I  of  our  furnaces,  they  emit  a  great  number  of 
air-bubbles,    which    rentjers    them    porous. 
Such  is  the  origin  uf  pumice.    It  has  the  same 
base  as  compact  gla-.s.     The  texture  of  pu- 
mice stones  is  fibrous  ;  the  fibres  have  a  silkv 
lustre.     Colours  various  ;  white,  brown,  vel- 
foi'.v,  black.     But  before  the  blow-pipe  tliev 
all  melt  into  a  white  enamel.   White  pouzzo- 
lano is  composed   of  the  detritus  of  these 
stones.     A  specimen  of  pumice  stone  analys- 
ed by  Kiaproth,  yielded 
77.,iO  silica, 
17..J0  alumina, 
i.7j  oxicle  of  iron, 
3.00  soda  of  potuos. 


Vol.  II. 


99. 


nod 

Nearly  (he  same  result  had  been  previous- 
ly obtdined  by  Dr.  Kennedy. 

A'olcanic  sands  and  ashes.  The  sands  arc 
composed  of  grains  varying  in  sl/.c.  They 
are  usually  mi.xed  with  crystals  of  felspar, 
augite,  magnetic  ironstone,  &c.  and  oiten 
cover  a  great  extent  of  ground.  Etna  has 
covered  the  cotuitry  for  SO  leagues  round  it 
with  a  bed  of  sand  twelve  feet  thick.  Vol- 
canic ashes  are  merely  very  fine  sand.  They 
are  so  liglit,  tlial  during  the  eruptions  of 
Ktna,  the  wind  often  transports  thcni  as  far  as 
Egypt. 

Agglutinated  matters.  These  arc  merely 
Muds  and  ashes  covered  and  cemented  toge- 
ther by  a  torrent  of  melted  lava. 

Calcined  substances.  All  stony  bodies 
which  have  undergone  a  kind  of  calcination 
by  volcanic  lire.s  arc  denoted  by  this  name. 
All  volcanic  matters  often  uiidertro  this 
change.  Their  grain  is  rendered  more  harsh, 
and  their  feel  more  dry.  The  ferruginous 
lavas  become  more  red,  and  cease  to  be  at- 
tracted by  the  magnet. 

Minerals  nnl  inoclijlcd  hij  the  fire.  These 
matters  existed  in  the  mountain  before  the 
commencement  of  volcanic  lire,  and  are 
thrown  out  by  it  unaltered.  The  study  of 
them  is  important,  because  tiiey  inform  us  of 
the  internal  structure  of  volcanic  mountains. 
Tliev  usually  belong  to  the  primitive  rocks. 
Sometimes  they  are  fragments  of  rocks,  and 
sometimes  groups  of  crystals.  'i'hev  are 
thrown  out  in  general  at  the  beginning  of 
eruptions. 

\  i^lcanoes  sometimes  emit  torrents  of 
muddy  water.  From  these  have  originated 
the  minerals  called  volcanic  tufas.  Their 
colour  is  various. 

SiihstuiK'es  siihlimed.  An  immense  <|uan- 
tity  of  matter  is  exhaled  by  volcanoes  ;  partly 
in  the  state  of  gas  or  steam,  partly  in  a  visible 
form. 

Hydrogen  gas,  carbonic  acid,  sulphurous 
acid,  muriatic  acid,  nitiic  acid,  &c.  have  been 
detected  issuing  from  them. 

The  mineral  substances  which  are  sublimed 
from  them,  and  which  afterwards  are  depo- 
sited on  their  sides,  are  sulphur,'  which  is 
very  abundant;  mineral  oil,  and  various  salts, 
especially  muriats  of  ammonia,  soila,  copper, 
and  iron  ;  sulphats  of  alumina,  soda,  iron, 
and  copper,  and  carbonat  of  soda.  Metallic 
bodies  are  also  found  among  these  substan- 
ces,iron,copper,  antimony,  arsenic,  cinnabar, 
&:c. 

Suhstnnees  altered  bi/  sidphnrous  aeid  va- 
pnurx.  The  sulphur  volatilized  by  volca- 
noes is  often  converted  into  an  acid,  which, 
acting  upon  the  lavas,  changes  their  appear- 
ance considerably.  Thev  become  of  a  yel- 
lowish-white colour,  much  liisliter  and  <liyer, 
:;ud  are  more  easily  pulverized.  Thev  con- 
tain an  unusual  proportion  of  silica,  becausi- 
the  sulphurous  acid  has  combined  with  the 
alumina,  and  formed  a  salt  afterwards  washed 
away  by  the  rain.  The  same  vapours  often 
attack  stony  matters  not  volcanic. 

'1  he  principal  products  of  th.'  action  of 
these  vapours  on  lavas  are  alum  and  sul- 
phats of  lime,  magnesia  and  iron.  These 
salts,  e-^pecially  the  lirst,  are  collect. xl  with 
great  advantage. 

I'dleanie  suLitances  altered  b;/  the  action 
of  the  aim^sjthere.  .\11  rocks  undergo  great- 
er or  smaller  changes  when  long  exposed  to 
the  atmosphere ;  but  these  changes  are  mutli 


It  o'l 


ooi 


greater  and  men;  rapid  in  volcanic '  rocks 
than  ill  ollurs.  Sometimes,  liowever,  it  is 
very  slow.  Hence  the  age  of  volcanoes  can- 
not he  determined  by  the  slate  of  volcanic 
eruptions. 

Tlie  argillo-fernigmous  lavas. bccdmefnbt 
red  ;  the  i>etrosiliceoiis  become  of  a  dirty 
grey.  '  I5y  degrees  they  as.-iime  an  earthy  ap^ 
peaiance,  and  pass  at  last  to  a  kind  of  triable 
clay.  The  scorias  undergo  the  sjitie  ch.unge.^ 
much  more  rapidly.  The  earthy  matters  pro^ 
duced  by  this  diiomposition  are  alterwards 
washed  down  by  (lie  waters,  and  form 
large  beds,  which  constitute  a  very  feilile 
soil.  The  porous  lavas  are  often  partly  jill- 
ed  with  earth  washed  down  by  rains  frou)  de- 
composed lavas.  Doloniieu  .supposed  many 
crjstals  to  owe  their  existence  to'tlie  infiltra- 
tions of  such  waters. 

Besides  the  real  products  of  volcanoes, 
there  are  rocks  wliich  have  been  more  or  less 
altered  by  the  action  of  fires  not  volcanic. 
These  fires  liave  often  originated  from  the 
combustion  of  strata  of  coal.  These  havi; 
been  called  pseudo-volcanic  rocks.  These 
rocks  are  four  in  number;  namely,  porcclairf 
jasper,  burnt  clay,  earthy  scorias^  ami  a  parr 
licular  variety  ofpulierschiefer. 

Porcelain  jas|)er  is  consitlercd  as  a  sliislosc 
clay,  which  has  been  calcined.  Burnt  clay 
resembles  brick:  It  has  been  exposed  to  4 
weaker  lirethun  jiorcelain  jasper.  Like  thaC 
mineral  it  is  considered  as  having  been  origi- 
nally a  shistose  clay.  Eartliy  scorias  are 
light  porous  substances  like  scorias.  They 
appear  to  have  htm  melted.  They  are  usu- 
ally near  burnt  coal  strata.  A  variety  of 
polierschiefcr  sometimes  occurs,  which"  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  clay  exposed  to  a  mode- 
ratc_  degree  of  heal,  and  ralher  dried  than 
calcined.  To  these  pseudo-volcanic  miner- 
als may  be  added  the  vitrified  sorts,  not  iin^ 
common  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland.  They 
seem  to  have  originated  from  artificial  firesj 
See  Geology,  Moumai.xs,  Mi.n-eralo- 
GY,  &c. 

ROD,  a  land  measure  of  sixteen  feet  and 
a  half:  the  same  with  perch  and  pole. 

Rod,  in  gauging.     See  G.yi'GiXG. 

ROE,  the  spawn  or  seed  of  fish.  That  of 
male  fishes  is  usually  distingui-^lied  by  the 
name  of  soft-roe,  or  ini't,  and  that  of  tJie  fe- 
male, by  liard-rop,  or  spawn. 

So  inconceivably  numerous  are  these  ovula, 
or  small  eggs,  that  M.  Petit  found  342,144  of 
them  in  a  carp  of  eighteen  inches  ;  but  Mr. 
Lecwenhoeck  found  in  a  carp  no  more  lliaii 
21 1,629.  This  last  gendeman  observes,  that 
there  are  four  times  this  number  in  a  cod,  and 
that  a  cojnmon  one  contains  9,344,000  eggs. 

ROELE.V,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants  •"  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
twenty-ninth  order,  campanacex.  The  co- 
rolla is  funnel-shaped,  with  its  bottom  shut  up 
by  staminiferous  valvules;  the  stigma  is  bir  . 
(id  ;  the  capsule  bilocular,  and  cylindricai 
inferior.  There  are  live  species,"  shrubby 
pl.mts  of  the  Cape. 

ROC  CE,  in  law.     SccVagran-t. 

RIIORI.A,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
triandria  monogynia  :  the  cal.  is  bell-shaped, 
five-petalled,  uneijual ;  stiginas  three,  reyo- 
lute  ;  caps.  There  is  one  specits,  a  shrub 
of  Guiana. 

ROLA\DRA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  synggncsia  [jolygamia  superBua.    The 


602 


R  O  I. 


florels  .MC  bundled  in  a  lit  ad  with  sralt-s  in 
tcrpose<i ;  cal.  partial,  two-v:ilved,  one-How 
•red  ;  corolieti  lieii:i-'.ph.  1  hc-re  is  one  spe- 
cifs,  a  shrub  ol  l!i«:  W  est  Indies. 

ROLL,  in  muDUlactoric^,  something 
•v.oimd  and  iolded  up  in  a  cylindrical  form. 

Few  st'.itis  are  made  up  in  rolls,  except 
s:»ttin5,  gan-i'S,  and  crapes,  wliich  are  apt  to 
break,  and  take  plaitf  not  easy  to  be  got 
out,  it'  folded  otherwise.  Ribbons,  laces, 
galloons,  and  paduas  of  all  kinds,  are  also  tlius 
rolled. 

A  roil  of  tobacco  is  tobacco  in  the  leaf, 
twisted  on  the  mill,  and  wound  iwist  over 
twist,  about  a  slick  or  roller.  A  great  deal 
of  tobacco  is  sold  in  .•\nierica  in  lolU  of  va- 
rious weights  ;  and  it  is  not  till  its  arrival  in 
England,  Spain,  France,  and  Holland,  that 
it  is  cut.  A  ."ill  of  parchment  properly  de- 
notes the  quantity  ot  sixty  skins. 

The  antients  made  all'tlieir  books  up  in 
the  form  of  rolls,  and  in  Cicero's  time  the 
libraries  consisted  wholly  of  surli  rolls. 

KoLL,  in  law,  signilies  a  schedule  or  parcli- 
ment  wliich  may  be  rolled  up  by  tiie  hand 
into  the  forniol  a  pipe. 

In  these  schedules  of  parchment  all  the 
pleadings,  memorials,  and  acts  of  court,  are 
entered  and  tiled  by  the  proper  officer; 
which  being  done,  they  become  records  of 
the  court.  Of  (liese  there  are  in  the  exche- 
quer several  kinds,  as  the  great  wardrobe- 
roil,  tin;  colferer'=-roll,  tlie  subsidy-roll,  &c. 

Roll  is  also  used  for  a  list  of  the  names  of 
persons  of  the  same  condition,  or  of  those 
who  have  entered  into  the  same  engagement. 
Tims  a  court-roll  of  a  manor,  is  that  in  wliich 
the  names,  rents,  and  services  of  each  tenant 
are  copied  and  inroUed. 

Roll  imtsUr,  that  in  which  are  entered 
the  soldiers  of  every  troop,  company,  regi- 
ment, &c. 

As  soon  as  a  soldier's  name  is  written  down 
on  the  roll,  it  is  death  for  him  to  desert. 

Rolls-office,  is  an  office  in  Cliancery- 
lanc,  London,  appointed  for  the  custody  of 
the  rolls  and  records  in  chancery. 

Rolls  of  parliament,  are  the  manuscript 
registers,  or  rolls  of  tiie  proceedings  of  our 
anlient  parliaments,  wliich  before  the  inven- 
tion of  printing,  were  all  engrossed  on  parch- 
ment, and  proclaimed  openly  in  every  coun- 
ty. In  these  rolls  are  also  contained  a  great 
riiany  decisions  of  difficult  points  of  law, 
which  were  frequently  in  former  times  referr- 
ed to  the  decision  of  that  high  court. 

Roll,  or  Roller,  is  also  a  piece  of  wood, 
iron,  brass,  S:c.  of  a  cylindrical  form,  used 
In  the  construction  of  sever.il  m.achines,  and 
jn  several  works  and  manufactures. 

A  rolling-mill  shewn  in  fig.  4.  Plate, 
consists  of  two  iron  rollers  Ali,  mounted  in  a 
strong  iron  frame,  which  consists  of  two  dis- 
tinct parts  D  E,  both  firmly  tixed  to  the  iron 
floor  F;  each  part  lias  a  long  mortice 
through  it,  in  the  bottom  of  wliicli  is  tiie 
brass  socV.et  for  the  pivot  of  the  roller  A,  and 
in  the  upper  part  is  the  brass  of  the  upper 
roller ;  this  last  brass  is  fixed  to  a  piece  of 
iron  G,  fig.  5,  whicli  slides  up  and  down  in 
the  mortice,  and  is  prevented  from  raising  bv 
the  end  of  a  strong  screw  a,  screwed  through 
the  upper  part  of  the  frame  D  ;  the  roller 
is  prevented  from  falling  by  its  own  weight, 
by  the  brass  /;  in  llic  under  side  of  the  pivot, 
«hicli  is  attached  by  two  screw-bolts  lid  to 
h  isAlM  upau  the  screw  a,  so  tliat  wlien  liie 


R  d  o 

screws  are  turned  by  a  handspike  put  be- 
tween the  teeth  of  the  wheel  U,  the  rollers 
A  and  B  Hiay  be  brought  nearer  together  or 
further  olf,  asoccasionrequi.es.  1  is  a_^ stout 
iron  bar,  fi.xed  between  the  frames  DE  by  a 
wedge  i  av  each  end,  so  that  its  upi-Cr  sur- 
face is  level  with  the  top  of  tlie  lower  roller  ; 
at  a  «ina'l  distance  above  this,  is  another  bar 
k,  fi.-ced  bv  two  screws,  between  tiiesK  are  laid 
several  blocks  of  iron  L,  so  as  to  lili  up  all 
the  space,  except  a  small  opening,  througli 
wliicii  tlie  bar  to  be  flatted  is  ii.Uoduced  ;  i' 
is  a  small  trough  of  iron  plate,  bored  full  ot 
holes,  to  which^  water  is  brought  by  a  small 
pipe/).  'I'he  upper  roller  is  put  in  motion  by 
a  strong  shaft  K,  wiucli  conveys  the  power 
from  a  water-wheel,  steam  engine,  &c.  ;  and 
the  lower  one  is  moved  by  a  cog-wheel  S, 
on  the  shaft  R,  which  turns  another  T,  on  the 
avi';  of  the  lower  roller.  The  machine  is 
placed  near  to  a  furnace,  where  the  iron 
bars  to  be  rolled,  are  heated  to  a  welding 
heat;  tlie  mill  is  then  put  in  motion,  ami  the 
iron  bars  taki  n  out,  with  a  pair  of  pinchers 
and  their  ends  put  through  the  opening  be- 
tween the  bars  k  and  L,  between  the  rollers  ; 
which  as  they  turn  round  squeeze  the  iron 
Hat,  and  to  the  proper  thickness  tliroughout, 
while  other  men  bL-hind  the  machine,  convey 
it  awav.  The  rollers  can  be  set  nearer  or 
further  oft' by  turning  the  screws  a  a  as  before 
described.  The  rolling-mill  is  principally 
used  for  making  hoops  for  barrels,  and  iron 
plates ;  the  water  brought  by  the  pip^- ;;  is  to 
prevent  the  roller  from  being  heated  by  the 
iron. 

ROLLER,  in  surgery,  a  long  and  broad 
bandage,  usually  of  linen-cloth,  rolled  round 
any  part  of  the  body,  to  keep  it  in,  or  dispose 
it  to  a  state  of  health. 

RONDELFTIA,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants, 
and  in  tlie  natural  method  ranking  with  those 
of  which  the  order  is  doubtful.  The  corolla 
is  funnel-shaped;  the  capsule  bilocular,  infe- 
rior, and  polyspermous,  roundish,  and  crown- 
ed. There  are  14  species,  shrubs  of  the  West 
Indies. 

ROOD,  a  quantity  of  land  equal  to  forty 
squai-e  perches,  or  the  fourth  part  of  an  acre. 

ROOF.    See  Architecture. 

ROOK,  in  oniitholpgy.  See  Corvus. 

ROOT.  See  Plants',  pli;jsiolngi/  of. 

Root,  in  mathematics,  a  quantity  considered 
as  the  basis  or  foundation  of  a  higher  power  ; 
or  one  which  being  multiplied  into  itself  any 
number  of  times,  produces  a  square,  cubic,  bi- 
quadr.-itic,  &c.  quantity ;  called  the  second, 
third,  fourth,  &c.  power  of  the  root,  or  quan- 
tity, so  multiplied  into  itself;  tlius  n  is  the 
square  root  of  a  x  •',  or  n'  ;  and  'i  the  square 
root  of  4  X  ■!  =  IS-  Again,  a  is  the  cube-root 
of  fl  X  "  X  a  =  a';  and  S  the  cube-root  of 
3  X  3  X  15  =  27  :  and  so  on.     See  Algebra. 

The  roots  of  powers  are  expressed  by  placing 
the  radical  sign  v''~over  them,  with  a  number 
denoting  what  kind  of  root  they  are:  thus  the 
square  "or  second  root  of  IG  is  expressed  by 
^M6,  and  the  cube  or  third  root  of  !i7  by 
^21 ;  and,  in  gencr.il,  the  nth  root  of  a  raised 
to  the  power  m,  is  expressed  by  y/"'".  When 
the  root  of  a  compound  quantity  is  wanted,  th'' 
vinculum  of  the  radical  sign  must  be  drawn  over 
the  whole:  thus  the  square  root  of  j*-|-'.!ai-f-i' 
is  expressed  by  '  / a^  -\-  'lab  -J-  i  ;  and  it  ought 
to  be  ubsrrved,  that  when  the  radical  sign  has 
no  number  above  it,  to  denote  what  root  is 
i 


HOP 

wanted,  the  square  root  is  always  meant ;  a> 
d^a,  or  v'"5>  ■'  die  square  root  of  a',  or  the 
square  root  of  IC. 

ROPE,  iK-mp,  hair,  Jcc.  spun  into  a  thick 
varn,  and  then  seveiiil  slrings  ot  this  yarn 
twisted  together  by  means  of  a  wheel.  \\  hen 
made  very  small  it  is  called  a  fjord,  and  when 
very  thick,  a  cable.  All  the  different  kiiidB 
of  this  manufacture,  from  a  fishing-line  or 
whip-cord  to  the  cable  of  a  first-rate  ship  of 
war,  go  by  the  general  name  of  cordage. 

Ropes  are  made  of  every  substance  that  is 
sulliciently  fibrous,  flexible,  and  tenacious, 
but  chiefly  of  the  inner  barks  of  plants.  The 
Chinese  and  other  orientals  even  make  tlieiu 
of  the  ligneous  parts  of  several  plants,  such 
as  certain  bamboos  and  reeds,  the  stems  of 
the  aloes,  the  fibrous  covering  of  the  coaia- 
iiut,  the  lilaments  of  the  cotton  pod,  and  the 
leaves  of  some  grasses,  such  as  the  sparto 
(lygeuin,  Linn.).  The  aloe  (agave,  Linn.) 
and  the  sparte  exceed  all  others  in  strength. 
But  the  barks  of  plants  are  the  most  produc- 
tive of  fibrous  matter  fit  for  this  manufacture. 
Those  ot  the  linden  tree  (tiiia)oftlie  willow, 
the  bramble,  the  nettle,  are  frequently  used  ; 
but  hemp  and  fiax  are  the  best;  and  of  the^e 
the  hemp  is  preferred,  and  employed  in  all 
cordage  exceeding  the  si/e  of  a  line,  and 
even  in  many  of  this  denomination. 

Hemp  is  verv  various  in  its  useful  qualities; 
the  best  in  Europe  comes  to  us  through  Riga, 
to  which  port  it  is  brought  from  very  distant 
places  southward.  It  is  knovMi  by  the  name 
of  riga  rein  (that  is,  clean)  hem]).  Its  fibre 
is  not  the  longest  (at  least  in  the  dressed  state 
in  which  we  get  it)  but  it  is  the  finest,  most 
flexible,  and  strongest.  'I'he  next  to  tliis  is- 
su]jpo3ed  to  be  the  Petersburgh  braak  hemp. 
Otlier  hemps  are  esteemed  nearly  in  the  iol- 
lowing  order:  Riga  outsliot,  Petersburg  out- 
shot,  "hemp  from  Koningsburgh,  Archangel,. 
Sweden,  Memel.  Chucking  is  a  name  given 
to  a  hemp  that  comes  from  various  places, 
long  in  the  fibre,  but  coarse  and  harsh,  and 
its  strength  is  inferior  to  hemps  which  ap- 
pear weaker.  Its  texture  is  such,  that  it  tloes 
not  admit  splitting  with  the  hatchel,.so  as  to. 
be  more  completely  dressed r  it  is  therefore 
kept  in  its  coarse  torm,  and  used  for  inferior 
cordage.  It  is,  however,  a  good  and  strong 
hemp,  but  will  not  make  fine  work.  Tiiere 
are  doubtless  many  good  hemps  in  the  south- 
ern parts  of  Europe;  but  little  of  them  is 
brought  to  our  market.  Codilla,  half  clean, 
&:c.  are  portions  of  the  above-mentioned 
hemps,  separated  by  the  dressing,  and  may 
be  considered  as  broken  fibres  of  those 
hemps. 

Only  the  first  qualities  are  manufactured 
for  the  rigging  of  the  royal  navy  and  for  the 
ships  of  the  East  India  company. 

ROPE-MAKING,  is  an  art  of  very  great 
importance ;  and  there  are  few  that  better 
deserve  the  attention  of  the  intelligent  ob- 
server. Hardly  any  art  can  be  carried  on 
without  the  assistance  of  the  rope-maker. 
Cordage  makes  the  very  sinews  and  muscles 
of  a  ship;  and  every  improvement  which 
can  be  nude  in  its  preparation,  either  in  re- 
spect to  strength  or  pliableiies-i,  must  be  of 
immense  service  to  the  mariner,  and  to  the 
commerce  and  the  defence  of  nations. 

The  aim  ol  the  rope-maker  is  to  unite  the 
strength  of  a  great  number  of  fibres.  This 
wouhl  be  done  in  the  coiupletest  manner  by 


IftllFlLE^f . 


«^ 


JR(Q)]L]LmG    MlIX 


Tr^rrtAJsni-iffT,  ^'iuhardjhjljips  .r^.^n'^f  Ji. 


I 


i 


laying  tlie  fibres  parallel  lo  each  otlif?r,  and 
tiistciiing  llii.'  buiidU;  at  tlnf  two  ends ;  hut 
tliis  would  bv  of  V^'ry  limited  use,  because 
tile  fibres  are  short,  not  cxceediii;;  three  feet 
and  a  half  at  an  aveiaije.  Tliev  inul  there- 
fore be  entangled  together,  in  such  a  manner, 
that  the  strenglh  of  a  (ibre  shall  not  be  ;il)le 
to  draw  it  out  from  among  tlie  rest  of  the 
bundle.  This  is  done  by  twisting  or  twining 
them  together,  whicli  causes  them  mutually 
to  compress  cai  li  otiier.  When  the  (ibres 
are  so  disposed  in  a  long  skain,  that  their 
ends  succeed  each  other  along  its  length, 
without  many  of  them  meeting  in  one  place  ; 
and  this  skain  is  twisted  round;  we  may 
cause  them  to  com|)resi  each  other  to  any 
degree  wi-  please  ;  and  tlie  IViclion  on  a  fibre 
which  we  attempt  to  ])ull  out  mav  be  more 
than  its  cohesion  can  overcome.  It  will  there- 
fore break.  Conseipiently,  if  we  pull  at  this 
twisted  skain,  we  sliall  not  separate  it  by 
chawing  one  parcel  out  from  among  the  rest, 
but  the  whole  fibres  will  break;  and  if  the 
distribution  of  the  fibres  hai  be(Mi  very 
et[uable,  the  skain  will  be  nearly  of  the  same 
strength  in  every  part.  If  there  is  any  part 
where  many  ends  of  fibres  meet,  the  skain 
will  break  in  that  part. 

We  know  very  well  that  we  can  twist  a- 
skain  of  fibres  so  very  hard,  that  it  will  break 
with  any  attempt  to  twist  it  harder.  In  tliis 
State  all  the  fibres  are  already  strained  to  the 
utmost  of  their  strength.  Such  a  skain  of 
filnes  can  have  no  ^treiigth.  It  cannot  carry 
a  weight,  because  each  fibre  is  already  strain- 
ed in  the  same  manner  as  if  loaded  with  as 
much  weight  as  it  is  able  to  bear.  What  we 
have  said  of  this  e.\treme  case  is  true  in  a 
certain  extent  of  every  degree  of  twist  that 
we  give  the  fibres.  Whatever  force  is  actu- 
ally exerted  by  a  twisted  fibre,  in  ord.;r  tliat 
it  may  sutiiciently  compress  the  rest  to  hinder 
them  from  being  drawn  out,  must  be  consi- 
dered as  a  weight  hanging  on  that  fibie,  and 
must  be  deducted  from  its  absolute  strength 
of  cohesion,  before  we  can  estimate  the 
strengtli  of  the  skain.  The  strength  of  the 
skain  is  tlie  remainder  of  the  absolute  strength 
of  the  fibres,  alter  wc  have  deduced  the  force 
employed  in  twisting  them  together.  From 
this  observation  may  be  established  a  fumla- 
Kieiital  principle  in  rope-making,  that  all 
twisting,  beyond  what  is  necessary  for  pre- 
venting the  fibres  from  being  drawn  out  with- 
out breaking,  diminishes  the  strength  of  the 
cordLige,  and  should  be  avoided  when  in  our 
pow  er. 

It  is  necessary  then  to  twist  the  fibres  of 
lie.np  together,  in  order  to  make  a  rope  ; 
but  wo  should  make  a  very  bad  rope  if  we 
contented  ourselves  with  twisting  together  a 
bunch  ot  hemp  sufiiciently  large  to  withstand 
the  strain^■  to  which  the  rope  is  to  be  exposed. 
As  soon  as  we  let  it  go  out  of  our  hands,  it 
would  untwist  itself,  and  be  again  a  loose 
bundle  of  hemp;  for  the  libres  are  strained, 
and  they  are  in  a  considerable  degree  elastic  ; 
they  contract  again,  and  thus  untwist  the 
rope  or  sktiin.  It  is  necesv.iry  to  contrive 
the  twist  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  tenilencv 
to  untwist  ill  one  part  inay  act  against  the 
siaiiie  tendency  in  another  and  balance  it. 
Ilic  process,  therefore,  of  rope-making  is 
luo.'e  compficated. 

Tiie  iirst  part  of  this  process  is  spinning  of 
ropc-yarn.s,  liiat  is,  Cwistiiig  the  hemp  ia  the 


IIOPE-MAKIN'G. 

first  instance.  This  is  done  in  vaiious  ways, 
and  with  dilferent  machinctry,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  intended  I'oidage.  We  shall 
conline  our  description  to  tlur  manufacture  of 
the  larger  kinds,  such  as  are  used  for  the 
standing  and  running  rigging  of  ships. 

An  alley  or  w  alk  is  inclosi;d  for  the  pur- 
posi-,  about  'JOO  fathoms  long,  and  of  a  breadth 
suited  to  the  extent  of  the  manufacture.  It  is 
sometimes  covered  above.    At  the  ujiper  end 
of  this  rope-walk  is  set  up  the  spinniiig-»  heel, 
of  a  form  resembling  that:  in  I'lale  iMiscel. 
fig.  iJlO.     The  band  of  this  wheel  goes  over 
several  rollers  called  whirls,  turning  on  pi- 
vots in  brass  holes.     The  pivots  at  one  end 
come  through  the  frame,  and  terminate  in 
little   hooks.     The  wheel   being  turned  by  a 
winch,  gives   motion  in   one  direction   to  all 
those  wiiirl-i.     The  spinner  has  a  bundle  of 
dres.^cd  hemp  round  his  waist,  with  the  two 
ends  meeting  before  him.     The  lieni])  is  laiil 
in  this  bundle  in  the  same  way  that  women 
spread  the  lla.>;  on  thedistali'.    There  is  great 
variety  in  this  ;  but  the  general  aim  is  to  lay 
the  libres  in  such  a  manner,  that  as  long  as 
the  bundle    lasts   there    may  be   an   equal 
number  of  the  ends  at   the   extremity,  and 
that  a  fibre  may  never  offer  itself  double  or 
in  a  bight.     The  spinner  draws  out  a  proper 
number  of  fibres,  twi>ts  them  with  his  fingers, 
and  iiaving  got  a  sufiicient  length   detached, 
he  fixes  it  to  the  hook  of  awhiri.     The  whe(fl 
is  now  turned,  and  the  skain  is  twisted,  be- 
coming what  is  called  a  rope-yarn,   and  the 
spinner  walks  backwards  down  the  rope-walk. 
The  part  already  twisted  draws  along  w  ith  it 
more  fibres  out  of  the  bundle.     The  spinner 
aids  this  with  his  fingers,  supplying  hemp  in 
due  |)roportion  as  lie  walks  away  from  the 
wheel,  and  taking  care  that  the  fibres  come 
in  equally  from  both  sides  of  his  bundle,  and 
that  they  enter  always  with  their  ends,  and 
not   by   the    middle,    which   would   double 
them.     He  should  also  endeavour   to  enter 
eveiy  fibre  at  the  heart  of  the   yarn.     Tliis 
will  cause  all   the  fibres   to  mix  equally  in 
making  it  'q),  and  will  make  the  work  smooth, 
because  one  end  of  each  fibre  is  by  this  means 
buried  among  the  rest,   and    the  other  end 
only    lies    outward  ;    and    this,    in     passing 
through  the  grasp  of  the  spinner,  who  pre.ises 
it  tight  with  his  thumb  and  palm,  is  al.-o  made 
to  li.'  Miiooth.     The  greatest  fault  that   can 
be  committed  in  spinning  is  to  allow  a  small 
thread  to  be  twisted  olf  from  one  side  of  the 
hemp,  and  then  to  cover  this  with  hemp  sup- 
plied from  the  other  side  ;  for  it  is  evident, 
that  the  fibres   of  the  central  thread  make 
very  long  spirals,  and  t!ie  skin  of  fibres  whicli 
covers  them  must  be  much  more  oblique. 
This  covering  has  but  little  connection  with 
what  is  bi-low  it,  and  will  easily  be  detached. 
But  even  while  it  remains,  the  yarn  cannot  be 
strong,  for   on  pulling  it,   the  middle  part, 
which  lies  the  straightest,  must  bear  all  the 
strain,   while  the  outer  fibres  that  are  lying 
ohlic|uely,  are  only  drawn  a  little  more  pa- 
rallel t)  the  axis.     This  defect  will  always 
happen  if  the  hemp  is  supplied  in  a  consider- 
able body  to   a   yarn  that  is  then  spinning 
small.      Into  whatever  part  of  the  yarn  it  is 
made  to  ciuer,   it  becomes  a  sort  of  looselv 
connected  wrapper.     Such  a  yarn,  when  im- 
twi-ted  a  little,  will  have  the  appearance  of 
fig.  -11.  while  a  good  yarn  looks  like  fig.  '2 1  ■-'. 
,  A  good  spinner  theretore  endeavours  alwavs 
I  to  supply  the  hemp  in  the  form  of  a  tbi;i  flat 
'  '  4G  2 


003 

skain  with  his  left  iiand,  wlvile  bis  right  ia 
employed  in  grasping  lirmly  the  yarn  that  i< 
twining  olf,  and  in  iiolding  it  liglit  from  tlie 
whirl,  that  it  may  not  run  into  loops  or 
kinks. 

It  is  evident,  that  botli  the  arrangement  ot 
the  fibres  and  the  degree  of  twistiiii!:  depcul 
on  the  skill  and  dexli.riiy  of  the  spinnc^r,  and 
that  he  must  be  insliucled,  not  by  a  book, 
but  by  a  master.     The  degree  of  twist  de- 
iiends  on  the  rate  of  the  wheel's  motion,  com- 
bined w  ith  the  retrograde  walk  of  the  spinner. 
We  may  suppose  him  arrived  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  walk,  or  as  far  as  is  necessary  lor 
the  intended  length  of  his  yarn.  He  calU  out, 
anil  another  spinner  iminediately  detaches  tlie 
yarn  troin  the  hook  of  the  whirl,  gives  it  to 
another,  who  carries  it  aside  to  the  reel :  and 
this  second  spinner  attaches  his  own  henijJ 
to  the  whirl-hook.     In  the  mean  time,  the 
first  spinner  keeps  fast  hold  of  the  end  of  im 
yarn;  for  the  liemp,  being  dry,  is  very  elas- 
tic, and  if  he  were  to  let  it  go  out  of  his  hand, 
it  would  instantly  untwist,  and  become  little 
better  than  loose  hemp.    lie  waits,  therefore, 
till  he  sees  the  reeler  begin  to  turn  the  reel, 
and  he  goes  slowly  up  the  walk,  keeping  the 
yarn  of  an  equal  tightness  all  the  way,  till  Iw 
arrives  at  the  wheel,  where  he  wails  with  his 
yam    in  his  hand  till   another   spinuer  lias 
finished  his  yarn.     The  first  spinner  takes  it 
otf  the  whirf-hook,  joins  it  to  his  own,  that  it. 
may  loUo.v  it  on  the  reel,  and  begins  a  new 
yarn. 

Hope-yarns,  for  t!ie  greatest  part  of  the 
large  rigging,  are  from  a  (piarter  of  an  incU 
to  somewhat  more  than  a  third  of  an  inch  in 
circumference,  or  of  such  a  size  that  160  fa- 
thoms weigh  from  3i  to  4  pounds  when  while. 
The  dilferent  sizes  of  yarns  are  named  from 
the  number  of  them  contained  in  a  strand  of 
a  rope  of  three  inches  in  circumference.  Few 
aresocoar.se  that  Ii5  will  make  a  strand  of 
liritish  cordage;  18  i.s  not  nnfre:|uent  for 
cable  yarns,  or  yarns  spun  from  liar->li  anJ 
coarse  hemj) ;  '25  is,  we  believe,  the  finest 
size  which  is  worked  up  for  Ih-,-  rigging  of  a 
ship.  Much,  finer  are  indeed  s])un  lor  sounvi- 
ing-lines,  fishing-lines,  and  many  other  ma- 
rine uses,  and  for  the  other  demands  of  so- 
ciety. Ten  good  spinners  will  work  u))  above 
0  )0  weight  of  hemp  in  a  day  ;  but  this  de- 
pends on  the  weather.  In  very  dry  weather 
the  hemp  is  very  elastic,  and  requires  great 
attention  to  make  smooth  work.  In  the 
warmer  climates  the  spinner  is  permitted  to 
moisten  the  rag  with  which  he  gra.sps  the  yai« 
ill  his  right  hand  lor  each  yarn.  No  work 
can  be  done  in  an  open  >jnnning-«alk  in 
rainy  weather,  because  the  y.irns  would  not 
take  on  the  tar,  if  immediately  tarreil,  and 
would  rot  it  kept  on  the  reel  for  a  long  time. 
The  second  part  of  the  process  is  the  con- 
version of  the  yarns  into  what  may  v.-ilh  pro- 
priety be  called  a  rope,  cord,  or  lii)".  'I'hat 
we  may  have  a  clear  conception  of  the  prin- 
ciple which  regulates  this  part  of  the  process, 
we  shall  begin  with  the  simplest  possible 
case,  the  union  of  two  yarns  into  one  line. 
This  is  not  a  very  usual  fabric  for  rigg'uig,  but 
we  select  it  for  its  simplicity. 

When  hemp  lias  been  split  into  vcrv  line 
librc^  by  the  hatchel,  it  becomes  cxceeJiugly 
soft  and  pliant,  and  alter  it  has  lain  for  iom* 
time  in  the  form  of  fine  yarn,  it  may  be  un- 
reeled and  Ibr-ownlouie,  witiioul  h-Uig  hibiA 


601 

of  its  twist.  Two  sac!)  yariis  may  oe  put  on 
the  wliirl  of  a  spiin>ing,\vlieel,  and  tlirown, 
like  flaxen  yam,  so  as  to  make  sewing  threiid. 
It  is  in  this" way,  indeed,  that  the  sailm^kers' 
sewing  thread  is  nianufjctured  ;  and  wlien  it 
Las  been  ke|)t  on  liie  reel,  or  on  balls  or  bob- 
bins, for  some  time,  it  ri:lains  its  twist  as  well 
as  its  uses  require.  lUit  this  is  by  no  means 
tiie  case  with  yarns  spun  tor  gr.at  cordage. 
'l"he  hen)p  is  so  elastic,  the  nmnber  of  librcs 
^A•i5ted  together  is  so  great,  and  the  diameter 
of  tlie  yarn  (which  is  a  soil  of  lever  on  wliich 
the  plasticity  of  the  fiui-e  exerts  itself)  is  so 
considerable,  that  do  keeping  will  make  tlie 
libres  retain  this  constrained  position.  The 
end  of  a  ro))^:-yarn  being  thrown  loose,  it 
will  inimedialely  UMtMi-.t,  and  this  with  con- 
siderable force  and  speed.  It  would,  there- 
fore, be  a  fruitless  attempt  to  twist  two  such 
yarns  together;  yet  the  iujenuity  of  man  has 
contrived  to  make  use  ol  lliis  very  tendency 
to  untwist  not  only  to  counteract  itself,  but 
even  to  produce  another  and  a  permanent 
twist,  which  retjuires  force  to  undo  it,  and 
which  will  recover  itself  when  this  force  is 
removed.  Every  person  must  recollect,  that 
wiien  he  had  twisted  a  packthread  very  hard 
with  his  fingers  between  his  two  hands,  if  he 
slackens  the  thread  by  bringing  his  hands 
nearer  together,  the  packthread  will  immedi- 
ately curl  up,  running  into  loops  or  kinks, 
and  will  even  twist  itself  into  a  neat  and  firm 
cord. 

The  component  parts  of  a  rojie  aie  called 
strands,  and  the  operatioji  of  uniting  them 
with  a  permanent  twist  is  called  lajing  or 
closing,  the  latter  term  being  chiefly  appro- 
priated to  cables  and  other  very  large  cord- 
age. 

Lines  and  cordage  less  llian  1 J  inches  cir- 
cumference are  laid  at  the  spinning-wlieel. 
The  workman  fastens  tlie  ends  of  each  of  two 
or  three  yarns  to  separate  whirl-hooks.     TJie 
remote  tinds  are  united  in  a  knot.     This  is 
put  on  one  of  the  hooks  of  a  swivel  called  the 
loper,  represented   in   fig.  213,   and   care  is 
taken  that  the  yarns  are  of  ecjual  length  and 
twist.     A  piece  of  soft  cord    is  put  on  tlie 
A)ther  liook  of  the  loper;  and,  being  put  over 
a  pulley   several   feet   from   the    ground,  a 
■weight  is   hung   on  it,   which  stretches  the 
yarn.     When  the  workman   sees  that  they 
are  equally  stretched,  he  orders  the  wheel  to 
be  turned  in  the  same  direction  as  when  twin- 
ing the  yarns.  This  would  twine  them  harder ; 
i>iit  the  swivel  of  the  loper  gives  way  to  the 
'train,     and    the    yarns    immediately   twist 
around  each  other,  and  form  a  line  or  cord. 
Jn  doing  this,  the  yarns  lose  their  twist.  This 
IS  restored   by  the  wheel,    lint  this  simple 
^•peration  would  make  a  very  bad  line,  which 
would  be  slack,  and  not   hold  its  twist;  for, 
by  the  turning  of  the  loper,  the  strands  twist 
lunnediately   together,    to   a   great  distance 
from  the  loper.     By  this  turning  of  the  loper 
the  yarns  are  untwisted.    'I'lie  wheel  restores 
llieir  twist  only  to  that  part  of  the  yarns  that 
remains  separate  from  tlie  others,  but  cannot 
do  it   in  that  part  wlnrc  they   are  already 
twhied  round  each  other,  because  their  mu- 
tual |)rcssure  prevents  the  twi.t  from  advanc- 
ing.    It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  retard  this 
tendency  to   twine,   by  keeping  the   yarns 
apart.     This  is  done  by  a  little  tool  called  tlie 
top,  represented  m  fig'  214. 

It  is  a  truncated  cone,  having  three  or  more 
notchci  along  its  iidcii,  and  a  handle  called 


ROPE-MAKING, 

the  siaiT.  This  is  put  between  the  strands,  ' 
the  small  end  next  the  loper,  and  it  is  pressed  j 
gently  into  the  angle  formed  by  the  )  arns  i 
which  lie  in  the  nolches.  ']  he  wheel  being  ; 
now  turned,  the  yarns  are  more  twisted,  or 
hardened  up,  and  their  pressure, on  the  top 
gives  it  a  strong  tendency  to  come  out  of  the 
aligle,  and  also  to  turn  round.  The  workman 
does  not  allow  this  till  he  thinks  the  yarns 
sufiiciently  hardened.  ^I'hen  heyieUlsto  the 
pressure,  and  the  top  comes  away  from  the 
swivel,  which  immediately  turns  round,  and 
the  luie  begins  to  lay.  Gradually  yielding  to 
this  jjressure,  the  workman  slowly  comes  up 
towards  the  wheel,  and  the  laying  goes  on, 
till  the  top  is  at  last  close  to  the  wheel,  anil 
the  work  is  done.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
yarns  are  shortened,  both  by  the  twining  of 
eacli  and  the  layingof  the  cord.  The  weight, 
therefore,  gradually  nses.  The  use  of  this 
weight  is  evidently  "to  oblige  the  yarn  to  lake 
a  proper  degree  of  twist,  and  not  run  into 
kinks. 

A  cord,  or  line,  made  in  this  w-ay,  has  al- 
ways some  tendency  to  twist  a  little  more. 
However  little  friction  there  may  be  in  the 
loper,  there  is  some,  so  that  the  turns  which 
the  cord  has  made  in  the  laying,  are  not 
enough  to  balance  completely  the  elasticity 
of  the  yams;  and  the  weight  being  append- 
ed, causes  the  strands  to  be  more  nearly  in 
the  direction  of  the  axis,  in  the  same  manner 
as  it  would  stretcli  and  untwist  a  little  any 
rope  to  which  it  is  hung.  On  the  whole, 
however,  the  twist  of  a  laid  line  is  permanent, 
and  not  like  that  upon  thread  doubled  or 
thrown  in  a  mill,  which  remains  only  in  con- 
sequence of  the  great  softness  and  llexibility 
of  the  yarn. 

The  process  for  laying  or  closing  large 
cordage  is  considerably  dilTerent  froni  this. 
The  strands  of  which  the  rope  is  composed 
consist  of  many  yarns,  and  require  a  consi- 
derable degree  of  hardening.  This  cannot 
be  done  by  a  whirl  driven  by  a  wheel-b.uul ; 
it  requires  the  power  of  a  crank  turned  by 
the  hand.  The  strands,  when  properly  hard- 
ened, become  very  stiff,  and  when  bent 
round  the  top,  are  not  able  to  transmit  force 
eiiougli  for  laying  tiie  lieavv  and  unpliant  rope 
which  forms  beyond  it.  Tlie  elastic  twist  of 
the  hardened  strands  must,  therefore,  be  as- 
sisted by  an  e.xternal  force.  All  this  requires 
a  dilferent  machinery  and  a  different  pro- 
cess. 

At  the  upper  end  of  the  walk  is  fixed  up 
the  tackle-board,  lig.  215.  This  consists  of  a 
strong  oaken  plank  called  a  breast-board, 
having  three  or  more  holes  in  it,  sucli  as  A, 
B,  C,  litted  with  brass  or  iron  plates.  Into 
these  are  put  iron  cranks,  called  heavers, 
which  have  hooks  or  torelocks,  and  kevs,  on 
the  ends  of  their  spindles.  They  are  placed 
at  such  a  distance  from  each  other,  that  the 
workmen  do  not  interfere  with  each  other 
while  turning  them  round.  This  breast-boanl 
is  fixed  to  the  top  of  strong  jjosts  well  secur- 
ed by  struts  or  braces  facing  the  lower  end  of 
the  walk.  Al  the  lower  end  is  another  breast- 
board  fixed  to  the  upright  posts  of  a  sledge, 
which  may  be  loaded  witli  stones  or  otlur 
weights.  "Similar  cranks  are  placed  in  the 
holes  of  this  breast-board.  Tiie  whole  goes 
by  the  name  of  the  sledge;  (see  fig.  -Mti). 
1  he  top  necessary  for  closing  large  cyrdage 
is  too  heavy  to  be  held  in  the  hand:  it  tliere- 
Ibrc  has  a  long  slal'f,  wliich  has  a  tiuck  on  the 


end.  This  rests  on  tlie  ground;  bi.t  even 
this  is  not  enough  in  laying  great  cables. 
The  top  must  be  supported  on  a  carriage,  as 
shown  in  fig.  317,  wliere  jl  must  lie  very 
steady,  and  it  needs  attendance,  because  the 
niaster  wxnknian  has  suliicient  employnieiit 
in  attending  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
strands  close  behind  the  top,  and  in  helping 
them  by  \arious  methods.  The  top  is,  there- 
fore,, fixed  to  the  carriage  by  lashing  its  staff 
to  the  two  upright  posts.  A  piece  of  soit 
ro|)e,  or  strap,  is  attached  (o  tlie  handle  of 
the  lop  by  the  middle,  and  its  two  ends  are 
brought  b.ick  and  wrapped  several  times  tight 
round  the  rope,  in  the  direction  of  its  twist, 
and  bound  down.  'I  his  is  shown  at  ^^',  and 
it  gieatly  assists  the  laying  of  the  rope  bv  its 
friction.  This  botli  keeps  the  top  from  fl'ving 
too  farfiom  the  point  of  union  of  the  strands, 
and  brings  the  strands  more  regiilarlv  into 
their  places. 

'I'he  first  operation  is  warping  the  yarns. 
At  each  end  of  the  walk  are  frames  called 
warping  frames,  which  carrv  a  great  number 
of  I'eels  or  winches  filled  v\illi  rope-yarn.  Tlie 
fureiuan  of  the  walk  takesotf  a  yarn  end  from 
each,  till  he  has  made  up  the  number  neces- 
sary for  his  rope  or  strand,  and  bringing  the 
eiuls  together,  he  passes  thewhol*'  through 
an  iron  ring  fixed  to  the  top  of  a  stake  driven 
into  the  ground,  and  draws  them  through: 
then  a  knot  is  tied  on  the  end  of  the  bundle, 
and  a  workman  pulls  it  through  this  ring  till 
the  intended  length  is  drawn  off  the  reels. 
The  end  is  made  fMt  at  the  bottom  of  the 
walk,  or  at  the  sledge,  and  the  foreman  comes 
back  along  the  skain  of  yarns,  to  see  that  none 
are  hanging  slacker  than  the  rest.  He  takes 
up  in  his  hand  such  as  are  slack,  and  draws 
them  tight,  keeping  them  so  till  he  reaches 
the  upper  end,  where  he  cuts  the  yarns  to  a 
length,  again  adjusts  their  tightness,  and  joins 
them  all  together  in  a  knot,  To  which  he  fixes 
the  hookof  a  tackle,  the  other  block  ofwhicii 
is  fixed  to  a  firm  post,  called  the  warping- 
post.  The  skain  is  will  stretched  by  this 
tackle,  and  then  separated  into  its  different 
strands.  Each  of  these  is  knotted  apart  at 
both  ends.  The  knots  at  their  upjier  ends 
are  made  fast  to  the  hooks  of  the  cranks  in 
the  tackle-board;  and  those  at  the  lower  ends 
are  fastened  to  the  cranks  in  the  sledge.  The 
sledge  itself  is  kept  in  its  place  by  a  tackle, 
by  which  the  strands  are  again  stretched  in 
their  places,  and  every  thing  adjusted,  so 
that  the  sledge  stands  square  on  the  walk, 
and  then  a  proper  weight  i«  laid  on  it.  Tie 
tackle  is  now  cast  off,  and  the  cranks  zvi- 
turned  at  both  ends,  in  the  contrary  direction 
to  the  twist  of  the  yarns.  (In  some  kinds  of 
cordage  the  cranks  are  turned  the  same  way 
with  the  spinning  tw  i«t).  I!v  this  the  slraiuis 
are  twisted  and  hardened  up  ;  and  as  they 
contract  by  this  operation,  the  sleilge  is  drag- 
ged up  the  walk.  \\  hen  the  foreman  thinks 
the  strands  sufficiently  hardened,  which  he 
e-timates  by  the  motion  of  the  sledge,  he  or- 
ders the  heavers  at  the  cranks  to  slop.  The 
middle  strand  at  the  sledge  is  taken  off  from 
the  crank.  This  crank  is  taken  out,  and  a 
stronger  one  put  in  its  place  at  I),  fig.  31  (i. 
The  other  strands  are  taken  off  from  their 
cranks,  and  are  all  joined  on  the  hook  which 
is  now  ill  the  middle  hole.  The  top  is  then 
placed  between  tin;  strands,  and  being  pressett 
home  to  the  point  of  their  union,  the  carriage 
is  placed  luider  it,  aud  it  is  firmly  fi.xed 


clown.  Pome  wciglit  Is  Inkcnofflhe  slfdge. 
The  hiMvuis  now  In-giii  tu  Uii'ii  al  l)olli  fiuls. 
Those  at  till;  tatkle-board  coiitiiuic  to  luni 
as  they  did  belbie ;  but  tin;  lieuvcrs  at  tlie 
bledge  turn  in  the  opposite  ilireclioii  to  their 
former  luotion,  so  that  the  crauks  at  liuth 
cads  are  now  tiirn'iig  one  way.  My  tlie  mo- 
tion of  tlie  sli'.lge-eraiik  tlie  lop  is,  forced 
away  from  the  knot,  and  the  rope  befjins  to 
clo^e.  'J  he  h-aviiig  at  theumir'r  end  re- 
stores to  the  strand  the  twist  wnich  they  are 
constanllv  losing  by  the  laying  of  the  rope, 
'j'he  worlviiien  jndge  of  this  by  makiiis;  a 
chalk  mark  on  intx-rinediale  points  i>f'  the 
slraiul-i,  where  tliry  he  on  the  stakes  which 
are  set  up  alonj^  liic  walk  forllieir  sii^iport. 
If  the  twist'of  the  strands  is  diniinished'by 
the  motion  of  closing,  they  will  Icngllieii,  and 
the  chalk  maik  will  move  away  from  the 
tackle-board  ;  but  if  the  twist  increases  by 
turninc;  the  cranks  at  the  tackle-board,  the 
strands  will  shorten,  and  the  mark  will  come 
nearer  to  it. 

As  the  closing  of  tlie  rope  advance:;,  the 
V.  hole  sliorlens,  and  tli<;  sledge  is  dragged  up 
the  walk.  The  top  moves  faster,  and  at  last 
reaches  the  upper  end  of  the  walk,  the  rope 
being  now  laitl.  In  the  mean  time,  the  sledge 
has  moved  several  fathoms  from  the  place 
where  it  was  when  the  laying  began. 

These  motions  of  the  sledge  and  top  must 
be  exactly  adjiistetl  to  eiicli  other.     '1  he  rope 
must  be  of  a  certain  h-nglh.     Therefore  llie 
sledge  must  stop  at  a  certain  place.     At  that 
moment  the  rope  should  be  laiti ;  that  is,  the 
top  should  be  at  the  tackle-board.     In  this 
consists  the  address  of  the  foreman.     He  has 
his  attention  directed  both  ways.     He  looks 
ht  the  strands,  and  when  he  sees  any  of  tliem 
hanging  slacker  between  the  stakes  than  the 
others,  lie  calls  to  tiie  heavers  at  the  tackle- 
lioard  to  heave  more  upon  that  stranil.     He 
finds  it  more  ditficult  to  regulate  tlie  motion 
of  the  lop.     It  retiuires  a  considerable  force 
to  keep  it  in  the  angle  of  the  strands,  and  it 
is   alwa\s    disposed  to  start  forward.      To 
prevent  or  check  this,  some  straps  of  soft 
rope    are    brought   round   the   stall"  of   the 
fop,  and  then  wrapped  several  times  round 
the   rope  behind  the  top,  and  kept  firmly 
down    by    a     lanyard    or    bandage,    as     is 
shown  in  the  figure.     This  both  holds  back 
the  top,  and  greatly  assists  the  laying  of  the 
rope,  cau.-ing  the  strands  to  fall   into  their 
places,  and  keep  i lose  to  each  other,  which 
i-  sometimes  very  difficult,  especially  in  ropes 
composed  of  more  than  three   strands.     It 
will  greatly  improve  the  laying  the  rope,  if 
the  top  has  a  sharp,  smooth,  tapering  pin  of 
)iard  wood,  pointed  at  the  end,  projecting  so 
far  from  the  mitldle  of  its  smaller  end,  tiiat  it 
gets  in  between  the  strands  which  are  clos- 
ing.    This  supports  them,  and  makes  their 
closing  more  gradual  and  regular.     The  top, 
its  notches,  the  ]iin,  and  the  warp  or  strap, 
wliicli  is  lapped  round  the  rope,  are  all  smear- 
ed with  grease  or  soap  to  assist  the  closing. 
The  foreman  judges  ot  the  progress  of  clos- 
ing chiefly  by  his  acquaintance  with  the  walk, 
knowing  that  when  the  sledge  is  abreast  of  a 
certain  stake,  the  top  should  be  abreast  of  a 
certain  other  stake.     When  he  finds  the  top 
too  far  down  the  walk,  he  slackens  the  mo- 
tion at  the  tackle-board,  and  makes  the  men 
turn  briskly   at  the  sledge.     By  this  the  top 
is  forced  up  the  walk,  and  the  laying  of  the 
■j;o^e  accelerates,  while  the  sledge  remaiiibiii 


KOrE'MAKINf;. 

the  ?amc  place,  because  the  strands  are  loos- 
ing their  twist,  and  are  lengthening,  while  the 
closed  rope  is  shortening.  \\'h<  n,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  thinks  the  top  loo  far  advanc- 
ed, and  fears  that  it,  will  be  at  tliu  head  of  the 
walk  before  the  sledge  has  got  tg  its  proper 
place,  he  makes  the  men  lieave  bn-kiv  on 
thfc  strands,  and  the  heavo•^.at  llie  sledge- 
crank  work  so.'ll)  .  'I'his  (|irn:keiis  the  inotiou 
of  the  sledge  by  sliorleiii|ig  the  strands ;  and 
by  thus  compensating  v. hul  his  been  over- 
done, the  sledge  and.  top  come  t>  their  places 
ht  once,  and  tlie  \york  appcjxs  to  aMs\v i;r  tlje 
intej'.tion.  .;.... 

'  \\'lien  the  (op  ,'ipproachcs  the  tacklp-board, 
the  heaving  at  the  sledge  could  not  cause 
the  strands  immediately  behind  the  top  to 
close  well,  wilhoul  having  previously  produc- 
ed an  extravagant  debtee  of  tw;ist  in  the  in- 
lerincdialc   rope.  '  T  he   effort  of  the  crank 
niiiht  therefore  be  assisted  bv  men  stationed 
along  the  'rope,  each  furnlslie'd  with  a  tool 
called  a  wooldi:r.     'J'his  is  a  stout  oak  stick, 
about  three  feet  long,  having  a  strap  of  soft 
rope-yarn  or  cordage  fastened  on  its  middle 
or  end.    The  strap  is  wrapped  round  the  laid 
rope,  and  the  workman  works  with  the  slick 
as  a  lever,  twisting  the  rope  round  In  the  di- 
rection of  the  crank's  molion.     The  wool- 
ders  should  keep  their  eye  on  the  men  at  the 
crank,   and   make  their  motion   correspond 
with  his.     Thus  they  send  forward  the  twist 
produced  by  the  crank,   without   either  in- 
creasing or  diminishing  it,  in  that  part  of  the 
rope  which  lies  between  them  and  the  sledge. 
.Such  is  the  general  and  essential  process 
of  rope-making.      The  fibres  of  hemp  are 
twisted  into  yarns,  tliat  they  may  make  a  line 
of  any  Itngtii,  and  stick  aii>ong  each  other 
with  a  force  equal  to  their  own  cohesion.  The 
yarns  are  made  into  cords  of  permanent  twist 
by  laying  tlicni;  and  that  we  may   have  a 
rope  of  any  degree  of  strength,  many  yarns 
are  united  in  one  strand,  for  the  same  reason 
that  many  libres  were  united  in  one  yarn  ; 
and  in  the  course  of  this  process  it  is  in  our 
power  to  give  tiie  rope  a  solidity  and  hard- 
ness which  make  it  less  penetrable  by  water, 
which  would  rot  it  in  a  short  while.     Some 
of  these  purpo.ses  are  inconsistent  with  others; 
aiid  the  skill  of  a  rope  maker  lies  in  making 
the  best  compensation,  so  that  the  rope  may 
on  the  whole  be  the  best  m  point  of  strength, 
|)liancy,  and   duration,   liiat  the  quantity  of 
hemp  in  it  can  produce. 

The  following  rule  for  judging  of  the  weight 
which  a  rope  will  bear  is  not  far  from  the 
truth.  It  supposes  them  rather  too  strong ; 
but  it  is  so  easily  remembered  that  it  may  be 
of  use. 

Multiply  the  circumference  in  inches  by 
itself,  and  take  the  fifth  part  of  the  product, 
it  wdl  express  the  tons  which  the  rope  will 
carry.  Thus,  if  the  rope  has  6  inches  cir- 
cumference, 6  times  6  is  36,  the  fifth  of  which 
is  7i  tons;  apply  this  to  the  rope  of  3,-1.,  on 
which  sir' Charles  Knowles  made  his  experi- 
ments 3i  X  3i=  10,25,  A  of  which  is  2,05 
tons,  or  4592  pounds.     It  broke  w'ith  4550. 

This  may  suffice  for  an  account  of  the 
mechanical  part  of  the  manufacture.  But 
we  have  taken  no  notice  of  the  operation  of 
tarring;  and  our  reason  v/as,  that  the  methods 
practised  in  dilferent  rope-works  are  so  ex- 
ceedingly different^  that  we  could  hardly 
enumerate  them,  or  even  give  a  general  at- 


60S 

count  of  tl:err).  II  is  evidently  proper  to  tar 
in  the  state  of  twine  or  yarn,  tiiis  being  the 
only  Wily  that  the  liemfi  could  be  uniformly 
penetraled.  'J  he  yarn  is  made  to  wind  off 
one  reel,  and  having  passed  through  a  vessel 
containincf  hot  tar,  it  is  wound  up  on  another 
reel  ;  and  the  superthioiis  tar  is  taken  off  by 
passing  through  a  hole  surrounded  witlr 
sponi'y  oakum  ;  or  it  is  tarred  in  skains  or 
hauU,  which  are  drawn  bv  a  capstern  through 
the  tiu-ketlli:;  and  tliroirgli  a  hole  formed  of 
Iwo  plat' s  of  metal,  held  together  by  a  lever 
loaded  with  a  weiehl. 

,  it  is  cstablishe  I  beyond  a  'loubt,  that  a 
tairtd  cordage  when  iiew  is  weaker  than 
while,  aiKJ  thai  the  dillerence  increases  by 
kecpuig.  The  following  i-xperhnents  were 
made  by  Mr.  Ou  llanul  at  Huchetiirt  on 
cordage  of  three  inches  (iTeiich)  in  circuni- 
I'  ic  III  I-,  made  of  the  best  Kiga  hemp. 
August  8,  174!. 
AVhi'.e.  Tarred. 

Broke  with  4;">i)()  pounds.       3400  pounds. 
4(100  3300 

4h00         -  3','50 

April  25,  1743. 
4f:i00  3500 

5OI-0  34fi0 

iii'i;)  3J0O 

Sept,  3,  1746. 
3'' I)  3000 

4   ,.;)  2700' 

4-.'iiii  'js'io 

A  parcel  of  white  and  tarred  cordage  was 
taken  out  of  a  <|uanlity  which  had  lieen  maiis* 
I'ebruary  12,  1740.  /It  was  laid  up  in  tlie 
magazines,  and  comparisons  were  made  from 
time  to  time  as  follows: 

\\  hite  Ixire.  Tarred  bore.  DifTer. 

1746,  April  14,  2645  lbs.   2312  lbs.  333 

1747,  May  18,  27r,2     2155     607 

1747,  Oct.  21, '.'710     2050     660 

1748,  June    19,2575  1752  823 

1748,  Oct.      2,2425  18.)7  S88 

1749,  Sept.  25,  2917  ll^GS  1052 

Mr.  Du  llamel  says,  that  it  is  decided  bv 
experience,  !.  That  white  cordai-;i- in  coirli- 
uual  service  is  one-lhiid  more  durable  than 
tarred.  2.  That  it  retains  its  three  much 
longer  while  kept  in  store.  3.  Th  ;t  it  resists 
the  ordinary  injuries  of  the  weather  one-fourlfi 
longer. 

\\  e  know  this  one  remarkiible  fact:  in 
1T58  the  shrowils  and  stays  of  the  Sheer  hulk 
at  Portsmouth  do.k-yard  were  over-haule'l, 
and  w  hen  the  worminii  and  seiviee  w ere  takeri 
off,  they  were  found  to  be  of  wliile  cordage. 
On  examining  the  store-keeper's  books,  they 
were  found  to  have  been  formerly  the  shrowos 
and  rigging  of  the  Koyal  William,  of  110 
guns,  built  in  1715,  and  rigged  in  1716.  She 
was  thought  top-heavy,  and  unfit  for  sea,  anil 
unrigged,  and  her  stores  laid  up.  Some  few 
years  afterwards,  her  shrowds  and  stavs  were 
fitted  on  Ihe  Sheer  hulk,  where  they  remainea 
in  constant  and  very  hard  service  for  about 
30  years,  while  eveiy  tarred  rope  about  her 
had  been  repeatedly  renewed. 

Why  then  do  we  tar  cordage  r  It  is  cliieflj- 
serviceable  for  cables  and  ground  tackle, 
which  must  be  conlimially  welted,  and  even 
soaked.  The  result  of  careful  observation  is, 
1.  That  white  cordage,  exposed  to  be  alter- 
nately very  wet  and  dry,  is  weaker  than 
tarred  cordage.  2.  That  cordage  which  is 
2 


C06 


R  O  5 


superficially  tarred  is  constantly  stronger 
than  what  is  tarred  throughout,  and  it  resists 
better  the  alternatives  of  wet  and  dry.  Tlie 
*(ironds  of  the  Sheer  luilk  were  well  tarred 
and  blaiked,  so  that  it  was  not  known  that 
Ihev  «ere  of  white  cordage. 

Attempts  li;ive  been  made  to  increase  the 
strength  of  cordage  by  tanning.  Hut  although 
it  remains  a  con^taiit  practice  in  the  manu- 
facture of  nets,  it  does  not  appear  that  much 
addition,  eitlier  of  strength  or  durabihty,  can 
be  given  to  cordage  by  this  means.  The  trial 
has  been  made  with  great  care,  and  by  per- 
sons fully  able  to  conduct  the  process  with 
propriety.  But  it  is  found  that  tlic  yarns 
take  so  long  tim(?  in  drying,  and  are  so  much 
iiurt  by  <lrying  slowlv.'that  the  room  requir- 
ed for  a  considerable  rope-work  would  be 
immense;  and  the  improvement  of  the  cord- 
age is  l)Ut  triHing,  and  even  equivocal. 

ROSA,  the  rosr,  a  genus  of  the  polygynia 
order,  in  the  icosandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  3jth 
order,  senticosM.  There  are  live  petals ; 
the  calvx  is  urceolated,  quiuquefid,  carnous, 
and  straitened  at  the  neck.  The  seeds  are 
nuaierous,  hispid,  and  affixed  to  the  inside 
of  the  calyx.  The  sorts  of  roses  are  very 
numerous ;  and  the  botanists  find  it  very 
difficult  to  determine  with  accuracy  which 
arc  species  and  which  are  varieties,  as  well 
as  which  are  varieties  of  the  respective  spe- 
cies. On  this  account  Linn.vns,  and  some 
other  eminent  author-,  are  inclined  to  think 
that  there  is  only  one  real  species  of  rose, 
which  is  the  rosa  canina,  or  dog-rose  of  the 
hedges,  &c.  and  that  all  the  other  sorts  are 
accidental  varieties  of  it.  According,  how- 
ever, to  the  present  arrangement,  they  stand 
divided  into  40  supposed  species,  each  com- 
prehending varieties,  which  in  some  sorts  are 
but  few,  in  others  numerous.  The  most  re- 
markable species,  and  their  varieties,  accord- 
ing t.i  tlie  arrangement  of  modern  botanists, 
are  as  follow : 

1.  The  canina,  canine  rose,  wild  dog-rose 
of  the  hedges,  or  ln-ivtree.  There  are  two 
varieties,  reiKlowered  luid  whitc-llowered. 
They  grow  wild  in  hedges  abundantly  all 
over  the  kingdom;  and  are  sometimes  ad- 
mitted into  gardens;  a  few  to  increase  the 
variety  of  the  shruWjery  collection. 

2.  The  alba,  or  common  wliitc-rose.  The 
varieties  are ;  large  double  white  rose ;  dwarf 
single  white  rose  ;  maidens-b'.ush  white  rose, 
being  large,  produced  in  clusters,  and  of  a 
■while  and  blueish-red  colour. 

.^.  The  gallica,  or  Gallican  rose,  &c.  This 
species  is  verv  extensive  in  supposed  \-.n-ie- 
ties,  several  of  which  have  been  formerly 
considered  as  distinct  species,  but  are  now 
ranged  among  the  varieties  of  flif  Gallican 
rose,  consisting  of  the  following  noted  varie- 
ties. 

Common  red  officinal  rose.  Eosa  innndi 
(rose  of  the  world)  or  striped  red  rose  ;  Yoik 
and  Lancaster  variegated  rosp  ;  monthly  ro-^c, 
prtxUicing  middle-size. I,  moderatcly-ifonhle, 
dflicale  (lowers,  of  dilVerPiit  colours  in  thr* 
viirietics.  Thi:  varieties  are,  common  red- 
fl  iwered  monthly  ro>e,  blush-flowered,  white- 
flowrred,  siripe-liowered  ;  all  of  which  blow 
hoih  enriy  and  late,  and  uften  produi  e  (lowers 
several  moiilhs  in  the  yar,  as  Mav,  June, 
and  July;  and  frcquenlly  again  in  August  or 
September,  and  soinetiinei  in  fine  mild  sca- 


R  O  S 

sons,  continue  till  November  or  December. 
Hence  the  name  monthly  rose,  double  virgin 
rose. 

4.  The  damascena,  including  the  red  da- 
mask rose,  white  damask  rose,  blueish  Belgic 
rose,  red  Belgic  rose.  Velvet  rose  grows 
three  or  four  feet  high,  armed  with  but  few 
prickles  ;  producing  large  velvet-red  flowers, 
comprising  semidouble  and  double  varieties, 
all  very  beautiful  roses.  Warbled  rose  grows 
four  or  five  feet  high,  having  brownish 
branches,  with  but  few  prickles;  and  a  large, 
double,  linely-marbled,  red  liower. 

5.  The  hitea,  including  the  red  and  yellow 
Austrian  rose,  yellow  Austrian  rose,  double 
yellow  rose. 

fi.  The  centifolia,  or  hundred  leaved  red 
rose,  &c.  The  varieties  are  ;  common  Dutch 
hundred-leaved  rose,  bluish  hundred-leaved 
rose. 

7.  The  provincialis,  or  Provence  rose.  The 
varieties  are;  common  red  I'rovence  rose, 
and  pale  Provence  rose ;  both  of  which  liav- 
ing  larger  and  somewhat  looser  petals  than 
the  foiiav.ing  sort.  Cabbage  Provence  ro«e, 
having  the'  petals  closely  folded  over  one  an- 
other like  cabbages ;  Dutch  cabbage  rose, 
very  large,  and  cabbages  tolerably  ;  childing 
Pro'vence  rose;  great  royal  rose,  producing 
remarkably  large,  somewhat  loo>e,  but  very 
elegant  tlowcrs.  All  these  are  large  double 
red  flowers,  somewhat  globular  at  lirst  blow- 
ing, hocomiug  gradu.illy  a  little  spreading  at 
top,  and  are  all  very  ornanienlal  fragrant 
roses. 

8.  The  mnscosa,  or  moss  Provence  rose, 
supposed  by  some  a  variety  of  the  common 
rose,  having  the  calyx  and  upper  part  of  the 
peduncle  surrounded  with  a  rough  mossy-like 
substance,  effecting  a  curious  singularity. 

9.  The  ciiinamomea,  or  cinnamon  rose. 
There  are  varieties  with  doublc-tlowers. 

10.  The  alpina,  or  Alpine  inermous  rose. 
This  species,  as  being  free  from  all  kind  oi 
armature  common  to  the  other  sorts  of  roses, 
is  esteemed  as  a  singularity  ;  and  from  this 
property  is  often  called  the  virgin  rose. 

11.  The  Carolina,  or  Carolina  and  Virgi- 
nia rose,  &c.  grows  six  or  eiglit  teet  high,  or 
more.  The  varieties  are;  duarf  IVnnsyl- 
vania  rose,  with  single  and  double  red  (lowers. 
American  pale-red  rose.  '1  his  species  and 
varieties  grow  naturally  in  dilierent  parts  of 
North  America;  they  effect  a  rine  variety  in 
onr  gardens,  and  are  in  estimation  for  their 
late-lloweruig  property,  as  they  often  con- 
tinue in  blow  from  August  until  OcUsbtr ; 
anil  the  flowers  are  succeeded  by  numerous 
red  berry-like  heps  in  autunni,  causing  a  va- 
riety all  winter. 

12.  The  villosa,  or  villose  apple-bearing 
rose,  grows  six  or  eight  feet  high.  This  spe- 
cies merits  admittance  into  every  collection 
as  a  curiosity  for  the  singularity  of  its  fruit, 
both  for  variety  and  use;  for  having  a  thicjv 
pulp  of  an  agreeable  acid  relish  ;  this  is  often 
made  into  a  tolerably  good  sweetmeat. 

13.  The  pimpinellifolia,  or  burnet-leaved 
rose.  'I'here  are  varieties  with  rerl  (lowers, 
and  with  white  flowers.  They  grow  wild  in 
England,  &c.  and  are  cultivated  in  shrubbe- 
ries for  variety. 

14.  The  spinosissiina,  or  most  spinous, 
dwarf  burnet-leaved  rose,  commonly  called 
Sccrtch  rose.  The  varieties  are:  common 
while-liowcred,  red-flow ercv^l,  striped-tlower- 


R  O  S 

ed,  marble-dowered.  1  hey  grow  nalnralty 
in  Kngland,  Scotland,  Uc.  The  tir>t  varieiy 
rises  near  a  yard  high,  the  others,  but  one  or 
l\T0  feet,  all  of  which  are  singli-llowered  ; 
but  the  (lowers,  being  numerous  all  over  tlu* 
branches,  make  a  pretty  appeal  ancc  in  the 
CBJIection. 

15.  The  eelanteria,  eglantine  rose,  or 
sweet-brier.  The  varieiies  are;  common 
single-flow  ertd,  seini-double-flowered,  dou- 
ble-flowered, bluish  double  flowered,  vi  How 
flowered.  This  species  grows  naturally  in 
some  parts  of  Jingland  and  Switzerland.  It 
claims  culture  in  every  garden  for  the  odori- 
ferous propeity  of  its  leaves;  and  should  be 
planted  in  the  borders,  and  other  compart- 
ments contiguous  to  walks,  or  near  tlie  habi- 
tation, where  the  plants  will  impart  their  re- 
freshing fragrance  very  profusely  all  around  ; 
and  the  young  branches  are  excellent  for  im- 
proving the  odour  of  nosegays  and  boupnts. 

16.  'J  he  luoschata,  or  musk  rose,  supposed 
to  be  a  variety  only  of  the  ever-green  nnisk- 
ro^e;  has  all  the  branches  teiniinatedby  large 
umbellate  clusters  nf  pure  while  niusk-stenl- 
ed  (lowers  in  August,  &.-c. 

17.  The  semixrvircns,  or  evergreen  musk- 
rose.  The  sempervirent  property  of  this  ele- 
gant species  renders  it  a  curiosity  among  the 
rose  tribe:  it  aKo  makes  a  fine  appearance  as 
a  flowering  shrub.  There  is  one  variety,  the 
deciduous  imisk-rose  above-mentioned.  This 
species  and  variety  flower  in  August,  and  is 
remarkable  for  producing  thein  numerou>ly 
in  clusters,  continuing  in  succession  till  Oc- 
tober or  November. 

18.  The  semper  flowers,  or  deep-red  Chi- 
na rose,  a  most  beautiful  little  plant,  and 
well  deserving  the  epithet  of  ever-blowing. 

19.  The  chinensis,  or  pale  China  rose, 
which  flowers  almost  the  whole  year. 

These  two  last  species  were  supposed  to  be 
so  tender,  as  always  to  require  the  shelter  of 
a  green-house ;  but  we  can  say  from  expe- 
rience that  they  are  nearly  as  hardy  as  any  of 
our  Engli^h  roses. 

The  wJiite  and  red  roses  are  used  in  medi- 
cine. The  former  ilistilled  with  water  yields 
a  small  portion  of  a  bulyraceous  oil,  who-c 
flavour  exactly  reseiii')les  that  of  the  roses 
themselves.  '1  his  oil,  and  the  distilled  water, 
arc  verv  useful  and  agreeable  cordials.  These 
roses  also,  bes  <les  the  cordial  and  .-.romatic 
virtues  which  reside  in  their'vol.itile  parts, 
have  a  mild  purgative  one,  which  renuiiuij 
entire  in  the  decoction  alter  distillation.  The 
red  rose,  on  the  contrary,  has  an  astringent 
and  gratefully  corroborating  virtue. 

ROSE.    See  Rosa. 

ROSEMARY.   See  Ros.marinus. 

ROSIDUEA,  a  genus  of  the  rla^s  and  or- 
der pentandria  monoevnia.  The  calyx  is 
(ive-leaved  ;  corolla  live-petalled;  anthers 
scrotiform;  capsiiU;  three-valved.  There  is 
one  spe<ies,  a  sniCrncticose  plant  of  the  Caper. 

ROS.Nt.ARlNUS,  rn-nmarii,  a  genus  of 
the  monogvnia  order,  in  the  diandria  class  of 
plants,  ami  in  the  natural  meljnid  ranking 
mider  the  42(1  ord.r,  verticill.it;e.  The  co- 
rolla is  nnxiual,  With  its  upper  hp  bipaitite; 
the  filaments  are  long,  curved,  and  simple, 
each  having  a  small  dent.  'J'here  are  iwo 
species,  the  officinalis  and  chilensis.  Theie 
are  two  varieties,  of  the  first  sort,  one  with 
white  Btriped  leaves,  called  the  silver  rose- 


ROT 

jiiir* ,  aiicl  tlif  otlier  with  _v<:lio\v,  whence  it  i-> 
callJd  the  giild-stripod  rosemary.  'I'iicse 
planlsgrow  iialuraiiy  in  the  southern  parts  of 
rniiKM-',  ijpain,  and  [t,ily;  wht;ro,  upon  dry 
rocky  soils  ntar  the  soa,  they  thrive  pr^idigi- 
ou^ly,  and  perfume  th>^  air  in  sucli  a  manner 
as  to  be  smelt  at  a  great  distance  from  tlie 
land.  'I'liey  are,  iiowevifr,  hardy  enough  to 
bear  the  eold  of  our  ordinary  winters,  provid- 
ed they  arc  planted  upon  a  pi/or,  dry,  gravelly 
siiil,  on  wliieh  they  all  endure  tlu'  cold  niucli 
betlrr  than  in  a  richer  c,roun;l,  where,  grow- 
int;  more  vigorously  in  summer,  they  are 
iiiire  apt  to  be  i.ijnredl)y  I'rost  in  winter;  nor 
wiUtliey  have  sucli  a  strong  aromatic  scent 
;ii  those  on  a  dry  and  barren  soil.  'I'hey  are 
to  be  propagated  eitlier  Ijy  slips  or  cuttings. 

Koscmary  lias  a  fragrant  smell,  and  a  warm 
pungent  bitterish  taste,  approaching  to  those 
of  lavender:  the  leaves  and  tender  tops  are 
strongest ;  next  to  those,  the  cup  of  the 
flower ;  tite  fiovvers  themselves  are  consider- 
ably the  w  eakest,  but  most  pleasant.  Aqueous 
liquors  extract  a  great  share  of  the  virtues  of 
rosemary  leaves  by  infusion,  and  elevate 
tliem  in  distillation  :  along  with  the  water 
arises  a  considerable  quantity  of  essential  oil, 
of  an  agreeable  strong  penetrating  smell. 
Pure  spirit  extracts  in  great  perfection  the 
whole  aromatic  llavour  of  the  rosemary,  and 
elevates  very  little  of  it  in  distillation.  Ilence 
the  resinous  mass  left  upoa  extracting  the 
spirit,  proves  an  elegant  aromatic,  very  rich 
ill  the  peculiar  qualities  of  the  plant.  'I'he 
flowers  of  rosemary  give  over  great  part  of 
their  flavour  in  distillation  with  pure  spirit ; 
by  watery  liquors,  their  fragrance  is  much 
injured;  by  beating,  destroyed. 

ROTALA,  a  genus  of  the  monof;ynia  or- 
«ler,  hi  the  Iriandria  class  of  plants.  The 
calyx  is  tridenlate :  there  is  no  corolla  ;  the 
capsule  is  triloruUir  and  polvspermous.  There 
is  one  species,  an  annual  of  the  East  Indies. 

ROTANG.  See  Cal.\mus. 

ROTATION,  in  .geometry,  a  term  chiefly 
applied  to  the  circuimolutioii  of  any  surface 
round  a  fixed  and  immoveable  line,  vihicli  is 
called  the  axis  of  il  rotalinn  ;  and  by  sut  h 
rotatiens  it  is,  that  solids  are  conceived  to  be 
generated. 

The  late  ingenious  M.  do  Moivre  shews  how 
solids,  thus  generated,  may  be  measured  or 
cubed.  His  method  is  this:  for  the  fluxion  of 
such  solids,  take  the  product  of  the  fluxion  of 
the  absciss,  multiplied  by  the  circular  base  ;  and 
suppose  the  ratio  of  a  square  to  the  circle  in- 
scribed in  it  to  be  —  :    then  the  equation  ex- 

pressinp;  the  nature  of  any  ciicle,  whose  dia- 
meter  is    d,    is  yy   =  dx  —   xx.     Therefore 

4Jxx  -  A•^v  .      ,      „      . 

is  tiie  iiuxiou  of  a  portion  of  the 

K 

sphere;  and,  consequently,  the  portion  itself 
4jrf.vi-  —  .tj.v',  and  the  circumscribed  cylinder 

is ;  and  therefore  the  portion  of  the 

« 

sphere  is  to  the  portion  of  the  circumscribed 

cylinder,  as  \d  —  4v  to  d  —  .v. 

ROTHIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 

syngenesia  polygamia  a;qualis.     The  calyx  is 

many-leaved  in  a  single  row;  wooUv  recept. 

in  the  ray  chah'y  in  the  disk  villose-seeds;  in 

the  ray  bald  in  the  disk  pappose.     There  is 

one  species. 

.  ROTONDO,  or  Rotvndo,  in  architec- 

tttre,  an  appellation  given  to  any  building 


RUB 

tliat  is  round  both  within  arid  without,  whc- 
tJier  it  is  a  church,  a  saloon,  or  the  like. 

ROT'I'BGKLLIA,  agenuSofthe  digynia 
order,  in  the  triandria  class  of  plants,  'i'he 
racliis  is  jointed,  roundish,  and  in  many  cases 
filiform:  the  cilyx  is  ovate,  lanceolate'd,  flat, 
simple,  or  bipartite  ;  the  (lorets  are  altern;ite 
on  the  winding  racliis.  There  are  17  species, 
grasses  of  Africa  and  the  Kast  Indies. 

RO'TTKN-S'I'ONK,  a  mineral  fomul  in 
Derbyshire,  ami  used  by  mechanics  for  all 
sorts  of  liner  grinding  and  polishing,  and 
sometimes  for  cutting  of  stones.  According 
toFerl>er,  it  is  a  tripoli  mixed  witli  calcareous 
earth,  bee  1'ripoli. 

ROUND,  in  a  military  sense,  signifies  a 
walk  which  some  officer,  attended  with  a  party 
of  soldiers,  takes  in  a  fortilied  place  around 
the  ramparts,  in  the  night-time,  in  o;-der  to 
see  that  the  centries  are  watchful,  and  every 
thing  in  good  order. 

'I'he  centries  are  to  challenge  the  rounds  at 
a  distance,  and  rest  their  arms  as  they  p  iss, 
to  let  iinne  come  near  them  ;  and  when  the 
round  comes  near  the  guard,  the  centry  (alls 
aloud,  who  comes  there  ?  and  being  answer- 
ed, the  rounds;  he  says,  stand;  and  then 
calls  the  corporal  of  tlie  guard,  who  draws 
liis  sword,  and  calls  also,  who  comes  there? 
and  when  lie  is  answered,  the  rounds,  he  who 
has  the  word  advances,  and  the  corporal  re- 
ceives it  with  his  sword  pointed  to  the  giver's 
breast.  In  strict  garrison  the  rounds  go 
every  quarter  of  an  hour. 

ROUNDELAY,  a  kind  of  aniient  poem, 
thus  termed,  according  to  Menage,  from  its 
form,  because  il  turns'back  again  to  the  lirst 
verse,  and  thus  goes  round.  This  poem  is 
little  known  among  us,  but  is  very  common 
among  the  I'leneh,  who  call  it  rondeau.  It 
consists  commonly  of  thirteen  verses,  eight 
whereof  are  in  one  rliynie,  and  five  in  ano- 
ther. It  is  divided  into  couplets,  at  the  end 
ot  the  second  and  third  ot  which  the  begin- 
ning of  the  roundelay  is  repeated,  and  that 
it  possible  in  an  eipiivocal  or  pausing  sense. 

i\OU  T,  in  law.     See  Riot. 

RoUSSEA,  a  genus  of  the  tetrandria  mo- 
nogynia  class  and  order.  The  calvx  is  four- 
leaved;  corolla  oiie-petalled,  bell-shaped, 
tour-cleft,  inferior;  berry  quadrangular,  many 
seeded.  There  is  one  species,  a  small  shrub 
ol  St.  Mauritius. 

ROXBURGIIIA,  a  genus  of  the  octan- 
dria  nionogynia  class  and  order.  'Jhe  calyx 
is  tour-leaved;  corolla  four-petalled ;  necta- 
rines four,  awl-shaped;  anthers  linear;  cap- 
sule one-celled,  two-valved;  seeds  many. 
'I  here  is  one  species,  native  of  C'oromandeh 

ROYENIA,  a  genus  of  tiie  digynia  order, 
in  the  dicandria  class  of  plants;"  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  18tli  or- 
der, bieornes.  The  calyx  is  urceolated ;  the 
corolla  monopctalous,  with  the  limb  revo- 
luted;  the  capsule  is  unilocular  and  quadri- 
valved.  There  are  seven  species,  herbs  of 
the  Cape. 

RUBIA,  madder,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  in  the  tetrandia  class  of  plan"ts  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
47(h  order,  stellat;e.  The  corolla  is  mono- 
petalous  and  caiiipanulated;  and  there  are 
two  monospermous  b>rries.  Tliere  are  seven 
species,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  the 
tinctormn,  or  dyer's  madder,  so  much  u^ed 
by  tlie  dyers  and  calUco-printers.     This  hath 


RUB 


607 


a  perniniid  root,  and  annual  stalk:  the  root 
is  conijjosed  of  many  long,  thick,  succulent 
libre-,  almost  as  large  as  a  m.in's  litlle  finger; 
these  are  joined  at  the  top  in  a  head  likp  aspa- 
ragus, and  run  very  deep  into  the  ground, 
from  the  upper  part,  or  head  of  the  root, 
come  out  many  iiide-roots,  which  extend  just 
under  the  surface  ot  the  ground  to  a  great 
distance,  by  which  it  propagates  very  last; 
(or  the-e  send  up  a  great  number  of  shoot-t, 
which,  il  carefully  taken  off  in  the  spring  soon 
alter  tliey  are  above  ground,  become  soinany 
plants.  These  roots  are  uf  a  reddish  colour, 
somewhat  tri'.iispareiit;  and  have  a  yellowish 
pith  in  the  middle,  which  is  tough,  and  of  a 
bitteridi  taste.  Eroni  this  root  arise  many 
large  four-cornered  jointed  stalks,  which  in 
good  land  will  grow  live  or  six  feet  long,  and, 
il  supijorteil,  sometimes  seven  or  eight:  tiiev 
are  armed  with  short  lierbaceous  prickles ;  and 
at  each  joint  are  placed  five  or  six  spear- 
shaped  leaves :  their  ujiper  surfaces  are 
smooth ;  tiie  branches  are  terminated  by 
loose  branching  spikes  of  yellow  flowers, 
which  are  cut  into  four  parts  resembling 
stars,  'i  hese  a|)pcar  in  June,  and  are  some- 
times succeeded  by  seeds,wliich  seldom  ripen 
in  England.  For  its  iirincipal  uses,  see 
DyEiKG,  and  Calico  Printing. 

_  Madder-root  is  used  in  medicine.  The  ■ 
virtues  attributed  to  it  are  those  of  a  deter- 
gent and  aperient;  whence  it  has  been  usu- 
ally rankeci  among  the  opening  roots,  and 
recommended  111  obstructions  of  the  viscera, 
particularly  of  the  kidnejs,  in  coagulations  of 
the  blood  Iroiii  falls  or  bruises,  in  ihejaimdice, 
and  beginning  diopsies.  It  is  an  ingredient 
in  tlie  icteric  decoction  of  tlie  Eduiburgh  phar- 
macopccia.; 

It  is  observable,  that'tliis  root,  taken  inter- 
nally, tinges  the  urine  of  a  deep  red  colour  ; 
and  hi  tiie  Philosophical  Transactions  we 
iiave  an  account  of  its  producing  a  like  elfect 
upon  the  bones  of  animals  who  iiad  it  mixed. 
witli  their  food:  all  the  bonis,  particuhuly 
the  more  solid  ones,  were  said  to  be  changeJ, . 
both  <  xtenially  and  internally,  to  a  deep  red; 
but  neidier  the  llcshy  nm  cartilaginous  part.'' 
suf(i;red  any  alterations:  .some  of  these  bones 
mao'rated  in  water  for  many  weeks  together,- 
and  afterwards  steeped  and  boiled  in  spirit  of 
wine,  lost  none  of  their  c(7!our,  nor  communi- 
cated airy  t;nge  to  the  liquors.  This  root, 
therefore,  was  concluded  to  be  possessed  of 
great  sublilty  of  parts,  and  itj  medical  virtues  ■ 
hence  to  deserve,  inquiry.  The  same  trials, 
however,  made  by  others,  have  not  been 
found  to  pro<lu,e  the  same  eliects  as  those 
above  mentioned.  Of  late  the  rout  has  coine 
into  great  reputation  as  an  emmenagogue. 

KUBRIC,  in  tlie  canon  law,  .signiHes  a  ti- 
tle or  article  in  certain  antient  lavi-bcoks;  thus 
called  because  written,  as  the  titles  of  the 
chapters  in  our  antient  bibles  are,  in  red  let-- 
ters.     Rubrics  also  denote  the  rides  and  di- 
rections given  at  the  beginnir.c,  and  in  l.'ie 
course  ot,  the  liturgy,  for  the  order  and  man- 
ner in  which  the  several  parts  of  the  cftice  arc 
to  be  performed.     '1  here  are  general  rubrics - 
and  special  rubrics,  a  rubric  for  the  comnuini-- 
on,  &ic.     In  the  Romish  Missal  and   Brevi- 
ary are  rubrics  for  matins,  for  laud-:,  for  trans- 
lalioiis,  beatihcations,  commemorations,  &c. 

Rl'BUS,  the  bramble,  a  genus  of  the  po- ■ 
lygamia    order,  in  the   icosandria  class    of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  order  r.inking  un- 
der the  35tli  order,  senlitosa;.    T  he  calvx  is 


OUS 


R  U  B' 


quinquefui,  the  petals  five;  the  hetry  con- 
sisting of  m'jii'j-ipeniious  acmi  or  pulpy  grains. 
'j"he  priocipal  species  is  the  idieus,  or  common 
raspberry,  wiiicli,  with  its  varieties,  deniancls 
culture  ill  every  garden  for  tlieir  fruit ;  parti- 
lulailv  the  coii'imon  red  kind,  white  sort,  and 
twice-lieuriiig  raspberry ;  all  of  which  are 
great  bt.ircrs:  but,  for  the  general  plantations, 
ve  chooii.'  principally  the  common  red  and 
the  white  kind,  as  be'ing  generally  the  great- 
est bearers  of  all ;  phnOng  also  a  share  of  the 
twice-bearing  sort,  both  as  a  curiosity,  and 
for  the  sake  of  its  autnninal  crops  of  fruit, 
which  in  favourable  seasons  ripen  in  tolera- 
ble perfection;  observing  to  allow  all  the 
>otls  some  open  exposure  in  the  kitchen  gar- 
den, though  they  will  prosper  in  almost  any 
situation. 

Some  other  species  are  considered  as 
plants  of  varictv,  for  hardy  plantations  in  the 
Khrubbery.  Some  of  iheni  are  also  very  or- 
namental flowering  plants;  particularly  the 
Virginian  llowering  raspberry,  and  the  dou- 
ble-blossomed bramble,  which  have  great  me- 
rit as  furniture  for  ornamental  compartments ; 
and  the  white-berried  bramble,  which  is  a 
great  curiosity. 

Kl'B^',  a  genus  of  precious  stones  of  vari- 
ous colours;  as,  1.  Of  a  deep  red  colour,  in- 
clining a  little  to  purple:  the  carbuncle  of 
(Mmv.  2.  The  spinell,  of  the  coloiu"  of  a 
bright  corn  poppy  tlower.  3.  The  balass,  or 
pale  red,  inclining  to  violet.  4.  The  rubi- 
cell,  of  a  rcddisli  yellow.  According  to 
Cronstedt,  the  ruby  crystallises  into  an  oc- 
toedral  form,  as  well  as  the  diamond,  from 
which  it  dilfers  very  little  in  hardness  and 
weight.  Tavernier  'and  Dutens  inform  us,  j 
that  in  the  Kust  hulies  all  coloured  gems  are  j 
named  rubies,  without  regard  to  wliat  their 
colours  may  be  ;  and  that  the  particular  co-  j 
lour  is  added  to  the  name  of  each,  in  order  to  | 
distinguish  them  from  one  another.  There  : 
are,  however,  some  soft  stones  of  this  kind, 
which  they  call  bacan :  and  it  is  certain,  that 
the  hard  and  brilliant  rubies,  named  oriental, 
as  well  as  the  sapphires  and  topazes,  are  all 
Hie  same,  excepting  only  the  circumstance  of 
colour.  Some  are  partly  red,  and  partly 
blue,  yellow,  and  some  quite  colourless.  The 
jpinell  rubies  are  about  half  the  value  of  dia- 
monds of  the  same  weight ;  the  balass  is  va- 
lued at  30  shillings  per  carat.  Tavernier 
mentions  108  rubies  in  the  throne  of  the  great 
Mogul,  from  100  to  200  carats,  and  of  a 
round  one  almost  1?|  ounces :  there  is  also 
mention  made  by  other  travellers,  of  rubies  1 
■esceedlng  200  carats  in  weight.  According 
to  Dutens,  a  perfect  ruby,  if  it  weighs  more 
than  3j  carats,  is  of  greater  value  than  a  dia- 
mond of  the  same  weight.  If  it  weighs  one 
f.irat,  it  is  worth  10  guineas;  if  two  carats, 
40  guineas;  three  cai-al«-,'l'30  guineas ;  if  six 
.4i«its,  upwards  of  1000  guineas. 

According  to  tl'.e  experiments  ofBergman 
iuid  Acliaid,  llie  teNlmc  of  the  ruby  is  ii>li- 
ated  like  that  of  diamonds:  it  is  fusible-  with 
borax  in  a  strong  and  long-continued  heal, 
running  into  a  iranspaieiit  glass  of  a  pale 
i;reeii  colour.  Kiom  the  eKperiments  of  M. 
<l\\rcet,  it  appears  that  the  ruby  does  not 
lose  lis  colour  in  the  greatest  lire;  but  Ileiic- 
Lci  says,  that,  by  means  of  a  burning  glass, 
he  sofi'i-iied  it  ill  such  a  in;uii)er  as  to  rei  eive 
ilie  iiupi'es.ii.m  of  a  seal  ()fi4sii)er.  It  becomes 
eietirjc  Ijty  be;iig  rublxxl.     lU  spccitic  gra- 


ITU  I 

vify,  according  to  Bergman,  is  from  3,li?0  to 
4,240:  but  Brisson  tells  us  that  it  is  4,283. 
'I'he  specilic  gravity  of  the  spinell  is  3,760,  of 
tiie  Brazilian  ruby  3,531. 

Rubies  are  met  with  in  the  Capelan  motin- 
laiiis  of  Pegu,  in  the  East  Indies;  and  at 
Caos,  Ava,  Bisnag.ir,  Calicut,  C'ananor,  Cey- 
lon, and  Brasil.  They. arc  found  in  sands  of 
rivers  of  a  red  colour,  in  an  arjiiltaceous 
earth  of  a  hard  texture  and  greenish  colour; 
sometimes  they  adhere  to  red  rocks.  'I'he 
spinell  rubies  are  met  with  in  Hungary,  Si- 
lesia, Bohemia,  and  Brasil.  The  balass  comes 
principally  from  Brasil,  though  some  are  also 
brought  from  the  East  Indies.  The  nibicell 
comes  also  from  Brasil,  but  they  aiv  said  to 
lose  their  colour  in  tire  lire.  See  Coran- 
DUM,  Top.^z,  &c. 

RUDBEC'KIA,  dicarf  sini-fo-xer,  in  bo- 
tany, a  genus  of  the  syngenesia-polygamia 
frustrauea  class  of  plants,  the  compound 
tlower  of  wh.ich  is  radiated;  but  the  her- 
maphrodite corolluUx-  of  the  disc  are  tubulose 
and  verv  lumierous;  the  stamina  are  five  very 
short  capillarv  tilaments;  and  tliere  is  a  small 
orbiculatedse'ed  after  each  of  the  hermaphro- 
dite coroUuhe,  and  are  all  contained  in  the 
<up,  affixed  to  a  paleaceous  receptacle. 
There  are  seven  species. 

RUDDER,  in  navigation,  a  piece  of  tim- 
ber turning  on  hinges  iu  the  stern  of  thesiiip, 
and  which,  oi)i)osing  sometimes  one  side  to 
the  water,  and  sometimes  another,  turns  or 
directs  the  vessel  this  way  or  that.  See 
Ship-Building. 

The  rudder  of  a  sliip  is  apiece  of  timber 
liung  on  the  steru-posts  by  four  or  live  iron 
hooks,  called  pintles,  serving  for  the  bridle  of 
a  ship  to  turn  her  about  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
steersman.  Tlie  rudder  being  perpendicu- 
lar, and  withotitside  the;  ship,  another  piece 
of  timber  is  litted  to  it  at  rigiit  angles,  which 
comes  into  the  ship,  by  which  the  rudtler  is 
managed  and  directed.  '  This  latter  properly 
is  called  the  helm  or  tiller;  and  sometimes, 
though  improperly,  the  rudder  itself.  'l"he 
power  of  the  rudder  is  reducible  to  that  of 
the  lever.  As  to  the  angle  tlie  rudder 
should  make  with  the  keel,  it  is  shewn,  that 
in  the  working  of  ships,  in  order  to  stay  or 
bear  up  the  soonest  possible,  the  tiller  of' the 
ruder  ought  to  make  an  angle  of  55°  with  the 
keel.  A  narrow  rudder  is  best  for  a  ship's 
sailing,  provided  she  can  feel  it :  that  is,  be 
guided  anti  turned  by  it:  for  a  broad  rudiler 
will  hold  much  water  when  the  helm  is  put 
over  to  any  side ;  but  if  a  ship  has  a  fat 
(juarter,  so  that  the  water  cannot  come 
ipiick  and  strong  to  her  rudder,  she  will  re- 
quire a  broad  riukler.  The  aft-most  part  of 
1  the  rudder  is  called  the  rake  of  the  rudder. 

KUELLIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  an- 
giospermia  order,   in  the  didynamia  class  of 
plants;  ami  in   the  natural  method  ranking 
iindei  the  ^olh  order,  personalie.     The  calyx 
is  quinquepartite;  the  corolla  sub-campanu- 
lated ;  the  stamiiia  appr;iachiiig  together  in 
pairs;  the    capsule    springing    a'iuiider    by 
means  of  its   elastic  segments.     There   are 
43  species,  shrubs  of  the  East  and  West  In- 
dies. 
HL'FF.    See  Perca. 
Ruff.     See'l'itiNG.\. 
Kl'lZlA,  a  geiui>  of  the  |)olyandria  order, 
in  the  monadeliihia  class  of  plaiUs;  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  37lh 


R  U  I 

order,  colnmnit'erx.  I1ie  cah-x  is  double  ;■ 
the  external  are  tripliyllous. "  The  corolla 
consists  of  five  petals,  inclining  to  the  ri^ht 
hand  side,  and  adhering  to  the  stamina, 
which  are  from  30  to  4().  It  has  ten  styli, 
and  as  many  capsula;.  These  are  compress- 
ed an<l  membranous.  In  each  capsule  are 
two  seeds.  There  are  three  s|)ecies,  viz. 
!.  Cordata;  2.  Lobata ;  3.  Vanibilis;  all 
natives  of  Asia  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

RULES  of  court,  in  law,  are  certain  or- 
ders made,  from  time  to  time,  in  the  court; 
of  law,  which  atfornies  are  bound  to  observe, 
in  order  to  avoid  confusion  ;  and  both  the 
plaintilf  and  defendant  are  at  their  peril  abu 
bound  to  pay  obedience  to  rules  made  m 
court  relating  to  the  cause  dependhig  be- 
tween them.  , 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  no  court  will 
make  a  rule  for  any  thing  that  may  be  done 
in  the  ordinary  course ;  and  that  if  a  rule  is 
made,  groiuided  upon  an  affidavit,  the  other 
side  may  move  the  court  against  it,  in  order 
to  vacate  the  same,  and  thereupon  shall, 
bring  into  court  a  copy  of  the  afiidavit  and 
rule.  On  the  breach  and  coutenqit  of  a 
rule  of  court,  an  attachment  lies;  but  it  is  not 
granted  for  disobedience  to  a  rule  when  the 
party  has  not  been  personally  served ;  nor 
for  disobeying  a  rule  made  by  a  judge  in  hi* 
clumiber,  which  is  not  of  force  to  ground  a 
motion  mjon,  unless  the  same  is  entered. 

Rule,  or  Rnkr,  an  instrument  of  wood  or 
metal,  with  several  lines  dehneated  on  it,  of 
great  use  in  practical  mensuration. 

>\hen  a  ruler  has  the  lines  of  chord'!, 
tangents,  sines,  &c.  it  is  called  a  plane 
scale. 

The  carpenter's  joint-rule  is  an  instrument 
usually  of  box,  &:c.  twenty-four  inches  long, 
and  one  and  a  half  broad  ;  each  inch  being 
subdivided  into  eight  parts.  On  the  same 
side  with  these  divisions,  is  usually  added 
Gunter's  line  of  numbers.  On  the  o{her  side, 
are  the  lines  of  timber  and  board-measure  ; 
the  lirst  beginning  at  82,  and  continued  to  3(i, 
near  the  other  end;  the  latter  is  numbered 
from  7  to  30,  four  inches  Ironi  the  other 
end. 

i'.ve  of  the  carptntcr''s  joint-rule.  The  ap- 
plication of  the  inches,  in  measuring  lengths, 
breadths,  &c.  is  obvious. 

The  use  of  the  other  side  is  all  we  need 
here  to  notice.  1.  The  brcadtlf  of  any  sur- 
f-.'.ce,  as  board,  glass.  Sec.  being  given,  to  lind 
how  much  in  length  mal.es  a  S!|uare  foot. 
Find  the  luuiiber  of  inches  the  surface  is  ' 
b.oad,  in  the  line  of  broad-measure,  and  • 
right  against  it  is  the  number  of  inches,  re- 
(piired.  Thus,  if  the  surface  was  eight  inches 
broad,  eighteen  inches  will  be  found  to  make 
a  superficial  foot.  Or  more  readily  thus: 
.Vpply  the  rule  to  the  breadth  of  the  board,  or 
glass,  that  end,  iiuirked  31),  being  eipial  with 
The  edge,  the  other  edge  of  the  surface  will 
shew  tlie  inches,  and  qiiartei-s  of  inches,  which 
go  to  11  6t|uare  foot.  2.  Use  of  the  table  at 
tlie  end  of  the  board-measure.  If  a  surface 
is  one  iiK'h  broad,  how  many  inches  long  will  • 
make  a  siipcrlieinl  loot?  look  iu  the  upper 
row  of  figures  ior  one  inch,  and  iiiider  it  in 
the  second  row  is  twelve  inches,  the  aibwer  ' 
to  the  question.  3.  Use  of  the  lino  of  tiniber- 
intasuru.    'I'his  resembles  the  former;  for 


having  V-ariK'd  liow  niuci]  ihc  |iicft'  is  iipiarc, 
loot^  lor  tliat  mimi)ei'  on  llic  line  of  llio  lira- 
bor-ii«!.i-;ui'e  ;  tlie  >i)iicc  tlionce  Id  tlu!  lmkI  of 
t)ie  rule  is  the  Icn^lli  wliii'li,  ;it  llial  l)ri;aiJth, 
makes  a  loot  of  tiniljiT.  'I'luis.  if  the  piece 
ii  nine  iuclies  scjiiare,  the  length  necessary 
to  niaivB  a  solid  loot  of  tiniher,  is  21  j  inches. 
If  the  limber  is  small,  and  niidcr  nine  inches 
sciuare,  seek  the  sniu.r.  in  the  upper  rani;  of 
the  table,  and  iuimediutely  under  it  are  the 
feet  and  inches  that  make  a  solid  loot.  If  the 
pie<:e  is  not  exactly  s(iiiare,  but  broader  al 
one  end  than  the  other,  the  method  is  to  add 
the  uvo  together,  and  take  half  the  sum  for' 
the  side  of  the  scjuare.  For  round  timber  tlie 
iiielhod  is  to  girt  it  round  with  a  .--tring,  and 
to  allow  the  iourlh  ])art  for  the  side  of  the 
etjuare;  but  this  method  is  erroneous,  for 
herebv  you  lose  nearly  oue-lillh  of  the  true 
tylidiu  ;  though  this  is  tiie  mcUiod  at  present 
practised  in  buying  and  selling  timber. 

The  mason's  rule  is  twelve  or  fifteen  feet 
long,  in  order  to  be  ajiplied  under  the  level 
to  regulate  the  comses,  and  make  the  pic- 
droits  e(|ual,  &:c. 

Ihvrard's  sliding  liitle.     See  Gauging. 

KUM,  a  species  of  brandy,  or  vinous  spi- 
rit, distilled  from  sugar-canes'.  See  Distil- 
lation, and  Spirit. 

RUMI'-N,  in  compnralive  anatomy,  tlie 
paunch,  or  lirst  stomach  of  sucii  animals  as 
chew  the  cud,  thence  called  ruminant  ani- 
mals.    See  Comparative  Anatomv. 

KUMEX,  d/ick,  a  genus  of  the  tiigynia 
order,  in  tiie  hexandria  class  of  plants  ;  and 
ill  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  I2tli 
order,  holoraceae.  The  calyx  is  tripli_\  llous  ; 
there  are  three  connivent  petals,  and  one 
triquetrous  seed.  There  are  36  species  ;  of 
which  the  most  remarkable  are :  1 .  The  pa- 
tientia,  commonly  called  patience  rhubarb. 
This  was  iornierly  much  more  cultivated  in 
the  British  gardens  than  at  present:  the  roots 
of  this  have  been  generally  used  for  the 
monk's  rhubarb,  and  il  has  even  been  thought 
to  be  the  true  kind  ;  but  others  suppose  the 
second  sort  should  be  used  as  such.  2.  The 
alpinusu  or  monk's  ihubarb,  grows  naturally 
on  the  Alps,  but  has  long  been  cultivated  in 
the  gardens  of  this  country.  This  has  large 
roots,  which  spread  and  multiply  by  their 
.offsets :  they  are  shorter  and  thicker  than  the 
fornjer,  are  of  a  very  d.uk  brow n  on  the  out- 
side, and  yellow  within.  3.  The  aquaticus, 
or  water-dock,  grows  naturallv  in  ponds, 
ditches,  and  standing  waters,  in  many  parts  of 
Britain.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  herba  Bri- 
tannica  of  the  antienls.  4.  The  acutus,  or 
sharp-pointed  dock  (tin;  oxylapathum  of  the 
sho|)s^;  but  the  mark'*ls  are  stipplied  with 
roots  of  the  common  docks,  which  are  indif- 
ferently gathered  by  those  who  colic;et  them 
in  the  lields,  where  the  kind  commonly  cdled 
butter  dock  (Iroin  its  leaves  being  used  to 
wrap  up  butter)  is  much  more  common  than 
this.  These  plants  are  but  seldom  cultivated, 
ami  so  easily  mulliplv  by  their  numerous 
seeds,  that  they  soon  become  troublesome 
weeils  where  tiiey  once  get  an  entrance. 

Rl'MlNANT,  in  natural  history,  is  ap- 
plied to  an  animal  which  chews  over  again 
what  it  has  eaten  before  ;  which  is  popidarly 
caHed  chewing  the  cud.  Payer,  in  a  treatise 
De  Rumiuantibus  et  Ruminatione,  sliews 
th.it  there  are  some  animals  wlivAi  really  ru- 

VOL.   IJ. 


1  M  P 

piii\3le;  .1^  o\eii,  shi.'cp,  deer,  goals,  camel';, 
haies,  and  scjuirrels;  and  that  there  are 
olhers  which  only  afjpear  to  do  so,  as  inolis, 
crickets,  bees,  beetles,  crabs,  mullets,  &c. 
'I'he  Uiltcr  class,  h<;  observes,  liave  Iheir  sto- 
machs composed  of  muscular  libres,  by  which 
the  food  is  ground  up  and  down  as  m  those 
which  really  ruminate.  Mr.  Ray  observes, 
that  ruminants  are  all  tour-fooled,'hairy,  an<l 
viviparous;  some  witli  hollow  and  pei peUial 
horns,  otiiers  with  deciduous  ones. 

RUM  PHI  A,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  Iriandria  class  of  plant.s,  and  in. 
the  natural  mctliod  ranking  with  Iho-e  of 
which  the  order  is  doubtful.  "^Ihc  calyx  'u 
trifid  ;  the  petals  three;  the  fruit  a  trilocuiar 
plum.  There  is  one  species,  a  tree  of  the 
East  Indies. 

RUNi3LE,    or    Roundlle.     See  IIe- 

RALPRY. 

RUNDLET,  or  Runlet,  a  small  vessel, 
containing  an  uncertain  qtiantily  of  any  li- 
quor, from  three  to  twenty  gallons. 

RUNNER,  in  the  sea  language,  a  rope 
belonghig  to  the  g  irnet,  and  to  the  two  bolt- 
tackles.  It  is  rcevi'd  in  a  single  block,  joined 
to  the  end  of  a  pi-nnaut,  and  has  at  one  end  a 
hook  to  hitch  into  any  thing,  and  at  the  other 
end  a  double  block,  into  which  is  reeved  the 
fall  of  the  tackle,  or  the  garnet,  by  which 
means  it  pmxhases  more  than  tiie  tackle 
would  without  it. 

RUNNET,  or  Rennet,  is  tlie  juice  or 
gastric  tluid  found  in  the  stomachs  of  sucking 
quadrupeds,  which  as  yet  liave  received  no 
other  nourishment  than  their  mother's  milk. 
In  niminating  animals,  which  have  several  sto- 
maclis,  it  is  generally  found  in  the  last, 
though  sometimes  in  the  next  to  it.  If  the 
runnel  is  dried  in  the  sun,  and  thi-n  kept 
close,  it  may  be  preserved  in  perfection  for 
years.  Not  only  the  runnet  itself,  but  also 
the  stomach  in  which  it  is  found,  curdles  milk 
without  any  previous  preparation.  Hut  the 
common  method  is,  to  take  the  inner  mem- 
br.me  of  a  call 's  stomach,  to  clean  it  well,  to 
salt  and  hang  it  up  in  brown  paper:  w  hen  this 
is  used,  the  salt  is  waslied  oil",  then  it  is  mace- 
rated in  a  little  water  ihning  the  night,  and  in 
the  morning  the  infusion  is  poured  into  the 
milk  to  curdle  it.  See  Digestion,  ^  oI.  I. 
p.  521,  col.  3. 

EUPAf  ..\,  a  genus  of  the  telrandria  mono- 
gynia  class  and  order.  I'heie  is  no  calyx; 
the  petals  are  four ;  stamina  inserted  in  the 
middle  of  the  petals;  pericarpium  one-celled, 
two-seeded. 

RUPERT'S  DROPS,  a  sort  of  glass-drops 
with  long  and  slender  tails,  which  burst  to 
pieces  on  the  breaking  off  those  tails  in  any 
part;  said  to  have  been  invented  by  prince 
Rupert,  and  therefore  called  by  liis.  name. 
Cono.-rniiig  the  cause  of  this  surprising  phav 
nomenon  scarcely  any  thing  that  bears  the 
least  appearance  of  probability  has  been  of- 
fered. Their  explosion  is  altendeil  in  the 
dark  with  a  flash  of  light;  and,  bv  being 
boiled  in  oil,  the  drops  are  deprived  of  their 
explosive  quality. 

RUPPIA,  a  genus  of  the  tefragynia  order, 
in  the  tetrandria  class  of  plants;  "and  in  tiie 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  1  jth  or- 
der, inundatie.  There  is  neither  calvx  nor 
corolla ;  but  four  pedicellated  sesd».  There 
is  one  £.pesi<«. 

4H 


R  IJ  T 


603 


RUPTURE,  in   surgery,  the  same  "ivith 
hernia.     See  Surgery. 

RUSCU.S,  kncc-holli),  or  butcher  s  hrcnm, 
a  genus  of  the  syiigenesia  ordt-r,  in  tlr.:  di- 
atia  class  of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  me- 
thod ranking  under  the  1  llh  order,  sarmeii- 
tacea;.     '1  he  male   calyx   is   iiesaphjlious; 
till  re  is  no  corolla  ;  tlie  uectarium  is  central, 
ovate,  and  perforated  at  the  top.     The  fe- 
male calyx,  corolla,  and  nectarium,  are  llie 
Siiinc  as  in  the  male;  tl,eie  is  one  style,  witli 
a   trilocuiar  two-seeded  berry.    'Jlieie  aic 
live  species.     The   most  remarkable  is  the 
aculcatus,  or  common  butcher's  broom,  com- 
mon in  the  woods  in  many  parts  of  England. 
As  tl-.i.i  plant  grows  wild  in  most  parts  of 
I'.iigland,  il  is  rarely  admitled  into  gardens; 
but  if  .some  of  the  roots  are  planted  under 
tall  trees  in  large  plantations,  they  will  spread 
into  large  clumpi;  and  as  they  retain  ihuir 
leaves  in  winter,  at  that  sea-on  they  will  have 
a  good  efl'ecl.     The  seeds  of  this  plant  gene- 
rally lie  a  year  in  the  ground  before  they  ve- 
getate ;  and  the  plants  so  raised  arc  long  be- 
fore they  arrive  at  a  size  large  enough  to 
make  any  figure, and  therefore  His  much  bet- 
ter to  tiansplant  the  ro;jts.     The  root  of  this 
plant  is  accounted  aperient,  and  in  this  iu- 
tenlion  is  sometimes  made  an  ingredient  in 
apozems  and  diit-drinks,  for  opening  slight 
obstructions  of  the   viscera,  and  promotin(» 
the  (luid  secretions.     This  plant  is  used  bjr 
the  butchers  for  besoms  to  sweep  their  blocks. 
Hucksters  place  the  boughs  round  their  ba- 
con  and  clieese,  to  defend  them  from  the 
mice ;    for    they    cannot    make   their    way 
through  the  prickly  leaves. 

RUSH,  in  botany.     See  Juncus. 

RUSSELIA,  a  genus  of  the  didynamia 
angiospermia  class  and  order.  The  calyx  .is 
tive-leaved;  corolla  tube,  very  long;  cap- 
sule acuminate.  There  is  one  species,  a 
shrubby  plant  of  the  Ilavannah. 

RUSSIA  COMPANY,  in  commerce. 
See  Company. 

RUST,  Ihe  oxide  of  a  metal.  Iron,  for 
instance,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  soon  'm?- 
comes  tarnished,  and  gradually  changed  into 
a  brown  or  yellow  powder,  we'l  known  by 
the  name  of  rust,  iliis  change  is  occasioned 
by  llie  gradual  combination  of  the  iron  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  ,ind,  accord- 
ing to  the  new  chemistry,  it  is  now  denomi- 
nated the  oxide  of  iron. 

RUSTIC,  in  arcliitecture,  implies  a  man- 
ner of  building  in  imitation  of  nattire,  rather 
than  according  to  the  rules  of  art.  ' 

RUTA,  )•!«■,  a  genus  of  the  monosyriia 
order,  in  the  decandria  class  of  plants ;  "and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
26th  order,  muUisiliqua?.  The  calvx  isqnirf- 
qucpartite;  the  petals  concave ;  tlie  recepta- 
cle surrounded  with  10  inelliferous  pores;  the 
capsule  is  lobed.  In  some  flowers,  a  fifth 
part  of  the  number  is  excluded.  There  are 
seven  species,  of  which  the  most  remaikable 
Is  the  horlensis,  or  common  broad-leaved 
garden  rue,  which  has  been  long  cultivated 
for  medicinal  use. 

Rue  has  a  strong  ungrateful  smell,  and  a 
bitterisli  penetrating  taste:  the  leaves,  when 
full  of  vigour,  are  extremely  acrid,  insomuch 
as  to  inhaine  and  blister  the  skin,  if  ir.uci) 
handled. 

RUTHILE,  an  ore  found  in  Hungarj, 
Italy,  and  France.    It  is  generally  cr^'stal; 


eio 


s  A  c 


lized.  The  primitive  form  of  the  crystals  is 
a  rectangular  pns-ii,  whose  base  is  a  square, 
and  tiie  lorm  of  its  molecules  is  a  triangular 
prism,  whose  base  is  a  right-angled  isosceles 
trisngle  -,  aiid  the  height  is  to  any  of  the  sides 
of  the  bzie  about  the  right  angle,  nearly  as 
three  to  five.  Specific  gravity  from  4. 1 8  to 
4.24.  It  is  not  affected  by  the  mineral 
aei.is. 

KUYSCHIA,  in  botany,  a  gemis  of  the 
moiiogynia  ordt-r,  in  the  ptiitainlria  class  of 
plants  ;'  and  in  •  the  natural  method  rar.king 


S  A  C 

witli  those  (hat  are  doiiblful.  The  ca'yx  is 
pentaphyllous;  the  corolh  is  pentapi-talous ; 
and  the  berry  inany-seeded.  '1  here  are  two 
species,  parasitical  shrubs  of  Guiana. 

HYAN  TA,  a  genus  of  the  polyandria  mo- 
nogynia  cla^s  and  order.  The  cah  x  is  five- 
leaved;  corolla  none;  stigmas  four;  berry 
suberous,  one-celled,  many-seeded.  Tliere 
is  one  species,  a  tree  of  Trinidad. 

RYE.    See  Secai.e. 

RYKCHOPS,  skimmer,    in  ornithology. 


S 


SAC 

a  genui  belonging  to  (he  order  of  ansero^.  i 
The  bill  is  straight  :  and  (he  superiiir  mandi- 
ble much  sliorter  (lian  the  inferior,  which  is 
truncated  at  the  point.  ']  lie  species  are 
two,  viz.  tint  nigra  and  fulva,  both  natives  of 
America.  The  fulva  is  perpetually  flying 
about  andskinmiingovi'r  v.'ater,  out  "of  which 
it  scoops  small  fish  with  its  lower  mandible: 
in  stormy  seasons  it  fre(|ucrits  the  >liores  in 
search  of  shell-fisb.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  hg. 
348. 


C  the  eigliieeiith  letter  of  O'.ir  al|ihabpt, 
•^5  in  abbreviations  stands  for  societas, 
orsocius;  as  R.  S.  S.  for  regu-c  societatis  so- 
ciii=;  2.  f .  fellow  of  the  royal  society.  'In  me- 
dicinal prescriptions,  S. '.A  signifies  secun- 
dum  arteni,  i.  t.  according  (o  the  rules  of 
art :  and  in  the  notes  of  the  anlients,  S.  stands 
for  Sextus  ;  SP.  for  spurius  ;  S.  C.  for  sena- 
tus  consultum ;  S.  P.  Q.  R-  for  senatus  po- 
pulusque  Romanus  ;  S.  S.  S.  for  stratum  su- 
per stratum,  /.  c.  one  layer  above  another  al- 
tornateiy;  S.  V.  B.  E.  "E.  Q.  V.  for  si  vales 
bene  est,  ego  quoquc  valeo,  a  form  used  in 
Cicero's  time,  in  the  beginning  of  letters. 
Used  as  a  numeral,  b.  antiendy  denoted  se- 
ven; in  the  Italian  music,  S.  signifies  solo; 
and  in  books  of  navigation,  tj.  stands  for 
sjuth;  S.  E.  for  south-east;  S.  VV.  for 
south-west;  S.  S.  E.  for  south-south-east; 
S.  S.  VV.   for  south-south-west.      See  CoM- 

l-ASS. 

SABEIX.A,  a  genus  of  vermes  testacea: 
inimal  a  nereis,  with  a  ringeiit  mouth,  and 
twu  thicker tentacula  behind  the  head:  shell 
tubular,  composed  of  particles  of  sand, 
bruken>he!ls,and  vegetable  substances  united 
to  a  membrane  by  a  glutinous  cement.  There 
are  24  species. 

SABELLIANS,  a  sect  of  Christians  of  (he 
third  century,  who  embraced  the  opinions  of 
Sabellius,  a  piiilosopher  of  Egypt,  who  openly 
ISught  that  there  is  but  one  person  in  liie 
Gotlhead. 

S.^BLE.    See  Musteia. 

t?ABLE.    See  Heraldry. 

SABURRiE.     See  Gritt. 

SACBUI",  a  bass  wind-instrument,  re- 
!W;mbling  the  Uumpet,  so  contrived  as  to  be 
capable  of  being  drawn  out  to  dili'erent 
lengths,  according  (o  the  acutencss  and  gra- 
vity of  the  scale  required. 

The  sacbut  is  usually  about  eiglit  feet  long, 
and  when  e.ttended  to  its  full  length,  about 
hfts'-n.  There  are,  however,  sacbuts  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  to  execute  dilCerent  parts;  parti- 
t'llarly  a  small  one  called  by  the  Italians 
troinbjne  picciolo,  and  the  Germans  ck-ine 
sit  p<j^saunc,  proper  for  llie  counter-tenor. 

SACCHARINE  ACID.  See  O.xamc 
Acid. 

SACCHAIUIM,  siii^ar,  or  (he  sugar- 
cane, a  genus  of  the  iligynia  order,  in  the 
triandria  class  of  plants;  and  in  the  naturrd 
method  ranking  under  the  4th  order,  gra- 
miiia.  Th',;  calyx  i;  two-valved  ;  the  corolla 
ts  also  'bivalTcd.    TUcre  are  cle\en  species 


ot  i;i:s  goiuis.  1  he  must  ri-inai  kiij'it:  :^  the 
olticinaruni.  It  is  a  native  ot  Africa,  ttie  East 
Indies,  and  of  Brazil,  whence  it  was  intro- 
duced into  our  M'est  India  islands  soon  after 
they  were  settled.  In  the  manlier  of  their 
gro'.rth,  form  of  their  leaves,  and  make"  of 
their  panicle,  the  sugar-canes  resemble  the 
reeds  which  grow  in  wet  marshy  grounds  in 
Ivigland,  or  elsewhere;  e.\cept  that  the  canes 
are  far  larger,  and,  instead  of  b.--ing  hollow  as 
the  reeds,  are  filled  with  awhite  pith,  contain- 
ing the  sweet  juice  or  liquid,  which  stamps 
such  value  upon  these  plants.  The  inter- 
mediate distance  between  each  joint  of  a 
cane  is  of  different  lengths,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  richness  of  the  manure, 
and  different  temperature  of  the  weather 
during  its  growth ;  it  seUiom  exceeds,  how- 
ever, four  inches  in  length,  and  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter. The  length  of  the  whole  cane  like- 
wise depends  upon  the  above  circumstances. 
It  generally  grows  to  perfection  in  about 
fourteen  months,  when  its  height,  at  a  medi- 
um, is  about  six  feet,  sometimes  more,  some- 
times less.  The  bojly  of  the  cane  is  strong, 
but  brittle;  of  a  fine  straw-colour,  inclining 
to  a  yellow.  The  extremitv  of  each  is  cover- 
ed, for  a  considerable  length,  witli  manv  long 
grassy  leaves  or  blades,  sharply  and  finely 
sawed  on  their  edges;  the  middle  longitudi- 
nal rib  being  high  and  prominent.  The  su- 
gar-cane is  ])ropagated  by  planting  cuttings 
of  it  in  the  ground  in  furrows,  dug  parallel 
for  that  purpose;  the  cuttings  are  laid  level 
and  even,  and  are  covered  up  with  earth  ; 
they  soon  shoot  out  new  plants  (rom  their 
knots  or  joints;  the  ground  is  to  be  kept 
clear,  at  times,  from  weeds;  and  the  canes 
grow  so  quick,  that  in  eight,  ten,  or  twelve 
months,  (hey  ai  •  lit  to  cut  for  making  of  sugar 
from  then;.  When  ripe,  they  cut  off  the 
reeds  at  one  of  the  joints  near  the  roots;  they 
are  then  cleared  ot  theieavis,  and  tied  up 
in  bnndk"^,  caul  sent  to  the  mills,  which  are 
worked  either  by  water  or  horses. 

I'he  bottom  part  of  the  sugar-cane  top  is 
about  the  thickness  of  one's  finger  ;  and  as  it 
contains  a  good  deal  of  the  natural  sweetness 
of  the  plant,  it  is  usually  cut  into  pieces  of  an 
inch  and  a  half  long,  and  given  to  the  saddle- 
horses  in  the  'West  Indies.  It  is  very  nou- 
rishing food,  and  fattens  them  iipace.  The 
mill-horses,  nmles,  and  asses,  are  likewise 
fed,  during  crop  time,  on  sugar-cane  tops  and 
the  skimming  of  the  stigar-conpers;  which 
last  must  be  administereil  sparin;;ly  at  first, 
flrir  fenr  of  griping,  and  perhaps  killing  them. 
For  the  nwuufaclure,  &c.  of  sugar,  see  Bt;G  ar. 


SACCOL.^TS,  salts  formed  from  the 
saclactic  acid,  and  but  little  known.  1.  ,Sac- 
colat  of  ])otass,  small  crystals  soluble  in  eiglit 
times  their  weight  of  water.  2.  Saccolat  of 
■soda,  the  same,  soluble  in  i\\e  times  their 
weight  of  water.  3.  Saccolat  of  ammonia, 
has  a  somish  taste  ;  heat  separates  the  ammo- 
nia. Saccolat  of  lime,  ofbarytes,  of  magne- 
sia, and  of  ahuniua,  are  all  insoluble  m. 
water. 

SACK  o/kooI,  a  qnanti(y  of  wool  con- 
taining just  twenty-two  stone,  and  every  stone 
fourteen  pounds.  In  Scotland,  a  sack  is 
twenty-four  stone,  each  stone  containing  six- 
teen pounds. 

Sack  qfcotlon-vjoni,  a  quantity  from  one 
hundred  and  a  half  to  four  hundredweight. 

Sacks  of  earth,  in  fortification,  are  can- 
vas bags  filled  with  tarth.  They  are  used  in 
making  intrenchmcnts  in  ha^le,  to  place  on 
parapets,  or  the  head  of  the  breaches,  &c.  or 
to  repair  them,  when  beaten  down. 

SAC  LACTIC  ACID.  This  acid  was  dis- 
covered by  Scheeie  in  1780.  After  having 
obtained  o.\alic  acid  from  sugar,  he  wished  to 
examine  whether  the  sugar  of  milk  would 
furnish  the  same  product.  Upon  four  ounces 
of  pure  sugar  ot  milk,  finely  powdered,  he 
poured  twi  Ive  ounces  ot  diluted  nitric  acid, 
and  put  the  mixture  into  a  large  glass  retort, 
wh.ich  he  placed  in  a  sand-bath.  A  violent  ef- 
fervescence ensuing,  he  was  obliged  to  re- 
move the  retort  from  the  sand-bath  till  the 
commotion  ceased.  He  then  continued  the 
distillation  till  the  mixture  became  yellow. 
As  no  crystals  appeared  in  the  liquor  re- 
maining in  the  retort  after  standing  two  days, 
he  repeated  the  distillation  as  before,  with  the 
addition  of  eight  ounces  of  nitric  acid,  and 
coiuiiuied  the  operation  till  the  yellow  co- 
lour, which  had  disappeared  on  the  addition 
of  the  nitric  acid,  retuined.  The  liquor  in 
the  retort  contained  a  white  (lowder,  and 
when  cold,  was  observed  (o  be  thick.  Eight 
ounces  of  water  were  added  to  dilute  tliis  li- 
quor, which  was  then  filtrated,  by  which  the 
while  powder  was  separated;  which  being 
edulcorated  and  dried,  weighed  7-|  drachms. 
The  filtrated  solution  was  evaporated  to  the 
consistence  of  a  syrup,  and  .again  suijjected  to 
distillation,  with  four  ounces  ot  nitric  acid  as 
before;  after  which,  the  liquor,  when  cold, 
was  observed  to  contain  many  sm.all,  oblong, 
sour  crystals,  together  with  some  white  pow- 
der. 'I'liis  powder  being  separated,  the  li- 
quor-w.ts  again  distilled  with  more  nitric  acid 


SAC 

asbufore;  by  v.liicli  means  the,  liquor  was 
renileixd  capalile  of  yiHding  cryslab  again ; 
and  by  one  distillation  more,  witii  more  ni- 
trous acid,  tlie  wliole  of  tin;  liquor  was  con- 
verted into  crystals.  Tlie^e  crystals,  add^d 
together,  weighed  five  drachms ;  and  were 
found,  upon  trial,  to  have  the  properties  of 
the^oxalic  acid. 

.  Mr.  Schvle  next  examined  the  proper- 
ties of  the  white  powder,  and  fonnd  it  to  lie  an 
add  of  a  |)eculiar  nature ;  he  therefore  called 
it  the  acid  of  sugar  of  milk.  It  was  after- 
\vards  called  saclactic  acid  by  the  French 
chemists.  I'ourcroy  has  lately  given  it  the 
name  of  mucous  acid,  because  it  i.s  obtained 
hy  treating  gum  arable,  and  other  imicilagi- 
nnns  sllb^tarlce5,  with  nitric  acid, 

Mr.  Uermstadt,  of  Berlin,  had  made  shiii- 
far  esperiinents  on  sugar  of  milk  at  the  sanie 
time  with  richecle,  .and  with  similar  results ; 
but  he  concluded  that  the  white  powder 
which  he  obtained  was  nothing  else  than  ox- 
alat  of  lime  with  excess  of  acid,  as  indeed 
Si'.heele  himself  did  at  lir.st.  After  he  became 
acquaint. .-d  with  Scheele's  conclusions,  he 
published  a  paper  in  defence  of  his  own  opi- 
nions; but  his  proofs  are  very  far  from  estab- 
lishing it,  or  even  rendering  its  truth  proba- 
ble. He  acknowliMlgcs  Iiimself,  that  he  has 
not  been  able  to  decompose  this  supposed 
^alt:  he  al'ows  that  it  possesses  properties 
distinct  from  the  o\alic  acid;  but  he  ascribes 
thi,;  difference  to  the  lime  which  it  contains; 
retail  the  lime  which  he  could  disrover  in 
C40  srains  of  this  salt  was  only  20  grains ; 
and  if  the  alkali  which  he  employed  was  a 
carbonat  (as  it  probably  was),  these  .20  must 
be  reduced  to  11.  Now  Morvcau  has 
shesvn,  that  ox  die  acid,  containing  the  same 
quantity  of  lime,  exhibits  very  diftcrent  pro- 
perties. Besides,  this  acid,  whatever  it  is, 
when  united  wilii  lime,  is  separated  by  the 
oxa'ic,  and  must  therefore  be  dilFerent  from 
it:  as  it  would  be  absurd  to  suppose  that  an 
acid  could  displace  itself.  The  saclact'r  acid 
must  therefore  be  considered  as  a  distinct 
acid,  since  it  |)ossesses  peculiar  properties. 

1.  Saclactic  acid  may  be  obtained  by  the 
fo'lowing  ])rocess:  Upon  one  part  of  gum 
arable,  or  other  similar  gum,  previously  jMit 
into  a  retort,  poir  two  parts  of  nitric  acid. 
Apply  a  slight  heat  for  a  short  tm",  till  a 
little  nitrous  gas  and  carbonic  acid  gas  comes 
over;  then  allow  the  mixture  to  cool.  A 
white  powder  graduaUv  precipitates,  wh-ch 
may  easily  be  separated  bv  iiltration.  This 
powder  is  saciactrie  acid. 

3.  Saciactrie  acid,  thus  obtained,  is  imder 
the  form  of  a  white  grittv  powder,  with  a 
slightly  acid  taste. 

Heat  decomposes  it.  When  di-tilled, 
tfhere  comes  over  an  acid  liquor  which  crys- 
tallizes in  needles  on  cooling,  a  red-coloure<l 
acrid  oil,  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  carbureted 
hydrogini  gas.  Ther<>  remains  in  the  retort  a 
large  proportion  of  charcoal. 

Saclactic  acid,  according  to  Scheele,  is  so- 
luble in  60  parts  of  its  weight  of  boiling  wa- 
ter ;  but  Messrs.  Ilermstadt  and  Morveau 
found,  that  boiling  w;Uer  onlv  dissolved 
.j!g.th  part:  it  deposited  about  ^th  p  irt  on 
cooling  in  the  form  of  crystals. 

Tlie  solution  has  an  acid  taste,  and  reddens 
the  infusion  of  turnsole.  Tts  specilic  gravity, 
at  the  temperature  of  .S3.7',  is  l.OOii'.  The 
compounds  which  it  forms  with  earths,  alka- 


S  A  L 

lies  and  metallic  oxides  are  denoniiiialed  sac- 
colals. 

SAFl'KON.    See  Crocus. 

SAG.'^PENUM,  ffum  rcsint.  See  Phar- 
macy. 

SAGATIIF.r.,  in  commerce,  a  slight  kind 
of  woollen  slulf,  ser^e,  or  ratteen,  sometimes 
mivtd  with  a  little  silk. 

SAGK.     See  Salvia. 

SAGF.NE,  a  Iviissiaa  long  measure,  five 
himilred  of  which  make  a  werst.  Tlie  sagene 
IS  etiual.lu  seven  English  feet. 

SA(jFATI.1C.     See  KuTHii.r. 

SAG\N A, pcarlniist,  a  genus  of  the  te- 
tragynin  order,  in  the  tetrandia  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natiiial  method  ranking  under  the 
2'2<\  order,  caryophyllei.  The  calyx  is  te- 
trapli\llous;  thi- petals  four ;  the  capsule  is 
unilocular,  quadrivalved  and  polyspermous. 
There  are  5  species. 

SAGITTA,  in  astronomy,  the  arrow  or 
dart,  a  constellation  of  the  northern  henii- 
spliere,  near  the  eagle.     See  Astronomy. 

Sagitta,  in  trigonometry,  the  same  with 
the  versed  sine  of  an  arch. 

SAtillT'AHlA,  Qirroui'-ketid;  a  gsniis  of 
the  polyandria  order,  in  the  inoniecia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  fifth  order,  tripetaloidea-.  The 
male  calyx  is  Iriphyllous;  the  corolla  tripe- 
talous;  (he  filaments  generally  about  14:  the 
female  calyx  is  triphvllo'us ;  the  corolla  trt- 
petaluus;  .  many  pistils;  and  many  naked 
seeds,  'i'here  are  live  species,  of  which  the 
most  remarkable  is  the  sagiltifolia,  growing 
naturally  hi  many  jjarts  of  Enulaud.  Tlie 
root  is  coni|)Osed  of  many  strong  libres,  which 
strike  into  the  inud  ;  the  footstalks  of  the 
leaves  are  in  length  proportionable  to  the 
depth  of  tlie  water  in  which  thev  grow;  so 
they  are  sometimes  almost  a  yard  long:  they 
are  thick  and  fungous:  the  leaves,  which 
iloat  upon  the  water,  are  shaped  like  the  point 
of  an  arrow,  the  two  ears  at  their  base  spread- 
ing wide  asunder,  and  are  very  sharp-iioint- 
ed.  There  is  always  a  bulb  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  rout,  growing  in  the  solid  earth  be- 
ifbath  the  mud.  'I'liis  bulb  constitutes  a  con- 
siderable p.i.rt  of  the  food  of  the  Chine-e  ;  and 
upon  that  account  they  cultivate  it.  Ilor.ses, 
goats,  and  swine,  eat  it;  cows  are  not  fond 
of  it. 

SAGITTAPIUS,  the  arelier',  in  astro- 
nomy,   the   ninth  sign  of  the  zodiac.     See 

ASTROKOMY. 

SAGO,  a  simple  brought  from  the  F-ast 
Indies,  of  considerable  use  in  diet  as  a  resto- 
rative It  is  produced  from  the  pith  of  akind 
of  palm  which  grows  in  the  East  Indies,  calleil 
the  cycas  circinalis.  See  Cycas,  Starch, 
&c. 

SAHUTE,  another  name  for  malacolite, 
which  see. 

SAIL,  in  navigation.  SeeSmp-BUir.DiMG. 

SALE.  If  a  man  agrees  for  the  purchase 
of  goods,  he  shall  pay  for  them  before  he  car- 
ries them  away,  unless  some  term  of  a  credit 
is  expressly  agreed  upon. 

If  one  man  says  the  price  of  an  article  is 
100/.  and  the  other  says  I  will  give  you  100/. 
but  does  not  pay  immediately,  it  is  at  the 
option  of  the  seller  whether  he  shall  have  it  or 
no,  except  a  day  was  given  for  the  payment. 

If  a  man  upon  the  sale  of  goods,  warrants 
them  to  be  good,  the  law  annexes  to  this  con- 
tract a  tacit  warranty,  that  if  they  are  not  so, 
he  shall  make  compensation  to  thepucchaser; 
4  11  '.i 


S  A  L 


(Jll 


Mich  warranly,  however,  must  be  onlhe  sale. 
Hut  if  Ihi;  vendor  knew  the  goods  to  be 
unsound,  and  has  used  any  ail  to  disguise 
them,  or  if  in  any  respect" they  differ  Iroiit 
what  he  represents  them  to  be  to  tiie  pur- 
chaser, he  wi;l  Ijc  answerable  for  their  good- 
ness, thutigh  no  general  warranty  will  e xtciid 
to  those  defects  that  are obviouslo  the  senses. 

If  two  person.;  come  to  a  wareiiouse,  and 
one  buys,  and  the  other  to  procure  him 
credit,  promises  the  seller,  if  he  doc-snot  pay 
you,  1  will  ;  tins  is  a  collateral  undertaking, 
and  void  without  writing,  by  the  statutes  of 
frauds ;  but  if  he  says,  let  him  have  the  goods, 
I  wdl  be  your  pay-master,  this  is  an  absolute 
undertaking  as  for  himself,  and  he  shall  be  in- 
tended  to  be  the  real  buyer,  and  the  other  to 
act  oidy  as  his  servant.     2  1'.  K.  7.3. 

After  earnest  is  given,  the  vendor  cannot 
sell  the  goods  to  another  without  a  defau't  in 
tlie  vendee ;  and  therefore  if  the  vendee  doc« 
not  come  and  pay,  and  take  the  goods,  the 
vendor  ought  lo  give  liim  notice  for  that  pur- 
])Ose;  and  then  if  he  does  not  come  and  pay* 
and  take  away  the  goods  in  convenient  time, 
the  agreement  is  dissolved,  and  he  is  at  liberty 
lo  sell  them  to  any  other  person.   1  Salk.  1 1 J. 

All  earnest  only  bincls  t!ie  bargain,  and 
gives  the  party  a  right  lo  demand ;  bi.t  de- 
mand without  payment  of  money  is  void.  See 

also  AoCTiOK,  C'OXTRACT,  &C. 

SALICR    tjee  Starch. 

SALIANT,  in  forliiication,  denotes  pro* 
jecting.  There  are  two  kinds  of  angles :  the 
one  .saliant,  wiiich  are  those  that  present  their 
point  outwards ;  the  other  re-entering,  «  hich 
liave  their  points  inwards.  lus!;  s  of  boUl 
kinds  we  have  in  tenaiUes  and  ;      -works. 

S.^LIENT.     See  HtRALDtcY. 

S.M.IC,  or  S.-u-iGUE  Law,  /  x  snlira,  an 
antient  and  lund.imental  1  w  of  the  kingdom 
of  France,  usually  supposed  to  have  been 
ni.ide  by  I'haramond,  or  at  leiist  by  Clovis, 
in  virtue  of  which  males  are  only  to  inherit. 
Dii  llaillan,  after  a  critical  c-xaminat;on,  de- 
clares it  to  have  been  an  expedient  ot  Ihiiip 
the  Long,  in  I31'i,  for  the  exclusion  of  the 
daughter  of  Lewis  llutin  from  inheriting  the 
crown.  Father  Daniel,  on  the  other  hand; 
maintains  that  it  is  cpioted  by  authors  moro 
antient  than  Philip  the  Long,  and  that  Clovis 
is  the  real  author  of  it.  Tliis  law  has  not  any 
particular  regard  to  the  crown  of  France;  it 
only  inqiorts,  in  general,  that  in  salic  land  no 
part  of  the  inheritance  shall  lall  lo  anv  female, 
but  the  whole  to  the  male  sex.  Bv  sahc 
lands,  or  inheritances,  were  antientiv  de- 
noted, atiumg  us,  all  lands,  by  whatever 
tenure  held,  whether  noble  or  base,  from  the 
succesbion  to  which  \vomen  were  excluded  by 
the  salic  law  ;  for  they  w  ere  by  it  admitted  to 
inherit  nothing  but  moveables  and  purciiases 
wherever  there  .were  any  males. 

S.^LIBUUIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  an^ 
order  monoccia  polyandria.  The  male  is  an' 
anient;  antheraMucumbent ;  female  solitary ; 
calyx  four-cleft,  drupe.  There  is  one  specie*, 
a  tree  of  .iapan. 

SALICORNTA,'  jointed  gluss-xvort,  or 
mli-'iort,  a  genus  of  the  inonogynia  order, 
in  the  monandria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  12th  order, 
h:ilorace;e.  The  calyx  is  ventricose,  or  a 
little  swelling  out  anil  entire;  there  are  no 
petals,  and  but  one  seed.  There  ai-e  nin« 
species,  ot  whicii  the  most  remarkable  are  : 
1.   I'he  fruticosa,  w:lh  obtuse  points,  growg 


ei2 


SAL 


plentifii!ty  in  most  of  the  salt  marshes  which 
are  oveiHoweil  by  the  li<les  in  niLiiiy  parts  of 
England.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  with  thick, 
Kicciilsnt,  iointed  stalks,  wtiich  trail  npon  the 
gro'init.  2.  The  perennis,  with  a  shnihby 
branching  stalk,  grows  naturally  in  Slieppey 
island.  'They  are  perennial,  and  prociuce 
thfi.tlowers  in  the  same  manner  as  the  t'ormer. 
The  inhabitants  near  the  sea-coasts  where 
these  plants  grow,  cut  them  up  toward  the 
latier  end  of  summer,  when  they  are  fully 
grown  ;  and  after  having  dried  them  in  the 
sun,  thev  burn  them  for  their  ashes,  vvhich 
ure  used  in  making  of  glass  and  soap.  These 
herbs  arc  by  the  country  people  called  kelp, 
and  promiscuously  gafliered  for  use. 
<  S.-VLIVA.  The  lluid  secreted  in  the 
jiioiith,  which  flows  in  consiihfrable  quantity 
during  a  repast,  is  kno'.vn  by  the  name  of  sa- 
liva. All  the  properties  of  this  li(|Uor  which 
had  been  observJd  by  philosophers  before 
th^  middle  of  the  ISih  century  have  been 
cpiiccted  by  Haller  ;  but  since  that  time  se- 
veral adaili'onal  facts  have  been  related  by 
Fourtroy,  Du  Tennetar,  and  Brugnatclli, 
and  a  very  numerous  set  of  e.Kperinients  have 
been  published  by  Mr.  Siebold  in  1797,  in 
iiis  Treatise  on  the  .Salivary  System. 

Saliva  is  a  limpid  lluid  like  water;  but 
muclnnore  viscid:  it  has  neither  smell  nor 
taste.  Its  spetilic  gravity,  according  to 
Hamberger,  is  1.01C)7;  according  to  Siebold, 
J.OSO.  When  agitated,  it  froths  like  all  other 
adhesive  liquids;  indeed  it  is  usually  mixed 
with  dir,  and  has  the  appearance  of  froth. 

It  neither  ni.ses  reaihly  wuh  water  n  K  oil ; 
but  bv  trituration  in  a  mort;;r  it  may  be  so 
mixed  with  water  a?  to  pass  through  a  hllre. 
It  has  a  great  altinity  for  oxygi-n,  absorbs  it 
readily  ho.n  the  air,  and  gives  it  out  again  to 
Pther  bodies.  Hence  the  reason  why  gold  or 
silver,  triturated  with  .saliva  in  a  mortar,  is 
oxidizeil,  as  Du  Tennetar  has  observed  ;  and 
why  the  killing  of  mercury  by  oils  is  much 
facilitated  by  spitting  into  tlie mixture.  Hence 
also,  in  all  probability,  the  reason  that  saliva 
is  a  useful  application  to  s.)res  of  the  skin. 
Dogs  and  several  other  aniinals,  have  con- 
stantly reconr.ie  to  this  remedy,  and  with 
much  advantage. 

When  boiled  in  water,  a  few  flakes  of  albu- 
men precipitate.  When  evaporated,  it  swells 
exceedingly,  and  leaves  behind  it  a  thin 
brown-colouitd  crust;  but  if  the  evaporation 
is  conducted  slow'y,  small  cubic  crystals  of 
niuriat  of  soda,  (common  salt)  are  lormed ; 
and  whi-n  the  evaporation  is  completed,  there 
roiuains  behind  a  sub.stance  which  resembles 
■vegilable  gluten,  and  which  takes  fire  on 
buiiiiMg  coal:;,  exhaling  .tht^odour  of  prussic 
acid,  and  of  burning  leathers.  The  viscidity 
of  saliva,  the  property  which  it  has  of  absorb- 
ing oxy^  n,  and  of  being  inspissated,  and  this 
gliilinoiii  residuum,  announce  tl.e  presence 
of  i'u'mal  mucilage  as  a  component  part 

WiHii  saliva  is  dstilled  in  a  retort,  it  frollis 
■very  much:  lOd  parts  yield  80  parts  of  water 
iie..ii\  pure,  then  a  little  carbonat  of  ammo- 
nia, luine  oil,  and  an  acici,  wliich  perhaps  is 
theprussic.  The  resiiiumn  amounts  to  about 
i.bC)  paits,  and  is  compose-l  of  mnriat  of  soda, 
phoplut  of  sod  1,  and  pii"si)liat  of  lim-. 

A\  hen  saliva  is  left  exposed  to  the  air,  if 
at>«orl><  a  considerable  poition  of  it,  a  slight 
jelliile  appeirs  on  its  surface,  it  becomes 
inn.ldy,  and  deposits  sonic  Hakes,  exhaling 
at  llie  same  time  a  strong  amiaoiiiacal  udoiir. 


SAL 

Soon  after  it  putrefies,  and  becomes  exceed- 
ingly fetid. 

The  acid;  and  alcohol  inspissates s.iliva;  the 
alkalies  disengage  ammonia  ;  oxalic  acid  pre- 
cipitates lime;  and  the  iiilrats  of  lead,  mer- 
cury, and  silver,  precipitate  phosphoric  and 
muriatic  acids. 

From  these  facts,  it  follows  tlmt  saliva,  be- 
sides water,  which  constitutes  at  least  four- 
liftlis  of  its  bulk,  contains  the  following  in- 
gredients: 
1^.  Mucilage,  4.  Phosphat  of  soda, 

2.  Albumen,  5.  Pliosplial  of  lime, 

3.  Muriat  of  soda,  6.  Phosphat  of  ammonia. 
Rut  it  cannot  be  doubted  that,  like  all  tlie 
other  animal  lluids,  it  is  liable  to  many 
changes  from  disease,  &c.  IJrugn.ilelli  found 
the  saliva  of  a  patient,  labouring  under  an  ob- 
stinate venereal  disease,  impregnated  with 
oxalic  acid. 

The  concretions  wliicli  sometimes  form  in 
the  salivary  ducts,  &c.  and  the  tartar  or  bony 
crust  which  so  often  attaches  itself  to  the 
teeth,  arc  composed  of  phosphat  of  lime. 

Such  are  the  properties  of  human  saliva. 
Tlie  saliva  of  the  horse  was  analysed  by  Hapel 
Deiacheiiierin  17S0.  He  collected  V2  ounces 
of  it  in  the  space  of  24  hours  by  puncturing 
the  salivary  duct.  Its  colour  was  greenish- 
yellow;  its  feel  soapy;  it  had  a  weak  disa- 
greeable smell,  and  a  saline  t.iste.  Boiling 
water  and  alcohol  (oagulated  it  in  part;  as 
did  the  acids.  When  sulpluiric  acid  was 
used,  sulphat  of  soda  was  obtained.  It  pu- 
trefied in  about  14  days;  and  when  allowed 
to  evaporate  spontaneously,  it  left  a  black 
residuum  like  earth.  When  distilled,  it  yield- 
ed an  insipid  watery  liquid,  crystals  of  car- 
boiiat  of  ammonia,  a  thick  black  empyreu- 
matic  oil,  carbureted  hydrogen,  and  carbonic 
acid;  and  a  charcoal  remained. 

It  is  rather  surprising  that  no  experiments 
have  been  hitherto  made  on  the  saliva  of 
dogs  ;  though  the  hydr.jphobia  has  been  usu- 
ally ascribed  to  the  inlusinii  of  the  saliva  of 
that  animal  rendered  inorhi<l  by  disease. 

SALIV.VI'ION.     See  Medicine. 

SALIX,  ihett'iVMti',  agemisof  Ihedirndria 
order,  in  the  diwci.i  class  o:  plants,  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  50th  order, 
ainentacea'.  The  amentum  of  the  male  is 
scaly  ;  (here  is  nocorol'a:  but  a  nectariferou- 
glandule  at  the  base  of  the  llower.  The  fe- 
male amentum  is  scaly;  tlicre  is  no  corolla; 
the  style  bilid ;  the  capsule  unilocular  and 
bivalved  ;  the  seeds  pappous.  There  are  53 
species,  of  which  tlie  most  remarkable  are, 

1.  The  caprea,  or  common  sallow-tree, 
grows  to  biit  a  moderate  height,  having 
smooth,  dark-green,  brittle  branches  ;  oval, 
waved,  rough  leaves,  indented  at  top,  and 
woolly  underneath.  It  grows  abuiidantlv  in 
this  country,  but  more  fre(|uently  in  dry  than 
moist  situations.  It  is  of  a  brittle  nature,  so 
is  unlit  for  the  basket-makers;  but  wil!  serve 
for  poles,  slakes,  and  to  lo|j  for  fin^-w-ood ; 
and  its  timber  is  good  for  many  purposes. 

2.  'l"he  alba,  wiiite,  or  silver-leaved  willow, 
grows  to  a  great  height  and  considerable 
bulk,  having  smooth,  pale-green  shoots  ;  long, 
spear-shaped,  acuminated,  sawed,  silvery- 
white  leaves,  being  downv  on  both  sides,  with 
glands  below  the  serrat'ures.  This  is  the 
common  wl.ite  willow,  which  grows  abundant- 
ly about  towns  and  villages,  and  by  the  sides 
o;  livers  and  brooks,  &c, 


SAL 

3.  Ttie  vitellina,  yellow  or  go!dcn  willow,  ^ 
grows  but  to  a  mod.  rate  height,  having  yel- 
low, very  pliant  shoots  ;  oval,  aei-te,  serrated, 
very  smooth  leaves,  with  tlie  serialnres  car- 
tilaginous, and  With  callous  punctures  on  the 
footstalks. 

4.  The  purpurea,  purple  or  red  willow, 
grows  to  a  large  height,  haxinglong,  reddish, 
very  pliidile  shoots,  and  long,  spear-shaped, 
serrated,  smooth  leaves,  the  lower  ones  being 

OJlposite. 

5.  The  viminalis,  or  osier-willow,  grows 
but  a  moderate  height,  having  slender  rod- 
like branches ;  very  long,  pliant,  greenish 
shoots;  ami  very  long,  narrow,  spear-shaped, 
acute,  almost  entire  leaves,  hoary,  and  siiky 
underneath. 

f).  The  pentandra,  pcntandrous,  broad- 
U'aved,  sweet-scented  willow,  growls  to  some 
considerable  st.iture,  having  brownish-green 
branches;  oblong,  broad,  serrated,  smooth, 
sweet-scented  leaves,  shining  above ;  and 
pentandrous  flowers. 

7.  Thetriandria,  or  triandrous  willow,  grows 
to  a  large  stature,  having  numerous,  erect, 
greyish-green  branches,  and  pliant  shoots; 
oblong,  acute-pointed,  serrated,  smooth,  shin- 
ing-green leaves,  eared  at  the  base  ;  and  tri- 
androus llowers. 

8.  The  Iragilis,  fragile  or  crat  k  willow,  rises 
to  a  middling  stature,  with  brownish,  very 
fragile,  or  bnttie  branches,  long,  oval-lanceo- 
late, sawed,  smooth  leaves  of  a  shining  green 
on  both  sides-,  having  dentated  glandular  foot- 
stalks. This  sort  in  p  uticular  being  exceed- 
ingly fragile,  so  that  it  easily  ciacks  and 
break",  is  unlit  for  culture  in  osier-grounds. 

9.  liie  Babylonica,  l5ai)ylonian  pendulous 
salix,  commonly  called  weeping  willow,  grows 
to  a  largish  size,  having  numerous,  long, 
slender,  peii'iulous  branches,  h.nging  dowri 
looselv  all  round  in  a  curious  manner,  and 
long,  narrow,  spear-shaped,  serrated,  smooth 
leiives.  This  curious  willow  is  a  nativeof  the 
East. 

All  the  species  of  salix  are  of  the  tree  kind, 
very  hardy,  re;iiarkabl\  fast  growers,  and  se- 
veral ol  them  atlaiu'iig  a  cons  derable  stature 
when  periiiittvd  lo  run  up  to  standards.  They 
are  mostly  of  the  aquatic  tribe,  being  gene- 
rally the  most  abundint,  and  of  most  pros- 
perous growth,  in  watery  situations;  they, 
iiowever,  will  grow  freely  almost  any  where, 
in  any  common  soil  and  exposure  ;  but  grow 
considerably  the  fastest  and  strongest  in  lo\T 
moist  land,  particularly  in  mai-shy  situations, 
bv  the  verges  of  rivers,  brooks,  and  other 
waters;  likewise  along  the  sides  of  watery 
ditches,  &c.  which  places  ohen  lying  waste, 
may  be  employed  to  good  advantage  in  plan-  i 
fations  of  willows  for  different  purposes. 

SALMASIA,  a  genus  of  the  pcntandria 
trigynia  class  and  order.  The  calyx  is  live- 
purled  ;  corolla  five-petalled;  sfvie  none; 
capsule  three-ceded,  tliree-valveil,  many- 
seeded.  There  is  one  species,  a  shrub  of 
Guinea. 

SALMO,  .lalmnti,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
order  abdominales.  The  generic  character 
is,  head  smooth,  cinpressed  ;  tongue  cartila- 
ginous ;  teeth  both  in  the  jaws  and  on  the 
tongue;  gill-membrane  from  four  to  ten  ray- 
ed ;  body  compressed,  furnished  at  the  hind 
part  with  an  adipose  lin. 

I.  Salmo  salar,  tlie  common  salmon,  so 
highly  esteemed  tor  the  delicacy  of  its  liaViiur, 
and  so  important  an  article  in  a  commercial 


viiw,  is  chiefly  ;m  in!i;tbit.-int  of  the  ivjrtliern 
ri  i^ioii'i,  where  it  occurs  at  diMert'iit  period, 
liDtli  ill  salt  and  Ircsh  waters  ;  (luittiiig  the 
nM  at  ccrtaii)  seasons  to  depoiit  its  spawn  in 
t^ie  gravelly  bed-;  ot  rivers,  at  a  great  distance 
i;n  their  nioutlis.  In  order  tf>-arrive  at  tlie 
Its  proper  (ur  this  purpose,  tliero  are 
I  ireely  any  obstaeles  which  the  lisli  will  not 
:  ;rini)unt.  'I'liey  will  asceiut  rivi'rs  tor  luin- 
di'ds  of  miles;  ioice  themselves  asaiiisl  the 
nio^t  rapid  streams,  and  spring  wlh  ama/ing 
agilit  1  over  cataracts  of  several  lect  in  height. 
'I  liev  are  talieii,  according  to  NFr.  I'einiant, 
in  tlie  Rhine  as  high  as  I).i>il;  they  gain  the 
sources  of  the  I^ipland  rivers,  in  spite  of  their 
torrinit-liLe  cmrents  ;  they  snrpass  the  per- 
pendicu'ar  falls  of  Leixlip,  Keimerth,  and 
J'oiU  Alierglastyn.  At  the  latter  of  these 
idaces,  Mr.  Pennant  assures  us  that  he  has 
lilniself  witnessed  the  eflbrts  of  the  suhnon, 
and  seen  scores  of  fish,  some  of  which  suc- 
cecdetl,  wliile  otliers  miscarried  in  the  at- 
tempt duriiig  the  time  of  his  observation.  It 
m.iy  be  adcied,  that  the  salmon,  like  the 
swallow,  is  said  to  return  each  season  to  the 
gelf-same  spot  to  de;)Osit  its  spawn.  This  has 
b';en  ascertained  by  the  experiments  of 
^'i.)■rir.  De  la  Lande,  who  fastening  a  small 
ring  of  copper  to  the  t.uls  of  some  individu- 
als, and  then  setting  them  at  liberty,  found 
tjiat  some  of  them  mad;;  their  a])pearance  in 
th  ■  same  place  lor  three  succeeding  seasons. 
'I'll..'  experiment  of  lastening  gold  or  silver 
rings  to  s.ilmon  is  said  by  Or.  IJloch  to  have 
been  occasionally  practised  by  some  of  the 
Kastern  princes,  and  it  is  added  that  by  this 
rielhod  a  communication  has  been  proved 
Iietween  the  Caspian  and  Northern  seas  and 
the  Persian  Gulf. 

The  gent-ral  history  of  the  salmon-fishery 
on  the  river  Tweed,  is  amply  delai'ed  by  Mr. 
Pennant.  "At  the  latter  end  of Ih  ■  year,  or 
in  tlie  month  of  November,  t!ie  salmon  begin 
to  press  up  the  river  as  f.'.r  as  tiny  can  reach, 
in  order  to  spawn.  \\  lieu  tli.it  time  ap- 
proaches tliev  seek  for  a  place  lit  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  the  male  and  fenwle  unite  in  forming  a 
proper  receptacle  for  it  in  the  sand  or  gravel, 
about  the  depth  of  18  inches.  In  this  the 
female  deposits  the  spawn,  which  they  after- 
wards cover  carefully  up  by  means  of  their 
tails,  which  are  oliserved  to  have  no  skin  on 
tbem  (or  some  time  after  this  period.  The 
spawn  lies  buried  l  !1  sprina-,  if  not  disturbed 
by  violent  Hoods,  bui  the  salmon  hasten  to 
the  sea  as  soon  as  they  are  able,  in  order  to 
recover  their  strength  ;  ior  alter  spawning 
they  are  observed  to  become  very  lean,  and 
are  then  called  by  the  name  of  kippers.  When 
the  s.ilmon  lirsl  enter  tlie  rivers  tiiey  are  ob- 
served to  have  a  great  many  small  animals 
adhering  to  them,  especially  about  the  gills: 
these  are  the  leriuea'  sahnone;e  of  Limianis, 
and  are  signs  that  the  fish  is  in  high  season : 
soon  ;ilter  the  salmon  have  left  the  sea,  the 
leriiae;e  die,  and  drop  off.  About  the  latter 
end  of  March  the  spawn  begins  to  exclude 
the  young,  which  gradually  increase  to  tlie 
length  of  four  or  five  inches,  and  are  then 
called  smelts  or  smouts.  About  the  begin- 
ning of  May,  the  river  is  full  of  them  ;  it 
stems  to  be  all  alive  ;  and  there  is  no  having 
an  idea  ol  their  numbers  without  seeing  them  ;  | 
but  a  seasonable  Hood  then  hurries  tiiem  all 
to  sea,  scarcely  any  or  very  tew  of  them  be- 
ing left  in  the  river.  About  the  middf;  of ! 
'.  June  the   earliest  of  the  fry  begin  to  drop  | 

n  ' 


SALMO. 

into  the  river  again  from  the  si'n,  at  that 
time  about  t«eKe,  fourteen,  orsi\te<-n  inches 
in  length,  and  by  a  gradual  progress,  increaie 
in  number  and  size,  till  about  the  end  of 
July,  which  is  at  lierwick  termed  the  gilse 
tune  (the  name  given  to  the  fish  at  that  age). 
At  the  end  of  July,  or  the  beginning  of  Au- 
gust, they  lessen  in  number,  but  increase  in 
s'ze,  some  being  six,  sevi.Mi,  eight,  or  nine 
pounds  weight.  This  appears  to  be  a  sur- 
prising growth  ;  vet  we  have  reci-ivod  from  a 
giMitleman  at  \Varrington  an  instance  still 
more  so.  A  salm  in  weighing  seven  pounds 
three  ipiarters,  taken  on  the  sevenih  of  I'V- 
briiary,  being  m.irked  with  sciss.irs  on  the 
back  lin  and  tiiil,  and  turned  into  the  river, 
was  again  taken  on  the  17th  of  the  loUowing 
March,  and  then  tbund  to  weigh  seventeen 
pounds  and  a  half. 

"  All  lishermen  agree  that  they  never  find 
any  food  in  the  stomach  of  this  fish.  Perhaps 
during  the  spawning-tinie,  tliev  mav  eiitirelv 
negl(;ct  their  food,  as  the  phocx,  called  sea- 
lions  and  sea-bears,  are  known  to  do  for 
months  together  during  tlie  breeding-season  ; 
and  it  may  be  that,  like  tlio;e  animals,  the 
salmon  return  to  sea  lank  and  lean,  and  come 
from  it  in  good  conditi.jn.  It  is  evident  that 
at  times  ih.-irlbod  is  both  fish  and  worms,  for 
the  angler  uses  both  willi  good  success,  as 
well  as  a  l.irge  gaudy  artili'ial  fly,  which  the 
lish  probably  mistakes  for  a  gay  libellula  or 
dragon-tly.  The  capture  about  the  Tv.eed 
is  proriigious  in  a  good  fishery.  Some  few 
years  ago  there  were  above  seven  hundred 
lish  taken  at  one  hawl,  but  from  fifty  to  a 
hundred  is  very  frequent."  See  Fishery, 
V  ol.  1 ,  p.  73G. 

T  he  general  length  of  the  salmon  is  from 
two  and  a  half  to  three  feet,  but  sometimes 
mucii  more.  The  male  is  principally  di>- 
tingnislied  by  the  curvature  of  the  jaws  ;  both 
the  upper  and  lower  mandible  bending  to- 
wards each  other  more  or  less  in  different  in- 
dividuals, and  at  dilferenl  seasons.  The  ge- 
neral colour  of  both  sexes  is  a  silvei-y  grcv,  of 
a  much  darker  cast  on  the  back  ;  the  sidei  of 
the  male  are  marked  with  numerous,  small, 
irre^'ular,  dusky,  and  copper-coloured  spots, 
while  those  of  the  I'emale  exhibit  only  several 
rather  large,  distant,  roundish,  or  somewliat 
lunatcd  spots  of  a  dark  colour.  Exclusive  of 
these  dift'erences,  the  male  is  of  a  somewhat 
longer  or  more  slender  shape  than  tiie  female. 
'l'i:e  scales  in  the.  salmon  are  middle-sized, 
and  not  verv  strongly  adherent. 

In  the  intestinal  canal  of  the  salmon  is  often 
found  a  species  of  txnia,  or  tape-worm,  of 
about  three  feet  in  lengtii.  Dr.  Blocli  informs 
us  that  in  a  salmon  which  had  b-'en  tlirce 
wi-eks  dead,  he  found  one  of  those  worms  still 
living.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  lig.  349.  . 

2.  Salmo  trutta,  salmon-trout,  greatly  allied 
in  point  of  general  ajipearance  to  the  salmon, 
but  rarely  of  ecpialsize;  colour  purplish  or 
violet.  With  the  head  and  whole  body  pretty 
thi(  kly  marked  with  rather  small  round  dark 
or  blackish  spots,  surrounded  by  a  paler  cir- 
cle ;  scales  rather  small.  Native  oi  the  Ku- 
ropean  seas,  passing,  like  the  salmon,  into 
rivers  to  deposit  its  spawn;  is  of  ecjual  deli- 
cacy with  the  salmon,  and  the  (lesh  of  similar 
folour;  varies  o'ca-.ionally  both  in  colour  and 
spots,  which  are  sometimes  rather  angular 
than  round  ;  jiossesses  a  considerable  degree 
of  phosphoric  quality,  which  seems  to  reside 
ill  the  viscid  mucus  .coverii;g  tlie.  skiu. ,.  Like 


613 

the  salmon,  this  fi-h  is  prepared  In  dUPrent 
methods  lor  sale,  being  sold  both  fresh  and 
salted,  as  well  as    nioked,  pickled,  &c.  &c. 

3.  Salmo  fario,  couimou  trout.  Tiie  trout 
is  an  inhabitant  of  clear  and  cold  streams  and 
lakes  in  ino>t  parts  of  Lurope,  an  1  admits  of 
considerable  variety  as  to  the  tinge  both  of  its 
ground-colour  and  sp'its.  Its  general  length 
IS  from  six  to  liftiren  orsi.^te  -ii  inches,  and  its 
colour  yellowish-giey,  darker  or  browner  on' 
the  back,  and  inarkec'l  on  the  sides  by  several 
ra'lier  di'^Uml,  round,  bright-red  spots,  each 
surrounded  by  a  tinge  ot  pak-Wue  grey. 
Sometimes  tiie  grouiul-colour  of  tlie  body  is 
a  purplish  grey  ;  the  red  spots  much  larger, 
more  or  less  mixed  with  black,  and  tlie  belly 
of  a  white  or  silvery  cast;  the  fins  are  of  a 
pale  purplish  brown  ;  the  dorsal  fin  marked 
«itli  several  darker  spots;  the  head  is  raher 
larger  in  proportion  than  that  of  tiie  salmon, 
the  scales  small,  and  the  lateral  line  straight. 
The  female  lish  is  of  a  brighter  and  mora 
beautiful  appearance  than  the  male. 

Mr.  Pennant  informs  us  that  in  tlie  lake 
Llyndivi  in  South  Wales  are  trouts  marked 
with  red  and  black  spots  as  large  as  sixpences; 
and  others  unspotted  and  of  a  reddish  hue, 
sometimes  weighing  near  ten  pounds;  but 
these  latter  are  said  to  be  bad-tasted. 

In  general  the  trout  prefers  clear,  cold,  and 
briskly-running  waters,  with  a  stony  or  gra-. 
veily  bottom.  It  swins  with  rapidity,  and, 
like  the  salmon,  springs  occasionally  to  a  very 
considerable  height  in  order  to  surmount  any  ■ 
obst  icie  in  its  course,  it  lives  on  worms, 
small  fishes,  shell-lVsh,  and  aquatic  insects, 
and  is  particularly  delighted  with  May-iliei 
(epiienier.r),  as  well  as  w  itli  phrygaiu-x,  gnats, 
and  their  larvir.  It  generally  s])a'.vns  in  Sep- 
tember, or  in  the  colder  parts  of  Europe,  in 
October,  and  at  those  lime;i  gets  among  the 
roots  of  trees,  stones,  &c.  in  order  to  deposit 
its  egg*,  wb.ich  are  observed  to  be  far  less 
numerous  than  those  of  other  river-fish.  Yet 
the  trout,  as  I'loch  observes,  is  a  fish  that  ad-, 
niiis  of  \ery  considerable  increase ;  owing, 
no  doubt,  to  the  circumstance  of.  most  of  tho 
voracioui  kind  of  fishes  avoiding  waters  of  so- 
cold  a  nature  a*  thoscf  which  trouts  deiiglit  to 
inhabit;  and  their  increase  would  be  still 
greater,  were  they  not  tliemselves  of  a  vora- 
cious, disposition,  frequently  preying  even  on 
each  other. 

The  merit  of  the  trout  as  an  article  of  food 
is  too  well  known  to  recjuire  particular  notice. 
In  this  respect,  however,  as  in  other  fishes, 
those  are  most  esteemed  which  are  natives  of 
the  clearest  waters.. 

The  stomach  of  this  fish  is  uncommonly 
strong  and.  liiick  ;  but  this  circumstance  is 
observed  to  be  no  where  so  remarkable  as  in 
those  fouiul  in  some  of  the  Irish  lakes,  and 
particularly  in  those  of  the  county  of  Galway. 
These  are  called  gilluioo  trouts  ;  on  the  most 
accurate  examination,  however,  it  does  not 
appear  that  they  are  specifically  difl'erent  from 
the  common  trout ;  but  by  living  much  on 
shell-lisli,  and  sv.aliuwLng  small. stones  at  the 
same  time,  their  stomachs  acquire  a  much 
greater  degree  of  thickness,  and  a  kind  of 
muscular  appearance,  so  as  to  resemble  a  sort 
of  gizzard.    . 

Mr.  Pennant  obser\es,  that  it  is  a  matter  of 
surprise  that  the  trout,  though  so  common  a 
fish,  should  appear  to  be  unnoticed  by  the 
aulients,  exte^it  Ausonius,  .who  is  supposed  te 


6t4 


SAL 


hart;  intended  it  l)y  tii";  name  of  salar.  He 
mfiitions  it,  however,  merely  on  account  of 
il?  beautv,  and  without  any  thing  relative  to 
iw  merit  a^  a  food. 

4.  Saliiio  salnuilus.  The  samlet  is,  accord- 
ing to  Pennant,  the  least^pf  the  British  spe- 
cies of  this  genns,  and  is  frequently  seen  in 
the  river  Wye,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Se- 
vern, and  in  the  rivers  that  run  into  it,  in  the 
north  of  England,  and  in  Wales.  It  is  by  se- 
veral imagined  to  be  the  fry  of  the  salmon  ; 
but  Mr.  IVnnunt  dissL-nts  from  this  opinion 
for  the  following  reasons:^  Jirst,  it  is  wkU 
known  that  tiie  salmon-fry  never  continue  in 
fresh  water  the  whole  year,  but,  as  numerous 
as  they  appear  on  their  lirst  escape  from  the 
spawii,  all  vanish  on  the  rn"st  vernal  flood  that 
happens,  which  sweejjs  them  into  the  sea,  and 
leaves  scarcely  one  behind ;  secondly,  the 
growth  of  salmon-fry  is  so  quick  and  so  coh- 
siderajjle  as  suddenly  to  exceed  the  bulk  of  the 
largest  saiilet ;  for  example,  the  fry  that 
have  quitted  tiie  fresh  water  in  spring,  not 
larger  than.gudjejns,  return  into  it  again  a 
foot  or  more  in  length  ;  tliirdly,  the  salmon 
obtains  a  considera!)le  bnlk  before  it  begins 
to  breed;  the  samlets,  on  the  contrary,  are 
found  b')th  male  and  female  of  their  co.nmon 
size,  and  are  rca  lily  distinguished  by  being 
furnished  with  either  the  hard  or  soft  roe; 
fourthly,  they  are  found  in  tlie  fresh  waters  all 
times  of  the  year,  and  even  at  seasons  when 
the  sal'.non-fry  have  gaiiied  a  considerable 
size.  It  is  \vell  known  that  at  Shrewsbury  j 
(Where  they  are  called  Siinsons),  they  are  '• 
found  in  such  quantities  in  the  month  of  Sep-  j 
tember,  that  a  skilful  angler,  in  a  coracle,  | 
will  take  with  a  flv  fron  twelve  to  sixteen  ! 
dozen  in  a  day.  'J'hey  S|)awn  in  November 
and  December,  at  which  time  those  of  the 
Severn  push  up  towards  the  head  of  that 
river,  quittinf;  the  smaller  brooks,  and  return 
into  them  again  when  they  have  done  spawn- 
ing. They  have  a  general  resemb'ance  to 
the  trout,  and  must  therefore  be  described 
comparatively. 

Tiie  head  is  proportionally  narrower,  and 
the  nioutli  smaller;  the  body  deeper;  the 
length  seldom  more  than  six  or  seven  inches, 
or  at  most  about  eight  and  a  half;  the  pec- 
toral fins  have  generally  but  one  large  black 
spot,  though  sometimes  a  single  small  one  at- 
tends it ;  whereas  the  pectoral  lins  of  the 
trout  arc  more  numerously  m  irked;  the 
spurious  or  fat  fin  on  the  bacK  is  never  tipped 
with  red,  nor  is  the  edge  of  the  anal  lin 
while;  the  spots  on  the  body  are  fewer,  and 
HOt  so  bright ;  the  body  is  also  marked  from 
back  to  sides  with  si\  or  seven  large  blueish 
bars ;  but  this  Mr.  Peimant  allows  to  be  not 
a  certain  character,  as  the  same  is  sometimes 
«)bserved  in  young  trouts;  lastly,  the  tail  of 
the  sandet  is  much  more  forked  than  that  of 
the  front.  The  samlet  is  vifry  fre<inent  in 
the  rivers  of  Scotlanil,  where  it  is  called  the 
parr.  It  is  also  common  in  the  Wye,  and  is 
tiiero  known  by  the  title  of  skirling  or 
laspring. 

5.  Salmo  salvelinns,  salvelin  tronl.  Length 
about  twelve  inches  ;  shape  resembling  that 
of  the  salm  in,  but  rather  jnore  slender  ;  co- 
lour of  the  b.iik  daik-brownish  blue;  of  the 
sidct  silviry,  marked  with  pretty  numerous, 
nioih.'rately  distant,  small,  round,  red  spots, 
whiili  are  sometimes  surrounded  with  a  pale 
margin  ;  belly  red  or  orange-colour ;  pecto- 
lal,  vcutral,  ami  auai  fius  tTie  same,  but  with 


SAL 

the  two  first  rays  white ;  dor-al  aVid  caudal 
liii  bkielsh  brown ;  adipose  lin  small,  pale, 
and  tipped  with  brown  ;  scales  rather  small 
than  large;  lateral  line  strait;  tail  moderately 
bifurcated;  both  jaws  of  equal  length  ;irides 
silvery.  Native  of  mountainous  lakes  in  se- 
veral parts  of  Germany,  and  of  several  of  the 
rivers  in  Siberia,  arjd  (if  this-species  is  the  red 
charr  of  the  English)  in  soiiie  of  the  lakes  of 
our  own  comitry,  as  those  of  Weslmo  eland, 
&c.  As  in  others  of  tliis  genus,  those  which 
inhabit  the  clearest  and  coldest  waters  are 
observed  to  be  of  the  richest  colours.  ■  It  is  a 
foil  of  great  delicacy  of  llavour,  and  muclj 
esteemed  as  a  food. 

6.  Salmo  eijerlanus,  smelt.  Of  this  species 
there  appear  to  be  two  varieties :  one  uov. 
exceeding  the  length  of  three  or  (our  inches; 
theotherarrivingat  (lie  general  length  of  six, 
eight,  or  nine  inches,  and  sometimes  even  to 
twelve  or  thirteen.  The  larger  variety  seems 
to  be  that  so  frequently  seen  about  the 
British  coasts,  and  wliicli  is  di.4inguished  by 
Dr.  Bloch  under  the  name  of  eperljno-ma- 
riiius,  or  sea-smc-U.  These  lishes  are  found 
abo\it  our  coasts  throughout  the  wliole  year, 
and  rarely  go  to  any  great  dist.uice  from  the 
shores,  exce))t  when  they  ascend  rivers  either 
at  or  some  time  before  the  spawning-season. 
It  is  observed  by  Mr.  Pennant  that  in  tlie 
river  Thames  and  in  the  Det,  they  are  taken, 
in  great  abundance  in  ^'ovember,  Decemijor, 
and  January  ;  but  in  other  rivers  not  till  Fe- 
bruary, spawning  in  the  months  of  March  and 
April,  'llie  smelt  is  a  very  elegant  (ish  ;  its 
form  beautifully  taper  ;  tlieskin  tiii.!,  and  the 
whole  body,  but  particularly  the  head,  semi- 
transparent  ;  the  colour  of  the  back  is  whitish, 
with  a  cast  of  green,  beneath  whirh  it  is  varied 
with  blue,  and  then  succeeds  the  beautiful 
silvery  gloss  of  the  abdomen;  the  scales  are 
small,  and  easily  rubbed  oil';  the  eyes  are 
silvery;  the  under  jaw  longer  than  the  up|)<-r; 
in  front  of  the  upper  are  lour  large  tielli, 
tliose  in  the  sides  of  the  jaws  being  small ; 
the  tail  is  forked.  This  (ish  is  an  inhabitant 
of  the  European  seas;  it  Iris  generally  a  pe- 
culiar odour,  which  in  those  ot  British  growth 
is  commonly  compared  to  that  of  a  cucum- 
ber, but  by  some  to  that  of  a  violet. 

7.  Salmo  Groenlandicus,  Greenland  sal- 
mon. Length  about  seveji  incites,  whicli  it 
very  rarely  exceeds  ;  shape  lenglliened,  con- 
tracting somewhat  suddenly  towards  the  tail ; 
dorsal  lin  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  back ; 
tins  rather  large  for  the  size  of  the  fish  ;  scales 
small ;  tail  forked  ;  colour  pale-green,  with  a 
tinge  of  brown  above;  abdomen  and  sides 
silvery;  in  the  male  fisii,  jvist  r.bove  the  la- 
teral fine,  is  a  rough  fascia,  beset  with  minute 

I  pyramidal  scales  standing    upright  like  the 

[  pile  of  a  shag..    'I'he  use  of  this  villous  line  is 

i  iiighly  singular,  since  it  is  atiirmed  that  while 

I  the  fi\h  is  swimming,  and  even  when  thrown 

j  on  shore,  two,  tliree,  or  even  as  many  as  ten 

1  will  arlliere,  as  if  glued  together,  by  means  of 

this  pile,  insomuch  that  if  one  is  taken,  the 

rest  are  also  taken  up  at  the  same  time.  This 

species  swarms  olf  the  co.wts  of  (ireenl  nd, 

Iceland,  and  Xcwfouiulkmd,  and  is  said  to  be 

one  of  the  chief  supports  of  tiie  Gieenland- 

ers,  and  a  sort  of  dessert  at  their  most  delicate 

repasts.     The  inhabitants  of  Iceland  are  said, 

to  dry  great  quantities  of  ii,  in  order  so  serve 

as  a  winter  food  for  their  cat  lie,  whose  iKsh  is 

apt  toacipiirean  oily  llavour  in  consequence. 

IbUfisli  lives  ut  seiitlic  greatest  part  of  the 


SAL 

year ;  fcit  in  April,  May,  June,  and  July,.-  j 
comes  in  incredible  sliuals  into  the  bays, 
where  immense  nniltitud->fs  are  taken  in  nets, 
and  afterwards  dried  on  the  rocks.  When 
fresh  they  lire  by  some  said  to  have  the  smell 
of  a  cucumber, "though  others  aiiirin  that  the 
scent  is  highly  unpleasant.  'I'hey  feed  on 
small  crabs  and  other  marine  insects,  as  well 
as  on  the  smaller  fuel  and  confervas,  on  which 
they  are  also  observed  to  deposit  tlieir  ova. 

8.  Salmo  thymallus,  grayling  salmon.  This 
elegant  species  grows  to  the  length  of  about 
eighteen  inches,  and  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
clearer  and  colder  kind  of  rivers  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  particularly  sur.l) 
iisfio.v  through  mountainous  countr.es.  la 
Englanil  it  is  found  in  the  rivers  of  Derby- 
shire ;  in  some  of  those  of  the  North;  in  the 
i'ame  near  Ludlow  ;  in  the  Lug  and  other 
streams  near  Leominster ;  and  in  the  river 
near  Christchurch  in  Hampshire.  In  Lap- 
land it  is  said  to  be  very  common>  where  the 
nalives  make'  use  of  its  intestines  instead  of 
rennet,  hi  preparing  the  cheese  whicti  they 
iiuike  from  the  milk  of  the  rein-deer. 

The  shape  of  the  grayling  resembles  that 
of  the  tiout,  but  is  rather  more  slender  ;  ili 
colour  is  a  beautiful  silvery  grey,  with  nu- 
merous long'.tudinal  deeper  stripe.s,  di.sposed' 
aaording  to  the  rows  of  scales,  which  are  of 
a  moderately  large  size ;  the  head,  lower 
(ins,  and  tail,  are  of  a  brownish  or  rufous 
cast;  the  dor.sal  ("m,  which  is  deeper  and 
broader  tlian  in  the  rest  of  the  genus,  is  of  a 
pale  violet-colour,  crossed  by  sevetal  dusky- 
bars  ;  the  adipose  (in  is  vitry  small,  and  the 
tail  forked.  Th,;  largest  English  grayling  re- 
corded by  Mr.  Pennaiitwas  taken  at  Ludlow, 
and  measured  above  half  a  yard  in  length, 
its  weight  being  four  pounds  eight  ounces ; 
the  general  size  of  the  British  specimens  be- 
ing tar  short  of  this  measure. 

The  grayling,  says  Mr.  Pennant,  is  a  vo- 
racious r.sh,  rising  (reely  to  the  fly,  and  will 
very  eagerly  take  a  bait;  it  is  a  very  swift  • 
swimmer,  disappearing  like  the  transient 
passage  of  a  .^hailow,  from  whence  perhaps  is 
derived  '.ts  antieiit  name  of  umbra.  It  is  said 
to  be  a  fish  of  very  (.piick  growth,  feeding  on 
water-insects;  the  smaller  kind  of  testacea, 
and  the  roe  of  other  fishes,' as  well  as  on  the 
smaller  fishes  themselves;  its  stomach  is  so. 
strong  as  to  feel  almc.st  cartilaginous.  It 
spawns  in  April  and  May,  the  full-grown  ova 
being  ueariy  of  the  size  of  peas.  The  gray- 
ling is  inuca  esteemed  tor  the  delicacy  of  its 
tlc^li,  wliich  is  white,  firm,  and  of  a  hne  fla- 
vour, and  is  considered  as  in  the  highest  sea- 
son in  the  depth  of  winter. 

SALON,  or  Saloos,  in  architecture,  a. 
very  lofty  spacious  hall,  vaulted  at  top,  and 
sometiines  comprdieuding  two  stories  or 
cange.s  of  wimlo\vs. 
SALOP,  or  Salep.  See  Starch. 
SALPA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
mollusca.  Body  loose,  na\ant,  pelalinous, 
tubular,  and  open  at  each  extremity  ;  intes- 
tin"s  obliquely  |)laced.  The  animals  ot  this 
genus  are  of  a  givg.irioiis  nature,  and  often 
adhere  together;  they  swim  wilh  great  ta- 
cility,  and  poss<-ss  the  power  ot  contracting 
and  opening  at  pleasure.  There  are  two 
divisions:  A  is  (urni>heil  with  an  appendage 
which  dktVrs  in  the  several  kpecics;  B  with- 
out the  terminal  appendage. 
SALSOLA,  saltwort,  kuli,  Sj-c.  a  genus  of. 


S-A  L 

(he  class  arid  oril;-r  pentriiidria  digynia,  and 
ill  till!  h.iUmmI  iiictluid  rniiki':g  imdt-r  tlie  lUlh 
ordiM",  holoraci'a;.  'J'lu;  calyx  is  peiitapliyl- 
luus ;  llierc  is  no  corulla ;  the  capsule  is  mo- 
no-;pi;nu()us,  witli  a  screwed  sci'd.  'Diespo- 
citi  an;  31,  ol  whicji  ihc  principal  are: 

1.  Salsolii  k.di  ^rnws  natnialiy  in  tli*;  salt 
marshes  in  divers  pans  ot  iMiL^iiiul.  It  is  an 
annual  i)Uinl,  wlrcli  rists  ahovc  live  or  six 
inclv'S  liigli,  sending  out  many  side  branches, 
which  spread  on  every  side,  with  short  awl- 
shapcd  leaves,  which  arc  lltrshy,  and  ter- 
minate iti  acute  spines. 

2.  Salsiila  rosa'  eii  grows  natnrally  in  Tar- 
tiry.  This  is  an  animal  plant,  whose  stalks 
aro  herbaceous,  and  seldom  lise  more  tlian 
five  or  six  inches  high. 

3.  Salsola  soda  rises  with  herbaceous  stalks 
near  three  h-et  liii^h,  spreading  wide.  The 
leaves  on  the  principal  stalk,  and  those  on 
tlie  lower  part  of  tlie  branches,  are  long, 
slender,  and  have  no  spines;  those  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  stalk  and  bra:;ches  arc 
slender,  Short,  and  crooked.  All  the  sorts  of 
glass-wort  are  sometimes  promiscuously  used 
for  making  soda  or  mineral  alkali,  but  tliis 
sj)i'cies  is  esteemed  best. .  The  manner  of 
making  it  is  as  follows:  Having  dug  a  trench 
near  the  sea,  they  place  laths  across  it,  on 
vhith  they  lay  the  herbs  in  heaps,  and,  hav- 
ijig  made  a  (ire  below,  the  liquor  which  run., 
out  of  the  herbs  drops  to  tlie  bottom,  wliich 
at  length  thickening,  becomes  soda,  which  is 
partly  of  a  black,  and  partly  of  an  ash-colour, 
vei-y  sharp  and  corrosive,  and  of  a  saltish 
taste.  This,  when  tlioroughly  hardened,  be- 
comes like  a  stone,  and  in  tliat  stale  is  trans- 
ported to  dill'ercnt  countries  for  the  making 
of  glass,  soap,  &c. 

4.  Salvia  tragus  grows  naturally  on  the 
sandy  shores  of  the  south  of  France,  Spain, 
and  Italy.  This  is  also  an  annual  plant, 
which  sends  out  many  dilTused  staiks,  with 
linear  leaves  an  inch  long,  ending  with  sharp 
•spines. 

5.  Salsola  vermiculata  grows  naturally  in 
■■Spain.  This  has  shrubby  perennial  staik-", 
which  rise  three  or  four  feet  high,  sending 
o»l  many  side  branches,  with  (ieshv,  oval, 
acotc-poiird  leaves,  coming  out  in  clusters 
ifroni  llies;.ie  of  the  branches;  tliey  are  hoary, 
-and  have  stilfprickltii    See  Soda. 

.  SALT,  c.^wr/i')/?.  The  preparation  of  that 
khul  of  salt  which  is  used  for  culinary  and 
-economical  purposes  (inuriat  of  soda)  de- 
pends u|)on  the  well-known  fact,  that  the  salt 
contained  in  the  sea-water,  or  brine-springs, 
being  a  (ixed  body,  will  not  rise  with  the  va- 
-pour  of  the  water.  All,  therefore,  that  is 
wanted,  is  to  expose  any  water  containing 
salt  to  evaporation.  The  salt  commonly 
known  by  the  name  of  b.iy-salt  is  obtained 
from  the  water  of  the  sea  by  evaporation. 
This  evaporation  is  in  some  places  performed 
by  the  lieat  of  the  sun,  the  water  being  let 
into  shallow  trenches,  in  order  to  expose  as 
large  a  surface  as  possible.  'I  his  irw^lhod  is 
jfH'actifed  in  the  southern  provinces  o!  France, 
and  on  a  veiy  large  scale  near  Aveiro  in  Por- 
tugal. In  the  northern  countries,  where  the 
■heat  of  the  sun  is  not  sufficiently  great,  arti- 
itcial  fires  are  employed.  In  some  salt-works 
these  two  nielhods  are  united;  and  in  Eng- 
land, -and  countries  where  salt-rock  is  pien- 
tiful,  that  substance  is  dissolved  in  salt  water, 
ind  then  evaporated.    In  very  cold  countries 


S  A  L 

another  method  is  employed  to  s-parate  the 
salt  from  sea-water.  '1  lie  water  is  exposed 
in  trenches  on  the  sea-shore,  wliere  it  forms 
50  thin  a  »tratum,  that  the  cold  of  the  atmo- 
sphere acts  powerlully  in  congeahng  it.  As 
the  frozen  part  consists  of  mere  water,  the 
fluid  *hi(.h  remains  is  conse(|uently  more 
concentraied.  The  operation  is  tlien  com- 
pleted by  means  of  artificial  heat. 
I  The  most  convenient  works  for  making  salt 
from  brine  by  boiling  are  constructed  in  the 
following  manner;  'I'hc  saltern,  or  boiling- 
house,  is  erected  near  the  sea-shore,  and  is 
furnished  with  a  iurnace  and  one  or  two  large 
pans,  v.'liich  are  commonly  made  of  iron 
plates,  joined  together  with  nad-',  and  the 
joints  filled  with  a  strong  cement  ;  and  the 
bottom  of  the  pans  is  prevented  from  bend- 
ing down,  by  being  supported  by  strong  iron 
bars. 

The  -salt-pan  being  filled  with  sea-water,  a 
strong  lire  of  pit-coal  is  lighted  in  tiie  fur- 
nace ;  and  then,  for  a  pan  which  contains 
abo\it  1400  gallons,  the  salt-boiler  takes  die 
whites  of  three  e<'.gs,  and  incorporates  them 
all  with  two  or  three  gallons  of  sea7water, 
which  he  pours  into  the  salt-pan,  while  the 
water  contained  therein  is  only  lukewarm, 
and  mixes  this  w  ith  the  rest  by  stirring  it 
about  with  a  rake.  In  many  places  they 
use,  instead  of  eggs,  the  blood  of  sheep  or 
oxen  to  clarify  the  sea-wattr:  and  in  Scot- 
land they  do  not  giv<' theinselves  the  trouble 
to  clarify  it  at  all.  As  the  water  heats,  there 
arises  a  black  frothy  scum  upon  it,  which  is 
to  be  taken  off  w  iih  woodi  n  skinimers.  Alter 
this  tlie  water  appears  perfectly  clear,  and  by 
boiling  it  briskly  about  four  hours,  a  pan 
loaded  in  the  common  way,  that  is,  i.bout 
filteen  "uiches  deep,  will  begin  to  form  crys- 
tals upon  its  surface.  The  pan  is  then  filled 
up  a  second  time  with  fresh  sea-water ;  and 
aljout  the  time  wlieii  it  is  half-filled,  the 
scrutch-pans  are  taken  out  and  emptied  of  a 
white  powder,  seeming  a  kind  of  calcareous 
earth,  which  sejjarates  itself  from  the  sea- 
water,  during  its  boiling,  before  the  salt  be- 
<;ins  to  shoot.  \Vhen  these  have  been  emp- 
tied, they  are  again  put  into  their  places, 
where  they  are  aiterwards  filled  again.  This 
powder  being  violently  agitated  by  the  boil- 
ing liquor,  does  not  subside  till  it  comes  (o 
the  corners  of  the  pan,  where  the  motion  of 
the  mass  is  smaller,  and  it  there  falls  into 
these  pans  placed  on  purpose  to  receive  it.  ' 

The  second  filling  of  the  pan  is  boiled 
down  alter  clarifying  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  (irst,  and  so  a  third  and  a  fourth  ;  but  in 
j  the  evaporation  of  the  fourth,  when  the  crys- 
I  tals  begin  to  form  themselves,  they  slacken 
the  lire,  and  only  keep  the  liquor  simmering, 
li!  this  heat  they  keep  it  all  the  while  that 
the  salt  is  granulatiag,  w  hicli  is  nine  or  ten 
hour~:.  The  granules,  or  crystals,  all  tall  to 
the  bottom  of  the  pan  ;  and  when  the  water 
is  almost  all  evaporated,  and  the  sait  lies 
nearly  dry  at  the  bottom,  they  rake  it  all  toge- 
ther into  a  long  heap  on  one  side  of  the  pan, 
where  it  lies  a  while  to  drain  from  the  brine, 
and  then  is  put  into  barrows,  and  carried  to 
the  storehouse,  and  delivered  into  the  cus- 
tody of  his  majesty's  otlicers.  In  tliis  man- 
ner the  whole  process  is  usually  performed 
in  24  hours,  the  salt  being  cominonlv  drawn 
out  every  moaiing.  This  is  the  method  in 
most  of  our  salt-works;  but  in  some  tliev 
till  the  pan  seven  times  before  they  boil  up 


S   A  T. 


fy:5 


the  salt,  and  so  take  it  out  but  once  i.i  two 
days,  or  live  times  in  a  fortnight.  In  the 
common  way  of  four  boilings,  I'rom  a  pan  of 
the  usual  siie,  containing  1300  gallons,  they 
draw  from  titteen  to  twenty  bushels  of  salt 
every  day,  each  "bushel  weighing  fifty-six 
pounds. 

\\  hen  the  salt  is  carried  into  tlie  slore- 
liouse,  it  is  put  into  brabs,  wliich  are  pai ti- 
tious,  like  stalls  for  Iioi-ses,  lined  at  three 
sides,  and  the  bottom  with  boards,  and  having 
a  slidiiig-board  on  the  foreside  to  draw  up  on 
occasion,  'i  he  bottoms  are  made  sdielving, 
being  iiighest  at  the  back,  and  gradually  ii.- 
cliniiig  forward ;  by  this  means  the  brii:e  re- 
maining among  the  salt,  easily  separates  and 
runs  from  it,  and  the  salt  in  lliree  or  four 
days  becomes  sufficiently  dry  ;  in  some  places 
they  use  cribs  and  barrows,  which  are  long 
and  conic  wicker-baskets,  for  this  jjinpose  ; 
and  in  some  places  wooden  troughs,  with 
holes  in  the  bottom.  The  saline  liquor 
which  remains  from  the  making  of  sa!f  is 
what  is  called  bittern,  from  which  Kpsoni  salt 
or  muriat  of  magnesia  Is  often  extracted. 

Much  in  the  same  manner  is  the  salt  ob- 
tained from  the  brine  of  salt-springs,  pits,  &c. 
\\  hite  salt  is  prepared  frcuii  sea-water,  or  any 
other  kind  of  salt-water,  lirst  beightenc-d  into 
a  strong  brine  by  the  .heat  of  the  .sun,  and  tlie 
operation  of  the  air.  It  mav  al>o  be  pre- 
pared from  a  strong  brine,  or  lixivium,  drawn 
from  earths,  stones,  or  sands,  strongly  ini- 
pregnated  with  common  salt.  Hefiiied  rock- 
salt  is  that  obtained  by  dissolvhig  fossil  or 
rock-salt  in  salt  or  fresh  water,  and  afterwards 
boiling  the  solution. 

A  ureat  quantity  of  ro(k-salt  is  used  at 
Northwich,  in  order  to  strengthen  their  brine- 
springs  ;  and  a  much  greater  quantity  is  sent 
coastwise  to  Liverpool,  and  other  places, 
where  it  is  either  used  for  strengthejung 
brine-springs  or  sea-water;  much  of  tljis 
rock-salt  was  formerly  expcated  to  Holland, 
and  it  is  sliU  sent  to  Ireland  for  the  same 
purpose. 

'1  he  Northwich  ,rock-satt  is  never  used  et 
our  tables  in  its  crude  state;  and  its  applica- 
tion to  the  pickling  or  curing  of  llesh  or  iish, 
or  preserving  ,.v.\  provisions,  without  its  being 
previously  r^tined  into  white  salt,  that  is, 
without  its  being  dissolved  in  water,  and  boil- 
ed down  in  what  is  called  white-salt,  is  prohi- 
bited under  a  penalty  of  40.s.  for  cvirv  pound' 
of  rock-salt  so  applied.  The  puretianspa- 
reiit  masses,  however,  of  rock-salt,  might  pro- 
bably be  Used  by  us  with  our  food,  without 
any  sort  of  danger  or  inconvenieuce ;  it 
least  we  know  that  rock-salt  is  so  used,  with- 
out being  reiiued,  both  in  Poland  and  in 
Spain. 

The  quantity  of  rock-salt  which  may  be 
dissolved  in  a  detirite  quantity,  suppose  a 
pint  of  16  avoircHipois  ounces  of  water,  is 
diiCerently  estimated  by  different  authors. 
Boen.aave  is  ot  opinion  tliat  16  ounces  of 
water  will  not  dissolve  qtite  five  ounces  of 
rock-salt ;  Sp'.elmann  thinks  that  they  will 
dissolve  6|.  minces ;  Newman  agrees  with 
Sp-elman  j  Eller  says,  that  seven  ounces 
ol  fossil  salt  may  be  dissolved  in  16  ounces 
of  water  ;  lastly,  Hoffmann  assures  us,  that 
16  ounces  of  water  will  not  dissolve  above  si.\ 
ounces  of  common  sat.  It  is  not  wliollv. 
inipiobable,  that  different  sorts  of  rock-sdft 
may  diil'er  somewhit  with  respect  to  their 
solubility  in  water. 


6:0 


S  A  1. 


S  A  T, 


Ifit  is  aib'iUeJ,  that  1(1  ounces  of  wafer! 

.  6111  dissolve  six  oiiDCCs  of  sail  aiici  no  morf, 
t!ii.-ii  wc  iiiay  bt  cerlain,  Ibat  no  briiic-spring 
ill  any  pan  or  tiii-woil.l, c;m  vieid  six  curces 
;et'saU  troni  a  pint  ot  llie  brine.     For  brine 

,"sp.rnigi  are,  or.liiiarilv,  iiotiiing  but  water  in 

■  wlitcli  fossil  sail  has 'l)c'in  ili.,s:jlve(l ;  lot  a 
piiit  of  the  slroiigfst  brine  cannot  contain  so 
nmcli  salt  as  Is  contaiiieii  in  a  pint  ot  water, 

.  *liicb  has  been  saturated  witli  six  oinices  of 
salt;  for  a  pint  of  water,  in  which  six  ounces 
of  salt  liave  been  dissolved,  is  increased  a 
little  in  bulk ;  it  will  do  more  than  lill  a  pint- 
'  measure,  and  the  salt  left  in  the  surplus  will 
sl)ew  how  nuich  the  salt  contained  in  a  pint 
of  the  strongest  brine  fails  short  oi  six  oiuices. 
;  Or  we  may  consider  the  matter   in  the  fol- 
lowinij  niaiinci ,  which  w  ill  perhaps  be  more 
.  intolligible ;   1  f)  ounces  of  water,  impregnated 
'with  SIX  ounces  of  sah,  constitute  a  saturated 
'  brine,  weighing  22  oinices  ;  if  therefore  v-e 
would  know  how  much  salt   is  contained  in 
tr,  oimccs  of  such  brine,  hy  the  rule  of  pro- 
portion we  may  argue,  that  if  '2'2  ounces  of 
brine  contain  six  ounces  of  salt,  l6  ounces  of 
brine  will  contain  4^  ounces  of  salt.    Hence 
we  may  infer,  that  II  le  strongest  brine-springs 
will  not  yield  much  above  one  quarter  of  tlieir 
weight  of  salt. 
There  are  a  great  many  brine-springs  in 

■  Cheshire,   in    \\  orcestershire,  SStallbrdshire, 

■  Hainpsliire,  and  in  other  parts  of  Great  Bri- 
tain; some  of  which  are  sufficiently  rich  in 

■  salt  to  be  wrought  with  protit,  others  not. 
From  what  has  been  fjefore  advanced,  the 
reader  will  readily  comprehend  that  16  tons 
of  the  strongest  brine  consist  of   12  tons  of 

"water,  and  of  four  tons  of  salt;  and  that,  in 
order  to  obtain  these  four  tons  of  salt,  the 
12  tons  of  water  must  be,  by  some  means  or 
other,  evaporated,  so  as  to  leave  the  salt  in  a 
concrete  form.  Suppose  there  should  be  a 
brine,  which  in  iGtoirs  should  contain  15  tons 
of  water,  and  only  one  ton  of  salt ;  yet  it  may 
chance,  that  such  a  weak  brine  may  be 
wrought  with  more  profit  than  the  strongest ; 
for  the  profit  arising  from  tlie  boiling  of  brine 
into  salt,  depends  as  much  upon  the  price  of 
the  fuel  used  in  boiling  it,  as  ujwn  the  (jiian- 
tity  of  salt  wiiich  it  yields.  'I  hus  the  sea- 
water,  which  surrounds  the  coasts  of  Great 
Britain,  is  said  to  hold  seldom  more  than  one- 
thirtieth,  or  less  than  one-fiftieth  part  of  com- 
mon salt;  but  fuel  is  so  cheap  at  Nev/castle, 
that  th<'y  can  evaporate  thirty  or  forty  tons 
of  water,  ill  order  to  obtain  one  ton  of  salt, 
and  vet  uaiii  as  mucli  clear  profit  as  those  do, 
who,  in  countries  less  favourably  situated  for 
fuel,  boil  down  the  strongest  brine. 

'J"he  advantage  resulting  from  strengthen- 
ing weak  brine  or  sea-water,  by  means  of 
rock-salt,  is  very  obvious.  Sup|!Ose  that  the 
sea-water  at  Liverpool,  wliere  large  (piauti- 
ties  of  rock-salt  are  refined,  would  yield  one 
Ion  of  salt  from  48  tons  of  w  ater  ;  then  must  a 
cpiantity  of  fuel  sufli<:icnt  to  evaporate  47  tons 
of  water  be  used,  in  order  to  obtain  one  ton 
of  salt.  But  if  as  iiiucli  rock-salt  is  put  into 
the  forty-eight  tons  of  sea-water ;  as  can  be 
dissolved  in  it,  then  will  the  sea-v,ater  re- 
scuible  a  brine  fully  saluralel,  each  16  Ions 
of  which  will  give  four  tons  of  salt,  ami  the 
whole  quantity  yielded  by  the  evaporation 
of  47  tons  of  water  will  be  12  tons  of  salt. 
;  S.VL'l'S.  The  wprd  salt  was  originally  con- 
fined to  muriat  of  soda,  or  coiiimoii  suit,  a 


substance  wWch  has  been  knoivn,  aiid  in 
common  used,  from  the  remotest  age>.  It 
was  alterwardi  generalized  by  chemists,  and 
employed  by  them  in  a  \ery  extensive  and 
not  ve'ry  definite  sense.  Every  body  whicli 
js  sapid,'  easily  melted,  soluble  in  water,  and 
not  combustible,  lias  been  called  a  salt. 

Salts  were  considered  by  the  older  che- 
mists as  a  class  of  bodies  intermediate  be- 
tween earths  and  water.  Many  disputes 
arose  about  what  bodies  ou;j,ht  to  be  com- 
prehended under  this  class,  and  what  ought 
to  be  excluded  from  it.  Acids  and  alkalies 
were  allowed  by  all  10  be  salts;  but  the  dilli- 
cnlty  was  to  determine  concernii  g  earths 
andmetals  ;  for  several  of  the  earths  possess 
all  the  propertie-  w  liich  have  been  ascril>ed 
to  salts,  and  the  metals  are  capable  of  enter- 
ing into  combinations  which  possess  saline 
properties. 

In  process  of  time,  however,  the  term  salt 
was  restricted  to  three  classes  of  bodies,  viz. 
acids,  alkalies,  and  the  compoimds  which 
acids  form  with  alkalies,  earths,  and  metallic 
oxides.  The  first  two  of  these  classes  w^ere 
called  simple  salts;  the  salt,;  belonging  to  the 
third  class  were  called  compound  or  neutral. 
This  last  appellation  originated  fro;n  an  opi- 
nion long  entertained  by  chemists,  that  acids 
and  alkalies,  of  which"  they  are  composed, 
were  of  a  contrary  nature,  and  that  they  conn 
teracted  one  another;  so  that  the  resulting 
compounds  possessed  neitiier  the  properties 
of  acids  nor  of  alkalies,  but  properties  inter- 
mediate between  the  two. 

Chemists  have  lately  restricted  the  term 
salt  still  more,  by  tacitly  excluding  acids  and 
alkalies  from  tlie'class  oV  salts  altogether.  At 
present,  then,  it  denotes  onl/  the  cr»npi»indi 
fnrm:d  bij  the  comhiiiafinn  nf  acids  ivilhat- 
Ay(/?V.«,  earths',  and  metidlic  oxides. 

No  part  of  chemistry  lias  been  cultivated 
with  more  zeal  than  the  salts,  especially  fvir 
these  last  4n  rears.  During  that  time  the 
number  of  saline  bodies  has  been  enormously 
increased,  and  the  properties  of  a  very  great 
number  have  been  determined  with  precision. 
Still,  however,  this  wide  and  iihportant  re- 
gion is  far  from  being  completely  explored. 

Chemists  have  agreed  to  denominate  the 
salts  from  the  acid»  which  they  contain.    The 
earlh,  alkali,  and  metallic  oxide,  combined 
with  that  acid,  is  called  the  base  of  the  salt. 
Thus  common  salt  being  a  compound  of  mu- 
riatic acid  and  soda,  is  called  a  muriat;  and 
soda,  is  called  the  base  of  common  salt.  Now 
since  there  are  32  aciils  and  .57  bases,  it  would 
appear,   at   first  sight,    that  there  are  18',^4 
salts;  but  of  the  45  metallic  oxides  at  pre- 
sent known,  there  are  a  considerable  lumiber 
which  cannot   combine   with,  many    of  tlie 
acids.     This  is  the  case  also  with  silica,  and 
perhaps  with  some  of  the  other  earths.     We 
must   therefore  subtract   all   these   from  the 
full  number  1824.    To  compensate,  however, 
this  deficiency,  at  least  in  part,  there  are  se- 
veral acids  capalile  of  combining  with  two 
bases  at  once.      Thus  the  tartaric  acid  com- 
bines at  once  with   potass  and  soda.     Such 
combinations  are  called  triple  salts,  and  they 
increase  the   number  of  salts   considerably. 
There  are  some  salts,  toi>,  which  are  capable 
of  combining  with  an  additional  tlose  riMheir 
acid,  and  others  which  combine  with  an  adiR- 
tional  dose  of  their  base.     The  French  civ - 
mists  denote  the  first  of  these  conibinatioiis 
by  adding  to  the  usual  name  of  the  salt  the 


9  A  I. 

phra">  with  excess  of  acid,  or  by  prffixing  it  < 
io  the  word  aciilulous:  they  denote  the  se- 
cond by  subjoining  I  lie  phrase  with  e-xcess  of 
base.  This  method  ol  naming  has  the  merit 
indeed  of  being  precise,  but  it  is  exceedingly 
awkward,  and  intolerably  tedious.  ')  he  in- 
genious mode  of  naming  these  combinations 
proposed  by  Dr.  I'earsoii  ought  certainly  to 
be  preferred.  It  is  equally  precise,  if  uft 
more  so,  and  far  more  convenient  in  evtry 
rei^pect.  it  consists  in  prenxing  to  the  usual 
name  of  the  salt  the  iireposhioii  super,  to  de- 
note an  excess  ol  acid,  and  the  prejiosilioa 
sub  to  denote  an  e.xcess  of  base.  Ihussul- 
phat  o:  potass  d.  notes  the  salt  in  its  state  of 
perfect  neutralization,  without  any  excess 
either  of  the  siil|jliuric  acid  or  of  the  potass; 
supeisulph.at  of  potass  is  the  same  salt  witli 
an  excess  of  acid  ;  subsulphat  of  potass  is  the 
same  salt  with  excess  ot  base,  ihese  three 
diiilrent  kinds  must  increase  the  number  of 
saline  compounds  very  considerably;  but  the 
precise  number  of  salts  is  not  known,  as  many 
of  them  remain  still  unexamined  by  che- 
mists. Probably  they  are  not  much  fewer 
than  2000.  Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the 
progress  which  this  branch  of  chemistry  has 
made,  by  recollecting  that  40  jears  ago  not 
more  than  30  salts  in  all  were  known. 

Of  these  2000,  however,  a  considerable 
I  number  may  be  considered  as  still  unknown, 
as  tiiey  have  been  merely  formed  without 
I  being  examined.  Uf  those  which  are  known, 
the  greater  number  have  not  been  applied  to 
any  use,  ami  iherefoi'e  do  not  deserve  a  very 
particular  description. 

As  the  diU'erent  genera  of  salts  are  denomi- 
nated from  their  acids,  it  is  evident  that 
there  are  as  many  genera  as  there  are  aciiis. 
The  terminations  of  the  names  of  these  ge- 
nera ditTer  according  to  tlie  nature  of  the 
acids  which  constitute  them.  When  that  acid 
contains  a  maximum  of  oxygen,  tlie  termina- 
tion of  the  genius  is  at ;  w  lien  it  does  not 
contain  a  maximum  of  oxygen,  the  termina- 
tion of  the  genus  is  ite.  Thus  the  salts  which 
contain  sulphuric  acid  are  called  sulphats  ; 
those  which  contain  sulphurous  acid  are 
called  sulphites.  This  distinction  is  of  some 
consequence,  because  the  salts  dill'er  very 
much,  according  as  the  acid  is  saturated  witii 
oxygen  or  not.  The  iics  are  seldom  perma- 
nent ;  when  exposeil  to  the  air,  they  usually 
attract  oxygen,  and  are  converted  into  ats. 

F-very  particular  species  of  salt  is  distin- 
guished by  subjoining  to  tlie  generic  term 
the  name  uf  its  base,  'i  bus  the  salt  c  imposed 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  soda  is  called  sulphat  of 
soda.  Triple  salts  are  distinguished  by  sub- 
joining the  naaies  of  both  the  bases  connect- 
ed by  iiy|)liens.  Thus  the  compound  of  tar- 
taric acid,  potass,  and  soda,  is  calleil  lartrat  of 
potass-and-soda. 

'J'he  salts  then  naturally  divide  themselves 
into  twt)  (;rand  classes ;  the  fii-st  of  which 
comprehends  the  alkaline  and  earthy  salts, 
which  derive  their  most  important  characters 
from  their  acids;  the  second  comprehends 
the  metalline  salts,  whose  bases  on  the  coil- 
trarv  stamp  their  most  imixjrtant  properties. 

Salts,  or  the  combinations  of  alkalies  with 
acids  which  exist  in  the  mineral  kingdom, 
constitute  the  following  genera  and  species: 

Genus  I.  PoTAS-s. 

Sp.  1.  Nitrat  of  potass. 


S  A  T. 

Griiui  II.   3oDA. 

Sp,   I.  Curhoiiat  of  soda, 
1.'.  Siil|ili;it  of  soda, 

3.  Miirijt  of  soda, 

4.  Borax. 

Giiius  III.  Ammonia. 

Sp.  1.  Muiiat of  ammcnia. 
Genus  I,  SjIi.i  ofpolass. 
Sp.  1.  A'itrut  <'J  potuds.  This  salt  is  foiiixl 
•native,  mixed  with  iiitral  of  lime,  imiriat  ol 
jJoUss,  and  ollior  imjiuriiics,  encrusting  the 
iUrfaceof  the  eartli  in  difli-rent  [)arls  of  India, 
the  Cape  of  Good  lloi)i-',  Peru,  Spain,  Mol- 
letla,  Uc.  It  is  nio.il  conimonly  in  line  ea- 
pillaiy  crystals.  Ssometinies,  tliough  rarelv, 
massive,  or  in  six-sided  prisms. 

Its  piimitive  form  is  a  leirtani^ular  octahe- 
dron.    It  occurs  sonictimes  in  inal  lorni,  but 
anore  frcijuenllv  the  apexes  of  tiie  pyramids 
are  truncated.     But  its  mo  a  usual  variely  is 
a  3i.\-sided  prism,    terminated    by   six->iiled 
pyramids.     A  specimen  of  native  iiitre  from 
AJol/etta,  analjsed  hy  Klaprotli,  contained 
44.3i)  nitrat  of  potass 
23. 4j  sulpliat  ot  lime 
30. 4{)  carl)onat  ot  lime 
0.'20  muriat  ol  j)otas» 

lUO.OO 

Genus  II.  Salts  nfsccla. 
Sp.  1.  C<irlionatnf.<ioda.  This  salt  is  found 
in  l-gvpt  on  the  surface  of  tlie  eartli,  and  on 
the  margin  of  certain  lakes  which  hecomc 
dry  during  the  summer.  It  has  olten  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  rough  dusty  powder,  of  a  grey 
colour  and  alkaline  taste.  It  occurs  in  China, 
where  ilis  calk-d  kieii ;  near  Tripoli,  where  it 
is  denominated  trona;  and  likewise  in  Hun- 
gary, Syria,  Persia,  and  India. 

it  is  said  sometimes  to  have  been  observed 
in  crystals.  The  primitive  form  is  a  rhom- 
boidal  oct,^liedrou  ;  but  the  pyramids  are 
usiiallv  truncated. 

A  specimen  of  tills  salt  from  Egypt  was 
fouHd  by  Klapiiuth  to  consist  of 

32.6  dry  carbonat  of  soda 

iJO.S  dry  sulpliat  of  soda 

15.0  dry  muriat  of  soda 

31.6  water 

100.0 

A  sijccimen  of  fibrous  carbonat  from  tlie 
interior  of  Atrica,  yielded  tXe  same  cliemist 
37.0  soda 
3S.0  carbonic  acid 
22.5  water 
C.5  sulpliat  of  soda 

100.0 

Sp.l.  Sulphut  nf  .1,-ida.  Tliis  salt  is  found 
in  Austria,  i^luiigary,  Styria,  Switzerland, 
and  Siberia,  always  iu  the  neighbourhood  of 
a  mineral  spring.  It  occurs  usually  in  t!ie 
-Mate  of  powder,  sometimes  massive,  and  even 
.trystalliicd.  Colour  greyish,  or  )cllov»isli 
wfiite. 

.?/).  3.  Afuridt  of  unda.  Comm»ii  salt  is 
•found  in  immense  masses  under  the  earths 
surface  in  many  countries,  particularly  in 
Poland,  Hungary,  England,  ,Vc.  Near  Cor- 
dova in  Spain  there  is  said  to  be  a  nioimtain 
of  common  salt  500  feet  higli,  and  nearlv 
tfcree   miles    in  cu'cunilerencc.     'I'here   are 

Vox.  U. 


SAT. 

two  varieties  of  native  common  salt  distin- 
guished by  their  texture. 

1.  Foliated.  This  variety  is  usually  found 
in  vast  masses,  and  sori.ethiic^  crysLilii/ed  in 
cubes.  Colour  various  shadrs  of  grey  ancl  of 
red.  Internal  lustre  glassy,  'lextnn-  foliated. 
I'Vagmcnts  cubic.  Sireak  grev.  Speciiic 
gravity  i>.  14,3.     Taste  salt. 

-'.  I'ibrotis.  Found  in  masses,  strata, or sta- 
lactitic.  Colour  various  shades  of  grey,  blue, 
red.  'lexture  fibrous;  fibres  delicately  curv- 
ed. Fragments  angular. 

Sp.  4.  hordx.  This  mineral  is  found  in 
dilferenl  parts  of  Thibet,  <i;c.  It  is  usually 
niixcHl  with  foreign  bodies ;  that  of  Persia  is 
in  large  ^-rystals,  enclosed  in  a  fatly  matter. 
Tiie  primitive  form  of  its  crystals  is  a  rectan- 
gular prism,  but  it  occurs  usually  in  six-sided 
prisms,  whose  edges  are  variously  truncated. 
Us  colour  is  greyish,  yellowish,  or  greenish 
white.  Fracture  folialed  or  conclioiclal.  Ue- 
liacls  doubly,  'i'aste  sweet,  and  somewhat 
acrid. 

Genus  III,     S(dls  of  (immoiiia. 

Sp.  1.  Muiijt  nfumvioiiiu.  This  salt  oc- 
curs near  volcanoes,  ol  which  it  is  a  product. 
It  is  found  also  in  Persia.  It  is  found  usually 
iu  the  state  of  powder  in  the  middle  of  lava. 
Sometimes  in  mass,  and  even  in  very  irre- 
gular crystals.  Colour  white,  often  with  a 
shade  of  yellow  or  green.,    Aery  soft. 

A  specimen  of  this  salt  from  Tartary  yield- 
ed Klaproth, 

97.5  muriat  of  ammonia 
:2.5  sulphat  of  ammonia 

100.0 
There  is  no  necessity  for  entering  any 
further  in  this  article  into  the  detail  of  the 
compound  salts,  as  the  reader  will  hud  them 
under  the  different  heads  of  Acf.titks,  Flu- 
.■\TS,  G-^LL.ATS,  Lactats,  Malats,  Mel- 
LATS,  MUKIATS,  NlTRATS,  NiTRITES, 
PhoSPHATS,  PhOSPHITE.S,  SuLPHATS,St'L- 

I'HiTES  ;  also  under  the  (litierent  acids:  mid 
the  metallic  compounds  under  the  respective 
metals.     See  also  Chemistry. 

S.ALVADOKA,  a  genus  of  the  monogvnia 
order,  in  the  tetrandria  class  of  plants,  and 
in  tlie  natural  method  ranking  with  those  of 
which  the  order  is  doubtful.  Tlie  calyx  is 
riuaclrilid ;  there  is  no  corolla ;  the  berrv  is 
raonospermous ;  and  the  seed  covered  with 
an  anilus  o\-  loose  coat.  There  are  three 
species,  herbs  of  China. 

S.\LV AGE  .MONEY,  a  reward  allowed 
by  th°  civil  and  statute  law  for  the  saving  of 
ships  or  goods  from  the  danger  of  the  seas, 
pirates,  or  enemies. 

Where  any  ship  is  in  danger  of  being  strand- 
ed, or  driven  on  shore,  justices  of  the  peace 
are  to  command  the  constables  to  assemble 
as  many  persons  as  are  necessary  to  preserve 
it;  and  on  its  being  preserved  by  their  mean';, 
the  jjersons  assisting  therein  sliall  in  thirty 
days  after  be  paid  a  reasonable  reward  for  the 
salvage,  otherwise  the  shi[)  or  goods  shall  re- 
main in  the  custody  of  the  officers  <jf  the 
customs  as  a  security  for  the  same. 

>AL\  lA,  6'«gc,  s  gejius  ot  the  monogvnia 
order,  in  the  digynia  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  4Jd 
order,  verticillata;.  The  corolla  is  unequal; 
and  the  tilaments  placed  crosswise  on  a  pc- 
d  cle.  I'he  most  remarkable  species,  out  of 
7l),  are, 

41 


M 


0i7 


1.  Tiie  officinalis,  cr  common  large  sage, 
which  is  cultivated  in  gardens,  of  which  ihcrr! 
are  the  following  varieties:  1.  The  comincii 
green  Page,  2.  The  voimwooU  sage.  3. 
T  he  grccMi  sage  with  a  vari-galed  leaf.  4. 
The  red  sage.  h.  The  red  sage  w'lli  a  va- 
riegated leaf.  These  arc  accidental  varia- 
tions, and  therefore  an-  not  enumerated  ns 
species.  The  common  sage  grows  naturally 
in  the  soutijcni  parlsof  Furoj-.e,  but  is  here 
cultivated  in  gardens  lor  use;  bnt  the  varie-tv 
with  red  or  blackish  leaves  is  the  most  con  - 
mon  in  the  British  gardens ;  and  the  wrrm- 
wood  sage  is  In  greater  plenty  here  tl^an  the 
common  green-leaved  sage,  whicli  is  but  \ii 
few  garden?. 

2.  The  tomentosa,  genendly  titled  balsamic 
sage  by  the  gardeneis.  The  stalks  ot  this 
do  not  grow  so  upright  as  those  of  tiie  toin- 
moii  sage:  they  are  very  h;'.iry,  and  divide 
into  several  branches;  tlie  flowers  are  ol  a 
pale  blue,  about  the  size  of  those  of  the  com- 
mon sort.  T  his  sage  is  preferred  to  all  llic 
others  for  making  tea. 

3.  The  auricubia,  common  saga  of  virtue, 
which  is  also  well  known  in  the  gardens  ar.d 
markets.  The  leaves  of  this  are  narrovM-r 
than  those  of  the  common  sort ;  they  are 
ho;uy,  and  seme  of  them  arc  indented  on 
their  edges  towards  the  base,  which  inden- 
tures liave  the  apiiCarance  of  ears. 

4.  Tiie  poniiiera,  with  spear-shaped  ova' 
entire  leaves,  grows  naturally  in  Crete. 

5.  and  0.  The  coccinea  and  fonnosa,  are 
beautiful  hot-house  plants,  with  scarlet liowcrs. 

All  (he  sorts  of  sage  may  be  propagated  by 
seeds,  if  they  can  be  procured  ;  but,  as  scjine 
of  tiiem  do  not  perfect  their  seeds  iu  this 
country,  and  most  of  the  sorts.  But  especially 
liie  coriiinon  kinds  lor  use,  arc  easily  propa- 
gated by  slips,  it  is  not  worth  while  to  raise 
lliein  from  seeds. 

S.AM.\R.\,  a  gemis  of  the  monogynia  or- 
der, in  the  tiHrandria  class  of  plants.  T  he 
calyx  is  quadripaitit-;  the  coroi'.a  tetrapeta- 
lous;  the  stamina  immersed  in  tlie  base  of 
the  petal ;  the  stigma  funnel-shaped.  There 
are  three  specii-s,  trees  of  the  Cape. 

S.VMARHANS,  an  antient  sect  a-non* 
the  Jews,  still  subsisting  in  some  parts  of  the 
Levant,  under  the  same  name. 

S.\MBUCUS,  cld^r,  a  genus  of  the  trigy- 
nia  order,  in  the  peiitandria  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
43d  order,  dumosx,  T"he  calyx  is  cjuinque- 
partite ;  tlie  corolla  qui;,quiiid;  the  berry 
tris|)i'rmoijS,  The  species  are  only  five,  and 
tile  most  n-markable  are, 

1.  The  nigra,  or  couniioo  black  elder,  with 
a  tree-stem,  brandling  numerously  into  a 
large  spreading  head,  twenty  or  tliirly  feet 
high,  ;uid  large  five-parted  umbels  of  while 
llowers  towards  the  en.ls  of  the  branches, 
succeeded  by  bundles  of  black  and  other 
dilferent-coioured  b.rries,  in  the  varieties; 
which  are,  oommon  black- berried  elder-tree, 
while-berried  elder,  green- berried  elder,  la- 
ciniated  or  parsley-leaved  elder,  having  the 
folioles  much  laciuiated,  so  as  to  resi-mble 
parsley-leaves,  gold-striped-leave<l  elder,  sil- 
ver-striped cider,  silvcr-dusled  elder. 

'2.  The  racemosa,  racemose  red-berried 
elder.  This  is  a  resident  of  the  mounlair.ous 
[larls  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  retained 
in  our  gardens  as  a  flowering  shrub,  having  a 


f)lS 


SAM 


peculiar  singularity  in  its  oval-clusteretl  flow- 
tis  and  hemes. 

3.  The  Caiiadsnsis,  or  Canada  shrubby 
e'xJer. 

SAMIEES,  the  Arabian  name  of  a  liot 
viiid,  peculiar  to  the  desert  of  Arabia,  li 
i  lows  over  the  desert  iu  the  nioiitiis  of  July 
and  4-Ugust  from  tlie  north-west  quarter,  and 
?omt  times  it  c.-ntinues  with  all  its  violence 
to  the  very  gates  of  Bagdad,  but  never  affects 
any  body  wilhiii  tl;e  wails.  Some  years  it 
cl  .es  not  blow  at  all,  and  in  others  it  appears 
^;x,eig!it,  or  ten  times,  but  seldom  continues 
more  than  a  few  nii:iiitcs  at  a  time.  It  often 
}piies  with  the  aijparent  ciuickness  of  ligiit- 
i.ing.  The  Arabians  and  Peisians,  who  are 
aci|uain!ed  will)  llie  app^;.;rance  of  the  sky  at 
or  near  the  time  this  win'i  rises,  have  warning 
of  its  approach  by  a  thick  iia/.e,  which  ap- 
jjiears  like  a  cloud  of  dust  arisii-.g  out  of  tlie 
iiorizoii ;  and  they  innn 'diately  upon  this  ap- 
pe.irance  throw  themselves  witli  tlieir  faces 
to  the  ground,  and  coiuinus  iu  that  position 
tUI  tlie  wind  is  pa^setl,  which  frequenliy  hap- 
jiens  ahnost  instantaneously ;  but  if,  on  tlie 
Contrary,  they  are  not  careful  or  brisk  enougli 
to  take  this  precaution,  which  is  sometimes 
the  case,  and  they  get  the  tuil  force  of  tiie 
wind,  it  is  instant  death. 
'  Til;;  above  nietliod.  is  the  only  one  which. 
Iliey  take  to  avoid  the  etVects  of  this  fatal 
l)l;i>t;  and  when  it  is  over,- they  get  up  and 
hmk  round  them  for  their  companions;  and 
ii  liu'v  see  any  one  lying  motionless,  they 
tnke  hold  of  an  arm  or  leg,  and  pull  and  jerk 
it  with  some  force ;  and  if  the  limb  thus  agi- 
tated reparales  from  llie  body,  it  is  a  certain 
sign  that  tlie  wind  h;i3  had  its  lull  effect ;  but 
if,  on  the  contrary,  the  arm  or  leg  does  n.>t 
come  away,  it  is  a  sure  sign  tliere  is  life  re- 
maining, although  to  every  outward  appear- 
ance the  person  is  dead  ;  and  in  that  case 
they  immediately  cover  him  or  them  with 
clothes,  and  administer  some  warm  diluting 
!i!|uor  to  cause  a  perspiration,  wliicli  is  cer- 
tainly but  sl.'.vly  brouglit  about. 

The  Arabs  themselves  can  say  little  or 
nothing  about  the  nature  of  this  wind,  only 
that  it  always  leaves  behind  it  a  very  strong 
sulphureous  smell,  and  tliat  the  air  at  these 
times  is  quite  clear,  except  about  the  hori- 
zon, in  the  north-west  quarter,  before  ob- 
served, which  gives  warning  of  its  approach. 
We  have  not  been  able  to  learn  wlufther  the 
dead  bodies  are  scorched  or  dissolved  into  a 
kind  of  gelatinous  substance;  but  from  the 
stories  current  about  thein,  there  has  been 
frequent  reason  to  believe  the  latter  ;  and  in 
that  case  such  fatal  effects  may  be  attributed 
rather  to  a  noxious  vapour  than  to  an  abso- 
lute and  excessive  heat.  Tiie  story  of  its 
going  to  the  gates  of  Bagdad  and  no  further, 
may  be  reasonably  enough  accounled  for,  if 
the  effects  are  attributed  to  a  poisonous  va- 
pour, and  not  an  excessive  heat. 

S.\ .MOLL'S,  -u-'ttir  pimjicit'd,  a  genus  of 
llu-  monogynia  ord  -r,  in  the  pentandi-ia  class 
of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
untler  the  21st  or.ltr,  precia;.  Tiie  corolla  is 
salviM-shaped,  the  stamina  surrounded  by 
biuitl  sc.iles  at  its  throat.  The  capsule  is 
unilocular.  in:«yior.     'I'here  b  one  species. 

SAMl'SIC.\.\S,  in  chiircli  history,  an  an- 
tienl  seet,  who  wi'ie  |,roperly  neither  Jews, 
Cliristiaas,  nor  Uent  hs,  though  they  took 
Ih'ir  name  from  the  Hebrew  word  semes, 
Mtn,  M  Ihoiigli  llvey  worshipped  that  plancl. 

hAMVDA,  a  geuus  of  the  nion-gynia  or- 


S  A  N.- 

der,  in  the  decandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  with  those  of 
which  the  order  is  doubtful.  'J'he  caly.x  is 
ijuinquepartite  and  coloured;  tliere  is  no  co- 
rolla; the  capsule  in  the,  in  ide  resembles  a 
berry,  is  trivalved  and  unilocular;  the  seeds 
nestling.  There  are  nine  species,  chiefly 
shrubs  of  thq  \\'est  Indies. 

SjVND,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of  fos- 
sils, the  characters  of  wliich  are,  that  they  are 
found  in  minute  concretions,  forming  toge- 
ther a  kind  of  powder,  the  genuine  particles 
of  which  all  have  a  tendency  to  one  deter- 
minate shape,  and  appear  regular,  though 
more  or  less  complete  concretions  ;  not  to  be 
dissolved  or  disunited  by  water,  or  fpnned 
into  a  colierent  mass  by  means  of  it,  but  re- 
taining tlieir  figure  in  it  ;  transparent,  vitri- 
fiable  by  extreme  heat,  and  not  soUible  in, 
nor  effervescing  with,  acids.  Sands  ure  sub- 
ject to  be  variously  blended  both  with  honio- 
g-:'neous  and  heterogeneous  sulistances,  as 
that  of  tales,  ic.  and  hence,  as  well  as  from 
their  various  colours,  are  subdivided  into,  1. 
White  saiids,  whether  pure  or  mixed  with 
other  arenaceous  or  heterogeiK-ous  particles; 
of  all  which  there  are  several  species,  dtlVr- 
ing  no  less  in  the  iinsness  of  tlieir  particles 
tiian  in  the  dilferent  degrees  of  colour,  from 
a  bright  and  shining  white  to  a  brownish, 
yellowisli,  greenish,  &c.  white.  2.  The  red 
and  reddish  sands,  both  pure  and  impure. 
3.  The  yellow  sands,  whether  pure  or  mixed, 
are  also  very  numerous.  4.  The  brown 
sands,  distinguished  in  the  same  manner. 
5.  Tlie  black  sands,  of  wiiich  there  are  onlv 
two  species,  viz.  a  hue  shining  greyish-black 
sand,  and  another  of  a  fine  shining  reddish- 
black  colour.  6.  Tile  green  kind,  of  which 
there  is  only  one  known  species,  viz.  a  coarse 
variegated  dusky-green  sand,  common  in 
Vu'ginia. 

Sand  is  of  great  use  in  the  glass  manufac- 
ture; the  white  writing-sand  being  employed 
for  making  of  the  white  glass,  and  a  coarse 
greenish-looking  sand  for  the  green  glass. 

In  agriculture  it  seems  to  be  the  office  of 
sand  to  make  unctuous  earths  fertile,  and  fit 
to  support  vegetables,  &c.  For  earth  alone, 
we  lind,  is  liable  to  coalesce,  and  gather 
into  a  hard  coherent  mass.  Common  sand 
is,  therefore,  a  very  good  addition,  by  way 
of  manure,  to  all  sorts  of  clay-lands  ;  it  warms 
them,  and  makes  them  more  open  and  loose. 
The  best  sand  for  the  farmer's  use  is  that 
which  is  washed  by  rains  from  roads  or  hills, 
or  that  which  is  taken  from  the  beds  of  rivers; 
the  common  sand  that  is  dug  in  pits  never 
answers  so  well.  However,  if  mixed  with  dung, 
it  is  much  better  than  laid  on  alone ;  and  a 
very  line  manure  is  made  by  covering  the 
bottom  of  sheep-folds  with  several  loads  of 
sand  every  week,  which  are  to  be  taken  away, 
and  laiil  on  cold  stiff  lands,  impregnatid  as 
they  are  with  the  dung  and  the  urine  of  the 
sheep. 

The  sea-sand,  used  as  manure  in  different 
pjrts  of  the  kingdom,  is  of  three  kinds:  that 
about  Plymouth,  and  on  other  oi  the  southern 
roasts,  is  of  a  blue-grey  colour,  like  ashes, 
which  is  probably  owing  to  the  shells  of  mu- 
cles,  and  other  (ish  of  that  or  the  like  colour, 
being  broken  and  mixed  among  it  in  great 
quantity.  Westward,  near  the  I/ind's-end, 
tlie  sea-sand  is  very  white,  and  about  the 
isles  of  Scilly  it  is  very  glistening,  with  sniall 
particles  of  {ale ;  on  the  coasts  of  the  North 
Sea  the  sand  is  yellowish,  brown,  or  reddish. 


;?  A  N 

and  contains  so  great  a  quantity  of  fragmSnts 
of  cockle-shells,"  tliat  it  seems  to  be  chiefly 
composed  of  them.  That  sea-sand  is  account- 
ed best  which  is  of  a  reddish  colour :  the 
next  in  value  to  this  is  the  bhieish  ;  and  llu; 
white  is  the  worst  of  all.  Sea-sand  is  best 
when  taken  up  fioni  under  the  water,  or 
from  sand-jjanks  which  are  covered  by  every 
tide.  The  small-grained  sand  is  most  sudden 
iu  its  opCTation,  and  is  therefore  best  for  the 
tenant  who  is  only  to  take  three  or  tour  crops ; 
but  the  coarse  or  large-grained  sand  is  inucii 
better  for  the  landlord,  as  the  good  it  does 
lasts  many  years.     See  Husbandry. 

SA.ND-l}A(iS,  iu  the  art  of  war,  are  bags 
filled  with  eartli  or  sand,  holding  each  about 
a  cubic  foot,  'i'heir  use  is  to  raise  parapets 
in  haste,  or  to  repair  what  is  beaten  down. 

Sand-eel.     See  Ammodytes. 

S.VNDAKACH,  in  natural  history, a  very 
beautiful  native  fossil,  though  too  often  con- 
fomided  with  tlic  common  factitious  red  ai-se- 
nic,  and  with  the  red  matter  formed  by  melt- 
ing the  common  yellow  orp  ment.  It  is  a  jiure 
substance,  of  a  very  even  and  regular  struc- 
ture, is  throughout  of  that  colour  which  our 
dy el's  term  an  orange-scailel,  and  is  consider- 
ably transparent  even  in  the  thickest  pieces. 
13ut  though  with  respect  to  colour  it  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  cinnabar  while  in  the  mass,  it  is 
vastly  inferior  to  it  when  both  are  reduced 
to  ])Owders.  It  is  moderately  hard,  anil  re- 
markably heavy  ;  and  when  exposed  to  a 
moderate  heat,  melts  and  flows  like  oil.  If 
set  on  lire,  it  burns  very  briskly. 

It  is  found  in  Saxony  and  liohemia,  in  the 
copper  and  silver  mines,  and  is  sold  to  the 
painters,  who  lind  it  a  very  hue  and  valuable 
red ;  but  its  virtues  or  qualities  in  medicine 
are  no  more  ascertained  at  this  time  thaa 
those  of  the  yellow  orpiment. 

Sanparach,  swn.     See  Resin. 

SANDAKACHA.  Tiie  resinous  substance 
called  sandarach  is  not  a  pure  resin ;  for 
when  dissolved  in  alcohol  an  insoluble  resi- 
duum reniains.  Giese,  an  apothecary  of 
Augsburg,  examined  this  residuum  in  1802, 
and  found  that  it  possessed  peculiar  proper- 
ties. We  liave  therefore  distinguished  it  by 
the  name  of  s;uid,iracha.  It  amounts  to 
about  one-fifth  cf  the  sandarach.  A\'hen  pu- 
rified by  rejieated  digestions  in  alcohol,  it 
possesses  the  following  properties:  ■ 

1.  Its  colour  is  greyish  white.  It  is  brittle, 
and  easily  pounded. 

2.  It  burns  w  ith  a  bright  flame  and  much 
smoke,  leaving  a  black  residue  like  colopho- 
nium,  partly  soluble  in  hot  a'eoliol, 

3.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  and  iu  alcohol ; 
but  ellier  dissolves  it.  The  solution,  when 
evaporated,  leaves  on  bo<lios  a  stain  like  lime. 
Wlun  alcohol  is  added  to  the  solution,  the 
sandaiYc  ha  is  precipitated  ;  but  water  does 
not  produce  this  effect. 

4.  It  is  soluble  in  sulphuric  acid.     But, 

5.  Nitric  acid  has  no  action  on  it  cold. 
S.VNni\'ICU,  a   whitish  salt,   continually 

cast  up  from  the  melal,  as  it  is  called,  where- 
of glass  is  mule,  and  swimming  on  its  surface, 
is  skimmed  off.     Sie  Glass. 

SANDOUlt'l'M,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia order,  in  the  decandria  class  of  plants, 
and  in  the  natural  inetiiod  ranking  under  the 
2.3d  order,  trihilata'.  The  calyx  is  quinque- 
dentate;  the  petals  five,  and  linear-shaped; 
the  nectarium  has  ten  denta',  on  which  the 
anlher;e  grow;  the  fruit  is  a  drupe,  and  live 
in  munber,  each   of  which   has   one    seed. 


»  A  ^ 

TlifVP  is  only  Olio  species,  viz.  the  iiicliciiin, 
^  IriH'  of  Alrica  mikI  Hu-  ICast  Ii\Ji(.'S. 
.  S.VNGUII'ICAIION'.  Sc-l'HvsioLocv. 
'SANGl'INARIA,  htoad-ivort „  a  genus  of 
tin;  moiiogvni.i  oriler,  in  the  [jolyandria  class 
of  plants,  and  in  tin'  natural  mctliod  ranking 
VMiiler  tlm  27tli  urJpr,  rliaxedca'.  The  corolla 
is  oclopeUlous ;  tiif  calyx  ilipliyllons;  llie 
siliqiia  ovaU"  and  imilornlar.  There  is  only 
Oiic  species,  viz.  Uic  canadensis,  a  native  of 
(lie  nirthern  parts  of  America,  where  it  grows 
plentifully  in  the  woods ;  and  in  the  spring, 
before  the  leaves  of  the  trees  come  out,  llie 
surface  of  the  ground  is  in  many  places  co- 
vered with  the  llowers,  which  have  some  re- 
semblance to  our  wood  anemone;  but  they 
liave  short  naked  pedicles,  each  supporting 
one  flower  at  t0|).  Some  of  these  llowers 
will  Iiave  ten  or  twelve  petuls,  so  that  they 
ai)|).-ar  to  have  a  double  range  of  leaves, 
which  has  occasioned  their  bci[)g  termed 
double  iiouers;  but  this  is  only  accidental, 
the  same  roots  in  different  years  producing 
<rufirent  (lowers.  'I'he  plant  can  bear  the 
■  open  au"  in  this  country,  but  should  be  placed 
in  a  loose  soil  and  sheltered  situation,  not  too 
inucli  exposed  to  the  sun.  It  is  propagated 
by   the  roots,  which  may  be  taken   up  and 

iiarled  in  September  every  other  year.     Tlie 
n<lians    paint    themselves  yellow   with  the 
juice  of  these  jilants. 

SANGU1S(,)HI5A,  grcaler  xdld  hurnct, 
a  genus  of  tlie  iiionogynia  order,  in  the  te- 
trandria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  54th  order,  niis- 
celkuieLC.  The  calyx  is  diphyllous  ;  the  ger- 
iiien  situated  betwixt  the  calyx  and  corolla. 
The  most  remarkable  species,  of  three,  is  the 
oflicinalis,  with  oval  spikes.  This  grows  na- 
turally in  moist  meadows  in  many  parts  of 
Uritain.  The  cultivation  of  this  plant  has 
been  greallv  recommended  as  food  to  cattle, 
bre  Husbandry. 

SANHEDRIM,  or  S.\niiedrik,  among 
the  Jews,  the  great  council  of  the  nation, 
consisting  of  seventy  senators,  taken  partly 
from  among  the  priests  and  levites,  and  part- 
ly out  of  the  inferior  judges,  who  formed 
what  was  called  the  lesser  sanhedrim.  The 
room  they  met  in  was  a  rotunda,  half  of 
which  was  built  without  the  temple,  and  half 
within.  The  nasi,  or  president  of  the  san- 
liedrim,  sat  upon  a  throne,  with  his  deputy 
on  his  right  hand,  his  sub-deputy  on  his  left, 
and  the  other  senators  ranged  in  order  on 
each  side.  The  authority  ot  this  council  was 
very  extensive,  for  they  decided  such  causes 
as  were  brought  before  them  b)-  way  of  ap- 
peal from  the  inferior  courts ;  and  the  king, 
the  high  priests,  and  prophets,  were  underlhe 
jurisdiction  of  this  tribunal.  They  had  the 
riglit  of  judging  in  capital  cases,  and  sentence 
of  death  might  not  be  pronounced  in  anj' 
other  place;  for  which  reason  the  Jews  were 
forced  to  quit  this  hall,  when  the  power  of 
life  and  death  was  takrn  out  of  their  hands, 
forty  years  before  the  destruction  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  three  years  before  the  death  of 
Christ. 

There  were  several  inferior  sanhedrims  in 
Palestine,  each  of  w  hicli  consisted  of  twenty- 
tiiree  persons;  all  these  depended  on  the 
great  sanhedrim  of  Jerusalem. 

SANICUL.\,  sniiicU- or  self-heal,  a  genus 
of  the  digynia  order,  in  the  penlandria  class 
of  ulant's,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
■nder  the  45th  order,  umbeUat.v.    The  um- 


»  A  N 

bels  are  close  together,  almost  in  a  rouiid 
head ;  (he  fruit  is  scabrous ;  the  llowers  of 
tlie  disk  abortive.  'I  here  are  three  species. 
The  europa'a  is  found  in  liiany  parts  both  of 
Scotland  and  England.  This  plant  was  long 
celebrated  for  its  healing  virtues  both  inbr- 
nally  and  externally;  but  it  is  now  totally 
disregarded. 

SANIDIUM,  in  natural  Iiistory,  (he  name 
of  a  genus  of  fossils  of  the  class 'of  the  sele- 
nitc,  but  neither  of  the  rhomboidal  nor  co- 
luir.nar  kinds,  nor  any  other  way  distinguish- 
able by  its  external  hgure,  being  made  up  of 
several  plain  Hat  plates. 

SAN  FALUM,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  octandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  witli  lliose  of 
which  the  order  is  doubtful.  The  calyx  is 
superior;  the  corolla  monopetalous ;  the 
stamina  placed  in  the  tube ;  tlie  stigma  is 
simple  ;  the  fruit  a  berry. 

The  santalum,  zanders  or  sandel  wood, 
grows  to  (he  size  of  a  walnut-tree.  Its  leaves 
are  entire,  oval,  and  placed  opposite  to  each 
other.  Its  wood  is  white  in  the  circumference, 
and  yellow  in  the  centre,  when  the  tree  is 
old.  This  dilierence  of  colour  constitutes 
two  kinds  of  Sanders,  both  employed  for  the 
same  purposes,  and  having  equallv  a  bitter 
taste,  and  an  aromatic  smell.  With' the  pow- 
der of  this  wood  a  jiaste  is  prepared,  with 
which  the  Chinese,  Indians,  Persians,  Ara- 
bians, and  Turks  anoint  their  bodies.  It  is 
likewise  burnt  in  their  houses,  and  yields  a 
fragrant  and  wholesome  smell.  The  greatest 
([uaatity  of  this  wood,  to  which  a  sharp  and 
attenuating  virtue  is  ascribed,  remains  in  In- 
dia. Tiie  red  sanders,  though  in  less  estima- 
tion, and  less  generally  used,  is  sent  by  pre- 
ference into  I'.urope.  This  is  the  protluce 
of  a  dillererit  tree,  which  is  common  on  the 
coast  of  Coromniidel.  Some  travellers  con- 
found it  with  the  wood  of  Caliatour,  which  is 
used  in  dvcing. 

The  santalum  album,  or  white  sanders,  is 
brought  from  the  East  Indies  in  billets  about 
the  thickness  of  a  man's  leg,  of  a  pale-whitish 
colour.  It  is  that  ])art  of  tiie  yellow  sanders 
wood  which  lies  next  the  bark.  Great  part 
ot  it,  as  met  with  in  the  shops,  has  no  smell 
or  taste,  nor  any  sensible  quality  that  can  re- 
commend it  to  the  notice  of  the'  physician. 

The  santalum  llavum,  or  yellow  sanders, 
is  the  interior  part  of  the  wood  of  the  same 
tree  which  furnishes  the  former,  is  of  a  pale 
yellowish  colour,  of  a  pleasant  smell,  and  a 
bitterish  aromatic  taste,  accompanied  with 
an  agreeable  kind  of  pungency.  Tiiis  ele- 
gant wood  might  und<Hilitedly 'be  applied  to 
valuable  medical  purposes,  though  at  present 
very  rarely  usi.'d.  IJistilled  with  water,  it 
yields  a  fragrant  essential  oil,  which  thickens 
ui  the  cold  into  the  consistence  of  a  balsam. 
Digested  in  purespirit,  it  imparts  a  rich  vellow 
tincture;  which  being  committed  to  di^tilla- 
tion,  the  spirit  arises  w^ithout  bringing  over 
anything  considerable  of  the  flavour  of  the 
sanders.  The  residuum  contains  the  virtues 
of  six  times  its  weight  of  the  wood.  Holt- 
man  looks  upon  this  extract  as  a  medicine  of 
similar  virtues  to  ambergris;  and  recom- 
mends it  as  an  excellent  restorative  in  great 
debilities. 

SAN'l'OLlNA,  lavemhr-cnttnn,  a  genus 

of  the  order  of  iiolygamia  a:t|uahs,  in  the  syn- 

genesia  class  of  plants,   and  in  the  natural 

method  rankinjf  under  the  49Lli  order,  com- 

•4  I',' 


S'  A  !'  6\'y 

posltx.  The  receptacle  is  paleareous;  there, 
IS  no  pappus;  the  calyx  imbricated  and  he- 
mispherical. There  are  six  species.  'I  he 
most  remarkable  arc, 

I .  Cham.Tcyparisus,  or  common  lavender- 
cotton,  which  has  b-en  long  known  in  the 
English  gardens.  It  was  (oniierly  tilled 
abrotaimm  ta-minca,  or  female  southeri:vood, 
and  by  the  corruption  of  words  was  called 
brolany  by  the  ni?.rket-people.  It  grows 
naturally  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  warm  part'' 
of  Euiope.  2.  1  he  ro'snurinifoha.  3.  The 
anthemoides. 

All  these  plants  may  be  cultivated  so  as  tn 
become  ornaments  to  a  garden,  particularly 
in  small  bos(|ueis of  evergreen  shrubs,  where; 
if  they  are  artfully  imermixed  with  othef 
plants  of  the  same  growth,  and  placed  in  the 
front  line,  they  will  make  an  agreeable  va- 
riety. They  may  be  propagated  by  planting 
slips  or  cuttings  during  the  spring. 

SANIES,  in  medicine,  a  serous  putrid 
matter,  issuing  Irom  wounds ;  it  differs  Irom 
pus,  whi(  h  is  thicker  and  white. 

SAP.     See  Vlasts,  plif/>j<>lngi/  nf. 

Sap,  or  Safp,  in  the  art  of  war,  is  the  dig- 
ging deep  under  the  earth,  of  the  glacis,  m 
order  to  open  a  covered  passage  into  (he 
moat.  It  is  only  a  deep  trench,  covered  at 
top  with  boards,  hurdles,  earth,  sand-hags, 
&c.  and  is  usually  begun  live  or  six  fathoms 
from  the  saliant  angle  of  the  glacis.  See  Eor- 

TIFICATION. 

Sap-coi.ours,  a  name  given  to  various 
expressed  juices  of  a  viscid  nature,  which  are 
ins|)issated  by  slow  evaporation  for  the  use 
of  painte-rs  ;  a's  sap-green,  gamboge,  &c. 

S.'VPINDUS,  the  soup-hcrrii  trie,  a  genus 
of  the  trigynia  order,  in  the  octandria  class 
ot  jjlants,  and  in  (he  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  ;.'3d  order,  trihilala?.  The  calyx  is 
tetraphyllous;  the  petals  four;  (he  capsules 
are  tleshy,  connate,  and  ventricosc. 

The  species  are    13,   of  which   (he  most 
noted  are,  the  saponaria,  spinosus,  trifoliatu?, 
and  chinensis.     The  saponaria,  with  winged 
leaves,  grows  na(urally  in  the  islands  of  the 
AVest   Indies,  where  it  rises  with  a  wocdv 
stalk  from  20  to  30  feet  high,  sending  on't 
many  b.-anches  with  winged  leaves  composed 
of  several  pair  of  spear-sh.iped  lobes.     The 
flowers  are  produced  in  loose  spikes  at  the 
end  of  the  branches ;    thev  afe  small   and 
white,  so  make  no  great  app'earance.    Thr>d 
are  succeeded   by  oval  berries  as  Inrge  as 
middling  cherries,"sometimes  single,  at  others, 
two,  three,  or  four  are  joined  together;  the-c 
have  a  saponaceous  skin  or  cover,  whicii  in- 
closes  a   very  smooth  roundish    nut  of  the 
same  form,   of  a  slriiing   black  when   ripe. 
The  skin  or  pulp  which  surroupds  the  riiits 
is  used  in  America  to  wash  linen  ;  but  it  is 
very  ajit  to  burn  aiid  destroy  it  if  often  used, 
being  of  a  very  acrid  nature. 

These  plants  arc  propagated  by  seeds,  and 
kept  in  the  stove. 

SAPONARIA,  snpe-xnrf,  a  genus  of  th« 
digynia  order,  in  the  decamlria  class  of  plants', 
and  in  the  natural  inolhod  ranking  under  the 
2?d  order,  caiyopl.yllex.  The  calyx  is  mo- 
nophyllous  and  naked;  there  are  five  ungu- 
la(ed  pe(als ;  (he  capsule  is  oblong  and  uni-' 
locular.  ' 

There  are  nine  species,  the  officinalis',  vac- 
caria,  cretica,  porrigens,  illvrica,  ocyraoides, 
orientalis,  lutea,  and  bellidifblia.  The  offici- 
nalis, which  is  a  British  plant,  has  a  creeping 


■C20 


S  X  R 


rK>t,  ?o  th  I  in  a  sh-rt  lime  it  vou'd  lill  a 
large  space olgroiMul.  The  italks  are  above 
two  feet  Jiigli,  ami  of  a  purplish  colour.  Tlic 
footsta:ks  o:  the  tWers  arise  from  the  w.ngs 
ot  the  leaves  opiwsite  ;  they  sustuin  fous  live, 
cr  more  purple  llowers  eacii,  \»hiih  \rd\e  ge- 
i\crallv  two  small  leaves  placed  uud  ■■  *.''ein. 
The  stalk  is  ;'.lso  terminated  by  a  kose  I)UJ  .,-. 
of  flowers  growing  in  form  of  aa  iimbel;  they 
have  eaeh'a  large  swelling  cylindrical  empale- 
meiit,  and  live  broad  obtuse  petals,  which 
spread  open,  of  a  purple  colour.  These  are 
succeeded  by  oval  capsules,  with  one  cell 
tilled  with  small  seeds.  The  decoction  of 
this  plant  is  used  to  cleanse  and  scour  woollen 
cloths:  the  poor  people  in  some  countries 
use  it  instead  of  soap  for  washing  ;  from  which 
use  it  had  its  name. 

SAPPHIHE,  a  genus  of  precious  stones, 
of  a  blue  colour,  and  the  hardest  of  all  except 
the  ruby  and  diamond.  They  are  found  ni 
the  same  countries  with  the  ruby ;  also  in 
Bohemia,  Al-ace,  Siberia,  aud  Auvergne. 
M.  Rom6  de  I'isle  mentions  one  found  at 
Ail.  ^rgne,  which  appeared  quite  green  or 
blue  according  to  the  position  in  which  it 
was  viewed.  Croastedt,  however,  informs 
us,  that  liie  blue  tluor  spars  are  frecjuently 
in.  L  with  in  collections  under  the  name  of 
sapphires;  and  it  is  certain  from  Pliny,  b.  37. 
cUap.  9.  that  the  sapphire  of  the  antients  was 
our  lapis  lazuli.  I  hey  are  seldom  found  of 
a  deep-blue  colour  throughout,  or  free  from 
parallel  veins;  and  wiien  they  are  but  slightly 
tinged,  they  ar<!  named  while  sapphires.  The 
late  unfortunate  king  of  Fiance  iiad  one  with 
a  stripe  of  fine  yellow  topaz  in  the  middle. 
Some  are  found  half  green  and  half  red,  and 
arc  foliated  like  the  ruby.  The  fine  hard 
sapphires,  called  by  the  jewellers  oriental,  are 
of  the  same  nature  with  the  ruby  and  topaz, 
excepting  the  mere  circumstance  of  colour. 
They  are  conmionly  in  two  oblong  hexagon 
pyramids,  joined  at  their  base,  and  pointed  at 
tup;  sometimes  also  in  hexagonal  columns. 

The  specific  gravity  of  these  precious 
stones,  according  to  Bergman,  is  from  3.6j0 
to  3.940.  According  to  others,  the  speciiic 
gravity  of  the  oriental  sapphires  is  3.994; 
thai  of  the  Brasilian  3.13'i7;  and  of  Iho^e 
•rom  Puy  in  Auvergne,  4  0769.  When  pow- 
dered, they  are  fusible  with  borax  or  micro- 
cosmic  salt,  into  a  transparent  glass;  and  the 
sime  thing  happens  on  treating  them  with 
jnagnesia  alba.  They  are  said  to  lose  their 
.;olour  by  lire,  and  to  become  so  hard  and 
transparent  as  sometimes  to  pass  for  dia- 
luonds;  but  Mr.  Achaid  found  this  to  be  a 
mistake,  and  that  the  true  sapphires  are  not 
in  the  least  altered  either  in  colour,  hardness, 
vc  weight,  by  the  most  intense  fue.  'ihose 
of  Puy  in  AuTcrgne,  however,  though  bv 
iheir  colour  and  hardness  thev  seem  to  ap- 
proach the  oriental  sapphires,  lose  belli  their 
colour  and  transparency  in  the  fire,  becoming 
black,  and  even  vilritying;  which  plainly 
Bhows  them  to  be  of  a  diifeieiit  kind.     See 

CORl'NDL'M. 

SAHAI'>.\NDE,  a  dance  said  to  be  origi- 
nally derived  from  the  Saracens.  According 
to  some  antliors,  it  had  its  appellation  from  a 
comedian  named  Sarabandi,  who  first  intro- 
duced' it  ill  I-'ranre.     The  tune  of  the  sara- 

3         3 
bando  is  written  in  <,  or  \,  and  its  character 

is  both  expressive  and  majestic.  One  of  its 
Aitinguishing  features  is  iLe  Icnythemng  the 


S  A  * 

Sfco  id  notf  of  the  measure,  which  at  or.ce 
gives  a  gravity  and  conscii'ience  to  the  move- 
ment. 

SARACA,  a  genus  of  the  hexandria  order, 
in  tlie  diadelphia  class  of  plants.  There  is 
no  calvx ;  (he  corolla  is  fiuinel-shaped  an<l 
quadritid  ;  the  filaments  are  on  each  side  the 
throat  of  the  corolla;  ihe  ieguinen  is  pedicel- 
led.  There  is  one  species,  a  tree  of  the 
East  Indiej. 

SARCASM,  in  rhetoric,  a  keen  bitter  ex- 
pression, which  has  the  true  point  of  satire, 
by  which  the  orator  scol)s  and  insults  his 
cnemv:  such  was  that  of  the  Jews  to  our  Sa- 
viour, "  He  saved  others,  himself  he  cannot 
save." 

SARCOCELE.    See  Surgery. 

SARCOCOLL,  a  vegetable  substance  that 
possesse;  tlie  following  properties: 

1.  So'id,  semi-transparent  bodies;  usually 
having  a  tinge  of  yellow :  taste  sweet,  but 
leaving  an  impression  of  bitlerness.  Dissolves 
in  die  mouth  like  gum. 

3.  Equally  soluble  in  water  and  alcoliol ; 
solution  yellow.  The  watery  solution  has 
the  appearance  of  mucilage,  and  may  be 
used  for  the  same  purposes. 

3.  Cannot  be  made  to  crystallize. 

4.  AVheu  heated,  softens,  but  does  not 
melt.  It  emits  a  slight  smell  of  calomel. 
When  strongly  heated,  it  blackens,  and 
assumes  the  consistence  of  tar,  emitting 
a  white  heavy  smoke  kaviug  an  acrid  odour. 
In  a  strong  lire  it  scarcely  leaves  any  resi- 
duum. 

These  properties  shew  us  that  sarcocoll  is 
a  substance  intermediate  between  sugar  and 
gum,  partaking  in  some  measure  of  the  pro- 
perties of  each,  but  certainly  approaching 
nearer  to  sugar  than  to  gmn.  liow  far  the 
combination  of  sugar  and  the  bitter  principle 
would  resemble  sarcocoll,  has  not  been  tried. 
The  three  tbllowiug  species  luay  be  referred 
to  sarcocoll. 

1.  CoiiinionsarcocoU.  This  substance  is  usu- 
ally sold  in  the  state  of  oblong  globules  from 
the  size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  particle  of  sand. 
Its  colour  is  usually  yellow ;  aud  it  lias  the 
semitransparency  and  much  of  the  a]ipear- 
ance  of  gum  arable.  But  some  of  the  grains 
are  reikli;h-brown.  Its  smell  is  peculiar, 
and  not  unlike  that  of  anise-seed.  When 
carefully  examined,  four  different  substances 
may  be  detected :  the  first,  an<l  by  far  the 
most  abumlant,  is  pure  sarcocoll ;  the  second 
consists  of  small  woody  fibres,  and  a  soft 
yellowish-white  substance,  not  unlike  Ihe  co- 
vering of  the  seeds  of  some  of  the  cruciform 
plants  ;  the  third  is  a  reddish-brown  sub.^ance 
apparently  earthy ;  and  the  fourth  is  only 
detected  when  the  sarcocoll  is  dissolved  in 
water  or  alcohol.  It  then  appears  in  soft 
transparent  tremulous  masses  like  jelly. 

The  pure  sarcocoll  amounts  to  O.S  of  the 
whole.  \Vhen  the  sarcocoll  is  dissolved  in 
alcohol  or  water,  and  obtained  again  by  eva- 
poration, it  loses  its  smell.  It  then  assumes 
the  form  of  semitransparent  brittle  brown 
cakes  very  like  gum. 

Sarcocoll  exudes  spontaneously  from  the 
pena-a  sarcocojla ;  a  shrub  which  is  said  by 
botanical  writers  to  be  indigenous  in  the 
north-eastern  parts  of  Africa.  Nothing  pre- 
cise is  known  concerning  the  way  in  which  it 
exudes. 

SARDONYX,  a  precious  stone  consisiing 
of  a  nii-xluic  tifthe  chalcedony  and  cainclian, 


S  A  S 

sometimes  iti  strata,  but  at  oth^r  li.i.«s  blen<i» 
ed  together.  It  is  found,  I.  Striped  wit.'i 
while  and  red  strata,  which  may  be  cut  in 
cameo  us  well  as  the  onyx.  2.  While  with 
red  dendritical  f.gures,  greatly  resembling 
the  mocha-stor.e ;  but  w  ith  this  dillereiicc, 
that  the  ligi  res  in  the  sartlor.yx  are  of  a  red 
colour,  in  the  other  black.  '1  here  is  no  re.d 
tlifftrence,  excepting  in  the  circum-tauce  of 
hardness,  between  the  onyx,  carnelian,  clial- 
cedoi.y,  sardonyx,  and  agiite,  notwitiislaiid- 
ing  the  different  names  beslowcd  upon  them. 
Morigez  inf()rms  us,  that  the  yellow,  or 
orange-coloured  agates,  « ith  a  wavy  or  uii- 
dulatcng  surface,  are  now  commonly  called 
sardoiiw. 

SAivMl-iNTOS.E  (from  surmtiitum,  a 
long  slioot  like  that  of  a  vine),  the  name  of 
the  nth  class  in  Linnaus's  Fragments  of  a 
Natural  Method,  consisliiig  of  plants  which 
have  climbing  stems  and  braiKhes,  that,  like 
the  vine,  attach  themselves  to  the  bodies  in 
thr-ir  neighbourhood  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
port.    See  noTANY. 

.SAROTIIRA,  a  genus  of  the  trigynia  or- 
der, in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  JOth 
order,  rotacca'.  The  corolla  is  pentaiieta- 
lous :  tlie  capsule  unilocular,  trivalved,  and 
coloured.  There  is  one  species,  an  annual 
of  \  u'ginia. 

SAUPLAR  nf  •^•ool,  a  quantity  of  wool, 
otherwise  called  a  pocket  or  half-sack ;  a 
sack  containing  SO  tid;  a  tod  two  stone; 
and  a  stone  14  pounds.  In  Scotland  it  is 
called  sarpliath,  and  contains  80  stone. 

SARRACRNIA,  side-sadd.c  ]:Lmt,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  monogy  nia  order,  in  ihe  polyan- 
dria  class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  me- 
thod ranking  under  the  54lh  order,  miscella- 
nea'. The  corolla  is  pentapetalous  ;  the 
calyx  is  double,  and  triphyllous  below,  pen- 
tapliylious  above;  the  capsule  ([uinquelo- 
cular;  the  style  lias  a  stigma  of  the  form  of 
a  shield.  There  are  five  species,  herbs  of 
North  America. 

SAKSAPARILLA.    Set  Smilax. 

SARTORllS.     See  Anatomy. 

SASIJ,  a  mark  of  distinction,  which  in 
the  British  sei  vic<'  is  generally  made  of  crim- 
son silk  for  the  officers,  and  of  crimson  mixed 
with  white  cotton  for  the  seijeants.  It  is 
worn  round  tlie  waist  in  most  regiments;  in 
some  few,  particularly  in  the  Highland  corps, 
it  is  thrown  across  the  shoulder.  Sashes  were 
originally  invented  for  the  convenience  and 
ease  of  wounded  ofiicers,  &c.  by  means  of 
which,  in  case  any  of  them  were  so  badly 
wounded  as  to  render  them  incapable  of  re- 
maining at  their  posts,  they  lu'glit  be  carried 
off  with  the  assistance  of  two  men.  'J'hey 
are  now  reduced  to  a  very  small  size,  and  of 
coui-se  unlit  for  the  orignial  purpose.  Both 
the  sash  and  gorget,  indeed,  must  be  consi-' 
dered  as  mere  marks  of  distinction,  to  poi%t 
out  ofiicers  on  duty.  In  some  instances  they 
are  worn  together;  in  others,  the  gorget  is 
laid  aside,  and  the  sash  only  worn.  The 
British  cavalry  tie  the  sash  on  the  right,  the 
infantry  on  the  left,  side.  The  sashes  for  the 
imperial  army  are  made  of  crimson  and  gold, 
for  the  Prussian  army  black  silk  and  silver, 
the  Hanoverians  yellow  silk,  the  Portuguese 
crimson  silk  with  blue  tassels.  The  modern 
French  have  their  sashes  maile  of  three  co- 
lours, viz.  white,  pink,  aud  light-blue,  to  Cttf-. 
respond  with  tlit:  national  flag. 


SAT 

SASSAF'RAS,  (lie  woo-i  of  an  Anii'vican 
lri.'<',  Sec  I.AUKUS.  ll  is  3ui<l  lo  be  warm, 
jipt-rienl,  i'.iul  ciUKiboraiil  ;  and  li ci|ii<'iilly 
einploycil  as  an  iiikisidii,  in  llic  way  ot  tea, 
isaveiy  pleasanl  drink:  iU  oil  is  very  fra- 
grant, ai)cl  possesses  most  of  t'le  vTrtties  of  the 
wood. 
SATF.LLITK.  Soe  Astronomy. 
SA'rUAl',\,  or  Satkapes,  in  IVisian  an- 
tupiity,  denotes  ai>  admiral,  but  more  com- 
monly tlie  goveriiur  of  a  province. 

b.m' RAMON,  like  most  oilier  tedinical 
terms  introduced  into  chemistry  before  die 
science  liad  acciiiired  nuieh  |)recis:on,  lias 
been  used  with  a  griMt  deal  of  latitude,  being 
som'.-times  taken  m  one  sense  and  sometimes 
in  anotluT.  Hut  in  order  to  be  understood, 
it  is  necessary  to  Use  tlie  word  uitli  some  de- 
gree of  precision. 

If  we  make  tlie  attempt,  we  sliall  find  that 
water  will  not  dissolve  any  quantity  of  salt 
that  we  please.  At  the  tempeiatnri;  of  60", 
it  tlis>olv;-.-,  only  0.3j4  p.irts  <if  its  weii^ht  of 
l^lt ;  and  if  more  salt  IJuui  this  is  added,  it 
remains  in  the  water  undissolved.  When 
valerhas  dissolved  as  much  salt  as  possible, 
it  ii  said  to  be  saturated  with  salt.  This 
sense  is  at  least  analogous  to  the  orii^inal 
meaning  of  the  word.  \\  lienevir,  then,  a 
substance  A  refu^c!s  to  combine  with  an  ad- 
ditional (|uantity  of  another  body  B,  w;.'  may 
say  that  it  is  saturated  with  B.  It  takes  place 
vhenever  the  allinity  of  the  water  and  salt, 
is  balamed  by  the  cohesion  of  the  particles  of 
the  salt,  and  therefore  indicates  that  these 
two  forces  aie  equal. 

In  the  same  manner,  water,  after  Iiaving 
absorbed  a  certain  ([uantily  of  carbonic  acid 
gas,  refuses  to  absorb  any  more.  W'c  may 
indeed  pass  carbonic  acid  gass  througli  wa- 
ter in  this  state',  but  it  makes  its  escape  unal- 
tered. Water  which  refuses  to  absorb  car- 
bonic acid  gas  is  saturated  with  that  acid. 
'J'his  saturation  takes  place  when  the  afliiiity 
between  the  gas  and  the  water  is  balanced  by 
the  elasticity  of  the  ga.s,  an;l  indicates  of 
course  that  tliese  two  forces  are  equal. 

In  these  two  instances  the  saturation  is  oc- 
casioned by  opposite  causes.  The  salt  re- 
fuses to  dissolve  111  the  water  when  the  cohe- 
sion of  its  particles  equals  its  allinity  for  tlie 
water ;  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  when  the  re- 
pulsion of  its  particles  equals  its  aliinily  for 
water.  In  the  first  case,  it  is  the  attractive 
force  of  cohesion  which  opposes  farther  solu- 
tion; in  the  second  case,  it  is  the  repulsive 
force  of  elasticity.  Hence  the  dii'lerent  me- 
thod which  must  be  followed  to  diminish  tliese 
forces,  and  enable  the  water  to  dissolve  a 
greater  proportion  of  these  respective  bodies. 
Heat,  by  diminishing  the  force  of  cohesion, 
enables  water  to  dissolve  a  greater  propor- 
tion of  saline  bodies.  Accordingly  we  lind 
that  in  most  cases  hot  water  dissolves  more 
salt  than  cold  water.  Common  salt  is  almost 
the  only  exception  to  this  general  law.  On 
the  other  hand,  cold,  by  diminishing  the 
elasticity,  or  at  least  the  expansibility  of  ga- 
seous bodie?;,  enables  water  to  dissolve  a 
greater  proportion  of  them.  'I'lius  the  colder 
the  water  is,  the  greater  a  proportion  of  car- 
bonic acid  is  it  capable  of  dissolving.  The 
freezing  point  of  water  liinils  this  increase  of 
solubility,  because  at  that  point  the  cohesive 
force  of  the  particles  of  water  becomes  so 
{i^reat  ae  to  cause  tliem  to  cohere,  to  the  ex- 


S  A  T 

cliihlon  of  tliose  bodies  with  which  they  wfie 
formerly  roiiibincd.  Hence  the  reason,  that 
most  bodies  sH|xirate  from  water  when  it 
freezes.  Hut  they  generally  retard  the  freez- 
ing' considerably,  by  opjiosing  with  all  the 
strength  of  their  afiinity  the  cohesion  of  the 
water.  The  conse(|uence  is,  that  the  freez- 
ing point  of  water,  w  hen  it  holds  bodies  in 
solution,  is.lo.vi-r  than  the  freezing  point  of 
pure  wafer.  A  table  of  the  freezing  points 
of  different  saline  solutions  winild  be  a  prettv 
accurate  indication  of  the  aflinity  ofthe<lii- 
ferent  salts  for  water  :  f,ir  ihe  afiiiiily  of  eiicli 
s.ilt  is  of  course  piopoitional  lo  the  degri  e  of 
cold  at  which  it  si.'paratcs  from  the  water, 
that  is,  to  the  freezing  point  of  Ihe  solution. 

In  this  sense  of  the  word  saturation,  which 
is  certainly  the  only  one  that  it  ought  to  bear, 
it  may  be  said  with  |>ropriety  that  there  are 
certain  bodies  which  cannot  be  saturated  by 
others.  'I'hus  water  is  capable  of  combining 
with  any  quantity  whatever  of  sulphuric  acid', 
nitric  acid,  and  alcohol;  and  all  bodies  seem 
capable  of  combining  with  almost  am  quantity 
whatever  of  caloric^  Several  of  the  metals', 
too,  are  capable  of  combining  with  any  (jiian- 
tity  whatever  of  some  other  milals.  '  In  ge- 
m-ral,  it  may  be  said  that  those  bodies  callefl 
solvents  are  cajiable  of  combining  in  any 
(|uaiitity  with  the  substances  which  they  hold 
in  solution,  'I'hus  water  may  be  added  in 
any  (|uanlity,  however  great,  to  the  acids,  and 
to  the  greater  number  of  salts. 

If  we  take  a  given  (piantity  of  sulphuric 
acid  diluted  with  water,  and  add  to  it  slowly 
the  solution  of  soda  by  little  at  a  lime,  and 
examine  the  mi\ture  after  every  addition,  we 
shall  find  that  for  a  considerable  time  it  will 
exhibit  the  properties  of  an  acid,  reddening 
vegetable  blues,  and  having  a  taste  percep- 
tibly sour;  but  these  aciil  properties  gradu- 
ally diminish  alter  every  addition  of  the  alkaline 
solution,  and  at  last  disappear  altogether.  If 
we  still  continue  to  add  the  soda,  the  mixture 
gradually  ac(]uires  alkaline  properties,  con- 
verting vegetable  blues  to  green,  and  mani- 
festing an  urinous  taste.  'I'hese  properties 
become  stronger  and  stronger  the  greater  the 
(juantity  of  the  soda  is  which  is  added.  Thus 
it  appears  that  when  sul|)liuric  acid  and  soda 
are  mixed  together,  the  properties  either  of 
the  one  or  the  other  preponderate  acconling 
to  the  proportions  of  each;  but  that  there 
are  certain  proportions,  according  to  which 
when  they  are  combined,  they  inutually  de- 
stroy or  disguise  the  properties  of  each  o"ther, 
so  that  neither  predominates,  or  rather,  so 
that  both  <lisappear. 

AVhen  substances  thus  mutiiallv  disguise 
each  other's  properties,  they  are  said  to  neu- 
traiize  one  another.  'Ihisproperty  is  common 
to  a  great  number  of  bodies  ;  but' it  manifests 
itself  most  strongly,  and  was  first  observed,  in 
the  acids,  alkalies,  and  earths.  Hence  the 
salts  which  are  combinations  of  these  different 
bodies  received  long  ago  the  name  of  neutral 
salts.  '\Vhen  bodies  are  combine<l  in  the 
proportion  which  proiluces  neutralization, 
they  are  often  said  to  be  saturated;  but  in 
this  case  the  term  is  used  improperly.  It 
would  be  much  better  to  confine  the  word 
saturation  to  the  meaning  assigned  to  it  in  the 
beginning  of  tliis  article,  and  to  employ  the 
term  neutrali.!at\on  to  denote  the  state  in 
w  liich  the  peculiar  properties  of  the  compo- 
nent parts  mutually  disappear;  for  very  fre- 
quently ijeutrali^atioa  and  saturation  by  no 


I?  A  U 


<531 


nuaiis  coincide.  Thus  in  tartrite  of  potass 
the  acid  and  alkali  neutralize  t a/li  other  :  y-et 
it  cannot  be  said  that  the  potass  is  sat-rated  ; 
for  it  is  still  cajialile  of  cojnbining  wilh  more 
tartarous  acid,  and  of  forming  ,upeitartrile  of 
potass,  A  compound  in  whii  lithe  ingredients 
do  not  neutralize  each  other ;  for  the  salt  has 
inanilestly  a  preponderance  of  the  properties 
ol  the  acid. 

S.Vl  UUEI.\,.v.7t'iHry,ageiuis  of  thegyin- 
nospermia  or<ler,  in  the  didynamia  cla;"s  of 
plants,  and  in  Ihe  natural  method  ranking 
under  the -VJd  order,  verticillalx.  'I  lie  seg- 
ments of  Ihe  corolla  are  nearly  equal;  i'.-e 
■lamina  standing  asunrler.  '1  here  are  eight 
speciis;  the  most  noted  are:  1.  The  lior- 
tensis,  or  summer  savoury,  is  an  annual  plant, 
wliidi  grows  naturally  in  the  south  of  France 
aid  Italy,  but  is  cultivated  in  this  country 
both  for  tlie  kitchen  and  medicinal  use.  i. 
'I  he  molilalia,  or  winter  savoury,  a  perennial- 
plant,  glowing  nalurally  in  "tlie  south  of 
France  and  Italy,  but  is  cultivated  in  gardens 
both  for  culinary  and  merlicinal  purpose-;. 
I'oth  kinds  are  propagat.d  by  seeds.  Sum- 
mer savoury  Is  a  very  waim  |)uiigenl aromatic, 
and  ali'orcK  in  di>tillation  with  wafer  a  sulrtilc 
essential  oil,  of  a  penetrating  smell,  and  very 
liot  acrid  ta-te.  It  yields  fiffle  of  its  virtue-, 
by  infusion  to  atpieous  liquors;  rectified q)ir!£ 
extracts  the  whole  of  its  ta-te  and  smell,  aaU 
elevates  nothing  in  distillation. 

SATURN.     See  Astkokomv. 

SA1  YK,  or  Satire.  See  Poetry. 

S.A  I'YUICM,  a  genus  of  the  diandri.* 
order,  in  the  gynandria  class  of  plants ;  and 
in  Ihe  natural  method  rankirg  under  the  4.'d 
order,  verticillata-.  The  nectarium  is  scroti- 
forni,  or  inflated  double  behind  the  flower. . 
There  are  2 1  species. 

S.MX'ISSON,  in  fortification,  a  mass  of 
large  branches  of  trees  bound  together;  and 
differing  only  from  a  fascine,  as'this  is  coiii- 
posed  of  small  branches  of  twi^s. 

S.A\'IN.     See  Jt'siFERUs." 

S.VA  torn,  Oi\Lrnf.St.  a  relfgious  or-- 
dcr  ill  the  Romish  church,  founded  by  St. 
Bridget,  about  the  year  13  Ij  ;  and  so  called 
from  its  being  pretended  that  our  Saviour 
himsL-lf  dictated  to  the  fouudress  its  constitu- 
tions and  rules. 

Acconling  to  the  constitutions,   this  order 
is  principally  founded  for  religious   women; 
who   pay  a  particular   honour  to  the   holy- 
virgin  ;  but  tliere  are  some  monks  of  the  or- 
der, to  administer  the  sacraments,  and  spiri- 
tual assistance  to  the  nuns.     'Flie  number  of 
nuns  is  fixed  at  sixty  in  each  monastery  ;  and 
that  of  the  religious  [iriests  at  thirteen,  ac- 
cording to  the  number   of  \\\-  apostles,  of 
whom   St.   Paul  was  the  thirteenth.     There 
are  also  lour  deacons,  representing  the  four 
doctors    of    the   church,  St.   Ambrose,    St. 
Augustin,  St.  Gregory,  and  St.  Jerome  ;  and 
eight  lay-brolKers;  w-'ho  altogether  make  up 
the  number  of  the  thirteen  apostte,  and  the 
seventy-two  disciples  of  Jesus  Christ.     ''Fhe 
nuns  are  not  admitted  till  eighteen  yeai-s  of 
age,  nor  the  friars  before  twent\-five;  and, 
they  are  to  perform  a  year's  noviliate. 
6'AUNDFKS.     .SeG  S.a.xtali.-.m. 
SAl'RURUS,  a  genus  of  the  tetrag^'nia- 
order,  in  the  heptandria  class  of  plants ;  and  , 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  se- 
cond ordi-r,  piperita'.    The  calyx  is  a  catkin, . 
with  unillorous  scales :  thure  is"  no  cocolU  j . 


622 


S  A  W 


there  are  four  gcrmina,  and  four  monosppr- 
luoiH  btrries.  There  is  one  species,  a  herb 
of  Virjriiiia.    '  . 

SACVAGE3IA,  a  genus  of  the  nionogy.- 
nia  order,  in  the  peiitandria  class  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  rankinp;  with  those 
of  vhich  the  order  is  doiibtml.  The  corolla 
ii^pentapetalor.s  and  fringod  ;  the  calyx  pen- 
taphvllous;  the  nectarium  the  same,  having 
its  leaver  placed  alternately  with  the  petals; 
the  capsule  unilocular,  'j'iiere  is  one  spe- 
cies, a  native  of  St.  Dumingo. 

SAW,  an  instrument  which  serves  to  cut 
into  pieces  several  solid  matters ;  as  wood, 
stone,  ivorv,  &c.     The  best  saws  are  of  tem- 
pered steel  ground  bright  and  smooth  ;  those 
of  iron  are  only  hammer-hardened:  hence, 
the  lirst,  besides  their  being  stiller,  are  like- 
wise found  smoother  than  the  last.     They 
are  known  to  be  well  haumn-rcd  by  the  stilf 
bending  of  the  blade ;  and  to  be   well  and 
cvenlv  ground,  by  their  bending  equally  in  a 
bow.     The  ed^e  in  whicJi  are  the  teeth  is  al- 
ways thicker    than   the   back,   because  the 
back  is  to  follow  the  edge.     The  teeth  arc 
cut  and  sharpened  with  a  triangular  file,  the 
blade  of  the  saw  being  first  fixed  in  a  whct- 
liug-block.     After  ihey  have  been  filed  the 
teeth  are  set,  that  is,  turned  out  of  the  right 
line,  that  they  may  nuike  the  kerf  or  fissure 
the  wider,  that  tiie  back  m  ly  follow  the  bet- 
ter.    The  teeth  are   always  set  ranker  for 
oarse  cheap  stulfthan  for  hard  and  fine,  be- 
cause the  ranker  tiie  teeth  are  set,  the  more 
stulf  is  lost  in  the  kerf      The  saws  by  wliicli 
marble  and  other  stones  are  cut,   have  no 
teeth :  these  are  g(;nerany  very  large,  and 
are  stretched  out  and  hel<l  even  by  a  frame. 
The  lapidaries,  too,  have  tlieir  saw,  as  well 
as  llie  workmen  in  mosaic;  but  of  all  me- 
chanics, none  have  so  many  saws  as  the  join- 
ers :  the  chief  are  as  follows :  The  pit-saw, 
which  is  a  large  two-handed  saw,  used  to  saw- 
timber  in   pits;  this  is  chielly  used  by   tlie 
sawyers.     'I'he  whip-saw,  which  is  also  two- 
handed,  used  in  sawing  such  large  pieces  of 
stulf  as  the  hand-saw  will  not  easily   reath. 
The  hand-saw,   which  is  made  for  a  single 
man's  u»e,  of  which  there  are  various  kin.ls  ; 
as  the  bow,  or  frame  saw,  which  is  furnished 
with  cheeks:  by  the  twisted  cords  which  pass 
iVom  the  upper  parts  of  these  cheeks,  and  the 
tongue  in  tiie  middle  of  them,  the  upper  ends 
are  drawn  closer  together,  and  the  lower  set 
fni  tlier  apart.     The  tenon-saw,  which  being 
very  thin,  has  aback  to  keep  it  from  bending. 
The  compass-saw,  which  is  very  small,  and 
its  teeth  usually  not  set:  its  use  is  to  cut  a 
round,  or  any  other  compass-kerf:  hence  the 
edge  is  made  broad,  and  tiie  back  thin,  that  it 
niav  have  a  compass  to  turn  in. 

Saw-mills.  in  caily  periods,  the 
trunks  of  trees  were  split  with  wedges  into  as 
many  and  as  thiu  pieces  as  possible ;  and  if  it 
was  necessary  to  have  them  still  thinn  r,  they 
were  hewn  on  bo'.h  sides  to  the  proper  size, 
[riiis  simple  and  wasti  ful  manner  of  mak- 
ing boards  has  been  still  continued  in  some 
places,  to  the  present  time.  Peter  the 
Great  of  Rus^ia  endeavoured  to  put  a  stop 
to  it,  by  forbidding  hewn  deals  to  be  traiis- 
pirted  on  the  river  Neva.  The  saw,  how- 
ever, though  so  convenient  and  beneficial, 
hi-,  nut  been  able  to  banish  enlircly  the 
practice  of  suVilting  timber  nse-l  in  build- 
ing, or  in  making  furniture  and  utensils,  for 
we  do  not  speak  here   of  fire-wood;  and. 


S  A-"\^ 

indeed,  it  must  be  allowed  that  Ihii  metliod 
is  attended  with  pecu[iar.  advunta^jes,  which 
ihatpf  sawing  can  never  possess.  The  wood- 
splitters  pci-rorm  their  wor'i^  more  expedi- 
tiously than  sawyers,  and  split^timber  is  much 
stronger  thai\,  that  which  has  been  sawn  ;  for 
the  fissure  follows  the  grain  of  the  wo)d,  and 
leaves  it  whole;  whereas  the  saw,  which  pro- 
ceeds in  the  line  chalked  out  for  it,  divides 
tlie  fibres,  and  by  these  means  lessens  its  co- 
hesion and  solidity.  Split  timber,  indeed, 
turns  out  often  crooked  and  warped ;  but  in 
many  purposes  to  which  it  is  applied  this  is 
not  prejudicial;  and  these  fiults  may  some- 
times be  amended.  As  the  fibres,  however, 
retain  their  natural  length  and  direction,  thin 
boards,  particularly,  can  be  bent  much  bet- 
ter, 'i'his  is  a  great  acivantage  in  making 
pipe-staves,  or  sieve-frames,  whirii  recjuire 
still  more  art,  and  in  furining  various  imple- 
ments of  the  like  kind. 

Our  common  saw,  which  needs  only  to  be 
guided  bv  the  hand  of  the  workman,  how- 
ever simple  it  may  be,  was  not  known  to  the 
inhabitants  of  America  when  they  were  sub 
dued  by  the  Europeans.  The  inventor  oi" 
this  instrument  has  by  the  Greeks  been  in- 
serted in  tiieir  mythology,  with  a  place  in 
which,  among  their  gods,  they  honoured  the 
greatest  bent'factors  of  the  earliest  ages.  By 
some  he  is  called  Talus,  and  by  others  Pei- 
<li\.  Pliny  alone  ascribes  the  invntion  to 
IJxdalus;  but  Hardouin,  in  tiie  passage 
where  he  does  so,  chooses  to  re;.id  'i'alns  ra- 
ther than  Da;dahis.  Diodorus  Siculus,  Apol- 
lodorus,  and  others,  name  the  invenlor  Talus. 
He  was  the  son  of  Da'dahis's  sister;  and  was 
by  his  mother  placed  under  t!ie  tuition  of  her 
brother,  to  be  instructed  in  his  art.  Having 
once  found  the  jaw-bone  of  a  snake,  he  em- 
ployed it  to  cut  through  a  small  piece  of 
wood;  and  by  these  means  was  indiicetl  to 
form  a  like  instnunent  of  iron,  that  is,  to 
make  a  saw.  Tiiis  invention,  which  greatly 
facilitates  labour,  excited  the  envy  of  his 
master,  and  instigated  him  to  put  Talus  to 
death  privately.  Wo  are  told,  that  being 
asked  by  some  one,  when  he  was  burying  the 
body,  what  he  was  depositing  in  the  earth,  he 
replied,  "A serpent."  This  suspicious  answer 
iliscovered  the  murder ;  and  tluis,  adds  the 
historian,  a  snake  was  the  cause  of  tiie  in- 
vention, of  the  murder,  and  of  its  being  found 
out. 

Others  call  the  inventor  Perdix.  That  he 
was  the  son  of  a  sister  of  Dadaliis  thev  all 
agree;  bul  they  differ  respecting  the  name  of 
ills  parents.  The  mother  is  l)y  Fulgentius 
called  Polycastes,  but  without  any  proof; 
and  Lactantius  gives  to  the  father  the  name  of 
Calaus.  In  Apollodorus,  however,  the  mo- 
ther of  Talus  is  called  Perdix;  and  the  same 
name  is  given  by  Tzetzes  to  the  mother  of 
the  inventor,  whose  name 'I'alus  he  changes 
into  .Attains.  Perdix,  wc  are  told,  did  not 
onploy  for  a  saw  the  jaw-bone  of  a  snake, 
like  Talus,  bul  the  back-bone  of  a  lish;  ami 
Ihis  is  conlirnied  by  Ovid,  who,  nevertheless, 
is  silent  respecting  the  name  of  the  inventor. 

The  saws  of  the  Grecian  carpenters  had  the 
same  form,  and  were  made  in  the  likeingeni- 
lus  maniii.T  as  ours  are  at  present.  This  is 
fully  sliewn  by  a  paintii.g  still  preserved 
among  the  aiili(iu:ties  of  H^  rculaneiini.  Two 
^enii  are  r^  pn-senl'-d  at  the  end  of  a  bencli, 
which  consists  of  a  long  table  that  re.-ts  upon 
10 


S  A  \T 

two  foiir-fooled  striols.  The  piec?  of  wood 
which  is  to  be  sawn  through  is  secured  by 
cramps.  'Ihe  saw  with  which' the,  gl-iiii  are 
at  work  has  a  perfect  resemblance  to  our 
frJme-saw.  It  consists  of  a  square  frame 
havuig  in  the  mrddle  a  blade,  iJie  teeth  of 
which  stand  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  tho 
frame.  'Jhe  piece  of  wood  which  is  to  be 
sawn  extend  beyond  the  end  of  the  bench 
and  o.ie  of  the  workmen  appe;us  >tanding' 
and  the  other  sitting  on  tlie  ground,  Tlie 
arms,  in  which  tiie  blade  is  fastened,  have  the 
same  form  as  that  given  to  litem  at  present. 
In  the  bejich  are  seen  holes,  in  which  the 
cramps  that  hold  ti:e  timber  are  struck. 
Ihey  are  sliapcd  like  the  figure  7;  and' 
the  einls  of  them  reacii  below  the  boards  thai; 
foiiii  the  top  oi  it. 

The  ir.ost  beneficial  and  ingenious  ini- 
provi-nient  of  this  in-,trijinent  was,  without 
doulit,  the  i^ivention  of  saw-mills,  which  are 
driven  titiier  by  water  or  by  the  wind.  Mills 
ol  the  Uv<  kind  w-r  ■  erected  so  early  as  the 
fourth  century,  in  Germany,  on  the  small 
river  Rocur  or  Ruer:  for  t'li mgh  AusoniuS 
speaks  piopeily  of  water-mills  for  cutting 
stone,  and  not  timber,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  tiiese  were  invent;  d  later  than  mills  for 
maiKifacluring  deals,  or  that  both  kinds- 
were  erected  at  the  same  time.  The  art, 
however,  of  cni-fi.ig  marble  with  a  saw  is  very 
old.  Phny  CL,.,|ectures  that  it  was  invented 
mCaria;  at  kvst  he  knew  no  building  in- 
crusted  with  marble  of  greater  antiquity  than 
til.'  palace  of  king. Mausolus,  at  Halicarna>su>. 
'1  his  edifice  is  celebrated  by  A'ilruvius,  f  )r 
the  beauty  of  its  marble  ;  and  Pliny  give's  an 
account  of  the  different  kinds  of  sand  used  tor 
cutting  it ;  for  it  is  the  sand  properly,  says  he, 
and  not  the  saw,  which  produces  tiiat  effect! 
1  he  huter  pies  t-s  down  tlie  former,  and  rubs 
It  against  the  marble,  and  the  coar:>er  the 
sand  IS,  the  longer  will  be  the  time  required 
to  polish  the  marble  which  has  been  cut  by 
it.  Stones  of  the  soap-rock  kind,  which  are 
indeed  softer  than  marble,  and  which  would 
require  le^s  force  tiian  wood,  were  sawn  at 
that  period:  bntitappears  that  the  far  harder 
gla,sy  kinds  of  stone  were  sawn  then  also ; 
for  we  are  told  of  the  discovery  of  a  buildin:^ 
which  was  encrusted  with  cut  agate,  carne- 
lian,  lapis  lazuli,  and  nmetliysts.  We  have, 
however,  found  no  account'  in  any  of  the 
Greek  or  Roman  writers  of  a  mill  for  sawin"- 
wood;  and  as  the  writers  of  modern  times 
speak  of  saw-mills  as  new^  and  uncommon,  it 
wonld  seem  that  the  oldest  construction  'of 
them  has  been  forgotten,  or  that  some  import- 
ant improvement  has  made  tliem  appear  en- 
tirely new. 

Becher  says,  with  his  usual  confidence,  (hat 
saw-mills  were  invenled  in  the  17th  century. 
In  this  lie  eiaed,  for  when  the  infant  Henry 
sent  sellh-rs  io  the  islan.l  of  Madci.a,  which 
was  discovered  in  1420,  and  caused  ICmo- 
|)ean  fruits  of  every  kind  to  be  carrieil  Ihitlier 
lie  ordered  saw-mi'ls  to  he  erected  also,  for 
the  purpose  of  sawing  into  deals  the  various 
species  of  excellent  timbiT  with  which  the 
idand  aboundi'd,  and  wliich  were  afterwards 
lraiis|iorled  to  Portugal.  About  the  year 
1427  tlie  city  of  Breslau  had  a  saw-mill 
whiih  produced  a  yearly  rent  of  three 
marks;  and  in  1490  the  niagisl rates  of  Erfurt 
purchased  a  forest,  in  which  they  caused  a 
saw-mill  to  be  erected,  and  they' nut,  d  a„. 
other    mill   in  the    ncighbourliuod    besides. 


SAW 

Norway,  wliicli  is  covrred  with  forcbts,  liatl 
the  (irsi  Kiw-inill  about  tin;  v'ai-  1530.  Tim 
mode  of  iiiaiiut'acluriiig  tiiiilntr  was  called  tlio 
jie«'  art;  and  b.cause  the  i!.\i)orlation  ol 
deals  was  by  thcju  means  increased,  that  cir- 
cnniilaiu-.e  gave  oi-.casion  to  the  deal-lylho, 
introduced  byClirislian  III.  in  the  year  ij4j. 
Sooii  alter  tlie  celebrated  Henry  Can/au 
caused  llie  lirst  mill  of  this  kind  to  be  built  in 
lioUlein.  In  lj.")'2  there  was  a  saw-mil!  at 
Joachinisthal,  which,  as  we  are  told,  belonged 
to  Jarol)  (Tensen,  malheniatician.  In  the 
year  hijj  the  bi^hon  of  ICIy,  ambassador 
from  Mary  (|ueen  of  Liigland  to  the  court  of 
l{onie,  having  seen  a  sawmill  in  the  nci'jji- 
bourlujod  of  Lyons,  the  wnlcr  of  his  travels 
tlu)U(;lit  it  worliiy  of  a  particular  description. 
In  the  sixteenth  cenlury,  however,  there 
were  mills  with  dilfercnt  saw-blades,  by  whii  li 
a  plank  could  be  cut  into  several  deals  at  the 
same  time.  The  fust  saw-mill  was  erected  in 
Holland  at  Saardam,  in  the  y<'ar  1500;  and 
the  invention  of  it  is  ascribed  to  Cornelius 
C'ornelis^en.  Perhaps  he  was  the  t:r~t  ])erson 
who  built  a  saw-mill  at  tiial  place,  which  is  a 
village  of  great  trade,  and  lias  still  a  great 
many  saw-mills,  tliough  ti;e  number  of  them 
is  becoming  daily  less ,  for  within  the  last 
thirty  years  a  hundred  have  been  given  up. 
The  fir  t  mill  of  this  kind  in  Sweden  was 
erected  in  the  yi  ar  1653.  At  present,  that 
kingdom  possesses  the  largest  perhaps  ever 
constructed  in  Europe,  where  a  watei-wheel, 
twelve  feet  b/oad,  drives  at  tlie  same  time 
seventy-two  saus. 

In  Knaland  saw-mills  had  at  first  (he  same 
fate  that  printing  liad  in  Turkey,  the  nbbnn- 
loom  in  the  dominions  of  the  church,  and  the 
crane  at  btrasburgli.  W  hen  attempts  were 
made  to  introduce  them,  they  wer  violently 
oppo'^ed,  because  it  was  apprehended  (hat  the 
sawyer-,  would  be  deprived  by  them  of  their 
lueans  of  getting  a  subsistence.  For  this 
reason,  it  was  lound  necessary  to  abandon  a 
saw-niill  elected  by  a  Dutchman  near  Lon- 
don, in  11)03;  and  in  tlieycai  1700,  when  one 
Houghton  laid  before  the  nation  the  advan- 
tages Ol  such  a  null,  he  expressed  his  appre- 
hension that  it  niiahl  excite  the  rage  of  the 
populace.  What  he  dreaded  was  actually 
the  case  in  1767  or  1768,  when  an  opulent 
timber-mcrch-int,  by  tiie  desire  and  approba- 
tion of  the  Society  of  Aits,  caused  a  saw-mill, 
driven  by  wind,  to  be  erected  at  Limehouse, 
tinder  the  direction  of  .lames  Siansiield,  who 
had  learned,  in  Holland  and  Norwav,  the  ait 
of  constructing  and  managing  machines  of 
that  kind.  A, mob  assembled,  and  pulled  tlie 
mill  to  pieces;  but  the  damage  was  made 
good  by  the  nation,  and  some  of  the  rioters 
were  piinislicd.  A  new  miH  was  afterwards 
erected,  which  was  suiTered  to  work  without 
niolestation,  and  which  gave  occ.iqon  to  the 
erection  of  others.  Itappears,  however,  tiiat 
tills  was  not  the  only  mill  of  the  kind  then  in 
Britain;  for  one  driven  al-^o  by  wind  had 
been  built  at  Leilh,  in  Scotland,  some  years 
before. 

The  mechanism  of  a  sawing-mill  may  be 
reduced  to  tinee  principal  tilings:  the  l'ir<l, 
that  the  saw  is  drawn  ti])  and  down  as  long 
as  is  necessary,  by  a  motion  comminhcateil 
by  water  to  tiie  wheel:  the  second,  that  the 
piece  of  timber  to  be  cut  into  boards  is  ad- 
»anced  by  an  uniform  motion  io  receive  the 
itvokes.ol  the  saw;  for  here  tlw  wood  is  to 


S.A;X 

meet  the  saw,  and  not  the  saw  to  follow  the 
wood,  therefore  the  motion  ot  the  wood  and 
that  of  the  saw  ought  immediately  to  <lepend 
tlie  one  on  tlie  other:  the  third,  that  when 
the  saw  has  cut  througli  the  whole  length  of 
the  jiiece,  the  whole  macliine  slops  of  itself, 
and  remains  immoveable;  for  fear,  lest  having 
no  oljstacle  to  surmount,  the  force  of  the  wa- 
ter should  turn  tiie  wheel  with  too  great  ra- 
pidity, and  break  some  jiart  of  the  machine. 

The  upper  part  of  Plate  Saw-mill,  &c.  re- 
jiresents  the  circular  ^aw-mill  introduced  by 
Mr.  George  Smart,  and  used  by  him  in  his 
maiutfaclory  at  Onhiance-wharf,  VVeslmin- 
ster-hridge.  ABD,  lig.  1 ,  is  a  strong  bench, 
similar  to  those  used  by  carpt'iiters.  In  the 
middle  of  tills,  is  an  opening  througli  which 
the  s:iw  F,  conies.  The  saw  J,,  iigs.  1  and  2, 
is  a  circular  plate  of  steel,  w  ith  teeth  like 
those  of  a  large  pit-saw  on  its  circumference, 
and  a  round  hole  in  the  middle  of  it,  through 
wliich  the  spindle  E,  fig.  2,  of  the  saw  passes. 
It  is  prevented  from  slipping  round  it,  by  a 
llanch  c  lixcd  lo  the  spindle  K,  and  another, 
f,  wliich  slips  on  the  spindle,  an<l  is  pressed 
against  the  saw  by  a  nut  /;,  screwed  on  the 
end  of  the  spindle,  so  as  to  iio'd  the  saw  tight 
between  the  iianches,  and  by  unscrewing  the 
nut,  tile  saw  can  be  taken  ofl  to  be  sharpened, 
and  another  put  in  its  jilace  in  a  very  sliort 
time.  The  ends  of  the  spindle  arc  brought 
to  jioiiits,  which  work  in  small  holes  in  tiie 
emis  of  screws,  one  of  which  is  seen  at  d,  lig. 
1  :  tlie  other  screw  is  put  through  a  piece  of 
wood  F,  supported  by  the  two  uprights  GG, 
and  can  be  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure  by 
wedge--,  so  as  to  bring  the  plane  of  the  saw 
exactly  at  right  angles.  To  the  surface  of 
the  bench  the  saw  is  turned  round  with  a 
great  velocity  by  a  strap  passing  round  the 
rigg.'r  n  and  the  wheel  I,  which  receives  its 
motion  from  a  horse-wheel 

'i  he  piece  of  wood  to  be  sawn  is  guided  by  a 
strai:^!it  bar  K,  which  is  always  made  to  move 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  saw  by  two  iron 
coii|)ling-rods  /(/(,  so  that  it  can  be  set  at  any 
distance  from  tiie  saw,  according  lo  tin- width 
of  the  piece  to  be  cut,  and  held  there  by 
screws. 

The  machine  before  us  is  chielly  used  for 
ripping  up  three-inch  deal  planks.  The  bar 
K  is  set  tlie  proper  distance  from  the  saw, 
and  screwed  fast.  The  workman  takes  the 
plank,  and  laying  its  edge  against  the  bar  Iv, 
shoves  it  endways  against  the  saw,  which,  as 
it  turns,  cuts  the  v.ood  with  surprising  <iuick- 
ness. 

SAXIFRAGA,  saxifrage,  a  genus  of  the 
digynia  order,  in  thedecaudriacla^s  of  plants  ; 
and"  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
1 3th  order,  succiilenla?.  The  calyx  is  cpiin- 
tjuppartite;  the  corolla  peiitapetalous ;  the 
capsule  birostrated,  unilocular,  and  poly- 
sperinous. 

There  are  50  species,  of  which  the  most 
ivmaikable  are,  1.  The  graiiulata,  or  wliite 
saxifrage,  whicli  grows  naturally  in  the  mea- 
dows in  many  parts  of  England.  The  roots 
of  this  plant  are  like  grains  of  corn,  of  a  re<l- 
dtsli  colour  wiiiiout:  there  is  a  variety  of  this 
with  double  flowers,  which  is  very  orna- 
mental. The  leaves  are  tongue-shaped, 
gathered  into  heads,  rounded  at  tlicir  points, 
uul  have  cartilaginous  and  sawed  borders. 
'1  he  stalk  rises  two  feet  and  a  h:df  high, 
branching  out  near  tlie  ground,  forming  a  na- 


S.C  A 


623 


fiiral  pyramid  to  the  lop.  The  flowers  have 
live  white  wedge-shaped  petals,  and  ten  sta-r 
mina,  placed  ciici.larly  the  length  of  the 
lube,  terminated  iiy  roundish  purple  summits.- 
When  these  plants  are  strong,  they  produce, 
very  larj,e  iiyiamids  of  fioweis.  2.  'I'lieiiln- 
brosa,  commonly  called  London  pride,  or 
nonc-so- pretty,  grows  naturally  on  (he  Alps, 
and  abo  in  great  plenty  on  a  mountain  o!  Ire- 
land, called  Alangerton,  in  the  county  of  Ker- 
ry, in  that  island.  The  niots  of  thisare  per- 
ennial. 3.  The  oppositilolia  grows  natu- 
rally on  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  and  Helvetian 
mountains:  it  is  also  found  prelty  plentifully 
glowing  upon  Ingleborougli  hili,  in  York- 
shire; Siiowdon,  in  VV'a'es  ;  and  some  other 
places.  It  is  a  perennial  plant,  with  stalks 
trailing  upon  the  ground.  The  llowors  ar? 
produced  at  the  eiid  of  the  branches,  of  a 
deep  blue. 

SAY,  or  Save,  in  commerce,  a  kind  of 
serge,  or  woollen  stulV,  much  used  abroad  fof 
linings,  and  by  the  religious  for  shirts:  with  us 
it  is  used  for  aprons  by  several  sorts  of  artifi- 
cers, being  usually  dyed  green. 

SCA13BARD,  lo,  to  punish  with  the 
scabbard  of  a  bayonet.  Inlanlry  soldiers  are 
sometimes  scabbarded,  under  the  sanction  of 
the  captains  of  comiianies,  for  slight  offences 
committed  among  themselves.  A  court- 
martial  is  lield  in  the  Serjeant's  room  or  tent, 
to  asceruiin  the  culprit's  guilt ;  it  having  been. 
previoiislv  left  to  liini  to  abide  by  the  judg- 
ment of  bis  comrades,  in  this  manner,  or  lo 
be  tried  by  a  regimental  court-martial. 

The  word  scabbard  has  been  sometimes 
used  in  a  figurative  sense,  lo  distinguish  those 
persons  wdio  have  obtained  n.iik  and  promo- 
tion in  the  army  witiiout  seeing  nuich  hard. 
service,  from  those  who  have  fought  their 
way  through  all  tlie  obstacles  of  superior  in- 
terest, &c.  Hence  the  favourite  expressio.i 
of  the  late  sir  William  Erskine  :  "  Some  rise 
by  the  scabbard,  and  some  by  the  sword;" 
which  means  more  than  we  are  at  liberty 
to  illustrate,  but  which  may  be  easily  applied 
to  cases  in  point.  '  ''• 

SCABIOS.^,  scnhious,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  in  the  te;randria  class  of 
plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  tlie  4sth  order  aggregata-.  The  com- 
mon calvx  is  polyph.yllous;  the  proper  one  is 
double,  superior;  the  receptacle  is  paleaceous 
or  naked.  There  are  4'-' species.  The  most 
remarkable  are,  1.  The  arvensis,  oriiieadow- 
scabious,  grows  naturally  in  many  places  of 
Britain.  The  flowers  are  produced  upon 
naked  footstalks  at  the  ends  of  the  branches ; 
they  are  of  a  purple  colour,  and  have  a  faint 
odour,  '.?.  The  succisa,  or  devil's  bit,  grows 
naturally  in  woods  and  moist  places.  This 
has  a  short  tap-root,  the  end  of  which  -ap- 
pears as  if  it  was  bitten  or  cut  off,  whence  the 
plant  has  taken  its  name,  f^oth  these  have 
been  recommended  as  aperient,  sudorific,  and 
expectorant;  but  the  present  practice  has  no 
ilependance  on  them. 

SC.CVOL.-X,  a  genus  of  the  raonoeynia 
order,  in  the  pentandria  class  of  plan's.  The 
corolla  is  inonopetalons  ;  the  tube  slit  longi- 
tudinally;  the  border  t|uinqu-'hd  ar.d  lateral. 
The  fruit  is  a  jirism  inle'ior  and  mono=perm- 
ous;  the  nucleus  bi'.ocular.  'liiere  are  three 
species. 

SCALA.     See  Avatomy,  £,,r. 

hCALDS,  in  the  history  of  literature,  a 


624 


S  C  A 


name  given  by  tlic  aiitipnt  inhabiUiils  of  the 
no;iin-ni  couiitiies  to  tlieir  poets,  in  whose 
writings  their  history  is  recoriic-il. 

SCAI^E,  a  niitheiiialical  instrument,  con- 
sisting of  several  liues  drawn  on  wood,  brass, 
f'ivcr,  &c.  and  vurionsly  divided,  according  to 
the  purposei  it  is  intended  to  servo;  whence 
it  acquires  virions  denominations,  as  tlie 
i)Iain  scale,  diagonal  scale,  plottinc;  scale, 
Gunters  scale,  &c.  See  Instrvments, 
Mathematical. 

SCALii,  in  nnisic  (fronitlie  I.-.itin,  scaia), 
the  denomination  iirst  given  to  the  arrange- 
ment made  by  Guido,  of  the  six  syllables 
ut,  re,  ini,  fa]  sol,  la:  also  called  Ramiit. 
This  onler  of  sonnils,  to  which  the  French 
luve  added  that  of  >i,  bears  the  name  of  scale, 
i.e.  ladder,  because  it. represents  a  kind  of 
ladder,  by  means  of  which  the  voice  or  instru- 
ment rises  to  aciite,  and  descend:,Vo  grave; 
«ach  of  the  seven  syllables  being,  in  a  man- 
ner, one  step  of  the  laildcr. 

The  word  scale  is  also  used  to  signify  a  se- 
ries of  sounds  risiiig  or  falling  from  any  given 
pitch  or  tone,  to  the  greatest  pracliaible  dis- 
tance, through  such  intermediate  degrees  as 
make  the  succession  most  agreeable  and  per- 
fect, and  in  which  we  have  all  the  harmnni- 
cal  divisions  most  ronimodioiisly  divided. 
This  scale  is  properlv  called  the  universal 
svstein,  as  including  all  the  particular  sys- 
tems. 

This  enumeration  of  all  tlie  diatonic  sounds 
of  our  system,  ranged  in  order,  and  which  we 
call  scale,  w:.!s  denominated  by  the  Greeks 
letrachord,  because,  in  elTect,  their  scale  was 
composed  of  onlv  four  sounds,  which  they  re- 
peated from  tetra.hord  to  tetracliord,  as  we 
repeat  ours  from  octave  to  octave. 

SCALENE  Triangle.  See  Geome- 
try. 

SCALENUS,  ill  analoniT.     See  Neck. 

SCALES  ifjish.  See  Horn,  Aol.  I.  p. 
924,  3d  col. 

SCAM.MONV,  in  the  materia  mcdica. 
See  Co.vvoLva'Lus,  and  Cvm  Ivesins. 

SCANUALCM  .MAGN.VfC.M,  is  the 
special  name  of  a  statute,  and  also  of  a  wrong 
done  to  any  high  persoii;.gt  of  the  land,  as 
prelates,  dukes,  mar(|uises,  earls,  barons,  and 
other  nobles ;  and  also  the  chancellor,  trea- 
surer, clerk  of  the  privy  seal,  ;.lcv,ard  of  the 
housi",  justice  of  one  bench  or  other,  and 
Other  great  oflicers  of  the  realm,  by  false 
news,  or  liorrihie  or  false  messages,  w  hereby 
debates  and  <liicord,  betwixt  them  and  the 
commons, -or  any  scandal  to  their  persons, 
might  aris;.  2  \i,  11.  c.  j.  This  statute  has 
given  name  to  a  w  rit,  granted  to  recover  da- 
mages thereupon.  Cowel. — It  is  uo'.vclearlv 
agreed,  tliatthougli  there  are  no  expresswords 
in  tile  statute  winch  give  an  action,  vet  the 
party  injured  may  maintain  one  on  this  prin- 
riple  of  law;  that  when  a  statute  prohibits  the 
doing  of  a  thing,  which,  if  done,  might  be  pre- 
judicial to  another,  in  such  case  he  may  have 
an  action  on  that  very  statute  for  his  da- 
mage.    'J  Mod.  15?. 

SC,\NI)IX,  chrrn'l,  shrjilirrd's  lurdlr, 
orA'fHu.v'?  comh,  a  genus  of  the  digynia  order, 
in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants  ;  and  in  the 
natural  ini-thod  ranking  under  the  4jtli  or- 
der, unibellatic.  The  corolla  is  radiating  : 
the  fruit  subulated;  the  petals  emarginated  ; 
Uic  Uorctsof  the  di>c  fiKiiueiitly  nule.  There 


S  C  A 

i  are  nlereii  species.  The  most  reniKikable  is 
the odorata.  with  angular  furrowed  seeds.  U 
is  a  native  of  Germany;  and  has  a  vei-y  thick 
perennial  root,  composed  of  many  hbres,  ol  a 
sweet  aromatic  taste,  like  aniseed,  from  wliicii 
come  forth  many  large  leaves  tliat  branch  out 
somewhat  like'tiiose  of  fern,  wlieiice  it  is 
named  sweet  fern. 

SC^U'EMKN T,  a  general  term  for  the 
manner  of  communicating  the  impulse  of  the 
wheels  to  the  pendulum  ot  a  clock.  Common 
scapements  consist  of  the  swuig  wlieel  and 
pallets  only.     See  Clock-work. 

SCAPOLITE,  a  mineral  found  at  Aren- 
dal,  in  Norwav.     It  is  of  a  pearl  co'oiir,  and 
is  crvstalliTied  "in  Ions,  four-sided,  rectangular 
prisms.     Faces  longitudinally  streaked.     Its 
specific  gravity  is  sTGS,  and  it  is  hard  enough 
to  scratch  glass.     Fracture  foliated  in  two  di- 
rections.    iJefore  Uie  blowiiipe,  it  froths  and 
melts  into  white  enamel.     It  is  coi!ii>oscd  of 
A's  silica 
30  alumina 
14  lime 

1  oxide  of  iron 

2  water 


SCAPULA.     See  Anatomy. 

SCAPl'LA!!.     See  Anatomy. 

SCARAB.IT'S,  killf,  a  genus  of  insects 
of  the  order  coleopiera.  '1  lie  generic  cha- 
racter is,  antenna'  or  liorns  clavate,  with  a 
fissile  lip;  legs  generally  toothed;  body 
thick  and  compact.  This  genus  is  extremely 
extensive,  there  beingnearly  one  hnn<lred  spe- 
cies. Among  these  the  most  remarkable  i^,  1. 
'Fhe  scarabaus  lieivules,  or  Hercules  beeAle, 
which  sometimes  lueasures  not  less  than  hve, 
or  even  six  inches  in  length  :  the  wing-shells 
are  of  a  smooth  surface,  ol  a  blueish  or  brown- 
ish grey  colour,  sometimes  nearly  black,  and 
commonly  inaiked  with  several  snia'.l,  round, 
deep-black  si)ots,  of  dili'erenl  Sizes:  the  head 
.aid  limbs  are  coal-black:  from  the  upper 
part  of  the  breast  or  thorax  proceeds  a  born 
or  process  of  enonnous  length,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  body:  it  is  sharp  at  the  tip,  wliere 
it  curves  slightly  downwards,  and  is  marked 
b  -neath  by  two  or  three  (h-nticuk.tions,  and 
furnishv'd  throughout  its  whole  length  with  a 
line,  short,  velvet-like  pile,  of  a  brownish 
orange-colour:  irom  the  tront  of  the  head 
proceeds  also  a  strong  horn,  about  two-thirds 
the  length  of  the  former,  toothed  on  its  upper 
face,  but  not  furnished  with  any  of  the  velvet- 
like pile  which  appears  on  the  former.  This 
species  is  a  native  of  several  parts  of  South 
.•Vmerica,  where  great  numbers  are  said  to  be 
sometimes  seen  on  the  tree  called  mamniara, 
rasping  oil'  the  rind  of  the  slender  branches 
by  working  nimbly  round  them  with  the 
horns,  till  they  cause  the  juice  to  flow,  which 
tliey  drink  to  intoxication,  :nid  thus  fall 
sec^eless  from  the  tree.  This,  however,  as 
the  h-arned  Fabriciiis  has  well  observed, 
seems  not  very  probable;  since  the  thoracic 
liorn,  be  ng  bearded  on  its  lower  surface, 
would  undoubtedly  be  made  bare  by  this 
operation.  'I'liis  species,  from  the  large  size 
of  all  its  parts,  atlbrds  an  admirable  example 
of  the  cliaracters  of  the  genus.  It  varies 
much  in  size,  and  it  may  even  be  doubted 
whether  some  of  the  smaller  specimens  have 
not  been  occasionally  regarded  bv  aulliorsas 
distinct    siiccies.      The    female  k  destilHle 


S  C  A 

;  both  of  the  frontal  and  thoracic  horn,  but  i« 
j  other  points  resembles  the  male.     See  Tlate 

Nat.  Hist.  tig.  352. 
I  2.  Scarabaus  (joliallius,  fhe  Goliah  bee- 
tle, is  highly  remarkable  both  in  point  of 
size  antl  colour  :  it  ii>  larger  in  body  than  the 
preceding,  and  has  a  rose-coloured  thorax, 
marked  with  longitudinal  black  stripes  or  va- 
riegations, and  pmplL-brown  wing-sheaths: 
the  head  is  divided  in  front  into  two  forke<l 
processes:  the  limbs  are  black,  and  very 
strong.  It  is  a  native  of  some  ])arts  of  Atn- 
ca.  A  sup])Osed  variety  sometimes  occurs,  in 
V  Inch  both  the  thor.ax  and  wing-sheatiis  arc 
of  a  pale  yellowish  brown  instead  ot  rose-co- 
lour, and  are  marked  witli  black  variega- 
tions. 

3.  Scarab.Tus  nielolonthas,  or  cockcha- 
fer, is  one  of  the  most  common  European 
beetles.  This  insect  is  extremely  fair.ili.ir  in 
our  own  island,  tlie  larva  or  caterpillar  inha- 
biting ploughed  lands,  j-nd  feeding  on  the 
roots  ot  corn,  S^c.  and  the  complete  insect 
making  its  apj'.arance  during  tiie  middle  and 
fhe  decline  of  summer.  'J  he  cockchafer 
sometimes  appears  in  such  prodigious  num- 
bers as  almost  to  strip  the  trees  ot  their  foli- 
age, and  to  prorluce  miscliieTs  nrarly  ap- 
proaching to  those  of  the  locust  tribe.  It  aji- 
pears  from  a  paper  by  a  Mr.  Molineux,  [jrinted 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  tor  the 
year  1607,  that  some  particular  districts  in 
Ireland  were  overrun  by  this  in.^ect  in  a  won- 
derful mmncr:  anrt  the'  failure  of  the  wheat 
in  the  year  1804  has  been  by  some  attri- 
buted to  the  numbers  of  the  larva  of  this  in- 
sect which  were  lodged  in  the  earth. 

The  larva,  or  caterpillar,  of  this  insect,  i« 
said  to  be  two,  and  sometimes  three  years,  in 
passing  from  its  hrst  form  into  that  ol  the 
perfect  insect.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  small 
detached  heaps  beneath  the  surface  of  some 
clod,  and  the  younii.  when  first  hatched,  are 
scarcely  more  than  the  eighth  of  an  iiu  h  in 
lenglli,  gradually  advancing  in  their  growth, 
and  occasionally  sliiltmg  their  skins,  till  tlie_T 
arrive  at  the  length  of  near  two  inches.  .At 
this  period  they  begin  to  prepare  for  their 
chaiigi'  into  a  ciirysalis  or  pupa,  selecting  for 
the  purpose  some  small  clod  of  <>arth.  in 
which  they  form  an  oval  caviiv,  and,  a'ter  a 
certain  space,  divest  themselves  of  their  last 
skin,  and  immediately  appear  in  the  chrysalis 
form,  in  which  they  continue  till  the  suc- 
ceeding summer,  when  tlie  beetle  emerges 
Irom  its  retirement,  and  commits  its  depre- 
dations on  the  leaves  of  ti\  es,  &:c.  breeds,  and 
deposits  its  eggs  in  a  favourable  situation, 
after  which  its  life  is  of  very  short  duration. 

4.  .\  much  more  elegant  insect  of  this  kind 
is  the  scarabanis  fullo,  or  variegated  beetle. 
It  is  nearly  twice  the  size  of  the  cockchafer, 
and  of  ail  elegant  cliesnut-colcnir,  with  the 
wing-skeaths  beautifully  marbled  with  wlato 
v.uiegations.  It  is  coinmon  in  many  part^  of 
Eiiro[ie,  but  extremely  rare  in  England. 
See  Plate  Nat.  Jlist.  lig.^.'ii. 

!}.  A  species  of  peculiar  beauty  is  the 
golden  beetli',  scarab.eus  anratus  ;  it  is  about 
the  size  of  the  common  or  black  gardeii- 
beetle,  but  of  a  somewhat  flatter  shape  ;  and 
of  the  most  brilliant,  varnished,  golden- 
green  colour,  with  the  wing-shells  varied 
towards  the  lower  part  bv  a  few  slight,  trans- 
M'rse,  white  streaks.  'I'his  beautiliil  specie* 
is  not  uucomiMon  during  the  hottest  ^lart  n{ 


mmmer,  frequenting  various  plants  and  flow- 
ers ;  its  larva  or  tati-rpillar  i-.  coiiinu'iilv 
f.)mul  111  tlu?  hollows  of  old  trees,  or  iiiiiong; 
tlic  loose  dry  soil  at  (lioir  roots,  and  sonu-- 
tinii's  ill  tlic  earlli  of  ant-lillls.  It  icmaiiis 
aliotit  three  ypi'.rs  bclort-  it  chanf^e?;  to  a  pupa 
or  cln-ys.ilisont  of  wliicli  tlie  inject  einei-ges 
ill  a  sliort  time  alterwards. 

This  may  be  siifiicieiit  for  a  general  idea  of 
tlie  Liiiea-an  gciuis  ftar^li^^tis.  it  niuy  be 
ailded  that  llie  species  are  extremely  nume- 
rous, and  that  so  grr-t  is  the  singulnrity  of 
appearance  in  many  kinds,  tliat  even  the 
most  romantic  imagination  ran  liardly  con- 
ceive a  structure  of  liorn  or  process  wliich  is 
not  cxemplilii.'d  in  some  of  the  tribe.  See 
Plate  Nat.  flist.  tio.  3ii. 

SCARd-'ICATION,  in  surgery,  the  ope- 
ration of  making  several  incisions  in  the  okiii 
by  means  of  lancets,  or  other  iMstumicnts, 
particularly  the  cupping-insti  unient. 

SCAUl.KT,  u  beautiful  bright  red.     See 

DVEINC. 

SCAKDS,  a  genus  of  fislies  of  the  order 
tlioracioi.  The  generic  character  is,  jaws 
bony,  divided  in  the  middle,  crenalerl  on  tfic 
edge  ;  the  teitii  connate  and  conglomerate. 
There  are  15  species.  The  most  remarkable 
are,  1.  Sicarus  Cretensis,  Cretan  scarus. 
General  length  about  I 'J  inches;  body  broad, 
sloping,  scales  extremely  large,  lateral  line 
ramilied  on  every  scale  over  which  it  pass"S, 
Native  of  the  .Mediterranean,  and  iiarticular- 
iy  about  the  coasts  of  Crete,  but  is  also  found 
in  the  Indian  seas. 

3.  Scarus  rivulatus,  rivulatexl  scarus.  Na- 
tive of  the  l»ed  Sea,  observed  by  Forskal: 
said  to  arrive  at  a  great  si/e;  scales  very 
small ;  dorsal  and  anal  tin  occisionally  recum- 
bent in  a  channel;  tail  forked;  sujjposed  to 
feed  principally  on  the  dillerent  kinds  of 
fuel,  and  considered  as  an  edible  lish ;  but 
raid  to  be  sometimes  productive  of  disagree- 
able svmptoins  from  the  wounds  inflicted  by 
the  sharp  rays  of  its  dorsal  iln. 

3.  Scarus  purpuratus,  purpled  scarus,  an 
elegant  species ;  in  habit  allied  to  the  labri : 
body  abruptly  lanceolate  ;  the  piu'iile  stripes 
en  the  body  serrated  .it  their  up|)er  edges: 
pectoral  tins  green,  and  marked  at  tin-  tip  by 
a  large  lunated,  marginal,  black  spot;  dorsal 
and  anal  marked  towards  the  base  by  a  ]iur- 
ple  stripe;  ventral  hiis  blue:  tail  marked 
with  longitudinal  purple  spots,  and  on  each 
side  bv  a  purple  stripe;  shajic  slightly 
rounded;  laler;U  linf  ramitieil;  scales  lax,  as 
in  the  mullet.  Native  of  the  Arabian  seas; 
oJjserved  by  Forskal. 

SCAVAGE,  a  toll  or  custom  anliently  ex- 
acted bv  mayors,  sherill's,  and  b;iiliffs,  of  ci- 
ties and  towns-corporate,  and  of  inerrhant- 
strangers,  for  wares  cxpose<l  and  offered  to 
sale  within  their  libeiti'-s,  whicli  was  prolii- 
bited  by  19  Hen.  Vfl.  But  the  city  of  Lon- 
don still  retains  this  cu-tom. 

SCAVENGERS,  t'.'O  oflicers  annually 
cTioseii  in  every  parish  in  London  and  it's 
«uburbs,  by  the  churchwardens,  constables, 
and  other  inhabitants,  to  hire  persons  called 
Takers,  with  carts,  to  clean  the  streets,  and 
<:arry  away  the  dirt  and  filth,  with  the  ashes 
jind  dust  from  every  house.  For  which  pur- 
pose a  scavenger's  tax  may  be  made  and  le- 
vied on  the  inhabitants,  being  allowed  by  the 
justices  of  the  peace ;  but  it  must  not  exceed 
Vol.  U. 


S  0  IT 

foiirpence  in  the  |jound,  on  ihe  vent  pJid  for 
the  houses.  Persons  wlhj  refuse  to  take 
upon  themselves  the  oOice  of  scavenger,  for- 
feit ten  pounds.  :.' W.  and  M.  c.  2.  I  Geo. 
I.  c.  4S.     i()  Geo.  II.  c.  2<;. 

SCENdGK.APliY,  in  perspective,  the 
perspective  representation  of  a  body  on  a 
plane;  or  a  description  and  view  of  "it  in  all 
its  parts  and  dimensions,  such  as  it  ajipears  to 
the  Cyc  In  any  oblique  view. 

This  differs  essentially  from  the  ichnogra- 
phy  and  the  ortiiograidiy.  The  ichnogra- 
phy  of  a  building,  &c.  reprcser.ts  the  plan  or 
ground-work  of  the  building,  or  section  pa- 
rallel to  it ;  and  the  orthography  the  eleva- 
tion, or  front,  or  one  side,  also  in  its  natural 
dimensions  ;  but  the  scenograpliy  exhibits  the 
whole  of  the  building  that  appears  lo  the  eye, 
front,  sides,  height,  and  all,  not  in  their  real 
dimensions  or  extent,  but  raised  ou  the  geo- 
metrical plan  in  perspective. 

In  architecture  and  fortilication,  scenogra- 
|iliy  i^  the  manner  of  delineating  tlie  several 
parts  of  ;i  building  or  fortress,  as  they  are  re- 
presented in  perspective. 

To  exhibit  the  seenography  of  any  bodv.  I . 
Lay  down  the  basis,  grounil-plnt.  or  plan,  of 
the  body,  in  the  perspective  ichnoaraphy  ; 
that  is,  draw  the  perRj>ecti\e  aj)pearance  of 
the  plan  or  l).isenieiit,  by  the  projier  rules  of 
perspective,  y.  Upon  the  several  point,  of 
the  perspective  pUn,  raise  the  perspective 
heiglits,  and  connect  the  tops  of  them  bv  the 
proper  slope  or  oblifjue  lines  So  will  the 
scenogr;iphy  of  the  body  be  completed,  when 
a  proper  shade  is  added.  See  Perspec- 
tive. 

SCEPTRE,  one  of  the  six  new  constella- 
tions of  t'le  southern  hemisphere,  consisting 
of  seventeen  stars.     See  Astronoiviy. 

SCH.EIT'EU.'V,  a  genus  of  the  tetrandria 
order,  in  the  dia'cia  class  of  plants;  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  willi  those  that 
are  doubtful.  The  calyx  is  <piadripetalous; 
the  corolla  is  quadripetalons,  (piinciuepeta- 
lous,  and  often  wanting;  the  fruit  is  a  b'llocu- 
lar  berry,  with  one  seed.  Of  this  there  are 
two  species,  both  natives  of  Jamaica;  and 
grow  in  the  lowlands  near  the  sea,  viz.  1.  The 
completa.     ".   Lateriflora. 

SCIIF.RAUDIA,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  in  the  tetrandria  class  of  plants. 
The  corolla  is  monopetalous  and  funnel- 
shaped  ;  there  are  two  three-toothed  seeds. 

SCHF.UCHZERIA,  a  genus  of  the  tri- 
g_\1iia  iirder,  in  the  hexandria  class  of  plants  ; 
and  in  (he  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
fifth  order,  tripi  taloideir.  The  calvx  is  sex- 
partite  ;  there  is  no  corolla,  nor  are  there 
any  styles ;  there  are  tliree  inflated  and  nio- 
nospermous  capsules.     Eleven  species. 

SCHlEl  ERSPAR,  a  mineral  ranked 
among  the  species  of  carbonat  of  lime.  Co- 
lour greyish,  reddisji,  greenish,  or  yellow  ish 
white.  Found  massive :  texture  curve  foli- 
ated: brittle:  feels  unctuous,  and  may  be 
scratched  by  the  nail.  Specilic  gravitv  9.7. 
It  is  composed  of  carbonat  of  lime,  with  a 
small  portion  of  silica  and  oxide  of  iron. 

SCHINUS,  a  genus  of  the  decandria  or- 
der, in  the  dioecia  class  of  plants;  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  nnder  the  43^1  order, 
dumosa-.  The  male  calyx  isquin<inelid;  the 
petals  five.  The  female  Hower  is  the  same 
as  in  the  male  ;  the  berry  tricoccous.  There 
are  two  spiecics,  of  South  .iVmerica. 
4  K 


5  C  IT  ?:-n 

aCinKOCCO.    SecWiND. 

SCIIl")  ri'S,  in  mineralogy,  a  name  given 
to  several  different  kinds  of  slimes,  but  more 
especially  to  some  of  the  argillaceous  kind  ; 
as,  I.  The  blueish  purple  scliistus,  schislu'i 
tegularis,  or  comnioii  roof-slate.  This  is  s-o 
soft,  that  it  may  be  slightly  scraped  with  Hie 
nail,  and  is  of  a  vei-y  brittle  lamellated  tex- 
ture, of  thesjjecific  gravity  of  2. 87fj.  Ill* 
fusible  per  se  in  a  strong  heat,  and  runs  into  * 
black  scoria.  By  a  chemical  analysis  it  is 
found  to  consist  "of  26  parts  of  argillaceous 
earth,  46  of  silex,  8  of  magnesia,  4  of  lime, 
and  14  of  iron.  The  dark-blue  slate,  or 
schistus  scriptorius,  contains  more  magnesia 
and  less  iron  than  the  conn  ion  purple  schis- 
tus, and  effervesces  more  brskly  with  acids. 
Its  spe<;if!c  gravity  is  2.70 1 .  2.  The  pyrii ice- 
ous  schistus  is  of  a  grey  colour,  brown,  blue, 
or  black ;  and  ca|)able  of  more  or  less  deco:n- 
posifion  by  exposure  to  the  air,  accordinj^  to 
the  ([uantity  of  pyri'ous  matter  it  contains, 
and  ti.e  state  of  the  iron  in  it.  T  he  alumi- 
nous schistus  belniigs  to  this  species.  3.  The 
bituminous  schistus  is  generally  biack,  and  of 
a  lamellated  texture,  of  various  degrees  of 
hardness,  not  giving  hre  with  steel,  but  emit- 
ting a  strong  smell  when  heateil,  and  sonie- 
liinss  without  being  heated.  M.  Magellan 
mentions  a  specimen  which  burns  like  coal, 
with  a  strong  smell  of  mineial  bitunirn,  but 
of  a  yellowish  brown,  or  rather  dark  a^h-co- 
lour,  found  in  Yorkshire.  This  kind  of 
schistus  doei  not  show  any  white  marl<when 
scratched,  like  ihe  other  schistus. 

SCnLEI'FLi:RA,  a  genus  of  the  clasi 
and  order  peiitan<hia  decag^  iiia.  Ifie  calyx 
is  five-toothed;  corolla  hve-petalled ;  cap- 
sule eight  or  ten  celled;  seeds  solitary,  semi- 
circular. There  is  one  species,  of  New 
Zealand. 

SCHMIDELI-fV,  a  genus  of  the  digjnia 
order,  in  tlie  octandria  class  of  plants.  The 
calyx  is  diphylloiis;  the  corolla  tetiapeta- 
lous;  the  germina  pcdicellated,  and  longer 
than  the  flow  er.  1  here  is  one  species,  a  tree 
of  the  East  Indies. 

SCHOENl'S,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  triandria  class  of  plants;  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  third 
order,  calamaria'.  The  glumes  are  paleace- 
ous, univalved,  and  thick-set ;  there  is  no  co- 
rolla, and  only  onerouiichsh  seed  between  tlic 
glumes.     There  are  41  species. 

SCHOLIUM,  a  note,  annotation,  or  re- 
mark, occasionally  marie  on  some  passage, 
or  proposition,  ot  an  old  author.  This  term 
is  niucli  Used  in  geometry,  and  other  parts  of 
mathematics,  where  after  demonstrating  a 
proposition,  it  is  customary  to  |ioint  out  how 
it  might  be  done  sonic  other  way,  or  to  give 
some  advice,  or  precaution,  in  order  to  p  e- 
veiit  mistakes,  or  add  some  particular  use  or 
application  of  it. 

SCHOTIA,  a  genus  of  the  monogvnia 
order,  in  the  decandria  class  of  plants ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  raiiking  under  the 
33d  order,  lomenlace:c.  The  calyx  is  senii- 
Huinipiel'.d  ;  the  corolla  has  five  petals,  \\h\d\ 
are  equal;  the  tube  is  turbinated,  carnous, 
and  persistent ;  the  legumen  pedicelhtcd, 
and  contains  two  seeds.  There  is  only  or.i: 
species,  viz.  the  specifsa,  or  African  lignum 
vita-. 
I  SCHEADERA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
j  order  hexandria  monogynia.     The  ralyx  ig 


">* 


mo 


SCI 


■superior;  corolla  five  or  si\--cleft;  stigmas 
two;  berry  oiie-sfeded.  Tliere  aro  two 
species,  pani-itcs  ol  llie  West  Indies. 

SCHKEr>ERA,  a  genus  of  the  digvuia  or- 
der, ill  ti>e  peiitaiidria  class  of  plants ;  and  in 
tlie  natural  metiioJ  ranking  viith  tliose  of 
which  the  order  is  <lonbtlul.  'I'le  calvx  is 
(liiinqnepartite ;  the  corolla  fnnml-sluiped, 
with  the  libnii-nts  in  the  throat,  and  having 
c-acliascale  at  t!ie  base,  'llierc  is  one  spe- 
cies, a  tree  ot  the  liast  Indies. 

SCHWALliEA,  a  ger.iis  of  th<-  i  las^  and 
order  didvnamia  angiosperniia.  'I'he  calvN  is 
foiir-cleft";  the  upper  lobe  very  small;  the 
lowest  very  large"  and  emarginate.  There  is 
one  specie^,  ot  North  America. 

SCHWESKIF.I.DIA,  a  genus  of  the 
Jiionogvnia  order,  in  the  peuUnidiia  class  ol 
plants;' and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
with  those  that  are  doubtful.  The  calyx  is 
quimiuelid;  the  corolla  funnel-shaped;  the 
stigma  parted  into  hve;  the  i)erry  (iniiKiuclo- 
cular,  with  a  number  of  seeds.  t)f  this  there 
are  thrre  species,  viz.  1 .  Cinerea;  -'.  Aspeia  ; 
3.  Hiita.  The  two  first  are  natives  of  Gui-  \ 
ana,  tlie  other  of  Jim;tica.  Tlio  leaves  of  all  | 
of  tiiem  are  remarkably  rougti,  and  stick  to  ; 


S  C   I 

rollais  hoxapetalons  and  deciduous;  the  fila- 
ments hlilorm.  'I'here  are  '2'2  species.  'I  he 
most  remarkable  is  the  marilima,  or  sea- 
omon,  who>e  roots  are  used  in  medicine.  Of 
ths  there  are  two  sorts,  one  with  a  red,  and 
the  oilier  with  a  white  root;  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  accidenlal  varieties,  but  the  white 
aie  generally  preferred  tor  medicinal  use. 
The  lODts  are  laige,  somewhat  oval-shaped, 
composed  of  many  coats  l)ing  over  each 
other  like  onions;  and  at  the  bottom  come 
out  several  libres.  From  the  middle  ot  the 
root  rise  several  shining  leaves,  which  conti- 
nue green  all  the  winter,  and  decay  in  tlie 
spring.  TliL-n  the  (iower-stalk  comes  oat, 
wliich  rises  two  teet  high,  and  is  naked  h. ill- 
way,  terminating  m  a  pyramidal  thyise  of 
(lowers,  which  are  white,  composed  of  six 
petals,  and  spread  open  like  the  points  of  a 
star.  This  grows  naturally  on  tlie  sea-shores, 
and  in  the  ditches  where  the  salt  water  natu- 
rallvifows  with  the  tide,  in  most  of  the  warm 
parts  of  Europe,  so  cannot  be  propjgated  in 
i  gardens  ;  the  trost  in  winter  always  destroy- 
I  mg  the  roots,  and  for  want  of  salt  water  they 
I  do  not  thrive  in  summer.  The  root-is  very 
nauseous  to  the  taste,  intensely  btler,  and  so 
acrimoniou 


s  that  it  ulcerates  the  skin  it  much 


handled.  Taken  internally,  it  powerfully 
stimulates  the  solids,  and  promotes  urine, 
sweat,  and  expectoration.  If  the  dose  is 
considerable,  it  proves  emetic,  and  sometimes 
purgative.  The  principal  u.^e  of  tiiis  medi- 
cine is  where  the  prima;  vim  abound  .villi  mu- 
lungs  are  oppressed  by 


the  Singers  or  clothes. 

SCSI  WEN  IvlA,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  in  the  di.uidria  class  of  plants.  1  he 
corolla  is  almost  equal,  plaited  at  the  thro:it, 
and  glandulous  ;  there  are  three  barren  sta- 
mina; the  capsule  bilocular  and  polysperm- 

»us.     There  is  one  species.  I  cous  matter,  and  th 

.  SCl/EX A,  a  genus  of  I'islies  of  the  order  |  tenacious  phlegm. 
thoracic;.  The  generic  cliaracter  is,  head  SCIOPTIC,  a  sphere,  or  globe  of  wood, 
scaly;  dorsal  tins  iwp,  seated  in  a  furrow,  into  {  ^ith  a  circular  liole  or  perforation,  wherein  a 
which  tliey  may  occasionally  withdf aw  ;  j  lens  is  placed.  It  is  so  lifted  that,  like  the 
gi'.l-membrane  six-rayed.  There  are  two  :  eye  of  an  animal,  it  may  be  turned  round 
fiivisions  in  this  genus,  I.  with  divided  or  hi- !  gVery  way,  to  he  used  in  making  experi- 
Tiated  tai!;'.^.  with  even  or  rounded  tail.  !  ments  in  a'  darkened  room.  See  Optics. 
There  arc  twenty  species.  The  most  re-  |  gcjijg  FACIAS,  is  a  judicial  writ,  and 
markable  are:    I.    Scia-na  cirro>a,   u>';i';'l^-<i  1  properly  lies  after  a  year  and   a  day  after 

(judgment  given;  whereby  thesheriiris  com- 
I  maiuled  to  summon  or  give  notice  to  the  de 


I.  Scia-na  cirro>a,  bearded 
scisna.  Habit  that  of  a  carp;  U-nglli  from 
one  to  two  feet;  colour  pale  yellow,  browii- 
,  isii  on  the  back,  and  marked  on  each  side  by 
many  ohliqnelv  longitudinal  dusky-bhie  lines, 
which  assu.iie'a  slightly  silvery  caM  towards 
the  abdomen:  upper  lip  obtuse,  and  longer 
than  the  lower ;  teeth  small ;  first  dorsal  tin 
triangul.r,    and    pale    brown ;    the    second 


White,  with  a  brown  stripe:  pectoral    ven  ral,  i  ^.^^,^.;,jio„  „f  ti,^.„,    <„.  to  vacate  or  set  Ihe.n 


fendant,  that  he  appear  and  shew  cause  v.'liy 
the  plaintiff  should  not  have  execution.  I 
lust.  290.  A  scire  facias  is  deemed  a  judi- 
cial writ,  and  founded  on  some  matter  of 
record,  as  judgments,  recognizances,  and  let- 
ters patent,  on  which  it  lies  to  enforce  tlie 


and  caudal,  dusky;  anal  red;  tail  shghtly 
lun.;ted:  a',  the  bas'e  of  the  gill-covers  a  biack 
spot,  a:id  beneatii  the  chin  a  short  fleshy 
beard:  native  of  the  Mediterranean  and  oilier 
seas;  known  to  the  antient  Creeks  and  Ko- 
mans,  by  whom  it  was  held  in  considerable 
estimation  as  a  food. 

2.  Sciicna  labrax,  basse  scisna.  Habit  of 
a  salmon;  size  considerable,  growing,  ac- 
cording to  some  authors,  to  tlie  length  of  se- 
veral feet:  colour  blueish  silvery,  with  a 
dusky  Cist  on  liie  back:  scales  rather  small; 
eyes  reddish ;  mouth  and  gill-covers  tinged 
with  pile  red ;  tail  slightly  forked  ;  lateral  line 
nearly  straight:  native  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  northern  seas,  and  often  entering  rivers ; 
known  to  the  antients  by  the  names  of  labrax 
and  lupu--,  and  much  esteemed  as  a  food, 
particu  arly  by  the  Komans. 

SCi.'VriCA.    Si-e  .Medicine. 

bCILI  A,  the  xquill,  ill  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  moiiogyiiia  order,  in  the  lie\andria  class 
•f  plant:;,  and  in  the  natural  metiiod  ranking 
•nilerlhe  lOth  order,  corouarix.    The  co- 


aside;  and  tffough  it  is  a  judicial  writ  of  exe- 
cution, yet  it  is  so  far  in  nature  of  an  oriai- 
nal,  that  the  defendant  may  plead  to  it,  and 
is  in  that  respect  considered  as  an  action ; 
and  therefore  it  is  held,  that  a  release  of  all 
actions,  or  a  release  of  all  executions,  is  agood 
bar  to  a  scire  facias.     See  Rol.  Abr. 

SClllPUS,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  triandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  third 
order,  calamari;e.  The  glumes  are  paleace- 
ous, and  imbricated  all  round.  There  is  no 
corolla,  and  only  one  beardless  seed.  There 
are  69  sp;cies,  rushes  of  the  East  Indies. 

SCIRRHLS.     See  Surgery. 

SCIURUS,  SauiRREL,  a  genus  of  quadru- 
peds of  the  order  glires:  the  generic  charac- 
ter is,  upper  front-teeth  cuneated,  lower 
sharp  ;  grinders  in  the  upper  jaw  five  on  each 
side,  in  the  lower  four;  clavicles  in  the  ski-- 
leton ;  tail  (in  most  species)  i  oieading  to- 
wards each  side.  The  animals  composing 
lliis  glegaiit  gcuus  ate  remavkablc  for  the 


S  c  r 

liveliness  of  their  dispj.itinn,  the  celerity  of 
their  motions,  and  the  general  beauty  and 
neatness  ot  their  appearance.  '1  hey  inhabit 
w\M)ds,  live  entirely  on  vegetable  tood,  and 
lake  up  their  residence  in  the  hollows  of 
trees,  where  they  p^'pare  their  nests.  Some 
species  are  furnished  witli  an  expansile  lateral 
skill,  rejcliing  from  the  fore  legs  to  tlie  hind  ; 
by  the  help  of  which  they  are  enabled  to 
spring  to  a  greater  di-.tance  th.iii  the  rest  of 
the  genus,  and  to  transport  themselves  oc- 
casiiiiially  from  tree  i<>  tree ;  but  this  mo- 
mentary support  in  air  is  all  tliat  they  aici 
c.ipableof;  aiul  thougn  called,  from  this  cir- 
cumstance, Hying  sijuirrels,  tliey  are  unable 
to  continue  that  action  in  the  nuumcr  of  bals. 
The  sj)ecie>  of  sijuirrels  enumerated  in  tiie 
twelflli  edition  of  the  Systema  Notura;  of 
Limuvus  amounted  to  no  more  than  eleven  ; 
but  such  lias  been  the  spirit  of  research  among 
nigdeni  naturalists,  th.il  the  number  is  now 
increased  to  near  thirty.  The  most  noted 
are, 

1.  Sciurus  niaximus,  great  scpiivrel.  Of 
all  the  species  vet  discovered,  this  is  the  lar- 
gest, being  e(|ual  in  size  to  a  cat.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  India,  and  was  first  tlescribed  by 
Mods.  Soimeriit,  who  informs  us  that  it  in 
found  in  the  Malabar  country,  and  especi- 
ally about  llie  mountains  of  C'ardamone, 
wliere  it  feeds  on  fruits,  and  is  particularly 
fond  of  the  miik  ot  tlie  cocoa-nut,  which  it 
pierces,  when  ripe,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
liipior.  The  fur  on  the  whole  animal  is  long 
and  full ;  the  top  of  the  head,  ears,  back,  and 
sides,  are  ferruginous,  and'a  small  band  of  a 
similar  colour  commences  beneath  each  ear, 
passing  along  the  neck  towartls  the  siiles. 
Tliis  animal,  according  to  Sonnerat,  is  easily 
tamed,  and  is  called  about  tlie  coasts  of  Ma- 
labar by  the  name  of  the  great  wood-rat. 
See  I'l.ite  Nat.  Hist.  hg.  ij4. 

'2.  Sciurus  vulgaris,  common  squirrel. 
The  general  appearance  and  manners  of  this 
species  are  so  well  known  that  it  is  unneces- 
sarv  to  particularize  Iheiu.  It  is  a  native  of 
alnio.st  all  parts  of  Europe  as  wtdl  as  of  the 
northern  and  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  but  is 
observed  to  vary  in  the  cast  of  its  colours  in 
dilTerent  climates,  and  in  the  northern  re- 
gions becomes  grey  in  winter;  it  also  varies 
occasionally  in  size.  The  general  measure 
of  tlie  European  squirrel  seems  to  be  about 
eight  inches  from  nose  to  tail,  and  of  the  tail 
about  seven.  In  tlie  spring  these  iinima's 
se.,Mii  peculiarly  active,  pur.^uing  eacli  otiier 
among  the  trees,  and  exerting  various  elfbits 
of  agility.  During  the  warm  summer  nights 
they  may  be  also  observed  in  a  similar  exer- 
cise. They  seem,  as  Hiillbn  observes,  to 
dreatl  the  heat  of  the  sun ;  for  during  the  day 
they  commonly  remain  in  their  nests,  making 
their  principal  excursions  by  night.  Their 
hubitatifin  is  so  contrived  as  to  be  perfectly 
clean,  warm,  and  impenetrable  by  rain,  and 
is  co'iiposed  of  moss,  dried  leaves,  &c.  and 
situated  between  the  fork  of  two  branches  ; 
it  has  only  a  small  aperture  near  the  top, 
which  is  of  a  conical  form,  so  as  to  throw  oil" 
the  rain.  The  young  are  generally  three  or 
four  in  number,  and  are  produced  about  the 
middle  of  summer,  or  sometimes  eariier; 

The  squirrel  feeils  on  the  bmls  and  youni; 
shoots  of  trees,  and  is  said  to  be  particularly 
fond  of  those  of  the  fir  and  pine  ;  it  also  col- 
lects great  quantities  of  nuts,  which  it  de- 
posits in  tlie  hollows  of  trees  for  its  winlcw 


HATHTMAL  HriSfOJK  ,Y 


.?f* 


TTr.n}-  .Cr 


S  C  I 

food,  (ojclliei-  with  brccli-mast,  acorns,  <Vr. 
J)r.  I'allas  also  asiiiics  us,  tli.il  lli0^c  of  Si- 
beria rolled  xarioiij  kinds  of  lini'^i  for  tliis 
purpose.  In  a  state  of  captivity,  nuts  form 
its  ))i-incip;\l  food,  but  it  will  also  eat  a  threat 
variety  of  fruits  and  oilier  vcfjv-Uible  substan- 
ces, and  is  delighted  willi  sugar  and  various 
sweets. 

In  some  parts  of  SiVeria  (be  squirrel  is 
found  entirely  white,  with  red  eyes.  About 
lake  Baikal  it  is  often  entirely  bl.ick,  or  black 
with  the  belly  white;  and  in  some  parts  of 
Europe,  and  i)artieuia1'lv  in  o'lr  own  countrv, 
it  is  occasionally  founJ  will)  the  tail  niill<- 
wliite,  and  all  (lie  oilier  parts  of  the  usual 
colour. 

3.  Sciurus  cinercus,  jir'V  squirrel.  This 
species  is  confined  to  North  America,  in 
many  parts  of  which  it  is  extremely  common, 
an<l  in  its  general  form,  as  well  as  in  its  way 
of  life,  resembles  the  European  squirrel,  ft 
is  a  larc;e  and  elegant  aiamal,  being  of  the 
'siz.''  of  a  half-grown  rabbit,  and  ineiuuring 
about  twelve  inches  tfj  the  tail  ;  dilll-reiil  in- 
ilividuals,   however,  vary  somewhat  in  point 


of  size.  The  whole  animal  is  of  an  elegant 
pale-grov,  with  the  in^iides  of  tlie  limbs  and 
the  under  parts  of  the  body  wliile.  'I'his 
animal  is  said  to  be  found  in  Canada,  Penn- 
sylvania, \'irginia,  and  other  American  dis- 
tricts; though,  according  to  Mr.  Pennant, 
it  scarcely  eMends  farther  r.orlh  than  New- 
England.'  Mr.  Pennant  also  allows  that  it  is 
a  native  of  South  as  well  as  North  America. 
In  the  latter  it  is  in  some  years  so  extremely 
numerous  as  to  do  incredible  damage  to  plan- 
tations, especially  those  of  maize  or  Indian 
com;  for  which"  reason  it  is  one  of  the  pro- 
scribed animals  among  the  colonists.  'I'his 
species  resides  principally  among  trees,  in 
the  hollows  of  whicii  it  makes  its  nest,  with 
straw,  moss,  ic.  feeding  on  acorns,  fir-cones, 
in:ii.:e,  Sec.  as  well  as  on  fruifs^of  various 
kinds.  It  is  said  to  amass  great  (inantities  of 
provision  for  winter,  which  it  deposits  in  holes 
wliicU  it  prepares  beneath  the  roots  of  trees, 
&:c.  It  is  a  dUlicult  aninril  to  kill,  changing 
its  place  on  the  trees  with  such  expedition, 
as  generally  to  elude  the  shot  of  the  quickest 
niarksnian. 

4.  Sciurus  striatus,  the  striped  squirrel,  is 
a  native  of  the  northern  regions  of  Asia,  and 
of  several  of  the  colder  pans  of  North  Ame- 
rica ;  it   has  also  been  found,   though  very 
rarely,  in  sonu' p^''t'>  of  Iv.irope,  and  diifer's 
from  the  major  part  of  the  squirrel  tiibe  in 
hi  manner  ot  life,  which  rather  resembles  that 
of  the  dormouse,  being  chielly  passed  in  sub- 
terraneous  retreats  or   buno'.vs,    the  apart- 
ments of  which  are  tilled  with  various  stor.-s 
of  acorns,  nuts,  grain,  &c.  collected  ior  win- 
ter use.     It  also  resembles  some  of  the  mu- 
rine tribe,  in   being    provided  with    cheek- 
pouches,   for    the    temporary    reception   of 
t'ood:    a  particularity  not  to  be  found  in  any 
other  species  of  squirrel.     Its  general  length 
is  about  five  inches  and  a  half,  and  of  the  tail 
rather  more.     Its  colour  on  tlie  upper  parts 
is  a  reddish  brown,  and  on  the  under  white ; 
down  the  ridge  of  theback  runs  a  black  streak; 
and  on  each  side  the  body  are  two  others, 
the'' included  space  between  each  being  of  a 
pale-yellow  tinge. 

These  animals  are,  according  to  the  obser- 
vations of  Dr.  Pallas,  extremely  common  in 
Siberia,  inhabiting  the  maple  anil  birch  woods 


S  C  I 

of  that  country,  and  generally  forming  theii- 
nests  or  burrows  near  the  loot  ot  some   Ire,-. 
they  are  never  known  to  ascend  trees   in  the 
manner  of  otlii-r  s(|uirrel3,   unless   suddeiily 
surprised  or  pursued,  when  they  climb  with 
great    eN|)eiiiiion,    and   conceal  Ihenuelvts 
among    the   branches ;     the}-   collect    their 
stores  during   the  auUininal  season,  and  on 
the  setting  in  of  winter  conceal  themselves 
in  their  burrows,  the  entrances  of  which  they 
stop  ;  and  puss  the  greatest  part  of  the  rigo- 
rous season  in  sleep,  and  in  feeding  on  their 
col!ecte<l  stores  ;   but  if,  by  an  unusual  con- 
tinuance of  severe  weather,  their  provisions 
happen  to  fail,   they  then  sally  out  in  ipiest 
of  Iresh  supplies,  and  occaMoiiaily  make  their 
way  into  granaries,  and  even  into  houses.     I'll 
tlie' choice  of  their  food  they  are  remarki.bly 
iiicf;,  and  have  hn  n  observed,  after   tilling 
their  pouches  with   rye,  to  lling  it  out  on 
meeting  with  wheat,  and  replace  it  with  the 
superior  grain.     Tiiey  are  of  a  wild  nature, 
and  arc  by  no  means  easily  reconciled  to  a 
stale   of  captivity ;    continuing    timid,   and 
shewing  no  symptoms  of  attacliment  to  their 
owners.     They  are  Ir.ken  ini'rely  on  account 
of  their  skins',  which,  though  forming  but  a 
slight  or  ordinary  fu  ,  have  a  very    phasing 
ajipearance,  w  hen  |)roperly  disposed,  and  are 
saiU  to  be  chielly  sold  to  the  Chinese. 

5.  Sciurus  vo  ans,  common  (lying  squir- 
rel. This  highly  elegant  animal  is  the  only 
ilying  squirrel  yet  discovered  in  Europe, 
where  it  is  extremely  rare,  being  found 
chielly  in  the  most  northern  regions,  as  in 
i-'iiilai'id.  Lapland,  &c.  It  also  occurs  in 
some  dlstrict^  ot  Poland.  In  many  parts  of 
Asia  it  is  far  more  common,  and  abounds  in 
the  birch  and  pine  woods  of  Siberia  in  jiar- 
ticular.  It  appears  to  have  been  confounded 
by  authors  with  the  \'irginian  Ilying  suuirrel 


SCO 


027 


elevalcil,  and  as  soon  as  it  gains  a  tree,  in" 
slantly  begins  to  climb  it  with  gre.U  aeiiviiy 
sometimes  elevating,  and  sometimes  depress- 
ing its  tail.  If  thrown  from  llie  lop  of  a  tree, 
it  iiumedialelv  spreads  its  membranes,  and, 
balaiicint;  itself,  endeavours  to  direct  Us 
motion  by  the  assistance  of  the  tail.  Ihe 
voung  are  protluced  about  tlie  bi-,'5inning  or 
Lefoie  the  iv.iddle  ol  May,  and  are  two,  three, 
and  soinclnue,  fmr,  in  number;  they  are  at 
fu.t  blind,  and  nearly  void  of  hair;  and  the 
parent  fosteis  them  by  covering  them  with. 
Iier  ll'.ingiiu-mbrane  ;  leaving  her  nest  only 
at  the  ajjproach  of  evening,  and  carefully 
concealing  the  young  with  the  moss  of  the 
nest. 

SCIUKUS,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  inthe  diandria  cliss  of  plants  ;  and  iii 
Ihe  natural  method  ranking  with  those  Ihit 
are  doubllul.  The  calv.x  is  (luimiuedentate  ; 
the  corolla  biUibiated  ;  the  filaments  are  bar- 
ren ;  the  capsules  five,  and  joined  together ; 
bivalved,  unilocular,  with  one  seed.  Of 
this  there  is  one  species,  viz.  aroiiiatica. 
a  native  of  Guiana. 

SC  I.KKAN  Tilts,  Knawel,  a  genus  of 
the  digvnia. order,  in  the  dodecandria  da.,* 
of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  rankin- 
uiuler  the  'i2d  order,  carvophyllei.  The 
calyx  is  moiiO;jhyllous  ;  there  is  no  corolla; 
there  are  two  seeds  contained  in  the  calyx. 
ThO-re  areihree  species. 

SCLKUOCAKPUS,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  order  svngenesia  polygamia  a-qualis. 
The  calyx  is  six-leaved ;'  recept.  chalFy. 
'I'liere  is  one  species,  a  herb  of  the  Cape. 

SCLEKOTICA,  in  anatomy,  one  of  the 

tunics,  or  coats,  of  the  eve.     See  Optics, 

&c. 

squirrel        SCOLD.      A  common  scold   is  a  public 

(.S.  volucella),  but  is  a  tolallv  distinct  species,    nuisance  to  her   neighbouriiojd,  for  which 


Us  colour  on  the  upper  parts  is  an  elegant 
pale  or  whitish  grey,  and  on  the  uiuler  parts 
milk-while.  Its  general  size  is  inferior  to 
that  of  a  common  sciuirrel,  measuring  about 
six  inches  and  a  quarter  to  the  tail,  which  is 
shorter  than  the  body,  thickly  furred,  of  a 
slightly  llattencd  iorin,  and  rounded  at  Ihe 
exireniity.  The  Ilying  squirrel  generally 
resides  in  the  hollow's  of  trees  towards  the 
upper  part ;  preparing  its  nest  of  the  finer 
mosses.  It  is  a  solitary  animal,  and  is  only 
seen  in  pairs  during  the  breeding-season.  It 
rarely  makes  its  appearance  by  day,  emer- 
ging "only  at  the  commencement  ot  twilight, 
when  it  may  be  seen  climbing  about  the  trees, 
and  darting'  with  great  velocity  from  one  to 
the  other.  The  colour  of  its  upper  part  so 
much  resembles  that  of  the  pale  silvery  bark 
of  the  birch-trees  which  it  freciuents,  that  it 
is  by  no  means  easy  to  distinguish  it,  while 
engaged  in  clinibiiis  about  during  its  evening 
e.\.ercise.  It  feecis  chiefly  on  the  young 
shoots,  buds,  and  catkins  of  the  birch,  as  well 
as  on  those  of  the  pine,  &c.  In  winter  it  con- 
tinues in  its  nest,  coming  out  only  in  mild 
weather;  but  does  not  become  torpid  during 
that  season. 

This  animal  readily  springs  to  the  distance 
of  twenty  fathoms  or  more,  and  by  this  mo- 
tion conveys  itself  from  the  lop  of  one  tree 
to  the  middle  part  of  that  to  which  it  directs 
itslli-.;ht,  whicli  is  always  slightly  downwards. 
It  very  rarely  descend's  to  Uie  surface,  and, 
when  "taken,  and  placed  on  the  ground,  runs 
or  springs  somewhat  awkwardly,  wilh  its  tail 
4K2 


offence  she  maybe  indicted. 

SCO  LI''. X,  a  genus  of  vermes  intestina. 
The  generic  character  is,  body  gelatinous, 
variously  shaped,  brandished  on  the  forepart, 
and  pointed  behind  ;  sometimes  linear  and 
long  ;  sometimes  wrinkled  and  short,  round, 
llexuous,  and  depressed ;  head  protrusile, 
and  retractile.  There  are  two  species,  found 
in  the  intestinal  mucus  of  the  turbot,  &c.  in- 
visible to  the  naked  eye. 

SCOLl.\,  a  geiius'oi  insects  of  the  order 
hymenoptera:  the  generic  character  is, 
niouth  with  a  curvecT  sharp  mandible,  cre- 
nate  within  ;  jaw  compressed,  projecting  en- 
tire, and  horiiy  ;  tongue  inflected,  triiid,  very 
short ;  lips  projecting,  membranaceous  at 
the  tip,  and  entire :  feelers  'our,  equal,  short, 
liliform,  in  the  middle  of  the  lip ;  antenn* 
thick,  liiiforni,  the  first  joint  longer.  There 
are  40  species. 

SCOLOPAX,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  be- 
longing to  the  order  of  gralla:.  Tlie  baclj 
is  cylindrieal,  obtuse,  and  longer  than  the 
head;  the  no  trils  are  linear;  the  face  is  co- 
vered, and  the  feet  have  (our  toes.  There 
are  eighteen  species,  of  which  the  following 
are  the  |)rineipal : 

1.  The  arquata,  or  curlew,  frequents  our 
sea-coasts  and  marshes  in  the  wiater-time  m 
large  flocks,  walking  on  the  open  sands; 
feeding  on  shells,  frogs,  crabs,  and  marine 
insects.  In  summer  they  retire  to  the  moun- 
tainous and  unfrequented  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, where  they  pair  and  breed.  Their  eggs 
ar's  of  a  pale  olive-colour,  marked  witU  irre-. 


52S 


^  c"  6 


SCO 


giilarbut  distinct  spots  of  pale  brown.  TheiT 
nesh  is  rank  and  fillliy,  iiotwillistanding  an 
old  Engliili  proverb  in  its  favour.  Ciirknvs 
iHiler  mucii  ni  weijiht  and  size  ;  some  weigh- 
ing 37  oinices,  others  not  22  ;  the  length  of 
the  largest  to  the  tip  of  llii' tail,  25  inches; 
the  breadth,  three  feet  live  inches  ;  the  bill  is 
soven  inches  long ;  tlie  Iiead;  neck,  and  co- 
Terls  of  the  wings  are  of  a  pale  brown;  the 
middle  of  each  feather  black  ;  t!ie  breast  and 
belly  white,  marked  with  narrow  oblong 
tlack  lines ;  the  back  is  wliite,  spotted  with  a 
few  black  strokes;  the  cpiill-feathers  are 
black,  but  the  inner  webs  spotted  with  white; 
the  tail  is  white,  tinged  with  red,  and  beauti- 
fully barred  with  black  ;  the  legs  arc  long, 
strong,  and  of  a  blueish  grey  colour;  tiie 
bottonu  of  the  toei  flat  and  broad,  to  enable 
it  to  walk  on  tlie  soft  mud,  in  search  of  food. 

2.  The  phaopus,  or  whinibrel,  is  much 
less  freinient  on  our  shores  than  the  curlew  ; 
but  its  haunts,  food,  and  general  appearance, 
are  much  the  same.  It  is  observed  to  visit 
the  neighbourhood  of  Spalding  (where  it  is 
Called  the  curlew  knot)  in  vast  flocks  in  April, 
but  continues  there  no  longer  than  May, 
nor  is  it  seen  there  any  other  tune  of  the  year ; 
it  seems  at  that  season  to  be  on  Its  passage  to 
its  breeding-place.  The  specilic  dill'erence 
is  tile  size,  tliis  never  exceeding  the  weight 
of  twelve  ounces. 

3.  The  rusticola,  or  woodcock,  during 
suinmor  inhabits  the  Alps  of  Norway,  Swe- 
den, Polish  Prussia,  the  march  of  Branden- 
burg, and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  ;  they 
all  retire  from  those  countries  in  the  begin- 
iiing  of  winter,  as  soon  as  the  frosts  com- 
mence, which  force  them  into  milder  cli- 
mates, wiiere  the  ground  is  open,  and  adapt- 
ed to  their  manner  of  feeding.  They  live  on 
worms  and  insects,  which  they  search  for 
with  their  long  bills  in  soft  grounds  and  moist 
woo<ls.  Woodcocks  generally  arrive  here 
in  flocks,  taking  advantage  of  the  night  or  a 
mist;  they  soon  separate;  but,  before  1  hey 
return  to  their  native  haunts,  thcv  pair.  They 
feed  and  tly  by  night,  beginning  their  flight 
in  the  evening,  and  return  the  same  way  or 
through  the  same  glades  to  their  day  retreat. 
Tliey  l(-ave  England  the  latter  end  of  Febru- 
ary, or  beginning  of  March;  not  but  they 
Jiavc  been  known  to  cominiie  here  accident- 
ally. 

4.  The  gallenago,  or  common  snipe,  is 
well  known.  Its  usual  weight  is  about  lour 
ounces.  The  jack  snipe  (which  is  by  some 
thoaght  a  dill'ereijt  species)  does  not'  weigh 
above  half  as  much. 

5.  The  calidris,  or  red-shank. 

6.  The  glottis,  or  green-shank. 

7.  The  oegocephala,  orgodroit. 
SCOLOPENRDA,  CE^fTIPEI5E,a  genus 

of  insects  of  the  order  apteia:  the  generic 
character  is,  antennx  setaceou-; ;  body  de- 
pressed ;  legs  numerous,  ei|iiaHing  the  num- 
ber of  segments  of  the  body  on  each  side ; 
feelers  two,  setaceo'js.  The.  larger  species 
of  the  genus  scolopeiidra,  found  (nily  m  the 
hotter  ri'gions  of  the  globe,  are  insects  of  a 
fonnidabic  appearance,  and  possess  the  powei'< 
of  inflicting  severe  p;>.:n  and  intlaumiation  bv 
Itieir  bite.  Of  these  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuons  is  the  scolopendra  morsitans,  a  na- 
tive of  many  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  South 
America.  Us  length  is  sometimes  not  far 
short  ol  ten  inches;  "in  votoilr  is  yellowiah 


brown,  the  legs  r.nd  iinder  parts  of  the  body 
being  much  paler ;  the  head  is  armed  on 
eacli  side  with  a  very  large  curved  fAng,  of 
the  same  strong  or  horny  na'.ure  as  those  of 
the  nranea  avicularia,  but  placed  in  a  differ- 
ent direction,  tlie  two  fangs  meeting  hori- 
zontally when  in  action  ;  these  fangs  are  fur- 
nished on  the  inside,  near  the  ti]),  with  an 
oblong  slit,  through  which,  during  the  act  of 
wounding,  an  acrimonious  or  poisonous  fluid 
is  discharged  ;  the  eyes  are  several  in  number 
on  each  side  the  head,  and  are  placed  in  a 
small  oval  groupe  ;  the  legs  are  twenty  on 
each  side  the  body,  and  the  tail  is  terminated 
by  a  pair  of  processes,  which  perfectly  re- 
semb'e  the  rest  of  the  legs,  except  that  they 
are  larger,  and  have  the  first  joints  strongly 
spilled  or  muricated  on  the  inside.  These 
horrible  insects  are  said  to  be  chielly  found 
in  woods,  but,  like  the  small  luiroiu'an  spe- 
cies, they  are  occasionally  seen  in  houses, 
and  are  said  to  be  so  common  in  some  par- 
ticular districts  that  the  inhabitants  are  ob- 
liged to  place  the  feet  of  their  beds  in  vessels 
of  water,  in  order  to  prevent  their  attacks 
during^  the  night. 

2.  Scolopendra  Plumieri,  or  Pliimier's 
scolopendra,  is  of  much  greater  length  tiian 
the  former,  sometimes  measuring  a  loot  and 
a  half.  According  to  the  description  and 
figure  of  Seba,  the  body  cona.sts  of  thiity- 
iwo  joints,  exclusive  of  the  head  and  tail. 

3.  Scolopendra  forlicat,',  is  a  very  common 
insect,  and  is  met  with  in  similar  situations 
with  the  oniscus  aseilus  and  armadillo  ;  it  is 
an  animal  of  swift  motion,  and  is  furnished 
with  fifteen  legs  on  each  side;  its  colour  is 
a  polished  chesnut-brown,  someuiiat  paler 
beneath,  and  its  usual  length  an  incii  and  a 
half.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  3,->5. 

4.  Scolopendra  electrica  is,  like  the  former, 
an  inhabitant  of  damp  situations,  and  not  un- 
frequentlv  makes  its  appearance  in  houses ; 
its  general  length  is  about  an  inch  and  a 
half,  and  its  diameter  scarcely  more  thim  the 
tenth  of  an  inch,  being  of  an  extremely  long 
and  slender  form ;  its  colour  is  a  dusk^ 
brov.n,  with  the  legs  yellowish;  these  are 
about  seventy  on  each  side.  The  motions 
of  this  insect  are  toituous  and  undulatory, 
seldom  continuing  long  in  the  same  direction  ; 
it  is  possessed  of  a  liigli  degree  of  phosphoric 
splendour,  which  however  seems  to  be  onl\ 
exerted  when  the  animal  is  pressed  or  sud- 
denly disturbed,  when  it  diffuses  a  beautiful 
smaragdine  light,  so  powerful  as  not  to  be 
obliterated  by  two  candles  on  the  snine  table. 
It  is  also  tenacious  of  life,  remaining  seemingly 
miinjured  for  a  great  many  days  in  the  closest 
confinement. 

5.  Scolopendra  subterranea  so  much  re- 
sembles the  form 'r,  that  it  might  be  easily 
confounded  uith  it;  it  is  however  of  a  stiil 
more  slender  form,  and  of  a  much  paler  co- 
lour, viz.  a  light  yellow  brown  ;  it  is  found 
in  damp  places,  and  often  under  ground  ; 
is  not  posse.;sed  of  any  phosphoric  splendour, 
nor  is  it  capable  of  surviving  many  hours  in 
a  stale  of  confinement,  unless  placed  in  a 
very  moist  situation. 

The  scolopendra;  are  oviparous  animals, 
and  the  young,  at  their  first  exclusion,  aiv 
furnished  only  with  a  few  feet  on  eacli  side  : 
acquiring  after  a  certain  period,  the  legiti- 
mate number  pemliar  to  their  species,  of 
which  there  are  eleven. 

SC'OLOPIA,,  a  gcjuis  of  Uie  tetraudria 


SCO 

monogynia  class  and  order.  The  calyx  is 
inferior,  three  or  four-parted;  corolla  three 
or  four-petalled  ;  berry  one-celled,  six-seed- 
ed ;  seeds  arilled.  There  is  one  sijecie^, 
the  thorny  cinnamon  of  Cevloii. 

SCOEbSAMilUS,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  order  tetraudria  monogynia.  The 
calyx  is  four-cleft;  corolla  tubular;  drupe 
one-seeded.  There  is  one  species,  a  shrub 
of  Santa  Cruz. 

SCOLVML'S,  a  genus  of  the  polygamia 
squalls  order,  in  tlie  syngeiiesia  class  of 
plants,  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking 
under  the  49lh  order,  conipositi-.  The  re- 
ceptacle is  paleaceous  ;  the  calyx  imbricated 
and  prickly,  without  any  pappus.  There 
are  three  species. 

SCOMBER,  .Mackrel,  a  genus  of  fishes 
of  the  order  tUoiacici ;  the  generic  cliaracter 
is,  body  oblong,  smooth,  sometimes  cari- 
nated  by  the  lateral  line ;  liiilets  (in  most 
species)  above  and  below,  towards  the  tail. 
There  are  22  species,  of  which  the  most  re- 
markable are  : 

1.  Scomber  scomber,  common  mackrel. 
This  beiuitiful  fish  is  a  native  of  the  Euro- 
pean and  American  seas,  generally  appearing 
at  Slated  season^,  and  swarming,  in  vast 
>hoals,  round  particular  coasts.  Its  great 
resort,  however,  seems  to  be  within  the 
Arctic  circle,  where  it  resides  in  innumerable 
troops,  grows  to  a  larger  size  than  elsewhere, 
and  IS  sU))posed  to  find  its  favourite  too<l, 
[  consisting  chiefly  of  marine  insects,  in  far 
greater  plenty  than  in  warmer  latitudes. 
During  the  severity  of  the  northern  vinter 
it  is  said  to  lie  imbedded  in  the  soft  mud,  be- 
neath the  vast  crusts  of  ice  ounounriing  the 
polar  coasts,  being  thus  sidiiciently  protected 
fiom  the  effects  of  frost ;  and,  on  the  return 
of  spring,  is  generally  believed  to  migrate  in 
enormous  shoals,  of  m;;ny  miles  in  length  and 
breadth,  and  lo  visit  the  coasts  of  more  tem- 
perate climati-s  in  order  to  deposit  its  spawn. 
Its  route  has  been  su)>posed  nearly  similar 
to  tliat  of  the  herring,  passing  between  Ice- 
land and  Norway,  and  proceeding  towards 
the  northern  part  of  our  own  island,  where  a 
part  throws  itself  off  into  the  Ijaltic,  while  the 
grand  column  passes  downwards,  and  enters 
the  Mediterranean  through  the  straits  of 
Gibraltar. 

T  Ills  long  migration  of  the  mackrel,  as  well 
as    of  tlie   herring,    seems  at  present  to  be 
greatly  called  in  question;  aiui  it  is  thought 
more  probable  that  the  shoals  which  appear 
in  such  abundance  round  the  more  temperate 
European  coasts,  in  reality  reside  during  the 
winter  at  no  very  great  distance;  immersing 
themselves  in  the  soft  bottom,  and  remaining 
in  a  state  of  torpidity;  from  which  they  are 
awakened  by    the  warmth  of  the  returning 
spring,  and  gradually   recover  their   former 
activity.     At  their  fust  appearance  their  eyes 
are  observed  to  appear  remarkably  dim,  as 
covered  with  a  kiiul  of  film,  which  passes  off 
as  the  season  advances,   when  they  ajipear 
in  their  full  perfection   of  colour  and  vigotir. 
The  shape  of  the  mackrel  is   highly   ele- 
gant, and  it  is  justly  < onsidered  as  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  luiropean  species.     Its 
merit  as  an  article  of  food  is  universally  cs- 
lablished,  and  it  is  one  of  those  fishes  which 
have  maintained  their   r(|)Ufa(ion  through  a 
long  succession  of  ages  ;  having  been  highly 
esteemed  by  the  anlicnts,  who  pre])ared  Ironi 
it  the  particular  condinicul  or  sauce  kjiowu 


SCO 

io  llu- Roiiimis  by  the  title  of  /rarum,  aiul 
iiKulc  by  saltiiii^  the  li-,ii,  and  silcr  a  ttnaii] 
j)rrii)cl  strainiiij^  the  Ikjuor  from  it.  '1  liis 
pri'jiaration,  once  so  famous,  lias  been  long 
iiipcrseik'cl  by  tin;  inlioductioii  of  tlie  an- 
chovy for  similar  ]Hirpr>-iL-s. 

'J.  Scoml)i;r  thyjiiuis,  liiimy.  'Ilir  (iinuv 
i-i  a  very  large  spi^ces,  growinjr  to  thi-  Icngt'li 
of  eight,  or  even  ten  feet,  but  mixh  m  ire 
couunonly  seen  of  about  tl\e  length  of  two 
feet.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  .Mediter- 
r;mean.  Northern,  Indian,  and  Anieriiaii 
seas,  ami  is  of  a  pregarious  nature,  frei|uently 
assembling  in  large  shoals.  It  is  an  aniniii'l 
of  great  strenglli  and  (ierceness,  preying  on 
all  kmds  of  smaller  fishes,  and  is  said  to  be 
the  peculiar  persecutor  of  the  mackrel  and 
tlie  tiying-fish.  Its  flesh,  though  rather 
coarse,  was  mncli  esteemed  bv  liia  anticnt 
Greeks,  and  liomans,  who  establislieil  their 
tuimvlishcries  as  in  modern  times,  on  many 
parts  of  tlie  Mediterranean  coasts,  where  this 
iisli  still  continues  to  be  taken  in  great  plen- 
ty, more  especially  round  the  island  of  Si- 
cily. Ill  the  British  seas  it  is  rarely  observed 
in  shoals;  the  individuals  which  occur  bein" 
rather  considered  as  accidental  stra.'glers. 
Mr.  Pennant  records  j'li  instance  ot  one 
which  he  saw  on  the  northern  coasts  of  Scot- 
land, weighing  4fi0  pounds,  and  measuring 
seven  feet  ten  inciies  in  length.  Much  larger 
specimens,  however,  are  oc(  asionally  taken 
iu  the  Sicilian  sia.  In  the  Indian  ocean  this 
species  is  said  to  be  seen  of  an  enormous  size, 
and  to  assemble  in  vast  shoaN. 

The  tunny-fishery  is  of  equal  importance 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Medilerranean 
coasts  as  the  herring-iishei'y  to  those  of  the 
■more  northern  parts  of  Europe.  The  smaller 
fishes  are  chiellv  sold  tresh,  while  the  larger 


SCO 

The  use  of  (lie  store  is  indispensable  in 
coinpositioii ;  to  the  tondiict(jr  ol  any  per- 
loniiuiice  it  is  also  highly  requisite,  in  order 
to  his  knowing  whether  each  |)er(oriiier  fol- 
lows his  part,  and  to  enable  hiin  to  .supply 
any  acci;lental  omission  with  the  piano-forte, 
or  organ,  at  which  he  presides. 

SCORIA,  or  DROSS,  is  that  mass  which  is 
produced  by  melting  metals  and  ores,  and 
when  cold  is  brittle,  and  not  imsoluble  in 
water  ;  biiiig  properly  a  kind  of  giass. 

SCORING,  the  art  of  fbrniiiig  a  score 
by  collecting  and  properly  arranging  iiiidrr 


are  cut  in  pieces  and  salted,  and  barrelled  up 
for  sale. 

The  general  colour  of  the  tunny  is  a  dark 
or  dull  blue  on  the  upper  parts,  a;)d  silvery 
with  a  cast  of  llesh-colour  on  tlie  sides  and 
abdomen. 

3.  Scomber  tracluirus,  shad,  horse-inackrel, 
inhabits  the  European,  American,  and  Pacific 
«eas.     See  Plate  N.it.  Hist.  lig.  356. 

SC'OP.^RIA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  tetrnndria  class  of  plants,  and 
in  tlie  natural  method  ranking  under  llie  4otli 
crder,  persoiKit^e.  The  calyx  is  <|uadripar- 
tite ;  the  corolla  (he  same,  and  rotaeeous  ; 
the  ca|)sule  unilocular,  bivalved,  and  poly- 
sperinoiis.     There  are  three  species. 

SCOPOLIA,  a  genus  of  the  octandria 
"erd.-r,  in  the  gynaiidria  class  of  plants  ;  and 
'in  the  natural  niclhod  ranking  under  the 
nth  class,  sannentacea;.  The  cal_\x  is  di- 
phyllous ;  the  corolla  quadritid ;  tlie  antlie- 
Tx  coalesce  in  two  columns,  one  placed  above 
;the  other.     There  are  two  species. 

SCORE,  in  music,  the  original  and  en- 
tire draught,  or  its  transcript,  of  any  compo- 
sition. In  the  score  all  the  parts  of  the  piece 
are  ranged  perpendicularly  miiler  each  other, 
so  that  the  eye,  catching  the  corresponding 
bars  of  the  several  staves,  sees  at  a  glance  the 
whole  construction  and  design  of  the  liar 
mony. 

As  in   this  disposition,  one  single  line  of 

luiisic  comprehends  as  many  staves  as  there 

are  parts  ;  these  staves  are  held  together  by 

A  brace  drawn  down  the  margin  at  the  be- 

■ginaiiig  of  the  line. 


each  other  the  several  detached  parts  of  any 
composition. 

SCORP/ENA,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  (he 
order  thoracici  :  the'  generic  character  is, 
head  large,  aculeated,  cirrhose,  obtuse,  with- 
out scales,  subcompressed  ;  eyes  placed  near 
each  other;  teeth  in  the  jaw;-,  palate,  and 
throat  ;  gill-membrane  seven-rayed :  body  I 
fleshy  ;  dorsal  fin  single,  with  the  rays  of  the  ! 
fore  part  spiny.  There  are  nine  species ; 
the  most  remarkable  are;  , 

1 .  Scorpsna  porcus,  porcine  scorpa-na. 
The  genus  scorpacna  is  distinguished  by  a  pe-  ' 
culiar  uncouthness  of  appearance;  the  head, 
in  some  species,  being  abruptly  truncated  in 
front,  of  vast  size,  and  armed  with  various 
protuberances  and  spines.  Among  the  most 
common  of  the  European  species  is  the  scor- 
p^na  porcus,  which  is  fi  e<iiienlly  seen  in  con- 
siderable numbers  in  various  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean,  where  it  chietly  freqm  nts 
the  shores,  lying  in  ambush  among  stones, 
sea-weeds,  &c.  and  preying  on  the  smaller 
fishes  and  sea-insects;  the  head  is  large  ;  the 
mouth  wide,  with  many  rows  of  small  sharp 
teeth  ;  the  eyes  large;  'the  gill-covers  armed 
with  strong  spines  intermixed  with  cirri ;  the 
body  covered  with  small  rough  scales,  of  a 
dusky  colour,  varied  with  black  on  the  back, 
and  beneath  pale,  with  a  reddish  cast ;  the 
dorsal  fin  is  furnislied  with  very  strong  spinv 
rays,  which  the  fish,  w  hen  caught,  erects,  and 
thus  wounds  its  adversary;  its  general  length 
is  about  twelve  or  fifteen  inches. 

2.  Scorpa-na  scrola,  rufous  scorpa-na,  in 
general  appearance  so  nearly  allied  to  the 
preceding,  that  at  first  view  it  might  be  mis- 
taken for  the  same  species  ;  but  dilfers  in  its 
superior  size,  as  well  as  in  its  larger  scales; 
and  pjrticularly  in  having  several  cirri  or 
processes  ihsposed  along  the  lateral  line  ; 
(he  colour  also  is  rather  rufous  than  brown 
as  ill  the  former  kind.  Of  this  species  it  is 
reported  tliat  it  preys  not  only  on  the  smaller 
fishes,  but  even  occasionally  seizes  on  such 
of  the  marine  birds  as  happen  to  swim  in  its 
way.  It  grous  to  a  very  considerable  size, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  s'eep  of  the  length  of 
four  feet;  it  must  cons-equently  prove  a  very 
tormidable  eneinv  to  the  smaller  inarine  ani- 
mals. Notwithrflanding  its  forbidding  ap- 
pearance, it  is  considered  as  an  edible  fish. 

3.  Scorpa^na  horrida,  horrid  scorpaam. 
Of  all  the  specie;  yet  discovered,  the  present 
exhibits  the  most  uncouth  and  forbidding  ap- 
pearance, resembling  rather  some  imaginary 
monster  of  deformity  than  any  regular  pro- 
duction of  nature.  The  head  is  very  large, 
perfectly  abrupt  in  front,  and  marked  by  nu- 
merous tubercles,  depressions,  and  spines ; 
on  the  top  is  a  semilunar  cavity  ;  the  mouth 
opens  from  the  upper  part,  and  is  large  and 
of  a  shape  somewhat  resembling  a  horse- 
shoe, and  whea  closed  the  lower  jaw  is  in  a 


SCO  C29 

perpendicular  direction  ;  both  jaws  ar*-  aricr- 
ed  with  iiuiiKfioiis  small  teeth  ;  and  the  up|xT 
is  furnished  with  three  cirri,  viz.  one  on  each 
side,  and  one  in  the  middle,  'j  he  general 
colour  of  this  hideous  fish  is  a  ferruginous 
brown,  deepitst  on  (he  upper  |)arts ;  the  ab- 
domen being  much  paler.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  Indian  s.as,  and  measures  twelve  or  fif- 
teen  inches  in  length.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist. 
fig.  3.-.7. 

4.  Scorpxna  volitans,  flying  scorpana,  a 
fish  of  a  higlily  singular  appearance  ;  general 
length  ten  or  twel>  e  inches  ;  co'our  brownish- 
yellow,  vai legated  by  very  numerous,  f\t:ep 
brow  n,  transverse  stripes  ;  native  of  tiie  n- 
vers  of  Japan,  Amboina,  &c.  and  considered 
as  an  excellent  food  ;  it  probably  uses  l(( 
pecUaal  fins  for  tiie  purposes  of  oecasiimal 
flight,  like  the  fishes  of  the  genus  exotoctus 
and  some  of  the  triglx. 

5.  Scorpa-na  didactyla,  didacfyle  scor- 
ptpna.  General  length  about  a  foot  ;  form  ex- 
tremely   grotesque- ;    general    colour  dusky 

I  brown,  varied  above  by  transverse  yellow 
I  streaks,  and  beneath  by  roundish  spots 'of  the 
same  colour;  skin  d.-stilute  of  scales ;  head 
depressed,  and  furnished  on  dilferent  parts 
with  several  abrupt  fleshy  cirri ;  eyes  large, 
and  situated  on  two  approximated  protuber- 
ances; snout  truncated,  and  marked  on  the 
sides  by  sev.-ral  angular  wrinkles,  as  are  also 
the  lower  parts  of  the  gill-covers  ;  lower  jaw 
longer  than  the  upper;  tongue  prominent, 
and  marked  with  yellow  granules  and  black 
streaks;  on  the  lower  mandible  are  strong 
fleshy  beards ;  lateral  line  near  the  back ; 
fins  f'uriiished  with  many  far-projecting  radii, 
as  in  the  volitaiis  and  antennata  :  it  preys  on 
the  smaller  fishes,  sea-insects,  &c.  and,  not- 
withstanding its  forbidding  appearance,  is 
considered  as  an  excellent  fish  for  the  table. 

SCORPIO,  Scorpion,  a  genus  of  insects 
of  the  order  aptera ;  the  generic  charactt'r 
is,  body  ovate-elongated  ;  legs  eight,  besides 
two  frontal   clas|)ers ;    eyes  eight,  three  on 
each  side  the  thorax,  and  two  on  the  back: 
tail  elongated,  jointed,  and  terminated  by  a 
curved  piercer;  con.bs  or  toothed  processet 
two,  situated  beneath,  between  the  thorax  and 
abdomen.       The   malignant   genus    Scorpio 
(about  six),  so  proverbially   remarkable  for 
the  effect  of  its  poisonous  sting,  seems  chiefiy 
coiif.ned  to  the  warmer  parts  of  the  globe, 
and   may  be  considered  as  a  stranger  to  the 
northern   regions.     1.    The   common   Italian 
scorpim   usually  measures  something  more 
than   an  inch  in  length  from  the  head  to  the 
seltin.2  on  of  the  tail;  but,  if  measured  from 
the  tips  of  the  claspers  to  the  tip  of  the  t.jl, 
about  three  inches  ;  its  colour  is  brown,  with 
considerable   variation  in  dilferent  individu- 
als, some  inclining  to  a  reddish,  and  some  to 
a  yellowish  cast.       This  animal   is   found  in 
neglected   places,   beneath    boards,     stones, 
&c.   and  frequently  makes  its  appearance  in 
houses :  its  sting  is  painful,  but  seldom  pro- 
ductive of  any   very  serious  consequences,  . 
and  the  usual  remedy  is  sweet  oil,  well  rub- 
bed on  the  punctured  part.     Like  the  rest  of 
the  genus,  this  insect  preys  on  other  insects, 
and  particularly  on  spiders. 

2.  Scorpio  Americanus  or  the  American  ■ 
scorpion,  is  of  somewhat  smaller  size  than  the 
preceding,  and  of  a  more  slender  or  lengthen- 
ed form  ;  its  colour  is  a  yellowish  browa.     U 
is  a  native  of  many  parts  of  America. 


620 


t  c  n 


SCO 


s  c  u 


3.  Tlie  largest  aiul  by  f.ir  the  most  fomii 
dable  of  the  genus,  is  the  scoi|)io  Afer  of 
LiiineiH,  or  great  African  scDrpio!!.  This 
specie-,  is  of  so  large  a  size  us  otten  to  mea- 
sure four  inclies  from  the  iu-ad  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  tail,  and  ten  indies  if  measured 
from  the  tip  of  the  claspers  to  that  of  tlie 
tail.  Its  c  ilour  is  a  darli  brow  n,  inclininp;  to 
yellow  beneath,  antl  in  the  interstices  of  the 
joints  ;  and  the  claspers  have  often  a  reddisli 
cast.  This  species  is  foinid  in  many  parts  of 
Africa,  where  it  is  held  in  great  dread  ;  the 
elfect  of  its  sting  producing  very  severe 
symptoms,  and  soinetimes  even  proving 
fatal. 

The  poison  of  the  scorpion  is  evacuated 
tiiroiigh  two  very  small  oblong  foramina  situ- 
ated on  each  side  tlie  tip  of  the  sting.  It 
is  well  known  that  a  div.rsity  of  opinion  has 
subsisted  anio:ig  authors  relative  lo  this  par- 
ticular. The  celebrated  Redi,  assisted  by 
the  i)est  microscopes  he  could  procure,  was 
not  able  to  detect  a;iy  orifice,  tliough  he  was 
well  convinced  of  the  e.\istcnce  of  such,  from 
observing  a  minute  droj)  of,  poison  exsude 
from  near  the  tip.  Others  have  denied  tlie 
existence  of  anv  foramen  ;  but  \'aUisneii  and 
Lewenhoek  have  properly  describe<l  two  fo- 
ramina, vi/.  one  on  each  side ;  so  that  tl'.e 
sting  of  the  scorpion  can  with  greater  facility 
tliscliarge  its  poisonous  fluid  than  that  of  any 
other  insect.  A  third  foramen  is  said  to 
liave  been  sometimes  obser\ed. 

The  part  in  scorpions  which  is  situated 
beneath  the  breast,  Iv-aring  the  appearance 
X)f  two  minute  combs,  lias  b -in  li\ed  upon 
by  Linna'us  as  a  criterion  of  tlie  species ; 
the  numljer  of  teetii,  how."ver,  varying  oc- 
casionally in  the  same  species,  renders  this 
<;haracter  uncertain.  The  use  of  these  or- 
gans remains  as  yet  uninvestigated. 

Scorpions  are  viviparous  insects,  produ- 
cing a  very  consideralile  number  of  young  at 
Once  ;  these  are  at  fir.'.t  entirely  white,  but 
acquire  tlieir  dusky  colour  in  the  space  of 
a  few  days.  l"liey  are  observed  to  cast  their 
s.kin  from  time  to  time,  in  the  maimer  of 
spiders.     There  are  10  species. 

ScoHpio.     See  AsTRONOMV. 

SCORPION,  in  the  autient  art  of  war,  an 
engine  chiefly  used  in  the  <lefenceof  the  walls 
♦if  fovtilied  places,  by  throwing  arrows,  fire- 
bails,  or  great  stones. 

.Marcellinns  describes  the  Sf-orpion  as  con- 
sisting of  two  beams  bound  together  by  ropes. 
I'ro.n  the  midd'e  of  the  two,  rose  a  third 
beam,  so  disposed,  as  to  be  pulled  up  and  let 
<lown  at  pleasure ;  and  on  the  to|)  of  this 
were  fastened  iron  hooks,  where  a  sling  was 
liuiig,  either  of  iron  or  hemp  ;  and  under  the 
tiiird  beam  lay  a  piece  of  hair-cloth  lull  of 
rhalV,  tied  with  cords.  It  had  its  name 
Scorpio,  because  when  the  long  beam  or  tiller 
was  erected,  it  had  a  sharp  top  in  manner  of 
a  stMig. 

To  use  the  engine,  a  round  stone  was  put 
into  t'lC  sling  ;  and  four  persvms  on  each  side, 
loosening  the  b  -anis  bound  by  i\v  ro|)es, 
tlrew  b.uk  the  erert  beam  lo  the  ho  )k  ;  then 
the  eng'iieer,  standing  on  an  eminence,  gave 
a  stroke  with  a  himnicr  on  the  cord  to  which 
ihe  beam  was  fastened  with  its  hook,  which 
get  it  at  liberty ;  so  that  hitting  against  the 
soft  hair-clolli,  it  struck  out  the  stojic  with 
a  gri'at  force. 

bCOlU'lUllL'S,    CATERriLLMi,    in  bo- 


tany, a  genus  of  the  decandiia  order,  in  the]      The  sixteen   peer:  of  Scotland  shall  have 
diailelpiiia  class  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  !  all  privileges  of  parliament,  and  all  p.  ers  of 

'  Scotland   shall   be  peers  of   Great    Ihitain, 


method  ranking  under  the  .32(1  oidcr,  papino- 
nacea'.  The  legunien  is  contracted  by  inci- 
sions on  the  iiis.de  belwi.Nt  every  two  seeds, 
revoluted  round.  There  are  four  species ; 
the  most  remarkable  "I  which  is  the  vermicu- 
lata,  a  native  ol  Italy  and  Spain.  It  is  an 
annual  plant,  with  trailing  herliaceons  stalks, 
which  at  each  joint  have  a  spalular  shi-.ped 
leaf  with  a  long  footstalk.  From  liie  wings 
of  the  leaves  come  out  the  footstalks  of  the 
tlowers,  which  sustain,  at  the  top  one  yellow 
butterfly-flower,  succeeded  by  a  thick  twisted 
pod  having  the  size  and  appearance  of  a 
large  caterpillar,  whence  it  hail  this  title. 
This  Ijas  long  been  preserved  in  the  gardens 
of  this  country,  more  on  account  of  its  odd 
shape  than  for  any  great  beauty. 

SC'ORZ.V,  a  mineral  of  a  green-coloured 
sand,  the  speeilic  gravity  of  wliich  is  3.35. 
It  is  found  in  Tran«ylvania,  and  is  composed 
of  43.'00  silica 

21.00  alumina 
14.00  lime- 
16.  jO  oxide  of  inMi , 
0.'25  oxide  of  manganese 

94.73 

SCORZONERA,  \iPER's  gr.^ss;  a  ge- 
nus of  the  polygamia  x-qualis  order,  in  t  ,e 
syngenesia  clav,  of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  49i!i  order,  coni- 
l)osita\  The  receptacle  is  naked  ;  the  pap- 
pus pluiny  :  the  calyx  imbricated,  with  scales 
membranaceous  on  their  margins.  There 
are  19  species;  tiie  most  remarkable  is  the 
hispanica,  or  common  scorzonera,  which  is 
cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  this  country,  both 
for  culinary  and  medicinal  purposes'  The 
root  is  carrot-shaped,  about  the  thickness  of 
a  linger,  covered  with  a  dark-brown  skin,  is 
white  within,  and  has  a  milky  juice.  The 
stalk  rises  three  feet  high,  is'  smooth,  and 
branching  at  the  lop.  Ibe  flowers  are  of  a 
bright  yellow  colour. 

SCOTLAND.  liy  5  .\nne  c.  8,  the  union 
of  England  and  Scotland  was  eriecte<l,  and 
the  twenty-five  articles  of  union  agreed  lo  bv 
the  parliaments  of  both  nations,  were  ralilied 
and  confirmed  as  follows;  viz.  the  suci  ession 
to  the  monarchy  of  Cueat  Britain,  shall  be 
the  same  as  was  before  settled  with  regard 
to  that  of  England.  The  united  kingdoms 
shall  be  represented  by  one  parliament. 
1  iiere  shall  be  a  communication  of  all  rights 
and  privileges  between  tiie  subjects  ot  both 
kingdoms,  except  wliere  it  is  otherwise  agreed. 
When  England  raises  'J,OOti,ooo/.  by'  land- 
tax,  Scotland  shall  raise  4h,000/.  ;  the  slan- 


ranking  next  after  those  of  the  same  degree 
at  tl;e  tiimr  of  the  union,  and  shall  have  ad 
privileges  of  peers,  except  sitting  in  the 
liouse  of  lords,  and  voting  on  the  trial  of  a 
peer. 

It  was  formerly  resolved  by  the  house  of 
lords,  that  a  peer  of  Scotland]  claiming  and 
having  a  right  to  sit  in  the  Hritish  house  of 
peers  had  no  right  to  vote  in  the  election  of 
the  sixteen  Scotch  peers  ;  but  it  seems  now 
settled,    •  ■        ■ 

( 


settled,  that  a  Scotch  peer,  made  a  peer  of 
(jreat  Brit,  in,  has  a  right  to  vote  in  the  elec- 


tion of  the  s'xteen  Scotch  peers ;  and  that 
it  any  of  the  sixteen  Scotch  peers  are  cieated 
peers  of  Great  I'.ritain,  they  tli'-reby  cease  to 
sit  as  representatives  of  the  Scotch  peeras'-, 
and  new  Scotch  peers  must  be  elected  in 
their  ro  ini. 

SCKEiV.     See  Mechanics. 

Screw,    Archimedfi:' .      See    Hydrav- 

LTCS.     ■ 

SCHIKWG,  in  joinery,  &c.  is  a  term  us,  d 
when  one  side  of  a  piece  of  stuif  is  to  be  fit- 
ted to  another  that  is  irregular.  In  order  to 
make  these  join  close  all  the  way  they  scrili- 
it,  that  is,  they  lay  the  piece  to  be  scribid 
close  to  liie  otl^er  they  intend  to  scr.be  it  t  ■. 
I  and  opening  their  compasses  to  the  wide-t 
I  distance  these  two  pieces  stand  from  fach 
other,  they  bear  the  point  of  ofie  of  the  legs 
I  a,^ainst  the  side  they  intend  to  scribe  to,  .-lad 
with  the  other  pn:nt  draw  a  line  o.i  the  sli  r'l 
to  be  scribed.  Thus  they  lorm  a  Ine  on  li  ■ 
irregular  piece  parallel  to  the  edge  of  II  ■ 
regular  one;  and  if  the  stutf  is  cut  exacilv 
to  the  line,  when  tiiese  jiieces  are  put  log' 
ther  they  will  seem  a  joint. 

SCRIPTURE.  All  profane  scoffing  at  t!-- 
holy  scripture,  or  exposing  any  part  tlicreni 
to  contempt  or  ridicule,  is  punishable  by  liiu 
and  imprisonment.  1  Haw.  7. 
SCROPHILA.  See  Mei.icixe. 
SCROPHULARIA,  Figwort  :  a  genu: 
of  the  angiospermia  order,  in  the  didynani  .: 
class  of  plants;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  40lh  order,  personala-. 
The  calyx  is  quin(|uefid  ;  the  corolla  almut 
globose,  and  resupinated  ;  the  capsule  bilocn- 
lar.  Tljere  are  'iU  species,  of  wliich  the  nio^t 
remarkable  are:  1.  Nodosa,  or  the  conniKni 
l'!;wi,rt,  which  grows  in  woods  and  hedgis. 
The  leaves  li.ive  a  fetid  smell  and  bitter  tasi.  . 
A  ilecoction  of  them  is  said  to  cure  hogs  .  ' 
the  measles.  .An  ointnient  made  of  the  n.i 
wa?  foniierlv  used  to  cure  the  piles  and  sci>_- 
phulous  sores,  but  is  at  present  out  of  prac- 
tice. '2.  Aqualica,  water-ligwort,  or  betoiiy. 
(lards  of  the  coin,  of  weights  and  measures,  I  It  .grows  on  the  sides  of  rivulets  and  other  wet 
shall  be  reduced  to  those  of  England,  !  places,  and  has  a  fetid  smell,  tliongh  not  so 
tlironghout  the  united  kingiloms.  The  laws  strong  as  the  preceding.  The  leaves  are 
relating  to  the  trade,  customs,  and  the  excise,  |  used  in  medicine  as  a  corrector  of  senna,  and 
shall  be  the  same  in  Scotland  as  in  England  ;  '  in  powder  to  promote  sneezing.  3.  Scoro- 
but  all  the  other  laws  ot  Scotland  shall  remain  I  dmii.i,  or  balm-haved  figworl.  It  grows  on 
in  force,  though  al.erable  by  the  parliament  the  banks  of  rivulets,  &c.  in  Cornwall.  4. 
ol  Great  liritain  ;  and   particul.irly   laws  re-    \  ernalis,   or   mellow  ligwort.      It   grows   in 


lilting  to  pubiic  I'ohcy,  are  alterable  at  the 
discretion  of  parlianieut ;  laws  relating  lo 
private  right  an:  njt  to  be  altered,  but  for 
the  evident  utility  of  the  people  of  .Gotland. 
Sixteen  peers  are  to  be  chosen  lo  represent 
the  peerage  of  Scodand  in  parliament,  and 
fort) -live  members  to  sit  in  Ihe  house  of  coni- 
luoiis.  U 


hedges  in  Surry. 

SCKOTl  M.     See  An-atomv. 

SCKUl'l.E,  a  weiiiht  equal  to  the  third 
part  of  a  drachm,  or  lo  twenty  grains.     See 

\\  KIGHT. 

StTEPrrUE.  Sctdpture  is  en  art,  in 
which,  by  means  of  taking  away,  or  adding  to, 
matter,  all  sorts  of  figures  are  formed,  ejlhur 


SCL'r.ITURF.. 


flai 


wood,  marble  or  otlier stones. 


iBcl.iyor  wa^ 
or  uic'.iil. 

The  ail  of  scuIijUiri-,  in  its  most  extensive 
eense^oinprijlu'iiMS  not  only  c.irving  in  wooil, 
stone,  or  niiubli-,  l)ut  also  enchasing,  en- 
graving ill  all  its  kinds,  and  casting  in  liroiize, 
or  lead,  wax,  and  piaisler  of  Paris,  as  well  as 
niodelling  in  elay,  \»a>c,  or  stU(X(). 

All  those  are  branches  of  sciil|)turc  (of 
which  we  shall  occasionally  maLo  mention)  ; 
but  as  they  arc  ranf>ed  in  their  res|jetlive 
practice,  nndcr  dilFerenl  denominations,  we 
pro))ose  to  treat  here  principally  of  the  lirst 
branch  (and  chiefly  ol  carvnig  m  stone  and 
marl)!e,  uhicli  is  at  prcs.Mit  pi'cniiarly  con- 
sidered as  the  sculptor's  art),  anil  of  its  neees-^ 
eary  preliminary,  motlelling  in  cl.iy  or  wax. 

Foiucrs  of  sruljitiirc.  .Sculpture  is-  not 
only  able,  in  common  with  other  imit:!tive 
arts,  to  express  the  forms  of  visible  objects 
and  the  conceptions  of  the  mind,  but  it  pos- 
sesses this  supeiior  di-tinction,  that  by  means 
of  its  various  branches,  it  is  eminently  capa- 
ble of  transmitting  the  most  durable  records 
of  men's  actions  to  distant  a;^es.  Were  it 
not  tor  this  art,  we  should  at  the  present 
moment  be  ignorant  ot  every  event  which 
has  distini!;uished  the  course  of  time  in  the 
long  pericjd  of  iMrtlily  existence  ;  at  lea>t  our 
only  knowledge  wouhl  be  gathered  from  tra- 
dition, whose  fallacy  and  inaccm-acy  are  every 
hour  evinced.  Without  this  art,  we  could 
form  no  conjecture  of  th(^  permanency  or 
variation  even  of  human  lorms,  much  less  of 
human  passions  and  taste  ;  nor  is  it  to  be 
forgotten,  that  the  (ir>t  communication  of  tlie 
laws  of  God  was  made  to  th.;  Israelites  by  the 
liieajis  of  sculpture. 

The  art  of  sculptiu'e,  like  its  sister,  paint- 
ing, is  imitative,  nut  for  t!ie  gralihcation  of 
the  eve  only,  but  also  of  the  intellect.  It  is 
capable  of  expressing  all  forms  that  fall  under 
our  inspection,  and  aUo  of  conveying  more 
select  ex|)ressioriS  of  beauty  than  are  to  be 
found,  either  by  ordinary  observation,  or 
are  generally  united  in  one  body,  and  which 
are  therefore  called  ideal  forms. 

Sculpture,  in  its  conlined  and  proper  sense 
(in  which  we  here  pro|ios"d  to  tre.it  of  it), 
divides  itself  into  the  <-arving  of  bas-ri'liefs, 
and  of  statues,  or  group>  :  and  its  produc- 
tions mav  be  classed  giMierally,  like  those 
of  ])ainting,  under  the  respective  terms, /;/«- 
tcvicid,  alliV^orical,  poiiniiture,  &c.  See 
Painting. 

Bas-relief  has  been  already  described  (see  I  ^ ,V j' 
Rkltevo).  Works  of  this  kind  seem  to 
have  been  invented  for  the  purpose  of  repre- 
senting subji'cts  of  history  or  fancy,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  a  species  of  [)ainting  in  stone. 
They  are  chietlv  used  to  adorn  the  pedi- 
ments, friezes,  and  pannels  of  buildings,  as 
well  as  tlie  pedestals  of  statues,  &c. 

Statues  are  delined  to  be  figures  in  full  or 
insulated  relievo.  They  are  of  various  de- 
scriptions. (See  St.atues.)  They  have 
chieily  been  employed  for  the  ))urposcs  ef 
religious  worship,  as  among  the  heathen  na- 
tions and  the  Roman-catholics  ;  and  for  the 
commemoration  of  heroic  characters,  or  of 
men  distiiigviished  by  any  remarkable 
achievements. 

Groups  are  an  assemblage  and  union  of 
statues,  and  are   generally  employed  to  the 
same  purposes  as  single  statues. 
Of  the  methods  of  sludy.    The  studies  ne- 


cessary for  the  young  si:uli)lor,  towards  the  of  T.ui  iillas  obained  a  liiglirr  degree  of  re- 
attainment  of  his  art,  are  so  simlkr  to  those  pulation  by  his  ciay  models,  than  by  all  his 
which    form  the   painter   (with   the  obvious    other  productions.. 

exceptions  arising  from  the  dillerencc  of ,  Clay  was,  theivlore,  th«;  lirst  material  em- 
materials  employed  in  the  two  arts),  that'  ployed  by  the  Grecian^  in  statuary;  an  in- 
very  little  remains  here  to  be  enlarged  on,  stance  ot  whicli  m:iy  be  seen  in  a  '"giirc  of 
under  the  head  of  studies.  The  principal 
aciprhitions  to  which  (he  student  must  direct 
Ills  endeavours^  are,  a  knowledge  of  compo- 
sition, form   (including   an.itomy),   and    ex- 


pression ;  to  whicii,  as  in  painting,  must  be 
added  the  dilllcult  study  of  grace,  'i'hcse 
have  been  alrea<ly  treated  of,  under  the  ar- 
ticles p  liiiting,  de-ign  or  drawing,  and  ex- 
pression, hee  J)uAwi.\"G,  ExriiEssioN, 
and  PaiNTInc;. 

The  method  of  study  most  reconmiended 
to  young  sculptors  is.  to  begin  witii  cvipying, 
and  end  with  rivalling,  the  forms  of  the 
Greek  statues. 


"  \'os  exemplaria  Gr;eca 


Nocturna  versate  manu,  versate  diiirna;' 
savs  Dn  Kresnoy :  nor  can  it  be  cpiestioued 
that  the  sculptors  are,  generally  spe-aking, 
the  salest  guides  to  the  study  of  nature,  lint 
it  should  not  i)ass  imnoticerl,  that  although 
the  lorms  of  the  Greek  sculpture  are,  in  ge- 
neral, not  only  more  beautiful,  but  more  ap- 
])ropriatelv  so  than  any  other  ;  yet  in  some 
instances  they  have  been  surpassed  by  mo- 
dern scul|)tors,  as  in  the  forms  of  infants  by 
Flamingo.     See  Statu es,  utUiijue. 

Ths  method  of  execution  in  the  (Jreek 
statues  and  other  works  of  sculpture,  seems 
to  have  been  <  xtremely  dili'erent  from  that 
which  is  generally  in  use  among  modern  art- 
ists. In  thi;  antient  statues,  «:•  frequcHlly 
find  striking  proofs  of  the  freedom  and  bold- 
ness tliat  accompanied  each  stroke  of  the 
I  chisel,  and  which  resulted  from  the  artist's 
being  peifectly  sure  of  the  accuracy  of  the 
method  which  he  pursued.  ICven  in  the  most 
minute  pans  of  the  figure,  no  indication  of 
timorousness  or  diffidence  appears  ;  nothhig 
that  can  hiduce  us  to  believe,  that  th.'  artist 
fe.tred  he  might  have  occasion  to  correct  his 
strokes.  It  is  difficult  to  find,  even  in  the 
second-rate  iiroductions  of  the  Grecian  art- 
ists, any  mark  of  a  false  st  oke  or  a  random 
touch.  This  firmness  and  precision  of  the 
Grecian  chisel,  were  certainly  derived  from  a 
more  determined  and  perfect  set  of  rules, 
than  those  of  which  we  are  masters. 

Besides  studying,  therefore,  in  the  produc- 
tions of  the  Greiian  masters,  their  choice 
expression  of  select  nature,  whether 
beautiful,  sublime,  or  graceful,  together  with 
that  sedate  grandeur  and  si.iiplicity  vs'hich 
pervade  all  their  works,  the  artist  will  do 
well  to  investigate  the  manual  and  mechani- 
cal part  of  their  operations,  as  this  may  lead 
to  the  perception  of  their  mode  of  progress. 

It  is  certain  that  the  autienls,  almost  always 
formed  their  first  models  in  wax  ;  to  this 
modern  artists  have  substituted  clay,  which 
they  prefer  on  account  of  its  yielding  nature, 
and  its  sticking  in  some  measure  to  every 
thing  it  touches.  AV'e  must  not,  however, 
imagine  from  hence,  that  the  method  of  form- 
ing models  of  wet  clay,  was  either  unknown 
or  neglected  among  the  Greeks ;  on  the 
contr.iry,  it  was  in  Greece  that  models  of 
this  kind  were  invented.  Their  author  is 
said  by  Pliny  to  have  been  Dibutades,  of 
Sicvon  ;  and  by  others  Kha;cus,  of  Samos ; 
and  it  is  well  known  that  Arcelaus,  the  friend 


All  amenes  in  bas-relief,  in  (lie  Villa  Ailiani. 
The  antients  used  their  fingers,  and  especially 
their  nails,  to  render  certain  parts  more  deli- 
cate and  lively  ;  hence  aro'-e  the  ))hrase,  ail 
tinguem  (actus  homo,  "  an  acc(;m])rtshed 
man."  Itv.asdie  nj/inion  of  count  C'ayliis, 
that  the  antients  did  I'lol  use  models  in  torm- 
ing  tlieir  statues.  P,ut  to  disprove  (his,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  mention  an  engraving  on 
a  stone,  in  llie  cabin.-t  of  Ilosch,  whicli  re- 
|ire>ents  Pioniethens  engraving  llie  figure  pf 
a  man,  with  a  plummet  in  his  liand,  to  mea- 
sure the  proportions  of  his  model. 

As  soon  as  the. artist  has  rendered  himself 
familiarly  acnuainted  with  the  beauties  of 
(he  (jrecian  statues,  and  formed  his.t.e.te  on 
tiie  a<lmirable  models  they  exhibit,  he  may 
then  proceed  with  advanl.ige  and  a-surancc 
to  the  imitation  of  nature,  'llie  ideas  lie 
has  already  form.d  of  the  perfection  of ''na- 
ture, by  observing  lier  dispersed  beauties 
combined  and  collected  in  the  composition* 
of  the  aiitii-nl  arti-,Ls,  \iill  enable  him  to  ac- 
quire with  facility,  and  to  employ  with  ad- 
vantage, the  detached  and  partial  ideas  of 
beauty  which  will  be  exhibited  to  his  view 
in  a  "survey  of  nature,  in  her  actual  stale. 
\Miep  he  discovers  these  partial  beauties,  he 
will  lie  capable  of  eoml)ining  them  witli 
those  periect  forms  of  beauty,  wilh  which  he 
is  already  ac<iuainled.  In  a  word,  by  hav- 
ing always  present  to  liis  mind  the  noble 
models  airrady  mentioned,  he  will  form  an 
accurate  judgment  of  ihe  powers  of  his  art, 
and  will  diaw  rules  from  liis  own  niind. 

There  are,  however,  two  ways  of  imitating 
nature.  In  the  one,  a  single  object  occupies 
the  artist,  who  endeavouis'lo  repr.'sent  it  w  itli 
precision  and  truth;  in  the  other,  certain 
lines  and  features  are  taken  from  a  variety 
of  objects,  and  combined  and  blended  into 
one  regular  whole.  All  kinds  of  copies  be- 
long to  the  first  kind  of  imitation  ;  and  pro- 
ductions of  this  sort  must  necessarily  be  exe- 
cuted in  a  confined  and  servile  manner,  with 
high  fini.shing,  and  little  or  r.o  invention. 
But  the  second  kind  of  imitation  leads  di- 
rectly to  the  invcstigalion  and  discovery  of 
true  beauty,  of  that  beauty  whose  perfect 
idea  isonlv  to  be  found  within  the  mind. 

Of  the  ilitfiriiit  tnodf-s  of  prncc.tn  in. sculp- 
ture.— \\ orks  of  scul'plure  are  perforiiKnl, 
either  by  liollowing  or  e.xcavating,  as  in  me- 
tals, agates,  and  oliier  pre<iou5  stones,  and 
in  marbles  of  every  description  ;  pr  by  work- 
ing in  relief,  as  in  bas-reliefs  in  tlie  materia 
als  just  mentioned,  or  in  statues  in  metal, 
day,  wooil,  wax,  marble,  or  stone. 

The  excavation  of  precious  stones  forms  a 
particular  branch  of  art  called  intaglio^ 
which,  together  with  the  working  them  ia 
relievo,  wIk  n  the  term  camayeu  is  appUed  to 
them,  belongs  to  the  art  of  seal-engraving. 
See  Engraving. 

The  excavation  of  metals  constitutes  the 
art  of  cngra\  ing,  in  its  various  branches,  oa 
metal  of  any  kind  ;  and  its  relief  comprises 
enc4iasina,  casting  in  bronze,  &c. 

Of  the  last  only,  viz.  casting  in  bronze, 
we  take  this  opportunity  of  observing,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  accQuut  given  under  the-  heai 


bropzes,  tliat  a  •■iglily  iinprovfil  ir.elliod 
has  latel)'  been  put  in  [)  uctice  by  i'>ro:essor 
Zamier,  an  eminent  SL'ulptor  at  \'ieinia,  in 
the  castinj;  of  an  equestrian  statue  of  tlie 
empei-or  Joseph  If.  'Hie  student  may  find 
an  accurate  detail  of  Zannei^'s  mode  of 
process,  iu  the  Aeadeniic  Annals  of  Painting, 
&:c.  publisbed  L-y  the  royal  academy  of  Lon- 
don. 

\V'>  proceed,  as  before  proposed,  to  the 
other  more  immediate  and  proper  parts  of 
the  sculptor's  art. 

The  process  of  hollowing  hard  stone  or 
marble,  wiil  need  no  particular  description  ; 
t'Speciolly  as  it  is  now  wholly  in  disuse,  ex- 
cept tor  {he  forming  of  letters  in  monument- 
al or  other  inscriptions. 

In  working  in  relief,  the  process  is  ncces- 
•arily  dillen-nt,  according  to  the  materiajs 
in  wjilcii  the  work  is  perforn:ed. 

As  not  only  the  beginning  of  sculpture 
was  in  clay,  for  the  purpose  of  furmnig  sta- 
tue*, but  as  models  are  still  made  in  clay  or 
■wax,  for  every  work  undertaken  by  tiie 
sculptor  ;  we  shall  first  consider  the  method 
of  modelling  figures  in  clay  or  wax. 

Few  tools  are  necessary  for  modelling  in 
clay.  'I  Ik'  clay  being  placed  on  a  stand  or 
sculptor's  ease!,  the  arl:st  beaiiis  the  work 
with  his  hands,  and  pv.li  the  whole  into  form 
by  the  same  means.  The  most  expert  prac- 
titioners of  tliis  art  seldom  use  any  other 
tool  than  their  lingers,  except  in  such  small 
or  sliarp  parts  of  their  work  as  the  fingers 
tunnotieach.  For  these  occasions,  they  are 
provided  with  three  or  four  small  tools  of 
wood,  abOiit  seven  or  eight  inches  in  length, 
which  are  rounded  at  one  end,  and  at  the 
ether  flat  and  shaped  into  a  sort  of  claws. 
These  tools  are  called  by  the  French  ebau- 
ciioirs.  In  some  of  these  the  claw-s  are 
smooth,  for  the  purpose  of  smoothing  the 
surface  of  the  model ;  and  in  others  are 
made  with  teeth,  to  rake  or  scratch  the  clay, 
v<hich  is  the  first  process  of  the  tool  on  tlie 
work,  and  in  which  state  many  parts  of  the 
nio<lel  arc  frequently  left  by  artisis,  to  give 
an  appearance  of  freedom  and  skill  to  their 
work. 

If  clay  could  be  made  to  preserve  its  origi- 
nal moisture,  it  would  iindoubtedly  be  tlie 
fittest  substance  for  the  models  of  the  sculp- 
tor ;  but  when  it  is  placed  eitlier  in  the  fire, 
nf  left  to  dry  imperceptibly  in  the  air,  its 
■olid  parts  grow  more  compact,  and  the 
work  shrinks,  or  loses  a  part  of  its  dimen- 
sions. This  diminution  in  size  woiiUI  be  of 
no  consequence,  if  it  affected  the  whole  work 
etjuallv,  so  as  to  preserve  its  proportions. 
I'iUt  this  is  not  always  the  case :  for  the 
smaller  parts  of  the  figure  drying  sooner  (li:m 
the  larger;  and  thus  losing  more  of  their  di- 
mensions in  the  same  space  of  time,  than  the 
latter  do;  the  symniclry  anil  proportions  ol 
the  work  inevitably  snfler. 

This  inconvenience,  however,  is  obviated 
by  forming  the  model  first  in  clay,  and  mould- 
ing it  in  plaistcr  of  Paris  before  it  begins  to 
dry,  and  the  taking  a  plaister  cast  from  that 
mouhl,  and  the  reijaiiing  it  carefully  from 
the  original  work  ;  by  which  moans  you  have 
tlie  exact  counterpart  of  the  model  in  its  most 
perfect  state  ;  and  you  have,  liesidcs,  your 
clav  at  liberty  for  any  other  work. 

fn  order  to  model  in  wax,  you  must  prepare 
the  «axin  the  following  manner:  to  a  pound 
«f  wax  add  half  a  pound  of  «cammony  (some 


SCVhVTVn?.., 

mix  (urpeiiiine  also),  and  melt  the  whole  to- 
gether with  ol  of  olives;  putting  more  or 
lesS  oil  as  you  would  have  your  modelling 
wax  harder  or  solter.  V"rmilion  is  some- 
times mixed  with  this  composition,  to  give 
it  a  reddisii  colour,  in  imitation  of  llesh. 

In  modelling  in  wax,  the  artist  sometimes 
u-.es  his  fingers,  and  sometimes  tools  of  the 
same  sort  as  those  described  tiir  motiellmg 
in  clay.  It  is  at  first  more  difficult  to  model 
in  wax  than  in  clay,  but  practice  will  render 
it  familiar  and  easy. 

Of  the  use  cf  till;  model.  Whatever  con- 
siderable work  is  undertaken  by  the  sculptor, 
whether  basn'lief,  or  statue,  &c.  if  is  always 
requisite  to  fonii  a  previous  model,  of  the 
same  size  as  the  intended  work  ;  and  the 
model  being  ])orfecled,  acconliiig  to  the 
method  before  described,  whether  it  is  in 
clay,  or  in  wax,  or  a  cast  in  ;jlaister  of 
Piris,  becomes  the  rule,  whereb\  the  arli-t 
guides  himself  in  the  conduct  of  his  work, 
and  the  standard  from  which  he  takes  all  its 
measurements,  in  order  to  ref-ulate  himself 
more  coi  recti v  by  it,  h.;  puts  over  fl'.e  head 
of  the  model  an  immoveable  circle,  divided 
into  degrees,  v.ilh  a  moveable  rule  fastened 
ill  the  centre  of  the  circle,  and  likewise  di- 
vided into  parts.  I'rom  the  extremity  of 
tlie  rule  hangs  a  line  \\  illi  a  lead,  which  di- 
rects him  in  taking  all  the  points,  which  are 
to  be  transferred  from  tlie  model  to  tlie 
marble  ;  and  from  the  top  of  the  marble  is 
hung  also  a  line,  tallying  with  that  which 
is  luing  from  the  model ;  by  t^e  correspond- 
ence of  which  two  lines,  the  points  are  as- 
certained in  the  marble. 

Maiiy  eminent  sculptors  prefer  measure- 
ments taken  by  the  cotnpasses  to  the  method 
just  described';  for  this  reason,  that  if  the 
model  is  moved  but  ever  so  little  from  its 
level,  the  points  are  no  longer  the  same. 

This  method,  however,  offers  the  best 
means,  by  which  mc^chunical  precision  may 
be  attained  ;  but  it  is  manifest,  that  enough 
yet  remains  to  exercise  and  display  tliq 
genius  and  skill  of  ihe  artist.  I''or,  first,  as 
It  is  impossible,  by  the  means  of  a  itraight 
line,  to  determine  with  precision  the  pro- 
cedure of  a  curve,  the  artist  derives  from  this 
method  no  certain  rule  to  guide  him,  as  often 
as  the  line  which  he  is  to  describe  cleviates 
from  the  direclion  of  the  plumb  line.  It  is 
aUo  evident,  that  this  method  affords  no 
certain  rule  to  determine  exactly  the  propor- 
tion, which  the  various  parts  of  the  figure 
ought  to  bear  to  each  other,  considered  in 
their  mutual  relation  and  connections.  This 
defeet,  indeed,  may  be  parlly  supplied  by 
intersecting  the  plumb-liiifs  l)y  horizontal 
ones;  but  even  this  resource  has  its  incon- 
venii-nces  ;  since  the  squares  fuimed  by 
transveisal  lines  that  are  ;;t  a  disl«nce  from 
the  figure  (though  they  are  exactly  equal), 
yet  represent  Ihe  parts  of  the  figure  as  greater 
or  sm.iller,  according  as  tluy  are  more  or 
less  removed  from  our  point  of  view. 

UJ  snilplKTviK  wood,  A  sculptor  in  wood 
should  first  lake  care  to  choose  wood  ol  the 
best  quality,  and  the  most  [jropcT  for  flu-  work 
which  he  I'ntends  to  execute.  Il  lie  under- 
lakes  a  large  work,  requiring  strength  and 
solidity,  he  ought  to  choose  the  hardest  wood, 
and  that  whicli  keeps  best,  as  oak  and  ches- 
mit;  but  for  works  of  moderate  size,  jK-ar 
or  apple-tree  serve  very  well.  As  even  tliese 
latter  woods  are  still  ofcoiisidcrable  hardness. 


if  the  work  consists  only  of  delicate  ornaments. 
the  artist  will  find  it  preferable  to  t.ike  some 
more  tender  wood,  provided  it  is  at  the  same 
time  firm  and  close ;  as,  for  instance,  the  In- 
daii  tree,  which  is  excellent  for  this  purpose, 
as  the  chisel  cms  It  more  neatly  and  easily 
than  any  other  wood. 

The  ancients  made  statues  out  of  almost 
evcfry  duferent  kind  of  wood.  At  Sicyou 
was  a  statue  of  Apollo,  made  of  box  ;  'll;e 
statue  of  Diana  at  Ejihesus,  was  of  cedar. 
As  these  two  sorts  of  wood  are  extremely 
hard  rti;dundec.-ying;  and  as  cedar,  in  pjr- 
licular,  is  of  sucii  a  nature,  that,  according 
to  Pliny,  it  ought  never  to  come  to  an  end  , 
the  aniients  pixi'ened  them  for  tJie  images 
of  their  divinities. 

In  the  temple  built  on  mount  Cyllene  hi 
honour  of  MercuiA,  Pausajiias  itlat'os,  tiiat 
l!;ere  was  a  :ta1uecjl  that  god  mad?  of  citron- 
wood,  eight  feet  in  height  This  wood  was 
also  irtiicli  esteemed. 

The  cypress  likewise,  being  a  wood -not 
apt  to  spoil,  nor  to  be  damaged  by  woims, 
was  also  used  for  slatues  ;  as  were  the  palm- 
tree,  olive,  and  eliony,  of  wh.ch  latter,  at- 
cording  to  Pliny's  account,  tliere  vras  another 
statue  ot  Diana  at  F.i)!.esus. 

Several  otiier  kinds  of  wood  were  equally 
employed  for  ihis  purpose,  even  llie  vine, 
of  which  the  same  author  says,  there  were 
statues  of  J  uuiter^  Juno,  and  D'iana. 

FeJibicn  speaivs  of  a  Fiench  artist  at  Flo- 
rence, of  the  name  of  Jaiini,  who  executed 
several  statues  in  wood,  in  a  style  o.  finishing 
equal  to  marble,  and  particularly  one  ot  St. 
Kocque,  which  Vaaari  considered  as  a  mar- 
vellcxis  pri)diiction. 

The  beauty  of  sculpture  in  wood  consists 
in  tlie  tender  manner  of  cutting  the  wood, 
tree  from  all  appearance  of  hardness  or  dry- 
ness. 

For  any  work  of  large  dimensions,  even 
though  it  consists  of  a  single  figure,  it  is  better 
to  join  together  several  smaller  pieces  of 
wood  than  to  make  the  whole  of  a  single 
large  piece  ;  which  is  more  able  to  warp  and 
track,  on  account  of  its  not  being  always  dry 
at  heart,  although  it  appears  perfectly  dry  on 
the  outride. 

No  wood  ran  be  properly  fit  for  works  of 
this  kind,  that  has  not  beeii  cut  at  least  ten 
years  before. 

The  fools  used  for  sculpture  in  wood,  are 
the  same  as  those  of  the  joiner  or  cabinet- 
maker. 

Of  .tculpiure  in  stone  mid  marble.  For 
sculpture  in  marble  and  other  stone,  the  art- 
ist must  make  use  oi  tools  of  good  steel,  well 
tempi  led,  and  of  strength  proportioned  to 
the  haiclness  of  the  material. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is,  to  saw  out 
from  a  larger  block  of  marble,  a  block  pro- 
portioned to  Ihe  size  ot  the  work  which  is 
undertaken.  .Micr  this,  Ihe  sculptor  shajies 
the  gross  musses  ot  the  forms  he  designs  to 
represent,  by  knocking  ciff  the  superfluous 
parts  of  marble  with  a  strong  mallet  or  bed, 
and  a  sir. iiig  steel  tool  called  a  point. 

When  the  block  is  thus  hewn  out  agrpo* 
ably  toihe  nu-a^ures  previously  taken  foV  the 
porformauce  of  the  work,  the  sculptor  brings 
It  nearer  to  the  inti-nded  form  by  means  of'a 
liner  point ;  and  some-times  of  a  tool  callfd  a 
clog's  tooth,  having  two  points,  but  less  sharp 
thai|i  the  single  one, 


.  ■  Aftci' (IiK  he  uses  the  umliiic,  \slii!li  is  a 
(lilt  cutting  tool,  with  lliree  lectii,  Ijul  is  not 
SO  strung  HS  llu'  point. 

iiaving  auvani-fd  liif.  work  will)  tlie  "radinc, 
he  u^es  tiie  tliisel  to  tuke  olt  the  ridges  Icll  Ijy 
tiie  toniicf  tools;  and  by  liic  dexterous  and 
dolicale  nse  oi  tliis  instrument,  Iil-  gives  soit- 
lii'^s  anil  tundirnc-s-.  to  the  tignre,  till  at 
lengili,  l)_\  taking  a  nisp,  wl.icli  is  a  soit  ol 
file,  he  brin^s  ln»  work  uilo  a  propL-r  htute 
foi  being  pukshtd. 

Kasps  arc  of  several  kinds,  some  ■ilrai^lit, 
some  cur\ed,  and  sjnie  lurder  or  soiter  th.ni 
otliers. 

W'lien  Ike  sf  iilplor  Iras  thus  far  Iniished  his 
,  work  with  the  b^'st  tools  h,;  can  pn  cure, 
tvlierover  ceriain  parts  oi'  particu.ar  works 
reciuire  polishing,  lie  uses  pumice-stone  to 
make  all  the  pans  smooili  and  even.  lie 
then  goes  over  them  wiiii  Iripoli,  and  when 
lie  would  give  a  sti'l  higher  glo.ss,  he  n.'bs 
tlieni  with  leather  and  slraw-aslies. 

Besidi's  the  tools  already  mentioned, 
sculplors  use  also  the  pick,  which  is  a  small 
Jianimcr  pointed  at  o;ie  end,  and  at  the  otiier 
formed  with  teeth  made  of  good  steel  and 
squared,  to  render  them  the  stronger.  This 
serves  to  break  tlic  marble,  and  is  used  in 
all  places  wliere  the  two  hands  cannot  be  eiu- 
j)kiyed  to  manage  the  hiallet  and  chisel. 

The  boiicliar'd,  which  is  a  piece  of  iron, 
well  steeled  at  the  bottom,  and  formed  into 
several  strong  and  short  points  like  a  diamond, 
is  usei)  for  making  a  hole  of  equal  dimensions, 
which  cannot  be  done  with  cutting  tools.  The 
boiichard  is  driven  with  the  mallet  or  beetle, 
and  it^  points  bruise  the  marble  and  reduce  it 
lo  powder.  Water  is  thrown  into  the  hole 
from  time  lo  time,  in  proportion  to  the  deptli 
that  is  m.ide,  to  bring  out  the  dust  of  the  mar- 
ble, and  to  prevent  the  tool  from  healing, 
which  would  destroy  its  temper ;  for  tlie 
fi-ee-^tone  dust  on  which  tools  are  edged,  is 
only  iiioisteiied  with  water  to  prevent  the 
iron  from  h.aling  and  taking  olT  the  temper 
of  the  tool  by  being  rubbed  dry ;  and  the 
trepans  are  wetted  for  the  same  reason. 

The  sculptor  uses  the  bouchard  to  bore  or 
pierce  such  purls  of  his  work  as  the  chisel 
cannot  reacli  without  danger  of  spoiling  or 
breaking  them.  In  using  it,  he  passes  it 
through  a  piece  of  leather,  which  leather 
covers  the  hole  ni.de  by  the  bouchard,  and 
prevents  tlie  water  from  spirting  up  in  his 
face. 

The  other  tools  necessary  for  sculpture  on 
marble  or  stone,  are  tlie  roundel,  wnleh  is  a 
sort  of  rounded  chisel;  the  houguet,  which 
is  a  chisel  squared  and  pointed;  and  various 
compasses  to  take  the  requisite  measures. 

The  process  of  sculnlnre  in  stone  is  the 
same  as  in  marble,  e^cep'.ing  that  the  ma- 
terial being  less  iiard  than  marble,  the  tools 
used  are  n;it  so  strong,  and  some  of  them  are 
of  a  different  lorm,  as  the  rasp,  the  hand-saw, 
the  ripe,  the  straight  chisel  w^ith  three  teeth, 
the  roundel,  and  the  grater. 

If  the  work  is  e\eeuted  in  free-stone,  tools 
are  eniplo\ed  which  are  made  on  purpose,  as 
the  free-stone  is  apt  to  scale,  autl  does  not 
work  like  hard  stoueor  maible. 

Sculptors  in  stone  have  commonly  a  bowl 

ia  which  they  keep  a  powder  composed  of 

plaisterof  Paris,  inixetl  with  the  same  stone  in 

which  th''ir   work    is  i:Nccuted.     With  this 

I  somposition  they  till  up  the  small  holes,  and 

Vol.  If. 


IT  pair  the  defects  which  they  meet   with  in 
tlie  stone  itself. 

HISTORY    OF    SCUI.rTURE. 

AitlLnl  art. 
'I'he  art  of  sculpture  is  of  such  immemo- 
rial aiiti(|uily,  that  it  has  been  by  some  con- 
ceived lo  li.ive  had  'Is  .being  tVom  eternity  ; 
but  with  /ut  regarding  it  in  this  e.\alli-d  light, 
Jit.  Augustin  has  attributed  a  dale  t)  its  in- 
vention as  early  as  the  time  of  the  Proloplast, 
our  common  tiitljer  ,'\d.tm,  who,  he  aliirnls, 
was  the  invi'iitor  of  letters.  Sculpture,  tiiere- 
lon-,  may  trace  its  pedigree  Irom  tlie  infancy 
of  tlie  world,  and  contend  for  pre-eminence 
with  the  most  remote  antiquities  which  it  has 
been  employed  to  celebrate.  Joseplius,  Ce- 
drenus,  and  some  other  authors,  make  men- 
tion of  some  anlediiui  ia:i  scui|5lures  in  stone 
and  brick  erected  at  Joppa,  which  are  iin.;- 
giiied  to  have  contained  the  .>iystem  of  sidereal 
and  celestial  ,>cieiices,  and  to  have  remained 
uiiliurt  lor  some  thousands  of  years  after  the 
universal  cataclysm. 

Ciiam,  who  is  supposed  to  be  the  sameas 
Zoroaster,  is  spo.sen  of  by  the  author  of  tiic 
scholastic  work  on  Genesis,  as  having  en- 
graved the  liberal  arts  on  fourteen  columns, 
seven  of  brass,  and  seven  of  brick.  Serenus 
also  mentions  the  same  circumstance,  with 
this  vaiiation,  that  he  says  they  were  en- 
graved on  pkites  of  dil'l'erent  metals  (diver- 
sorum  inetallorum  lamiiiis). 

Concerning  tlie  art  of  sculpture  imme- 
diately alter  tiie  I'lood,  it  is  scarcely  to  be 
(piestioned  that  it  was  transmitted  by  Noah 
to  his  descendants.  Alx^ut  three  hundred 
years  after  the  Deluge,  .Mercurius  Trisme- 
gistus  reports  of  himself,  that  he  engraved 
his  most  abstruse  mysteries  on  stone,  reform- 
ing all  that  had  been  depraved  by  Cham. 
Some  of  these  records  were  in  letters,  some 
in  ligures  and  enigmatical  characters,  pro- 
bably not  unlike  tj  those  contained  in  the 
stupendous  obelisks  erected  by  Misra,  the 
lirst  Egyptian  Pliaraoh,  about  four  hundred 
years  (acconling  to  Kircher)  before  Moses. 

The  lirst  mention  that  is  made  of  the  art  of 
sculpture  in  the  writings  of  Moses,  is  in  the 
book  of  Genesis,  where  we  are  informed  that 
when  Jacob,  in  obedience  to  the  divine"  com- 
mand, was  returning  to  Canaan,  his  wile 
Rachel  carried  along  with  her  the  thera- 
phim,  or  idols,  of  her  father's  house.  These 
must  ceitainly  have  been  very  sinall  images, 
since  Hachel  found  it  so  ea-y  to  conceal  them 
from  her  father,  notwithstanding  his  anxious 
search;  but  we  are  ignorant  in  what  form 
they  were  made,  or  of  what  materials  they 
were  coniposed.  The  first  peisons  mentioned 
in  the  Bible  as  artists,  are  Aholiab  and  Be- 
zaleiH,  who  termed  the  cherubim  wliieh  co- 
vered the  mercy-seat,  and  wrought  the  orna- 
ments of  the  pectoral  to  be  worn  by  tlie  high 
[jriest. 

As  Chaldea,  therefore,  was  the  first  peo- 
pled region  of  the  earth  after  the  Flood,  and 
as  it  appears  iioni  various  accounts  that  the 
art  of  engraving  upon  bricks  baked  in  tlie 
sun  was  there  carried  to  a  considerable  degree 
of  perlection  at  a  very  early  period,  it  ap- 
pears highly  probable  that  the  Chaldeans  de- 
rived the  rudiments  of  the  art  of  sculpture 
immediately  from  their  antediluvian  an- 
cestors. 

The  origin  of  idolatrous  worship  is  gene- 
rally thought  lo  be  derived  from  images  first 
-i  L 


6«.5 

made  to  prrvM-.e  ihf  iiiemorv  of  the  dead, 
and,  in  process  of  time,  converted  by  tlic 
dallerers  of  groat  men  into  objects  of  ado- 
ration, 'lliis  al^o  aljijrds  presumptive  evi- 
dence that  llie  Cliaideaiis  were  the  first  who 
invented  the  art  of  hewing  blocks  of  wood 
and  stone  into  the  ligures  of  men  and  oth.-r 
animals;  for  the  Ciialdeans  were  iinquei- 
lioiiably  the  first  idolaters,  and  their  early 
progress  in  sculpture  is  ccniirmed  by  tin; 
united  testimoiiies  of  Bcrosus,  Alexander, 
Polyhistor,  Aj-ollod  irus,  and  Pliny. 

Against  this  cenclusion  some  ])lausible 
arguments  have  been  urged  on  the  authority 
of  a  th'-ory  established  by  a  French  writer, 
who  maintains  that  in  the  year  of  the  world 
194y,  about  3m  years  alter  the  Deluge,  the 
Scythians  under  Broiima,  a  descendant  of 
Magog,  extended  tlieir  conquests  over  the 
greater  part  of  Asia ;  and  that  Brouma  was 
Hot  only  ihecivilizer  of  India,  and  the  author 
of  the  iiraminical  doctrines,  but  alsodirt'used 
the  principlesof  the  Scythian  mythology  over 
F.gy|)t,  Phccnicia,  Greece,  and  "the  continent 
of  Asia. 

Leaving  the  consideration  of  this  question, 
as  too  (Atensive  for  our  present  purpose,  we 
shall  endeavour  to  trace  the  progress  of  the 
art  of  sculpture  through  some  olher  nations 
of  antiquity,  till  we  bring  it  to  Greece,  where 
it  was  carried  to  the  highest  perfection  to 
which  it  lias  yet  attained. 

Phoenicia,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
Chaldea,  must  necessarily  have  very  early 
acquirc<l  a  knowledge  of  sculpture'.  The 
Phaniciaiis  possessed  both  a  character  and 
situation  liiglily  favourable  to  the  ciiltivatioa 
of  this  ait.  'I  hey  beheld  the  mo4  beautiful 
models  in  their  own  persons,  and  their  in- 
dustrious character  qualilied  them  to  attaia 
jjerfection  in  every  art  (or  which  they  had  a 
taste.  But  as  their  situation  raised  a  spirit 
of  commerce,  it  is  at  all  times  questionable 
whether  commerce  induced  tlicm  to  cultivat* 
the  arls.  Their  temples  shone  with  stalues 
and  columns  of  gold,  and  a  prolusion  of 
emeralds  were  every  where  scattered;  but 
the  beauties  of  art  do  not  consist  in  finery  or 
ostentation  of  wealth.  The  greatest  works 
of  the  Phcenicians  have  been  unfortunatclr 
destroyed ;  many  Carthaginian  mcKlels  in- 
deed are  still  preserved,  ten  of  which  were 
dej>osited  in  the  cabinet  of  the  grand  duke 
of  Florence.  But  though  the  Carthaginians 
were  a  colony  of  PlKeiiiciaiis,  we  should  pro- 
bably deduce  from  their  works  a  very  uniaic 
estima'.e  of  the  merit  of  their  ancestors. 

^'ery  high  pretensions  to  antiquity  of  evenr 
kind  are  made  by  the  Persians  ;  but  we  do 
not  lind  that  they  ever  made  any  distinguish- 
ed figure  in  either  of  the  arts  of  sculpture  or 
painting.  They  were  indeed  sensible  to  the 
charms  of  beauty,  but  tlicy  did  not  study  to 
imitate  them,  'iheir  dress,  which  consisted 
of  long  flowing  robes,  concealing  tlie  whole, 
person,  prevented  them  from  attending  to  the 
beauties  of  form.  Their  religion  too,  which 
taught  them  lo  worship  the  divinity  in  the 
emblem  of  fire,  and  that  it  was  impious  to 
represent  him  under  a  human  form,  seemed 
almost  to  prohibit  the  exercise  of  this  art,  by 
taking  away  the  strongest  incentives  to  art 
during  the  reign  of  superstition ;  and  as  it 
was  not  customary  among  them  to  raise 
statues  to  great  men,  it  was  impossible  that 
btatiiar^'  could  tlourisli  in  Pei'sia, 


031 

;  The  Persians,  however,  i-qjreseiited  in 
llieir  bas-reliets  maiiy  symbolcal  expressions 
of  llie  powci-5  of  the  IJivinity,  as  well  as  of 
their  religious  ceremonies  or  heroic  achieve- 
ments. 'l"he  bas-reliefs  on  the  palace  of 
Persepolib  and  the  tombs  of  the  Persian  so- 
vere;gns,  are  arranged  in  horizontal  and  i)er- 
pendicular  lines,  answering  the  double  pur- 
pose of  description  and  archilectnral  deco- 
ration, 'ihe  style  of  drawing  in  these  bas- 
reliefs  resembles  that  of  later  hieroglyphicSj 
e.xcept  in  the  dresses  of  the  figures,'  which 
are  diiilrent  from  those  eillier  of  the  Egyp- 
tians or  Hindoos,  'liie  Persians  are  repre- 
sented with  long  beards  anil  ringlets,  caps,  full 
tunics,  with  regular  folds  and  large  sleeves. 
'J'he  Medes,  in  the  same  ruins  of  Persepolis, 
have  close  tunics.  The  draperv  in  these  bas- 
reliefs  is  superior  to  that  of  the  Egyptians,  as 
bearing  a  greater  resemblance  to  nature. 

In  Hiiidostan  and  Eg^pt  the  art  of  sculp- 
ture has  been  exercised  in  a  similar  manner 
in  the  shaping  or  adorning  large  rude  masses 
of  the  hardest  materials,  and  the  works  of 
these  two  nations  may  not  improperly  be 
considered  together.  The  reader  will  find 
some  accounts  of  their  sculpture  under  the 
article  ANXiQuixiES. 

In  India,  bas-reliefs  have  been  found  in 
jgreat  numbers  in  the  caves  of  Ellora  and 
iilephantis:  the  subjects  are  religions.  The 
drawing  of  the  figures  bears  a  strong  resem- 
Jilance  to  the  Egyptian  style,  but  they  are 
less  correct  in  the'ir  forms,  the  heads  being 
generally  very  large,  and  the  limbs  dispro- 
jjortioned  to  the  bodies.  It  may  be  ([uus- 
tioned,  from  the  gi-eater  simplicitv  of  execu- 
tion, whether  the  Kgyptian  hieroglyphics  are 
not  also  more  aiUienl  than  tlie  Hindoo  ;  thti 
ground  in  the  former  being  level  with  the 
nighest  relievo,  and  in  tlie  latter  cut  down  to 
tJie  lowest  outline  of  the  iigure. 
■ ,  The  character  and  style  of  design  among 
the  Egyptians  have  been  more  fully  noticed 
by  writers,  because  the  first  progiess  of  tlie 
art  among  that  people  is  conceived  to  eluci- 
date that  of  most  other  antient  nations. 

In  the  Egyptian  idols,  composed  of  parts 
of  different  animals,  each  part  appears  to 
have  been  distinctively  studied  fi-om  nature. 
In  the  human  figure,  the  body  and  limbs 
were  represented  by  general  forms:  the 
face,  as  being  the  most  interesting  part,  was 
wore  minutely  expressed.  The  form  of  a  face 
VHS  a  rounded  egg;  tlie  lines  of  the  eye-brows 
and  lids  were  simple  curves,  inclining  up- 
wards from  the  nose;  and  the  bottom  of  the 
nose  and  the  line  of  the  inoulli  were  also  in  a 
-Bimilardirettion.  The  <ye^  were  full,  nearly 
on  a  level  with  the  forehead  and  cheeks,  and 
the  lines  of  the  eye-brow?,  lids,  and  bordei-s 
of  the  lips,  marked  with  precision.  The  chin 
appears  small  and  bony,  the  neck  round,  the 
shouldurs  high  and  broad,  and  the  muscles  of 
the  breast  are  almost  thsfoiily  ones  that  are 
distinguished  iri  tli.r  whole  body.  The  loins 
are  narri>w,  the  limbs  in  genera!  round  and 
slender,  the  joints  slightly  indicated,  the 
hands  and  feet  flattisli,  and  the  (ingers  and 
toes  rounded  without  any  appearance  of 
jointii,  and  nearly  of  the  same  length.  This, 
with  the  allowance  of  some  national  pecu- 
liarities of  form,  may  serve  for  the  description 
of  early  tculpturc  in  general  among  thi; 
antienls. 
The  ([uadruped*  on  Kgyptian  monuments 


SCULPTUr.E. 

are  represented  in  profile,  and  in  the  sim- 
plest attitudes.  The  Kg)  ptians  excelled  nipre 
in  tliese  than  in  the  human  figure;  but  the 
aiiatomy  of  these  also  is  insufiicicnt  and  in- 
correct. The  lion  and  th"  sphinx  are  par- 
ticularly to  be  noticed  in  their  works. 

l"he  larger  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  (whether 
engraven  on  tiie  surjb.ce  of  their  architecture, 
or  on  the  forms  of  animals),  in  which  the 
figure  is  cut  or  sunk,  in  sncii  a  manner  that 
the  surface  of  the  ground  is  level  with  its 
highest  projection,  may  be  consitlered  as  a 
species  of  bas-relief,  more  simple,  and  conse- 
C|ueiitly  more  antient,  than  any  otiisr.  'I  he 
greater  part  of  their  temples,  and  other  pub- 
he  edifices,  were  covered  with  hieroglyphics, 
or  sacred  ligure-writing,  in  this  kind  of  bas- 
relief;  the  largest  of  which  formed  regular 
ornaments  in  the  friezes,  centres  over  tlie 
doors,  and  other  architectural  parts. 

Besides  the  hieroglyphics,  the  Egyptians 
worked  in  bas-relief,  with  the  ground  levelled 
to  the  lowest  part  of  the  figures.  In  these 
they  represented  the  great  actions  of  their 
heroes,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  palace  of 
Karnac,  engraved  by  Denon,  and  in  those 
flescrihed  in  the  Bird's  Well,  of  which  there 
is  a  specimen  in  the  hall  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum. 

Winckelmann  thought  he  discovered  two 
different  styles  of  Egyptian  scul|)ture,  which 
prevailed  at  diflerent  periods.  The  first  of 
these  ends  with  the  conquest  of  Egypt  bv 
Cambyses.  "^fhe  second  begins  at  that  time, 
and  extends  beyond  the  reign  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  In  the  first  style,  the  lines  are 
straight,  or  projecting  very  little ;  the  position 
is  stiff  and  unnatural.  In  silting  figures,  the 
legs  are  parallel,  the  feet  squeezed  together, 
and  the  arms  fixed  to  the  sides;  but  in  the 
figures  of  women,  the  left  arm  is  folded  across 
the  breast.  The  forms  of  the  head  and  body 
are  such  as  have  been  already  described.  The 
statues  of  men  are  naked,  excepting  only  that 
tliey  have  a  short  apron,  and  a  fi'v."  folds  of 
drapery  surrounding  their  waist.  The  vest- 
ments of  women  are  only  distingui^hable  by 
the  border  which  rises  a  "little  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  statue.  In  this  age  it  is  evident 
the  Egyptians  knew  little  of  drapery. 

Of  the  second  style  of  sculpture"  practised 
among  the  Egyptians,  Winckelmann  found 
specimens  in  the  two  figures  of  basaltes  in  the 
capitol,  and  in  another  figure  m  (lie\'illa  AI- 
bani,  the  head  of  which  has  been  restored. 
The  two  first  of  these,  he  remarks,  bear  vijible 
traces  of  the  former  style,  which  appear  espe- 
cially in  the  form  of  the  mouth  and  shortness 
of  the  chin.  The  hands  possess  more  ele- 
gance; and  the  feet  are  placed  at  a  greater 
distance  from  one  anollier  than  was  cus- 
tomary in  more  antient  times.  In  the  first 
and  third  figures  the  arms  hang  down  close  to 
the  sides.  In  the  second  they  hang  more 
freely.  Winckelmann  suspects  that  these 
three  statues  v.ere  made  after  the  conquest  of 
Egypt  by  the  Greeks.  They  are  clothed 
with  a  tunic,  a  robe,  and  a  mantle.  The 
tunic,  which  is  pleated  in  nunierons  folds, 
descends  from  the  neck  to  the  ground.  The 
robe  in  the  fii-st  and  third  statues  appears  to 
be  every  where  close  to  the  body,  and  is  only 
perceptible  by  some  little  folds.  It  is  tied 
under  the  bre.ast,  and  covered  by  the  mantle, 
the  two  buttons  of  which  are  placeil  under 
the  epaulet. 
Tlic  Ajilinous  of  the  capitol  is  composed 


of  two  pieces,  which  are  joined  under  the 
haunches;  but  as  all  the  Egyptian  statiicj 
which  now  remain  have  been  hewn  out  of  one 
block,  we  must  believe  that  IJiodorus,  in  say- 
ing the  stone  was  divided,  and  each  half 
finished  by  a  separate-  artisan,  spoke  only  of 
a  Colossus.  'l1\e  same  author  informs  u» 
that  the  Egyptians  divided  the  human  body 
into  a4+  parts;  but  it  is  to  be  regretted  that 
he  has  not  given  a  more  minute  detail  of  that 
division. 

The  Egyptian  statues  were  not  only  form- 
ed by  the  chisel ;  they  were  also  polished 
with  great  care.  Even  those  on  the  summit 
of  an  obelisk,  which  could  only  be  viewed  at 
a  distance,  were  finished  with  as  much  labour 
as  if  they  had  admitted  a  close  inspection. 
As  they  are  generally  executed  in  granite  or 
basaltes,  stones  of  a  'very  hard  texture,  it  is 
impossible  not  to  admire  the  indefatigable 
patience  of  the  artists. 

The  eyes  were  often  of  ditTcrent  materials 
from  the  rest  of  the  statue;  sonietiim.s  they 
were  composed  of  precious  stones  or  metal. 
We  are  assured  that  the  valuable  diamond' 
of  the  empress  of  Russia,  the  largest  and  most 
beautiful  hitherto  known,  formed  one  of  the 
eyes  of  the  famous  statue  of  Scheringham  in 
the  temple  of  Brania. 

After  the  Egyptian  works  of  art,  the  most 
antient  are  those  of  the  Etrurians  or  antient 
Tuscans,  who,  in  the  opinion  of  the  same 
learned  writer  Winckelmann,  made  advances 
in  sculpture  at  an  earlier  jieriod  than  the 
Greeks.  The  art  is  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced among  them  before  the  siege  of  Troy, 
by  Dedalus;  who,  in  order  to  escape  the  re- 
sentment of  Minos,  king  of  Crete,  took  re- 
fuge in  Sicily,  from  whence  he  passed  into 
Italy,  where  he  left  many  monuments  of  his 
art.  Pausanias  and  Diodorus  Siculus  inform 
us,  that  some  works  ascribed  to  him  were  to 
be  seen  when  they  wrote,  and  that  these  pos- 
sessed that  character  of  majesty  by  which  tlie 
Etrurian  sculpture  was  afterwards  distin- 
guished. 

A  character  strongly  marked  forms  the 
chief  feature  of  those  productions  of  Etruria 
which  have  descended  to  us.  Their  stvle  was 
indeed  harsli  and  overcharged ;  for  it  is  not  to 
be  supposed  that  a  people  of  such  rude  man- 
ners as  the  Etrurians  could  communicate  to 
their  works  that  refinement  and  beauty  which 
the  elegance  of  Grecian  manners  inspired. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  of  the 
Tuscan  statues  which  bear  so  close  a  resem- 
blance to  those  ofCJreece,  that  antiquarians 
have  thought  it  probable  that  they  were 
conveyed  from  lli.U  country  or  Magna  Grecia 
into  Etruria,  about  the  time  of  tlie  Komafi 
conipiest,  when  Italy  was  adorned  with  the 
spoils  of  Greece. 

Among  the  niommients  of  Etrurian  art, 
two  dilferent  styles  have  also  been  observed. 
In  the  first  the  lines  are  straight,  the  attitude 
stilf,  and  the  shape  of  the  head  witJiout 
beauty.  The  general  form  of  the  figure  is 
likewise  loo  slender:  the  head  is  oval,  the 
chin  peaked,  the  eyes  Hat,  and  looking  oli- 
liquely. 

All  these  are  evidently  the  defects  of  an 
art  in  a  state  of  infancy,  and  some  of  llieiu 
are  equally  conspicuous  in  the  early  statue* 
of  all  nations.  The  style  of  the  l.trurian 
sculiHure  is  so  similar  to  that  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, that  oiiti  is  ahuo&l  induced  to  suppose 


that  fliere  bad  once  Ijeeii  a  comiwitilcalinii 

hctui'eii  llicse  two  nations  ;  but  tin;  iiili'o- 
cliiciioii  ot  lliis  style  by  Dmlulijs  is  geneially 
crediled. 

Wiiukelmami  supposes  that  tlie  second 
ppocii  ot  lilt;  art  commenrcd  in  luinria 
:ilmut  llie  tune  at  wliiili  it  liad  rt-adied  its 
"leatcst  piTte(li(jn  in  Greece,  in  tno  a)j;e  of 
I'liidias;  but  tliis  ■  onjeclnre  is  not  snppoiU'd 
by  any  proofs.  To  doricribe  tlie  second  style 
nt'  sculpture  among  llie  lilrurlans,  is  almost 
llie  same  as  to  describe  tlie  slvle  of  tlie  mo- 
'i;rn  restorers  ol  llie  art  in  '{'nscany.  'I'lie 
iiitsarestrougly  marked, tlie  nniscl.-s  raised, 
!  MO  bones  disUngiiisliable,  birt  the  whole  ap- 
jicarance  is  harsh,  ijarticularly  in  the  repie- 
p.tatioii  ol  Ordinary  life.  'I'he  statues  ot  the 
ids  are  designed  with  more  delicacy.  In 
1  liming  them  the  artists  were  anxious  to 
show  that  they  could  exercise  their  power 
ulthont  thai  violent  distension  of  the  muscles 
liich  they  conceived  necessary  in  the  exer- 
1  iMus  of  bi;inj;s  merely  human  ;  but  in  gene- 
r.il  their  attiluiles  are  unnatural,  and  the 
;ii.tions  strained,  li  a  statue,  for  instance, 
liolds  any  thuig  with  its  fore  lingers,  tlie  rest 
are  stretched  oat  in  a  stilt'  position. 

Gri-ccf.  The  earliest  examples  of  Grecian 
■.;(  ulpture  remind  us  still  more  of  the  Egyp- 
tian, in  the  principles  of  design,  tlian  tlK)^c  of 
any  other  nation.  The  face  of  the  human 
figure  has  the  same  kind  of  oval,  the  features 
are  described  by  the  same  curves,  the  eye 
full,  and  the  body  and  limbs  re|ireseiitcd 
nearly  in  the  same  general  forms.  'J  he  works 
of  the  early  Greeks  mav,  however,  be  justly 
said  to  be  equal  to  the  tgyptians  in  the  pro'- 
portions  of  their  ligures,  and  superior  in  the 
drawing  of  the  body  and  limbs. 

[t  is  probable  that  sculpture  preceded  the 
use  of  letters  ill  Greece,  as  in  other  nations; 
btit  the  small  bron/e  iigures  with  inscriptions 
on  (hem  in  Cadmean  letters,  are  such  weak 
and  barbarous  resL-nililanccs  of  the  human 
form,  that  it  is  needless  to  trace  its  ori.;jin  in 
any  more  remote  period. 

I'lie  Grecians  began  very  early  to  study 
the  proportions  of  the  human  form,  ^'ilruvi^ls 
informs  us  that  "  as  the  height  of  the  human 
figure  wa^  six  times  the  length  of  the  foot, 
ttiat  was  made  the  rule  of  proportion  for  the 
Doric  column."  Their  knowledge,  there- 
fore, in  this  part  of  art,  was  antecedent  to 
their  architectural  proportions. 

Whether  Greece  received  the  principles  of 
Uie  artstrom  F.gvpt  and  Phcenicia,or,  as  they 
asserted,,  were  the  original  inventors  of  them, 
it  is  certain  that  llie  native  genius  of  the 
Grecians,  combined  with  otiier  [leculiarly  fa- 
vourable circumstances,  very  soon  raised 
sculpture  from  a  state  of  barbarism. 

In  the  earliest  ;era  of  sculpture  in  Greece, 
schools  of  design  were  established  in  the 
island  of  AOgiiia,  at  t.'orinth,  and  at  Sicyon. 
This  last  city  was  styled  the  mother  of  the 
arts,  as  l)iapa*nii<:  and  Scillides,  and  their 
disciples  also,  hail  nourished  there ;  and  after 
seven  generations,  Aristocles,  the  broiher  of 
Canacus,  likewise  a  sculptor  of  eminence, 
presided  over  the  same  establishment  with 
»indimh)ished  fame.  The?  school  of  .'Egina 
traced  its  origin  to  Dedalus,  of  fabulous  rc- 
Kown  ;  and  his  eotemporary  Smilisniade  two 
statues  of  Juno  tone  lor  her  temple  ut  Samos, 
and  tlieotiier  for  that  at  .'\rgos. 

From  these  auspicious  dawnings  of  the  art 
.-of  sculpture,  tluce  distiutt  ichools  arose,  one 


SCULPTURE. 

of  which  was  peculiar   to  Ionia  ;   the  olhcrs ' 
were  in  Greece,  at  Athens,  and  at  iiicyon, 
e;icli  of  them  shining  with  nearly  ecjual  splen- 
dour for  several  ages. 

At  tiie  liead  ol  the  first  Grecian  artists, 
stands  Myron,  whose  statues  in  bronze  at- 
tracted nimirsal  adiniialion.  A  Discobulns 
made  by  Myron,  is  particularly  noticed  by 
(iuinctillaii. 

I'iiidias,  whose  name  is  belter  known  in 
the  present  day  than  that  of  any  other 
sculptor,  was  the  dl-ciple  of  lihulas  and  Agi:- 
ladas,  the  pr.ibable  cotemporaries  of  Myron, 
and  wli)  liourished  in  the  si.xleenth  olympiad. 
We  collect  from  Qiiinctiliaii,  that  he  e.xcelled 
in  imparting  a  celestial  dignity  to  his  hgiires- 
ol  the  deities,  two  of  which  are  celelrali-d  in 
this  respect,  the  Minerva  at  Alliens,  and  Ju- 
piter Olyiiipius  at  liiis.  Many  of  his  most 
l)eauliful  works  were  in  ivory,  fre(|nently  less 
than  the  natural  size.  lie  cast  likewise  in 
bronze. 

Ill  the  same  age  lived  I'olycletiis,  whose 
works  were  distinguished  by  exi|uisite  grace 
and  most  correct  iinishiiig:  the  latter  ciuallty 
was  the  effect  of  his  singular  diligence.  To 
the  human  figure  he  is  said  to  have  given 
more  than  human  beauty,  but  he  failed  in  ex- 
pressing the  majestic  character  of  the  gods. 

The  works  of  ICgesias  were  of  a  sublime 
style,  but  hard  manner. 

"Of  the  school  of  Phidias,  the  most  distin- 
guished sculptors  were  .McanKues  of  Athens, 
and  Agoracrilus  of  the  island  of  Paros.  Then- 
rival  skill  was  exerted  in  finishing  a  statue  of 
Venus,  and  the  i-ialm  was  adjudged  by  the 
Athenians  to  their  own  citi/.en. 

Polvcletus  of  Sicyon  was  the  competitor 
with  l^hitlias  in  an  undertaking  ot  more  gran- 
deur and  consequence  than  his  general  works. 
He  was  employed  by  the  inhabitants  of  .^rgos 
to  make  a  colossal  statue  of  Juno,  composed 
of  gold  and  ivory,  in  order  to  emulate,  rather 
than  to  imitate,  the  Olympic  Jupiter  of  Phi- 
dias. Two  Iigures  in  bronze  by  Polyclelus 
representing  the  canephors  or  nymphs  bear- 
ing in  baskets  the  symbols  of  Ceres  to  a  sa- 
critice,  were  taken  from  the  TJiespians  by 
Verres,  and  brought  to  Rome.  They  were 
esteemed  beyond  any  bronze  iigures  existing 
at  that  time.'  Such  was  the  skill  of  this  emi- 
nent master,  that  he  completed  so  perfect  a 
luiman  Hgure  that  it  served  as  a  model  to  his 
successors,  and  was  considered  by  Lysippus 
as  the  acme  of  his  art. 

Wliile  Phidias  in  gold  and  ivory,  and 
I'olycletus  in  bronze,  engrossed  to  themselves 
every  excellence,  Scopas  acquired  a  scarcely 
inferior  celebrity  for  his  statues  in  marble. 
The  gi-oupe  of  >«iobe  and  her  children  is  at- 
tributed by  Pliny  to  Scopas  or  Praxiteles,  he 
does  not  decide  which. 

The  last  sculptor  (of  whose  works  we  have 
any  knowledge)  coeval  with  Phidias,  was  Ctesi- 
laus,  who,  jointly  with  liim  and  Polycletus, 
finished  one  of  the  three  Amazons  designed 
to  decorate  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ejihesus, 
and  the  statue  of  Pericles,  commended  by 
Pliny,  who  allows  to  Clesil.ms  the  felicity  of 
giving  to  his  heroes  a  still  more  noble  air  than 
they  possessed. 

The  names  of  Pol  ides,  Cephisodorus,  Leo- 
chares,  and  Ilippodotus,  are  preserved  from 
oblivion  by  Phny,  but  none  of  their  works 
remain.  Leoehares  was  one  of  the  four  art- 
ists   employed  in  adorning  the  mausoleum 


6;;* 

built  by  the  celebrated  Artemisia,  oneen  of 
Caria,  to  I  lie  memory  of  her  husbaiia. 

Meneslratiis,  Socrates,  I'hihscus,  Lysi- 
af,  •  Mirmecides,  and  many  oUiers,  are  a'so 
spoken  of  with  piaiseby  various  writers;  but 
we  have  unfoiliuiately  no  other  rcmainiiig 
testimonies  of  their  merits. 

Ol  the  lirst  style  of  the  Grecian  sculptors, 
so  remarkable  lor  simplicity  and  grandeur, 
the  a-ra  was  cjcuniicribed  to  the  hmits  of 
liftv  years,  during  which  period  the  art  had 
arrived  at  its  un-ridian  of  subhmity.  'j'he 
succeeding  age  introduces  Piax;te[e6,  who 
may  be  called  the  lather  of  the  second  man- 
ner, and  whose  works  were  discriminated  bj- 
their  flowing  outline  and  delicate  finishing. 
The  elevation  ot  Thebes  by  Kpaminonda.s 
above  the  other  states  of  Greece,  pi  oduced  a 
complete  change  in  her  whole  system  ;  but 
as  soon  as  the  Athenians  recovered  their 
lormer  splendour,  the  arts,  which  had  ever 
accompanied  the  vicissitudes  of  her  fortunes, 
revived  witu  unabated  splendour.  The  work* 
of  Praxiteles  are  celebrated  by  liistorians  and 
poets.  His  \'enus  of  Gmdus  in  marble,  at- 
rracted  then  no  less  admiration  than  the  Mc- 
dicean  A'eiuis  has  done  in  the  moiiern  world;  ' 
and  his  Apollo  in  bronze,  called  (from  tlii'  ' 
lizard  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree  against  wliich 
he  leans)  Sau.uctonos,  is  still  among  the 
most  admired  producli(;ns  of  sculpture. 

Not  long  alter  Praxiteles  had  signalized 
himself  instatuarv,  and  particularly  in  bronze, 
Lysippus  appeared,  whose  great  merit  con- 
sisted in  following  nature  more  scriipiilously 
than  any  of  his  immediate  predecessors.  If, 
as  Pliny  reports,  his  works  v*ere  so  nuinerou"; 
as  to  amonnt  to  not  less  than  filleen  hundred, 
we  have  the  more  cause  to  regret  that  they 
were  all  of  bron/:e,  and  are  irretrievably  de- 
slroyed.  He  flourished  under  the  reign  of 
Alexander. 

'I'o  Agesander,  Polydorus,  and  Athenodo- 
rus,  is  ascribed  (by  Pliny)  the  celebrated 
group  of  the  Laocoon  and  his  sons,  and  con- 
iecture  has  been  fre(|ueiUly  busied  in  endea- 
vouring to  discriminate  the  particular  portion 
of  each  artist;  but  conjecture  only  has  hitherto 
been  produced.  Ablje  Winckelniann  con- 
jectures that  Agesander  was  the  father  of  the 
oilier  two  artists,  and  that  he  himself  finished 
the  statue  of  Laocoon,  leaving  the  children 
to  be  wrougiit  by  his  sons. — "  Credat  Judjeus 
apella."  No  authentic  document  remains  by 
which  the  time  in  which  these  artists  liourish-  • 
ed  can  be  ascertained. 

Neither  do  we  know  the  precise  date  of 
Apollonius  and  Tauriscus,  the  authors  of  a 
no  less  celebrated  sroup  representing  Dirce 
tied  to  the  horns  of  "a  bull  (in  order  to  be  pre- 
cipitated into  the  sea)  by  Zethus  and  Ain- 
phion,  the  sous  of  Antiopa.  This  work  ij 
g(  nerally  supposed  to  have  been  eotemporary 
with  the  rival  group  of  Laocoon.  In  an  in- 
scription on  it,  now  obliterated,  was  traced 
tlie  name  of  another  artist,  Menecrales.  This 
vast  mass  of  scnlpUire  is  said  to  have  been 
formed  out  of  a  single  block,  in  the  island  of 
K  liodes.  It  has  suffered  greatly  in  the  course 
of  time. 

Greece,  after  tlie  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  lapsing  into  a  state  of  dependance  httle 
better  than  slavery,  the  arts  were  for  a  time 
w  lioUv  neglected  ;  and  might  have  been  nearly 
aunihiUited,  had  they  not  found  refuge  ia 
Asia,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Seiencidst. 
.Men   of  talents    also    iu  every    profession. 


sought  at  that  time  in  fevpi  the  eiieoxirnRe- 
iiieiit  afforded  tiieiii  by  I'tjic-my  Sotcr,  wlio 
exhibited  a  mutiificence  wortiiy  of  AlexaiukT, 
liis  predecessor  in  tlwt  tcingdoin.  Hiil  when 
tlie  Homan  consul,  Quinliis  Flamiiiius,  pro- 
lUiiined,  at  Corinth,  unversal  lihi-rty  to 
Cireece  (alioiit  a  hundred  ar.d  nincty-foiir 
years  before  Christ^,  the  p'lblic  traiKiniUity, 
consequent  on  that  event,  r<-ne«ed  the  spirit 
of  the  arts,  and  introduced  another  of  their 
most  memorable  a-ras. 

Callistratus,  Athena'us,  and  Policies,  were 
immediately  at  tliis  period  the  most  renowned 
masters  of  seulptnrp.  Policies  dislinguislied 
liunself  by  thestatueof  the  Hermaplirodite,  so 
long  admired  hi  the  Borghese  A'illa  at  Rome. 

To  Apolloniiis  the  Athenian,  at  tlie  same 
period,  is  attributed  the  wonderful  Torso 
of  the  Hercules,  preferred  by  tiie  judg- 
ment of  Michael  Ani^elo  beyond  the  most 
perfect  statues  of  Rome. 

Causes  nf  the  excelhnce  of  sculpture  among 
the  Greeks. 

Tlie  great  superiority  of  the  Greeks  in  the 
art  of  sculpture,  may  be  asciibcd  to  a  variety 
of  causes.  Their  love  of  beauty  was  so 
great,  that  the  Lacedemonian  women  kep.  in 
ti'ieir  chambers  tlie  statues  of  Nerens,  of 
Js^arcissus,  of  Hyacinthus,  and  of  Castor  and 
Pollux;  hoping  that  by  often  contemplating 
them,  they  might  have  beautiful  cliildren. 

The  noWe  and  virtuous  freedom  of  the 
Grecian  manners  likewise  contributed  in  a 
more  peculiar  degree  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
<i_ne  arts.  There  were  no  laws,  as  among  the 
Egyptians,  to  check  their  progress.  The 
artist  had  the  best  opportunities  to  study 
them  in  the  pubhc  places,  where  the  voutli, 
who  needed  no  other  veil  than  chasliiy  and 
purity  ot  niannc-r;,  performed  their  various 
exercises  quite  naked. 

The  strongest  motives  were  also  held  forth 
for  the  cultivation  of  sculpture,  for  a  statue 
»-.is  the  highest  honour  which  public  merit 
•ould  attain.  It  was  an  honour  ainliilionsly 
sought,  and  granted  only  to  those  w  ho  had 
tlrstingui-hed  themselves  "in  llie  eyes  of  Iheir 
lellow-citizens.  As  statues  were  often  raised 
to  those  who  excelled  in  th;-  public  exercises, 
ill-.-  most  eminent  men  of  Greece,  in  their 
YOUth,  sought  rcjiown  in  thegymnasla.  Here 
C'hrysippusamlCleanthesdi>.li"nguishedlhP!n- 
•eives  before  tiiey  were  kniwn  as  philosophers. 
I'lato  appealed  as  a  wrestler  both  at  the 
Isthmiiin  and  Pythian  games ;  and  I'ythagonis 
carried  olF  the  "prize  at  I'-lis.  The  number  of 
statues  creqted  on  dilferont  occasions  was 
irnmon  -  • ;  of  course,  the  number  of  artists 
Jnust  have  been  great,  their  emulation  ardent, 
and  Iheir  (irogre  s  rapid.  iMoreoviT,  at  ihoe 
public  games,  the  artists  could  not  fail  of 
seeing  the  most  excellent  models  ;  for  those 
who  surpassed  in  rumiing,  boxin/j.'alid  ureat- 
lintj,  iixist  not  only,  hi  general,  liavo^  been 
wt-ll  ffirmed,  but  would  e.<chibit  diil'ereiit  kinds 
•fb/auty. 

'The  high  esUniation  in"  which  sculptors 
were  held,  was  also  very  favourable  to  their 
art.  An  arti-t  coiild  be  a  legislate;',  a  com- 
inaiider  of  armiei",  and  niiirht  h'^p»  to  have 
Ins  slaluf  placed  af  the  side  of  those  of  M.l- 
tijtt^s  ami  TheniistCic'cii,  or  those  of  the  go<ls 
theiniilves.  The  productioiis  of  art:  were 
e-tiiri:ile<l  arid  rewarded  by  the  general  as- 
Hmbly  ol  Greece ;  and  the  bcul^tor  Wjio  had 


SCULPTURE. 

'  exeeuled  his  work  with  ability,  was  cenfideut 
of  obtaining  immorlalily. 

Ckariicler  of  Grecian  sculpture. 

AVinckelmann  has  assigned  four  dilferent 
styles  to  this  art  among  the  f  ireeks.  The 
antient  style,  which  continued  until  the  time 
of  Pliidia-; ;  the  grand  style,  formed  by  that 
celebrated  statuary  ;  the  beautih.l,  introduced 
by  Praxiteles,  Apelles,  and  Lysippus  ;  and 
the  imitative  style  ])r-.ctised  by  tliose  artists 
who  copied  the  works  of  the  antient  masters. 

The  most  authentic  monuments  ot  the  an- 
tient style  have  been  already  described.  The 
statues  formed  in  this  style  were  neither  dis- 
tinguished by  beiuty  of  shape,  nor  by  pro- 
portion, but  bore  a  close  resemblance  to  those 
of  the  Egyptians  a!id  Etrurians.  The  eves 
were  long  and  fiat;  the  section  of  the  mouth 
not  horizontal;  the  chin  was  pointed;  the 
cur!s  of  the  hair  were  ranged  in  little  rings, 
and  it  was  imjiossible  by  inspecting  the  head 
to  distingui'h  the  sex.' 

The  character  of  the  antient  stvle  was  ener- 
getic, but  harsh  ;  it  was  animated,  but  with- 
out gracehdness;  and  the  violence  of  the  ex- 
pression deprived  the  whole  figure  of  beauty- 

The  grand  style  was  brought  to  perfection 
by  Phidias,  Polycletus,  Scopas,  Alcamanes, 
Myron,  and  other  illustrious  artists.  It  is 
probable,  from  some  passages  of  antient 
writers,  that  in  this  btyle  were  preserved  some 
characters  of  the  antient  manner,  such  as  the 
straight  lines,  the  stpiares,  and  angles.  The 
antient  masters,  such  as  Polvcletus,  being  the 
legislators  of  proportion,  says  Winckehiiann, 
and  of  consequence  flunking  they  had  a  right 
to  distribute  the  measures  and  dimensions  of 
the  parts  of  the  human  body,  have  undoubt- 
edly sacriliced  some  degree  of  the  fonn  of 
beauty  to  a  grandeur  which  is  harsh,  in  com- 
parison of  tlie  flowing  lines  and  graceful 
forms  of  their  successors.  The  most  con- 
siderable monuments  of  the  grand  stvle,  are 
the  statues  of  Niobe  and  her  daughters  ;  and 
a  ligui'e  of  Pallas,  to  be  seen  in  Villa  Albaui  ; 
which,  however,  must  not  be  conluunded 
with  anotiier  statue,  modelled  according  to 
the  hr.^t  style,  and  also  found  in  the  same 
place;  the  head  of  which  possesses  all  the 
characters  of  dignilied  beauty,  at  the  same 
time  exhibiting  the  rigidness  of  tlie  antient 
style.  The  figures  of  Niobe  and  her  daugh- 
ters have  not,  in  the  opinion  of  Winckehiiann, 
that  austerity  of  appearance  which  marks  the 
age  of  the  last-mentioned  statue  of  Pallas. 
They  are  particularly  characterised  by  grand- 
ness  and  simplicity. 

Tlie  tliiid  style  was  the  graceful  or 
beautiful.  Lysippus  was,  prrhap=,  the  artist 
who  introduced  this  style.  I'eing  more  con- 
versant than  his  predecessors  with  the  flowing 
aiuf  beautiful  lines  of  nature,  he  avoided  tlie 
square  forms  which  the  masters  of  the  'ccond 
style  hiid  too  fr.-iiuontly  admitteil.  He  was 
of  oi)i  lion  that  the  a:t  ought  rather  to  please 
than  to  astonish,  and  that  the  aim  of  tlie  artist 
shciild  be  to  raise  admiration  bv  giving  de- 
light. The  artists  who  cultivated  this  style, 
did  not,  however,  neglect  to  study  the  s"uh- 
lime  works  of  their  predecessors.  They 
Knew  that  grace  is  consistent  with  the  most 
dignified  beauty ;  and  that  while  it  possesses 
charms  which  nuntever  please,  those  charms 
arc  enhanced  by  dignity.  Grace  is  iiisjured 
into  all  the  movcnunts  and  altitudes  of  their 
statues.    It  ajipear)  in  tlie  dclictte  turn  of 


the  hair,  and  e/en  in  the  adjusting  »f  tfie 

drapery. 

The  last,  or  imitative  style,  is  of  an  inferior 
degree  of  extcilence  to  tliat  wliicii  has  ju^t 
been  mentioned.  The  great  rcpiitalion  of 
Praxiteles  and  Apelles  raised  an  ardent  emu- 
lation in  their  successors,  who,  despairing  to 
surpass  such  illustrious  nia-ters,  were  satislied 
with  imitating  their  works. 

Every  species  ot  beauty  of  form  appears  to 
have  been  well  known  to  the  antients;  aid 
great  as  the  ravages  of  time  iiave  been  amongst 
the  works  of  art,  specimins  are  still  peserved 
in  which  can  be  distinguisiied  dignified  beau- 
ty, attractive  beauty,  and  a  beauty  peculiar 
to  tender  age.  A  specimen  ot  digniried 
beauty  may  be  seen  in  the  statue  o;  one  of 
the  muses  in  the  palace  Barberini  at  Rome, 
and  in  the  gni<h  n  of  the  pope.  On  the 
Quirinal  is  a  statue  of  another  muse,  which 
afl'ords  a  hne  instance  ol  attractive  beauty. 
Winckehiiann  says  that  the  most  excellent 
model  of  infant  tieauty  which  antiiputv  has 
tiansmitted  to  us,  is  a  satyr  of  a  year  oUl, 
which  is  preserved,  thougha  little  mutilated, 
in  the  Villa  Albaiii. 

Nor  were  the  sculptors  who  represented 
with  such  success  the  iiioit  perfect  beauty  of 
the  hum.inforiu,  regardless  cf  the  drapery  of 
their  statues.  They  clothed  their  figure-,  in 
the  most  proper  stuff,  which  they  wrought 
into  that  shape  which  was  best  calculated  to 
give  effect  to  their  design. 

The  vestments  of  women  in  Greece  gene- 
rally consisted  of  linen  cloth,  or  some  other 
light  stiil'l",  and  in  latter  times  of  silk,  and 
sometimes  of  woollen  cloth.  They  had  also 
garments  embroidered  with  gold.  In  the 
works  of  sculpture,  as  well  as  in  those  of  paint- 
ing, one  may  distinguish  the  linen  by  its 
transparency  and  small  folds.  The  other  light 
stutl's  which  were  worn  by  the  women,  were 
generally  of  cotton,  sometimes  striped,  and 
sometimes  eiiibeliished  witli  a  profusion  of 
flowers.  Silk  was  also  employed  ;  but  whe- 
ther it  was  known  in  Greece  before  the  time 
of  the  Roman  emperors,  cannot  easily  be  de- 
termined. 

The  vestments  of  the  Greeks,  whicli  deserve 
particular  attention,  are  the  tunic,  the  robe, 
and  the  mantle. 

The  tunic  was  that  part  of  the  dre.ss  which 
was  next  to  the  body.  It  may  be  seen  in  the 
Flora  Farnese,  and  in  the  statues  of  the 
Amazons  in  the  capifol.  The  youngest  of 
the  (.laughters  of  Niobe,  who  throws  herself 
into  her  molhei-'s  anus,  is  clothed  only  with  a 
tunic.  It  was  of  linen,  or  some  other  light 
sunt,  without  sleeves,  lixcd  to  the  shoulders 
by  a  button,  so  as  to  cover  the  whole  breast. 
None  but  the  tunics  of  the  godde.^s  Ceres, 
an<l  of  comedians,  have  long  straight  sleeves. 

The  robes  of  women  commonly  consisted 
of  two  long  pieces  of  woolien  cloth,  without 
any  jiarlicuiar  form,  ailached  to  the  shoulder* 
by  a  great  many  buttons,  and  sometimes  by 
a  clasp.  They  had  straight  sleeves,  which 
came  down  to  the  wrist-.  The  young  girls, 
as  well  as  the  women,  fastened  their  robe  to- 
t.ieir  side  by  a  cincture,  fasteneil  on  the  side 
in  a  knot,  as  it  is  still  done  in  many  parts  of  • 
Greece  ;  a  knot  of  ribhon-s  sometimes  resem- 
blinga  rose  in  shape,  which  has  been  particu- 
Kulv  rem.irUeil  In  liie  two  beautiful  duughters. 
of  Niobe-  In  the  youngtr  of  these,  the 
cincture  is  seen  pairing  over  Uic  shouldeiS'  ■ 


»;iil  l|u- !i '.ck.  \'>-mis  li;'.:  two  cliifturfs,  thr 
line  passiiia;  o"cr  thi-  slioul'ler,  aiitl  llieolliiM' 
sunoiiiuliiiij  llii'  wnist.  'I'lie  latier  is  llie 
c'(«lus  so  reii'brateil  by  the  [jOKts. 

'riiL'  manlli-  was  callcil  pcpliiii  by  the 
Orocks,  wlii<-h  signilies  properly  the  iiianlle 
of  1'  .Has.  The  name  was  altei'wanls  applied 
to  the  numtles  of  the  otiicr  gods,  as  well  as 
to  those  ol  men.  This  part  of  the  dres^  was 
not  svpiare,  as  som  •  have  iniaijined,  but  of  a 
rouiidish  loriii.  'I'lie  aiilieiits,  indeed,  speak 
ill  general  of  sipiare  mantles,  but  lliey  re- 
c  i\  ed  tins  sli.ipi:  tiom  lour  la^sels  which  were 
alilxid  to  them:  two  of  lliesi-  were  visible, 
and  two  were  concealed  under  the  iiiant  e. 
'I'iie  mantle  was  brought  under  the  right  arm, 
and  over  the  left  shoulder:  sometimes  it  vnms 
'"attaclied  to  the  sho^dder  by  two  buttons,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  beautiful  statue  of  Leuco- 
thoe  at  Villa  AUiani. 

AV'ith  respect  to  the  head,  women  E;'Mierally 
wore  no  covering  but  their  hair;  when  they 
wislied  to  cover  their  lie.;d,  they  used  ihe 
corner  of  their  mantle.  Ijomelinies  we  meet 
ivith  veils  of  a  fine  transparent  texture. 
Old  women  wore  a  kind  of  bonnet  upon  their 
head,  an  example  of  which  may  be  seen  in  a 
statue  in  the  ca|>itol,  called  the  l'r;esica;  but 
Winckelmanii  thinks  it  is  a  st.itue  of  Hecuba. 

The  covering;  of  the  feet  consisted  of  shoes 
or  sandals.  The  sandals  were  geneially  an 
incli  thick,  and  co.nposi'd  of  move  than  one 
sole  of  cork.  Those  ot  PalJas  in  ^'illa  Albani 
have  two  soles,  and  other  statues  had  no  less 
tliua  five. 

But  in  no  part  of  art  are  the  Grecian 
sculptors  more  emlueiuly  e.\cellent  than  m 
the  general  characteristic  expression  which 
tliey  gave  to  their  lignres. 

'ihe  most  elevated  species  of  tranquillity 
and  repose  was  studied  in  their  figure,-,  of  the 
.gods.  The  father  of  the  gods,  and  even  in- 
ierior  divinities,  are  represented  without  emo- 
tion or  ri. presentment.  LJut  Jupiter  is  not 
always  exhibited  in  this  tranquil  state.  In  a 
bas-relief  belonging  to  the  martiuis  Ron- 
tliiii,  he  appears  seated  with  a  melancholy 
aspect.  'I'he  . Apollo,  once  called  of  the  Bel- 
vedere, in  the  \  atican,  represents  the  god  in 
the  act  of  discharging  trom  iiis  i5ow  the  mor- 
.tal  sh.vft  against  the  serpent  Python. 
.  To  express  the  action  of  a  hero,  the  Gre- 
ciiUi  sculptors  delineated  the  countenance  of 
a  noble  vjrtuous  character  repressing  liis 
groans,  and  allowing  no  expression  of  pain  to 
appear. 

Philoctetes  is  introduced  by  the  poets 
shed'J.ing  tears  uttering  complaints,  and  rend- 
ing t!ie  air  with  his  groans  and  cries;  but  the 
artist  exhibits  him  silent,  and  bearing  his 
pilius  with  dignity  ;  in  the  s.nne  manner  as 
the  Ajax  of  the  celcbi-ated  painter  Timoma- 
chus  was  not  drawn  in  the  act  of  des'roying 
the  sheep  which  he  took  for  the  Gre':iaii 
chiefs,  but  iu  the  moments  of  reliection  which 
succeed  d  that  frenzy. 

.  Illustrious  men,  jud  I'lose  invested  with 
ofliccs  of  dignity,  are  represented  witli  a  noble 
assurance  and  tirm  a>pect.  The  statues  of 
t|ie  Roman  emperors  (executed  by  Greek 
jstists)  resemble  those  of  heroes,  and  are  far 
icmoved  from  every  species  of  (lattery,  in  the 
gesture,  in  the  i.ttitude,  and  action.  They 
nevor;';pi;ear  with  h-iughfy  looks,  or  with  tlie 
lulendour  of  royalty.  None  but  captives  are 
evar  represented  as  otTerinc;  any  thing  totliem 
Willi  beaded  ktice, 


SCULPTURE. 

I  'Ihe  flreek  works  of  ivory  and  silver  wf  re 
not  always  of  a  small  size.  'Ihe  colossal 
Minerva  ot  Phidia'>,  which  v\'as  com))ose<l  of 
these  materials     .ras  twenty-six  cubits  high. 

I  It  is  indeed  se.irc'ely  possibli;  to  believe  that 
statues  of  such  a  size  could  entirely  consist  oi 
gold  ami  ivory.  The  (|uantily  of  ivory  ne- 
cessary to  a  colossal  statue  is  beyond  concep- 

'  tion.  M.  de  Pauw  calculates,  lii  l  the  statue 
oi  Jupiter  Olympur.,  which  w.is  54  feel  high, 

,  would  consume  the  teeth  ol  300  i-tephants. 
'I  he  Greek-  ^lem-ialiy  hewed  their  marble 
statues  out    i\  Ol  e  block,  though  they  after- 

'  wards  worked  the  hea  Is  separ.'.tely.aiul  some- 
times tlie  arms.      Tiie  heads  of  the  famous 

I  group  of  Niobe  and  her  daughters  appear  to 

'  have  iK'en  adapted  to  their  bodies  alter  being 

;  separately  liiiished.  It  is  proved  by  a  large 
lignre   representing  a    river,    which   is    pre- 

I  served  in  Villa  .\lbani,  that  the  antients  tirst 
hewed  their  statue,  roughly,  before  they  at- 
tempted to  liiiish  any  part.  When  the  statue 
had  received  its  periecl   (igure,   they    next 

,  proceeded  to  polish  it  with  pumice-stone,  and 
again  carefully  retouched  every  part  with  tiie 

■  chscl. 

i  The  antients,  when  they  employed  por- 
phyry, usually   made  the   head  and  extremi- 

I  ties  of  marbie.     It  is  true,  that  at   Venice 

1  there  are  four  figures  entiiely  composed  of 
porphyry;  but  these  are  the  productions  of 
tlie  Greeks  of  the  middle  age.  They  also 
made  statues  of  basaltes  and  alabaster. 

Th'"  antients,  as  well  as  the  moderns,  made 
works  in  [daister  ;  but  no  specimens  remain, 
except  some  figures  in  bas-relief,  of  which 
the  most  beautitul  were  found  at  Ba;a%  near 
Naples. 

We  ha'e  been  thus  minute  in  our  account 
of  the  Grecian  sculpture,  because  it  is  the 
opinion  of  the  ablest  critics,  that  modern  art- 
ists have  bi'en  more  or  less  eminent,  as  they 
have  studied  with  the  greater  or  less  atten- 
tion the  models  lei't  us  by  that  ingenious 
people.  Winckelmanii  goes  so  far  as  to  con- 
tend, that  the  most  linished  works  of  the 
Grecian  masters  ought  to  be  studied  in  pre- 
ference even  to  the  works  of  nature.  The 
reason  assigned  by  the  abbe-  for  his  ophiion 
is,  rlvat  the  fairest  lines  of  beauty  are  more 
easily  discovered,  an<l  make  a  more  striking 
and  powerful  impression,  by  their  reunion  in 
these  sublime  copies,  than  when  they  are 
scattered  far  and  wide  in  the  original  of  na- 
ture. Allowing,  therefore,  the  study  of  na- 
ture the  high  degree  of  merit  it  so  justly 
claims,  it  must  nevertheless  be  granted,  that 
it  leads  to  true  beauty  by  a  much  more  te- 
dious, laborious,  and  difiicult  path,  than  the 
study  of  the  antique,  which  presents  immetri- 
ately  to  the  artist's  view  the  object  of  his  re- 
searches, and  combines  in  a  clear  and  strong 
point  of  light  the  various  rays  of  beauty  that 
are  dispersed  through  the  wide  domain  of 
nature.  Hut  this  reasoning  is  too  paradoxical 
to  be  admitted,  without  grc;it  allowances  for 
the  pecirliar  creed  of  the  writer. 

Decline  of  Gi-etk  sculpture. 
When  the  restless  genius  of  the  Grecians, 
and  the  aggressive  jpirit  of  the  Komans,  con- 
spired to  tlic  second  thraldom  of  the  Greek 
states,  and  L.   iMummius  was  directed  to  lav 
I  siege  to  Corinth,   the  capture  of  a  city  so 
famed  as  the  repository  of  ail  that  was  most 
'  perfect  in  the  arts,  provoked  the  avarice  of 
tOK  conqueror ;  who,  by  transporting  many 


W7 

of  the  most  superb  work?  of  taste  to  Rome, 
to  grace  his  triuini)h,  excited  in  his  ffllciw- 
citizens  so  Insatiable  an  ardour  of  possessing 
treasures  of  the  same  kind,  as  totally  trans- 
ferred the  seat  of  the  arts  from  Atiiens  to  the 
growing  metropolis  of  the  world. 

bicyon.  at  the  same  period,  had  been  ra- 
vaged by  M.  ijcanrus,  and  isparta  by  Mu- 
rieea  and  Varro:  and  Greece  began  tiius  to 
be  exhausted  of  ail  it  once  boasted  in  art- 
Nor  was  the  fate  ol  th  arts  in  Egypt  more 
au-picious;  whence,  alter  the  deieat  of  the 
Seleucidx,  they  took  refuge  in  the  couitof 
Aitahis  ;  but  their  security  was  there  ot  short 
diiralion.  On  the  death  of  Attains,  his  ter- 
ritory devolvpi!  to  the  Ro.nans ;  and  the  trea- 
sures of  sculpture  which  adorned  his  palace, 
were  aUo  traiis:erred  to  Rome. 

Koine.  Alter'laking  a  view  of  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  arts  in  Greece,  we  may  (ind  sonic 
s.ilislaction  in  directing  our  nn.ids  to  the  in- 
troduction of  tin  in  at  Home,  and  to  the  liberal 
encouragement  which  men  ot  talents  ex- 
perienced even  from  their  haughty  and  rapa- 
cious concpierors. 

Pa-iteles,  a  name  which  has  been  con- 
founded with  Praxiteles,  was  a  native  of  Ca- 
labria; and  cast  in  silver  a  statue  of  Roscius, 
the  celebrated  w  tor,  as  an  intant  l_\ingina 
(  radle,  and  entwined  by  a  serpent,  a  situation 
of  danger  from  which  his  nurse  is  said  to  have 
])reserved  him.  Nearly  about  the  same  time, 
Arciiesilaus  and  Kvaiicler  were  in  great  re- 
quest at  Koine.  Arciiesilaus  was  patronized 
by  the  profuse  and  wealthy  Lucul'iis;  and 
both  these  artists  had  gained  celebrity  by 
the  r  works  in  chalk,  modelled  probably  from 
the  finest  antiques,  as  well  as  being  specimens 
of  their  own  invention.  A  \  enus,  matle  for 
Juliits  Casar,  and  tlie  restoration  of  a  bead  of 
Diana  lor  a  statue,  tlie  original  work  of  Ti- 
motheus,  the  contemporary  of  .Scopas,  by  the 
command  of  Augustus,  are  noticed  by  iTmy 
as  their  work,  and  ascertain  their  xra,  and 
their  fame.  Horace  alludes  to  the  superior 
style  of  livander  in  bas-reliefs. 

Among  the  monuments  of  sculpture  made 
at  Kume,  in  these  last  days  of  her  republic, 
and  certainly  bv  Grecian  artists,  are  the  two 
statues  of  tlie  "i'hracian  kings,  as  prisoners  at 
a  triumph,  in  grey  marble.  '1  liese  were 
kings  of  the  Scoidisci,  a  rude  people,  who 
were  defeated  by  M.  Licimus  J^ucullus. 
Exasperated  by  their  repealed  periidy,  he 
commanded  tlieir  hands  to  be  cut  olf',  a  cir- 
cumstance of  cruelty  represented  in  the- 
marble,  which  now  remains  in  liie  museian 
of  the  capitol.  ,  ,  ,„ 

Ihe  statue  of  Pompey  (now  iii  the  hall  pf 
the  Spada  palace,  but  originally  standing  iiv 
the  citi'ia  or  basilica  of  Pompey),  at  the  base 
of  which  CiEsar  fell,  aJibrds  a  singular  proof 
of  a  deviation.from  the  known  custom  of  liic 
Romans,  who  represented  their  living  heroes 
in  armour.  Hut  the  great  triumvir  is  sculp- 
tured as  adcilied  hero,  nakgc),  and  of(;s)IossaV 
proportions.  .  .       ,,■ 

."ibbate  Wiuckeimann,  with  great  inge- 
nuity, asserts  the  statue  denominated  Cinciu- 
iiatusat  Versailles,  and  another  caik-d  .Vlur- 
ciis  Agripjia  at  Venice,  to  have  been  of  an 
earlier  a-ra  than  that  of  those  celebrated 
Komans;  andsliews,  with  suilicient evidence^ 
that  the  style  in  wliicli  tiiey  are  e_^.j:_  ^u-j  '.:, 
of  a  prior  date. 

We  must  now  consider  the  ,. 
planledto  Rome,  aldiougli  still  proiesttd,  alp 


G3S- 

most  exclusively,  by  Greek  sculptors.  Julius 
Cffisar,  wlin,  wfiile'iu  a  private  station,  IukI 
iiia;lc  an  e>ctenjive  collection  of  intaglios,  anil 
smalUigores  in  ivoiy  and  bronze;  and  who, 
whin  dictator,  dedicated  tlieni  as  a  public 
benefaction  in  the  temple  of  Venus  Genitrix  ; 
may  be  said  to  have  leit  the  love  of  llie  aits 
as  an  inlicritance  to  the  Romans. 

Augustus,  after  he  assumed  the  imperial 
goveriH\ierit,  dispatched  Memmius  Begulus 
to  collect  from  every  city  of  Greece  tlie  sta- 
tues yet  remaining  in  them.  His  orders  were 
so  well  observed,  that  the  lin.est  pieces  of 
sculpture  were  brought  to  Rome,  with  a 
profusion  bv  which  his  palaces  we;  f  crowd- 
ed; and  mJnv  were  distributed  in  his  nu- 
inerous  villas.'  The  Olympian  Jupiter,  of 
Pliidias,  composed  of  gold  and  ivory,  was  al- 
most the  only  statue  that  escaped;  the  artists 
of  Greece  asserting,  that  from  the  state  of  its 
materials,  it  would  not  bear  removal. 

Augustus  encouraged  also  the  prevailing 
mode  of  representing  in  statuary  the  most 
distinguished  cliaracters  of  tlie  age,  and 
placed  many  of  their  statues  in  public  situa- 
tions of  eminence. 

Succeeding  emperors  followed  tlie  ex- 
ample of  Augustus,  ^^'e  are  informed  by 
Pausanias,  that  from  the  temple  of  Delphos 
only,  live  statues,  were  transported  to  Rome 
by  "Nero,  who  also  emplyed  Zeiiodorus  to 
cast  a  colossal  statue  of  hira  in  bronze  1 10  feet 
high. 

Nero,  however,  indulged  the  perverseness 
^f  his  taste  iu  gilding,  and  otherwise  disligur- 
ing,  many  of  lliese  e.-iquisite  works. 

The  triumphal  arch  built  by  Titus,  and  the 
-frieze  in  the  temple  of  Minerva,  built  by  Do- 
mitian,  give  a  very  favourable  idea  of  the 
arts  under  tluse  emperors. 

In  the  sculpture  of  triumphal  bas-reliefs 
and  trophies,  the  anists  were  paiticularly 
eiuinent.  The  architectural  plans  adopted 
by  Trajan  were  of  such  magnitude,  that  men 
ot  every  kind  of  talents  were  invited  to  signa- 
lize tlteinselves  under  his  munilicent  patro- 
nage. His  bridge  over  the  Oauuln',  his  tri- 
uinplial  arch  at  Ancona,  his  foruiu  including 
tlie  column  which  now  bears  his  name,  appear 
to  liave  given  employment  to  all  the  powers 
of  numan  skill. 

Under  the  auspices  of  lladrian,  the  suc- 
xessor  of  Trajan,  the  arts  niaiutained  a  pro- 
gressive degree  of  excellence.  He  was  eiiii- 
uently  ace  >inplished,  not  only  as  an  admirer, 
hut  was  himself  an  artist.  ICvery  province 
in  (jveece  enjoyed  his  nninilicciue ;  and  the 
temple  of  Jiipiter  at  Athens,  wliich  lie  re- 
stored, and  that  of  Cyzicum,  on  the  sliores 
of  PropoiUis,  which  he  built,  were  stupen- 
dous moiiuuieiils  of  imperial  splendour.  Hav- 
ing for  eighteim  years  been  engaged  in  vi- 
niiiiiU  the  n)()st  cfislaut  parts  of  the  Roman 
empire,  he  resolved  to  construct  his  villa  at 
Tivoli;  in  which,  not  only  <'Nact  models  of 
the  mort  celebrated  buildings  he  had  seen, 
R'.iould  be  erected,  but  that  lliey  should  be 
(uriiishod  with  originals,  or  the  linesl  cnijies, 
nfthe  most  admirable  statues.  His  correct 
uidgment  in  all  worku  of  art  contributed  mor<.' 
to  the  absolute  superiority  uf  this  collection, 
than  the  mere  power  of  expending  unlimited 
treasures  to  procure  it. 

It  was  by  Hailriaii  that  the  fashion  of  hav- 
ing poftr.ius  iu  st,ituar\  was  sd  geni'rally  ex- 
t^'.»l.'  I  auioug>t  the  uoliU;  and  opulent  cit'i/ens 


SCULPTURE. 

of  Rome.  In  his  own  villa  at  Tivoli  were 
placed,  by  his  command,  the  s;atucs  and 
bUfts  not  o'nly  of  all  his  living,  but  of  his  de- 
ceased, friends.  Of  his  favourite  Antinous, 
in  various  characters,  there  are  infinite  repe- 
titions. That  most  valued  was  found  ou  the 
Esquiline  hill,  and  was  placed  by  J.eo  X.  in 
the  Vatican  :  but  it  has  lately  been  described 
as  Mercury,  bv  the.  abate  Viscouti.  Another 
was  found' about  1770,  in  the'llierma;  Mari- 
tim;e  of  Hadrian,  near  Ostia.  It  represents 
Antinous  in  the  mythological  character  of 
Abundance,  and  is  now  in  the  collection  of 
the  Hon.  J.  Smith  Barry,  at  Ueaumont,  in 
Chesliire. 

Some  curiosity  will  be  excited  to  enquire 
the  names  ot  those  artists  who  were  so  con- 
stantly emploved,  and  so  amply  patronised, 
by  Hadrian.  I'hose  only  of  Arista-us,  Papias, 
aiid  Zeiio,  occur  on  tlie  iilinths  of  fragments 
discovered  amongst  the  Tiburliiie  ruins. 

We  are  now  advancing  rapidly  to  the  de- 
cline of  sculpture  among  the  Romans.  Of 
the  two  Antonines,  M.  Aurclins  appears  to 
have  been  the  greater  triend  of  the  arts.  His 
eque^trian  statue  in  bronze  in  the  area  ot 
the  capitol,  still  defies  the  competition  of 
the  modern  artists.  This  last  epoch  in- 
cludes the  reigns  of  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  the 
Antonines,  and  terminates  within  that  of 
Commodus.  It  was  niost  remarkable  for  the 
character  and  high-finishing  of  heads  intended 
as  portraits,  particularly  of  the  imperial 
busts,  as  of  M.  Anrelius,  Commodus  when 
young,  and  of  Lucius  Verus. 

A  statue,  saifl  to  be  of  that  degenerate 
monster  Commodus,  in  the  cliavactcr  of  a 
young  Hercules,  \i  in  the  Belvedere  ;  but  the 
superior  style  ot  the  hair  is  a  decisive  proof, 
according  to  the  judicious  W  inckelmaiin,  that 
it  is  a  genuine  Hercules  of  much  higher  an- 
tiquity. 

But  a  far  inferior  state  of  sculpture,  in 
wliich  none  of  its  pristine  elegance  could  be 
traced,  is  apparent  in  the  bas-reliefs  of  two 
triumphal  arches,  erected  at  Rome  in  tlie 
reign  of  Septiiiiius  Severus.  The  arts,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  supposed  to  have  declined 
so  suddenly  from  a  scarcity  of  those  persoi.s 
who  professed  them  ;  for  many  portraits  in 
marble,  both  of  this  emperor  and  his  favour- 
ite minister  I'lautianus,  afford  a  convincing 
proof,  that  the  sculptors  svere  many,  yet 
tiiat  the  art  was  in  decay. 

Tlie  several  authors  who  have  pursued 
thi-,  inquirv  with  the  most  ample  and  critical 
investigation,  are  undecided  in  fixing  the  ex- 
act iieriod  of  the  extinction  of  the  arts  at 
Home.  Some  allow  no  proofs  ol  their  ex- 
istence later  than  the  Gordians  ;  and  by 
others  they  are  extended  to  the  reigii  of  Li- 
cinius  Gallienus,  in  the  268th  year  of  Christi- 
anity. ^\'hy  the  profession  of  the  arts  should, 
in  a  great  measure,  cease,  several  causes 
have  been  given;  but  (he  principal  and  moit 
obvious  one  is.  that  when  Constantinc  deter- 
mined to  e>tablish  at  Ijy/.antiuin  another  ca- 
pital of  the  Uuniau  world,  he  [iilkiged  the  old 
metropolis  of  its  most  valuable  statuary,  to 
enibellish  a  rival  city.  'I'hose  cities  of  Greece 
also  which  were  contiguous,  supplied,  of 
course,  an  easy  prey.  Implicit  cretlit  ))er- 
liaps  is  not  to  be  given  to  an  author  of  'Uch 
([iiestionalile  veracity  as  Cedrenus;  but  from 
hill)  we  Icary,  that  Con~tantine  had  collec  ted 
the  Olympic  Jupiter  ot  I'hidias,  the  (iiiidi.m 
Neiius'of Praxiteles,  and  a  colossal  Juno,  in 


bronze,  from  her  temple  at  Samos;  not  t* 
detail  more  of  hiscatalogue.  '1  liese,  accord- 
ing to  Nica;tas,  were  broken  in  pieces,  or 
melted  down,  at  the  surrender  of  (he  Eastern 
empire,  and  its  metropolis,  in  1204,  to  the 
trench  and  Venetians.  The  four  broii/,3 
horses  in  the  Duomo  of  St.  Mark  at  Venicey 
were  preserved  trum  destruction,  and  trans- 
ported in  triumph. 

From  liie  reigns  of  the  first  Byzantine  em- 
perors, to  the  immediate  success'.)!  s  ot  Theo- 
dosius,  we  may  perceive  a  ray  ot  their  former 
ge!iiu%  stdl  animating  the  Greek  artists.  '1  htj 
historical  coUnnu  ot  Arcadius  ro»e  in  no 
very  unequal  emulation  of  those  ot  Trajan 
and  Anioiiine  at  Rome.  But  from  many 
epigrams  of  the  Antliologia,  it  is  evident  that 
able  artists  were  to  be  I'ound;  audit  maybe 
candid  to  suppose,  that  such  praise  was  not, 
in  evci-y  instance,  extravagant  or  unmerited. 
At  the 'same  time  that  Rome  was  K.id  wast'; 
by  the  Golhs,  the  works  in  bronze  by  tlie 
artists  at  Constantinople  were  held  in  consi- 
derable estimation. 

In'the  conclusion  of  his  History  of  liie  De- 
cline and  Fall  of  the  Roman  limpire,  the 
erudite  Gibbon  has  given  a  perspicuous  ac- 
count of  the  causes  to  which  the  ruins  of 
Rome  may  be  ascribed. 

During  the  fifteenth  century,  Petrarch  and 
Poggius,  the  celebrated  Florentine  rhetori- 
cian and  lawyer,  very  eloquently  describe 
the  dilapidation  by  which  they  were  sur- 
rounded in  their  view  of  the  imperial  city, 
after  many  centuries  of  injury  sustained  from 
the  (joths,  the  zeal  ot  the  primitive  Christians, 
the  civil  wars  of  her  own  nobility,  and  the 
waste  of  materials,  or  the  gradual  decay  of 
time. 

Poggius  asserts,  that  six  perfect  statues 
only  remained,  of  all  the  former  splendour 
ot  the  mistress  of  the  world.  Four  w  ere  ex- 
tant in  the  baths  ot  Constantine ;  the  others 
weie  that  now  on  the  Monte-cavoilo,  and 
the  equestrian  statue  of  M.  Aurclins.  Of 
these,  five  were  ot  marble;  the  sixth  and  last 
is  of  bronze. 

Poggius  was  the  firt  collector  of  antique 
statues;  and  from  him  the  great  Cosmo de 
Meilici  acquired  a  love  of  the  arts,  and 
learned  to  enrich  his  cabinet  with  their  pro- 
ductions. His  successors,  whh  hereditary 
emulation,  exerted  every  power  of  wealth 
and  influence,  to  render  that  cabinet  the 
envy  of  Europe. 

An  investigation  of  the  remains  of  Roman 
grandeur,  so  long  and  sedulously  pursued, 
was  rewarded  by  Irequent  discoveries  of  the 
finest  antique  sculptures;  and  the  artists  of 
the  modern  schools  establislied  at  the  Flo- 
rence, giive  the  first  proofs  of  their  ingenuity 
in  restoring  and  ad.ipling  those  precious  frag- 
ments. 

Many  curious  particulars  relative  to  the 
discovery  of  antique  statues  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  may  be  lound  in  Ficoroni,  in  an  ac- 
count by  I'laminius  \'acca,  printed  at  the 
end  ofNardim's  Roma  Antica,  and  in  Moiit- 
faucon.  Si.-veral  of  these  are  also  lo  be  found 
in  Dallaway's  .•Anecdotes,  from  which  many 
parts  of  this  account  of  the  arts  have  been 
selected. 

Afoihrn  uH  of  sculpture. 
Of  the  sculptors  of  the  modern  school,  th« 
first  who  are  deserving  of  notice  are  Niccolo 
Pilaiii,  and  his  >on  Giovanni,  wliose  wotku 


in  bas-rclicf  hi-cami'  the  prir-.tipal  ornaments 
of  the  cathedrals  which  w  ore  built  in  Italy  in 
their  time.  'I  hey  were  born  al  I'isa,  and 
liouriilied  in  the  middle  ol  tlie/l3lh  eeiitury. 
To  their  names  is  to  be  added  thai  of  Nicto'io 
dell'  Area. 

To  these  succeed'.'d  Donatello,  born  at 
Florence,  in  U<J.!,  whom  an  Italian  aiitiior 
calls  the  reviver  of  sciil|)tiue:  and  LorcJizo 
(jhiberti,  celebrated  for  his  admirable  bas- 
reliefs  in  bronze  on  the  gales  tA'  the  liaptis- 
tery  of  bl.  John  at  l''lorence,  of  which  Michael 
Angelo  said,  that  Ihey  deserved  to  be  the 
gales  of  Paradise.  The  compartments  of 
tHese  gates  arc  liili-d  with  subjeits  taken  from 
the  Old  Testament.  Tlie  acconipanyinij  or- 
aiamenlsof  fruils,  llowers,  Ike.  are  of  the  most 
c.\i|nisite  workmanship. 

'i'lie  list  of  succeeding  sculptors,  in  Tus- 
cany, is  very  nunn.'rous.  I'hose  ot  the  greatCil 
celebrity  are  Michael  Angelo  Unonaroti,  no 
less  ennnent  in  scnl|)ture  llian  in  painting; 
I'accio  liandir.elii ;  Niecolo,  called  ilTribolo; 
(jnlielmo  della  Porta;  Jacopo  bansovino; 
Annibale  Fontana;  Benvenuto  Cellini;  Mont 
Orsoli  ;  Giambologna,  &c.  &c. 

To  these  is  to  be  added  the  name  of  Pro- 
pcrtia  di  Kossi  dislingvii-hed  as  mncli  by  her 
misfortunes  as  lier  talents.  Her  history  is 
singularly  interesting,  if  the  circumstances 
related  of  her  are  authentic. 

Propertia  di  Rossi  was  born  at  Bologna,  at 
the  clo^e  of  the  fifteenth  century.  She  was 
not  only  versed  in  sculpture,  but  had  reached 
also  no  common  e.Kcellence  in  music.  Her 
iirst  works  were  carvings  in  wood,  and  on 
])eaeh-stones,  eleven  of  which  were  in  the 
museum  of  the  marquis  Grassi  at  15ologna, 
each  representing  on  one  side  one  of  the 
apostles,  and  on  the  other  several  saints,  in 
these  minute  attempts  having  gained  uni- 
versal applause,  she  then  gave  a  public  proof 
of  lier  genius  in  a  work  of  considerable  im- 
portance, which  she  linislied  in  marble,  for 
the  front  of  the  cathedral  of  St.  Petronius.  A 
bust  of  covnit  Guido  Pepoli  was  likewise 
greatly  admired.  The  rules  of  perspective 
and  architecture  were  eipiaUy  familiar  to  her. 
W'lih  all  tliese  talents,  and  a  fame  unrivaliid 
by  her  sex,  Propertia  w.is  most  unfortunate. 
In  early  iil'e  she  had  been  married  without 
sympathy,  and  had  fixed  her  a.fectious  on 
one  whose  heart  was  t  )tally  insensible. 
AVhile  her  health  was  daily  yielding  to  de- 
spair, she  undertook  the  bas-relief,  represent- 
ing the  story  of  Joseph  and  Potiphar's  wife, 
which  forms  the  principal  libjectof  the  work 
above-mentioned,  belonging  to  the  cliurch  of 
St.  Petronius.  It  was  at  once  a  monument 
ot  her  hopeless  passion,  aiid  of  her  admirable 
skill. 

The  juvenile  talents  of  Michael  Angelo 
were  ilisplayed  in  the  imitation,  first  of  Do- 
natello, and  next  ot  the  antique  ;  but  he  soon 
formed  his  own  distinct  style,  consistent  with 
the  character  of  his  native  genius.  This  style 
■was,  like  liis  painting,  invariably  grand,  tlis 
anatomical  know  ledge  was  at  all  times  conspi- 
cuous, and  the  display  of  it  sometimes  ex- 
ceded  the  just  bounds.  His  works  in  various 
cities  of  Italy  are  numerous.  The  prinvipal 
ones  are  at  Komeand  l-  lorence.  In  the  former 
city,  the  monU;i:eiitoi  Julius  II.  in  the  church 
of  St.  Pietio  in  Vnicoli,  (which  comprises 
the  well-known  statue  ol  Moses)  and  the  ce- 
lebrated woik  of  the  Pii.'ta,  in  a  chapel  in  St. 
■f^terb,  are  worthy  of  Uie  bigUest  adaiiiatiou. 


SCUOTUIIE. 

At  Florence,  his  greatest  work  is  in  the  -a- 
cristyof  St.  Lorenzo,  when-  lie  has  placed  the 
statues  ol  the  dukes  I,ortuzo  uii'.l  tjiuliano 
Medici,  together  with  four  emblematic 
figures  of  Nigl'l,  Day,  Twilight,  and  Dawn. 

The  superior  genius  of  this  great  artist 
established  the  sciiool  of  sculptme  in  Flo- 
rence;  and  his  successors  weie,  for  a  long 
period,  lillh-  more  than  inntators  of  his  style. 
Hut  althoui^h  they  succeeded  in  giving  to 
their  llgures  an  appearance  of  anatomical 
knowledge,  they  were  far  from  equalling 
their  great  exemplar  in  his  profound  concep- 
tion of  the  principles  of  art.  They  may  of 
course  all  bc'  considered  as  his  inferiors  in  a 
line  which  he  had  marked  out  for  them. 

With  the  decline  of  the  republic  of  Flo- 
rence, the  arts  also  sunk  into  tiecay,  or  took 
their  jliglit  to  Home,  where  Algardi  became 
the  author  of  a  new  style,  by  studying  to 
unite  the  elfects  of  painting  with  those  of 
sculpture,  and  thus  deserting  the  real  intent 
of  his  art ;  which  is  to  imitate  the  forms,  not 
the  ai)pearances,  of  objects,  the  latter  being 
the  province  of  painting. 

By  tliese  means  sculpture  assumed,  under 
the  hands  of  Algardi,  a  mannered  air,  which 
it  has  never  since  wholly  lost. 

One  of  the  most  extraordinary  works  of 
Algardi,  is  a  large  bas-relief,  placed  over  an 
altar  in  St.  Peter's  church  ;  in  which  he  lias 
represented  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  in  the  air, 
averting  by  their  menaces  the  haughty  At- 
tila,  who  was  advancing  to  the  attack  of 
Bonie.  The  princi[)al  figures  in  this  singular 
work  are  of  the  highest  relievo;  those  which 
arc  supposed  less  in  front  are  in  mezzo-re- 
lievo; and  in  the  others  the  d.-gree  of  relief 
is  proportionally  diminished,  tuitil  the  most 
distant  figtires  are  only  marki-d  with  a  simple 
line.  This  was  considered  in  his  time  as  the 
mode  of  perfecting  bas-relief;  and  Pope  In- 
nocent the  Tenth  rewarded  the  artist  with  a 
present  of  30,000  Roman  crowns. 

To  Algavdi  succeeded  Lorenzo  Bernini, 
born  in  159S,  who,  pursuing  the  track  which 
Algardi  liad  begun,  and  distinguishing  him- 
self at  an  early  age  by  extraordinary  matu- 
rity of  talents,  consulted  ever  afterwards  no 
other  rules  than  the  indulgence  of  his  own 
fancy,  and  sought  celebrity  from  the  flights 
of  caprice  and  extravagance.  His  first  group 
was  Apollo  and  Daphne,  at  the  moment  that 
the  nymph  begins  to  exhibit  the  change  from 
her  natural  form  to  that  of  the  latirel-tree. 
The  figures  are  remarkably  liiiht  and  grace- 
ful, and  the  fame  which  this  work  acquired 
for  its  author  was  of  the  most  excessive  de- 
gree. His  latter  works  at  Rome  were  the 
celebrated  chair  of  St.  Peter's  church,  the 
monument  of  the  popes  L'rban  the  Eiglith 
and  Alexander  the  Seventh,  the  e(iue5trian 
statue  of  Constantir.e,  and  the  fountain  in  the 
Piazza  Navona. 

The  sculptors  who  followed  were  the  imi- 
tators sometimes  of  one,  and  sometimes  of 
the  other,  of  these  two  masters. 

At  the  same  period  flourished  Francois  du 
Quesnoy,  called  Fiummingo,  unrivalled  in 
the  beautiful  and  tender  forms  of  his  infantine 
figures.  Ill  his  statue  of  Saint  Susanna,  lie 
proposed  to  imitate  the  simplicity  of  the 
antitpie;  and  succeeded  (says  Mengs)  in 
imitating  the  superficial  appearance,  but  not 
the  essential  ii)a!uuis^  of  the  anlients. 


Knsconi  is  the  last  sculptor  worthy  of  i)::r- 
ticular  notice,  until  the  appearance  o  An- 
tonio Canova,  a  \'enetian,  now  living,  and 
whose  productions  exhibit  talents  (ft'  a  v<Ty 
extraordinary  rank.  Many  accounts  of  his 
works  are  to'he  found  in  the  relations  of  mo- 
dern travellers. 

Of  a  date  virry  little  later  llian  the  revival 
of  art  at  Florence,  is  the  commeiicvment  of 
its  cullivalion  in  France.  \i  liilc  Micliael 
Angelo  was  disclosing  his  wondeifnl  powers 
at  liomc,  under  the  |)i)ntilicate  of  Leo  the 
'IVnth,  Jean  Goujon  attracted  the  adiiiita- 
tion  ol  I'aris,  in  the  reign  of  Francis  the  First, 
and  continued  to  receive  it  in  that  of  Henry 
the  Second.  His  name  is  frefpiently  placed 
in  competition  with  the  sculptors  of  the  Ita- 
lian st:hool.  "The  \Moiksot  Goujon  (sajs  a 
French  writer)  recal  to  our  view  the  simpie 
and  sublime  beauties  of  the  antique."  His 
figures  were  however  more  esteemed  on  the 
score  of  grace  than  of  correctness.  He  ex- 
celled particularly  in  works  of  niczzo-relievo. 
Tiie  Fontaine  des  Saints  Innoceiis,  in  the  Rue 
St.  Denis  at  Paris,  is  an  instance  of  his  merit 
in  this  kind;  as  is  also  the  tribune,  support- 
ed by  colossal  Carvatides,  in  the  Salle  ues 
Cent  Suisses  at  the  Louvre. 

Girardon,  born  in  1027,  was  at  once  (like 
the  preceding  artist)  a  scul42tor  and  architect. 
His  works  were  admired  for  the  correctness 
of  design,  and  beauty  of  composition;  and  he 
was  said  by  his  countrymefi  to  have  produced 
chefs-tl'a-uvres  only.  'I  he  magnificent  mau- 
soleum of  cardinal  Richelieu  in  the-  church 
of  the  Sorbonue,  the  equestrian  statue  'of 
Louis  the  Fotirteeiith  in  the  I'lacc  Vendome, 
and  numerous  statues  and  groups  in  the  gar- 
dens of  Versailles,  are  testimonials  or  liis 
merit. 

Cotemporary  in  age  and  fame  with  Girar- 
don, was  Puget,  born  at  Marseilles,  in  \bC'2, 
and  denominated  by  J^uis  the  Fourteenth 
"  the  Inimitable."  lie  studied  from  the  age 
of  16  to  21,  in  Italy,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  equally  for  the  quickness  of  liis  ta- 
lents, and  his  extraordinary  dilfideiice  in 
them.  Soon  after  his  return  to  h's  own 
country,  he  was  invited  to  Paris  by  M.  Col- 
bert, and  executed  many  admirable  works, 
particularly  the  groups  of  Milo,  and  of  An- 
dromeda rescued  by  Perseus,  in  the  park  of 
Versailles.  His  works  are  celebrated  by  the 
French  for  their  elevated  taste,  correctness 
of  drawing,  nobleness  of  character,  and  in 
general  the  most  happy  fertility  of  geni'is. 
His  artful  disposition  of  drajjery  for  the  dis- 
play ol  the  form  beneath  it,  is  much  admired. 
Puget's  reputation  was  at  its  height  when 
nerniui  became  eminent  at  Rome;  and  it  is 
not  more  creditable  to  one  than  to  the  other 
of  tliese  sculptors,  that  when  Louis  the  Four- 
teenth sent  an  invitation  to  Bernini  to  come 
to  Paris,  that  artist  replied,  that  the  king  of 
F' ranee  had  no  occasion  for  his  talents,  while 
he  had  such  a  sculptor  as  Puget  in  iiis  domi- 
nions. 

The  other  countrieson  the  continent  hav- 
ing chiefiy  received  the  rudiments  of  art 
from  the  two  already  mentioned,  have  culti- 
vated a  similar  taste  in  most  of  their  works 
of  sculpture.  Many  artists,  however,  have 
appeared  worthy  of  high  praises  :  and  in  mo- 
dern days  the  names  of  Zauner  in  \'ieniia, 
Sergei  in  Stockholm,  and  Koslovski  iu  i'e- 
tersburgh,  stand  high  iu  estimation. 


e-ro 


s  c  u 


It  i;  now  requisite  to  turn  our  attciitiiw  to 
Eiigbn;! ;  wherf,  alt!ioiip;!i  the  early  period 
of  t.'ie  kingdo;:!  have  left  many  iiieniori:!l5 
of  the  tu'cer.ts  of  oar  artists,  the  present  school 
of  sculpture  is  of  a  very  recent  date.  From 
the  time  of  the  Reformation,  the  art  of  sculp- 
ture  has  heeii  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of 
foreign  artists.  Cihb.T,  Gibbons,  Ryshrack, 
hcheeniaker,  Rouliillao,  and  some  others, 
were  cr.i;)loyed  on  ail  public  occasions  to  ihe 
exclusion  of  native  artists. 

The  principal  works  of  Cibljer  arc  the 
statues  on  the  front  oi  Bedlam,  those  of  se- 
veral of  our  kinijs  round  the  Koyai  Kxchange, 
and  others  at  Chalsworth  ant!  Cambridge. 
lie  was  the  lather  of  the  celebrated  dramatic 
writer  Colley  Cibber. 

Of  GrinlingGibbons  is  a  statue  in  bronze  of 
James  11.  noA-  in  Scotlaiul-yard,  in  tiie  Ro- 
man costume.  In  minute  ornaments,  carved 
in  wood,  Gibbons  has  few  equals.  His  works 
of  that  kind  are  freciueiit:  some  of  the  best 
are  at  lord  ICgrenienl's  at  Pelworth,  Windso;-, 
and  tiie  duke  of  Norfolk's  at  Holm  Lncey. 
In  the  chapel  of  Triiiity-eoUege,  Oxford, 
are  other  striking  proofs  of  his  genius. 

Rysbrack's  lirst  appearance  in  England 
V as  about  the  year  1  /UO,  wiien  the  statuaries 
of  Paris,  particularly  Le  Paiitre,  Vaicleve, 
Bouchardoii,  and  Le  Gros,  enjoyed  the  lirst 
reputation,  and  had  m.my  sciiolais,  whose 
invention  was  exhausted  in  the  classicul  fop- 
peries of  the  royal  gardens.  Wherever  he 
acquired  the  elements  of  his  art,  he  displayed 
tale  .ts  of  a  masterly  artist  in  England.  His 
bronze  equestrian  statue  of  kijig  William  at 
B;i>tol,  and  his  monument  of  bishop  Hough 
in  Worcester-cathedral,  are  counted  among 
his  s;iperior  works. 

Some  of  the  busts  by  his  hand  are,  John 
Baliol,  king  of  Scots,  at  Baliol  college  ;  Al- 
fred, at  the  university,  finished  by  Wilton ; 
Gibbs,  the  architect,  in  the  Radclilif  library  ; 
Dr.  R.  Fri.nd,  archbisliop  Coulter,  and  pro- 
b.ibly  the  busts  of  George  I.  and  II.  at  Christ- 
church. 

■  Scheemakeis has  left  many  valuable  works: 
his  statue  of  Shakspeare,  on  the  monument 
of  our  immortal  bard,  in  Westminster-abbey, 
procured  him  the  greatest  celebrity. 

Roubillac  was  a  native  of  Lyons,  a  city 
which  has  given  birth  to  sev.-ral  French 
sculptors;  to  Coyse\ox,  N.  Coustou,  and 
I'Auioereux,  the  cotemporary  o.  Roubillac, 
aBcl  \v,l  ,  siinie  probability  his  fellow-scholar 
under  C  oustou.  There  is  a  want  of  simpli- 
city in  tne  works  of  this  artist,  from  which 
the  celbrated  statue  of  Newton  at  Triml\- 
college,  Cambridge,  is  by  no  means  exempt. 

Mr.  Nightingale's  monument  in  West- 
ininstir-abbey,  says  Walpole,  although  linr-lv 
thought  and  well  executed,  is  more  tlieatric 
than  sepulchral. 

At  Christeliurch  are  fine  busts  of  Dr,  Mat- 
thew Lee,  J)r.  R.  Freweu,  andoueofthe 
founders  at  .\ll-.'^ouls. 

Since  (he  time'of  the  foreign  artists  above 
mentioned,  many  eminent  Knglish  sculptors 
h:ive  a[)pearpd,  whose  works  are  to  be  toiind 
in  our  rhinehes  and  other  public  b'lil  ing-^, 
Wilton,  Nolkkens,  Ba-iks,  Ikcon,  FlaMii;in, 
We  tmacott,  are  some  of  the  most  conspi- 
cuous names  of  our  modern  school.  Wilton 
txpctited  some  good  monuments  in  West- 
umiiler-abbey  ;  Nollekens  has  established  a 


S  C  Y 

fame  ^\hich  has  stood  the  lest  of  a  lor.g  life 
of  constant  practice,  and  remains  uiiJimi- 
nisliefl. 

The  characteristic  merits  of  Paiiks  and 
Bacon  are  thus  described  by  Mr.  Hoare,  in 
his  Inquiry  into  the  Slate  of  The  Arts  in 
England.  "  Banks  was  among  those  who 
niost  zealously  sought  the  eMlargemcnt  of 
professional  knowledge  in  the  stores  of  Rome.. 
A  mind  ardently  roused  to  competition  with 
the  works  of  excellence  which  he  beheld, 
and  a  hand  trained  from  infancy  to  a  ready 
expression  of  his  conceptions,  imparted  to 
his  productions  an  air  of  antiejil  art. 

•'Bacon's  genius  was  of  native  growth; 
he  traversed  no  distant  regions  for  improve- 
ment of  his  art,  but  drew  from  the  researches 
of  others  suihcient  food  for  an  active  and 
ready  fancy.  His  conceptions  were  quick 
and  sparkling,  his  ex<tnti(>n  polished,  and 
his  whole  work  characleristically  graceful." 

The  sculpture  of  Flaxinan  denotes  a  chaste 
and  correct  taste,  founded  on  the  most  cri- 
tical stud\  of  the  works  of  Grecian  art. 

Westmacott  is  an  able  pupil  of  the  Vene- 
liaii  Canova. 

England  also  boasts  her  fema'c  sculptors. 
The  Hon.  Mrs.  Darner,  and  the  illustrious 
a  tress  Siddons,  have  shewn  distinguished  ta- 
lents in  this  art. 

SCURVY.  See  Medicine,  Vol.  II.  p. 
1j4,  col.  2. 

SCUTAGE  was  antienlly  a  tax  imposed 
on  such  as  held  l.oids,  &c.  In  knight's  ser- 
vice, towards  furnishing  the  king's  armv  ; 
iience  sculagio  habendo  was  a  urii  that  lay 
for  the  king,  or  other  lord,  against  tenants 
holding  by  knight's  service,  to  serve  in  per- 
son, or  send  a  sullicient  man  in  their  room, 
or  pay  a  certain  sum,  &c. 

SCUreLLARlA,  scuH-cfip,  a  genus  of 
the  gymnospermia  order,  in  tlie  didynamia 
class  of  plants,  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  40th  order,  personata-. 
The  calyx  is  short,  tubulated,  has  the  mouth 
entire,  and  close  after  liouering.  There  are 
two  species  ill  Britain,  the  galericulata  and 
minor.  T.  The  galenculata,  blue  scull-cap, 
or  hooded  uillow-herb.  It  grows  on  the 
banks  of  rivers  and  lakes,  is  bitter,  and  has  a 
garlic  smell.  2.  Minor,  little  red  sciiU-cap, 
or  willow-herb.  Tlie  stalks  are  about  eiaht 
inches  high;  the  leaves  are  heart-shaped, 
oval  ;  the  liovvers  are  purple.  It  grows  in 
lens,  and  on  the  sitles  of  lakes.  'Fhere  are 
fourteen  other  species. 

SCLHT'LES,  in  a  ship,  square  holes  cut 
in  the  deck,  big  enough  to  let  in  the  body 
of  a  man,  serving  to  let  people  down  into 
any  room  below  upon  occasion,  or  from  one 
ileck  to  another.  They  are  generally  before 
the  main-mast,  before  the  knight  in  the  fore- 
castle ;  in  the  gun  room,  to  go  down  to  the 
stern-sheets;  in  the  ro.ind-house,  to  go  down 
into  the  ca])lain"s  cabin,  when  forced  by  the 
enemy  in  a  light  aloft.  There  are  also  some 
sm;-.ller  scuttles,  which  have  gratings  over 
thiMii  :  and  all  of  them  have  covers  that 
people  may  not  fall  down  through  them  in 
the  night. 

Scuttle  is  also  a  name  given  those  little 
windows  and  long  holes  which  are  cut  out  in 
cabins  to  let  in  light. 

SC  YLLARUS,  a  genus  of  insects,  accord- 
ing to  I'ubricius,  of  the  order  aptera ;  but  by 


SEA 

the  Linnwan  system  it  is  ranked  with  the  ge« 
nus  cancer.     See  i*!ale  Nat.  Hist.  lig.  368. 

SCYLi,4;A,  a  geiiiis  of  injects  ot  the 
order  verine:<  nioUusca.  'I'he  gene:ic  cha- 
racter is-,  body  compressed,  and  groovedalong 
the  back ;  mouth  <onsisliiig  ui  a  terniiiiaf 
tootliless  a|)ertuie;  tentacula  three  on  each 
side,  and  placed  beneath.  'I'here  are  two 
species. 

.SCYTHROPS,  a  genus  of  birds  of  t!-.e 
order  picjc.  The  g.ueric  character  is,  bill 
large,  convex,  sharp  edged,  ciianuelled  ?,t 
the  sides,  hooked  at  thci  pouil ;  nostrils  naked, 
rounded  at  the  base  of  tlie  bill  ;  tongue  car- 
tilaginous, split  at  the  point ;  feet  clinibers. 
There  is  but  a  single  species,  viz.  the  psltta- 
cus,  which  inhabits  New  South  Walts ;  thi 
size  of  a  crow,  but  from  the  length  of  the 
tail  measures  2i'j  inches  long. 

SEA,  in  a  strict  sense,  signifies  a  large 
portion  of  water  a'mosl  sunoniided  bv  land, 
as  the  IJatic  and  Mi-dilerranean  seas;"  but  it 
is  frequently  used  tor  that  vast  body  of  water 
which   encompasses  tht;  v.hole  eaVtii.     See 

OcEA>f. 

Wiiat  proportion  the  suijerlicies  of  the  sea 
bears  to  thai  of  the  lau  I,  cannot  easily  be 
ascertained.  Burton  has  -uppcjsed  that  the  sur- 
face of  our  globe  is  equaby  divided  between 
land  and  water,  and  ha.  accordingly  calculat- 
ed the  superiicies  ol'  t.ie  sea  to  be  83  49,), 506 
square  miles.  But  it  is  now  well  kno.Mi 
that  the  ocean  covers  much  more  than  half 
of  the  earth's  surface.  Buifon  believed  th-'- 
existence  of  a  vast  southern  continent,  which 
captain  Cook  has  shewn  to  be  visionarv.  It 
was  this  circumsta'ice  which  misled  him.  Ac- 
cordmg  to  tiie  nijst  accurate  observations 
hitherto  made,  the->surlace  of  the  sea  is  to 
the  land  as  three  to  one;  the  ocean,  there- 
fore, extends  over  12S,'235,759  square  miles, 
supposing  the  superiicies  of  the  whole  giobe 
to  be  170,981,012  square  miles.  To  ascer- 
tain the  depth  o;  the  sea  is  still  more  difficult 
than  its  superficies  ;  both  on  account  of  the 
numerous  experiments  which  it  would  be 
necessary  to  make,  and  the  want  of  proper 
instruments  for  that  purpose.  Beyond  a  cer- 
tain de|)th  the  sea  has  hitherto  been  found 
unfathomable ;  and  though  several  verv 
ingenious  methods  have  been  contrived 
to  obviate  this  diliiculty,  none  of  them  has 
completely  answered  the  purpose.  We 
know  in  general  that  the  depth  of  the  sea  in- 
creases gradually  as  we  leave  the  shore ;  but 
if  this  continued  beyond  a  certain  distance, 
the  depth  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean  would 
be  prodigious.  Indeed  the  numerous  islands 
every  where  scattered  in  the  sea  demonstrate 
the  contrary,  by  showing  us  that  the  bottom 
of  the  water  is  uueipial  like  t.\v-  land;  and 
that,  so  far  from  uniformly  sinkins,  it  some- 
times rises  into  lofty  mountains.  If  the 
depth  ot  the  sea  is  in  proportion  to  the  ele-^ 
vation  of  the  land,  as  has  generally  been 
supposed,  its  greatest  depth  will  not  exceed 
five  or  six  miles,  for  there  is  no  moun- 
tain six  miles  perpendicular  above  the  le- 
vel of  the  sea.  I  he  sea  has  never  been  ac- 
tually sounded  to  a  greater  depth  than  a  mile 
and  sixty-six  feet  ;  every  thing  beyond  that 
therefore  rests  entirely  upon  coiiiectnre  and 
analogical  reasoning,  which  ought  never  to 
be  ailmitted  to  determine  a  single  point  that 
em  be  ascertained  by  c\|-eriment,  because, 
when  admitted,  they  have  too  often  led  to 
false  conchisions.    Along  the  coasts,  whej'e 


S?.A. 


rtff* 


the  c1ei)th  oftlic  sr.i  is  in  general  well  l.noun, 
it  has  always  bi-ini  foiind  pruijortioiiccl  to  llif 
height  of  thi>  shore:  when  the  coast  is  liigli 
jjiia  moiintainoMs,  the  sen  that  washes  it  is 
ileep  ;  when,  on  the  Cdntrary,  the  coast  is 
low,  the  water  is  shallow.  Whether  this  ana- 
logy holds  at  ji  (li.ilaiKV  from  the  shore,  e.\- 
pe'rimeiits  alone  can  determine. 

To  calculate  the  quantity  of  water  con- 
tained in  the  sea,  while  its  depth  is  unknown, 
is  impossible.  Hut  if  we  sn|)pose  with  Buf- 
fon  that  its  medium  depth  is  the  fourth  part 
of  a  mile,  tlie  ocean,  if  its  superiicies  is 
128,2,35,759  stjnare  miles,  will  contain 
32,05S,y39,75  cubic  miles  of  water. 

Let  us  now  endeavour  to  compute  the 
quantity  of  water  which  is  constantly  dis- 
charged into  the  sea.  For  this  purj)ose  let 
us  take  a  river  whose  velocity  and  quantitv 
of  water  are  known,  the  I'o,  for  instance, 
\fhich,  according  to  Hiccioli,  is  1000  feet  (or 
100  perches  of  lioulogne)  broad,  ten  feet 
deep,  and  runs  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  in  an 
hour ;  const-quenlly  that  riviT  discharges 
into  tlie  sea  200,000  cubic  perclics  of  water 
in  an  hour,  or  4,800,000  in  a  day.  A  cubic 
mile  contains  125,000,000  cubic  perches; 
the  Po  therefore  will  take  twenty-six  days  to 
discharge  a  cubic  mile  of  water  into  the  sea. 
I.et  us  now  suppose,  what  is  perhaps  not  very 
far  from  the  truth,  that  the  quantity  of  wa- 
ter which  the  sea  receives  from  the  rivers  in 
anv  country  is  proportioned  to  the  extent  of 
that  country.  The  Po  from  its  origin  to  its 
mouth  traverses  a  country  3S0  miles  Ions;, 
and  the  rivers  which  fall  into  it  on  every  side 
rise  fiom  sources  about  sixty  nules  distant 
from  it.  The  Po,  therefore,  and  the  rivers 
which  it  receives,  water  a  country  of  45,f)00 
scjuare  miles.  Now  since  the  whole  super- 
ficies of  the  dry  land  is  about  42,745,253 
square  miles,  it  follows,  from  our  supposition, 
that  the  quantity  of  water  discharged  by  all 
the  rivers  in  the  world,  in  one  day,  is  thirty- 
six  cubic  miles.  If,  therefore,  the  sea  con- 
tains 32,058,939  cubic  miles  of  water,  it 
would  take  all  the  rivers  in  the  world  2439 
years  to  discharge  an  equal  cpiantity. 

It  may  seem  surprising  that  the  sea,  since 
it  is  continually  receiving  such  an  immense 
supply  of  water,  does  not  visibly  increasi', 
and  at  last  cover  liie  whole  eartli.  liut  our 
surprise  will  cease,  if  we  consider  that  the 
rivers  themselves  are  supplied  from  the  sea, 
and  that  they  do  nothing  more  than  carry 
back  those  waters  which  the  ocean  is  coiui- 
nuallv  lavishing  vipon  the  earth.  Dr.  Ilalley 
has  demonstrated  that  the  vapours  raised 
from  the  sea  and  transported  upon  land  are 
sutlicient  to  maintain  all  the  rivers  in  the 
world.  The  simplicity  of  this  great  process 
is  astonishing  :  the  sea  not  only  connects  dis- 
tant countries,  and  renders  it  easy  to  trans- 
port liie  commodities  of  one  nation  to  ano- 
ther, but  its  waters  rising  in  the  air  descend 
in  showers  to  fertilise  the  earth  and  nourish 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  collecting  into 
rivers  (low  onwards,  bringing  fertility  ami 
weaUh  and  commerce  along  with  them,  and 
again  return  to  the  sea  to  repeat  the  same 
round. 

As  the  sea  covers  so  great  a  portion  of  the 
globe,  we  should  no  doubt,  by  exploring  its 
bottom,  discover  a  vast  number  of  interest- 
iiij  particulars.     I'nforlunately,  in  the  great- 

VOL.  II. 


er  part  of  the  ocean  this  lia'i  liitlierto  been 
impossible.  Part,  however,  has  been  exa- 
iijined  ;  and  the  discoveries  which  this  exa- 
mination has  produced  may  enable  us  to 
form  some  idea  at  least  of  the  \ihole.  'i'hc 
bottom  of  the  sea,  as  might  have  been  cou- 
jecturrd  inileed  beforehuiirl,  bears  a  great 
resi'iubUince  to  the  surface  of  the  dry  land, 
being,  like  it,  full  of  plains,  rocks,  caverns, 
and  mountains  ;  some  of  which  are  abruiA 
and  almost  jjerpciulicuiLM',  while  others  rise 
with  a  gentle  decli\ity,  and  sometimes  tov.iT 
above  the  water  and  tbrni  islanrls.  Neither 
do  the  materials  differ  which  compose  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  and  the  ba>is  of  the  dry 
land,  if  we  dig  to  a  considerable  depth  in 
any  part  of  the  earth,  we  uniformly  meet 
with  rock  ;  the  same  tiling  holds  in  tiie  sea. 
The  strata  too  are  of  the  same  kind,  disposed 
in  the  same  manner,  ami  form  indeed  but  one 
whole.  The  same  kind  of  mineral  and  bitu- 
minous substances  are  ul'o  linnul  interspersed 
with  these  strata;  and  it  is  to  lliein  probably 
that  the  sea  is  indebted  for  its  b'tter  taste. 
Over  these  natural  and  origin.il  strata  an  ar- 
tificial bed  has  pretty  generally  been  formed, 
composed  of  dili'erent  materials  in  tlif(t;rent 
|)laces.  If  consists  frequently  of  muddy  tar- 
tareous  substances  (irmly  cemented  together, 
sometimes  of  shells  or  coral  reduced  to  pow- 
der, and  near  the  mouths  of  rivers  it  is  gene- 
rally composed  of  line  saud  or  gravel. 

'I'lie  ocean  dilfers  more  in  saltneis  in  different 
climates  towards  the  equator  than  nearer  the 
poles.  This  seems  to  arise  from  the  different 
quantities  of  watc:r  which  are  evaporated,  in 
pro])ort:oii  to  those  which  fall  in  rain.  One 
pound  of  sea-water  in  the  Baltic  yields  about 
a  cpiarter  of  an  ounce  of  salt ;  near  Holland 
half  an  ounce  ;  and  in  the  British  seas  al>ont 
two  ounces.  Boyle  has  also  observed,  that  in 
places  of  great  depth  the  water  is  sallest  al 
the  bottom. 

In  the  voyage  made  towards  the  north 
pole  in  1773,  it  was  found  that  the  sea-water 
at  the  Nore  contained  not  quite  ojie  thirty- 
sixth  of  salt ;  at  the  back  of  Yarmouth  sands, 
not  quite  one  thirty-second  ;  olf  I'lamborough 
Head,  rather  more  than  one  tweiUy-nintii  ; 
off  Scotland,  rather  less  than  one  twenty- 
ninth  ;  latitude  74\  at  sea,  one  twenty-ninth  ; 
and  in  latitude  78°,  rather  less  than  one 
twenty-eighth. 

Tiie  cause  of  the  saltncss  of  the  ocean  has 
been  a  subject  of  investigation  among  phi- 
losophers hi  almost  all  ages,  but  it  still  remains 
in  great  obscurity.  '('here  can  be  little 
doubt  that  a  large  quantity  of  saline  mat- 
ter existed  in  this  globe  from  tlie  crea- 
tion ;  and,  at  this  day,  we  lind  immense  beds 
of  sal  gem,  or  common  salt,  buried  in  the 
earth,  parUcularly  at  Cracow  ;  but  whether 
these  collections  Iiave  been  derived  from  the 
ocean,  and  deposited,  in  consequence  of  the 
evaporation  of  its  waters  in  certain  circum- 
stances; or  vvliether  the  ocean  was  itself  ori- 
ginally fresh,  and  received  its  salt  from  col- 
lections of  saline  matter  situated  at  its 
bottom,  or  from  that  brought  by  the  in- 
flux of  rivers;  cannot  now  be  ascertain- 
ed. No  accurate  observations  on  the  degree 
of  saltness  of  tlie  ocean  in  particular  latitudes 
were  made  till  the  present  century,  and  it 
is  not  possible,  therefore,  to  ascertain  what 
was  the  state  of  the  sea  at  any  consider- 
able distance  of  time,  nor,  consec[nently, 
whether  it*  degree- of  saltntss  increases,  de- 
4M 


crKtSfS,  or  is  stationary.  From  difTerPnce* 
among  aquatic  aiiimals,  however,  soine  of 
which  seem  adapted  to  salt  water,  and  sonic 
to  fresh,  it  is  probable,  that  both  lliese  htale* 
of  water  existed  from  the  creation  of  the 
world.  We  know,  it  is  true,  that  sonic  kinds 
offish,  as  salmon,  are  capable  of  exirtinj; 
both  in  fresii  and  in  salt  water,  and  that  liabil 
has  a  powerful  influence  overall  anir.ials;  bnt 
this  is  not  sullicient  to  refute  the  main  fact, 
that  some  kinds  offish  tlirive  only  in  salt  wa* 
ter,  others  in  fresh  ;  tome  in  standing  pools, 
and  others  in  rapid  currents. 

That  excellent  philosoplier  and  chemist, 
the  bishop  of  Landalf,  has  recommended  a 
mo.st  simple  and  easy  niotle  of  asccrtainiiij* 
the  saltness  of  the  sea  in  any  latitude ;  and 
as  the  language,  in  point  of  perspicuity  and 
correctness,  cannot  lie  im|)rove"d,  wf  take  liie 
liberty  of  inserting  it  in  his  own  words : 

" As  it  is  not  every  p(r>on  who  can  make 
himself  expert  in  the  use  of  the  common 
means  of  estimating  the  quantity  of  salt  con- 
tained in  sea-water,  i  will  mention  a  nietlicd 
of  doing  it  which  is  so  oiisy  and  simple,  that 
every  common  sailor  may  understand  aiid  pfac- 
fisc  it,  and  which,  from  "the  trials  I  have  madS 
of  if,  seems  to  be  as  exact  a  method  as  any 
that  has  yet  been  thought  of.  Take  a  clean 
towel  or  any  other  piece  of  cloth,  dry  it  well 
in  the  sun  or  before  the  fire,  then  weigh  it 
accurately,  and  note  down  its  weight ;  dip  it 
in  the  sea  water,  and  when  taken  out,  wring 
it  a  little  till  it  will  not  drip,  when  hung  up 
to  dry  ;  weigh  it  in  this  wet  state,  then  dry  it 
either  in  the  sun  or  at  the  (ire,  and,  when  it  is 
perfectly  dry,  weigh  it  again.  The  excess  of 
the  weight  of  the  wetted  cloth  above  its  ori- 
ginal weight,  is  the  weight  of  the  sea-watef 
imbibed  by  the  cloth  ;  and  the  excess  of  the 
weight  of  the  cloth  after  being  dried,  above 
its  original  weight,  is  the  weight  of  the  salt' 
retained  by  the  cloth;  and  by  comparing  ihi"; 
weight  with  the  weiciit  of  tiie  sea-water 
imbibed  by  the  cloth,  we  obtain  the  propor- 
tion of  salt  contained  in  that  species  of  sea- 
water. 

"  Whoever  undertakes  to  ascertain  the 
cpiaiitity  of  salt,  contained  in  se."i-water,  eith?:' 
bv  tills  or  any  other  method,  would  do  well 
to  observe  the  slate  of  the  weather  preceding 
the  time  wh.-n  the  sea-water  is  taken  out  of 
the  sea,  for  the  quantity  of  salt  tonla:ne<l  in 
the  water  near  the  surlace  may  be  influi'nced 
both  by  the  antecedent  moisture  and  the  £»-: 
tccedent  heat  of  the  atino-plK-re." 

Whether  the  ^ea  is  sailer  or  rof  a'  cl'lferfrt 
depths,  notwithstanding  Mr.  '  ' 

vations  before  quoteiK  has  r.'.. 
perly  ascertatmd ;  but  thi.t  iu  iciupii.i.iiii! 
varies   considerably    in    proportion    to    l!ie 
depth  we  have  di  cisive  prod. 

"  With  respect  to  t!.^  tempi  rature,'*  says 
bishop  Watson,  "  of  il^e  sea  at  dilVerer.t 
depths,  it  seems  reasonable  eiiO-.!gh  to  .^u'jj- 
pose,  that  in  summer  time  it  will  be  hotter 
at  the  surface  than  at  any  con>iderab!e  dcjUh 
below  it,  and  that  in  w:;iier  it  will  be  colder. 

"  Mr.  Wales  describes  the  inslriciient  he 
made  use  of  for  trying  the  temperature  of 
tfie  sea  at  different  depths,  in  the  following, 
terms  :  '  The  apparatus  for  try  ing  the  sea- 
water  at  dilferent  depths  consisted  of  a  square 
wooden  tube  of  about  eighteen  inches  loii^ 
and  three  inches  square  externally.  Jt  was 
lifted  with  a  valve  at  the  bottom,  and  another 
at  the  top,  and  had  a  contiivaucc  for  sus- 


642 


SEA 


pending  the  theimonieter  exactly  in  the 
middle  of  it.  \\  hen  it  was  used  it  was  fast- 
ened to  the  deep  sea-line,  just  above  tlie 
lead,  so  that  ali  the  way  as  it  descended  the 
water  had  a  free  jjassage  through  it,  by  means 
of  the  valves  which  were  tlien  both  open  ;  hut 
the  instant  it  began  to  be  drasra  up,  both  Uie 
valves  closed  by  the  pressure  of  the  water, 
and  of  course  the  thennonieter  was  brought 
up  in  a  body  of  water  of  tlie  same  tempera- 
ture with  tliat  it  was  let  down  to.'  AVith 
tli:s  instrument,  which  is  much  the  same  with 
one  formerly  described  by  Mr.  Bjyle,  in  his 
olaservations  about  the  saltness  of  the  sea, 
water  was  fetched  up  from  different  depths, 
and  its  temperature  accurately  noticed,  in 
ilillerent  seasons  and  latitudes. 

"  August  27,  1772,  south  latitude  24'.  40'. 
The  heat  of  the  air  was  7'J^, — of  the  water 
at  the  surface  70, — of  water  from  the  depth  of 
SO  fathoms  (38. 

"  December  27,  1772,  south  latitude  58", 
21'.  The  heat  of  the  air  was  31, — of  the 
water  at  the  surface  3  J, — of  water  from  tjie 
depth  of  IfJO  fathoms  331- 

"  III  the  voyage  to  the  hisjh  northern  lati- 
tudes before  nieiilioned,  they  made  use  of  a 
bottle  to  bring  up  water  from  the  boltoin, 
which  is  thus  ilescribeil  :  '  '!'he  bottle  iiail  a 
coating  of  wool,  tiiree  inclies  thick,  which 
was  wrapped  up  in  au  oiled  skin,  and  let  into 
a  leather  purse,  and  the  whole  inclosed  in.  a 
well-pitched  canvas  bag,  lirndy  tied  to  the 
mouth  of  the  bottle,  so  that  not  a  drop  of  wa- 
ter could  penetrate  to  its  surface.  A  bit  of 
lead  shaped  like  a  colie,  with  its  base  down- 
wards, -and  a  cord  (ixcd  to  its  small  end,  was 
jjut  into  the  bottle ;  and  a  piecu  of  valve  lea- 
tlier,  with  half  a  dozen  slips  of  thin  bladder, 
were  strung  on  the  cord,  which,  wl^en 
pulled,  efl'ectually  corked  the  bottle  on  the 
inside.'  We  have  here  put  down  two  of  the 
experiments  which  were  made  during  that 
voyaae. 

"  August  4,  1773,  north  latitude  80°.  30'. 
The  heat  of  tlie  air  was  32, — of  the  water  at 
the  surface  3(i, — of  water  fetched  up  from 
the  depth  of  60  fathoms  under  the  ice  39. 

"  September  4,  1773,  north  latitude  65°. 
The  heat  of  the  air  was  66^,  of  the  water  at 
111-:  surface  55, — of  water  from  the  depth  of 
683  fathoms  40. 

"  It  appears  from  all  these  experiments 
that,  when  the  atmosphere  was  hotter  than 
the  surface  of  the  sea,  the  superficial  water 
was  hotter  than  that  at  a  great  depth  ;  and 
when  the  atmospliere  was  colder  than  the 
surtacft  of  the  sea,  it  is  evident  that  the  su- 
perficial water  was  somewhat  colder  than  at 
a  considerable  distance  bcUnv  it." 

Sea-water  may  be  rendered  fresh  by  freez- 
ing, which  excludes  or  precipitates  the  saline 
particles;  or  by  distil  ation,  which  leaves  the 
salt  in  a  mass  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 
Upon  these  principles,  a  mode  of  obtaining  a 
»d()pl)  of  fresh  water  at  sea  was  recoamicnd- 
ed  some  years  ago  to  the  admiralty,  by  Dr. 
Irving,  ft  consisted  in  only  adapting  a  tin 
tube  of  suilable  dim-'usions  to  the  lid  of  the 
voininon  siiip's  keule,  and  condensing  the 
steam  in  a  hogshead  which  served  as  a  re- 
ceiver. By  this  mole  a  supply  of  twenty- 
five  gallons  ol  fresh  water  per  hoiu'  might  be 
obtained  frwti  the  keltic  of  one  ot  our  siiips 
«f  wir. 

The  se*  shall  Im  open  by  the  law-  of 
£ugUad>  to  all  lucrrliujits.     The.  inaiu  sea 


S  E  B 

bentalli  tlie  low-water  mark,  and  round  Eng- 
land, is  part  of  luigland,  for  there  the  admi- 
ralty has  jurisdiction.     1  Inst.  260. 

SEAL,  is  either  in  wax,  impressed  with  a 
device  and  attached  to  dee  Is,  See.  or  the  in- 
strument with  which  the  wax  is  impressed. 
Sealing  of  a  deed,  is  an  essential  part  of  it  ; 
for  if  a  writing  is  not  sealed,  it  cannot  be  a 
deed.     See  Deed. 

SEALER,  an  officer  in  chancery,  appoint- 
ed by  the  loid  chancellor  or  keeper  of  the 
great  seal,  to  seal  the  writs  and  instruments 
there  made  in  his  presence. 

SEALING,  in  architecture,  the  fixing  a 
piece  of  wood  or  iron  in  a  wall  witli  plaister, 
mortar,  cement,  lead,  and  other  solid  bind- 
ing. 

SEAMEN:  by  various  statutes,  sailors  hav- 
ing served  the  king  for  a  limited  time,  ore 
free  to  use  any  trade  or  profession,  in  any 
town  of  tlie  kingdom,  except  in  Oxford  or 
Cambridge. 

By  2  Geo.  II.  c.  36,  made  perpetual  by 
2  Geo.  III.  c.  31,  no  master  of  any  vessel 
shall  carry  to  sea  any  seaman,  his  own  ap- 
prentices excepted,  without  lirst  entering 
i»to  an  asreement  with  such  seaman  for  his 
wages:  such  agreement  to  be  made  in  writing, 
and  to  declare  what  wages  such  seaman  is  to 
receive  during  the  whole  of  the  voyage,  or 
for  such  time  as  shall  be  therein  agreed  upon  ; 
and  such  agreement  .shall  also  express  the 
voyage  for  wliicli  such  seaman  was  shipped 
to  jjerform  the  same.  The  provisions  of  this 
act  are  enforced  by  a  penalty  of  ten  pounds 
for  each  mariner  carried  to  sea  without  such 
agreement,  to  be  forfeiteil  bv  the  master  to 
the  use  of  Greenw  ich-hospital.  This  agree- 
ment is  to  be  signed  by  eaoh  mariner  within 
three  days  after  entering  on  bo.ird  such  ship, 
and  ii,  when  executed,  binding  on  ali  parties. 

SEAM  or  Seme  oJ  corn,  is  a  measure  of 
eight  bushels. 

Se.\m  ofgliiss,  the  quantity  of  120  pound, 
or  24  stones  each  live  |)Ounds  weiglit.  The 
seam  of  wood  is  a  horse-load. 

Seajis  of  a  ship,  are  places  where  her 
planks  meet  and  join  together.  There  is 
also  a  kind  of  peculiar  seam  in  the  sowing  of 
sails,  which  they  call  monk-.seam  ;  the  other 
scam  of  a  sail  is  the  round  seam,  so  called 
from  its  being  round  like  the  common  seams. 

SE.ARClIEll,  an  officer  of  the  customs, 
whose  business  is  to  search  and  examine  all 
ships  tMitward-bound,  to  see  whether  they 
have  any  prohibited  or  uuaccustomed  goods 
on  boar<l. 

SEASIN,  or  Seasing,  in  a  sliip,  the  name 
of  a  rupe  by  which  tlie  boat  riiles  by  the 
ship's  side  when  in  the  harbour,  &c. 

SEBATS.  As  the  sebacic  acid  was,  strict- 
ly speaking,  unknown  till  the  late  experi- 
ments of  'I'heiiard,  the  description  of  the  se- 
bats  published  by  fonner  chemists  cannot  be 
admitted  as  exact  till  they  are  verified  by  a 
neu-  examination.  Tiiese  salts  of  c.oursi:  are 
unknown,  if  we  except  the  few  facts  point- 
ed out  by  Thenard.  Tiiis  chemist,  however, 
has  announced  his  intention  of  publishing  a 
detailed    account   of  them. 

1.  When  sebacic  acid  is  dropt  into  baryles 
water,  lime  water,  or  strontian  water,  it  does 
not  render  those  liquids  turbid.  Hence  we 
learn,  that  the  sebats  ot  the  alkaline  earths 
ar«  soluble  In  water. 

2.  The  alkaline  sebaft  are  likewise  soluble 


I 


SEC 

Sebat  of  potass  has  little  taste,  docs  not  at- 
tract moisture  from  the  air;  and  when  sul- 
phuric, nitric,  or  muriatic  acid  is  poured 
upon  it,  sebacic  acid  is  deposited.  When 
the  concentrated  solution  of  this  salt  is  mixed 
with  any  of  these  acids,  it  becomes  solid  fioiu 
the  crystallization  of  the  sebacic  acid. 

SEBACIC  ACID.  Chemists  hacHong  sus- 
pected that  an  acid  could  be  obtained  from 
tallow,  on  account  of  the  acrid  nature  of  the 
fumes  which  it  emits  at  a  high  temperature  ; 
but  it  was  M.  Grutzmacher  who  first  treated 
of  it  particularly  in  a  dissertation  De  Oisiuie. 
Medulla,  published  in  1748.  Mr.  Rhodes 
mentioned  it  in  1753  ;  Segner  published  a 
dissertation  on  it  in  1754;  and  Crell  examin- 
ed its  properties  very  fully  in  two  disserta- 
tions published  in  the  Pliilosophical  Transac- 
tions for  1780  and  1782.  It  was  calle<l  at 
first  acid  of  fat,  and  afterwards  sebacic  acid. 

But  at  the  period  when  these  chemists 
made  their  experiments,  the  characteri^tic 
properties  of  the  dilferenl  acids  were  not  suf- 
ficiently known  to  enable  incm  to  distinguish 
acids  trom  each  other  with  precision.  The- 
nard examined  the  subject  in  1801,  tried  all 
the  processes  of  Crell  and  Guyton  Morveau, 
and  found  that  the  acids  procured  by  them 
were  either  acetic,  or  the  acid  emploved  in 
the  process.  Ileal  sebacic  acid  had  hi'thPrto 
^scaped  the  examination  of  chemists.  !t  may 
be  procured  by  the  following  method,  for 
which  we  are  indebted  to  Thenard. 

1.  Distil  hog's  laril,  wash  the  product  with 
hot  water,  separate  this  water,  and  drop  into 
it  acetat  of  lead.  A  flaky  precipitate  appears, 
which  is  to  be  washed  anci  dried,  mixed  with 
sulphuric  acid,  and  heated.  A  melted  sub- 
stance analogous  to  fat,  swims  on  the  surface, 
which  is  to  be  carefully  separated.  This 
substance  is  sebacic  acid.  It  may  be  dis- 
solved in  hot  water,  and  on  cooling  crystal- 
line needles  are  deposited.  This  acid  may 
be  obtained  also  by  evaporating  the  water 
employed  in  washing  the  product  of  distilled 
hog's  lai'd.  Or  this  water  may  be  saturated 
with  potass,  and  afterwards  precipitated  with 
acetat  of  lead  as  above.  Its  properties  are 
tlie  following. 

2.  It  has  no  smell,  its  taste  is  slightly  acid, 
and  it  reddensthe  tincture  of  turnsole.  Whu-n 
heated  it  melts  like  tallow.  It  is  soluble  in 
cold,  but  much  more  soluble  in  hot  water. 
Boiling  water  saturated  with  it  becomes  solid 
on  cooling ;  alcohol  also  dissolves  it  abun- 
dantly. It  crystallizes  in  needles;  but  by 
proper  precautions  it  may  be  obtained  in 
long,  large,  and  very  brilliant  plates. 

It  occasions  a  preci|)itate  in  the  acetat  and 
nilrat  of  lead,  the  nitrat  of  silver,  the  acetat 
and  nitrat  of  mercury.  It  forms  peculiar 
salts  with  the  alkalies  and  earths.  It  docs 
not  render  lime  water,  barytes,  or  strontian 
w  ater  turbid.  Sebat  ot  potass  has  little  taste, 
does  not  attract  moisture  from  the  air;  and 
when  sulphuric,  nilric,  or  muriatic  acid  is 
poured  upon  it,  sebacic  acid  is  deposited  : 
when  its  solul'K)n  is  concentrated  and  mixed 
w  ith  any  one  of  these  acids  it  becomes  solid. 

SfX'Al.E,  rijc,  a  genus  of  the  dii;yii;a 
order,  in  the  triandria  class  of  plants  ;  and  in 
the  natural  metltod  ranking  under  the  4Ui 
order,  gramina.  The  calyx  is  a  glume  'if 
two  leaves,  which  are  opposite  to  one  ano- 
ther, erect,  linear,  )niinted,  and  less  than  the 
corolla.  The  corolla  consists  of  two  valve*, 
the  e.vlt'iior  of  which  ends  in  a  beard.  Ther« 


SEC 

art  four  species :  the  villosiim,  oriciitalc, 
crcticiiiii,  and  ct-rcale.  Tlie  villosiini,  or 
wood  ryp-grass,  is  distiiigniJicd  by  a  calyx 
witli  wedgi'-bliapcd  scales,  and  by  the  fiiiigi' 
of  tiie  gluiiio  beiiig  woolly.  The  glumes  ot' 
the  orieiuale  arc  sliaggy,  and  llio  scales  of  the 
calyx  are  shaped  like  an  au  1.  The  glumes  of 
the  crelicnm  are  fringed  on  the  outside. 
The  cercale,  or  common  rye,  has  glumes 
with  roui;h  fringes.  It  is  a  native  of  (he  is- 
land of  Candia,  was  introduced  into  Kngland 
many  ages  ago,  and  is  the  only  species  of 
rve  cullivateil  iirlliis  kingdom.  Tliere  are, 
however,  two  varieties,  tlie  winter  and  spring 
rye. 

The  winlifr  rye,  wliich  is  larger  in  the 
grain  than  the  spring  rye,  is  sown  in  iuiluniii 
at  tlie  same  time  with  wheat,  and  sometimes 
iiuNcd  with  it ;  b'.it  as  the  rye  ripens  sooner 
than  the  wheat,  this  nietluid  mnsi  be  very  ex- 
ce[)(ionabl  •.  'I'he  sjirinn-  r\  c  is  sown  along 
%vith  the  oats,  and  U:,ually  ripens  as  soon  as 
the  winter  rye  ;  but  the  grain  produced  is 
lighter,  and  it  is  therefore  seldom  soun  ex- 
cei)t  where  ttie  autumnal  crop  has  failed. 

Rve  is  commonly  sown  on  poor,  dry, 
limestone,  or  sandy  soils,  wln-re  wheat  will 
not  thrive.  15y  continuing  to  sow  it  on  such 
a  soil  for  two  or  three  years,  it  will  at  length 
ripen  a  month  earlier  than  that  wliich  has 
bci'n  raised  for  years  on  strong  cold  ground. 

Rye  is  commonly  used  for  bread  either 
alone  or  mixed  with  wheat.  This  niixlnre 
is  called  meslin,  and  was  formerly  a  very 
common  crop  in  some  parts  of  Britain.  Mr. 
Mai^hall  tells  us,  that  the  farmei-s  in  York- 
shire b^-liove  that  this  mixed  crop  is  nerer 
affected  by  mildew,  and  that  a  small  (piantity 
of  rye  sown  among  wheat  will  prevent  this 
destructive  disease.  Rye  is  much  used  for 
brea'.l  in  some  pi^rts  of  Sweden  and  Norway 
by  the  poor  people.  About  a  century  ago  rye- 
bread  was  also  much  used  in  England;  but 
being  made  of  a  black  kind  of  rye,  it  was  of 
the  same  colour,  clamuiv,  very  detergent, 
and  consequently  not  so  nourishing  as 
wheat. 

Rye  is  subject  to  a  disea-e  which  the 
French  call  ergot,  and  llie  Kns^ish  horned 
rye  ;  which  sonietinies  happens  when  a  very 
hot  summer  succeeds  a  rainy  spring.  Ac- 
cording to  Tissot,  horned  rye  is  such  as  suf- 
fers an  irregular  vegetation  in  the  middle 
substance  between  the  grain  and  the  leaf, 
producing  an  excrescence  of  a  brownish  co- 
lour, about  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  two- 
tenths  of  an  inch  broad.  Rread  made  of  this 
kind  of  rye  has  a  nauseous  acrid  taste,  and 
produces  spasmodic  and  gangrenous  dis- 
ordi-rs. 

SI-X'ANT,  in  geometry,  is  a  line  that  cuts 
ano'.her,  or  divides  it  into  luo  parts.     See 

TKICONOMtTRV. 

.SEITIIUM,  a  genus  of  the  syngenes'a 
order,  in  the  mona-cia  class  of  plants  ;  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  34lh 
order,  cucurbitacea".  The  male  calyx  is 
quiiu(uedentate  and  monophyllous  ;  the  co- 
rolla monopetalous ;  the  live  lilaments  are 
united  in  an  erect  tube.  In  the  female  llower 
the  pistiilum  is  cylindrical  and  erect;  the 
stigma  large,  peltated,  and  relli-cted ;  the 
pericarpium  large,  oval,  unequal,  (leshy,  and 
unilocul.u',  containing  one  seed,  which  is 
smooth,  compressed,  and  fleshy.  Of  thi^ 
there  is  only  one  species,  viz.  tlie  edulis,  or 
chocho  vine.     This  is  cultivated  and  grows 


S  E  C 

very  lusttiri.iiitly  in  many  jilaces  in  Jamaica. 
T'lie  vines  run  and  spread  very  much.  The 
fruit  is  boiled,  and  served  up  at  table  by  wav 
of  greens  ;  and  the  loot  of  the  old  vine  is 
somewhat  like  a  yam  (dioscorea),  and  on 
being  boili;d  o[  roa"sted  tastes  faiinaceoiis  iuid 
wholesome. 

SEC(^Nf),  in  geometry,  chronology,  •''^c. 
the  sixtieth  part  of  a  prime  or  minute,  whe- 
tli.-r  of  a  degree,  or  of  an  hour :  it  is  denoted 
by  two  small  accents,  thus  ("). 

Sf.conh,  in  music,  an  interval  of  a  con- 
joint degree.  There  are  (bur  kinds  of  sei^ciuls. 
'I'he  diminished  second,  containing  four  coni- 
mas;  tlic  minor  second,  consi^ting  of  live 
commas;  (he  major  second,  consisting  of 
nine  commas;  and  the  redundant  second, 
composed  of  a  whole  tone  and  a  minor  semi- 
tone. 

SECOND.\RY,  in  general,  something 
that  acts  as  second,  or  in  subordination  to 
another.  Secondary  circles  of  the  sphere, 
are  circles  passing  through  the  poles  of  sonic 
great  circle:  thus  the  meridians  and  hour- 
circles  are  secondaries  to  the  eijuiuoctial. 
There  are  also  secondaries  p.issing  through 
the  ])oles  of  the  ec!i))tic,  by  nirans  of  which 
all  stars  are  referred  to  the  ecliptic. 

Secondary,  an  odicer  who  is  second,  or 
next  to  the  chii-f  officer  ;  as  the  secondaries 
(0  the  prothonotaries  in  the  courts  of  li.  R. 
and  C.  a 

Sl'XR  F.  r.Vli  Y,  an  ofiicer  who  by  his  mas- 
ter's orilcrs  writes  letters,  dispatches,  and 
other  instruments,  which  he  renders  authen- 
tic by  his  signel.  Of  these  there  ace  several 
kinds ;  as,  1.  Secretaries  of  state,  who  are 
ollicers  that  have  under  their  management 
and  direction  the  most  important  alVairs  of 
the  kingdom,  and  are  obliged  conslantly  to 
attend  on  the  king  :  they  receive  and'  dis- 
patch whatever  comes  totheir  hands,  either 
from  the  crown,  the  <-hurcli,  the  armv,  pri- 
vate grants,  pardons,  dispensations,  &:c.  as 
likewise  petitions  to  the  sovereign  ;  which 
when  read,  are  relurne<l  to  tln-m  ;  all  which 
they  dispatch  according  to  the  direction  of 
the  king  in  council.  'J'hey  have  auliiority  to 
<-ominit  persons  for  treason,  and  other  of- 
fences against  tlie  slate,  as  conservatoi-s  of 
the  peace  at  common  law,  or  as  justices  of 
the  peace  throughout  the  kingdom.  Thev 
are  members  of  the  privy  and  cabinet  coun- 
cil, which  is  seldom  or  never  held  without 
one  of  them  being  present ;  as  to  the  bu-iness 
and  correspondence  in  all  parts  of  this  kins- 
dom,  it  is  managed  by  the  secretary  for  the 
lionie  department.  With  respect  to  foreign 
ad'airs,  the  business  is  in  tin-  foreign  oflice. 
There  has  been  lately  established  a  secretary  of 
state  for  the  war  department,  w  liicli  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  secretary  at  war. 
The  secretaries  have  each  two  un'der-secre- 
taries,  and  one  chief  clerk.  To  the  secre- 
taries of  state  belong  the  cu-tody  of  that  seal 
properly  called  the  signet,  and  the  direction 
of  two  other  oftices,  one  called  the  paper- 
olKce,  and  the  other  the  signet-oHice.  See 
P.iPKROFFiCE  and  Signet-office. 

2.  Secretary  of  an  embassy,  a  person  at- 
tending an  ambassad.or  for  writing  dis|)atches 
relating  to  the  negotiStion.  There  is  a  great 
dilt'erence  between  the  secretarv  of  an  em- 
bassy, and  the  ambassadoi's  secretary;  the 
last  being  a  domestic  or  menial  of  the  am- 
bassador, and  the  first,  a  servant  or  minister 
4M2 


SEC 


643 


of  tlie  prince.  .>.  '1  he  secretary  a(  war,  an 
olliccr  of  the  wai -oflice,  v. ho  has  two  chief 
chrks  under  him,  (lie  last  of  which  is  the  se- 
cretary's mt;ssenger.  There  are  also  secre- 
taries 'in  most  of  the  other  oflices. 

SECRE'I'ION,  in  the  animal  ccominiv, 
the  separation  of  some  fluid  mixed  with  tfii? 
blood  by  irc^us  of  the  glauds.     See   I'nYsi- 

OLORV. 

Secretions,  morbid.  In  difTereiit  disease* 
to  which  the  animal  body  is  subject,  various 
fluids  make  their  appearance  whith  did  not 
previously  exist,  at  h-ast  under  the  form"? 
which  they  assume.  'J  hcis  in  the  dropsy  Ihe 
cellular  substance,  frequently  the  cavhies  of 
the  head,  breast,  or  abdomen,  are  filled  with 
a  whitish  liquid.  Where  anv  part  of  tlio 
skill  is  irritated  into  a  blister,  tlie  interval  be- 
tween the  cutis  and  cuticle  is  iill'd  with  a 
transparent  fluid  ;  and  when  any  part  of  the 
muscles  or  skin  is  wounded,  the  ulcer  is  soon 
covered  with  a  matter  called  pus.  See  Pus. 
A  thill  sanies  exudes  from  cancers  and  cari- 
ous bones.  The  liuuor  of  thedropsy  is  found 
upon  examination  to  agree  almost  exactly 
with  the  scrum  of  the  blood.  The  liquor  of 
blisters  is  composed  a'so  oi  the  same  consti- 
tuent* as  the  serum  of  blood  :  from  COO  parts 
has  been  obtained  by  chemical  analysis 
36  albumen, 

4iTiuiiat  of  soda, 

2  carboiiat  of  soda, 

'2  phoji>liat  of  lime, 
I5(j 


200. 


SECTION,  in  geometry,  denotes  a  side 
or  surface  appearing  of  a  body  or  hgure  cut 
by  another  ;  or  the  place  where  lines,  planes, 
&;c.  cut  each  other. 

The  common  section  of  two  planes  is  al- 
ways a  right  line;  biing  the  line  supposed 
to  bV  drawn  on  one  plane  by  the  section  of 
the  otlier,  or  by  its  entrance  into  it. 

Section  of  a  l)iiil(liiiK,  in  architecture,  is 
the  same  with  its  piolile  ;  or  a  delineation 
of  its  heights  and  depths  raised  on  a  plane, 
as  if  the  fabric  was  cut  asunder  to  discover 
its  inside. 

Skction's,  conic,  in  geometry.  SecCo.Nic 
Section. 

SECTOR,  in  geometry,  is  a  part  of  a 
circle,  comprehended  between  two  radii  and 
tlie  arch  ;  or  it  is  a  mixed  triangle,  formed 
by  two  radii  and  the  arch  of  a  circle. 

S!;cTOR.  See  Instruments  m.'^thf.- 
M  \  ric.M.. 

SIXl'NDIN'ES.     See  Midwifery. 

SECURIDACA,  a  jilant  h:-ioiigiiig  to  the 
class  of  dir.delphia,  and  to  Ihe  order  of  octan- 
dria.  The  calyx  has  three  leaves,  which  are 
small,  deciduous,  and  coloureil.  The  corolla 
Hs  papilionaceous.  'Jhe  vexillum,  consisting 
of  two  petals,  is  oblong,  straight,  and  con- 
joined to  the  carina  at  the  liase.  The  carina 
is  of  the  >ame  length  with  the  alic.  'i'he  le- 
gunien  is  ovated,  unilocular,  nionospermoiw, 
and  ending  in  a  legulaled  ala.  There  are  three 
species,  'i'heerecta  has  an  upright  stem  :  the 
scandens  is  a  climbing  plant,  and  is  a  native 
of  the  West  Indies. 

SECL"rORES,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of 
gladiators  among  the  Romans,  who  fought 
ag.uiist  the  retiarii.  The  secutores  were 
armed  with  a  sword  and  buckler,  to  keep  otf 
tlu;  net  or  noose  of  their  antagonists,  and  they 
v4 ore  a  cask  oil  their  Ucad. 


644 


S  E  D 


S  E  G 


S  E  L 


SEDAriVF.S.  See  Materia  Medica, 
vol  41. p.  It i\ col.  2,  Xarc-otics. 

SE  DEFKNDKNDO,  in  kiw,  a  pk-a 
used  for  hjn  that  isclurgetl  with  llie  d.-athof 
aaother,  bv  a'lcgiag  lliat  he  wa>  uivk-r  a 
nec'Msilv  of  doing  what  he  did  in  \w  own  d<;- 
It-nce;  as  tliat  tSe  other  assniiUed  him  iii 
such  a  manner,  that  if  he  hid  not  dons  what 
iie  did,  he  must  have  been  in  hazard  of  hs 
own  life.  But  here  the  danger  most  appear 
so  siiat,  as  to  be  inevitable.     See  llor.ii- 

CIDE. 

St^DlTION,  among  civilians,  is  used  for 
a  factions  commotion  of  tlie  people,  or  an  as- 
sembly of  a  number  of  citizens  witliout  Uv.v- 
ful  autiioritv,  tending  to  disturb  the  peace 
^ind  Older  ot"  the  societv.  Tnis  oflcnce  is  ot 
dlill-rent  kinds:  some  seditions  more  immedi- 
ateiv  thrtnle.iing  the  siipreme  priwer,  and 
t!ie  "subversion  o  the  present  constitution  of 
the  state;  others  tending  only  towards  the  re- 
.iress  of  private  grievances.  Among  the 
Uimans,  tiiercfore,  it  «as  variously  pnnished, 
according  as  its  end  and  tendency  threatened 
"realer  mischief  See  lib.  i.  God.  de  Sediti- 
osis,  and  Mat.  de  Crimin.  lib.  ii.  n.  3.  de 
Lesi  M.^estate.  In  tiie  punishment,  the 
aini.orsand  ringleaders  were  justly  distinguish- 
ed Irom  those  who,  with  less  wicked  inten- 
tions, joined  and  made  part  of  the  multi- 
tude. 

The  same  distinction  liolds  in  the  law  of 
England  and  in  that  of  Scotland.  Some 
kinds  of  sed  tion  in  England  amount  to  high 
treason,  and  come  within  tlie  stat.  25  Edw. 
III.  as  levying  war  against  the  king.  And 
several  seditions  are  mentioned  in  the  Scotch 
acts  of  parliament  as  treasonable.  Bayne's 
Crim  Law.  of  Scotland,  p.  3J,  34.  The  law 
of  Scotland  makes  riotous  and  tumultuous  as- 
s:>ijib!ies  a  species  of  sedition.  But  the  law 
»here,  as  wuU  as  in  England,  is  now  cliielly 
regulated  by  the  riot  act,  made  1  Geo.  1. 
only  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  pi-oper 
oflicers  in  ifcotland,  to  make  the  proclama- 
tion thereby  enacted,  are  sheriffs,  stewards, 
and  bailies' of  regalities,  or  their  deputif-s ; 
inagi-trates  of  royal  boroughs,  and  all  other 
inferior  magistrates;  high  and  petty  con- 
siables,  or  other  oiVicers  of  the.  peace,  in 
aay  counlv,  stewartry,  city,  or  town.  And 
in  that  part  ot  the  island,  the  punishment  of 
the  offence  is  any  thing  short  of  death  which 
the  judges,  in  their  discretion,  may  ap- 
point. 

SEDU.M,  orpine,  a  genusof  the  pcnlagy- 
iiia  order, i.-i the decandria  class  of  plants;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  13tli 
ord'-r,  succuleiitx.  Tin;  calyx  is  c|uin(iuelid ; 
the  corolla  is  pentapctalous,  pointed,-  and 
spreading;  there  are  live  nectariferous 
xjuania;,  or  scales,  at  the  base  of  the  germen. 
'1  he  capsules  are  live. 

The  species  are  30.  The  most  noted  are, 
1.  The  verticillatum ;  y.  Telepliium;  3. 
Anacamp-icros ;  4.  Aizoon;  5.  llybridum; 
<).  Po|>ulifolium ;  7.  Stellalum;  8.  Cepaoa; 
9.  Libanolitum;  10.  Dasyphyllum;  11.  Re- 
Jlexmn;  12.  Kupestre;  13.  Lineare;  14. 
llispanicum;  Ih.  Album;  16.  Acre;  17. 
Sexangularc;  18.  An.imim;  19.  Vdlosum ; 
ao.  Atralunx. 

All  the«e  species  of  scdum  are  hardy  her- 
baceous succulent  pere(niials,  durable  in  root 
hut  m»otly  annual  in  stalk,  £cc.  whicii,  rising 


in  spring,  fiower  in  June,  July,  and  August,  j  Tliat  is,  in  symbols,  the  solid  content  is  either 

■  '=   .523Crt   X  Sr'  +~a%    or   =  •5230rt'  X 


in  dilferent  sorts  ;  the  flowers  consisting  uni- 
versally of  live  spreading  petals,  generally 
crowning  the  stalks  nnmerou.^ly  in  coryiK- 
bose  and  cymose  bunches  and  spikes,  appear- 
ing tolerably  conspicuous,  and  are  succeeded 
by  plenty  cif  seeds  in  autumn,  by  wiiich  they 
niav  be  propagated,  al-o  abiuKhniily  by  part- 
ing the  roots,  and  by  slips  or  cuttings  ol  the 
stalks  in  sunmier;  in  all  of  which  mctiiods 
tiiey  readilv  grow,  and  spread  very  fast  into 
t'.iii'ed  liiiiiclies:  being  all  of  succulent  growth, 
they  con^eciuenlly  delight  most  in  dry  soils, 
or  in  any  dry  rubbishy  earth. 

As  flowering  plants,  they  are  mostly  em- 
l>ioved  to  embellish  rock-work,  ruins,  and 
the'like  places  ;  planting  eilher  the  roots  or 
cuttings  of  the  shoots  in  a  little  mud  or  any 
moist  soil  at  (irst,  pla<:ing  it  in  the  crevices, 
uhere  they  will  soon  root  and  lix  themselres, 
and  spread  about  very  agreeably.  For  eco- 
nomical purposes,  the  retlexum  and  rupestrc 
are  cultivated  In  Holland  and  Germany,  to 
mix  wilh  lettuce  iu  sallads.  'I'lie  wall-pep- 
per is  so  acrid,  that  it  blisters  the  skin  when 
applied  externallv-  Taken  inwardly,  it  ex- 
cites vomiting,  in  scorbutic  cases  and  quar- 
tan agues,  it  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  medi- 
cine under  proper  management.  Goats  eat 
it;  cows,  horses,  shei'p,  and  s'.vine,  refuse 
it. 

SEED.  See  Plants,  Physiology,  and 
Semen. 

SEELING,  at  sea,  's  used  in  the  same 
sense  nearly  witli  heeling:  when  a  ship  lies 
down  constantly,  or  steadily  on  one  side,  the 
seamen  say,  she  heels ;  and  tliey  call  it  seel- 
ing when  she  tumbles  violently  and  suddenly, 
by  the  sea  forsaking  her,  as  they  call  it,  that 
is,  the  waves  leaving  her  for  a  time  in  a 
bowling  sea. 

SEGMENT  o/ a  circle.  See  Geome- 
try. 

Segment   of  a  sphere,  is  a  part   of  a 
sphere  terminated  by  a  portion  of  its  surface, 
and  a  plane  which  cuts  it  off,  passing  some-  ] 
where  out  of  the  centre;  being  more  properly 
called  the  section  of  a  sphere. 

The  base  of'  a  segment  is  always  a  circle. 
An<l  the  convex  siufaces  of  different  segments, 
are  to  each  other  as  t!)eir  altitudes,  or  versed 
sines.  And  as  the  whole  convex  surface  of 
the  sphere  is  equal  to  four  of  its  great  circles, 
or  four  circles  of  the  same  <liameter;  so  the 
surface  of  any  segment  is  equal  to  four  cir- 
cles on  a  diameter  equal  to  the  chord  of  half 
the  arc  of  the  segment.  So  that  if  d  denotes 
the  diameter  of  the  sphere,  or  the  chord  of 
half  the  circumference,  and  c  the  chord  of 
half  the  arc  of  any  other  segment,  also  a 
the  altitude  or  versed  sine  of  the  same; 
then, 

3.l4l6i'   is  the  surface  of  tlie   whole 

sphere,  and 
3.l4lt)cS  or3.l4l6a:,  the  surface  of  the 
segment. 
For  the  solid  content  of  a  segment,  there 
are  two  rules  usually  given;  viz.   1.1b  three 
times  the  square  of  tiio  radius  of  its  base,  add 
(he  square  of  its  height;  nuiltiply  the  sum  by 
the  height,  and  the  product  bv  .,')23t).     l)r, 
illy,  I'rom  three  times  the  diameter  of  the 
sphere,  subtract  twice  the  luight  of  the  frus- 
tum; multiply  the  remainder  by  the  stpiare 
of  the  iicight,  .and  the  product  by  .523(3. 
10 


3d  —  '2a ;  where  u  is  the  altitude  of  the  seg- 
ment, ;•  the  r.idius  of  its  base,  and  d  the  di- 
ameter of  the  whole  sphere. 

SEGUEUIA,  in  botany,  a  jjlant  belong- 
ing to  the  class  of  polyandria  and  the  order  of 
nionogynia.  The  calyx  is  |)entaphvllous; 
the  phylla  are  oblong,  concave,  coloured, 
and  permanent ;  there  is  no  corolla.  The 
capsule  is  oblong  and  monospermous,  the 
large  ala  terminating  in  small  lateral  al.x". 
There  are  two  species,  the  Americana  anil 
Asiatic. 

SEIGNIORY,  dominium,  in  our  law,  is 
used  for  a  manor  or  lordship  of  a  seigneur,  ot 
lord  of  the  fee  or  manor. 

SEIGNORAGE,  signilies  the  right,  or 
due  belonging  to  a  seigricur,  or  lord;  but  it  is 
particularly  used  for  a  duty  belonging  to  the 
prince,  fjr  tlie  coining  o/  money,  called  also 
coinage  ;  which  under  our  aniicnt  kings  was 
live  shillings  for  every  pound  of  gold  brought  ' 
in  the  mass  to  be  coined,  and  a  shilling  foi' 
every  ppund  weight  of  silver.  At  present 
the  king  claims  no  seignorage  at  all,  but  the' 
subject  has  his  money  coined  at  the  public 
expence;  nor  has  the  king  any  advantage,, 
but  what  he  lias  from  the  alloy.  See  Coin- 
ing. 

SEISIN,  in  law,  signifies  possession.  Sei- 
sin is  two-fold;  seisin  inlaw,  and  seisin  in 
fact.  Seisin  in  fact,  is  when  an  actual  pos- 
session is  taken  ;  seisin  in  law,  when  some- 
thing is  done  which  the  law  accounts  a  seisin, 
as  an  enrollment. 

SEIZE,  Seaze,  or  Sease,  in  the  sea- 
language,  is  to  make  fast,  or  bind,  particularly 
to  fasten  two  ropes  together,  with  rope-yarn. 
The  seizing  of  a  boat  is  a  rope  tied  to  a  ring, 
or  little  chain  in  the  foreship  of  the  boat,  by 
which  means  it  is  fastened  to  the  side  of  the 
ship. 

SEIZURE,  in  commerce,  an  arrest  of 
some  merchandize,  moveable,  or  other  mat- 
ter, either  in  conseepience  of  some  law,  or  of 
some  express  onler  ot  the  sovereign.  Con- 
traband goods,  those  fraudulently  entered,  or 
landed  without  entering  at  all,  or  at  wrong 
places,  are  subject  to  seizure.  In  seizures, 
among  us,  one  half  goes  to  the  informer,  and 
the  other  half  to  the  king. 

SELAGO,  a  genus  of  the  angiospermia 
order,  in  the  didynamia  class  of  plants  ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  4Sth 
order,  aggregaUt.  The  calyx  is  (piinqueiid  : 
the  tube  of  the  corolla  capillary,  with  the 
limb  nearly  equal,  and  a  single  seed.  There 
are  20  species. 

SELENITE,  in  chemistry.  See  Sul- 
PHAT  OF  Lime. 

Selenites,  in  natural  history,  the  name  of 
a  large  d.iss  of  fossils,  the  characters  of  which 
arc  these:  they  arc  bodies  composed  of  slen- 
der and  scarce  visible  filaments,  arranged 
into  fine,  even,  antl  thin  flakes  ;  and  those  dis- 
posed into  regular  figures  in  the  several  diffe- 
rent genera,  approaching  to  a  rhomboid  or 
hexanguhir  cohinni,  or  a  rectangled  paral- 
lelogram; fissile,  like  the  talcs,  but  they  not 
only  lie  in  a  horizontal,  but  ako  in  a  perpen- 
dicular direction;  they  are  flexile  in  a  small 
degree,  but  not  at  all  elastic;  they  do  not 
terment  with  acid  menstrua,  but  reailily  cal- 
cine in  the  live.    Of  this  class  there  arc  s«- 


S,  E  L 

,7i^ti  ordiTS  of  liod'n's,  and  iiiuli'i'  Ihfc-e  ten 
gfii -rA.  'I'lii?  splcnilu;  of  llic  /irst  order  arc 
tiiot.!'  foinpost'd  of  liurizoiilal  piuti-'*,' ami  ap- 
proachin;^  to  a  rlioinboitlal  form :  of  the  se- 
idiKl  arc  tlioe  coinpr.sed  of  liorizonlal  plates, 
arraii'j^ed  into  a  columnar  and  iiiif>iiUir  form : 
of  tlie  third  an;  those  who^e  (ilaincnts  are 
scarce  vi:iibl_v  arranged  into  plates,  hut  which, 
ill  the  whole  masses,  ai)pear  rather  of  a  slri- 
atpvl-  than  of  a  tiihillatcd  structure:  of  the 
toiirih  are  tiio.se  vhich  are  list,' hut  of  no  de- 
terminatelv  angular  lignre:  of  the  (illh  are 
those  formed  of  i)U'.les  perpendicularly  ar- 
ranged: of  the  sixth  are  tlio-.e  formed  of 
congeries  of  plates,  arranged  into  the  ligure 
of  a  star;  and  of  the  seventh  are  those  of  a 
complex  and  indeterminale  ligure. 

The  structmc  of  the  selenita;  of  all  the  ge- 
nera ofthelirst  order  is  exactly  alike  ;  they 
are  all  com|  osed  of  a  great  nuniher  of  broad 
tlakes  or  plates,  in  a  great  measure  externally 
resembling  the  flakes  of  the  foliaceons  talcs: 
those  are  of  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
whole  mass ;  the  top  and  bottom  being  each 
Diilv  one  such  plate,  and  those  between  them, 
in  like  manner,  each  complete  and  single;  and 
the  body  may  always  be  easily  and  evenly 
split,  accoi'ding  to  the  direction  of  these 
{hikes.  l'he>e  did'er,  however,  extremely 
iVom  the  talcs ;  foi-'ihey  are  each  composed 
of  a  number  of  parallel  threads  or  filaments, 
which  are  usually  disposed  parallel  to  the 
sides  of  the  body,  though  sonietinu;s  paral- 
lel to  its  ends,  fa  many  of  the  species  they 
are  also  divided  by  parallel  lines,  placed  at  a 
considerable-  distance  from  each  other,  and 
the  plates  in  splitting  often  break  at  these 
lines;  add  to  this,  that  they  arc  not  elastic, 
and  that  they  readily  calcine.  The  structure 
of  those  of  the  second  is  the  same  with  that  of 
the  lirst:  but  that  in  many  of  the  specimens 
of  them,  theiilaniL-nts  of  whicli  the  plates  are 
composed  run  in  two  directions,  and  meet  in 
an  obluse  angle;  and  in  the  middle  there  is 
generally  seen  in  this  case  a  straight  hue  run- 
ning the  whole  length  of  the  column;  and 
snnail  parcels  of  clay  insinuating  themselves 
into  this  crack,  represent  in  it  the  ligure  of  an 
ear  of  grass  so  naturally,  as  to  have  deceived 
many  into  a  belief  that  there  was  really  an 
ear  of  grass  there.  The  other  orders  con 
sisling  only  of  single  genera,  the  structm-e  of 
each  is  explained  under  the  generical  name. 
See  Plate  Nat.  Hi-t.  tig.  359. 

SELEUCID.E,  in  clironology:  sera  of  the 
Seleucidie,  or  the  Syro-Macedonian  sera,  is  a 
computation  of  time,  commencing  from  the 
establishment  of  the  Seleucid;c,  a  race  of 
Greek  kings  ^^'ho  reigned  as  successors  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  in  Syria,  as  the  Ptole- 
mies did  in  Egypt.  This  xra  we  find  ex- 
pressed in  the  book  of  Maccabees,  and  on  a 
great  number  of  Greek  medals,  >truck  by  the 
■  cities  of  Syria,  &c.  The  rabbins  call  it  the 
sera  of  contracts;  and  the  Arabs  therik  dil- 
karnain,  that  is,  the  an'a  of  the  two  horns. 
According  to  the  best  accounts,  the  first  year 
of  this  a;ra  falls  in  the  year  31 1  before  Christ, 
being  twelve  years  after  Alexander's  death. 

SELF-IIEAL,  the  prunella  vulgaris  of 
Linna'us.  The  stem  is  erect,  and  about  eight 
or  ten  inches  high.  The  leaves  grow  on  foot- 
stalks, are  ovato-oblong,  slightly  indented,  and 
somewhat  hairy.  The  bractea:  are  heart-shap- 
ed, opposite,and fringed.  Thetlowersare white 
ex  purplish,  grow  in  dense  spikes,  and  are 


3  E  M 

terniinai.  Tiiis  plant  i^ perennial,  grows  wild 
in  meadows  and  pasture-grounds,  and  (lowers 
in  June  andjuly.  Tliis  herb  isrecoinmende<l 
as  a  mild  rest rin'geet -and  vidncrary  in  spittings 
of  blood,  and  other  hemorrhages  and  fluxes; 
aixl  in  gargarjsnis  against  apht>i:c  and  inthiin- 
mations  of  the  fauces.  Its  virtues  do  not  ap- 
pear to  bc'  Vorv  great;  to  the  taste  it  disco- 
vers a  very  slfght  austerity  or  bitterishness, 
which  is  more  sensible  in' the  flowery  tops 
llian  the  leaves. 

SEI.INI.'M,  a  genus  of  the  digvnia  order, 
in  the  pentandria  class  of  plants  ;  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  tlie  4j;h  or- 
der, tnubellat'.c.  The  fruit  is  oval,  oblonc, 
coinpresserl,  plan  :,  and  striated  in  the  mid- 
dle: the  invohicruni  is  refh-xed;  the  petals 
cordate  and  e()ual.  'I'here  are  nine  species, 
the  sylvestrc,  [lalustre,  austriacum,  carufolia, 
chabraci,  seguieri,  monnieri,  sibiricum,  and 
deceprens. 

SEf>T,,  in  building,  is  of  two  kinds,  viz. 
ground-sell,  which  denotes  fhe  lowest  piece 
of  timbi-r,  in  a  timber  building,  and  that  on 
which  the  whole  supKrstructine  is  raised;  and 
the  window-sifll,  called  also  window-soil,  is 
the  bottom  pi  ce  in  a  window-frame. 

SELI.A  EQUINA.     See  Anatomy. 

SELTZER-WATEU.      See     Waters, 

MliVKR.NL. 

SE-VIECARPUS,  a  genus  of  the  trigynia 
order,  in  the  pentandria  class  pf  plants.  'I'he 
corolla  is  quinquepetalous;  the.  drupa  is 
heart-shafied,  celUilous,  and  monospermous. 
There  is  l)ut  one  species. 

SE.MEN,  a  substance  prepared  by  nature 
for  the  reproduction  and  conservation  of  the 
species  both  in  animals  and  plants.  The  pe- 
culiar liquid  secreted  in  the  testes  of  males, 
and  destined  for  the  impregnation  of  females, 
is  known  by  the  name  of  semen. "  The  human 
semen  alone  has  hitherto  been  subjected  to 
chemical  analysis.  Nothing  is  Known  con- 
cerning the  seminal  fluid  of  other  animals. 
Vauquelin  published  an  analysis  of  the  hu- 
man semen  in  1791. 

Semen,  when  newly  ejected,  is  evidently  a 
mixture  of  two  different  substances:  the  one, 
fluid  and  milkv,  which  is  supposed  to  be  se- 
creted by  the  prostate  gland ;  the  other, 
which  is  considered  as  the  true  secretion  of 
the  testes,  \i  a  thick  mucilaginous  substance, 
in  which  numerous  while  shining  filaments 
may  be  discovered.  It  has  a  slight  disagree- 
able odour,  an  acrid  irritating  taste,  and  its 
specific  gravity  is  giealer  than  that  of  water. 
Vi'hen  rubbed  in  a  mortar  it  becomes  frothy, 
■  and  of  the  consistence  of  pnm.atum,  in  conse- 
fjuence  of  its  enveloping  a  great  number  of 
air-bubbles.  It  converts  paper  stained  with 
the  blos.soms  of  mallows  or  violets  to  a  green 
colour,  and  consequently  contains  an  al- 
kali. 

As  the  liiuid  cools,  the  mucilaginous  part 
becomes  transparent,  and  acquires  greater 
consistency  ;  but  in  about  twenty  minutes  af- 
ter its  emission,  the  whole  becomes  perfectly 
liquid.  This  liquefaction  is  not  owing  to  the 
absorption  of  moisture  from  the  air,  for  it 
loses  instead  of  acquiring  weight  during  its 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere ;  nor  is  it  owing 
to  the  action  of  the  air,  for  it  takes  place 
equally  in  close  vessels. 

Semen  is  insoluble  in  water  before  this 
spontaneous  liquefaction,  but  afterwards  it 


S  E'M  04^ 

flissolves  readily  in  it.  ^Vlien  alroliol  or 
oxymuriatic  acid  is  poured  into  ilri>  noluiion, 
a  number  of  wii'le  (lakes  are  precipitated. 
Cmicciitratcd  alkalies  facilitate  its  coiiibina- 
tion  with  wafer.  Acids  readily  dissolve  the 
semen,  and  thes  jlulion  i,s  not  tfecomposed  by 
alkalies;  neii.'i.T  indeed  is  the  alkaline  solu- 
tion decomi)05;d  by  a«ids. 

Liine  disengages  no  ammonia  from  fresh  se- 
mi ji  ;  but  after  that  fluid  lias  remained  for- 
some  time  in  a  moist  and  warm  atmo.sphere, 
lime  separates  a  great  quantity  from  it.  Coii- 
sequeiilly  ammonia  !■;  formed  durir.g  llie  ex- 
posure of  semen  to  (he  air. 

When  oxyniuriailc  acid  is  poured  into  se» 
men,  a  number  of  white  (lali.s  precipitate, 
and  the  acid  loses  its  peculiar  odour,  ihe-e 
fl.ikesare  in  oluhleii^  water,  and  even  in  acids'. 
If  the  quantity  of  acid  is  sulYicient,  the  semen 
acijuires  a  yellow  colour.  Thus  it  appviars 
that  semen  contains  a  mucilaginous  bubslancp 
analogous  to  that  of  the  icais,  which  coagu- 
lates by  absorbing  oygeii.  M.  \'auqueliii 
obtained  from  100  parts  of  semen  six  paits  of 
this  mucilage. 

When  semen  is  exposed  to  the  air  about 
the  temperature  of  60°,  it  becomes  gradually 
covered  with  a  transparent  pelhcle,  and  in 
liiree  or  (our  days  deposits  siruill  transpaient 
crystal?,  often  crossing  each  olher  in  such  a- 
manner  as  to  rcprirsent  the  spokes  of  a  wheel. 
These  crystals,  when  viewed  through  a  mi- 
croscope, ajjpear  to  be  four-sided  prisjns, 
terminated  by  very  long  four-sidi;d  |jyramicis. 
'I'hey  may  be  separated  by  diluting  the  liquid 
with  water,  and  decanting  it  off.  They  havf; 
all  the  properties  of  phosphat  of  lime.  If, 
after  the  appearance  of  these  crystals,  the  se- 
men is  still  allowed  to  remain  exposed  to  tlie 
atmosphere,  the  pellicle  on  its  surface  gradu- 
ally thickens,  and  a  number  of  white  round 
bodies  appear  on  different  parts  of  it.  Tiiese 
bodies  also  are  phosphat  of  lime,  prevented 
from  ciystallizing  regularly  by  the  too  rapid 
abstraction  of  moisture.  M.  Vauquelin  found 
that  100  parts  of  semen  contain  three  par's  of 
phosphat  of  lime.  If  at  this  period  of  the 
evaporation  the  air  becomes  moist,  other 
crystals  appear  in  the  semen,  which  have  the 
properties  of  carbonat  of  soda.  The  evapo- 
ration does  not  go  on  to  complete  exsicca- 
tion, unless  at  the  temperature  of  77^,  and 
w  hen  the  air  is  very  dry.  When  all  the  mois- 
ture is  evaporated,  tlie  semen  has  lost  0.9  of 
its  weignt ;  the  residuum  is  semitransparent- 
like  horn,  and  brittle. 

When  semen  is  kept  in  very  moist  air,  at. 
the  temperature  of  about  77",  it  acquires" a 
yellow  colour,  like  that  of  the  yolk  of  an  egg; 
its  taste  becomes  acid,  it  exhales  the  odour  of 
pufrid  fish,  and  its  surface  is  covered  with 
abundance  of  the  byssus  septica.  .      ■ 

When  dried  semen  is  exposed  to  heat  in  a 
crucible,  it  melts,  acquires  a  brown  colour, 
and  exhales  a  yellow  fume,  having  the  odour 
of  burnt  horn.  When  the  heat  is  raised,  the 
matter  swells,  becomes  black,  and  gives  out  a 
strong  odour  of  ammonia.  When  the  odour 
of  ammonia  disappears,  if  the  matter  is  lixivi- 
ated with  water,  an  alkaline  solution  may  be 
obtained,  which,  by  evaporation,  yields  crys- 
tals of  caibonat  of  soda.  M.  Vauquelin 
found  that  1 00  parts  of  semen  contai!>  one 
part  of  soda.  If  the  residuum  is  incinerated, 
there  will  remain  only  a  (piantity  of  white 
ashes,  consisting  of  phosphat  of  lime. 


as 


S  E  iM 


'i  !u:s  it  appears  t'.iat  scineu  is  composed  of 
the  follow  iug  in.urcdi'.-nls: 
<)ij  water 
G  i!)iicilage 
3  |)li')splial  of  lime 
1  soda 

iOO. 

Semek,  *ff<7.  Sec  Botax  v ;  and  Plan'ts, 
pluinoioj^;)  rj'.  With  lespecl  lo  miniber, 
plants  art  eitiior  furnished  with  one  seed,  as 
sea-|)ink  and  bistort ;  two,  as  wood-ioof,  and 
the  uiubelliferous  plant*;  three,  ai  spurge 
four,  as  tlie  hp-llowei's  of  Toiiniefdit,  aiul 
T'jiigh-leaved  plants  of  Kay ;  or  many,  as 
■rauuiicnlns,  anemone,  and  poppy.  The  form 
ofset-dsis  likewise  exlreniely  various,  being 
eiliior  large  or  small,  rounti,  oval,  hearl- 
■•-haped,  kidney -ship^^'d,  angular,  prickly, 
r'Migh,  hairy,  wrinkled,  sk<rk,  or  shining, 
!>lack,  w.iile.  er  brown.  Most  seed-.,  have 
only  one  cell  or  internal  cavity;  those  of 
le.-.ver  burdock,  vulerian,  lamb's  lettuce,  car- 
in^lian  cherry,  and  sebesten,  liave  two.  With 
respect  lo  substance,  seeds  are  either  soft, 
iiieinbraiiaceoiis,  or  of aliard  bony  substance; 
;;s  iu  groiMwcll,  tamarind,  and  ail  the  nucife 
rolls  plants.  In  point  of  magnitude,  scctls 
arj  either  very,  large,  as  in  the  cncoa-nut,  or 
very  small,  as  in  campanula,  ammannia, 
ranipions,  and  throatwort. 

With  respect  lo  situation,  tiiey  arc  either 
<ii5[)erse(l  promiscuously  through  the  pulp 
(semina  nidulen'.ia),  as  m  water-lily  ;  atiixed 
t!>  a  suture  or  joming  of  the  valves  of  the 
seeil-vessel,  as  in  the  cross-shaped  and  pea- 
bloom  liowers;  or  placed  upon  a  placenta  or 
receptacle  within  the  seed-vessel,  as  in  to- 
bacco and  thornapple. 

Seeds  are  said  lo  be  naked,  (semina  nuda) 
which  are  not  contaiiied  in  a  cover  or  vessel. 
Such  are  those  of  the  lip  and  compoimd 
flowers,  the  umbellifi-rous  and  rougli-h-aved 
plants;  cosered  seeds  (semina  tecta)  are  con- 
tained in  some  vessel;  whether  of  the  capsule, 
pod,  berry,  apple,  or  cherry  kind. 

A  simple  seed  is  such  as  bears  neither 
crown,  wing,  nor  downy  pappus;  the  varie- 
ties in  seeds  arising  from  these  circumstances 
ace  particularly  enumerated  under  their  rc- 
^pective  heads. 

Ill  assimilating  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms,  Linnanis  denominates  seeds  the 
eggs  of  plants.  The  fecundity  of  plants  is 
freipiently  marvellous  ;  from  a  single  plant  or 
stalk  of  Indian  Turkey  wheat,  are  produced, 
in  one  suunner,  1?000  seeds  ;  of  elecampane 
^000;  ofsun-tlower  4000;  of  poppy  3'J, 000; 
of  a  spike  of  cal's-tail  10,000,  and  upwards; 
a  single  fruit,  or  seed-vessel,  of  tobacco, 
contams  looo  seeds;  that  of  wliite  poppy 
fiOOO.  .Mr.  Kay  relates,  froin  expcrinieuis 
nia<le  by  himself,  that  lOl'i  tobacco-seeds 
are  etpial  in  weight  to  one  grain ;  and  that 
the  weight  of  the  whole  <iuanium  of  seeds  in 
a  single  tobacco-plant  is  such  as  must,  ac- 
cording to  the  above  proiiirtion,  determine 
their  number  lo  be  o{)0,000.  The  same  au- 
thor estimates  the  annual  produce  of  a  single 
Klalk  of  spleenwort  lo  be  upwards  of  one 
million  of  seeds. 

The  dissemination  of  plants  respects  tlie 
different  methods  or  vehicles  by  which  nature 
has  contrived  to  disperse  their  seeds  for  the 
purp'jse  of  increase.  These  by  naturalists 
are  generally  reckoned  lour : 

1.  Uivers  and  running  waters.  2.  The  wind. 


6  E  M 

3.  Animals.  4.  An  elastic  spring,  peculiar  to 
the  seed-  themselves. 

1 .  Tiic  seeds  which  are  carried  along  by 
rivers  and  torrents  are  freqUv.'ntly  conveyed 
manv  hundreds  of  leagues  from  their  native 
soil,  and  cast  upon  a  very  different  climate,  to 
which,  however,  by  degrees  they  reiuler 
themselves  familiar. 

2.  Those  which  are  carried  by  the  wind 
are  either  winged,  as  in  fir-tree,  trumpet- 
flower,  tulip-tree,  birch,  arbor-vit;e,  meadow- 
rue,  and  jessamine,  and  some  urabclli'"erous 
plants,  furnished  with  a  pappus,  or  downy 
crown,  as  in  valerian,  poplar,  reed,  succulent 
•swallow-wort,  cotton-tree,  and  many  of  the 
compound  (lowers,  placed  within  a  winged 
calvx  or  seed-vessel,  -aa  in  scabious,  sea-pink, 
dock,  dioscorea,  ash,  maple,  and  elm-trees, 
logwood,  and  woa<l ;  or,  lastly,  contained 
within  a  swelled  calyx  or  .seed-vessel,  as  m 
winter-cherry,  cucubaltis,  nieiilot,  bladder- 
nut,  fumiloiV;  bladder-sena,  heart-seed,  and 
chick-peas. 

3.  Many  birds  swallow  the  seeds  of  vane- 
loe,  juniper,  misletoe,  oats,  millet,  and  other 
grasses,  and  void  them  entire.  Squirrels,  rats, 
parrots,  and  other  animals,  suffer  many  of 
the  seeds  which  they  devour  to  escape,  and 
thus  in  effect  disseminate  them.  Moles, 
ants,  earthworms,  and  other  insects,  by 
ploughing  up  the  earth,  admit  a  free  passage 
lo  those  seeds  which  have  been  scattered 
upon  its  surface.  Again,  some  seeds  attach 
themselves  to  animals,  by  means  of.hooks, 
crotchets,  or  hairs:  which  are  either  afiixed  lo 
the  seeds  themselves,  as  in  hound's-tongiie, 
mouse-ear,  vervain,  carrot,  bastard-parsley, 
sanicle,  water-hemp,  agrimony,  arctopus,  and 
verbesina;  to  their  calyx,  as  in  burdock, 
agrimony,  rhexia,  small  wild  hugloss,  dock, 
nettle,  pellitory,  and  lead-wort;  or  to  their 
fruit  or  seed-vessel,  as  in  liquorice,  enchant- 
er's night-hade,  crosS-wort,  clivers,  French 
lioneysuckle,  and  arrow-headed  grass. 

4.  The  seeds  which  disperse  themselves 
by  an  elastic  force,  have  that  force  resident 
either  in  their  calyx,  as  in  oals,  and  the  great 
number  of  ferns;  in  their  pappus,  as  in  cen- 
taurea  crupina ;  or  in  their  capsule,  as  in 
geranium,  heib-bennel,  African  spir;e,  fraxi- 
nella,  horse- tail,  balsam,  Malabar-nut,  cu- 
cumber, elateriimi,  and  male  balsam-apple. 

SEMI-CIRCLE,  in  geometrv,  halfa  cir- 
cle, or  that  tigiire  coniprehende<l  between 
the  diameter  of  a  circle  and  half  the  circum- 
ference. 

SEMt-coi,o.\,  in  grammar,  one  of  the 
points  or  stops  u-ed  to  distinguish  the  several 
inembersof  sentences  from  each  other. 

Semi-cubical  parabola,  in  Ihe  higher 
geometry,  a  curve  of  the  second  order, 
wherein  the  cubes  of  the  ordinates  are  as  the 
s<iuares  of  the  absgisses.  Its  equation  is 
«.ri=:v. 

Se.mi-diur.mal.  Of  any  of  those  circles 
which  the  sun  appears  to  perform  rach  daily 
revolution,  that  portion  which  is  above  the 
horr/on  is  called  the  diunml  arih,  and  that 
which  is  below  the  horizon  is  caded  the  noc- 
turnal arch,  Ihe  halves  of  which  are  calletl  the 
semi-diurnal  and  the  semi-nocturnal  arches. 

Semi  OPAL.     Sec  Opal. 

Semi-1'aiiabqi.a,  in  geometry,  a  curve  de- 
fined by  the  equation  a\  =:  ^  ;  at  a-v" 
=  j',  and  j.v'  =;  j'.    See  the  article  Parabola. 


SEP 


,„~\ 


In   semi-parabolas,  y     \  v 

tfi  —  1  m  —  1  ,    w  —  I 

"-  T^  ■*'  .  •  *  ' '"'  '"^  powers 

of  the  senii-ordinates  arc,  as  the  powers  of  the 
seini-abscisscs,  one  degree  lower  ,  tor  iii»uni:e, 
ill  cubical  semi-parabolas  the  ciibea  of  ihe  .»rdi- 
nates  arc  as  ihe  squarei  of  the  absci53e^  ;  llvj.1  is, 

y  '.■" '.'.  -v' :  ='• 

Semi-pelagians,  in  ciiurch  history,  a 
branch  of  the  pelagians,  so  calh-d  because 
they  pretended  lo  keep  a  medium  between 
the  pelagians  and  the  ortliodox. 

SEMPEUVIVUM, /w«,v,.-/«-/;-,  a  genus  of 
plants  belong  ng  lo  the  order  of  dodecagvnia, 
and  to  the  class  of  dodccandria,  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  13th  order, 
succulents.  The  caly.x  i^  divided  into  1.; 
parts;  the  petals  are  twelve;  and  the  capsules 
twelve,  contaiiing  many  seeds.  There  are 
fourteen  species;  the  arboreum,  canaricnse, 
glutiiiosum,  glaudulosum,  tecloruin,  globi- 
ferum,  villosuin,  torliiosum,  arachnoidcum, 
montanuni.fedeforme,  luenanshus,  stellatnm, 
and  histum.  Tlie  tectorum  alone  is  a  native 
of  ihitain.  It  is  freijuent  on  the  tops  of 
houses,  and  flowers  in  July. 

SEXATLS  AUCTORITAS,  a  vote  of 
the  Koman  senate,  drawn  up  in  the  same 
form  wlih  a  decree,  but  witlunit  its  force,  ag 
having  bet-n  hindered  from  passing  into  a  de- 
cree by  some  of  the  tribunes  of  the  people. 

Senatus  consultum,  a  decree  of  the 
Roman  senate,  pronounced  on  some  ques- 
tion or  point  of  law-,  which,  when  passed, 
made  a  part  of  the  Roman  law.  See  Civil 
Law. 

SEXECIO,  g-r()w?7rf.?f/,  a  genus  belonging 
to  the  class  of  syngenesia,  and  to  the  order  of 
polygamia  sujjerfiua,  and  in  the  natural  clas- 
sification ranked  under  the  49lli  order,  com- 
pnsita-.  The  rccejitacle  is  naki-d  ;  the  pap- 
pus simple;  the  calyx  cylindrical  and  caly- 
culated.  The  scales  are  equal  and  conti- 
guous, so  as  to  seem  entire ;  those  at  the  ba^e 
are  fevv,  and  have  their  apices  or  jioints  de- 
cayed. There  are  75  species.  Of  these, 
seven  are  British  ;  the  vulgaris,  viscosus,  syl- 
vaticus,  crucifolius,  jacobxa,  paludosus,  and 
saracenicus. 

SENTENCE,  in  grammar,  a  period  or 
set  of  words  comprehending  some  perfect 
sense  or  seiiliment  of  the  mind. 

SEIMA,  the  ch«/.--A'.s7/,  a  genus  belonging 
to  the  order  of  vermes  inollusca.  There  are 
eight  brachia  interspersed  on  the  interior 
side,  with  little  round  serrated  cups,  by  the 
contraction  of  which  tlie  animal  lays  last 
hold  of  any  thing.  Besides  these  eight  arms, 
it  has  twotentacula  longer  than  the  arms,  ami 
frequently  pedunculatc<!.  The  mouth  is  situ- 
ated in  the  centre  of  the  arms,  and  is  horny 
and  hooked.  'I'he  eyes  are  below  the  lenta- 
cula,  towards  the  body  of  Ihe  animal.  The 
body  is  ih'shy,  and  received  into  a  sheath  as 
far  as  llii'  breast.  Their  food  are  tunnies, 
sprats,  lobsters  and  other  shell-fish.  With 
their  arms  and  trunks  they  f.istcn  themselves, 
to  resist  the  motion  of  the  waves.  Their 
beak  is  like  that  of  a  parrot.  Tlie  females 
are  distinguished  by  two  paps.  They  copu- 
late as  the  polypi  do,  by  a  mutual  embr.  ce, 
;nid  lay  their  eggs  upon  sea-weed  and  pl.mts, 
ill  parcels  like  bunches  of  grapes,  [mmedi- 
ately  after  they  are  laid  they  are  white,  and 
the  males  pass  over  and  impregnate  them 
with   a   black  liquor,   after  which" they  grow 


SEP 

L.rpcr.  On  openini?  the  egg,  the  t>nibn  o 
cuUle  is  foiiiul  alive.  Tlie  males  are  veiy 
constant,  acconipaiiy  their  feiii.ilfs  every 
nhoro,  face  every  danger  in  liieir  defence, 
and  rescue  thein  intrepidly  at  the  hazard  of 
ttieir  own  lives.  'I'he  timorons  females  (ly 
as  soon  as  they  see  the  m.iles  wounded,  'i  he 
jioise  of  a  cuitle-lisli,  on  being  dragged  out 
of  the  water,  resembles  the  grnnung  of  a 
iiog.  When  the  niah;  is  pursued  by  tlie  sea- 
\M)lf,  or  other  ravenous  hsh,  he  slums  the 
danger  by  stratagem,  lie  scpiirts  his  black 
licjuor,  someunie-.lo  the  (pianlity  of  a  (ham,  bv 
which  the  water  becoun-s  black  as  ink,  under 
shelter  of  which  he  balllL-s  the  pursuii  of  his 
enemy.  Tiiis  ink,  or  black  liquor,  lias  been 
denominated  by  M  Le  Cat  jclhiops  animal, 
and  is  reserved  m  a  particular  glanil.  in  its 
liquid  state  it  resembles  that  ot  the  chiiruid 
in  man,  and  would  then  cumumuicate  an 
indelible  dye  ;  when  dry,  it  might  be  taken 
for  the  product  of  the  bl.ick  liquor  in  negroes 
drietl,  and  made  a  |jrcci|)ilale  by  spirit  ol 
wine.  '1  his  acthi'ips  annual,  in  negroes  as 
well  as  in  the  cuUle-lisi),  is  more  abundant 
alter  death  than  even  during  lite.  It  may 
serve  either  lor  writing  or  printing;  in  the 
former  of  which  ways  the  Koiuaiitt  usc-d  it. 
It  is  said  to  be  an  ingredient  in  the  composi- 
tion of  Indian  ink,  mixed  with  rice.  'I'liere 
are  h\e  species. 

1.  The  loligo,  or  great  cuttle,  with  short 
arms  and  long  tentacula;  the  lower  part  of 
the  body  rhoniboiU  and  pinnated,  the  upper 
thick  and  cyliiidiic.  'I'hey  inhabit  all  our 
seas,  where  having  blackened  the  water  bv 
the  ell'usion  of  their  ink,  tiiey  abscond,  and 
with  their  tail  leap  out  of  the  water.  They 
are  gregarious,  and  swift  in  their  motions : 
they  take  their  prey  by  means  of  their  arms, 
and  embracing  it,  brmg  it  to  their  central 
mouth.  They  adhere  to  the  rocks,  when 
they  wish  to  be  quiescent,  by  means  of  the 
concave  discs  that  are  placeil  along  their 
arms. 

■2.  The  octopodia,  with  eight  arms,  con- 
nected at  their  bottom  by  a  membrane,  '['his 
is  the  polypus  of  Pliny,  which  he  distinguishes 
from  tlie  loligo  and  sepia  by  the  want  of  the 
tail  and  tentacula.  They  inhabit  our  seas, 
but  are  most  .it  home  in  the  Mediterranean. 
In  hot  climates  these  are  loiind  of  an  enor- 
mous si/e.  Tiie  Indi.ms  aflirm  tiiat  some 
have  been  seen  two  fathoms  broad  over  their 
centre,  and  each  arm  nine  tathoins  long. 
When  the  Indians  navigate  their  hitle  boats, 
they  go  in  dread  of  them  ;  and  lest  these  ani- 
mals should  (ling  their  anus  over  and  sink 
them,  they  Jievcr  sail  without  an  ax  to  cut 
them  off.  U'hen  used  for  food  they  are  serv- 
ed up  red  fr.->m  their  own  lieiuor,  which  from 
boiling  with  the  addition  of  nitre  becomes 
red.  Bar;liol.  says,  upon  cutting  one  of  them 
opt-n,  so  great  a  light  broke  forth,  that  at 
night,  upon  taking  away  the  candle,  the 
whole  hone  seemed  to  be  in  a  blaze. 

3.  The  media,  or  middle  cuttle,  with  a 
long,  slender,  cylindric  body,  tail  hnned, 
pointed,  and  cannat(.'d  on  each  siile  ;  two 
long  tentacula;  the  body  almost  transparent, 
green,  but  convertible  into  a  dirty  brown  ; 
conhrming  the  remaik  of  I'liny,  that  they 
clnnge  their  colour  through  fear,  adapting  it, 
chameleon-like,  to  that  of  the  place  they  are 
iiu     The  eyes  are  large  and  sinaragdine. 

4.  The  sepiola,  or  small  cuttle,  with  a  short 
body,  rounded  at  the  bottom,  lias  a  round  tin 


SEP 

on  each  side  and  two  tentacula.  Th'-y  are 
taken  olf  llintshire,  but  thi'lly  hihabit  the 
Mediterranean. 

5.  The  officinalis,  or  ofllcinai  cuttle,  with 
an  ovated  body,  has  fins  along  the  whole  of 
the  sides,  almost  meeting  at  tlie  bottom,  and 
two  long  tentacula.  The  body  contains  the 
bone,  theciittle-bone  ol  the  shops,  which  was 
formerly  used  as  an  absorbent.  The  bones 
are  frequently  liung  on  all  our  shores ;  (he 
animal  very  rarely.  The  conger-eels  bite 
off  their  arm',  or  icet,  but  they  grow  agaiii, 
as  doi-s  tlie  lizard's  tail.  'I'hey  are  preyed 
upon  by  the  plaice.  'I'his  fish  e"niits(in  coiii- 
111011  with  the  other  -pccitv.),  when  frightened 
or  pursued,  tiie  blac  k  liquor  which  the  an- 
tients  sujjposed,  by  da'ki-ning  the  circuin- 
ainbii-iit  wave,  concealed  it  trom  the  enemy  ; 
and  which  they  sjmetimes  made  use  of  iiialead 
of  uik. 

This  animal  was  esteemed  a  delicacy 
among  them ;  and  is  eaten  even  at  present  by 
the  Italians.  Kondeletius  gives  us  two  re- 
ceipts for  the  diessing,  which  may  be  conti- 
nued to  this  day.  Athein'us  also  leaves  us 
the  method  of  making  an  anticpie  cuttle-fish 
sausage;  and  we  learn  from  Aristotle,  that 
those  animals  are  in  highest  season  wlien 
pregnant. 

«KIMARI.E,  (from  sepes,  a  hedge),  the 
name  of  the  44th  order  of  Linnaus's  Frag- 
ments of  a  natural  Method,  consisting  of  a 
beautiful  collection  of  woody  plants,  some  of 
which,  from  their  size  and  elegance,  are  very 
proper  furniture  for  hedges.     See  Botany. 

SEl'TARLE,  in  natural  history,  a  large 
class  of  fossils,  commonly  known  by  the 
names  of  ludns  helmontii  and  waxen  veins. 
They  are  deiined  to  he  fos^ils  not  iiiHam- 
niable,  nor  soluble  in  water;  of  a  niodi/ratel) 
firm  texture  and  du.ky  hue,  divided  by  se- 
veral septa  or  thin  partitions,  and  composed 
of  a  sparry  matter  greatly  debased  by  earth; 
not  giving  lire  with  steel;  fermentmg  willi 
acids,  and  in  great  pait  dissolved  by  them  ; 
and  calcining  in  a  motlerate  fire.  "Of  this 
class  there  are  two  distinct  orders  of  bodies, 
and  under  those  si.x  genera.  The  seplaria-  of 
the  first  order  are  those  which  are  usually 
I'ound  in  large  masses,  of  a  simple  uniform 
conslruction,  but  divided  bv  large  septa 
either  into  larger  and  more  irregular  propor- 
tions, or  into  smaller  and  more  equal  /-nes, 
calleil  t.ilc.  I'he  genera  of  this  order  are 
four:  1.  Those  divided  by  septa  of  spar, 
called  seconiia- :  '2.  Those  divided  by  septa 
of  earthy  matter,  called  gaiophragmia:  3. 
Those  divided  by  septa  of  the  matter  of  the 
pyrites,  called  pxritercia:  and  4.  Those  di- 
vided by  se|)  a  of  spar,  with  an  admixture  of 
crystal,  called  diaugophragmia.  Those  of 
the  second  order  are  such  as  are  nsnally  found 
in  smaller  masses,  of  a  crustated  structure, 
formed  by  various  incrustations  round  a  cen- 
tral nucleus,  and  divideilby  very  thin  septa. 
Of  this  order  there  are  only  two  genera:  1. 
Those  with  a  short  roundish  nucleus,  inclosed 
within  the  body  of  the  mass  :  and,  2.  Those 
with  a  long  nucleus,  standing  out  beyond  the 
ends  of  the  mass. 

SIlPTAS,  a  genus  of- plants  belonging  to 
the  order  of  heptagy  Ilia,  and  the  class  of  liep- 
taiidria,  and  in  the  natural  system  ranged 
uiuler  the  l3th order,  succulents.  The  calvx 
is  divided  into  seven  parts ;  the  petals  are 
seven  ;  the  gerinens  seven  ;  the  capsules  are 


S  E  R 


647 


also  sevrn,  and  coiitaiii  many  seeds.  There 
is  only  one  specie*,  the  capensis,  which  is  a 
native  of  the  Ca|)e  of  Good  Hope,  is  round- 
leaved,  and  tloweis  in  August  or  September. 
Slil*TEXTlUO,  In  astrono;Tiy,  a  constel- 
lation more  usually  called  iirsa  minor.     Ste 

As  rRONOMV.- 

SKI'TL'.M    See  Anatomv. 

SEQl'Eij'I'RATlON,  is  the  sep.iraling  cr 
setting  aside  of  a  thing  in  controversy  from  the 
possession  of  both  those  who  (onteiid  for  it. 
.And  it  is  of  two  kiiwK,  voluntary  or  ntxessary; 
vcdiintary  is  that  which  is  done  by  consi-nt  of  , 
each  parly;  necessary  is  that  which  the  judge 
does  oi  bis  authority,  whether  the  parties  will 
or  not.  It  is  used  also  for  the  a<t  of  the  or- 
dinary disposing  of  the  goods  and  chattels  of 
one  deceased,  whose  estate  no  man  will 
metfdle  with.  A  secpiestration  is  also  a  kind 
of  execution  for  debt,  especially  in  the  case 
of  a  benehced  clerk,  of  the  prmitsof  the  be- 
nefices, to  be  paid  over  to  him  that  had  the 
judgment  till  the  debt  is  satished. 

Sequesthation,  in  ihe  civil  law,  is  tisej- 
in  various  senses ;  it  i^  taken  for  the  act  of 
the  ordinary  in  disposing  of  the  goods  of  x 
deceased  person,  which  nobody  will  meddle 
uilh.  A  widow  is  said  to  sequester,  when 
she  disclaims  having  any  thing  to  do  with  the 
estate  of  her  deceased  husband.  Sequestra-^- 
tion  is  also  used  to  signify  the  gathering  up 
the  fruits  of  a  vacant  benefice,  tor  the  use  of 
the  next  incumbent  of  Ihe  church. 

SEQUESTRO  llABENDO,  a  writ  judi- 
cial, for  dissolving  a  seiiuestration  of  the  fruits 
of  a  benefice  made  by  a  bishop  at  the  king's 
command,  thereby  to  compel  the  jiarson  to 
appear  at  the  suit  of  another;  furtive  parson 
upon  his  appearance  may  have  this  writ  for 
the  discharge  of  the  sequestration. 

SER.APIAS,  a  genus  of  plants  I>eloiiging 
to  the  order  of  diaiulria,  and  tolhecl  ssof 
gynandria,  and  in  the  natural  sjstt-m  ar- 
ranged under  the  7th  order,  orehide^.  The 
nectarium  is  egg-shaped  and  gibbous,  with  an 
egg-shaped  lip.  The  species  are  14,  of  which 
threeare  natives  of  Britain.  '  1.  The  iatlfoliay 
or  broad-leaved  helltbi)rine.  2.  The  palus- 
tris,  or  marsh  helieborine,  grows  in  rough 
boggy  pastures  and  marshes,  and  flowers  in 
July.  3.  The  grandillora,  or  white-flowered- 
helieborine,  grows  in  woods,  and  flow ers  in 
June. 

SERGE,  in  commerce,  a  woollen  stuff  ma- 
nufactured in  a  loom,  of  which  there  are  va- 
rious kinds,  dinominat<'d  either  from  their 
different  i|uaUties,  or  from  the  places  where- 
they  are  wrought;  the  most  considerable  of 
wliieh  is  the  London  serge,  which  is  highly 
valued  abroad. 

In  the  manufacture  of  Londoir serges,  the 
longest  wool  is  chosen  for  the  warp,  and  the 
shortest  for  tiie  woof.  But  before  either  kind 
is  used,  it  is  first  scoured,  by  putting  it  in 
a  copper  of  liquor,  somewhat  more  than  luke- 
warm, composed  of  three  parts  of  fair  water, 
and  one  of  urine;-  Af-ter  it  has'<taid  in  it 
long  enough  for  the  liquor  to  take  olf  the 
grease,  &:c:  it;  is  stirred  brisUlv  about  with  a 
wooden  peel,  taken  out;  drained,  washed  in  . 
a  ruimini^  water,  and  dried  in.  the  shade; 
beaten  with  sticks  on  a  wooden  rack,  to  drive 
out  the  coarser  (hist  and  tilth,  ami  then  picked 
clean  with  the  hands.  It  is  then  greased  with 
oil  of  olives;  and  the  longest  wool  combed 
\-.  ith  large  tombs,  heated  in  a  hitlcfuruucc. 


■GTS 


S  E  Tl 


for  ti::it  piiqio.;e :  to  clear  it  from  the  oil,  it 
is  put  iiuo  a  vessel  ot  hot  soap-watC]-,  whence 
•b„';ii^  taken  out,  wnma',  and  tlrii-d,  it  is  >i)im 
<.n  the  wheel.  As  to  the  shorter  wool,  in- 
tended tor  the  woof,  it  is  only  carded  on  the 
■knee,  with  small  tine  cords,  aiultlien  spun  on 
the  wheel,  wiUiout  being  scoured  of  its  oil : 
tnd  here  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  tliread 
Jbr  the  warp  is  always  to  be  spun  liner,  and 
iimeh  better  twisted,  than  that  of  the  woof. 

1  he  wool  both  for  the  warp  and  woof 
being  spun,  anti  the  thread  reeled  into  skains, 
that  of  the  woof  is  put  on  spools,  lit  for  the 
•cavity  of  the  shuttle;  and  that  for  the  warp  is 
wound  on  a  kind  of  wooden  bobbins,  to  lit  it 
for  warping;  and  when  wacpcd,  it  is  stiffened 
with  a  size,  usually  made  of  the  slireds  of 
j)archmeuts;  and  when  drieil,  put  into  the 
loom,  and  mounted  so  as  to  be  raised  by  four 
treadles,  placed  under  the  loom,  which  the 
Morkman  makes  to  act  transversely,  eciually, 
-and  alternately,  one  after  anotiier,  witii  his 
-feet;  and  as  ilie  threads  are  raised,  liirows 
the  sliuttle.     See  Weaving. 

The  serge,  on  being  taken  from  the  loom, 
js  carried  to  the  fuller,  who  fulls  or  scours  it, 
jn  the  trough  of  his  mill,  with  iullerS-earlh  ; 
and  after  the  first  fulling,  the  knots,  eftds, 
•straws,  &c.  sticking  out  on  either  side  of  the 
-surface,  are  taken  off  with  a  kind  of  pliers  or 
iron  pincers,  after  which  it  is  returned  into 
the  fulling-trough,  where  it  is  worked  with 
warm  water,  in  which  soap  has  been  dissolv- 
es!; when  quite  cleared,  it  is  taken  out,  the 
knots  are  again  pulled  off;  it  is  then  put  on 
Jtiie  tenter  Xe  dry;  taking  care,  as  fast  as  it 
rliies,  to  stretch  it  out,  both  in  length  and 
breadth,  till  it  is  brought  to  its  just  dimen- 
sions; then  being  taken  olT  the  tenter,  it  is 
tiyed,  shorn,  and  pressed. 

SERGEANT,  or  Serjeant,  at  law,  is  the 
3iighest  degree  taken  in  that  profession,  as 
tliat  of  a  doctor  is  in  the  civil  law.  To  these 
-.ieijcants,  as  men  of  great  learning  and  expe- 
Tience,  one  court  is  set  apart  for  them  to 
plead  in  by  themselves,  which  is  the  court  of 
•■oinmon  pleas,  where  the  common  law  of 
England  is  most  strictly  observed;  yet  though 
they  have  this  court  to  themselves,  they  are 
;ict  restrained  from  pleading  in  other  courts, 
^viiere  the  judges  (who  cannot  be  elevated  to 
that  dignity  till  they  have  taken  the  degree 
of  Serjeant  at  law)  call  tiiem  brothers,  and 
hear  them  v.ilh  great  respect,  next  to  tlie 
king's  attorney  and  solicitor  general.  These 
are  made  by  the  king's  inan<late,  or  writ. 

There  are  also  Serjeants  at  arms,  whose 
oftice  is  to  attend  on  the  person  of  the  king, 
to  arrest  persons  of  condilion  ofliinding. 

Sergeant,  or  Serjeant,  in  war,  is  an  in- 
ferior oflicer  in  a  company  of  foot,  or  troop  of 
dragoons,  armed  with  a  halberd,  and  ap- 
pointed to  see  discipline  observed,  to  teach 
the  soldiers  the  exercise  of  their  arms,  and 
to  order, straighten,  and  form, ranks, files,  &.c. 

SEflJF-.'VNTY,  signifies  in  law  a  service 
that  cannot  be  due  from  a  tenant  to  any  lord, 
but  to  the  king  only;  and  it  is  either  "grand 
serjeanty  or  petit  serjeanly. 

Grand  serjeanty,  is  a  tenure  whereby  a 
person  holils  his  lands  of  the  king  by  such 
services  a-*  he  ought  to  do  in  person  ;  as  to 
carry  the  king's  banner,  or  his  lance,  or  to 
carry  his  sword  before  him  at  his  coronation, 
or  to  do  other  like  services  ;  and  it  is  called 
grand  serjeanty,  because  it  is  a  more  wortiiy 


S  E  II' 

service  than  the  service  in  li-.e  common  tenure 
o!  cscuage. 

Petit  serjeanly  is  where  a  person  holds 
his  land  of  the  king,  to  furnish  him  yearly 
with  some  small  thing  towards  his  wars,  as  a 
bow,  lance,  &c.  And  such  service  is  but 
socage  in  elTect,  becau-'e  such  tenant  by  his 
tenure  ought  not  to  go  nor  do  any  thing  in 
iiis  proper  person. 

SER1E.S,  in  general,  denotes  a  continued 
succession  of  things  in  the  same  order,  and 
having  the  same  i-elalion  or  connection  with 
each  other :  in  this  sense  we  say,  a  series  of 
emperors,,  kings,  bishops,  &c. 

Series,  in  mathematics,  is  a  number  of 
terms,  whether  of  numbers  or  o_uantit!es,  in- 
creasing or  decreasing  in  a  siveii  proj)ortion, 
the  doctrine  of  which  has  already  been  given 
under  the  article  Progression. 

Series,  infinite,  is  a  series  consisting  of  an 
infinite  number  of  terms,  that  is,  to  the  end 
of  which  it  is  impossible  ever  to  come;  so 
that  let  the  series -be carried  on  to  any  assign- 
able length,  or  number  of  terms,  it  can  be 
carried  yet  farther,  withr>ut  end  or  limitation. 

A  number  uclually  inlinite  (i.  e.  all  who^e 
units  can  be  assigiied,  and  yet  is  without 
limits)  is  a  plain  contradiction  to  all  our  ideas 
about  numbers;  for  whatever  number  we  can 
conceive,  or  h.ue  any  proner  idea  of,  is  al- 
ways deLerminate  and  finite;  so  tlial  a  greater 
after  it  may  be  assigned,  and  a  greater  after 
tills;  and  so  on,  without  a  possibility  of  ever 
coming  to  an  end  of  the  addition  or  increase 
of  nvimbers  assignable;  which  inexhaustibility, 
or  endless  progression  in  the  nature  of  num- 
bers, is  all  we  can  distinctly  understand  by 
the  infinity  of  num'oer;  and  therefore  to  say 
that  the  number  of  any  things  is  infinite,  is 
not  saying  that  we  comprehend  their  num- 
ber, but  indeed  the  contrary;  the  only  thing 
positive  in  this  proposition  being  this,  tha^ 
the  number  of  these  things  is  greater  than 
any  number  whicli  we  can  actually  con- 
ceive and  assign.  But  then,  whether  in  things 
that  do  realh  exist,  it  can  be  truly  said  that 
their  number  is  greater  than  any  assignable 
number  ;  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  that  in 
the  numeration  of  their  units  one  after  an- 
other, it  is  impossible  ever  to  come  to  an 
end;  this  is  a  (juestion  about  which  there  are 
dhflrent  opinions,  with  which  we  liave  no 
business  in  this  place;  for  all  th;;t  we  are 
concerned  here  to  know  is  this  certain  truth  ; 
that  after  one  determinate  number  we  can 
conceive  a  greater,  and  after  this  a  greater, 
and  so  on  without  end.  And  therefore,  whe- 
ther the  luiuiber  of  any  things  that  do  or  can 
really  exist  all  at  once,  can  be  such  th.'.t  it 
exceeds  any  detenninable  number,  or  not, 
this  is  true  ;  that  of  things  which  exi>t,  or  ;'re 
produced  successively  one  after  another,  the 
number  may  be  greater  than  any  assignable 
one;  because,  though  the  iumil)er  of  things 
thus  produced  that  does  actually  exist  at  any 
time  is  finite,  yet  it  may  be  increased  without 
end.  And  this  is  the  distinct  and  true  notion 
of  the  infinity  of  a  series;  that  is,  of  the  inli- 
nity  of  the  number  of  its  terms,  as  it  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  definition. 

Hence  it  is  plain,  that  we  cannot  apply  to 
an  infinite  series  the  common  notion  of  a  sum, 
viz.  a  collection  of  sevral  particular  numbers 
that  are  joined  and  addi.-d  together  one  after 
another,  for  this  supposes  that  these  particu- 
lars arc  all  known  and  determined  ;  wliercas 
the  terms  of  au  intiiiite  series  cannot  be  all 


S'  E  R 

I  sf'paralely  assigned,  there  being  no  end  ii: 
the  numeration  of  its  parts,  and.  tlierelure  u 
can  have  ifo  sum  in  sense.  Hut  again,  it  v.  .• 
consider  that  the  idea  of  an  infinite  serii  ; 
consists  of  two  parts,  viz.  the  idea  of  somi  - 
thing  positive  and  determined,  in  so  far  as  we 
conceive  the  series  to  be  actually  carried  bn  ; 
and  the  irlea  of  an  inexhaustible  remainder 
still  behind,  or  an  endless  addition  of  tcrnii 
that  can  be  made  to  it  one  alter  another, 
this  is  as  diflerent  from  the  idea  of  a  finite 
series  as  two  things  can  be.  Hence  we  may 
conceive  it  as  a  whole  of  its  own  kind,  whicli 
therefore  may  be  said  to  have  a  total  value 
whether  that  is  determin;ible  or  not.  Now 
in  some  infinite  series  this  value  is  finite  or 
limited ;  that  is,  a  number  is  assignable  be- 
yond which  the  sum  of  no  assignable  number 
of  terms  of  the  series  can  ever  reach,  nor  in- 
deed ever  be  equal  to  it,  yet  it  may  approach 
to  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  want  less  than 
any  assignable  difference ;  and  this  we  mav 
call  t!ie  value  or  sum  of  the  series  ;  not  as 
being  a  number  found  by  the  common  me- 
thod of  addition  ;  but  as  being  sucli  a  limita- 
tion of  the  value  ot  the  series,  taken  in  all  its 
infinite  capacity,  tliat  if  it  were  possible  to 
add  them  ail  one  after  another,  the  sum 
would  be  equal  to  this  number. 

Again,  in  other  series  the  vtdue  has  no  limi- 
tation ;  and  we  may  express  this,  by  saying 
the  sum  of  the  series  is  infinitely  great;  wliicU 
indeed  signifies  no  more  than  that  it  has  no 
determinate  and  assignable  value ;  au'd  tlr.it 
the  series  may  be  carried  such  a  length  that  its 
sum,  so  far,  shall  be  greater  tlian  any  given 
number.  In  short,  in  tiie  first  case  we  affirm 
tiiere  is  a  sum,  yet  not  a  sum  taken  in  th" 
common  sense ;  in  the  other  case  we  plainly 
deny  a  determinate  sum  to  any  sense. 

Theorem  I.  In  an  infinite  series  of  num- 
bers, increasing  by  an  e(iual  difference  or 
ratio  (that  is,  an  arithmetical  or  geometrical 
increasing  progression)  from  a  given  number, 
a  term  may  be  found  greater  than  any  assign- 
able number. 

Hence,  if  the  scries  increases  by  differ- 
ences that  continually  increase,  or  by  ratios 
that  continually  increase,  comparing  each 
term  to  the  preceding,  it  is  manifest  that 
the  same  thing  must  be  true,  as  it  the  dif- 
ferences or  ratios  continued  equal. 

Theorem  II.  In  a  series  decreasing  in  in- 
finitum in  a  given  ratio,  we  can  lind  a  term 
less  than  any  assignable  fraction. 

Hence,  if  the  terms  decrease,  so  as  tlir 
ratios  of  e;ich  term  to  the  preceding  do  also 
continually  decrease,  then  the  same  thing  is 
also  true  as  when  tliey  continue  equal. 

Theor.  III.  'i'lie  sum  of  an  inlinite  series 
of  numbers  all  equal,  or  increasing  continu- 
ally, by  whatever  difl'erences  or  ratios,  is 
infinitely  great;  that  is,  such  a  scries  h:is  no 
determinate  sum  but  grows  so  as  to  exceed 
any  assignable  number. 

Demons.  1.  If  the  terms  arc  all  equal,  as 
A  ;  A  ;  A,  &:c.  then  the  sum  of  any  finite 
number  of  them  is  the  product  of  A  by  that 
number,  as  Ah;  but  the  greater  n  is,  the 
greater  is  Ah;  and  we  can  take  n  greater 
than  any  assign;ible  number,  therefore  A« 
will  be  still  greater  than  any  assignable  num- 
ber. 

Secondly,    suppose   the  series    increase 
continually  (whether  it  does   so  infinitely  or 
llniitedly),  llien  its  sum  imist  be  infinite)j- 


S  E  R 

great, bccauBe  it  would  ho  so  it'llie  tcims  con- 
tinued all  I'ljiial,  ;itul  llifielore  will  be  more 
so  since  tliev  increa  e.  But  if  wc  siippo-.e 
tlie  scries  increases  irlinitelv,  either  h_\  ct|iial 
Kilios  or  ditt'ereuces,  or  by  Jiirreiisiiig  dillcr- 
eiices  or  ratios  of  eacli  term  to  the  prcted- 
Bis;;  then  the  reason  ot  the  sum>  being  iufi- 
llite  will  appear  trom  the  llrsl  theunni ;  tor 
ill  sucii  a  series,  a  term  can  be  foLMid  (greater 
tliau  any  assii^nable  nmuber.  and  nuich  more 
therelore  the  sinu  ot  tiiut  and  all  the  pre- 
ceding. 

TI»eor.  IV.  The  sum  of  an  infinite  feries 
qf  numbers  decreasing  in  the  same  ratio  is  a 
iinitg ;unuber,  etpial  to  the  cjuote arising  from 
tlie  division  of  tiie  product  oi  the  rado  and 
lirst  term,  by  Ijie  ratio  less  by  unity  ;  that  is, 
the  sum  of  no  assignable  number  of  terms  o; 
t)n' series  can  ever  be  eiiual  to  that  quote; 
and  yet  no  nund)er  less  than  it  is  e(|ual  to  Iho 
value  of  the  series,  or  to  what  w,;  can  actu- 
ally deiermiiie  in  it;  so  tliat  we.  Can  carry 
the  series  so  far,  that  the  sum  shall  want  of 
this  quote  less  than  any  assi£j;iial>le  difference. 

Jiani:!trjtim.  'I'o  whatever  assigned  numl)cr 
of  ti'i  nis  the  scries  is  cairieil,  it  is  so  far  linitc  ; 
and  if  the  greatest  term  is  /,  tiie  least  A,  and  the 

rl  A 

ratio  r,  then  the  sum  is  S  =:    — —-.   See  Geo- 
r —  1 

Ml.r"IOAl.  PROOiilSSION. 

Now,  in  a.  decreasing  series  from  /,  the  more 
tern-    w 
fcor.i.j  '. 


th. 


.Lilly  raise,  the  last  of  them,  A,  he- 
;ji  r,'i-.nd  *he  !c>;?er  A  be,  rl  —  A  is 

~  "  :  but  ,!-\ 


-    1 


Ijcingf  still  !i -; 

less  thai', 
ableinuniber  . 


is  siill 


1 


nny  ass'cn- 


jries  15  still  less 
rl 


than  the  quQte  mentioned,  vhich  is, ,  and 

r  —  1 

tliis  is  f  ■   :";.■;  part  of  tlie  theorem. 

Ag.ia  :    :.  i.e  Sena's  may  be  actually  continued 


so  fr.r,  thn: 


any  assignable  ir'T-.-renee;  for,  as  the  series  goes 
en,  A  boc-'n-.LS  iv'.s  ani  less  in  a  certain  ratio, 
ar. .'  50  the  ber.>A  .nay  be  actually  continued  till 
A  becomes  less  thin  any  assignable    number 

(by  riicorem  U  ).   Now ■ =: 

—  ,  and  —  —  is  less  than  A;  tliere.''ore,  let 
r  —  l'  r  —   1 

any  number  assi^^ncd  be  called  N,  we  can  carry 
the  seiiob  so  far  till   the  last  term  A  is  less  than 


N ;  and  because 


—  1 


wants  of ,  the 

r  —  1 


dffcrence  ■ ,  which  is  less  tlian  A,  which  is 

r  —   1 

also  less  than  N,  therefore  the  second  part  of 

rl 

the    theoren      is    also    true,  and is  the 

r  —  1 
true  value  of  the  series. 

rl 
SchoU-on.    The  sense  in  which is  called 


r—  1 

tbes;';i;  oi  i !i e  series,  has  been  siifficiently  ex- 
plair.eu;  to  which,  however,  we  shall  add  this; 
tliai  whatever  conicjueuces  follow  from  the 


suppos 

^uate  v.i!  J" 
\0L.  ':i 


j^    the  true  and  ade- 
i  t.;ken  iu  all  its  intiniie 


all  want  of  -        less  than 
r — 1 


S  E  R 

cnpncity,  ?.8  if  the  wIk^Ic  were  actually  deter- 
mined and  lidded  together,  cmi  never  be  tlje  oc- 
casion of  any  assignable  error  in  any  operation 
or  demonstratio/i  whrre  it  is  used  in  '.hat  sense; 
because  if  it  is  said  that  it  exceeds  that  adequate 
value,  yet  it  is  demonstrated  that  this  excess 
must  lie  less  than  any  assignable  difference, 
which  is  in  etrect  no  difercncc,  and  so  the  con- 
sequent error  will  be  in  effect  no  error:  for  if 

any  error  can  hajipen  from being  great- 
er than  it  ought  to  be,  to  represent  the  com- 
plete value  of  the  infmite  scries,  that  error  de- 
pends upon  the  excess  of over  that  com- 
plete value;  but  this  excess  l)eing  unassignable, 
that  consequent  e.Tor  must  be  so  too  ;  because 
still  the  less  the  excess  is,  the  less  w'll  the  error 
be  that  depends  upon  it.     And  for  this  reason 

wc  may  justly  enough  look  upon ■  as  ex- 
pressing the  adequate  value  of  the  infinite  se- 
ries. But  we  are  farther  satisfied  of  the  reason- 
ableness of  this,  by  finding  in  fact,  that  a  finite 
qaantity  does  actually  convert  intM  an  infinite 
tcrics,  which  happens  in  the  case  of  infinite  de- 


S  E  R 


(j-ig 


in  the 


cimal-i.     For  example,  J  =  .CGGG,  &c.  which 

lo' 
a 

&c. 


is  plainly  a  geometrical  series  from 
continual  ratio  of  10  to  I  ;  for  it  i« 


+ 


'   1000  ~  locoo 


6 


And  reversely  ;    if  we  t.iV.c  this  seric?,  nni 
find  its  sum  by  the  preceding  theorem,  it  conic« 


10 


,  >■  =  10,  therefore 


60  rl 

jy  :=  6 ;  and  r  —  1  =  9;  whence  — 


r~-V 


rl  = 

_   G    _    3 

~  9'  ~  'i' 

We  have  added  here  a  table  of  all  tlie  varie- 
ties of  determined  [uoblems  of  infinite,  decreas- 
ing, gcnnietiic  d  progressions,  which  all  d.:pend 
upon  these  three  things,  viz.  the  greatest  term  /, 
the  ratio  ;,  and  the  sum  S;  by  any  two  of  which 
the  remaining  one  may  be  found:  to  which  we 
have  added  some  other  problems,  wherein 
•S  —  I.  is  considered  as  a  thing  distinct  by  itself, 
that  is,  without  considering  S  and  L  separatelv. 


Given 


hought 
~   rl    ~ 


1=. 


s  y.  r  ^  \ 


-7^l\ 


,-   —   I 


—  /, 


^,  A 


\^  —!-l  X  r 7 

ll  z=  s  -  I  X  '  -   li 


1     ~ 


tiuiuiioiis 


it  —  i                        I  —   M 

/  =  ''~*of.^'-"^^ 

a                                  I 

—  I  = .   of  /  : 


a  —  I  I  —  hi 


I  ~  ^   oi  , 


iX'  -  1 


I  —  ■'  —  of  i  —  /  — '--  ■'"-i^-ir ' 

i  M 


I  Theorem  V.  In  the  arithmetical  progression 
1,  2,  ",,  4,  &c.  the  sum  is  to  the  produce  of  the 
last  term,  by  the  number  of  terms,  that  is,  to 
the  squ.;.-e  of  the  last  term,  in  a  ratio  ahvays 
greaier  rhan  1  :  J,  bat  a.iproaciiing  inliaiiely 
near  it.  Hut  if  the  arithmetical  scrcj  begins 
with  0,  thus,  0,  1,  2,  :i,  4,  lic  then  the  sum  is 
to  the  prucluc!  of  ;ne  last  term,  by  the  number 
of  terms,  exactly  in  every  step  as  1  to  "2. 

Theorem  VI.  Take  the  natural  progression 
beg-inning\vith  0  ;hus,  0,  1,  2,  ."?,  &c.  and  take 
the  squares  of  any  the  like  powers  of  the  former 
series,  as  the  squares,  0,  1,  4.  !),  &c.  or  cubes. 
0,  ',  S,  27;  and  then  attain  take  the  sum  of  the 
series  of  powers  to  ;uiy  number  of  terms,  and 
also  nudtqih  the  last  of  the  terms  summed  bv 
the  number  of  terms,  (reckoning  always  0  for 
the  first  term;)  the  ra:io  of  that  sum  to  that 

product  is  more  than  ,  (,i  being  the  index 

»  X  1 

of  the  pov.-ers)  that  Is,  in  the  series  of  squares  it 
is  laore  than  V;  in  the  cubes  iriijre  than  ^  and 
so  on.  But  the  series  going  on  i/i  injutitwn^  we 
may  take  iji  more  and  more  terms  without  end 
into  the  sum  .  and  the  more  we  take,  the  ratio 
of  the  sum  to  the  product  menticned  grows  less 
and  less ;  yet  so  as   it  never  can  actually  be 

equal  to  |,  but  approaches  infinitely  near 


«X  1 


I 


4N 


to  it,  or  within  less  than  any  assignable  dif- 
ference. 

MCHIOL.A,  a  gewis  of  plants  beloi/ffing  to 
'he  order  of  polygamia  ;rqualis,  aiut  to  the 
class  ot  syngene  la,  and  :n  the  natural  system 
ranged  under  tb.;  49  h  orde;,  composita'. 
I  he  rpi.eptacle  is  paleacei>iis;  the  calyx 
sdi.ple;  ami  the  pappus  is  soinew  hat ,  lumose. 
There  are  four  spwiis;  1. 'Ihe  levigata:  2. 
Athnensis:  3.  Creleii'iis :  4.  I'rens.  'I'lie 
lirst  is  a  native  of  the  island  ot  Can'ii.i,  and 
liowcrs-  irs.luly  and  August;  the  seconii  is  a 
nali'.e  ot  Italy;  and  tUe  lourth  is  u  niitive  of 
the  sout'i  ot  )%urope. 

Sf  LllPriilM,  a  genus  of  plants  bjloiiginiT 
to  the  oriler  ot  monogamia,  and  lo  the  class 
of  syngencsi.i.  The  ca'y.\  is  imbiicalcHl  ; 
the  coioila  is  monopetaious  and  regular, 
u'lth  one  oblong  secti  under  it.  1  here  are 
our  species,  natives  01  the  Cape  of  (jood 
Hope.  <•. 

SICRI'EXS.     See  AsTR««o.MV. 

Sil.Ki'EN'l'ES,  ill  naiunn  history,  an  or- 
der of  the  ampliibia  class,  the  inaractensl.cs 
of  which  are,  a  mouth  breat;iing  by  the 
lungs  only;  body  tapering;  iiecli  not  tlis- 
tinct;  jaws  dilatable,  not  articulate;  no  feet, 
tins,  or  ears :  motion  uudulatory.     '1  )iev  are 


«50 


S  E  R 


ca<t  naked   \ipon   tlie  earth,  witliout  limbs,  | 
pxposfd    to    evtrv    injury,    but   fretiueiitly  • 
aniK-(l  with  a  puisou   the' most  d-jadly  ami  ( 
horrible,  which  is  cimtaiiitd  in  tubular  fang-;  ' 
resemWing  teclli,  placed  without  the  upper, 
jdw,  [jrotruded  or  retracted  at  pleasure,  and  , 
sui  rounded  "itli  u  glandular  ve<icle,  by  which 
this   ftital  Hiiid  is  secreted.  (See  Poisons.)  | 
But  lest  thii  tribe  slioukl  too  much  encroacii  j 
upon  the  limit-i  of  other  animals,  the  benevo- 
lent .Yuthor  of  Nature  has  armed  only  a!«jut  a 
liilh  in  thisdrea<hul  manner.     The  jaws  are 
dilatable  and  not  articulate,  and  tiie  a-sopha- 
gus  so  lax,  that  they  can  swallow  vyithout 
mastication,   an  animal   twice   or   tiirice  as 
large  as  the  neck.    There  are  seven  genera, 
viz.  the 

Achrodiordus  Coecilia 

Ampliisbitna  Coluber 

Anguis  Crolalus. 

Boa 
The  distuiction  of  speci'S  in  this  numerous 
tribe  is  often  peculiarly  difiicult.  Linnwus 
persuaded  himself  that  an  infallible  criterion 
might  be  found  in  the  number  of  scaly  plates 
on  the  abdomen  and  beneath  the  tail ;  and 
accortlingly  attempted  in  the  Systema  Natu- 
rae to  discriminate  the  species  by  this  mark 
alone.  Experience,  however,  has  sufficiently 
shown  that,  though  often  highly  useful  in  tlie 
inve:^tigation  of  these  animals,  it  is  yet  by 
much  too  uncertam  and  variable  to  be  per- 
mitted to  stand  as  an  established  specific 
tesU 

The  distinction  of  serpents  into  poisonous 
and  innoxious  can  only  be  known  by  an  ac- 
curate examination  of  their  teeth;  the  fangs 
or  poisoniiii:;  teeth  beiiig  always  of  a  tubular 
ktructure,  and  calculated  for  the  conveyance 
-  or  injection  of  the  poisonous  fluid  from  a  pe- 
culiar reservoir  commimicating  with  the 
fangs  on  each  side  of  the  head  :  the  fangs  are 
always  situated  in  the  anterior  and  exterior 
part  of  the  upper  jaw.  and  are  generally,  but 
not  alwavs,  of  much  larger  size  than  the 
other  teeih  ;  they  are  also  frequently  accom- 
panied by  some  smaller  or  subsidiai-y  fangs, 
apparently  destined  to  supply  the  principal 
ones  when  lost,  cither  by  age  or  accident. 
The  fanes  ari-  situated  in  a  peculiar  bone,  so 
articulated  witli  the  rest  of  tlie  jaw  as  to  ele- 
vate or  dei)r>"^s  them  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
animal.  In  a  quiescent  state  they  are  recum- 
bent, with  their  points  directed  inwards  or 
backwards;  but  when  the  animal  is  inclined 
to  n^e  them  as  wea]>ons  of  oll'ence,  their  i)o- 
sitiou  is  altered  bv  the  peculiar  mechanism 
of  the  above-mentionwl  bone  in  wliich  they 
are  rooted,  bikI  they  become  almost  perpcn- 
.  <jicHlar, 

A  g;,'  neral  rule  for  the  determination  of 
tlie  existence  or  non-existence  of  these  or- 
gans in.gny  species  of  serpent  is  proposed  in 
a  paper  relative  to  the  amphibia  by  Dr. 
Gray,  and  published  in  the  Philosophical 
Tjransaclions  for  the  year  1788.  Tlic  fangs, 
according  tuDr.  Gray,  may  be  distinguished 
with  gri:at  ease,  and,  as  he  believes  also, 
with  great  certainty,  by  the  foUowing  simple 
method.  When  it  is  discovered  that  there  is 
so:uelhing  like  teeth  in  the  anterior  and  ex- 
terior part  of  the  tijip'r  jaw,  which  situation 
he  consiilers  as  the  only'one  in  which  venom- 
«us  fangs  are  ever  found,  let  a  pin  or  other 
hard  body  be  drawn  fioni  th.it  jrart  of  the 
j..kv  to  t!.»'  angle  <if  t!ic  month  ;  (which  ojir- 


S  E  R 

ration  m.iy,  for  greater  certainty,  be  tried  on 
each  side.)  If  no  more  teeth  are  felt  in  that 
line,  it  may,  he  thinks,  be  fairly  concluded, 
that  those  lirst  discovered  are  fangs,  and  that 
the  serpent  is  consequently  venomous  :  if, 
on  the  contrary,  the  teeth  lirst  discovered  are 
observed  not  to  stand  alone,  but  to  be  only  a 
part  of  a  complete  row,  it  may  as  certainly 
i)C  concluded  that  the  serpent  is  not  veno- 
mous. This  rule,  however,  like  most  others, 
may  have  its  exceptions,  and  perhaps  llv.' 
most  legitim;;te  lest  of  real  fangs  in  a  serpent 
is  their  tubuh.r  structure,  which  may  always 
be  easily  detected  by  the  assistance  of  a  pro- 
per niagnilier.  It  is  to  be  observed,  that  all 
serpents,  whether  poisonous  or  not,  have  he- 
sides  the  teeth,  (whether  fangs  or  simple 
teeth)  in  the  sides  of  the  upper  jaw,  two  ad- 
ditional or  interior  rows,  which  are  generally 
much  smaller  than  the  rest,  and  frequently 
scarcely  visible:  the  general  rule,  therefore, 
is,  that'all  venomous  serpents  have  only  two 
rows  of  true  or  proper  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
and  that  ..II  others  have  four. 

A  head  entirely  covered  with  small  scales 
is  in  some  degi  ee  a  character,  but  by  no 
means  an  universal  one,  of  poisonous  ser- 
pents; as  are  also  carinated  scales  on  the 
iiead  and  body,  or  such  as  are  furnished  with 
a  prominent  middle  line. 

All  sei-peuts  are  in  the  habit  of  casting 
their  skin  at  certain  periods;  in  temperate 
regions  annually;  in  the  warmer  perhaps 
more  frecjuently.  The  serpents  of  the  tem- 
perate and  colcl  climates  also  conceal  them- 
selves, during  the  winter,  in  cavities  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  in  any  other 
convenient  places  of  retirement,  and  pass  the 
winter  in  a  state  more  or  less  approaching,  in 
the  difiereiit  species,  to  complete  torpidity. 
It  may  be  added,  that  some  serpents  are  vi- 
viparous, as  the  rattlesnake,  the  viper,  and 
many  others  of  the  poisonous  kind,  while 
the  common  snake,  and  probably  the  major 
part  of  the  innoxious  serpents,  are  oviparous, 
depositing  their  eggs  in  a  kind  of  string  or 
chain  ill  any  warm  and  close  situation,  where 
they  are  afterwards  hatclied. 

The  broad  undivided  laminae  or  scaly  plates 
on  the  bellies  of  serpents  are  termed  scuta, 
and  the  smaller  or  divided  plates  beneath  the 
tail  are  called  squama;  subcaudales,  or  sub- 
caudal  scales;  and  from  these  different  kinds 
of  lamina"  the  Linnxau  genera  of  serpents  are 
chiefiv  instituted. 

SE'RPENTARIUS.     See  Astronomy. 

SERPENTINE,  a  mineral  found  in  amor- 
phous masses,  forming  strata,  and  even  en- 
tire   mountains.      Its    fracture   is   splintery, 
sometimes  conchoidal.     Specihc  gravity  2.57 
to  2.71;  feels  soft  and  aln.ost  greasy  ;  gene- 
rally emits  an  earthy  smell  when  breathed  on. 
Its  colours  are  various  shades  of  green,  yel- 
low, red,  grey,  brown,  and  blue:  commonlv 
one  or  two  colours  form  the  ground,  and  one 
or  more  appear  in  spots  or  veins.     Belore  the 
blowpipe    it   hardens,    but   does    not    melt. 
According  to  Mr.  Chenevix  it  contains 
34.3'  magnesia 
i;.S.O  silica 
23.0  alumina 
4.5  oxulc  of  iron 
0.5  lime 
10.5  water 


101.0 


SEIJPICUJ^.'V,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 


S  E  Pv 

to  the  cUiss  of  monoecia,  and  to  the  order  cf 
tetrandria.  The  male  caly.v  is  quadridentate, 
and  the  corolla  consists  ot  four  petals.  '1  In- 
female  calyx  is  divided  into  four  parts,  and 
the  pericarpiuiii  is  a  tomentose  nut.  Then- 
are  two  species,  the  verticillata  and  repens. 

SEH  PIJLA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  ordrr 
vermes  test-acea.  The  generic  character  is ; 
animal  a  terebella  ;  shell  univalve,  tubul.i 
generally  adhering  to  other  substances  ;  often 
separated  internally  by  divisions  at  uncertain 
distances.     Tlurre  are  43  species. 

SERR.4.Tl.'LA,  smv-iinrt,  a  genus  di 
plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  syngenesia,. 
and  to  the  order  of  polygamia  squalls.  Iii 
the  natural  system  it  is  ranged  under  the  4iHli. 
order,  compositse.  The  calyx  is  subcylin- 
drical,  imbricated ;  the  scales  of  it  poiiited^ 
but  not  spinous.  There  are  20  species:  1. 
'Die  tinctoria,  grows  in  woods  and  wet 
pastures.  It  dy  es  cloth  of  an  exxeedingly  tine 
yellow  colour,  which  stands  well  when  lixed 
with  alum.  Goats  eat  this  plant ;  horses  are- 
not  fond  of  it ;  cattle,  swine,  and  sheep,  leave 
it  untouched.  2.  The  alpina,  or  mountain 
saw-wort,  grows  on  hiuh  mountains,  and 
flowers  connnonly  in  July  or  August.  3. 
The  arvensis,  corn  saw-wort,  or  way-thistle, 
grows  in  culti\  ated  grounds  and  by  way-sides, 
and  flowers  in  July  or  August.  When  burn- 
ed, it  yields  good  ashes  for  makmg  glass  or 
fixed  alkali. 

SERROPALPUS,  a  genus  of  insects  of 
the  order  coleoptera:  the  generic  character 
is,  antenna;  setaceous;  feelers  four,  unequal; 
the  anterior  ones  longer  deeply  serrate,  com- 
posed of  four  joints,  the  last  joint  very  large, 
truncate,  compressed,  potelliform  ;  the  pos- 
terior ones  bubclavate:  thorax  margined, 
concealing  tlie  head,  with  a  prominent  angle 
on  each  side;  head  deflected;  feet  formed 
for  digging.  There  are  two  species:  the 
striatus  is  found  on  old  wooden  buildings  in 
the  evening  in  autumn. 

SERIL  LARIA,  in  natural  history,  a  ge- 
nus belonging  to  the  class  of  vermes,  and  to 
the  order  of  zoophyta.  The  stem  is  radicat- 
ed, hbrous,  naked,  and  jointed;  the  florets 
are  hydra",  and  there  is  one  each  joint.  This 
genus  comprehends  4?  species  of  corallines. 
SER\  ANT.  See  Master  and  Servant 
SER\  ICE,  in  law,  is  a  duty  which  a  te- 
nant, on  iiccouut  of  ills  fee,  formerly  owed 
to  his  lord. 

SKKl'M,  a  thin  transparent  liquor,  which 
makes  a  considerable  part  in  the  mass  of 
blood. 

The  sperilic  gravity  of  human  blood  is,  at 
a  medium,  1.0527.  Mr.  Eourcroy  found  the 
specilic  gravity  of  bullock's  blood,  at  tin; 
temperature  oi  Co",  to  be  1.056.  T  he  idooil 
does  not  uuil'ormly  retain  the  same  consist- 
ence in  the  same  animal,  and  its  consistence 
in  difierent  animals  is  very  various.  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  its  speciUc  gravity  must  be 
C(pially  various. 

\Viien  Diood,  after  being  drawn  from  an 
animal,  is  allowed  to  remain  for  some  time  at 
rest.  It  very  sotm  coagulates  into  a  solid  mass 
of  the  consistence  of  curdled  miik.  This  mass 
gradually  sCL-arates  into  two  parts;  one  of 
which  is  fluid,  and  is  called  .>-rum  ;  the  other 
the  coagulum,  has  been  called  cruor,  because 
It  alone  n;tains  the  red  colour  wliiiii  vlistin- 
guishes  blood.  This  separation  is  v;iy  .-.imilap 
to  the  separation  of  curdled  milk  into  curds 
and  will  V. 


Tiic  propovlion  lidwcen  tlio  crn^r  aiul  fn- 
niii)  ut  Ihi-  bloo'.l  varies  imich  in  ilitTonMil  ani- 
mals, and  even  in  tin-  same  ;'.j)inial  in  ilillorcnt 
circuinslancL's.  The  must  tommoii  ))i-o])oi-- 
tiii.i  is  al)ou1  one  jiarl  (if  ciuor  lo  llirte  |)ails 
of  senmi ;  Init  in  many  cases  Uie  cvuor  ex- 
ceeds or  falls  short  of  this  ciiiantity  ;  the  limits 
of  tlie  ratios  ol  tliese  s;ib:^lances  lo  each  other 
appear,  Irom  a  comparison  of  (he  conclusions 
of  most  of  those  who  have  written  aec  nratelv 
on  the  siil)ji:ct,  lo  be  1  :  1  and  1  ;  4  ;  but  the 
iirst  case  must  be  very  rare  indeed. 

'ihe  cause  of  this  spontaneous  decomposi- 
tion of  blood  has  not  hitherto  been  ascertain- 
ed. The  coagulation  takes  place  equally  in 
close  vessels  and  in  the  open  air,  whether  the 
blood  is  allowed  to  cool,  or  is  kept  at  the 
temperature  at  whii  h  it  is  when  it  issues  from 
the  animal ;  neither  is  the  coagulation  pre- 
vented by  diluting  it  with  water. 

1.  The  serum  is  of  a  light  gveeuish-yellow 
colour ;  it  has  the  taste,  smell,  and  ieel,  of  the 
blood,  but  its  consistence  is  not  so  great. 
Its  mean  specilic  gravity  is  about  1.02S7.  It 
converts  syrup  of  violets  to  a  green,  and 
therefore  contains  an  alkali.  On  examination, 
Kouelle  found  that  it  owes  this  property  to  a 
portion  of  soda.  \Vhen  heated  to  the  tem- 
l)erature  of  lj(i%  the  serum  coagulates,  as 
ilarvey  tirst  discovered.  It  coagulates  also 
when  boiling  water  is  mixed  with  it;  but  if 
serum  is  mixed  with  six  parts  of  cold  water, 
it  does  not  coagulate  by  heat.  ^^  lu  n  thus 
coagulated,  it  has  a  greyish-white  colour,  and 
is  not  unlike  the  boiled  white  of  an  egg.  If 
the  coagulum  is  cut  into  small  pieces,  a 
muddy  fluid  may  be  squeezed  from  it,  whicli 
lias  been  termed  the  serosily.  After  the  se- 
paration of  this  fluid,  if  the  residuum  is  carc- 
liilly  washed  in  boiUng  water  and  examined,  it 
will  be  found  to  possess  all  the  properties  of 
coagulated  albumen  I'he  serum,  therefore, 
contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  albu- 
men. Hence  its  coaguiaticm  by  heat,  and 
the  other  phenomena  which  albumen  usually 
exhibits. 

If  serum  is  diluted  with  six  times  its  weight 
of  water,  and  then  boiled  to  coagulate  the 
albumen,  the  liquid  whicii  remains  after  the 
separation  of  the  coagulum,  if  it  is  gently 
evaporated  till  it  becomes  concentrated,  and 
then  is  allowed  to  cool,  assumes  the  form  of  a 
jelly,  as  was  tirst  observed  by  De  llacn. 
Consequently  it  contains  gelatine. 

If  the  coagulated  scrum  is  heated  in  a  silver 
vessel,  the  suifaceof  the  silver  be'.'omes black, 
being  converted  into  a  sulphuret.  Hence  it 
is  evident  that  it  contains  sulphur;  and 
Proust  has  ascertained  that  it  is  combineil 
with  anmionia  in  tlie  state  of  a  hydrosul- 
phuret. 

If  serum  is  mi.xed  with  twice  its  weight  of 
water,  and  after  coagulation  by  heat,  the  al- 
bumen is  separated  by  tilliation,  and  the 
liquid  slowly  evaporated  till  it  is  considerably 
concentrated,  a  numb(;r  of  crystals  are  deno- 
sited  when  the  licpiid  is  left  standing  in  a 
cool  place.  These  crystals,  lirst  examined 
by  Roui-lle,  consist  of  carbonat  of  soda,  mu- 
riat  of  soda,  besides  phosphat  of  soda  and 
phosplial  of  lime.  1  he  soda  exists  in  the 
blood  \n  a  caustic  state,  and  seems  to  be  com- 
bined with  the  gelatine  and  albumen.  The 
carbonic  acid  combines  with  it  during  evapo- 
ration. 

Thus  it  appeaBs  that  the  serum  of  the  blood 
contains  albumen,   gelatine,   hydrosulphuret 


I  of  nmmonia,  soda,  muriat  of  soda,  phosphat 
of  soda,  and  phosphat  of  lime.  Tliese  com- 
j)onent  |>arls  account  lor  the  coagulation  oc- 
casioned in  the  serum  by  acids  and  alcohol, 
and  tiie  precipitation  produced  by  tan,  acetat 
of  lead,  and  other  metallic  salts. 

With  respect  to  tl.e  other  part,  the  cnior, 
or  clot,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  of  a  red 
colour,  and  possesses  considerable  consist- 
ence. Its  mean  specific  gravity  is  about 
1.24.5.  If  this  cruor  is  wasned  carefully  by 
letting  a  small  jet  of  water  fall  upon  it  till 
the  water  runs  off  colourless,  it  is  partly  dis- 
solved, and  partly  remains  u^wn  the  scarce. 
Thus  it  is  separated  into  two  portions,  viz. 
(I.)  A  white,  solid,  clastic  substance,  which 
has  all  the  properl;  s  of  librina.  2.  The  por- 
tion held  in  solution  by  the  water,  which 
consists  of  the  coloviving  matter,  not  however 
in  a  state  of  purity,  for  it  is  impossible  to  se- 
parate the  cruor  completely  from  the  serum. 

We  arc  indebted  to  Hucqiiet  for  the  first 
precise  set  of  experiments  on  this  last  watery 
solution.  It  is  of  a  red  colour.  15ucijuri 
jiroved  that  it  contained  albumen  and  iron. 
.Meiighini  had  ascertained,  that  if  blood  is 
evaporated  to  dryness  hy  a  gentle  heat,  a 
iiuantity  of  iron  may  be  separated  fiom  it  by 
the  magnet.  Thequanlity  v.hich  he  obtained 
was  considerable;  according  to  him,  the  blood 
of  a  healthy  man  contains  above  two  ounces 
of  it.  Now,  as  neither  the  serum  nor  the 
(ibrina  extracted  from  the  cruor  contains  iron, 
it  follows  of  course,  that  the  water  holdint^ 
the  colouring  matter  in  solution  must  contain 
the  whole  of  that  metal. 

Tliis  waterv  solution  gives  a  green  colour 
to  syrup  of  violets.  \Vlu  n  exposed  to  the 
air,  it  gradually  deposits  llakes,  whicli  have 
the  properties  of  albumen.  When  heated,  a 
brown-coloured  scum  gatliers  on  its  surface. 
If  it  is  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  then  mixed 
with  alcohol,  a  iiortion  is  dissolved  ;  and  the 
alcoholic  solution  yields  by  evaporation  a  re- 
siduum, which  lathers  like  soap  in  water,  and 
tinges  vegetable  blues  green  ;  the  acids  occa- 
sion a  precipitate  from  its  solution.  This 
substance  is  a  coHipound  of  albumen  and  soda. 
Thus  we  see  that  the  watery  solution  contains 
albumen,  iron,  and  soda. 

Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin  iinve  ascertained 
that  the  iron  is  combined  v.lth  |)lu)>plioric 
acid,  and  in  the  state  of  subphosplial  of  iron  ; 
thus  confirming  an  opinion  which  had  been 
maintained  by  !^age,  and  announced  as  a  fact 
by  Gren.  If  the  residuum  oljt.ained  by  ev.a- 
porating  the  watery  solution  of  the  colouring 
matter  of  blood  to  drvness  is  burnt  in  a  cru- 
cible, there  will  remain  a  deep-red  leirugi- 
nous  substance,  amounting  to  0.045  of  the 
blood  emploved.  Nitric  acid  digested  on 
this  residuum  dissolves  a  portimi,  which  is 
phosphat  of  iron,  and  is  pivcipitai-od  white  by 
ammonia,  but  assumes  a  red  colour  when 
treated  with  pure  potass.  \Mifn  lime-water 
is  poured  into  the  potass  employed,  phospbat 
of  lime  ])recii')itates.  By  this  treatment  they 
ascertained,  thalXi  of  the  residuum  consist- 
ed of  siibphosphat  of  iron.  Now  piuisphat 
of  iron  is  solul>le  in  acids,  but  insoluble  in 
water;  when  treated  with  pure  alkalies,  it  I 
loses  a  portion  of  its  acid,  assumes  a  red 
colonr,  and  is  converted  into  subpho^phat. 
Hence  it  is  evidently  the  soda  ot  the  blood  ' 
which  reduces  it  to  that  state,  or  at  least  I 
njaiutaijis  it  in  that  state.-  Subptiosphat  of  f 
4N2  ■       ' 


iron    read.Iy  dissolves    in    albumen  and  in 

.serum. 

When  new-drawn  blood  is  stirred  bri-klv 
round  with  a  stick,  or  the  hand,  the  whole  oY 
the  /ibrina  collecto  together  upon  the   Etic^-, 
and  in  this  manner  may  be  separated  alloi;c- 
tlier  Irom   the  rest  of  the  blood.     The  ritl 
globules,  in  this  case,  remain  behind  in  thiv 
Serum.     It  is  in  this  manner  that  the  L.ouk-  i« 
prepared  for  the  dii'ferent  purposes  to  whicli 
it  is  put ;  as  clarifying  sugar,  making  puiU 
dings,  &c.  After  the  fibiina  is  thus  separatei), 
the  blood  no  longer  co.igulates  «  hen  allowed 
to  remain  at  rest,  but  a  spongy  llaky  maltev 
separates  from  it,  and  swims  on  the  suriacc. 
N\hen  blood  is  dried  by  a  gentle  heat,  wa- 
ter exhales  from  it,  relaining   a   very  small 
(piantity  of  animal  matter  in  sohuicn,  and 
consequently    ha\  ing  the   odour   of   blood. 
Blood  dried  in  this  manner  being  iiitrodnced 
into  a  relort  and  distilled,  there  coniei  ovei' 
lirst  a  clear  watery  liquor,  then  carbonic  acid 
gas,  and  carbonat  of  ammonia,  which  crys- 
talliz(.s  in  the  neck  of  the  ri'toit;  after  these 
products  there  come  over  a  fluid  oil,  carbo- 
nated hvdrogen  gas,  and  an  oily  substance 
ot  the  consistence  of  buttor.      The   watery 
liquor  possesses  the  property  of  preci[iitatiiijj 
from  sulphat  ot  iron  a  green  powder:  innri- 
alic  acid  dissolves  part  of  this  powtier,  and 
there  remains  behind  a  little  IVusiian  blue. 
Consei]ueiitly  this  watery  liquor  tonlains  ixjlh. 
an  alkali  and  prussu;  acid. 

9'2U)  grains  of  dried  blood  being  put  into  a 
large  crucible,  and  gradually  heated,  at  first 
became  nearly  fluid,  and  swelled  up  cons;-, 
derably,  emitted  a  great  many  fetid  fumes  of' 
a  yellowish  colour,  and  at  last  took  fire  and 
burned  with  a  white  tianie,  evidently  owing 
to  the  presence  ot  oil.  Alter  the  ilanie  and 
the  fumes  had  disappeared,  a  light  smoke 
was  emitted,  which  alfected  the  eyes  and  tli<? 
nose  ;  it  had  the  odour  of  prussic  acid,  and 
reddened  moist  jjaper  stained  with  vegetable 
blue.  At  the  end  of  six  hours,  w  hen  the  mat- 
ter had  lost  five-sixths  of  its  substance,  it 
melted  anew,  exhibited  a  purple  tianie  on  its 
surface,  and  emitted  a  iliick  smoke.  Thi« 
smoke  atVected  the  eye»  and  no.strils,  and 
reddened  blue  p;:per,  but  it  had  not  the  smell 
of  prussic  acid.  \\'heii  a  ciuaiitity  of  it  was 
collected  and  examined,  it  was  found  to  pos- 
sess the  properties  of  phosphoric  acid,  'j'he 
residuum  amounted  to  ISl  grains;  it  had  a 
deep-black  colour,  and  a  nu-iallic  brilliancy  ; 
and  its  particles  were  attracted  bv  the  mag- 
net. It  contained  no  uncombined  soda, 
though  the  blood  itself,  before  combustions 
contains  it  abundanllv;  but  water  extiacleil 
from  it  muriat  of  soda  ;  part  of  the  remainder 
was  dissolved  by  muriatic  acid,  and  of  course 
tt.as  lime ;  there  was  besides  a  little  sihca, 
wliich  had  evidently  been  scparnted  from  the 
crucible.  'I'he  iron  had  been  reduced  during 
the  COfllbustiofl. 

^•ucll  are  the  properties  of  blood,  as  far  is 
tiicy  have  been  hitlierto  ascertained  by  exjie- 
limenf.     We  have  seen  that  it  contains  the 

following  ingredients  : 

1.   V\ater, 
J.  Fibrina, 
.3.  Albumen, 

4.  Gelathie, 

5.  Hydrosulph.  of  ammonia, 
fi.  ;Soda, 

7.  Sul)plH>sphat  of  iron. 


652 


S  E  S 


R.  ^Iiiriat  of  soda, 
9.  Pliosphat  of  sofla, 
10.  Pliospliat  of  lime. 
Besides  benzoic  acid,  whicii  has  been  detected 
by  Prou'rt. 

But  our  knowledge  of  thi";  lingular  fliiid  is 
bv  no  means  so  conlplete  as  il  oiiglit  lo  be  ; 
a  more  accurate  analysis  would  probably  dis- 
cover the  pre5e;ice  of  other  substances,  and 
eaable  us  to  account  for  many  of  the  proper- 
ties of  blooil  which  at  present  are  inexpli- 
cable. 

S  ES.AMl'.M,  oily  grain,  a  genus  of  plants 
bel/j!igtng  to  the  class  of  didvnamia,  and  to 
the  order  of  angiospermia,  ar.J  in  the  natural 
system  ranging  under  the -0th  order,  luridir 
The  calyx  is  divided  into  (ive  parts.  The 
corolla  is  conipnnnlated,  the  tube  of  wliicli  is 
nearly  the  length  of  the  calyx;  the  throat  is 
inflated,  and  VL-ry  large;  the  border  is  divided 
into  five  parts,  four  of  which  are  spreading 
and  nearly  equal ;  the  fifth  is  the  lowest  and 
tergest.  There  are  four  filaments,  and  the 
rudiriients  of  a  fifth.  The  stighia  is  lanieo- 
latod,  and  the  capside  has  four  ceils.  Tliere 
are  onlv  three  species,  the  orientale,  indlcnin, 
and  hileimi.  \.  The  orientale  has  ovate, 
oblong,  entire  leaves.  It  is  an  annual,  and 
grows  naidr.llly  on  the  coast  of  MLilabar  and 
in  the  island  of  Ceylon ;  rising  witli  an  her- 
bacous  four-cornered  stalli,  two  feet  high, 
sendmg  out  a  few  short  side-branches.  After 
the  flo.verj  are  past,  the  germen  turns  to  an 
oval  acute-pointed  capsule,  with  four  cells, 
filled  with  oval  compressetl  seeds,  wliicli 
ripen  in  autum.  2.  Tiu  indicuni,  vvth  trifid 
lower  leaves,  grows  naturally  in  India :  this 
is  alio  an  annual  plant;  the  stalk  rises  taller 
than  tliat  of  the  former  ;  the  lower  leaves  are 
cut  into  lliree  parts,  which  is  the  only  dider- 
•nce  between  them.  Tlie  first  sort  is  fre- 
fjuently  cultivated  in  all  the  eastern  countries, 
and  also  in  Africa,  as  a  pulse ;  aiid  of  late 
■vears  the  seeils  have  been  introduced  into 
i3ari>lina  by  the  African  nes;roes,  ulien;  tlicy 
sueceed  extremely  v.ell.  The  inhabitants  of 
that  country  make  an  oil  from  the  seed, 
which  will  keep  good  f jr  many  years,  witii- 
out  having  any  rancid  smell  or  taste,  but  in 
two  years  become  quite  mild  ;  so  that  when 
the  w.irin  taste  of  tlu-  seed,  which  is  in  the  oil 
wh"n  first  drawn,  is  worn  oif,  they  use  it  as 
a  salli  1  oil,  an. I  for  all  the  purpose's  of  sweet 
uil.  Th'  seeds  of  this  plant  are  also  used  by 
the  negroes  fur  food ;  which  seeds  they  parch 
over  the  tire,  and  then  mix  them  with  water, 
:ind  ste.v  other  ingredients  with  them,  which 
niiikis  a  hearty  foxl.  Sometimes  a  sort  of 
pudding  is  made  of  these  seeds,  in  the  same 
inaiiner  as  with  millet  or  rice,  and  is  by  some 
persons  esteemed,  but  ts  rarely  used  for  these 
purposes  in  Europe. 

From  nine  pounds  of  this  seed  which  came 
from  Carolina,  there  were  upwards  of  two 
i)uarts  of  oil  drawn,  which  is  as  great  a  tpian- 
tity  as  has  be.-n  obtained  from  any  vegetable 
whatever.  This  might  occasion  its  being 
called  the  oily  grain. 

•SKSKLl,  mcadoiu-.iaxifrm^e,  a  genus  of 
Iil.inis  belonging  to  the  class  of  pentandri.i, 
and  to  the  order  of  digynia,  and  in  the  natural 
Bystem  ranging  under  the  45tl|  order,  umbel - 
lata!.  The  undiels  are  globular ;  the  Involu- 
cnim  consists  of  one  or  two  leadeLs ;  the 
fruit  \i  egg-slmped  and  streaked.  There  ar<' 
fttlceii  rpecies.  .  The  inont,;jiiim  graws  natu- 


S  E  S 

rally  in  France  and  Italy ;  the  glauciim  is  a 
native  of  Fnuice  ;  llie  animoidcs  and  lortuo- 
sum  grow  in  the  south  of  Europe ;  and  the 
hyppomarathium  is  a  native  of  Austria. 

SESSION,  in  law,  denolu  a  silting  of  jus- 
tices in  court  upon  their  comniissioil :  as  the 
session  of  oyer  and  terminer.  Sec. 

Sessions,  qimrtcr.  The  session  of  the 
peace  is  a  court  of  record  hoUlen  before  {ss-o 
or  more  justices,  whereof  one  isofthequorum, 
for  the  execution  of  the  authority  given  them 
by  the  commission  of  tlie  peace,  and  certain 
statutes  and  acts  of  parliament. 

The  justices  shall  keep  their  sessions  in 
every  quarter  of  the  year  at  least,  and  for 
three  days  if  need  be ;  to  wit,  in  the  first 
week  after  the  feast  of  St.  Michael,  in  the 
first  week  after  the  Epiphany,  in  the  first 
week  after  Easter,  and  in  the  first  week  after 
St.  Thomas,  and  oftener  if  need  be. 

Any  two  justices,  one  whereof  is  of  the 
quorum,  by  the  words  of  the  commission  of 
the  peace,  may  iisue  their  precept  to  the 
sheriif  to  stmimon  a  session  for  the  general 
execution  of  their  authority  ;  and  such  ses- 
sion, holden  at  any  time  within  that  quarter 
of  a  year,  is  a  general  quarter-session.  4  Burn, 
I  SI.  And  sucli' precept  shoulrl  bear  teste,  or 
be  dated,  fifteen  days  before  the  return.  Nels. 
Intr.  35.  .' 

The  sheriff  also  shall  causea  jury  tuappcar 
at  such  days  and  places  as  the  said  justices,  or 
such  two  or  more  of  them  as  aforesaid,  shall 
appoint. 

'Jliere  are  many  offences,  ^hich,  by  par- 
ticuUf  stat'ifres,  belong  properly  to  this  juris- 
diction, and  ought  to  be  prosecuted  in  this 
court :  as  the  smaller  misdemeanors  against 
the  p-.ib!ic  or  commonwealth,  not  amounting 
to  felony  ;  and  especially  offences  relating  to 
the  game,  highways,  alehouses,  bastard  ciiil- 
dren,  the  settlemeiit  and  provision  of  the 
poor,  vagrants,  servants'  wages,  apprentices, 
and  popish  recusants.  Some  of  these  are 
proceeded  upon  by  indictment;  and  others  in 
a  simimary  way,  by  motion  and  order  there- 
upon ;  which  order  may,  for  the  most  part, 
unless  guarded  ag;iinst  by  any  particular' 
statute,  be  removed  into  the  court  of  king's 
bench  by  certiorari,  and  be  there  either 
quashed  or  confirmed. 

Sessions  J«r  zveiglit-i  nnd  meatures.  In 
London,  four  justices  from  among  the  mavor, 
recorder,  anil  aldermen,  (of  which  the  mavor 
or  recorder  to  be  one)~m.iy  hold  a  session  to 
enquire  into  oliences  of  selling  by  false 
weights  and  measures,  contrary  to  the  sta- 
tutes; and  to  receive  indictments,  punish  the 
olTenders,  &c. 

SESlERC'l'l,  a  silver  coin  in  use  among 
the  Romans.     See  Coin, 

Some  authors  make  two  kinds  of  sesterces: 
the  less,  c  ailed  seslerttus,  in  tlie  masculine 
gender;  and  the  great  one,  called  sestertium, 
in  the  neuter,  Ihe  latter  containing  a  thousand 
of  the  former. 

Sesterce,  or  sestertius,  was  also  used  by  the 
antii.'uts  for  a  thing  containing  two  wiioles  and 
a  half  of  another,  as  as  *iis  taken  for  any 
wholi;  or  integer. 

SEStU'IUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
lo  tlu'  class  of  icosandiia,  and  to  the  order  of 
trinyiiia.  Th,:  calyx  is  coloured,  and  divided 
into  five  parts ;  there  arc  no  petals;  the  cap- 
sule is  egg-shaped,  ihree-celled,  opening  ho- 
rizoiitaliy  about  the  njiddle,  and  containing 
many  seeds.    Tliere  is  only  one  sjjecies,  the 


SEW 

portulatasli'um,     purslanr-lcaved    sesuvrmi, 
\vJiiih  is  a  native  of  the  West  indiei.. 

SEl-Oi'F,  IS  wlien  the  defenilant  acknow- 
ledges the  justice  of  the  plaint  ni's  demaiid  on 
the  one  hand,  but  on  the  other  sets  up  a  de- 
mand of  his  own  lo  counterbalance  that  of 
tlie  plaintil'i",  either  in  th<-  whole,  or  in  part: 
as  if  the  plaintiff  sues  for  10/.  due  on  a  note  of 
hand,  the  defendant  may  set-oli'  <J/.  due  lo 
himself  for  merchandize  sold  to  the  plaintiff. 
3  lilack.  304. 

The  action  in  which  a  set-olT  is  allowable 
upon  the  statutes  2  and  8  G.  II.  c.  CJ  and 
;-'4,  are  debt,  covenant,  and  assumpsit,  for 
the  non-payment  of  money ;  and  the  demand 
intended  to  be  set-oil',  must  be  such  as  might 
have  been  made  the  subject  of  one  or  other 
of  these  actions.  A  set-off,  therefore,  is 
never  allowed  in  actions  upon  the  case,  tres- 
pass, replevin,  &.'c.  nor  of  a  penalty,  in  debt 
on  bond  conditioned  for  the  performance  of 
co\enanls,  &,c.  nor  of  genera!  dam.ages  in 
covenant  or  a>-sumpsit ;  but  where  a  bond  is 
conditioned  for  the  payment  of  an  annuity,  a 
set-off  may  be  allow  ed.  A  debt  barr.'d  by'the 
statute  of  liiiiitatious,  cannot  be  set-off;  and 
if  it  is  pleadi.d  in  bar  to  the  action,  the 
plaintiff  may  reply  the  statute  of  limitations; 
or  if  gi  .en  in  evidence,  on  a  notice  of  set-off. 
it  may  he  objected  to  at  the  trial.  Tidd's 
Pract.  K.  B. 
SETOX.  See  Surgery. 
SETTING,  ill  the  sea-language.  To  set 
the  land  or  the  sun  by  the  compass,  is  to  ob- 
serve how  the  land  bears  on  any  point  of  the 
compass,  or  on  wliat  point  of  the  compass  the 
sun  IS.  Also  wlien  two  ships  sail  in  sight  of 
one  another,  to  mark  on  what  pciint  the 
chased  bears,  is  tunned  settuig  the  chase  hj 
the  compass. 

SEN'EN  Til,  srpiima,  in  music.  A  dis- 
sonant interval  called  by  the  Greeks  hepta- 
chordon,  because  it  is  formed  of  seven  sounds, 
or  six  diatonic  degrties.  There  are  four 
kinds  of  sevenths.  The  minor  seventh,  com- 
posed of  four  tones  (three  majors  and  one 
minor),  and  two  major  semitones ;  the  major 
seventh,  composed  diatonically  of  live  tones 
(three  majors  and  two  minors),  and  a  major 
semitone  ;  tlie  diaiinished  seventh,  consisting 
of  three  tones  (two  minors  and  one  major), 
a,nd  three  major  semitones ;  and  the  super- 
lluous  seventh,  containing  five  tones  (liiree 
minors  and  two  majors),  a  semitone  major, 
and  a  semitone  minor. 

SEWEU,  a  passage  or  gutter  made  to 
carry  water  hito  the  sea  or  a  river,  wlierebv 
to  preserve  the  land,  &c.  from  imuidation's 
and  other  annoyances.  The  business  ol  the 
com.iiissioners  of  stwers,.  or  Iheir  office  in 
particular,  is  to  repair  sea-bank*  and  walls, 
survey  rivers,  mibhc  shvanis,  ditches,  &c. 
and  to  make  oiacrs  for  tli.il  pu:  pose. 

1  hese  com. i.i-sioners  have  likewise  autho- 
rity to  make  enqn.r.  of  all  nuianccs  or  of- 
fences comnuticd  by  the  rtopjiing  of  rivers, 
erecting  mills,  not  repairing  banks,  bridges, 
&c.  and  to  tax  persons  charj;Cable  for  the 
aniendiiig  of  lielaults  that  tend  to  the  ob- 
struction or  nuidiance  of  the  tree  passage  of 
tne  wa^er  th-vjugh  its  aiitjent  courses.  'I  liey 
may  not  only  make  a  rate  and  assessment  for 
repairs,  but  also  nwy  decree  lands  to  be  sold, 
in  order  to  levy  charges  assessed,  upon  non- 
payment thereof,  &c.  i3ut  the  decrees  of  the 
commissiohers  are  to  be  certified  into  clian- 
cery,  aud  have  the  king's  assent,  to  be  bind- 


8  H  A 

ln!»,  371(1  llaii'  piocuidiri^s  are  siiliji'ct  to  llu' 
juriodictioii  of  the  king's  Ix'iicli.  In  Itic  mak- 
liii;  of  a  ral'j  or  t;i\,  t  ly  (.Oiiv.nissioiiers  ;\r<-  to 
asses>  every  owiu;r  or  possessor  of  lauds  in 
<laii;^er  of  rcceivii)?!  any  chma^e  by  the  «a- 
t'Ts,  etiiially  accoriliiitv  to  tlio  <|iiaiily  ol  Uieir 
lands,  rents,  and  numbers  of  acres,  and  tlieir 
respective  portions  and  profits,  whttlier  it  is 
of  pasture,  tisliing,  &c.  And  wliere  no  per- 
sons or  lands  can  be  known  that  are  liable  to 
make  repairs  of  banks  and  sewers,  tiien  tiie 
coiTiMiissiouers  are  to  rate  tlie  wliole  level. 
'Five  3.  Jac.  I.  ordains  that  all  ditches,  banks, 
bridi^es,  and  water-houses,  v.  itlnn  two  miles 
of  London,  adjoining  to,  and  lallin'5  into  tiie 
'J'hanies,  shall  be  subject  to  the  coniiuission- 
ers  of  sewers.  Also  the  lord-mayor.  Sic.  may 
appoint  persons  in  that  cis:.-  to  li.ive  the 
power  of  comniissioners  of  sewc'rs.  Persons 
bi  e  ik  iig  clown  sea-banks,  whereby  laiids  are 
daniai^  ;tl,  areadind|j''d  to  be  guilty  of  felony  ; 
and  I  L'luovln^  piles,'&c.  forfeit  twenty  pounds 
by  6  and  10  G.'o.  II.  c.  32. 

SliXAGESi.MALS,  or  Sexagestmai. 
FRACrroNs,  fractions  whose  denominators 
pro  :eed  ill  a  sexa'^eoiipte  ritio;  that  is,  a 
prime,  or  the  (irst  miiuile,  =:  _*_;  a' second 
=  TtVo  •.,.■' thh-d^-i_.  '     '      •■ 

Antieudy  there  were  no -other  than  sexa- 
ge-imiils  used  in  Rstronomy",  and  th^y  are  still 
retaiii.:(l  in  many  cases, though  decimal  arith- 
metic begins  to  grow  in  use  now  in  astroiio- 
micil  ciilcul.»tiv)n3.  In  these  fractions,  which 
some  ciil  astronomical  fraction^!,  the  deno- 
iii-:.iat)r  b'>!ng  always  sixty,  or  a  mnlliple 
thereof,  is  Usually  omitted,  and  the  mmieritor 
o;ilv  written  down,  th-is.  4\  59',  .3'i".  jO'", 
If/"',  is  to  be  read  four  deijress,  iifty-nine 
minutes,  t!iirt_v-two  seconds,  lifty  third;,  six- 
te;:n  f  lurths,  &c. 

SEXA.NGLE,  in  (geometry,  a  figure  hav- 
ing six  sides,  and  consesjuently  six  angles. 

SEXTANS,  a  sixth  part  of  certain  tilings. 
Tlie  Romans  having  divided  their  <;.9  into 
tNvelve  ounces,  or  unica,  the  sixtli  part  of 
that,  or  two  ounces,  wis  the  sextans. 

■  Sextans  was  also  a  measure  which  contained 
two  ouices  of  liquor,  or  two  cyathi.  See 
Measure. 

■  SEKl'ANT,  in  nutlieaiotics,  denotes  the 
sixth  oart  of  a  circle,  or  an  arch  comprehend- 
ing sixty  ilegrees. 

Th"  word  sextant  is  mor(*  paTticuIartv  used 
for  an  astronomical  instrument  made  like  a 
quadrant,  excepting  that  its  liinb  oalv  co'n- 
}>reheiids  sixty  degrees.  The  use  and  appli- 
cation of  the  sextant  is  the  same  with  that  of 
the  c|uadriiit.     See  Quaprax-i-. 

S1'',KT0N,  a  church-oriicer,  whose  busi- 
ness is  to  take  care  of  the  v.-ssels',  vesfiients, 
&c.  belonging  to  the  chuix:h,  and  to  attend 
the  miiiisier,  churchsvardens,  &c.  at  church. 
He  is  usually  chosen  by  the  pardon  oillv. 

SGXTUPF>F'>,  sii/nnh,  in  mu^ic.-dtnotes 
a  mixed  sort  of  triple  wliich  is  Ijeaten  in 
double  time,  now  called  compound  common 
time. 

SHADOW,  in  o])tics,  a  privation  or 
dimiiiuti,)n  of  light,  by  the  interposition  of  ;m 
opake  body  ;  or  it  is  a  plane  where  the  lifjht 
is  either  altogether  obT^tructed,  or  greatly 
weakened,  by  the  interposition  of  sojne  opake 
body  between  ;t  and,  the  luminary.  See 
Optics.  "    ' 

Shadow.     See  Geography. 

SHAI'T  of  a  column,  iii  buildiug,  is  the 


S  H  A 

body  thereof  between  the  base  and  capital  • 
so  called  from  its  straiglitness. 

SIl.\(;lii;i:N,  or  Ch\cp.eem,  ill  com- 
merce, a  kind  of  grained  leather,  prepared, 
as  is  supposed,  of  the  skin  of  a  specie's  ol 
sqnaUi-.,  or  hoiind-lish,  called  the  shagree,  or 
sliagrain,  and  much  used  in  covering  cases, 
books,  &;c. 

It  is  imported  from  Constantinople,  Tatiris, 
Tripoli,  Algiers,  anil  from  some  parts  of  Po- 
land, where  it  is  prepared  in  the  following 
manner:  the  skin  being  stretched  out  is  first 
ciivcied  over  with  iiuistard-secd,  vriiich  is 
bruised  upon  it ;  and  being  thus  exposed  to 
the  weather  fop  some  days,  it  is  then  tanned. 

The  b':st  is  of  a  brownish  colour,  as  the 
white  sort  is  the  wo^^t.  It  is  extremely  hard  ; 
yet,  when  steeped  in  water,  it  becomes  soft 
and  pliable;  and  being  fasliioned  into  case- 
covers,  it  readily  takes  any  colour,  as  red, 
green,  yellow,  black,  according  to  the  fancy 
of  the  workman. 

SI1.\KLES,  in  a  ship,  are  the  rings  with 
wliich  the  ports  are  shut  fast,  by  lashing  the 
port  bar  to  them.  There  are  also  shakles  put 
iiiion  bi!l')Ovv-bolts,  for  coiilining  the  men  who 
have  deserved  corporal  puiiishnient. 

SHAMBLES,  among  miners,  a  sort  of 
niches,  or  landing-jjlaces,  left  at  such  dis- 
tances in  the  adits  of  mines,  that  the  shovel- 
men  may  conveniently  throw  up  tiie  ore  from 
sliambie  to  shamble,  till  it  conies  to  the  top 
6f' he  mine. 

SFI.AMMY,  or  Chamois  xijather,  a 
kind  ot  1  ather  dressed  cither  in  oil  or  tanned, 
and  much  eitce.iied  for  its  soltness,  pliancy, 
and  bein^  capable  of  bearing  soap  without 
hurt. 

The  real  shammy  is  prepared  of  the  skin 
of  the  chamois-goat. 

Tlie  true  chamois  leather  is  counterfeited 
with  common  goat,  kid, and  even  sheep-skin; 
th:-  practice  of  which  makes  a  particular  pro- 
lessun,  c.-iUed  by  the  I'Velicii  chamoisere. 
The  last  is  the  least  esteemed,  yet  so  popular, 
and  such  vast  quantities  prepand,  especially 
about  Orleans,  Marseilles,  and  Tholouse, 
that  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  give  the  method 
of  preparation. 

The  iiiannerof  chamoising,  or  of  preparing 
sheep,  goat,  or  kid-skins  in  oil,  in  imitation 
of  chamoii: 

The  skins  being  washed,  drained,  and 
s  neared  over  with  (|uick-lime,  on  the  fleshy 
side,  are  folded  in  two,  lengthwise,  the  wool 
outwards,  and  laid  on  heajjs,  and  so  left  to 
ferment  eight  days  ;  or  if  tney  had  been  left 
to  dry  after  llaymg,  for  ht'leen  days. 

'1  hen  they  are  washed  out,  drained,  and 
h;ilfdr:ed,  laid  on  a  wooden  leg  or  horse, 
the  wool  stripped  )lf  with  a  round  stall' for  the 
|)iirpose,  and  laid  in  a  weak  pit,  the  lime 
whereof  had  been  used  before,  and  had  lost 
the  greatest  part  of  its  force. 

Alter  twentv-four  hours  they  are  taken 
out,  and  left  to  drain  twenty-four  more;  then 
put  into  another  strong  pit.  This  done, 'hey 
are  taken  out,  drained,  and  put  in  again  by 
turns;  which  begins  to  ilispose  them  to  take 
oil;  and  this  practice  they  continue  for  si.x 
weeks  in  summer,  or  three  months  in  winter; 
at  the  end  whereof  they  are  washed  out,  laid 
on  the  wooden  leg,  and  the  surface  ot  tlii- 
skin  on  the  wool  side  peeled  otV,  to  render 
thera  the  softer;  then  made  into  parcels, 
steeped  a  night  in  the  river,  in  w  inter  more : 


i  H  A 


G5■^ 


slrclched  si.x  or  seven  over  one  another  on 
the  wooden  leg  ;  an<l  the  knife  p-jsscd  strong- 
ly on  the  lieshy  side,  to  take  t/X  any  thing 
superfluous,  and  render  the  skin  sinoolll.  • " 

I'lien  they  are  stretched  as  be  fore  in  the 
i^ver,  and  the  same  operation  f/peated  on 
the  wool  side;  then  thrown  into  a  tub  of 
water  with  bran  in  it,  which  is  brewed  anionij 
the  skins  till  the  greatest  part  sticks  to  tiiem; 
and  then  sei)ai-atcd  into  distinct  tubs,  till  they 
swell  and  rise  of  tlteinselves  above  the  »a'- 

tlM-. 

By  this  means,  the  remains  of  the  lime  arc 
cleared  out;  they  are  then  wrung  out,  liuiiff 
up  to  dry  on  ropes,  and  sent  to  the  mill,  witfl 
the  quantity  ot  oil  necessary  to  fill  ihcm: 
the  l)i.-st  oil'is  tifat  of  sto.-k-lish. 

Here  they  fli;e  lirst  throun  in  buiidle-j' 
into  the  rlv.  r  for  twelve  hours,  then  laid  in 
the  mill-trough,  and  fulled  without  oil  till 
they  are  v  ell  softe.ied;  then  oiled  with  tlic 
hand,  one  by  one,  and  th'is  formed  into  pai- 
cels  of  four  skins  each,  which  are  milli-d  -and 
dried  on  cords  a  second  time,  then  a  third; 
then  oiled  again  and  dried. 

This  process  is  re|K'ated  as  often  as  iieces-" 
sity  reipiires  ;  w'heii  done,  if  there  is  any 
moisture  remaining,  they  arod.iedin  astove,' 
and  ma<le  up  in  parcels  wrapped  up  ip  wool; 
after  some  time  they  are  opened  to  the  iiir, 
but  wraiiped  up  again  as  before,  till  such 
time  as  the  oil  seems  to  have  lost  all  its  force, 
which  it  ordinarily  dots  in  twenty-four 
hours. 

The  skins  are  then  returned  from  the  mill 
to  the  chamoiser  to  be  scoured ;  which  is' 
done  by  putting  them  into  a  lixivium  ofwood-'' 
ashes,  working  and  beating  them  in  it  with 
poles,  and  leaving  tiiem  to  steep  till  the  lye 
has  had  its  effect ;  then  wrung  out,  steeped 
in  another  lixivium,  wrung  again,  and  this  re- 
peatctl  till  all  the  greuse  and  oil  is  purged 
out.  They  are  then  half-dried,  and  passed 
over  a  sharp-edged  iron  instrument,  placed- 
perpendi(-ular  in  a  bl-ock,  which  opens, 
softens,  and  makes  them  gentle:  lastly,  they 
are  thorou-jhly  dried,  and  passed  over  the ' 
same  instrument  again,  which  linish.-s  tin- 
preparation,  and  leaves  them  in  form  of 
chamois. 

Kid  and  goat-kins  are  chamoised  in  the 
same  manner  as  those  of  i^heep,  exr-epting 
that  tiie  hair  is  taken  olf  without  the  use  of 
any  lime;  and  that  when  bioiiglit  from  the 
mil!  thi-y  under;.'0  a  particular  prepiration 
called  raaialling,  the  most  delicate  and  diifi- 
cult  of  all  the  others. 

It  consists  in  this,  that  as  soon  as  brought 
from  the  mdl  they  are  steeped  in  a  lit  lixivi- 
um; taken  out,  stretched  on  a  round  wooden 
leg,  and  the  hair  scraped  off  with  theknife  ; 
this  iiiakes  them  sm'ooth,  and  in  workiifg  cast ' 
a  fine  nap.  The-  tlitiiculty  is  ■  in  scraping  . 
them  evenlv;       ■         '  .■  ■     ■ 

S!l  INKER,  or^CHANCKfi,:  S6e  Me- 
dicine. 

SlIARP,1n  music,  a  ichaTattef,  thS  power  ' 
of  which  is  to  raise  the  note  before  w-hicii  it  is 
placed  half  a  tone  higher  than  it-would   be  ' 
without  such  a  preposition.  ~ 

SHARPING-CORN;  a  c-astont^ry  gift  of 
corn,  said  to  be  half  a  bushel  for  a  pfough- 
land,  which  the  farmers  pay  in  some  parts  of  • 
England  to  their  Smith,  every  Christinas,  for 
sharpina  their  plough-irons,  harrow-tines.  &c. 

SHAWIA,  a  geiuis  ot  the  cla<3  and  order 
syngenesia  polygamia  segreg-ata.  -  The  calvx  ' 


654: 


S  H  E 


is  intricate,  with  live  or  six  seeds,  tliree  in- 
tiTior  larger;  corolla  five-cleft;  seed  one, 
oblong.  I'liere  is  one  species  of  New  Zea- 
land. "^ 

SIIKATHINO,  in  tlie  sea  language,  is 
llie  ca-,i!i;;  lli.it  part  of  a  shij)  which  is  to  be 
under  wal-jr,  with  lir-board  of  an  inch  tiiick  ; 
first  laving  hair  ar.d  tar,  mixedlogether,  under 
tile  bjards,  and  then  nailing  llieni  on,  in 
order  to  pre\enl  worms  from  eating  tlie  ship's 
bottom. 

SHEAT3,  in  a  ship,  are  iopes  bent  to  the 
-clews  of  the  sails;  serving,  in  the  lower  sails, 
to  haul  ail  the  clews  of  the  sail  ;  but,  m  top 
sails,  tliev  serve  to  haul  home  the  clew  of 
■the  sail  cl'o^e  to  the  yard-arm. 

SHEEP.     See  Ovis. 

Sheep.  Aiiv  person  who  shall  feloniously 
drive  awav,  or  febniouslv  steal,  any  sheep  or 
lamb  ;  or  wilfullv  kill  any  slieep  or  lamb,  with 
a  felonioii5  inteiil  to  steal  tlie  carcase  or  any 
part  thereof;  or  assist  or  aid  in  committing 
aiiv  of  the  said  otiences ;  shall  be  guilty  of  fe- 
lony without  benefit  of  clergy.     14  Geo.  II. 

c-  <>•  ,      ,       , 

Any  person  who  shall  apprehend  and  pro- 
secute to  conviction  any  such  offender,  shall 
Jiave  a  rew.ird  of  10/.  for  which  purpose  he 
shall  have  a  certificate  signed  by  the  judge, 
before  the  end  of  the  assizes,  certifying  such 
conviction,  and  where  the  offence  was  com- 
mitted, and  tliat  the  olTender  was  appre- 
hended and  prosecuted  by  the  person  claim- 
ing the  reward  ;  and  if  more  than  one  claim 
it.'lie  shall  liirrein  appoint  what  siiare  sliall 
be  paid  to  each  claimant.  And  on  tendering 
such  certilicate  to  the  sheriif.  he  shall  paj 
■tlie  s.iine  within  a  mnnil!,  w  ithout  deduction, 
■or  forfeit  double,  with  treble  costs;  to  be 
allowed  in  his  accounts,  or  be  repaid  him  out 
of  the  treasury. 

And  anv  person  who  sl-.dl  in  the  night 
■time,  maliciously  and  willfully  maim,  wound, 
or  otherwise  hurt  any  slieep,  whereby  the 
•same  is  not  killed,  shall  forfeit  to  tlic  party 
grieved  treble  damages,  by  action  of  trespass, 
or  on  the  case. 

And  by  2S  Geo.  III.  c.  38,  every  person 
■^vlio  shall  export  any  live  sheep  or  lambs, 
shall  forfeit  3t.  for  every  sheep  or  lamb,  and 
shall  also  sullcr  solitary  iniprisonmi-nt  for 
throe  months,  without  bail,  and  until  the  for- 
feiture is  paid ;  but  not  to  exceed  twelve 
iiijiiths  for  siich  non-payment;  and  for  every 
Gubsequent  offence  5/.  a  piece,  and  imprison- 
ju-.'nt  for  six  months,  and  untB  the  tiirfeiturc 
i-,  paid ;  but  not  to  exceed  two  vears  for  the 
non-payment  thereof.  And  all  -.hips  and 
vessels  employed  therein  shall  be  forfeited. 

SHEERIN'G,  or  Shearint.,  in  woollen 
manufacture,  is  the  cutthig  off  with  large 
slieci-s  the  too  long  nap,  in  order  to  make  the 
cToth  more  smoothi  and  even.  Sec  the  ar- 
ticle Cloth. 

Sheering,  in  the  sea  laiip^uace.  When  a 
ship  is  not  steered  steadily,  they  say  she 
sheers,  or  goes  sheering ;  or,  when  at  anchor, 
she  goes  in  and  out  by  means  of  the  current 
of  the  tide,  they  also  say  she  sheers. 

SHEERS,  in  a  ship,  are  two  masts  set 
aciT>ss  at  the  upper  eti<l  of  each  other ;  a  con- 
trivance generally  used  for  setting  or  taking 
oui  the  masts  of  a  ship,  where  there  is  no 
hulk  \  :>  do  that  office.    ■ 

SHEEEiEEDIA.  a  geous  of  plants  be- 
lon«^nS  l"  t''*^  '^'^''*  "f  pcntandria,  and  to  the 
order  of  nunogynia.    'Hie  corolla  is  bell- 


-shaped  ;  the  filaments  are  ten,  of  which  ercry 
second  is  barren;  the  capsule  consists  of  one 
cell,  \aiich  has  four  valves,  'i  here  is  only 
one  species,  the  repens,  of  N-wZealand. 

SHEKEL,  in  Jewish  antiquity,  an  antient 
coin,  worth  :;.■.  3irf,  sterling.    See  the  articie 

Coin.  ,        ,     ,  ^ 

Some  are  of  opinion  that  the  Jews  had  t\yo 
kinds  of  shekels,  viz.  the  common  one,  already 
taken  notice  of,  and  die  shekel  <>t  the  sanctu- 
ary ;  which  last  they  made  double  the 
former,  and  consequcnlly  etpial  to  ii.  oW. 
But  most  authors  make  them  the  same  ;  so 
that  the  shekel  of  the  sanctuary,  according  to 
them,  is  only  worth  2^.  3id. 

SHELE,  among  miners,  the  same  with 
what  they  otherwi^e  call  fast  ground,  or  fa.t 
country;  being  that  jiart  oi  the  internal 
structure  of  the  earth,  w  hich  they  liud  lying 
even  and  in  an  orderly  manner ;  and  evident- 
ly having  retained  its  primitive  form  and 
situation,  unmoved  by  the  waters  of  the  ge- 
neral deluge,  while  the  circumjacent  and 
upper  strata  have  plainly  been  removed  and 
tossed  about. 

SHELLS, chemically  examined,  are  found 
like  bones  to  consist  of  calcareous  salts  united 
to  a  soft  animal  matter;  but  in  them  the 
lime  is  united  cliietly  to  carbonic  acid,  where- 
as in  bones  it  is  united  to  phosphoric  acid. 
In  shells,  the  predominating  ingredient  is 
caibonatof  lime;  but  in  bones  it  is  phosphat 
of  lime.  Mr.  Hatchett  h,is  divided  shells  into 
two  classes.  'I'he  lirst  are  ii>ually  of  com- 
pact texture,  resembling  porcelain,  and  have 
an  enamelled  surface,  otten  linely  variegated. 
These  are  denominated  porcelaneous  shells: 
to  this  class  belong  the  various  species  of 
vehita,  cvpraa,  &c.  The  second  class  con- 
sists of  shells  usually  covered  with  a  strong 
epidermis,  below  which  lies  the  shell  in 
layers,  and  composed  entirely  of  the  sub- 
stance well  knowni  by  tl-.e  name  of  mo'iier  of 
pearl.  Thev  have  been  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  mother  of  pe;ul  shells.  The  shell  of 
the  fresh-water  muscle,  the  heliotis  ins,  the 
turbo  olearius,  are  examples  of  such  shells. 
The  shells  of  the  fir>t  class  contain  a  very 
small  portion  of  soft  animal  matter:  those  of 
the  second  contain  a  very  large  proportion. 
Hence  the  dillereuce  of  their  component 
parts. 

Porcelaneous  shells,  when  exposed  to  a  red 
iieat,  crackle,  and  lose  the  colour  of  their  ena- 
malled. surface.  They  emit  no  smoke  nor 
smell ;  their  figure  continues  mwltered;  their 
colour  becomes  opaque  while,  tinged  par- 
tially with  pale  grey,  'i'i'.cy  dissolve  when 
fresh  with  efi'ervescence  in  acids  and  without 
leaving  any  residue ;  but  if  they  have  been 
luu  nt  there  remains  alw.-.ys  a  little  charcoal. 
Tlie  solution  is  transparent,  gives  no  precipi- 
tatirwilh  ammonia  or  ucetat  of  le;ul;  of  course 
it  contains  no  sensible  poiiion  of  phosphat  or 
sulphat  of  lime.  Caibonat  of  amnionui  llirows 
down  an  abundant  precijiitate  of  carboiiat  of 
lime.  Porcelaneous  shells,  then,  consist  of 
carbonat  of  lime  cemented  together  with  a 
small  portion  uf  animal  matter,  which  is 
soluble  ill  acids,  and  therefore  resembles 
gelatine. 

2.  Mother  of  pearl  shells  when  exposed  to 
a  red  heat,  crackle,  blacken,  and  emit  a 
strong  f'  tid  odour.  They  exfoliate,  and  be- 
come partly  dark  grey,  partly  a  fine  while. 
When  imnwrsed  in  acids  they  eflervesce  at 


S  II  1 

{ir=t  strongly ;  but  gradually  more  and  snort 
feebly,  tilt  at  last  the  emission  of  air-bubblet 
is  scarcely  perre|>tible.  The  acids  lake  up 
only  lime,  and  leave  a  number  ol  thi-ir  mem- 
branaceous substances  which  still  retain  the 
form  of  the  shell. 

The  genera  of  shells  are  extremely  nume- 
rous, aiid  the  species  under  many  of  thein 
are  also  very  much  so.  jlowever,  they  may 
be  divided  u.lo  three  series  or  orders ;  the 
first  com-prthendirig  all  shells  formed  only  of 
one  piece,  called  by  auliiors  simple  or  uni- 
valve shells ;  the  second,  all  tliose  shells 
composed  of  two  parts  or  valves,  -under  the 
name  of  bivalves ;  and  the  third,  all  shells 
composed  of  several  parts  or  valves,  under 
the  name  of  niultivalves. 

This  method  takes  in  all  the  shells  liitherta 
known;  the  land,  as  well  as  the  sea-shells, 
being  all  comprehended  under  one  or  other 
of  these  divisions;  indeed,  all  the  recent  land- 
siiells  are  univalves,  but  the  fossil  shells  be- 
long to  all  the  three  series. 

Shells,  fnssii,  those  found  buried  at 
great  depths  in  earth,  and  otten  immersed  in 
the  hardest  stones.  I'hese  fossil  shells,  as 
well  as  those  found  lying  on  the  sea-shore, 
make  an  excellent  manure,  especially  for 
cold  clayey  lands. 

Shells,  in  the  military  art.  See  Gun- 
nery. 

SHERAKDIA,  a  genus  of  tiie  monogynla 
order,  in  the  tetrandia  class  of  plants,  and  In 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  47tli 
order,  stellatw.  The  calyx  is  small,  quadri- 
denlate;  ti'e  corolla  monopetalous,  long,  and 
funnel-shaped.  The  two  seeds  are  naked, 
and  crowned  with  the  cah-x.  There  are 
three  species,  viz.  I,arvensis;  2,  muralis; 
3,  frviticosa. 

SHERIFF.  As  keeper  of  the  king's  peace, 
the  si^eriff  is  the  first  man  in  tiie  county,  and 
superior  in  rank  to  any  nobleman  therein, 
during  his  olfice.  He  may  apprehend  and 
commit  to  prison  all  persons  who  break  the 
peace,  or  attempt  to  break  it,  aud  may  bind 
any  one  in  a  recognizance  to  keep  the  king's 
peace.  He  may,  and  is  Ixiund  ex  ofiicio,  to 
pursue  and  take  all  traitors,  murderer^,  fe- 
lons, and  other  misJoers,  and  commit  them 
to  gaol  for  safe  custody.  He  is  also  to  de- 
fend his  county  against  any  of  the  king's 
enemies,  when  they  come  into  the  land  ;  and 
for  this  purpose,  as  well  as  for  keeping  the 
peace  and  pursuing  felons,  he  may  command 
all  the  people  of  nis  county  to  attend  him  ; 
which  is  called  the  posse  comilatus,  or  power 
of  the  county  ;  which  summons,  every  per- 
son above  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  under  the 
degree  of  a  peer,  is  bound  to  attend  upon 
warning,  on  pain  of  fine  and  iinprisoument. 
Yet  he  cannot  exercise  the  olfice  of  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  for  then  tliis  iiii  onveiiience 
would  arise,  that  he  should  command  himself 
to  execute  liis own  precepts.     1  Black.  343. 

The  sherilV  has  a  jurisdiction  both  in  cri- 
minal and  civil  cases ;  and  therefore  he  has 
two  courts:  lii<  torn  for  criminal  eases,  which 
is  the  king's  court;  the  other  is  his  county 
court,  for  civil  causes,  and  this  is  the  court  of 
the  sheriff  himself.     3  Salk.  322. 

When  the  new  shcrilV  is  appointed  and 
sworn,  he  ought  at  or  before  the  next  county 
vouil,  to  deliver  a  writ  of  discharge  to  the 
old  sherilT;  who  is  to  set  over  all  the  prisoners 
in  the  gaol,  severally  by  their  names,  (to- 
10 


jijio  throe  principal  part'.  I.  To  give  tlic  ! 
tliip  such  an  exterior  loriii  as  may  Ijc  niost 
suilablf  to  tlic  servico  tor  wliicii'sliL'  is  de- 
signed. 2.  'I'o  give  tlie  various  pieces  ot  a 
sliip  llieir  proper  lignre ;  to  assemble  and 
unite  tlieniinto  a  (irm  compact  frame,  so  that 
by  their  combination  and  disposition  they 
m'ay  lonn  a  solid  I'abric,  sufikient  to  answer 
all  'the  pnrposes  for  wliicli  it  is  intended. 
And,  3.  'Jo  provide  convenient  aecommo- 
<lations  for  the  oOicers  and  crew,  us  well  as 
fuilabie  apartnieiils  for  liie  cargo,  furniture, 
provisions,  artillery,  andanimunitioii. 

,  Tlie  exterior  fifrnre  of  a  ship  may  be  di- 
vided into  the  bottom  and  up])er  works.  'I'hc 
bottom,  orquii  k-work,  contains  what  is  term- 
ed tlie  lio'.d,  :nul  which  is  under  water  when 
the  ship  is  laden.  The  n])por  works,  called 
also  the  riead-vvork,  comprolund  that  part 
which  is  usually  above  the  water  when  the 
ship  is  laden.  The  lignre  of  the  bottom  is 
therefore  determined  by  the  qualities  which 
are  necessary  for  the  vessel,  and  conformaljlc 
to  the  service  for  which  she  is  projjosed. 

Tlie  limits  of  our  design  will  not  admit  of 
a  iTiinute  description  and  enumeration  of  all 
the  pieces  of  timber  which  enter  into  tlie 
construction  of  a  ship,  nor  of  a  particular 
description  of  their  assi'mblage  and  union,  or 
the  manner  in  which  they  reciprocally  con- 
tribute to  the  solidity  of  those  iloaling  cita- 
dels. 

h  is  usual  among  sliipwriglifs  to  delineate 
three  several  draughts.  1.  The  whole  leiiglh 
of  the  ship  is  represented  according  to  a  side 
view,  perpendicular  to  the  keel,  and  is 
termed  the  plane  of  elevation,  or  sheer 
draught.  Plate  II.  iig.  10,  II,  the  ship  is 
exhibited  according  to  an  end  view,  and 
stripped  of  her  planks,  so  as  to  present  the 
outlines  of  the  principal  timbers;  and  this  is 
properly  termed  the  plane  of  projection,  or 
the  vertical  plane  of  the  timbers  (tig.  12),  be- 
cause it  sliows  the  projection  of  tlieir  frames 
relatively  to  each  other.  3.  It  is  not  sufli- 
cient  to  have  the  vertical  curves  of  the  bottom 
in  dilferent  places,  for  a  distinct  idea  of  the 
horizontal  curves  is  also  equally  necessary 
and  useful  ;  this  is  obtairied  by  means  of 
water-lines,  traced  upon  what  is'  called  the 
horizontal  plane  (fig.  11).  In  this  draught 
the  curves  of  the  transoms,  called  the  round- 
aft,  are  also  marked,  and  sometimes  the 
breadth  and  thickness  of  tiie  timber 

r 


SHIl'-BUILDIiVG. 


The  plane  of  elevation  (fig.  10),  dete 
mines  the  length  and  depth  of  the  keel ;  the 
difference  of  the  draughts  of  water ;  the 
length  and  projection,  or  rake,  of  the  stem 
and  stern-post ;  the  position  of  the  midship- 
frame  upon  tiie  keel,  together  with  that  of  the 
principal  frames  afore  and  abaft ;  the  load- 
water  line ;  the  wales ;  the  dimensions  and 
situations  of  the  gun-ports;  the  projection  of 
the  rails  of  the  head  and  stern-gallery  ;  with 
the  stations  of  the  masts  and  channels. 

This  draught,  however,  conveys  no  idea  of 
the  vertical  curve  of  the  ribs  or  timbers  ;  for 
as  their  projection  will  be  only  represented 
in  a  plane  elevated  upon  llie  length  of  the 
keel,  they  will  appear  in  this  direction  no 
elherwise'than  as  straigiit  lines.  To  perceive 
these  curves  accurately,  they  must  be  re- 
garded in  another  point  of  view  ;  which  will 
represent  their  projection  upon  a  vertical 
plane,  supposed  to  cut -the  keel  at  right 
angles  in  the  place  where  the  ship  ii  broadest. 

Yot.  II. 


I'or,  .isa  I  ships  are  broadest  near  the  middle 
of  their  lengl/i  (liaii  towards  tlie  e.Ntremilies 
It  IS  evid,.„t  that  the  timbers  are  more  ex- 
tended m  proportion,  'i  he  most  capacious 
ot  lliese  represents  wiiat  is  called  Die  mid- 
ship rame;  and  upon  tlie  area  of  this  frame 
IS  delineated  the  projection  of  all  the  others. 

Thus  the  plane  of  projection  liniils  (he 
<h/  crent  breadths  of  a  ship  in  various  points 
of  her  length,  and  exhibits  the  outline  of  ih,- 
timlKMs  irspectivclv  to  each  other  as  tliev  are 
erected  uj.on  the  keel.  Accordingly,  this 
draught  ought  to  present  a  variety  oi' sections 
of  tne  ship  in  different  places  ofher  length 
and  always  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of 
the  water;  so  that  the  eve  oflhe  observer, 
when  placed  in  what  maV  be  properly  termed 
the  axis  of  the  ship,  may  perceive  tlie  several 
sections  at  one  glance;-  that  is  to  sav,  when 
boking  full  on  the  stem  from  before  tin-  ship 
he  shall  discover  the  fore-limbers;  and  when 
ooking  from  behind,  directly  to  the  stern, 
le  shah  perceive  the  form  of  the  after-lim- 
bers. 

To  form  a  just  idea  of  this  plane,  therefore 
we  ought  to  suppose  a  shij)  resting  upon  the 
stocks,  ill  the  same  position  as  when  afloat 
upon  the  water.  Thus  a  variety  of  black 
vertical  lines  may  be  drawn  at  equal  dis- 
tances upon  the  bottom,  which  is  white,  to 
form  (lilterent  outlines  of  the  ship  corres- 
ponding to  the  timbers  within.  It  is  to  be 
observed,  tliat  llie  fashion  of  the  inferior  tim- 
bers must  conform  to  the  figure  of  the  mid- 
ship frame,  which  is  placed  in  the  fullest  part 
of  the  snip;  and  as  the  planes  of  all  the 
other  timbers  diminish  in  a  certain  progres- 
sion as  they  approach  the  stem  and  sfern, 
they  are  properly  delineated  on  the  plane  of 
the  midship-trame,  which  also  n-prescnts  the 
depth  ot  the  keel  and  leiigth  of  the  midship- 
beain.  ' 

As  the  two  sides  of  a  ship  ouglit  to  be  ex- 
actly alike.  It  is  judged  sufficient  to  represent 
the  sections  of  llie  fore-part  of  the  sliip  on  the 
left  side,  and  those  in  the  after-part  on  the 
right  side  so  as  to  perceive  all  the  sections, 
as  well  afore  as  abaft,  upon  one  plane.  See 
tlie  Plate,  hg.  12. 

However  necessary  it  may  be  to  under- 
stand precisely  the  vertical  curves  of  the  bot- 
tom, it  IS  no  less  requisite  to  have  a  just  idea 
ot  those  which  are  horizontal. 

The  horizontal  or  floor-plane  is  that  upon 
which  the  w  hole  frame  is  erected,  and  will  be 
more  clearly  understood  by  previously  de- 
scribing the  water-lines  and'ribands  of  Which 
it  IS  composed. 

\yhen  a  ship  floats  upon  the  stream,  it  is 
evident  that  lier  upper  works  will  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  bottom  by  the  surface  of  the 
water,  which  will  accordimjly  describe  an 
imaginary  horizontal  line  upon  the  bottom 
from  the  stem  to  the  stern-post. 

The  most  elevated  of  those  lines  is  termed 
the  load  water-hne,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
di-awn  by  the  surface  of  the  water  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  bottom,  when  she  is  suffi- 
ciently laden   for  a  sea-vovage.     For  if  we 
suppose  this  surface  a  rule,'  and  tln-rebv  de- 
scribe a  corresponding  black  line  alonW  the 
vessel  s  bottom,  that  line  will  be  distin'^ufshed 
I  upon  the  bottom,  which  is  white,  and  reprc- 
I  sent  what  is  called  the  load  water-line. 
I      If  llie  ship  is  lightened  of  anv  part  of  her 
I  ladmg,  and  preserves  the  same  difference  in 
4  0 


65y 

jlicr  draught  of  water  at  tlie  two  ends)  or, 
what  is  the  same  thing,  if  she  is  lightened  so 
as  to  preserve  the  same  equilibi  ium  of  tlie 
keel  with  regard  to  the  surface  of  the  wafer. 
It  IS  evirlenl  that  she  will  rise  higher  out  of  the 
water,  so  tliat  the  black  line  already  describ- 
ed will  be  elevated  abofe  it ;  anti  another 
black  hue  may  lie  delineated  upon  the  bot- 
tom, close  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  which 
will  exhibit  a  second  water-line  jjarallel  to 
the  hist;  but  nearer  tlie  keel  in  proportion 
to  the  number  of  feet  which  the  sUip  has 
risen.  ' 

Thus  by  lightening  a  ship  gradually,  and 
at  the  same  time  preserving  the  direction  of 
her  keel,  or  the  angle  which  the  keel  makes 
with  the  surface  of  the  water,  a  variety  of 
wati-r-hnes  may  be  drawn  parallel  to  each 
other,  and  to  the  load  Water-line. 

The  ribands  are  likewise  of  great  utility  in 
shipbuilding  ;  they  are  narrow  and  flexible 
planks  placed  on  the  bottom  at  different 
lieights,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  mould  for 
statinmiig  the  inferior  timbers  between  the 
principal  ones.  I'hey  differ  from  the  water- 
lines,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  have  only  one 
curve,  which  is  horizontal  ;  wliereas  the 
ribands,  besides  their  lioriwutal  one,  have  a 
vertical  curve.  To  convey  a  just  id.-a  of 
these  curves,  which  cannot  be  represented  on 
one  draught  at  their  full  lengti,  witiio;:t  au 
oblique  section  of  the  .ship's  length,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  have  recourse  to  two  planes  ; 
that  of  the  elevation,  which  exhibits  their 
vertical  curve ;  and  to  the  floor-plane,  upon 
which  the  horizontal  curve  is  expressed. 

These  different  lines  are  extremely  useful 
in  exhibiting  the  various  curves  of  a  ship's 
bottom,  that,  as  they  are  gradually  dimi- 
nished, their  uniformity  or  irregulari'ty  may 
be  discovered  Ijy  the  skilful  artist. 

The  qualities  required  in  a  ship  ought  to 
determine  the  hgure  of  the  bottom.  A  ship 
of  w-ar,  therefore,  should  be  able  to  saU 
swiftly,  and  carry  her  lower  tier  of  guns  suf- 
ficiently out  of  the  water;  otherwise  a  small 
ship  will  have  the  advantage  of  a  large  one 
inasmuch  as  the  latter  cannot  open  licr  lower 
battery  in  a  fresh  side-wind  without  beino- 
exposed  to  extreme  danger  by  receiving  a 
great  quantity  of  water  in  at 'her  ports  be- 
tween decks.  A  merchant-ship  ought  to  con- 
tain a  large  cargo  of  merchant-goods,  and  be 
navigated  with  few  hands;  and  both  siiouUi 
be  able  to  carry  sail  lirmlv,  steer  well,  drive 
little  to  leeward,  and  sustain  the  shocks  of 
the  sea  without  being  violently  strained. 

The  tirst  thing   to  be  established   in  the 
draught  of  a  ship,   is  her  length  ;  and  as  a 
ship  ot   war,  according  to   heV  rale,  is  fur- 
nished with   a   cerlaui  number    of    cannon 
which  are  placed  in  battery  on  her  decks,  itis'. 
necessary  that  a  sufficient  distance  should  be* 
leit  between  their  ports  to  work  the  guns 
with  facility;  and  particularly  to  leave  space 
enough  between  the  foremo'st  guns  and  tlie 
stem,  and  between  the  aftmost  gun  and  tlie 
stern-post  on  each  side,  on  account  of  the 
arching  or  inward  curve  of  tlje  ship  fowartl. 
her  extremities. 

V/heu  the  length  of  a  ship  is  determined 
it  IS  usual  to  fix  her  breadth  bv  the  dhnen- 
sions  of  ffle  mid>hip-beam.  On  tliis  occa- 
sion the  shipwrights,  for  the  most  part  are 
conducted  by  rules  founded  on  their  owi,  ob- 
servation ;  for,  having  remarked,  that  some 
vessels,  wliich  by  repealed  experience  have 


been  found  to  nn^vvei'  all  the  ptirjioses  of  iin-  | 
vig.uioii,  liavi>  a  cerlaiii  bioatiili  in  piDpor- 
tioii  to  their  iL-ii^th,  tliey  Imve  infi-neii  tlutt  ii 
\vo;ikl  b?  in)proper  t)  <lci)an  fioin  this  pro-  i 
portion  ;  but  a;  o'.lier  ships  iuive  lieen  con- 
striictea  with  clill'erent  breacUhs,  which  were  j 
^cniiiilv  perfect,  a  variety  of  durercnt  genera!  ! 
lii'e^  I'uue  been  a'loi)te(l  by  thes;-  artists,  vho  j 
are  aocorciinglv  iliViiU-d  "in  tlieir  opiinons  | 
about  the  l)rea;illi  which  oiight  to  be  assi;;ne(l  j 
to  a  sliip  rs-Iatively  with  iier  length,  whilst  \ 
jeachone  proUices  i\-asons  and  experience  in 
support  of  Ins  own  standard.  Tliose  who 
would  diminish  the  breadth,  allege :  1 .  'I'hat 
a  narrow  vessel  meets  witli  less  resistance  in 
passing  tliron^h  the  water.  2dly.  'I'hat  by 
ilicreasing  the"^  lenitli  she  wiil  drive  less  to 
Jeeward.  3.llv.  'I'hat  according  to  this  ]irin- 
ciple,  the  water-lines  will  be  more  conve- 
jiiently  formed  to  divide  the  liuid.  4tiily. 
Tliat  a  Ions;  and  narrow  ship  will  require  less 
■sail  to  adva'nce  quickly  ;  tliat  her  masts  will 
be  lower,  and  her  riggin  j  lighter  ;  and,  by 
«.-onse(]'.ience,  the  seamen  less  fatigned  with 
inunaamg  the  sail-,  <\-c.  'J'liose,  on  tlie  con- 
trary," who  would  enlarge  the  breadth,  pre- 
ienrl,  Ut.  'Jliat  thi-.  fonii  is  better  fitted  to 
preserve  a  good  batt.Ty  of  guns.  2ndly.  That 
Jhcre  will  be  more  room  to  work  the  guns 
jconvenienlly.  3rdly.  'J  hat  by  carrying  more 
sail,  the  ship  will  be  enabled  to  run  faster; 
or,  that  this  quality  will  at  least  overbalance- 
the  advantage  wlii'di  the  otht-rs  have  of  niore 
easily  dividing  the  lluid.  4i.hly.  That  being 
l>roader  at  the  load  water-line,  or  i)lace 
where  the  surface  of  the  water  describes  a 
•line  round  Ini^  bottom,  thry  will  admit  of 
being  verv  narrow  on  liie  iloor,  particuLuly 
towards  the  estremilies.  And,  5thly.  That 
a  broad  vessel  will  more  readily  rise  upon 
the  waves  than  a  narrow  one.  From  such 
opposite  principles  has  resulted  c'lat  variety 
.i)f  standards  adopted  by  dill'erent  ih\\>- 
Hriglus. 


It  haslioen  remarked  above,  that  a  ship  of 
•war  must  carrv  her  lower  tier  of  cannon  high 


im  f 
hig 

rnongli  above  the  wa.!ej',  otlienvisc  a  great 
^llip  which  cannot  open  lier  lower  batlejy, 
when  sailing  with  a  fre^h  side-wind,  may  be 
taken  by  a  small  one  that  can  make  use  of 
^er  cannon. 

A  ship  should  be  duly  poi-ed,  so  as  not  to 
<]ive  or  pitch  heavily,  but  go  smooth  and 
iMsy  through  t!ie  witler,  rising  to  the  waves 
when  they  run  high,  ancl  the  ship  has  re- 
/i'lccd  her  sail  to  the  storm ;  otherwise  thev 
«■:!•  break  abo;ird,  and  strain  the  decks  or 
t'arrv  away  the  boats:  -the  masts  are  likewise 
jii^reat  danger  from  the  same  cause. 

A  siiip  should  sail  well  when  lar"e  and  be- 
fore the  wind,   but  ehietjy  close  liauled,  or 
■  with  aside-wind,  and  bar  sails  sharpl  rimmed, 
and  then  not  fall  oil'  to  the  leeward. 

Now,  the  great  dillicilty  lies  in  imiling  so 
many  dillerent  (pudilies  iii  oce  ship,  which 
seems  to  be  nearly  impossible ;  the  whole 
art,  therefore,  consists  in  lorming  the  body 
in  such  a  manner  that  none  of  these  (pialities 
-.liould  be  entirely  <|i-<troyed,  and  in  pivin;^  a 
preference  t()  tlj«t  which  is  chielly  required  in 
ilie  pirticular  service  lor  which  the  vessel  is 
de.igned.  We  shall  hriell.y  sljuw  tin;  po>- 
«ibilily  of  uniting  tbein  all  In  one  ship,  that 
ca<h  of  them  may  be  easily  discerned  ;  when 
it  happens  otherwise,  the  (ault  must  lie  in  the 
Ijuilder,  who  liui  uol  appliet) .liiiQself  tu  study 


snip-Buir.DrKG. 

the  fundamental  rules  and  principlff!  of  lils 
art. 

To  ria'ce  ii  ship  airr;/  a  gnnd  mil.  A  flat 
f1)or-timber,  and  somewhat  l-iig,  or  the  luwer 
futtock  pretty  round,  a  straight  ui)perful- 
tock,  the  top-timber  to  throw  the  breaillh 
out  aloft;  at  any  rate,  to  carrv  her  main 
breadth  as  high  as  the  lower  deck.  Now,  il 
the  ringing  is  weil  adapted  to  such  a  body, 
and  liie  upper  works  lightened  as  much  as 
|)os  ibie,  so  that  thev  all  concui  to  Umer  the 
centre  of  gravity,  there  will  be  no  room  to 
doubt  of  her  carrying  a  gooil  sail. 

7')  make  a  ship  steer  icclt,  arid  «nv;ic)' 
the  hf'in  (juiclil;/.  If  the  fashion-pieces  are 
well  tbrmerl,  the  tuck,  or  spreatling  parts 
under  the  stern,  carried  pretty  high,  the  mid- 
ship Irame  well  forward,  a  considerable  dif- 
lerence  in  tlx?  draught  of  water  abaft  more 
than  afore,  a  great  rake  forward  and  none 
abai'l,  a  snug  ipun'ter-deck  and  fore-castle  ;  all 
these  will  make  a  ship  steer  well.  A  ship 
which  sails  well  will  certainly  steer  well. 

To  niake  ii  ship  airri/  h^rguiisiveli  out  cf 
the  xviiter.  A  long  floor-timber,  and  iiot,of 
great  rising ;  a  very  full  midihip-frame, 
and  low  luck,  with  light  upper  works. 

To  7).Hike  (I  ship  go  smoolhl-/  thrniiB.h  the 
v:utey  I'-ilhiut  piichinii  Imrd.  A  long  keel, 
a  long  floor,  not  to  rise  loo  high  afore  and 
abaft ;  but  the  area  or  space  continu^'d  in  the 
fore-bodv,  according  totherespecti\eweights 
they  are  to  carry  ;  all  these  are  necessary  to 
make  a  shij)  go  smoothly  through  the  water. 

To  m-akc  a  sh'p  keep  a  gnnd  Ziiiid,  ttnd 
drive  Utile  tn  the  ieetvard.  A  good  length 
bv  the  keel;  not  too  broad,  but  prettv  deep 
ill  Ihe  hold,  which  will  occasion  her  to  have  a 
-liort  Hour-timber,  and  a  great  rising.  As 
I  such  a  ship  will  meet  with  great  resistance  in 
the  water  going  over  the  brujidside,  and  little 
when  going  aliead,  she  will  not  fall  much  to 
the  leeward. 

Is'o'.v,  some  builders  imagine  it  is  impos- 
sibW  to  make  a  ship  carry  her  guns  well, 
bear  a  good  sail,  and  be  a  prime  sailer,  be- 
cause it  w'ljuld  require  a  very  full  bottom  to 
gain  the  first  two  qualities,  whereas  a  sharp 
ship  will  answer  belter  for  the  latter ;  but 
wli'ii  il  is  considered  that  a  full  ship  will 
carrv  a  great  deal  more  sail  Ihan  a  sharp  one, 
a  nood  ariisi  may  =oform  the  body  as  to  have 
all  these  three  good  (lualities.  aiul  also  steer 
well. 

Without  attempting  to  describe  the  pieces 
of  which  a  shij)  is  composed,  and  to  ex|)!ain 
the  principal  draughts  used  in  the  construc- 
tion thereof,  we  observe  thai  in  vessels  of 
war,  the  general  dimensions  are  establislieil 
by  authority  of  ollicers  appointed  by  th."  go- 
vernment to  superintend  the  building  of  ships. 
In  the  miM'cliant-servicc,  Iheextreme  breadth, 
length  of  the  keel,  depth  in  the  hokl,  heijiht 
between  decks  and  in  the  waist,  are  agreeil 
on  by  contract ;  and  from  these  dimensions 
the  shipwright  is  to  fi)rm  a  draught  suitable 
lo  llie  tra<le  tor  which  the  ship  is  designed. 

In  (jrojecting  the  draught  of  a  vessel  of 
war,  the  lirst  artick;  lo  be  considered  is  her 
length.  As  all  ships  are  much  longer  above 
than  be!i)w,  il  is  also  iiecessarv  lo  distinguish 
ilie  precise  part  of  lier  height  from  which  her 
length  is  taken:  this  is  usually  the  lower 
gun-deck,  or  the  load  water-line.  It  has 
been  alivady  observeil,  thitt  water-lines  axe 


deioilbed  longUudinally  on  a  ship's  boKoiii 
by  the  surface  of  the  water  in  which  she 
lloals,  and  that  Ihe  line  vsliich  determines  her 
deplh  under  the  water,  is  usuallv  termed  Ihe 
load  water-line.  In  this  vlraugdl  il  will  be 
particularly  neces«ai-y  to  leave  buliicienl  dis- 
lani  e  between  the  ports. 

The  next  object  is  to  establish  the  breadth 
by  tlie  midship-beam.  Althoimh  there  is 
great  dilference  of  opinion  ahoul  |MO|>ort'on- 
ing  the  lin-adlh  to  the  length,  vel  il  is  most 
usual  to  conform  lo  the  dimensajiis  of  ships 
of  the  same  rate.  After  Ihe  dimensions  of 
the  breaiUh  and  ienglli  are  determined,  Ihe 
dcp'h  of  the  hold  must  be  fixed,  which  is  ge- 
nerally half  the  breadth;  but  tlie  foi  in  of  the 
body  should  be  considered  on  this  occasion  ; 
fur  a  flat  floor  will  require  less  depth  in  the 
hold  than  a  sharp  oiii".  The  distance  between 
the  decks  must  also  be  settled. 

We  may  then  proceed  to  lix  the  length  of 
the  keel,  "by  «hich  vve  shall  be  enabled  to 
judge  of  the  rake  of  the  stem  and  stern-post. 
Ihe  rake  i-  known  lo  be  the  proje<:tion  of  tiie  ■ 
ship  at  the  height  of  the  stem  and  stern-po^t 
bc;\ond  the  ends  of  the  keel  afore  and  abaft, 
or  ihe  angle  by  which  tin.-  length  is  increased 
as  the  tabric  rises.  To  these  we  nsay  also 
addllie  heiglil  of  the  stem  and  wing-transom. 

After  tliese  dimensions  are  settled,  the  tim- 
bers may  be  considered  which  form  the  sides 
of  tlie  ship.  A  frame  of  timbers,  which  ap- 
pears Id  be  one  continued  piece,  is  composed 
of  one  floor-timber,  whose  arms  branch  out- 
ward lo  both  sides  of  the  ship  ;  two  or  three 
futtcH  ks,  and  a  top-timber.  The  futtoc  Ls 
are  connected  to  the  upper  arms  of  the  llooi- 
tinibers  on  each  side  ot  the  ship,  and  serve  to 
jirolong  the  timber  in  a  vertical  direction; 
and  the  top-timbers  are  placed  at  Ihe  upper 
part  of  the  futtocks  for  tlie  same  purpose ; 
all  these  being  united,  and  secured  by  cross- 
bars, or  a  circular  inclosure,  which  is  called 
a  frame  of  limbers.  And  as  a  ship  is  much 
broader  at  the  muldle  than  at  the  extivmilies, 
the  arms  of  the  floor  timber  will  form  a  verv 
obtuse  angle  at  the  extreme  breadth;  but 
this  angle  decreases  in  proportion  to  the  dis- 
tance of  the  timbers  from  the  midship-frame, 
so  that  the  foremost  and  aflmost  ones  will 
form  a  very  acute  angle.  Tloor-timbers  of 
Ihe  latter  sort  are  ustially  called  crutches. 

Shipwrighls  dili'er  extreinelv  in  determhi- 
iiig  the  station  of  the  midshi|)-tranie;  some 
pl.icing  it  at  the  middle  of  the  ship's  length, 
others  t'urther  forward.  They  who  pl;ice  jt 
before  the  middle  allege,  that  if  a  ship  is  full 
forwards,  she  will  meet  with  no  resistance 
afUr  she  has  opened  a  column  of  water;  ancl 
that  the  water  so  displaced  will  easih  imitii 
abaft,  and  by  that  means  force  the  sliip  for- 
ward ;  besiiles  having  more  power  on  the 
rudder,  in  |>roportion  lo  its  distance  from 
the  (intre  of  gravity;  this  als;;  comes  nearer 
the  form  of  Jishes,  which  should  seem  the 
most  adv.mtageo'is  for  dividing  tiie  tluid. 

When  the  rising  of  the  midship  lloor-timber 
is  decided,  we  may  then  proceed  to  describe 
the  rising-line  of  the  lloor,  on  the  stern-post 
abaft,  aiiU  on  the  ttem  aftirc. 

The  height  of  tin-  lower-deck  is  the  next 
tiling  to  be  considered :  it  is  flelermined  in 
fhe  mirldle  by  the  dep,th  of  the  hold  ;  and 
some  builders  make  it  no  higher  than  th« 
stem  ;  but  they  raise  it  abaft  as  much  above 
its  height  in  tiie  middle  as  the  load  water- 


mark,  or  ilr.iuglit  ol'v.-atcr  abaft,  ''xoor^ls  lint 
alijic.  Willi  rL'naril  lo  llic  lici^lil  bet«i'i'ii 
(li'cks,  it  is  altt>;;L'lh<;r  arl/itraiy,  aiul  must  l>e 
(Jelenniued  by  ihc  rate  of  the  sl)i[)  aiui  tlie 
service  siie  is  di.'bi^iu'd  for. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  reiiieinljer  tlie  sheer 
of  the  wales,  and  lo  give  thein  a  piojiiT  hang- 
ing ;  beciiise  the  beauty  and  slatel.ness  of  a 
ship  greatly  depend  upon  their  lignre  and 
curve,  whieh,  it  properly  drawn,  «iii  make 
her  appear  airy  and  graci-fiil  ym  the  water. 

We  come  now  to  consider  the  upper  works, 
and  all  thai  Is  above  water,  ealled  the  dearl- 
work  ;  and  here  the  ship  must  be  narrower, 
so  that  all  the  weight  lying  above  ihe  load 
water-line,  will  Ijicrebv  be  brought  nearer 
the  middle  of  the  breadth,  and  of  eoiir^e  the 
ship  will  be  less  strained  by  the  working  of 
liei  !fiin>i,  &c. 

!?Mt  although  some  advantage-;  are  acqiiireil 
by  diminisliing  the  breadth,  aljuve  water,  we 
liinst  be  carefnl  not  to  narrow  her  loo  nuicli  ; 
a-i  there  niu4  be  s  iflicieiit  room  lelt  on  the 
upper  deck  for  the  guns  to  recoil.  The  se- 
curilv  ot  the  ma^ts  should  likewise  be  re- 
ineiiihered,  which  requires  sullieient  bre'adtli 
to  spread  tie,'  slirouds.  A  delicienev  of  tlii> 
sort  may  indeed  be  in  some  nieasuie  supplied 
by  enlarging  the  breadth  of  the  channels. 

We  come  to  explain  the  sheer-draught,  or 
plane  of  elevation,  of  a  sixly-gun  ship. 

A.'\,  (ig.  10.  is  the  keel,  whose  upper  edge 
is  prolonged  by  the  dolled  line  /)  q,  u[)on  the 
eMremities  of  which  are  erected  ]k  rpendicii- 
lars  which  del  ■rinine  the  height  nf  i!ie  wiag- 
transom   K,   and  the   length  of  the  gun  deck 
KC.     /VIj,    ihe  stern-post.     .VC,  the  stem. 
DD,  the  quarter-gallery   with   i!s  windows. 
EF.  the  quarler-piece-,  which  limit  the  slern 
on  each  side.     F,  the  taltarel,  or  iipjier  piece 
of  the  stern.     FG,  prolile  of  the  stern,  with 
its  galleries.     H,  the  gun-ports.     I,  the  chan- 
nels, with   their  dead-eyes  and  chain-plates. 
K,   the  wing-transom.      KG,    the  counter. 
LR,  the  deck-transom.     M  NO,  the  lirsf.  se- 
cond, r.nd  third  transoms,  of  which  O  k  h  llie 
third  or  lowest.     ;«<)F,P,  the  direclion  of  the 
fashion-piece,  having  its  bre-adth   canted  aft 
towards   the  stern.     <ii\.  the   main  skei-ds, 
for  hoisting  in  the  boats  clear  of  the  ship's 
side.     L(iZ,  the  main  wah,  v\ith  its  sheer 
afore  and  abaft.     IMtX,  the  channel-wales, 
parallel  to   the   main-wale.     SIS.  the  sheer 
rail  par.dlel  to  the  wales.     T  /,  the   rudder. 
A  t  F,  the  rake  of  the  stern.      \VVV,   the 
waist  rail.     P  i  i,  the  clrift  rails  abai"t ;  and  ia, 
the  drift  rails  forwaril.     TUC,   the   water- 
line.     X\,  the  rails  of  the  head.     Y,  the 
knee   ol  the  head,  or  cutwater.      ZZ,  the 
cheeks  of  the  head,  an,  the  cathead.  .VI0C, 
The  rising  line  of  the  floor,     k  u  C,  the  rut- 
ting down  line,  which  limits   the  thickness  of 
all  the  lloor-tiinbcrs,  and  likewise  the  height 
of  the  dead  wood    albre   and   abaft.     ©   )t 
I'W,  the  midship-lVame.  (i,h,c,  d,  c,f,!;,  Ii, 
ilie  frames  or  timbers  in  the  fore  body  of  the 
■-hip,  tl'.at  is,  before  the   miihhip-frame.       I, 
■.-■,  3,  4,  .5,  ti,  7,  -N,  (),  the  timbers  in  the  afier- 
be.ly,  or  wliich  irc  erected  abaft  the  inidship- 
frame. 

As  tlie  eye  of  a  spectator  is  supposed  in 
this   projection  to  view  the  ship's  side  in  a 

.line  perpendicular  to  the  plane  ofjelevation, 
it  is  evident  th.it  theconvexity  will  vanish.like 

'■  that  of  a  cylinder  or  globe,  when  viewed  at 


SIIIi'-BUILDING. 

!  a  great  distance  ;  and  that  Ihe  frames  will 
consequently  be  repreM-nted  by  straight  lines, 
except  the  fashion-piece  abalt  and  th<- 
knnckle-tiinber  forward. 

It  has  been  already  observed,  that  the 
|)laiie  of  proj<ction  may  be  delincd  a  vertical 
delineation  ol  the  curves  of  the  thnbers  upon 
Ihe  plane  of  the  midship-frame,  which  h  per- 
pendicular lo  that  of  Die  elevation.  It  is  ne- 
cessary to  observe  here,  that  the  various  me- 
thods by  which  these  curves  are  described, 
are  equally  mechanical  and  arbitrary.  In 
the  lauer  sense,  they  are  calculated  to  make 
a  ship  fuller  or  narrower,  according  to  the 
service  for  which  she  is  designed  ;  and  in  the 
former  they  are  drawn  according  to  those 
rules  wliich  the  artist  has  been  implicitly 
tatight  t(>  Icdiow,  or  which  his  fancv  or  judg'- 
ment  has  esteemed  the  most  accurate  and 
convenii-nt.  'I'hey  are  generallv  composed 
ot  several  arches  of  a  circle,  reconciled  to- 
gelher  by  moulds  framed  for  ihat  purpose. 
I'hi-  radii  of  lliose  arches,  therefore,  are  of 
dilferenl  lengths  according  to  the  breadth  of 
the  ship  in  tlie  |)lace  where  such  arches  are 
swept  ;  and  they  are  expressed  on  the  plane 
ot  projection  chher  by  ho  izontal  or  perpen- 
ilicnlar  lines;  the  radif  of  tiie  breadth-sweeps 
beini!:  always  in  the  former,  and  the  radii  of 
ihe  lloor-sweeps  in  the  latter  direction.  These 
two  arche:,  are  joined  by  a  third,  which  coin- 
cides with  both  without  intersecting  either. 
The  curve  of  the  top-timber  is  either  formed 
by  a  mould  w  liich  corresponds  to  the  arch 
of  the  br.a.llh-sweep,  or  by  another  sweep 
whose  centre  and  radius  are  without  the 
plane  of  projection.  The  breadth  of  the  shio 
at  every  to|)-timbcr,  is  limiled  by  a  horizontal 
line  drawn  on  the  tioor-plane,  called  the  half- 
breadth  of  the  top  timbers.  The  extreme 
breadth  is  also  determined  by  another  hori- 
zontal line  on  the  tloor-plane';  and  the  lines 
of  half-breadth  are  thus  muluallv  trajisferable 
from  the  projection  and  lloor-pfanes  to  each 
otiier. 

'I'lve  necessary  data  by  which  the  curves 
of  the  timbers  are  delin'eated,  tlieii,  are  the 
p-erpeiiilicular  height  from  the  keel  ;  tiieinain 
or  principal  brearllh;  and  the  top  breadth  ; 
tor  as  a  shi|)  is  much  broader  near  the  middle 
of  her  length  than  towards  th-  i:m\,  so  she  is 
broader  in  the  middle  of  her  height  than 
above  and  below  ;  and  this  latter  dilieivnce 
ot  breadth  is  coiUiiuied  throughout  every 
point  of  her  length.  'I'lie  maiii  bn-adth  of 
each  frame  of  timbers  is  therefore  the  ship's 
breadth  nearly  in  the  middle  of  her  height  in 
that  part,  and  the  top-timbe.-  breadth  is  the 
line  of  her  breadth  iM-ar  the  upix-r  enrls  of 
each  timber.  It  h;,s  been  alreaflv  observed-, 
that  as  both  sides  of  a  ship  are  alike,  the  ar- 
tificers only  draw  one  side,  from  which  both 
sides  of  tiie  slup  are  built:  therefore  the  tim- 
bers abaft  Ihf  midsliip-frame  are  exhibited  on 
one  side  of  the  plane  of  projeciion,  and  the 
timbers  before  it  on  the  other. 

Plane  ofprnjection. 

Fi;:;.  12.    A,  the  keel.     RC,  the  line  which 

keel,  from 


expresses  the  upper  edge  of  tin 
wlncli  the  height  of  each  timber  an, 1  height 
ol  its  dill'erent  breadths  are  measured,  lib, 
and  C'F,  perpendiculars  iv.'sed  on  the  line 
DC.  to  limit  the  ship's  extreme  breadth  an.  1 
height  aniiil-ships ;  or,  in  other  words,  to 
limit  the  breadth  and  height  of  the  midship- 
40  i 


fiainc.  Al',  a  perpenilicnlar  erected  from 
the  inichlle  of  llie  keel  to  bisect  the  line- of 
lh('^hip's  breadth  in  two  eipial  parts.  (■' y, 
the  hall-breadth  line  ol  the  allmost  to))-lim- 
ber  ;  being  the  uppermost  horizontal  line  in 
this  ligure. 

Note.  Tlie  seven  lines  parallel  to  and  im- 
im-diafely  undir  this,  on  the  right  side  of  liio 
line  AF,  are  all  top-tunber  li,d(-breadlhs,  abaft 
the  niidship-lrame  ;  li.e  lowest  of  wliich  coin- 
cides wilh  thehoiizoi.tal  iiiie  DIv. 

The  parallel  horizontal  lines  nearly  opp'>- 
site  to  lhe^e,  on  Ihe  left  sid.-  of  the  line  AK, 
repre-ent  the  top-timber  hail-hreailtlis  in  the 
fore  body,  or  the  halt-breadths  of  the  top- 
tinibers  before  the  midsh;p-fraine. 

^,  II,  I,  Q,  K,  S,  T,  the  radii  of  ths 
breadth-sweeps  abaft  the  niidship-fraiiie  ; 
those  of  the  breadth  sweeps  in  the  fore-b.idy, 
or  belbre  the  midship-frame,  are  directly  oj;- 
positc  on  the  right  side. 

©,  A, show  tiie  mid>hip-frairie,from  Hie  p\- 
treme  breadth  dowiiwarils. 

1,2,.3,  4,  5,fi,  7,  8,!),  the  outlines  of  thi^ 
timbers  abait  the  midship-frame,  In  dilifcr- 
eiit  parts  of  the  height :  a,  h,  r,  d,  t,/,  i{,  li^ 
the  outlines  of  the  timbers  before  theiiiid- 
ship-frame,  in  diiferenl  parts  of  their  lu-iglit, 
/i  being  the  foremost  or  knuckle-timlKT.  K  i, 
the  wiiig-transoin,  who^e  eniU  re^^t  upon  tht? 
fashion-piece.  L,  the  deck-tran.om,  parallel 
to  and  under  the  v.ing-transom.  .MNO,  the 
lower  transoms,  of  which  ()  k  U  tlie  tiiir<{ 
and  lowest,  m  k  P,  tin;  dotted  line,  whiet» 
expresses  the  hsure  of  the  fashirM\-pjt-c« 
without  being  canted  a:t.  V,  the  upper  part, 
or  top-limber  of  the  fashion-piece,  n,  o,  p,  q. 
r,  »,  the  radii  of  the  tloor--;ttei-ps,  alsaft  the 
midship-frame;  those  before  tiie  midship- 
frame  are  on  the  opposite  side  of  thv  luie  AF, 
to  which  thev  are  all  ]Mr.iilet. 

1st  UJ,  ad'Rrf.Jd  lU.  4th  UJ,  the  diagonal 
ribands  abalt  the  midship:  t,  u,  j,  j/, 'hs 
same  ribands  expressed  in  the  f()re-body. 

It  has  been  remarked  above,  that  the  ho- 
rizontal plane  is  composed  of  water-lines  and. 
ribands  ;  it  also  contains  the  main  and  top- 
tiinbir-breaadth  line>.  or  longiludmal  lines  b* 
which  the  inain-breadlii  and  toji-timbei-- 
breadth  are  limiled  in  every  point  of  the 
ship's  length.  The  horizontal  curve  of  thft 
transoms  and  harpin^i  are  aUo  represented 
therein  ;  together  with  the  planes  of  the  prin- 
cipal timbers,  the  car.t  of  the  fashion-piece, 
the  length  of  the  rake  afore  and  abalt,  the- 
projection  of  tlie  cat-he.ids,  and  the  curve  of 
the  upper  rail  of  the  head,  to  w!ii<-h  the  curv.;> 
of  the  lower  ones  are  usually  parallel. 

Horhonlat  Plane. 
li.VC,  fig.  1  I,  the  line  of  the  ship's  lenfftlr, 
passing  throu,i>li  the  middle  of  the  stem  and 
stern-post.  B,  tlie  upper  end  of  the  stern- 
post.  C,  the  upper  i-tiA  of  the  stem.  BF, 
the  length  of  the  rakeabaft.  DWX,  the. 
top-timber-breadth  line,  or  the  line  whiciv 
i  limits  the  breadth  of  eaili  top- timber. 

DF,  the  breadth  of  the  allmost  timber  .-<(: 
I  the  talf.eel.  BK,  tlie  wing-transom.  BI.P, 
j  the  horizontal  curve  of  the  deck-lransc.,m. 
i  M.\I,  the  horizontal  ciiive,  or  round-att,  of 
'■  the  first  transom.  MN,  the  horizontal  curve- 
of  tlie  second  transom. :  it  is  prolonged  into 
:i  water-line,  N  8  7.  k  O,  the  horizontal 
curve  of  the  third  transom,  which  is  also  pro- 
longed into  another  water-line,  O,  n,  V  ,p,  (>> 
iH  Op,  the  plauc  of  the  fasl\ion-piccejas  cant- 


660 

eU  aft  ©  \VU,  the  plane  of  the  mUUliip- 
fiame.  a,  b,  c,  d,e,f,li,  Uif  phuies  ot  llw 
timbers  befoiethe  niidsliip  frame.  1,2,  3,4,  J, 
6,  7,  S,  9,  tlie  plane  of  tlie  timbers  abatl  tlie 
inickliip-fraiiie.  XX,  tlie  figure  of  tlie  upper 
.rail  of  tlic  hijad.  CV,  tlic  piojeclioii  ot  the 
knee  of  the  head. 

The  third  horizontal  riband  is  marked  on 
the  plate,  a,  a,  the  projection  of  the  c  al-liead. 
.  Thus  we  liave  endeavoured  brielly  to  ex- 
plain the  nature  and  uses  of  the  principal 
draughts  used  in  the  construction  of  a  ship, 
which  reciprocally  correspond  with  each 
other  in  the  diinensioiis  of  length,  bicadlh, 
and  depth.  Thus  the  plane  of  elevation  is 
exactlv  of  the  same  length  with  the  horizon- 
tal or 'iloor-plane.  The  several  breadths  of 
the  timbers  in  the  lioor-plane,  and  that  of 
the  projection,  are  muUially  transferable  ; 
and  the  real  height  of  tlie  timbers  in  tlie  i)ro- 
jection  exactlv  conforms  to  their  height  in 
the  elevation."  'i'lius,  let  it  be  required  to 
transfer  the  height  of  liie  wing-transom  from 
•tlie  elevation  to  the  projection  : 

Extend  the  compasses  Irom  the  point  K, 
in  the  elevation,  down  to  the  dotted  line  pro- 
longed from  the  upper  edge  of  the  keel,  and 
setting  the  other  foot  in  the  point  p,  then 
fhall  the  line  K  p  be  the  perpendicular  lieiglit 
in  the  wing-lransom :  transfer  this  Irom  the 
middle  of  the  line  BAG,  in  the  projection,  to 
the  point  K  in  the  perpendiciilar  AK,  then 
will  AK.  be  the  height  of  the  wing-transom  in 
the  plane  of  projection  •-  and  thus  the  height 
of  all  the  transoms  may  be  laid  from  the  for- 
mer upon  the  latter. 

Again :  Let  it  be  re(|uired  to  transfer 
the  main-breadth  of  the  niidsliip-franie  from 
the  projection  to  the  horizontal  plane :  Set 
one  loot  of  the  compasses  in  the  point  ©  on 
the  perpendicular  Cli,  and  extend  the  other 
along  the  main-breadth  sweej)  ©  (t,  till  it 
toucTies  the  perpendicular  XV  parallel  to  C  E  : 
lav  this  distance  upon  the  horizontal  plane 
from  the  point  u  in  the  line  of  the  ship's 
length,  Bx\C,  along  tlie  plane  of  the  niidshi|)- 
frame  to  the  point  ©  ;  so  shall  the  line 
©  \VU  be  the  breadth  of' the  midship-frame 
oil  th.;  horizontal  plane. 

Thus  also  the  top-timbcr-breadth,  or  the 
distance  of  each  top-tiinbi;r  from  the  middle 
of  the  ship's  hr-'adtli,  may  be  in  the  same 
manner  transferred,  by  extending  the  com- 
passes from  the  line  BAC,  in  the  horizontal 
plane,  to  the  to|)-timber-breadth  line  upon 
"any  parlicul.ir  timber,  as  1,  2,  3,  &c.  which 
v.iil  give  its  proper  tlimensions  thereon. 

In  the  same  manner  the  breadths  of  all  the 
limbers  may  be  laid  from  the  projection  to 
the  horizontal  plane,  and,  vice  versa,  from 
that  to  the  projection.  Thus  the  height  of 
each  timber  may  also  be  transferred  from  the 
elevation  to  the  projection,  &;c. 

The  principal  utility  of  these  draughts, 
therefore,  is  to  exhibit  the  various  curres  of 
the  ship's  body,  and  of  the  pieces  of  w  hich 
it  is  framed,  in  diflerenl  points  of  view,  which 
are  either  transverse  or  longitudinal,  and  will 
arcor<lingly  present  them  in  very  different 
directions.  Tims  the  horizontal  curves  of  the 
transoms  and  v.ater-lines  are  represented  on 
the  lloor-plane,  all  of  which  are  nearly  straight 
lines  ill  the  elevation  and  projection ;  and 
tliii9  the  vertical  curves  of  the  tmibei-s  are  all 
uxliihitcd  on  the  projection,  although  they 
appear  as  straight  lines  in  the  elcvalioit  and 
lloor-plaii'v 


SIIir-BUlLDlNG. 


Ofcnnslniclinir  sliiljs. 
The  [lieccs  by  which  tins  complicated  ma- 
chine, a  ship,  is  framed,  are  joined  together 
in  various  places,  by  sirarling    rabitt'uig,  te- 
nanting, and  scoring. 

During  the  construction  of  a  ship,  she  is 
supported  in  tlie  dock,  ov  upon  a  wharf,  by 
a  number  of  solid  blocks  ot  timber  placed  at 
equal  distance  from,  and  parallel  to,  each 
other.     She  is  thensaid  to  be  on  the  stocks. 

The  first  piece  of  timber  laid  upon  the 
blocks  is  generally  the  keel :  we  say  gene- 
rally, because  of  late,  a  dih'erent  method  has 
been  adopted  in  some  of  the  royal  dock- 
yards, by  beginning  with  the  floor  timbers  ; 
ihe  artists  having  found  that  the  keel  is 
often  apt  to  rot  during  the  long  period  of 
building  a  large  ship  of  war.  I'iie  pieces  of 
the  keel  are  scarted  together,  and  bolted, 
forming  one  entire  piece,  AA,  wliich  consti- 
tutes tlie  length  of  the  vessel  below.  At  one 
extremity  of  the  keel  is  erected  the  stem.  It 
is  a  strong  piece  of  timber  incurvated  nearly 
into  a  circular  arch,  or,  according  to  the 
technical  term,  compassing,  so  as  to  project 
outwards  at  the  upper-end,  forming  what  is 
called  the  rake  forward.  In  small  vessels 
this  is  framed  of  one  piece  ;  but  in  large  ships 
it  is  coinnosed  of  several  pieces  scarted  and 
bolted  together.  At  the  other  extremity  of 
the  keel  is  elevated  tlie  stern-post,  which  is 
always  of  one  entire  straight  piece.  The 
heel  of  it  is  let  into  a  mortoise  in  the  keel, 
and  having  its  upper  end  to  hang  outwards, 
making  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  keel,  like 
that  of  the  stem  :  this  projection  is  called  the 
rake  abaft.  The  stern-post,  which  ought  to 
support  the  stern,  contains  the  iron-work,  or 
hinges  of  the  rudder,  which  are  called  goo- 
giiigs,  and  unites  the  lower  part  of  the  sliip's 
sides  abaft.  See  the  connection  of  those 
pieces  in  the  elevation,  tig.  10. 

Towards  the  upper-end  of  the  stern-post, 
and  at  right  angles  with  its  length,  is  fixed 
the  middle  of  the  wing-transom,  where  it  is 
firmly  bolted.  Under  this  is  placed  another 
piece  parallel  thereto,  and  called  the  deck- 
transom,  upon  which  the  after-end  of  the 
lower  deck  is  supported.  Parallel  to  the 
deck-transom,  and  at  a  projier  distance  under 
it,  another  piece  is  fixed  to  the  stern-post 
called  the  first-transom ;  all  of  which 
serve  to  connect  the  stern-post  to  the 
fashion-pieces.  'I'wo  more  transoms,  called 
second  and  third,  are  also  i)laced  under 
llujse,  being  likewise  attached  to  the  fashion- 
pieces,  into  which  the  extremities  of  all  the 
iransoius  are  let.  The  fashion-pieces  are 
formed  like  the  other  timbers  of  the  ship, 
and  have  their  heels  resting  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  kelson,  at  the  after  extremity  of 
the  (loor-ribands. 

All  these  pieces,  viz.  the  transoms,  the 
tashion-pieces,  and  their  top-timbers  being 
strongly  united  into  one  frame,  are  elevated 
ujjon  the  stern-post ;  and  the  whole  forms  the 
stiuctureof  the  stern,  upon  which  tlie  gal- 
leries and  windows,  with  their  ornaments,  are 
afterwards  built. 

The  stem  and  stern-post  being  thus  ele- 
vated upon  the  keel,  to  which  they  are  se- 
curely connected  by  knees  and  arched  pii.'ces 
ot  tunber  bolted  toboth  ;  and  the  keel  being 
raised  at  its  two  extremities  by  pieces  of 
dead  wood,  the  midship  floor-timber  is  pla- 
ced across  the  keel,  whereto  it  is  bolt  d 
through  the  iniddle.    The  floor-limbers  be- 


fore and  abaft  the  midship  frame  are  then 
stationed  in  tlieir  pro[)er  places  upon  the 
keel ;  alter  «  hich  the  kelson,  which,  like  the 
keel,  is  comjioscd  of  several  pieces  s<arled 
together,  is  lixed  across  the  middle  ot  the 
fioor-timbers,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  bolls 
tlriven  through  the  keel,  and  clinched  on  the 
up))er  part  of  the  kelson.  The  futtocks  are 
then  raised  upon  the  floor-timbers,  and  the 
hawse-pieces  erected  upon  the  cant  timbers 
in  the  tore  part  of  the  ship.  The  to|)-timbers 
on  each  side  are  next  attached  to  the  head 
of  the  futtocks,  as  already  explained.  The 
frames  of  tiie  jjriiicijjal  timbers  being  thus 
completed,  are  supported  by  ribands. 

The  ribs  of  the  ship  being  now  stationed, 
they  proceed  to  fix  on  the  planks,  of  which 
the  wales  are  the  principal,  being  much 
thicker  and  stronger  than  the  rest.  The 
harpins,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  wales  at  their  fore-ends,  are 
lixed  across  the  hawse-pieces,  and  surround 
'the  fore  part  of  the  ship.  The  planks  th-it 
inclose  tlie  ship's  sides  are  then  brought 
about  the  timbers;  and  the  clamps,  which 
are  of  equal  thickness  with  the  wales,  fixed 
opposite  to  the  wales  within  the  ship  :  these 
arc  used  to  siippovt  the  ends  of  the  beams, 
and  accordingly  stretch  from  one  end  of  the 
ship  to  the  other.  The  thick-stuff,  or  strong 
planks  of  the  bottom  within-board,  are  then 
placed  opposite  to  the  several  scarfs  of  the 
timbers,  to  reinforce  them  throughout  the 
ship's  length.  The  planks  employ  ed  to  line 
the  ship,  called  tlie  ceiling,  or  foot-waling,  is 
next  fixed  in  the  intervals  between  the  thick 
slulf  of  the  held.  The  beams  are  afterwards 
laid  across  the  ship  to  support  the  decks,  and 
are  connected  to  tlie  side  by  lodging  and 
hanging  knees. 

The  cable  bits  being  next  erected,  the  car- 
lings,  and  ledges,  are  disposed  between  the 
beams  to  strengthen  the  deck.  The  water- 
ways are  tlien  laid  on  the  ends  of  the  beams 
throughout  the  ship's  length,  and  thesprikelt- 
ing  fixed  close  above  them.  The  upper  deck 
is  then  planked,  and  the  string  placed  under 
the  gunnel  or  plansheer  in  the  waist. 

They  proceed  next  to  plank  the  quarter- 
deck and  fore-castle,  and  to  (\\  the  partners 
of  the  musts  and  capsterns  with  the  coamings 
of  the  hatches.  The  breast-hooks  are  then 
bolted  across  the  stem  and  bow  within-board ; 
the  step  o(  the  fore-mast  placed  on  the  kel- 
son ;  and  the  riders  fayed  on  the  inside  of 
the  timbers,  to  reinforce  the  sides  in  different 
places  of  the  ship's  length.  The  pointers,  if 
anv,  are.  afterwards  fixed  across  the  hold  dia- 
gouallv  to  supp^>rt  the  beams ;  and  the 
crotchets  stationed  in  the  after-hold  to  unite 
the  halfVtimbers.  The  steps  of  the  main- 
mast and  capsterns  are  next  placed  ;  the 
planks  of  the  lower-dei  ks  and  orlop  laid  ;  the 
navel-hoods  fayed  on  the  hawse  holes ;  and 
the  knee  of  the  head,  or  cutwater,  comiected 
to  the  stem.  The  rigure  of  the  head  is  then 
iM'ected,  and  the  trail-board  and  cliecks  are 
fixed  on  the  sides  of  the  knee. 

The  tall'arel  and  quarter-pieces,  which  ter- 
minate the  sli'p  abafi.  the  former  above  and 
the  latter  on  each  side,  are  then  disposed ; 
and  the  sti.'rn  and  quarter  galleries  trained 
and  supported  by  their  brackets.  The 
pumps,  with  their  well,  are  next  lixed  in  the 
hold;  the  limber-hoards  laid  on  each  side  of 
tin;  kehon  ;  an<l  the  garbbard  strake  fixed  oD 
the  ship's  bottom  next  to  the  keel  without. 


The  hull  hc'ma,  thus  fabricated,  lliry  pro- 
ceed to  si'juraie  tlie  apartmeiils  by  bii'ik- 
heack,  or  paililions  ;  to  frame  tin-  portliils; 
to  lix  the  cat-licads  and  cbess-Uecs ;  to  fortn 
the  hatchways  and  scullles,  and  (it  them  with 
proper  covers  or  gratings.  Tliey  next  (ix 
the  ladil.'rd  whereby  to  mount  or  descend 
the  dill'erent  liatchways ;  and  bnild  the  man- 
ger on  tlie  lower  deck,  to  carry  olf  the  water 
that  runs  in  at  the  hawse-holes  when  the  ship 
rides  at  anchor  in  a  sea.  'l"he  bread-room 
and  magazines  are  then  lined ;  and  the  gun- 
nel, rails,  and  a;angvvaYS,  fixed  on  the  upper 
j)art  of  the,  ship.  The  cleats,  keveN,  and 
rand  ranges,  by  whicli  the  ropes  are  fastened, 
are  afterwards  bolted  or  nailed  to  the  .sides  in 
dilferenl  places. 

Tlie  rudder,  being  fitted  with  its  irons,  is 
next  hung  to  the  stern-post ;  and  the  tiller, 
or  bar,  by  which  it  is  managed,  let  into  a 
mortoise  at  its  upper-end/  1  he  scuppers,  or 
h-aJeii  tubes,  that  carry  the  water  olf  from 
the  decks,  are  then  placed  in  holes  cut 
througli  the  ship's  sides  ;  and  the  standards 
bolted  to  the  beams  and  sides  above  the  decks 
to  which  they  belong.  The  poop-lanthorns 
are  last  lixed  upon  their  cranes  over  the 
stern  ;  and  the  bilge-ways,  or  cradles,  placed 
under  the  bottom,  to  conduct  the  ship  steadily 
into  the  water  whilst  launching. 

Stowing  and  trimming  of  ships,the  method 
of  disposing  of  the  cargo  in  a  proper  and  ju- 
..dicious  manner  in  the  hold  of  a  ship.  A 
ship's  sailing,  steering,  and  wearing,  and  being 
lively  and  comparatively  easy  at  sea  in  a 
storm,  depend  greatly  on  the  cargo,  ballast, 
or  other  materials,  being  properly  stowed, 
according  to  tlieir  weight  and  bulk,  and  the 
proportional  dimensions  of  the  built  of  the 
shij),  which  may  b^  made  too  crank  or  too 
stiff  to  pass  on  the  ocean  with  safely.  These 
things  render  this  branch  of  knowledge  of 
such  consequence,  that  rules  for  it  ought  to 
be  endeavoured  after,  if  but  to  prevent,  as 
much  as  possible,  the  danger  of  a  ship  over- 
setting at  sea,  or  being  so  laboursome  as  to 
roll  away  her  masts,  &c.  by  being  improper- 
ly stowed,  w  hich  is  often  the  caje. 

\Vhen  a  ship  is  new,  it  is  prudent  to  con- 
sult the  builder,  who  may  be  supposed  best 
acquiiinted  with  a  ship  of  his  own  plamiing, 
and  most  likely  to  judge  whit  her  properties 
'  will  he,  to  judge  how  the  cargo  of  materials, 
according  to  the  nature  of  them,  ought  to  be 
disposed  of  to  advantage,  so  as  to  put  her  in 
the  best  sailing  trim  ;  and  at  every  favourable 
opportunity  afterwards  it  will  be  proper  to 
endeavour  to  find  out  her  best  trim  by  ex- 
periment. 

Ships  must  differ  in  their  form  and  pro- 
portional dimensions  ;  and  to  make  them  an- 
swer their  dill'erent  purposes,  they  will  re- 
cjuire  dilferent  management  in  the  stowage, 
wiiich  ought  not  to  be  left  to  mere  chance, 
or  done  at  random,  as  goods  or  materials 
Inppen  to  come  to  hand,  which  is  too  often 
the  cause  that  such  improper  stowage  makes 
ships  unlit  for  sea:  therefore  the  stowage 
should  be  considered,  planned,  and  contrived, 
according  to  the  built  and  properties  of  the 
'  sliip,  which  if  they  are  not  known  should  be 
in;|uircd  after.  If  she  is  narrow  and  high- 
built  in  projiortion,  so  that  she  will  not  shift 
herself  without  a  great  weight  in  the  hold,  it 
is  a  certain  sign  such  a  ship  will  require  a 
great  p  n't  of  heavy  goods,  ballast,  or  niateri- 
'als,  laid  lo\v  in  the  hold,  to  malie  her  stilf 
2 


SlIIP-lBUILrJlXC.  '  G'-,i 

enough  to  bear  sufficient  sail  without  being  1  Irestle-trfe^.     _Pf rpeiidi(  nlarly  above  l!) 

ill  danger  of  oversetting.     But  if  a  ship  is     '      ' 

built  broad  and  low  in  proportion,  so  thai  she 

is  stilf  and  will  support  herself  without  any 

weight  in  the  hold,  such  a  ship  will  require 

hiravy  goods,    ballast,   or  materials,  stowed 

higher  up,  to  prevent  her  from  being  too  stilf 

and  laboursome  at  sea,  so  as  to  endanger  her 

masts  being  rolleil  away,  and  the  liuU  worked 

loose  and  madi;  leaky. 

In  order  to  helj)  a  ship's  sailing,  that  she 
should  be  lively  and  easy  in  her  pitching  and 
ascending  motions,  it  should  be  contrived  by 
the  stowage,  that  tlic  principal  and  weightiest 
part  of  the  cargo  or  materials  should  lie  as 
near  the  main  body  of  the  ship,  and  as  far 
from  the  extreme  ends,  fore  and  aft,  as  things 
will  admit  of.  For  it  should  be  considered, 
that  the  roomy  piyt  of  our  ships  lengthwise, 
forms  a  sweep  or  curve  near  four  times  as 
long  as  they  are  broad  ;  therefore  those 
roomy  parts  at  and  above  tl;e  water's  edge, 
which  are  madi'  by  a  full  harping  and  a  broad 
transom  to  support  the  ship  steady  and  keep 
her  from  plunging  into  the  sea,  and  also  by 
the  entrance  and  run  of  the  ship  having  little 
or  no  bearing  body  under  for  the  pressure  of 

the  water  to  support  them,  of  course  should 

not  be  stowed  wiih  heavy  goods  or  materials, 

but  all  the  necessary  vacancies,  broken  stow- 
age, or  light  goods,  should  be  at  these  ex- 
treme ends  fore  and  aft ;  and  in  proportion  as 

they  are  kept  lighter  by  the   stowage,   the 

ship  will  be  more  lively  to  fall  and  rise  easy 

in  great  seas  ;  and  this  will  contribute  greatly 

to  her  working  and  sailing,  and  to  prevent 

her  from  straining  and  hogging;  for  which 

reason  it  is  a  wrong  practice  to  leave  such  a 

large  vacancy  in  the   main  hatchway  as  is 

usual,  to  coil   and  work  the  cables,  which 

ought  to  be  in  the  fore  or  aft  hatchway,  tliat 

the   principal  weight   may   be   more  easily 

stowed  in  the  main  body  of  the  ship,  above 

the  flattest  and  lowest  floorings,  where  the 

pressure  of  the  water  acts  the  more  to  support 

it.     See  Navigation. 

Ships,  masts  nf.    The  mast  of  a  ship  is  a 


the  lorcmosl  hole  in  the  caj),  whose  after- 
hole  is  sojidly  lixed  on  the  head  of  the  lowtr- 
niasl.  'J'l-.e  lop-man  is  ere<-led  by  a  tackle, 
whose  eirort  is  cominiinicaled  from  the  hea^ 
of  the  lower-mast  to  tin  fool  of  the  top-mast; 
and  the  up))er  end  of  the  latter  is  accordingly 
guided  into  and  conveyed  n\>  Ijirough  the 
holes  between  the  trcstle-lrees  and  il;e  cao. 
Besides  the  parts  already  mentioned  in  the 
construction  of  masts,  wii'ii  respect  to  their 
length,  the  lower-masts  of  the  largest  ships 
are  composed  of  several  pieces  united  into 
one  body.  As  Ihcie  are  generally  the  rilosl 
substantial  parts  of  various  trees,  a  mast  foini- 
C-d  by  this  assemblage,  is  justly  esteemed 
much  stronger  than  one  consisting  of  any 
single  trunk,  whose  internal  solidity  may  be 
very  uncertain. 

'I'he  whole  is  secured  by  several  strong 
lioo|)S  of  iron,  driven  on  the  oufside  ot  the 
mast,  where  they  remain  at  proper  distances.. 
Figs.  1,  2,  and  3,  Plate  Ma.ls,  &c.  re- 
present one  of  Mr.  George  Smart's  patent 
liollow  masts.  It  is  priijcipaily  crinposed 
of  four  small  beams  AHDIC.  "figs.  1  and 
2,  whi'  h  are  each  ([uarters  of  one  small 
tree ;  these  are  held  at  the  proper  dis- 
tance apart  by  cross  bars  FF  mortised 
into  them.  The  spaces  between  these  four 
beams  are  filled  up  by  thick  planks  GG, 
which  have  groo\'es  cut  across  them  to  re- 
ceive one-half  of  the  bars  FF  as'  shewn  iii 
fig.  3,  and  the  whole  is  bound  together  by 
hoops  HIi.  15y  this  means  a  truss  is  formed 
in  every  direction  ;  for  in  every  strain,  be- 
fore the  mast  can  give  way,  the  beams  and 
planks  on  the  side  nearest  (he  strain  must 
compress,  and  those  on  the  opposite  side 
must  be  torn  asunder  lengthwise. 

There  are  seveiid  other  methods  of  con- 
structing these  masts,  as  eight  planks  doweled 
together  at  the  edges,  or  four  planks  tabled 
into  each  other  with  oak  wedges  at  the  end 
of  the  tables,  to  prevent  the  end  wood  from 
cutting  into  each  other. 

Masts  on  these  principles  can  be  made  i{. 
long  round  piece  of  timber,  elevated  perneu-  j  one  half  the  expence  of  the  common  ones. 


dicularly  upon  the  keel  of  a  ship,  to  wiiich 
are  attached  the  yards,  the  sails,  and  the  rig- 
ging. A  mast,  with  regard  to  its  length,  is 
either  formed  of  one  single  piece,  which  is 
called  a  pole-mast,  or  composed  of  several 
pieces  joined  together,  each  of  which  retains 
the  name  of  mast  separately.  The  lowest 
of  these  is  accordingly  named  the  lo^er- 
mast ;  the  next  in  height  is  the  top-imst, 
which  is  erected  at  the  head  of  the  for- 
mer ;  and  the  highest  is  the  top-gallant 
mast,  which  is  prolonged  from  the  upper  end 
of  the  top-mast.  Thus  the  two  last  are  no 
other  than  a  continuation  of  the  first  up- 
wards. 

Tlie  lower-mast  is  fixed  in  the  ship ;  the 
foot,  or  heel  of  it,  rests  on  a  block  of  timber 
called  the  step,  which  is  fixed  ufion  the  kel- 
son, and  the  top-mast  is  attached  to  the  head 
of  it  by  the  cap  and  the  trestle-trees.  The  lat- 
ter of  these  are  two  strong  bars  of  timber, 
supported  by  two  prominences,  wiiich  are  as 
shoulders  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  mast,  a 
little  under  its  upper  end  :  athwart  these  bars 
are  fixed  the  croSs-trees,  upon  which  the 
frame  of  the  top  is  supported.  Between  the 
lower-mast-head,  and  the  foremost  of  the 
cross-trees,  a  square  space  remains  vacant, 
the  sides  of  which  are  bounded  by  the  two 


and  of  the  same  strength  without  any  increase 
of  the  weight. 

Figs.  4  and  j,  represent  a  contrivance 
included  in  .Mr.  Smart's  patent  for  masts, 
by  which  temporary  yards  for  ships  can  be 
made  when  at  sea,  and  of  such  spars  as  can 
conveniently  be  carried  on  board  a  ship. 
They  are  forme<l  of  two  small  spars,  each 
half  the  length  of  the  yard,  which  are  sav.n 
doNv  n  lengthwise  in  two  directions,  so  as  to 
cut  them  into  four  branches-,  but  left  joined 
together  at  one  end,  A  lig.  4 :  tlial  "end  is 
then  ho.^ped  so  as  to  prevent  splitting;  the 
four  pieces  DEF,  &c.  are  opened  out  as  i;i 
the  figure,  and  blocks  of  wood  jjut  in  between 
them' at  (JHIK  to  keep  thvni  apart;  the  two 
spars  I  lius  opened  are  joined  together  to  make 
one  yard  at  the  block  K  formed  of  foui- 
pieces,  one  of  which  is  shewn  in  lig.  :>.  It  has 
a  groove  in  it  to'  receive  the  ei.ds  of  one  of 
the  bars  DEF  in  each  spar  and- connect 
them:  it  has  some  small  pieces  put  across  (n 
the  angle  of  the  groove,  which  are  let  into 
the  ends  of  the  pieces  DEF,  so  that  when 
tliey  are  kept  in  their  places,  by  a  broad 
hoop  L,  they  cannot  be  drawn  apart  end- 
ways ;  the  four  pieces  composing  the  block 
K  are  laid  together,  and  put'  in  between  the 
bais,  leaving  u  space  between  them  to  p'nt  i» 


■6G2 


SHI 


wedges  vs'hicti  are  tlrove  in  until  the  p'.eces 
fig.  5  are  sIij\  eJ  out  so  as  to  till  tlie  hoop 
aud  iiold  it  ail  tirinly. 

Small  yards  may  be  made  fro:n  one  spar 
^itlioiit  joining;  in  tliat  case  tiiL- four  pieces 
are  left  connected  at  t:acii  end,  and  the  piece 
K  15  a  plain  block  like  the  rest. 

Yards  on  this  conblniction  can  bo  coii^i- 
deraMy  !Mcrea?ed  in  thiir  strengtii  'il  .•(■nnd 
too  weak)  liv  puUin?  in  lartvcr  blocks  ;  which 
increases  their  diameter,  and  thio-.vi  the  four 
bars  farther  from  eacii  other  wnudut  increas- 
ing their  ,v-  ;ght  more  than  the  extra  weight 
of^tlie  bijcks. 

'file  prir.cipal  articles  io.  be  considered  in 
equippiiiTa  ship  with  masis  are,  Ist,  ihe  num- 
ber; 9d,  Ibel:   .lU'.iition  in  th^  vessel;  and,  | 
3J,  tiieir  heig^it  above  the  water.  ' 

'the  masts  being  u^rU  to  extend  the  sails  , 
by  means  of  tiieir  yards  it  is  evident,  that  if  j 
their  number  v.  as  nrjltiplieil  beyond  what  is 
iieccosaiy,  the  yards  must  be  i.xtremely 
.short,  that  they  may  not  entangle  each  otlier 
in  worki:!g  the  ship,  and  by  consequence 
their  sails  will  be  very  narrow,  and  receive  a 
small  portion  of  wind.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
there  is  not  a  suiricient  nu.nber  of  masts  m 
the  vessel,  the  yards  will  l;e  t,/0  large  and 
iieavT,  so  as  not  to  be  ma  inged  without  d;f- 
jliculty.  Tiiere  is  a  mean  between  these  ex- 
tremes, which  experience  and  liie  gcr.eral  ) 
practice  of  the  sea  have  determined ;  by 
which  it  appears,  that  in  large  ships  every  ad- 
vantage of  sailing  is  retained  by  three  masts 
and  a  bowsprit. 

The  most  advantageous  position  of  the 
masts  is  undoubtedly  that  from  whence  there 
results  an  equilibrium  between  tlie  resistance 
of  the  water  on  tiie  body  of  t'le  ship  on  one 
part,  and  of  the  direction  of  their  <  ffort  on 
the  otlier.  By  every  other  posiiion  this  equi- 
Tibrlum  is  destroyeil,  and  the  greatest  eltort 
tif  the  m;ists  will  op'r.ite  to  turn  tlie  ship  ho- 
rizontally about  its  direction  ;  a  circumstance 
which  retards  her  velocity.  It  is  coniiteibal- 
anced  indeed  by  the  helm  ;  but  the  same  in- 
convenience still  continues  ;  for  the  force  of 
the  wind,  having  the  resistance  of  the  helm 
to  overcome,  is  not  entirely  employed  to 
push  the  vessel  forward,  ^^lie  axis  of  the  re- 
sistance of  the  water  should  then  be  previ- 
'oiisly  determhied,  to  discover  the  place  of 
the  main-mast,  in  order  to  suspend  the  efforts 
of  the  water  equally,  and  place  the  other 
masts  so  that  their  particular  direction  will 
coincide  with  that  of  the  main-mast.  The 
whole  of  this  would  be  capable  of  a  solution 
if  the  figure  of  the  vessel  was  regular,  be- 
taiise  the  point,  about  which  the  resistance 
of  the  water  would  be  in  equiUjjrio,  might  be 
«liscovered  by  calculation. 

The  exact  height  of  the  masts,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  form  and  size  of  the  ship,  remains 
yet  a  problem  to  he  determined.  'J'he  more 
the  masts  are  elevated  above  the  centre  of 
gravity,  the  greater  will  be  the  surface  of  sail 
which  they  are  enabled  to  present  to  the 
wind ;  so  fai  an  additional  height  seems  to 
have  been  advantageous.  Hut  this  advantage 
is  diminished  bj'  the  circular  movement  of 
the  mast,  which  operates  to  make  the  vessel 
stoop  to  il3  eflort  ;  and  this  inclination  is  in- 
creased in  proportion  to  t/ie  additional  height 
»f  the  mast,  an  inconvenience  which  it  is  ne- 
cess-ify  to  guard  against.  Thus  wiiat  is  gained 
upon  one  hand  is  lost  upon  the  other.  To 
iccoocile  these  (lifi'ereuccs,  it  is  certain,  lliat 


S  H  O 

the  height  of  the  mast  ou-ht  to  be  determin- 
ed by  the  inclination  ol  the  vessel,  and  that 
the  point  of  her  greatest  inclination  should 
be  tlie  term  of  this  height  above  the  centre 
of  gravit)-. 

In  order  to  secure  the  inasts,  and  counter- 
balance the  strain  they  receive  from  the  effort 
of  the  sails  iniiicsse'd  by  the  wind,  and  the 
agitation  of  the  r,hip  at  sea,  thiv  are  sustain- 
fcl  by  several  strong  ropes,  exieiided  from 
their  upper  ends  to  the  outside  of  the  vessel, 
called  shrouds.  These  arc  furilier  stpported 
by  other  ropes,  stretched  from  their  heads  to- 
wards the  fore-jiart  of  tlu-  vessel. 

TIte  mast,  which  is  placed  at  the  middle 
of  the  ship's  length;  is  called  the  niain-nr.ist; 


tliat  which  is  placed  in  tl 


jiai  t,  the  fore- 


mast; and  that  which  is  towards  the  stern,  is 
termed  the  mizen-mast. 

SHISTLii.  iiee  Schistvs,  and  Rocks 
primitirc. 

SHIVKRS,  orSnEEVERS,  in  the  sea-lan- 
guage, names  given  to  the  little  rollers  or 
round  wheels  ol  piillevs.     See  I'ullev. 

SllOR,  a  coveting  for  the  foot,  usually 
made  of  leather,  by  the  company  ol  cord- 
wainer^. 

Shoes,  horse.  See  F\nKir,RY. 
Shoe,  jhr  an  anchor,  in  a  sliip,  the  place 
for  the  anchor  to  rest,  and  lifted  to  receive 
the  stoci;,  &c.  so  as  to  prevent  the  sheets, 
larks,  and  other  running-rigging,  troiii  gall- 
ing, or  being  entangled  with  the  tiooks. 

SHOOTUS^G,    m  the  military  art.     Se.- 

Artillery,  Gunnery,  and  Projectiles. 

Shooting,  in  sportsmanship,  the  killing  of 

game  by  the  gun,  with  or  without  the  help 

of  dog.«. 

The  first  tiling  which  the  sportsman  ought 
to  attend  to  is  ijie  choice  of  his  fouiiiig- 
piece.  Conveniency  requires  that  the  barrel 
should  be  as  light  as  possible,  at  the  saii>r 
time  it  ought  to  possess  that  degree  of  | 
strength  wliich  will  make  it  not  liable  to 
burst.  In  a  former  article(GuN-SMiTHERy, 
vol.  i.  p.  890)  it  was  slated  that  very  little 
was  gained  by  extending  the  length  of  the 
barrel.  It  ought,  however,  to  bear  some  pro- 
portion to  the  bore,  and  be  of  sullicicnt 
length  to  permit  all  the  powder  to  indame. 
The  usual  length  is  now  Ironi  '26  to  30 
Indies. 

It  may  appear  as  an  objection  to  this,  that 
a  duck-gun  which  is  five  or  six  feet  long  kills 
at  a  greater  distance  than  a  fowling-piece.; 
but  this  is  not  owing  to  its  length,  but  to  its 
greater  weigh.t  and  thickness,  which  give  it 
such  addilional  strength,  that  the  shot  may 
be  increased,  and  the  charge  of  powil'er 
doubled,  trebled,  and  even  (piadrupled. 
More,  indeed,  will  depend  on  the  goodness 
of  the  powder,  and  using  a  proper  charge 
(which  must  be  learned  by  trying  the  gun  at 
a  mark),  than  on  the  length  of  the  barrel. 

The  patent  milled  shot  is  now  very  gene- 
rally used,  and  is  reckoned  superior  to  any 
other.  'l"he  size  of  the  shot  must  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  particular  species  of  game 
which  is  the  object  of  the  sportsman's  pur- 
suit, as  well  as  be  adapted  to  the  season.  In 
the  first  month  of  partridge-shooting.  No.  4 
is  most  proper. 

As  hares  also  sit  closer,  and  are  thinly  co- 
vereilwith  fur.at  this  season,  they  may  easily 
be  killed  wi'h  this  shot  at  30  or  35  paces. 
No.  5,  is  proper  for  shooting  (luails ;  and  No. 


S  H  O 

3,  for  snipes.     About  the  beginning  of  f)c-  . 
tober,  when  the  partridges  are  stronger,  and 
pheasant-shooting  commences.  No.  3  may 
be  used. 

In  loading  a  piece,  the  powder  ought  to 
be  slightlN  rammed  down  by  only  pressing 
tiie  ramrod  two  or  three  times  on  tlie  wad- 
tling,  and  not  by  drawing  up  the  ramrod  and 
then  returning  it  into  the  barrel  with  a  jeik 
of  the  arm  several  times.  The  shot  ought  to 
be  rammed  <lown  with  some  force,  since  it 
is  fro:',  the  shot  being  loose  in  the  gun,  and 
a  space  being  consequently  left  between  it 
and  the  powder,  that  accidents  most  fre- 
Cjuently  hapiirii  by  the  bursting  of  guiis^  A 
sportsman  ought  never  to  carry  his  gun  under 
his  arm  with  th<'  nui/.zle  iix-hned  ihn^nwards, 
for  this  praclice  loosens  the  wadding  and 
charge  too  much. 

Immediately  after  the  jiiece  is  lired  it  ought 
to  be  re-loacl-d  ;  for,  while  the  barrel  is 'till 
warm,  there  is  no  danger  of  any  moisture 
lodging  in  it  to  hinder  the  powder  from  lall- 
iug  to  the  bottom.  As  it  is  tound  that  ihe 
coldness  of  the  barrel,  and  perhaps  the  iiioi-.- 
ture  condensed  in  it,  diminish  the  force  of 
I  he  powder  in  the  first  shot,  it  is  proper  I'l 
fire  olV  a  little  powder  before  the  pi.-ce  i-; 
loaded.  Some  prime  before  load'iig,  but  this 
is  not  proper  unless  the  toiah-hole  is  ver\ 
large.  After  erery  di-charge  the  touch-hofe 
ought  to  be  pricked,  or  a  small  feather  may 
be  inserted  to  clear  away  any  humidity  or 
foulness  that  has  been  conti  acted. 

The  -poitsman  having  kxided'  his  piece, 
must  next  ])i  epare  to  fire.  For  this  purpose 
he  ought  to  place  his  hand  iiearthe  entrance 
of  the  rair,r,:)d,  aud  at  the  .same  time  grasp  the 
barrel  firmly.  The  muzzle  should  be  a  little 
elevated,  tor  it  is  more  usual  to  shoot  low 
ihan  high.  This  direction  ou.njit  pjrlicularl.y 
;o  be  attended  to  when  the  object  is  a  little 
distant ;  because  shot  as  well  as  ball  only 
moves  a  certain  distance  jioinl-blank,  when 
it  begins  to  describe  thecur\eof  the  para- 
bola. 

Practice  soon  teaches  the  sportsman  the 
proper  distance  at  whicli  he  should  shoot. 
The  disfanoe  at  whicli  he  oiiglit  infallibly  to 
kill  any  khid  of  game  with  patent  shut,  pro- 
vided the  aim  is  well  taken,  is  from  25  to  35 
paces  for  tlie  tooted,  and  from  40  to  45  paci  s 
for  the  winged  game.  Beyond  this  distance 
even  to  50  or  55  paces,  both  partridges  an<l 
hares  are  sometimes  killed ;  but  in  general 
the  hares  are  only  slightly  wounded,  and 
carry  away  the  shot;  ami  the  partridges  at 
that  distance  present  so  small  a  surface,  that 
they  freipiently  escape  untouched  between 
the  spaces  of  the  circle.  Yet  it  does  iiol 
follow  that  a  partridge  may  not  be  killed  at 
60  and  even  70  paces  distance;  but  these 
shots  are  rare. 

In  shooting  at  a  bird  flying,  or  a  hare  rim- 
ning  across,  it  is  necessary  to  take  aim  at  the 
fore  part  of  the  obje<  t.  If  a  partridge  llii's 
across  at  tlie  distance  of  30  or  35  paces,  it 
will  be  sullicicnt  to  aim  at  the  head,  or  at 
most  but  a  small  sp.ice  before  it.  Another 
thing  to  be  attended  to  is,  that  the  shooter 
ought  not  involuntarily  to  stop  the  motion  of 
the  arm-;  at  the  moment  of  pulling  the  trig- 
ger ;  for  the  iiistiuit  the  hand  stops  in  order  to 
(ire,  h.iwever  inconsiderable  the  time  may  be, 
the  bir<l  gets  beyond  the  line  (^f  aim,  and  the 
shot  will  mlba  it.  A  sportiiinau  ought  liieri-- 
6 


S  H.lil'     jB  INI  .LJD)  '.[  N  G. 


/v» 


I 


II 


l|        T 


,;/., 

. 

Mk 

1 

1 

■iiiiiiiiiiii 

IIIP 

1  i 
Ij 

■iliiiil 

f 

i 

i  1 

■ 

i 

% 

w 

w. 

II" 

ll 

,„„„ 

:  ::li 

Mils  Is  i  TiiiU/cr 


6 


r 


xy,:iav/>  mtxtK,^  -.'.r.r.rti 


lO 


I> 


t^K^ifT  .Mint 


FtiAhlrfud  Jufw.'io  jSoj,  hy  ItJ'hiUipj.BriJfi* Stf*^ BL'M.-^Hofv T.rmipn 


fire  to  accti4oin  Ms  hand  uliilo  lio  k  (akiiif; 
iiini  to  Icillow  the  obji-cl.  W  lion  u  hare  inns 
in  ;i  straight  liiu-  Irani  llic  (.hooter,  he  shonkl 
take  his  uini  between  the  ears,  oilierwise  he 
will  run  the  hazani  cither  of  missing,  or  at 
lea-)t  not  o1' killing  dead,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  eiean. 

A  lo'.>.  Iin2;-piece  should  not  be  fired  more 
than  'JO  or  ■£:>  times  without  being  washed  ;  a 
barrel  when  foul  neither  shoots  so  ready,  nor 
carries  the  shot  so  far,  as  when  clean.  The 
lliiil,  pan,  and  hainaier,  slion'd  be  well  wijiid 
after  each  shot;  this  contributes  greatly  to 
make  the  piece  s'o  off  ipiick,  but  then  it 
shoulil  he  done  with  so  nuK  h  expetiition,  that 
■the  barrel  niav  be  reloadeil  whilst  warm,  fur 
tlie  reasons  before  advanced.  The  Hint 
slioiild  be  t're>|uenlly  changed,  willinut  wait- 
ing until  it  misses  hre,  belore  a  new  one  is 
put  in.  l''illeeii  or  eighteen  shots,  therefore, 
shonid  only  be  tired  with  tbe  same  llint ;  the 
*xpence  is  too  (rilling  to  he  regarded,  and  by 
changing  it  tlius  olteii  much  vexation  will  be 
prevented. 

A  gun  also  should  never  be  tired  with  the 
prime  of  the  preceding  d.iy  ;  it  may  happen 
.that  an  old  priming  will  sometimes  go  off 
well,  but  it  will  more  frecinenlly  contract 
^^loi^l^lre  and  fni:e  in  the  liring ;  then  the  ob- 
ject will  ino.st  probably  be  nussed,  and  that 
Jjecanse  the  piece  was  not  I'rcsii  prime;!. 

I'or  the  infoniiatuin  of  the  young  sports- 
man tto  shall  add  a  few  more  general  direc- 
tions. In  warm  weatlier  he  ought  to  seek  for 
game  in  piAiuaand  o|)eii  grounds;  and  in  cold 
weather  he  may  seaich  little  hills  expo-ed  to 
;tlie  sun,  along  hedges,  among  lieath,  in 
sinbbles,  and  in  nature^  where  there  is  much 
fur/e  and  tern.  1  h-^"  morning  is  the  best  time 
of  tiie  day,  belore  the  ilew  is  exhaled,  and 
before  the  game  has  been  disturbed.  The 
colour  of  the  shooter's  dress  ought  to  be  the 
Eanie  with  that  of  the  helds  and  trees ;  in 
Seninier  it  ought  to  be  green,  in  wimer  a 
.dark  grey.  lie  might  to  lunit  as  much  as 
possible  against  the  wind,  not  only  to  pre- 
vent the  game  perceiving  the  approach  of 
him  and  liis  dog,  bnt  al-o  to  enalile  the  dog 
descent  the  game  at  a  greater  distance. 

Ifc  should  never  be  discouraged  from 
hunting  and  ranging  the  same  ground  over 
ami  over  again,  especially  in  |)laces  covered 
with  111  aUi,  brambles,  high  grass,  or  young 
cojjpice wood.  A  hare  or  rabbit  will  fre- 
quently suffer  him  to  ])ass  several  times  within 
a  few  yards  of  its  form  witlioul  getting  n]). 
He  should  be  still  more  patient  when  he  lias 
marked  [lartridges  into  such  pUices  ;  for  it 
often  happens,  that  after  the  bird>  have  been 
Srirmig  many  limes,  tliey  lie  so  dead  that 
itliey  will  suft'er  him  almost  to  tread  upon 
tliem  bef  ,re  they  will  rise.  Plieasaiits,  quails, 
3ml  woodcocks,  do  the  same. 

He  ought  to  look  carelully  about  liim, 
never  passing  a  bush, or  tuft  of  grass,  witliout 
examination  ;  but  he  ought  never  to  strike 
tiiein  with  the  muz/le  of  his  giin,  for  it  will 
loosen  his  wadding,  lie  who  patienllv  beats 
and  ranges  his  ground  over  again,  witliout 
being  discouraged,  will  always  kill  the  great- 
est Cjnanlity  of  game;  and  if  he  is  shooting 
in  company,  he  will  lind  gajiie  where  others 
have  passed  without  di-coveriiig  anv. 

\\  hen  he  has  fired  lie  should  call  in  jiis 

'  dog,  that  he  may  not  have  the  mortilication 

'  to  stie  game  rise  which   he    cannot   slioot. 

Wlwii  he  bus  killed  a  bird,  instead  of  being 


SHOOTINO. 

anxioiiii  ahoiil  pii  king  it  up,  lie  ought  (o  fol- 
l#)w  the  rest  ot  the  covey  with  liis  eye  till  he 
sees  them  settle, 

'1  hree  species  of  dogs  are  callable  of  re- 
ceiving the  proper  instriictioiis  and  of  being 
trairie(l,  These  are  the  smooth  pointer,  the 
rough  pointer,  and  the  spaniel.  I'lie  ainooth 
pointer  U  aclive  and  lively  enough  in  liis 
range,  but  in  geiier.d  is  jiroper  only  for  an 
open  countrv. 

i'lie  greatest  part  of  these  dogs  arc  afraid 
of  water,  hrainbles,  anil  thickets  ;  but  the 
sjianiel  and  the  rough  pointer  are  easily 
taught  to  take  the  water,  even  in  cold  wea". 
Ihcr,  and  to  range  the  woods  and  rough 
places  as  well  as  the  plain.  Cj'reater  depend- 
aiice  may  therefore  be  had  on  these  two  l.ist 
sjjecies  of  dog  than  on  the  smooth  pointer. 

Tile  education  of  a  pointer  may  commence 
when  he  is  only  live  or  six  monll'is  old.  The 
only  lessons  which  lie  can  be  taught  at  this 
lime  are,  to  fetcli  and  carry  any  thing  wln-n 
desired;  to  come  in  when  he  runs  tar  off, 
and  to  go  behind  w  hen  he  returns ;  using,  in 
I  he  one  case,  the  words  liere,  come  hi,  and 
in  tlie  other,  back,  or  behind.  It  is  also  ne- 
cessary at  thi,  period  to  accustom  him  to  be 
tied  up  ill  the  kennel  or  stable  ;  but  he  ought 
not  al  first  to  be  tied  loo  long.  He  should 
be  let  loose  in  the  morning,  and  fastened 
again  in  the  evening.  When  a  dog  is  not 
early  accustomed  lo'  be  cliained,  he\li>turbs 
every  person  in  the  neighbourhood  by  howl- 
ing. It  is  also  of  importanee  that  the  person 
who  is  to  train  hini  should  aive  iiiiii  ills 
food. 

W  hen  the  dog  has  attained  the  age  of  ten 
or  twelve  nunitiis.  he  may  be  carried  into  the 
lield  to  be  regularly  trained.  At  first  he  mav 
be  allowed  to  lollow  his  own  inclination,  and 
to  run  after  every  animal  he  sees.  His  in- 
discriminating  eagerness  will  soon  abate,  and 
he  will  pursue  only  partridges  and  liaros.  Hi- 
w  ill  soon  become  tired  of  following  partrid:;es 
in  vain,  and  will  content  liiniM'lf  alter  h  ivnig 
dushcd  them,  to  follow  them  with  his  eyes. 
It  will  be  more  dillicult  to  prevent  liiin  from 
following  bares. 

All  young  dogs  are  apt  to  rake  ;  that  is,  to 
hunt  with  their  noses  close  to  the  gronnd,  to 
follow  birds  rather  by  the  track  than  bv  the 
w  ind.  But  partridges  lie  much  better  to'  do:;s 
that  sviiid  theni,  than  to  those  that  follow 
them  by  the  track.  The  dog  tliat  winds  the 
scent  approaches  the  birds  by  degrees,  and 
witlioul  disturb'n;T  them;  but  they  are  ini- 
iiiediulely  alarmecl,  when  they  see  a  dog  tra- 
cing tlii'ir  iootslips.  When  you  perceive 
that  \our  dog  is  cwumiilling  thi^  fault,  call  to 
liiiii  In  an  angry  lone,  hold  up;  he  will  then 
grow  '  uneasy  and  agitated,  going  lirst  to  the 
one  side  and  tlien  to  the  other,  until  the  w  ind 
bring*  hnn  the  sceiil  of  the  birds.  Alter 
lindiiigtnt  game  four  or  live  limes  in  ihis 
way,  he  w  ill  lake  the  wind  of  himself,  and 

hunt  with  his  no^e  high.     If  it  is  difficult  to     ,  _. , 

correct  this  fault,  it  will  bo  necessary  to  put  I  with.jut  moving  until  l]ie  signal  "is  elvei)T:"'i'i 
the  pu«le-peg  upon  him.  riiis  is  of  ve:v  ,'  When  he  keeps  his  point  well,  and  sfan  I" 
simple  construction,  consisting  oiilv  ot  a  piee    '         ..... 


m 

under  ,1  iw.  I'.y  (his  mrani  (lie  pes  advan- 
'ing  seven  or  tight  iiithes  beyond  liij  nioiiI, 
the  d<;g  is  prevented  hom  pullinc  niii  liosft 
to  thegrourid  and  raking. 

As  soon  a>  fJie  >  oung  dog  knows  his  game^ 
you  must  brini;  him  under  comidcte  s»il>jec- 
lion.  If  he  \i  tractable,  this  will  be  easy  ;  but 
il  li..>  15  atubburn,  it  will  be  necessary  to  use 
the  MhsIi  cord,  wliic  It  i^  ii  rope  or  cord  of  V9 
or  0.1  (aihoms  in  lenglh  fastened  to  his  collar. 
If  he  refuses  to  come  back  v.lnai  called  upoiv 
you  nuHl  check  hnn  smartly  with  the  cord,. 
which  will  often  bring  him  ujioii  his  haiii.chcs. 
lint  be  sure  )ou  neviT  call  to  liini  cicept 
when  you  are  within  reach  of  tlie  cord.  AMvr 
re|)ealing  this  several  time?,  he  will  not  fail 
to  come  buck  whim  called ;  he  ought  then  to 
be  caressed,  ajid  a  bit  of  bread  should  be 
given  him.  He  ought  now  constantly  to  be 
tied  up  ;  and  never  unchained,  excejft  wiieii 
you  give  hiin  his  food,  and  even  then  only 
wlien  he  has  done  something  to  deserve  it. 

The  next  ttep  will  be  to  throw  dov  n  a 
piece  of  bread  on  the  groimd,  at  the  s.ime 
time  taking  hold  of  the  dog  by  tiic  collar, 
calling  to  liini,  "  take  heed,— soVtly."  A  ter 
having  held  him  in  this  manner  for  some 
Pfjace  of  time,  say  to  him  "  seize — lav  hold  * 
Il  lie  is  impatient  to  lay  hold  of  the  piece  of 
bread  belore  the  signal' is  erven,  correct  liini 
gently  with  a  small  whip.  Kepeat  this  lesson 
until  he  "  takes  heed"  well,  and  no  longer 
re(|uirei  to  be  held  fast  to  prevent  him  from 
lauiigliold  of  the  bread.  Ulien  1h»  is  well 
accustomed  to  ll'is  manege,  tuin  the  brea'i 
with  a  stick,  holding  it  in  the  manner  you  d»- 
a  fowlin^-pii.re,  :t|id  having  done  so.  cry 
sei^e.  Kever  sidil-r  (he  dog  to  eat  either  in 
the  house  or  lield,  without  having  first  made 
him  take  heed  in  this  manner. 

Then,  in  order  to  apply  tliis  lesson  to  Ih* 
game,  fry  small  pieces  ot  bread  in  hog's  lard, 
with  tlie  dung  of  partridge;  take  theif  in  a 
linen  bag  into  the  lieUjs,  stubbles,  ploughed 
grounds,  and  pastures,  and  there 'put  the 
pieces  insever.d  dilii-reiit  plac .s,  markinij  lli.» 
spots  with  lillle  deft  pickets  of  wood,  which 
will  be  rendered  more  di  limiuidiable  bv 
pulling  pieces  of  i  ard  in  the  nicks.  Tins 
being  done,  cast  olf  (he  dog  and  conduct  hini 
to  these  places,  always  liuiiting  in  the  wind. 
After  he  hjis  caiighl' tlw  scent  of  the  brea<i, 
if  he  appro;iches  too  near,  and  seems  eager  to 
tall  upon  it,  cry  to  him  in  a  iiienaciiijj  tone, 
"take  heed;"  and  if  he  does  not  stop  im- 
mi'dialely,  correct  him  with  Ihe  whip,  lie 
will  soon  comprehend  what  is  required  of 
hini,  and  will  stand. 

At  ihe  next  les^0I),  take  your  gun  chargod 
only  witii  powder,  walk  genth  round  the 
piece  of  bread  once  or  twice,  and  lire  intteai}^ 
of  crying  seize.  The  lie\t  time  of  prdCtisiiitr 
this  lesson,  walk  round  the  bre.ati  four  or  five 
times,  but  in  a  .greater  circle  than  befoie, 
and  continue  to  do  this  until  the  dog  Ls  con. 
iiueied    of    his  impatience,  and  will   stand 


ot  oak  or  deal  inch-board,  one  foot  in  len;;ih. 
and  .an  inch  ami  a  half  In  breadth,  tapering  a  | 
little  to  one  end  ;  at  the  broader  end  are  two 
holes  running  longitudinally,  through  which 
the  collar  of  th.e  dog  is  put',  aiicl  the  whole  is 
buckled  round  liis  neck;  tlie  piece  of  wood 
being  projected  beyond  his  nose,  is  then  liist-  | 
eiied  witk  u  piece  of  leatlier  iliong  to  his 


,  ...    -._..  l5 

steady  m  this  lesson,  you  may  carry  him  to 
Ihe  birds;  if  he  runs  ib  upon  the. n,  or  b:.rks 
when  they  spring  up,  you  niu»i  cuireci  him  ; 
and  il  he  continues  ii.  I'lu  so,  vuii  must  return 
to  the  fried  bread  ;  bui  (his  'is  seldom  necei- 
sary. 

U'hen  the  dog  has  learned  bv  this  use  mf 
the  bread  to  take  h.  cd,  he  mav  be  carried  ta 
th<i  fields  wiilj  the  trash-cord  d'ra-.>ging  on  tl,,^ 


oqrt 


s  ri  o 


S  H  O 


ground.  When  lie  springs,  birds  for  the  iirsl 
timo,  if  he  nm'i  after  ihem  or  burks,  check 
hiin  bv  calling  out  to  liiin,  "  take  lieecl."  If  ho 
poi'nls  propeilv,  circss  him  ;  but  you  oiiglil 
jicver  to  hunt  witliout  the  cord  until  he  points 
staunch. 

Tiie  principal  objects  of  Uiis  8port  are,  I . 
Partridges,  which  pair  in  the  spring,,  and  .lay 
their  eggs  (generally  from  Ij  to  20)  during 
Way  aiid  part  ot  June.  'I'lii;  young  begin  to 
ily  about  the  end  of  June,  and  their  plumage 
is'  complete  in  the  beginning  of  October. 
The  male  has  a  conspicuous  horse-shoe  upon 
liis  breast,  and  an  obtuse  spur  on  the  hinder 
part  of  the  leg,  which  distinguishes  him  from 
Ihe female.     He  is  also  rallicr  larger. 

When  a  sportsman  is  shooting  in  a  coutitry 
where  the  birds  are  thiii,  and  he  no  longer 
chooses  to  range  the  field  for  the  bare  chance 
of  meeting  witli  them,  the  following  method 
will  show  him  where  to  find  them  on  another 
day..  In  the  evening,  from  sun-set  to  niglit- 
fell,  he  should  post  iiinlself  in  a  held,  at  the 
foot  of  a  tree  or  a  bush,  and  there  wait  until 
the  partridges  begin  to  call  or  juck,  which 
they  always  do  at  that  time;  not  only  for 
the  purpose  of  drawing  together  when  sepa- 
rated, but  also  wiien  the  birds  composing  the 
covey  are  not  dispersed.  After  calling  in 
this  manner  for  some  little  sjrace  of  time,  the 
partridges  will  take  to  flight ;  then,  if  he 
ifiarks  the  place  where  they  alight,  he  may 
be  assured  they  will  lie  there  the  whole  night, 
unless  disturbed. 

.  2.  The  pheasant  lays  its  eggs  generally  in 
the  woods,  the  mnnber  of  which  is  ten  or 
twelve.  Pheasants  are  accounted  stupid 
birds;  for  when  they  are  surprised  they  will 
frequently  stpiat  down  like  a  rabbit,  suppos- 
ing themselves  to  be  in  safety  as  soon  as  their 
heads  are  concealed;  and  in  this  way  they 
will  sometimes  suffer  themselves  to  be  killed 
with  a  stick.  T  hey  love  low  and  moist 
places,  and  haunt  the  edges  of  those  pools 
which  are  found  in  woods,  as  well  as  the  high 
grass  of  marshes  that  are  near  at  hand  ;  and 
above  all,  places  where  there  are  clumps  of 
alders. 

3.  Grouse,  or  moor-game,  are  found  in 
Wales,  in  the  northern  counties  of  England, 
and  in  great  abundance  in  Scotland.  They 
chielly  inhabit  those  mountains  and  moors 
which  are  covered  with  heath,  and  seldom 
descend  to  the  low  grounds.  They  fly  in 
companies  of  four  or  five  bra<:es,  and  love  to 
frequent  mossy  places,  particularly  in  the 
jnicldle  of  the  day,  or  when  the  weather  is 
warm.  In  pursuing  this  game,  when  the 
pointer  sets,  and  the  sportsman  perceives  the 
birds  running  w  ith  their  heads  erect,  he  must 
run  alter  them  as  fust  as  he  can,  in  the  hope 
that  he  may  get  near  enough  to  shoot  when 
they  rise  upon  the  wing ;  for  l.e  may  be 
pretty  certain  they  will  not  lie  well  that  day. 
As  these  birds  are  apt  to  grow  soon  putrid, 
they  ought  to  be  drawn  carefully  the  instant 
they  are  shot,  and  stuffed  with  heath;  and  if 
th6  feathers  happen  to  be  wetted,  they  must 
be  wiped  dry. 

4.  The  woodcock  is  a  bird  of  passage ;  it 
i.'ommonly  arrives  about  the  end  of  October, 
and  remains  until  the  middle  of  .March. 
Woodcocks  are  fattest  in  December  and  Ja- 
nuary, but  from  the  end  of  February  they 
are  lean.  At  their  arrival  they  drop  any 
W)i«re,  but  afterwards  take  up  their  residence 


iiv  copses  of  nine  or  ten  years  growth.  They 
seldom,  however,  stay  in  one  place  longer 
than  twelve  or  fifteen  clays.  During  the  day 
they  remain  in  those  parts  of  the  woods, 
where  there  are  void  spaces  or  glades,  pick- 
ing up  earth-worms  and  grul)s  from  the  (alien 
leaves.  In  the  evening  they  go  to  drink  and 
wash  their  bills  at  pools  and  springs,  after 
which  they  repair  tci  the  open  fields  and 
meadows  for  the  night. 

5.  The  snipe  is  a  bird  of  passage  as  well  as 
tiie  woodcock.  In  the  month  of  November 
they  grow  fat.  Snipes  frequent  springs,  bogs, 
and  marshy  places,  and  generally  fly  against 
the  wind.  The  slant  and  cross  shots  are 
rather  difficult,  as  the  birds  are  small  and  fly 
very  quickly.  The  sportsman  ought  to  look 
for  them  in  the  direction  of  the  wind  ;  be- 
cause then  they  will  tiy  towards  him,  and 
present  a  fairer  mark. 

6.  The  wild  duck  also  may  in  some  measure 
be  accounted  a  bird  of  passage,  and  arrives 
here  in  great  flocks  from  the  iioithern  coun- 
tries in  the  beginning  of  winter.  Still,  how- 
ever, a  great  many  remain  in  our  marshes 
and  fens  during  the  whole  year,  and  breed.. 

The  wild  duck  differs  little  in  plumage 
from  the  tame  duck,  but  is  easily  distinguisli- 
ed  by  its  size,  w  liich  is  less  ;  by  the  neck, 
which  is  more  sh^nder;  by  the  foot,  which  is 
smaller;  by  the  nails,  wliich  are  more  black,; 
and  above  all,  by  the  web  of  the  foot,>vhich 
is  much  finer  and  softer  to  the  touch. 

In  the  summer  season,  when  it  is  known 
that  a  team  of  young  ducks  are  in  a  particular 
piece  of  water,  and  just  beginning  to  fly,  the 
sportsman  is  sure  to  iiiid  them  early  in  the 
morning  dabbling  at  the  edges  of  the  pool, 
and  amongst  the  long  grass,  and  then  he  may 
get  very  near  to  tliem  :  it  is  usual  also  to  find 
them  in  those  places  at  noon. 

In  the  beginning  of  autumn  almost  every 
pool  is  frequented  by  teams  of  wild  ducks, 
which  remain  there  during  the  dav,  concealed 
in   the  rushes.     If  these  pools  are  of  small 
extent,  two  shooters,   bv  going  one  on  each 
side,  making  a  noise  and  throwing  stones  into 
the  rushes,  will  make  them  fly  up ;  and  they 
will  in  this  way  frequently  get  shots,  especi- 
ally if  the  pool  is  not  broad,  and  contracts  at 
one  end.     But  the  surest  an<l  most  success- 
ful way,  is  to  launch  a  small  boat  or  trow  on 
the  pool,  and  to  traverse  the  rushes  by  the 
openings  which  are  found ;  at  the  same  time 
making  as  little   noise  as  possible.     In   this 
manner  the  ducks  will  suffer  the  sportsmen  to 
come  sufficiently  near  tliem  to  shoot  flying  ; 
audit  often  happens   that  the   ducks," after 
liaving  flow  n  up,  only  make  a  circuit,  return 
in  a  little  time,  and  again  alight  upon  the 
pool.  ■  Tlien  t'le  sportsmen  endeavour  a  se- 
cond time  to  come  near  them.     If  several 
shooters  are  in  company,  they  should  divide  ; 
two  should  go  in  the  boat,  whilst  the  others 
spread  themselves  about  the  edge  of  the  pool, 
in  order  to  shoot  the  ducks  in  their  flight. 
In  pools  which  will  not  admit  a  trow,  water- 
spaniels  are   absolutely    necessary    for     this 
sport. 

In  whiter  they  may  be  found  on  the  mar- 
gins of  little  pools  ;  and  when  pools  and  rivers 
are  frozen  up,  they  must  be  watched  for  in 
places  where  there  are  springs  and  waters 
which  do  not  freeze.  The  sport  is  then 
much  more  certain,  because  the  ducks  are 
confined  to  these  placts  in  order  to  procure 


S  H  O 

aquatic  herbs,  wfiicji  arc  alinoJt  tjjcii"  only  . 
food  at  this  period. 

SliORL.      No  word  has   been  used   by 
mineralogists  with  less  limitation  than  short. 
It  was   first  introduced  into  nilneralogy   by 
Cronstedt,  to  denote  any  stone  of  a  coiuomar 
form,  considerable  hardness,   and  a  specitic 
gravity  from  3  to  3.4.     This  description  ap- 
pliird  to  a  very  great  number  of  stones  ;  and 
succeeding  mineralogists,  though  tiiey  made 
the  word  more  definite  in  its   signification, 
left  it  still  so  general,  that  under  the  desig- 
nation of  shorl  almost  twenty  distinct  species 
of    minerals   were  includetf.      Mr.    V\  erner 
first  defined  the  word  shorl  precisely,    and 
restricted  it  to  one  s|)ecies  of  stones.     It  oc- 
curs commonly  in  granite,  gneiss,  and  other  si- 
milar rocks;  often  in  mass,  but  very  frequently 
crystallised.     The  primitive  form  of  its  crys- 
tals is  an  obtuse  rhomboid,  the  solid  augle 
at  the  summit  of  which  is  139',  having  rhom- 
bid  faces,  with  angles  of  114"  12'  and  (55"  4S'  : 
but  it  usually  occurs  in  3,  6,  8,  9,  or  12  sided 
prisms,   terminated     by    four    or    live-sided 
summits,  variously  truncated. 

SHOiti.,  black.  Colour  black.  Found  ia 
mass,  disseminated  and  crystallized.  Crys- 
tals three-sided  prisms,  having  their  lateral 
edges  truncated.  Sometimes  terminating  in 
a  pyramid.  Lateral  faces  of  the  prism  strt: 
ated.  %  itreous.  Fracture  conchoidaK 
Opaciue.  Scratch  grey.  Feel  cold.  Spe- 
cific gravity  from  3  to  3.  It  becomes  electric 
bv  heat.  \'>'lien  heated  to  redness,  its  colour 
becomes  brownish  red  ;  and  at  127°  Wedgei- 
wood,  it  is  converted  into  a  brownish  com- 
pact enamel.  According  to  Wiegleb,  it  is 
composed  of 

41.25  alumina 
34. 16  silica 
20.00  iron 
5.41  manganese 


100.82.  ' 
Shorl  electric.  This  stone  was  first  madfe' 
known  in  ICurope  by  specimens  brought  from 
Ceylon  ;  but  it  is  now  found  frequently  form- 
ing a  part  of  the  composition  of  mountains. 
It  is  sometimes  in  amorphous  pieces,  but 
much  more  frequently  crystallized  in  three 
or  nine-sided  prisms,  with  four-sided  sum- 
mits. 

Colour  usually  green ;  sometimes  brown, 
red,  blue.  Found  in  mass,  in  grains,  and 
crystallized.  Crystals  three,  six,  or  nhie- 
sided  prisms,  variously  truncated.  Faces 
usually  striated  longitudinally.  Its  texture 
is  foliateil.  Specific  gravity  3.  Colour 
brown,  sometimes  with  a  tint  of  green,  blue, 
red,  or  yellow.  When  heated  to  200°  Fah- 
renheit, it  becomes  electric,  one  of  the  sum- 
mits negatively  and  the  other  positively. 
It  reddens  when  heated,  and  is  fusible  per 
se,  with  white  intumescence,  into  a  white  or 
grey  enamel.  .-Vccording  to  Vauquelin,  it  ft 
composed  of 

40  silica 
39  alumina 
12  oxide  of  iron 
4  lime 
2.5  oxide  of  manganese 

97.5 

SHORLITE,  a  stone  which  received  its 

name  from  Mr.  Klaprotli,  is  generally  f»mu<l 

in  oblong  masses,  which,  when  regular,  are 

six-»ideti   prisms,  inserted  in   granite.      lt» 


S  II  o 

kxture  is  foliated.  Fracture  iineTpn.  F.i-iiy 
broken.  Specilic  gravity  3.53.  Colour 
greenish  or  ydlowisli  whiie;  sometimes  sul- 
phur yellow.  Not  altered  by  heat.  Ac- 
cording to  the  analysis  of  Klaprotli,  it  is 
eomposed  of  '50  alumina 

50  silica 

100. 
According  to  Vau(iu(;lin,  of  M.G  alumina 
3(i.8  silica 
3.3  lime 
1.3  water. 

94.2" 

SIIOHT-IIAXD.     See  STKNOGR.\PHy. 

SllOr,  a  denomination  given  to  all  sorls 
of  balls  for  fire-arms  ;  those  for  cannon  being 
of  iron,  and  those  for  guns,  pistols,  &c.  of 
lead. 

Shot,  rnsr,  formerly  consisted  of  all  kinds 
of  old  iron,  nails,  musket-balls,  stones,  &c. 
used  as  above. 

Shot  of  lu  cable,  on  ship-board,  is  the 
S])'icing  of  two  cables  together,  that  a  ship 
may  ride  safe  in  deep  waters  and  in  great 
roads ;  for  a  ship  will  ride  easier  by  one  shot 
of  a  cable,  thaji  by  three  short  cables  out 
ahead. 

Shot,  grape.     See  Grape-shot. 

Shot,  patent  milled,  is  thus  made  ;  sheets 
of  lead,  whose  thickn^rss  corresponds  with  the 
5:ze  of  the  sivot  required,  are  cut  into  small 
•pieces,  or  cubes,  of  the  form  of  a  die.  A 
great  quantity  of  these  little  cubes  are  put 
into  a  large  hollow  iron  cylinder,  which 
is  mounted  horizontally  and  turned  by  a 
winch  ;  when  by  their  friction  against  one 
another,  and  against  the  sides  of  the  cylinder, 
thev  are  rendered  perfectly  round  and  very 
smooth.  The  other  patent-shot  is  tast  in 
moulds,  in  the  same  way  as  bullets  are. 

Shot,  common  sm<dl,  or  that  used  for 
fowling,  should  be  well  sized:  for,  should  it 
"Tje  too  great,  then  it  Hies  thin  and  scatters 
too  much  ;  or  if  too  small,  then  it  has  not 
weight  and  strength  to  penetrate  far,  and  the 
bira  is  apt  to  fly  away  with  it.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  have  it  suitable  to  the  occasion, 
it  not  being  always  to  be  had  in  every  place 
fit  for  tlie  purpose,  we  shall  set  down  the  true 
method  of  making  all  sorts  and  sizes  under 
the  name  of  mould-shot,  formerly  made  alter 
the  following  process: 

Take  any  quantity  of  lead  you  think  fit, 
and  melt  it  down  in  an  iron  vessel ;  and  as 
it  melts  keep  it  stirring  with  an  iron  ladle, 
sk?mmnig  off  all  impurities  whatsoever  that 
may  arise  at  top  ;  when  it  begins  to  look  of 
a  greenish  colour,  strew  on  it  as  much  auri- 
pigmentuin  or  yellow  orpiment,  iinely  pow- 
dered, as  will  lie  on  a  shilling,  to  every  twelve 
or  fourteen  pounds  of  lead;  then  stirring 
.them  together,  the  orpiment  will  flame.  The 
ladle  should  have  a  notch  on  one  side  of  the 
brum,  tor  more  easily  pouring  out  the  lead  ; 
tlie  ladle  must  remain  in  the  melted  lead, 
that  its  liuat  may  be  the  same  with  that  of 
the  lead,  to  prevent  inconveniences  which 
otherwise  might  happen  by  its  being  eitlier 
too  hot  or  too  cold ;  then,  to  try  your  lead, 
drop  a  little  of  it  into  water,  and  if  the  drops 
prove  round,  then  the  lead  is  ot  a  proper 
lieat ;  if  otherwise,  and  the  shot  have  ta.ls, 
then  add  more  orpiment  to  increase  the  heat, 
till  it  is  found  sufficient. 
•  Thin  take  a  plate  of  copper,  abowt  the 
Vol.  II. 


S  II  R 

si;'r  of  a  trencher,  which  must  be  made  with 
a  hollowness  in  the  middle,  about  tiiree 
inches  compass,  within  which  must  be  bored 
about  40  holes  according  to  the  size  of  the 
shot  which  you  intend  to  cast ;  the  hollow 
bottom  should  be  thin  ;  but  the  thicker  the 
brim,  the  bi-tter  it  will  retain  the  heat.  Place 
this  plate  on  a  frame  of  iron,  over  a  tube  or 
vessel  of  water,  about  four  inches  from  the 
water,  and  sjjread  burning  coals  on  the  plate, 
to  keep  the  lead  milted  upon  it ;  then  take 
some  lead  and  poi?r  it  gently  on  the  coaN  on 
the  plate,  and  It  will  make  its  way  tlirough 
the  holes  into  the  water,  and  form  itself  into 
shot  ;  do  thus  till  all  your  lead  is  run  through 
the  holes  of  the  plate,  taking  care,  by  keep- 
ing your  coals  alive,  that  the  lead  aoes  not 
cool,  and  so  stop  up  the  holes. 

While  you  are  casting  in  this  manner,  an- 
other person  with  another  ladle  may  catch 
some  of  the  shot,  placing  the  ladle  four  or 
five  inches  underneath  the  plate  in  the  water, 
by  which  means  you  will  see  if  tiiey  are  de- 
fective, and  rectify  them.  Your  chief  tare 
is  to  keep  the  le.ul  in  a  just  degree  of  heat, 
that  it  shall  be  not  so  cold  as  to  stop  up  the 
holes  in  your  plate,  nor  so  hot  as  to  cause  the 
shot  to  crack  ;  to  remedy  the  heat,  you  must 
refrain  working  till  it  is  of  a  jjroper  coolness ; 
and  to  remedy  the  coolness  of  your  lead  and 
plate,  you  must  blow  your  tire  ;  observing, 
that  the  cooler  your  lead  is,  the  larger  will 
be  your  shot ;  as,  the  hotter  it  is,  the  smaller 
tiiey  will  be. 

After  vou  have  done  casting,  take  them  out 
of  the  water,  and  dry  them  over  the  lire  with 
a  gentle  heat,  stirring  them  continually  that 
they  do  not  melt ;  when  dry,  you  are  to  se- 
parate the  great  shot  from  the  small,  by  the 
help  of  a  sieve  made  for  that  purpose,  ac- 
cording to  their  several  sizes.  But  those 
wdio  would  have  very  large  shot,  make  tlie 
lead  trickle  with  a  stick  out  of  the  ladle  into 
the  water,  witliout  the  plate.  If  it  stops  on 
the  plate,  and  yet  the  plate  is  not  too  cool, 
give  but  the  plate  a  little  knock,  and  it  will 
run  again;  care  must  be  had  that  none  of 
your  imijlements  are  greasy,  oily,  or  the  like  ; 
and  whtn  the  shot,  being  separated,  are  found 
too  large  or  too  small  for  your  purpose,  or 
otherwise  imperfect,  they  will  serve  again  at 
the  ne.xt  operation. 

Shot,  tin-case,  in  artillery,  is  formed  by 
putting  a  great  quantity  of  small  iron  shot  into 
a  tin  C)  lindrical  box  called  a  cannister,  that 
;ust  fits  the  bore  of  the  gim.  Leaden  bullets 
are  sometimes  used  in  the  same  manner;  and 
it  must  be  observed,  that  whatever  number  or 
siz?s  ot  the  shots  are  used,  they  must  weigh 
with  their  cases  nearly  as  much  as  the  shot 
of  the  piece. 

SIIRKW-MOUSE.    SeeSoREx. 

SIIRIMT.     See  Cancer. 

SHRINE,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a  case 
or  box,  to  hold  the  relics  of  some  saint. 

SHROUDS      SeeSHROwDs. 

SHROWDS,  or  Shrouds,  in  a  ship,  are 
the  great  ropes  which  come  down  both  sides 
of  the  m.ist'i,  and  are  fastened  below  to  the 
chains  on  the  ship's  side,  and  aloft  to  the  top 
of  the  mast ;  being  parcelled  and  served,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  mast's  galling  them 
The  to[)mast  shrowds  are  fastened  to  the 
puttock-plates,  by  dead-eyes  and  laniards, 
as  the  others  are.  Some  of  the  terms  relat- 
ing to  the  shrowds  are:  ease  the  shrowds; 
4P 


S  I  D 


ms 


Ihat  \<,    slacken    them :     and,    set   up   the, 
ahrowds  ;  that  is,  set  them  stilfer. 

SHU'n  LT,,  in  the  manufactures,  an  in- 
strument much  used  by  weavers,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  which  is  an  eye,  or  cavity,  wherein  is 
inclosed  the  spoul  with  the  woof.  See 
Weaving. 

Si,  in  music,  a  sevenlh  note  or  sotmd, 
added  by  J.e  Maire  to  the  six  aiilient  notes 
invented  by  Guido  Aretine,  viz,  ut.  re,  mi, 
fa,  sol,  la,  si.  ' 

SIBQALDTA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonq;- 
ing  to  the  class  of  pentandria,  and  to  th'! 
order  of  pentagynia ;  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  35tli  order,  senti- 
cosK.  '^I'fie  calyx  is  divided  into  ten  seg- 
ments, 'i  he  petals  are  five,  and  are  insert- 
ed into  the  calyx.  7  he  styles  are  attached 
to  the  side  of  the  germens.  The  seeds  are 
{^sf:.  There  are  three  species  belonging  to 
tills  genus,  the  procumbens,  erecla,  and  al- 
taiva.  The  procumhcns,  or  reclining  sib- 
baldia,  is  a  native  of  North  Britain. 

SIB'lIiOHPlA,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  class  of  didynaniia,  and  to  the. 
order  of  angiospermia ;  and  in  the  natural 
system  classed  with  lho>e  the  order  C!  whicii 
is  doubtful.  The  calyx  is  spreading,  and 
divided  into  five  parts,  alaiost  to  the  base. 
'J  he  corolla  is  divided  into  five  parts  in  the 
same  manner,  which  are  rounded,  equal, 
spreading,  and  of  the  length  of  the  calyx. 
The  stamina  grow  in  pairs  at  a  distance  from 
each  other.  The  capsule  is  compressed,  or- 
bicular, bilocular,  tlie  partition  being  trans- 
verse. '  There  is  one  species  ;  the  Euro- 
pa;a,  or  bastard  money-wort,  a  native  of 
South  Britain.  It  blossoms  froin  July  to 
September,  and  is  found  in  Cornwall  on 
the  banks  of  rivulets. 

SICE-ACE,  a  game  with  dice  and  tables, 
whereat  five  may  (day  ;  each  having  six  men, 
and  the  ktst  out  losing.  At  this  game,  they 
load  one  anotherwith  aces  ;  sixes  bear  aw av'; 
and  doublets  drinks,  and  throws  again. 

SICYOS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  class  of  mona-cia,  and  to  the  order  of 
syngenesia ;  and  in  the  natural  system  ar- 
ranged under  the  34th  order,  cucurbitacea-. 
The  male  llowcrs  have  their  calvx  quinquc- 
dentated,  tluir  corolla  quinquepartite,  and 
there  are  three  iilament's.  1  he  iemale  flow- 
ers have  their  calyx  and  corolla  similar;  but 
their  style  is  trihd,  and  their  drupe  mono- 
sptrmous.  There  are  three  species,  theangu- 
lala,  laciniata,  and  garcini,  which  are  all  fo- 
reign plants. 

SI  DA,  yellow  or  Indian  mallow :  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  monadel- 
phia,  and  to  the  order  of  polyandria;  and  in 
the  natural  system  ranking  under  the  37tii 
order,  colunmifera;.  The  c;Uyx  is  simple 
and  aiigulated  ;  thi?  style  is  divided  intoniany 
parts ;  there  arc  several  capstdes,  each  con- 
tainhig  one  seed.  There  are  99  species,  all 
iUitivcs-.of  warm  climates;  and  most  of  t:,em 
are  foujid  in  the  East  or  West  Indies.  Tlie 
Chinese  inafee  cords  of  the  sida  abutilon. 
This  plant  loves  water,  and  may  be  advan- 
tageously planted  in  inaisbes  and  ditclu-s, 
where  nothing  else  will  grow.  1'he  mace- 
ration of  the  smaller  stalks  is  finished  in  about 
fifteen  days  ;  of  the  larger  in  a  month.  The 
strength  and  goodness  of  the  thread  appears 
to  be  in  proportion  to  the  p'erfection  of  the 
vegetation,  and  to  the  distance  tlie  plant  is ' 
kept  a4  from  •ther  plants.    Tie  fisresjie 


SID 


in  strata,  of  wlii<:h  tliere  are  sometimes  sLx ; 
they  are  not  quite  straight,  but  preserve  an 
undulating  liu-cttion,  so  as  to  lorin  a  net- 
work in  Uieir  natural  positions.  Their  smell 
'resembles  that  ol  hemp;  the  ribres  are  whiter, 
but  more  do"  anil  hai^h,  than  those  of  hemp. 
The  harshness  is  owing  to  a  greenish 
gluten  which  connects  the  fibres  ;  and  the 
white  colour  must  always -be  obtained  at  the 
expcnce  of  having  Uiis'  kintl  of  thread  less 
supple;  wheji  ot  its  natural  hue,  it  is  very 
soft  and  llexible. 

SIBERIA,  in  natural  history,  the  name  of 
a  genus  of  crvstals.  ust-d  to  express  those  al- 
tered in  their  figure  by  particles  of  iron. 
These  are  of  a  rhombordal  ligure,  and  com- 
posed only  of  si\  planes.  Ot  ihis  genus  there 
are  tour  known  species:  1.  A  colourless, 
peiUicid,  and  thin  one  ;  found  in  considerable 
quantities  among  the  iron  ores  ot  the  iorest 
of  Uean  iu  Gloucestershire,  and  in  several 
other  places.  2.  A  dull,  thick,  and  brown 
one,  not  uncommon  in  the  same  places  v.ilh 
■the  former.  And,  3.  A  black  and  very 
clossv  kind,  a  fossil  of  great  beauty  ;  found 
m  the  same  place  with  the  others,  as  also  in 
Leicestershire  and  Sussex. 

SIDEUIli:,  a  substance  discovered  by 
ISIr.  Mever,  and  by  him  supposed  to  be  a 
new  met'ai ;  but  Messrs.  Bergman  and  Ku'- 
van  discovered  that  it  is  nothing  else  than  a 
natural  combination  of  llie  plvJ^phorlc  acid 
with  iron.  Mr.  Kluproth  oi  Beilin  also 
came  to  the  same  con.lusion,  without  any 
communication  with  Mr.  .Meyer.  It  is  ex- 
tremely ditticult  to  separate  tins  acid  from 
the  metal,  however,  he  lound  Uie  artilicial 
compound  of  phosphoric  acid  and  iron  to 
agree  in  its  properties  w!th  the  calx  s:dcri 
alba,  obtained  Dy  15ergm.in  and  Meyer  from 
the  cold  short  iroii  extracted  from  the  swampy 
or  marsiiv  oivs. 

SlDEkll'IS,  Iro.vwort;  a  genus  of 
plants  beluiiging  to  the  class  of  didynamia, 
and  to  tne  order  of  gymiio»permia;  and  in 
the  natural  system  ranging  unde,  the  ,42d 
order,  verticill'ata;.  Tiie  stamina  are  within 
the  tube  of  the  corolla.  There  are  two  stig- 
mas, one  of  wlm  h  is  c\  lindrical  and  concave  ; 
the  other,  which  is  lower,  is  membianoiis, 
sliorler,  and  sneathing  the  other.  The  spe- 
cies are  19. 

SIDIvROXYLUM,  iRON-woon:  a  genus 
of  plants  oelonging  to  tne  class  of  pentandria, 
and  to  the  order  of  monogynia  ;  and  in  the 
jiaiural  system  ranging  under  the  43d  order, 
elumo^as."  'i  lie  coroila  is  cut  into  live  parts,- 
the  lacinix  or  segments  being  incurvated  al- 
terii.ileiy  ;  thi:  stigma  is  simple ;  the  berry 
coiitams  live  seeds.  'I'here  are  nine  species ; 
1.  Mite;  2.  inerme,  smooth  iron-wood;  3. 
melanophleum,  laurel-leaved  iron-wood ; 
4.  cynlosuin  ;  5.  sericeum,  silky  iron-wood, 

native  of  New  South  Wales;  6.  tomen- 
tosum;  7.  tena,\.  silvery-leaved  iron-wood, 
a  native  of  Carolina  ;  8.  lycioides,  willow- 
leaved  iron-wood,  a  n..tive  of  North  Ame- 
rica ;  9.  decandruin.  The  wood  of  these 
trees  being  very  close  and  solid,  has  given 
I,  occasion  tor  this  iiairie  to  be  applied  to  them, 
it  being  ?o  heavy  as  to  Muk  in  water.  As 
they  are  natives  o'l  warm  countries,  they  can- 
not he  preserved  in  tiiis  country  unless  the) 
are  placed,  the  two  lormcr  in  a  warm  stove, 
thcotlieis  in  a  g  een-nouse.  Tiicy  are  pro- 
pagated by  seeds,  wtiiJU  ibtfse  cuo  be  prociir- 
cd.irom  abr(u4 


S  I  G 

SIEGE,  in  the  art  of  war,  the  encamp-  ; 
ment  of  an  army  before  a  fortitied  place,  with 
a  design  to  lake  it. 

SIltiSirE.     See  Rocks,  prmiizVe. 

SIGESBECKIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  class  syngenesta,  and  to  the  order 
of  polvgamia  superllua,  and  in  the  natural 
system'  ranging  under  the  4!)th  order,  coin- 
positK.  'i'he  receptacle  is  paleaceous  ;  the 
pappus  wanting  ;  the. exterior  calyx  is  peii- 
tapiiy  llous.  proper,  and  spreading ;  the  radius 
is  halved.  There  are  tluee  species :  1.  The 
orientalis,  which  is  a  native  of  India  i.nd 
China.  2.  The  occidcntalis,  which  is  a  na- 
tive of  Virginia.  3.  The  flosculosa,  a  native 
of  Peru. 

SIGHTS  of  a  quadnmt,  ice.  thin  pieces 
of  brass,  raised  perpendicularly  on  its  side,  or 
on  the  index  of  a  theodolite,  circuniferentor. 
Sec.  They  have  each  an  aperture,  or  slit, 
up  the  middle,  through  which  the  visual  rays 
pass  to  the  eye,  and  distant  objects  are  seen. 

Sights  of  a  gini.     See  Eifle. 

SIGN,  in  astronomy,  a  conitellation  con- 
taining a  twelfth  part  of  the  zodiac,  or  30\ 
See  Zodiac. 

The  iKimes  of  the  signs,  in  the  order  where- 
in they  follow  each  other,  are  aries,  taurus, 
gemini,  cancer,  leo,  virgo,  libra,  Scorpio, 
Sagittarius,  capricornus,  aquarius,  pisces. 
The  three  first  of  these  signs  are  called  the 
vernal,  or  spring-signs ;  the  ne.vt  three, 
cancer,  leo,  virgo,  the  Estival,  or  summer- 
signs  ;  libra,  scorpio,  and  Sagittarius,  the  au- 
tumnal signs;  and  capricornus,  aquarius,  pis- 
cc-s,  the  brumal,  or  winter-signs.  The  vernal 
and  sstival  signs  are  also  called  the  northern, 
and  the  autumnal  and  brumal  the  southern 
signs. 

SiGN-MANU.iL,  in  law,  is  used  to  signify  a 
bill,  or  writitig,  signed  by  the  king's  own 
hand-writing. 

SIGN.VLS,  certain  alarms  or  notices  used 
to  communicate  inteliig'  nee  to  a  distant  ob- 
server. Signals  are  made  by  tiring  artillery, 
and  displaying  colours,  lanterns,  or  lire- 
works  ;  and  these  are  combined  by  multipli- 
cation and  repetition.  Thus,  like  the  words  of 
a  langu.ige,  they  become  arbitrary  expres- 
sions, to  which  we  have  previously  annexed 
particular  ideas  ;  and  hence  they  are  the  ge- 
neral sources  of  intelligence  throughout  a 
naval  armament,  &c. 

Signals  ought  to  be  distinct,  with  simplicitj'. 
They  are  simple  when  every  instruction  is 
expressed  by  a  particular  token,  in  order  to 
avoid  any  mistakes  arising  from  the  double 
purport  of  one  signal.  They  are  distinct 
when  issued  without  precipitation,  when  suf- 
ficient time  is  allowed  to  observe  and  obey 
them,  and  when  they  are  exposed  in  a  con- 
spicuous place,  so  as  to  be  readily  perceived 
at  a  distance. 

All  signals  may  be  reduced  into  three  dif- 
ferent kinds,  viz.  those  wiiich  are  made  by 
the  sound  of  particular  instruments,  as  the 
trumpet,  horn,  or  life ;  to  which  may  be 
added,  striking  the  bell,  or  beating  the  drum. 
1  hose  whicli  are  made  by  displaying  pen- 
dants, ensigns,  and  flags  of  iliiferent  colours; 
or  by  lowering  or  altering  the  position  of  the 
sails  ;  and,  iiually,  those  which  are  executed 
by  roi  kets  ul  dilterent  kin,.s;  by  tiring  can- 
non Or  small  arms;  by  artilicial  lire-woiks; 
aud  by  lanterns. 

Firing  of  great  guns  will  serve  etpiany  in 
the  day  or  night,  or  in  a  fog,  lo  make  or  ton- 


S  I  G 

firm  signals,  or  to  raise  the  attention  of  the 
liearers  to  a  future  order.  This  method, 
however,  is  attended  with  some  inconveni- 
ences, and  should  not  be  used  indiscrimi- 
nately. Too  great  a  report  of  I  he  (aniion  is- 
apt  to  introduce  mistakes  and  confusion,  ae 
well  as  to  discover  the  track  of  the  -quadron. 
The  report  and  flight  of  rockets  is  liable 
to  the  same  objection,  when  at  a  short  dis» 
tanre  from  the  enemy. 

It  is  then  by  the  combination  of  signals, 
previously  known,  that  the  admiral  conveys  ' 
orders  to  his  Heet ;  cvei^y  squadron,  every 
division,  and  every  ship  of  which,  has  iti  par- 
ticular signal.  The  instruction  may  there- 
fore occasionally  be  given  to  the  whole  fleet, 
or  to  anv  of  its  squadrons;  to  any  division 
of  those  squadrons,  or  to  any  ship  of  those  • 
divisions. 

Hence  the  signal  of  command  may  at  the  • 
same  time  be  displayed  for  three  divisions, 
and  for  three  ships  of  each  division  ;  or  for 
three  ships  in  each  stpiadron,  and  for  only 
nine  ships  in  the  whole  fleet.  For.  the  ge- 
neral signal  of  the  ileet  being  shown,  if  a  par- 
ticular pendant  is  also  thrown  out  from  some 
particulur  place  on  the  same  mast  \\ith  the 
general  signal,  it  will  communii  ate  intelli- 
aence  lo  nine  ships  that  wear  the  same  pen- 
dant. 

The  preparatory  signal  given  by  the  ad- 
miral to  the  whole  or  any  part  oi  his  fleet, 
is  immediatel)  answered  by  tho^ic  to  whom 
it  is  directed  ;  by  showing  the  same  signal, 
to  testify  that  they  are  ready  to  put  his  orders 
in  execution.  Having  observed  their  answer, 
he  w  ill  show  the  signal  which  is  t'>  direct  their  . 
operations  :  as,  to  chase,  to  form  the  line, 
to  begin  the  engagement,  to  board,  to  double 
upon  the  enemy,  to  rally  or  ret-rn  to  action, 
to  discontinue  the  figlit,  lo  retreat  and  save 
themselves.  The  dexteri'y  of  working  the' 
ships  in  a  He.  t  depends  on  the  precise  mo- 
ment of  executing  these  orders,  and  on  the 
general  harmony  of  their  movements  ;  a  cir* 
cumstance  which  evinces  the  utility  of  a  sig- 
nal of  preparation. 

As  the  extent  of  the  line  of  battle,  and  the  ■ 
fire  and  smoke  of  the  action,  or  other  cirtum- 
stiinces  in  navigation,  will  fre<|ueiitly  prevent 
the  admiral's  signals  from  being  seen  through-* 
out  the  fleet,  they  are  always  repealed  by 
the  officers  next  in  command,  by  ships  ap-  : 
pointed  to  repeat  signals;  and,  finally,  by 
the  ship  or  ships  for  which  they  are  inteiuled. 

The  ships  tliat  repeat  the  signals,  besides 
the  ciiiefs  of  squadrons  or  divisions,  are  usu- 
ally friu'ates  lying  to  windward  or  to  leeward 
of  the  line,  'i'hey  slio:  Id  be  extremely  vigi- 
lant to  observe  and  repeat  the  signals,  whethcir 
they  are  lo  transmit  the  order*  of  the  com- 
mander in  chief,  or  his  seconds,  to  any  part 
of  llie  fleet ;  or  to  rep'>rt  the  fortunate  or  dis- 
tressful situation  of  any  part  thereof.  Hy  this 
means  all  the  ships  from  the  van  to  the  rear 
will,  unless  disabled,  be  ready  at  a  moment's 
warning  lo  put  the  aihniral's  designs  in  exe- 
cution. 

To  preserve  order  in  the  repetition  of  sig- 
n;rls,  and  lo  favour  Ihiir  communication, 
wilhout  embarrassment,  from  the  commander 
in  chief  lo  the  ship  for  which  they  are  calcu- 
lated, the  commanders  ol  the  squadrons  repeat 
alier  the  admiral ;  the  chiefs  of  the  divisions, 
accord  ng  lo  their  order  of  the  line,  after  the 
commanders  of  the  xiuadrons ;  and  the  par-> 
ticular  slii^is  after  the  cliiefs  of  tl^e  divisioas;. 


S  I  L 

and  tliose  in  return,  after  Ihc  particular  sliips, 
vice  vei-sa,  wliiMi  llit-  oliject  is  Id  coiu'i-y  iiii}' 
iiiti-lligenc-e  froiii  tlic  lattrr  tu  l)ii>  admiral. 

Ik-sidfS  the  siRrials  above-ineiuioii.-ii,  flipre 
are  others  fur  clillereiit  ranks  of  officers  ;  as 


S  1  L 

(nr  captains,  litiutenaiits,  mastor?,  8<c.  or  for 
any  ot  tliose  offiiers  ol'a  peculiar  ahip. 

Signals  />'/  tlie  drum,  made  use  of,  intlie 
exercise  ot  tiie  anny,  instead  of  tile  word  of 
command,  viz. 


S  I  L 


m? 


SiGMALS. 

A  short  roll, 
.  A  Ham, 
To  arms. 

The  march, 

'J'he  quick  march,  . 
The  point  of  war. 
The  retreat, 
Drum  ceasing. 
Two  short  rolls. 
The  dragoon  march. 
The  grenadier  march. 
The  troop, 
The  long  roll, 
The  gre[iatlier  march, 
The  preparative, 
T  he  general, 
Two  long  rolls, 


To 
To 
To 


To 
To 
To 
To 
To 
To 
To 
To 
To 
To 
To 
'I'o 
To 


Opcraliom. 
caution. 

pc-rfoimany  distinct  thing, 
form  the  line  or  battalion, 
advance,  except  when  intended  for  a  sa- 
lute. 

advance  quick, 
march  and  charge, 
retreat, 
halt. 

perform  the  flank-firing, 
open  the  battalion. 
Ibrm  the  column, 
double  divisions, 
form  the  squari'. 

reduce  tlie  square  to  the  column, 
make  ready  and  lire, 
cease  firing, 
bring  or  lodge  the  colour<. 


SIGNATURE,  iu  printino;,  is  a  letter  put 
at  the  bottom  of  the  lirsl  page  at  least,  in 
each  sheet,  a.s  a  direction  to  the  binder,  in 
folding,  gatliering,  and  collaliug  them.  The 
signatures  consist  of  tlie  capital  letters  of  tlie 
alphabet,  which  cliange  in  every  sheet:  if 
there  are  more  sheets  than  letters  in  the  al- 
phabet, to  tlie  capital  letter  is  added  a  small 
one  of  the  same  sort,  as  Aa,  Bb;  which  are 
repeated  as  often  as  necessary.  In  large  vo- 
lumes it  is  usual  to  distinguish  the  number  of 
alphabets,  after  the  first  three  or  four,  by 
placing  a  iigui-e  before  the  signature,  as  5 15, 
6U,  &c. 

SIGXET,  one  of  tlie  king's  seals,  made 
use  of  in  sealing  his  private  letters,  and  all 
grants  that  pass  by  bill  signed  under  his  ma- 
jesty's hand:  it  is  aKvays  in  the  custody  of 
the  secretaries  of  state. 

SIGNIFICAVIT,  in  law,  a  writ  which 
issues  out  of  the  court  of  chancery,  on  a  certi- 
ficate given  by  the  ordinary  of  a  person's 
standing  excommunicated  forty  days,  in  or- 
der to  have  liim  imprisoned  till  he  submits  to 
the  authority  of  the  church. 

SILENE,  catchjli/,  orx-isco'i.^  rnmpinn,  a 
genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  de- 
candria,  and  order  of  trigynia ;  and  in  the 
natural  system  arranged  under  the  22d  or- 
der, carvophyllea".  The  calyx  is  ventricose; 
the  petals  are  five  in  number,  bilid  and  un- 
guiculated,  and  crowned  by  a  nectarium; 
the  capsule  is  cylindrical,  covered,  and  tri- 
locular.  There  are  66  species,  of  which  se- 
ven are  natives  of  Britain  and  Ireland. 

SILICA.  There  is  a  very  hard  white 
stone,  known  by  the  name  of  quartz,  very 
couimon  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world. 
Sometimes  it  is  transparent  and  crystalliiied, 
and  then  is  called  rock  crystal.  Very  fre- 
quently it  is  in  the  form  of  sand.  As  this 
stone,  and  several  others  whicli  resemble  it, 
as  flint,  agate,  calcedony,  &:c.  have  the  pro- 
perty of  melting  into  a  glass  when  heated 
along  with  fixed  alkali,  they  were  classed  to- 
gether by  mineralogists  under  tlie  name  of 
vitrifiable  stones.  \h.  Pott,  who  first  de- 
scribed their  properties  in  1746,  gave  them 
the  name  of  siliccoas  stones,  on  the  supposi- 


tion that  they  were  all  cliiefly  composed  of  a 
peculiar  earth  called  siliceous  earth  or  silica. 
This  earth  was  known  to  Glauber,  wlio  de- 
scribes the  method  of  obtaining  it:  but  it  was 
long  before  its  properties  were  accurately 
asceitained.  (reoffroy  endeavoured  to  prove 
that  it  might  be  converted  into  lime,  and  Pott 
and  Jjeaume  tliat  it  miglit  be  converted  into 
alumina;  but  these  assertions  were  refuted 
by  Carthmiser,  Schcele,  and  Bergman.  l"o 
this  last  chemist  we  are  indebted  for  the  first 
accurate  detail  of  the  properties  of  silica. 

1.  Silica  may  be  obtained  pure  by  the  fol- 
lowing process:  Mix  together,  in  a  crucible,- 
one  part  of  poimded  tlint  or  quartz,  and 
three  parts  of  potass,  and  apply  a  heat  suffi- 
cient to  melt  the  mixture  completely.  Dis- 
solve the  mass  formed  in  water,  saturate  the 
potass  with  muriatic  acid,  and  evaporate  to 
dryness.  Towards  the  end  of  the  evaporation 
tlie  liquid  assumes  the  form  of  a  jelly;  and 
when  all  the  moisture  is  evaporated,  a  white 
mass  remains  behind.  This  mass  is  to  lie 
washed  in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and  dried  ; 
it  is  then  silica  in  a  state  of  purity. 

2.  Silica,  thus  obtained,  is  a  fine  white 
powder,  without  either  taste  or  smell.  Its 
particles  liave  a  harsh  feel,  as  if  they  consisted 
of  very  minute  grains  of  sand.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  2.66. 

It  may  be  subjected  to  a  very  violent  heat 
without  undergoing  any  change.  Eavoi^ier 
and  Morvean  exposed  it  to  the  action  of  a 
fire  maintained  by  oxygen  gas  without  any 
alteration.  Saussure,  indeed,  has  succeeded 
in  fusing,  by  means  of  the  blowpipe,  a  por- 
tion of  it  so  extremely  minute  as  scarcely  to 
be  perceptible  without  a  gla-s.  According  to 
the  calculation  of  this  pliilosopher,  the  tem- 
perature necessary  for  producing  this  effect  is 
equal  to  40-i3°  W'edgewood. 

3.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  except  when 
newly  precipitateil,  and  then  one  part  of  it  is 
soluble  in  1000  parts  of  water.  It  has  no  ef- 
fect on  vegetable  colours. 

It  is  capable  of  absorbing  about  oae-fourth 

of  its  weight  of  water,  without  letting  any 

drop  from  it;  but  on  exposure  to  the  air,  the 

wutei-  evaporates  very  readily.     VVheu  pre- 

4  P2 


cipitated  from  potass  by  meane  of  muriatic 
acid  and  slow  evaporation,  it  retains  a  consi- 
derable portion  of  water,  and  forms  with  it  a 
transparent  jelly  ;  but  the  moisture  gradually 
evaporates  on  e\p<j-;ure  to  the  air. 

Silica  may  be  formed  into  a  paste  with  a 
small  (piantity  of  water:  this  past-  has  no',  tlie 
smallest  ductility,  and  when  dried  forms  a 
loose,  friable,  aiul  incoherent  mass. 

Silica  is  capable  of  assuming  a  crystalline 
form.  Crystals  of  it  are  found  in  many  parts 
of  the  world.  Tliey  are  knoun  by  the  name 
of  roek  crystal.  \V  hen  pure  they  are  trans- 
parent and  colourless  like  glass:  they  assume 
various  forms ;  the  most  usual  is  a  hexagonal 
prism,  surmounted  w-ith  hexagonal  pyramids 
on  one  or  botn  ends,  the  angles  of  the  prism 
correspondiiig  with  those  of  the  pyramids. 
Their  hardness  is  very  great,  amounting  to 
1 1 .     Their  specific  gravity  is  2.653. 

4.  Silica  neither  combines  with  oxygen, 
with  the  simple  combustibles,  nor  with  me- 
tals; but  it  combines  with  many  of  the  me- 
tallic oxides  by  fusion,  and  forms  various  co- 
loured glasses  and  en-amels. 

5.  Azote  has  no  action  on  silica,  neither 
has  muriatic  acid  when  the  silica  is  in  a  solid 
state;  but  when  the  silica  is  combined  with 
an  excess  of  alkali,  muriatic  acid  dissolves  the 
compound,  and  forms  a  permanent  solution. 
By  concentrating  this  solution,  the  silica  se- 
parates from  it  in  the  form  of  a  jelly. 

6.  'I  here  is  a  strong  afTinity  between  silica 
and  fixed  alkalies.  It  may  be  combined 
with  thein  either  by  fir-ing  them  along  with  it 
in  a  crucible,  or  by  boiling  the  liquid  alkalies 
over  it.  AVlien  the  potass  exceeds  the  silica 
considerably,  the  compound  is  soluble  in  wa- 
ter, and  constitutes  what  was  formerly  called 
liquor  silicum,  and  now  sometimes  silicated 
potass  or  soda.  When  the  silica  exceeds,  the 
compiiuiid  is  transparent  and  colourless  like 
rock  crystal,  aiul  is  neither  acted  on  by  wa- 
ter, air,  nor  (excepting  one)  by  acids.  This 
is  the  substance  so  well  known  under  the 
name  of  glass.     See  Glass. 

Silica  is  not  acted  on  by  ammonia,  whether 
in  the  gaseous  or  liquid  state. 

7.  There  is  a  strong  affinity  between  ba- 
rytes  and  silica.  When  barytes  water  is 
poured  into  a  solution  of  silica  in  potass,  a 
precipitate  appears,  which  is  considered  by 
Morveau  as  the  two  earths  iu  a  state  of  com- 
bination. Barytes  and  silica  may  be  com- 
bined by  means  of  heat.  The  compound  is 
of  a  greenish  colour,  and  coheres  but  im- 
perfectly. The  eil'cct  of  heat  on  various 
mixtures  of  barytes  and  silica  will  appear 
from  the  following  experiments  of  Mr.  Kii- 
w  an : 


Proportions. 


80  Silica 
20  Barytes 


75  Silica 
20  Barytes 


66  Siliia 
33  BarylKS 


Ileat. 


155°  Wedg. 


150 


150 


EfTect. 


A    white    brittle 
mass. 


A  brittle  hard 
mass,  semitrans- 
parent  at  the 
edges. 


Melted  into  a 
hard  somewhat 
porous  porcelaiH 
mass. 


608 

Proportion  s 


50  Silica 
60  Barvtes 


SO  Silica 
80  Barvtes 


S  I  L 

Heat. 


US 


148 


Effect. 


A  hard  mass  not 
melted. 


S5  Silica 
75  Barytes 


33  Silica 
66  Barvtes 


150 


150 


The  edges  were 
melted  into  a 
pale  greenish 
matter  between  a 
porcelain  and  e- 
namel. 

Melted  into  a 
somewhat  porous 
porcelain. 


Melted  into  a 
velloivish  and 
partly  greejiish 
whiteporous  por- 
celain. 


Strontian  and  silica  combine  with  each 
other  nearly  in  the  same  manner. 

There  i^  also  an  affinity  between  silica  and 
lime.  When  lime-water  is  poured  into  a  So- 
]ution  of  silica  in  potass,  a  precipitate  ap- 
pears, as  SLucke  discovered.  This  precipi- 
tate is  a  compound  of  silica  and  lime.  These 
two  earths  may  be  combined  also  by  meims 
of  heat.  They  form  a  glass,  provided  the 
quantity  of  lime  is  not  inferior  to  that  of  silica. 
The  effect  of  heat  upon  these  earths,  mixed 
in  various  proportions,  will  apjjear  from  the 
following  e.xperiments  of  Mr.  Kirwan : 


Proportions. 


30  Lime 
90  Silica 


80  Lime 
to  Silica 

20  Lime 
80  Silica 


Heat. 


150'  Wedg. 


156 


156 


Effect. 


Melted  into  a 
mass  of  a  whit- 
ish colour,  semi- 
transparent  at 
the  edges,  and 
striking  fire, 
though  feebly, 
with  steel  :  it 
was  somewiiat 
between  porce- 
lain and  enamel. 


Ayellowibhwhite 
loose-  powder. 


Not     melted, 
formed  a   brittle 
mass. 

E(]ual  parts  of  magnesia  and  silica  melt 
with  great  difficulty  into  a  white  enamel 
when  exposed  to  the  most  violent  heat  which 
can  be  produced.  They  are  infu.-.ible  in  in- 
ferior heats,  in  wlialeveF  pi'oportion  they  are 
mixed. 

There  is  a  strong  affinity  between  alumina 
and  silica.  When  equal  portions  of  silicatcd 
and  aluminated  potass  are  mixed  together,  a 
brown  zsne  immediately  appears,  which  may 
be  made,  by  agitation,  to  pass  through  the 
whole  liquid.  After  standing  about  an  hour, 
th(;  mixture  assumes  the  consistence  of  jelly. 
When  formed  into  a  paste  with  water,  and 
dried,  tliey  cohere,  and  contract  a  consider- 
able degree  of  hardness.  When  baked  in  the 
temperature  of  160'  Wedgewood,  they  be- 
come very  hard,  but  do  not  fur.e.  Achard 
foimd  them  infusible  in  all  proportions  in  a 
heal  probably  litllu  inferior  to  150"ofWedge- 


S  I  L 

wood.  But  when  exposed  to  a  very  strong 
heat,  they  are  converted  into  a  kind  of  opaque 
Aliuss,  or  rather  enamel.  Porcelain,  stone 
ware,  brick,  tiles,  and  other  similar  substances, 
are  composed  chiefly  of  this  compound. 
Mixtures  of  silica  and  alumina  in  various 
proportions  constitute  clays ;  but  these  are 
seldom  uncontaminated  wUh  other  ingredi- 
ents. 

It  follows  from  the  experiments  of  Achard, 
that  equal  parts  of  lime,  magnesia,  and  silica, 
may  be  melted  into  a  greeniih-coloured  glass, 
hard  enough  to  strike  fire  with  steel;  that 
w  hen  the  mi'.gnesia  exceeds  either  of  the  other 
two,  the  mixture  will  not  melt;  that  when 
the  silica  exceeds,  the  mixture  seldoiri  melts, 
onlv  indeed  with  lime  in  the  following  propor- 
tions ;  three  silica,  two  lime,  one  magnesia, 
which  formed  a  porcelain;  and  that  when 
the  lime  exceeds,  the  mixture  is  generally  fu- 
sible. 

A  mixture  of  silica  and  alumina  may  also 
be  combined  with  barytes  or  strontian  by 
means  of  heat.  The  mixture  melts  readily 
into  a  greenish-coloured  porcelain. 

From  the  experiments  of  Achard  and  Kir- 
wan, we  learn  that,  in  mixtures  of  lime,  silica, 
and  alumina,  when  the  Hme  exceeds,  the 
mixture  is  generally  fusible  either  into  a  glass 
or  a  porcelain,  according  to  the  proportions. 
That  if  the  silica  exceeds,  the  mixture  is  fre- 
quently fusible  into  an  enamel  or  porcelain, 
and  perhaps  a  glass;  and  that  wlien  the  alu- 
mina exceeds,  a  porcelain  may  oiten.  be  at- 
tained, but  not  a  glass. 

As  to  mixtures  of  magnesia,  silica,  and  alu- 
mina, when  the  magnesia  exceeds,  no  fusion 
takes  place  at  150".  When  the  silica  ex- 
ceeds, a  porcelain  may  often  be  attained ; 
and  three  parts  sihca,  two  magnesia,  and  one 
alumina,  form  a  glass.  When  the  alumina  ex- 
ceeds, nothing  more  than  a  porcelain  can  be 
produced. 

Achard  found  that  equal  parts  of  lime, 
magnesia,  silica,  and  alumina,  melted  into  a 
glass.  Thev  fused  also  in  various  other  pro- 
portions, especially  when  the  silica  predomi- 
nated. 

Silica  differs  from  all  the  other  earths  in  not 
combining  with  any  of  the  acids  except  the 
fluoric,  phosphoric,  and  boracic;  to  which, 
perhaps,  we  may  add  the  muri.itic. 

Silica  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
earths.  It  is  the  chief  ingredient  of  tlijse 
stones  which  seem  to  constitute  the  basis  of 
this  terrestrial  globe.  It  is  an  essential  in- 
gredient ill  mortar,  in  all  kinds  of  stone  ware, 
and  in  glass. 

SILK,  in  natural  history,  is  the  production 
of  dilfercnt  species  of  caterpillars.  The  pha- 
hena,  orbombyx  mori,  is  most  commoidy  pro- 
pagated for  that  purpose  in  Europe ;  but  the 
plialena  atlas  yields  a  greater  quantity.  ,  See 
BoMBYX,  and  Phal/ENa.  A  similar  sub- 
stance, indeed,  is  yielded  by  the  greater  num- 
ber of  the  tribe  of  caterpillars.  It  is  found 
inclosed  in  two  small  bags,  from  which  it  is 
protruded  in  tine  threads  to  serve  the  insect 
for  a  covering  during  its  chrysalis  state.  The 
webs  of  spiders  arc  obviously  of  the  same 
nature  with  silk;  though  their  fibres,  at  least 
in  this  country,  are  liner  and  weaker.  Reau-^ 
mur  and  other  natur.ilists  ascertained,  that 
the  larger  species  of  spiders  spun  webs  suffi- 
citntly  strong  to  be  manufactured,  aud  that 


S  I  L 

the  produce  was  neither  inferior  in  beauty 
nor  in  strength  to  the  silk  of  the  silkworm. 
Sec  Aran  E  A. 

The  silkworm  is  a  native  of  China,  and 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  while  mulber- 
ry. That  industrious  nation  was  acquaint- 
ed with  the  manufacture  of  silk  from  the 
most  remote  ages;  but  it  was  scarcely 
known  in  Europe  before  the  time  of  Augus'- 
tus.  Its  beauty  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
luxurious  Romans;  and  after  the  effeminate 
reign  of  Elagabulus,  it  became  a  common  ar- 
ticle of  dress.  It  was  brought  from  China  at 
an  enormous  expcnce,  mamifactiired  again 
by  the  Pha-nicians,  and  sold  at  Rome  tor  its 
weight  of  gold.  In  the  reign  of  Justinian  this 
commerce  was  interrupted  by  the  conquests 
of  the  Scythian  tribes,  and  ail  attempts  to 
l)rocure  it  failed  till  two  Persian  monks  had 
the  address  to  convey  some  of  the  eggs  of  the 
insect  from  China  to  Constantinople,  conceal- 
ed in  the  hollow  of  a  cane.  They  were 
hatched,  and  the  breed  carefully  propagated. 
This  happened  in  555;  and  some  years  after, 
we  find  that  the  Greeks  understoocl  the  art  of 
procuring  and  manufactiuiug  silk  as  well  as 
the  Orientals.  Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  brought 
the  manufacture  to  that  island  in  1130,  for- 
cibly carrying  off  the  weavers  from  Greece, 
and  settling  them  in  Sicily.  From  that  island 
the  art  passed  into  Italy,  and  thence  into 
France:  and  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nanlz  established  tlie  manufactorj'  of  silk  iu 
Britain. 

Silk,  as  spun  by  the  animal,  is  in  the  state 
of  fine  threads,  varying  in  colour  from  white 
to  reddish  yellow.  It  is  very  elastic,  and  has 
considerable  strength,  if  we  consider  its  small 
diameter.  It  is  covered  with  a  Tarnish,  to 
which  its  elasticity  is  owing.  This  varnish  is 
soluble  in  boiling  water;  but  alcohol  does 
not  act  upon  it.  Hence  it  has  been  compar- 
ed to  a  gum,  though  it  approaches  much 
nearer  to  a  gelatine;  since  Berthollet  has 
shewn  that  it  is  precipitated  by  tan  and  by 
muriat  of  tin.  It  differs,  however,  from  gela- 
tine in  several  particulars.  Mum  throws  it 
down  of  a  dirty  white,  sulphat  of  copper  of  a^ 
dark  brown,  and  su'phat  of  iron  of  a  brown 
colour.  M'hen  the  water  is  evaporated,  the 
varnish  is  obtained  of  a  black  colour,  brittle, 
and  of  a  shining  fracture.  Its  weight  is  nearly 
one-third  of  thx;  raw  silk  from  which  it  was  ex- 
tracted. It  may  be  separated  from  silk  by 
soap  as  well  as  water,  and  tiie  soap  leys  con- 
taiiiiiig  it  soon  putrefy. 

Besides  the  varnish,  silk  contains  anothei 
substance  to  which  it  owes  its  yellow  coliur. 
I'his  substance  possesses  the  properties  of  re- 
sin. It  is  yellow,  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  in  a 
mixture  of  alcohol  and  muriatic  acid.  Bcaume 
has  ascertained,  that  by  this  last  mixture  it 
may  be  separated  completely,  and  the  silk 
deprived  of  it  assumes  a  fine  white  colour. 

The  chemical  properties  of  silk  itself  have 
been  but  imperfectly  examined.  It  is  not 
acted  on  by  water  or  alcohol,  has  no  taste, 
and  is  but  imperfectly  combustible  ;  fhoufjli 
fire  rapidly  blackens  and  decomposes  it.. 
When  distilled,  it  yields,  according  to  Neu- 
mann, an  uucomnionly  great  proportion  of 
ammonia. 

The  fixed  alkalies  dissolve  it  by  the  assist- 
ance of  heat ;  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  they 
form  with  it  an  animal  soap. 

It  is  dissolveil  likewise  by  sulphuric  and 
nuiriatib  acide^  and  by  nitric  aciiu.    By  tjie 


S  I  L 

aftion  of  this  last  arid,  Rprti)ollet_obtain>''d 
Irom  A\k  some  oxalic  arid,  anil  a  fallv  matter 
^^  hicli  ^wa^l  on  tlio  siirluco  of  tin;  solution, 
liy  a  similar  treat  men  I,  VV.i-iter  obtaiiu-d  line 
yellow  crystals,  very  conib'.istihle,  to  wliicli 
lie  gave  the  name  of  yellow  bitter  principle. 

Silk  is  very  little  susceptible  of  putrefac-- 
tion.  Dr.  Wilson,  oi'  l''alkirk,  sa_\s,  tliata 
ribbon  was  lately  louud  in  the  chuicliyard  of 
that  town  wrapt  roand  the!  bone  of  the  arm. 
]t  was  uninjured,  though  it  had  lain  eight 
years  in  tlic-  earth.  We  know,  at  the  same 
time,  that  when  silk  is  kept  in  a  damp  place  it 
rots  (to  use  the  common  language)  iji  a  much 
shorter  lime. 

Silk,  niaiiiifucture,  or  prcpavulinn  of. 
When  lilt:  silkworms  have  completed  their 
balls  or  cocoons  (see  Ph  ALPENA,  Vol.  II.  p. 
389))  Ihey  are  colleeteil,  anil  |)ut  into  little 
baskets  ;  and  thus  exposed' to  the  heat  of  an 
oven,  to  kill  the  insect,  which,  without  this 
precaution,  would  not  fail  to  open  itself  to  go 
away  and  use  those  new  wings  abroad,  it  has 
acquired  within. 

Ordinarily,  they  only  wind  the  more  per- 
fect balls ;  those  that  are  double,  or  too  weak, 
or  too  coarse,  are  laid  aside,  not  as  alingether 
useless,  but  that,  being  impro|3cr  for  winding, 
they  are  reserved  to  be  drawn  out  into  skains. 
Tlie  balls  are  of  different  colours;  ihe  most 
common  are  yellow,  or.mge-colour,  Isabella, 
and  flesh-colour;  there  are  some  also  of  a 
sea-green,  others  'of  a  sulphur-colour,  and 
others  white ;  but  there  is  no  necessity  for 
separating  the  colours  and  shades  to  wind 
them  apart,  as  all  the  colours  are  lobe  lost  in 
the  future  scouring  and  preparing  of  Ihe  silk. 

The  goodness  of  silk  is  best  distinguished  by 
its  liglitness.  The  organzine  silk  is  the  best 
of  any  made  in  the  country  of  Piedmont,  and 
two  threads  are  equal  in  lineness,  that  is,  in 
smoothness,  thickness,  and  length,  for  the 
thread  of  the  first  twist.  For  tiie  second,  it 
matters  not  whether  the  single  thread  is 
strong  before  the  two  are  joined,  unless  to  see 
wliether  the  hrst  twist  proves  well.  It  is  ne- 
cessary that  the  .silk  be  clean ;  and  it  is  to  be 
oliserved,  that  the  straw-coloured  is  generally 
the  lightest,  and  the  wliite  the  heaviest  of  all. 
The  skains  should  be  even,  and  all  of  an  equa- 
lity, which  shew>  that  they  v.ere  wrought  to- 
gether; otherwise  we  may  with  justice  suspect 
that  it  is  relusu  silk,  and  cannot  be  equally 
drawn  out  and  ^pun,  for  one  thread  will  be 
shorter  than  the  other,  which  is  labour  and 
loss.  It  wdl  also  be  requisite  to  search  the 
bale  more  than  once,  and  take  from  out  of 
the  parcels  a  skain  to  make  an  essay;  for  un- 
less it  is  known  by  trial,  there  is  the  greatest 
danger  of  being  cheated  in  this  commodity. 
To  wind  silk  frxmi  olf  the  balls,  two  machines 
are  necessary;  the  one  a  furnace,  with  its 
copper;  the  other  a  reel,  or  frame,  to  draw 
the  silk.  The  winder  then,  seated  near  the 
furnace,  throws  into  the  copper  of  water  over 
the  hu'nace  (lirst  heated  and  boiled  to  a  cer- 
tain degree,  which  custom  alone  can  teach)  a 
handful  or  two  of  balls,  which  have  been  first 
well  purged  of  all  their  loose  furrv  substance. 
She  then  siirs  the  whole  very  briskly  about 
with  birchen  ivds  bound  and  cut  like  brushes; 
and  when  the.  heat  ar,d  agitation  have  detach- 
ed the  ends  of  the  silks  of  the  cocoons, 
which  are  apt  to  catch  on  the  rods,  she  draws 
them  lorth,  and  joining  ten  or  twelve,  or  even 
fourteen  of  them  together,  she  forms  tliem  iato 


S  I  L 

threads,  according  to  the  sizi*  required  to 
the  works  iliey  are  destined  for:  eight 
ends  suliicing  for  ribands ;  and  velvets, 
&c.  rec|uiring  no  less  than  fourteen.  The 
enA:-,,  thusjoinerl  into  two  or  three  threads, 
ifl'e  lir^t  passed  nilo  the  holes  of  three  iron 
rods,  in  the  lore-|iart  of  the  reel,  then  upon 
the  bobbins  or  pulleys,  and  at  last  are  drawn 
out  to  the  reel  itself,  and  there  fastened; 
each  to  ^n  end  of  an  armor  branch  of  the 
reel.  Thus  disposed,  the  winder,  giving  mo- 
tion to  the  reel,  bv  turning  the  handle,  guides 
the  threads;  substitutes  new  ones,  when  any 
of  them  break,  or  any  of  the  balls  are  wound 
out;  strengthens  them,  where  necessary,  by 
adding  others ;  and  takes  away  the  balls  wound 
but,  or  that,  having  been  pierced,  are  full  of 
watei-. 

In  this  manner,  two  persons  will  spin  and 
reel  three  pounds  of  silk  in  a  day,  which  is 
done  with  greater  dispatch  than  is  made  by 
the  spinning-wheel  or  disialf.  Indeed,  ail 
silks  cannot  be  spun  and  reeled  alter  this 
manner;  either  because  the  balls  have  lieen 
perforated  by  the  silkworms  themselves,  or 
because  they  are  double,  or  too  weak  to  bear 
the  water;  or  because  they  are  coarse,  &c. 
Of  all  these  together,  they  make  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  silk,  called  florctta;  which  be- 
ing carded,  or  even  spun  on  the  distaff,  or  the 
wheel,  in  the  condition  it  comes  from  the  bail, 
makes  a  tolerable  silk. 

As  to  the  balls,  after  opening  them  with 
scissars,  and  taking  out  the  insects  (which  are 
of  some  use  for  the  feeding  of  poultry),  they 
are  steeped  three  or  four  days  in  troughs,  the 
water  of  which  is  ciianged  every  day  to  pre- 
vent their  slinking.  When  they  are  well 
softened  by  this  scouring,  and  cleared  of  that 
gummy  matter  the  worm  had  lined  the  inside 
with,  and  which  renders  it  impenetrable  to  the 
water,  and  even  to  air  itself,  they  boil  them 
half  an  hour  in  a  lye  of  ashes,  very  clear  and 
well  strained:  and  after  washing  them  out  in 
the  river,  and  drying  them  in  the  sun,  they 
card  and  spin  them  on  the  wheel,  &;c.  and 
thus  make  another  kind  of  fioretta,  somewhat 
inferior  to  the  former. 

As  to  the  spinning  and  reeling  of  raw  silks 
off  the  balls,  such  as  they  are  brought  from 
Italy  and  the  Levant,  the  first  is  chiefly  per- 
formed on  the  spinning-wheel ;  and  the  latter, 
either  on  hand-reels,  or  on  reels  mounted  on 
machines,, which  serve  to  reel  several  skains 
at  the  same  time. 

As  to  the  milling,  they  use  a  mill  composed 
of  several  pieces,  which  may  mill  two  or  three 
hundred  bobbins  at  once,  and  make  them 
into  as  many  skains. 

For  the  dyeing  of  silks,  see  Dyeing. 

SILPHA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
coleoptera.  The  generic  character  is,  an- 
teniKE  thickening  towards  the  tip;  wing- 
sheaths  margined;  head  prominent;  thorax 
ilaltish,  margined.  The  insects  of  the  genus 
silpha,  of  which  there  are  33  species,  are  ge- 
nerally found  among  decaying  animal  or  ve- 
getable substanies,  frequenting  dung-hiUs, 
carrion,  &c.  and  deposit  their  eggs  chiefly  in 
the  latter.  The  larvs  are  of  a  lengthened 
shape,  and  of  an  unpleasant  appearance,  be- 
ing generally  roughened  with  minute  spines 
and  protuberano's.  The  most  remarkable 
of  the  European  species,  and  which  is  by  no 
means  unconunon  in  our  own  country,,  is  the 
silpha  vespilloj  distinguisiied  by  having  the 


s  T  r. 


G(!9 


wing-sheaths  considerably  shorter  than  the 
abdomen,  or  as  if  cut  olf  at  Ihe  tips:  Ihey  are 
also  each  markeil  by  two  waved,  oranue-co- 
loured,  transverse  bars,  the  rest  of  tiie  insect 
benig  black:  the  general  l.-ngth  of  the  animal 
is  about  three  quarUrrs  of  an  in<li._  This  in- 
sect seeks  out  some  decaying  animal  sub- 
stance in  whi<h  it  may  deposit  its  eggs,  antl 
in  order  to  their  greater  s  curity,  contrives  to 
bury  it  under  ground.  Three'or  four  insects, 
Working  in  concert,  have  been  known  to  drag 
under  the  surface  tiie  body  of  so  large  an 
animal  as  a  mole  in  the  space  of  an  hour,  so 
that  no  trace  of  it  has  appeared  above  ground. 
The  eggs  deposited  by  Ihe  parent  insects  arc 
white,  and  of  an  oval  or  rather  subcylindric 
shape:  from  these  are  hatched  the  larva-, 
which,  when  full-grown,  are  more  than  an 
inch  in  length,  and  of  a  yellowish-white  co- 
lour, with  a  scalv  oiarige-coloured  shield  or 
bar  across* Ihe  middle  of  each  division  of  the 
body.  ^Each  of  these  larva;  forms  for  itself  an 
oval  cell  in  the  ground,  in  which  it  changes 
to  a  yellowish  chrysalis,  resembling  that  ot  a 
beetle;  out  of  which,  in  the  space  of  about 
eighteen  days,  proceeds  the  ijerfect  insect. 
This  species  possesses  a  considerable  degree 
of  elegance,  but  generally  diffuses,  a  very- 
strong  and  unpleasant  smell :  it  flies  witti 
considerable  strength  afid  rapidity,  and  is  ge- 
nerally .seen  on  the  wing  (luring  the  hottest 
part  of  the  day.  In  many  parts  of  Nortli 
America  is  found  a  variety,  dilfering  merely 
in  size,  being  far  larger  than  the  European 
kind,  and  measuring  an  mch  and  a  half  iiv 
length. 

SILPIIIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  class  of  syngenesia,  and  to  the  order  of 
l>olygamia  necessaria;  and  in  the  natural  sys- 
leni  arranged  under  the  4C)th  order,  compo- 
sita'.  The  receptacle  is  paleaceous ;  the  pap- 
pus h:is  a  two-horned  margin,  and  the  caly.x 
is  squaniose.  There  arc  eight  species;  the 
laciniatum,  tercbinthinum,  perfoliatum,  con- 
natum,  asteriscum,  tiitoliatum.arboreum,  and 
trilobatum.  The  first  six  of  these  are  natives 
of  North  America. 

Several  of  the  silphaj  are  of  an  entirely 
oval  outline:  of  this  kind  is  the  S.  ihoracica, 
which  is  easily  distinguishable  by  its  red  tho- 
rax, every  other  part  of  the  animal  being 
coal-black  :  it  is  about  half  an  inch  in  length. 

Silpha  atrata  is  of  similar  size,  but  totally 
bl;;ck,  and  has  the  wing-sheaths  marked  by- 
three  rising  hnes:  its  larva,  which  may  be 
found  in  gardens,  is  of  a  lengthened  shape  and 
of  a  black  colour.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.,  figs. 
361  and  3(i2. 

SIL\  KK,  in  natural  liistory,  is  a  metal  of 
a  fine  white  colour,  without  either  taste  ipr 
smell;  and  in  point  of  brilliancy  perhaps  in- 
ferior to  none  of  the  metallic  bodies,  if  we  ex- 
cept polished  steel.  Its  hardness  is  7.  When 
melted,  its  ijpecilic  gravity  is  10.478;  when 
hammered, ■:i0.60U.  "  In  malleability,  it  is  in- 
ferior to  none  of  the  metals,  if  we  except 
gold,  and  perhaps  also  platinum.  It  may  be 
beaten  out  into  leaves  only  ^^p'o,,;,  inch 
thick.  Its  ductdity  is  equally  remarkable:  it 
may  be  drawn  out  into  wire  much  finer  tlran 
a  human  hair  ;  so  fine,  indeed,  that  a  single 
grain  of  silver  may  be  extended  about  400 
teet  in  length.  Its  tenacity  is  such,  tiiat  a 
wire  of  silver  0.078  inch  in  diameter  is  capa- 
)le  of  supporting  a  weight  of  187.!3Jbs.  avoir- 
dupois without,  breaking. 


0,-0 


S  I  L 


Silvef  melts  when  it  is  heated  completely  red 
hot;  and  while  melted,  its  brilliancy  is  much 
increased.  According  to  the  calculation  ot 
Bergman  and  Mortimer,  its  fusing  point  is 
1000"  of  Fahrenheit.  It  continues  melted  at 
28'  VVedgewood,  but  requires  a  greater  heal 
to  bring  it  to  fusion.  If  the  heat  is  increased 
after  the  silver  is  melted,  the  liquid  metal 
boils,  and  mav  be  volatilized;  but  a  very 
strong  and  long-continued  heat  is  necessary. 

When  cooled  slowly,  its  surface  exhibits 
the  appearance  of  crystals;  and  if  the  liquid 
-  part  of  the  metal  is  poured  out  as  soon  as  the 
surface  congeals,  pr.-tty  large  crystals  of  sil- 
ver mav  be  obtained.  By  this  method  Tillet, 
and  .Mongez  junior,  obtained  it  in  fuur-sided 
pyramids,  both  insulated  and  in  groups. 

Silver  is  not  oxidated  by  exposure  to  the 
air:  it  gradually,  indeed,  loses  its  lustre,  and 
becomes  tarni-hed ;  but  tliis  is  owing  to  a  dif- 
ferent cause.  Neither  is  it  altered  by  being 
kept  under  water.  But  if  it  is  kept  for  a  lojig 
time  melted  in  an  open  vessel,  it  gradually 
,  attracts  the  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  and 
is  converted  into  an  oxide.  Macquer,  by 
exposing  silver  20  times  successively  to  the 
heat  of  a  porcelain  furnace,  obtained  a  glass 
of  an  olive-green  colour.  Nay,  if  the  heat  is 
suliicient,  the  silver  even  takes  lire  and  burns 
like  other  combustible  bodies.  Van  Marum 
made  electric  sparks  from  his  powerful  'I'ey- 
lerian  machine  pass  through  a  silver  wire; 
the  wire  exhibited  a  greenish-white  flame,  and 
was  dissipated  into  smoke.  Before  a  stream 
of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  gas,  it  burns  rapidly 
with  a  light-griM-n  tlame. 

The  oxide  of  silver,  obtained  by  means  of 
heat,  is  of  a  greenish  or  yellowish  grey  co- 
lour; and  is  ea"sily  decomposed  by  the  appli- 
cation of  heat  in  close  veisek,  or  even  by  ex- 
posing it  to  the  light.  When  silver  is  dis- 
solved in  nitric  acid,  and  precipitated  by  lime 
water,  it  falls  to  the  bottom  imder  the  form  of 
a  powder,  of  a  dark-greenish  brown  colour. 
From  the  expeiiments  of  Wenzel  and  Berg- 
man it  follows,  that  the  greenish  or  yellowish 
grey  oxide  is  composed  of  about  90  parts  of 
silver  and  10  of  oxygen.  When  this  oxide  is 
exposed  to  the  liglit,  part  of  its  oxygen  is  se- 
parated, as  Schctle  first  ascertained  ;  and  is 
converted  into  a  black  powder,  which  contains 
but  a  very  small  portion  of  oxygen,  and  may 
be  consiclered  as  silver  reduced.  By  expos- 
ing the  solution  of  silver  in  nitric  acid  to  sun- 
shine, the  silver  precipitates  in  the  form  of  a 
Hca-brown  powder. 

Neither  carbon  nor  hydrogen  has  been 
combined  with  silver;  but  it  combines  rea- 
tlily  with  sulphur  and  phosphorus. 

1.  When  thin  plates  of  silver  and  sulphur 
are  laid  alternately  above  each  other  in  a  cru- 
cible, they  melt  readily  in  a  low^  red  heat,  and 
form  -niphuret  of  silver.  It  is  of  a  black  or 
vi-ry  deep  violet  colour;  brittle,  but  cafiable 
jifliiingeut  with  a  knife;  often  crystallized 
ill  small  needles;  and  much  more  fusible  than 
silver.  If  sufficient  heat  is  applied,  the  sul- 
phur i-i  slowlv  volatilized,  and  the  metal  re- 
mains behind  in  a  state  of  purity.  It  is  very 
♦lilli'.iilt  to  determine  the  proportion  of  the 
iH^^redients  which  enter  into  the  composition 
of  this  vn'xlance,  because  there  is  an  aflinity 
between  silvi^r  and   its  sulphuret,  which  dis- 


S  I  L 

tlty  of  silver  is  capable  of  taking  up,  i«,  ac- 
corthng  to  \^'enzel,.J^. 

It  is  well  known,  ihit  when  silver  is  long 
exposed  to  the  air,  especiaily  in  frequented 
places,  as  churches,  theatres,  &c.  it  acquires 
a  covering  of  a  violet  colour,  which  deprives 
it  of  its  lustre  and  malleability.  This  cover- 
ing, which  forms  a  thin  layer,  can  only  be  d''- 
tached  from  the  silver  by  bending  it,  or  break- 
ing it  in  pieces  with  a  hammer.  It  was  ex- 
amined by  Mr.  Proust,  and  found  to  be  sul- 
phuret of  silver. 

2.  Silver  wa^  first  combined  with  phospho- 
rus by  Mr.  Pelletier.  If  one  ounce  of  silver, 
one  ounce  of  phosphoric  glass,  and  two 
drams  of  charcoal,  are  mixed  together,  and 
heated  in  a  crucible,  phosphuret  of  sulphur  is 
formed.  It  is  of  a  white  colour,  and  appears 
granulated,  or  crystallized.  It  breaks  under 
the  hammer,  h.ut  may  be  cut  with  a  knife.  It 
is  composed  of  four  p:u-ts  of  silver  and  one  of 
phosphorus.  Heat  decomposes  it  by  sepa- 
rating the  phosphorus.  Pelletier  has  observ- 
ed, that  silver  in  fusion  is  capable  of  combin- 
ing with  more  phosphorus  than  solid  silver: 
for  when  phosphuret  of  silver  is  formed  by 
projecting  phosphorus  into  melted  silver,  af- 
ter the  crucible  is  taken  from  the  fire,  a  quan- 
tity of  phosphorus  is  emitted  the  moment  the 
metal  congeals. 

Silver  does  not  combine  with  the  simple 
incombustibles. 

Silver  combines  readily  with  the  greater 
number  of  metallic  bodies. 

1.  When  silver  and  gold  are  kept  melted 
together,  they  combine,  and  form  an  alloy 
composed,  asHomberg  ascertained,  of  one 
part  of  silver,  and  five  of  gold.  He  kept 
equal  parts  of  gold  and  silver  in  gentle  fusion 
for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  found,  on  break- 
ing the  crucible,  two  masses,  the  uppermost 
of  which  was  pure  silver,  the  undermost  the 
whole  gold  combined  with  i  of  silver.  Sil- 
ver, however,  may  be  melted  with  gold  in 
almost  any  proportion;  and  if  the  proper  pre- 
cautions are  employed,  the  two  metals  remain 
combined  together. 

The  alloy  of  gold  and  silver  is  harder  and 
more  sonorous  than  gold.  Its  hardness  is  a 
maximum  when  the  alloy  contains  two  parts 
of  gold  and  one  of  silver.  The  density  of 
these  metals  is  but  little  increased;  but  the 
colour  of  the  gold  is  much  altered,  even  when 
the  proportion  of  the  silver  is  small ;  one  part 
of  silver  produces  a  sensible  whiteness  in 
twenty  parts  of  gold.  The  colour  is  not  on'y 
pale,  but  it  has  also  a  very  sensible  greenish 
tinge,  as  if  the  light  reflected  by  the  silver 
passed  through  a  very  thin  covering  of  gold. 
'I'his  alloy  being  more  fusible  than  gold,  is 
emploved  to  solder  pieces  of  that  metal  toge- 
ther. 

2.  When  silver  and  platinum  are  fused  to- 
gether (lor  which  a  very  strong  heat  is  neces- 
sary), thev  form  a  mixture,  not  so  ductile  as 
silver,  but  harder  and  less  while.  The  two 
metals  are  separated  by  kei-ping  them  for 
some  time  in  the  state  of  fusion ;  the  plati- 
num sinking  to  the  bottom  from  its  weight. 
This  cireunistance  would  induce  us  to  sup- 
pose that  there  is  very  little  aflinity  between 
them. 
The   aflinities   of  silver,   and   its   oxides, 


fin.VER. 

Lead, 

Copper, 

Meriiiry, 

P/ismuth, 

Tin, 

Gold, 

Antimony, 

Iron, 

Manganese, 

Zinc, 

Arsenic, 

Nickel, 

Platinum, 

Sulphur, 

Phosphorus. 


SI  L 

Oxide  of  Silver, 


Muriatic  acid. 

Oxalic, 

Sulphuric, 

Saclactic, 

Phosphoric, 

Sulphurous, 

Nitric, 

Arsenic, 

Fluoric, 

Tartaric, 

Citric, 

I^actic, 

Acetic, 

Succinic, 

Prussic, 

Carbonic. 


See    FuLMiS'Af 


p'jses  Ihini  to  combine  together.     The  great-    are  placed  by  Bergman  in  the  fallow  ing  or 
4;,t  iMiantily  of  sulphur  which  a  given  nuan-    der : 


Silver,    fulminatin. 

TION. 

Silver-leaf,  that  beaten  out  into   fine 
leaves  for  the  use  oi  the  gilders,  which  is  pei»  , 
formed  in  the  same  manner  as  gold-leaf. 

Silver-wire,  that  drawn  out  into  fine 
wire;  for  the  manner  of  doing  which,  seethe 
articles  Gold-wire,  and  Wire-drawing. 

Silver,  sheL ,  is  prepared  of  the  shreds 
of  silver-leaves,  or  of  the  leaves  themsi;lves, 
for  the  use  of  painters,  after  the  same  manner 
as  shell-gold.     See  Gold. 

Silvering.  The  art  of  silvering  wood, 
paper,  &c.  is  performed  in  the  same  manner 
as  gildhig,  makuig  use  of  silver  instead  of  gold 
leaf. 

To  silver  copper  or  brass,  clean  the  metal 
with  aqua  fovtis,  by  washing  it  lightly,  and 
then  throwing  it  in  water;  or  by  scouring  it 
with  salt  and  tartar  with  a  wire  brush.  Dis- 
solve some  silver  in  aqua  fortis,  and  put 
pieces  of  copper  into  the  solution  ;  this  will 
throw  down  the  silver  in  a  state  of  metallic 
powder.  Take  20  grains  of  tliis  powder,  and 
mix  with  it  two  drams  of  tartar,  the  same 
quantity  of  connnon  salt,  and  half  a  drachm  of 
alum;  "rub  the  articles  with  this  composition 
till  they  are  perfectly  white,  then  brush  it  otf,- 
and  polish  them  with  leather. 

To  silver  thf  diul-pl'ites  of  clocks,  scales 
of  barometers,  6,c.  Take  half  an  ounce  of 
silver  lace,  add  to  it  an  ounce  of  double-re- 
fined aqua  fortis,  put  them  into  an  earthen 
pot,  and  place  them  over  a  gentle  fire  till  all  is 
dissolved,  which  will  happen  in  about  fiv<» 
minutes ;  then  take  them  olf,  and  mix  it  in  a 
pint  of  clear  v  ater,  after  which,  pour  it  into 
anothi-r  clean  vessel,  to  free  it  hom  grit  or  se- 
diment ;  then  add  a  spoonful  of  common  salt  ; 
and  the  acid,  which  has  now  a  green  tinge, 
will  immediately  let  go  the  silver  particles, 
winch  form  themselves  into  a  white  curd; 
pour  oft  the  acid,  and  mix  the  curd  with  two_ 
ounces  of  salt  of  tartar,  iialf  an  ounce  of 
whiting,  and  a  large  spoonful  of  salt,  more  or 
less,  according  as  you  find  it  for  strength. 
Mix  it  well  tip  together,  and  it  is  ready  for 
use. 

Having  well  cleared  the  brass  from  scratch* 
es,  rub  it  over  with  a  piece  of  old  hat  and 
rottenstone,  to  clear  it  from  all  greasiness, 
and  then  rub  it  with  salt  and  water  with  your 
hand:  take  a  little  of  the  belorementioned 
conqiosition  on  your  fing<'r,  and  rub  it  over 
where  the  salt  h.-ts  touched,  and  it  will  adhere 
to  the  brass,  and  completely  silver  it.  After 
which,  wash  it  well  with  water,  to  take  off 


S    I   tr 

wliat  nqiia  fortis  may  i-emaiii  in  the  cempoji- 
(loii;  wlini  dry,  rub  it  vsi;li  a  clean  rag,  ami 
give  it  oiu.'  or  two  coats  of  varnish.  This  sil- 
vering is  not  (loral)le,  but  inay  bi;  hnprovcd 
by  he.ilin'.;  the  article,  and  repeating  the  ope- 
ration till  the  covering  seems  sufiiciently 
thick. 

Sik'fr  jiliiling.  The  coat  of  silver  applied 
to  the  snrlace  of  the  copper  by  the  means 
liiejitionecl  above,  is  very  thin,  and  is  not  du- 
rable. A  more  substantial  method  of  doing  it 
is  as  lolldus:  Form  small  pieces  of  silver  and 
copper,  and  tie  them  to^;etlier  with  wire,  pnt- 
tin^alittle  oora\between.  'l"he  jjroportion  of 
silver  may  be  to  that  of  copper,  a>  1  to  I'J. 
Put  them  into  a  white  lieat,  wiien  the  silver 
will  be  firmly  lixed  to  the  copper.  'I'he 
whole  is  now  made  to  passljetween  rollers  till 
it  is  of  the  required  thickness  for  manufac- 
turing the  articles  rec|uned. 

SUA.' U US,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  order 
abdomiiiales.  T  he  generic  character  is,  head 
large,  d;pressed;  mouth  wide,  bearded  by 
long  tentacula;  body  lengtliened,  naked; 
tirst  ray  of  tlie  pectoral  fins,  or  of  tlie  first 
dovsal  fin,  toothed  backwards.  There  are  28 
epecies. 

1.  SiUirus  glaris,  European  silure.  Tlie 
great  or  common  silnre  may  perhaps  be  con- 
sidered as  the  largest  of  all  Fniopean  river- 
fishes;  gi'cwiiig  to  the  length  of  eight,  ten,  or 
even  (ifteeu  feet,  and  to  the  weight  of  three 
hundred  pounds.  Its  more  general  lengtii, 
however,  is  from  two  to  three  or  four  feet. 
The  head  is  broad  and  depressed;  the  body 
thick  and  of  a  lengthened  form,  with  the  ab- 
domen very  thick  and  short.  It  is  a  hdi  ot  a 
remaik.ibly  inert  or  sluggish  disposition,  be- 
ing rarely  observed  in  motion,  ami  com- 
monly lying  half-iinbeddej  in  the  solt  bottom 
of  the  rivers  it  frequents,  under  the  project- 
ing roots  of  trees,  rocks,  logs,  or  other  sn[>- 
stances.  In  this  sittiation  it  remains,  with  its 
wide  moath  halt-op!-n,  gently  moving  about 
the  long  cirri  or  tentacula  situateil  on  each 
side  the  jaws  ;  vvhii  h  the  smaller  fishes  mis- 
taking for  worms,  and  attempting  to  seizi',  be- 
come a  ready  prey  to  the  sluggish  silure. 
The  usual  colour  of  this  species  is  dark  olive, 
varied  with  irregular  spots  of  black ;  the  ab- 
domen and  lips  being  of  a  pale  Hesh-coiour, 
anil  the  fins  tinged  with  violet.  It  is  an  in- 
habitant of  the  larger  rivers  of  Europe,  as 
well  as  some  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa  ;  but 
appears  to  be  most  plentiful  in  tlie  north  of 
Europe.  It  i?  in  no  verv  high  estimation  as 
a  food,  the  flesh  being  ol  a  somewhat  gluti- 
nous nature  ;  but,  from  its  cheapness,  is  in 
much  request  among  the  inferior  ranks,  and 
is  eaten  either  fresh  or  salted  :  the  skin  also, 
which  is  smooth,  and  destitute  of  apjjarent 
scales,  is  dried  and  stretched,  and  after  rub- 
bing with  oil,  becomes  of  a  horny  transpa- 
rency and  strength,  and  is  used  in  some  of 
the  northern  regions  instead  of  aUiss  for  win- 
dows. The  silure  is  not  a  very  prolific  fish; 
depositing  but  a  small  (juantily  of  spawn, 
consisting  of  lar^e  globules  or  ova:  these,  as 
well  as  the  newly  hatched  young,  are  fre- 
quent y  the  prey  of  other  fishes,  frogs,  &c. 
and  thus  the  great  increase  of  tlie  species  is 
prevented.  Ihe  ova,  according  to  Dr. 
tloch,  usually  hatch  in  the  space  of  seven  or 
nine  days  from  their  exclusion. 

2.  Silurnseiectricns,  electric  silure.  Lengtii 
About  twenty   inches;   head  aud   for.e-parts 


S  1  M 

Tery  broad  and  depressed;  on  the  \ippT  lip 
two  cirri;  on  the  lower  four;  teeth  small  and 
numerous.  Native  of  the  African  rivers;  ob- 
served by  Forskal  in  the  Nile:  possesses  a  de- 
gree of  electric  or  galvanic  power,  but  in  a 
much  slighter  degree  than  the  torpedo. 

3.  Siluruscatus,  cat  silure.  Lengtii  about 
two  feet ;  form  rounded  and  thi(  k ;  colour 
dusky  above,  pale  tiesh-colour  beneath;  head 
round;  mouth  very  large  ;  on  the  upper  jaw, 
beneath  each  eye,  a  very  long  beard;  on  the 
lower  jaw  four  short  beards;  first  dorsal  fin 
small  and  conic;  second,  or  adipose  fin,  with- 
out rays;  rest  of  the  fins  small  and  red;  tail 
forked.  Inhabits  the  sea  and  rivers  of  North 
America,  preying  on  all  kmds  of  smaller 
fishes  ;  and  not  sparing  even  those  of  its  own 
kind:  in  taste  resembles  an  eel,  and  is  much 
esteemed  by  th.-  Americans:  is  a  fish  of  slow 
motion,  like  the  European  silure. 

4.  Silurns  costatus  is  an  inhabitant  of 
South  .'Vmerica  and  India.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.-  fig.  360. 

SI  MIA,  ape,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  tlie 
order  primates.  The  Linna'an  generic  cha- 
racter is,  front  teeth  in  each  jaw  four,  placed 
near  together;  canine  teeth  solitary,  longer 
than  the  others,  distant  from  the  remaining 
teeth,  or  grinders;  grintlers  obtuse.  This 
numerous  race  may  be  properly  divided  into 
lour  sections,  of  which  there  are  about  70  spe- 
cies, viz.  1.  Apes,  or  such  as  are  deatitute  of 
a  tail.  2.  Baboons,  or  such  as  have  very 
muscular  bodies,  and  whose  tails  are  common- 
ly short.  4.  Monkeys,  whose  tails  are,  in  ge- 
neral, long  :  and,  lastly,  sapajous,  or  mon- 
keys, with  what  are  termed  prehensile  tails,  viz. 
such  as  can,  at  pleasure,  be  twisted  round 
any  object,  so  as  to  answer  the  purpose  of  an 
additional  hand  to  the  animal. 

Of  the  whole  genus,  or  the  monkey  tribe  in 
general,  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  baboons 
are  commonly  of  a  ferocious  and  sullen  dis- 
position. The  larger  apes  are  also  of  a  ma- 
lignant temper,  except  the  oranotan  and  the 
gibbons.  'The  monkevs,  properly  so  called, 
are  very  various  in  their  dispositions ;  some 
of  the  smaller  S|)ecies  are  lively,  harmless, 
and  entertaining;  while  others  are  as  re- 
markable for  the  mischievous  malignity  of 
thtir  temper,  and  the  capricious  uncertainty 
oi  their  manners. 

It  may  not  be  improper  here  to  observe, 
that  it  is  no  easy  task  to  determine  with  exact 
precision  the  several  species  of  this  extensive 
genus;  since,  exclusive  of  the  varieties  in 
point  of  colour,  they  are  often  so  nearly  al- 
lied as  to  make  it  diflicult  to  give  real  dis- 
tinctive charactei-s.  The  most  remarkable 
species  are. 

Apes. 
I.  Si  Ilia    satyrus,   oran  otan.     Of  these 
s'ngclar  animals,  the  species  which  has  most 
excited  the  attention  of  mankind  is,  tiie  oran 
otan,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  satyr, 
great  ape,  or  man  of  the  woods.     It  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  warmer  parts  of  Africa  and  India, 
as  well  as   of  some   of  the    Indian    islands,  i 
where  it  resides  principally  in  woods,  and  is 
supposed  to  fi;ed,  like  most  others  of  this  ge-  ; 
nus,  on  fruits.      The  oran  otan  appear:,  to  .-d- 
mit  of  considerable  variety  in  point  of  colour,  ; 
size,  and  proportions;  and  there  is  reason  to 
believe,  that,  in  reality,  there  may  be  two  or 
three  kinds,  which,  though  nearly  appro.si- ! 


S  I  M 


071 


mated  a*  to  general  similituilp,  are  yet  fpecr* 
lically  tlistirict.  The  specimens  imported 
into  Europe  have  rarely  exceeded  the  In  ight 
of  two  or  three  feet,  and  were  supiioscd  to  b« 
young  animals;  but  it  is  said  that  the  fiilU 
grown  ones  are,  at  lea>l,  six  feet  in  height, 
riie  general  colour  seems  to  be  dusky  ot 
brown;  in  some  ferruginous  or  reddish  brown, 
and  in  others  coal-black,  with  the  skin  itself 
whiti'.  'Ihe  face  is  bare;  the  ears,  hands, 
and  feet,  nearly  similar  to  the  human,  ond  the 
w  hole  appearance  such  as  to  exhil)it  the  most 
striking  approximation  to  the  human  figure, 
Tlie  likeness,  however,  is  only  a  general  one  ; 
and  the  structure  of  the  hands  and  feel,  wlica 
examined  with  anatomical  exactness,  seemg 
to  prove,  in  the  opinion  of  those  most  capa- 
ble of  judging  witli  accuracy  on  the  subject, 
that  the  animal  was  principally  designed  by 
nature  for  tlie  ((uadrupedal  manner  of  walk- 
ing, and  not  for  an  upright  posture,  wliich  is 
only  occasionally  assumed,  and  which,  in 
those  exhibited  to  the  public,  is,  perhaps,  ra- 
ther owing  to  instruction  than  truly  natm'al. 
The  count  de  liullbn,  indeed,  makes  it  one  of 
the  distinctive  characters  of  the  real  or  projier 
ape,  (among  «  hich  the  oran  otan  is  the  chief), 
to  walk  erect  on  two  legs  only;  and  it  mibtbd 
granted,  that  these  animals  sup[)i)rt  an  ujiright 
position  much  more  easily  and  readily  than 
most  other  qnadruiieds,  and  may  probably  be 
very  often  seen  in  this  attitude  even  in  a 
state  of  nature. 

The  manners  of  the  oran  otan,  when  in 
captivity,  are  gentle,  and  perfectly  void  of 
that  disgusting  ferocity  so  conspicuous  in 
some  of  the  larger  baboons  and  monkeys.  It 
is  docile,  and  may  be  taught  to  perform,  with 
dexterity,  a  variety  of  actions  in  domestic 
life.  '1  hus  it  has  been  seen  to  sit  at  table, 
and,  in  its  manner  of  feeding  and  general  be- 
haviour, to  imitate  the  company  in  which  it 
is  placed:  to  pour  out  tea,  and  driiilc  it, 
without  aukwariiness  or  constraint;  to  prepare 
its  bed  with  great  exactness,  and  compose 
itself  to  sleep  in  a  pro])er  manner.  Such  are 
the  actions  recorded  of  one  wfiich  was  exhi- 
bited in  London  in  the  year  1738  ,  and  the 
count  de  Buffon  relates  nearly  similar  particu- 
lars of  that  which  he  saw  at  Paris.  Dr.  Ty- 
son, who,  about  the  close  of  the  last  century, 
gave  a  very  exact  description  ol  a  voung 
oran  otan,  tficn  exhibited  in  Ihe  metropolis, 
assures  us,  that,  in  many  of  its  actions,  it 
seemed  to  display  a  very  high  degree  of  sa- 
gacity. "  The  most  gentle  and  loving  crea- 
ture that  could  be.  Those  that  he  knew  a  ■ 
sliip-board  he  would  come  and  embrace  with 
the  greatest  tenderness,  opening  their  bo- 
soms, and  cla.<ping  his  bands  about  them; 
and,  as  1  was  informed,  tiioiigh  there  were 
monkeys  aboard,  yet  it  wa-  o!)  erved  he 
would  never  associate  with  tnem,  and,  as  if 
n  (thing  akin  to  thciii,  would  always  avoid 
their  company." 

But  however  docile  and  gentle  when  takrn 
young,  and  instructed  in  Us  benaviour,  it  is 
said  to  be  pussessed  of  great  ferocity  in  its  na*- 
live  state,  and  is  considered  as  a  dangerous 
animal,  cajiable  of  readily  overpowering  the 
strongest  man.  Its  swiftness  is  eijual  to  its 
strength,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  rarely  to  be 
obtained  in  its  full-grown  state;  the  youno- 
alone  being  taken.  A  few  years  past,  the 
lull  d  of  a  supposed  full-grown  oran  otan  was  . 
brought  from  Sierra  Leoua,.  which,  from  ^. 


era 

size,  seemed  to  justify  the  idea  of  tliP  stature 
to  wliidi  lliis  species  is  supposed  to  grow:  it 
^\as  ot  a  black  colour,  aiul  consequently  be- 
longed to  tlu-  black  variety  of  this  species,  or 
iliat  described  in  a  young  state  by  Dr.  Ty- 
son. 

M.  Vosmaer's  account  of  the  manners  of  an 
oran  otan  brouglit  into  Holland  in  the  year 
1776,  and  presented  to  the  prince  of  Orange's 
menagerie,  is  so  curious  and  satisfactory,  that- 
we  shall  extract  it  from  liis  accurate  publica- 
€ion  on  that  subject. 

This  animal  was  a  female:  its  height  was 
about  two  Rhenish  feet  and  a  half.  It  shewed 
lio  symptoms  of  fierceness  or  malignity,  and 
was  even  of  a  somewhat  melancholy  appear- 
ance. It  was  fond  of  being  In  company,  and 
shewed  a  preference  to  tho^e  who  took  daily 
care  of  it,  of  which  it  seemed  to  be  sensible. 
Often  when  they  retired  it  would  throw  itself 
on  the  ground,  as  if  in  despair,  uttering  la- 
mentable cries,  and  tearing  in  pieces  the  linen 
within  its  reach.  Its  keeper  having  some- 
times been  accustomed  to  sit  near  it  on  the 
f  round,  it  took  the  hay  of  its  bed,  and  laid  it 
y  its  side,  and  seemed,  by  every  demon- 
stration, to  invite  him  to  be  seated  near. 
Its  usual  manner  of  walking  was  on  all-fours, 
like  other  apes;  but  it  could  also  walk  on  its 
two  hind  feet  only.  One  morning  it  got  un- 
chained, and  we'  behehl  it  with  wonderful 
agility  ascend  the  beams  and  rafters  of  the 
"building:  it  was  not  without  some  pains  that 
it  was  retaken,  and  we  then  remarked  an  ex- 
traordinary muscular  power  in  the  animal;  the 
assist.ince  of  four  men  being  necessary,  in  or- 
der to  hold  it  ill  such  a  manner  as  to  be  pro- 
perly secured.  During  its  state  of  liberty  it 
had,  amongst  other  things,  taken  the  cork 
from  a  bottle  containing  some  Malaga  wine, 
which  it  drank  to  llie  last  drop,  and  had  set 
tlie  bottle  in  its  place  again.  It  ate  almost 
every  thing  which  was  given  it;  b>it  its  chief 
food  was  bread,  roots,  and  especially  carrots; 
all  sorts  of  fruits  especially  strawberries  ;  and 
appeared  extremely  fond  of  aromatic  plants, 
as  parsley  and  its  root.  It  -also  ate  meat, 
both  boiled  and  roaste<l,  as  well  as  iish.  It 
was  not  observed  to  hunt  tor  insects  like  other 
moiikevs;  it  was  fond  of  eggs,  which  it  broke 
with  it's  teeth  and  sucked  completely;  but 
fish  and  roast  me.it  see^ned  its  favourite  food. 
It  had  been  taught  to  eat  with  a  spoon  and  a 
fork.  When  presented  with  strawberries  on 
a  plate,  it  was  extremely  pleasant  to  see  the 
animal  take  them  up,  one  by  one,  with  a  fork, 
and  put  them  into  its  mouth,  holding,  at  tlie 
same  time,  the  plate  in  the  other  hand.  Its 
common  drink  was  water;  but  it  also  very 
willingly  drank  all  sorts  of  wine,  and  particu- 
larly Malaga.  After  drinking  it  wiped  its 
lips,  and  after  eating,  if  presented  with  a 
tooth-pickj  would  use  it  in  a  proper  manner. 
I  was  assured,  that  on  shipboard  it  ran  freely 
about  the  vessel,  played  with  the  sailors,  and 
would  go,  like  till  m,  into  the  kitchen  for  its 
mess.  At  the  approach  of  night  it  would  lie 
down  to  sleep  ;  ami  prepared  its  bed  by  shak- 
ing well  the  hay  cm  which  it  slept,  and  put- 
ling  it  in  proper  order,  and,  lastly,  covering 
itself  warm  with  the  coverlet.  One  day,  see- 
ing the  padlock  of  its  chain  opein  d  with  a 
key,  and  shut  again,  it  seized  a  little  bit  of 
«tick,  and  put  it  into  the  key-hole,  turning  it 
about  in  all  directions,  endeavouring  to  sec 
whether  the  padlock  wuiild  o|)en  or  not. 
Tills  auiiiial  iivvd  seven  inontlis  in  Holland. 


SIMIA. 

On  its  first  arrival  it  had  but  very  little  hair, 
except  on  its  back  and  arms:  bul  on  the  ap- 
proiich  of  winter  it  became  extremely  well 
covered  ;  the  hair  on  the  back  being  three 
inches  in  length.  The.  whole  animal  then 
appeared  of  a  chesnut-colour ;  the  skin  of  the 
face,  &c.  was  of  a  mouse-colour,  but  about 
the  eyes  and  round  the  mouth  of  a  dull  tiesh- 
colour. 

It  came  from  the  island  of  Borneo,  and  was 
deposited  in  the  museum  of  the  prince  of 
Orange. 

Tpon  the  whole,  it  appears  clearly  that 
there  are  two  distinct  species  of  this  animal, 
viz.  the  pongo,  or  great  black  oran  otan, 
which  is  a  native  of  Africa,  and  the  reddish 
brown  or  chesnut  oran  otan,  called  the  jocko, 
w  hich  is  a  native  of  Borneo  and  some  other 
Indian  islands.  This  latter,  as  appears  from 
a  collation  of  most  of  the  specimens  which 
have  been  surveyed  with  the  necessary  de- 
gree of  exactness',  is  distinguished  by  having 
no  nails  on  the  great  toes ;  whereas  in  the 
pongo,  or  black  species,  they  are  conspi- 
cuous. 

2.  Simla  lar,  or  long-armed  ape.  This  is  a 
species  of  a  more  deformed  api)earance  than 
the  oran  otan,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  ex- 
cessive length  of  its  arms,  which,  when  the 
animal  stands  upright,  are  capable  of  touch- 
ing the  ground  with  the  fingers.  It  is  a  na- 
ti\  e  of  India  and  some  of  th.e  Indian  islands, 
and  grows  to  the  height  of  four  feet  or  more. 
Its  colour  is  black ;  but  the  face  is  commonly 
surrounded  by  a  whitish  beard. 

Notwithstanding  the  apparent  ferocity  of 
the  gibbon,  and  the  deformity  of  its  figure,  it 
is  of  a  more  tractable  and  gentle  nature  than 
most  of  its  tribe,  and  has  even  been  celebrated 
for  the  decorum  and  modesty  ot  its  behaviour. 
Considered  with  respect  to  the  re<t  of  the  ge- 
nus it  ranks  among  the  genuine  apes,  or  those 
which  have  not  the  least  vestige  of  a  tail ;  and 
like  the  oran  otan,  alarms  tlie  pride  of  man- 
kind by  too  near  an  approach  to  the  real  pri- 
mates of  the  creation.  Nay,  Linnrpus,  in  his 
description,  actually  places  it  in  the  genus 
hcmo,  under  the  title  of  homo  lar. 

3.  .Simla  sylvanus,  pigmy.  This  is  the  small- 
est of  the  genuine  apes,  or  those  destitute  of 
tails.  In  its  general  api)earance,  as  well  as 
in  colour,  it  extremely  resembles  the  Barbary 
ape;  but  is  not  larger  than  a  cat,  and  has  a 
rounder  or  flatter  face  than  the  Barbary  ape. 
This  is  supposed,  by  Mr.  Pennant,  to  have 
been  the  pigmy  of  the  antients,  which  was 
said  towage  war,  at  certain  seasons,  with  the 
cranes,  ft  is  a  native  of  Ethiopia,  where  it  is 
most  comMion ;  but  it  is  also  found  m  other 
parts  of  Africa.  It  is  easily  tamed,  and  is 
iiuK'h  more  docile  and  gentle  tliaii  the  former 
species. 

BABOONS. 

4.  Simla  sphinax,  common  baboon.  This 
is  a  species  of  very  considerable  size,  and 
when  in  a  sitting  posture,  is  from  three  to 
four  feet  in  heiglil.  It  is  extremely  strong 
and  muscular  in  its  upjier  parts,  and  slender 
towards  the  middle;  but  this  is  the  general 
shape  of  all  the  true  baboons ;  its  colour  is  an 
uniform  greyish-brown,  paler  beneath ;  the 
hairs  on  the  upper  parts,  if  narrowly  inspect- 
ed, appear  as  if  mottled ;  the  face  is  long,  and 
of  a  tawiiy  llcsli-colour ;  the  eyes  appear  as 


if  sunk  into  the  head,  or  rtry  deeply  seated, 
and  are  of  a  hazel  colour.  The  hands  ami 
feet  have  strong  blunt  claws  ;  but  the  thumbs 
of  the  hands  have  rounded  nails.  The  tail  is 
very  sliort.  It  is  ferocious  in  its  manners, 
and  its  appearance  is  at  once  grotes<|ue  and 
formidable.  The  region  surrounding  the  tail, 
to  a  considerable  distance  on  each  side,  is 
perfectly  bare  and  callous,  and  of  a  red  co- 
lour. This  is  also  common,  in  a  greater  or 
smaller  degree,  to  the  rest  of  this  division.  It 
is  a  native  of  the  island  of  Borneo. 

5.  Simla  mormon,  variegated  baboood. 
This  is  at  least  eipiai  in  size,  if  not  superior, 
to  the  former,  and,  when  in  an  upright  pos-  ■ 
ture,  is  about  five  feet  high.  It  is  the  most 
remarkable  of  the  whole  genus  for  brilliancy 
and  variety  of  colour.  The  general  tinge 
is  a  rich  and  vei")'  deep  yellowish-brown  ;  the 
hairs,  if  viewed  near,  appearing  speckled 
with  yellow  and  black.  The  form  of  the 
iiice  is  long,  with  tlie  snout  ending  someuhat 
abruptly ;  the  whole  length  of  the  nose, 
down  the  middle,  is  of  a  deep  blood-red;  but 
the  parts  on  each  side  are  of  a  fine  violet- 
blue,  deeply  marked  by  several  obhipie  fur- 
rou  s.  The  remainder  of  the  face  is  of  a  pale 
whitish-yellow.  It  is  a  native  of  the  interior 
parts  of  Africa  ;  but  it  is  said  to  have  been 
also  brought  fiom  India. 

The  variegated  baboon  is  of  a  fierce  dispo- 
sition, and  e.xtremely  muscular  and  strong. 
Its  voice  somewhat  resembles  the  slight  roar 
of  a  lion  :  it  is  a  rare  species,  and  is  not  olteu 
imported  into  Europe. 

6.  Simla  maimon,  maimon.  Tlie  syno- 
nyms between  this  species  and  the  former 
are  commonly  confoimded.  It  is  described 
by  the  count  de  Buffon  under  the  name  of 
mandrill.  It  is  an  active  animal,  and  seems 
far  less  indocile  and  malignant  than  the  rest 
of  the  baboons.  The  general  likeness  which 
it  bears  to  the  former  species  is  such  as  to 
give  the  idea  of  the  same  animal  in  a  less  ad- 
vanced state  of  growth,  and  with  less  brilliant 
colours ;  the  nose,  instead  of  being  red  on 
its  upper  part,  is  merely  flesli-coloured  ;  but 
the  sides  are  blue  and  furrowed,  as  in  the 
former  species.  This  baboon  is  not  uncom- 
mon in  exhibitions  of  aiiimals.  Its  length 
from  nose  to  tail  is  about  two  feet.  Tail  ex- 
actly as  in  the  fcJrmer. 

The  next  division  of  the  baboons  consists 
of  such  as  have  long  tails.  Of  these  the  chief 
is  the 

7.  Simla  hamadryas,  dog-faced  baboon. 
This  species  is  of  an  elegant  colour,  composed 
of  a  mi.xtureof  grey  and  brown,  the  hair  ap- 
pearing as  if  speckled.  It  is  a  very  large 
animal,  at  least  e(|ual,  if  not  superior,  in  size 
to  the  common  brown  baboon  and  the  mor- 
mon. It  is  remarkable  for  a  vast  quantity  of 
flowing  hair  on  each  side  the  head,  as  well 
as  round  the  shoulders,  spreading  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  a  short 
cloak  or  mantle.  I'lie  whole  face  is  naked, 
and  of  a  flesh-colour,  more  or  less  deej)  in 
dillcrent  individuals.  The  tail  is  almost  the 
length  of  the  body,  aud  is  commonly  a  little 
tutted  at  the  end. '  The  nails  on  the  hands  or 
tore-feet  are  tlat  ;  those  on  the  hind-feet  re- 
semble strong  claws.  This  is  a  rare  species 
in  comparison  with  the  common  baboon,  and 
is  a  native  of  the  hottest  pnrts  of  Africa  and 
A^ia,  where  it  is  said  to  reside  in  vast  troops, 
and  to  be  very  fierce  and  dangerous.  Ther« 
is  a  woiulerfiil  degree  of  sagacity  iii  tlte.touii- 


fcnnnrf  of  this  aiiiiiuil,  ami  a  kiml  of  solt-nin 
r.iiilcniplative  dispusilioii  seems  to  be  slron^^y 
imliialeci  in  its  looks,  wIilmi  calm  and  umlis- 
(ii.l)i-(l;  but  when  irritated,  the  most  striking 
I  librlj  of  viiuhciive  violence  are  inmiediiitciy 
exhibited.  It  is  also  possessed  of  an  tincom- 
nion  tiegree  ol' obstinate  morosen<'ss,  sm'pass- 
iiig  mosl  others  of  its  tribe,  and  is,  when  in 
a  slate  of  confinement,  of  a  disposition  so 
Mide  and  unquiet,  and  of  manners  so  pet  ii- 
harly  indecorous,  as  generally  to  frustrate  all 
attempts  to  civilize  and  reclaim  it. 

MONKEYS. 

8.  Simla  leoiiina.  I.conine  monkey.  This 
species  was  described  from  the  livinu;  animal 
in  the  jiossession  of  the  due  de  Bouillon  ;  and 
vas  in  the  royal  menagerie  at  V'ersail'es,  in 
liie  year  1773.  ■  Its  lenu,ih  was  two  teet  honi 
nose  to  tail,  and  it  was  eighteen  inches  high 
when  standing  on  all-fouis.  The  legs  were 
long  ni  proportion  to  tlie  body  ;  llie  lace 
jiaked  and  iiuite  black  ;  the  w  hole  body  and 
liiubs  of  the  same  colour;  ih.:  hair,  though 
long,  appi'aring  short,  on  account  of  its  l)ing 
smooth  :  around  the  face,  according  to  I'ui- 
fon's  (igure,  is  a  iine  long  chevelure  of  grey- 
brown  hair,  and  a  large  beard  of  fair  grey. 
The  chevelure  or  spreading  liair  round  the 
face  stretches  upwards  over  the  eyes  and 
forehead,  so  as  to  encircle  the  whole  liead  in 
'a  reinark;il)le  manner,  as  in  the  ouanderou 
or  lion-tailed  baboon,  to  which  indeed,  from 
the  ligure  as  well  as  dencriptioji,  it  appears 
so  extremely  similar,  that  it  might  well  jjass 
for  a  variety  of  that  animal. 

9.  S.  Diana.  Spotted  monkey.  Mr.  Pen- 
nant describes  this  sjieties  as  of  a  middling 
size,  and  of  a  reddish  colour  on  the  upper 
parts,  as  if  singed,  and  marked  with  white 
specks;  the  belly  and  chin  whitish;  the  tail 
very  long.  The  I.inn;eun  description  dilfers. 
Linnicus  says  the  animal  is  of  the  size  of  a 
large  cat,  and  is  black,  spotted  with  white; 
the  liind  part  of  the  back  ferruginous ;  the 
face  black;  from  the  top  of  the  nose  a  white 
line,  passing  over  each  eye  to  the  ears  in  an 
arched  direction ;  (this  circumstance  was 
probably  the  reason  of  the  Linnivan  name 
Diana,  bv  which  he  has  chosen  to  distinsuish 
the  animal)  tlie  heard  pointed,  black  aliove, 
white  beneath,  and  placed  on  a  kind  of  falty 
tumor;  breast  and  throat  white;  from  the 
rutnp  across  the  thighs  a  w  hite  line  ;  tail  long, 
straight,  and  black;  ears  and  feet  of  tlie  same 
colour ;  canine  teelh  large.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  fig.  31)3. 

10.  Simla  nasiita.  Long-nosed  monkey. 
Two  remarkable  monkeys  are  represented  in 
Mr.  Pennant's  History  "of  Quadrupeds,  from 
drawings  bv  a  Mr.  Paillou.  The  one  is  call- 
ed the  long-nosed  monkey  ;  it  has  a  very  long 
and  slender  nose,  covered  with  a  llesh-colour- 
edskin  ;  the  hair  on  the  forehead  falls  back; 
on  the  body  and  breast  it  is  long;  the  colour 
«f  the  head  and  upper  parts  is  pale  ferrugi- 
nous mixed  with  black;  of  the  breast  and 
belly  light  ash-colour;  tail  very  long;  height 
when  sitting  down  about  two  feet.  Native 
country  uncertain:  probably  Africa.  Its 
lace  has  very  much  the  appearance  of  a  long- 
nosed  dog.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  lig.  31)4. 

The  oilier  is  called  bv  Mr.  Pennant  the 
prude  monkey ;  and  of  tliis  he  gives  no  par- 
'  ticular  <lescription. 

11.  S.  siiiica.  Cliinese  monkey.  The  Chi- 
nese nionkev,  so  named  from  th?  unusual 

Vei..  U.  ■ 


SIMIA. 

disposilioii  of  the  liiir  on  the  top  of  the  Iicad, 
whirh  spreads  out  in  a  circtitar  direction, 
somewhat  in  thi;  mannerof  a  Cliinesecap,  is 
a  native  of  C'i;ylon,  and  is  about  the  size  of  a 
cat.  Us  general  tolour  is  a  ;>al(f  yellow ish- 
hrown,  palest  on  Ih'e  under  jiarts.  The  face 
is  commonly  dusk  V,  and  sonietimes  the  ge- 
nc-ral  tinge  ol  1  he  animal  is  dusky-ferruginous. 
This  is  a  species  easily  distinguished  when 
sei-n  in  a  healthy  state:  the  hair  on  ihe  top  of 
the  head  resembling  that  of  a  boy;  as  if 
parted  in  the  middle,  and  lying  smooth  over 
Ihe  head.  1  hey  are  said  to  inhabit  the  woods 
in  great  troops,  and  to  be  very  destructive  to 
such  gardens  and  jilantations  as  lie  within 
reach  of  their  settlements.  The  tail  in  tliis 
species  is  very  hjng  :  the  nails  of  the  thmnbs 
are  round  ;  the  rest  long. 

12.  S.  pel;iuri^ta.  Vaulling  monkey.    This 
is  described  bv  Mr.   Allamand  in   his  edition 
of  liuffon's  Natural  llisiorv  of  (Juadrupeds. 
It  Is  said  to  be  somewhat  more  than  a  foot 
high,  and  tlie  tail  :il)out  twenty  inches  long. 
Tile  upper  parts  of  the  animal  are  of  a  dark 
olivaceous  colour,    owing   to  a   mixture   of 
olive-green  and  l)lac:k  hair ;  the  face  black,  ' 
with  a  snow-while  triangular  S))Ot  on  the  nose;  I 
the  chin,  throat,  bri-ast,  and  bellv,  white  ;  tlie  i 
under  part  of  the  tail  and  insides  of  the  limbs  i 
of  a  blackish  grey.     It  is  a  most  extieiiielv  j 
nimble  and  atrtive  animal,  according  to  M'. 
Allamand.     'Ihe  individual  in  his  possession  | 
came  froiu  Guinea.     It  was  perfectly  fanii- i 
liar,  playful,  of  a   gentle  di.^i)ositioii,  and  so 
rapiff  in  its  motions  that  it  seemed  to  Hy  ra- 
llier  tlKin  leap. 

13.  Smiia  mona.  A'aricd  monkty.  Tliis 
is  said  to  be  the  species  which  gives  the  name 
of  monkey  to  the  wiiole  tribe;  from  the  Afri- 
can word  monne;  or  rather,  as  Mr.  Pennant 
surmises,  from  its  corruption  monichus.  It 
is  one  of  the  largest  species,  behig  about  a 
foot  and  a  half  in  length,  with  a  tail  nearly  two 
feet  long.  The  nose,  mouth,  and  spaces 
round  the  eyes,  are  of  a  dull  flesli-colour ; 
the  cheeks  are  bounded  by  long  whitish  hairs- 
inclining  to  yellow  ;  the  forehead  is  grey, 
and  above  the  eyes,  from  ear  to  ear,  ex- 
tends a  black  line.  The  upper  part  of  the 
bo<lv  is  duskv  and  tawny;  the  breast,  bellv, 
and  inside  of  the  limljs,  white;  the  outside 
of  the  thighs  and  arms  black  ;  hands  and  feet 
black  and  naked:  the  tail  of  a  cinereous 
brown.  On  each  side  the  base  of  the  tail  is 
commonly  an  oval  white  spot.  This  species 
inhabits  fiarbary,  jEthiopia,  and  other  parts 
of  .Africa. 

14.  Simla  nasalis.  Proboscis  monkey. 
Amongst  the  whole  tribe  of  monkeys  this 
perhaps  may  be  considered  as  the  most  sin- 
gular in  its  aspect ;  the  nose  being  of  such  a 
length  and  form  as  to  present,  especially  in  a 
prohle  view,  an  appearance  the  most  gro- 
tesipie  imaginable ;  and  indeed  from  an  in- 
spection pf  the  figure  alone,  one  would  be 
apt  to  imagine  that  it  must  have  been  de- 
signed for  a  caricature  of  a  monkey.  The 
animal,  however,  is  preserved,  in  the  royal 
cabinet  at  Paris,  and  was  first  described  by 
Mons.  D'Aubenton.  It  is  a  large  species, 
measuring  two  feet  from  the  tip  of  the  nose 
to  the  tail,  which  is  more  than  two  feel  long. 
The  face  has  a  kind  of  curved  form,  and  is  of 
a  brown  colour,  and  marked  with  bine  and 
red  ;  the  ears  broad,  thin,  naked,  and  hid 
within  the  hair.  The  form  of  the  nose  is  most 
singular,  being  divided  almost  into  two  lobes 

4Q 


073 

at  the  lij);  3  longitiidina!  furww  running 
along  the  miudle.  It  is  said  It)  be  fomul 
chiefly  in  Cochinciiina,  and  to  grow  to  a  very 
large  size.  It  is  sometimes  seen  in  great- 
troops,  and  is  considered  as  <)t  a  ferociof.s 
disposition.  It  fcvda  only  on  fruits.  Its  na- 
tive name  iskhi  d6c,  or  great  monkey. 

15.  .Simla  nenueus.  tochrm  Iiina  monkey. 
The  douc  or  Corliinchina  monkey  is  a  very 
large  species,  measuring  at  least  two  feet 
from  the  nose  to  the  tail.  I'he  face  is  flattislt 
and  of  a  jcllowish-hay  colour,  as  are  also 
tiie  ears;  across  tlie  forehead  luns  a  narrow 
dusky  band.  J'he  back,  the  under  parts  of 
the  body,  and  sides,  are  of  a  yellowish  grey  ; 
the  lower  ];art  of  the  arms  and  tail  are  wliitt', 
llie  feet  dusky.  It  is  a  native  of  Cochiuchina, 
and  aUo  of  Madagascar.  It  is  said  that  a 
bezoar  is  more  frequently  found  in  tiie  sto- 
mach of  this  species  than  of  almost  any  olhei'. 
When  in  an  upright  posture  tliis  animal  mea- 
sures three  and  a  half  or  four  feet  in  height, 
being  nearly  of  tlic  size  of  a  I5arbary  ape. 
This  species  seems  considerably  allied  in  its 
gl-neral_  form  and  colours  to  the  jjicceding, 
but  dillers  greallv  in  the  form  of  the  fact-.  See 
-Plate-Nat.  Hist. "fig.  30j. 

10.  Simla  rosalia.  Silky  monkey,  'fliis 
species  is  so  named  from  the  appearance  of 
its  hair,  wliich  is  very  line,  soft,  long,  and  of  a 
bright-yellow  colour,  resembling  yellow  silic. 
Koum!  (he  face  the  hair  is  much  kaiger  than 
ill  other  ])arls,  so  as  to  form  a  large  mane 
like  that  of  a  lion ;  near  the  face  this  mane  is 
of  a  reddish  colour,  and  grows  paler  as  it  re- 
cedes from  the  checks  ;  the  face  itself  is  of  a 
dusky  purple;  the  ears  round  and  naked  ; 
the  hands  and  feet  are  also  naked,  and  of  the 
same  dull  purple  colour  as  the  face ;  the 
claws  are  small  and  sharp  ;  the  tail  is  very 
long,  and  rather  bushy  at  the  extremity.  It 
is  a  native  of  Guiana,  and  is  a  lively,  iictivo 
species,  and  gentle  in  a  slate  ol  coiilnienient. 
See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  366. 

SEPAJOUS. 

17.  Simla  beelzebul.  Preacher  monkey- 
This  species  is  said  to  be  of  the  size  of  a  fox, 
and  ot  a  black  colour,  \>  Itli  smooth  glossy 
hair ;  round  beard  beneath  Ihe  c'hin  an3 
throat;  the  feet  and  end  of  the  tail  brown. 
It  is  a  native  of  Brasil  and  Guiana,  inhabiting 
tiie  woods  in  vast  numbers,  and  howls  in  a 
dreadful  manner.  Marcgrave  assures  us,  that 
one  sometimes  mounts  the  top  of  a  branch, 
and  assembles  a  multitude  below  ;  he  then 
sets  up  a  howl  so  loud  and  horrible,  that  a 
person  at  a  distance  would  imagine  that  a  hun- 
dred joined  in  the  cry  ;  after  a  certain  space 
he  gives  a  signal  with  his  hand,  when  the 
whole  assembly  join  in  chorus ;  but  on  an- 
otlier  signal  a'sudden  silence  prevails,  and 
llien  the  orator  finishes  his  harangue.  This 
how  ling  faculty  is  owing  to  the  conformation 
of  the  OS  hyoides,  or  throat-bone,  which  is 
dilated  into  a  bottle-shaped  concavity. 

IS.  Simla  paniscus.  Four-lingered  mon- 
key. This  animal  is  distinguished  bv  the 
gracility  of  its  body  and  limbs  ;  its  uriilbrni 
black  colour,  except  on  the  face,  which  is  of 
a  dark  flesli-colour;  and  bv  the  want  of  thumbs 
on  the  forefeet,  instead' of  which  are  verv 
small  projections  or  appendices.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  active  and  lively  of  animals,  and  is 
besides  of  a  gentle  and  tractable  disposition  in 
a  state  of  confinement.  It  inhabits  the  woods 
of  bvutl*  America  ;  associating  io  great  mait'f 


<574 


-S  I  M 


tudes;  a?saiVmg  such  travellers  as  pASS 
through  their  haunts  with  an  infinite  number 
of  sportive  and  niischievons  gambols  ;  cliat- 
tering  and  throwing  down  dry  slicks,  swing- 
ing by  tiieir  tails  from  the  boughs,  and  endea- 
vouring to  intimidate  the  passengers  by  a  va- 
riety of  menacing  gsstures. 

SIMILAR,  in  arithmetic  and  geometry, 
the  same  with  like.  In  mathematics,, similar 
parts  have  the  same  ratio  to  their  wholes; 
and  if  the  wholes  have  the  same  ratio  to  the 
parts,  the  parts  are  similar.  SinriUir  angles 
are  also  equal  angles.  lu  solid  angles,  when 
tlie  planes  under  which  they  are  contained 
are  equal,  both  in  number  and  magnitude, 
and  are  disposed  in  the  same  order,  tliey  are 
similnr,  and  consequently  equal.  Similar 
arches  of  a  circle  are  such  as  are  like  parts  of 
their  whole  circumferences,  and  consequently 
equal.  Similar  plane  numbers  are  those 
numbers  which  may  be  ranged  into  the  form 
of  similar  rectangles^  that  is,  into  rectangles 
whose  sides  are  proportional  ;  such  are  1 U 
and  43,  for  the  sides  of  \2  are  6  and  2,  and 
the  sides  of  48  are  1 2  and  4  ;  but  6  :  2  : :  1 2 
:  4,  and  therefore  those  hunibers  are  similar. 
Similar  polygons  are  such  as  have  their  angles 
severally  equal,  and  the  sides  about  those 
angles  proportional.  Similar  rectangles  are 
those  which  have  their  sides  about  the  equal 
angles  proportional.  Hence,  1.  All  squares 
are  similar  rectangles.  2.  All  similar  rect- 
angles are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  ol 
their  homologous  sides.  Similar  right-lined 
figures  are  such  as  have  equal  angles,  and 
the  sides  about  those  equal  angles  propor- 
tional. Similar  segments  of  a  circle  are  such 
as  contain  equal  angles.  Similar  curves:  two 
segments  of  two  curves  are  called  similar,  if, 
any  right-lined  ligure  being  inscribed  within 
one  of  them,  we  can  inscribe  always  a  similar 
right-lined  figure  in  the  other.  Similar  conic 
sections:  two  tonic  sections  are  said  to  be 
similar,  when  any  segment  being  taken  in  the 
one,  we  can  assign  always  a  similar  segment 
in  the  other.  Similar  diameters  of  two  conic 
sections:  the  diameters  in  two  conic  sections 
are  said  to  be  similar,  when  they  make  the 
same  angles  with  their  ordinates.  Similar 
»olids  are  such  as  are  contained  under  equal 
numbers  of  similar  planes  alike  situated. 
Similar  triangles  are  such  as  have  their  three 
augles  respectively  ecjual  to  one  another. 
Hence,  1.  All  similar  triangles  have  the  sides 
about  their  angles  proportional.  2.  All  si- 
milar triangles  are  to  one  another  as  the 
squares  of  ineir  liomologous  sides. 

SiMlLAK  riGURES,  in  gcomclry,  such  as 
have  their  angles  respectively  equal,  and  the 
sides  about  the  equal  angles  proportional. 

SIVIONIANS,  in  church  history,  a  sect 
of  antient  christians,  so  cillcd  from  their 
founder,  Simon  Magus,  or  the  magician. 
The  liertiies  of  ,Simon  Magus  were  princi- 
pally his  ;>;ctending  tobe  the  great  jjowerof 
God,  and  thinking  that  the  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  were  venal. 

SIMONY,  is  the  corrupt  presentation  of 
any  one  to  an<;ccle<>iasiical  benefice,  for  ino- 
•cy,  gift,  reward,  or  benefit. 

iJy  one  of  the  canons  of  1603,  every  person 
before  his  admission  to  any  ecclesiastical  pro- 
motion, shall,  litlbre  the  ordinary,  take  an 
oath,  that  he  !ia3  made  no  simoniacal  con- 
tract, promise,  or  payment,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, by  biinsvlf  or  any  other,  tor  the  ob- 
3 


S  1  M 

taimng  of  the  said  promoUon ;  and  that  he  will 
not  afterwards  perfoini  or  satisfy  any  such 
kind  of  payment,  contract,  or  pronnso,  by 
anv  other  without  his  kiiOM'lMlge  or  consent. 

To  purchase  a  presentation,  the  living  lieing 
actually  vacant,  is  open  and  notorious  simo- 
ny; this  being  expressly  in  the  face  of  the 
statute.  Moor.  914. 

The  sale  of  an  advowson,  during  a  vacan- 
cy, is  not  within  the  stature  of  simony,  as 
the  sale  of  the  next  presentation  is  ;  but  it  is 
void  by  the  common  law.  2  Black.  22. 

A  bond  of  resignation  is  a  bond  given  by 
the  person  intended  lo  be  presented  to  a  be- 
nefice, with  condition  to  resign  the  same,  and 
is  special  or  general.  The  contlition  of  a 
special  one  is  to  resign  the  benefice  in  favour 
of  some  certain  person,  as  a  son,  kinsman,  or 
friend  of  the  patron,  when  he  siiall  be  capable 
of  taking  the  same.  By  a  general  bond,  the 
incumbent  is  bound  to  resign  on  the  request 
of  the  patron.     4  Bac.  Abr.  470. 

A  bond  with  condition  to  resign  within 
three  months  after  being  requested,  to  the  in- 
tent that  tlie  patron  might  present  his  son 
when  he  should  be  capable,  was  lield  good  ; 
aiid  the  judgment  was  aflirmed  in  the  e.xclie- 
quer  -  chamber  ;  for  a  man  may,  without 
any  colour  of  simony,  bind  himself  for  good 
reasons,  as  if  he  takes  a  second  benefice,  or 
if  he  is  nOn-resident,  or  that  the  patron  pre- 
sents his  son,  to  resign ;  but  if  the  condition 
had  been  to  let  the  patron  have  a  lease  of  the 
glebe  or  tithes,  or  to  pay  a  sum  of  money,  it 
would  have  been  simoniacal. 

SI.MOOM.  A  wind  or  haze  was  observed 
by  Mr.  Bruce,  in  the  course  of  his  travels  to  1 
discover  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  in  some  respects  analogous 
to  the  sirocco.  It  is  called  by  Mr.  Bruce 
the  simoom,  and  from  its  effects  upon  the 
lungs,  we  can  entertain  but  little  doubt,  that 
it  consists  chiefly  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  a 
very  dense  stale,  and  [lerhaps  mixed  with 
some  other  noxious  exhalations. 

In  the  same  desert  Mr.  Bruce  obscn-edthe 
astonishing  phenomenon  of  moving  pillars  of 
sand,  which  are  probably  the  effects  of  a 
number  of  whirlvinds  in  those  torrid  regions. 
A»  the  description  of  these  pillars  is  in  some 
degree  blended  with  that  of  the  simoom, 
we  shall  extract  the  passage.  In  relating 
the  particulars  of  his  journey  across  a  certain 
part  of  the  deserts  oi' Africa,  Mr.  Bruce  ob- 
serves, "  We  were  here  at  once  surprised 
and  terrified  by  a  sight  surely  one  of  the  most 
niagnificent  in  the  world.  In  that  vast  ex- 
panse of  desert,  from  west  and  to  the  north- 
west of  lis,  we  saw  a  number  of  prodigious 
pillars  of  sand  at  different  distances,  at  times 
moving  with  great  celerity,  and  at  others 
stalking  on  with  a  majestic  slowness;  at  inter- 
vals we  thought  they  were  coming  in  a  very 
few  minutes  to  overwhelm  us ;  and  small 
<iuantilies  of  sand  did  actually  more  than 
once  reach  us.  AgaiEi  they  would  retreat  so 
as  to  bs  almost  out  of  sight,  llu-ir  tops  reach- 
ing to  the  very  clouds.  There  the  tops  often 
separated  from  the  bodies ;  and  these,  once 
disjoined,  dispersed  in  thb  air,  and  did  not 
appear  more.  Sometimes  they  were  broken 
near  the  middle,  as  if  struck  with  a  large  can- 
non-shot. About  noon  they  began  to  ad- 
vance with  considerable  swiftness  upon  us, 
tiie  wiiid  being  very  strong  at  north.  F.leven 
of  them  ranged  alongside  of  us  about  the 
disiauce  of  three  miles.    The  greatest  dia- 


S  I  N 

melcr  of  the  largest  appeared  to  me  at  tli  : 
di.stance  as  if  it  would  measure  ten  feet.  '^I'lu  v 
retired  from  us  with  a  wind  at  south-ea^, 
leaving  an  impression  upon  my  mind  lo  whii  : 
I  can  give  no  name,  though  surely  one  ingi' 
dienl  in  it  was  fear,  w  ith  a  considerable  deai 
of  wonder  ami  astonishment  It  was  in  vaiti 
to  think  of  dying ;  the  swiftest  horse,  or 
lastesl-sailing  ship,  could  be  of  no  use  to  carry 
us  out  of  this  danger  ;  and  the  full  persuasion 
of  this  rivelted  me  as  if  to  the  sjiot  where  I 
stood,  and  let  the  camels  gain  on  me  so  niucli 
in  my  state  of  lameness,  that  it  was  with  some 
difficulty  I  could  overtake  them.'" 

SIMPLE,  in  music,  a  term  applied  to  that 
counterpoint  in  which  note  is  set  against  note, 
and  which  is  called  simple,  in  opposition  to 
more  elaborate  composition,  known  by  tljc 
name  of  figurative  counterpoint.  Simple 
fugue,  or  simple  imitation,  is  tliat  style  of 
composition  in  which  a  single  subject  is  adopt- 
ed, or  some  partial  echo  preserved  amongst 
the  several  parts.  'I'his  word  in  the  nni-.ic 
of  the  last  age  is  frequently  used  in  contradis- 
tinction to  double,  applied  to  variations,  as 
double  1,  double  2,  &c.  and  signifies  the  plain 
motivo,  or  subject,  on  which  the  variations 
are  founded.  Simple  cadence  is  that  in  whicb 
the  notes  are  equal  through  all  the  parts. 
Simple  concortls  are  those  wherein  we  hear 
only  two  notes  in  consonance  ;  and  simple 
intervals  are  those  in  wliich  no  parts  or  divi- 
sions are  supposed,  and  which  tlie  antienis- 
Greeks  called  diastems. 

Simple  Sound,  a  pure,  unmixed,  single- 
sound.  Some  theorists  will  not  allow  that 
there  is,  niusi<ally  speaking, any  such  sound 
in  nature ;  but  assert  on  the  contrary  that 
every  sound  which  is  produced  is  at  least  ac- 
companied with  its  twelfth  and  seventeenth. 

Simple,  in  pharmacy,  a  general  name 
given  to  all  herbs  or  plants,  as  having  each 
its  particular  virtue,  whereby  it  becomes  a. 
simple  remedy. 

Simple  Subst.4nces.  See  Elements. 

SIMPLICITY,  in  composition,  a  natural 
unadorned  melody,  or  incomplex  combina- 
tion of  parts,  in  which  the  composer  endea- 
vours, rather  by  the  force  of  his  genius  and 
feeling  than  the  refinement  of  science,  to- 
awaken  the  softer  passions,  or  rouse  the  mind 
to  ardour.  In  performance,  simplicity  is  that 
chaste,  unalfcled  style,  which,  rejecting  all 
vain  and  immcaning  flourish,  only  aims  at 
conveying  the  ideas  of  the  composer,  without 
disturbing  the  purity  of  the  text. 

SINAPIS,  muslard,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  class  of  tetradynamia,  and  to 
the  orcler  of  siliquosa,  and  in  the  natural  svs- 
lem  ranged  under  the  39th  order,  siliquosa'. 
The  calyx  consists  of  four  expanding  slrap- 
slia|)ed  deciduous  leaves  ;  the  ungues  or  bases 
of  the  petals  are  straight ;  two  glandules  be- 
tween the  shorter  stamina- and  pistillum,  also 
between  tlie  longer  and  the  calyx.  There  are 
19  species,  three  of  them  natives  of  liritaii). 
1.  'J'he  alba,  or  white  mustard,  which  is  ge- 
nerally cultivated  as  a  salad-herb  for  winter 
and  spring  use.  2.  The  nigra,  or  common 
mustard,  which  is  frei|ncntly  found  growing 
naturally  in  main-  parts  of  Britain,  but  is  also 
cultivati-d  in  fields  for  the  seeds,  of  which  the 
sauce  called  mustard  is  made.  3.  '1  he  itr- 
vensis  grows  naturallv  on  arable  land  in  many 
parts  of  Biilain.  'I  he  seed  of  this  is  com- 
monly sold  under  the  title  of  Durham  mus- 
tard seed.    Of  this  there  are  two  ■»arielies, 


:T'())KY., 


OJ.i 


.■^.U^ 


Jmmlic'l    tiaauiUh 


3M 


^anj^wtu/ra-  /oTHCdii 


Jitiih!     iiri>:,''eu,' 


S  1  N 

■Unot  distinct  species;  tiieone  «itli  cut,  the 
other  will)  eiiliie,  leaves. 

Muslanl,  hy  its  |)ui)gency,  stiiiiiilates  the 
solids  ;  and  lience  is  rctonimeiuled  fur  ex- 
citiiic  appetite,  assisting  digestion,  promoting 
the  (liiiil  secretions,  and  tor  the  other  pur- 
poses ol  ine  acrid  plants  called  antiscorbutic. 
it  imparls  its  taste  and  smell  in  pertetlion  to 
aqueous  liquors,  and  by  distillation  with  wa- 
ter yields  an  essential  oil  ot  gieat  acrimony. 
'Jo  rectilied  spirit  its  seeds  give  out  very 
little  either  ol  their  smell  or  taste.  Subjected 
to  the  press,  they  yield  a  considerable  quan- 
tity ot  mild  insipid  oil,  which  is  as  tree  Ircni 
acrimony  as  that  of  almonds.  '1  hey  are  ap- 
plied as  an  external  slinuilant  to  benun.(>e(l 
or  iiaralytic  limbs  ;  to  parts  aliected  with 
iixed  rheumatic  pains,  and  to  the  soles  of  tlie 
leul,  in  the  low  stage  of  acute  diseases,  for 
raising  the  pulse  :  in  this  intention,  a  n)ixture 
■of  e(|Ual  parts  ol  the  powdered  seeds  and 
crumb  of  bread,  with  the  addition  sometimes 
of -a  little  bruised  garlic,  is  made  into  a  ca- 
taplasm with  a  sul'licient  quantity  of  vinegar. 

•SlNAPlSM.     See  Pharmacy. 

SINClPU'l',  in  anatomy,  the  fore  part  of 
the  head,  reaching  from  the  forehead  to  the 
coronal  suture. 

^>INK,  or  right  sine  of  an  arch.   See  Tri- 

eONOMliTRY. 

Sine-cure,  is  where  a  rector  of  a  parish 
has  a  vicar  under  liim  endowed  and  charged 
with  the  cure,  so  that  the  rector  is  not  obliged 
either  to  do  duty  or  residence. 

Sine-die,  luithmit  dni/,  in  law,  a  term  fre- 
quently Used  in  our  proceedings  at  common 
law  ;  as  when  judgment  is  given  against  the 
plamtiil',  he  is  said  to  be  in  misericordia  pro 
falso  claniore  suo;  so  when  judgnient  passes 
for  the  defendant,  it  is  entered  eat  inde  sine 
die,  being  as  much  as  to  say,  he  is  dischar- 
geii,  or  dismissed  the  court. 

SINIS'l  EU.     See  Heraldry. 

SINKING  FUND,  in  political  economy, 
a  portion  of  the  public  revenue  appropriated 
to  the  reduction  or  discharge  ot  the  public 
debts.  As  the  funding  system  had  been 
adopted  in  other  countries  long  before  it  was 
resorted  to  in  Great  Britain,  a  provision  of 
this  kind  liad  ap|)eaied  necessary  at  a  much 
earlier  period,  and  had  been  established  in 
Holland  in  I6j5,  and  in  the  ecclesiastical 
state  in  1685.  'J  hese  funds  were  both  formed 
by  reducing  the  interest  payable  on  the  pub- 
lic debis,  and  appropriating  the  annual  sura 
thus  saved  to  the  gradual  discharge-  of  the 
principal. 

In  llie  reign  of  king  Willi;im,  when  the 
mode  ol  providing  for  extraordinary  expences 
by  incurring  public  debts,  which  has  become 
so  general,  was  lirst  adojited  in  this  country, 
the  particular  tax  on  winch  money  was  bor- 
Toweii,  generally  produced  much  more  than 
surticient  to  pay  the  annual  interest,  and  the 
surplus  was  applied  in  sinking  or  discharging 
the  princ  pal,  which  was  generally  effected 
in  a  li  w  ;. ears.  Had  this  plan  been  pursued, 
there  never  could  have  been  any  very  great 
accumnlal.on  of  public  debts ;  but,  as  the 
exjjenditnre  inci eased,  and  the  necessity  of 
loans  ot  still  greater  amount  became  more 
frequent,  it  was  found  sufficiently  difficult  to 
provide  effectually  for  the  yearly  interest  oi 
the  sums  ilms  borrowed;  and  the  repayment 
of  the  principal  was  eitlier  put  off  to  a  distant 
period,  or  left  without  any  provision  to  the 
chance  of  more  iloiuiehinj,  times. 


S  I  N 

Snms  of  the  efCects  of  an  acciimiilating 
public  tiebt  soon  becamt;  evident  in  the  dis- 
count at  v\liich  all  government  securitii  ssold, 
and  in  the  diflic  ulties  experi(  need  in  provid- 
ing lor  (he  annual  expenditure  ;  the  propriety 
ot  reilncing,  and  even  of  wholly  discharging, 
the  debt,  was  genfially  acknowledged;  and 
the  pliin  of  a  sinking  fund  very  similar  to  that 
which  «as  afterwards  ado|)ted,  was  recom- 
mended in  a  pamphlet  publislied  in  1701.  In 
1713  Mr.  .'\rchibald  Hntcheson  presented  to 
George  1.  a  plan  for  payment  of  the  public 
debts.  In  1715  different  projects  for  this 
purpose  were  )Hibli-.hed  by  EdvVard  Leigh, 
Mr.  Asgill,  and  others.  And  in  1717  a  phin 
lor  the  gradual  discharge  ol  the  debt  was  ac- 
tually adopted,  w hit  h  was  alterwards  gene- 
rally known  by  the  appellation  of  the  siiiking 
fund. 

The  country  had  been  engaged  in  an  ex- 
pensive war  during  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
reign  of  queen  Anne  ;  and  it  had  been  found 
impracticable  to  obtain  the  large  sums  re- 
quired, without  paying,  in  most  instances,  a 
very  high  interest ;  bet  upon  the  return  of 
peace  the  cmient  rafe  of  interest  lowered 
considerably,  which  proceeded  in  part  tiom  a 
real  increase  of  the  national  caj/ital,  as  well  as 
from  loans  to  govenii'nent  of  any  great  amount 
being  no  longiT  necessary.  It  was  there- 
fore deemed  a  proper  opportunity  for  effect- 
ing a  reduction  of  the  high  interest  payable 
to  the  public  creditors,  and  of  establishing 
an  ellectual  plan  for  reducing  by  degrees  the 
debts  of  the  nation.  Accordingly,  on  the 
20th  of  May,  1717,  General  Stanhope,  who 
was  then  hrst  lord  of  tlie  treasury,  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  submitted  to  parlia- 
ment the  terms  of  a  proposed  agreement  with 
the  bank  of  England  and  the  South  Sea  com- 
pany, by  which  the  interest  was  to  be  reduced 
from  I)  to  5  per  cent,  on  the  capitals  of  these 
corporations,  who  were  the  principal  public 
creditors,  and  who  were  likewise  to  furnish 
money,  if  it  should  be  necessary,  for  paying 
oil  such  individuals  as  should  not  agree  to  a 
similar  reduction  of  the  interest  payable  to 
them.  1  he  total  annual  interest  saved  to 
government  bv  this  transaction  was  no  less 
tiian  32S,i60t.'\3s.  7id. 

The  diflerent  funds  on  which  most  of  the 
public  debts  had  been  charged  were  consoli- 
dated; and  the  prodnce  of  all  the  permanent 
taxes  was  distinguished  into  only  three  funds, 
called  the  aggregate  fund,  the  South  Sea  fund, 
and  the  general  fund.  From  these  three 
funds  tlie  inteiest  of  all  the  ))ublic  debts  was 
jiayable  :  and  the  excess  or  overplus  beyond 
the  payments  with  which  each  fund  was 
charged,  was  to  be  "  appropriated,  reser\  cd, 
and  applied,  to  and  for  discharging  the  prin- 
cipal and  interest  of  such  national  debts  and 
incumbrances,  as  were  incurred  before  ihe 
25th  day  of  Deceniber  1716,  and  are  declared 
to  be  national  debts,  and  were  provided  for 
by  act  or  acts  of  parliament,  to  be  discharged 
tiierewitli,  or  out  of  the  same,  and  to  or  for 
none  other  use,  intent,  or  purpose,  whatso- 
ever.'' This  constituted  the  sinking  fund; 
and  as  the  plan  originated  while  sir  Robert 
Walpole  was  in  ofiice,  he  claimed  much  ho- 
nour as  the  father  of  it ;  out  it  is  evident  that 
it  required  no  invention,  and  but  little  judg- 
ment, to  adopt  a  measure  which  had  been 
found  elhcacious  in  other  countries,  which 
had  feeen  publicly  recommended  some  yearn- 
4ti  2 


S  I  N 


675 


before,  and  Hie  utility  of  which  was  so  obvioiia, 
that  not  lo  have  adopted  it,  when  tiie  reduc- 
tion of  interest  rendered  it  so  practicable, 
and  when  an  example  bad  been  set  in  the 
establishnicnt  of  the  aggregate  fund,  would 
have  ben  iiiexcusabie.  It  was,  in  fact,  no- 
thing more  than  appropriating  generally  the 
surpluses  of  funds  which  were  before  esta- 
blished, to  the  uses  to  which  tlie  greater  part 
had  before  been  specilically  apiiroiiriated. 

For  a  few  years  the  fund  was  strictly  ap- 
plied lo  the  purposes  .for  which  it  was  esta- 
blished ;  and  so  well  were  its  natureand  impor- 
tance then  understood,  that  rather  th.-in  eii- 
<  roach  upon  it,  money  was  at  the  same  time 
borrowed  for  extraordinary  expences.  This 
[)erseverancc  was  however  of  nolongd'iration; 
in  1722  it  was  made  a  collateral  security  for 
tlie  interest  of  a  nnllion  raised  by  exchequer 
bills,  which  prepared  the  way  for  more  direct 
encroachments.  In  1724  the  sum  of  15,144/. 
19,y.  was  taken  from  the  fund,  to  m.ike  good 
the  loss  to  the  treasury  from  the  reduction  of 
the  value  of  gold  coin;  and  witiiin  twelve 
years  from  its  establishment  it  was  charged 
with  the  interest  of  new  loans.  In  1733  the 
gross  sum  of  half  a  million  was  taken  from  it 
towards  the  supplies,  .it  which  time  the  me- 
dium annual  produce  of  the  fund  for  five 
vears  had  been  1,2 12,000/.  This  amount,  with 
its  proper  increase,  would  have  been  amply 
sufticient  i'or  the  discharge  of  the  debt  whick 
then  existed,  but  the  alienation  of  it  was  con- 
tinued; and  Dr.  Price  has  shewn  that  no 
greater  part  of  the  public  debt  than  about 
eight  millions  and  a  half  was  discharged  by 
tlie  fund  from  this  period  to  the  year  1786; 
when,  in  consequence  of  a  new  arrangement 
of  the  public  accounts,  the  distinction  ot  thedif- 
ferent  funds  above-mentioned  was  abolished, 
and  tlie  proiliice  of  all  the  permanent  taxes 
included  under  one  general  head,  called  the 
consolidated  fund. 

One  of  tlie  objects  of  this  arrangement  was 
to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  new  sinking  fund, 
formed  from  the  general  surplus  of  tiie  re- 
venue, and  consisting,  like  the  old  fund,  in 
the  application  of  tiie  principle  of  compound 
interest.  Among  those  whom  Mr.  Pitt  con- 
sulted on  this  occasion,  he  particularly  sought 
the  advice  and  assistance  of  the  late  Dr. 
Price,  who  communicated  three  plans,  which 
he  conceived  to  be  best  adapted  for  carrying 
into  execution  a  nieamre  that  he  had  so  olten 
urged  in  his  different  publications,  particu- 
larly before  the  American  war  had  swelled 
the  public  debts  to  what  then  appeared  to  be 
a  hupeless  magnitude  :  it  was  one  of  the  plans 
thus  communicated,  which  was  afterwards 
adopted,  but  with  some  alterations  which 
considerablv  aff'cted  its  efficacy,  and  whick 
it  has  since  been  found  necessary  to  correct. 
By  the  act  which  w.is  passed  for  carrying  this 
scheme  into  execution,  26  Geo.  3.  c.  31,  tiie 
annual  sum  of  1,000,000/.  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  commissioners,  who  are, the  speaker 
of  the  house  of  commons,  the  char.cellor  of 
the  exchequer,  the  master  of  the  rolls,  the 
accomptanl-general  of  the  court  of  chancery, 
and  the  governor  and  deputy-governor  of  tiie 
bank,  for  the  time  being  respectively.  Thli 
million  was  to  be  issued  in  four  equal  quar- 
tirly  payments,  and  lo  be  applied  either  in 
paving  off  such  redeemable  annuities  as  were 
at  "or  above  par,  or  in  the  purchase  of  annui- 
ties below  par,  at  the  market-price.  Ihe 
dividends  on  tbe  suins  rwdecmed  or  purcka*- 


0/6 


S  I  N 


ed,  with  die  anmruics  for  lives  or  terms  tiiat 
should  fall  in  or  expire,  and  the  sums  which 
might  be  saved  by  any  reduction  of  interest, 
were  to  be  added  to  tli'e  fund,  which  was  thus 
to  continne  increasing  till  it  amounted  to  four 
millions  annually;  this  it  was  computed  would 
be  in  about  26'  years,  when  upwards  of  5() 
millions  of  slock  would  have  been  redeemed, 
from  which  time  the  dividends  on  such  capital 
as  should  afterwards  be  paid  off  or  purcliased 
by  the  commissioners,  with  such  annuities  as 
niight  fall  iu,  were  to  be  at  the  disposal  of 
parliament. 

On  the  irtli  of  February,  1792,  Mr.  Pitt 
proposed  that  the  sum  of  400,000/.  sliould  be 
issued  in  addition  to  the  n:ilhon,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  accelerating  the  operation  of  this 
fund;  and  stated,  tliat  in  consecjuence  of  this 
and  tuture  intended  additions,  it  might  be  ex- 
pected that  23  millions  of  3  per  cents,  would 
be  paid  otf  by  the  year  1800  ;  and  that  in  tlie 
year  1808,  the  fuiid  would  amount  to  four 
iniUions  per  annum,  being  the  sum  to  v.liich 
it  was  tlien  restricted.  Hut  the  most  impor- 
tant improvement  was  a  provision,  tliat  when- 
ever, in  future,  any  sums  should  be  raised  by 
loans  on  perpetual  redeemable  annuities,  a 
sum  equal  to  one  per  cent,  on  the  stock  cre- 
ated by  sucli  loans,  should  be  issued  out  of 
the  produce  of  tlie  consolidated  fund,  cpiar- 
terlv,  to  be  placed  to  the  account  of  the  com- 
missioners, who  were  to  keep  a  se,)arate  ac- 
count of  the  stock  redeemed  by  this  new  fund, 
■which  was  not  to  alfect  the  accumulation  of 
the  original  fund.  By  these  means  the  im- 
mediate progress  of  the  fund  was  quickened, 
and  future  loans  were  put,  into  a  regular 
course  of  redemption. 

The  injudicious  restriction  of  the  fund  to 
four  millions  per  annum,  was  done  away  by 
an  act  passed  in  1802,  which  directed  that 
the  produce  o-f  tiie  two  funds  should  continue 
to  accumulate,  witliout  any  limitation  as  to 
its  amount,  and  be  from  time  to  time  ap- 
plied, according  to  the  former  provisions,  in 
the  redemption  or  purchase  of  stock,  until 
the  wliolc  of  the  perpetual  redcemalile  an- 
nuities, existing  at  the  time  of  passing  the 
act,  shall  have  been  completely  re<leeined 
er  paid  off.  At  the  same  time,  the  usval 
annual  grant  of  200,000/.  in  aid  of  the  fund, 
VI3S  made  a  permanent  charge,  to  be  issued 
iTi  quarterly  payments  from  the  conSolidatctI 
fund,  in  the  same  manner  as  tiie  original  mil- 
lion per  a^Mium.  In  consequence  of  these 
jmprovcment?,  the  increase  of  the  fund  has 
been  much  greater  than  it  was  originally  esti- 
mated ;  and  its  total  amount,  with  the  sources 
from  which  it  arose,  was  on  the  1st  of  t'eb 
luary,  180(i,  as  loUows  : 

Annual  charge,  by  act  of 

26 Geo.  in.  .f. 1, 000,000     0    0 

T)iUo,  42{;eo.  III.  -  200,000  0  0 
Annuities  for  99  and   96 

yeai-s,  expired  1792  54,380  14     6 

Short    annuities,    expired 

1787  ...        25,000    0    0 

Life  aanuitips,  uncbinied 

and  expired  -        -        50,308     5     7 

Dividend  on  96,386,402/. 

at  3  per  nnt.  -        2,9j  1,592     1     2 

Ditto  on  2,617,400/.  at  4 

[Jtircent.  -        -         104,696     0     0 

Ditto  on    142,000/.  al    .0 

pcrccjiU  -        -  7,100    0     0 


S  1  N 

One  per  cent,  on  capitals 

created  since  1723         <t\3,202,e72     1   10 


Tola 


^.7,596,249    3     1 


This  sum  is  exclusive  of  the  fund  for  the 
reduction  of  the  pulilic  del)t  of  Ireland,  fund- 
ed in  Great  Britain,  whicli  at  the  above  pe- 
riod amounted  to  479„">37/.  8?.  and  of  the 
fund  for  reduction  of  the  imperial  debt, 
which  amounted  to  5  j,960/.  9s.  M. 

The  connnissioners  are  directed  by  the 
act  to  make  their  purchases  "  in  ec|ual  por- 
tions, as  nearly  as  may  be,  on  every  day 
(Saturdavs  and' Monday's  excepted)  on  which 
the  same  shall  be  transferable."  So  that 
they  purchase  on  four  days  in  every  week 
in  which  there  are  no  holidays.  Tliey  are 
empowered  to  subscribe  towards  any  public 
loan,  to  be  raised  by  act  of  parliament, 
upnn  perpetual  annuities,  subject  to  re- 
demption at  par  :  and  an  account  of  tlie  sums 
i>sued  to  them,  and  of  the  stock  purchased 
to  the  1st  of  February  in  every  year,  is  to 
be  annually  laid  before  parliament  on  or  be- 
fore the  I'Sth  of  February.  The  purchases, 
at  lirst,  were  all  made  in  t'he  3  per  cents,  pro- 
bably with  the  view  of  r.deeming  the  five 
per  'cents,  if  the  state  of  the  public  funds 
should  render  such  a  measure  practicable,  or 
of  inducing  the  proprietors  to  agree  to  a  re- 
duction of  the  interest  at  the  time  when  they 
sliould  become  redeemable. 

The  progress  of  the  fund  from  the  com- 
mencement of  its  operation  on  1st  August 
I7S6,  to  the  1st  February  1806,  will  appear 
from  the  following  stateinent  of  the  total 
amount  of  the  stodv  redeemed  by  the  com- 
missioners up  to  the  latter  period. 

Consolidated  3  per  cent,  an- 
nuities            -         -  .f.39,922,421 

Reduced   3   per   cent,   an- 
nuities            -             -  51,493.981 

Old  South  Sea  annuities  3,492,000 

New  South  Sea  annuities  2,783,000 

Three  per  cents.  1751         -  *J95,000 

Consolidated  4  per  cent, 

annuities              -            -  2,617,400 

Navy  5  per  cent,  annuities  142,000 


Total  .£-.101,143,802 

The  total  sum  which  had  been  paid  for  this 
amount  of  stock,  was  G2,S4.',782/.  7^.  U)(/. 
the  consolidated  3  per  cents,  having  been 
bought  up  on  an  average  at  61/.  percent, 
and  the  reduced  at  somewhat  less. 

The  progress  already  made  by  the  fund, 
and  the  imjiortant  elil'ect  it  has  had  in  sup- 
porting the  value  of  the  government  secu- 
r:tie3  at  a  time  when  it  has  been  necessary  to 
borrow  ujiprecedeuted  sums  in  almost  every 
year,  sufficienily  deinonstrale  the  great  uti- 
iity  of  this  niea'sure.  As  its  increase  will  be 
continually  augmenting,  it  will,  if  steadily 
persevered  in,  and  faithlully  applied,  become 
ultimately  cajiable  of  disdiarging  a  debt  of 
any  amount  which  it  is  possible  to  suppose 
the  country  will  ever  be  encumbered  with. 

It  has  been  shewn  that  the  fund,  including 
the  provision  for  the  reduction  of  the  debt  in 
Ireland  funded  in  Great  liritain,  and  for  the 
imperial  loans,  amounts  at  present  to  upwards 
of  eight  millions  per  annum;  iind  as  the 
stock  has  been  bought  up  at  little  more  than 
fiO  per  ci'Ut.  the  money  has  been  improved 
al  nearly  5  per  cent,  iiitertsl.     It  is  neither 


4  per 

5  per 

cent. 

cent. 

Millions. 

Millions. 

33 

34 

146 

136 

312 

336 

538 

680 

923 

1209 

1463 

2070 

2261 

3472 

3443 

5737 

3193 

9478 

7782 

13340 

S  I  N^ 

desirable,  nor  to  be  expected,  that  it  will  al-  • 
ways  be  possible  to  invest  the  produce  of  the 
fund  at  this  r.ite  of  interest ;  but  it  will  be 
shewn  that  if  the  fund  is  never  diverted  from 
its  purpose,  its  effects  will  in  time  be  almost 
omnipotent,  particularly  when  it  is  consider- 
ed tiiat  the  lollowing  sums  are  money,  and 
consequently  much  less  than  the  nominal 
capital  of  stock  that  would  be  bought  up  at 
any-  of  the  cuncnt  prices  at  which  these  se- 
curities have  been  tor  many  years  past: 

Amount  to  which  the  present  sinking  fund 
of  eight  millions  per  annum  will  accumulate, 
if  improved  at  4  or  5  per  cent,  compound 
interest. 


Years. 
Ill  isio 
IS  JO 

1S30 
1840 
1830 
1860 
1870 
1880 
1890 
U);)0 

SINNET,  on  board  a  ship,  a  line  ov 
string  made  of  rope-yarn,  consisting  general- 
ly of  two,  six,  or  nine  strings,  which  are  di- 
vided into  three  parts,  and  are  platted  over 
one  another,  and  then  beaten  smooth  and 
flat  with  a  wooden  mallet.  Its  use  is  to  save 
the  ropes,  or  to  keep  them  from  galling. 

SINOMA.  Within  the  capsular  liga- 
ments of  the  different  joints  of  the  body,  there 
is  contained  a  peculiar  liquid,  intended  to 
lubricate  the  parts  to  facilitate  their  motion. 
The  only  analysis  of  sinovia  is  of  that  taken 
from  oxen. 

Tlie  sinovia  of  the  ox,  when  it  has  just 
flowed  from  the  joint,  is  a  viscid  semitrans- 
pareiit  fluid,  of  a  greenisii-white  colour,  and 
a  smell  not  unlike  frog-spawn.  It  very  soon 
acquii-es  the  consistence  of  a  jelly  ;  and  this 
hajipens  eiiually  whether  it  is  kept  in  a  cold 
or  a  hot  temperature,  whether  it  is  exposed 
to  the  air  or  excluded  from  it.  This  consist- 
ence does  not  continue  long  ;  thir  sinovia  soon 
recovers  again  its  fluidity,  and  at  the  same 
time  deposits  a  thready-like  matter. 

Sinovia  mixes  readily  with  water,  and  im- 
parts to  that  liquid  a  great  deal  of  viscidity. 
The  mixture  froths  when  agitated  ;  becomes 
milky  when  boiled,  and  deposits  some  pelli- 
cles on  the  sides  of  the  dish  ;  but  its  viscidity- 
is  not  diminished. 

When  alcohol  is  poured  into  sinovia,  a 
white  substance  precipitates,  which  has  all 
the  properties  of  albumen.  One  luuidred 
parts  ot  sinovia  contain  4.52  of  albumen.  The 
liquid  still  continues  as  viscid  as  ever  ;  but  if 
acetic  add  is  poured  into  it,  tlit  viscidity 
disappears  altogether,  the  licjuid  becomes 
transparent,  and  deposits  a  quantity  of  matter 
in  white  threads,  which  posse.sses  the  follow- 
ing |)iopcrties :  1.  It  has  the  colour,  smell, 
taste,  and  elasticity,  of  vegetable  gluten.  2. 
It  is  soluble  in  concentrated  acids  and  pure 
alkalies.  3.  It  is  soluble  in  cold  water;  the 
solution  froths.  Acids  and  alcohol  precipi- 
tate the  fibrous  matter  in  flakes.  One  hun- 
dred parts  of  (inovia  toutaiu  U.Sli  of  this 
ujatter. 


S  I  t 

Wlien  the  liquid,  attor  these  siihsfance^ 
have  bi-eii  seixuMtcd  fVoni  it,  is  conrciilrati-d 
hv  t'vaporation,  it  dt'posils  cTvilals  oT  acetal 
of  soda.  Sinovia,  thcrcloi-L-,  contains  soda. 
MargiuTon  toimd  (IkU  100  parts  of  sinovia 
fijntaiiieil  about  0.71  of  soda. 

Wht-n  slmmi;  sulpluiric,  imiriatie,  nitric, 
acetic,  or  iilplmrons  acid,  is  poun-d  into  si- 
novia, a  nomliiT  of  wliite  flakes  precipitate 
;ii  lirst,  but  the\  are  soon  re-dissolved,  and 
the  viscidil)  of  the  iiiniid  continues.  \\'hen 
tliese  acids  are  diluted  with  live  times  their 
weight  of  water,  they  diminish  th  transpa- 
rency of  sinovia,  but  not  its  visi  idily  ;  but 
wheii  they  arc  so  much  diliitcd  that  their 
acid  taste  is  ju^t  perceptible,  Ihey  precijjitate 
the  peculiar  thready  matter,  and  the  visci- 
dity of  the  sinovia   lisappears. 

WIen  sinovia  i's  e.\posed  to  a  dry  atmo- 
sphere, it  gradually  evaporates,  and  a  scaly 
residmiin  remains,  in  which  cubic  crystals 
and  a  while  SLdiiie  eflloresceuce  are  apparent. 
The  cubic  crystals  are  mnriat  of  soda.  One 
htnidred  parts  of  sinovia  contain  about  1.75 
of  tliis  salt.  'I'hc  saline  efflorescence  is  car- 
bonat  of  soda. 

Sinovia  soon  putrefies  in  a  moist  atmo- 
sphere, and  during  the  putrefaction  amnionia 
is  exhaled.  When  it  is  distilled  in  a  retort, 
there  comes  over,  first  water,  which  soon 
putrefies;  then  water  containing  annnonia; 
then  einpyreumatic  oil  and  carbonat  of  am- 
monia. From  the  residuum  muriat  and  car- 
bonat  of  soda  may  be  extracted  by  lixivia- 
tion.     Sinovia  is  composed  of 

1 1,S(J  fibrous  matter 
4.  jC  albumen 
1.75  muriat  of  soda 
.71  soda 

.70  phosphat  of  lime 
80.13  water 


100.00 

SINUATE13  LEAF.     See  Botany. 

SINUS.     See  Anatomy. 

Sinus.     See  Surgery. 

SIPHON,  or  Syphon.  See  Hydro- 
statics. 

SIPHONATHUS,  a  genus  of  the  tetran- 
dria  nionogynia  class  and  order.  The  corolla 
is  one-petalled,  very  long,  fnnnel-form,  in- 
ferior ;  berrjes  four,  one-seeded.  Tliere  are 
two  species,  herbs  of  South  America. 

SIPHOKIA,  a  genus  oftheclass  and  order 
monoecia  monadelphia.  The  calyx  is  one- 
leaved  ;  no  corolla;  male  anthers  Ave;  fcm. 
style  none  ;  stigmas  three  ;  caps,  tricoccous  ; 
seed  oner  There  is  one  species,  a  tree  of 
_  Guaiana. 

SlPUNCUIX'S.or  fube-vjorm.zgems  of 
insects  of  the  order  vermes  iiitestina :  the 
generic  character  is,  body  round,  elongated  ; 
mouth  cylindrical  at  the  end,  and  narrower 
than  the  body  ;  aperture  at  the  side  of  the 
body,  and  verucilorni.  There  are  two  spe- 
cies :  the  S.  nuduSj  inhabits  tlie  Euro[)ean 
seas,  under  stones,  and  is  eight  inches  long. 
The  S.  saccatus,  body  covered  with  a  loose 
skin,  and  rounded  at  the  lower  end  :  in- 
habits  the  American  and  Indian  seas. 

SIREN,  a  genus  of  amphibia,  of  the  order 
meantes,  of  which  there  are  the  following 
species : 

1.  Siren  lacertina,  or  eel-shaped  siren: 
This  species  stands  eminently  distinguislied 
B  the  list,  of   animals  by  tlie  ambiguity  of  its 


S  I  R 

cliaratteis,  which  are  such  as  to  have  induced 
the  great  Linnxus  to  institute  for  it  a  new 
order  of  am|)hibia,  under  the  title  of  nv.'an- 
les  ;  anonler,  however,  wdiich  does  not  stand 
among  the  rest  of  the  amphibia  in  the  .Sys- 
tema  Naturw,  but  is  mentioned  in  a  note  at 
the  end  of  the  second  part  of  tlie  (irst  volume 
of  th.it  work. 

The  genus  with  which  the  siren  has  the 
greatest  possible  affinity,  is  the  lacerta  or 
lizard.  It  evi-n  very  much  re-icmbles  the 
larva,  or  first  state,  ot'a  lacerta  ;  and  it  is  still 
doubtful  whfctlier  it  inay  not  really  be  such: 
yet  it  has  never  been  observeil  in  anv  other 
^tate,  having  two  feet  only,  without  any  ap- 
peaiance  ol  a  hind  pair  ;  the  feet  are  also 
furnished  w-ith  claws,  whereas  the  larva;  of  all 
the  lacert.e  are  observed  to  be  without  claws; 
or,  in  the  Linna?an  phras(>,  digitis  muticis  ;  the 
mouth  has  several  rows  of  smallish  teeth;  the 
body  is  eel  shaped,  but  slightly  llattened  be- 
neath, marked  on  the  sides  by  several 
wrinkles,  and  slightly  compressed  towards 
the  extremity  of  the  tail,  vhicHi  is  edged  with 
a  kind  of  solt  skin  or  adijiose  fin  ;  on  e.icli 
side  the  neck  are  three  ramified  branchial 
processes',  n;senibling,  on  a  larger  scale, 
tliose  belonging  to  tlie  larva  of  water-newts, 
and  at  the  base  are  the  openings  into  the 
gills:  the  eyes  are  very  small  and  blue.  The 
general  colour  of  the  animal  is  a  deep  or 
blackish  brow  n,  scattered  over,  especially  on 
the  sides,  with  numerous  minute  whitish 
specks.  Its  size  nearly  equals  that  of  an 
eel,  being  frequently  found  of  the  length  of 
more  thui  two  feet.  It  is  a  native  of  North 
America,  and  more  particularly  of  South 
Carolina,  w  here  it  is  not  very  uncommon  in 
muddy  and  swampy  places,  living  generally 
under  water,  but  sometimes  appearing  on 
land.  It  has  a  kind  of  squeaking  or  singing 
voice,  for  which  reason  Linna?us  distinguishes 
it  by  the  title  of  siren.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist, 
fig.  367. 

It  remains  to  be  added,  that  the  siren,  if 
thrown  on  the  ground  with  any  degree  of 
violence,  has  been  observed  to  break  in  two 
or  three  places  ;  in  this  particular  resembling 
the  anguis  fragilis,  or  slow-worm.  It  is  also 
pro;  er  to  observe,  tluit  no  lizard  of  which  it 
may  be  sup))osed  the  larva,  has  ever  yet  been 
discovered  in  those  parts  of  Carolina  where 
it  is  most  frequent.  I'he  species  to  whiLli  it 
seems  most  allied  is  the  lacerta  teguixin  of 
Linnwus,  which  is  a  native  of  South  Ame- 
rica. 

2.  Siren  anguina,  anguine  siren.  This  sin- 
gular animal  is  found  in  as  singular  a  situa- 
tion, being  an  inhabitant  of  the  celebrated 
and  romantic  lake  called  Lake  Zirknitz, 
about  six  (ierman  miles  from  Labac,  in  the 
duchy  of  Carolina,  in  Austria.  From  this 
lake,  which  is  somewhat  more  than  a  Cicr- 
man  mile  in  length,  and  half  as  much  in 
breadth,  the  water  regularly  retires  during 
the  summer,  by  numerous  subterraneous  out- 
lets or  holes  at  the  bottom ;  leaving  the 
ground  dry,  and  fit  for  pasture,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  millet,  i1:c.  &c.  as  well  as  for  various 
kinds  of  hunting  and  other  amusements  ;  but 
in  the  montli  of  October  it  again  returns, 
with  great  force,  springing  out  of  the  pas- 
sages before  mentioned  from  a  vast  depth 
till  the  lake  is  completely  filled.  It  is  situat- 
ed in  a  hollow  or  valley,  surrounded'  by 
rocky  aiid  woody  mountains,  in  which  are 


S  I  R 


6/7 


vast  caverns,  and  is  principally  supplied  by 
eight  rivulfts  running  into  it  fri<m  the  adjoin- 
ing mountainous  region. 

I  lie  species  of  siren  at  present  to  be  de- 
scribed is  extremely  rare;  and  is  found  in  the 
spring,  and  towards  the  decline  of  summer, 
in  some  particular  parts  of  the  above-nien- 
tionedlake;  and  commonly  nnasur*~>,  wher> 
full-grown,  from  about  ten  to  twelve  or 
thirteen  inches  in  length  ;  the  largest  speci- 
mens being  near  three  quarters  ol  an  inch  in 
diameter.  It  is  entirely  of  a  pale  rose  or 
llesh-colour,  or  even  nearly  while,  except  thr; 
three  pair  of  ramified  branchial  fins  on  each 
side  the  neck,  which  are  of  a  bright  red  or 
carmine-colour.  Its  general  shape  is  that  of 
an  eel  ;  the  body  being  cjlindric,  till  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  tail,  where  it  becomes 
fiat,  and  is  attenuated  both  above  and  below 
into  a  kind  of  fatty  fin,  scarcely  distinguish- 
able from  the  rest  of  the  tail';  the  skin  is 
every  win  re  smooth  and  even  ;  the  head  of 
a  somewhat  dejjressed  form  ;  with  a  length- 
ened, obtuse,  and  widivh  snout,  ar.d  has  no 
external  eyes ;  the  mouth  is  moderately 
wide,  and  furnished  with  a  row  of  very  mi- 
nute teeth  ;  the  legs  are  about -J  of  an  inch 
in  length,  the  fore  legs  being  situated  almost 
immediately  behind  the  branchial  fins,  and 
the  feet  furnished  with  three  toes,  without 
any  appearance  of  claws  ;  the  hind  legs  are 
situated  at  a  great  distance  backwards,  to- 
wards the  commencement  of  tiie  tail,  and 
are  of  the  same  a])pearance  with  the  lore 
legs;  but  the  feet  have  only  two  toes,  which, 
like  those  of  the  fore  feet,  are  destitute  of 
claws.  The  motions  of  tlie  animal,  when 
taken  out  of  the  water,  are,  in  general,  ex- 
tremely slow  and  languid  ;  as  is  also  the  case 
when  kept  in  a  vessel  of  water  ;  but  when  in 
its  native  lake,  it  is  sometimes  observed  to 
swim  pretty  briskly,  waving  its  body  in  a 
serpentine  direction  in  the  manner  of  a 
leech. 

3.  Siren  pisciformis,  fish-formed  siren.  This 
aniir.al  in  its  natural  size  is  supposed  to  be  a 
native  of  Mexico,  and  though  perhaps  no 
other  than  the  larva  or  tadpole  of  some  large 
American  lizard,  scarcely  seems  a  less  singu- 
lar and  curious  animal  th,m  the  siren  lacertina. 
In  its  general  appearance  it  bears  some  re- 
semblance to  the  larva  of  the  rana  patadoxa, . 
but  is  furnished  witii  gills,  opening  externally 
in  the  manner  of  a  fish;  the  openings  are 
very  large,  and  the  operculum  or  external 
flap  is  continued  from  the  sides  of  the  head 
across  the  throat  beneath,  so  as  completely 
to  insulate  the  head  from  the  breast ;  the 
gills  themselves  consist  of  four  semicircular 
bony  or  cartilaginous  ardies,  which  are  den- 
ticulated or  serrated  on  their  internal  or  con- 
cave part,  like  tho^e  of  fishes ;  on  the  oper- 
cula  or  external  fiaps  are  situated  three  very. 
large  and  elegant  branchial  fins  or  ramified 
parts,  divided  or  subdivided  into  a  vast  num- 
ber of  slender  or  capillary  processes.  In 
these  particulars  it  resembles  the  siren  lacer- 
tina, except  that  in  that  animal  the.  external 
opening  ti^the  gills  is  very  small ;  the  mouth 
is  furnished  in  front  with  a  row  of  extremely 
minute  teeth  ;  the  tongue  is  large,  smooth, 
and  rounded  at  the  tip  :  the  rictus,  or  gape; 
when  the  mouth  is  closed,  appears  consid!er- 
ablv  wider  than  it  really  is,  owing  to  a  lateral 
sulcus  proceeding  from  each  comer  to  some 
di^tame  ;  the  feet  are  entirely  destitute  of 
webs,  and  the  toes  are  futnishcd  with  .weak- 


6/8 


S  I  R 


ish  claws ;  the  fore  feet  have  four,  and  the 
hind  teet  five  toes.  Exclusive  of  the  general 
colour  of  the  animal,  the  whole  skin,  when 
minutely  examined,  appears  to  be  scattered 
over  wit'hverv  minute  white  specks,  resemb- 
ling those  on  the  surface  of  the  siren  lacertma. 
I'he  sides  oi  the  body  are  marked  by  several 
strong  rugs  or  furrows,  and  an  impressed 
lateral  line  or  sulcus  is  continued  Irom  the 
gills  to  the  tail. 

SIREX,  a  "enus  of  insects  of  the  hyinen- 
optera  order.  The  generic  character  is,  mouth 
vith  two  stions;  jaws ;  feelers  two,  truncated  ; 
sntennE  filiform,  with  more  than  twenty-four 
ioints ;  piercer  exscrted,  stitf,  serrated  ;  ab- 
"domen  sessile,  pointed ;  wings  lanceolate,  flat 

ii>  3"-  .  -     I       ^1 

The  larva?  of  these  insects  are  ot  a  lengtli- 

■ened,  cylindric  appearance,  living  in  the 
decayed  parts  of  trees,  on  the  substance  of 
^•hich  they  feed  ;  the  chrysalis,  as  in  the 
tenthredo,  exhibits  the  limb's  of  the  perfect 
hisect  in  a  contracted  state. 

The  largest  species  is  the  sirc-x  gigas_  of 
Linna-'us,  which  surpasses  a  hornet  in  size, 
and  is  principally  observed  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  pines  and  other  coniferous  trees ;  it  is 
■of  a  black  colour,  witli  the  eyes,  the  base, 
and  lower  half  of  the  abdomen,  briglit  orange- 
yellow  ;  the  thorax  villase,  and  the  wings  of 
transparent  yellowish  brown  ;  the  sting  or  a 
terminal  tube  is  very  conspicuous.  The  larva, 
which  measures  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter 
■in  length,  is  of  a  yellowish  white  colour,  and 
Jiiliabits  decayed  firs  and  pines ;  at  first  view 
it  beais  son-.e  resemblance  to  the  larvs  of 
•the  beetle  tribe,  but  is  tiiinuerin  proportion, 
and  furnished  at  the  tip  of  the  alidoinen 
with  a  short  black  spine  or  process.  It 
changes  to  a  chrysalis  in  July,  first  envelop- 
ing itself  in  a  slight  silken  web  of  a  whitish 
coTour.  If  the  change  to  chrysalis  takes 
place  in  summer,  the  fiy  jiroceeds  from  it  in 
■the  space  of  about  three  weeks  ;  but  if  at  the 
close  of  ar.tiinin,  the  animal  continues  in 
chrysalis  the  whole  winter,  emerging  in  the 
following  spring.  The  male  insect  is  con- 
siderably smaller  than  the  female,  and  may 
be  farther  distinguished  by  the  want  of  the 
caudal  tube  or  process  so  consijicuoiis  in  Ihe 
female  insect ;  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  is  also 
of  a  black  colour.  The  eggs,  which  are  de- 
posited by  the  female  in  the  decayed  parts  of 
the  trees  abovi;  mentioned,  are  ver,  small, 
and  of  a  lengthened  oval  shape  with  pointed 
extremities. 

Sirex  columba  is  an  .'\merican  species,  and 
is  dislinguished  by  its  black  body,  marked 
by  testaceous  bands. 

Siri^x  pvgmacu^  is  one  of  the  smallest  of 
Ihe  European  species,  being,  according  to 
Liiin^us,  about  the  size  oi  a  gnat,  with  a  black 
•abtiomen,  marked  by  three  yellow  bands,  the 
middle  of  which  is  interrupted.  It  is  found 
in  S.veden.     There  are  seven  specie^;. 

SIHIUS,  the  Doo-STAR.      See  Astro- 

tJO.VY. 

SIRIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
thi;  clasp  of  telrandria  and  order  of  mono- 
gynia.  The  calyx  is  quadrifid  ;  there  is  no 
corolla ;  the  neclarium  is  (|uadriphyllous,  and 
crowning  the  throat  of  Ihe  calyx  ;  the  gcrmen 
"♦>  below  the  corolla;  tin-  stigma  is  triiid,  and 
the  berry  trilncular.  There  is  only  ouespe- 
<ci«s,  the  myrtifo'.ium. 

SlUOCCO.  The  sirocco  (so  called  by  the 


S  I  R 

Italians  because  it  is  supposed  lo  blow  from 
Syria,  and  in  the  south  ot  France  tiie  l^evain 
wind)  resembles  in  some  of  its  elfecls  tlie 
harmatlan,  but  differs  from  it  in  being  ex- 
tremely insalubrious,  it  sometimes  blows  for 
several"  days  together,  to  the  great  annoyance 
of  the  whole  vegetable  and  animal  creation  ; 
its  medium  heat  is  calculated  at  one  hundred 
and  twelve  degrees ;  it  is  fatal  to  vegetation 
and  de>tructive  to  mankind,  and  especially  lo 
strangers;  it  depresses  the  spirits  in  an  unu- 
sual degree;  it  suspends  the  powers  of  diges- 
tion, so  that  tho=e  who  venture  to  eat  a  heavy 
supper  while  this  wind  prevails,  are  com- 
monly found  dead  in  their  beds  the  next 
morning,  of  what  is  called  an  indigestion. 
The  sick,  at  that  afflicting  period,  conmionly 
sink  under  the  pressure  oi  their  diseases  ;  and 
it  is  customary  in  the  morning,  after  this 
wind  has  continued  a  wliole  r.ight,  to  inquire 
who  is  dead. 

We  shall  now  insert  an  accountoftliis  bale- 
ful wind,  irom  an  nteresting  work  on  the 
present  stale  of  Sicily. 

"  The  evil  most  to  be  dreaded  in  travers- 
ing these  regions  is,  perhaps,  tlie  sirocco,  or 
south  wind,  which  it  is  imagined  blows  from 
the  burning  deserts  of  Africa,  and  is  some- 
times productive  of  dangerous  consequences 
to  those  v.ho  are  exposed  to  its  fury.  Dur- 
ing the  continuance  of  this  wind  a"U  nature 
appears  to  languish,  vegetation  witiiers  and 
dies,  the  beasts'of  the  field  droop,  the  ap.imal 
spirits  seem  too  much  exhausted  to  admit  of 
the  least  bodily  exertion,  and  the  spring  aud 
elasticity  of  the  air  a|)pear  to  be  lo--t.  The 
heat  exceeds  that  of  the  most  fervid  weatlier 
in  Spain  or  Malta,  and  is  felt  with  peculiar 
violence  in  the  city  and  ncighbourliood  of 
Palermo. 

"  The  sensation  occasioned  by  the  sirocco 
\vind  is  very  striking  and  wonderful.  In  a 
moment  the'  air  becomes  heated  to  an  ex- 
cessive degree,  and  the  whole  atmosphere 
feels  as  if  it  w^as  intlanied :  the  pores  of  the 
body  seem  at  once  opened,  and  all  the  fibres 
relaxed.  During  its  continuance  the  in- 
habitants of  Palermo  shut  Iheir  doors  and 
windows  to  exclude  the  air  ;  and  where  there 
are  no  window-shutters,  wet'  blankets  are 
hung  on  the  inside  of  the  window,  and  the 
servants  are  kept  continually  employed  in 
sprinkling  the  apartments  with  water.  No 
creature,  whose  necessities  do  not  compel 
him  t )  the  exertion,  is  to  be  seen  while  this 
tremendous  wind  continues  to  blow,  and  the 
streets  and  avenues  of  the  city  appear  to  be 
nearly  deserted. 

"  'llie  sirocco  generally  continues  so  short 
a  time  in  Sicily,  that  it  S(;l(lom  produces  those 
complaints  wiiich  are  the  consequence  of  its 
scorching  heats  in  several  parts  of  Italy, 
though  its  violence  in  those  countries  is  much 
inferior  to  what  is  felt  \<\  this  islaiKl.  Here 
it  seUium  endures  longer  than  thirty-six  or 
forty  hours;  a  time  not  sulVuient  to  heat  the 
ground,  or  the  walls  ol  the  houses,  in  a  very 
intense  conlituied  decree.  It  is  commonly 
sucecedtdby  the  tramontane,  or  north  wind, 
which  In  a  short  time  restores  The  exhausted 
pow.li'rs  of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  na- 
ture soon  assumes  her  toriuer  appearance. 
The  cause  of  the  sirocco  wind  has  been  tie- 
(pienllv  ,itte;iq»ted  to  be  expl..inei!,  hut  tlie 
dilferent  livp  ithcses  .ue  peihaps  more  to  be 
.idinircd  lor  their  ingenuity  and  fancy  than 
for  being  very  stttisfactorilj  i:xpbi»ctl.    The 


S  i  9 

superior  intcnsenp<s  of  this  scorcliing  wind  at 
Palermoi  may  peihaps  be  uccountixl  for  from 
the  situation  ot  hat  city,  which  is  almost 
surrounded  by  lofty  mountains,  the  ravine? 
and  valleys  ol  which  are  parched  and  almost 
Ijuiiit  up  ill  summer.  '1  he  numberless  springs 
of  warm  water  nuist  also  greatly  increase  the 
iieat  of  the  air  ;  and  the  practice  of  burning 
brush-wood  and  heath  on  tit-  neighbouring 
mountains,  during  the  w  arm  season,  must  un- 
doubtedly tend  to  increase  the  lieal  of  the 
wind  in  passing  over  the  country  of  Sicily, 
though  it  had  previously  been  disartned  of 
part  of  its  violence  by  travelling  over  the  sea 
which  divides  Sicily  from  Africa." 

Whether  the  fatal  effects  of  the  sirocco  de^ 
pend  entirely  upon  the  degree  of  fever  whicK 
is  produced  by  the  extreme  heat  which  ac- 
companies it,  or  whether  it  is  really  charged 
with  any  quantity  of  mephitic  gas,  we  have 
never  been  sulhciently  informeil  ;  but  wish 
that  any  intelligent  traveller  would  examine 
the  state  of  the  air  by  the  eudiometer,  and 
by  other  tests,  during  the  prevalence  of  thi; 
wind.  Should  it  be  found  loaded  with  carbonic 
gas,  its  ill  effects  might  be  easily  obviated  by 
suspending  in  the  dilferent  apartments,  cloths 
dipped  ill  lime-water;  bnt  from  the  present 
state  of  the  evidence  we  are  disposed  to  think 
that  all  its  evil  consequences  dei)end  upon 
the  sudden  increase  of  tlie  temperature 
only. 

An  extraordinary  blasting  wind  is  felt  oc- 
casionally at  Falkland's  islands.  Happily  its 
duration  is  short  ;  it  seldom  continues  above 
twenty-four  hours.  It  cuts  the  herbage  dowa 
as  if  tires  had  been  made  under  them  ;  tlie 
leaves  are  parched  up,  and  crumble  into  dust. 
Fowls  are  seized  with  cramps  so  as  never  to 
recover.  Men  are  oppressed  with  a  stopped 
perspiration,  heaviness  at  the  breast,  and  sore 
throat-;  but  usually  recover  with  care. 

This  account  is  extracted  from  the 
travels  of  Mr.  Ives  over  land  to  the  East 
Indies.  Its  fatal  effects,  if  tlie  statement 
is  perfectly  correct,  evidently  proceed 
from  a  certain  portion  of  extremely  putrid 
vapours  with  which  it  is  charged,  and  we  sus- 
pect it  only  happens  when  a  strong  wind 
chances  to  blow  over  some  very  putrid  and 
stagnant  lake  which  is  not  far  distant  ;  tra- 
vellers, however,  are  on  such  occasions  com- 
monly in  a  state  of  too  much  alarm  to  note 
circumstances  with  accuracy,  and  too  much 
of  their  ac(  ounts  is  collcctinl  upon  hearsay 
evidence.  This  wind,  after  all,  may  only 
consist  of  a  mephitic  vapour  wlrch  destroys 
life  when  inhaled ;  and  the  putridity  wliith 
is  said  so  rapidly  to  take  place,  may  depend 
more  upon  tlie  climate  thau  the  nature  ol  the 
wind. 

SISON,  hctslard  stnne-parslfi^  :  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  cla^s  of  peutandria, 
am!  to  the  order  of  digynia ;  and  in  the  na- 
tural system  arranged  under  the  4jlh  order, 
umbellata;.  The  frwit  is  egg-shaped  and 
streaked ;  the  involucra  are  subtetraphyl- 
lous.  There  are  six  species ;  the  amom- 
uip,  inunditum,  segetnm,  salsum,  <"in,idense, 
and  amnii.  'i"lie  three  first  are  natives  of 
(ireal  Britain.  1.  The  amomiim,  commoti 
baslaiil  parsley,  or  field  stone-wort,  is  a  bien- 
nial plant  about  three  fevt  high,  growing  wild 
in  many  places  of  Britain,  Its  seeds  are  small, 
striated,  of  an  ov.il  figure  and  brown  colour. 
Tlictf  taalc  is  warm  aud  ai©«»atic.    Thei* 


SIT 

viiole flavour  is  extracted  bj'  spirit  of  wine, 
,',  hirli  flc\  aK'S  very  little  of  it  in  (lihtillatio[i  ; 
ji](l  Ikmicc  the  spirituous  extract  lias  tlio  tla- 
vour  in  groat  perfection,  wliile  the  watery 
pxlract  lias  very  liltle.  A  tincture  drawn 
with  pure  spirit  is  of  a  green  colour.  The 
seeds  have  lieen  estei  nied  aperient,  diuretic, 
and  CHiminative  ;  but  are  hltle  regarded  in 
the  present  practice.  2.  The  iiuuidatuni, 
least  water-parsnip  ;  it  grows  in  ditches  and 
ponds.  3.  Segetum,  corn  parsley  or  honey- 
wort  :  it  grows  in  corr.-lields  and  hedges. 

!3l.S^'^lBKIlIM,  U'utt-r-cresscs,  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  tetrady- 
iiamia,  and  to  the  order  ofsiliqiioaa;  and  in  tlie 
iia(ural  system  ranged  under  the  3yth  order, 
siliquosx.  The  siliqua,  or  pod,  opens  with 
valves  somewhat  straight.  The  calyx  and 
corolla  are  ex))anded.  'I'here  are  lifty-thrce 
species,  of  which  eight  are  natives  of  Britain  : 
the  nasturtium,  or  common  water-cress ;  syl- 
vestre,  water-rocket ;  aniphlbium,  water- 
radish  ;  terreslre,  annual  water-radish  ;  mo- 
neuse  ;  sophia,  tlixweed  ;  irio,  broad- leaved 
hediie-inustard. 

Sl'sYKlNCIilUM,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  class  of  monadelphia,  and  order 
of  triandria  ;  ami  in  the  natural  system  rank- 
ed uniler  the  6th  order,  ensat;c.  The  spa- 
tha  is  diphvllous;  there  are  six  plane  i)etals. 
Tlie  capsule  is  trilocular  and  inferior.  l"i;ere 
are  ten  species,  natives  of  North  America 
and  the  Cape. 

Sl'rrA,  iitd-hatch,  a  genus  belonging  to 
the  class  of  aves,  and  ordev  of  picx.  It  is 
thus  characterized  by  ])r.  Latham  :  The 
bill  is  for  tiie  most  part  straight;  on  the  lower 
mandible  there  is  a  small  angle ;  nostrils 
small,  covered  with  bristles  rellected  over 
them  ;  tongue  short,  horny  at  the  end,  and 
jagged  ;  toes  placed  three  forward  and  one 
backward,  the  middle  toe  joined  closely  at 
the  base  to  both  the  outmost;  back  toe  as 
large  as  the  middle  one.  There  are  eleven 
species  ;  the  europa^a,  canadensis,  carol'men- 
sis,  jamaicensis,  pusilla,  major,  n;vvia,  suri- 
namensis,  cafra,  longirosta,  and  chloris.  l"he 
europ;ca,  or  nut-hatch,  is  in  length  near  live 
inches  three-quarters,  in  breadth  nine  inches  ; 
the  bill  is  strong  gind  straiglit,  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  long  ;  the  crown  of  the 
head,  back,  and  coverts  of  tijc  wings,  of  a  line 
blueish  grey  ;  a  black  stroke  passes  over  the 
e\  e  from  the  mouth ;  die  ciieeks  and  chin 
are  white;  the  breast  and  belly  of  a  dull 
orange-colour.  The  female  is  like  the  male, 
but  less  in  size,  and  weighs  commonly  five  or 
at  most  six  drams.  The  eggs  are  six  or  seven 
in  number,  of  a  dirty  white,  dotted  with  ru- 
fous ;  the.-.c  are  deposited  in  some  hole  of  a 
tree,  fretpiently  one  which  has  been  d  ;serted 
bv  a  woodpecker,  on  the  rotten  wood  mixed 
with  a  little  moss,  &c.  If  the  entrance  is  too 
large,  the  bird  nicely  stops  up  part  of  it  with 
clay,  leaving  only  a  small  hole  for  itself  to 
pass  in  and  out  by.  While  the  hen  is  silting, 
if  any  one  puts  a  bit  of  stick  into  the  hole, 
shs  hisses  like  a  snake,  and  is  so  attached  to 
her  eggs,  that  she  will  sooner  suffer  any  one 
to  pluck  off  her  feathers  than  fly  away.  Dur- 
in"  the  time  of  incubation,  the  male  supplies 
her  with  sustenance. 

The  bird  runs  up  and;  down  the  bodies  of 
trees,  like  the  woodpecker  tribe ;  and  feeds 
not  only  on  insects,  but  nuts,  of  which  it  lays 
up  a  considerable  provision  in  the  lioJiows  of 
trees.     Dr.  TloU  tells  u-,  that  this  bird,  by 


S  K  I 

putting  its  bill  into  a  crack  in  the  bough  of  a 
tree,  can  make  such  a  violent  sound  as  if  it 
was  rending  asunder,  so  that  the  noise  may 
be  heard  at  least  Iv.elvescore  yards. 

SIL'M,  fjatcr  parsnip,  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  cla-is  of  penlandna,  and 
order  of  di"ynia,  and  in  the  natural  system 
ranging  under  the  4.jth  order,  umbcllals. 
The  fruit  is  a  little  ovated,  and  streaked. 
The  involucrum  is  polyphj'llous,  and  the  pe- 
tals are  lieart-shaped.  '1  here  are  nineteen 
species;  three  are  natives  of  liritahi :  I. 
The  latitblium,  or  great  water-parsnip,  which 
grows  spontaneously  in  many  places  both  of 
I'.ngland  and  Scotland,  on  the  sides  of  lakes, 
ponds,  and  rivulets.  Cattle  are  said  to  have 
run  mad  by  feeding  upon  this  plant.  2.  The 
angustifolium,  or  narrow-leaved  v/ater-pars- 
nip,  grows  in  ditches  and  rivulets,  but  is  not 
common.  3.  '^Die  nodillorum,  reclining  wa- 
ter-parsnip, grows  on  the  sides  of  rivulets. 

The  sumi  sisarium,  or  skirret,  is  a  native 
of  China,  but  has  been  for  a  long  time  cul- 
tivated in  Europe,  and  particularly  in  (ier- 
inany.  The  root  is  a  bunch  of  fleshy  fibres, 
each  of  which  is  about  as  thick  as  a  finger, 
but  very  uneven,  covered  with  a  whitish 
rough  bark,  and  has  a  hard  core  or  ijilh  run- 
ning through  the  centre.  Skirrets  come 
nearest  to  parsnips  of  any  of  the  esculent 
roots,  both  tor  llavour  and  nutritive  qualities. 
They  are  rather  sweeter  than  the  parsnip, 
and  therefore  to  some  few  palates  are  not 
altogether  so,  agreeable.  Mr.  Margraaf  ex- 
tracted from  half  a  pound  of  skirret-root  an 
ounce  and  a  half  of  pure  sugar. 

SIXTH,  in  music,  an  interval  formed,  of 
six  sounds,  or  five  diatonic  degrees.  There 
are  four  kinds  of  sixths,  two  consonant  and 
two  dissonant.  The  consonant  sixths,  are 
first,  the  minor  sixth,  composed  of  three  tones 
and  two  semitones  major.  Secondly,  the 
major  sixth,  composed  of  four  tones  and  a 
major  semitone.  The  dissonant  sixths  ai'e, 
first  the  diminished  sixth,  composed  of  two 
tones  and  three  major  semitones.  Secondly, 
the  superliuous  sixth, composed  of  four  tones, 
a  major  semitone,  and  a  minor  semitone. 

SIZE,  the  name  of  an  instrument  used  to 
find  the  bigness  of  fine  round  pearls.  It  con- 
sists of  thin  pieces  or  leaves,  about  two  inches 
long  and  lialf  an  incli  Uroad,  fastened  toge- 
ther at  one  end  by  a  rivet.  In  each  of  these 
are  round  holes  driUed  of  ditTerent  diameters. 
Those  in  the  first  leaf  serve  for  measuring 
pearls  from  half  a  grain  to  seven  grains';  those 
of  the  second,  for  pearls  from  eight  grains  or 
two  carats,  to  five  carats,  &c.;  and  those  of 
the  third,  for  pearls  from  six  carats  and  a 
half  to  eight  carats  and  a  half. 

SIZE.     See  Gelati.va. 

SKAITE.     See  Raia. 

SKELETON.     See  Anatomy. 

SKIM.MIA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  tetrandria  class  of  plants,  and  in 
the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  40th 
order,  personata'.  The  calyx  is  quadripar- 
tite ;  the  corolla  comists  of  four  concave 
petals;  and  the  berry  contains  four  seeds. 
There  is  only  one  species,  viz.  the  japoiiica. 

SKIN.     See  Cutis. 

SKINNER,  one  who  works  in  skins. 
Skinners,  or  fellmongers,  shall  hot  retain  any' 
journevman,  &c.  to  work  in  their  trade,  ex- 
cept they  themselves  have  served  seven 
years  as  apprentices  thereto,  on  pain  ot  for- 


S  L  U 


'579 


feiting  doiilile  the  value  of  tlie  wares  wrought 
by  such  iiersons. 
SKULL,  cranium  et  calvaria.    See  A.va- 

TOMY. 

SLAB,  an  outside  sappy  plank  or  board 
sawed  olf  from  the  siile»  of  a  limber-tree ;. 
the  word  is  also  used  for  a  Hat  piece  of  mar- 
ble. 

.SLATE.  Tliis  stone  constitutes  a  part  of 
many  mountains.  Its  structure  is  s'aty.  Its 
texture  foliated.  Fracture  splintery.  Frag- 
ments olteii  tabular.  Lustre  most  commonly 
silky.  Specific  gravity  from  2.fi7  to  2.88. 
Does  not  adhere  to  the  tongue.  Gives  a 
clear  sound  when  struck  Streak  while  or* 
grey.  Colour  most  commonly  grey,  with  a 
shade  of  blue,  green,  or  black ;  sometimes, 
purplish,  yellowish,  mountain-green,  brown^" 
blui-ih-black;  sometimes  striped  or  spotted- 
with  a  darker  colour  than  the  ground. 

It  is  composed,  according  to  Kirwan,  of 
silica,  alumina,  magnesia,  lime,  oxide  o£. 
iron.  In  some  varieties  the  lime  is  wanting. 
.Several  varieties  contain  a  considerable  quan-- 
tity  of  carl) maceous  matter. 

SLAVERY.  The  law  of  England  abhors, 
and  will  not  endure,  the  existence  of  slavery 
within  this  nation.  A  slave  or  negro,  the 
moment  he  liuids  in  England,  falls  under 
the  protection  of  tlie  laws,  and  becomes  » 
free  man. 

SLEDGE,  a  kind  of  carriage  without 
wheels,  for  the  conveyance  of  very  weighty 
things,  as  huge  stones,  &c. 

This  is  also  the  name  of  a  large  smith's 
hammer,  to  be  used  with  both  hands.  Of 
this  there  are  two  sorts  ;  the  up-lrand  sledge, 
which  is  used  by  under-workuitm,  when  the 
work  is  not  of  the  larger  sort ;  it  is  used  with 
both  the  hands  before,  and  tliey  seldom  raise 
it  higher  than  their  head:  but  the  other, 
which  is  called  the  al>o;ii-sU-dge,  and  which 
is  used  for  battering  or  drawing  out  the  lar- 
gest work,  is  held  by  the  handle  wit.h  both 
hands,  and  sw  ung  round  over  their  heads  af. 
their  arm's  end,  to  blrike  as  hard -a  Mow  av 
they  can. 

SLEEP.     See  Physioiogy. 
SLEEPERS,     in   a  shiji,   timbers    lying- 
before  and  aft,  in  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  as 
the  rung-heads  do;  the   lowermost  of  them, 
is  bolted  to  the  rung.-heads,  and  the  uppermost 
to  the  futtocks  and  rungs. 

SLINGING,  is  used  variously  at  sea,  but 
chiefly  for  the  hoisting  up  casks,  or  other 
heavy  things,  with  slings;  i.e.  contrivances 
of  ropes  spliced  into  themselves,  at  either 
end,  with  one  eye  big  enough  to  receive  the 
cask,  or  other  thing,  to  be  slung. 

SLOANEA;  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  class  of  jjolyandria,  and  order  of  mono-' 
gynia;    and  in  the  natural   system   ranking 
under  the  50th  order,  amenLicex.     There  is - 
na  corolla  ;  the  calyx  is  monophyllous ;  the 
stigma  is  perforated  ;  the  berry  is  corticose, 
echinated.     There   are  three  species,  large 
trees  of  South  America  and  the  West  Indies. 
SLO.-VI'H,  or  Sloth.     See  Bradypis* 
SLOE,  piunussylvestris,  the  English  name 
for  the  wild  plum..    See  Prunus. 

SLOOP,  a  sort  of  small  ship  or  vessel,  usu-- 
ally  with  one  mast,  otherwise  called  shallop. 
In  our  i.'jvy,  sloops  are  tenders  on  the  men 
of  war,  and  are  usually  of  about  si.xty  tons, 
and  carry  about  thirty  men. 
SLOW-WORM.  ■  See Axguis. 
SLUICEj  Id  liydraulics,  a  frame  of  timber,. 


(iso 


S  L  U 


flor.e,  earth,  S:c.  serving  to  retain  anJ  raise 
ti^e  wiiter  of  liie  sea,  a  river,  &:c.  and  on  oc- 
casion to  let  it  pass ;  such  is  tlie  sluice  of  a 
r.iill,  which  stops  and  collects  the  water  of  a 
rivulet,  &c.  ii)  order  to  discharge  it  at  length, 
?n  greater  plenty,  upon  tlie  mill-wheel ;  such 
ilso  are  tliose  used  in  drains,  to  discharge 
.water  oii"  lands ;  and  such  are  tlie  sluices  of 
Flanders,  &c  which  serve  to  prevent  the  wa- 
ters of  the  sea  overflowing  the  lower  lands, 
except  when  t'lere  is  occasion  to  drown 
them.     See  Canal. 

Construction  0/ sluices.  The  construction 
of  sluices  ought  to  be  conducted  by  an  able 
engineer,  who  is  well  acipiainted  vvilh  the 
action  of  fluids  in  general;  and  particularly 
.  with  the  situation  of  the  place,  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  &:c.  where  the  sluice  is  to  he  erect- 
ed ;  if  on  llie  sea-shore,  he  ouglit  to  be  per- 
fectly well  acquainted  with  the  effects  of  the 
sea  on  that  coast,  and  the  seasons  when  it  is 
calm  or  stormy,  tliat  he  may  be  able  to  pre- 
vent the  fatal  accideats  thence  arising ;  and 
h  in  a  river,  it  is  necessary  to  know  whether 
it  usually  overflows  its  banks,  and  at  what  sea- 
sons of  .the  year  its  waters  are  highest  and 
lowi->t.  The  machines  for  driving  the  |)iles 
.'should  be  placed  about  forty  yards  from  the 
side  of  the  sluice,  above  and  nelovv  it.  As  to 
the  depth  of  sluices,  it  mustbe  regulated  liy 
the  uses  for  which  they  are  designed;  tluis, 
if  a  sluice  is  to  be  erected  at  the  entrance  of 
a  bason  for  sliipping,  its  depth  must  corre- 
spond with  the  draught  of  water  of  the  lar- 
gest "ihip  that  mav,  at  any  time,  have  occasion 
to  enter  bv  it.  The  rule  usually  observed, 
is  to  make  iIk;  surface  of  the  bottom  of  the 
canal  on  a  level  with  the  low-water  mark ; 
but  if  tlie  bnttom  ot  the  harbour  or  canal  is 
such  as  to  be  capable  of  becoming  deeper 
by  the  action  of  the  water,  Belidor  very  justly 
observes,  that  the  bottom  of  the  sluice-work 
should  be  made  deeper  than  either. 

'  When  a  sluice  is  to  be  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  a  harbour,  in  order  to  wash  away  the  filth 
that  may  gather  in  it,  by  means  of  the  waters 
of  a  river  or  canal ;  in  this  case  the  bottom  of 
the  sluice-work  should  be  two  feet  or  eigh- 
teen inches  higher  than  the  bottom  of  the 
harbour,  that  the  water  may  run  with  the 
greater  violence. 

An  engineer  ought  always  to  have  in  his 
view,  that  the  faults  committed  in  the  con- 
struction of  sluices  are  almost  always  ir- 
reparable. M'e  shall  therefore  lay  down 
some  rules,  from  Belidor,  for  avoiding  anv 
oversights  of  tliis  kind:  J.  lu  order  to  ad- 
just the  level  of  the  sluice-work  with  the  ut- 
most  exactness,  the  engineer  ought  to  deler- 
niini!  how  much  deeper  it  must  be  than  a 
frxd  point ;  and  this  he  should  mark  down 
in  his  draught,  in  the  most  precise  terms 
possible.  2.  When  the  proper  depth  is  set- 
tled, the  foundation  is  next  to  be  examined  ; 
and  here  the  engineer  cannot  be  loo  cauti- 
ons, lest  the  apparent  goodness  of  the  soil 
»lc;ccive  him  ;  if  the  foundation  is  judged  bad, 
.  or  insufficient  to  bear  the  superstructure,  it 
must  be  secured  by  driving  piles,  or  a  grate- 
work  of  carpentry.  3.  There  should  be  en- 
gines enough  provided  for  draining  the  water; 
and  these  should  be  entirely  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  engineer,  who  is  to  take  rare 
that  they  are  so  placed  as  not  to  be  an  ob- 
stacle to  the  work  ;  and  also  cause  |)roper 
trenches  to  be  cut,  to  convey  the  water  clear 
i»tr  from  the  foundation.    4.  When  the  sluice 


S  M  E 

is  to  be  built  in  a  place  where  the  workmen 
will  be  uuas'uiclably  incommoded  by  the  wa- 
ters of  the  sea,  ic.  all  the  stones  for  the  ma- 
sun-work,  as  w  ell  as  the  timbers  for  that  of 
carpentry,  should  be  prepared  beforehand; 
so  tiiat  when  a  proper  season  olf'ers  for  be- 
ginning the  work,  tliere  remains  nothing  to 
be  done,  but  to  tixjevery  thing  in  its  place. 

Sluices  are  made  dilVerent  ways,  according 
to  the  uses  tiiey  are  intended  for  ;  when  tht-y 
serve  for  navigation,  they  are  shut  with  two 
gates,  presenting  an  arigie  towards  the  stream ; 
but  when  made  near  the  sea,  there  are  two 
pair  of  gates,  oni'  to  keep  tlie  water  out,  ami 
the  other  to  keep  it  in,  as  occasion  requires  ; 
the  pair  of  gates  next  the  sea  present  an 
angle  that  way,  and  the  other  pair  the  con- 
trary way  ;  tiie  space  inclosed  by  these  gales 
IS  called  a  chamber. 

When  sluices  are  designed  to  detain  the 
water  hi  some  parts  of  the  ditch  of  a  iortress, 
they  are  made  with  shutters  to  slide  up  and 
down  in  grooves;  and  when  they  are  madc- 
lo  cause  an  inundation,  tliey  are  then  shut 
by  means  of  square  timbers  let  down  into 
cullises,  so  as  to  lie  close  and  lirm. 

S.\I.\L'i',  a  kind  of  glass  of  a  dark-blue 
colour,  which,  wlien  levigated,  appears  ot 
a  most  beaulilul  colour ;  and  if  it  could 
be  made  sullicienlly  line,  would  be  an 
excellent  succedaneum  for  ultramarine,  as 
not  only  resisting  all  kinds  of  weatlier,  but 
even  the  most  violent  tires.  It  is  prepared 
by  melting  one  part  of  o.xide  of  cobalt  with 
two  of  Hint-powder,  and  one  of  potass.  At 
the  bottoms  of  the  crucibles  in  which  the 
smalt  is  manufactured,  we  generally  find  a 
regulus  of  a  whitish  colour  inclining  to  red, 
and  extremely  brittle.  This  is  melted  afresh, 
and  wlien  cold,  separates  into  two  parts  ;  that 
at  the  bottom  is  the  coballic  regulus,  which 
is  employed  to  make  more  of  the  smalt ;  the 
other  is  bismuth. 

SMAKAGDITE,  in  mineralogy.  This 
stone  was  called  smaragdite  by  M.  Saussure, 
from  some  resemblance  which  it  has  to  the 
emerald.  Never  crystall'zed.  Its  texture  is 
foliated.  Easily  divided  into  plates.  The 
laniinx  are  inflexible.  Fracture  even.  Spe- 
cific gravity  3.  Colour  in  some  cases  fine 
green  ;  in  otiiers  it  has  the  grey  colour  and 
metallic  lustre  of  mica  ;  it  assumes  all  the 
shades  of  colour  between  these  two  extremes. 

According  to  the  analysis  of  Vauquelin, 
it  is  comiiosed  of 

.SO.O  silica 
13.0  lime 
1 1.0  alumina 
7.5  oxide  of  chromium 
().0  magnesia 
5. J  oxide  of  iron 
1.5  oxide  of  copper 

<J4.5 

SMELT.     .SeeSALMO. 

SM  El,  TING,  in  metallurgy,  the  fusion  or 
melting  of  the  ores  of  nntals,  in  order  to  se- 
parate the  metalline  part  from  the  earthy, 
stony,  and  other  parts. 

Smelting,  or  the  art  of  fusing  the  ores 
after  rv),isting,  is  the  piincipal  and  most  im- 
portant of  metallurgic  operations,  all  the 
other  being  preliminary  or  preparative  to  this. 
The  whole  attention  of  the  miner  is  directed 
towards  this  process  ;  to  this  all  liis  efforts 
are  applied,  because  it  affords  the  truly  useful 


S  M  I 

product  to  which  his  hopes  are  directed' 
i'hough  it  consists  in  general  in  fusing  the 
roasted  ore  to  extract  the  metal,  and  in 
this  point  of  view  it  seems  to  present  a  simple 
and  uniform  operation,  there  is,  nevertheless, 
no  operation  which  (hllers  so  much  in  its  cir- 
cumstances, according  to  the  nature  of  tlie 
metal  and  iheoie  re(|uiied  to  be  treated,  and 
according  to  the  furnaces  made  use  of,  tha 
nature  and  quantity  of  the  combustible  eni- 
ploye<i,  the  energy,  duration,  and  adminis- 
tration of  tlie  fire,  the  addition  of  an  appro- 
priate llux,  the  heat  being  applied  in  the 
midst  of  the  ccal  or  in  crucibles,  the  pe- 
riod, the  length  of  time,  and  the  mode  of 
casting""  tlie  liised  metal;  every  thing,  even, 
the  form  of  the  inelal  which  Hows  out,  varies, 
and  pre.-ents  to  the  observer  very  remarkable 
dilltrences. 

When  tlie  ore  is  smelted,  and  the  metal 
obtained,  the  whole  process  is  not  yet  finish- 
ed. Tills  metal  is  scarci;ly  ever  pure.  It  is 
either  altered  by  certain  substances  foreign  to 
its  metallic  nature;  or  it  contains  a  ])Ortioii  of 
another  metal,  wliich  alters  the  properties  of 
this  which  is  desired  in  a  pure  state  ;  or  else 
it  contains  a  portion  of  a  metal  more  valu- 
able than  all  the  rest  of  the  mass,  which  it  is 
necessary  therefore  to  extract ;  or,  lastly, 
it  is  an  alloy,  in  large  proportions  of  several 
metals,  which  are  required  to  be  separated 
from  each  other.  All  the  operations  subse- 
quent to  the  smelting,  are  comprehended 
Uiuler  the  general  name  of  refining,  because 
the  etfect  is  always  to  obtain  a  pure  metal. 
See  Mltallurgy. 

SMILAX,  rough  hindiveed;  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  diceeia  anrl 
order  of  he.xandria ;  and  in  the  natural  sys- 
tem ranging  under  the  1  Uh  order,  sarmeii- 
tac>  ■£.  The  male  calyx  is  hexaphvllous,  and 
there  is  no  corolla  ;  the  female  ca'lvx.  is  also 
hexaphvllous,  without  any  corolla;  there  are 
three  styles,  a  trilocular  berry,  and  two  seeds. 
There  are  22  species  ;  of  these,  the  smilax 
sarsaparilla,  which  affords  the  sarsaparilla 
root,  is  the  most  valuable.  This  is  well  de- 
scribed ill  the  London  Medical  Journal  by 
Dr.  Wright,  who,  during  a  long  residence 
in  Jamaica,  made  botany  his  peculiar  study. 

"  Thii  species  (says  he)  has  stenv.  of  tlie 
thickness  of  a  man's  linger  ;  they  are  jointed, 
triangular,  awd  beset  with  crooked  Sjiines. 
Tlie  leaves  are  alternate,  smooth  and  shining 
on  the  upper  side;  on  the  other  side  are 
three  nerves  or  costs,  with  sundry  small 
crooked  spines.  The  flower  is  yellow,  mix- 
ed with  red  .  The  fruit  is  a  blaik  berry,  con- 
taining several  brown  seeds. 

"  Sarsaparilla  delights  in  low  moist  grounds 
and  near  the  banks  of  rivers.  The  roots  run 
superlicially  under  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  gatherers  have  only  to  loosen  the  soil  a 
little,  and  to  draw  out  the  long  libres  with  a 
wooden  hook.  In  this  manner  they  proceed 
till  the  whole  root  is  got  out.  It  is  then 
cleared  of  the  mud,  dried,  and  made  into 
bundles. 

"  The  sensible  qualities  of  sai-saparilla  are 
mucilaginous  and  farinaceous,  with  a  slight 
degree  of  acrimony.  The  latter,  however, 
is  so  slight  as  not  to  be  perceived  by  many  ; 
and  1  am  apt  to  believe  that  its  medicinal 
pov.'ers  mav  fairly  be  ascribed  to  its  demul- 
cent and  farinaceous  (pialities." 

The  china,  or  oriental  species  of  China 


R  O  A 

roni,  1ki<;  roiiiulUli,  pi  iikly  -.Uilks  and  red 
Ijcvriiis,  and  is  ii  ;iat+vi'  of  (.'iiina  and  Japan. 
'I'iie  pseiido-Ciiina,  or  otxidi'nt.d  sp«c:ie«,  lias 
roundi-'r  snioulli  sl.ilks  and  IjlacK  bcrrius, 
f^ruws  wild  ill  Janraica  and  Virginia,  and  heara 
tlio  colvl.;  ot  our  own  climate.  At  prcscnl 
tliv,'  China  rout  is  very  rarely  made  use  of, 
having  lor  .some  time  givi-n  plaee  to  sarsapa- 
rillu,  whicli  is  snppusi-d  to  be  more  elfectual. 
I'rosper  Alpimis  ml'arms  in,  that  Ihi';  root  is 
in  ^leat  esteem  anion,:;  the  Kgyptian  women 
for  procii ling  fatness  aiidj)lnnipne.-<. 

."5.\Il  I'ill'Un',  or  tJMirm.NM;,  a  manual 
art,  l)y  vvhi'li  an  irregular  lump  of  iron  is 
wroUjilit  intii  an  inleiided  shape. 

SMI  Til  I  A,  a  genus  of  the  ilecandria  order, 
in  llie  Uiadelphia  class  of  ])ldnt> ;  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  .3.'nd  order, 
p.ipihonaccA'.  'I'lic  calyx  is  niono|)li\  lions 
and  bilab'ated ;  tilt;  corolla  winded;  the  le- 
gniuen  inclo^e.^  in  the  calyx,  with  three  or 
fiinr  joints,  and  containing  as  many  seeds, 
which  are  smaolli,  compressed,  and  kidiiev- 
slia])ed.  'Ihcro  is  only  one  species,  viz.  tl'ie 
semitiva,  an  annual  of  "the  l'',ast  Indies. 

SMOKli.  See  Evai-or.mio.v,  \'o1.  I. 
p.  (is 7. 

,Smoke-jack.     S.'cJack. 

SMI'  !".     .See  Ili'sn.\Ni)RV. 

SMV  RNiU.M,  Alkxaxders  ;  agenusof 
plan's  belonging  to  the  class  of  peiitandria, 
and  to  the  order  of  digynia;  and  in  the  na- 
tural system  ranging  under  the  4jth  order, 
uinbellalx'.  'I'he  liuit  is  oblong  anrl  r^triated: 
IIk-  petals  liave  a  sharp  point,  and  are  keel- 
sli.iped.  I'here  are  seven  specie:  I.  'I'hi! 
perfoliatum,  or  perfoliate  ale.\anders,  which 
Is  a  native  of  C!andi:i  and  Italy  ;  L'.  'I'lie 
yV.gyptiacum  ;  .5.  The  aureum,  or  golden 
nle.vanders,  which  is  a  n.ilive  of  North  ,\nie- 
rica  ;  4.  The  integerrinmni  ;  .5.  'I'hc-  olnsa- 
trnni,  coiniii  >n  ale\.inders,  a  native  of  Ih'i- 
faiii  ;  the  leaves  of  which  are  cauline,  ternate, 
petiulated,  and  serrated.  It  grows  on  the 
sea-eo.ist  at  Dunglass  on  the  borders  of  Ber- 
wickshire, North  ISritain.  Since  the  iiitro- 
ductioa  of  celery  into  the  garden,  thealex- 
aii'lers  is  aluio-t  forgotten.  It  was  formerlv 
cultivated  for  sjlading,  and  the  young  shoots 
or  stalks  blanched  were  eaten  either  raw  or 
stewed.  The  leaves  too  were  boiled  in  broths 
and  soups.  It  is  a  warm  comfortable  plant 
to  a  cold  weak  stomach,  and  was  in  much 
esteem  among  tiie  monks,  as  may  be  inferred 
by  its  still  being  tound  in  great  plenty  bv  old 
abhev-walls.    t).  Latorale.  7.  ,\piifohuin. 

SSAIL.    See  Uki.ix,  and  Limax. 

ijNAKK.     SeeAMGUis. 

SNIPE.     Sei-  ScoLopAX. 

isO.M.-FISII.     See  I'leuronectes. 

SNOW.     See  MrcrEOROLOGY. 

SNOWDROP.     See  GalAnthi's. 

Snowdrop-tree.     See  C'HioXANXHt'S. 

SN'Jl'F,  a  powder  chielly  made  of  tobac- 
co, the  use  ot  which  is  too  well  known  to 
liei'd  any  description  here.    See  Nicotiana. 

^iNAS'DUACiON,.  ill  botany.  See  An- 
tirrhinum. 

SO.\P.  The  lixcd  oils  have  the  property 
of  combining  with  alkalies,  earths,  and  me- 
tallic oxides,  and  of  forming  with  these  bo- 
dies a  class  of  compounds  which  have  receiv- 
ed the  name  of  soaps.  As  these  soaps  dit'fer 
•from  each  other  very  materially,  according 
»s  their  base  is  an  alkali,  an  earth,  |or  an 
oxide,  it  will  be  proper  to  consider  each  set 
separately. 

Vol.  n. 


S  O  A 

SoArs,  (dkdUiv.  As  there  are  a  cjrcat 
number  of  lixed  oils,  aU  or  most  of  whicli  are 
capable  of  combining  with  alkalies,  earths, 
and  oxides,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  there 
arc  as  many  genera  of  alkaline  soaps  as  there 
are  oils.  That  there  are  dilfereiices  in  the 
nature  of  soaps  corresponding  to  the  oil  wiiich 
enters  into  their  composition,  is  certain  ;  but 
these  dill'erences  are  not  of  sufficient  import- 
ance to  require  a  particular  description.  It 
will  be  sulticieni,  tiierefore,  to  d.vide  the 
alkaline  soaps  into  as  many  species  as  theru 
are  alkalies,  and  to  consider  those  so.ips  whicli 
have  ihesameiilkaline  base,  but  differ  in  their 
oil,  as  varieties  of  the  same  species. 

Sodji  of  sodii,  or  hard  snap.  The  word 
soap  (sapooiirav)  first  occurs  in  tlie  works  of 
Pliny  and  Galen,  an<l  is  evidently  derived 
from  the  old  German  word,  sepe.  Pliny  in- 
forms us  that  soap  was  lirst  discovered  by  the 
Gauls;  that  it  was  composed  of  tallow  and 
ashes ;  and  that  tlic  German  soap  was  reckon- 
ed the  l.-cst. 

Soap  may  be  prepareil  by  the  following 
process:  a  cpiantity  of  the  soda  of  commerce 
is  pounded,  and  mixed  in  a  wooden  vessel, 
witli  about  a  lii'th  part  of  its  weight  of  Ihnc, 
which  has  been  slacked  and  jjassed  through 
a  sieve  immediately  before.  Upon  this  mix- 
ture a  ([uanlity  of  water  is  poured,  consider- 
ably m  ire  tlian  what  is  sufficient  to  cover  it, 
and  allowed  to  iv-main  on  it  for  several  hours. 
The  lime  attracts  the  carbonic  acid  from  the 
soda,  and  the  water  becomes  strongly  im- 
pregnate<l  with  the  pure  alkali,  whidi  in  that 
state  is  caustic.  '1  his  water  is  then  drawn 
olV  by  means  of  a  stop-cock,  and  called  the 
first  lev .  Its  specific  gravity  should  be  about 
l.'JOO." 

.\nother  (piantity  of  water  is  then  to  be 
poured  upon  the  soda,  which,  after  landing 
two  or  three  hours,  is  also  to  be  drawn  off  by 
means  of  the  stop-cock,  and  called  the  se- 
cond ley. 

Another  portion  of  water  is  poured  on  ; 
and  alter  standing  a  sullicienl  time,  is  drawn 
olf  like  the  other  two,  and  called  the  third  ley. 

••Vnother  portion  of  water  may  still  be 
poured  on,  in  order  to  be  certain  that  the 
whole  of  the  soda  is  dissolved  ;  and  this  weak 
ley  may  be  put  aside,  and  employed  alter- 
wanls  ill  forming  thetirst  ley  in  subsequent 
operations. 

A  quantity  of  oil,  equal  to  six  times  the 
weight  of  the  soda  used,  is  then  to  be  put 
into  the  boiler,  together  with  a  portion  of 
the  third  or  weakest  ley;  and  the  mixture 
must  be  kept  boiling  and  agitated  constantly 
by  means  of  a  wooden  instrument.  The 
wliolt'  of  the  third  ley  is  to  be  added  at  inter- 
vals to  the  mixture  ;  and  after  it  is  consumed, 
the  second  ley  must  be  added  in  the  same 
manner.  The  oil  becomes  milky,  combines 
with  the  alkali,  and  after  some  hours  it  begins 
to  acquire  consistence.  A  little  of  the  lirst 
ley  is  then  to  be  added,  not  forgetting  to 
agitate  the  mixture  constantly.  Portions  of 
the  lirst  ley  are  to  be  added  at  iuter\'als;  the 
soapy  substance  acipiires  gradually  greater 
consistency,  and  at  last  it  begins  to  separate 
from  th(?  watery  part  of  the  mixture.  A 
quantity  of  common  salt  is  then  to  be  added, 
w  hich  rentiers  the  separation  much  more  com- 
plete. The  boiling  is  to  be  continued  still 
tor  two  hours,  and  then  the  fire  must  be  with- 
drawn, and  the  liquor  must  be  no  longer. 
4   U 

\ 


S  0  A 


t'm 


agitated.  After  some  liours  repose,  the  soap 
separates  complc-ttly  fioiii  the  w-ilory  ])arl, 
aiid  swims  upon  the  surlace  of  tlie  liquor. 
The  watery  part  is  then  to  be  drawn  otf;  nnd 
as  it  coiUauis  a  quantity  of  carboiial  of  soda. 
It  ought  to  be  reservet!  lor  future  use. 

The  lire  is  llien  to  be  kindled  again  ;  and, 
in  order  to  facilitate  the  melting  of  the  soap, 
a  little  water,  or  rather  weak  Icy,  is  to  be 
added  to  it.  As  soon  as  it  boils,  the  lemain- 
der  of  the  first  ley  is  to  be  added  to  it  at  in- 
terva's.  When  the  soap  has  been  brought  to 
the  proper  consistence,  which  is  judged  of  by 
taking  out  small  portions  of  it  awd  allowing 
it  to  cool,  it  is  to  be  withdrawn  from  the 
tin-,  and  the  watery  part  separated  from  it  as 
before.  It  is  then  to  be  lieated  again,  and  a. 
httle  wat'  r  mixed  with  it,  that  it  may  form  a 
proper  paste.  After  this  let  it  be  pound 
into  the  vessels  proper  for  cooling  it ;  in  the 
bottom  of  whiidi  there  ought  to  be  a  littli; 
chalk  ill  powder,  to  prevent  the  soap  from  ad- 
hering. In  a  few  days,  the  soap  will  have  ac- 
i|uiri>(l  sutticieut  consistence  to  be  taken  out, 
and  formed  into  jjrojjer  cakes. 

The  use  of  the  common  salt  in  the  al»ove 
process  is,  to  separate  the  water  from  the 
soap;  for  common  salt  lias  a  stronger  aliiHily 
for  water  than  soap  has. 

Olive-oil  h.!s  been  found  to  answer  best  for 
making  soap,  and  next  to  it  perhaps  tallo%» 
may  be  placed;  but  a  jreat  variety  of  other 
oils  may  be  employed  for  tiiat  pur|)Ofie,  an 
appears  from  the  expeiiments  of  llie  I'Vench 
ciiemists.  They  found,  however,  that  lin- 
seed-oil  and  whale-oil  were  not  proper  for 
making  hard  soa|)s,  though  tliey  might 
he  employed  with  advantage  in  the  manutac- 
ture  of  soft  soaps.  M' hale-oil  has  been  long 
used  by  till-  Dutch  for  this  last  purpose. 

Soap  may  also  be  made  without  the  assist- 
ance of  heat  ;  Init  in  th.it  case  a  much  longer 
time  and  a  larger  proportion  of  alkali  are  ne- 
cessary. 

Mamtfacturers  have  contrived  various  me- 
thoils  of  sophisticating  soap,  or  of  adding  in- 
gredients which  increase  its  weight  without 
increasing  its  value.  The  most  commort 
substance  used  for  that  purpose  is  water ; 
which  may  be  added  in  considerable  qnanti- 
tie.s,  especially  to  soap  made  with  tallow 
(the  ingredii-nt  used  in  this  country),  with- 
out diniiiiNhing  its  consistency.  This  fraud 
may  be  easily  detected,  by  allowing  tlic  s-iap 
to  lie  for  some  time  exposed  to  the  air.  'I  he 
water  will  evaporate  from  it,  and  its  quantity 
will  be  discovered  by  the  diminution  of  the 
weiglit  of  the  soap.  As  soap  sophisticated 
in  this  manner  would  lose  its  water  by  being 
kept,  nianufacturers,  in  order  to  prevent  that, 
keep  their  soap  in  saturated  solutions  of 
common  s.dt ;  w  liit  h  do  not  dissolve  the  soap, 
and  at  the  same  time,  by  jireventing  all  eva- 
poration, preserve,  or  rather  increase,  the 
weight  of  the  soap.  Messrs.  Darcet,  Le- 
lievre,  and  Pelletier,  look  two  pieces  equal 
in  weieht  of  soap  sophisticated  in  this  manner, 
and  placed  t!ie  one  in  a  dry  place  in  tiieopen 
air,  antl  the  other  in  a  saturated  solution  of 
common  salt.  .-Vftcr  a  month  the  lirst  had  lost 
0.  jtiof  its  weight,  llie  other  had  gained  about 
0.  to  parts.  Various  other  methods  have 
been  f ilhn  upon  10  sophisticate  soap  ;  but  as 
they  are  not  generally  known,  it  would  be 
d  ling  an  injuiy  to  the  public  to  describt- 
thiin  here. 

Diiferent  chemists  have  analysed  soap,  in 


aa-i 


S  O  A 


OiiUr  to  ascertain  the  proportion^  of  its  in- 
tjri'<l;eiits:  but  the  lesiill  ot  tiieir  expcri- 
iii^'iits  is  various,  because  liiey  us;.-(l  soup  coii- 
tauiiiig  various  quautilies  of  water.  1"  ruin  tlie 
experTiiients  of  Dareet,  Leiievre,  and  Pel- 
l.-lier,  it  appeai-s  that  soap  newlv  made  and 
exposed  to  sale  contains 

60.94  oil 

8.  j6  alkali 
30.50  water 


100.00 


So.ip  is  soluble  both  in  water  and  in  alco- 
hol. Its  properties  as  a  deterii.eut  are  too 
well  known  to  require  any  description. 

Soap  made  with  tallow  and  soda  has  a 
white  colour,  and  is  therefore  known  by  the 
ir:i:neof  white  soap;  but  it  is  usual  forsoiip- 
lii  ikers,  in  order  to  lower  the  price  of  tlie 
article,  to  mi\  a  considerable  portion  of  ros;n 
with  the  tallow  ;  this  mi.>iture  tonus  the  coir.- 
iiion  vellow  or  turpentine  so^p  of  this  coun- 
try.   ■ 

Soap  nfpotasf:,  or  soft  soap.  Potass  may 
be  subsliiuted  for  soda  in  nuking  soap,  and 
i.i  that  case  precisely  the  same  procesN  is  to 
be  followed.  It  is  remarkable,  that  when 
potass  is  used,  the  soap  does  not  assume  a 
solid  form  ;  its  consistence  is  never  greater 
tlun  that  of  hog's  lard.  This  is  what  in 
t  lis  country  is  called  soft  soap.  Us  proper- 
ties as  a  detergent  do  not  dilVer  materuilly 
from  those  of  hard  soap,  but  it  is  not  nearly 
sj  convenient  for  use.  The  alkali  employed 
by  tlie  antient  Gatils  and  Germans  in  the 
fJrmation  of  soap  was  potass ;  hence  we  see 
tile  reason  that  it  is  described  by  the  Ro- 
mans as  an  unguent.  The  oil  euiijloy  ed  for 
making  soft  soap  in  this  country  is  whale-oil. 
A  litde  tallow  is  also  added,  wliic'h,  by  peculiar 
management,  is  dispersed  through  the  suap 
in  line  white  spots. 

Some  persons  have  affirmed  that  they 
knew  a  method  of  making  hard  soap  with 
potass.  Their  method  is  this:  After  forming 
the  soap  in  the  manner  above  described,  they 
add  to  it  a  large  tiuantily  of  common  salt, 
i)oil  it  for  some  time,  and  the  soap  becomes 
Solid  when  cooled  in  the  usual  way.  That 
this  method  may  be  practised  with  success, 
has  been  ascertained  by  Messrs.  Darcet, 
Leiievre,  and  Felletier;  but  then  the  hard 
soap  thus  formed  does  not  contain  potass 
but  soda  :  for  when  the  common  salt  (muriat 
of  soda)  is  added,  the  potass  of  the  soap  de- 
composes it,  and  combines  with  its  muriatic 
acid,  v.hili:  at  the  same  lime  the  soda  of  the 
Silt  coiiibines  with  the  oil,  and  forms  hard 
.soap;  and  the  muriat  of  potass  formed  by  tiiis 
double  decomposition  is  dissolved  in  water, 
and  drawn  olT  along  witli  it. 

Chaptal  has  lately  proposed  to  substitute 
wool  in  place  of  oil'  in  the  making  of  soap. 
The  ley  is  formed  in  the  usual  manner,  and 
made  boiling  hot,  and  shreds  of  woollen 
doth  of  any  kind  are  gradually  thrown  into 
it  ;  they  are  soon  dissolved.  New  portions 
iirc  to  be  added  sparingly,  and  riie  mixture 
is  t'i  be  constantly  agitated.  When  no  moiv 
clolh  can  be  dissolved,  the  soap  is  made. 
This  soap  is  said  to  have  been  tried  with  suc- 
t;ess.  It  might  doubtless  be  substituted  loi 
Soap  with  a<lvant.ige  in  several  manufactures, 
provided  it  can  be  obtained  at  a  cheaper 
ute  llian  the  soaps  at  present  emjiloyed. 


S  G  A 

Some  time  ngo  a  proposal  was  made  to 
substitute  the  muscles  of  lish  instead  ot  tal- 
low or  oil  in  the  mamifacture  of  soap ;  but 
the  experinicnls  of  Mr.  Jamiesoii  have  de- 
monstrated that  they  do  not  answer  the  pur- 
pose. 

Soup  nf  ammonia.  Tliis  soap  was  first 
particularly  attended  to  by  Mr.  BerlhoUet. 
ll  iiiav  be  formed  by  pouring  caibonat  of 
aiiuiioiiia  on  soap  of  lime.,  -i  double  de- 
composition takes  place,  and  the  so;ip  ol 
ammonia  swims  upon  tlie  siniace  of  the  h'-pior 
in  the  lorm  of  an  oil ;  or  it  may  be  formed 
with  still  greater  ease  by  pouring  a  solution 
of  muriat  of  ammonia  into  common  soap 
dissolved  in  water. 

Jt  has  a  more  pungent  taste  than  common 
soap.  Water  di^soKes  a  very  small  (puintily 
of  it;  but  it  is  easily  dissolved  in  alcohol. 
When  exposed  to  the  air,  it  is  gradually  (|e- 
composed.  .  The  substance  called  volatile 
lir.ament,  which  is  employed  as  an  external 
application  in  liieumatisnis,  colds,  &c.  may 
be  considered  as  scarcely  any  thing  else  than 
tills  soap. 

All  tae  alkaline  soaps  agree  in  the  proper- 
ties of  solubility  in  water  and  alcohol,  and  hi 
being  powerful  detergents. 

So.ips,  fiirth  /.  'I'he  earthy  soaps  differ 
essentially  from  the  alkaline  in  their  proper- 
ties. Tliey  are  insoluble  in  w-ater,  and  inca- 
pable of  being  employed  as  dvlergenls. 
They  may  be  formed  very  readily  by  mixing 
comiiion  soap  with  a  solution  of  an  earthy 
salt ;  the  alkali  of  the  soap  combines  with  the 
acid  of  the  salt,  while  the  earth  and  oil  unite 
together  and  form  an  earthy  soap.  Hence 
the  reason  that  all  waters  holding  an  earthy 
salt  are  unlit  for  washing.  They  decompose 
comn-.on  soap,  and  form  an  earthy  soap  in- 
soluble in  water.  These  waters  are  well 
known  by  the  name  of  hard  waters.  Hitherto 
tlie  earthy  soaps  have  been  examined  by  Mr. 
Bertholle't  only. 

Soap  ('if'  lime.  This  soap  may  be  formed 
by  pouring  lime-water  into  a  solution  of  com- 
mon soap.  It  is  insoluble  both  in  water  and 
alcohol.  Carbonat  of  lixed  alkali  decom- 
poses it  by  compound  affinity.  It  melts  with 
difficulty,  and  requires  a  strong  heat. 

Soap  'of  barytes  and  of  strontian  resemble 
almost  exactly  the  soap  of  lime. 

Soap  of  magnesia  may  be  tprmed  by  mix- 
ing together  solution  ot  common  soap  and 
sulphat  of  magnesia.  It  is  exceedingly  white. 
It  is  unctuous,  dries  with  difficulty,  and  pre- 
serves its  whiteness  after  d<-siccation.  It  is 
insoluble  in  boiling  watiT.  Alcohol  and  fixed 
oil  dissolve  it  in  considerable  cpianlity.  Wa- 
ter renders  its  solution  in  alcohol  milky.  A 
moderate  heat  melts  it ;  a  transparent  mass 
is  formed,  slightly  yellow,  and  very  brittle. 

Soap  of  alumina  may  be  formed  by  mixmg 
together  solutions  of  alum  anil  of  common 
soap.  It  is  a  flexible  soft  substance,  which 
retains  its  suppleness  and  tenacity  when  dry. 
It  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  water,  and  oil. 
I  leat  easily  melts  it,  and  reduces  it  to  a  beai;- 
tiful  transparent  yellowish  mass. 

Metallic  oxides  are  cai)al)le  of  combining 
with  oils  by  two  different  processes:  1.  IJy 
nixing  together  a  solution  of  common  soap 
with  a  metallic  s.ilt.  2.  liy  uniting  the  me- 
.lilic  oxide  With  the  oil  directly,  tilher  cold 
i\-  by  the  assi.tan'ce  (U'  heat.  The  lirsl  oi 
lese  coiiibinations  is  c.illed  a  metallic  soap  , 
,    he  second  a  plaster,     bee  PLAsrtR.. 


S  O  C 

Soaps,  nielaUic.  These  soaps  have  bpf-i 
examined  by  Mr.  Berlhoilet ;  who  has  prr- 
posed  some  of  them  as  painla,  and  others  a 
varnishes  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  anv  <i 
them  iias  been  hitherto  applied  to  these  pur 
poses. 

1..  Soap  of  mercury  may  be  formed  !>', 
mixing  together  a  solution  of  common  so:ij» 
and  of  corrosive  muriat  of  mercury.  Tli- 
liijuor  becomes  milky,  and  the  soap  of  nur- 
cury  is  gradually  precipitated.  'i  his  soap 
is  viscid,  not  easily  dried,  loses  its  white  co- 
lour when  exposed  to  the  air,  and  actiuirr-. 
a  slate-colour,  w  hicii  gradually  becomes  deep- 
er, especially  if  exposed  to  the  sun  or  to  heat. 
It  dissolves  very  well  in  oil,  but  sparinelv  in 
alcohol.  It  readily  becomes  soft  and  tluid 
when  heated. 

2.  Soap  of  zinc  may  be  formed  by  mixing 
together  a  solution  of  sv.lphat  of  zinc  and  of 
soap.  It  is  of  a  white  colour,  inclining  to 
y-ellov.  It  dries  speedily,  and  becomes  fri- 
able. 

3.  Soap  of  cobalt,  made  by  mixing  nitrat 
of  cobalt  and  common  soap,  is  of  a  dull 
leaden  colour,  and  dries  with  difficulty, 
though  its  parts  are  not  conducted. 

Mr.  Bertliollet  observed,  that  towards  the 
end  of  the  precipitation  there  fell  down  some 
green  coagula,  much  more  consistent  than 
soap  of  cobalt.  These  he  supposed  to  be  a 
soap  of  nickel,  which  is  generally  mixed  with 
cobalt. 

4.  Soap  of  tin  may  be  formed  by  mixing 
common  soap  with  a  solution  of  tin  in  nitro- 
muriatic  acid.  It  is  white.  Heat  does  not 
fuse  it  like  other  metallic  soaps,  but  decom- 
poses it. 

5.  Soap  of  iron  may  befomied  by  means 
of  sulphat  of  iron.  It  is  of  a  reddish-brow  n 
colour,  tenacious,  and  easily  lusible.  When 
spread  upon  wool,  it  sinks  in  and  dries.  It 
IS  easily  soluble  in  oil,  especially  of  turpen- 
tine.    Berthollet  proposes  it  as  a  varnish. 

6.  Soap  of  copper  may  be  formed  by  means 
of  sulphat  of  copper.  It  is  of  a  green  colour, 
has  the  feel  of  a  resin,  and  becomes  dry  and 
brittle.  Hot  alcohol  renders  its  colour  deep- 
er, but  scarcely  dissolves  it.  Ether  dissolves 
it,  liquefies  it,  and  renders  its  colour  deeper 
and  more  beautiful.  It  is  very  soluble  in 
oils,  and  gives  them  a  pleasant  green  colour. 

7.  .Soap  of  lead  may  be  formed  by  means 
of  acetite  of  lead.  It  is  white,  tenacious,  and 
very  adhesive  when  heated.  When  lused  it 
is  transi)arent,  and  becomes  somewhat  yellow 
if  the  heat  is  increased. 

S.  Soap  of  silver  may  be  formed  by  means 
of  nitrat  of  silver.  It  is  at  first  white,  but 
becomes  reddish  by  exposure  to  the  air. 
NVhen  fused,  its  surface  becomes  covered 
with  a  brilliant  iris  ;  beneath  the  surface  it  is 
black. 

9.  Soap  of  gold  is  formed -by  means  of 
muriat  of  gold.  It  is  at  lirst  wh.ite,  and  of  tl»e 
consistence  of  cream.  It  gradually  assumes 
a  dirty  purple  colour,  and  adheres  to  the 
skin.  .w 

10.  Soap  of  manganese  is  formed  of.  sul- 
phat of  manganese.  It  is  at  first  white,  and 
then  by  absorbing  oxygen  it  becomes  red. 

SOCAGE,  an  antient  tenure,  by  wliicli 
lands  were  held  on  condition  of  ploughing  the 
ijrd's  lands,  and  doing  the  operations  of  hus- 
bandry, at  their  own  charges.  , 

SOCCUS,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  high 
shoe,   reaching  above  the  ancle,   worn    by 


so  )) 

<y>'>K-(liaii-<,  a-i  ',iii;  Qolluirmis  was  by  tragcii- 

SOCIKTY.  Si-e -V-adi;my. 
SOCINIANS,  in  cliurrli  liKlorv,  a  sect  of 
,chl■i^liBlJ^,  SO  i;allcii  lioni  their  Coiimlor  Faiis- 
Uis  Sociim-,  a  iialivl"  of  Sii'iina,  in  Ilaly.  He, 
abovit  llif  year  1  •"  J,  h.-u,aii  0|)<-i)iy  to  declare 
again-it  llif  catlioiic-  tailli,  and  taiiglil.  1.  '1  lial 
Uie  eternal  I'ntlicr  was  (he  one  oii'y  God  ; 
tlint  the  Woid  was  no  more  than  an  evpres- 
sio;i  of  (he  gi)dhea<l,  and  had  not  existed  from 
all  eternity;  ariil  tlial  J^-sUS  t  hnst  was  CJod 
ijo  otherwise  than  by  liis  superiority  above 
all  crealtnes,  who  wf.re  put  in  subjection  to 
him  by  the  Kadier.  2.  'I'liat  Jesus  Christ 
was  not  a  mediator  lielween  God  and  men, 
but  sent  into  the  world  to  serve  as  a  pattern  o) 
flieir  conduct ;  and  lliat  he  ascended  up  to 
beaveu  only  to  take  a  journey  tl:it!ier.  3.  1  hat 
tin:  pvinishment  of  hell  will  last  but  for  a  cer- 
tain tune,  after  which  the  body  and  soul  will 
bo  dt'slruved.  And  4.  liiat  it  is  not  lawful 
(«r  princes  to  make  war.  These  four  trnets 
Mere  what  Socinns  defended  witli  the  great- 
est zeal.  In  otl\er  nr  Iters,  he  was  a  lutheran 
or  acalvinist;  and  tin:  truth  is,  that  he  did 
but  reiiiie  upon  the  errors  of  all  the  anlitrini- 
tarians  that  went  before  blin.  The  sociniaiis 
spread  extremely  in  Poland,  Lithuania,  and 
'IVansvlvaMia. 

bOC.MHN.  See  Socage. 
SOCOMK,  is  taken  for  a  custom  of  grind- 
1115  corn  at  tiie  lord's  mill ;  whence  came  the 
name  or  term  of  bond  socome,  by  which  the 
l/.-nants  were  bound  to  it ;  and  also  love  so- 
coiwe,  where  th<!y  did  it  voluntarily  out  of 
jove  to  their  lord. 

SOD/V,  called  also  fossil  or  mineral  alkali, 
because  it  was  tliought  peculiar  (o  the  miner.d 
kingdom,  was  known  to  the  anlients  (though 
nut  ill  a  >tate  of  purity)  under  the  names  of 
n"fov  and  nitrum. 

it  is  found  in  large  (|uantities  combined 
willi  carbonic  acid  in  diiferent  pirts  of  llie 
earth,  especially  in  Eg_i  pt ;  and  common 
salt  is  a  compound  of  soda  and  muriatic  acid. 
But  the  soda  of  commerce  is  obtained  from 
tlie  ashes  of  different  species  of  the  salsola,  a 
genus  of  plants  which  grow  upon  the  sea- 
fliore,  especially  from  the  salsola  soda,  fjom 
which  the  alkali  has  obtained  its  name.  Tlie 
soda  of  commerce  is  also  called  barilla,  be- 
cause the  plant  from  which  it  is  obtained 
bears  that  name  in  Spain.  Almost  all  the 
a'g;e,  especially  the  fuci,  contain  also  a  con- 
si(lerable  quantity  of  soda.  The  ashes  of 
tliese  plants  are  known  in  this  country  bv  the 
ij.iiiie  of  kelp;  ia  France  they  are  c'ail'Ai 
varec. 

The  soda,  or  barilla  of  commerce,  is  far 
from  being  pure;  besides  carbonic  acid  it 
CiMitains  common  salt,  and  several  other  fo- 
reii^n  ingreilients ;  but  it  may  be  obtained 
perfectly  pure  by  the  i)rocesses  for  purifying 
potass.     (See  that  article.) 

Spda  and  potass  resemble  each  other  so 
nearly,  that  they  were  confounded  together 
till  l3u  Hainel  published  his  dis^ertatioii  on 
common  salt  in  the  Memoirs  of  llie  French 
Academy  for  1736.  He  lirst  proved  that 
the  base  of  common  salt  is  -soda,  and  that  soda 
is  different  from  potass.  His  conclusions 
were  objected  to  by  Pott,  but  linally  con- 
iirmed  by  Margraff  in  1738. 

Soda  is  of  a  greyish-white  colour,  and  agrees 
exactly  with  potass  in  its  ,^iie,  smell,  and 


S  O  T,  ■ 


S  O  !/• 


(■h;« 


iipon  animal  bodies;  but  its  specilic  |  containfuiiany  flat  yellowisii  seeds.     ((  jrow-. 


gravity  is  only  1.330, 

Heat  ))roduces  on  it  exactly  the  same 
eff..cts  as  upon  potass.  When'  exposed  li; 
the  air,  it  absorbs  moisture  and  carbonic  aciil, 
and  is  soon  reduced  to  the'  c-onsistence  of 
paste  ;  but  it  does  not  li(juefy  like  potass  ;  in 
a  few  days  it  becomes  dry  again,  and  crumbles 
into  powder 


111  hedges  well  supplied  with  waliv. "  aiitt 
(lowers  about  the  (fnd  of  June.  On  ch<»w  irr> 
the  roots,  we  lirst  tee)  a  bitter,  liieii  a  »weel 
taste:  hence  the  name.  J'liebeirles  are  sai.| 
to  be  poisonous,  and  may  easily  be  llli^taken 
by  children  for  currants.  'Ilie  sdpiles  ov 
younger  branches  are  directed  lor  use,  and 
may  be  employed  either  fresh  or  dried ;  ilicv 


It  lias  a  strong  afl'mity  for  water,   dissolves  '  should   be  gathered   in  '  the   autumn.     'J'iuV 
in  it  like  potass,  and  may  also  be  obtained  in  I  plant  is  generally  given  in  decoction  or  m- 


crystals  by  evaporating  its  aqueous  solution. 
It'is  not  afteied  by  light;  nor  does  it  co.n- 
bine  with  oxygen,  hydrogen,  azote,  carbon, 
cliarcoal,  or  metals.     Its  action   upon  phos- 


fusion.  Several  nulliors  lake  notice,  that 
the  dulcamara  parlakos  of  the  milder  jiowrrs 
of  the  n-glitsliade,  joined  to  a  resolvent  a:,d 
saponaceous  quality  ;   hence  it  promotes  ilw. 


phorn3  and  suiphur  is  the  same  with  tliat  of '  secretions  of  "urine,  sweat,  the 'menses,  ar.d 
potass.  The  sulphuret  and  liydrogenated  |  lochia.  It  is  recommended  in  a  varielv  of 
sulpliiiret  of  soda  possess  the  properties  of  Uie  ,  disorders ;  but  particularly  in  rlieuma!i"-ni, 
sulphuret    and  liydrogenated     sulphuret   of   obstructed  menses,  and  lochia ;  also  in  sonn' 


potass,  and  are  formed  in  the  same  manner. 
In  its  action  on  metals,  metallic  oxides,  and 
ill  its  allinities,  it,  also  agrees  with  potass. 
In  short,  the  two  iixed  alkalies,  in  a  slate  of 
purity,  resemble  each  other  very  nearly  in 
almost  every  particular.     Its  iinijortance  in 


obstinate  cutaneous  diseases. 

2.  Tlie  nigrum,  garden  nightshade,  com- 
mon in  many  |)laces  in  Hritain  about  dtmg-- 
hills  and  waste  places.  It  rises  lo  about  im, 
feet  in  height.  The  st^ik  herbaceous  ;  ilie 
leaves  alternate,   irregularly  oval,   indented, 


manufactures  is  not  inferior  to  that  of  potass,  and  clothed  with  soft  hairs."  The  (lowers  ari" 
For  several  purposes,  as  for  soap  and  glass,  |  white  ;  the  berries  black  and  sliiiiing.  it  ap 
it  answers  even  better  than  potass. - 

SOI'TITA,  or  Soffit,  in  architecture, 
any  plafond  or  ceiling  formed  of  cross  beams 
of  (lying  cornices,  the  square  compartnienls 
or  paunels  of  w  hich  are  enriched  with  sculp- 
ture, ))ainting,  or  gilding. 

SOFI,  or  SopHi.     See  Sophi. 

SOFl'EMNG.   .See  Painting. 

SOIL.     See  HusisANDRY. 

SOIT  FAIT  COMME  IL  EST    DESIRE',  ftp /< 

done  as  it  is  desirtd,  a  form  used  when  (he  i 


pears  to  possess  the  deleterious  ipialilies  of- 
Ihe  other  nightshades  in  a  very  high  degree, 
and  even  (he  smell  of  the  plant  is  saul  ti» 
cause  sleep.  ']'be  berries  Uie  equallv  poi- 
sonous with  the  leaves,  .causing  ca;dia|nia 
and  delirium,  and  violent  distortions  of  iiir. 
limbs  in  children.  Mr.  Getaker,  in  1737, 
recommended  its  internal  use  in  old  sores,  in 
scrofulous  and  caiK  erous  ulcers,  cutaneous 
eruptions,  and  in  dropsies.  He  savs,  t:iat 
one  grain  infused  in  an  ounce  of  water,  s  une- 


king  gives  the  roval  assent  to   a  private  bill    f""'^'*  produced  a  considerable  ellect  ;   (hat 
'  ■  "'"  in  the  dose  of  two  or  three  grains  it  seldom 

failed  to  evacuate    (he  (irst  passages,  to   in- 
crease  very  sensibly  the  discharges  by  tiie 
SoL,orSou,  a  French  coin   made  up  of    ^^in  and  kidneys,  and  soinetimes  to  occa  ioit 
copper  mixed  with  a  little  silver,  value  the    ''f  ^'"f'-l"^^'  "-o^fiP^s,  giddines.,  and  <limm-ss 
23d  part  of  our  shillinn.  "^^'S'''.''     'V.'--   lJi-oomlield  declares,   that   in 


preferred  in  parliament. 

SOL,  ill  music,  the  fifth  note    of   the   ga- 
mut, ut,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la.     See  Gamut. 


pan  01  our  shilling, 
Sol,  tlie.yi/rt,  in  astronomy. 
Sol,  in  the  old  chemistrv,  is  gold. 
SOI-AN  DH,\,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  class  of  pentandria;  and  to  the  order 
iiioiu)g>iiia     'jhe  cklyx  is  bursting;  the  co- 
rolla elevate,  lunnel-fornied,  very  large;  ber- 
ry   four-celled,    many-seeded.  "    The    only 
species  is  grandillora.     '1  his  sreniis  was  (irst 
named  solandra  in  honour  of  Dr.   Solander, 
by  Murray,  in  the  1 4th  edition  of  the  Svs- 
tema  \'egetabilium.     In  Jamaica  it  is  called 
(he  peach-coloured  trumpet  flower. 

SOL.VNl'M,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  in  the  peiUandria  class  of  plants,  and 
in  the  natural  iiKHhod  ranking  under  the 
2Slh  order,  luridaj.  The  calvN  is  inferior  ;  the 
corolla  is  rotate  and  mojiopliyllous  ;  the  fruit 
a  berry,  bilocular,  and  containing  many  small 
and  (lat  seeds.  Of  this  genus  there  are  93 
species,  most  of  them  natives  of  tlie  East  and 
West  Indies,  the  most  remarkable  of  which 
aj-e  the  following : 

I .  The  dulcamoia,  woody  nightshade  a 
native  of  Britain  and  of  Africa,  is  a  slender 
climbing  plant,  rising  to  six  or  more  feet  in 
height.  The  leaves  are  generally  oval, 
pointed,  and  of  a  deep-green  colour ;  the 
(lowers  hang  in  loose  clusters,  of  a  purple  co- 
lour, and  divided  into  live  pointed  segments. 
The  calyx  is  purple,  persistent,  and  ilivided 
into  live';  the  berrv,  when  ripe,  is  red,  and  i  foot  m  Iieiglit 
■4R2  I. 


caiies  in  which  he  tried  the  solaiium  they 
wei'e  much  aggravated  by  it ;  and  that  in  on'e 
case  in  the  dose  of  one  "grain  it  proved  mor- 
tal to  one  of  his  patients;  therefore  he  con- 
tends its  use  is  prejudicial.  'Ibis  opinion 
seems  tacitly  to  be  conlirmed,  as  it  is  now 
never  given  internally.  In  aiitient  times  it 
was  employed  externally  as  a  discutient  and 
anodyne  in  some  cutaneous  aliectioiis,  tume- 
factions of  the  glands,  ulcers,  and  disorders 
of  the  eyes.  The  solanuni  uigiuni  «  rabrum, 
a  iiative"of  the  West  Indies,  is  called  guma  bv 
the  negroes.  It  is  so  far  from  having  any 
deleterious  quality,  that  it  is  daily  served  up 
at  table  ;:s  gieens  or  spinach.  '  It  has  an 
agreeable  bitter  ta.ste. 

3.  l.ycopersicuni,  the  love-apple,  or  to- 
mato, cultivated  in  gardens  in  the  wanner, 
parts  of  Europe,  and  in  ail  tropical  couittrii  s. 
'Hie  staik  is  herbaceous ;  the  leaves  pinnated, 
oval,  pointed,  and  deejjly  divided.  The 
llowers  are  on  simple  raceim  ;  they  are  small 
and  yellow.  The  berry  is  of  the  size  of  a' 
plum  ;  they  are  smooth,  shining,  soit  ;  and 
are  either  of  a  yellow  or  reddish  colour.  1'hc 
tomato  is  in  daly  use;  bi'ing  either  boileil  in 
soups  or  broths,  or  served  up  boiled  as  gar- 
nishes to  (lesh-meat. 

4.  Melongeua,  tiie  egg  plant,  or  vegetalile 
egg.     This  is  also  cultivated  in  gardens,  par- 
ticularly ill  Jamaica.     It  seldom  rises  above  a 
The  fruit  is  as  big  as,  and 


6S4 


SOL 


\er\-  like,  the  egg  of  a  goose.  It  is  often  used 
boiled  as  a  vegetable  aiong  with  animal  lood 
or  butter,  and  supposed  to  be  aphrodisiac 
aud  to  cure  sterility.  » 

5.  Loni'.:n.  1  his  plant  is  also  lierbareous, 
but  c-^ows' much  ranker  than  the  foregointr. 
Ti;?  rlowers  are  blue  :  and  the  tVu-l  i<  six  c.- 
eigl.l  inches  long,  auti  proportinniiiiy  tijick. 
It  is  bo;ied  r.ntl  eaten  at  t.ible  as  tiie  egg- 
plant. 

6.  Tuberosum,  ihe  conn.  :^  potato?.  It 
was  introduced  by  sir  Walter  Raleigii,  and 
first  cultivated  in  Ireland  abovit  the  year 
1600.  Large  fortu.nes  l;a'.e  b'.:cn  made  by 
thecultureof  pot  itoes  at  VVestham  in  E^sex. 

SOLDaNELLA,  ii.  botany,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  class  o:  pc-ntanlria,  and  order  ot 
nionogx-nia,  and  in  the  natural  system  arran- 
ged under  the  21st  order,  precia-.  The  co- 
rolla is  campanulated  ;  tiie  border  being  ver\ 
finely  cut  into  a  great  many  segments.  T  hr 
capsule  is  unilocular,  and  its  ape.'C  polyden- 
tate.     Tiiere  is, one  species. 

SOLDER,  SoDDER,  or  Sodkr,  a  m:'taU:c 
or  mineral  composition  ii^ed  in  soldering  or 
joinins  other  metals.  Solders  are  made  ot 
gold,  Silver,  copper,  tin,  bismuth,  and  lead; 
usually  observing,  that  in  the  composition 
there  "shall  be  some  "t  the  metal  that  is  to  be 
soldered  mixed  wilu  some  iii'.'ier  an:l  ImT 
metals.  Goklsmitlis  usually  make  tour  kinds 
of  solder,  viz.  .solder  ot  eight,  where  to  seven 
parts  of  silver  there  is  one  ot  brass  or  copper; 
solder  ol  si.\,  where  only  a  fixlh  part  is  cop- 
per ;  solder  of  tour,  and  solder  of  three.  It 
is  the  mi.\ture  of  C()))per  in  the  solder  that 
makes  raised  plate  come  always  cheaper  than 
flat. 

As  mixtures  of  gold  with  a  little  copper 
are  found  to  melt  with  less  heal  than  pure 
gold  itself,  these  mi.\tures  serve  as  solders  for 
gold  :  two  pieces  oi'  line  gold  are  soldered  by 
gold  that  has  a  smiUi  aduii.xture  of  copper ; 
and  gold  alloveil  with  copper  is  soldered  bv 


SOL 

soldering  those  metals.  Spelter  soMcr  is 
made  ot  one  part  of  brass  and  t«o  of  spelter 
or  zinc,  and  is  used  by  the  bmizieis  and  cop 


persmiths  for  soldi 


brass,  copper,   and 


such  as  is  alloyed  with  more  copper.  The 
workmen  add  "a  liltic  silver  as  well  as  cop- 
per, and  vary  tiie  proportions  of  the  iv.o  to 
evie  another,  so  as  to  make  the  colour  of  the 
solder  correspond  as  nearly  as  m.iy  be  to  that 
of  the  piece.  A  mixture  of  gold  and  copper 
is  also  a  solder  for  line  copper  as  well  as  for 
fine  gold.  Gold  being  particularly  disposed 
to  unite  with  iron,  proves  an  excellent  solder 
for  the  liner  kinds  of  iron  and  steel  instru- 
ments. 

'1  he  solder  used  by  plumbers  is  made  of 
two  pounds  of  lead  to  one  of  block-tin.  Its 
gootliiess  is  tried  by  melting  it,  and  pouring 
the  size  of  a  crown  piece  on  a  table  ;  for,  if 
good,  there  will  arise  little  bright  shining  stars 
jn  it.  The  solder  for  copper,  is  made  like 
that  of  the  plumbers ;  only  with  copper  and 
tin;  and  for  very  nice  works,  instead  of  tin, 
tliey  sometimes  use  a  (juantity  of  silver. 
ii:)lder  for  tin  is  made  of  two-thirds  of  tin  and 
one  of  lead,  or  of  equal  parts  of  each  ;  but 
where  the  work  is  any  thing  delicate,  as  in 
•rgan-pipes,  where  the  juncture  is  scarcely 
iisteriuble,  it  is  made  of  one  part  of  bisnmlii 
and  three  parts  of  pewter.  Tlie  pewterers 
use  a  kind  of  solder  made  with  two  parts  oi 
tin  and  one  of  bismuth  ;  this  composition 
melts  willi  the  least  lieat  of  any  of  the  sol- 
ders. 

Silver  solder  is  that  which  is  made  of  two 
pzTUs  of  silver  and  one  of  l;rass,  and  used  in 


iron.  This  solder  is  nnproved  by  aiiding  to 
each  ounce  of  il  one  pennyweiglit  of  silver ; 
but  as  it  does  not  meil  without  a  considerable 
degn  i-'  of  heat,  it  cannot  be  used  when  it  is 
incouvenier,;  to  iieat  the  work  red-hot;  in 
which  case  toppL-r  and  brass  are  sulderea  with 
silver. 

I'hough  spelter  soUlor  is  mncli  cheaper  than 
silver  ooldcr,  yet  workmen  in  many  cases 
prefer  the  latter.  And  Mr.  Boyle  nitorms 
us,  tliat  he  has  found  it  to  run  with  so  mo- 
derate a  heat,  as  not  much  to  endangt  r  tlie 
melting  of  the  delicate  parts  of  the  work  to 
be  soldered;  and  if  veil  made,  this  silver 
'.older  \( ill  lie  even  upon  the  ordinary  kind 
hscU;  and  so  fill  up  tliose  little  cavities  that 
may  chance  to  be  left  in  the  first  cperLtion, 
vi-hfch  is  not  etisily  done  witiiout  a  solder  more 
easi'v  fusible  than  the  first  made  use  of. 

SOLDERING,  the  joining  and  fastening 
together  ol  two  pieces  of  the  same  metal,  or 
of  Uvo  difftreiit  metals,  by  the  fusion  and  ap- 
plitation  of  some  metallic  composition  on  the 
extremities  of  the  metuis  to  lie  joined.     To 
solder  upon  silver,  brass,  or  iron  :    take  silver, 
five  pennv  weights;  brass,  four  pennyweights; 
melt"  them   together  tor  soil  soldi-r,   which 
runs  soonest,  'lake  silver,  five  pennyweights; 
copper,  three  pennyweights  ;    melt  them  to- 
gether for  hard  solder.     Beat  the  solder  thin, 
and  lav  it  on  the  jilacc  to  be  soldered,  which 
must  be  first  fitted   and  bound  f.igerh;-r  with 
w  ire  as  occasion  ret|uires  ;  then  take  borax 
in  powder,  and  temper  it  like  pap,  and  lay  it 
upon  the  solder,  leliuig  it  dry  ;  then  cover  it 
V. illi  live  coals,  and  blow,  and  it  will  run  im- 
mediately ;  take  it  presently  out  of  the  fire, 
and  it  is  done.     It  is  to  be  observed,  that  if 
any  thing  is  to  be  soldered  in   two   places, 
which  cannot  w  ell  be  done  at  one  time,  you 
must  first  solder  with  the  harder  solder,  and 
then  with  the  soft ;  for,  if  it  is  first  done  with 
the  soft,  it  will  unsolder  again  before  the  other 
is  softened.     Let  it  be  observed,  that  if  you 
would  not  have  your  solder  run  about  the 
piece-  that  is  to  be  soldeied,  you  must  rub 
such  places  over  with  chalk.     In  the  solder- 
ing eitlier  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  or  either  ot 
the  metal<  above  mentioneii,   tliere  is  gene- 
rally used  borax  in  powder,  and  sometimes 
^o^ln.     As  to  iron,  it  is  sulncieiit  that  it  be 
iieated  red-hot,  and  the  two  exlreni  ties  tluis 
hanmiercd  together,  by   which  means  they 
will  become   incorporated  with  each  otlier. 
For  the  finer  kinds  of  iron  and  steel  instru- 
ments,  however,  gold    proves  an   excellent 
solder.     This  metal   will   dissolve  twice  or 
thrice  its  weight  of  iron  in  a  degree  of  heat 
very  far  less  than  that  in  which   iron  itself 
melts ;-  hence    if  a  small    plate  of   gold  is 
wr.ippcd  round  the  parts  to  be  joined,  and 
aflerv\'ards  melted  by  a  blowpipe,  it  strongly 
unites  the  pieces  together  without  any  injury 
to  the  instrument,  liowever  delicate. 

SOLE.'E,  among  the  Romans,  a  kind  of 
sandals  or  slippers  which  covered  only  the 
sole  of  the  feet,  and  were  bound  on  with 
thongs  of  leather,  instead  of  which  tliewom.'ii 
and  the  elfemiiiale  ones  of  the  other  sex  tied 
them  on  with  |)urple-colonred  ribbons,  or 
such  as  were  variously  adorned  with  gold  and 
silver. 


SOL 

SOLECISM,  snloecismits,  in  grammar,  3 
false  manner  of  speaking  contrary  to  the  use 
of  language  and  the  rules  of  granimar,  either 
in  respect  of  declension,  conjugation,  or 
syntax. 

SOLEN,    rcizm-  shenth,   or  knifr-limiclti 
shell,  a  genus  belonging  to  the  cl-.i^'  of  vet- 
mes,  and  drder  of  testacca.   '1  he  KMmal  is  aii^ 
ascidia.     The  shell  is  bivalve,  ol; ',nig,  and 
opening  at  both  sides  ;  the  hinge  i>as  a  tooth 
shaped  like  an  awl,  iient  back,  olten  I'ouhle, 
not  inserted  into  the  oppo-ite  shell ;   li.e  rim 
at  the  sides  somewiiat  worn  away,  and  has  a- 
horny    carlil-asiiious  hinge.      1  here  are   2.1 
species;  three  of  them,  vi/.    the  siliqua, -.;»- 
gina,   and  ensis,  are   found   on    tie   Pritish- 
coasts,  and  lurk  in  tl.e  saiul  iieir  the  low- 
water   maik   iri   a   perptndirtilar    direction.- 
M  hen  in  want  ot  food  Ihey  elcviUe  one  end- 
a  little  above  tiie  surface,  and  protrude  their 
bodies  far  out  of  the  shell.     On  the  appicach- 
of  danger  they  dart  deep  into  the  sand,  some- 
times twoteel  ill  iea^t.     Their  place  is  known 
by  a  small  d:v^i!e  on  the  surlaie.  Sometimes 
they  are  dug  out  witli   a  shovel;   at  othei>~ 
times  they  ai-e  taken  by  striking  a  baibed 
dart  suddenly    into  them.     ^^  hen  the  scats 
down,   these  fish  tisiiallv  run  deep  into  tlie 
sand;  and  to  bring  ll:eni  up,  the  cominnn 
custom  is  to  :.hrow  a  lillle  salt  info  the  hoh-s,. 
on  wiiich  tiij  fi^h  raises  itself,  and  in  a  l.-w 
minutes  appears  at  the   mouth   of  its  hole.- 
W'hen  liait  the  slie'l  is  d].,covere'i,  the  fisher- 
man has  notli.ug  more  to  do  than  to  take 
hold  of  it  with  ids  fingers  and  draw  it  out ; 
but  he  nnisl.be  cautious  not  to   lose  the  oc- 
casion, for  the  cremurc  does  not  continue  a- 
moment  in  that  suite;    and  if  by  any  means 
the  lisherman  has  toucheil  it,  and  let  it  slip, 
away,  it  is  gone  lor  ever  ;   lor  it  will  not  be 
decoyed  again  out  of  its  hole  b_\  salf ;  so  that 
there  is  then  no  way   of'  getting  il  but  by. 
digging  under  if,  and  throwing  it  up  with  the- 
sand.     The  fish  has  two  pipes,   each   coin-  - 
posed  of  four  or  five  rings  or  poilions  of  a 
hollow  cyliuiler,  of  unequal   lengtlrs,   joined 
one  to  another  ;  and  the   places  where  they 
join  are  marked  by  a  number  of  line  streaks 
or   rays.     Ihe   reason  wiiy   the  salt   causes 
these  creatures  to  come  up  out  of  their  holes, 
is,  that  it  gives  them  vioh nt  pain,  and  even. 
corrodes  these    pipes.      This    is    somewiiat 
strange,  as  the    real  lire  is  nourished  bv^  means 
of  salt  water;  but  it  is  very  evident,  that  if  a 
little  salt  is  strewed  upon  these  pipes  in  a 
lish  taken  out   of  its  habitation,  it  will   cor- 
rode the  j'iriirigs  of  the  rings, .and  often  make 
on<  or  moie  joints  drop  otf;  the  creature,  to 
avoid  ill' ■  mischief,  arises  out  of  its  hole,  and 
ti'.rows  oiF  the  salt,   and  then   retires   back 
again.     Th"  use  of  these  pipes  to  the  animal 
is  the  same  with  that  of  many  other  pipes  of 
a  like  kind  in  other  shell-fish  ;  they  all   serve 
to  take  in  water:    th'-y  are  only  a  continua- 
tion of  the  outer  membrane  of  the  fish,  and 
serve  indifl'er<'ntly  for  taking  in  and  throwing 
out  the  water,  one  receiving  and  the  other 
discliarging  it,  and  either  answering  equally 
well  to  their  purpose. 

Thisfish  was  used  as  food  by  the  antients  ; 
anJ  Athen.Tus,  from  Sophron^  speaks  of  it  as 
a  great  delicacy,  and  particularly  grateful  to 
widows.  It  IS  olten  tised  as  fboci  at  present, 
and  is  broin^ht  up  to  table  fried  in  eggs. 

SOLI'AING,  or  SoiMiz.\TiON,~"~the  art 
of  sounding  the  notes,  touether  with  the  cor- 
rejpondjng  syllables  of  the  gamut.      This 


SOL 

prcpar.Uory  cxtrcise,  so  Dcccssirv  fo  si'^M- 
riii^int;;,  aii'l  wliicli,  by  iiiiiluig  in  liit'iiiiiul  of 
the  |ir;it'liuoiicr  tile  iiic-us  oi  tin-  dilll'itiit 
v.%ll;il)lt'S  willi  lliosir  oftlie  intervals,  I'acilitaU-s 
tilt"  reco'lcnioii  oi  tlie  bcvc-ral  sounds,  was  of 
very  aiifient  adojUion. 

Guido  ii.r.'ini;  si.il)stiUiti'<l  liis  liexadiord  in 
place-  of  thf  antieiit  teti'aclioi-d,  ado|)tetl  at 
llie  saint!  time  for  his  soliui^ation  six  otlu-r 
svllalilus,  ut,  re,  mi,  f;i,  sol,  la,  taken  from 
the  hvuin  of  St.  John  the  liapti^t. 

Ot  the  seven  notes  in  the  Kronch  scale, 
only  four  were  for  a  while  used  by  us,  as  mi, 
fa,  sol,  la  ;  i^at  now  we,  is  well  as  the  Ita- 
lians, employ  the/irst  six,  witli  the  e.\te[)tii>n 
of  changini;  ut  lor  do,  as  a  softer  and  more 
vocal  s\  liable  liy  a|)|)l\iiig  these  syllabli'S 
to  tlie  several  note-,  the  |)ractitioner  not  onlv 
litters  the  sound  with  more  fulness,  ea.^e,  and 
Ireedoni,  but,  by  the  assm  iation  of  ideas,  at- 
tains a  ready  recollection  of  the  places  of  the 
tones  and  semitones,  and  by  feeling  tlje  re- 
lation between  the  syllabic  and  the  musical 
sounds, ac(iuire5  the  power  of  expressing  tiieni 
with  truth  and  certainty. 

SOI.lC'l'l'OH,  a  person  employed  to  lake 
care  of,  and  manage,  suits  de|)eiKlina;  in  the 
courts  of  etjuity,  ;ihI  those  ol  the  lower  sort 
are  too  often  made  use  of  to  the  damage  of 
tlie  people,  and  the  increase  of  champertv 
and  maintenance. 

Si.lu  iiors  are  within  the  statute  to  be  sworn 
and  admitted  by  the  j  idges,  before  they  are 
allowed  to  practise  ill  our  courts,  in  like  man- 
ner a>  attorniyi. 

SOLID.  Ueometricians  dcline  a  solid  to 
be  till'  tliird  species  of  magnitnde,  or  that 
which  has  tinee  dhiirnsions,  viz.  length, 
breadth,  and  thickness  or  depth. 

A  solid  may  be  conceived  to  be  formed  bv 
the  revolution,  or  direct  motion,  of  a  super- 
ficiei  of  any  ligure  whatc^'er,  and  is  always 
terminated  or  contained  under  one  or  more 
planes  or  surface.-,  as  a  surface  is  under  one 
or  mcjre  lines. 

Solids  are  commonly  dixided  into  regular 
and  irivgniar.  'i  ne  regular  solicK  are  those 
h'rminated  by  regular  and  equal  planes,  and 
are  only  hvein  number,  viz.  liie  tetialu-dron, 
which  consists  of  four  eipial  triangles,  the 
eube,  or  hexahedron,  of  six  equal  squares  ; 
the  octahedron,  of  eight  equal  triangles  ;  the 
dodecahedron,  of  twelve;  and  the  iro-^ihe- 
tlron,  of  twenty  e;]ual  triangles.  See  Tetra- 
hedron, C'l'BE,  &C. 

SoLJD  of  Last  resistance.  Sir  Isnac  New- 
ton, in  his  Principia,  ^iiews  tliat  if  there  is  a 
curve  figure,  as  DNFG,  (Plate  Miscel  tig. 
2 1 8.)  of  such  .1  nature,  that  i""_Mn -.itiv  point, 
as  N,  taken  in  its  circumfertnce,  a  perpen- 
dicular iS'M  is  let  fall  on  ti'^  axis  AU  ;  and 
if  from  a  given  point,  ns  G-,  tiiere  is  drawn 
the  right  line  GR,  parallel  •••  a  tange-it  tj 
th<f  curve  m  the  point  N,  cutting  liie  axis 
produced  in  U,  and  the  proportion  then  is, 
as  N  M  :  G  R  : :  G  U " :  4  EC;  K  G  R  :  the  so- 
lid generated  by  the  levthilioii  oi  diis  curve 
about  its  axis  AB,  wlien  moved  swiftly  in  a 
rare  and  elastic  medium,  will  meet  with  less 
resistance  froin  the  medium,  tiuu  any  ether 
circular  solid  whatever,  of  the  same  length 
and  breadth. 

Solid  an-gle,  is  that  formed  bv  tliree  or 
more  planes  meeting  in  a  point,  like  the  point 
of  a  diamond  well  cut. 

SouD  NUMBERS,  are  those  which  arise 
from  the  multipiicaliou  of  a  pluue  number, 


SOI, 

by  any  othiT  wliatever ;  as  18  is  a  solid 
number  made  of  0  (which  is  plane),  multiplied 
by  3;  or  o(  9  nuiltipiied  by  2. 

SoLin  I'RontF.M,  in  mathematics,  is  one 
which  cannot  be-  geometrically  solved  unless 
by  the  ihtersectioii  of  a  circle  and  a  conic 
section  ;  or  by  the  intersection  of  two  other 
conic  sections,  besides  the  circle. 

As  to  describe  an  isosceles  triangle  on  a 
giv.'ii  right  line,  \\hose  angle  at  the  base  shall 
be  triple  to  that  at  the  vertex. 

'J'his  will  help  to  inscribe  a  regular  hep- 
tagon in  a  given  circle  ;  and  may  Ijeresolved 
by  the  intersection  of  a  parabola  and  a 
circli". 

'I'his  problem  also  helps  to  inscribe  a  no- 
nagon  in  a  circle;  and  may  be  solved  by  the 
intersection  of  a  parabola,  and  an  hvperbola 
between  its  asymptotes,  viz. 

To  de^cribe  an  isosceles  triangle,  whose 
angle  at  the  base  shall  be  quadruple  of  that 
at  the  vertex. 

And  such  a  problem  as  this  has   four  so- 
lutions, and    no   more;    because  two  conic 
ections  can   cut  one   another   but  in  four 
points. 

SO  LI  DAGO,  golden  rod,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  class  of  svngenesia,  and  the 
order  of  polygamia  supcrllua,  and  in  tiiC  na- 
tural s\  stem  ranging  under  the  4yth  order, 
composit;u.  'J  he  receptacle  is  naked  ;  the 
pappus  simple  ;  the  ra<iii  are  commonly  five  ; 
ihe  scale.!,  of  the  calyx  are  imbricated,  and 
curved  inward.  There  are  30  species.  A- 
mong  these  there  is  only  one  which  is  a  native 
of  Britain  ;  the  virgaurea,  or  common  golden 
rod,  which  grows  frequently  in  rough  moun- 
taiuoiis  pastures  and  woods.  There  is  a  va- 
riety 01  this  species  called  cambrica,  to  be 
found  on  rocks,  from  six  inches  to  a  foot 
high. 

SOLIDITY'  is  that  property  of  matter,  by 
whieh  it  excludes  ail  other  bodies  from  the 
place  which  itself  possesses. 

SOLITARIES,  a  denomination  of  nuns  of 
St.  Peter  of  Alacaiilara,  in^tituted  in  167G. 
the  design  of  whiih  is  to  imitate  the  severe 
penitent  life  of  that  saint:  thus  they  are  to 
keep  a  continual  silence,  never  to  open  their 
mouths  fo  anv  bodv  ;  employ  their  thne 
whollv  in  spiritual  exercises,  and  leave  the 
temi)oral  c<)nceriis  to  a  number  of  m.iids,  who 
have  a- jnrticular  superior  in  a  separate  part 
of  the  monas'ery  ;  th.ey  always  go  barefoot- 
ed, without  sanelals  ;  gird  themselves  with  a 
thick  cord,  and  wear  no  linen. 

SOLO,  in  music,  a  term  used  in  pieces 
consisting  of  several  parts,  to  mark  those 
thi'i  areto  perform  alone  :  it  is  sometimes  de- 
n.;te  I  b)  S. 

When  two  or  three  parts  play,  or  sing,  se- 
parately from  the  grand  chorus,  they  are 
called  a  dio  soli,  a  tre  soli,  &c. 
SO  LS TIC  K.  See  Astronomy. 
SOLirriON,  in  chemistry,  denote?  an 
intimate  mixture,  or  perfect  union,  of  solid 
bodies  with  fluids,  so  as  seemingly  to  form 
one  homogeneous  liquor.  The  dissolving 
lluid  is  termed  the  solvent  or  menstruum. 

A  solution  is  distinguished  from  a  mixture 
by  being  perfectly  clear,  though  not  always 
colourless,  and  from  the  parts  not  separating 
when  set  at  rest.     See  Chemistry. 

Solution,  in  algebra  and  geometry,  is 
the  answering  a  question,  or  the  resolving  any 
problem  proposed. 


O  N 


665 


Solution  nfconiiiwili/,  in  surg.-rrv,  is  the 
separation  of  the  natural  cohesion  of  the  solid 
parts  of  the  bodv,  by  a  wound. 

SOi\iMLri,'a  niineral  named  from  the 
mountain  Somma,  where  it  was  firit  found. 
It  is  usually  mixed  with  volcanic  productions. 
It  crjstalli/es  in  priiins,  sometimes  terminat- 
eil  by  pyramids.  Colour  white,  and  somi-- 
wlial  transparent.  It  cuts  glass.  The  specific 
gravity  is  .3.27.  Inlusible  by  the  blowpipe  ; 
and  according  to  \'auqiierui,  it  is  coinpo><;d 
of 

4(^  alumina 
4(j  silica 
2  limc- 
1  oxide  of  iron 


!I8. 


SON.VT.V,  in  music,  a  piece,  or  compo- 
sition, intended  to  be  performed  by  instru- 
ments only  ;  in  which  sense  it  stands  opposed 
to  cantata,  or  a  piece  designed  for  the  \oice. 

riieie  are  several  kinds  of  sonatas.  'I'he 
Italians,  however,  re.'luce  them  principally 
to  two  ;  the  s.inata  da  camera,  or  chamber 
sonata  ;  and  the  sonata  da  chiesa,  or  church 
sonata.  The  sonata,  of  whatever  kind,  gene- 
rally opens  with  an  adagio;  and  after  two  or 
three  movements  of  various  descriptions,, 
concludes  with  an  allegro,  or  a  presto.  This 
di-linitioii  of  a  sonata,  however,  rather  belongs 
to  what  is  called  I  he  aiilient  than  to  the  mo- 
dern music,  in  which  the  sonata  is  chitHy 
composeil  as  a  lesson  or  exercise  for  a  single 
instrument. 

SONCHUS,  sozL-ikisllc,  a  genus  of  plants' 
belonging  to  the  class  of  syngencsia,  and  to 
the  order  ot  polygamia  a;qualis,  and  in  the 
natural  ostein  ranged  under  the  49lh  order, 
composii.e.     The   receptacle  if  naked;    the 
calyx   is   imbricated,  bellying,  and  conical ; 
the  tlown  of  the  seed  is  sin;ple,  fessile.   and' 
very  soft ;  the  ^eed  is  oval  and  pointed.  There 
are  ly  species;  four  of  tiiese  are  nativt:s  of 
Britain  :     1 .   Palusti  is,  marsh  sow-thistle.     2. 
Arvensis,    corn    sow-tiu^tlc.      3.  Oleiaceus, 
common  sow-thistle.     4.  Aipinus,  btue-flovf- 
ered    sow-thistle.      All   of    them    nefarious- 
weeds. 

SONG,  in  poetry,  a  little  composition,, 
consisting  of  easy  and  natural  verses,  set  to  a 
tune  in  order  to  be  Ming.     See  Poetry. 

Song,  in  music,  is  applie'd  in  gmeral  to 
a  single  |)iece  of  music,  wlie-ther  contrived 
for  the  voice  or  an  instrument. 

Song  <iJ  birds,  is  dchned  by  the  honour- 
able Dailies  Barrington  to  be  a  « ucce->sion  of 
three  or  moie  difl'erent  notes,. wliicj!  are  con- 
tinued without  interruption,  during  the  same 
interval,  with  a  nuiMcal  bar  of  four  crotchets 
in  an  ad.igio  movement,  or  whilst  a  jvikIu-- 
him  swings  four  seconds.  It  is  affirmed  by 
this  aulhor  that  the  notes  of  birds  are  no 
more  innate  than  language  in  man,  and  that 
they  depend  upon  imitation,  as  far  as  tluMr 
organs  will  enable  them  to  imitate  tlie  sounds 
which  they  have  frequent  opportunities  of 
heariii!^ :  and  their  adhering  so  steadily,  even 
in  a  wild  state,  to  the  same  song,  is  owing  to 
the  nestlings  attending  only  to  the  iiistiuc- 
tion  ot  the  parent  bird,  whilst  they  disregard 
the  notes  of  all  others  that  may  perhaps  be 
singing  round  then>. 

Birds  in  a  wild  state  do  not  commonly  sing- 
above  10  weeks  in  the  year;  \vh-;reas  birds- 
I  that  have  plenty  of  food'  in  a  cage,  sing  tUe 


b-: 


S  O  N 


"reat'^t  part  ol'tlie  vear  ;  am!  we  may  a'Ul, 
rtiul  tlie  feip.alk.-  ot  im  species  of  birdi  ever 
iuv^i.  I'iiis  is  a  wise  provision  of  nature,  he- 
cause  her  song  would  discover  her  ue»t.  In 
the  same  manner,  we  may  falioMially  account 
for  her  iafeiionty  in  phnnage.  Tiie  iacuity  of 
sinsieg  is  conlii'ieU  to  llie  cock  birds;  and 
acc'ordingly  Mr.  Hunter,  in  cUssecliiig  birds 
of  scvi-ral  species,  found  the  inusclfs  of  the 
larynx  to  be  stronger  in  the  niglitingale  llian 
in  arry  otiier  bird  oi  the  same  size ;  and  in  all 
tlios'.;  instances  wliere  lie  disjected  boih  cock 
and  hen,  the  same  muscles  were  stronger  in 
the  cock. 

Some  have,  a-cribed  the  singing  of  tlie 
cock  bird  in  the  spring  solely  to  the  motiv,- 
of  ple..sin.;iii5  mate  during  inciibatioi'.;  otlier<, 
•w.io  allow  that  it  is  partly  lor  this  end,  believe 
it  is  partly  owing  also  to  another  cause,  viz. 
tlie  great  abundance  of  p'ants  and  insects  in 
f  lie  spring,  wnich,  as-  well  ;!S  seeds,  are  the 
proper  food  of  singing  birds  at  that  time  ot 
the  year. 

.\lr.  Harrington  remarks,  that  there  is  no 
instiince  of  any  singing  bird  wliich  exceeds 
our  blackbird  in  size  ;  and  this,  he  supposes, 
may  arise  from  the  ditiiculty  of  its  concealing 
itself,  if  it  called  the  atlenli'on  of  its  enenues,- 
not  only  by  its-  bulk,  but  by  the  proportion- 
able loudness  of  its  notes.  This  writer  fur- 
ther observes,  that  some  passages  of  the  song 
in  a  few  kinds  of  birds,  correspond  with  the 
intervals  of  our  nmsical  scale,  of  which  tlie 
cuckoo  is  a  striking  and  kno?vn  instance:  but 
the  grea'cr  part  of  their  song  cannot  be  re- 
duced to  a  musical  scale  ;  partly,  because  the 
rapidity  is  often  so  great,  and  it  is  also  so  uii- 
•certain' when  they  may  stop,  that  we  cannot 
reduce  the  jj.is^ages  to  form  a  nmsical  bur  in 
any  lime  whatsoever;  partly  also,  because 
tlie  pitch  of  most  birds  is  considerably 
higher  than  the  most  shrill  notes  of  those  in- 
strunynts  wliich  have  the  greatest  conipass  ; 
and  principalK,  because  the  intervals  used 
bj  birds  are  commonly  so  minute  ,tliat  we 
cannot  judge  of  them  from  the  more  gross 
intervals  into  which  we  divide  our  mi.sical 
octave.  This  writer  apprehciiUs  that  all  birds 
sing  in  the  same  key. 

Most ^)eoj)le,  who  have  not  attended  tothe 
flotes  of  birds,  suppose  that  every  species 
•sing  exactly  the  same  notes  and  pa-^sages ; 
i)ut  this  is  "by  no  means  true,  tliough  it  is  ad- 
mitted tiiat  there  is  a  general  reiemblauce. 
Thus  the  London  l)ir(l-calclit.-rs  prefer  the 
song  of  the  Kentish  goldlinches,  and  Esse.\ 
chatiinches;  and  some  of  the  nightingale- 
fanciers  prefer  Surry  birds  to  those  of  jklid- 
<jlesex. 

Of  all  singing  birds,  the  song  of  the  night- 
ingale has  been  most  universally  admired  ; 
and  its  superiority  (deduced  from  a  caged 
bird)  consists  in  the  following  particulars  :  its 
tone  i-i  much  more  mellow  than  that  of  any 
other  bird  ;  though  at  the  same  time,  by  a 
|jroper  eseition  ot  its  musical  posvers,  it  can 
lie  very  brilliant.  Another  point  of  supe- 
riority is  its  continuance  of  song  without  a 
pau-^e,  which  is  sometimes  no  less  than  i'd 
seconds;  and  when  respiration  becomes 
necessary,  it  takes  it  with  as  much  judgment 
as  an  opera-singer.  The  sky-la,k  in  this  par- 
licular,  as  well  as  in  compa,ss  and  variety,  is 
onlv  second  to  the  nightingale.  The  niglit- 
ingaJe  also  .sings  (if  the  expression  may  be 
iiUttV.ed)  with  superior  judgment  and  taste. 


S  O  11 

y.w  Pfirrington  has  observ^ed,  tliat  his 
niglilinaale,  whicli  was  a  very  capital  bir<l, 
bi"g;ni-M)itly  like  the  antient  orators;  reserv- 
ing Its  breath  to  SAeli  certain  tioles,  which  by 
these  means  had  a  most  asionishing  clfect. 
This  writer  atlds,  tiiat  the  notes  of  bird.s, 
which  are  annually  imported  ft-oni  Asia, 
Africa,  and  Amerjca,  boll:  singly  and  in  bon- 
cert,  are  not  to  be  compared  to  those  of 
Kun-pean  birds.  -    ■ 

The  following  table,  formed  by  Mr.  Bar- 
riiigton,  agreeably  to  the  idea  of  M.  de  Piles, 
in  eslimatiiig  the" 'merits  of  painters,  is  de- 
signed to  exiiibi'  the  comparative  merit  of  tlie 
British  singing  bii'ds  ;  in  whicli  i.'0  is  suppos- 
ed to  bf  llTe  point  of  absolute  perfection. 


i  1 

i 

rt 

e 

c 
O 

o 

W 

Nigliting.'ile 

19 

14 

1'.) 

19 

19 

.Sky-lark  -          .          - 

4 

li) 

4 

18 

18 

Wood-lark 

18 

4 

17 

12. 

8 

Tit-lark    -         -         - 

ly 

12 

12 

12 

12 

Linnet      -         _         - 

12 

16 

12 

16 

IS 

Goldfinch 

4 

I!) 

4 

12 

12 

C^ialHnch 

4 

12 

4 

S 

8 

Grecniincii 

4 

4 

4 

4 

6 

Hedge-sparrow 
Aberdavine,  or  .siskin 

6 
2 

0 

4 

6 
0 

4 
4 

4 
4 

Red-poll 

0 

4 

0 

4 

4 

Thrush     -         -         - 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

Blackbird 

4 

4 

0 

2 

2 

Robin       -         -         - 

G 

Vj 

12 

12 

12 

Wren 

(1 

12 

0 

4 

4 

Reed  sparrow 

0 

4 

0 

'J 

o 

Black-cap,  or  Norfolk 

mock-nigh  tingide 

14 

12 

12 

14 

14 

SONNERATIA,  a  genus  of  plants  befong- 
ing  to  the  class  of  icosai.dria,  and  to  the 
order  of  nionogynia.  'The  calyx  is  cut  into 
six  segments  ;  the  petals  are  six  ;  the  capsule 
is  niuUilocular  and  succulent;  and  the  cells 
contain  many  seeds.  The  only  species  is  tlie 
acida,  a  tree  of  New  Guinea. 

SONNIiT.     See  Poetry. 

SOOT,  a  substance  deposited  from  the 
flame  of  burning  vegetables.  It  consists 
chielly  of  carbon,  which,  for  want  of  complete 
contact  with  tlie  air,  could  not  be  consumed, 
and  is  partly  carried  oif  mi;clianically  with 
the  smoke,  and  partly  precipitated. 

SOPIIOKA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  decandria  monogynia  class,  with  a  j 
papilionaceous  llower :  iis  i'ruit  is  a  very  long  j 
and  slender  unilocular  pod,  containing  a  ' 
great  many  roundish  seeds.  It  agrees  in  | 
every  thing  with  the  diadelphia  and  papilioiia-  j 
ceous  plants,  except  that  its  stamina  are  dis-  i 
tinct  and  separate.  There  are  '2j  species,  j 
all  foreign  sliiuhs. 

St)KI5US,  service-tree,  a  genus  of  plants 
heUmging  to  the  class  icosandria,  and  to  the 
order  oftrlgynia.  The  calyx  is  ciuiiiquelid  ; 
the  petals  are  live ;  the  berry  is  below  the 
flower,  soft,  and  containing  three  s^eds. 
There  are  three  species ;  the  aucuparia, 
(loniestica,  and  hebrida. 

1.  The  aucuparia,  mountain-ash,  t|uickeri- 
tree,  ([uick-beam,  or  roan-tree,  rises  with  a 
straight  upright  stem  and  regular  braiuhing 
head  ,  jn  or  .JO  I'eet  hi'.;h  or  more,  covereil 
with  a  smooth  greyish-brown  bark  ;  pinnated  j 
leaves,  and  large  umbellate, clusters  of  white  : 


iVowers  st  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  branele'', 
sticceedt'd  by  clusters  of  line  red  Lerries, 
ripe  ill  autumn  and  winter.  'I  here  is  a  va- 
ni-ly  w  iVh  yellow-stripedleaves.  '1  his  spccici 
grows  w'ihl  111  many  parts  ot  this  island,  in 
inoiiutainoiis  places,  woods,  and  hedge-rows, 
often  grow  uig  to  the  size  of  tniber;  and  is 
admitted  into  most  onianiental  plantations, 
tor  the  beauty  ot  its  growth,  loliagc.  How ers, 
and  h  uit..   , 

2.  The  domeslica,  or  cultivated  service- 
tree,  witli  eatable  iruit,  grov.s  with  an  up- 
right stem,  branching  30  or  40  teel  high, 
or  more,  having  a  brownish  bark,  and  the 
_\  oung  shoots  in  summercovcrcd  with  a  mealy 
('own:  pinnated  leaves. -of  eight  or  ton  ))aii-. 
'Ihis  tree  is  a  native  of  the  southern  waini 
parts  of  Europe,  where  its  -frnil  is  used  at 
table  as  a  dessert ;  and  it  is  cultivated  here  iii 
many  of  our  gardens  as  a  fruit-tree,  and  as  an 
ornament  to  dvereify  hardy  plantations. 

3.  'Ihe  hebritla,  or  mongrel  service-tree  of 
Gothland,  grows  20  or  30  feet  high  ;  it  has 
half  pinnated  leaves,  very  downy  undcr- 
neatii ;  and  clusters  of,  while  liowers,  suc- 
ceeded by  bunches  of  round  reddish  berries  in 
autumn.  • 

SOKEX,  shrev.',  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of 
the  order  ler;e.  'IHie  generic  character  is, 
front  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  two,  long,  bilid  ; 
in  the  lower,  two  or  four,  the  iiitennediate 
ones  shorter ;  canine  teeth,  s(,"veral  on  each 
side ;  grinders  cuspidated. 

The  genus  sorex,  of  which,.lliere  are  17. 

species,  in  its  general  appearance  bears  a  great 
resemblance  to  tlie  mouse  tribe ;  but  the 
structiiie,  number,  and  situation  ot.  the  teeth, 
prove  it  to  constitute  a  very  dilferent  set  of 
amnials,  which  are  evidently  rather  carni- 
vorous than  frugivorous.  It  is  more  closely 
allied  fo  the  genus  talpa;  insonuich  that 
these  two  genera  iijay  be  corisidered  as  linked 
to  each  other  by  intermediate  species,  w  hicli 
in  habit  resemble  the  one  genus,  and  in  teeth 
the  other.  It  is  owing  to  this  ciicumstaiice 
that  ]ji.n:eus,  in  the  twellth  e<htion  of  the 
.Systema  Natura.',  has  jilaced  one  or  two  ge- 
nuine species  of  talpa  in  the  genus  sorex. 
The  most  cominon  species  of  sorex  in  this 
country  is  the  S.  arancus,  commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  the  slirew-mouse. 

1.  Sorex  aranens.  '  This  little  animal, 
which  is  perhaps  the  smallest  of  the  Euro- 
pean quadrupeds,  is  a  very  common  inlia- 
bitant  of  our  ht4ds  and  garden-^,  and  mea- 
sures about  two  inches  and  a  half,  and  the 
tail  one  and  a  half.  Its  coUiur  is  nearly  - 
similar  to  that  of  a  mouse,  but  ot  a  somewhat 
more  ferruginous  tinge;  and  the  animal  is 
readily  distinguished  by  its  long  and  sharp 
snout;  the  e_\esare  small,  and  almost  hid  in 
the  fur.  It  feeds  on  roots,  grain,  insects, 
and  almost  any  kind  of  neglected  animal  sub- 
stance, it  has  a  \  cry  strong  and  unpleasant 
smell ;  and  it  is  remarkable  tliat  cats  will  kill 
but  not  eat  it.  Mr.  Pennant  observes  that 
there  seems  to  be  an  aiuiual  mortality  among 
these  little  animals  i-very  aulunin;  numbers 
of  tliem  being  found  dead  at  that  season  bv 
paths  and  in  the  lields.  It  inhaliits  most 
])artsof  Euiupi',  and  is  also  said  to  be  found 
in  Siberia  and  Kaintscliatka.  It  breeds  in 
holes,  imder  banks,  among  moss,  &c.  and  is 
said  to  produce  several  young  at  a  time. 

i.'.  Sorex  moschatus,  musk-shrew.     This  is 
a  very  singulai-  species,  which,  tliough  ex-. 
10 


S  O  II 

tronu.'ly  common  in  some  of  (he  iiortlRVii 
iiarls  of  Kin(>])L-  and  Asi.i,  does  not  seem  to 
liuvc  been  vcr^  diiliiicUy  uudcrslood  by  ino- 
ik-ni  natnralists. 

Accordins;;  to  Dr.  Pallas  it  chiefly  inhabits 
the  r.ver  \Vul;a  and  tin-  adjacent  lakes,  fri)ni 
Novogorod  to  S.iratof ;  and  is  not  found  in 
Kussia,  nor  does  its  existence  in  I/aiiland 
seem  well  ascertained.  It  is  said  to  be  very 
seldom  seen  on  land  ;  conlininc;  itself  to  lakes 
and  rivers,  in  the  banks  of  uliicli  it  ovcasion- 
ally  burrows  to  a  great  distance.  The  gene- 
ral lenfvlli  of  the  aniiiial  is  about  seven  inches 
Ironi  nose  to  tail,  and  oi  the  tail  eight  inclies: 
bnt  it  is  sometiines  fonntl  of  a  larger  size.  The 
tail,  except  at  its  b.ise,  is  perfectly  naked, 
marked  onl  into  scaly  divisions,  and  is  of  a 
brown  colour  ;  it  is  also  of  a  laterally  com- 
))res>ed  form,  and  gradually  tapers  to  the  ex- 
tremity ;  near  the  base  of  the  tad  are  sitnaled 
several  small  follicles,  or  glandular  recep- 
tacles, in  which  is  secreted  a  yellowish  iluid, 
resembling  in  smell  the  strongest  civet ;  of 
this  substance  about  the  (juantity  of  a  scruple 
may,  it  is  said,  be  obtained  from  eacli  animal, 
'i'hese  creatures  are  said  sometimes  to  be 
seen  swimming  about  in  considerable  num- 
bers on  llie  surface  of  lakes  and  rivers,  i\nd 
may  often  be  liearil  to  snap  their  mouths 
witli  a  sound  not  unlike  that  of  a  duck;  feed- 
ing on  worms,  leeclies,  water-insects,  &c.  as 
well  as  occasionally  on  vegetable  substances. 
In  some  particulars  this  animal  makes  a 
distant  approach  to  that  most  singular  of 
q'iH(Uu;jeds,  the  platypus'. 

The  musk  shrew  is  a  slow-paced  animal, 
and  easily  taken,  if  accidentallv  found  on 
land.  The  skins  are  said  to  be  sold  in  Russia 
to  put  into  chests  in  order  to  drive  away 
moths ;  and  so  common  is  the  animal  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Nizney  Novogorod,  that 
the  peasants  are  said  to  bring  live  hundred 
apiece  to  market,  where  tiiey  are  sold  for  a 
ruble  per  hundred. 

In  the  twelllh  edition  of  the  Systema  Na- 
ture this  animal  is  placed  in  the  genus  castor 
©r  beaver,  under  the  title  of  castor  moschatus. 
See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  112.368. 

3.  Sorex  radiatus,  Canada  shrew.  This 
animal  may  with  great  propriety  bi;  termed 
sorex  radiatus,  since  the  snout,  which  is  long 
and  slender,  has  a  dilated  cartilaginous  ex- 
tremity, furnished  with  a  circular  series  of 
sharp-pointed  processes  or  soft  tendrils,  dis- 
posed in  the  manner  of  the  rays  in  a  spur. 
The  uhole  animal  is  of  a  lontj  form,  and  its 
habit  immediately  pronounces  it  to  belong  l^; 
the  genus  sovex,  and  m^t  to  that  of  talpa.  Its 
body  is  longish,  and  covered  with  blatl. 
coarsish  hair;  the  feet  far  less  than  those  of 
a  mole;  the  eyes  hid  under  the  skin;  the 
snout  edged  on  each  side  w  ith  upright  yibris- 
s«;  the  radiated  tentacula  at  the  end  of  the 
nose  are  of  a  bright  rose-colour,  and  moveable 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal,  so  as  cither  to 
be  brought  together  into  a  tubular  form,  or 
expanded  in  Ihe  form  'if  a  star. 

It  is  said  to  inhabit  Canada,  but  not  to  be 
very  cominou  there.  It  occasionally  bur- 
rows somew  hat  in  the  manner  of  a  mole,  but 
far  less  strongly,  or  more  slowly,  and  is  said 
to  pass  a  considerable  portion  of  its  life  be- 
Jiealh  llie  surface  of  the  snow. 

4.  Sorex   c;erulesccns,    perfuming   shrew, 
..-measures  from  nns."  to  tail  near  eight  inches; 

■  and  the  tail  is  about  three  ineties  and  a  half 

■  long.     Tliis  auimal  diftiises  a  musky  sinell. 


SOU 

so  extremely  powerful  as  to  penetrate  almost 
every  substance  w  Inch  it  touches.  It  inhabits 
lields,  but  is  said  sometimes  to  come  into 
houses.  It  is  found  in  the  I'^ast  Indian  islands, 
as  well  as  in  liid  a,  occurring  in  Java,  &c.&;c. 
and  is  said  to  fec-d  ehielly  on  rice. 

5.  .Svrex  minutus,  minute  shrew,  is  an  ox- 
tremely_  small  animal,  which  inhabits  moist 
places  in  Siberia,  and  miikcs  its  nest  of 
lichens  and  mosses  under  the  roots  of  trees, 
living  on  grains  and  seeds,  &c.  It  is  of  a 
snblerruginous  brown  colour  above,  and 
whitish  below;  the  head  is  large  ;  the  snout 
very  long  and  slender,  and  beset  with  a  row 
of  long  whiskers  on  each  side,  reaching  as 
far  as  the  eyes.  It  has  no  tail  ;  the  eyes  are 
small,  and  the  earsshort  and  naked.  Jt  is 
said  to  run  swiftly,  and  to  have  a  voice  like 
that  of  a  bat.     It  weighs  about  a  dram. 

SORITES,  in  logic,  a  s|)eLies  of  reasoning 
in  which  a  great  luunber  of  propositions  are 
so  linked  together,  tliat  the  predicate  of  the 
one  becomes  continually  the  subject  of  the 
next  following,  till  at  last  a  conclusion  is 
formed  by  bringing  together  th.e  subject  of 
the  hrst  proposition  and  the  jMedicate  of  the 
last;  such  is  the  following  argnmenf  :  "God 
is  omnipotent  ;  an  omnipotent  being  can  do 
every  thing  possible  ;  a  being  that  can  do 
every  thing  possible,  can  do  whatever  in- 
volves not  a  contradiction;  therefore,  God 
can  do  whatever  involves  not  a  contradic- 
tion." 

SORREL.  See  Humex. 
SOUND  is  produced  by  a  vibrating  mo- 
tion, excited  in  a  sonorous  body  by  a  blow 
or  a  shock  trom  another  body  ;  and  tlie  same 
motion  is  communicated  by  this  sonorous 
body  to  the  air  wlii-.jh  surrounds  it,  and  trans- 
mitted by  this  Iluid  to  ttie  ear,  wdiich  is  an 
organ  admirably  adapted  to  receive  its  im- 
prcsioii. 

From  this  definition  it  follows,  that  sound 
should  be  considered  in  three  different  views; 
lirst,  with  respect  to  the  sonorous  body  ;  which 
produces  it ;  secondly,  as  to  the  medium 
which  transmits  it ;  and,  thirdly,  as  to  the 
organ  which  receives  the  im|)ression. 

Those  bodies  are  jjroperly  called  sonorous 
which  afl'ord  a  sound  distinct,  and  of  some 
duration ;  such  as  bells,  the  strings  of  a  violin, 
&c.  and  not  those  which  cause  only  a  con- 
fused noise,  such  as  a  stone  produces  when 
it  falls  upon  a  pavement.  \V  hen  bodies  are, 
strietly  speaking,  sonorous,  they  ;;re  neces- 
sarily elastic,  as  will  be  afterwarcis  proved; 
and  their  sound,  as  to  its  force  and  duration, 
is  proportionate  to  their  vibrations. 

Suppose,  for  example,  tiie  bell  of  a  clock 
to  be  struck  by  any  solid  body,  a  kind  of  un- 
dulating or  treinulous  motion  is  imparted  to 
the  minute  particles;  and  this  niution  may 
l>e  even  perceived  by  tlie  hand  or  lingers 
when  applied  to  the  bell. 

To  understand  this  more  completely,  let  us 
conceive  that  a  bell  is  composed  of  a  series  of 
circular  zones/decreasiiig  in  diam.  ter  all  the 
way  to  its  top,  each  of  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  Hat  rirg,  composed  of  as  m.ny 
concentric  circles  as  its  thickness  will  admit 
uf  .  If  this  ring  isstinck  at  the  point  a  (Plate 
.Miscel.  tig.  219),  the  part  so  struck  tends  to- 
wards s,  and  at  the  same  time  the  p;irts  /; 
iuid  d  lend  towards  i  and  }n,  and  this  action 
111  these  parts  necessarily  causes  the  point  c 
10  approach  towards  e.  By  iheir  elastic  power. 


S  O  U 


Cb7 


however,  these  parts  presently  regain  the 
position  in  which  they  were  before  the  beil 
wasi-triick;  but  as  ihey  return  with  an  ac- 
celerated force,  they  generally  go  beyond  the 
poiiit  where  they  ought  to  rest.  1  lie  parl<(, 
therefore,  after  having  returned  from  g  to  u, 
tends  towards^/;  Ihe  part  c  towards  /(,  and  the 
parts  /;  and  (^towards  /i  and  / ;  whence  it  hap- 
|)ens  that  the  bell,  at  first  of  a  circular  form, 
really  becomes  alternately  elliptical  in  two 
dilferenl  dire(  tions  j  it  follows  then,  that  iii 
those  parts  wliere  the  curvature  is  the  great- 
est, their  exterior  jjoinls  depart  from  eacli 
other. 

The  same  circumstance  Iiappens  to  the 
musical  chord  of  a  harp,  or  other  stringed  in- 
strument, when  it  is  touched  :  for,  in  order  to 
become  angular,  as  liCD  orlSED  (lig.  220) 
it  is  necessary  that  the  string  be  stretched 
or  lengdiened,  and  consequently  its  ])arlicles 
be  in  some  measure  removed  Irom  the  point 
of  con'.act. 

There  are  then  two  vibrations  which  take 
place  in  sonorous  bodies :  the  general  vibra- 
tion, which  changes  the  form  of  the  body; 
and  the  particular  vibration,  which  affects  tlie 
minute  particles,  in  consequence- of  the  for- 
mer. M.  de  la  Hire  has  proved,  that  the 
sound  is  not  owing  to  the  general  vibration, 
but  rather  to  the  vibration  ^f  the  particles  : 
for  w  henever  the  two  vibrations  can  be  sepa- 
rated, it  is  found  that  the  former  produces 
no  sound;  but  when  the  genera!  vibration  is 
accompanied  witli  a  vibration  of  the  particles, 
it  is  the  latter  that  regulates  the  duration, 
the  force,  and  the  modulation  of  the  sound; 
if,  on  the  contrary,  these  vibrations  are 
stopped  or  interrupted  by  touching  the  so- 
norous body,  the  sound  immediately  ceases. 
On  this  account  clock-makers  ;ittach  to  the 
hammer  which  strikes  the  bell  of  the  clock 
a  small  spring,  which  elevates  it  again  the 
moniL-nt  it  has  struck,  and  prevents  it  from 
remaining  upon  the  bell,  wbich  would  con- 
siderably deaden  or  destroy  the  sound. 

Acute  sounds  are  proiluced,  when  the  vi- 
brations of  the  sounding  body  are  more  fre- 
quent ;  grave  or  deep  sounds,  when  they  are 
less  so  ;  no  medium  betwe;'n  acute  and  grave 
sounds  can  be  found.  Sonorous  bodies  are 
said  to  be  in  unison  when  they  vibrate  with 
the  same  frequency;  when  one  vibrates 
twice  as  fast  as  the  other,  they  dijTer  by  an 
octave  ;  and  other  ratios,  with  respect  to  the 
quickness  of  vibration,  are  distinguished  by 
otiier  names.  Chords  which  are  short  and 
tightly  stretched,  produce  acute  sounds; 
those  which  are  long  and  lax,  grave  sounds. 

The  motion  or  vibration  of  bodies  at  a  dis- 
tance from  Us  would  not  affect  our  sense  of 
hearing  without  the  medium  of  some  other 
body,  which  receives  an  impulse  from  this 
motion,  and  communicates  the  vibration  to 
our  oreans.  Thus  a  hard  blow  upon  an 
anvil  or  upon  a  bell  could  not  be  heard  by 
us,  even  at  a  very  small  distance,  if  there 
was  not  a  medium'  between  those  objects  and 
us  cajiable  01  t  ansiiiiiting  the  vibrations  to 
our  auditory  nerves.  Eli^stic  tlujds  are  tlie 
most  effective  mediums  for  this  purpose,  and 
coiiseqiently  the  air  is  the  most  common 
vehicle  of  sound;  which  is  very  easily  proved 
by  riiiging  a  bell  under  the  rec.iverol  an  air- 
pump,  the  Siiund  it  affords  being  found  gra- 
lually  to  diminijii  js  the  air  becomes  ex- 
hausted, t.li  at  length  it  ceases  to  be  beaid- 


C33 

at  all.  That  the  air  is  capable  of  boing  agi- 
tated with  great  force,  appears  from  tiie 
violent  concussions  produced  by  explosions 
of  gunpowder,  as  well  as  from  -the  power, 
which  some  persons  are  known  to  posses?,  ot 
breaking  drinking-glasses,  by  means  of  tiieir 
voice,  when  sounded  in  unison  with  the  note 
wliich  tiie  glass  would  have  produced  when 
ilruck.  The  tremulous  motion  excited  in 
the  air  by  sounding  bodies,  has  been  supposed 
analogous  to  the  successive  rings  which  are 
produced  by  drsturbiiig  th.e  surface  of  the 
vater.  Tliis  hypothesis,  however,  was  dis- 
proved by  the  o'bseivation  that  sounds,  whe- 
tiier  weak  or  loud,  always  travel  with  the 
same  velocity,  which  does 'not  hold  true  with 
respect  to  the  rings  on  the  surface  of  water, 
since  these  move  taster  or  slower  according 
to  the  force  of  the  cause  which  excited  them. 

K\erv  sound  is  rendered  stronger  or  weak- 
er, and  may  be  heard  at  a  greater  or  less  dis- 
tance, according  to  the  dejisity  or  rarity  of 
tiiat  elastic  1!uk1  by  which  it  is  propagated. 
According  to  Mr.  Hauivsbee,  who  has  made 
deep  researches  into  this  branch  of  jihiloso- 
|)liy,  when  air  lias  acquired  twice  its  com- 
juon  density  it  transmits  sound  twice  as  far 
as  common  air;  whence  he  reasonably  con- 
cludes, that  sound  increases,  not  only  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  density  of  the  air,  but  in 
proportion  to  the  square  of  this  density. 

If  sound  was  propagated  in  an  elastic  fluid 
more  dense  thAn  the  air,  it  would  be  carried 
proportionably  farther.  I  have  proved  this, 
■says  M.  Brisson,  by  putting  a  sonorous  body 
into  carbonic  acid  gas  or  lixable  air,  the 
denity  of  which  is  about  one-third  more  than 
that  ot  atmos|)herical  iiir;  the  c^usetiuence 
was,  that  at  that  time,  and  in  that  situation, 
the  sound  was  very  considerably  increased. 
For  the  same  reason,  the  dryness  of  the  air, 
which  increases  its  density,  has  a  consider- 
able effect  in  rendering  sound  louder  and 
more  audible.  Sound  is  also  much  increased 
bv  the  reverberation  of  the  pulses  of  the  air 
from  those  surrounding  bodies  aaanist  which 
.they  strike,  whence  it  hajjpens  tirat  music  is 
so  much  louder  in  a  close  apartment  than  in 
■tbc  open  air. 

Elastic  lluids  are,  however,  not  the  only 
medium  through  which  sound  nia\  be  tians- 
jnitted;  for  it  may  be  prop.igated  by  means 
of  water  and  other  liquors,  which  may  be 
.proved  by  innnersing  a  sonorous  body  in 
water;  but  it  must  be  observed,  that  in  this 
.case  thtt  sound  will  be  less  perceptible,  and 
will  not  extend  to  so  great  a  distance;  the 
cause  of  this  dinnnutioii  is,  because  mi'diums 
/or  the  transmission  of  sound  should  be  elas- 
tic, and  that  is  a  property  which  water  and 
other  lii|Uori possess  only  in  a  very  restricted 
tiegree. 

Sound  is  also  transmitted  by  solid  bodies, 
provided  they  possess  a  sullieient  degree  ol 
elasticity  to  produce  this  effect. 

Light,  we  have  aheaily  seen,  is  projected 
«r  rellected  with  incredible  vilocily  ;  but 
«ound  is  transmitted  much  more  slowly,  and 
its  progrissioji  is  very  perceptible  to  rxu' 
a.-nses.  The  Hash  from  a  cannon,  or  even  a 
;iiusket,  may  hr  seen  some  seconds  before 
the  sound  reaches  our  ears.  As  the  motion 
ef  light,  therefore,  is  instantaneous  with  re- 
*pect  to  any  moderate  distance,  this  has 
been  the  coniinon  means  employed  for  as- 
fPrtaining  the  progress  of  sound.  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  observes  tliat  "  all  sorniding  bodies 


SOUND, 

propagate  their  motions  on  all  sides  by  s\:c-  ' 
cessive  condeiijations  and  relasauons ;  lliat 
is,  by  an  alterna'.e  progression  and  return  ot 
the  particles  ;"  and  t'nese  vibrations,  when 
communicated  to  the  air,  arc  termetl  pulses  of 
sound. 

All  pukes  move  equally  fast.  This  is 
proved  by  experiment ;  and  it  is  f  )und  that 
they  pass'  about  one  thousand  one  hundred 
and  forty -two  feet  in  a  second,  whether  the 
sound  is' loud  or  low,  grave  or  acute. 

Some  curious  experiments  were  made,  re- 
lative to  the  propagation  of  sound,  by  Mes- 
sieurs De  Thury,  >laraldi,  and  ])e  la  Caille, 
upon  a  line  fourteen  thousand  .-ix  hundred 
and  thirty-six  fatlioms  hi  length,  having  the 
towel' of  "mount  Lheri  at  one  end,  and  the 
p\ramid  of  ifontinartre  at  the  other  ex- 
tremity of  that  distance;  tlieir  observatory 
was  placed  between  those  two  objects.  The 
results  of  their  observations  were  these  :  1st. 
That  sound  moves  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
three  fathoms,  French,  in  a  second,  when 
the  air  is  calm.  2d.  That  sound  moves  w  ith 
the  same  degree  of  swiftness  whether  it  is 
strong  or  weak:  for  these  gentlemen  ob- 
served, that  til',  diselvirge  of  a  box  of  half  a 
pounti  of  gunpowder  exjiloded  at  Moiit- 
niartre  was  heard  at  mount  Lheri  in  the 
same  space  of  time  as  the  report  of  a  great 
gun  charged  with  nearly  six  pounds  of 
powder.  3d.  That  the  motion  of  sound  is 
uniform  ;  that  its  velocity  neither  accelerates 
nor  diminisiies  through  all  the  intervals  of  its 
progress,  as  is  the  ease  with  almost  every 
other  species  of  motion.  4tli.  Tliatthe  ve- 
locity of  sounil  is  the  same,  whetlier  a  cannon 
is  placed  towards  the  person  who  hears  its  re- 
port, or  turned  a  contrary  way  ;  in  other 
words,  a  great  gun  liretl  fiom  the  Tower  oi' 
London  eastward,  would  be  heard  at  West- 
minster in  the  same  interval  of  time  as  if  it 
was  discharged  towards  the  latter  place.  And 
if  the  gun  was  discharged  in  a  direction  per- 
pendicular to  the  hori/on,  it  would  be  heard 
as  soon  as  if  discharged  in  a  right  line  to- 
wards the  hearer.  I5y  olher  experiments, 
however,  the  progress  of  sound  appears  to 
be  impeded  by  a  strong  wind,  so  that  il  tra- 
vels at  the  rate  of  about  one  mile  slower  in  a 
minute  against  a  strong  wind  than  with  it. 

A  knowledge  of  the  progl•es^ion  of  sound  is 
not  ail  article  of  mere  sterile  curiosity,  but  in 
several  iiistaiu-es  useful  ;  for  by  this  wc  are 
enabled  to  determine  the  distance  of  ships  or 
olher  moving  bodie-.  Suppose,  for  example, 
a  vessel  fires  a  gun,  the  sound  of  which  is 
heard  live  seconds  after  the  llash  is  seen:  as 
sound  moves  1 14.'  F.iigliNh  feel  in  one  si'coad, 
this  number  mulliplied  by  n,  gives  the  dis- 
tance of  j' 10  feet.  'l"he  same  principle  has 
been  applied  to  stcu-ins  of  lightning  and 
thunder,  as  to  calculating  the  distance  of  it 
from  us.     See  Llkc:tkk'ity. 

'I'he  waves  or  pulses  of  sound  being  re- 
llexible  in  their  course  when  they  meet  with 
an  extended  solid  body  of  a  regular  surface, 
an  ear  placed  in  the  passage' of  these  rellected 
waves  will  perceive  a  sound  similar  to  Ihe 
original  sound,  but  which  will  seem  to  pro- 
ceed from  a  body  situated  in  a  similar  po- 
sition and  (hstaiue  behind  the  plane  of  re- 
flection, as  the  real  souiuling  body  is  before 
it.  T  Ills  reflectetl  sound  is  commonly  called 
an  echo,  wiiich,  however,  cannot  take  i)lace 
at  less  than  lifly-livc  feet ;  becarrse  it  is  nete»- 


saiy  tiiat  the  distance  siiould  be  such,  ar.'i 
the  reverberated  or  rellected  sound  .so  loi.™ 
in  arriving,  that  the  car  may  distiiiguisf' 
clearly  between  that  and  the  original  sound. 

Reflected  sound  may  be  magnified  by 
much  the  same  contrivances  as  are  used  1.: 
optics  respecting  light :  hence  it  follows,  thai 
sounds  ulleied  in  one  focus  of  au  elliptical 
cavity  are  heard  much  magnified  in  the  other 
focus'.  'I'he  .whispering-gallery  at  St.  Paul'-i 
catliedral  in  London,  is  of  this  description  ; 
a  wl-usper  uttered  at  one  side  of  the  dome  i- 
lellected  to  the  other,  and  may  be  very  d,.- 
linctly  heard.  The  speaking  and  ear  trua.- 
pets  are  constructed  on  this  principle.  The 
best  form  for  these  instruments  is  a  hollow 
parabolic  conoid,  with  a  small  orifice  at  tlie 
top  or  apex,  to  wh:ch  the  mouth  is  applic! 
when  the  sound  is  to  be  magnified,  or  the  e;:r 
when  the  hearing  is  to  be  facilitated. 
■  The  structure  of  the  ear  is  one  of  the  mo^*^ 
complicated  and  difficult  subjects  of  physi 
ologv  ;  and  the  reader  is,  therefore,  referred 
to  that  articJe  for  what  concerns  this  branc'i 
of  acoustics. 

Sousu,  wiMicn/.  Sounds  of  such  qualities 
and  dispositions  as  to  produce  that  agreeable 
and  appreciable  effect  upon  the  ear  whicii  we 
call  melody,  or  harmony.  We  shall  a; 
present  conlme  our  observations  to  that  aiier- 
tion  of  sound  by  which  it  becoiues  disti:; 
guisheil  into  acute  and  grave 

This  difference  has  hitherto  appeared  i'^ 
liave  no  other  causes  than  the  different  vo'.n- 
cities  of  the  vif)rations  of  the  sounding  bode,-. 
In  fact,  the  tone  or  pitch  of  a  sound  seems  to 
have  been  discovered,  by  an  abundance  of 
experiments,  to  depend  on  IIk  nature  of 
those  vibiations,  who've  dillerence  we  (an  con- 
ceive no  otherwise  than  as  having  diifere.:l 
velocities;  and  since  it  is  proved,  that  all  tf.c 
vibiations  of  the  same  chord  are  iierformed 
ill  C'lual  time  ;  and  that  the  tone  of  a  sound, 
which  continues  for  some  time  after  the 
stroke,  is  the  same  from  first  to  last ;  it  fol- 
lows, thai  the  tone  is  necessarily  connected 
with  a  certain  quantity  of  ume  in  making 
each  vibration  :  and  it  is  from  this  principle 
that  all  the  phenomena  of  tune  are  deiluced. 

If  the  vibrations  are  isochronous,  the  soun  1 
is  called  musical ;  and  is  said  to  be  acuter,  m 
higher,  than  any  olher  sound  whose  vibra- 
tions ar^-  slower  and  graver,  or  lower  than  any 
other  sound  whose  vibralious  are  ipiicker. 

Kroiii  the  same  principle  arise  what  we  call 
concords,  S^c.  which  are  resolvable  into  tie- 
fre(|uent  unions  and  coincidences  of  the  vi- 
brations of  two  sonorous  bodies,  and  conse- 
quently of  the  undulations  of  tlie  air  whic  li 
they  occasion.  On  the  contrary,  the  result 
of  less  frequettt  coincidences  of  those  vibia- 
tions is  what  we  call  discord. 

Another  considerable  distinction  of  music:i  I 
sounds  is^  fliat  b\  which  they  are  denomi- 
nated loui»  and  short  ;  not  with  regard  to  the 
sonorous  body's  retaining  a  motion,  once  re- 
ceived, a  longer  or  lesser  tune,  but  to  tin 
coutuiuatiou  ot  the  impulse  of  the  efliiie;-; 
<  aiise  on  the  sonorous  body  for  a  longer  or 
shinier  time  ;  us  in  the  notes  of  a  violin,  ,"vc. 
which  are  made  longer  or  shorter  by  stroke  . 
oi  different  leii.;th  or  (piii  kiu-ss. 

Tlii'^  continuity  is,  properlv,  a  succession 
of  several  sounds,  or  tiie  effect  ot  several  dis- 
tinct strokes,  or  repeated  impulses,  on  the 
sonorous  body,  so  ijuick  thai  wc  may  judge 


sou 

it  one  condmiod  sound,  cvptciallv  if  i(  is  con- 
tiiiiii-il  ill  Uii'  ^allle  ilp^^K-e  ol  slrenglli;  ;mil 
lii-nco  arises  tin;  ilmiiun;  oi  iiu'a>ure  iukI 
time. 

SouikIs  asain  are  dislineniilu'd  by  musi- 
cians inlo  .siiii|)lo  and  coiniMund. 

Aiiniidp  sound  is  (he  singli.-  [jrodiict  ofone 
voice,  or  one  instiiHii<"iil. 

A  cuiniioinid  sound  consists  of  the  sounds 
of  several  distinct  voices  or  ill^tl  innents,  all 
united  in  the  same  individual  time  and  mea- 
sure of  duration,  lliai  is,  all  striking  the  ear 
to;jcthcr,  whatever  may  be  their  other  dif- 
ferences. But  in  tills  sense  there  is  a  twofold 
compound,  natural  and  artilicial. 

'1  he  natural  coui|)oiiiid  is  that  proceeding 
from  the  maniliild  relleclinis  oflln-  lir^tsounll 
from  ailjacent  bodies,  when  the  reded  ions 
are  not  so  sudden  as  to  occasion  echoes,  but 
are  all  given  at  Ihe-same  moment,  as  widl 
as  ill  llie  same  tone,  or  pitch, wiMi  the  lir:  tnote. 

The  artilicial  compound,  which  alonr 
comes  under  the  iiuisii  inn's  province,  is  that 
mixture  of  several  different  sound-,  wliich 
being  produced  by  arl,  the  inj;red;ent  sound- 
are  separable,  and  distin':ui>liable  from  one 
another.  In  this  sense  the  tlistinct  sounds  o! 
several  v.iices  or  instruments,  or  several  notes 
of  the  same  instrument,  are  call.'d  simple 
sounds,  in  cuntrac  istinction  to  the  compound 
ones,  in  which,  lo  answer  the  pui'joses  of 
nuiiic,  the  siiiipf  s  must  have  such  an  agree- 
ment in  all  relations,  chieliv  as  to  acuteiiess 
and  gravity,  as  that  the  ear  may  receive  the 
Inixturo  with  pli'asure. 

Sou.vD,  ill  geographv,  de-notes  in  general 
any  streight,  or  inlet,  of  tlie  sea,  between  the 
two  hcdlacds. 

SouKD-BOARD,  in  an  organ,  is  a  reservoir 
into  which  tlie  wind,  drawn  in  by  the  bellows, 
is  conducted  by  a  port-vent,  and  hence  dis- 
tributed into  the  pipes  iilaced  over  holes  in 
its  upper  part;  (liis  wind  enters  them  by 
valves,  which  open  by  pressing  upon  the  slops 
or  keys;  after  drawing  the  rei;i>ters.  which 
prevent  the  airfroni  ciileringany  o(  the  pipes, 
except  tho-e  it  is  reipiired  in. 

SOI' N  DING,  in  navigati.  n,  the  art  of 
trying  the  depth  of  the  water,  and  the  quality 
«f  tile  bottom,  by  a  line  and  phimniet,  or 
other  artilice. 

At  sea  there  are  two  phniiim  ts  used  for 
this  purpose,  both  shaped  like  ih.-  frusliim  of 
a  cone  or  pvramid.  One  of  these  is  called 
tile  hand-lead,  weighing  about  eiglit  or  nine 
pound;  and  the  other  the  deep-sea  lead, 
_  weighing  from  ?5  to  .>0  pounds.  The  former 
is  used  in  shallow  waters,  and  the  latter  at  a 
j^reat  distance  from  the  shore.  The  line  of 
the  hand-lead  is  about  ?5  fathoms  in  length, 
and  marked  at  everv  two  or  three  fathoms, 
in  this  mannr-r,  viz.  at  two  and  thn-e  fjllioms 
■from  the  lead  tlnTc  are  marks  of  blick  lea- 
ther; at  five  fathom^  a  white  ra?,  at  seven  a 
red  rag,  at  ten  aiul  at  thirteen  l/ack  leather, 
at  lifteen  a  while  rag,  and  at  seventeen  a  red 
on". 

Sounding  with  the  hand-lead,  which  the 
seamen  ca'l  heaving  the  lead,  is  generally 
J)i-rformed  bv  n  man  who  stands  in  the  main- 
chains  to  windward.  Having  the  line  all 
ready  to  run  out,  without  internipir  n',  he 
holds  it  nearlv  at  the  distance  of  a  falliom 
from  the  phimnut;  and  having  swung  the 
latter  b.ickwarfls  and  forwards  tliree  or  four 
times,  in  order  lo  acquire  the  greater  velo. 
citv,  he  sw  iiigs  it  round  liislieap,    and  thence 

Vol.  U. 


SPA 

as  far  forward  as  is  necessary;  so  that,  by  the  1 
lead's  sinking    whilst  the   ship  atlvances,  the  ' 
line  may   be   almost  perpendici.lir  when  it  ' 
reaehcs  the   bottom.     'I  he   person   sounding  , 
then  proclaims  the  depth   ol   the  water  in  a 
kind  of  soni;  resembliiie  the  cries  ol  luivkers 
in  a  cil\  ;  thus,  if  the  mark  of  5  is  close  lo  ' 
tin;   smfa(e  of  the  water,    he  calls,  '■  liy  the  I 
mark  live,"  and  as  there  is  nc)  mark  at  4,  fi,  S, 
<Vc.    he   ('.ilimales  iho-e    iiumbers,  and  '  alls, 
"  by  the  dip  lour,"  Arc.     It  he  judges  it  to  be  [ 
a  ipiarter  or  a  halt  more  than  am  particular, 
number  hecnlls,  "and  aipiarler  five,"  "and  a  I 
halt  lour,"  &c.     If  lie  conceives  liie  depth  to 
be   three    (piarters  more   than    a  particular 
number,  he  calls  it  a   quarter  less  tliau  the 
next;  thus,  at  four  fathoms  |,  he  calls,  "  h 
quarter  less  j,"  and  so  on. 

The  del  p-sea  lead-liic  is  marked  with  two 
knots  at  20  lathoms,  three  at  30,  four  at  4n, 
<tc.  to  the  end.  It  is  also  marked  with  a  single 
knot  at  the  middle  of  each  interval,  as  at  25, 
Jj,  4j  fathoms,  &c.  To  use  this  lead  more 
etfectually  at  sea,  or  in  deep  water  on  the 
sea-coas  ,  it  is  u^ual  previously  to  brii'g-to 
the  ship,  ill  order  to  retard  her  course  ;  the 
lead  is  then  thrown  as  far  as  possible  from  The 
ship  on  the  line  of  her  drift,  so  that,  as  it 
sinks,  the  -hp  drives  more  perpendicularly 
over  it.  The  pilot  feeling  the  lead  strike  the 
bottom,  readily  tli-covers  the  depth  of  the 
water  by  the  mark  on  the  line  nearest  its 
surface.  Tlie  bottom  of  the  lead,  which  is  a 
little  hollowed  there  lor  the  pur]!osp,  being 
also  well  rubbed  over  with  l:;llow,  retains  tlie 
distinguishing  maiks  of  the  bottom,  as  shells, 
onze,  gravel,  cvc.  which  naturally  adhere  to 
it. 

The  depth  of  the  wafer,  and  the  nature  of 
the  ground,  which  are  called  the  soundings, 
are  carefully  marked  in  the  log  book,  as  wi-U 
to  determine  the  distance  of  the  p'ace  h'om 
the  shore,  as  to  correct  the  observations  of 
former  pilots. 

.Sori  UKRNWOOn.     See  Artemisia. 

SOW,  in  the  iron-works,  the  name  of  the 

block  or  lump  of  metal  they  work  at  once  in 

:  the  iron-turnacp,     'Jhe  size  of  these  sows  of 

j  iron  is  very  dirt'erent,  even  from  the  same 

I  workmen,    and   the   same   furnace.      These 

furiuK  fs  having  sand-stones  for  their  hearths 

!  and  sides  up  to  the  height  of  a  yard,  and  the 

j  rest  being  made  of  brick,  the  hearth  bv  the 

force  of  the  lire  is  continually  grow  ing  wider, 

so  tliat  if  it  at  first  contains  as  nnich  metal  as 

I  will   make  a   sow  of  six  or  seven  hundred 

I  weight,  it  will  at  last  contain  as  much  as  w  ill 

make  a  sow  of  2000  weicht. 

.SOWANS.  Sec  Starch. 

SOWNK,  a  term  u^'d  in  the  e\chc(pier, 

where  estreats  that  sowiie  not,  are  such  as  the 

;  sherilVbv  his  care  and  diligence  cannot  levy, 

.wherefore   Ihiy   are  not   regarded;    and   the 

:  e^tre.its  that  sowne,  are  such  as  he  may  kvy. 

I      SPA.  See  Waters,  m/Hf  ?■((/. 

SP.'\CK,  in  seoinetrv,  denotes  the  area  of 

any  lieure,  r.r  that  which  lil!s  the  interval  or 

:  distance  between  the  lines  that  terminate  it. 

I      Space,  in  mechanics,  tin-  line  a  moveable 

body,  considered  as  a  point,  is  conceived  to 

;  describe  by  its  motion. 

j  SPAN,  a  measure  taken  frcm  the  space 
betv.een  the  thumb's  end  and  the  tip  of  the 
i  little  hnger,  when  Ijoth  are  stretched  out. 
1  The  span  is  e>tiniated  at  .3  hand's-breadtUs, 
•  or  H  inches.  See  Mfasure. 
1  bPAMEL.  SeeC'ANis. 
4S 


S  I'  A 


dfj 


SPAP.  SeeFtVATe/7mr. 

.'•  F.>i<,  in  miner.di(;y,  a  name  given  to  those 
earths  which  bri  i.k  easily  into  ilicn.hoidal, 
cubical,  or  laminated  Ivagment^  with  polished 
surfaces.  As  the  term  spar  is  thus  ?|'plied  to 
stones  (/fdillerent  kinds,  wihoul  any  regard 
to  the  iigred'eiils  ol  whi<  h  tliey  are  compos>- 
ed,  some  additonal  term  must  be  leed  lo 
express  the  constituent  parts  as  well  as  the 
lig'iie;  fur  instance,  ta'cartoiis  spar,  cyp- 
seoiis  spar,  &e.  '1  he  s|jars  loimd  in  Britain 
and  Ireland  aic  of  four  different  specie", 
opaque,  relractiiig,  diaphanous,  and  stalae- 
titical.  I.  The  opaque  spar  is  rhomboidal, 
hexai.giilar,  and  triaiigxiliw,  of  various  co- 
lours, and  is  found  in  mines  in  Wales.  Der- 
byshire, ^;c.  and  at  Ovens  near  Cork.  2. 
'1  he  rehaci  tig  spar  is  rhomboidr.l,  shows  ob 
je(  t»  seen  through  it  doiibic,  and  son  etimi  i 
8,  12,  or  lf>  images  at  once.  It  is  frequent  in 
the  lead-mines  ol  Derbyshire,  Yorkshire,  &c. 
3.  Diaphanous  spar  is  rhcniboidal,  tiiangu- 
lar,  hcNangiilar,  p)  ramidal  or  columnar  ;  and 
is  found  in  mines,  quarries,  and  caverns,  'n 
many  dilferent  places.  4.  Slalactitital  spar, 
icicle,  or  drop-stone,  is  formed  by  the  running 
or  droppiiii^  of  water,  containing  a  large  pro- 
portion of  calcareous  earth,  it  is  opaque, 
yeiierally  l.miinated,  but  from  accidental  cir- 
ciim^lames  assumes  various  forms.  It  oi.- 
curs  at  Knare-borough  in  Yorkshire,  and  at 
Ovens  near  Cork. 

A   new    species  of  spar  has    lately  been 
fouiul  in  the  East  Indies,  which,  frem  its  ex- 
treme iiardness,  approaching  lo  that  of  a  riia- 
mond,  is  called  adamantine  spar.      It  was 
discovered  by  Dr.  Black  of  Edinburgh  to  be 
j  a  distinct  species.     Happening  one  day  to 
lyi-it  a  lapidary,  it  was  shown  lo  hm  among 
'  other  specimens  as  a  stone  that  was  used  in 
the  F.ast  Indies  for  polishing  gems,  and  grind- 
ing other  iiard  substances.     Dr.  Black  im- 
nudiately  singled  out  a  specimen,  wh.ich  he 
I  sent  to  Mr.  C'leville,  who  requested  M.  Kla- 
prolh  'o  analyse  it. 

I     There  aie  two  varieties  of  this  spar ;  oiie 
of  them  comes  from  China,  and  <  rystallizes 
in   hexagonal  prisms   without  ]))n'mds,  th« 
lencth  of  tlie  sides  varying  troni  six  to  twelve 
lines;  their  breadth  being  about  nine,  of  a 
grey  colour  with  dilferent  shaces.     Tliougb 
the  entire  ])iece?,  are  opaque,  the  thin  lamina 
are  transparent,  and  when  broken,  its  surface 
,'  iippears  slightly  striated.     Us  crystals  are  co- 
vered With  a  very  hue  and  strongly'-idherinj 
1  cnist,  compos<d  of  scales  of  silvery  mica, 
mixed  with  particles  of  red  feld-spar.     Some- 
j  times  llie   surface  lias  martial  pyrites  or  yel- 
low sulphiiret  of  iron   a(.hering  to  it.      Its 
j  hardnes^  is  so  great,  that  it  not  only  cuts  gla'-s 
as  easily  as  the  diamond,  but  even  scratclies 
rot  k  crystal  and  other  very  hard  stones.     Its 
specilic  giaviiy  is  to  that  of  water  as  3710  to 
I  1000.      isoinetimes   it   contains  crystallized 
I  grains  of  magu' tic  ox)d  of  iron,  wi.ichniay 
be  separateil  from  the  stone  when  pulverized 
j  bv  means  of  the  loaiUione. 

'The<ither  kind  found  in  llindo^ton  is  of  a 
w  hite  colour,  and  of  a  more  Lmuiated  tex- 
tiire  than  the  former:  the  grains  of  iron  con- 
tained in  it  are  likewise  of  a  smaller  size  than 
those  of  th"  fonner;  they  are  not  dilfused 
through  the  substance,  but  only  adhere  to  its 
suriace.  Tliis  spar  is  exceedingly  dirticult 
to  analyse. 

Sl'.VRt'JANU'M,  bnr-iccd,  a    genu*  nf 
plants  beloiigLng  to  the  class  at  uioiiatia,  aiuj 


690 


SPA 


lo  the  order  of  triandria,  anJ  in  the  natural 
system  ranged  irndt-r  the  3d  oriler,  i-..;la- 
niaris.  The  ainentmii  of  the  male  rtov.er  is 
loundish,  the  talyx  is  triphylloiis,  and  there 
IS  no  corolla.  'I'lie  amentum  of  the  female 
Hower  resembles  that  of  the  male.  The  stigma 
is  bilid ;  the  fruit  is  a  dry  berrv  containing 
one  seed.  There  are  three  species,  all  of 
them  natives  of  Great  Uiitain  and  Ireland, 
and  grow  ing  in  pools  and  lakes. 

SPARMANNIA,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  class  of  polyandria,  and  to  the 
orvler  of  monogynia.     J  he  corolla  consists  of 
four  petals,  and  is  bent  back :  tlie  nectaria 
are  numerous,  and  swell  a  little  ;  the  calyx 
is  qua<.lriphyllaus;  the  capsule  is  angulated, 
<l\iinquclocular  and  echinated.    There  is  only 
one  species,  the  africana,  a  shrub  of  the  Cape. 
SPARROW.   See  Fringilla. 
Sparrow-hawk.  See  Falco. 
SPARTIUM,  oronm,   a  geiuis   of  plants 
belonging  to  the  class  of  diadelphia,  and  or- 
der of  decandria,  and  in  the  natural  system 
arranged  under  the  3-d  order,  papilionaceic. 
The  stigma  is  longitudinal  and  woolly  above, 
the  filaments   adiiere.to  the  germeii.     The 
calyx  is  producetl  downwards.     Tliere  are 
27  species.     All  these,  except  the  scoparium, 
are  exotics,  chictly  from    Spain,    Portugal, 
Italy,    Sec.      The    scoparium,   or    common 
broom,   is  used   for  a  variety   of  purposes. 
It  has  been  a  great  benefit  sonietimes  in  drop- 
iical  complaints.     The  manner  in  wiiich  Dr. 
Cullen  administered  it  was  this:  he  ordered 
half  an  ounce  of  fresh  broom-tops  to  be  boil- 
ed in  a  pound  of  water  till  one-halt  of  the 
water  was  evaporated.     He  then  gave  two 
tablc->poonfuls  of  the  decoction  every  hour 
till  it  operated  both  by  stool  and  urine.     By 
repeating  these  dojes  every  day,  or  every 
second  day,  he  says  some  dro|)sic-s  have  been 
cured.     Dr.  Mea'd  relates,  that  a  dropsical 
patient,  who  had  taken  the  usual  remedies, 
and  been  tapped  tiu-ee  times  without  tliect, 
was  cured  by  taking  half  a  pint  of  the  decoc- 
tion of  ([ueen-broom  tops,  with  a  spoonftd  of 
whole  mustard-seed,  every  morjiing  and  even- 
ing.    "  An  mfusion  of  the  seeds  drunk  freely 
(says  Mr.  Withering)  has  been  known  to  pro- 
duce   similar    liappy   effects ;    but  whoever 
expects  those  effects  to  follow  in  every  drop- 
sical case  will  be  greatly  deceived.   'I  knew- 
them  succeed  in  one  case  that  was  truly  de- 
plorabli- ;  but  out  of  a  great  number  of  cases 
in  which  the  medicine  iiad  a  lair  trial,  this 
proved  a  single  instance." 

'I he  flower-buds  are    in   some   countries 
pickkd,  and  eaten  as  capers ;  and  the  seeds 
h.ive  bcfcn  used  as  a  bad  substitute  for  cotl'ee. 
'i'lie  branches  are  used  for  making  besoms, 
and  taniiHig  leather.     They  are  also  used  in-  I 
slead  of  thatch  to  cover  houses.     The  old 
wood  furnishes  tlie  cabinet-maker  with  beau- ' 
tiful   materials   for  veiv.ering.      The  tender ' 
branches  are  in  some  places  mixed  with  hops  ; 
for  brewing,  and  the  macerated  bark  may  be 
inaniilartured  into  cloth. 

SPAIUiELS  TKIX,  a  mineral  found  in 
Spain,  where  it  lorms  whole  mountains,  in 
dill'erent  parts  of  Germany,  and  in  Cornwall. 
It  is  sometime  amorphous,  and  sonietimes 
crystallized.  I'he  primitive  form  of  its  cry- 
^lals  is  a  regular  six-sided  pri^^m.  Its  inte- 
grant molecule  is  a  recular  triangular  prism, 
vhose  height  it  to  a  side  of  its  b.ise,  as  1  to 
v/<J.  Soinitimes  the  edges  of 'the  pHmitive 
lie-xagonal  prism  are  wanting,  aud  small  faces 


S  P  E 

in  tlieir  place;  sometimes  there  are  small 
faces  instead  of  the  edges,  which  terminate 
the  prism  ;  sometimes  tliese  two  varieties  are 
united. 

SPARUS,  a  genus  of  lishes  of  the  order 
thoracic! :  the  generic  character  is,  the  teeth 
strong;  Iront  teeth  in  some  species  disposed 
in  a  single  row,  in  others  in  a  double,  triple, 
or  quadruple  row  :  grnideis  (in  most  species) 
convex,  smooth,  and  disposed  in  ranges, 
forming  a  kind  of  pavement  in  the  mouth: 
lips  thick  ;  gill-covers  unarmed,  smooth,  sca- 
ly. The  genus  sparus  is  extremely  numerous, 
there  being  more  than  40  species,  and  as  the 
greaternuinber  are  exotic,  very  little  is  known 
of  their  liistory  ;  a  general  survev  is  therefore 
:dl  that  can  be  expected  ;  it  may  be  oljscrved 
that  they  are  mueli  allied  to  the  labri,  ami 
that  the  distinction  between  these  two  genera 
is  not,  ui  all  cases,  so  clear  as  miaht  be  wisli- 
ed :  in  the  Systema  Nalura:  of  Liiina'us  an 
evident  confusion  takes  place  with  respect  to 
the  characters  of  both. 

Sparus  aurata.  Gilt-head  sparus.  Ge- 
neral length  about  fifteen  inches,  but  occa- 
sionally found  of  far  larger  size;  body  broad 
I  and  thin,  the  back  rising  into  a  carina :  na- 
'  tise  of  the  iSIediterranean,  Atlantic,  and  lii- 
'  dian  seas,  and  held  in  considerable  esteem  as 
'  a  food  ;  much  admired  by  the  antient  Greeks 
I  and  Romans,  and  by  the  former  nation  con- 
I  secratc'd  to  A'eniis. 

I      SPATIIELIA,   a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
j  ing  to  the  class  of  pentandria,  and  to  the  or- 
'  der  of  trigynia.     The  calyx  is  pentaj^hv  lions  ; 
the  ])etals   are  five;    the  ca|)sule   is  three- 
edged    and    trilocular ;    the  seeds  solitary. 
There  is  only  one  .species,  the  simplex,  which 
is  a   native  of  Jamaica,   and  was  introduced 
into  the  botanic  gardens  of  this  country  in 
177S  by  Dr.  Wright,  late  of  Jamaica. 
SP.\"S.\f.     See  Medicine. 
SPAIT'LA,  an  instrument  used  by  sur- 
geons and  apothecaries  for  spreading  plas- 
ters, bzc. 

SPIX'IES,  in  algebra,  the  characters  or 
symbols  made  use  ot  to  represent  ((uautitles. 
SPECIFIC,  in  medicine,  a  remedy  whose 
virtue  and  effect  is  peculiai  ly  adapt'ii  to  some 
certain  disease,  is  adequate  thereto,  and  ex- 
erts its  whole  force  immediately  thereon. 

Specific,  in  philosophy,  that  whicli  is  pe- 
culiar to  any  thing,  and  ilistinguishes  it  from 
all  others.    ^ 

SPECIOUS  ARITHMETIC,  the  same 
with  algebra. 

SPECLLARIS  LAPIS,  in  natural  history, 
a  genus  of  talcs,  composed  of  large  plates  vi- 
sibly separate,  and  of  extreme  thinness  ;  and 
eacFi  fissile  again  separated  into  a  number  of 
plates  still  liner.  (See  Talc)  Of  this  ge- 
nus there  are  three  species:  1.  The  white 
shining  specularis,  with  large  and  broad 
leaves,  commonly  calle<l  isinglass  and  Mus- 
covy glass  ;  its  lamelUe,  or  leaves,  are  ex- 
tremely thin,  elastic,  and  transparent  ;  it 
makes  sometimes  not  the  least  effervescence 
with  aciuafortis,  and  is  not  easily  calcined  in 
the  lire.  It  is  imported  in  gi\-at  quantilie> ; 
the  miniature-iiainters  cover  their  pictures  with 
it  ;  the  lantern-makers  use  it  instead  ol  horn; 
and  minute  ■*biects  are  usually  jireserved  be- 
tween two  plates  of  it,  for  examination  bvthe 
microscope.  2.  The  bright-brown  specularis, 
with  bro  id  leaves ;  a  very  valuable  species, 
1  hough  inferior  to  the  former.  3.  The  purple 
bright  specularis,  with  broad  leaves,  the  most 


S  P  E 

elegant  of  all  the  talcs,  and  as  beautifully 
transparent  as  the  fir'-t  kind. 

SPECULUM,  a  I'liiijii^-glans  ot  mirro, . 
capable  of  rellecting  the  rays  ol  the  sun,  ii^-  . 
SeeOpTics:  seeaisoFouAXiNGi^  loulan  - 
t^lasses,  vol.  i.  p.  7.)8. 

Speculum,  in  surgery,  an  instrument  f 
dilating  a  wound,  or  the  like,  in  order  to  c. 
amine  it  attentively. 

Speculum   for    reflecting  telescopes, 
made  of  a  kind  of  white  copperconsistingof ._, 
parts  of  line  red  copper,  one  of  brass,  fifli  ' 
ot  grain-tin,  and  three  of  white  arsenic.     '1  !i 
process  given   by  the  late  J.  Edwards,  \vl: 
v.as  rewarded  by  the  board  of  longitude  i. 
disclosing  it  to  the  public,  was  published  i 
the  Is'autical  Almanack  tor  17S7,  and  i>  . 
follows:  Melt  the  copper  in  a  large  crucib 
employing  some  black  llux,  composed  oft. 
jiarts  of  tartar  and  one  ot  nitre  ;  when  mrii 
ed,  add  to  it  the  brass  and  the  silver.     1.. 
the  pure  tin  be  melted  into  another  crucib!. 
also  with  some  black  flux.     Take  them  bu 
from   the  fire,  and  pour  the  nulted  tin  ini 
the  fused  mass  in  the  large  crucible.     S' 
the  whole  well  with  a  dry  spatula  of  biixu 
and  pour  olf  the  fused  metal  immediateU 
into   a  large  quantity  of  cold  water.     'J'lie 
sudden  chill  of  the  water  will  cause  the  fluid 
metal  to  divide  into  an  infinite  number  of 
small  particles,  which  will  cool  instantly.  '!. 
If   the  copper    is   completely   saturated,   the 
tracliire  of  one  piece  ot  this  mi.xed  metal  w  ill 
appear  bright,   and  of  a  glossy  look,  resem- 
bling the  lace  of  pure  quicksilver.     But  if  it 
is  a  brown  reddisli-colour,  it  wants  a   little 
more  tin.     To  ascrtaiu  the  required  propor- 
tion, melt  a  small  quantity,  known  by  weight, 
of  the  mixed  metal,  w  ith  a  known  very  small, 
part  of  tin;  and,  if  necessary,  repeat  the  trial 
with  dillerent  doses,  till  the  fracture  of  the 
new   mixture   looks    as    already    described. 
Having  now  ascertained  the  necessary  addi- 
tion of  tin  that  is  required,  proceed  to  the 
last  melting  of   the  whole  metal,   together 
with  the  additional  proportional  dose  oi  tin  ; 
fuse  the  whole,  observing  the  same  cautions 
as  before,  and  you  will  liiid  that  the  mixture 
will  melt  with  a  much  less  heat  than  that  lor 
the  first  fusion.    Have  ready  as  many  ounces 
01  white  ar»enic  in  coarse  powder  as  there  are 
pounds  in  the  weight  ot  metal;  wrap  up  the 
arsenic  in  a  small  paper,  and  put   it,  with  a 
pair  of  tongs,  into  the  crucible;  stir  it  well 
with  the  spatula,  retaining   the    breath  to 
avoid  the  arsenical  fumes  or  vapours  (wliicfi 
however  are  not  louiid  to  be  huitful  to  the 
lungs)  till  they  disappear;  lake  the  crucible 
oil'  tlie  fire,  clear  away  the  dross  from  the  top 
of  the  metal ;  pour  in  about  one  ounce  of 
powdered  rosin,  with  as  much  nrtre,  ii>  order 
to  give  the  metal  a  clean  surlace,  and  pour 
out   the  inelal  into  the   moulded  llasks.     3. 
The  speculum  should  be  moulded  with  the 
concave  surface  downwards,  and  many  small 
holes  should  be  made  through  the  sand  iip- 
wanls,  to  discharge  the  air.     The  inoulding- 
sand  from  Highgate  near  London,  used  by 
the  tounders,   is  as  good  as  any  for  casting 
these  metallic  mirrors.   Tlie  cast  inelal  should 
be  taken  out  from  the  sand  of  the  llasks  whilst 
it  is  hot,  or  else  it  may  happen  to  crack  if 
left  to  (  ool  within. 
SPEEDWELL.  Sec  Veronica. 
SPKLTEK.  See  Zinc 
SPEN'P,  in  the  sca-kuiguage,  signifies  the 
same  as  brokeu. 


s  r  H 

SPERGUI.A,  npurrnj,  a  gnw^  of  plants 
belonging  to  tin;  class  of  decarulria,  and  the 
ordcr'of  pc.-ntagynia,  and  in  tlie  natnral  sys- 
tem an  anged  nnd'e  r  the  C:2nd  order,  caryophyl- 
Ica;.  The  calyx  is  pentaiihyllous ;  the  petals 
five,  and  undivided  ;  the  capsule  oval,  unilo- 
cular, and  containing  five  valves.  'Phere 
are  seven  species,  five  of  which  are  Hritish : 
1,  The  arvensis,  corn-spiirrey,  has  linear  fur- 
rowed leaves,  from  eight  to  twenty  in  a 
whorl.  The  (lowers  are  small,  white,  and 
terminal.  It  is  frequent  in  corn-li'elds.  In 
Holland  it  is  cultivated  as  food  for  cattle, 
and  has  the  advantage  of  growing  on  the  very 
poorest  soils,  but  does  not  allord  a  gre.it 
deal  of  food.  Poultry  are  lond  of  the  seeds  ; 
and  the  inhabitants  of  Finland  and  Norway 
make  bread  of  them  when  th.eir  crops  of  corn 
fail,  llorses,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine,  eat 
it.  Cows  refuse  it.  2.  The  nodosa,  knotted 
spurrev.  3.  Pentandra,  small  spurrey.  4. 
]^aricn'i;i,  larch-leaved  spurrey.  5.  Saginoides, 
pearUvort  spurrey. 

SPERM.'VCETI.    This  peculiar  oily  sub- 
tlance  is  found  m  the  cranium  of  the  physeter 
inocroceplialus,  or  spennaci,-ti-whale.     It    is 
obtained  also  from  sume  other  species.     At 
lii-st  it  is  mixed  with  some  liquid  oil,  wliicli  is 
separated  by  means  of  a  woollen  bag.     The 
last  portions  are  removed  by  an  alkaline  ley, 
and  the  spermaceti  is  afterwards  purilied  by 
fusion.     Thus  obtained  it  is  a  beautiful  white 
substance,  usually  in  small  scales,  very  brit- 
tle, has   scarcely  any   taste,    and  but   little 
smell.      It  is   distinguished   from   all  other 
fatty  bodies  by   the"  crystalline   appearance 
which  it  always  assumes.    It  melts,  according 
to  the  experiments  of  Bostock,  at  the  tempe- 
rature of   1  12^     Wlien  sufficiently  heated  it 
may  be  distilled  over  without  much  altera- 
tion; but  when  distilled   repeatedly,  it  loses 
its  solid  form,  and  becomes  a  litiuid  oil.     It  is 
solul)le    in    boiling   alcohol,    but   separates 
again  as  the  solution  cools.     About  IJO  parts 
of  alcohol  are  necessary  to  dissolve  it.   Kther 
dissolve^  it  cold,  and  very  ra|)idly  when  hot  : 
on  cooling   it  concretes  mtii  a  solid  mass.  It 
dissolves  also  in  hot  oil  of  turpentine,  but  pre- 
cipitates again  as  the  liquor  cools. 

The  acids  have  hardly  any  action  upon  it, 
but  it  unites  with  the  pure  alkalies.  V\'ith 
hot  ammonia  it  forms  an  emulsion  which  is 
not  decomposed  by  cooiing  nor  by  water, 
tt  dissolves  sulphur,  and  is  dissolved  by  the 
fixed  oils. 

Sri':KMACOCE,  hutton-rvond,  a  genusof 
plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  ti-trandria, 
and  order  ot  uionogyuia,  and  in  the  natural 
system  arranged  under  the  47  th  order,  stel- 
latLi'.  Tlie  Corolla  is  monopetalous  and  fuu- 
nti-shaped,  and  there  are  two  bclenlate  seeds. 
The  species  are  '~0,  all  stove  plams  from 
■warm  climates. 

SiTL'VCEl.rS.  See  Surgery. 
SPH.-ERANTHUS,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  class  of  syngenesia,  and  to  the 
ordir  of  polvgamia  segregata;  and  ui  the  na- 
tural svstem  arranged  under  the  49i.h  order, 
compo--'it;e.  Each  partial  calyx  contains 
eight  llorets;  the  ilorets  are  tubulated,  the 
female  being  scarcely  distinguishable.  The 
receptacle  is  scaly,  and  there  is  no  pappus. 
I'tie  species  are  four,  the  indicus,  the  africa- 
nus,  the  chinensis,  and  another. 

SPILV.RIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der, cryptojamia  fuBgi.    The  fructilications 


S  P  11 


S   P  li 


m 


are  mostly  spherical,  openinr;  at  (he  top; 
while  young  tilled  willi  jelly,  when  old  with 
blackish  powder.  They  grow  on  the  bark  or 
wojd  of  other  plants.  There  an?  2!)  spe- 
cies. 

SITI.EROCARPITS,  a  genusof  the  cryp- 
togamia  class  of  plants,  and  order  alga;,  con- 
sisting of  foliaceous  matter,  expanded  on  tlie 
ground,  and  producing  very  large  and  obvi- 
ous fructilications.  Dr.  Hill  thinks  it  proba- 
ble, that  the  male  flowers  are  produced  on  se- 
parate plants  from  the  female,  and  have  not 
been  discovered  to  belong  to  the  same  s|)e- 
cies:  no  male  jjarts  of  fructificalioii  are  de- 
scribed to  us;  the  female  parts  consist  of  a 
tubulated  and  intlated  vagina,  williin  which 
is  contained  a  large  globular  capsule,  con- 
taining a  great  number  of  small  loose  seeds. 

SPHAGNUM,    bng-iiinss,    a    genus    of 
plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  cryptogamia 
and  order  of  inusci.     The  anthenc  are  glo- 
bose; the  mouth  entire,  and   closed  by   an 
operculum;  the  calyptra  is  wanting.     There 
are  three  species,  the  palustre,  alpmum,  and 
arboreum.     1.  The  palustre,  common  bog- 
moss,  grows  on  our  bogs  in  wide  patches,  so 
as  frequently  to  cover  a  large  portion  of  iheir 
surfaci;.     Tlie  stalks  are  from  two  inches  to 
two  feet   long,  irregularly  surrounded  with 
numerous,    conical,   pendant  branches,    and 
terminated  with  a   rotaceous  cluster  ot  erect 
short  oiie^.     It  is  generally  believed,  that  the 
roots  and  der;iye(l  stalks  of  this  moss  consti- 
tute a  princi|)al  part  of  that  useful  bituminous 
substance  called  peat,  which  is  the  chief  fuel 
of  the  northern  regions.     The   Lapland  ma- 
trons   are   well  acquainted   with  tliis  moss. 
They  drv  and  lay  it  in  their  cradle,  to  sup- 
plv  {he  place  of  bed,  bolster,  and  every  co- 
vering;  and,  being  changed  night  and  morn- 
ing, k   keeps  the  infant  remarkably  clean, 
drv,  and  warm.     It  is  sufficiently  soft  of  it- 
self; but  the  tender  mother,  not  satislied  with 
this,   irequently   covers  the    moss   with  the 
downy  hairs  oV  the  rein-deer;  and  by  that 
means  makes  a   most  delicate  nest  tor  the 
young  babe.     2.  The  alpinum,  green  bug- 
iiioss.     Its  branches  are  suhulati-  and  erect ; 
the  anther;e  are  oval.     It  grows  in  mountain 
bogs  in  Houth    Ijritain.     3.  The   arboreum, 
creeping  bog-moss,  is  branched;  the  anthe- 
ra;  are    numerous,  sessile,   hairy,  and  grow 
along  the  branches' chielly  on  one  side.     It  is 
found  on  the  trunks  of  trees. 

SPHENOIDAL  SUTURE.  See  Ana- 
tomy. 
SPHENOIDES.  See  Anatomy. 
SPHERE,  is  a  solid  contained  under  one 
uniform  round  surface,  such  as_  would  be 
formed  by  the  revolution  of  a  circle  about 
a  diameter  thereof  as  an  axis.  See  Geome- 
try. 

SrHERE,  prnperties  of  the,  are  as  follow: 

1.  A  sphere  may  be  considered  as  made 
up  of  an  inlinite  number  of  pyramids,  whose 
common  altitude  is  equal  to  the  radius  of  the 
sphere,  and  all  their  bases  form  the  surface  of 
the  sphere.  And  therefore  the  solid  coiUent 
of  the  sphen;  is  equal  to  that  of  a  pyramid 
whose  altitude  is  tiie  radius,  and  its  ba-e  is 
equal  to  the  surface  of  the  sphere,  that  is,  the 
solid  content  is  equal  to  -}  of  the  product  of 
its  radius  and  surface. 

2.  A  sphere  is  ccpial  to  i  of  its  circiim- 
scribiiig  cylinder,  or  of  tht  cyliiKler  of  the 
same  height  and  diameter,  and  therefore  equal 

4  i>  2 


to  the  cube  of  the  diameter  multiplied  by 
..W3fi,  or  I  of  .7Si4  ;  oreqiial  to  doublea  cone 
of  the  same  base  and  height.  Hence  also 
different  spheres  are  to  one  another  a.s  the 
cubes  of  their  diameters,  and  their  surfaces 
as  the  squares  of  the  same  diameters. 

3.  The  surface  or  superficies  of  any  sphere, 
is  equal  to  four  times  the  area  of  its  great  cir- 
cle, or  of  a  circle  of  the  same  diameter  as  the 
sphere.     Or, 

4.  The  surface  of  the  whole  siihere  is  ecpial 
to  the  area  of  a  circle  whose  radius  is  equal  to 
the  diameter  of  the  sphere.  And,  m  like 
manner,  the  curve  surface  of  any  segment, 
whether  greater  or  less  than  a  hemisphere,  is 
equal  to  a  circle  whose  radius  is  the  chord 
line  drawn  from  the  vertex  of  the  segment  to 
the  circumference  of  its  base,  or  the  chord  ot 
half  its  are. 

5.  The  curve  surface  of  any  segment  or 
zone  of  a  sphere,  is  also  equal  to  the  curve 
surface  of  a  cvlindcr  of  the  same  height  wit ) 
that  portion,  and  of  tlie  same  diameter  Willi 
the  sphere.  Also  the  surface  of  the  whole 
sphere,  or  of  a  hemisphere,  is  equal  to  the 
curve  surface  of  its  circumscribing  cylinder. 
And  the  curve  surfaces  of  their  corre^pondiM^ 
parts  are  e(pial,  that  are  contained  between 
any  two  places  parallel  to  the  base.  And 
coiisecpuMitlv  the  i-urface  of  any  segment  or 
zone  of  a  sphere,  is  as  its  height  or  altitude. 

Most  of  these  properties  are  contained  in 
Archimedes's  treatise  on  the  sphere  and  cylin- 
der. And  many  other  rules  lor  the  surtaccj 
and  solidities  of  spheres,  their  segments, 
zones,  frustums,  &c.  may  be  seen  in  bonny-- 
castle's  Mensuration. 

Hence,  if  d  denotes  the  diameter  or  axis  of 
a  sphere,  .s  its  curve  surface,  cits  solid  con- 
tent, and  a  =  .7854  the  area  of  a  circk-  whose 
diaii'i.  is  1  ;  then  we  shall,  from  the  foregoing 
properties,  have  these  following  general  va- 
lues or  eipiations,  viz. 


4.,J' 


^-^^Vh 


W  =  tV\^' 


j    ^''     / 
d—-—*/ 


4a 


-V- 

—  ■^  la- 


Sphere,  in  astronomy,  that  concave  orb, 
oreMi'use,  which  inves'ts  our  globe,  and  ia 
whi(  h  th  '  heavenly  bodies  appear  to  be  fixed, 
and  -,.1  an  equal  distance  from  the  eye. 

Sphere,  (irmillvy.  See  Armill.a.ky 
Sphere. 

SPHERICS,  the  doctrine  of  the  sphere, 
particiilarlv  of  the  several  circles  described  on 
Its  surface,'  with  the  method  of  projei  ting  the 
same  on  a  plane.  See  Projection-  oJ  the 
spliert. 

A  circle  of  the  sphere  is  that  which  is  made 
bv  a  plane  cutting  it.  If  the  plane  passes 
through  the  centie,  it  is  a  great  circle:  if  not, 
it  is  a  little  circle. 

The  pole  of  a  circle,  is  a  point  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  sphere,  equidistant  from  every 
point  of  the  circumfereJice  wf  the  circle. 
Hence  every  cir(  le  has  two  poles,  which  are 
diametrically  opposite  to  each  other;  and  all 
circles  that  arc  parallel  to  each  other  have  the 
same  poles. 

I'ropntie.i  of  the  circles  of  the  sphere. 
1.  If  a  spliere  is  cut  in  any  miuiner  by  a 


C02 


S  T'  H 


plane,  the  section  will  be  a  circle;  and  a 
Ri-eal  circle  when  the  section  parses  llirmigh 
the  centre,  otherwise  it  is  a  little  circle.  Hence 
all  great  circles  are  equal  to  each  oUier  ;  and 
tlie  hue  of  section  of  two  great  circles  of  the 
sphere,  is  a  diameter  of  the  splure :  and  there- 
fore two  great  ci  cles  intersect  each  otlicr  in 
points  dianielricallv  opposite;  and  make 
equal  angles  at  tliose  points ;  and  divide  each 
other  into  two  ecpia!  parts;  also  any  great 
t  ircle  divides  tlie  whole  spliere  into  two  e(iual 

parts. 

2.  If  a  great  circle  is  perpendicular  to  any 
other  circl.-,  it  passes  through  its  poles.  And 
if  a  great  circle  passes  through  the  pole  of  any 
other  circle,  it  cuts  it  at  right  angles,  and 
into  two  eiiual  parts. 

3.  The  distance  between  the  poles  of  two 
circles  is  equal  to  the  angle  ot  tlieir  inclina- 
tion. 

4.  Two  great  circles  passing  tlirongh  the 
polesof  another  great  cucle,  cut  all  tae  pa- 
rallels to  this  latter  into  similar  arcs.  Hence, 
an  angle  made  by  two  great  circles  of  the 
sphere,  is  equal  to  the  ange  of  inclination  of 
the  planes  of  Ih/se  great  circles.  And  hence 
also  the  lengths  of  those  parallels  are  to  one 
another  as  tiie  sines  of  their  distances  from 
their  common  pole,  or  as  the  cosines  of  their 
distances  from  their  parallel  great  circle. 
Consequently,  as  radius  is  to  the  cosine  of  the 
latitude  of  any  point  on  the  globe,  so  is  th.- 
lenctii  of  a  degree  at  the  equator,  to  tiie 
length  of  a  degree  in  that  latitude. 

5.  If  a  great  circle  passes  through  the  poles 
of  another,  this  latter  also  passe-- through  the 
jioles  of  the  former  ;  and  the  two  cut  each 
other  perpendicularly. 

6.  If  two  or  more  great  circles  intersect 
each  other  in  the  pules  of  another  great  cir- 
cle ;  this  latter  will  pass  Inrough  the  poles  of 
all  the  former. 

7.  All  circles  of  the  sphere  that  are  equally 
distant  from  the  (  entie,  are  equal ;  and  the 
Jarther  they  are  dvitant  from  the  centre,  the 
less  they  are. 

8.  The  shortest  distance  on  tiie  surface  of 
a  sphere,  between  any  two  points  on  that 
surface,  is  the  arc  of  a  great  circle  passun; 
through  those  points.  And  the  smaller  the 
circle  is  that  passes  through  the  same  points, 
the  longer  is  the  arc  of  distance  between 
them.  Hence  the  proper  measure,  or  dis- 
tance, of  two  places  on  tin;  surface  of  thi- 
globe,  is  an  arc  of  a  gr<.-at  circle  intercepted 
between  the  same.  See  'IheoUosius,  and 
•thf  r  writers  on  spherics. 

SPHEROID,  a  solid  body  approaching  to 
the  figure  of  a  sphere,  though  not  exactly 
round,  but  having  one  of  its  diameters  longer 
than -t!ie  other. 

This  solid  is  usually  considered  as  generated 
by  the  rotation  of  an  oval  plane  ligure  about 
one  of  its  axes.  If  that  is  the  longer  or 
transverse  axis,  the  solid  so  gt>nerated  is  c  died 
an  oblong  spheroid,  and  sometimes  prolate, 
which  resembles  an  egg,  or  a  lemon  ;  but  il 
the  oval  revolves  about  its  shorter  axis,  the 
solid  will  be  an  oblate  spheroid,  which  re- 
fiiibles  an  orange,  and  in  this  shape  als)  is 
the  figure  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  other  planet  . 

The  axis  about  wiiicli  tne  oval  revolves,  is 
railed  the  fixed  a\is,  and  the  oth'-r  is  tiie  re- 
volving a\ii,  whichever  of  them  happens  to 
be  the  longer. 


S  P  H 

When  the  revolving  oval  is  a  perfect  el- 
lipse, the  solid  generated  by  the  revoh-ifion  is 
properly  called  an  ellipsoid  ;  as  ilistinguished 
from  the spluruKl, which  isgi-neraled  Irumthe 
revolution  of  any  oval  whatever,  whether  it  is 
an  ellipse  or  nut.  But  generally  speaking, 
ill  coiiiiiion  acceptation,  me  term  spheroid  is  | 
used  for  an  ellipsoid;  and  tlierefoie,  in  what 
tollows,  they  are  consideied  as  one  and  the 
same  thing. 

Any-  section  of  a  spheroid  by  a  plane,  is  an 
i  llipie  (except  the  sections  perpriidicular  to 
the  lixed  axis,  which  are  circles);  ami  all  pa- 
rallel sections  are  similar  ellipses,  or  having 
their  transverse  and  conjugate  a\es  in  the 
same  constant  ratio;  and  the  sections  parallel 
to  the  h-ced  axis  are  similar  to  the  ellipse  from 
which  the  solid  was  generated. 

far  tie  sur^aee  of  the  spteniJ,  -whether  it  is  ob- 
long or  oblate; 

Let/  denote  the  fixed  axis, 
r  the  revolving  axis, 

ff"  m  rr 
a  =  .785-1,  and  j  =   —  _ — ;  then  will 

the  surface  j  be  expressed  by  the  following  se- 
ries, using  the  upper  signs  for  the  oblong  sphe- 
roid, and  the  under  signs  for  the  oblate  one  ;  viz. 

.  =  Aarf  X  (1  --f  2^3  7  -  ^^7^  ?'  T  ^^^  l\ 

&c. ;  where  the  signs  of  the  terms,  after  the  first, 
are  all  negative  for  the  oblong  spheroid,  but  al- 
ternately positive  and  negative  for  the  oblate 
one. 

Ileuce,  because  the  actor  4  «rf  is  epial  to 
4  times  the  area  of  the  generating  ellipse,  it 
appears  that  the  sur'ia;-e  of  the  oblong  sphe- 
roid is  less  than  4  times  the  generating  ellipse  : 
but  the  surface  of  the  oblate  spheroid  is  greater 
than  4  times  the  same;  while  the  suriace  of 
the  sphere  falls  in  between  the  two.  being  just 
equal  to  4  times  its  generating  circle. 

lluvaens  has  given  two  elegant  construc- 
tions for  describing  a  circle  etpial  to  the  super- 
ficies of  an  oblong  and  an  ovate  spheroid, 
which  he  says  he  found  out  towards  the  latter 
end  of  the  year  l6j7. 

Of  the  snlidit'i  of  a  sphernid.  Every 
spheroid,  whether  oblong  or  oblate,  is,  like  a 
splieve,  exactly  equal  to  tuo-thirds  of  its  cir- 
cumscribing cylinder.  So  that,  if  ^/'denotes 
the  fixed  axis,  r  the  revolving  axis,  and  a  =: 
7834  ;  then  J  ifi"  denotes  the  solid  content  of 
either  spheroid.  Or,  which  comes  to  the 
same  thing,  if  /  denotes  the  transverse,  and  c 
the  conjugate  axis  of  the  generating  ellipse  ; 

sp  he- 


then  l-iic'l  is  the  content  of  the  oblono 


and  jiic'l  is  the  content  of  the  oblate  sphe- 
roid. 
Consc(|iiently,  the  proportion  of  the  former 
solitl  to  the  latter,   is  as  c  to  t,  or  as  the  less 
axis  to  tlie  gr<-ater. 

Farther,  il  about  the  two  axes  of  an  ellipse 
are  gener.ate<l  two  spheres  and  two  spheroids, 
the  four  soiids  will  be  continued  proportionals, 
and  the  coininou  ratio  will  be  that  of  the  two 
axes  of  the  ellipse;  that  is,  as  the  greater 
sphere,  or  the  sphere  upon  the  greater  axis,  is 
to  the  oblate  spheroid,  so  is  the  oblate  sphe- 
roid to  the  oblong  spheroid,  and  so  is  the  ob- 
long spheroid  to  the  less  sphere,  and  so  is  the 
transverse  axis  to  the  conjugate. 

Spheroid,  itnivfi-nd,  a  name  given  to 
he  solid  generated  by  the  rot.ition  oi  an 
ellipse  about  some  other  diameter,  which  is 
ueiUier  the  transverse  nor  conjugate  axis. 


S  P  H 

SI'HF.X,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
hymeaoptera.  '1  he  generic  clia.acu-r  is, 
mouth  with  jaws,  without  tongue;  aulenna; 
of  ten  joints;  wings  tiat-iiicumbi-iit  (not 
'pleated)  in  each  sex;  sling  concealed.  .-Vs 
tlie  insects  of  the  a<-iuis  iciiui-nmon  deposit 
their  eggs  in  the  bodies  ot  other  living  iii-.ects, 
so  those  of  the  geieis  sphex  deposit  theirs  in 
dead  ones,  in  order  lliat  the  vouiig  larva*, 
wlien  hatched,  may  find  their  proper  tood. 
1.  Ihus  the  sphex  figulus  ol  Linnaeus,  having 
louiid  some  convenii-.it  lavitv  tor  the  pur- 
pose, se.^es  on  a  »pitler,  and  having  killed  it, 
deposits  it  at  thebotlom:  then  laving  her  egg, 
in  it,  she  closes  up  the  orihee  ot  ihecaviiv 
with  clay  :  the  larva,  which  resembles  the 
maggot  of  a  bee,  having  devoured  the  spider,, 
spins  itself  up  in  a  dusky  silken  wib,  and 
ciiaiiges  into  a  chrysalis,  out  ot  which,  within 
a  certain  number  of  days,  proceeds  the  com- 
plete insict,  which  is  of  a  bl.ick  colour,  with 
a  slightly  toot-stalke<l  abdomen,  tlie  edge>  of 
the  several  segments  being  of  a  brighter  ap- 
pearance than  the  rest  of  the  body.  It  should 
be  added,  that  the  female  of  this  species  pre- 
pares several  separate  holes  or  nests  as  above 
mentioned,  in  each  of  which  she  places  a  dead 
insect  and  an  egg  :  each  cell  costing  her  the 
labour  ol  about  two  davs. 

'J.  The  sphex  viatica  of  Linna'us,  which  is 
of  a  black  colour  and  slightly  hairv,  with 
brown  wings,  and  the  fore  part  oi  tiie  abdo- 
men ferruginous  with  black  bands,  sci/es  ca- 
terpillars in  a  similar  manner,  burying  one  in 
every  cell,  in  which  she  deposits  an  egg,  and 
then  closes  up  the  cell. 

3.  Sphex  sabulosa  IJn.  is  a  black  and  hairy 
species,  with  the  second  and  third  jomt-<  of  the 
abdomen  ferruginous.  It  inhabits  sandy  and 
gravelly  places,  in  which  the  female'  digs 
holes  witli  her  fore-feet,  working  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  dog,  in  ord»r  to  form  tlie  cavitv,  jii 
which  she  placeseither  a  spider  or  a  caterpil- 
lar; after  which  sheclosesiip  the  cavity,  hav- 
ing first  laid  her  egg  in  the  deail  "insect. 
Lihiiaciis,  in  his  description  of  this  insect,  con- 
tradicts the  generic  character,  since  he  ob- 
serves that  ilhas  a  retractile  snout  conlaininij 
the  tongue. 

Many  of  the  cxtra-Furopean  spheges  are 
insects  of  a  very  considerable  size.  Tiie 
whole  g'-nus  is  very  niueh  allied  to  those  of 
vespa  and  apis.  Tliere  are  3S  species.  See 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  36<J. 
SPHINC  lEK.  See  Ak.^tomy. 
SPHINX,  the  hawk  moth,  a  genus  of  insects 
of  the  order  lepidoplera.  The  generic  clia- 
ractrr  is,  antenn-a.-  tliickest  in  the  middle,  sub- 
prismatic,  and  attenu.ited  at  each  extremitv  ; 
wings  delie<-ted;  (light  strong,  and  (omnioiilv 
in  the  evening  or  morning.  'I  he  insects 
of  this  genus  have  in  general  a  large  thorax 
and  thick  body,  commonly  tapering  towards 
the  extremity.  The  name  sphinx  is  applied 
to  tae  genus  on  account  of  the  posture  as- 
sumed by  the  lart;e  of  several  of  the  larger 
species,  which  are  often  seen  in  an  attitude 
much  resemblnigthat  of  the  Euvplian  •■pliinx, 
VIZ.  with  the  lore  parts  elevate<i,  and  the  rest 
ot  the  body  applii-d  ll.it  to  the  suriace. 

1.  One  ot  the  most  elegant  insects  of  this 
genus  is  the  sphinx  ligustri,  or  privet  hawk- 
ninth.  It  is  a  large  insect,  measuring  nearly 
lour  inches  and  a  half  ;rom  wing's  end  tow  im;'s 
end:  the  U|'|)er  wmgs  of  a  brown  colour,  most 
-  legautly  varied  or  shaded  vv  th  deeper  and 
.ighlcf  streaks  and  patches;  the  under  wings 


S  P  H 

nnd  lioHv  arp  of  a  line  rose-colour,  barred  wit ti 
Ir.uisviTM-  black  shipcs.  'I'iu!  calfrpillar, 
I  wliuli  is  very  larj^f,  is  smooth,  and  oi  a  ink- 
gr>.-i:ii,  w.tli  M'Vi-ii  oblique  purpli;  and  uliitr 
blripfs  along  i-ai  li  si<li>:  al  Uic  I'xtrfiiiitv  o! 
till"  1)0  Iv,  or  top  ol  till'  la^l  joini,  isa  horn  or 
prori'ss  ijoliilinu;  backwards.  This  bcanlihd 
caU-rpillar  is  olteii  toinxl  in  the  months  ot 
July  uiid  Aui(ii>t  fiTdiii^  on  the  privet,  the 
hlar,  the  poplar,  and  some  othiT  trees,  and  ge- 
li'/ral'y  ciiaiii;es  to  a  chry-ahs  in  Aiif^usl  or 
S''|)ti-Mil>i'i-,  ri'tirma;  lor  that  purpose  to.icoii- 
sideiahlo  diolh  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
proinid,  aiul,  after  caslini;  itssk'n,  coiiiinthn!' 
iLurin^  tlie  whole  winter  in  a  dormant  state, 
the  sphnix  emergwig  Iroin  it  in  the  siieceed- 
ing  June. 

'J.  The  sphinx  ocella'a  is  perhaps  still  more 
beautiful;  it  is  r.itlu-r  a  sinallcr  insect  tliaii 
the  prp<e(lin;»,  and  has  the  iip|)eruun>s  and 
lio'lv  liroun,  the  former  linely  clou(li.<l  with 
dilierent  shadeo,  wlule  the  lower  wuif^s  are  of 
a  bright  rose-colour,  each  marked  with  a 
lari^e  ocellated  black  spot  with  a  bhn;  interior 
cir.le  and  a  black  ccMilre.  This  insect  pro- 
ceeds from  a  green  caterpillar  nf  a  rough  or 
siiagreen-hke  suitace,  m.nked  on  each  side 
by  seven  ob lie] ue  yellowisli-white  streaks,  and 
furnisliiil,  like  tlr-  preceding,  with  a  horn  at 
the  tail.  It  is  prinnpally  found  on  the  w  iUow  ; 
retires  under  gri  un  !,  in  oider  to  umlergo  its 
change  inlo  the  chrysalis  state,  in  the  month 
ol  August  or  September  ;  and  in  thelollowing 
June  appears  the  complete  insect. 

3.  But  tlie  largest  and  most  remarkable,  if 
not  the  most  beautihil  liumpean  insect  of  this 
genus,  is  the  sphinx  airopos  of  Linnanis,  see 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  lig.  370,  wdiich  very  con'si- 
tlerably  exceeds  in  size  both  the  species  al- 
reailv  mentioned.  The  upper  wings  are  of  a 
iin.-  dark-grev  colour,  with  a  few  sl;ght  varie- 
gations ot  dnil  orange  and  white  :  the  under 
wings  are  of  a  bright  orange-folour,  mark- 
ed by  a  hair  of  transverse  black  hands ; 
the  body  is  also  orange-coloured,  wilii  the 
sides  marked  by  black  bars,  while  along 
the  top  ot  the  hack,  from  the  thorax  to  the  tail, 
runs  a  broad  blue-giey  stripe:  on  the  to|)  of 
the  tliorax  is  a  very  large  pa!ch  of  a  most  sin- 
gular appearance,  exactly  representing  the 
\isual  hgure  ol  a  skull  or  death'.— head,  and 
ofa  paU-  grev,  vaiicd  w-ith  dull  ochre-colour 
and  black.  When  in  the  least  disturbed  or 
irritated,  this  insect  emits  a  stiidulous  sound, 
something  like  the  sipieaking  of  a  l)at  or 
mouse;  and  from  this  circumstance,  as  well  as 
from  the  mark  ahove-meitioned  onthe  thorax, 
is  held  in  much  dre.id  by  the  vulgar  in  se- 
veral parts  of  K.uropc,  its  appearance  being  re- 
garded as  a  kind  ol  ill  omen,  or  harbinger  of 
spproachiiin  fate.  W'e  are  informed  by  the 
celeljraled  Keauaiuv,  t  lat  the  members  of  a 
female  convent  in  i-'i an  e  were  thrown  into 
gri'al  consternalion  at  the  appear.ince  of  one 
of  tliese  insects,  which  happ<'ned  to  lly  in 
during  the  evening  alone  of  tlie  windows  of 
thedormitory.  Tiie  caterpillar  from  which  this 
curious  sphinx  proceeds  is  in  the  highest  de- 
gree b'  autihil,  and  far  surpasses  in  size  every 
other  European  insect  of  the  kind;  measuring 
sjmelimes  near  live  inches  in  length,  and 
being  of  a  very  consideiab'e  thickness :  its 
colour  is  a  bright  _\ellow,  the  sides  marked 
bv  a  row  of  seven  most  elegant  broad  strip's 
or  bauds,  of  a  mixed  violet  and  sky-blue  co- 
lour. This  caterpillar  .s  principally  found  on 
tke  polatoe  and  ll»e  jessamine,  those  plants 


S  P  I 

being  its  favourite  food.  It  usually  chaiigos 
into  a  chrysalis  in  the  month  of  .leptemher, 
reining  tor  that  purpose  pretty  deep  un- 
der the  surlace  ot  the  eailh;  the  com- 
plete iiise.t  emerging  in  the  tollowing  June 
or  July.  'I  he  sphinx  atropos  ,s  gi  M;^rally 
considered  as  a  vrM'y  rare  insect  ;  and  as  the 
caterpillar  feeds  chieliy  bv  night,  concealing 
itself  dining  the  (lay  underleave->,  &c.  it  is  not 
oiten  detecleil. 

We  shall  licit  conclude  the  survey  of  the  ge- 
nus s|)hinx  without  observing,  that  il  contains 
some  species  of  a  smaller  size,  and  of  a  some- 
whal  dilierent  habit  Irom  the  kind>  above  de- 
scribed. .\mong  these  is  the  beautitul  sphinx 
lillipi-nduUc,  or  diopwort  sphinx,  common  in 
iiieadowi  towaids  Inc  decline  ol  summer,  and 
which  IS  <hstingui>hed  iiy  ha.ing  the  upper 
wings  of  an  oblong-oval  sliape  and  ot  a  d.nk 
shiniiig  green  coljur,  witli  hlood  red  spots, 
and  the  lower  wings  red  with  a  dark  green 
edging:  the  caterpillars  of  a  pale  yellow,  with 
rows  of  sipiarish  blaik  spots,  and  ohen  seen 
feeding  on  various  meadow-plants  and  grasses : 
it  does  not  undergo  lis  change  under  ground, 
but  encloses  itself  in  an  oval  shining  yellow 
web  of  silk,  attached  to  the  stem  of  some 
grass,  !kc.  In  this  it  changeiinto  a  chrysalis, 
out  of  which  in  about  the  space  of  three  week- 
emerges  th  complete  insect.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist."  lig.  371. 

Others  ot  the  smaller  sphinges  are  remark- 
able lor  having  the  wings  in  a  considerable 
degree  tiaiisparent:  of  this  kind  is  the  sphinx 
apitormis,  which  is  of  an  aspect  al  first  sight 
more  resembling  that  of  a  wasp  or  hornet 
than  ofa  s|)hinx,  the  wings  being  tiansparent 
with  mi'i'ely  a  slight  edging  of  biown,  and  the 
thorax  and  abdomen  varied  with  black  and 
yellow.  The  caterpillar  inhabits  the  hollows 
of  poplar,  sallow,  willow,  and  lime  trees,  feed- 
ing on  the  substance  of  tlie  bark;  changing 
to  a  chrysalis  in  April,  anci  the  lly  appearing 
in  the  month  of  June. 

Sphinx  crabronitbrmis  is  so  much  like  the 
former  as  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  irom  it, 
and  inhabits  the  holkus  of  the  sallow  and 
other  willows,  feeiling  on  the  wood :  it  changes 
to  a  chrysalis  in  May,  and  the  lly  appears  in 
July. 

SHICA  VIKGINTS,  a  star  of  the  first 
magnitude,  in  the  conste'lalion  N'irgo. 

SI'IDKK.       SeeARAt<EA. 

Si'iiiF.ii's  WtB.     See  Silk. 

Spioi-r's  \'enom.     See  l^orsoNS. 

SI'IKL.MANMA,  a  genus  of  the  didyna- 
mia  angiospermia  class  and  order.  The  calyx 
is  live-cleft ;  corolla  bearded  at  the  throat, 
with  tive-cleft  border;  drupe  with  a  two- 
celled,  two-seeded  nut.  'J'here  is  one  spe- 
cies, a  shrub  of  the  Cape. 

Sl'IES,  in  wir,  are  persons  employed  to 
give  intelligence  of  w  hat  the  enemy  is  doing. 
Bv  mai-.iiig  a  |>rope'r  use  of  the  necesiaiy 
creatures,  tlie  most  secret  designs  of  an  ene- 
my may  he  discovered,  the  positions  his  army 
are  to  take,  the  stations  ol  his  Heels,  and  even 
the  manner  in  which  the  former  is  to  be  se- 
cured by  maskc-d  batteries,  or  the  latter  be 
ke|>t  linn  with  chain-moorings,  as  was  the 
ca.se  off  Boulogne  in  ISOO.  It  they  are  ap- 
prrhended,  they  immediately  sutler  death. 

Sl'KJ  KLIA,  vjorm  liniss,  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  tlie  class  of  pei.tandria,  and  order 
ofmonoguiia;  and  in  the  natural  system  ar- 
range I  under  the47tli  order,  stellata;.  'I  hc 
coroUa  is  funnel-shaped;  the  capsule  is  didy- 


S  P  I 


6j3 


nious,  b'locular,  and  polys))ermous.  There 
aie  two  species,  tne  anthelmia  and  marilaii- 
dica.  1.  The  anthelmia,  see  Plate  N'at. 
Hist.,  fig.  37'i,  has  an  herbaceous  slein,  and 
its  hig:ie-,t  leaws  are  foi.rlold.  Tiiis  plant  is 
generally  found  in  low  dry  lands,  alter  they 
have  been  turiud  up  some  months,  and  attcr 
gr.-at  rain . ;  its  taste  is  herbaceous,  and  some- 
what clammy  ;  its  growth  is  soft  and  sudden; 
its  stalk  hollow,  smooth,  and  roundi-h.  Its 
medical  qualities  are  highly  spoken  of  by  T)r. 
lirowne.  '2.  The  mariiandica,  perennial 
worm-irais,  or  Indian  |)Tnk.  Its  stem  is  lour- 
cornered;  all  the  leaves  ofipo^ite.  Dr. 
G.irden  gave  it  in  what  he  calls  conliimeJ  or 
remitting  low  worm-levers,  aiul  found  its  elli- 
cacy  promoted  by  the  addition  of  lad.  ser- 
peiilar.  viig. 

SPIKINC;  up  the  ordnance,  a  sea-phrase, 
used  for  faslening  a  (pioin  with  spikes  to  the 
deck  close  to  the  brei-ih  of  the  carriages  of 
great  guns,  that  lliey  may  keep  clo»e  and  tirm 
to  the  ship's  sides,  and  not  grt  loose  when  the 
ship  rolls,  ami  by  that  means  endanger  the 
breaking  out  of  a  butt-head  ofa  plank. 

Sl'lLAN  TIU'.S,  a  geiiu.s  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  class  ol  syngenesia,  and  to  the  or- 
der of  polsgamia  a-ijualis.  The  common  ca- 
l)X  is  er«ct;  the  leallets  numerous,  sub- 
etpial,  and  oblong,  the  t«o  exterior  being 
longer  than  the  rest.  The  calyx  is  almost 
equal ;  (low  n  two-toothed,  rect.inguljr,  coni- 
cal, chaffy.  There  are  nine  species,  annuals 
ol  hot  cliinales. 

SPIN.VCIA,  spinui^e,  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  class  of  dia-cia,  and  to  the 
order  of  pentandiia;  and  in  the  natural  sys- 
tem arranged  under  the  IJth  order,  holo- 
race;E.  The  male  calyx  is  ciuinquepartite ; 
lliere  is  no  corolla:  the  female  caly.x  is  qua- 
diihd;  no  corolla  ;  there  are  four  styles,  and 
one  seed  within  the  indurated  caly.x.  T  here 
arc  on'y  two  species,  the  oleracea  and  tera. 
1.  '1' le  uleracea,  common  spillage,  has  stssile 
trulls  and  sagittated  leaves.  Ii  lias  beeii  cul- 
tivated in  Britain  siiii  e  1  jtiS,  but  it  is  not 
known  f  om  what  cocr.try  il  was  originally 
brought.  When  inleiuled  for  winter  use,  it 
should  be  sown  on  an  open  spot  of  ground  in 
the  latter  end  of  July ;  ob>crving  to  do  it,  if 
possible,  when  the  weather  is  rainy.  The 
way  ol  gathering  it  to  advantage  is  only  to- 
take  oil  the  longest  leaves,  leaving  those  in 
the  centre  to  grow  bigger  ;  and  at  this  rale  a 
bed  of  spinage  will  furnisli  the  table  for  a 
w  iiole  winter,  till  the  sp'iiage  sown  in  spring 
is  become  fit  for  use,  which  is  commonly  in 
April.  '2.  The  fera,  wild  spinage,  produces- 
its  fruit  on  footstalks. 
SPiN.K.  Seel'.oTANY. 
SPINALIS.  See  Anatomy. 
SPINDLK,  in  the  sea  language,  is  the 
smallest  part  of  a  ship's  capstan,  which  is  be- 
l\c  ixt  the  two  decks.  The  spindle  of  thejeer- 
capstan  has  whelps  to  heave  the  viol. '  The 
axis  of  the  wheel  of  a  watch  or  clock  is  also 
called  the  spindle.  Among  miners,  the  spin- 
dle is  a  piece  of  wood  t..steiied  into  either 
slow-blade. 
Spindle-Shf.m.  See  Bucct.vv.m. 
SriNlC,  sjiind  dnrsi.  See  Ax.\ro.MY. 
SPINEL.  This  stone,  which  comes  from 
the  i-land  of  Ceylon,  is  usuady  crystallized. 
I  he  form  of  its  integrant  particles  is  thetetra- 
he.lriin.  The  primitive  form  of  its  crystals  is 
a  regular  octahedron,  composed  of  two  four- 
sided  pyramids  applied  base  to  base,  each  of 


09* 


S  V  I 


the  sides  of  which  is  an  eqiiiUteial  triar.s^le. 
In  some  cases  two  opposite  sides  of  tlio  pyia- 
niids  are  broadei-  t:ian  the  other  two;  and 
soiiietiiiies  the  edges  of  tlie  octahedron  are 
wanting,  and  narrow  faces  in  their  place,  b  or 
figures  and  descriptions  of  these,  and  other 
varieties  of  these  crystals,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  Rome  de  Lisle  and  the  abbe  Est- 
ner.  It  occurs  al?o  in  tetrahedrons,  in  rhom- 
boids whose  faces  Iiav.e  angles  of  120°  and  t)0\ 
in  rhomboidal  dodecahedrons,  and  in  four- 
sided  prisms  terminated  by  four-sided  pyra- 
mids. 

The  texture  of  the  spinel  is  foliated. 
Fraclure  conchoidal.  Its  lustre  is  3.  Trans- 
parency 2  to  4.  It  causes  a  single  refraction. 
Hardness  13.  Specific  gravity  3.570  to 
3.623.  Colour  reel,  of  various  shades  ;  some- 
times also  blue,  green,  and  yellow.  The  con- 
stituents of  the  spinel  are,  according  to 
Vauquelin,  Kb.proih, 

86.00  alumina  76     alumina 

S.50  magnesia  16      silica 

S.Cj  chromic  acid      8     magnesia 

1.5  o.Nideofiron 

99.76 


101. 


SPINET,  or  Spinnet,  a  musical  instru- 
ment ranked  in  the  second  or  third  place 
among  harmonious  instruments.  The  har|)- 
sichord  is  a  kind  of  spinet,  only  with  anotlier 
disp<)>!tiou  of  tliekeys. 

SI'IXIFEX,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  class  of  polygamia  and  order  of  dioecia. 
The  herniaphro'dite  flowers  have  a  caly.x  whh 
bivalved  biflorons  glumes,  the  valvelets  being 
parallel  to  the  rachis;  the  corolla  is  bivalved 
and  awnless  ;  there  are  three  stamina  and  two 
st_\les.  In  the  male  flowers  the  calyx  is  com- 
mon with  the  hermaphrodite  ;  the  corolla  and 
stamina  are  similar.  There  is  only  one  spe- 
cies, the  squarrosus,  a  grass  of  the  East 
Indies. 

SPINNING,  the  act  of  reducuig  sift,  flax, 
hr-mp,  hair,  wool,  or  other  matter,  inti  thread. 
Spinning  is  either  performed  on  the  wheel, 
or  with  a  distaff  and  spindle,  or  with  other 
machines  proper  for  the  several  kinds  of  work- 
ing. Hemp,  Hax,  nettle-thread,  and  other 
like  vegetable  matters,  are  to  be  welted  in 
spinning:  silks,  wools,  i5;c.  are  spun  dry,  at 
least  they  do  not  stand  in  need  of  water : 
there  is,  however,  a  way  of  spinning  or  reel- 
ing silk  as  it  comes  off  the  cases  or  balls, 
where  hot,  and  even  boiling,  water  is  to  be 
tised.  'I'he  vast  variety,  and  iniporlance  of 
these  branches  of  our  manufactures,  which 
are  produced  from  cotton,  wool,  and  )la\, 
spun  into  yarn,  together  with  the  cli'-;;puess 
of  provisions,  and  the  low  price  of  labour,  in 
many  foreign  countries,  which  are  the  rivals 
of  our  trade,  have  occasioned  many  attempts 
at  home  to  render  spinning  more  easy,  chea|), 
and  expeditious.  Mr.  Arkw  right  ha"s  carried 
the  invention  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection 
Tie  not  only  contrivetl  methods  lor  spinning 
■  niton,  but  obtained  a  patent  for  making  cot- 
Ion,  flax,  and  wool,  into  yarn. 

SPINS'IEK,  in  law,  an  addition  usually 
given  10  all  uinnarricd  women  from  a  vis- 
coinit's  (huglitcr  downwards. 

SPIO,  a  genus  of  vermes  of  (ho  order 
moUusca.  The  generic  character  is,  body 
jirojectingfrom  a  tube,  jointed,  and  furnished 
with  dorsal  fibres ;  peduncles  or  feel  rough 
with  bristles,  and  placed  towards  the  back  ; 
fcdtrs  nvo,  long,  simple;  eyes  two,  oblong. 


s  r  I 

There  arc  two  species,  viz.  I.'I'hc  solicornis, 
which  inhabits  the  ocean  wlierc  there  is  a 
clavcv  bottom,  is  about  three  inches  long: 
the"  tube  is  composed  of  agglutinated  pani- 
cles of  earth,  thin,  erect,  and  thrice  as  long  as 
the  body.  From  this  the  animal  projects  its 
capillary  "white  feelers,  in  search  of  food, 
which  consists  of  marine  worms.  2.  I'ili- 
cornis,  that  inliabits  the  Greenland  seas:  tube 
fragile,  erect,  greenish,  from  which  it  pro- 
jects its  feelers  in  search  of  planaria-.  and 
other  small  marine  worms. 

SPIRACULA,  in  entomology,  holes  or 
pores  on  each  side  of  every  segment  of  the. 
abdomen,  through  which  insects  breathe. 

SPIU.KA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  ckass  of  icosandria,  and  to  the  order  of 
pentagynia;  and  in  the  natural  system  ar- 
ranged under  the  26th  order,  pomaces.  The 
calvx  is  (|uin(pielid;  petals  iive  ;  capsule  po- 
lyspermous.  There  are  23  species ;  of  w  hich 
two  only  are  British,  Ike  lilipendula  and  ul- 
maria. 

5PIRAL,  in  geometry,  a  curve  line  of  tlic 
circular  kind,  which,  in  its  progress,  recedes 
from  its  centre. 

A  spiral,  according  to  Archimedes,  its  in- 
ventor, is  thus  gLiieiated:  If  a  right  line,  as 
AB  (Plate  Miscel.  fig.  222),  havtng  one  end 
fixed  at  B,  is  equally  moved  round,  so  as 
with  the  other  end  A  to  describe  the  periphery 
of  a  circle  ;  and,  at  tlie  same  time,  a  point  is 
conceived  to  move  forward  equally  from  15 
towards  A,  in  the  right  line  B.\,  so  tliat  the 
point  describes  tiiat  line,  while  the  line  gene- 
rates the  circle:  then  will  the  point,  with  its 
t\to  motions,  describe  the  curve-line  B  1,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  Sec.  which  is  called  the  helix  or  spnal 
hue ;  and  the  plane  space,  contained  between 
tfie  spiral  line  and  the  right  line  BA,  is  called 
the  spiral  space. 

If  also  you  conceive  the  point  B  to  move 
twice  as  slow  as  the  line  AB,  so  that  it  siiall 
get  but  half-way  along  the  line  BA  when  tliut 
line  shall  have  formed  the  circle;  and  if  then 
you  imagine  a  new  revolution  to  be  made  of 
the  line  carrying  the  point,  so  that  they  shall 
end  their  mo'tion  at  List  together  ;  there  will  be 
formed  a  double  spiral  line,  and  the  two  spi- 
ral sjjaces,  as  you  see  in  the  ligure.  From 
the  genesis  of  this  curve,  the  loliowing  corol- 
laries nray  be  easily  drawn.  I.  The  lines 
Bl3,  B  11,  B  10,  &:c.  making  equal  angles 
with  the  first  and  second  s-jirals  (as  also  B  12, 
B  10,  15  8,  &c  ),  are  in  arithmetical  propor- 
tion. 2.  The  lines  15  7,  B  lo,  &c.  drawn 
any  how  to  the  lirst  spiral,  are  to  one  another 
as  the  arches  of  the  circle  intercepted  betw  ixt 
l).\  and  those  lines.  3.  Any  lines  drawn 
lioin  15  to  the  second  spiral,  as  15  )  R,  B  22,  &c. 
are  to  each  other  as  the  aforesaid  arches,  to- 
gether with  the  whole  periphery  added  r)n 
both  sides.  4.  The  lirst  si)iral  space  is  to  the 
lir.st  circle  as  I  to  3.  And,  5.  The  lirst  spiral 
line  is  ecpial  to  half  the  periphery  of  the  first 
circle;  for  the  radii  of  the  sectors,  aiul  con- 
sequently the  arches,  are  in  a  simple  arithme- 
tic progression,  while  the  periphery  of  the 
circle  contains  as  many  arches  equal  (o  the 
greatest;  win  refjre  the  periphery  to  all  those 
arches  is  to  ti  o  spiral  lines  as  2  to  1. 

Si'iRAi-,  in  archil ecture  and  sculpture,  im- 
plies a  curve  that  ascends,  winding  about  a  cone 
or  spire,  so  that  all  the  points  thereof  con- 
tinually approach  tin,-  axis.  It  is  distinguish- 
ed from  the  helix,  by  its  winding  round  a 


S  P  o 

cone,  whereas  the  helix  winds  in  the  sam* 
manner  round  a  cylinder. 

Spirals,  proportional,  are  stub  spiral 
lines  as  the  rhumb-lmes  on  the  terrestrial 
globe;  which,  because  they  make  equal  an- 
gles witli  every  meri<lian,  must  al>o  mak^- 
equal  angles  with  the  meridians  in  the  steri-o- 
graphic  projection  on  the  plane  of  the  equa- 
tor ;  and  therefore  will  be,  as  Dr.  Ilalley  ob- 
serves, jjioportional  spirals  about  the  polar 
point.     See  KiiUMn. 

SPIRITS,  ardent.  See  Alcohol. 
SPUU'TUALITIES  of  a  Idsliop,  are  the 
profits  that  he  receives  as  a  bishop,  and  not  as 
a  baron  of  parliament:  such  are  the  duties  o! 
his  visitation,  presentation-money,  what  arises 
from  the  ordination  and  institution  of  priests, 
the  income  of  his  jurisdiction,  &c.  . 

SPIT-INSECT,  or  Cucko\\'  Spit.  See 
Cicada. 

SPL.\C11NUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  class  of  cryptogamia,  and  order  of 
musci.     '1  he   antherx  are  cylindrical,  and 
grow  on  a  large  coloured  apo|)liysi>  or  uni- 
biaculum.     Tiie  calyptra  is  caducous.     The 
female  star  grows  on  a  separate  stem.     There 
are  six  species,  tlie  rubrum,  luteum,  spluiri- 
cum,  ampullaceum,  vasculosum,  angustatura. 
SPTT'TLK.     See  Saliva. 
SPLEEN.     See  Anatomy. 
SPLICING,  in  the   sea-language,  is  tlie 
untwisting  the  ends  of  two  cables  or  ropes,  and 
working  the  several  strands  into  one  anotlu-r 
T)y  a  lidd,  so  that  they  become  as  strong  as  if 
thev  were  but  one  rope,  &;c. 

SPONDEE,  spoii(L:i!s,  in  antient  poetry, 
a  foot  consisting  of  two  long  syllables,  as 
omnes.  Some  give  the  appellation  spondaic 
to  verses  composed  wholly  of  spondees,  or  at 
least  that  end  with  two  spondees ;  as, 
Constitit,  atque  oculis  Phrygia  agmina  cir- 
cumspexit. 
SPONDIAS,  liog-plum,  a  genus  of  the 
decandria  pentagynia  class  of  plants,  tlie 
(lower  of  which  consists  of  live  ova'  ed,  plane, 
and  patent  petals ;  and  its  fruit  is  an  oval 
berry,  containing  four  nuls  in  each  cell.  It  is 
calle'd  moubin  by  Plumier.  There  are  four 
species,  trees  of  the  ^^  est  Indies. 

SPONDYLIS,  a  genus  of  vermes  les- 
t:icea.  'The  generic  character  is,  animal  a 
tetlivs;  shell  hard,  solid,  with  unequatvalves  ; 
one  of  the  valves  convex,  the  other  rather 
flat :  hinge  with  two  recurved  teelh,  se))a- 
rated  by  a  small  hollow.  'There  are  four  spe- 
cies. 'The  ga'deiopus,  which  has  a  shell 
slightly  eared  and  spinous,  inhabits  the  Indian 
and  other  seas,  and  is  found  in  infinite  varieties 
as  to  size,  thickness,  and  colours;  sometimes 
entirely  purple,  orange,  white,  or  bloom-co- 
lour; sometimes  marked  wilh  various  streaks. 
See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.,  tig.  373. 

.sPONGlA,  .v/ir/rtgr,  in  natural  history; 
a  genus  of  animals  belonging  to  the  class  of 
vermes,  and  order  of  zyoplnta.  It  is  fixed, 
flexible,  and  very  torpid,  growing  in  a  variety 
of  forms,  composed  either  of  reticulaled  fibres, 
or  masses  of  small  spines  interwoven  together, 
and  clot  bed  wit  ha  living  gelatinous  flesh,  full  of 
small  mouths  or  holes  on  its  surface,  by  which 
it  sui'ks  in  and  throws  out  the  water. 

Filtv  species  have  idready  been  discovered, 
of  which  10  belong  to  tlie'liritish  coasts.  1. 
Octilata,  see  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  374,  or 
branched  sponge,  is  delicately  soil  and  very 
much  branched;  the  branches  are  a  little 
compressed,  grow  erect,  and  often  united  to- 


S  P  o 

getlipf.     Tliey  liavc  rows  of  crlU  onench 
in.irgiii,  tliat  pn)ii:ct  a  little.      'I'liis  species 
is  ol   a  pale  yi-llow  culoiir,  from  livo  to  tfii 
Miches  l)ii;h.     'I  lie  (ihros  are  rtticiilati-d;  ami 
iiu;  (Ifsli  of  llif  j;i;laliiioi.i.>  part  is  so  Icinlor, 
(liat  wIkmi  il  is   taken  out  of  tin  watifr  it 
siHjii  Jrios  away,     it  is  very  common  round 
tlie  se.i-coast  "of  Drilaiii  ami   Irclaiul.     'I'liis 
(li'scriptioii    will    1)0    bi'Ucr    iiikK;vsIoo(1    by 
obseiN  iiif5  that  along  the-  edges,  and  on  the  siir- 
f.ue  of  the  briiiiches,  arc  rows  of  small  papil- 
lary holes,  throiii^li  wliieli  llieaiiim.il  receives 
its    iiomishaieiit.      2.  Cristala,    or    tock's- 
comb^poiii!;!',  is  Hal,  erect,  and  soft,  growiii;^ 
ill    the  shaj),-  of    <oek's   combs,    uith  rows 
of  liUle  holes   aloiiE;  the  tops,   whieli  project 
a  little.     It  aboiiiuk  oil  the  rocks  to  (he  east- 
V'iird  of  Hastings  in  Sussex,  where  it   niav  be 
seen  at  low   water.     It  is   eomiiioiily  about 
three  inches  long,  and  two  inchi's  high,  and 
of  a  pule  yellowish  colour.     When  pirt  into  a 
glass  of  sea-water,  it  has  been  observed ,  to 
suck  in  and  squirt  out  the  water  through  little 
in^jiilhs  along   the  lops,  giving  evident  signs 
of  life.      3.  .StijposLi,  to\i-sponge,  or  downy 
branched  sponge,  is  soft  like  low,  with  round 
branches,   and    covered    with    line    ]./ointeil 
hulls.     It   is   of  a   pale   yellow   colour,  aiid 
about  three   inches    high.     It   is   frequently 
thrown    on  the  shore   at   Hastings   in    Sus- 
sex.    This   sponge    is    so    clusely    covered 
with  a  line  down,   that   the   numerotis  small 
holes  in  its  surface  are  not   discernible.      4. 
])ichMtonia,  dielKjtoinous  or  forked  sponge, 
is  stiff,  branched  with  round,  upright,  elastic 
branches,  covered  with  minute  liairs.     ]t  is 
found  on  the  coa^t  ot  Norway,  and  also,  ac- 
cording to  Herkenhoul,   on  the  Cornish  and 
Yorkshire  coasts.     It  is  of  a  pale  yeliow  co- 
lour; and  full  of  very  iiiiuute  pores,  guarded 
by  minute  spines.     5.   L'reiis  or   tonientosa, 
stinging  sponge,  or  crunib-of-bread  sponge,  is 
of  many  forms,  full  of  pores,  very  brittle  and 
soft,  and  interwoven  with  very  minute  spines. 
It  is  full  of  sm.iU  prolubi'rances,  with   a  hole 
ill  each,  by  which  it  sucks  in  and  throws  out 
the  water.     It  is  very  common  on  the  I'ritish 
coast,  and  is  frecpiently  seen   surrounding  fu- 
cuses.     It  is  f  lund  also  on  the  shores  of  North 
America,    Africa,    and    in  the  East    Indies. 
When  newly    taken  out  of  the  sea,  it  is   of  a 
bright  orange-colour,  full  of  gelatinous  llesli  ; 
but  when  dry  it  becomes  \vhitish,  and   wln'ii 
broken  has  the  app  arance  of  crumb  of  bread. 
If  rubbed  on  the  hand  it  will   raise  blisters; 
and  if  dried  in  an  oven,  its  |V>wcr  of  stinging 
is  much  increased,  especially  that  variety  ol 
■  it  which  is    f.iund  on   l.ie  sea-coast  of  North 
America,     fi.   I'almata,   palmated  sponge,  is 
like  a  hand  with  lingers  a  little  divided  at  the 
top.     The  mouths  are  a  little  prominent,  and 
irregularlv   disposed   on    the  surface.      It  is 
found  on  ihe  beach  at  Brighthelmstone.     It  is 
of  a  reddish  colour,  inclining  to  yellow,  and 
of  the  same    solt   woolly    texture  with  the 
spongia     oculata.        7.    Coronata,    coronet 
sponge,  is  very  small  consisting  of  a  single  tube 
surrounded  at  the   top  by  a  crown  of  little 
spines.     The  tube  is  open  at   the  top.     The 
rays  that  compose  the  little  crown   are  of  a 
bright   shining  pearl-colour;  the  body  is  of  a 
pale  yellow.     It  has  been  lounil  in  the   har- 
bour of  Kmsworth,  between  Susse.x  and  Hamp- 
shire.    8.   liotryoides,  grape  sponge,   is  very 
tender  and   branched,  as  if  in  bunches:  Uie 
bunches  are  hollow,  and  aremade  up  of  oblong 
oval  ligures  having  the  appearance  of  giapes; 


S  P  K 

and  each  bunch  is  open  at  top.  This  species 
is  of  a  brignl  shining  colour.  Tlie  openings 
at  the  top  aie  evidently  the  mouths  by  which 
t:ic  animal  imbibes  and  discharges  moisture. 
Vriieii  thesurlace  is  very  much  niagnilied,  il 
appears  covered  with  little  masses  of  triple, 
equidistant,  shining  s|)iiies.  9.  Lacuitris, 
creeping  sponge,  has  erect,  rvlindrical,  and 
obtuse  liranches.  It  is  found  in  lakes  in 
Sweden  and  England.  10.  I'luviatilis,  river 
sponge,  is  green,  erect,  brittle,  and  irregu- 
larly di-po  ed  in  miinerous  branches.  It 
aboumls  in  many  ])arts  of  Europe,  in  the  fresh 
rivers  of  Russia  and  iCnglaiid,  but  jjarticu- 
larly  in  the  river  Thames.  It  scarcelv  exhi- 
bits any  symptoms  of  life,  and  is  of  a  fishy 
smell:  its  jiores  or  mouths  are  sometimes 
filled  withgreen^elatinous  globules.  It  differs 
very  little  Iroin  tlie  lacustris. 

So  early  as  the  days  of  Aristotle,  sponges 
were  supposed  to  possess  animal  life ;  the  per- 
sons employed  in  collecting  them  having  ob- 
served them  shrink  v\hen  torn  from  the  rocks, 
thus  exhibiting  symptoms  of  sensation,  ^fhe 
same  opinion  prevailed  in  the  time  of  Pliny  ; 
but  no  attention  was  paid  to  this  subjet  t  till 
count  .Marsigli  examined  them,  and  declared 
them  vegetables.  Dr.  Peysonell,  in  a  paper 
which  he  sent  to  the  Royal  Society  in  the  vear 
1 7  j2,  and  in  a  second  in  17j7,  aHirnied  ibev 
were  not  \egetables,  but  the  production  of 
animals  ;  and  has  accordingly  .described  the 
animals,  and  the  process  which  they  per- 
formed in  making  the  sponges.  Mr.  Ellis, 
in  the  year  l7o2,  was  at  great  pains  to  dis- 
cover these  animals.  For  this  purpose  he  dis- 
sected tiie  spongia  urens,  and  was  surprised  to 
lind  a  gri'at  number  of  sniaH  worms  of  the  ge- 
nus of  nereis  or  sea  scolopendra,  which  had 
pierced  their  way  through  the  soft  substance 
of  the  sponge  in  quest  ol  a  safe  retreat.  That 
this  was  really  the  case,  he  was  fully  assured 
of,  by  inspecting  a  number  of  specimens  of  the 
same  sort  of  sponge,  just  fresh  from  the  sea. 
He  put  them  into  a  glass  filled  with  sea-water  ; 
and  then,  instead  of  seeing  any  of  the  little 
animals  which  Dr.  Peysonell  described,  he 
observed  the  papilUe  or  small  holes  with  which 
the  papilhe  are  surrounded  contract  and  dilate 
themselves.  He  examined  another  variety 
of  the  same  species  of  sponge,  and  plainly 
perceived  tiie  small  tubes  inspire  and  expire 
the  water.  He  therefore  concluded,  that  the 
sponge  is  an  animal,  and  that  the  ends  or  open- 
ings of  the  branched  tubes  are  the  mouths  by 
which  it  receives  its  nourishment,  and  dis- 
chargis  its  excrement. 

Sl'(JN(i!OSE,  in  anatomy,  an  appella- 
tion given  to  several  parts  of  the  bodv. 

SPONSORS.     See  Godf.^thers". 

SPONTANEOUS,  or  EauivocAL,  Ge- 
XERATioN.  See  Equivocal  Genera- 
tion. 

SPONTOON,  is  a  weapon  much  like  a 
halberd,  formerly  used  instead  of  a  half-pike, 
by  Ihe  olficers  of  foot,  ^\'hen  the  spontoon 
was  planted,  the  regiment  halted;  when 
pointed  forwards,  the  regiment  marched  ;  and 
when  pointed  backwards,  the  regiment  re- 
treated. 

SPOONBILL.    SeePiATALEA. 

SPOONING,  in  the  -ea-language,  is  said 
of  a  ship,  wdiicli  being  under  sail  in  a  storm  at 
sea,  is  unable  to  bear  it,  and  consequently 
forced  to  put  right  before  the  wind. 

SPOTS,  ill  astronomy.     See  Macul.b. 

SPOUT.    See  Water-Spolt. 


S  P  R 


dgs 


.SPRAT.    See  Clupea. 
SI'HING,  ill  natural   liisfory,   a    fountain 
or  source  of  water,  rishig  out  of  the  ground. 
See  Water. 

Origin  nf.ipringx.  The  water  which  falls 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  in  rain,  snow,  t<t:. 
penetrates  its  substance  till  it  meets  with  a 
stratum  of  clay,  stone,  or  some  otlier  inaitcr, 
which  stops  its  descent ;  it  then  glides  late- 
rally on  the  stratum  which  sustains  il,  and  in 
the  direction  to  which  it  leans,  till  meeting 
with  an  ajjerture,  it  appears  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth  in  the  form  of  a  spring.  As  water, 
like  other  matter,  obeys  the  force  of  gravity, 
and  thiiefore  has  a  tendency  to  descend, 
sjiriiigs  arealwa_\s  lower  than  the  source  from 
which  they  are  suiiplied.  Springs  are  most 
common  on  the  sides  and  at  the  bottom  of 
mountains ;  they  are  seldom  found  tpiite  at 
the  summit  of  a  mountain,  and  are  rare  where 
a  country  is  every  where  level  to  a  consi- 
derable distance,  because  there  the  strata  are 
parallel,  aiul  do  not  conduct  the  water  to  any 
particuKir  iioiiit.  In  order  to  obtain  water, 
therelore,  in  fiat  countries,  it  is  generally  ne- 
cessary to  dig  into  the  earth,  when  it  is  found 
to  How  copiously  from  the  sides  of  theopeninij, 
at  no  great  distance  from  the  surface.  When 
wells  arc  dug  in  elevated  situations,  water  is 
seldom  met  w  ith  till  we  have  dug  to  a  consi- 
derable depth,  and  got  below  the  general  le- 
vel of  the  country. 

A  curious  circumstance  occurs  in  the  mak- 
ing of  wells  at  Modenaand  Stiria  in  Italy. 
The  work  men  begin  by  digging  through  several 
strata  or  soils,  till  they_come  to  a  very  hard 
kind  of  earth  much  resembling  chalk ;  here 
they  begin  their  mason-vNork,  and  build  a  well, 
which  they  carry  on  at  their  leisure  till  they 
have  finished  without  being  interrupted  with 
one  drop  of  water,  and  without  any  apprehen- 
sion of  not  linding  it  when  they  come  to  make 
the  experiment.  Thewell  being  liiiih.il,  they 
bore  through  the  hard  bed  of  chalk,  uporv 
which  the  well  is  built,  with  a  long  ;mger,  but 
takecare  togetout  ofthewell  belbrethev  draw 
it  out  again;  which  when  they  have  dune,  the 
water  springs  u|)  into  the  weil,  and  in  a  little 
time  rises  to  I  he  brim,  nay  sometimesoverfiows 
the  neighbouring  grounds.  Now  there  can  be 
little  doubt,  that  these  waters  How  from  reser- 
voirs which  are  collected  within  the  Appe- 
nine  mountains,  not  far  from  Modena,  and 
taking  their  course  through  subterraneous 
passages,  endeavour  to  force  tlieir  ascent  to 
the  same  height  from  w  hicli  they  descend, 
wherever  they  can  find  a  vent. 

As  all  the  water  which  falls  in  rain  has  un- 
dergone a  natural  distiUatiori.  it  is  much 
more  pure  when  it  first  tails,  than  after  it  has 
passed  through  dil'l'ercnt  strata  of  the  earth 
and  rises  in  springs.  Spring  water  is  alwa\s 
found  tocontain  some  loreign  admi.'iture  ;'if 
this  should  be  only  an  earthy  salt,  the  water 
is  called  hard;  if  it  contains  other  substances, 
it  then  receives  the  denomination  of  mineral 
water.     See  Soap. 

For  intermitting  springs,  see  Hvdrost.i,- 
Tics,  Vol.  1.  p.  9.).^. 

Hot  springs.  There  is  no  phenomenon 
which  has  more  completely  bathed  the  ef- 
forts of  modern  philosophy  than  this.  The 
most  probable  hvpothesis  (though  not  satis-  - 
factory)  is,  that  the  same  causes  operate  to 
produce  these  which  produce  volcanoes ;  but 
that  their  permanent  temperalure  arisen  from 
the  inllaininatory  matter  being  couhueJby  aa 


696 


S  P  R 


s  p  a 


immense  pressure,  while  the  heat  inay  be  con- 
tiiuioil  !i>  a  coii-uloral)ltt  degiee  ii!  Uie  eiirtli, 
without  exhibiting  to  o;ir  ailrighted  senses  the 
foiiiiidabie  pheiuiiueiiuu  ot  a  volcanic   lire. 
It  must  be atlviiowledged  that  it  is  ui  vokaiiic 
re-ioiis,  tlial  tepid  watei-s  are  fomid  iii  the 
greatest  quantity  ;  and  it  is  in  these  that  they 
di'^plav   tlie  most  stril^ing  phenoiiieiui.     At 
I^n"e"rvarin,  a  small  lake,  two  days  journey 
fronr mount  Hecla,  in  Iceland,  there   are  liol 
SDoutinc springs,  on- ofwhich  throws  up  a  co- 
lumn ot^walerioihe  heiglit  ol  twenty-tour  feel. 
Apiece  of  inutl  M  and  some  salmon-trout  were 
almo.^  boiled  to  pieces,  in  six  minutes,  mone 
of  these  springs.      At  Cesser  in   the  same 
islan<l,  th.-re  are  forty  or  lifty  spouting  springs 
within  the  compass   oftluxv  miles;  in  some 
the  water  is  impregnated  with  clay,  and  white 
in  ils  appt-aance  ;  m  some,  where  it  passes 
tln-Migh  a  fine  ochre,  it  is  as  red  as  scarlet ;  in 
some  k  spouts  forth  in  a  continued  stream  ; 
in  otiiers,  at  intervals  like  an  artihcialjet-d'eau. 
The  largest  which  \oii  'I'roil  observed  h.ul 
an  aperture  niueteen  leet  in  diameter,  through 
which  the  water -pouted,  at  intervals,  nine  or 
ten  times  a  dav  ;  round  tiie  top  of  it  is  a 
bason,  which,  together  with  the  pipe,  is  in 
the  form  of  a  cauldron  ;  ihe  margin  of  the  ba- 
son is  iiMie  feet  higher  than  the  conduit,  and 
its  diameter  fifty-six  feet.      The  water  was 
tlirown  up  in  an  immense  column,  at  diliCercnt 
times,  to  the  height  of  from  thirty    to  sixty 
feet,  and  at  one  time  to  the  fteight  of  ninety- 
two  feet.  Previonslv  to  this  explosion  the  earth 
began  to  tremble  in  three  diit'erent   places, 
and  a  noise   was  heanl  like  a  battery  of  can- 
non. 

Another  writer  states,  that  at  Geyser,  in 
Iceland,  there  springs  up  a  hot  water,  which 
ui);in  cooling,  de|losltssillceou^  earth  ;  and  that 
of  this  very  mailer  It  has  formed  for  itself  a 
crater,  in  which  toluiims  of  water,  ot  a  stu- 
|)eiidous  bulk,  after  they  have  been  thrown 
to  the  height  of  niiiefv  leet  and  upwards,  fall, 
and  are  ag"ain  received.  The  heat  of  Ihe  water 
during  the  explosion  cannot  be  measured  ; 
but  after  it  has  risen  and  fallen  through  a 
stratnm  of  air  ninety  feet  thick,  it  raises  the 
thermometer  to  '212",  which  evinces  that 
the  heat  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth  must 
be  much  more  intense;  and  at  this  we 
shall  cease  to  wonder  when  we  consider,  that 
in  this  case  the  subterraneous  hre  acts 
U[)Oii  the  water  in  caverns  closed  up  by 
very  thick  strata  of  stones,  an  apparatus  tar 
more  el'feclive  than  I'apiu's  digester.  '1  lie 
crater  was  at  lirst  Miidoiibtedly  formed,  and 
isdady  strenglliened, by  siliceous  eaith,  wliK  h 
quits  the  menstruum  on  its  being  cooled,  falls 
tlowii,  and,  being  in  someu  hat  like  a  solt  slate, 
concretes. 

About  sixtv  yards  from  the  shore  of  the  island 
of  Ischia,  uta'placec.ilhvl  St.  Angel(),acoliimn 
of  boiling  water  bubbles  on  the  siirlace  of  the 
sea  with  great  lorce,  and  communicates  its 
heat  to  the  water  of  the  sea  near  it.  If  boils 
winter  and  summer,  and  is  of  great  use  to  the 
inhabitants  in  bending  their  planks  lor  slrp- 
building  &:c.  The  lishernicn  al-o  frer|iienlly 
employ  thisciirioiis  caiililron  (oImII  iheiriish. 
Nearl'he  shore  of  this  island  sir  William  lla- 
miUon  found,  when  ij.ilhing  in  the  sea,  m.my 
spots  where  the  .-and  was  so  intensidy  hot 
under  his  feet  as  to  oblige  him  liaslily  "to  re- 
tire. 

There  is  also  a  boihng  spriivr  near  \  iterbo, 
■1  tin;  Rom  m  itite,  called  llu;  Bnllicaiiie    Jl  is 


a  circular  pool  of  about  sixty  feet  in  diameter, 
and  exceedingly  deep,  the  wfater  of  v  Inch  is 
constantly  boiliiig.  It  is  situated  in  a  plain 
surroundi'd  by  volcanic  mountains.  A  stony 
concretion  tlo'ats  on  the  su.fuce  of  the  po'  1, 
which  being  carried  off  by  the  superlhious 
water,  is  deposited,  and  is  constantly  lorming 
a  labes  or  tufa,  of  which  the  sod  a',1  aroun<l  the 
pool  is  composed. 

These  fountains  are  best  accounted  for  by 
supposing  the  pipe  or  conduit  to  communicate 
with  a  large  reservoir  of  water,  which  being 
subject  to  the  heat  -of  a  volcanic  hie,  the 
steam  generated  in  the  reservoir  by  the  boil- 
ing of  the  water  acts  forcibly  on  the  water 
in  the  shaft  or  pipe,  and  ejects  it  by  its  ela-^tic 
force  in  the  foim  of  a  fountain,  whch  will  act 
with  more  or  less  vigour  according  to  the  de- 
gree of  heat,  and  according  to  the  resistance 
wuich  the  water  encounters  in  its  passage. 

The  most  sinnulir  circumstance  i-  the  num- 
ber of  these  -pi  mgs  which  are  found  in  almost 
everv  country ;  and   even  in  tliose  couutries 
whic'h  have  lo'ng  ceased  to  be  volcanic.     l''.ng- 
land  itsell  has  its  tepid   springs,  and   those  of 
liath,  Uuxton,   &c.  are   well  known.     Cam- 
den  mentions,   a  well  near  Wigan,   in  Lan- 
cashire,  which  was  called  the  burnuig  well. 
If  a  candle  was  applied  to  itssur.ace,  he  says, 
a  hame  was  excited  like  th.it  of  ardent  spirits 
set  on  lire,  and  the  heat  and  inllaiirmatinn  thus 
excited  would  continue  sometimes  for  the  sp.,ce 
of  a  »  hole  day ,  and  were  suliicier  t  to  bod  .-ggs, 
and  even  meat.     Camden  however  mentions 
the  well  as  having  lo-t  its  inilammable  pro- 
perty in  his  time  ;  but   he  notices  two  others 
of  a   similar    description,  one  in  the  same 
neighbourhood,   and   another  in   Shropshire. 
Should,  then,  the  fact  be  as  it   is  related  by 
Camilen,  the  philo-ophic  reader  will  not  tin.l 
it  difficiiU  to  explain  the  cause.     Thecoi  ntry  i 
where  th.- well  is,  or   was  sinalecl,   abounds  I 
in  coals.     1  lie  well  is  therefore  impregnated  ' 
with   naphta,   or  some  bituminous  vapour;  i 
this,  upon  the  application  of  an  ignited  body,  j 
is  cajjable  ot  inflammation,  and  can  even  com- 
municate a  considerable  portion  of  heat  to 
the  water  ol  the  well  itself.     There  is  no  proof,  ( 
however,  that  Ihe  Bath  or  Ruxton  waters  are 
impregnated  with  any    bituminous    matte'-, 
though  coals  are  plentiful  in  the  neigi.buur- 
hood ;  and  as  these  w  aters  contain  a  small  por- 
tion of  iron,  there  is  reason  to  suppose   111  111 
connected    with  beds  of  pyrifi-s,    or  possibly 
uiih   a   latent    snbterraneuus  lire.       On   the 
w hole  we  are  not  sufiicienfly  ai (piainted  with 
the  internal  pails  of  the  earth  to  account  sa- 
lislactorilv  tor  these  and  other  phenomena  of 
a  similai  V,ind  ;   and  whatever  is  advanced  in 
the  wav  of  tlieorv  on  these  topics    should    be 
advanced  w  ith  becomingdiffidence,  and  rather 
with  a  view  of  exciting  the  attention  and  curio- 
sity of  others,'!  hail  for  the  purpose  of  establish- 
in:'!  a  svslem  unsanctioned  by  experiment,  or 
building  a  reputation  on  tlie  fallih'e  basis  ol 
mere  hypothesis.  See  Watkrs,  Miiurul. 
Si'RiN<;,    in   mechanics,    denotes  a    thin 


S  Q  U 

SPRINGING  nj  a  nw.si,  in  the  s«a  lan- 
guage, IS  when  it  cracks,  but  is  not  broken  in 
any  part  oi  it  ;  as  the  partners,  hounds,  &c. 

Si'RL'Cr.-lilikK,  a  cheap  and  wholesome 
liquor,  whii  ii  is  thus  made:  Take  of  vater 
sixteen  gallons,  and  boil  the  half  of  it.  I'ut 
the  water  thus  boded,  wh  le  in  full  heat,  to 
tne  cole!  part,  which  shouia  he  |)reviously  put 
into  a  barrel,  or  other  vessel ;  then  add  six- 
teen pouiifis  ol  treacle  or  niolas-e-.,  with  a  tew 
labie-spoofiiuls  of  the  essence  uf  spruce,  stir- 
ring the  whole  well  togetlier;  add  half  a  pint 
oi  yeast,  and  keep  it  in  a  l.nipeiale  situation, 
with  the  hnng-hoie  open,  for  two  days,  till  the 
feiniei,tat:on  is  abated.  Then  do-e  it  up,  or 
bottle  it  off,  and  it  » ill  be  fit  for  being  drunk 
in  a  tew  days  afterwards.  In  North  America, 
and  perhaps  in  other  countries,  wjiere  the 
black  and  white  s)jruce-lirb  abouii<l,  !n-te..d  of 
adding  the  essence  o!  the  spruce  al  the  same 
time  with  the  niolas-es,  they  n.ake  a  d'-coc- 
tion  of  the  leaves  and  small  brandies  ol  these 
trei-s,  and  hnd  the  licpior  ecpially  good.  It  is 
a  p.oweri'ul  antiscorbutic,  and  may  piove  very 
useful  in  long  sea-voyages. 
Sr-L"NGK.    See.SpoNGtA. 


piece  of  tempered  steel,  or  other  elastic  sub- 
stance; which,  being  wound  up,  serves  to  put 
several  machines  in  motion  by  ils  elasticity,  or 
endeavour  to  unbend  ilsclf:  such  is  the  spring 
of  a  clock,  watch,  &c. 

The  spring  of  a  lot  k,  gun,  or  pistol,  is  a 
piece  of  steel,  violently  lent;  which,  lieing 
s  tat  liberty,  heals  back  tht  bo.t  of  the  lock, 
or  slrikej  ilown  the  cock. 


SPINCJINO,  in  gunnery,  the  cleaning  a 
gun's  ii.side  with  a  siiunge,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent any  sparks  oi  fire  from  remaining  in  it, 
which  would  endanger  the  lilc  of  h.m  who 
should  load  it. 

S(iU.\Ll'S.  the  iharl^-,  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  order  nant.-s.     The  g-nieric  character  is; 
mouth  situated  beneath   ihe  ant<rior  p-.vt  of 
the  head,  with  numerous   teeth  disposed  in 
rows.     Npiracles  on   each  side  the  neck,  ia 
most  species  live  in  number,  of  a  semilunar 
shape,      liodv    oblong,  somewhat  cylindric. 
The  animals  of  this  genus  are  said  to  be  much 
rarer  in  the  Baltic  than  in  any  other  sea :  thev 
are  viviparous,  and  are  observed  to  produce 
more  young  al  a  time  than  the  rays,  but  each 
inchid'ed,  as  in  those  li-hes,  in  a  quadrangular 
1  capsule  or   invoiucrum,    t  ach    extremity   <ii 
j  winch  is  extended  into  a  long,  contorted,  cai 
tilaginous  thread  of  great  length.     Many  ol 
[the  sharks  are  said  trt  emit  a  phosphoric  ligh 
'  during  tin;  night:   they  are  chielly  of  a  sol; 
j  tarv  iK.tire,  and,  in  general,  devour  with  in- 
I  discrinunatiiig  voracity,  almost  every  aniinal 
1  substance,  wuelher  living  or  dead  ;  some  lew 
'  species  however  are  observed  to  feed  chiefly 
on  fuci  and  other  marine  vegetables.     TheiK 
are  34  species,  the  most  remarkable  of  whicli 
are, 

1.  Sipialus  carcharias.   White  shark.  The 
great  or  white  shaik,  so  remarkable  for  its 
vast  size  and  ils  powers  of  de-truclion,  is  aji 
inhabitant  of  most  parts  of  the  globe,  ihongli 
much   more  fVctiiitnlly  seen  in  the  warmer 
than  the  cohler  latilutles :  it  is  said  lo  reside 
principally  in  ihe  depths  of  the  ocean,  w  hence- 
it  rises  al  'intervals  in  order  lo  prowl  for  prey, 
I  i\nd  is  considered  as  Ihe  most  voracious  ot  all 
I  Ihe  inliabitaiils  of  the  di'ep.     Il  ariives  at  the 
length  ol  more  than  thirty  feet,  and  is  of  a 
I  somewhat  thicker  or  Ijro.ider  form  than  most 
1  of  the  genus:    ihe    head   is   of  u   depiessed 
>hape,  and  bio;.d  ;  terminating  in  front  in  an 
oblustly  pi>i;.tc(l  'iinul :  the  month  is  of  vast 
ttidlii,  and  lurnished  on  the  margin  of  each 
i;iw  with  from  three  lo  six  rows  ol  strong  ll.it, 
l:i;ingular,  sh;irp- pointed,  and  liiu  ly  serrated 
leeth,  which  are  so  imbediU'd  in  their  invest- 
ing carlihipe  as  to  be  either  raisi'd  or  depressed 
[at  pleasure:  the  tun^iie  is  broad,  th.ck,  aud 


SEC      • 

cartilaginous,  and  the  tliroat  oxtromely  wide: 
tl)i;  e\cs,  as  in  most  of  tlie  gc-iuis,  ol  a  Ijluuish 
or  greenish  ca^t,  rather  small,  and  hall  over- 
hung by  their  skinny  veil :  the  pei  loral  lins 
are  large,  strong,  broail,  and  pointed:  the 
(irst  dorsal  /in  moderately  large,  somewhat 
(ialtated  behind,  and  pointed  :  (lie  seconil  is 
situated  very  low  on  the  back,  near  the 
origin  of  the  "tail,  wliich  is  slightly  lengthened, 
and  of  a  bilobate  shape,  the  tipper  lobe  or 
division  slightly  pointed,  and  the  lower  or  ter- 
minal lobe  rather  ronndcd:  so  great  is  the 
strength  of  this  part,  that  even  a  yoinig  shark 
of  about  six  feet  in  length  is  able  by  a  stroke 
of  its  tail  to  break  a  man's  leg;  it  is  usual 
therefore  with  sailors  to  cut  oil'  the  tail  the  in- 
stant they  drag  a  shark  on  board:  the  anal 
fin  is  placed  somewhat  be\ond  the  middle  of 
the  abdomen,  and  is  of  moileiati,'  size,  and  of 
a  somewhat  sciuare  outline :  the  general  colour 
of  the  whole  animal  is  a  pale  or  whitish  ash, 
darker  or  browner  on  the  upper  jjarls ;  the 
month  is  situated  considerably  beneath  the 
front;  for  which  reason  the  aninial  is  said, 
like  most  others  of  this  genus,  to  be  obliged 
to  turn  on  its  back,  or  rather  side,  in  order  to 
seize  its  prey. 

"  Sliarks  (says  Mr.  Pennant)  are  the  dread 
of  sailors  in  all  hot  climates,  where  they  con- 
stantly attend  the  ships,  in  expectation  of 
what  may  drop  overboard:  a  man  that  has 
that  misfortune  perishes  without  redemption  : 
they  have  been  seen  to  dart  at  him  like  gud- 
geons to  a  worm."  They  are  said  to  aM:..k 
negroes  in  preference  to  liuropeans,  and  arc 
observed,  in  particular  to  attend  with  unre- 
mitting assiduity  the  passage  of  the  slave-ships 
from  the  coasts  of  Airica  to  the  West  Indian 
islands,  and,  as  Cepede  very  happily  and 
justly  observes,  may  be  considered  as  form- 
ing a  proper  escort  to  the  cruel  conductors 
of  those  most  accursed  vessels.  "  A  master 
of  a  Guinea-ship(says  Pennant)  informed  me 
that  a  rage  of  suicide  prevailed  among  his 
new-bouglit  slaves,  from  a  notion  the  unhappy 
creatures  had,  that  after  death  they  should  be 
restored  again  to  theii'  families,  friends,  and 
country.  To  convince  them  that  at  least  they 
should  not  reanimate  their  bodies,  he  ordereil 
one  of  their  corpses  to  be  tied  by  the  heels  to 
a  rope,  and  lowered  into  the  sea ;  and  though 
it  was  drawn  up  again  as  fast  as  the  unite<l 
foice  of  the  crew  could  be  exertel,  yet  in  that 
short  space  the  sharks  had  devoured  every 
part  but  the  feet,  which  were  secured  at  the 
end  of  the  cord."  The  shark  does  not  spare 
even  its  ow'n  species.  A  Laplander,  accord- 
ing to  Leems,  had  taken  a  shark,  and  fastened 
it  to  his  canoe  ;  but  soon  missed  it,  without 
being  able  to  guess  how:  in  a  short  time  after- 
wards he  caught  a  second  of  much  larger  size, 
in  which,  when  opened,  he  found  the  one  he 
had  lost. 

The  internal  parts  of  the  shark  ])resent many 
remarkable  particulars;  the  brain  is  small; 
the  heart  furnished  with  one  ventricle  and  one 
auricle,  which  latter  is  of  very  large  size,  and 
receives  the  vena  cava.  In  the  stomach  and 
intestines,  according  to  Commerson,  are  usu- 
ally found  a  great  many  ta^ni;e  or  tape-worms, 
which  not  oidy  infest  the  cavities  of  these 
parts,  but  even  penetrate  into  and  lodge  them- 
selves between  the  interior  coats:  these  ani- 
mals, therefore,  by  their  vellication  and  mo- 
tions, mu-t  be  suppo>ed  to  aggravate  the  na- 
tural vorai  ity  of  the  shark,  and  to  impel  it  to 
engorge  a  large  quantity  of  fowl,  in  order  to 

Vol.  II. 


SQUALUS. 

allay  the  sens.ations  excited  hyJlieso  internal 
enemies:  the  milt,  in  themale  lish,  is  disposed 
into  two  i)orlions,  and  e(pial5  the  lenglh  of 
about  a  third  of  the  whole  animal ;  and  in  the 
leinah-  the  ovaries  are  of  similar  length.  Du- 
ring till'  breeding-season,  which  takes  place  at 
diflcrent  periods  in  different  climates,  the 
sharks  are  observed  to  approach  tlie  shores,  in 
order  to  deposit  their  young  in  the  most  fa- 
vourable situations;  these  are  discharged,  to 
the  number  of  two  or  three  at  a  time,  still 
adhering  to  the  capsule  in  which  they  had 
been  before  inclosed,  and  are  excluded  be- 
fore the  young  animal  has  had  time  to  break 
from  it  :  the  length  of  the  newly-hatched 
shark  does  not  exceed  that  of  a  few  Indies. 

2.  .Sqnahus  maximus,  basking  shark.  This 
is  a  very  large  species,  scarcely,  if  at  all,  infe- 
rior in  size  to  the  white  sliark;  its  length,  ac- 
ctu'ding  to  Mr.  Pennant,  being  from  three  to 
twelve  yards,  and  even  sometimes  more. 
Great  numbers  ofthis  species  of  shark  were  ob- 
served to  visit  tiie  bays  of  Caernarvonshire 
and  Anglfsea  in  the  summers  of  17.")(i  and  a 
lev;  succeeding  years;  continuing  there  only 
during  the  hot  months,  and  ([uitting  the  coast 
about  MiehailniasK  Theyajjpear  in  the  firth 
of  Clyde,  and  among  the  Hebridi^s,  in  the 
month  of  June,  in  small  shoals  of  seven  or 
eight,  but  more  frequently  in  pairs  ;  and  de- 
part again  in  July.  "  They  had  nothing  (says 
Mr.  Pennant),  of  the  fierce  and  voracious  na- 
ture of  other  sharks,  and  were  so  tame  as  to 
sutler  themselves  to  be  stroked :  they  gene- 
rally lay  motionless  on  the  surface,  comnwnlv 
on  their  bellies,  but  sontetimes,  like  tired 
swimmers,  on  their  backs:  their  food  seemed 
to  consist  entirely  of  .^ea-plants,  no  remains  of 
lish  being  ever  discovered  in  the  stomachs  of 
numbers  thatwere  cut  up,  but  the  half^igest- 
ed  parts  of  alga",  &c."  Linnicus  says  they 
feed  on  me(lu>:e. 

Mr.  Pennant  adds,  that  a  shoal  of  this  spe- 
cies will  permit  a  boat  to  follow  them  without 
accelerating  their  motion  till  almost  within 
contact,  when  it  is  usual  for  the  harpooner  to 
strike  his  weajion  into  them  as  near  the  gills 
as  possible  ;  but  that  they  are  often  so  insen- 
sible as  not  to  move  till  the  united  strength 
of  two  men  has  forced  in  the  harpoon  deep- 
er. As  soon  as  thev  perceive  themselves 
wounded,  they  fling  up  their  tail,  and  plunge 
headlong  to  the  bottom,  and  frequently  coil 
the  rope  round  them  in  their  agonies,  at- 
tempting to  disengage  the  harpoon  from  them 
by  rolling  on  the  ground,  for  it  is  oftenfound 
greatlv  bent.  As  soon  as  they  discover  that 
their  eflbrts  are  in  vain,  they  swim  away  witli 
amazing  rapidity,  and  with  such  violence,  that 
there  has  been  an  instance  of  a  vessel  of 
seventy  tons  having  been  towed  away  against 
a  fresh  gale:  they  sometimes  run  off  with 
two  hundred  fathom  of  line,  and  with  two 
harpoons  in  them,  ami  will  employ  the  lishers 
for  twelve,  and  sometimes  for  twenty-four 
hours,  before  they  are  subdued:  when  killed, 
they  arc  either  hawied  on  shore,  or,  it  at  a 
distance  from  land,  to  the  vessel's  side:  the 
liver  (the  only  uselul  part)  is  taken  out,  and 
marked  out,  and  melted  into  oil  in  kettles 
provided  for  the  purpose.  A  large  fisii  will 
yield  eight  barrels  of  oil,  and  two  of  useless 
sediment.  The  fishers  observed  on  these 
sharks  a  sort  of  leech,  of  a  reddish  coKiur,  and 
about  two  feet  long,  but  which  fell  oil'  when 
the  fish  Wis  brought  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  »nd  left  a  white  mark  oa  the  skin. 
4T 


^97 

3.  Sqiialus  catulus,  Spotted  shark.  Lesser 
spotted  dog-lidi.  Habit  rather  slender:  length 
from  two  to  three  feet  ;  head  large  ;  sn<ut 
prominent,  and  slightly  pointed  ;  skiji  rough; 
l)ody  cylindric;  colour  pale  brick-red,  marked 
■with  very  nuinerous,  small,  rounded,  blackish, 
or  dusky  s])ot^;  abdomen  whitish;  both  the 
dorsal  fins  placed  much  nearer  to  the  tail  than 
the  head  ;  ventral  fins  connate,  large,  and  of 
a  slightly  pointed  form  ;  anal  fin  small ;  tail 
long,  bilobate,  with  the  lower  lobe  continued 
to  a  considerable  distance  beneath.  Native 
of  the  European  seas:  a  very  voracious  ani- 
mal, preying  on  the  smaller  fishes,  crabs,  &c. 
According  to  Pennant  it  breeds  from  nine  to 
thirteen  young  at  a  time,  is  very  nimerous  on 
our  own  coasts,  and  very  injurious  to  the 
fisheries:  the  liver  is  said  to  be  highly  noxious, 
causing  long-continued  stupor,  succeeded  by 
an  universal  itching,  with  a  total  desciuama- 
tion  of  the  cuticle. 

4.  Squalus  stellaris.  Rock  shark,  or  greater 
spotted  dog-fish.  'I'he  general  colour  o(  this* 
animal  is  a  reddish  grey,  with  round,  un- 
ecpial,  blackish  spots  scattered  over  the  whole 
body.  The  male  and  female  are  said  to  dififer 
as  to  the  disposition  of  spots.  Native  of  the 
l''.uro|)ean  seas,  generally  fre(|uenting  rocky 
places,  and  preying  on  various  mollusca  and 
Crustacea.  Its  skin  is  used  in  commerce  for 
the  same  purposes  as  those  of  other  small 
sharks,  and  the  flesh  is  esteemed  somewhat 
more  eatable  than  that  of  the  former  species. 
In  Edwards's  figure  of  the  young  ofthis  fish, 
tlie  body  is  rejjresented  as  barred  across  the 
biick  with  several  broad  brown  bands. 

5.  S(|ualus  ocellatus.  Ocellated  shark. 
Length  ::bnut  two  feet  and  a  half:  colour  ash- 
broun,  with  a  (cw  scattered  dusky  spots; 
back  (  rossed  by  a  few  dusky  bands;  abdomen 
greenish-grey :  teeth  numerous,  small,  sharj), 
compressed,  and  dilated  at  the  base!  peitoral  , 
fins  rounded,  and  o!  a  dusky  or  blackish  co- 
lour, edged  with  white ;  first  dorsal  fin  situ- 
ated beyond  the  ventral,  marked  at  its  ante- 
rior edge  with  two  black  spots,  and  emargi- 
nated  behind;  second  of  similar  sliape,  but 
smaller:  anal  fin  placed  very  near  the  tail, 
which  is  slightly  sublobate.  Natiye  of  the 
soulhern  Pacific:  observed  about  the  coasts 
of  New  Holland  during  the  first  voyage  of 
sir  •losi^'ph  ikiiiks. 

G.  SqaaUiszygsna.  Hammer-headed shart. 
Periia))s  the  most  deformed  of  all  the  marine 
animals.  Length  from  five  to  fifteen  or  seven- 
teen feet:  habit  rather  slender;  body  subcy- 
lindric  ;  head  dilated  on  each  side  to  a  great 
extent ;  the  eyes,  whi^  hare  very  large,  being 
placed  at  each  extremity  ;  month  benealli,  as 
.in  other  sha  ks  ;  teeth  sharp,  denticulated  on 
each  side,  and  disposed  in  three  rows  in  tach 
jaw  ;  first  dorsal  fin  rather  large,  of  a  .soiiie- 
wh.at  falcaS'd  shape,  and  placed  towartls  tlie 
uijper  part  of  tlu;  back  ;  the  secoijd  iiiudi 
smaller,  and  situated  near  the  tai!,'%lilcft'i* 
rather  short  than  long,  and  lobt-d  beneath,  tlfc. 
fin  running  on  nearly  as  far  as  the  vent  ;  co- 
lour brown  above,  paler  or  whitish  beneath. 
Native  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Indian  seas, 
w  h.ere  it  is  scarcely  hrss  voracious  and  formi- 
dable than  even  the  white  shark  itself ;  attack- 
ing such  as  are  accidentally  exposed  to  its 
furv,  or  are  incautiously  bathing  or  swimming 
in  its  neighbourhood.  It  is  observed  about 
the  coasts  of  the  southern  islands,  and  parti- 
cularly of  Otaheite,  wlieie  the  natives,  trust- 
ing to'  their  de.-iterity  ia  swimming,  appear  i« 


69B 


S  T  A 


hold  it  m  Ijut  little  drear],  sinre  tliey  batllio 
without  apprelieii5ion  in  places  knowii  to  be 
infested  by  it.  This  fisli  is  said  to  produce 
about  ten  or  fourteen  vouiig  at  u  birth.  Set- 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  f.g.  ,S75. 

7.  Squalus  prislis.  Saw-snouted  shark.  The 
saw-fish  is  a  large  species  ot  shark,  growing 
to  the  length  of  fifteen  feet  or  more  :  tlie  liead 
is  slightly  flattened  at  the  top,  and  is  produced 
in  front  into  a  very  long,  flat,  straight,  and 
slightly  tapering  bony  snout,  covered,  like 
the  lest  of  the  animal,  by  minute  scales : 
along  the  edges  project  a  great  number  of 
very  strong,  large,  slightly  fiatteiied,  and  veiy 
sharp-pointedtodthlike  processes:  the  month', 
as  in  other  sharks,  is  placed  beneath,  and  is 
furnished  on  the  edges  of  the  jaws  with  seve- 
ral rows  of  sii>all  aiii  somewliat  blunt  teeth, 
Eaving  the  lips,  as  in  some  of  the  ravs.  Tiie 
abit  of  the  lish  is  rather  slender;  "the  bo<lv 
convex  above,  and  somewhat  flattened  be- 
neath ;  the  dorsal  tins  placed  as  in  thesqualus 
acanthias  and  several  others.  'I'he  saw-lish 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
northern  seas,  and  was  known  to  the  ancient 
writers  by  the  title  of  piislis.  In  the  embryo 
.  animal  tl;e  edges  of  tire  snout  are  observed  "to 
betiearly  smooth,  or  but  sllg'itly  undulated 
by  the  projection  of  the  incipient  teeth  or 
processes,  wiiicli  are  supposed  to  be  of  verv 
quick  growth. 

SQL' ARK.    See  Geometry. 
Sac-ARE  NCMBER,llie  product of  a  num- 
ber multiplied  into  iUelf. 

Square,  in  the  militafi/  art,  a  particular 
formation  into  which  troops  are  tlirown  on 
critical  occasions;  particularly  to  resist  the 
charge  of  cavalry. 

Square,  soli'd,  is  a  body  of  foot,  where 
both  ranks  and  tiles  are  equal.  It  was  former- 
ly held  in  great  esteem ;  but  when  the  prince 
of  Nassau  introduced  the  hollow  square,  this 
was  soon  neglected. 

Sqijare,  fiolloiv,  is  a  body  of  foot  drawn 
■up,  with  an  empty  space  in  "the  centre,  for 
the  colours,  dnniis,  and  baggage,  fiicing  evei  v 
way  to  resist  the  charge  of  the  hor-^c. 

Square,  oblivit;,  a  square  which  is  not  at 
right  angles,  but  re|)resent5  the  figure  of  an 
oblong,  vrhosc  sides  are  unequal.  'J'hus  as 
eight  companies  of  equal  numbers  would  form 
a  perfect  square,  ten  make  an  oblong. 

Square,  ;)(T/i'c^  a  square  whose  sides  are 
equal  and  at  right  angles.  The  jierfect  square, 
ill  the  formation  of  troops,  seems  best  caku- 
lated  for  military  movements  and  arange- 
inents.  Battalions,  tor  in-,lance,  which  are 
composed  of  eight  companies,  with  one  Inm- 
(Jred  rank  and  tile  in  each,  are  equal  to  every 
species  of  disposition.  It  is  upon  lliis  principle 
we  pr.>suine,  that  the  French  have  distributed 
their  infant  ry .  Rritish  regiments,  on  the  con- 
trary, consist  of  ten  companies,  and  are  so 
composed  that  no  square  of  this  kind  can  be 
formed.  This  is  manifestly  a  defect  in  our 
system.  It  is  indeed  remedied  by  the  gre- 
nadier and  light  infantry  companies  being  oc- 
casionally detached,  or  cast  into  separate  bat- 
talions ;  so  that  the  remaining  companies,  by 
being  told  olf,  are  brought  to  eiglit  equal 
part«.  ' 

Square  root.  SeeALGEBRA,and  Arith- 

MtTIC. 

StiUIRREL.     S.'eSciuRus. 

SIAC11Y.S,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  class  of  didynamia,  and  order  of  gvm- 
nwiieruiKi ;  aiid  iu   the  nalwral  system 'ar- 


ST  A 

ranged  under  the  42d  order,  verlieiUata.  Tlie 
upper  lip  of  the  corolla  is  arched,  the  lower 
lip  rttlexed,  and  the  larger  intermediate  laci- 
iiia  is  marginatcd.  The  stamina,  after  shed- 
ding the  farina,  are  bent  towards  the  sides. 
There  are  24  species.  Four  only  are  natives 
of  Britain;  viz.  I.  Sylvatica,  fiedge-nettle. 
The  plant  is  hairv  all  over,  erect,  a  yard  high, 
and  branched.  I'he  whole  plant  has  a  strong 
fetid  smell.  It  grows  commonly  in  woods  and 
shady  places,  and  dowers  in  July  or  August. 
It  will  dye  yellow.  -J.  Palustris",  clown's  all- 
heal. The  roots  are  white  and  tuberous, 
'i'he  stalk  is  branched  at  the  bottom,  and  two 
or  three  feet  high.  'I'he  flowers  are  red  or 
purple.  '1  his  plant  has  a  fetid  smell  and  liilter 
taste,  and  is  reckoned  a  good  vulnerary.  It 
grows  on  the  sides  of  rivers  and  lakes,  in  low 
moist  grounds,  and  sometimes  in  corn-fields. 
3.  Germanica,  base  horebound.  The  stem 
is  downy,  and  about  two  feet  high.  The  leaves 
are  white,  downy,  wrinkled,  and  indented. 
The  flowers  are  white,  purplish  within,  and 
grow-  in  multiflorous  ,wliorls.  It  grows  in 
luigland.  4.  .Arvensis,  corn-stachys,  petty 
ironwort,  or  all-heal.  The  stalk  is  ten  or 
twelve  inches  high,  squaie,  branched,  and 
hairy.  It  is  fretiuent  in  corn-fields,  and  grows 
from  June  to  August. 

STADIUM,  an  aiitient  Greek  long  mea- 
sure, about  a  fuiUing. 

STvEHELINA,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  class  of  syngenesia,  and  order  of 
poiygamiaa-qualis;  and  in  the  natural  system 
arranged  under  the  49th  order,  comp'osita?. 
'I  he  receptacle  is  paleaceous,  the  chaff  being 
very  short ;  the  pappus  is  branchy,  and  the 
anthers  caudated.  Fliere  are  1 0  species,  the 
gnaphaloidcs,  dubia,  arborescens-,  fruticosa, 
ilicifolia,  corymbosa,  chanuepeuce,  imbricata, 
spinosa,  and  haslila. 

S  TAG.     See  Cekvus. 

Stag-beetle.     See  Lucavus. 

STALACTIT.'E,  orSTALACTAGMA,stony 
concretions  resembling  icicles,  in  natural  his- 
tory- or  crystalline  spars  formed  into  oblong, 
conical,  round,  or  irregular  bodies,  composed 
of  various  crusts,  and  u^ually  found  hanging  in 
form  of  icicles  from  the  roofs  of  grottoes,  &c. 
See  Spar. 

Of  this  class  there  are  various  species:  as 
the  hard,  white  stalactils  ;  the  white,  sliatten' 
stalaclila-;  and  the  yellow,  sliatlery,  crystal- 
line slaiactitie.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig. "384. 

ST.'\LAGMITIS,  a  genus  ot  the  monoecia 
order,  in  tlie  polyganiia  class  of  plants  ;  and 
in  the  natural  metliod  ranking  under  the  3Slh 
ord;r,  tricoi-c;c.  I'he  calyx  is  either  quadri- 
))h_\  Uous  or  hexaphyllous  ;  the  corolla  consists 
of  four  or  of  six  petals ;  tlie  receptacle  is  lleshy, 
ami  somewhat  siiuare-shaped ;  the  filaments 
about  30.  In  the  hermaiihrodite  flower  the 
stylus  is  short,  thick,  and  erect;  the  fruit  is  a 
berry  of  a  globular  shape,  unilocular,  and 
browned  with  the  stylus  and  stigma  :  they  con- 
tain three  oblong  jo"inted  triangular  seeds.  Of 
this  there  is  only  one  species,  viz.  the  cainbo- 
gioi(ies,a  native  of  the  East  Indies  and  of  the 
warmer  parts  of  America.  From  this  plant  is 
obtained  the  gutta  cambogia,  or  gum  gamboge 
of  the  shops.  Sec  Gum  resins,  and  Gam- 
boge. 

Till  very  lately  botanists  were  at  a  loss  for 
the  true  nature 'of  the  plant  which  yields  this 
gum.  Koenig,  a  native  of  Ireland,  and  an  ex- 
cellent botanist,  travelled  over  a  great  part  of 
India,  and  collected  a  great  nunibcr  of  us w 


S  T  A 

plants,  and  among  the  rest  tl;c  stalagm-ili*' 
These  lie  bequeathed  to  sir  Joseph  liaiika. 

ST.VLK.     See  Botany. 

STAMINA.     See  Botavy. 

Stamina,  in  the  animal  body,  are  defined 
to  be  those  simple  original  paits,  which  ex- 
isle. 1  first  in  the  embryo.  Slc  Physio- 
logy. 

STAMP  DUTIES,  a  branch  of  {he  pub- 
lie  revenue,  raised  by  requiring,  that  all  deed* 
or  documents,  in  order  to  be  valid,  shall  be 
written  on  paper  or  parchment  bearing  a 
public  mark  or  seal,  for  which  a  tax  is  paid. 

Stamp-duties  are  said  to  have  originated 
in  Holland,  and  were  introduced  into  Eng- 
land in  1671,  by  "  an  act  for  laying  unposi- 
tions  on  proceedings  at  law :"  these  duties 
were  very  numerous,  and  were  at  first  grant- 
ed for  nine  years ;  they  were  afterwarils  con- 
tinued for  tluee  years  irom  IfiSO,  when,  iu 
consequence  of  the  unfortunate  jealousies  be- 
tween the  crown  and  parliament,  they  were 
sulleied  to  expire.  It  was  not  long,  how- 
ever, before  the  necessities  of  the  govern- 
ment caused  this  mode  of  taxation  to  be 
again  resorted  to  as  a  source  of  revenue  more 
to  be  depended  on  than  some  of  the  taxes 
which  then  existed:  an  act  was  accordingly 
passed  in  lf-iy4,  for  imposing  several  dutie's 
upon  vellum,  parchment,  and  paper,  which 
iiiay  be  considered  as  the  commencement  of 
tiie  present  stamp-office,  as  a  particular  set 
of  commissioners  were  then  appointed  for 
managing  the  duties ;  and  about  four  years 
alter,  several  new  duties  were  granted,  to 
continue  for  ever,  to  which  numerous  addi- 
tions have  at  difTerent  times  been  since 
made. 

'The  total  gross  produce  of  the  stamp-du- 
ties, in  the  year  1713,  was  107,779/.,  the 
charges  of  management  of  which  amounted 
to  14,296/.,  leaving  a  iiett  produce  of  only 
93,483/.  In  17-3,  the  nelt  produce  had  in- 
creased to  130,4(19/-;  and  it  seldom  exceed- 
ed this  amount  till  1757,  when  some  new 
stamp-duties  were  imposed,  by  which  the 
total  nett  amount  of  this  revenue  was  in- 
creased to  l'67;7i?5/. :  in  1766  it  amounted 
to  28.7,266/. ;  and  no  material  addilions  were 
made  till  towards  the  conclusion  of  the  Ame- 
rican war.  In  1782,  a  duty  was  imposed  on 
fire-insurances,  which,  though  not  actually 
collected  by  means  of  stamps,  was  classed 
with  the  stamp-duties.  In  1734,  additional 
duties  weie  laid  on  gold  and  silver  plate.  In 
178.".,  duties  were  laid  on  post-hor'^es,  <|uack 
meilicines,  game-licence^,  attorneys'  licences, 
and  pawnbrokers  ;  all  of  which  were  deemed 
stamp-duties,  and  considerably  augmented 
the  annual  amount.  But  a  far  greater  in- 
crease took  place  in  the  course  of  the  war 
wliich  began  in  1793,  during  which  new 
stamp  duties  were  imposed  on  receipts,  bills 
of  exchange,  attorneys'  articles,  sea-insuv- 
anccs,  licences  to  wear  liair-powder,  horse- 
dealers'  licences,  legacies,  hats,  stage-coaches, 
deeds,  armorial  bearings,  small  notes,  medi- 
cines, and  several  other  articles,  v  hich  soon 
increased  this  branch  of  the  revenue  to  more 
liian  double  its  fornu-r  amount ;  and  it  is  a 
m<;de  of  taxation  which  it  is  in  general  so 
difiicult  to  evade,  and  is  attended  with  such 
a  comparatively  small  expence  in  collecting, 
that  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  will 
be  extended  as  far  as  possible. 

Total  gross  produce  of  tbu  stamp-duties  cf 


Great  Rriiain,  in  llie  year  euJiiig  ith  Janu- 
ary 1800: 
'England  and  Wales     ^3,93 1, Slo     8     6} 
Scotland        -  -      "  26'2,t)()9     4    3i 


Xi,W^,2»5  12  lOi 
This  anionnt  is  siil)ji;ct  to  various  dcdu<-- 
(ion*,  as,  tilt;  cliargcs  of  nianagcMui-iil,  dis- 
count';, and  oilier  parlianu-ntary  allow, uicts, 
llie  cost  of  ixirchment  and  paper  lor  tlic 
lountry  distributors,  an  allowance  to  the  two 
uni\ersities  on  alnianacks,  and  many  inci- 
drnlal  expences,  which  reduced  the  acUi.d 
iiett  produce  paid  into  the  exchetjucr  to  the 
follow  inc;  sums : 

England  and  Wales       <i' 3,072,793     :,     2 
Scotland  -  -  240,  l7u  17     2 


3,918,964    2    4 

Tlie  cxpence  of  collection  amounted  to 
3/.  5.V.  per  cent,  on  the  gross  revenue,  or 
3/.  9y.  5(7.  per  ciMit.  on  the  nett  produce, 
*hich  is  considerably  less  than  (he  inana,L;<'- 
nient  of  this  branch  of  the  public  income 
amounted  to  a  few  years  back. 

The  total  gross  produce  of  the  stamp-du- 
ties of  Ireljud  for  the  year  end:n.!>  :".tli  Janu- 
ary 180(i,  was  .J01,g4.3/.  9.V.  lOji/.,  ajul  the 
nett  sum  paid  into  the  exchequer  4j(i,j3j/. 
1 1.?.  i-fd. ;  the  expence  of  collection  amount- 
ed to  bl.  Ov.  Id.  per  cent,  on  the  gross  pro- 
duce, or  5/.  7«.  6{d.  per  cent,  on  the  nett 
produce. 

The  following  are  the  stamp-duties  at  pre- 
sent in  force: 

Actions,  entry  of,  in  inferior  co\nls  for  40*. 
and  upwarils,  I's.  tid.     12  Ceo.  c.  2J, 

Acts.     See  Notarial  .Vets. 

Adjudications,  apprisings,  charter,  resig- 
nation, dare-conslat,  cognition  of  heirs,  heri- 
table right,  conhnnation,  novodanius,  prin- 
cipal and  original  instrument  of  surrender, 
retonr,  ^asine,  and  service  in  Scotland,  9*.  6rf. 
37  (;eo.  111.  c.  90. 

Administration.     See  Probate. 

Admiralty,  or  cinque-ports.  Any  answer 
exhibited  in  these  courts,  7.j.  41  Geo.  III. 
c.  SO. 

Any  libel,  allegation,  deposition,  or  inven- 
tory, "exhibited  in  the  courts  of  admiralty  or 
tin<iue-ports,  5.?.     3"  Geo.  III.  c.  90. 

Any  copy  of  any  citation,  monition,  or  an- 
swer," made  in  the  courts  of  admiralty  or 
einqne-porls,  5.5.     37  Geo.  III.  c.  90. 

Any  copy  of  any  libel,  allegation,  deposi- 
tion, or  inventory,  exhibited  in  the  courts  of 
admiralty  or  cinque-ports,  j.y.  37  Geo.  111. 
C.90. 

x\ny  personal  decree,  warrant,  or  moni- 
tion, in  any  court  of  admiralty,  or  the  cinque- 
ports,  or  any  copy  thereof,  10,s.  27  Geo. 
III.  c.  90. 

Any  sentence  given  in  the  courts  of  admi- 
ralty or  cinque-ports,  or  any  attachment 
made  out  by  the  same,  or  relaxation  Ihereol', 
1/.     37  Geo.  111.  c.  90. 

Any  sentence  or  fnial  decree  exhibited  In 
the  courts  of  admiralty  or  cinque-ports,  or 
any  copy  thereof,  4v.     37  Geo.  111.  c.  90. 

Admission  into  corporations  or  companies, 
8j-.     37  Geo.  111.  c.  90. 

Admis-ion  into  any  inn  of  chancery,  4/.  2s. 
37  Geo.  111.  c.  90. 

Admission  into  any  of  the  four  inns  of  court, 
16.'.  4?.     37  Geo.  111.  c.  90. 

AdiniUance  of  fellow  of  college  of  physi- 


STAMP  DUTIES. 

cian"!,  atlortiey,  clerk,  advocate,  procloi-,< 
notary,  or  other  ofiicer  of  any  court  what- 
soever in  Great  iJrilain,  except  under  lo/. 
per  annum,  IC/.     37  Geo.  111.  c.  SO. 

Advertisement  in  newspapers,  3s.  37  Geo. 
111.  c.  .00. 

Advertisement  in  periodical  pamphlets,  3s. 
29(ieo.  111.  c.  50. 

Advocate.     See  Admittance. 

Afildavit  in  any  court  of  law  or  equity,  at 
U'estniinster,  or  in  any  court  of  great  session 
for  the  counties  in  Wales,  or  in  the  court  of 
the  county  palatine  of  Chester,  or  copies 
thereof,  '2s.     35  Geo.  111.  c.  30. 

Aflidavits  in  inferior  courts.  Is.  35  Geo. 
III.  c.  30. 

Agreements  (except  where  the  matter  of 
agreement  shall  not  e.xceed  twenty  pounds, 
and  also  except  those  for  lease  at  rack  rxMit) 
of  messuages  under  five  pounds,  those  for 
hire  of  labourers,  artificers,  manufat:turers  or 
menial  servants,  and  those  relating  to  sale  of 
goods,  &c.  IOj-.     37  Geo.  111.  c.  90. 

No  memorandum  or  agreement  written 
upon  :rin  unstamped  paper  shall  be  deemed 
void,  in  case  it  is  stamped  at  the  head  oflice 
and  the  duty  paid  witliin  21  days  after  the 
sanu-  .^hall  liavc  been  entered  into. 

Allegation.     See  Citation. 

Ahnanaek,  book  or  sheet,  Sd.  37  Geo. 
III.  c.90. 

Answer   in  court  of  equity.      See  Bills, 

''"W-  ,  -        , 

Answer,  sentence,  and  linal  decree,  in  ec- 

ilesiastical  courts,  and  copies  thereof,   and 

copies  of  citation  or  monition,  2.y.     23  Geo. 

111.  c.  58. 

Appeal,  writ  of.     See  Certiorari. 

Appe;U  from  (he  adniir.iltv,  arches,  or  pre- 
rogative courts  of  Canterbury  or  York,  12/. 
37  Geo.  HI.  c.  90. 

Appearance  on  common  bail,  in  the  courts 
at  \\  eslniinster,  great  sessions,  or  counties 
palatine,  ls.6d.  32  Geo.  U.  c.  35.  In  all 
other  courts,  Is. 

Appearance  on  special  bail,  2j.  10  W. 
III.  c.  25. 

Apprentices.  The  stamps  upon  appren- 
tices' indentures  amount  to  25.?.  for  each  in- 
denture, except  parish-apprentices,  or  cha- 
rity-children, for  whom  a  sixpenny  stamp  is 
suliicient.  Also  wheisc  the  tee  given  with 
the  apprentice  does  not  amount  to  10/.,  each 
indenture  is  subject  to  a  stamp  of  15s.  only. 
See  Deeds. 

And  if  a  fee  is  given  with  an  apprentice, 
clerk,  or  servant,  bouml  or  articled  for  a 
tern)  of  years,  the  following  duty  must  be 
paid  in  respect  of  such  fee  : 

From  1/.  to  50/.  sixpence  for  every  pound. 

All  above  50/.  and  upwards.  Is.  for  every 
pound  ;  to  be  paid  by  the  master  or  mistress. 

The  full  sum  given  must  be  set  down  in 
the  indentures,  or  forfeit  double  the  amount 
if  the  deception  can  be  discovered. 

And  the  indentures  must  be  brought  to 
tiie  stamp-ollice:  if  executed  within  the  bills 
of  mortality,  within  one  month;  or  if  exe- 
cuted in  the  country,  to  their  agents  within 
two  months  after  binding,  and  the  duty  paid, 
or  the  indentures  become  void,  and  forfeit 
50/.  besides. 

Apprisings.     See  Adjudication. 

Articles  of  clerkship.  See  Attorneys'  clerks. 

Assignments.     See  Deeds. 

Assigtmients  of  bail-bonds.  Is.  10  W.  III. 
c.  25. 

4T2 


6rtT 

Assurance  of  houses  and  pol'cj'.     See  In- 
surance. 

Atlachineiit  in  admiralty  or  cinque-j)orls, 
1/.     37  Geo.  III.  c.90. 

Attested  copies.     See  Copy. 

Attorney,  letter  of.     .See  Deeds. 

Attorney,  admittance  of.    See  .'\dmittanre. 

Every  solicitor,  attorney,  notary,  proctor, 
agent,  or  jjrocurator,  practising  in  any  of  the 
courts  at  Westminster,  ectlesiasticaf,  admi- 
ralty, or  <.'in<iue-])ort  courts,  in  lifs  majesty's 
courts  in  Scotland,  the  great  sessions  in  Wales, 
the  courts  in  the  counties  palatine,  or  any 
other  courts  holding  pleas  to  the  amount  of 
40'.  or  more,  shall  take  out  certiticates  an- 
nually, upon  whi(  h  there  shall  be  charged, 
if  the  solicitor,  &c.  reside  in  any  of  the  inns 
of  courts  or  in  London,  Westminster,  South- 
wark,  St.  Pancras,  St.  Mary-le  hone,  or 
widhn  the  bills  of  mortality,  a  stamp-duty  of 
5/.;  in  any  other  part  of  tireat  Britain,  3t. 
25  Geo.  I'll.  c.  80. 

And  every  solicitor,  attorney,  notary, 
proctor,  agent,  or  procurator,  in  any  court 
in  England,  holding  pleas  oi  40.?.,  shall  annu- 
ally,' between  November  I .  and  tl-.e  eird  of 
.Michaelmas  ferni,  deliver  at  the  head  oilier; 
tor  stamps,  a  note  containing  his  name  and 
place  of  abode;  and  tliweupon,  and  upon 
payment  of  the  duties  in  respect  of  his  abode, 
I'very  such  person  shall  be  entitled  to  his  cer- 
tificate, to  be  issued  by  the  commissioner-  of 
.stamps, or  their  proper  ofUcer.  37  Geo.  111. 
c.  90. 

And  every  such  certiiicate  so  obtained, 
shall  be  entered  with  the  proper  oiTicer  of 
the  court  where  the  party  shall  practise,  who 
shall  be  paid  l.v.  for  the  eutry,  and  the  bosks 
of  such  entry  may  be  inspected  by  all  per- 
sons gratis. 

And  every  such  certificate  shall  bear  date 
the  2d  day  of  November,  and  shall  cease  on 
the  1st  day  of  November  next  following. 

Persons  who  shall,  from  and  after  the  1st 
day  of  November,  1797,  act  without  obtain- 
ing a  certiticate,  or  without  entering  the 
same  as  aforesaid,  or  shall  deliver  in  to  any 
person  at  the  stamp-oliice  any  account  of  a 
residence  with  intent  to  evade  the  liigher 
duties,  shall  forfeit  50/.  and  be  incapable  oS 
suing  for  any  fees. 

And  every  person  admitted,  sworn,  in- 
rolled,  or  registered  in  an)  of  (he  courts,  who 
shall  neglect  to  obtain  his  certiticate  in  man- 
ner aforesaid  for  the  space  of  one  whole  year, 
shall  from  thenceforth  be  i;icapable  of  prac- 
tising in  his  own  name,  or  in  (he  name  of 
any  other;  but  the  courts  may  re-admit  hini 
on  payment  of  the  duty  accrued  since  the 
expiration  of  his  last  certificate,  and  such  jur- 
thersum  as  tlie  couit  shall  order  byway  of 
penalty. 

And"  by  39  and  40  CJeo.  III.  c.  72.  from 
and  after  November  1.,  1800,  every  person 
who  shall  act  as  a  public  notary,  or  use  or 
exercise  the  oflice  ot  a  notary  in  any  maimer, 
or  do  any  notarial  act  whatsoever,  wi-hoi.t 
having  been  dul)  admitted  in  tlte  court 
where  notaries  are  usually  adinitled,  and 
without  having  delivered  in  his  name  and 
Uiual  place  of  residenci;,  and  taken  out  such 
certiticate  as  is  directed  by  the  ;icts,  shall 
forfeit  50/.  and  be  incapable  to  do  any  act  a* 
a  notary-public,  or  recover  any  fee. 

Attorneys'  clerks.  By  34  Geo.  III.  c.  14, 
there  shall  be  paid  for  every  contract  in 
writing,   whereby  any  person  shall  beconnt 


700 

bound  to  serve  as  a  clerk,  in  ordfr  to  his 
admission  as  a  solicitor  or  allonicv,  liie  ad- 
ditional duties  following,  viz.  Forevtiy  piece 
of  vellum,  parchment,  or  paper,  upon  which 
shall  be  written  any  such  contract,  whereby 
any  person  shall  become  bound  to  serve  as 
a  clerk  as  aforesaid,  in  order  fo  his  admission 
as  a  solivitoror  attorney  in  any  of  the  courts 
at  U'estniinster,  there  shall  be  charged  a 
stamp-duty  of  100/. 

And  in  order  to  his  admission  as  a  solicitor 
or  attorney  in  any  of  the  courts  of  great  ses- 
sion in  W'ales,  or  in  the  counties  palatine  of 
Chester,  Lancaster,  or  Durham,  or  in  any 
court  of  record  in  England,  hoidini;  pleas  to 
the  amount  of  40s.  and  not  in  anv  of  the  said 
courts  at  Westminster,  there  shall"  be  charged 
a  stamp-dutv  of  50,'. 

Award,  iO.f.     37  Geo.  III.  c.  90. 
Bail-bonds,  and   assignments  thereof,    l.v. 
ro  M-.  in.  c.  25. 

Benejicial  warrant  under  sjgn  manual  (ex- 
cept tor  navy,  army,  or  ordnance),  1  /.  5j-. 
37  Geo.  IIF.  c.  90. 
.  Bill  of  exchange,  promissory  or  other  note, 
draft,  or  order,  wiiere  the  sum  amounts  to 
40f.  and  does  not  exceed  5l.  5s.,  6d.  41 
Geo.  HI.  c.  JO. 

Above  5/.  3s.,  and  not  exceedinc  30/., 
Is.     41  Geo.  III.  c.  10. 

Above  30/.,  and  not  exceeding  50/.,  \s.  Qd. 
41  Geo.  \\\.  c.  10. 

Above  50/.,  and  not  exceeding  100/.,  2^. 
41  Geo.  III.  c.  10. 

Above  100/.,  and  not  exceeding  200/.,  Zs. 
41  Geo.  III.  c.  10. 

Bills  and  notes  not  exceeding  200/.  value, 
and  for  every  bill  of  exciiange,  promissory  or 
©ther  note,  dralt  or  order,  payable  on  de- 
mand, or  otherwise,  where  the  siim  shall 
exceed  200/.,  there  shall  be  charged  As.  41 
Geo.  III.  c.  10. 

Foreign  bills  of  exchange,  drawn  in  sets 
according  to  the  custom  of  merchants,  where 
the  sum  shall  not  e.xceed  100/.,  U~ld,  41 
Geo.  III.  c.  10. 

Above  100/.,  and  not  exceeding  200/., 
U.  6(/.     41  Geo.  HI.  c.  10. 

And  e.\ceeding  200/.  2s.      4l   Geo.  III. 
c.  10. 
Bill  of  lading,  2*.     37  Geo.  III.  c.  90. 
Bill  of  Middlesex.     See  Original  Writ. 
Bills,  answers,  replications,  rejoinders,  de- 
murrers,  uiterrogatories,  depositions    taken 
by  commissions,  and  other  ]>ro!:eedings   in 
courts  of  equity,  2.s.  6d.     23  Geo.  III.  c.  58. 
Bonds  (except  sOch  as  are  given  as  security 
for  money),  15y.     41  Geo.  111.  c.  86. 

Coast  tonds,  and  bonds  on  wills  or  admi- 
nistrations not  exceeding  20/.,  and  bonds 
given  by  the  widow  of  any  soldier  or  sailor, 
are  exempt  from  the  duty  imj)osed  by  37 
Geo.lII.  c.  90. 

Bonds  given  as  security  for  payment  of 
money,  il  not  above  100/.,  I5«.  41  Geo. 
111.  c.  8fi. 

Above  100/.,  and  under  500/.,  1/.  37 
Geo.  in.  <■.  90. 

If  of  500/.  or  upwards,  1/.  10>'.  37  Geo 
III.  c.  90. 

When  the  amount  shall  be  of  the  value  of 
100/.  or  uijwards,  2/.     37  Geo.  HI.  e.  90. 

Wheu  the  am  junt  shall  be  of  the  value  of 
200/.  or  upwards  3/.     37  Geo.  III.  c.  90. 

VVhen  the  amount  shall  be  of  the  value  of 
•lOOoi.  or  upwards,  5/.    37  Geo.  III.  c.  90. 


STAMP  DUTIES. 

Briefs  for  collecting  charitable  benevolence, 
&c.  4/.     23  Geo,  lit.  c.  58. 

Capias  writ.     See  Orighial  Writ. 

Cards  per  pack,  2s.  6d.  4l  Geo.  III. 
c.  86. 

Catalogue.     See  Inventory. 

Ceitilicate  of  Ijarrister  in  any  of  tke  inns  of 
court,  23/.     37  Geo.  1 1 1,  c.  90. 

Certihrate  or  debenture  for  drawback,  4j. 
37  Geo.  III.  c.  Qk). 

Certilicatc  of  marriage,  except  of  seamen's 
widows,  5.9.     5  W.  111.  c.  21. 

Certificate.  See  Register,  Registry,  Sa- 
crament. 

Certiorari,  writ  of  error,  or  writ  of  appeal, 
except  to  deleg-iies,  10?. 

Certificate  to  kill  g.-inie,  3/.  os.  See  Game. 

Certificate  of  appointment  of  game-keeper, 
lOs.  6d. 

Certificate  for  wearing  hair-powder,  1/.  Is. 
41  Geo.  lil.  c.  69. 

Certificate  for  attorneys.     See  Attorney. 

Charter.     See  Adjudication. 

Charter-party.     See  Deeds. 

Chaiitycliildren's  indenture.  See  Ap- 
prentice. 

C;tatif  n  or  monition,  libel  or  allegation, 
deposition  or  inventory,  exhibited  in  any  ec- 
clesiastical court,  and  all  copies  thereof  (ex- 
cept copies  of  citation  or  monition,  for  which 
see  Answer),  2s.  6d.     23  Geo.  111.  c.  58. 

Clare-constat.     See  Adjudication. 

Clerk.     See  Admittance. 

Clerks  to  attorneys.  See  Attorneys' Clerks. 

Cognition  of  heirs.     See  Adjudication. 

Collation,  donation,  or  presentation  to  any 
ecclesiastical  dignity,  promotion,  or  benefice, 
of  the  yearly  value  of  10/.  and  upwards  in 
the  king's  books,  12/.     37  Geo.  Ill.c.  90. 

And  to  any  other  benefice,  dignity,  or  spi- 
ritual or  ecclesiastical  promotion,  6/.  37 
Geo.  III.  c.  90. 

Commission,  ecclesiastical,  5s.  10  W.  III. 
c.  25. 

Conmion  bail  in  the  courts  at  Westminster, 
great  sessions,  or  county  palatine,  l*-.  6d. 
32  Geo.  II.  c.  35. 

Confirmation.     See  x\djudication. 

Contract.     See  Deed. 

Conveyance,  surrender,  or  grants  of  oftices, 
release,  or  other  deed  inrolled  in  any  court 
of  record,  or  by  anv  custos  rotulorum,  or 
clerk  of  the  peace.  1/.     37  Geo.  III.  c.  90. 

Copy  of  court-roll.     See  Surrender. 

Copy  of  depositions  in  chancery,  or  other 
court  of  equity  at  Westminster,  copy  of  any 
bill,  answer,  piea,  demurrer,  replication,  re- 
joinder, interrogatories,  or  other  proceedings 
whatsoever,  in  such  courts  of  equity,  3d.  19 
Geo.  111.  c.  66. 

Copies  of  wills,  Qd.    37  Geo.  III.  c.  90. 

Any  copy  purporting  to  be  a  true  copy, 
or  attested  to  be  a  true  cop\,  of  any  inden- 
ture, lease,  or  other  deed,  or  any  part  there- 
of, for  the  security  or  use  of  any  person, 
being  a  party  to  the  same  deed,  and  not  hav- 
ing the  custody  of  the  original,  or  where  such 
copy  shall  not  be  made  in  lieu  of  such  origi- 
nal, 6.S.  »d.    40  Geo.  III.  c.  72. 

And  the  number  of  stamps  required  to  be 
med  for  such  copies  of  deeds  is,  one  for 
every  ten  common  law  sheets  of  72  words : 
but  if  after  a  calculation  of  that  number, 
there  shall  remain  a  number  of  words  less  in 
quantity  than  ten  common  law-^heets,  no 
further  stamp  is  required  for  the  excess. 

And  by  39  and  40  Geo.  III.  c.  72,  from 


August  1,  1800,  in  lieu  of  the  stamp-duty  j 
its.  Sd.  Uj)On  the  coj-y  ot  any  deed,  when  i. 
is  for  the  use  of  any  person,  other  than  ar\ 
of  the  -jjarties  to  the  same  deed,  and  wli.  > 
shall  not  have  the  custody  of  the  original,  o: 
when-  such  copy  shall  not  be  made  in  liei; 
of  such  original,  there  shall  be  paid  a  stamp- 
duty  of  G(/.  on  every  piece  of  vellum  or 
parchment,  or  sheet  or  piece  of  paper,  on 
which  any  such  copy  shall  be  written. 

And  tile  number  of  stamps  to  be  put  up^>u 
everv  copy,  is  to  be  calculated  according  to 
the  last  act. 

And  by  39  and  40  Geo.  HI.  c.  84  copies 
of  indentures  or  other  deeds,  liable  to  the 
duties  granteel  by  37  Geo.  c.  90.,  may  be 
stamped 'within  sixty  days  after  <late  of  the 
attestation,  on  payment  of  the  duty  only. 

Copy  of  any  surrender  of,  and  admittance 
to,  any  custom-right  estate,  not  being  copy- 
hold, which  siiall  pass  by  surrender  and  ad- 
mittance only,  and  which  shall  not  pass  by 
deed,  within  England,  Wales,  and  town  of 
15ervvick  upon  Tweed,  I2s.  41  Geo.  III.  c. 
S6. 

Copyhold  estate.     See  Surrender. 

Covenant,  writ  of     See  Writ  of  Covenant. 

Debenture  for  drawbacks.  See  Certificate. 

Declaration,  plea,  replication,  rejoinder, 
demurrer,  or  other  pleading  whatsoever,  in 
any  court  of  law  at  Westminster,  or  in  any 
ot  the  courts  of  the  principality  of  Wales,  or 
in  any  of  the  counties  palatine  of  Chester, 
Lancaster,  or  Durham,  and  copies  thereof, 
3d.     32  Geo.  II.  c.  35. 

Declaration,  plea,  replication,  rejoinder, 
demurrer,  or  other  pleading  whatsoever,  in 
any  inferior  court  of  law,  and  copies  thereof, 
2d.     10  W.  HI.  c.  15.  ^ 

Decree,  personal.     See  Warrant. 

Dedimus  potestatem.    See  Original  Writ. 

Deeds.  Any  indenture  Cexce|!t  parish-in- 
dentures), lease  or  deid-poll  ;  and  any  char- 
ter-party, release,  contract,  or  otl.er  obli- 
gatory instrument  ;  or  any  procuration  of 
letters  of  attorney  ;  for  es'ery  15  common 
law-sheets,  of  72  words  each,  15^.  41  Geo. 
III.  c.  86. 

And  moreover,  by  87  Geo.  HI.  there  shall 
be  paid  upon  every  deed  which  shall  be  made 
after  August  1,  1797,  an  additional  stamp- 
duty  of  10.S.  over- and  above  all  duties  now 
pavable  on  the  vellum  or  paper  whereon 
such  deed  shall  be  engrossed  (but  this  is  upon 
the  first  skin  only),  the  provisions  of  this  act 
being  as  follow  : 

It^shall  not  extend  to  any  bond  or  letter  of 
attorney,  bearing  date  before  Aug.  1,  1797. 

Aljo'it  shall  not  extend  to  any  indenture 
of  apprenticesiiip,  where  a  sum  not  exceed- 
ing 10/.  shall  be  given;  nor  to  any  lease  for 
not  exceeduig  twenty-one  years,  the  full  ur.d 
improved  value  whereof,  and  rent  reserved 
thereby,  shall  not  be  more  than  10/.  nor  to 
any  lease  for  lives,  or  years  determinable  on 
lives,  where  the  Jme  shall  not  exceed  20/. 
nor  the  rent  reserved  40,'. 

But  by  39  and  40  Geo.  HI.  c.  42,  the 
above  duties  shall  extend  to  every  died, 
which  by  lease  may  form,  or  is  intended  to 
(Mrm,  a  part  of  any  conveyance  of  lauds  or 
tenements,  v  hereby  a  greater  interest  in  the 
same  shall  be  conveved  than  a  term  of 
twenty-one  years,  whatever  may  be  the  value 
thereof 

Nor  shall  any  deed  be  subject  to  the  pay- 
ment of  an.v  greater  duty  than  tlie  sum  be- 


hrt  mentioned,  or  to  be  stampetl  on  mere 
tijaii  line  skin,  with  thu  ii'ldilional  stamp  ;  or 
to  be  stanip«d  witli  moie  than  one  sucli 
stamp. 

Nor  sliall  llie  duty  by  tins  act  imposed,  be 
liable  to  the  n-gulalions  respeelin<5  the  stamp- 
ing of  jjarchment  and  paper,  accordnig  to 
the  number  of  connnon  iaw-siieets  engroaS'.Kl 
thereon. 

Upon  payment,  within  sixty  days  after  tlie 
date  of  the  deed,  oftliednly  hereby  imposed, 
the  stamp-oliicers   may   stamp  any   veihnn, 

fjarchmcnt,  or  paper,  to  wliicli  any  deed  shall 
lave'  been  engrossed,  or  on  wliiih  any  deed 
shall  be  intended  to  be  engrossed  with  tlie 
additional  stamp. 

And  if  the  duty  shall  not  be  paid  within 
sixty  diiys,  tlieii  it  shall  bi-  lawt'ul  to  send  the 
deed  to  the  head  ol'llce,  and  on  pavim-nt  of 
the  duty,  and  the  further  sum  of  10/.  by  way 
of  penalty,  the  same  may  be  stamped. 

But  grants,  conveyanees,  and  assurances, 
inider  the  seal  of  the  ducliy  of  Lancaster, 
according  to  19  Geo.  III.  c.  4.>.  where  the 
consideration  does  not  exceed  10/.  are  ex- 
empted by  that  act,  and  39  and  4u  Geo.  IJI. 
c.  7*2   from  all  duly. 

The  number  of  stamps  required  to  be  used 
on  deeds,  is,  one  for  every  lifleen  comnson 
law-sheets -(of  seventy-two  words  each)  con- 
tained in  the  deed,  or  in  any  scliedule  or  in- 
strument annexed  thereto,  or  any  indorse- 
ment thereon. 

Deeds  to  be  inroUed.     See  Conveyance. 

•  Degrees  in  universities.     See  Kegipter. 
Demurrer  at  law.     See  Declaration. 
Demurrer  in  eeiuity.     See  Hills,  copy. 
Depositions  in  courts  of  equity.     See  Bills. 
Depositions  in  ecclesiastical  courts.      See 

Citation. 

Dice,  per  pair,  and  all  other  things  used 
for  any  game  of  chance,    17.?.  6i.     41  Geo. 

•  III.  c.  8t). 

Dispensation  to  hold  two  ecclesiastical  dig- 
nities, or  benefices,  or  other  flisj)ensation 
from  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  'JO/.  37 
Geo.  3.  c.  90. 

Donation.     See  Collation. 

Draft  for  money.     See  I'ill  of  Exchange. 

Drawbacks.     See  Cerliticate. 

Ecclesiastical  commission.  See  Commis- 
sion. 

Entry,  writ  of.     See  Writ  of  Covenants. 
-     Error,  writ  of.     See  Certiorari. 

Exemplitications  under  the  seal  of  avy 
court,  21.     37  Geo.  3.  c.  90. 

Faculty  from  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, or  inaster  of  the  faculty,  20/.  37  Geo. 
3.  c.  yo. 

Fellow  of  the  college  of  physicians.  See 
Admittance. 

Final  decree.     See  Answer. 

Grant,  or  letters  patent.  Any  grant  or  let- 
ters patent,  under  tiie  great  seal,  or  the  seal 
of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  of  any  honour, 
<ligni(y,  promotion,  franchisf,  liberty,  or 
privilege,  or  the  exemplification  thereof, 
16/.     37  Geo.  3.  c.  90. 

Grant  from  his  majesty  of  itioney  exceed- 
ing 100/.,  which  shall,  pass  the  great  seal  or 
privy  Seal,  12/.     37  Geo.  3.  c.  90. 

Grant  of  land  in  fee,  lease  for  years,  or 
other  profits,  not  particularly  charged  iindec 
the  great  seal,  seal  of  exchequer,  duchy 
or  county  palatine  of  Lancaster,  or  privy 
seal,  10/.    37  Geo.  3.  c.  90. 

n 


STAMP  DUTIES. 

Grant  of  oflice  or  eniplovment  above  50/. 
a  year,  (il.     I'H  Ainie  c.  9.' 

If  above  100/.  (to  be  calculated  on  the  sa- 
lary, It-es,  and  pea|uisitcs),  12/.  37(;.3.c.  yO. 

llubeas  corpus,  js.     5  W.  3.  c.  21. 

Hats.  Duly  ou  every  hat  of  4*.  or  under, 
id.     mV.   3.  c.  12. 

Above  4v.  and  not  exceeding?*.,  Qd.  3(j 
G.J.  c.  12. 

Al)uve  Is.  and  not  exceeding  12*.,  one 
shiiluig.     3ti  G.  3.  c.  12. 

Above  I2s-.  and  upwards,  2s.  3C  Geo.  3. 
c.   12. 

Heritable  right.     See  Adjudication. 

Horses.     See  Race-horses. 

Indenture.     See  Deed. 

indentures,  parish  or  ciiarity.  See  Appren- 
tices. 

Institution,  or  licence  ecclesiastical,  in  Eng- 
land, Wales,  or  Berwick  upon  Tweed  (except 
licences  of  any  ecclesiastical  court  or  ordi- 
nary, appointing  any  stipendiary  curate,  in 
whchUie  amiual  amount  of  the  stipend  sliall 
be  inserted),  1/.  \Qis.  37  G.  3.  c.  90. 
Instrument  obligatory.  See  Deed. 
Insurance  of  houses  or  goods  from  lire,  2*. 
pir  cent.     37  G.  3.  c.  90. 

Insm'ance  upon  any  ship,  goods,  or  it^er- 
cli  indize,  when  the  sum  shall  amount  to  100/. 
live  sliillings,  41  G.  3.  c.  10.  and  so  progres- 
sively for  every  sum  of  100/.  insured. 

And  where  the  sum  to  be  insured  sliall 
not  amount  to  100/.  a  like  duty  of  live  shil- 
lings.    4 1  (.i.  3.  c.  10. 

And  whore  the  sum  to  be  insured  shall  ex- 
ceed 100/.  or  any  progressive  sums  of  100/. 
each,  by  any  fractional  part  of  100/.,  a 
like  duty  for 'each  fractional  part  of  100/., 
live  shillings.     41  G.  3.  r.  10. 

And  upon  every  insurance  where  the  pre- 
mium bhall  not  exceed  tlie  rate  of  20*.  there 
shall  be  paid  wliere  the  sum  shall  amount  to 
100/.  a  duty  of  2.s.  Gd.  :  and  so  progressively 
for  evei-y  sum  of  100/.  so  insured.  41  G.  3". 
c.  10. 

And  where  the  sum  to  be  insured  shall  not 
amount  to  100/.  a  like  duty  of  2^.  6r/. 

And  where  tlie  sum  to  be  insured  shall  ex- 
ceed 100/.  or  any  progressive  sums  of  100/. 
each,  by  any  fractional  part  of  100/.  a  like 
duty  of  2,y.  6d.     4l  G.  3.  c.  10. 

^\'lHcll  duties  shall  be  payable  by  the  as- 
sured. 

'1  (lis  does  not  extend  to  any  insurance  of 
hou.ses-j  (urniture,  goods,  wares,  merchan- 
dizes, or  otlier  properly,  from  loss  by  (ire, 
akeady  subject  to  duty,  nor  any  insurance 
on  lives.    <i  G.  3.(:  10. 

Interrogatories.     See  Bills,  copy. 
Inventories  or  catalogue  of  furniture  with 
reference  to  any  agreement,  Us.    37  Geo.  3. 
c.  90. 

Inventoiyin  ecclesiastical  courts.     See  Ci- 
tation. 
Judgment.    See  Record. 
Lading.    See  Bill  of  Lading. 
Latitat.    See  Original  Writ. 
Lease  of  faiid,  house.  Sec     See  Deed. 
Lease  for  years,  or  oilier  profits,  not  parti- 
ciilarly  charged,  under  the  great  seal,  seal  of 
exchequer,  duchy  or  county  palatine  of  Lan- 
caster, or  privy  seal,  10/.     37  G.  3.  c.  90. 

Lease  by  copy  of  court  roll.  See  Surren- 
der. 

I^egacies  wives,  children,  and  grandchil- 
dren, to  pay  for  a  legacy  or  share  of  a  per- 
sonal estate. 


701 

Of  the  value  of  20/.  or  under,  2s.  6d.  20 
G.  3.  c.  28. 

Above  20/.  and  under  100/.,  five  shillings. 
20  G.  3.  c.  28. 

l-'or  100/.  and  upwards,  I/.    20  G.  3.  c.  28. 

Any  other  lineal  descendant,  or  the  father, 
mother,  and  other  lineal  ascendant,  or  th* 
husbane  of  the  deceased,  to  pay  for  a  legacy 
or  shall-  of  a  personal  estate. 

Of  the  value  of  20/.  or  under,  5y.  23  (J.  3. 
c.  58. 

Above  20/.  and  under  100/-  ten  shillings* 
23G.3.  c.  J8. 

For  100/.  two  pounds.    23  G.  3.  c.  58. 

For  200/.  three  pounds.     23  G.  3.  c.  58, 

i'or  300/.  four  pounds.     23  G.  3.  c.  58. 

And  for  every  further  sum  of  100/.  two 
pounds.    29G.  3.  c.  51. 

All  collateral  relations,  and  strangers,  to 
j)ay  for  a  legacy  or  share  of  a  personal  estate, 
luider  the  value  of  2o/.  live  shillings.  23  G. 
3.  c.  58. 

Letter  of  attorney  for  transfer  or  disposaV 
of  stock,  or  any  other  purpose,  liteen  shil- 
lings.    41  G.3.  c.  86. 

Letters  of  administration.    See  Probate- 
Letters  of  mart.     See  Mart. 
Letters  patent.     See  Grant. 
Libel.     See  Citation. 
Licence  eccleaiastical.    See  Institution. 
Licence  to  pawnbrokers  within  the  bills  of 
mortality,  10/.  per  annum. 

Out  of  the  bills,  5/.  per  ami.    25  G.  3.  c  4S. 
Licence  formarriage,  .5.s.    5  W.  3.  c.  21. 
Licence  for  selling  (piack  medicines.    See  - 
Medicines. 
Licence  for  retailing  beer  and  ale,  2/.  2s. 
Licences  for  spirituous  li(]ucrs,  sweets,  and 
wines,  to  be  taken  out  annually  at  the  excise- 
oflice. 

Licence  for  a  mad-house,  5.9. 
Licence  to  keep  lying-in  hospitals,  5?. 
^  Licence  to  keep  lottery-office,  in  London,  . 
Edinburgh,  or  Dublin,  50/.,  elsewhere  10/.     ' 
Mandate.     See  Original  Writ. 
Marine  Insurance.    See  Insurance. 
Marriage  licence.     See  Licence. 
Mart,  letters  of,  1  /.  .10*.    37  G.  3.  c  90. 
Matriculation   in  the  universities,  S*.    37  ' 
G.  3.  c.  90. 
Medicines.    See  Quack  Medicines. 
Middlesex,  bill  of     See  Original. 
Monition.     See  Citation,  Warrant. 
Newgate,  and  general  circuit  pardon,  4/. 
23  G.  3.  c.  58. 

New'spaprrs.  Every  newspaper,  or  jiaper 
containing  public  news,  intelligence,  or  occur- 
rences, contained  hi  half  a  sheet  or  less,  3^d. 
37  G.  3.  c.  90. 

Being  larger  than  half  a  sheet,  and  not  ex-, 
ceeding  a  whole  sheet,  -id.     37  G.  3.  c.  90. 
Nisi  prius.    See  Record. 
Notary.     See  Admittance,  and  Attorney. 
Notarial  acts.    Any  protest  or  notarial  act 
whatever,  4.>-.     37  G.  3.  c.  90. 

Note,  promissory.     See  Bills  of  Exchange. 
Novodanius.     bee  Adjudication. 
Obligatory  instrument.     See  Bond. 
Oflicerof  any  court.     See  Admittance. 
Order  lor  payment  of  money.     See  Bills 
of  Exchange. 

Order  in  any  court  of  Westminster,  and 
copy,  U-.  ()(/;    32  G.  2.  c.  35. 

Original  VV.  it  (unless  pra;  capias),  subpoena, 
bill  of  Middlesex,  latitat,  writ  of  cipias,  quo    . 
minus,  writ    of  dedimus  potestatein,  every 


702 

otluT  writ,  process,  0)-  mandat 
up«aril>,  3?  G</.   35  G.  3.  c.  30. 

Paniplilfts  of  half  a  sheet,  or  less,  iJ. 

; of  one  sheet,  \i/. 

per  shL'et,  for  every  sheet  in  one 

copy  of  every  paniphlot  not  exceeding  six 
sheets  ill  octavo,  or  a  less  size,  twelve  sheets 
in  quarto,  and  twenty  in  folio,  Qs. 

Pardon  of  corporal  punishment,  crime, 
forfeiture,  orteuce,  or  money  above  100.'. 
twelve  pounds.     37  G.  3.  c.  9o. 

Pai'doii.     See  Newgate  I'artion. 

Parish,  charity  indentures.     See  Appren- 


c.  90. 


See  Bills 
See    De 


tice. 

Passports,  -i.    37  Geo. 
Patents.     See  Grant. 
Personal  decree.     See  ^^■arrant. 
Plate.     AH  gold  plate  made  or  wrought  in 
Great  Britain,  except  watch-cases,  per  oz. 
troy,   I6.s.     37  Geo.  3.  c.  90. 

And  for   every    ounce  troy   of  all  silver 
plate,   l.y.     37  Geo.  3.  c.  90. 
Plea  at  law.     See  Declaration. 
Plea  in  equity.     See  Copy. 
Pleadings  in'  superior  courts, 
Copy,  Declaration. 

Pleadings   in   inferior   courts. 
claratioii. 

Policy  of  assurance,  on  house,  goods,  or 
life,  on  any  sum  not  exceeding  1000/.  fo.  -'5 
Geo.  3.  c.'oS. 

If  above  1000/.  eleven  shillings.  17  Geo. 
3.  c.  jO. 

But  by  Stat.  37  Geo.  3.  c.  90.  tlie  above 
duties  on  policies,  so  tar  as  the  same  relate 
to  policies  for  insuring  houses,  furniture, 
goods,  wares,  mercliandize,  cr  other  pro- 
pertv,  from  loss  by  lire,  are  repealed  frojn 
and  after  July  5,  179",  anrl  from  that  period 
there  sh.dl  be  paid  in  lieu  thereof: 

For  every  policy  of  insurance,  where  the 
sum  insured  shall  not  amount  to  1000/.  the 
sum  of  3?. 

And  where  it  shall  amount  to  1000/.  or  up- 
wards, 6s.  These  policies  are  exempted 
from  the  additional  ten  shillings  duty  on 
de<!ds. 

Policy  of  assurance  upon  sliips.  See  In- 
surance. 

Postea.     See  Record. 
Presentation  to  any  ecclesiastical  dignity, 
jiromotion,  or  benefice,  of  the  yearly  value  of 
10/.  and  upw.uds  in  the  king's  books ;  12/. 
37  Geo.  3.  c.  HO. 

And  to  any  other  benefice,  dignity,  or  S])i- 
ritual  or  ecclesiastical  promotion,  6/.  37 
Geo.  3.  c.  90. 

Probate  of  wills,  or  letters  of  administration, 
of  any  estate  above  24/.  anti  under  lOu/.  ten 
sbilllngs. 

If  the  estate  is  of  the  value  of  100/.  and 
under  300/.  two  pounds  ten  shillings. 

If  the  estate  is  of  the  value  of  300/.  and 

under  GOO/,  eight  pounds.     37  Geo.  3.  c.  90. 

If  the  estate  is  of  the  value  of  600/.  and 

un<l<r   1000/.  fifteen    pounds.      41    Geo.  3. 

c.  86. 

If  the  estate  is  of  the  value  of  luoo/.  and 
under  2000/.  thirty  pounds.  41  tieo.  3. 
c.  86. 

If  the  estate  is  of  lh«  value  of  2000/.   and 

under  5000/.  fifty  ])i>uiids.  4l  (ieo.  3.  c.  8f). 

If  the  estate  is  of  the  value  of  5000/.  and 

under  10,000/.  seventv-five  pounds.    41  Geo. 

3.  c.  86. 

If  the  estate  is  of  tlie  value  of  10,000/.  and 


STAMI'-DUTIES. 

for  40?.  or  \  under  15,000/.  one  hundred  and  ten  potnijs. 
4l  G>-o.  3.  c.  S(). 

If  the  estate  is  of  the  yalue  of  15,fi00/. 
and  under  20,000/.  one  hundred  and.  sixty 
pounds.    41  Geo.  3.  c.  S6. 

If  the  estate  is  of  the  value  of  20,000/.  and 
under  30,000/.  two  hundred  and  ten  pounds. 
41  Geo.  3.  c.  S6. 

If  the  estate  is  of  the  value  of  30,000/.  and 
under  40,000/.  three  hundred  and  ten  pounds. 
41  Geo.  3.  c.  80. 

If  the  estate  is  of  the  yalue  of  40,000/.  and 
under  50,000/.  four  hundred  and  ten  jjounds. 
41  Geo.  3.  c.  S-'ti. 

If  tlieeslale  is  of  the  value  of  50,000/.  and 
under  00,000/.  live  hundred  and  ten  pounds. 
41  Geo.  3.  c.  SO. 

If  ihe  estate  is  of  the  value  of  00,000/.  and 
under  70,000/.  six  hundred  and  ten  pound-. 
41  Geo.  3.  c.  SO. 

If  the  estate  is  of  tlie  value  of  70,000/.  and 
underSO,000'.s>-vtn  hundred  and  ten  pounds. 
41  Geo.  3.  c.  SO. 

If  the  estate  is  of  the  value  of  80,000/.  and 
under  90,000/.  eight  hundred  and  ton  pounds. 
41  Geo.  3.  c.  86. 

It  the  estate  is  of  the  value  of  90,000/.  and 
under  100,000/.  nine  hundred  and  ten 
pounds.     41  Geo.  3.  c.  80. 

If  the  estate  is  of  the  value  of  100,000/. 
and  upwards,  1000/.      41   Geo.  3.  c.  80. 

And  if  any  person  shall  administer  any  per- 
sonal estate,  without  proving  the  will,  or  tak- 
ing out  letters  of  administration,  within  six 
months  after  tlie  death  of  the  party,  such 
person  shall  forfeit  50/.  to  be  recovered  by 
action  or  information.     37  Geo.  3.  c.  90. 

Proctor.     See  Admittance. 

Quack  medicines,  by  25  Geo.  3.  c.  79. 
For  every  packet,  box,  bottle,  pot,  phial,  or 
other  ihclosure,  containing  drugs,  herbs,  pills, 
waters,  essences,  tinctures,  powders,  or  other 
preparation  or  composition  wluUsoever,  used 
or  applied  externally,  or  internally,  as  niedi- 
ciues,  or  medicanieiits,  for  the  prevention, 
cure,  or  relief,  of  any  disorder  or  complaint, 
incident  to,  or  in  any  wise  afi'ectiug,  the 
human  body,  whii  ij  snail  be  uttered  or  vend- 
ed in  Great  Britaii?,  th^re  slrall  be  charged 
a  stamp  duty,  alter  the  tales  iollow'na:,  viz. 

Where  the  contents  of  any  sucii  packet, 
box,  &c.  shall  not  exceed  the  price  of  Is. 
there  shall  be  charged  a  stamp  duty  of  \id. 
Above     ]s.  and  not  exceeding  2s.  6d.,3tl. 
2.V.  6d. 
4v. 

lOi. 

20.*. 

304-. 

And  above  50*.,  2Ds. 

Quo  niimis.     See  Original  Writ. 
Kacc.-liorses.    For  every  horse  entered  to 
start  or   run   for  any   plate,    prize,   sum   of 
money,  or  any  thing  whatsoever,  '21.  2s. 

Keceijits.  By  31  Geo.  3.  c.  25,  the  follow- 
ing stamp  duties  shall  be  paid  upon  re- 
ceipts : 

For  every  piece  of  paper.  Sec.  ujion  which 
shall  be  written,  &c.  any  receipt,  discharge, 
or  accpilttauce  for  money,  amounting  to  4iis. 
and  not  amounting  to  id.'.,  two-pence. 
Amounting  to 

10.'.  and  not  exceeding  20/.      4(/. 

20/.        -  -  50/.       ad. 

50/.         -  -  100/.        Is. 

loo/.         -  -  200/.       2.?. 

200/.         -  -  500/.       3i. 


4?. 

0(/. 

J  0,9. 

l.v. 

20s. 

2.V. 

30s. 

3s. 

50s. 

10,5. 

Animinling  to  500/.  or  iipivards,  5s. 
Receipt  or  discharge  for  legacies.      Sec 
Legacies. 

Kecognizances.and  entries  thereof,  statute 
staple,  or  statute  merchanl,  1/.  37  Geo.  3. 
c.  yn. 

Kecord  of  nisi  prius  and  poslea,  5*.  10 
W.  3.  c.  25. 

Kegister,  entry,  testimonial,  or  certificate 
of  degree  in  any  inn  or  court,  2b/.  37  Geo. 
3.  c.  90. 

Rejoinder  at  law.     See  Declaration. 
Kejoiiider  at  equity      See  Bills,  Copy, 
Release.     See  Deed. 
Release,  enrolled.     See  Conveyance. 
Replication  at  law.     See  Declaration. 
Replication  in  equity.  See  Bills,  Copy. 
Rejirieve,  12/.  37  Geo.  3.  c.  90. 
Resignation.     See  Adjudication. 
Retour.     See  Adjudication. 
Rule  or  order  in  any  of  the  courts  of  West- 
minster, and  copies  tliereot,  l.y.  (id.     33  Geo. 
2.  c.  35. 

Running  horses.     See  Race-horses. 
Sacrament  certificate,  1,«. 
Sasine  and  service.     See  Adjudication. 
Sentence.     See  Answer. 
Sentence   in  the  admiralty.      See  Admi- 
ralty. 

Significavit  pro  corporis  deliberatione, 
lO.v.     lOVV.  3.  c.  25. 

Special  bail,  and  appearance  therein.  Sec 
Appearance. 

Statute  merchant.     See  Recognizance. 
Statute  staple.     See  Recoijnizance. 
Subpo'iia.     See  Original  Writ. 
Surrender  of,  or  admittance  to,  any  copy- 
hold land  or  tenement   in  Fiiglaiid,  Wales, 
or  Berwick  upon  Tweed;  or  grant,  or  lease, 
by  co])y  of  court-roll,  or  any  other  copy  ol 
court -roll,   of  any  honour  or  manor,  wiiliin 
the  same  ])arts,  except  the  original  surrender 
to  the  use  of  a  will,  and  the  court  book  or 
roll  itself,   \0s.     37  Geo,  3,  c,  90, 

And  for  every  copyhold  tenement  of  20.v. 
per  annum  mentioned  in  any  surrender,  for 
which  a  several  line  shall  be  due,  a  distinct 
stamp  duty  shall  be  charged,  it  the  tenements 
mentioned  in  the  surrender  shall,  before  June 
22,  1797,  have  been  surrendered  by  the  dif- 
ferent surrenders,  and  from  and  after  28  June, 
1798,  sliall  be  added  to  any  other  tenenu-m, 
or  mentioned  tlierewith,  to  be  surrtndere  1 
by  tlie  same  surrender,  38  Geo,  3.  c.  85.  ; 
and  if  any  ollicer  of  a  copyhold  or  cusloinarv 
court,  shall  receive  a  line  for  any  surreiuKi 
without  demanding  tlie  duty  for  each  distinct 
tenement,  he  shall  forfeit  20/.  and  if  he  shall 
receive  the  duties,  and  neglect  to  purchase 
the  proper  stani|)s  tor  three  months,  he  sliall 
forfeit  5/.  and  double  duly.  37  Geo.  3. 
c.  90. 

Surreiiiler,  copy  of.     See  Copy. 
Surrender  of  grants  or  offices.     See  Con- 
yeyance. 

Surrender,  principal  and   original  instru- 
ment of.      See  Adjudication, 

Testimonial.     See  Register,  and  Registry. 

Transfer  of  stock,  in  any  company,  society, 

or  corporation,  except  the  bank  of  Fnglaiid, 

or    South-sea   company,    1/.      37   Geo.   3. 

c.  90. 

Transfers  at  the  bank  of  luigland,  7s.  9d. 
23  Geo.  3.  c.  58. 

Universities,  degrees  in.     See  Register, 
AVarrant,  bcneliclul.     See  Beiiehcial  War- 
rant. 


9  T  A 

>V:nTant,  mtinfl.itis,  or  aulliorit)',  ^iv^n  to 
an  aUoriiey  or  solicitor,  to  caviy  on  or  (li-fynd 
ft  suit,  i:o.  in  any  of  the  conrts  at  West- 
iniiislLT,  l•ccU■^ia^tK■al,  adni. rally,  or  cinque 
port  courts,  or  in  1ii<  majesty's  courts  in 
ticotlaiul,  the  grand  session  in  Wales,  or 
courts  in  tlu-  counties  palatine,  therein  the 
debt  shall  amount  to  40?.  or  more,  2.9.  6il. 
to  be  ))aid  by  the  attorney,  and  not  charged 
ly  the  client.     'J5  Geo.  3.  c.  SO. 

Warrant  of  attorney,  to  i>nter  up  judg- 
ment.    See  Letier  of  Attorney. 
Wills.     See  Copy. 
Wills,  probate  of.     See  Probate. 
Writ.     See  Original  Writ. 
^\■^it  of  covenant  for  levying  lines,  1/.  lO.y. 
37  Geo.  3.  c.  90. 

Writ  of  entry,   1/.  10.9. 
>Vrit  of  error.     See  Certiorari. 
A\  rit  of  habeas  corpus,  .is. 
Sr.VND.VUl),  in  conunerce,  the  ori-jinal 
of  a  weight,  measure,  or  coin,  coinnutied  to 
the  keeping  of  a  magistrate,  or  deposited  in 
some  public  place,  to   regulate,  adjust,  and 
try,  the  weights  used  by  particular  persons  in 
traflic.     The  standards  of  weights  and  mea- 
sures in    England   are  appointed  by    NIagna 
Charts  to  be  kept  in  the  e.\('hequer,  by  a  spe- 
cial ofhct;r,  called  the  clerk  or  comptroller 
of  the  market. 

'I'he  standard  of  gold  cohi  is  twenty-two 
carats  of  tine  gold  and  two  carats  of  alloy  in 
the  pound-weight  troy ;  and  the  French, 
Spani>li,  and  Flemish  gold,  is  nearly  of  the 
same  lineness.  The  pouud-weighl  s  cut 
into  forty -four  parts  and  a  half,  each  current 
for  twenty-one  shillings.  The  standard  of 
silver  is  eleven  ounces  and  two  pennyweights 
of  silver,  and  eighteen  peimvweiglits  of  alloy 
of  copper.  M'hetljer  gold  or  silver  is  above 
or  below-  standanl,  is  found  by  assaying,  and 
tlie  hydroslatical  balance. 

Stand.^rd,  in  military  affairs,  a  measure 
by  which  men  enlisted  into  his  majesty's  ser- 
vice, have  the  regulated  height  ascertained. 

According  to  the  regulations  and  orders 
published  in  1799,  the  standard  tor  im-n  raised 
ibr  the  heavy  cavalry  shall  be  five  feet  seven 
inches,  and  for  the  light  cavalry  and  infantry 
five  feet  live  inches;  but  no  recruits  are  to 
be  taken,  even  of  those  sizes,  who  exceed 
thirty-rive  years  of  awe,  or  who  are  not  stout 
and  well  made.  Lads  between  sixteen  and 
eighteen  years  of  age,  who  are  well  limbed, 
and  likely  to  grow,  may  be  taken  as  low  as 
live  feet  six  inches  for  the  heavy  cavalrv, 
and  as  low  as  five  feet  four  inchfs  for  the 
light  cavalry  and  infantry.  Jn  those  regi- 
ments which  are  spcially  authorised  to  enlist 
boys,  healtl'.v  lads,  under  sixteen  years  of  age, 
who  are  likely  to  grow,  may  be  taken  as  low 
as  five  feet  one  inch.  It  will  be  re  oUected, 
that  this  standard  is  for  nvn  enlisted  during  a 
war ;  when  regiments  are  put  upon  a  peace 
establishment,  a  higher  standard  is  resorted 
to.  Thus  by  a  letter,  dated  'JSlh  January, 
1803,  It  is  dn-ected,  that  the  standard  for  the 
infantry  of  the  line  shall  be  five  feet  seven 
inches ;  that  no  man  shall  be  enlisted  who  is 
above  twenty-five  years  of  age  ;  but  growing 
lads  from  seventeen  to  nineteen  years  of 
age,  shall  be  taken  as  low  as  live  ieet  five 
inches. 

Standard,  in  war,  a  sort  of  banner  or 
flag,  borne  as  a  signal  for  the  joining  together 
of  <he  several  troops  belonging  to  the  same 
body. 


S  T  A 

Tiie  st.^nd.u'd  is  uiually  a  piece  of  silk  one 
and  a  half  teet  sipiare,  on  which  are  ein!)r!iirler- 
ed  the  arms,  device,  or  cypher,  of  tlu;  .nrince- 
or  colonel.  It  is  fixed  on  a  lance  eiL'hl  or 
nine  tcel  long,  and  carried  in  tjie  centre  of  the 
first  rank  of  a  scjuadroii  of  liorse,  by  the  cor- 
net. 

Stamdards,  lielonijing  to  the  cavalry. 
Standards  are  posted  in  the  following  man- 
ner : 

The  king's,  with  the  right  squadron  ;  the 
second  with  the  left;  and  the  tiiird  with  the 
centre. 

In  advancing  to  the  front  on  foot,  the  ad- 
vancid  standards  and  th-ir  Serjeants  must 
not  slacken  their  pace,  or  deviate  from  right 
tojuft,  as  the  lieutenant-cblonel  or  leading 
oliicer  may  h'ppen  to  do;  but  if  he  is  in 
their  way,  they  must  call  to  him,  because  they 
alone  regulate  the  i-aarch. 

The  standards  must  always  be  brought  to 
the  parade  by  a  troop,  viz.  by  that  which  has 
its  private  parade  iiearest  to  head-quarters, 
riiev  must  be  accomp&nied  by  as  many  trum- 
peters as  can  conveniently  assemble  with  that 
troop.  Sv.ords  must  be  drawn,  and  the 
march  sounded.  The  cornets  parade,  of 
course,  with  that  troop  to  receive  the  stan- 
dards. The  standards  are  received  by  the 
re.;iment  or  squadron  at  open  ranks,  with 
swo.xls  drawn,  officers  saluting,  and  the 
march  sounding  by  the  remaining  trumpeters. 
They  must  march  off  from  head-cjuarters, 
ami  be  lodged  with  the  same  form. 

SiWNDING,  in  the  seadangiiage.  Stand- 
ing part  oi  the  sliect,  is  that  part  of  it  'vliich  is 
made  fast  to  a  ring  at  the  ship's  quarter. 
Standing  part  of  a  tackle,  is  the  end  of  the 
rope  where  the  block  is  fastened.  Standing 
riipes,  are  those  which  do  not  run  in  any 
block,  but  are  set  tawt  or  let  slack,  as  oc- 
casion serves ;  as  the  sheet-stays,  back-stavs, 
&c. 

STxWGENSPATH,  asulphat  of  barytas, 
in  bars :  colour  white ;  sometimes  grey,  red, 
green  ;  always  crystallized.  The  cry-tals 
are  four-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  two- 
sided  or  four-sided  suma.its,  or  six-sided 
prisms  terminated  by  two-sided  sumnuts. 
Crystals  very  long  and  small,  united  in 
clusters.  Longitudinal  fr.icture,  radiated 
cross,  fractiiie  even  ;  brittle. 

STANNARIES,  the  mines  arid  works 
where  tin  is  dug  and  purified,  as  in  Cornwall, 
Devonshire,  &:c.  'Iheie  are  four  courts  of 
the  stannaries  in  Devonshire,  and  as  many 
in  Cornwall,  and  great  liberties  were  granted 
them  by  several  acts  of  parliament,  in  the 
time  of  Edward  1.  &c.  though  somewhat 
abridged  imder  Edward  III.  and  Charies  I. 

S  I'.ANZA.     See  Poetry. 

STAPELIA,  a  geuvis  of  the  pentandria 
digynia  class  of  plants,  the  corolla  whereof 
consists  of  a  larc,e,  plane,  single  petal,  qiiin- 
(pielid  beyond  the  middle;  the  fruit  consists 
of  two  oblong  subulated  follicles,  made  up  of 
only  one  valve,  and  containing  one  cell ;  the 
seeds  are  numerous,  imbricated,  compressed, 
and  pappose.  See  Plate  Nat.  Mist.  fig.  376. 

Of  this  verv  curious  genus,  there  are  49 
species;  though  only  two  species  were  known 
to  Liniueus,  when  ho  published  his  Species 
Plantaruin,  in  \76'2.  They  are  all  succulent 
plants  of  warm  climates,  and  re(|uire  either  a 
dry  store  or  a  very  g.iod  greenhouse.  They 
should  not  be  watered  in  the  winter-seasoB. 


S  T  A 


70.3 


STAPE.g.  SecANATOMV. 
SI  .APIJ  YLICA,  liLArjDER-NL'T,  a  genus 
ol  plants,  belonging  to  the  class  of  pentan- 
dria, and  order  ot  tngwiiu;  and  in  the  natu- 
ral .system  arranged  under  the  23.1  order, 
trihilatx'.  The  calyx  is  quinqnepartiie. 
There  are  five  petals.  The  capsules  are 
three,  inllated,  and  joined  together  by  a  lon- 
gitudinal suture.  'J'iie  seeds  are  two,  and  arc 
gh)bosc  with  a  scar.  Tliere  are  three  species. 
The  pinnata,  or  bladder-nut  tree,  is  a  tall 
shrub  or  tree.  The  leaves  are  jjinnated  ;  the 
pinn:e  are  generally  live,  oblong,  pointed, 
and  notched  round  the  edges.  'I  he  flowers 
are  white,  and  grow  in  wlioiis  on  long  pendij- 
lous  footstalks.  This  plant  liowei-s  in  June, 
and  is  frequent  in  hedges  about  Pontefract 
and  in  Kent.  The  trifoliata,  or  three-leaved 
bladder-niit  is  a  native  of  \'irginia. 

S  TAITIYLINT'S,  a  genus  of  insects  of 
the  order  coleoptera :  the  generic  character 
is,  antenna:  moniliforni ;  wing-sheaths  halved; 
wings,  covered  ;  tail  simple,  protruding  o<;- 
casionally  two  oblong  vesicles.  In  the  genus 
staphylinus,  which  is  pretty  numerous,  the 
wings  which  are  rather  large,  are  curiously 
pleated  or  convoluted  beneath  the  short  ab- 
ruptly terminated  wing-sheaths.  The  larger 
species  are  of  an  unpleasing  appearance,  and' 
generally  run  witli  con>iderable  swiftness. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable,  as  well  as  the 
largest  of  the  British  species,  is  the  staphy- 
linus major  of  Degeer,  which  is  more  than  an 
inch  long,  entire\v  of  a  deep-black  colour, 
anil  when  disturbed,  sets  up  the  hinder  parts 
of  its  body,  as  if  in  a  poture  of  defence ;  it 
is  very  freiiuently  seen,  during  the  autumnal 
season,  about  sunny  pathways,  lields,  and 
gardens,  and  is  furn'ished  with  a  large  liead, 
and  very  strong  f^jrcipated  jaws.  This  species- 
has  often  been  {pioted  as  the  staphylinus 
maxilloMis  of  Linnxus,  but  it  appears  from 
late  obser\ations  to  be  a  larger,  and  totally 
distinct  species  from  that  insect.  There  are 
nearly  'JOO  species. 

STAPLE,  primarily  signifies  a  public  place 
or  market,  whither  merchants,  &c.   are  obli- 
ged to  bring  their  goods  to  lie  bought  by  the 
people.     Formerly  the  merchants  of  England- 
were  thus  obliged  to  carry  their  wool,  cloth, 
lead,  and  other  staple-like   commodities   of 
this  realm,    in  order  to  utter  the   same  by 
j  wholei.ile:  and  these  staples  wire  appointed 
]  to  be  constantly  kept  at  York,  Lincoln,  New- 
;  castle  upon   '1  ync,   Norwich,   Westminster, 
Canterbury,  Ciiichester,  Winchester,  Exeter, 
:  and  Bristol ;  in  each  of  which   a  public  mart 
I  was  appointed  to  be  kept,  and  each  of  them 
I  had  a  court  of  the  mayor  of  the  staple,  for 
j  deciding  differences,   held  according  to  the 

law-merchar.t  in  a  summary  way. 
j      The  staple-commodities  of  this   kingdom 
I  are  said  by  some  to  be  these,  viz.  wool,  lea- 
ther,   wool-lells,    lead,    tin,    butter,   cheese, 
doth,  Sec.  but  others  allow  only  the  first  five 
to  be  staple-commodities. 
STAK.     See  Astron'omy. 
STAMS,  Jallhis:,  in  meteorology,  meteors 
which  dart  through  the  sky  in  fomi  of  a  star. 
See  Metrors. 

Mr.  Jolin  Farey  (Monthly  Mag.  xxii,  144) 
has  given  the  name  S.\telliti,'l;e,  to  the 
numerous  masses  of  solid  matter,  probably 
composed. of  iron  and  nickel  principally,  w  hicli 
are  supposed  by  him  to  be  revolviu'g  in  all 
directions  round  this  earth  in  elliptical  orbits; 
I  arid  which,  by   passing  through  the  l^ghep 


7oi 


S  T  A 


p?.rts  of  the  atmosphere,  with  the  iinmense 
velocity  peculiar  to  planetary  motion,  are 
rendered  luniinou?  for  a  short  space,  when  in 
perigffio.aud  occasion  the  appearance  of  shoot- 
inc-stars ;  which  are  foniid  to  move  in  all 
directions  so  numerously,  tliat  M.  Benzen- 
berg,  ill  the  space  of  one  night,  observed 
500°of  them  (Monthly  Mag.  xxii.  223).  The 
same  masses,  when  they  dip  deeper  mto  the 
atmosphere,  being  more  heated,  are  sii))- 
posed  to  appear  as  meteors ;  and,  by  the  in- 
creasing resistance  of  the  air  in  each  of  their 
revolutions,  to  fall  at  length  to  the  earth  in 
the  fragments  called  meteoric  stones,  (see 
that  artTcle,  where  the  opinions  of  different 
philosophers  on  tlie  origin  of  these  very  cnri- 
oiH  substances  may  be  seen.)  In  tlie  same 
manner  that  Dr."Herschel  uses  the  term 
asteiDids,  to  express  the  planetary  bodies  re- 
volving round  the  sun,  which  are  smaller  than 
tile  anciently  known  planets ;  satelhtula  are 
bodies,  smaller  than  the  moon,  revolving 
round  the  earth  as  their  centre  of  gravitation. 

Star.     See  Her.\i.dry. 

Star,  in  pyrotechny,  a  composition  of 
combustible  matters,  which,  being  thrown 
aloft  in  the  air,  exhibits  the  appearance  of  a 
real  star.     See  Pyrotechn  v. 

Star-board,  in  the  sea-language,  denotes 
the  risht-hand  side  of  a  ship  :  thus  they  say, 
star-board  the  helm,  or  helm  a  star-board, 
when  he  that  conds  would  h.ive  the  men  at 
the  helm,  or  steering-wheel,  put  the  helm  to 
the  right  side  of  the  ship. 

Star-fish.     See  Asterias. 

Star-shot,  a  gelatinous  substance  fre- 
quently found  in  tields,  and  supposed  by  the 
vulgar' to  have  been  produced  from  the  me- 
teor called  a  falMng-star ;  but,  in  reality,  is 
the  half-digested  food  of  herons,  sea-mews, 
and  the  like  birds;  for  these  birds,  when 
shot,  have  been  found  to  disgorge  a  subbtance 
of  the  same  kind. 

Star-stone,  asteria,  in  natural  history, 
a  name  given  to  certain  extraneous  fossil 
stones,  in  form  of  short,  and  commonly  some- 
what crooked,  columns,  composed  of  several 
joints ;  each  resembling  the  figure  of  a  radi- 
ated star,  witli  a  greater  or  smaller  muiiber 
of  rays  in  the  diHereiit  species  :  they  arc 
usually  found  of  about  an  inch  in  length,  and 
of  the  thickness  of  a  goose-ipiill.  Some  of 
them  have  five  angles,  or  rays,  and  others 
only  four  ;  and  in  some  the  angles  are  equi- 
distant, while  in  others  they  are  irregularly 
so ;  in  some  also  they  are  short  and  blunt, 
while  in  others  they  are  long,  narrow,  and 
pointed;  and  some  have  their  angles  so  very 
short  and  obtuse,  that  at  first  sight  they  might 
be  taken  for  entrochoasleria;.  The  several 
joints  in  the  same  specimen  are  usually  all 
of  tlie  same  thickness ;  this  however  is  not 
always  the  case,  but  in  some  they  are  larger 
at  one  end,  and  in  others  at  the  middle,  than 
in  any  other  part  ol  the  body  ;  and  some  spe- 
cies have  one  of  the  raysbilid,  so  as  to  emu- 
late the  appearance  of  a  six-rayed  kind. 

S  lARC'M.  If  a  quantity  of  wheat-Qour 
is  formed  into  a  paste,  and  llvn  helil  under  a 
very  small  stream  of  water,  kneading  con- 
linually  till  the  water  runs  off  from  it  colour- 
less, the  (lour  by  this  process  is  divided  into 
two  distinct  constiruents.  A  tough  sub- 
stance of  a  dirty-white  colour,  called  gluten, 
<re|uaUis  in  the  band ;  the  vratcc  is  <it  lirst 


S  T  A 

milky;  but  soon  deposits  a  white  powder, 
wliicli  is  known  by  the  name  ol  starch.  A 
sweet-tasted  mucilaainous  substance  remains 
dissolved  in  the  water. 

The  starch  obtained  by  this  process  is  not 
altogether  free  from  gluten  ;  hence  its  colour 
is  not  very  white,  and  it  has  not  that  line 
crystallized  appearan'je  which  distinguishes 
the  starch  of  commerce.  Manufacturers  em- 
ploy a  more  economical  and  more  etticacious 
process.  Good  wheat,  or  the  bran  of  wheat, 
is  allowed  to  steep  in  Cold  water  till  it  be- 
comes soft,  and  yields  a  milky  juice  when 
squeezed.  It  is  then  taken  out  ot  the  water  ; 
put  into  coarse  linen  sacks,  whi(  h  are  sub- 
jected to  pressure  in  a  vat  lilled  with  water: 
a  milky  juice  containing  abundance  of  starch 
exudes,  and  mixes  with  the  water  of  the  vati 
I'his  process  is  repeated  as  long  as  the  wheat 
yields  any  milky  juice.  The  sack  and  its 
contents  are  then  removed.  The  starch  soon 
falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  vat;  and  the  water 
which  covers  it  gradually  ferments,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  subst;,;K:es  which  it  holds  in 
solution.  Alcoiiol  and  vinegar  are  fornud 
in  it ;  partly,  no  doubt,  at  the  expcnte  ol  the 
starch.  Tlie  vinegar,  thus  formed,  dissolves 
all  the  inipuiities,  and  leaves  nothing  behind 
but  starch.  It  is  then  poured  off,  and  the 
starch  edulcorated  with  water.  It  is  after- 
wards dried  bva  moderate  heat.  During  the 
drying  it  tisually  splits  into  small  culumnar 
masses,  which  have  a  considerable  degree  of 
regularity.  The  water  w  hicli  has  stood  over 
the  starch  was  analyi;ed  by  "N'auquelin.  It 
contains  a  considerable  portion  of  alcohol 
aiul  of  acetic  acid.  The  acid  holds  in  solu- 
tion gluten  somewhat  altered,  phosphat  of 
lime,  and  ammonia. 

Starch  was  well  known  to  the  antients. 
Pliny  informs  us,  that  the  method  of  obtain- 
ing It  was  first  invented  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  island  of  Chio. 

Starch  has  a  fine  white  colour,  and  is 
usually  concreted  in  longish  masses  ;  it  has 
scarcely  any  smell,  and  very  little  taste. 
\\  hen  kept  dry,  it  continues  for  a  long  time 
uninjured  though  exposed  to  the  air. 

Starch  does  not  dissolve  in  coUl  water,  but 
very  soon  falls  to  powder,  and  h>rmb  with  it 
a  kind  of  emul^ion.  It  combines  with  boiling 
water,  and  forms  with  it  a  thick  paste.  Linen 
dipt  into  this  paste,  and  afterwards  dried  sud- 
denly, acquires,  as  is  well  known,  a  great 
degree  of  stillness.  \\"hen  the  paste  is  allow- 
ed to  cool,  it  assumes  the  form  of  a  semi- 
transparent  jelly ;  which,  when  dried  by  ar- 
tificial heat,  becomes  brittle,  and  assumes  an 
appearance  not  unlike  that  of  gum.  Hence 
it  is  supposed  that  starch,  by  beiiig  boiled  in 
waler,  undergoes  a  certain  degree  of  decom- 
position, which  brings  it  nearly  to  the  state 
of  gum.  \\'hen  this  paste  is  left  exposed  to 
damp  air,  it  soon  loses  its  consistency,  ac- 
quires an  acid  taste,  and  its  surface  is  cover- 
ed wilh  mould. 

Starch  is  so  far  from  dissolving  in  alcohol, 
even  when  assisted  by  heat,  that  it  does  not 
even  lall  to  powder. 

When  starch  is  thrown  into  any  of  the 
mineral  acids,  at  lirst  no  apparent  change  is 
visible  ;  but  if  an  altempt  is  made  to  re<luce 
the  larger  pieces,  while  in  acids,  to  powder, 
they  resist  it,  and  feel  exceedingly  tough  and 
adhesive.  Sulphuric  acid  dissolves  it  slowly, 
and  at  tlie  same  time  a  smell  of  sulphurous 


S  T  A 

acid  is  emitted  ;  apd  such  a  quantity  of  char- 
coal is  evolved,  that  the  vessel  containing  the 
mixture  may  be  inverted  without  spilling  any 
of  it.  Indeed,  if  the  quantity  of  starch  is  suf- 
ficient, the  mixture  becomes  perfectly  solid. 
The  charcoal  may  be  separated  by  dilution 
and  liltration.  In  muriatic  acid  starch  dis- 
solves stili  more  slowly.  The  solution  re- 
sembles mucilage  of  gum-arabic,  and  still 
retains  the  peculiar  odour  of  muriatic  acid. 
When  allov.ed  to  .stand  lor  some  time,  the  so- 
lution gradually  separates  into  two  parts :  a 
perfectly  transparent  straw-coloured  liquid 
behiw;  and  a  inick,  muddy,  oily,  or  rather 
mucilaginous  substance,  above.  V.'hen  water 
is  poured  in,  the  muriatic  smell  instantly  dis- 
appears, and  a  strong  smell  is  exhaled,  pre- 
cisely similar  to  that  which  is  pert:cived  in 
corn-mills.  Ammonia  occasions  a  slight  pre- 
cipitate, but  too  small  to  be  examined. 

Nitric  acid  dissolves  starch  more  rapidly 
than  tiie  other  two  acids  ;  it  acquires  a  green 
colour,  anil  emits  nitrous  gas.  The  solution 
is  never  complete,  nor  do  any  crystals  of 
oxalic  acid  appear  unless  heat  is  applied. 
In  this  resptct  staitli  differs  from  sugar,  which 
yields  oxalic  acid  with  nitric  acid,  even  at 
ihe  temperature  of  the  atmosphere.  When 
heat  is  applied  to  tlie  solution  of  starch  in 
nitric  acid,  both  oxalic  and  malic  acid  are 
formed,  but  the  undissolved  substance  still 
remains.  When  separated  by  liltration,  and 
afterwards  edulcorated,  this  sub.-tance  has 
the  appearance  of  a  thick  oil,  not  unlike  tal- 
low ;  but  it  dissolves  readily  in  alcohol. 
When  distilled,  it  yields  acetic  acid,  and  an 
oil  having  the  smell  and  the  consistence  of 
tallow. 

The  alkalies  dissolve  starch  ;  but  their  ac- 
tion has  not  been  examined  with  care.  In 
pure  potass  it  swells,  and  assumes  the  appeiir- 
ance  of  a  transparent  jelly.  In  this  state  tl:c 
solution  is  soluble  in  alcohol. 

When  starch  is  thrown  upon  a  hot  iron, 
it  melts,  blackens,  froths,  smells,  and  burns 
with  a  bright  flame  like  sugar,  emitting,  at 
the  same  time,  a  great  deal  oi  smoke;  but  it 
does  not  explode,  nor  has  it  the  calomel  smell 
which  distinguishes  burning  sugar.  When 
distilled,  it  yields  w  ater  impregnated  with  an 
acid,  supposed  to  be  the  pyromucous,  a  little 
empyreuiuatic  oil,  and  a  great  deal  ot  car- 
bonic acid  and  carbureted  hydrogen  gas. 
The  charcoal  which  remains  is  easily  d:ssi- 
pated  when  set  on  lire  in  the  open  air ;  a 
proof  that  it  contains  very  little  e.Tth. 

Barley-grain  consists  almost  entirely  of 
starch,  not  however  in  a  state  of  perfect 
purity.  In  the  piocess  of  malting,  which  is 
nothing  else  thun  causing  the  barley  to  begin 
to  vegetate,  a  great  part  of  the  starch  is  con- 
verted into  sugar.  During  this  process 
oxygen  gas  is  absorbed,  and  carbonic  acid 
gas  is  emitted.  Water,  too,  is  absolutely  ne- 
cessary ;  hence  it  is  probable  that  it  is  decom- 
poied,  and  its  hydrogen  retained.  Starth, 
then,  seems  to  be  converted  into  sugar  by 
diminishing  the  proportion  ot  its  carbon,  anil 
increasing  that  ot  its  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 
Its  dislillalion  shews  us  that  it  contains  no 
other  ingredient  than  these  three. 

Starih  is  contained  in  a  great  variety  of 
vegetable  substances;  most  commonly  in 
their  seeds  or  bulbous  roofs,  but  sometimes 
also  in  other  parts.  Mr.  Parmeniier,  whose 
experiments  have  greatly  contribuied  towards 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  starch,  has  givcu  us 


KATUIRAL  HiSTOMYo 


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S  T  A 

tiie  following  list  of  plants  from  the  roots  of 
vliicli  it  ni.iy  be  extiiiclcd. 

Arctimn  lappa, 

Atiupa  Ijclhidoniia, 

Polyi^oimm  bistorta, 

J5r\i>iiia  alba, 

Culcliicuni  aiiliiranale, 

S|iii;ua  lilipeiuliila, 

KaiuiMciiliis  bulbnsLis, 

Scropluilaria  nodosa, 

Saiiibuciis  ebiihis. 


nii^ra, 

<  )n.-liis  inoi  io, 

lin])enitoria  ostnitheum, 

llvoscyaiiius  iiiijfr, 

KuiTiL-x  obtusifolius, 

acutus, 

aqiiaticiis, 

Arum  maculatum, 

Orcbis  mast  Ilia, 

Iris  psiHKlacoruS) 

—  fculidissima, 

Orobo'-iis  tni)i.-rosil3, 

liiiiiiiim  bulbucastamim. 
It  is  found  also  in  the  following  seeds ; 
Oats,  Millet,  Teas, 

Kire,  Cliesniit,  Ikans, 

Maize,  Horse-cbesnut,    Acorn. 

Indeed  the  greater  number,  if  not  the 
«hiiU',  of  the  vegetable  seeds  cniploved  by 
jnan  as  an  article  of  food,  consists  chieHy  of 
Starch.  Kilt  that  substance  is  always  com- 
bined with  some  other  which  serves  to  dis- 
guise its  properties ;  such  as  sugar,  oil,  ex- 
tractive, &c.  It  is  only  by  processes  similar 
to  those  described  in  tlie  beginning  of  this 
article,  that  it  is  extracted  from  these  sub- 
stances ill  a  state  of  tolerable  purity.  The 
following  substances,  which  may  be  consider- 
ed as  varieties  of  starch,  deserve  particular 
attention  • 

I.  Pota-oe  starch.  "\Ve  are  not  yet  in 
possession  of  a  precise  chemical  analysis  of 
the  potatoe.  When  raw,  its  ta<fe  is  exceed- 
ingly disagreeable,  and  it  is  said  to  be  \b  some 
degree  noxious;  but  it  loses  these  iiualilies 
when  boiled.  Tlie  water  acquires  u  dei-p 
brawn  coloar,  and  tlic  poutoe  itself,  when 
broken,  ajjwars  to  be  cmp'jsed  of  a  coiigc- 
ries  of  lini-  soft  shining  crystals,  to  which  it 
owes  ils  mealy  appearance.  When  exposed 
to  the  action  of  Irost,  it  becomes  soft,  and 
acquires  a  very  sweet  taste.  The  nature  of 
tJiis  change  has  not  been  examined  into. 
When  the  potatoe  is  grated  down  to  u  pulp, 
and  placed  on  a  line  searce,  if  water  is  pour- 
ed on  it,  a  great  deal  oi  starch  passes  dn'ough 
the  meshes  of  the  searce,  and  may  be  col- 
lected 111  proper  VLS>ets.  When  washed  willi 
water  and  dried,  it  assumes  a  tine  wliite  co- 
lour, and  posse.sses  all  the  essential  proper- 
ties of  starch.  Indeed  it  goes  much  farther; 
a  smaller  quantily  being  sufficient  to  form  a 
thick  pa-te  with  water  than  is  re(iuired  of 
•wheat-slarc';.  It  has  a  very  perceptible 
cnstallizcU  appearance,  and  is  much  heavier 
apparently  than  common  starch.  It  is  not 
likely  l,.i-refore  that  it  could  be  emjiloyed 
withthe  s.anie  advantage  as  a  hair-powder. 

2.  Sago.  Tliis  substance  is  extracted  from 
the  pith  of  several  species  of  palm  in  the  Mo- 
hi'.cas,  Philippines,  and  other  Kast  Indian 
i^hlnds.  Till-  palm  is  cut  into  pieces  of  Jive 
or  six  feet  in  length ;  the  woody  part  is  cut 
o!f  one  side,  exposing  the  pith  lying,  in  a 
m.inner,  in  the  hollow  of  a  canoe.  Cold 
V,>i.   II 


S  T  A  . 

water  is  poured  in.  and  the  i>itli  well  stirred; 
by  wliicli  means  the  starch  is  separ.ited  from 
the  librous  pari,  and  passes  througli  v.itli  the 
water  when  the  whole  is  thrown  on  a  searce. 
The  sago,  thus  separated,  is  allowed  to  settle; 
the  water  is  poureil  off;  and  when  it  is  half 
dry  it  is  gr.iimlated,  by  being  forced  through 
a  kind  ol  hiiincl.  It  is  said  to  acquire  its  grey 
colour  while  dried  in  an  artilicial  heat.  This 
substance  is  employed  as  an  article  of  food, 
and  ils  nourishing  properties  are  well  known. 

3.  Salop.  This  substance  comes  from 
Persia  ;  but  is  said  also  to  be  manufactured 
in  Europe.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  pre- 
pared roots  of  different  species  of  orchis,  as 
the  morio,  ma-.rula,  bifuha,  pyramidalis.  Ac- 
cording to  Moult,  the  bulbous  roots  of  these 
plants  are  deprived  of  their  cuticle,  baked  in 
an  oven  for  ten  or  twelve  minutes,  which 
gives  them  their  senulransparency,  and  then 
lully  dried  in  a  moderate  beat.  J.ike  sago, 
Salop  is  used  as  a  nourishing  article  of  food. 

4.  Cassava  is  ))repared  from  the  loots  of 
the  jatropha  manihat,  an  Ami'iiean  plant. 
They  are  pi'sled,  and  subjected  to  pressure 
in  a  kind  of  bag  made  of  rushes.  1  he  juice 
that  is  forced  out  is  a  deadiv  poison,  and  is 
employed  by  the  Indians  to  jioison  their  ar- 
rows ;  but  it  deposits  gradu.illy  a  white 
starch,  which  when  properly  washed  is  inno- 
cent. What  remains  in  the  bag  consists 
chiefly  of  the  same  starch.  It  is  dried  in 
smoke,  and  afterwards  passed  through  a  kind 
of  sieve.  Of  this  substance  the  cassava  bread 
is  made. 

5.  Sowans.  This  very  nutritious  article  of 
food  is  made  in  this  cojntry  from  the  husk 
of  oats,  by  a  process  not  unlike  thatbv  which 
common  starch  is  made.  The  husk"  of  tiie 
oat  (called  seeds)  is  separated  trom  oatmeal 
by  tlie  sieve.-  It  still  retains  a  considerable 
portion  of  farinaceous  matter,  which  forms  a 
very  nourisliing  food. 

STARLING.     See  Sturnus. 

S  TATICE,  Thrift,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  class  of  pentandria,  and  order 
'of  pentagynia  ;  and  in  the  natural  system 
ranging  under  the  fortv-ei,;;hth  order,  aggre- 
gate'. The  calyx  is  monophyllous,  entire, 
folded,  -and  scaricose.  There  are  five  petals, 
with  one  superior  seed.  There  are  thirty- 
nine  species  ;  three  of  these'are  British  plants. 
1.  The  armeria,  thrift,  or  ■  sea  gilly-llower, 
has  a  simple  naked  stem  about  six  inches 
high.  'J'he  radical  leaves  are  like  grass.  Tlie 
llowers  are  terminal,  pale  red,  with  a  round 
liead,  and  not  very  large.  Tliis  plant  llow- 
ers in  July  or  August,  and  grows  in  meadows 
near  tlie  sea.  2.  Limonium,  sea-lavender. 
The  stem  is  naked,  branched,  and  about  a 
foot  high.  3.  Reticulata,  matted  sea-laven- 
der. The  stem  is  prnstratit,  and  terminated 
by  a  panicle  of  How  ers.  This  species  is  also 
tinind  on  tlie  sea-coast  of  South  Britain. 

STATIC'S,  that  branch  of  mathematics 
which  considers  the  motion  of  bodies  arising 
from  gravity.     See  Moxio.v. 

Statics  then  is  the  doctrine,  or  theory,  of 
motion,  considered  merely  as  arising  froni  tlie 
weight  of  bodies  ;  in  which  sense  it  is  distin- 
guished from  mechanics,  which  is  the  appli- 
cation of  statics  to  machines,  engines,  &c. 
though,  it  must  be  owned,  that  statics  and 
mechanics  are  frecpienlly  confounded.  See 
MrcHAMCS.  For  the  laws  and  principles 
H hereon  the  doctrine  of  statics  is  founded, 
see  vnc articles  Uravity,  Gravitatiox. 
4   \j 


S  T  A 


70.'. 


.STATIONARY.     See  Astronomv. 
STATISTICS,  a  word  lately  iiitrodiired 
to  express  a  view  or  survey  of  any  kingdom, 
coiiuty,  or  parish. 

A  giuiid  and  extensive  work  of  this  kind 
wa.s  undertaken  in  Scotland  iji  the  year  1790 
by  sir  John  Sinclair,  whose  patriotic  (.•xerlioifc 
in  favour  of  his  country  will  be  graleiullv  n-- 
niembered  by  posterity.  'I  he  great  o'bject 
of  it  is  to  give  an  accurate  view^of  the  stale 
ol  the  country,  Its  agriculture,  its  manufac- 
tures, and  its  commerce;  the  means  of  im- 
provement, of  «iiicli  Ihev  are  respectively 
capable  ;  the  amount  of  the  population  of  a 
state,  and  the  causes  of  its  increase  or  de- 
crease :  tiie  manner  In  which  the  territory  of 
a  country  is  possessed  and  cultivated ;  'the 
nature  and  amount  of  the  various  produc- 
tions of  the  soil ;  the.  value  of  the  personal 
wealth  or  slock  of  Wv:  inhabitants,  and  how  it 
can  be  angmcnled  ;  Ihe  diseases  to  which  llic 
people  are  subject,  their  causes  and  their 
cure :  the  occujiations  of  the  people  ;  w  here 
they  are  enlitled  to  encouragement,  and 
where  they  ought  to  be  suppressed ;  the  con- 
dition of  the  jioor,  the  best  mode  of  main- 
taining them,  and  of  giving  them  eniplov- 
ment ;  the  state  of  schools,  and  other  insii- 
tutions,  fornicil  for  purposes  ol  public  utility ; 
the  stale  of  the  villages  and  towns,  and  the 
regulations  best  calculated  for  their  police 
and  good  government ;  the  state  of  the  man- 
ners, Ihe  morals,  and  the  religious  principles 
of  the  people,  and  the  means  by  which  their 
temporal  and  eternal  interests 'can  best  be 
promoted. 

STAiL'iVRY,  a  branch  of  sculpture,  said 
to,  be  the  invention  of  lJ:tdalus,  amidst  other 
productions  of  ingenious  talents:  others  as- 
sert him  to  have  b(;eii  only  the  improver  of 
an  art  known  long  before  'his  time,  and  that 
he  was  Ihe  first  who  endeavoured  Io  give  the 
U]>pearaiue  of  motion  and  action  to  ligures. 

The  Piienicians  are  said  to  have  been  the 
first  who  erected  statues  hi  honour  of  their 
gods  ;  but,  if  we  believe  the  accounts  gener- 
ally given  of  the  Plienician  worship,  the  re- 
ligious statuaiy  of  that  nation  did  not  exhibit 
human  forms,  but  merely  pointed  stones  or 
oilier  symboiiciil  expressions  of  their  divi- 
nities. 

STATUES,  are  ligures,  representing  Ijy. 
iiig  or  deceased  creatures,  of  whatever  spe- 
cies, real  or  imaginary  ;  and  carved,  cast, 
modelled,  or  moulded,  in  lull  relievo,  insu- 
lated on  every  part. 

Statues  are' formed  with  tlie  chisel,  of  sc- 
veral  materials,  such  as  marble,  stone,  &:r.  : 
tliev  are  carved  in  woo~tl :  or  cast  in  plaisler 
of  1  aris,  or  other  matter  of  the  same  nature  • 
they  are  also  cast  in  several  metals,  as  lead' 
bra---,  silver  and  gold.  ' 

Statues  are  divided  into 

Colossal,  or  considerably  exceeding  the 
dimensions  of  nature  ;  as,  for  inslanc^  the 
celebrated  statue  of  Apollo,  at  Rhodes.  ' 

Allegorical,  or  such  as,  under  iiuinan  or 
other  symbolic  al  forms,  represent  subjects  of 
a  dillerent  kind,   as  Time,.  Ocean,  Wi; 
or  <|ualities   of   an    intellectual    na' 
Mercy,  Justice,  Sec.  S;c. 

Statues  of  deities,  denii-gods,  -  ;  hrr.-»es 
were,  among  the  antienls,  "gene;  .">-  ;p;,^., 
seiited  somewhat  larger  Ihan  life        '        '    " 

-Monumental,  either  represei     ,io  ■ 
son,  the  virtues,  or  the  action     c^  .,.     ^. 
ceased. 


Eqaestrian,  generally  of  some  illustrious 
ptr^on  ou  horseijack. 

Peilestiiao  ;  or  on  foot. 

The  iiio'^t  celibratfd  statues  are  those  of 
(he  Egyptians,  (Grecians,  and  Romans.  Of 
the  Eg\  ptian  statues,  suliicicnt  h:\>  bei  n  said 
onder  Uie  article  sculptme.  See  ScviP- 
Tt'RE.  Of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  we  pro- 
pose to  add  some  important  particulars- 

Statues,  aiUicjue.  T  he  denomination  of 
autic|UL  statues  is  apj)l;cai)le  to  al|  aiitient 
statues,  louiid  either  m  India,  Eg\i.>t,.&c.  ; 
but  is  especially  given,  in  preference,  to  the 
statues  wrought  by  the  aiUient  Greek  and 
!Ronian  sculptors.  1  he  works  of  the  Gre- 
cians are  considered  as  the  most  perlect  ex- 
amples of  sculpture.  Their  statues  are  emi- 
nently adminible  for  the  various  beauty  of 
their  forms,  for  characteiislic  expression  and 
grace.     See  Sculpture. 

The  Grecian  statues  of  men  are  generally 
naked.  The  Roman  are  clothed  agreeablv 
to  the  manner  of  the  country,  aud  are  dis- 
tingui'-hed  into 

Paliudata;  (statua-),  those  of  emperors  with 
long  robes  over  their  armour. 

Loricata?,  those  of  soldiers  with  cuirasses. 

Thoracata?,  those  with  coats  of  armour. 

Togatie,  those  of  magistrates  with,  the 
toga,  or  robe  worn  in  office. 

Trabeatx- ;  those  of  senators  and  augurs. 

Tunicati',  those  clothed  with  a  plain  tunic. 

Stolata?,  those  of  women  with  long  trains. 

'i  he  antique  statues  are  most  particularly 
remarkable  for  their  systematic  representa- 
tion of  the  human  form.  As  the  principle 
mast  apparent  in  their  system  is  that  of  pro- 
portions, we  shall  give,  first,  an  accoiuit  of 
their  genc-'al  [iroportions  to  which  they 
cliieliy  adhered,  and  next,  an  accurate  mea- 
-sUrement  o!  the  various  parts  of  the  bodv, 
taken  at  Rome,  from  some  of  their  most  ce- 
lebrated original  statues. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  thatiUhongh 
the  inferior  antique  possesses  little  other 
merit  than  that  of  proportion,  the  excellence 
of  the  liner  works  of  Greece  is  of  a  much 
more  comprehensive  description. 

Proportions  of  the  antique  statues. 

Proportion  is  the  basis  of  beautv,  and  there 
can  be  no  beauty  without  it ;  on  the  con- 
trary, proportion  may  exist  where  there  is 
little  beauty.  Experience  teaches  ns,  that 
knowledge  is  distinct  from  ta-te  ;  and  pro- 
portion, therefore,  whicli  is  founde<l  on  know- 
ledge, may  be  strictly  observed  in  any  figure, 
and  yet  the  figure  have  no  pretensions  to 
beauty.  The  antients  considering  ideal  beau- 
ty as  the  most  perfect,  have  frequently  em- 
jiloyed  it  in  preference  to  the  beauty  of  na- 
ture. 

It  is  probable  tljat  the  Grecian,  as  well  as 
the  Egyptian  artists,  determined  the  gre.it  and 
small  proportions  by  fixed  rules ;  tluit  thev 
established  a  positive  measure  for  the  di- 
mensions of  length,  breadth,  and  circumfer- 
ence. This  snpjjosilioii  alone  can  enabh;  us 
to  account  for  the  great  conformity  which 
we  meet  with  in  antient  statues.  Winkelman 
thinks  that  tlie  foot  was  the  measure  which 
the  antients  used  in  all  their  great  dimnn- 
sioiri,  and  that  it  was  by  the  length  of  it  that 
they  regulated  the  measure  of  their  ligurc 
by  giving  to  them  six  times  that  length. 
Thi-;,  in  fact,  is  the  length  which  Vilruviu- 
assigns,  L.  3,  tap.  1.    Tiiat  celebrated  aiclii- 


STATCES, 

tect  thinks  the  foot  is  a  more  determinate 
measure  than  the  head  or  tiie  face,  the  parts 
from  which  modern  painters  and  sculptors 
often  lake  their  proportions.  This  pio))or- 
tioi!  ot  the  foot  to  the  bodv,  which  has  ap- 
peared strange  and  incomprehensible  tothe 
learned  Huetin-i,  and  has  been  entirely  re- 
jected by  Perrault,  is,  hov.'ever,  founded 
upon  experience.  After  measuing  with 
great  care  a  va.st  number  of  liguies,  Win- 
kelman found  this  proportion  not  •  only 
in  Egyptian  statues,  but  also  in  those  of 
Greece.  This  fact  may  be  determined  by 
an  inspection  of  those  "statues,  the  feet  of 
which  are  perfect;  and  one  may  be  more 
fully  convinced  of  it  by  examining  some 
figures  of  the  Cjreek  divinities,  in  which  the 
artists  have  made  some  parts  bevoud  their 
natural  dimensions.  In  the  Apollo  Belvedere, 
w  hich  is  a  little  more  than  seven  heads  high, 
the  foot  is  three  Roman  inches  longer  than 
the  head.  The  head  of  the  \'enus  de  Medi-- 
cis  is  very  small,  and  the  height  of  the  sta- 
tue is  seven  heails  and  a  half ;  the  foot  is  three 
inches  and  a  half  longer  thafi  (he  head,  or 
precisely  the  sixth  part  of  tlie  length  of  the 
whole  statue. 

Other  writers  are  of  opinion,  that  the  fol- 
lowing rules  form  a  principal  part  of  the  svs- 
teiii  of  Grecian  sculpture  : 

The  body  consists  of  three  parts,  as  well  as 
the  members.  1  he  three  parts  of  the  body 
are,  the  trunk,  the  thighs,  and  the  legs.  The 
inferior  part  of  the  body  are  the  thighs,  the 
legs,  and  the  feet.  The  arms  also  consist  of 
three  p-U'ts.  These  three  parts  must  bear  a 
certain  proportion  to  the  whele,  as  well  as 
to  one  another.  In  a  well  formed  man,  the 
head  and  body  must  be  proportioned  to  the 
thighs,  the  legs,  and  the  feet,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  thiajhs  are  proportioned  to  the 
legs  and  the  feet,  or  the  arms  to  the  hands. 
The  face  also  consists  of  three  parts,  that  is, 
three  times  the  length  of  the  nose  ;  but  the 
head  is  not  four  tinres  the  length  of  the  nose, 
as  some  writers  have  asserted.  Erom  the 
place  where  the  hair  begins  to  the  crown  of 
the  head,  are  only  three-tourths  of  the  length 
of  the  nose,  or  that  part  is  to  the  nose  as  9 
to  12. 

Measurements  taken  at  rome  from 

ORIGINAL    ANTiaUE    STATUES. 

Hercules  (Farnese). 

Length  of  the  face  as  nearly  as  can  be  found, 

1 1  inches  and  a  half 
From  the   pit  between  the  clavicles  to  the 

bottom  of  the  belly,  2  feet  U)  inches. 
From  the  point  of  the  (right)  os  ilium  to  the 

top  of  the  petella,  the  same,  viz.  2  feet  10 

inches. 
From  the  top  of  the  patella  to  the  sole  of  the 

right  foot,  2  leel  10  inches  and  a  half. 
From  the  top  of  tlie  head  as  nearly  as  can  be 

guessed,  to  the  bottom  of  the  belly,  4  feet 

2  inches  and  a  half 
From  the  bottom  of  the  belly  to  the  sole  of 

the  foot,  5  feet  2  inches  and  three-fourths. 
Colossal Ci»nmndus  Cof  the  Capitol). 
Length  of  the  face  from  the  top  of  the  fore- 
head to  the  bottom  of  the  chin,  as  nearly 

as  can  be  guessed,  (the  hair  being  down  ou 

the  forehead)  3  feel  2  inches. 

J-'lora  (Farnese). 
From  the  pit  bctweeu  the  clavicles  to  the 


bottom  of  tlie  belly  ;  from  the  point  of  t!  r 
(right)  OS  ilium  to  the  centre  ol  the  patella  ; 
aud  from  the    centre  ot   the  patella  to  tht; 
sole  of  the  fool,  exactly  equal. 
Fioin  the   pit  between  ihe  clavicles  to  the 

right  nipple,  14  inches  and  a  half 
From  the  bottom  of  the  belly  to  the  sole  of 

the  foot,  ;">  feet  S  inches.  ^ 

Length  of  the  leg  from  the  centre  of  the  pa- 
tella to  the  sole  of  the  foot,  3  feet  1  inch. 
The  measurements  of  the  four  following 
female  statues,  have  for  their  rule  the  real 
length  of  their  respective  faces,  divided  into 
three  parts,  and  those  parts  subdividetl  into 
tw  elve  minutes.  See  Plate  Ko.  9,  (cnlillcd 
Antique  Statues.) 

T'enus  de  Medicis. 
From  the  bottom  of  the  right  ear  to  the  pit 

between  the  clavicles,  3  parts. 
From  the  bottom  oi  the  lelt  ditto  to  the  said 

pit,  2  parts  9  minutes. 
From  the  said  pit  to  the  bottom  of  the  ster- 
num, as  near  as  can  be  found,  3  parts  G 

minutes  and  one-third. 
From  the  said  pit  to  the  bottom  of  the  belly, 

as  near  as  can  be  found,  9  parts  1  minute 

and  three-fourths. 
From  the  point  of  the  (right)  os  ilium,  as  near 

as  can  be  found,  tothe  centre  of  the  patella, 

9  parts  4  minutes  an<l  one-third. 
From  the  said  pit  to  tlie  right  pap,  3  parts  5 

minutes  ;  to  the  left  ditto,  3  parts  6  mi- 
nutes. 
From  the  centre  of  the  right  patella  to  the 

sole  of  the  foot,  9  parts  8  minutes  and  one- 
third. 
From  the  point  of  the  left  ilium,  as  near  as 

can  be  louiid,  to  the  centre  of  the  patella, 

9  parts  1  minute. 
From  the  centre  of  the  Said  patella  to  the  sole 

of  the  foot,  9  parts. 
Length  of  the  right  foot  from  the  heel  to  the 

joint  of  the  great  toe,  4  parts  9  minutes  and 

two-thirds. 
Length  of  the  left  ditto,  4  parts  8  minutes. 
Breadth  of  the  face  from  ear  to  ear,  2  parts 

3  minutes. 
From  the  right  ear  to  the  tip  of  the  nose,  2 

parts  1  minute  and  one-third. 
Thickness  of  the  neck,   measured  with  the 

face  in  front,  1  part  1 1  minutes  and  a  half. 
Distance  from  pap  to  pap,  3  parts   11   mi- 
nutes. 
From  point  to  point  of  the  ileum,  as  near  as 

can  be  found,  4  parts  and  hall  a  minute. 
Breadth  of  tlie  shoulder,  just  below  the  heads 

of  the  humerus,  mea-ured  obliqueh,  viz. 

parallel  with  the  shoulders,  7  parts  9  mi- 
nutes and  a  half 
Breadth  of  the  breast,  from  the  point  where' 

the   pectoral   and  deltoid  muscles  join,  5 

parts  5  minutes  and  one-fourth. 
Narrowest  part  ot  the  body,  a  little  above  the-  - 

navel,  4  parts  9  minutes  aud  a  half. 
Breadth  of  the,  hips,  measured  upon  the  ilium 

under  the  obliq.  descend.  6  parts  4  minutes 

and  a  half. 
Thickest  part  of  the  right  thigh   measured 

as  near  as  can  be  across  the  centre  of  the, 

rectus,  3  parts  6  miiuitcs. 
Thickness  of  the  said  knee  across  the  centre 

of  the  patella,  2  parts  1  minute. 
I'hickest  part  of  the  calf  of  tJie  s^id  leg,  2 

parts  2  niiiiules  and  a  half 
Small  ditto,  just  above  the  ancle,   I   p-.rl  2 

minutes  and  three-fourths. 


Tliickness  of  tin*  »:iiJ  ancle  from  friitvo  lo 
centre  of  lmcIi  Ijoue,   1  puit  j  iiiimiU-s  and 
one-loiirlli. 
Thickness  of  the  Itft  knee  measured  acr(i>s 

the  palell.i,  2  parts. 
Tliickcst  p.i-t  of  llie  calf  of  the  left  leg,  - 

parts  2  minutes. 
Small  ditto,  just  above  tlie  ancle,    1  part  '2 

minutes. 
From  centre  to  centre  of  the  ancle  bones  of 
the  left  leg,    I  part  4  niiinUes   and  one- 
fourth. 
llriMclth  of  the  left  foot  upon  the  joints,  at  the 

roots  of  the  toes,  1  part  9  minutes. 
I,eni;tli  from  the  head  of  the  deltoid  to  the 
tip  of  tlie  left  elbow,  7  parts  ;  riglil  ditto, 
7  parts  2  niiinites. 
Length  of  the  lower  right  arm  from  the  tip 
of  the   elbow   to  the  centre  of  the  wrist 
bone,  4  parts  1 1  minutes. 
Length  of  the  left  ditto,  ditto,  3  parts  1  mi- 
nute, and  two-tliirds. 
Tliickcst  part  of  the  right  arm  aI)ove  the  el- 
bow, 1  part  1 1  minutes. 
Thickness  of  thi;  lower  arm,  measured  with 
the  back  of  the   hand  in  front,    1   part  8 
minutes  and  a  lialf. 
Ditto  of  tlie  said  wrist  from  bone  to  bone,  1 

part  three-fourths  of  a  minute. 
Thickest  part  of  the  left  arm,   measured  in 

front,  1  part  <)  minutes  and  a  half. 
Thickness  of  tlie  lower  arm  ditto,  measured 
like  the  former,  1  part  7  mumtes  and  one- 
foiu'th. 
l^liickness  of  the  said  wrist  from  bone  to 

bone,  1  part  and  one-half  minute. 
From  the  centre  of  the  wrist  to  the  root  of 

the  middle  linger,  I  part  10  minutes. 
Length  of  the  middle  ringer,  1  part  8  minutes 

and  one-fourth. 
Breadth  of  the  hand  across  the  joints  at  the 
roots  of  the  fingers,   1  part  4  minutes  antl 
a  half. 
Ditto  of  the  body  from  the  most  prominent 
part  of  the  breast   bone    to  ditto   of  the 
slioulder  behind,  measuring  and  observing 
the  curve  of  the  figure,  4  parts  2  minutes 
and  one-third. 
Narrowest  part  of  the  body,  measured  from 
the  ho'low  above  the  navel,  to  the  most 
prominent  part  of  the  sacro-nmbalis,obscrv- 
ing  the  curve  of  the  figure,  3  parts   10 
minutes. 
Distance  from  the  navel  to  the  bottom  of  the 

bellv,  4  parts  and  one-half  minute. 
Length  from  thepoint  of  the  (lefl)os  ilium,  as 
near  as  can  be  found,   to  the  most  promi- 
nent part  of  the  glutaus  below,  5  parts. 
Distance  from  ditto  to  ditto,  of  the  right  side, 

4  parts  7  minutes. 

Thickest   part  of  tiie  right  thigh  in  profile, 

from  the  centre  of  the  rectus,  3  parts  7 

minutes. 
Tliickness  of  the  said  knee  in  profile  from  the 

centre  of  the  patella,  2  parts  4  minutes  and 

two-thirds. 
Ditto  of  the  calf  of  the  right  leg,  in  ditto,  '_' 

parts  3  minutes  ;  «;mallest  part  ditto,  1  part 

5  minutes  and  one-fourth. 

Thickness  of  the  left  thigh  from  just  under 

the  glutaus  to  the  rectus  above  inprolile, 

3  parts  8  minutes. 
Ditto  of  the  left  knee,  in  profile,  from  the 

centre  of  the  patella,  2  parts  4  mimites. 
Thickness  of  the  said  leg  above,  2  parts  4 

minutes  ;  ditto  of  ditto  at  the  small,  1  part 

5  mimites  and  one-fourth. 


STATUES. 

'Jotal  length  of  the  figure,  allowing  4  parts  ior 
the  head,  and  measuring  down  ih.-  ci'Utre 
of  the  figure,  31  parts  11  minutes  and  a 
half. 

/■/«;•«  f'cKl/tti,  or  draped. 

From  the  bottom  of  the  far  to  the  pit  between 
the  clavicles,  2  parts  S  minutes  and  a  hall. 

Length  of  the  neck  from  where  it  ioins  the 
bottom  of  the  chin  to  the  said  pit,  I  part 

4  minutes. 
From  the  said  |)il  to  the  rii;ht  nipple,  3  parts 

5  mintites  and  a  half;  left  ditto,  3  parts  2 
minutes. 

From  the  pit  between  tlie  clavicles  to  the 
bottom  of  the  belly  as  near  as  can  be  guess- 
ed, 1  I  |)arts  10  minutes. 

From  nipple  to  nipple,  3  parts  7  minutes  and 
a  halfv 

From  the  roots  of  the  hair  on  the  forehead 
to  the  sole  of  the  foot,  10  faces,  or  30  parts 
S  minutes. 

lycngth  of  the  leg  bent  from  the  top  of  the  pa- 
tella to  the  sole  of  the  foot,  9  parts  3  mi- 
nutes. 

Cleopatra  of  the  Behidere, 
From  the  bottom  of  the  chin  to  the  pit  be- 
tween the  clavicles,  1  part  7  minutes. 
From  the  tip  of  the  right  ear  to  the  said  pit, 

3  parts  3  minutes. 
From  the  said  pit  to  the  left  nipple,  3  parts 

4  minutes  ;  right  ditto  3  parts. 
Total  length  of  the  body,  as  it  lies,  from  the 

said  pit  to  the  bottom  of  the  belly,  9  parts 

4  minutes. 
From  the  bottom  of  the  belly  to  the  middle 

ot  the  patella,  as  near  as  can  be  guessed,  <) 
parts  2  minutes. 
From  the  middle  of  the  patella  to  the  instep, 

9  parts  5  minutes. 
From  the  instep  to  the  sole  of  the  foot  within, 

1   part  9  minutes. 
Length  of  the  left  arm  underneath,  from  where 

it  joins  to  the  pectoral,  to  the  point  of  the 

elbow,  5  parts  9  minutes. 
From  the  same  elbow  to  thejoint  of  the  wrist, 

5  parts  6  minutes  and  a  half. 
Thickness  of  the  same  arm  above  the  elbow, 

measured  from  underneath,  to  about  where 
tlie  deltoid  muscle  is  inserted,  2  parts  5 
minutes. 

Thickest  part  of  the  same  arm  below  the  el- 
bow, 2  parts  3  minutes. 

Breadth  of  the  wrist  from  bone  to  bone,  1 
part  j  minutes. 

Tliickness  of  dijto  from  the  centre  below  to 
the  centre  above,  9  minutes. 

Breadth  of  the  body  across  the  breasts  as  near 
as  can  be  measured,  7  parts  3  minutes. 

Ditto  of  ditto,  as  near,  &c.  across  tlie  belly 
just  below  the  navel  from  hip  to  hip,  7  parts 

10  minutes  and  a  half. 
Breadth  from  nipple  to  nipple,  4    parts  3 

minutes. 
Thickness  of  the  upper  thigh,  measured  over 

and  across  about  the  iniddle,  3  parts  10 

minutes  and  a  half. 
Ditto  knee  ditto,  across  the  middle  of  the 

patella,  2  parts  9  minutes  and  a  half. 
Calf  of  the  leg,  ditto,  2  parts  10  minutes  and 

a  half. 
Ancle  ditto  from  bone  to  bone,   1  part  7  mi- 
nutes and  a  half. 
Total  length  of  the  figure,  allowing    1    part 

above  the  roots  of  the  hair  upon  the  fore- 


?07 

nosl  thigh  and  leg  to  the  siole  of  that  foot, 

as  near  as  can  be  known,  soiiitwiiat  less 

than  3ij  parts. 
Breadth  of  the  right  foot  from  the  joint  at  the 

root  of  the  great  toe  lo  the  joint  on  the 

other  side  at  the  root  of  the  little  toe,  2 

parts  3  minutes. 
Length  of  the  great  toe  from  the  centre  of 

thc'^joint,  1  part  7  miimtcs. 

licautiful  daughter  ofNiohei 
From  the  chin  next  the  Ihroaf  to  the  pit  be- 
^  tween  the  clavicles,  1  |)art  10  ininules. 
From  the  ti]>  of  the  left  ear  to  ditto,  3  partj 

1  minute  and  a  half. 
From  the  lip  of  the  right  to  ditto,  2  parts  7 

minutes  and  three-fourths. 
From  tlie  said  pit  to  the  left  nipple,  2  parts 

10  minutes. 
From  ditto  to  tiie  rigiit  nipple,  3  parts  S 

minutes. 
From  nipple  to  nipple,  as  near  as  can  be  guess- 
ed, 4  parts. 
l^Migth  of  the  body  from  tlie  pit  between  the 

clavicles  to  the  bottom  of  the  belly,  9  parts. 
From  the  point  of  the  ilium,  (guessed)  to  the 

centre  of  the  patella,  8  parts  5  minutes. 
From  the  centre  of  the  patella  to  the  sole  of 

the  foot,  8  parts  8  minutes  and  a  half. 

The  measurements  of  the  following  male 
figmes,  have  for  their  ruie,  the  real  length 
of  their  respective  heads,  divided  into  four 
e(iual  portions,  called  fourths,  and  those 
fourths  subdivided  into  twelve  equal  parts. 
See  tlie  Plate. 

yipoUinn. 

From  the  bottom  of  the  chin  next  the  throat 

to  the  pit  between  the  clavicles  1  fourth  9 

parts. 
From  the   pit  between  tlie  clavicles  to  the 

pit  at  the  bottom  of  the  breast,  2  fourths  6 

parts  and  one-half 
From  ditto  to  the  pap  of  the  right  breast,  * 

fourths  (5  parts  and  one-half. 
From  ditto  to  the  pap  of  the  left  breast,  2 

fourths  8  parts ;  from  pap  to  pap  1  head. 
Whole  length  of  the  body  from  the  pit  be- 
tween the  clavicles  to  the  bottom  of  the 

belly,  about  3  faces. 
From  point  to  point  of  the  os  ilium  next  the 

belly,  1  head  wanting  2  parts. 
From  the  point  of  the  right  os  ilium  to  the 

middle  of  the  patella,  3  faces. 
From  the  left  ditto  to  the  upper  edge  of  the 

patella,  3  faces. 
From  the  middle  of  the  right  patella  to  the 

sole  of  the  foot,  3  faces. 
Breadth  of  the  face  from  ear  to  ea^,  2  fourths 

3  parts.  ^ 

Thickness  of  the  neck  immediately  under  the 

ears,  2  fourths  and  half  a  part. 
Thickness  of  the  b  I'dy  in  a  line  drawn  across 

the  paps,  almost  6  fourths. 
NaiTowest  part  of  the  body  from  the  lo«e5t 

rib  to  rib,  5  fourths. 
Breadth  of  the  body  where  it  ioins  the  thigh 

6  fourths  8  parts.  ' 

Utmost  thickness  of  the  thigh,  3  fourths,  ] 

part. 
Thickness  of  the  knee  across  the  centre  of 
the  right  pat 


a,  2  fouiths  nearly. 
Ihickesl  part  of  the  calf  of  the  leg  in  front, 
2  fourths  S  parts, 
head,  and  measuring  down  the  middle  of  I  Tliinni*st  part  of  the  right  anc'e,  above  the 
theiigure,  down  the  centre  of  the  upper-        ancle  bone     IfourtU  1  part  and  two-thirds. 
4  U  2  ' 


70S 

Thinnest  part  of  the  liglit  instep,  below  the 
ancles,  1  fourth  1'  jKirts. 

Thiciccst  part  of  the  ;»iicle  from  the  centre  to 
the  centre  of  each  bone,  1  fourth  4  ('arts. 

Thickest  part  of  tiie  foot,  across  the  joint 
at  the  rootsoft lie  toes,  1  fourth  10  parts. 

Utmost  length  of  the  right  foot,  4  fourths  9 
parts  and  a  half. 

Utmost  leni^th  of  the  left  arm  from  the  top 
of  the  shoulder  to  the  tip  of  the  elbow,  6 
fourths  4  parts. 

From  the  Siune  elbow  to  the  joint  of  the 
wrist,  nearly,  5  fourths. 

From  the  saniejoint  to  the  root  of  the  middle 
finger,  1  fourth  0  parts  and  a  half. 

Thickest  part  of  the  left  arm,  across  the  in- 
sertion of  the  deltoid,  1  fourth  1 1  parts. 

Thickest  part  of  the  ditto  below  the  elbow,  1 
fourth  7  parts  and  a  half. 

Tliickest  part  of  the  wrist,  measured  from 
above,  1  fourth  and  two-thirds  of  a  part. 

From  the  elbow  to  tlie  centre  of  the  right 
arm,  below  wliere  the  lati-siraiis  dorsi 
passes,  as  tiear  as  can  be  guessed,  5  fointlis 
"and  a  half. 

Thickest  part  of  that  arm,  niea'urrd  in  front 
across  the  bicep.s,  1  fourth  1(1  parts. 

Thickest  part  of  the  bo  iy,  measured  in  pro- 
tile  on  the  left  side,  from  the  pit  between 
the  breasts  to  the  back  in  a  horizontal  di- 
rection, 4fourths3  parts. 

Tliinnest  part  of  the  body  on  the  same  side, 
measuretl  just  above  the  navel,  3  fourths  9 
l)arts. 

Thickest  part  of  the  thigh  in  profile,  measur- 
ed in  a  liorizont-d  direction,  from  the  root 
of  the  penis  to  the  glut;eus,  4  fourths  6 
parts. 

Thinnest  part,jjst  above  the  knee,  2  fourths 

2  parts  and  three-fourths. 

Thickest  part  of  tlie  right  knee,  2  fourths  and 

3  parts. 

Thickest  part  of  llu".  calf  of  the  leg,  2  fourths 
3  parts  and  a  half. 

Thinnest  part  of  the  same  leg,  just  above  the 
instep,  I  fourth  6  parts  and  one-fourth. 

From  ttie  centre  of  the  inner  ancle  to  the 
bottom  of  the  heel,  1  fourth  6  parts. 

From  the  centre  of  the  outer  ditto  to  ditto,  1 
fourth  2  parts. 

Jpolto  Belvidcrc. 

From  the  tip  of  the  right  ear  to  the  pit  be- 
tween the  clavicles,  'J  fourtlis  10  parts. 

From  the  bottom  of  the  left  i-ar  to  the  same 
pit,  3  fourths  and  half  a  ivirl- 

From  the  pit  between  tlie  clavicles  to  the 
centre  of  the  pit  at  the  bottom  of  the  ster- 
num. 2  fourths  1 1  parts  and  a  half. 

Fjom  the  pit  between  the  clavicles  to  the 
bottom  of  the  belly,  2  fourths  9  parts  and 
a  half. 

From  the  point  of  the  right  ilium  to  the  centre 
of  the  patella,  8  fourths  1 1  parts  and  a 
half. 

From  the  point  of  the  left  ditto  to  the  centre 
of  the  patella,  9  fourths  3  })arts  and  three- 
fourths. 
Length  of  the  right  leg  from  the  centre  of  the 
patella  to  the  sole  of  the  foot,  9  fourths  1 
part  and  oni-third. 
Length  of  the  left  dittoditto,  9  fourths  5  parts 

and  a  half. 
Breadth  <jf  the  face  from  car  to  ear,  2  fourths 

2  p'jrt-.  and  a  third. 
Briadth  of  the  neck,  taken  in  front  like  the 
fate,  2  fourths  exactly. 


STATUES, 

From  the   pit  between  the  clavicles  to  the 

rii^lit  pap,  3  fourllis  4  i)arts. 
From  ditto  to  the  left  pap,  3   fourths  5  parts 

and  one-foiu'th. 
Distance  across  from  pap  to  pap,  4  fourths  9 

parts  and  three-fourths. 
Breadth  of  the  body  across  the  paps,  6  fourths 

and  half  a  part. 
Narrowest   part   of  tlie   botly,   measured   a 

little  above  the  navel,  i  fourths  1  part  and 

one-fourth. 
Breadth  of  the  hips,  measm-ed  upon  the  ilium 

just  under  the  obliii.  descendcns,  j  lourlhs 

2  parts  and  a  half. 
Breadth  from  point  to  point  of  the  ilium,    3 

fourths  1 0  parts  and  a  half. 
Thickest  part  of  the  right  thigh,  measured  in 

front    across    the   head   of  the   rectus,   2 

fom'ths  1  1  parts. 
Tliickest  pari  of  the  left  ditto,  2  fourtlis   11 

parts  and  a  half. 
Thickness  of  the  right  knee  across  the  centre 

of  the  patella,  1  fourth  1 0  parts. 
Thickness  of  the  left  ditto,   1   fourth  9  parts 

and  a  lialf. 
Thickness  of  the  calves  of  the  legs,  taken  in 

front,  2  fourths  1  part  and  a  haif. 
Small  of  the  right  leg  just  above  the  ancle,  1 

fourth  2  parts  and  a  half. 
Ditto  of  the  left  leg  ditto,  1  fourth  1  part. 
From  centre  to  centre  of  the  ancle  bones  of 

each  leg,  1  fourth  4  parts. 
Thickness  of  the  instep  on  the  foot  immedi- 
ately under  the  right  ancle,   1  fourth  and 

half  a  part. 
Lengti'.  of  the  right  foot  from  tiie  point  of  the 

heel    to   the  point    of    the  gn.-at    toe,    4 

fourths  J  parts  and  one-fourth. 
Ditto  of  left  dit'do  ditto,  4  fourths  S  parts. 
Breadth  of  the  right  foot  on  the  joints  at  the 

roots  of  the  toes,  1  fourth  t)  parts  and  two- 
thirds. 
Length  of  the  right  arm  from  the  head  of  the 

deltoid  to  the  tip  of  the  elbow,  (j  tourlhs  3 

parts. 
From  the  tip  of  the  elbow  to  the  centre  of 

the  wrist  bone,  4  fourths  10  parts  and  two- 
thirds. 
Thickness  of  the  right  arm,  taken  in  front,  1 

fourth  6  parts  and  one-third- 
Ditto  in  profile  about  the  middle,  2   fourths 

and  one-third  of  a  part. 
Thickest   part  of  the  right  thigh  in   profile 

as  near  as  can  be  taken,  3  fourths  ."j  parts  , 

and  three-fourths. 
Thickness  of  the  right  knee  ditto  to  the  centre 

of  the  patella,  2  fourths  and  two-thirds  o\  a 

part. 
Thickness  of  the  calf  of  the  leg  in  profile,  2 

fourths  2  parts. 
Thickness  of  the  small  jjf  the  leg  in  profile,  1 
.  fourth  5  parts  and  a  fourth. 
Total  length  of  the  Apollo,  including   fotir 

parts  to  the  head,  and  measuring  down  the 

centre  of  the  body,  32  fourths  2  parts. 

Borghese  Faun. 

From  the  bottom  of  the  right  ear  to  the  pit 

between  tlie  clavicles,  4  fourths. 
Tot.il  length  of  the  body  from  the  pit  between 

the  clavicles  to  the  bottom  of  the  belly,  S 

fourths  3  parts. 
Length  of  the  right  thigh  from  the  point  of 

the  ilium  to  the  centre  of  the  patella,  9 

fi  urtlis  2  parts  and  one-third. 
Length  of  the  right  kg  from  the  centre  of 


Ihe  patella  to  the  sole  of  the  foot,  9  fourllj* 

6  parts. 
Breadth  of  the  shoulders  just  below  the  head   . 

of  the  deltoid,  S  fourths  1  part. 
Breadth  of  (lie  body  below,  mea^1lred  on  tlie 

oblitpius  descendens,  5  loiiill,-.  2j)arts. 
Utmost  breadth  of  the  right  thigh,  measur- 
ed  from   the    bottom   of  the   testicles,  2 

fourths  10  parts  aixl  a  half. 
Breadth  of  the  right  knee  across  the  patella, 

1  fourth  10  parts  and  a  half. 
Narrowest  part  immediately  below  the  knee, 

1  fourth  S  parts. 
Thickest  part  of  the  calf  of  the  right  leg,  2 

fourths  1  part ;  left  leg  ditto. 
Narrowest    part  just    above   the    ancle,    1 

fourth. 
Rroadest  pint  of  the  ancle  from  centre  to 

centre  of  each  bone,  1  fointh  4  parts  and  a 

third. 
Narrowest   part  of  the  instep  inmicdiately 

under  the  ancle  bone,  1  fourth. 
Ditto  of  the  left  ditto,  1  fourth  1  pait  and  a 

half. 
Utmost  length  of  the  rieht  foot,  4  fourths  7 

parts  and  three  fourths  ;  ditto  of  the  left 

fo;)t,  4  fourths  7  parts. 
Length   of  the   left   arm   leaning    from    tlie 

shoulder  to  the    jiuiiit  of  the    elbow,     6- 

fourths  8  parts  and  a  third. 
Ditto  of  the  right  as  near  as  can  be  guessed, 

6  fourths  5  parts. 
From  the  elbow  ditto  to  the  centre  of  tlie 

wrist  bone,  5  fourths'aiid  half  a  part. 
Utmost  thickness  of  the  left  arm  across  tlie 

centre  of  the  biceps,,  1  fourth  10  pans. 
Breadth  of  the  left  wrist  across  the  centre  of 

the  bones,  1  fourth  3  parts. 
Thickest  part  of  the  thigh  in  profile  from  the 

most  proniiuent  part  of   the    glutictts,   4 

fourths  4  parts. 
From  the  bottom  of  the  same  gluteus,  mea- 
sured horizontally  from  back  to  front,  3 

fourths  6  parts. 
Thickest  part  of  the  right  knee  from  the  head 

of  the  patella,   2  lourths  2   parts   and  a 

third. 
Ditto  of  the  calf  of  the  right  leg,  2  fourths  2 

parts  and  a  thirci;  left  leg  ditto. 
Thinnest  part  immediately  under  the  knee, 

I  fourth  1 1  parts  and  a  half. 
Tl.i.mest  part  of  the  right  ancle  just  above 

the  instep,  1  fourth  (>  parts  and  a  half. 
From  the  centre  of  the  inner  ancle  to  the 

sole  of  the   foot,   1  fourth   1    part  and  a 

tiiird. 
Length  of  the  right  leg  from  the  head  of  the 

p.itella  to  the  instep,  7  fourths  S  parts  antl 

a  half. 
Ditto  of  the  left  from  the  centre  of  the  pa- 
tella, as  near  as  can  be  guessed,  7  fourths 

3  parts  and  a  half. 
From  ))oint  to  point  of  tlie  ilium,  4  fourths. 

Sli'iping  I'liiiH  (Biirbcrini). 

Distance  from  the  right  ear  to  the  pit  between 

the  clavicles,  3  fourths. 
Length  of  the  neck  from  the  bottom  of  tlie 

chin  to  the  pit  between   the  clavicles,   1 

fourth  9  parts  and  a  half. 
From  the  said  pit  to  the  pit  at  tiie  bottom  of 

the  sternum,  2  fourths  (3  parts  and  a  half. 
Total  length  of  the  body  from  the  said  pit  to 

the  bottom  ol  the  beliy,  7  fourths  1  part. 
Length  of  the  left  thigli  in  its  restored  slate 


from  the  point  of  the  iHuii\  to  tlic  top  of 

tlic  patella,  9  tV.iirlhs  7  parls. 
From  the  top  ol  tlif  putclla  to  llir  si;lc  of  tho 

foot,  8  fourllis  10  parts  and  a  half. 
Breadlli  of  tlie  lace  from  ear  to  car,  as  near 

as  <an  be  measured,  2  fourths  5  parts  and 

a  half. 
Breaillh  of  the  neck  from  sitle   to  side,  ',' 

foiirtlis  1  part. 
Ditto  of  the  bri-ast  from  pap  to  pap,  .3  fourths 

3  parts  and  a  half. 
Breadth  hom  point  to  point  of  each  iliiui),  3 

foiirth^i  11  parts  and  ojie-third. 
From  tlie  pit  at  the  holtom  of  t!ie  sternum 

to  the  navel,  2  fourliis  (j  parts  and  a  half. 
Utmost  tliiekness  of  the  thigh  across  tlie  iiead 

of  the  rectus,  3  fourths  2  parts  and  a  third. 
L'tniost  thickness  of  the  body  across  the  paps, 

(i  fourliis  4  parts. 
Is'arrowest  part  of  ditto  at  the  bottom  of  the 

ribs,  5  h)iutlis  .3  parts  and  a  half. 
Length  of  llie  arm  over  the  bead,  from  the 

centre  si(  the  head  of  the  liumerus,  as  near 

as  can  be  found,  to  the  tip  of  the  elbow,  6 

fourths. 
Length  of  tliat  arm  below,  from  the  tip  of  the 

elbow  to  the  centre  of  the  wrist,  j  fourths 

and  one-third  of  a  part. 
Utmost  (hickness  of  the  body  from  the  most 

jjromin  nt  part  of  the  breast  lo  the  trape- 
"  zius  behind  below  the  shoulder,  measnrerl 

in  a  right  line,  4  fourtlis  S  parts  and  a  half. 
From  the  hollow  jjart  of  the  rectus  before,  a 

little  above  the  navel,  to  the  sacro-lumbaHs 

behind,  measured  in  a  right  line,  4  fourths 

7  parts  and  a  half. 
Tliiekness  of  the  arm  from  the  centre  of  the 

biceps  to  the  triceps  bthiiul,  2  fourths  and 

h.df  a  part. 

N.  B.  The  tip  of  the  right  elbow  ;  all  the 
left  arm  below  the  deltoid  ;  all  the  right  thigh 
and  leg,  with  so  much  of  the  left  tiiigh  as  is 
between  the  broadest  part  of  the  rectus  and 
its  insertion  at  the  knee,  (all  of  which  is  an- 
ti(iue,  together  wiih  a  part  of  the  solmis, 
gasterocnemius,  and  peronei  withoiitside  of 
the  leg)  and  all  the  other  part  of  that  leg  and 
foot,  have  been  restored  by  Bernini. 

Laocoon. 

From  the  bottom  of  tlie  right  ear  to  the  pit 
■    between  the  clavicles,  3  fourtlis  3  parts  and 

one-thiril. 
From  ditto  of  the  left  ear  to  the  said  pit,  2 

fourths  10  parts  and  a  half. 
From  the  said  pit  to  the  centre  of  the  pit  at 

the  bottom  of  the  sternum,  3  fomths    4 

parts. 
From  the  pit  ditto  to  the  top  of  the  navel  in 

a  straight  line,  3  fourths  4  parts. 
From  the  top  of  the  navel  to  the  privities,  2 

fotirths  R  parts. 
From  the  point  of  the  ilium  to  the  centre  of 

the  patella  of  the  left  tliigh,  9   fourths  8 

parts. 

From  the  point  ditto  of  the  right  thigh  to  the 
centre  of  the  patella,  S)  fourths  2  parts. 

From  the  centre  of  the  left  patella  to  the  in- 
step or  annular  ligament,  8  fourths  'J  jiarts. 

Froni  the  said  point  at  the  instep  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  heel  ditto,  1  fourth  11  parts. 

Length  of  the  right  leg  from  the  centre  of 
the  patella  to  the  instep,  7  fourtlis  9  parts 
and  a  (piarter. 

From  the  said  point  at  the  instep  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  heelj  t  fourth  5  parts. 


STATUES. 

'  From  the  pit  between  the  clavicles  to  either 

pap,  3  fourth-  2  pints  and  three-f.iurths. 
Leiiglh  of  the  lell  arm  from  the  head  of  the 

deltoid  to  the  tip  ol  the  elbow,  0  fourths  7 

parts  and  a  tpiarter. 
From  the  lip  of  the  said  elbow  to  the  centre 

of  the  Joint  of  the  wrist,   5  fourths  1  part 

and  a  half 
Length   of  the  back,  of  the  hand  from  the 

centre  of  the  wrist  to  tlie  joint  of    tiie 

middle  finger,  1  foni  ih  4  parts  and  a  third. 
Length  of  the  first  joint.-of  the  middle  finger, 

1  fourth  1  part. 

Thickness  of  the   neck  in  front,   about  the 

middle,  2  fourths  3  parls. 
Distance  across  from  pap  to  pap,  4  fourths  2 

parts  and  two-thirds. 
Breadth  of  the  body  measured  horizontally 

across  the  nipples,  6  fomths.  5  parts  and  a 

half. 
Breadth  of  ditto  measured  horizontally  at  the 

narrowe>t  part  across  the  bottom  of  the 

ribs,  .5  fourths. 
Breadlh   across   on    tlie    ilium   immediately 

inider  the  obliquus  descendens,  5  fourths 

4  parts. 
Thickness  of  the  left  tlii'gh  nieasired  across 

the  centre  of  the  rectus,  3  fourths  3  parts 

and  one-third. 
Thickness  of  the  knee  measured  across  the 

centre  of  the  patella,  1  fourth  1 1  parts  and 

a  half. 
Thickness  of  the  right  ditto,  1  fourth  11  parts 

aiid  a  half. 
Thickness  of  the  calf  of  either  leg,  2  fourths 

2  parts. 

ThiekncM  of  the  smallest  part  just  above  the 
ancle,  1  fourth  and  half  a  part. 

From  centre  to  centre  of  the  left  ancle  bojic, 
I  fourths  parts;  right,'ditto. 

Narrowest  part  of  the  instep  just  under  the 
ancles,   1  fourth  and  two-thirds  of  a  part. 

Breadth  of  the  foot  from  the  centre  of  the 
joint  at  the  root  of  the  great  toe  lo  dilto  of 
the  little  one,  1  fourth  1 1  parts  and  one- 
third. 

Thickest  part  of  the  left  arm  measured  across 
the  centre  of  the  biceps,  2  fourths  2  parts 
and  one-third. 

Ditto  of  the  said  arm  measufed  on  the  su- 
pinator just  below  the  elbow,  1  fourth  9 
parts  and  a  half 

Breadth  across  the  wrist  measured  from  the 
centre  of  the  joint,  1  fourth  3  parts. 

Breadth  of  the  hand  measured  upon  the  joint 
at  the  roots  of  the  lingers,  I  fourth  10  parls 
and  two-thirds. 

Thickness  of  the  body  in  profile  measured 
from  the  centre  of  the  pectoral  muscle  to 
the  most  prominent  part  of  the  trapezius 
behind,  4  fourths  9  parts. 

Thinnest  part  of  the  body  in  profile  measured 
just  above  the  navel,  3  fourths  6  parts  and 
a  half. 

Thickness  of  the  knee  from  the  head  of  the 
gasterocnemius  to  the  centre  of  the  pat--!la, 
2  fourtlis'6  parts  and  a  halt". 

Thickest  part  of  the  calf  of  the  riglit  leg  in 
profile,  2  fourths  4  parts. 

Thinnest  part  of  the  small  of  the  left  leg  in 
profile,  1  fourth  (5  parts. 

Length  of  the  left  foot  from  the  heel  to  the 
lop  of  the  great  toe,  4  fourths  8  parts. 

Total  length  of  the  figm-e  of  the  Laocoon,  al- 
lowing 4  fourths  for  the  head,  and  nica- 
suruig  from  the  bottom  of  the  chin  to  the 


709 

pit  between  Hie  clavicles,  and  from  tliencr, 
following  with  the  utmost  exactness  the 
line  of  the  centre  of  the  body,  then  inea- 
surnig  on  the  centre  of  the  hit  thigh  (alter 
having  found  the  point  by  laung  a  rule 
across  from  the  bottom  of  tlie  belly  parallel 
with  the  two  points  ol  the  ilium),  and  so 
down  the  centre  of  the  patella,  and  upon 
the  leg  to  the  sole  of  the  foot,  34  fourths. 

Laocoo7t's  elekr  son. 
From  the  bottom  of  the  left  ear  to  the  pit 

between  the  clavicles,  2  iourlhs  1 1  parls. 
From  ditto  of  the  right  ear  to  the  said  pit,  2 

fourths  6  parls  and  a  half 
From  the  said  pit  to  the  centre  of  the  pit  at 

the  bottom  of  the  sternum,  2  fourths  7 

parls  and  a  half. 
From  the  centre  of  the  said  pit  to  the  centre 

of  the  navel,  2  fourths  7  parts. 
F'rom  the  centre  of  the  navel  to  the  privities, 

2  fourths  3  parts  and  one-third. 

From  the  point  of  the  right  ilium  to  the 
centre  of  the  iiatella,  8  fourths  7  parts  and 
a  half 

From  the  centre  of  the  patella  to  the  instep, . 
8  fourths  1  |)arl. 

From  the  said  instep  to  the  bottom  of  the 
heel,  I  fourth  8  parts  and  one-third. 

From  the  centre  between  the  clavicles,  to 
eillier  pap,  2  fourths  10  parts  and  three^ 
fomths.  -  - 

Distance  from  pap  to  pap,  4  fourths  5  parts 
and  one-third. 

Ditto  from  point  to  point  of  Ihc  ilium,  3 
fourths  4  parts. 

Length  of  the  left  arm  measured  from  the 
heati  of  the  humeius,  as  near  as  can  be 
guessed,  to  the  tip  of  the  elbow,  5  fourths 
S  parts  and  two-thirds. 

From  tlie  tip  of  the  elbow  to  the  centre  of 
the  wrist  bone,  4  fourths  7  parts  and  one- 
third. 

Broadest  part  of  the  body  measured  across 
the  paps,  6  fourths  4  pa'rts. 

Xarrouest  part  of  ditto  measured  across  the 
bottom  of  the   ibs,  5  lourths  3  parts. 

Breadthof  the  body  measured  upon  the  ilium 
immediately  under  the  obli(|uus  descend- 
ens, 5  fourths  7  parls  and  a  half 

Thickest  part  of  the  right  thigh  in  front, 
..cross  the  centre  of  the  rectus,  2  fourths  7 
pai  Is  and  a  half 

Thickness  of  the  knee  across  the  centre  of 
the  patella,  1  fourth  11  parts  and  one- 
third. 

Thickest  part  of  the  calf  of  the  leg,  2  fourths 

3  parts. 

Thickness  of  the  small  of  ditto  just  above  the 

ancle,  1  fourth  1  part  and  a  half 
Thickness  of  the  ancle  from  the  centre  of  each 

bone,  1  fourth  4  parts  and  a  <iuaiter. 
Broadest  part  of  the   right  toot  across   tlie' 

joints  at  the  roots  of  the  toes,    1   fourth  8 

parts. 
Thickness  of  the  upper  arm  in  profile  across- 

tlie  middle  of  the  biceps,  1  fourth  11  parts 

and  a  half 
Dilfo  of  the  lower  arm  just  below  the  elbow, 

ditto,  1  fourth  6  parts. 
Thickness  of  the  right  thigh  in  profile,  3 

fourths  4  parls  and  three-tourflis. 
Ditto  of  the  knee  ditto  from  the  centre  of  the. 

patella,  2  fourths  6  parts. 
Thickness  of  the   calf  of  the  log-  ditto,   2 

fourths  4  parts. 


710 

Thlcknessjust  above  <he-anc1e  ditto,  1  fourth 

5  parts. 

Tliickiiess  of  the  body  in  profile  from  tlie 
iiiost  prominent  pari  of  the  pectoral  iinwcle 
to  thp  trapezius  behind,  4  fourths  3  parts 
and  a  halt. 

TCairowest  part  of  ditto  measured  a  little 
above  the  navel,  3  fourths  3  parts. 

Total  length  of  the  lia;ure  measured  down 
the  centre,  allowing  4  fourths  to  the  hcaii, 
and  observing  the  same  method  a.-i  with 
the  foregoing  statue  of  tlie  father,  30 
fourths  exact. 

Younger  son  of  Lancoon. 

From  the  tip  of  the  right  ear  to  the  pit  be- 

tWKen  tlie  clavicles  2  fourths  8  parts. 
From  the  said  pit  to  Uie  pit  at  the  bottom  of 

the  st.-rnum,  2  fourths  8  parts. 
From   ditto   to  the  right  pap,  2  fourths   8 

parts. 
From  the  pit  between  the  clavicles  to  tlie 

bottom  of  the  belly,  8  tbiirths. 
From  the  point  of  the  right  ilium  to  the   top 

of  the  patella,  7  fourths  9  parts. 
From  tlie  top  of  the  patella  ditto  to  the  sole 

of  the  foot,  8  fourths  7  part>. 
Length  of  the  right  foot  from  the  heel  to  the 

great  toe,  4  fourths  2  parts  and  one-third. 
Breadth  of  tlv?  narrowest  part  of  the  body  in 

frout  at  th^  bottom  of  the  ribs,  4  fourths 

2  parts. 
Thickjiess  of  the  thigh  measured  across  the 

centre  of  the  rectus,  3  fourths  and  half  a 

part. 
Thickness  of  the    calf  of   the   leg  ditto,    2 

fourths  3  parts. 
Thickness  of  the  smallest  part  of  the  leg  just 

above  tlie  ancle,  1  fourth  2  parts. 
From  centre  to  centre  of  each  ancle  bone 

I  fourth  4  parts. 
Thickness  of  the  body  from  the  most  pro- 
minent part  of  the  pectoral  muscle  to  t!ie 

trapezius  behind,  4  fourths. 
Karrowest  part  of  the  body  just  above  the 

navel,  2  fourths  9  parts  and  two-thirds. 
Thickness  from  the  most  prominent  part  of 

the  glula-us,  to  the  point  of  the  ilium,  3 

fourths  8  parts  and  a  half 
Thickest  part  of  the  thigh  in  profile  about 

the  centre  of  the  rectus,  2  fourths  10  parts 

and  two-thirds. 
Thickness  of  the  calf  of  the  leg,  2  fourths  2 

parts. 
Thickness  of  the  smallest  part  in  profile,  1 

fourth  5  parts. 
Length  of  the  arm   on  the  body  from  the 

head  of  the  deltoid  to  the  lip  of  the  elbow, 

5  fourths  fi  parts  and  two-thirds. 
From  the  tip  of  the  elbow  to  the  centre  of  the 

wrist    bone,    4  fourths  5   parts  and  one- 
third. 
From  the  joint  of  the  wrist  upon  the  exten- 

sores  communes  to  the  joint  of  the  middle 

iinger,  2  fourths  9  parts. 

Melcager. 

From  the  left  ear  to  the  pit  between  the 

clavicles,  2   fourths   10  parts  and  a  half; 

from  the  right  ditto,  2  fourths  9  parts  and 

a  half. 
From  the  pit  between  the  clavicles  to  the 

bottom  of  the  belly,  9  fourths. 
From  ditto  to  the  centre  of  the  pit  at  the 

bottom  of  the  sternum,  3  fourths. 


STATUES. 

From  dilto  to  the  i)ap  on  the  right  breast,  4 
fourths  1  part  and  a  half 

Length  of  tJie  right  tliigh  from  the  point  of 
tiie  ilium  to  the  top  of  the  patella,  9 
fourths. 

From  the  top  of  the  patella  to  the  sole  of  the 
foot  ditto,  9  fourths  3  parts. 

Distance  from  pap  to  pup,  4  fourths  2  parts. 

Broadest  part  of  the  body  measured  across 
the  paps,  8  fourtlis  9  parts  and  two- 
thirds. 

Narrowest  part  of  ditto  measured  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ribs,  5  fourths  5  parts. 

Breadth  of  the  liips  measured  on  the  ilium 
immediately  under  the  obliquus  descend- 
ens,   5  fourths  7  parts  and  a  half 

Thickest  part  of  the  thigh  measured  in  front, 
3  fourths  10  parts  and  one-third. 

Thickness  of  the  right  knee  across  the  centre 
of  the  patella,  1  Iburlh  10  parts  and  a  half 

Thickest  iiart  of  the  calf  of  the  leg,  3  fourths 

1  part  and  one-third. 

Thickness  of  the  small  of  the  leg  ditto  just 

above  the  ancle,  1  fourth. 
From  centre  to  centre  of  each  ancle  bone,  1 

fourth  5  parts. 
Length  of  the  right  foot  from  the  heel  to  tlie 

tip  of  the  toe,  4  iourtlus  and  9  parts. 
Broadest  part  of  the  said  foot  from  the  joint 

at  the  root  of  the  great  toe  to  ditto  of  the 

little  toe,  1  fourth  9  parts. 
Breailth  of  the  face  from  ear  to  ear  in  front, 

2  fourths  3  parts. 

Ditto  of  the  neck  ditto  in  front  about  the 
middle,  3  fourths  and  half  a  part. 

Length  of  the  arm  from  the  head  of  the  del- 
toid to  the  tip  of  the  elbow,  6  fourths  1 1 
parts  and  one-third. 

Thickest  part  pf  tlie  arm  measured  in  front 
across  the  biceps,  1  fuurtli  7  parts  and  a 
half 

Thickness  of  the  arm  in  proiile  from  the  bi- 
ceps to  the  triceps  behind,  2  fourths  I  part 
and  three-fourths. 

Ditto  of  the  body  measured  from  the  most 
prominent  part  of  the  pectoral  muscle  to 
the  trapezius,  4  fourths  6  parts  and  one- 
third. 

Narrowest  part  of  the  body  in  profile  dilto, 
just  above  the  navel,  3  fourths  7  parts  and 
one-third. 

Thickest  part  of  the  thigh  on  the  rectus  just 
under  the  gluta;us,  3  fourths  4  parts  and 
one-third. 

Thickness  of  the  knee  in  profile  on  the  centre 
of  the  patella.  2  fourths  2  p;irts. 

Thickest  part  of  the  calf  of  the  leg  in  profile, 
2  fourtlis  2  parts  and  three-fourths. 

Smallest  of  dilto,  1  fourth  4  parts. 

Bn.Mdth  from  jioint  to  point  of  the  ilium,  3 
fourths  9  parts  and  two-thirds. 

Total  length  of  the  figure,  allowing  4  fourths 
to  the  head,aiid  measuring  down  the  line  of 
the  centre  of  the  body,  then  laying  a  line 
parallel  with  the  points  of  the  ilium,  and 
measuring  down  the  middle  of  the  thigh 
to  the  sole  of  the  right  foot,  31  fourths  4 
parts. 

Auilnous. 

From  the  bottom  of  the  left  ear  to  the  pit 
between  the  clavicles,  2  fourths  9  parts. 

From  the  pit  between  the  clavicles  to  the  pit 
at  the  bottom  of  the  breast,  2  fourths  10 
parts  and  two-thirds. 

From  ditto  to  eilher  pap,  3  fourths  4  parts. 


From  ditto  to   the  bottom  of  the  belly,  9 

fomths. 
From  the  point  of  the  ilium  to  Hie  centre  of 

the  patella,  9  fourths. 
From  ditto  to  the  sole  of  the  foot,  9  fourths. 
From  pap  to  pap,  4  fourths  10  parts. 
From  point  to  point  of  tlie  ilium,  3  fourths  10 

parts  and  one-third. 
Breadth  ef  the  face  from  ear  to  ear,  2  fourths 

3  parts  and  two-thirds. 

Tliirkness  of  the  neck  about  the  middle,  2 

fourths  1  pare  and  a  half 
Broadest  part  r''  the  shoulders  from  deltoid 

to  deltoid,  8  fourths  9  parts  and  a  half 
Narrowest  part  of  the  body  at  the  bottom  of 

the  ribs,  5  fourths  1  part! 
Breadth  measured  on  the  ilium  immediately 

under  the  oblitiuus  descendens,  5  fourths 

4  parts  and  a  lialf 

Dilto  of  the  thickest  part  of  the  left  thigh 
across  the  rectus,  3  fourths  I  part.' 

Ditto  of  the  right  ditto,  2  fourths  1 1  parts. 

Thickness  of  tne  left  knee  across  the  centre 
of  the  patella,  1  fourth  1 1  jiarts. 

Ditto  of  the  right  ditto,  2  fourths. 

'I'hickness  of  the  right  leg  at  the  thickest  pari, 

2  iourths  3  parts. 

From  centre  to  centre  of  tiic  ancle  bones,  i 
fourth  4  parts  and  one-third. 
Tlie  fbot  is  not  antique. 

Lenglii  Irom  the  head  of  the  deltoid  to  the 
centre  of  the  right  elbow,  6  fourths  9  parts 
and  a  half 

From  ditto  to  the  centre  of  the  wrist  bone, 
4  fourths  t)  parts  and  a  half 

From  the  centre  of  the  wrist  bone  to  the 
joint  of  the  little  finger,  1  fourth  6  parts 
and  a  half 

Breadth  of  the  body  in  profile  from  the  shoul- 
der to  the  most  prominent  breast,  4  fourth* 
10  parts  and  a  half 

Narrowest  part  of  the  body  ditto  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ribs,  3  fourths  4  parts  and  three- 
fourths. 

Thickness  from  the  most  prominent  part  of 
the  gluta^us  to  the  head  of  the  rectus  ditto, 
4  fourths  1  part. 

Thickest  part  of  the  thigh  about  the  middle 
of  the  rectus,  3  fourths  5  parts. 

Thickest  part  of  the  knee  dilto,  3  fourths- 3 
parts. 

Thickness  of  the  arm  ditto  about  the  middle 
of  the  breasts,  2  fourths  2  parts  and  one- 
tliird. 

Gcrmanicus. 

From  the  bottom  of  the  chin  to  the  pit  be- 

twi-en  the  clavicles,  1  fourth  and  two-thirds 

of  a  part. 
From  the  tip  of  each  ear  to  the  said  pit,  2 

fourths  7  parts  and  a  third. 
From  thr  pit  between  the  clavicles  to  the 

bottom  of  the  belly,  9  fourths  exactly. 
From  the  point  of  the  ileum  to  the  centre  of 

the  iiatella  of  the  left  leg,  9  fourths  3  parts. 
From  the  centre  of  the  patella  to  the  swle  of 

the  foot  of  ditto,  7  fourths  9  parts  and  a 

third. 
From   the  pit  between  the  clavicles  to   th« 

pit  at  the  bottom  of  the  sternum,  3  fourth* 

3  parts  and  a  half 

From  ditto  to  the  right  and  left  pap  of  th« 
breast,  3  fourths  3  parts  and  a  half 

From  pap  to  pap,  4  fourths  5  parts  and  a 
half. 

From  point  to  point  of  each  ihum,  (in  their 
oblicjue  situation)  3  fourths  10  parts, 


A  iN'P  I  Q  r  h.',    .^'I'A'i'  r  I'.;  >s 


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ifcti  uito   t/iriw  /itr/.f.  timi  ono 

of'  f/n\ff  ptirfjr  siibt/n-ii/rti  info 

tweh'f  ^Mi/mttv, 


Mfiifiirfufnfs  .'/"  iht'   llea(l.f//ivV/»v/  intn  Ft'nrfh*-.«mi/  one 
of'  t/u\ff  Fourt/i.'^-  .'•ti/>t/ir/i/4t/  into  twelve  /'tirf.*- . 


J.vn,l,-r»./H,hlifiieJJa/t'.3  tft-;.  l-v  It .  I'hUh/u .  l\ri,i^e  StrttI  lUarktrutf* . 


V 


S  T  A 

Fi'oni  ear  to  ear  measuiTcl  across  flie  face,  !? 
tiHinh-i  i  parts  and  a  lialf. 

Utiiio  t  tliickiifss  of  llie  neck  in  fionl,  2 
foiii'tlis  1  pail. 

From  the  pit  between  the  clavicles  to  the  left 
sliDiiKler  measured  horizontally,  4  fourths 
4  parts. 

From  the  great  trochanter  of  the  left  thiph  to 
the  most  prominent  part  of  the  I'ight  ihigli 
measured  liorizontaliv,  5  fourths  9  parts 
and  one-half. 

Tliickest  part  of  the  right  thigh  measured  ho- 
rizontally across  the  middle  o\  the  rectus, 
3  lourllis. 

Ditto  of  the  left  ditto  continuing  the  same 
horizojital  line,  '■!  fourdi.s  8  parts. 

Riglit  knee  across  the  centre  of  the  patella, 
1  fourth  10  parts;  lelt  ditto,  ditto. 

Tliickest  part  of  tlie  calf  of  the  right  leg,  3 
fourths  1  part  and  a  half;  ditto  of  the  left, 
"2  fourliis  and  a  third  of  a  part. 

Thiiinest  part  of  the  ancle  of  thi^  left  leg,  1 
fourth  1  part  and  a  fourth  ;   right,  dilto^ 

Thickest  part  of  the  ancles  from  the  centre 
of  bone  to  bone,  1  fourth  2  ])arts  and 
three-lourths. 

Thickest  part  of  the  right  foot  from  the  ioint 
at  the  root  of  the  great  toe,  1  fourth  9 
parts. 

Ditto,  ditto  of  the  left  foot,  I   fourth  8  parts. 

From  the  head  of  the  deltoid  muscle  to  the 
tip  of  I  he  right  elbow  mea.-ured  within,  in 

■  fi-ont,  0  fourths  2  parts. 

From  the  tip  of  the  elbow  to  the  centre  of 
the  ulna  at  the  right  wrist,  4  fourths  4  parts 
and  a  half. 

From  the  head  of  the  deltoid  to  the  left  el- 
bow, 5  fourths  9  parts  and  a  half. 

Thickest  part  of  the  body  from  the  most  pro- 
minent part  ef  the  pectoral  muscle  before, 
to  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  scapub, 
taken  horizontally  in  profile,  4  fourths  10 
parts  and  a  half. 

Narrowest  [lart  of  the  body  measured  just 
above  the  navel,  3  fourths  6  parts. 

From  the  hollow  of  the  thigh  at  the  head  of 
the  rectus  before,  to  the  most  prominent 
part  of  the  gluta;us  behind,  4  fourlhs  2 
parts. 

Thickest  part  of  the  right  thigh  measured  be- 
low the  gluteus,  3  fourths  5  parts  and  a 
half. 

Thickness  of  the  right  knee  in  profde  from 
the  centre  of  the  patella  to  the  hollow  be- 
\        hind,  2  lourths  2  parts  and  a  half. 

Tliickest  part  of  the  calf  of  the  right  leg  in 
profile,  52  fourths  3  parts ;  ditto  above  the 
ancle,   1  fourth  5  parts. 

Length  of  the  right  foot,  4  fourths  4  parts 
and  three-fourths. 

Thickest  part  of  the  right  arm  from  the  bi- 
ceps to  the  triceps,  1  fourth  1 1  p.uts  and 
one-third. 

Broadest  part  of  the  wrist  from  bone  to  bone, 
1  fourth  3  parts. 

Thickest  pjrt  of  the  neck  taken  in  profile,  3 
'         fourths. 

Far  the  greatest  number  of  the  so  much 

admired  Grecian  statues  lay,  for  a  long  series 

of  years,  buried  under  the  ruins  of  Rome. 

The  following  is  a  brief  account  of  the 

Discoveri/  of  sn-eriil  qf  the  most  celebrated 
statues,  or  groui^s,  in  various  parts  oj 
Rome. 

I    The  equestrian  statue  of  M.   Aureliu- 
was  found  on  the  Ciclian  hill,  near  the  pre- 


S  T  A 

sent  church  of  St.  John  Lateran,  hi  the  pon- 
tificale  of  SiMus  1\'.  (1471  to  1484)  who 
placed  it  in  that  area.  About  the  year  1540 
It  was  removed  to  the  capltol,  under  the  di- 
rection of  Michel  Angelo. 

If.  The  torso  of  Hercules  in  the  Vatican, 
was  found  in  the  Campo  de  Fiori,  in  the  tinie 
of  Julius  II. 

III.  'Jhe  group  of  the  Laocoon  was  disco- 
vered ill  the  vineyard  of  Gualtieri,  near  the 
baths  of  Titus,  by  Felix  de  Fredis,  in  1513, 
as  recorded  on  Ins  tomb  in  the  church  of 
Ara  Croli. 

IV.  In  the  reign  of  I^eo  X;  the  Antinous, 
or  Mercury  according  to  \'isconti,  was  found 
on  the  Es.juiline  hill,  near  the  church  of  !5t. 
Marlin. 

V.  Iao  was  likewise  successful  in  recover- 
ing from  obliv'iun  the  Venus  called  de  Medi- 
cis.  It  was  found  in  the  portico  of  Octavia, 
built  by  Augu-tus.  near  the  Theatre  of  Mar- 
cellus,  in  the  modern  Pescheria.  Hemoved 
to  the  gallery  at  Florence  by  Cosmo  III. 
in  H>76. 

VI.  The  colossal  Pompsy  of  the  Spada 
l)a!ace,  was  found  during  the  pontilicaie  of 
Julius  III.  (1550  to  1555)  near  the  church  of 
St.  Lorenzo  in  Damasco. 

MI.  The  Hercules,  and  the  groupe  of 
Dirce,  Zethus,  and  Amphion,  called  "  II 
toro,"  now  at  Naples,  were  dug  up  in  the 
baths  of  CaracalUi,  and  placed  in  theFarnese 
palace,  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
ceniury.  ' 

VI II.  The  Apollo  Relviderc,  and  the  Gla- 
diator of  the  Villa  Borghese,  were  taken  from 
under  the  ruins  of  the  jialace  and  gardens  of 
Nero  at  Antiuni,  40  miles  from  Koine,  when 
the  Casino  was  made  there  by  cardinal  Borg- 
hese, during  the  reign  of  Paul  V.  (1605  to 
1631). 

IX.  Soon  afterward,  the  sleeping  Faun, 
now  in  the  Barberiiii  jialace,  was  found  near 
the  mausoleum  of  Hadrian. 

X.  The  Minnillo  Kxpirans,  or  Dying  Gla- 
diator of  the  capilol,  was  dug  up  in  the  gardens 
of  Sallust,  on  the  Pincian  hill,  now  the  Villa 
Borghese  :  it  was  purchased  by  Benedict  the 
14th,  of  cardinal  I-,odovisi. 

XI.  The  iiuiall  Harpocrates  and  the  Venus 
of  the  Capitol  were  found  at  Tivoli  in  the 
same  reign. 

XI[.  The  Meleager,  once  in  the  Picchini 
collection,  now  in  the  \'atican,  was  found 
near  tiie  church  of  St.  Bibiena. 

STATUTE,  in  its  general  sense,  signifies 
a  law,  ordinance,  decree,  &c.  Statute,  in 
our  laws  and  customs,  more  unmediately  sig- 
nifies an  act  of  parliament  made  by  the  three 
estates  of  the  realm:  and  such  statutes  are 
'ilher  public,  of  which  the  courts  at  West- 
minster must  take  notice,  without  pleading 
them;  or  tliey  are  special  and  private,  which 
last  must  be  pleaded.  It  is  held,  that  a  pub- 
lic statute,  made  in  affirmation  of  the  com- 
mon law,  extends  to  all  times  after  the  mak- 
ing thereof,  although  it  mentions  only  a  re- 
medy for  the  present;  and  where  a  thing  is 
eiven  or  granted  by  statute,  all  necessary  in- 
cidents aie  at  the  same  time  granted  with  it. 
The  most  natural  exposition  of  a  statute  is, 
to  construe  one  part  by  another  of  the  same 
statute,  because  that  best  expresses  the  intent 
of  the  I'l.'.kcrs;  also  statutes,  in  general, 
might  to  be  expounded  in  suppression  of  the 
.nischi' ',  ^'.liil  inr  the  advancement  of  the  re- 
medy designed  by  any  statute,  yet  so  that 

10 


S  1"   A 


rii 


no  innocent  person  may  suffer  or  receive  any 
damage  (hcn-by.  It  is  held,  tliat  staUites 
will  continue  in  lorci,  though  the  records  of 
Ihem  are  destroyed.  &c.  iiul  if  a  statute  is 
against  reason,  or  impossible  to  be  perform- 
ed, the  same  is  void  of  course. 

VMieii  a  statute  is  repealed,  all  acts  done 
under  it,  while  it  was  in  force,  are  good  ;  but 
if  ills  derlared  null,  all  these  are  voidi  Jcnk. 
233.,  pi,  6. 

W  here  a  statute,  before  perpetual,  is  conti- 
nued by  an  affirmative  statute,  tor  a  time, 
this  does  not  amount  to  a  repeal  of  it  at  the 
end  of  that  time.  Lord  Raym.  397. 

AV'liere  two  acts  contradictory  to  each- 
oilier,  are  passed  in  the  same  session,  the- 
lattt-r  only  shall  take  effect.  G  Mod,  2H7. 

Statute  Merchant,  is  a  bond  of  lecord, 
acknowledged  before  one  of  the  clerks  of  the' 
statute  merchant,  and  lord  mayor  of  the  city 
of  London,  or  two  merchants  of  the  said  city, 
for  thai  pur|)ose  assigned,  or  before  the  mayor 
or  warden  of  the  town,  or  other  discreet  mea 
for  that  purpose  assigned.  This  recognizance 
is  to  be  entered  on  a  roll,  which  must  be 
double,  one  part  to  remain  with  the  mayor^ 
and  the  other  with  a  clerk,  who  shall  write 
with  his  own  hand  a  bill  obligatory,  to  which, 
a  seal  of  the  king  for  that  purpose  appointed, 
shall  be  afii.\ed,  togethi-r  with  the  seal  of  the 
debtor.     2  Bac.  Abr.  33 1 . 

The  design  of  this  security  was  toproraote- 
and  encourage  trade,  by  providing  a  sure  and 
speedy  remedy  for  merchant-strangers,  a^ 
well  as  natives,  to  recover  their  debts  at  the 
day  assigned  for  payment. 

I5.it  though  the  statute-merchant  seems 
first  to  be  introduced,  and  wholly  calculated, 
for  the  ease  and  benefit  of  merchants,  as  the 
name  itself  imports  ;  yet  they  w  ere  not  long 
engrossed  by  them  :  for  other  men  finding 
from  Iheirown  observation,  that  they  have 
much  of  the  same  hature  with  judgments  ia 
Wesfminster-hall,  but  obtained  with  less 
trouble  and  expence,  out  of  regard  to  their 
own  interest  and  ciuiet,  easily  fell  into  this 
way  of  conti acting,  and  by  degrees  it  came 
to  be  improved  into  a  common  assurance,  as 
we  find  it  at  this  day.  Winch.  S3.  See  Insu- 
rance. 

Statute  Staple,  is  a  bond  of  record,  ac«- 
knowledged  before  the  mayor  of  the  staple, 
in  the  presence  of  all  or  one  of  the  constables. 
But  now  statute  staple,  as  well  as  statute  mer- 
chant, are  in  a  great  measure  become  obso- 
lete. 

Statutes,  or  Statutes  sessions,  other- 
wise called  petit  sessions,  are  a  meeting  in 
every  hundred,  of  all  the  shires  in  England, 
where  by  custom  they  have  been  used, 
wheil'to  the  constables  and  others,  both  house- 
holders and  servants,  repair  for  the  debating 
of  differences  between  masters  and  servants, 
the  rating  of  servants'  wages,  and  bestowing 
such  people  in  service,  as  being  fit  to  serve, 
either  refuse  to  seek  or  get  masters.  Stat.  5 
Eliz,  c.  5. 

Stavi:,  in  music,  the  five  horizontal  and 
parallel  lines  on  and  between  which  the  notes 
are  placed. 

Guido,  the  great  improver  of  the  modem 
music,  is  said  by  some  to  have  firet  used  the 
stave;  but  others  give  an  earlier  date  to  its 
introduction.  Kircher  affirms,  that  in  the 
Jesuit's  library  at  Messina  he  found  a  Gri^ek 
manuscript  ot  hymns  more  than  seven  luin- 
(Ired  years  old,  in  which  some  of  tkc  ihu»c 


•|2 


S  T  E 


w,i5  written  on  ?taves  of  eight  lines,  marked 
at  tlie  beginning  with  eight  Gr'rek  letters ; 
tiie  notes,  or  rather  paints,  were  on  tlie  lines, 
but  no  use  was  nude  of  (he  spaces.  This, 
liOwever,  almost,  only  deprives  Guido  of  the 
original  invention  of  tiip  stave,  and  still  leaves 
liim  the  credit  of  its  great  improvement  by 
reducing  it  to  live  lines,  and  employing  both 
Lnes  and  spaces. 

STAUROLITE,  in  mineralogy-.  This 
stone  has  been  found  at  Andreasberg  in  the 
llOTtz.  It  is  crystallized,  and  the  fonn  of  Its 
crystals  has  induced  mineralogists  to  give  it 
the  name  of  cross-stone.  Its  ciystals  are  two 
four-si. led  flattened  prisms,  terminated  by 
four-sided  pyramids,  intersecting  each  other 
at  right  aisgles ;  the  plane  of  iritersection 
passing  longitudinally  through  the  prism. 
Sometimes  these  prisms  occur  solitary.  Pri- 
mitive form,  an  octahedron  with  isosceles 
triangular  liites.  The  faces  of  the  crystals 
striated  longitiidinally. 

Its  texture  is  foliated.  Its  lustre  glassy. 
Brittle.  Sp-cihc  gravity  2.33-  to  2.36.  Co- 
lour milk-while.  AVhen  heated  slowly,  it 
loses  0.15  or  0.16  parts  of  its  weight,  and 
falls  into  powder.  It  effervesces  with  borax 
and  microcosmic  salt,  and  is.  reduced  to  a 
greenish  opaque  mass.  With  sodn  it  melts 
into  a  frothy  white  enamel,  \\hen  its  powder 
is  thrown  on  a  hot  coal,  it  emits  a  greenish- 
yellow  light. 

A  specimen  analysed  b}'  Wcslrum  was 
composed  of 

44  silica 
■JO  ahimina 
20  barytes 
16  water 

100. 
Kiaproth  found  the  same  ingredients,  and 
ncariv  in  the  same  proportions. 

A  varietv  of  staurolite  has  been  found  only 
once,  which  has  the  following  properties : 

Its  lustre  is  pearly,  2.  Specific  gravity 
2.361.  Colour  brownish-grey.  With  soda 
it  melts  into  a  purplish  and  yellowish  frothy 
enamel.  It  is  composed,  according  to  W'es- 
tniJii,  of 

47.5  silica 
12.0  alumina 
20.0  barytes 
16.0  water 
4.5  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese 


100.0. 


STAY,  in  the  sea-language,  a  strong  rope 
fastened  to  the  top  of  oiie  mast,  and  to  the 
foot  of  that  next  b'fore  it,  towards  the  prow, 
serving  to  kee|)  it  lirm,  and  prevent  its  fall- 
ing aflwards  or  towards  the  poop.  All  ma^ts,■ 
top-masts,  and  Hag-staves,  haye  their  stays^ 
except  the  sprit-sail  lop-masts.  That  of  the 
main-mast  is  called  the  main-stay.  The  main- 
mast, fore-mast,  and  those  belonging  to  them, 
have  also  back-stays  to  prevent  their  pitching 
forwards  or  overboanl. 

STE-ALING,  the  fraudulent  taking  away 
of  another  man's  goods,  with  an  intent  to  steal 
Diem,  again^t,  or  without,  the  will  of  him 
wliixe  goods    they   are.      See  Burglaiiy, 

1..AP.CF.NY,  and  UoBBERY. 

S TEAM.  See  Water. 

StE  SM-ENGINE.      See  E.VGINE,  Stl'iim. 

ST'EATI  I'ES,  in  mineralogy,    is  usually 


S  T  E 

amorphous,    but    sou'.etimcs.  crystallized  in 
six-sidid   prisms.     Its   texture  is  connnonly 
earthy:  specific  gravity  2.61   to  2.79;  feels 
greasy  :  seldom   adheres  to  tJie  tongue  :  co- 
lonrwhileor  grey,with  a  tiiii.  of  other  colours; 
the  foliated  green.    Does  not  melt  per  se  be- 
fore the  blonifipe.  There  are  three  varieties  : 
specimens   aiial\zed  by  Kiaproth  and  Che- 
nevix.  Contained  as  follows  ; 
By  Kiaproth. 
59.5  silica 
30.5  magnesia 
2.5  iron 
3.j  water 


By  Clienevix. 
60.00  silica 
28.50  maguPsia 

3.00  alumina 

2,50  lime/ 

2.25  iron 


98.0 


97. 


I      STEEL,  a  carburet  of  iron,  or  that  metal 
i  combined  with  a  small  portion  of  carbon.  See 
Iron. 

STEERAGE,  on  hoard  a  ship,  that  part  of 
the  ship  next  below  the  ijuarter-deck,  before 
the  bulk-head  of  the  great  cabin,  where- the 
Steersman  stands  in  most  ships  of  war.  See 
the  next  article. 

STEICU ING,  in  navigation,  the  directing 
of  a  vessel  frorii  one  place  to  another  by 
means  of  the  helm  and  rudder.  He  is  helH 
the  best  steersman  who  causes  the  least 
motion  in  putting  the  holm  over  to  and 
again,  and  who  best  keeps  tlie  ship  from 
making  yaws,  that  is,  from  running  in  and 
out.  There  are  three  methods  of  steering  : 
1.  By  any  mark  on  the  land,  so  as  to  keep 
the  ship  even  by  it.  2.  By  the  compass, 
which  is  by  keeping  the  ship's  head  on  such 
a  rhumb  or  point  of  the  compass  as  best  leads 
to  port.  3.  To  steer  as  one  is  bidden  or  con- 
ned, which,  in  a  great  ship,  is  the  duty  of  him 
that  is  taking  his  turn  at  the  helm. 

STELLAKIA,  .stichnjort,  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  decaiulria, 
and  order  of  trigynia,  and  in  the  natural  sys- 
tem arranged  under  the  '..'2d  order,  caryo- 
phylleK.  The  calyx  is  pentaphyllous  and 
s])reading.  There  are  live  petals,  each  di- 
vided into  two  segments.  The  capsule  is 
oval,  unilocular,  and  polyspermous.  There 
are  17  species;  three  of  these  are  British 
plants.  1.  Nemorum,  broad-leaved  stich- 
vvort.  2.  Ilolostea,  greater  stichwoit ;  it  is 
common  in  woods  and  hedges.  3.  Graininea, 
less  stichwort.  The  stem  is  near  a  foot  high. 
It  is  frequent  in  dry  pastures. 

STELL.AFE    See  Rotaky. 

STELLERA,  Germuii  groundsel,  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  octaudria, 
anci  order  of  monogynia,  and  in  the  natuial 
system  arranged  under  the  3  1st  order,  ye|)re- 
cuhe.  There  is  no  calyx  ;  the  corolla  is  qua- 
(Irifid.  The  stamina  are  very  short ;  there  is 
only  one  seed,  which  is  black.  The  species 
are  two  in  number,  paiseriua  and  chainae- 
jasine. 

STEM.    See  Botany. 

Stem  ofa  ship,  that  main  piece  of  timber 
which  comes  bendiiig  from  the  keel  below, 
where  it  is  scarfed,  as  they  call  it,  that  is, 
pieced  in  ;  and  rises  compassing  right  before 
the  forecastle.  This  stem  it  is  which  guides 
the  rake  of  the  sliip,  and  all  the  butt-ends  of 
the  planks  are  fixed  into  it.  This,  in  the 
seclion  of  a  lirst-rate  ship,  is  called  the  main 
stem.     See  Snir-BUILUINO. 

ST'EMMATA,  in  tlie  historyof  insects,  are 
three  smooth  hemispheric  dots,  placed  gei>n- 


S  T  E 

rally  on  the  top  of  the  head,  as  hi  most  of  the 
hymenoptera  and  other  classes. 

STEMODIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  class  of  didyiiamia,  and  order  of  angi 
osperinia,  an<l  in  the  natural  system  ranging 
under  the  4WU  order,  personata;.  The  caly.x 
is  quin<iucparlite ;  the  corolla  bilabiatetl  ; 
there  are  four  stamina  ;  each  of  the  filamcnti 
is  biiid,  and  they  have  two  anthera;.  T'he 
capsule  is  biiocnlar.  There  are  lour-species, 
herbs  of  the  East  and  \\  est  Indies. 

S'l'EN'OGRAPIIY.  The  art  of  steno- 
graphy, or  short-hand  writing,  was  known 
and  practised  by  most  of  the  autient  civilized 
nations.  The  Egyptians,  who  were  distin- 
guished for  learning  at  an  early  period,  at 
first  expressed  their  words  bj  a  delineation  of 
figures  called  hieroglyphics.  A  more  concise 
mode  of  writing  seems  to  have  been  after- 
wards introduced,  in  which  only  a  part  of  the 
symbol  or  picture  was  drawn.  Tliis  answered 
the  purpose  of  short-hand  in  some  degree. 
After  them  the  Hebrews,  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Romans,  adopted  different  methods  of  abbre- 
viating their  words  and  sentences,  suited  to 
their  respective  languages.  The  initials,  the 
finals,  or  radicals,  often  served  for  whole 
words;  and  various  combinations  of  these 
sometimes  formed  a  sentence.  Arbitrary 
marks  vvere  likewise  employed  to  determine 
the  meaning,  and  to'assist  legibility  ;  and  it 
seems  probable  that  every  writer,  and  every 
author  of  antiquity,  had  some  peculiar  me- 
thod of  abbreviation,  calculated  to  facilitate 
expression  of  his  own  sentiments,  and  intelli- 
gible only  to  himself. 

It  is  also  probable,  that  some  might  by 
these  means  take  down  the  heads  of  a  dis- 
course er  oration ;  but  few,  very  few,  it  is 
presumed,  could  have  followed  a  speaker 
through  all  the  meanders  of  rhetoric,  and 
noted  with  precision  every  syllable,  as  it 
dropt  from  his  mouth,  in  a  maimer  legible 
even  to  themselves.  To  arrive  at  perfection 
in  the  art  \v;vs  reserved  for  more  modern 
times,  and  is  still  an  acquisition  by  no  means 
general. 

Tn  every  language  of  Europe,  till  about  the 
close  of  the  16lh  century,  tiie  Roman  p'au  of 
abbreviating  (viz.  substituting  the  initials  or 
radicals,  with  the  help  of  arbjtrary  characters 
for  words),  appears  to  have  been  employed. 
Till  then  no  regular  alphabet  had  been  in- 
vented exjjressly  for  stenography,  when  au 
English  gentleman  o;  the  name  of  Willis  in- 
vented and  published  one  ;  since  which  \#e 
have  had  a  multitude  of  others  by  Mason, 
(iurney,  Bvrom,  Palmer,  &.C.  &c.  The  fol- 
lowing is  extracted  from  Dr.  Mavor's  trea- 
tise on  the  art,  which  has  met  with  general 
approbation : 

Riiksfor  Orthographt/  in  Short  hand, 
1 .  All  quiescent  consonants  in  words  are  to 
be  dropped  ;  and  th<'  orthography  to  be 
duf'cted  only  by  tiie  pronunciation  :  which 
being  known  to  all, '  will  render  this  art  at- 
tainable by  those  who  cannot  spell  with  pre- 
cision ill  long  hand.  2.  W  hen  the  absence 
of  consonants,  not  entirely  dormant,  can  be 
easily  known,  they  may  often  be  omitted 
without  tin;  least  obscurity.  3.  Two,  or 
sometimes  more  consonants,  may,  to  promote 
greater  expedition,  be  exchanged  for  a  sin- 
gle one  of  nearlv  similar  sound  ;  and  no  am- 
biguity as  to  the  meaning  ensue.  4.  When 
two   consonants   of  the  same  kind  or  same 


^f)\tm\  come  togpllit-r,  wiitioiit  my  vowel  Ijc- 
tive(Mi  lli''iii.  ()ii!\  one  is  to  be  cvpres'iod  ;  hut 
it  a  vowel  or  vowels  intervene,  l).i!li  are  lo  be 
writleii:  only  oi)^el■ve,  it'  tliev  are  perpendi- 
ciiIhi',  lioiiza.nal,  or  oblicpie  hues,  tliey  iiuist 
only  he  (iivwna  size  loniter  tlum  iise.al  ;  ami 
iliar.U'ters  will*  loops  imisl  liavc  the  size  oi 
llieii-  le-ads  doiih  ed.     S(  c  Plate. 

Might  is  U)  be  written  iiiit,  light  /?/,  ma- 
thiin»,  iiwiliin,  eMOii^;li  cTD/f,  laugh  Itif,  pro- 
pliit  ;»v)/(Y,  physics  _/j.sj'>.v,  lIuMiigh  Ihro',  in- 
itilj,n  Jhn-i!,  so'.-ereign  .sm\re/7,  psahn  .iii/ii, 
r«-eii)t  rfxel,  write  rile,  wriaht  ril,  inland 
iLiiKl,  knavery,  navt-r;/,  temptation  ttmla- 
tioii,  knile  nijc,  stick  xlik,  thigh  llti,  honour 
vitnitr,  indittnient  iiidiUmcnt,  aciiiiainl 
ti'j'iaint,  chaos  /.//o.s,  &c. 

Strejiirth  .ilrtitlli,  lengtli  leiilfi,  friendship 
J'rciislup,  coiuif'ct  coiick,  comniandnTent,  co- 
m-.iniiient,  coi>junet  co/ijiiiif,  humble  huiiiL, 
lumber  liimcr,  slumber  .y/.vm.'r,  nuuiber  ««- 
Jiur,  e\cr.iplary  f.ixinluri/,  &c. 

Kocks  rox,  acts,  iiku  ov  ax,  hcHfaksor 
fij.\,  districts  di.sir/k-1,  or  di.s-lrix;  affects 
tijlks  or  a/cj.,  adlicts  ajUka  or  ojlix,  con([uer, 
kiinky,  &c. 

Letter  hUr,  little  litte,  command  comnnd, 
error  ei'or,  terror  hrnr,  &c.  Cut  in  riiiK'in- 
hiv,  inamtnt,  siiter,  and  such  like  words, 
\\  here  two  consonants  of  the  same  name  have 
an  inlervening  vuuel,  both  of  them  must  be 
written. 

These  f.iur  rules,  with  their  examples, 
being  caretully  considered  by  the  learner, 
will  leave  him  in  no  doubt  concerning  the 
Uisjjosition  and  management  of  the  conso- 
nants in  this  scheme  of  short-writing  ;  we  shall 
therefore  proceed  to  lay  down  rules  for  the 
application  of  the  vowels  with  ease  and  expe- 
dition. 

1.  Vowels,  being  only  simple  articulate 
sounds,  though  they  are  the  connectives  of 
consonants,  and  Ciiiployed  in  every  w  ord  and 
every  syllable,  are  not  necessary  to  be  in- 
serted in  the  middle  of  words;  because  the 
consonants,  if  fullv  pronounced,  with  the 
assistance  of  connection,  will  always  discover 
the  meaning  of  a  word,  and  make  the  writiiig 
perfectly  legible. 

2.  If  a  vowel  is  not  stronglv  accented  in 
the  incipient  syllable  of  a  wor<l,  or  if  it  is 
mute.in  the  linal,  it  is  likewise  to  be  omitted; 
because  tiie  ...ound  of  the  incii)ient  vowel  is 
often  implied  in  tiiat  of  t!ie  tirst  consonant, 
which  will  consequentlv  supplv  its  place. 

3.  But  if  the  vowel  constitutes  the  lirst  or 
last  syllable  of  a  word,  or  is  strongly  accent- 
ed at  its  beginning  or  end,  that  vowel  is  con- 
timially  to  be  written. 

4.  If  a  word  begins  or  ends  with  two  or 
"more  vowels,  though  separated,  or  when 
there  is  a  coalition  of  vowels,  as  in  diphthongs 

,  -and  tripluliongs,  only  one  of  them  is  to  be  ex- 
pres^eu,  which  must  be  that  which  agrees  best 
with  the  pronunciation. 

5.  In  monosyll.ibles,  if  they  begin  or  end 
with  a  vowel,  it  is  always  to  be  inserted,  un- 
less the  vowel  is  c  mute  at  the  end  of  a  word. 

>iuch  are  the  general  principles  of  this  art ; 
in  vindication  and  support  o;  which  it  wdl 
be  needless  to  ofl'er  any  arguments,  when  it 
is  considered  that  brevity  and  ex])edition  are 
the  chief  objects,  if  consistent  with  leglbilily; 
and  the  subseciuent  s|>ecimens  in  the  ortho- 
graphy recounnended,  will,  we  hope,  be  suf- 
ficient to  show  that  theie  1-.  no  real  deliciency 
in  the  last-mentioned  particular. 

Vol.  If. 


STF.NOCJn.MTIY. 

lie  who  md  us  mstbe  elrnl,  gri,  ml  mnplnt. 
It  is  ur  dly,  as  rlnl  bngs,  to  srv,  Iv,  iid  olw 
lim.  A  nni  Hit  «d  avd  bim,  slid  bi'  srkmspk  in 
al  lis  axus,  nd  mlvr  wlh  al  hs  mt  to  pis  evry 
bdy.  1  wd  111  I'rm  any  knxns  «tli  a  inn  who 
lid  no  igrd  fr  hm^lf :  ntlir  wd  I  blv  a  mn  who 
lid  ens  lid  lue  a  li.  Our  is  ol  al  thugs  the 
msl  dl'kll  to  pisrv  ntnishd  ;  nd  v.hii  ons 
mpclid,  Ik  the  cIkI)  of  a  wniii,  iivr  slins  wlli 
its  wntd  Istr.  U'lh  gd  miirs,  kmplsiisndan  esy 
pit  adrs,  mny  ink  a  Igr  in  the  wrl.wh<  miitl 
ablts  wd  skrsly  hv  isd  llim  abv  the  riik  of  a 
ifmn.  Idlns  is  the  prnl  of  a  ihsinl  in'.frtns, 
well  ar  iivr  fll  by  the  iidstrs :  it  is  a  pn  nd  a 
pnshmnl  ol  ilsU,  nd  brng-,  wiit  nd  bgiy  in  its 
trn.  \rtu  is  the  fr-l  tling  ihl  slid  be  rgrdd  ; 
it  is  a  rwrd  of  itslf ;  inks  a  mn  rspktbl  hr,  nd 
wl  ink  hm  etrnly  Iipy  lirflr.  Prd  is  a  nist 
prnss  psn,  well  yt  ws  plntd  by  livn  in  ur  ntr, 
lo  rs  ur  emlsn  to  iintl  grl  nd  wrtliy  krklrs  or 
axns,  to  xt  in  us  a  si  (r  wht  is  rl  nd  gsl,  nd  a 
Idbl  ndgiisn  gnsi  oprsrs  iid  wrkrs  of  any  knd 
of  iiktv;  in  shrt,  to  mk  us  si  a  prpr  vhi  upn 
urslvs,  nd  dsps  a  wrlhls  llo,  liu  evr  xlul.  '1  hs 
fr  prd  is  a  vrtu,  nd  my  gstly  be  kid  a  grins  of 
si.  I5t  prd,  Ik  otlir  psiis,  gnrly  fxs  u|jn  nig 
obgks,  or  is  apid  in  rug  prprsns.  !Iu  knin  is 
it  to  se  a  rtch  whm  evry  vs  hs  riidrd  insrbl, 
nd  evry  fly  kntmlbl,  vhig  hni'^lf  on  hs  hi  brth, 
nd  bstng  llis  ilstrs  nsstlrs,  of  whm  he  iihrts 
nthng  bt  the  nm  or  Ul !  nsstrs  who  if  thy  nu 
hm,  wd  dsn  tlir  dpndnt  wtli  kntml.  liut  al 
prd  of  llis  sit  is  fly,  nd  evr  lo  be  avdd. 

As  the  whole  of  this  art  depends  u|)on  a 
regular  method  and  a  simple  alphabet,  we 
have  not  only  endeavoured  lo  est.ihlish  the 
former  on  satisfactory  principles,  but  have 
been  careful  to  appropriate,  according  to  the 
comparative  frequency  of  their  occurn  nee, 
such  characters  for  the  letters  as,  after  re- 
peated trials  and  alterations,  were  conceived 
to  be  the  best  adapted  for  dispatch. 

The  short-hand  alphabet  consists  of  IS 
distinct  characters  (viz.  two  for  the  vowels 
and  the  rest  for  the  consonants)  taken  from 
lines  and  semicircular  curves  ;  the  formation 
and  application  of  which  we  shall  now  ex- 
plain, beginning  with  the  vowels. 

For  the  three  first  vowels,  a,  e,  and  i,  a 
comma  is  approjiriated  in  different  positions ; 
and  for  the  other  three,  o,  !f,  and//,  a  point. 
The"  comma  and  point,  when  applied  to  a 
and  o,  is  to  be  placed,  as  in  the  Plate,  at  the 
top  of  the  next  character  ;  when  for  e  and  u, 
oppo-ite  to  the  middle;  and  when  for ?' and 
!/,  at  the  bottom. 

This  arrangement  of  the  vowels  is  the  most 
simple  and  distinct  that  can  be  easily  imagin- 
ed. Places  at  the  top,  the  middle,  and  the 
bottom  of  characters,  which  make  three  dif- 
ferent positions,  are  as  ca'-ily  distinguished 
from  one  another  as  any  three  separate  cha- 
racters could  be  ;  and  a  comma  is  made  w  ith 
the  same  facility  as  a  point. 

Simple  lines  may  be  drawn  four  different 
ways;  perpendicular,  horizontal,  and  with  an 
angle  of  about  forty-live  degrees  to  the  right 
and  left.  An  ascending  oblique  line  to  the 
right,  which  will  be  perfectly  distinct  from 
the  rest  when  joined  to  any  other  character, 
may  likewise  be  admitted.  These  charac- 
ters being  the  simplest  in  nature,  are  assigned 
lo  those  live  consonants  which  most  fre- 
quently occur,  viz.  /,  )',  t,  c  hard  or  k,  and  c 
soft  or  s. 

Everv  circle  may  be  divided  wilh  a  per. 
peadkular  mid  horizontal  line,  so  as  to  form 
4X 


likewise  four  diilincl  rharwler.-.  Tliev  beini* 
the  next  lo  lines  in  llie  simplicilv  of  tlieir  for- 
mation, wi;  have  app:«i.riaU;d  tliem  for  b,  d, 
II,  and  m. 

'I'he  chararfers  expressing  nine  of  the  con- 
sonants arc  all  perlecily  distinct  Iroin  one  an- 
other; eight  only  renjairi  wliirh  are  inrd'ul, 
vi/.  J,  fr,  or  /,  )i,  ]),  fj,  r,  li,  and  r,  lo  find 
characters  for  wli.cli  we  must  have  recourse 
to  mixed  curves  and  lines.  The  character* 
which  w('  have  adopted  are  the  simplest  in 
n.itun;  after  those  already  apjilied,  admit  of 
the  easiest  joining,  and  tend  to  pieserve  line- 
alily  and  beauty  in  the  writing. 

It  must  be  oliserved  that  we  have  no  f  ha- 
rai  ter  lor  c  when  it  has  a  hard  sound,  as  in 
ciLsdc;  or  soft,  as  hi  cit'i;  for  it  naturally 
takes  the  sound  of  A  or  *■,  which  in  all  casJ^ 
will  bi?  sufiicieiil  lo  supply  its  jjlace. 

/i  likewise  is  u  pre>ei,ted  bv  tliesame  cha- 
racter as/;  only  with  this  diii'-rence,  r  is 
written  with  ^uch  an  ascending  slrok» 
and/  with  a  de>cending;  which  is  alwavs  to 
be  knou  II  from  tlii>  manner  of  its  union  Willi 
the  following  character;  but  in  a  lew  mono- 
syllables, w  here  r  is  the  only  consonant  in  the 
«uid,  and  consequently  stands  alone,  it  is  t« 
be  made  as  is  shown  in  the  alphabet  for  dis- 
tinction's sake. 

Z,  as  it  is  a  letter  seldom  employed  in  the 
l■".ngli^h  language,  and  only  a  coarser  and 
harder  expression  of  .y,  must  be  supplied  by  « 
whenever  it  occurs ;  as  for  Zedckiuh,  write 
Scdikiult,  &C. 

The  prepositions  and  teniiinalioiis  in  this 
scheme  are  so  simple,  that  the  greatest  be- 
nefit may  be  reaped  horn  them,  and  very 
little  trouble  required  to  attain  them;  as  the 
incipient  letter  or  the  incfpient  consonant  of 
all  the  prepositions,  and  of  several  of  the  ter- 
minations, is  used  to  express  the  whole.  But 
although  in  the  Plate  sufiicicnt  specimen! 
are  given  of  the  manner  of  their  application, 
that  the  learner  of  less  ingenuity  or  inorQ 
slow  perception  may  have  every  assistance, 
we  have  subjoined  the  following  "directions  : 

1.  The  preposition  is  always  to  be  wrilten 
without  joining,  yet  so  near  as  plainly  to  shosr 
what  word  it  belongs  to  ;  and  the  best  wav  is 
to  observe  the  same  order  as  if  the  whole  waj 
to  be  connected. 

•2.  A  preposition,  though  the  same  letters 
that  constitute  it  may  be  met  with  in  tin; 
middle  or  end  of  a  word,  is  never  to  be  used, 
because  it  would  expose  it  toobsf  urity. 

3.  Obseive  that  the  jireposition  omni  is 
expressed  by  the  vowel  o  in  its  proper  ]io.«i- 
lion  ;  and  for  «n//,  atiiu,  on/c,  bv  the  vowel 
«,  w  liich  the  radical  part  of  the  word  w  ill 
easily  distinguish  from  being  only  siipple 
vowels. 

'I'he  fust  rule  for  the  prepositions  is  (allow- 
ing su<h  exceptions  as  ni.iv  be  seen  in  the 
Pl.ile)  to  be  observed  for  the  terminations  ; 
and  also  the  s;  cond  mulutis  mutinidis,  e.xcejit 
that  whensver  sin,  sua,  si/s,  cioiis,  tious,  and 
cc.y,  occur,  they  arc  to  be  expressed  as  di- 
rected in  the  fourth  rule  for  the  c^lisoujnts, 
whether  in  the  beginning,  middle'^  or  end  of 
words. 

4.  The  terminative  character  for  iion,  sinn,' 
cifiii,  ciaii,  tiaii,  is  to  bo  expressed  by  a  small 
circle  joined  to  the  nearest  letUr,  and  turned 
to  the  right ;  and  the  plurals,  tions,  sioiis, 
cinm,  cians,  Hans,  tknce,  by  a  dot  on  ijie 
same  side. 


7U 


S  T  E 


5.  The  temiinative  character  for  j;ig  is  19 
be  expressfd  likewise  by  a  small  ciicle,  but  ] 
drawn  to  the  left  hai.tl ;  and  its  ijlural  ii.gs  by  i 

3  (lot.  I 

6.-  Tiie  plural  sign  s  is  to  be  added  to  the  j 
teriiiii:ali\e  characiers  wlieii  necessary.  | 

7.  The  separated  ternnnatioiis  are  never  I 
tu  be  used  bi't  in  polysyllabhs,  or  words  of  i 
jiiore  syllables  tiian  one.  '  ] 

These  directions  duly  observed,  together  | 
with  a  proper  altentxn  to  the  engraved  plate,  j 
and  a  regard  to  what  has  gone  liefore  in  tliis  1 
art,  will  point  out  a  method  as  concise  and  I 
e!ega[it  as  tan  be  desired,  for  expressing  the  \ 
most  freciucnt  and  longest  prepositions  and 
terminations  in  the  English  language.     If  it 
should  bethought  necessary  to  increase  their 
number  by  the  addition  of  others,  it  «ill  be 
an  easv  matter  for  any  one  ol  the  least  dis- 
cermnent  to  do  so,  "by  proceeding  on  the 
principles  before  laid  down. 

STEP  ofllie  7imst  and  citpsUin,  in  a  ship,  is 
that  piece'of  timber  whereon  the  masts  or 
ci'.pstans  stand  at  bottom. 

.STEPHANIU.M,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
evnia  Older,  in  the  pentandria  clas;  of  plants, 
ai'id  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
47lh  order,  stellatie.  Tiie  calyx  is  mono- 
phvlious,  turbinjte<l,and  quinquepartite  ;  the 
foiollii  is  monopetalous,  funnel-shaped,  hav- 
ins  its  tubes  curved  and  ventricose ;  the  pe- 
rtcarpium  is  a  bilocuLir  berry,  containing  tivo 
seeds,  flattened  on  one  side,  and  round  on 
the  other.  This  genus  is  nearly  aUied  to  that 
ef  psychotria.  There  is  only  one  species, 
viz.  g'uianensi-,  a  native  of  tlie  warmer  parts  of 
America. 

STERBEEKIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  polyandria  monogynia ;  the  calyx  is 
three  or  "live  valved  ;  corolla  three  or  five 
pctalled;  caps,  corticose  ;  seeds  intricate; 
nothing  in  pulp.  There  is  one  species,  a 
shrub  of  Guiana. 

S TERCULIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  class  dodecandria,  and  order  of 
monogvnia,  and  in  the  natural  system  rank- 
ing under  the  38th  order,  tricocceE.  The 
c:vly.\  is  quinquepartite  ;  there  is  no  corolla  ; 
the  nect.  is  bell-shaped;  germ  pedicelled;  and 
the  capsule  is  quinquelocular,  and  many- 
sceded.  There  are  eight  species,  all  foreign 
plants. 

STERE0GR.\PI1!C  PROJECTION. 
See  PROjErTioN. 

STEREOGRAPHY,  the  art  of  drawing 
Ihe  forms  and  figures  of  the  solids  upon  a 
plane. 

SIEREOMETRY,  that  part  of  geome- 
try wliicli  teaches  how  to  measure  solid  bo- 
dies, that  is,  to  lind  the  solidity  or  solid  con- 
tent of  bodies,  as  globes,  cylinders,  cubes, 
vessels,  ships,  &C. 

STEREOTYPE  PRINTING.  This  is  said 
til  be  an  improvement  in  the  art,  and  was  in- 
troduced into  this  country  by  Mr.  Ged,  of 
Edinburgh,  who,  instead  of  types  or  single 
Irtlers,  formed  a  plate  for  eachsepara'epage, 
trom  whii  li  the  work  is  printed.  With  the 
first  inventor  it  did  not  succeed  ;  though  the 
pretensions  of  Ged,  as  an  inventor,  may  be 
disputed,  for  precisely  the  same  principle 
was  adopted  many  hundred  years  ago  by  the 
(,  liiiiese  and  Japanese,  who  Mrst  practised  the 
^'  t  of  printing  by  means  of  wooden  blocks. 


S  T  £ 

The  mode  of  stereotype  printing  is,  first  to  set 
up  a  page,  for  instance,  in  the  common  way, 
and  when  it  is  rendered  perfcclly  correct,  a 
cast  is  taken  from  it,  and  in  this  cast  the  metal 
for  the  stereotype  plate  is  ^)Oure^l.  'J  his 
method  ot  printing  lias  lately  been  brought 
into  practice  by  earl  Stanhope,  who  seems  to 
have  overcome  all  difiicull'.es,  and  to  have 
rendered  the  art  as  perfect  as  can  be  expect- 
ed. His  lordsli.p  intends  to  make  the  inven- 
tion public. 

STERLING,  a  term  frcMuent  in  Pritish 
commeu..  A  pound,  shiUhig,  or  penny, 
sterling,  signifies  as  much  as  a  pound,  shilling, 
or  penny,  of  l.iwlul  money  of  Great  Britain, 
as  spltled  by  authority. 

SI  ERNV;/-'  a  .v/)/;.i," usually  denotes  all  the' 
liindemiost  part  other,  but  properly  it  is  only 
tiie  outmost  part  abaft. 

SrERN'-F.^ST,  denotes  some  fastenings  of 
ropes,  &c.  behind  the  stern  ot  a  ship,  to  which 
a  cable  or  hawser  may  be  brought  or  fixed, 
in  order  to  hold  her  stern  to  a  wharf,  &c. 

Stern-post,  a  great  timber  let  into  the 
keel  at  the  stern  uf  a  ship,  somewhat  slop- 
ing, into  which  are  fastened  the  afti-rplanks  ; 
and  on  this  post,  by  its  pintle  and  gudgeons, 
hangs  the  rudder. 

Si'ERNA,  tlie  tern,  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  order  an>eres.  The  marks  of  this  genus 
are  a  straight,  slender,  pointed  bill,  linear 
nostrils,  a  slender  and  sharp  tongue,  very 
long  wiuas,  a  small  back  toe,  and  a  forked 
tail.  There  are  23  species,  according  to  Dr. 
Latham  ;  the  caspia,  cayana,  suriiiamensis, 
fuliginosa,  atricana,  stolida,  philippina,  sim- 
plex, nilotica,  boysii,  striata,  vittata,  sadicea, 
pilcata,  hirundo,  panaya,  cinerea,  alba,  nii- 
uuta,  sinensis,  australis,  metopoleucos,  fis- 
sipes,  nigra,  and  obscura.  Three  of  these 
only  are  found  in  Great  Britain  ;  the  hirundo, 
minuta,  and  tissipes.  See  Piute  Nat.  Hist, 
fig.  377. 

\.  The  hirundo,  common  tern,  or  great 
sea-swallow,  weighs  four  ounces  one  quarter; 
the  length  is  fourteen  inches ;  the  breadth 
thirty  ;  the  bill  and  feet  are  of  a  fine  crimson; 
the  former  tipt  with  black,  straight,  slender, 
and  sharp-pointed ;  the  crown,  and  hind 
part  of  the  head,  black  ;  the  throat,  and  whole 
underside  of  the  body,  white  ;  the  upper  part, 
and  the  coverts  of  die  wings,  a  fine  pale-grey. 
This  is  a  very  common  species,  frequents  our 
sea-coaslSj  and  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers  dur- 
ing the  summer,  but  is  most  common  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  sea.  It  is  found  also  in 
various  parts  of  Euro|)e  and  Asia,  according 
to  the  season ;  in  the  summer,  as  far  as  Green- 
land and  Spitzbergeii,  migrating  in  turn  to 
the  South  of  Austria  and  Greece.     It  lays 


three  or  four  eggs  about  the  moiUh  of  Juii 
of  a  dull  olive-colour. 

These  are  laid  among  the  grass  or  moss. 
The  young  are  hatched  m  July,  and  quit  the 
nest  very  soon  after.  They  are  carefully  fed 
by  their  parents,  and  fly  in  about  six  weeks. 
'1  his  bird  appears  to  have  all  the  actions  on 
the  water  which  the  swallow  has  on  land, 
skimming  on  the  surface,  and  seizing  on 
evers  insect  whi<  li  comes  in  its  way  ;  be^iides 
wliicli,  the  nioincnl  it  spies  a  lisli  m  tiie  wa- 
ter, it  darts  into  that  element,  and  seizing  its 
prey,  arises  as  cpiickly  to  the  jilace  from 
which  it  dipped. 

2.  'Ihe  minuta,  or  smaller  sea-swallow, 
weighs    only   two  ounces  five  graint;    the 


S  T  I 

length  is  eight  inches  and  a  half,  the  lircadth 
nineteen  and  a  half,  'ihe  bill  i^  yellow,  tipt  ( 
with  black  ;  the  forehead  and  cheeks  white  ; 
from  the  eyes  to  the  bill  is  a  black  line  ;  the 
top  of  the  head  and  liind  pait  black;  the 
breast  and  underside  ol  \\w  body  clotiieilwitli 
feathers  so  closely  set  togetlier,  and  ot  such 
an  exi'iiisiti-  ricli  gloss  aim  so  fiiiea  white,  that 
no  satin  can  be  compared  to  it.  'lliesetwo 
specien  are  very  delic.ite,  and  seem  unable 
to  bear  the  inclemency  of  the  weather  on 
our  shores  during  winter,  for  we  observe  that 
tiiey  <iuit  their  breeding-place  at  the  approach  ■ 
of  It,  and  do  not  return  till  spring.  The  man- 
ners, haunts,  and  food,  of  this  species,  are  the 
same  with  those  of  tlie  former ;  but  they  are 
far  less  numerous. 

3.  The  fissipes,  or  black  tern,  is  of  a  mid- 
dle size  between  the  fii'st  and  second  species. 
The  usual  length  is  ten  inches  ;  the  breadth 
24  ;  the  weight  two  ounces  and  a  half.  The 
head,  neck,  breast,  and  belly,  as  far  as  the 
vent,  are  black;  beyond  is  white  ;  the  male 
has  a  white  spot  under  its  chin  ;  the  back  and- 
wings  are  of  a  deep  ash-colour ;  the  tail  is 
short  and  forked ;  the  exterior  feather  on 
each  side  is  white  ;  the  oiher  ash-coloured  ; 
the  legs  and  feet  of  a  dusky  red.  These  blrdi 
frequent  h'esh  waters,  breed  on  their  banks, 
and  lay  three  small  eggs  of  a  deep  olive-co- 
lour, much  spotted  with  black.  They  are 
found  liuring  spring  and  summer  in  vast  num- 
bers ill  the  fens  ot  Lincolnshire,  make  an  in- 
cessant noise,  and  feed  on  flies  as  well  as 
water-insects  and  small  fishes.  Birds  of  this 
species  are  seen  very  remote  from  land. 

S  TERNOPTYX,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
order  apodes.  The  generic  character  is ; 
head  obtuse,  teeth  very  minute ;  giH  mem- 
brane 0;  body  compressed,  withmit  apparent 
scales;  breast,  carinate  folded;  belly  pellucid. 
There  is  but  a  single  species,  that  inhabits 
America,  viz.  diaphana. 

STERNUNL    See  Anatomy. 

S  rii^WARD,  a  man  appointed  in  a  place 
or  stead,  and  always  signifies  a  principal  offi- 
cer within  his  jurisdiction.  The  greatest  of 
these  is  the  lord-high-steward  of  England; 
but  the  powrr  of  this  ollicer  being  very  great, 
of  late  he  has  not  usually  been  appointed  for 
any  length  of  time,  but  only  for  the  dispatch 
of  some  spei'ial  business,  as  the  trial  of  some 
nobleman  in  cases  of  treason,  &c.  after  which 
his  commission  expires. 

STICKLEBACK.    See  Gasterosteus. 

STICKS,  font,  in  printing,  slips  of  wood 
that  lie  betwi  en  the  foot  of  the  page  and  the 
chase,  to  which  they  are  wedged  fast  by  the 
((uoins,  to  keep  the  form  fi?m,  in  conjunction 
with  the  side-sticks,  which  arc  placed  at  the 
side  ot  the  page,  and  fixed  in  the  same  uian- 
mer  by  means  ot  quoins. 

S  riCJ.MA,  ill  entomology,  a  spot  or  anas- 
tomosis in  the  middle  of  the  wings  of  insects 
near  the  anterior  margin,  conspicuous  in  the 
hymcnolilerous  tribes. 

STIGMATA,  in  natural  history,  the  aper- 
tures in  dilfereiit  pLuts  of  Ihe  bodies  of  insects, 
communicating  with  the  trachea;,  or  air-ves- 
sels, and  serving  lor  the  office  of  respiration. 

SriG.MA'l'lZlNG,  among  the  antlcnts, 
was  inllicted  upon  slaves  as  a  punishment, 
but  more  frequently  as  a  mark  to  know  them 
by  ;  in  w  hich  case  it  was  done  by  applying  a 
red-hot  iron  marked  w:lh  certain  letters  to 


rt'////  ///<■  J)(>iil)lc  (//n/  'JVij)lt'  Coii.sonaiits, 

LcLC'liar.         All..  A)>hr<-\'.         i).r.X<-.('li;ir.      Arl..  .'U.l>i-.-v. 


a 

d 

c 

c 

\ 

,/ 

) 

f 

• 

,/' 

Q — 

^y 

o— 

h 

/ 

/ 

/■ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

m 

■-^ 

/I 

o 

/> 

P 

'/ 

Q-^ 

/■ 

/ 

.;• 

— 

/ 

1 

<" 

s^ 

// 

w 

- 

./• 

y 

: 

-- 

*•/,    tf /f ,  ft< 


/'firf 


'■''. '"'/ ■  ''''''f't.ff 


I-  r  >■'!,!■  I  ■■f  i/j^  nut! 

HU' ,   /// 1/,  //it>j/ 
rl  /If/,  //I,  fUX/^^/if 
^  c/t ,  Cfce,  n/'ore 


a/. 


r/f/rui.    {////I/ 


I CV//-." 


'7 


/^e,  /y>,  // 

U/H4,  I'lf^i',  nU{///t\ 

nff ,  a.u-/n/ 


r/> 

A 

<'l/,/l ,    .tt/l// 

si 

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Arbitrarv  Cliaracters . 


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>^i--i-.'i^    S^   -  '^'<r^'-^  /       ^- 

Abbreviatinp;  ]Marks . 

I         \:l/ t!.f^^/<'..^ 

(  J^i/tc/AXi' ! 


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^'tiH/u/tO':.. 


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JOB  Cib/tpter  JOUX,  Venrej-  2/0J3. 

1 1  <n  "^  In 


?■ 


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^    ^/"^    1'^  A/ I   ^oAf^  ^.  I  ^v,  .p-    ^.S\-^^ 


fferi^,:  jr.  7.  >.'-j«»-  Z"' 


S  T  I 

tiir-ir  forelioads,  till  a  lair  irii]>rcs«ion  was 
iiiadi;,  ami  tlicii  p.jiiiing  ink  into  tln-lr  fur- 
rows, that  tlie  iiisc;i|>tinii  iiiighl  \>e  tin-  nunv 
iiojijpic-ioiis.  Sti)j;mati/.iii!5,  among  somip  na- 
tions, was,  liowmirr,  looki'd  upon  as  a  distin- 
guisliing  mark  ot  liononraiul  nobility. 

STILAGO,  a  £rfnii:>  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  class  of  gyiumdria.  and  order  of  triandria. 
Tliere  is  one  female.  Tlie  ealyx  is  monopliyl- 
lous,  and  almost  threc-lobed.  There  is  no 
corolla,  and  tiie  beriy  is  globular,  'i'liere 
are  two  speties,  the  biiuiiis  and  diandiia,  trees 
of  the  l'2a»t  Illdle.i. 

S'riLUE,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  class  of  polygamia,  and  order 
of  ilia'ci.i.  Tlie  exterior  calyx  ot  the  licr- 
iiiaphrodite  flower  Is  triphyllous  ;  the  interior 
is  ([uiiiquedeiitate  and  tartilagiiioiis.  The 
corolla  is  funnel-shaped  and  qniii'.iiielid. 
There  are  four  stamina;  and  tliere  is  one 
seed  in  the  interior  calyx  calyplrate.  The 
female  llower  is  similar,  has  no  interior  calyx 
fior  fruit.  There  are  three  species,  the  pi- 
iK'.stra,  ericoides,  and  cernna,  all  foreign 
plants. 

•SriLBITE.  This  stone  was  first  formed 
into  a  distinct  species  by  Mr.  Many.  l''or- 
iiierlv  it  was  considered  as  a  variety  of  zeo- 
lite. ' 

The  primitive  form  of  its  crystals  is  a  rec- 
tangular prism,  whose  bases  are  rectangles. 
It  crystallizes  sonieliines  in  dodecahedrons, 
consisting  of  a  four-sided  prism  with  hexa- 
gonal faces,  terminated  by  four-sided  sum- 
mits, whose  faces  are  oblique  parallelograms; 
sometimes  in  six-sided  prisms,  two  of  whose 
solid  angles  are  wanting,  and  a  small  trian- 
gular iace  ill  their  place. 

Its  texture  is  Ixiliated.  The  laminx  are 
easily  separated  from  each  other,  and  arc 
somewhat  llexible.  Lustre  pearly.  Hard- 
ness inferior  to  that  of  zeolite,  which  scratches 
slilbite.  Brittle.  Specific  gravity  2.500.  Co- 
lour pearl  white,  or  greasy.  Powder  bright 
white,  sonielimes  with  a  shade  of  red.  This 
powder,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  cakes  and 
adheres  as  if  it  had  absorbed  water.  It 
causes  svriip  of  violets  to  asjume  a  green 
colour.  When  stilbite  is  heated  in  a  porce- 
lain  crucible,  it  swells  up  and  assumes  the 
colour  and  semitransparency  of  baked  porce- 
lain. By  this  process  it  loses  0.185  of  its 
weight.  Before  the  blowpipe  it  froths  like 
borax,  and  then  melts  into  an  opaque  white 
coloured  enamel.  Does  not  gelatine  in  acids. 
Not  electric  by  heat. 

Accoriling  to  the  analysis  of  Vauquelin,  it 
is  composed  of 

."i2.0  silica 
17.5  alumina 
9.0  lime 
18.5  water 

97.0. 

It  occurs  most  commonly  in  lava,  but  is 
found  also  in  primitive  rocks. 

ISI'llT..  See  Distillation. 

STl  LLINGI.'V,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  class  of  monu;cia,  and  to  the  order 
of  monadelphia.  The  male  calyx  is  hemi- 
spherical and  multillorous.  The  corolla  is 
tubuloiis,  and  erose  or  gnawed.  The  female 
calyx  is  unillorous  and  inferior.  The  corolla 
is  superior.  The  style  is  trilid,  and  the  cap- 
sule three-grained.  There  is  only  one  species, 
the  sylvatica. 


S  1   O 

STINC;,  an  app.-naliis  in  the  body  of  ccv- 
taiu  insects,  in  form  of  a  little  spear,  sprving 
them  as  a  weapon  ofolteiicc.  The  sting  ot  a 
bee  or  wasp  is  a  envious  piece  of  nieciiaiiism  : 
it  consists  of  a  iiolluw  tube,  al  the  root  where- 
of there  is  a  bag  full  of  sharp  penetrating 
juice,  which  in  stinging  is  iniected  into  the 
llesh,  Ihi-'.-ugh  the  tube;  within  the  tube,  Mr. 
Derh.im  has  observed,  there  lie  two  sharp 
small  bearded  spears.  In  the  sting  ot  a  wasp 
iie  told  eight  beards  on  the  side  of  each  spear, 
somewhat  like  the  bi-ards  of  lish-hooks.  One 
of  these  spears  in  the  sting,  or  sheath,  lies 
with  its  point  a  little  before  the  other,  to  be 
ready,  as  should  seem,  to  lie  lirst  darted  into 
the  llesh,  which  once  fixed  by  means  of  its  j 
foremost  beard,  the  other  then  strikes  too, 
and  so  they  alternately  pierce  deeper  and 
deeper,  ihelr  beards  taking  more  and  more 
hold  in  the  flesh ;  after  which  the  sheath  or 
sting  follows  to  convey  the  poison  into  the 
wound,  which,  dial  it  may  pierce  the  better, 
is  drawn  into  a  point  with  a  small  slit  below 
that  point  for  the  two  spears  to  come  out 
at.  I5y  means  of  these  beards  it  is,  that  the 
animal  is  forced  to  leave  its  sting  behind  il , 
when  disturbed,  because  it  can  have  no  time 
to  withdraw  the  spears  into  the  scabbard. 

ii'\'\l'.\,  fcfilhcr-ip-us^-,  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  class  of  triandria,  and  order 
of  digviiia,  and  in  the  natural  system  ranging 
under  the  4lh  order,  gramina.  The  calyx 
is  bivalved.  The  orlerior  yalve  of  the  co- 
rolla is  terminated  by  an  awn;  the  base  is 
jointed.  There  are  14  species.  Of  these 
one  only  is  British  ;  the  pennata,  or  common 
feather-grass.  The  beards  are  feathered. 
The  plant  rises  to  the  height  of  ten  inches, 
grows  on  motmtains,  and  tlowers  in  July  or 
.\ugust. 
SIIITLA.  .SceBoTANv. 
STl  K  Ivl'  P  of  a  ship,  a  piece  of  timber  put 
upon  a  ship's  keel,  when  some  of  her  keel 
happens  to  be  beaten  off,  and  they  cannot 
come  conveniently  to  put  or  tit  in  a  new 
|)iece  ;  then  they  patch  in  a  |)iece  of  timber, 
antl  bind  it  on  with  an  iron,  which  goes  under 
the  ship's  keel,  and  comes  up  on  each  side  of 
the  ship,  where  it  is  nailed  strongly  with 
spikes,  and  this  they  call  a  stirrup. 

STOCKING,  the  clothing  of  the  leg  and 
foot.  Antiently  the  only  stockings  in  use 
were  made  of  cloth,  or  of  milled  stuffs,  sewed 
together;  but  since  the  invention  of  knitting 
and  weaving  stockings  of  silk,  wool,  cotton, 
thread,  &c.  the  use  of  cloth  stockings  is  obso- 
lete. The  modern  stockings,  whether  woven 
or  knit,  are  a  kind  of  plexuses,  formed  of  an 
inhnite  number  of  little  knots,  called  stitches, 
loops  or  mashes,  intermingled  with  one  an- 
other. Knit  stockings  are  wTOUght  with 
neeilles  made  of  polished  iron  or  brass  wire, 
vvliich  interweave  the  threads,  and  form  the 
meshes  the  stockings  consist  of.  This  opera- 
tion is  called  kiiiltiiig,  the  iiiyention  whereof 
is  commonly  attributed  to  the  Scots,  on  this 
ground,  that  the  tir.st  works  of  this  kind  came 
from  thence.  It  is  added,  that  it  was  on  this 
account  that  the  company  of  stocking-knit- 
ters established  at  Paris,  in  1527,  took  for 
their  patron  St.  fiacre,  who  is  said  to  be  the 
son  of  a  king  of  Scotland.  A\'oven  stockings 
are  ordinarily  very  fine  ;  they  are  nianufa 


S  T  O 


■i,i 


stnckir.g  ffamp,  or  engine,  1.  Are  Ihi: 
treadles,  like  those  of  other  sorts  of  looms: 
2.  is  the  bobbin  of  twisted  silk,  X:c.  fixed  on 
the  boljbin-wire,  which  it  turns  willi  case  to 
feed  the  engine :  3.  is  the  wheel,  by  whose 
motion  the  jacks  are  drawn  together  upon 
the  needles  -.  4.  is  the  silk,  &c.  which  rum 
off  the  bobliin,  and  is  in  that  posliin-  directud 
up  to  the  needle  to  be  looped  :  5  is  llu-  needle 
on  which  the  stockings  are  made  according 
to  art. 

The  loom  has  received  many  improve- 
ineiits,  «o  that  stockings  of  all  sorts  can  be 
made  on  it  with  great  expedition.  By  mean* 
ot  somi'  additional  machinery  to  the  common 
st(H-kiiig-franie,  the  turned  riljbed  stockings 
are  made  as  well  as  those  done  with  kiiilliii^- 
needles.  Stocking-looms  will  cost  from  liliy 
to  a  hundred  and  li:iv  guineas  each. 

SlOCK-JOliblN'G,  a  species   of  trade, 
or  of  commercial  sambling.  which  has  aristai 
in  most  stales  which  are  encumbered  witJi 
national  debts.     1 1  consists  chieliy' in  making- 
contracts    lor    shares   in    the    public   fund's 
against  any  certain  period  of  tniie,  without 
an  actual  transfer  of  stock   being  made  al 
the  time  the  bargain  i^  cuiiduUed,  ami  geue- 
rally   without   any    intention    of  making  a 
transfer  at  all,  the  object  of  the  transacfioii 
being  to  pay  or  receive  at  the  time  agreed 
for  the  diflereiice  between  the  price  thefund^ 
may  then  be  at,  and  the  price  when  the  bar- 
gain was  made.    Ayreements  to  deliver  slock 
at  a  certain  ])rice  at  a  future  period,  began  iji 
I'.uglaiid  about  the  year  \(y'Jj,  in  East  India 
stock,    and    tlu-   ]>raclice   increased   creatlv 
during  the  high  discount  upon  all  government 
securities   about   the   year   ll>96,   in   consc- 
(^iience  of  which  an  act   was  passed  for  re- 
straining  the    ill    praclices    of    brokers  and 
stock-jobbers,  by  wliich  the  number  of  bro- 
kers was  limitted' to  100.     Tin- establishment 
of  the  new  East  India  companv,  and  the  sub- 
sequent  union  „ of  the  two  companies,  had 
probably  greater  eft'ct  in  lessening  (his  spe- 
cies of  gambling  than  the  restrictions  of  iher 
act;  for  while  oi^portunities  for  speculation 
exist,  some  mode  of  carrying  it  on  will  ge» 
nerally  be   found.     Thus  in  tlie  year  1720, 
the  fallacious  project  of  the  South  Sea  com- 
pany offering  a  strong  temptation  to  specula- 
tors, stock-jobbing  was  carried  to  an  enor- 
mous extent,  which  ended  in  the  ruin  of  thou- 
sands.    When  the  mischief  was  done,  a  bill 
was  brought  into  parliament  to  prevent  this 
"  infamous  practice,"  though  the  experience 
of  the  past  might  have  been  considered  as 
the  best  security  that  it  would  never  again 
be  carried  to  the   same   height.      The   act 
passed  was  soon  found  ineileclual,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  another  bill  was  brought  in 
by  sir  John  Barnard  in  1732,  which  being  re- 
jected, it  was  brought  forward  again  in  1734, 
and  passed.     It  is  stat.  7.  and  S.  (jeo.  2.  c.  8. 
and  declares  all   contracts   and  agreempnts 
whatsoever,  upon  which  any  premium  shall 
be  given  or  paid  for  liberty  to  deliver,  re- 
ceive, accept,  or  refuse  any  public  or  joint 
stock,  or  other  public  securities,  or  any  part, 
share,  or  interest  therein,  and  all  wageis  and 
contracts  in  the  natuie  of  puts  and  refusals 
to  the  then  present  or  future  price  of  such 
stock  or  securities,  to  be  null  and  void,  and 
tiired  in  a  frame,  or  machine  of  polished  iron,  |  the  money  paid  tln-reon  shall  be  restored,  or 
the  structure  and  apparatus  whereof  being  ijt  may  be  recovend  by  action  commenceii 


exceedingly   ingenious,   are    represented    in 

Plate    Niiscel.  lig.    225.    where  E    is  the 

4  X2 


thereon  within  six  months,  with  double  costs. 
All  contracts  and  agreements  wfiatsoever^ 


71(5 


S  T  O 


Hiadc  or  entered  into  for  buying,  selling, 
as-igiiing,  or  truisferring  any  public  or  joint 
stock,  or  other  pui)!ic  secuniies  whatsocvi-r, 
or  of  any  part,  sli;irc,  or  interest  tliereiii, 
whereof  Itie  person  or  persons  contracting  ur 
a^reeiTig,  or  on  wirjse  bclialf  the  contract  or 
agreement  shall  be  nude,  to  sell,  as'.i2;n,  and 
transfer  the  same,  sliall  not,  at  the  time  of 
making  sucli  contract  or  agreement,  be  ac- 
tually possessed  of,  or  entitled  unto,  in  his, 
her,  or  their  own  name  or  names,  or  in  trust 
for  their  use,  are  null  and  void  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  w  hatsoever ;  and  all  and  every 
person  whatsoever  contracting  or  agreeing, 
or  on  whose  behalf,  or  with  wliose  consent 
any  contract  or  agreement  shall  l)e  made  to 
Befl,  assign,  or  transfer  any  public  or  joint 
stock  or  stocks,  or  other  public  securities, 
whereof  such  person  or  persons  shall  not,  at 
the  time  of  making  such  contract  or  agree- 
ment, be  actually  possessed  ot,  or  eiuilled 
unto,  in  their  owii  name,  or  in  tlie  names  of 
trustees  to  their  use,  ^ha!l  forfeit  500/. 

Notwithstanding  these  prohibitions  and  pe- 
nalties, the  practice  of  stock-jobbing  has  con- 
tinued, and  greatly  increased  ;  and  though  it 
is  certainly  attended  with  many  evil  conse- 
quences, it  is  doubtiul  whether,  if  possible, 
it  would  fee  politic  to  prevent  it,  while  the 
public  debt  continues  of  such  enormous 
amount ;  as  the  ccrrent  vidue  of  the  public 
funds  would  frequently  be  greatly  depressed 
if  it  was  not  supported  by  the  transactions  of 
those  who  make  a  regular  trade  of  dealing 
thereiu. 

STOCKS,  the  public  funds  of  the  nation 
instituted  for  the  purpose  of  paying  the  in- 
terest upon  loans.  See  Loan. 

Stocks,  among  ship-carpenters,  a  fra«ie 
of  timber,  and  great  posts  made  ashore,  to 
build  pinnaces,  ketches,  boats,  an<l  such  small 
craft,  and  sometimes  small  frigates.  Hence 
we  sav,  a  sliip  is  on  the  stocks  when  she  is 
a  Iwilding. 

Stocks,  a  wooden  machine  to  put  the 
legs  of  offenders  in,  for  the  securing  of  disor- 
derlv  persons,  and  by  the  way  of  punishment 
in  divers  cases,  ordained  by  statute,  &lc.  And 
it  is  said,  that  every  vill  within  the  precinct 
of  a  torn  is  indictable  for  not  having  a  pair  of 
stocks,  and  shall  lorfeit  5/. 

STOEBK,  a  genus  of  the  syngenesia  poly- 
gamia  segregata  class  of  plants  ;  the  corolla 
of  all  the  tloscules  is  eipial  ;  the  proper  one 
is  monopeta'ous  and  hmiiel-shapecl ;  the  limb 
is  ()uin(|uelid  and  patulous;  there  is  no  peri- 
carpium  ;  the  seed,  which  is  contained  in 
tlie  cup,  is  solitary,  oblong,  and  cro\Mie<l 
vith  a  long  hairy  pap.  'Ihere  are  nine 
species. 

SrOKESlA,  a  genus  of  the  syngenesia 
polygamia  xqnalis  ciass  and  order  of  phmts. 
The  corollets  in  the  ray  are  funnel-lonn, 
longer,  irregular  ;  down  four-bristled  ;  recept. 
nakjed.  'Ihere  is  one  species,  a  herb  of  South 
Carolina. 

H'VOLK,  gronm  nf  ill?,  the  eldest  gentle- 
*jan  of  his  majesty's  bed-chamber,  wliose 
office  and  honour  it  is  to  present  and  put  on 
his  mijely's  lirst  gurnient,  or  shirt,  every 
morning,  and  to  order  tlie  things  in  the 
chamber. 

STOLEN  GOODS.  To  help  people  to 
stoli-n  goods  for  reward  uiihout  a])i)rehend- 
iiig  tile  teioii,  is  felony.  4  G.  L  c.  II. 

PiTsoiM  liaving  or  receiving  lead,   iron, 


S  T  O 

copper,  brass,  bell-metal,  or  solder,  knowing 
the  same  to  be  stolen,  shall  be  Iran.-porled. 
29  G.  II.  c.  30. 

STOMACH.    SeeAN/.TOMY. 

STO^L\TEUS,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
order  apodes  ;  the  generic  character  is,  head 
compressed  ;  teeth  in  the  jaws  and  p.iUile  ; 
body  oval,  broad,  slipper\  ;  tail  forked.  There 
are  three  species,  vi/.  the  fiatola,  body  beau- 
tifully barred,  inhabits  the  Me<literraiiean  and 
Red  seas;  has  two  stomachs:  paru  back 
gold-colour;  belly  silver\  ;  inhabits  South 
America  :  and  the  cuniara,  back  blue  ;  belly 
white  ;  inhabits  tiie  fre^h  waters  of  Chili ;  is 
about  a  span  long,  and  not  crossed  with 
stripes. 

STOMOXYS,  a  genas  of  insects  of  the 
order  diptera:  the  generic  character  is, 
sucker  with  a  single-valved  sheath,  inclosing 
bristles,  each  in  its  proper  sheatli ;  feelers 
two,  short,  setaceous,  of  live  articulations  ; 
antenna' setaceous.     Tliere  are  16  species. 

STONE,  adciilus  /lumanus.  See  Cal- 
culi, and  Medicine. 

Stones  from  the  atmosphere.  See  Me- 
teoric STONES. 

Stones.  See  Mineralogy. 

Stones  and  Earths,  (imili/sis  r)f.  The 
•nly  substances  which  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  simple  stones,  as  far  at  least 
as  analysis  has  discovered,  are  the  six  earths, 
silica,  alumina,  zirconia,  glucina,  Ume,  and 
magnesia;  and  tlie  o\ides  of  iron,  manga- 
nese, nickel,  chromium,  and  copper.  Seldom 
more  than  four  or  five  of  these  substances 
are  found  combined  together  in  the  same 
stone  :  we  shall  suppose,  however,  in  order 
to  prevent  unnecessary  repetitions,  that  they 
are  all  contained  in  the  mineral  which  we  are 
going  to  analyse. 

Let  100  or  200  grains  of  the  stone  to  be 
analysed,  previously  reduced  to  a  line  pow- 
der, be  mixed  with  three  times  its  wciglit  of 
pure  potass  and  a  little  water,  and  exposed 
in  a  silver  crucible  to  a  strong  heat.  The 
heat  sliould  at  first  be  applied  slowly,  and 
the  matter  sliould  be  constantly  stirred  to 
prevent  tlie  potass  from  swelling  and  throw- 
ing any  part  out  of  the  crucible.  When  tlie 
whole  water  is  evaporated,  the  mixture 
should  be  kept  for  half  an  hour  or  three 
quarters  in  a  strong  red  heat. 

If  tlie  matter  in  the  a'ucible  melts  com- 
pletely, and  appears  as  liquid  as  water,  we 
may  be  certain  that  the  stone  whicli  we  are 
analysing  consists  chiefly  of  silica ;  if  it  re- 
mains opaque,  and  ot  the  consistence  of 
paste,  the  other  earths  are  more  ahuiidant  ; 
if  it  remains  in  the  form  of  a  powtler,  alumina 
is  the  prevalent  earth.  If  the  matter  in  the 
crucible  is  of  a  dark  or  brownish  red  colour, 
it  contains  oxide  of  iron  ;  if  it  is  grass-green, 
manganese  is  present;  if  it  is  yellowish  green, 
it  contains  chromium. 

^\'hell  tiie  crucible  has  been  taken  from 
the  fire  and  wiped  on  the  outside,  it  is  to  In- 
placed  in  a  capsule  of  porcelain,  and  (illed 
with  water.  This  water  is  to  be  reneued, 
from  lime  to  time,  till  all  the  matter  is  de- 
taciied  from  the  crucible.  'The  water  dis- 
solves ?  part  of  the  combination  of  the  alkali 
with  the  silica  and  a'uniina  of  (he  stone  ;  and 
if  a  sulTieieiit  (|u.intity  was  u>ed,  it  would  dis- 
solve the  whole  ot  tiiat  combination. 

Muriatic  ac  id  is  now  to  be  poured  in  till 
th'j  whole  of  the  Diatter  is  dissolved.     At 


S  T  O 

first  a  flaky  pre'ipiiate  appears,  because  (he 
acid  combines  with  the  alkali  which  ki  |)t  it 
in  solution.  'Then  an  eflervescence  lakej 
place,  owinp;  to  the  deiompositioii  of  some 
carbonat  of  potass  formed  during  the  fusion. 
At  the  sunt  time  the  (laky  ])recipi!ate  is  re- 
dissolved  ;  as  is  also  that  part  of  the  matter 
wliicrh,  ii'it  having  been  dissolved  in  Ih© 
water,  hw.\  remained  at  the  bottom  of  the 
dish  in  the  form  ot  a  powder.  'This  powder, 
if  it  consists  only  of  silica  and  alumina,  dit. 
solves  V,  itiiout  efiervescence  ;  but  it  it  coii* 
tains  lime,  an  eflervescence  takes  jilace. 

If  this  solution  in  muriatic  acid  is  colour- 
less, we  mav  conclude  that  it  contains  no 
metallic  oxidi;.  or  only  a  very  small  portion  ; 
if  its  colour  is  purplwh  red,  it  contains  nian-r 
ganese;  orange-ied  indicates  the  presence  of 
iron ;  and  golden  yellow  the  presence  of 
chromium. 

'This  solution  is  to  be  poured  into  a  cap- 
sule of  porcelain,  corered  with  paper,  and 
evaporated  to  dryness  in  a  sand-bath.  Wheu 
the  evaporation  is  drawing  towards  its  com- 
pietion,  the  liiiunr  assumes  the  form  of  jellv. 
It  liiust  then  be  stirred  constantly  with  a'gla'ss 
or  porcelain  rod,  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
disengagement  of  the  acid  and  water,  and  to 
prevent  one  part  of  tlie  matter  from  being 
too  much,  and  another  not  sufficiently,  dried. 
Without  this  precaution,  the  silica  and  alu- 
mina would  not  be  completely  separated 
from  each  other. 

\Vlien  the  matter  is  reduced  almost  to  a 
dry  powder,  a  large  quantity  of  pure  water 
is  to  be  poured  on  it ;  and,  after  exposure  to 
a  slight  heat,  the  whole  is  to  he  poured  on  a 
filtre.  The  powder  which  remains  upon  the 
filtre  is  to  be  washed  repeatedly,  till  tlie 
water  with  which  it  has  been  washed  ceases 
to  precipitate  silver  (rom  its  solutions  'This 
powder  is  the  whole  of  the  silica  whicii  the 
stone  that  we  are  analysing  contained.  It 
■must  first  be  dried  between  folds  of  blotting 
pa[)er,  then  healed  red-hot  in  a  plat'inum  or 
silver  crucible,  and  weighed  while  it  is  \et 
warm.  It  ought  to  be  a  fine  powder,  of  a 
white  colour,  not  adhering  to  the  fingers, 
and  entirely  soluble  in  acids.  If  it  is  co- 
loured, it  is  contaminated  with  some  metallic 
oxide;  and  shews  that  the  evaporation  to 
dryness  has  been  performed  at  too  high  a 
temperature.  To  separate  this  oxide,  the 
silica  must  be  boiled  with  an  acid,  and  then 
washed  and  dried  as  before.  The  acid  solu- 
tion must  be  added  to  the  water  which  passed 
through  the  filtre,  and  whicli  we  shall  deno- 
minate A. 

'The  watery  solution  A  is  to  be  evaporated 
till  its  c|uaiitity  does  not  exceed  30  cubic 
inches,  or  nearly  an  English  pint.  A  solu- 
tion of  carbonat  of  potass  is  then  to  be  pour- 
ed into  it  till  no  more  matter  precipitates. 
It  ought  to  be  boiled  a  lew  moments  to 
enable  all  the  precipitate  to  fall  to  ihe  bot- 
tom. Wlien  the  whole  of  the  pre^-ipitate  has 
collected  at  the  bottom,  the  supernatant  li- 
ipiid  is  to  be  decanted  oil';  and  water  being 
sul)stituted  in  its  place,  the  precipitate  anil 
water  are  to  be  thrown  upon  a  liltre.  When 
the  water  has  run  oil",  the  liltre  with  the  pie- 
cipitate  uixin  it  is  to  be  piaced  between  the 
folds  of  blotting  paper.  When  the  precipi- 
tate has  acquired  some  consistence,  it  is  to 
be  carefully  collected  by  an  ivory  knife, 
mixed  with  a  solution  of  pure  potass,  and 
boiled  in  a  pui'c«laiii  capsule.    U  any  aluiMiua 


or  gliifina  is  pvi'fciit,  tlicy  will  lie  dissolvctl 
ill  tin-  p^t.l^^ ;  wliilc  tlic  oilier  siil)>t;iiicifs  ri  - 
jiKiiii  iintoijciiL'l  in  tlie  form  of  u  powdiT, 
wliitii  wc  iliali  (.all  15. 

Intb  the  solution  ot'  potass  as  nnicli  acid 
imist  be  poured  as  will  not  only  saturate  I  lie 
potass,  Ijiit  also  completely  redissolvi'  any 
j)recipitate  wliieli  may  liave  at  lirst  appeare<I. 
Carboiial  ot  ammonia  is  no\v  to  be  added  in 
such  (inantity  that  tiie  liquid  shall  taste  of  it. 
J5y  this  adiliiion  the  whole  of  the  alumina 
wi  I  be  precipitated  in  wliite  Hakes,  and  the 
gluciiia  will  remain  dissolved,  provided  the 
quantity  of  carbonat  of  ammonia  used  is  not 
too  small.  The  li<iiiid  is  now  to  be  tiltred; 
and  the  alumina  which  will  remain  on  the 
liltre  is  to  be  washed,  dried,  heated  red-hot, 
and  then  weiglied.  'I'o  see  if  it  is  n-ally 
alumina,  dissolve  it  in  sulphuric  acid,  and 
add  a  suliicient  ([uantity  ol  sulphat  ot  acetat 
of  potass;  if  it  is  alumina,  the  whole  of  it 
will  be  converted  into  crystals  of  alum. 

Let  the  licjuid  which  has  passed  through 
the  liltre  be  boiled  ibr  some  time;  and  ilie 
glucina,  if  it  contains  any,  will  be  precipi- 
tated in  a  light  powder,  which  may  iie  drieil 
and  weiglied.  VVhen  pure,  it  is  a  line,  solt, 
very  liglit,  tasteless  powder,  which  does  not 
concrete  when  heated,  as  alumina  does. 

The  resitluum  B  may  contain  lime,  mag- 
nesia, and  one  or  more  metallic  oxides.  Let 
it  be  dissolved  in  weak  sulpliuric  acid,  and 
the  solution  evaporated  to  tiryness.  Pour  a 
small  quantity  of  water  on  it.  1  lie  water  will 
dissolve  the  sulphat  of  magnesia  and  tlie  me- 
tallic sulphats ;  but  the  sulphat  of  lime  will 
lemain  undissolved,  or  if  any  portion  dis- 
solves, it  may  be  tiirown  down  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  weak  alcohol.  Let  it  be  heat- 
ed red-hot  in  a  crucible,  and  weigiied.  The 
lime  amounts  to  0.43  of  the  weiglit. 

Let  the  solution  containing  the  remaining 
sulphats  be  diluted  with  a  large  cpiantity  of 
water;  let  a  small  excess  of  acid  be  added; 
and  tlieii  let  a  saturated  carbonat  of  potass  be 
poured  in.  The  oxides  of  chromium,  iron, 
and  nickel,  will  be  precipitated,  and  the  mag- 
nesia and  oxiile  of  manganese  will  remain 
ilissolved.     The  precipitate  we  sliall  call  C. 

Into  the  solution  let  a  solution  of  liydrosul- 
phuret  of  potass  be  poured,  and  tlie  manga- 
nese will  be  precipitated  in  tlie  stale  of  a 
liydrosulphuret.  I^et  it  be  calcined  in  con- 
tact wall  air,  and  weighed.  Tne  magnesia 
may  then  be  precipitated  by  pure  potass, 
washed,  exposed  to  a  red  heat,  and  then 
weighed. 

Let  the  residutmi  C  be  boiled  repeatedly 
with  nitric  acid,  then  mixed  with  pure  potass; 
\  and  after  being  heated,  let  tlie  lupiid  be  de- 
canted oil.  Let  the  precipitate,  whicii  con- 
sists of  tne  oxides  ot  iron  and  nickel,  be 
washeil  w.tli  pure  water;  and  let  this  water 
be  added  to  the  solution  of  tlie  nitric  acid  and 
potass.  1  hat  solution  contains  the  cliramiuiii 
converted  into  an  acid.  Add  to  this  so'ution 
an  excess  of  muriatic  acid,  and  evaporate  till 
the  liquid  assumes  a  green  colour;  then  add 
a  pure  alkali.  Tlie  clirominin  precipitates  in 
the  state  ot  an  oxide,  antl  may  be  dried  and 
weighetl. 

Let  the  precipitate,  consisting  of  the  oxides 
of  iron  an  I  nickel,  be  dissolved  in  muriatic 
acid  ;  add  an  exces,  of  ammonia  ;  the  oxide 
of  hon  precipitates.  Lei  it  be  w.islied,  dried, 
auu  weiuh'-U. 


STONES,, 

Evaporate  tlie  solution,  and  the  oxide  of 
nickel  will  also  precipitale,  or  tie  whole  may 
be  precipil.'.ted  b_\  adding  hvdroMilphuiel  of 
ammonia;  and  its  weight  mav  be  asceititincd 
in  the  sLime  manner  .is  the  other  ingredients. 

'1  he  weights  of  all  tlic^  iiigredieius  obtained 
are  now  to  be  added  together,  ;uid  their  sum 
total  compared  with  the  weight  of  the  matter 
submitleii  to  analysis.  If  the  two  are  eipial, 
or  if  they  dilCer  oiily  by  .0.3  or  .04  parts,  we 
may  conchide  that  the  analysis  has  been 
properly  performed  ;  but  if  tin-  loss  of  weight 
is  consider.ible,  something  or  other  has  been 
lost,  '{'he  analysis  must  therefore  be  repealed 
with  all  possible  care.  If  there  is  still  the 
same  loss  of  weiglit,  we  may  conchide  that 
the  stone  conlaiiiv  some  substance,  whicli  has 
either  evaporated  by  the  heat,  or  is  soluble  in 
watt-r. 

A  fresh  jjortion  of  the  stone  must  therefore 
bo  broken  into  small  pieci's,  and  exposed  in 
a  porcelain  crucible  to  a  strong  heat.  If  it 
contains  water,  or  any  other  volatile  sub- 
stance, it  will  come  over  into  the  receiver  ; 
and  its  nature  and  weight  may  be  ascertained. 

If  nothing  conies  over  into  the  receiver, 
or  if  what  conies  over  is  not  ecpial  to  the 
weight  wanting,  we  may  conclude  that  the 
stone  contains  some  ingredient  which  is  so- 
luble in  water. 

To  discover  whether  it  contains  potass,  let 
the  stone,  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder, 
be  boiled  hve  or  six  times  in  succession  with 
very  strong  sulpliuric  acid,  applying  a  pretty 
strong  heat  towards  the  end  ot  the  operation, 
in  order  to  expel  the  excess  of  acid  ;  but  tak- 
ing care  that  it  is  not  strong  enough  to  de- 
compose the  salts  which  have  been  formed. 

A\  ater  is  now  to  be  poured  on ;  and  the 
residuum,  which  does  not  dissolve,  is  to  be 
washed  with  water  till  it  becomes  tastelaes. 
The  watery  solution  is  to  be  tiltred,  and  eva- 
pwrated  to  dr)iiess,  in  order  to  drive  off  any 
excess  ot  acid  which  may  be  present.  The 
salts  are  to  be  again  dissolved  in  water;  and 
the  solution,  after  being  boiled  for  a  few  mo- 
ments, is  to  be  (illred  and  evaporated  to  a 
consistence  proper  for  crysta'lizing.  If  the 
stone  contains  a  suliicient  quantity  of  alu- 
mina, and  if  potass  is  present,  crystal-,  of 
alum  will  be  formed  :  and  the  quantity  of  po- 
tass may  be  discovered  by  weighing  them,  it 
being  nearly  -jLtli  of  their  weight.  If  the 
stone  does  not  contain  alumina,  or  not  in  sul- 
iicient quantity,  a  solution  of  pure  alumina 
ill  sulphuric  acid  must  be  added.  Some- 
times the  alum,  even  when  potass  is  present, 
does  not  appear  for  several  days,  or  even 
weeks;  and  sometimes,  when  a  great  quan- 
tity of  alumina  is  present,  if  the  solution  has 
been  too  much  concentrated  by  evaporation, 
sulphat  of  alumina  prevents  the  alum  from 
crysla'lizing  at  all.  Care,  thereiore,  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  this  last  source  of  error. 
The  alum  obtained  may  be  dissolved  in  wa- 
ter, and  barytes  water  poured  into  it  as  long 
as  any  pre  ipitate  forms.  The  liciuor-is  to 
be  hitred,  and  evaporated  to  dryness.  The 
residuum  uill  consist  of  potass  and  a  little 
carbonat  of  potass.  '1  he  potass  may  be  dis- 
solved in  a  little  water.  'I  his  solution,  eva- 
pui-.tted  to  dryness,  gives  us  the  potass  pure, 
which  may  be  examined  ai.d  weii^hed. 

It  no  crystals  of  alum  can  be  obtained,  we 
must  look  for  some  other  substance  than  po- 
tass.   The  stoiic,  lof  uistauce,  may  contain 


717 

soda.  Tl.»i  presriicc  of  this  alkali  may  be 
discovcreil  by  decomposing  the  solution  in 
sulphuric  acid,  already  described,  by  mear.s 
of  ammonia.  'I  he  liipiid  which  remains  is  to 
be  evaporated  todr)ne:s,  and  lU-  residuum 
is  to  be  calcined  in  a  crucible.  Hy  this  me- 
thod, the  sulphat  of  ammonia  will  be  volati- 
lized, and  the  soila  will  remain.  It  may  be 
ledissolved  in  water,  crystallized,  and  ex- 
amined. 

If  sulphuric  acid  does  not  <)ttack  the  stone, 
as  is  often  the  case,  it  must  be  deconiposej 
by  fusion  with  soda,  in  the  aine  manner  as 
lormerly  directed  with  potass.  The  matter, 
alter  fusion,  is  to  be  diluted  with  water,  and 
then  saturated  with  sulpiunic  acici.  The  so- 
lution is  to  lie  evaporab-d  tu  dryness,  the  re- 
sidujim  again  dissolved  in  wati  r,  and  evapo- 
rated. Suipiiat  of  soda  will  cr_\stall'ze  hrsl  ; 
and  by  a  second  ev.iporation  of  the  stone, 
coniains  potass  and  alumina,  crystals  of  alum 
will  be  deposited. 

Stqsjes,  turthy.  Cronstedt  divided  this 
order  into  nine  genera,  corresponding  to 
nine  earths ;  one  of  which  he  thought  com- 
posed the  stones  arranged  under  cacn  genus. 
The  names  of  his  genera  were,  calcareat,  sili- 
ceie,  granatina",  argillacea-,  micacea-,  lluores, 
asbestina',  zeolitliica",  magnesijE.  All  his 
eaitlis  were  afterwards  found  to  be  com- 
pounds, ex(e|)t  the  hrst,  second,  fourth,  and 
ninth.  Bergman,  tliereibre,  in  his  Sciagra- 
phia,  lirst  publislied  in  1782,  reduced  the 
nuuiber  of  genera  to  live;  \\hich  was  the 
number  of  primitive  earths  known  when  he 
wrote.  Snice  that  period  live  new  earth* 
have  been  discovered.  Accordingly,  in  the 
latest  systems  of  mineralogy,  the  genera  be- 
longing to  this  order  are  proportionably  in- 
creased. Each  genus  is  named  from  an  earth, 
as  follows : 

1.  Jargon  genus,  5.  Magnesian  genus, 

2.  Siliceous  genu?,        t).  Calcareous  genus, 

3.  Glucina  genus,         7.  Barytic  genus, 

4.  Argillaceous  genus,  8.  Strontian  genus. 

Mr.  Kirwaii,  in  his  valuable  system  of  mi- 
neralogy, lias  adopted  the  same  genera.  Un- 
der each  genus  those  stones  are  placed  which 
are  composed  chiefly^  of  the  earlli  which: 
gives  a  name  to  the  genus,  or  which  at  least 
are  supposed  to  possess  the  characters  which 
distinguish  that  earth. 

A  little  consideration  will  be  sufficient  to 
discover  that  there  is  no  natural  foundatioi* 
tor  these  genera.  Most  stones  are  composed 
of  two,  three,  or  even  lour,  ingredients,  and 
111  many  cases  the  proportion  of  tw  o  or  more 
oftiiesc  is  nearly  equal,  ^s'ow',  under  what 
g.  luis  soever  such  minerals  are  arranged,  the 
earth  which  gives  it  a  name  must  form  the 
smallest  part  of  their  composition.  Accord- 
ingly, it  has  not  been  so  niuth  tlie  chemical 
composition  as  the  external  c.'iaracter,  whiclv 
has  guided  the  mineralogist  in  the  distribution 
ot  his  species.  1  he  genera  c.mnot  be  said 
properly  to  have  any  character  at  all,  nor  the 
species  to  be  connected  by  any  thing  else 
than  an  arbitrary  title.  T  liis  defect,  which, 
must  be  apparent  in  the  nio-.t  valuable  sys- 
tems of  niineralogv,  seems  to  have  arisea 
chielly  from  an  attempt  to  combine  together 
an  artificial  andhaluiai  svstim. 

I  he  only  substr.nces  wlncii  enter  into  the 
minerals  belonging  to  this  order,  in  s  ch. 
quantity  as  to  deserve  attention,  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 


■;« 


S  T  O 


Oxiue  of  iron, 
Oxide  of  cUiomiuin, 
Oxide  of  nickel. 
Oxide  of  copper, 
I'otass, 

So('k1, 

Water. 


-  Masiiesia, 

l.illR-, 

Barries, 

-  Glufina, 
yCireonia, 
\ltiia, 

Ston'es,  saline.  Under  this  arran£;einpnt 
sre  coiiiprelieiidi-d  all  the  minerals  which 
have  an  earthy  basis  combined  with  an  acid. 
'I'lie  minerals  belonging  to  it  are  of  course 
^aits,  and  as  such  have  been  described  nnder 
ll'.eir  respectivfc-  n;inic>.  But  as  they  occur 
native  in  states  which  cannot  always  be  imi- 
tated by  art,  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  a 
view  of  iheni  as  they  are  found  in  the  earth. 
They  naturally  divide  themselves  into  live 
genera  ;  as  only  five  earths  Jiave  hitherto 
been  discovered  native  in  combination  with 
an  acid.  These  genera,  and  llie  species  be- 
longing to  them,  are  the  following : 

I.  C.4LC.1REOUS  Salts. 

1.  Carbonat  of  lime, 

3.  Sulphat  of  lime, 

3.  Piio^phat  of  lime, 

4.  Fluat  of  lime, 

5.  Arseniat  of  lime. 

II.  Barytic  Salts. 

1 .  Carbonat  of  barytas, 

2.  Sulphat  of  barytes. 

III.  Stro.ntiak  Salts. 

1.  Carbonat  of  strontian, 

2.  Sulphat  of  strontian. 

rV'.  Magnesian  Salts. 
1.  Sulphat  of  magnesia, ' 
".  Carhciiat  of  magnesia, 

3.  ]5orat  of  magnesia. 

V.  Alumi.vocs  Salts. 
1.  Alum, 

a.  Mcllut  of  alumina, 
3.  Fhuit  of  alumina-and-soda. 

The  minerals  belonging  to  tliis  order  are 
distinguished  without  much  difficulty  from 
the  last.  Almost  all  of  them  are  insoluble  in 
water ;  but  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  or  in  hot 
sulphuric  acid.  Most  of  llieiii  melt  belore 
the  blowpipe.  Their  specihc  gravity  varies  ; 
but  il  is  olteii  above  3.5  when  the  mineral  is 
too  soft  to  scratch  glass.  Kone  of  them  have 
tile  metallic  lustre. 

STONT'TlENCi:,  in  anliquity,  a  famed 
pile  or  monument  of  huge  stones  on  Salisbury 
plain,  six  miles  distant  troni  that  city. 

It  consists  of  ihc  remains  ot  four  ranks  of 
rough  stones,  ranged  one  w  ilhinaiiother,  some 
of  them,  e.speciall)  in  the  outermost, and  third 
rank,  twenty  feet  high,  and  seven  broad  ;  sus- 
taining others  hid  across  their  heads  and  last- 
ened  by  mortises,  so  that  flie  whole  must 
have  antienlly  hung  together. 

,Vnti(|uaiic-s  are  now  pietiy  well  agreed  that 
it  was  a  British  temple ;  aiid  Dr.  Langwitli 
thinks  it  might  easily  be  made  probable  at 
least,  tliat  it  was  dedicated  to  the  sun  and 
moon. 

STONE  WARE.  Underthcden.jniination 

■      stone  ware  arecomprelieiide<l  all  the  different 

/       artificial  combinations  of  earthy  bodies  w  hii  h 

are  applied  to  usehil  purposes".     These  vary 

in  their  names  according  to  their  exiern.il  a|)- 

jiearance,  the  manner  in  which  Ihey  arc  ma- 


S  T  O 

nufacluretl,  and  (he  purposes  fo  which  th.  y 
are  applied.  Thus  we  have  porcehihi,  stone 
ware,  puts,  crucibles,  bricks,  lilfs,  &c.  All 
these  substances,  however,  are  formed  on  the 
same  principles,  nearlv  of  the  same  materials, 
and  owe  their  good  qualities  to  the  same 
cause.i. 

'Jhese  combinations  have  been  known  from 
the  remotest 'ages  of  anticpiily.  They  wereweil 
known  to  the  Jews,  as  we  learn  from  the  Old- 
Testament,  long  before  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity. Porcelain,  or  the  finest  kind  of  stone 
ware,  was  early  brought  to  perfection  in  China 
and  Japan;  but  the  discovery  of  the  art  of 
making  it  in  Europe  is  of  much  later  date. 

.Specimens  of  il  were  brought  first  from 
China  and  Japan  to  modern  Europe.  These 
were  admired  for  their  beauty,  were  eagerly 
sought  alter,  and  soon  becaiiie  the  ornameius 
of  the  tables  ol'  the  rich.  A  arious  attempts 
were  made  to  imitate  them  in  dillerei.t  coun- 
tries of  Eurepe,  but  the  greater  number  were 
without  success.  Accident  led  to  the  dis- 
coverv  in  tii-rmany  about  the  beginning  of 
the  IStli  century.  A  chemist  in  Sa\oiiy,  ilu- 
ringa  set  of  eNperiments  m  order  to  ascertain 
the  best  mixtures  for  making  crucibles,  stum- 
bled upon  a  compound  which  yielded  a  porce- 
lain similar  to  the  eastern.  In  consequence  of 
this  discovery.  Saxony  soon  produced  porce- 
lain scarcely  inferior  to  that  ot  Japan  in  beauty, 
and  superior  to  it  in  solidity  and  strength: 
but  its  composition  was  kept  secret ;  norw  ere 
there  ain  accurate  ideas  respecting  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  porcelain  mnoiig  men  of 
science,  till  Ke.nimur  published  his  disserta- 
tions on  the  subject  in  1727  and  17'-'9.  lie 
examined  the  ])orcelain  of  Japan,'«nd  the  dif- 
ferent imit^ftions  of  it  which  had  been  pro- 
duced in  France  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 
The  texture  of  the  lirst  was  compact  and 
sdlid,  but  that  of  the  imitations  was  porous. 
\\'hen  both  were  exposed  to  a  strong  heat, 
the  first  remained  unaltered,  but  the  oth&rs 
melted  into  glass.  From  these  experiments 
he  drew  the  following  ingenious  conclusions  : 
Porcelain  owes  its  semitransjjarency  to  a 
kind  of  semivilrilication  which  it  has  under- 
gone. Now  it  may  receive  this  two  wavs: 
I.  Its  component  jtarts  may  be  such  as  easily 
vitrify  when  sufiicientlv  heated  ;  but  the  de- 
gree of  heat  given  may  be  just  sulTicient  to 
occasion  a  cominenc  eiiient  of  vitrification. 
This  porcelain  when  strongly  heated  will 
easily  melt.  Such,  therefore,  was  the  compo- 
sition of  the  European  imitations  of  ])or<elain. 
-.  It  may  be  composed  of  two  ingredients; 
one  of  which  easily  vitrihes,  but  the  other  is 
not  altered  by  heat.  When  a  porcelain  com- 
posed of  such  materials  is  baked  in  a  sufficient 
heat,  the  fusible  part  melts,  invelopes  the  in- 
fusible, and  tonus  a  semitransparent  substance, 
which  is  not  farther  altered  by  the  same  de- 
I  gree  of  heat.  Such  therefore  must  be  the 
porcelain  of  Japan.  Father  Enlrecolles,  a 
missionary  to  China,  had  sent  an  account  of 
the  Chinese  mode  of  making  porcelain,  which 
coincided  exactly  with  this  ing<-ni()Us  thought 
of  Keaumur.  'I'he  ingredients,  according  to 
him,  are  a  hard  stonecalled  petunse,  which 
they  grind  to  powder,  and  a  while  earth  call- 
ed kaolin,  which  is  intiaiately  mixed  with  it. 
Keaumur  found  the  pelunse'fusible,  and  the 
kaolin  iiihis.ble,  when  exposed  separately  to  a 
violent  heat.     See  Pojicelain 

Stone  ware  is  not  formed  by  mixing  (oijelher 
the  ptirc  earths,  which  would  be  a  great  deal 


S  T  O 

too  expensive ;  but  natural  combinations  or 
niixt'.iies  of  cailbs  are  ein[)loyed.  The.se 
coml>inations  must  possess  the  following  pio- 
perties:  l.They  must  be  cipable,  when  re- 
duced to  i)owder,  of  forming  with  vRier  a 
paste  sufficiently  ductile  to  be  made  ii.lo  any 
form  which  is  recpiirtd.  '_'.  'I  iiis  paste,  alter 
being  exposed  to  a  suffici-nt  heat,  or  afler 
being  baked  as  il  is  tei  nied,  must  ac(|iiirc  such 
a  permanent  degree  of  hardness  as  to  be  able 
to  resist  the  action  of  the  weather  and  of  «  ater. 
3.  The  vessels  formed  of  it  must  in  that  stale 
be  capable  of  resisting  changes  of  tempera- 
ture. 4.  They  must  be  iible  to  resist  a  slroi»g 
heat  without  being  melted.  5.  T  hey  must 
not  be  permeable  to  liquids,  nor  liable  to  be 
acted  on  by  chemical  agents. 

Common  clay  pos^es^es  a  good  many  of 
these  (pialities.  \Vh.en  finely  aiound,  il  may 
be  formed  into  a  very  ducliTe  ])asle  ;  heat 
makes  it  hard  enough  to  strike  tire  with  steel, 
and  capable  ot  resisting  the  action  <if  mosi 
chemical  agents  ;  and  it  is  not  liable  to  be 
melted  by  fieal.  Clay  accordingly  was  the 
first  substance  einplu\ed,  and  it  is  still  em- 
ployed for  a  variety  of  purposes. 

Bricks,  for  instance,  are  always  madeofthi> 
substance.  The  clay  is  dug  out  of  the  eartli, 
and  after  being  exposed  for  some  time  to  the 
air  is  reduced  to  powder,  and  formed  into  a 
paste  with  water.  The  bricks  are  then  fornu d 
in  moulds,  e.xposed  for  some  time  to  dry  in 
the  open  air,  and  then  bunit  in  a  large  lur- 
nace  construcled  on  puqjose.  Tiles  which 
are  eni])lo\ed  for  covering  liouses  are  formed 
in  the  same  way.  The  clay,  however,  is 
finer,  and  it  is  usually  ground  in  a  mill. 

Bricks  and  tiles  should  be  impervious  to 
water  :  they  should  be  capable  of  withstanding 
the  action  of  heat,  and  not  be  subject  to 
moulder.  It  is  obvious  that  these  qualities 
must  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  clay  of 
which  they  are  formed,  and  on  the  degree 
in  which  they  have  been  burned.  Clay  is  a 
mixture  of  alumina  and  silica  in  various  pro- 
porlions.  \Vheii  the  proportion  of  alumina 
is  great,  the  brick  contracts  much  in  its  di- 
mensions, and  is  apt  to  (rack  during  the  burn- 
ing. Clay  therefore  must  be  chosen  which 
contains  the  proper  ]iroportioii  of  silica,  or 
the  defect  must  be  remedied  by  adding  sand. 
Bergman  recommends  the  addition  ot  a  little 
lime,  which  has  the  property  of  rendering  the 
clay  fusible.  The  clay  of  which  bricks  and 
tiles  are  made  contains  some  oxide  of  iron : 
hence  the  red  colour  which  it  acquires  when 
burnt. 

But  though  the  addition  of  lime  may  l>e 
proper  in  some  cases  in  the  manufacture  of 
bricks  and  tiles,  it  would  be  exceedingly  im- 
proper in  other  cases.  Lime  ought  to  be 
carehilly  excluded  from  the  clay  destined  for 
making  pots,  and  every  other  uiensil  which  is 
to  be  exposed  to  a  violent  heat,  as  it  renders 
the  clay  hisible.  Now  lime  enters  not  unfre- 
quiMitly  into  the  composition  of  clavs.  It  is 
evident  therefore  that  all  clays  are  not  proper 
for  the  manufacture  of  stone  ware.  They 
must  be  free  from  lime,  b.rytes,  and  every 
other  ingredii'iit  which  renders  tliem  fusible. 
They  must  also  be  free  Irom  metallic  oxides, 
which  not  only  render  llieni  fusible,  but  also 
injure  thi^  colour  of  the  porcelain.  The  clavs 
which  answer  are  those  wliich  consist  of  a 
mixture  of  alumina  and  silica.  These  are 
known  by  the  names  of  potter's  clav,  lobacco- 
i  jiipe  clay,  poicekiin-clay,  &.c.  according  te 


S  T  O 

vlie  purposes  to  wliicli  tiny  are  applied.  It 
is  lu'ifssary  to  mix  the  clay  with  some-  fine 
iuloiirlesi  saiul,  in  order  lu  prevent,  the  ves- 
sels tioni  contracting  too  nuich  during  the 
baking. 

'I'luis  stone  ware  is  composed  of  two  mate- 
rials, pure  clay  and  sand  ;  and  the  beauty  of 
the  wiiio  depeiiiU  upon  llie  |nnUy  ami  bne- 
iieis  ol  these  two  materials.  What  is  called 
English  stone  ware  i.s  coni|>ose(l  of  tobacco- 
pipe  clay  and  jiowdi-red  Hints;  ile'lt  ware  is 
CDniposeil  of  clay  and  line  sand  ;  and  the 
coarsest  wares  ol  still  more  tonnnon  clay  and 
sand. 

The  materials  are  ground  very  IIjk;  in  a 
mill,  then  mixed  tofjether,  and  foimed  into  a 
paste.  'I'lie  diU'erenl  vessels  are  coarsely 
moulded  on  the  potter's  wheel,  and  allowed 
to  dry  till  Ihev  can  bear  handling.  After  this 
thev  receive  llieir  destined  form  completely  ; 
and"  when  tlj<-y  are  sufiiciently  dry,  they  are 
covered  with  the  requisite  enauiel,  and  then 
put  into  the  hu'nace  and  baked. 

Such,  in  general,  is  the  method  of  manu- 
facturing stone  ware.  The  particular  pro- 
fesses followed  in  the  making  of  porciilaiii  arc 
conceaU.'d  by  the  manufacturers;  but  the  com- 
ponent parts  are  always  analogous  to  those 
pointed  out  by  Reaumur.  The  refractory  in- 
gredient is  a  Iwie  w  hile  clay,  consisting  essen- 
tially of  alumina  and  silica,  and  the  fusible 
ingredient  is  a  mixture  of  siliceous  sand  and 
lime. 

It  is  necessary  to  glaze  the  surface  of  ves« 
scls,  whether  of  stone  ware  or  porcelain,  both 
tor  the  purpose  of  beauty  and  utility  ;  for 
the  body  of  the  vessel,  or  biscuit  as  it  is 
called,  w'ould  not  be  suliiciently  compact  to 
contain  licjuids.  Now  this  f;!azing  is  of  ihrre 
kinds:  1.  A  vitrified  metallic  oxide.  'J.  An 
enamel.  3.  A  glass.  The  first  is  applied  to 
the  coarsest  vessels,  the  second  to  fine  kinds 
of  stone  ware,  the  third  to  porcelain.  , 

The  gla;<ing  of  coarse  vessels  is  formed  by 
covering  their  surface  while  hut  with  a  little 
litharge,  which  lias  the  property  of  running 
into  an  opaque  glass  at  a  moderate  heat  when 
spread  thin  upon  an  earthen  vessel.  The  co- 
lour of  this  giving  is  yellower  red.  It  is 
seldom  perfect  ;  hence  these  coarse  vessels 
are  frequently  porous,  and  incapable  of  resist- 
ing the  action  of  corrosive  substances.  Com- 
mon salt  is  sometimes  employed  instead  of 
lead.  It  facilitates  the  fusion  of  the  surface 
cf  stone  ware,  and  occasions  a  kind  of  vitrifi- 
cation. 

The  glazing  of  tine  vessels  consists  of 
white  enamel.  Tliis  is  made  as  follows : 
«nc  hundred  pai'ts  of  lead  are  melted  with 
from  l-l  to  40  parts  of  tin,  and  the  mixture 
oxidized  completely,  by  ext>osing  it  to  he:.t 
in  an  open  vessel.  One  htmdred parts  of  this 
oxide  are  mixed  with  inu  parts  of  a  fine 
wnite  sand  composed  of  three  parts  silica  and 
one  part  of  talc,  anil  with  about  25  parts  of 
coneuon  salt.  This  mixture  is  melted,  then 
TetliKcd  to  powder,  and  formed  into  a  paste, 
which  is  spread  thin  over  the  poicelaiii  vessel 
before  it  is  baked.  Tiie  excellency  of  a  good 
enamel  is,  that  it  easily  fuses  into  a  kind  of 
paste  at  the  heat  which  is  necessary  for  baking 
<" porcelain,  and  spreads  equally  on  the  vessel, 
forming  a  smooth  glassy  surface,  without 
losng  its  opacity,  or  flowing  completely  info 
a  glass.  Its  whiteness  depends  upon  the  pro- 
portion of  tlie  tin,  its  fusibility  upon  the 
lead. 


5  T  O 

Porcelain  is  always  covered  with  a  glass, 
composed  of  earthy  ingredients,  without  any 
mixture  of  metallic  oxides.  Hence  the  high 
teuiperalme  necessary  to  fuse  it,  and  the  pro- 
perty whi(  h  porcelain  vessels  have  of  resisting 
the  action  of  the  most  corrosive  substances 
precisely  as  common  glass  does.  'J  lie  sub- 
stance commonly  eni[)loyed  is  felspar;  a  mi- 
neral of  a  line  white  colour  and  iiiliiited 
texture,  which  is  found  abundantly  in  the 
mountains. 

It  is  usual  to  paint  both  stone  ware  and  por- 
celain of  various  colours.  These  paintings 
are  often' exielleiil,  both  in  elegance  of  work- 
manship and  in  brilliancy  of  colours.  'I'he 
colours  are  given  by  means  of  metallic 
oxiilts,  which  are  mixed  up  with  other  ingre- 
dients proper  to  constitute  an  enamel,  and 
applieil  in  the  usual  manner  with  a  pencil. 

On  this  subject  much  light  has  been  thrown 
by  the  experiments  of  W'edgewood ;  and 
Biogniart  has  lately  published  a  general  ac- 
count of  the  processes  at  Sevres,  of  which  he 
is  director. 

The  process  differs  a  litlle  according  to 
the  substance  on  which  the  colours  are  to  be 
applied.  When  the  vessels  are  covered  with 
enamel,  less  ilux  is  necessary,  because  the 
enamel  iiiells  at  a  low  heat,  and  the  colours 
readily  incorporate  with  it ;  but  this  renders 
them  more  dilute,  and  makes  it  often  neces- 
sary to  retouch  them.  The  coloiu's  on  ena- 
mel geuer.dly  appear  brilliant  and  soft,  and 
are  not  liable  to  scale.  The  flux  is  either  a 
glass  of  lliut  and  lead,  or  borax  mixed  with 
Hint  glass.  'I'he  colours  are  usually  made 
into  a  paste  by  means  of  gum-water  or  vo- 
latile oils.  Some  of  them  are  liable  to  alter- 
ation by  the  aciicm  of  the  lead  on  them. 

The  colours  applied  upon  hard  porcelain, 
or  porcelain  glazed  with  felspar,  are  nearly 
the  same  as  those  applied  on  enamel,  but 
more  flux  is  necessary.  They  are  not  liable 
to  dilution,  as  the  felspar  glaze  does  not  melt 
at  the  heat  requisite  for  fusing  the  colours 
and  their  flux.  They  are  liable  to  scale  off 
when  repeatedly  heated. 

Colouis  are  sometimes  applied  over  the 
whole  sinface  of  the  porcelain  ;  tlie  fiux  in 
that  case  is  porcelain.  But  such  colours  are 
not  niiiiievous,  because  few  oxides  can  stand 
the  heat  necessary  for  melting  felspar  witliout 
beiiiff  altered  or  volatilized. 

1.  Purple  is  given  by  means  of  the  purple 
oxide  of  gold  precipitated  bv  the  smallest 
possible  quantity  of  muriat  of  tin.  Thisoxide 
is  mixed  with  a  proper  quantity  of  powdered 
glass,  borax,  and  o.xide  of  antimony,  and  ap- 
plied with  a  pencil.  It  cannot  bear  a  strong 
iieat  without  losing  its  colour. 

2.  Red  is  given  by  oxide  of  iron.  A  mi.x- 
ture  of  two  parts  of  sulphat  of  iron  and  one 
part  of  alum  is  calcined  slowly,  till  iti'cquires 
a  fine  red  colour  when  cold.  'I  his  powder 
is  mixed  w  ith  the  usual  flux,  and  applied  with 
a  pencil. 

3.  Yellow  is  given  by  the  ox'de  of  silver; 
or,  by  oxides  of  U;a<l,  antimony,  ,.nd  sand; 
green,  by  the  oxide  of  copper ;  i>lue,  bv  the 
o\ide  of  cobalt;  and  violet,  by  the  oxide  of 
manganese. 

S  TOP,  in  music,  a  word  applied  by  violin 
and  violourello  performers  to  tliat  pressure 
of  the  strings  by  which  they  are  brought  into 
contact  with  the  finger-board,  and  by  which 


S  T  O 


719 


the  pi'ih  of  the  note  is  determined.     Hence 
a  string,  when  so  pressed,  is  said  to  be  slo])t. 

Stop  nf  an  nr^tm.  A  colli  clion  of  pipes 
similar  in  tone  antl<(Uality,  w  hicli  run  through 
the  whole,  or  a  great  part,  of  the  compass  of 
the  instrument.  In  a  great  organ  the  slops 
are  numerous  and  multifarious,  conimuidy 
comprising  the  following : 

Opcn-th(if,(t-inii  stoj).  A  metallic  stop  which 
commands  the  whole  scale  of  the  organ,  and 
which  is  called  o|)en  in  contradistinction  to 
the  stopt  diapason,  the  pipes  of  which  are 
closed  at  the  top. 

^Injil-diupaaon  stoji.  A  stop,  the  pipes  of 
which  are  generally  made  of  wood,  and  k« 
base  up  to  middle  C  always  of  wood.  They 
are  only  half  as  long  as  those  of  the  o|H-n  dia- 
pason, and  are  stopped  at  the  upper  end  with 
wooden  stoppers  or  plugs,  which  render  the 
tone  more  soft  and  mcilow  than  that  of  the 
open  diapason. 

Principal  .ilnp.  A  metallic  stop  originally 
distinguished  by  that  name,  because  holduijj, 
in  point  of  pitch,  the  middle  station  between 
the  diapason  and  fifteenth,  it  forms  the  stand- 
ard for  tuning  the  other  stops. 

Tiutlflli  .slop.  A  metallic  stop  so  denomi- 
nated from  its  being  tuned  twelve  notes  above 
the  diapason.  This  stop,  on  account  of  its 
pitch,  or  tuning,  can  never  properly  be  used 
alone.  The  open  diapason,  stopt  diapason, 
principal,  and  lifteenth,  are  the  best  qualified 
to  accommodate  it  to  tiie  ear. 

fifteenth  slnp.  A  stop  which  derives  its 
name  from  its  pitch,  or  scale,  being  fifteen 
notes  higher  than  that  of  the  diapason.  This 
stop  and  the  twelfth,  mellowed  and  embodied 
by  the  two  diapason^  and  principal,  form  a 
proper  compound  tor  accom|)anying  choral 
parts  in  common  choirs  and  parochial 
churches. 

Setquialtcra  stnp.  A  mixed  stop  running 
through  the  scale  of  the  instrument,  and  con- 
sisting of  three,  four,  and  sometimes  live 
ranks  of  pipes,  tuned  in  thirds,  fifths,  and 
ci.ghths.  In  small  organs  this  stop  is  generally 
divided  at  middle  C,  when  the  lower  part  is 
called  the  sesquialtera,  and  the  ujiper  part 
the  cornet.  The  w  hole  of  the  stop  lies  above- 
the  lilteenth;  the  fir.st  rank  being  a  seven- 
teenth, the  second  rank  a  nineteenth,  and 
the  tiiird  rank  a  twenty-second,  above  the 
diapason. 

Mixture  or  furniture  stop.  A  stop  com- 
prising two  or  more  ranks  of  pipes,  shriller 
than  those  of  the  sesquialtera,  and  onlv  cal- 
culated to  be  used  together  with  that  and 
other  stops.  The  mixture  is  ne-rlv  the  same 
as  the  Sesquialtera,  and  greatly  enriches  tlie 
iiistruiiienf. 

Trumptl  stop.  A  reed  metallic  stop,  so 
called  because  its  tone  is  imitative  of  the 
trumpet.-.  In  large  organs  it  generally  ex- 
tends tliTOUgh  the  whole  compass.  The 
moutiisof  its  pipes  are  not  formed  like  those 
of  the  pipes  of  other  stops,  but  resemble  that 
of  the  real  trumpet.  At  the  bottom  of  each 
of  the  pipes  of  this  stop,  in  a  cavity  called  the 
socket,  is  fixed  a  brass  reed,  stopt  at  the 
lower  end,  and  open  in  front ;  it  is  furnished 
witli  a  tongue,  or  brass  ring,  w  hich  coven  the 
opening,  andwhich,  w  hen  ihewind  is  in)pelled 
into  the  pipe,  is  thereby  put  into  a  vibratory- 
motion,  which  produces  the  imitative  tone 
peculiar  to  this  stop.  The  trumpet  stop  is 
the  nioit  powerful  in  the  instrument,  aiidim- 


7J0 


S  T  O 


proves  the  tone,  as  much  as  it  innca'L's  llic 
peal  of  tlie  chorip.  L'liisonous  wiUi  tlu;  dia- 
pasons, it  strcngliiensthe  lourulalioii,  subJiR's 
the  (lissonaiicci  of  flio  thirds  and  lilths  of  tlic- 
scqiiialtcra,  and  imparls  lo  Uiu  compound  a 
rirluicss  and  grandeur  of  ellijct  adequate  lo  , 
the  sublimest  subjects 

Clarion   or  ocUrce  trumpet  stop.     A  reed 
stop  resembling  tlie  tone  oftlie  trumpet,  as 
mav  be  inferred  from  its  name  ;   but  the  scale 
of  which  is  an  o-.lave  higher  (jiau  the  trumpet  , 
stop.     This  slop  forms  a  brilliant  supplement 
to  t!ie  chorus,  and  is  judiciously  employed  on 
nccasions  which   require  every  pjwcrofthe  ; 
instrumei't ;    but  slu<uld  nol    be  conunonly  j 
opened,  or  indeed,  ever  without  the  other 
stop>.  I 

Tiiras'np.    A  stop  wliich  is  tuneda  major  | 
third  higher  than  the  fitleenth,  and  only  em- 
ployed in  the  full  organ. 

Liiri:j:nt  slop,  or  oclurr  tuclflh.  A  stop, 
the  scale  of  which  is  an  ocl.ive  above  the 
twelfth.     Only  used  in  the  full  organ. 

Cornet  stnj).  A  stop  consisting  of  five 
pipes  to  each  note,  tuned  somewhat  in  the 
manner  of  iht:  sesqni.dtera,  having,  beside  the 
unison  of  the  diapason,  its  third,  lifth,  eighth, 
and  seventeenth.  The  cornet  being  only  a 
treble  stop,  it  is  employed  in  parish-cluirclies 
in  coiii\niction  with  the  diapason  in  interludes, 
and  tin;  giving  out  of  the  psalms. 

Dul-iiina  stop.  A  stop  in  the  choir  organ 
of  a  peculiar  sweetmss  of  tone,  which  it 
chiellv  derives  from  the  bodies  of  its  pipes 
being  longer  and  smaller  than  those  of  the 
pipes  of  other  stops.  It  is  in  imison  with 
the  diapasons,  and  ecjuals  them  in  compass 
upward,  but  only  descends  to  G  gamut. 

Flitic  stop.  A  stop  imitative  of  the  com- 
mon Ihite,  or  flageolet.  It  is  in  uni-on  with 
tlie  principal,  but  of  a  much  softer  tone  tlian 
that  stop. 

Bts-ionn  slop.  A  reed  stop  imitative  of  the 
instrument  from  which  it  derives  its  name. 
'I'his  stop,  so  far  as  it  extends  upward  in  the 
scale,  is  in  unison  with  the  diapasons,  in 
company  with  which  it  only  ought  to  be 
used. 

P'oxhwnarui  stop.  A  reed  stop,  the  tone  of 
which,  as  its  name  implies,  resembles  the  hu- 
man voice.  'J'he  (juality  of  this  stop  is  .eldom 
so  good  as  to  render  it  agreeable  when  heart! 
alone;  it  is  therefore  advantageously  blended 
with  the  diapasons,  with  which  it  is  in  unison. 
//itulln^l  slop.  A  reed  stop  voiced  in  imi- 
tation of  tlie  hautboy.  It  in  unison  with  the 
tiiapaions,  with  which  it  only  should  be 
used'. 

Cremin'i  slop.  A  reed  stop  in  unison  with 
the  diapasons.  The  name  of  this  stop  has 
induced  most  organ-builders  erroneously  to 
svipp  )se  that  it  was  originally  meant  as  an 
imitation  of  the  Crcinoiia  violin  ;  but  the 
writers  best  informed  upon  the  subji'ct  inform 
us,  that  it  was  designed  to  imitate  an  antient 
instrument  called  a  krum-hnrn,  which  word 
lias  lieen  corrupted  into  cremona. 

S  I'Ol'i'Afil-,,  for  the  subsistence  of  the 
sick.  In  the  regulations  for  the  better  ma- 
nagement of  the  silk  in  regimental  hospitals, 
it  is  parti'^ul.nly  laid  down,  under  the  heafl 
siilisislence,  pagi-  Ki,  th  il  sullicient  funds 
sho'iUl  h-  established  for  the  support  of  the 
sick  w  tluiiit  any  additional  chargi;  lo  goveni- 
nv  '  ;  a™\  't  111'/  same  tiirie,  'thai  the  sick 
'.  be  provid-d  with  evciy  rea- 
rt  aud  indulgence  that  can  be 


S  T  R 

alTorded.  Tlie  sum  of  fom-  sliilVmss  per 
week  from  the  pavof  each  soldier  will,  under 
lirojier  regulations,  and  with  strict  economy, 
be  suflicient  for  this  purpo.e;  which  sum  is 
to  be  retained  by  the  paymaster  of  the  regi- 
ment. 

'Ihe  sick  are  t»  be  furnished  with  bread 
nrade  of  the  finest  wheat-flour,  and  fresh 
meat,  perfectlv  good  and  wholesome. 

Tnat  the  srea'.e,t  economy  may  be  used 
in 'aying  out  in  J  money  for  the  sick,  every 
article  ought  to  be  purchased  by  the  sur- 
geon, who  is  required  to  keep  a  book,  in 
which  he  is  to  enter  the  amount  of  the  week- 
ly consumption  of  each  man  according  to  the 
diet  table;  and  this  book,  with  tiie  diet 
table,  is  lo  be  laid  before  the  commanding 
otiicer  and  jiavmaster  every  week,  to  be  ex- 
amined and  signed  by  each. 

Stoppages,  in  a  military  sense,  deductions 
from  a  soldier's  pay,  thi;  belter  to  provide 
liim  with  necessaries,  &:c.  A  soldier  should 
never  be  put  under  a  greater  weekly  stoppage 
from  his  pay,  than  what  will  afti'rwar<!s  leave 
him  a  sufficiency  for  messing.  Since  the 
abolition  of  arrears  a  regulation  has  taken 
place,  by  wliich  soldiers  are  direcleil  to  be 
stopped  one  shilling  and  sixpence  per  week 
in  the  infantry,  and  to  be  accounted  with  on 
the  »4th  of  every  month. 
STORAX.  See  Styrax,  and  IUsins. 
STORES,  If  any  person  who  has  tiie 
charge  or  custody  of  any  of  the  king's  ar- 
mour, ordnance,  ammunition,  shot,  powder, 
or  habiliments  ofwar,  orof  any  yictuals  for 
yictualling  the  iiavy,  shall,  to  hinder  his  ma- 
jesty's service,  embezzle,  purloin,  or  convey 
away  the  same  to  the  value  of  -'O.v.  or  shall 
steal  or  embezzle  any  of  his  majesty's  sails, 
cordage,  or  any  other  of  his  naval  stores,  to 
the  yalue  of  -6.?.  he  shall  be  adjudged  guilty 
of  felony  without  benefit  of  chjrgy.  2i'  Car. 
n.  c.  5. 

The  treasurer,  comptroller,  surveyor,  clerk 
of  the  acts,  or  any  commissioner  of  the  navy, 
may  act  as  justices  in  causing  the  olfender  to 
be  apprehended,  committed,  and  prosecuted 
for  the  same.    9  G.  IH.  c.  30. 

If  any  jjerson  shall  wilfully  and  maliciously- 
set  on  fire,  burn,  or  destroy,  any  of  his  ma- 
jesty's military,  naval,  or  victualling  stores, 
or  other  amnuinilion  of  war,  o.-  any  place 
where  any  isueh  stores  or  amniunition  shall 
be  kf3pt,  he  and  his  abettors  shall  be  guilty  of 
felony  without  benefit  of  clergv.  12  Geo,  III. 
c.  24. 

STORK.     S.:e  Ardea. 
STtAF.,  in  gardening.    Sec  MoTHOUSE. 
STRANDED,  among  seamen,  is  said  of 
a  ship  that  is  driven  ashore  by  a  tempest,  or 
runs  on  gro.und  through  ill  steerage,  and  so 
perishes,     ^\'here  any  vessel  is  stranded,  the 
justices  of  the  prace  are  impowered  to  com- 
mand  the  constables  near  the  sea-coast  lo 
call  assistance,  in  order  lo  preserve  the  same 
if  possible. 
.STUANGURY.    See  Mkdicine. 
STRAP,  in  a  ship,  is  a  rope  spliceil  about 
any  block,  or  made  with  an  eye,  to  fasten  it 
any  where,  on  occasion. 

S  THATA,  in  natural  history,  the  several 
bells  or  layers  of  ililliTCiit  matters,  whereof 
the  body  of  the  earth  is  composed.  See 
Earth,'.!/ '■».'/«/•(■  of. 

SR  TATlFICVriON  ofllrcitrlh.  Scarce- 
ly any  of  the  ii.ilural  phenomena  have  been 


S  T  R 

so  slightly  treated  of  by  the  philosopher>  ^(  • 
the  presejit  and  past  ages,  as  the  strata  of  the 
earth.  Few,  if  any,  amung  the  writers  on 
this  curious  and  interesting  subject,  have 
distinguished  between  the  undisturbed  or  re- 
gular 5trat.i,  forming  the  solid  ni;-tter  of  thi' 
earth,  and  (he  alluvial  or  mixed,  violently 
moved,  and  worn  substance-,  which  are  found 
upon  its  surface  ;  w  liile  the^e  aKain,  in  their 
observations,  have  been  in  too  many  in- 
stances confounded  with  the  alluvial  dejjo- 
sitions  of  rivers  and  the  ocean,  formetl  in  mo- 
dern times  or  since  they  have  been  confined 
nearly  to  their  |)reseiil  limits.  The  cliiects 
of  vegetation,  in  accnmnlaling  peaty  matters, 
and,  in  conjunction  witli  frost,  alternate  wet- 
ting and  drying,  the  atmesplieric  air,  and 
cultivation,  in  gradually  changing  the  surface 
of  almost  any  of  the  stratilied  matters,  lo  a 
soil  or  mould  fit  lor  the  growth  of  some  kind 
of  vegetables,  have  in  a  great  ilegree  been 
overlooked;  and  accordingly  we  lind  a  gre^it 
number  of  writers,  confidently  mentioning 
dilferent  series  of  substances,  which  they 
assert,  on  observations  entirely  local,  to  be 
the  order  of  the  strata  on  proi  eeding  down- 
wards beneath  the  vegetable  soil. 

Notwithstanding  that  Mr.  Ilauksbee  many 
years  ago,  at  the  instance  of  the  lioyal  So- 
ciety of  London,  carefully  examined  a  suc- 
cession of  thirty  strata,  in  the  shaft  of  a 
coal-pit,  and  found  that  strata  specifically 
hea\ier,  were  frequently  found  lodged  above 
lighter  strata;  yet,  a  large  portion  of  the 
writers  since,  to  the  present  time,  have  con- 
tended that  the  strata  are  found  deposited  in 
the  order,  or  nearly,  of  their  specific  gra- 
vities. 

.lohn  Stracey,  esq.  a  writer  in  the  Philo- 
sophical Transactions  (No.  391),  started  an 
opinion,  tlial  the  strata  were  at  first  formed 
while  in  a  soft  state,  as  so  many  wedges,  each 
pointing  to  and  terminating  in  the  centre  o( 
the  earth  ;  ami  that  by  the  diunial  revolut'ou 
of  the  oavth  trom  we;-t  lo  ea>t,  these  became 
bent  into  Sjiirals  (as  represented  in  ti^.  223, 
Plate  Miscel.),  in  which  case,  says  he,  '*  there 
needs  no  specific  gravitation  to  cause  the 
lightest  to  be  uppermost,  &c.  for  every  one  in 
its  turn,  in  some  place  of  the  globe  or  other, 
will  be  uppermost;"'  this  last  remark,  made 
in  the  year  172j,  we  do  not  len.ember  to 
have  seen  noticed  by  ;;ny  subsequent  writer  ' 
or  observer,  although,  from  a  scries  of  minute 
observations  made  within  the  last  filte«n 
years  by  a  genii  man  formerly  resident  at 
Millord  near  Bath,  and  now  in  London,  Mr. 
William  Smith,  there  is  great  reason  to  think 
that  this  is  reaily  the  case  with  all  the  strata 
conqiosing  the  surfai  e  of  the  Ikitish  islands, 
and  perhaps  of  the  whole  earth,  in  what  manner 
soever  the  strata  in  the  nmer  parts  of  the 
earth  may  be  disposed. 

'We  do  not  umlerstand  that  Mr.  Smith  was 
at  all  acquainted  with  the  above  remark  of 
Mr.  Stracey;  but  that  in  the  exercise  of  his 
proleshion  of  a  land-surveyor,  superintendant 
of  some  coal-mines,  and  engineer  for  the  cut- 
ting oftlie  Somerset  coal-caual,  he  saw  am|ile 
reason  to  conclude  that  the  si  veral  strata  in 
thi:  neighbourhood  of  Hath,  all  rise  west- 
wardly  suciM'ssively  to  the  surface.  His  sub- 
sequent observations  in  almost  every  part  of 
thr  kingdom,  have  contirnud  this  most  com- 
pletely ;  and  we  understand  that  section! 
and  maps  of  the  uut-i;ro[i  of  all  tiie  principal 


S  T  R 

■strata  ill  Rnt;!aiKl,  Wales,  and  pait  of  Scot- 
land, liHve  bfi-ii  prp|)arcil  ami  repi-'atedlv 
subiuiltoil  by  Mr.  Smith  to  tliii  iiispei.-lion  of 
tlie  learned  andciirions  in  these  matters;  and 
that  a  lirst  part- or  volume  on  the  subject, 
may  shurtiv  be  evpected  Irom  th:;l  gentle- 
man. The  subject  is  of  immense  inipoitance 
to  tiie  owners  ol  the  soil,  to  tlio.<e  wl,o  are  in 
neareli  of  springs  of  good  and  wliolesome 
water,  and  to  mine-owners  in  paiticillar, 
while  science  cannot  but  be  bcnelited  by  the 
new  field  of  investigation  wliiili  is  thus 
opened. 

STIlAllO'rKS,  ii-(ilfr-.ti)ldier,  a  genns  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  ])olyan<h'ia, 
and  to  the  order  of  hexngynia,  and  in  the 
n  lUiral  s\steni  ranking  under  the  lirst  order, 
p.ilin.T.  The  spatlia  isdiphyllous;  the  peri- 
;inthinm  is  trilid;  there  aie  three  petals,  and 
the  berry  is  si.\-celled  ajid  inferior.  'J  here 
are  tlitee  species,  the  aloides,  the  acoroides, 
and  alismoides.  Tlie  aloides  alone  is  of 
liritish  extraction,  which  is  also  called  the 
w.iler  aloe,  or  fresh-water  soldier.  '1  he  root 
consists  of  long  libres  tufted  at  the  ends.  The 
Ic-aves  are  thick,  triangular,  pointed,  and 
prickly  at  the  edgrs.  'J  he  (lowers  are  while 
and  lioating  on  the  water,  and  blossom  in 
June.  Tliis  plant  may  be  seen  in  slow  rivers 
and  fens. 

SI  K.-WVBKRRY.     See Vr.^caria. 

STRAWUtRRV-TREE.       See  AuRUTUS. 

SI'RlM.rrZfA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  pentandria  monogynia.  The  spathes 
are  universal  and  partial;  no  calyx  ;  corolla 
three-petalled;  nectarium  three-leaved;  cap- 
sule three-celled ;  cells  many-seeded.  I'here 
are  two  species  of  this  magnificent  plant,  na- 
tives of  the  Cape. 

STRENGTH.      See  Timetr,  strfngth 

<2/-,  ,     ,     ,, 

STREPTIV M,  a  genus  of  the  didynamia 
angiosperuiia  class  and  order.  The  calyx  is 
iive-tootlu'd;  stigma  two-lippcd  ;  drupe  two- 
lobed.     Tiiere  is  one  species. 

SrillKE,  a  measure  of  capacity,  contain- 
ing four  bushels.     See  Measure. 

Strike,  among  seamen,  is  a  word  various- 
ly Used.  _  Vi'hen  a  ship,  in  a  tight,  or  on  meet- 
ing with  a  ship  of  \7ir,  lets  down  or  lowers 
lier  toj)-sails,  at  least  half-mast-high,  they  sav 
she  strikes,  meaning  slie  yields,  or  submits, 
or  pays  respect  to  the  ship  of  war.  Also, 
when  a  ship  touches  ground,  in  shoal-water, 
tliL-y  say  she  strikes.  And  when  a  top-mast 
is  to  be  taken  down,  the  word  of  command  is, 
strike  the  lop-mast,  <Sic. 

S  ri{lX,  the  ov.l,  in  ornithology,  a  genus 
belonging  to  the  order  of  accipitres.  'I'he 
bill  is  hooked,  but  has  no  cere  or  wax;  the 
nostrils  are  covered  with  setaceous  fe.ithers  ; 
tile  head  is  very  large,  as  are  also  the  ears 
and  eyes ;  and  the  tongue  is  bitid.  There 
are  46  species  ;   the  most  remarkable  are, 

1.  The  bubj,  or  great-eared  owl,  in  si/e 
is  almost  equal  to  an  eagle.  Irides  briglit 
ycllovv  ;  the  head  and  whole  iKidy  linely 
'\  aried  with  lines,  spots,  and  specks  of  black, 
brown,  cinereous,  and  terruginous;  wings 
long  ;  tail  short,  marked  with  dusky  bars ; 
li'gs  thick,  covered  to  tlie  very  end  of  the  toes 
with  a  close  and  full  down  of  a  testaceous 
colour;  claws  great,  much  hooked  and 
dusky.  It  has  been  sliol  in  Scotland  and  in 
■^  orkshire.  It  inhabits  inaccessible  rocks  and 
desert  places ;  and  pre\s  on  liares  and  fea- 
VOL.  11. 


s  T  n 

thcred  game.  Its  appearance  in  cities  was 
deemed  an  unlucky  omen;  Home  itself  once 
imdei  went  a  lustration  because  one  of  them 
strayed  into  the  Capitol.  Tlie  antienis  had 
them  in  the  utmost  abhorrence,  and  Ihouglit 
ilieni,  like  the  screech-owls,  the  messengers 
of  death.  PJjny  styles  it  bubo  funebris,  and 
noctis  nioustruin.  See  PUte  Nat.  Hist.  fig. 
378. 

2.  The  bradiyotos,  or  short-eared  mvl,  is 
14  inches  long,  three  feet  broad;  the  head 
is  small  and  hawk-like;  the  bill  is  dusky; 
weight  14  ounces.  The  horns  of  this  species 
are  very  small,  and  each  consists  of  only  a 
single  leather  ;  these  it  can  raise  or  <lepr'ess 
at  pleasure  ;  and  in  a  dead  bird  they  arc  with 
diliiculty  discovered.  These  species  inav  be 
called  long-winged  6wls ;  the  wings  when 
closed  reaching  beyond  the  end  of  (he  tail  ; 
whereas,  in  the  common  kinds,  they  fall  short 
of  it.  'J'his  is  a  bird  of  passage,  and  has  been 
observed  to  visit  Lincolnshire  in  the  begin- 
ning of  October^  and  to  letire  early  in  the 
spring;  so  probably,  as  it  performs  its  mi- 
grations with  the  woodcock,  its  summer  re- 
treat is  Norway.  During  day  it  lies  hid  in  long 
old  grass ;  w  hen  disturbed,  it  seldom  dies 
far,  but  will  light,  and  sit  looking  at  one,  at 
which  time  the  horns  may  be  seen  distinctly. 
Ithasnot  been  observed  to  perch  on  trees 
like  other  owls  ;  it  usually  Hies  in  search  of 
prey  in  cloudy  hazy  weatlier.  Farmers  are 
fond  of  seeing  tliese  birds  in  the  lieids,  as 
they  clear  them  from  mice. 

3.  The  flammea,  or  common  white  owl. 
The    elegant    plumage   of  this   bird  makes 
amends  for  the  uncovilhness  ot  its  form-;  a  cir- 
cle of  soft  white  feathers  surround  the  eyes. 
I'hisspecies  is  almost  domestic;  inhabiting,  for 
the  greatest  oart  of  the  year,   barns,  !iay- 
lofts,  and  othel'^ut-houses  ;  and  is  as  useful 
in  clearing  those  places  from  the  mice  as  the 
congenial  cat.     TS^vards  twilight  it  quits  its 
percli,  and  takes  a  regular  circuit  round  the 
lields,  skimming  along  the  gromid  in  quest 
of  lield-mice,  and  then  returns  to  its  usual 
residence:  in  the  breeding  sea-oii  it  re-;;rts 
to  the  eaves  of  churclies,  lioles  in  lofty  buiii!- 
ings,  or  hollows  of  trees.     During  the  time 
tlie  young  are  in  the  nest,  the  male  and  fe- 
male alternately  sally  out  in  quest  of  food, 
make  their  circuit,  beat   the  helds  with  the 
regularity  of  a  spaniel,  and  drop  instantly  on 
their  prey  in  the  grass.     They  very  seldom 
stay  out  above   five  minutes ;    return  with 
their  prey  in  their  claws  ;  but  as  it  is  iieces- 
sary   to  shift  it  into  their  bill,  they  always 
alight  for  tliat  purpose  on  the  roof,  before 
'.hey  attempt  to  enter  their  nest.     This  spe- 
cies does  not  hoot,  but  snores  and  hisses  in  a 
violent  manner;  and  while  it  tlies  along  will 
often  scream  most  tremendously.     Its  only 
food  is  mice.     As  the  young  of  tliese  biriN 
keep  their  nest  fora  great  length  of  time,  and 
are  fed  even  long  alter  tliey  can  fly,  many 
hundreds   of  mice   will  scarcely  suffice    to 
supply  thein   with  food.     Owls  cast  up  the 
bones,  fur,  or  leathers,  of  their  prey,  in  form 
of  small  pellets,  after  they  have  devoured  it, 
in  the  same  manner  as  havyks  do.     A  gentle- 
man,   on  grubbing  up   an  old  poliard   ash 
that   had   been   the   habitation  of  owls  for 
many  generations,  found  at  the  bottom  many 
busheis  of  this   ri^ected  sliilf.     Some  owls, 
w  hen  they  are  satisfied,  hide  the  remainder 
of  their  meat  like  dogs. 
4Y 


T  R 


m 


4.  Tile  stridnla,  or  tawi.y  owl,  weighs  l<) 
ounces.  This  is  a  hardier  species  than  the 
former ;  and  ihe  young  will  feed  on  any  dead 
thing,  whereas  those  of  the  white  owl  niusf 
have  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  meat,  (t  ii 
the  strix  of  .Mdrovandiis,  and  what  we  call 
the  screi!ch-owl,  to  which  the  lolly  of  s'lper- 
stition  has  given  the  power  of  prcsaginij 
death  by  its  cries. 

5.  The  ululi,  or  brown  owl,  agrees  with 
the  former  in  its  marks,  ditl'.'ring  only  in  the 
colours,  liotli  these  species  inhabit  woods, 
where  they  reside  the  whole  day  ;  in  the 
night  they  are  very  clamorous,  ancl  when  they 
hoot,  their  throats  are  inllated  to  tlis  size  of  a 
hen's  egg.  In  the  dusk  they  approach  our 
dwellings,  and  will  frequently  enter  pigeon- 
houses,  and  make  great  havoc  in  tliem. 
They  destroy  numbers  of  little  leverets,  ^i 
appears  by  the  legs  frequently  found  in  tlieir 
nests.  'Ihey  also  kill  abundance  of  moles, 
and  skin  them  with  as  much  dexterity  as  a 
cook  does  a  rabbit.  They  build  in  liollow 
trees  or  mined  cdiiices  ;  lay  four  eggs,  of  an 
elliptic  form,  and  ol  a  whitish  oelour. 

6.  The  passerina,  or  little  owl,  is  very 
rare  in  England ;  it  is  sometimes  found  in 
Yorkshire,  Elintshire,  and  also  near  London. 
In  size  it  scarcely  exceeds' a  thrn.sh,  though 
the  fulness  of  its  plumage  makes  it  appear 
larger.  The  Italians  make  use  of  this  owl  to 
decoy  small  birds  to  tiie  limed  twig ;  the 
meihod  of  wiiich  is  exhibited  in  Olina's 
Uccelliera. 

7.  The  spectacle  owl  of  Cayenne,  which 
is  accurately  described  by  Dr.  I^atham,  is 
'■il  inches  in  length:  the  upper  parts  of  the 
body  are  of  a  reddish  colour  ;  the  lower 
jiarts  of  a  rufbns  white  ;  the  head  and  neck 
are  wiiite,  and  not  so  full  of  feathers  as  tiiose  ' 
of  owls  generally  arc,  and  from  this  circum- 
stance it  a|)[)ears  not  unlike  a  hawk;  a  largo 
patch  of  dark  brown  surrounds  each  eye,  giv- 
ing  the  bird  nv.ich  the  appearance  of  wearing 
spectacles ;  the  legs  are  covered  with  fea- 
thers quite  to  the  toes,  and  are  of  a  ycllow;isli 
colour. 

STllOMBUS,  a  genns  of  the  vermes  le^- 
tacea.  The  generic  character  is,  animal  a 
limax;  shell  univalve,  spiral ;  aperture  much 
dilated ;  the  lip  expanding,  and  produced  into 
a  groove  leaning  on  tne  left.  This  genus 
comprises  53  species,  which  are  se)>arated 
into  divisions.  Only  one  species,  viz.  the 
|)eo  pelecaiie,  or  corvorant's  foot,  is  found  in 
this  country.  These  shells,  in  their  younger 
stiite,  want  the  lip,  and  have  a  thin  turbinate 
appearance.  On  tiiis  account  tiiev  have  by 
many  naturahsts  been  referred  to  a  genus  to. 
which  they  do  not  belong. 

STRONGYLUS,  a  genus  of  vermes  in- 
festina.  The  generic  character  \>,  body 
round,  long,  pellucid,  ghiinous;.  the.  fore 
part  is  globular,  truncate,  with  a  circular 
aperture  fringed  at  the  margin ;  the  hind 
part  of  the  fein;de  entire  and  pointed ;  of  the 
male  dilat"d  into  loose,  distant,  and  pellucid 
membranes.  There  are  two  species  :  ],  ihe 
equinus,  that  inhabits  the  stomach  oi  the 
horse  iu  great  numbers  ;  and,  2,  tlie  oviniis, 
tound  in  the  intestines  of  sheep. 

STKONIIAN.  About  the  year  17,i7,  a 
mineral  was  brought  to  Edinburgh  bv  a 
dealer  in  fossils,  from  the  lead-mine  of  Stroiv 
nan,  in  Argyleshire,  where  it  is  found  im- 
bedded in  the  ore,  mixed  witli  several  oLlser 


723  S  T  "R 

substances.  It  is  soinetipes  tran'pafcnt  and 
colourless,  but  generally  has  a  ting'-  oi  rcl'.ow 
or  green.  Its  specitic  gravity  varies  from 
3.4  to  3.736.  Its' texture  is  geuerally  fibrous ; 
and  sjmetimes  it  is  tbund  crystallized  in 
slender  prismatic  columns  of  various  lengths. 

Strojitiaii  is  found  abundantly  iu  dirterent 
places  of  tlie  world,  and  always  combined 
with  carbonic  acid  or  sulphuric  acid. 

1.  Thec;irbonic  acid  may  be  expelled  from 
thecarbonat,  andtln-strontlan  obtained  pure 
by  mixing  the  mineral  with  ciiarcoa!  powder, 
and  exposing  it  to  a  lieat  of  140  Wedge- 
wood;  or  by  dissolving  the  mineral  in  nitric 
acid,  evaporating  the  souilion  till  it  crystal- 
lizes, and  exposing  the  crystals  in  a  cru<  ible 
to  a  red  heat  till  the  nitric'acid  is  driven  otf. 

2.  Strontian  thus  obtained,  is  in  porous 
masses,  of  a  greyish  wh:te  colour ;  its  taste  is 
acrid  and  alkaline  ;  and  it  converts  vegetable 
blues  to  green.  Its  specitic  gravity,  accord- 
ing to  Hassenfratz,  is  1.647.  It  does  not 
act  so  strongly  on  animal  bodies  as  barytes, 
xor  is  it  poisonous. 

It  does  not  melt  when  healed  like  barytes ; 
hut  before  the  blowpipe  it  is  penetrated  with 
light,  anil  surrounded  with  a  tiame  so  white 
and  brilliant  that  the  eye  can  scarcely  be- 
liAd  it. 

3.  When  water  is  sprinkled  on  strontian 
it  is  slacked,  becomes  hot,  and  falls  to  powder 
exactly  like  barytes  ;  but  it  is  not  so  soluble 
in  water  as  that  earth.  One  hundred  and 
sixty-two  parts  of  water,  at  the  temperature 
of  Go',  dissolve  nearly  one  part  of  strontian. 
The  solution,  known  by  the  name  of  strontian 
water,  is  clear  and  transparent,  and  converts 
xegetable  blues  to  a  green.  Hot  water  dis- 
solves it  in  much  larger  quantiiies  ;  and  as  it 
cools,  the  strontian  is  deposited  in  colourless 
transparent  crvstals.  These  are  in  the  form 
of  thin  quadrangular  plates,  generally  paral- 
lelograms, the  largest  of  which  seUlom  ex- 
ceeds one-fourth  ot  an  inch  in  lengtli.  Some- ! 
times  their  edges  are  plain,  bu'.  they  oftener  [ 
cdTislst  of  two  lacels,  meeting  together,  and 
forming  an  a.igle  like  the  roof  of  a  house. 
These  crystals  generally  adhere  to  each  other 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  thin  plato  of  an 
inch  or  more  in  length,  and  half  an  inch  in 
breadth.  Sometimes  they  assume  a  cubic 
form.  They  contain  about  6S  parts  in  100 
of  water.  They  are  soluble  in  51.4  parts  of 
water,  at  the  temperature  of  60*.  Boiling 
water  dissolves  nearly  half  its  w eight  of  Iheni. 
When  exposed  to  the  air,  they  lose  their  wa- 
ter, attract  carbonic  acid,  and  fall  into 
powder.     ITieir  spcrific  gravity  is  1.4f5. 

4.  Strontian  is  not  acted  on  by  light ;  nei- 
ther does  it  combine  with  oxygen. 

5.  Sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  the  only 
s'mple  combustibles  with  which  it  unites. 

The  sulphuret  of  slron'ian  may  be  made 
by  fusing  the  two  ingredients  in  a  crucible. 
It  IS  soluble  in  water  by  means  of  sulphureted 
hydrogen,  which  is  evolved.  When  the 
solution  is  evaporated,  bydrosulphiuet  of 
strontian  is  obtained  in  crystals,  aiicl  hydro- 
geiialLd  sulphuret  remains  in  solution,  'i'liese 
compounds  resemble  almost  exactly  the  sul- 
phuret, hydro, ulphuret,  and  hydrogenated 
suli)huret  of  barytes;  and  do  not  therefore 
require  a  particular  description.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  the  plio>pluiret  of  strontian, 
which  may  be  prepared  by  the  same  process 
M  the  phosphuret  of  barytes. 


S  T  R 

6.  Strontian  does  not  combine  willi  azote  ; 
but  it  unites  readily  with  muriatic  acid,  and 
fiirais  tile  substance  called  munat  ol  stron 
tiaii. 

7.  Strontian  has  no  action  ii|)on  metals  ; 
but  it  combines  with  several  of  llieir  o.xiiies, 
and  forms  compounds  which  have  not  hither- 
to been  examined. 

8.  It  does  not  combine  with  alkalies  nor 
with  barytes.  No  precipitation  takes  place 
when  barytes  and  strontian  water  are  mixed 
togedier. 

9.  Strontian  has  the  property  of  tinging 
llame  of  a  beautiful  red,  or  rather  purple  co- 
lour ;  a  property  discovered  by  Dr.  Ash  in 
1757.  The  experiment  may  be  made  by 
putting  a  little  of  the  salt  composed  of  nitric 
acid  and  strontian  into  the  wick  of  a  lighted 
candle  ;  or  by  setting  fire  to  alcohol,  hold- 
ing muriat  of  strontian  in  solution.  In  both 
cases  tlie  llame  is  of  a  lively  purple.  In  this 
respect  it  dilfers  from  barytes,  which  when 
tried  in  the  same  way  is  to.  nd  to  communi- 
cate a  blueish  yellow  tinge  to  llame. 

10.  The  alVmities  of  strontian,  as  ascertain- 
ed by  Dr.  Hope  and  Mr.  Vauqui-lin,  are  as 
follows : 

Sulphuric  acid.  Muriatic, 

Phosphoric,  Succinic, 

Oxalic,  Acetic, 

Tartaric,  Arsenic, 

Fluoric,  Boracic, 

Nitric,  Carbonic. 

Barytes  and  strontian  resemble  each  other 
in  their  properties  as  closely  as  potass  and 
soda :  liencc,  like  these  two  alkalies,  they 
were  for  some  time  confounded.  It  is  iu  their 
combination  with  acids  that  the  most  striking 
dilferences  between  these  two  eaPtlis  are  to  be 
observed. 

STRUMPFIA  a  genus  of-^Iants  belonging 
to  the  class  of  syngenesia,  and  to  the  order  of 
monogamia.  The  calyx  is  quinquedentate 
and  superior;  the  corala  is  pentape'alous ; 
and  the  berry  monospermous.  There  is 
only  one  species,  the  iiiaritima,  a  shrub  of 
Curacoa. 

.SI  RUTH  !0,  in  natural  history,  a  genus 
of  birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  gralke  of 
Linnieus.  It  includes,  1.  The  ostrich,  has  a 
bill  somewhat  conical  ;  the  wings  are  so 
short  as  to  be  unht  for  flying;  the  thighs 
and  sides  of  the  body  are  naked  ;  the  leet 
are  formed  for  running,  having  two  toes, 
one  only  of  which  is  furnished  with  a  nail. 
The  head  and  bill  somewhat  resemble  those  of 
a  duck;  and  the  neck  may  be  likened  to 
that  of  a  swan,  but  that  it  is  mucli  longer ;  the 
legs  and  thighs  resemble  those  of  a  hen, 
though  the  w  jiole  appearnce  bears  a  strong 
resemblance  to  that  of  a  camel.  But  though 
usually  seven  feet  high  from  the  top  of  the 
head  to  the  ground,  from  the  back  it  is  only 
four;  so  that  the  head  and  neck  are  above 
tlnee  feet  long.  From  the  top  of  the  head 
to  the  rump,  when  the  neck  is  stretched 
out  in  a  right  line,  it  is  six  feet  long,  and  the 
tail  is  about  a  foot  more.  One  of  the  w  ings 
without  the  leathers,  is  a  foot  and  a  half; 
and  being  stretched  out,  with  the  feathers,  is 
three  feet. 

The  plumage  is  much  alike  in  all ;  that  is, 
gen^jiJIy  black  and  white  ;  though  some  of 
tlienKre  said  to  be  grey.  There  are  no  fea- 
liierson  the  sides,  nor  yet  on  the  thighs,  nor 
under  the  wings.    The  lower  partof  the  neck. 


S  T  n 

about  !udf-way,  is  covered  with  still  smaller  , 
feathers  than  those  on  the  belly  and  baeV  ; 
and  those  also  are  ot  dilfercnt  colours. 

At  the  end  of  each  wing  there  is  a  kind  of 
spur  almost  hke  the  quill  of  a  porcupine.  It 
is  an  inch  long,  being  hollow  and  ol  a  horny 
substance.  '1  here  are  two  of  tlie.se  on  each 
wing;  the  largest  of  which  is  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  bone  of  the  wing,  and  llie 
other  a  loot  lower.  The  neck  "seems  to 
be  more  slender  in  proportipn  to  that  of 
other  birds,  from  its  not  being  furnished 
with  feathers.  The  skin  in  this  part  is  of  a- 
Mvid  llesh-colour,  which  some  improperly 
would  have  to  be  blue.  The  bill  is  sliort  and 
pointed,  and  two  inches  and  a  h  ilf  at  the- 
beginniiig.  'J  he  external  form  of  the  eye  is 
like  thit  of  a  man,  the  upper  eye-lid  lieino'. 
adorned  with  eye  la'ilies  which"  are  longer 
than  those  on  the  lid  below.  The  tongue  is 
small,  very  short,  and  composed  of  caitilages^ 
ligaments,  and  nieiiibraiii's,  intermixed  witli 
fleshy  fibres.  In  some  it  is  about  an  incl» 
long,  and  very  thick  at  the  bottom  ;  in  others- 
it  is  but  half  an  inch,  being  a  little  forked  at 
the  end. 

The  ostrich  is  a  native  only  of  the  torrid. 
regions  of  Africa,  and  has  long  been  cele- 
brated by  those  who  have  had  occasion  ttr 
mention  the  animals  of  that  region.  Its  ties^t 
is  proscribed  in  scripture  as  unlit  to  be  eaten  j 
and  most  of  the  auiient  writers  describe  it 
as  well  known  in  their  times.  Like  the  race 
of  the  eleph.qnt,  it  is  transmitted  down  with- 
out mixture  ;  and  has  never  been  known  t(y 
bre.-d  out  of  that  country  which  lirst  produced 
it.  It  seems  formed  to  live  among  the  sandy 
and  burning  deserts  of  the  torrid  zone;  and,  aV 
in  some  measure  it  owes  its  birlh  to  their  ge- 
nial influence,  so  it  seldom  migrates  into  tracts 
more  mild  or  more  fertile.  The  Arabians 
assert  that  the  ostrich  never  d.  inks;  and  the 
place  of  its  habitation  seems  to  confirm  the- 
assertion.  In  these  formidable  regions  os- 
triches are  seen  in  large  flocks,  which  to  the 
distant  spectator  appear  like  a  regiment  of 
cavalry,  and  have  often  alarmed  a  whole  ca- 
ravan. There  is  no  desen,  how  barren  so- 
ever, but  wiiat  is  c.'pable  ot  supplying  these 
animals  with  provision  ;  they  eat  aUnost  every 
thing  ;  an.l  tiiese barren  tracts  ai'e  thus  doubly 
grateful,  as  they  afford  both  food  and  se- 
curity. The  ostrich  is  very  voracious.  It 
will  devour  leather,  grass,  hair,  iron,  stones, 
or  any  thing  that  is  given.  Tliose  substances 
which  the  coals  of  the  stomach  cannot  soften, 
pass  whole  ;  so  that  glas;,  stones,  or  iron,  are 
excluded  in  the  form  in  which  they  were  de- 
voured. 

In  their  native  deserts,  how'ever,  it  is  pro- 
bable they  live  chielly  upon  vegetables,  where 
they  lead  an  inollensive  and  social  life;  the 
male,  as  I'iievenot  assures  us,  assorting  willi 
the  female  with  connubial  lidelitv.  They  are 
said  to  be  very  much  inclined  to  venery  ; 
and  the  make  oi  the  |)arts  in  both  sexes  seems 
to  conlirni  thu  repert.  It  is  probable  also 
they  cojiulate  like  other  birds,  by  compres- 
sion. 'I'hey  lay  vei^J'  large  eggs,  some  of 
them  being  above  live  inches  in  diaaieter,  and 
weighing  above  lifteen  pounds.  These  eggs 
have  a  very  hard  shell,  somewhat  resembling 
those  of  the  crocodile,  except  that  those  of  the 
latter  are  less  and  rotuuler. 

The  season  for  laying  depends  on  the  cli- 
mate where  the  aninial  is  bred.     In  tlie  north- 


rrn  parts  of  Afncn,    (1ih  so.nin  is  aljotit  the 
I)i'c;iiiniiig  o(  JiiU  ;  in  tlie south  il  is  about  tin- 
l.illi'r  eiiil  of  !  Ji-ci'iiilji'r.   'I'hesc  birdsari;  veiy 
juolilic,  anil  liv  gi'iiei-ully  from  forly  to  lifty 
rf;!rs  al  oiiL- clutch.      It  has  been   coiiunoiily 
rc|)or!i'd,   that   IIk-  ftfinak"  deposits  ihem   in 
till- saiul,  and  covering  them  up,  leaves  them 
lo  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  climate,  and 
then  perlnit^  the  >  onng  to  shift  for  themselves. 
^'e|•v  little  of  ihis,  hovv-ever,  is  true:   no  bird 
has  a  stroni^t-r  ail'eclioii  for  her  young   tlian 
the  ostricli,  nor  none  watches  her  e;;a;s  with 
ijreater   assiduity.       It    happens,  indeed,  in 
'tho<e  hotcliiiKites,  that  there  is  le^s  necessity 
for  the  continual  incub;ition   of  the  female; 
and  she   nijre  frequently   leaves  her   e^f'^s, 
\thich  are  in  no   danger  of  being  chilled    by 
the  weather  :  but  though  s  le  soinetimes  f.or- 
sakes  them  l)y  day,  she  always  carefully  broods 
over  them  by  iiii'Jit ;  and    Koiben,  wiio   has 
seen  great  runnbers  of  them   at  the  Cape   of 
(Joiid    Hoper  aiVirnis,  that  lh:v  sit  on   then- 
e:;p,s  like  other  birds,  aifd  that  the  inale  and 
tlif  feiuale  lake  this  office  by  turns,  as  he  had 
frequent  opporlmiities   of  ob-erving.      Nor 
is  It  more  true  \iliat  is  said  of  their  torsaking 
their  young  alter  they  are  excluded  the  ^^'.ell. 
On  the  contrary,  the  young  ones  are  not  even 
able  to  walk  for  several  da\  s  alter  they   ate 
hatched.       Din-in.;  tiiis  time  the  old  ones  are 
very  assiduous  in  supplying  them  with  grass, 
r.nd  very  canrfid  to  deieiid  them  from  dani^er  ; 
Tjav,  they   encounter   every   danger  in  their 
«li  fence.     The  young,  when   brought   forth, 
are  of  anash-eolour  the  first  year,  and  are  co- 
vered  witli  feathers  all   over.      Btit   in  time 
these  feathers  droj) ;  and  tliose  parts   which 
are  covered  assume  a  dilferent  and  more  be- 
c-jming  plumage. 

The  beauty  of  a  part  of  this  plumage,  par- 
tiriilarly  the  long  feathers  tliat  compose  the 
wings  and  tail,  is  the  chief  reason  that  man 
Ir-is  been  so  active  in  pursuing  this  harmless 
I'lird  toils  deserts,  and  himtingit  with  no  smdl 
degree  of  expence  and  labour.  1'he  antients 
Used  those  plumes  in  their  helmets;  our  nii- 
Htary  wear  them  in  their  hats;  and  the  ladies 
made  them  an  ornament  in  their  dress.  'I'iiose 
feathers  which  are  plucked  from  the  animal 
v.-lule  alive  are  much  more  valued  than  those 
taken  when  dead,  the  latter  being  dry,  light, 
and  subject  to  be  worm-eaten. 

Besides  the  value  of  their  plumage,  some 
of  the  savage  nali'ins  of  Africa  liunt  them  also 
for  their  llesh  ;  which  they  consider  as  a 
dainty.  They  sometimes  also  breed  these 
birds  tame,  to  eat  the  young  ones,  of  which 
the  females  are  said  to  be  the  gieatest  delica- 
cy. Even  among  the  Europeans  now,  the 
eggs  of  the  ostrich  aie  said  to  be  well  tasted, 
iind  extremely  iiom'ishing ;  but  they  are  too 
scarce  to  be  fed  upon,  :  Ithough  a  sijigle 
egg  is  a  su'Ticicnt  entertainment  for  eight 
■Jiien. 

As  the  spoils  of  the  ostrich  are  tluis  va- 
luable, it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  man 
has  become  their  most  assiduous  pursuer, 
l-'or  this  purpose,  the  Arabians  train  up  their 
best  and  tieetesi  horses,  and  hunt  tiie  ostrich 
still  in  view.  Perhaps,  of  all  varieties  of  the 
chase,  tins,  tliou^h  the  most  laborious,  is  vet 
the  most  entertanti  ;g.  As  soon  as  the  hunter 
comes  within  sight  of  his  prey,  he  puts  on  ids 
Jiorse  with  a  gentle  gallop,  so  as  to  keep 
the  ostrich  still  111  sigh! ;  vet  not  so  as  to  ti-- 
*iiy  hini  from  the  plain,  iuto  tlie  mountains. 


STRUTHIO. 

Of  all  known  animals,  the  ostrich  is  by  far 
the  swiftest  in  nmnlii^  ;  upon  observing  liim- 
Mflf,  therelbre,  p'.u-sued  at  a  distance,  he  begins 
lo  run  at  lirst  but  gently  ;  eitlier  insensible  of 
his  danger,  orsiue  of  escaping.  Unforlnnati-ly 
for  the  sihy  crcalure,  instead  of  going  olf  ina 
direct  line,  he  takes  his  course  in  circles  ; 
while  the  hunters  still  make  a  small  course 
within,  relieve  each  other,  meet  him  at  unex- 
pected turns,  and  keep  him  thtisstdl  employed, 
slill  followed,  for  two  or  three  days  together. 
At  fist,  spent  with  fatigue  and  famine,  and 
(indmg  all  power  of  escape  impossible,  he  en- 
deavours to  hide  himse'.t  from  those  enemies 
he  cannot  avoid,  and  covers  his  head  in  the 
sand  or  the  fu'st  thicket  li.e  meets.  Some- 
times, however,  he  attempts  to  face  his  pur- 
suers; and  though  in  general  the  inost  gentle 
ani]naltn  nature,  when  driven  to  desperation 
he  defends  himself  with  his  beak,  his  wings, 
and  his  feel.  Such  is  the  force  of,  his  motion, 
that  a  man  would  be  utterly  unable  to  with- 
stand him  in  the  shock. 

Tin?  Stnithophagt  have  another  method  of 
taking  th's  bird :  they  cover  tliemselves 
with  an  ostrich's  skin,  and  pa^^ing  up  an  arm 
through  the  neck,  thus  counteifc.t  all  the  mo- 
lions  of  this  animal.  Hy  this  artilic  they 
approach  the  ostrich,  whicli  becomes  ar-  easy 
prey.  He  is  sometimes  ako  taken  by  dogs 
and  nets  ;  but  the  most  usual  way  is  that  men- 
tioned above. 

When  the  Arabians  have  ihus  taken  an  os- 
trich they  cut  its  th.roat ;  and  making  a  liga- 
ment below  the  opening,  they  shake  the  bird 
as  one  world  rinse  a  barrel  ;  tin  n  taking  off 
tho  ligature,  there  runs  out  from  tlie  wound 
in  the  throat  aconsiderabf"  quantity  of  blood 
mixed  with  the  fat  of  the  animal ;  and  this  is 
considered  as  one  of  their  greatest  dainties. 
Tiiey  ne.xt  day  the  bird;  and  of  the  skin, 
which  is  strouj  and  thick,  sometimes  niake  a 
kind  of  ve-t,  wliich  answers  the  purposes  of  a 
cuirass  and  a  buckler. 

There  are  others  who,  more  compassionate 
or  more  provitlent,  do  not  kill  their  captive, 
but  endeavour  to  tame  it,  for  the  purposes  of 
supplying  those  feathers  which  arc  m  so  great 
request.  The  inhabitants  of  Daara  and  I.ybia 
bleed  up  whole  llocks  of  them,  and  they  are 
lamed  with  very  litt'e  trouble.  But  it  is  not 
for  their  featliers  alone  that  they  are  prized  in 
tiiis  domestic  state  ;  they  are  otten  ridden 
upon  aiul  used  as  horses.  Moore  assures  us, 
that  at  Joar,  he  saw^  a  man  travelling  upon  an 
ostr^i  h  ;  and  Adaiison  asserts,  tliat  at  the  fac- 
tory of  Podore  he  had  two  ostriches,  which 
were  then  young,  the  strongest  of  which 
ran  swifter  than  the  best  English  racer,  al- 
tiiough  he  carried  two  negroes  on  his  back. 
As  soon  as  the  animal  perceived  that  it  w4< 
thus  loaded,  ilsetolf  running  with  all  its  force, 
and  made  several  circuits  round  the  village; 
till  at  length  people  were  obliged  to  stop  it  by 
barriiig  up  the  way.  How  far  this  stren,gtii 
and  swiftness  may  be  useful  to  mankind,  even 
in  a  polished  state,  is  a  matter  tliat  perhap- 
deserves  inquiry.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  lig. 
37<). 

2.  The  cassowary  (the  casnarius  of  Liu- 
niMis,  and  ga'eated  cassowary  of  Dr.  Latham) 
was  lirst  brought  into  Europe  fromJ.iva  b\ 
the  Du.ch  about  the  year  1 J97.  It  is  nearly 
e<|ual  in  s'ze  to  the  ostrich,  but  its  legs  are 
mueh  tlhciver  and  stronger  in  proportii.n. 
Tins  coii/oraution  gives  it  an  iiir  of  strength 
iY  '2 


7^^ 

and  force,  w  hich  (lie  fierceness  and  siiigularit-/ 
of  it-,   countenance  conspire  to  render  lormi- 
dable.     It  is  (ive  feet  and  a  half  long  from 
the  point  of  lire  bill  to  the  extremity  of  the 
claw^.    'i'he  legs  are  two  feet  and  a  iialf  high- 
from  the   belly   lo    the  end  of  the  claws.  _ 
The    head   and  neck    together    arc   a   foof 
and   a    half;  and   the  largest  toe,   inchid- 
ng  the  d.iw,  is  live  inches  long.     The   clawr 
alone  nil  he  least  toe  is  three  inches  and  a  half 
in  length.     The  wing  is  so  small  that  it  does 
not  appear,  it  being  hidden  under  the  lc;i- 
thers  of  ihe  back.     In  other  birds,  a  part  of 
the  feathers  serve  for  flight,  and  are  ditferent 
Iron)    tho  e  that  serve  'merely  for  covering; 
but  in  Ihe  cas;owary  all  the  featliers  are  of  the 
same  kind,  and  outwardly  of  iKe  same  colour. 
They  are  generally  double,  having  two  long 
shafts,  which  grow  out  of  a  short  one,  whi<:li 
is  fixed  in  the  skin.     Tho.e  Ihat  are  double 
are  always  of  unequal  length;  for  some  arc 
fourteen'  inches   long,   particularly  on    the 
vump,   while   others   are   not    above   three. 
I'he  beards   Ihat   adorn    the   stem  or   shaft 
are  about  half-way  to  the  end,  very  long,  and 
as  t!ii(  k  as  a  horse-hair,  without  being  sub- 
dividctl   into  fibres.     'I'he   stem  or  shaft   is 
Mat,    shilling,    black,    and    knotted    below  ; 
and  from  each  knot  there  proceeds  a  beard; 
likewi-e  the  beards  at  the  end  of  the  large 
leathers   are  perfectly   black,   and   towards 
the  root   of  a  grev  tawny   colour;  shortec, 
more  soft,   and  throwing  out  line  fibres  like 
down;  so  that  nothing  appears  except  the 
ends,  w  hieh  are  hard  and  black  ;  because  the- 
other  part,  composed  of  down,  is  quite  co- 
vered.    There  are  feathers  on  the  head  anil 
neck  ;  but  they  are  so  short  and  thinly  sown, 
Ihat  ttie  bird's  skin  appears  naked,  except  to- 
wards the  hinder   part   of  the  head,   where 
they  are  a  little  longer.     The  feathers  whicli 
adorn  lliermnp  are  extremely  thick;  but  do 
not  dill'er  in    other  respects  from  the  rest,  ex- 
cept in    tlieir    being    longer.      The   wings, 
when  thev  are  deprived  of  their  feathers,  are 
but  three  ijiches  long;  and  tfte  feathers   are 
liketho^eon  other  parts  of  the  body.     The 
ends    of  the   wings   are  adorned   with  live 
prickles,  of  dill'erent  lengths  and  thickness, 
which  bend  like  a  bow  :  these  are  hollow  from 
the  roots  to  the  very  points,  having  only  that 
slight  substance   within   which  all  quills  are 
known  to  have.     'I'he  longest  of  these  prickh's 
is  eleven  inches;  and  it  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  at  the  root,  being  thicker  thertj 
than  towards  the  extremity  :  tlie  point  seems 
broken  off. 

The  part,  however,  whi(  h  most  distinguishes 
this  animal  is  the  head  ;  vshich,  though  small, 
like  lliatof  an  ostrich,  does  not  tail  to  inspire 
some  degree  of  terror,  it  is  bare  of  feathers, 
and  is  in  a  manner  armed  with  a  lielmet  of 
•horny  substance,  that  covers  it  from  the  root 
of  the  bill  to  near  half  the  head'  backwards. 
This  helmet  is  black  before  and  yeliow  be- 
hind. Its  substance  is  very  hard,  being  form- 
ed by  the  elevation  of  the  bone  of  Ihe  skull; 
and  it  consists  of  several  plates  one  over  ano- 
ther, like  the  horn  of  an  ox.  1  he  neck  is  of 
a  violet  co'our,  inclining  to  that  of  »l.ite  :  and 
it  is  red  behind  in  several  places,  but  chiefly 
in  the  middle.  About  the  middle  of  the  neck 
before,  at  the  rise  of  the  large  feathers,  there 
are  two  processes  formed  by  the  skin,  which 
resemble  somewhat  the  gills  ot  a  cock,  but 
that  tliev  are  blue  as  well  as  red.  1  he  skin 
which  covers  the  fore  jiait  of  tiie  breast,  o* 


724 


S  T  R 


which  this  bird  leans  and  rests,  is  hard,  c;i!!oif, 
and  without  fealhois. 

The  same  degix-e  of  voraciousness  wliich 
we  perceived  in  the  ostrich  obtains  as  strongly 
here.  The  cassowary  swallows  every  thing 
♦hat  conies  within  the  capacity  o:  its  gullet. 
The  Dutch  assert,  tliat  it  can  devour  not 
only  glass,  iron,  and  stones,  hut  even  live  on 
burning  coals,  without  testifying  the  smallest 
fear  of  feeling  the  least  injury.  It  is  said,  that 
the  passage  of  the  food  througii  its  mullet  is 
performed  so  speedilv,  that  even  tTie  very 
eggs  which  "it  has  "swallowed  whole  pass 
through  it  unbroken  in  tlie  same  form  they 
went  down.  In  fact,  the  alimentary  canal  of 
this  animal,  as  was  oi)serv<'d  above,  is  ex- 
tremely short ;  and  it  may  hapi)en,  that  many 
kinds  Qf  food  are  indigestible  in  its  stomach,  as 
wheat  or  currants  are  to  a  man  when  swal- 
lowed whole. 

The  cassowary's  eggs  are  of  a  grey  ash-co- 
lour, inclining  to  green.  They  ai"e  not  soj 
large  nor  so  round  as  tlose  of  the  ostrich. 
They  a.-e  marked  with  a  number  of  little  tu- 
bercles of  a  deep  green,  and  the  shell  is  not 
•very  thick.  The  largest  of  these  is  found  to 
be  I'llteen  inches  round  one  way,  and  about 
twelve  the  other. 

The  southern  parts  of  tin)  most  eastern  In- 
dies seem  to  be  the  natural  climate  ot  tiie  cas- 
sowary. His  domain,  if  we  may  so  call  it, 
begins  where  that  of  the  ostricli  terminates. 
The  latter  has  never  been  found  beyond  the 
Ganges;  whiie  the  cassowary  is  never  seen 
nearer  than  the  islands  of  Bandana,  Sumatra, 
Java,  the  Molucca  islands,  and  the  corres- 
ponding parts  oi  the  continent.  Yet  even 
iiere  ih  s  animal  seems  not  to  have  multiplied 
in  any  considerable  <legree,  as  we  tind  one  of 
liie  kings  of  Java  making  a  present  of  one  of 
these  birds  to  the  captain  of  a  Dutch  ship, 
considering  it  as  a  very  great  rarity. 

The  casuarius  Nova  HoUandia?,  or  New- 
Holland  cassowary,  differs  considerably  from 
f  he  common  casso\\  ary.  It  is  a  much  larger 
bird,  standing  higher  on  its  legs,  and  having 
(he  neck  longer  than  in  the  common  one. 
Total  length  seven  feet  two  inches.  'I'he  bill 
is  not  greatly  different  from  that  of  the  com- 
mon cassowary  ;  but  the  horny  appendage  or 
helmet  on  tlie'  top  of  the  head  in  this  species 
is  totally  wanting  :  the  whole  of  the  head  and 
neck  is'also  covered  witii  feathers,  except  the 
throat  and  fore  part  of  the  neck  about  half-way, 
which  are  not  so  well  feathered  as  the  rest; 
whereas  in  the  connnou  cassowary  the  head 
and  neck  are  bare  and  carunculated  as  in 
the  tnrkcy. 

The  plumage  in  general  consists  of  a  mix- 
ture of  brown  and  grey,  and  the  feathers  are 
somewhat  curled  or  bent  at  the  ends  in  the 
natural  state :  the  wings  are  so  very  short  as 
to  be  totally  useless  lor  flight,  and  indeed  are 
scarcely  to'be  distinguished  from  the  rest  of 
the  plumage,  was  it  not  for  their  standing  out  a 
4itflp.  The  long  spines  whicii  are  seen  in  the 
wings  of  the  common  sort  are  in  this  not  ob- 
MTvable,  nor  is  there  any  appearance  of  a  tail. 
The  legs  are  stout,  formed  much  as  in  the  ga- 
leated  cassowary,  with  the  addition  of  their 
being  jagged  or  sawed  the  wliole  of  their  length 
at  the  back  part. 

'I  his  bin!  is  not  uncommon  in  New  Hol- 
land, as  several  of  them  have  been  seen  about 
Botany-bay  and  other  parts.  Although  it  can- 
But  lly,  it  ruivs  so  swiftly,  that  a  greyhound 


6  T  U 

can  scarcely  overtake  it.     Tiie  flesh  is  said  to 
be  in  taste  not  unlike  beef. 

STEUTHIOI.  A,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  class  of  tetrandria,  and  order  of  nio- 
nogynia.  The  corolla  is  wanting ;  the  ca- 
ly.\  is  tubulous,  with  eight  glantfules  at  its 
mouth;  the  berry  is  without  juice,  and  mo- 
nospermous.  The  species  are  5,  shrubs  of 
the  Cape. 

STRYCHNOS,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing tothe  classof  pentandria,  and  order  of  nio- 
nogynia ;  and  in  the  natural  system  ranging 
under  the  twenty-eightli  order,  lurid<T.  Tlie 
corolla  is  quinquefid ;  the  berry  is  unilocular, 
with  a  woody  bark.  The  species  are  three, 
the  nux  vomica,  colubrina,  and  potatorum, 
natives  of  foreign  countries. 

STUARTIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  class  of  monadelphia,  and  order  of  po- 
lyandria;  and  in  the  natural  system  ranging 
under  tlie  3"lh  order,  coluninifera'.  The  ca- 
lyx is  simple ;  the  style  is  simple,  with  a 
quimiuelid  stigma;  the  apple  is  without 
juice,  quinquelobed,  monosperiiious,  bursting 
open  with  a  spring  live  ways.  There  are  two 
species,  foreign  plants. 

STUCCO,  in  building,  a  composition  of 
white  marble  pulverised,  and  mixed  with 
plaister  of  lime  ;  and  the  whole  being  sifted 
and  wrought  up  with  water,  is  to  be  used  like 
common  plaister  :  this  is  called  by  Pliny  mar- 
moratum  opus,  and  albariuiii  opus. 

STUM,  in  tlie  wine  trade,  denotes  the 
unfermented /juice  of  tlie  grape,  after  it  has 
been  several  times  racked  ofl)  and- separated 
from  its  sediment. 

STURGEON.     See  Accipenser. 

STURNUS,  the  starling,  a  genus  of 
birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  passeres.  The 
beak  is  subulated,  depressed,  and  somewliat 
blunt;  the  superior  mandible  is  entire,  and 
somewhat  open  at  the  edges;  the  nostrils  are 
niarginated  above ;  and  the  tongue  is  sharp 
and  em?iginated.  There  are  1,5  species,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Latham  ;  the  vulgaris,  capen- 
sis,  ludovicianus,  niilitaris,  cellaris,  caruncu- 
latus,  gallinaceus,  sericeus,  viridis,  olivaceus, 
moritanicus,  loyca,  dauricus,  j\mceti,  and 
mexicanus. 

The  vulgaris,  or  common  starling,  is  the 
only  species  of  the  sturn\is  that  is  indigenous. 
The  weight  of  the  male  of  tliis  species  is 
about  three  ounces  ;  that  of  the  female  ra- 
ther les3.  Tlie  length  is  eiglit  inches  three 
cpiarters.  The  whole  plumage  is  blacl;,  very 
resplendent,  with  cliangeable  blue,  purple, 
and  copper:  eacli  feather  marked  with'  a  pale 
yellow  spot.  The  lesser  coverts  are  edged 
with  yellow,  and  slightly  glossed  with  green. 

'I'he  stare  breeds  in  hollow  trees,  eaves  of 
liouics,  towers,  ruins,  clilils,  and  often  in  high 
rocks  over  the  sea,  such  as  that  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  It  lays  four  or  five  eggs,  of  a  pale- 
greenish  ash-coloiu' ;  and  makes  its  nest  of 
straw,  small  fibres  of  roots,  &c.  In  winter, 
stares  assemble  in  vast  Hocks  :  they  collect  in 
mvriads  in  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire,  and  do 
great  damage  to  the  fen-men,  by  roosting  on 
the  reeds,  and  breaking  them  down  by  their 
weight";  for  reeds  are  the  thatch  of  the  coun- 
try, and  are  laid  up  in  harvest  with  great 
care.  These  birds  feed  on  worms  and  in- 
sects ;  and  it  is  said  they  will  get  into  pigeon- 
houses,  for  the  sake  of  sucking  the  eggs. 
I'heir  tlesh  is  so  bitter  as  to  be  scarctly  cat- 


S  T  Y 

able.  They  are  fond  of  following  oxen  atid  ' 
other  large' cattle,  as  they  leed  in  the  mea- 
dows, attracte-d,  as  it  is  said,  by  the  insects 
H  hich  Hutter  round  them,  or  by  those,  per- 
haps, which  swarm  in  their  dung,  or  in  mea- 
dows in  general.  From  this  habit  is  derived 
the  German  name  riwirr  staren.  'I'hey  live 
seven  or  eight  years,  or  ttven  longer,  in  the 
domestic  sl.ite.  The  wild  ones  caiinor  be  de- 
coyed by  the  call,  because  tliey  regard  not 
the  scream  of  the  owl.  A  metho<l  has  been- 
discovered  of  taking  entire  families,  by  fixing 
to  the  walls  and  the  trees  where  they  lodge, 
pots  of  earthenware  of  a  convenient  form, 
which  the  birds  often  prefer  to  place  their 
nests  in.  Many  are  also  cauglit  by  the  gin 
and  draw-net. 

The  stare,  it  is  said,  can  be  taught  to  speak 
either  French,  German,  Latin,  Greek,  &c. 
and  to  pronounce  phrases  of  some  length.  Its 
pliant  throat  accommodates  itself  to  every  iii- 
llection  and  every  accent.  Il  can  readily  ar- 
ticulate the  letter  K,  and  acquires  a  sort  of 
warbling  which  is  much  superior  to  its  native 
song.  This  bird  is  spread  through  an  exten- 
sive range  in  the  aiitient  continent. 

The  sturnus  cinclus,  see  Plate  Nat.  Hist.. 
fig,  3S0,  inhabits  Europe  and  the  northern 
parts  of  Persia  ;  fretiuents  waters,  and  feeds, 
on  aipiatic  insects  and  small  fishes.  It  is  very 
soht.'ry,  and  breeds  in  the  holes  of  banks ; 
makes  a  very  curious  nest  of  hay  and  roots, 
lined  with  dead  leaves,  and  lianng  an  en- 
trance of  green  moss. 

STYI^jL,  a  word  of  Various  significations, 
originally  derived  from  i-J>-^,  a  kind  of  bod- 
kin, wherewith  theantienls  wrote  on  plates  of 
lead,  or  on  wax,  &c.  and  wliich  is  still  used 
to  write  ou  ivory  leaves,  and  paper  prepared 
for  that  purpose,  &c. 

Style.    See  Dialli.vg. 

Style.     See  Botany. 

Style,  in  matters  of  language.  See  Rhe- 
toric, and  Poetry. 

STYLEPHORUS,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
order  apodes.  The  generic  character  is, 
ej'es  pedunculated,  standing  on  a  short  thick 
cylinder;  snout  lengthened,  directed  up- 
wards, retractile  towards  the  head  by  means 
of  a  membrane ;  mouth  without  teeth  ; 
branehiic  three  pair  beneath  tlie  throat ;  fins, 
pectoral  small,  dorsal  the  length  ot  the  back, 
caudal  short,  with  spiny  rays;  body  very 
long,  compressed.  'I'his  highly  singular  ge- 
nus was  first  described  in  the  year  1788, 
from  a  specimen  tlien  introduced  into  the 
Leverian  Museum,  and  figured  in  the  first 
volume  of  the  Linna-an  'transactions,  see 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  381. 

Chordated  stylephorus.  The  liead  of  tliis 
extraordinary  animal  bears  some  distant  re- 
semblance to  that  of  the  genus  syngnathus, 
and  its  structure  cannot  so  easily  be  described 
ill  words  as  conceived  by  the  figure.  The 
rostrum  or  narrow  part,  which  is  terminated 
by  the  mouth,  is  connected  to  the  back  part  of 
the  head  by  a  flexible  leathery  duplicature, 
which  permits  it  to  be  either  extended  in 
such  a  m;uiner  that  the  mouth  points  directly 
upwards,  or  to  fall  hack,  so  as  to  be  received 
into  a  sort  of  case  formed  by  the  upper  part 
of  the  head.  On  the  top  of  the  head  are 
pkiced  the  eyes,  which  are  of  a  form  very 
nearly  approaching  to  those  of  the  genus 
cancer,  except  that  the  columns  or  parts  oa 
which  eye  is  placed  are  much  broader  and 


STY 

thicker  llinn  in  that  geiiiis ;  (hoy  are  aho 
placed  close  tu  each  olhcr;  ami  (hi*  oulvvaicl 
$iH(ace  of  the  eye,  wlien  unignihed,  iloi;s  iirjl 
shew  the  least  a|;|)earanci;  of  a  reticulated 
stnicliue.  Below  iln;  iicad,  on  each  side,  is  a 
considerable  conijiriNSed  semicircular  space, 
tiie  fore  part  ofwliiciiis  hounded  by  Hie  co- 
vering ot  the  gills,  which  covering  seeins  to 
consist  of  a  sintrle  nienihrane,  of  a  niodi-rately 
strong  natnre.  riem-atii  tliis,  on  cacli  side, 
arc  three  small  pair  of  branchice.  'Die  body 
i-i  exlreinrly  1<im;i;,  and  compressed  \ery 
much, '.I  nd  grail  iiallydiniiiiishes  as  it  approach- 
es the  tail,  wliicli  tc;rminates  in  a  string  or 
process  of  an  enormous  length,  and  finishes 
in  a  very  line  point.  This  string,  or  caudal 
process,  seems  to  be  strengthened  througli- 
out  its  wliole  length,  or  at  least  as  far  as  the 
eye  can  trace  it,  by  a  sort  of  double  libre  or 
internal  part.  The  pectoral  fins  are  very 
small,  and  situated  almost  immediately  be- 
liind  the  cavity  on  each  side  the  Ihora.N.  The 
general  colour  of  this  lish  is  a  rii  h  silver,  ex- 
cept on  tlio  tlexible  part  belonging  to  the 
rostrum,  wliich  is  of  a  de<>p  brown;  the  tins 
and  caudal  process  are  also  brown.  There  is 
no  appearance  of  scales  on  this  hsh. 

STVLITES,  an  appellation  given  to  a 
kind  of  solitaries,  who  spent  their  lives  seated 
on  the  tops  of  colunnis,  to  be,  as  Ihcy  ima- 
gined, tl)e  better  disposed  for  meditation,  Sec. 
Of  these  we  lind  several  mentioned  in  an- 
tient  writers,  and  even  as  low  as  the  eleventh 
century.  '1  he  founder  of  the  order  was  S(. 
Simon  Stylites,  a  famous  anchoret  in  the  liflh 
century,  who  took  uj)  his  al)ode  on  a  cohnnn 
six  cubits  liigh  ;  then  on  a  second  of  twelve 
cirbits  ;  a  thud,  of  twenty-two;  and,  at  last, 
on  another  of  thirty-six.  ^Fhe  extremity  of 
these  columns  was  only  threi-  feet  in  diame- 
ter, witli  a  Uind  of  rad  or  ledge  about  it  that 
leached  almost  to  the  girdle,  somewhat  re- 
sembling a  -  pulpit.  'Ihere  was  no  lying 
down  in  it.  The  faquirs,  or  devout  people 
of  the  East,  imitate  this  extraordinary  kind  of 
life  even  to  this  (\ci\. 
S'lVLO-CKKALOlDES,"!  the  names  of 
tSTVLO-GLOssus,  I  did'erent  nius- 

htYLO-/Ii/i)icLruv,  J-cles  in  the  liu- 

aTVLO-P/ian/iigaus,  I  man  body.  See 

STYLOIUE.^,  J  Anatomy. 

SrVP'inC.  See  Pharmacy. 
STYRAX.  See  Resins. 
Styrax,  the  storax-tree,  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  class  of  decandria,  and  to  the 
order  of  mjnogynia,  and  in  the  natural  sys- 
tem ranging  under  the  18th  order,  bicornes. 
The  calyx  is  inferior;  corolla  fuunel-foriK-; 
drupe  two-seeded.  Linni-us  only  mentions 
one  species  of  this  genus, the  styrax  ollicinale; 
but  Alton,  in  his  Hortus  Kewejisis,  has  added 
two  more;  namely,  the  grandeibliu.n,  and 
]a:vigatuni ;  and  a  fourth  njay  now  be  added, 
the  styrax  benzoin. 

The  officinale  usually  rises  about  twenty 
feet  in  lieight;  it  sends  off  many  strong 
branches,  wliich  are  covered  wiih  a  roughish 
bark  of  a  grey  colour:  the  leaves  are  broad, 
elliptical,  entire,  somewhat  pointed,  on  the 
upper  surface  sinootii,  an.lof  a  hgnt-green  co- 
lour, cu  the  under  surface  covered  with  a 
whitish  down  ;  they  are  placed  alternately, 
and  stand  U(Wn  short  footstalks:  the  dowers 
are  large,  wliile,  and  disposed  in  clusters  upon 
short  peduncles,  wtiich  terminate  the  branches: 
Alie  corolla  is  monopetalous  ;  tlie  fruit  is  a 
pulpy  pericarpiitm. 


STY 

llie  resinous  drug  called  slorax  issues  in  a 
fluid  state  horn  incisions  made  in  tlietrunkor 
branches  of  the  tree.  Two  sorts  of  lliis  res"rn 
have  been  commonly  distinguished  in  the 
shops;  1.  Storax  in  the  tear,  is  scarcely,  if 
ever,  found  in  separate  tears,  but  in  masses, 
somotinii's  composed  of  whitish  Jiiid  pale  red- 
dish brown  bars,  and  sometimes  of  an  unilorm 
reddish  vellow  or  brownish  appearance  ;  unc- 
tuous and  soil  like  wax,  and  tree  from  visil)le 
impurities.  'I'liis  is  supposed  to  be  the  sort 
which  the  antien's  received  from  Painphylia 
in  reeds  or  canes,  and  which  was  thence 
named  calamita. 

2.  Common  storax  :  in  large  masses,  con- 
siderably lighter  and  less  compact  than  the 
former,  and  having  a  large  admixture  of 
woodv  matter  like  saw-dust,  'ibis  appears 
to  be'the  kind  intended  by  the  London  col- 
lege, as  they  direct  tlieir  styrax  calamita  to 
be  puiihed,'lbr  medicinal  use,  by  softening  it 
with  boiling  water,  and  pressing  it  out  from 
the  feces  betwixt  warm  iron  plates:  a  process 
which  the  first  does  nat  stand  in  need  of; 
and  indeed  there  is  rarely  any  other  than 
this  impure  storax  to  be  met  with  in  the 
shops. 

Storax,  with  some  of  the  antients,  was  a  fa- 
miliar remedy  as  a  resolvent,  and  particularly 
used  in  catarrhal  complaints,  coughs,  asth- 
mas, menstrual  obstructions,  &c.  and  from 
its  artinity  to  the  balsam?,  it  was  also  prescrib- 
ed in  ulcerations  of  the  lungs,  and  other  states 
of  pulmonary  consuniplion.  And  our  pha!r- 
macopieias  iormerly  directed  the  pilula'  e  sty- 
race  ;  but  this  odoriferous  drug  has  now  no 
place  in  any  of  the  ollicinal  coniponiuls;  and 
though  a  medicine  which  might  seem  to  pro- 
mise some  efficacy  in  nervous  debilities,  yet 
bv  modern  practitioners  it  is  almost  totally 
disregarded. 

The  styrax  benzoin,  see  Plate  Nat.  Hist, 
fig.  382,  has  been  characterised  by  oblong 
acuminated  leaves,  which  are  downy  under- 
neath, and  nearly  of  the  length  of  the  racemi. 

This  tree,  which  is  a  native  of  Sumatra,  is 
ileenn-d  in  six  years  of  sufficient  age  for  af- 
fording the  benzoin,  or  when  its  irunk  ac 
quires  about  seven  or  ei  »ht  inches  in  diame- 
ter; the  bark  is  then  cut  through  longitudi- 
nally, or  somewhat  obliquely,  at  the  or. gin  of 
llie  principal  lower  bi'am:hes,  from  vihich  the 
drug  exudes  in  a  liquid  state,  and  by  expwure 
to  the  sun  and  air  -ooii  concretes,  when  it  is 
scraped  off  from  the  bark  with  a  knife  or  chi- 
sel. The  quantity  of  benzoin  which  one  tree 
allbrds  never  exceeds  three  pounds,  nor  are 
liic  trees  (bund  to  sustain  the  ert'ects  of  thc-sc 
annual  incisions  longer  than  ten  or  twelve 
years.  The  benzoin  which  issu*;s  first  from 
tlie  wounded  bark  is  the  purest,  being  soft, 
extremely  fragrant,  and  very  white ;  that 
wdiich  is  less  esteemed  is  of  a  brownish  co- 
lour, very  hard,  and  mixed  with  various  im- 
purities, which  it  acquires  during  its  long  cont 
tinuaiice  upon  the  trees. 

The  benzoin  which  we  find  here  in  the 
shops  is  in  l.irge  brittle  masses,  composed 
partly  of  while,  partly  of  yellowish  or  light- 
brown,  and  olteu  also  of  darker-coloured 
pieces  ;  that  w.uch  is  clearest,  and  contains 
the  most  white  ii;atter,  called  by  authors 
benz';>  amygdaloides,  is  accounted"  the  best. 
This  resin  lias  very  little  taste,  impressing  on 
the  p.ilate  oidy  a  slight  sweetne.ss:  its  smell, 
especially   when  rubiied  or  heated,  is   ex- 


S  U  B 


725 


(remely  fragrant  and  2Rree:,l>Ie.  It  totally 
dissolves  in  rectified  spirit  (the  im))inities  ev- 
cepted,  which  are  generally  in  a  very  small 
quantity)  into  a  deep  yellowish-red  liquor, , 
and  ill  this  state  discovers  a  degree  of  warmth 
ind  juingency,  as  well  as  sweetness.  It  im- 
parts, by  digestion,  to  water  also  a  consider- 
able sliaieof  its  fragrance,  and  a  slight  pun- 
gency: the  filtred  liipior,  gently  exhaled, 
leaves  not  a  resinous  or  mucilaginous  extract, 
but  a  cryslalline  matter,  seemingly  of  a  saline 
nature,  amounting  to  one-tenth  or  one-eightii 
ofth'-:  weiglilofthe  benzoin.  Exposed  to  thelire 
in  proper  vessels,  it  \ields  a  quantity  of  a  while 
saline  concrete,  called  ilores  benzoes,  of  an 
acidulous  taste  and  grateful  odour,  soluble  in 
reclihed  spirit,  and  in  water  by  the  assistance 
of  heat. 

The  principal  use  of  this  fragrant  resin  is  in 
perfumes,  and  as  a  cosmetic;  for  wiiich  last 
purpose,  a  solution  of  it  in  spirit  of  \iine  is 
mixed  with  so  much  water  as  is  sufficient  to 
render  it  milky,  as  twenty  times  its  quantity 
or  more.  It  promises,  however,  to  be  appli- 
cable to  other  uses,  and  to  approach  in  vir- 
tue, as  in  fragrance,  to  slorax,  and  balsam  of 
tolii.  It  is  saiii  to  be  of  great  service  in  dis- 
orders of  the  breast,  for  resolving  obstruc- 
tions of  the  pulmonary  vessels,  and  promoting 
expectoration:  in  which  intentions  the  flow- 
ers are  sometimes  given  from  three  or  four 
grains  to  lifteen.  I'he  white  powder,  preci- 
pitated bv  water  from  solutions  of  the  ben- 
zoin in  spirit,  has  been  employed  by  some  as 
similar  and  superior  to  the  (lowers,  but  ap- 
jjears  to  be  little  other  than  the  pure  benzoin 
in  substance  :  it  is  not  the  saline,  but  the  re- 
sinous niatltr  of  the  benzoin,  that  is  most  dis- 
posed to  be  precipitated  from  spirit  by  wa- 
ter. Tiie  lio^^er^,  snuffed  up  the  nose,  are 
said  to  be  a  powcrlul  errhine. 

SUBALTERN,  a  subordinate  ofificer,  or 
one  who  discharges  his  post  under  the  com- 
mand and  subject  to  the  direction  of  another: 
such  are  lieutenants,  sub  lieutenants,  cornets 
and  ensigns,  who  serve  under  the  captain;  but 
cust.ni  has  now  appropriated  the  term  to 
those  of  much  lower  ranks,  as  Serjeants,  &c. 
We  also  •say  subaltern  ODurls,  jurisdictions, 
&c.  such  are  those  of  inferior  lords,  with  re- 
gard to  the  lord  paramount ;  hundred-courts 
with  regard  to  county-courts,  &^^ 

SUBCLAVIAN.  '  See  Anatomy. 

SUBCOSTAL   MUSCLES.     See   Axa- 

TOMV. 

SUBDUPLE  RATIO,  is  when  any  num- 
ber or  quantity  is  contained  in  anotlier  twice: 
thus  3  i>  said  to  be  suhduple  ol  6,  as  6  is  du- 
ple of  3. 

SUBDUPLICATE  R.\T10  of  any  two 
quantities,  is  the  ratio  ot  llieir  square  roots. 

SUBE.R.  This  name  has  been  introduced 
into  chemistry  by  Eourcri)> ,  to  denote  the 
outer  bark  of  .the  quercus  tuber,  or  the  com- 
mon cork,  a  substance  which  possesses  pro- 
perties dilferent  from  all  other  vegetable  bo- 
dies. 

It  is  exceedingly  light,  soft,  and  ela<:tic  ; 
very  combustible,  burning  with  a  bright  wnite 
lianie,  and  leaving  a  light  black  balky  char- 
coal ;  and  wlieu  distilled  ityields  a  littie  am- 
monia. Nitric  acid  gives  it  a  yellow  colour, 
Ci'rrodes,  dissolves,  and  d..\omposei  it,  con- 
vening it  partly  into  suberic  acid,  partly  into 
a  substance  resembling  wax. 


710 


SUB 


SUBKRA'i  S,  salt  formccl  witli  tlie  suberic 
acid,  »l)icli  see. 

SUBEKiC  ACID  may  be  formed  by  pour- 
ing six  pa  ts  of  nitric  acid  of  the  sijccilic  gra- 
vity l.'Jtil  on  one  part  of  cork  grated  do«ii  or 
siniplv  broken  down  into  small  pieces,  and 
distilling  the  mixture  «itli  a  genlle  heat  as 
long  as  red  vapours  continue  to  escape. 
As  the  distillation  advances,  a  yellow  rna'tec 
like  wax  makes  its  appearance  on  (he  surface 
of  the  liquid.  ^Viiile  the  matter  contained  in 
the  retort  is  hoi,  it  is  to  be  poured  into  a  glass 
vessel,  placed  upon  a  sand-bath  over  a  gen- 
tle lire,  and  constai;tly  stirred  with  a  glass  rod. 
By  this  means  it  becomes  gradually  thick. 
As  soon  as  w Mite  vapours,  exciting  a  tickling 
in  the  throat,  begin  to  <lisengage  Iheniselves, 
the  vessel  is  removed  from  iNe  balh,  and 
the  mass  continually  stirred  till  it  is  almost 
cold. 

By  this  means  an  orange  coloured  mass  is 
obtained  of  the  consistence  of  hi)iiey,  of  a 
strong  and  sharp  odour  while  iiot,  bi.t  bav- 
ins a  peculiar  aromatic  smell  -Ai.en  cold. 

On  this  mass  twice  its  weight  of  boiling 
water  is  to  be  poured,  and  heat  applieil  tih  It 
becomes  liquid ;  and  then  that  pari  of  it  which 
is  insoluble  in  water  is  to  be  separated  by  til- 
tfatiou.  The  liltred  r;(|U(ir  becomes  mucldy  ; 
on  cooling  it  deposits  a  powdery  sediment,  and 
a  thin  pellicle  forms  on  its  surlace.  The  sedi- 
ment is  to  be  separat(!d  by  liltration,  and  the 
liquor  reduced  to  a  dry  mass  by  evaporating 
in  a  gentle  heat.  This  mass  is  suberic  acid. 
It  is  still  a  little  coloured,  owing  to  some 
accidental  mixture,  froiu  whicli  it  may  be 
purilied  either  liv  -aturatiug  it  with  potass 
and  pr.-cipitating  it  by  means  of  an  acid, 
or  by  bailing  it  along  with  charcoal-pow- 
der. 

hiubciic  acid  thus  obtained  is  not  crystal- 
lizable,  but  when  jirecipilated  Iroui  potass  by 
an  acid  it  assunu'S  the  form  of  a  powder  : 
vhen  obtained  by  evaporalion  it  forms  thin 
irregular  pellicles. 

Its  taste  is  acid  and  slightly  bitter;  andwhen 
dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  boiling  water 
it  acts  upon  the  throat,  and  excites  cougii- 
ing. 

It  reddens  vegetable  blues;  and  when 
dropped  inio  a  sohitiou  of  indigo  in  sulphu- 
ric acid  (liipiid  blije,  as  it  is  called  in  this  coun- 
try), it  changes  the  colour  of  the  solution, 
and  renders  it  green. 

Water  at  the  temperature  of  60''  or  even 
70°  dissolves  only.5.^  part  of  its  w.;ight  of  su- 
b-ricacld;  and  il  the  aci<l  is  very  pure,  only 
ri'T*''  l'^""''-  boiling  water,  on  the  contrar}, 
dissolves  half  its  weight  of  it. 

Wlien  exposed  to  the  air,  it  attracts  mois- 
ture, especially  if  it  is  impure. 

When  exposed  to  the  light  of  day,  it  be- 
comes at  last  brown  ;  and  this  etlect  is  pro- 
cured much  sooner  by  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun 

When  heated  in  a  matrass,  the  acid  sub- 
limes, and  tue  'iisi.le  of  liie  glass  is  surrounded 
witii  z  )ne  of  dij'erent  colours.  If  the  sub- 
limation is  stopped  at  the  proper  time,  the 
acid  is  obtained  on  the  sides  of  the  vessel  in 
suull  points  formed  of  concen'ric  circles. 
A\  lien  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  blowpipe  on 
a  spoon  of  platinum,  it  first  melts,  then  be 
iv>  neb  pulverulent,  and  at  last  sublimes  en- 
tirely with  a  smell  resembling  tlial  of  sebacic 
acid. 


s  u  n 

Tt  is  not  altered  by  oxygen  gas:  the  olhe 
acids  do  not  dissolve  it  comiik-lely.  Alcoho 
developes  an  aromatic  od'jur,  and  an  ether 
may  be  obtained  by  means  ol  this  acid. 

It  converls  the  blue  co'our  of  nitral  of  cop- 
per to  a  green  ;  the  sulphat  of  copper  also 
to  a  green  ;  gwen  sulphat  of  iron  to  a  deep 


s  u  r. 

SUBSIDY,  in  law,  signifies  an  aid  of  tat 
granted  to  tlie  king,  bv  parliam>'iit,  for  the 
necessary  occasions  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  is 
to  be  levied  on  every  subject  of  ability,  ao 
cording  to  the  rate  cm-  value  of  his  lands  or 
goods ;  but  this  word,  in  some  of  cur  statutes, 
iiconloundcd  with  that  of  customs. 


.-How  ;  and  sulphat  of  ^inc  to  a  golds-'ii  yel 
low. 

It  has  no  action  either  on  platinum,  gold,  or 
nickel ;  but  it  oxidizes  r.ilve  ■,  ini-rcury,  cojip'T, 
lead,  tin,  iron,  bismuth,  arsenic,  cobalt,  zinc, 
antimony,  manganese,  and  molybtleiium. 

With  alkalies,  earths,  ar.d  metallic  oxides, 
it  forms  compounds  known  by  the  name  of 
suberats. 

Its  affinities  are  as  follows : 
Barytes, 
Po  ■  as-s, 
Soda, 
l.ime, 
AmiHoiiia, 
Magnesia, 
Alumina. 

SUBLIMATION,  a  process  by  which 
certain  volatile  s.bstances  are  raised  by  heat, 
ami  again  condensed  by  co'd  in  a  solid  form. 
I'lowcrs  of  suipliur  are  made  in  this  v.ay. 
Soot  is  also  an  instance  of  sublimation.  See 
(.'he.mistry. 

SL'BXOUM.VL,  in  geometry,  is  a  line 
which  determines  the  point  in  the  axis  of  a 
curve,  where  a  normal,  or  peri)en;licular, 
raised  from  the  point  or  contact  of  a  t;;ngent 
to  the  curve,  cuts  the  axis.  Or  the  subnorm- 
al is  a  line  wliich  determines  the  point  where- 
in the  axis  is  cut  by  a  line  falling  perpendicu- 
larly on  tlie  tangent  in  the  point  of  the  con- 
tact. 

SUBPQ'.XA,  is  a  writ  bv  which  all  persons 
under  the  degree  of  peerage  are  called  into 
chancers,  in  such  case  only  where  the  com- 
mon law  fails,  and  has  made  no  provisions  ;  so 
as  the  party  who  in  ct|uily  has  wrong,  can 
have  no  other  remedy  bvthe  rules  and  course 
of  common  hw.  But  tlie  peers  of  the  realm 
in  such  ca  es  are  called  by  the  lord  chancel- 
lofs,  or  lord  keeper's  letteis,  giving  notice  of 
the  suit  intended  against  them,  and  requiring 
them  to  appear.  'I'here  is  also  a  subpa-na  ad 
testilicanduin  for  the  suinmoning  of  witnesses 
■as  well  in  cluuicery  as  other  Cinirts. 

There  is  also  a  subpiKir^  in  the  exchequer, 
as  well  in  the  court  of  equity  there,  as  in  the 
olVue  of  pleas. 

SUBROGAIION,  or  Surrogatton,  in 
the  civil  law,  the  act  of  sul)^t;tuling  a  per-on 
in  the  place,  and  entitling  him  to  the  riglits, 
of  aii;ither  ;  but,  in  it>  general  sense,  subroga- 
tion implies  a  succession  of  any  kind,  whe- 
ther of  a  person  to  a  person,  or  of  a  i)e  son  to 
a  thing.  There  are  two  kinds  of  subroga- 
tion, the  one  conventional,  the  other  legal. 
Conventional  subrogation  is  a  contract, 
whereby  a  creditor  transfers  his  debt,  wiLli  all 
appurtenances  llu-reof,  to  the  profit  of  a  third 
person.  Legal  subrogation  is  tiiat  which  the 
law  makes,  in  favour  of  a  person  who  dis- 
charges an  antecedint  creditor,  in  wITu  h  case 
there  is  a  leg-al  translation  of  all  rights  of  the 
antient  creditor  to  the  person  of  the  new  one. 
This  the  civilians  more  usually  call  succes- 
sion, as  being  wholly  the  work' of  the  law; 
and  to  .ti  .tinguis'i  i  fo.n  the  conventional 
subrogation,  which  they  also  callceosion. 


Sl'BSISTKNCE,  in  the  military  art, is  the 
money  pa.id  to  the  soldiers  wrtkly,  not 
amounting  to  their  full  pay;  becau^^e  their 
clothes,  accoulrv-ments,  tents,  bread.  Sec.  are 
to  be  [jaid.  It  is  likewise  the  money  paid  to 
officers  upon  account,  till  their  accounts  are 
made  up,  which  is  generally  once  a  year,  and 
thi;n  tlipy  are  paid  their  arrears. 

SUBS  rnU  IION,  in  the  civil  law,  a  dis- 
position of  a  testahient,  w  hereby  tlie  testator' 
sub.^titutes  one  Iieir  for  another,  wlio  has  only 
the  usuhnit,  and  r.ot  the  property  ot  the 
thing  left  him.  Substitution  is  only  a  kind  of 
liduciary  inheritance,  called  also  tidei  com- 
missio,  in  regard  the  immcui.tte  inheritor  has 
only  the  use  or  produce  of  the  thing;  the 
body  thereof  being  substitufcd  and  appropri- 
ated to  certain  persons,  who  are  likewise  to 
have  the  usufruil  in  tlietr  turns,  but  are  never 
to  have  the  propert-y. 

SuBSTiTUTioMf  ill  algebra,  &c.  is  flie 
putting,  in  the  room  of  auy  quantity  in  an 
equation,  some  other  (jiiaiititv,  which  is  equal 
to  it,  but  exjjre.'Sed  In  another  manner. 

SUIiTANvJENT  of  a  curv; ,  in  the  high- 
er geometry,  is  the  line  which  dutermiiies  the 
inler.section  of  the  tangent  with  the  axis  ;  or, 
that  determines  the  point  wherein  the  tan- 
gent cuts  the  axis  prolonged. 

IrTany  equation,  if  the  value  of  the  suP- 
tangent  comes  out  positive,  it  is  a  sign  that 
the  points  of  intersection  of  the  tangent  and 
axis  fall  on  that  side  of  the  ordinate  w  here  the 
vertex  of  the  curve  line  lies,  as  in  the  para- 
bola and  paraboloids:  but  if  it  com^-s  oit  ne- 
gative, the  point  of  intersection  will  fall  on 
the  conti'ary  side  of  the  ordinate,  in  respect 
of  the  vertex,  or  beginning  of  the  abscissa  ; 
asin  the  hypediola  and  hvperbolitbrm  figures. 
And  uiiivei>ally,  in  all  par.iboliform  and  hy- 
perboliform  figures,  the  subtangent  is  equal 
to  th.'  expoiiei.t  ol  tiv;- power  of  the  ordinate, 
multiplied  into  tiie  abscissa. 

If  CB  is  an  ordinate  to  AB,  in  any  given 
angle,  terminating  in  anv  curve  AC,  and  AB 
=;  .V,  EC  =r  V,  and  the  relation  between  .v  and 
V,  that  is,  the  nature  of  the  curve,  is  expressed 
by  this  equation,  > '  _  2v-  y  -1-  i vv  —  bh\  -f-  <vy 
—  V '  =:;  O ;  then  this  will  be  the  rule  of  drawing 
a  tangent  to  it :  miltiplv  the  terms  of  the  equa- 
tion by  an  arithmetical  pr.igression  ;  suppose, 
according  to  the  uimensioiis  of  _r. 

X '  —  '2\xy  -j-  b\x  —  Lbx  ■\-  />yy  —  j-  ; 

0         1  O  O  U  3 

as  also  accordlni:;  to  the   (ilmcnsions  of  x. 


v'  —  2\-.vy  -|^  ^-V 


ii.v  -|-  hy  —  y' :   the 

1        6        o 

former  product  shall  be  the  numerator,  and 
tlic  latter,  divided  by  .v,  the  denominator,  of  a 
fraction  expressing  the  lennih  of  the  subtangent; 
which,  in  this  case,  will  "he 

—  2\xy  -\-  'Zbyy  —  .Ty' 
"~  3  v.v  —  4xy  4-  S^A-  —  hb' 

SUBTliNSE,  in  geometvy,  the  same  with 
the  chord  of  an  arch.     Sec  Chord. 

Hence,  the  subtense  of  an  angle  is  a  right 
line  supposed  to  be  thaw n  between  the  two 
extremities  of  the  arch  that  measures  that 
angle. 


sue 

SURTT^ACTION.      Sec   Ariihmftic, 

aiul  ALGI'.iiKA. 

SUB(.'[.AKIA,  rniigh-lcnrcd  cti/ssnn,  or 
a'x:v:ort,  u  geiuis  of  jji.intb  bfloiiging  to  tlie 
class  of  tetradynamia,  and  order  ol  >ilK-ulosa  ; 
and  in  the  natural  order  ranking  iiuder  tiie 
3yib  order,  sili(Hios;e.  'I'lie  silicula  is  entire 
and  ov;'.te  ;  tlie  valves  are  ovate,  concave, 
and  contrary  to  the  paititions.  '^I'lie  style  is 
slio:li'r  tlian  tiie  sijicula.  There  is  onl}  one 
s|)ccies,  llie  a{|naiica,  which  is  a  native  of 
liiilain. 

bilBl'LATED.     SeeHoTANV. 

SUCCINATS,  salts  formed  with  the  suc- 
cinic acid,  which  see. 

SUCCINIC  ACri).  Amber  is  a  well- 
known  hrown,  trunspuient,  inllaniiiiable  body, 
))rilty  bard,  and  susceptible  of  pjli.h,  found 
at  some  depth  in  liie  earth,  and  ok  t'le  sea- 
coa^l  of  several  countries.  It  was  in  high  es- 
(inialion  among  the  antients  both  as  au  orr.a- 
inent  and  a  medicine.  When  this  substance 
is  rli, tilled,  a  volatile  salt  is  obtained,  which  is 
•  iiicntioiied  by  Agricola  under  the  name  of 
salt  of  amber;  but  its  nature  was  long  un- 
known. Bo)le  was  the  hist  who  discovered 
(bat  it  was  an  acid.  Krom  succiuum,  (lie 
Latin  name  of  amber,  this  acid  has  received 
the  appellation  of  succinic  acid. 

1.  It  is  obtained  bv  the  fol lowing  process; 
Fill  a  retort  half-way  with  powdered  amber, 
and  cover  the  powder  with  a  quantitv  of  dry 
sand  ;  lute  on  a  receiver,  and  distil  in  a  sand- 
bath  without  employing  too  nuich  heat. 
There  passes  over  first  an  insipid  phlei^in  ; 
then  a  weak  acid,  which,  according  to  .Scljeele, 
is-tbe  acetic  ;  then  the  succinic  acid  attaches 
itself  to  tl>e  neck  of  the  retort ;  and  if  the  dis- 
tillation is  continued,  there  comes  over  at  last 
a  thick  brnwii  oil,  which  has  an  acid  taste. 

The  succinic  acid  is  at  first  mixed  with  a 
quantity  of  oil.  It  may  be  made  tolerably 
pure  by  diss  living  it  in  hot  water,  and  putting 
upon  the  filtre  a  little  cotton,  previously 
moi.stened  with  oil  of  amber;  this  substance 
retains  mo^t  of  the  oil,  and  allows  the  sobi- 
tioii  to  pass  clear.  Tlie  acid  is  then  to  be 
crystallized  by  a  gentle  evaporation  ;  and  this 
process  is  to  be  repeated  till  the  acid  is  suf- 
liclentlv  pure.  Ciuyton  Morveau  has  disco- 
vered tiiat  it  may  be  madeiiuite  pure  by  dis- 
tilling oil'  it  a  sufficient  (juantity  of  nitric  acid, 
taking  care  not  to  employ  a  heat  strong 
enough  to  sublime  the  succinic  acid. 

2.  The  crystals  of  succinic  acid  are  trans- 
parent, white,  shining,  and  of  a  foliated  tri- 
angul.u',  prismatic  form:  they  have  an  acid 
ta^te,  but  are  nut  corrosive  :  they  redden 
tincture  of  turnsole,  but  have  little  ell'ect  on 
that  of  violets. 

They  suljlime  when  exposed  to  a  consider- 
able heat,  but  luil  at  the  iieat  of  a  water-bath. 
In  a  sand-bath  tliey  melt,  and  then  sublime 
and  coiKlen-.e  in  the  upper  part  of  the  vessel ; 
but  the  coal  which  remains  shews  that  they 
are  partly,  decomposed. 

3.  One  part  of  this  acid  dissolves  in  9o 
parts  of  water  at  the  temperature  of  jO\  ac- 
cording to  Spieiman;  in  24  parts  at  the  tem- 
perature of  52" ;  and  in  two  parts  of  water  at 
the  temperature  of  212°,  according  to  Stockar 
de  Neuforn  ;  but  the  greatest  part  crystal- 
lizes as  the  water  cools.  According  to  Uoux, 
however,  it  still  retains  more  of  the  acid  than 
cold  water  is  capable  of  disiolvii:g. 


S  U  G 

Two  hundred  and  lorly  grains  of  l)o<ling 
alcohol  di'SoUe  1 77  of  Ib'is  acid;  but  trvi- 
ialsai;aiii  shoot  as  the  solution  cools. 

4  Tlu;  compounds  which  this  acid  forms 
with  alka'ies,  acms,  and  metallic  oxides,  have 
received  tin-  name  of  succnials.  Scarcely 
any  ol  them  have  been  cammed  willi  atten- 
tion. 

5.  When  combined  with  soda,  it  crvsta!- 
li/es  in  four  and  six-sided  prisms.  VVhen 
tliis  salt  is  dislihi.-d  in  a  retoit,  the  succinic 
acid  is  completely  decomposed.  Theie  pass 
over  into  the  receiver  an  acid  iicjuor,  wiiich 
is  the  acetic  much  diluted,  and  a  quantity  of 
brown  oil.  At  tlic  same  time  carbonic  acid 
gas,  and  carbureted  li\drogen  gas,  are  disen- 
gaged, and  there  remain  in  the  retort  soda 
and  charcoal.  Hence  it  follows  that  this  acid, 
like  the  otlicrs  of  the  same  class,  ii  decom- 
posed by  heat,  and  that  it  is  composed  of 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon. 

0.  'J"be  afiinities  of  succinic  acid,  accord- 
ing to  Morveau,  areas  follows: 

Harytes, 

Lime, 

Potass, 

Soda, 

Ammonia, 

Magnesia, 

Alumina, 

Metallic  oxides. 
SrCCINUM.     See  Amber. 
SUDURlinC.     See  Materia  Medica. 
SITFFKKANCR.     Tenant  at  sulTeranceis 
he  who  liolds  over  his  term  at  iirst  lawfully 
granted.     A  person   is  tenant  at  suiVerance  I 
who  continues  after  his  e.state  is  ended,  and  j 
wrongltilly  iiolds  against  another,  &;c.      )  Co.  1 
Inst.  37.  I 

Tenants  holding  over,  after  determination 
of  th-ir  term,  and  after  demand  made  in  writ- 
ing to  deliver  possession,  are  rendered  liable  I 
to  pay  doul)le  the  yearly  value.     And  tenants  ' 
giving  notice  of  their  intention  to  quit,  and  i 
not   accordingly  delivering  up  the  possession  j 
at  the  lime  in  Mich  notice  contained,  are  ran-  I 
(lered  liable  to  pav  double  rent.     And  it  has  I 
been  held,  that  under  this  act,  the   notice  \ 
need  not  be  in  writing,  and  that  the  landlord 
may  levy  his  double  rent  by  distress.     Bur. 
I6l)3. 

SUGAR,  which  at  present  firms  so  im- 
|)Ortant  an  article  in  our  fo.)d,  seems  to  h:ive 
bt en  known  at  a  very  earlv  period  to  the  in- 
habitants of  India  and  China.  But  Europe 
probably  owes  its  aci.|uainlance  with  it  to  the 
coiKiuests  of  Alexander  the  Great.  For  ages 
after,  its  introduction  into  the  VVest,  it  was 
used  only  as  a  medicine  ;  but  its  consumption 
gr;»dually  increased :  and  during  the  time  of 
the  crusarles,  the  Venetians,  who  brought  it 
from  the  East,  and  distributed  it  to  the  north- 
ern parts  of  Elurope,  carried  on  a  lucrative 
commerce  with  su^ar.  It  was  not  till  a'ter 
the  discovery  of  America,  and  the  extensive 
cultivation  of  sugar  in  the  \\  est  Indies,  tiiat 
its  use  in  Europe,  as  an  article  of  food,  became 
general. 

Sugar  was  fbrnie'ly  manufactured  in  the 
southern  parts  of  Europe  ;  but  at  present  al- 
most all  our  sugar  comes  irom  the  East  and  West 
Indies.  The  plant  from  which  it  is  procured 
is  the  saccharum  oiificinarum  (see  S.accha- 
rum),  or  sug-ar-cane.  Other  plants  indeed 
contain  it,  but  not  in  such  abundance.      In 


s  u  o  727 

North  America,  however,  it  is  extracted  from 
llje  acer  sacchaiiniim,  or  sugar-maple.  At- 
tempts have  been  lately  made  to  extract  it 
Irom  the  beet. 

J  'I  he  method  of  making  sugar  practised 
in  Indo>tanisexcee(lingly  simple, and  lequiies 
little  or  no  expensive  apparatus.  '  The  soil 
chosen  is  a  ricli  vegel.ibic  mould,  in  such  a 
aituation  that  it  can  be  easily  watered  fionj 
a  riviM-.  About  the  end  of  .May,  wlun  llie 
soil  is  reduced  to  the  'tate  of  soil  mud  either 
by  rain  orarlilicial  watering,  slip.^  of  the  cane, 
containing  one  or  two  joints,  are  planted  in 
rows  about  lour  ieet  Irom  row  to  low,  and 
eighteen  inches  asuiKler  in  the  rows.  \Vhen 
they  have  grown  to  the  height  of  two  or  three 
inches,  the  earth  rotaid  them  is  loosened. 
Iji  August  small  trenches  are  cut  through  the 
field  to  drain  olC  the  rain,  it  the  season  proves 
too  rainy,  and  to  water  the  plants  if  the  sea- 
son proves  too  dry.  From  three  to  six 
canes  spring  from  each  slip  set.  AVhen  they 
are  about  tinee  feet  high,  the  lower  leaves 
ol  each  caneaie  careiuHy  wrapt  rouEd  it; 
and  then  then  hole  belonging  to  each  slip  are 
tied  to  a  .'trong  bamboo  eight  or  ten  feet 
high,  and  stuck  into  the  earth  in  the  middle 
of  them.  Tlieyarecut  in  January  and  Fe- 
bruary, about  9  months  after  the  time  of  plant- 
ing. They  hav^.•  nov.-  reached  the  height  of 
eight  or  ten  feet,  and  the  naked  cane  is  from 
an  inch  to  an  incli  and  a  quarter  in  diameter. 
They  have  not  llowered.  VVhen  this  hap- 
pens, the  juice  loses  much  of  its  sweetness. 
Tile  canes  aie  now  put  through  the  rollers  of  a 
mill,  and  their  juice  collected  into  large  iroa 
boilers  ;  where  it  is  boiled  down  smartly  to  a 
proper  consistence,  the  scum  being  carelessly 
taken  oil'.  The  (ire  is  then  withdrawn,  aiul 
the  liiiuid  by  cooling  becomes  thick.  It  is 
then  stirred"  about  with  slicks  till  it  begins  to- 
take  the  iorm  of  sugar  ;  when  it  is  put  in  mats 
made  of  the  leave"  of  the  paimira-tree  (bo- 
rassus  rtatH-ilitormis),  and  the  stirring  conti- 
nued till  It  is  cold.  'I  liis  process  yields  a  raw 
or  powdere.lsugar  ;  but  it  is  clammy,  and  apt 
to  attract  moi-lure  from  the  atmosphere,  be- 
cause the  acids  in  t!ie  juice  have  not  been  re- 
nioved.  By  the  addition  of  tpiicklime  to  the 
juice,  in  the  proportion  of  about  three  »poon- 
fulslo  every  14  gallons,  the  sugar  loses  this 
P'opecty.  The  impure  sugar  prepared  by 
tills  method  is  called  jagary.  livery  three 
<piarts  of  juice,  or  every  six  pounds,  yields 
aboutoiie  pound  of  sugar.  From  an  acre  of 
ground  about  jOOO  pounds  of  sugar,  and  con- 
sequently about  30,000  pounds  of  juice,  art 
obtained. 

2.  In  tiip  'Wist  India  islands  the  raising  of 
sugar  is  much  more  expensive,  and  the  pro- 
duce much  less,  owing  to  the  high  price  of  la- 
bour; or,  which  is  tiie  same  thmg,"  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  labourers,  and  to  the  inferiority  of 
the  soil.  'I'he  jui<-e  is  i)ut  into  large  boilers, 
mixed  with  quicklime,  and  boiled  to  a  proper 
coii'.i'itencN  ;  tlie  scum  in  the  mean  time  bein" 
cai  elully  taken  oil',  \\hen  it  ceases  to  be 
ropy,  It  is  drawn  oll'intoaiiother  vessel,  where 
it  is  allowed  to  concrete,  and  the  liquid  and 
impure  part  called  molasses  to  separate  from 
it.  The  more  completely  this  separation  is 
allowed  to  be,  the  riner  is  the  sugar.  The  su- 
gar thus  obtained  is  in  small  hard  grains  of  a 
broivnisii-while  colour,  and  is  imported  to 
Europe  under  the  name  of  raw  sugar. 

3.  In  North  America  the  farmers  piociire 
sugar  for  their  own  use  by  a  still  simpler  pr*- 


-28 

ce>?,  fro,n\  Ihesap  of  the  acer  saccliariinim,  or 
siffar  mapie-tree,  whicli aboiiiuls  in tlie woods. 
(See  Acer.)  Evefy  t'ovtv  poiiiuls  of  sap 
1  ields  about  a  pound"  of  su'gar  ;  so  that  it  is 
iiot  one  sixth  so  rich  as  tlie  East  India  sugar- 
cane. 

The  sap  ought  never  to  be  kept  longi-r  th:in 
twentv-four  hours  after  it  is  procured  froir. 
the  tree.  It  is  improved  by  straining  through 
a  cloth.  It  is  put  into  'large  tlat  kettles, 
mWed  usually  with  quicklime,  while  of  egg, 
and  new  milk.  A  spoonful  of  slacked  lune, 
the  white  of  one  egg,  and  a  pint  of  new  milk, 
are  sufficient  for  lilteen  gallons  of  sap.  A  hule 
butter  is  added  to  prevent  the  sap  Ironi  boil- 
iu^'over.  When  boiled  down  sufiicienlly,  it 
is  allowed  to  grain,  or  form  into  small  crystals, 
which  constiiute  raw  sugar,  and  then  purified 
in  the  usual  nraiiner. 

4.  Tlie  raw  sugar  imported  into  Europe 
is  still  farther  purined.  It  is  dissolved  in  wa- 
ter, mixed  with  lime,  clarified  by  means  of 
bullock's  bloixl,  boiled  down  to  a  proper  con- 
sisteucv,  skimming  off  the  inipnnties  as  tliey 
rise  to  the  t:ip,  and  then  poured  into  uuglazed 
conical  e;iithen  vessels,  where  it  isalldwed  to 
«rain.  The  point  of  the  cone  is  undermost, 
and  perforated  to  allow  tlie  impurities  to  se- 
parate. The  base  of  the  cone  is  covered  with 
moist  clay  ;  tiit;  water  of  which  gradually  fil- 
(res  through  the  sng;ir,  and  displaces  a  quan- 
tity of  impure  rupr.cl.  The  sugar  thus  puritied 
is  called  loaf-sugar.  When  redissolved,  and 
treated  in  the  same  way  a  second  time,  it  it 
called  refined  sugar. 

5.  Sugar,  thus  procured,  has  a  very  strong 
sweet  taste.  \\  hen  pure  it  has  no  smell.  Its 
colour  is  white;  and  when  crystallized  it  is 
somewhat  transparent.  It  has  olten  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  hardness  :  but  it  is  always 
so  brittle  that  il  can  be  reduced  wilhout  dif- 
ficulty to  a  very  fine  powder.  VVhi-n  two 
pieces  of  sugar  are  rubbed  against  each  otiier 
in  the  dark,  a  strong  phosphorescence  is  vi- 
sible. 

Sugar  is  not  altered  by  exposure  to  the  at- 
mosphere, excepting  only  tliat  in  damp  air  it 
absorbs  a  little  moisture. 

It  is  exceedingly  soluble  in  water.  At  the 
temperature  of  48^  water,  according  to  Mr. 
Wenzel,  dissolves  its  own  weight  of  sugar. 
The  solvent  power  of  water  increases  with  its- 
temperature ;  when  nearly  at  the  boiling 
pofnt,  it  is  capable  of  dissolving  any  quantity 
of  s:igar  whatever.  Water  thus  saturated 
with  sugar  is  known  by  the  name  of  syrup. 

Syrup  is  thick,  ropy,  and  very  adhesive  ; 
when  spread  thin  upon  paper  it  soon  dries,  and 
forms  a  kind  of  varnish,  w'licli  is  easily  re- 
moved by  water,  its  specific  caloric,  accord- 
ing to  the  experiments  of  Ur.  Crawford,  is 
1 .086.  When  svru|)  is  sufliciently  concen- 
traied,  the  sugar  "which  it  contains  precipitates 
in  crvslals.  The  primitive  form  of  these 
crystals  is  a  four-sided  prism,  whose  base  is 
a  rhomb,  the  length  of  which  is  to  its  breadth 
a-,  10  to  7  ;  and  whose  height  is  a  mean  pro- 
portion between  length  and  breadth  of  the 
base.  The  crystals  are  tisually  four  or  six- 
sided  prisms,  terminated  hf  two-sided,  and 
somctinies  by  three-.sided  summits.  The  spe- 
cific gravity  of  sugar  is  l.404j. 

When  heat  Is  applied  to  sugar  it  melts, 
fwclls,  becomes  brownish  black,  emilsair-btib- 
ble*,  and  c.\hali.-s  a  peculiar  smell,  known  in 


SUGAR. 

Frentli  by  the  name  of  caromel.  At  a  red 
heat  it  inslantiv  bursts  into  ilames  with  a  kind 
of  explosion.  'I'he  colour  of  the  llame  is  white 
with  blue  edges. 

(y.  Sugar,  as  far  as  is  known,  is' not  acted 
upon  bV^oxygen  gas.  The  ell'ect  of  the  sim- 
ple coiiibuslibles  on  it  Has  not  been  tried ; 
hut  it  does  not  appear  to  be  great.  Azotic 
gas  or  tlie  metals  iuve  no  sensible  actions  on 
it. 

The  lower  compartment  of  Plate  Saw-mill, 
&c.  represents  a  mill  for  squeezing  flie  juice 
fromlhesugar-canes.  AI5I)K  is  a  sirong'irame 
of  wood,  till.'  lower  part  D  of  which  is  a  large 
block  :  the  upper  surtace  of  this  is  cut  out  uuo 
a  bason,  to  collect  and  receive  the  juice  of  the 
canes;  which  is  expressed  by  the  three  rollers 
KGH,  whose  lower  pivols  work  in  sockets  in 
the  block  U,  and  the  upper  sockets  are  fixed 
in  the  beam  E.  The  sockets  of  tlie  middle 
roller  are  lixed  firmly  in  the  beams  D  and  E. 
The  sockets  of  the  otiier  two  are  held  between 
two  wedges  al>,  put  in  in  contrary  directions, 
the  small  end  of  one  wedge  being  on  the 
same;  side  with  the  large  end  of  the  other.  By 
this  means  the  rollers  can  always  be  set  near- 
er together,  or  liirther  from  each  other. 
When  it  is  wanted  to  set  the  outside  rolkrs 
nearer  the  middle  roller,  drive  out  that 
Wedge  which  is  nearest  the  n-.iddle  roller,  and 
drive  the  other  in;  ;.nd  the  contrary  when 
they  are  w.mted  farther  apart.  The  rollers 
are'usuallv  of  cast  iron,  and  each  has  a  cog- 
wlieel,  as'l,  on  its  upper  end,  which  causes 
them  ail  to  turn  together,  the  power  of  the 
first  mover  being  applied  to  the  middle  one 
by  a  shaft  K. 

W'hen  the  machine  is  at  work,  a  man 
stands  on  each  side  of  it.  The  one  in  the 
front  takes  the  canes,  and  puts  them  in  be- 
tween the  rollers  FG,  which,  as  they  turn, 
draw  the  cane.s  through,  and  exjjress  their 
juice.  The  man  behind  them  directs  the 
ends  of  the  canes  backbetweeii  the  rollersGH, 
which  are  somewhat  nearer  together  than  the 
others;  and  as  they  come  through,  a  third 
man  carries  them  away.  The  juice  runs 
down  the  rollers  into  the  reservoir,  and  is  con- 
veyed by  the  trough  L  to  the  boiling-hoiise. 
It  'must  be  observed,  that  the  reservoir  in  the 
top  of  the  block  D  must  be  only  cut  in  chan- 
nels round  the  outside  of  the  "rollers  ;  being 
left  the  full  height  near  the  centres,  to  pre- 
vent the  liquor  running  down,  and  getting 
out  between  the  wedges  ub. 

When  a  sugar-mill  is  worked  by  wind,  the 
shaft  K  is  <-oiiiiected  with  the  vertical  shaft  of 
the  mill.  If  by  horses,  the  levers  they  work 
from  arc  fixed  to  the  shaft  K ;  and  either  the 
horse-walk  is  raised  above  ground  higher  than 
the  trough  L,  or  the  juice  is  conveyed  by  a 
pijje  laid  under  the  walk. 

Sugar-mills  that  are  worked  by  a  water- 
wheel,  or  steam-engine,  have  a  bevelled 
wheel  iixed  upon  the  shaft  K,  and  another 
upon  the  wheel  or  engine  shaft  which  turns  it. 

The  earths  proper  do  not  seem  to  have  any 
action  whatevei-  onsni^nr;  but  the  alkaline 
earths  unite  with  it.  Wlien  lime  is  added  to 
a  solution  of  sugar  in  water,  and  tlie  mixture 
boiled  for  some  time,  a  combination  takes 
place.  The  liquid  still  indecil  retains  its 
sweet  taste;  but  it  has  acquireil  also  a  bitter 
aud  astringent  one.  A  little  alcohol  a<lded  to 
the  solution  produced  a  precipitate  in  white 
Hakes,  which  appeared  to  be  a  conqiound  of  su- 


gar and  limo.  Sulphuric  acid  precipitated  the 
hine  in  the  state  ot  sulphat,  and  restored  the 
original  taste  of  the  sugar.  When  the  com- 
pound of  sugar  and  lime  was  evaporated  fo 
dryness,  aseniilransparenttenacious  syrup  re- 
mained which  had  a  rough  bitter  taste,  with  a 
certain  degree  of  sweetness. 

The  fixed  alkalies  combine  with  sngar,  and 
form  compounds  not  Unlike  that  which  has 
been  ju>t  described.  Potass  destroys  the  sweet 
taste  of  syrup  more  conip  etely  tiiaiilime; 
but  when  it  is  neulvalizod  by  sulphuric  acid, 
and  the  sulphat  piecipitateel  by  alcjhol,  the 
sweet  taste  is  conqiietely  restored.  Wlien 
alcohol  is  agitated  with  the  compound  of  su- 
gar and  potass  dissolved  in  water,  it  refuses  to 
unite  with  it,  but  swims  on  tlie  top  in  a  state  of 
purity. 

The  acids  are  capable  of  dissolving  sugar, 
and  those  which  are  concentrated  decom- 
pose it.  '  Sulphuric  acid  very  soon  acts  upon 
it ;  water  is  formed,  and  perhaps  also  acetis 
acid  ;  wliile  charcoal  is  evolved  hi  great  abun- 
dance, and  gives  tlic  mixture  a  black  colour, 
and  a  considerable  degree  of  consistency. 
The  charcoal  may  be  easily  separated  by  di- 
lution and  filtration.  When  heat  is  applied, 
the  sulphuric  acid  is  rapidly  converted  into 
sulphureous  acid. 

Nitric  aciddissolves  itwith  anelTervesceiice, 
occasioned  by  the  evolution  of  nitrous  gas, 
and  converts  it  into  malic  and  o.xalic  acids. 
480  grains  of  sugar,  treated  with  six  ounces 
of  nitric  acid  diluted  with  its  own  weight 
of  water,  and  cautiously  heated,  sejjarat- 
ing  the  cryslals  as  they  formed,  yielded 
2S0  grains  'of  oxalic  acid';  so  that  100  parts 
of  sugar  yield  by  this  treatment  58  parts  of 
oxalic  aciil.  Wiien  liquid  oxymuriatic  aci<l 
is  poured  upon  sugar  in  powder,  it  isdissolved. 
and  immedii-.tely  converted  into  malic  acid  ; 
and  the  oxymuriatic  iicid  is  converted  int,o 
common  muriatic  acid. 

Sugar  absorbs  muriatic  acid  gas  slowly,  and 
assumes  a  brown  colour  and  very  strong 
smell.  The  vegetable  acids  dissolve  it  ;  but 
seemingly  without  producing  any  alteration 
on  it. 

The  action  of  the  oxides  of  carbon  and 
azole  upon  sugar  has  scarcely  been  exa- 
mined. 

Sugar  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  not  in  so 
large  a  proportion  as  in  water.  According 
to  Wenzel,  four  parts  of  boiling  alcohol  dis- 
solve one  of  sugar.  It  unites  reailily  with  cils, 
and  renders  them  miscible  witli  water.  A 
moderate  quantity  of  it  jirevents,  or  at  least 
retaifls,  the  coagulation  of  milk  ;  but  Scheele 
discovered  Ihat  a  very  large  quantity  of  su- 
gar causes  milk  to  coagulate. 

The  hydrosulphurets,  sulphurets,'and  phos- 
phurels  of  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  seem 
to  have  the  property  of  decomposing  suc;ar, 
and  of  bringing  it  to  a  state  not  very  dillerent 
li-om  that  of  gum.  -Mr.  C'ruickshank  intro- 
duced a  quantity  of  syrup  into  a  jar  standing 
over  mercury,  and  then  added  about  an  ecpial 
quantity  of  pliosphuret  of  lime.  Phosphu- 
reted  hydroifen  gas  was  immediately  extri- 
cated. In  eidit  days  the  syrup  was  with- 
drawn :  it  hacl  lost  its  sweet  taste,  and  ac- 
quired a  bitter  and  astringent  one  (the  taste  of 
phosphuretof  lime).  From  this  solution  alco- 
hol threw  down  white  flakes,  very  much  re- 
sembling those  of  mucilage  separated  from 
water  Ijy  the  same  liquid.     A  little  sugar  was 


M'?    SMAR'I'S    ^AW   MILJL 


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Sugar,    miljl 


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fwria'tuf  ^ii^ichme 


IW/iffi/  tor  Richaiff  i'Iiiliii»s,.Vrii'  liriiioe  .'ftnrtMhn-Jetriar.r 


S  U  G 

ilissoKi'd  in  alcoliol,  and  iiliosjjhiiret  of  lime 
■acliled  to  it.  No  ;ii);)ar(.Mit  action  took  place. 
Tiie  mixture,  aftci-  standiii;;  in  the  oneii  air 
for  some  (lays,  was  evaporated,  and  water 
added.  No  ijas.was  disengaged,  as  the  plios- 
phnret  had  lieen  converted  into  a  phospliat. 
J'he  liquid  being  filtred  and  evaporated,  a  te- 
ir.icioiis  n))stance  remained,  mncli  n'soniblinf; 
glim  ar.i!)ic.  Its  taste  was  bitter,  with  a  slight 
degree  ol'sweetness..  It  did  not  seem  soluble 
in  alcohol.     It  binned  like  gnm. 

7.  When  sugar  is  distilled  in  a  retort,  there 
comes  overu  liuid  which  at  first  sciircely  dif- 
fers from  |)iire  water  ;  soon  it  is  mixe<l  with 
what  was  formerly  called  pyromucous  aciti, 
and  is  now  known  to  be  a  compound  of  oil 
and  ac!  tic  acid  ;  'afterwards  some  empyren- 
iniitic  oil  makes  its  appearance,  and  a  bulky 
cii.ircoal  remains  in  liie  retort.  This  char- 
coal very  frequently  contains  lime,  because 
lime  is  used  in  relining  sugar ;  but  iflhe  sugar, 
before  being  submitted  to  di-^tillation,  is  <lis- 
so'ved  in  water,  and  made  to  crystallize  by 
evaporation  in  a  temperature  scarcely  higher 
llvan  lliatuf  the  atmosphere,  no  iiinewhatever, 
nor  any  thing  else,  except  pure  charcoal,  will 
be  found  in  the  retort.  During  the  distilla- 
tion, there  conies  over  a  considerable  quantity 
of  carbonic  acid  and  carbureted  hydrogen  gas. 
Sugar  therefore  is  decomposed  by  the  action 
of  heat ;  and  the  following  compounds  are 
formed  from  it :  water,  acetic  acid,  oil,  char- 
coal, carbonic  acid,  carbureted  hydrogen  gas. 
The  quantity  of  oil  in  a  separate  state  is  incon- 
siderable ;  by  far  the  most  abundant  product 
is  pyromucous  acid.  Sugar  indeed  is  very  rea- 
dily converted  into  pyromucous  acid  ;  for.it 
makes  its  appearance  always  whene\'er  syrup 
is  raised  to  the  boiling  temperature.  Hence 
the  smell  of  caromelv.hich  syrup  at  tliattempe- 
ratureemits.  Hence  also  the  reason,  that, when 
we  attempt  to  crystallize  syrup  by  heat,  there 
always  remains  behind  aqu.TOtity  of  incrystal- 
lizable  matter,  known  by  the  name  of  mo- 
lasses :  whereas  if  the  syrup  is  crystallized  witli- 
out  artilicial  he.it,  every  particle  of  sugar  may 
be  obtained  from  it  in  a  crystalline  form. 
Hence  we  see  the  importance  of  properN  re- 
.giilating  the  fire  during  the  crystallization  of 
the  sugar,  a}Kl  the  saving  that  would  probably 
result  from  conducting  the  operation  at  a  lov,' 
heat. 

We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Criiikshank  for  the 
niost  precise  set  of  experiments  on  the  de- 
conq:  isition  of  sugar  by  heat.  480  grains  of 
pure  sugar  were  introduced  into  a  coated  re- 
tort, and  heated  gradually  to  redness.  The 
[iroducts  were 

Pyromucous  acid  with  a  drop  or 

two  of  oil        -         -         CTO  grains 

Charcoal        -         -         -         120 

Carbureted  hydrogen,  and  carbo- 
nic acid  gas    -        -  90 

4S0 
T  he  pyromucous  acid  required  about  75 
grains  of  a  solution  of  potass  to  saturate  it; 
and  w  hen  tliijs  neutralized,  no  anunonia  was 
di-.fngagedK  itience  sugar  contains  no  azote, 
tniless  sfe"  suppose  a  very  minute  portion 
tO'be  present  in  the  pyromucous  acid;  and 
even  lliis  is  not  likely.  The  charcoal  burns 
away  without  leaving  any  residue.  Hence 
sugar  contains  no  earth  nor  lixed  alkali.  The 
proportion  of  the  gaseous  products  was  119 
oinice-meastu-cs  of  carbureted  hvdrogcn,  and 
Vol.  ir.        . 


S  f  G 

41  ounee-mcasurts  of  carbonic  atid  gas.  The 
carbureted  hydrogen,  according  to  the  e.x|;c- 
rimenls  of  Cruikshank,  was  comijosed  of  live 
parts  carbon  and  one  hydrogen. 

These  e.vperiments  arc  sufficient  (o  shew 
US,  that  sugar  is  composed  entin^ly  of  oxygen, 
carbon,  and  hydrogen.  It  is  of  course  a  ve- 
getable oxide,  l^avoiaier  has  concludeil, 
from  a  series  of  experiments  on  the  \inous 
fermentation,  that  these  substances  enter  into 
the  composition  of  sugar  in  the  following 
proportions : 

64  oxygen 

-'S  carbon 
8  hydrog<.-n 

100. 
But  these  proportions  can  oiily   be  con- 
sidered as  very  distant  approximations  to  the 
truth. 

8.  From  (he  experiments  of  differeid  che- 
mists, especially  of  Proust  and  Ciottling,  it 
appears  that  Iheic  are  ditrerent  species  of  su- 
gar found  ready-prepared  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom ;  distinguished  from  each  other  by 
the  figure  of  their  crystals,  and  other  varia- 
tions in  their  projierties.  The  species  hi- 
therto examined  are  three  in  number,  namely, 
coinmon  sugar,  sugar  of  grapes,  and  sugar  of 
beet.  As  far  as  is  known  at  present,  there  is 
no  difference  between  the  sugar  of  the  maple 
and  common  sugar. 

9.  That  grapes  contain  abundance  of  sugar 
has  been  long  known.  The  Du':  deBoullion  tirst 
extracted  it  from  the  juice  of  grapes,  and 
Proust  pointed  out  the  dilference  between  it 
and  common  sugar.  Thejuice  of  grapes,  ac- 
cording to  him,  yielded  from  30  to  40  per 
cent,  of  this  sugar. 

10.  Margrafdiscovered  sugar  in  the  root  of 
the  beta  vulgaris  ;  but  it  is  to  Achard  that  we 
are  indebted  for  the  first  attempts  to  extract 
it  from  that  plant  in  a  large  way.  The  expe- 
riments of  that  philosopher,  of  Lampadius,  of 
the  committee  appointed  by  the  national  in- 
stitute, and  of  Goetlling,  have  thrown  more 
light  on  this  interesting  subject.  The  method 
which  succeeded  best  with  Achard,  was  to 
boil  the  beet-roots  (deprived  of  the  heart)  till 
they  became  so  soft  as  to  be  easily  pierced  by 
a  straw.  They  are  then  cut  into  slices,  and 
the  juice  forced  out  by  pressure.  What  re- 
mains is  left  for  twelve  hours  in  water,  and  the 
whole  subjected  to  the  press  a  second  time. 
The  liquids  thus  obtained  are  filtered  through 
flannel,  boiled  down  to  two-thirds,  filtere(\  a 
second  time,  reduced  by  boiling  to  one-third 
of  the  original  liquid,  filtered  a  third  time,  and 
then  evaporated  to  the  consistence  of  syrup. 
The  crystalline  crust  which  forms  on  the  sur- 
face is  to  be  broken  from  time  to  time,  and 
the  spontaneous  evaporation  continiied  till 
the  surface  becomes  covered  with  a  tou.gh 
coat  instead  of  crystals.  The  whole  is  then 
to  be  thrown  into  woollen  bags,  and  the  mu- 
cilaginous liquid  separated  from  the  ci'ystaU  by 
pressure.- 

The  sugar  obtained  by  these  processes,  has 
mucli  the  appi.-arance  of  raw  sugar ;  but  it 
mav  be  refined  by  the  common  processes, 
and  brought  into  the  slate  of  common  sugar. 
From  the  exporiments   of  Goettling,  it  ap- 


S  U   f. 


721) 


has  shewn  to  be  one  ofthe  coDstiluciils  ol  llie 
beet. 

Jl.  The  plari'  g  su.gar  are  vcrj 

ntunrroii!!.     T  l  are  the  chief  of 

those  from  which  it !,._,  bucn  actually  extract- 
ed by  .chemists: 

The  sap  ofihe  acer  sacchariaum, 
be'.u'.a  alba, 

as'  lepias  syriaca, 

: heraclinm  'iphondiliimi, 

C0C08  nu( :'  .;'•, 

i ji:gj;ms  a  1. .  . 

agave  Amei  icana, 

fucus  saccliaiinus, 

(icus  carica,    , 

Thejuice  of  arundo  saccliarlfera, 

zea  mays. 

The  j'ootbof  paslinaca  saliva, 

sium  sisaruni, 

beta  vulgaris  and  cicla, 

daucus  carota, 

apium  petroselinum. 

Parnientier  has.  also  ascertained,  lh.it 
the  grains  of  wheat,  barley,  &c.  and  all  the 
other  similar  seeds  which  are  used  as  food, 
contain  at  first  a  large  quantity  of  sugar,  v.hicU 
gradually  disappeais  as  they  ajiproach  to  a 
state  of  niatuiity.  This  is  the  case  also  with 
peas  and  beans,  and  all  leguminous  seeds ; 
and  is  one  reason  why  the  flavour  of  young 
peas  is  so  much  superior  to  that  of  old  ones. 

SUIT,  in  law,  is  used  in  different  senses, 
as,  1.  Suit  personal.  2.  Suit  of  court,  or 
suit  service,  is  an  attendance  that  tenants 
owe  to  the  court  of  their  lord.  3.  Suit  cove- 
nant, is  where  the  ancestor  lias  covenanted 
with  another,  to  sue  to  his  court.  4.  Suit 
cu->toin,  when  a  man  and  his  ancesloi's  have 
been  seized  lime  out  of  mind,  of  his  suit. 
5.  Suit  real,  or  regal,  wlien  men  come  to  the 
sheriff  's  torn  or  leet.  5.  Suit  signifies  the 
following  one  in  chase,  as  fresh  suit.  7.  it 
signifies  a  petition  made  to  the  king  or 
any  great  person.     Cowel. 

SUKOTYRO,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of 
the  order  bruta ;  the  generic  character,  liorn 
on  each  side  near  the  eye.s.  There  is  but  a 
single  species,  viz.  the  indicus  •  mane  up- 
right, short,  narrow,  reaching  from  tiie  top  of 
the  head  to  the  rump.  It  mhabits  Java,  and 
feeds  on  herbs. 

SL'LPIIATS,  sails  formed  with  tlie  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  see. 

Sl'LPIirrES,  salts  formed  wltli  the  sul- 
phurous acid,  which  see. 

SULPHUR,  distinguished  also  in  English 
by  the  name  of  brimstone>  was  known  in  the 
e.irliest  ages.  As  it  is  found  native  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  it  could  not  fail  very  soon 
to  attract  the  attention  of  mankind.  It  was 
used  by  the  antienLs  in  medicine,  and  its 
fumes  were  employed  in  bleaching  wool. 
See  Pliny,  Lib.  xxxv.  c.  15. 

I.  Sulphur  is  a  hard  britti-  substance,  com- 
monly of  a  yellow  colour,  without  any  smell, 
and  of  a  weak  though  perceptible  tiste. 

It  is  a  non-co:idjctor  of  eleclricity,  and  of 
course  becomes  electric  by  friction.     Its  spe- 


cific gravity  is  1.990. 

Sulphur  undergoes  no  change  by  being  al- 
lowed to  remain  exp'osed  to  the  open  air, 
pear,  tliat  bell-sugar  is  distinguished  by'u4  When,throvrn  into  water,  it  does  not  mrlt  as 
certain  degree  of  a  nauseous  bitter  taste ;  coir.mon  salt  does,  but  fails  lo  tlie  boUom, 
owing,  it  is  supposed,  to  the  presence  of  a  and  remains  there  unchanged.  It  \i  tiie»t- 
bitter  extractive  matter,  which'  Lampadius  fore  insoluble  in  water. 
4  Z 


730 


S  U  L 


2.  If  a  considerable  pu-ce  of  fiilphur  is  ex- 

Eosed  to  a  siiclJcn  tlioiiJ!li  penile  heat,  liy 
oldiMg  it  in  the  hand,  for  instance,  it  breaks 
to  pieces  with  a  crackling  noise. 

When  sulphur  is  heated  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  aboe.l  170°,  it  rises  up  in  the  form  of 
a  fine  powder,  whicli  may  easily  be  collected 
in  a  proper  veisel.  'I'h'is  powder  is  called 
flowers  or  nilphur.  When  substances  tly  off 
in  this  manner  on  the  application  of  a  mode- 
rate heat,  they  are  called  volatile;  and  the 
process  itself,  'by  which  they  are  raised,  is 
called  volatilisation. 

When  hented  to  the  lemperature  of  212' of 
Fahrenheit's  thermo-.r.eter,  it  melts  and  be- 
comes as  Ikjuid  as  water.  If  this  experi- 
ment is  made  in  a  thin  glass  vessel,  of  an  egg 
shape,  and  having  a  narrow  nioutii,  the  ves- 
sel may  be  placed  upjn  'ourning  coals  without 
much  "ri^k  of  breaking  it.  'I'he  strong  heat 
soon  causes  the  sulphur  to  boil,  and  converts 
it  into  a  brown-coluured  vapour,  which  tills 
the  vessel,  and  issues  with  considerable  force 
out  from  its  mouth. 

3.  Sulphur  is  capable  of  crystallizing,  if  it 
k  melted,  and  as  sion  as  its  surface  begins  to 
congeal,  and  the  liquid  sulphur  beneath  is 
pouredout.the  iiiternalcavity  will  exhibit  long 
needle-shaped  crystals  of  an  octahedral  (igure. 
'i'his  method  of  crystallizing  sulpliur  was  con- 
trived by  Rouelle.  If  the  experiment  is 
inade  in  a  glass  vessel,  or  upon  a  thit  plate  of 
iron,  the  crystals  will  be  perceived  beginning 
to  shoot  when  the  temperature  sinks  to  22ii". 

4.  Ifsulphuriskept  melted  in  an  open  ves- 
sel, it  becomes  gradually  thick  and  viscid. 
When  in  this  state,  if  it  is  poured  into  a  bason 
of  water,  it  will  be  found  to  be  of  a  red  colour, 
and  as  soft  as  wax.  In  this  state  it  is  em- 
ployed to  take  off  impressions  from  seals  and 
medals.  These  casts  are  known  in  this  coun- 
try by  tlie  name  ot  sulphurs.  When  exposed 
to'  the  air  for  a  few  days,  the  sulphur  soon  re- 
covers its  original  brittleness,  but  it  retains 
its  red  colour.  It  is  supposed  at  present,  that 
sulphur,  rendered  viscid  and  red  by  long  fu- 
sion, has  combined  with  a  little  oxygen.  It 
is  therefore  no  longer  pure  sulphur,  but  a 
compound  of  sulpliur  and  oxygen.  Mr. 
Fourcroy  has  given  it,  wlien  in  this  state,  the 
name  of  oxide  of  sulphur. 

5.  When  sulphur  is  lieited  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  500°  in  the  open  air,  it  takes  lire  spon- 
taneously, and  burns  with  a  jiale  blue  (lame, 
and  at  the  same  time  emits  a  great  (juantily  of 
fumes  of  a  verv  strong  sullbcaling  odour. 
^\  hen  set  on  fire  and  then  plunged  into  ajar 
full  of  oxygen  gas,  it  burns  with  a  blight  red- 
tlish  white  llamc,  and  at  the  same  lime  emits 
a  vast  quantity  of  fumes.  If  the  heat  is  con- 
tiuued  long  enough,  the  sulphur  burns  all 
away  without  leaving  any  ashes  or  residuum. 
If  the  fumes  arc  collected,  they  are  lound  to 
consist  entirely  of  sulphuric  acid.  By  com- 
bustion, then,  sulphur  is  converted  into  an 
acid. 

The  combtistion  of  sulphur,  in  fact,  is  no- 
thing else  tl'.an  the  act  of  its  combination  with 
oxygen ;  and  for  any  thing  which  we  know  to 
the  contrary,  it  is  atimple  substance. 

b.  The  aflinities  of  sulphur,  according  to 
fier^iiian,  are  as  follows: 

Fixed  Alkalies. 
Iron,  Antimony, 

Copper,       Mercury, 


S  U  L 

Tin,  Arsenic, 

Lead,  Molybdenum, 

Silver,  liisrmth. 

&ULPHI'  R  KTS  are  combinations  of  alka- 
lies or  metals  with  sulphur. 

SULPHf'RIC  ACID  is  generally  pro- 
cured bv  burning  a  mixture  of  sulphur  and 
nitre  in'  chambers  lined  with  lead.  The 
theory  of  this  process  requires  no  explana- 
tion. The  nitre  supplies  a  quantity  ot  oxy- 
gen to  the  sulphur,  and  the  air  ot  the  atmo- 
sphere furnishes  the  rest.  The  acidjlhus  ob- 
tained is  not  ipiite  pure,  containing  a  little 
potass,  some  lead,  and  perhaps  also  nitric  and 
sulphurous  acids.  At  first  it  is  very  weak, 
being  diluted  with  the  water  necessary  for 
condensing  it;  but  it  is  made  stionger  by 
distilling  off  a  portion  of  this  water.  15y  this 
process  it  is  made  quite  transparent ;  but  it 
still  contains  a  little  lead,  which  it  dissolved 
from  the  vessels  in  which  it  was  manufactur- 
ed, and  a  little  potass  \\  liich  it  acquired  from 
the  nitre  employed  in  burning  the  sulphur. 
To  obtain  it  in  a  state  of  complete  purity,  the 
sulphuric  acid  of  commerce  must  be  distilled. 
This  is  easily  done  by  putting  it  into  a  small 
retort  with  "a  long  be'ak.  The  bottom  of  the 
re' ort  is  placed  upon  a  fire  of  charcoal,  and 
lixed  steady  by  means  of  an  iron  ring;  while 
its  beak  is  "plunged  half-u-ay  into  a  receiver, 
whose  mouth  if  tits  nearly,  but  not  exactly. 
'I'he  acid  soon  boils,  and  is  gradually  con- 
densed in  the  receiver.  Too  great  a  quan- 
tity should  not  be  distilled  at  once,  otherwise 
the  retort  generally  breaks  in  consequence  of 
the  violent  agitation  into  which  the  boiling 
acid  is  thrown. 

Sulphuric  acid  is  a  liquid  somewhat  of  an 
oily  consistence,  transparent  and  colourless  as 
w  Jter,  without  any  smell,  and  of  a  very  strong 
acid  taste.  When  applied  to  animal  or  vege- 
table substances,  it  very  soon  destroys  their 
texture. 

It  always  contains  a  quantity  of  water ;  part 
of  which, "houever,  may  be  driven  off  by  the 
application  of  a  moderate  heat.  This  is  call- 
ed concentrating  the  acid.  When  as  much 
concentrated  as  possible,  its  specific  gravity 
is  said  to  be  2.000  ;  but  it  can  seldom  be  ob- 
tained denser  than  1.85. 

It  changes  all  vegetable  blues  to  a  red  ex- 
cept indigo.  According  to  Erxleben,  it  boils 
at  54(5°;  according  to  Bergman,  at  540°. 

When  exposed  to  a  sullicient  degree  of 
cold,  it  crystallizes  or  freezes;  and  after  this 
has  once  taken  place,  it  freezes  again  by  the 
application  of  a  nuich  inferior  cold.  Sul- 
piiuric  acid  has  a  very  strong  attraction  for 
water. 

Mr.  Lavoisier  attempted  to  ascertain  the 
proportion  of  the  constituents  of  this  acid,  by 
measuring  the  quantity  of  oxygen  absorbed 
by  a  given  weight  of  sulphur  during  its  com- 
bustion. His  result  was  71  parts  of  sulphur, 
and  29  of  oxjgen.  Rut  this  method  was  not 
susceptible  of  suflicient  precision  to  warrant 
much  confidence.  Mr.  Thenard  had  recourse 
to  a  much  better  method,  which  was  em- 
|)k)yed  still  more  lately  for  the  same  purpose 
by  Mr.  Chenevix  with  much  address.  Nitric 
acid  was  distilled  off  100  parts  ol  pure  sulphur 
repeatedly,  till  the  whole  sulphur  was  con- 
verted into  an  acid.  The  sulphuric  acid,  thus 
formed,  was  separated  by  means  of  barytes, 
with  which  it  forms  an  insoluble  compound. 


S  U  L 

The  100  parts  of  sulpiuir,  lluis  acidified, 
yielded  t)94  parts  of  dry  sulpiiat  of  barvles. 
ileiue  100  parts  of  sulphat  of  barytes  con- 
tain 14.5  parts  of  sulphur,  liy  another  set  of 
experiments,  to  be  described  hereafter,  Mr. 
Chenevix  ascertained,  that  100  parts  of  sui- 
phal  of  barytes  contain  2.i.5  parts  of  sulphu- 
ric acid,  ilence  it  lollous  that  2.3.5  parts  of 
sulphuric  acid  contain  14.5  of  sulphat;  the 
remaining  9  parts  must  be  oxygen.  'I'bere- 
fore  sulphuric  acid  is  composed  of  14.5  parts 
of  sulphur  and  9  of  oxygen  ;  or,  which  is  the 
same  thing,  of  til. 5  sulphur 
38.5  oxygen 

100.0 

Sulphuric  acid  is  not  altered  by  the  ac  'l.sn 
of  light  nor  caloric.  It  does  not  combine  w  itli 
oxygen.  It  was  affirmed,  indeeil,  by  some 
chemists,  that  sulphuric  acid  might  be  com- 
bined with  oxygen  by  distilling  it  olf  the 
black  oxide  of  manganese;  but  the  aserliou 
was  refuted  by  the  experiments  of  Vauciuelin. 

None  of  the  simple  combustibles  act  upon 
it  at  the  usual  temperature  of  tlie  atmos- 
phere, or  at  h-asi ,  their  action  is  so  slow  as  int 
to  be  perceptible.  But  when  they  are  assist- 
ed by  heat,  they  are  all  capable  of  decom- 
posing it. 

When  sulphur  is  boiled  in  Ihb  acid,  it  ab- 
sorbs a  portion  of  its  oxygen,  or  at  least  com- 
bines with  it,  and  the  whole  is  converted  into 
sulphurous  acid.  Pliospliorus  ako  absorbs 
oxygen  from  it  by  the  abslstance  of  heat,  sul- 
phurous acid  is  driven  olf,  and  phosphoric 
acid  formed.  At  the  boiling  temperature 
charcoal  also  absorbs  oxygen  from  it,  and 
converts  it  into  sulphurous  acid.  At  a  red 
heat  it  even  converts  it  into  suliihur.  When 
hydrogen  gas  and  sulphuric  acid  are  made  to 
pass  together  through  a  red-hot  tube  of  porce- 
lain, the  acid  is  completely  decomposed,  wa- 
ter is  formeil,  and  sulphur  deposited. 

Azote  has  no  action  on  sulphuric  acid  ;  but 
this  acid  readily  absorbs  muriatic  acid,  and 
forii.s  with  it  a  liquid  of  a  brownish  tinge, 
which  emits  the  dense  and  sullbcating  odour 
of  muriatic  acid,  and  corrodes  vigetable  and 
even  metallic  bodies  near  which  it  happens  to 
be  placed. 

When  zinc  or  iron  is  thrown  into  sulphuric 
acid,  a  violent  action  takes  place,  if  the  acid 
is  diluted  ;  water  is  decomposed,  its  hydro- 
gen tlies  olT,  and  its  oxygen  combines  with 
the  metals.  If  the  acid  is  concentrated,  the 
action  is  much  less  violent,  and  sulphurous 
acid  exhales.  I'pon  tin  and  copper  the  acid 
acts  very  slowly  and  feebly,  unless  its  action 
is  assisted  by  heat,  when  it  oxidizes  and  dis- 
solves them.'  On  silver,  mercury,  antimony, 
bismuth,  arsenic,  and  tellurium,  it  does  not 
act]exceptati)rettyhigh  temperatures.  I'hese 
metals  abstract  part  of  its  oxygen,  and  con- 
vert one  portion  of  it  into  sulphurous  acid, 
while  another  portion  combines  with  the 
oxides  thus  formed.  When  boiling-hot  it  ox- 
idizes lead,  and  dissolves  cobalt,  nickel,  and 
molybdenum  :  but  it  has  no  perceptible  action 
on  gold  or  platimim  at  any  temperature  to 
which  it  can  be  raised. 

It  unites  readily  with  all  the  alkalies  and 
earths  except  silica,  and  with  most  of  the  me- 
tallic oxides,  and  forms  salts  denominated  snl- 
phats.  Thus  the  combination  of  sul|duir!c 
acid  and  soda  is  called  sulphat  of  soda  ;  the 


s  u  r- 

roiiipo\ind  of  sulpluiiic  acid  and  limp,  sulphal 
oflimL",  &:c. 

It  absorbs  a  very  con^iderible  f|iiniitity  of 
nitrous  gas,  and  acqiiirus  by  that  iiicajis  a 
purplish  colour. 

Its  aflinities  are  as  follows: 

Barytes,  Amnionia, 

Strontian,  (ihuina, 

Potass,  "^  tiria, 

Soda,  AUnnina, 

Lime,  Zircoiiia, 

Magnesia,  Metallic  oxides. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all 
the  acids,  not  only  to  the  chemist  but  to  the 
mariufactiM'er  also ;  being  employed  to  a 
very  great  extent  in  a  variety  ol  manufac- 
tures, especially  in  dyeing. 

Siilijlturoiix  Ufid.  Though  some  of  tlie 
properties  of  this  acid  must  havi'  been  known 
in  the  remotest  ages,  as  it  is  alwavs  formed 
during  llu;  slow  cojnbustion  of  sulphur, 
Slahl  was  the  lirst  cliemist  wiio  examined  it, 
and  pointed  out  its  peculiar  natiu'e.  His 
luelliod  of  procuring  it  was  to  burn  sulphur 
at  a  low  temperatme,  and  expose  to  its  flames 
cloth  dipped  in  a  solutioji  of  potass.  By  tliis 
method  he  obtained  a  combination  of  potass 
and  sulpluu'ous  acid ;  for  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture sulphur  forms  by  combustion  only  sul- 
phurous acid.  Scheele  pointed  out,  in  1771, 
a  method  of  procuring  sulphurous  acid  in 
c]uaulities.  Dr.  Priestley,  in  1  774,  obtained 
it  ill  the  gaseous  form,  and  examined  its  pro- 
perties while  in  a  slate  of  purity. 

1.  Sulphurous  acid  may  be  procured  by 
the  following  process :  Put  into  a  glass  retort 
two  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  and  one  part  of 
mercury,  and  apply  the  heat  of  a  lamp  ; 
the  mixture  effervesces,  and  a  gas  issues 
from  the  beak  of  the  retort,  and  may  be  re- 
ceived in  glass  jars  filled  with  mercury,  and 
standing  in  a  mercurial  trough.  This  gas  is 
sulphurous  acid. 

•J.  Sulphurous  acid,  in  the  state  of  gas,  is 
c-oloiu'less  and  invisible  like  common  air.  It 
is  incapable  of  maintaining  combustion  ;  nor 
tan  animals  breathe  it  witliout  death.  It  has 
a  strong  and  sultbcating  odour,  precisely  the 
same  with  that  exhaled  bv  sulphur  burning 
with  a  blue  (lame:  rulpluir,  bv  such  a  com- 
i)u^tion,  being  totally  converted  into  a  sul- 
phurous acid.  Its  specilic  gravity,  accord- 
ing to  Ik'ignian,  is  0.00-4b  ;  according  to 
Lavoisier,  0.n02.")l.  It  is  therefore  some- 
what more  than  twice  as  heavy  as  air.  One 
hundred  cubic  inches  of  it  weigh  nearly  63 
grains. 

3.  This  acid  reddens  vegetable  blues,  and 
grailiiallv  destroys  the  greater  number  of 
them.  It  exercises  this  power  on  a  great 
variety  of  vegetable  and  animal  colours. 
Hence  the  use  of  the  fumes  of  sulphur  iu 
bleaching  wool  and  in  whitening  linen  stained 
by  means  of  fruits. 

4.  Dr.  Priestley  discovered,  that  when 
a  strong  heat  is  applied  to  this  acid  in  close 
vessels,  a  cjuantity  of  sulphur  is  precipitated, 
and  the  aciil  is  converted  into  sulphuric.  Ber- 
thollel  obtained  the  same  result ;  but  Four- 
croy  and  Vaui|uelin  could  not  succeed. 

5.  Water  absorbs  this  acid  with  avidity. 
According  to  Dr.  Priestley,  lOOU  grains  of 
water,  at  the  temperature  54.5°,  absorb  39.6 
grains  of  this  acid.  Fourcroy,  on  the  other 
hand,  affirms  that  water  at  40"  absorbs  the 
third   of  its  weight  of  sulphurous  acid  gas. 


S  U  L 

Ice  absorbs  tliis  gas  very  rapidly,  and  is  in- 
stantly melted.  Water  saturated  with  this 
gas,  ill  which  state  it  is  known  by  the  name 
of  hi|ui<l  sulphurous  acid,  or  sulphurous  acid, 
is  of  the  s|)ecific  gravity  1.040.  It  maybe 
frozen  without  parting  with  any  of  the  "acid 
gas.  When  water,  whi<li  lia.s  been  saturated 
with  this  acid  at  the  freezing  temperature, 
is  cxjiosed  to  the  heat  of  tij/Jj",  it  is  filled 
with  a  vast  number  of  bubbles,  which  con- 
tinually increase  and  rise  to  the  surface. 
These  bubbles  are  a  part  of  the  acid  sepa- 
rating from  it.  It  freezes  a  few  degrees  be- 
low 32°. 

0.  When  liquid  sulphurous  acid  is  exposed 
to  atmospheric  air  or  to  oxygen  gas,  it  gradu- 
ally combines  willi  oxygen,  and  is  converted 
into  sulphuric  acid,  'riiis  change  takes  place 
more  completely  if  the  acid  is  (ombined  with 
an  alkali  or  earth.  When  a  mixture  of  sul- 
phurous acid  gas  and  oxygen  gas  is  made  to 
pass  through  a  red-hot  porcelain  tube,  the 
two  bodies  combine,  and  sulphuric  acid  is 
formed. 

7.  Of  the  simple  combustibles,  sulphur  and 
pliosphorus  have  no  action  on  it  whatever ; 
hydrogen  gas  and  charcoal  do  not  alter  it 
wliile  cold,  but  at  a  red-heat  they  decom- 
pose it  coniplelely  ;  water  or  carbonic  acid 
is  formed,  and  sulphur  deposited. 

8.  Neitherazote  nor  muriatic  acid  produces 
any  change  on  it. 

9-  Sulphurous  acid  does  not  seem  capable 
of  oxidizing  or  dissolving  any  of  the  metals 
e.xcept  iron,  zinc,  and  manganese. 

10.  It  combines  with  alkalies,  earths,  and 
metallic  oxides,  and  forms  salts  known  by  the 
name  of  sulphites. 

1 1.  Sulphuric  acid  absorbs  this  gas  in  con- 
siderable ((uantitv.  It  acquires  a  vellowish- 
brown  colour,  a  penetrating  odour,  and  the 
property  of  smoking  when  exposed  to  the 
air.  \\  hen  this  niixture  i»  distilled,  the  first 
vapour  which  comes  over,  and  which  is  a 
compound  of  the  two  acids,  crystallizes  in 
loHj  white  prisms.  This  singular  compound, 
formerly  known  by  the  name  of  glacial  sul- 
phuric acid,  smokes  in  tlieair;  and  when  the 
atmosphere  is  moist,  melts  with  effervescence. 
When  thrown  info  water,  it  hisses  like  a  red 
iron.  It  has  the  odour  of  sulphurous  acid. 
Fourcroy  has  lately  demonstrated,  that  this 
is  a  compound  of  sulphuric  and  sulphurous 
acids. 

11?.  The  affinities  of  sulphurous  acid,  as 
far  as  they  have  been  investigated,  are  as 
follow : 

Barytes,  Magnesia 

Lime,  Ammonia, 

Potass,  Glucina, 

Soda,  Alumina, 

Strontian,  Zirconia. 

13.  As  this  acid  is  formed  by  the  combus- 
tion of  sulphur,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  it 
is  composed  of  the  same  ingredients  with  sul- 
phuric acid  ;  and  as  it  is  evolved  from  sul- 
phuric acid  by  the  action  of  sulphur,  and  likc- 
wi^e  by  some  of  the  metals,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  it  contains  a  smaller  proportion  of  oxy- 
gen. But  no  precise  set  of  experimenti  has 
yet  been  made  to  determine  the  pro|)ortion  of 
its  component  parts.  T  ourcroy  affirms  that 
it  contains 

65  sulphur 
15  oxygen 


SUP 


731 


sia, ) 
lia,  > 


100. 


4ZZ 


RuL  he  doe.i  not  iuform  us  upon  wliat  evt 
dence  he  assigns  these  proportions. 

SUM,  in  mathematics,  signifies  the  quat>- 
tity  that  arises  from  the  addition  of  two  or 
more  magnitudes,  numbers,  or  quantities 
together. 

The  sum  of  an  equation  is,  when  the  ab- 
solute liuniber  being  brought  over  to  the 
other  side  of  the  equation,  with  a  contrary 
sign,  the  whole  becomes  equal  to  0  ;  thii.*, 
the  sum  of  the  e(|nation  i'  —  12  x'  ■\-  41  i 
=  42,  is  a'  —  1 2  .v'  +  41  J  —  42  =  0.  Sec 
Algf.hr.*,  and  Arithmetic. 

SUMACH.     See  Rhus. 

Sl'N.     See  .\stko.somy. 

SUNDAY.     See  Lords  Day. 

SUPi:ilCAIU;(),  a  person  employed  by 
merchants  to  go  a  voyage,  and  over»ee  their 
cargo,  or  lading,  and  dispose  of  it  to  the  beit 
advantage. 

SUPKRFICIKS,  or  Surface.    SccGe- 

OMI.TRV. 

SL'  PF.KSEDEAS,  a  writ  that  lies  in  a  great 
many  cases,  and  signifies  in  general,  a  com- 
mand to  stay  |)roceedings,  on  good  cause 
shewn,  which  ought  otherwise  to  proceed. 
By  a  supersedeas,  the  doing  of  a  thing,  which 
might  otherwise  have  been  lawfully  done, 
is  prevented  ;  or  a  thing  that  has  been  done, 
is  (notwithstanding  it  was  done  in  a  due  course 
of  law)  therebv  made  void.  4  Bac.  Abr. 
667. 

A  supersedeas  is  either  expressed  or  im- 
plied ;  an  express  supersedeas  is  sometimes 
by  writ,  sometimes  without  a  writ ;  where  it 
is  by  writ,  some  person  to  whom  the  writ  ii 
directed,  is  thereby  commanded  to  forbear 
the  doing  something  therein  mentioned;  or 
if  the  thing  has  been  .ilready  done,  to  revoke, 
as  that  can  be  doni',  the  act.  4  Bac.  Abr.  607. 

SUPER  STATUTO  de  articulis 
ci.KKi,  in  law,  a  writ  that  lies  against  the 
sh(>iilt',  or  other  officer  that  distr.iins  in  the 
king's  highway,  or  in  the  lands  antiently 
given  to  the  church. 

Super  st atuto  facto  pour  sene- 
schal ET  MARSHAL  DE  ROY,  &C.  a  Writ 
which  lies  against  the  steward  or  marshal, 
for  holding  pica  of  freehold  in  his  court,  or 
for  trespass,  or  contracts  not  made  within  the 
king's  houseliold. 

Sl'PPLIES,  the  sums  granted  by  parlia- 
ment for  defraying  the  iiublic  expenditure 
for  the  current  year.  'I  he  known  or  pro- 
bable amount  of  the  different  branches  of 
the  year's  expences,  is  stated  to  the  house 
of  commons  in  a  committee  of  supply,  by  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  and  alter  they 
liave  been  voted  by  the  committee,  are  for- 
mally granted  by  a"ii  act  of  parliament.  The 
granting  of  the  animal  supplies  as  well  as  per- 
manent taxes,  is  a  peculiar  privileEte  of  the 
house  of  commons,  who  never  permit  any 
alteration  or  amendment  to  be  made  by  the 
lonls,  in  the  bills  passed  for  this  purpose. 

The  grants  of  parliament  were  originally 
considered,  merely  as  temporary  aids,  to 
assist  the  sovereign' in  defraying  such  extra- 
ordinary expences  as  he  was  subject  to  for 
the  benefit  of  the  i)ublic ;  and  unless  lli« 
commons  happened  to  entertain  at  the  time, 
any  particular  jealousy  of  the  crown  and  iU 
ministers,  the  sum  gr.tiited  was  commonly 
left  entirely  to  their  disposal.  But  after  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.,  not  only  more 
freipient  grants  were  demanded,  but,  in  ron- 
sefjuencc  of  till-  property  to  which  the  crown 


7.12 


S  U  R 


sun 


S  U  R 


was  rediiceJ,  parliamcntarj'  gmits  liail  bf- 
come  really  necessary  almost  eveiy  year. 
It  was  impossible,  however,  for  tile  parlia- 
.  merit,  dislrusliiig  not  only  Charles's  tcoiiomy 
but  his  regr.rd  ior  tlie  ir.tere>t  of  his  kingiloms. 
to  ve.-l  coi:sidcrable  sums  ofmor.i-y  in  such 
imsafie  and  improvident  hands:  it  was,  there- 
fore, thought  retinisito  to  specify  the  [nn- 
poscs  for  which  each  sum  wai  voted.  Thus 
appropriating  clauses  came  to  be  introduced, 
which  practice  has  continued  ever  since ; 
and  at  the  comme'ncenient  of  each  session,  an 
account  is  preseiited  of  the  disposition  of  the 
grants  of  the  preceding  session,  sliev.'ing  how 
much  has  boen  actually  paid  on  each  branch 
of  the  public  service, 'what  remains  unpaid 
of  the  sums  appropriated,  with  the  funds  for 
discharging  the  same,  and  the  surplus  or  de- 
iiciency  of  tlie  ways  and  means. 

The  supplies  annually  voted  do  not  include 
tlie  interest  and  charges  of  the  national  debt, 
the  civil  list,  arid  some  other  articles  which 
are  provided  for  as  permanent  charges  on 
the'consolidated  fund ;  but  nserely  the-  ex- 
pences  of  the  army,  navy,  ordnance,  and 
such  miscellaneous  servic<;s  as  are  granted 
from  year  to  year.    ,      ; ,;,   . 

SU IMPORTERS.    See  Heraldry. 

SUPPRESSION.    See  Medicine. 

SUPREMACY,  in  our  polity,  the  superi- 
ority or  sovereignty  of  the  king  over  the 
church  as  well  as  stale,  whereof  he  isestablisli- 
'ed  head.  The  king's  supremacy  was  at  first 
established,  or,  as  others  say,  recovered,  by 
king  Henry  VI! I.  in  l.=)3-i,  after  brealcing 
with  the  pope.  It  is  since  confirmed  by  se- 
vi;ral  canons,  as  well  as  by  the  articles  of  the 
church,  aiid  is  passed  into  an  oath  which  is 
required  as  a  necessary  C(Ualification  for  all 
cilices  and  employments  both  in  church  and 
state,  from  persons  to  be  ordained,  from  the 
members  of  both  houses  of  parliament,  &c. 

SURA.    See  Anatomy. 

SURD,  in  arithmetic  and  algebra,  denotes  any 
number  or  quantity  that  is  incommensurable  to 
unity :  otherwise  called  an  irrational  number  or 
quantity. 

The  square  roots  of  all  numbers,  except  1,  4, 
9,  IG,  25,  ae,  -19,  64,  81,  100,  121,  144,  &c. 
(which  are  the  squares  of  the  integer  numbers, 
1,  2,  r,,  4,  5,  C,  7,  8,  9,  10,  U,  12,  &c.)  are  in- 
commensurables ;  and  after  the  same  manner  the 
cube  roots  of  all  numbers  but  of  the  cubes  of 
.  1,  2,  n,  4,  .5,  6,  &c.  are  incommensurables:  and 
quantities  that  are  to  one  another  in  the  pro- 
portion of  such  numbers,  must  also  have  their 
square-roots,  or  cube-roots,  incommensurable. 

The  ronts,  therefore,  of  such  numbers,  bcin;^ 
incommcniurable,  are  expressed  by  placing  the 
proper  radical  sign  over  them:  thuS;(/2,  i/3, 
^5,  y'^6  &c.  express  numbers  incommensurable 
with  unity.  However,  though  these  numbers 
are  incommensurable  themselves  with  unity,  yet 
they  are  commensurable  in  power  with  it ;  be- 
cause their  power*  are  integers,  that  is,  multi- 
ple»  of  unity.  They  may  also  be  commensur- 
able sometimes  with  one  another,  as  the  i/S, 
and  ^/2  :  because  they  are  to  one  another  as  2 
to  I  '.  and  when  they  have  a  common  measure 
as  ^'i  is  the  common  measure  of  both,  then 
their  rajio  is  reduced  to  an  expression  in  the 
least  terms,  as  that  of  commensnr.ibic  quanti- 
ties, by  dividing  them  by  their  greatest  common 
measure.  This  common  mcr.sure  is  found  as  in 
eonimcnsurablc  quantities,  only  the  root  of  the 
ronunon  meanurc  i>  to  be  made  their  common 


divisor :  thus 


VM2. 
V3 


3  v'"- 

A  rational  quantity  may  be  reduced  to  the 
form  of  any  given  surd,  by  raising  the  ((uantlty 
to  the  pov,-er  that  is  denominated  by  the  name 
of  the  surd,  .ind  then  setting  the  radical  sign 
over  it ;  thus 

a  =  y^^  =  {/a-  =  */«'  =  y/-  =  ;;/"" , 

and  4  =  ^10  =  ^64  zzz  :^256  =  .^/1024 
=  ^4". 

As  surds  may  be  considered  as  powers  with 
fractional  exponents,  they  are  reduced  to  others 
of  the  san-e  value  that  shall  have  the  same  radi- 
cal sign,  by  reducing  these  fractional  exponents 
to  fractions  having  the  same  value  and  a  com- 
mon denominator.  Thus  V  «  ^=  ""  >  and   \/  a 


1=  (z '",  and  —  ::=  — , 


- ;  and  there- 


fore, "^a  and  '\/a,  reduced  to  the  same  radi- 
cal sign,  become  'v''"'"  and  ■s/a".  If  j-ou 
are  to  reducers  and ^2  to  the  same  denomi- 

.1 
nator,  consider  ^3  as  equal  to  3",    and   -^/g 

J 
as  equal  to  2^,  whose   indices   reduced   to   a 

i         i 
common  denominator,  you  have  3    =  36, and 

2^:=  26,  and,  consequently,  \/a  =  \/3^  =; 
\/27,  and  ^2=:  %/2^  =  \/4;  so  that  the 
proposed  surds  ^3  and  \/2,  are  reduced  to 
other  equal  surds  ^/27  and  ?j/'4,  having  a  com- 
mon radical  sign. 

Surds  of  the  same  rational  quantity  are  multi- 
plied by  adding  their  exponents,  and  divided  by 

subtracting  them;  thus,  ^a  X   ^Z"  =:2^X  "'' 


=r  a"  =::l^/ii''  ;  and 


m~\-  n      ^\/x  n  • 

mn  "\/^  ' 

_  6  /«l!  .  .y  ^  —6/2 


-;    V'-^X   \/2: 


V2^  =  V3=;^2=  V 

If  the  surds  are  of  different  rational  quanti- 
ties, as  ^/ iT  and  ^/t ,  and  have  the  same  sign, 
multiply  these  rational  quantities  into  one  an- 
other, or  divide  them  by  one  another,  and  set 
t)ie  common  radical  sign  over  their  product  or 

quotient.     Thus,  v'a^X  V b"  =  \^a-6'';  ^2X 

^^-  -^  ^°'  ^^ZT  -  V  i^  -  V  *-' 


V 


24  -     /  24  -  S/  T  -  ^    "^ 


If  surds  have  not  the  same  radical  sign,  re- 
duce them  to  such  as  shall  have  the  same  radi- 
cal sign,  and  proceed  as  before;  y'a  X   •\/*  = 


'im  / — ■ — 


_  mn  la" 


V"  X   V4  = 


2-  X  4^  =  20-  X    4Tr  =  VS'  X  'i'  = 


-        Vt  4^ 


V8xio=Vi28:  .v'-l=?-l  =  .^;  = 

V2  S* 


41. 
•Jit 


f.  /o 
V 


If  the  surds  h.are 


any  rational  co-efficients,  their  product  or  quo- 
tient must  be  prefixed ;  thus,  2^3  X  5^6  = 

10  v^  If'.  The  powers  of  surds  are  found  as  the 
powers  of  their  quantities,  by  multiplying  their 
exponents  by  the  index  of  the  power  required  ; 

thus  the  square  of  \/ 2  is  2 ' 


tX  3_ 


S'i  =  X/125.  Or 


the  cube  of  V  5  =  5 

you  need  only,  in  involving  surds,  raise  the 
quantity  under  the  radical  sign  to  the  power 
required,  continuing  the  same  radical  sign  ;  un- 
less the  index  of  that  power  is  equal  to  the 
name  of  the  surd,  or  a  multiple  of  it,  and  in 
that  case  the  power  of  the  surd  becomes  ra- 
tional. £voiution  is  performed  by  dividing  the 
fraction,  which  is  the  exponent  of  the  surd,  by 
the  name  of  the  root  required.  'I'hus  the  square 

root  of  ^'a'  is   y^a',  or  \' a'. 

The  surd  v  ""'*"  z=a  \/  x  ;  and,  in  li'ite  man- 
ner, if  a  power  of  any  quantity  of  the  same 
name  with  the  surd  divides  the  quantity  under 
the  radical  sign  without  a  remainder,  as  here 
u"'  divides  a"'.v,  and  25  the  square  of  5  divide* 

75,  the  quantity  under  the  sign  in  y'  75,  without 
a  reiualader ;  then  place  the  root  of  that  power 
rationally  before  the  sign,  and  the  quotient  un- 
der the  sign,  and  thus  the  surd  will  be  reduced 

to  a  more  simple  expression.    Thus  v^''^  =  « 

V^:; ;  1^48  =  V'SX"  Tg  =  4  V''0  ;    ^'81  = 

^/27"x"s=3  v's. 

When  surds  are  reduced  to  their  least  ex- 
pressions, if  they  have  the  same  irrational  part, 
they  are  added  or  subtracted, by  adding  or  sub- 
tracting their  rational  co-efficients,  and  prefix- 
ing the  sum  or  difference  to  the  common  irra- 
tional part,     'i'hus, 

=v/75  -f  V'-iS  =  5  v/3  -f  4  ^/3  =  9  ^/S  ; 
ysi  -f  y24  z=  3  ^3  -f-  2  i/3  =  5  ys  ; 
-/l^O  —  V54=5  v's—  3  V<5  =  2  V'S; 
x/"'*'  +  v'^^v  =  a  ^  .V  -f-  i  ^x  =  a  -J-  i    x 

Compound  surds  are  such  as  consist  of  two  or 
more  joined  together;  the  simple  surds  are  com- 
mensurable in  power,  and  by  being  multiplied 
into  themselves,  give  at  length  rational  quanti- 
ties ;  yet  compound  surds  multiplied  into  them- 
selves, commonly  give  still  irrational  products. 
But,  when  any  compound  surd  is  proposed, 
there  is  another  compound  surd  which,  multi- 
plied into  it,  gives  a  rational  product.  Thus,  if 
/^u  -f-  \/i  were  proposed,  multiplying  it  by 
\/a  —  ^/i,  the^iroduct  will  be  j  —  i. 

The  investigation  of  that  surd,  which,  multi- 
plied into  the  proposed  surd,  gives  a  rational 
product,  is  made  easy  by  three  theorems,  deli- 
vered by  Mr,  Maclaurin,  in  Ids  Algebra, p.  JO.% 
seq.  to  which  we  refer  the  curious. 

This  operation  is  of  use  in  reducing  surd  ex- 
pressions to  more  simple  forms.  Thus,  sup- 
pose a  binominal  surd  divided  by  another,  at 
22  22 

\/-2Q  -1-  v'i-.   I'y   V^  —  V^>  ''>e  quotient 

.  ,     ,  ,  ,      v^L'G  +  v'ia 

might  he  expressed  by  -^-- 1 — .   But  this 

V  5  —  /^/3 

might  be  espressod  in  a  more  simjile  form,  by 
multiplying  both  numerator  and  denominator 
by  that  surd  which,  nndtiplicd  into  the  deuo* 
niiuacur,  gives  a  rational  product ;  thus. 


S  U  R 


^5  —  \/J 

V^100"+ VTO  +  6  _  ir,  -f.  VGO   _  g    , 
5-:5  ~  2~  ~       "f" 

2v'  15.  To  do  this  generally,  see  Maclaurin, 
lib.  cit.  p.  11:1. 

Wiieii  liic  sijuarc  root  of  a  surd  is  re(]\iiied,  it 
may  be  found,  nearly,  by  extracting?  tlie  root 
of  a  rational  <iiiantitv  that  approniiTialcs  to  its 
value.  Thus  to  lind  th.a  square  root  of  :;  -|"  -\/^i 
first  calculate  v'i  =  1  ,-ll-i'21.  Hence  :>  +■  il^J 
z=  Sy'ii'i-l'J,  the  root  of  which  is  found  to  be 
nearly  l',414'2I. 

In  like  maimer  we  may  proceed  with  any 
other  proposed  root.  Aad  if  the  index  of  the 
root,  proposed  to  be  extracted,  is  great,  ^ablc 

of  logarithms  may  be  used.  Thus  y' j  -4-  'y/l7 
may  be  most  conveniently  found  by  lu^'arithms. 
'lake  the  logarithm  of  17,  divide  it  by  1;5; 
find  the  number  corresponding^  to  the  cjnotient; 
add  this  number  to  5\  find  the  logarithm  of  the 
sum,  and  divide  it  by  7,  and  the  number  cor- 
responding to  this  quotient  will  be  nearly  equal 

But  it  is  sometimes  requisite  to  express  the 
roots  of  surds  exactly  by  other  surds.    Thus,  in  | 
the  first  example,  the  square  root  of  3  -j-  2^2 

is  I  +'V/a;  for  i  -j-  ^2  X  1  +  x^i  —  1  + 
•■1^1  +  2  =  3-1-  2^2.  For  the  method  of  per- 
forming this,  the  curious  may  consult  Mr.  Mac- 
iaurin's  Algebra,  where  also  rules  for  trinomiaU, 
&c.  may  be  found. 

SUKlil'Y,  in  law,  generally  signifies  the 
same  with  b;iil.     See  Bail. 

SURE!  Y  r/</it'  peace.  A  justice  of  the 
peace  niav,  according  to  his  discretion,  bind 
all  tliose  lo  keep  the  peace,  who  in  his  pre- 
sence shall  make  any  aifray,  or  shall  threaten 
to  kill  or  beat  any  person,  or  shall  contend 
together  in  liot  words ;  and  all  those  who 
ihall  go  about  widi  unlawful  weapons  or  at- 
tendance to  the  terror  of  tlje  people  ;  and  all 
such  persons  as  shall  be  known  by  liim  to  b;.- 
common  barrators;  and  all  who  shall  be 
brought  before  him  by  a  constable,  for  a 
breach  ot  the  peace  in  the  presence  of  such 
constable  ;  and  all  such  persons  who,  having 
been  be.'ore  bound  to  keep  the  peace,  shall 
be  convicted  of  having  forfeited  their  recog- 
nizance.    Lamb,  77. 

AVhen  sure'.v  of  the  peace  is  granted  by 
the  court  of  king's  bench,  if  a  s;:persedeas 
com.es  from  the  court  of  chancery  to  tJie  jus- 
tices o(  that  court,  their  power  is  at  an  end  ; 
and  the  party  as  to  them  discharged. 

If  security  of  the  peace  is  de>ire(l  against 
,  a  peer,  the  safest  way  is  to  apply  to  the  court 
©f  chancery,  or  king's  bench.  1  Haw.  127. 
If  the  person  against  udiom  security  of  the 
peace  is  demanded,  is  present,  the  justice  of 
the  peace  may  commit  him  immediately,  un- 
less he  offers  sureties ;  and  a  fortiori  he  may 
be  commanded  to  lind  sureties,  and  be  com- 
mitted for  not  doing  it.     Id. 

SuttETY  of  the  good  b^lurciour,  includes 
tl'.e  peaje ;  and  he  th.it  is  bound  to  the  good 
behaviour,  i^  therei;!  also  bound  to  the  peace  ; 
and  yet  a  man  may  be  compelled  to  lind 
sureties  both  for  the  good  behaviour  and  the 
peace?  Dalt.  c.  li'l'.  See  Good  Beha- 
viour. 

SURFEIT.     See  Medictxe. 

SURGERY,  is  the  art  ot  curing  or  al- 
leviating diseases  by  local  and  external  ap- 
plications, manual  or  instiumental.  As  a 
*cieiice  it  may  be  denned,  that  department 


S  L'  R 

of  mediiinf!  wiiicli  treats  of  maladies  lluu 
susceptible  of  alleviation  or  cure. 

This,  like  otiier  parts  of  iiiedicini', 
must  necessarily  have  been  practiced  in  (he 
earliest  ages;  and  the  supposdion  has  the 
authority  of  hislosy,  both  sacred  and  jjrofaiie, 
tnat  the'wiiole  of  the  healing  art  was  lor  some 
time  restricted  to  the  treatment  of  external 
injuries  ;  and  tlial  conseciuenlly,  snraery  lias 
n'<t  merely  been  coev;d  with,  but  antecedent 
to,  the  other  braiiche^  of  medical  science. 

The  history,  liowever,  of"  surgery,  among 
the  early  Asiatics,  and  even  as  cultivated  and 
praclisid  by  the  (jrecks,  is  involved  in  fable, 
and  obscured  by  fiction.  Hippocrates  was 
in  a  manner  the  founder  of  sill  gery  as  of  me- 
dicine; and  it  was  not  indeed  until  after  the 
time  of  this  author,  that  the  science  was  di- 
vided into  separate  branches.  'I'his  division 
was  effected  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Pliilo- 
pater,  king  of  Egypt,  and  has  continued  with 
some  ino<lilications,  but  without  precise 
limits,  down  to  the  present  day. 

Among  the  Romans,  Celsiis  is  the  first 
author,  iii  whose  writings  we  meet  with  any 
thing  of  importance  in  relation  to  this  ari. 
In  Che  works  of  C'elsvis,  we  find  a  minute 
statement  of  all  its  improvements,  from  the 
time  of  Hippocrates;  and  by  many  among 
even  the  moderns,  an  assiduous  study  of  llie 
precepts  contained  in  Celsus,  has  been  ear- 
nestly recommended  to  the  student.  The 
I^atiiVitv,  however,  of  this  medical  classic,  is 
great! V  preferable  to  his  surgery. 

After  Celsus,  lived  tlie  celebrated  Galen, 
whose  authority  for  so  long  a  period  iiillii- 
enced  the  language  and  practice  of  physic, 
and  who,  alliiough  liis  works  are  principally 
mcdieinal,  wrote  likewise  on  surgery.  CJalcn 
was  tl'.e  last  writer  of  consequence  among 
the  Romans. 

About  the  year  500,  Aetius  added  many 
observations  to  those  of  Gelsus  and  Galen. 
Aetius  was  succeeded  and  much  e.xcelled  by 
Pauhrs  Egineta,  whose  surgical  writings  have 
been  pronounced  superior  to  those  of  all  the 
other  antients ;  this  la>t  author,  together 
with  Celsus,  were  employed  as  text-books 
by  Fabricius  ab  Acjuapendente,  a  writer  of 
celebrity  in  llie  sixteenth  century. 

Among  tlie  xVrabians,  Rhazes  and  Avi- 
cenna  are  tlie  principal  writers  who  treated  of 
surgery.  The  Canon  Medicinal  of  the  latter,  a 
coiiipiiation  principally  from  Galen  and 
Rliazes,  was  for  a  number  of  years  held  in 
much  estimation.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
the  time  of  Albucasis,  that  surgery  was  much 
in  reptile  among  the  Ai'alsian^;  and  from  this 
period  to  the  l4th  century,  its  history  is  ex- 
tremely barren.  F'ven  "at  the  commence.? 
ment  of  the  l6lh  century,  "  surgery  wa- 
held  in  contempt  in  this  island,  and  was  prac- 
tised indiscriminately  by  barbers,  farriers, 
and  sow-gelders.  Barbers  and  surgeons  con- 
tinued for  200  years  afterwards  to  be  incor- 
porated in  one  company,  both  in  London  and 
Paris.  In  HoUarid  and  some  parts  of  Ger- 
manv,  even  at  this  day,  barbers  exercise  the 
razor  and  lancet  alternately.' 

We  find  no  surgical  work  worthy  of  notice 
in  the  I6th  century,  before  that  of  Carpus. 
A  svstcm  published  by'  the  above-men- 
tioned F.-brioius,  shortly  afterwards  at- 
tracted mi.ih  notice,  and  has  been  highly 
coimiiended  by  Hoerhaave  ;  about  this  time 
likewise,  Ambrose  Paree,  a  Trench  surgeon, 
made  several  bald  and  veiy  importaiit  inno. 


S  U  R 


-33 


vations  111  the  art  a%  then  pracli'^ed;  one  o( 
which,  viz.  the  use  ot  llie  needle  and  liga- 
ture, for  stoppin}.^  bleedii.  ''  place 
of  the  cautery,  a^lriiigeiv  boiling 
oils,  and  other  cruel  and  ao  ■'•  •t.^i-rc  of 
the  oilier  singeoDs,  has  h!cn  said  by  one  well 
capable  of  appreciating  its  value,  to  hrAC 
raised  i'aiee  lo  a  rank  not  iidcrior  even  to 
(hat  ol  Ilarvry,  the  rlisroverer  of  the  citcii- 
lalibii.  To  liie  wurl:s  of  Pave-  may  f)C  added 
thosi!  of  Maggius  and  Uotallus,  'v-rltcrs  on 
gun-shot  wounds ;  and  of  Crucc,  the  author 
of  a  systematic  treatise. 

In  "the  succeeding  century,  surgery  made 
considerable  advances.  The  most  conspifU- 
ous  wntei-s  of  tl,is  period,  arc«  Scveiinui, 
Vidius,  Wiseman,  LeClerc,  Sculletus.-Man- 
getus,  Spigellius,  Ilildamis,  liartliolin,  and 
Marchett. 

In  our  own  times,  the  science  of  which  we 
are  now  to  treat,  has  begun  to  assert  its  just 
claims  to  an  equality  with\hat  which  is  usu- 
ally denominated  the  s<-ience  of  medicine. 
These  claims  have  been  vindicated,  not  less 
powcrftdly  and  successfully  by  the  i'.nport- 
ance  of  surgery,  than  the'  respectability  of 
its  professors. 

A  mere  enumeration,  however,  of  the 
names  and  writings  of  such  as  havp  been  de- 
servedly celebrated  in  the  present  and  im- 
mediately preceding  centuries,  would  carry 
us  beyond  our  Hunts.  We  shall,  therefore, 
here  close  this  hasty  sketch  of  surgical  his- 
tory, and  proceed  to  discuss  the  subject  of 
the  present  article. 

Or    Wounds.      Their  kind,  degree,    and 
trcaltnent. 

It  ought  to  be  the  surgeon's  endeavour  to 
familiarize  himselt  with  those  circrmstances 
which  immediately  indicate  the  mortality  of 
a  wound  ;  and  this  aptitude  of  discrimination 
is  more  especially  requisite  in  the  practice  of 
the  army  or  navy,  where  a  speedy  and  irre- 
vocable decision  is  fre(]uently  called  for. 
The  mortality  of  wounds  is,  indeed,  often 
evident  to  the  most  superficial  and  unini- 
tiated obsen-er  ;  but  this  is  by  no  means  in- 
variabiv  the  case:  and  there  are  many  in- 
staiK-es,  ill  which  a  prompt  and  accurate 
judgment  respecting  their  consequences,  im- 
mediate and  remote,  can  only  be  iormed 
by  habits  of  reliective  observation,  grounded 
on  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  anatomy, 
and  a  general  acipiaintanco  with  the  functions, 
of  the  body. 

Wounds"  which  penetrate  the  cavity  of  the 
heart ;  those  which  cut  off  the  communication 
of  vital  organs  with  the  brain,  as  uijuries  done 
to  the  medulla  obluntjata,  Of  spinal  inariow  ; 
of  the  small  vessels  which  circulate  within 
the  brain  ;  of  the  nerves  supplying  the  heart; 
of  the  great  receptacle  of  the  chyle,  or  tiiose 
which  ir.terrupt  the  course  of  this  fluid  to  the 
blood-vessels,  such  as  wounds  of  the  larger 
lacteals,  &c.  may  easily  be  admitted  to  rank 
with  very  little  ex^'ption  among  mortal 
wounds;  such  are  frem  their  nature  irre- 
mediable ;  others,  however,  aUhoiigh  almost 
as  surely  fatal  if  neglected,  may,  by  speedy 
and  appropriate  application,  be  oiten  reme- 
died ;  such  as  wounds  of  any  of  tlie  larger 
blood-vessels,  which  are  situated  externally. 
But  it  is  pi-incipally  as  it  relates  to  wouii'ds 
of  the  two  great  'cavities  of  the  chest  and 
belly,  that  a  speedy  decision  of  thsir  nature 
and"  tendency  rc-quires  a  knowledge  ot  the 


rs4 

anatomv,  slrattiire,  relative  connection?,  and 
functions,  of  tlie  parts  concerned  ;  for  the 
sword  or  tlie  bullet  may,  by  the  smallest  dif- 
ference in  its  direction,  occasion  instantane- 
ous deatli ;  give  rise  to  tedious,  intractable, 
and  xiltiniatcly  fatal  diseases;  or  penetrate  and 
even  pass  tlir'ougli  the  body,  almost  with  im- 
punity. 

/f'o'iinds  of  the  breast  and  lungs.  Extrerae 
difliculty  of  breathing,  coughing  up  of  blood, 
a  discliarge  of  air  IVom  its  exterior  orilice,  or 
the  sudden  formation  of  t-mpliy-ema  or  \\  indy 
tumour,  &c.  are  described  by  authors,  among 
the  signs  indicating  a  wound  in  the  lungs' 
substance.  If,  togetlier  with  these  symptoms, 
"  the  patient  is  oppressed,  tossing,  insL'U- 
sible ;  -Jiis  face  ghastly,  and  his  extremities 
cold  ;  his  condition  is  doubtful ;  it  looks 
much  like  a  wound  of  some  vessel  near  the 
root  of  the  lungs,  and  if  so,  he  is  surely  gone. 
It  tlie  oppression  conies  on  more  slowly,  the 
pulse  only  hurried  and  flutternig,  and  the 
e.xtremities  not  so  cold,  there  is  reason  to 
hope  that  the  wound  is  merely  In  the  edges 
ot  the  lungs;  and  as  it  is  at  a  distance  lioni 
the  great  veins  and  arteries,  he  may  escape.' 
(J.  Bell  on  \\  ounds.)  If,  when  the  breast 
is  wounded,  tl'ere  is  no  emphysema,  no 
spitting  of  blood;  none  of  that  oppression  in 
breatlung,  which  proves  that  the  blood  is 
pouring  either  into  the  proper  air-cells  of 
tiie  lungs,  or  the  cellular  texture  of  these 
organs,  Tt  may  be  concluded,  that  the  wound- 
ing instrument  has  not  passeil  into  the  tlio- 
racic  cavitv,  but  is  merely  in  the  external 
part  of  the'chest.  To  ascertain  whether  the 
sulTocative  oppressioti  just  noticed,  proceeds 
from  extravasation  of  blood  into  the  air-cells, 
or  iiieivlv  into  the  thoracic  cavity,  we  are 
ilirected,'  that  the  linger  be  rhrus-t  into  the 
wound,  and  some  blood  let  out ;  which  ope- 
ration, ir  it  is  attended  with  very  sensible 
relief,  proves,  tliat  the  air-cells  or  proper 
cavitv  of  the  lungs  are  uninjured  ;  and  the 
danger  in  this  last  case,  is  much  less  than  it' 
these  cells  had  been  wounded. 

{Founds  of  the  ticM'i.  \\'ounds  of  the  belly 
are  for  the  most  part  mortal;  and  this,  when 
it  does  not  arise  from  an  injury  to  any  of 
the  large  viscera  or  their  great  blood-yessels, 
principally  depends  upon  the  extreme  suscep- 
tibility to  peritoiuval  inllanimation.  "Wounds 
of  the  head  arc  deadly,  from  the  ojipression 
of  the  brain,  and  there  delirium  or  coma  are 
the  deadly  signs.  Woulids  of  the  breast  are 
fiital  by  the  oppression  of  the  lungs;  and 
there  dilticult  breathing,  tossing,  coughing 
of  blood,  coldness  of  the  extremities,  and 
a  fanitering,  pulse  are  the  mortal  signs. 
Wounds  of  the  al)domen  are  mortal  by  the 
inflammation  and  gangrene  ;  and  the  signs  of 
(bnger  are,  swelling  of  the  abdomen,  intense 
pain,  yomitings,  costiveness,  hicxiip,  laint- 
ings ;  then  an  interval  of  deceitful  ease, 
which  is  merely  a  sign  of  intellectual  gan- 
grene, and  of  the  near  approach  of  death. 
'I'he  wuunthng  iiistrimienl,  however,  may 
penetrate  or  pass  thrMigh  the  liver  or  the 
spleen,  and  prove  mortal  in  another  way  be- 
side that  of  inducing  peritoneal  inllamnia- 
tinn ;  viz.  by  oecasiuning  a  sudden  and  co- 
pious  extravasation  of  blood,  and  in  these  last 
cases  the  latal  symptoms  present  thi-mselves 
with  more  lapwlily.  "  In  wounds  of  the 
liver,  there  is  great  inward  l>leeding:  the  pa- 
tient immediately  sinks,  and  faints,  languisfies 
iu  a  iluuibering  state,  insensible  almost  and 


SURGLRT. 

without  pain,  lies  cold  and  death-like  for 
perhaps  tuenty-four  hours,  and  then  ex- 
pires." 

When  the  spleen  or  vena  cava  is  wounded, 
the  signs  and  consequences  of  the  internal 
bleeding  are  nearly  the  same  as  in  wounds  of 
the  liver.  "A  w"oand,"  says  Mr.  J.  Bell, 
"of  tiie  spleen,  liver,  or  vena  cava,  is  as  deadly 
as  a  wound  of  the  heart,  so  full  are  they  of 
blood."  To  this  rule,  however,  there  are 
some  very  few  exceptions. 

The  inward  bleedings  from  smaller  yessels, 
as  of  the  mesentery,  the  kidney,  the  emul- 
gent  yems,  &c.  tor  the  most  part  prove 
mortal,  in  the  secondary  maiiiier  above  al- 
luded to,  viz.  by  inducing  inllaminatii)n ; 
in  these  last  instances  then,  the  jimgress  and 
nature  of  the  symptoms  are  dilfer-eul.  "  And 
here  it  may  be  noticed,  that  if  there  are  im- 
mediate fainting  on  receiving  the  wound, 
and  then  coldness,  accompanied  with  a  con- 
tinued laintness,  swelling  of  the  belly,  and 
oppressed  breathing,  most  likely  there  is 
blood  extravasated,  aiid  in  dangerous  quan- 
tity, Irom  some  greater  vessel;  but  if  the 
patient  has  lain  easy,  and  there  come  p.iin, 
swelling,  fever,  ami  other  tluealening  signs 
on  the  sixth  or  seventh  day.  With  a  tumour 
in  one  part  of  the  belly,  it  is  most  likely  a 
bloody  tumour,  which  "has  begun  to  excite 
inllammation.  If  there  are  pain  and  swelling 
on  the  first  or  second  day,  it  is  from  wounded 
intestine  ;  if  there  are  pain  and  swelling,  but 
not  till  the  sixtii  day,  it  is  from  blooil ;  if 
there  is  no  pain  nor  swelling  till  after  the 
fifteenth  day,  our  patient  is  almost  safe." 

When  the  stomach  is  wounded,  a  burning 
sensation  is  experienced  at  the  pit  of  this 
organ,  then  follow  heat,  thirst,  an  accele- 
rated pulse,  aiitl  violent  \-omiting,  which  are 
succeeded  by  fainting,  extreme  prostration  of 
the  vital  powers,  an  extremely  rapid  and 
fluttering  pulse,  swelling  of  the  abdomen, 
hiccup,  and  death. 

If  the  wound  is  in  the  intestines,  the  fxces 
often  escape  from  the  (jrifice ;  fever,  pain, 
irritable  pulse,  swelling  of  the  belly,  faintings, 
mortification,  and  death,  ensue. 

"We  have  hitherto  sjioken  of  peritona;al 
inflammation,  as  occasioned  by  an  extrava- 
sation of  blood;  frequently,  however,  the 
irritating  cause  by  which  it  is  induced,  con- 
sists of  the  contents  of  the  viscus  or  viscera, 
that  may  be  wounded.  Thus,  when  the  gall- 
bladder' is  the  seat  of  the  injury,  tlie  bile  is 
poured  out;  when  the  urinary  bladder  is 
wounded,  the  urine;  when  the  stomach,  the 
food;  and  when  the  intestines,  the  fa;ces  are 
discharged,  and  excite  this  fatal  inflammation. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  that  be- 
side the  symptoms  already  eiunneraled, 
jaundice  will  almost  invariably  be  attendant 
n|)oii  a  wound  of  the  gall-bladder  or  ducts  ; 
and  an  incontinence  or  suppression  oi  urine, 
of  the  urhiary  bladder. 

I'luther,  a  large  wound  p(;netrating  the 
cavity  of  the  belly  is  generally  attended  with 
a  protrusion  of  some  of  the  viscera;  and  even 
when  the  wound  does  not  penetrate  the  ab- 
dominal cavitv,  the  peritona.'uni  tomelimes 
protrudes  and  occasions  hernia.  Wounds 
likewise  of  the  belly,  which  do  not  pierce 
the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  often  provi'  dis- 
tressing, tedious,  and  ulliiiialely  fatal,  by 
occasioii'ng  shuious  ulcers  among  the  mtis- 
cles,  and  carles  of  the  bones,  and  hectic  fever. 


This  is  frequently  the  case  in  gun-shot  wounds 
where,  the  bullet  being  lodged  about  the 
loins  and  in  the  heart  of  the  muscles,  the 
patient  may  have  escaped  the  first  danger, 
but  will  at  lengtii,  after  many  months,  be  the 
victhn  of  tedious  suppuration,  and  lingering 
wasting  hectic. 

Respecting  the  symptoms  which  succeed 
to  injuries  of  the  head,  we  shall  defer  our 
remarks  till  we  come  to  notice  the  surgical 
operations  on  the  skull  ;  and  shall  now  go 
on  to  consider  the  tre.itment  of  wounds. 

Treatment  of  zvounds.  It  w  ill  first  be  ne- 
cessary to  consider  the  management  of  what 
.ire  called  simple  wounds,  without  supposing 
the  injury  to  have  extended  to  the  uiternal 
organs;  to  state  the  circumstances  which 
may  interfere  with  the  orderly  course  of 
healing  of  such  wound;  and  then  to  notice 
the  more  particular  trcalmeiit  of  wounds  in 
the  breast  or  belly. 

In  conducting  the  cure  of  simple  wounds, 
the  surgeon  will  tind  "  his  duties  happily 
reduced  within  the  narrowest  bounds,  viz. 
of  saving  tiie  patient  from  immediate  bleed- 
ing, and  of  laving  the  woniuied  jiarts  so 
clearly,  so  neatly,  and  so  evenly  in  contact 
with  each  other,  that  they  may  adhere.  The 
rest  we  leave  to  nature."  "  I  fear,"  says  the 
autlior  from  whom  we  have  taken  the  above 
extract,  "  that  from  my  announcing  a  rule 
of  conduct  so  simple  as  this  is,  you  will  sup- 
pose, that  I  mean  to  speak  only  oMlie  slighter 
and  more  trivial  wounds ;  while  I  do  really 
mean  to  include,  under  this  general  view, 
the  greatest  and  the  smallest  wounds  ;  and  to 
establish  but  one  rule  for  all,  from  the  ampu- 
tation of  a  limb,  or  the  extirpation  of  a  tu- 
mour, to  the  most  trivial  cut  of  the  cheek  or 
hand. 

"  What  is  amputation  but  a  wound  ?  tli.^ 
greatest  wound,  clean  and  fair,  made  care- 
fully by  the  hand  of  the  surgeon,  disposed  to 
heal  in  tlie  easiest  way?  and  in  this  great 
wound,  which  a  fortiori  includes  the  doctrine 
of  every  lesser  wound,  what  is  there  to  at- 
tend to  but  the  procuring  of  adhesion,  or  the 
stopping  of  the  flow  of  blood  ?  What  were 
the  defects  of  the  old  operations,  but  that 
the  surgeon  knew  not  how  to  procure  this 
adhesion?  that  he  had  no  means  by  which 
he  could  stop  tlie  bleeding  ?  The  hi'morrhage 
was  fatal  to  most  of  those  who  neetled  to 
suffer  this  operation  ;  and  the  few  who  sur- 
vived lingered  through  all  the  miseries  of  a 
nine-moiitlis  cure,  tedious  and  imperfect, 
with  conical,  ulcerated,  and  tender  slumps. 
What  indeed  is  the  chief  perfection  of  modern 
surgery,  or  the  excellency  of  our  operations  ? 
but  that  in  bleeding  from  great  vessels  we 
trust  nothing  to  compression,  cauteries,  or 
astringents,  but  tie  our  arteries  firmly  ;  and 
that  we  talk  no  longer  about  muiidifying, 
incarning,  or  cicatrizing  of  wounds ;  that  we 
never  dress  the  cut  surfaces  as  distinct 
wounds,  but  i)Ut  the  sides  or  lips  in  close 
contact,  and  keep  them  so.  ^^  e  boast  no- 
thing of  our  own  powers,  but  trust  all  to  na- 
ture; whose  business  it  is,  to  luake  those  sur- 
faces adhere  which  will  adhere;  or  reuiiile 
bv  the  slower  process  of  suppuration  ai.d 
granulation,  those  parts  among  which  there 
has  been  a  loss  of  substance."  (J.  Bell  on 
\\"oiuuls.) 

We  have  thus  taken  tlie  liberty  of  copying 
the  nKisterly  and  impressive  l.niguage  of  this 


adthor,  in  ordei'  to  rnnvey  a  livefy  and  fiiin 
cunvictioii  in  tlu:  iiiiiicl  dt  llie  ^Uidfiit,  of  the 
i.slalilislu'd,  and  in  iu  application  to  practice, 
most  important  fact,  lliat  cat  siiifaces,  if 
plai-fd  "ni'atly  and  evenly  in  contact  witli 
iMcli  ollior,"  'will  adlicre:  tliat  from  tiie 
sli^^litifst  to  l!u;  nio>t  scrioii';. wound,  tin-  pro- 
cess ofin-aliiiu;  is  not  in  the  snialli">t  di-^rec 
accelerated,  i)iit,  on  the  i-<;iitrary,  greatly  ri  - 
taided  by  b.iU.inis,  astiingi'ni  gmns,  oint- 
ments, and  oilier  idle  iiivenlions  lor  "  nuui- 
dilying,  incarniiig,  or  cicatrizini;  of  wounds." 
\\  e  repeat  tlien  tlii^  most  important  practical 
rule,  tlian  in  endeavouring  to  heal  recent 
wounds,  the  whole  duly  of  a  surgeon  consists 
in  securing  bleeding  vessels,  and  then  bring- 
ing the  edges  of  sneli  wounds  as  accurately 
as  ])ossible  in  contact,  "l  he  rest  we  leave 
to  nature." 

When  tliis  union  can  be  elfected  and  re- 
taiiK'd  (which  it  can  in  a  great  number  of  in- 
Mjiices)  without  the  aid  of  stitches,  so  much 
the  better.  This  is  lilvewise  anotlier  ini- 
fMoveinenl  in  modern  surgery..  In  the  most 
trivial  wounds,  tlie  older  surgeons  were  used 
to  torture  the  patient  with  stitching,  when 
tlie  object,  as  it  is  now  most  satisfactorily 
proved,  can  be  oblaiiied  with  more  readiness 
and  safety  by  tlu;  mere  application  of  a  sim- 
ple adhesive  plaster.  As  this,  lunvever,  is 
not  always  the  case,  we  are  to  proceed  in  de- 
scribing those  cireunistances  in  which  the 
sewing  of  a  wound  is,  and  those  in  which  it  is 
not,  necessary  or  proj'er. 

W  lien  the  skin  merely  is  divided  by  a  lon- 
gitudinal cut,  the  edges  of  the  wound  are  to 
be  brought  together  by  the  adhesive  piaster, 
by  cnnunon  ciurt-pla^ier,  or  by  a  plaster  of 
di.iclivlon.  "  In  applying  such  plaster,  we 
are  careful  lir-t  to  let  the  bleeding  subside, 
then  to  make  an  assistant  put  the  lips  of  the 
wound  neatly  together  ;  then  we  apply  one 
end  of  the  sticking-plaster  to  the  skin  on  one 
side  of  the  wound,  and  let  it  h\  there  so  that 
we  may  pull  by  it ;  then  we  pull  that  edge  by 
the  plaster  ;  then  moisten  the  remaining  half 
of  the  plaster;  then  lay  it  neatly  down  over 
the  opposite  edge  of  the  wound  ;  then  apply 
successive  plasters  till  we  have  crossed  the 
whole  line  of  the  wound;  then,  if  any  one  of 
the  slips  of  i)laster  has  lost  its  hold  by  the 
oozing  out  of  the  blood,  we  take  it  gently  off, 
wipe  the  surlace,  and  appiy  a  new  one  neatly, 
until  we  have  got  tlie  wliole  clean  and  fair, 
all  the  plasters  sticking  soundly  ;  and,  lastly, 
we  lay  a  compress  over  the  u  hole,  which  we 
bind  down  a  httle  with  a  circular  roller,  in 
order  to  prevent  internal  bleeding."  'I'his 
substitute  for  sutures  is  to  be  employed, 
likewise,  in  tleshy  wounds  which  do  not  pene- 
trate deep  :  it  is  to  be  used  in  parts  where 
the  sliin  lies  close  upon  tlie  bone,  as  in  the 
back  of  the  hand,  and  upon  the  hairy  scalp. 
Even,  however,  in  superficial  wounds,  wiien 
they  are  angular  itwill  sometimes  be  necessary 
to  employ  one  stitch  of  the  needle  in  the 
situation  of  tlie  angle,  which  will  thus  be  sup- 
ported while  sticking-plasters,  in  the  manner 
just  directed,  are  to  be  applied  to  the  sides  of 
the  wound,  where  the  lips  can  be  easily 
brought  into  contact, 

AMien  wounds,  even  although  they  inay 
not  be  very  deep,  are  made  in  parts  which 
are  constantly  subjected  to  the  actiou  of 
strong  muscles,  as  in  the  cheeks  or  lips,  a 
stitch  of  the  needle  is  to  be  employed  ;  or  that 
suture  made  use  of  which  is  ternted  the  twist- 


SITRGERY. 

ed  or  liare-lip  suture,  from  its  bein  g  prin- 
cipall)  had  recourse  to  m  order  to  urate  1  he- 
cut  edges  of  a  hare-lip.  'I'he  manner  cf  t^ing 
this  suture  is  the  following:  The  broad 
eilgcs  of  the  wound  are  broiighl  as  nearly  and 
neatly  as  possible  in  contact,  and  transii.\ed 
at  o|)|)r)sile  jioints  w  itli  ])ins  employed  lor  tin- 
purpose.  In  the  hare-hp  operation,  two  of 
these  pins  are  inserted,  one  at  the  edge  of  the 
lip,  and  one  in  or  above  the  middle  of  the 
i-iit ;  we  th'.n  twist  a  thread  tiom  one  to  the 
other  pin,  in  the  form  of  a  hgure  of  8.  (See 
lig.  y  iu  the  Surgical  I'lates.) 

In  long  and  deep  wounds  among  muscular 
subitance,  stitcliing  will  generailv  be  requi- 
site, and  in  proj)oition  to  their  length  must 
the  stitches  be  multiplied.  We  are  com- 
monly directed  by  authors  to  make  "  for  each 
inch  of  the  w  ound,  one  stitch  ol  the  needle," 
passing,  according  to  the  extent  ot  the  wound, 
so  many  separate  lijatures,  which,  after  being 
all  passed,  are  to  be  each  tied  over  the  sur- 
face, lirst  by  a  single,  then  by  a  slip-knot. 
In  this  manner  is  the  interrupted  suture  of 
the  antients  tornied;  which  they  distinguish- 
ed from  the  continued  suture,  from  the  latter 
being  sewed  in  the  manner  of  a  continued 
seam  all  along  the  wound.  In  e;ich  interstice 
of  the  interrupted  suture,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  lay  one  strip  of  adhesive  plaster. 

When  the  wound  is  still  deeper,  so  that  the 
stitches  cannot  go  to  the  bottom,  the  com- 
press, and  what  is  called  the  uniting  bandage, 
must  be  applied  after  stitching.  Tliis  is  form- 
ed by  putting  a  double-headed  roller  round 
the  part,  passing  one  head  through  a  slip  in 
the  opposite  aide,  and  drawing  both  at  once. 

"  If  the  wound  is  pretty  deep  among  the 
muscular  tlesh,  so  that  the  several  stitches 
of  the  interi  upled  suture  would  make  (if  tied 
by  the  common  knots)  an  awkward  and  pain- 
ful suture,  likely  to  e.Kcite  inflammation,  we 
then  convert  tlie  interrtipted  suture  into  what 
is  called  the  qii'.lled  suture;  which  is  made 
bv  splitting  each  end  of  the  ligature  Cafterthe 
stitches  are  made)  into  two  threads;  then 
laying  a  nuill  or  b  lugie  along  each  side  of  the 
wound,  we  tie  all  the  ligatures  of  one  side 
round  one  bougie;  then  draw  that  bougie 
tight  dow-n,  by  pulling  the  ligatures  from  the 
other  side  ;  then  tie  the  ligatures  also  on  the 
other  side,  round  the  opposite  bougie;  so  that 
the  two  bougies,  like  tw  o  large  rolls,  keep  the 
sides  of  the  wound  neat  and  even."  This 
suture  is  not  often  employed. 

.'\ite-r  describing  these  different  methods  of 
efi'ecting  union  between  the  divided  edges  of 
a  wound,  it  is  necessary  to  caution  the  reader 
further  against  using  them  indiscriminately 
in  very  deep  muscular  wounds.  "  Stitches 
after  all  can  support  only  the  edges  of  the 
wound,  while  it  is  the  compress  and  the  unit- 
ing bandage  that  must  support  all  below." 
ThiK  stitches  carried  to  a  great  depth  have 
not  only  taili-d  of  their  object,  but  have  too 
often  been  the  inunediate  occasion  of  con- 
vulsions, inilammations,  and  their  long  and 
dreadful  train  of  consequences. 

Stitches  must  also  be  employed  cautiously 
if  the  patient,  previous  to  the  accident,  has 
not  been  in  lirm  health;  or  where  he  is  to  be 
exposed  during  the  cure  to  the  contaminated 
and  deadly  atmosphere  of  a  crowded,  filthy, 
and  unventilated  hospital. 

With  respect  to  the  manner  of  arresting 
the  bleeding,  when  one  principal,  or  several 


735 

ramifications  of  an  arterj'  are  dfvided  in  a 
wound,  so  that  ])rolu-.e  ha-morrliage  takes 
place,  the  application  of  the  tourniquet  flig. 
10)  is  called  lor.  The  arteries  are  att(-nvards 
to  be  take-n  up,  and  secured  in,  the  lollov. ing 
manner:  '1  he  tourniquet  beinga  little  Ioo:en- 
ed  in  order  to  discover  the  artery,  an  assistant 
makes  a  noose  on  the  ligature  to  be  em- 
ployed: thi^  being  placeilover  tlietenaculinii 
(see- lig.  11;,  the  sharp  point  of  this  ins'ru- 
meiit  is  pushed  through  the  ildes  of  tin; 
bleeding  vessel ;  and  so  much  of  if  taken  out 
from  the  surrounding  Hesli,  as  is  sulficient  to 
afford  surface  for  a  secure  knot,  which  the 
assistant  makes  upon  it. 

If,  from  the  depth  of  tlie  wound,  the  tena- 
culum cannot  be  used,  the  crooked  needle  i-> 
to  be  employed  instead;  and  if  it  is  to  be  pass- 
ed under  the  artery,  as  little  of  the  miiscLlar 
substance  as  possible  is  to  be  included  in  the 
ligature.  It  the  artery  to  be  secured  is 
superficial,  and  lies  against  bone,  as  m  the 
temple,  in  the  hand,  or  the  foot,  it  will  be  best 
secured  by  a  linn  compress.  If  it  is  con- 
venient to  make  this  compress  within  the 
wound,  it  may  be  formed  of  a  piece  of  sponge, 
cork,  folded  leather,  or  linen.  Such  iippli- 
cation  will  necessarily  for  a  time  interrupt  tin-. 
cure  by  adhesion. 

W  hen  the  wound  has  been  sewed,  the  eixis 
of  the  ligatures  that  are  round  the  arteries 
are  to  be  left  hanging  from  its  corners. 

Such  then  is  the  immediate  business  of  the 
surgeon,  vi/.  to  arrest  hxmorrhage ;  and  to 
bring  as  speedily  as  po.ssible  the  divided 
edges  of  the  wound  into  contact,  in  order  to 
ensure  the  commencement  of  that  adhesive 
process  already  spoken  of.  But  with  fhn 
closing  of  the  wound  the  surgeon's  businc's 
is  not  finished.  For  the  ?nost  part,  iiuleed, 
if  the  junction  has  been  duly  effected,  if  the 
patient  is  in  health  and  properly  managed, 
a  certain  degree  of  union  will  be  shortly 
formed,  the  ligatures  that  have  been  em- 
l)loyc.d  will  come  away  on  the  fourth  orfif'h 
day,  and  the  adhesive  action  that  is  going  on 
will  not  amount  either  to  ai  tuul  inflammation 
(.ilthough  it  is  called  the  adhesive  inflam- 
mation), or  be  accompanied  by  any  svstem- 
ati  irritation  of  consequence.  In  the  pro- 
gress, however,  of  cure,  in  all  wounds  that 
have  been  closed  by  ligature,  some  degree 
of  actual  inflammation  is  always  produced ; 
and  for  this  reason,  that  the  ligatures  them- 
selves cannot  but  act  as  local  irritants.  Now 
if  the  tendency  in  the  system  is  to  inflame  ; 
if  the  stitches  have  been  carried  too  deep,  or 
the  ligatures  are  too  lichtly  pulled;  if  there  is 
blood  poured  out  under  the  skin,  by  which 
it  is  separated  from  the  parts  below  ;  if,  in  a 
word,  any  cause  has  place  of  either  sejja- 
ration  or  tmdue  irritation ;  instead  of  the 
kindly  progress  of  this  adhesive  natural  and 
healthy  action,  pain,  inflammation,  and  swell- 
ing of  the  part',  will  ensue ;  and  if  these  arise 
to  any  extent,  "  you  must  immediately  un- 
do your  bandage,  draw  out  your  pins,  or 
cut  your  stitches,  and  take  away  every  thing 
that  is  like  stricture  upon  the  wound  :  these 
prudent  measures  may  abate  the  rising  in- 
flammation, and  prevent  the  total  separation 
of  the  skin  ;  while  you  may  still  endeavour  to 
keep  the  wound  tolerably  close  by  the  more 
gentle  means  of  sticking-plailers. 

"  But    should  the  inflammation    rise  still 
higher,  ^tid  ilioiild  you  perceivi;:  that  a  totii 


aepsratJon  ar)d  tuniiiig  out  of  the  vvoimd  are 
'inevitable;  vOu  must  throw  all  loose,  put  a 
■  large  soft  poultice  rouii;l  the  whole,  and  for- 
sake vvjfliout  hwitation  all  hopes  of  procuring 
ailhesion;  for  should  %ou  in  (his  critical 
juncture  pei-sist  in  ket-plng  the' parts  together 
b\'  sutures,  the  inllaiiimation  would,  in  the 
form  of  erysipelas,  extend  itstlfovcrthewholc 
limb,  altcnded  with  a  fetid  and  biuody  siip- 
purjtion,  waiting  the  skin  witii  great  loss  of 
substance.  Therefore  throw  all  loose,  apply 
your  poultice,  allow  the  wound  to  separate 
right  as  it  is,  and  to  pass  slowly  into  a  soft 
and  easy  state  of  su])pura(ioii;  and  then  a 
second  time  try  to  bring  the  edges  up  to 
one  another,  not  by  stitches,  but  by  adhesive 
straps,  or  by  a  gentle  bandage. 

"  V\'iien  the  wound  has  fallen,  into  afull  sup- 
pi;ration,  then  the  suppuration,  granulation, 
and  all  that  .'bllov.s,  belong  (as  indeed  ad- 
hesion also  does)  to  nature  alone,  over 
which  we  have  no  otiier  power  than  that  of 
supporting  tlie  action  ot  parts,  i.  e.  keeping 
the  system  in  good  health ;  and  when  the 
■suppuration  goes  wrong,  it  is  in  general  by 
•taking  the  form  of  a  pr<7iuse,  thin,  gleety  dis- 
•ciiarge;  and  this  profuse  discharge  is  'to  be 
•suppressed,  and  the  right  suppuration  re- 
stored, by  bai'k,  wme,  rich  diet,  and  good 
air;  and  tiiis  is  what  is  usually  meant  by 
supporting  the  suppuration,  or  moderating 
the  profuse  discharge."  J.  I5eli's  Discourses 
on  Wounds. 

Of  contused,  and  lacerated,  and  gun-shot 
■woundn. 
From  the  above  observations,  it  will  readily 
be  uiferred  that  (unless  in  cases  of  systematic 
.irritation,  or  unfavourable  circumstances),  if 
a  wound  does  not  unite  and  heal,  it  is  because 
its  divided  edges  are  not  placed  and  preserv- 
.ed  in  neat  and  even  contact ;  and  this  in- 
ference will  serve  to  explain  why  those 
wounds  are  of  most  dilticult  and  intractable 
treatment,  wiiich  are  not  simple  and  fair  divi- 
sions of  parts  with  culling  instruments,  but 
are  what  authors  term  contused  and  lacerat- 
,cd.  A  contused  wound,  in  systematic  lan- 
.guage,  is  that  in  which,  without  the  skin  be- 
jng  penetrated,  the  parts  below  are  crushed 
.or  broken,  rather  than  divided ;'  if  the  outer 
skin  is  broken  at  the  same  time,  the  woimd 
is  said  to  be  contusedand  lacerated;  such 
are  gun-siiot  wounds.  Suppose  an  individual 
to  receive ,3  ball  from  a  n;usket  or  pistol,  in 
.llie  arm  or  thigii ;  suppose  that  the  ball  has 
entered  at  one  poiut  ai.d  passed  out  at  tlie 
.  ujjpoaite,  has  taken  a  more  oblique  direction, 
or,  insts^d  ot'  passing  out,  has  lodged  among 
the  muscles  of  llie  part;  in  either  case  we  shall 
have  not  a,  ,merc  division  of  substance,  in 
.whifh  thi:  divided  vessels  can  besixurcd,  and 
i\w  separated  edges  brought  agaiu  inlo  con- 
tact, but  there  will  be  a  bruise  rather  than  a 
.clean  cut ;  it  will  of  course  be  impossible  to 
dispose  the  parts  so  as  that  the  adhesive 
.action  bh:ill  tommence,  and  therc&jre  "  no 
gun-iliot,  nor  indeed  any  bruised  wouud, 
JicaU  by  adhesion.'' 

In  this  then  consi.sts  all  the  peculiarity  of 
.gun-shot  wounds :  it  is  not  that  the  ball  (as 
the  anlieiils  suppo.sed)  is  possessed  of  any 
Jjoisonou.'i  quality,  (hat  such  wounds  are  difii- 
£ult  and  tedioua  in  lieaiing ;  Imt  solely  because 
the  injury  inllicted  is  in  the  shape  of  a  bruise, 
flol  of  a  cut ;  the  vessels  and  fibres  are  crush- 
ed, not  divided. 


SURGERY. 

!f  then  gun-shot  or  bruised  wounds  cannot 
he  made  lo  heal  directly,  or  by  adhesion,  it 
follows  tliat  the  irea|ment  they  demand  is  in 
some  measure  peculiar;  ve  are,  therefore, 
now  to  discuss  the  question  of  siich  pecu- 
liarity, and  in  so  doing  we  shall  (or  the  pre- 
sent limitour  remarks  to  those  wounds  which 
have  not  penetrated  the^ thoracic,  or  abdo- 
minal cavities.  The  syn'iptoms  of  wounds  in 
the  breast  and  belly,  we  have  already  enu- 
merated ;  oil  llieir  management,  medical  and 
surgical,  we  shall  shortly  enlarge. 

Treatment  of  gun-shot  Knunds. 

In  gun-shot  wounds  wiiich  have  neither 
penetrated  the  two  great  cavities  of  the  chest 
and  abtlomeu,  nor  have  bei-n  made  upon  liie 
head,  the  princip;il  points  of  consideration  are, 
the  direction  or  place  of  lorlginc-nt  ot  the 
ball,  whether  one  or  more  bones  have  been 
splintered  or  broken,  whether  any  consider- 
able artery  has  been  torn  up,  whether  i  e 
wound  has  reached  any  of  tlie  joints,  and 
lastly,  whetlier  the  ball  has  carried  with  it 
any  foreign  matter,  such  as  the  iwtients 
clothes.  These  points  are  16  be  determined 
by  an  acquaintance  with  the  anatomy  of  the 
parts  ;  by  probing,  scarifying,  or  dilating  the 
wound  ;  and  by  an  attentive  examination  ot 
the  symptoms  which  the  injury  has  occa- 
sioned. 

"  All  probing  should  be  done  at  the  time 
of  the  wound,"  w^hile  the  parts  are  still 
deadened  by  tlie  injury,  and  before  pain  and 
inflammation  have  come  on.  The  iinc;er  is 
the  best  |)robing-in5lrumeiit;  "  it  is  not  apt 
to  catch  u])un  tendons  or  nerves ;  it  does  not 
so  much  as  the  probe  endanger  the  arteries  ; 
and  by  feeling  with  the  finger,  we  judge  most 
accurately  of  the  condition  of  the  wound. 
The  finger  both  directs  our  operations,  and 
instructs  us  what  is  to  be  done.  Perhaps  we 
feel  the  ball,  and  then  we  cut  directly  upon 
it;  perhaps  we  feel  the  wound  making  a 
crooked  or  spiral  turn,  and  v,e  follow  it  with 
our  incisions ;  perhaps  we  are  sensible  tliat 
it  touches  a  great  artery,  and  in  working  with 
our  bistoury  we  are  careful  of  that  artery; 
we  know  also  \\here  the  ball  has  touched  a 
joint,  or  broken  any  bo;ie ;  accidents  which 
not  only  increase  llie  danger,  but  which  may 
even  incline  us  in  certain  circumstances  to 
cut'otf  the  limb.  In  short,  all  tliat  we 're- 
solve, is  from  the  information  tliat  we  have 
through  tlie  finger,  and  it  directs  all  our 
operations." 

VVhat  arc  these  operations  .>  Either  to 
scarify  or  dilate  the  wound,  as  circumstances 
shall  demand,  to  make  a  counter-opening 
when  necessaiy,  and  to  extract  balls,  clothes, 
or  splinters  of  bone.  The  purposes  of  sca- 
rifying are,  "  to  open  the  vessels  that  thev 
may  bleed,  to  enlarge  the  wound  that  wlicii 
it  inllames  it  may  have  room  to  swell,"  and 
to  enable  the  surgeon  when  requisite  to  take 
up  (he  bleeding  arteries,  and  to  extract  the 
ball,  the  splinters  of  bone,  or  any  otlier 
foreign  and  irritating  material. 

Every  gun-shot  wound  which  is  deep  ;:nd 
penetrating,  witii  a  narrow  opening,  and  with 
a  tense  fascia  (evin  if  no  foreign  body  is  to 
be  extracted),  requires  immediate  scur'Uica- 
(ion;  the  incision,  it  must  be  carefully  n.'- 
luembered,  is  "  to  pass  through  the  fascia  as 
well  as  (he  skin  ;  the  wound  mu  t  have  vent, 
as  the  older  surgeons  were  wont  to  express 


I  tlicmselves,  iu  other  words  "  il  must  liav 
room   to  swe'.r    during  that    inflawmiatio:. 
which  inevitably    precedes    its    cure.    Tl  ■ 
stricture,  as  in  strangulated  heriiiu,  must  be 
taken  oH'.     So  far  then  all  is  pLiiii  and  simpf 
Hut  the  practice  is  too  often  in   the  cure-, 
gun-shot  wounds  nioie  complicated.  Counter 
openings  are  sometimes  to  be  made  ;    splii. 
ters  or  foreign  matters  are   lo  be  searclu-  i 
lor  and  taken  out,  and  great  vessels  to  be  se- 
cured.    When  the  ball  has  passed  eniirc!'. 
through,  the  opening  which  it  has  formed  b-. 
its  exit  is  called  live  counter  opening;   vvhf 'i 
it   has  passed  a  considerable   vay,  but  nc 
entirely  through,  it  becomes  the  business  < 
the  surgeon  to  make  this  counter-opening  i.i 
order  lo  extract  the  ball.     This  practice  i 
advised  by  the  generality  of  surgeons,  "whe:; 
the  ball  has  only  passed  two-lhirds  through 
the  hiub."     Such  direction  is  for  the   mo  i. 
part  to  be  followed,  and  the  operation  sTiouid 
be  per  orined  as  speedily  as  possible. 

But  there  is  also  anoluer  kind  of  counter- 
opening  (iel  this  rule  be  especially  altviided 
lo);  which  the  surgeon  is  at  times  obliged  to 
p.actise.  ihe  opening  which  he  must  after- 
wards make  in  the  middle  ol  a  long  wound, 
wlien  the  track  oi  the  wound  swells,  or  when 
the  abscess  fcirins,  and  the  mailer,  the  sloughs, 
and  the  ioul  ichor,  seem  to  be  conlirmed.-  For 
example:  a  man  is  wounded  b)  a  ball,  which 
breaks  one  or  £w  o  ol  the  fing  r»,  pie  ces  the 
liand,  runs  up  the  fore  arm,  rakes  along  the 
bones,  and  goes  out  far  from  its  entrance,  as 
at  tlie  elliow  or  shoulder -joint.  Here  we  can 
hardly  prevent  a  long  suppuration,  and  too 
often  an  exfoliation  or  spoiling  of  the  bones: 
and  three  openings  are  required  ;  one  where 
the  ball  entered,  another  at  the  counter- 
opening  or  that  by  which  the  ball  passed 
out,  and  if  the  swelling,  pain,  irritation,  or 
perhaps  nervous  sMuptoms,  come  on,  tlitu 
there  will  be  required  also  another  opening 
in  the  middle  of  the  wound.  Such  an  open- 
ing will  ease  the  swelling,  and  prevent  a 
sulfocalion  of  the  wound.  It  will  prevent 
gangrene,  bring  on  a  good  suppuration,  and 
allow  a  free  vent  for  the  matter  ;  it  will  also 
prevent  sinuses,  and  so  save  the  arm;  and  it 
will  save  us  from  the  severe  or  rather  cruel 
practice  of  the  older  surgeons,  who  were  ac- 
customed, in  such  cases,  lo  run  a  large  seton 
through  the  tube  of  (he  longest  wound. 
These  last  (setons)  are  only  proper  when  the 
wound  has  become  entirely  callous,  and  pours 
out  a  thin  g'eety  discharge';  or  w  lien,^'rom  the 
adherence  of  some  piece  of  cloth  which  pre- 
ventsits  healing,  healthy  action  cannot  other- 
wise be  excited.     • 

So  far  then  ^vith  respect  to  tlie  scarifica- 
tions which  are  re<iuired  in  gun-shot  wounds; 
we  now  proceed  to  treat  of  the  extraction  of 
balls,  cloth,  or  splinters  of  bones. 

Here  dilatations  rather  than  scarifications  are 
needlul:  for  there  is  this  diflcM'cnce  between 
scanty  ing  and  dilating  ;  ihat  scaritying  is  that 
superficial  incision  of  the  moulh  of  the 
wound  by  which  we  relieve  the  teiision  of  the 
fascia  or  the  slrictnre  of  the  skin;  but  dilat- 
ing is  that  deeper  incision  which  we  make 
by  pushing  our  finger  cjcep,  and  to  the  bot- 
tom of  tlie  wound,  following  it  with  the 
bistouiy,  to  make  a  free  way  for  getting  at 
the  ble'eding  aitery,  or  extracting  the  Irac- 
tured  bone.  When  we  wish  iheii  to  extract 
the  ball,  we  aie  to  employ  free  incisions. 


,1 


Tlie  fingers  ai\>  to  be  iisect  more  than  tlic 
for!.ej)s ;  llics"  wlit'ii  tlie  ball  is  I'oimd  iire  to 
be  iiitioiJiK-i.-(i,  aiul  made  lo  gnisp  it.  Soiiic- 
tiines  tlie  ball  will  have  be.!"-;!  slopped  by.  a 
bone  and  llatti.-iiod,  withma  breaking  or 
splintering  such  bone ;  at  oilier  times,  how- 
ever, the  bone  by  the  forciJ  witii  \vbi<Ji  the 
ball  has  struck  it  will  bo  shivered  ;  in  this  case 
the  splinters  of  bone  are  to  be  all  carefully 
taken  out,  and  the  limb  treaLe<l  as  in  other 
tases  of  liaclurc.  If  the  bail  has  entered 
and  slicks  in  the  bone,  so  that  it  cannot  br  ex- 
tracted in  the  common  way,  then  a  more  free 
incision  must  be  made,  and  the  trepan  ap- 
plied ;  "  or  if  it  is  a  narrow  and  (irm  bone, 
jVl.  de  la  Kaye  orders  us  to  cut  the  bone  both 
above  and  l):low,  so  as  to  cut  away  that 
piece  in  which  the  ball  is  lixcd." 

But  it  is  principally  on  account  of  fractured 
bones,  wounded  aiteries,  or  pieces  ofdolh, 
that  these  dilatations  of  a  wound  are  called  for. 
"  It  is  only  the  openness  of  the  wouuil,  and 
the  nearness  of  the  ball,  that  tempts  us  to 
search  for  it ;  for  a  ball  sometimes  works  its 
way  outward  through  the  celhilar  substance, 
and  comes  to  the  surface  with  little  pain,  or 
often  it  lies  without  danger  buried  in  the 
flesh  for  years,  or  for  life.  If  there  was  no 
other  occasioi)  for  openin;;  the  wound,  we 
shokl  never  give  the  patient  pain  on  account 
of  the  ball,  since  it  seldom  itself  gives  him 
pain."  It  must,  however,  be  carefully  kept 
in  mind,  that  wounds,  even  though  fan-  and 
jjromising  tor  a  short  time,  will  never  heal 
kindly  while  the  foreign  matters  above-men- 
tioned are  suffered  to  remain. 

When  there  is  much  blood  spouting  from 
a  gun-shot  wound,  it  will  be  concluded  that 
a  great  arterv  is  injured:  in  this  case  the  sur- 
geon, guiiled"  by  liis  knowledge  of  tl;e  ana- 
tomy of  the  limb,  will  make  tree  dilatations 
from  the  nioulh  of  the  wound,  until  he  iinds 
the  vessel,  which  he  will  tie  up  or  secure. 
He  must  not,  however,  if  the  bleeding  artery 
is  of  a  large  siite,  trust  to  compress  or 
bandage.  A  piece  of  lint  dry,  or  with  some 
simple  ointment,  is  then  to  be  laid  over  the 
orihce  of  the  wound,  its  sides  are  to  be 
brought  as  close  together  as  possible,  without 
occasioning  much  irritation,  and  adhesive 
plaster  or  bandage  to  be  placed  over  the 
■  whole.  Bijt  there  is  another  kind  of  ha-nior- 
rhage  from  gun-shot  wounds  still  more  dan- 
gerous, which  may  be  called  the  secondary 
kcniorrhage.  This  often  occurs  eight  or 
nine  days  after  the  injury  was  iirit  received, 
and  the  patient  has  often  fallen  a  victim  to  it, 
tven  when  "  at  the  lirst  the  wound  was 
scarcely  stained  with  blood."  This  hemor- 
rhage is  occasioned  by  the  loosening  of  the 
«schar  of  the  mortified  and  bruised  parts, 
leaving  a  breach  in  the  sides  of  a  great  artery. 
In  the  course  then  of  healing  a  wound,  the 
proximity  of  which  to  a  considerably  artery 
IS  known,  the  patient  ought  to  be  attentively 
and  incessantly  watched  ;  and  in  some  cases 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  constantly  a  tourniquet 
found  the  limb. 

We  conclude  this  part  of  our  subject  by 
repeating  tlie  motives  for  scarifying  and  for 
dilating  gun-shot  wounds.  The  first  is,  for 
thepurpose  "  of  opening  the  vessels  that  they 
may  bleed,"  and  in  order  thus  to  reduce  the 
wound  as  nearly  as  may  be  to  one  made  by  a 
cutting  instrument.  The  dilatation  of  a  wound 
is  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  us  to  secure  anv 

Vol.  U. 


SURGERY, 

great  artery  that  may  have  been  divid:-d,  and 
to  e.Mract  .'plinters  of  bone,  or  anv  other 
foreign  mat.  rial,  the  ball  itself  bei'ii,-?  that 
about  which,  on  as ccsnit  of  its  shape  aiid 
smooth  surface,  we  are  the  least  solicitous. 

O/luhuUir  or  penclraling  wounds. 

But  there  is  further  another  kind  of  wound 
which  is  dill'erent  inits  nature  and  treatment 
iiom  that  made  by  a  plain  ajid  fair  division 
of  parts,  viz.  a  penetrating  or  tubular  wound, 
such  as  is  made  iiy  the  bayonet  or  sword,; 
and  in  this  lust  case  it  is  the  surgeon's  duty 
lo  bring  it  as  much  as  possible  into  that  con- 
dition iii  vvliich  its  sides  may,  by  being  applied 
to  each  other,  adhere.  '"  .suppose,  says 
Mr.  J.  Bell,  "  a  young  man  in  fig'iting  a  duel 
with  the  sword,"  is  woundsd  in  the  sword 
arm,  his  antagonist's  weapon  goes  in  at  the 
wrist,  and  out  at  the  elbow.  It  in  such  case 
any  great  artery  is  wounded,  then  indeed  it 
injects  the  arm  witli  blood,  forming  a  proper 
aneurism,  so  that  we  are  forced  to  cut  up 
the  fore  arm,  and  tie'  the  wounded  artery ; 
but  if  it  is  merely  a  llesh  wound,  it  is  no 
doubt  somewhat  dangerous  from  being  deep 
and  penetrating ;  but  still  it  is  so  little  dif- 
ferent from  a  common  and  open  wound,  that 
could  we  bring  the  sides  of  this  tube-like 
wouiid  fairly  in  contact  with  each  other,  it 
would  clo'.'e  in  a  day  ;  and  the  reason  that  it 
does  not  happen  so  is  plainly  this,  that  the 
blood  which  exudes  from  the  Very  small 
arteries  is  snliicient  to  (ill  the  tube  of  the 
wound :  it  not  only  fills  it,  but  the  bleeding 
going  on  withinside,  while  it  is  prevented  by 
a  compress  and  close  bandage  from  getting 
out,  the  tube  of  the  wound  is  not  only  lilled 
but  dilated  with  blood,  and  therefore  cannot 
adhere,  just  for  the  same  reason  as  the  heal- 
ing of  an  ill  amputated  stump  is  delayed 
where  the  arteries,  not  being  fairly  tied,  have 
bled  after  the  dressing  so  as  to  till  the  bason 
of  the  slump,  and  separate  the  iiaps  from  each 
other.  This  not  only  prevents  adhesion  and 
brings  on  suppiu'ation,  but  produces  a  gan- 
grenous stump  lilled  with  foul  and  stinking 
matter,  partly  purulent,  and  partly  filled 
with  blood." 

The  ob\  ious  inference  froin  all  this  is,  that 
the  healing  of  tiiose  kinds  of  wounds  of  which 
we  are  now  speaking,  is  principally  to  be  fa- 
cilitated, nay,  is  alone  to  be  effected,  by 
cleansing  it  of  this  blood  (when  no  important 
artery  is  divided),  by  closing  the  mouth  of 
the  wound  with  a  slight  conijiress,  and  "  lay- 
ing its  sides  together  with  a  slight  bandage." 
It  was  in  thus  cleansing  these  wounds  of 
blood  previously  to  closing  them,  that  the  re- 
markable success  attended  uhat  was  deno- 
minated some  time  since  in  France,  the  secret 
dressing.  This  used  to  be  performed  by  men 
who  were  denominated  suckers,  one  of 
whom  was  present  at  every  sword-duel. 
"  The  rencounter  ended  the  instant  that  one 
of  the  combatants  received  a  wound ;  the 
sucker  immediately  applied  liimself  to  suck 
the  wound,  and  continued  sucking  and  dis- 
charging the  blood  till  the  wound  ceased  to 
bleed;  and  then,  the  wound  being  clean,  he 
applied  a  piece  of  chewed  )iaper  on  the 
mouth  of  the  wound,  tied  up  the  limb  with  a 
tight  bandage,  and  then  the  patient  walked 
home." 

This  mode  of  treatment  has  proved  suc- 
cessful even  in  wounds  which  have  pierced, 
or  passed  tlirough,  one  of  the  cavities,  when 
£  A 


tliere  have  been  no  veins,  nor  any  great  blood-* 
vessel,fwounded. 

In  a  deep  and  penetrating  wound,  there- 
fore, the  method  of  cure  consists  in  purging 
it  of  its  evtravasatcd  blood,  and  cau-iiig  its 
sides  to  adhere.  We  dp  not  here  need  tu 
make  incisions  or  scarifications,  as  in  gun- 
shot wounds,  unless  for  the  purpojc  oi  se- 
curing some  great  artery  that  may  have  been 
divided. 

^laving  thus  gone  over  the  surf^ical  treat* 
ment  of  wounds,  fair,  angular,  bruised,  lace-' 
rated,  and  penetrating,  we  now  proceed  to 
lay  down  some  rules  respecting  the  medical 
management  of  patients  under,  these  iiijurieti, 
and  which  is  still  more  important  than  tlir? 
surgery  itself  of  wounds;  "  for  if  the  con- 
nection is  not  understood  beiwixt  the  par- 
ticular wound  and  the  general  health ;  it  tlie 
army  or  hospital  svn-geon  (and  the  same  re- 
mark a))plies  with  modifications  to  private 
practice)  does  not  know  with  a  glance  the 
constitutfon  of  a  patient,  or  the  true  state  of 
his  sore  ;  if  he  is  not  careful  to  retain  some 
general  princijile,  which,  like  a  mystic  clue, 
may  lead  him  through  this  labvrintii,  he  will 
see  tliousands  dying  around  him  without 
knowing  the  cause",  like  the  fable  of  the  Gre- 
cian camp  tailing  under  the  invisible  shaft* 
of  Apollo." 

Among  the  very  many  mistakes  and  un- 
meaning prejudices  which  have  crept  iiita 
the  practice  of  both  medicine  and  surgery, 
that  of  indiscriminate  blood-letting  has,  per- 
haps, proved  '..he  most  pernicious.  Than  thia 
practice  followed  up,  as  it  has  been,  nothing' 
can  possibly  be  more  prejuosterous,  or  more 
dangerous.  The  writer  of  this  article  not 
many  days  since  heard  of  an  instance  (an  ex- 
treme case  it  must  be  confessed,  yet,  as  such, 
more  especially  illustrative  of  tjie  injudicious 
conduct  now-  referred  to)  of  a  superannuated 
lady,  by  some  accident  having  been  literally 
scorched  to  death :  the  surgeon  who  was 
summoned  found  himself  preceded  by  another 
"practitioner,"  who  was  actually,  while  the 
writer's  friend  entered  the  room,  unsheathinff 
his  lancet  in  order  "  to  take  some  blood. 
In  like  manner,  with  more  colour  of  pro- 
priety, it  must  be  admitted,  when  a  wounded 
])alient  is  first  brought  to  a  surgeon,  it  is  by 
numbers,  even  to  this  day,  deemed  a  neces- 
sary preliminary  to  further  proceedings,  to 
bleed  the  patient.  "  The  sovereign  cordial 
of  the  landlady''  is  often  more  appropriate ; 
and  many  lives  have,  perhaps,  been  saved 
bv  the  absence  of  the  village  surgeon. 

Let  the  following  invaluable  rules  be  trea- 
sured in  the  mind  of  the  young  practitioner, 
not  as  dogmas  to  force,  but  as  j)rinciples  to 
regulate,  his  practice.  They  are  more  direct- 
ly dr^w  n  up  for  the  use  of  anny  and  navy 
surgeons,  but  will  be  found  highly  important 
to  surgeons  in  general. 

1st.  "  When  your  wounded  patient  is  first 
brought  toyo\i,neis  ingreatconfusion;  there 
is  a  tremor,  a  tonic  stilVness,  or  almost  a  con- 
vulsion of  the  whole  frame  ;  there  are  cold- 
ness, fainting,  and  nervous  atl'ection;  but  it  i« 
merely  a  nervous  al'fection,  and  it  must  be 
treated  as  such.  You  may  expect  it  to  sub* 
side  in  time,  and  therefore  should  give  some 
good  warm  cordial,  and  large  opiates  to 
(piiet  the  commotion.  This  is  no  time  for 
bleeding ,  whatever  tlie  nature  of  the  wmind 
may  be.  If  the  stupor  continues,  you  sliould 
^ve  cordial  draui;Uts  and  wine« 


733 

2d.    "  If  this  nervous  commolinn  being  j 
quieted,  a  sharp  fever  should  cotnc  on,  still 
<lo  not  bleed,  l)ut  rather  be  upon  the  reserve;  ■ 
for  perhaps   tins,  which  at  lirst  seems  to  be  a  | 
pure  iiiliaminatory   fever,  may  turn  out  to 
be  a  fit  of  an  ague,  to  which  the  patient  is 
subject ;    it  may   be  a    low  and  malignant 
fever ;  it  may   be  an.attatk  of  some  camp 
disease;  and  if  a  diarrhoea,  great  wealcness, 
and  low  muttering  dehrium,  should  come  on 
immediately  alter  you  have  bled  your  patieiif 
freely,   you     would    be    distressed    at   the 
thought  of  what  you  had  done,  and  ^  ou  would 
iixieed  have  much  to  answer  for. 

3d.  "  lleserve  your  bleedings  for  those 
more  dangerous  cases,  where  high  intlamnia- 
tion  is  so  often  fatal,  and  do  not  bleed  in 
wounds  of  the  hips,  shoidders,  or  limbs.  Ke- 
servc  bleeding  for  wounds  of  the  breast  or 
belly,  or  great  joints;  for  in  all  wounds  of 
cavities,  intlammation,  which  can  hardly  be 
escaped,  is  the  great  danger. 

4th.  "  If  a  man  is  wounded  after  a  full 
meal,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  gentle 
vomiting  must  be  n>eful,  where  it  is  allowed 
by  the  circumstances  of  the  wound.  'I'lie  old 
physicians  found  their  advantage  in  it,  and 
ascribed  the  good  etfects  of  vomiting  to  the 
preventing  of  crude  and  ill-concocted  chyle 
from  entering  into  the  system,  so  as  to  kindle 
up  a  fever.  There  is  no  doubt  ihat  a  meal 
which  was  noloadduring  heallh.willbe  agreat 
oppression  upon  a  disordered  system,  and 
the  carrying  it  olT  must  be  a  grrit  relief,  al- 
though the  old  physicians,  by  talkmg  this  use- 
less jargon  about  ill-concoctcd  chyle,  might 
ahnost  provoke  us  to  reject  both  the  doctrme 
and  the  practice.  The  system  cannot  be 
weakened  bv  a  gentle  emetic;  and  if  the 
svstem  should  fall  low  after  vomiting,  it  were 
easy  to  substitute  a  litter  support,  and  better 
excitement,  than  that  of  ai!  oppressed  stomach 
and  loaded  intestines,  by  lirst  discharging 
these  crude  meats,  and  giving,  when  the  sto- 
mach was  emptied,  food  of  easy  digestion, 
and  cordials  suited  to  the  condition  of  the 
system. 

'  Sth.  "  Out  in  every  w-ound  there  comes  a 
period  of  w'eakn(-ss,  in  which  we  repent  of 
'  every  bleeding  we  have  made,  even  when  it 
was  really  needed;  a  period  in  which,  by 
confinenient  and  pain,  occasional  fever, 
diarrhoea,  profuse  suppuration,  or  colliqua- 
tive sweats,  the  patient  falls  so  low  that  it  is 
not  easy  to  support  him  through  the  cure': 
snd  Ihits  t^ere  are  two  groat  principles  in  the 
treatment  of  gun-shot  wounds :  that  even 
at  tirst  we  sliould  be  sparing  of  blood  ;  and 
t;iat  the  period  of  weakness  which  is  to  suc- 
ceed, is  the  gr*;at  dinger;  on  this  single  point 
hangs  all  the  practice." 

Tiie  author  afterwards  adds,  that  in  mere 
fiesli-wo'inds  we  are  not  entitled  to  bleed ; 
for  if  there  is  no  wound  of  a  joint,  or  frac- 
tured hone,  the  lirst  inllammation  never  runs 
too  bight. 

By  due  attention  to  the  above  rules,  the 
surgeon  will  never  find  himself  at  a  loss  with 
regard  to  the  immediate  requisitions  of  the 
■wounded,  either  in  army,  navy,  hospital,  or 
private  practice.  It  will  scarcely  be  neces- 
sary to  observe,  that  where  immediate  bleed- 
ing is  judged  necessary  (and  this  is  always 
the  case,  as  above  stated,  in  wounds  of  ca- 
vities and  joints),  it  may  be  employed  most 
Ire-.-ly  ia  the  young,  lull-fed,   vigorous,  and 


SURGEKY. 

plethoric,  in  dry  and  healthy  situations,  in 
the  spring  of  the  year,  when  no  epidemic  <hs- 
order  prevails,  and  when  the  patient  is  after- 
wards to  enjoy  all  the  advantages  of  cleanli- 
ness, air,  and  a  suitable  diet, 

iuthe  progress  of  the  cure,  the  surgeon 
is  still  not  fiir  a  moment  to  lose  sight  of  the 
intimate  connection  between  the  condition 
of  the  general  system,  and  the  slate  of  the 
wound.  Still  fever  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  intlammation  :  aiul  the  two  opposite  kinds 
of  inik^inmation  treated  of  in  the  article 
Medicink,  vol.  ii.  p.  a50,  arc  likewise  to  be 
sedulously  discriminated  :  the  one  will  re- 
quire a  low  diet,  evacuating  medicines,  and, 
as  it  is  expressed,  a  cooling  aniiphlogistic 
regimen;  the  other  as  loudly  calls  fir  bark, 
wine,  opium,  elixir  of  vitriol,  and  above  all 
pure  air,  and  (so  as  not  to  overload  or  op- 
press the  weaki-ned  organs  of  digestion),  rich 
or  rather  nourishing  food.  Here,  instead  of 
further  reducing  the  system,  '•  you  must 
trust  to  air  and  cleanliness,  and  bark  and 
wine." 

A\'e  now  proceed  to  speak  of  the  treatment 
of  wounds  in  the  two  cavities  of  tlie  chest  and 
belly. 

The  first  and  great  danger  in  a  wound 
which  has  penetrated  the  thoracic  cavity,  is 
that  of  sull'ocatioii  from  blood  poured  into  the 
air-cells,  or  towards  the  trachea.  The  hrst 
and  prlni'ipal  object  then  of  the  surgeon  is  to 
obviate  this  consequence  as  speedily  as  pos- 
sible ;  and  here  immediate  and  oftentimes 
frequently-repeated  bleedings  are  called  for, 
even  should  the  patient  be  in  a  condition  un- 
favourable to  the  discharge  of  blood.  "  Here 
it  is  your  duty  to  keep  the  [)atient  low,  and  to 
drain  his  system  so  thoroughly  of  blood,  that 
none  shall  pass  towards  the  lungs  to  suffocate 
him,  and  that  there  may  not  be  blood  enough 
in  the  system  to  serve  as  fuel  for  that  intlam- 
mation which  sooner  or  later  must  come  on." 

Mhen  the  blood  is  merely  poured  into  the 
cellular  membrane  or  cavity  of  the  breast, 
without  entering  the  air-cells,  the  finger,  as 
already  mentioned,  is  to  be  introduced  into 
the  wound  ;  or  if  this  wound  is  too  high  for 
the  necessary  ilischarge  of  the  extravasaled 
blood,  a  fresh  wound  may  be  made  lower 
down  upon  the  bri'ast,  and  this  so  that  the 
surgeon  may  luae  it  in  his  power  to  reach 
and  tie  the  intercostal  artery,  if  this  artery 
has  betn  divided. 

For  the  emphysema  or  windy  swelling, 
which  is  often  so  alarming  to  the  by- 
standers, but  which  is  in  reality  the  most 
trivial  symptom,  scarifications  are  to  be 
made  in  order  to  discharge  the  collected  air. 

If,  durin;^  the  cure  of  a  hreast-wnuiid,  there 
comes  on  a  jnicking  in  the  side;  if  the  cough 
is  aggravated,  the  tlischarge  becomes  more 
copious,  and  the  systematic  irritation  in- 
creased, there  will  be  reason  to  suspect  the 
remains  of  some  irritating  material,  as  a 
splinter  of  bone  ;  in  this  case,  the  wound  is 
to  be  probed,  injected,  and  every  endeavour 
madi!  to  extract  the  irritaling  cause. 

"  .Sensible,  at  every  turn,  how  slight  a  mat- 
ter will  irritate  the  pleura  and  lungs,  the 
surgeon  will  never  allow  himself  to  do  so  un- 
natural an<l  cruel  a  thing  as  to  pass  a  c;reat 
cord  across  the  chest,  which  is  thus  easily 
irritated  by  the  most  trilling  piece  of  bone  or 
rag  of  cloth;  but  he  merely  lays  a  bit  of 
oiled  caddis  gently  within  the  wound,  with  a 
large  emollient  poullife  over  all." 


To  conclude.  In  the  wounds  we  are  now 
describing,  the  surgeon  must  in  the  hrst  day 
bleed  copiously,  and  repeatedly;  he  must 
again  bleed  should'  bloody  expectoration  re- 
cur, weakening  the  system  in  order  to  pre- 
vent sulilbcation  ;  "  and  w  hen  the  time  comes 
in  which  the  oppression  is  forgotten,  and  the 
danger  of  suflbcafion.and  the  bleedings  from 
the  lungs,  are  over,  he  begins  to  support  his 
patient's  strength  with  opium  and  bark,  and 
nourishing  diet  and  milk.' 

IFound^  in  (he  abdomen.   While  the  danger 
from  wounded  lungs  is  chiefly  of  sutTocatioii, 
in  wounds  of  tiie  abdomen,  as  belore  stated, 
we   have  principally  to   fear  either    sudden- 
death  from  internal  hemorrhage,  or  peritonxal' 
intiammation,  when  tlie  bleeding  has  not  been 
so  profuse.     Against  this  intern.d  bleeding, . 
bleeding  from  the  arm  is  tlie  great  preserva- 
t;  ,<• ;  and  this,  as  in  wounded  lungs,  must  he  ■ 
done  with  a  very  liberal  hand.     When  the 
peritona;al  inilanimation  has.comeon,  the  pa- 
tient must  be  assiduously  preserved  from  all 
motion   and  irritation  ;     clysters  of  a   mild- 
gentle  kind  must  be  injected,  the  belly  for- 
mented,  and  opiates  adminstered. 

Nq  food  is  to  be  given  for  the  first  ten  or 
twelve  days  ;  nou^i^llmeut  is  to  be  conveyed  . 
by  clyster,  or  if  any  thing  is  taken  by  "the 
stomach,  it  must  be  extremely  mild  and 
gelatinous.  If  the  wound  has  no,t  2>enetrated 
the  intestine,  but  part'  of  the  sound  gut  is 
protruded,  it  must  be  gently  returned  with 
the  finger,  and  the  outward  wound  stitched 
over  it. 

Mhen,  from  the  passing  out  of  the  fices». 
it  is  evident  that  an  intestine  is  wounded,  tiiis 
is  not  to  be  searched  for  with  the  linger,  but 
suticred  to  remain  ;  and  from  the  luiiversal 
liiessure  among  the  parts,  the  outward  and'- 
inward  wound  will  be  brouaht  opposite  to 
each  other.  If,  however,  the  wounded  in- 
testine is  protruded,  it  is  to  be  connected 
by  a  single  stitch  to  the  external  wound,  in 
order  that  thefa'ces  may. be  thrown  out  from 
this  last,  and  the  adhesive  process  en- 
couraged. 

When,  through  a  naiTow  wound,  a  sound, 
bowel  is  obtruded,  and  becomes  iiitlanied, 
the  stricture  is  to  be  relieveil  by  opening  thc- 
wound  a  little  wider,  tiie  intestine  is  to  be 
carefully  returned,,  and  then  the  outer  wound 
stitched. 

Before  we  quit  this  subject  of  wounds,  an 
apology  may  be  thought  necessary  tor  en- 
larging disproportionately  on  this  division  of 
the  article.  We  have  done  so  for  the  pur- 
pose of  illustrating  the  advantage  that  prac- 
tical surgery  has  received  from  the  natural, 
as  opposed  to  the  artificial  cure  of  wounds  ; 
a  fact  which  the  \oung  surgeon  will  find  it 
necessary  to  impress  on  his  mind  as  a  direc- 
tory in  every  step  of  his  practice,  whether 
operative  or  medicinal.  We  shall  conclude 
this  section  by  an  extract  from  an  author 
to  whose  incomparable  treatise  on  wounds 
we  have  been  principally  indebted  for  what 
information  the  preceding  obsen'ations  may 
have  coveyed. 

"  It  is  an  old,  hut  it  is  a  becoming  and  mo- 
dest thought,  that  in  our  profession  we  are 
but  as  the  ministers  of  nature  ;  and,  indeed, 
the  surgeon,  still  more  than  the  physician, 
achieves  nothing  by  his  own  immediate 
power,  but  does  all  his  services  by  observin'^ 
and  managing   the  properties  ot'  the  living 


bo.ly;  Vi]if-f  llio  living  priii'-'iple  i;  so  sti'oilfr 
eiul  active  in  cm eiy  purl,  (liat,  l)y  dial  eiierg\ 
alone  it  rcgeiu,T;Uos  any  lost  snl)jtan(;c,  or 
■re-unites,  in  a  monr  iinniediulc  way,  tlir 
more  simple  womuls."  J.  IJell's  Discoiuse.i 
on  the  Nature  and  Cure  of  W'ouniU. 

Of  aneurisms. 

Wounded  arteries  cannot  always  he  se- 
cured. Very  ollen,  as  we  liavi;  aljove  stated, 
a  largp  vessel  is  divided  or  punctured  at  a 
consi(l(;rable  distance  from  the  surface  ot  llie 
wound,  or  in  situations  where  the  arlorv  can- 
not be  coninianded:  the  blood  is  bv  conse- 
(juence  immediately  and  profusely  poured  out, 
spreads  amonc^  the  conti^uoui  pans,  and  pro- 
duces an  am  urismal  tunioui'.  'i'liii  is  tlu' 
false  or  diffu*ed  aneurism  of  authors,  an<l  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  formed  is  sufficientlv 
obvious. 

TIk;  progress  of  this  aneurism  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  situation  and  size  of  the  arterv 
that  has  been  wounded.  In  the  course  of  a 
few  hours,  the  blood  has  been  kjiown  to 
diffuse  itself  through  the  whole  extent  of  a 
limb;  at  other  times  a  very  small  tumour 
aliout  the  size  of  a  horse-bean  will  remain 
of  tlie  same  size  for  some  weeks.  As  the  in- 
crease of  tlie  tiniiour  in  false  aneurism  is  ge- 
nerally occasioned  by  a  diffusion  of  blood 
among  the  surrounding  parts ;  it  does  not, 
like  the  true  aneurism  immediately  to  be 
noticed,  become  more  prominent  as  it  en- 
larges. In  the  tirst  stages  of  the  disease,  a 
pulsation  is  almost  always  perceived  in  the 
tumour.  This  gradually  lessens,  and  often  at 
length  becomes  imperceptible.  After  some 
time,  more  or  less  according  to  the  depth  and 
magnitude  of  the  wounded  vessel,  the  skin 
becomes  of  a  livid  appearance,  the  member 
beci'ncs  stitf,  painful,  and  the  contiguous 
joint  immoveable,  the  integuments  at  length 
give  way,  and  if  the  artery  is  large  a  fatal 
li.Tmorrhage  ensues. 

When  an  artery  has  been  accidentally 
punctured  by  the  translixing  of  a  vein,  an  ac- 
cident which  has  happened  sometimes  in 
blood-lelting  at  the'  arm,  the  txtravasated 
blood  either  difluses  itself  into  the  sur- 
'rounding  cellular  substance,  or,  when  the 
vein  and  artery  are  more  immediately  in 
contact,  the  coauuvmication  between  the 
vessels  is  preserved  ;  the  vein,  by  the 
conequent  impetus  of  blood  comes  to  be 
ililated,  and  what  has  beeji  denominated  va- 
ricose aneurism  occasioned. 

'Ihis  kind  of  tuEuourmay  be  recognized  by 
the  tremulous  kind  of  motion  which  attends 
it,  accoiupanieil  by  a  peculiar  liissnig  noise, 
and  by  the  tuiuor  entirely  disappearing  for  a 
time  upon  pressure. 

When  (rom  accident  or  disease  the  coats 
of  an  artery  lose  in  any  particular  point  their 
ordinary  power  of  resistance  to  the  blood's 
impetus,  and  tlie  diameter  of  the  artery  be- 
comes In  consecpience  dilated,  the  true  or 
encysted  aneurism  is  formed.  It  was,  indeed, 
to  this  dilatation  ot  arteries,  without  the 
rupture  of  their  coats,  and  extravasation  of 
blood,  that  the  term  aneurism  was  originally 
and  is  more  properly  ajiplied. 

In  this  disease,  although  it  inay,be  situated 
near  the  surface,  the  outer  skin  at  first  is  of  a 
jiatural  appearance,  the  tumour  is  compres- 
iible,  and  a  pulsation  may  almost  always  be 
observed  in  it.  As  the  swelling  increases,  the 
skin  becomes   paler  than  ordinary,  parts  of 


the  tmnour  are  ot^en  firiner  than  others  and 
the  pulsation  cannot  be  (hscovered  at  all 
points  upon  pressure.  I'ain  now  comes  on, 
the  skin  becomes  discoloured  as  in  false 
aneurism,  an  oozing  of  bloody  matter  is  per- 
ceived, and  at  length  the  tumour  bursts,  and 
if  the  scat  of  the  disease  has  been  a  large 
artery,  in  one  of  the  cavities  of  the  body 
wlure  compression  cannot  be  apjilied,  death 
i«  the  iner  liable  consequence.  Sometimes 
the  fatal  termination  is  occasioned  by  the 
gradual  de>truction  of  surrounding  "parts. 
I'^ven  boiKts  have  become  canons  in  coiise- 
queiKx'  of  their  |)roximily  to  a  large  aneur- 
ism. 

Hesides  these  three  species  of  aneurismal 
tumours,    the  false,  the    varicose,  and    the 
encysted,  Mr.  J.  Bell   describes  another  dis- 
ease, which   he  calls  aneurism  from  anasto- 
mosis.    'Ihis,  our  author  observes,   is  con- 
stituted  not    by    the   dilatation   of  any  one 
branch  of  an  artery,  but  by  a  mutual  enlarge-  j 
ment  of  the  smaller  arteries  and  veins;  it  pro-  . 
ceeds  from  a  trivial  size  to  a  large  and  for- 
midable tumour;   it   is  characterised  bv  per- 1 
petual  throbbing,  which  at  length  beco'ines-al 
continual   and  distinct  pulsation.     It  beats 
strongly  when    the  circulation  is   unusually 
accelerated ;   in  spring  and  summer,  its  pul-  [ 
satory  motions  become  fuller  and  more  acute; 
it  goes  on  to  form  sacs  among  the  cellular 
substance,  or  among  the  diialett veins.  'I'hese 
become  at  length  livid,  and  burst  from  time  (o 
lime  ;  and  flieii,  as  in  other  aneurisms,   tlie  ; 
tumour  pours  out  its  blood,  and,  according  to  ' 
its  extent,  reduces  the  patient.  I 

Dias;nostic  murk'!.    Tlie  existence  of  an  ' 
aneurismal  tumour  is  not  always  to  be  pro-  \ 
nounced  with  decision,  for  although  pulsation  | 
might  be  regarded  as  a  true  diagnostic  cha-  I 
racter  of  tlie  disease,  it  is  not  ab=ohUely  so  ; 
for  other  tumours  may  be  situated  so  ne.ir  a  1 
large  artery,  as  to  be  regularly  affected  by  its  j 
pulsations.     When  there  is  any  doubt  of  the 
nature  of  the  swelling,   pressure  should  be  i 
niade  on  it ;  and  if  it  disappears  or  lessen.s,  and  j 
immediately  recovers  its  size  upon  the  pres- 
sure being  taken  off,  it  may  be  considered  as 
an  aneurism.     In  the  advanced  stages,  jiow- 
ever,  even  of  an  aneurism,  the  reduction  can-  i 
not  always  be  effected.  I 

Causes.      The   simple    statement    of   the  ! 
mode  in  which  the  two  first  species  of  aneur- 
ism above  noticed  are  occasioned,  is  a  suffi- 
cient account  of  the  causes  producing  them. 
The  true  or  encysted  aneurism  apj)eurs  for  the 
most  part  to  depend  upon  a  diseased  dispo- 
sition ;  often,  indeed,  it  is  brought  on  by  vio- 
■leiice  or  accident,  but  even  then  the  pre-dis- 
posit-on  is  generally  to  be  suspected.  AV'omen 
are   less  obnoxious  to  aneurism  than   men, 
especially  the  large   aneurism  of  the  ham; 
and  this  Mr.  J.  Bell  ascribes   to  their   e.x- 
emption  from  tlie   hard  labour  of  the  other  ! 
sex.     To  this   conclusion,   however,   it  has 
been,  objected,  that  even  where  the  labourof  : 
females  is  greater  than  that  of  the  men,  audi 
where  even   their  occupations  are  such  as  to 
occasion    those   exertions   which  principally  ' 
endanger  the  artery,  the  immunity  is  still  the  ' 
same. 

When  aneurism  is  produced  gradually  and  ' 

without  violence,  this  disordi-d  pre-disposition 
is  more  evident.     In   this  case,  likewisi;,  the 
p;  ospect  of  cure  from  operation  will  be  more  ■ 
Uiiiilly  marked   than  wlien  the  tumour  has  , 
3  A 'J  ' 


>39 

sticcoeded  to  PVt(*rnal  ii:;iiry  ;  for  this  reason 
a  dilfusi'd  and  varicose  aneurism  promises  to 
be  reme<lied  by  operation,  with  more  surety 
than  the  true  or  encysted  aneurism. 

Aneurisms,  likewiie,  are  more  or  less  dan- 
gerous according  to  their  situation.  When 
they  are  formed  in  large  blood-vessels  near 
the  heart,  they  are  not  the  subjei.t  of  ope- 
ration ;  and  it  had  generally  been  conceived 
that  even  in  the  extremities,  when  they  werif 
seated  high  up,  as  in  the  axilla^  or  ham,  thi« 
would  be  inadmissible  on  ac  omit  of  the  com- 
plete stoppage  to  the  circulation,  which  was 
iniagiiiccf  a  necessary  consequence  of  obliter- 
ating the  great  artery  of  the  thigh  or  arm. 
Uy  an  anatomical  and  practical  investigation 
ot  tli:3  subject,  it  has,  however,  been  demon- 
strated that  ll'.e  inosculating  vessels  arc  iti 
either  instance  sufiicient  to  supply  the  limb  ; 
and  that  where  failure  attends  the  operation 
for  aneurism,  it  is  to  be  ascribed  to  other 
source*.  In  this  substitution  of  the  collateral 
branches  for  the  arterial  trunk,  consists,  in- 
deed, the  cure  of  aneurism,  when  it  is  effected 
without  operation. 

Tiealiiwnt.  The  cure  of  every  species  of 
aneurism  has  been  attempted  by  continual 
jjiessure  on  the  tumours.  In  the  false,  or 
diffused  aneurism,  however,  no  advantage 
can  be  derived  from  this  treatment.  In  the 
varicose  aneurism,  moderate  and  equal  jjres- 
sure  may  be  attended  with  benelit;  and  even 
the  true  aneurism,  when  the  artery  is  so 
situated  that  pressure  can  be  made,  has 
been  cured  according  to  the  accounts  of 
authors  by  this  means.  When  attempts 
of  this  kind  do  not  seem  to  promise  any 
benelit,  the  operation  ought  to  be  speed- 
ily performed. 

When  lirst  the  operation  for  aneurism  was 
practised,  it  was  invariably  tlic  rule  to  secure 
if  possible  the  large  artery  leading  to  the 
tumour  by  the  tourniquet;  'then  to  "cut  into 
the  sac,  lay  the  cavity  of  the  tumour  freely 
and  fairly  open,  clear  it  of  the  clotted  blootl, 
secure  the  artery  by  ligature,  and  treat  the 
wound  according  to  circumstances.  In  some 
case.s  it  is  necessary  still  to  pursue  this  plan, 
as  in  a  large  and  Spreading  aneurism  of  thsr 
groin  ;  but  where  the  arterj-  leading  to  the 
tumour  can  be  dissected  and  taken  up 
before  it  reaches  the  cavity  of  the  sac,  it  has 
been  proved  that  this  mode  of  ojieraling  is 
the  most  expedient.  Mr.  John  Hunter  first 
proposed  it,  by  directing,  in  popliteal  aneur- 
ism, that  tlie  great  vessel  from  which  it  is 
nourished  should  be  laid  bare  on  the  fore  part 
of  the  thigh,  that  the  artery  should  be  obliter- 
ated by  ligature  at  this  part,  and  that  l\v- 
tumour,  now  deprived  .  of  itn  nourishment, 
should  be  left  to  be  dissipated  by  u-e  ab- 
sorbents. This  plan  is  now  generaliy  adopt- 
ed. The  surgeon  dissects  down  upon  the 
artery,  in  the  part  which  is  judged  m:>st  con- 
venient for  the  operation,  ties  the  vessel  at 
two  [)laces  at  half  an  inch  or  mbre  distant 
from  each  othei-,  cuts  it  across  in  t/ie  mid- 
dle between  the  ligatures,  and  thus  destroys 
its  communication  with  the  tumour :  the 
blood  is  giadualiy  solicited  by  the  inoscu- 
lating branches,  whch  enlarge  and  come  at 
length  fully  to  supply  the  place  of  the  trunk. 

In  performing  this  operation,  the  surgeon 
is  to  disjecfthe  artery  ye:y  idean  ;  it  sliould 
be  carehilly  tied  by  itself,  without  including 
tlie  acconuanying  nerve  ;  a  firm  waxed  li  ;a- 
ture,  with3i:t  any  intervening  substance,  is  t  > 


?40 

be  passed,  rouml  it  by  mc^Jis  of  a  blunt 
needle,  or  crooked  probe,  and  the  wound 
treate-d  in  the  common  manner. 

In  tlie  aneurism  by  anastomosis,  Mr.  Bell 
observes  that  the  only  radical  care  is  coni- 
piele  extirpation  :  we  are  not  to  cut  into  it, 
or  to  attempt  the  interruption  of  any  par- 
ticular vessels  leading  ino  it,  but  the  whole 
group  of  vessels  by  which  the  tumour  is  sup- 
plied i'uust  be  entirely  extirpated. 

Ofjyacturcs. 

Fractures  are  not  in  all  instances  easy  of 
tietection.  Pain,  swellinc;,  distortion,  loss  ol 
power  in  the  injured  member,  shortening  of 
tl;e  limb,  and  a  peculiar  crepitating  sound 
lipon  the  pait  being  handled,  are  described 
as  the  signs  dejioling  a  broken  bone  ;  these, 
however,  are  all,  e.>ccepting  the  lust,  which 
cannot  in  every  case  be  i>crceived,  in  a 
greater  or  interior  degree,  common  to 
bruises,  sprains,  dislocations,  and  injuries  in- 
dejiendant  of  fracture. 

When  a  bone  is  simply  divided,  without 
any  protrusion  of  its  broken  ends,  lacerations 
of'  considerable  blood-vessels,  or  any  other 
circumstance  to  render  tlie  accident  compli- 
cated, the  practice  of  the  surgeon  is  obvious 
and  easy.  In  wounds  of  soft  parts,  we  have 
seen,  aihesion  is  insured  by  merely  bringing 
their  divided  edges  together ;  in  like  manner, 
though  much  more  tardily,  junction  will  be 
effected  betw  een  the  divided  extremities  of  a 
fractured  bone,  by  replacing  and  preserving 
them  in  even  and  steaily  contact.  Tlie  heal- 
ing of  wounds  is  not  accelerated,  but  on  the 
contrary  retarded,  by  the  several  contriv- 
ances and  interferences  of  the  older  sur- 
geons: so  by  the  cruel  practice  of  tight 
compressing,  bandaging,  and  the  use  of  ma- 
chinery, in  fracture,  not  only  unnecessary 
pain  is  occasioned  to  the  patient,  but  the 
process  of  cure,  instead  of  being  facilitated 
and  hastened,  is  considerably  impeded.  Na- 
ture, in  either  case,  will  not  be  interfered 
»rith. 

The  time  which  bones  lake  in  uniting  is 
proportioned  to  the  age  and  health  of  the 
individual.  In  persons  of  middle  age  and 
firm  constitution,  a  simple  fracture;  of  the 
arm  will  fur  the  most  |)art  be  fully  andhrnily 
united  in  a  little  more  than  a  month  from  tlic 
Accident.  Fractures  of  the  shouLler  and 
thigh-bone  are,  under  the  same  circumstances, 
about  six  weeks  or  two  months  in  healing ; 
while  the  smaller  bones,  as  the  clavicle,  the 
ribs,  the  fibula,  and  the  bones  of  t1ie  hand, 
seldom  occupy  in  their  cure  more  than  three 
weeks. 

In  simple  fractures,  provided  the  parts  have 
not  been  unduly  irritated,  eitlier  by  much 
motion  after  the'  accident,  or  by  light  strain- 
ingbandages,  the  symptoms  of  inllammalion 
will  subsiile  in  a  few  <lays.  Sometimes,  es- 
pecially when  .the  surgeon  h.is  been  called 
late,  it  is  necessary  to  subdue  the  local  irrita- 
tion by  solution  of  lead,  the  application  of 
leeches,  and  other  means  used  in  common 
intlammalion,  and  these  it  is  often  necessary 
to  continue  for  several  days.  Now  and  then 
it  will  be  f(jund  expedient  to  bleed  from  the 
arm.  Thme  requisitions  must  be  determined 
liy  the  good  sense  and  judgment  of  the  sur- 
gt!0n.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  abstract 
Tulcs  for  conduct.  To  bleed,  however, 
merely  because  a  bone  is  broken,  is  a  prac- 


SURGERr. 


tice  eipiallv  unmeaning  and  erroneous  witli 
that  before  alluded  to,  with  regard  to  wounds 
HI  soil  parts. 

Before  speaking  of  imli.idual  fractures,  we 
shall  present  the  reader  with  the  following 
instructions  of  Mr.  J.  uell,  which,  althougii 
especially  ai)plied  to  a  broken  leg,  will  bc 
found  applicable  with  proper  exce,)tions  to 
fractures  in  general. 

"  In  setting  a  broken  limb,"  says  our  au- 
thor, "  there  is  no  extension  required  but 
such  as  common  sense  would  din-ct  \ou  to 
use  were  you  not  a  surgeon.  Lay  the  patient 
in  b-^d,  aiid  lay  the  hnib  upon  a  pillow;  or  it 
you  design  to  use  splints,  have  two  long 
troughs,  'or  pieces  of  pasteboard,  (in  figure 
66  is  represented  the  u,ual  splint  employed 
in  a  fractured  leg)  bent  into  a  hollow  form, 
lined,  or  ratiier  cushioned,  with  two  or  three 
piles  of  Hannel,  with  tapes  or  rib.'.nds,  four  or 
live  in  number,  attached  to  the  outside  of 
one  of  the  spUnts,  by  which  both  sp'ints  may, 
after  all  is  over,  be  gentlv  tied  togetiier  with 
bow-knots,  to  be  slackened  or  tigiilened  ac- 
cording to  the  swellingof  tlie  limb.  Tlie  paste- 
board ought  to  be  soaked  and  softened  a 
little,  that  it  may  take  a  shape  suitable  to 
that  of  the  limb. 

A  long  splint  of  this  kind  being  laid  flat 
upon  the  bed  by  the  side  of  the  fractured  leg, 
desire  one  of  "your  assistants  to  apply  his 
hands  broad  round  the  upper  parf  of  the 
limb,  and  grasp  it  gently  and  steadily;  take 
the  foot  and  ancle  in  tlie  same  manner  in 
your  own  hand,  slip  your  left  hand  under  the 
broken  part  of  the  limb,  and  then  sliding  it 
gently  along,  lay  it  upon  the  pillow  or  its 
splints.  Th^e  pillow  should  be  like  a  mat- 
trass,  flat  and  lirm. 

Begin  then   to  lay  the  limb  smooth ;  let 
your  assistant  again  grasp  it,  by  spreading 
his  hands  upon  the  thigh  or  below  the  knee, 
with  the  design  of  extending  along  with  you, 
not  by  lilting  the  leg  from  the  pillow,  but 
rather  bv  keeping  it  down,  and  steadying  it 
by    pressure,    while   you   with    both   hands 
lift  the  foot  and  ancle;  grasp  them  gently, 
but   very   firmly;  raise   them    a   very    little 
from  the  pillow,  and  draw^  them  gently  and 
very  smoothly.     When   you   have  thus  ex- 
tended and   smoothed  tlie   broken  leg,  in  a 
manner  which  you  almost  suppose  agreeable 
rather  than   painful  to  the  patient,   oress  it 
down  steadily   and  gently;  ki'cp  it  flat  and 
pressed  until  it  gets  a  seat  and  bed  in  the  pil- 
low.    If  splints  are  applied,  the  limb  is  to  be 
pressed  against  the  lower  splints;  the  upper 
splint  is  then  to  be  laid  above  it,  and  by  grasp- 
ing the  sott  and  moistened  sjilints,  you  must 
model  them  a  little.     When  the  whole  has 
taken  a  forni,  take  several  tapes  one  after  an- 
otlur;  and  after  having  tu-d  them  in  a  ge- 
neral \>ay,  go  over  them  again  one  by  one, 
and  tie  "them  a  little  closer,  so  as  to  keep 
the  limb  agreeably  firm." 

This  author,  in  another  jilace,  rei/iarks 
(when  speakingof  fracture  in  general),  "  when 
the  limb  by  accident  has  been  disordered  or 
shortened,  you  are  to  venture,  without  fear  of 
hurting  the  callus,  to  extend  it  anew,  and  lay 
it  sfratght." 

It  may  be  proper  to  observe,  that  while 
much  inllammalion  is  present,  we  are  to  detVr 
the  application  of  splints,  even  in  the  gentle 
manner  abeve  advised,  till  such  intlammalion 
has  ill  a  cousiUcrable  degree  subsided. 


Of  fractures  of  the  hzver  extremities. 
Fractures  of  the  body  of  the  thigh  bone  may 
generally  be  ascertained  b)  the  signs  above 
caumeraled.  When,  however,  the  injury  is- 
m  the  neck  of  tlie  bone,  it  recpiires  much  at- 
tention to  disUnguish  luxation  from  fracture 
(see  the  section  on  f.iixulinn.).  Here  we' 
may  observe,  that  luxation  is  usually  occa- 
sioned by  straining  or  twisting  of  the  liinb'; 
while  perpendicular  falls,  or  leaps,  are  the 
more  common  causes  of  fracture.  When  the 
crepitation  is  discovered,  (lie  nature  of  the 
accident  will  be  unequivocal. 

Fracture  of  liie  thigh,  on  account  of  the 
strong  contraction  of  the  large  muscles  of 
this  part,  is  the  most  diflicult  of  cure.  To 
counteract  this  tendency  to  contraction,  the 
joints  of  the  thigh  and  knee  are  to  be  gently 
bended;  one  assistant  is  dien  to  take  lio'.d 
with  both  hands  of  the  upper  part  of  the  tiiigh; 
another  is  to  support,  and  very  moderately 
to  extend  the  lower  extremity,  while  the 
surgeon  adjusts  the  fractured  bones.  Aftec 
thus  reducing  the  fracture,  the  limb  is  to  be 
secured,  by  being  laid  in  a  well  franied  case, 
stilf,  and  adapted  to  the  foi'ii  of  the  limb,, 
bending  gently,  in  order  to  admit  of  a  relax- 
ed posluie,  lined  with  a  woollen  cloth,  or 
with  dannel,  each  hollow  being  filled  up  with 
little  cushions  of  tow  ;  another  splint  is  then 
to  be  laid  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  thigh, 
the  whole  braced  gently  down  with  ribands, 
and  then  both  the  thigh  and  its  case  bound  to 
the  pillow  by  tapes.  In  order  to  preserve  it 
against  the  weight  of  the  bed-clothes,  a  frame 
with  hoops  may  be  placed  over  the  thigh. 
From  time  to  time  the  limb  is  to  be  examin- 
ed, in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  bones 
retain  their  situation :  if  it  is  disordered  or 
shortened,  the  limb  may  be  again  gently 
extended  and  properly  adjusted.  /Mter  the 
second  week,  a  sni;ill  degree  of  tlexion  and. 
extension  may  be  used  daily,  in  order  tO; 
prevent  an  anchylosed  joint. 

Machines  have  been  invented,  one  parti- 
cularly  by  Mr.  Gooch,  represented  in  tig. 
64,   in  order  to  obviate  the  contractile  ten- 
dency,    by    making     a    counter-extension.. 
The  e  machines,  however,  do  by  no  means 
answer  the  intention  proposed.   'I'he  counter- 
extension  should  not  be  continual,  but  must 
be  made  occasionally,   and  with  the  hands. 
When  the  patella  is- fractured,  it  is  generally 
in  the  transverse  direction.     In  heahng  sucli . 
a  fracture,  the  leg  should  be  extended,  the 
patient  should  be  laid  on  a  maltrass,  and  a 
splint   placed   under  the  limb,   of  suflicient 
length  to  reach  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
thigh  to  the  under  pari  of  the  leg,  to  which- 
the  limb  ,s  to  be  attached  by  straps.  The  frac- 
tured bones  are  then  to  be  "brought  together, 
and  the  inllammation  subdued  by  local  ap- 
plications.    H;  re  the  pressure  of  the  bed- 
clothes should  likewise  be  guarded  against  by 
a  frame  of  lioops,  or  some  other  contrivance. 
When  the  bone  has  been  divided  longitudi- 
nally, the  common  adhesive  plaster  is  usually 
suflicient  to  maintain  the  junction.     In  trans- 
verse  fractures,   the  divided  pieces  of  bone 
recede  from  each  other :  and  unless  it  can  be 
done  with  facility,  they  are  not  to  be  brought 
together,  for  much  force  employed  in  this 
case  would  occasion  a  sliffness   of  the  knee- 
joints    and    lameness.      The  bandage  some- 
times  employed  in  a   transverse  fracture  of 
the  patella  is  represented  in  lig.  65. 

For  the  treatment  of  fractures  of  the  leg) 


gee  the  dirpctions  given  above.  AVlicn  the 
bones  of  Uu'  tarsus,  metatarsus,  aii',1  to.-s,  are 
fractured,  it  will  be  necessary  to  apply  a 
tplinl  to  the  fracture<l  part,  and  in  general  a 
large  one  beside  over  tlu:  sole  of  the  foot. 

rractures  nfthe  upper  extremities.  Frac- 
tures of  the  scapula  are  by  no  means  com- 
mon :  tlwy  are  ascertained  by  'tlie  touch,  by 
the  great  pain  of  the  ])art,  and  by  an  in<-apa- 
bllity  of  moving  the  arm.  It  is  willididkulty 
that'lhe  parts  are  retained  after  replacement : 
a  long  roller  is  to  be  used,  with  which  the 
slioukier  is  to  be  supported,  and  the  arm  is  to 
be  kept  suspended,  in  order  to  rela.\  the 
muscles. 

A  fracture  of  tlie  luinierus  is  generally  easy 
of  detection.  When  it  has  been  reduced,  two 
splints  .ire  to  be  employed,  and  a  llannel  or 
liiien  roller  is  to  be  applied  gently  over  tiiem. 
'J'hearmis  to  be  supportc^d  in  a  sling.  In  a 
few  days,  or  a  week,  from  the  accident,  it 
may  be  examined,  to  ascertain  whelher  the 
broken  ejids  have  been  jiroperly  adjusted. 

In  fractures  of  the  fore-ann,  v>'hether  one 
or  both  bones  arc  broken,  the  joint  of  the 
elbow  is  to  be  gently  bent.  Two  splints  of 
pasteboard  are  to  be  used,  one  large  and 
long,  upon  which  the  arm  is  to  be  laid,  the 
other  smaller,  is  to  be  placed  over  it,  and 
tin-y  arft  to  be  secured  by  slight  tapes,  ril)- 
ands,  rollers,  or  llie  twelve-tailed  bandage. 
(See  (ig.  63.)  ,Tlie  arm,  during  the  cure,  is 
to  be  supported  in  a  sling,  with  the  palm  of 
the  hantl  towards  the  breast. 

When  tlie  olecranon  is  fractured,  the  arm 
must  be  preserved  in  an  extended  state,  by  a 
long  splint  reachmg  iron)  some  way  above 
tlie  el!)OW-joint,  down  to  the  point  of  the 
fingers.  The  arm  should  be  hung  by,  and 
connected  'o,  tli';  side.  In  little  more  thui  a 
week  from  the  accident,  the  dressingiarc  to 
be  remove  ■,  and  a  slight  motion  given  to 
the  joints,  in  order  to  prevent  anchyloses. 

When  the  carpal  bones  are  fractured,  there 
is  usually  considerable  inllammation.  which 
must,  as  much  ;vi  possible,  be  obviated  by 
local  ajiplications  :  splints  are  to  be  employed 
as  in  fractures  of  thefoie-Hrm,  and  the  arm  is 
to  be  suppoittdm  a  sling 

In  fractures  of  tiie  me'acurpus,  a  firm  splint 
should  be  placed  over  the  palm  of  die  hand, 
wnich  should  be  made  to  reach  from  the 
points 'ot  the  lingers  to  the  eibo-.v.  When  a 
finger  is  broken,  a  splint  of  pasteboard,  moist- 
ened and  moulded  into  the  form,  is  to  be 
used;  ami  a  large  roller  may  be  appliedjall 
over  tile  hand,  in  order  to  prevent  the  mo- 
tion of  tlie  tractured .linger. 

Of  fractures  nfllie  climcle,  ribs,  sternum, 
and  spine.  A  fractured  clavicle  inay  some- 
times be  perceived  by  teeling  along  the 
course  of  the  bone.  The  motions  of  the 
slioulder-joinf  are  likewise  necessarily  im- 
peded. In  reducing  this  fracture,  the  arm  is 
to  be  raised,  so  as  to  bring  the  ends  of  the 
bones  towards  each  other :  and  it  is  to  be  pre- 
served in  this  posidon  till  union  is  accom- 
plished. 

When  a  rib  is  fractured,  which  may  gene- 
rally be  ascertained  by  feeling  with  the  fin- 
gers, if  one  portion  rises  over  another  it  should 
be  reduced  by  moderate  pressure,  and  a 
bandage  applied  round  the  chest,  which 
should  be  continued  for  some  weeks.  If  a 
portion  of  the  rib  is  forced  inwards,  some 
surgeons  direct   that  an    opening   be  made 


SURGERY. 

over  the  depressed  part,which  isto  be  elevaied 
by  the  linger  or  foiceps.  V\  hen  the  sternum 
is  frat  tured,  a  similar  treatment  is  said  to  be 
lequired.  In  this  last  case  it  is  necessary 
sometimes  to  trepan. 

When  the  vertebr.u  arc  broken,  the  accident 
is  fi>r  the  most  part  latal,  and  by  the  fractured 
pieces  pressing  upon  the  spinal  marr  w,  u 
palsy  is  occasioned  in  the  |>arts  below  tlie 
injury.  The  surgeon,  however,  is  to  attempt 
tlie  replacement  of  the  bones,  and  wlien  part 
is  depressed,  an  incision  has  been  advised,  in 
order  to  raise  the  depressed  portion. 
Of  compound  fractures. 

Those  fractures  are  called  compound  in 
which  the  external  teguments  are  wounded, 
from  the  same  accident  by  which  the  bone 
has  been  broken.  These'  are  necessarily  of 
much  more  diliicult  management  than  cases 
of  simple  fracture.  Some  surgeons  indeed 
have  indiscriminately  recommended  ampu- 
tation of  the  limb  in  every  case  of  compound 
fracture;  while  others  have  questioned  the 
propriety  of  amputating,  even  for  the 
worst  accidents  of  this  kind.  This  question, 
like  many  others,  h  s  been  agitated  too  much 
in  the  rfbslract.  'I  he  piOjiriety  of  hnmediate 
amputation,  or  a  prior  attempt  to  preserve  a 
linib,  will  depend  not  merely  on  tlie  extent 
of  the  injury,  but  on  the  age,  habits,  and 
constitution  of  the  patient,  as  welfas  the  cir- 
cumstances which  he  shall  be  under  during 
the  cure.  In  the  army  or  navy  practice, 
amputation  is  often  necessary,  where  in  pri- 
vate it  would  be  premature  and  cruel.   • 

When  we  are  to  attempt  the  cure  of  a 
compound  fracture,  the  first  object  is  to  re- 
move such  pieces  of  bone  as  are  detached  in 
the  form  of  splinters,  as  well  as  other  extra- 
neous bodies.  If  there  is  merely  a  protru- 
sion of  the  bone  through  the  wound,  witiioul 
any  separated  pieces,  we  are  to  attempt  an 
im'mediate  reduction,  as  in  simple  fracture. 
If  this  cannot  be  eifected  even  by  pretty 
strong  extension,  an  endeavour  must  be  made 
to  force  in  the  bone  by  pressure.  Ifj  on  ac- 
count of  the  narrowueaS  of  the  wound,  it  is 
impossible  to  reduce  the  fracture,  the  wound 
must  be  dilated  by  a  straight  probe-pointed 
bistoury.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  saw 
oif  part  of  the  projecting  bone,  in  order  to 
effect  the  reduction.  When  this  has  been 
a,  comphsued,  t^ie  wound  is  to  be  closed  as 
much  as  possible,  a  pledget  of -mollient  oint- 
ment placed  over  it,  and  ti.e  limb  secured  by 
ail  eighteen-tailed  bandage.  In  order  to  en- 
courage adlie  ion,  and  prevent  suppura'iou 
ottlie  wound  as  much  as  m-.y  be,  the  limb 
without  inordinate  pressure  should  be  sup- 
|iorted  as  firmly  as  possible.  When  suppu- 
ration has  come  on,  the  limb  .is  to  becdre- 
fully  dressed  every  morning.  Indeed  the 
chief  business  of  the  surgeon  will  be  to  pre- 
serve the  wound  clean  and  clear  by  regular 
washing  and  sponging,  by  laying  clean  lint 
upon  it,  and  by  the  occasional  use  of  spiri- 
tuous application.  It  is  scarcely  necessary 
to  add,  that  tlie  patient's  health  must  be  sup- 
ported with  much  care.  While  causes  of 
irritation  are  avoided,  a  due  excitement  must 
be  kept  up.  (See  the  section  on  N^ounds.) 
Of  luxations. 

Dislocations,  like  fractures,  are  sometimes 
dhlicult  immediately  to  discover.  An  inca- 
pability of  moving  the  limb,  painj  tension,  a 
lenglbeniug,  shorteuing,  or  other  deformity. 


741 

ar.d  often  considerable  inflafhination,  arc  tlie 
general  symptoms  attending  a  dislocated  or 
luxated  bone. 

Endeavours  to  reduce  luxations  ought  to 
be  nia<le  as  speedily  as  possible:  a>  Ihey 
grow  older,  tlii'^  grow  more  difficult  of  treat-  ■ 
meiit.  Indeed,  alter  a  bone  has  been  u  con- 
sidcrabli;  time  diolodged  from  its  place,  it 
often  forms  a  new  and  artificial  joint  for  itself 
among  ihe  contiguous  muscles,  and  (he  suli- 
ject  of  the  accident  is  by  consequence  ren- 
dered irrecoverablv  lame.  When,  however, 
dislocation  accompanies  fracture,  it  is  »oiiie- 
tiines  neces-aiy  to  cure  the  latter  before  the 
reduction  ol  tlie  former  is  attempted.  This 
is  the  case  when  llie  fracture  is  contiguous  to 
the  joint. 

Wlien  much  local  inflammation  accompa- 
nies luxation,  it  is  to  be  carefully  subdued  by 
the  common  anti-inflammatory  applications; 
and,  according-  to  circumstances,  it  will  be 
somilinies  requisite  to  bleed  at  the  arm.. 
Wiien  the  luxation  has  been  reduced,  thi; 
parts  must  be  retained  in  their  s'tuation,  by 
placing  ih<;  limb  in  a  relaxed  positio::,  and  by 
applying  ajipropriate  bandages. 

Luxation  of  the  superior  extremities. 

Of  the  OS  Itumeri.  The  shoulder-joint  may 
be  luxaied  by  the  head  of  the  humerus  falling 
downwards  and  backwards.  '1  he  moie  usual 
kind  of  dislocation,  however,  is  by  the  head 
being  forced  downwards  and  forwards.  An 
upward  luxation  cannot  happen  without  a 
fracture  of  the  upjicr  parts  of  the  scapula. 
The  signs  of  a  disiocacted  shoulder  are  inabi- 
lity to  raise  the  arm,  the  head  of  the  humerus 
being  felt  out  of  its  proper  place,  while  a 
vacuity  is  observed  under  the  acromion. 

1  his  luxation  is  often  extremely  easy  of 
reduction.  The  surgeon  should  be  provided 
with  assistants  to  extend  the  arm,  by  means, 
if  necessary,  of  a  beit,  or  any  substitute  for 
this  placed  round  the  arms,  with  long  straps 
attached  to  it,  by  wjiich  to  extend  the  limb : 
another  assistant  is  to  draw  back  the  shoulder- 
blade,  while  the  operator,  standing  on  the 
outside  of  the  arm,  directs  the  extension  ac- 
cording to  the  situation  of  the  bone,  and  thug 
raises  it  into  the  socket.  Sometimes,  when 
assistants  are  not  at  hand,  an  arm-dislocation 
may  be  reduced  by  placing  it  on  the  knee, 
and  thus  acting  as  with  a  lever.  The  arm, 
especially  if  tiie  patiei\l  has  been  subject 
to  the  accident,  may  be  Supported  in  a  sling 
some  time  after  the  reduction. 

I.uxation  at  Ihe  elbow  is  not  common; 
it  is  attended  witii  a  shortening  of  the  fore 
arm,  a  projection  behind  above  the  elbow; 
while  111  the  bend  of  the  elbow  the  extremity 
of  the  humerus  may  be  felt. 

It  is  to  be  reduced  by  gradually  extending 
the  fore-arm  rather  in  an  oblique  direction, 
and  gently  increasing  the  curvature  of  the 
elbow,  and  by  endeavours  to  disengage  the 
ends  of  the  bones.  Alter  the  reduction,  the 
muscles  should  be  relaxed  by  preserving  the 
elbow  for  some  time  rather  in  a  bent  posi- 
tion. 

When  the  fore-arm  is  dislocated  at  the 
wrist,  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  hand  i?  pre- 
vented. After  the  bones  are  replaced,  a 
tight  llannel  roller  should  be  bound  round 
tlie  wrist,  and  the  arm  supported  in  a  sling. 

When  the  bones  of  the  wrist  are  luxated,  • 
w  hich  is  by  no  means  a  common  accidents- 
much  pain  and  infiammatioa  follows,  and  th»-~ 


?  12 

motion  of  ilie  ioint  is  ilestroyed,  Tlic  snn  is 
to  be  sui)porleil,'and  but  very  gently  exteiul- 
eil,  and'the  bones  piishetl  into  their  proper 
position,  vliidiisto  be  preserved  by  band- 
ages or  splints.  'I'lie  metacarpal  bones  when 
dislocated  are  to  be  managedjn  a  similar  man- 
ner. Wiien  the  tliiinib  or  lingers  are  disio- 
cated,  the  phalanx  is  to  be  held  by  an  as- 
sistant, while  the  surgeon  elevates  the  dislo- 
cated elui,  and  reph'.ces  it. 

Luxations  ofllit:  inferior  extremities. 

Dislocations  of  the  thigh-bone  are  not  very 
common.  This  bone  is  liowever  susceptible 
of  displacement  in  four  diliercnt  directions; 
tipwards  and  obliquely  backwards,  clown- 
wards  and  a  little  forward,  directly  forward 
upon  the  (lubes,  and  backwards  over  the 
ischiatic  notch. 

In  the  hist  the  iimb  is  shortened,  and  the 
knee  turni  li  inwards.  When  the  neck  of  the 
thiali-bone  is  fractured  (an  ac(;id;nt  wh.idi 
hzi  bi-en  confountted  with  dislocation),  llie 
knee  and  foot  are  on  the  contrary  directed 
outwards:  tlie  limb  aUo  in  case  of  disloca- 
tion is  moved  with  more  diliiculty  than  when 
.the  neck  of  the  bone  is  fractured. 

Tliis  dislocation  is  to  be  reduced  by  exten- 
sion downwards  and  forwards.  The  patient 
is  to  be  laid  on  his  side,  and  a  double  sheet 
in.ay  be  placed  under  his  thigh,  whicli  being 
attached  to  some  fixed  points,  will  serve  to 
raise  and  support  the  limb  during  the  proper 
extension. 

In  a  dislocation  downwards  and  forwards, 
the  signs  are  reversed  ;  the  head  of  the  thigh- 
bone mav  here  be  distinctly  felt  in  the  peri- 
lueum.  'The  eNtension  in  this  case  must 
have  an  upward  and  outward  direction  ;  its 
reduction  is  easier  than  in  the  pieceding  case. 
In  returning  the  ball  of  the  bone  into  the 
socket,  the  surgeon  nujst  be  careful  to  act 
cautiously;  too  precipitate  a  reduction  is  apt 
to  push  it  again  out  of  its  place,  and  produce 
an  upward  dislocation. 

When  the  dislocation  is  forward  upon  the 
pubes,  we  are  direct>d  by  some  surgeons  to 
lav  the  patient  on  his  side,  and  support  the 
•  tli'igh  by  means  of  a  pulley  lixcd  to  some 
I)oint above  the  limb:  the  operator  thus  assist- 
ed is  to  press  the  knee  inwards.  In  the  fourth 
kind  of  hip-dislocation  (over  the  ischiatic 
notch)  the  length  of  the  limb  is  not  interfered 
■with ;  but  the  accident  may  be  ascertained 
bv  the  disappearance  ol  tiie  trocanters.  Here 
tlie  reduction  must  be  attempted,  by  giving 
the  bone  an  upward  direction,  while  the  knee 
is  pressed  inwards.  The  limb  should  not  he 
used  lor  souie  daysailerthe  reduction. 

Tiie  patalla  can  only  be  dislocated  upwards 
and  downwards  by  a  ruptiuc  of  its  ligament 
.or  tendons;  in  this  case  the  bone  will  be 
drawn  \\\i,  aird  assume  the  ap'pearance  of 
fracture.  It  may  l.o^vever  !)e  lux.ited  to  one 
or  the  other  side.  For  reduction,  the  limb 
must  be  extended ;  and  in  luteral  luxations 
the  edge  of  the  bone  at  the  greatest  distance 
from  the  joint  may  be  depressed,  by  wiiich 
the  opposite  edge  is  elevated,  and. may  be 
returned  into  its  place. 

The  tibia  is  very  seldom  luxated  at  the 
knee-joint ;  when  the  accident  happens,  it  is 
easily  detected.  In  reducing  such  a  disloca- 
tion, the  limb  should  be  g('iitrY  extended,  and 
the  bones  replaced  by  the  hand.  Intlamma- 
tion  ought,  with  much  solicitude,  to  be  guard- 
ed iigainst. 


"SURGERY. 

Dislocations  of  the  ar.fle-joint  are  very 
rare.  Indeed  they  are  scarcely  possible 
without  a  fracture  ot' the  end  ot  the'hbula.  In 
reduction  an  extension  ot  the  foot,  even  with 
the  leg,  should  be  made  till  the  bones  are 
readjusted.  Luxations  of  the  tarsal  bones 
are  to  be  treated  in  a  similar  manner.  When 
the  metatarsal  bones  and  toes  are  dislocated, 
the  reduction  is  to  be  effected  as  in  the  meta- 
carpus and  lingers. 

Luxations  of  the  sj^ne,  coccjjx,  ribs,  and 
■clavicle. 

Tn  consequence  of  the  iirm  ligamentous 
connection  of  the  vertebral  bones,  dislocation 
seldom  happens  without  Iracture.  \\  hen  it 
does,  it  is  almost  invariably  latal.  When  t^e 
coccvx  is  displaced,  it  may  be  geiu-rally  felt 
protruding.  It  is  ta  be  reduced  by  pre>sure 
with  the  ringers.  This  bone  is  sometimes 
farced  inwards,  and  occasions  much  i>ain, 
tenesmus,  and  sometimes  a  suppression  ot 
urine.  In  this  case  the  finger  is  to  be  intro- 
duced into  the  anus,  and  the  pressure  made 
outwards.  Dislocations  of  the  ribs  are  ex- 
ceedingly uncommon.  All  that  can  be  et- 
fected  towards  the  reduction  is  to  bend  the 
body  backwards,  in  order  to  press  put  the 
rib. 

Wlien  the  clavicle  is  dislocated  the  end 
projects  forwards  under  the  skin,  near  its 
common  place  of  junction  with  the  bri'ast- 
bone.  The  reduction  is  to  be  made  by  push- 
ing the  piotuded  bone  in  with  llie  lingers, 
wliile  an  assistant  pulls  back  the  arms  and 
shoulders.  The  arm  must  afterwards  be  pro- 
perly supported  in  a  sling. 

Luxations  of  the  bones  of  the  head  and  face. 

When  the  cranial  bones  are  separated, 
the  head  must  be  supported  by  a  bandage. 
If  one  of  the  nasal  bones  is  luxated  inwards, 
it  is  to  be  elevated  and  reduced  by  inserting  a 
tube  into  the  nostril  covered  with  lint.  If 
the  luxation  is  outward,  the  bjne  is  to  be 
pressed  in  bv  tlie  fingers,  and  a  double  head- 
ed roller  aiiprie<l  round  llie  face.  To  reduce 
luxations  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  are  not 
very  unfrequent,  the  thumbs  protected  by  a 
covering  of  leather,  are  to  be  thrust  as  far  as 
possible  between  the  jaws,  and  then  the  lin- 
gers being  applied  on  the  outside  ol  tin-  angle 
of  the  jaw,  attempts  should  be  made  to  bring 
it  forward  till  it  moves  a  little.  It  is  then  to 
be  pressed  forcibly  down. 

Of  umputulion. 

Than  tliis,  as  it  is  now  performed,  scarcely 
any  operation  in  surgery  is  more  simple  and 
secure.  To  preserve  the  teguments,  so  as 
that  they  can  be  fairly  brought  over  the 
stump,  and  ])roperly  to  tie,  or  otherwise  se- 
cure the  bleeding  vcs-;els,  constitute  the 
points  of  practice  in  amputation  ;  and,  as  we 
have  previously  shewn,  rank  among  the  most 
important  improvements  in  modern  surgical 
practice. 

The  following  are  the  general  directions  for 
performing  ampulation  :  The  tourniquet  is 
iir-'t  to  he  placed  on  the  most  convenient  part 
of  the  limb  for  securing  the  larger  arteries  ;  a 
circ^ilar  incision  is  then  to  be  made  with  the 
amputating  knife  (lig.  71)  or  common  scalpel, 
which  is  to  ijass  all  round  the  limb,  and  go 
tlnongli  the  skin  and  cellular  substance; 
theae  arc  next  to  he  dissected  away  from  the 
muscleo  to  such  a  distance  as  will  allow  the 


divided  edges  of  the  intr^t^umcnts  to  come 
into  contact  over  the  slump.  The  skin  thui  " 
separated  is  to  be  drawn  up  from  the  muscles, 
or  turned  back  upon  them,  and  kepi  by  an 
assistant  in  this  situation,  while  tlie  operator 
novy  makes  another  incision  at  the  edge  of 
the  reflected  skin,  beginningirom  beneath,  and 
cutting  in  a  circular  direction  down  lo  the 
bone.  The  muscles  are  then  to  be  separated 
from  the  bone,  as  the  skin  beioie  was  from 
the  muscles,  to  such  a  distance,  as  .to  enable 
them  afterwards  completely  to  cover  the  end 
of  the  bone.  ^I  he  whfile  mass  of  llesh  is  then 
to  be  kept  up  from  the  bone  by  retractors 
(fi^.  T2  and  73)  ;  the. periosteum  is  to  be  di- 
vicTed  all  round  in  the  place  where  the  saw  is 
to  be  applied,  but  not  at  all  taken  up  from 
the  bone :  the  saw  (fig.  74)  is  now  to  be  used, 
and  the  bone  <livided  with  long  lirm  strokes, 
faking  especial  care  tiiat  du.ingtlr.s  part 
of  the  operation  the  assistant  holds  the  liinb 
witli  steadiness.  If  tliere  have  been  any 
sp'iiuc-rs  of  bone  lelt,  they  should  be  imme- 
diately taken  aw-ay  with  pincers  (fig.  75). 
TJie  retractors  are  now  to  be  removed  ;  the 
principal  arteries  drawn  up,  and  tied  free 
troiii  the  nerves.  Some  warm  wine,  or  otlicr 
cordial,  is  -to  be  given  to  the  patient.  'J!ie 
fi'onnd  is  to  be  cleared  of  blood,  the  muscles 
and  skin  are  to  be  fairly  laid  together  over 
-the  stump;  adhesive  plaster  and  the  requisite 
bandaging  applied,  the  patient  taken  to  bed, 
and  the  wound  treated  in  the  common  man- 
ner (see  section  on  wounds).  I'nless  any 
untoward  circumstance  arises,  a  complete  cure 
will  be  thus  made  in  the  course  of  a  few 
weeks. 

Atler  this  general  statement  of  the  mode  in 
which  aminilation  is  to  be  pertormed,  we 
might  now  bv;  expected,  as  in  our  accounts  of 
fracture  and  luxation,  to  go  over  the  separate 
parts  which  at  different  times  come  to  be 
operated  upon.  Such  minuteness,  however, 
would  he  inconsistent  with  our  plan  and 
limits,  and  we  shall  merely  observe,  that  in  all 
cases  of  amputation  the  above  rules  apply; 
that  the  surgeon  must  be  determined  by  his 
own  judgment  respecting  the  particular  point 
at  which  a  limb  should  IJe  amputated  ;  it  will 
of  course  be  regulated  by  contingencies,  but 
as  a  leading  rule  it  may  be  ob»erved,  what 
indeed  is  almost  too  obvious  to  require  no- 
tice, that  in  general  as  much  as  possible  of 
the  limb  should  be  preserved. 

When  joint",  are  to  be  operated  upon 
in  the  way  of  amputation,  further  direc- 
tions are  necessary.  Amputation  at  the 
larger  joints  ought  indeed,  in  evei-y  instance, 
if  possible,  to  be  avoided;  for  a  wound  in  a 
joint  is,  as  we  have  already  seen,  invariably 
hazardous.  When,  liowever,  in  consequence 
of  abscesses  in  these  jjarts,  con)po.und  frac- 
tures at  .tlie  union  of  bones,  canes,  or  other 
diseases,  il  be<-omes  necessary  to  amputate 
at  the  joints,  it  will  be  necessal-y,  after  first 
securing  the  artery,  to  make  a  circular  inci- 
sion, as  in  ccmmon  cases  of  amputation  ;  then 
on  each  side  of  the  limb  another  cut  is  to  be 
made  in  a  longitudinal  direction,  from  the 
Joint  to  the  circular  incision,  and  passing 
down  to  the  bone;  the  ligaments  of  the  joint 
are  now  to  be  divided,  and  the  limb  remov- 
ed. If  during  the  operation  any  biaiu  lies  of 
arteries  have  been  diviiled,  these  are  to  be 
taken  up  or  secured,  the  wound  is  to  be 
cleared  of  blood,  and  1  he  muscles  and  skin 
brought   neatly    and   fairly  together.    IJie 


tiiiioii  is  to  be  effiicted  by  acUiesive  plaster 
arid  bv  proper  bandages. 

V/ounds  nr  injuries  of  the  head. 
ong    many   enoiiifous  and   unfounded 


A 
oj)i;iit)ns. 


this  is  by  no  means  tlie  most  un- 
common; tliaL  wounds  oC  tlie  head  are  dan- 
gciousin  proportion  to  llie  degree  and  ex- 
tent in  wliich  tlu:  skull  is  IVaclnred.  "  It  is 
tlif  injury  of  the  brain  alone  wliicli  is  danger- 
ous," ajul  "  very  oi'ten  are  so  close,  tlie  con^ 
Fieclion  and  sympathy  ot  i.ll  the  extcinal  ai.d 
internal  parts,  that  the  brain  is  hurt  by  the  very 
shghtust  injury  of  (he  scalp  or  bone,"  while  lli'e 
ti!ull  may  he  extensiv  ly  injured,  and  the 
accident  be  compai  alively  trivial.  Affections 
of  the  brain  from  blows  or  woimds  of  the  head, 
are  immediate  or  secondary ;  the  last  are 
(hose  which  do  not  directly  tollow  the  injury 
from  which  they  proveed,  but  "  make  their 
slow  insidious  progress  in  the  form  of  a  dis- 
ease" 'I'liey  are  insidious,  because  they  fre- 
cpiently  arise  to  an  alarming  exlent  in  conse- 
quence of  a  hurt  wliicii  was  at  first  deemed 
slight,  and  scarcely  deserving  of  notice."  They 
are  slow :  for  a  man,  after  receiving  such  an 
injury,  shall  perhaps  co!itiinie  in  seemingly 
perfect  health  for  more  than  a  month,  and 
shall  at  lenslh  fall  a  victim  to  the  disorder, 
which  has  all  this  time  lain  as  it  were  in  em- 
bryo. 

"  One  soldier,  for  example,  shall  have  his  I 
temple  grazed  with  a  ball,  shall  liardlv  know- 
that  he  IS  hurt,  or  be  sensible  for  sonie  time 
that  he  is  indisposed;  shall  walk  about  for  six 
weeks  apparently  in  perfect  health,  and  then 
all  at  once  shall  droop  and  fall  low,  become 
sick  and  weak;  shall  at  la.st  fall  into  coma,  or 
awaken  in  the  most  dreadful  struggling  deli- 
rium, and  then  expire  :  and  it  shall  he  tbund, 
that  the  pericranium  is  separated  from  the 
skull,  the  skull  it^elf  black,  and  the  dura 
lualer  inllamed  and  oppressed  with  pus. 
AVhile,  on  the  other  hand,  another  soldier  in 
the  same  battle  shall  be  so  wounded  with  a 
sabre,  that  the  scalp,  scull  and  all,  shall  be 
cut  clean  away  with  a  wound  even  of  the 
brain  itself,  and  yet  the  patient  escape ;  or 
which  is  more  singular,  a  soldier  wounded 
with  a  mu>ket-ball,  which  is  left  sticking  in 
the  skull,  with  much  depression,  and  many 
fractures  of  the  bone,  shall  come  to  the  hos- 
{xital  walking  alone,  shall  suffer  the  extraction 
of  the  ball,  and  all  the  incisions  and  pick- 
ings of  the  bone  which  such  a  case  re<iuires; 
and  shall  eat  and  drink  heartily,  sleep  sound- 
ly, ami  surfer  not  one  bad  symptom  during 
tlie  cure." 

Most  commonly,  however,  even  in  these 
secondary  affections  of  the  brain,  a  certain 
degree  of  sickness,  faintness,  and  stupor,  im- 
mediately follows  the  stroke,  the  blow,  or  the 
fall,  upon  the  head.     From  this  state  the  man 
revives  very  slow  ly;  at  length  seems  to  have 
I  regained  his  health,    but  after  the  lapse  of 
■  some  weeks  perhaps,  the  faintness,  sickness, 
and  giddiness,  recur;  then  come  on  fever, 
delirium,  weight  or  pain    in  the  head,   and 
•every  sign  denoting  a  low  inflammation  of 
'  the  brain  ;  tiiis  state  at  length  comes  to  be 
succeeded    by   paralysis,    iiisensibihty,    and 
death. 

This  disorder  "  is  plainly  a  diseased  dura 
mater,  and  an  abscess  of  the.  brain,"  almost 
sufficiently  evidenced  bv  the  progress  of  the 
symptoms,  but  rendered  doubtless  when  on 
tlie  surface  of  the  skull  arises  "  a  small,  Eoft, 


SURGERY. 

puffy,  regularly  circumscribed  tumour,"  not 
of  tiie  erysipclat(nis  kind,  for  that  denotes  a 
mere  afleclion  of  the  scalp,  nor  a  sott  and 
lluctuating  tumour,  for  this  maj  proceed  from 
blood  poured  out  from  one  of  the  cranial 
arteries. 

"  'I'he  trepan  is  in  this  case  almost  a  hope- 
less operalion,  and  yet  it  is  to  be  tried."  'J  he 
intention  of  operating  under  these  circnm- 
stances  is,  to  discharge  that  matter  which 
collected  either  between  the  dura  mater  and 
skull,  or  between  this  membrane  and  the  ac- 
tual substance  of  (he  brain,  gives  rise  to  all 
the  distressing  and  alarming  sviiptoms 
V\  hen  this  last  is  the  case,  it  will'  be  found 
necessary,  not  merely  to  tr<-pan  the  skull, 
but  to  pierce  the  membrane.  .Such  an  ope- 
ration will  usually  for  a  tunc  lessen  the  pa- 
tient's sulliM-ings;'"  but  olten  he  is  again  op- 
pressed, and  sinks  and  dies;  or  if  he  lives, 
great  fungi  sooner  or  later  shoot  up 
through  the  opening,  and  by  these,  as  well 
as  by  blood  or  mailer,  lie  is  at' last  oppre.ssed, 
and  dies  commonly  in  convulsions." 

The  danger  in  this  last  case  seems  to  de- 
pend upon  the  exposure  of  the  brain  bv  the 
operation;  the  surgeon  then  will  be  careful 
not  to  multiply  opi  nings  for  the  discharge  of 
matter,  "  for  the  danger  on  one  hand,  viz.  by 
pijpression  and  inllainmation  of  the  brain, 
is  just  proportioned  to  the  delay  in  opening 
the  head  :  and  on  the  other  hand  the  dange'r 
after  the  operation  is  just  proportioned  to  the 
number  of  holes." 

The  immediate  injuries  of  the  brain,  as 
opposed  to  the  secondary  ali'ections  above 
described,  are  divided  b'y  surgical  writers 
into  those  of  compression  and  concussion. 

A  man,  for  example,  receives  a  violent 
blow  upon  his  skull,  which  by  its  force  shall 
press  ill  part  of  the  bony  defence  of  the  brain 
directly  upon  the  substance  of  this  organ  :  he 
immediately  lalls  down  in  a  state  of  stupefec- 
tion;  his  pube  and  breathing  are  oppressed, 
and  he  is  carried  off  insensibie.  Now  all  this 
injury  may  arise  from  a  fracture  of  the  skull., 
when  the  fractured  bone  is  pushed  in  upon 
the  brain  ;  or  it  may  succeed  to  a  similar  de- 
gree of  depression  of  any  part  of  the  cra- 
nium, even  ahhough  not 'the  smallest  degree 
of  fracture  shall  have  been  occasioned ;  in- 
deed the  fracture  is  not  seldom  a  favourable 
circumstance.  In  either  case  the  affections 
which  follow  result  from  compres-ion. 

Concussion  is  a  kind  of  injury  more  ob- 
scure in  its  theory,  but  ii'.t  less  fatal  in  its 
consequences.  It  is  an  internal  derangement 
of  the  brain,  or  of  the  nervous  system,  wiiich 
dissection  cannot  trace,  and  which  appears 
to  be  a  shock  to  the  wfiole,  rather  than  an 
injury  to  any  particular  part  of  tlie  organiza- 
tion. 

In  the  former  case,  that  of  compression,  re- 
lief may  be  expected  from  operation,  but 
there  is  neither  motive  nor  use  in  operating 
for  concussion.  In  some  instances  of  the 
former,  blood-letting  is  imperiously  called 
for;  in  the  latter,  to  bleed  is  inevitably  to  in- 
crease the  disease. 

It  is  therefore  absolutely  necc-ssarv  to  de- 
cide early  respecting  the  precise  nature  of  the 
injury.  Tliis  decision,  however,  is  not  in 
every  case  easy  even  to  the  surgion  who 
may  have  had  frequent  opportunities  of  coin 
parative  observation.  Most  of  the  symp 
touis  wliich  attend  comurcssion  likewise  ac- 


;43- 

company  concussions ;  and  the  existence  of 
depressed  bone,  which  must  form,  at  least  in 
part,  a  case  of  conipre  vion,  is  not  always  to 
be  delected  by  external  examinaiion. 

In  cases   of  an     equivocal  or   undecided 
nature,  where  it  is  imagined  that  conipics- 
sion  may  exist,  although  it  is  not  perceptible 
It  has  been  advised  by  a  modern  surgeon  to 
trepan  in  many  dillerent  parts  of  the  skull,  in 
order  to  ascertain  and  remove  the  cause  p'ro- 
ducing  the  symptoms.     "  It  often  happens  "  ' 
says  Mr.  lienjamin  Bell,  "  that  no  external 
mark  is  to  be  met  with  to  lead  to  the  scat  of 
the  injury;    even   after   the  whole   head   is 
shaved,  and  examined  with  the  most  luinule- 
attention,  the  skin  will  In  vnrious  instances b<» 
ftjuiid  perfectly  sound,    wiHioul  any  appear- 
ance either  ot  tumour  or  discolouration.     A 
patient  in  such  circumstances  we  suppose  to 
be  in   great  hazard,  from  the   brain   being 
t^;mpressed  in  one  part  or  another;  unless 
this  coinpression  is  removed  bv  an  operation 
he  must, in  all  jirobability,  die.'  hi  what  man- 
ner then  is  a  practitiorxr  to  conduct  himself  .>■• 
'I  he  situation   is  distrc?-.ing  ;  but  slill,  in  mv 
opinion,  there  should  be  no  liesital%,n  a,  tb 
the  hue  ol  conduct  a  surgeon  ought  to  pursue, 
which  should  be  quite  the  ievcr>eol  what  is 
almost  universallv  adopted."    This  aulhor 
III  another  place,  adds,.  "  it  will  be  proper  to 
perform   the  lirst  perforation  in  Ihe  most  in- 
tenor  pan  of  the  cranium,   in  which  it  rau 
with  any  piojiriety  be  ma<le  ;  and  to  proceed 
to  perforate  every  accessible  part  of  the  skull,. 
till  the  cause  of  the  compression  is  discover-- 
ed."     lieiij.  Bell's  System  of  rfurgei-j-. 

In  cautioning  against  such  practice  as  is 
here  recommended,  we  appeal  to  the  unpreju- 
diced judgment  of  the   reader,    under  tlif 
sanction  of  li-gh  authority.     It  is  observed  by 
the  celebrated   Pott,   "  that  svmptoms  of  op- 
pression are  no  good  reason 'for  cutthi"  the 
integuments."     And  Mr.  J.  Bell,  in  his  t-oin- 
nient  upon  the  above  observations,  thus  ad- 
dres'-es  his  readers:  "  I  must  in  a  few  words 
entreat  you  to  consider  whither  this  practice 
would  lead  you.-   A  boy  is  .struck  by  aaother 
with  a  stone,  lies  for  many  days  bleeding  at 
the  nose,  comatose,  vomiting,  and  with  every 
bad  symptom;  his  surgeons  are  all  the  while 
advising  the  operation,  his  friends  are  plead- 
uigfora  respite,  when   the  boy   begins  gra- 
dually to  recover,  and  in  a   few  days  is  per- 
fectly restored.         Consider,"     our    author 
goes  on  to  say,  "  if  in  any  given  case,  (he  pa- 
tient lying  op;>ressed,  and  having  no  mark  of 
iniury  outwardly  upon  tlie  head,  yo'i  should 
advise  the    trepan;   while  a   man   who  had-- 
studied  more  the  common  sense  of  surgery 
than   the  authorities  of  school-hoois,  should 
prevent  this  unmeaning  operat.t.n;  and  if  in 
the  mean  time  the  patient  shuuld  be  endrely 
relieved,  what  would  become  of  you  f    Or  u 
you  should  be  allowed  to  perform  the  opera- 
tion, and  were  to  find  nothing  wron",  what, 
consolation  would  that  be?"  ' 

Indeed  while  there  is  but  one  motive  for 
applying  the  trepan,  viz.  to  relieve  the  braio 
from    compression,     whether    that    is    iioin 
blood,  matter,  or  depressed  bone,  the  pr  n-  ■ 
cipal  care  of  the  surgeon  ought  lu  be,  not  to . 
perforate  the  cranium  xipon  the  mere  suspi- 
cion "  of  something  lying  somewhere,"  but  • 
on  the  contrary,  to  be  ever  wary  of  doine. 
teo  much,  ratlier  than  fearful  of  eiiectiiigtoo- 
little,  in  the  way  of  operation. 
3 


We  cannot  belter  concliKlc  this  subject, 
than  bv  a-jain  extracting  the  rules  of  practice 
from  aii  amhor,   whosn,  Ironi  a  sense  ol  tlie 
rectitude  and  valne  of  his  (loctrines  and  pre- 
c.'ut<  xve  have  often  talven  so  nnicli  pleasure 
in' quoting.   "  If."  says  Mr.  .1.  Bell     "  there  is 
an  injury  in  the  scalp,  a  hurt  oi  the  skull,  an 
intenial'scparation  ot  the  dura  mater,  or  any 
iniury  which  endangers  inflammation  ot  the 
biaiii;  and  if  along  with  that  kind  ot  danger 
there  are  actually  symptoms  which  mark  ni- 
llanimation  of  the  brain ;  we  try  to  prevent  or 
moderate  the  inflammation  by  bleedings.     II 
there  is  3  concussion,   and  the   patient  lies 
oppressed,  vomiting,  with  difficult  breathing 
and  a  slow  pulse,  (and  (his,  it  may  be  observ- 
ed, is  the  most  frequent,  direct,  or  immediate 
injury  from  a  blow  or  fall  on  the  head,)   we 
eive  "opium,  wine,  and  all  forms  of  stimulants. 
It  there  are  along  witii  this  oppression  external 
marks  of  injury  after  an  accident,  such  as 
mi<'ht  cause  extravasation  of  blood,  or  de- 
nression  of  the  skull,  in  such  case  our  duty  is 
',•    .  .      .!,„  „,..,!.,   o«  oc  ir.  pxamine  the 


SURGERY. 


lirst  to  open  the  scalp,  so  as  to  ex 
tkull,  and  next  to  trepan  the  skull,  if  it  is 
not    sound,    with  ,the    hopes    ot    relieving 
the  brain.'      "  if  there  is  blood,  it  is  to  be 
known  only   bv   guess,    by   having   opened 
the  scalp  at  the  place  of  the  blow,  in  the  ex- 
pectation of  flnding   a  fracture  of  the  skull, 
and  by  next  trepanning  the  skull,  in  hoiies  ot 
finding  blood  King  upon  the  surface  ot  the 
brain.     Rut  sti'll,  if  after  opening  the  skull 
the    patient  should  lie    comatose    and    op- 
pressed, it  being  plain  he  must  die  if  not  re- 
lieved ;   and   if  also  from  the  tension  oi  the 
dura  mater  we  suspect  there  is  blood  under 
that  membrane;  we  must  venture  to  open  it 
also,  in  hopes  of  relieving  the  brain.     It  mat- 
ter lying  upon  the   surface  is  the  cause  of 
compression,  it  will  be  known  by  the  pre- 
vious symptoms,  by  quickness  of  the  pulse, 
bead-ache,  flushed  face,  turgid  eves,  corded 
feeling  in  the  head,  and  all  the  other  signs 
marking  an  inflammation  of  the  brain.     And 
if  after  all  these  symptoms,  shivering,  lan- 
guor, faintings,  slight  vomitings,  and  clelirium, 
tome  on,  we  are  sure  of  the  case.     If  there  is 
found  a  fissure  of  the  skull,  that  fissure  is  not 
itself  the  cause  of  danger,  but  it  is  the  mark 
of  that  degree  of  injury  which. may  have  pro- 
duced extravasation:  it  also  marks  the  place 
of  the   violence,   and   points   out  where  we 
should  apply  the  trepan.     A  fissure  is  not  of 
itself  a  motive  for  trepanning  the  skull ;  but  if 
with  the   fissure  the  patient  lies  oppressed, 
then  the  oppression  is  the  mark  of  danger, 
perhaps  from  extravasatcd  blood.and  the  frac- 
ture or  fissure  of  the  skull  marks  tlie  ^jointon 
which  we  should  apply  our  trepan. 

"  When  the  bones  are  directly  pressed  down 
by  the  blow,  our  way  of  proceeding  is  very 
plain ;  if  the  bones  are  moveable,  we  raise 
them  gently  up;  if  they  seem  totally  disen- 
gaged, we  pick  them  away;  if  the  bones  are 
lotlted  in  with  one  anotlier,  and  pressed 
under  the  sound  skull,  we  cut  one  angle  with 
tjie  irepan,  and  that  enables  us  to  raise  the 
depressed  bone.  In  all  this  operation  we 
should  be  gentle,  and  rather  reservetl ;  for 
when  blood  has  covered  the  v^-hole  skull,  from 
the  sagittal  suture,  (pnte  to  the  petrous  bone, 
It  hai  all  been  evacuated  by  one  single  open- 
ing, and  the  patient  saved.  When  there  has 
been  )>us  generated  in  great  f[uantity,  and 
much  of  the  dura  mater  detached,  one  single 
perforation  lias  bccu  suflicicut.     When  pieces 


of  skull  have  been  apparently  so  detached 
from  their  membranes,  that  they  have  seenj- 
ed  irretrievably  lost,  they  have  notwithstand- 
iii"  lived  and  healed,  especially  in  young  pa- 
tients; and  often  when  the  depression  has 
seemed  so  great  that  the  surgeon  has  neglect- 
ed to  raise  it,  or  has  been  so  difficult  to  rai.e 
that  he  has  forsaken  it,  the  patient  has.  lived 
notwithstanding  the  great  oppression,,  anil 
been  restored  to  perfect  health.' 

Onernlion.    The  operation  of  trepanning 
will   necessarily  vary,  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case;  the  followmg    are 
given  as  the  general  rules  of  practice :   Attx-r 
The  head  is  sliaved,  an  incision  is  hr>t  to  be 
made  through  the  integuments,  in  such  a  form 
as  to  enable  the  surgeon,  when  the  operation 
is  over,  to  bring  the  edges  of  the  wound  as 
nearly  as  possible   together;    when  the  part 
has  been  fixed  upon  for  the  application  ol  the 
instrument,  so   much  of  the  skull  is  to  be 
denuded  of  its  pericraninm  by  a  raspatory, 
(fl<r.  13)  as  will  allow  the  trephine  (fig.  14)  to 
be°fixed  ;  a  hole  is  to  be  made  with  the  per- 
forator, of  sufficient  deplb  to  fix  the  central 
pill  of  the  trephine,  that  the  saw  may  be  pre- 
vented from  slipping;  wlien  th.e  saw  works 
steadily   and    securely,   the  central   pm    of 
the  trephine  mav  be  removed;    the   saw  is 
from  time  to  time  to  be  taken  out   ot   the 
groove,  and  cleaned  liy  the  biush  (iig.   15.). 
During   the  progress  of  the   operation,  the 
depth  of  the  groove  ought  to  be  examined  ; 
if  one  part  is  of  greater  depth  than  another, 
the  pressure  of  the  saw  is  to  be  made  priiui- 
pally  on  the  opposite  side.     The  operator 
mus't   often    examine   whether   the  piece  is 
loose;  when  it  is  perceived  so,  it  must  be 
snapped  away  by  the  forceps  (fig.  16.)  or  le- 
vator (fig.   17),  for  the  sawing  should  by  no 
means  be  contimied  until  it  is  quite  detached, 
lest  the  membranes  of  the  brain  are  injured. 
When,  after  the  piece  of  bone  is  extracted, 
the  inner  edges  of  the    perforation  appear 
ragged,  they"  are  to  be  carefully  smoothed 
by  the  lenticular  (fig.    18).   The  depressed 
portion  of  the  bone  is  now  to  be  raised  wiUi 
the  levator :   if  there  are  any  parts  of  bone 
totally  disengaged,  they  are  to  be   picked 
away,    extravased   blood    let  out;  and,   as 
above-mentioned,  if  blood  or  matter  is  con- 
tained under  th.e  dura  mater,  this  membrane 
itself  is  to  be  punctured.     From  the  extent 
of  the  fracture  or  depression,  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  make  more  than  one  perfora- 
tion: in   these  cases  they  ought  to  be  made 
to  run  into  each  other,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  necessity  of  dividing  intermediate  spaces. 
After  the  objects  of  the  operation  are  accom- 
plished, a  pledget  of  lint,  either  dry  or  with 
some  simple  ointment,   is  to  be  laid  on  the 
wound  in  the  dura  mater  (provided  that  mem- 
brane may  have  been  piincturcil)  :  the  edges 
of  the  scalp  are  then  to  be  brought  up  as 
nearly  as  may  be  together,  and  another  piece 
of  lint  laid  aloni;  the  outer  wound;  some  line 
linen  is  to  be  placed  over  the  whol-,  and  (he 
l)arts  secured  by  proper  bandaghig,  or  by  a 
common  night-cap. 

At  every  dressing  the  purulent  matter  is  to 
be  carefully  absorbeil  by  a  sponge  :  the  wound 
is  to  be  treated  upon 'the  same  principles  as 
wounds  in  general ;  and  should  fungi  arise 
out  of  its  edges,  we  are,  according  to  their 
nature  and  extent,  to  attempt  th>:ir  removal 
by  caustic,  by  excision,  or  ligature. 


OfinJIammation,  its  characUrs  andvaiidi' 
Inflammation  may  be  divided  uito  ordinal 
constitutional,  and  spetiiic;   the  first  dej  • 
daiit  lor  its  production  upon  those  suscepliliih- 
ties  which  in  a  greater  or  inferior  degree  are 
common    to    every    individual,    the  second 
proceeding  from  a  peculiar  tendency  to  dis- 
order in  some  constitutions,  the  last  always 
arising  from  the  application  of  a  particular 
exciting  cause. 

For  example.  To  that  kind  of  vascular  irri- 
tation which  constitutes  the  inflamed  state, 
and  which  has  been  the  subject  of  inquiry  in 
another  place  (see  Medici.xe,  Sect.  Plileg- 
masici:),  all  are  obnoxious,  provided  the  excit- 
ing cause  acts  with  sufficient  power:  but  those 
inflammations  that  are  called  scropluilous, 
although  immediately  excited  by  the  same  . 
pow  ers  which  are  productive  of  common  iu- 
tiammatory  action,  will  not  in  all  individuals 
follow  upon  the  application  of  such  powers;' 
such  then  furnish  examples  of  constitutional 
inflammations.  As  an  instance  of  the  third  or 
specific  intlammation,  we  may  adduce  the 
venereal  disease,  either  in  its  first  introduc- 
tion into  the  system,  or  in  several  of  its  se- 
condary stages. 

As  all  these  disordered  states  have  some- 
thing in  common,  while  at  the  same  time  each 
is  distinguished  by  its  separate  characteristic, 
so  the  rules  of  treatment  in  relation  to  Uiem 
are  both  general  and  particular.  Thus  the 
observations  which  apply  to  the  management 
of  a  common  abscess  (the  result  of  intlamn»a- 
tion),  apply  likewise,  to  a  certain  extent,  to 
one  resulting  from  the  venereal  virus,  while  the 
requistions  of  this  last  are  further  regulated 
by  the  peculiarity  of  its  exciting  agent. 

We  shall  first  then  treat  of  common,  se- 
condly  of  constitutional,  thirdly  of  specific, 
inflanimations.  I'or  the  symptoms,  progress, 
termination,  and  medical  treatinent  of  inflam- 
mation, consult  Medicine.  It  Is  the  simple 
surgery  of  this  disorder  alone  that  remains  to 
be  notfced.  The  local  applications  suited  to  the 
repulsion,  or,  as  it  is  technically  expressed, 
resolutioi!  of  an  inflamed  surface,  when  the 
inflammation  is  of  the  active  or  sthenic  kind, 
are  the  diflerent  preparations  of  lead  dissolv- 
ed in  vinegar,  mild  expressed  oils,  or  simple 
oint';nent.  The  lirst  of  these  is  often  most 
conveniently  employed  in  the  shape  of  c,t- 
taplasm,  made  by  mixing  the  dissolved  lead, 
Goulard's  extract  for  example,  with  crumbs 
of  bread.  This  application  ought  to  be  con- 
stantly renewed,  and  kept  6n  the  jiart  cool. 
Lead"  is  sometimes  applied  in  combination 
with  simple  ointment;  tills,  however,  is  not 
in  general  eligible,  as  the  action  of  the  lead  is 
in  some  degree  blunted  by  uniting  it  with 
oily  or  unctuous  substances. 

Local  blood-letting  by  leeches,  or  by  cup- 
ping and  scarifying,  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  reduce  the  inllamed  state  ; 
and  all  heating,  or  otherwise  irritating,  appli- 
cations to  the  diseased  part,  are  to  be  assi- 
duously guarded  agrfinst. 

In  passive,  asthenic,  or  indolent  affections 
of  the  inflammatory  kind,  it  is  sometimes 
necessary,  even  while  the  inflammation 
continues  in  its  first  stage,  to  treat  the  com- 
plaint with  local  as  well  as  genecivl  stimuli.  In 
these  cases  we  avoid  cold  applications, 
leeches,  saturnine  preparations,  &c.  and 
order  warm  and  large  poultices,  made  with 
linseed  and  oil,  fiequonlly  reuewed,  fomenla* 


tjoiw,  Uif  iiifiibioii  of  w  lille  )>opi)_v,  oi"  of  tlia- 
ijjomilf  tluwt'is,  and  sonieliint'a  cvt- a  volalilu 
embrocations. 

\\'iiei)  the  suppiiralivo  stagp  of  active  iii- 
rfammalioii  liai  ( oninuMUx-d,  the  i-epc-lleiit 
applications  are  likewise  inmieUiately  to  be 
laid  aside.  Action  is  now  not  to  be  cliecked, 
lint  encouraged;  warm  fomentations  are  to 
be  applied;  poultices  made  with  bread  and 
milk,  with  a  small  (niantit y  of  lard  or  simple 
oinlment,  are  to  be  resorted  to;  these  are  to 
be  laid  npun  the  part  soft  and  warm,  and 
very  fremieiJily  to  be  renewed.  Sometimes 
when  the  suppurative  process  seems  too 
tardy  and  indolent,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
add  to  the  poultices  some  of  ihe  healing  or 
Btimnlating  i;ums,  such  as  galbauum,  which 
niay  be  made  to  unite  with  the  poultice,  by 
dissolving  it  in  the  white  of  an  egg. 

The  completion  of  the  suppurative  process, 
^r  th>'  full  iormation  of  abscess,  is  known  by 
tlie  cessation  of  throbbing,  and  other  synip- 
toms  of  suppuration,  and  by  tiie  pointing  of 
the  tumour,  as  well  as  its 'change  of  colour 
.from    a   whitish    or    yellowish    appearance. 
Sometimes  when  the    tumour    is    not  deep 
.seated,  the  fluctuation  of  matter  is  evident. 
■  The  methods  of  opening  abscess  are  by 
caustic,   by   incision,  or  by  seton;  the  lirst, 
■although  still  em])loved  in  some  species  of 
tumour,  is  at  present  by  no  means  in  common 
•use  ;  it  is  more  painful  and  insecure  llian  llie 
ijiode  by  incision.     When  caustic  is  employ- 
ed, a  piece  of  sticking-plaster  is  to  be  laid  on 
the  tumour,  with  a  hole  cut  into  it,  into  wliicli 
tile  caustic  is  to  be  inlroduced,  and  retained 
by  plaster  and  bandage,  until  it  has  made  an 
opening  through  the  integuments  of  the  tu- 
mour, which,  generally,  will  not  be  till  some 
liours  after  its  application.    Mhcn  an  eschar 
is  formed,  some  emollient  ointment  is  to  be 
eniploy(;(l  to  soften  and  separate  it. 

When  tlie  knife  is  employed,  all  that  is 
necessary  to  attend  to  is,  to  avoid  any  con- 
siderable blood  vessels,  to  make  the  opening 
large  enough  to  give  free  outlet  to  the  mat- 
ter, and  at  the  most  depending  part  of  the 
swelling. 

When  a  seton  is  used,  such  an  instrument 
as  represented  in  fig.  1,  may  be  threaded  with 
plovers'  silk,  inserted  at  the  upper  \yj.rl  of  the 
tumour,  and  passed  out  at  the  under ;  and 
the  matter  of  the  abscess  thus  allowed  gra- 
dually to  discharge  itself.  Dry  lint,  changed 
once  or  twice  a  day,  is  the  only  dressing  ne- 
cessaiy  in  a  connnon  abscess. 

When  an  inflamed  jiart,  instead  of  thus 
passing  on  into  suppuration,  becomes  gan- 
grenous, the  external  applications  are  re- 
tjuired  to  be  of  a  stimulating  nature ;  such  as 
solutions  of  sal-ammoniac,  &c.  in  general, 
jiowever,.  the  arresting  of  gangrene  is  to  be 
irusted  to  internal  invigorating  powers,  and 
Jieeping  the  part  clear  and  clean,  ^^■|len 
jmorlilied  parts  lie  deep,  and  are  not  thrown 
ol'fby  the  living  energy  of  the  surrounding 
surface,  it  is  often  necessary  to  make  incisions 
into  the  skin  for  the  purpose  of  removing 
.them. 

!  0/  ulcer.  When  the  ischar  or  mortified 
part  has  been  separated,  the  sore  remains  in 
the  form  of  a  simple  purulent  ulcer,  which  i-i 
one  of  the  most  common  objects  of  surgical 
practice,  the  treatment  of  which  is  entirely 
resolvable  into  the  means  of  assisting  nature 
jiii  her  endeavours  to  procure  proper  and 
•    Vot,  11. 


healthy  granulations  of  new  flesh,  in  prevent- 
ing morfjid  luxuriancy,  and  disposing  to  an 
even,  and  de.ir  cicatri/.ation.  Various  me- 
thods have  been  iiad  recourse  to,  in  order  to 
accomplish  these  objects,  tucli  as  turpentine, 
warm  stimulating  ointments,  u)  conjunction 
with  mia-curial  preparations;  as  an  example 
of  which,  and  as  the  best  application  of  the 
kind,  v,e  may  notice  the  common  basilicon 
ointment  of  tlie  shops,  with  the  red-j)recij;i- 
tate  powder.  Hut  the  management  oi  obsti- 
nate ulcers  has  cicently  been  abundantU 
facilitated  by  the  i-mplu'yment  of  simple  a([- 
liesive  plaslL-r,  which  is'  cut  into  strips,  and 
laid  carefully,  lirmly,  and  neativ,  over  the 
whole  ulcerated  surface;  these,  wliere  it  can 
be  used,  to  be  assisted  by  bandage,  'lliis 
practice  was  tirst  geiieral'ly  introduced  by 
.Mr.  Baynlon.and  has,  wilhjustice,  been  rank- 
ed among  the  highest  improvements  ii;  mo- 
dern surgery.  At  every  dressing  of  an  ulcer 
thus  treated,  the  sore  is  first  to  be  cleansed 
by  sponge  and  warm  water;  if,  notwithstand- 
ing the  uniform  pressure  oi  the  pla>ters,  fun- 
gous excrescences  arise,  they  may  be  touch- 
ed, whendrosscd,  with  some  kind  of  escharoiic ; 
the  edges  of  the  ulcerated  surface  are  then  to 
be  brought  up  as  near  together  as  the  loss  of 
substance  will  admit  of;  and  the  strips  of 
adhesive  plaster  separately  passed  over  the 
sore,  till  It  is  entirely  covered.  Over  this 
dressing  common  cerate  spread  on  linen  mav 
be  laicf,  and  the  bandages  then  applied. 
When  the  ulcer  is  attended  with  much  in- 
flammation and  swelUng,  the  management 
of  it  for  a  lime  is  to  be  solely  entrusted  to 
warm  and  stimulative  poultices.  One  of  the 
most  efficacious  materials  of  whtch  these 
may  be  constiluted,  and  one  of  the  best  ap- 
plications to  obatinate  ulcers  of  the  leg,  which 
are  often  attended  with  erysipalatous  mflam- 
mation,  is  the  grounds  of  stale  beer. 

'I'hus  far  of  ordinal-  inflammation  and  its 
consequences:  we  now  proceed  to  treat  of 
this  state  as  connected  with,  or  modified  bv, 
a  peculiarity  of  constitutional  dispositioii. 
These  kinds  of  inflammation  are  peculiar  in 
Uieir  nature,  and  confined  to  certain  parts  of 
the  system.  'J'hus,  inflammatorv  disorders  of 
a  scrophulous  kind  invariably  affect  secretory 
surfaces  and  cancerous  inflammations,  which 
are  nearly  allied  to  scroi)hulous,  arise  always 
in  glandular  parts.  Suppose,  for  e\am[)le, 
the  breast  of  a  female  to  be  subjected  to  the 
causes  of  iiiilammation,  the  operation  of  such 
causes,  if  applied  at  a  certain  time  of  life,  or 
under  circumstances  of  cancerous  predisjjo- 
sition,  will  end  in  the  production  of  true 
cancer ;  the  nature  of  the  inflammation  from 
the  rirsl  being  jjeculiar  :  while  under  circum- 
stances of  freedom  from  the  cancerous  ten- 
dency, an  equal  degree  of  actual  inflam- 
mation may  prevail  in  the  breast,  without 
having  any  peculiarity  in  its  nature  and  pro- 
gress, or  without  demanding  a  specific  mode 
of  treatment.  Further,  even  iu  an  individual 
predis))osed  to  cancer,  inflammation  of  a 
part  which  is  not  glandular,  « ill,  by  conse- 
cpience,  not  be  cancerous.  What,  therefore, 
we  have  denominated  constitutional  inflam- 
ibations,  are  inflammations  of  certain  parts, 
and  thus  branch  out  into -^listinct  diseases. 
We  shall  here  only  notice  the  two  princij)al 
intlainmations  from  a  scrophulous  diathesis, 
although  every  secretory  surtace  is  obnoxious 
to  the  ad'eetion  ;  these  are  white-swelling  of 
the  knee  joint,  and  lumbar,  psoas  abscess. 


7-15 

II  hilc' sf.i Hi iig.  Tills  disorder  is  niost  fre' 
(|U(  nt  in  the  kneejoinl,  and  indeed  the  name 
iti  usually  made  to  denote  a  disease  of  thin 
|)art. 

S;implomi,  Pain  in  lliejoiiit,  especially  on 
iliol:ion,  or,  wjn  ii  it  is  in  a  b'  nl  posilion, 
swelling,  which  r^  ■'' 'I''  :j;7-rents,  witii  an 
enlargement  ai  laiici-  of  the 

cuticular  vein  ,  i.  swells,  the 

pails  bulow  bccu.iii;  ■  .ilur  ''iminislied  or 
aflijcled  w  ith  an  oideinatous  enlargement,  par- 
tial suppmrations,  wh;cli  brei,;^  Lnd  torm  ab- 
scesses at  (lill'erenl  points;  gradual  decline  of 
the  patient's  health,  1:«  tic  fever.  'Somelinres 
the  pain  is  more  confined,  and  it  is  ofli-n  (heif- 
more  acute;  at  other  times  the  parn  and' 
swelling  are  from  tlie  first  ditruscd  through' 
the  whole  extent  of  Ihe  joint.  ■  ' 

Criiiifs.  \\  hite-swelling  is  a  scroj  hulous' 
inllammallon.  In  those  cases  in  wliieli  the 
enlargement  of  the  joint  commences  with  the 
pain,  the  pain  ilselt  being  more  dill'used,  the 
primary  alleclion  seems  to  be  an  inflamed" 
state  of  the  capsular  ligament ;  in  other  cases' 
the  disease  is  jjerhaps  originally  seated  in  the 
bones.  Mr.  B.  ISell  has  described  these  dif- 
ferent species  by  the  names  of  rheumatic  uiicf 
scrophulous;  but  the  fact  is,  that  they  both 
depend  upon  the  scrophulous  diathesis:  and 
it  has  been  well  observed  by  an  abb-  writer, 
"  that  between  acute  rheumatism  and  white-' 
swelling,  there  is  no  sort  of  analogy,  neither 
as  to  their  causes,  their  symjUonis,  their 
terniinations,  their  proper  nietliod  of  cure, 
nor  any  thing  else."  J)r.  lierdman  onAN'bitc- 
.Swelling. 

Treatment.  Botli  in  the  mc'dical  aiid  sur-> 
gical  treatment  of  all  scrophulous  inflanima^ 
lions,  it  must  be  recollected  that  they  pat^ 
take  more  of  the  asthenic  than  the  opposite 
character.  Tims  in  white-swcUing,  however 
violent  the  inflammalion,  or  urgent  Ihe  pain, 
blood-letting,  general  or  local,  is  seldom  or 
never  advisable,  lilisters,  wann  fomenta- 
tions, and  bathing,  volatile  lii.inient,  the 
counter  irritation  of  caustic  issues,  mercurial 
friction,  nourishing,  but  not  irritating,  diet, 
good  air.  When  suppuration  has  taken 
place,  "  soft  and  easy  dressings,"  warm  poul- 
tices, small  doses  of  calomel  with  o])iiiin. 
Cicutar  Amputation  of  the  limb,  which  is 
often  the  only  resource  of  the  surgeon,  yet  it 
is  not  indiscriminately  advisable,  on  account 
of  the  patient  being,  in  some  instances,  too 
feeble  and  diseased  to  admit  of  the  operation. 

Of  lumbar  or  psoas  abscess. 

Si/mpt-nnis.  Pain  in  the  loins,  which  does 
not,  as  in  lumbago,  affect  the  muscles  of  the 
loins  generally,  but  passes  rather  upwards  in 
the  direction  of  the  spine,  and  downwards 
in  an  oblique  direction,  towards  the  inner 
part  of  the  thigh.  After  the  existence  of 
this  pain,  for  a  longer  or  shorter  periods- 
marks  of  suppuration  come  on,  and  a  tumour 
gradually  appears  in  the  groin.  This  is  to  ber 
distinguished  from  hernia  by  a  recollection  ai 
the  preceding  symptoms,  and  by  the  flaccidity 
and  fluctuating'fci-lof  the  swelling. 

Causes  and  seat.  This  disease  appears  to 
be  an  inflammatory  afTection  of  the  vertebral 
ligaments,  occasioned  by  sudden  alterations 
ot  temperature,  blows,  or  any  violence  done 
to  the  part,  and  other  causes  of  inflammation : 
It  terminates  in  suppuration,  w  liich  runs  alon^ 
the  sliealh  of  the  psoas  muscle,  and  lliuj  ap- 
pears in  thegroiu. 


745 

Treatment.  Tlii?,  to  1)P  eflectml,  oiiglit  to 
romnieiice  wilh  tlit:  coniiiu'iiceninit  ot  ibe 
disease.  When  matter  Inis  fornieil  to  any 
extent,  llie  malaclv  is  higlily  dangerous.  131is- 
ters  to  the  loins,  volatile  embrocations  ; 
\e\-y  small  closes  of  calomel,  with  opium  or 
Jiyoscyamus.  Wlien  a  tu:nonr  has  formed  in 
♦  he  thigh,  which  continues  to  increase,  it  is  to 
be  opened.  During  the  subse([uent  dis- 
charge, the  patient's  strength  is  to  be  care- 
fully supported,  by  nourishing  diet,  wnie, 
opium,  bark,  and  pure  air. 

Of  cancer.  Cancers,  previou^y  to  their 
appearing  in  the  form  ot  ulcer,  are  termed 
occult.  An  occult  cancer  is  a  schirrous 
swelling  of  a  gland,  attended  with  lancinatnig 
pains,  which  state  of  parts  often  e.\ists  tor 
some  time  before  ulceration  or  open  cancer 
is  produced  ;  this  last,  however,  sometimes 
appears  without  any  previous  schirrosity. 
Ihe  symptoms  of  cancer  will  be  best  describ- 
ed by  tracing  the  usual  progress  of  a  cancer- 
ous breast.  A  small  knotty  tumour  is  gene- 
rally nrst  perceived  on  some  part  ot  the 
mamma ;  this  continues  nearly  in  the  same 
state,  perhaps,  for  some  months :  it  at  length 
increases,  and  a  pain  is  teltto  proceed  from  it 
towards  the  axilla;  the  integuments  gradually 
become  discoloured,  and  at  length  ulceration 
is  formed. 

Causes  and  prctdiarkies.  There  has  been 
much  dispute  whether  cancer  be  a  disease  of 
parts  merely,  or  of  the  system  :  all,  however, 
that  ought  to  be  unilerstood  respecting  the 
general  nature  of  cancer,  is,  that  a  suscepti- 
bility, as  we  have  above  endeavoured  to  ex- 
plain, exists  in  some  habits,  and  especially  at 
certain  periods  of  life,  to  this  malady,  which 
in  such  habits  may  be  induced  by  the  same 
causes  which  occasion  common  inflamma- 
tion. The  Usual  time  for  the  formation  of 
cancerous  mamma  is  when  the  menses  disap- 
pear. Previous  to  this  period,  swellings  of 
the  breast  assume  more  of  the  scrophulous 
character. 

Treatment.  Cicuta  has  been  much  ex- 
tolled as  a  remedy  for  scliirrus ;  faith  in  its 
firtues  are,  however,  gradually  declining.  It 
may  be  combined  with  small  doses  ot  calo- 
mel. Mercurial  ointment  to  the  part,  vola- 
tile embrocations,  not  too  stimulating.  Lac 
assafoetida  has  been  employed  as  a  lotion  in 
occult  cancer  with  seeming  benefit.  If  the 
disease  advance,  no  cure  can  be  expected  but 
from  operation,  which  should  be  had  recourse 
to  early,  previously  to  the  extension  of  the 
disease  into  the  contiguous  glands. 

Operation.  If  the  skin  be  sound,  a  longi- 
tudinal or  transverse  incision,  according  to 
the  shape  of  the  tumour,  is  to  be  made  with 
the  scalpel  along  its  whole  length,  at  a  small 
distance  from  the  nipple  ;  this  incision  is  to 
pass  through  the  skin  and  cellular  substance, 
and  while  the  patient's  arm  is  extended,  the 
mamma  is  to  be  carefully  dissected  from  the 
iiitigumehts  and  pectoral  muscle;  all  the 
glandular  substance  ;.hould  be  detached,  al- 
though only  a  part  be  the  seat  of  the  disease. 
Inclosing  the  integuments  aflerthe  comple- 
tion of  the  oneration,  the  twisted  sul^e  may 
be  employed,  assisted  by  slraps  of  a^|iesive 

filaster;  a  pleilget  of  simple  ointment  is'-to  be 
aid  over  tlie  part,  covered  by  soft  linert'oj; 
tow,  and  the  dressings  arc  to  be  retained  by 
appropriate  bandage. 

VVheu  the  opetalioD  is  performed,  after  the 


STTRGERY 

existence  of  the  disease  for  some  time  in  an 
open  slate,  it  will  often  be  necessary  to  cut 
awav  a  consider.ible  portion  of  inlegnmeiil: 
the  Incision  may,  in  tliis  ci;  .e,  be  made  of  an 
oval  furin ;  and  if  the  axillary  glands  be 
found  schirrous,  the  scalpel  should  be  carried 
on  full  into  the  arm-pit,  and  the  indurated  bo- 
dies carefully  dissected  out.  When  the  ope- 
ration is  over,  the  divided  edges  are  to  be 
brought  up  as  nearly  together  as  possible,  and 
dressings  and  bandages  applied,  as  in  other 
similar  wounds. 

f'encreal  affection. 
The  venereal  disease  is  an  example  of  that 
species  of  inflammation  which  we  have  called 
specific.  It  appears  in  two  forms.  To  the 
one  is  more  generally  applied  the  denomina- 
tion of  syphilis ;  t!ie  otiier  is  called  goiior- 
rhcea  virulenta.  These  affections  are  ima- 
gined by  some  to  originate  from  the  same 
specific  poison  ;  by  others,  the  cause  produc- 
tive of  true  syphdis,  and  th.at  occasioning 
gonorrhoea,  are  supposed  to  be  of  a  different 
kind.  This  last  is  perhaps  the  best  founded 
opinion,  viz.  that  the  matter  which,  applied  to 
the  genital  organs,  produces  a  discharge  from 
the  urethra,  called  gonorrhoea,  is  not  capable, 
under  any  circumstances,  of  producing  true 
venereal  chancre. 

Symploms  of  gonorrhoea.  A  peculiar  itch- 
ing and  smarting  sensation  about  the  extre- 
mity of  the  urethra,  attended  with  some  feel- 
ing of  stricture  or  tightness  ;  this  is  siicceeded 
by  the  appearance  of  mucus  about  the  extre- 
mity of  the  penis,  which  soon  increases  in 
iiuanlity :  it  is  generally  of  a  brown  appear- 
ance, is  attended  with  more  or  less  smarting 
upon  discharging  the  urine,  and  -.vith  nocturnal 
erections,  isometimes  the  lymphatic  glands 
of  one  or  both  groins  become  inflamed,  en- 
larged, and  thus  -form  bubo.  The  time  at 
which  the  symptoms  of  gonorrhcea  make  their 
appearance  is  variable:  sometimes  the  dis- 
order will  follow  impure  coition  in  the  space 
of  a  few  hours;  at  others  it  will  be  several 
days. 

Treatment.  In  the  first  and  inflammatory 
stages,  demulcents  largely  drank,  such  as  de- 
coction of  linseed,  solution  of  gum  arable, 
tragacanth,  &:c.  Mild  purgatives,  such  as 
manna  and  senna.  Opiates  at  night.  Bathe 
the  penis  in  warm  milk  and  water.  Saturnine 
lotions.  If  from  the  too  precipitate  or  early 
use  of  astringent  injections,  or  from  other 
causes,  the  inflammation  extends  itself  to  the 
testicle,  causing  pain  and  swelling  of  this 
part  (hernia  humoralis),  the  scrotum  is  to  be 
supported  by  bandage.  Leeches  are  to  be 
applied  should  the  inflammation  be  violent, 
and  the  testicles  are  to  be  preserved  constant- 
ly moistened  with  a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead, 
or  some  other  saturnine  prei)aratioii.  Forthe 
swelled  glands,  friction  with  mercurial  or  com- 
mon ointment  and  camphor.  Volatile  em- 
brocation, if  the  inflammation  cannot  be 
repelled,  the  suppurative  jirocess  to  be  soli- 
cit'e'flljy  bread  and  milk  poultices.  If  every 
symptom  of  the  disorder  go  off,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  white  mucous  discharge  from 
llie  urethra,  which  continues  notwifhslandincf 
the  use  of  astringent  injectirons,  give  tincture 
of  cantharides  in  gradually  augmented  doses, 
which  will  be  for  the  most  part  found  more 
;  .e'flicacious  than  the  balsams  generally  ein- 
jpioyed  for  this  purpose.  Should  still  the 
discliar(;i;  continue,  and,  from  the  muisual  ap- 


pearance in  the  stream  of  urine,  a  stricture  in    ■ 
some  part  or  parts  be  suspected,  introduce 
bou;^ies. 

Si/iiiptoms  of  sijphilis.  True  syphilis  is 
perlia|)s  invariably  introduced  into  the  system 
through  the  medium  of  ihancre,  unless  in 
cases  where  it  is  transmitted  horn  parents  to 
children.  Chancre  is  a  small  ulcerated  sore, 
occasioned  alwuvs  by  contact  or  coition. 
This,  when  it  appears  on  the  penis,  is  fre- 
cjuently  followed  b_\  an  inflammation  and  en- 
largement of  one  or  both  groins ;  these,  if 
neglected,  pass  on  to  suppuration  ;  ulcers  ou 
the  tonsils  succeed,  with  eruptions  of  the  skin, 
especially  about  the  roots  erf  the  hair ;  at 
length  come  on  pains  in  the  bones,  which  are 
ollen  highly  excruciating,  and  although  some- 
times taken  for,  are  to  he  distinguished  from,, 
rheumatic  swellings,  by  their  being  rather  in 
the  centre  of  the  bones,  and  deep  seated,  than 
in  the  joints,  and  siiperricial ;  by  their  not  be- 
ing accompanied  with  fever  equivalent  to  the 
violence  of  tlie  pain  ;  by  the  absence  of  that 
general  swelling  of  the  soft  parts  which  at- 
tends rheumatism,  and  sometimes  by  a  cir- 
cumscribed swelling  extremely  painful  grow- 
ing up  from  the  bone.  When  any  doubt  ex- 
ists respecting  the  nature  of  those  ulcers  in 
the  tonsils,  tliroat,  8:c.  which  are  suspected 
to  be  venereal,  they  may  generally  be  de- 
cided such  by  their  peculiar  coppery  appear- 
ance :  they  are  likewise,  in  general,  more  cir- 
cumscribed than  other  ulcers,  and  their 
edges  have  a  peculiar  callosity. 

Treatment.  Mercurials  given  in  such  a 
form,  and  in  such  cpiantity,  that  what  is  called 
an  alterative  kind  of  action  shall  be  for  some 
length  of  time  maintained  in  the  system, 
without  occasioning  salivation,  is  an  effect  from 
mercury,  which  appears  always  to  defeat  its 
own  object.  Chancres  ou  the  penis  may,  if 
the  application  be  inade  to  them  a  very  short 
time  after  their  production,  be  totally  destroy- 
ed by  caustic,  and  the  absorption  of  the  vi- 
rus and  consecpient  disease  thus  prevented. 
When  the  sw  ellings  in  the  groin  are  first  per- 
ceived, they  are  to  be  kept  from  enlarging 
by  the  vigorous  application  of  mercurial  oint- 
ment, which,  if  not  inconvenient,  is  perhaps 
the  best  and  surest  mode  of  introducing  this 
medicine  into  the  general  habit.  For  other 
preparations  of  mercury,  see  .Materia  Me- 
DicA  and  Pharmacy.  With  respect  to  the 
time  of  continuing  mercury,  it  may  perhaps 
be  laid  down  as  ajgeneral  rule,  not  to  disconti- 
nue the  medicine  until  two  or  three  weeks 
after  the  apparent  discontinuance  of  the  dis- 
order. Secondary  affections,  from  the  vene- 
real action  not  having  in  the  first  instance 
been  entirely  subdued,  are  extn  niely  fre^ 
quent,  and  are  always  formidable.  Opiates, 
sarsaparilla,  and,  recently,  nitrous  acid,  liave 
each  been  judged  specifics  for  venereal  af- 
fection ;  but  it  is  now  pretty  generally  sup- 
posed that  they  merely  act  as  au.xiliaries  to 
mercurials. 

There  are  some  other  affections  that  were 
not  noticed  in  tlie  article  Medicine,  which 
depend  upon  a  specifu-  poison,  and  which, 
though  constituted  by  a  species  ot  cutaneous 
iiiflanimatiou,  are  not,  like  the  exanthemata 
of  authors,  preceded  or  accompanied  by  fe- 
brile irritation.  The  cutaneous  eruptions 
whir!)  require  to  be  noticed  here,  are  the  aa* 
inilus  repens,  the  tinea,  and  psora.  ' 

jlnmttus  7r]Kns,  rin^-ivorm.     This  is  a 


pnivient  prupdon  formctl  in  a  circle;  it  af- 
fects children,  ^iiiil  is  llioiight  to  Iji'  coiistiliili-(l 
by  small  insects.  'I'liesL'  animalciila;  Dr. 
l>arwiii  supposes  may  be  rather  tiie  etrcct 
tliaii  the  causL-  of  the  eniplioii. 

Treatment.  Metallic  or  vegetal)le  astrin- 
gents in  solution,  such  as  nut-galls  or  while 
vitriol.  The  white  precipitate  ointment  is 
perhaps  p<iual,  if  not  superior,  in  efficacy,  both 
in  thisan<l  the  two  lolluwing  complaints  ;  the 
head  to  be  covered  during  the  cure  with  an 
oil-skin  cap. 

Tilled,  -tcuhl  lietid.  Tliis  eruption  com- 
monly breaks  out  al)i>ut  the  roi>ts  of  tin;  hair; 
it  appears  in  small  ulcers,  which  at  times 
spread  over  the  whole  head,  and  produce  fri- 
able crusts. 

The  secretion  of  the  contagious  matter, 
upon  which]this  disor(l<"r  depends,  is  generally 
excited  bv  poverty  of  diet,  \niclpanlines.s,  and 
other  mismanagement  of  infants. 

Treatment.  Shave  the  head  ;  wash  the  sur- 
face first  with  warm  water  and  soap  ;  white 
precipitate  onitment;  tar  ointment ;  a  solu- 
tion of  corrosive  sublimate  ;  generous  diet, 
cleanliness ;   small  doses  of  calomel. 

A',  ti.  A  milder  disease  tlian  tinea  often 
breaks  out  on  the  face  and  liead  of  very 
young  children  :  this  (crusta  lactea)  is  not 
infectious.  It  is  to  be  treated  by  ki'eping  the 
child  clean,  cool,  and  much  in  the  air  ;  and 
by   sprinkling   tie   eruption    with   calamine 

Eowder,  if  necessary,  which  is  likewise  the 
est  application  to  those  excoriations  of  the 
skin  wiiich  are  apt  to  break  out  about  the 
genitals  of  inf.uits. 

Psora,  itch.  "  Small  pustules  with  wa- 
tery heads,  appearing  first  on  the  wrists  and 
between  tin;  lingers."  "  There  are  two  kinds 
of  itch,  that  which  appears  between  the  lin- 
gers and  the  joints  of  the  knees  and  elbows, 
and  that  which  is  seldom  seen  in  these  places, 
but  all  over  the  other  parts  of  the  body.  The 
latter  is  seldom  tliougiit  to  be  the  itch,  as-  it 
<loes  not  easily  infect  even  a  bedfellow,  and 
resists  the  usual  means  of  cure  by  brimstone." 
Darwin. 

Treatment.  Sulphur  ointment ;  mercurial 
corrosive  sublimate  in  a  very  weak  solution ; 
wliite  precipitate  ointment  ;  sulphur  taken 
iiitenially. 

Of  indolent  tumour. 

Tumours  which  are  not  necessarily  or  in 
their  origin  attended  by  infianimation,  are 
called  indolent  ;  these  morbid  enlargements 
of  parts  are  principally  seated  in  the  cellular 
membrane:  they  are  diltisreally  named,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  their  contents. 
Wiien  the  swelling  is  made  up  of  a  substance 
of  the  consistence  of  fat,  it  is  denominated 
steatomalons  ;  if  of  a  firmer  consistence,  a  sar- 
comatous tumour.  When  it  is  filled  with 
a  substance  about  the  consistence  of  honey, 
the  enlargement  has  been  called  a  melicera- 
tory  tumour.  The  name  artheromatous  is 
aj)plied  to  those  swellings  wiiich  are  consti- 
tuted by  a  substance  of  a  harder  kind.  Some- 
times the  contents  of  tumours  are  formed  of  a 
coagulable  lluid,  when  they  are  termed  hy- 
datids. Ganglions  are  swellings  in  the  bursa: 
mucosa;  of  joints. 

These  tumours  may  be  ren'oved  by  mak- 
ing an  opening  with  a  lancet,  if  their  contents 
be  of  a  lluid  nature,  evacuating  such  liuid, 
ajid  afterwards  rcuiovuig  their  sac.    If  the 


SURGERY, 

contents  of  the  tumour  are  solid,  they  rirc  to 
be  c\lirpale(l  by  making  a  longitudinal  inci- 
sion through  the  integuments,  and  removing 
the  tumour  by  the  ];c)iiit  ol  the  linger,  or  anv 
convenient  instrument  that  is  blunt. 

Of  nuvi  nialerni,  eornt,  zi-arl.^,  andpnl/j>i. 

\\  hen  those  marksoii  iiifanls  which  are  lan- 
cifully  attributed  to  impressions  made  on  the 
mind  of  the  mollier  thu  ing  |)regnancy,  do  not 
rise  above  the  level  of  the  skin,  they  are  not 
of  course  tlie  subjects  of  surgical  operation. 
Sometimes,  however,  these  appear  in  the 
form  of  sarcomatous  tumours,  firm,  promi- 
nent, and  lleshy:  in  these  cases  the  swelling 
may  be  cut  out.  If  any  considerable  arte- 
ries run  into  it,  these  are  to  be  taken  up,  and 
the  skin  that  remains,  brought  over  and  united 
by  adhesive  jiUu'-ler.  If  the  tumour  be  con- 
nected with  the  sound  parts  by  a  narrow  neck, 
it  w  ill  generally  he  advisable  to  destroy  it  by 
making  a  ligature  round  its  neck. 

Corns  are  formed  by  a  thickening  and 
hardening  of  the  external  skin  from  pressure, 
riiey  are  to  be  treated  by  first  bathing  the 
feet  in  warm  water,  and  then  paring  oiT  as 
much  of  the  swelling  as  can  be  done  withotit 
giving  pain.  Tliis  operation  is  to  be  frequent- 
ly repeated ;  some  sinijile  ointment  may  be 
laid  over  the  corn,  and  all  pressure  avoided 
as  much  as  possible. 

Il'arts  are  to  be  removed  by  applying  to 
them  frequently  any  mild  esciiarotics,  such 
as  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  of  crude  sal  am- 
moniac, &:c.  Sometimes  astringent  sub- 
stances will  make  them  subside,  such  as  nut- 
galls:  hence  the  common  practice  of  apply- 
ing ink  to  these  excrescences. 

Pol /pi  are  indolent  tumours  found  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  body,  as  the  nose,  aior.th, 
throat,  vagina,  uterus,  and  rectum.  When, 
notwithstanding  tiie  use  of  astringent  solu- 
tions, such  as  of  alum,  vinegar,  &c.  they  con- 
tinue to  grow,  become  painful  and  trouble- 
some, they  are  to  be  extirpated  by  the  knife 
or  scissars,  when  the  roots  of  the  tumour  can 
be  commanded,  othervrise  by  tearing  them 
up  with  forceps,  lig  3. ;  or,  which  is  much 
less  painful,  while  it  is  more  secure,  by  liga- 
ture, of  wire,  of  catgut,  of  silk,  &:c.  'I'he  li- 
gature is  to  be  i)assed  double  ove.-  the  tu- 
mour, and  carried  to  its  root  by  the  fingers, 
split  jjiobes,  fig.  4.  or  rings,  fig.  5.  The 
en<ls  of  the  ligature  are  to  be  now  intro- 
duced into  a  canula,  fig.  6.  which  is  to  be 
pushed  along  the  opposite  side  of  the  tumour, 
till  its  end  reach  the  root  of  it,  when  the  liga- 
ture is  to  be  drawn  with  some  tightness,  and 
fastened  to  the  canula,  which  is  to  remain  in 
the  passage  ;  the  ligature  is  to  be  daily  tight- 
ened till  the  polvpus  drop  off.  When  the  po- 
lypus is  in  the  throat,  the  ligature  should  be 
applied  through  one  of  the  nostrils. 

Diseases  of  the  bones. 

Bones,  like  the  soft  parts,  are  subject  to  in- 
llanmiation,  which  often  terminates  in  caries, 
or  a  kinil  of  gangrene,  forming  the  disease 
called  spina  ventosa,  or  gagncna  ossis.  This 
seems  to  be  a  scrophulous  afl'ection. 

■St/inploms  of  spina  ventosa.  Dull  heavy 
pain  following  perhaps  a  blow  on  the  part,  or 
originating  witliout  any  perceptible  exciting 
cause ;  lameness  and  sensation  of  weight  in  the 
affected  limb  :  after  the  continuance  of  these 
symptoms  for  some  time,  wiihout  any  appear- 
ance externally  to  indicate  disease,  the  iule- 
5  B  2 


7-i7 

gnments,  widdenlyperhap?,  will  become  paii- 
ed  and  swelled.  This  arises  (roni  the  matter 
having  made  its  way  through  from  the  inlurior 
of  the  bone  to  the  periosteum. 

Trealmrnt.  Af'er  the  abscess  lias  been 
opened,  let  the  parts  be  kept  constantly  dean 
and  rliy.  In  some  cases  it  is  necessary  to 
apply  the  trephine,  in  order  to  rcniiove  the 
[lart  of  the  bone  that  has  become  carious. 
Assiduously  attend  to  the  restoration  and  pre- 
servation of  the  constitutional  excitement  and 
health.  Bark,  steel,  veiy  small  doses  of  calo- 
mel, good  air,  nourishir.g  diet,  chiefly  ofani 
mal  foorl. 

T/ie  Jriahililas  and  mollilics  ossiiim.  Tlie 
one  disorder  constituted  bv  a  disposition  in  the 
bones  to  be  broken  or  injured  from  the  most 
trifling  exertion  ;  the  other,  by  a  warjt  of  due 
firmness  and  hardness  in  the  bone,  are  occa- 
sioned by  disordered  action  in  the  secretory 
or  absorbent  vessels  of  these  organs.  They 
are  alone  to  be  remedied  by  internal  strength- 
ening remedies,  suited  to  the  nature  of  the 
prevailing  malady. 

The  venereal  node,  as  to  its  immediate 
cause,  is  obscure ;  the  external  swelling,  with 
which  after  a  time  it  is  characterized,  appears 
to  be  occasioned  by  an  extension  of  the  peri- 
osteum. Sometimes  the  pain  of  these  tu- 
mours is  mitigated  by  dividing  the  perios- 
teum. 

Among  the  diseases  of  the  bones  is  often 
classed  an  affection  which  is  very  com:aon, 
especially  to  young  children,  viz.  a  loss  of 
power  in  the  lower  extremities,  consequent 
upon  a  displacement  of  some  part  of  theboney 
column  of  the  spine.  This,  in  fact,  appears 
to  be  a  disease  of  the  ligaments.  The  fre- 
c|uency  of  this  complaint  in  young  children  it 
is  important  to  recollect,  as  the  treatment,  to 
be  el'fectual,  ought  to  commence  early,  and  in 
its  origin.  Unless  attended  to  with  care,  it 
is  apt  to  be  mistaken  for  a  nervous  or  common 
iiifanlile  indisposition. 

■S'f/tnplonis.  An  unusual  backwardness  in 
walking,  languor,  lisllessness,  a  tendency  to 
hectic,  and  lastly,  a  feeling  of  protuberance 
or  curvature  in  some  of  the  spine. 

Treatment.  A  seton  in  the  back  near  to 
the  disordered  prominence,  chalybeales, 
small  doses  of  calcmiel,  as  in  other  scrophu- 
lous afi'ections.  Nourishing  diet,  cleanliness, 
air. 

Ofvercsection  and  arteriotomi/. 

Blood-lelling  from  the  arm  is  an  operation  so 
simple  and  familiar  as  hardly  to  require  no- 
lice.  The  ligature  tliat  is  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stopping  the  venal  circulation  should 
consist  of  broacl  tape ;  this  is  to  be  firmly 
bound  round  the  arm  about  an  inch  or  two 
above  the  joint  of  the  elbow  ;  the  intennedi- 
ate  space  between  this  and  the  bend  of  the 
joint  is  in  general  the  most  convenient  for  in- 
troducing the  lancet.  'J'iie  surgeon  is  to  make 
choice  of  that  vein  which  roils  Ira^t  un- 
der the  skin.  The  median  basilic,  although 
not  alwavs  the  most  prominent,  is  usu- 
ally chosen,  both  on  account  of  its  being 
less  apt  to  slip  from  under  the  lancet,  aiid  be- 
cause tiiere  is  less  danger  of  injuring  any  cu- 
taneous nerves  than  when  the  cephalics  are 
opened.  The  artery  being  felt  to  pulsate  be- 
low is  not  to  be  regarded  as  an  objection  ;  for 
transfixing  the  vein  under  any  circiBnstance 
should  be  carefully  guarded  against ;  and  un- 
less the  instrument  be  tiius  carried  througU  the 


7-18 

opposite  skies  of  the  vessi'lj  the  arterj-,  even  if 
contiguous,  must  necessiirily  remain  imiujur- 
ed.  In  pfi'lbniiing  the  operation,  llie  tluinib 
of  t4ie  left  hand  is  to  be  pressed  lirmly  on  tlie 
vein  to  be  opened,  a  little  below  where  the 
lancet  is  to  enter;  th.e  instrument  tlien  being 
opened  at  about  right  angles,  is  to  be  laid 
held  of  about  half  way  down  its  blade ;  the 
surgeon  is  to  rest  his  hand  on  the  patii-nt's 
ami,  and  to  make  the  opening  in  the  vein  in 
somewhat  of  an  oblique  direction.  When 
sufficient  blood  has  been  withdrawn,  the  Hga- 
ture  is  immediately  to  be  taken  off,  the  arm 
cleaned  with  sponge  and  water,  a  dossil  of 
lint,  or  pieceofhnen  doubled,  laid  neatlyover 
the  oririce,  and  the  tape  bound  over  this  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  interfere  as  litlle  as  pos- 
sible with  the  bend  of  the  elbow. 

M'hen  it  is  found  impossible  to  bleed  in 
this  part  of  the  arrii,  one  of  the  veins  may  be 
pierced  between  the  elbow  and  wrist.  In 
this  case  the  tape  of  course  should  be  bound 
lound  below  the  joint. 

Wlien  bleeding  is  required  in  the  neck,  the 
thumb  is  to  be  lirmly  pressed  upon  the  e.\- 
ternal  jugulai  about  an  inch  below  where  the 
opening  is  to  be  made. 

If  venesection  be  required  in  tlie  ancles  or 
feet,  a  ligature  is  to  be  hound  roumi  a  little 
above  the  ancle  joint ;  the  veins  of  the  feet 
are  Usually  prominent  and  superficial.  The 
one  that  is  most  so  is  to  be  made  choice  of. 
Adhesive  plaister  is  to  be  laid  over  the  orifice 
when  the  operation  is  over. 

Artiriotomij  is  only  practised  on  the  tem- 
poral artery.  In  opening  this  artery  it  is  ge- 
nerally advisable  hrst  to  divide  the  skin 
which  covers  it,  before  the  lancet  is  intro- 
duced; the  artery  is  then  to  be  opened  in  the 
same  manner  as  a  vein:  tlie  discharge  of 
blood  may  generally  be  stopped  by  cutting 
the  artery  directly  across,  and  suif'ering  it  to 
retract.  Bandages  have  likewise  been  con- 
trived for  stopping  the  flow  of  bloo<l,  one  of 
which  is  represented  in  tig.  '. 

Topical  bleeding. 

Leeches,  scaril'ications  of  the  skin  with  the 
point  of  a  lancet,  and  cupping,  are  the  means 
employed  for  topical  bleeding.  Cupping  is 
pert'ormed  by  the  scariiicator  and  cupping 
glasses ;  the  scariiicator  is  an  instrument  so 
Constructed,  as,  by  means  of  a  spring,  several 
lancets  arc  made  to  apply  at  one  time  to 
the  vessels  of  the  skin  ;  over  these  punctures 
the  cu|)ping-glass  is  to  be  evenly  placed,  the 
air  of  which  has  been  rarified  by  heat,  as  by 
burning  a  pitce  of  paper  dipped  in  spirits, 
and  placing  it  in  the  bottom  of  the  glass  ;  the 
blood  from  the  wounded  vessels  will  imme- 
diately rise  and  How  into  the  glass.  When 
it  is  reijuired  to  take  more  blood  than  will 
fill  one  glass,  the  surface  of  tlie  wound  is  to 
be  bathed  in  warm  water,  wiped  dry,  and  the 
-second  vessel  immediately  placed  over  it  in 
tlie  same  manner  as  before. 

Ft  has  been  observed,  that  the  flow  of 
blood  is  facilitated  in  some  instances  by  plac- 
ing the  cupping  glasses  over  the  surface  to 
be  scari/ied  previously  to  the  application  of 
the  scarifying  instrument ;  and  dry  cup|)ing 
is  sometimes  practised,  in  which,  by  the  mere 
use  of  the  glasses  without  the  scariiicator,  a 
quantity  of  blood  is  diverted  from  other  parts 
without  being  discharged. 

Leeches  are  most  easily  applied  by  confiii- 
iiig  tliem  under  a  wiiie  glass;  it  is  tliought 


SURGERY. 

tliat  these  animals  ii\  more  readily  if  the  sur- 
face be  previously  rubbed  over  with  milk,  or 
cream,  or  sugar. 

Issues. 

The  most  usual  parts  of  opening  an  issue 
are  on  the  fore  part  of  the  humerus,  the  hol- 
low above  the  inside  of  the  knee,  the  nape 
of  the  neck,  the  spine  or  between  the  ribs  ;  in 
the  two  former  places  the  pea  or  blister  issue 
is  commonly  used,  in  the  others  the  cord  or 
seton. 

A  blister  issue  is  made  and  kept  up  by  the 
common  blistering  plaster  being  first  applied, 
which  is  followed  by  the  daily  use  oi  can- 
tharides  oiiitmcnl.  The  pea  issue  is  some- 
times made  by  caustic,  but  more  commonly, 
and  much  better,  by  pinching  the  skin  up,  and 
cutting  it  through,  making  a  wound  of  sulli- 
cient  size  to  receive  the  common  issue  pea  ; 
this  is  to  be  daily  removed,  a  fresh  pea  put 
into  the  wound,  and  thus  a  purulent  dis- 
charge will  be  excited  and  maintained. 

The  seton  is  to  be  made  with  the  seton 
needle,  (lig.  S.)  threaded  with  cotton  or  silk, 
this  is  to  be  pushedinto  the  skin,  and  carried 
out  at  some  distance,  passing  the  instrument 
fairly  through  ;  and  a  few  inches  of  the  silk 
or  cord  that  may  be  employed  is  to  be  left 
hanging  out  from  the  orihces  ;  the  cord  is  to 
be  daily  drawn  out  and  renewed. 

Diseases  nfthe  eyes. 

Inflammation  of  the  eyes  is  of  two  species ; 
the  one  called  by  systematics,  opthalmia 
membranaruin,  inllammation  of  the  mem- 
branes of  the  eye  ;  the  other,  opthalmia  tarsi, 
inliammatiou  of  the  eye-lid ;  tlie  latter  is  a 
glandular  and  scrophulous  affection.  Mem- 
branous inllammation  is  to  be  subdued  by 
saturnine  lotions,  by  bleeding  with  leeches  on 
the  temples ;  and  if  the  disorder  be  violent,  and 
the  inrtamed  vessels  very  turgid,  by  cutting 
the  vessels  across  upon  the  eye.  Light,  ami 
all  other  sources  of  irritatiun,  it  is  hardly  ne- 
cessary to  observe,  shoukl  be  kept  from  the 
eye  as  much  as  possible. 

OpUialmia  tar>i  is  best  treated  by  rubbing 
over  the  lid,  when  the  eye  is  closed,  some 
one  of  the  active  mercurial  ointments,  of 
which  perhaps  the  most  eflicacious  is  the 
ung.  hydrargyri  nitrati  of  the  London  Phar- 
macopeia. 

Meml)raiious  inflammation,  if  violent  or 
long  continued,  is  apt  to  be  followed  by 
specks  on  the  cornea  ;  these  may  sometimes 
be  removed  by  absorbent  reinedies,  local  or 
general,  such  as  calomel  thrown  into  the  eye 
through  a  (luill,  or  small  (piaiililies  taken  in- 
ternally so  as  to  produce  a  very  gentle  mer- 
curial action  in  the  system.  Sometimes,  when 
the  speck  on  the  cornea  is  very  prominent,  it 
may  be  removed  by  a  small  knife.  \\'hen 
the  membranous  excrescence  termed  jite- 
rygium,  spreads  from  the  white  of  the  ey  e 
over  the  cornea,  a  scarihcation  should  iie 
made  through  it  entirely  round,  and  at  a  litlle 
distance  from,  the  circi'imference.  After  the 
hemorrhage  has  subsided,  a  saturnine  lotion 
is  to  be  applied  to  the  evi:. 

Inllammation  now  aiid  then  terminates  in 
an  abscess  of  the  eye,  which  confounds  the 
humours,  and  destroys  vision  ;  in  tills  case  the 
matter  mu<t  be  evacuated  by  an  incision  into 
the  toniea.  Ulcers  of  the  eye  may  arise 
from  the  same  causes,  constitutional  or  local, 
lliat  occasiyu  ulcers  m  other  parts :  the  ge- 


neral principles  of  (reatmcnl  must  likewise  be 
the  same. 

The  aqueous  humour  of  the  eye  sometimes 
accumulates  inordinately,  and  constitutes  a 
kind  of  dropsical  swelling  of  the  orj;an  ;  thi  > 
disease  is  to  be  distinguished  from  absci-ss 
by  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  produ  ■ 
ced,  by  the  patient  remaining  more  or  less  sen- 
sible to  light,  and  by  the  pupil  contracting. 
Dropsy  of  the  eye  maybe  remedied  in  its 
early  stages  by  puncturing  the  under  edge  of 
the  cornea,  or  by  piercing  the  schleratic  coat 
just  behind  the  iris.  After  the  operation,  sa- 
turnine and  astringent  lotions  are  to  be  used. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  puncture  the 
eye,  in  order  to  discharge  blood  that  may 
have  been  exlravasated  from  its  vessels  and 
remain  unabsoibed. 

\\  hen  the  eye  has  become  cancerous,  the 
whole  of  it  is  to  be  dissected  out,  free  from 
the  lids,  if  the  operation  is  performed  before 
these  parts  have  become  diseased. 

Cataract.  This  is  a  disorder  either  of  the 
crystalline  lens  or  of  its  capsule,  preventing 
the  rays  of  lighl  from  falling  upon  the  retina. 
Cataract  usually  commences  by  a  dimness 
of  vision,  followed  by  the  sensation  of  par- 
ticles of  dust  floating  before  the  eyes,  vvhicli. 
is  at  length  succeeded  by  almost  total  blind- 
ness. This  disorder  is  usually  without,  but 
is  sometimes  accompanied  with  pain.  It  is 
distinguishable  from  the  gutta  serena  by  the 
opaque  ajipearance  of  the  lens,  which  in  the 
last  disorder  is  not  present.  In  gutta  serena 
the  pupils  do  not  contract  in  a  strong  light ; 
in  the  cataract,  the  contraction  of  the  pupil 
usually  remains.  Whether  the  capsule  mere- 
ly, or  the  body  of  the  lens,  is  affected,  it  is 
not  easy  to  ascertain. 

In  the  commencement  of  cataract,  advan- 
tage has  sometimes  been  experienced  fronr 
small  doses  of  calomel,  hyoscyamus  ;  cicuta. 
and  electricity  have  each  been  used  with  sup- 
posed beneht.  ^^■hen  the  disorder  is  con- 
lirnied,  it  is  only  to  be  removed  by  an  opera- 
tion, by  couching  or  extraction,  by  forcing 
the  opaque  lens  down  into  the  vitreous  hu- 
mour, or  by  taking  it  entirely  out. 

Of  couching.  "  The  operator  is  either  to 
be  seated  with  his  elbow  resting  upon  the 
table,  or,  which  is  preferred  by  some,  he  ought 
to  stand  resting  his  arm  upon  the  side  of  the 
patient.  The  eye  being  fixed  by  the  specu- 
lum, (lig.  19.)  or  in  such  a  manner  as  to  al- 
low the  whole  of  the  cornea  and  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  scleortic  coat  to  protrude,  a 
couching  needle,  (lig.  21.)  is  to  be  held  in 
the  right  hand  in  the  manner  of  a  writing 
pen,  if  the  left  eye  be  the  subfect  of  the 
operation  ;  the  ring  and  little  lingers  are  to 
be  supported  upon  the  cheek  or  the  temple 
of  the  patient  ;  the  needle  is  to  beriiler.d  in 
an  horizontal  direction  through  the  sclerotic 
coat,  a  little  below  the  axis  of  the  eye,  and 
about  one-fourth  of  a  line  behind  the  edge  of 
the  cornea,  so  as  to  get  entirely  behind  the 
iris,  to  ])revent  that  substance  from  being 
wounded.  The  point  of  the  needle  is  to  be 
carried  forward  till  it  be  discovered  behind 
the  pupil,  ^riie  operator  is  now  commonly  • 
directed  to  push  the  point  into  the  lens,  and 
depress  it  at  once  to  the  bottom  of  the  eye, 
but  in  this  way  the  lens  either  bursts  through 
the  capsule  at  an  improper  jilace,  or  it  carries 
the  ca|)sule  with  it,  tearing  it  from  the  parts 
with  which  it  is  connected.  Instead  of  this, 
the  needle  ought  lirst  to  be  pushed  into  tlje 


lens  near  ifs  umlev  Cilge,  as  Dr.  Taylor  ad- 
visf^,  and  ihi'ii  cirricd  some  way  clo.vii  into 
tlie  vitreous  liimiijiirs,  so  as  to  rlf-ar  the  way 
lor  the  lens.  It  is  then  to  be  drawn  a  little 
back,  and  carried  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
capsule  ;  when,  by  pressing  upon  it,  the  lens, 
if  solid,  is  to  be  i):i>h(fd  down  by  one,  or  il 
diiiil,  by  several  niovenieats,  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vitreous  liunioiu".  It  should  then  be 
pushed  downwards  and  outwards,  as  Mi'.  IjcU 
uirects,  so  as  to  leave  it  in  llu;  undi'r  and 
outer  side  of  the  eye  ;  where,  in  case  it  sliould 
rise,  the  pass  ifje  of  the  light  would  be  little 
nbslrucled.  The  needle  is  then  to  be  with- 
drawn, tlie  speculum  removed,  and  the  eye- 
lids closed  ;  and  a  compress  soaked  in  a  sa- 
turnine solution  to  be  applied  over  them." 
It  is  not  advi>able,  in  [general,  to  remove  the 
dressings' till  about  eiglit  or  ten  days  after  the 
ojieration. 

Opcratinn  of  exlracting  the  lens.  "  Tlie 
operator  takes  the  knife,  (fig.  2,3.)  and  holds 
it  in  the  same  way  as  he  does  the  needle 
for  couching  ;  he  then  enters  the  point  of  it 
with  the  edge  undermost  into  the  cornea, 
about  the  distance  of  half  a  line  from  its 
connection  with  the  sclerotic  coat,  and  as  high 
as  the  centre  of  the  pupil ;  he  is  then  to  pass 
it  across  the  pupil  to  the  inner  angle  in  an 
horizontal  direction,  keeping  the  edge  a  little 
outwards,  to  prevent  the  iris  from  being  cut ; 
the  point  is  then  to  be  pushed  through  op 
posite  to  where  it  entered;  the  under  half  of 
the  cornea  is  next  to  be  cut,  and  at  the  same 
distance  fr  nn  the  sclerotic  witli  the  parts  at 
which  the  po'iilof  the  knife  went  in  and  came 
out  from  tlie  eye.  In  cutting  the  under  half 
of  the  cornea,  the  pressure  of  the  speculum 
upon  the  eve  should  be  gradually  lessened; 
for  if  the  eye  be  too  much  compressed,  the 
aqueous  liumour,  with  the  cataract  and 
part  of  the  vitreous  humour,  are  apt  to  Ire 
forced  suddenly  out  immediately  after  the 
incision  is  made.  The  operator  then  takes  a 
flat  probe,  and  raises  the  flap  made  in  the 
cornea,  wiiUe  he  passes  the  same  instrument, 
or  another  probe,  (fig.  24.)  rough  at  the  ex- 
tremitv,  cautiously  through,  the  pupil,  to 
scratch  an  opening  in  the  capsule  of  the  lens. 
This  being  done,  the  eye  should  be  shaded 
till  the  lens  be  extracted,  or  the  eyelids  are 
to  be  shut,  to  allow  thelpupil  to  be  dilated  as 
much  as  possible;  and  uhileiu  this  situation, 
if  a  gentle  pressure  be  made  upon  the  eye- 
ball, at  either  the  upper  or  under  edge  of  the 
orbit,  the  cataract  will  pass  through  the  pupil 
more  readily  than  it  would  do  when  the  eye- 
lids are  open.  If  the  lens  cannot  be  easily 
pushed  through  the  opening  of  the  cornea, 
no  violent  force  should  be  used,  for  this 
■would  tend  much  to  increase  the  inflamma- 
tion. The  opening  should  be  enlarged  so  as 
to  allow  the  lens  to  pass  out  more  freely. 
"When  the  cataract  does  not  come  out  entire, 
or  when  it  is  found  to  adhere  to  the  conti- 
guous parts,  the  end  of  a  small  llat  probe  or 
a  scoop,  (fig.  25.)  is  to  be  introduced,  to  re- 
move any  detached  pieces  or  adhesions  that 
may  be  present.  The  iris  sometimes  either 
projects  too  much  into  the  anterior  chamber, 
pr  is  pushed  out  through  the  opening  of  the 
cornea.  AV'hen  this  happens,  it  is  to  be  re- 
turned to  its  natural  situation  by  means  of 
the  probe  already  mentioned.  Sometimes 
the  opacity  is  not  in  the  body  of  the  lens, 
l)Ut  entirely  in  the  capsule  which  ccnlains  it. 
The  exlrattioii  of  the  lens  alone  would  hcue 


SURGERY. 

answpr  no  useful  purpose.  Some  practition- 
ers attempt  to  extract  first  the  leus  and  then 
the  capsule  by  forceps  ;  others  the  lens  and 
capsule  entire."  The  after  treatment  is  to 
be  the  same  as  in  coucliing. 

A  dill'erence  of  sentiment  ])revails  respect- 
ing the  superior  eligibility  of  the  one  or  the 
otiier  of  these  o|jei'ations.  Among  the  sur- 
geons of  Loiulon,  the  extraction  is  principally 
advised. 

Of  fistula  IdvltrymaUs. 

An  obstruction  of  the  lachrymal  sac  or 
duct  constitutes  this  disease ;  it  is  divided 
into  four  stages;  the  first  is  constituted  by  a 
mere  dilatation  of  the  sac,  and  is  character- 
ised by  a  tumour  between  the  inner  corner  of 
llie  eye  and  the  nose,  attended  with  a  dis- 
charge of  tears  and  mucus  over  the  cheek, 
the  inle^uments  being  entire,  and  as  yet  free 
from  inllauiniation.  In  the  second  stage  the 
swelling  is  larger,  the  skin  inllamed,  and  out 
of  the  inincta  lachrymalia  may  be  now  press- 
ed a  yellowish  purulent  fluid.  The  bursting 
of  (he  skin  forms  the  third  stage  of  the  dis- 
order ;  in  the  fourth,  the  passage  from  the  sac 
into  the  nose  is  obliterated,  its  inside  being 
ulcerated  or  fungous,  and  the  bones  being 
carious ;  it  is  only  then  to  this  last  stage  that 
the  term  listula  can  witli  propriety  be  ap- 
plied. 

It  has"  been  attempted,  by  the  introduction 
of  a  probe  (tig.  27.)  from  one  ofthepuncla 
lachrymalia  into  the  nasal  duct,  to  overcome 
the  obstruction  without  wounding  the  integu- 
ments:  the  injection  of  astringent  llui<ls  has 
likewise  been  proposed  by  means  of  a  sy- 
ringe, (fig.  2S.)  the  pipe  of  which  is  also  to 
enter  one  of  the  puncta;  but  these  opera- 
tions are  scarcely  practicable,  and  all  per- 
haps that,  in  the  first  period  of  the  disorder, 
ought  to  be  attempted,  is  fretpient  jiressure 
with  the  finger  on  the  tumour  ;  when  the 
disorder  advances,  and  the  tumour  threatens 
to  burst,  an  opening  should  be  made  into  it 
with  a  small  scalpel,  beginning  the  incision 
a  little  above  the  line  from  the  angle  of  the 
eye  to  the  nose,  and  laying  the  sac  fairly 
open  ;  the  contents  of  tlie  tumour  are  then  to 
be  pressed  out ;  and  by  some  surgeons  we  are 
directed  to  search  for  the  nasal  duct  with  a 
probe,  and  if  it  can  be  found,  to  introtluce  a 
piece  of  catgut,  bougie,  or  lead,  binding  it 
downwards  so  as  to  preserve  it  in  the  passage 
till  the  sides  of  the  duct  are  healed.  The 
wound  is  to  be  dressed  with  wax  and  oil,  and 
the  dressings  retained  by  sticking  plaster. 
When  the  passage  of  the  duct  is  secured,  the 
substance  that  had  been  introiluced  is  to  be 
wilh'lrawn,  and  the  wound  healed. 

In  the  last,  t)r  properly  fistulous,  stage  of  the 
disortler,  the  attempts  at  cure  ;ire  attempts 
to  procure  a  new  duct  for  the  passage  of  the 
tear>,  the  original  one  being  obliterated.  L'or 
this  purpose  the  canula  of  the  trocar  (fig.  30.) 
is  to  be  introduced  to  the  under  and  back 
part  or'  the  lachrymal  sac,  and  retained 
while  the  stilette  is  to  be  passed  into  it  in 
an  obrKjue  direction  downwards  and  inwards, 
till  il  reach  the  nasal  cavity;  the  perforation 
of  the  bones  will  be  perceived  by  the  ope- 
ration;  and  the  passing  of  the  instrument  into 
the  nostrils,  is  usually  followed  inmiediately 
by  the  passage  of  some  bloody  mucus  out  of 
the  nose.  When  the  instrument  iias  thus 
penetrated  the  spongv  bones,  it  is  to  be  with- 
drawn from  the  cauuia,  and  a  Icadtn  probe  or 


749 

piece  of  cafgut  introduced.  The  canula  is 
now  to  be  removed,  one  end  of  the  prolx;  if) 
to  remain  in  the  new-formed  duct,  and  the 
other  bent  so  as  to  secure  its  retention,  and 
hang  over  the  edge  of  the  wound,  «liich  is 
now  to  be  covered  with  lint  and  adhesive 
laster.     The  probe  is  to  be  removed  almost 


nd 


daily  until  the  new  duct  is  completely  cal 
lous,  when  il  is  ei   '     ' 
the  wound  healed. 

In  cases  of  much  constitutional  affection, 
where  the  disorder  treated  in  the  above  man- 
ner is  likely  to  recur,  it  has  been  proposed 
to  imrodcce  a  canula  of  gold,  silver,  or  lead, 
into  the  artificial  opening,  and  to  heal  the 
skin  over  it.  The  instruments  used  for  thi^i 
purpose  are  represented  in  ligs.  31,  32,  3.3. 

Of  diseases  of  the  teeth. 

The  causes  of  loolh-ach  are  obscure. 
Caries  of  the  teeth  seems  to  be  sometimes  a  ■ 
constitutional,  at  others  an  entirely  local  dis- 
ease. I'orlhe  presenation  of  the  iceth,  they 
ought  to  be  kejjt  constantly  brushed,  with  <t 
brush  simply,  or  with  some  powder  that  is 
not  of  an  acid  nature.  For  acids,  although 
lor  a  time  they  cleanse  and  whiten  the  teeth, 
eventually  injure  their  texture :  the  acidity 
constitutes  the  objection  to  several  of  the 
commonly  vended  dentifrice  powders.  Tooth- 
ach  w  lieji  it  proceeds  from  a  disease  of  the 
tooth  itself,  only  admits  of  temporary  cure 
by  the  common  applications  of  opium,  cam- 
phor, and  the  warm  essential  oils.  The 
ein|)iiical  remedies  for  diseased  teeth  are 
perhaps  cenerally  composed  of  some  strong 
concentrated  mineral  acid,  by  which  the  ca- 
rious is  for  a  time  separated  irom  the  sound 
portion  of  tlie  tooth. 

Extraction  of  the  teeth.  Many  are  by  far 
too  hbaal  in  disposing  of  llieir  teeth  :  if  the 
first  fit  of  the  tooth-ach  be  endured,  the  dis- 
order will  fi'ei|uently,  for  years,  or  for- 
life,  be  suspended,  and  the  tooth  remain 
usefiil,  which  by  a  precipitate  extraction- 
would  have  been  unnecessarily  lost.  In  some 
again,  there  is  a  tendency,  from  the  fear  of 
the  operation,  to  the  other  extreme.  When 
a  tooth  is  extensively  carious,  it  ought  by  all 
means  to  be  extracted,  for  the  sake  of  pre- 
serving those  that  are  contiguous ;  and  the 
momentary  pain  of  extraction  is  trifiing  ia 
comparison  of  the  multiplied  and  protracted 
fits  of  toooth-ach. 

The  histruinenls  for  exlracting  teeth  ope-. 
rale  in  a  lateral  direction  :  it  is  indifferent  on 
which  side  they  are  forced  out,  whether  out- 
wardly or  inwardly,  exce|)t!ng  in  the  in- 
stance of  the  denies  sapientia-  of  the  lower 
jaw,  which  ought  invariably  to  be  forced  out- 
wards. Before  the  claw  of  the  instrument  is 
fixed  on  the  tooth,  the  gum  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  it  as  deep  down  as  possible  ;  the 
fulcrum  of  the  instrument  is  to  be  on  the 
side  opposite  to  that  at  which  the  tooth  is  to  . 
be  extracted,  aiul  with  a  single  turn,  which 
should  not  be  by  jerk  or  violence,  but  made 
with  a  slow,  regular  movement,  the  tooth  will 
come  out  of  its  socket. 

I'Vom  very  violent  affections  of  the  teeth, 
and  from  other  causes  of  inllanimalion,  the 
membrane  of  the  antrum  maxillare  some- 
times inllames,  and  becomes  the  seat  of  ab- 
scess. The  symptoms  of  this  disea-ieare,  vio- 
lent pain  in  the  cheek,  and  swelling  extend- 
ing upwards  towards  the  nose,  the  ears,  and 
the  eyes  ;  liie  swelling  generally  points  in  the 


750 

cheek,  and  someliines  a  discharge  of  malter 
t.ikes  place  from  the  nostrils  or  tin;  rools  ol 
the  tCLtii.  'I'his  disease  is  to  be  cured  by 
making  a  free  opening  for  tlie  discliarge  ot 
the  matter,  eill-.er  by  extracting  one  ol  the 
niolares  and  peiiorating  liie  aiUiuni  with  a 
trocar,  (hg.  37.)  through  tiie  bottom  of  the 
socket ;  or  else,  v\  ithout  extracting  a  tooth,  the 
perforation  niav  be  made  with  a  tubular  in- 
strument thiougli  that  part  of  the  antrum 
which  projects  over  the  molares.  Astring- 
ent solutions  may  be  thrown  occasionally  into 
tlie  cavity. 

Ofranula.  An  obstruction  in  the  duct  of 
one  of  the  salivary  glands  so:iietiines  pro- 
duces a  tumour  under  the  toiis^ue,  of  sricli  a 
biice  as  to  impede  the  motion  of  this  organ, 
and  at  length  to  threaten  snfi'ocalion.  'I'liis 
tumour  is  to  be  laidfully  open, and  the  moulh 
jiiay  afterwards  be  washed  with  some  as- 
tringent solution. 

EiiUirgcd  tonsils  and  vviilu  are  not  u.ifre- 
quent  occurrences.  When  these  by  tlicir 
size  interfere  with  respiration  or  swallowing, 
thev  are  to  be  removed  by  ligature  in  the 
sanie  manner  as  polyin.  When  the  enlarged 
tonsil  is  of  a  conical  shape,  Cheselden's 
needle  (lig  38.)  may  be  employed,  which, 
threaded  w  itii  a  doul)le  ligature,  is  to  be  push- 
ed through  the  base  of  the  tumour  ;  the  liga- 
ture now  being  taken  hold  ot  by  a  hook  is  to 
be  pulled  forward,  divided,  and  tied,  so  as 
that  each  division  shall  surround  each  half  of 
the  swelling.  This  kind  of  ligature  may  be 
emploved  for  an  enlarged  uvula  or  for 
polypi. 

Deafness,  when  consequent  upon  an  inor- 
dinate accumulation  or  hardening  of  the  wax, 
is  best  removed  by  syringing  the  ear  with 
warm  water  in  which  some  soap  has  been  dis- 
solved. When  deafness  arises  from  mere 
dryness  in  the  meatus,  some  drops  of  sweet 
oii  should  be  put  into  the  passage.  The  sup- 
purative discharge  from  the  ears  in  young 
children  niav  generally  be  relieved  by  some 
slightly  astringent  lotion,  such  as  a  weak  so- 
lution of  vitriolated  zinc  or  sugar  of  lead. 
AV'hen  deafness  is  consequent  upon  loss  of 
nervous  power,  either  local  or  general,  no 
relief  can  be  expected  from  these  topical  ap- 
plications. Electricity  has  been  tried  with 
apparent  bmefii  in  these  cases. 

Il^rif  neck  generally  depends  upon  a  pre- 
ternatural contraction  of  the  mastoid  muscle 
on  one  side.  'I'he  muscle  in  this  case  to  be 
carefully  divided,  lest  the  parts  below  it  be 
injured.  Mr.  B.  Bell  lias  proposed  a  macliine 
(fig.  40.)  for  supporting  the  head  alter  the  di- 
vision of  tlie  muscle,  until  it  unite  and  regain 
its  power. 

Bronchntomy.  When  the  trachea  is  to  be 
opened,  we  are  directed  to  make  a  longitu- 
dinal incision,  of  about  an  inch  and  a  half, 
through  the  skin  and  cellular  substance,  com- 
ini-ncing  at  the  under  end  of  the  thyroid  car- 
tilage ;  the  muscles  are  tlien  to  be  separated, 
the  operator  taking  care  to  avoid  the  thyroid 
gland:  when  the  trachea  is  laid  bare,  and  the 
bleeding  vessels  secured,  ;.  pvmcture  is  to  be 
made  with  a  common  lancet  between  two  of 
the  rings  ot  the  trachea,  of  such  size  as  to  ad- 
mit a  canula.  Dr.  Monro  directs  tliat  a 
double  canula  be  used,  and  the  inner  one 
withdrawn  from  time  to  time,  and  cleared  of 
the  obstnitting  mncus.  He  directs  the  in- 
slrunient  to  be  lixed  by  a  strap  round  the 
.   ueck.    As  soon  as  the  purposes  are  acconi- 


SURGEKY. 

plished  for  which  an  opening  was  made  into 
tiie  trachea,  the  canula  is  to  be  taken  oul,  and 
the  wound  closed  by  adhesive  plaster. 

Paruccnicsis  of  the  ihnrax.  Whe'n  the 
cliObt  is  opened  in  order  to  evaciuUe  purulent 
matter,  or  water,  from  this  cavity,  an  inci- 
sion should  be  made  with  the  scalpel  through 
the  skin  and  ceUular  membrane,  between 
the  sixth  and  seventh  ribs,  from  one  to  two 
inches  long ;  and,  in  the  ihiection  of  tlie  ribs, 
the  muscles  are  next  to  be  divided,  and  the 
incision  made  as  near  as  possible  to  the  up- 
per edge  of  the  inferior  rib.  U  he  pleura  now 
exposed  is  to  be  gently  opened  ;  if  the 
lungs  adiierc  to  the  ribs  where  the  incision  is 
made,  the  tluid  will  not  immediately  dis- 
charge itself  from  the  opening  :  in  this  case, 
the  adiiesion  may  be  separated  by  a  bhiiit 
probe,  or  the  incision  may  be  carried  a  little 
on  towards  the  sternum.  When  the  tluid 
begins  to  llow  out,  a  silver  canula  (lig.  4.3.) 
may  be  introduced  into  the  wound,  attached 
to  the  patient's  body  ;  and  being  provided 
with  a  cork  to  it,  the  operator  is  either  to  let 
out  the  whole  of  the  matter  at  once,  or  to 
draw  it  off  at  different  times  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  patient.  The  wound,  after 
the  evacuation  ot  the  fluid,  is  to  be  kept  open 
for  some  time. 

Paracentesis  nfthe  abdomen.  Tapping  is 
usually  performed  by  punctining  the  abdo- 
men at  about  midway  between  the  spine 
of  the  ilium  and  the  navel.  Others  di- 
rect the  opening  to  be  made  in  the  liiiea 
alba.  An  equal  pressure  is  rec|uired  during 
this  operation  upon  the  belly;  sucii  pressure 
may  either  be  made  by  bandage,  or  by  tlie 
liands  of  assistants;  the  part  at  which  tiie 
puncture  is  to  be  made  being  drawn  a  little 
over  the  edge  of  the  bed,  if  the  patient  be 
found  lying  in  a  horizontal  situation,  the  sur- 
geon fixes  the  head  of  the  instrument  (a 
trocar)  while  the  fore-linger  directs  its  point; 
he  is  then  to  push  it  forward  till  it  ceases  to 
meet  with  resistance.  The  perforator  is  now 
to  be  taken  out,  and  the  water  allowed  to 
discharge,  while  the  pressure  on  the  surround- 
ing parts  is  continued  and  increased.  After 
the  whole  of  the  water  is  drawn  oft,  the  wound 
may  be  covered  with  a  pledget  of  simple 
ointment,  over  this  may  be  laid  some  flannel 
dipped  in  spirits,  and  bandages  are  now  to 
be  applied  round  the  body  witli  firiuness. 
The  bandages  should  not  be  removed  for  one 
or  two  days  succeeding  tlie  operation ;  after 
this  time  they  may  be  taken  off  daily  for  a 
little  while,  and  the  abdomen  rubbed  with 
some  stimulant  embrocation. 

Hernice.  From  malconformation,  pre-dis- 
position,  or  accident,  the  contents  of  the  ab- 
domen may  protrude  beyond  their  bound- 
aries, and  thus  con-titute  iiernia,  or  rupture. 
The  most  usual  places  of  this  descent  are 
through  the  ring  of  the  external  oblique  mus- 
cle, constituting  bubonocele  or  inguinal  and 
scrotal  hernia,  and  Iiernia  congenita,  from 
under  tlie  liganuiit  of  fallopiiis  or  poufiart, 
forming  femoral  hernia,  and  from  the  navel 
constituting  umbilical  hernia. 

The  causes  of  rupture  we  have  said  are 
either  pre-disposition,  accident,  or  malcon- 
formation. Where  the  constitutional  ten- 
dency is  observed,  the  exciting  c;.uses  should 
with  solicitude  be  avoided,  'i'hcse  sre  vio- 
lent muscular  exertion,  particularly  of  tho.ve 
muscles  whose  action  is  priuciiially  upon  the 


contents  of  the  abdomen,  such  arc  especfal'y 

called  into  ac-tioii  in  violent  siraininnsto  pro- 
cure stool,  in  lits  of  coughing,  hurried  respi- 
ration, laughter,  &:c. 

It  is  hernia  congenita  alone  that  imme- 
diately foliov.-s  upon  malconformation,  strict- 
ly speaking.  This  is  occavionid  by  the  pro- 
trusion of  some  portion  of  the  bowels  llirouch 
the  passage  by  which,  just  previous  to  birth, 
the  testicles  descend  irom  the  abdomen  into 
the  scrotum:  such  passage  is  commonly 
shortly  closed  arter  the  descent,  i>hd  thus  the 
intestine  preveiiteil;  from  entering  the  bag  of 
the  testicle.  In  the  case  of  congenital  hernia 
tlie  opening  is  preserved. 

Hernia',  with  the  exception  of  the  one  just 
mentioned,  are  invested  with  jieritoncum,  and 
tiuis  enclosed  in  a  sac  ;  and  to  whatever  ex- 
tent the  protrusion  may  have  taken  place, 
the  tumour  stili  forms  in  a  manner  a  part  of 
the  abdominal  cavity.  Rupture  is  an 'im- 
proper ?,peUation  for  the  disorder. 

Jt  may  easily  be  conceived  that  parts  thus 
protruded,  even  independently  of  the  imme- 
diate inconvenience  with  which  they  are  at- 
tended, are  in  no  measure  free  from  danger  of 
serious  and  alarming  consequences.  We 
have  a  large  swelling,  for  instance;  a  jiait,  in 
many  cases,  of  the  canal,  by  wliich  the 
fa:ces  are  constantly  passing  forward  to  tlie 
anus ;  and  this  swelling,  so  disproportionate 
to  the  passage'  through  which  it  has  been 
protruded,  that  it  is  only  in  some  situations  of 
the  body,  when  the  parts  are  not  full  and 
tense,  that  in  any  case,  and  with  duly  ma- 
naged pressure,  they  can  even  for  a  time  be 
made  to  resume  their  former  and  natural  situ- 
ation. 

The  reduction  of  hernia  ought  then,  by  all 
means,  to  be  attempted  as  soon  as  it  is  per- 
ceived ;  and  future  descents  previntea  by 
constant  and  uniform  pressure  over  the  part 
v.here  the  displacement  had  taken  place.  For 
the  dirterent  kinds  of  trusses  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, see  fiLS.  42,  43,  44. 

Wlien,  from  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  pa- 
tient, a  Iiernia  is  incapable  of  reduction,  and 
is  at  the  same  time  free  from  pain  or  stricture 
of  any  kind,  especial  care  should  be  observed 
in  avoiding  a  repetition  of  the  causes  which 
produced  the  disease.  Tlie  alvine  discharges 
are  to'be  regularly  maintained,  and  all  violent 
exertions  guarded  against ;  and,  withduecare, 
an  irreducible  and  increasing  hernia  often 
continues  through  hfe  without  any  impedi- 
ment in  the  functions,  or  any  interruption  in 
the  communication  between  the  protruded 
and  contained  portions  of  the  abdominal 
contents. 

The  dangerous  symptoms  in  hernia*  ori- 
ginate either  from  spasmodiac  stricture  of  the 
aperture  through  which  the  sac  and  its  con- 
tents havi;  passed,  or  from  distention  and  in- 
tlammalion  of  the  jiarts  protruded:  in  this 
last  case,  indeed,  the  symytcnis  may  be 
attributed  to  stricture;  for  the  opening,  al- 
tliough  of  sufficient  size  to  allow  of  the  com- 
munication between  the  tumour  and  the  ab- 
dominal cavity  previous  to  their  falling  into 
disease,  now  that  the  contents  of  the  tumoir 
are  prcternaturally  enlarged  and  iiillamed, 
becomes  too  narrow  for  such  communication; 
its  unyielding  edges  form  a  stricture  on  the 
inflamed  vessels,  and  thus  increase  the  in- 
flammation and  its  conseijuences.  The  dis- 
order is  now  called  strangulated  hernia.  TJie 


signs  of  approHching  strangulation  are  the 
fotlovviiig ;  piiiii  111  the  liinioiir,  an  iiiuisiiaJ 
uneasy  sensation  ovtr  the-  wlioU-  bflly,  in- 
creased by  any  exertion  of  th>,-  ahiloininal 
muscles,  costiveiiess,  cuiitk  aiul  hard  pulse, 
nausea,  vomiting,  an  increase  and  extens.on 
of  the  pain,  greater  tenseness  in  tne  abdomen, 
extreme  anxiety,  and  otiier  symptoms  oi  pe- 
ritoneal inllanniiation. 

These  symptoms  demand  s|)eedy  remedies; 
when  the  inilainination  antl  pain  are  ah'eady 
too  violent  to  admit  of  altempts  to  reduce  tlie 
rupture,  they  should  he,  if  possiLile.subdued  by 
fonientalions  over  the  tumour,  and  the  wliole 
of  the  abdomen,  by  the  injection  of  clysters, 
l)y  warm  batliing,  and  by  topical  and  general 
blood-letling.  1  he  return  of  the  bowels 
should  as  soon  as  possible  be  attempted,  for 
inllainmation  may  have  been  present  for  some 
time  without  so  much  of  stricture  on  (he  ring 
having  been  induced  as  to  prevent  reiluction, 
if  properly  regu  ated.  The  patient  should 
be  placed  on  the  side  opposite  the  hernia, 
with  his  pelvis  and  lower  limb^  raised,  in  order 
to  relax  the  muscles;  the  tumour  is  then  to  be 
grasped,  and  pressure  made  with  the  lingers 
in  a  direction  upwards,  and  a  little  inwards 
towards  tlie  crural  arcli,  if  the  hernia  be  of 
the  thigh;  upwards,  and  outwards  towards  the 
ring,  it  It  be  an  inguinal  or  scrotal  hernia. 

When  the  iutlammalory  symptoms  con- 
tinue, the  tumour  is  incapable  ot  reduction, 
and  every  appearance  proves  a  complete 
strangulation  of  the  hernial  sac  ;  there  is  no 
safety  lor  the  patient,  unless  in  the  operation 
which  we  are  now  brielly  to  describe  for  the 
inguinal  and  femoral  hernia,  which  are  the 
principal,  and  almost  only  cases  ol  strangulat- 
ed hernia  lor  which  the  surgeon  is  called 
upon  to  operate. 

Optrmions  for  inguinal  or  scrotal  her- 
nia. The  patient  should  be  laid  with  his 
body  in  an  almost  horizontal  position  ;  while 
the  "buttocks  are  somewhat  elevated,  the  thighs 
are  to  be  raised,  and  secured  by  assistants;  the 
parts  are  first  to  be  shaved,  an  incision  is  then 
to  be  made  with  a  scalpel  through  the  skin 
and  cellular  texture,  commencing  about  an 
inch  above  the  tumour,  and  carrying  it  down 
some  way  below  the  abdominal  ring  ;  the  ring 
being  thus  exposed,  a  directory  is  to  be  in- 
troduced between  it  and  the  sac,  in  a  direc- 
tion upwards  and  outwards.  A  blunt  pointed 
bistuory  is  to  be  inserted  in  the  groove  of  the 
directory,  and  the  ring  dilated  by  this  instru- 
ment till  the  point  of  the  finger  can  be  intro- 
duced; while  the  surgeon  makes  the  dila- 
tation of  the  ring  sufficient  to  reduce  the 
hernia,  he  must  be  careful  of  not  dilat- 
ing too  freely,  lest  the  bowels  be  again 
forced  down.  The  stricture  being  thus  re- 
lieved, the 'protruding  intestines  are  to  be  re- 
turned, the  outer  wound  closed  with  stitches, 
and  proper  bandages  applied.  WHien  the 
wound  has  cicatrized,  a  truss  should  be 
worn. 

The  operation  for  femoral  hernise  is  per- 
formed mucli  in  the  same  manner.  Here  tlic 
stricture  is  from  the  ligament  of  the  thigh, 
which,  after  tne  sac  has  been  ope.ied,  is  to  be 
divided  to  the  requisite  extent. 

H idroccL'.  Hydrocele,  or  dropsy  of  the 
scrotum,  is  either  encysted  or  inasarcous  ; 
eitlier  diffused  tnroug.i  tne  cellular  mem- 
bran.-,  or  contained  m  the  tunica  vaginalis. 
The  aii.isarcous  hydrocele  is  distinguislied 
from  thtt  eucysled  by  tlie  general  spreading 


SURGERY. 

of  the  (timoHi-,  by  its  comparatively  rapid 
progress ;  and  allliough  it  ^omi-times  depends 
upon  a  topical  cause,  by  its  being  more  usu- 
ally conne  ted  with  general  dropsy.  Anas- 
arcous  hydrocele  is  treated  by  scarifications, 
or  punctures;  but  unless  the  dropsical  ten- 
dency be  counteracted  by  genera!  remedies, 
much  advantage  is  not  to  be  expected  from 
either. 

Hydrocele  of  the  vaginal  coat  generally 
first  comes  on  with  a  sense  of  fulness  about 
the  inferior  part  of  the  testicle,  whicli  gra- 
dually becomes  more  tense,  and  rises  higlicr 
in  the  body  of  the  testicle:  the  increase  oflhi- 
swelling  sometimes  occasions  the  penis  ahnosl 
to  disappear.  '\'\\t  tumour  throughout  i- 
scarceU  attended  with  any  pain  ;  it  is  usually, 
but  not  invariably,  transparent;  its  trans- 
parency and  fiintuating  feel,  indeed,  have 
been  made  a  criterion  to  distinguish  this 
from  scrotal  hernia  ;  but  such  distinction  is 
formed  with  more  accuracy  by  the  manner  in 
which  the  disorder  has  commenced  and  pro- 
ceeded, viz.  from  below,  upwards  ;  (the  con- 
trary is  the  case  with  hernix')  and  bv  no  de- 
gree of  pressure  making  the  swelling  to  dis- 
appear. 

The  tunica  vaginalis  may  be  punctured, 
and  the  water  drawn  otT  as  in  other  species 
of  dropsy ;  but  this  operation  affords  only  a 
temporary,  not  a  radical  cure.  The  radical 
treatment  consists  in  not  merely-  evacuating 
the  water  from,  but  causing  an  irritation  be- 
tween the  vaginal  and  albugineous  coats  of 
the  testicle,  to  make  them  adhere,  and  thus 
obliterate  tlie  cavity.  This  is  effected  by  in- 
cision, by  caustic,  or  by  injection;  the  last 
of  which,  recommended  by  Mr.  Earle,  is 
now,  on  account  of  its  mildness  and  safety, 
very  generally  practised.  The  water  is  first 
drawn  off  by  a  trocar  passed  into  the  under 
and  fore  part  of  the  tumour  ;  the  canula  of 
which  is  still  left  in  the  orifice,  the  operator 
securing  it  with  one  hand,  passes  the  tube  of 
an  elastic  bag  (filled  with  red  wine  somew  hat 
diluted)  directly  through  the  canula;  he  then 
injects  the  contents  ot  the  bag  into  the  cavity, 
leaves  the  tube  of  the  instrument,  which  is 
provided  with  a  stop-cock,  in  the  canula,  by 
which  the  injected  liuid  is  retained.  This, 
after  remaining  about  five  or  six  minutes,  is  to 
be  taken  out,  and  the  fluid  sutilered  to  dis- 
charge itself  through  the  canula. 

The  wound  in  the  testicle  is  now  to  be  co- 
vered with  a  pledgit  of  lint  ;  the  testicle  it- 
self is  to  be  supported  in  a  suspensary  band- 
age, and  the  pat>nt  confined  to  his  bed 
for  some  clays.  After  this  method  of  treat- 
ment, hydrocele  is  apt  to  return,  but  the  ope- 
ration can  then  be  repeated. 

^Ihe  spermatic  cord  is  subject  to  hydro- 
cele, both  of  the  anasarcous  and  encysted 
kind.  The  latter  is  sometimes  confounded 
with  hernia,  but  may  be  distinguished  from 
It  by  thetumour  commencing  at  >ome  distance 
down  the  cord,  though  it  is  still  above  the 
testicle,  wliich  is  not  the  case  in  the  hydrocele 
of  tl'.e  tunica  vaginalis.  This  swelling  may 
likewise  be  distinguished  from  hernia:  by  its 
not  being  altered  in  size  from  any  posture  or 
pressure.  When  the  tumour  becomes  large, 
the  palliative,  or  radical  cure,  as  ia  the  va- 
ginal hydrocele,  mu?.t  be  resorted  to. 

Varicocele  is  an  unusual  distension  of  the 
scrotal  veins.  Circocete,  the  same  atfection 
of  the  spi-rmatic  cord.  Spermatocele  is  a 
disordered  dislcusion  of  tlie  vas  deferens  and 


75 1 

epidydimis.     Hheumatarele  is  a  distension  of 
tlie  scrotum  from  a  collection  of  air. 

'i'hese  several  affections  arise  from  Kxa! 
or  constitutional  derangements,  by  reiiied_\iiig 
which  they  are  relieved  or  cured. 

Sarcoceic  is  a  schirrous  cnLirgement  of  the 
testicle,  like  other  cancerous  ali'eclions  (for 
this  disorder,  sooner  or  later,  commonly  ter- 
minates in  open  ulcer),  it  is  sometimes'  pro- 
duced by  obvious  causes,  at  others  it  cuni- 
nuiices  imijerc(:|)tibly.  Scmetime»  it  re- 
mams  in  a  schirrous  stale  for  a  long  time  ;  at 
others,  especially  when  the  subject  of  the 
disorder  is  advanced  in  years,  it  soon  breaks 
out  into  open  cancer. 

When  for  this  affection  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  extirpate  the  testicle,  the  operation  is 
to  be-  performed  by  making  first  an  incision 
some  way  above  the  abdomhial  rings,  which. 
is  to  be  carried  through  the  adipose  mem- 
brane to  the  bottom  of  the  scrotum.  A  firm 
waxed  ligature  is  to  be  passed  round  the  sper- 
matic cord,  I  far  the  ring  ;  the  vessels  are  then 
to  be  tied  by  a  running  knot,  and  divided  at 
a  little  distance  below  the  hgatuie.  The 
testicle  and  cord  are  to  be  removed  by  dis- 
secting trom  above  dow nwards,  with  the  com- 
mon scalpel.  'I'he  spermatic  arteries  and 
veins  are  then  to  be  taken  up  with  the  tena- 
culum, and  ligatures  passed  round  them  ;  the 
ligature  round  the  body  of  the  cord  being 
slackened,  the  edges  of  the  wound  are  now  to- 
be  brought  as  accurately  together  as  possible, 
and  secured  by  adhesive  plaster,  leaving  the 
ligatures  hang'ing  out  of  the  wound.  The- 
compress  of  linen  and  a  T  bandage  arc  to  be 
applied  over  the  wliole. 

Inflammation  is  to  be  as  much  as  possible 
prevented  by  keeping  the  dressings  moisten- 
ed with  a  saturnine  lotion,  but  the  wound  js 
not  to  be  examined  until  about  four  or  five 
da)s  from  the  operation. 

Of  stone  in  the  bladder. 

A  disposition  to  calculary  concretions  very 
often  displays  itself  in  early  life.  Large  stones 
have  been  extracted  from  the  bladder  of  very 
young  subjects.  Most  commonly,  however, 
life  has  considerably  advanced  before  these 
concretions  form  at  least  to  any  perceptible 
extent,  either  in  the  kidneys  or  in  the  blad- 
der. The  symptoms  of  stone  are  irregular. 
One  of  the  first  sensations  is  often  an  uneasi- 
ness referred  to  the  point  of  tlie  urethra, 
which  is  more  observable  during  the  passage 
of  the  urine.  This  sensation  appears  in  a 
manner  to  increase  the  desire  to  make  water, 
which  is  often  discharged  witli  difTicnlty,  and 
only  by  drops.  Sometimes  a  constant  dull 
pain  is  experienced  in  the  region  of  the  pubis-, 
at  other  times  the  pain  is  more  severe,  and 
not  continued.  Exercise,  e<^pecial!y  riding 
on  horseback,  increases  the  symptoms.  When 
the  calculus  is  secreted  in  the  kidnejs,  pain 
is  felt  in  the  loins,  which  frequently  passes 
along  towards  the  bladder.  Such  are  the 
symptoms  by  which  the  existence  of  stone 
may  be  without  much  hesitation  decided. 
upon.  When  small  concretions  are  thrown 
out  of  the  bladder  with  the  urine,  the  nature 
of  the  complaint  is  of  cotirse  unequivocal. 

\V  lien  there  is  roo n  for  doubt,  a  sound 
(rig.  50)  is  to  be  introduced  into  the  bladder. 
Tins  instrument,  previously  to  its  introduc- 
tion, should  be  moistened  with  oil.  The 
surgeon  is  to  laj  hold  of  the  penis  with  hi». 


iWt  inn  ;.  while  with  his  right  hft  jnlroiluees 
it/  wUi)  its  coaca-.-c  siJe  liimecl  towards  tlio 
hi.'l!y  ;■  tiitleft  hand  is  now  to  cU'aw  the  penis 
geiilly  .Ornard,  and  upon  the  iii'itninii.'nt, 
wiiiili  ii  thus  giadiially  inserted  into  the 
bladder.  li"  the  soiiiul  diop  immediately 
open  tlie  stone,  the  surgeon  will  feel  a  tre- 
nmloiis  motion.  In  this,  however,  he  must 
b?  careful  that  he  15  not  deceived.  If  the 
itiHlrur.ient  have  not,  at  its  first  introduction, 
hil  upon  theslone,  it  is  to  be  moved  in  va- 
r.uusdirection^  or  tlie  ringer  may  he  passed 
into  die  anus,  or  the  body  of  the  patient  pla- 
ced in  dillerent  [wstiu'es.  Even  if  after  these 
trials,  the  existence  of  stone  does  not  appear 
obvioii?  from  sounding,  the  operation  may  in 
u  day  or  two  be  repealed. 

To  dissolve  stone  in  the  bladder  various 
expedients  have  been  practised,  hut  without 
siicceiiS!"  All  that  art  lias  liitherto  been  able 
to  arcomphsh,  i*  in  some  measure  to  obviate 
the  constitutional  tendency  towards  its  pro- 
,  iluction,  and  nothing  appears  more  effectu- 
ally to  operate  in  this  manner 'than  a  long 
continued  use  of  vegetable  or  mineral  alkali, 
saturated  with  carbonic  acid.  (See  Materia 
iMedica  and  Pharmacy).  The  paiii  of 
stone  may  sometimes  be  temporarily  reliev- 
ed by  opiates  and  other  antispasmodics,  as 
well  as  by  anodynie  fomentations. 

Oy  thi:  operation  for  c.rtracthig  stone, 
-(Lithotomy).  'I'wo  methods  only  of  per- 
forming tliis  operation  are  in  the  presenl  day 
spoken  of:  the  one,  the  high  ;  the  other,  tlu' 
lateral  operation;  and,  indeed,  the  former, 
which  consists  of  making  an  incision  into  ihe 
bladder  above  the  pubes,  is  almost  entirely 
laid  aside.  It  cannot  be  done  without  wouml- 
}<ig  the  peritoneum,  and,  consequentlv,  en- 
dangering inflammation  of  this  memlirane, 
the  mischiefs  from  which  have  been  already 
expatiated  on.     Si-e  the  section  on  wounds. 

The  lateral  operation  was  first  performed 
by  Frere  Jaceiues,  a  i'Vench  priest,  it  was 
practised  and  improved  by  C'heseUlen,  and 
has  recently  undergone  some  alterations. 

Tlie  patient,  properly  prepared  by  laxa- 
tives,  enemas;  Sec.  without  being  too  much 
reduced,  should  be  directed  to  retain  his 
urine  some  hours  previous  to  the  operation. 
The  perhiium  and  neighbouring  parts  are  to 
be  shaved. 

A  table,  a  little  more  than  three  feet  in 
height,  is  to  be  covered  with  blankets,  pil- 
lows, &c.  upon  which  the  patient  is  to  be 
laid,  and  secuted  in  the  following  manner: 
Two  i)ieces  of  broad  tape,  about  live  feet 
long,  are  to  be  doubled,  and  a  noose  formed 
ujjon  them,  to  be  |)assed  over  the  patient's 
wrists;  the  patient  is  then  to  lay  Hold  of  the 
middle  of  his  foot  upon  the  outside  ;  one  end 
of  the  tape  is  to  be  jjassed  round  the  hand  and 
foot,  and  the  other  round  the  ancle  and 
hand,  and  the  turns  repeated  in  the  reverse 
way ;  each  hand  and  foot  is  then  to  be  tied ; 
the  buttocks  are  to  be  brought  an  inch  or 
two  over  the  edge  of  die  table,  and  by  pillows 
lo  be  raised  higher  than  the  shoulders.  One 
pillow  should  be  placed  under  the  patient's 
head. 

The  surgeon  is  now  to  introduce  a  grooved 
stiff  (fig.  51)  through  the  uretlira  into  the 
bhidder,  with  this  he  feels  the  stone ;  he 
fiicii  inclines  the  stall' obliquely  over  the  right 
groiu,  so  that  its  convex  part  may  be  fell  in 
llje  perliisuui,  oil  the  left  of  Uie  raphx.     He 


<h)M)  fixes  it,  Olid  gives  it  to  an  fis8l«ta»t,  ivho 
holding  it  wui)  his  riglit  hand,  is  tp  press  ii 
g  ■lUly,  until,  with  his  left  liquid,  he  raises 
and  supports  the  scrotum.  ']'he  o[)erator, 
now  seated  or  kueeling  betwoen  tiie  patient's 
thighs,  makes  an  incision  witiia  convex-edged 
scalpel  through  the  skin  and  cellular  texime, 
immediately  beiow  thesynipliisis  p'ubis,  uhicli 
is  just  under  the  scrotum,  ;ind  where  the  crus 
penis  and  bulb  of  the  urethra  meei;  and  on 
the, left  side  of  the  lapha;,  and  in  a  slanting 
direction,  coiitiiuies  it  downwards  and  out- 
wards to  the  space  between  the  anus  aiu! 
tuber  of  the  ischium,  terminating  somewhat 
lower  than  the  have  of  that  process.  As  soon 
as  the  integuments  are  thus  divided,  two 
lingers  of  the  left  hand  are  to  be  introduced, 
with  one  keeping  back  the  lips  of  the  wouiid 
next  the  rapha:,.  and  with  the  oilier  pressing 
down  the  rectum.  The  surgeon  should  be 
jjaiticuiarly  careful  not  to  cut  the  crus  of 
the  penis,  which  can  be  easily  felt  and  sepa- 
rated with  one  of  the 'lingers  at  their  under 
part.  The  surgeon  now  nuike.s  a  second  in- 
cision almost  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
fust,  but  rather  nearer  the  raph;e  and  amis. 
The  transversalis  penis  will  bv  this  second  m- 
cision  be  divided,  with  as  much  of  the  levator 
ani  and  cellular  texture  as  will  make  the 
prostate  gland  perceptible  to  the  finger. 

The  operator  now  has  a  view  of  tlie  mem- 
branous portion  of  llie  urethra;  he  is  to  seek 
the  groove  of  the  start' witli  the  fore  finger  of 
the  left  hand,  tlie  point  of  which  is  lo  bo 
pressed  along  from  the  bulb  of  tlii-  urethra  to 
the  prostate  gland.  It  is  to  be  kept  there, 
and  turning  the  edge  of  tlie  scalpel  upwards, 
he  cuts  upon  the  groove  of  tlie  staff,  and 
divides  freely  the  membranous  part  of  the 
urethra,  from  the  prostate  gland  to  the  bulb, 
till  the  staff  can  be  perceived  perfectly  bare, 
and  the  point  of  the  linger  admitted. 

The  prostate  and  neck  of  the  bladder 
are  now  to  be  divided,  which  may  be  done 
by  a  scalpel,  but  the  gorget  (51)  is'more  usu- 
afly  employed.  The  membranous  part  of  the 
urethra  being  divided,  and  the  fore  finger 
retained  in  its  position,  the  point  of  the 
gorget,  previously  adapted  lo  the  groove,  is 
to  be  directed  afong  the  nail  of  t!ie  finger, 
which  will  serve  to  cowdiicl  it  into  the  groove 
of  the  staff;  to  this  parli'nilar  attention  is  to 
be  given.  The  operator  now  rises,  takes  the 
staff  from  the  assistant,  raises  it  to  nearly  a 
right  angle,  and  presses  the  concave  part 
against  the  symphisis  pubis ;  again  satisfies 
himself  that  the  beak  of  the  gorgi.'t  is  in  the 
groove  of  the  staff,  and  then  pushes  on  the 
instrument  till  its  [joint  slips  from  the  groove 
into  the  bladder ;  further  than  this  the 
gorget  is  not  to  be  carried,  lest  the  opposite 
side  of  the  bladtler  be  wounded.  '1  he  en- 
trance of  the  gorget  into  the  bladder  will  be 
shewn  by  the  intermediate  discharge  of  the 
urine  from  the  wound;  the  stall'  is  now  to 
be  withdrawn,  and  the  finger  pushed  up  along 
the  gorget  to  search  for  the  stone,  that  the 
manner  of  introducing  the  force|)s  may  be 
known ;  at  least  that  tlie  finger  serves  to.  di- 
late tlie  wound  in  the  bladder.  A  pair  of 
forceps  (tig.  52)  are  now  lo  be  introduced 
with  their  blades  shut  close,  and  the  gorget 
is  then  to  be  drawn  slowly  away  in  the  same 
direction  in  which  it  entered.  The  handles 
of  the  forceps  are  now  to  be  depressed  till 
they  are  nearly  horizontal;  one  blade  is  to 
be  dhcctcd  towards    the  symphisis    pubis, 


when  the  stotte  is  touched,  tlie  bladoj  of  ttte 
forceps  are  to  pb  opened  and  moved  in  vaii- 
ous' directions,  so  as  to  lay  iiold  of  the  stone ; 
ifllie  operator  (iud  3  d'fhculty  in  doing  thii(, 
the  finger  may  be  introduced  into  the  rectum, 
and  that  jjarl  of  the  bladder  wlixh  may  lodg-i; 
the  stone,  elevated.  If  tlie  forceps  "happni 
to  grasp  the  sloue,  in  a  direction  inconveni- 
ent for  its  extraction,  it  should  be  permitted 
again  to  slip  out  of  Uie  blades,  'iiie  stone 
should  be  extracted  slowly.  When  it  lias 
broken  in  the  bladder,  or  is  in  detached 
pieces,  the  scoop  (lig.  53)  or  finger  may  be 
introduced  to  remove  the  smaller  fragments. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  inject  the  wound 
with  warm  w-ater,  and  raise  the  patienl's  body, 
in  order  to  wash  out  some  of  the  reniainiiig 
concretions. 

When  any  considerable  artery  bleeds, 
it  is,  if  p.ossible,  to  be  taken  up  w  ith  a  liga- 
ture; if  this  cannot  be  done,  pressure  is  to  be 
made  on  the  wound  with  a  firm  roller. 

When  the  operation  is  over,  the  pelvis  of 
tiip  iwlieiit  sliou'.d  be  placed  lower  than  the 
bodv,  in  Older  to  preserve  the  wolmd  in  a 
dejicnding  posture,  lo  facilitate  the  discharge 
of  blood.  When  tlie  bleeding  has  subsided, 
the  bandages  are  to  be  untieil,  a  piece  of  dry 
lint  put  between  the  lips  of  the  wound,  which 
is  to  be  often  renewed,  and  the  thighs  are  to 
be  brought  together.  The  patient  is  then  to 
be  laid  in  a  bed,  with  the  pelvis  low,  a  !argi» 
dose  of  laudanum  given ;  and  when  much 
pain  is  afterwards  complained  of  in  the  ab- 
domen, anodynes  are  to  be  given  by  the 
mouth  and  by  euema,  and  fomentations,  with 
bladders  of  warm  waler,  are  to  be  applied 
to  the  pubes.  Sometimes  after  the  ope- 
ration of  lithotomy,  the  wound  will  be  healed 
in  a  month  ;  at  oilier  times,  even  if  the  ope- 
ration be  successful,  the  patient  will  be  con- 
fined for  three  or  four  months. 

Incontinence  of  urine.  This  may  arise 
from  various  causes ;  loss  of  power"  in  the 
sphincter  of  the  bladder,  irritation  about  the 
neck  of  this  organ,  laceration  of  its  coats, 
or  pressure  from  the  uterus  in  advanced  stages 
of  pregnancy,  are  circumstances  which  may 
be  conceived  fully  adequate  to  produce  an 
incontinence  or  suppression  of  urine, 

AN'licu  a  suppression  of  urine  arises  from 
deficient  power  in  the  bladder  to  expel  its 
contenls,  the  catheter  (figs.  75  and  76)  is  to 
be  introduceil  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
sound,  in  order  to  draw  oil'  the  water ;  in 
cases  likewise  of  suppression  from  the  pres- 
sufe  of  the  gravid  uterus,  the  catheter  is  olliii 
employed  with  much  advantage. 

\\  hen  the  urine  is  retained  in  consequence 
of  iriitalion  and  inllammation  in  the  neck  of 
tlie  bladder,  the  disorder  is  violent  and 
alarming  ;  it  is  characterised  by  the  ordinary 
symptoms  pf  iiUlammatioii,  altendt;d  with  an 
extreme  pain  and  much  swelling  of  the  atVect- 
ed  parts,  so  that  the  catheter  cannot  be  intro- 
duced, '^rrealmeiit :  Topical  and  general 
blood-letting,  anodyne  fomentation,  opiates 
in  large  dose  ;  injections  into  the  rectum  of 
warm  waler,  warm  bath. 

If  the  disorder,  notwithstanding  these 
means,  continues,  and  every  attempt  ha's 
failed  of  introducing  the  catheter,  a  puncture; 
must  be  made  into  the  bladder;  this  ope] 
ration  is  by  some  recommended  to  be  ])er- 
forined  above  the  jiubis,  by  introducing  n 
i  laucet-poiwted  liocur  of  two  inches  long^ 
u 


eliout  an  incli  and  a  li;ilfal)ove  llif  pubcs 
cl(rt'cll_v  inlo  Ifie  bl;ukler,  aii'l  witlidiawing 
tliestilecte  to  |)iTmit  llie  urijie  to  llow  througli 
the  t-anula;  to  the  caiiulu  a  cock  is  to  be 
fitted,  ill  ort!i-i-  tjiat  tlie  miiiaiy  disrliarge 
may  al'tenvards  not  bu-  continual,  and  by 
dio*)is,  but  at  intervals. 

When  tlk'  iJiinctnrc  is  made  from  the  peri- 
neum, the  (roiar  must  be  inliodnced  at  a 
little  distance  from  the  raj)ha  perim-i,  anfl 
passed  into  the  bladder,  a  lillle  to  the  upper 
and  outer  side  ut  the  prostate. 

Ustidi  ill  jHi'iitili).  A  simiQus  ulcer  in 
the  perineinii  may  be  produced  by  wounds 
in  thv  bladder,  Or  nciglil>ourin!f  part's,  or  may 
arise  from  inliammatioii  ot  these  pans,  com- 
mon, venereal,  or  cancerous.  When  the 
comi)laint  is  local,  it  is  to  be  treated  by  in- 
cision in  the  manner  of  other  fistulous  ulcers, 
and  dressed  with  emollient  applications,  or 
with  poultices,  iiccording  to  the  natm-e  and 
degree  of  the  inlianmiation  and  discharge. 
•  Fislidii  ill  unn.  '1  his  is  a  sinuous  ulcer  in 
firnear  the  rectiun.  It  is  called  complete, 
\vli(?n  it  has  an  ex'.ernal  opening  in  the  integu- 
ments, iridepcnd;Hit  of  the  gut,  wliile  it  at  the 
same  time  communicates  with  the  gut.  M'heii 
there  is  no  actual  comnninicalion  of  llie  ulcer 
with  the  rectum,  it  is  called  an  incomplele  fis- 
tula ;  and  when  without  any  external  opening, 
the  ulcer  communicates  with  the  gut,  it  is  de- 
nominated occult. 

Fistulous  ulcers  pear  the  rectum,  maybe 
produced  by  any  local  causes  of  irritation  ; 
they  freijuently  fo'low  upon  the  inflammation 
produced  by  obstinate,  ha'morrhoidal  alfec- 
lions.  Piles,  indeed,  are  perhaps  the  most 
common  somce  of  list\da  in  ;.no.  These  are 
to  be  remedied  by  laxatives  of  a  bland  and 
oily  nature,  by  sittuig  over  warm  water  as 
the  best  uK-ans  of  fo.nenting  the  parts  ;  and 
if  the  pain  and  swelli:'g  are  consicleraljje,  by 
the  application  of  leeches  upon  the  tumour: 
such  a])plications  are  principally  suited  to 
wiiat  are  termed  blind  piles.  When  the  dis- 
order is  accompanied  by  a  discharge  of  blood 
from  the  anus  m  an  excessive  degree,  cold 
and  astringent  arc  to  take  place  of  varm  and 
emollient  applications,  such  as  solutions  of 
sugar  of  lead,  or  the  simple  application  of 
cold  water  ;  while  costiveness,  even  in  '  t^ie 
case  of  blee<ling  piles-,  is  to  be  carefully  guard- 
ed against;  by  laxatives:  chalvbeales  inter- 
nally will  often  be  attended  with  much  ad- 
vantage. 'Ihe  tincturu  ferri  inuriati  of  the 
London  pharmacopoeia,  has  been  given  as  a 
preventive  of  piles,  with  much  apparent  be- 
nefit. In  tlie  treatment  of  the  complaint, 
it  ought  always  to  be  examined,  whether  it 
acknowledges  a  local-  or  a  general  cause,  and 
whether  the  ha'morrhoidal  disposition  depends 
upon  tlehility,  which  is  often  the  case,  and  is 
then  only  lo  be  combated  by  tonic  agents. 

When  an  abscess  has  formed  in  or  about 
.the  rectum,  and  the  tumour  points  exter- 
nally, a  free  inci^sion  ought  to  be  made  into 
its  most  depending  part,  in  order  to  discharge 
the  matter  as  speedily  as  possible  ;  the  wound 
is  then  to  bi^  covered  with  soft  linen,  upon 
which  is  spread  some  bimple  mild  ointniiiit; 
and  if  the  surrounding  parts  are  much  intUur.- 
ed,  a  large  emollient  poultice  laid  over  tiie 
dressing. 

When  the  abscess  has  been  permitted  to 

open  itself  either  externallr  or  internally,  and 

has  degenevat'd  into  a  sinuous  ulcer,  which 

is  known  by  the  nature  of  the    discharge. 

Vol.  II. 


SURGERY. 

(ho  direction  of  the  sinus  or  sinuses  must  be 
ascertained,  by  feeling  with  the  finecr  in 
the  anus;  when  their  course  is  ascertained, 
a  {rt-a  incision  is  to  be  made  along  their 
whole  length  ;  the  jiatient  is  to  be  plared 
so  that  Ills  body  shall  lean  upon  a  table  or 
a  chair  ;  the  surgeon  is  t-o  introduce  his  linger, 
previously  oiled,  into  the  rectum.  A  crooked 
probe-pointed  bistoury  is  then  to  be  inserted 
inlo  the  fiilula,  and  pushed  against  the  liiigi  r 
in  the  rectum  ;  tiie  iiislrumeut  is  now  brought 
downwards,  (he  sphincter  of  the  anirs -di- 
vided, and  the  sinus  thus  laiil  open.  When 
the  fistula  is  occiiltj  it  is  necessaiy  to  make 
an  artificial  opening,  previous  lo  the  passing 
of  the  bistoury.  After  the  sinus  or  sinuses 
have  thus  been  laid  open,  pledgets  of  lint  or 
soft  linen  spread  with  simple  ointment,  are  lo 
he  gently  insinuated  into  tlie  wound,  and  a 
compress  of  soft  linen  applied  over  the  sur- 
face, and  kept  there  by  bandage.  The  dress- 
ings during  the  cure  are  to  be  often  renewj/d, 
at  least  once  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Abscess  v.-ill  sometimes  form  slowly  iiv  the 
rectum,  and  discharge  its  contents  without 
any  fistulous  ulcers  following.  In  these  cases, 
after  the  discharge  of  the  nratter,  much  ad- 
vantage is  often  found  in  the  use,  for  some 
time,  of  astringent  and  detergent  injections, 
such  as  of  lime-water  :  which  the  patiei.t  him- 
self, by  means  of  a  syringe  contrived  for  the 
purpose,  may  with  ease  and  safety  inject. 

Explanation  of  the  Plates. 
Fig.  1.  A  k  n  et  and  canula  for  discharging 
the  contents  of  an  abscess  by   means  of  d 
seton. 

Fig.  2.  A  director  for  guiding  the  knife  in 
discharging  the  contents  of  an  abscess,  &c. 

Fig.  3.  A  pair  of  foi'ceps  for  extracting 
polypi. 

Fig.  4.  A  slit  probe  for  conducting  a  liga- 
ture to  the  root  of  a  polypus. 

Fig.  5.  A  ring  probe  for  assisting  in  secur- 
ing a  ligature  upnutlie  root  of  a  polypus. 

Fig.  6.  A  double  canula  for  fixing  a  liga- 
ture upon  the  root  of  a  polypus. 

Fig.  7.  A  bandage  for  making  compres- 
sion alter  performing  the  operation  of  arteri- 
otumy  at  the  temples. 

Fig.  8.  A  seton  needle. 

Fig.  9.  a,  h,  Two  pins  of  different  forms 
used  in  the  twisted  or  hare-lip  suture.  The 
first  commonly  made  of  silver,  with  a  move- 
able steel  point ;  the  other  of  gohl. 

Fig.  H).  The  tourniquet  now  aiost  gene- 
rallv  used. 

l-'ig.  11.  The  tenaculum  used  in  drawing 
out  the  mouths  of  bleeding  vessels  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  them  by  ligature. 

I'ig.  12.  A  blunt-pBinted  bistoury. 

Fig.  13.  A  raspatory  for  removing  the 
pericranium  in  the  operation  of  the  trepan. 

Fig.  14.  The  trephine,  with  all  its  parts 
connected  and  rea<ly  for  use.  «,  The  centre- 
pin,  which  can  be  j-aised  or  de])ressed  by  tlie 
slider/;,  c,  The  part  where  the  saw  is  unit- 
ed (othe  handlt!  by  means  of  the  spring  d. 

Fig.  15.  A  brush  for  cleaning  the  teeth  of 
the  saw. 

Fig.  16.  Forceps  for  removing  the  piece  of 
bone  when  nearly  cut  through  by  the  tre- 
phine or  the  trepan. 

I'ig.  17.  A  levator  aho  employed  in  re- 
moving the  p'ece  of  bone. 

Fig.  1  Ji.  A  lenticular  for  smoothing  the 
ragged  edge  of  the  perforated  bone. 

3  C 


7-'3 

Fig.  19,  A  speculum  used  for  kef  ping  the 
eye-lids  sepaiated,  aM<l  (he  eye  lixecl,  ill 
|Jerlorining  various  o])eratioti!>  upon  that 
organ. 

Fig.  20.  .^  flat  curved  hook  for  elevating 
the  upper  eyc-lid,  and  fixing  the  eye,  in  per- 
forming various  minute  operations  upou  il» 
-urface. 

Fig.  21.  A  couching-needle. 

Fig.  22.  A  couching-needle  for  the  right 
eye,  fitted  for  the  operator's  right  hand.' 

Fig.  23.  A  knife  for  extracting  the  cata- 
ract. 

Fig.  24.  A  flat  probe  for  scratching  tKc 
capsule  in  extracting  the  crystalline  lens. 

Fig.  9.3.  A  Hat  |)robe  or  scoop  for  assisting 
ill  removing  the  cataract. 

Fig.  26.  A  knife  (or  extracting  the  cata- 
ract from  the  right  eye. 

Fig.  27.  One  of  Anel's  probes  for  remov- 
ing obstructions  of  the  kichiymal  ducts. 

Fig.  28.  A  syringe  and  pipe  (by  the  same) 
for  injecting  a  liquid  into  the  lachrymal  ducts. 

Fig.  29.  A  crooked  pipe  which  (its  the 
syringe. 

Fig.  30.  A  trocar  and  canula  for  perforat* 
ing  llie  OS  unguis  in  the  operation  for  the  fis- 
tula lachrymalis. 

Figs.  31,32,  33.  Instruments  employed 
by  Mr.  Peltier  in  the  operation  for  fistula 
lachrymalis.  Fig.  31.  a  conductor  for  clear- 
ing the  nasal  duct.  Fig.  32.  a  conical  tube 
to  be  left  in  the  duct.  Fig.  33.  a  compress- 
or for  fixing  the  lube  in  its  place. 

Fig.  34.  A  trocar  for  making  an  artificial 
parotid  duct. 

Fig.  oo.  Pins  used  in  (he  operation  for 
hare-lip,  represented  as  they  are  usually  in- 
serted into  the  part. 

l"ig.  36.  A  gum-lancet. 

h'ig.  37.  A  trocar  for  perforating  the  an- 
trum maxillare. 

Fig.  38.  Mr.  Clieselden's  needle,  with  an 
eye  near  the  point,  for  lying  a  knot  on  scir- 
rhous tonsils. 

Fig.  39.  An  instrument  for  perforating  the 
lobes  of  the  ear. 

l-'ig.  40.  -An  instrument  recommended  by 
Mr.  B.  Bell  for  supporting  the  head  after  the 
operation  tor  wry  neck. 

Fig.  41.  An  instrument  invented  by  Dr. 
Monro  for  fixing  the  canula  after  the  opera- 
tion of  bronchotomy. 

Fig.  42.  A  spihig-truss  for  an  inguinal  or 
femoral  hernia  of  one  side  only, 

Fig.  43.  A  silver  canula  for  carrying  oft" 
pus  collected  in  th.e  thorax. 

I'iS-  "M-  ^  spring-truss  for  an  umbilical 
hernia. 

Fig.  45.  A  spring-truss  for  an  inguinal 
or  (emoral  hernia  existing  on  both  sides. 

l-'ig.  46.  Mr.  Andre's  trocar  for  evacuating 
the  contents  of  an  encysted  hydrocele. 

Fig,  47.  Mr.  B.  Bell's  trocar  for  operating 
in  the  hydrocele. 

Fig.  48.  A  bag  of  resina  elastica,  witli  a 
stop-cock  and  short  ]>ipe,  which  tits  the  ca- 
nula of  the  trocars  figs.  77,  78,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  iiijectuig  the  cavity  of  the  tunica 
vaginalis,  in  the  case  of  hydrocele. 

l-"ig.  49.  A  straight-edged  bistoury,  sharp- 
pointed. 

Fig.  50.  A  souud  used  in  searching  for  the 
stone. 

Fig.  51.  A  grooved  staff  for  the  operation 
of  lithotomy.      "  <  -  ' 


;.u  S  U  R 

Fi».  52.  A  cutting  gorget 

Fig.  5,5.  E.xtractiiis;  forceps. 

Fig.  i>4.  A  scoop. 

Fig.  55.  A  ciitlieter  for  a  male. 

i'ig.  56.  A  catlieter  for  a  female. 

Fig.  57.  A  bistoury  used  in  the  operation 
for  phvmobis. 

Fig!  58.  A  silver  canula  for  concluding 
the  urine  after  amputation  of  the  penis. 

Fig.  jO.  A  bistoury,  v.illi  a  probe  of  fle.xi- 
b\e  Mlver  joined  to  it,  to  be  used  in  the  ope- 
lalion  for  listnla  in  ano. 

Fii?  til).  A  bistoury,  which  has  been  lately 
■usedljY  some  practitioners  in  tlie  operation 
for  tistiila  in  ano. 

Fig- 61.  A  wire  of  silver  or  lead,  with  a 
tube  of  the  same  metal,  lor  laying  open  a  tis- 
tula  in  ano. 

Fig.  62.  A  bandage  for  supporting  the  end 
of  the  rectum  in  cases  of  prolapsus  ani. 

Fig.  63.  Represents  a  fractured  limb 
dressed  with  an  eighteen-tailed  bandage,  and 
placed  in  the  manner  recommended  by  Mr. 
Pott. 

Fi"-.  64.  Mr.  Goocli's  machine,  miproved 
\>\-  Dr.  Aikin,  for  keeping  a  fractured  thigh- 
bone properly  extended.  The  upper  circular 
bandage  goes  round  the  waist,  the  under  one 
li.\es.immediately  above  Ihe  knee. 

Fie,.  65.  A  bandage  for  a  fractured  patella. 
-   Fig.  66.  A  leather  splint  for  a   fractured 

iez- 

"Fie.  67.  Mr.  James's  machine,  which  is  an 
improvement  upon  one  invented  some  years 
ago  by  Mr.  Wliite,  of  Manchester,  for  retain- 
ing fractured  thighs,  or  bones  of  the  leg,  in 
tlieir  natural  situation. 

Fig.  6S.  'I"he  common  collar  used  in  dis- 
tortions of  the  spine. 

Fi".  6Q.  Stavs  recommended  by  Mr.  Jones 
.  for  dtstoVtioiis  of  the  spine. 

Fi".  70,  An  apparatus  for  a  distortion  of 
tlie  leg. 

Fig."  71.  An  amputating-knife. 

Fig.  72.  A  retractor  of  cloth  or  leather, 
Bsed'm  amputating  the  larger  extremities. 

Fig.  73.  Iron  retractors  recommended  by 
Dr.  Monro,  hi  amputation  of  tlie  larger  ex- 
tremities. 

Fig.  74.  The  amputating-saw  now  most 
generally  used. 

Fig.  75.  Pincers  for  nipping  otTany  points 
of  bone  which  may  remain  alter  tlie  saw  h.is 
been  used. 

Fig.  76.  Acatline  used  in  an  amputation  of 
the  h>g. 

Fig.  77.  All  apparatus  invented  by  the 
Jate'Dr.  Monro  for  the  cure  of  a  rupture  of 
Ihe  tendo  Achillis. 

■    Fig.  78.  A  pair  of  spring  forceps,   for  lav- 
ing hold  of  the  extremities  of  arteries,  &c. 

SURIANA,  a  genus  of  the  decandria 
pentagynia  class  ol  plants,  the  corolla  of 
which  consist*  of  live  petals,  obvcrsely  ovat- 
«(1,  patent,  and  of  the  length  of  the  cup  : 
there  is  no  iiericarpiuin  except  the  crusts  of 
t)ie  seeds,  which  are  live  in  number,  and 
roundish.  It  is  a  native  of  South  America. 
I'liere  is  but  one  species. 

briMUCUUTIF-R,  a  second  rebutter. 

srK-RiiJ01NUi:R.  As  a  lejoiader  is 
tlie  delendanfs  answer  to  the  replication  oi 
the  plaiiUilf,  so.  a  sur-rejoinder  is  the  iilaiii- 
tilf  s  aiissver  to  the  defendant's  rejoinder. 
Wood's  Inst.  5R6. 

SURRKNOKR,  a  deed  or  instrument, 
beatifying  t!u»t  Uit  particular  tenant  of  lands  or 


S  U  R 

tenements  for  life,  or  years,  does  sufficiently 
consent  and  agree,  that  he  who  has  tlie  next 
or  immediate  remainder  or  reversion  thereof, 
shall  also  have  the  present  estate  ol  the  same 
in  possession ;  and  that  he  yields  and  gives 
up  the  same  to  him  ;  for  every  surrenderer 
ought  forthwith  to  give  possession  ot  tlie 
things  surrendered.     West.  Sym. 

SURROGATE,  one  who  is  substituted  or 
appointed  in  the  room  of  another  ;  as  the  bi- 
shop or  chancellor's  surrogate. 

SUR30LID,  or  Surdesolid,  in  arith- 
metic and  algebra,  tl'e  litlh  power,  or  fourth 
multiplication  of  any  number  or  quantity  con- 
sidered as  a  root. 

SuRSOLiD  Problem,  in  mathematics,  is 
that  which  cannot  be  resolved  but  by  curves 
of  a  higher  nature  than  a  conic  section,  e.  gr. 
in  order  to  describe  a  regular  endecagon,  or 
figure  of  eleven  sides  in  a  circle,  it  is  reijuired 
to  describe  an  isosceles  triangle  on  a  riglit 
line  given,  whose  angles  at  the  base  shall  be 
quintuple  to  that  at  the  vertex  ;  which  may 
easily  be  done  by  the  intersection  of  a  qua- 
dratrix,  or  any  other  curve  of  the  second  gen- 
der. 

SURv'EYING  OF  L.A.ND.  Siirveyin;,  or  the 
measurin"'  of  land,  is  by  some  supposed  to  have 
Iiad  its  orij^in  in  Egypt,  r.nd  that,  more  especi- 
ally, on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  ;  the  inundations 
of  which  are  said  to  have  obscured  the  land- 
marks which  the  land-owners  yearly  made 
between  ilieir  neighbours'  property  and  their 
own;  and  to  avoid  this  annual  inconvenience, 
it  was  found  necessary  to  devise  some  plans 
of  form  and  dimensions  which  thev  could  em- 
ploy after  every  inundation.  Such  was  the 
opinion  of  Herodotus,  Pruclus,  and  others, 
which  has  been  continued  down  to  the  present 
age  ;  but  it  is  not  our  intention  to  justify  such 
opinion,  and  we  are  rather  disposed  to  counte- 
nance a  position  laid  down  by  a  modern  travel- 
ler (Mr.  Brown)  who  has  spent  much  time  on 
the  borders  of  the  Nile.  He  tells  ns,  in  Upper 
Egypt  the  river  is  confined  by  high  banks,  which 
prevent  arry  inundation  of  the  adjacent  country: 
and  so  also  in  Lower  fgypt,  except  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  Delta,  where  the  water  of  the 
Nile  is  never  more  than  a  few  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  land,  and  where,  of  course,  the 
inundations  take  place ;  here,  however,  the 
country  is,  as  may  be  expected,  without  inha- 
liitants. — liut  wherever  the  origin  of  tliis  sci- 
ence might  have  been,  the  usefulness  thereof  is, 
now-a-days,  well  known  and  appreciated. 

Geometry  is  the  foundation  of  land-measur- 
ing; and  we  shall  proceed  to  the  most  practical 
rules  for  finding  the  areas  of  such  geometrical 
figures  as  occur  in  surveying. 

Square,  The  area  of  this  figure  is  found  by 
squaring  the  length  of  either  of  its  sides,  or  by 
nuiltiplving  the  base  side  by  its  perpendicular; 
as  in  I'late  Surveying,  fig  1,  AB'  is  therefore  =: 
the  aica.     So  also,  AB  X  BC  =  the  area. 

PariilUUgram^  reit^n^lcj.  The  area  hereof  is 
found  by  multiplying  the  length  by  the  breadth; 
as  AB  X  AD  zzz  the  area.     See  fig.  '1. 

Rhambus,  or  Rhi/mliumes.  Multiply  the  base  by 
the  perpendicular  height :  thus,  in  fig.  3,  AB  X 
}iD  ^  the  area. 

Also,  when  two  sides  and  their  included  angle 
arc  given,  the  product  of  those  sides  muhiplu'd 
by  the  natural  sine  of  the  angle  ■=:.  area  :  that  is, 
AB  X  AC  X  nat  s.  i_\  =.  area. 

*  , '  The  angles  of  a  regular  rhombus  are  each 
GCP;  those  of  a  rhomboides  may  be  more  or  less. 

Tri.iiij'U.  Multiply  the  base  by  a  perpendicu- 
lar domilted  from  tlic  opposite  an^jlc  ;  half  the 


SUE 

product  is  the  area ;  —^ — '■ :=  area.   (Fig.  4.) 

Also,  when  all  the  sides  are  given,  from  half 
the  sum  of  the  three  sides  subtract  each  side  se- 
verally: multiply  the  half  sun  and  ihe  three 
remainders  continually  together ;  the  square- 
root  of  the  last  product  will  be  the  area ;  that  is, 

/  a-X-b-\-c      u  +  b  +  c  a^b-^c        ', 


«  +  "  +  ' 


—  <:  =:  the  area,  where  a,  b,  and  c. 


denote  the  three  sides 

Otherwise, when  two  sides  and  their  included 
angle  are  given,  multiply  the  two  sides  together, 
and  that  product  by  the  natural  sine  of  the  ae- 
gle;  half  this  last  product  =;  the  area :  that  is, 

AB  X  AC  nat.  J.  of  /.A 

:=:  area. 

2 

Trapezium.     Divide  it  into  tv/o  parts  by  a  dia- 
gonal line  ;  demit  perpendiculars  from  the  other 
angles.  Muhlplv  the  diagonal  by  the  sum  of  the  ^ 
two  perpendiculars:  half  the  product  =z  area ; 


(fig  5.)    that  is, 


ACX  Df+B/ 


Otherwise,  where  two  diagonals  and  the  angle 
of  their  intersection  are  given,  multiply  the  pro- 
duct of  the  diagonals  bv  the  nat.  s.  of  the  angle 
of  intersection,  and  half  this  product  will  be 

,-     ^  ,     ,       .      AC  X  DB  X  nat.  s.  /.E 
area  (fig.  C;)  that  is, 

Or,  when  it  can  be  inscribed  in  a  circle,  and 
the  sides  are  given  ;  from  half  the  sum  of  the 
sides  subtract  each  side  severally ;  multiply  tlie 
four  remainders  continually  together,  and  the 
square-root  of  the  last  product  will  be  ;=  area  ; 
(fig.  7),  that  is, 

v/   -^L ! ! aX     J—-       ^      —  i 


+  ^ 


,  +  h  +  c^J        ^.Jf-bJ^c 

=;  area. 

Trapezoid.  Multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  pa- 
rallel sidss  by  the  distance  between  them  j  and 
the  product  :=  area  :  (fig.  8.) 

AD  4-  BC  .  „ 

X  AB  =^  area. 

2 

Rrgidar  Poly^'cii.  When  a  side  and  a  perpendi- 
cular demitted  from  the  centre  are  given,  half 
the  perimeter  multiplied  by  the  perpendicular 
:=  area :  (fig.  9.) 

AB  4-  BD  -{-  OE  -I-  ET  4-  FA  „ 

^ ' ■ X  G  =  area. 

■\Vhen  a  side  only  is  given,  the  square  of  the 
side  multiplied  by  the  tabular  number  or  multi- 
plier below  ir:  area. 

That  is,  AB'  X  tab.  num.  :=  area. 

POLYGON  TABLE. 


No  of 

Tabular 

Sides. 

NAMES. 

Midtiplicr. 

;i 

Equilateral 

I'riangle 

0.4:l:!0l:', 

4 

Square 

. 

. 

1  .OXXXXI 

.5 

Pentagon 

- 

- 

1.720477 

(i 

Hexagon 

- 

- 

•2. 59807a 

7 

I  leptagon 

. 

- 

3.(a:!9l2 

8 

Octagon 

- 

- 

■!.  828427 

9 

NoiKigon 

- 

- 

C. 181824 

JO 

Decagon 

- 

- 

7.fi!M209 

11 

Uudccagon 

- 

- 

9.:wr,rAi 

12 

Duodccagon 

- 

ii.tw\r,2 

Circle.   The  square  of  the  diameter  inuliiplieU 
by  .7854  =;  area ;  (fig.  10.;  i.  t.  AB'  X  -7854  = 


>rej  ;  or,  half  tV'C  circumference  iniiltiiilied  liy 
I  he  radius  =:  2r;.i ;  viz.  Aa]i  X  Ai  =  area. 

Cifru.'tii-  Rin^.  Between  two  concentric  circles 
multiply  the  sum  of  the  diameters  by  their  rlif- 
lorencc,  and  that  product  liy  .7834,  and  the  half 
prodii*  =aiea:  (fij;.  11.) 


AC  +  DB  X  AC  —  DB  X  .7854  r=  area. 

Sc^^^meiit  of  a  C'lt  ctr^  or  other  curvUlrtfti!  figure. 
t)ivide  the  line  OP  (fig.  1?.)  into  any  even  nnin- 
ber  of  e»|\ial  parts,  as  O./,  ah,  tc,  &c.;  and  let 
perpendiculars  be  raised  from  these  points.  Put 
B  for  the  sum  of  ,;2,  c4,  and  other  even  ordi- 
n.-ites,  and  C  for  the  sum  of  the  others  ;  tlicn 
four  times  B  X  twice  C,  X  the  common  distance 
between  the  ordinales,  m  three  times  tliearea: 

.     4ii  +  'ic 
that  IS, X    D   (tlic  common  distance) 

:=  area. 

A  mean  bre.idth  may  readily  be  found,  bv  di- 
vidinjj  the  wliole  measure  of  the  ordinatcs  by 
the  number  of  thein,  accounting  the  ends  parts 
of  such  number;  which  mean breadtli  multiplied 
by  the  length,  will  be  ;=:  area. 

EH'ijisr.  Multiply  continually  together  the  two 

axes  and  the  decimal  .7S54,  and  the  product  r= 

area  ;  vi/..  AC  X  BU  x  .78,54  =:  area.  (fig.  l:i.) 

,v  All  pieces  of  land  are  found  to  be  of  some 

\  one  of  the  forms  before  described,  or  composed 

\  f  two  or  nuire  of  them  ;  and  the  general  rule 

\  ■•  finding  the  content  of  any  such  compounded 

fij^  ire  is,  to  divide  it  into  as  many  of  tiie  fore- 

g6\  'g  simple  figures  as  the  ca-c  requires  ;    to 

iiiei  aire  such  lines  and  angles  in  the  field  as  may 

be  n  xessary  to  determine   the  content  of  eacii 

singi  r  figure  ;  and  the  sum  of  the  whole  will  bo 

=  a  ea. 

Ti  E  Ch.-iin.  The  most  general  instrument 
whici  a  land-surveyor  employs,  is  the  chain. — 
Chait  3  of  sundry  lengths  and'  dimensions  were 
inven  ed  in  fornier  days  ;  but  that  which  was 
most  approved  of,  and  is  now  in  general  use', 
was  iuvented  by  the  Rev.  Edmuml  GuiiUr,  about 
180  years  sin^ce,  and  is  composed  of  100  links 
of  strong  iron  wire,  each  link  7.U2  inches;  con- 
sequently the  whtfle  chain  is  22  yards,  or  4  poles 
in  length.  Hence  it  appears  to  be  peculiarly 
well  adapted  to  the  measuring  of  land  ;  as  10 
square  chains  (that  is,  10  chains  in  length  and 
1  in  breadth,  or  5  in  length  and  2  in  breadth, 
or  of  ;iny  other  dimensions  in  such  proportion), 
are  exactly  an  acre. 

The  accompaniments  to  the  measuring-chain 
are  a  staiTor  rod,  of  the  tenth  part  of  a  chain, 
called  an  oft-set  staff",  divided  into  ten  parts, 
answering  tii  ten  links  of  the  chain,  bv  which 
short  distances  are  measured  :  to  which  staff  a 
rectangular  cross  may  he  affixed,  to  set  oft'  the 
direction  of  lines  (jerpendicular  to  a  general 
line.  Picket  staves  to  set  up  in  the  angles  of 
fields  are  necessary ;  and  ten  arrows  of  strong 
wire,  which  are  employed  by  the  measurer's 
assistant  at  each  chain's  length. 

The  dimensions  of  all  lines  on  the  land  are 
taken  in  chains,  or,  rather,  the  bnks  of  a  chain; 
and  the  contents  are  found  in  square  acres, 
roods,  and  perches.  The  acre,  we  have  before 
observed,  contains  4  sqviare  roods ;  a  rood  con- 
tains 40  square  perches.  In  one  square  acre  are 
100,000  square  linlcs ;  in  a  square  rood  are 
2.>,000  square  linlcs  ;  and  in  a  square  perch  are 
625  square  links. 

By  an  ordinance  of  the  3,5th  of  Edw.  1.,  as 
well  as  by  a  statute  of  the  ."ilth  of  Hen.  VIII.,  it 
is  ordered,  that  the  perch  should  be  \fi\  feet  ; 
but  custom,  however,  permits  perches  of  dif- 
ferent lengths  to  prevail,  in  sundry  parts  of  the 
kingdom  :  for  instance,  in  Lancashire  the  cus- 
tomary perch  is  21  feet  in  length  ;  in  Cheshire 
and  .'talTordshire,  24  feet ;  in  Dorsetshire,  I5i 
feet;  in  .Somerset  and  Devon,  15  feet;  and  in 
CornwaU  the  customary  perch  is  Iti  feet. 


SURVT.YfXG. 

To  reduce  the  statute  measure  to  cither  of  thT 
customary  measure*,  the  following  rules  will 
apply  : — first,  if  the  customary  is  smaller  than 
the  statute,  as  the  Devonshire  for  instance,  say, 
as  the  square  of  15  is  to  an  acre,  or  number  of 
statute  acres,  so  is  the  r,quarc  of  16.5  to  the 
number  of  customary  acres ; — secondly,  if  the 
customary  is  the  larger  measure,  as  the  Che- 
shire for  wistance,  say,  a.i  the  .square  of  24  is  lo 
an  acre,  or  number  of  acres,  so  is  the  square  of 
1(>5  to  the  number  of  acres  customary. 

Before  a  me.isurer  begins  his  work  in  the 
field,  he  should  consider  what  lines  arc  necessary 
to  be  measured  for  obl:uning  the  content  ; 
taking  such  as  require  the  least  walking  forward 
and  backward. 

Having  carefully  measured  such  lines  as  will 
reduce  the  field  to  some  of  the  simple  figures 
before-mentioned,  with  such  of  their  measuring 
lines  as  may  be  necessary,  he  will  be  enabled  to 
find  the  content  of  each  part,  by  the  rules  laid 
down  in  the  former  part  of  this  article. 

We  would  observe,  that  a  measurer  may  di- 
vide the  same  field  different  way.s,  and  obtain 
the  content  thereof  by  each.  For  instance,  the 
field  ABCDE  (fig.  14),  may  be  divided  into  a 
trapcziinn  ABCD,  and  a  triangle  ADE. 

Or, it  maybe  divided  into  four  triangles,'as  in 

"S-  '^- 

It  may  also  be  divided  into  four  triangles 
AF„7,  lilW,  Cdf,  and  B(y/,  and  two  trajiezoids 
V>h(lr,  and  AB<;<-;  as  in  fig,  Ki. 

Or,  into  three  triangles  AE^,  EBC,  ECi,  and 
one  trapezoid  AaBc  ;  as  in  fig.  17. 

I.and-measurers  are  much  in  the  practice  of 
taking  such  lines  only  in  the  field  as  will  enable 
them  to  draw  a  geometrical  plot  thereof  by 
some  scale  of  equal  parts ;  and  by  taking  such 
measure-lines  on  the  plot,  by  the  same  scale, 
they  calculate  the  content  with  less  trouble  than 
by  taking  all  such  measure-lines  in  the  field,  as 
may  be  necessary  to  reduce  the  same  to  trian- 
gles, trapezia,  or  other  simple  figures. 

The  calculations  for  the  qtiantity  of  land  in 
the  same  field,  by  the  four  respective  methods 
of  taking  the  dimensions,  will  stand  as  follow; 


Fig.  14. 


Trapezium  ABCD : 


ai  +  Df  X  AC 


4(j0  -\.  410  X   1020 


Triangle   ADE  =: 


AD  X   E" 


T80  X  251 


459000 


97890 


5.56890 

2.!i756 

11.024^ 
5  acr.  S  rds.  1 1  per.  for  the  answer. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  divide  the  square  links  of 
each  small  part  by  2  ;  as  the  double  content  may 
be  carried  on,  and  tlie  aggregate,  from  thence 
arising,  be  divided  by  %,  once  for  all. 

Fig.  15. 


Trapezium  AEDC  =  Di  -J-  Aa  X  EC 

=  292  +  330  X   1020  =: 
Triangle  ABC  =  AC  x  Bi  = 

1020  X  -470  = 


634-HO 
479400 


2)111:5840 
5  56920 


Triangle  AEa 
Triangle  EDi 
TriaHgle  CD^ 
1'riangle  Bti/ 
Trapezoid  "ObJc 
'I'rapczoid  A'/B<- 


!\'.  1.7. 

=  A,i  X  K<7  = 

2Gt)X  J  80 
=  D<  X   Ei  = 

450  X  330 
=  de   X    C<:  = 

470  X  .50 
=   Be  X    d  = 

320  X     60 

=  m-i-A  X  i><i 

-.  4J1)  -f-~.770~x  .5(50 
=  ArtJ-B^X  "' 
I'i^+SZOX  «22 


5  acr.  2  rds  1 1  perches,  the  answer,        2.2768 
»i  before. 


5  C2 


11.072 


—  4C800 
=r  148500 
=  2.3500 
='    1920O 

=  5152DO 

=:^7A 

)fn  3900 

"5.56950 

"e/JTSO 

5  acr.  2  ids.  II  perches,  a«  before.         11.120" 

Fig.  17. 

Triangle  AE^r  =r  A«  x  E<i  == 

3.30  X     70  =     23100 
Triangle  EDC  =  EC  x  D^  = 

1020  X  292  =  297840 
Triangle    BCc  =  B.-  x    C«  = 

624  X  390  =  243460 
Trapezoid  A3ca  =  A.j  -j-  Be  x  "c 

—  63 )  -|-  330  X  570  =     5494''.0 

)1US8S0 

~5^6940 

2.27760 

5  acr.  2  rds.  11  perches,  as  before.         iMoicT 

We  have  hitherto  ctmfined  our  consideration 
to  stich  figures  only,  whose  few  sides  are  straight 
lines  of  considerable  length  ;  but,  as  the  general- 
boundaries  of  many  ])iece5  of  land  consist  of 
short  indentations,  it  ii>  necessary  to  avoid  the 
tediousness  of  computing  the  contents  of  a  mul- 
lude  of  small  triangles  and  trapezoids;  to  find 
such  equalizing  lines  as  shall  constitute  a  tri- 
angle, or  other  figure,  of  equal  area  with  the 
sum  of  all  such  triangles  and  trapezoids  com- 
bined. 

.Suppose,  then,  that  an  irregular  boundarj'  of 
a  field  is  of  the  form  of  fig.  18,  composed  of 
two  tiiangles  and  four  trapezoids. 

Draw  the  line  AB,  and  at  A  erect  a  perpen- 
dicular AC — Lay  a  parallel  ruler  from  A  to  c, 
the  third  point.  Move  the  upper  part  of  the 
rule  to  /*,  and  note  where  it  cuts  the  perpendi- 
cular, as  at  I. — From  this  point  1,  lay  the  ruler 
to  if;  bring  its  lower  part  down  to  c,  and  note 
where  it  cuts  the  perpendicular,  at  2.  From  2 
lay  the  rule  to  c,  and  move  it  upvrards  to  J,  and 
mark  tlie  perpendicular  at  3. — From  thence  lay 
the  rule  toy',  and  bring  it  down  to  *f,  and  mark 
the  perpendicular  at  4. — From  this  point  lay  the 
rule  to  B,  and  raise  it  toy,  and  mark  the  per- 
pendicular at  5. — From  5  draw  the  line  5B  ; 
then  will  the  triangle,  AJiS,  be  equal  in  area  to 
the  aggregate  of  the  two  triangles  and  four 
trapezoids. 

Example.  Suppose  that,  on  some  well  gradu- 
ated scale,  the  base  of  the  triangle  Agh,  was 
found  to  be  185,  and  perpendicular,  fi,  1 10;  the 
base,  gh,  of  the  adjoii;ing  trapezoid  250,  and 
sum  of  its  perpendiculars  160  ;  the  base,  /;,  of 
the  next  trapezoicl  is  120,  and  its  perptndicu- 
lars  ISO;  the  base  ik  325,  and  the  perpendicu- 
lars of  that  trapezoid  190;  the  base  il  of  the 
next  trapezoid  300,  and  the  perpendicular* 
thereof  349;  the  base  of  the  latter  triangle,  /B, 
6.30,  and  its  perpendicular.  If,  289  ;  and  that  the 
content  of  the  whole  is  required. 

Supposealso,  the  content  of  the  triangle  ABC, 
whose  base  AB,  by  the  same  scale,  is  ISIO,  and 
perpend  cular  AC,  is  238,  is  required. 


756 


First.   The  double  of  the 

Triangle        Agb  —  \S5  X   HO  =     20350 

Trapezoid    gbch  =  250  x  160  =:     40000 

Do.  biJc  =  120  X   ISO  =     2100!) 

Do.  ihJ  —  325  X   1!X)  =     G1750 

Do.  lifi    =  .'300  X  :i^0  =  1&1700 

Triangle        IHf  =  6:iO  X  -SU  =  J8207O 

')-l:10 170 
2.I5'-':!5 


.(lOy'iO 
Content,  2  acr.  O  rds.  24  perclies.  y^.gYgu 

Sccnnrlh.  The  double  of  the  triangle 
ABC  =  AB  X  AC  =  1810  x  £33  =  )4.';07SO 

2.!5;i9 


.(515fi 
-  24.624 

Content,  2  acr.  0  rds.  24  perches,  as  before. 

From  whence  it  appears,  that  the  content  of 
the  new  triangle  is  the  same  as  the  aggregate 
contents  of  all  the  original  triangles  and  trape- 
zoids, to  within  the  decimal  of  a  perch. 

In  working  with  a  chain  and  its  oiT-set  staff,  a 
measurer  does  well  in  making  a  rough  sketch  in 
his  field-book,  large  enough  to  admit  his  writing- 
down  the  lengths  o£  all  the  necess.iry  lines, 
^vhether  for  planning,  or  fur  casting  oil"  the 
content  without  a  plan. 

A\^hcre  there  is  a  general  base  line,  with  seve- 
ral perpendiculars  raised  thereon,  it  may  be 
best  to  continue  the  reckonir.g  throt^ghout  that 
line;  and,  by  subtraction,  ii::d  the  intermediate 
distances  between  one  perpendicular  and  an- 
other. 

Extir.Ji!:  Suppose  from  the  sketcli  and  dimen- 
sions of  fig.  19,  a  true  plan  and  the  content  of 
the  field  were  required. 

Begin. ling  at  A,  draw  a  line  towards  the  tree 
at  the  upper  end,  and  thereon  prick  off  the  dis- 
tances, as  in  the  sketch. 

At  the  proper  points  erect  the  perpendicu- 
lars, according  to  their  respective  leiigths ;  and 
the  true  figure  will  be  as  fig.  20.  The  whole 
content  may  be  found,  by  seeking  the  separate 
content  of  each  triai.gle  and  trapezoid,  from  the 
dimensions  given  in  rig.  19,  thus: 
The  double  content? 
of  the  triangle  a  =  i 
of  the  trapez.i 


350  X   100  =     35000 


.  :i..  J  -|-  260  X  200  = 
c  =1  200  -\-  400~X  60  = 
d  =  -too  -L  350  X  490  = 


122000 

39600 

367500 

137500 


. f  =  350  +  200_X  250 

y  —  r/XI  4-  200  X  400  =  220000 

,  g  =  :iJO  -|-  400  X  500  =  325000 

•f  the  triangle  A  =  2C0  x  400  =  _80000 

2)1326600 
6.63300 


332 
40 


Tlie  content  6  ac.  2  rds.  21  perches.  01.28 

Hitherto  we  hare  supposed  all  the  measurin;;- 
lines  to  be  tiken  whhin  the  fields  ;  but  a  mea- 
surer truiy  sometimes  meet  with  fields  so  circum- 
stanced, by  woody  ground,  meres  of  water,  iSrc. 
0  not  to  admit  of  the  necessary  internal  lines 
being  t  ikeo.  Such  nieces  of  land  may,  how- 
ever, be  measured,  by  taking  surrounding  lines, 
making  one  or  more  right  angles  with  each 
ether,  and  raising  perncndiculars  from  those 
lines  to  the  ringuiar  poiiiis  of  the  fields ;  by 
tifliich  a  true  plan  niavbe  constructed,  and  from 
Ihence  the  content  found,  cither  by  equalizing 
the  sides  by  the  oarallel  ruler,  or  by  deducting 
Iht  contents  of  the  sm  ill  parts  without,  from  the 
reneral  content  of  the  trapezium  or  surround- 
ing figure :  see  fig.  21. 
Mxam(le.  A  plan  oC  the  piece  of  woody  ground 


SURVEYING, 

'.2,  .'5,  4,5,  6,  7,  .<!,  9,  10,  II,  12,  and  13,  being 
drawn  by  a  6-chain  scale,  the  content  thereof  is 
required. 

The  ^  A  being  (by  the  cross)  made  a'  right 
one,  and  the  sides  BA  and  AD  being  measured, 
the  di.'i'gonal  BD  is  readily  found  bv  construc- 
tion ;  or  else,  by  extracting  the  root  of  AB  X 
AD. 

This  diagonal  being  a  base  to  the  triangle 
BCD,  and  the  other  sides  BC  and  CD  measured, 
that  triangle  also  is  readily  constructed,  and 
the  trapezium  completed. 

The  ofF-scts  being  made  on  the  lines  of  t!ie 
trapezium,  the  figure  of  the  piece  of  wood  may 
be  correctly  drawn. 

Its  content  m.ty  then  be  obt.ained,  cither  by 
equahzing  (with  the  parallel  ruler,  or  other- 
wise) the  lines  of  the  wood,  and  thus  reducing 
it  to  a  trapezium;  or  by  deducting  the  content 
of  all  the  small  trapezoids  without,  from  the 
general  content  of  the  outer  trapezium,  fig  22. 

Firsty  by  reducing  the  figure  to  th6  trape- 
zium, EFGH. 

The  lines  being  straightened,  as  before  direct- 
ed, the  diagonal  of  t!rs  new  trapezium,  found 
by  the  scale,  will  be- 1070,  and  the  sum  of  the 
perpendiculars,  !0(;5. 

Th        ^Q  X  EK  -j-  HI  _  1032  X  1060  _ 
'  £  -  2 

X  1060  =:  540910  =:  5  acres,  1  rood,  34  perches, 
for  the  answer. 

SaoiiiHy^  by  finding  the  content  of  the  sur- 
rounding trapezium,  (tig.  21,)  and  from  thence 
deducting-  the  aggregate  of  the  ouLcr  trapezoids. 

A  R  \^    A  n 

To  find  the  triangle  ABD,  we  have,  ■ 


910  X  P30 


=  455  X  930  =  423150. 


The  diagonal   BD  =  V^^'  +  ^^'  = 
V910--f  930-'  =  1301. 
Then,  the  triangle  BCD   is   found   thus : 

\''sX'  —  JXs  —  i  X  J  —  '■>  where  a,  i,  c, 
stand  for  the  sides,  and  s  for  the  half  sum  of 
those  sides. 

«  =  1301 

t  =     970 

c   =     830 


2)3101 

1550  =  s,  the  half  sum  of  the  sides. 
1    —   a      =;=      249 
s  —  i     =     560 
J  —  c     =     720 

Then,  v'1550  x    249   X   580  x    720  = 

^101172720000  =  401463. 
The  triangle  ABD  =  423150 
The  triangle  BCD  =  401463 


trapezium  ABCD. 


824613  =z  surrounding 

Sum  of 
perpend.  Lengths. 
The  trapezoid,  No.  1  =  129  x   250  =  30000 

2  =  110  X    520  =  57200 

3  ==  100  X    160  =  16000 


9  =  160  X    280  =  44800 

10  =  250  X    160  =  -lOOOO 

11  =  410  X    110  =  '15100 

12  ^  150  X    400  -■=  Oi'OOO 

13  =  380  X    170  =  69600 

2)556400 
a7820O 


=:  the  aggregate  of  all  the  small  trapezoids ; 
which  taken  from  824613  (the  content  of  the 
surrounding  trapezium),  leaves  540410,  =  5 
acres,  1  rood,  34  perches,  t)ie  content,  as  before. 

Thus  :'ar  we  have  applied  ourselves  to  single 
fields  onlj';  but  we  will  now  proceed,  to  the 
measuring  of  two  or  more,  lying  contiguously 
to  each  other 

£>:amj,U.  From  the  dimensions  giv?n  in  the 
sketch,  fig.  23,  the  contents  of  the  fields  A  and 
B  are  required. 

620  X  aecTx  106O 


Field  A 


=  482300  =  4 


acres,    3  roods,    11   perches,  for  the  measure 
thereof. 

Field  B-.  212JLi^  =  165000  =  1  acre,  3 
2 
roods,  16  perches,  for  the  content  of  that  field. 

As  in  measuring  single  fields,  various  methods 
are  pursued  for  obtaining  the  contents  ;  such  as 
general  lines  with  normals,  or  triangles  com- 
bined with  nonnals,  &c. ;  so  also  may  the  con- 
tent of  each  respective  field,  contained  in  an 
estate,  be  found  by  like  means. 

The  estate,  fig.  24,  may  be  measured  by  a  ge- 
neral line,  with  normals  erected  thereon,  in 
manner  tollowing ;  viz. 

Beginning  at  the  southern  end,  a  measurer- 
takes  his  principal  line  from  A  towards  the  tree 
on  the  northern  limits  of  his  work ;  and  at 
every  necessary  point  in  that  line,  he  sets  off 
such  perpendiculars  as  will  lead  him  to  the 
corners  of  each  field,  as  in  the  figure.  The  di- 
mensions taken  in  each  field  being  as  here  given, 
the  content  of  each  may  be  found  in  manner 
following : 

DIMENSIONS    T-IKEN. 

Basel.     Normals.         Operations. 


1.  Aa   X 


,il  =  740  X 


Double 
Areas. 

__      ., ..       25: 

Aa  X  Ai  -|-  a2  =  360  X  80  =  28800 
Ab  X  A.;-|-b7"=  790  X  1500=  1185000 
ac  X  a2  ^  cy  =  490  X  120=  58800 
bo   X   he  =  760  X       60=       45600 

2)1333000 


II.    </  X    cJ   -f-    f/  =  850  X    860  = 

rfc   X    M  =  488  X    "    " 

c(i   X   ^1>  +  6,2  =  350  X 

=  500  X 


6/  X    6,2 


=.  470   X 


6.665 

2.66 

26. 

60  = 

731000 

M  = 

6240O 

90  = 

31,500 

40  = 

20000 

40  =: 

18800 

2)863700- 

4.3185 


1.274 


10  96 

III.  Im   X  J/ =  820  X  40  =     32800 

gi   X   sm  +  ii  =  590  X  1290  =  761100 

a    X    'J =  770  X  30  =     23100 

gb   X    bi  -)-  ^/  =.  590  X  270  =  1 59300 

)976300 

4.8815 


3.5  2C0 


21.04. 


SURVEYING. 


-IV 

cf 

X 

C7  +  f/  = 

c7 

X 

7,0             - 

dy 

X 

cd             = 

de 

X 

<i'f  -\-cn  = 

ef 

X 

eo  +{/,  - 

tj> 

X 

% 

fz 

X 

tS  +  z-  = 

■=  4!50  X    1570  = 


7.1-    X    y^'  +  '■!''  : 
ri    X   '"I"  ; 

St    X    JV  : 


h«  X 

gh 

hkx 
W  X 
1.;    X 

li«  4-  U 
kl 

il    X 

a  +  «i 

gi    X   "i  -h  Jg 

ys  X  >/ 


210  X  70 

770  X  ■'!70 

MO   X  50 

260   X  VO 

3:!0   X  550 

.  560  X  700 

ajO  X  VO 


)M2I100 

7.1055 

.4220 

1G.8S 

=     14700 

=:  2S4900 

=       7000 

=      IS'JOO 

=  181500 

:^  :i92O0O 

;=     24500 

)522800 
4.614 
2.45i; 
18.24 


VI.    <•-'  X  «/  +  a    =  750  X  700  =  525000 

ef  X  .■»   -j-  /'   =  -GO  X  280  =     72S0O 

••S  X  c/   -\- g''  =  -10  X  520  =:  109200 

gi  X  |A_+J£_=     90  X  660  =     59400 

il  X  'it   -{-l">  =  350  X  820  ==  2S7O00 

Im  X  I"               =  820  X  120  =:     98400 


)  11 52800 
5.764 
3.056 


Field  I. 
II. 
III. 
IV 
V. 
VI. 


Respective  Contents. 

acr.  rds.  per. 
e     2     2G 


Total 


4  I  10 

4  .S  21 

7  0  16 

4  2  18 

5  3  2 

33  1  13 


Notwithstanding  some  land^measurers  have 
ndt-tpted  the  foregoing  method,  of  normal  lines, 
for  their  mode  of  practice,  in  making  plans  of 
estates,  yet  ih&  following  (by  triangles,  «Scc.) 
seems  preferable;  being  less  subject  to  error, 
and  more  facile  i.i  operation. 

Let  us  suppose  r!iat  the  small  estate,  fi;-  25, 
was  to  be  measured  Hy  means  of  a  general  tri- 
angle, and  necessary  offsets  ;  the  measurer  be-, 
ginning  at  A,  i'.Vid  measuring  towards  B,  from 
thence  to  C,  and  returning  to  A,  n\aking  all  ne- 
cessary off-6e;5  .'.s  lie  goes  on  ;  required  the  true 
plan,  and  the  measure  of  each  field  t 

From  the  following  dimensions,  to  plan  the 
estate ; 


Az 

:rr 

250 

al 

— 

60 

IX 

— 

60 

Xz 

^ 

60 

Ai 

=z 

500 

l>2 

:= 

320 

Ac 

r^ 

730 

r3 

^z 

70 

AJ 

r^ 

810 

di 

::= 

140 

Ar 

z^ 

940 

<-5 

z= 

100 

AB 

= 

15O0 

Bi 

=: 

210 

iJo 

— 

250 

<>6 

:= 

120 

W 

:= 

320 

/■7 

^ 

1(X) 

% 

=z 

390 

^8 

E= 

70 

U 

z=; 

480 

b; 

=     300 

BC 

=  160.') 

;/,        =     350 

a 

=     600 

/  9      =     250 

C12 

=     710 

Cm 

=     SOO 

mIO    =     160 

C/, 

=     950 

n  2      =370 

Co 

—  1380 

ol4    =     580 

CA 

=  1400 

The  plan  of  the  estate  being  obtained  by 
these  dimensions,  other  lines  must  now  be 
drawn  in  each  (Icld,  dividing  it  into  such  geo- 
metrical figures  as  will  most  readily  give  the 
content ;  as  in  fig.  26. 

By  dividing  the  fields  as  here  directed,  the 
content  of  each  may  be  found  as  follows  : 


MOiME  PADDOCK. 


Double  areas. 
36400 
.3559.50 
=  217350 
3220O 

2)641900 

3.2095 


Trapezium  s  =  680  x  250  -}-  180  =  2)292100 

1.162 
RIVER  MEAD. 
Triangle/(thc  lower 

=  1865  X  860  =  1603900 


Triangle 
Do. 

a 
i 

= 

10  to 

6;50 

X 

X 

315 

z>i:. 

= 

Trapezoid 
Triangle 

c 
d 

— 

270 
140 

X 
X 

565 
230 

-f  23 

GARDEN. 

160 
320 


irregular  boundary  ( 
being  reduced  by  ( 
theRule,p.755,i:e/.3. 

Triangle    g  =; 

Trapezoid  /j  z= 

Triangle     /  =  1275   x 
Do.  i  = 

Trapezoid  /  = 
Do  //;  =: 

Triangle     n  =: 


•i5  X 
60  X 
70  X 
70   X 


113     =  18400 

115  +  440=  177600 

440     =  561000 

110     =  30250 

110-1-  100=  8600" 

100-(-    65=  11550 

65     =:  4550 

2)2415850 

12.07925 
Respective  Contents. 

acr.  rds.  per. 
Home  Paddock      3.20.15       =30    .33 
Garden         -  1.462         =     1     1     33 

River  Mead  12.07925     =12     0     12 


Total     -    -     17     2     38 

THE  PLANE  TABLE. 

Land-mcjsuring  may,  in  some  instances,  be 
expedited  by  instruments  which  set  ofF  lines  in 
their  relative  positions,  and  the  angles  of  theit 
inclination  one  to  another  ;  the  most  convenient 
instruments  for  .these  purposes,  are  the  Plane- 
table  and  the  Theodolite. 

The  Plane,  or  Plain-table,  is  composed  of  a 
smooth  rectangular  bn.trd,  commonly  of  about 
15  inches  by  12  ;  around  which  is  a  frame,  that 
not  only  serves  to  keep  the  paper  smooth  on 
which  the  plan  is  to  be  drawn,  but,  being  gradu- 
ated into  degrees,  answering  to  a  central  point 
in  the  board,  the  angular  bearin?  of  any  two 
lines,  issuing  from  the  station  v/here  the  instru- 
ment is  placed,  may  readily  be  ascertained  ;  or 
the  angle  itself  may  be  drawn  on  the  paper. — 
A  magnetic  needle  and  compass-  box  js  fixed  to 
on^  side  of  the  board,  which  serves  to  point  out 
the  bearing  of  any  line  to  the  m.agnetic  meri- 
dian.— There  is,  also,  a  brass  index-rule,  having 
sundry  scales  thereon,  and  also  perpendicular 
sights  at  the  cud  used  here-,vith.  The  whole  is 
supported  on  a  three-legged  stand,  &c.  move- 
able on  a  brass  ball  and  socV-et. 

A  land-measurcr  having  planted  hii  Plane- 
table  at  A,  one  of  the  inner  angles  of  the  field 
ABCDE,  fig.  27,  and  from  any  assumed  point 
on  the  paper  (which  may  be  considered  as  his 
station-point  on  the  land)  directed  his  sight 
along  the  boundary  to  B,  and  also  to  C,  to  D, 


757 

and  to  E ;  and,  by  measuring  these  lines  on  the 
gror.ud,  finding  ihtm  to  be  .".  :.,llo'V,  vz. : 
AB  ='665,  AC  885,  AU  10:>ij,  .ind  AE  5f  ; 
lie  may  make  a  correct  plan  of  tlie  field  :'.nd 
from  iher.ce,  by  drawing  other  l>nes  on  thej  Ian, 
as  hcre'.'ofore  directed,  he  may  calculate  the  con- 
tent thereof. 

If  the  other  sides  of  the  same  iicld,  viz.  BC, 
CD,  and  DE,  &c.  (fig.  27),  had  been  measured, 
either  on  the  ground,  or  on  ilic  plot,  the  con- 
tent may  be  found  by  Rule  2.  for  the  triangle. 

A  measurer  may  t.ake  hia  observations  from  a 
point  about  the  middle  of  a  fi.ld,  as  at  A,  (fig. 
28,)  and  take  his  angles  of  bearing  to  all  llie 
corners  of  the  field,  and  measure  the  links  to 
each  corner,  and  from  thence  find  the  contcut^ 


for,  suppose  the  Z.  BAC 

= 

105''   0" 

A  CAD 

=: 

59  30 

/.  1;.AE 

:= 

129     0 

Z.  E.\B 

= 

66  30 

And  that  the  line     AB 

=: 

480 

AC 

— 

550 

AD 

— 

665 

AE 

— 

7:(0,    he    vdl 

Iiave  two  sides  of  each  triang 

c,  and  their  in- 

eluded  angle,  given  from  whence  he  may  ma^c 
his  ])Ian  ;  and  by  Rule  3.  of  triangles,  find  the 
content. 

A  measurer  n'ay  take  two  stations  in  a  field, 
as  at  A  and  B,  (fig.  29,  the  distance  between 
which  must  be  carefully  measured) ;  he  must 
then  from  each  station  direct  his  sight  to  the 
corner  of  the  field,  .ind  draw  dotted  lines  till 
tliey  intersect  each  other.  From  the  intersec- 
tions of  these  dotted  lines  he  must  draw  the 
boundary  lines  to  make  his  plan  ;  in  which  he 
must  draw  such  measuring-lines  as  arc  necessary 
to  find  the  content  by  the  scale. 

A  measurer  may  take  four  or  more  stations  in 
a  field,  as  akg,  (I'ig.  -M,)  and  set  up  such  per- 
pendiculars as  are  necessary  for  perfecting  the 
boundary  Imdfbk,;  the  plan  being  laid  down,  the 
content  of  the  field  may  be  fouud  by  scaling. 

THE  THEODOLITE. 

The  Theodolite  is  a  circular  instrument  made 
of  brass,  graduated  into  degrees,  &c.  on  which 
is  an  index-limb  for  taking  horizontal  angles, 
surmounted  with  an  arch  for  vertical  angles, 
and  a  telescopic  sight;  It  has,  usually,  spirit- 
levels  to  adjust  it  bv;  and  a  compass,  for  an- 
gular bearings,  checking  the  observations  by 
the  iimb :  the  whole  placed  on  three  legs,  and  a 
b.dl  and  socket,  or  half-ball  and  parallel  plates, 
to  set  it  level. 

In  all  cases  of  land-measuring,  where  angles 
are  required  to  be  taken,  whether  horizontal  or 
vertical,  no  instrument  is  so  well  adapted  thereto 
as  the  theodolite ;  its  accuracy  and  dispatch 
far  exceeding  all  other  instruments  used  for  that 
purpose,  especially  on  large  estates,  where  va- 
rieties of  boundary,  as  well  as  inequality  of  sur- 
face, are  met  with. 

In  a  single  piece  of  land,  the  angular  obser- 
vations mav  all  be  made  from  one  spot  in  a 
field. 

In  this  case,  the  theodolite  being  set  at  the 
station  A,  fig.  31,  and  properly  adjusted  (as 
hereafter  described),  the  first  observation  to  the 
picket-staff  at  a,  was  =  62'  20*,  from  the  north 
towards  the  east,  and  the  length  of  the  line  Aa 
=.  660  links. 

The  second  observation,  to  b,  between  the 
south  and  cist,  =:  152°  0',  and  the  length  of  the 
hue  Ah  =:  9S0  links. 

The  third,  to  r,  between  the  south  and  the 
west,  =:  '^OO"  C,  the  length  730. 

j\nd  tiie  fourth  observation,  to  J,  from  tlie 
north  towards  tlie  west,  329^  50',  and  the  length 
599. 

From  hence,  with  the  help  of  a  protractor, 
the  plan  may  be  drawn. 

U  is  evident,  that,  if  from  the  observation  b. 


7j5 

tliat  of  J   is  subducted,    the    ^L   lAi  wilt    be 

found  =  8<P  40'. 

'I'hat  if  from  the  observation  c,  that  of  I  is 
subducted,  the  /.  iAc  will  be  found  =  43^  0'._ 
That  if  from  the  observation  d,  th:-.t  of  c  is 
subducted,  the  Z.  .-Ai  will  be  found  =  129°  ofV. 
And  also,  that  if  the  circular  complement  of 
the  observation  J  (which  i5  3S0''  —  329°  jC  = 
:J()^  10')  is  added  to  the  observation  .j,  the  Z. 
uA  •  will  be  found  =  »'P  SC. 

The  v/hole  togetiier  making  (as  it  ought)  the 
complete  circle  3b"0'"\ 

The  content  may  now  be  computed  by  Rule  3 
of  triangles. 

A  measurer  may  take  the  angle  at  each  cor- 
ne.-  of  a  piece  of  ground,  and  measure  the  sides 
as  he  goes  on,  thus: — having  set  the  needle  to 
i;s  :i;6^,  and  the  limb  to  its  •XO'^,  he  found  by 
observation  at  0  I,  that  looking  to  his  picket  at 
©  -2,  the  limb  cut  304",  from  the  north  towards 
the  west,  and  his  needle  124'. — At  0  2,  havin.g 
directed  the  theodolite  to  the  back  station,  his 
61>servation  forward  was,  on  the  limb,  45°  30' 
froji  south  to  west,  and  on  the  needle  4o°  30' 
also.  At  &  3,  the  limb  was  at  12i;'  O',  from 
south  to  e.iat,  and  the  needle  at  ?,'X>°  O'. — ^And 
at  0  4,  t.he  limb  and  needle  both  were  at  216°  0', 
from  the  north  to  the  eastward. 

.Su:>posin2:  the  lines  were  found  to  be  1000 
links',  800  Imki,  1100  links,  and  800  links,  the 
plan  may  be  made,  and  the  content  found  by 
the  scale. 

In  extensive  concerns,  where  all  the  fields  in 
an  estate  or  manor  are  to  be  measured,  large 
circuits  must  be  taken  with  the  theodolite,  and 
the  proceedings  carefully  noted  down  in  the 
lield-book,  the  pages  of  which  are  divided  into 
three  parts;  the  middle  column  being  for  in- 
serting the  angular  observations,  and  the  pro- 
gressive distances  from  station  to  station,  and 
the  points  where  it  may  be  necessary  to  set  olT 
(with  the  ten  link  stalF)  such  short  lines  as  the 
ilexures  or  angles  of  boundaries  may  require. 
The  sides  of  the  page  are  employed  in  noting 
down  such  ofF-scts  and  remarks,  on  either  hand, 
as  mav  be  found  necessary;  and  al.o  in  making 
sketches  of  side  boundaries,  where  any  devia- 
tions from  a  straight  line  occur.  Far  the  more 
readily  sketcjiing  such  side  boundaries,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  begin  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  and 
■write  upwards. 

For  an  example  to  exemplify  the  mode  of 
|iractice  with  this  excellent  instrument,  we  will 
take  the  estate,  fig.  33,  and  suppose  the  mea- 
surer to  plant  his  in,strument  in  the  road  at  0  I, 
and  having  duly  adjusted  it,  by  setting  the  head 
thereof  truly  horizontal  by  the  spirit  levels  and 
adjusting  screws;  and  setting  the  index  part  of 
the  limb  exactly  at  3ao°,  by  moving  the  whole 
head  about  until  the  360  in  the  compass-box 
comes  to  the  line  in  the  north  end  of  the  needle, 
the  instrument  will  thus  be  completely  adjusted; 
here  he  is  to  lock  all  fast  by  the  screw  under 
the  head  between  the  legs. 

The  instrument  thus  adjusted,  the  measurer 
sends  one  of  his  assistants  forward,  as  far  as  he 
can  conveniently  measure  a  straight  line,  as  at 
0  2.  Taking  then  his  angle  of  olieervation  by 
his  telescope,  he  finds  it  to  be  C'J°  0'  from  the 
north  towards  the  east,  which  he  enters  in  his 
field-book,  noting  it  with  N.  E.  as  a  memorandum 
(inwhichsideoftliemeridianitlies.  He  must  now 
lix  his  limb  to  the  other  part  of  the  head,  by  a 
screw  for  that  purpose.  His  chain-men  having 
laid  the  chain  in  a  direction  to  the  picket  at 
0  2,  he  proceeds  to  measure  this  line,  making 
such  olT-sets  to  the  right  and  left  as  may  be  ne- 
cessary. At  his  station  he  finds,  by  measuring, 
oa  the  right,  with  his  olT-eet  stalT,  that  he  has 
the  general  line  of  the  road-fence  at  30  links, 
and  also  a  corner  of  40  links  more,  and  .30 
broad:  on  the  left  of  his  station  he  has  an  ofT- 
.ct  of  10  links.    'I'he  chain-men  proceediujj  on 


SURVEYING, 

their  line  to  300,  he  finds  25  on  the  right  to  be 
the  breadth  on  that  side  of  the  road,  where  is  a 
g  ite,  and  on  the  left  20,  which  wiil  determine 
the  breadth  of  the  road  at  th.it  spot.  At  400  he 
will  find  10  on  the  right,  and  20  on  the  left,  to 
be  the  breadth.  At  760  (the  end  of  that  line)  he 
wiil  find  35  on  the  right,  and-15  on  the  left,  to 
be  tb.e  breadth  ;  where  also  he  will  find  a  small 
road  branch  off  to  the  right.  T'hus  is  the  first 
station-line  finished. 

To  this  spot  (which  is  his  second  station)  he 
brings  his  theodolite,  and  after  setting  it  level, 
unlocks  the  under  screw  and  turns  the  whole 
head  about,  imtil,  through  the  tcle.scope,  he  sees 
I  he  back  picket  or  station-staff.  Here  again, 
locking  tlie  head  of  his  theodolite,  he  must  un- 
screw the  limb,  and  turn  it  about  until,  through 
the  telescope,  he  has  a  view  of  the  picket  at 
©  3 ;  the  angle  to  which  he  will  find  to  be 
253°  10'  from  the  north  to  the  eastward,  which 
he  will  enter  in  his  field-book.  Measuring  on 
from  0  2  to  0  3,  he  will  find,  at  130  links,  that 
he  is  come  to  a  turnpike-gatc,where  the  breadths 
on  the  right  and  left  are  30  and  15.  At  200  he 
has  an  off-set  of  15  on  the  left ;  and  a  break-off 
at  the  right  of  another  road,  at  25  from  his 
line,  with  two  other  off-sets,  as  expressed  in  the 
field-book.  Whereto  this  road  leads,  must  be 
noted.  At  265  he.has  off-sets  of  30  on  the  left, 
and  20  on  the  right ;  which  ends  this  station 
line. 

Bringing  now  his  instrument  to  ©  3,  he  is  to 
adjust  it4n  the  manner  we  have  directed  him  to 
do  at  0  2,  and  turning  the  limb  about  towards 
the  picket  forv.'ard,  he  will  find  the  angle  of 
bearing  to  be  57°  45',  still  from  the  north  to  the 
eastward.  At  20  he  will  find  himself  opposite 
to  a  cross  hedge  on  the  left,  belonging  to  the 
estate  he  is  surveying.  At  293  he  ends  his  line 
of  this  station  ;  where  the  off-sets  are  5  and  t'>5, 
as  noted  in  the  field-book. 

Coming  now  to  0  4,  and  having  adjusted  his 
theodolite,  he  finds  his  next  angle  ^  226°  O' 
N.  E.  At  20  his  off-sets  are  20  and  1.'5.  At  410 
they  are  15  and  30,  where,  on  the  left,  is  a  cross 
hedge  of  a  backward  direction.  At  4S0  his  off- 
sets are  5  and  25,  where  is  another  cross  hedge. 
At  750  is  a  break-in  of  the  fence,  and  the  off- 
sets are  30-|-15  on  the  left,  and  10  on  the  right. 
At  1050  the  off-sets  are  20  on  each  hand,  and 
another  cross  hedge  on  tlie  left.  At  1150  are 
off-sets  on  the  right  of  20  and  20,  where  stands 
a  house.  At  1300  the  off-set  of  SO  on  the  right 
terminates  the  house  ;  and  at  .5  on  the  left  is  a 
cross  hedge  of  a  backward  direction: — 1350 
ends  this  line,  where  roads  diverge  to  the  right 
and  left. 

At  ©  5  the  instrument  being  adjusted,  the  an- 
gle is  2S4°  50',  nearly  W.  At  50  the  oft-set  to 
the  hedge  is  15;  at  220  it  is  also  15,  where  is  a 
cross  hedge,  which  is  the  same  as  was  noted  at 
1050  in  the  last  line.  At  320  the  off-set  is  25. 
At  350  is  the  end  of  this  station,  where  the  dis- 
tance from  the  fence  is  15. 

At  0  R  the  bearing  is  .305"  35'  N.  W.  At  130 
the  ofl-set  is  30  ;  where  a  cross  hedge  goes  off  to 
the  point  noticed  at  7.50  in  the  line  from  0  4 
to  ©  5.  At  160  the  line  is  nearly  close  to  the 
fence.     210  ends  this  line. 

At  0  7  the  angle  forward  is  106°  25'  N.  W. 
The  line  is  143  long,  with  an  off-set  at  the  end 
of  15.  ,  ' 

At  0  8  the  bearing  is  269°  20'  N.  W.  At  100 
and  3(X)  the  off-sets  are  15  and  10. 

The  bearing  at  0  9  is  70"4.5'.S.W.  At  30 
the  measurer  finds  it  expedient  to  cross  the 
fence,  and  to  proceed  within  the  bounds  of  the 
estate.  At  90  he  has  an  oil-set  of  30  to  the  right, 
where  he  crosses  a  hedge.  At  S80  he  crosses 
another  hedge,  having  there  an  off-set  of  50 
At  940  he  has  an  off-set  of  50.  At  990  he 
again  crosses  the  hedge.  At  1020  he  has  an  off- 
set of  20  to  the  left.  At  1040  he  again  crosses 
the  hedge.    At  1030  he  comes  to  tl.e  corner  of 


the  farm-house;  jnd  116.!)  ends  liij  line,  where 
is  a  small  curve  at  the  right. 

At  0  10  the  bearing  is  204''  (/  S.  W.  At  70 
is  an  olT"-sci  of  5  on  tjie  right  At  200  io  15  on 
the  left,  and  a  cross  hedge.  At  600  is  25  on  the 
left,  and  20  -|-  15  on  the  right.  CHO  ends  the 
line,  having  an  off-set  of  15  on  the  righ't,  and 
the  like  on  ths  left,  where  is  a  cross  hedge. 

'I'he  bearing  at  0  1 1  is  35.i°  30'  S.  E.  At  2S0 
is  an  off-set  of  SO  on  the  right,  and  10  with  a 
cross  hedge  on  the  left.  At  400  is  an  off-set  of 
.30,  and  a  cross  hedge  at  the  left ;  and  470  end* 
the  line,  with  off-sets  of  10  and  20  on  the  rijiht 
and  left.  * 

At  a  1 2  the  bearing  is  155"  O'  S.  E.  At  60  is 
across  hedge.  At  219  the  off-sets  are  10  and 
15  :  and  at  229  tli,  ^asurer  comes  to  a  close  at 
0  1,  where  he  began. 

Having  thus  taken  a  circuit  of  this  estate, 
the  measurer  must  proceed  to  plot  off  the  same 
by  some  convenient  scale  in  manner  following : 

PLOTTING. 

The  plotting,  or  making  a  draught  of  an 
estate,  from  a  field-book  or  other  memoranda 
taken  in  the  field,  is  thus  performed : 

The  paper,  or  vellum,  on  which  the  plan  is 
to  be  drawn,  must  be  smoothly  laid  down  on  a 
drawing-board  :  a  line  is  to  be' drawn  from  the 
bottom  to  the  top,  to  represent  the  magnetic 
meridian. 

About  the  middle  part  of  this  line  a  point  is 
to  be  made,  on  which  point  the  centre  of  the 
circular  jjrotractor  is  to  be  laid.the  straight  edge 
so  placed  as  to  coincide  with  the  meridran  line  : 
round,  at  the  edge  of  the  protractor,  draw  a 
pencil  line.  [The  protractor  is  a  circular  piece 
of  brass,  having  its  edge  divided  into  degrees 
&c.  answerable  to  the  circumference  of  the 
theodolite,  so  that  whatever  horizontal  obser- 
vation is  nr,\de  with  the  latter,  it  may  be  laid 
down  on  jiaper  with  the  help  of  this  instrument.] 

The  protractor  tims  placed,  being  sieadilv 
fixed  in  that  position  by  pins,  or  by  a  lead 
weight,  look  in  the  field-book  for  the  quantity 
of  the  A  at  ©  1,  wiiich,  in  the  present  case,  is 
stated  to  be  69°  O'  north-easterly.  Look  for  this 
degree,  on  the  circular  edge  of  the  protractor, 
and  on  the  paper  make  a  mark,  with  a  fine 
plotting-pin,  at  that  number;  mark  it  1,  de- 
noting 0  1. 

Look  in  the  field-book  for  the  zl  at  0  2, 
which,  in  this  case,  =  253°  10',  where  make  a 
mark,  as  before. 

'i'lius  do  with  all  the  other  Z.s,  until  you  come 
to  the  last  station  previous  to  a  close  on  some 
former  part  of  the  work. 

All  the  angles  being  thus  pricked  off,  remove 
the  protractor. 

Consider  whereabout  the  beginning  of  the 
work  should  be  placed,  so  that  the  whole  may 
come  within  the  compass  of  the  paper  laid 
down  ;  and  there  make  a  mark,  noting  it  as  0  1, 
the  beginning  of  the  plot. 

Lay  the  fore  edge  of  the  parallel  ruler  from 
the  central  point  where  the  protractor  lay,  to 
the  mark  on  the  pencilled  circle  denoted  0  1. 
Move  the  fore  edge  of  the  parallel  ruler  uniil  it 
touches  the  point  determined  on  for  the  begin- 
ning of  the  plot. — Krom  thence  draw  .in  obscure 
or  pencil  line  (in  the  direction  mentioned,  i.  e. 
in  this  case,  from  the  north  to  the  eastward) 
about  the  length  of  the  whole  line  of  this  ©,  — 
760. 

Apply  a  feathcr-edgc  scale  to  this  obscur* 
line,  the  0  division  thereof  at  the  beginning ; 
and  prick  off  cverv  progressive  number  where 
any  off-sets  have  been  made;  as  at  300,  400, 
alii  760. 

Turn  the  scale  across  the  line  (bv  some  cross 
division),  ;ind  prick  oil"  the  ofl-sets  on  each  side 
o;  the  stat'oi  -Inc.  At  0,  or  0  1,  the  field-hook 
informs  us,  that  on  the  left  hand,  at  10  links,  is 
the  boundary-line  of  that  side ;  where  is  also  a 


.^  rf]R  vkyi:n  g 


§  ITliVJE^FI  W  G 


FL.II 


2J 


■>6 


34 


I  Tan^nkt 


FJULm  BOO.K 


S  U  R 

mnnU  road  brnnchin-r  off.  On  the  riglit  hand, 
the  ofT-set  is  30,  which,  with  -\-  40,  ^oes  lo  tlie 
extent  of  a  small  ntiok.  tliat  is  -10  hnks  liroad 
also.  At  :iOO,  on  the  left,  is  an  ofK-set  of  20, 
and,  oil  the  riplit,  another  of  •J,'! ;  where  also  is 
a  RT-ite  to  be  noticed.— At  ICO  is  an  olF-set  on 
the  left  of  I.;  and,  on  the  ripht,  one  of  n.J, 
M-here  a  small  road-way  braiichcs'olT'.  All  which 
olF-sets  are  to  be  pricked  oil'  as  you  go  on 
Draw  the  boiindary-llnes  through  these  ofl'-set 
points;  and  thus  the  first  station  will  be  com- 
pleted. 

JLay,  now,  the  jiarallel  ruler  from  the  centre 
to  the  angnlar  point  o(  ei  2  :  move  the  limb  of 
the  parallel  ruler,  until  it  touches  the  end  of  the 
last  station;  from  whence  draw  another  obscure 
line,  from  the  north,  easterly,  as  noted  in  the 
field-book. 

Apply  the  edge  of  the  scale  as  before,  and 
prick  oflFthe  numbers  00,  200,  and  -265 — At  30 
links  is  a  toll-gate,  where  the  off-sets  are  1.5  and 
30.— .^.t  200,  the  off-sets  are  1,^  and  2r> ;  where, 
on  the  right  hand,  is  a  short  line  of  hedge  of  ;i0 
links,  and  also  a  lane  of  30  links  broad,  going 
off  at  an  acute  angle. — At  '2lir>,  the  end  of  this 
station,  the  off-sets  are  .SO  and  10. 

Lay  off  the  line  from  0  ,■?,  as  before  directed, 
Dorth-easterly. — Prick  off'  the  numbers  20  and 
2S3.  Opposite  20  is  a  hedge  branching  off  to 
the  left  — At  293  the  off-sets"  arc  35  and  5. 

.From  0  "I  lay  off  the  line  north-easterly,  and 
prick  off  the  numbers  on  that  line,  as  they  ap- 
pear in  the  field-book,  and  make  the  off-sets  as 
follow,  viz.  At  120  set  off  1,5  and  20.  At  410 
are  30  and  1.5,  where  two  hedges  branch  otT 
nearly  in  the  direction  of  the  side  sketches.  At 
480  the  off-sets  are  25  and  5,  where  is  across 
hedge  on  the  left.  At  1.50,  on  the  left,  is  .30  -f-  15 
with  a  cross  hedge  on  the  right  is  10.  At  10.50, 
on  the  left,  is  20  with  a  cross  hedge,  and  20  on 
the  right.  At  11,50,  on  the  right,  is  20  -J- 20, 
where  stands  a  house.  At  1,300,  on  the  left,  is 
5  with  a  cross  hedge  ;  on  the  right  is  30  with  a 
road  branching  from  thence.— 1350  completes 
this  line. 

At  0  5  the  work  takes  another  direction,  and 
^oes  backwards  towards  the  west.  Lay  the  ruler 
'  from  the  centre  to  this  station,  and  draw  the  ob- 
scure line  in  the  direction  mentioned.  Prick  off 
the  distances  and  off-.sets  as  in  the  field-bnok. 
Here  we  have  off-sets  on  one  side  only,  not  being 
BOW  in  a  road-way. 

At  0s  G,  7,  and  R,  set  off  the  lines  south-west- 
erly, and  prick  off  the  distances  and  off-sets,  as 
in  the  field-book 

.     At  30,  in  ©  9,  a  hedge  was  crossed  ;  as  also  at 
900  and  1010. 

Station  10  still  bears  west  of  the  south  ;at  the 
■end  of  which  we  again  come  into  a  road-way. 

But  at  0  11,  tlie  direction  of  the  line  bears 
above  the  south,  towards  the  east;  as  does  that 
also  of  ©  12. 

At  the  end  of  this  station,  the  work  comes  to 
-a  close  at  0  1. 

After  h.iving  thus  plotted  his  work,  the  mea- 
surer will  Iiave  to  draw  another  line,  for  the 
true  meridian,  to  the  eastward  of  the  former, 
according  to  the  variation  of  the  magnetic  nee- 
dle, where  the  estate  lies. — On  this  true  meri- 
dian line  he  must  place  a  JIair  </.  lis,  or  some 
other  device,  as  a  north  point, — He  will  also 
have  to  give  a  title  to  his  map  ;  to  draw  a  scale 
of  the  proportion  he  has  plotted  by  ,  and  to 
give  the  whole  a  border. 

After  this  circuit  is  plotted  off,  the  measurer 
must  fill  up  the  interior  by  measuring  with  the 
chain,  and  lay  each  field  down  in  its  proper 
situation  and  dimensioiTs  on  the  plan. 

Having  thus  a  prototype  of  the  estate  on  pa- 
per, he  may  draw  such  measuring-lines  on  his 
plan  as  will  enable  him  to  calculate  the  content 
of  each  field  separately. 

SLTRVlVUKbiiir.     See  Lifjk  A-vnvi- 

TjEs. 


S  If  s 


s  u  s 


759 


Sl.'S,  /log,  a  pcnus  of  (luadi-iipeds,  of  the   troductioii,  appears  to  flourish  there  as  mucli 

.-1.,..     I. ..11 'ri...     ;..     „i !.._    ;„      »..:..  1 1...  ,.l.i  .. 1.1       wi ■.■..■..       ,■    , 


orrhr  belhia'.  'i'iie  generic  cliaratler  is, 
Inml  tci:(liiii  tlie  iippi.r  jaw  four,  converging, 
in  the  lower  jaw  six,  projecting ;  canine 
teeth,  or  tusks,  in  the  upper  jaw  two,  rather 
short;  ill  tlu"  lower  jaw  two,  long,  exserted; 
snout  triincalcd,  prominent,  moveable;  feet 
cloven.  'I'iiis  genus  is  iji  some  points  of  an 
aiiibigiions  nature,  being  allied  to  the  pecora, 
by  its  cloven  hoof-,  and  to  the  ktx,  in  some 
degree,  by  its  teeth  ;  yet  differing  widely 
from  boll)  in  many  respects.  'I'iie  internal 
structure  of  tiie  feet  also  approacjies  lo  that 
of  the  digitated  qiuidrupriLs,  while  that  of 
some  otlicr  parts  is  peciili.ir  to  this  genus 
alone.  It  may,  therefore,  be  allowed  lo  form 
at  once  i  link  between  the  cloven-footed,  tlie 
whole-hoofed,  and  the  digitated  (luadrupeds. 

I.  Sus  scrofa,  coramon  hog  .The  wild  boar, 
the  stock  or  original  of  the  common  domevtic 
hog,  is  a  native  of  almost  all  the  temperate 
paits  both  of  Euroije  and  Asia,  and  is  also 
IouikI  in  the  upper  parts  of  Africa.  It  is  a 
stranger  to  the  arctic  regions,  and  is  not  in- 
digenous to  llie  British  isles. 

The  wild  boar  inhabits  woods,  living  on 
various  kinds  of  vegetables,  viz.  roots,  mast, 
acorns,  S;c.  &c.  It  also  occasionally  devours 
animal  food.  It  is,  in  general,  considerably 
smaller  than  the  domestic  hog,  and  is  of  a 
dark  brinded  grey  colour,  sometimes  black- 
ish ;  but  wlien  only  a  year  or  (wo  old,  is  of  a 
pale  nifous  or  didl  yellowish  brown  cast ;  and 
wiien  ijiiite  yoinig,  is  marked  by  alteinate 
dusky  and  palesu'ipes  dis|)osed  longitudinally 
on  eacli  sidi;  the  body.  Between  the  bristles, 
next  the  skin,  is  a  liner  or  softer  hair,  of  a 
kind  of  woolly  or  curling  n..ture.  The  snout 
is  somewhat  longer  in  proportion  than  tliat  of 


as  in  the  old  world.  'I'he  varieties  into  v.hicli 
tlie  hog  occasionally  runs,  chielly  relate  to 
size  and  colour.  That  called  the  Chinese  hog 
is  of  a  very  small  size,  with  a  remarkably 
pendulous  belly :  its  colour  is  commonly  biacli, 
and  the  skin  ollen  nearly  bare,  or  less  hairy 
than  in  tlie  Curupean  kinds. 

1  he  variety  culled  the  Guinea  hog  is  dis- 
tinguished by  liaving  a  smaller  head  than  the 
cominon  hog, with  long,  slender,  sharp-pointed 
ears,  and  naked  tail  reaching  to  the  ground. 
Its  colour  is  rufo'js,  and  its  hair  softer,  shorter, 
and  finer  than  in  other  kinds.  It  is  said  to  be 
most  common  in  Guinea,  and  is  considered 
by  IJnna,tis  as  a  distinct  species,  under  the 
title  ofsusporcus. 

Bui  the  most  remarkable  variety  of  (Tie  hog- 
is  that  in  which  the  liools  are  entire  and  un- 
divided. This  is  a  mere  accidental  variety, 
«hich  is,  however,  observed  to  be  more  com- 
mon in  some  countries  than  in  others,  and  is, 
according  to  Liima-us,  not  unfiit)uent  in  the 
neighbourhood  ot  Upsal  in  Sweden.  It  has 
been  noticed  by  Aristotle  and  Pliny,  and  is 
.said  by  the  Ibrmer  to  have  been  most  commou 
in  Illyria  and  Pa'onia. 

The  age  of  the  domestic  hog  is  said  te 
extend  from  fifteen  to  tsventy-live  years,  or 
even  more. 

2.  Siis  yEthiopicus,  --Ethiopian  hog.  This 
animal  is  very  much  allied  in  its  general  ap- 
pearance tot  liecommon  hog,  but  is  clistingiiish- 
ed  by  a  pair  of  large,  flat,  semicirctdar  lobes 
OP  wattles,  placed  bineath  the  eyes :  the  snout 
is  also  of  a  much  broader  form,  and  is  very- 
strong  and  callous-,  the  ears  are  large,  anci 
very  slightly  pointed:  the  tusks  in  the  lower 
jaw  are  rather  small  ;  but  those  in  the  upper 


the  dome^tic  animal;  but  the  principal  dif-  j  jaw  are  larg-,  sharp,  curved,  and   in  the  old 


fertnce  is  in  the  superior  length  and  size  of 
the  tusks,  which  are.  often  several  inches 
long,  and  are  capable  of  intlicting  the  most 
severe  and  fatal  wounds. 

The  hunting  of  the  wild  boar  forms  one  of 
the  ainusenienls  of  the  great  in  some  parts  of 
Germany,  Poland,  &c.  and  is  a  chace  of  some 
difficulty  and  danger  ;  not  on  account  of  the 
swiftness,  but  the  ferocity  of  the  animal. 

As  the  wild  boar  advances  in  age,  after  the 
period  ofthieeor  four  years,  he  becomes  less 
dangerous,  on  account  of  the  growth  of  his 
tusk-i,  which  turn  up,  or  make  so  large  a  curve 
or  llexure,  as  otten  lalher  to  impede  than  as- 
sist his  intentions  of  wounding  with  them. 


animal  bend  upwards  in  a  semicircularnianner 
towards   the    toreliead:    there   are  no    fore 
teeth  ;  tlieir  place  being  supplied  by  very  hard  ■ 
gums:  the  skin  of  the  face,  immediatelv  be- 
low the  eyes,   or  above  the  broad  lobes  be- 
fore-mentioned, is  loose  and  wrinkled,  and  on 
each  side  the  corners  of  the  mouth  is  a  callous  • 
protuberance.     Thebodv  is  of  a  strong  form  ; 
the  tail  slender,  slightly  'flattened,  and  thinly 
covered  with  scattered  hairs.      The  general  < 
colour  of  the  w  hole  animal  is  a  dusky  or  blackr 
isl)  brown. 

'Ibis  species  is  a  native  of  the  hotter  parts  ■ 
of  Alrica,  occurring   from   Sierra  Leona   to 


Congo,  and  to  within  about  two  hundred 
To  describe  paiticularlv  the  common  or  I '^^g"*-"^.  "'''he  Cape  ofGuotl  Hope.  It  also 
domestic  hog  would  be  superlluous.  It  may  °'=curs  ni  the  island  ot  Madagasc-ar. 
be  sulFicient  to  observe,  that  this  animal  prin-  It  is  a  fierce  and  dangerous  animal,  and  is 
cipally  differs  from  the  wild  boar  in  size,  in  ,  said  to  reside  principally  in  subterraneous  re- 
having  smaller  tusks,  and  larger  ears,  which  cesses  which  it  digs  with  its  no-e  and  hoofs- 
are  also  somewhat  pendant,  ai.M  of  a  more  ,  ^^  hen  attacked  or  pursued,  it  rushes  on  its 
pointed  form.     Of  all  quadrupeds  the  hog  is    adversary  with  great  forcf  ;  anil  strikes,  like 


the  ino^t  gross  in  his  manners,  and  has  there- 
'ore  been  pretty  uniformly  considered  in  all 
nations  as  the  emblem  of  im[)iirity.  The  Jews 
were  strictly  enjoined  not  lo  eat  its  flesh  ;  and 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  a  similar  prohi- 
bition IS  still  ill  force;  since  the  Mahometans 
agree  in  I  his  respect  with  the  Mosaic  institu- 
tion. Inmost  patts  of  Eurojie,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  constitutes  a  principal  part  of  the  food 
of  mankind.  Tiiis  animal  i--  of  a  remarkably 
prolific  nature,  being  sometimes  known  to 
produce  as  many  as  twe  :ty  at  a  birth. 

The   hog  was  tmknown  in  America,  on  the 
discovery  of  tlial  continent ;  but  since  its  in- 
2 


the  common  boar,  with  its  tii^ks,  which  are 
capable  of  inllictuig  the  mo>t  tremendous 
wounds. 

3.  Sus  .Africamis,  Cape  A'erd  hog.  The 
Cape  ^  erd  hog  has  been  generallv  confounded 
with  the  former  animal,  from  which,  how- 
ever, it  appears  to  ditier  very  considerably  ; 
having  a  head  of  a  much  longer  and  slenderer 
form,  with  the  upper  jaw  extending  biyond 
the  lower.  In  the  upj;er  jaw  are  also'  two 
cutting  teeth,  and  six  in  thf  lower  :  the  tusks 
are  very  large  and  thick,  but  those  of  the  lower 
jaw  much  larger  than  tho=e  of  t.he  upper : 
the  eats  are  rather  narrow,  pointed,  and  tufted 


7Co 


S  U  S 


with  long  bristles  or  hairs :  the  *hole  body 
is  also  covered  wilh  long,  weak,  or  fine  bristles, 
of  whicli  those  on  the  S'lioulders,  belly,  and 
thighs,  are  much  longer  than  on  oiher  parts:  the 
taihsthin,  and  terminates  m  a  loiigish  tuft.  The 
colouroftliis  animal  is  a  pa'ish  brown.  Its  gene- 
ral size  is  ttut  of  a  loninion  hog,  but  it  is  said 
sometimes  to  be  found  far  larger.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  Africa  extending  from  Cape  Verd  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  fig.  3S3. 

4.  Sus  babyroussa.  ■  The  babyroussa  i= 
nearly  of  the  size  of  a  common  hog,  but  of  a 
s.''mewhat  longer  form,  and  with  more  slender 
limbs,  and  is  covered,  instead  of  bristles,  with 
fine,  short,  and  somewhat  woolly  hair,  of  a 
deep-brown  or  blackish  colour,  interspersed 
wilh  a  (ew  bristles  on  the  upper  and  hinder 
pjrt  of  the  back.  It  is  also  di5tinnuishe<l  by 
the  V;  rv  extraordinary  position  ajid  tbrm  of 
the  upper  tnsks,  which,  instead  of  being  si- 
tuated internally  on  the  ed^e  of  the  jaw,  as 
in  other  animals",  are  placed  externaiiy,  per- 
forating the  skin  of  the  snout,  and  turning  up- 
wards to.vard  the  forehead  ;  and  as  the  animal 
advances  in  age,  become  so  extremely  long 
and  curveil  as  to  touch  the  forehead  and  con- 
tinue their  curvature  downwards, by  which 
means  they  must  of  necessity  lose  their 
power  as  olfensive  weapons  :  the  tusks  of  the 
lower  jaw  are  formed  as  in  the  rest  of  the  ge- 
nus, and  are  also  very  long,  sharp,  and  curv- 
ed; but  not  of  equal  magnitude  with  those 
oftheui)per.  The  U])per  tusks  are  of  a  fine 
hard  grain,  like  thit  of  ivory  :  the  eyes  aw 
small ;  the  ears  somewhat  erect,  and  pointed  : 
the  tail  rather  long,  slender,  jind  tufted  at  the 
head  witli  long  hairs. 

The  babyroussa  is  a  gregarious  aniitial,  and 
isfonntHii  large  herds  in  many  paits  of  Java, 
Amboina,  and  some  other  Indian  i'-lands. 
Their  food  is  entirely  of  a  vegetable  nature, 
■and  they  often  feed  on  the  leaves  of  trees. 
When  sleeping  or  resting  themselves  in  a 
standing  posture,  they  are  said  often  to  hook 
or  support  themselves  by  jjlacing  the  upper 
tusks  across  the  lower  branches  of  the  trees 
■When  pm-sued  they  will  often  jilunge  into  a 
river,  or  even  into  the  sea,  if  near,  and  can 
swim  with  great  vigour  anxl  facility,  and  to  a 
vast  distance.  The  voice  of  tUi:  babyroussa 
is  said  to  resemble  that  of  the  common  hog, 
but  it  occasionally  utters  also  a  strong  or  loud 
growling  note.  It  is  som.'tinies  turned  hv  tlie 
inhabitants  of  the  Indian  islands,  and  the  flesh 
is  considered  as  a  wholesome  food.  See 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  385. 

5.  Sus  tajassu,  pecary.  The  pecary  is  the 
only  animal  of  this  go-nus  that  is  a  native  of 
the  new  world,  where  it  is  chiefly  found  in 
the  hottest  regions.  Its  si^.e  is  considerably 
smaller  than  that  of  a  common  hog,  and  it  is 
of  a  short  compact  form.  The  whole  animal 
is  thickly  covered,  on  tlie  upper  parts,  :\ith 
very  strong  dark-brown  or  blackish  bristles, 
each  marked  by  several  yellowish-white  rings; 
so  that  tlie  colom' of  the  whole  appears  mot- 
tled with  minute  freckles  or  specks,  and  round 
the  neck  is  enicrally  a  whifili  band  or  collar. 
The  head  is  raflur  large  ;  the  snout  long  ; 
the  ears  short  and  upright ;  the  belly  nearly 
naked  ;  there  is  iio  tail,  and  at  the  lower  pari 
of  the  back,  or  at  sonic  little  distance  beyond 
t'.,e  rump,  is  a  glandular  orifice  surrounded 
by  Btron;;  brisHes  in  a  somewhat  radiated  di- 
rect!'.i'      t-'io:n  ('i.- ..r'fi.-..  exsudcs  a  slrong- 


S  W  E 

scented  fluid,  and  this  part  has  been  vulgarly 
supjjosed  to  be  the  navel  of  the  animal :  the 
tusks  in  this  species  are  not   'ery  large. 

The  pecary  is  a  gregarious  aninnl,  and  in 
its  wild  state  is  fierce  and  dangerous;  some- 
times attacking  the  hunters  wilh  great  vigour, 
and  often  destroying  the  dogs  which  are  em- 
ployed in  its  pursuit.  It  feeds  not  only  on 
vegetable  substances,  but  occasionally  on  ani- 
mals of  various  kinds,  and  is  paiticularly  an 
enemy  to  snakes  and  other  reptiles;  attack- 
ing and  destroying  even  the  rattlesnake,  witli- 
outthe  least  dread  or  inconver.ience,  and  dex- 
terouslv  skinning  it,  by  holding  it  between  its 
feet,  while  it  performs' that  operation  with  its 
feelh.  It  is  also  remarkable  tliat  the  common 
hog,  when  translated  to  America,  will  attack 
anu  (destroy  the  rattlesnake.  The  pecary 
is  considered  as  an  agreeable  food ;  but 
the  dorsal  gland  must  be  cut  away  as  soon  as  | 
the  animal  is  killed  :  otherwise  the  whole  flesh 
would  be  infected  with  an  unpleasant  fiavour. 
See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  386. 

SUSPENSION,  or  Points  of  Suspen- 
sion, in  mechanics,  are  those  points  in  tlie 
axis  or  beam  of  a  balance,  wherein  the 
weights  are  applied,  or  fnnn  which  they  are 
suspended. 

In  a  law  sense,  sns|)ension  is  a  species  of 
censure,  whereby  ecclesiastical  persoiis  are 
forbidden  to  exercise  their  ofiice,  or  to  take 
the  profits  of  their  benefices;  or  when  they 
are  ])rolubited  in  both  of  them  for  a  certain 
time,  either  in  whole  or  in  part.  Si\spension 
is  also  said  to  .relate  to  the  laity,  viz.  suspensio 
c>b  ingressu  ecclesia;,  /.  c.  from  liearing  di- 
vine service. 

SUTURE.    See  Surgery. 

SWAKTZIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der polyadelphiapolyandria.  The  calyx -is 
four-leaved ;  petals  single,  lateral,  flat ;  le- 
guinen  one-celled,  two-valved;  seeds  aril- 
Uited.  There  are  six  species,  trees  of  the 
West  Indies. 

SWEAHING,  an. offence  punishable  by 
several  statutes:  thusstat.  6  and  7  y\\\\.  III. 
cap.  1 1,  ordains,  that  if  any  person  shall  pro- 
fanely swear,  if  he  is  a  labourer,  servant,  or 
common  soldier, he  sliall  forfeit  Is.  to  the  poor, 
for  the  first  offence,  2s.  for  the  second,  &c. ; 
and  any  person  not  a  servant,  &c.  forfeits  'Js. 
for  the  first  offence,  4s.  for  the  second,  6s. 
lor  the  third,  &c.  to  be  levied  by  distress  of 
goods. 

SWEAT.     Se.?  Perspiration. 

Sweating-Sickness,  a  disease  which  ap- 
paired  first  in  England,  in  the  year  1483.  It 
seized  dilferent  patients  in  different  manners; 
for  in  some  it  first  appeared  wifli  a  pain  in  tlie 
heck,  scapula,  legs,  or  arms;  whilst  others 
perceived  only  a  Kind  of  uann  vapour,  or  fia- 
tulence,  running  through  those  p;rts.  And 
these  symptoms  v.'ere  suddenly  succeeded  by 
a  profuse  sweat,  which  the  patient  could  not 
account  for.  The  internal  parts  became  first 
warm,  and  were  soon  after  seized  with  an  in- 
credible heat,  which  thepce  tntiused  itself  to 
the  extremities  of  the  body.  An  intolcrabR' 
I  hirst,  restlessness,  and  indisposition  of  the 
heart,  liver,  and  stomach.were  llie  nextsymp- 
toins,  which  were  succeeded  by  an  excessive 
head-ache;  a  delirium,  in  which  the  patient 
was  very  talkative ;  and  after  these,  a  kind 
of  exteiuiatinn  of  the  body,  and  an  irresisti- 
ble necessity  of  sleeping.  For  preventing 
this  disease,  teniperance  \\'as  ordered,  and 


S  W  I 

the  choice  of  salutary  aliments  and  drinks,  anJ 
no  crude  pot-herbs  nor  sallads  to  be  used. 

SWEEP,  in  the  sea-language,  is  that  part 
of  tlie  mould  of  a  ship,  where  she  begins  (o 
compass  in  at  the  rung-heads:  also,  wjieii  the 
hawser  is  dragged  along  the  bottom  of  (hi; 
sea,  to  recover  any  thing  that  is  sunk,  they 
call  this  action  sweeping  tor  it. 

S^VEETS,  in  tlij  wine  trade,  denotes  any 
vegetable  juice,  whether  obtained  by  means 
of  sugar,  raisins,  or  other  foreign  or  ilonieslic 
fruit,  wliich  is  added  to  Wjnes,  with  a  design 
to  improve  them. 

S\\'ERTIA,  marsh, gentian,  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  class  cfpentandria, 
and  to  tiie  order  of  digynia  ;  and  in  the  natu- 
ral system  ranging  under  the  20th  order,  ro- 
tacea;.  'I'he  corolla  is  wheel  shaped.  There 
are  nectariferous  pores  at  the  bases  of  the  seg- 
ments of  the  coroiia.  Tlie  capssle  is  iiniio- 
cular  and  bivalve.  Tiieie  are  six  species. 
The  perennis  is  a  native  of  England.  It  is 
distinguished  by  radical  oval  leaves.  It  flow 
CIS  in  August. 

SWIETENTA,  mahogany,  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  decaiidria, 
and  to  the  order  of  monogynia  ;  and  in  the 
natural  system  arranged  under  the  ;j4la  or- 
der,-uiiscellane;e.  The  calyx  is  quiiu|uefid« 
Tiiere  are  fivf  petals;  the  nectaiium  is  cv- 
lindrical,  supporting  the  anthera;  will)  its 
mouth.  The  capsule  is  five-celled,  woodv, 
and  opening  at  the  nioutli.  The  seeds  are 
imbricated  and  w-inged.  There  are  three 
species :  the  mahogani,  which  is  the  principal, 
is  a  native  of  the  warmest  parts  of  America, 
and  grows  also  in  the  island  of  Cuba,  Ja- 
maica, rii«paniola,  and  the  Bahama  islands. 
It  abounded  formerly  in  the  low  lands  of  Ja- 
maica, but  is  now  found  only  on  high  hills 
and  places  difficult  of  access. 

It  thrives  in  most  soils,  but  varies  in  texture 
and  grain  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
On  rocks  it  is  of  a  smaller  size,  but  very  hard 
ami  weighty,  of  a  close  grain,  and  beautifully 
shaded  ;  while  tin:  produce  of  the  low  and 
richer  lands  is  observed  to  be  move  light 
and  porous,  oTapaler  colour,  and  open  gr.un  ^ 
and  that  of  mixed  soils  to  hold  a  medium  be- 
tween both.'  The  tree  grows  very  tall  and 
straight,  and  is  usually  four  feet  in  diameter  ;' 
the  llowers  are  of  a  reddish  or  saffron  colour, 
and  the  fruit  of  an  oval  form,  and  about  the' 
size  of  a  turkey's  egg. 

The  wood  is  gmeially  hard,  takes  a  fine 
polish,  aiid'is  tbuiidto  answer  better  than  any 
other  sort  in  all  kinds  of  cabiiiet-waiv.     It  is 
now  universally  esteemed,  and  sells  at  a  good 
price.     It  is  a   very  strong  limber,  and  an- 
swers very  well  in  beams, joists,  plank,  bcuuds, 
ami  shingles ;  and  has  been  fre<iueiUly  put  to 
tliose  uses  in  Jamaica  in  former  times.     It  is' 
said  to  be  used  sometimesin  ship-building  ;  a. 
purpose  for  wliich  if  is  n-markably  adapted,  if" 
not  too  cosily,  being  very  durable,  capable  of 
resi-ting   gun-shots,   and   buryiug  the   shots., 
without  splintering^ 

The  seed-vessels  are  of  a  curious  form,  coui- 
sisling  of  a  large  cone  spliUing  into  (wi:  parts, , 
and  ilisclosing  its  winged  seeds,  disposed  ini 
the  regular  manner  ot-iliose  of  an  apocyr.um. 
The  seeds  being  winged,  are  dispersed  on  thC 
suiface  of  the  groniicl,  where  some  falling  intuf' 
the  chinks  ot  the  rocks,  strike  root  *  theif 
creep  out  on  the  surface,  and  seek  ano-_ 
tiler  chink,  into  which  they  creep  and  swelf 


r  AT  V  MA  h  ,1 1 )[  s  T  t )  :k  Y . 


Frinod  Ivr  Bicbard  Phillips. .V/i.  Jtrid^r  Strfft-^hitkAiarj. 


s  \v  r 

<o  such  a  size  anil  strengtli,  tlial  at  Icn2;lli  tlic 
rock  splits,  ami  is  foiccil  to  admit  of  llic  mot's 
dt'cpei'  pent-tratioii ;  and  with  this  little  iiiitii- 
iiipiit  the  tree  increases  to  a  stupendous  sizi; 
i  II  a  few  years. 

SWIi\iiMING,  the  act  of  sustaining  the 
b'xiy  in  water,  and  of  moving  in  it,  in  which 
action  the  air-hkidder  and  fins  of  lishos  bear 
each  a  consideraljle  part.  See  AiK-ni-AD- 
DKR,  and  I'isHEs. 

Swimming,  as  applied  to  human  beings, 
is  the  art  of  balancing  the  body  on  or  near 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  of  making  a 
progress  through  it ;  an  art  so  useful,  we  might 
say  so  necessary,  tliat  every  young  person 
ought  tii'lie  instructed  in  it ;  and  as  it  is  also 
a  wholesome  and  pleasant  exercise,  it  ought 
to  be  regularly  taught  at  sdiools,  as  well  as 
the  other  athletic  exercises. 

The  art  of  swimming  is  so  antient,  that  we 
have  no  accounts  ot  its  origin  in  tin;  history  of 
any  nation  ;  nor  are  there  any  nations  so  bar- 
barous but  that  swimming  is  known  and  prac- 
tised among  them,  and  that  in  greater  perfec- 
tion than  among  civilized  people.  It  is  pro- 
bable, tlierefore,  that  the  art,  though  not  ab- 
solutely natural,  will  always  be  acquired  l)y 
people  in  a  savage  state  from  imitating  the 
brute  animals,  most  of  whom  swim  n;lturally. 
Indeed  so  much  doesthis  appear  to  be  the  case, 
that  very  exp'ertswimmers  have  recommended 
it  to  those  who  wished  to  learn,  to  imitate  the 
motions  of  the  frog  in  moving  through  the  ele- 
ment of  water. 

The  art  of  swimming  depends  entirely 
upon  keeping  the  body  in  a  proper  balance, 
and  this  is  easily  and  almost  insensibly  ac- 
quired. The  great  obstacle  is  the  natural 
ciread  which  people  have  of  being  drowned; 
and  this  it  is  impossible  to  overcome  by  any 
thing  but  accustoming  ourselves  to  go  into 
the  water.  ^Vith  regard  to  the  real  danger  of 
being  drowned,  it  is  but  little  ;  and  on  innu- 
merable (sccasions  arises  entirely  from  the  ter- 
ror above  mentioned,  as  will  appear  from  the 
following  observations  by  Dr.  Franklin  : 

"  1  st,  rhat  though  the  legs,  arms,  and  liead, 
of  a  human  body,  being  solid  parts,  are  spe- 
cifically somewhat  heavier  than  fresh  water, 
yet  the  trunk,  particularly  the  upper  part, 
from  its  hoUowness,  is  so  much  lighter  than 
water,  that  the  whole  of  the  body,  taken  to- 
gether, is  too  light  to  sink  wlioUy  under  water, 
but  some  part  will  remain  above  until  the  lungs 
become  tilled  with  water ;  which  happensfrom 
ijrawing  water  into  them  instead  of  air,  when 
a  person  in  the  fright  attempts  breathing  wliile 
the  mouth  and  nostrils  are  under  water. 

"  2dly,  That  the  legs  and  arms  are  speci- 
fically lighter  than  salt  water,  and  will  be  sup- 
ported by  it;  so  tliat  a  human  body  would 
not  sink  in  salt  water  though  the  lungs  were 
filled  as  above,  but  from  the  greater  specilic 
gravity  of  the  head. 

3dly,  That  therefore  a  person  throwing  him- 
self on  his  back  in  salt  water,  and  extending 
his  arms,  may  easily  lie  so  as  to  keep  his  moutii 
and  nostrils  free  for  breathing ;  and  by  a  small 
motion  of  his  hands  may  prevent  turning,  iflie 
should  perceive  any  t.ndency  to  it. 

"  4thly,  That  in  fiesh  water,  if  any  man 
throws  himself  on  his  back  near  the  surface, 
he  cannot  long  continue  in  that  situation,  hut 
■by  a  proper  actiortof  his  hands  on  the  water. 
If  he  uses  no  such  action,  the  legs  and  lower 
part  of  the  body  will  gradually  sink  till  he 
Vol.  II. 


S  W  I 

comes  info  an  upright  position  ;  in  which  he 
will  continue  sus|)ended,  the  hollow  of  the 
breast  keeping  the  head  uppermost.- 

"  Stilly,  liut  if  in  this  erect  position  the 
head  is  Ke|)t  upright  above  the  shoulders,  as 
when  we  stand  on  the  ground,  the  immersion 
will,  by  the  weight  of  that  jiart  of  the  head 
that  is  out  of  the  water,  reach  above  the 
moutli  and  nostrils,  |)erliaps  a  little  above  the 
eyes;  so  that  a  man  cannot  long  remain  sus- 
pended in  water  with  its  head  in  that  posi- 
tion. 

"  Ctlily,  The  body  continued  suspended  as 
before,  and  upright,  if  the  head  is  leaned  (.piite 
back,  so  that  the  face  looks  upwards,  all  the 
back  part  of  the  head  being  then  underwater, 
and  its  weight  consequently  in  a  great  mea- 
sure supported  by  it,  the  face  will  remain 
above  water  (luite  free  for  breathing,  will  rise 
an  inch  higher  every  inspiration,  and  sink  as 
much  every  expiration,  but  never  so  low 
that  the  water  may  come  over  the  mouth 

"  7thly,  If  therefore  a  person  unacquainted 
with  swimming,  and  falling  accidentally  into 
water,  could  have  presence  of  mind  suflicient 
to  avoid  struggling  and  plunging,  and  to  let 
the  body  take  this  natural  position,  he  might 
continue  long  safe  from  drowning,  till  per- 
liaps  help  would  come  ;  for  as  to  the  clothes, 
their  additional  weight  while  immersed  is  very 
inconsiderable,  the  water  supporting  it ; 
though  when  becomes  out  of  the  water,  he 
would  find  them  very  heavy  indeed." 

The  method  of  learning  to  swim  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Tlie  person  must  walk  into  water  so 
deep  that  it  will  reach  to  the  breast.  He  is 
then  to  lie  down  gently  on  the  belly,  keep- 
ing the  head  and  neck  perfectly  upright,  the 
breast  advancing  forward,  the  thorax  inliated, 
and  the  back  bent ;  then  withdrawing  the  legs 
from  the  bottom,  and  stretching  them  out, 
strike  the  arms  forwards  in  unison  with 
the  legs.  Swimming  on  the  back  is  somewhat 
similar  to  that  on  the  belly,  but  with  this  dif- 
ference; that  the  legs  are  here  chiefly  em- 
ployed to  move  the  body  forwards,  and  the 
arms  are  often  unemployed,  for  the  progres- 
sive motion  is  derived  from  the  movement  of 
the  legs.  In  diving,  after  the  plunge,  a  per- 
son uses  the  same  action  as  in  swimming,  only 
the  head  is  bent  downwards ;  and  whenever 
he  chooses  to  return  to  his  former  situation, 
he  has  nothing  to  do  but  bend  back  his  head, 
and  he  will  immediately  return  to  the  sur- 
face. 

.  It  is  very  comnioirfor  novices  in  the  art  of 
swimming  to  make  use  of  corks  or  bladders  to 
assist  in  keeping  the  body  above  water.  Some 
have  utterly  condemned  the  use  of  these ; 
Dr.  Franklin,  however,  allows  that  they  may 
be  of  service  for  supporting  the.body  wliile 
one  is  learning  what  is  called  the  stroke,  or 
that  manner  of  drawing  in  and  striking  out 
the  hands  and  feet  that  is  necessary  to  pro- 
duce progressive  motion.  "  But  (says  he) 
you  will  be  no  swimmer  till  you  can  place  con- 
fidence in  the  power  of  the  water  to  support 
you :  I  would  therefore  advise  the  acquiring  of 
that  confidence  in  the  first  place,  especially  as 
I  liave  known  several  who  by  a  little  of  the 
practice  necessary  for  thatpurpcse,  have  insen- 
sibly acquired  the  stroke,  taught  in  a  manner 
by  nature. 

"  The  practice  I  mean  is  this  :  choosing  a 
place  where  the  water  deepens  gracjually, 
walk  coolly  into  it  till  it  is  up  to  your  breast : 


s  w  o 


701 


then  turn  iouikI  your  face  to  the  shore,  and 
throw  Jill  egg  into  the  v  atcr,  between  you  and 
the  shore  ;  it  will  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  be 
easily  seen  there  if  the  water  is  clear.  It 
must  lie  in  the  wafer  so  deep  that  you  can- 
not reach  it  to  take  it  up  but  by  diving  for  it. 
To  encourage  yoursell  in  order  to  do  this, 
rellect  that  your  progress  will  be  from  deeper 
to  shallow  cr  water ;  and  that  at  any  time  you 
may,  by  bringing  your  legs  under  you,  and 
standing  on  the  bottom,  raise  your  head  far 
above  the  water:  then  plunge  under  it  witli 
your  eyes  open,  throwing  yourself  towards 
the  egg,  and  endeavouring,  by  the  action  of 
your  IuiikIs  and  feel  against  the  water,  to  get 
forward  till  within  reach  of  it.  In  this  attempt 
you  will  find  that  the  water  buoys  you  up 
against  your  inclination;  that  it  is  not  so  easy  a 
thing  to  sink  as  you  imagined  ;  that  you  cannot 
but  by  active  force  get  down  to  the  egg. 
Thus  you  feel  th<;  power  of  the  water  to  sup- 
port you,  and  leant  to  confide  in  that  power ; 
while  your  endeavours  to  overcome  it,  and  to 
reach  the  egg,  teach  you  the  manner  of  act- 
ing on  the  water  with  your  feet  and  hands  ; 
which  action  is  afterwards  used  in  swimming 
to  support  your  head  higheraboVe  water,  or 
to  go  forwaril  through  it." 

SWINE-STONE,  in  mineralogy.  The 
texture  of  this  substance  is  often  earthy  ;  frac- 
ture splintery  ;  specilic  gravity  2.7. ;  colour 
grey,  of  various  shades.  When  scraped  or 
pounded,  it  emits  an  urinous  or  garlic  smell. 

SWOKD,  a  weapon  u<ed  either   in  cut« 
ting  or  thrusting;  the  usual  weapon  of  fights 
hand  to  hand.     It  also  signifies,  figuratively^  . 
destruction  by  war;  as  fire  andbwoixl. 

SwoKD,  broad.  An  original  weapon  of 
Scotland :  it  is  sometimes  called  a  back  sword, 
as  having  but  one  edge:  it  is  basket-handled^ 
and  three  feet  two  inches  long. 

Sword,  rcgukilion.  The  sword  which  is 
worn  by  British  officers  may  be  properly  called 
a  long  cut-and-tlirtist.  It  is  a  manifest  imita' 
tion  of  the  Austrian  sword,  and  has  been 
lately  introduced.  It  is  not,  however,  so 
convcnientlv  used  by  us  as  it  is  by  the  Aus- 
trians.  The  latter  have  it  girted  lound  iheif 
waists,  so  that  it  hangs  without  any  embarrass' 
ment  to  the  wearer  close  to  the  left  hip  or 
thigh;  whereas  with  us,  it  is  suspended  in  an 
aukward  diagonal  manner  from  a  cross  belt 
over  the  loins. 

Sword,  position  nf,  at  open  nrdfr.  When 
an  officer  stands  or  marches  in  front  of  his 
company,  &c.  the  position  of  the  sword  is  di- 
agonal across  the  chest.  At  close  order,  or 
wlicn  the  officer  is  on  tlie  flank  of  his  com- 
pany, &c.  theliilt  is  close  to  the  right  thigh, 
and  the  blade  in  the  hollow  of  the  right  shoul- 
der. When  mounted,  he  carries  it  diagonally 
across  the  bridle-liand. 

When  troops  or  squadrons  of  cavalry  a<3- 
vance,  in  the  walk,  the  sword  is  carried  with 
tlie  blade  resting  on  the  right  arm  ;  in  fhs 
trot  and  gallop,  the  right  hand  must  be  stea- 
died on  the  right  thigh,  the  point  of  the  sword 
rather  inclining  forward  ;  and  in  the  charge, 
the  hand  is  lifted,  and  the  sword  is  carried  ra- 
ther forward,  and  crossways  in  front  of  tlie 
head,  with  the  edge  outwards. 

SYKN'i\,  a  genus  of  the  class -^aDd  order 
triandiia  nionogynia.  The  calvx  is  three- 
leaved  ;  petals  three;  anthers  oblong;  cap- 
sules one-celled,  tlirce-valved.  There  is  Cdic 
species,  a  massy  plant  of  Guiana*- 


767, 


-^Y  N 


SYLLOGISM,  (ivU37i<r^M,  in  logic,  an 
argument  or  term  of  ri-i-ioiiiiig,  coiisirtmg  ol 
tlir<;e  propOMlions  ;  tlii;  two  first  of  which 
are  called  premises,  an;l  the  last  the  confUision . 
See  Logic,  Mode,  &c, 

SYMPHONLV,  agemis  of  plants  of  the 
class  of  moiiadelpliia,  and  order  of  pentan- 
dria.  There  is  0!ic  pi.lil.  Tlie  cort>lIa  is 
globular,  and  the  berry  live-celled.  There 
is  only  one  species  yet  discovered ;  the  globu- 
lifera,  a  tree  of  Surinam. 

SYMPHONY,  in  music,  properly  denotes 
a  consonance  or  concert  of  several  sounds 
agreeable  to  the  ear,  wbclhtr  vocal  or  instru- 
mental, called  also  harmony. 

SYMPHYSIS,  in  anatomy,  one  of  the 
kinds  of  junctures  of  articulation  of  the 
bones.     See  Anaiomy. 

SY.MPHYTL'M,  comfrei/,  a  genu'i  of 
plants  of  the  class  of  pentaiulria,  and  order  of 
monogynia;  and  in  the  natural  system  ran 
ging  iinder  the  4lst  order,  asperiioliie.  Tlie 
limb  of  the  corolla  is  tubular  and  ventricose, 
and  the  tliroat  is  shut  witli  awl-shaped  rays. 
There  are  three  species;  the  ofiicinale,  tu- 
berosu.n,  and  orientale.  'i'he  oliicinale  is  a 
British  plant.  Tiie  stem  is  about  two  feet 
high,  round,  branclied,  green,  and  rough. 
1  lie  radical  leaves  are  very  large  and  rough  ; 
those  m  the  sta-k  are  decurrent,  and  alternatei 
'J'he  flowers  grow  on  looie  spikes,  and  are  ei- 
ther of  a  yellowish  or  purple  colour.  It  grows 
OH  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  flowers  from  May 
to  October. 

SYMPLOCOS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
cla^sof  polyadelphia,  arid  theorder  of  polyaii- 
(Iria  ;  and  in  the  natural  system  ranging  under 
those  the  order  of  which  has  not  been  deter- 
mined. The  calyx  is  qui(iquefid  and  inferior : 
the  corolla  is  pentapetalous:  the  stamina  are 
attached  to  tlie  tube  of  the  corolla  in  a  four- 
fold series.  Only  one  species,  tlie  martini- 
censis,  is  mentioned  by  Linnaeus ;  but  I'lle- 
ritier  of  the  academy  of  sciences  at  Paris  has 
added  three  more,  llie  ci|)oiiima,  arechea,  and 
•clopetala,  all  trees  of  the  West  Indies. 

SYNCOPE,  fainting.     See  Medicine. 

Syncope,  in  grammar,  an  elision  or  re- 
trenchmeat  of  a  letter  or  syllable  out  of  tlie 
middle  of  a  word,  as  caldus  for  calidus,  asjma 
lor  aspcris,  &c. 

SYXGF.N  I'.SIA.     SecBoT.vNY. 

SYNGXATHUS,  jiipelish,  a  genus  of 
<3hes  of  the  order  nantcs :  tlie  gcn(>ric  cha- 
r.acter  is,  snout  subolindric,  with  terminal 
mouth  ;  body  lengthened,  jointed,  mailed ; 
ventral  tins  none. 

1.  Syngnathus  acns,  great  pipefisli.  Tlie 
fishes  of  the  present  genus  are  inhabitants  of 
the  sea,  and  are  observed  to  frequent  the  shal- 
lower parts  near  the  shore,  feeding  on  the 
smaller  worms  and  insects:  they  are  easily 
distinguished  by  tlie;r  sleniler  habit,  and  an- 
gular jointed  body.  The  syngnatiuis  acus 
ur  great  pipetisli  is  usually  seen  ot  the  length 
of  twelve  oi  hlteen  inches,  but  is  sometimes 
found,  especially  in  the  nonhern  seas,  of  fa. 
greater  extent,  measuring  from  two  to  three 
fei.-t:  i  is  of  ail  extremely  slender  form,  gra- 
dually I  ipering towards  the  e.xtreniity,  aiid  is 
of  a  |)ale  ycllowisli-browii  colour,  varied 
thrmighout  its  whole  length  with  broad  a!- 
leriiile  zones  of  adeeper  or  olive  brown,  with 
a  few  smaller  variegations  intermixed :  the 
«.iii«;Ukor  lamina:  with  wiiich  the  joints  ol  tlu- 


SYR 

body  are  covereil,  appear,  If  nairowly  in- 
spected, to  be  fuiely  radiated  from  the  centre 
by  numerous  lines  or  streaks:  the  dorsal  fin 
is' placed  ratlier  nearer  the  head  than  the  tail, 
and  is  thin,  tender,  shallow,  and  of  no  great 
extent;  the  pectoral  fins  small,  and  slightly 
rounded,  and  the  tail  of  similar  shape  and 
size.  In  spring,  as  in  others  of  this  genus, 
the  ova  are  found  lying  in  a  longitudinal  chan- 
nel or  division  at  the  lower  part  of  the  abdo- 
men, and  are  large  in  projiortion  to  the  size 
of  the  animal  :  from  tliese  are  h.itched  the 
young,  completely  formed.  Native  of  the 
European  seas. 

'2.  Syngnathus  iiippocampus,  sea-horse 
pipetisli.  A  lish  of  a  highly  singular  appear- 
ance :  general  length  from  six  to  ten  inches: 
body  much  compressed;  colour  greenish 
brown,  varied  with  darker  and  lighter  specks : 
head  large,  thickish,  and  beset  on  tlie  upper 
part,  as  well  as  along  sonieof  the  first  joints  of 
the  body,  with  several  small,  weak,  lengthened 
spines  or  cirrhi,  which  are  sometimes  slightly 
ramilied:  snout  slender:  neck  contracting 
suddenly  beyond  the  iiead :  body  rather  short, 
and  contracting  suddenly  towards  the  tail, 
u  hicli  is  long,  quadrangular,  and  temiinates  in 
a  naked  or  tinless  tip.  In  its  dry  or  contracted 
state  this  animal  exhibits  the  fancied  resem- 
blance from  which  it  takes  its  name,  but  in  the 
living  fish  this  aj)pi:arance  is  somewhat  less 
striking,  the  head  and  tail  being  carried  nearly 
straight.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean, 
Northern,  and  Atlantic  seas.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  fig.  3S7. 

3.  Syngnathus  foliatus,  foliated  pipefish. 
A  most  extraordinary  species;  far  exceeding 
all  the  rest  of  die  genus  in  tlie  singularity  of 
its  appearance,  which  is  such  as  at  first  view 
ratiier  to  suggest  the  idea  of  some  production 
of  fancy  than  of  any  real  existence.  In  its 
general  shape  it  is  greatly  allied  to  the  preced- 
ing species,  but  is  considerably  longer  in  pro- 
portion, or  of  a  more  slender  habit :  these 
appendages  are  situated  on  very  strong,  rough, 
sc|uare  spines  or  processes ;  and  was  it  not  for 
the  perfect  regularity  of  their  respective  pro- 
portions, might  be  mistaken  for  the  leaves  of 
some  kind  of  fucus  adhering  to  the  spines. 
The  colour  of  the  whole  animal  is  a  duskv  or 
blackish  olive,  thickly  sprinkled  on  all  parts, 
except  on  the  appendages,  with  small  round 
whitisli  specks,  and  ai-companied  by  a  kind 
of  metallic  gloss  on  the  abdomen.  There 
are  seven  species. 

SYNOCTIUS,  .si/noc/ui.    See  Mfdicinf. 

SYNODENDRON,  a  genus(.f  insects  of 
the  order  coleoplera.  The  generic  character 
is,  anteniKC  clavate  ;  the  club  lamellate  ;  tho- 
rax gibbous,  muricate,  or  unequal  ;  lip  fili- 
form ;  horny  palpigerous  at  the  tip.  'There 
are  four  species. 

SYNO\lA.     SeeSiNoviA. 

SYNTAGMA,  tlie  disposing  or  placing 
of  things  in  an  orderly  manner. 

SYNTAX,  in  grammar,  the  proper  con- 
struction, or  due  disposition,  of  the  words  of  a 
language,  into  sentences. 

SYREN.     Sec  Siren. 

SYRINGI.V,  the  lilac,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  ckissofdiaifdria,  and  order  of  monogynia; 
and  in  the  natuialsvstemrangiiig  under  the44th 
<>:der, sepiariie.  'I'he  corolla  is  quadrifid,  and 
the  capsnle  is  bilocular.  There  are  three  spe- 
cies, the  vulgaris,  persica,  and  suspensa.  The 
two  first  are  native!  of  Persia,  and  the  last  of 


SYS 

Japan,  The  vulg;iris,  which  is  distinguished 
by  ovate  heart-shaped  leaves,  was  cultivated, 
ill  Britain  about  the  year  1597  by  Mr.  John 
Gerard.  The  persica,  fthich  has  lanceolate 
leaves,  was  cultivated  in  16.^S  ;  but  how  long 
liolh  species  might  have  been  introduced  in-a 
Britain  before  tiiese  dales,  it  is  perhaps  impos- 
sible to  ascertain. 

SYRINGE,  an  instrument  serving  to  im- 
bibe, a  ([uantity  of  any  tluid,  and  to  squirt  or 
expel  tile  same  with  violence.  See  Sur- 
gery. 

The  svringe  is  made  of  i  hollow  cylinder 
ABCD,"Plate  Miscel.  fig.  224,  furnished  with  a 
little  tubeat  the  bottom,  EE.  In  this  cylinder 
is  an  embolus  or  piston  K,  made,  or  at  least 
covered,  with  leather,  or  some  other  matter 
that  e:i.---ly  imbibes  moisture,  and  so  filling 
the  cavity  of  the  cylinder,  as  that  no  air  or 
water  may  pass  between  the  one  and  the 
other.  If' then  the  little  end  of  the  tube  F, 
is  put  into  water,  and  the  embolus  drawn  up, 
the  water  will  ascend  into  (he  cavity  left  by 
tiie  embolus;  and  upon  thrusting  back  the 
embolus,  it  will  be  violently  e.xpelled  again 
through  the  tube  EF. 

This  ascent  of  the  water,  the  antients,  who 
supposed  a  plenum,  attributed  to  nature's 
abhorrence  of  a  vacuum ;  but  the  moderns, 
from  repeated  experiments,  htive  found  it  to 
be  owing  to  the  presgure  of  the  sitmosphere 
upon  tlie  fliiid  ;  for  by  drawing  up  the  em- 
bolus, the  air  left  in  the  cavity  of  the  cylin- 
der will  be  exceeilingly  rar'ified.  so  'that 
being  no  longer  a  counterbalance  to  the  air 
incumbent  on  the  surface  of  the  fiuid,  this 
prevails  and  forces  the  water  through  the 
little  tube  into  tlie  body  of  the  syringe.  See 
Pneum.\tics,  &c. 

SYRINGOTON,  the  name  of  an  instru- 
ment to  lay  open  the  fistula. 

SYRUP.  See  Ph.\rmacy,  and  Sug,\r. 
S\STEM,  in  music,  an  interval  compound- 
ed, or  su|)posed  to  be  compounded,  of  several 
lesser  intervals,  as  the  fourth,  the  fifth,  the 
sixth,  the  octave,  &c.  the  components  of 
which,  considered  as  the  elements  of  the  sys- 
tem, are  called  diastems.  A  system  is  also 
a  method  of  calculation  to  detei'mine  the  re- 
lations of  sounds,  or  an  order  of  signs  es- 
tablished to  express  tliein  :  and  lastly^  a  sys- 
tem is  the  code  of  harmonic  rules  drawn 
from  those  common  principles  by  which  they 
are  computed. 

There  is  an  infinity  of  ditTereiit  intervals, 
and  consiiquently  an  ir.liiaity  also  of  possible 
systems.  Any  interval  between  the  terms  of 
which  one  or  more  sounds  intervened,  was 
by  the  antients  called  a  system  :  E,  G,  for 
example,  constituted  the  svstem  of  a  minor 
third ;  E,  A,  of  a  fourth ;'  E,  B,  of  a  fifth, 
&c. 

Systems  were  divided  into  general  and  par- 
ticular. The  i>articular  systems  were  those 
wliich  were  composed  of  lit  least  two  inter- 
vals. The  general  systems,  or  diagrams,. 
were  formed  of  the  sum  of  all  the  particular 
systems,  and  consequently  contained  all  the 
sounds  in  music. 

The  whole  system  of  the  f  I  reeks  was  ori- 
ginally composed  only  of  four  sounds  at 
most,  whtcii  formed  the  concord  of  their  lyre, 
or  cithaia.  These  four  sounds,  according  to 
some  authors,  were  by  conjoint  degrees  :  ac- 
cording to  others,  th"ey  were  not  <liatonic  ; 
but  the  two  extn:nies  were  at  the  distance  of 
an  octave,  and  the  two  intermediate  OHcts  di- 


TAB 

ridi'il  It  into  a  fourlh  on  each  s'ulo,  and  a  tone 
in  the  miiUllc.  This  system  did  not,  hyw- 
eviT,  coiitiiiuo  long  confmed  to  so  few 
sounds.  Churebiis,  son  of  Athi«,  king  ot 
Lydia,  as  lioi-tius  informs  us,  added  a  liflh 
chord  ;  IIya;;nis  asi\th  ;  Serpaiideras(;vonth, 
to  eiinal  tlie  number  of  the  plamls  ;  and 
Lyeliaiin  an  eighth.  Pnit  Pliny  gives  a  dif- 
ferent account  of  ihe  progression  of  tiie  an- 
tieut  svsteni ;  according  to  that  writer,  'I'er- 
pander  added  three  chords  to  the  tetrachord, 
and  was  tlie  first  who  used  the  citliara  with 
seven  cliords;  SimonidesjoUiedt6  it  an  eighth, 
uad  Timotheus  a  nintli. 

Wliii-hever  of  these  accounts  mav  be  the 


TAB 

true  onf,  it  seems  pretty  certain  that  tin; 
system  of  the  CJreeks  was  gradually  extended, 
bolli  upward  and  do'.vnward;  and  that  it  at- 
tained and  even  exceeded  the  hmits  of  the 
l)is  diajiasoi),  or  double  octave,  an  extent 
which  they  called  sysfema  perlectuni,  maxi- 
ninni,  ininiestatum,  the  great  system,  the 
perfect  system. 

This  entire  system  was  composed  of  four 
tetrachords,  three  conjoint  and  one  disjoint, 
and  the  chord  called  proslambanomenos, 
uhicli  was  added  below  these  tetrachords  to 
complete  the  double  octave. 

Tins  general  system  of  the  Greeks  remain- 
ed nearly  ia  this  state  till  the  uleveuth  cen- 


T  A  C  - 


-Oi 


lury,  whcrii  CJuidi*  made  a  considerabl* 
chaHgc,  by  adding  a  now  chord  below,  which 
he  called  hypoproilambunonienos ;  also  « 
fifth  tetrachord  alx)ve,  or  tetrachord  ot  the 
«ur-sharp  ;  and  suhstiluting  hf-.xachords  in  the 
place  of  the  antienl  tetracliords.  Since  the 
time  of  (iuido,  the  general  system  lias  again 
been  greatly  exleniled,  and  divided  into  oc- 
taves ;  whicli  has  long  been  adopted  through- 
out Kurope,  and  winch  the  ear  cer  ainlv  re- 
cognises as  the  most  nalnral  of  all  poUible 
partitions  of  the  great  scale  of  sotindi, 

.SYSIOLi;.     See  Anatomy. 

SYZYGY.    Sec- AsTRONOMv:, 


T. 


'■J^     the   nmcleLnlh    letter    of  our   alpha- 
'-  5  beL 

Tn  aljbreviations,  amongst  the  Roman  writ- 
ers, T.  stands  for  'I'itns,  Titius,  &c.  Tab.  for 
Tabularius;  Tab.  P.  H.  C.  Tabularius  pro- 
vincis  (lispanix  citerioris ;  Tar.  I'arciuiniu'! ; 
Ti.  Tiberius ;  Ti.  F.  Tiberii  lilius ;  Ti.  F.. 
Tiberii  libertus;  Ti.  N.  I'iberii  Nepos;  T. 
J.  A.  V.  P.  v.-  U.  tenipora  judicem  arbi- 
trumve  postuhit  ut  det ;  T.  M.  P.  tenninuni 
posuit ;  T  M.  D  D.  tcrminuni  dedicavit ; 
ir.  trans,  tribnnus;  Tr.  M.  or  Mil.  tribmius 
iiiilituni  ;  T  R.  P  L.  D  E  S.  tribunus  plebis 
designatus;  T  R.  AE  R.  tribnnus  Kiarii  ; 
TUV.  CAP.  triumviri  capitales  ;  T.  R. 
fer  TRIB.  POT.  tribunicia  potestala;  Tul. 
H.  I'ulUis  Hostilius. 

Amongst  the  antients,  T.  as  a  numeral, 
9tood  for  one  hundred  and  sixty  :  and  witli  a 
dash  at  top,  t:ius  T,  it  signihed  one  hundred 
and  sixty  thousand.  In  mu^ic,  T  stands  for 
tutti,  all,  or  altogether. 

TARANUS,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  or- 
der diptera.  The  generic  character  is,  mouth 
formed  into  a  tlesfiy  proboscis,  terminated  !jy 
two  lips  ;  rostrum  furnished  with  two  ;;oinled 
palpi,  placed  on  each  side  of,  and  parallel 
to,  the  proboscis.     There  are  J3  species. 

The  largest  of  the  British  species  is  the  ta- 
banus  boviiuis  of  I.inna;us,  having  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  very  large  grey  or  pale-brown 
llv,  often  measuring  near  an  inch  in  length, 
and  marked  down  the  back  by  a  series  of 
large,  whitish,  triangular  spots,  pointing 
downwards ;  on  each  side  also  is  an  approach 
also  to  a  similar  appearance,  though  less  dis- 
tinct than  tiiat  of  the  dorsal  row.  This  in- 
sect, like  tlie  rest  of  the  genus  is  seen  dur- 
ing the  middle  and  the  decline  of  summer ; 
generally  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  day.  It 
k  extremely  troublesome  to  cattle,  piercing 
their  skin  with  the  lancets  of  its  trunk,  and 
sucking  Its  blood  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
cause  consideralile  pain.  It  proceeds  from  a 
large  du^ky-yellowish  larva,  nearly  resem- 
bling that  oif  a  tipula,  and  marked  by  trans- 
verse blackish  streaks  or  rings ;  it  resides 
under  ground  in  moist  meadows,  i"^c.  and 
changes  to  a  cyliiulric  brownish  chrysalis, 
with  a  roundish  or  very  slightly  pointed  ex- 


tremity ;  out  of  which,  in  the  space  of  a 
month,  proceeds  the  perfect  insect.  See  Plate 
Nat.  Hist.  iig.  338. 

2.  Tabanus  tropicus  is  of  a  smaller  size 
than  the  preceding,  and  of  a  brown  colour, 
with  the  sides  of  the  abdomen  bright  ferru- 
ginous. It  is  a  less  common  species  than  the 
former. 

3.  Tabanns  pluvialis  is  of  the  size  of  a  win- ' 
dow-fly,  but  of  a  somewhat  longer  shi.pe  in 
proportion ;  it  is  of  a  dull  brown  colour, 
with  the  wings  of  a  similar  cast,  but  niarblcd 
or  variegated  with  very  numerous  wliitish 
specks:  this  is  a  very  troublesome  insect 
during  the  latter  part  of  suminer,  fa  tening 
on  the  legs,  hands,  &c.  and  causing  consider- 
able pain  by  the  puncture  of  its  proboscis : 
it  is  obsei"ved  to  be  peculiarly  teasing  on  the 
approach  of  rain. 

4.  Tabanus  cscutiens  is  an  insect  of  singu- 
lar beauty.  It  is  of  the  size  of  a  common 
window-lly,  and  of  a  yellowish-brown  colour 
varied  with  back  ;  the  wings  are  transparent, 
and  marked  by  large  black  bands  or  patches, 
and  the  eyes  are  of  the  moit  vivid  o*  lucid 
green,  marbled  with  black  spots  and  streaks. 
It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  during  the  au- 
tumnal season. 

TABBY,  in  commerce,  a  kind  of  rich  silk, 
which  has  undergone  the  operation  of  tabby- 
ing.    See  the  next  article. 

TABBYING,  the  passing  a  silk  or  stuff 
through  a  calender,  the  rolls  of  which  are  made 
ol  iron  or  copper,  variously  engraven;  whicli 
bearing  unequally  on  the  stulf,  rendei-s  the 
surface  unequal,  so  as  to  rellect  the  rays  of 
light  dilTerently,  making  the  representation 
of  waves  thereon. 

TABELL.\,  TABLET.    See  Pharmacy. 

TABERxX.EMONTANA,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  class  of  pentandria,  and  order 
of  monogynia  ;  and  in  the  natural  system  ar- 
ranged under  the  30th  order,  contort.t. 
There  are  two  horizontal  foliolcs,  and  the 
seeds  are  immersed  in  pulp.  There  are  19 
species,  all  of  foreign  growth. _ 

TABES  DORSAHs.     See  Medicine. 

TABLE,  in  perspective,  denotes  a  plane 
surface,  supposed  to  be  tran.-parent,  and  per- 
pendicular to  the  horizon.  It  is  always  jmO' 
5D8 


ginptl  to  be  placed  at  a  certain  distance  b(»- 
tween  the  eye  and  tiie  objects,  for  llie  ob- 
jects to  be  represented  thereon  by  means  of 
the  visual  rays  parsing  from  every  point 
thereof  tlirough  ti:e  table  to  the  eve  ;  whence 
it  is  called  perspective-plane. 

Tables,  Itivj.s  nf  the  tziflvr,  were  the  first 
laws  of  the  Romans;  tins  called  either  be- 
cause the  Romans  then  wrote  with  a  stvie  on 
thin  wooden  tablets  covered  with  wax,  or 
rather,  because  they  were  engraven  on  t.ibles, 
or  plates  of  copper,  lo  be  exposed  in  the 
mo-t  noted  part  of  the  public  loruin.  Alter 
the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  as  the  Romans 
were  then  without  any  fixed  or  certain  sys- 
tem of  law,  at  least  had  none  ample  enough 
to  comprehend  the  various  cases  that  might 
fall  between  particular  persons,  it  was  re- 
solved to  adopt  th':  best  and  wisest  laws  of 
the  Grei-ks.  One  Ilermodorus  was  first  ap- 
pointed to  translate  them,  and  the  decemviri 
ait.  rwardi  compiled  and  reduced  them  into 
ten  tables.  After  much  care  and  application, 
they  were  at  length  enacted  and  confirmed 
by  the  senate  and  an  assembly  of  the  people, 
in  the  year  of  Rome  303.  "  The  following 
year  they  found  somelliing  wanting  in  them, 
which  they  supplied  lio:.'i  the  laws  of  the 
I'ormer  kings  of  Rome,  and  from  certain  cus- 
toms which  long  use  had  authorised  ;  all  lhes» 
being  engraven  on  two  other  tables  made  the 
law  of  the  twelve  tables,  so  famous  in  the 
Roman  jurisprudence,  the  source  and  founda- 
tion of  the  civil  or  Roman  law.   - 

Table,  among  tlie  jewellers.  A  fable- 
diamond,  or  other  precious  stone,  is  th.at 
whose  upper  surface  is  quite  fiat,  and  only  the 
sides  cut  in  angles;  in  whiaii  sense  a" dia- 
mond cut  tablewise,  is  used  in  opposition  to 
a  rose-diamond. 

Table,  in  mathematics,  systems  of  num- 
bers calculated  to  be  ready  at  hand  ter  the 
expediting  astronomical,  geometrical,  and 
other  oi;eratioiis:  thus  we  say  tables  of  the 
stars  ;  tables  of  sines,  tangents,  and  secants  ; 
tables  of  iogaritiims,  rhumbs,  &c.  se.xagenarv 
tables. 

TACAMAHACA.     See  Fopulls,   end 

ResINS. 

TACCA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
!  hexandria  monogynia.    The  cal.  is  six-part- 


764 


T  A  C 


id;  cor.  six-petalled,  inserted  into  the  ca'. ; 
!itigma  stellate;  berry  dry,  hexungiilar,  &c. 
There  is  one  species,  a  herb  of  tlie  East 
Indies. 

TACHYGIIAPHY,  the  art  of  writing 
fast  o  of  short  hand  ;  of  which  authors  have 
invent  d  several  methods.     See  SrENOGUA- 

FHY. 

TACK,  in  a  ship,  a  great  rope  having  a 
wale-knot  at  one  end,  which  is  seized  or  fast- 
ened into  tlie  clew  of  the  sail ;  so  is  reefed 
first  tiirough'  the  chess-trees,  and  then  is 
brought  through  a  hole  in  the  ship's  sidi-. 
Its  use  is  to  carry  forward  the  clew  of  the 
sail,  and  to  make  it  stand  close  by  a  wind  : 
and  whenever  the  sails  are  thus  trimmed,  the 
main-tack,  the  fore-tack,  and  mizen-ti'.ck,  are 
brought  close  by  the  board,  and  haled  as 
much  forward  on  as  they  can  be. 

Tack-aboux,  in  the  sea-language,  is  to 
turn  the  ship  about,  or  bring  her  head  about, 
so  as  to  lie  the  contrary  way. 

TACKLE,  or  Tacki-cng,  among  seamen, 
denotes  all  the  ropes  or  cordage  of  a  ship, 
.  used  in  managing  the  sails,  &c.  In  a  more 
restrained  sense,  tackles  are  small  rojjes 
running  in  three  parts,  having  at  one  end  a 
pendant  aiid  a  block  ;  and  at  the  other  end 
a  block  and  a  hook, 'to  hang  goods  upon  thut 
are  to  be  heayed  into  the  ship  or  out  of  it. 

TACTICS,  in  the  art  of  war,  is  the  me 
thod  of  disposing  forces  to  the  best  advantage 
in  order  of  battle,  and  of  performing  the  se- 
veral military  motions  and  evolutions.  See 
War,  art  of. 

Tactic?,  in  the  military  art,  a  word  de- 
rived from  the  Greek,  signifying  order.  Tac- 
tics consist  of  a  knowledge  of  order,  dispo- 
sition, and  formation,  according  to  the  exi- 
gency of  circumstances  in  warlike  operations. 

General  tactics  are  a  combination  or  union 
of  first  orders,  out  of  which  others  grow  of  a 
inore  extensive  and  complicated  natm'e,  to 
suit  tlie  particular  kind  of  contest  or  battle 
which  is  to  be  given,  or  supported.  Let  it 
not,  however,  be  inferred  from  this,  that  evo- 
lutions and  tactics  are  one  and  tlie  same. 
They  are  closely  connected,  but  tliere  is  still 
a  discernible  difference  between  them. 

Tactics  may  be  comprehended  under  order 
and  disposition ;  evolution  is  tlie  movement 
which  is  made,  and  eventually  leads  to  order. 
The  hiirher  branches  of  tactics  should  be 
thoroughly  undtnstood  by  all  general  officers ; 
but  it  is  sulTicient  for  inferior  ofticers  and 
soldiers  to  be  acquainted  with  evolutions. 
Zv^ot  that  the  latter  are  beneath  the  notice 
of  general  ofticers  ;  but  that  having  already 
arquin^d  a  knowledge  of  them,  they  o\ight  to 
direct  their  'attention  more  immediately  to 
the  former,  carefully  retaining  at  the  same 
time  a  clear  apprehension  of  every  species  of 
military  detail,  and  consequently  obviating 
the  many  inconveniences  and  cmbarrass- 
nients  which  occur  from  orders  being  awk- 
wardly expressed  by  the  general,  and  of 
course  ill  understood  by  the  inferior  ollicer. 
It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  certain  rule,  that 
unless  a  general  ofHcer  makes  himself  ac- 
quainted with  particular  movements  and  dis- 
positions, and  preserves  the  necessary  recol- 
lections, it  is  morally  impossible  for  him  to 
he  clear  and  correct  in  his  general  arrange- 
ments. Of  all  mechanical  operations,  found- 
c'J  upon  given  principles,  the  art  of  war  is 
rerlainly  the  most  compendious,  the  most 
enlarged,  "and  the  most  capable  of  improvc- 


T  A  C  ^ 

ment.  Almost  every  other  science  and  art 
are  comprehended  in  it ;  and  it  should  be  the 
subject  matter,  the  chief  study,  and  the  ul- 
timate object,  of  a  general's  .'eflections.  He 
mu^t  not  be  satisfied  with  a  limited  concep- 
tion of  its  various  branches ;  he  should  go 
dee|)ly  into  all  its  parts,  be  aware  of  its  mani- 
fold clianges,  and  know  how  to  adapt  move- 
ments and  positions  to  circumstances  and 
places. 

It  will  be  of  little  use  to  a  general  to  have 
formed  vast  projects,  if,  when  they  are  to  be 
executed,  tkere  should  be  a  deficiency  ol 
ground  ;  if  the  general  movements  of  the 
army  should  be  embarrassed  by  the  irregu- 
larity of  some  particular  corps,  by  their  over- 
lapping each  other,  &c. ;  and  if,  through  the 
tardiness  of  a  manoeuvre,  an  enemy  should 
have  time  to  render  his  plan  abortive  by  a 
more  prompt  evokition.  A  good  general 
must  be  aware  of  all  these  contingencies,  bv 
making  himself  thoroughly  master  of  tactics. 

The  Prussian  tactics  under  Frederic  the 
Great,  had  for  their  principal  object  to  con- 
centrate forces,  and  to  attack  the  chief  points 
of  an  enemy,  not  at  one  ami  the  same  time, 
but  one  after  another:  whereas  the  tactics 
wliich  have  been  uniformly  pursued  by  the 
French,  since  the  commencement  of  their 
revolution,  have  been  founded  upon  this  prin- 
cirjle;  to  attack  all  points  with  divided 
forces,  at  one  and  the  same  time.  We  thus 
see,  that  the  principles  of  extension  have 
been  as  much  followed  by  the  latter,  as  those 
of  compression  were  studiously  adhered  to  by 
the  former. 

Tactics  of  Europe.  The  following  obser- 
vations respecting  the  tactics  of  Europe, 
which  we  extract  from  a  book  entitled  the 
Elementary  Principles  of  Tactics,  page  137, 
may  not  be  uninteresting  to  our  military 
readers: 

In  the  time  of  the  Romans,  the  Gauls  and 
other  nations  on  the  continent  fought  in  the 
phalanx  order  ;  it  is  this  order  which  still  pre- 
vails through  all  Europe,  except  that  it  is 
deficient  in  the  advantages  and  utility  which 
Polybius  ascribes  to  it,  and  is  mjured  and 
disgraced  by  defects  unknown  to  the  antient 
phalanx. 

In  Turenne's  days,  troops  were  ranged  8 
deep,  both  in  France  and  Germany.  Thirty 
years  after,  in  the  time  of  Puysegur,  tlie 
ranks  were  reduced  to  5  ;  in  the  last  Flanders 
war  to  4  ;  and  immediately  after  to  3  ;  at  pre- 
sent the  ranks  are  reduced  to  2. 

This  part  of  the  progression  from  eight  to 
three  being  known,  we  easily  conceive  how 
the  files  of  the  phalanx  ha\c  been  diminished 
from  sixteen  to  eight  in  the  ages  prec  eding 
Turenne.  It  is  to  be  presumed,  that  this  depth 
was  considered  as  superlluous  ;  and  it  was 
judged  necessary  to  curtail  it,  in  order  to 
extend  the  front.  However,  the  motion  is 
of  very  little  conseijuence,  since  we  are  now 
reduced  to  three  ranks;  let  us  therefore  en- 
deavour to  find  out  what  qualities  of  the  pha- 
lanx have  been  preserved,  and  what  might 
have  been  added  to  it. 

Xo  shew  that  we  have  preserved  the  de- 
fects of  the  phalanx  in  Europe,  we  suppose 
two  bodies  of  troo[)S,  one  of  eig;il  thousand 
men,  ranged  as  a  phalanx,  sixteen  deep  ;  the 
other  a  regiment  of  three  battalions,  consist- 
ing only  of  fifteen  Immlred  men,  drawn  up  in 
three  lines  after  the  same  manner.  These 
two  bodies  shall  be  perfectly  ci^ual  aad  alike 


TAG 

in  extent  of  front,  and  shall  dilTer  in  no- 
thing but  in  the  ilepth  of  their  files  ;  tiie  in- 
conveniences and  delects,  therefore,  occa- 
sioned by  the  length  of  their  fronts,  are  equal 
in  both  troops,  though  their  numbers  are 
very,  different ;  hence  it  loUows,  that  in  Eu- 
rope, the  essential  defects  of  the  phalanx  are 
preserved,  and  its  advantages  lost. 

Let  the  files  of  this  body  of  eight  tliousand 
be  allerwards  divided,  and  let  it  be  reduced 
to  three  in  de])th,  its  front  will  then  be  found 
five  times  more  extensive,  and  its  depth  five 
times  less;  we  may  therefore  conclude,  that 
the  defects  of  the  phalanx  are  evidently  mul- 
tiplied in  the  discipline  of  Europe,  at  the  e.x- 
pence  of  its  advantages,  which  consisted  in 
the  depth  of  its  files. 

The  progress  which  has  taken  place  in  the 
artillery,  has  contributed  gieally  to  this  re- 
volution. As  cannon  iliidtiplied',  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  avoid  its  etfects ;  and  the  onlv 
method  of  avoiding,  or  at  least  of  lessening 
them,  was  doubtless  to  diminish  the  depth 
of  tlie  files. 

The  musquet,  likewise,  has  a  great  share 
in  the  alter.itioii  ;  the  half-pike  was  entirely 
laitl  aside  for  the  bayonet;  and  in  order  to 
liave  no  fire  unemployed,  it  was  thought  nc- 
cessaiy  to  put  it  in  the  power  of  every  soldier 
to  make  use  of  his. 

These  are  the  two  principal  causes  of  the 
little  solidity  or  depth  given  to  our  batta- 
lions. 

We  have  now  seen,  that  the  defects  of  the 
p'lalanx  were  multiplied  in  the  European  dis- 
cipline, and  its  advantages  and  perfections 
infinitely  diminished.  Our  regulations  are, 
therefore,  much  iiiferior  to  the  phalanx,  and 
have  nothing  but  the  single  elfect  of  fire-arms 
to  counterbalance  all  its  advantages.  The 
effect,  however,  of  fire-arms,  is  an  artificial 
power,  and  does  not  originally  belong  to  the 
manner  of  disciplining  troops,  the  sole  aim  of 
which  should  be  to  employ  man's  natural  ac- 
tion. It  is  man,  therefore,  and  not  this  fire, 
which  is  to  be  considered  as  the  principal 
agent ;  and  hence  we  may  infer  that  this 
method  is  very  mucli  inferior  to  the  plulan.x, 
and  still  more  to  the  Roman  arrangement, 
which  so  far  surpassed  that  of  Greece. 

The  liglit  troops  of  both  these  people  were 
much  heavier  than  our  battalions,  and  had 
more  pow  er  and  solidity  for  a  shock  or  con- 
ilict.  However,  the  Roman  discipline,  not- 
withstanding its  superiority,  is  not  calculated 
for  our  times  ;  because,  as  we  are  obliged 
to  engage  at  a  distance,  ours,  by  its  cannon, 
would  destroy  the  Grecian  order  of  battle  in. 
a  very  short  time,  and  would  be  exposed  to  a 
loss  much  less  considerable  itself,  supposing 
even  the  artillery  was  etpial  on  both  sides ; 
we  should  then,  in  order  to  perfect  our  ar- 
rangements, endeavour  to  procure  tiiem  all 
the  advantageous  qualities  of  the  legionary- 
regulations,  as  the  only  means  of  giving  theiij 
the  superiority. 

Manv  people  are  of  opinion,  that  we  imi- 
tate the  Romans,  and  that  we  give  battle  ac- 
cording to  their  system,  because  our  troops 
are  drawn  up  in  lines,  some  of  which  are 
full,  and  others  vacant.  }!ut  it  has  been 
proved,  that  tlirce  battalions  have  the  same 
front,  and  the  same  inconveniences,  that 
eight  thousand  men,  ranged  in  the  phalan.x 
order.  Our  lines  are  foniied  by  brigades 
regiments,  or  battalions,  and  the  distance  pf 
one  corps  to  the  other  is  etjual  to  the  front 


T  A  C 

nfoiip  of  those  corps:  so  that  lliose  lini??, 

liDlli  full  ;iiul   vucatil,  are  com|)osecl   of  cle- 

lacliiiieiits   equal    in    front  ami    in   defects ; 

■cacli  has  a  phalaux  of  six,  eight,  or  twelve 

,  thous.uid  men.  Our  orders  ol  battle,  con- 
sequently, can  be  no  more  at  most  than  a 
Kind  of  medium  between  those  of  Greece 
and  Rome. 

T.vcTics,  maritime,  or  maiioBuvres  at  sea. 
"With  respect  to  nm'al  tactjcs,  or  the' art  of 

■fighting  at  sea,  it  is  confessedly  less  antient 
tli.ui  tactics  on  shore,  or  what  is  generally 
■called  land-service.  ManUinii  were  accus- 
tomed to  contend  for  the  possession  of  terri- 
tory long  before  they  determined  on,  or  even 
ilnaLued  ol',  making  the  sea  a  theatre  of  war 
and  bluodshed. 

.  Setting  aside  the  many  fabulous  accounts 
vliich  are  extant  concerning  naval  tactics, 
we  shall  remain  satisfied  willi  what  has  been 
.transmitted  to  us  by  the  Roman  writers  of 
the  litth  and  sixth  centuries  of  that  republic. 
We  shall  there  find  specilic  details  of  the  dif- 
ferent manoeuvres  which  were  j)raclised  at 
■^ea  during  the  Punic  war.  In  those  times 
naval  armaments  began  to  be  regularly  titled 
out ;  ships  of  different  forms  and  sizes  were 
constructed;  and  certain  olfensive  and  defen- 
sive machines,  that  served  as  a  species  of 
artillery,  were  placed  upon  them.  'I'hey  had 
'already  been  drawn  out  according  to  system; 
.being  divided  into  certain  proportions  which 
were  then  called  divisions,  but  are  now  nam- 
ed squadrons  ;  and  the  persons  who  com- 
mandeil  them^  exerted  all  their  skill  and 
genius  to  gain  advantages  over  their  enemies, 
.by  opportunely  getting  to  windward,  by  seiz- 
ing the  favourable  occurrence  of  the  tide, 
■er  by  mooring  in  advantageous  situations. 
.  At  the  battle  of  Actiuni,  Augustus,  finding 
himself  inferior  to  Mark  Anthony  in  tlic 
number  of  his  siiips,  had  the  sagacity  to  draw 
-Vip  his  line  of  battle  along  the  entrance  of  the 
,gulph  of  Ambracia,  and  thereby  to  make  up 
for  his  deiiciency.  This  nav;il  manoeuvre, 
•as  well  as  that  of  getting  to  windward  of  the 
enemy,  in  order  to  bear  down  upon  him  with 
more  certainty  and  efl'ect,  exists  to  the  pre- 
sent day. 

We  act  precisely  upon  the  same  princi- 
ples in  both  cases,  by  which  the  antients 
were  governed ;  w  ith  theadditional  advantage, 
in  fighting  to  windward,  of  covering  the  ene- 
jny's  line  with  smoke  from  the  discliarge  of 
ordnance  and  lire-arms.  The  French  call  this 
•being  in  possession  of  the  closest  line. 
i  In  those  tunes,  ships  were  boarded  much 
•sooner  than  they  are  at  present.  Most  en- 
-gagements  at  sea  are  now  determined  by 
cannon-shot.  Among  the  antients,  when 
-two  ships  endeavoured  to  board  each  other, 
the  rowers  drew  in  their  oars,  to  prevent 
them  from  being  broken  in  the  shock. 

The  manoeuvre  which  was  practised  on 
this  occasion,  was  for  the  ship  that  got  to 
windward  of  its  adversary,  to  run  u[)on  its 
side,  with  the  prow  ;  which  being  armed  with 
a  long  sharp  piece  of  iron,  made  so  deep  an 
impression  in  it,  that  the  ship  thus  attacked, 
■  generally  sunk.  The  voyages  whirh  were 
afterwards  made  on  the  ocean,  rendered  it 
Jiecessary  to  construct  ships  tlrat  carried 
more  sail,  antl  were  double-decked ;  and 
»ince  tiie  invention  of  gunpowder,  tiers  of 
guns  liave  been  substituted  in  the  room  of 
lows  oi  oars. 


T  M  N 

On  the  decline  and  fall  of  tlie  T?om:sn  em- 
pire, the  Saracens  got  the  ascendancy  in  na- 
val tactics.  They  took  advantage  ol  this  su- 
periority, and  extencU'd  tiieir  coiKpiesls  on 
all  sides.  'I'he  whole  extent  of  coast  belong- 
ing to  the  Mediterranean,  together  with  the 
adjacent  islands,  fell  under  their  dominion. 
Mankind  are  indebted  to  them  for  consider- 
able improvements  in  naval  tactics. 

It  was  only  under  Charlemagne,  that  the 
ICuropeans  can  bi!  said  to  have  paid  anv  great 
attention  to  tlieir  navy.  That  monarch  kept 
up  a  regular  intercourse  with  the  caliphs  ol 
tiie  i'^ast ;  and  having  just  grounds  to  appre- 
hend an  invasion  from  the  Xormans,  he  con- 
structed vessels  for  the  defeni-e  of  his  coasts. 

During  the  reign  of  the  first  French  kings 
helonguig  to  the  third  race,  naval  tactics 
were  little  attended  to,  on  account  of  the 
small  extent  of  maritime  coast  which  France 
))Ossessed  at  that  period.  It  was  only  in  the 
days  of  Louis  tUe  Younger,  and  of  Louis 
surnamed  tlie  Saint,  that  we  discover  any 
traces  of  a  considerable  fleet,  especially  dur- 
ing the  crusades. 

Under  Charles  the  Fifth,  and  his  succes- 
sor Charles  the  Sixth,  the  French  got  pos- 
session of  several  sea-ports,  and  had  com- 
mand of  a  long  line  of  coast.  Yet  neither 
they  nor  the  English,  with  whom  they  were 
frequently  at  war,  had  at  that  period  any 
thing  like  the  fleets  which  are  now  htted 
out. 

The  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus, 
and  the  more  lucrative  possession  of  tiie  East 
Indies,  induced  the  principal  states  of  Eu- 
rope to  increase  their  naval  establishments, 
for  the  purpose  of  selthng  colonies,  and  of 
bringing  lioiiie,  without  the  danger  of  moles- 
tation or  piracy,  the  wealth  and  produce  of 
the  eastern  ami  western  worlds. 

The  French  mariiie  was  i.ir  from  being 
contemptible  under  Francis  the  First ;  but 
it  giew  into  considerable  reputation  during 
the  administration  of  cardinal  Richelieu,  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  the  Thirteenth  ;  and  con- 
tinued so  until  the  battle  of  La  Hogae,  which 
was  so  gloriously  won  by  the  English,  under 
William  the  Third.  From  that  epoch  it  be- 
gan to  decline;  while  the  English,  on  the 
otiier  hind,  not  only  kept  up  the  reputation 
they  had  acquired  under  Cromwell  and  his 
pretlecessors,  but  rendered  themselves  so 
thoroughly  skilled  in  naval  tactics,  that  tliey 
ha\e  remained  masters  of  the  sea  to  this 
day.     See  War,  art  of. 

"i'.ENlA,  the  Tape-worm,  in  zoology,  a 
genus  of  anhnals  belonging  to  the  class  of 
vermes,  and  order  of  intestina.  Tiie  body  is 
long,  depressed,  and  jointed  like  a  chain, 
and  contains  a  mouth  aixl  viscera  in  each 
joint.  According  to  Gmelin,  there  are  ninety- 
two  species ;  all  which  inhabit  the  intestines 
of  various  animals,  particularly  of  quadru- 
peds. 

Seven  species  of  taenia  are  pecaliar  to  man : 
1.  The  visceralis,  which  is  inclosed  in  a  ve- 
sicle, broad  in  the  fore  part,  and  pointed  in 
the  hinder  part;  inhabits  the  liver,  the  pla- 
centa uterina,  and  the  sac  whi.h  contains  the 
supiTlluous  lluid  of  dropsical  persoirs.  3. 
Cellulosa,  which  is  inclosed  in  a  cartilaginous 
vesicle,  inhabiting  thecellularsubstanceofthe 
muscles;  is  about  an  inch  long,  half  an  inch 
broad,  and  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick,  and 
is  very  tenacious  of  life.  3.  The  deutata, 
has  a  pointed  liead ;   the  large  joints  are 


T  VE  N 


76s 


stfeaked  transversely,  and  the  Bmall  joints 
are  all  dilated;  llie'osculum  or  opening  111 
the  middle  of  both  margins  is  soiliewhal  rai.s- 
ed.  It  is  narrow,  ten  or  twelve  feet  long, 
and  broad  in  file  (ore  parts;  its  oxaria  arc 
not  visible  to  the  naked  eye,;  and  the  liead 
underneath  resembles  a  heart  in  shape.  It 
inhabits  the  intestines.  4.  The  lata,  is 
white,  with  joints  very  short  and  knotty 
in  the  middle;  the  oscilum  is  solitary. 
It  is  from  eighteen  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  long ;  its  joints  are  streaked  trans- 
versely ;  its  ovaria  are  disposed  like  the 
petals  of  a  rose.  :>.  The  vulgaris,  has  two 
lateral  mouths  in  each  joint ;  it  attaches  itself 
so  firmly  to  the  intestines,  that  it  can  scarcely 
be  removed  by  the  most  violent  medicines  ; 
it  is  slender,  aiid  has  the  appearance  of  being 
membranaceous ;  it  is  somewhat  pelluciti, 
from  ten  to  sixteen  feet  long,  and  about  four 
lines  and  a  half  broad  at  on"  end.  6.  The 
trulla-,  which  chiefly  inhabits  the  liver  of  the 
trout,  but  is  also  to  be  iouud  in  the  intestines 
of  the  liuman  species.  7. 1  he  solium,  has  a 
marginal  mouth,  o>ie  on  each  joint.  S.'lhe 
ovilia,  found  in  the  liver  and  omentum  of 
sheep.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hi»t.  iig.  3S9. 

Tlie  structure  and  physiology  of  the  taenia 
are  curious,  and  it  may  be  amusing  as  well  as 
instructive  to  consider  it  with  attention.  Tiie 
taenia  appears  destined  to  feed  upon  such 
juices  of  animals  as  are  already  animalized  ; 
and  is  therefore  most  commonly  found  in  the 
'alimentary  canal,  and  in  the  upper  part,  where 
there  is  the  greatest  al)»indance  of  chyle ; 
for  chyle  seems  to  be  tiie  natural  food  of 
the  ticina.  As  it  is  thus  supported  by  food 
which  is  already  iligested,  it  is  destitute  of 
the  coaiiplicated  organs  of  digestion.  As  the 
ta'nia  solium  is  most  fn-quent  in  this  country, 
it  may  be  proper  to  describe  it  more  parti- 
cularly. 

It  is  from  three  to  thirty  feet  long,  some 
say  sixty  feet.  It  is  composed  of  a  head  in 
wl'.ich  are  a  mouth  adapted  to  drink  up  fluids, 
and  an  apparatus  for  giving  the  head  a  fixed 
situation.  'Fbe  body  is  composed  of  a  great 
number  of  distinct  pfeces  articulated  toge- 
ther, each  joint  having  an  organ  by  which  if; 
attaches  itself  to  the  neighbouritg  part  of  the 
inner  coat  of  the  intestine.  Tiie  joints  near- 
est the  head  are  always  small,  and  tliey  be- 
come gradually  enlarged  as  they  are  farther 
removed  from  it ;  but  towards  the  tail  a  few 
of  the  last  joints  again  become  diminish- 
ed in  size,  'liie  extremity  of  the  body  is  ter- 
minated by  a  small  semicircular  joint,  which 
has  no  opening  in  it. 

The  head  of  this  animal  is  comp-osed  of  the 
samr;  kind  of  materials  as  the  other  parts  of 
its  bodv ;  it  has  a  rounded  oijening  at  its  ex- 
tremity, which  is  considered  to  be  its  moufli. 
This  opening  is  continued  by  a  short  duct 
into  two  canals;  tfiese  canals  pass  round 
every  joint  of  the  animal's  body,  and  convey 
the  aliment.  Surrounding  the  opening  of  the 
mouth  are  placed  a  number  of  projecting 
radii,  which  are  of  a  hbrous  texture,  whose 
direction  is  longitudinal.  These  radii  appear 
to  serve  the  purpose  of  tentacula  for  fixing 
the  orifice  of  the  mouth,  as  well  as  that  of 
muscles  to  expand  the  cavity  of  the  mouth, 
from  their  being  inserted  along  the  brim  of 
that  opening!  After  the  rounded  extremity 
or  liead  has  been  narrowed  into  the  neck, 
the  lower  p^rt  becomes  flatted,  and  has  two 
sniall  tubercles   placed  upon  each  llalte4 


■7-06 


T  JE  isr 


s'kIu  ;  the  tiibcrcli's  are  concave  intlieiiiulclle 
and  appear  (li-stined  to  serve  tlic  purpose  of 
suckers  lor  altachiiig  tiie  head  more  edec- 
tually.  The  internal  structure  of  the  joints 
co.npoiin;;  the  l)ody  of  this  anitnal  is  partly 
rascular  and  partly  cellular  ;  the  sub-itance 
itself  is  white,  and  soniewliat  reseiiiiiles  in  its 
tevture  the  coagulated  lymph  of  the  human 
blood  The  aliniL-ntary  canal  passes  aloni; 
each  side  of  the  animal,  sendina;  a  cross  ca- 
nal over  the  bottom  of  each  joint,  which  con- 
nects the  two  lateral  canals  together. 

^[^.  Carlisle  injected  with  a  coloured  size, 
by  a  single  push  with  a  small  syringe.-three 
feet  ill  length  of  these  canals,  in  the  direc- 
tion from  the  mouth  downwards.  He  tried 
the  injection  the  contrary  way,  but  it  seemed 
to  be  stopped  by  valves.  Tlie  alimentary 
canal  is  impervious  at  the  extreme  joint, 
'viiere  it  terminates  without  any  opening  anal- 
ogous to  an  anus.  Each  joint  has  a  vascular 
joint  occupying  the  middle  part,  which  is 
composed  of  a  longitudinal  canal,  from  which 
a  great  liumber  of  lateral  canals  branch  off  at 
ri.«ht  angles.  These  canals  contain  a  fluid 
like  milk. 

The  txnia  seems  to  be  one  of  the  simplest 
vascular  animals  in  nature.  The  way  in  which 
it  is  nourish-d  is  singular;  the  food  being 
taken  in  by  the  mouth,  passes  into  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  and  is  thus  made  to  visit  in 
a  general  way  tiie  dilTerent  parts  of  tlie  ani- 
mal. As  it  1ms  no  excretory  ducts,  it  would 
appear  that  the  whole  of  its  alimentary  linid 
is  fit  for  nourishmeat ;  the  decayed  parts  pro- 
bably dissolve  into  a  tluid  which  transudes 
through  the  skin,  which  is  e.\tremely  por- 
ous. 

This  animal  has  notliing  resembling  a  brain 
or  nerves,  and  seems  to  have  no  organs  of 
sense-  but  those  of  touch.  It  is  most  probably 
j)ropagated  by  ova,  which  may  easily  pass 
along  the  circulating  vessels  of  other  an'imals. 
We  cannot  otherwise  explain  the  phenomena 
of  worms  being  found  in  the  eggs  of  fowls, 
and  in  the  intestines  of  a  foetus  before  birth, 
except  by  supposing  their  ova  to  have  passed 
through  the  circulating  vessels  of  the  mo- 
ther, and  by  this  means  been  conveyed  to  the 
foetus. 

The  chance  of  an  ovum  being  placed  in  a 
situation  where  it  will  be  hatched,  and  the 
young  hud  convenient  subsistence,  must  be 
very  small ;  hence  tlie  necessity  for  tlieir 
being  very  prolillc.  If  they  had  the  same 
poNvers  of  being  prolific  which  they  now 
have,  and  their  ova  were  afterwards  verv 
readily  hatched,  then  the  multiplication  of 
these  animals  wouUl  be  immense,  and  be- 
come a  nuisance  to  the  otiier  parts  of  the 
creation. 

Another  mode  of  increase  allowed  to  tae- 
nia (if  we  may  call  it  increase)  is  by  an  addi- 
tion to  the  number  of  tlic-ir  joints.  If  we 
consider  the  in<lividual  joints  as  distinct 
beings,  it  is  so  ;  and  when  we  rellect  upon  (lie 
power  of  generation  given  to  each  joint,  it 
makes  this  conjecture  the  more  probable. 
We  can  hardly  suppose  that  an  ovum  of  a 
tinia,  which  at  its  lull  growth  is  thirty  feet 
long,  aii<l  composed  of  400  joints,  contained 
a  young  l.viiia  composed  of  this  number  of 
pieces ;  but  we  have  seen  young  ta:iii.T  not 
naif  a  foot  long,  and  not  possessed  of  /ifty 
jo.nts,  which  still  were  entire  worms.  We 
Ju\f  also  many  reasons  to  believe,  that  when 


T  A  t 

a  part  of  this  animal  is  broken  off  from  the 
rest,  it  is  capable  of  forming  a  head  for  itsclt, 
and  becomes  an  in<lependant  being.  The 
simple  construction  of  the  head  makes  its  re- 
generation a  much  more  easy  operation  than 
that  of  the  tails  and  feet  of  lizards,  which  are 
composed  of  bones  and  complicated  vessels; 
h;it  this  last  operation  has  been  proved  by 
the  experiments  of  Spallanzani  and  many 
other  naturalists. 

When  intestinal  worms  produce  a  diseased 
state  of  the  animal's  body  which  they  inhabit, 
various  remedies  are  advised  for  reinoving 
them  ;  many  of  which  are  iu'eliictual,  and 
others  very  injurious  by  the  violence  of  their 
operation.  Drastic  purges  seem  to  operate 
upon  ta'nix,  partly  by  irritating  the  external 
surface  of  their  bodies,  so  as  to  make  them 
quit  their  hoKLs,  and  partly  by  the  violent 
contractions  produced  in  the  intestine,  \yhich 
may  sometimes  divide  the  bodies  of  tienia, 
and  even  kill  them  by  bruising.  T  lie  most 
eil'ectual  remedy,  however,  has  been  found  to 
be  the  <li!;italrs  in  >ul)stance. 

T.VGEl'ES,  French  marigold,  a  genus  of 
plar;ts  of  the  class  of  syngensia,  and  oi<ler  of 
|)olyganiia  supertiiia ;  ami  in  the  natural  sys- 
tem ranging  under  the  4i»di  order,  composite. 
Tlie  receptacle  is  naked ;  the  pappus  con- 
sists of  live  erect  awns  or  beards  ;  the  calvx 
is  monophyllous,  ([uinquedentate.  and  tubu- 
lar ;  and  there  are  four  persistent  llorels  of 
the  ray.  There  are  tliieo  species,  the  pa- 
tula,  crecta,  and  miniita  ;  of  Which  the  two 
first  have  been  cultivated  in  the  British  gar- 
dens, at  least  since  (he  year  1390,  for  it  is 
mentioned  in  Gerard's  llerbal,  which  was 
publi^hed  that  year.  They  are  both  natives 
of  Mexico. 

The  electa,  or  African  marigold,  has  a 
stem  subdividing  and  spreading,  and  has 
formed  itself  into  a  great  many  varieties  :  1 . 
Pale  yellow,  or  brini4one-colour,  with 
single,  double,  and  listulous  flowers.  3. 
Deep  yellow,  with  single,  double,  and  fistu- 
lous (lowers.  3.  Or.mge-coloured,  with  single, 
double,  and  fi-.tulous  (lowers.  4.  Middling 
African,  with  orange-coloured  flowers.  5. 
Sweet-scented  African.  These  are  ail  very 
subject  to  vary ;  so  that  unless  the  seeds  are 
very  carefully  saved  (rom  the  (inest  flowers, 
they  are  apt  to  degenerate ;  nor  should  the 
same  seeds  be  too  long  sown  in  the  same 
garden,  for  the  same  reason  ;  therefore  those 
who  are  desirous  to  have  these  (lowers  in 
perfection,  should  exchange  their  seeds  with 
some  person  of  integrity  at  a  distance,  where 
the  soil  is  of  a  dili'erent  n;iture,  at  least  every 
other  year.  If  this  is  done,  the  varieties  may 
be  continued  in  perfection. 

TAIL,  or  Estates  tail,  are  either  gene- 
ral or  special.  Tail  general,  is  where  lands 
and  tenements  are  given  to  one  and  tlie  heiis 
of  his  body  begotten,  which  is  called  (ail  ge- 
neral ;  because,  how  ofd-n  soever  such  donee 
may  be  married,  his  heirs,  bv  every  such 
marriage,  are  capable-  of  inheriting  the  estate 
tail.  Tenant  in  tail  special,  is  Where  the 
gift  is  restrained  to  certain  heirs  of  the  gran- 
tee, and  not  to  all  in  t'-'ncral,  which  may  hap- 
pen several  ways.  lO-tads  t;iil  are  likei\  ise 
divcrsKied  by  tlie  distinction  of  male  and 
female,  as  if  lands  are  given  to  a  man  and  tin- 
heirs  male  of  his  body  begotten  ;  this  is  au 
estate  in  tail,  male  special:  but  if  to  a  man 
and  the  lu-irs  female  of  (he;  body  of  his  pres  nt 
wife  begotten,  this  is  an  estate  in  tail,  female 


T  A  L 

special.     .So  in  case  of  a  gift  in  (ail  male,  the  'i 
lemale  line  shall  not  inherit;  and  so  e  con- 
verso. 

As  the  wo  d  lii-irs  is  necessary  to  create  a 
fee,  so  the  word  body  or  some  other  wordi 
of  procreation  are  necessary  to  make  a  lee 
tail,  and  ascertain  to  what  heirs,  the  estate  is 
limited.  Therefore,  if  the  words  of  inherit- 
ance or  procreation  are  omitted,  altliongh  the 
others  are  inserted,  this  wiil  not  make  an 
estate  tail.  As  if  an  estate  is  granted  to  a- 
man  and  the  issue  of  his  body,  this  is  only  aa 
estate  for  life,  the  words  of  inheritance  being 
wanting  ;  and  a  grant  to  a  man,  and  his  htirs 
male  or  female,  is  an  estate  in  fee  simple,  not 
in  fee  tail,  as  there  are  no  words  to  ascertain 
I  he  body  from  whence  they  shall  issue. 
Though  ill  Wilis,  where  greater  latitude  is 
given,  an  estate  tail  maybe  devised  by  the 
words,  to  a  man  and  his  heirs  male,  or  other 
irregular  modes  of  expression. 

Tlie  incidents  to  a  tenancy  in  tail  are  prin- 
cipally these: 

1.  A  tenant  in  tail  may  commit  waste  on  aa 
estate  w  itliout  being  impeached  for  the  same. 

2.  That  the  wife  sh.a.l  have  her  dower  of 
the  estate  tail. 

3.  That  the  husband  of  a  female  tenant  iu 
tail  may  be  tenant  by  courtesy. 

4.  An  estate  tail  maybe  barred  or  destroy, 
ed  by  a  fine,  a  recovery,  or  lineal  warranty,, 
descending  with  assets  to  the  heir. 

And  by  Stat.  26  Hen  Vlll.  c.  13.  all  es- 
tates tail  (in  common  with  all  estates  of  in- 
heritance) are  forfeited  to  the  king  on  con- 
viction of  high  treason. 

Hy  Stat.  32  lien.  \'1II.  r.  2!!.  certain  leases 
which  do  not  tend  to  the  prejudice  of  the 
heir  are  allowed  to  bind  (he  issue  in  tail.  A 
s(at.  of  the  same  year,  c.  36.  declares  a  fine 
duly  levied  by  a  tenant  in  tail  to  be  a  com- 
plete bar  to  all  persons  claiming  under  such 
entail 

And  lastly,  by  3Z  Hen.  VIII.  c.  39-  all  &>• 
tates  tail  are  liable  to  be  charged  (or  debts  toi 
the  king  by  record  or  special  contract. 

They  are  likewise  subject  to  be  sold  for  the 
debts  contracted  by  a  bankrupt ;  and  by  the 
construction  put  on  stat.  4.5  Eliz  c.  4.  an  ap- 
pointment by  tenant  in  tail,  of  tin;  lands  en- 
tailed to  a  charitable  use,  is  good  without 
(ine  or  recovery. 

T.\iL,  in  the  Turkish  customs,  (bashaws  ofi 
three  tails,  &c.)     See  Tug. 

TALC.  Though  this  term  has  often  beeni 
a  synonym  of  mica  in  mineralogy,  it  is' 
adopted  by  the  moderns,  to  denote  a  stony 
substance  which  ditlers  from  it,  especially  in 
an  uiictuosi(y  sensible  to  the  touch,  and  in 
the  vitreous  electricity  which  it  communi- 
cates to  sealing-wax  by  friction,  whilst  mica 
gives  it  the  resinous  electricity.  Jflauv  enu- 
merates four  variciies  of  this  stone  ;  namely, 
the  lam'nary  talc,  or  Venice  talc  ;  the  foliated 
ttilc,  or  chalk  of  Brian<;on  ",  coni|)a(t  talc,  as 
the  lard-stone ;  these  three  iir>t  give  the  po- 
sitive or  vitreous  electricity  to  sealing-wax. 
The  fourth  variety,  or  the  steatites  talc,  com- 
municates the  negative  or  resinous  electricity 
to  it  by  friction. 

The  characters  of  this  stone  are,  a  spe- 
cific gravity  between  3..iS34  and  2.<:)SK12;  a 
texture  easy  to  be  scraped  with  the  knife  ;  a 
so('t  and  unctuous  surface;  the  primitive  form 
of  a  right  rhomboidal  prism,  its  bases  having 
angles  of  120  degrees  and  (iO  ilegrees,  and  in 
which  sections  parallel  with  these  bases  are 


T  A  L 

easily  oWaiiicd.     Its  integrant  moUicule  lias 
tlifi  sanvj  foiiii. 

Mr.  Kirvvan  has  found  in  this  stnni."  almost 
as  nuich  magiu!iia  as  silrx,  and  only  a  twen- 
tieth part  of  aUiniina.  Amongst  the  varieties 
of  talc,  uhieli  are  snll'iciently  nmneroiis,  the 
jiiixi'd  steatites,  the  serpentine,  and  put 
ftones,  are  not  ranked. 

The  soilness  of  the  texture  of  the  tales, 
Ih,"  iineness  of  tlieir  powder,  their  ea.->y  sus- 
pension in  water  (wiiieh  tliey  powerfully  ab- 
sorb), and  the  hardiiess  which  they  contract 
by  tlie  action  of  a  moderate  heat,  render 
them  useful  in  a  great  numl)er  of  tlie  arts,  or 
for  domcslic  purposes. 

A  specimen  analysed  by  Mr.  Kirvvan  con- 
tained 

Silex-         5.0 

Ahimina       5 

Magnesia  4.3 

100 

TALENT,  a  money  of  accoinit  amongst 
the  anlients,  equal  to  342/.  sterling,  bee 
Coin,  and  Money. 

Amongst  the  Jews,  a  talent  in  weight  was 
equal  to  Co  nianeh,  or  1  [3  pjunds,  10  o\nices, 
J  pennyweight,  10  and  two-seventli  grains. 

TALES,  is  used  in  law  for  a  supply  of  men 
inipau'lled  on  a  jury,  and  not  appearing,  or 
en  their  appearance  cliallenged  antl  di>ailow- 
ed,  wlien  tlie  judge  upon  motion  ortlers  a 
supply  to  be  made  by  the  sheriff  of  one  or 
more  such^jersons  present  in  court,  to  malce 
up  a  full  jury. 

TALIO,  lex  iidionis,  a  species  of  [nniish- 
nient  in  the  Mosaic  law,  whereby  an  evil  is 
returned  similar  to  that  comniitted  against  us 
by  another ;  hence  that  expression,  eye  for 
eye,  tooth  for  tooth.  This  law  was  at  first 
inserted  in  the  twelve  tables  amongst  tlie 
Romans;  but  afterwards  set  aside,  and  a 
power  given  to  the  pranor  to  fix  upon  a  sum 
of  money  for  the  damages  doni'. 
TALLOW-TREE.  See  Croton. 
TALLY,  in  law,  a  piece  of  wood  cut  in 
two  parts,  whereon  accounts  were  antiently 
kept,  by  means  of  notches  ;  one  part  of  the 
tally  being  kept  by  tlie  debtor,  and  the  other 
by  the  creditor.  As  to  the  tallies  or  loans, 
one  part  thereof  is  kept  in  tlie  exchequer, 
and  the  other  part  given  to  (larticular  per- 
sons in  lieu  of  an  olil;gation  for  the  moneys 
they  have  lent  to  the  government  on  acts  of 
parliament.  Tl,is  last  part  is  called  t!ie  stock, 
and  the  loriner  tlie  counter-stock,  or  counter- 
itail. 

TALMUD,  or  Thalmud,    among    the 

.Jews,  a  collection  of  the  doctrines   of  their 

r^lig'on  or  m -nality.     It  is  the  corpus  juris, 

I  or  body  of  tiie  laws  and  cu^toms  of  the  .lews, 

who  esteem  it  equal  to  the  scriptures  them- 

'  selves. 

TALPA,  mole,  a  genus  of  the  quadrupeds 

of  the  order  It-rse.     The  generic  charac'er  is, 

front  teeth  m  ihe  upper  jaw  six,  unequal  ;  in 

I  the  lower  jaw  eight  ;  canine  teeth  one  on  each 

!Side,  the  upper  ones  largest ;  grinders  seven 

:in  the  upper  jaw,  six  \\\  the  lower. 

The  genus  talpa  or  mole  is  readily  dis- 
Itingni  hed  by  its  peculi.ir  sh.'pe,  habit,  or  gi-- 
insral  appearance,  even  witiiout  an  examina- 
itionof  the  teeth;  in  which  particular  some 
! species  resemble  the  genus  sort-x,  and  were 
,  placed  in  that  geuus  by  Linnwus.  There  are 
21  species;  the  most  remarkable  are  ; 


T  A  L 

I.  Talpa  T'uropiea,  the  co:Timon  nnle.  The 
whole  foini  of  the  iiiole  ij  eminently  calcu- 
lated by  nature  for  its  obscun;  and  subterra- 
neous hie.  'I  hi-  body  is  thick  and  cylii)dric  ; 
the  snout  slender,  but  very  strong  and  ten- 
dinous ;  tlie  head  not  distiiignislii-d  Irom  the 
body  by  any  appearance  of  neck  ;  the  leg' 
so  extremely  slioit  as  scarcely  to  project 
perceptibly  troni  the  body  ;  the' skin  is  much 
thicker  and  tiugher  in 'proportion  than  iii 
other  <|uadrupr(K,  and  the  fur  with  which  it 
is  covered  I'qually  surjiasses  that  of  other 
animals  in  fineness  and  softness.  The  mils 
ciilar  stiiMigth  of  the  mole  is  very  great,  anil 
it  is  enabled  to  force  itself  into  the  groinui 
witli  an  extraordinary  degree  of  celerity. 
The  general  length  of  tlie  mole  is  about  livi- 
inches  and  three  (piarters,  exclusive  of  the 
tail,  wliich  measures  mie  inch.  This  animal 
is  supposed  to  possess  tlie  power  of  hearing 
in  an  exquisite  degree  ;  and  if  at  any  time  it 
emerges  from  its  subterraneous  retreat,  in- 
stantly disap])eais  on  tlie  a|)proach  of  any 
danger.  When  lir^t  taken,  either  by  diggiii'g 
it  out  or  otherwise,  it  utters  a  shrill  scream, 
and  prepares  for  defence  by  exerting  the 
strength  of  its  claws  and  teeth.  According 
to  the  count  de  Binlbn,  so  lively  and  reci- 
procal an  attachment  subsists  between  tlie 
male  and  female-,  that  they  seem  to  dread  or 
<lisrelish  all  other  society.  '   ' 

The  mole  is  furnished  \\'ith  eyes  so  ex- 
tremely small  that  it  has  been  doubted  whe- 
ther they  were  intended  by  nature  for  dis- 
tinct vision,  or  rather  merely  for  giving  the 
creature  such  a  dy^n-ee  of  notice  of  the  ap- 
proach of  light  as  might  sufficiently  warn  it 
ot  the  ilanger  of  exposure.  Galen,  how- 
ever, scL-ms  to  have  been  of  a  different  opi- 
nion, since  he  ventures  to  atlirni  that  the 
eyes  ot  the  mole  are  furnished  with  the  crys- 
talline and  vitreous  humours,  encompassed 
with  their  respective  tunics  ;  so  accurate  an 
anatomist  was  that  great  man,  even  unassist- 
ed by  glasses. 

The  mole  is  reported  to  feed  not  only  on 
worms,  insects,  &c.  but  also  on  the  roots  of 
vegetables;  but  it  is  certainlv  more  car- 
nivorus  than  frugivorous.  It  is  even  a  very 
fierce  and  voracious  animal  in  particular  cir- 
cumstances ;  and  it  is  observed  by  sr  Tho- 
mas Hrown,  that  whatever  these_animals  are 
contented  with  under  ground,  yet,  when 
above  it,  they  will  sometimes  tear  and  eat  one 
another  ;  and  in  a  large  glass  case,  wherein 
a  mole,  a  toad,  and  a  viper,  were  inclosi'd, 
we  have  known  (says  he)  the  mole  to  dis- 
patch them,  and  to  devour  a  good  part  of 
tliem  both. 

The  mole  is  with  difficulty  kept  alive  in  a 
state  of  confinement,  unless  constantly  sup- 
plied with  a  provision  of  damp  mould  to  re- 
side in. 

Like  other  animals  of  a  black  colour,  the 
mole  is  sometimes  foimd  perfecily  vvhHe,  or 
cream-coloured,  and  sometimes  spotted.  In 
a  memoir  relative  to  the  mole,  pubhshed  by 
M.  de  la  Faille,  it  appears  that  four  varieties 
may  be  reckoned,  viz.  the  white  mole,  the 
rufous  or  tawny  mole,  the  greenish-yellow  or 
citron-coloured  mole  (found  in  some  parts 
of  Languedoc),  and,  lastly,  the  spotted  mole, 
which  is  variegated  either  with  white  or  tawny 
spots  or  patches.  The  mole  brings  four  or 
five  young 

The  greatest  misfortune  that  befals  the 
mole  is,  the  sudden  overflowing  of  rivers. 


T  A  M 


7(i2 


when  tliey  arp  said  to  be  seen  swimming  in 
gnat  nuHibers,  and  using  every  I'ifort  to  ob- 
tain a  more  elevated  siluutinii';  but  a  great 
many  of  them  |)eri>h  on  such  oi  casions,  as 
Mell  as  the  young,  which  remain  in  their 
holes. 

Linnanis,  in  the  twelfth  edition  of  the  Svs- 
tema  Natur.T,  allirms  that  the  mole  livl/er- 
nates,  or  passes  the  winter,  in  a  stale  ol  ioipi- 
dity ;  ana  the  same  observation  is  repeated 
in  the  Gmelinian  edition  of  that  work.  Tliis, 
however,  is  flatly  contradicted  by  the  count 
de  Uulfon,  who  observes,  that  the  mole  sleeps 
.-iO  little  in  winter,  that  she  raises  the  earth 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  summer;  and  that 
the  country  people  remark  that  the  thaw  ap- 
proachi.-s,  because  the  moles  make  their  hiils. 
Hiey  endeavour  to  get  into  warni  gri;iinds, 
gardens,  &:c.  during  this  season  more  than  at 
others. 

This  animal  is  said  to  be  unknown  in  Ire- 
land. In  Siberia  it  arrives  at  a  larger  si^«» 
than  in  Europe.  'I'lieiur  is  so  soft  and  beau- 
tiful, that  it  would  make  the  most  elig3nt 
articles  of  dress,  did  not  the  difficulty  of  cur- 
ing and  dressing  the  skin  deter  from  experi- 
ments of  this  nature. 

2.  Talpa  radiata,  radiated  mole.  This  is 
soniewliat  smaller  than  the  common  mole, 
and  is  of  a  dusky  or  blackish  colour.  In  ge- 
net.-il  form  it  resembles  the  preceding  spe- 
cies, having  broad  fore  legs  with  long  claws  ; 
the  hind  legs  scaly  and  with  much  weaker 
claws  ;  ilie  nose  long,  and  beset  at  tlie  end 
with  a  circular  series  of  radiated  tendrils  ;  the 
length  from  nose  to  tail  is  three  inches  and 
three  quarters.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  North 
America,  torniing  subterraneous  passages,  in 
dilferent  directions,  in  iincultivati-d  fields,  and 
IS  said  to  teed  on  roots.  This  species  is  tlie 
sorex  cristatus  of  LinnEiis  ;  being  placed  ii» 
that  genus  on  account  of  its  teeth,  in  despite 
of  its  appearance.  It  is,  perhaj)s,  in  reality, 
no  other  than  a  variety  of  the  former  species, 
or  a  sexual  difference. 

TAMMUNDl'S,  the  tamarind-tree,  a 
genus  of  plants  arranged  by  LinnA'us  under 
the  class  of  triandria  and  order  of  monogynia ; 
but  Woodville,  Schreber,  and  other  late  bo- 
tanists, have  toiind  that  it  belongs  to  the  class 
of  nionadelpliia,  and  order  of  triandria.  In 
the  natural  system  it  is  ranked  under  the  lo- 
mantacea".  There  is  only  one  species,  the 
Indica,  wliicli  is  a  native  of  both  Indies,  of 
America,  of  Arabia,  and  of  Egypt,  and  was 
cultivated  in  Britain  before  the  year  1-633. 

The  tamarind-tree  rises  to  the  height  of 
thirty  or  forty  feet,  sending  off  numerous 
large  branches,  wliich  spread  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  and  have  a  beautiftil  appearance  ; 
the  trunk  is  erect,  and  covered  with  rough 
bark,  of  a  greyish  or  ash-colour ;  the  Leaves 
are  small  and  pinnated,  and  of  a  yellowish, 
green  colour;  the  Hovers  resemble- ihe  papi- 
lionaceous kind,  and  grow  in  lateral  clusters  ; 
the  calyx  consists  of  four  leaves,  and  the  co- 
rolla oi  tiuee  petals,  which  are  of  a.  yellowish 
hue,  and  are  beautifully  diversified  with  red 
veins ;  the  fruit  is  a  pod  of  a  roundish  com- 
pressed form,  froui  tiiree  to  five  inches  lone, 
containing  two,  three,  or  lorn-  seeds,  lodged 
in  a  dark  pulpy  matter.  The  tamarind  is 
easily  raised  witii  us  from  the  stoi:es  even  of 
the  preserved  fruit,  and  is  a  beautiful  stove  • 
plant,  rising  to  the  height  of  foiir  or  five  feet. 

The  pulp  of  the  tamarind,  with  the  secdj. 


;qs 


T  A  M 


connecled  togetlier  by  numerous  toiigli 
strings  or  fibres,  are  brought  to  us  freed  froin 
tiie  Quler  shell,  and  conunotily  preserved  in 
svrup.  According  to  Long,  tamarinds  are 
prepared  I'or  expo'rtation  at  Jamaica  in  the 
following  manner:  "The  fruit  or  pods  Are 
gathered  (in  June,  July,  and  'August)  wlu-n 
fLdl-ripe,  which  is  knowii  by  their  ea-y  bri-ak- 
ing  on  small  pressure  between  the  linger  and 
thumb.  Tiie  fruit,  taken  out  of  the  pod,  and 
cleared  from  tlie  shelly  fragments,  is  placed 
in  layers  in  a  cask,  and 'boiling  syrup,  just  be- 
fore It  begins  to  granulate,  is  poured  in  till 
the  cask  is  filled  ;  the  syrup  prevades  every 
part  quite  down  to  the  bottom,  and  when 
cool  tlie  cask  is  headed  for  sale."  He  ob- 
serves, that  the  better  mode  of  preserving 
this  fruit  is  with  sugar,  well  clarified  with 
eggs,  till  a  transparent  syrup  is  formed,  which 
gives  the  fruit  a  much  pleasanter  flavour; 
but  as  a  principal  medicinal  purpose  of  the 
pulp  depends  upon  its  acidity,  which  is  thus 
counteracted  by  the  admixture  of  sugar,  it 
would  therefore'  be  of  more  utility  if  always 
imported  here  in  the  pods.  The  fruit  pro- 
duced in  the  East  Indies  is  more  esteemed 
than  that  of  the  West,  and  easily  to  be  distin- 
guished by  the  greater  length  of  the  pods, 
and  the  pulp  being  drier  and  of  a  darker 
colour. 

This  fruit,  the  use  of  which  was  first  learn- 
ed of  the  Arabians,  contains  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  acid,  with  the  saccharine  matter,  than 
is  usually  found  in  the  fructus  acido-dulcis, 
and  is  therefore  not  only  employed  as  a  laxa- 
tive, but  also  for  abating  tliirst  and  heat  in 
various  inthmmatory  complaints,  and  for 
correcting  putriil  disorders,  especially  those 
of  a  bilious  kind;  in  which,  the  cathartic, 
antiseptic,  and  refrigerant  qualities  of  the 
fruit  have  been  found  equally  useful.  Wheji 
intended  merely  as  a  laxative,  it  may  be  of 
advantage  to  joni  it  with  manna,  or  purgatives 
of  a  sweet  kind,  by  which  its  use  is  rendered 
more  elTertual.  Three  drachms  of  the  pulp 
are  usually  sufficient  to  open  the  body  ;  but 
to  prove  moderately  cathartic,  one  or  two 
ounces  are  required.  It  is  an  ingredient  in 
clecluarium  e  cas-ia,  and  electuarium  e 
senna  or  lenitive  electuary. 

TA.MAKIX,  the  Ixmiarisk,  a  genus  of 
plants  in  the  class  of  pentandria,  and  order 
of  trigvnia  ;  and  in  the  natural  system  ran- 
ging under  the  13th  order,  succulents".  The 
calyx  is  quinquepartite;  the  petals  are  five  ; 
the  capsule  is  unilocular  and  trivalvular,  and 
the  seeds  pappous.    There  are  4  species. 

'l"he  bark  and  leaves  of  the  tamarisk-tree 
arc  moderately  astringent,  but  never  prescrib- 
ed in  the  present  practice. 

T.'\M150UR,  in  fortification,  is  a  kind  of 
work  formed  of  palisades,  or  pieces  of  wood, 
ten  feet  long  and  six  inches  lliick,  planted 
close  together,  and  driven  two  or  three  feet 
into  the  ground;  so  that  when  finished  it 
may  have  the  appearance  of  a  s^iuare  redoubt 
cut  "in  two.  Loop-holes  are  made  six  feet 
from  ,the  gromid,  and  three  f  et  asunder, 
about  eight  inches  long,  two  inches  wide 
withih,  and  six  witI)out.  Behind  is  a  scaffold 
two  feet  liigh,  for  the  soldiers  to  stand  upon. 
Thev  are  ire(iuenlly  made  in  the  place  of 
arms  of  the  covert-w'ay,  at  the  salient  angle.-, 
in  tin-  g'rt-gcs,  half-moon-,  and  ravelins,  &c. 

Tambours,  in  foriilication,  are  also  solid 
jHec.:<  ofcartli  which  are  made  in  that  part  of 


T  A  N 

the  covert  wav  that  is  joined  to  the'parapet, 
and  lies  close'  to  the  traverses,  being  only 
three  feet  distant  from  them.  They  serve  to 
prevent  the  covert  way  froi.i  being  enfiladed, 
and  obstruct  the  enemy's  view  towards  the 
traverses  When  tambours  are  made  in  the 
covert  way,  they  answer  the  same  purposes 
that  works  en  crcmaill6re  would. 

Tambour  likewise  means  in  fortification,  a 
single  or  isolated  traverse,  which  serves  to 
close  up  that  part  of  the  covert  way  where  a 
communication  might  iiave  been  made  in  the 
glacis  for  the  purpose  of  going  to  some  de- 
tached work. 

It  also  signifies,  both  in  French  and  Eng- 
lish, a  little  box  of  timber-work  covered  with 
a  cieling,  withinside  the  porch  of  certain 
churches,  both  to  prevent  the  view  of  persons 
passing  by,  a-id  to  keep  off  the  wind,  &c.  by 
means  oi' folding-doors.  In  many  instances  it 
is  the  same  as  porch. 

TAMUS,  black  hriowi,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  class  of  dioecia,  and  order  of  hexandria, 
and  in  the  natural  system  ranging  under  the 
1 1  th  order,  sarmenlacea:.  The  male  and  fe- 
male flowers  are  both  sexpartite  ;  there  is  no 
corolla;  the  style  is  trifid  ;  the  berry  is  tri- 
locular  and  inferior,  and  contains  two  seeds. 
There  are  only  two  species.  The  communis, 
or  common  black  briony,  is  a  native  of  Eng- 
land. It  has  a  lai'ge  ro'ut,  which  sends  forth 
several  long  slender  stems;  the  leaves  are 
large,  heart-shaped,  dark  green,  and  grow  on 
long  footstalks  ;  the  flowers  are  greenish,  and 
the  berry  red.  It  flowers  from  May  to  Au- 
gust, and  is  frequent  in  hedges. 

TAN,  the  bark  of  the  oak,  chopped  and 
ground  in  a  tanning-mill  into  a  coarse  powder, 
to  be  used  in  the  tanning  of  leather. 

Deyeux  was,  perhaps,  the  first  chemist 
who  ascertained  the  peculiar  nature  of  tan,  or 
tanning.  lie  pointed  it  out  in  his  analysis  of 
nutgalls,  as  a  peculiar  resinous  substance, 
but  without  assigning  it  any  name.  Seguin 
soon  after  engaged  in  a  set  of  experiments  on 
the  art  of  tanning  leather  ;  during  which  he 
discovered  that  tan  has  the  property  of  pre- 
cipitating glue  from  its  solutions  m  water,  and 
of  combming  with  the  skins  of  animals.  This 
led  him  to  suppose  it  the  esseniial  constituent 
of  the  liquids  employed  for  the  purpose  of 
tanning  leather.  Hence  the  names  tannin 
and  tanning  principle  given  it  by  the  French 
chemists.  But  it  is  to  Mr.  Proust  that  we 
are  indebted  for  the  investigation  of  the  na- 
ture and  properties  of  tan,  and  of  the  me- 
thods of  obtaining  it  in  a  separate  slate. 
Much  curious  and  important  information  has 
likewise  been  obtained  by  the  experiments  of 
Mr.  Davy  on  the  constituent  parts  of  astrin- 
gent vegc'tables,  and  on  their  operation  in 
tanning. 

Tan  exists  in  a  great  number  of  vegetable 
substances;  but  it  may  be  procured  most 
readily  and  in  the  greatest  purity  from  nut- 
galls  and  catechu. 

Nutgalls  arc  excrescences  formed  on  the 
leaves  of  the  oak  by  the  puncture  of  an  bisect 
which  deposits  its  eggs  on  them.  The  best 
are  known  by  the  name  of  Aleppo  galls,  im- 
ported in  large  (luantitics  in  this  country  for 
the  use'  of  the  dyers,  calico-printers,  &;c 
They  are  hard  like  wood,  round,  often  no- 
dulated on  the  surface,  of  an  olive-green  co- 
lour, and  an  excessively  disagreeable  tasie. 
Tiiey  are  in  a  great  measure  soluble  in  wa 
ter;  what  remains  behind  is  tasteless,  and 


TAN 

possesses  the  properties  of  the  fibre  of  wood. 
A  very  great  proportion  of  water  is  necessary 
to  carry  off  every  thing  soluble.  Deyeux 
found  that  a  French  pound  of  nutgalls  re- 
(piired  9tj  French  pints  of  water,  applied  in  ' 
20  dill'erent  portions  one  after  the  other,  and 
allowed  to  macerate  each  a  considerable  time. 
This,  reduced  to  our  standard,  gives  us  about 
150  English  pints  to  a  pound  troy  of  nut- 
galls. 

From  the  analyses  of  Deyeux  and  Daw, 
it  follows  that  the  soluble  part  of  nutgalls  con- 
sists chiefly  of  five  ingredients  ;  namely,  tan, 
extract,  mucilage,  gallic  acid,  and  gallat  of 
lime.  Mr.  Davy  found  that  500  grains  of 
Aleppo  galls  formed  with  water  a  solution 
which  yielded  by  slow  evaporation  185  grains 
of  matter.  This  matter  he  found  composed 
of 

130  tan 

31   gallic  acid  and  extract 
1 2  mucilage  and  extract 
12  lune  and  saline  matter 

185. 


So  that  the  tan  constitutes  rather  more-tiias  ' 
two-thirds  of  the  whole. 

According  to  Mr.  Daw,  the  strongest  in- 
fusion of  galls  is  of  the  specific  gravity  1 .06S  ; 
and  when  evaporated  at  a  temperature  below 
200°,  yields  a  mass  composed  of  _°-  tan,  and 
-i^  gallic  acid  and  extract.  But  at  a  boiling 
heat  most  of  the  gallic  acid  is  dissipated  or 
destroyed,  and  a  portion  of  the  extract  is 
rendered  insoluble  in  water. 

Catechu,  or  terra  japonica  as  it  is  also 
called,  is  a  substance  obtained  by  decoction 
and  evaporation  Irom  a  species  otthe  n)inio«a 
which  abounds  in  India.  It  has  a  reddish 
brown  colour,  and  an  astringent  taste,  leaving 
an  impression  of  sw  eefness  ;  it  is  not  altered  by 
exposure  to  the  air.  There  are  two  varieties 
of  it  ;  one  from  Bombay,  which  has  the  light- 
est colour,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  1.39  ;  and 
one  from  Bengal,  which  is  oi  the  colour  of 
chocolate;  its  specific  gravity  is  1.28.  Th'S 
substance  w'as  examined  by  Davy,  and-found 
to  consist  chiefly  of  tan  combined  with  a  pe- 
culiar species  of  extract. 

Tan  obtained  from  the  infusion  of  nutgalls 
is  a  brittle  substance,  of  a  brown  colour.  It 
breaks  with  a  vitreous  fracture,  and  docs  not 
attract  moisture  from  the  air.  Its  taste  is  ex- 
ceedingly astringent.  It  is  very  soluble  ia 
water.  The  solution  is  of  a  deep-brown  co- 
lour, a  very  astringent  and  bitter  taste,  and 
has  the  odour  whicli  distinguishes  a  solution 
ofiKitgalls.  It  froths,  when  agitated,  like  a 
solution  of  soap  ;  but  does  not  fi-el  unctuous. 
Tan  is  still  more  soluble  in  alcohol  than  in 
water.  The  solution  has  a  deep-brown  co- 
lour and  an  astringent  taste. 

When  heated,  it  blackens,  emits  carbonis  _ 
acid  gas,  and  in  the  open  air  bursts,  leaving 
always  a  smal;  portion  of  lime. 

From  the  experiments  of  Proust,  Davy,  and 
Deyeux,  we  learn,  that  it  is  cai)able  of  com- 
bining with  oxygen  ;  but  at  the  same  time  it 
is  either  decomposed  altogether,  or  its  nature  " 
'coiiipletely  altered.  Thus  nitric  acid  con- 
verts it  into  a  yellowish-brown  matter  soluble 
in  alcohol,  and  similar  in  its  properties  to  an 
extract.  Oxymuriatic  acid  produces  similar 
effects ;  and  Mr.  Proust  has  observed,  that 


T  A  K 

the  ppi'oxidp  of  till  cliaiiges  il  al<o  into  nn  ex- 
Ij-rict,  perliaps  l)y  coiiiimmicatini;  ox.ygen. 

Tlio  action  ot  the  mutals  upon  Ian  docs  not 
seem  to  be  groat;  but  almost  all  tin-  nu'tallic 
oxides  luivc  an  affinilv  lor  il,  and  an'  capable 
<it'  qonibining  witli  it  ;  the  compound  is  usu- 
allv  nearly  uisuluble  in  water.  Hence  the 
reason  why  tlie  infusion  of  nutgalls  precipi- 
tates nuiallic  solutions  so  readily.  'J'liese 
compounds  have  been  hitherto  in  a  great 
measure  overlooked  by  clieniists.  The  fol- 
lowing'observations  contain  the  facts  at  pre- 
sent known. 

When  the  peroxide  of  tin  or  zinc  is  boiled 
in  the  infusion  of  galls,  it  acquires  a  dull  yel- 
!ow  colour,  and  abstracts  all  the  constituents 
from  the  infusion,  leaving  behind  only  pure 
water.  Tiie  oxides  thus  combined  with  tan, 
&c.  are  partly  soluble  in  muriatic  acid,  and 
the  solution  indicates  llie  presence  of  tan  and 
gallic  acid.  When  the  peroxide  of  tin  is 
allowed  to  ait  upon  the  cold  infusion,  it  abs- 
tracts all  its  constituents  in  a  few  days.  But 
Mr.  Proust  aflirms,  that  in  that  case  the  gallic 
acid  is  mo>tly  <lestroyed,  and  a  portion  of  the 
tan  bruughtto  the  slate  of  extract. 

When  the  melallic  salts  are  nii.xed  with, 
the  infusion  of  gall.s,  the  precipitate  consists 
of  the  metallic  oxide  combined  with  Ihe  tan, 
the  extract,  and  the  acid  of  the  infusion;  and, 
according  to  Davy,  it  contains  also  aportion 
of  the  acid  of  the  melallic  salt. 

I'an  produces  no  change  upon  the  solution 
of  sulphat  of  iron  ;  buf  when  it  Ls  mixed  with 
a  solutioii  of  the  oxysulphal  of  iron,  a  deep 
blue  coloured  precpilate  immediately  ap- 
jjears,  consisting  of  the  tan  combined  with 
the  oxide.  This  precipitate,  when  dried,  as- 
sumes a  black  colour.  Il  is  decomposed  by 
acidi. 

AVhen  too  great  a  proi3ortion  of  oxysul- 
phat  of  iron  is  pouied  into  a  solution  oi  tan, 
the  sul|)huric  acid,  set  at  liberty  by  the  com- 
bination of  the  iron  and  tan,  is  sulhcient  lo  re- 
«lissolve  the  precipilate  asitappears;  but  the 
precipitate  mav  easily  be  obtained  by' cau- 
tiously saturating  this  excess  of  acid  with 
potass.  When  the  experiment  is  performed 
in  this  manner,  all  the  oxysiilph.it  of  iron 
which  remains  in  the  solution  inulecomposed 
is  converted  into  sulphat.  Mr.  Proust  sup- 
poses th;!t  this  change  is  produced  by  the  tan 
ab^orbing  oxygen  from  the  iron.  T  lie  same 
chanse  takes  place. if  oxide  is  mixed  with  a 
considerable  e.xcess  of  sulphuric  acid,  and 
diluted  with  water.  Common  wriling-ink  is 
a  combination  of  gallat  of  iron  and  tannat  of 
iron. 

The  alkalies  combine  readily  with  tan,  and 
form  with  it  a  compound  soluble  in  water. 
This  was  first  observed  by  Deyeux,  whose 
experiments  have  been  verilied  by  Mr.  Davy. 
When  potass  or  soda  is  added  to  the  infusion 
of  nutaails,  the  liciuid  assumes  a  reddish- 
brown  colour,  and  loses  ihejnoperty  of  pre- 
cipitating gelatine,  till  alkali  is  saturated  with 
an  acid.  When  the  alkalized  infusion  is  eva- 
porated to  tlryness,  an  olive-coloured  irass 
remains  of  a  taint  alkaline  taste,  which  deli- 
ip.iesces  in  the  air.  Ammonia  produces  the 
saiiH-  effect  upon  the  infusion  of  galls;  but 
when  the  mixture  is  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
boiling  water,  part  of  the  ammonia  Hies  oil,  a 
precipitate  falls,  consisting  of  most  of  the  tan 
and  gallic  acid,  while  the  extract  remains  in 
solution. 

\0L.  11. 


T  A  N 

-Ml  the  earllis  hitherlo  tried  have  a  strong 
aflinity  for  tan,  and  form  with  it  compounds 
for  the  most  part  insoluble  in  water,  the  pro- 
perties of  which  have  scarcely  been  examined 
bv  chemists. 

One  of  liie  most  important  ijropprties  of 
tan  is  the  insoh.ible  compound  which  it  foims 
with  glue  cr  gelatine,  .-is  this  substance  is 
termed  by  chemists.  It  is  therefore  em- 
ployed to  detect  the  presence  of  gelatine  in 
animal  fluids:  and,  on  the  other  hand,  solu- 
tions of  gelatine  are  employed  to  detect  the 
presence  of  Ian  in  vcgetaljle  iluids,  and  to  as- 
certain its  iiuantity.  Now,  although  the 
compound  of  gelatine  and  tan  is  insoluble  in 
water,  it  is  soluble  both  in  Ih"  solution  of  tan 
and  of  gelatine  when  suflicieniK  diluted.  It 
is  necessary,  therefore,  that  the  solution  of 
gelatine,  used  to  detect  tan,  should  be  as  con- 
cenlrated  as  is  tonsistent  with  its  jjerfect 
lluiditv;  for  glue,  when  gelatinous,  does  not 
act  u|)on  tan.  It  is  necessary  also  that  il 
should  be  employed  quite  fresh;  for  when  in 
a  state  of  putrefaclion,  it  loses  its  property  of 
precipitating  tan.  Mr.  Davy  has  ascertained 
that  the  best  proportion  for  use  is  a  solution 
of  ICt)  grains  of  isinglass  in  20  ounces  of 
water.  (_'an;  must  be  taken  not  lo  add  an 
excess  of  the  solution  to  the  liquid  from  which 
the  tan  is  to  be  separated  ;  because  the  com- 
pound of  tan  and  gelatine  is  re-dissolved  by 
the  solution  of  gelatine.  According  lo  the 
analysis  of  Mr.  Davy,  this  compound,  when 
dried  in  the  temperature  of  160°,  is  com- 
posed of 

54  gelatine 
4()  tan 

100. 

It  appears,  from  the  experimente  of  Mr. 
Daw  and  Mr.  Chenevix,  that  tan  is  some- 
times formed  in  vegetables  by  the  action  of 
heat.  Thus  no  tan  can  be  detected  in  the 
decoction  of  coffee-beans,  unless  they  havo 
been  roasted  ;  but  in  that  case  their  decoction 
precipitates  gelatine. 

From   the  experiments  of  Mr.  Davy,  we 
learn  tliat  the  atlinities  of  the  difli-'rent  classes 
of  bodies  capable  of  combining  with  tan  are 
nearly  in  the  following  order  : 
Earths,  Acids,   . 

Alkalies,  Neutral  salts, 

Gelatine, 
But  the  order  of  the  individual  substances  be- 
longing to  each  of  these  classes  remains  still  to 
be  ascertained. 

Tan  alfects  particularly  the  I)ark  of  trees : 
but  it  exists  also  in  the  sap  and  in  the  wood 
of  a  considerable  number,  and  even  in  the 
leaves  of  many.  Il  is  very  seldom  that  it 
exudes  spontaneously  ;  )  el  this  seems  to  be 
the  case  with  a  variety  of  kino. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  Mr.  IViggin, 
that  when  the  barks  of  trees  are  examireii  at 
different  seasons,  they  vary  in  the  quantity 
of  tan.  The  quantity  varies  also  with  the  age 
and  size  of  the  trees'.  The  greatest  propor- 
tion of  tan  is  contained  in  the  inner  barks. 
The  epidermis  usually  contains  none. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  pvoport'on 
of  solid  matter  extracted  by  water  froirii  dif- 
ferent vegetable  substances,  and  the  quantity 
of  Ian  contained  in  that  solid  matter,  ;  s  ascer- 
tained byllie  exiieriments  of  Mr.  Daw. 
5E 


T  A  N 

S,>]]<i 
One  Ounce  of  Matter. 

Grains. 
White  inner  bark  of  old  oak  If:8 

young  o.-ik      111 

Spanish  ches- 

niit         -  -  -.89 

^  Leicesterwil- 

low         -        -       ,•-        -     117 
Coloured  or  middle  bark  of  oak     4.j 
Spanish 


7O9 

Tan. 
Gr.iins. 
72 
77 

C3 


19 


chesnut 


41 


14 


■  Leicesle 


willow        -  -  - 
Entire  bark  of  oak    -        -        ■ 
Entire  bark  of. 'Spanish  chesnut 
Leicester  willow 

elm    - 

coniraon  willow 


34 

16 

61 

2() 

53 

L'l 

71 

•  Z.i 

— 

1.3 

— 

1  1 

16.-) 

78 

lit) 

73 

— 

48 

— 

41 

— 

2t)I 



231 

180 

127 

Sicilian  sumach 
Malaga  sumach 
Soudiong  lea 
Oreen  tea     - 
Uombay  catechu 
Bengal  catechu 
Nutgalls     - 

TANACETUM,  taiis!/,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  class  of  syngenesia,  and  order  of  poly- 
gamia  superdua,  and  in  th(;  natural  system 
ranging  under  the  49lh  order,  composite. 
The  rece|)lacle  is  naked  ;  the  pappus  some- 
what emarginated  ;  the  calyx  imbricatedand 
hemispherical  ;  the  llorets  of  the  radius  are 
trllid,  and  scarcely  di-tinguishable.  There  are 
nine  species ;  of  which  one  only  is  a  native 
of  Uritain,  the  vulgare,  or  common  tansy. 
Of  this  species  there  is  a  variety  with  curled 
leaves,  w  liich  is  therefore  called  curled  tansy.- 
The  lansv  has  a  bitter  taste,  and  aii  aromatic 
smell,  disagreeable  to  many  people.  It  is 
esteemed  good  for  warming  and  strengthen-, 
ing  tlie  stomach  ;  for  which  reason  the  young 
leaves  have  obtained  a  place  among  the  culi- 
nary herbs,  their  juice  being  an  ingredient  in 
puddings,  &c.  It  is  rarely  used  in  medicine, 
though  e.xtolled  as  a  goodemmenagogue.  A 
drachm  of  the  dried  liowers  has  been  found 
very  beneticial  in  hysteric  disorders  arising 
from  suppression.  Ihe  seeds  and  leaves 
were  formerly  in  considerable  esteem  forde- 
stroying  worms  in  children,  and  are  reckoned 
good  in  cholicsand  flatulencies. 

TAN.EClUM.agenusofthe  angiospermia 
order,  in  the  didynamia  class  of  pk.nts,  and  in 
the  nalural  method  ranking  under  the  25th 
order,  putaminea;.  The  calyx  is  monophy!- 
lous,  tubulated,  truncated,  and  entire:  Ihe 
corolla  long,  monopelalous,  and  white;  the 
lube  cylindrical  ;  the  l\n)bi  1  rect,  spre^'ding, 
and  neariy  equ;J ;  tin;  fruit  a  berry,  covered 
v,ith  a  thick  bark,  large,  oblong,  internally 
divided  iijto  two. parts;  in  the  pulp  are  con- 
lained  a  number  of  seeds.  .There  are  only 
two.  spt  cies  of  this  genus,  the  jaroba  and  pa- 
rasiticum,  both  natives  of  Jamaica.  They 
grow  by  the  sides  of  rivers,  and  climb  on  trf  es 
and  bushes: 

TA'XACRA,  inimger,  in  ornithology,  a 
genus  of  birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  pas- 
seres.  The  beak  is  conica',  acnminateti, 
emarginated,  almost  trwngular  at  the- base, 
aiKl  inciiv  J~a.  a  little  iowards  the  point.  Dr. 
Latham  itias'<le>cribr  44  species,  all  of  which 
are  of  foreign  e.xtraciion.  See  Pbte  Nat 
Hist.  tig.  390. 


7/0 


TAN 


Tangent,  in  peor-.cirr,  is  defmetl,  in  ge- 
neral, to  be  a  ri^Kt  line  which  touches  any  arch 
ef  a  curve,  in  siicli  a  maaner  that  no  right  line 
can  be  drawn  betwixt  the  right  line  and  the 
arch.  See  Plate  Miicel.  fig  •22G. 

Tiie  tangent  of  an  arch  is  a  right  line  dra*wn 
perpendicularly  frcm  the  end  of  a  diameter, 
passing  to  one  extremity  of  the  arch,  and  termi- 
nated by  a  right  tine  draws  from  the  centre 
through  the  other  end  of  the  arch,  and  caJIcd 
rlw  secant. 

The  tangent  of  a  curve  is  a  right  line  which 
only  touches  the  curve  in  one  point,  but  does 
not  cut  it. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  methnd  of  drawing 
tangents  to  curves,  let  ACG  (fig.  227)be  a  curve 
of  any  kind,  and  C  the  given  point  from 
whence  tlie  tangent  is  to  be  drav^-n  Then  con- 
ceive a  riglit  line,  w_f,  to  be  carried  along  uni- 
formly, parallel  to  itself,  from  A  towards  Q  ; 
and  let,  at  the  same  time,  a  point  p  so  move  in 
that  line,  as  to  dcicvibc  the  given  cuive  ACG: 
also  iet  OTOT,  or  Ci,  express  the  ITuxion  of  Am,  or 
the  velocity  wherewith  the  line  mir  is  carried; 
and  let  //S  express  the  corresponding  fluxion  of 
mp,  in  the  position  rnCg,  or  the  velocity  of  the 
pointy,  intliehnero^:  mnrejver,  through  the 
point  C  let  the  right  line  SF  be  drawn,  pieeting 
the  axis  of  the  curve,  AQ,  in  F. 

Now  it  is  evident,  if  the  motion  of  f,  along 
the  line  mg,  was  to  become  equable  at  C,  the 
point/  would  be  at  S,  when  the  line  itself  h.;d 
got  into  the  position  otSo-;  because,  by  the  hy- 
pothesis, Cn  and  n.S  express  the  distances  th.it 
might  be  described  by  the  two  uniform  motions 
in  the  same  time.  And  if  -^vsg  is  assumed  to 
represent  any  other  position  of  that  line,  and  i 
the  contemporary  position  of  the  point  p,  still 
supposing  an  equable  velocity  of  p  ;  then  the 
distances  C-.',  and  -us,  gone  over  in  the  same 
time  by  the  two  motions,  will  always  be  to  each 
other  as  the  velocities,  or  as  C;i  to  »S.  There- 
fore, since  C-j  ;  -^i  '.;  Cn  \  «S  (which  is  a  known 
property  of  similar  triangles),  the  point  x  will  al- 
ways fall  in  the  right  line  FCS  fig.  2l'S  ;  whence  it 
appears,  that  if  the  motion  of  the  point  p  along 
the  line  raf  w::s  to  become  uniform  at  C,  that 
point  would  then  move  in  the  right  line  CS, 
instead  of  tlie  curve-line  CG.  Now,  seeing  the 
motion  of  p,  in  the  description  of  curves,  must 
cither  be  an  acceierated  or  retarded  one  ;  let  it 
be  first  considered  as  an  accelerated  one,  in 
which  case  the  arch  CG  will  fall  wliolly  above 
the  right  line  CD,  because  the  distance  of  the 
poin-L /)  from  the  axis  AQ,  at  the  end  of  any 
given  tirne,  is  greater  than  it  would  be  if  the 
:.c.-<:leration  was  to  cease  at  C  ;  and  if  the  acce- 
lcr.itiou  had  ceased  at  C,  the  jioint  p  would 
have  been  always  found  in  the  said  right  line 
is.  But  if  tlie  motion  of  the  point  p  i.<  a  re- 
tarded one,  it  will  appear,  by  arguing  in  the 
same  m  inner,  that  the  arch  CG  will  fail  wholly 
below  the  right  line  CU,  as  in  %.  22S. 

This  being  the  case,  let  the  line  »7f,  and  the 
point  p,  along  th,-it  line,  be  irov/  supposed  to 
move  back  again,  towards  A  and  m,  in  the  same 
manner  they  proceeded  from  thence :  then, 
^irici;  Liic  vclority  of  p  did  before  increase,  it 
must  now, on  the  contrary,  decrease ;  and  there- 
fore aiy>,  at  the  end  of  a  given  time,  after  re- 
pnssingthc  point  C,  is  not  so  near  to  AQ,  as  it 
Would  have  been  had  the  velocity  continued  the 
iime  as  at  C,  the  arch  Ci  (as  well  as  CG)  must 
(.ill  wholly  above  the  right  line  FCD  :  and  by 
the  same  method  of  arguing,  the  arch  CA,in  the 
xcond  case,  will  fdl  wholly  below  FC0.  There- 
fore FCn>  in  both  cases,  is  a  tangent  to  the 
curve  at  the  point  C :  whence  the  triangles 
KmC  and  CiS  being  Kmilar,  it  appears  that  the 
•lA-tangenI  mf  is  always  a  fourth  proportional 
tn  nS,  ih-  iluxioii  of  the'ordinaic-  C./,  the  fluxion 
ef  the  absci»t,  and  Cm  the  ordinate  ;  that  is, 
St  ;  iC  ;;  wC  ;  nV,    Heiic(^  a  the  absclst  Am 


T  A  N 
=  .V,  and  the  ordinate  mp  =y,  wc  shall  have 
^r:7  =  ^  ;  by  means  of  which  general  expres- 
sion, and  the  equation  expressing  the  relation 
between  x  andj,  the  ratio  of  the  fluxions  .v  and 
v  will  be  found,  and  from  thence  the  length 
of  the  sub-tangent  »;F,  as  in  the  following  ex- 
amples. 

Example  I.  To  draw  a  right  line  CT  (fig.  220) 
a  tangent  to  a  given  circle  bCA,  in  a  given 
point  C.  Let  CS  be  perpendicular  to  the  dia- 
meter AB,  and  put  AB  :=  a,  BS  =  .v,  and  SC 
:=y.    Then,  by  the  property  of  the  circle,  ji' 

(=  CS^)  =  BS  X  AS  (=:  .V  x'^^^^x)  =  ax 
—  x^  ;  whereof  the  fluxion  being  taken,  in  or- 
der to  determine  the  ratio  of  .v  and  y,  we  get 

~yy  =  "A-  —  2.V.V;  conseuuenily  —  := — 

y         a  —  Sa- 


1 


2 '  ^'''ich,  multiplied  by  y,  gives 


yx 


=  i =  the  sub-tangent  ST.    Whence,  O 

being  supposed  the  centre,  we  have  OS  (=: 
i"  -  v)  :  CS  (=y)  ::  CS  (=3,)  ;  sr-,  which 
is  also  found  to  be  the  case  from  other  prin- 
ciples. ■ 

Exanipk  II.  To  draw  a  tangent  to  anv  given 
point  C  (fig.  2:50)  of  the  conical  parabola  ACG 
If-the  latus  rectum  of  the  curve  is  denoted  by 
j  ,1,  the  ordinate  MC  by  v,  and  its  corresponding 
I  absciss  Ai\I  by  ,v;  then  the  known  equation  ex- 
\  pressing  the  relation  of  .v  and  r,  being  ax  =>^ 
I  we  have,  in   this  case,   the   fluxion  ax  =.  2yy; 

i  whence  --  =  ^^,  and  consequently  •'i  :=-^- 

I       2.!.v 

i  ^=  — .  =  2-v  =;  MP.     Therefore  the  sub-tau- 
a 

gent  is  just  the  double  of  its  corresponding  ab- 
sciss AM. 

TANNING  is  tlie  art  of  converting  llie 
raw  skins  of  animals  into  leather.  See  Tajj, 
and  Cutis. 

In  a  preceding  article  (Tan),  it  was  stated 
that  gelatine  with  tannin,  or  tlie  tanning  |M-in- 
ciple  of  vegetables,  formed  a  combuiatlon 
which  is  insoluble  in  water.  Upon  this  de- 
pends the  art  of  making  leather  ;  the  gela- 
tinous part  of  the  skiii"coinbining  with  the 
tannin  of  the  bark  usually  emploved. 

The  process  wliicli  ha"s  long  been  itscd  in 
this  country  ir,  as  follows  :  The  leather  tanned 
in  England  consists  chietlv  of  three  sorts, 
known  by  the  name  of  butts  or  backs,  hides, 
and  skins.  Butts  are  generally  made  from 
the  stoutest  and  heaviest  ox- hides,  and  are 
managed  as  follows;  after  the  liorns  are 
taken  off,  the  hiJes  ari  laid  liiiiooth  in  heaps 
for  one  or  two  days  in  the  summer,  and  for 
five  or  six  in  the  winter  ;  they  are  then  hung 
on  poles  in  a  close  romn,  called  a  smoke- 
house, in  which  is  kept  a  smouldering  life  of 
wet  tan  ;  this  occasions  a  small  degree  of  pu- 
trefaction, by  svhich  means  the  hair  is  easily 
got  oil",  by  spreading  the  hide  on  a  sort  of 
wooden  horse  or  beam,  and  sciaping  it  with 
a  crooketl  knife.  The  hair  being  taken  olf, 
the  liide  is  thrown  into  a  pit  or  pool  of  water, 
to  cleanse  it  from  the  dirt,  .'cc.  which  being 
done,  the  hide  is  again  spread  on  the  wooden 
beam,  and  the  grease,  loose  fiesli,  extraneous 
tilth,  &c.  carefully  scrubbed  out  or  taken  olf; 
the  hides  are  then  put  into  a  pit  ot  strong 
litiuor,  called  ooze,  pi'epared  in  pits  kept  for 
llie  purpose,  by  infusing  ground  bark  in  wa- 
I  ter  ;  this  is  termed  colouring  ;  after  which 


T  AN 

tlipy  are  removed  into  anollier  \nt,  called  a 
•cowering,  vUiicli  consi:,ls  of  water  strongly 
inipiegnaied  with  vitriolic  acid,  or  with  a  ve- 
getable acid  prepared  Irom  r_\e  or  barley. 
'This  o(.'cration  (uhith  is  called  raising),  ijy 
di^ten(lillg  the  pores  of  the  liides,  occasion's 
them  more  readily  to  imbibe  the  ooze,  the 
etlect  of  which  is  to  combine  with  life  gela- 
tinous part  of  the  skin,  and  form  with  it  lea- 
ther. The  liides  are  then  taken  ot;t  of  the 
scoweriiig,  and  sjiread  smooth  in  a  pit  coni- 
nionly  luled  with  water,  called  a  bmder,  wilii 
a  tiiiantlty  of  ground  bark  strewed  between 
each.  Alter  lying  a  month  or  six  weeks, 
they  are  taken  up ;  and  llie  decayed  bark 
and  liquor  being  drawn  out  of  the  pit,  it  is 
liiied  again  with  strong  ooze,  when  ih'-v  are 
pi-.t  in  as  before,  with  bark  between  'each 
hide.  Ihey  now  lie  two  or  three  mLiiths, 
at  tlie  expiration  ot  which  the  same  operation 
is  reptated  ;  they  then  remain  tour  or  live 
inoiitns,  when  they  agaui  umiergo  the  same 
pre  ess,  and  alter  being  time  months  in  Ihe 
last  pit,  are  completely  tanned  ;  uiile>s  Ihe 
hides  are  so  leinaikably  stout  as  to  want  an 
additional  pit  or  ia\er."  The  whole  process 
requires  Irom  eleven  to  eighteen  months,  and 
soinetim.-s  two  year.s,  according  to  the- sub- 
stance of  the  hide,  and  discretion  of  the  tan- 
ner. When  taken  out  of  the  pit  to  be  dried, 
they  are  hung  on  poles  ;  and  alter  being  com- 
pressed by  a  steel  pin,  and  beaten  out  smooth 
b_\  wooden  hammers,  called  batles,  the  ope- 
ration f-,  complete;  and  when  thoroughly  dry, 
they  are  fit  for  sale.  Butts  are  chiellv  used 
for  the  soles  of  stout  shoes. 

The  leather  which  goes  under  tlie  denomi- 
nation of  hides,  is  generally  made  of  cow- 
hides, or  the  lighter  ox-hides",  which  are  thus 
managed:  After  ihe  horns  are  taken  off,  and 
the  hides  washed,  they  are  put  into  a  pit  of 
water,  saturated  wilh'lime;  where  Ihey  re- 
main a  I'ew  days,  when  they  are  taken  out, 
and  the  liair  straped  off  on  a  wooden  beam, 
as  before  described  ;  they  are  then  washed 
in  a  pit  or  pool  of  water,"and  the  loose  Hesh, 
&c.  being  taken  off,  they  are  removed  into  a 
|)it  of  weak  ooze,  where  they  are  taken  up 
and  put  down  (which  is  technically  termed 
handling)  two  or  three  times  a  day',  for  the 
first  week ;  every  second  or  third  day  they 
are  shifted  into  a  pit  of  fresh  ooze,  soiriewhat 
stronger  than  the  former,  till  at  the  end  of  a 
month  or  six  weeks  they  arc  put  into  a  strong 
ooze,  in  which  they  are]iandled  once  or  twice 
a  week  with  fresh  bark  for  two  or  three 
months.  They  are  then  removed  into  ano- 
ther pit,  called  a  layer,  in  which  they  arc 
laid  smooth,  with  bark  ground  very  line, 
strewed  between  each  hide.  After  remain- 
ing here  two  or  three  months,  they  are  gene- 
rally taken  up,  when  the  ooze  is  drawn  out, 
and  the  liides  iiiit  in  again  with  fresh  ooze 
and  fresh  bark,  where,  after  lying  two  or 
three  montiis  more,  they  aie  coii'ipletcty  tan- 
ned ;  except  a  very  few  stout  hides,  which 
may  re(|uire  an  ext'ra  layer:  they  are  then 
taken  out,  and  hung  on  poles,  and  being 
Inmimered  and  sniooihed  by  a  sti'cl  pin,  ate, 
when  thy,  lit  for  sale.  These  hides  are  called 
crop  hides ;  they  are  fiom  ten  to  eighteen 
months  in  tanning,  and  are  used  for  the  soles 
of  shoes. 

Skins  is  the  general  term  for  the  ^kins  of 
calves,  seals,  hogs,  dogs,  &c-.  'I'liese,  after 
being  washed  in  water,  are  put  into  liine-pils, 
as  before  incnlioiictl,  where  Ihey  arc  takow 


TAN 

op  aiid  put  (Ijwn  every  tiiird  or  fourtli  day, 
tur  a  torlnitflit  or  three  we','k<,  in  order  tu  de- 
stroy tiie  e^jidermisof  the  skin,  'i'lie  hair  is 
tliLii  scraped  oi'f,  and  the  excrescences  b'jing 
removed,  tln.-y  are  put  into  a  pit  of  water 
impregnated  «ith  pii;eon-ching,  called  a 
prainer,  forming  an  alkal  n-^  ley,  which  in  a 
\i  eek  or  ten  day.  soaking  out  the  lime,  grease, 
and  saiionaceous  matter  (during  which  pe- 
riod they  are  several  times  scra|j«d  over  wilh 
a  crooked  knife,  to  work  out  tlie  dirt  and 
(illh),  softens  the  skins,  and  prepares  ihcm 
for  the  reception  of  the  ooze.  'I'hey  are  then 
put  into  a  ])il  ol  w eak  ooze,  in  tlie  suDe  man- 
ner as  the  hides,  and  being  (re(;uer,lly  lian- 
dli'd,  are  by  degi  ees  removed  into  a  stronger, 

iiid  still  stronger  liii'ior,  lor  a  month  or  si.<c 
■  ■ks  ;  when  they  are  put  into  a  very  strong 
■/e,  with  f,  esh  bark  ground  very  line,  and 
at  the  end  of  two  or  three  months,  according 
to  their  sub^tallces,  ar<;  siidiciently  tanned  ; 
when  tliev  are  taken  out,  hung  on  poles, 
dried,  anJ  are  lit  for  sale.     These  skins  are 

iMerwards  dressed  and  blacked  by  the  cur- 
iieis,  and  are  used  for  the  tipper  leathers  of 
iIkH's,  boots,  &c. 

The  lighter  sort  of  hides,  called  dressing 
liidei,  as  well  as  horse-hiiles,  are  managed 
nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  skins;  and  are 
used  for  coach-work,  harness-work,  &;c.  &c. 

Much  light  has  been  tluown  by  modem, 
chemists  upon  the  theory  of  tanning,  tlujugli 
•t  does  Jiot  appear  that  any  consideiable  im- 
provements have  been  made  in  the  practice 
of  this  art.  M.  Seguin,  in  France,  has  par- 
lic'ularly  distinguished  himself  by  his  re- 
searches on  this  subject. 

In  1795,  .Mr.  William  Desmond  obtained 
a  patent  for  pra'-tising  .Seguin's  method  in 
England,  lleobt  lined  the  tanning  principle 
by  digesting  oak-bark  or  other  proper  ma- 
terial in  cold  water,  in  an  apparatus  nearly 
similar  to  that  us  ■(!  in  the  saltpetre-works. 
That  is,  the  water  which  has  remained  upon 
the  powdered  bark  for  some  time,  in  one  ves- 
sel, is  drawn  oti'by  a  cock,  and  poured  upon 
fresh  tan.  'i'liis  is  again  to  be  drawn  off,  and 
poured  upon  other  fresh  tan  ;  and  in  this  wav 
the  process  is  to  be  continued  to  the  lifth  ves- 
sel, 'i'he  liquor  is  then  higb.ly  coloured,  and 
marks  from  six  to  eight  degrees  upon  the 
hydroii>cter  for  salts.     This  he  calls  ihe  tan- 

-  -omg  lixivium. 
'  The  criterioft  for  ascertaining  its  strength, 
is  the  quantity  of  the  solution  of  gelatine 

•  which  a  given  quantity  of  it  will  |)recipilate. 
Isinglass  i:>  used  for  this  purpose,  being  en- 
tirely composed  of  gelatine.  And  here  it 
may  be  observed,  that  this  is  the  mode  of  as- 
certaining tlie  ([uantity  of  tanning  principh,' 
in  any  vegetable  sub  tance,  and  consequently 
how  far  each  may  be  used  as  a  substitute  for 
oak -bark. 

The  hides,  after  being  prepared  in  the 
usual  way,  are  immersed  for  some  hours  in  a 
weaktanning  lixivium  of  only  one  or  two  de- 
grees; to  obtain  which,  the  latter  portions  of 
the  infusions  are  set  apart,  or  else  some  of 
that  which  has  been  partly  exhausted  by  use  in 
tanning.  The  hides  are  then  to  be  put  into 
a  stronger  lixivium,  where,  in  a  few  days, 
they  will  be  brought  to  the  same  degree  of 
«at«ration  with  the  liquor  in  which  they  are 
immersed.  The  striiigth  of  the  liquor  will 
4)y  this  means  be  considerably  diminished, 
aiul  mast  ilieiefore  be  renewed.     When  the 


T  A  X 

hides  arc  by  this  laeans  completely  iiaUiraf- 
ed,  that  is,  perleclly  t.nned,  they  are  to  be 
removed,  and  slowly  dried  in  the  shade. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  use  the  residuum 
of  the  tanning  lixivium,  or  the  exhausted 
o;«e  (which  contains  a  portion  of  gallc  acid, 
this  forming  a  constituent  part  of  astringent 
vegelable<),  for  the  ,•  .rposi;  of  taking  oH'  the 
hair;  bin  this  liquor  seems  to  contain  ho 
substance^  capable  of  ac  ting  upon  the  epi- 
dermis, or  of  loosening  the  hair ;  and  wiieii 
skin  fs  depilated  by  being  exposed  to  it,  the 
effect  must  really  be  owing  to  incipient  pu- 
trefaction. 

'Ihe  length  of  time  necessary  to  tan  leather 
complbtely,  according  to  the  old  proce^s,  is 
certainly  a  very  great  inconvenience;  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  it  may  be  much 
sho.'tened  by  following  the  ne-.v  method.  It 
has  been  found,  however,  that  the  leather  so 
tanned  has  not  been  so  durable  as  that  wliich 
has  been  formed  by  a  slo'.vcr  process. 

TANTALITE.  This  mineral  has  beeu 
found  in  Tinljud,  in  the  parish  of  Kimito. 
It  has  been  long  known ;  but  before  the 
analysis  of  Ivkeberg,  was  mistaken  for  an  ore 
of  ti.'i.  Kound  in  irregular  crystals,  whicii 
seem  to  be  octahedrons.  Colour  between' 
bluish  grey  and  blackish  grey.  Surface 
smooth,  with  some  lustre.  Lustre  metallic. 
I''racture  compact.  Streak  blackish  grey,  ap- 
proaching brown.  Very  hard.  Not  magnetic. 
Specilic  gravity  7.yj3.  Composed  of  the 
oxides  of  tanlalium,  iron,  and  manganese. 

TANTATJUM.  Mr.  Kkeberg,  a  Swed- 
ish chemist  of  considerable  eminence,  has 
lately  discovered  a  new  metal  constittiting  a 
component  part  of  two  minerals,  found  in  the 
parish  of  Kimito  in  Fuiland.  The  fust  of 
these  minerals,  which  he  calls  lantalite,  has  a 
bluish  or  blackiVh  grey  colour,  crystallized 
confusedly,  with  a  metallic  lustre  and  com- 
pact fracture.  It  is  very  hard,  and  its  spe- 
cihc  gravity  is  7.953,  It  has  beeu  long  know  n, 
and  mistaken  for  an  ore  of  tin. 

The  other  mineral,  called  yttro-tantalite,  is 
found  in  small  kidney-form  masses.  It  is  of 
a  deep-grey  colour,  has  a  metallic  lustre,  and 
a  granular  fracture.  It  is  not  hard.  Its  spe- 
cilic gravity  is  5.130. 

From  iMch  of  these  minerals  Mr.  Fkeberg 
extracted,  by  a  chemical  analysis,  a  while 
powder,  which  he  ascertained  to  be  the  oxide 
of  a  peculiar  metal,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  tantalium. 

When  this  white  oxide  of  tantalium  is 
strongly  heated  along  with  charcoal  in  a  cru- 
cible, it  yields  a  button  moderately  hard, 
which  has  the  metallic  lustre  externally,  but 
within  is  black  and  destitute  of  briliiancv. 
The  acids  convert  it  again  into  the  slate  of 
white-coloured  oxide. 

This  oxide  does  not  alter  its  colour,  though 
heated  to  redness.  Us  specilic  gravity  is  fi.jdd. 
It  is  not  acted  on  by  acids,  nor  is  it  soluble  in 
any  of  them.  It  was  this  insolubility  in  acitis 
which  induced  Ekeberg  to  give  it  the  name 
of  tantalium,  from  the  fabled  punishment  of 
Tantalus. 

This  oxide  combines  with  the  alkalies  ex- 
cept ammonia,  and  forms  with  them  com- 
pounds soluble  in  water.  When  melted  with 
phospliat  of  soda  and  borax,  it  forms  with 
them  glasses  destitute  of  colour.  Such  are 
the  only  properties  of  this  luclal  hitherto 
published. 

5E2 


A  P 


//I 


The  rcie.iibhnce  between  ♦!)<•  ovide-?  of 
tantalium  and  coluniljimu  is  strikii'ig.  'i  lie 
only  properly  m  which  tiiey  diller  is,  the  i;  - 
solubility  of  tha  first  in  acit'ls  ;  but  we  know 
liot  what  acids  Ekeberg  tried,  aiul  Mr.  Hai- 
chett  found  the  oxide  oi  colimibium  insoluble 
in  mtvic  acid. 

TANTALUS,  or  I»is,  a  gtwis  ofhirds  of 
the  order  grallai.  'j'he  generic  character  is, 
bill  long,  subulate,  roundisii  siibarchcd  ;  fticc 
naked  ;  nostrils  oval ;  feet  four-toed,  pahnafe 
at  the  base,  T'here  are  23  species ;  the  moit 
remarkable  are : 

I.  The  loculator,  of  wood  ibis:  (I.)  face 
bluish  ;  bill  reddish  ;  legs,  quiil  and  tail  lea- 
thers, black;  body  white.  {2.)  Head  and 
neck  while,  varied  with  yellow  ;  body  black ; 
belly  cinereous.  (3.)  Wing-coveiiS  while, 
with  a  bl.ick  blotch  in  the  middle.  Inhabits 
New  Holland,  and  liie  warmer  pai'ts  of  Ame- 
rica. It  is  three  fee  I  long;  is  very  slov.- iu 
llight,  and  stupid;  sits  on  trees,  and  feeds 
on  J)erbs,  seeds,  fruits,  fish,  and  reptiles. 
The  flesh  is  very  much  estetincd. 

U.  'Ihe  Icucephalus,  or  vfhiic-headcd  ibis, 
inhabits  India  ;  and  every  year  before  tlic 
rainy  se;tt;on  sets  in,  it  sheds  its  ro>y  feathers. 

3.  The  ibis,  or  Egyptian  ibis,  inhabits  in 
vast  numbers  ihf;  lower  ])ail  of  Egypt,  and  is 
held  sacred  by  the  inhabitants  for  its  use  in  - 
clearing  the  land  of  ix-plilcs  and  insects,  which 
are  left  after  the  inunclation  oftlieNUe.  It 
rests  in  an  erect  posture,  and  is  said  to  de- 
stroy the  young  of  th.e  crocodile. 

4.  Tlie  melanoceplialiis,  or  black-teadcd 
ibis,  is  a  very  beautiful  bird  that  iiihabite 
India.    See  Pi'ate  Nal.  Hist.  fig.  391. 

Tantalus's  cup.     See  livBRAutics. 

'I'Af  E-woRM.     SeeT.«iKiA. 

TAl'ESTUY,  a  kind  of  woven  hangings 
of  wool  and  silk,  frequently  raised  and  en- 
riched wilh  gold  and  silver,  representing 
ligures  of  men,  animals,  landscapes,  his- 
tories, I'cc. 

The  im'ention  of  tapestry  seems  to  have 
come  to  us  from  the  Levant ;  and  this  ap- 
pears the  more  probable,  as  the  workm-n 
concerned  in  it  were  calietl,  at  least  in  I'rance, 
saira-siiis,  or  sorrasinois.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  English  and  Flemish,  who  were  the  first 
lliat  excelled  in  making  tapestry,  might 
bring  the  art  with  them  from  some  of  the 
crus.ide.s,  or  expeditions  against  the  Saracens. 

Tapestry-work  is  distingui--hed  by  the  workr 
men  into  two  kinds,  viz.  tiiat  of  high,  and  that 
of  low  warp  ;  though  the  ditlereiice  is  rather 
in  ihe  manner  of  working  than  in  the  work 
itself,  which  is  in  effect  the  same  in  both, 
only  the  looms,  and  conso<]uently  the  warps, 
are  diii'irently  situated  ;  those  of  the  low 
warp  being  pfaced  flat  and  parallel  to  the  liC- 
rixon,  and  those,  on  the  contrary,  of  the  high 
warp,  erected  perpendicularly.  The  English 
antiently  excelled  all  the  world  m  the  tapestry 
of  the  high  warp. 

The  manufacture  of  tapestry  of  the  link 
•ivarp.  The  loom,  whereon  h  is  w  roiight,''is 
placed  perpendicidarly.  It  consists  of  four 
principal  pieces  ;  two  long  planks  or  cheeks 
of  wood,  and  two  thick  rollers  or  beans.  The 
planks  are  set  upright,  and  the  beams  across 
them,  one  at  the  top,  and  the  otiicr  atlbe 
bottom,  or  about  a  foot  distance  from  tb^ 
ground.  They  have  each  their  trumiions 
bv  which  they  are  suspended  on  the  planks* 
and  are  turned  witJi  bars.     In  each  roller  15^ 


772  T  A  P 

groove  from  one  end  to  tlie  o'.her,  capable  of 
containing  a  long  round  piece  of  wood,  fast- 
ened tiierein  with  hooks.  The  use  of  it  is 
to  lie  the  ends  of  the  warp  to.  The  warp, 
which  is  a  kind  of  worsted,  or  Isvisted  woollen 
thread,  is  wound  on  the  upper  roller ;  and 
the  work,  as  fast  as  w  oven,  is  wound  on  the 
lower.  Withinside  the  planks,  whidi  are 
seven  or  eight  feet  high,  14  or  15  iriclies 
broad,  and  three  or  four  thick,  are  holes 
piercetl  from  top  to  bottom,  in  which  are  put 
thick  pieces  of  iron,  with  hooks  at  one  end. 
Serving  to  sustain  the  coat-stave :  tliese 
pieces  of  iron  have  *also  holes  pierced,  by 
putting  a, pin  in  which,  the  stave  is  drawn 
nearer  or  set  further  olf;  and  thus  the  coals 
or  threads  are  slrelciied  or  loosened  at  plea- 
sure. The  coal-stave  is  alio' it  three  inciu-s 
diameter,  and  runs  all  the  length  of  the  loom  ; 
on  this  are  fixed  the  coats  or  tineads,  which 
make  the  threads  of  the  warp  cross  each 
other.  It  has  much  the  same  effect  here,  as 
the  spriag-stave  and  treadles  have  in  the  com- 
mon looms.  The  coats  are  little  threads  fast- 
ened to  each  thread  of  the  warp  with  a  kind 
of  sliding  knot,  which  forms  a  sort  of  mesh  or 
ring.  Tliey  serve  to  keep  the  warp  open  for 
the  passage  of  broaches  wound  with  silks, 
woollens,  or  other  matters  used  in  the  piece 
oftapestrv.  In  tlie  last  place,  there  are  a 
number  of  little  sticks  of  different  lengths, 
but  all  about  an  incii  in  diameter,  which  the 
workman  keeps  by  him  in  baskets,  to  serve 
to  make  the  threads  of  the  warp  cross  each 
other,  by  passing  them  across;  and,  that  tlie 
threads  thus  crossed  may  retain  tlieir  proper 
situation,  a  packthread  is  run  among  the 
threads,  above  the  stick. 

The  loom  being  thus  formed,  and  mounted 
with  its  warp,  the  first  thing  the  workman 
does,  is  to  draw  on  the  threads  of  this  warp, 
the  principal  lines  and  strokes  of  the  design 
to  be  represented  on  the  piece  of  tapestry  ; 
which  is  done  by  applying  cartoons,  made 
from  the  painting  he  intends  to  copy,  to  tlie 
side  that  is  to  be  the  wrong  side  of  the  piece, 
aiid  then,  with  a  black-ljad  pencil,  following 
and  tracing  out  the  contour^  thereof  on  the 
thread  of  the  right  side,  so  ihat  the  strokes 
appear  e<|ually  both  before  and  beliind. 

As  for  the  original  design  the  work  is  to  be 
Cmished  by,  it-is  hung  up  behind  the  work- 
nuMi,  and'wound  on  a  long  staff",  from  which 
a  piece  is  unrolled  from  time  to  lime  as  the 
work  proceeds. 

Besides  the  loom,  &c.  here  described,  there 
are  three  other  principal  instruments  re.'niiied 
for  workin.;  the  silk  or  the  wool  of  the  woof 
within  the  threads  of  the  warp  ;  these  are  a 
bro.icli,  a  reed,  and  an  iron  needle. 
.,  The  broach  is  made  of  a  hard  wood,  seven 
or  eight  iiicl^fs  long,  and  two-lliiids  of  an  inch 
thick^,  ending  m  a  point  with  a  little  handle. 
This  serves  as  a  shutlle ;  the  silks,  woollens, 
gold,  or  silver,  to  be  used  in  the  work,  being 
wound  on  it, 

•  The  reed  or  comb  is  also  of  wood,  eight  or 
nine  inches  long,  and  an  inch  thick  on  the 
back,  whence  it  grows  less  and  less  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  teeth,  which  are  more  or  less 
apart,  according  to  the  greater  or  less  degree 
of  fineness  of  the  intendid  work.  Lastly,  the 
needle  is  made  in  form  of  the  common  needle, 
only  l.irger  and  longer.  Its  use  is  to  press 
close  the  wool  and  silks  when  there  is  aoy 
line  or  colour  that  does  not  fit  well. 


TAP 

All  things  being  prepared  for  the  v.-ork, 
and  the  wurkinan  ready  to  be^ii*,  he  places  • 
himself  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  piece,  with 
his  back  towards  the  design  ;  so  that  hi?  w-ofks 
in  a  manner  blindfold,  seeing  nothing  of 
what. he  does,  and  being  obliged  to  quit  his 
post,  and  go  to  the  other  side  of  the  lo.-.m, 
whenever  he  would  view  ami  examine  the 
piece,  to  correct  it  with  his  jjressin^-  needle. 
To  put  silk,  &c.  in  the  warp,  he  hrsL  turns 
and  looks  at  the  design  ;  theif,  taking  a  broacii- 
ful  of  the  proper  colour,  he  pl.ices  it  among 
llic  threads  of  the  warp,  which  he  brings 
cross  each  other  with  his  lingers,  by  means  of 
liie  coats  or  threads  fastened  to  the  slalT ;  this 
•he  repeals  every  time  he  is  to  change  his 
colour.  Having  placed  the  silk  or  wool,  he 
beats  it  with  his'ieed  or  comb;  and  when  he 
has  thus  wrour.iit  in  several  rows  over  each 
other,  he  goes  to  see  the  effects  they  have,  in 
order  to  reform  the  contours  w-ith  his  needle, 
if  there  should  be  occasion.  As  tlie  work  ad- 
vances, it  is  rolled  upon  the  lower  beam,  and 
they  unrol  as  much  warp  from  the  upper 
beam  as  suffices  them  to  continue  the  piece  ; 
the  like  they  do  of  the  design  behind  them. 
When  the  pieces  are  wide,  several  workmen 
may  be  employed  at  once. 

We  have  two  things  to  add :  the  first  is, 
that  the  high-warf)  ta'pestry  goes  on  much 
more  slowly  than  the  low-warp,  and  takes  up 
almost  twice  the  time  and  trouble.  The 
second  is,  that  all  the  difference  that  the  eye 
can  perceive  between  the  two  kinds,  consists 
ill  this  ;  that  in  the  low  warp  there  is  a  red 
fillet,  about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  broad,  run- 
ning on  each  side  from  lop  to  bottom,  which 
is  wanting  in  the  high  warp. 

But,  for  the  salislaction  of  our  readers,  w-e 
shall  liere  describe  the  principal  parts  of  the 
loom  for  the  manufacture  of  tapestry  of 
the  high  warp,  or  that  in  a  situation  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon.  The  loom  consists, 
1.  Of  two  strong  upright  posts  fixed  in 
the  floor:  these  support  (2.)  two  rollers,  of 
which  the  upper  end  holds  the  chain,  the 
lower  holds  the  tapestry,  which  is  rolled 
upon  it  according  as  the  work  goes  forward : 
the  th  reads  are  fastened  at  their  ends  to  a 
dweet,  or  thick  rod,  which  is  lodged  in  a 
groove  made  on  each  roller.  3.  'I'lie  two 
taiitoes,  one  called  f  he  great  tantoe,  for  turn- 
ing the  upper  roller  ;  the  other,  the  little 
lautoe,  for  luriiing  tlie  lower  roller.  4.  The 
pole  of  the  leishes,  which  runs  quite  across 
the  chain,  takes  up  all  the  leisiies,  and  brings 
them  to  the  workman's  hand.  These  leishes 
are  liftie  strings,  tied  by  a  slip-knot  to  each 
thread  of  the  ciiain,  to  be  raised  up  according 
as  the  chain  sniks  down  :  they  serve  to  draw 
the  particular  threae]  which,  the  weaver  wants. 
He  holds  the  thread  separate  from  the  rest, 
and  passes  a  spindle  of  such  a  woof  and  colour 
as  he  thinks  proper  ;  then  lie  lets  the  spindle 
hang  down,  and  hinders  the  thread  ft'om  run- 
ning M'f  by  a  slip-knot.  After  having  taken 
one  or  two  threads  of  the  fore  pan  of  the 
chain  by  another  leish,  he  brings  the  threads 
of  the  opposite  side  to  him.  By  this  alterna- 
tive work  he  consfantly  makes  them  cross  one 
another,  to  take  in  and  secure  the  woof.  .In 
order  to  distinguish  the  threads  of  both  sides, 
he  is  assisted  by  the  cross  rod,  which  is  put 
between  two  rows  of  threads.  5.  A  long 
tiart  of  dots  formed  by  the  ends  of  the  leishes 
which  take  hold  of  the  leishes  of  the  chain  by 
a  slip  knot ;  and  on  the  other  hand  caconi- 


T  A  P 

pass  the  pole  of  the  leishes.  6.  The  crow- 
rod.  7.  A  liftie  chain,  each  loopofwluclj 
contains  four  or  five  threads  of  the  warp,  and 
keeps  Uieni  perpendicular.  8.  An  iron  hook, 
to  support  ihe  pole  of  the  leishes.  9,  The 
broacher-quill,  to  pass  Ihe  threads  of  the, 
woof,  which  is  wound  on  it.  10.  The  comb, 
to  sirike  in  ihe  work.  1  1.  'Ihe  end  of  llic 
dweet  lei  into  (he  roller,  in  a  groove. 

\^hcii  the  chain  is  mounted,  tiie  draughts- 
man traces  the  principal  outlines  of  the  pic- 
lure,  which  is  lobe  wrought  with  black  chalk 
on  the  fore  and  back  side  of  the  chain.  I'he 
weaver  in  the  upright  way  having  prepared  a 
good  stock  of  quilis,  fillecl  with  lliieiKls  of  all 
colours,  goes  to  work,  placed  on  the  back 
part,  as  in  the  flat  way,  or  in  the  manufaclure 
of  Ihe  low  warp.  He  has  behind  him  his 
drawings,  on  which  he  frequently  looks,  that 
he  may  from  time  to  time  see  how  his  work 
succeeds  on  the  right  or  fore  side,  which  the 
other  cannot  do. 

TAPIR,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the 
order  bellua;.  The  generic  character  is, 
front  teeth  in  both  jaws,  ten ;  canine  teeth  in 
both  jaws,  single,  incurvated  ;  grinders  in  both 
jaws,  five  on  each  side,  very  broad  ;  feet  with 
three  hools,  and  a  false  hoof  on  the  fore  feet. 

Tapir  Americanus,  American  tapir.  The 
tapir,  with  respect  to  the  size  of  it^  body,  may 
be  considered  as  the  largest  of  all  the"native 
((uadrupeds  of  South  America,  except  the 
lately  discovered  equus  bisulcus  of  Molina. 
When  full-grown  U  is  nearly  e.jual  to  a 
heiler.  In  its  general  form  it  bears  some  dis- 
tant resemblance  to  the  hippopotamus,  and  in 
the  earlier  editions  of  ihe  Systema  Naturs 
was  ranked  by  Linnxus  in  that  genus,  under 
the  title  of  hippopotamus  terrestris.  By  others 
it  has  been  considered  as  more  allied  to  the 
hog,  and  has  been  called  sus  aquaticus  mul- 
tisulcus,  or  water-hog  with  fingered  hoof ; 
bul,  in  reality,  the  tapir  cannot  properly  be 
a^sociated,  otherwise  than  by  a  distant  gene- 
ral alliance,  with  any  other  quadruped,  and 
forms  a  peculiar  genus.  It  is  of  a  gregarious 
nature,  and  inhabits  the  woods  and  rivers  of 
the  eastern  parts  of  South  America;  occur- 
ring from  the  islhiiius  of  Darien  to  the  river 
Amazons ;  feeding  chiedy  by  night,  and  eat- 
ing sugar-caijes,  grasses,  and  various  kinds  of 
fruit.  Its  colour  is  an  obscure  brown,  the 
skin  itself  being  of  that  cast,  and  covered 
sparingly  with  somewhat  short  hair:  the 
young  animal  is  said  to  be  commonly  spotted 
with  white.  The  male  is  distinguished  by  a 
kind  of  short  proboscis  or  trunk,  formed  by 
the  prolongation  of  the  upper  lip  to  some 
distance  beyond  the  lower :  this  part  is  ex- 
tensile, wrnikled  at  the  sides,  and  in  some 
degree  resembles  that  of  the  elephant  on  a 
smaller  scale,  though  not  of  the  same  tubular 
structure.  The  neck  is  very  short,  and  fur- 
nished abovewith  a  rising  mane  ;  the  body  is 
thick  and  heavy ;  the  back  much  arched  ; 
the  legs  short ;  the  fore  feet  divided  inlo  lour 
toes  witli  pointed  hoofs ;  the  hind  into  three 
only  ;  the  tail  is  very  short,  thickish,  and 
pointed.  The  female  is  said  to  be  destitute 
of  the  proboscis. 

In  its  manners  this  animal  is  perfectly 
harmless ;  endeavouring  merely  to  save  it- 
self by  flight  when  pursued,  plunging  into 
some  river  if  at  hand,  and  swimming  with 
great  readiness,  and  even  continuing  for  a 
considerable  time  under  water,  in  IheHiamier 


TAR 

of  the  hippopotamus.  The  young  is  easily 
tamed,  ami  iiuiy  be  reiuleieil  (loiuestic,  as  is 
said  to  l)i'  (he  case  in  some  parts  of  Guiana. 
In  tVeiiing,  tlie  tapir  makes  use  of  the  trunk. 
in  tl)t  sajiie  manimr  as  tlic  rhinoceros  of  its 
upper  lip,  to  grasp  the  stems  of  plants,  leaves, 
&.C.  lis  most  common  attitude,  when  at 
rest,  is  sitting  on  its  rump,  in  the  manner  of 
dog. 

I'he  tapir  lias  been  occasionally  imported 
alive  iiiti>  Europe.  The  flesh  is  considered 
Ijy  the  .Soutli  Americans  as  a  wholesome  food, 
though  not  very  |)leasant  or  delicate,  and  the 
skill  s;'rves  for  various  pur()0se5  where  a 
strong  leather  is  recpiired.  'I'he  Indians 
make  shields  of  it,  which  are  .sa'd  to  be  so 
hard  that  an  arrow  cannot  pierce  them.  'Iliis 
animal  sleeps  much  by  day  in  the  retired 
paits  of  the  wood^,  and  is  shot  by  the  Indians 
with  poisoned  arrows.  Wlu'ii  attacked  by 
dogs,  it  is  said  to  make  a  very  vigorous  ro 
sistance.  Its  voice  is  a  kind  of  whistle,  which 
is  easily  imitated,  and  thus  llie  animal  is  often 
deceived  and  trepanned.  It  is  rather  slow  in 
its  motions,  and  of  a  somev.liat  inactive  dis- 
position. 

The  tapir  produces  but  one  young  at  a 
birth,  of  which  it  is  e.\tremely  careful ;  lead- 
ing it  early  to  the  water.  In  order  to  instruct 
it  in  swimming,  &c.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist. 
fig.  392. 

TAPPIXG.    See  Surgery. 

TAK.     See  Pinus,  Resins,  and  Dixu- 

MEN. 

TAR.\NTULA.     SccAranea. 

TARCIIONANTnL'S,/™-6rtne,  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  class  of  syngenesia, 
and  to  the  order  ot  polygamia  a:qualis,  and  in 
the  natural  sy  tern  ranging  under  the  49th 
order,  composite.  The  receptacle  is  villous, 
and  the  pappus  plumy ;  the  calvx  is  mono- 
phy  Ions,  turhmated,  and  half  divided  into 
seven  seg;nents.  There  are  onlv  three  spe- 
cies known;  the  csinphoratus,  glaber,  and 
ei'icoides. 

TARE,  is  an  allo\vance  for  the  outside 
package,  that  contains  such  goods  as  cannot 
be  unpacked  without  detriment;  or  for  tiie 
papers,  threads,  bands,  &c.  that  inclose  or 
bind  any  goods  imported  loose  ;  or,  though 
imported  in  casks,  chests,  &c.  yet  cannot  be 
iinpacketl  and  weighed  net. 

TAR(J10NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  of  cryptogamia,  and  natural  order  of 
alga?.  The  caly.x  is  bivalved,  including  a 
globular  body.  There  is  onlv  one  species  ; 
the  hypophylla,  whicli  is  a  native  of  Great 
Britain. 

TARGUM,  a  name  whereby  the  Jews  call 
the  Chaldee  paraphrases,  or  expositions  of 
the  Old  Testament,  in  the  Ciialdee  lan- 
guage. 

TARIF,  or  Tariff,  a  table  or  catalogue, 
containing  the  names  of  diffi-rent  sorts  of 
merchandize,  with  the  duties  to  be  paid, 
as  settled  by  authority  ,  amongst  trading  na- 
tions. 

TARSUS.     See  Anatomy. 

TARTAR,  or,  according  to  the  new  che- 
mistry, Tartrat  of  Potass,  is  obtained 
!n  a  state  of  impurity,  incrusted  on  the  bot- 
tom and  sides  of  casks  in  which  wine  lias  been 
kept.  It  is  afterwards  purified  by  dis.>olving 
it  in  boiling  water,  and  filtring  it  while  hot. 
On  cooling,  it  deposits  the  pure  salt  in  very 
irregular  crystals.  In  this  state  it  is  sold  under 
11 


T  A  U 

the  name  of  crystals  or  cream  of  tartar.  This 
salt  attracted  the  peculiar  attention  of  che- 
mists, probably  in  consequence  of  the  extra- 
vagant encomiums  and  invectives  bestowed 
on  it  by  Paracelsus.  It  is  called  tartar,  says 
he,  because  it  produces  the  oil,  waiter,  tinc- 
ture, and  salt,  wdiich  burn  the  patient  as  liell 
<loes.  According  to  him,  it  is  the  principle 
of  every  disease,  and  every  remedy,  and  all 
things  contain  the  germ  of  it.  This  ridicil- 
lous  theory  was  combated  by  Van  Ilelniont, 
who  gives  a  pretty  accurate  account  of  the 
formation  of  tartar  in  wine-casks.  It  was 
known  to  Van  Helmont,  and  even  to  his 
predecessors,  that  potass  could  be  obtaine<l 
from  tartar;  but  it  was  long  a  disputed  point 
among  chemists,  whether  the  alkali  existed  in 
it  ready-formed.  Duhamel,  Margralf,  and 
Rouelle,  at  last  established  that  point  beyond 
a  doubt ;  but  the  other  component  part  of 
tartar  was  unknown,  or  very  imperfectly 
known,  till  .Schecle  pointed  out  the  method 
of  extracting  it. 

The  crystals  of  tartar  are  very  small  and 
irregular.  According  to  Mantet,  they  are 
prisms,  somewhat  flat,  and  mostly  with  six 
sides.  Tartar  has  an  acid,  and  rather  uii- 
|)leasant  taste.  It  is  very  brittle,  and  easily 
reduced  to  powder.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
1 .9  j,3.  It  is  soluble  in  about  (iO  parts  of  cold 
water,  and  in  about  .30  parts  of  boiling  water. 
It  is  not  altered  by  expos-iire  to  tlie  air;  but 
when  its  solution  in  water  is  allowed  to  re- 
main for  some  time,  the  sat  is  gradually  de- 
coriiposed,  a  mucous  matter  is  deposited,  and 
there  remains  in  solution  carbonat  of  potass 
coloured  with  a  little  oil.  This  decompo- 
sition was  first  accurately  described  by  Ber- 
thoUetin  1782. 

When  tartar  is  heated,  it  melts,  swells, 
blackens,  and  the  acid  is  entirely  decom- 
posed. The  same  changes  take  place  when 
the  salt  is  distilled  in  close  vessels.  The  phe- 
nomena of  this  distillation  have  been  describ- 
ed with  great  care,  and  its  products  very  at- 
tentively examined,  by  chemists ;  because, 
before  the  discovery  of  the  tartaric  acid  by 
Scheele,  distillation  was  the  only  method 
thought  of  for  obtaining  any  kjiowledge  of  the 
acid  part  of  tartar.  These  products  are  an 
enormous  quantity  of  gas,  consisting  of  car- 
bonic acid  and  carbureted  liydrogen,  an  oil, 
and  an  acid  ;  and,  according  to  some  che- 
mists, carbonat  of  ammonia.  The  acid  ob- 
tained was  long  consiflered  as  a  peculiar 
body,  and  was  denominated  pyrotartarous 
acid  by  the  French  chemists  in  17S7.  But 
Foiircroy  and  Vauciueliii  have  lately  demon- 
strated, that  it  is  no  other  than  acetic  acid 
contaminated  with  a  little  empyreuniatic  oil. 

Tartar,   according  to  Bergman,  is   com- 
posed of  77  acid 
23  potass 

100. 

Or    -     -     -    56  tartrat  of  potass 
44  tartaric  acid 

100. 
According  to  the  late  analysis  of  Tenard, 
its  coiiipouent  parts  are 
57  acid 
33  potass 
7  water 


1   .\  R 


7/3 


TARTARIC  ACID.  Sclieele  was  the 
first  who  oblainid  this  acid  in  a  separate 
state.  He  communicated  his  process  for 
obtaining  it  to  Retzius,  who  published  it  iu 
the  Stockholm  i  ransaclions  for  1770.  It 
Consisted  in  boiling  tartar  with  lime,  and  in 
decomposing  the  tartrat  of  lime  thus  formed 
by  means  of  sulphuric  acid.   ■ 

1.  '1  he  process  employed  at  present  for 
obtaining  tartaric  acid,  which  is  the  same 
with  that  of  Scheele,  is  the  following:  Dis- 
solve tartar  hi  boiling  water,  and  add  to  the 
solution  powdered  chalk  till  all  effe^vescence 
ceases,  and  the  liquid  ceases  to  redden  vege^ 
ta4)le  blues.  Let  the  liquid  cool,  and  theii 
pass  it  "through  a  filtre.  A  quantity  of  tar- 
trat of  lime  (which  is  an  hisoluble  white 
powder)  remains  upon  the  filtre.  Put  tlus 
tartrat,  previously  well  washed,  into  a  glass 
cucurbite,  and  pour  on  it  a  ipiantity  of  bul- 
phuric  acid  eciual  to  the  weight  of  the  chalk 
employed,  which  must  be  diluted  with  water. 
Allow  it  to  digest  for  twelve  hours,  stirring 
it'  occasionally,  The  sulphuric  acid  dis- 
places the  tartaric ;  sulphat  of  lime  remains 
Kt  the  bottom,  while  the  tartaric  acid  is  dis- 
solved in  the  lupiid  part.  Decant  olif  this 
last,  and  try  whether  it  contains-  any  sul- 
phuric acid.  Tills  is  done  by  dropping  in  a 
little  acetat  of  lead  ;  a  precipitate  appears, 
wliich  is  insoluble  in  acetic  acid  if  sulphuric 
acid  is  present,  but  soluble  if  it  is  absent.  If 
sulphuric  acid  is  present,  the  liquid  must  be 
digested  again  on  some  more  tartrat  of  lime  ; 
if  not,  it  is  to  be  slowly  evaporated,  and 
about  one-third  part  of  the  weight  of  the  tar- 
tar employed  is  obtainetl  of  crystallized  taj- 
taric  acid. 

'-.  The  form  of  its  crystals  is  so  irregular, 
that  every  chemist  who  has  treated  of  this 
subject  has  given  a  dirt'erent  de^cr;plion  of 
them.  According  to  Bergman,  they  gene- 
rally consist  of  divaricating  lamella- ;  accord- 
ing to  Van  Packeji,  they  assume  oflenest  the 
form  of  long-pointed  prisms ;  Spielman  and 
Corvinus  obtained  them  in  groups,  some  of 
them  lance-shaped,  others  needle-formed, 
others  pyramidal.  Morveau  obtained  them 
needle-form.  Their  specific  gravity  is  1.5962. 

3.  Crystallized  tartaric  acid  does  not  ex- 
perience any  change  in  the  open  air,  but  heat 
tlecomposes  it  altogether  :  in  the  open  fire 
it  burns  without  leaving  any  other  residuian 
than  a  spungy  charcoal,  which  generally 
contains  a  little  lime.  When  distilled  iu 
close  vessels,  it  is  converted  into  carbonic 
acid  gas  anil  carbureted  hydrogen  gas,  a  co- 
loured oil,  and  a  reddish  acid  liquor,  whicli 
was  formerly  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
pyrotartarous  acid,  but  which  Fourcroy  and 
\  auquelin  have  lately  ascertained  to  be 
merely  acetic  acid  impregnated  with  oil. 

4.  Tartaric  acid  dissolves  readily  in  water. 
Bergman  obtained  a  solution,  the  specific 
gravity  of  which  was  1.230.  Morveau  ob- 
served, however,  that  crystals  formed  spon- 
taneously in  a  solution,  the  specific  gravity 
of  which  was  1.0S4.  It  is  not  liable,  to  spon- 
taneous decomposition  when  dissolved  in 
water,  unless  the  solution  is  coiisidei"ably  di- 
luted. 

5.  Neither  its  action  on  oxygen  gas  nor  oq 
simple  combustibles  and  incombustibles  has 
been  examined;  but  it  is  probable  that  it  is 
not  capable  of  producing' any  sensible  change 
on  them.  It  is  capable  of  oxidwing  iron  and 
zinc,  and  even  mercury  ;  but  it  does  not  act 


"74 


TAX 


upiii  antiiiioin-,  bi>iiiutli,  tin,  Uail,  copper, 
silvt-r,  gold,  or  platimini.  Its  action  on  (lie 
other  metallic  bodies  has  scarcely  been  ex- 
ami[>cd. 

6.  It  combines  with  alkalies,  earths,  and 
metallic  oxides,  and  forms  sails  known  by  the 
n.nne  ofliii'trats. 

7.  'I'hf  action  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
other  acids  on  it  h  inikmnMi.  Hernistadt 
lias  ascertained,  tliat  it  may  be  converted 
ii'.to  o\alic  acitl'by  distilling  it  repeatedly 
with  bi\  times  its  weight  oj,  nitric  acfd.  Hy 
this  process  he  obtaii.ed  jOO  parts  ot  oxatic 
acid  from  300  [jarts  of  tartaric  acid. 

fi.  From  Ihis  resnit,  and  from  the  products 
obtained  when  tartaric  acid  is  distilled,  it  is 
evident  that  it  is  composed  of  oxygen,  carbon, 
and  livdrogen.  1-biircroy  informs  iis,  that 
^'an^nJelin  and  he  have  ascertained  that  these 
ingredients  are  combined  in  it  the  following 
proportions : 

70.5  oxyfreii 
19.0  carbon 
10.5  hydrogen 

100.0 

9.  The  afliiiitics  of  this  acid  follow  the 
same  order  as  those  of  oxalic  acid. 

Tartaric  acid,  in  a  state  of  pmity,  has 
scarcely  been  pnt  to  any  nse  ;  but  some  of 
the  compounds  into  which  it  enters  are  much 
employed  in  medicine.  This  acTd  has  the 
property  o;  combining  in  two  dilferent  pro- 
portions with  a  great  number  of  base.-.  \Vith 
potass,  for  instance,  in  one  proportion,  it 
forms  a  -salt  pretty  soluble  in  water,  called 
lartrat  of  potass  ;  but  when  added  in  a  greater 
proportion,  it  forms  tartar,  a  salt  very  impw- 
fectly  soluble  in  water.  I?y  tliis  pvo|)erty, 
the  presence  of  tartaric  acid,  in  any  acid  so- 
lution, may  easily  be  detected.  All  that  is 
necessary  is,  to  drop  in  slowly  a  little  solution 
of  potass  ;  if  tartaric  acid  is  present,  tartar 
immediately  precipitates  in  the  form  of  a 
while  grillv  powder. 

TAUTK.4TS,  salts  formed  with  th.e  tar- 
taric acid. 

TAURUS.     Sec  Astronomy. 

'i'.'VX.     See  Revenue,  Customs,  ?<;c. 

TAXUS,  the  Yew-tree,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  class  of  dicrcia,  and  order  of 
Tiionadelphi. ;  and  in  the  natural  system 
ranging  under  Uie  51st  order,  conifeia-.  'I'here 
is  no  male  calyx  or  corolla  ;  the  stamina  are 
TMunerous  :  the  anthenv  peltated  and  octolid. 
The  female  has  no  corolla  nor  style,  and 
only  one  seed  with  a  calycle  resembling  a 
berry  very  entire.  There  are  four  spi-cies  ; 
of  which  the  baccata,  or  common  yew-tree, 
is  a  native  of  Britain,  France,  Swil/erland, 
Aic.  and  of  North  America.  It  is  distinguish- 
ed from  the  other  species  by  linear  leaves 
^liich  grow  very  close,  and  by  the  receptacles 
••Jl  the  male  flowers  being  subglobose.  The 
wood  is  reddish,  full  of  veins,  and  flexible, 
very  hard  and  smooth,  and  almost  incorrup- 
tible. Its  hardness  renders  it  very  proper  lor 
turners  and  cabiiuH-makers.  Its  berries  are 
often  (Mten  by  birds,  and  are  therefore  not 
poisonous;  but  it  is  a  conunon  opinion  that 
the  leaves  are  poisonous  to  cattle,  and  many 
facts  are  mentioned  of  horses  and  cows  liav- 
ing  eaten  them.  Others,  however,  deny 
the^e  facts.  It  is  of  no  great  height,  but  the 
trunk  grows  to  a  large  size.  Kir.  Pennant 
tiai  taken  notice  of  a  very  reniarkabh;  de- 


T  E  A 

cave'.:  one  in  Fortingal  church  yard,  tlie  re» 
mains  of  which  measured  filty-slx  feet  and  a 
lialf  in  circumference. 

'I  EARS,  and  Mucus.  '.  That  peculiar 
iliiil  which  is  employed  in  lubricating  the 
eve,  and  which  is  emitted  in  considerable 
quantities  when  we  express  grief  by  weeping, 
is  known  by  tiie  nume  of  tears.  For  an  accu- 
rate analyis"  of  this  fluid,  we  are  indebled  to 
Messrs.  "Fourcroy  and  Vau(iuclin.  Before 
thejr  dissertation,  which  was  published  in 
1791,  ai'pcared,  scarcely  was  any  thing 
know  n  about  the  nature  of  tears. 

The  liijuid  called  tears  is  transparent  and 
colourless  like  water;  it  has  scarcely  any 
smell,  but  its  taste  is  always  perceptibly  salt. 
Its  speciric  gravity  is  somewhat  greater  than 
that  of  distilled  water.  It  gives  to  paper, 
stained  with  the  juice  of  the'petals  of  mallows 
or  violets,  a  permanently  green  colour,  and 
therefore  contains  a  fixed  alkali.  It  iniites 
with  water,  whether  cold  or  hot,  in  all  pro- 
portions. Alkalies  unite  with  it  readily,  and 
render  it  more  fluid.  The  mineral  acids 
produce  no  apparent  change  upon  it.  E.x- 
posed  to  the  air,  this  licpiid  gradually  evapo- 
rates, and  becomes  thicker.  When  nearly 
reduced  to  a  state  of  dryness,  a  number  of 
cubic  crystals  form  in  the  midst  of  a  kind  of 
mucilage.  These  crystals  possess  tlie  pro- 
perties of  muriat  of  soda  ;  but  they  tinge  ve- 
getable blues  greeri,  and  therelbre  contain  an 
excess  of  soda.  'I'he  mucil.iginous  matter 
aci|uires  a  vellowish  colour  as  it  dries. 

This  liquid  boils  like  water,  excepting  that 
a  considerable  froth  coUecls  on  its  surface. 
If  it  is  kept  a  sufficient  time  at  th^.-  boiling 
temperature,  -^^'^  parts  of  it  evaporate  in 
water;  and  there  remain  about  0.4  parts  of  a 
yellowish  matler,  which  by  ilistillation  in  a 
strong  heat  yields  water  and  a  little  oil ;  the 
residuum  consists  of  dilTerent  saline  matters. 

When  alcohol  is  poured  into  this  licpiid,  a 
mucilaginous  matter  is  precipitated  in  the 
form  of  large  white  llake.%  The  alcohol 
leaves  behind  it,  when  evaporated,  traces  of 
muriat  uf  soda,  and  soda.  The  residuum 
which  remains  behind,  when  inspi-sated  tears 
are  burnt  in  the  open  air,  exhibits  some  traces 
of  pliospluit  of  lime  and  phosphat  of  soda. 

Thus  it  ap]5ears  that  tears  are  composed  of 
the  following  ingredients : 

1.  Water,  4.  Soda, 

2.  Mucilage,  3.   Phojphat  of  linie, 

3.  Muriat  of  soda,       6.   Phosphat  of  soda. 

The  saline  parts  amount  only  to  about 
0.01  of  the  whole,  or  probably  not  so  much. 

The  mucilage  contained  in  the  tears  has 
the  properly  of  absorbing  oxygen  gradually 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  of  becoming  thick 
and  viscid,  and  of  a  yellow  colour.  It  is 
then  insoluble  in  water,  and  remains  long 
suspended  in  it  without  alteration.  \\  luii  a 
suflicient  quantity  of  oxvmuriatic  ac'd  is  pour- 
ed info  fears,  a  yellow  flaky  precipitate  ap- 
pears, absolutely  similar  to  this  inspissated 
mucilage.  The  oxvmuriatic  acid  loses  its 
peculiar  odour;  hence  it  is  evident  that  it 
has  given  out  oxygen  to  the  mucilage.  The 
pro|;erfy  which  ibis  mucilage  has  of  absorb- 
ing oxygen,  and  of  acquiring  new  qualities, 
explains  the  changes  which  take  place  in 
tears  which  are  exposed  for  a  long  time  to 
the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  ;is  is  the  case  in 
those  persons  who  labou*  luider  a  fistula  la- 
chrvnialii. 


2.  Tiie  tnuctis  of  the  nose  lias  aUo  htan 
examined  by  Fourcroy  and  Vautiuelin.  They 
found  it  composed  ot  precisely  the  same  in- 
gredients with  the  tears.  As  tliis fluid  is  imore 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  tlun  the 
ti-'ars,  in  most  cases  its  mucilage  lias  under- 
gone less  or  more  of  that  change  wliidi  is  the 
consequence  of  rtie  absorptiun  of  oxjgen. 
See  ^Iucl's. 

TFC"H)N'.-\.,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria 
inontigynia  class  and  order.  The  corolla  is 
live-cleft;  stigma  toothed;  drupe  dry, 
spungy  within  the  inflated  calyx  ;  nect.  three- 
celled.  There  is  one  species,  the  teck-wood, 
or  Indian  oak,  a  tree  of  the  East  Indies. 

TFLFGKAPH,  an  instrument  by  means 
of  which  informalioii  may  be  quioi;ly  con- 
veyed to  a  considerable  di>tance.  'I  he 
telegraph  is  by  no  means  a  modern  inven- 
tion. Tliere  is  reason  to  believe  that'amongst 
the  Greeks  there  was  some  sort  of  telegraph 
in  use.  A  Greek  play  begins  with  a  scene, 
in  which  a  watchman  ilescemis  from  the  top 
of  a  tower  in  Greece,  and  gives  the  infor- 
mation that  Tro-y  was  taken.  "  I  have  been 
looking  out  these  ten  years  (says  he)  to  .see 
when  that  would  happen,  and  this  night  it  is 
done."  Of  the  antio,uity  of  a  mode  of  con- 
veying intelligence  t|uickly  to  a  great  dis- 
tance,  this  is  certainly  a  proof.  The  Chinese 
when  they  send  couriers  on  the  great  canal, 
or  vhen  any  great  man  travels  then ,  make 
signals  by  fire  from  one  day's  jouiiicy  to  an- 
otner,  to  have  every  thing  prepared ;  aiul 
most  of  the  barbarous  nations  useil  formerly 
to  give  the  alarm  of  war  by  fires  lighted  on 
t'le  hills  or  rising  grounds. 

In  tlie  year  i6(j3,  the  marquis  of  Worces- 
ter, in  his  Century  of  Inventions,  aflirmed 
that  he  had  discovered  "  a  method  by  which, 
at  a  window,  as  far  as  eye  can  discover  black 
from  white,  a  man  may  iiold  discourse  with 
his  correspondent,  without  noise  made  or 
notice  taken  ;  being  according  to  occasion 
given,  or  means  afforded,  ex  re  uata,  and  no 
need  of  provision  beforehand;  though  much 
better  if  foreseen,  :\nd  wour.se  taken  by  mu- 
tual consent  of  p;uties."  Tliis  cuuld  be  done 
only  by  means  of  a  telegraph,  which  in  the 
next  sentence  is  declaretlto  have  been  ren- 
dered so  perfect,  th.it  by  means  of  it  the  cor- 
respondence could  be  carried  on  "  by  night 
as  well  as  by  day,  though  as  dark  as  pilch  is 
black." 

About  forty  years  afterwards  M.  Amon- 
tons  proposed  a  new  telegraph.  His  method 
was  this:  Let  there  be  people  placed  in  se- 
veral stations,  at  a  certain  distance  from  one 
anolher,  tiiat  by  the  help  of  a  telescope  a 
man  in  one  station  may  see  a  signal  made  in 
the  next  before  him  ;  he  must  immediately 
make  the  same  signal,  that  it  may  be  seen  bv 
pirsons  in  the  station  next  after  him,  who  arc 
to  communicate  it  to  those  in  the  following 
station,  Xre,  The.se  signals  may  be  as  lettei's 
of  the  alphabet,  or  as  a  cypher,  understood 
only  by  the  two  persons  who  are  in  the  dis- 
taiii  places,  and  not  by  those  who  make  the 
signals.  'Ihe  person  in  the  second  station 
making  the  signal  to  Ihe  person  in  the  third 
the  very  moment  hespcs.it  in  the  first,  the 
news  may  be  carrieil  to  the  greatest  tlistante 
in  as  liltle  lime  as  is  necessary  to  make  the 
signals  in  the  first  station.  The  distance  of 
the  several  stations,  which  must  be  as  few  as 
possible,  is  measureil  by  the  reach  of  a  tele- 
scope.    AmoiUons    tried  tliia   luelhod   in   a 


Tii(i!l  (Kict  of  land  bpfore  soveral  prr'ions  of 
,)k-  higlit'st  rank  at  tlie  court  of  Kranci-. 

It  was  not,  liowcvcr.  till  tlie  Kroiicli  revo- 
lution, that  the  telegraph  was  applicl  gi-nc- 
rally  to  useful  purijo-ies.  VVIiether  M. 
Chappe,  who  is  saiil  to  liave  iiiv<'nlecl  the 
telegraph  first  used  by  the  Kremli  about  the 
end  of  1793,  knew  any  lliina;  of  Aniojitons' 
invention  or  not,  it  is  impossible  to  sav  ;  but 
[lis  telegraph  was  construcled  on  principles 
nearly  similar.  The  manner  of  using  tliis 
telegraph  was  as  follows  :  At  the  fust  station, 
which  was  on  the  roof  of  the  palace  of  the 
Louvre  at  Paris,  M.  C'iiappe,  the  invt-nfor, 
received  in  writing,  from  the  committee  of 
public  welfare,  th  ■  wordi  t«  be  sent  to  Lisle, 
near  which  the  French  uriny  at  that  time 
was.  An  upright  post  was  erected  on  the 
Louvre,  at  the  lop  of  which  were  two  trans- 
verse arms,  moveable  in  all  directions  by  a 
sir.gle  piece  of  niechanisn,  and  with  incon- 
ceivable rapidity.  He  invented  a  nvuiiber  of 
positions  lor  liiese  arms,  which  stood  as  signs 
for  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  ;  and  these, 
for  the  greater  celerity  and  simplicity,  he  re- 
duced in  number  as  much  as  possible.  The 
grammarian  will  easily  conceive  that  si.\teeii 
signs  may  amply  supply  a'l  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  since  some  letters  inav  be  omitted 
not  only  without  detriment  but  with  advan- 
tage. These  signs,  as  they  were  arbitrary, 
could  be  ciiangeil  every  week  ;  so  that  tlie 
sign  of  U  for  one  day  might  be  the  sign  of  M 
the  next  ;  and  it  was  only  necessary  "that  the 
persons  at  the  extremities  should  know  the 
key.  The  intermediale  operators  were  only 
instructed  generally  in  these  sixteen  signals; 
which  were  so  distinct,  so  marked,  so  differ- 
ent the  one  from  the  other,  that  they  were 
easily  rememben'd.  The  construction  of  the 
machine  was  such,  that  each  siirnal  was  uni- 
formly given  in  ])recisely  the  same  manner 
at  all  times  ;  it  did  not  depend  on  tlie  ope- 
rator's manual  skill ;  and  the  position  of  the 
arm  could  never,  for  any  one  signal,  be  a  de- 
gree higher  or  a  de-iee  lower,  its  movement 
beiuu  regulated  mech.uiically. 

M.  Chappe,  having  received  at  the  Louvre 
the  sentence  to  be  conveyed,  gave  a  known 
signal  to  the  second  station,  w  hich  was  Mont 
Martre,  to  prepare.  At  each  station  there 
was  a  watcli-tower,  where  telescopes  were 
fixed,  and  the  person  on  watch  gave  the  sig- 
nal of  preparation  which  he  had  received, 
and  this  communicated  successively  through 
all  the  line,  which  brought  them  all  into  a 
state  of  readine-s.  The  i)erson  at  Mont 
Martre  then  received,  letter  by  letter,  the 
sentence  from  the  Loiivre,  which  he  repeated 
with  his  own  machine;  :nd  this  was  again 
repeated  from  tiie  next  height,  with  incon- 
ceivable rapidity,  to  the  final  station  al  Lisle. 

'I'he  fir-t  description  of  the  telegraph  was 
brought  from  Paris  to  Franckfort  on  the 
Maine  by  a  former  member  of  the  parhr.m'-nt 
of  Boiirdeaux,  who  liad  seen  that  which  was 
erected  on  the  mountain  of  Kelvdie.  As 
given  by  Dr.  Hiittoa  from  some  of  the  Eng- 
lish papers,  it  is  as  follows :  AA  is  a  beam  or 
mast  of  wood  placed  upright  on  a  rising 
ground  (Plate  Miscel.  lig."231),  which  is 
about  13  or  1(5  feet  high.  BB  is  a  beam  or 
balance  moving  upon  the  centre  A.'\.  This 
balance-beam  may  be  placed  vertically  or 
horizontally,  or  any  how  inclined,  by  means 
«f  strong  cords,  wliich  are  fi.xed  to  the  wheel 
P,  on  the  edge  of  wJiich  is  a  double  groove 


TELEGRArn. 

o  receive  the  two  cords.  This  balance  s 
about  eleven  or  twelve  feet  long,  and  nine 
inches  broad,  liaving  at  the  ends  two  pieces 
of  wood  CC,  which  likewise  turn  upon  an- 
gles by  means  of  four  other  cords  that  pa>s 
through  the  axis  of  the  main  b.ilanre,  other- 
wise the  balance  would  derange  tin.'  <-ords ; 
the  pieces  C  are  ca;  h  about  three  feet  long, 
and  may  be  placed  either  to  the  right  or  lelt, 
straight,  or  snuare  with  the  balance-beam. 
By  means  of  these  three  the  combination  of 
nioven-.ent  is  very  extensive,  remarkablv  sim- 
ple, and  easy  to  pi.rform.  Below  is  a  small 
wooden  hut,  in  wiiich  a  person  is  em- 
ployed to  observe  the  movements  of  the 
machine.  On  the  eminence  nearest  to  this, 
another  perhon  is  to  repeal  these  movements, 
and  a  tluid  to  write  them  down.  The  time 
taken  up  for  each  movement  is  twentv  se- 
conds ;  of  w  hich  the  motion  alone  is'  four 
seconds,  the  other  sixteen  the  machine  is 
stationary.  Two  working  models  of  tliis 
instrument  were  executed  at  Frankfort,  and 
sent  by  Mr.  W.  Plasfair  to  the  duke  of 
\ork;  and  hence  the  plan  and  alphabet  of 
the  machine  came  to  England. 

Various  experiments'  were  in  consequence 
tried  upon  telegraphs  in  this' country  ;  and 
one  was  soon  after  set  up  by  government  in 
a  chain  of  stations  from  the'admiralty-oftice 
to  the  sea-coast.  It  consists  of  six  octagon- 
boards,  each  of  which  is  poised  upon  an  axis 
in  a  frame,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  be 
either  placed  vertically,  so  as  to  appear  with 
its  full  size  to  tjie  observer  at  tlie  nearest  sta- 
tion as  In  lig.  2.3  J,  or  it  becomes  invisible  to 
him  by  bi-nig  placed  horizontally,  as  in  lig. 
233,  so  that  the  narrow  edge  alone  isexposeel, 
which  narrow  edge  is  from  a  distance  invisi- 
ble. Fig.  232  is  a  represer.lation  of  this  tele- 
graph, with  the  parts  all  shut,  and  tlie  ma- 
chine ready  to  work.  T,  in  the  oflicei-'s 
cabin,  is  the  telescope  pointed  to  the  next 
station.  Fig.  233  is  a  representation  of  the 
machine  not  at  work,  and  witli  the  ports  all 
open.  'J'hc  opening  of  the  first  port  ex- 
presses a,  the  second  l>,  the  tliird  c,  the 
fourth  (1,  the  lifth  e,  and  the  si.xth/,  &c. 

Six  boards  make  30  changes,  bv  the  most 
plain  and  simiile  mode  of  working  ;  and  they 
will  make  27  more  if  more  were  neces.sary  ; 
but  as  the  real  superiority  of  the  telegraph 
over  all  other  modes  of  making  signals  con- 
sists in  its  making  letters,  we  do  not  think 
that  more  changes  than  the  letters  of  the  al- 
phabet, and  the  ten  aritinnetical  cvphers,  are 
necessary  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  those 
who  work  the  telegraphs  should  avoid  com- 
municate by  words  or  signs  agreed  upon  to 
express  sentences  ;  for  that  is  the  sure  me- 
thod never  to  become  expert  at  sending  un- 
expected intelligence  accurately. 

This  telegraph  is,  without  doubt,  made  up 
of  the  best  number  of  combinatipns  possible  ; 
five  bearils  would  be  insufiicient,  and  seven 
would  be  useless.  It  has  been  objected  to 
it,  however,  that  its  form  is  too  clumsv  to  ad- 
mit of  its  being  raised  to  anv  consulerable 
height  above  tlie  building  on  which  it  stands  ; 
and  that  if  cannot  be  made  to  change  its  di- 
rection, and  consequently  cannot  be  seen  but 
from  one  particular  point. 

Several  other  telegraphs  have  been  pro- 
posed to  remedy  the^e  defects,  and  perhaps 
others  to  which  the  ihstrument  is  still  liable. 
The  dial-plate  of  a  clock  would  mskc  an  ex- 


773 

relleni  telcgrsph,  as  it  might  exhibit  144 
signs  so  i<s  to  be  visible  at  a  great  distance. 
A  lelegrajih  on  this  principle,  with  only  six 
divisions  mstead  of  twelve,  would  be  simple 
and  cheap,  and  might  be  raised  twenty  or 
thirty  feet  high  above  the  building  without: 
any  dilliculty :  it  might  be  sujiported  on  one 
post,  and  therefore  tuin  round,  and  the  con- 
trast of  colom's  would  always  be  the  same. 

We  shall  n.ow  conclude  tliis  article  with  a 
short  idi-a  of  Mr.  John  Garnet's  mo,t  simple 
and  ingenious  contrivance.  This  is  merely  a 
bar  or  plank  turning  upon  a  centre,  like  the 
sail  of  a  windmiil ;  and  being  moved  into  any 
position,  the  distant  observer  turns  the  lube- 
of  a  telescope  into  the  same  position,  by 
bringing  a  (ixe(h  \yire  within  it  to  coincide 
with  or  parallel  to  the  bar,  which  is  a  thing 
extremely  easy  to  do.  '1  he  centre  o!"  mo- 
tion of  the  bar  has  a  small  circle  about  it, 
with  letters  and  figures  around  the  circum- 
ference, and  an  index  moving  round  with  tlw 
iJSr,  pointing  to  any  letter  or  mark  that  the 
operator  wishes  to  set  tiie  bar  to,  or  lo  com- 
municate to  the  observer.  The  eyo-end  of 
tiie  telescope  without  has  a  like  index  and 
circle,  with  the  corresponding  letters  or  other 
m.irks.  'Ihe  consequence  is  obvious;  tlie 
tele<cope  being  turned  round  till  its  wire 
covers  or  becomes  parallel  to  the  bar,  the  in- 
dex of  the  former  necessarily  points  out  the 
same  letter  or  mark  in  ils  circle,  as  that  of 
the  latter,  and  the  communication  of  senti-- 
ment  is  immediate  and  perfect.  The  use  of 
this  machine  is  so  easy,  that  it  has  been  put: 
into  the  hands  of  two  common  labouring-men, 
wiio  had  never  seen  it  before,  and  they  have- 
immediately  held  a  quick  and  distant  conver- 
sation together. 

The  more  particular  description  and  figure 
of  this  nmcliine,  are  as  follows.  ABDK 
(fig.  234")  is  the  telegraph,  on  whose  centre  of 
gravity  C,  about  which  it  revolves,  is  a  fixed 
pin,  which  goes  through  a  liole  or  socket  in 
the  firm  upright  post  G,  and  on  the  opposite 
side  of  which  is  fixed  an  index  CI.  Concen- 
tric to  C,  on  th  j  same  post,  is  fixed  a  wooden, 
or  br.iss  c  ircle,  of  six  or  eight  inches  diame- 
ter, tlivided  into  forty-eight  ecpial  parts, 
twenty-foar  of  w  hich  represent  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet,  and  betueen  the  letters,  num- 
bers ;  so  that  the  index,  by  means  of  the 
arm  AB,  may  be  moved  to  any  letter  or  num- 
ber. The  length  of  the  arm  should  be  2\  or 
3  ieet  for  every  mile  of  distance.  Two  re- 
volving lamps  of  different  colours  suspended 
occasiona.'y  at  A  and  B.  the  ends  of  the 
arm,  would  serve  e([ua1ly  at  night. 

Let  js  (lig.  235)  represent  the  section  of  the 
ontwarri  tube  of  a  telescope  |>  rjiendicular  to 
its  axis,  and  .r.r  the  Ike  sect.on  ot  the  sliding 
or  adin>ling  tidie,  on  v,  hich  is  nxed  an  index 
I  I.  On  lliB  part  of  the  outward  tube  next  to 
the  obsei  ver,  there  is  fixed  a  circle  oi  lelters. 
and  numbers,  similarly  divided  and  situated, 
to  the  circle  in  fig.  234;  then  the  index  I  I, 
by  means  of  the  sliding  or  adjusting  tube, 
may  be  turned  to  any  letter  or  number.  Now 
there  being  a  cross  hair,  or  line  silver  wire, 
fu:,  fixed  in  the  focus  of  the  eye-glass,  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  index  II ;  so  that  whea 
the  arm  AB  (fig.  234)  of  the  telegraph  is  view- 
ed at  a  distance  through  the  telescope,  the 
cross  hair  may  be  turned,  by  means  of  the 
sliding  tube,  to  the  same  direction  of  the  arm 
AB ;  then  the  inde.x  I  I  (fig.  235)  will  po.nt 
to  the  same  letter  or  nunvber  on  ils  own 


7/5 


TEL 


circle,  as  the  index  I  (fig.  234)  points  to  on 
liie  telegraphic  circle. 

If,  instead  of  using  the  letters  and  numbers 
to  form  words  at  lengili,  they  are  used,  as  sig- 
nals, three  motions  of  the  arm  will  give  above 
k  hundred  thousand  different  signals. 

TlCr.EPHIUM,  TKUE  ORPiN'F. ;  a  genus 
e>(  plants  of  the  class  of  pentaudria,  and  order 
of  trigynia  ;  and  in  the  natural  system  rank- 
ing-inider  the  54th  order,  iniscellaneie.  "I'he 
calvx  is  pentaph.v  llous  -  there  are  live  petals, 
which  are  inserted  into  the  receptacle ;  the 
capsule  is-unilocular  and  trivalvular.  There 
are  two  species,  the  iniperati  and  oppositi- 
t<  Hum. 

TELESCOPE.     See  Optics. 

TELLER,  an  officer  of  the  exchequer, 
in  antient  records  called  tallier ;  there  are 
four  of  these  oflicers,  whose  duty  is  to  re- 
ceive all  sums  due  to  the  king,  and  to  give 
the  clerk  of  t!ie  pells  a  bill  to  charge  him 
therewith.  'I'liey  likewise  pay  all  money 
due  from  tlie  king,  by  warrant  from  the  au- 
ditor of  the  receipt  ;"  and  make  weekly  and 
yearly  books,  both  of  their  receipts  and  pay- 
inenls,  which  they  deliver  to  tlie  lord  trea- 
surer. 

TELLINA,  a  genus  of  vermes  testacea  ; 
the  generic  character  is,  the  animal  a  tethys  ; 
shell  bivalve,  generally  sloping  on  one  si<le; 
in  t'le  fore-part  of  one  valve  a  convex,  of  the 
otiier  a  concave  fold  ;  hinge  with  usually 
three  teeth,  the  lateral  ones  smooth  in  oiie 
shell.  There  are  about  100  species,  divided 
into  three  sections:  A  ovale  a;id  thickish ; 
15  ovat;- and  compressed;  and  C  'uborbicu- 
lar.  The  te'.lina  foliacea  is  of  section  !5,  hav- 
ing the  shell  oval,  with  rough  pubes,  the 
tlaltened  sides  serrate.  It  inliabils  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  is  rare.  See  PI.  Nat.  Hist  fig.  393. 

TELLUR1U.nl  a  mineral  found  in  Tran- 
sylvania, which  Muller  of  Reiclienslein  ex- 
ainined  in  1782,  and  concluded,  from  his  ex- 
periments, that  the  ore,  which  had  been  dis- 
tinguished by  the  names  of  aurum  proble- 
malicum,  aurum  paradoxicuni,  and  aurum 
album,  contains  a  new  metal  dllVerent  from 
every  other.  Being  still  dissatisfied  with  his 
own  conclusions,  he  sent  a  specimen  of  it  lo 
Bergman  ;  but  the  specimen  was  loo  small  to 
cnai)le  that  illustrious  chemist  t>)  decide  tlie 
point,  lie  ascertained,  however,  that  the 
jr.eta!  in  iiueslion  is  not  antiino.iy.  The  ex- 
p.riments  of  Muller  aj)ppared  so  satisfactory, 
that  they  iniluced  Mr.  Kirwan,  in  the  second 
edition  of  his  .Mineralogy,  published  in  1796, 
to  give  this  metal  a  separate  place,  under  the 
name  of  sylvauite.  Klaproth  published  an 
analysis  of  the  ore  in  179S,  and  completely 
confirmed  the  conclusion^  of  Muller.  'I'o  the 
jiew  metal,  which  constitutes  0.92.)  of  the 
ore,  he  gave  the  name  of  tellurium  ;  and  this 
name  has  been  gefierally  a<lopted.  Gmelin 
examined  the  ore  in  1799;  and  his  experi- 
ments coincide  almost  exactly  willi  tliose  of 
Muller  and  Klnprolli.  By  these  philosophers 
the  folio. ling  properties  of  teihuium  have 
been  ascertained: 

Its  colour  is  biui.sh-white,  intermediate  be- 
tween tliat  of  zinc  and  lead;  its  lextine  is 
laminated  like  antimony  ;  and  its  brilliancy 
is  considerable.  Its  haidness  has  not  been 
ascertained.  lis  specific  gravity,  according 
to  Kliipr.ith,  is  6. 1.  It  is  very  brittle,  and 
inay  be  ea^ly  reduced  to  powder.  It  nu'lls 
when  raised  to  a  temperature  somcwiiat  high- 


T  E  M 

cr  than  the  fusing-point  of  lead.  If  the  heat 
is  increased  a  little,  it  boils  and  evaporates, 
and  attaches  itself  in  briliiant  drops  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  retort  in  which  the  experi- 
ment is  made.  It  is  therefore,  next  to  mer- 
cury and  arsenic,  the  most  volatile  of  all  the 
metals.     AVhen  cooled  slowly,  it  crystallizes; 

When  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  blovvi 
pipe  upon  charcoal,  it  lakes  fire,  and  burns 
witli  a  lively  blue  (lame,  the  edges  of  which 
are  green ;  and  is  completely  volatilized  in 
llie  form  of  a  while  smoke,  which,  according 
to  Klaproth,  has  a  smell  not  unlike  that  of  ra- 
dishes, but  which  Gmelin  covild  not  observe. 

This  white  smoke  is  the  oxide  of  telUiriuin, 
which  may  be  obtained  also  by  dissolving  the 
metal  in  nitro-murialic  acid,  and  diluting  the 
the  solution  with  a  great  quantity  of  water. 
A  white  powder  falls  to  the  bottom,  which  is 
tliC  oxide.  It  may  be  procured  also  by  dis- 
solving the  metal  in  the  nitric  acid,  and  add- 
ing potass  slowly  till  the  oxide  precipitates. 
This  oxide  is  easily  melted  by  heat  into  a 
straw-coloured  mass  of  a  radiated  texture. 
When  made  into  a  paste  willi  oil,  and  healed 
in  charcoal,  it  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state 
so  rapidly,  that  a  kind  bi  explosion  is  pro- 
duced. 

Tellurium  may  be  combined  with  sulphur 
by  fusion.  This  sulphuret  has  a  leaden  grey 
colour,  and  a  radiated  texture ;  on  red-hot 
coals  it  burns  with  a  blue  flame. 

Tellurium  may  be  amalgamated  with  mer- 
cury by  trituration.  Its  other  properties  have. 
not  yet  been  examined. 

TELIFEROUS,  in  entomology,  means 
such  insects  as  are  armed  with  a  dart  or 
sting. 

TEMPERAMENT.  See  Physiology, 
Vol.  11.  p.  421. 

TEMPER./^MENr,  in  music,  the  accnmmo- 
dation  or  adjustment  of  the  imperfect  sounds 
by  transferring  a  part  of  their  defects  to  the 
more  perfect  uiies,  in  order  to  remedy,  in 
some  degree,  the  false  intervals  of  those  in- 
struraenls,  the  sounds  of  which  are  fixed  ;  as 
llie  organ,  harpsichord,  pianoforte,  &e. 

Temperament  is  what  tlie  Italians  call  par- 
ticipatione,  participalo,  or  svstema  lempe- 
rato,  because  it  is  lounded  on  temperature; 
that  is,  on  the  diminution  of  some  intervals 
and  nugmentalion  of  others,  by  which  it  par- 
takes of  the  diatonic  and  chromatic  systems. 

TEMPERATURE.  See  Meteorolo- 
gy. 

TEMPERING  ofstedavdiroii,  the  ren- 
dering of  them  either  more  compact  and  hard, 
or  soft  and  pliant,  according  as  the  dilTerent 
uses  for  which  they  are  wanted  may  require. 
See  Iro.v,  p.  33.  Vol.  U. 

TEiVJi'LAliS,  or  Tempi  ers,  a  religious 
order  instituted  at  Jerusalem,  about  the  year 
1118.  Some  religious  gentlemen  put  them- 
selves under  the  government  of  the  patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  renounced  property,  made  the 
yow  of  celibacy  and  obedience,  and  lived  like 
canons  regular.  King  Baldwin  assigned  them 
an  apartment  in  his  palace.  They  had  like- 
wise lands  given  them  bj  the  king^  the  patri- 
arch, and  llie  nobility,  for  Ihcir  maintenance. 
They  look  the  name  of  knights  templars, 
because  their  first  house  stood  near  the  lem- 
i)le  dedicated  to  our  Saviour,  at  Jerusalem. 
This  order,  after  having  performed  many 
great  exploits  against  the  inlidel-:,  became 
rich  and  powerlulall  over  Europe;  but  the 
knights,  abusing  their  wealth  and  credit,  fell 


TEN 

into  great  disorders  and  irregularities.  "Many 
crimes  and  enormities  being  alleged  against 
them,  they  were  prosecuted  in  France,  Italy, 
and  Sp;!iii ;  and  at  last,  the  pope,  bv  his  bull 
ofthe22iid  of  May,  1312,  given  in  ihe  coun- 
cil of  Vienna,  pronounced  the  extinction  of 
the  order  of  'lemplars,  and  united  their  es- 
tates lo  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

TEMPOHALITILS  //  biakops,  are  such 
revenues,  lands,  and  tenements,  and  lay  fees, 
as  have  been  added  lo  bishops'  sees,  by  kings 
and  other  great  personages  ol  this  land,  ironi 
lime  lo  lime,  as  they  are  barons  and  lords  of 
parliament.  This  revenue  of  the  king,  which 
was  antiently  very  considerabje,  is  now,  by  a 
customai-y  indulgence,  almost  retluced  to  "no- 
thing ;  for  at  i7i-esent,  as  soon  as  the  new  bi- 
shop is  consecrated  and  confirmed,  he  usually 
receives  from  the  king  the  reatilntion  of  his 
temporalities  entire  and  untouched  ;  and  then 
and  not  sooner,  he  has  a  lee  simi)le  in  his  bi- 
shopric, and  mav  maintain  an  action  for  the 
profits.      1  Black'.  283. 

TENACITY,  a  term  applied  to  melal>, 
by  which  is  meant  the  power  that  a  metallic 
wire  of  a  given  diameter  has  of  resisting,  with- 
out breaking,  the  action  of  a  weight  suspend- 
ed from  its.  extremity.  Metals  differ  e.x- 
ceedingly  from  eacli  oiher  in  tenacity.  Iron 
wire,  tor  instance,  _'-lh  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, will  support  without  breaking,  about 
3001b.  weight  ;  whereas  one  made  ot  lead  of 
tiie  same  tlianieter  will  not  support  above 
29lb. 

TENAILLE.  This  word  literally  means 
shears.  A  military  evolution  which  was  per- 
formed in  the  times  of  the  ancients.  In  page 
206  of  Observations  on  the  Military  Ai't,  we 
have  the  Ibllowing  account  of  it : 

A  phalanx,  attacked  by  a  lozenge  or  tri- 
angular wedge,  bent  its  right  and  left  forward 
by  a  half-quarler  conversion,  each  wing  on 
their  common  centre;  and  when  Iheyfound 
themselves  opposite  the  sides  of  ihi'  enemy's 
arrangement,  they  each  marched  on  thi  ir 
own  side,  right  belore  Un-m  ;  by  which  means 
they  bolli  inclosed  and  attacked  the  enemv 
together,  at  the  same  lime,  while  the  heacl 
was  engaged  and  at  blows  with  the  centre  of 
the  phalanx  that  ha<l  kept  its  ground.  Such 
is  the  description  authors  have  left  us  of  the 
design  and  cH'ecls  of  this  maiianivre. 

Tlie  tenaille  had  considerable  advantage 
over  the  triangular  wedge ;  but,  according  lo 
chevalier  Folard,  it  was  not  equally  eliica- 
cious  against  the  column.  The  latter  could 
alter  the  direction  ot  its  march,  and  fall  upon 
one  of  the  wings,  whether  in  motion  or  not, 
or  dclach  the  section  of  the  tail  or  rear  to 
take  its  wings  in  llank,  while  it  was  occupied 
in  making  llie  (|uarUr-conveision.  "The  co- 
lumn and  tenaille  were  formed  for  acting 
against  each  other,  and  could  only  be  victori- 
ous ov.r  one  anoUier  by  the  supeiior  abilities 
of  their  commander.  \Ve  f.ncy,  however,  the 
column  was  always  exposed  to  iess  danger  th.ui 
the  lenaiile,  for  the  latter  could  not  pursue  the 
column  without  changing  its  order  ;  wherdis 
the-column  must  destroy,  and  in  a  manner  an- 
nihilate the  tenaille,  in  case  it  could  once 
break  it.    • 

The  tenaille  is  uii'|uestionably  an  excellent 
manceuvre,  and  strictly  conformable  to  a  very 
wise  maxim,  which  directs  us  lo  multiply  our 
strength  and  elforls  as  much  as  [lossible 
against  one  point.  We  sometimei,  indeed, 
make  use  of  it  in  war  without  being  sen^ible 


TEN 

•f  its  advantages.  This,  however,  does  not 
hindi;i'  the  maiioeuvre  tVoiii  l)eiiig  well  per- 
formed ;  for  llie  nature  of  ground  not  l)eiiig 
level  like  a  sheet  of  pai)er,  tlie  commander, 
in  ranging  his  troops,  aecordin-j  to  the  advan- 
tages of  tfie  situation,  does  nrit  form  a  i)erfect 
tenaille,  such  as  may  l)e  drawn  or  sketched 
out,  but  one  of  an  irregular  kind,  which  pro- 
duces the  same  effects  ;  and  this  is  what 
sliould  1)1-  sought  Oil  all  occasions. 

'J'fnaili.es,  in  fortihcation,  are  low  works 
made  in  the  ditch  before  the  curtains.  Tlicre 
are  three  sorts  ;  viz.  the  lirst  are  the  faces  of 
the  bastions  jiroduced  till  they  meet,  but 
nutcb  lower;  the  second  have  faces,  Hanks, 
and  a  curtain  ;  and  the  third  have  only  faces 
and  flanks. 

'pENArLLE,  .sv'HgVc,  3.  woik  whose  front  is 
advanced  towards  the  country,  having  iwo 
faces,  forming  a  re-entering  angle ;  its  two 
long  sides  terminate  on  the  com)lerscarp, 
oppi.iilc  to  the  angle  of  the  shotdder. 

Tknaii-I-k,  doubL-,  is  a  work  whose  front, 
liaving  four  laces,  forms  two  re-entering,  and 
three  salient  angles;  its  long,  sides  are  like- 
wise [larallel,  and  terminate  on  the  counter- 
scarp, opposite  to  the  angle  of  tlie  shoulder. 
Both  the  single  and  <louble  tenailles  have  this 
fault,  viz.  that  they  are  not  flanked  or  defend- 
ed at  the  re-entering  angle,  because  the 
heigbt  of  the  parapet  hinders  the  soldiers  from 
discovering  betore  that  angle.  'I'herefore 
tenailles  should  only  be  made  when  there  is 
not  room  enough  to  niaktr  horn-works,  'i'he 
ramparts,  parapets,  ditches,  covert-way,  and 
glacis  of  tenailles,  are  the  same  with  other 
outworks. 

Tenaille  nfa  place,  is  what  is  coinpre- 
hended  between  the  points  of  two  neighbour- 
ing bastions  ;  as  the  faces,  flanks,  and  ciu'- 
tains.  Hence  it  is  said,  the  enemy  attacked 
the  whole  tenaille  of  a  place,  when  they  made 
two  attacks  on  the  faces  of  the  two  bastions. 
•  TENANT,  signifies  one  who  holds  or 
possesses  lands  or  tenements  by  any  kind  of 
right,  either  in  fee,  for  life,  years,  or  at  will. 
'JENCH.  See  Cyprinc's. 

TENDER,  is  an  offer  to  pay  a  debt,  or 
perform  a  duty.  In  every  plea  of  tender, 
where  money  is  the  thing  demanded  bv  the 
action,  and  the  debt  or  duty  is  not  discharge<l 
by  the  tender  and  refusal,  money  may  be 
brought  in  without  leave  of  the  court ;  but 
as  other  things  as  well  as  money  may,  where 
a  tender  is  ple.ided,  be  brought  into  court : 
this  is  with  more  propriety  called  bringing 
into  court  generally,  than  a  bringing  money 
into  court.  In  all  other  cases,  the  leave  of 
the  LVjurt  must  be  had  before  money  can  be 
brought  into  court.  The  rule  under  wliich 
this  leave  is  granted,  is,  as  in  the  case  of  an 
ejectment  by  a  mortgagee,  founded  upon  a 
particular  act  of  parliament.  In  other  cases. 
It  is  founded  upon  that  discretionary  power, 
which  is,  for  the  furtherance  of  justice,  vested 
in  the  court.  By  the  discretionary  rule,  it  is 
sometimes  ordered,  that  upon  bringing  mo- 
ney into  court,  all  proceedings  in  an  action 
.  jhall  be  stayed.  At  other  times  it  is  ordered, 
that  the  money  brought  into  court  shall  be 
struck  out  of  the  plaintilf 's  declaration,  and 
that  the  plainiiif  shall  not,  at  the  trial  of  the 
issue,  be  permitted  to  give  any  evidence  as 
to  this  money.  Tliis  rule,  by  wdiich  the  mo- 
ney brought  into  coint  is  ordered  to  be  struck 
out  of  the  declaration,  is  from  its  being  more 
Vol.   II. 


T  E  N 

fretpiently  granted,  than  that  by  which  it  is 
oidered,  that  theprociediiii^  shall  l)e  stayed, 
calKd  the  common  rule.  5  l5ac.  Abr.  I. 

If  baidc  notes  have  been  offered,  and  no 
objection  made  on  that  account,  it  has  l;een 
considered  by  the  court  of  king's  bench  as 
a  go.xl  tender.  3  Om-nf  ami  East,  jji. 

I'knder,  a  small  ship  in  the  service  of 
men  of  war,  for  carrying  of  men,  provisions; 
or  any  thiiig  else  that  is  necessary. 

TICNDONS,  are  white,  firm,  and  tena- 
cious parts,  continuous  to  tlie  muscles,  and 
usually  forming  their  extremities. 

TENEBIviO,  a  gentis  of  insects  of  tlie 
order  co'.eoptera.  Tlie  generic  character  is, 
anleniue  inoniliform,  with  tlie  last  joint 
rounded  ;  lliorax  plano-conve,\,  margined  ; 
head  exserted;  wing-sheaths  stillish.  In  this 
genus, , of  which  tliere  are  more  than  100 
species,  the  body  is  obli>ng-oval,  and  in  most 
species  somew  hat  pointed  at  the  extremity: 
it  may  be  observed  also  that  several  species 
.ire  destitute  of  wings.  Among  the  European 
teiu  brioiies  one  of  llie  most  rema/kabie  is  the 
tcnebrio  morl.sagus,  a  coal  black  Insect  mea- 
suring abotil  an  inch  in  length,  of  rather  slow 
motion,  and  distinguished  by  the  remaikably 
pointed  appearance  of  the  wing-sheaths, 
whiidi  at  their  extremities  project  a  litthr 
beyond  the  abilomen  :  they  are  also  perfectiv 
connate  or  undivided,  forming  a  complete 
covering  to  the  body,  being  carried  over  the 
sides  to  some  tlistance  beneath,  and  the  insect 
is  totally  di-stitute  of  real  or  under  wings. 
It  is  usually  found  in  dark  neglected  places, 
b  jiieath  boards,  in  cellars,  Kn.  and  if  handled, 
and  especially-  it  crushed,  diffuses  a  highly 
implea-.aiil  smell. 

Tenebrio  globosus  is  perhaps  not  a  Liii- 
nanm  species,  unless  it  is  the  tenebrio  gib- 
bosusoflhat  author.  It  is  seen  during  the 
hottest  pait  of  the  summer  about  walls  and 
pathways,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  re- 
markably globular  appearance  of  the  body  ; 
it  is  totally  black,  the  under  parts  having 
sometimes  a  slight  violaceous  cast,  and  the 
joints  of  the  teet,  wliich  are  remarkably 
broad,  are  of  a  dull  brown:  the  whole  insect 
is  of  a  very  smooth,  but  not  polished,  surface, 
and  usually  measures  about  three  cpiarlers  of 
an  inch  in  length:  in  this  however  it  varies 
considerably,  some  specimens,  probably  the 
males,  being  considerably  smaller.  '1  he  an- 
teniis  in  this  insect  are  beautifully  moiiili- 
form,  all  the  joints  being  globular. 

Tenebrio  molitor  is  an  insect  often  seen  in 
liouses  :  it  is  one  of  the  smaller  kinds,  and  u 
coal-black,  of  a  lengthened  shape,  with  longi- 
tudinally striated  wing-shells,  and  proceeds 
from  a  larva  commonly  known  by  the  name 
of  the  meal-worm,  from  its  being  so  fre- 
cpiently  found  in  flour,  &c.  It  is  of  a  yellow- 
ish white  colour,  about  an  inch  long,  slender- 
bodied,  and  of  a  highly  polished  surface,  and 
is  con^iderd  as  the  t'avorite  food  of  the  night- 
ingale w  hen  kept  in  a  state  of  captivity  :  It  is 
said  to  remain  two  years  before  it  changes 
into  a  chrysalis. 

The  genus  tenebrio  is  numerous,  and  some 
of  the  exotic  species  much  resemble  the  ge- 
neral appearance  of  the  fir^t  described,  but 
are  much  larger.  Many  others  are  small  in- 
sects, and  the  genus  has  received,  by  later 
discoveries,  such  accessions,  that  it  has  been 
divided  into  several  distinct  genera. 

TENEMENT,  in  its  common  accepta- 
tion, ia  applied  only  to  liouses  and  otlier  buUd- 
5  !•' 


T  E  N  777 

ings;  but  in  its  original,  proper,  and  legal 
sense,  it  slgiiilii.-s  e\ery  thing  thai  may  l>e 
liolden,  provided  il  is  of  a  permanent  nuuire, 
w  liether  it  is  of  a  substantial,  or  ol  an  uiiHib- 
slantial  iyid  ideal  kind.  'J  hnj  frank  tene- 
ment, or  freehold,  is  applicable  not  only  to 
lands  and  olher  solid  objects,  but  also  to 
odices,  rents,  connnons,  &c.  and  as  lands 
and  houses  are  leiiemenls,  so  is  an  advowson 
a  tenement  ;  and  a  franchise,  or  oflice,  a 
right  of  coimr.on,  a  peeiage,  or  olher  pro- 
perty of  the  like  iinsubslanlial  kind,  are  all  of 
them,  legally  speaking,  tenements.  2  LJlack. 
I". 

TENEMENT-IS  LEGATIS,  a  writ  that 
lies  to  London,  or  ;:ny  olher  corpoiatioii 
where  the  cuslo:n  is,  that  men  may  demise 
tenements  as  well  as  goods  and  chattels  by 
their  last  will,  for  the  hearing  any  controvci-sy 
touching  the  same,  and  lor  rectifying  the 
wrong. 

TliNESMU.S.    See  Medicine. 

'1  EN N IS,  a  i>lay  at  which  a  ball  is  driven 
by  a  racket.  As  many  persons  vould  become 
players  at  tennis,  provided  they  could  easily 
u.clersland  the  rudiments  of  the  game,  to  as 
to  tiuim  some  judgment  of  tlie  players,  or  at 
least  to  know  who  wins  and  who  loses,  we 
have  here  allemplcd  to  give  so  plain  a  de- 
scription of  it,  that  no  one  can  be  at  a  loss, 
if  ever  he  should  bet  or  play.  As  to  the 
executive  part,  it  requires  great  practice  to 
make  a  good  player,  so  that  nothing  can  be 
done  without  it;  all  we  prestime  to  do  is,  to 
give  an  insight  into  the  game,  by  which  a 
person  may  not  seem  a  total  stranger  to  it 
when  he  happens  to  be  in  a  tennis-court. 

The  game  of  tennis  is  played  in  most  ca- 
pital cities  in  Europe,  particularly  in  p'rance, 
wlience  we  may  ventiire  to  derive  its  origin. 
It  is  esteemed  witlimany  to  be  one  of  the 
most  antient  games  in  Chi  i.stendom,  and  long 
before  king  Charles  I.'s  lime  it  was  played  ia 
Eiiglanil. 

'1  liis  game  is  as  intricate  as  any  game  what- 
ever; a  person  who  is  totally  ignorant  of  it 
may  look  on  for  a  month  together,  without 
being  able  to  make  out  how  the  game  is  de- 
cided. We  shall  begin  therefore  by  describ- 
ing the  court  in  which  it  is  played. 

1  he  size  of  a  tennis-court  is  generally  about 
96  or  y7  feet  by  3,3  or  34,  theie  being'  no  ex- 
act dimension  ascribed  to  its  proportion,  a 
foot  more  or  less  in  length  or  width  being  of 
no  consecpuMice.  A  line  or  net  hangs  ex- 
actly across  the  middle,  over  which  the  ball 
must  be  struck,  eith.erwith  a  racket  or  board, 
to  make  the  stroke  good.  Upon  the  en- 
trance of  a  tennis-court,  there  is  a  long  gal- 
lery which  goes  to  the  dedans,  that  is,  a  kind 
of  front  gallery,  where  spectators  usually 
stand  ;  into  which  whenever  a  ball  is  struck,  it 
tells  for  a  certain  stroke.  This  long  gallery 
is  divided  into  dilTerent  compartments  or 
galleries,  each  of  which  has  its  particular 
name,  as  follows ;  from  the  line  towards  the 
dedans  are  the  first  gallery,  door,  secand 
gallery,  and  the  la.st  gallery,  which  is  called 
the  service  side.  From  the  dedans  to  the 
last  gallery  are  the  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  at 
a  yard  distance  each,  by  w  hich  the  chaces  are 
marked,  and  is  one  of  the  most  essential  parts 
oi  the  game,  as  will  appear  in  the  followino- 
description. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  line  are  also  the 
first  gallery,  door,  second  gallery,  and  Ust 


£(aUery,  which  is  called  the  hazard-side. 
Every  ball  struck  into  the  last  gallery  on  this 
side  reckons  for  a  certain  stroke  the  same  as 
the  dedans.  Between  the  second  and  this 
iast  gallery  are  the  figures  1,  2,  to  mark  the 
chaces  on  the  hazard-side.  Over*  this  long 
gallery,  or  these  compartments,  is  a  cover- 
ing, called  the  penthouse,  on  which  ihey  play 
the  ball  ironi  the  service-side,  in  order  to  be- 
gin a  set  of  tennis,  from  which  it  is  called  a 
service.  When  they  miss  putting  the  ball 
(so  as  to  rebound  from  the  penthouse)  over 
a  certain  line  on  the  service-side,  it  is  deemed 
a  fault,  two  of  which  are  reckoned  for  a 
stroke.  If  the  ball  rolls  round  the  penthouse, 
on  the  opposite  of  the  court,  so  as  to  fall  be- 
yond a  certain  line  described  for  that  pur- 
pose, it  is  called  passe,  reckons  for  nothing 
on  either  side,  and  the  player  must  serve 
again. 

On  the  right-hand  sideoftlie  court  from 
the  dedans  is  what  they  call  tlie  tambour,  a 
part  of  the  wall  which  projects,  and  is  so  con- 
trived in  order  to  make  a  variety  in  the 
stroke,  and  render  it  more  diflicult  to  be  re- 
turned by  the  adversary;  for  when  a  ball 
strikes  the  tambour,  it  varies  its  direction,  and 
require-;  some  extraordinary  judgment  to  rt> 
turn  it  over  the  line.  The  lastthing  on  the 
right-hand  side  is  called  the  grill,  wherein  if 
the  ball  is  struck,  it  is  also  15,  or  a  certain 
stroke. 

The  game  of  tennis  is  played  by  what  thev 
call  sets ;  a  set  of  tennis  consists  of  si.x 
games:  but  if  thev  play  what  is  called  an 
advantage-set,  two  above  five  games  must  be 
won  on  one  side  or  the  other  successively,  in 
order  to  decide  ;  or,  if  it  comes  to  six  games 
all,  two  games  must  still  be  won  on  one  side 
♦o  conclude  thesrt;  so  that  an  advantage-set 
may  last  a  considerable  time ;  for  which 
kind  of  sets  the  court  is  paid  more  than  for 
any  other. 

We  must  now  describe    the  use   of  the 
chaces,  and  by  what  means  these  chaces  de- 
cide or  interfere  so  much  in  the  game.  When 
the  player  gives  his  service  at  the  beginning 
of  a  set,  his  adversary  is  supjiosed  to  return 
the  ball;  and  wherever  it  falls  after  the.first 
rebound  untouched,  the  chace  is  called  ac- 
cordingly; for  example,  if  the  ball  falls  at  the 
ligure  1,  the  chace  is  called  at  a  yard,  that  is 
to  say,  at  a  yard  from  the  dedans:  this  chace 
remains  till  a  second  service  is  given  ;  and  if 
the  player  on  the  service-side  lets  the  ball  go 
•after  his  adversary  returns  it,  and  if  tlie  brdl 
falls  on  or  between   any  of  these  figures  or 
chaces,  they  must  change  sides,   there  being 
two  chaces;  and  he  who  then  will  be  on  the 
iKizard-side,  must  play  to  «in  the  first  chace  ; 
which  if  he  wins  by  striking  the  ball  so  as  to 
fall,  after  its  first  rebound,  nearer  to  the  de- 
clans  than  the   figure    1,   without  his  adver- 
sary's being  able  to   return   it  from  its' first 
hop,  he  wins  a  stroke,  and  then  proceeds  in 
like  maimer  to  win  the  second  chace,  wher- 
ever it  should  happen  to  be.     If  a  ball  falls  on 
the  lim;  with  the   first  gallery  door,  second 
gallery,  or  last  gallery,  the  chace  is  likewise 
culled  at  such  or  such  a  place,  naming  the 
gallery-floor,  &c.     V\'hen  it  is  just  put  over 
the  line,  it  is  cal:ed  a  chace  at  the  line.     If 
the  player  on  the  service-side  returns  a  ball 
with  sucli  force  as  to  strike  the  wall  on  the 
Jiazard-side  so  as  to  rebound,  after  the  first 
hop  over  the  line,  it  is  also  called  a  chace  at 
tbe  line. 


TENNIS. 

The  chaces  on  the  liazard-side  proceed 
from  the  ball  being  returned  either  too  hard 
or  not  quite  hard  enough;  so  that  the  ball 
after  its  first  rebound  fails  uij  this  side  of  the 
blue  line,  or  line  which  describes  the  hazard- 
side  ch:K-es;  in  which  case  it  is  a  chace  at  I, 
2,  Szc.  provided  there  is  no  chace  depending. 
'vS'hen  they  change  sides,  the  player,  m  order 
to  win  this  chace,  must  put  the  ball  over  the 
line  any  where,  so  that  his  adversary  does 
not  return  it.  AVhen  there  is  no  chace  on 
the  hazard-side,  all  ball?  put  over  the  line 
from  the  service-side,  without  being  return- 
ed, reckon  for  a  stroke. 

As  the  game  depends  chiefiy  upon  the 
marking,  it  will  be  neci-ssary  to  explain  it, 
and  to  recommend  those  who  play  at  tennis 
to  have  a  good  and  mibiassed  marker,  for  on 
him  the  whole  Set  may  depend:  he  can  mark 
in  favour  of  the  one  and  ag,'.in^t  the  other  in 
s.uch  a  manner,  as  will  reniler  it  two  to  one 
at  starting,  though  even  plajers.  Instead  of 
which  the  marker  should  be  very  attentive 
to  the  chaces,  and  not  be  any  way  partial  to 
either  of  the  players. 

This  game  is  marked  in  a  very  singular 
manner,  which  makes  it  at  first  somewhat 
difiicult  to  understand.  The  first  stroke  is 
called  15,  the  second  30,  the  third  40,  and 
the  fourth  game,  unless  the  playeis  get  four 
strokes  each  ;  in  that  case,  instead  ol  calling 
it  40  all,  it  is  called  deuce  ;  after  which,  as 
soon  as  any  stroke  is  got,  it  is  called  advan- 
tage; and  in  case  the  strokes  become  equal 
again,  deuce  again,  till  one  or  the  other  gets 
two  strokes  following,  which  win  the  game ; 
and  as  tlie  games  are  won,  so  they  are  mark- 
ed and  called  ;  as  one  game  love,  two  games 
to  one,  &c.  towards  the  set,  of  which  so  many 
of  these  games  it  consists. 

Although  but  one  ball  at  a  time  is  played 
with,  a  number  of  balls  are  made  use  of  at 
this  game  to  avoid  trouijle,  and  are  handed 
to  the  players  in  baskets  for  that  purpose ; 
by  which  means  they  can  play  as  long  as 
they  please,  without  ever  having  occasion  to 
stoop  for  a  ball. 

As  to  111."  odds  at  tennis,  they  are  by  no 

means  fixed,  but  are  generally  laid  as  follow : 

Upon  the  first  stroke  being  won  between 

even  players,  that  is,  fifteen  love,  the 


s 

\ 

J 

t 

m 

b 

4 

t 

4 

3 

] 

5 

I 

15 

1 

4 

J- 

2 

t 

7 

2. 

10 

1 

3 

a 

-3 

1- 

8 

i 

8 

-5 

3 

1 

'Z 

1 

5 

2 

are  gc- 

g  ma 

kc 

odds  are  of  the  single  game         7  to  4 

Tliirty  love  -  -  4  1 

Forty  love  -  -  8  1 

Thirty  fifteen  -  -  'J  ] 

Forty  fifteen  -  -  5  1 

Forty  thirty  -        ,   -  3  1 

The  odds  of  a  four-game  set  when  the 

first  game  is  won,  are 


When  two  games  love 

- 

4 

1 

Three  games  love    - 

- 

8 

1 

When  two  games  to  one 

. 

^ 

1 

'I'hree  games  to  one 

- 

5 

1 

The  odds  of  a  six-game  set 

when 

the 

first  game  is  won,  arc 

- 

3 

2 

When  two  g.unes  love 

. 

o 

1 

Three  games  love 

- 

4 

1 

Four  games  love 

. 

10 

1 

Five  games  love 

. 

21 

1 

When  two  games  to  one 

. 

8 

5 

Three  games  to  one 

- 

5 

2 

Four  games  to  one 

- 

5 

1 

Five  games  to  one    - 

. 

15 

1 

When  three  games  to  two 

- 

7 

4 

Four  games  to  two 

- 

4 

1 

live  games  to  two 

- 

10 

1 

When  four  games  to  three 

Five  g-ames  to  three 
The  odds  of  an  advantage-set  vhen 

the  first  game  is  won,  are 
AVhen  two  games  lov« 
'1  hree  games  love   - 
Four  games  love 
Five  games  love 
W  hen  two  games  to  one 
'1  hree  games  to  oi-e 
Four  games  to  one 
Five  games  to  one  - 
W  hen  three  games  to  two 
I'our  games  to  twa 
Five  games  to  two  - 
When  four  games  Jo  three 

Five  games  to  three 
When  fix  e  games  to  four 
A\  hen  six  games  to  five  -  - 
The  foregoing  odds,  as  beforesaid, 
nerally  laid,  but  the  chaces  interferii;  ^ 
the  odds  very  precarious  ;  for  examj)le,  v.  hen 
there  is  a  chace  at  half  a  yard,  and  a  set  is 
five  games  all,  End  in  every  other  respect 
equal,  the  odds  arc  a  good  five  to  four  ;  and 
if  it  wei-e  six  games  to  five,  and  forty  thirty 
with  the  same  chace,  the  0'!ds  then  «ould  he 
a  guinea  to  a  shilling;  so  that  it  is  plain  that 
the  odds  at  this  game  dil'fer  from  those  of  any 
other;  for  one  stroke  will  reduce  a  set,  sup- 
posing the  players  to  be  five  games  all,  bom 
an  even  wager  to  three  to  tsvo,  and  so  on  ia 
inoportion  to  the  stage  of  the  set. 

There  are  various  methods  of  giving  odds 
at  tennis,  in  order  to  make  a  match  eepial  ; 
and  that  tliey  may  be  understood,  we  shall 
give  the  following' list  of  them,  with  their 
meanings,  so  that  any  person  may  lorm  a 
judgment  of  the  advantage  received  or 
given. 

'1  he  lowest  odds  that  can  be  given,  except- 
ing the  choice  of  the  siile-,  is  what  they  call 
a  bisque,  that  is,a  stroke  to  be  taken  or  scored 
whenever  the  player,  who  receives  the  ad- 
vantage, tliinks  proper :  for  instance,  suppose 
a  critical  game  of  the  set  to  be  forty  thirty, 
by  taking  the  bistjue,  he  who  is  forty  becomes 
game,  and  so  in  respect  of  two  bisques,  &c. 

The  next  greater  odds  are  fifteen,  that  is, 
a  certain  stroke  given  at  the  beginning  of  eacl> 
game. 

After"  these  half  thirty,  that  is,  fifteen  one 
game,  and  thirty  the  next.  Then  follow  the 
whole  thirty,  forty,  &c. 

There  are  also  the  following  kind  of  odds 
which  are  given,  viz. 

Kound  services :  those  are  services  given. 
round  t)ie  penthouse,  so  as  to  render  it.  easy 
for  the  stnker-out  (the  player  who  is  oi>the 
hazard-side)  to  return  the  ball. 

Half-court,  that  is,  being  obliged  or  con- 
lined  to  play  into  the  adversary's  half-court; 
scjinetimes  it  is  played  straigiitwise,  and  at 
otii;  r  times  across;  both  which  are  great  ad- 
vantages given  by  him  so  conlined,  but  the 
straight  halt-court  is  the  gi'eatest. 

Touch-no-wall,  that  is,  being  obliged  to 
play  within  the  compass  of  th<;  walls,  or  sides 
of  the  court.  This  is  a  considerable  advan- 
tage to  him  who  receives  it ;  as  all  the  balls  • 
must  be  played  gently,  and  consequently 
they  are  much  easier  to  take  than  those  which 
arc  played  h;ird,  or  according  to  the  usual 
method  of  play. 

Ilarring  the  hazards,  that  is,   barring  the 
dedans,  tambour,  grill,  or  the  last  gallery  on  • 
9 


T  E  iV 

!the  iiazartl-sido,  or  any  p-uli'iilar  one  or  more 
01  111  cm. 

TIr'sl-  are  tlie  common  kind  of  odds  or 
.advantages  givi'[i;  Ijiil  llierc  an;  iinuiy  otln.-rs, 
wliicli  are  accoulinp;  to  wliat  is  agreed  liy  the 
.jilayers;  sucli  as  playing  willi  hoard  against 
lackc'l,  cricket-bat  against  racket,  &c. 

'llie  game  ol' tennis  is  also  |)layed  by  four 
nersons,  two  partners  on  each  side.  In  this 
case,  they  are  generally  confined  to  their 
particular  (luarters,  and  one  of  each  aide  ap- 
^jointed  to  serve  and  strike  out  ;  in  every 
other  respect,  the  i*ame  is  played  in  the 
same  manner  as  wheji  tv.o  only  play. 

Any  thing  more  to  be  said  upon  this  sub- 
ject would  be  needless,  as  nothing  can  be 
recommended,  after  reading  this  short  ac- 
count of  tennis,  but  practice  and  attention, 
■without  which  no  one  can  become  a  proli- 
ticnt  at  the  game. 

T1!'.N0N7  in  building,  &c.  the  square  end 
of  a  piece  of  wood,  or  inetal,  diminished  by 
oue-tliird  of  its  thickness,  to  be  received  into 
a  hole  in  another  place,  called  a  mortise,  for 
jointing  or  fastening  the  two  together.  It  is 
made  in  various  forms,  square,  dove-tailed, 
for  di)ul)le  mortises,  &c. 

'I'KNOR,  of  writs,  records,  &c.  is  the  sub- 
stance or  purport  of  them,  or  a  transcript  or 
copy. 

'1  ENOR,  in  music,  the  second  of  the  four 
parts  111  hamionical  composition,  reckoning 
from  the  bass.  The  tenor  is  the  part  most 
accommodated  to  the  common  voice  of  man; 
from  which  circumstance  it  has  sometimes, 
by  wav  of  preference,  been  called  "  the  hu- 
man voice."  Us  general  compass  extends 
from  C  above  G  gamut  to  G  the  treble-clilf" 
note. 

'Hie  tenor  was  formerly  the  plain-song,  or 
principal  part  in  »  composition,  and  derived 
the  name  of  tenor  from  the  Lati[i  word  teneo, 
I  hold;  because  it  held  or  sustained  the  air, 
point,  substance,  or  meaning,  of  the  whole 
fantus,  and  every  part  superadded  to  it  was 
considered  but  as  its  auxiliary.  It  appears 
that  the  contrary  practice  of  giving  the  air  to 
the  soprano,  or  treble,  had  its  rise  in  tlie 
theatre,  and  followed  the  introduction  of  e\  i- 
rati  into  musical  performances;  since  which 
it  has  been  universally  adopted  both  in  vocal 
and  instrumental  music. 

Ten'OR-cliff,  the  name  given  to  the  C 
clitf  when  placed  on  the  fourth  line  of  the 
Btave.     bee  Cliff. 

Tenor  Violin',  or  fiolti,  a  stringed  in- 
strument resembling  the  violin,  but  lower  in 
its  scale,  having  its  lowest  note  in  C  above  G 
gamut.  In  concert  this  instrument  takes  the 
part  next  above  the  bass. 
>-.  TENSE,  lime,  in  grammar,  an  inflection 
of  verbs,  whereby  they  are  made  to  signify 
or  distinguish  the  circumstance  of  time,  in 
what  they  affirm. 

TENSION,  the  state  of  a  tiling  stretched. 
Thus  animals  sustain  and  move  themselves 
by  the  tension  of  their  muscles  and  nerves. 
A  chord  or  string  gives  an  acuter  or  deeper 
isound,  as  it  is  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  of 
tension,  that  is,  more  or  less  stretclied  or 
tightened. 

TENT,  in  surgery,  a  roll  of  lint  worked 
into  the  shape  of  a  nail,  with  a  broad  flat 
head.     Sec  Surgery. 

TENTir.B,  a  railing  used  in  the  cloth-ma- 
aijlacture,  to  stretch  out  the  jiicces  of  cloth, 


stufl",  <tc.  or  oiilv  to  make  them  even,  and  set  I 
them   stpiare.     It  is  usually  about  four  feet  I 
and  a  half  high,  and  for  length  exceeds  that  ^ 
of  the  longest  piece  of  cloth.     It  consists  of 
several  long  pieces  of  wooil,  placed  so  that 
tin;  lower  cross-piece  of  wood  may  be  raised 
or  lowiTed,  as  is  found  reciuisite,  to  be  fixed 
at  any  height,  by  means  of  pins.     Along  the 
cross-pieces,  botli  the  upper  and  under  one, 
are  liooked  nails,  called  tenter-hooks,  driven 
iu  from  space  to  space. 

Tf'LN  Til  KEDO,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the 
order  hymenoptera :  the  generic  character 
is,  mouth  with  jaws,  witliout  proboscis  ;  wings 
tlat,  swelled  or  slightly  inllated  ;  piercer  con- 
sisting of  two  serrated  and  scarcely  project- 
ing laminjE-;  scutelhmi  with  two  distant  gra- 
nules. The  larvK  of  the  genus  tenthredo  are 
remarkable  for  their  great  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  order  lepidijptera  or  real  cater- 
pillars, from  which  however  they  may  in  ge- 
neral be  readily  distinguished  by  their  more 
numerous  feet,  which  are  never  fewer  than 
sixteen,  exclusive  of  the  three  first  or  thoracic 
pairs.  When  disturbed  or  handled,  they 
usually  roll  themselves  into  a  flat  spiral". 
They  feed,  like  the  caterpillars  of  the  lepi- 
doplera,  on  the  leaves  of  plants,  and  undergo 
their  clir_\salis '..tate  in  a  strong  gummy  case 
orenvelopement,  prepared  in  autumn,  out  of 
whicli  in  the  ensuing  spring  emerges  the 
complete  insect. 

The  tenthredines  form  a  nlnnerous  genus, 
and  may  be  divided  into  tribes  or  sections, 
according  to  the  form  of  the  antenna-,  which 
are  in  some  clavated,  in  others  filiform,  Szc. 
Among  the  principal  species  may  be  num- 
bered the  teutliredo  lutea  of  Linuaius,  which 
proceeds  from  a  large  green  larva,  of  a  finely 
granulated  surface,  with  a  double  row  of 
black  specks  along  each  side,  and  a  dusky 
dorsal  line  bounded  on  each  by  yellow  :  it 
feeds  on  various  species  of  willow,  &c.  The 
parchment-like  case  in  which  it  envelops  it- 
self in  autumn  is  of  a  pale  yellowi=Ii-browii 
colour,  and  the  chrysalis,  which  is  of  a  pale 
dusky  or  brownish  cast,  exhibits  the  limbs  of 
the  future  ll .- ,  which  is  equal  in  size  to  a  com- 
mon wasp,  and  is  of  a  yellow  colour,  barred 
with  black:  the  antenna;  rather  short,  and 
strongly  clavated.  j 

Tlie  teutliredo  amerina;  of  Linnanis  is  some-  i 
what  smaller  than  the  preceding,  and  of  a 
cinereous-brown  colour,  with  the  under  part  j 
of  the  abdomen  rufous  or  dull  orange:  like 
the  former,  its  caterpillar  is  of  a  green  colour, 
and  of  a  iinely  roughened  surface  powdered 
with  numerous  whiti-^h  specks. 

The  larva- of  the  smaller  tenthredines  are 
often  very  injurious  to  different  kinds  of  escu- 
lent vegetables,  as  turnips,  ike.  &c.  There 
are  nearly  200  species  of  this  insect. 

TENTHS,  that  yearly  portion  or  tribute 
which  all  ecclesiastical  livings  antieutly  paid 
to  the  king.  See  First  Fruits. 

TENUKE,  the  manner  whereby  lands  or 
tenements  are  holden,  or  the  service  that  the 
tenant  owes  to  his  lord.  Under  the  word  te- 
nure is  included  every  holding  of  an  inherit- 
ance; but  the  sigiiiiication  of  this  word, 
which  is  a  very  extensive  one,  is  usually  re- 
strained l)y  coujiling  other  words  with  it :  this 
is  sometimes  <Ione  by  words  which  denote 
the  duration  of  the  tenant's  estate;  as  if  a 
man  holds  to  himself  and  his  heirs,  it  is 
called  tenure  in  fee-simple..  At  other  times 
the  tenure  is  coupled   with  words  pointing 


T  E  R 


779 


out  the  instrument  by  which  an  inheritance  is 
held:  (hus,  it  the  holding  is  by  coj)y  of  comt- 
roli,  it  is  called  tenure  by  copy  of  court-roll. 
At  other  times,  this  word  is  coupled  with 
others  that  shew  the  principal  service  by 
which  an  inheritance  is  held:  as  where  a  man 
held  by  knight's  service,  it  is  called  tenure  bj 
knight  s  service.  5  liaa  Abr.  .34. 

'1  EKAMNL'S,  a  genus  of  the  diadelpliia 
decandria  class  and  ordi  r  of  (ilants  :  the  keel 
is  very  small,  conccaletl  within  the  calyx  r 
stamina  alternate,  live,  barren;  stigma  sc-sile, 
headed.  There  are  two  species,  creeping 
plants  of  Jamaica. 

'1  EKEUELI.A,  a  genus  of  vermes  mol- 
lusca.  The  generic  character  is,  body  oblong, 
creeping,  naked,  often  enclosed  in  a  tube 
furiiisiied  with  lateral  tufts  and  branchia; ; 
mouth  placed  before,  furnished  with  lips, 
without  teeth,  and  protending  a  clavate  pro- 
boscis ;  feelers  numerous,  ciliate,  capillary, 
seated  round  the  mouth.  There  are  eleven 
species. 

TEREDO,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of 
vermes  belonging  to  the  order  of  testacea. 
The  animal  is  a  terebella;  there  are  two 
valves,  calcareous,  iiemispherical,  and  cut  off 
before,  and  two  lanceolated.  The  shell  is 
ta])ei"ing,  bending,  and  capable  of  penetrat- 
ing wood.  '1  here  are  only  three  species, 
the  navalis,  utriculis,  add  clava.  See  Plate 
Nat.  Hist.  fig.  394. 

The  navalis,  or  ship-worm,  which  has  a 
very  slender  smooth  cylindrical  shell,  inhabits 
the  Indian  seas,  whence  it  was  imported  into 
Europe.  It  penetrates  easily  into  the  stoutest 
oak-planks,  and  produces  dreadful  destruction 
to  the  ships  by  the  holes  it  makes  in  their 
sides;  and  it  is  to  avoid  the  etVects  of  this  in- 
sect that  vessels  require  sheathing. 

The  head  of  this  creature  is  well  prepared 
by  nature  for  the  hard  offices  which  it  has  to 
undergo,  being  coated  with  a  strong  armour, 
and  furnished  with  a  mouth  like  that  of  the 
leech,  by  which  it  pierces  wood  as  that  ani- 
mal does  the  skin.  A  little  above  this  it  has 
two  horns  which  seem  a  kind  of  continuation 
of  the  shell ;  the  neck  is  as  strongly  provided 
for  the  service  of  the  creature  as  the  head, 
being  fiirnished  with  several  strong  muscles ; 
the  rest  of  the  body  is  only  covered  by  a  very 
thin  and  transparent  skin,  through  which  the 
motion  of  the  intestines  is  plainly  seen  by  the 
naked  eye;  and  by  means  of  the  microscope 
sereral  other  very  remarkable  particulars  be- 
come visible  there.  This  creature  is  wonder- 
fully minute  when  newly  excluded  from  the 
egg  ;  but  it  grows  to  the  length  of  four  or  six 
inches,  and  sometimes  more. 

When  the  bottom  of  a  vessel,  or  any  piece 
of  wood  which  is  constantly  under  water,  is 
inhabited  by  these-  worms,  it  is  full  of  small 
holes ;  but  no  damage  appears  till  the  outer 
])arts  are  cut  av.ay :  then  their  shelly  habita- 
tions come  into  view ;  in  which  there  is  a  large- 
space  for  inclosing  the  animal,  and  surround- 
ing it  with  water.  Th/ere  is  an  evident  care 
in  these  creatures  never  to  injure  one  an- 
other's habitations,  by  which  means  each  case 
or  shell  is  preserved  entire ;  and  in  such 
pieces  of  wood  as  have  been  found  eaten  by 
them  into  a  sort  of  honeycomb,  there  never 
is  seen  a  passage  or  communication  between 
any  two  of  the  shells,  though  the  woo  Iv 
matter  between  them  often  is  not  thickertha'n 
a  piece  of  writing-paper.  They  penetrate 
some  kinds  of  wood  more  easily  than  o'.her*'.  ' 


780 


T  E  R 


Thev  make  their  way  most  qiiicklT  into  fir 
and  alder,  and  grow  to  tlic  iirealest  size.  In 
tlie  oak  tliev  make  small  pro2;ress,  and  ap- 
pear small  and  feeble,  and  tUeir  shells  much 
discoloured. 

Since  each  of  these  animals  is  lodged  in  a 
solitary  cell,  and  has  no  access  to  those  of  ils 
own  sp'ecies,  it  has  beini  matter  of  surpriie 
how  they  should  increase  to  so  vast  a  multi- 
tude. Lfpon  dissecting  them,  it  appears  that 
every  individual  has, the  parts  of  both  sexes, 
and  is  therefore  supposed  to  propagate  by  it- 
self. 

The  sea-worms,  which  are  pernicious  to 
our  shipping,  appear  to  have  the  same  office 
allotted  to  them  in  the  waters  which  the  ter- 
mites have  on  llu-  land  (see  Term Es).They 
will  appear,  on  a  very  little  consideration,  to 
be  most  important  beings  in  the  great  chain 
of  Creadon,  and  pleasing  demonstrations  of 
that  infinitely  wise  and  gracious  Power  whicli 
formed,  and 'still  preserves,  tlie  whole  in  such 
wonderful  order  and  beauty  ;  for  if  it  was  not 
■  for  the  rapacity  of  these  and  such  animals, 
tiopical  rivers,  and  indeed  the  ocean  itself, 
would  be  choked  with  the  bodies  of  trees 
which  are  annually  carried  down  by  the  rapid 
torrents,  as  many  of  them  would  last  for  ages, 
and  probably  be'productive  of  evils,  of  «  hich, 
happily,  we  cannot  in  the  present  harmonious 
state  of  thi:igs  form  any  idea  ;  whereas  now 
being  consumed  by  these  animals,  they  are 
more  easily  broken  in  pieces  by  the  waves  ; 
and  the  fragments  which  are  not  devoured 
become  specilically  lighter,  and  are  conse- 
quently more  readily  and  more  effectually 
thrown  on  shore,  where  the  sun,  wind,  in- 
sects, and  various  other  instruments,  speedily 
promote  their  entire  dissolution. 

TERES.     See  Anatomy. 

TERM,  in  geometry,  is  the  extreme  of  any 
magnitude,  or  that  which  bounds  and  limits 
its  extent.  So  the  terms  of  a  line,  are  points; 
of  a  superficies,  lines ;  of  a  solid,  superficies. 

Terms,  of  an  eiiuation,  or  of  any  quantity, 
in  Al;;ebra,  are  the  several  n.mies  or  members 
of  which  it  is  composed,  separated  from  one 
another  by  the  signs  -\-  or  — .  So,  the  quantity 
a.v  -\-  2ic  —  3.i.v',  consists  of  the  three  terms  a.v 
and  '2ic  and  3a  v'. 

In  an  equation,  the  terms  are  the  parts  which 
contain  the  several  powers  of  the  same  imknown 
Ictlcr  or  quantity:  tor  if  the  same  unknown 
quantity  is  found  in  several  members  in  the 
same  dcj;ree  or  power,  they  shall  pass  but  for 
one  term,  which  is  called  a  compound  one,  in 
distinction  from  a  simple  or  single  term.    Thus, 

in  the  equation  jf'  -^  ti  —  'M  .  x^  —  acx  =  P 

the  four  terms  are  x'  and  a  —  36  .  .v'  and  ac\ 


and  i' ;  of  which  the  second  term  a  —  :U  .  x'  is 
compound,  and  the  other  three  are  simple  term*. 
Te-  MS  of  a  product,  or  of  a  fraction,  or  of  a 
ratio,  or  of  a  proportion,  &c.  are  the  several 
quantities  employed  in  forming  or  composing 
them.    Thus,  the  terms 

of  the  product  ai,  are  c  and  I; 

of  the  fraction  4i  are  S  and  8  ; 

of  the  ratio  C  to  7,  arc  fi  and  7 ; 

of  tJie  proportion  "  ',  i  ','.  5  '  0,  are  n,  i, 
5,  9. 
Terms,  are  those  spaces  of  lime  wherein 
the  courts  of  justice  are  open  for  all  that 
complain  of  wrongs  or  injuries,  and  seek  their 
rights  by  course  of  law  or  action,  in  order  to 
their  redress;  and  during  which,  t'le  rourts 
in  Wcotrniusler-hall  sit  and  give  judgments, 
fci.  but  the  liigh  court  of  parliament,  the 


T  E  R 

chancery,  and  inferior  courts,  do  not  observe 
the  terms;  only  the  courts  of  king's  bench, 
common-pleas,  and  exehe(|utr,  the  highest 
courts  at  comipoii  law.  Oi  these  terms  there 
are  four  in  every  year,  viz.  Hilary  term,  which 
begins  the  23d  of  .lanuary,  and  ends  the  12tli 
of  February,  unless  on  Sundays,  and  then  tlie 
day  after;  Easter  term,  wliich  begins  the 
Wednestkiy  fortnight  after  l'".aster-day,  and 
ends  the  Slonday  next  after  ascension-day; 
Trinity  term,  which  begins  the  Friday  after 
Trinity  Sunday,  and  ends  the  Wednesday 
fortnight  after;  and  Michaelmas  term  begins 
the  6th  and  ends  the  2Sth  ot  November. 

There  are  in  each  of  these  terms  stated 
da\s,  called  days  in  bank,  that  is,  days  of 
appearance  in  the  court  of  common  pleas, 
called  usually  banciim,  or  coiumune  bancuni, 
to  distinguish  it  from  bancum  regis,  or  the 
court  of  king's-bench.  They  are  generally 
at  the  distance  of  about  a  week  trum  each 
other,  and  regulated  by  some  festival  of  the 
church.  On  some  of  these  days  in  bank,  all 
original  writs  must  be  made  returnable,  and 
therefore  they  are  generally  called  the  re- 
turns of  that  term.  3  Black.  227. 

The  first  return  in  every  term  is,  properly 
speaking,  the  firnt  day  in  that  term ;  and 
thereon  the  court  sits  to  take  essoins,  or  ex- 
cuses, for  such  as  do  not  appear,  according 
to  the  summons  of  this  writ ;  wlierefore  this  is 
usually  called  the  essoin  day  of  the  term.  But 
the  person  summoned  has  three  days  grace 
beyond  tlie  return  of  the  writ,  in  which  to 
make  his  appearance;  and  if  he  appears  on 
the  fourth  day  inclusive,  quarto  die  post,  it  is 
sulficieiit.  Therefore,  at  the  beginning  of 
each  term,  the  court  does  not  sit  for  dispatch 
of  business  till  the  fourth  dav,  and  in  Trinity 
term,  by  stat.  32  II.  VIII.  c!  21,  not  till  the 
sixth  day.  3  Black.  227. 

Terms,  Oxford.  Hilary,  or  Lent  term, 
begins  on  Jan.  1-i,  and  ends  the  Saturday  be- 
fore Palm  Sunday.  Easter  term  begins  the 
tenth  day  after  Easter,  and  ends  the  Thursday 
beforeWhit-Sunday.  Trinity  term  begins  the 
Wednesday  after  Trinity  Sunday,  and  ends 
after  the  act,  sooner  or  later,  as  the  vice- 
chancellor  and  convocation  please.  Michael- 
mas term  begijis  on  Oct.  10,  and  ends  Dec. 
17. 

Terms,  Camhridt^e.  Lent  terra  begins  on 
Jail.  13,  and  ends  the  Friday  before  Palm 
Sunday.  Easter  term  begins  the  Wednesday 
after  Easter  week,  and  ends  the  week  before 
Whit  Sunday.  Tiinity  term  begins  the  Wed- 
nesday after  Trinity  Sunday,  and  ends  the 
Friday  after  the  commencement.  Michael- 
mas term  begins  Oct.  10,  and  ends  Dec.  16. 

Terms,  ScoitUli.  In  Scotland  Candlemas 
term  begins  Jan.  23,  and  ends  Feb.  12.  Whit- 
suntide term  begins  May  25,  and  ends  June 
15.  Lammas  term  begins  July  20,  and  ends 
Aug.  S.  Martinmas  term  begins  Nov.  3,  and 
ends  Nov.  29. 

TERMES,  the  ii-hite  ant,  a  genus  of  in- 
sects of  the  order  aptera:  the  generic  cha- 
racter is,  legs  six,  formed  for  running;  eyes 
two;  antenna;  setaceous;  mouth  furnished 
with  two  jaws.  The  Euro|)ean  species  of 
termes  are  very  small,  compared  with  those 
of  the  warmer  regions  of  Africa  and  America; 
and  instead  of  assembling  in  multitudes,  as  in 
those  climates,  .are  usually  observed  single. 
The  most  common  of  these  is  the  termes 
pulsatorius  ofLinnsus,  a  diminutive  insect, 
of  a  wliitish  colour,  and  which,  from  its  gc- 


T  E  R 

neral  resemblance  to  the  insects  of  tliat 
genus,  has  by  Derliam  and  some  other  na- 
turalists been  disliiiguished  by  the  title  of 
pediculus  pulsatorius.  It  is  very  frequent, 
fijiring  the  summer  months,  in  houses,  par- 
ticularly where  the  wainscot  is  in  any  degree 
decastd,  and  is  remarkable  for  causing  a 
long-continued  sound,  exactly  resembling  the 
ticking  of  a  watch.  It  is  a  very  common  in- 
sect in  collections  of  dried  plants,  &c.  which 
it  often  injures  greatly.  It  is  of  so  tender  a 
frame  as  to  be  easily  destroyed  by  the  slightest 
pressure,  and  is  an  animal  of  very  cjuick  mo- 
tion. WJien  magnihe<l,  the  head  appears 
large;  the  eyes  remarkably  conspicuous,  of  a 
most  beautilul  gold-colour,  and  divided,  like 
those  of  most  other  insects,  into  innumerable 
hexagonal  convexilies;  the  antenn;e  long  and 
setaceous;  the  palpi  or  feelerji  two  in  num- 
ber, of  moderate  length,  and  terminating  in 
a  large  club-shaped  tip  ;  the  thorax  rather 
narrow,  and  the  ai)doiiien  obtusely  oval ;  the 
thighs  or  first  joints  of  the  legs  thick,  the  re- 
niaming  ones  slender,  and  the  feet  furnislied 
with  very  small  claws  :  the  whole  animal  is 
beset  with  small,  scattered  hairs.  According 
to  the  observations  of  the  celebrated  Der- 
liam, this  insect,  at  rts  first  hatching  from  the 
egg,  which  is  white,  oval,  and  extremely 
small,  bears  a  complete  resemblance  to  a 
common  mite,  being  furnished  with  eight 
legs,  and  beset  with  long  hairs.  After  a  cer- 
tain time  it  casts  its  skin,  and  appears  in  the 
very  different  form  above-described.  Some 
individuals  of  this  species  become  winged 
when  arrived  at  their  full  grow  th  ;  the  wings, 
which  are  four  in  number,  being  very  large, 
of  a  slightly  iridescent  appearance,  and  varie- 
gated w'.tii  blatkish  and  brown  clouds  or 
spots.  It  is  in  the  beginning  of  Jujy  that  this 
change  takes  place,  and  at  this  time  several 
may  be  seen  with  the  wings  half-giown;  iit 
a  few  days  they  seem  to  obtain  their  full 
size. 

Mr.  Derham  imagines  the  ticking  sound 
which  these  animals  produce,  to  be  analo- 
gous to  the  call  ot  birds  to  their  mates  during 
the  breeding-season;  and  there  seems  to  be  no 
reason  for  calling  in  ([uestion  the  truth  of  this 
observalion.  We  may  add,  that  this  sound, 
as  well  as  that  produced  by  the  ptinus  fali- 
dicus,  or  death-watch,  seems  to  allord  a  con- 
vincing proof  of  the  faculty  of  licanng  in  in- 
sects, which  some  naturalists  have  been  ia- 
clined  to  deny. 

Of  the  exotic  termites  the  most  remarkable 
seems  to  be  the  termes  bellicosus,  whose  his- 
tory is  described  by  Mr.  Smeathman  in  the 
Philosophical  I'ransactioiis. 

With  the  good  order  of  their  subterraneous 
cities,  they  will  appear  foremost  on  the  list 
of  the  wonders  of  the  creation,  as  most  closely 
imitating  mankind  in  provident  industry  ani 
regular  government. 

The  termites  are  represented  by  Linnaus 
as  the  greatest  plagues  of  both  Indies,  and  are 
indeed  every  way  between  the  tropics  so 
deemed.  '1  hese  insects  liave  geiieially  ob- 
tained the  names  of  ants,  it  may  be  presum- 
etl,  rom  thesimilaritv  in  their  manner  of  liv- 
ing, which  is  in  large  communities  that  erect 
very  extraordinary  nests,  for  the  most  part  oti 
the  surface  of  the  grmind,  whence  their  ex- 
cursions ai'e  made  I  irough  subterl•aneoll^  pas- 
sages or  covered  galleries,  which  they  build 
whenever  neces5ily  obliges,  or  plunder  in- 
iluccs,  Ihciu  to  iiiarth  above  ground  ;  and  at 


a  great  distance  from  tlieir  iiabikitions  carry 
on  a  business  of  depredation  and  destruction, 
scarcely  credible  but  I o  those  who  have  seen 
it. 

The  teriiiiles  resemble  the  ants  also  in  their 
provident  and  diligent  labour,  but  surpass 
them  as  well  as  the  bees,  wasps,  beavers,  and 
all  other  animals,  in  the  arts  of  bnildiu'^,  as 
much  as  the  Europeans  excel  the  least  culti- 
vated savages.  It  is  more  than  probable  they 
excel  them  as  much  in  sagacity  and  the  arts 
of  go\eriunent;  it  is  certain  they  nIu'w  more 
substantial  instances  of  their  ingenuity  and 
industry  than  any  other  ajiimals  ;  and  do  in 
tact  lay  up  vast  magazines  of  provisions  and 
other  stores  ;  a  degree  of  prudence  which  has 
of  late  years  been  denied,  perhaps  without 
reason,  to  the  ants. 

Their  conuiiunities  consist  of  one  male  and 
one  female  (who  are  generally  the  common 
parents  of  tlie  whole,  or  greater  part,  of  the 
rest);  and  of  three  order  of  insects,  apparently 
of  very  diliiTcnt  species,  but  really  the  same, 
which  together  compose  great  coninion- 
wealths,  or  rather  monarchies,  if  we  may  be 
allowed  the  term. 

The  dil'ferent  species  of  this  genus  resemble 
each  other  in  form,  in  their  maimer  of  living, 
and  in  their  good  and  bad  qualities,  but  dilfer 
as  much  as  birds  in  the  manner  of  building 
their  habitations  or  nests,  and  in  the  choice 
of  the  materials  of  which  they  compose  them. 

There  are  some  species  which  build  upon 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  part  above  and 
part  beneath  ;  and  one  or  two  species,  per- 
haps more,  that  build  on  the  stems  or  branches 
of  trees,  sometimes  aloft  at  a  vast  height. 

Of  every  species  there  are  three  orders  ! 
first,  the  working  insects,  which,  for  brevity, 
we  shall  generally  call  labourers;  next  the 
fighting  ones,  or  soldiers,  which  do  no  kind 
of  labour  ;  and,  last  of  all,  the  winged  ones, 
or  perfect  insects,  whicli  are  male  and  fe- 
male, and  capable  of  propagation. 

The  nests  of  the  t.-nnes  bellicosus  are  so 
numerous  all  over  the  island  ol  Bananas,  and 
the  adjacent  continent  of  Africa,  that  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  stand  upon  any  open 
place,  such  as  a  rice-plajitation,  or  other  clear 
spot, where  one  ofthe-e  buildings  is  not  to  be 
seen  within  lifty  paces,  and  frei|uently  two  or 
three  are  to  be  seen  almost  close  to  each 
other.  In  some  parts  near  Senegal,  as  men- 
tioned by  iVIons.  Adanson,  tlieir  number, 
magnitude,  and  closeness  of  situation,  make 
them  appear  like  the  villages  of  the  n.-.Uves. 

These  buddings  are  usually  termed  hills, 
bv  natives  as  well  as  strangers,  from  their 
outward  appearance,  whicli  is  that  of  little 
liilK  more  or  less  conical,  generally  pretty 
much  in  the  form  of  sugar-loaves,  and  about 
ten  or  twelve  feet  in  perpendicular  height 
above  the  common  surface  of  the  ground. 

These  hills  continue  (juite  -bare  until  they 
are  six  or  eight  feet  high;  but  in  time  the 
dead  barren  clay,  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed, becomes  fertilized  by  the  genial  power 
of  the  elements  in  these  prolihc  climates,  and 
the  addition  of  vegetable  and  other  matters 
brought  by  the  wind ;  and  in  the  secoufl  or 
third  year,  the  hillock,  if  not  over-shaded  by 
trees,  becomes,  like  the  rest  of  the  earth, 
ahiiost  cov  red  with  grass  and  other  plants  ; 
and  in  the  dry  season,  when  the  herbage  is 
burnt  up  by  the  ra\  s  of  the  suu,  it  is  not  much 
lUilike  a  very  large  hay-cock. 


TERiMES. 

Every  'oi.c  of  tliese  buildings  consists  of 
two  distinct  parts,  the  exterior  and  the  inte- 
rior. The  exterior  is  one  large  shell  in  the 
manner  of  a  dome,  large  and  strong  enough 
to  inclose  and  shelter  the  interior  from  tlie 
vicissitudes  of  the  weather,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants from  the  attacks  of  natural  or  accidental 
enemies.  It  is  always,  therefore,  much 
stronger  than  the  interior  building,  wi;ich  is 
the  habitable  part,  divided  with  a  wonderful 
kind  of  regularity  and  contrivance  into  an 
amazing  number  of  apartments  for  the  resi- 
dence of  the  king  and  cpieen,  and  the  nursing 
of  their  numerous  progeny;  or  for  maga- 
zines, which  are  always  found  well  filled  with 
stores  and  provisions. 

I'rom  these  habitations,  galleries  again  as- 
cend, and  lead  out  horizontally  on  every  side, 
andare  carried  under  ground  near  to  the  sur- 
face a  vast  distance :  tor  if  you  destroy  all 
tlie  nests  within  one  hundred  yards  of  your 
house,  the  inhabitants  of  those  which  are  lelt 
unmole-ted  farther  off,  will  nevertheless  carry 
on  their  subterraneous  galleries,  and  invade 
the  goods  and  merchandizes  contained  in  it 
by  sap  and  mine,  and  do  great  mischief  if  you 
are  not  very  circums|)ect. 

It  has  been  observed,  that  there  are  of 
every  species  of  termites  three  orders ;  of 
these  orders  the  working  insects  or  labourers 
are  always  the  most  numerous  ;  in  the  termes 
bellicosus  there  seems  to  be  at  the  least  one 
hundred  labourers  to  one  of  the  fighting  in- 
sects or  soldiers.  They  are  in  this  state  about 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  and  twenty-live 
ot  them  weigh  about  a  grain ;  so  that  they 
are  not  so  large  as  some  of  our  ants.  The 
second  order,  or  soldiers,  have  a  very  dif- 
ferent form  from  the  labourers,  and  have 
been  by  some  authors  supposed  to  be  the 
males,  and  the  former  neuters;  but  they  are, 
in  fact,  tiie  same  insects,  only  they  iiave  un- 
dergone a  ch.aige  of  form,  and  approached 
one  degree  nearer  to  the  perfect  state.  They 
are  now  much  larger,  being  half  an  inch  long, 
and  equal  in  bulk  to  fifteen  of  the  labourers. 
There  is  now  likewise  a  most  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance in  the  form  of  the  head  and  mouth; 
for  in  the  former  state  tlie  mouth  is  evidently 
calculated  for  gnawing  and  holding  bodies ; 
but  in  this  state,  the  jaws  being  shaped  just 
like  two  verv  sharp  awls,  a  little  jagged,  they 
are  incapable  of  any  thing  but  piercing  or 
wounding,  for  which  purposes  they  are  very 
effectual,  being  as  hard  as  a  crab's  claw,  and 
placed  in  a  strong  horny  head,  which  is  of  a 
nut-brown  colour,  and  larger  than  all  the 
rest  of  the  body  together,  which  seems  to 
labotn-  under  great  dilTiculiy  in  carrying  it  ; 
onwhieh  account  perhaps  the  animal  is  inca- 
pable of  climbing  up  perpendicular  surfaces. 
The  third  order,  or  the  insect  in  its  perfect 
state,  varies  its  form  still  more  than  ever. 
"^Ihe  head,  thora.'C,  and  abdomen,  differ  almost 
entirely  from  the  same  parts  in  the  labourers 
and  soldiers;  and,  besides  this,  the  animal 
is  now  furnished  with  four  fine  large  brownish, 
transparent,  wings,  with  which  it  is  at  the 
time  of  emigration  to  wing  its  way  in  search 
of  a  new  settlement.  We  may  open  twenty 
nests  without  linding  one  whigcd  insect,  for 
iho'-e  are  to  be  found  only  just  before  the 
commencement  of  the  rainy  season,  when 
they  undergo  the  last  change,  which  is  pre- 
parative to  their  colonization. 

In  the  winged  state  they  have  also  much 
altered  their   size  as  well  as  form.     Tlieir 


;si 

bodies  now  measure  lietween  six  and  seven 
tenths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  their  wings 
above  two  inches  and  a  half  from  tip  to  tip, 
and  they  are  equal  in  bulk  to  about  thirty 
labourers,  or  two  soldiers.  'I'hey  are  now 
also  furnished  with  two  large  eyes  placed  on 
each  side  of  the  head,  and  verv  conspicuous: 
if  they  have  any  belbre,  they  are  not  easily 
to  be  distinguished.  Probably  in  the  two 
first  states,  their  eyes,  if  they  have  any,  may 
be  small,  like  those  of  moles:  for  as  they 
live,  like  these  animals,  always  under  ground, 
they  have  as  little  occasion  tor  tliese  organs, 
ami  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  we  do 
not  discover  them ;  but  the  case  is  much 
altered  when  they  arrive  at  the  winged  state 
in  which  they  are  to  roam,  though  but  for  a 
few  hours,  through  the  wide  air,  and  explore 
new  and  distant  regions.  In  this  form  the 
animal  conies  abroad  during,  or  soon  after, 
the  first  tornado,  which,  at  the  latter  end  of 
the  dry  season,  proclaims  the  approach  of  the 
ensuing  rains,  and  seldom  waits  for -a  second 
or  third  shower,  if  the  first,  as  is  generally 
the  case,  happens  in  the  night,  and  brings 
much  wet  after  it. 

'i'lie  quantities  that  are  to  be  found  the 
next  morning  all  over  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
but  particularly  on  the  waters, are  astonisliing; 
for  their  wings  are  only  calculated  to  cany 
them  a  few  hours,  and  alter  the  rising  of  IUp- 
sun  not  one  in  a  thousand  is  to  be  found  with 
(our  wings,  unless  the  morning  continues 
rainy,  when  here  and  there  a  solitary  being 
is  seen  winging  its  way  from  one  place  to  an- 
other, as  it  solicitous  only  to  avoid  its  nume- 
rous enemies,  particularlv  various  species  of 
ants  which  are  hunting  on  every  spray,  on 
every  leaf,  and  in  every  possible  place,  for 
this  unhappy  race,  of  which  prob:d)lv  not  a 
pair  in  many  millions  gi^t  into  a  jilace  of 
safety,  fulfil  the  tii^t  law  of  nature,  and  lay 
tlie  foundation  of  a  new  community. 

The  termites  arborum,  those  which  build 
ill  trees,  fre<iueritly  establish  their  nests  within 
the  roofs  and  other  parts  of  houses,  to  which 
they  do  considerable  damage,  if  not  timely 
extirpated.  The  large  spceies  are  not  only 
much  the  most  destructive,  but  more  difii- 
cult  to  be  guarded  against,  since  thev  make 
their  approaches  chiefly  under  ground,  de- 
scending below  the  foundations  of  houses  and 
stores  at  several  feet  from  the  surface,  and 
rising  again  either  in  the  floors,  or  entering 
at  the  bottoms  ot  the  posts,  of  which  the  sides- 
of  the  buildings  are  composed,  bore  quite 
through  them,  following  the  course  of  the 
fibres  to  the  top,  or  making  lateral  perfora- 
tions and  cavities  here  and  there  as  they  pro- 
ceed. 

■  \\  hile  some  are  employed  in  gutting  the 
posts,  others  ascend  from  them,  entering  a 
ratter  or  some  other  part  of  the  roof.  If  they 
once  find  the  thatch,  which  seems  to  be  a 
favourite  food,  they  soon  bring  up  wet  clay, 
and  build  their  pipes  or  gtdleries  through  the 
roof  in  various  directions,  as  long  as  it  will 
support  them;  sometimes  lating  the  palm- 
tree  leaves  and  branches  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed, and,  perhaps  (for  variety  seems  very 
pleasing  to  lliem)  the  rattan,  or  other  running 
l)lanl,  which  is  used  as  a  cord  to  tie  the 
various  parts  of  the  roof  together,  and  that  to 
the  posts  which  support  it;  thus,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  rats,  who  during  the  rainy 
season  are  apt  to  shelter  themselves  there,, 
and  to  burrow  through  it,  they  very  soonruini 


752 


R 


tlie  house  by  weakening  the  fastening'?,  and 
eNposing  it  to  the  wet.  In  the  mean  time 
the  posts  will  be  perfoiatt-d  in  every  direc- 
tion, as  full  of  hol-j  as  that  timber  in  the  bot- 
toms of  ships  which  has  been  bored  by  tiic 
worms ;  the  nbrcs  and  knotty  parts,  which 
are  the  hardest,  being  left  to  the  last. 

They  sometimes,  in  carrying  on  tliis  busi- 
ness, seem  to  iind  that  the  post  has  some 
weight  to  sui)port,  and  then  if  it  is  a  convenient 
track  to  the  roof,  or  is  itself  a  kind  of  wood 
agreeable,  to  them,  thej  bring  their  mortar, 
and  till  ail  or  most  of  the  cavitii:s,  leaving  t!ic 
■necessary  roads  through  it,  and  as  fast  as  they 
take  away  the  wood,  replace  the  xacancy 
with  that' material ;  which  being  worked  to- 
gether bv  them  closer  and  more  compactly 
than  luMiian  strength  or  art  conld  ram  it,  when 
the  house  is  pulled  to  pieces,  in  order  to  ex- 
amine if  any  of  the  posts  are  lit  to  be  used 
again,  those  of  tlie  sotter  kinds  are  often  re- 
duced aimost  to  a  shell,  and  all  or  a  greater 
part  transformed  from  wood  to  clay,  as  solid 
and  as  liard  as  many  kinds  of  free-stone  used 
for  building  in  England.  It  is  nnicli  the 
same  when  the  termites  bellicosi  get  into  a 
chest  or  trunk  containing  clothes  and  other 
things  ;  if  the  weight  above  is  great,  or  they 
are  afraid  of  ants  or  other  enemies,  and  have 
time,  tiiev  carry  their  pipes  through,  and  re- 
place a  great  part  with  clay,  running  tlieir 
galleries  in  various  directions.  The  tree  ter- 
mites indeed,  when  they  get  within  a  box, 
often  make  a  nf-st  there,  and  being  once  in 
possession,  destroy  it  at  their  leisure. 

When  tiie  termites  attack  trees  and 
branches  in  the  open  air,  they  sometimes 
vary  their  manner  of  doing  it.  if  a  st,  ke  in  a 
hedge  has  not  taken  root  and  vegetated,  it 
b'Tomes  their  business  to  destroy  it.  If  it 
lias  a  good  sound  bark  round  it,  tliey  will 
enter  at  tlie  bottom,  and  eat  all  but  the  bark, 
which  will  remain,  and  exhibit  the  appear- 
ance of  a  solid  stick  (which  some  vagrant 
colony  of  ants  or  other  insects  often  shelter 
in  till  the  winds  disperse  it);  but  if  they  can- 
not trust  the  bark,  they  cover  the  whole  stick 
with  tlieir  iiiortar,  and  then  it  looks  as  if  it 
had  been  dipped  into  thick  mud  that  had 
been  dried  on.  Under  this  covering  thev 
work,  leaving  no  more  of  the  stick  and  bark 
than  is  barely  sullicient  to  support  it,  and 
frequently  not  the  smallest  particle  ;  so  that 
upon  a  very  small  tap  with  your  walking- 
stick,  the  whole  stake,  though  apparently  as 
thick  as  your  arm,  and  live  or  six  feet  long, 
loses  its  I'orm,  and  disappearing  like  a  shadow, 
falls  ill  small  fragments  at  your  feet. 

The  lirst  obiect  of  admiration  which  strikes 
one  upon  opening  their  hills,  is  the  beha- 
viour of  the  soldiers.  If  you  make  a  breach 
in  a  slight  part  of  llie  building,  and  do  it 
quickly  with  a  strong  hoe,  or  pick-axe,  in  the 
K|)ace  of  a  few  seconds  a  soldier  will  run 
out,  and  walk  about  the  breach,  as  if  to  see 
whether  the  enemy  is  "one,  or  to  examine 
what  is  the  cause  of  tilt;  attack,  lie  will 
sonielinies  go  again,  as  if  to  give  the  alarm ; 
but  nurtt  frequentlv,  in  a  short  time;  is  fol- 
iowi'd  by  a  large  body,  who  rush  out  as  fast 
as  the  breach  will  pen'v.it  them;  and  so  they 
proceed,  the  number  increasing,  as  long  as 
any  one  oonlinnes  battering  tlieir  buihiing. 
Jt  is  not  easy  to  describe  llie  rage  and  fury 
(hey  shew.  In  their  hurry  they  frequently 
iiliit  llieir  liohl,  and  tumble  down  the  sides 
of  llii;  hill,  but  rtcovef  thcinstlvcj  as  quickly 


T  E  R 

as  possible;  and,  being    blind,  bite    every  | 
thing  they    run  against,   and    ttius   make  a  | 
crackiing'noise,  while  some  of  them  beat  n--  | 
peatedly  with  their  forceps  upon  the  build-  I 
mg,  and  make  a  small  vibrating  noise,  some-  I 
thmg  sliriller  and  quicker  th,in  the  ticking  of  j 
a  watch.     If  they  get   hold  of  any  one,  they  I 
will   in   an    instant  let  out  blood  enough  to  ' 
weigh  against  their  whole  body  ;  and  ii  it  is 
the  leg  they  wound,   yon  will   see  the  stain 
upon  the  stocking  extend  an  iych  in  width. 
They  make  tlieir  hooked  jaws  meet  at  the 
lirst  "stroke,   and  never  (juit   their  hold,  but 
sutler  themselves  to  be  pulled  away  leg  by 
leg,  and  piece   after  piece,  without  the  least 
attempt  to  escape.     On  the  other  iiaiid,  keep 
out  of  their  way,  and  give  them  no  interruption, 
and  they  will  "in  less  than  half  an  hour  retire 
into  the"  nest,  as  if  they  supposed  the  won- 
derful monster  tliat  damaged  their  castle  to 
be  gone  beyond  their  reach.    Before  they  are 
all  got  ill  you  will  see  the  labourers  in  mo- 
tion, and  hastening  in  various  directions  to- 
ward the  breach,  every  one  witli  a  burthen 
of  mortar  in    his    moutli     ready-tempered. 
This  they   stick  upon   the  bieacli  as  fast  as 
they  come  up,  and  do  it  with  so  much  dis- 
patch  and  facility,  that  although  there  are 
tliousands,  or  rather  millions,  of  them,  they 
never  slop  or  embarrass  one  another;  and  you 
are  most  agreeably  aeceived,  when,  after  an 
apjiarent   scene  of  hurry   and   confusion,  a 
regular  wall   arises,  gradually  hlling  up  the 
chasm.     'While  they  are  thus  employed,  al- 
most all  the  soldiers  are  i-etiied  quite  out  of 
sight. 

A  renewal  of  the  attack,  however,  instantly 
changes  tiie  scene.  At  every  stroke  we  hear 
a  loud  hiss;  and  on  the  lirst  the  labourers 
run  into  the  many  pipes  and  galleries  with 
which  the  building  is  perforated,  which  they 
do  so  quickly  that  they  seem  to  vanish,  for  in 
a  few  seconds  all  are  gone,  and  the  soldiers 
rush  out  as  numerous  and  as  vindictive  as  be- 
fore. 

Previously  to  breeding,  a  very  surprising 
change  takes  place  in  the  body  of  the  queen 
or  breeding  animal.  The  abdomen  of  this 
female,  in  tlie  termesbeUicosus  especially,  be- 
gins gradually  to  extend  and  enlarge  to  such 
an  enormous'size,  that  an  old  queen  will  have 
it  increased  so  as  to  be  fifteen  hundred  or 
two  thousand  times  the  bulk  of  the  rest  of 
her  body,  and  twenty  or  thirty  thousand 
times  the  bulk  of  a  labourer.  Mr.  Smeeth- 
man  conjectures  the  animal  is  upwards  of 
two  vears  old  when  the  abdomen  is  increased 
to  three  inches  in  length,  and  has  sometimes 
found  them  of  near  twice  that  size.  The  ab- 
domen is  now  of  an  irregular  oblong  shape, 
being  contracted  by  the  niuscles  of  every 
segment,  ami  is  become  one  vast  matrix  full 
oi  eggs,  which  make  long  circumvolutions 
through  an  innumerable  iiuantity  of  very 
miiune  vessels  that  circulate  round  the  inside 
in  a  serpentine  manner,  which  would  exercise 
the  ingenuity  of  a  skilful  anatomist  to  dissect 
and  deve'opp.  This  singular  matrix  is  not 
more  remarkable  for  its  amazing  extension 
and  size,  than  for  its  peristaltic  motion, 
which  resembles  the  undulating  of  waves,  and 
continues  incessantly  without  any  apparent 
effort  of  the  animal ;  so  that  one  part  or 
other  alternately  is  rising  and  sinking  in  pc  r- 
petual  succession,  and  the  matrix  seems  never 
at  rest,  but  is  always  protruding  eggs  to  the 
ainouiit  of  sLxty  in  a  ir.iuHte,  or  eighty  thoii- 


T  E  S 

sand  and  upward  in  one  day  of  twenfy-roin- 
hours,  'lliesc  eggs  are  instantly  taken"  from 
her  body  by  her  atl-endants  (of  whom  there  arft 
always,  in  the  royal  chamber  and  the  galle- 
ries adjacent,  a  sullicient  numlier  in  wailina) 
and  carried  to  the  nurseries,  v,  hich  in  a  greiit 
nest  may  some  of  them  be  lour  or  five  feel 
distant  in  a  straight  line,  and  consequently 
much  farther  by  their  winding  galleries. 
Here,  after  they  are  hatched,  theyuungare 
attended  and  provided  with  ever>  thing  ne- 
cessary until  tliey  are  able  to  shiit  (dv  them- 
selves, and  take  their  share  of  labour. 

TERM  IN  ALIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the- 
class  of  polygarr.ia,  and  order  of  mona'cia. 
The  male  caiyx  is  quinqueparlite  ;  there  is  my 
corolla  ;  the  stamhia  are  ten  in  luimbor.  Tlie 
hermaphrodite  dower  is  die  same  with. that  of 
the  male ;  there  is  one  st)  le ;  the  fruit,  which  is 
a  drupe  or  plum,  is  below,  and  shaped  like  a 
boat.     There  are  six  species. 

TEKMINATCiK,  in  astronomy,  a  name 
sometimes  given  to  tiie  circle  of  illumination, 
from  its  property  of  lerimnaling  the  bounda- 
ries of  light  and  darkness. 

TERNSTROEMIA,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  order  polyandria  monogynia.  The  ca- 
lyx is  live-parted;  the  corolla  one-pelalled, 
wheel-shaped;  anthers  thick  at  the  top-, 
berry  two-celled.  There  are  live  species, 
trees  of  the  East  and  West  Indies. 

TERRA  PONDEROSA.   See  Barytes. 

TERR.E  FILIUS,  sou  of  the  ccirlli,  a. 
student  of  the  university  of  Oxford,  formerlv 
appointed,  in  public  acts,  to  make  jesting  and 
satyrical  speeches  agahist  the  members  there.. 
of  to  tax  them  with  any  growing  corruptions, 
&c. 

TERRE-PLEIN,  or  TERRE-rLAiN,  in 
fortification,  the  lop,  platform,  or  horizontal 
surface,  of  the  rampart,  upon  which  the  cannon 
are  placed,  and  where  the  defenders  perform 
their  otifice.  It  is  so  called  because  it  lies  le- 
vel, having  only  a  little  slope  outwardly  la 
counteract  the  recoil  of  the  cannon.  '  Its 
breadth  is  from  f;'4  to  30  feet ;  being  termi« 
nated  by  the  parapet  on  the  outer  side,  and 
inwardly  by  the  inner  talus. 

TER'RE"LLA,  or  little  earth,  is  a  magnet 
turned  of  a  spherical  figure,  and  placed  so 
that  its  poles,  ecpiator,  &c.  do  exactly  cor- 
respond with  those  of  the  world.  It  was  so 
first  called  by  Gilbert,  as  being  a  just  repre- 
sentation of  the  great  magnetic  globe  we  in- 
habit. Such  a  terrelia,  it  was  supposed,  if 
nicely^  poised,  and  hung  in  a  meridian  like  a 
globe,  would  be  turned  round  like  the  earth 
in  24  hours  by  the  magnetic  particles  pervad- 
ing it;  but  experience  has  shewn  tliat  this  is 
a  mistake. 

TERRIER,  a  book  or  roll,  wherein  the 
several  lands,  eitiicr  of  a  private  person,  or 
of  a  town,  college,  church,  &c.  arc  described. 
It  should  contain  the  luiinher  of  acres,  and 
the  site,  boundaries,  tenant's  names,  &c.  of 
each  piece  or  parcel. 

TESSELLATED  PAVEMENTS,  those 
of  rich  mosaic  work,  made  nf  curious  square 
marbles,  bricks,  or  tiles,  called  tessehe  from 
iheir  resembling  dice. 

TEST,  a  vessel  used  in  melalhirgv  for  ab-. 
Rorbing  the  scoria'  of  metallic  bodies  when 
melted.  See  Cufell.^tio.n,  Chemisthy, 
and  Metaliaircy.  Some  of  the  German 
writers  reconmn  nd,  both  for  tests  and  cupels, 
a  sort  of  friable  opake  stone,  called  white 
spath,  which  ujipearb  to  be  a  species  of  pyp- 


T  E  S 

Slim,  or  of  tlie  stones  from  wliicli  plaisler  of 
P.iiis  is  |)rq)arcd.  'J'lie  spatli  is  directed  to 
|je  talciijed  willi  a  geiUle;  tin.',  in  a  covfred 
vessel,  till  the  lili'^lit  t  rackliiig,  which  l)a|)pt:ns 
at  tifst,  has  ceasinl,  and  thu  stone  has  fallen  in 
pjit into  powder:  the  whole  is  then  reduced 
into  siiDtle  powder,  which  is  passed  through  a 
fine  sieve,  and  moistened  with  so  nuicli  of  a 
weak  solution  of  green  vitriol  as  is  snfiicient 
for  niakint;  it  hold  tof^ether.  G elicit,  how- 
ever, linds,  that  if  the  stone  is  of  llie  proper 
kind,  which  can  he  known  only  by  trials,  cal- 
cinaiion  is  not  necessary.  Schel'fcr  observes, 
tliattliese  kind  of  tests  "are  liable  to  soften  or 
fall  asunder  m  the  lire,  and  tliat  tliis  iiiconve- 1 
nience  may  be  remedied  by  mixing  with  the 
iniealciiied  stone  somewhat  less  than  eijual 
its  wcijjit,  as  eiglit-ninths,  of  snch  as  has  been 
alrea.ly  ii-ed  and  is  penetrated  by  the  scoria 
of  the  lead,  taking  only  that  part  of  the  old  lest 
'iirh  a[)pears  of  a  green-grey  colour,  and  re- 
.  ting  the  red  crust  on  the  top.  Tests  or  cu- 
pels made  of  the  si)aiharo  said  not  to  re<)uire 
so  much  caution  in  nealini;  and  heating  tliem 
;is  the  comnioH  ones  ;  it  ajipears,  however, 
from  Schrller's  account,  that  they  are  less  du- 
rable than  those  made  of  the  ashes  of  bones, 
though  greatly  superior  to  those  of  wood- 
a-he-.  N'egelable  ashes,  which  stand  pretty 
well  the  testing  of  silver,  can  scarcely  bear 
unv  g;'eat  (luantity  of  gold,  tliis  metal  recinir- 
ing  a  considerably  stronger  liretlian  the  other; 
hilt  bone-aslus  answer  so  efiVetually,  and  are 
among  lis  so  easily  procurable,  that  it  is  not 
neediul  for  the  reliner  to  search  for  any  other 
materials;  thou^'h  those  who  work  olT large 
quantities  of  lead,  in  order  to  gain  a  iiltle  sil- 
ver or  gold  contained  in  it,  may  possibly,  in 
places  remote  from  populous  cities,  avail 
themselves  of  substances  similar  lo  the  spath 
above  mentioned. 

The  test,  for  its  greater  security,  is  fixed 
in  the  mould  in  whicTa  it  was  formeil  ;  whicli 
is  sometimes  a  sliallow  vessel  made  of  crucible- 
earth  or  cast  iron  ;  more  commonly  an  iron 
hoop,  with  three  bars  arched  downwards 
across  the  bottom,  about  two  inches  deep, 
and  of  diflV-rent  widths,  from  three  or  four 
indies  to  fifteen  or  more,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  m»tal  to  be  tested  at  once.  1  he 
ashes  or  eaitiiy  powder,  moistened  as  for 
making  cupels,  are  pressed  down  in  the  mould 
so  as  to  completely  (ill  it,  or  rise  a  little  above 
the  sides ;  w  itli  care  to  make  the  mass  equally 
solid,  aii.'.l  to  put  in  at  once,  or  at  least  after 
■  the  bottom  has  been  ])ressed  close,  as  niucli 
of  tlie  matter  as  will  be  sufficient  for  the 
whole ;  for  any  additional  quantity  will  not 
unite  thoroughly  with  the  rest,  but  be  apt  to 
))ait  from  it  in  the  live.  The  edges  are  pared 
smooth,  and  a  portion  cut  out  ft-om  the  middle 
witli  a  bent  knife,  so  as  to  leave  a  proper  ca- 
vity; which  is  smoothed  by  strewing  some  dry 
powder  on  the  surface,  and  roUing  on  it  a 
wooden,  or  ratlier  a  glass  ball. 

'I'lie  process  of  testing  is  often  performed 
in  the  same  manner  as  ths-t  of  cupeilation: 
but  where  great  (juautities  of  base  metal  are 
to  be  woiked  off  from  a  little  gold,  recourse 
Is  had  to  a  more  ex[)euitious  method,  that  of 
testing  before  the  bellows. 

-An  oval  test  is  placed  in  a  cavity,  made  in 
a  hearth  of  a  conveiiient  height,  and  some 
moistened  sand  or  ashes  pressed  round  it  to 
kecj)  it  steady  :  the  nose  of  a  bellows  is  di- 
rected along  its  surface,  in  such  a  manner, 


T  E  S 

tliat  if  ashes  are  sprinkled  in  the  cavity  of  the 
te^t,  the  bellows  may  blow  them  conipli;tely 
out:  some  have  an  iron  plate  tixed  before  the 
fjellows,  to  direct  the  blast  downwards.  To 
keep  the  surface  of  the  test  from  being  injured 
in  putting  in  the  metal,  some  cloths  or  pieces 
of  paper  are  interposed.  '1  he  fuel  consists  of 
billets  of  barked  oak  laid  on  the  sides  of  the 
test,  with  others  laid  crosswise  on  these:  the 
bellows  impel  the  flame  on  the  metal,  clear 
the  surface  of  ashes  or  sparks  of  coal,  hasten 
the  scoriiicatioii  of  the  lead,  and  blow  off  the 
scoria,  as  fast  as  it  Ibrms,  to  one  endof  the  test, 
where  it  runs  out  through  a  notch  made  for 
that  purpose.  About  two-thirds  of  the  soo- 
rilied  lead  may  thus  be  collected ;  the  rest 
being  partly  absorbed  by  the  te^l,  and  partly 
dissipated  by  the  action  of  the  bellows.  Care 
must  be  t:iken  not  to  urge  tlie  blast  too 
strongly,  lest  some  [jortion  ot  the  gold  should 
be  carried  away  by  tlie  fumes  impetuously 
forced  oil'  from  tlie  lead,  and  some  minute 
particles  of  it  entangled  ami  blown  olVwitli  the 
scoriiC. 

Test-act,  a  statute  25  Car.  II.  cap.  2. 
which  requires  all  officer?,  both  civil  and  mi- 
litary, to  take  tlie  oaths  and  test,  viz.  the  sa- 
crament, according  to  the  rites  and  cere- 
monies of  the  church  of  England ;  for  the 
neglect  whereof,  a  person  executing  any  office, 
mentioned  in  that  statute,  forfeits  the  sum  of 
500/.  recoverable  by  action  of  debt. 

TES  TACEA,  in  tiie  Linnaaii  system  of 
natural  history,  the  third  order  ot  vermes. 
This  order  comj)rehend  sail  shell-iish,  arrang- 
ed by  Linn.Tus  under  tiiii'ty-six  genera.  Shell- 
fish are  animals  with  a  soil  body,  covered  by 
or  inclosed  in  a  firm,  hard,  and  stony  habita- 
tion, composed,  according  to  their  three  se- 
parate orders,  1.  Of  many  pans  which  are 
ranged  under  the  name  of  multivalves;  2-. 
Of  two  parts,  which  are  called  bivalves;  3. 
Of  one  part  or  piece  only,  which  we  call 
miivalves.  These  parts,  pieces,  or  valves,  are 
more  or  less  moveable  at  the  animal's  plea- 
sure. The  animals  included  in  these  hard 
habitations  have  most  of  tliem  the  characters 
of  one  or  other  of  the  genera  vermiuin,  and 
miglit  bo  reduced  under  the  same  genera  with 
tlij;  mollusca:  but  as  these  characters  are 
few,  and  the  shells  very  numerous,  and  dif- 
ferent in  their  form  and  structure,  it  will  tend 
more  to  iiKil.e  this  part  of  natural  history  easy, 
lo  arrange  the  subjects  according  to  the  dis- 
tinctions of  the  shells  themselves.  There  is 
this  farther  consideration  in  favour  of  this  ar- 
rangement, viz.  that  the  animals  themselves 
are  rarely  seen,  and  never  can  be  preserved 
in  cabinets  ;  whereas  the  shells  make  a  figure 
in  them,  and  great  numbers  have  been  met 
with  empty  of  the  animal.  The  genera  classed 
under  the  several  divisions  of  this  order  are, 

A.  Multivalves;  chiton,  lepas,  phloas.  B- 
Bivalves;  niya,  solen,  teliin-a,  cardiuin  niaetra, 
donax,  veiius,  spondylus,  chania,  area,  ostrea, 
anoinia,  mytillus,  pinna.  C.  Univalves  with 
a  regular  spire  ;  argonauta,  nautilus,  conns, 
cyprA'a,  bulla,  voluta,  buccinum,  strom- 
bus,  murex,  trochus,  turbo,  helix,  nerita,  ha- 
liotis.  D.  Univalves  Tvithout  a  regular  spire  ; 
patella,  dentaliuin,serpu!a,  teredo,  sabella. 

TESTAMENT,  in  law,  a  solemn  and  an" 
thentic  act, w  hereby  a  person  declares  his  will, 
as  to  the  ilisposal  of  his  estate,  eliects,  burial, 
ice.     See  \\  ILL. 

TESTATUM,  in  law,  a  writ  in  personal 


1'  E  S  783 

a(  tions,  where,  if  the  d-fendant  cannot  be  ar- 
rested on  a  capias,  in  the  county  where  the 
action  is  laid,  but  is  returned  non  est  inventus 
by  the  slienll',  this  writ  shall  be  sent  into  any 
other  county,  where  such  person  is  thought 
to  be,  or  have  wherewithal  to  satisfy  llie  de- 
mand. It  is  called  testatum,  because  the 
sheriff  has,  before,  te-tilied  that  the  defend- 
ant wasnot  to  befouml  in  his  bailiwick. 

TESTE,  in  law,  a  word  generally  used  in 
the  conclusion  of  every  writ,"wjierein  the  date 
is  contained,  and  begins  with  teste  meipso. 
Sec.  in  case  it  is  an  original  writ ;  o*,  if  only 
judical,  then  with  teste,  naming  the  chief  jus- 
lice  of  the  bench  whence  the  writ  issues. 

TEST1':S.    SccAk.\to.\iy. 

TESTUDO,  tortoise,  a  genus  of  amphibia, 
of  the  order  r.-^ptiles.  The  generic  character 
is,  body  defended  by  a  bony  covering  coated 
by  a  horny,  scaly,  or  coriaceous  integument ; 
mouth  without  distinct  or  proper  teeth,  the 
upper  mandible  closing  over  the  lower. 

In  no  branch  of  natural  history  have  morft 
errors  prevaili.d  than  in  the  attempt  lo  discri- 
minate with  precision  the  several  species  of 
tortoises ;  the  general  similarity  being  very 
great,  and  the  individuals  occasionally  vary- 
ing nuich  in  size,  colours,  SiC.  accTding  to 
the  dilfereiit  periods  of  their  growth.  On 
the  whole,  the  animals  are  best  distiiiguishecl 
by  the  shape,  pn'tern,  and  colours  of  the  shell, 
the  fojin  of  the  head,  &c.  There  are  35  spe- 
cies, of  which  the  most  remarkable  are: 

Of  land  and  fresh-xvatvr  tortoises. 
1.  ^'estudo  gneca,  common  tortoise.  The 
common  or  Gre  k  tortoise  is  supposed  to  be 
a  native  of  almost  all  Uie  countries  bordering 
on  the  Mediterranean  sea  ;  and  is  thought  to 
be  more  fre(|uent  in  Greece  than  in  other  re- 
gions. It  is  found  in  the  scattered  European 
islands  of  the  Ai<hij)eU!go,  and  in  Corsica 
and  Sardinia.  It  occurs  likewise  in  many 
parts  of  Africa.  In  Greece,  according  lo 
Eorskal,  "■  it  forms  an  article  of  food  ;  and 
the  inhabitants  often  swallow  the  blood  recent, 
and  eat  the  eggs  boiled,  which  are  about  the 
size  of  those  of  a  jjigeon,  four  or  five  in  num- 
ber, and  of  a  white  colour.  In  September 
the  animal  hides  itself  under  groimd,  and  again 
emerges  in  February;  laying  its  eggs  in  June, 
I  in  a  small  hole,  winch  it  scratches  in  some 
]  sunny  spot,  out  of  which,  :ifler  the  first  rains 
of  September,  the  young  are  hatched,  which 
I  are  about  the  size  of  a  walnut.  The  males 
of  this  'pecies  are  said  to  fight  often,  butting 
at  each  other  with  such  force  as  to  be  heard 
at  a  considerable  distance." 

The  general  length  of  the  shell  of  this  spe- 
cies is  from  six  to  eight  inches,  wliich  latter 
measure  it  rarely  exceeds:  the  weight  of  the 
full-grown  animal  is  about  forty-eiglit  ounces. 
The  shell  is  of  an  oval  form,  extremelv  con- 
vex on  the  upper  part,  and  composed,  as  iiv 
most  others,  of  thirteen  middle  pieces,  and 
about  twenty-five  marginal  ones.  The  head 
is  rather  small  than  large:  the  eyes  small  and 
black ;  the  mouth  not  extending  beyond  the 
eves;  the  upper  part  of  the  head  covered 
with  somewhat  irregular,  touiih  scales,  and 
the  neck  with  smaller  granulations,  so  as  to 
be  flexible  at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal.  The 
legs  are  sliort,  ai.dlhe  feet  moderately  broad, 
covered  with  strong  ovale  scales,  and  com- 
monlv  furnished  with  (r.ni  moderately  stout 
ci aws  on  each ;  but  this  is  i  citciunstanc* 


7S* 


TESTUDO. 


which  cannot  be  allowed  to  constltnte  a  part ;  othorr.-ptUes,  has  an  arbitrary  stomach,  as  well 

huigs,  and  can  refi-am  from  ealing,  as  well 
as  brtathiiig,  for  a  great  part  of  the  year.  I 
was  much  taken  witli  its  sag"city,  in  discern- 
ina  those  thai  do  it  Isind  offices :  for  as  soon  as 


ol  the  specllic  character,  since  in  dirterent  in 
divirluaU,  either  from  age,  or  other  circum- 
stances, these  parts  are  found  to  vary  in  num- 
ber, there  being  sometimes  live  claws  insfead 
of  four  on  the  lore  feet.  The  tail  is  about 
the  same  length  with  the  legs,  or  ratiier  short- 
er, and  is  covered  with  small  scales,  and  ter- 
nniates  in  a  naked  horny  pointed  tip  or  pro- 
cess. 

This  animal  lives  to  a  most  extraordinary 
age  ;  several  well  attested  examples  being  ad- 
duced of  its  having  considerably  exceeded  the 
period  of  a  century.  One  of  the  most  remarka- 
ble instances  is  that  of  a  tortoise  introduced  in- 
tothearchiepiscopalgarilenat  Lambeth,  inthe 
timeof  archbishop  Laud,  and  as  near  as  can 
b;-  collectefl  from  its  history,  about  the  year 
1633.  which  continued  to'live  there  till  the 
vcar  17.>3,  when  it  was  supposed  to  have  pe- 
rished rather  from  accidental  neglect  on  the 
part  of  the  gardener,  than  from  the  mere  ef- 
fect of  a<»e.  This  tortoise  has  had  tlie  honoiir 
of  being  commemorated  by  Derham,  and 
many  other  writers,  and  its  shell  is  preserved 
in  the  library  of  the  palace  at  Lambeth. 

The  general  manners  of  the  tortoise,  in  a 
state  of  domestication  in  this  coinUry,  are 
very  agreeably  detailed  by  Mr.  White,  in 
bis  history  of  Selbourn.  "  A  land-tortoise," 
savs  -Mr. 'White,  "  which  has  been  kept  thirty 
years  in  a  little  walled  court,  retires  under 
ground  about  the  middle  of  November,  and 
comes  forth  again  about  the  middle  of  April. 
When  it  lirst  appears  in  tlie  spring,  it  dis- 
covers very  little  inclination  for  food,  but  in 
the  height'of  summer  grows  voracious ;  and 
then,  as  the  summer  declines,  its  appetite  de- 
clines; so  that  for  the  last  weeks  in  autunm 
it  hardly  eats  at  all.  Milky  plants,  such  as 
lettuces,  dandelions,  sowthistles,  &c.  are  its 
principal  food.  On  the  first  of  November, 
1771,  I  remarked  that  the  tortoise  began  to 
dig  the  ground,  in  order  to  form  its  hyber- 
iiaculum,  which  it  had  lixed  on  just  beside  a 
great  tuft  of  hepaticas.  It  scrapes  out  the 
ground  witli  its  fore  feet,  and  throws  it  up 
over  iLs  back  with  its  hind,  hut  ihe  motion  of 
its  legs  is  ridicnlously  slow,  little  exceeding 
the  hour-hand  of  a  clock.  Nothing  can  be 
more  assiduous  than  this  creature,  night  and 
dav,  in  scooping  the  earth,  and  forcing  its 
great  body  into  the  cavity  ;  but  as  the  noons 
if  that  season  proved  unusually  w-arm  and 
sunny,  it  was  continually  interrupted,  and 
called  forth  by  the  heat  in  Ihe  middle  of  the 
day ;  and  though  1  continued  there  till  the 
thirteenth  of  November,  yet  the  work  re- 
mained uiihnishcd.  Harsher  weather,  and  i 
frosty  mornings,  would  have  quickened  its 
operations.  No  part  of  its  bijiaviour  ever 
struck  me  more  than  the  extreme  timidity  it 
always  expresses  with  regard  to  rain ;  iiir 
though  it  has  a  shell  th  i  would  secure  it 
against  the  wheel  of  a  loaded  cart,  yet  does  it 
discover  as  much  solicitude  about  rain  as  a 
lady  dressed  in  all  hLr  best  attire,  shuflling 


the  good  old  ladv  comes  in  si,i<ht  who  haswait- 
ed  on  It  for  more  than  thirty  years,  it  hobbles 
towards  its  benefactress  with  awkward  alacrity; 
but  remains  inattentive  to  strangers.  'I  hus, 
not  only  "  the  ox  knoweth  his  owner,  and  the 
ass  his  master's  crib,"  but  the  most  abject  and 
torpid  of  beings  distinguishes  the  hand  that 
feeds  it,  and  is  touched  with  the  feelings  of 
gratitude.  This  creature  not  only  goes  under 
the  earth  from  the  middle  of  November  to  the 
middle  of  April,  but  sleeps  great  part  of  the 
summer:  for  it  goes  to  bed  in  the  longest 
(lavs  at  four  in  the  afternoon,  and  often  does 
not  stir  in  the  morning  till  late.  Besides,  it 
retires  to  rest  for  every  shower,  and  does  not 
move  at  all  in  wet  days.  When  one  rellects  on 
the  state  of  this  strange  being,  it  is  a  matter  of 
wonder  Providence  should  Ijestow  such  a  seem- 
ing waste  of  longevity  on  a  reptile  that  appears 
to  relish  it  so  little  a-  to  squander  away  more 
than  two-thirds  of  its  existence  in  a  joyless  stu- 
por, and  be  lost  to  all  sensation  for  montlis 
together  in  the  urofoundest  of  all  slumbers! 
Thougli  he  loves  warm  weather,  he  avoids  the 
liot  sun ;  because  his  thick  shell,  when  once 
heated,  wou'.a,  as  the  poet  sa)sof  solid  ar- 
mour, '  scald  with  safety.'  He  therefore 
spends  the  more  sultn'  hours  under  the  um- 
brella of  a  large  cabbage-leaf,  or  an-.idst  the 
waving  fore4^  of  an  a'^paragus-hed.  liut  as  he 
avoids  heal  in  the  summer,  so  in  tlie  decline 
of  the  year,  he  improves  the  lainl  autumnal 
beams,  by  getting  within  tlie  rellection  of  a 
truit-treewall ;  and  though  he  has  never  read 
tliat  planes  inclining  to  the  horizon  receive  a 
greater  share  of  warmth,  he  inclines  his  shell 
by  tilting  it  against  tlie  wall,  to  collect  and  ad- 
mit every  feeble  ray." 

2.  Testudo  marginata,  marginaled  tortoise. 
The  general  colour  of  this  animal  is  a  dark  or 
blackish  bav;  the  middle  or  convex  part  of 
the  pieces  composing  the  disk,  being  more  or 
less  daslied  or  varied,  in  an  irregular  manner, 
with  yellow:  the  marginal  pieces  are  also  va- 
riegated with  the  same  colour,  which  predo- 
minates chielly  on  the  hindermost  or  widest 
divisions,  which  are  pretty  distinctly  striated 
or  furrowed,  and  from  their  peculiar  width  or 
dilatation  form  the  chief  part  of  tlie  specific 
character.  The  under  shell  is  of  a  pale  yel- 
low colour,  each  division  being  marked  on 
its  upper  commissure  by  a  transverse  black- 
ish band,  running  into  a  pair  of  pointed  or 
subtriangular  processes,  extending  nearly  to 
the  next  or  inferior  division.  The  outline  ot 
the  shell,  if  viewed  from  above,  will  be  found 
to-be  much  longer  in  proportion  than  that  of 
the  testudo  gra'ca,  accompanied  by  a  slight 
contraction  or  sinking  in  on  each  side. 


awav  on  the  (irst  sprinklings,  and  rnniiing   its  I  species. 


The  true 
seems  not 
Schoepf  is  incline 


native  country 
very    dislinctiv 


to 


think 


of  the  animal 
known.  Mr. 
it  an  American 


head  up  in  a  corner.  If  attended  to,  it  be 
conies  an  excellent  weather-glass  ;  for  as  sure 
as  it  walks  elate,  and  in  a  manner  on  tip-toe, 
feeding  with  great  earnestness,  in  a  morning, 
go  sure  will  it  rain  before  nighl.  It  is  totally 
a  diurnal  animal,  and  never  pretends  to  stir 
after  it  becomes  dark. 
"  Tlie  tortoise, '  adds  Mr.  While,   "  like 


3.  Testudo  Indica,  Indian  tortoise.  This  ve- 
ry large  terrestrial  species,  which  is  omitted  by 
Linna'us  in  the  twelfth  edition  of  Ihe  Systema 
Natnra-,  was  hrst  described  by  Perraul't  in  the 
llistoiy  of  Animals  published  by  the  Uoyal 
Academy  of  I'Vance.  The  specimen  was 
taken  on  ihe  coast  of  Coromandel,  and  mea- 
sured four  feet  and  a  half  from  the  lip  of  the 


nose  to  the  tail ;  and  its  height  or  convexity 
was  fourteen  inches :  tlie  shell  itself  was  three 
feet  long  and  two  broad,  and,  like  every  other 
part  of  tlie  animal,  was  of  a  dull-brown  co- 
lour: the  shield  consisted  ol  a  large  and  dis- 
similar piece,  and  the  edge  on  the  forepart 
was  rather  reflected,  for  the  easier  motion  of 
the  animal's  head  :  the  head  was  seven  inches 
long  ;  tile  mandibles  serrated,  and  furnished' 
with  an  additional  internal  row  of  denticula- 
tions :  the  fore  legs  were  nine  inches  long : 
the  fore  teet  undii'ided,  thick,  and  armed  with 
hve  blunt  claws:  the  hind  legs  were  eleven 
inches  long  ;  the  feet  tetradact)  Ions,  and  arm- 
ed with  four  claws:  the  tail  six  inches  thck 
at  the  base,  fourteen  inches  long,  and  termi- 
nated by  a  horny  curved  process. 

4.  Testudo  lulavia,  niud-lortoise.  Tliis, 
which  is  supposed  by  the  count  de  Cepede 
to  be  the  testudo  lutaria  of  Linnxus,  is  said 
to  be  extremely  common  in  many  parts  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  Asia,  being  found  in  India, 
Japan,  Sec.  It  is,  in  general,  nol  more  than 
seven  or  eight  inches  long  Iroin  the  tip  of  tlie 
nose  to  that  of  the  tail,  and  about  three  or 
four  inches  in  breadth :  the  disk  consists 
of  thirteen  pieces,  which  are  striated  and 
slightly  punctuated  in  the  centre,  and  along 
the  middle  range  runs  a  longitudinal  carina: 
the  margin  consiiits  of  twenty-three  pieces,  bor- 
dered with  slight  stris:  tiie  colour  ol  the  shell 
is  blackish,  more  or  less  deep  in  different 
specimens,  and  tlie  general  colour  of  the  skin 
itself  is  similar:  the  feet  are  webbed,  and 
there  arc  five  toes  before,  and  four  behind. 
Like  otlier  tortoises,  il^  sometimes  utters  a 
kind  of  broken  or  interrupted  liiss.  This 
animal  is,  according  to  Cepede,  no  where 
more  common  than  in  France,  and  is  parti- 
cularly plentiful  in  Langucdoc,  and  in  many 
parts  "ot  Provence  ;  ami  in  a  lake  of  about 
half  a  league  wide,  situated  in  the  plain  of 
Durance,  were  found  such  vast  quantities, 
that  the  neiglibouring  peasantry  were  in  a 
manner  supported  by  them  for  more  than 
three  nionlhs  together. 

Though  this  species  is  aciuatic,  it  always 
lays   its  eggs  on   land;  digging  for  that  pur- 
pose a  hollow  in  the  ground,  and  covering  the 
eggs  with  the  mould:  the   shell  is   less  soft 
tlum  those  of  the  sea-tortoises  or  turtles,  and 
tlie  colour  l«ss  uniform.     When  the  young  are 
first  hatched  they  measure  about  six  lines  in 
diameter.     This  animal  walks  much  quicker 
than   tlie  land-tortoise,    especially  when   on 
even  ground.     1 1  grows  for  a  long  time,  and 
has  been  known  to  live  more  than  twenty-tour 
years.     The  taste  which  it  has  for  small  snails, 
and  such  kind  of  wingless  insects  as  frequent 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  waters  it  inhabits, 
makes  it  useful  in  a  garden,  wliicli  it  delivers 
from  noxious  animals,  w  ithout  doing  any  mis- 
chief itself.     Like  other  tortoises,  it  may  be 
rendered  dom.-stic,  and  may  be  kept  in  a  b.;- 
soii  or  receptacle  of  water,  so  contrived  on 
the  edges  as  to  give  a  ready  egress  to  it  when 
it  wishes   to  wander  about  for  prey.      'Ihe 
count  de  Cepede  adds,  that  though  useful  in 
gardens,  it  is  found  to  be  a  very  troublesome  in- 
mate in  hsh-ponds;  attacking  and  destroying 
the  fish  :  biting   them   in  such  a  manner  that 
they  become  enlecbled  by  loss  ol  blood,  and 
theii  dragging  them  to  the   bottom  and  de- 
vouring  them  ;  leaving  only  the   bones   and 
some  of  the  cartilaginous  parts  of  the   head, 
and  sometimes  the  air-bladder   also,    wlxicU 


:(!>  !/■»'>'' 


IZ 


16 


"VV^AT  r  -H      wo  M  K 


fflBl 


■I 


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10 


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J^ 


IS 


Wf^i^ 


J.  Far^  ^pi .'  •/d&n. 


J^/8(/if"'Rielinrd  Philli|i8,.T(rM- j9/ui;f  Strtet. Blntk/hizr-r 


J^y^&;>>jA^ 


fln;itinc;  on   tlio  snrf;irc,   Rive  notico  of  tlio 
CM  micswilli  wliicli  llir  pond  is  iiifistfil. 

'i.  'I'csUicIo  picla,  |!aiii(("(l  loctoisc.    'I'liP  rc- 
inarkahlc?  cu'oui:;  ot'  (lit-  sIiu-M  of  (liis  sporii's 
ai'L-  suliiciciit  to  (li!>lingiiisli  it  Iroiii  all  ollutrs: 
the  shell  is  of  a  siiioolji  surface,  of  a  flattened 
or  but  slightly  convex  form,  and  of  a  clies- 
tuit-!)iowii  colour,  paler  or  darker  in  differ- 
ent individuals,   and  consisting;,  as  usual,    of 
lliirteen  sei;nients,  each  of  uhich  is  of  a  forjii 
approaching    to   scpiare,    and   [jrelty   deeply 
ed^cd  or  hurdercd  with  pale  yellow:  a  strijie 
of  tlie  same  colour  also  runs  down  the  middle 
of  the  dorsal  segments,  while  the  marginal 
pieces,  which  are  twenty-live  in  numher,  are 
each  marki-d  by  a  seini-oval  spot  of  the  same 
colour  at  the  edge,  surrounded  by  two,  or 
sometimes  by  three  \ellow  bands,  follow  in;; 
the  direction  of  the  first-menlioued  spot,  and 
thus   forming  so   many   semi-elliptic   yellow 
zones  or  stripes  on  each  piece.     The  neatness 
and  accuracy  of  these,  as  well  as  of  the  yellow- 
borders  on  the  large  or  middle  segments  of 
the  shell,  vary,  as  iliay  be  supposed,  on  dif- 
ferent individuals,  and  in  general  seem  most 
distinctly   expressed   on   the  smallest  speci- 
Ttt<*ns.     This  may  be  consitlered  as  one  of  the 
middle-sized  tortoises:    the  shell  measuring 
from  four   lo  six  inches  in  length,  or  some- 
vh.it    aiore:  the  head   is  moderately  small, 
and  covered   with  a  smooth   skin  ;  blackish 
above,   but  yellow   on  the  sides  and  under 
part,  and  very  elegantly  streaked  in  a  longi- 
tudinal dirrction,  with  several  double  rows  of 
black   streaks:    the    legs   are   blackish,    and 
marked  with  two  longitudinal  yellow  stripes  : 
the  claws  are  sharp  and  long,  those  on  the 
fore  feet   five  in  number,  and  tho-.e  on  the 
hind  feet  four.     The  tail  is  blackish,  scaly, 
moderately    sharp-pointed,   and  marked  on 
each  side  with  yellow  streaks.     It  is  a  fresh- 
water species,  and  inliabits  slow  and  deep  ri- 
t^ers  in  North  America.     In  clear  sunny  wea- 
ther these  animals  are  said  to  assemble   in 
multitudes,   sitting   on   the  fallen   trunks    ot 
trees,  stones,  &c.  and  immediately  plunging 
into  the  water  on  the  least  disturbance.  Tliev 
are  said  to  swim  very  swiftly,   but  to  walk 
slowly ;  to  be  able  to  continue  many  hours 
entirely  beneath  the  water,  but  not  to  survive 
many  days  if  kept  out  of  their  favourite  ele- 
ment.    They  are  \'ery  voracious,  destroying 
ducklings,  &c.  which  they  seize  by  the  feet, 
and  drag  unrler  water.     They  are  sometimes 
used  as  a  food.     The  colour,   as  has  been 
above  observed,  varies ;  being  sometimes  of 
a  blackish  brown,  at  other  times  of  a  reddish 
chesnut :  the  yellow  mirkings  are  also  either 
pale    or   deep  in   different   individuals,   and 
sometimes    w  hitish :    the    inferior   or  under 
edges  of  the  upper  shell,  as  well  as  the  upper 
edges  or  comaiisiures  of  the  lower,  are  ele- 
gantly streaked  with   black,  as  if  artilicially 
painted,   and   this   variegation   is  continued 
over  the  skin  of  the  sides  of  the  body. 

G.  Testudo  elegans,  elegant  tortoise.     The 
animal  described  and  figured  by  Seba,  under 
the  title  of  te^udo  terrestris  ceiionica  elegans 
minor,  is  a  small  land  tortoise,  with  the  shell 
1  nearly  circular  in  its  OMtline,  and  about  two 
inch's  in  length:  its  co'oiu"  is  a  bright  yellow, 
its  su'fice  apparently  smooth,  and  at  each  of 
'the   commissures   or  joinings  of  the   pieces 
composing  the  disk  is  a  large  oval,  or  rather 
lei -shaped,  black  or  (kirk-brown  transverse 
spot ;  the  pattern  forming  three  rows  ef  trans- 
verse spois  down  the  disk;  and  at  the  upper 
Vol.  U. 


TESTUDO. 

junctures,  or  those  where  I  he  ulthiiate  pieces 
of  the  (li-^k  join  those  of  I  hi;  margin,  is  a 
broad  ^pot  of  a  moic  fascialed  form  :  there 
are  also  two  rather  irregular  or  slightly  (lexu- 
ous  black  lists  running  down  the  shell,  be- 
tween the  rows  of  spots:  the  marginal  pieces 
are  each  marked  by  a  transv  erse  black  I'clt 
or  zone,  thus  forming  a  spotted  edge  round 
the  whole:  the  head  api)ears  to  be  short 
and  thick,  and  covered  with  small  scales:  the 
feel  short,  strong,  scaly,  and  unwebbed,  as  in 
other  land-lortoiscs,  and  furnlNhcd  with  live 
claws  on  each:  the  tail  very  short.  Nothing 
particular  seems  tii  be  know  n  of  its  hi>t(>ry. 

7.  Testudo  tricarinata,  tricarinated  tortoise. 
This  agrees  as  to  shape  and  other  i)articnlars 
witli  Linnius's  description  of  his  I",  orbicu- 
laris. Its  size  scarce  e.'vceeds  that  of  a  large 
walnut;  its  colour  is  blackish;  the  sliell 
consisting  of  thirteen  scutella,  each  row 
marked  on  the  middle  by  a  longitudinal 
carina,  and  wrinkled  with  several  lateral 
furrows  and  roughish  points;  the  marginal 
pieces  are  twenty-three  in  number;  the 
head  is  large,  and  of  a  brown  colour,  varie- 
gated on  the  sides  with  while;  the  legs  short, 
strong,  and  covered  with  a  scaly  skin  :  on  the 
fore  feet  are  five  distinct  toes,  connected  to 
the  very  tips  by  a  web,  and  terminated  by  so 
many  sharp,  crooked  claws :  the  hind  feet 
have  only  four  toes,  with  sharp  claws,  and 
connected  also  by  a  web,  with  the  ap|)ear- 
ance  of  a  small  unarmed  fifth  or  s|)urious  toe  ; 
the  tail  is  short,  conical,  scaly,  pointed,  and 
but  little  exceeding  the  margin  of  tlie  shell 
in  length  :  the  under  shell  is  yellowish,  spot- 
ted, and  varied  with  brown.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  fig.  398. 

S.  Testudo  scabra,  rough  tortoise.  The 
shell  of  the  species  quoted  by  Linnicus  in  his 
description  of  T.  scabra  is  figured  in  its  natu- 
ral size  in  the  work  of  Seba,  who  affirms  that 
it  never  grows  larger  than  represented  in  his 
figure  ;  measuring  about  two  inches  and  a 
half  in  length,  and  neartwoinci  es  in  breadth  ; 
being  of  a  cordated  figure,  ir  somewhat 
pointed  at  the  bottom.  Its  colour,  accord- 
ing to  Seba,  is  light  redtlisli,  prettily  varie- 
gated on  the  head  and  shell  with  white  lines 
and  spots,  in  a  kind  of  fianiy  or  wavy  pat- 
tern: the  feet  are  marked  with  red  specks, 
and  have  each  five  toes  with  sharp  claws:  the 
head  is  very  prominent,  and  the  eyes  small : 
down  the  back  of  the  disk  are  represented  in 
Seba's  engraving  three  very  conspicuous 
white  lines  or  carina; ;  so  that  the  title  of  tri- 
carinata woulil  apply  to  this,  as  well  as  to  the 
species  so  denominated  by  Mr.  Schoepf. 

9.  Testudo  ferox,  fierce  tortoise.  This 
remarkable  species  is  distinguished  by  tfie  un- 
usual nature  of  its  shield,  which  is  hard  or 
osseous  on  the  middle  part  only,  while  the 
edges  gradually  degenerate  into  a  fiexile  co- 
riaceous verge :  this  shield  is  obscurely 
marked  with  five  or  six  transvere  bands,  and 
granulated  with  small  warts  or  prominences, 
which  gradually  enlariie  as  they-  approach  the 
leathery  or  fiexible  edge:  the  head  is  rather 
small,  and  of  an  miusual  shape,  being  some- 
what trigonal,  with  the  snout  very  much 
lengthened,  and  the  upper  part  drawn  out 
into  a  subcylindric  form,  terminated  by  the 
nostrils,  and  projecting  much  beyond  the 
lower  mandible:  the  neck,  when  retracted, 
appears  very  thick,  and  surrounded  by  m.my 
wreaths  or  folds  of  skin;  but  when  exerted,  is 
of  very  great  length,  so  as  nearly  to  equal  that 
5  G 


785 

of  tlie  whole  .?1kII;  trie  legs  arc  short,  thick, 
and  covered  with  a  wreathed  skin :  the  feet 
are  all  furrtished  with  strong  and  broad  webs, 
connecting  the  three  last  toes  of  each ;  tii« 
three  first  on  each  foot  are  furnished  with 
pretty  strong  daws,  but  the  remaining  ones 
are  unarmed  ;  and  besides  the  real  or  proper 
toes,  there  are  f-.vo  spurious  or  additional  ones 
on  the  hind,  and  one  on  the  fore  feet,  serviiic? 
to  strengthen  and  expand  the.web  to  a  great- 
er degree:  the  (ail  is  short,  pointed,  and 
curving  inwards :  tiie  eyes  are  very  sniail  and 
round.  The  colour  of  this  animal  on  the 
upper  parts  is  a  deep-brownish  olive,  and  on 
the  under  paits  white  ;  the  shell  being  mark- 
ed beneath  in  a  very  elegant  manner,  with 
ramifications  of  vessels  disposed  upon  it. 

This  species  is  found  in  Pennsylvania,  ('a- 
rolina,  &c.  &c.  an<l,  contrary  to  the  nature 
of  most  others  of  the  tribe,  is  possessed  of  ve- 
ry considerable  vigour  and  swiftness  of  mo- 
tion, springing  forwards  lowanis  its  assailant, 
when  disturbed  or  attacked,  with  great  fierce- 
ness and  alacrity.  Its  length  is  about  a  foot 
and  half,  or  more,  and  its  breadth  about  fif- 
teen inches.  It  was  first  described  by  Dr. 
Garden,  who  communicated  it  to  Mr.  Pen- 
nant, by  whom  it  was  introduced  into  the 
Philosophical  Transactions.  A  specimen  ex- 
amined by  Dr.  Garden  weighed  twenty-five 
pounds,  but  it  is  said  to  grow  so  large  as  to 
seventy  pounds.  The  individual  mentioned 
by  Dr.  Gard(;n  laid  filleeii  eggs  during  the 
time  it  was  kept,  which  were  exactly  spheri- 
cal, more  than  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  fifteen 
more  were  loiind  on  dissection.  Its  flesh  Is 
said  to  be  extremely  delicate,  being  equal,  if 
not  superior,  even  to  that  of  the  green  turtle. 

The  great  soft-billed  turtle,  described  by 
Mr.  liartram  in  his  Travels,  appears  to  be  the 
same  with  this.  It  is  said  by  iVlr.  Bartram  to 
be  of  a  flat  form,  two  feet  and  a  half  long,  and 
a  foot  and  a  half  bro'ad:  the  shield  soil  and 
cartilaginous  on  each  side,  and  this  part 
sometimes  becomes  gelatinous  on  boiling: 
ihe  fore  and  hind  part  of  the  shield  is  beset 
with  round  horny  warts  or  tubercles:  the 
sternum  or  under  shell  seniicartilaginous,  ex- 
cept on  the  middle,  where  it  is  bony :  the 
head  large  and  clubbed,  and  of  an  oval  form  : 
the  nose  extended,  truncated  in  the  manner 
of  a  hog's  snout :  the  eyes  large,  and  seated 
at  its  base:  mouth  wide;  the  edges  tumid 
and  wrinkled,  and  bearded  by  several  long 
pointed  warts  or  processes,  which  are  exten- 
sile at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal,  and  give  it 
an  ugly  and  forbidding  aspect.  Mr.  Bar- 
tram's  figure  also  represents  the  throat  and 
part  of  the  neck  as  furnished  with  similar 
warts.  Mr.  Bartram  adds,  that  it  is  fond  of 
the  muddy  parts  of  rivers,  &c.  hiding  itself 
among  the  roots  and  leaves  of  water-plants, 
and  thence  springing  on  its  prey,  stretching 
out  its  neck  to  an  incredible  length,  and  seiz- 
ing with  wonderful  celerity  young  birds,  &.-c. 
Sec.  It  is  found  in  all  the  rivers,  fakes,  and 
pools,  of  Kast  Florida,  weighing  from  lliirty 
lo  forty  poll «  Is.  The  warts  or  processes  on 
each  side  the  neck  may  constitute  perhaps  a 
sexual  difference  in  this  species,  since  they 
are  not  lo  be  found  in  that  described  by  Dr. 
Garden  and  Mr.  Pennant.  See  Plate'Nat. 
Hist.  fig.  396. 

10.  Testudo  serpentina,  snake  tortoise. 
This  species,  first  described  by  Linna;us,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  very  obscurely  knows ; 


ybS 


having  been  figurctl  in  no  work  of  iialurai 
lii~tv/i  V  till  It  wai  iiilroJuced  into  Mr.  Scho- 
ept's'piiblicatioii.     It  is, a  native  of  North 
Aini-'ri'ca,  wiiere  it  iuliabils  stagnant  waters, 
growing  to  tiie  weight  of  lilteea  or  twenty 
p;)Uii'.ls,  and  even  m^^ie,  and  preying  on  lisli, 
ducklings  &c.  &c.  seizing  its  prey  witli  great 
force,   itietcliing  out  its  neck' and  liis-iiig  at 
tlie  sanis  time.      Wiiatever  it  seizes  in   it-^ 
moutli  it  lio'.ds  Willi  great  ibrce,  and  will  suf- 
fer itself  to  be  raised  u-j)  by  a  slick  ratiier  than 
(juit  its  liokl.     The  heaa"is  large,  depressed, 
triangular,  and    covered  with  a  scaly  and 
varty  skin :  the  orbits  of  the  eyes  are  oblicpie ; 
the  mouth  wide ;  llie  mandibles   sharp;  the 
iieck  covered  by  scaly  warts,  and  appearing 
short  and  thick  when  the  animal  is   at  rest, 
but  when  in  the  act  of  springing  on  its  prey, 
is  stretched  out  lo  a  third  part  of  the  length 
of  the  shell ;  the  toes  of  alHhe  feet  are  dis- 
tinct, but  connected  by  a  web;  and  are  live 
in  number  on  the  fore  feet,  and  four  on  the 
hind  ;  all   armed  with  claws  longer  than  the 
toes  themselves :  the  tail  is  straight,  and  about 
two-thirds  the  length  of  the  shell;  it  is  com- 
pressed, attenuated,  and  crested  on  the  upper 
part  with  sharp  bony  scales  directed  backwards 
and  gradually  decreasing  lo  the  tip,  while  the 
sides  and  under  part  are  covered  with  smaller 
scales:  the  under  part  of  the  body  is  covered 
by  a  loose,  wrinkled  skin,  beset  with  smallish 
soft  scales  and  granules :  the  shell  is  slightly 
depressed,  of  aif  oval  form,  and  consists  of 
tliirteen  pieces  in  the  disk,  eacli  of  which  rises 
behind  into  akind  of  projection  or  obtuse  point, 
and  is  pretty  strongly  radiated  and   furrowed 
in  different  tlirections  ;  the  general  colour  of 
the  whole  is  a  dull  chesnut-brown,  lighter  or 
paler  beneath. 

■  This  animal  conceals  itself  in  muddy  -svn- 
tess  in  such  a  manner  astoleaveoutoii'.y  a  pa'-l 
of  its  back,  like  a  stone  or  other  inanimate 
object,  by  which  means  it  the  more  easily 
obtains  its  prey.  Mr.  Pennant,  in  the  sup- 
plement to  his  Arctic  Zoology,  mentions  this 
as  a  new  species,  under  the  name  of  serrated 
toi  toise.  In  Ts'ew  York  it  is  known  by  the  ti- 
tle of  the  snapping  tortoise.  Linna;iis  seems 
to  have  been  mistaken  in  supposing  it  a  native 
•f  China. 


TEbTUDO, 

which  do   not  take  away   from  the  general  j 
smoolhncss  ef  the  surface.     Along  the  whole  | 
Icngtii  of  this  covering  or  leathery  shield  run  i 
live  distinct,   strongly    prominent,  lubercu-  j 
latcd   ribs  or    ridges;    and  indeed    if  those, 
which  border  the  sides  are  taken  into  the  ac-  i 
count,  we  may  say  there  are  seven  ridgeson  the  1 
shield.     Tliere  is  no  under  or  thoracic  shell,  j 
so  ti.at  the  animal  might  form  a  distinct  genus  | 
from,  the  rest  of  the  tortoise  tribe.     '1  he  hi-ad 
is  large,  and  the  upper   mandible  notched  at 
the  tip  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  the  appear- 
ance of  two  large  teetli  or  processes,  between 
which,  when  tli.-  mouth  is  closed,  is  received 
the  tip  of  the  lower  mandible.     The   fins  or 
legs  are  large  and  long,   and  covered  with  a 
tough  leathery  skin:  the  tail  is   rather  short 
and  sharp-pointed.      The   general  colour- of 
the  whole  animal  is  dusky  brown,  paler   be- 
neath.    This  singular  species  is  a  native  of  the 
Mediterranean  sea,  and  has  at  different  jje- 
riods  been  taken  on  tiie  coasts  both  of  France 
and  England.      In  the  month  of  August,  in 
the  year  1 729,  a  specimen  was   Uikcn  about 
three  leagues  from  Nantz,  not  far  from   the 
iiwiith  of  the  river  Loire,  and  which  mea- 
sured seven    feet  one  inch  in  length,  three 
feet  seven  inches  in  breadth,  and  two  feet  in 
thickness.     It  is  said  to  hare  uttered  a  hideous 
noise  when  taken,  so  that  it  might  be  heard 
-to  the  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  league;  its 
month  at  the   same  time  foaming  with  rage. 


mal  is  taken  in  its  higtiest  slate  of  perfeclion. 
mav  be  considered  as  one  of  the  largest  of 
this  genus,  oft <-n  measuring  above  five  leet  in 
length,  and  weighing   more  than  live  or  six 
hundred  pounds.     Its  shell  is  of  a  spniewjiat 
heart-sliaped  lorni,  or  pointed  at  the' e.\lre- 
mity,  and  consists  of  thirteen  dorsal  segments 
or  divisions  surrounded  by  Uvcuty-five  mar- 
ginal pieces.  Its  colour  is  a  dull  palish-brown, 
more  or  less  variegated  with  deeper,  undula- 
tions, but  not  exhibiting  those  strong  and  beau- 
tiful  colours   which  so   peculiarly    distiguish 
that  of  the  T.  imbiicata,  or  hawk's-bill  turtle, 
which  affords  the  tortoise-shell  used  for  orna- 
mental purposes  and  in  various  manufactures, 
having  neither  suliicient  strength  norbcnuty  ; 
but  so  much  is  the   flesh  esteemed,  that  the- 
inhabitants  of  the  West  Indian  islands  have 
long  considered  k  as  one  of  the  most  excellent 
articles  of  food,  and  have  gradually  succeed- 
ed in  introducing  a  similar  taste  among  some 
of  the  European  nations.     In  our  owiicountry 
in  particular  it  is  in  the  highest   estimation, 
and  is   regularly    import  jd   in    considerable 
quantities  to  supply  the  luxury  of  the  metro- 
polis.    The  introduction  of  tlie  green  turtle 
as  an  article  ot  luxury  into  England  is  of  no 
verv  distant  date,  and  perhaps  can  hardly  be 
traced  much  faitlierlhan  about  lifty  or  sixty 
years  backward.   In  reality,  so  little  was  the  na- 
ture of  tiie  sea-tortoises   understood  by   the 
Europeans  before  that  period,   that  the  differ- 


and  exhaling  a  noisome  vapour.     In  the  year    cnt  kinds  were  in  general  confounded  by  na 


Sea-tnrloiscs,or  turtles. 
The  marine  tortoises,  or  turtles  as  they  are 
commonly  called,  are  distinguished  from  those 
'*f  tlie  preceding  division  by  their  very  large 
and  long  lin-shapetl  feet,  in  which  are  inclosed 
the  bones  of  the  toes ;  the  (irsl  and   second 
alone  on  each  fool  being  furnished  with  visible 
or  projecting  claws,  Ihe  others  not  appearing 
beyond  the  edge.     The  shield,  as  in  the  land- 
tortoises,  consists  of  a  strong  bony  covering, 
in  which  are  imbedded  the  ribs,  and  which  is 
coated  externally  by  hard   horny  plales,  in 
one  or  two  species  much  thicker  or  stronger 
than  those  of  the  land-tortoises. 

1.  Testudo  coiiacea,  coriaceous  turtle.  Of 
all  the  marine  tortoises  this  appears  to  grow  to 
the  largest  size,  having  been  sometimes  seen  of 
the  length  of  eight  feet,  and  of  the  weight  of  a 
t'.iousand  pounds.  It  iliffers  from  the  rest  of 
its  tribe  in  the  form  of  its  body,  which  is  longer 
in  proportion,  and  still  more  in  its  external 
covering,  sviiich,  instead  of  heingofa  horny 
nature,  as  in  others,  is  of  a  substance  resem- 
bling strong  leather,  niark<-d  over  the  whole 
suri'ace  into  small,  obscurely  subhexagonal 
aod   pentagonal    subdivisions    or  lincations, 


I77S,  a  specimen  was  taken  on  the  coast  of 
Languedoc,  which  measured  seven  feet  live 
inches  in  length.  In  July,  f7jG,  one  was 
taken  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Rorlace,  "  measured  six  feet  nine 
inches  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  end  of 
the  shell ;  ten  feet  four  inches  from  the  extre- 
mities of  the  fore  fins  extended  ;  and  was  ad- 
judged to  weigh  eight  hundred  pounds 
weight."  The  line  specimen  lately  in  the 
Leverian  Museum  was  of  similar  weight,  and 
was  taken  on  the  coast  of  Dorsetshire. 

This  species  is  found  not  only  in  the  Euro- 
pean seas,  but  in  those  of  South  Anieric;i  also, 
and  occasionally  appears  about  some  of  the 
African  coasts. 

According  to  Cepcde,  the  coriaceous  tor- 
toise is  one  of  those  with  which  the  Greeks 
were  well  acquainted,  and  he  supposes  it  to 
have  been  the  species  particularly  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  antient  lyreor  harp,  wliich 
was  at  first  composed  by  attaching  the  strings 
or  wires  to  the  shell  of  some  marine  tortoise. 
We  may  add,  that  the  ribs  or  prominences  on 
the  back  of  the  shell  bear  an  obscure  resem- 
blance to  the  strings  of  a  harj),  and  may  have 
suggested  the  name  of  luthorlyre,  by  which 
it  Ts  called  among  the  French,  exclusive  ot 
the  use  to  which  the  shell  was  antieiuly  ap- 
plied. 

The  coriaceous  tortoise,  says  Mr.  .Pennant, 
is  reputed  to  be  extremely  fat,  l)ut  the  llesh 
coarse  and  bad :  the  Carthusians,  however, 
will  eat  no  other  species. 

It  may  be  added,  that  the  small  sea-tor- 
toise des'cribed  by  Mr.  Pennant,  in  the  Phi- 
losophical Transactions  for  the  year  1771,  is 
evidcntlv  no  other  than  Ihe  voung  of  this  ani- 
mal.    See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  i'ig.  395. 

'■2.  Tc-studo  mydas.  The  green  turtle, 
so  named,  not  on  account  of  its  being  exter- 
nally of  that  colom-,  but  from  the  green  tinge 


vigatoi'S,  whose  accounts  relative  to  their  cha- 
racter as  a  food  varied  accoi  ding  to  the  spe- 
cies which  they  happened  to  take  for  that  pur- 
pose; some  insisting  that  the  turtle  was  a  ■>• 
coarse  and  unpalatable  diet,  while  others  con- 
sidered it  as  of  the  highest  degree  of  excel- 
lence. 

"  Ofthe  sea-turtles,"  says  Catesby,  "the 
most  in  request  is  the   green  turtle,  which  is 
esteemed  a  most  wholesome   and   delicious 
food.     It  receives  its  name  from  the  f;xt,  which 
is  of  a  green  colour.      Sir  Hans   Sloane  in- 
forms us,  in  his  History  of  Jamaica,  that  forty 
sloops  are   employed  by   the  inhabitants  of 
Port  Uo\  al,  in  Jamaica,  tor  the  catching  them. 
The  markets  an-  there  supplied  with  turtle 
as  ours  are  with  butcher's  meat.    '  The  Baha- 
mians carry  nianv  of  them  to  Carolina,  where 
thev  turn  to  good  account ;  not  because  that 
pleiilifu!  country  wanls  provisions,  but  they 
are  cstee.ned   the;  e  as  a  rarity,  and  for  the 
delicacy  of  their  tlesh.     They  feed  on  a  kind, 
of  grass,  growing  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
commonly  called  turtle-grass.     The   inhabit- 
ants of  the  Baliamaisjands,  by  often  practice, 
are  very  expert  at  catching  turtles,  particu- 
larlv  the  green  turle.     In  April  thev  go,   in 
lilire  boats,  to  Cul«i  and  other  neigfibouring 
islands,  where,  in  the  evening,  especially  in 
moonlight  nights,  they  watch  the  going  and 
returning  of  flie  turtle  to  and  from  their  nests, 
at  which  time  they  turn  them  on  their  backs, 
where  they  leave  them,  and  proceed  on,  turn- 
ing all  they   meet ;  for  they  cannot  get   oa 
their  feet   again  when   once  turned.      Some 
are  so  large  that  it  requires  three  men  lo  turn 
one  of  them.      The  way  by  which  the  turtle 
are  most  commonly  taken  at  the  Bahama  is- 
lands is  by  slrikiiig  them  with  a  small  iron 
peg  of  two  inches  long,  put  in  a  socket,  at 
the  end  of  a  stalf  of  twelve  feet   long.      Two 
men  usually  set  out  for  this  work  m  a  little 
ight  boat  or  canoe,  one  to  row   genlK'' and 


which  its  lat  fre.(u.ntly  oxhibils  when  the  ani-  [  slecr  Ihe  boat,  while  the   other  stands  at  the 


head  wUli  liis  striker.  The  turtle  arc  sonic- 
times  (liscovt-red  by  iIkmi-  swiiiimiiig  witli  tlx/ir 
liead  and  back  oiil  of  (lie  water,  but  they  arc 
often  discovered  lying  at  tlie  boltom,  a  fa- 
tliDiii  or  more  deep.  If  a  turtle  perceives  he 
i  i  discovered,  he  starts  up  to  make  his  escape : 
the  men  in  the  boat  pursuing  him,  endeavour 
to  keep  sight  of  him,  which  they  olteti  lose, 
and  recover  again  by  the  turtle  '  putting  his 
nose  out  of  the  water  to  breathe  :  thus  they 
pursue  him,  one  paddin.™  or  rowing,  while  the 
oilier  stands  ready  with  his  striker.  It  is 
sonulimes  half  an  hour  before  he  is  tired: 
then  he  sinks  at  once  to  the  bottom,  w  hich 
gives  thm  an  opportunity  of  striking  hini ; 
which  isTy  piercing  him'  with  an  iron  peg, 
which  slips  out  of  the  socket,  but  is  fastened 
with  a  string  to  the  pole.  If  he  is  spent  and 
tired  by  being  long  pursued,  he  tamely  sub- 
mits, when  struck, 'to  be  taken  into  the  boat  or 
iiauled  ashore.  There  are  men  who  by  div- 
ing will  get  on  their  backs,  and  by  pressing 
down  their  hind  parts,  and  raising  the  fore-part 
of  lliem  by  force,  bring  them  to  the  top  of 
the  water,  wdiile  another  slips  a  noose  about 
their  necks." 

Though  the  green  turtle  is  a  native  of  the 
West  Indian- seas,  yet  it  is  sometimes  driven 
by  storms  out  of  its  usual  resid.jice,  and  in- 
stances have  occurred  in  which  it  has  been  ta- 
ken on  tlie  coasts  of  luu'ope.  An  occurrence 
of  tliis  kind  is  said  by  the  count  de  Cepede  to 
have  happened  in  France,  a  turtle  having  been 
taken  at  Dieppe  in  the  year  1752,  which  weigh- 
ed between  eiglit  and  nine  hundred  pounds, 
and  was  almost  six  feet  in  length,  and  four 
■ftide.  It  may,  however,  be  doubted  whether 
this  animal  was  not  rather  a  caretta  or  log- 
gerhead, than  a  green  turtle.  Another,  of 
still  larger  size,  i*  also  said  to  have  been  taken 
on  the  coast  of  France,  about  two  vcars  af- 
terwards. 

"  The  sea-tortoises,  or  turtles  in  general," 
says  Catesby,  "  never  goon  shore  but  to  lay 
their  eggs,  w  hich  they  do  in  April :  tliev  thew 
cra.vl  up  from  tlie  sea  al)0ve  the  flowing  of 
high  water,  and  dig  a  hole  above  two  feet 
de>-p  in  the  sand,  into  whicli  they  drop  in  one 


niglit  above  a  hundred  • 


at  which  thue 


they  are  so  intent  upon  nature's  work,  that 
■they  regard  none  that  approach  them ;  but 
will  drop  tlieir  eggsinto  a  h.'.t,  if  held  under 
tliem  ;  but  if  they  are  disturbed  before  they 
begin  to  lay,  they  will  forsake  the  place,  and 
•  6eek  another.  They  lay  their  eggs  at  three, 
and  sometimes  at  four  different  times;  there 
being  fourteen  days  between  every  time;  so 
that  they  hatch  and  creep  from  their  holes  in- 
to liie  sea  at  dilferent  times  also.  \\'hen  they 
have  laid  their  complement  of  eggs,  tliey  fiiF 
the  hole  witli  sand,  and  leave  them  lo  be 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  which  is  usually 
peifonned  in  aliout  three  weeks."  It  may  be 
proper  to  add,  that  the  eggs  are  about  tiiesize 
of  tennis-balls,  round,  white,  and  covered 
with  a  smooth  parchment-likeskin.  See  Plate 
Nat.  Hist.  lig.  399. 

3.  Testudo  caretta,  loggerhead  turtle.  This 
species  e.\ceeds  in  size  every  other  vet  known, 
except  perhaps  thecoriacea.  In  its  general  ap- 
pearance it  most  resembles  the  mydas  or  green 
turtle,  but  is  distinguishetl  by  "the  superior 
size  of  tiie  head,  the  proportional  breadth  of 
the  shell,  and  by  its  deeper  and  more  varie- 
gated colours,  resembling  those  of  the  T.  im- 
bricata,  orhawk's-bill;  but  its  principal  mark 


TEsTUDO. 

of  distinction  consists  in  the  number  of  dorsal 
segments  or  scutella  of  the  shell,  which  in- 
stead of  thirteen,  as  in  other  species,  aiiiouut 
to  fifteen;  the  lateral  as  well  as  the  middle 
range  containing  five  pieces,  of  which  the  two 
superior^  are  considerably  smaller  than  the 
rest.  The  fore  feet  are  very  bige  and  long ; 
the  hind  feet  much  shorter,  though  broad. 
This  animal  inhabits  the  same  seas  with  the 
green  turtle,  but  is  also  dilliised  into  very 
remote  latitudes,  being  often  found  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  in  particular  about  the 
coasts  of  Italy  and  Sicily.  Considered  in  a 
commercial  view,  it  is  <7f  little  or  no  vilue  ; 
the  Hesli  being  coarse  and  rank,  and  the  la- 
mina; or  plates  of  the  shell  too  thin  forgeneial 
use.  It  is  said,  however,  to  afJord  a  good 
quantity  of  oil,  which  may  be  used  for  lamps, 
&:c.  The  loggerhead  turtle  is  a  very  strong 
and  fierce  animal,  and  is  even  dangerous;  de- 
fending itself  with  great  vigour  with  its  legs, 
and  being  able  tobreak  (he  slrongcstshells  and 
other  substances  with  its  mouth.  Aldrovan- 
du3  assiues  us,  that  on  oftVring  a  thick  walk- 
ing-stick to  one  which  he  saw  publicly  exhi- 
bited at  Bologna,  the  animal  bit  it  in  two  in  an 
instant. 

"  Tlie  loggerhead  turtles,"  says  Catesbv, 
"  are  the  boldest  and  most  voracious  of 
all  turtles;  their  (lesh  is  rank,  and  there- 
fore little  sought  for,  which  occasions  them 
to  be  more  numerous  than  any  other  kind. 
They  range  the  ocean  over,  an  instance  of 
which,  among  many  others  that  I  have  known, 
happened  on  the  aoth  of  April,  1725,  in  lat. 
30  degrees  north  ;  when  our  boat  was  hoist- 
ed out,  and  a  loggerhead  turt'e  struck  as  it 
was  sleeping  on  the  surface  of  the  water :  this 
by  our  reckoning,  appeared  to  be  the  midway 
between  the  Azores  and  the  Bahama  iskiiids"; 
either  of  which  places  being  the  nearest  land 
it  coidd  come  IVoai,  or  that  they  are  known  to 
frecpient ;  there  lieing  none  oii"tlie  north  con- 
tinent of  Am.rica,  farther  north  than  Florida. 
It  being  amphibious,  and  yet  at  so  great  a 
distance  from  laud  in  the  breeding-time, 
makes  it  the  more  remarkable.  'J'hey  fuecl 
mostly  on  shell-lish,  the  great  strength  of 
their  beaks  enabling  them  to  break  very  large 
shells,  as  the  large  buccinums  and  troci-.i." 

4.  Testudo  imbricata,  tlie  hawk's-bill turtle. 
The  testudo  imbricata  is  so  named  from  the 
peculiar  disposition  of  its  scales  or  lamina*, 
wliich  commonly  lap  over  each  other  at  their 
extrenlit^e^  in  the  manner  of  tiles  on  the  roof 
of  a  building.  The  outline  of  theshell,  view- 
ed from  above,  is  more  h.  art-shaped  than  in 
other  sea-tortoises,  and  terminates  more 
acutely:  each  of  the  middle  row  of  scales 
on  the  back  is  also  of  a  sharpened  form 
at  the  tip,  more  especially  in  the  young  or 
half-grown  animal,  and  has  a  ridge  or  carina 
down  the  middle  :  the  head  is  smidler  in  pro- 
portion than  in  other  turtles ;  the  neck  longer ; 
and  the  beak  narrower,  sharper,  and  more 
curved,  so  as  to  bear  no  inconsiderable  re- 
semblance to  the  bill  of  a  hawk,  from  which 
circumstance  the  animal  derives  its  common 
or  popular  name  of  the  hawk's-bill  turtle.  The 
fore  legs  are  longer  than  in  the  rest  of  the 
tribe,  and  it  is  said  that  when  tinned  or  laid 
on  its  back,  the  animal  is  enabled  by  their  as- 
sistance, to  reach  the  ground  in  sucha  manner 
as  to  recover  its  former  situation,  which  no 
other  turtle  can  do.  In  old  specimens  the 
neatness  of  the  shell,  .and  tlie  well-dcfinecl 
outliiie  of  thescales,  are  occasionally  impaired. 
■        5  G  2 


7V 

and  this  seems  to  lie  one  piincipal  reason  of 
i(s  liaving  bti-n  K/meliines  coiiloiii'''  ' 
thec,irella,orle,g^erheadtui(le.   T; 
bill  turtle  is  a  nati-,e  of  the  Asiatic  i.i..;  .•.,:■.  ■ 
rican  sca«,  and  is  sometimes,  tliough  less   fre- 
(luentlv,  found  in  the  Mediterranean.     Its  ge- 
neral lengdi  sr.Tiis  lo  be  about  three  feet, 
from  (he  lij,  of  ti.e  bill  to  the  end  of  the  ^ll'.•ll ; 
but  it  has  been  known  to  measure  five  feel   in 
length,  and  to  wei^h  five  or  six  hundred 
jiounds.     In  the,  Indian   ocean  in  particular, 
specimens  are  said  to  have  occurred  of  prodi- 
gious magnitude. 

The  shell  o;  this  animal  was  anciently  used 
for  a  shield,  atul  stdl  serves  for  that  purpose 
aniong  barbarous  natiojis.  The  flesh  is  m  no  es- 
timation as  a  food ;  the  lampllx-  or  plates  of  lli': 
shell,  which  are  (Ur  stronger,  thicker,  an(l 
clearer  than  in  any  other  kind,  consCtntin;; 
the  sole  value  of  the  animal,  and  affording 
the  substance  pai  ticularly  known  by  the  name 
of  tortoise-shell:  they  arc  scmilransparent, 
and  most  elegantly  variegated  with  whitish, 
yellowish,  reddish,  and  dark-biown  cloud> 
and  ur.dulations,  so  as  to  constitute,  when 
pr6perly  prepared  and  polished,  one  of  the 
most  elegant  articles  for  ornamental  purposes. 

See  TORTCISESHELL. 

Tlie  natural  or  general  numbi-rof  the  dor- 
I  sal  pieces  is  thirteen;  the  marginal' row  coji- 
sisting  of  twen(y-five  smaller  ))ieces.  Tl>H 
external  coating  is  raised  qr  separated  from 
the  bony  part,  which  it  covers,  bv  placin:^ 
fire  beneath  the  shell ;  the  heat  sor'n  causing 
the  plates  to  start,  so  as  to  be  easily  detached 
from  the  bone.  These  plates  vary  iu  thick- 
ness, according  to  the  age  and  size  of  the  ani- 
mal, and  measure  from  an  eighth  to  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  thickness.  A  large  turtle  is  said 
to  atlord  about  eight  pounds  of  tortoise-«lie!|. 

In  order  to  bring  to:toisc-shell  into  thepar- 
ticular  form  required  en  the  part  of  the  artisf, 
it  is  steeped  in  boiling  water,  till  it  has  ac- 
quired a  proper  degree  of  softness,  and  Im- 
mediately after.vards  connnitted  to  the  pres- 
sure of  a  strong  metallic  mould  of  the  figure 
reiiuired;  and  wh^re  it  is  necessary  that 
pieces  should  be  joined,  so  as  lo  compose  a 
surface  of  considerable  e.Vtent,  the  edses  of 
the  respective  pieces  arc  lirst  scraped  orthin- 
iied,  and  being  laid  over  each,  other  during 
their  heated  state,  are  comniilttd  to  a  strong 
press,  by  which  meo^.s  they  are  eUectii^^ 
joined  or  agglutinated.  These  are  ti,e  ffll- 
thods  aLso  by  which  the  various  ornaments 
of  gold,  silver,  &:c.  are  occasionally  alBxecl  to 
the  tortoise-sheii. 

The  (rreeks  and  Romans  appear  to  have 
been  peculiarly  partial  to  tiiis  elegant  or- 
namental article,  with  which  it  was  custom- 
ary to  decorate  the  do.irs  and  pillars  of  then- 
houses,  their  betis,  &c.  &c.  In  the  reign  of 
Augustus  this  species  of  luxury  seems  to  have 
been  at  its  height  in  Koine. 

"  The  Egyptians,"  says  Mr.  Rruce,  in  the 
supplement  to  hisTrav  e!s,  "  dealt  rerylargely 
with  the  Homans  in  this  eleg-inl  article  of 
commerce.  Pliny  telLs  us  the  cutting  them  for 
fmeeriug  or  inl  J)  i'ng  v/as  (irst  practised  by  Car- 
vilius  Pollio,  from  which  we  shouid  prcume, 
that  the  Romans  were  ignorant  of  the  art  of 
separa'i:-.g  t!)e  lamins  by  fire  placed  in  tiie 
inside  of  llie  shell,  w  hen  trie  meat  is  t;iken  out: 
for  these  scales,  though  they  appear  per- 
fectly distinct  and  separate,  do  vet  adhere, 
and  oftener  break  than  split,  where  the  mani, 
of  separation  may  be  seen  aistinctiy.      Mas- 


7«8 


T  E  T 


tial  savs  that  beds  weif  iiilaifl  with  it.  Juve- 
Vd],  aiid  Aoulciiis  in  his  ttutli  book,  nn  lUioa 
tint  the  liKiian  bed  wiis  all  over  shining  »ith 
^oitoise-fhirll  on  the  outsidf,  and  swelling 
with  slufiing  of  do-n  within.  The  ininu-iist; 
u?e  made  ont  in  Roine  may  be  guessed  at  by 
what  we  learii  iVoni  Velleius  Palerciilus,  who 
says,  that  when  Alexandria  was  taken  by  Ju- 
lius Ca'sar,  the  magazines  or  warehouses  were 
so  full  of  this  article,  thai  he  proposed  to  have 
made  it  the  principal  ornament  of  his  triumph, 
as  he  did  ivory  afterwards,  when  triumphing 
for  havins  happily  finished  the  African  war. 
This  too,"'in  more'  modern  times,  was  a  great 
article  in  the  trade  to  China." 

It  may  be  doubted  however,  whether  the 
species  'described  and  iigin'ed  by  Mr.  Bruce, 
and  said  to  inhabit  the  Rerd  Sea,  i's  tiie  real  T. 
imbricata;  since  it  a|)pears  to  differ  in  some 
i-e5])eots  from  the  usual  character  of  this  ;uii- 
mal,  and  particularly  in  not  having  imbricated 
scales. 

Testudo,  in  the  military  art  of  the  an- 
tients,  was  a  kind  of  cover  or  screen  whicli 
the  soldiers,  f.  ^sr.  a  whole  company,  made 
themselves  of  their  bucklers,  by  holdi'ng  them 
uj)  over  their  heads,  and  standing  close  to 
each  other.  This  expedient  served  to  shel- 
ter them  from  darts,  stones,  &c.  thrown  upon 
them,  especially  those  thrown  from  above, 
t\hen  they  went  to  the  assault. 

Testudo  was  also  a  kind  of  large  wooden 
tower  whicli  moved  on  several  wheels,  and 
was  covered  with  bullocks'-hides,  serving  to 
shelter  the  soldiers  when  they  approached 
the  walls  to  nunc  them,  or  to  batter  ihera 
with  rams. 

TETHYS,  a  genus  of  insects  belonging  to 
the  class  of  vermes,  and  order  of  mollusca. 
The  body  is  oblong,  ileshy,  and  without  feet ; 
the  month  consists  of  a  cylindrical  proboscis 
under  the  duplicature  of  a  lip  ;  and  there  are 
two  foramina  at  the  leftside  i)f  the  neck.  The 
species  are  two,  both  inhabitants  of  the 
ocean. 

TETRACERA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  polyandria,  and  order  tetragvnia,  and 
In  the  natural  system  ranging  under  tlie  doubt- 
ful. The  calvx  is  liexapliyllous,  and  the 
capsules  four.'  There  are  12  species,  shrubs 
of  South  .\merica. 

TETRACHORD,  in  music,  (from  the 
Greek,)  a  concord  in  the  music  of  the  antients 
consisting  of  three  degrees,  or  intervals,  and 
four  terms,  or  sounds  ;  called  by  the  (j  reeks 
klso  diatessaron,  and  by  us  a  fourtli.  In  this 
system  the  extremes  were  iixe<l,  but  the  mid- 
tile  sounds  were  varied  according  to  the 
mode. 

In  the  antient  music,  all  the  primitive  or 
thief  divisions  were  confined  to  four  chords, 
so  that  the  great  scale  consisted  of  replicates, 
und  all  the  upper  tetrachords  were  considered 
only  as  repetitions  of  the  first  or  lowest. 

TETRAUIAPASON,  the  Greek  appella- 
tion of  the  quadruple  octave,  which  we  also 
call  the  29th.  The  system  of  the  antients 
<iot  extending  to  this  inlerval,  they  only  knew 
it  in  imagination,  or  by  name. 

TJCl  RADYNAMIA  (rtroifn,  four,  and 
K»a/i*i>,  power),  four  powers;  the  name  of 
the  13ih  cla-,s  in  Liijnxus's  be.xual  tystem. 
See  boTANV. 


T  E  T 

TETRAKDRON,  or  TETnAiieoROK,  jn  p«"- 
metry,  is  one  of  the  five  Pl.itonic  or  regular  bo- 
dies or  soliu!.,  comprehended  under  four  e'l"'" 
latcral  and  equal  triangles.  Or  it  is  a  triangular 
pyramid  of  four  c^jual  and  equilateral  faces. 

It  is  demonstrated  in  geometry,  that  the  side 
of  a  tetraedron  is  to  the  diameter  of  its  circum- 
fcrlbing  sphere,  as  ^/•2  to  \/3  ;  consequently 
thev  are  incommensurable. 

if  a  denotes  the  linear  edgs  or  side  of  a  tetrae- 
di-on,  6  its  whole  superficies,  ir  its  solidity,  '•  the 
radius  of  its  inscribed  sphere,  and  R  the  radius 
of  its  circumscribing  sphere  ;  then  the  general 
relation  among-  all  these  is  expreised  by  the  fol- 
lowing equations,  viz. 


sp 


a 

fRfVs 

=  v/tV^  = 

i 

=  24,-V^  = 

«RV3 

=    ^'^-3     = 

c 

=     Sr\/:i  = 

MV^ 

=  tVV2  = 

V-'*x/3- 

R 

IVjV-- 

i"v/6 

=  V-V3  = 

r 

=   *R     = 

JjV6  = 

=  T2V/2V3  = 

TEl'RAGOXrA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  of  icosandria,  and  order  monogjnia; 
and  in  the  natural  system  ranging  under  the 
13th  order,  succulenta;.  The  calyx  is  di- 
vided into  three,  four,  or  five  parts.  There 
is  no  corolla ;  the  drupe  is  beneath,  and  the 
nut  three  or  eight-celled.  There  are  eight 
species  ;  the  puticosa,  decumbens,  herbacea, 
echinata,  expansa,  crystallina,  hirsuta,  and 
spicata,  chielly  nalives'of  the  Cape. 

TETRAGYNTA  (na^x^i!,  four,  and  ^vvn, 
a  woman),  the  name  of  an  order,  or  seconda- 
ry division,  in  the  4th,  5th,  6th,  Sth,  and  13th 
classes  in  the  sexual  system.     See  Botan  v. 

TETRALOMA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the 
coleoptera  order.  The  generic  character  is, 
antennw  clavate,  the  club  perfoliate,  less 
rounded,  entire;  feelers  thicki-Ji,  unequal; 
shells  as  Ions  as  tlie  abdomen.  There  are  two 
species  of  this  insect,  viz.  the  T.  fungorum, 
and  the  T.  ancora. 

TETK.-VNDRIA  (Ts^jafst,  four,  and  ayr.f, 
a  man  or  husband),  the  name  of  the  fourth 
class  in  Linnxus's  sexual  system.  See  Bo- 
tany. 

TETRANTHUS,  a  genus  of  the  synge- 
nesiapolygamia  segregata  class  and  order  of 
liiants.  "riie  calyx  is  comnion,  four-tlowered  ; 
perianthium  pro'per,  one-leafed  ;  seeds  crown- 
ed. Tliere  is  one  species,  an  annual  of  His- 
paniola. 

TETR.\0,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of 
birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  gallinx,  and 
thus  characterised  by  Linna-us:  there  is  a 
spot  ni-ar  the  eyes  naked  or  papillose,  or  co- 
vered, though  'more  rarely,  with  feathers. 
Graelin  has  enumerated  about  CO  species. 
Thegenustetraocompre bends  botht  he  grouse, 
I)artridge,  and  quail;  but  Dr.  Latham,  with 
great  judgment  and  propriety,  has  made  two 
genera  of  them,  under  the  names  of  tetrao, 
comprehending  the  grouse;  and  perdix,  com- 
prehending the  partridge  and  quail.  Dr. 
Liitham  thus  distinguishes  the  genus  tetrao  : 
the  bill  is  like  a  crooked  cone,  with  a  naked 
scarlet  skin  above  each  eye,  and  the  feet  fea- 
thered to  ll»c  toes.    The  perdix  he  ciiaractor  - 


T  E  T 

1  izcs  by  a  bill  a)nvex,  strong,  and  short ;  the 

■  no!>trirs  arc  covered  above  with  a  callous  pro- 
minent rim;    the  orbits   are   papillose;  the 

I  feet  naked,  and  most  of  the  species  are  fiu-- 
nished  with  spurs.     He  reckoris  twenty  spe- 

.  ties  under  the  tetrao,  and  lorly-eight  "ui.i'.er 
the  perdix. 

1.  Tetrao.     Of  th'S  genus   the  following 
ecies  are  found  in  Ihitain:   1.  The  urogal- 

lus,  or  cock  of  the  wood,  inhabits  woody  and 
mountainous  Cfuuitries  ;  in  particular,  forests 
of  pines,  birch-trees,  and  junipers;  feeding  on 
the  tops  of  the  former,  and  berries  of  the  lat- 
ter ;  the  first  often  infects  the  flesh  witii  such 
a  taste  as  to  render  it  scarcely  eatable.  In 
the  spring  it  calls  the  females  to  its  haunts 
with  a  loud  and  shrill  voice;  and  is  at  that 
time  so  very  inattentive  to  its  safety,  as  to  he 
very  easily  shot.  It  stands  perched  on  a 
tree,  and  descends  to  the  females  on  their 
lirsl  appearance.  They  lay  from  eight  to 
sixteen  eggs ;  eight  at  the  first,  and  more  as 
they  adv'ance  in  age. 

'i'liis  bird  is  common  to  Scandinavia,  Ger- 
many, France,  and  several  parts  oftheAl])s. 
It  is  found  in  no  other  part  of  Great  Britain 
than  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  north  of  In- 

j  verness ;  and  is  very  rare  even  in  those 
parts. 

I      The  leni^th  of  the  male  is  two  feet  nine 

j  inches;  its  weight  sometimes  fourteen  pounds. 
The  female  is  much  less,  the  length  being 
only  twenty->ix  inches.    The  sexes  ditTer  also 

j  greatly  in  colours.  The  bill  of  the  male  is  of 
a  pule  yellow  ;  the  head,  neck,  and  back,  are 
eleuantlv  marked,  slender  lines  of  grey  and 
black  running  transversely.  The  upper  part 
of  the  breast  is  of  a  rich  glossy  green  ;  the 
rest  of  the  breast  and  belly  black,  mixed  with 
some  white  feathers;  the  sides  are  maiked 
like  the  neck  ;  the  coverts  of  the  wings  cross- 
ed with  undulated  lines  of  black  and  reddish 
brown  ;  the  exterior  webs  of  the  greater 
ipii'!-!eathers  are  black :  the  tail  consists  of 
eighteen  feathers,  the  middle  of  which  is  the 
longest ;  these  are  black,  marked  on  each 
side  with  a  few  white  spots.  The  legs  are 
very  strong,  and  covered  with  brown  feathers ; 
the  edges  of  the  toes  are  pectinated.  Of  the 
female,  the  bill  is  dusky;  the  throat  red  ;. 
the  head,  neck,  and  back,  are  maiked  with 
transverse  bars  of  red  and  black:  the  breast 
has  some  white  spots  on  it,  and  the  lower  part 
is  of  a  plain  orange-colour;  the  belly  is  bar- 
red with  pale-orange  and  black ;  tlie  tips  of 
the  feathers  are  white.  The  tail  is  of  a  deep 
rust-colour,  barred  with  black,  tipped  with 
white,  and  consists  of  sixteen  feathers. 

2.  The  tetrix,  black  grouse,  or  black-cock, 
like  the  former  species,  is  fond  of  woodv  and 
mountainous  situations ;  feeding  on  the  vac- 
cinuin,  and  other  moirntain-lruits,  and  in  the 
winter  on  the  tops  of  the  heath.  In  the  sum-- 
mer  they  frequently  descend  from  tlie  hills  fa 
feed  on  corn.  They  never  pair:  but  in  the 
spring  the  male  gets  upon  some  eminence, 
crows  and  claps  his  wings;  on  which  sign.il 
all  the  females  within  hearing  resort  to  him. 
The  hen  lays  seldom  more  tluui  six  or  seven 
eggs.  When  the  female  is  ol)liged,  during 
the  tiine  of  incubation,  to  leave  her  eggs  ii> 
<pipst  of  food, 
with  moss 

fiiult  to  discover  them.  On  this  occasion  she 
is  extremely  tame  and  trani|uil,  however  wild 
and  timorotis  ;it  other  limes.  She  often  keejjs 


food,  she  covers  them  up  so  artfully 
ss  or  dry  leaves,   that  it  is  very  dif- 


T  E  T 

fii  her  nest  thougli  strangers  attempt  to  drag 
Iit-r  away.  As  soon  as  tlu'  yoiinc;  ones  arc 
IiatdiL-d,  thi'v  are  seen  nmiiing  willi  cxlrc-mi; 
aifility  atter  the  uiotliL'r,  tlioiigh  somelinics 
tlu-y  are  not  eiitin-ly  disrngagcd  from  tlu- 
shrll.  'J'he  hen  leads  them  forwards  for  tlic 
lirst  tune  into  th<'  woods,  to  show  thwn  ants' 
t'ggs  and  the  wild  mouiitain-ht-rrics,  which, 
while  yonng,  are  their  only  lood.  As  tluy 
grow  older  their  appetites  grow  stronger,  and 
they  then  feed  npon  the  tops  of  heath  and 
the  cones  of  tlie  pine-tree.  In  this  manner 
they  soon  come  to  perfection  ;  they  are  hardy 
birds,  their  food  lies  every  where  before 
them,  and  it  would  seem  that  they  should  in- 
crease in  great  abundance.  Hut  this  is  not 
the  case;  their  numbers  are  thimiedby  rapa- 
cious birds  and  bea>ts  of  every  kind,  and  still 
more  by  their  own  salacious  contests.  As 
soon  as  the  hatching  is  over,  which  the  female 
performs  in  the  manner  of  a  hen,  the  whole 
brood  follows  the  mother  for  about  a  month 
or  two  ;  at  the  end  of  whichthe  young  males 
entirely  fo.saki'  her,  and  keep  in  great  harmo- 
ny together  till  the  bcgimiing  ol  s|)ring.  At 
this  season  they  begin  to  cojisider  each  other 
as  rivals.  They  hght  like  game-cocks;  and 
at  that  time  are  so  inattentive  to  their  own 
safely,  that  it  olten  happens  that  two  or  three 
of  them  are  killed  at  a  shot. 

An  old  black  cock  is  in  length  twenty-two 
inches,  ajid  weighs  near  four  pomuls.  The 
bill  is  dusky;  and  the  phunage  of  the  whole 
body  black,  glossed  over  the  neck  and  rump 
with  a  shining  blue.  The  coverts  of  the 
wings  are  of  a  dusky  brown  ;  the  inner  co- 
verts white;  the  thighs  and  legs  are  covered 
"with  dark-brown  feathers  ;  the  toes  resemble 
tho^e  of  the  former  species.  The  female 
wiighs  oidy  two  pounds,  and  its  length  is  one 
tout  six  inches.  The  head  and  neck  are 
marked  with  alternate  bars  of  dull  red  and 
blatk  ;  the  breast  with  dusky  black  and  white; 
but  the  last  predoi.inates.  The  back,  co- 
verts of  the  wings,  and  tail,- are  of  the  same 
colours  as  the  neck,  but  the  red  is  deeper. 
The  tail  is  slightly  forked.  The  feathers  un- 
der the  tail  are  white,  marked  with  a  few  bars 
of  black  and  orange.  This  biid  hatches  its 
young  late  in  the  summer.  It  lays  from  six 
to  eight  eggs,  of  a  dull  yellowish-white  co- 
lour, marked  with  numbers  of  very  small  fer- 
ruginous specks ;  and  towards  the  smaller 
end  with  some  blotches  of  the  same  hue.  See 
Plate  Nat.  Hist.  rig.  400. 

3.  The  scoticus,  red  game,  or  moor-fowl, 
is  peculiar  to  the  British  islands.  The  male 
weighs  abont  nineteen  ounces;  and  is  in 
leii:,th  15|  inches.  The  plumage  on  the  head 
and  neck  is  of  a  light  tawny  red  ;  each  lea- 
ther is  irarked  with  several  transverse  bars  of 
black.  The  b.ick  and  scapular  feathers  are 
of  a  deeper  red;  and  on  the  middle  of  each 
feather  is  a  large  black  spot ;  the  breast  and 
belly  are  of  a  dull  purpli^ih  brown,  crossed 
with  numerous  narrow  dusky  lines  ;  the  legs 
and  feet  are  clothed  to  the  very  claws  with 
thick  soft  while  feathers.  The  claws  are 
whitish,  very  broad  and  strong.  The  female 
weighs  only  lifteen  ounces.  The  colours  in 
general  are  duller  than  those  of  the  male. 
These  birds  pair  in  the  spring,  and  lay  from 
six  to  ten  eggs.  The  young  brood  follow  the 
hen  the  whole  summer;  in  the  winter  they 
join  in  flocks  of  forty  or  lilty,  and  become  re- 
1  mai'kably  shy  and  wild;  they  always  keep  on 


T  E  T 

the  tops  of  the  hills,  are  scarcely  ever  found 
on  the  sid<".,  and  never  descend  intotlK-  val- 
leys, 'i  heir  food  is  the  mountain-berries  and 
tops  of  the  heath. 

4.  The  lagopus,  white  game,  or  pt;.rmigan, 
is  fifteen  inches  in  length,  and  weighs  nine- 
teen ounces.  lis  plumage  is  of  a  paic  brown 
or  ash-colour,  elegantly  crossed  or  mottled 
with  small  dusky  spots  and  minute  bars  ;  the 
head  and  neck  with  broad  bars  of  black,  rust- 
colour,  and  while:  the  belly  and  wings  are 
white,  but  the  shafts  of  the  greater  <|uill-fea- 
thers  black.  In  the  male,  the  urey  colour 
predominates,  e.\cept  on  the  head  and  neck, 
where  there  is  a  great  mixture  of  red,  with 
bars  of  white.  The  females  and  young  birds 
have  a  great  deal  of  rust-colour  in  them. 
The  tail  consists  of  sixteen  feathers;  the  two 
middle  of  which  are  ash-coloured,  mottled 
witli  black,  and  tipped  with  white  ;  the  two 
next  black,  slightly  marked  with  white  at 
their  ends,  the  rest  wholly  black  :  the  feathers 
incumbent  on  the  tail  are  white,  and  almost 
entirely  cover  it. 

Ptarmigans  are  found  in  these  kingdoms 
only  on  the  summit  of  the  highest  hills  of  tlie 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  of  the  Hebrides  and 
Orkneys  ;  and  a  few  still  inhabit  the  lofty 
hills  near  Keswick  in  Cumberland,  as  well  as 
the  mountains  of  Wales.  They  live  amidst 
the  rocks,  perching  on  the  grey  stones,  the 
general  colour  of  the  strata  in  those  exalted 
situations.  They  are  very  silly  birds;  so 
tame  as  to  bear  driving  like  poultry  ;  and,  if 
provoked  to  rise,  take  very  short  flights,  mak- 
ing a  great  circuit  like  pigeons.  Like  the 
grouse,  they  keep  in  small  packs  ;  but  never, 
like  those  birds,  take  shelter  in  the  heath,  but 
beneath  loose  stones.  To  the  taste  they 
scarcely  differ  from  a  grouse. 

11.  Perdix,  comprehends  both  the  par- 
tridge and  quail. 

In  England  the  partridge  is  a  favour- 
ite delicacy  at  the  tables  of  the  rich ;  and 
the  desire  of  keeping  it  to  themselves  has  in- 
duced them  to  make  laws  for  its  ])reservation, 
no  way  harmonising  with  the  general  spirit^Tlf 
English  legislation. 

The  partridge  seems  to  be  a  bird  well 
known  over  all  the  old  continent.  Their 
manners  resemble  those  of  poultry  in  gene- 
ral ;  but  their  cunning  and  instinct  seem  su- 
perior to  those  ol  the  larger  kinds.  Perhaps, 
as  they  live  in  the  very  neighbourhood  of 
their  enemies,  they  have  more  frequent  oc- 
casion to  put  their  little  arts  in  practice,  and 
learn  by  habit  the  means  of  evasion  or  safety. 
Whenever  therefore  a  dog  or  other  formida- 
ble animal  approaches  their  nest,  the  female 
uses  every  means  to  draw  hi  ii  away.  She 
keepsjust  before  him,  pretends  to  be  incapa- 
ble of  liyiiig, Just  hops  up,  and  then  falls  down 
before  him,  but  never  goes  olf  so  far  as  to  dis- 
courage her  pursuer.  At  length,  when  she 
has  drawn  him  entirely  away  from  her  secret 
treasure,  she  at  once  takes  wing,  and  fairly 
leaves  him  to  gaze  after  her  in  despair.  After 
the  danger  is  over,  and  the  dog  withdrawn, 
she  then  calls  her  young,  who  assemble  at 
once  at  her  cry,  and  follow  where  she  leads 
them.  There  are  generally  from  ten  to  rif- 
teen  in  a  covey  ;  and,  if  unmolested,  they 
live  from  lifteen  to  seventeen  years. 

2.  The  coturnix,  or  common  quail,  is  not 
above  half  the  size  of  the  partridge.  The 
featliers  of  the  head  are  black,  edged  wiUi 


T  E  T 


7Sf> 


rusty  brown  ;  tin?  breast  is  of  a  pale  yello'.i- 
ish  red,  spotted  with  black;  the  feathers  on 
the  back  are  marked  with  lines  of  pale  yel- 
low, and  the  legs  are  of  a  pale  hue.  Except 
in  the  colours  thus  described,  and  the  size,  it 
every  way  resembles  a  partridge  in  shape, 
aiul,  except  that  it  is  a  bird  of  passage,  it  is 
liki:  all  others  ol  the  poultry  kind  in  its  habits 
and  nature. 

The  quail  seems  to  spread  entirely  through- 
out the  old  world,  but  does  not  ndiahit  the 
new.  It  is  observed  to  shift  its  quarters  ac- 
cording to  the  season,  coming  northward  in 
spring,  and  departing  south  in  autumn,  and 
in  vast  llocks,  like  other  migiating  birds. 
Twice  in  a  year  it  comes  in  such  va.st  (juanti- 
ties  in  Capri,  that  the  liishop  of  the  island 
draws  the  chiel  part  of  his  revenue  from 
them  ;  hence  he  is  called  the  quail-bishop. 
But  this  does  not  stand  alone;  almost  all  the 
islands  in  the  Archipelago,  on  the  opposite 
coast3,  are  at  times  covered  with  these  birds, 
and  some  of  them  obtain  a  name  from  this 
circumstance.  On  the  west  coast  of  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  within  the  space  of  four  or 
live  miles,  a  hundred  thousand  have  been 
(aken  in  a  day,  which  have  been  sold  for 
eight  livres  jjer  hundred  to  dealers  who  carry 
them  fcr  sale  to  Rome.  Great  (|uantitie> 
also  sometimes  alight  in  spring  on  the  coasts 
of  I'rovence,  especially  in  the  diocese  of  the 
bishop  of  Frejijs,  which  is  near  the  sea,  and 
appear,  at  their  lirst  landing,  so  much  fatigued 
that  they  are  often  taken  by  the  hand. 

With  us  they  may  be  said  not  to  be  plenty 
at  any  time.  They  breed  with  us,  and  the 
major  part  migrate  south  in  autunm;  the  rest 
only  shift  their  quarters,  as  they  liave  been 
met  w  ith  on  the  coasts  of  Essex,  and  in  Hanq)- 
shire,  inlthe  winter  season,  retiring  thence  in 
October. 

It  feeds  like  the  partridge,  and,  like  tliat 
bird,  makes  no  nest,  except  a  few  dry  leaves 
or  stalks  scr.iped  together  may  be  called  so, 
and  sometimes  a  hollow  on  the  bare  ground 
suffices.  In  this  the  female  lays  her  eggs  to 
the  number  of  si\  or  seven,  of  a  whitish  co- 
lour, marked  witli  irregular  rust-coloured 
spots:  the  young  follow  the  mother  as  soon 
as  hatched,  like  young  partridges.  They 
have  but  one  brood  in  a  year. 

Quail-fighting  was  a  favourite  amusement 
among  the  Adieiiians.  Tliey  abstained  from 
the  Hesh  of  this  bird,  deeming  it  unwhole- 
some, as  supposing  that  it  fetl  upon  the  white- 
hellebore:  but  they  reared  great  numbers  of 
them  for  the  pleasure  of  seeing  them  right  ; 
and  stakeil  sums  ot  money,  as  we  do  with 
cocks,  upon  the  success  of  the  combat. 
Fashion,  however,  has  at  present  changed 
with  regard  to  this  bird:  we  take  no  pleasure 
in  its  courage,  but  its  Hesh  is  considered  as  a 
very  great  delicacy.  Quails  are  easily  caught 
by  a  call:  tne  fowler  early  in  the  morninij 
having  spread  his  mt,  hides  himself  under  it 
among  the  corn ;  he  then  imitates  tlie  voice 
of  the  female  with  his  quail-pipe,  which  the 
cock  hearing,  approaches  with  the  utmost  as- 
siduity ;  when  he  has  got  under  the  net,  the 
fowler  then  discovers  himself,  and  terririesthe 
quail,  who  attempting  to  get  away,  entangles 
himself  the  more  in  the  net,  and  is  taken. 

TETROUON,  a  genus  of  rishes  of  the 
order  nautes.     The  gi-neric  character  is,  jaws, 
bony,  divided  at  the  tip ;  body  roughcnei 
beneath;  ventral  riiaswautins- 
9 


790 


T  E  T 


1.  Tetrodoii  lagocephalus,  hare  tetrodon. 
Tx:'.  fiilies  of  tlii»  geiuis,  ot  wliicli  there  are 
14  species,  like  ibe  diodoiis,  have  lliepo«(.r 
of  inflating  their  body  at  pleasure,  by  means 
*  of  an  iiileriial  meiiiLrane  for  that  purpose, 
and  <Unirig  the  time  of  inllation  tlie  small 
spines  dispei'sed  over  their  s"ide3  and  abdomtii 
are  raised  in  such  a  manner  as  to  operate  as  a 
defence  a§ai.;st  tlieir  enemies:  they  are 
criietly  natives  of  tlie  tropical  sea',  tliougli 
sonie;inies  seen  in  the  higher  norlhern  and 
soutlieni  latitudes,  aiid  are  supposed  to  live 
princi-pally  on  the  crustaceous  and  testaceous 
animals. 

The  present  species  grows  !o  the  lerigtli  of 
about  twelve  inches,  and  is  of  a  thick  form  in 
front,  the  hinder  parts  tapering  suddenly 
towards  the  tail :  the  colour  is  yellowish 
brovin  above,  and  whitish  with  a  slight  silvery 
castbcneath.  This  species  occa>ionally  strays 
into  the  norlhern  latitudes,  and  has  bten 
taken,  according  to  Mr.  Pennant,  about  the 
British  coast«,  \"Z.  near  Pei;zance  in  Corn- 
wall. It  has  the  power  of  inllati[!g  tlie  abdo- 
men to  avast  size:  the  Linii3?an  title  seems 
to  have  been  given  from  a  fancied  resem- 
blance which  the  fore  part  of  the  head, bears 
to  that  of  a  hare. 

'J.  Telrodou  lineatus,  lineated  tetrodon. 
Length  ten  or  twelve  inches:  sh.^e  some- 
what square,  but  when  inflated  resembling 
that  of  the  T.  lagocephakis  :  whole  body  be- 
set with  numerous  small  spines:  cokur  grey 

■  on  the  abdomen,  with  numerous,  longitudi- 
nal, deep-brown  streaks:  fins  and  tail  as  in 
the  preceding  species.  Native  of  the  Midi- 
terranean  and  American  seas:  sometimes 
found  in  tlie  river  Nile,  where  Hasselquist 
was  assured  by  the  (ishermen  that  on  being 
fdken  the  hands  were  stung  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  with  nettles. 

3.  Tetrodon  testudineus,  tortoise-shell  te- 
■  trodon.  length  two  feet;  shape  lengthen- 
ed ;  colour  rufous-brown  above,  marked  by 
numerous  round,  pale-blue  spots ;  beneulli 
bliieish  or  ash-coloured,  bcautitully  varied  by 
longitudinal  brown  streaks :  iins  and  tail 
bright  ferruginous :  the  wliole  abdomen  is 
furni.ihed  with  numerous  small  spines,  which, 
when  the  animal  is  in  a  quiet  state,  are  im- 
bedded in  so  m.my  correspop.ding  cavities  in 
the  skin  ;  but  are  elevated  when  the  hsh,  on 
any  alarm,  dis'tci:ds  its  body.  Native  of  the 
^fcjndian  seas.  The  LinnEan  name  of  this  lish 
i^is  sup))0sed  to  have  been  given  from  its  tor- 
toise-like beak,  but  perhaps,  with  more  pro- 
priety, from  its  variegated  skin. 

4.  'I'etrodon  ocellatus,  ocellated  tetrodon. 
Length  six  or  eight  inches:  shape  thick, 
ovate,  contracting  suddenly  towards  the  tail . 
mouth  slightly  produced  :  colour  deep-green 
above,  gradually  growing  paler  on  (he  sides 
and  abdomen,  which  are  wtiitisli.  Native  of 
the  Indian  seas,  and  sometimes  of  the  ad- 
joining rivers,  particularly  those  of  China 
and  Japan.  It  is  of  an  e\trcmely  poisonous 
nature,  if  eaten  without  the  greatest  care  in 
proper'y  cleaning  it  before  dressing,  and  is 
said  sometimes  to  have  proved  fatal  in  the 
short  space  of  two  hours.  'I'he  symptoms, 
according  to  Kumphius,  may  be  cured  by  the 
timely  administration  of  a  vegetable  which 
he  calls  rex  amaroris.  The  emperor  of  Ja- 
pan prohibits  his  soldiers,  under  very  severe 
penalties,  from  eating  this  fish  :  thc-rest  of  his 
subjects  may,  as  Mr.  Pennant  observes,  run 

■  the  risk  of  being  poisoned  with  impunity. 


T  E  U 

TEUCRIUM,  germander,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  class  didynamia,  and  ortler  gy  m- 
nospermia ;  and  in  the  natural  systi  m  ran- 
ging under  (he  42d  order,  v^rticillata;.  "^I'he 
corolla  has  (he  upper  lip  divided  into  two 
parts  beyond  the  base,  and  divaricated  where 
the  stamina  issue  out.  There  are  ()<)  species, 
of  which  the  scorodonia,  scordium,  and  cha- 
ma^drys,  are  natives  of  Great  Britain.  1 .  The 
scorodonia,  wood  sage,  or  gerniander,  is  dis- 
tinguished by  leaves  which  are  heart-shaped, 
seirated,  and  petio'.ated ;  by  racemi,  which 
are  lateral  and  ranged  in  one  row  ;  and  by  an 
erect  stem.  Tlie  flowers  are  siraw-colourecl, 
and  the  fi'aments  red.  The  plant  has  a  bit- 
ter taste,  and  smells  like  hops  with  a  little 
mixture  of  garlic.  It  is  used  inbrewingjn 
the  isle  of  Jersey  instead  of  hops.  2.  The 
scordium,  or  common  water-germander,  has 
creeping  perennial  roofs,  sending  up  many 
scjuare, 'procumbent,  or  trailing  stalks,  branch- 
ing dil't'usely,  and  small  reddish  liowers.  Tliis 
plant  was  formerly  considered  as  medicinal, 
but  has  now  fallen  into  disuse.  It  grows  na- 
turally in  marsiiy  places,  in  the  isle  of  Ely 
and  other  parts  of  England,  and  most  parts  of 
Europe  ;  and  is  sometimes  admitted  iiito  gar- 
den>,  in  moist  places,  for  variety,  and  as  a 
medical  plant.  3.  Thechiima>drys,  or  small- 
er creeping  germander,  has  reddish  flow  ers, 
growing  almost  in  a  verliciilus,  or  whorls, 
roi.nd  the  stalk,  three  on  each  peduncle :  ap- 
pearing in  June  and  July.  There  are  also 
some  foreign  species,  ornamental  as  green- 
house plants. 

TEUTHIS,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  abdo- 
minal order.  The  generic  character  is,  iiead 
truncate  on  the  fore  part ;  gill-membrane 
five-raved ;  -teeth  equal,  rigid,  .approximate 
in  a  single  row.  There  are  two  species,  1. 
The  hejKifus,  that  inhabits  Carolina  andAm- 
boina.  2.  The  jarva,  that  takes  its  name 
from  the  place  wliere  it  is  found. 

TEUl  ONIC  (31U)ER,  a  military  order 
of  kights,  established   towards  tlie  close    of 
the  twelfth  century,  and  thus  called  as  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  Germans  or  Teutons.    The 
■origin,  izc.  of  the  Teutonic  order  is  said  to  be 
this  :  The  Christians,   under  Guy  yf  Lusig- 
nan,  laying  siege  to  Acre,  a  city  of  Svria,  on 
the  borders  of  the  Holy  l^and,some  Germans 
of  Bremen  and  Lubec,  touched  with  com- 
passion for  the  sick  and  wounded  of  the  army, 
who  wanted  common  necessaries,  set  on  foot 
a  kind  of  hospital  under  a  tent,  which  they 
made  of  a  ship's  sail,  and  here  betook  them- 
selves to  a  c'luiritable  attendance  on  them. 
This  excited  a  thought  of  establishing  a  third 
military  order,  in  imitation  of  the  templars 
and  hospitalers.    The  design  was  approved 
of  by  the  patriarch  of  J erusaUim,  the  archbi- 
shops and  bishops  of  the  neighbouring  places, 
the  king  of  Jerusalem,  the  masters  of  the  tem- 
ple and  hospital,  and  the  Gennaii  lords  and 
prelates  then  in  the  Holy  Laud,  and  pope  Ca- 
lixtus  III.   confirmed  it"  by  his  bull,  and  the 
new  order  was  called  the  order  of  Teutonic 
knights  of  the  house  of   St.   Mary  at  Je- 
rusalem.    The  pope  granted  them   all^the 
privileges   of  the   templars  and    hospitalers 
of  St.  John,   excepting   that   they   were  to 
be  subject  to  the  patriErchs  and  other  pre- 
lates,  and   that  they  should   pay   tythe   of 
what  they   possesse<l.     The   ofhcei"s  of  the 
Teutonic  order,  while  in  its  splendour,  were 
the  grand  mast(!r,  whorisided  at  Marienburg; 
under  him  were  the  grand  connnander;  tiie 


T  H  A 

grand  marshal,  w'ao  liad  his  residence  at 
Koningsberg  ;  the  grand  hospitaler,  svho  re- 
sided at  Elbing ;  the  draper,  who  took  care 
to  furnish  the  habits  ;  the  treasurer,  whol.ved 
at  the  court  of  llie  grand  master ;  and  several 
commanders,  as  th;;ie  of  'I'liorn,  Culme, 
Brandenburg,  Koningsbirg,  Elbing,  &c. 
They  had  also  tlieirconimandei-s  of  particular 
casties  and  fortresses,  advocates,  proveditorf, 
nitendanls  of  mills,  provisions,  &c.  'Ihis  or- 
der is  now  little  more  than  the  shadow  of 
what  it  formerly  .was,  having  only  three  or 
four  commanderies,  scarcely  suflicient  for  the 
ordinary  subsistence  of  the  grand  master  and 
his  knights. 

THALIA,  a  genus  of  p'ants  of  the  class 
monandria,  and  order  monogynia ;  and  in  the 
natural  system  ranging  under  the  eighth  or- 
der, sci.tamincae.  'The  corolla  is  pentapeta- 
lous  and  undulated ;  and  the  drupe  has  a 
unilocular  kernel.  There  are  two  species, 
the  genie  ulata  and  canna^formis. 

THALICTRUM,  meadnti  nte,  a  genus 
of  plants  of  the  class  polyandria,  and  order 
poKgynia  ;  and  in  the  natural  system  ranging 
under  the  26lh  order,  raultisiliqua'.  There  is 
no  calvx  ;  the  petals  are  four  or  live  in  num- 
ber, and  the  seeds  are  naked  and  w  ithout  a 
tail.  There  are  '2'2  species ;  three  of  which 
are  indigenous,  the  Havuni,  minus,  and  alpi- 
iium.  1.  The  flavum,  or  common  meadow- 
rue,  has  a  leafy  furrowed  stalk,  and  a  mani- 
fold erect  panicle.  It  has  commonly  24  sta- 
mina, and  from  ten  to  sixteen  pistils.  The 
root  and  leaves  of  this  plant  dye  a  yellow  co- 
lour, and  cattle  are  fond  of  it.  It  grows  on 
the  banks  of  some  rivers.  2.  The  minus,  or 
small  meadow-rue,  has  scxpartite  leaves,  and 
bending  flow  ers.  This  p'ant  is  frequent  in 
sandy  soils  and  mountainous  pastures.  3. 
The  alpinum,  or  alpine  mradow  rue,  has  a 
very  simple  stalk,  aiitl  almost  naked  ;  and  a 
racemus  simple  and  terminal.  It  is  frequent 
on  the  sides  of  rivulets. 

THALLITE,  a  stone  found  in  the  fis- 
sures of  mountains  in  Dauphiny,  and  on 
Chainouni,  in  tiie  Alps,  k  is  sometimes 
amorpho'js,  and  sometimes  cry:,talhzed.  The 
primitive  form  of  its  crystals  is  a  rectangular 
prism,  whose  bases  are  rhombs  witli  angles  of 
1 14'  37',  and  tij"  23'.  The  moxt  usual  va- 
riety is  an  elongated  four-sided  prism  (often 
flattened),  terminated  by  four-sided  incom- 
plete pyramids;  sometimes  it  occurs  in  reguhr 
six-sided  prisms.  The  crystaU  are  often  very 
slender. 

Its  texture  appears  fibrous.  Lustre  Q. 
Cilassy.  Causes  single  refraction.  Brittle. 
Specific  gravity  3.4j  to  3.46.  Colour  d.irk 
green.  Powder  white  or  yellowish  green, 
and  feels  dry.  It  does  not  become  electric 
by  heat.  Before  the  blowpipe,  froths,  and 
melts  into  a  black  slag.  With  boiax  melt« 
into  a  green  bead. 

A  specimen  of  thallile,  analysed  by  Mr. 
Descotils,  contained 

37     silica 
27      alumina 
J7      oxide  of  iron 
l4      lime 
15  o.\ide  of  manganese 


yii.j 

THASPIA,  the  deadly  carrot,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  class  pentandria,  and  order  di- 


gynia  ;  and  in  the  natural  system  ranging  im- 
StT  the  -Ijth  or.lcr.  iimbellVit.  The  fViiit  is 
ohloiig,  and  girt  with  a  iTieiii!)rani?.  Tliere 
are  six  spL'cies ;  tlie  villo.ia,  fti'ticla,  ascle|)i- 
um,  gaiganica,  (riiuliatei,  and  polyganii.  T  Me 
toots  of  tlii'ia;liii:i  were  funnerl)-  onlereil  in 
medicine,  but  are  now  entir^-ly  disused ;  a 
siiiail  (to<e  opeiMiing  with  extreme  violence 
both  upwards  and  downwards. 

THr.A,  the  tea-tree,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  class  and  order  polyandria  nionon)  ma. 
'J'lie  corolla  !>  s;.\  or  niiie-pelalled;  tlie  caly.\ 
five  or  six-leave  I ;  the  capsule  tricoccous. 
Th  !re  are  two  species,  or  at  least  principal 
varieties;  the  viridis  or  green,  and  the  bo- 
liea,  wiiicli  a^aiu  admit  ol  various  subdivi- 
sions or  varieties.  There  is,  however,  much 
uncertainty  on  tiiis  point.  The  country  of 
■wliich  tlie  tea  plant  is  a  native,  is  hidden  from 
th  '  exploring  i  yt"  of  tlie  philoso])her  ;  it  is 
jealous  of  Europeans,  and  seldom  gives  them 
an  opportunity  of  studying  its  productions. 

The  lea  plant  is  a  native  ol  Japan,  China, 
and  Tonquin,  and  ^las  not,  as  far  as  we  can 
learn,  been  found  growing  spontaneously  in 
any  otiier  part  ol  the  world.  Sir  Cliarles 
Tliunberg  one  of  the  most  distinguished  pu- 
pils ol  Linnaeus,  who  resided  sixteen  months 
in  Batavia  and  Japan,  has  given  a  full  botani- 
cal description  of  tlie  tea  plant;  and  having 
classed  it  iii  tiie  same  manner  as  his  master, 
says  expressly  thai  it  has  only  one  style.  Se- 
veral of  the  Briu-.li  botanists,  on  the  other 
hand,  refer  it  to  tlie  order  of  trigynia ;  de- 
riving their  authority  from  a  plant  in  the 
duke  of  Northumberland's  garden  at  Slon- 
Iiouse,  which  had  three  styles. 

Linnanis  says  tiiat  there  are  two  species 
of  the  lea  plant ;  the  bohea,  the  corolla  of 
wli'xli  has  SIX  petals;  and  the  viridis,  or  green 
lea,  which  has  nine  petals.  Thuiiberg  makes 
only  one  species,  the  bohea,  consisting  of  two 
varieties :  the  one  with  broad  and  tint  other 
with  narrow  leaves.  This  botanist's  authority 
is  decisive  respecting  the  Ja|)anebe  tea  plants; 
but  as  China  has  not  yet  been  explored,  we 
cannot  determine  what  nuinhar  of  species 
there  are  in  that  country,  'i'he  tea-tree,  how- 
ever, is  now  common  in  the  botanical  gar- 
dens in  this  country  ;  and  it  is  evident  that 
tliere  are  two  species,  or,  at  least,  perma- 
nent varieties  of  it :  one  with  a  much  longer 
leaf  than  the  other,  which  our  gardeners  call 
the  green  tea  ;  and  the  other  with  shorter 
leaves,  which  they  call  thehohea.  The  green, 
is  by  much  the  hardiest  plant,  and  with  very 
little  protection  will  bear  the  rigour  of  our 
winters.  Messrs.  Loddridges,  of  Hackney, 
have  now  several  large  plants  of  it  in  the 
open  ground,  which  they  only  cover  with 
mats  in  hard  frost.  It  is  chiclly  propagated 
in  this  country  by  layers.  See  Plate  Nat. 
Hist.  fig.  400. 

This  plant  clelightsin  valleys,  and  is  frequent 
on  the  sloping  sides  of  mountains  and  the 
banks  of  rivers,  where  it  enjoys  a  southern  ex- 
posure. It  flourishes  in  the  nortliern  lati- 
tudes of  Pekin  as  well  as  round  Canton  ;  but 
attains  the  greatest  perfection  in  the  mild 
temperate  regions  of  Nankin.  It  is  said  only 
to  be  found  between  the  30th  and  4")th  de- 
gree of  north  latitude.  In  Japan  it  is  planted 
■  round  the  borders  of  fields,  without  regard  to 
the  soil ;  but  as  it  is  an  important  article  of 
commerce  with  the  Chinese,  whole  fields  are 
«overed  with  it,  and  it  is  by  themtiiltivatcd  with 


THE  A, 

care.  The  abbe  Roelien  says,  ii  grows 
equally  well  in*a  poor  as  in  a  rich  soil;  but 
that  the.c  arc  certain  p'ares  where  it  is  of  a 
better  (lualily.  The  lea  which  grows  hi 
rocky  ground  is  superior  to  that  winch  grows 
in  a' light  soil;  and  the  worst  kind  is  that 
which"  is  produced  in  a  clay  soil.  It  is  pro- 
pagated by  seed-;  from  six  to  twelve  are  put 
inlo  a  hole  about  live  inches  deep,  at  certain 
distances  from  each  other.  The  leason  why 
so  many  seeds  are  sown  in  the  same  hole  is 
said  U>  be,  that  only  a  fifth  part  vegelale. 
Ilcing  thus  sown,  they  grow  williout  any  other 
care.  Some,  however,  manure  the  land,  and 
remove  the  weeds;  for  the  Chinese  areas 
fond'oi  good  tea,  and  lake  as  much  pains  to 
procure  it  of  an  excellent  quality,  as  the  Eu- 
ropeans do  to  procure  excellent  wine. 

The  leaves  are  not  fit  for  being  plucked  till 
the  shrub  is  of  three  years'  growth.  In  seven 
years  it  rises  to  a  man's  height ;  but  as  it  then 
bears  but  few  leaves,  it  is  cut  down  to  the 
stem,  and  this  produci-s  a  new  crop  of  fresh 
shoots  the  following  summer,  every  one  of 
which  bears  nearly  as  many  leaves  as  a  whole 
shrub.  Somclimes  the  plants  are  not  cut 
down  till  they  are  ten  years  old.  W  e  are  in- 
tormed  by  K:cmpfer,  tiiat  tliere  are  three  sea- 
sons in  which  the  leaves  are  collected  in  the 
isles  of  Japan,  from  which  the  tea  derives  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  perfection. 

The  first  gathering  commences  at  the  end 
of  February  or  beginning  of  March.  The 
leaves  are  then  small,  tender,  and  unfolded, 
and  not  above  three  or  four  days  old  ;  these 
are  called  ficki-lsiaa,  or  "  tea  in  powder,'' 
because  it  is  pulverised ;  it  is  also  called  im- 
perial lea,  being  generally  reserved  for  the 
court  and  people  of  rank  ;  and  sometimes  also 
it  is  named  bloom  tea.  It  is  sold  in  China 
for  20d.  or  2.f.  per  pound.  Tlie  labourers 
employed  in  collecting  it  do  not  pull  the 
leaves  by  handfuls,  but  pick  them  up  one  by 
one,  and  take  every  pi  ecaulioii  that  they  may 
not  break  them.  Ilowever  long  and  tedious 
this  labour  may  appear,  ikey  gather  from  four 
to  ten  or  fifteen  pounds  a  day  . 

The  second  crop  is  gathered  about  the  end 
of  March  or  beginning  of  Aiiril.  At  this  sea- 
son part  of  their  leaves  have  attained  their 
full  growth,  and  the  rest  are  not  above  half 
their  size.  This  difference  does  not,  how-- 
ever,  prevent  them  from  being  all  gatiiered 
indiscriminately.  They  are  afterwards  pick- 
ed and  assorted  into  different  ])arcels,  accord- 
ing to  their  age  and  size.  The  youngest, 
which  are  carefully  separated  from  the  rest, 
are  often  sold  for  leaves  of  the  first  crops,  or 
for  imperial  tea.  Tea  gatiiered  at  this  season 
is  called  loo-tsiaa,  or  "  Ciiinese  tea,"  because 
the  people  of  Japan  infuse  it,  and  drink  it  af- 
ter the  Chinese  manner.  -^ 

The  third  crop  is  gathered  in  tlie  end  of 
May,  or  in  the  month  of  June.  The  leaves 
arc  then  very  numerous  and  thick,  and  have 
ac(|uired  their  full  growth.  This  kind  of  tea, 
which  is  called  bentsiaa,  is  the  coarsest  of  all, 
and  is  reserved  for  the  common  people. 
Some  of  the  Japanese  collect  their  lea  only  at 
two  seasons  of  the  year,  which  corrcKpond  to 
the  second  and  third  alreatly  mentioned : 
others  confine  themselves  to  one  general'ga- 
thering  of  their  crop,  towards  the  month  of 
June:  however,  they  always  form  afterwards 
different  assortments  of  their  leaves. 
An  infusion  of  tea  is  the  common  driiil;  of 


the  Chinese ;  and  iiideod,  wlioii  wt-  consider 
one  circumstance  in  theif  situation,  we  must 
acknowledge  that  Providence  has  displayed 
much  gocxhicss  in  scattering  this  plant  withsu 
much  prolusion  in  tlieemijue  ol  Ciiiiia.    'ihe  ' 
water  is  said  to  be  unwlioksume  and  ; 
ous,  and  would   therefore,  perlijps,  v 
some  corrective,  be  unlit  (or  the  piirp.,.    ... 
life.     The  Chinese  pour  boiling  wat..'r  over 
their  tea,  and  leave  it  lo  infuse,  as  we  do  in 
luirope  ;  but  they  drink  it  without  any  mix- 
ture, and  even  without  sugar.     The  people  of 
'ap.in  refluce  their-  to  a  fiiie  powder,  which 
they  dilute  with  warm  w-ter  ui.til  it  has  ac- 
(juired  the  consistence  of  tiiin  soup.    'I'heir 
manner  of  serving  tea  is  as  follows:  They 
place  before  the  company  the  tea-equipage, 
and  the  box  in  which  this  powder  is  contain- 
ed ;  they  fill  the  cups  with  warm  water,  and 
taking  Iroin  the  box  as  much  powder  as  the 
point  of  a  knife  can  contain,  throw  it  iino  each 
of  the  cups,  and  stir  it  witii  a  tbolh-piek  until 
Ihe  liquor   begins- to  foam;  it  is  then  pre- 
sented to  the  company,  v.ho  sip  it  while  it  is 
warm.      According  to    Du  lialde,   this  me- 
thod is  not  peculiar  to  the  Japanese;  it  is  also 
used  in  some  of  the  provinces  of  China. 

The  first  Eurojiean  writer  who  mentions 
tea  is  Giovanni  liotero,  an  eminent  Italian  au- 
thor, who  published  a  treatise  about  the  year 
1590,  of  tlie  causes  of  the  magnificence  and 
greatness  of  cities,  lie  does  not  indeed  men- 
tion its  name,  but  describes  it  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  it  is  impossible  to  mistake  it.  "  The 
Chinese  (says  he)  have  a  herb  out  of  w'hich 
they  press  a  delicate  juice,  which  serve's  them 
for  drink  instead  of  w!ne;  it  also  preserves 
their  health,  and  frees  them  from  all  those 
evils  which  the  immoderate  use  of  wine  pio- 
duces  among  us." 

Tea  was  introduced  into  Europe  in  Ihe 
year  I6IO  by  the  Dutch  East  India  company. 
It  is  generally  said,  that  it  was  first  imported 
from  Holland  into  England,  in  I6l)6,  by  the 
lords  Arlington  and  Ossory,  who  brought  it 
into  fashion  among  people  of  quality.  But 
it  was  used  in  cofi'ee-hoiises  before  this  period, 
as  appears  from  an  act  of  parliament  made  in* 
I6G0,  in  which  a  duty  of  8d,  was  laid  on  every 
gallon  of  the  infusion  sold  in  these  places. 
In  lti66  it  was  sold  in  London  for  CO.y.  per 
poll  nil,  though  it  did  not  co-t  more  than  '2s.  tid. 
or  3i.  6d.  at  Batavia.  It  continued  at  this 
price  till  1707.  In  1 7 1 3  green  tea  began ^B^ 
be  used;  and  as  great  quanlilies  were  then^ 
imported,  the  price  was  lessened,  and  the 
practice  of  drinking  I6a  descended  to  the 
lower  ranks.  In  1720  the  French  began  to 
send  it  to  us  by  a  clandestine  commerce. 
Since  that  period  the  demand  has  been  in- 
creasing yearly,  and  it  has  become  almost  a  . 
necessary  of  hie  in  several  parts  of  Europe, 
and  among  the  lowest  as  well  as  the  highest 
ranks : 

The  following  table  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
quantity  of  tea  imported  annually   inlo  Great  , 
Britain  and  Ireland  since  1717  : 
•  From  1717  to  1726        -        700,000  ft.  . 
1732  to  1742         -      1,200,000 
175j  near     -         -     4,000,000 
1766        -  -      6,000,000 

1 783  about        -      12,000,000 
1 794  from        1 6  to  20,000,000      . 
Resides  these  immense  quantities  imported 
into  Britain    and    Ireland,   much    has  been 
brought  to  Europe  by  other  nations.    Jd 


792 


THE 


1766  the  wliole  tea  imported  into  Europe 
from  Cliina amounted  to  1 7  millions  of  pounds; 
in  I  rS5  it  was  computed  to  be  about  19  mil- 
lions of  pounds. 

In  this  country  teas  arc  generally  divided 
into  three  kinds  o'f  green,  and  five  of  bohea: 
the  former  are,  1.  rm|)erial  or  bloom  tea,  with 
a  large  luo^e  leaf,  light-green  colour,  and  a 
faint  delicate  smell.  2.  Hvson,  socalled  from 
tlie  name  of  the  merchant  who  first  nnported 
it ;  the  feaves  of  which  are  closely  curled  and 
small,  of  a  green  colour,  vergi:ig  to  a  blue: 
3.  Singlo  tea,  from  the  name  of  the  place  where 
it  is  cultivated.  The  boheas  are,  I .  Souchong, 
which  imparts  a  vellow-green  colour  by  infu- 
sion. 2.  Camho",  so  called  from  the  place 
vhere  it  is  made;  a  fragrant  tea,  with  a  violet 
«mell ;  its  inftision  pale.  3.  Congo,  which  has 
a  larger  leaf  than  the  preceding,  and  its  in- 
fusion someAJiat  deeper,  re5eml)ling common 
bohea  in  the colourof  the  leaf.  4.  Pe.koe  tea ; 
this  is  known  by  th.e  appearance  of  small 
white  flowers  mixed  with  it.  5.  Common 
bohea,  wh^seleavesareof  one  colour.  There 
are  other  varieties,  particularly  a  kind  of  green 
tea,  done  up  in  roundish  balls,  called  gun- 
powder tea. 

THE.-\TINES,  a  religious  order  in  the 
Eomish  church,  so  called  from  their  principal 
founder  John  Peter  Caraffa,  then  bi^^hop  of 
Theate,  orChieti,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
and  afterwards  pope,  under  the  name  of  Paul 
IV. 

THEFT,  in  law,  an  unlawful  felonious  tak- 
ing awav  another  man's  moveable  and  perso- 
nal goods,  against  the  owner's  will,  wilh  in- 
tent to  steal  them.  It  is  divided  into  theft  or 
larceny,  properly  so  called,  and  petit  theft,  or 
petit  larceny  ;  the  former  whereof  is  of  goods 
above  the  value  of  V2d.  and  is  deemed  felony ; 
the  other,  which  is  of  goods  under  that  value, 
is  not  felony.  See  the  articles  Felony  and 
Larceny. 

TM  EFTBOTE,  the  receivinga  man's  goods 
again  from  a  thief,  or  other  amends,  by  way 
ot  composition,  and  to  prevent  prosecution, 
that  the  felon  may  escape  unpunished;  the 
punishment  whereof  is  fine  and  imprison- 
ment. 

THELIGONUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  moncecia,  and  order  polyandria  ;  and 
in  the  natural  system  ranging  under  the  53d 
order,  scabrid*.  The  male  calyx  is  bifid  : 
there  is  no  corolla  ;  the  stamina  are  generally 
13.  The  female  calyx  is  also  bifid  ;  there  is 
fio  corolla  ;  onlv  one  pistil ;  the  capsule  is  co- 
riaceous uHilocular,  and  monospermous. 
There  is  only  one  species,  the  cynocrambe, 
which  is  indigenous  \n  the  south  of  Europe. 

THEOBROMA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  [(Olyadelphia,  and  order  decandria  ;  and 
in  the  natural  system  ranging  under  the  37th 
order,  columnit'ers.  The  calyx  is  tri|)hyl- 
lous;  the  petals,  which  are  five  in  number, 
are  vaulted  and  two-horned;  the  nectarium 
is  pentaphyllous  and  regular;  the  stamina 
■  grow  from'  the  nectarium,  each  having  five 
anthera,  see  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  402.  There 
is  one  species,  viz. 

The  cacao,  or  chocolate-tree,  which  we 
sliall  describe  in  the  words  of  Dr.  M'rig  it : 
"  In  nil  thv  French  and  Spanish  islands  and 
ji^ttlements  in  the  warmer  parts  of  America, 
tlie  c'iiic.(jlate-tree  is  carefully  cultivated 
I'ijjs  wai  formerly  the  case  also  in  Jamai  ca 


THE 

'  but  at  present  we  have  only  a  few  straggling  | 
trees  left  as  monuments  of  ourindolenceand 
bad  policy.     This  tree  delights  in  shady  phices  | 
and  deep  valleys.     It  is  seldo'O  above  20  feet  I 
high.      The   leaves  are  oblong,  large,    and  | 
pointed.     The  flowers  spring  from  the  trunk 
and  large  branches  ;  they  are  small,  and  pale 
red.     The  pods  arc  oval  ami  pointed.      The 
seeds  or  nuts  are  numerous,  and  curiously 
stowed  in  a  white  pithy  3iib5t:mce.     The  co- 
coa-nuts being  geiilly  parched  in  an  iron  pot 
over  the  fire,  the  external  covering  separates 
easily.     The  kernel  is  levigated  on  a  smooth 
stone  ;  a  little  arnotto  is  added,  and  with  a 
few  drops  of  water  is  reduced  to  a  mass,  and 
formed  into  rolls  of  one  imund  each.     This 
simple  preparation  of  chocolate  is  the  most 
natural,  and  the  best.     It  is  in  daily  use  in 
most  families    in   Jamaica,   and  seems   well 
adapted  for  rearing  of  children." 

THEODOLITE,  a  mathematical  instru- 
ment much  used  in  surveying,  for  the  taking 
of  angles,  distances.  Sec. 

It  is  made  variously,  several  persons  hav- 
ing their  several  ways  of  contriving  it,  each 
supposed  to  be  more  simple  and  portable,  or 
more  accurate  and  expeditious,  than  others. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  one  of  the 
most  useful,  and  for  a  more  particular  ac- 
count of  some  of  its  peculiar  part*  we  refer  to 
the  article  Level:  The  three  staves,  see 
Plate  JSIiscel.  fig.  236,  whereby  it  is  supported, 
screw  inlobell-raetal  joints  by  brass  ferules  at 
top,  which  are  moveable  between  brass  pil- 
lars fixed  in  a  strong  brass  plate ;  in  which, 
round  the  centre,  is  fixed  a  socket  with  a  ball 
moveable  in  it,  and  upon  which  the  four 
screws  press  that  set  the  limb  horizontal.  Next 
above  is  such  another  jilate,  through  which 
the  said  screws  pass,  and  on  which  round  the 
centre  is  fixed  a  frustum  of  a  cone  of  bell- 
metal,  whose  axis,  being  connected  with  the 
centre  of  the  ball,  is  always  perpendicular  to 
the  limb,  by  means  of  a  conical  brass  ferule 
fitted  to  it,  whereon  is  fixed  the  compass- 
box,  and  on  it  the  limb,  which  is  a  strong 
bell-inetal  ring,  whereon  are  moveable  three 
brass  indexes,  in  whose  plate  are  fixed  four 
brass  pillars,  that  joining  at  top,  hold  the 
centre-pin  of  the  bell-metal  double  sextant, 
whose  double  index  is  fixed  in  the  centre  of 
the  same  plate.  Within  the  double  sextant 
is  fixed  the  spirit  level,  and  over  it  tlie  tele- 
scope. 

The  telescope  is  a  little  shorter  than  the  di- 
ameter of  the  limb,  that  a  fall  may  not  hurt  it ; 
yet  it  will  magnify  as  much,  and  shew  a  dis- 
tinct object  as  perfect,  as  most  of  treble  its 
length  :  in  its  focus  are  very  fine  cross  wires, 
whose  intersection  is  in  the  plane  of  the  dou- 
ble sextant;  this  was  a  whole  circle,  and 
turned  in  a  lathe  to  a  true  plane,  and  is  lixed 
at  right  angles  to  the  limb  ;  so  that  whenever 
the  limb  is  set  horizontal  (which  is  readily 
done  by  making  the  spirit-lube  level  over  two 
screws,  and  the  like  over  the  otiier  two)  the 
double  sextant  and  telescope  are  moveable  in 
a  vertical  plane,  and  then  every  angle  taken 
on  the  limb  (though  the  telescope  is  never  so 
much  elevated  or  depressed)  will  be  an  angle 
in  the  plane  of  the  horizon,  and  this  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  in  plotting  an  horizontal 
plane. 

THEOPHHASTA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  pentandria  monogynia  class  of  plants, 
with  a   monopetalous  cainpanulatcd   petal, 


THE 

seraiciuinquefid  at  the  limb:  the  fruit  is  a 
large,  globose,  unilocular  capsule,  containing 
a  great  many  roundish  seeds.  There  are  two 
species,  shrubs  of  the  West  Indies. 

THEOREM,  a  proposition  which  termi- 
nates in  theory,  and  which  considers  the  pro- 
perties of  things  already  n;ade  or  done.  Or 
a  theorem  is  a  speculative  proposition,  de- 
duced from  several  definitions  compared  to- 
gether. Thus,  if  a  triangle  is  compared  with 
a  parallelogram  standing  on  the  same  base, 
and  of  the  same  altitude;  and  partly  from 
their  immediate  definitions,  and  partly  from 
other  of  their  properties  alreadv  determin- 
ed, it  is  inferred  that  the  para'llelogram  is 
double  the  triangle;  that  proposition  is  a 
theorem. 

Theorem  stands  contradistinguished  from 
problem,  which  denotes  something  to  be 
done  or  constructed,  as  a  iiieorem  proposes 
something  to  be  proved  or  demonstrated. 

There  are  two  things  to  be  chiefly  regarded 
in  every  theorem,  viz.  the  proposition  and  the 
demonstration.  In  the  fir^t  is  expressed  what 
agrees  to  some  certain  thing,  under  cerfahi 
conditioBS,  and  what  does  not.  In  the  latter, 
the  reasons  are  laid  down  by  which  the  under- 
standing comes  to  conceive  that  it  does  or 
does  not  agree  to  it. 

Theorems  are  of  various  kinds  ;  as. 

Universal  theorem,  is  that  which  extendi 
to  any  quantity  without  restriction,  univer- 
sally, as  this;  that  the  rectangle  or  product 
of  the  sum  and  difference  ot  any  two  quan- 
tities, is  equal  to  the  ditference  of  tlieir 
squares. 

Particular  theorem,  is  that  which  extends 
only  to  a  particular  quantity,  as  this  ;  in  an 
equilateral  rectilimar  triangle,  each  angle  is 
equal  to  60  degrees. 

Negative  theorem,  is  that  which  expresses 
the  impossibility  of  any  assertion,  as  that 
the  sum  of  two  biquadrate  numbers  cannot 
make  a  square  number. 

Local  theorem,  is  that  wliich  relate;  (o  a 
surface,  as  that  triangles  of  the  same  base 
and  altitude  are  equal. 

Plane  theorem,  is  that  which  relates  to  a 
surface  that  is  either  rectilinear,  or  bounded 
by  the  circumference  of  a  circle  ;  as  that  all 
angles  in  the  same  segment  of  a  circle  arc 
equal. 

Solid  theorem,  is  that  which  considers  a 
space  terminated  by  a  solid  line ;  that  is,  by 
any  of  the  three  conic  sections;  as  this  :  that 
if  a  right  line  cuts  two  asymptotic  parabolas, 
its  two  parts  terminated  by  them  shall  be 
equal. 

Reciprocal  theorem,  is  one  whose  con- 
verse is  true;  as  that  if  a  triangle  has  two 
sides eijual,  it  has  also  two  angles  equal:  the 
converse  of  which  is  likewise  true,  viz.  that 
if  the  triangle  has  two  angles  equal,  it  has 
also  two  e.iual  sides. 

THERMOME  TER.  A  glass  vessel  filled 
to  a  certain  degree  with  a  liquid,  for  the 
purpose  of  shewing  the  expansions  of  that 
liquid  in  dilferent  temperatures,  or  for  the 
purpose  of  shewing  the  temperature  by  the 
corresponding  expansion  of  that  li<|UKl,  is 
called  a  thermometer ;  i.  e.  a  measure  of  the 
temperature. 

The  fluids  mostly  used  for  thermometers, 
an-  either  mercury  or  spirit  of  wine  ;  the  latter 
of  which  is  generally  tinged  red,  bv  means  of 
I  cochineal,  or  Brazil  wood,  &c.  for  tiie  pur- 


posi'  of  rpBtli-ring  it  more  visibli'  ;  lienco 
Uiey  are  dfiiomiiiatccl  the  luercuriiil  tln-r- 
iMoineter,  and  Ibc  spirit  llicrnior/.etc-r.  Otljcr 
lliii<ls,  oil  account  of  tlieir  ciair.ininess,  'or  ol 
ilieir  gieat  irrcgiilarily  of  expansion,  are  not 
useful  for  llRMinonK-tt;rs. 

I'lic  moat  ])ropi;r  and  the  most  useful 
sliape  for  tliemioinetcrs,  is  tiiat  of  a  long 
tiibf  Willi  a  narrow  bore,  and  with  a  globular 
cavily  at  out!  extremily  (see  I'Ute  Mibcel. 
fig.  J.37.).  'I'he  cavity  of  the  bulb  C,  and 
part  of  llie  (iibe,  as  far,  for  instance,  as  A, 
are  filled  wilhtlio  liuid  :  tlie  re:.l  of  the  lube  is 
either  partly,  or  quite,  exhausted  of  air  ;  and 
the  end  15  of  the  tube  is  hermetically  sealed; 
^f\^.  perfectly  closed  by  melting  the  extremiiy 
of  tl'.i;  tube  at  the  iiaiue  of  a  candle  or  lump, 
v.r^ed  by  means  of  a  blowpipe. 

U'heu  the  bulb  C  is  healed,  the  mercury, 
or  the  spirit  of  wine,  is  e\i)aiKled  ;  and  not 
l)einif  able  to  e.\tend  itself  any  other  way, 
all  the  increment  of  bulk  is  manifested  in  the 
tube,  vi/.  the  surface  A  of  the  tluid  will  rise 
considerably  into  the  lube.  On  the  other 
liand,  when  the  bulb  C  is  cooled,  the  fluid 
conlracls,  and  its  surface  A  descends.  It  is 
evident,  that,  ceteris  -iwribus,  the  larger  the 
bulb  is,  in  proportion  to  the  diameter  uf  the 
cavily  of  the  tube,  or  the  narrower  the  latter 
is  in  propo.lion  to  the  former,  the  greater 
will  the  motion  of  the  surface  A  be  in  the 
tube.  Bui  it  must  b,'  observed,  that  when 
the  bulb  is  very  large,  the  thermometer  will 
Hot  easily  arrive  at  the  precise  temperature 
of  any  place,  wherein  it  may  be  situated. 
Some  persons,  in  order  to  give  the  bulb  a 
greater  surface,  and  of  course  to  render  it 
Jiiore  capable  of  readily  attaining  a  given 
temperature,  have  made  it  not  globular,  but 
cvlindrical  (which  shape  was  adopted  by 
Fahrenheit),  or  flat,  or  bell-like,  &c. ;  but 
tliose  shapes  are  improper,  because  they  are 
liable  to  be  altered  by  the  varying  gravity  of 
the  atmosphere,  consequently  those  ther- 
mometers cannot  be  accurate. 

If  a  thermometer  is  healed  suddenly,  as 
when  the  bulb  C  is  immerged  in  hot  wati-'r, 
the  surface  A  of  the  fluid  in  it  will  be  seen  to 
descend  a  little,  and  instantly  after  will  be 
seen  to  rise  ;  the  reason  of  which  is,  that  the 
heat  of  the  water  enlarges  the  glass  first,  ami 
is  then  communicated  to  iHe  (luid,  Sec.  t)n 
tlie  contrary,  il  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer 
is  cooled  suddenly,  the  surface  A  of  the  fluid 
will  first  rise  a  little,  and  then  will  descend  ; 
because  the  cold  contracts  the  glass  alone  at 
flrst,  and  afterwards  contracts  the  fluid. 

Ice  is  melted  by  a  certain  invariable  degree 
of  temperature  ;  and  water  freezes  at  about 
the  same  temj)eraturc  ;  therefore,  if  the  bulb 
C  of  a  mercurial  thermometer  is  placed  in 
melting  ice,  or  melting  snow,  and  a  mark  is 
made  on  the  outside  of  the  tube,  even  with 
the  surface  of  the  fluid,  as  at  D ;  that  mark 
is  called  the  freezing-point,  though  in  fact  it 
is  the  meiling-point  of  ice ;  the  freezing- 
point  of  water  being  not  so  constant.  If  the 
bulb  of  the  thermometer  is  placed  in  boiling 
water,  and  a  mark  is  made  on  the  glass  tube, 
even  with  the  surface  of  the  fluid  within,  as  at 
E,  that  mark  is  called  the  boiling-point ;  for 
in  an  open  vessel,  and  under  the  same  al- 
niospherlcal  pressure,  which  is  indicated  by 
the  barometer,  water  constantly  boils  at 
the  same  temperature,  and  an  increased  fire 
will  force  it  to  evaporate  faster,  but  will  not 
raise  its  temperature.     Those  points  being 

Vol.  II. 


THEILMlJMliTJ'U. 

ascPiUined,  if  the  length  of  (he  lube  from  D 
to  E  is  divided  into  any  nuniber  of  etjual 
parts,  tjiose  parts  will  be  the  degrees  of  the 
Iherinoineler,  or  Ihe  degrees  of  heat,  indi- 
cated by  the  corresponding  expansions  of  the 
lluid  within  the  iherniometer.  And  the  same 
degrees,  or  etpial  divisions,  may  be  conlimied 
below  D  and  above  K,  in  order  to  shew  the. 
degrees  of  temperature  below  the  freezing, 
and  above  the  boiling,  point. 

Those  two  unalleiable  |)oints  of  tempe- 
rature, viz.  the  former  where  ice  becomes 
water,  and  the  second  whc-re  water  becomes 
vapour,  have  been  universally  adojjted  by 
the  various  constructors  of  thermometers  fo'r 
the  graduation  of  those  instruments;  but  the 
space  between  them  has  been  divided  dif- 
ferently by  dillercnt  persons,  an. I  this  diller- 
ence  gives  Ihe  ditrerent  names  ofthennome- 
le;.s,  or  rather  of  their  graduations ;  such  as 
Reaumur's  thermometer,  Fahrenheit's  ther- 
mometer, &c.  Kcauinur  divides  the  space 
between  the  abovementioiicd  two  points,  into 
80  eipial  parts  or  degrees;  placing  the  0 
at  freezing,  and  the  SOlh  degree  at  the  boil- 
ing point.  Fahrenheit  divides  it  into  180 
degrees  or  equal  parts,  but  he  places  tlie  0 
thirty-two  degrees  below  the  freezing-point 
D;  so  that  the  freezing-point  is  at  32,  and 
the  boiling-poinl  E  is  at  2 1 2  degrees. 

Other  persons  have  adopted  other  divi- 
sions, which  have  been  su;^gested  by  supposed 
advantages  or  fanciful  ideas. 

Most  of  those  graduations  are  at  present 
out  of  use,  but  they  are  to  be  met  with  in 
various,  not  very  recent,  publications ;  we 
havc-,therefore  thought  it  necessary  to  set  them 
down  in  the  following  table,  which  contains  : 
ist.  The  name  of  Ihe  person  or  society:  that 
hasu^ed  each  particular  division;  2dly[  The 
degree  which  iias  been  placed,  bv  each  of 
them,  against  the  freezing-point;  3dly.  The 
degree  which  has  been  placed  agaiiist  the 
boiling-point ;  and,  4thly.  The  number  of 
degrees  lying  between  those  two  points. 


79^ 


Fahrenheit's,  which  is 
.t^enerally  used  in  Grent 
Lritain.  It  is  also  used 
throughout  this  work,  un- 
less some  other  is  men- 
tioned        _         -         _ 

Reaumur's, which  is  ge- 
nerally used  in  Trance 
and  other  parts  of  the 
Continent 

Celsius's,  which  ha: 
been  used  chiefly  in  .Swe- 
den, hence  it  is  also  called 
the  Swedish  thermometer. 
It  has  been  lately  adopted 
by  the  I^rench  chemists, 
under  the  name  of  cen- 
tigrade thermometer 

The  Florentine  ther- 
mometers, which  were 
made  and  used  by  the 
members  of  the  famous 
academy  d^C CimcntOy  lieing 
some  of  the  first  instru- 
ments of  the  sort,  were 
vaguely  graduated,  some 
having  a  great  many  more 
5H 


Freez- 
ing- 
point. 


15:  a  2! 
Boil- 

point.  \0~  i 


212        180 


SO 


100 


80 


100 


dcgrcfi  than  others.     Hni 

two  of  tlieir  mcttc;,ir,inon 

920 

174 

l.H 

j^rriduation-,  seem  to  bp 

?I.Ji 

81' 

cei 

'J'lic  IMrisl.Tii    ihermo- 

I-     ^ 

J 

I 

mtTcr,    VIZ.    the    ancianif 

ttirrmttmclre  of  I  he  Acade- 

my of  Sciences,  teems  to 

havebeen  graduated  near- 

ly  thin. 

■25 

239 

2li 

Dc  la  Hire's    thermo- 

meter, which  steed  in  the 

oliservatory  at   X'aris    .i- 

bove   r;o  years,  was  gr^'.- 

duatcd  thus, 

SS 

1995- 

17)| 

Amanton's 

rA\ 

7.3 

i>}{ 

Poleni's  -        -        . 

^'-*,( 

e^A 

1:  ■> 

Be   L'Isle's  thermome- 

16 

•    - 

ter  is  graduated  in  an  in- 

verted order 

ISO 

« 

IJO 

Sir  Isaac  Newton's   - 

0 

34 

!(4 

Hales's     - 

0 

16a 

I'.i 

The    Kdiiiburgh  ther- 

mometer, formerly  used. 

seeirs  to  li.ivc  been  gra- 

duated thui, 

«;• 

47 

ssi 

These  are  the  cliicf  thernjometers  that  hire 
been  used  in  liiirope;  and  the  temperatures  in- 
dicated by  the  principal  of  them  may  be  redu- 
ced hito  the  corresponding  degrees  on  any  o£ 
the  others,  by  means  of  the  following  simpla 
theorems;  in  whicli  R  signifies  the  degrees  oa 
the  scale  of  Reaumur,  !•'  those  of  Fahrenheit, 
and  S  those  of  the  Swedish  thermometer. 

1.  To  convert  the  degrees  of  R.eaumur  int» 

R  X  9 

those  of  Fahrenheit ; 4-  32  =;  F. 

4 

2.  To  convert  tlie  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  ijat» 
(f  -  32)  X  4 


those  of  Reaumur ; 


R. 


3.  To  convert  the  Swedish  degrees  into  those 
X  9 


of  Fahrenheit ; 


-\-  32  =  F. 


(r 


To  convert   Fahrenheit's  into    Sv/edishj 
32)  X  .5 


5.  To  conveit  Swedish  degrees  into  those  of 

s  X  4 

Reaumur ; =.  R. 

5 

G.  To  convert  Reaumur's  degrees  into  Swe- 

,.  ,      »  X  -5 
dish ;  —  —  =  S. 
4 

To  such  readers  as  are  iinacquarntcdwith  the 
algebraic  expressi(m  of  arithmetical  formuia^^t 
will  be  suliicienc  10  express  one  or  two  of  these 
in  words,  to  explain  tlieir  use:  1  Multiply  the 
degree  of  Reaumur  by  0,  divide  the  produce 
by  -1,  and  to  the  quotient  add  32,  the  sum  ex- 
presses the  degree  on  the  scale  of  F.ahrenheit. 
2.  From  tlie  degree  of  Fahrenheit  subtract  32, 
multiply  the  remainder  by  4,  and  divide  the 
jiroduct  by  9,  the  quotient  is  the  degree  accord- 
ing to  the  scale  of  Reaumur,  Stc. 

Thermometers  have  been  made  of  a  great 
variety  of  shapes  and  sizes,  suitable  to  tlie 
different  purposes  for  which  they  were  in- 
tended. 

Thermoineters  for  shewing  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere,  need  not  have  their 
scales  much  extended ;  it  is  more  than  suf- 
licieiit  if  they  go  as  high  as  120".  The  lower 
degrees  may  be  carried  down  as  low  as  mav 
be  necessary  for  the  cold  of  any  particular 
climate.  The  mercurial  thermometer  needs 
not  to  be  graduated  lower  than  40'  below  0, 
because  tit  about  tlial  degree  mercury  ceases 
to  be  a  lluid. 


794 

The  spirit  tliermomeler  may  be  graduated 
lower  if  necessary.  We  shall  here  just  mention, 
t'lat,  for  reasons  which  will  be  noticecliiere- 
aiter,  if  a  mercurial  thermometer  and  a  spirit 
thermometer  are  both  graduated  according  to 
the  above-mentioned  directions,  the  two 
tliermometers  will  not,  in  their  usual  indi- 
catiotis  of  the  same  temperatures,  point  to 
the  same  degrees. 

The  degrees  of  thermometers  may  be  de- 
lineated on  metal,  or  wood,  or  paper,  or 
ivorv,  &c.  but  such  substances  should  be 
preferred  for  the  scales  of  thermometers,  as 
are  not  apt  to  be  bent  or  shortened,  or  other- 
wise altered  bv  the  weather,  especially  when 
the  instrument  are  not  delended  by  a  glass 
ca'^e,  or  bv  a  box  wiUi  a  glass  face. 

The  buib  of  the  thermometer  must  be  clean 
and  colourless;  since  coloured  surfaces  are 
apt  to  be  partially  heated  by  a  strong  light. 
'i'lie  ball  of  the  thermometer  ought  not  to  be 
in  contact  with  tlie  substanee  of  the  scale, 
lest  it  should  be  influenced  by  the  teivipe- 
ratiire  of  tl'.at  substance. 

Thennonielers  which  are  to  be  situated  m 
the  open  air  out  of  the  house,  must  be  at  some 
distance  (at  least  a  fool)  from  the  wall,  and 
where  the  liiiht  of  the  sun  may  not  tall  di- 
rectly upon  them.  Fig.  238  represents  a  ther- 
mometer of  the  most  usiuil  shape  uidepend- 
ant  of  the  case. 

For  chemical  purposes,  the  bulb  and  part 
of  the  tube  of  the  therinomele!-,  must  pro- 
ject some  way  below  the  scales,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  placed  in  liquids,  mi.xtures,  &c. 
For  other  purposes,  as  for  botanical  obser- 
vations, hot-houses,  brewing-manufactories, 
baths,  &c.  the  thermometers  must  be  made 
longer,  or  shorter,  or  narrower,  or  pa;ticular 
directions  must  be  added  to  the  scales,  &c. ; 
butwe  shall  not  take  any  farther  notice  of  those 
fluctuating  varieties  of  shape  only. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  describe  a  sort 
of  thermometers  which  have  been  con- 
structed for  a  particular  purpose;  namely, 
for  shewing  the  highest  degree  of  heat  or  of 
cold  which  has  taken  place  during  the  ab- 
sence of  the  observer ;  as  for  instance,  in  the 
course  of  the  night,  or  in  the  hottest  part  of 
the  day,  or  even  during  a  whole  season. 

Tliermometers  for  this  purpose  have  been 
contrived   dilTerently    by    various    ingenious 
})  rsons,  as  by  BernouiUi,  Kroft,  lord  Charles 
Cavendish,  &c.  but  the  best  of  them,  which 
however  is  not  without  fauhs,  and  of  course 
is  in  need  of  improvements,  was  contrived  by 
Mr.  James  Six,  and  is  described  in  the  72nd 
vol.  of  the  Philosophical  Transactions.    Kig. 
i239  exhibits  this  instrument,  but  divested  of 
the  scale  and  frame ;  ab  is  a  tube  of  thin  glass, 
about  16  inches  long,  audi-  of  an  inch  in 
diameter;  crf<?/:r/;,  a  smaller  tube  with  the 
inner  diameter,  about  ^-'^y,  joined  to  the  larger 
at  the  upper  end  /;,  and  bent  down,  first  on 
the  left  side,  and  then,  after  descending  two 
inches  below  ah,  upwards  again  on  the  right, 
in  the  several  directions   cdcj'gli,  parallel 
lo,  and  one  inch   irtstaiit  from  it.     On  the 
end  of  the  same  tube  at  h,  the  inner  diameter 
is  enlarged  to  half  an  inch  from  h  to  /,  which 
is  two  inches  in  length.     'I'liis  glass  is  filled 
with   highly  rectified  spirit  of  wine,  to  within 
half  an  inch  of  the  end  i,  excepting  that  part 
of  the  small  lube  from  d  to  g,  which  i^t  hlled 
with  raercuiT.     From  a  view  of  the  inslru- 
iiicnt  lu  this  state,  it  will  readily   be  conceiv- 
ed, ihat  when  the  spirit  in  the  large  tube, 


THERMOMETER. 

wliich  is  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer,  is  ex- 
panded by  heat,  the  mercury  in  the  small 
tube  on  tlie  left  side  will  be  pressed  do  a  n, 
and  consenuently  cause  that  on  the  right  side 
to  rise  ;  on  the  contrary,  when  the  spirit  is 
condensed  by  cold,  the'  rcverte  will  happen, 
the  mercurv  on  the  left  side  will  rise  as  that  on 
the  right  side  descends.  The  scale,  there- 
fore, which  is  Fahrenheit's,  beginning  with  0, 
at  the  top  of  the  left  side,  has  the  -degrees 
numbered  downwards,  while  that  at  the  right 
side,  beginning  with  0  at  the  boltom,  ascends. 
The  divisions  are  ascertained,  by  placing  this 
thermometer  with  a  good  standard  mercurial 
one  ill  water,  gradually  heating  or  cooling, 
and  marking  the  divisions  of  the  ncnv  scale  at 
every  s\  The  method  of  shewing  how  high 
the  mercury  had  risen  in  the  observer's  ab- 
sence, is  eiYected  in  the  following  manner  : 
Within  the  small  tube  of  the  therniometer, 
above  the  surface  of  the  mercury  on  either 
side,  immersed  in  the  spirit  of  wine,  is  placed 
a  small  index,  so  fitted  as  to  pass  up  and  down 
as  occasion  iTiay  require  ;  that  surface  of  the 
mercury  which"  rises,  carries  up  the  index 
with  it,' which  index  does  not  return  with  the 
mercury  when  it  descends;  but,  by  remain- 
ing fixed,  shews  distinctly,  and  very  accu- 
rately, how  high  the  mercury  had  risen,  and 
consequently  what  degree  of  heat  or  cold  had 
happened.  '  Fig.  240  represents  these  in- 
dexes drawn  larger  than  the  real  ones,  to 
render  it  more  distinct ;  a  is  a  small  glass 
tube  J  of  an  inch  long,  hermetically  sealed  at 
each  end,  inclosing  a  piece  of  steel  wire, 
nearly  of  the  same  length  ;  at  each  end  c  d, 
is  fixed  a  short  piece  of  a  tube  of  black  glass, 
of  such  a  diameter  as  to  pass  freely  up  and 
down  within  the  small  tube  of  the  thermo- 
meter. Tlie  lower  end,  floating  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  mercury,  is  carried  up  with  it 
when  it  rises  ;  while  the  piece  at  the  upper 
end,  being  of  the  same  diameter,  keeps  the 
body  of  the  index  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the 
tliermonietrical  tube.  From  the  upper  end 
of  the  body  of  the  index  at  0,  is  drawn  a  spring 
of  glass  to  the  fineness  of  a  hair,  about  |-  of  an 
inch  in  length,  which  being  set  a  little  oblique, 
presses  lightly  against  the  inner  surface  of 
the  lube,  and  prevents  the  index  from  follow- 
ing the  mercury  when  it  descends,  or  being 
moved  by  the  spirit  passing  up  or  down,  or 
by  any  sudden  motion  given  to  the  instru- 
ment by  the  hand  or  otherwise ;  but  at  the 
same  tiiiie  the  pressure  is  so  adjusted,  as  to 
permit  this  index  to  be  readily  carried  up  by 
the  surface  of  the  r.sing  mercury,  and  down- 
wards whenever  the  instrument  is  to  be  rect-i- 
fied  for  observation.  To  prevent  the  spirit 
from  evaporating,  the  tube  at  the  end  i  is 
closely  sealed. 

'i'liis  instrument  in  its  frame  must  be  secur- 
ed against  llie  wall  out  of  doors,  to  prevent 
its  being  shaken  by  violent  winds.  "  Towards 
evening,"  saysMr.'Six,  "1  usually  visitmy  ther- 
mometer, and  see  atone  view,  by  the  index  on 
the  left  side,  the  cold  of  the  preceding  night ; 
and  by  that  on  the  right,  the  heat  of  the  day. 
These  1  minute  down,  and  then  apply  a  small 
magnet  to  that  part  of  the  tube  against  which 
the  indexes  rest,  and  move  each  of  them 
down  to  the  surface  of  the  mercury  ;  thus, 
without  heating,  cooling,  separating,  or  at  all 
disturbing  the  mercury,  or  moving  the  in- 
strument, may  this  thermometer,  without  a 
touch,  be  immediately  rectified  for  another 
observation." 


The  common  contrivance  for  a  self-register- 
ing thermometer,  now  sold  in  most  of  the 
London  shops,  consists  simply  of  two  ther- 
mometers, one  mercurial  and  the  other  of  al- 
cohol (tig.  243),  having  llieir  steins  horizontal; 
the  former  has  for  its  index  a  small  bit  of  mag- 
netical  steel  wire,  and  tiie  latter  a  minute 
thread  of  glass,  having  its  two  ends  formed 
into  small  knobs  by  fusion  in  the  tlame  of  a 
candle. 

The  magnetical  bit  of  wire  lies  in  the  va- 
cant space  of  the  mercurial  thermometer, 
and  is  pushed  forward  by  the  mercury  when- 
ever the  temperature  rises,  and  pushes  that 
fluid  against^it  ;  but  when  the  temperature 
falls  and  the  fluid  retires,  this  index  is  left 
behind,  and  consequently  shews  the  maxi- 
mum. The  other  index,  or  bit  of  glass,  lies 
in  tlie  tube  of  the  spirit  thermometer  im- 
mersed in  the  alcohol  :  and  when  the  spirit 
retires  by  depression  of  temperature,  the  in- 
dex is  carried  along  with  it  in  apparent  con- 
tact with  its  interior  surface  ;  but  on  increase 
of  temperature  the  spirit  goes  forward  and 
leaves  the  index,  which  therefore  shews  the 
minimum  of  temperature  sinie  it  was  set. 
As  these  indexes  merely  lie  in  the  tubes, 
their  resistance  to  motion  is  altogether  incon- 
siderable. The  steel  index  is  brought  to  the 
mercury  by  applying  a  magnet  on  the  out- 
side of  the  tube,  and  the  other  is  duly  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  column  of  alcohol  by  inclin- 
ing the  whole  instrument. 

The  operation  of  this  instrument  has  been 
thus   explsined:    When   the  surface  of  the 
column  of  spirit  is  viewed  by  a  magnifier, 
it  is  seen  to  have  the  form  of  a  concave  he- 
misphere, which  shews   that  the  liquid  is  at- 
tracted by  the  glass.     The  glasjin  that  place 
is  consequently  attracted  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection, by  a  lorce  equal  to  that  wliicli  is  so 
employed  in  maintaining  that  concave  figure  ; 
and  if  it  was  at  liberty  to  move,  it  would  be 
drawn  back  till  the  flat  surface  was  restored. 
Let  us  suppose  a  small  stick  or  piece  of  glass 
to  be  loose  within  tire  tube,  and  to  protrude 
into  the  vacant  space  beyond  the  surface  of 
the  alcohol.     The  fluid  will  be  attracted  also 
by  the  glass,  and  form  a  concave  between  its 
surface,  and   that  of  the  bore  of  the  tube, 
liut  the  small  interior  piece  being  quite  at 
liberty  to  move,  will  be  drawn  towards  the 
••pirit  so  long  as  the  attractive  force  possesses 
any  activity  ;  that  is,  so  long  as  any  addition- 
al lluid  liangs   round  the  glass ;  or,  in  other 
words,   until  the  end  of  the  stick  of  glass  is 
even  with  the  surface.     Whence  it  is  seen 
that  the  small  piece  of  glass  will  be  resisted, 
in   any  action   that  may  tend  lo  protrude  it 
beyond  the  surface  of  the  fluid ;  and  if  this 
resistance  is  greater  than  the  force  required 
to  slide  it  along  in  tiie  tube  (as  in  fact  it  is), 
the  piece  must  be  slided  along  as  the  alcohol 
contracts  ;  so  as   always  to  keep  the  piece 
within  the  fluid.     And  this  fact  is  accordingly 
observed  to  take  place. 

It  might  at  first  sight  be  imagined  that  equal 
increments  of  heat  would  cause  fluids  to  ex- 
pand equably  ;  viz.  that  if  the  heat  is  increas- 
ed gradually  by  one  degree,  two  degrees, 
three  degrees,  &c.  the  fluid  thus  heated 
would  expand  lis  bulk  by  a  certain  quantity, 
then  by  twice  that  quantity,  three  times  that 
quantity,  and  so  on.  I?ul  this  is  not  the  case, 
and  every  liuid  seems  to  follow  a  particular 
law  of  expansion. 


THE 

MiTCury  seems  to  expand  more  ec|iial)lv 
tlian  aiiv  otiicr  Ih.iil.  Yet  its  iiicreii/cMts  iil 
bulk  are  not  quite  proportional  (o  the  incre- 
ments of  heat.  \Vitli  oilier  Ihiids  the  irregu- 
larity of  expansion  is  very  considerable. 

One  cubic  inch  of  mercury,  or  one  measun- 
whatever  of  it,  at  32'  of  temperature,  when 
heated  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  water, 
viz.  at  '2\2\  will  be  found  inrreased  in  bulk 
by  the  quantity  0.0183(j.  This  fluid  metal 
boils  and  becomes  a  vajjour  at  OOO"  of  I'ah- 
rrnheit  s  tliermometer,  and  it  becomes  a  solid 
at- — 40";  viz.  "2°  below  melting  ice.  He- 
low  that  point,  viz.  —  40'',  it  contracts  ir- 
regularly. 

.Spirit  of  wine  boils  at  about  ISO"  and  the 
purest  probably  never  freezes.  \\  heji  braji- 
dy,  or  a  nnxture  of  water  and  spirit,  freezes, 
it  IS  tile  water  thai  becomes  soliil,  but  the  spirit 
will  be  found  collected  together  in  one  or 
more  bubbles,  in  some  part  of  the  i'',e. 

From  all  that  has  been  saiti  with  respect  to 
the  expansion  of  fluids,  it  appears  that,  on 
account  of  the  great  irregularity  of  the  rate 
of  expansion,  mercury  and  spiiit  of  wine  arc 
the  only  two  fluids  wliicli  can  be  used  for 
thermniuelers  ;  observing  that  some  com- 
pensation must  be  made  in  the  scale  of  the 
spirit  thermometer,  in  order  to  make  it  cor- : 
respond  with  the  scale  of  the  mercurial  ther- 
mometer, liul  the  mercurial  thermometer 
cannot  mdicatL-  a  temperature  higher  than 
600.  Hence  various  ingunious  persons  have 
endeavoured  to  contrive  instruments  capable 
of  indicating  tne  higlier  degrees  of  heat, 
which  would  be  of  great  use  in  philosophv, 
chemistry,  and  various  arts  ;  but  the  only  \ 
useful  contrivance  of  this  sort  was  made  by 
the  late  Mr.  W'edgewood.  This  ingenious 
gentleman  applied  to  the  measuring  of  high  [ 
degrees  of  heat,  a  singular  property  of  argil- 
laceous bodies,  a  property  which  obtains ! 
more  or  less  in  every  kind  of  them,  as  far  as 
has  been  examined.  This  property  is,  that 
an  aig'llaceoiis  substance,  wlieu  exposed  to 
(ire,  is  diminished  in  bulk  by  it,  nor  does  tlie 
bulk  increase  again  after  cooling  ;  and  this 
diminution  of  bulk  is  proportionate  to  the 
degree  of  heat  to  which  the  substance  has 
been  exposed. 

This  property  may  seem  to  be  a  deviation 
from  the  general  rule,  viz.  that  heat  expands 
all  soris  of  bodies,  and  that  a  diminution  of 
heat  en:!l)les  them  to  contract  their  dimen- 
sions ;  but  in  this  case  it  must  be  considered 
that  the  cUy^pieces  contract  and  remain  con- 
tracted, because  sjme  substance,  viz.  water 
and  an  ;;eriform  tluid,  is  separated  from  tliein 
by  the  action  of  the  lire. 

Mr.  Wedgewood's  thermometer,  or  appa- 
ratus for  measuring  the  high  degrees  of  heat, 
consists  of  small  pieces  of  clay  ot  a  determin- 
ed length,  which  are  to  be  placed  in  the  fur- 
nace, crivrible,  &c.  whose  degree  of  heat  is 
to  be  ascertained  ;  and  of  .i  gauge  to  measure 
the  contracted  dimensions  of  tlie  clay  pieces, 
after  they  have  been  expo-ed  to  the  lire. 

Fig.  241  represents  the  gauge,  which  is 
either  of  brass  or  of  porcelain.  Fig.  ^42  re- 
presents a  section  of  the  same ;  and  the  let- 
ters refer  to  the  like  parts  in  both  hgures. 
'--•''Gil  is  a  smooth  Hat  pUite  ;  AC,  BD,  are 
two  1  .ig,.,  g,.  j\,i  pieces,  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
thick,  aui  fj^gj  fa^t  u^ion  the  plate,  so  as  to 
form  a  convvrging  canal  AUCD,  whose  width 
at  CI)  is  threi-liiths  of  the  width  at  AB. 
Tiie  w  hole  ler.5th  of  the  canal  from  AB  to 


T  H  E 

CD,  is  divided  into  1.'40  equal  parts,  and  the 
divisions  are  numbered  from  the  wid.-r  end. 
It  is  evident  that  if  a  body,  so  adjusted  as  to 
fit  exactly  the  wider  end  of  this  canal,  is 
afterwards  diminished  in  its  bulk  by  the  action 
of  /ire  (as  the  Ihermoinetrical  pieces  which 
will  be  described  in  the  next  paragraph),  it 
may  tlien  be  passed  further  in  the  canal,  and 
more  so  according  as  the  diminution  is 
greater. 

The  thermonietrical  pieces  are  small  cy- 
linders of  clay,  a  little  flattened  on  one  side. 
Thev  are  nearly  as  much  in  diameter  as  Ihev 
are  m  length.  Wlien  one  of  these  pieces  I's 
to  be  used,  it  is  proper  to  measure  it  (irst  by 
placing  it  in  the  gauge  at  AB ;  for  sometimes 
the  pieces  are  a  few  degrees  larger  or  small- 
er than  the  distance  Al!,  which  excess  or 
defect  being  ascertained,  must  alterwards  be 
allowed  for.  P  represents  one  of  these  pieces 
set  in  the  gauge  for  measurement. 

The  piece  is  then  placed  hi  the  furnace, 
or  crucible ;  and  if  it  is  taken  out  either  at 
the  end  of  the  operation,  or  at  any  period, 
and,  when  grown  cold,  is  measured  by  sliding 
it  as  far  as  it  will  go,  into  the  canal  of  the 
gauge,  the  number  of  divisions  against  the 
place  where  it  stops  will  shew  the  contracted 
dimensions  of  the  piece,  and  of  course  the 
degree  of  heal  to  which  it  has  been  exjjosed. 
It  will  be  found  thai  these  pieces  will  go  Very 
little  bcvondO  in  the  canal,  if  thev  have  been 
exposecf  to  a  visible  red  heat :  will  go  to  27' 
il  they  have  been  exposed  to  the  heat  in  w  Inch 
copper  melts  ;  to  about  9ii  if  exposed  to  the 
welding-heat  of  iron  ;  about  lOO"  if  exjjosed 
to  the  greatest  heat  that  can  be  produced 
with  charred  pit-coal  in  a  well  constructed 
common  air-furnace,  &c. 

The  same  tliermometrical  piece  which  has 
been  used  before,  may  be  used  again  for 
liigher  degrees  of  heat,  but  not  for  lower  de- 
grees. 

It  is  now  necessary  to  shew  the  correspond- 
ence between  the  scale  of  this,  and  the  scale 
of  Fahrenheit's  mercurial  theimometer. 

As  the  mercurial  thermometer  cannot  shew 
a  temperature  liigher  than  600',  and  Wedge- 
wood's  thermometer  cannot  shew  a  tempe- 
rature lower  than  red  heat,  which  is  by  seve- 
ral degrees  higher  than  600',  therefore  it  was 
necessarv  to  contrive  a  measure  for  tlie  inter- 
medial e  degrees,  and  whicli  might  reach 
some  degrees  below  600",  and  some  degrees 
above  the  temperature  of  a  red  heat.  Mr. 
W'edgewood  cliose  a  piece  of  silver,  the  ex- 
pansion of  whicli  measured  in  a  gauge  made 
lor  the  ))urpose,  similar  to  the  gauge  tig. 
241,  might  indicate  the  degrees  of  tt-mpe- 
rature  between  the  two  thermometers;  with 
this  iiistrumenl  he  first  found  the  correspond- 
ence bel'.veen  the  degrees  of  Fahrenheit's 
scale  and  the  last-mentioned  gauge,  by  pla- 
cing them  alternately  in  water  of  the  tempe- 
rature of  jO",  and  in  boiling  water,  "^riien  he 
tbund  the  correspondence  between  the  de- 
grees of  the  gauge  of  the  silver  piece,  and 
that  of  the  earthen  tliermometrical  pieces,  by 
placing  them  both  at  the  same  time  in  dif- 
ferent and  higher  degrees  of  heat;  lastlv, 
by  computation  from  those  results,  he  deter- 
mined the  correspondence  between  the  de- 
grees of  Fahrenheit's  scale  and  those  of  his 
own  tliermometrical  gauge. 

It  was  found  that  one  degree  of  Wedge- 
wood's  thermometer  is  equal  to  130°  of  Fah- 
renheit's ;  and  that  the  0   of  Wedgewood's 
SII2 


T  H  I 


795 


coincides  with  the  1077,'i  of  Fahrenheit's; 
from  wliicli  data  a  coinpirison  ol  tile  two 
thermometers  may  be  made,  or  rather  of  the 
imaginary  extensions  of,  tiieir  two  scales  ; 
tor,  in  fact,  lahrenheit's  thermonieler  can- 
not shew  higher  than  600',  and  \\  edgewood's 
cannot  reacli  near  so  low.  It  is  likewise  to 
be  observed  that  the  degrees  of  Wedgewood'j 
scale  are  supposed  to  shew  equal  incrtmenl»J 
of  heat,  whereas  in  truth  we  do  not  kpiow 
whether  the  clay  Ihermomclrical  pieces  ton- 
tract  in  nroporlion  to  the  increments  of  heat ; 
which  shews  that,  though  this  is  the  best 
known  thermonieler  ior  n-.easuring  the  higher 
degrees  of  heat,  yet  an  improvement  of  the 
same,  or  some  oilier  manageable  and  more 
accurate  contrivance,  is  highly  desirable. 

Upon  tlie  whole  it  appears,  that  tiie  spirit 
thermometer  enables  us  to  measure  the  de- 
grees of  heal  ai  low  as  has  ever  been  experi- 
enced, either  naturally,  or  by  artificial  cool- 
ing: thai  the  mercurial  thermorueter  enables 
us  to  measure  the  heat  from  —40"  to  600"; 
and  that  Wedgewood's  thennometer  cnab'e$ 
us  to  measure  from  a  ri'd  heat  up  to  the  far- 
tlier  extent  of  that  scale,  viz.  to  its  240th 
degree,  which  is  reckoned  equivalent  to 
32277'  of  Fahrenheit's  scale. 

rilKSll'.M,  Base  fluf.lltn,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  class  penUndria,  and  ordt  r  mo- 
nogynia.  The  calyx  is  monophyllous,  with 
the  stam  na  inserted  into  it ;  there  is  only 
one  seed,  which  is  inferior.  There  are  nine- 
teen species  ;  one  of  which  is  a  British  plant, 
the  linophyllum  or  bastard  load-llax.  It  has 
a  foliaceous  panicle  with  linear  leaves,  and 
flowers  in  June  and  Julv. 

'1  IlL.VSl'l,  BASTARD-CRESS,  Or    MITHRt- 

DATK  MiSTARD,  a  gi  nus  of  plants  of  the 
class  tetradynainia,  and  order  siliculosa  ;  anil 
in  the  natural  system  ranging  under  the  39lh 
order,  silKpiosa.  The  pod  is  emarginated, 
obcordale,  and  polyspermous ;  the  valves 
are  boat-shaped,  and  marginated  and  cari- 
nated.  '1  ln-re  are  14  species;  of  which  six 
only  are  natives  of  Britain.  1.  The  anense, 
treacle-mustard,  or  penny-cress.  Il  smells 
like  garlic,  and  has  a  white  flower.  2.  Tlie 
liirlniii,    or    |)erennial    niithridale    mustard. 

3.  1  he  canp  stre,    or    milhridate  mustard. 

4.  Tlie  mjiiiaiiuwi,  or  mountain  mithri<latc 
mustard.  .').  The  perfolialum,  or  perfoliate 
treacle-mustard.  6.  The  bursa  pastoris,  or 
shepherd's  purse.  The  seeds  of  some  of 
these  species  have  an  acrid  biting  taste,  ap- 
[)roachiiig  to  that  of  the  common  mustard ; 
with  which  they  agree  nearly  in  their  phar- 
maceutic propeities. 

IlllKl),  in  nuisic,  an  interval  so  called 
because  it  contaii.s  tliree  diatonic  sounds. 
The  Greeks  not  admitting  the  third  as  a 
consonance,  it  obtained  no  general  name 
amongst  theiH  ;  but  took  that  of  the  lesser  or 
greater  interval  from  which  it  was  formed. 

There  are  four  species  of  thirds  ;  two  con- 
sonant, and  two  dissonant.  The  consonants 
are ;  lirst,  the  major  third,  called  bv  the  an- 
tieiils  dilone,  composed  of  two  tones;  se- 
condly, the  minor  third,  called  hemitonc,. 
consisting  of  a  lone  and  a  half.  The  dis- 
sonant thirds  are,  first,  die  diminished  third, 
composed  of  two  major  semitones ;  se- 
condly, the  superrtuous.third,  composed  of 
two  tones' and  a  half.  This  last  interval, 
not  having  place  in  the  same  mode,  or  key- 
is  never  used  either  in  harmony,  or  in  me- 
lody.    Th<;  Italians  lometimes  introduce  tlit 


79S 


1  H  R 


dimini'ihed  third  in  airs,  but  it  is  never  used 
iu  harmony. 

The  consonant  thirds  are  the  spirit  of  har- 
mony, particularly  tlie  major  tliird,  wliich  is 
sonorous  and  brilliant ;  the  minor  third  is 
more  tender,  and  even  pathetic  ;  a  dilference 
of  character  from  which  skilful  composers 
derive  some  of  the  best  and  most  poignant 
effects. 

The  old  French  theorists  had  almost  as 
severe  laws  respecting  the  thirds  as  we  now 
observe  in  regard  to  fifths  and  eigliths.  It 
ivas  by  them  forbidden  to  have  two  m  imme- 
diate ssccession  even  of  different  kinds,  par- 
ticularlv  in  the  same  direction. 

THIRrEEKPH,  in  music,  an  interval 
forming  the  octave  of  the  sixth,  or  the  sixth 
of  the  octave.  It  contains  twelve  diatonic 
deurees,  i.  e.  tliirteen  sounds. 

THOA,  a  genus  of  the  monoecia  polyan- 
dria  class  and  order  of  plants.  There  is  n6 
calyx  or  corolla;  the  male  stamina  are  nu- 
merous ;  feni.  germ,  two ;  stigma  three  or 
four-cleft;  seed  in  a  brittle  shell,  coveted 
with  a  bristly  nect.     There  is  one  species. 

THORACIC,  a  term  applied  to  an  order 
of  fishes  in  the  Liiuieau  system  ;  the  charac- 
ter of  this  Older  of  fishes  is,  thai  they  have 
bouy  gills,  and  ventral  fins  placed  directly 
under  the  thorax.  Of  this  order  there  are 
21  genera,  viz.  the 
Cepola,  Pleuronectes,  Trachyclithys, 

Echineis,         Cha-todon,        Gasterosteus, 
Corvphicna,   Sparus,  Scomber, 

JJobius,  Scarus,  Centrogaster, 

Cottus,  Labrus,  Mullus, 

Scorpxna,       Sci;ena,  Trigla 

Zeus,  Perca,  Louchiurus. 

Thoracic  DUCT.     See  Anatomy. 

THORAX.     See  Anatomy. 

The  thorax  of  insects  is  the  back  part  of 
the  breast.     See  Entomology. 

THORNBACK.-   See  Rata. 

THOUINIA,   a  genus  of  plants  of  the 

class  diandria,  and  order  monogynia.     The 

corolla  is  <]uadripetaIous,  the    calyx  quadri- 

pavlile,  ajui  the   anthera:  sessile.     There  is 

-  only  one  species,  a  tree  of  Madagascar. 

THRASHIXG,  or  Threshing,  in 
agriculture,  the  art  of  beating  the  corn  out 
of  the  ears. 

Thrashing-machines.  The  thrashing 
of  corn  bv  means  of  machinery,  has  been 
long  in  use  in  the  northern  districts  of  the 
kingdom,  and  mills  of  this  sort  are  now  be- 
coming general  in  mo;>l  parts  of  the  country  ; 
and  upon  arable  farms  of  considerable  extent 
they  cannot  but  be  highly  advantageous,  as 
they  save  much  labour  and  expence.  In  the 
jT.aking  of  those  machines,  attention  should 
always  be  had  to  the  size  of  the  farms,  or 
or  rather  the  (juantily  of  grain  that  may  be 
grown  on  thein.  and  the  mill  proportioned 
accordingly.  They  are  mo.stly  constructed 
ort  the  principles  of  the  tlax-niill,  and  are 
movcl  eillierby  water  or  hor>^es,  the  fir.>t  by 
far  the  best  melhjd  where  it  can  be  had; 
the  grain  by  these  m.ichlnes  being,  in  a  man- 
ner.swingled  out  o'  the  ears  by  nn-ans  of 
beaters  wliich  Kre  attaclied  to  a  cylinder  that 
moves  wU1>  very  great  velocity.  Since  the 
introduclion  of"  these  machines,  many  im- 
provements have  been  made  on  them ;  a 
screen  has  been  added  for  the  grain  to  pass 
Ihrouiih  into  a  winnowing-niachiue,  and  a 
circular  wke  to  seniove  ih*  straw  from  it ;  as 


T  H  R 

before  this  addition  tiie  straw  was  forced  out 
from  the  beater  upon  the  upper  barn-tloor, 
and  required  much  time  and  labour  in  shak- 
ing and  putting  into"  order,  which  by  this 
contrivance  is  saved.  In  working  these-  mills, 
four  persons  are  commonly  necessary  ;  one 
takes  the  sheaf  from  the  stack,  another  places 
it  ready  for  the  third  wlio  is  to  teed  tl:e  mill, 
and  the  fourth  removes  the  straw  to  prevent 
its  collecting  in  too  large  a  quantity.  It  has 
been  obiected  to  these  machines,  that  they  do 
not  thrash  some  sorts  of  grain  clean  ;  this  has 
been  p;;rticulaiiy  the  case  with  barley.  It  is, 
however,  observed  by  au  intelligent  writer, 
that 'the  cn-cunistance  on  which  the  good 
thrashing  of  this  kind  of  grain  d^-pends,  is 
ihe  U'oii  covering  under  which  the  heating- 
wheel,  having  six  beaters,  moves  :  m  some 
machines  this  is  fixed,  wliile  the  b-.-ating-svlieel 
is  capable  of  being  raised  or  depressed  at 
pleasure ;  but  a  recent  improvement  is,  to 
render  the  iron  roof  moveable,  and  the  wheel 
fixed  ;  and  the  iron  is  placed  so  near  to  the 
beaters  tliat  the  grain  is  rubbi  d,  as  well  as 
stricken  out  of  the  ear.  In  =oine  machnies 
of  this  sort,  the  ijealers  are  a  little  rounded  ; 
but  it  is  probably  a  better  practice  to  liave 
them  of  the  common  flat  torm. 

In  some  large  mills  of  this  kind  the  rollers 
take  in  about  three  hundred  inches  of  grain 
in  a  minute.  The  medium  length  of  the 
straw  being  estimated  at  about  thirty  inches, 
and  siijiposnig  half  a  slieaf  to  be  introduced 
into  the  machine  at  a  time,  the  whole  sheaf 
will  be -equal  to  sixty  inches,  and  the  ma- 
chine, when  supplied  with  a  middling  quan- 
tity of  water,  will  thrash  five  sheaves  in  a 
minute.  But  in  respect  to  the  performance 
of  these  mills  much  must  depend  on  the  at- 
tention with  which  they  are  teil,  as  a  small 
neglect  in  this  point  will  make  a  very  con- 
siderable dilference  in  the  (juaiitity  ot  work 
done. 

An  excellent  description  of  a  mill  of  this 
nature  is  given  in  a  late  publication,  in  wliich 
it  is  remarked,  that  in  such  mills  five  people 
are  connnonly  necessary  to  keep  the  work 
going  on  without  embarrassment ;  but  that 
this  depends  greatly  on  the  construetion  of 
the  machines,  some  of  them  being  so  con- 
trived, that  the  work  can  be  pertormed  with 
much  fewer  hands.  The  manner  in  which 
these  people  are  employed  is  this  :  One  finds 
constant  work  in  carrying  the  sheaves  to  the 
man  who  leeds  or  puts  the  unthrashcd  corn 
into  the  machine,  and  in  loosing  the  bands; 
another  is  reipiired  to  feed  the  machine  ;  a 
third  to  carry  off  the  straw  ;  the  fourth  to 
attend  the  fanners,  aiirl  lay  aside  tlia  cleaned 
grain  ;  and  a  fifth,  where  horses  are  made 
use  of,  to  take  care  that  they  go  regularly  ; 
and  thus  by  means  of  five  men  and  four 
horses  they  will  thrash  at  the  rate  of  five 
quarters  in  the  hour  on  a  medium,  and  when 
the  crop  is  rich,  and  easily  thrashed,  consider- 
ably more:  consequently  if  a  thrashing-mill 
was  to  be  emjdoyed  tor  a  whole  day,  or  nine 
hours,  it  would  thrash  foity-live  quarters; 
but  iu  that  case  it  would  be  necessary  to 
einpluv  two  sets  of  horses.  The  expence  is 
calculated  in  this  munner: 

<f.  s.   d. 
Hire  of  eight  horses,  at  L'.y.  dd. 

each  per  day,      ,  -  10     0 

Five  meu's  wages,  at  U.  6rf.  each,  0    7    6 

<i'l     7    6 


T  H  R 

In   this  account  the  hire  of  the  ni<>n  am? 
horses  is,   it  is  conceived,  charged    at  the 
lowest  rate,  and  that  the  expence  of  thrash- 
ing forty-five  quarters  of  grain  would  cost 
aboui  1/.  7s.  6ii.   or  about  7d.   each   quar- 
ter.    Hat  that  taking   the  average  expence 
of  thrashing  forty-five  quarters  of  grain  with 
the  Mail,  througliout  the  whole  kingdom,  in- 
cluding an  equal  proportion  of  all  kinds,  it 
cannot  be,  it  is  supposed,  estimated  at  less  . 
than   31.   7.1.   6d.    or    Is.    6d.  each  quarter, 
which  makes  a  difference  of  about  lid.  each 
quarter.     It  is   also   farther   observed,   that 
since    die   introduction   of   these   mills,  the 
grain  is  thrashed  by  the  ordinary  servants  on 
■  the  farm,  an<l  without  in  any  material  de- 
i  gree  obstructing  the  operations  in  the  lield  ; 
I  farmers  in  general  employing  their  men  and 
;  horses  in  tins  business  in  baa  weather,  when 
j  other  operations  cannot  be  carried  on. 

I  The  whole  expence  of  constructing  a 
1  thrashing-mill,  including  the  building  of  the 
shed  for  covering  the  great  wheel,  does  not, 
iu  almost  any  case,  exceed  100/.  The  or- 
dinary annual  repairs  n.ay,  one  year  with 
another,  amount  to  5/.,  which  added  to  the 
I  interest  of  the  prime  i:<Ht,  makes  the  yearly 
expence  10/.  ;  a  sum  for  which  any  quantity 
j  of  grain,  however  great,  that  may  be  suppos- 
i  ed  to  grow  on  one  farm,  can  be  thraslied, 
j  and  that  too  in  a  manner  much  superior  to 
I  what  can  be  done  by  manual  labour.  The 
expence  cither  of  erecting  these  macliines,  or 
of  keeping  them  afterwards  in  repair,  must' 
be  con^idei-ed  by  every  intelligent  occupier 
of  a  corn-farni  as  a  secondary  object,  when 
coniparetl  with  the  adv.mtages  that  are  de- 
rived from  them ;  such  as  the  performing  of 
tlie  operation  at  less  than  half  the  ordinary 
price,  and  affording  the  farmer  th«  means  of 
securing  his  grain  from  being  embezzled  ; 
besides,  the  saving,  in  regard  to  superior  clean 
thrasliing,  as  has  been  now  well  ascertained, 
is  not  only  more  than  the  annual  expence  of 
repairs,  but  so  great  as,  on  alarm  of  consider- 
able extent,  to  reimburse  the  farmer  for  the 
whole  of  his  expendituic  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years.  Considering,  therefore  the  in- 
creasing scarcity  of  labourers,  and  the  recent 
great  advance  in  the  rate  of  labour  in  all  the 
better  cultivated  parts  of  the  kingdom,  the 
introduction  of  thrashing-mills  into  common 
use  cannot  but  be  highly  beneficial. 

There  is,  however,  one  difficulty  in  the 
introduction  of  thrashing-mills  into  the  south- 
ern parts  of  Ihe  kingdom,  which  arises  from 
the  manner  of  harvesting  all  kinds  of  grain, 
except  wheat,  which  cannot  probably  be 
easily  removed  ;  as  the  corn,  in  order  to  be 
clean  thrashed,  should  be  put  into  the  machine 
as  straight  and  regular  as  possible.  For 
while  the  sheaves,  alter  being  loosened  and 
spread  on  the  board,  so  as  to  be  easily  taken 
in  bv  the  feeding  rollers,  are  passing  between 
thcin,  they  keep  the  straw  steady,  by  which 
means  the  strokes  of  the  beaters  or  scutchers 
operate  with  more  force  and  effect  in  sepa- 
rating the  grain  from  the  ear«;  whereas,  if 
the  uiUhrashed  corn  goes  in  sideways  or  irre- 
gularly, the  thrashers  cau  have  but  little 
power  upon  it.  This  would  no  doubt  ('••  ' 
quently  happen  in  thrashing  corn  whi'O  ^^ 
been  mowed  with  the  scythe,  an''  "'"'■"  '' 
harvested  in  every  respect  like  -'^y  '  *"  ", 
unless  the  unthrashed  grai"  is  T"'  '"'"  .'''•= 
mill  in  small  quantities,  it  ib  almost  mapaisible 


T  H  R 

tlwt  it  can  be  conii>leteiy  separaleJ  (turn  the 
straw. 

Uul  though,  when  the  size  of  thi;  machine 
is  coiKiiler-iblc-,  tlie  expence  of  erecting  it 
may  be  Iroiii  eighty  to  om;  hundred  pouiul<, 
according  to  situation  anil  materials,  smaller 
ones  may  be  erected  at  much  less,  as  from 
thirty  to  fifty  pounds. 

Some  of  this  kind  of  mills  have  rollers  or 
^mall  mill-stones  aiided  to  them,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  crushing  and  grinding  grain  for  horses, 
swine,  and  other  animals ;  and  also  instru- 
ments for  cutting  straw  into  chaff. 

On  the  necessity  of  employing  machines 
of  thij  kind,  .1  is  remarked  by  an  able  writer, 
that  it  is  the  only  method  U-tt  for  having  the 
corn  cl''anly  and  properly  thraslied.  'I'hey 
are  so  quick  in  the  work,  that  the  whole  may 
be  done  under  tlie  eye  of  the  master,  and  the 
corn  secured  in  the  granary  without  the  leat 
pilfering.  The  saving,  by  this  means  of 
thrashing,  in  the  extra  quantity  of  corn  pro- 
cured, and  the  security  again-;t  having  the 
corn  stolen  in  the  chalf,  it  is  asserted,  amounts 
to  an  advantage  in  favour  of  the  mills  of 
about  ten  per  cent  on  the  corn-crops  ;  in 
some  cases,  to  one  shilling  a  bushel  ou  w  heat, 
ami  very  generally  to  twenty  shillings  an  acre 
on  the  wheat-cro|)s. 

This  machine  has  undoubtedly  many  ad- 
vantages over  the  Hail,  as  well  as  those  of 
saving  time  and  hands  ;  as  in  thrashing  damp 
corn,  not  capable  of  being  fullv  accomplished 
■  v\  any  other  way,  especially  in  wet  season-; ; 
and  with  smutty  wheat,  which  is  thrashed  by 
it  without  any  mischief  being  done  to  the 
sound  grain,  the  smut  not  being  crushed 
comes  out  whole,  and  is  blown  away  with 
the  chalt'. 

The  principal  objections  that  have  been 
made  to  these  machines,  are  the  great  expence 
of  erecting  and  using  Ihem,  their  tendency  to 
diminish  the  labour  of  the  poor,  and  their 
affording  too  great  a  supply  of  straw  at  a 
time.  These  objections  are,  iio|vever,  of 
little  conse(iuence,  when  the  general  utility 
and  advantages  ol'  such  machines  are  con- 
sidered ;  besides  the  latter  are  either  such  as 
Jiave  nothing  to  be  apprehended  from  them, 
or  as  may  be  readily  obviated.  'I'he  difli- 
culty  in  regard  to  the  straw  may  be  easily- 
removed,  by  having  it  properly  stacked  up 
or  cut  into  chaff. 

THUAVK,  or  Threave  of  corn,  twenty- 
four  sheaves,  or  four  shocks  of  six  sheaves 
to  the  shock,  though,  in  some  counties, 
they  only  reckon  twelve  shocks  to  the  thrave. 

TilRE-VO,  a  small  Ime  made  up  of  a 
number  of  lino  libres  of  any  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal >ub>tance,  such  as  flax,  cotton,  or  silk  ; 
from  which  it  takes  its  name  of  iinen,  cotton, 
or  silk  thread. 

Linen  and  cotton  thread  may  be  dyed  of 
a  durable  and  deep  black  by  a  solution  of  iron 
in  .-vour  beer,  in  which  the  linen  is  to  lie  steeped 
for  some  time,  and  afterwards  boiled  in  mad- 
der. See  t!ie  article  Dyeing.  Thread  may 
be  easily  bleached  by  the  oxymuriatic  acid 
diseov  'red  by  Mr.  Scheele.  This  acid  whit- 
ens clotli  remarkably  well,  but  it  is  still  ntore 
advantageous  for  lileaching  thread. 

THREATEN ING  LETTER.  If  any 
per.^o.  jhal!  send  any  letter  threatening  to 
accuse  a.  y  q\\^^j  person  of  a  crime  punish- 
able With  r„^,jj^  transportation,  pillory,  or 
other  infamous  punishment,  with  a  view  to 
extort  inoneyfrom  ivun,  h«  slwll  be  punished 


T  H  R 

al  the  discretion  of  the  court,  with  tine,  im- 
prisonment, pillory,  wliipping,  or  tianspor- 
tation.  80  G.  II.  c.  24.  lint  if  the  writer  of 
a  threatening  letter  delivers  it  himself,  ajid 
does  not  send  it,  he  is  guiltv  of  felony  under 
this  act.     Leach's  Cro.  Law,  .351. 

'JllRINAX,  .vm«//  ./aiMiica  fan-pnlm;  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  class  of  palina 
and  order  of  flabellifolia:.  'The  calyx  is  sex- 
dentate  ;  there  is  no  corolla ;  there  are  six 
stamina  ;  the  .stigmas  are  cinarginate,  and  | 
the  berry  moiiospermous.  This  plant  was 
brouglit  from  Jamaica  to  Kew  gardens  by  , 
Dr.  William  Wrigl.t. 

I'llRlP.S,  a  genus  of  the  order  hemiptera: 
the  generic  character  is,  snout  inconspicuous; 
antennx  the  length  of  thorax  ;  body   linear, 
abdomen    reflexile    upwards ;     wings    four,  ; 
straight,    long,     narrow,    incumbent   on   the  ; 
back,  slightly  crossed.      This  is  a  gr:nus  con-  | 
sistiiig  ol  very  small  insects,  which  are  prin-  j 
cipally  lound   on  flowers.     'I'he  antennx  are 
submoniliform,  and  of  the  length  of  the  tho- 
rax ;  the  snout  is  obscure  or  inconspicuous, 
short,   and  jilaced  beneath  the  neck  or  head  ; 
tin;  body  ot  a  lengthened  or  sublinear  shape, 
and  the  abdomen  is  at  pleasure  bent  upwards 
or  backwartis  ;  the  wings  are  four  in  number, 
long,  narrow,  incumbent,  and  very  slighth-,  ' 
or  scarcely,  crossed  over  each  other.  , 

'The  most  familiar  example  of  the  genus  is  i 
the  thrips  physapus  of  Linna;us,  which  is  a 
very  small  slemder  insect,  of  a  black  colour, 
very  frequently  seen  during  the  spring  and 
summer  on  various  (lowers,  more  especially  I 
on  what  are  termed  the  compound  (lowers,  | 
as  dandelion,  &c.  It  wanders  about  tUe  pe-  ! 
tals  of  the  tiower,  descending  to  the  bottom 
of  the  florets,  occasionally  emerging  at  in- 
ter\als,  and  often  skipping  from  place  to  , 
place,  in  performing  which  action  it  is  ob- 
served sudi.lcnly  to  turn  back  its  abdomen, 
so  as  nearly  to  touch  the  thorax  with  its  tip. 
The  wings  an;  of  a  semitranspareiit  white, 
narrow,  and  wdien  properly  magnilied,  are 
observed  to  be  edged  and  tipped  with  ftahs 
growing  gradually  longer  as  they  approach 
t!ie  tips,  where  they  are  of  considerable 
length  :  the  lower  wings  are  rather  shorter 
than  tlie  upper,  beneath  which  they  are,  in 
general,  almost  concealed  ;  the  antenna; 
consist  of  six  joints,  and  the  feet  are  tipped 
with  an  expansile  and  apparently  vesicular 
process,  enabling  the  little  animal  to  adhere 
at  pleasure  with  the  greater  security  to  any 
particular  si:bstanc.'.  All  these  particulars 
require  a  microscope  for  their  investigation, 
the  whole  insect  not  exceeding  the  tenth  of 
an  inch  in  length.  The  larva  in  a  great  de- 
gree resembles  the  complete  insect,  but  is 
destitute  of  wings;  when  very  young  it  is 
white,  and  aftew.irds  of  a  yellowish  or  red- 
dish colour,  and  like  tlie  compUte  insect,  is 
seen  wandering  about  the  petals  of  flowers. 

The  thrips  physapus  has  been  stipposed  to 
do  much  injury  to  wheat,  rve,  &c.  by  causing 
the  young  (lowers  to  decay,  thus  preventing 
tl>e  grow  til  of  the  embryo  grain.  This  opi- 
nion, however,  has  by  -onie  been  considered 
as  erroneous  ;  wlio  have  contended  that  the 
thrips  does  not  attach  itself  to  such  of  the 
cerealia  as  are  in  a  per:ect  healthy  state,  but 
rather  to  such  as  are  diseased  by  having  the 
gennina  covered  with  the  dust  of  a  very 
minute  fungus,  often  growing  on  wheat,  &c. 
and  belonging  to  the  genus  a;cidium  or  Ivco- 
perdon,  and  which  inakei  its  appearance  iu 


T  J I  I J 


797 


the  form  ofa  flattish,  smooth,  irrognlar  e-^si;- 
dalion,  of  a  ycliow  colour,  on  varioua  |)art<  of 
the  plant.  See'TjiiTlcuM.  'The  ingenious  Mr. 
Kirby,  however,  seems  convinced  that  the 
thrips  is  in  reality  an  iiisict  highly  injurious 
to  corn,  by  deriving  its  noiirishmeiil  Irwn  llic 
embrvo  grains.     'There  are  eight  species. 

'UllilSII.     See'TuRuus. 

'TIIK^'ALLIS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  decandria,  and  order  monogynia  ;  and 
in  the  nattiial  system  ranging  under  the  .3Ktli 
order,  tricocca-.  The  calyx  is  qiiinquepar- 
lite,  there  arc  live  petals,  'and  the  capsule  is 
tricoccous.  There  is  only  one  siiecies 
known,  the  bi-asilieiisis,  a  shrub  of  Urasil.- 

THI'JA,  the  rtrlior  vittv,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  class  monadelphia,  and  order  moiia-cia ; 
and  in  the  natural  system  ranging  iindi'r  ; he- 
al at  order,  coniferie.    'There  are  iour  species 
known:  Iheorientalis,  oc(  identalis,  articulata, 
and  dolabrata;    of  which  the  two  liist  are 
most   remarkable.      1.  'The  occidcntalis,  or 
connnon  arbor  vitae,  grows  nalurallv  in  Ca- 
nada, Siberia,  and  other  northern  countries.. 
In  some  of  the  English  gardens  a  few  of  these 
trees  are  to  be  met  w  ilh  of  a  large  size ;  it  has  • 
a  strong   woody   trunk,  which   rises  to   the 
height  of  40  feet  or  more.     'The  bark,  wliile 
young,  is  smooth,  and  of  a  dark-brow-n  colour; 
byt  as  the  trees  advance,,  the  bark  becomes, 
cracked,   and  less  smooth.     The  branches 
are    produced    irregularly     on   every  side,. 
standing  almost  horizontal,    and  the   young 
slender   shoots   frecpiently   hang    downwar<l,. 
thinly  garnished  with  leaves  ;  so   that   wheu-. 
the  trees  are  grown  large,  they  make  but  an 
inditl'erent  appearance.     'I'he  leaves   of  this- 
tree  have  a  rank  oily   scent  when   bruised. 
2.  'The  orientalis,  or  China  arbor  vita;,  grows- 
naturally  in   the   northern  parts  of    China, 
where  it   rises  to  a  considerable  height ;  but 
this  has  not  been   long  enougii  in  Europe  to 
have  any  trees  of  large  size.     The  seeds  of- 
this  sort  were  hrst  sent  to  Paris  by  some  of: 
the  missionaries  ;  and  there  are  several  of  the 
tree^  growing  in  the  gardens  of  the  curious- 
there,  which  are  more  than  twenty  feet  high. 
'The  biaiiches  of  this  sort  grow   closer  toge- 
ther,  and   are   much    better    adorned    with 
leaves,  whic:.  are  ot  a  brighter-green  colour, 
so  as  to  make  a  better  appearance  than  the 
other  ;  and  being  very  hardy,  it  is  esteemed 
preferable  to   most   of  the   evergreen   trees- 
with  siyall  leaves,  for  ornament  lii  gardens. 
'These  trec>s  are  propagatetl  by  seeds,  layers,, 
or  cuttings. 

'TllU. VI MET? STONE.      This  stone  was- 
first  descrilied  b\  Mr.  Sehreber,  who  found  it 
near  Bahne  D'auris  in  D.iuphh.e,  and  save  it 
the  name  ot  shorl  viole.     It  was  aftei wards 
found  near'Thu  11  In  bax'my,  in  consequence- 
of  which   Wer.,er   called   it    thummerstone.-. 
It   is  sometimes  amorinious,   but  more  com- 
monly crystallized.      I  he  primitive  form  of^ 
its   crystals    is  a   rectanguiar    urism,    w  hose 
bases  are  paraUelogran:s  with  anp'.es  of   101"? 
32  and  TS"  28.     'The  most  usua'  variety  is  a. 
fiat   rhomboidal  parallelopiped,  with- two  of 
its  opposite  edges  w  anting,  and  a  small  face 
in  place  of  each.   'The  laces  of  the  parailelo- 
piped  are  generally  streaked  longilutlinally. 

The  texHire  oi  thummerstone  is  foliated. 
Us  fracture  conclioidal.  Glassy.  Cau-cs  • 
simple  reirae  tion.  Specific,  gravity  3.2956. 
Colour  clove.-brown  ;  souielnnes  incliniiik  to 
red.  green,  grey,  violet,  or  black.  Bitore 
,  the  blowpipe  it  fiotlis  like  zeolite,  and  aaeits  - 


79S 


T  I  A 


into  a  bard  black  enamel.  With  borax  it 
exhibits  the  same  plicnomena,  or  even  when 
tlie  sione  is  simply  healei-1  at  the  end  ol  a 
pincer. 

A  specimen  of  thummerstone,  analysed  by 
Klaproth,  contained 

52.7  silica 
25.6  alumina 
9.4  lime 
9.6  oxide  of  iron,  with  a  trace 

—     of  manganese. 

97.3 
A  specimen,  analysed  by  \  auquelin,  con- 
tained 44  silica 

)  S  alumina 
ly  lime 

14  oxide  of  iron 
4  oxide  of  manganese 

99. 

THUNDER.     See  Electricity. 

TIIUNBRRGIA,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  class  and  order  didyiiamia 
anqiospormia.  The  caly.x  is  double;^  the 
corolla  bell-shaped  ;  capsules  beaked.  There 
are  2  species. 

THUS.     See  Resins. 

THYMBRA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
©rder  didvnamia  angiospeniiia.  The  calyx 
is  two-lipped ;  seeds  semibilid.  There  are 
3  species. 

THY.MUS,  Thy.me,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  didyiiamia,  and  order  nymnosper- 
niia  ;  and  in  the  natural  system  ranging  uniler 
the  42d  order,  verticillati.  The  calyx  is  bi- 
labiate, and  its  tliroat  closed  with  soft  hairs. 
There  are  22  species  ;  of  which  only  two  are 
natives  of  Britain,  the  serpylluni  and  acinas. 

1.  The  serpylluni,  or  mother  of  thyme,  has 
pale  red  flowers  growing  on  round  heads, 
terminal ;  the  stalks  are  procumbent,  and  the 
leaves  plane,  obtuse,  and  ciliated  at  the  base. 

2.  Tlie  acinas,  or  wild  basil,  has  flowers  grow- 
ing in  wliorls  on  single  footstalks;  the  stalks 
are  erect  and  branched  ;  the  leaves  acute  and 
serrated.  The  thymus  vulgaris,  or  garden 
thyme,  is  a  native  of  France,  Spain,  and 
Italy.  The  attaclinienl  of  bees  to  this  and 
other  aromatic  plants  is  well  known.  In  the 
experiments  made  at  Upsal,  sheep  and  goats 
were  observed  to  eat  it,  and  swine  to  refuse 
it. 

Thymus,  in  anatomy,  a  gland,  which  in 
infants  is  very  remarkable  ;  it  is  situated  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  thorax,  immediately 
inider  the  sternum,  and  lies  upon  the  peri- 
cardium, and  on  the  tri:nkofthe  aorta  and 
of  the  vena  cava.     Sei'  .Anatomy. 

THYNNUS,  agenus  of  the  hymenoptera 
order  of  insects,  'i  he  generic  character  is, 
mouth  horny,  with  an  inrurved  mandible ; 
the  jaw  short  ami  straight;  li])  longer  llum 
the  jaw,  membranaceous  at  the  tip,  and  trifid, 
the  middle  divi^on  i-marginate  ;  tongue  very 
short,  involute ;  feelers  four,  equal,  liliform  ; 
antenna:  cylindrical,  the  lirst  joint  thicker, 
'('here  are  four  species,  three  inhabiting  New 
Holland,  and  the  fourth  is  found  in  Africa. 

TriYBOIO  {;i,AN'I).  See  Av.\T0MY. 

TIIYIiSU.S,  in  hjtany,  a  mode  of  flower- 
ing re--e:nl)l!ng  the  con;'  of  a  pine. 

1  lAHKI.LA,  a  genus  of  pl.ints  of  tiie  class 
decandria,  and  order  digvnia,  and  in  the  na- 
tural sy  (em  ranging  untfer  the  l.3lh  order, 
siicciilentrr.  'i  lie  calyx  is  quinc|uepartite  ; 
the  corolla  peiitapctaloui;,  and  inserted  into 


T  I  L 

the  calvx;  the  petals  are  entire;  the  capsule 
is  unilocular  and  bivalve,  one  valve  being 
less  than  the  other.  There  are  two  species, 
the  cordifolia  and  trifoliata,  natives  of  North 
America. 

TIBIA.  See  Anatomy. 

TH5(ALIS,  or  Tiblbus.  See  Ak.^tomy. 

TIDES.  See  Astronomy. 

Tide-waiters,  or  tidfsm^n,  are  inferior 
officers  belonging  to  the  custom-house,  whose 
emplovment  it  is  to  watch  or  attend  upon 
ships,  until  the  customs  are  paid ;  they  get 
this  n.^.nie  from  going  on  board  ships  on  tlieir 
arrival  in  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  or  otlier 
port,  and  so  coming  up  with  the  tide. 

TIERCE,  or  Teirce,  a  measure  of  liquid 
things,  as  wine,  oil,  &c.  containing  the  tliird 
part  of  a  pipe,  or  forty-two  gallons.  See 
Measure. 

TIGER.  See  Feus. 

Tiger-shell,  a  beautiful  species  of  vo- 
Uita,  ofa  du,ky-red  colour,  sp.;tted  all  over 
with  large  irregular  blotc-hes  of  white:  it  is 
brought  from  the  East  Indies,  and  is  about 
two  inches  and  a  half  in  lengtli,  and  about 
an  inch  in  diameter. 

TILE,  in  building,  a  sort  of  tliin  brick, 
used  on  the  roofs  of  houses;  or  more  pro- 
periy  a  kind  of  clayey  earth,  kneaded  and 
moulded  of  a  just  thickness,  dried  and  burnt 
in  a  kiln,  like  a  brick,  and  used  iii  the  cover- 
ing and  paving  of  dirt'erent  kinds  of  military 
and  other  buildings.  Tlie  bet  brick-earth 
only  should  be  made  into  tiles. 

1'he  tiles  for  all  sorts  of  uses  may  now  be 
comprised  under  seven  heads,  viz.  1 .  The 
plain  tile  for  covering  of  houses,  which  is 
(tat  and  thin.  2.  The  plain  tile  for  paving, 
wliich  is  also  flat,  but  thicker  ;  and  its  size 
9,  10,  or  12  inches.  3.  The  pan-tile,  wliicli 
is  also  used  for  covering  of  buildings,  and  is 
hollow,  and  crooked,  or  bent,  somewhat  in 
the  manner  of  an  S.  4.  The  Dutch  glazed 
pan-tile.  5.  The  Enslish  glazed  pan-tile. 
6.  The  gutter-tile,  which  is  made  with  a  kind 
of  wings.     And  7.  The  hip  or  corner-tile. 

Tiles,  plaiii,  are  best  when  thev  are  lirm- 
est,  soundest,  and  strongest.  Some  are 
duskier,  and  others  ruddier,  in  colour.  1  he 
dusky-coloured  are  generally  the  strongest. 
These  tiles  are  not  laid  in  mortar,  but  pointed 
only  in  the  inside. 

Tiles,  paring,  are  made  of  a  more  sandy 
earth  than  the  common  or  plain  tiles;  the 
materials  for  thest-  last  must  be  absolute  clay, 
but  for  the  others  a  kind  of  loam  is  used. 
These  are  made  tliicker  and  larger  than  the 
common  roof-tiles  ;  and  when  care  has  been 
taken  in  the  choice  of  the  earth,  and  the 
managimicnt  of  the  lire,  they  are  very  re- 
gular and  beautiful. 

Tiles,  pan,  when  of  the  best  kind,  are 
made  of  an  earth  not  much  unlike  that  of  the 
paving-tiles,  and  often  of  the  same ;  but  the 
best  sort  of  all  is  a  pale-coloured  loam  that  is 
lesssandv;  thev  have  about  the  same  d-gree 
of  fire  given  them  in  the  baking,  and  they 
come  out  nearly  of  the  same  colour.  Tliese 
tiles  are  laid  in  mortar,  because  the  roof 
being  very  Hat,  and  many  of  them  warped  in 
the  burning,  they  will  not  cover  the  build- 
iiig  so  well  that  no  water  can  pass  between 
them. 

'I'iles,  pan,  llulrh  glazed,  get  the  addition 
of  glazing  in  the  Ihe.  Many  kiiuU  ol  e.n■lll^ 
matter  running  into  a  glassy  substance  in 
gieat  licat,  is  a  great  advantage  to  Ihem  ; 


T  ]  L 

preserving  them  much  longer  than  the  cora- 
mon  pan-tiles,  so  that  they  are  very  well 
worth  the  additional  charge  that  attends  the 
using  them. 

Tiles,  pan,  English  glazed,  are  in  general 
not  so  good  as  the  Dutch  ones  under  that 
denomination,  but  the  process  is  nearly  the 
same. 

Tiles,  Dutch,  for  chimneys,  are  of  a  kind 
very  diiiferent  from  all  the  rc-;t.  They  arc" 
made  of  a  whitish  earth,  glazed  and  painted 
with  various  ligures,  such  as  birds,  flowers, 
or  landscapes,  in  blue  or  purple  colour,  and 
sometimes  quite  white;  they  are  about  6.5 
inches  each  way,  and  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  thick.  They  are  seldom  used  at  pre- 
sent. 

Tiles,  gutter,  are  made  of  the  same  earth 
as  the  common  pan-tiles,  and  only  dilfer 
from  them  in  shape ;  but  it  is  advisable  that 
particular  care  is  taken  in  tempering  and 
working  the  earth  for  these,  for  none  are 
more  liable  to  accidents.  The  edges  of  these 
tiles  are  turned  up  at  the  larger  ends  for 
about  four  inches.  They  are  seldom  used 
where  lead  is  to  be  had. 

Tiles,  liip  or  corner,  are  at  first  made  flat, 
like  pan-tiles  of  a  quadrangular  tigiire,  whose 
two  sides  are  right  lines,  and  the  ends  arches 
of  circles;  the  upper  end  concave,  and  the 
lower  convex  the  latter  bein.;  abo  .t  sev-ii 
times  as  broad  as  the  other;  they  are  about 
10.5  inches  lon<;  but  betore  they  are  ournt, 
are  bent  cpon  a  mould  in  the  form  of  a  ridge 
tile,  having  a  hole  at  the  narrow  end,  to  nail 
them  on  the  hip-corner  of  the  roof. 

Tiles,  ridge,  are  used  to  cover  the  ridges 
of  houses,  and  are  maile  in  the  form  of  a  semi- 
cylindrical  surface,  about  13  inches  in  length, 
and  of  the  same  thickness  as  plain  tiles  ;  their 
breadth  at  the  outside  measures  about  sixteea 
inches. 

TILIA,  lime,  or  linden-tree,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  class  polyandria,  and  order  mo- 
nogynia,  and  in  the  natural  system  ranging 
under  the  columnifeia'.  Ihe  calyx  is  quin- 
quepartite;  the  corolla  pentapetalous;  the 
caps,  is  dry,  globose,  quinquelocular,  quiii- 
quevalve,  and  opening  at  the  base.  There 
are  four  species;  the  europaa,  americana, 
pubescens,  and  alba.  The  europaa,  or  com- 
mon lime-tree,  is  generally  supposed  to  be  a 
native  of  Britain;  but  we  are  informed  by 
Mr.  Coxe,  that  Mr.  Pennant  fold  him  (on 
what  authority  is  not  mentioned)  that  it  was 
imported  into  England  before  the  year  loi*. 
The  wood  is  light,  smooth,  and  ot  a  spongy 
texture,  used  for  making  lasts  ard  tables  for 
shoemakers,  &c.  Ropes  and  bandages  are 
made  of  the  bark,  and  mats  and  rustic  gar- 
ments of  the  inner  rind,  in  C'arniola  and  some 
other  countries.  The  lime-tree  contains  a 
gummv  juice,  which  being  repeatedly  boiled 
and  clarified,  produces  a  substance  like  sugar. 
TILI.AXDSIA,  a  genus  of  the  hexaiulria 
monogviiia  cla^s  of  plants,  with  a  tubulated 
monopetalovis  llower,  trilid  at  the  limb ;  the 
liuit  is  a  long,  obtusely  trigonal,  and  acuim- 
nated  capsule,  formed  ol  three  valves,  and 
containing  onlv  one  cell,  with  numerous  see;' 
at'hxed  to  a  long  capillary  p'unie.  The-  ^'^ 
16  species.  .  - 

'FILLER    of  a    ship,  a   stro-5  If  ^^  °{ 
wood  fastened  in  the  head  of  '■''<■  "'"I"'.  =»!><» 
in  vmall  ships  and  bmts  called  the  helm, 
in  ships  of  war,   and  other  large  vessels. 


T  I  M 

the  tiller  is  fasleiicd  to  tiie  riKlt'er  in  the  giin- 
jdoin  ;  and  to  tlii-  other  end  then-  ar<'  ropL-s 
fastened,  whicli  pass  upwards  to  the  cuiarter- 
dcck,  where  the  ship  is  steered  by  means  of 
■jl  wheel. 

'riLLffiA,  a  cteniis  of  plants  of  the  class 
tetrandiiu,  and  the  order  tetragynia,  and  in 
the  natural  system  ranging  under  the  13tli  or- 
der, succulenta^.  ']  lie  calyx  hasthiee  or  four 
divisions;  the  petals  are  three  or  four,  and 
equal ;  the  capsules  tinee  or  four,  and  poly- 
spermous.  1  here  are  eight  species,  of  which 
one  only,  the  muscosa,  ia  a  native  of  Kng- 
land.  Ihe  muscosa,  or  procumbent  tiUaa, 
has  prostrate  stems,  almost  erect,  generally 
red,  and  growing  longer  alter  ilowering.  'I'he 
parts  of  fructificatioii  are  always  three.  'I'he 
leaves  grow  in  pairs,  and  are  fleshy.  It  is 
found  on  dry  heaths  in  Norfolk  and  Suflblk, 
and  flowers  in  May  and  June. 

TILLAGE.  See  Husbandry. 

TILT-BOAT,  a  boat  covered  with  a  tilt, 
that  is,  a  cloth  or  tarpawlin,  sustained  by 
hoops,  for  the  sheltering  of  passengers. 
■TIMBKR,  includes  all  kinds  of  felled 
and  seasoned  woods.  See  Acer,  Betui.us, 
Fra.*;inus,   Quercus,  Pinus,  Flatanus, 

PoPULUS,   UlMUS,  &C. 

Of  all  the  dilf'erenl  kinds  known  in  Kurope, 
oak  is  the  best  for  building,  and  even  when  it 
lies  exposed  to  air  and  waier,  there  is  none 
equal  to  it.  Fn-tin-.ber  is  however  perhaps 
more  geneiallv  useful  than  any  other.  It  is 
used  for  flooring,  wainscoting,  and  the  orna- 
mental parts  of  building  within  doors.  Elm  is 
the  next  iji  use,  especially  in  Ejisland  and 
France ;  it  is  very  tough  and  pliable,  and 
therefore  easily  worked ;  it  does  not  rea- 
dily split;  and  it  bears  driving  of  bolts  and 
nails  better  Uian  any  other  wood.  Ash  is 
chiefly  used  by  wheelwrights  and  coach- 
makers,  for  shafts,  naves,  &lc.  Beech  is  also 
\ised  for  many  purposes  ;  it  is  very  toijgh  and 
white  when  young,  and  of  great  strength, 
but  liable  to  warp  very  much  when  exposed 
to  the  weather,  and  to  be  worm-eaten  when 
used  within  doors ;  its  greatest  use  is  for 
planks,  bedsteads,  chairs,  and  other  house- 
hold goods.  Wdd-chesnut  timber  is  by 
many  esteemed  to  be  as  good  as  oak,  and 
seems  to  have  been  much  used  in  old  build- 
ings ;  but  whether  these  trees  are  more  scarce 
at  present  than  formerly,  or  have  been  found 
not  to  answer  so  well  as  was  imagined,  this 
timber  is  now  but  little  used.  Walnut-tree 
is  excellent  for  the  joiner's  use,  it  being  of  a 
more  curious  brown  colour  than  beech,  and 
not  so  subject  to  the  worms.  The  poplar, 
abel,  and  aspen-tree,  which  are  very  little 
different  fron)  each  other,  are  sometimes 
used  instead  of  fir,  but  mostly  by  turners,  ic. 
The  goodne^sof  timber  not  only  depends  on 
the  soil  and  situation  in  whicii  it  stands,  but 
likewise  on  the  season  wherein  it  is  felled. 
In  this,  people  disagree  very  much;  some  are 
for  having  it  lelled  as  soon  as  its  fruit  is  ripe, 
others  in  the  spring,  and  many  in  the  ai.tumn. 
But  as  the  sap  and  moisture  of  timber  are  cer- 
tainly the. causes  that  it  perishes  much  sooner 
than  it  otherwise  would  do,  it  seems  evident 
that  timber  should  be  felled  when  there  is  the 
least  sap  in  it,  viz.  from  the  time  that  the 
leaves  begin  to  fall,  till  the  trees  begin  to  bud. 
This  woili  usually  commences  about  the  end 
of  April  in  England,  because  the  bark  then 
rises  most  freely ;  for  where  a  quantity   of 


T  I  M 

timber  is  to  be  felled,  the  statute  requires  it 
to  be  done  then,  lor  the  advantage  of  tanning. 

Alti'r  timber  has  L-een  felled  and  sawed, 
it  must  be  seasoned  ;  for  which  purpose  some 
advise  it  to  be  laid  up  in  a  v<-ry  dry  airy 
place,  yet  out  of  the  wind  and  sun,  or  at  h  ast 
free  from  the  extremities  of  either  ;  and  that 
it  may  not  decay,  but  dry  evenly,  they  re- 
commend it  to  be  daubed  over  with  cow- 
dung.  It  must  not  stand  upright,  but  lie 
all  along,  one  jiiece  over  another,  only  kept 
ajiart  by  short  blocks  interposed,  to  prevent 
a  certain  mouldiness  which  they  are  other- 
wise apt  to  contract  in  sweating  on  one  an- 
other; from  wliich  arises  frequently  a  kind 
ol  fungus,  especially  if  there  are  any  sappy 
parts  leinaining.  Others  advise  the  planks 
of  timber  to  be  laid  for  a  few  days  in  some 
pool  or  running  stream,  in  order  to  extract 
the  sap,  and  afterwards  to  dry  them  in  the  sun 
or  air.  By  this  means,  it  is  said,  they  w  ill  be 
prevented  from  either  chopping,  casting,  or 
(leaving,  but  against  shrinking  there  is  no 
remedy.  Some  again  'are  for  burying  them 
in  the  earth,  others  in  a  heal ;  and  some  lor 
scorching  and  seasoning  them  in  fire,  espe- 
cially piles,  posts,  &c.  which  are  to  stand  in 
water  or  earth.  The  Venetians  first  found 
out  the  method  of  seasoning  by  fire,  which  is 
done  alter  this  manner:  they  put  the  piece 
to  be  seasoned  into  a  strong  and  violent 
llame,  in  which  they  continually  turn  it  round 
by  means  of  an  engine,  and  take  it  out  when 
it  is  everywhere  covered  with  a  black  coaly 
crust;  when  the  internal  part  of  the  wood  is 
so  hardened,  that  neitlier  earth  nor  water  can 
damage  it  for  a  long  lime  afterwards. 

After  the  planks  of  timber  have  been  well 
seasoned  and  fixed  in  their  places,  care  is  to 
be  taken  to  defend  or  preserve  them  ;  to 
which  the  smearing  them  with  linseed-oil,  tar, 
or  other  oleaginous  matter,  <:ontributes  much. 

To  measure  round  timber,  let  the  mean 
circumference  be  fourid  in  feet  and  decimals 
of  a  foot;  square  it,  multiply  this  square  by 
the  decimal  0.079.577,  and  the  product  by 
the  length.  Ex.  Let  the  mean  circumference 
of  a  tree  be  10.3  feet,  and  the  length  24  feet. 
Then  10.3  X  10.3X0. O79i77X-'4  =  a02.6l5, 
the  number  of  cubical  feet  in  the  tree.  The 
foundation  of  this  rule  is,  that  when  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  circle  is  1,  the  area  is 
0.079J774715,  and  that  the  areas  of  circles 
are  as  the  squares  of  their  ciicnni.ferences. 

But  the  common  way  used  by  artil'icers 
for  measuring  round  timber,  differs  much 
from  this  rule.  They  call  one-fourth  part  of 
the  circumference  the  girt,  which  is  by  them 
reckoned  the  side  of  a  square  whose  area 
is  equal  to  the  area  of  the  section  of  the  tree  ; 
they  therefore  square  the  girt,  and  then  mul- 
tiply by  the  length  of  the  tree.  According  to 
their  method,  the  tree  of  the  last  example 
v.'ould  be  computed  at  159.13  cubical  feet 
only. 

For  measuring  hewn  or  square  timber,  the 
custom  is  to  hncl  the  middle  of  the  length  of 
the  tree,  and  there  to  measure  its  breadth, 
by  clapping  two  rules  to  the  sides  of  the  tree, 
and  measuring  the  distance  betwixt  them  ;  in 
like  manner  they  measure  the  breadth  the 
other  way.  If  the  two  are  found  unequal, 
they  are  added  together,  and  half  their  sum 
is  taken  for  the  true  side  of  the  square. 

Timber,  atrenglh  of.  "  After  spending 
much  time,"  says  Mr.  Smart,  "  in  making 
various  experiments,  and  comparing  the  re- 


T  r  M 


799 


suits  with  those  of  i'uffon,  Belidore,  ^r.  (he 
dilferciiceii  were  so  great,  that  it  would  be 
Masting  time  to  enumerate  them:  I  shall 
therefore  only  mention  some  u.-i  (i,l  observa- 
tions necessary  b>  be  Known  by  all  those  me- 
chanics «ho  use  timber;  and  (joint  out  some 
evident  errors  in  a  table  of  lielidore's,  sup- 
jiosed  to  be  the  result  of  the  best  set  of  expe- 
riments ever  produced  in  trair?verse  strains. 
He  tells  us,  that  a  bar  of  wood,  lliirlysix 
inches  long,  and  one  inch  square,  supported 
at  the  ends  by  two  props,  will  brei'k  with  a 
weight  of  187  pounds  on  the  middle,  if  it  is 
loose  at  the  ends;  but  if  the  ends  are  firmly 
fixed,  it  will  re<|uire  283  pounds  to  break  it. 
"This appeared  to  me  so  great  an  error,  that 
1  was  induced  to  ])ut  little  or  no  confidtncein 
many  of  his  experiments;  and,  in  conse- 
tjuence,  I  made  two  latl.s  of  fir,  of  the  same 
dimensions,  one  with  a  strolig  shoulder  at 
each  end,  to  prevent  its  bending,  which  hav- 
ing lirmly  fixed  in  a  frame,  it  carried  a.wc-ight 
more  than  ten  times  greater  than  that  which 
was  loose." 

The  fibres  of  timber  requiring  so  great  a 
force  to  tear  them  asunder  in  a  vertical  direc- 
tion, and  being  easily  broken  by  a  transverse 
strain,  when  compared  to  that  of  a  rope  car- 
rying nearly  an  cciual  weight  in  all  directions, 
opens  a  wide  field  for  useful  experiments. 
All  timber-trees  have  their  annual  circles,  or 
growths,  which  vary  greatly  according  to 
the  soil  and  exjiosure  to  the  sun.  The  north- 
east side  of  the  trees  (being  much  smaller  in 
the  grain  than  the  other  parts,  which  are  more 
exposed  to  the  sun)  is  strongest  for  any  co- 
lumn that  has  a  weight  to  siqiport  in  a  ver- 
tical direction  ;  because  its  hard  circles,  or 
tubes,  are  nearer  each  other,  and  the  area 
contains  a  greater  quantity  of  them  ;  nor  are 
they  so  liable  to  be  compressed  by  llie 
weight,  or  to  slide  past  each  other,  as  when 
they  are  ac  a  greater  distance.  On  the  other 
hand,  this  part  of  the  tree  is  not  fit  for  a  trans- 
verse strain;  because  the  nearer  the  hard 
circles  are  to  each  other,  the  easier  the  beam 
will  break,  there  being  so  httle  space  between 
them,  that  one  forms  a  fulcrum  to  break  the 
other  upon  :  but  that  part  of  a  tree,  the  tubes 
of  which  are  at  a  greater  distance,  or  of  larger 
grain,  is  more  elastic,  and  requires  a  greater 
lorce  to  break  it;  because  the  outside  fibre 
on  the  convex  side  ;  cannot  snap  till  the  next 
one  is  pressed  upon  it,  which  tbrins  the  ful- 
crum to  break  it  on.  It  is  generally  observed 
in  large  timbers,  such  as  masts,  tliatthe  frac- 
ture is  seldom  on  the  convex,  but  usually  on 
the  concave  side ;  which  is  owing  to  the  fibres 
on  the  concave  side  being  more  readily 
forced  past  each  other,  and  those  on  the 
convex  being  so  difficult  to  be  torn  asunder, 
th.t  they  cannot  snap,  in  consequence  of  the 
largeness  of  the  segment  of  the  circle  they 
describe  when  on  the  strain.  The  curve  de- 
scribed by  the  inner  layers  of  the  wood  being 
so  large,  and  indeed  little  less  than  a  straight 
line,  cannot  form  a  fulcrum  to  break  the 
outer  ones  upon;  and  as  the  convex  side,  or 
that  on  which  the  fibres  are  extended,  ought 
to  be  always  free  from  any  mortise  or  inci- 
sion on  the  outside,  the  strength  decreases  as 
it  approaches  the  centre. 

Figs.  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  10,  Plate  Ship-build- 
ing, describe  the  simple  method  invented 
by  Mr.  George  Smart,  of  converting  all 
timber  that  is  straight,  and  intended  for 
square  beams,  to  great  advantage  in  general 


too 


T  I  M 


H-iv.  Fig.  S  is  a  s;Ti',.in  of  the  biit-eiid  of  a 
tix-e,  two  feci  in  duinieter,  sawn  o"  chopped 
diagonii'.ly.  Fig.  t)  is  the  otiier  end,  sawn 
s;iuaic,  one  foot  each  side:  cut  it  exactly 
t  iiou^h  the  centre  in  two  cross-cuts  ab,  de, 
it  will'pvoiliice  four  pieces  ;  which  are  put  to- 
gether, as  in  tigs.  0  and  7,  with  the  conlre 
turned  outwards,  tiie  but-end  of  one  pieci? 
with  the  siuall  end  of  the  other,  and  dowel  or 
bolt  Ihcni  together  as  hg  10:  you  will  then 
forma  bjani,  whose  section  is  shewn  in  tigs. 


o  and 


Hi'ar  from  one  end  to  the  olht-r, 


with  the  ad\antage  of  having  tlie  heart  ol 
riie  tree  in  th.e  (ihice  where  the  hardness  and 
btronatli  are  most  wanted,  viz.  in  the  corners 
wlii  h  form  the  abutments;  whereas,  the 
s,ime  tree  squared  into  a  p;;rallel  beam,  would 
tiave  been  much  smaller,  and  the  soft  or 
sappy  parts  of  the  wood  e.xposed  to  the  ac- 
i  ion  of  tile  air  and  moisture.  In  riush-framing 
!t  is  observable,  that  the  failure  of  all  tinibi.'r 
in  old  buildmgs  has  commenced  much  sooner 
than  tl-.ev  otherwise  would  have  done,  owing 
to  the  sappy  wood  being  at  the  corners  ot  the 
principal  iJeams,  which  soon  decays,  as  its 
spongy  <iuality  attractsthe  moisture  ;  whereas 
the  heart,  especially  of  oak,  will  be  as  sound 
as  the  lirst  day  it  was  used. 

As  all  beams  take  their  weight  horizon- 
tally, or  on  any  transverse  bearinj^,  have 
tiie'ir  ])rincipal  strain  on  the  ujjper  and  lower 
sunace,  every  w^orkman  ought  to  guard 
against  having  sap  in  beams,  because  if  they 
<lo  not  immediateiy  decay,  they  shrink,  so  as 
to  let  loose  all  the  framing,  and  soon  cripple 
the  building  or  machine:  but  on  Mr.  Smart's 
plan  the  sapjjy  |>art  of  the  wood  is  excluded 
rrom  what  would  cause  its  decay,  and  the 
timber  increased  in  quantity  is  considerably 
more  than  the  extra  labour  and  expence. 

A  tree  of  oak,  forty  feel  long  and  two  feet 
fliameter  at  the  but-end,  and  one  foot  at  tiie 
top,  wlien  put  together  on  this  plan,  will 
have  its  sides  each  18  inches  square,  which 
contains  90  feet;  whereas,  on  the  old  plan 
40  would  be  the  content  of  a  square  beam, 
cut  from  the  same  tree  ;  yO  cubic  feet  would 
have  been  cut  off  as  slabs,  or  chopped  up  for 
the  lire.  The  expence  of  sawing  and  putting 
a  beam  of  the  above  dimensions  in  London  in 
the  year  1S02  would  have  been  as  follows: 
Four  outside  cuts  at  14  inches  deep  ^  I.  s.  d. 
Two  breaking,  cut  at  18  '  l     3  0 

Lengtli   40  feet,  306  feet  sawing  at  C 

7.1.  M.  J 

.120  12-in(h dowels,  at  \d.  each  0 

Uoring    240  holes,   and    putting  to- 

getlier  .  .  1 


10  0 


5  0 


2  18  0 
Allowing  the  .50  feet  saved  to  be  worth  ti/. 
then  the  proprietor  would  save  .3/.  '.'.v.  in  each 
beam  so  converted.  The  dowels  ought  not 
to  go  through,,  as  that  would  weaken  the 
timber.  In  an  IS-inch  beam  the  dowels 
should  come  within  three  inches  of  the  out- 
side ;  but  w  here  a  mortise  is  cut  in  place  of 
a  dowel,  it  is  proper  to  have  an  iron  screw 
iioll  to  prevent  the  joint  opening  with  the 
pressure  of  the  tennoii ;  and  the  work  ought 
to  he  put  together  with  screw  clamps,  for  nails 
or  hammers  bruise  the  wood,  and  destroy  he 
cohesion  of  its  lihres  for  a  considi:ralile  depth. 
The  method  we  are  here  describing  is  in- 
cjiided  in  Mr.  Smart's  patent  lor  hollow  masts 
described  in  our  article  Ship;  yet,  as  far  as 


T  1  M 

relates  to  lessening  the  cohsumplion  of  Eng- 
lish oak,  and  introducing  the  larch  and  iirs 
of  our  own  growth  into  general  use,  Mr. 
Smart  has  liberally  granted  licences  to  all 
who  chose  to  ajiply  to  him  for  them,  masts, 
yards,  bowsprits,  &c.  excepted. 

Timber  treks,  in  law,  are  properly  oak, 
ash,  and  elm.  In  some  particular  countries, 
bv  local  custom,  other  trees  being  commonly 
there  made  use  of  tor  building,  are  considered 
as  timber.  2  Black.  CS.  Of  these,  being  part 
ofthe'freehold,  larceny  cannot  be  committed; 
but  if  they  are  severed  alone  lime,  and  car- 
ried awav  at  another,  tlien  the  stealing  of 
them  is  larceriy.  And  by  several  late  sta- 
tues the  stealing  of  them  in  the  hrst  instance 
is  made  felonv,  or  incurs  a  pecuniar)  torlei- 
lure.  4  Rlack!  233. 

For  the  better  preservation  of  roots  shrubs, 
and  plants,  it  is  by  tiie  6  G.  111.  c.  4«,  enact- 
ed, that  from  and  after  the  24lh  dav  of  .Uii.e, 
171)6,  every  person  convicted  of  damaging, 
destro\ing,'or  carrving  away  any  timber  tree 
or  trees,  or  trees  "likely  to  become  limber, 
without  consent  of  the  owner,  &:c.  sliall  for- 
feit for  the  firsl  ol'fence  not  e.xceuding  20/. 
with  the  charges  attending:  and  on  non-pay- 
ment shall  be  committed  for  not  more  than 
twelve,  nor  less  than  six,  months ;  for  the  se- 
cond olience,  a  sum  not  exceeding  30/.  and 
on  non-payment  sliall  be  committed  for  not 
more  than'eighteen,  and  not  less  than  twelve, 
months;  and  for  the  third  offence  is  lobe 
transported  for  seven  years.  All  oak,  beech, 
chesnut,  walnut,  ash,  elm,  cedar,  lir,  asp,  lime, 
sycamore,  and  birch,  trees,  shall  be  deemrd 
and  taken  to  be  timber-treet;  within  the  in-  ' 
tent  of  this  act. 

By  the  same  act,  the  plucking  or  spoiling 
of  roots,  shrubs,  or  plants,  is  subject  to  a  fine 
of  4/.  for  tlie  first  offence,  and  5/.  for  the  se- 
cond, and  transportation  lor  tlie  third.  Jus- 
tices of  peace  are  to  put  this  act  in  execution. 

TIME,  in  music,  is  an  affection  of  sound, 
by  which  we  denominate  it  long  or  sliort,  with 
regard  to  its  continuance. 

Common,  or  double  time,  is  of  two  spe- 
cies. 1.  When  every  bar  or  measure  is  equal 
to  a  semibreve,  or  its  value  in  any  combi- 
nation of  notes  of  a  lesser  quantity.  2.  \\  hen 
every  bar  is  equal  to  a  minim,  or  its  value  in 
lesser  notes.  The  movements  of  this  kind  of 
measure  are  various,  but  there  are  three 
common  distinctions;  the  first  slow,  signilied 
bv   the  mark  C ;  the  second  brisk,  signilied 

by  ^;  the  third  very  quickjsignified  by  ^. 

Tlie  old  musicians  were  acquainted  with 
no  more  than  two  sorts  of  time :  one  oi  three 
measures  in  a  bar,  which  they  called  perfect; 
and  the  other  of  two,  considered  as  imperfect. 

When  the  time  was  perfect,  the  breve  was 
equal  to  three  semihreves,  which  was  ex- 
pressed bv  an  entire  circle,  barred  or  not 
barred,  and  sometimes  also  by  this  compound 

-3 

character  ":.     When  the  time  was  imperfect, 

llie  breve  was  equal  only  to  two  semibrevcs, 
which  was  indicated  by  a  semicircle,  or  C. 
S'omelimes  the  C  was  reversed,  as  thus  f), 
which  signified  a  diminution,  by  one-half,  of 
the  powers  of  the  notes  ;  a  particularity  some- 
times denote<l  in  the  more  modern  music  by 
a  perpendicular  bar  drawn  through  tlie  cha- 
racter, as  thus  g.      The  time  of  the  full  C 


T  I  M 

was  gppieral'y  called  the  major  time,  and  that 
of  the  reversed  3  the  minor  time. 

'1  he  moderns  have  added  to  the  old  music 
a  combination  of -limes  ;  but  still  we  may  say 
that  we  have  no  more  than  two  limes,  com- 
mon and  triple :  since  the  lime  of  nine 
crotchets,  or  nine  ([uavers  in  a  bar,  is  but-ii- 
species  of  triple  time;  and  that  of  six 
ciotchets,  or  six  quavers  in  a  bur,  though 
called  a  compound  common  time,  being  mea- 
sured bv  luo  beats,  one  down  and  one  up, 
is  as  absolutely  common  time  as  that  of  lour 
crotchets  in  a  bar. 

Vt'ith  respect  to  the  velocities  of  the  dif- 
ferent species  of  time,  they  lye  as  various  as 
tlie  measures  and  mouihcations  of  music,  and 
are  generally  expressed  by  some  Italian  word 
or  phrase  at  f.ie  beginning  ot  each  movement, 
as  larghetto  (rather  slow),  presto  (quick), 
lSiC.  But  when  once  the  lime  of  the  imjiroN e- 
nienl  is  determined,  all  the  measures  are  to 
be  perfectly  equal,  that  is,  every  bar  is  to 
take  up  the  same  quaiilit\  of  time,  and  the 
corresponding  divisions  ol  llic  bars  are  to  be 
perfectly  symmetrical  with  respect  to  each 
other. 

I'lME-KEEPERS,  in  a  general  sense,  denote 
inslrumcnts  adajjled  for  measuring  lime.  See 
Chronometer. 

In  a  more  peculiar  and  definite  sense,  time- 
keeper is  a  term  first  applied  by  Mr.  John 
Harrison  to  his  watches  constructed  for  de- 
termining the  longiuide  at  sea,  and  forwhcili 
he  received,  at  ditferent  times,  the  parlia- 
mentar)  rewaril  of  twenty  thousand  pounds. 
Several  other  artists  have  since  received  also 
considerable  sums  for  their  improvements  of 
time-keepers,  as  Arnold,  Mudge,  &c.  See 
Longitude. 

This  appellation  is  now  become  common 
among  artists,  to  distinguish  such  watches  as 
are  made  with  extraordinary  care  and  accu- 
racy for  nautical  or  astronomical  observa- 
tioas. 

The  principles  of  Mr.  Harrison's  time- 
keeper, as  they  were  communicated  by  him- 
self to  the  commissioners  appointed  to  re- 
ceive and  publish  the  same  in  the  year  1765, 
are  as  follow: 

"  In  this  time-keeper  there  is  the  greatest 
care  taken  to  avoid  fricliou,  as  much  as  caa 
be,  bv  the  w  heels  moving  on  small  pivots,  and 
in  rubv-holes,  and  high  numbers  in  the  wheels 
and  pinions. 

"  1  he  part  which  measures  time  goes  but 
the  eighth  part  of  a  minute  without  winding 
up  ;  so  that  part  is  very  simple,  as  this  wiiiti- 
ing-up  is  performed  at  the  wheel  next  to  the 
balance-wheel,  by  w  hich  means  there  is  al- 
ways an  e<|ual  force  acting  at  that  wheel,  and 
all  the  rest  of  the  work  has  no  more  to  <'0  in 
the  measuring  of  time  than  the  person  that 
winds  up  once  a  ilay. 

"There  is  a  spring  in  the  inside  of  the 
fusee,  which  I  will  call  a  secondary  main 
spring.  This  spring  is  always  kept  stretched 
to  a  certain  tension  by  the  main  sprmg ;  and 
during  the  time  of  winding  up  the  tune- 
keeper,  at  which  time  the  main  spring  is  not 
suffered  to  act.  this  secondary  spring  supplies 
its  place. 

"  In  common  watches  in  general,  the 
wheels  have  about  one-third  the  dominion 
over  the  balance  that  the  balance-spring  has; 
that  is,  if  the  power  which  the  balance-spring 
has  over  the  balance  is  called  three,  that  from 


T  1  M 

Mif  uliecl  Is  one  ;  but  in  (hi*  tiiiip-kcppi^r  (Iip 
iilieLls  liavc  Oi;ly  about  oiic-<-if;lil'K-lli  part  ol 
the  poww  over  I  Ik;  bahiiiCL-  tliat  IIk?  balaiici.-- 
spriiig  has ;  and  it  nuist  be  allDwt-d,  tin.'  less 
the  wheels  have  tu  do  with  the  balance,  the 
better.  'I'lie  wheels  in  a  eonuiion  watcli 
iuving  this  great  dominion  over  the  balance, 
they  can,  \\  hen  tlie  watch  is  woinid  np,  an(i 
(be  balance  at  rest,  si  I  the  watch  a  going  ; 
bnt  when  my  time-keeper's  balance  is  at  rest, 
and  the  spring  is  wound  np,  the  force  of  the 
wheels  can  no  more  set  it  a  goinc;  than  the 
wheels  of  a  lommon  regulator  can,  \vh<-n  the 
weight  is  wound  up,  set  the  pendiduni  a 
vibrating;  nor  will  Ihi- lorce  from  tlie  wheels 
jiiore  the  balance  when  at  rest,  to  a  greater 
angle  in  proportion  to  the  vibration  that  it  is 
to  letch,  than  the  force  of  the  wheels  of  a 
coniinon  regidator  can  move  tJK.'  pendiduin 
from  the  perpendicular,  when  it  is  at  rest. 

"  My  lime-keeper's  balance  is  more  than 
three  times  the  weight  of  a  large-sized 'com- 
mon walch  balance,  and  three  times  its  dia- 
meter ;  and  a  common  watch  balance  goes 
through  about  six  inches  of  space  in  a  se<:ond, 
but  mine  goes  through  about  twenty-four 
inciies  in  that  time ;  so  that  had  my  time- 
keeper only  these  advantages  over  a  common 
watch,  a  good  performance  niigki  be  expect- 
ed from  it.  lint  my  tinie-keeper  is  not  alfei  t- 
ed  by  the  different  degrees  of  heat  and  cold, 
nor  agitation  of  the  shi)) ;  and  the  force  from 
the  wheels  is  applied  to  the  balance  in  such  a 
jiianrier,  together  with  the  shape  of  the  ba- 
lance-spring, and,  if  I  may  be  allowed  the 
term,  an  aitilicial  cycloid,  which  acts  at  this 
spring;  so  that  from  these  contrivances,  let 
the  balance  vil)rate  more  or  less,  all  its  vibra- 
tions are  performed  in  the  same  time ;  and 
therefore  it  it  goes  at  all,  it  must  go  true.  So 
that  it  is  plain  from  this,  that  such  a  thiie- 
Iceeper  goes  entirely  from  principle,  and  not 
tVom  chance." 

We  must  refer  those  who  may  desire  to  see 
a  minute  account  of  the  construction  of  Mr. 
Harrison's  time-keeper,  to  the  publication 
by  order  of  the  commissioners  of  longitude. 

\Vc  sliall  here  snbioin  a  short  view  of  the 
improvements  in  Mr.  Harrison's  watch,  Irom 
the  account  presented  t*  tiie  board  of  longi- 
tude by  Mr.  Ludlani,  one  of  the  gentlemen 
to  wliom,  by  order  of  the  commissioners,  Mr. 
Harrison  tliscovercd  and  explained  the  prin- 
ciple upon  which  his  time-keeper  is  con- 
structed. The  defects  in  common  wattlu-s 
winch  Mr.  Harrison  proposes  to  remedy,  are 
chieliy  these  :  I.  That  the  main  spring  acts 
not  constantly  with  the  same  force  upon  the 
wheels,  and  through  them  upon  the  balance. 

2.  That  the  balance,  either  urged  with  an 
unequal  force,  or  meeting  with  a  dilferent  re- 
sistance from  the  air,  or  the  oil,  or  the  fric- 
tion, vibrates  through  a  greater  or  less  arch. 

3.  That  these  unei|ual  vibrations  are  not 
performed  in  equal  times.  And,  4.  That  the 
force  of  llie  balance-spring  is  altered  by  a 
change  of  hi-at. 

To  remedy  the  first  defect,  Mr.  Harrison 
has  contrived  that  his  watch  shall  be  moved 
by  a  very  tender  spring,  wht*h  never  unrolls 
itself  more  than  one-eiglith  part  of  a  turn, 
and  acts  u|)on  the  balance  through  one  wheel 
only.  But  such  a  spring  cannot  keep  the 
«vatcb  in  niotion  a  longtime.  He  has,  there- 
fore, joined  another,  whose  office  is  to  wind 
i,|)Uie  first  spring  eight  times  in  every  mi- 
ButPj  and  which  is  itself  wound  up  but  oikc  a 

Vol.  II. 


T  I  N 

d.iy.  To  remedy  the  second  defect,  be  uses 
a  much  stronger  balance-si)ring  than  in  a 
common  watch.  For  if  the  toice  of  this 
spring  upon  the  balance  remains  the  same, 
whilst  the  force  of  (be  other  varjes,  the  errors 
arising  from  that  Variation  will  be  the  less,  as 
the  fixed  force  is  the  greater.  Hut  a  stronger 
s|)ring  will  recinire  eitiiera  heavier  or  a  larger 
balance.  A  heavier  balance  would  have  a 
greater  friction.  Mr.  Harrison,  tlierelore, 
increases  the  diameter  of  it.  In  .i  common 
watch  it  is  under  an  inch,  but  in  Mr.  Uani- 
soii's,  two  inches  and  two  tenths.  However, 
the  mithuds  alreadv  described  only  lessening 
the  errors,  and  not  removing  them.  Mr.  Har- 
rison uses  two  w  ays  to  make  tlic  limes  of  the 
vibrations  equal,  though  the  arches  maybi; 
unequal :  one  is  to  place  a  pin  so  that'  the 
balance-spring  pressing  against  it,  has  its  force 
iiicreasecl,  but  increased  less  when  the  v.iria- 
tionsare  larger;  the  other,  to  give  the  pallets 
such  a  shape,  that  the  wheel  may  press  them 
with  less  advantage  when  the  vibrations  are 
larger.  To  remedy  the  last  detect,  Mr. 
Harrison  uses  a  bar  conq)Ounded  of  two  thin 
plates  of  brass  and  .steel,  about  two  inches  in 
length,  riveted  in  several  places  togetlier, 
fastofied  at  one  end,  and  having  two  pins  at 
the  other,  bi-tween  which  the  balance-s|)ring 
passes.  If  this  bar  is  straight  in  temperate 
weather  (brass  changing  its  length  by  heat 
more  than  steel),  the  brass  side  iK'comes  con- 
vex when  it  is  heated,  and  the  steel  side  when 
it  is  cold;  and  thus  the  pins  lav  bold  of  a  dif- 
ferent part  of  the  spring  in  different  di'grces 
of  heat,  and  lengthen  or  shorten  it  as  the  re- 
gulator does  in  a  common  watch. 

The  principles  on  wliich  Mr.  Arnold's 
time-keeper  is  construiled  are  these:  The 
balance  is  unconnected  with  the  wheel-work, 
except  at  the  time  it  receives  the  impulse  to 
make  it  continue  its  motion,  which  is  only 
wkilst  it  vibrates  10°  out  of  330",  which  i's 
the  whole  vibration;  and  during  this  small 
interval  it  has  little  or  no  friction,  but  what 
is  on  the  pivots,  which  work  in  ruby  holes  on 
diamonds.  It  has  but  one  pallet,  which  is  a 
plane  surface  formed  out  of  a  ruby,  and  has 
no  oil  on  it.  Watches  of  this  construction, 
says  Mr.  Lvons,  go  whilst  they  are  wound 
up ;  they  keep  the  s;ime  rate  of  going  in  every 
position,  and  are  not  affected  by  the  different 
forces  of  the  spring;  and  the  compensation 
for  heat  and  cold  is  absolutely  adjustable. 

TIN,  a  metal  known  to  the  anlients:  the 
Pheniciaiis  procured  it  from  Spain  and  Britain, 
with  which  nations  they  carried  on  a  very 
extensive  and  lucrative  commerce.  This 
metal  has  a  line  white  colour,  like  silver;  a 
slight  disagreeable  taste,  and  emits  a  peculiar 
smell  when  rubbed.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
7l.'9.  It  is  very  malleable.  Tin-l'-af  or  foil 
is  about  YTs'ooli"  pari  of  an  inch  tliick,  and  it 
might  be  reiliiced  to  half  this  thickness.  It 
is  very  flexible,  and  produces  a  remarkable 
crackhna  noise  when  bended,  and  when  heat- 
ed to  442'  it  melts.  When  exposed  lo  tlie 
air  it  very  soon  loses  its  lustre,  and  assumes  a 
grevish-wliite  colour,  but  undergoes  no  far- 
ther change.  Neither  is  it  sensibly  altered 
bv  being  kept  under  cold  water ;  but  w  hen 
the  stream  of  water  is  made  to  pass  over  red- 
hot  tin,  it  is  decomposed,  the  tin  is  oxidated, 
and  hydrogen  gas  is  evolved. 

When  tin  ii  melted  in  an  opec  vessel,  its 
surface  become*  servsooH  covered  with  a 
51 


T  I  N 


SOl 


grov  powder,  wliich  is  an  oxide  of  the  metal. 
If  tlie  heat  is  continued,  the  colour  of  the 
powder  gradually  changes,  and  at  least  it  be- 
comes jc:llow.  'in  this  stiite  it  is  known  by 
the  name  of  iintty,  and  emjjloyed  in  polishing 
glass  and  otlier  iiard  bodies.  V't'hcn  tin  is 
heated  very  violently  In  an  open  veisel,  it 
lakes  fire,  and  is  converted  into  a  fine  white 
oxide,  which  may  be  obtained  in  crystals. 

Till  is  cajiable  of  combining  witfi  two  dif- 
ferent i)roportiorrtof  oxygen,  and  of  forming 
twooxitlcs  ;  usually  distinguished,  on  account 
of  their  colour,  by  the  names  of  tlic  jt'llo\r 
and  the  w  bite  oxide. 

'I'he  protoxiile  may  be  obtained  by  ex- 
posing tin  to  a  strong  heat  under  a  muffle, 
constantly  stirring  it  with  a  rod.  It  may  lie 
procured  also  by  d  ssolving  tin  in  diluted 
nitric  acid  without  the  assistance  of  heat.  anVl 
then  precipitating  the  oxide  by  ))ure  potass: 
but  in  tliat  case  it  retains  a  little  acid,  and 
has  a  white  colour.  It  is  composed  of  about 
'20  parts  of  oxygen  and  80  of  tin. 

,  The  peroxide  may  be  obtained  by  liPating 
tin  in  concentrated  nitric  acid.  A  violent 
effervescence  ensues,  and  the  wiiole  of  (he 
tin  is  converted  into  a  white  powder,  wliich 
is  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  It 
is  composed  of  about  C3  parts  of  oxygen  and 
7'2  of  tin. 

Tin  combines  with  sulphur  and  phospho- 
rus ;  but  it  has  never  been  combined  witk 
carbon  or  hydrogen. 

Sulphnre't  of  tin  may  be  formed  by  throw- 
ing bits  of  sulphur  upon  the  metal  melted  in 
a  crucible,  (>r  by  fusing  the  two  ingredients 
together.  It  is  brittle,  heavier  than  tin,  and 
not  30  fusible.  It  is  of  a  blueish  colour  and 
lamellated  structure,  and  is  cajiable  of  cry- 
stallizing. According  to  Bergman,  it  is  com- 
posed of  SO  ])arts  of  tin  and  20  of  sulphur; 
according  to  I'elleticr,  of  8  j  parts  of  tin  and 
1 5  of  sulphur. 

When  equal  pa-ts  of  white  oxide  of  tin  and 
sulphur  are  mixed  together  and  heated  gra- 
dually in  a  retort,  some  sulphur  and  sulphu- 
rous acid  are  disengaged;  and  there  remains 
a  substance  composed  of  40  parts  of  sulphur 
and  fiO  of  white  oxide  of  tin,  formerly  called 
aurmn  musivum,  musieum,  or  mosaicum,  and 
now  sulphureted  oxide  of  tin.  It  consi-fs  of 
beautiiul  gold-coloured  flakes,  exceedingly 
light,  wbiili  adhere  to  the  skin.  The  pro- 
cess for  making  this  substance  \ras  formerly 
very  complicated.  Pelletier  first  demon- 
strated its  real  composition,  and  was  hence 
fnabled  to  make  many  important  improve' 
nieiits  in  the  manner  of  manufacturing  it. 

I'hosphuret  of  tin  may  be  formed  by  melt- 
ing in  a  crncil)le  equal  parts  of  filings  of  t:« 
and  pliosphoric  g'ass.  Tin  has  a  greater  r.f.i- 
nitv  for  oxygen  than  phosphorus  lias.  Part 
of  the  metal  therefore  combines  with  the 
oxvgen  of  the  glass  during  the  fusion,  and 
flies  off  in  the  slate  of  an  oxide,  and  the  ri.^t 
of  the  tin  combines  with  the  plio>i.>i!"ius. 
The  p-upsphuret  of  tin  may  be  cut  with  a 
knife;  it  extends  uiu'er  the  hammer,  but  se- 
parates in  lamina>.  AVfien  newly  cut,  it  ha* 
the  colour  of  silver  ;  its  filings  re  ■inbU,-  those 
of  lead.  ^^  hen  these  filings  are  throw  n  on 
burning  coals,  the  phosphorus  tak;s  fire. 
This  phosphuret  may  likewise  be  formed  by 
dropping  pho'phorus  gradually  imo  melted 
tin.  According  lo  Pelletier,  to  whose  expe- 
riments we  are  indebted  for  the  knowledge  of 
■all  tbe  pbosphurets,    it  is  cmv.posed  oi  abouf 


802 


T  I  N 


85  parts  of  tin  aiul  15  of  phosphorus.  Mar- 
gral  also  formed  this  i)hosphuret,  but  he  was 
ignorant  ofitscompo-ilion. 

Tin  does  not  combine  with  azote  or  mu- 
riatic acid ;  tlioiigh  the  lafit  substance  con- 
verts it  into  an  oxide. 

Tin  is  capable  of  combining  with  most  of 
the  melals,  and  some  of  its  allojs  are  much 
employed.  'I'he  greater  number  of  them 
are  brittle.'  The  oider  metallurgists  cojisi- 
dirred  it  as  a  property  c:f  tin  to  render  other 
metals  brittle.  Hence  they  called  it  diabolus 
iiietalloruni. 

.1.  It  mi.\e':  readily  with  gold  by  fusion  ; 
but  the  proportions  in  wiiich  tiiese  metals 
combine  chemically  are  still  unknown.  AVIien 
one  part  of  tin  and  twelve  of  gold  are  melted 
together,  the  alloy  is  brittle,  hard,  and  bad- 
Colouretl.  Twenty-fourpartsof  goid  and  one 
of  tin  produce  a  pale-coloured  alloy,  harder 
than  gold,  bi:t  possessed  of  considerable 
ductility.  Gold  alloyed  with  no  more  than 
^y  of  tin  is  scarcely  altered  in  its  properties, 
according  to  Mr.  Alchorne;  but  Mr.  TilleC, 
.wlio  rnort'  lately  examined  this  alloy,  found, 
that  whenever  it  was  heated  it  broke  into  a 
number  of  pieces.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
separate  these  metals  from  each  other.  Tlie 
method  is,  to  fuse  the  alloy  with  sulphuret 
of  antimony. 

2.  The  alloy  of  platinum  and  tin  is  very 
fusible  and  brittle,  at  least  when  these  metals 
are  jiiixed  in  eiiual  proportions.  Twelve 
parts  of  tin  and  one  of  platinum  tbrm  an  ailoy 
possessed  of  considerable  ductility,  which  be- 
comes yellow  when  expo  ed  to  the  air, 

3.  The  alloy  of  silver  and  tin  is  v«ry  brittle, 
hard,  and  durable.  The  two  metals  can 
scarcely  be  separated  again  by  the  usual  pro- 
cesses. 'Ihis  alloy  has  been  applied  to  no 
use. 

4.  Mercury  dissolves  tin  very  readily  cold ; 
and  these  metals  may  be  combined  in  anv 
proportion  by  pouring  mercury  into  melted 
tin.  The  amalgam  of  tin,  when  composed  of 
three  parts  of  mercury  and  one  of  tin,  cry- 
stallizfs  in  the  form  of  cubes,  according  to 
Daubenton  ;  but,  according  to  Sage,  in  grey 
brilliant  sijuare  plates,  thin  towards  the  edges, 
and  attached  to  each  other  so  that  the  cavi- 
ties between  them  are  polygonal.  It  is  used 
to  silver  the  backs  of  glass  mirrors.  See 
Foliation  of  looking-glasses. 

5.  Tin  unites  very  readily  with  copper, 
and  forms  an  alloy  exceedingly  useful  tor  a 
great  variety  of  purposes.  Of  this  alloy  can- 
nons are  made  ;  bell-metal  ;  bronze  ;  and  the 
mirrors  of  telescopes,  are  formed  of  different 
proportions  of  the  same  metals.  The  addi- 
tion of  tin  diminishes  the  ductility  of  copper, 
and  increases  its  hardness,  tenacity,  fusiijilitv, 
and  sonorousness,  'llie  specific  gravity  of 
the  alloy  is  greater  than  the  mean  density  of 
the  two  nietals.  It  appears,  from  the  expe- 
riments of  Mr.  Briclie,  that  this  augmenta- 
tion of  density  increases  with  tbe  tin  ;  and  tliat 
the  specilic  gravity,  wlien  tlie  alloy  contains 
100  parts  of  copper  and  16  of  tin,  is  a  maxi- 
mum: it  is  8.87.  'I'lie  specific  gravity  of 
etpiai  parts  of  tin  and  copper  is  8.79,  but  it 
ought  only  to  be  8  ;  consequently  the  den- 
sity is  increased  0.79.  In  order  to  mix  the 
two  metals  exactly,  they  ought  to  be  kept  a 
Ji.nf  time  in  fusion,  and  constantly  stirred, 
otherwise  the  greater  part  of  the  copper  will 
gink  to  lb;;  bottom,  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  la  risB  to  the  surface  ;  and  there  will  be 


T  I  N 

formed  two  different  alloys,  one  composed 
of  a  great  proportion  of  copper  coinbined  w  ith 
a  small  quantity  of  tin,  the  other  of  a  great 
proportion  of  tin  alloyed  w  itl.  a  small  quantity 
of  copper. 

Bronze  and  the  metal  of  cannons  are  rom- 
posfcd  of  from  6  to  li^  parts  of  tin  combined 
with  100  parts  of  copper.  This  alloy  is 
brittle,  yellow,  heavier  than  copper,  and  has 
much  nioie  tenacity;  it  is  much  more  fusible, 
ami  less  liable  to  "be  altered  by  exposure  to 
tiie  air.  It  was  this  alloy  which  llie  antients 
used  for  sharp-edged  instruments  before  the 
method  of  working  iron  was  brought  to  pei- 
iection.  The  ■^a.>.xts  of  the  Greeks,  and  per- 
haps tbe  (ts  ot  the  Komans,  was  nothing  eUe. 
Even  their  topper  coins  contain  a  mixture 
of  tin. 

Bell-metal  is  usually  composed  of  three 
parts  of  copper  and  one  part  of  tin.  Its  co- 
lour is  greyish-white;  it  is  very  hard,  sono- 
rous, and  elastic.  The  greater  part  of  the 
tin  may  be  separated  by  melting  the  alloy, 
and  then  pouring  u  little  water  on  it.  The 
tin  decomposes  tlie  water,  is  oxidated,  and 
thrown  upon  the  surface. 

The  mirrors  of  telescopes  are  formed  by 
melting  together  three  parts  of  tin  and  one 
part  of  copper.  This  alloy  is  very  hard,  of 
tlie  colour  of  steel;  and  admits  of  a  fine  po- 
lish. But  besides  this  there  are  many  other 
compounds  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

Vessels  of  copper,  especially  when  used  as 
kitchen-utensils,  are  usually  covered  with  a 
thin  coat  of  tin,  to  prevent  the  copper  from 
oxidating,  and  to  preserve  the  food  which  is 
prepared  in  them  from  being  mixed  with  any 
of  that  poisonous  metal.  These  vessels  are 
then  said  to  be  tinned.  Their  interior  sur- 
face is  scraped  very  clean  with  an  iion  in- 
strument, and  rubbed  over  with  sal  ammo- 
niac. Tlie  vessel  is  then  heated,  and  a  little 
pitch  thrown  into  it,  and  allowed  to  spread  on 
the  surface.  Then  a  bit  of  tin  is  applied  all 
over  the  hot  copper,  which  instantly  assumes 
a  silvery  whiteness.  The  intention  of  the 
previous  steps  of  the  process  is,  to  have  the 
surface  of  the  copper  perfectly  pure  and  me- 
tallic ;  for  tin  will  not  combine  with  the  oxide 
of  copper.  The  coat  of  tin  thus  applied  is 
exceedingly  thin.  Bayen  ascertained,  that  a 
pan  nine  inches  in  diameter,  and  three  inciies 
three  lines  in  depth,  wlien  tinned,  only  ac- 
quireil  an  additional  weight  of  21  grains.  Nor 
is  there  any  method  of  making  the  coat 
thicker.  More  tin  indeed  may  be  applied;  but 
a  moderate  heat  melts  it,  and  causes  it  to  run 
off. 

'  6.  Tin  does  not  combine  readily  with  iron. 
An  alloy,  however,  may  be  formed,  by  fusing 
them  in  a  close  crucible,  completely  covered 
from  the  external  air.  We  are  iiKlt'bled  to 
Bergman  lor  the  most  ))recise  ex*ieriments  on 
this  alloy.  When  the  two  metals  were  fused 
together,  he  always  obtained  two  distinct 
allovs  ;  the  first  composed  of  21  parts  of  tin 
and  one  part  of  iron;  the  second  of  two  parts 
of  iron  and  one  part  of  tin.  The  first  was 
very  malleable,  harder  tlian  tin,  and  not  so 
brilliant ;  the  second  but  moderately  mal- 
leable, and  too  hard  to  yield  to  the  knife. 

The  formation  of  tin-plate  is  a  suflieient 
proof  of  the  affinity  between  these  two  metals. 
This  very  useful  allov  is  ibrmed  by  di|)ping 
into  melted  tin  thin  plates  of  iron,  thoroughly 
cleaned  by  rubbing  thcin  with  sand,  and  then 


T  I  N 

steeping  them  24  hours  in  water' acidulated 
by  bran  or  sulphuric  acid.  The  tin  not  only 
covers  the  surface  ot  the  iron,  but  penetralcs 
it  completely,  and  gives  the  whole  a  whit', 
colour.     See  Tinning. 

The  affinities  of  tin,  and  its  oxides,  are,  ac- 
cording to  Bergman,  as  follow  ; 

Tin.  Oxide  of  tin. 


Zinc, 

Mercury, 

Copper, 

Aiitimonv, 

Gold, 

Silver, 

Lead, 

Iron, 


Tartoiic  acid. 

Muriatic, 

Sulpiiunc,. 

Oxalic, 

Arsenic, 

Phosphoric, 

Nitric, 

Succinic, 


Manganese,  Fluoric, 

N  ickel,  Saclactic, 

Arsenic,  Citric, 

Platinum,  Lactic, 

Bismuth  Acetic, 

Cobait,  Boracic, 

Sulphur.  Priissic. 

TiN-.sto7if,  an  ore  of  tin  which  occurs  in 
rnasses,  in  rounded  pieces,  and  crystallized. 
These  cry  stals  are  very  irregular.  Colour  dark 
brown;  sometimes  yellowish  grey,  and  some- 
times nearly  white.  Somewhat  transparent 
wl?n  cr_\ stallized.  Specific  gravity  6  9  to 
(J.'JT.  Before  the  blowpipe  it  decrepitates, 
and  on  charcoal  is  partly  reduced.  Tinges 
borax  white.  According  to  Klaproth  it  i» 
composed  of 

77.50  tin 
21.50  oxygen 
.25  iron 
.75  silica 


100.00 


TINCTURE.    See  Pharmacy. 

Tincture,  in  heraldry,  the  hue  or  colour 
of  any  thing  in  coat-armour.  See  Herald- 
ry. 

TINEA.     See  Medicine. 

TINNING.  Tinning  is  the  art  of  cover- 
ing any  metal  with  a  thin  coating  of  tin. 
Copjier  and  iron  are  the  metals  most  com- 
monly tinned.  The  use  of  tinning  these 
metals  is,  to  prevent  them  from  being  cor- 
roded by  rust  ;  as  tin  is  not  so  easily  -acted 
upon  by  the  air  or  water,  as  iron  and' copper 
are. 

What  are  commonly  called  tin-plates,  or 
sheets,  so  much  used  for  utensils  of  various- 
kinds,  are  in  f.,ct  iron  plates  coated  with  tin.. 

The  principal  circumstance  in  the  art  of 
tinning  is,  to  have  the  surfaces  of  the  metal 
to  be  tinned  perfectly  clean  and  free  from- 
rust,  and  also  that  the  melted  tin  may  be 
perfectly  metallic,  and  not  covered  with  any 
ashes  or  calx  of  tin. 

Tinning  of  iron.  When  iron  plates  are 
to  be  tinned,  they  are  first  scoured,  and 
then  ()ut  into  what  is  called  a  pickle,  which 
is  sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  water;  this 
di^solves  the  rust  or  oxyde  that  was  left  after 
semiring,  and  renders  the  surface  perfectly 
clean.  They  are  then  again  waslied  and 
scoured.  Tliey  are  now  dipped  into  a  vessel 
full  of  melted  tin,  the  surface  of  which  is 
covered  with  fat  or  oil,  to  defend  it  from  (he 
action  of  the  air.  By  this  means,  the  iron 
coming  into  contact  with  the  melted  tin  in  a 
perfectly  metallic  btatCj  it  comes  out  com- 
pklely  coaled. 


T  I  P 

V\"licn  a  small  quantity  of  iron  only  is  to  be 
tinned,  it  is  lu-atL-cl,  and  the  tin  iul)l)cd  on 
with  a  piece  of  clolli,  or  some  tow,  linvinj; 
lirsl  s|)iii\lvlod  till-  iron  with  some  powdcri-d 
resin,  the  u<e  of  whicli  is  to  reduce  tin*  tin 
that  may  lie  oxydated.  Any  intlaniniahlc 
substance,  as  oil  for  instance,  will  have  in 
sonic  degree  the  same  effect,  wliicli  is  owing 
totlieir  attraction  for  oxygen. 

Tinniiifr  of  cnp]\er.  Sheets  of  copper 
may  be  tinned  in  the  same  manner  as  iron. 
Capper  boilers,  saucepans,  and  other  kitchen 
utensils,  are  tinned  after  they  are  made. 
I'hey  are  first  scoured,  then  made  hot,  and 
the  tin  rubbed  on  a^  before  with  resin. 
Nothing  ought  to  be  used  for  this  purpose 
but  |)ure  grain  tin;  but  lead  is  fr«(|uently 
mixed  with  the  tin,  bath  to  adulterate  its 
quality,  and  make  it  lie  on  more  easily  ;  but 
it  is  a  very  pernicious  practice,  and  ought  to 
be  severely  reprobated. 

To  ivkiten  brain  or  copper  hii  hniling.  Put 
the  brass  or  copper  into  a  pipkin  with  some 
white  tartar,  alum,  and  grain  tin,  and  boil 
them  together.  The  articles  will  soon  be- 
come covered  with  a  coating  of  tin,  wliich, 
when  well  polished,  will  look  like  silver.  It 
is  in  this  manner  that  pins,  and  many  sorts  of 
i)uttons,  are  whitened. 

TINNl  IT'.S  AURiUM,  a  noise  or  buzzing 
in  the  ear,  when  it  seems  to  receive  soun(is 
which  do  not  exist,  or  at  least  which  are  not 
produced  by  the  motion  of  the  external  air; 
and  the  ear  being  hlled  with  a  certain  species 
tif  sound,  cannot  admit  other  sounds,  unless 
they  are  very  violent.  The  tinnitus  is  of  two 
kinds,  the  one  proceeding  from  a  distempera- 
ture  of  the  organ  of  hearing,  theother  from  a 
disorder  of  the  brain. 

TIPIII.V,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
hymenoplera.  The  generic  character  is, 
moutli  witli  a  membranaceous  rounded  jaw; 
the  mandible  arched  and  acute  ;  no  tongue  ; 
feelers  four,  liliform,  unequal,  and  inserted  in 
the  middle  of  the  lip  ;  antenna?  tilifonn,  sliort, 
convolute ;  sting  concealed  within  the  ab- 
domen.    There  are  27  species. 

TIPUL.A,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
diptera.  The  generic  character  is,  mouth 
arched  over  by  the  upper  jaw  extended  from 
the  head ;  palpi  two,  recurved,  longer  than 
the  head  ;   proboscis  recurved,  very  short. 

The  larger  kinds  of  tipulaj  arc,  in  general, 
ilistingui  bed  by  their  lengthened  bodies,  ho- 
rizontally expanded  wings,  and  the  uiuisual 
length  and  slenderness  of  their  legs,  whicli  are 
also  remarkably  fragile ;  it  being  dillicult  to 
liandle  the  insect  without  breaking  some  of  its 
limbs.  The  smaller  kind  have  incumbent 
wings,  and  in  habit  or  general  appearance  are 
much  allied  to  gnats,  and  some  are  so  verv 
small  as  scarcely  to  exceed  the  tenth  of  an 
in:  li  in  length.  Tlie  larva;  of  this  genus  dif- 
fer in  habit,  according  to  their  different  modes 
of  life,  some  being  terrestrial,  and  others 
aciuatic.  They  feed  on  the  softer  kind  of  ve- 
•getable  substances,  as  the  fine  fibres  of  roots, 
■&c.  &c. 

Tlie  largest  of  the  European  tipuUc,  is  the 
■tipula  rivosa  of  Liniueus,  often  measuring 
more  than  an  inch  and  a  half  in  body  ;  and  is 
distinguished  by  its  wings,  wliicli  are  trans- 
parent, with  large  duskv  undulations  inter- 
iiiixed  with  white  towards  the  rib  or  upper 
edge.  This  insect  proceeds  from  a  dusky  or 
greyish  larva  of  a  lengthened  form,  and  des-. 


r  1  p 

titute  of  legs.  It  is  found  beneath  the  roofs 
of  grass  in  meadows,  gardens,  &:c.  and  in  the 
moiiihs  of  July  and  August  changes  into  a 
lenglliened  and  pointed  chrysalis  of  a  dusky 
colour,  out  of  which  ill  Septemlier  proceeds 
the  complete  animal.  This  is  popularly 
known  by  the  title  of  long-legs,  and  is  fre- 
quently seen  in  houses  during  the  autumnal 
evenings,  when  it  is  remarkable  for  the  pro- 
pensily,  in  common  witli  many  otiier  insects, 
of  Hying  towards  the  flame  of  candles,  and  in 
consequence,  often  perisliing  in  the  blaz(r. 

'J'ijjula  horloriun,  or  tlie  garden  tijnila,  is 
of  someuhat  smaller  size  than  the  preceding, 
and  is  produced  from  a  larva  and  clirysalisof 
similar  appearance  with  those  of  the  former 
kind,  but  of  a  darker  or  blacker  colour.  The 
larva  is  found  under  grass-roots,  &c.  Th(; 
wings  of  this  species  are  transparent,  with  ob- 
scurely marked  whitisli  variegations. 

'I'ipul.i  oleracea  is  a  very  common  species, 
of  nearly  similar  size  will)  the  preceding,  and 
witli  traiisi)arent  wings  with  a  dusky  rib  or 
upper  edge.  Its  larva  inliabitsgarden-grounds, 
where  it  commits  ravages  among  various 
plants.  In  its  appearance  it  resembles  those 
of  the  former  kinds.  It  may  be  added,  that 
the  chrysalis,  in  most  of  the  terrestrial  insects 
of  this  tribe  is  furnished  at  the  upper  part 
with  a  pair  of  short  hornlike  processes,  per- 
haps operating  as  a  kind  of  spiracula;  this 
particularity  is  however  still  more  striking 
in  those  w  hich  belong  to  the  aquatic  kinds. 

The  tipula  cornicina  is  of  middle  size,  and 
has  transparent  wings  with  a  marginal  dusky 
spot,  and  the  body  yellow,  witli  three  longi- 
tudinal dusky  stri'aks.  Its  larva,  which  is 
found  in  meadows,  &c.  is  brown,  with  a  flat- 
tened or  tnnicated  tail,  besel  with  a  certain 
number  of  radiating  soft  spines  or  processes  ; 
and  the  chrysalis  is  slender,  and  furnished, 
as  in  most  others,  with  minute  spines  about 
its  segments,  by  the  assistance  of  which  it  is 
enabled  to  elevate  itself  to  the  surface  when 
the  time  of  its  ultimate  change  takes  place. 

Tipula  crocata  is  one  of  the  few  insects  of 
tills  genus  adorned  with  lively  colours.  It  is 
of  a  polished  black,  with  yvellow  rings  round 
the  abdomen. 

Of  those  in  which  the  wings  are  generally 
incumbent,  the  tipula  plumosa,  so  named 
from  its  ])lumed  antenna',  may  serve  as  an  ex- 
ample. This  insect  is  of  the  size  of  a  gnat, 
which  it  so  much  resembles  in  its  general  ap- 
pearance as  to  be  fretjuently  mistaken  for 
one:  its  colour  is  a  greenish  brown.  The 
larva  is  aquatic,  bears  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  tliose  of  the  g'enus  cule.x,  as  does 
likewise  liie  clirvsalis  or  pupa  ;  which,  instead 
of  lying  dormant  during  this  state,  is  loco- 
motive, playing  about  in  the  water,  like  the 
larva,  and,  at  the  time  of  its  change,  springs 
to  the  surface  in  order  to  give  birth  to  the 
complete  insect. 

Among  the  very  small  tipulse,  none  is  more 
familiar  than  the  elegant  species  called  by 
Liniia:us  tipula  phala'iioides.  This  minute 
tiy  is  verv  fre(]nently  observed  in  great  num- 
bers on  windows  during  the  decline  of  sum- 
mer, ap|)earing  ijrincipally  in  the  evening. 
It  has  so  little  the  appearance  of  a  genuine 
tipula,  that  it  would  hardly  be  considered  as 
belonging  to  tliis  genus  by  a  common  spec- 
tator. Its  general  length  is  about  the  tenth 
of  an  in(  h  ;  ami  the  wings,  which  are  very- 
large  in  proportion  to  the  insect,  are  of  an 


r  1  T 


803 


oval  sliapp,  and  of  a  grey  colour,  elegantly 
mottled  or  variegated  with  dusky  sjMrcks; 
the  edges  are  deeply  fringed  with  hair,  and 
the  nerves  be.set  witii  oblong  scales  or  fea- 
thers, and  tlie  whole  insect,  microscopically 
examined,  exhibits  a  liighly  elegant  appear- 
ance. 

'I'ipula  hirta  so  much  resembles  the  last, 
that  It  might  perhaps  be  rather  considered  as 
a  variety  or  sexual  dilifereiicc  th;'.ii  truly  dis- 
tinct. It  is,  however,  a  Irilie  larger,  and  of  a 
darker  colour.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  the  larvs  of  llie.se  niimite  species  are 
aquatic,  but  they  seem  to  be  iiitlicrlo  un- 
described.     There  are  123  sjiecies. 

TITANIUM,  a  metal  found  in  black 
sand,  resembling  gunpowder,  in  Cornwall, 
and  upon  examination  it  is  found  to  possess 
the  following  properties: 

Its  colour  is  orange-red,  and  it  has  a  good 
deal  of  lustre.  As  it  has  been  only  obtained 
in  very  small  agglutinated  grains,  neither  its 
hardness,  specific  gravity,  nor  malledbility, 
iiai  been  ascertained.  It  is  oHe  of  the 
most  infusible  of  inetals,  requiring  a  greater 
heat  to  melt  it  than  can  be  produced  by  any 
method  at  present  know  n. 

When  healed  in  the  open  air,  it  combines 
readily  with  oxygen,  and  seems  capable  of 
forming  three  different  oxides  ;  namely,  the 
blue  or  purple,  the  red,  and  the  white.  ' 

The  protoxide,  which  is  of  a  blue  or  purple 
colour,  is  formed,  when  titanium  is  exposed 
hot  to  the  open  air,  evidently  inconsequence 
of  the  absor|)tion  of  oxygen. 

The  deutoxide  or  red  oxide  is  found  native. 
It  is  often  crystallized  in  four-sided  prisms. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  about  4.2 ;  and  it  is 
hard  enough  to  scratch  glass.  When  heated 
it  becomes  brown,  antl  when  urged  bv  a  very 
violent  fire  some  of  it  is  volatilized.'  When 
heale<l  sufficiently  along  with  charcoal,  it  is 
reduced  to  the  metallic  state. 

The  peroxide  or  white  oxide  may  be  ob- 
tained by  fusing  the  red  oxide  in  a  crucible 
with  four  times  its  weight  of  potass,  and  dis- 
solving the  whole  in  water.  Awhile  powder 
soon  precipitates,  which  is  the  white  oxide  of 
titanium.  Vauquelin  and  Ilecht  have  shown 
that  it  is  composed  of  89  parts  of  red  oxide 
and  I  I  parts  of  oxygen. 

Titanium  does,  not  seem  to  be  capable  of 
combining  with  sulphur. 

Pliosphuret  of  titanium  has  been  formed  by 
Mr.  Chenevi.x  by  the  following  process  :  He 
put  a  mixture  ot  charcoal,  pliosphat  of  tita- 
nium (phosphoric  acid  combined  with  oxide 
of  titanium),  and  a  little  borax,  into  a  double 
crucible,  well  luted,  and  exposed  it  to  the 
heat  of  a  forge.  A  gentle  heat  was  lir^t  ap- 
plied, which  was  gradually  raised  for  lliree 
cjuartei'S  of  an  hour,  and  maintained  for  half 
an  hour  as  high  as  possible.  The  pliosphuret 
of  titanium  was  t'onnd  in  the  crucible  in  the 
form  of  a  metallic  button.  It  is  of  a  while 
colour,  brittle,  and  granular,  and  docs  not 
melt  before  the  blowpipe. 

Vauquelin  and  Ilecht  attempted  to  com- 
bine it  with  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  arsenic, 
but  witliout  success.  l>ut  Ihcy  combined  it 
with  iron,  and  formed  ap  uUoy  of  a  grev  co- 
lour, interspersed  with  yellow -coloured  bril- 
liant particles.  This  alloy  they  were  not 
able  to  fuse. 

The  afxnities  of  Uie  oxides  of  titanium  are, 


f04 


T  I 


TIT 


according  to   professor   L:'.mpaJius,    as  fol- 
lows : 

Gallic  aci;!,  Siilplniric, 

Piio^phoric,  Muriatic, 

Ar-enic,  N  trie, 

()\-!ic.  Acetic. 

Tl'Iil  FCS,  are  the  tenth  part  of  the  increase 
Tparlv  arising  anil  renL-wing  fvrim  tlie  profits 
of  lan'ls,  the  stock  upoii  lan(i<,  and  the  per- 
sonal inil'i^trv  of  the  inhabitants.  And  hence 
they  are  usually  divided  into  three  kinds; 
pr:e  dial,  nii.ved,  and  personal. 

Predial  tithes  are  such  as  arise  merely  and 
imi-nediately  from  the  ground,  as  grain  of  all 
sorts,  hay,  wood,  fruits,  herbs;  for  a  piece  nf 
land  or  ground,  being  called  in  Latin  prx'- 
diuni,  whether  it  is  arable,  meadow,  or  pas- 
ture, tlie  fruit  or  produce  thereof  is  called 
pncdial,  and  consequently  the  tithe  payable 
for  sucii  annual  produce  is  called  a  pncdial 
tithe. 

Mixed  tithes  are  those  which  arise  not  im- 
medialely  from  the  grmioid,  but  from  things 
inniicdiately  nourished  from  tlie  ground  ;  as 
by  means  of  cattle  depastured  tliereupon,  or 
otherwise  nourished  with  tlie  fruits  ;  as  colts, 
calves,  lambs,  chickens,  milk,  cheese,  e^gs. 

Person:d  t;thes  are  such  as  arise  from  the 
labour  and  industry  of  man,  employing 
himself  in  some  personal  work,  artifice,  or 
negotiation  ;  being  the  tenth  part  of  the  clear 
ga^n,  after  charges  deducted.  Watts,  c.  59. 
But  this  is  seldom  paid  in  England,  e.\cept  by 
especial  custom. 

Tithes  with  respect  to  value,  are  divided 
into  great  and  small.  Great  tithes,  are  corn, 
hay,  wood.  Small  tithes,  are  the  prEdial 
tithes  of  all  other  kinds,  together  with  those 
that  are  mi.vcd,  and  personal. 

Tithes  of  common  right  belong  to  that 
church,  within  the  precincts  of  whose  parish 
they  arise.  But  one  person  may  prescribe 
to  have  tithes  within  the  parish  of  another; 
and  this  is  what  is  called  a  portion  of  tithes. 

No  tithe  is  due  de  jure  of  the  produce  of  a 
mine,  or  of  a  quarry,  because  this  is  not  a  fruit 
of  the  earth,  renewing  annually  ;  but  is  the 
substance  of  the  earth,  and  has  perhaps  been 
so  for  a  great  number  of  years.  1  Kol.  Abr. 
637. 

Hut  in  some  places  tithes  are  due  by  cus- 
tom of  the  produce  of  mines.     2  Vern.  4fi. 

No  tiihe  is  due  of  lime :  tlie  chalk  of  which 
this  is  made  being  part  of  the  soil.  1  Rol. 
Abr.  t>37. 

Titlii-  is  not  due  of  bricks,  which  pre  made 
from  the  earth  itself.     '2  .Mod.  T7. 

Nor  is  tithe  due  of  turf,  or  of  gravel ;  be- 
cause both  these  are  part  of  the  soil.  4  Mod. 
35. 

It  has  been  held,  that  no  tithe  is  due  of 
salt,  because  this  does  not  renew  annually. 
S  Rol.  Abr.  642.^ 

But  every  one  of  these,  and  .all  things  of 
the  like  kind,  may  by  custom  becoiue  tith- 
able.      1  Kol.  Abr.  642. 

Barren  land  tonverted  into  tillage:  no 
tilh  .■  shall  be  paid  for  the  first  seven  years  ; 
but  if  it  Is  Dot  barren  in  its  own  nature,  as  if  it 
is  woodland,  grubbed  and  made  fit  for  tillage, 
tithes  shall  be  paid  presently  ;  for  woodland 
i»  fertile,  not  barren.      I  Rol.  Abr. 

Glebe  lands,  in  the  hands  of  the  parson, 
ihall  not  pay  tthe  to  the  vicar,  nor  being  in 
the  hands  of  the  vii  ar,  shall  they  pav  tithe  t" 
the  parson,  became  the  church  nhall  not  pay 

10 


tithes  to  the  church, 
his   rectors,  rcicrving  the   glebe   land 
tithes   ■' 


But  if  the  pardon  lets 

"       ;         "  he 

tliereo''  to   the    lessee. 


shall   ])ay   the 
Gil)s.  ob'l. 

No  tithes  are  due  for  houses  ;  for  tithes  are 
only  dueof  such  things  as  renew  from  year  to 
vear.  11  Rep.  16.  I'.ut  houses  in  London 
are,  by  decree,  whicli  was  confirmed  by  an 
act  ofparliainent,  made  lialile  to  the  payment 
ol  tithes.  2  I  ^^t.  <)J9.  There  is  likewise  in 
most  antient  cilies  and  boroughs,  a  custom  to 
pay  tithes  for  houses;  without  which  there 
would  be  no  maintenance  in  many  parishes 
for  the  clergy.     U  Rep.  If). 

.'Vs  to  mills,  it  is  now  settled  by  a  decree 
of  the  hiHise  of  lords,  upon  an  appeal  from  a 
decree  of  the  court  of  exchequer,  that  only 
personal  tithes  are  due  from  the  occupier  of 
a  corn-mill.     2  I'ere  Will.  Rep.  463. 

Tlie  occupier  of  a  new-erected  mill,  is 
liable  to  tithes,  although  such  mill  is  erected 
upon  land  di.-^cliaiged  of  tithes.  Cro.  Jac. 
42y 

xlgislmcnt,  agisting  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  word,  means  the  depasturing  of  a  beast 
the  property  of  a  stranger  ;  but  tliis  word  is 
constantly  used,  in  the  bonks,  for  depasturing 
tlie  beast  of  an  occupier  of  land,  as  well  as 
that  of  a  stranger.  5  Bac.  Abr.  An  occupier 
of  land  is  not  liable  to  pay  tithe  for  t!ie  pas- 
ture of  horses,  or  other  beasts,  whicli  are 
used  in  husbandry  in  the  parish  in  which  they 
are  depastured  ;  because  the  tithe  of  corn  is 
by  their  labour  increased.  1  Roll.  Abr.  646. 
But  if  horses  or  other  beasts  are  used  in  hus- 
b.indry  out  of  the  parish  in  which  they  are 
depastured,  an  agistment  tithe  is  due  for 
them.  7  Mod.  114  No  tithe  is  due  for  the 
pasture  of  milk-cattle  which  are  milked  in 
the  parish  in  which  they  are  depastured;  be- 
cause lithe  is  paid  of  the  milk  of  such  cattle. 
Lord  Raym.  130.  No  tithe  is  due  for  the 
p.;sture  of  a  saddle-horse  which  an  occupier 
of  land  keeps  for  himself  or  servants  to  ride 
upon.     Cro.  Jac.  430. 


cupii 
le  for 


ment  tithe  for  all  such  cattle  as  he  keeps  for 
sale.  Cro.  Eliz.  446.  Milk -cattle  which  are 
reserved  for  calving,  shall  pay  no  tithe  for 
their  pasture  whilst  tliey  are  dry;  but  if  they 
are  afterwards  sold,  or  milked  in  another 
parish,  an  agistment  tithe  is  due  for  the  time 
they  were  dry.  Lord  Raym.  130.  No  tithe 
is  due  from  an  occupier  of  land  for  the  pas- 
ture of  young  cattle,  reared  to  be  used  in  hus- 
bandry or  for  the  pail.  Cro.  Eliz.  476.  But 
if  young  beasts  are  sold  before  they  come  to 
such  perfection  as  to  be  tit  for  husbandry,  or 
before  the\  give  milk,  an  agistment  tithe  must 
be  paid  for  them.  Het.  86.  If  c.ittle  also, 
which  have  neither  been  used  in  husbandry, 
nor  for  the  pail,  are,  after  having  been  kept 
sometime,  killed,  to  be  spent  in  the  family'of 
the  occupier  of  the  land  on  which  tliey  are 
depastured,  no  tithe  is  due  (or  their  pasture. 
Jenk.  281. 

No  tithe  is  due  for  the  cattle,  eiflier  of  a 
stranger  or  an  occupier,  which  are  depastured 
in  grounds  that  have  in  the  same  jear  paid 
tithe  of  hay.  2  llol.  Rep.  191.  But  it  is  ge- 
nerally true,  that  an  agistment  tithe  is  due  for 
ilepasturing  any  sort  of  cattle  the  property  of 
a  stranger.  Cro.  Eli/.  276.  No  agistment 
lithe  is  due  for  fuch  beasts,  either  of  a  ^lranger 
or  an  occupier,  as  are  depastured  on  the 
lieadlands  ot  ploughed  fields ;  provided  tUat 


T  I  T 

these  are  not  wider,  thiiii  is  >ufricient  to  fam 
the  plough  and  horses  u])on.  I  Rol.  Rep. 
(>46.  No  tithe  is  due  for  such  cattle  as  aie 
depastured  upon  land  that  has  the  same  vear 
paid  titlie  of  corn.  Mod.  216.  If  land,  which 
has  jiaid  tithe  of  corn  one  year,  is  left  unsown 
tile  next  year,  no  agistment  is  due  lor  such 
land;  because  by  this  lung  fresh,  the  tithe 
of  the  next  crop  of  corn  is  increased.  I  Rol, 
Rep.  642.  But  if  suffered  to  lie  fallow  longer 
than  by  the  course  of  husbandry  is  usual,  an 
agistment  titlie  is  due  tor  the  beasts  depas- 
tured upon  such  land.     S hep.  Abr.  lOOS. 

Slurp,  after  paying  tithe  of  wool,  had  been 
fed  upon  turnips  not  severed,  by  which  they 
were  bettereil  to  the  value  of  live  shillings 
each,  and  were  then  sold  ;  it  also  appeared, 
that  before  the  next  shearing  lime,  as  many 
had  been  bought  in  as  were  sold,  and  tliat 
of  these  tithe  of  «ool  had  been  paid.  Ft  was 
insisted,  tliat  if  an  agi^lme]lt  was  to  be  paid 
for  the  sheep  sold,  it  would  be  a  double  tith- 
uig ;  but  the  court  held  lliat  this  was  a  new 
increase,  and  decreed  tlie  defendant  to  ac- 
count for  an  agistment  lithe.  Gibs.  Rep,  in 
Equi.  231.  Bat  in  a  later  case  the  court 
held,  that  no  agistment  tithe  should  be  paid, 
because  sheep  are  animalia  fructuosa.  Bunb. 
278. 

Corn.  It  is  held  that  no  tithe  is  due  of  the 
rakiiigs  of  corn  involuntarily  scattered.  Cro. 
Eliz.  178.  But  if  more  ot  any  sort  of  corn 
is  fraudulently  scattered,  than  there  would 
have  been  scatlereil  if  proper  care  had  been 
taken,  tithe  is  dueof  the  rakings  of  such  corn. 
Cro.  Eliz.  475.  No  titlies  are  due  of  the 
stubbles  left  in  corn-fields,  after  mowing  or 
reaping  of  corn.     2  Inst.  201. 

Tithe  of  hmi  is  to  be  paid,  though  beasts 
of  the  plough  or  pail,  or  sheep,  are  to  be 
foddered  with  such  hay.  12  Mod.  19".  But 
no  tithe  is  due  of  hay  upon  the  headlands  of 
ploughed  grounds,  provided  that  such  head- 
lands are  not  wider  than  is  sufi-icient  to  turn 
the  plough  and  horses  upon.  1  Rol.  Abr.  646. 
It  is  laid  down  in  an  old  case,  that  if  a  man 
cuts  down  grass,  and  while  it  is  in  the  swathes 
carry  it  away,  and  gives  it  to  his  plough-cat-  . 
tie,  not  having  sufficient  sustenance  foi"  them 
otherwise,  no  tithe  is  due  thereof.  I  Rol. 
Abr.  645.  And  in  a  modern  case,  the  court 
of  exchequer  was  of  opinion,  that  no  tithe  is 
due  of  vetches,  or  of  clover,  cut  green  and 
given  to  cattle  in  husbandry.     Rumb.  279. 

If'ood.  Tithe  of  wood  is  not  due  in  com- 
mon right,  because  wood  does  not  renew  an- 
nually ;  buf  it  uas  in  antient  times  paid  in 
many  places  by  custom.  2  Inst.  645.  Fag- 
got wood,  however,  pays  tithe. 

Exemptions  from  tithes  are  of  two  kinds  ; 
either  to  be  wholly  exempted  from  paying 
any  tithes,  or  from  paying  tithes  in  kind.  The 
forn-ier  is  called  de  non  decimando ;  the  latter 
de  modo  dec  imandi. 

Prescription  de  non  decimando,  is  to  be 
free  from  the  payment  of  tithes,  without  any 
recompence  for  the  same.  Concerning  whicli, 
the  general  rule  is,  that  no  layman  can  pre- 
scribe in  non  decimando  ;  that  is,  to  be  dis- 
charged absolutely  of  the  payment  ef  tithes, 
and  to  pay  nothing  in  lieu  thereof;  unless  he 
begins  his  prescription  in  a  religious  or  eccle- 
siastical person.  But  all  spiritual  persons,  as 
bishops,  deans,  prebendaries,  parsons,  and 
vicars,  may  prescribe  generally  in  non  dei  i- 
mando.     1  Rol.  Abr.  Cij3. 


T  I  T 

A  niijiUif  (k'ciiirancli,  uaially  called  bv  tlif 
((.nine  of  inoilus  only,  is  where  there  is  b_v 
cuitoiu  a  particular  maimer  of  tithiiij^,  diffe 
n-nt  Ironi  tlie  general  laws  of  takinu;  tithes  ill 
kniil.  This  is  bometiines  a  pecuniary  coiii- 
pciisalioii,  as  so  much  an  acre  for  the  tithe  of 
iaiid  ;  soiiietiini'S  a  couipeiisatiou  in  work  and 
lahonr ;  as  that  the  parson  shall  have  onl_\ 
the  twelfth  cock  of  hay,  and  not  the  tenth,  in 
consideration  of  the  owner's  making  it  for 
him;  sometimes  in  lieu  of  a  large  (juanlity, 
when  airived  to  great  maturity  ;  as  a  coiiple 
of  fowls  in  lieu  ot  tithe-eggs.  Sec.  Any  means 
in  short,  wherehy  the  general  law  of  tithing 
iil  altered,  and  anew  method  of  taking  tiieni 
is  introduced,  is  called  modus  ilecimandi,  or 
special  metliod  of  tithing.   2  Black.  29. 

In  order  to  make  a  modus  or  prescription 
good,  se\eral  nualitications  are  rci|iiisite.  It 
must  he  supposed  to  have  had  a  reasonahle 
comincnceinent  ;  as  tliat  at  the  time  of  the 
composition,  Ihe  modus  was  the  real  value  of 
money,  though  now  become  inucli  less.  It 
must  \n:  :.onielhing  for  the  parson's  henelit ; 
therefore  the  linding  straw  lor  the  body  ol  the 
church,  the  linding  a  ro])e  for  a  bell,  tli'  pa\- 
ing  5.S.  to  the  parish-clerk,  have  been  ad- 
judged not  to  be  good.  But  it  is  a  good  mo- 
dus to  be  discharged,  that  one  has  time  out 
of  mind  been  use  I  to  employ  the  profits  for 
the  repair  of  the  chancel,  for  the  parson  has 
a  benclit  by  that. 

A  modus  must  be  certain;  so  a  pre- 
scription to  pay  a  penny  or  thereabouts,  for 
every  acre  of  laud,  is  void  for  tlie  uncertainty. 
And  it  has  been  held,  that  if  a  precise  day  of 
payment  is  not  alleged,  the  modus  Will  be 
ill  ;  but  now  it  is  holden,  that  where  an 
ameiiial  modus  has  been  paid,  and  no  certain 
day  for  the  payment  thereof  is  limited,  tlie 
same  shall  be  due  and  payable  on  the  last  day 
of  the  year. 

A  modus  nnist  be  antient;  and  therefore 
if  it  is  any  tiling  near  the  value  of  the  tithe, 
it  will  be  supposed  to  be  of  late  commence- 
ment, and  lor  that  reason  will  be  set  aside. 

A  moilus  must  be  durable  :  for  the  tithe  in 
liind,  being  an  inheritanee  certain,  the  re- 
coni))eHce  for  it  should  be  as  durable  ;  there- 
fore a  certain  sum,  to  be  paid  by  the  inha- 
bitants of  such  a  house,  has-been  set  aside, 
because  the  house  may  go  dow  n  and  none  in- 
habit it. 

And  it  must  be  constant  and  uninterrupted; 
for  if  tliere  have  been  frequent  interruptions, 
no  custom  or  prescription  can  be  obtained. 
But  after  it  has  been  once  duly  obtained,  a 
disturbance  for  ten  or  twenty  years  shall  not 
destroy  it. 

When  a  common  is  divided  and  inclosed,  a 
modus  shall  onlv  extend  to  such  tithes  as  the 
comuvm  yielded  before  inclosure  ;  such  as 
the  tithes  of  wool,  lambs,  or  agistment ;  but 
not  to  the  tithes  of  hay  and  corn,  which  the 
common,  whilst  it  was  common,  did  never 
produce.     Bur.  173j. 

The  parson  cannot  come  himself  and  set 
out  his  tithe  without  the  consent  of  the 
owner  ;  but  he  may  attend  and  see  it  set  out ; 
yet  the  owner  is  not  obliged  to  give  him  no- 
tice when  he  intends  to  set  it  out,  unless  by 
special  custom.  Id.  1891.  After  it  is  set 
out,  the  care  thereof  as  to  w  asting  or  spoiling. 
rests  upon  the  parson,  and  not  upon  tin- 
owner  of  the  laud;  but  the  pardon  may 
ipread,  dry,  and  prepare  his  corn,  bay,  w  the 


T  I  T 

liko,  in  any  convenient  place  upon  tlie  gronnd, 
till  it  is  sufticieutly  we.ithered,  and  fit  to  be 
carried  into  the  l)arn.  And  he  may  carry 
liis  tithes  from  tin'  ground,  i  ither  by  the 
common  wav,  or  such  other  way  as  the 
owner  "f  the  (and  uses  to  carry  away  his  nine 
parts.  If  till;  i)arsoii  suflers  his  f.tlie  to  stay 
too  long  upon  tlie  land,  tlie  other  may  dis- 
train the  same  as  doing  damage,  or  he  may 
have  an  action  on  the  case ;  but  he  cannot 
put  in  his  cattle  and  destroy  the  corn  or  other 
tithe,  for  that  would  be  to  make  himselt 
judge  what  shall  be  deemed  a  convenufiit 
time  for  taking  It  away.   Lord  Raym.  189. 

I'aynieut  »•.'  tithes.  By  1  Geo.  I.  c.  6,  all 
customary  payments  due  to  clergMiien,  the 
payment  of  til'lies,  &c.  are  enforced  ;  and  the 
prosecution  in  this  case  may  be  for  any  tithes 
or  church-rates,  or  any  customary  or  other 
rights,  dues,  or  payments,  belonging  to  any 
church  orchapil,  which  of  right  by  law  and 
custom  ought  to  be  paid  for  the  stipend  or 
maintenance  of  any  minister  or  curate,  olli- 
cialing  ill  anv  church  or  chapel,  provided 
that  the  same  does  not  exceed  2o/.  But  tlie 
time  is  not  limited,  within  wliicli  llie  same 
shall  become  due. 

And  if  any  qiiaker  sliall  refuse  to  pay  or 
compound  lor  the  same,  any  parson,  vicar, 
curate,  farmer,  or  pro|)rietor  of  such  tithes, 
or  any  churchw  ardrn,  chapelwarden,  or  other 
person  who  ought  to  have,  receive,  or  collect 
any  such  tithes,  rates,  dues,  or  payments, 
iii.iy  make  complaint  to  any  two  justices, 
other  than  such  as  is  ])ation  of  the  church  or 
chajiel,  or  interested  in  tlie  tithes.  The 
number  of  days  is  not  limited  between  the 
time  of  refusal  and  the  complaint;  nor  is  it 
hereby  recjuired  that  such  complaint  shall  be 
in  writing.  But  it  will  be  more  conformab'e 
to  the  usual  practice  in  like  cases,  it  it  is  in 
writing.  Upon  which  complaint,  the  saiil 
justices  are  rec|uiretl  to  summon  in  writing, 
under  their  hands  and  seals,  by  reasonable 
warning,  such  cjuaker,  against  whom  such 
complaint  skall  be  nuuk'.  And  after  appear- 
ance, or  on  default  of  appearance  (tiie  warn- 
ing or  summons  being  proved  before  him 
upon  oath),  they  may  proceed  to  examine  on 
oath  the  truth  of  the  complaint,  and  to  as- 
certain and  stale  what  is  due  and  payable; 
and  by  order  under  their  bauds  and  seals, 
they  may  direct  and  appoint  the  payment 
thereof,  sotliat  the  sum,  ordered  as  aforesaid, 
.does  not  exceed  10/. ;  and  also  such  costs  and 
charges,  that  upon  tlie  merits  of  the  cause  shall 
appear,  not  exceeding  \0s.;  and  on  refusal 
to  pay,  any  one  of  the  two  next  justices,  by 
warrant  under  his  haiul  and  seal,  may  levy 
the  same  by  distress  and  sale,  rendering  the 
overplus,  the  necessary  cliarges  of  distraining 
Ijeing  lirat  deducted  and  allowed  by  the  said 
justice,  unless  it  is  in  the  case  of  appeal,  and 
then  no  warrant  of  distress  shall  be  granted 
till  the  appeal  shall  be  determined.  Tithes 
under  the  value  of  40/.  may  also  be  recovered 
by  the  same  process  from  persons  who  are 
not  quakers.  As  no  time  is  limited  for  de- 
taining the  distress,  nor  charges  allowed  for 
keeping  it,  it  may  be  sold  immediately. 

Any  person  who  shall  think  himself  aggriev- 
ed by  tlic  judgment  of  the  two  justices,  may 
.ippeal  to  the  next  session;  where  if  the 
ludgment  shall  l)e  a  lirined,  they  shall  decree 
tlie  same  by  order  of  session,  and  give  costs 
cigainst  the  appellantj  to  be  levied  by  distress 


TOD 


805. 


and  sale,  as  to  them  snail  seem  reasonable  ; 
and  no  proceeding  lur.iii  sha'l  be  removed 
by  certiorari,  or  otlieri\i*',  u.ile»b  the  litl*:  of 
such  tithes '^hall  be  in  ques'.ioii. 

The  withlioldiiig  of  tithes  from  the  parson 
or  vicar,  wnetlier  tlie  toruier  is  a  clergunan 
or  lay-appropriutor,  is  a.nong  the  pecuniary 
causes  cognizable  in  the  ecclesiastical  court  ; 
but  herein  a  (listinctioii  uHist  l)e  taken:  for 
the  ecclesia,..lical  courls  have  no  j\irisdictioi\ 
to  try  the  right  of  tithes,  unless  between 
spiritual  persons,  between  spiritual  men  an,d 
lawmen,  and  are  only  to  compel  tue  pay- 
iniMit  of  them  when  the  right  is  not  disputed. 
2  Inst.  3l>4. 

Tithes,  however,  if  of  any  considerable 
value,  are  generally  sued  for  in  the  exchequer 
by  Knglish  bill,  except  where  the  suit  is 
founded  on  the  statute  of  2  and  3  Ed.  VI.  foe 
double  or  treble  value,  &r. 

TnillNG.MKN.  In  the  Saxon  times,  for 
the  better  lonservation  of  peace,  and  the 
more  easy  administration  ot  justice,  every 
hundred  was  divided  into  ten  districts  or 
titl'.ings,  each  tithiugcoiisisting  of  ten  friborgs, 
each  friborg  of  ten  lamilies  ;  in  which  tithing- 
niin,  or  civil  deans,  were  to  examine  and  de- 
termine all  smaller  differences  between  vil- 
lages and  neigiibours,  but  to  refer  all  greater 
matters  to  the  superior  courts,  which  had  a 
jurisdiction  over  the  whole  hundred. 

TITLE,  in  law,  denotes  any  right  which  a. 
person  as  to  the  possession  of  a  thing ;  or 
an  authentic  instrument,  whereby  he  can. 
prove  his  right.     See  Right,  &c. 

As  to  the  titles  of  the  clergy,  they  denote 
certain  places  wherein  they  may  exercise 
their  functions.  'I'here  are'  several  reasons 
why  a  cliurch  is  called  titulus;  but  llwt 
which  seems  to  be  the  best,  is  because  an- 
tieiitly  the  name  of  the  saint  to  whom  the 
church  was  dedicated,  was  engraved  on  the 
l^orch,  as  a  sign  that  the  saint  had  a  litis 
to  that  church;  and  thence  the  church. 
itself  was  afterwards  called  titulus.  In  this 
sense  a  title  signifies  the  church  to  which  a 
clergyman  was  admitted,  and  where  he  is 
constantly  to  reside ;  and  by  the  canons,, 
none  shall  be  ordained  without  a  title.  This 
is  in  order  to  keep  out  such  from  the  ministry 
who,  for  want  of  maintenance,  might  bring  a 
disgrace  upon  the  church.     Can.  31. 

In  short,  according  to  some  writers,  such  a 
title  is  an  assurance  of  being  preferred  to  an 
ecclesiastical  benefice ;  that  is  to  say,  a  cer- 
tificate that  tlie  clerk  is  provided  of  some 
church  or  place,  or  where  the  bishop  that  or^ 
dains  him,, intends  shortly  to  admit  him  to  a 
benefice  or  curacy  then  void. 

TITMOUSE.'  See  Parvs. 

TMESIS,  in  grammar,  a  figure  whereby 
a  compound  word  is  separated  into  two  parts, 
and  one  or  more  words  placed  between  them: 
thus,  for  ^uxcuiKpie,  N'irgil  says,  quxiuc 
cuiique  vocant  terra",  &c. 

TOAD.     See  Ran  a. 

TOK.ACCO.     See  Nicotiaxa. 

1 ODUS,  the  tod'/,  in  ornithology,  agenus 
belonging  to  the  order  of  picic.  '1  lie  beak  is 
slender,  depressed,  broad,  and  the  base  beset 
with  bristles;  tlie  nostrils  are  small  aud  oval;. 
Uie  toes  ar«  placed  three  before  aud  one  bv.- 
Jiind  ;  the  middle  are  connected  to  the 
outer.  There  are  15  species  according  to 
Dr,  Lathaia.     "  Birds  of  this  geuus  (says 


806 


T  O  N 


that  eminent  ornithologist)  inhabit  tlie  warmer 
jjarlb  of  America.  Tiiey  vary  considerably 
in  their  bills  iis  to  breadlii,  but  all  of  them 
have  a  certain  ilatne-s,  or  depression,  which 
is  peculiar.  '1  hey  have  a  great  aliinity  to  the 
flycatchers ;  and',  indeed,  to  speak  the  truth, 
the  two  genera  run  much  into  one  another. 
However,!  n  one  thing  they  differ  materially ; 
for  in  the  tody,  the  outer  and  middle  toes  are 
iiiiich  connected,  whereas  in  the  flycatcher 
genus  thev  are  divided  to  their  origin." 

TOLUIFERA,  the  buUam  of  tola-tree,  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  class  decandria.  and 
order  nionogynia.  The  calyx  is  five-toothed, 
bell-shaped ;' petals  five,  obcordate  ;  style 
none.  There  is  only  one  species,  the  balsa- 
jnum.  This  tree  grows  to  a  considerable 
-height:  it  sends  off  numerous  large  branches, 
and  is  covered  with  rough,  thick,  greyish 
bark;  the  leaves  are  elUplical  or  ovate,  en- 
tire, pointed,  alternate,  of  a  light-green  co- 
lour, and  stand  upon  short  strong  footstalks ; 
the  Uowers  are  numerous,  and  produced  in 
lateral  racemi. 

It  grows  in  Spanish  America,  in  tlie  pro- 
vince" of  Tohi,  behind  Carthagena,  whence 
we  are  supplied  witii  the  balsam.  This  bal- 
sam is  obtained  by  making  incisions  in  the 
bark  of  the  tree,  and  is  collected  into  spoons, 
whitli  are  made  of  black  wax,  from  which  it  is 
jjoured  into  proper  vessels. 

This  balsam  is  of  a  reddish-yellow  colour, 
transparent,  in  consistence  thick  and  tena- 
cious. By  age  it  grows  so  hard  and  brittle, 
that  it  may  be  rubbed  into  a  powder  between 
the  finger  and  thumb.  Its  smell  is  extremely 
■fragrant,  somewhat  resembling  that  of  lemons. 
Its  taste  is  warm  and  sweetish,  and  on  being 
ciiewed,  it  adheres  to  the  teeth.  See  Bal- 
sams. 

This  balsam  possesses  the  same  general  vir- 
tues with  the  balsam  of  Gilead,  and  that  of 
"Peru.  It  is,  however,  less  heating  and  stimu- 
lating, and  may.  tierefore,  be  empic  ed  with 
more  safety.  "^'It  has  b'en  chielly  used  as  a 
pectoral,  and  is  said  to  be  an  efficacious  cor- 
roborant in  gleets  and  senunal  weaknesses. 
It  is  directed  by  the  Pharmacop'eias  in  the 
syrupus  tolutanus,  tinctura  tolulana,  and  sy- 
ru|)us  balsamicus. 

TOMBAC,  a  metal  composed  of  copper 
:and  arsenic.     See  Arsenic. 

TOMF.I^S,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  order 
dodecandria  nionogynia.  The  involute  is  four 
or  five-leaved;  calyx  none;  corolla  five-pc- 
talled  ;  nect.  scales  l\\e;  berry  one-seeded. 
There  are  three  sp-.-cie-^,  of  whicii  the  sabipere 
-or  tallow-tree  of  China  is  the  most  remark- 
able. The  leaves  and  twigs  of  this  tree 
aboimd  in  a  viscid  juice,  and  being  bruised 
and  macerated  in  water,  rendi-r  it  glutinous, 
and  it  is  used  by  the  natives  to  work  U|)  their 
plaister.  A  great  quantity  of  thick  while  oil 
IS  extracted  from  the  lierries,  of  which  can- 
tlles  arii  made  resembling  wax  or  spermaceti. 

TOX  weight,  20  h'.;ndred.    See  Weight. 

TONE,  or  I'uNE,  in  music,  a  property  of 
sound  whereby  it  cv.nes  under  the  relation  of 
grave  and  acute;  or  it  is  the  degree  of  cKna- 
tioii  any  soimd  has,  from  the  degree  of  swift- 
liess  of  the  vibrations  of  the  parts  of  sonorous 
"bodies.    Sec  Sound, 

Tone  is  more  parii'iilarly  u^cd  for  a  cer- 
tain degree  or  inli;rval  of  tune,  wh  reby  a 
4()und  may  be  either  raised  or  lowered  Irom 
oil'-  extreiiie  of  a  concord  to  the  other,  so  as 
«till  to  produce  true  melody. 


TON 

TOXGUE.     SeeA^fATOMY. 

TONNAGE,  a  custom  or  impost  due  for 
merchandize  brought  or  carried  in  tons  from 
or  to  other  nations  after  a  certain  rate  in 
every  ton. 

Tonnage  .  The  usual  method  of  finding 
the  tonnage  of  any  ship  is  by  the  following 
rule: — Multiply  tiie  k-ngtli  of  the  keel  bv  tlii- 
breadth  of  the  beam,  and  that  product  by 
hall  the  breadth  of  the  beam  :  and  divide  the 
last  product  by  94,  and  the  quotient  will  be 
the  tonnage. 

Ship's  keel  72  feet;  breadth  of  beam  24 
feet. 

72  X  24  X   13 


94 


-=120.6  tonnage. 


The  tonnage  of  goods  and  store  is  taken 
sometimes  by  weight,  and  sometimes  by  mea- 
surement ;  and  th.it  uiethod  is  allowed  to  tlie 
vessel  which  yields  the  most  tonnage.  In 
tonnage  by  weight,  20  cwt.  make  1  ton.  In 
tonnage  by  measurement,  40  cubic  feet  are 
equal  to  1  ton.  All  carriages,  or  other  stores  to 
be  measured  by  tonnage,  are  taken  to  pieces, 
and  p;'.cked  in  the  manner  which  will  occupy 
the  least  room  on  board  ship.  All  ordnance, 
whether  brass  or  iron,  is  taken  in  tonnage  by 
its  actual  weight.  Musket-cartridges  in  bar- 
rels or  boxes,  all  ammunition  Ui  boxes,  and 
other  articles  of  great  weight,  are  taken  in 
tonnage  according  to  their  actual  weight. 

The  following  is  the  tonnage  allowed  to  the 
military  officers  of  tiie  ordnance  embarked 
for  foreign  service,  for  their  camp-equipage 
and  baggage  : 

For  a  field  officer    -    5  tons. 
For  a  captain  -    3  do. 

For  a  subaltern         -     I^  do. 

TONSELLA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  triandria  monogynia.  The  calyx  is 
five-parted  ;  petals  five  ;  nect.  pitcher-bhap- 
ed ;  berry  one-celled,  four-seeded.  There 
are  two  species,  trees  of  the  West  Indies. 

TONSILS.    See  Anatomy. 

TONSUKE,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a 
particular  manner  of  shaving  or  clipping  tlie 
liaip  of  ecclesiastics  or  monks. 

The  antient  tonsure  of  the  clergy  was 
nothing  more  than  polling  the  head,  and  cut- 
ting the  hair  to  a  moderate  degree,  for  the 
sake  of  decency  and  gravitj';  and  the  same 
observation  is  true,  with  respect  to  the  ton- 
sure of  the  antient  monks.  But  the  Ro- 
manists have  carried  the  afluir  of  tonsure 
much  farther;  the  canditlate  for  it  kneeling 
before  the  bishop,  wiio  cuts  his  hair  in  five 
difiiireut  parts  of  the  head;  viz.  before,  be- 
hind, on  each  side,  and  on  the  crown. 

TONTINE,  a  species  of  increasing  an- 
nuity on  which  money  is  soinetinies  borrowed, 
either  for  the  service  of  the  st:ite,  or  for 
erecting  bridges,  churches,  theatres,  taverns, 
and  other  expensive  buildings.  It  is  usually 
divided  into  a  certain  number  of  ---'lares,  for 
each  of  which  a  life  is  nominated  ;  and  a  cer- 
tain annual  sum  bi-iiig  set  apart  for  payment 
of  interest  on  the  money  advanced,  the  same' 
sum  is  to  continue  to  be  annually  dividi'd 
among  the  surviving  nomineis,  by  which 
means  their  annuitl(!s  increase  as  the  number 
yf  shares  are  reduced,  till  the  whole  are  ex- 

tjllCt. 

n^ The  first   attempt  in  this  country  to  raise 

t^oney  for  the  public  service  on  this  uncer- 

in  kind  of  interest,  was  in  169J;  but  though 


TOP 

in  this  instance  the  annuity  was  more  deler- 
minale  than  in  the  generality  of  such  plans, 
as  the  subscribers  were  certain  of  10.  per 
cent,  for  the  first  seven  years,  it  did  not  siie- 
ceed,  only  108,100/.  being  advanced  out  of 
a  million  nitended  to  be  raiseil. 

In  1757,  an  attempt  was  made  to  raise  a 
loan  by  a  tontine  scheme;  and  in  17oj,  a 
tontine  formed  part  of  a  project  for  funding 
n.'vy  and  victualling  bilh;  both  these  plans 
were  unsuccesslul  ;  and  the  tontine  formed  iii 
the  year  17S9,  which  was  the  last  attempt  to 
raise  a  public  loan  in  this  way,  experienced  a 
similar  fate,  as  not  half  the  proposed  number 
of  shares  were  disposed  of. 

A  variety  of  tontine  schemes  for  short  pe- 
riods of  five  or  seven  years,  have  of  late  been 
set  on  foot,  to  the  delusion  of  those  who  have 
been  induced  to  subscribe  to  them. 

Mr.  W.  Morgan  has  shewn  the  folly  of 
these  speculations.  He  observes,  that  in  the 
short  term  of  seven  years,  the  acci'.mulation 
of  money  at  simple  and  compound  interest, 
is  much  the  same,  and  the  decrements  of 
life  are  so  inconsiderable,  as  to  produce  little 
or  no  effect  it?  incieasiiig  this  accumulation. 
A  weekly  payment  of  sixpence  improved  at 
4  per  cent,  compound  interest  for  seven 
years,  will  amount  to  10/.  5v.  oJ.  but  at  sim- 
ple interest  it  will  aiaount  to  10/.  3s.  \0d., 
and  at  no  interest  at  ali,  to  9/.  2.s.  The  ad- 
dition, therefore,  to  the  principal  from  the 
mere  operation  of  compound  interest,  is  so 
inconsiderable,  that  were  all  the  su  scribers 
to  live  to  the  end  of  the  teiin,  each  share 
would  be  increased  by  this  means  only 
1/.  3.1.  7d.  W'th  respect  to  the  advantage 
arising  iioni  survivorship,  let  it  be  supposed 
that  the  nuinber  of  subscribers  to  the  tontine 
is  1 0,000,  consisting  of  persons  of  all  ages 
under  60  years.  Accoviiing  to  the  table  of 
piolxVo'ilities  of  life  at  Northampton,  S()47  of 
those  persons  will  survive  a  tenn  of  seven 
years;  so  that  if  the  whole  10,000  lived  to 
make  their  last  payment,  and  none  of  tliem 
died  till  just  before  the  final  distribution  of 
the  stock,  the  share  of  each  survivor  would 
be  no  more  than  11/.  17.v.  6d.  But  it  is  to 
be  observed,  that  these  lives  will  be  con- 
tiiiuallv  dving  fiom  the  time  of  tlie  first  sub- 
scription to  the  conclusion  of  liie  tontine; 
and  that  these  deaths,  by  lessening  the  week- 
ly contributions,  will  reduce  the  share  of 
each  survivor  to  11/.  11.9.  nearly.  When 
the  cxjiences  of  manage iiient  are  also  de- 
ducted, and  allowance  is  made  for  the  loss 
which  may  be  sustained  by  investing  the 
money  in  the  public  hinds,  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  the  shares  will  fall  greatly  be- 
low the  sum  just  stated,  aud  that  the  surviv- 
ing members  will,  at  the  end  of  seven  years, 
have  the  mortification  of  findifig  that  they 
barelv  receive  the  money  they  liave  pai<l, 
after  having  endangered  tise  loss  of  the  greal- 
e>t  part  of  it  b\  dying  in  the  mean  time.  In 
severed  of  these  schemes,  which  have  lately 
expired,  llie  division  to  the  subscribers  has 
been  considerably  less  than  the  anunint  of 
their  contributions. 

TOOTH.     See  Anatomy. 

TOPyVSFELS.    See  Uocks,  wimithr. 

TOI'AZ.  The  name  top.a/  has  beifii  re- 
stricted by  Mr.  Ilaiiy  to  the  stones  called  by 
mineraloglstsoccidental  ruby,  topuz,  and  sap- 
phire; which,  agreeing  in  their  chryslalliza- 
tion  and  most  ol  tlieir  properties,   were  ar- 


TOR 

Tanged  imder  one  species  by  Mr.  'Rnni^  de 
lisle.  '1  lie  word  liipaz,  derived  from  an 
island  in  Ihe  Hed  Sea,  wlu-re  lli^  antienls 
usi'd  to  find  topazes,  was  applied  by  lIuMn  lo 
a  mineral  very  diUt-rent  troni  ours.  One 
variety  of  our  topaz  lln-y  denominated 
chrysolite. 

'file  topaz  is  found  in  Saxony,  I'olieniia, 
Siberia,  and  Hrazil,  mixed  witli  oilier  minerals 
in  (granite  rocks. 

it  is  commonly  elirystallized.  'I'hp  jirimi- 
tivc  form  of  its  crystais  is  a  prism  whose  sides 
are  rectangles,  ami  bases  rhombs,  having  tiieir 
greatest  anales  124°  22',  and  the  internal  mo- 
Iccnle  lias  the  same  form  ;  and  the  iieiglu  of 
the  prism  is  to  a  side  of  the  rhomboidal 
bases  as  3  lo  2.  The  dilfcrent  varieties  of 
topaz  crystals  hitherto  observed,  amount  to 
6.  Five  of  these  are  eight-sided  prisms,  tev- 
miiialrd  by  Ibur-sided  pyramids,  or  wedge- 
shaped  summits,  or  by  irregular  figures  ot  7, 
13,  or  1 5  sides  :  the  last  variety  is  a  twelve- 
sided  prism,  terminated  by  six-sided  pyramids 
■wanting  the  apc\'.  For  an  accurate  descrip- 
tion and  ligure  of  these  varieties,  the  reader 
is  referreil  to  Mr.  Haiiy. 

The  texture  of  the  topaz  is  foliated.  It 
ciiuses  a  double  refraction.  Specific  gravity 
from  3.46  to  3.56.  The  Siberian  and  lirazil 
topazes,  when  healed,  become  positively 
•electrified  on  one  side,  and  negatively  on  the 
ether.  It  is  iiiiu-ible  by  the  blowpipe.  The 
yellow  topaz  of  Brazil  becomes  red  when  ex- 
posed to  a  strong  heat  in  a  crucible;  that  of 
■Saxony  becomes  wliite  by  the  same  (irocess. 
This  shew  s  us  that  the  colouring  matter  of 
these  two  stones  is  different. 

The  colour  of  the  topaz  is  various,  which 
has  induced  mineralogists  to  divide  it  into  the 
following  varieties: 

1.  Red  topaz,  of  a  red  colour,  inclining 
to  yellow ;  called  Brazilian  or  occidental 
ruby. 

2.  Yellow  topnz,  of  a  golden-yellow  co- 
lour, aM<l  sometimes  also  nearly  wliite  ;  called 
occidental  or  Brazil  top-.iz.  J'he  powder  of 
this  and  the  following  variety,  causes  syruj) 
of  violets  to  a-;sume  a  green  colour. 

3.  Saxon  topaz.  It  is  ot  a  pale  wine  yel- 
low colour,  and  sometimes  greyish  while. 

4.  Aigue  marini,  of  a  bluish  or  p:de-green 
colour. 

5.  Occidental  sapphire,  of  a  blue  colour, 
and  sometimes  white. 

A  specimen  of  while  Sa.xou  topaz,  analyzed 
by  Vamjuelin,  contained 

68  aUimina 
31  silica 

Q9. 
TOPOGRAPHY,  a  description  or  draught 

of  some  particular  place,  or  small  tract  of 
land,  as  that  of  a  city  or  town,  manor  or 
tenement,  field,  garden,  house,  castle,  &c. 

■  such  as  surveyors  set  out  in  their  plots,  or 
"make   draughts  of,  for  the  information  and 

■  satisfaction  of  the  proprietors. 

TORI) Y LIU M,  hu!i-icort,\n  botany,  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  class  pentandria,  and 
order  digynia,  and  in  the  natural  system 
arranged  under  the  45th   order,  umbellat.-e. 

■  The  coroUtts  are  radiated,  and  all  lierma- 
phrodite ;  the  fruit  is  roundish,  and  crenated 
on  the  marrjin  ;  the  involucra  long  and  un- 
divided.    There  are  seven  species ;  of  which 

'two  are  British,  the  raaxiinum  and  ofiiciiiale. 


TOR 

1.  The  maximum,  or  knotted  parsley,  lias, 
simple  sessili-  umluls,  the  e.slerior  seeds  be- 
ing rough.  It  grows  in  ihe  borders  of  the 
coin  fields,  and  in  dry  stony  places.  2.  The 
ofiiciiiale,  officinal  hart-wort,  has  parliid  in- 
volucra, as  long  as  the  (lowers;  leadets  oval 
and  janged  ;  Ihe  seeds  are  large  and  llal,  and 
then^  edges  notched. 

TOKMI'.NTILLA,  Tormen'dl,  a  genus 
of  plants  of  ihe  class  icosamlria,  and  order 
polygyiiia,  and  in  the  natural  system  ranging 
uiuler  the  35tli  order,  sciiticosa:  The  calvx 
is  oclorid ;  Ihe  petals  are  four;  Ihe  seeds 
round,  naked,  and  afllxed  to  a  juiceless  re- 
ceptacle. I'iiere  are  Iwospeciey,  theerecta 
and  rcpens,  both  indigenous.  'Hie  ifn-cta, 
common  tornientil,  or.  septoil,  has  a  stalk 
somewhat  erect,  and  sessile  leaves.  The  roots 
consist  of  thick  tubercles,  an  inch  or  more  in 
diameter,  replete  with  a  red  juice  of  an  as- 
tringent ([uulity.  They  are  used  in  most  of 
the  Western  Islands. 

TORNADO,  or  Turnado,  a  sudden  and 
vehement  gust  of  wind  fioni  all  points  of  Ihe 
compass,  frequent  on  the  coast  of  Guinea. 

A  tornado  seems  to  partake  much  of  the 
nature  of  a  whirlwind  or  perhaps  of  a  water- 
s[)out,  but  is  more  violent  in  its  effects.  It 
commences  very  sud<lenly,  several  clouds 
being  previously  drawn  together,  when  a 
spout  of  w  ind,  proceeding  from  them,  strikes 
tlie  ground,  in  a  round  spot  of  a  few  rods  or 
perches  diameter,  in  the  course  of  the  wind 
of  the  day,  and  proceeds  thus  half  a  mile  or 
a  mile.  The  proneness  of  its  descent  makes 
it  rebound  from  the  earth,  th.rowing  such 
things  as  are  moveable  before  it,  but  some 
sideways  or  in  a  lateral  dircclion  from  it.  A 
vapour,  mist,  or  rain  descends  wiili  it,  by 
which  the  path  of  it  is  marked  with  wet. 

The  gentleman  who  furnishes  the  above 
general  description,  giv^s  an  account  of  one 
which  happened  a  few  years  since  at  Leices- 
ter, about  filly  miles  from  Boston,  in  New 
I".ngland.  "  It  happened  in  July,  on  a  hot 
day,  about  four  o'clock  in  the  aflernoon.  A 
few  clouds  having  gathered  westward,  and 
coming  overhead,  a  sudden  motion  of  their 
running  together  in  a  point  being  observed, 
immediately  a  spout  of  wind  struck  the 
ground  at  the  west  end  of  a  house,  and  in- 
stantly carried  it  away  with  a  negro  man  in 
it,  who  was  afterwards  found  de.id  in  the 
))ath  of  it.  Two  men  and  a  woman,  by  the 
breadi  of  the  floor,  fell  into  the  cellar ;  and 
one  man  was  driven  forcibly  up  into  the 
chimney-corner.  These  were  preserved, 
though  much  bruised  ;  they  were  wet  with  a 
vapour  or  mist,  as  were  the  remains  of  the 
door,  and  the  wliole  path  of  the  spout.  This 
wind  raised  boards,  limbers,  &c.  A  joist  was 
found  on  one  and,  driven  near  three  feet  into 
the  ground.  The  spout  probably  took  it  in 
its  elevated  state,  and  drove  it  forcibly  down. 
The  tornado  moved  with  the  celerity  of  a 
middling  wind,  and  constantly  declined  in 
strength  till  it  entirely  cevtsed." 

TORPEDO.  See  Raia,  and  Elec- 
tricity. 

'J'ORRICELLIAN  experiment,  a  fa- 
mous experiment  made  by  Tomcelli,  a  dis- 
ciple of  the  great  Galileo,  which  has  been 
already  explained  under  Baro.meter. 

TORHID  ZONE,  among  geographers,  de- 
notes that  tract  of  the  earth  lying  upon  the 
equator,  and  on  each  side  as  Jar  as  the  two 


T  O  U 


807 


tropics,  or  23*  30'  of  north  and.Eouth  lati- 
tude. 

TORTOISE-SHELL,  the  shell  of  the  testa- 
ceous animal  called  a  tortoise  ;  used  in  inlay- 
ing, and  in  various  other  works,  as  lor  snuif- 
boxes,  combs,  &c.  Air.  Calesby  observes, 
that  the  hard  strong  covering  whicii  incloses 
all  sorts  of  tortoises,  is  very  improperly  call- 
ed 'a  shell ;  being  of  a  perfect  bony  con- 
texture, but  coveretl  on  the  outside  with 
scales,  or.rulher  plates  of  a  horny  substance  ; 
whi(  h  are  what  woiknicn  call  lortoise-shell. 
See  Horn. 

Ther.;  are  two  general  kinds  of  toi  toisj-«, 
viz.  the  land  and  sea  tortoise-,  tesliulo  terres- 
tris  and  marina.  The  sea-lortoite,  again,  is 
of  several  kinds;  but  it  is  Ihe  lestudo  iinbri- 
cata  of  I,iima;us,  alone  which  furnislies  that 
beautiful  shell  so  much  admired  in  Europe. 
SeeTESTUBO. 

The  whole  spoils  of  (he  tortoise  consist  in- 
Ihirteen  leaves  or  scales,  eight  of  them  flat, 
and  I'we  a  little  bent.  Of  ihe  Hat  ones,  there 
are  four  large  ones,  sometimes  a  foot  long, 
and  seven  inches  broad.  The  best  tortoise- 
shell  is  thick,  clear,  Iranspareiit,  of  the  co- 
lour of  anlimony,  sprinkled  with  brown  and 
white.  When  used  in  marquetry,  &c.  the 
workmen  give  it  what  colour  they  please  by 
means  of  coloured  leaves,  which  they  put. 
underneath  it. 

tforking  and  Juining  nf  tortoise-shell. — 
Tortoise-shell  ami  hoin  become  soft  in  a  mo- 
derate heat,  as  that  of  boiling  water,  so  as  to 
be  pressed,  in  a  mould,  into  any  form,  the- 
shell  or  horn  being  previously  cut  into  plates 
of  a  proper  size.  Plumier  inf.nms  us,  in  his-' 
Art  de  'lourner,  that  two  plates  are  likewise 
united  into  one  by  heating  and  pressing^ 
them  ;  the  edges  being  tluiroughly  cleaned, 
and  made  to  fit  clo'^e  lo  one  another.  The- 
tortoise-shell  is  conveniently  heated  for  this 
purpose  by  applying  a  "hot  iron  above  and 
beneath  the  juncture,  with  the  iiiterpusitioa 
of  a  wet  cloth  to  prevent  the  shell  from  being, 
scorched  by  the  irons:  these  irons  should  be 
pretty  thiclc,.  that  thty  may  not  lose  their 
iii'at  before  the  union  is  eli'ected.  Both  tor- 
toise-shell and  horns  may  be  stained  of  a  va-- 
riely  of  colours,  by  means  of  the  colouring- 
drui^s  commonly  used  in  dyeing,  and  by  cer- 
tain metallic  solutions. 

TOIC'AN.     See  Ramphastos. 

ToucAM,  in  astronomy,  a  constellation  of 
the  southern  hemisphere,  consisting  of  eight 
small  stars,  and  otherwise  called  auser  ameri- 
canus.     See  Astronomv. 

TOUCH-NEEDLE,  among  assayers,  refiu- 
ei-s,  S:c.  little  bars  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper, 
combined  together  in  all  the  dilferent  pro- 
portions and  degrees  of  nuxtnre ;  the  use  of 
w  hicli  is  to  discover  the  degree  of  purity  of 
any  piece  of  gold  or  silver,  by  comparing  the 
mark  it  leaves  on  the  touciistone,  with  those 
of  the  bars.  Tiie  metals  usually  tried  by  the 
touchstone,  are  gold,  silver,  and  copper, 
either  pure,  or  mix<5d  with  one  another  in 
different  degrees  and  p-.oportions,  by  fusion. 
In  order  to  find  out  the  purity  or  quantity 
of  baser  metal  in  these  various  admixtures, 
when  they  are  to  be  examined,  they  are- 
compared  with  these  needles,  which  are  mix- 
ed in  a  known  proportion,  and  prepared  for 
this  use.  The  metals  of  these  needles,  both, 
pure  and  mixed,  are  all  made  into  laminae  or 
plates,  one-twelfth  of.  ao  inch  broad,,  and  .a. 


608 


T  O  U 


•  fo-.irtii  part  of  their  breadth  in  lliickness,  and 
r,!i  incli  and  a  half  long  ;  these  being  lluii  pre- 
pared, yon  are  to  engrave  on  each  a  niarfc 
indicaliiig  its  puritv,  or  the  nature  and  (|uan- 
tity  of  the  adniixtnie  in  it.  The  black  ruugli 
marble^,  the  bj-;altes,  or  other  softer  kinds  of 
black  pebbles',  are  the  most  proper  for  toucli- 
stones. 

The  method  of  using  the  needles  and  stone 
is  this:  The  piece  of  metal  to  be  tried,  might 
first  to  be  wiped  well  with  a  clean  towel,  or 
piece  of  soft  leather,  that  you  may  the  better 
tee  its  true  colour ;  for  from  this  alone  an 
experienced  person  will,  in  some  degree, 
judge  beforehand  what  the  principal  metal  is, 
and  how  and  with  what  debased.  Tlien 
chuse  a  coiivenien.t,  not  overlarge,  part  ot 
the  surface  ol  the  metal,  and  rub  it  several 
times  very  hardly  and  strongly  against  the 
touchstone ;  tliat  in  case  a  deceitful  coat  or 
crust  should  have  been  laid  upon  it,  it  may 
te  worn  otf  by  thai  friction  :  this,  however, 
is  more  readily  done  by  a  grindstone,  or 
small  tile,  if  \ou  hava  them  at  hand.  Tlien 
wipe  a  flat  and  very  clean  part  of  the  touch- 
stone, and  rub  against  it,  over  and  over  the 
surface  of  the  piece  of  metal,  till  you 
Jiave,  on  the  llat  surface  of  the  stone,  a 
thin  metaUic  crust,  an  inch  long,  and  about 
an  eighth  of  an  inch  broad ;  this  done,  look 
out  the  needle  that  seems  most  like  'the 
metal  under  trial,  wipe  tlie  lower  part  of  this 
needle  verv  clean,  and  tlien  rub  it  against 
the  touchstone  as  you  did  the  metal,  by  the 
side  of  the  other  line,  and  in  a  direction  pa- 
rallel to  it.  Wlien  this  is  done,  if  you  tind 
110  dilference  between  the  colours  of  the  two 
marks  made  by  your  needle  and  the  metal 
under  trial,  you  may,  with  great  probability, 
pronounce  that  metal  and  your  ni;edle  to  be 
of  the  same  alloy,  which  is  immediately 
known  by  the  mark  engraved  on  your  needle. 
But  if  vou  iind  a  dilference  between  the  co- 
lour of  the  mark  given  by  the  metal,  and 
that  l)y  the  needle  you  have  tried,  ciioose 
out  another  needle,  either  of  a  darker  or  light- 
er colour  than  tlie  former,  as  the  difference 
of  the  tinge  on  the  touchstone  directs ;  and 
by  one  or  more  trials  of  this  kind  you  will 
be  able  to  deterniine  wliich  of  your  needles 
the  metal  answers,  and  thence  what  alloy  it 
is  of,  bv  the  mark  of  the  needle;  or  else 
jou  will  find  that  the  alloy  is  extraordinary, 
and  not  to  be  determined  by  the  comparison 
of  your  needles. 

TOURM.VLINE,  in  mineralogy,  a  species 
of  siliceous  earth.  It  has  been  found  only  in 
Ceylon,  Bra/il,  and  Tyrol.  That  of  Ceylon 
is  of  a  dark-brown  or  yellowish  colour  ;  its 
specific  gravity  3.0ti5,  oV  3  295  ;  that  of  Bra- 
zil is  green,  blue,  red,  or  yellow,  and  its  spe- 
cific gravity  3.07.5  or  3. 1  SO  ;  that  of  'i'y rol  by 
retlected  light  is  of  a  blackish  brown,  but  by 
refracted  light  yellowish,  or  in  thin  pieces 
green  ;  its  specific  gravity  3.050  ;  mostly  cry- 
stallised IH  polygonal  prisms,  liut  sometimes 
amorphoits.  'fhe  thickest  parts  are  opake  ; 
the  thin  more  or  less  transparent.  ijce 
Shorl. 

TOl'RN'EF()K;"IA,a  genus  of  tlie  pcn- 
tandria  monogynia  class  of  plants,  the 
flower  of  which  con  lists  of  a  single  petal, 
in  form  of  an  oval  tube,  longer  than  the 
ralyx,  divided  into  fivr  slight  segments  some- 
what l)road  and  poinlid,  and  spread  open; 
(.k>:  fruit  is  a  globose  berry,  contiuning  two 


T  R  A 

cells :  and  the  seeds  arc  of  an  oval  figure, 
two  in  number,  and  sejiarated  by  the  pulp. 
There  are  ele\en  species,  shrubs  of  tjoutii 
America. 
TOURNICQUET.  See  Surgery. 
TOURRE  iTlA,  a  genus  of  the  didynamia 
aiigio-permia  ,class  and  order.  The  cal.  is 
two-lipped  ;  cor.  lower  l:p  none  ;  caps,  echi- 
nate,  tour-celled,  Iwo-valved.  There  is  one 
species,  an  annual  ol  l^eru. 
"  TOWER,  any  hi^h  buif.!iiig  raised  above 
another,  consisting  of  several  stories,  usually 
of  a  round  iorm,  though  so.iietimes  square  or 
polygonal ;  a  fortress,  a  citadel.  Towers  are 
buiit  (or  fortresses,  prisons,  &:c.  as  the  tower 
of  the  Bastile,  whicb  was  destroyed  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Pans  in  1789. 

Tlie  t'tzvcr  of  London,  commonly  called 
The  Tower,  is  a  building  with  five  small 
turrets  at  dilfereiit  angles  above  it,  situated 
on  the  banks  of  tlie  river  Thames.  Tlie 
guards  usually  do  duty  in  it.  It  is  at  present 
garrisoned  by  the  invalids.  The  tower  of 
London  is  not  only  a  citadel  to  defend  and 
command  the  city,  river,  &c.  but  it  is  also  - 
a  royal  palace,  where  the  kings  of  England 
with  their  courts  have  somelmies  lodged  ;  a 
roval  arsenal,  wherein  are  stored  arms  and 
ammunition  for  sixty  thousand  soldiers ;  a 
treasury  for  the  jewels  and  ornaments  of  the 
crown  ;  a  mint  tor  coining  money ;  the  ar- 
chives wherein  are  preserved  all  the  antient 
records  of  the  courts  of  Westminster,  &c. 
and  the  chief  prison  for  stale  delin  [uents. 
The  oilicers  belonging  to  the  tower  of  London 
consist  of 

per  annum. 
I  Constable  and  chief  govern- 
or, at  -  -  .£1000  0  0 
I  Lieutenant  governor,  at  700  0  0 
1  Deputy  lieutenant,  at  -  365  0  0 
1  Major,  at  -  -  182  10  0 
1  Chaplain,  at  -  -  121  13  4 
1  Gentleman  porter,  at  -  S4  6  8 
1  Gentleman  gaoler,  at  -  70  0  0 
1  Physician,  at  -  -  182  10  0 
1  Surgeon,  at  -  -  45  12  6 
1  Apothecary,  1  yeoman  porter. 

Tovcer-haiiioni,  in  fortification,  are  small 
towers  made  in  the  form  of  bastions,  by  M. 
Vauban,  in  his  second  and  third  method  ;. 
with  rooms  or  cellars  underneath  to  place 
men  and  guns  in  them. 

Timtrs,  movccible,  in  antient  military  his- 
tory, were  three  stories  high,  built  with  large 
beams  :  each  tower  was  placed  on  four  wheels 
or  trucks,  and  towards  the  town  coverL-d 
with  boiled  leathi-r,  to  guard  it  from  fire,  and 
to  resist  the  darts  ;  on  each  story  one  hun- 
dred archers  were  posted.  Thi-y  were  push- 
ed with  the  force  of  men  towards  to  the  city 
wall.  From  these  the  soldi  rs,  i)laced  in  the 
dill'crent  stages,  made  such  vigorous  dis- 
charges that  none  of  the  garrison  dared  to 
shew  themselves  on  the  rampart. 

TOX ICODEN DRON,  the poisoiK^ood. 
See  Rhc's. 

TOZZI.V,  a  gcmis  of  the  didynamia  an- 
gio-permia  class  of  plants,  with  a  nioiiopetal- 
oiis  riiigent  flower  ;  the  upper  li|)  of  which  is 
bifid,  and  the  lower  one  Irlfid  ;  the  fruit  is  a 
globose  unilocular  capsule,  containing  an 
ovated  seeil.     One  species. 

TR.\t!llKA.     SeeANTATOMV. 

TR.\C111".1,1UM,  a  genus  of  the  pcnlan- 
dria  monogynia  class  of  plants,  w  ith  a  fujinel- 


T  n  A 

fashioned  flower,  divided  into  five  segmentl 
at  thi-  Iind) ;  the  fruit  is  a  roundish  obtiisidy 
trilubous  capsule,  containing  a  great  number 
of  very  minute  seeds.  'I'here  are  three  spe- 
cies, herbs  of  the  Levant. 

TRACillCUriiYS,  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  order  thoi'acici.  The  generic  chaiacter 
is,  head  rounded  in  front ;  eyes  large  ;  mouth 
wide,  toothless,  descending  ;  gill-inenibrane 
with  eight  rays,  the  four  lowermost  of  which 
are  rough  on  the  edges  ;  scales  rough  ;  ab- 
domen cata)>hracted  with  large  carinate 
scales.  'I'here  is  only  a  single  species,  viz. 
the  australis,  that  inhabits  New  Holland, 
about  five  incMies  long,  and  two  deep  ;  body 
coaii'd  with  scales  so  strongly  and  closely  ui- 
serted,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  detach  one 
from  the  n-st  without  bringing  with  it  a  por- 
tion ot  thi-  skin. 

TRACIUNUS,  WeevEr.  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  order  jugulares :  the  generic 
character  is,  head  slightly  roughened,  coni- 
presse  J;  gill-membrane  six-rayed  ;  gill-covers 
serrated  on  the  edge  ;  body  compressed, 
vent  situated  near  the  breast. 

1.  Trachinus  draco,  dragon  weever.  This 
fish  is  of  a  le.igthened  shape,  much  compress- 
ed on  the  sides,  and  covered  with  small  and 
easily  deciduous  scales  ;  the  mouth  is  wide, 
and  opens  vertically,  like  that  of  the  star- 
gazer ;  both  jaws  are  armed  with  sharp  teeth; 
the  tongue  is  straight,  smooth,  and  j)ointed  ; 
the  eyes  are  seated  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
head,  jiretty  near  each  other  ;  the  gill-covers 
are  armed  at  their  tips  « ith  a  strong  spine. 
The  general  colour  of  the  weever  is  silvery, 
with  a  yellowish  or  dusky  cast  on  the  tipper 
parts,  while  the  sides  are  commonly  varied 
by  numerous  obliciuely  transverse  streaks  of 
a  similar  colour  ;  the  scales  are  small  and 
rounded  ;  the  first  dorsal  fin  is  of  a  deep 
black.  The  usual  length  of  the  fish  is  about 
ten  or  twelve  inches. 

This  lish  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Mediter- 
ranedn  and  Northern  seas,  commonly  fre- 
quenting the  coasts,  and  frequently  imbed- 
ding itself  in  the  sand ;  in  which  situation,  if 
accidentally  trodden  on,  it  strikes  backwards 
with  great  violence,  and  endeavours  to  wound 
the  aggressor  with  the  spines  of  its  first  dorsal 
fin.  So  troublesome  are  the  consequences 
arising  from  the  punctures  inflicted  by  this 
part,  that  a  law  is  said  to  exist  in  France, 
obliging  the  fishermen  to  cut  it  away  betbre 
the  fish  is  exposed  for  sale.  The  usual 
symptoms  attending  the  wound  are,  violent 
heat,  pain,  and  inllammation  ;  and  it  not  un- 
fiequently  happens  that  when  the  liund  is 
thus  wounded,  a  sudden  redness  extends 
throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  arm,  as 
far  as  the  shoulder.  'I'lie  usual  remedy 
among  the  English  fishermen  is,  according  to 
Mr.  IVnnaut,  sea-sand,  well  rubbed  on  the 
part  :  an  ap])lication  which  one  might  at  first 
suppose  would  rather  aggravate  than  alleviate 
the  coin|)laint.  Many  other  popular  remedies 
are  used  in  different  countries.  Notwith- 
standing the  suspicious  aspect  of  the  above- 
mentioned  black  fin,  it  does  not  seem  to  have 
any  thing  in  its  contormation  which  can  jus- 
tify the  idea  of  any  poisonous  fluid  conveved 
from  it  into  the  wound  ;  the  spines  when 
microscopically  examined  shewing  no  ap- 
pearance ef  a  tubular  structure. 

'Fhe  weever  is  considered  as  an  excellent 
article  of  food,  and  is  much  t-stCMned  in 
Holland,   France,  &c.     It  ftcds  principaHy 


on  marine  in^ccl-;,  womn,  ami  ^mull  (lsh«; 
it  is  ti'incioiis  of  litl',  uml  can  exist  many 
hours  out  of  wattT ;  tin;  skin  is  rcmarkal)ly 
tongli,  and  (he  animal  may  be  excoriated 
witli  almost  tlie  same  facility  as  an  eel.  See 
•  Plate  Xat.  Hist.  lig.  4oJ. 

'.'.  Trachimis  oslicckii,  osbeckian  weever. 
Native  of  the  Atlantic  seas,  and  found  about 
the  isli'  of  Ascension,  &c.  Colour  white, 
spotted  with  black  ;  both  jaws  of  ei|ual  len.»th, 
-  and  furnished  with  several  rows  of  long  and 
poinlerl  teeth,  three  of  which,  both  aliove 
and  below,  are  larger  tlian  the  rest :  some 
sharp  teeth  are  also  situated  in  the  throat : 
each  gill-cover  is  terminated  by  two  spines  of 
njieciual  leu!;th  ;  tail  even.  Describeil  bv 
Osbeck  in  his  ^'oyage  to  China.  There  arc- 
no  oilier  species. 

TR.XDl'',  the  pmctice  of  exchanging 
gooils,  waves,  money,  bills  and  other  articles 
of  value,  with  the  view  of  advantage  or  profit. 
It  is  generally  distinguished  into  foreign  trade, 
or  the  export  and  import  of  conunoditic^ 
to  and  from  other  countries,  and  the  intern.il 
or  home  trade,  or  that  which  is  carried  on 
within  the  country,  which  two  branches, 
however,  are  r.tther  distinct  in  appearance 
than  reality  ;  for  ;i  very  considerable  pordon 
of  the  internal  trade,  arising  from  manufac- 
tures carried  on  to  supply  foreign  markets, 
could  not  subsist  without  foreign  commerce, 
while  a  large  part  of  the  returns  for  manu- 
Ihctures  sent  abroad,  being  articles  for  con- 
sumption or  raw  materials  which  are  con- 
verted to  u>e  in  the  different  manuf.ictures, 
depends  upon  our  internal  trade,  so  th.it  the 
one  supports  the  other,  and  by  their  mutual 
connection  and  dependance,  the  foreign  and' 
tiie  domestic  trade  of  (jreat  Britain  have  risen 
together  to  their  present  unparalleled 
height. 

The  extent  and  value  of  tlie  principal 
bruiclies  of  foreign  trade  have  been  stated  un- 
der the  article  Commerce,  and  the  following 
view  of  the  present  state  of  the  principal  ma- 
nufaclnres  will  shew  the  vast  importance  of 
our  internal  or  Iionie  trade  ;  a  general  procjf 
of  the  advancement  of  which,  may  be  found 
in  the  grvat  increase  in  the  numljer  of  cotni- 
try  banks,  now  spread  all  over  (iie  kingdom, 
deriving  their  proiits  chiefly  from  this  part  of 
.  its  trade. 

Atdiiiij'actHrcs  m3.y  be  defined  the  arts  bv 
which  natural  productions  are  brought  into 
the  state  or  form  in  w  hich  they  are  consum- 
ed or  used.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
those  which  f.diricate  (he  various  articles  of 
clothing ;  as  the  woollen-manufacture,  the 
leather-manufacture  in  part,  the  cotfon-ma- 
nufacture.the  linen-nianut'acture,  and  the  silk- 
manufacfure  ;  others  supply  articles  of  house- 
hold furniture,  as  the  manufactures  of  glass, 
porcelain,  earthenware,  and  'of  most  of  tlie 
metals  in  part ;  the  iron-manulaclure  fur- 
nishes implements  of  agriculture,  and  we.i- 
pons  of  war;  and  the  paper-manufacture 
tupplies  a  material  for  counnunicating  ideas 
and  perpetuating  knowdedge. 

Tlie  enhanced  value  of  raw  materials  by 
manufacture  has  been  illustrated  bv  the  fol- 
lowing remarks  ;  "  One  hundred  pounds  laid 
out  in  wool,  and  that  wool  manufactured  into 
good-;  for  the  Turkey  market,  and  raw  silk 
brought  home  in  return,  and  mumifacfured 
liere,  will  increase  that  one  hundred  to  live 
thousand  pounds  ;  which  (|(iantity  of  silk-ma- 
niifacdires  being  sent  to  New  Spain,  would  I 

Vol.  II.  ' 


TRADK, 

return  ten  thousand  pounils;  wliidi  \nU  im- 
provement of  the  first  hundred  pounds,  he- 
comes,  in  a  few  years,  dispersed  amongst  all 
orders  and  degrees,  from  the  prince  to  (he 
peasant.  Thus,  again,  a  parcel  of  iron-stone, 
which  when  taken  Ir  >m  its  nadnal  bed,  was 
not  worlh  fivi-  shillings,  when  made  into  iron 
and  steel,  and  (hence  into  various  manu.'ac- 
tures  tr)r  foreign  markets,  may  probably 
bring  home  to  (lie  value  of  ten  thonsund 
pounds ;  for  steel  may  be  made  near  three 
huridrrd  times  dearer  tli.m  standard  gold, 
weight  for  weight.  Twenty  acres  of  fin.- 
fla.x,  when  manufactured  into  the  dearest  and 
most  proper  goods  for  foreign  markets,  niav, 
in  return,  bring  wdiat  may  be  wnith  ten  llioii- 
sand  pounds;  for  an  ounce  of  the  finest  Flan- 
ders thread  has  bi-eii  sold  in  London  for 
four  pounds,  and  such  an  ounce  tiiade  in 
Flanders  inlo  (hi-  finest  lace,  may  be  here 
sold  for  forly  pounds;  which  is  above  ten 
times  the  price  of  standard  gold,  weight  for 
weight."' 

.Vl  aim  fad  u  res  had  begun  to  flourish  in 
diiriMenl  parts  of  Furope,  long  before  they 
were  attempted  in  IJrilaiii ;  the  few  article's 
of  this  description  which  were  in  re(iu(-st, 
beinu;  obtained  in  exchange  for  wool 


80$ 


inn 

^.10,735,403 

179.-, 

1.3,.3.38,3l.i 

I7!l(» 

l!),I02,'J.'O 

\'<)7 

I(),003,IOJ 

V'JH 

)y,«72,:,o.3 

1  70!  t 

24,084,'il.} 

1800 

24,.304,'JS.3 

1  .HO  1 

2i,(mMV 

isna 

2fi.9'Ji,\'J0 

1  M0.5 

22,:>y3,(y>7 

1804 

2.J,<J.35,7yj 

1803 

25,003,3(J8 

hide 


The  real  value  of  British  produce  and  nia- 
niifactiires  exportetl,  however,  considerably 
exceeds  the  above  official  statement,  and  as 
far  as  it  can  be  ascertained,  under  the  ad  va- 
lorem dudes,  or  computed  at  (he  average 
current  price-i  of  the  goods,  it  aniounied  in 
the  year  IK04  to  4o,.340,t)4-7.  and  in  ISOj  to 
4l,06H,94'.'/.  The  commodities  included 
under  the  term  British  produce,  such  as 
alum,  bark,  coals,  cattle,  fish,  hops,  metals, 
salt,  and  a  few  other  articles,  bi-ing  uniti,-d  mi 
these  accounts  with  nianufa<  (ured  goods,  the 
ac(nal  value  of  (he  latter  cannot  be  derived 
from  tlu-m  ;  but  in  u  comparative  view  they 
(urnisli  a  sufiiciently  accurate    idea   of  the 


tin,  and  such  other  produce  as  the  country  in  proportions  e.xported  at  different  periods, 
a  vi-ry  uncultivated  state  could  supply.  '  In  'I'he  annual  produce  of  the-  different  ma- 
13,57,  it  was  enacted,  tli.it  no  more  wool  nufactures  of  this  country,  and  the  employ- 
should  be  exported  ;  that  no  one  should  wear  [  nieiit  created  by  them,  has  in  several  iii- 
any  but  English  cloth  ;  that  no  cloths  made  stances  been  greatly  over-rated  ;  for  if  the 
i)eyond  seas  should  be  imported;  that  to-  number  of  persons  w'hich  the  various  branches 
reign  clothworkers  might  come  into  the  |  have  at  different  times  been  rejjresented  to 
king's  dominions,  and  should  have  such  fr.in-  i  i-mj)loy,  were  addc-d  together,  they  would 
chisi-s  as  might  suffice  (hem.  Before  (his  I  make  the  population  of  tlie  country  far  ex- 
time,  the  Engli-h  were  little  more  than  shep-  ceed  its  known  amount,  without  any  allow- 
herds  and  wool-sellers.  ance  whatever  for  other  occupations. ' 

The  progress  of  iniprovenient  since  the  es- I  The  woollen-manufacture,  which  is  the 
tablishmeiit  of  iiiamifactures  in  this  country,  j  niost  antient  and  important,  has  increasej 
h^.s  in  most  instances  been  remarkably  great,  j  during  the  last  twenty  years,  and  appears  to 
particularly  of  late  years,  in  consc(|nence  of;  be  still  increasing,  notwithstanding  tlie  Jiigli 
an  increased  knowh-dge  of  the  ])roperties  of  '  price  of  the  ma(erial,  and  the  precarious  s(ate 
various  ma(erials,  va>t  improvements  in  all  )  of  the  foreign  inarkels.  Un  a  late  examin- 
kiiids  of  niachiiu-iy,  and  (he  great  capitals  in-  |  ation  of  (iie  ])rincipal  woollen-manufacturers, 
vested  in  most  of  the  different  hr.uiches.  The  |  bv  a  committee  of  (lie  Iionse  of  commons, 
value  of  British  manuf.ictures  exported  to  all  j  Mr.  \V'.  Hustler  estimated  the  tiuantity  of 
countries,  on  an  average  of  six  years,  ending  j  "'ool  grown  in  this  country  at  000,000  packs, 
with  1774,  was   lo,34?,019/.  ;  the  American    of  L'4a  j)ounds  each,  which  at  1 1/.  per  pack 


war  suspended  for  a  tiiiie  an  important  mar- 
ket lor  several  of  our  maniifaclures,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  total  amount  exported 
had  fallen  in  !7S1  to  7.(;)33,33.'/.  and  on  an 
average  of  six  years,  ending  with  17S3,  was 
8,616,660/.  During  the  |)eace  which  follow- 
ed, tiie  export  trade  rapidly  revived,  and,  in 
(he  year  preceding  (he  war  with  France,  had 
attained  to  a  magnitude  beyond  all  former 
example  ;  it  was  checked  a  little  bv  the  mer- 
cantile embarrassments  in  1793,  but  a  few- 
years  after,  the  unsetded  s(ale  of  several  of 

man 


makes  (In;  value  of  (he  whole  6,600,000/.  He 
jusdy  observed  that  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain 
how  much  the  wool  is  increased  in  value  bv 
being  manufactured ;  some  sorts  are  increased 
ratlier  more  than  double,  some  nine  times  or 
even  more ;  but  if  the  average  is  taken  at 
only  three  times,  which  will  be  under  the 
truth,  the  total  value  of  the  wool  manufac- 
tured in  the  country  will  amount  tol  9,600,000/. 
It  must  be  remarked,  that  tliis  calculation 
is  founded  on  a  supposition  that,  in  1791, 
the  number  of  sheep  in   the  kingdom  was 


the  principal  Kuropean  pow-ers  threw  many  j  33,800,000,  which,  as  far  as  any  idea  can  be 
additional  branches  of  foreign  trade  intothe  I  formed  from  the  proportion  of  (he  consump- 
hands  of  our  merchants,  and  carried  the  ex-  1  tion  of  the  metropolis  to  that  of  the  whole 


lort  of  our  manufactures  to  its  present  iin- 
|)ortant  extent. 

Official  value  of  I'ritish  produce  and  ma- 
nufactures exported  from  Great  Britain,  for 
eighteen  years,  ending  jth  January,  1806; 


Inl7SS 

j:i2,7':4,719 

1789 

13,779,506 

1790 

14,931,084 

1791 

16,810,013 

1792 

18,336,8jl 

179-5 

5K 

13,892,368 

island,  and  the  stock  re<|uisite  for  tlie  supply, 
greatly  exceeded  the  truth  at  that  lime  ;  aiid 
it  is  the  general  opinion,  particularly  of  per- 
sons in  the  wool-trade,  that  of  late  the  number 
of  sheep  kept  has  been  considerably  reduced. 
The  calculation  is  likewise  made  at  an  unu- 
sually high  price  ot  wool;  for  (hough  during 
the  year  1800,  the  average  price  was  about 
eleven  guineas,  the  average  of  the  three  or 
lour  ])receding  years  was  certainly  not  more 
than  from  ten  pounds  to  ten  guineas ;  upon 
llie  wliole,  the  estimate,  tiierefore,  will   bi: 


810 

much  less  obiectioiuble,  if  foniied  on  500.000 
picks  at  10/!  10?.  |KT  pack,  wliuli  will  UKiki; 
t!ie  v.ikie  of  tiie  wool  5,i;.i(),000/. ;  to  tins 
must  be  atldetl  at  least  500,000/.  forfu-  value 
of  Spanish  wool  imported,  and  the  manu- 
f.ictiiiL'd  value  of  the  whole  will  be 
IV.-JiO.OOO/.  That  the  total  value  of  the 
niaaiifacturo  casiiiot  ONCced  this  sum  will  ap- 
pear highly  probable  from  the  eNports.  The 
value  of  woollen  goods  cxporled  from  G;eat 
Britain  Jii  si.\  years,  was  as  fallows: 

In  1794  i'.4,.>90,920 

1795  5,17^.884 

■  1796  6,011,133 

1797  4,936,355 

1798  6,499,339 

1799  6,876,939 

The  average  is  5,647,928/.  Most  of  the 
rustom-liouse  values  of  goods  exported  are 
greatly  below  their  present  value,  but  not  so 
iiiuc'i  so  in  this  article  as  in  some  others  ; 
they  are  found,  however,  to  be  about  thirly- 
eiji'it  per  cent,  below  the  actual  value,  aiid 
tills  addition  being  mjdc  t(j  the  average 
amount,  the  value  of  woollen  goods  exported 
will  appear  to  he  7,794,140/.  The  value  re- 
luinecl  for  home  con^umption  may  b-j  nearly 
C(|ual  to  tlie  value  exporh'd,  although  in  quan- 
titv  the  forniLTmay  greatly  exceeil  the  latter,  a 
very  considerable  proportion  of  which  con- 
sists of  superfine  and  second  cloths,  whereas 
the  consumption  of  line  woollens  in  Great 
Hritain  has  much  diminished  of  laic  years, 
from  the  general  use  of  Manchester  manu- 
factures of  cotton  in  clothing,  particularly 
for  waistcoats  and  breeches.  The  whole 
value  of  the  manufacture  thus  appears  to  be 
about  !5,3SS,000.'.  and,  as  a  medium  between 
this  sum  and  the  amount  before  stated,  it 
may  be  taken  at  16,400,000/.  ]:)educting 
from  this  amount  at  the  rate  of  10  per  cent. 
on  the  cost  of  the  goods  for  the  prolits  of  the 
manufacturer,  including  the  interest  of  his 
capital,  there  remains  14,909,090/.  consisting 
of  the  cost  of  the  material,  and  the  wages  of 
labour;  the  value  of  all  the  wool  employed, 
we  have  seen,  is  about  5,750,000/.  and  includ- 
ing the  cost  of  some  other  necessary  articles, 
the  materials  cannot  be  valued  at  less  than 
this  sum  ;  the  remainder  therefore,  or 
t), 159,090/.  is  the  amount  of  vvorkmaiiship,  or 
the  wages  of  all  the  persons  empl.fved  in  the 
Bunufactiire.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to 
assuTne  with  precision  an  average  rate  of 
wages,  with  respect  to  any  manufacture,  as 
they  vary  in  diirerent  paiLs  of  tlie  country, 
.Hid  the  proportion  of  the  different  classes  of 
pc-ious  employed  is  in  no  instance  known 
with  certainty.  In  the  West,  where  the 
w<Kj'ilen-nuinufacture  has  been  for  some  time 
jiast  ill  a  very  depressed  state,  few  workmen 
get  above  14>-.  per  week,  and  many  much 
less  from  not  being  fully  employed;  in  Yoik- 
siliire  good  workmen  earn  from  I6s.  to  18v. 
per  week,  children  3i-.  older  children  and 
women  from  5s.  to  6x.  and  old  men  from  'Js. 
t'l  \2s.  If,  on  taking  all  classes  togi'lher, 
?».  per  week  is  not  thought  too  high,  it  will 
appear  tiial  the  whole  number  of  persons  em- 
ployed does  not  exceed  440,340. 

'rliw  value  of  the  leather-manufacture  was, 
some  years  ago,  slated  at  10,580,000/.  and 
{rom  the  slate  of  the  tr.ide  of  late,  particular- 
iy  thosi!  branches  of  it  which  supply  military 
'.icioutrements,  harness,  sadlery,  carriages, 
U^   cotnli.iied,  with  the  hi  jh  price  of  ikina  of 


TRADE. 

most  kinds,  il  cannot  be  supposed  less  than 
that  sum  at  present.  Deducting  9.)4,545/. 
for  the  prohts  of  capital  employed,  and 
3,500,000/.  for  the  cost  of  the  raw  article, 
there  remains  6,045,455/.  for  the  wages  of 
persons  employed  therein,  which,  at  25/. 
per  annum  for  each  person,  makes  the  num- 
ber employed  241,818. 

The  co'tlon-maiuifactnre  was  fonncrly  of 
little  importance  in  this  country,  in  compari- 
son with  its  present  state.  The  total  quantity 
of  cotton-wool  imported  into  I'.iigland,  on  an 
average  of  live  years,  ending  with  1705,  was 
1,170,881  pounds,  and  even  so  late  as  the 
year  1731,  it  amounted  to  only  5,101,920 
pounds.  About  that  time,  however,  the 
British  calicoes,  which  had  been  introduced 
some  years  before,  had  arrivi'Cl  at  some  de- 
gree of  perfection,  and  tlie  branch  of  muslins 
being  added,  in  which  great  iiiiprovemeuts 
were  soon  after  ma<le,  'the  wliole  manufac- 
ture experienced  such  a  rapid  and  great  in- 
crease, that  previous  to  tlie  commencement 
of  the  war  with  France,  the  consumption 
of  cotton-wool  amounted  to  upwards  of 
30,000,000  pounds  per  annum.  In  the  years 
1793,  1794,  and  1795,  the  import  was  con- 
siderablv  less,  but  during  the  succeeding  hve 
\ears  was  as  follows  : 

In  17^6  31,280,000  lb. 

1797  23,175,000 

1 798  SI  ,592,000 

1799  35,689  000 

1800  56,010,000 

The  average  is  35,549,200  jjounds,  the 
value  of  which,  wl*en  manufactured,  cannot 
be  less  than  11,000,000/.  allowing  for  a  con- 
siderable quantity  exported  in  a  partially  ma- 
nufactured state.  '1  he  total  ipiaiitity  of  Bri- 
tish calicoes  and  mushiis  printed  in  England 
and  Wales  in  the  year  ISOO  was  28,692,790 
yards,  and  in  Scotland  4,176,939  yards,  tlie 
duty  on  the  whole  amounting  to  479,350/. 
49.  oid.  Upon  the  supposition  that  the  duly 
is  one-tenth  of  the  value,  the  value  of  this 
description  of  goods  printed  in  1800,  will  be 
4,793,502/.  'I'he  quantity  of  while  calicoes 
and  muslins  made  in  Great  Britain,  is  pro- 
bably muc'li  greater  than  that  of  llie  printed; 
and  ihougli  tiiey  do  not  incur  the  exjjence  of 
printing  and  duly,  yet  as  a  greater  proportion 
of  them  are  line  goods,  the  value  of  them  is 
probably  rather  "above  3,500,000/.  There 
are  many  other  branches  of  manufacture 
which  consume  large  (pianlities  of  cotton, 
though  il  is  diiricult  to  form  an  idea  of  the 
precise  amount ;  thus  the  hosiery  branch  w  as 
slated  some  years  ago  to  employ  1,500,000 
pounds,  and  il  has  certainly  since  increased 
considerably ;  the  same  t|uanlity  was  said  to 
be  resjiiired  for  candle-wicks ;  and  it  will 
probably  be  a  very  moderate  estimate  to 
valiu;  all  the  cotton  that  is  manulaclured  in 
any  .'Iher  way  than  in  muslins  and  calicoes  at 
2,800,000/.  'The  total  value  of  the  manu- 
facture will  thus  appear  to  be,  as  before 
stated,  about  1  1,000,000/.  Deducting  from 
this  sum  1,000,000/.  for  prolits  of  capital  at 
ten  per  cent,  and  4,443,650/.  tor  cost  of  the 
raw  material  at  2s.  Ciil.  per  pound,  tlu're  re- 
mains 5,556,350/.  for  wages,  which,  if  divid- 
ed at  the  rate  of  only  16/.  per  annum  for 
each  person,  on  account  of  the  large  propor- 
tion of  women  and  children  employed, 
makes  the  whole  number  347,271  persons. 

The   silk-manufacture   was    formerly    of 
greater  e.vtc»t  lh;iii  at  present,  but  has  not 


cxperlinced  any  very  coiisidtral.lt  tluilualion 
for  some  years  past :  the  quantity  cf  raw  and 
thrown  silk  imported  in  three  years  pitceding 
the  5th  January  1797,  was  as  follows  : 
In  1794  90D,6s6  lb. 

1795  985,659 

1796  758,970 

The  average  of  tliese  three  years  is 
883,438  pounds ;  and  though  the  quantity  in 
1797  was  still  less  than  in  1796,  the  impor- 
tation has  since  been  greater,  and  the  usual 
quantity  caimot  be  staled  at  less  than  900,000 
pounds,  the  value  of  which  when  manulac- 
lured is  about  2,7tW, 000/.  The  cost  of  tiie 
silk  Lo  the  manufacUirer,  if  raw  and  thrown 
are  taken  togeliicr  at  only  28s.  per  pound, 
amounts  to  1,260,000/.  and  the  prolits  of  the 
manufarlurer  245,454/.  at  the  rale  often  per 
cent,  on  the  cost  when  inaiuifactured.  It 
may  be  said  tlial  though  this  is  the  usual 
prolit  charged  by  Uie  manufacturer  in  this 
and  some  other  branches,  in  casting  up  the 
selling  price  of  his  goods,  tlR-y  are  frequently 
sold  much  under  this  price;  which  must  be 
admitted:  but,  as  an  advantage  is  taken  on 
most  of  the  component  [jarts  ot  the  price  be- 
fore the  ten  per  cent,  is  laid  on,  it  is  pro- 
bably not  less  than  this  rate  on  the  whole, 
in  this  and  in  most  oilier  manufactures.  Tiie 
number  of  persons  eniploye<l  in  the  silk-ma- 
nufactory has  been  slated  at  200,000  and 
upwards,  but  there  appears  no  reason  lo  be- 
lieve that  il  exceeds  65,000  of  all  descrip- 
tions. 

The  linen-manufacture  of  Great  Britain  is 
chiefly  conliued  to  Scotland,  though  some 
branches  of  it  are  carried  on  in  Manchester 
and  other  pans  of  England.  The  exporta- 
tion of  British-made  linen  duty-free,  was  al- 
lowed in  1717,  but  the  bounties  on  exporta- 
tion were  not  granted  till  1743,  in  which 
year  the  export  was  52,772  yards.  On  an 
average  of  seven  years  of  |:eace  from  1749  lo 
1755,  the  export  of  British-manufactured 
linens  had  increased  to  576,373  yards;  audit 
continued  to  increase  greatly  during  the  suc- 
ceeding period  of  war,  the  average  of  seven 
years,  ending  with  1762,  being  1,356,640 
yards.  The  average  of  the  next  seven  years 
■  was  2,423,378  yards;  but  in  consequence  of 
the  commercial"  embarrassments  of  the  year' 
1773,  this  manufacture  declined  very  much, 
and  in  the  beginning  of  1774,  it  is  said  there 
were  not  much  more  than  half  the  weavers 
euijiloyed  throughout  SdHand  and  the  north 
of  England.  In  the  course  of  a  few  vears  it 
revived  again,  and  in  the  year  1783  the  ex- 
port amounted  to  no  less  than  14,298,000 
yards.  The  total  quantity  of  British  linen 
exported  during  three  years  ending  with 
1779,  was  as  follows  : 

In  1797  14,533,000  yards. 

1798  .         20,744,000" 

1799  21,204,000 

The  value,  estimated  at  the  current  prices, 
of  linens  exported,  on  an  average  of  three 
years  preceding  5th  January  179?),  was 
1,278,734.'.  ;  therefore,  iflhe  quantity  retained 
for  home  <'onsumplion  is  not  greater  than  the 
export,  the  value  of  the  whole  must  be  up- 
wards of  2,500,000/. ;  and  it'probably  will  not 
exceed  the  truth  if  the  yearly  value  of  the 
whole  of  this  manufacture  in  Great  Britain, 
with  the  thread,  and  other  branches  of  the 
llax  trade,  is  slated  at  3,000,000/.  That  it 
is  not  of  less  extent,  mav  be  presumed  from 
the  following  account  of  the  quantities  o^ 


T  R  A 

rough  flax  and  liiicii-yarn  imported  on  an 
avijiage  of  fire  yeaij,  ending  the  ith  of  Ja- 
nuary ill  the  years  staled,  viz. 

P'lax.  Liiien-j-arn. 

1776      254,141  cwt.     7,847, l.)7  lbs. 
1787       24r>,63S  8,873,Sn6 

1792    ■  2.3y,5(i4  9,781, '275 

1799       290,754  8,148,956 

The  retuiiis  ot  the  qtianlity  and  value  of 
linen-cloth  stain|)ed  for  side  in  Scotland,  fur- 
lii-ih  niucli  infornialion  res|)ecling  the  state  of 
Ihi'i  nianiifaclure ;  and  were  in  three  years 
ending  witlj  1800,  as  follows  : 

Yard<.  Value. 

In  1798       21,'jy7,059  ^.    850,903  9  9 

1799  2i,i06,007      I,ll6.0i2  4  7 

1800  24,233,633       1,047,598  10  10 

The  linens  vvliich  most  of  the  families  in 
Scotland  make  for  their  own  use,  are  not 
stamped,  and  consequently  are  not  inchhk-d' 
in  these  returns,  uliich  must  therefore  be  less 
than  llie  quantity  artually  manufactured  by 
several  millions  of  yards ;  and  the  value  stated 
is  certainly  much  below  the  actual  selling 
prices.  There  is  no  account  kept  of  the  linen- 
manufacture  in  England  ;  and  as  it  is  consi- 
dered as  an  object  of  subordinate  importance, 
its  annual  value  is  probably  under  1,000,000<. 
but  even  if  it  is  somewhat  less  tlian  this 
amount,  it  will  appear  that  the  total  value  of 
the  marmfacture,  rated  at  the  current  prices, 
cannot  be  less  than  tlie  sum  before  stated,  or 
3,000,00(j/.  I'lie  number  of  persons  em- 
ploved  ill  it  is  probably  not  less  than  9-', 000. 

The  hemp-manufacture  at  present  exceeds 
1,600,000'.  per  annum,  but  is  less  in  time  of 
peace  ;  the  pers»u ;  employed  in  it  are  pro- 
bably about  3j,0iW. 

The  paper-manufacture  has  been  greatly 
advanced  of  late.  A  hundred  years  ago 
scarcely  any  paper  was  made  in  this  country 
but  the  coarse  wrapping  papers  :  and  for  a 
long  time  most  of  the  superior  kinds  conti- 
nued to  be  imported  ;  the  export  is,  however, 
at  present  considerable  The  annual  value 
(if  the  manufacture,  at  the  present  high  prices 
of  the  article,  cannot  be  less  than  900,000/. 
and  the  numljer  of  persons  emploved  in  it 
30,000. 

The  glass-manufacture  was  mucii  improv- 
ed in  the  course  of  the  last  century,  jiarli- 
rularlv  in  the  article  of  plate-glass,  and  it 
has  greatly  increased  of  late  years;  it  m.av 
now  amount  to  1,500,000/.  per  annum,  and 
tlie  persons  employed  in  it  to  about  .>fi,000. 
The  potteries,  and  manufactures  of  earth- 
enware and  porcelain,  advanced  rapidly 
«iuring  the  last  century  in  consequence  of  the 
great  improvements  made  in  them,  and  the 
introduction  of  many  new  and  beautiful  wares 
both  for  our  own  use  and  foreign  markets. 
The  article  of  <iueen's-wai»!  was  invented  in 
i7t)3,  by  Mr.  J.  Wedgewood,  to  whom  the 
public  are  also  indebted  for  most  of  those 
elegant  species  of  earthenware  and  pircelain 
which,  niovdded  into  a  thousand  different 
■forms  for  ornament  or  use,  now  constitute 
the  most  valuable  part  of  this  manufacture. 
The  annual  value  will  prob.ably  not  be  over- 
rated at  2,000,000/.  and  the  number  of  per- 
sons employed  at  45,000. 

The  iron-manufacture  is  supplied  partly 
by  the  produce  of  our  own  mines,  and  partly 
J»y  those  of  other  countries;  with  respect  to 
the  first,  it  appears,  that  the  total  produce 
of  pig-iron   in  15ritiuji,   is    at  Itast    100,000 


,. 


T  11  A 

torn;  and  reckoning  on  an  avenge,' that  33 
cwt.  of  crude  iron  produce  one  ton  of  bars, 
and  that  tlie  maiiufactuic  of  malleable  iron 
amounts  to  35,000  tons  per  annijiii,  this 
branch  will  require  57,750  tons  of  crude  iron  ; 
and  l^ie  value  in  bars  at  20/.  a  ton,  which  is 
considerably  under  the  present  price,  is 
700,000/.  the  remaining  42,250  tons,  cast  inlo 
cannon,  cylinders,  and  machinery,  &c.at  I  U. 
a  ton,  are  worth  591,500/.  The  siijjpjy  of  fo- 
reign bar-iron  is  chiefly  obtained  from  Kussia 
and  Sweden  ;  and  the  quantity  in)j)orted  on 
an  average  of  six  years,  ending  with  1805, 
after  tieducting  what  was  re-exported,  lias 
been  33,628  tons,  value  865,182/.  which  with 
the  sums  before  mentioned,  amounts  to 
2,150,68'-?/.  Tills  value  is  greatly  increased 
by  subsequent  labour;  but  the  proportion  of 
tlie  increase  c.uinot  be  easily  deter.nined,  tlie 
quantity  of  labour  being  so  very  difiercnt  in 
different  articles. 

Some  years  ago  the  value  of  the'iron-ma- 
nufa;ture  was  estimated  at  8,700,000/. 
which  sum  appears  rather  too  high  at  present; 
but  including  tin  and  lead,  the  value  of  the 
whole  will  probLiiily  not  be  taken  too  high  at 
10,000,000/.  and  the  number  of  persons  em- 
ployed at  200,000. 

'I'he  copper  and  brass  manufactures  are 
now  established  in  this  country  in  all  their 
branches.  Till  about  the  years  1720  or 
1730,  most  of  the  cop[)er  and  brass  utensils 
for  culinary  and  other  purposes,  used  in  this 
country,  were  imported  honi  Mamburgh  and 
Holland,  being  procured  from  the  maiiulac- 
tories  of  Germany  ;  even  so  late  as  the  years 
1745  and  1750,  copper  teakettles,  saucepans, 
and  pots  of  all  sizes,  were  imported  here  in 
large  quantities  ;  but  through  the  persever- 
ing industry,  capitals,  and  enterprising  spirit 
of  our  minei's  and  manufacturers,  these  im- 
ports have  become  totally  unnecessary,  the 
articles  being  now  all  made  here,  and  far 
better  than  any  other  country  can  produce. 
The  discovery  of  new  copper-mines  in  Corn- 
wall, Derbyshire,  and  Wales,  about  the  year 
1773,  contributed  to  the  c.vtension  of  the 
manufacture  in  this  country ;  and  it  appears 
to  be  still  increasing,  notwithstanding  the  very 
great  advance  in  the  price  of  copper,  which 
must  certainly  be  attended  with  some  disad- 
vantage with  respect  to  foreign  markets.  Tlie 
value  of  wi'ought  copper  and  brass  exported 
during  the  year  1799  was  1,S22,1S7/.  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe,  that  the  whole  va- 
lue of  these  manufactures  at  present  is  at 
least  3,600,000/.  and  the  number  of  persons 
eniplo;.  ed-  about  60,000. 

'l"he  steel,  plating,  and  hardware  manu- 
factures, including  tlie  toy  trade,  have  been 
carried  to  a  great  extent  of  late  years,  and 
may  amount  in  value  to  4,000,000/.  and  the 
persons  employed  to  at  least  70,000. 

It  must  be  confessed,  that  many  of  these 
estimates  are  unavoidably  defective  from  the 
want  of  public  documents  respecting  many 
important  branches  of  trade;  they  may, 
however,  be  sufficiently  accurate  to  shew,  in 
a  general  view,  the  relative  extent  of  llie 
principal  manufactures  of  Great  Britain, 
viz. 

Annual  Persons 

value.  emploved. 

Woollen  <^.  16,400,000        440,340 

Leather  10,500,000        241,818 

CottOK  1 1 ,000,000         347,27 1 

Sdk  2,700,000  65,000 

5K2 


T  R  A 

T.iiien  and  ffaic  2,000,000 

lleinp  l,l)()':),000 

I'aper  900,000 

Gla<s  1,500.003 

I'otleries  2,000,000 
Iron,   till,  and 

lead  10,000,000 
Co|jper  and  brass  3,600,000 
Ste.'l,    plating, 

SiC.  4,000,000 


au 


95,000 

3.s.oon 

30,01)0 
.36,000 
45,000 

200,000 
60-,00ii 

7O/JO0 


U  .f>7,2uo,000       1,665,429 

There  are  many  other  mantifactures,  sucli 
as  those  of  hats,  horn,  straw,  &c.  which, 
though  of  themselves  of  less  importance  tliao 
most  of  those  above  emimeruled,  are  tof;e- 
thcriuf  very  considerable  amoui.t,  and  eir.- 
ploy  a  great  number  of  hands.  There  are 
likewise  some,  which,  though  not  generally 
included  among  the  manufactures,  are  cer- 
tainly such  in  a  great  degree,  and  might,  with 
much  propriety,  be  classed  with  them. 

It  may  be  piojier  to  obsi;rve,   that  those 
who  have  rated  tlie  number  of  persons  em- 
ployed  in  the  dif(i;rent  branches  very   con- 
siderably higher  than  is  here  stated,  iiave  ge- 
nerally included  a  variety  of  collateral  em- 
ployn»ents,    as    mariners,    carrier.s,   miners, 
&:c.   whereas  tlie  numbers   here  given   arc 
meant  to  include  only  the  persons  directly 
employed   in   the   various  transactions   and 
operations  necessary   for  biinging    the   nvr 
materials    into    their    finished    tonsuniable 
stale. 
Trade-winds.     See  Wis- d. 
TRADKSCANTIA,  a  genus  of  the  hex- 
andria  monogynia  class  of  plants,  the  flower 
of  which  consists  of  three  orbiculated,  plane, 
and  very  patent  petals ;  and   its  fruit  is  au 
oval  trilocular  capsule,  containing  a  few  ail- 
gulated  seeds.     19  species. 
TK.\GACANTH.    See  Astrac.\lus. 
I'racaca.sith,  gion,  or,   as  some  call  it, 
guiri-adragant,  or  gem  dragon,  is  the  produce 
of  the  above  and  some  other  shrubs.  The  gum 
is  brought  to  us  in  long  and  slender  pieces,  of 
a   tiatted  figure  more  or  less,  and  thi-e  not 
straiglit, or  rarely  so;  but  commonly  twisted 
and  contorted  various  ways,  so  as  to  resemble 
worms.     We  sometimes  meet  v.  ith  it  like  the 
other  vegetable  cxsudations,  in  roundish  drops, 
but  these  are  much  more  rare.  It  is  moderate- 
ly heavy,  of  u  firm  consistence,  and  properly 
speaking,  very  tough  rather  than  hard  :  and  is 
extremely  diliicult  to  powder,  unless  first  care- 
fully dried,  and   the  mortar  and  pestle  kept 
dry.      Its   natural  colour  is  a  pale  whitish, 
and  in  the  cleanest  pieces  it  is  something 
transparent.     It  is  often,  however,  met  with 
tinged  brownish,  and  of  otl:er  colours,  and 
more  opake.     It  has  no  smell,  and  verv  little 
taste,  but  what  it  has  is  disagre<-able.     Taken 
into  the  mouth,  it  does  not  grnw  clammy,  and 
stick   to  the  teeth,  as  the  gum  arable  does, 
but  melts  into  a  kind  of  very  soft  mucilage. 
It  dissolves  in  water  but  slowly,  and  commu- 
nicates   its    mucilaginous  quality  to  a  great 
quantity  of  that  iluid.     It  is  by  no  means  so- 
luble in  oily  or  spirituous  liquors,  nor  is  it  in- 
iiammable.     It  is  brought  to  us  from  the  isl- 
and of  Crete,  and.  from  several  paits  ofAsia. 
It  is  to  be  chosen  in  long  twisted  pieces,  of  a 
whitish  colour,  very  clear,  and  free  from    all 
other  colours ;  the  brown,  and  particularly 
the  black,  are  wholly  to  bercjected, 
TragacautU.lias  the  same  virtues  with-gui^ 


.512 


T  R  A 


arable,  but  in  a  gieati-r  degree.  It  greatly 
iinpiwales  aud  ol)tiiiiil-;  the  acrimony  of  tlie 
luniiDure,  and  is  tin  rei'ore  f.nind  of  service  in 
inveterate  coijgbs,  und  other  disorders  of  the 
breast,  arising  from  an  acrid  pidegni,  and  in 
strangurie':,  heat  of  urine,  and  all  otiier  com- 
plaints of  that  kind.  It  is  u»:n-illy  given  in 
tlie  compoinid  powiler,  called  the  species  dia- 
tragacanthi  frigid:e,  rarely  alone.  It  is  aUo, 
by  soini;,  esteemed  a  very  great  external  re- 
medy for  «  omuls,  and  in  tins  sense  made  an 
ingreilienl  in  some  sympatlieiic  powders,  with 
vitriol  and  other  things.  It  is  by  some  re- 
connnended  alone,  in  form  of  a  powder  or 
strong  mucilage,  for  cracks  and  chaps  in  the 
nipples  of  women:  but  it  is  found,  by  expe- 
rience, to  be  a  very  trouii'.esome  application 
in  those  cases,  and  to  do  more  harm  than  good, 
as  it  dries  bv  the  heat  of  the  part,  and  draws 
tlie  lips  of  the  wound  farther  asunder  than  be- 
fore.    See  Gums. 

TRAGEDY.     SeePoETRV. 

TR.VGIA,  a  genus  of  the  nionoecia  trian- 
dria  class  of  plants,  witliout  anv  tiower-petals  ; 
its  frnit  is  a  very  large  tricoccous  capsule  of  a 
roundish  figure,  containing  single  and  round- 
ish seeds.     There  are  S  species. 

TH.AGOVOGO'S, goa:'s-kuid, a'genus  of 
plants  of  the  class  syngenesia,  and  the  or- 
der polygamia  a.'qnaiis  ;  and  in  the  natural 
system  ranging  under  the  4-9th  order,  com- 
posite. The  receptacle  is  naked,  the  calyx 
simple,  and  the  pappus  plumose.  Tliere  are 
14  species;  of  which  two  are  British,  the 
pratensis  and  porifolins.  1.  The  pratensis, 
or  yellow  goals"-beard,  has  its  calyxes  equal 
^ith  the  florets,  and  its  leaves  entire,  long, 
narrow,  sessile,  and  grassy.  In  fair  weather 
this  plant  opens  at  sun-rising,  and  shuts  be- 
tween nine  and  ten  in  the  morning.  The  roots 
ace  conical  and  esculent,  and  are  sometimes 
boiled  and  served  up  at  table  like  asparagus. 
It  grows  on  meadows.  C.  The  porifolins, 
or  purjile  goat's-beard,  has  the  calyx  longer 
than  tlie  radius  of  the  lloret;  the  flowers  are 
large,  purple,  single,  and  terminal ;  and  the 
leaves  long,  poinied,  and  bluish.  The  root  is 
long,  thick,  and  esculent.  It  grows  in  mea- 
dows, and  is  cultivated  in  gardens  under  the 
Bame  <if  salsafv. 

TR.'VJECl'OHY,  a  term  often  used,  ge- 
nerally for  the  path  of  any  body  moving 
*itlier  in  a  void,  cr  in  a  medium  that  resi^ts 
its  motion  ;  or  even  for  any  curve  passing 
through  a  given  number  of  points.  ■  Thus 
Xev.ton,  Princip.  lib.  1.  prob.  -2,  purposes  to 
describe  a  tra_iectory  that  shall  pass  through 
five  given  points. 

Trajectory  of  a  cnmct,  is  its  path  or  or 
bit,  or  the  line  it  describes  in  its  motion.  This 
pull,  Ilevelins,  in  his  Cometographia,  will 
Lave  to  be  very  nearly  a  right  line;  but  Dr. 
ilalley  concludes  it  to  be,  as  it  really  is,  a 
very  eccentric  ellipsis ;  though  its  place  niav 
••flen  be  well  computed  on  the  supposi- 
tion of  its  being  a  parabola.  Newton,  in 
pro|>.  41  ofliis3(l  book,  shews  how  to  di'ler- 
niine  the  trajectory  of  a  comet  from  three  ob- 
servations ;  and  in  his  last  prop,  how  to  cor- 
rect a  trajectory  graphically  discribed. 

TRAMMEI.S,  in  mechanics,  an  instru- 
ment u-^ed  by  artificers  for  drawing  ovals  u|)0ti 
boards,  &:c.  One  part  of  it  consists  of  a  cross 
with  two  grooves  at  right  angles ;  the  other 
is  a  beam  carrying  two  pins  which  slide  in  these 
jrrojves,  and  also  the  describing  pencil.  All 
the  engines  for  turning  ovals  are  coiislructed 


T  R  A 

on  the  same  principles  witli  tin' Irannnels: 
the  only  difference  is,  that  in  the  trammels 
the  board  is  at  rest,  and  the  pencil  moves 
upon  it ;  in  the  turning  engine,  the  tool,  w  hicli 
supplies  the  place  of  the  pencil,  is  at  rest,  and 
the  board  moves  against  it.  See  a  demon- 
stration of  the  chiei  [iroperties  of  tliese  instru- 
mi-nls  by  Mr.  Lndlani,  m  the  Fhilos.  Trans, 
vol.  70,  p.  378,  &c. 

'I'ram.mel-net,  is  a  long  net,  where- 
with to  take  fowl  by  night  in  champain  coun- 
tries, much  like  the  net  used  for  the  low 
bell,  both  in  sha|)e,  bigness,  and  nuisl-.es.  T  o 
use  it,  they  spread  it  on  the'ground,  so  that 
the  nether"  or  further  eiitl,  litted  with  small 
plummets,  may  lie  loose  thereon;  then  the 
other  part  being  borne  np  by  men  placed  at 
the  fore  ends,  itTs  thustrailcd  along  the  ground. 
At  each  side  are  carried  great  blazing  lights, 
by  which  the  birds  are  raised,  andas  they  rise 
under  the  net  thev  an"  taken. 

TRANSCENDENTAL,  or  Transcen- 
D.'iNT,  something  elevateil  or  raised  above 
other  tilings,  which  jjasses  and  transcends  the 
nature  of  other  inferior  things. 

'IVanscendenlal  quantities,  among  geome- 
tricians,, are  indeterminate  ones,  or  such  as 
cannot  be  fixed,  or  expressed  by  any  constant 
eipiation  ;  such  are  all  transcendental  curves 
which  cannot  be  defined  by  any  algebraic 
equation,  or  which  when  expressed  by  an 
einuitioii,  one  of  the  terms  thereof  is  a  varia- 
ble quantity.  Now  whereas  algebraists  use  to 
assume  some  general  letters  or  numbers,  for 
the  (luaiitity  sought  in  these  transcendental 
problems,  >Ir.  Leibnitz  assiimcs  general  or 
indefinite  e(|uations  for  the  lines  sought ; 
f .  ir;'.  putting  .r  and  ;/  for  the  absciss  and  or- 
dinate, the  eqviation  he  uses  for  a  line  sought 
is  a->f-hx-\-ci-\-fXii-k-fx.x-\-p:'iij,  &c.=:0,  by 
the  help  of  w  hich  indefinite  ecpiation,  he  seeks 
the  tangent  :  and  by  comparing  the  result 
with  the  given  property  of  tangents,  he  finds 
the  value  of  the  assumed  letters,  a,  h,  c,  d, 
&c.  and  thus  delinesllie  equation  of  the  line 
sought. 

if  the  comparison  above-mentioned  dnc«  not 
proceed,  he  pronounces  the  line  sought  not 
to  be  an  algrbraical.but  a  transcendental  one. 
This  supposed,  he  goes  on  to  Inid  the  species 
of  transcendency ;  for  some  transceiidentals 
depentl  on  the  general  division  or  section  of  a 
ratio,  or  upon  the  logarithms;  others,  upon 
the  arcs  of  a  circle  ;  and  others,  on  more  in- 
difniile  and  compound  enquiries.  He  there- 
fore, besides  the  symbols  .r  and  //,  assumes  a 
third,  as  v,  which  denotes  the  transcendental 
(piantitv  ;  and  of  these  three  forms,  a  .d'neral 
(■(luation  for  the  line  sought,  from  which  he 
liiids  the  tangent,  according  to  the  dif- 
ferenli.d  method,  which  succeeds  even  in 
transcendental  (piantities.  The  result  he 
comiiares  with  the  given  properties  of  the  tan- 
gent, and  so  discovers,  not  only  the  value  of 
(/,  b,  c,  d,  &c.  but  also  the  particular  nature 
of  the  transcendental  ((uantity.  And  though 
it  may  sometimes  happen,  that  the  several 
transcendenlals  are  so  to  be  made  use  of,  and 
those  of  different  natures  too,  one  from  one 
another;  also  Jtiwugh  there  are  transcendents 
of  transceiidentals,  and  a  progression  of  these 
in  inhnitum  ;  vet  we  may  be  satisfied  with  the 
most  easy  aiicf  useful  one  ;  and  for  the  most 
part,  may  have  recourse  to  some  peculiar  ar- 
tilices  for  shortening  the  calculus,  and  re- 
tlucingthe  problem  to  as  simple  terms  as  may 
be. 


T   R  A 

Thi?inethuil  being  applied  to  tlu^biisineM  of 
ipiadratiires,  or  to  the  inveiitioii  of  quadratics, 
ill  which  the  property  ol  the taiit;eiii  is  always 
given,  it  is  nianilesl,  not  only  liov.  it  may  be 
discovered,  whether  the  indelinite  (luadra-- 
tine  may  be  algebraically  impossible;  but 
also,  how,  when  tliis  impossibility  is  discovered, 
a  transcendental  qu;ulratrix  niay  be  foi.nd, 
which  is  a  thing  not  before  shi'wii.  So  that 
it  seems  that  geometry,  by  this  method,  is 
carried  inliiiitely  beyond  the  bounds  to  vihidv 
\'ieta  and  Des  Cartes  brought  it ;  since,  by 
this  means,  a  certain  iiiid  gi  iieral  analysis  is 
established,  which  extends  to  all  problems  of 
no  certain  degree,  and  consequ  ntly  not 
comprehended  within  algebraical  equations. 

Again,  III  order  to  manage  transcendental 
problems,  wherever  the  business  of  tangents 
ortiuadratuies  occurs,  by  a  calculus,  there  is 
hardly  any  that  can  be  iinaguied  siiorter, 
more  advantageous,  or  more  universal,  tliaa 
the  differential  calculus,  or  analysis  of  indi- 
visibles and  infinites. 

B\'  this  method,  we  mav  explain  the  nature  of 
transcendental  lines-by  an  equation;  e-  gr.  Let 
.i  be  the  arch  of  a  circle,  and  .v  the  versed  sine; 

sJx 
then  will  a  :=  ■  ;  and,  if  the  ordinate 

will  y  =  y'Sv  — 

which    etpration   perfectly 

expresses  the  relation  between  the  ordinate  y 
and  the  absciss  v,  and  from  it  all  the  proper- 
ties of  the  cycloid  may  be  demonstrated. 

Thus  i3  the  analytical  calcuhis  extended  to 
those  lines,  which  liave  hitherto  been  excluded; 
for  no  other  reason,  but  that  they  were  thought 
incapable  of  it, 

TRANSFORMATION  o/  /'_yM/«»/,  in  al^^c- 
bra,  is  the  ch.inging  equations  into  others  of  a 
different  form,  but  of  equal  value.  This  opera- 
tion is  often  necessary,  to  prejiare  equations  for 
■  more  easy  solution,  some  of  the  principal  cases 
of  which  arc  as  follow :  1.  The  signs  of  the  root* 
of  an  equation  are  changed,  viz.  the  positive 
roots  into  negative,  and  the  negative  roots  into 
positive  ones,  by  only  changing  the  signs  of  the 
L'd,  -tth,  and  all  the  other  even  terms  of  the 
equation.  Thus  the  roots  of  the  equation 
x'  —  -v'  —  I9.v'  -1-  49.V  —  ."50  =  0,  arc 
+  1,  +2,+ 3,  -5; 
whereas  the  roots  of  the  same  equ.ition  having^ 
onlv  the  signs  of  the  2d  and  -Ith  terms  changed, 
\\z.  of  .v'  -f  .v'  —  Itlv-  —  i^x  —  30  —  0,  are 
-  1,  -  2,  -  3,  -f  5. 

2.  To  transform  an  equation  into  another  that 
shall  have  its  roots  greater  or  less  than  the  roots 
of  the  proposed  equation  by  some  given  dilVer- 
ence,  proceed  as  follows :  Let  the  proposed 
equation  be  the  cubic  a.-'  —  a\'  -|-  ii-  —  c  :=  o  ; 
and  let  it  be  required  to  transform  it  into  ano- 
ther, whose  roots  .shall  he  less  than  the  roots  of 
this  equation  by  some  given  dilference  J;  if  the 
root  V  of  the  new  equation  must  be  the  less,  take 
it  V  =  .V  — -  J,  and  hence  .v  =r.  v  -f- ;/;  then,  in- 
stead of  -v  and  its  powers,  siihstltutc  r  -j-  J  anil 
its  powers,  and  there  will  arise  this  new  equation 
(.V)    y'  +  aJy'  +  aJy  + 

—      mi'   —    2'ii/y  —    (id'  i 
+       l^y  +  y  \ 


b  new  eijuatio 

"J  C 


whose  roots  are  less  than  the  roots  of  the  forn»er 
equation  bv  the  diflerence  </.  If  the  roots  of  the- 
new  equation  had  been  required  to  be  greater 
than  those  of  the  old  one,  we  must  then  have 
substituted  V  =  .V  -f-'A  or  .\  =  v  —  </,  I'icc. 

3.  To  take  away  the  2d  or  any  other  particu- 
lar term  out  of  au  equation ;  or  to  transform  au 


T  11  A 

copistion,  so  that  ilie  new  ci)iiatlon  insy  \v;int  Its 
l!d,  or  ;Jd,  or  -Itli,  &c.  term  of  the  ^Iven  equa- 
tion .v'  —  <i.v'  -f-  !>':  —  c  ■=.  0,  wliicli  is  trans- 
formed into  tlie  ctiuntion  (A)  in  tlio  last  article. 
Now  to  make  ^cny  term  of  tliis  eipiation  (A)  va- 
nish, is  only  to  make  the  co-ellicient  of  that 
terni=0;  which  will  form  an  equation  that 
will  give  the  value  of  the  assmned  quantity  rr', 
SI)  as  to  produce  the  desired  cfl'ect,  viz.  to  make 
that  term  vanish.  .So,  to  take  away  the  '-'d  term, 
make_:W  —  «  =;  o,  which  makes  the  assunied 
quantity  rl  =.  \j.  'I'o  take  away  the  :id  term,  we 
must  put  the  sum  of  the  co-efTicien's  of  that 
term  =  0,  that  is,  :W-  —  2.i</  -)-  i  =  0,  or  %i'-  — 
'Jjrf  =r  —  4  ;  then,  by  resolving  this  quadratic 
equation,  there  is  found  the  assumed  quantity 

d  =  '.I  +  -f v'""  —  '"'i  I'y  t'"^  substitution  of 
which  for  J,  the  3d  term  will  be  taken  away  out 
of  the  equation. 

From  whence  it  appears  that,  to  take  away 
the  lid  term  of  an  equation,  we  must  resolve  a 
simple  equation  ;  for  the  Sd  term,  a  quadratic 
c<iuation  ;  for  the  Ith  term,  a  cubic  equation, 
and  so  on. 

■).  To  multiply  or  divide  the  roots  of  an  equa- 
tion by  any  (|u.intity  ;  or  to  transform  a  given 
equation  to  another,  that  shall  have  its  roots 
equal  to  any  multiple  or  submultiple  of  those 
of  t!ie  proposed  equation.  This  is  done  by  sub- 
stituting, for  X  and  its  powers,    '    ,  or  fy,  and 


their  powers,  viz.  -'-    for 

T/i 

and  py  for  .v, 


I',    to   multiply  the 
to  divide  the  roots 


roots  b 
by  /. 

Thus,  to  multiply  the  roots  by  ct,  substitutin; 

y 

for  .V  in  the  proposed  equation, 


:  0,  and  it  be- 


&c  =  0; 


or  multiply  all  by  m" ,  then  is 
y"  —  /7w/jr"  -  «   -\-  im'y"  —  2   — .  cmcy"^  -  3   &c  =  0, 
.in  equation  that  has  its  roots  equal  to  m  times 
the  roots  of  the  proposed  equation. 

In  like  manner,  substituting  fiy  for  .v,  in  the 
proposed  equation,  &c.  it  becomes 


r  - 


ay" 


-  + 


iy" 


-, ^—    &c  =  0, 


an  equation  that  has  its  roots  equal  to  those  of 
the  proposed  equation  divided  by  f. 

From  whence  it  appears,  that  to  multiply  the 
roots  of  an  eijuation  by  any  quantity  m,  we 
must  multiply  its  terms,  beginning  at  the  'Jd 
term,  respectively  by  the  terms  of  the  geome- 
trical series,  7n,  m',  vi',  jn^,  &c.  And  to  divide 
the  roots  of  an  equation  by  any  quantity  />,  that 
we  must  divide  its  terms,  beginning  at  the  'Jd, 
by  the  corresponding  terms  of  this  series  y»,^', 
f\  /.',  &c. 

5.  And  sometimes,  by  tliese  transformations, 
equations  are  cleared  of  fractions,  or  even  of 
surds.     Thus  the  equation 

.v'  —  ax'ji/p  -j-  tx  —  cf/p  =  0, 
by  putting  y  =;  x\/p,  or  multiplying  the  terms, 
from  the  t-'d,  by  the  geometricals  y'y>,  p,  p^/p, 
is  transfoimed  ti> 

y'  —  apy-  -)-  f>py  —  ^p'  =  0. 

6.  An  equation,  as  .v'  —  «.v'  -j-  l>\-  —  r  =  0, 
mav  be  transfonned  into  another,  "whoie  roots 
shall  be  the  reciprocals  of  the  roots  of  the  given 

equation,  bv  substituting  —  fof  ,v ;  by  which 

y 

It  becomes  - , ,  J c  =  0 :  or,  mul- 

y        y        y 

tiplying  all  hy  y\  the  same  becomes 

'f  ~  h^  ■\-  "y  —  I  =0. 


T  11  A 

'I'R.WSi'r,  ill  astronomy,  sijjiiifies  the 
pa.ssii.ie  of  any  phinct.jii-l  by  or  over  a  lixcd 
slar,  or  tilt!  sun ;  anil  yf  the  moon  in  particular, 
covering  or  niovini;  over  any  planet. 

TiiAN'siT  I.vsTRVMENT.    8ee  Observ.v- 

TORV. 

'I'li.VNSITrON,  in  nnisir,  tin-  soflPning  a 
(lisimict  inlLTval  liy  llu-  iiilroihirtioii  of  inter- 
inotliatc  sounds.  In  liannoiiy,  transition  is  lhi» 
cliangiiig  the  c;iinis,  or  itiotle,  ni  a  sens  ble  l)iit 
ri'^ular  manner.  'I'hns,  when  in  the  diatonic 
semis  t lie  bass  moves  so  as  to  require  in  the 
parts  the  introduction  of  a  minor  semi 
tone,  it  is  a  elirtMliatic  transition  ;  and  if  we 
ch.mcje  the  tone  by  favour  of  a  diminished 
seventh,  it  is  an  enharmonic  transition. 

TRANSMISSION.     See  Optics. 

TKANSMrT.VTION,  in  geometry,  de- 
notes  tlie  rediietiun  or  change  of  one  ligtire  or 
body  into  anotlur  of  tlie  same  area  or  soli- 
dity, but  of  a  ililliTent  form  ;  as  a  triangle  in- 
to a  square,  a  pyramid  into  a  parellelopiped, 
&;c.  In  the  higlier  geometry,  transmutation 
is  used  for  tlie  converting  a  figure  into  another 
of  the  same  kind  and  order,  wliose  respective 
parts  rise  to  tlie  same-  dimensions  in  an  etpia- 
tic.n,  a<lmit  of  the  same  tangents,  cStC.  If  a  rec- 
tilinear (igiire  isto  be  transmuted  into  anollier, 
it  is  suflicient  that  the  intersections  of  tlie  lines 
wliicli  composer  it  are  tran-1'eiTed,  and  the 
lines  drawn  through  the  same  in  the  new 
ligure.  If  the  ligmc  to  be  transmuted  is 
ctirvilinear,  the  points,  tangents,  and  other 
right  lines  by  means  whereof  the  curve  line 
is  to  he  delined,  must,  be  tr.insferred. 

- 'l'R.\NSO.\r,  among  builders,  denotes  the 
piece  that  is  framed  acrossa  double-light  win- 
dow. 

TR.iNsoM,  among  mathematicians,  signi- 
(ies  the  vane  of  a  cross-stall",  or  a  wooden  luiiii- 
ber  lixed  across,  with  a  square  whereon  it 
slides,  Src. 

'^I'r.wsori,  in  a  ship,  a  piece  of  timber 
which  lies  athwart  the  stern,  between  the  two 
fasliion-pieces,  directly  under  the  gun-rooin 
port. 

TRAXSPORTATIOX,  the  act  of  con- 
veying or  ciUTviiig  a  thing  from  one  place  to 
another. 

Transportation  is  a  kind  of  punishment,  or 
more  properly  an  alleviation  or  comnuitation  of 
punishment,  for  criminals  convicted  of  f-elony ; 
who  lor  the  lirst  ol'tenre,  unless  it  is  an  extra- 
ordinary one,  are  generally  transported  to 
the  plantations  (at  present  to  New  South 
Wales),  there  to  bear  hard  labour  for  a  term 
of  years ;  w  ithin  which  if  they  return,  they 
are  executed  without  further  trial  tlian  identi- 
fying their  pei-sons. 

Tramsport.\tion  nf  pliw'.t.  In  sending 
plants  from  one  country  to  another,  great 
cautions  are  necessary.  The  plants  sent  from 
a  hotter  country  to  a  colder,  should  be  always 
put  on  boar<l  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  that  the 
heal  of  the  season  may  be  advancing  as  they 
ajiproach  the  colder  climates  ;  and,  on  the 
contrary,  those  wliicli  are  sent  from  a  col<ler 
country  to  a  hotter,  shoidd  be  sent  in  the  be- 
ginning of  winter.  The  best  way  of  packing 
up  plants  for  a  voyage,  if  they  are  such  as  w  ill 
not  bear  keeping  out  of  the  earth,  is  to  have 
boxes  with  liandles,  tilling  tlieiu  with  earth, 
and  planting  the  roots  as  close  togctlier  as 
may  be ;  the  plants  should  be  set  in  these 
bo.xC)  three  w  ceks  before  they  are  to  be  put 


T  R  A 


813 


un  board  ;  and  in  cood  weutlier  llicy  slionlil 
beset  upon  the  <leck,  and  in  bad  removerl  or 
covereti  with  a  tarpaulin.  If  they  are  f.<>:ng 
from  a  hotter  country  to  a  <.older  one,  lliey 
mu^t  have  very  little  moisture ;  If,  on  tlic 
contrary,  they  art  going  from  a  colder  to  a 
w  armer,  they  may  be  allowetl  water  more  large- 
ly, and  being  shadetl  from  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
lliey  will  come  safe. 

A  great  many  plants,  however,  w  ill  live  out  of 
the  earth  a  considerable-  v.  hile  ;  as  the  seduins, 
euphoibiiims,  mesembr\antlienuinis,  and  o- 
tliersiic<  uUiit  ones.  Tlie-e  iie<-<l  nootlur  care 
than  the  pa'  king  them  up  with  moss  in  a  close 
box;  and  there  should  be  a  little  hay  jiiit  be- 
tween them,  to  prevent  them  from  woiiiiding 
or  bruising  one  another,  and  holes  bored  in 
tin;  boxes  to  keep  them  from  heating  and  pu- 
trefying. In  this  manner  they  will  come  saf<r 
from  a  voyage  of  two  or  three,  or  even  four 
or  live  months.  Several  trees  also  will  com<j 
safe  in  the  same  manner  ;  taking  them  up  at 
a  season  when  they  have  done  grow  ing,  and 
packing  them  up  with  mos;.  Of  this  sort 
are  oranges,  olives,  capers,  jasmines,  and 
pomegranate-trees.  These,  and  many  others, 
are  annually  brought  over  to  us  from  Italy; 
and,  though  they  are  three  or  four  months  in 
the  passage,  sekloni  miscarry.  'l'hebe-.t  way 
of  sending  over  seeds,  is  in  their  natural  Inisks, 
in  a  bag,  or  packed  up  in  a  gourd-shell,  keep- 
ing them  dry,  and  out  of  the  way  of  vermin. 

'J'KANSl'OSrnoN,  in  algebra,  the  bring- 
ing any  term  of  an  ecjuation  over  to  the  other 
side. 

TRANSUBSTAXTIATFON,  in  theo- 
logy, the  conversion  or  change  of  the 
substance  of  the  bread  and  wine  iu  tlit» 
eiicharist,  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Jt-sus 
Christ,  which  the  Komish  church  hold  is 
w  fought  by  the  consecration  of  the  priest. 
This  IS  a  main  ])oint  in  the  Homish  religion, 
ami  is  rejected  by  the  protestanls,  the  former 
maiiilaining  the  transubstantiation  to  be  real, 
the  kilter  only  figurative ;  interpreting  the  te.xt 
hoc  est  corp'.is  meum,  "  this  .signifies  mv 
"  body  :'  but  the  council  of  Trent  stood  up 
strenuously  for  the  literal  sense  of  the  verb  e\l, 
and  say  expressly,  that  in  Iraiisubslantiation 
the  body  and  blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
are  truly,  really,  and  substantiaJly,  under  the 
species  of  breail  and  wine.  The  controver- 
sies about  this  point  are  almost  innumerable. 

'JRANSN  KRS1-;  .MfSCI.KS,  in  anatomy, 
are  certain  muscles  arising  from  the  trans- 
verse processes  of  the  vertebra;  of  the  loins. 
See  A;s.\TO.MY. 

TRAl'A,  a  genus  of  the  tetrandria  mono- 
gynia  cla.ss  of  |)lants,  the  corolla  w  hereof  con- 
sists of  four  petals,  vertically  ovatcd,  and 
larger  tluin  the  cup  r  the  fruit  is  a  hard  os- 
seous capsule,  of  an  oblong  oval  figure,  con- 
taining only  one  cell,  an<l  armed  with  four 
sliarp  thick  spines,  placed  oppositely  in  l!ie 
middle  of  the  sides,  and  pointetl ;  these  be- 
fore were  tin-  leaves  of  the  calyx:  the  seed  \-t 
a  covered  single  nucleus,  of  an  oval  ligure- 
There  are  two  species,  atjuatics. 

TRAPKZIL'.M,  in  geometry, a  plane  figure 
contained  under  four  unci-|ual  right  lines. 
1 .  Any  three  sides  of  a  trapezium  taken  toge- 
ther, are  greater  than  the  third.  0.  The  two 
diagonals  of  any  trapezium,  divide  it  into  four 
proportional  triangles.  3.  If  two  sides  of  a  tra- 
pezium are  parallel,  the  rectangle  under  the 
aggregate  of  the  parallel  sides  and  one-half 


Sll 


T  R  A 


T  R  E 


llietr  (liitance,  is  equal  to  timt  trapezKi'.ii. 
4.  If  a  parallelogram  ciiciiniscribes  a  trape- 
zium, so  that  one  of  the  sides  of  the  pa- 
rallflograin  is  parallel  to  a  tUagoua'  of  I  lie 
trapezium,  that  parallelogram  will  be  the 
ilouhie  of  the  trapezium.  5.  If  any  tra- 
])(r/.ium  has  two  of  its  opposite  angles,  each 
a  right  angl«,  and  a  diagonal  is  drawn 
ioining  these  angles;  and  if  from  the  other 
"two  angles  are  drawn  two  perpendiculars  to 
that  diagonal;  the  distances  fnjm  tlie  feet  of 
tliese  peri)endiculars  to  those  right  angles,  re- 
spectively taken,  will  be  eiiual.  'fi.  If  the 
sides  of  a  trapezium  are  each  bisected,  and 
the  points  of  bisection  are  joined  by  four  right 
lines,  these  lilies  will  form  a  para!,  ^logram, 
which  will  be  one-half  of  the  irapeziniii.  7. 
It' the  diagonal-,  of  a  trapezium  are  bisected, 
and  a  right  line  joins  these  ponits,  tlie  aggre- 
gate of  the  square*  of  the  sides  is  equal  to  the 
Aggregate  of  the  squares  of  tlie  diagonals,  to- 
gether with  four  times  of  the  square  of  the 
right  line  joining  the  point  of  bissection.  8,  In 
any  trapezium,  the  aggregate  of  the  diago- 
nals is  less  than  the  aggregate  of  four  right 
lines  drawn  from  any  point  (except  the  inter- 
section of  the  diagouals)  within  thetigure. 
TRAPS.  See  V,ocks,  primitive. 
TRAVERSE,  or  Tr.\n'sverse,  in  ge- 
neral, denotes  something  that  goes  athwart 
another ;  tiiat  is,  crosses  and  cuts  it  ob- 
liquely. 

ileiice,  to  traverse  a  piece  of  ordnance, 
among  gunners,  signities  to  turn  or  point 
it  which  way  one  pleases,  upon  the  plat- 
form. 

Ill  fortification,  traverse  denotes  a  trench 
with  a  little  para|)et,  or  bank  of  earth,  throw  n 
perpendicularly  across  the  moat,  or  other  work, 
to  prevent  the  enemy's  cannon  from  raking  it. 
These  traverses  may  he  from  twelve  to  elgh- 
ti'en  feet,  in  order  lobe  cannon-proof;  and 
their  height  about  six  or  seven  feet,  or  more 
if  the  place  is  exposed  to  any  eminence.    And 
to  preserve  a  communication,  a  passage   of 
about  five  or  six  feet  wide  must  be  left  at  one 
end  of  the  traverse.     If  any  part  of  a  work, 
thus  shut  in  by  one  or  more  traverses,  is  likely 
to  be   defended  bv  the  musketry,  it  will  be 
proper  to  add  to   the  traverses  one   or  more 
footbanks  within  the  defence,  for  the  troops  to 
mount  on  when  they  want  to  tire  over  the 
traverse. 
Traverse.    See  NAvirjATioN. 
'("raverse,  in  law,  signilies  so'uetimes  to 
den  V,  sometimes  to  overthrow  or  undo  a  thing, 
ortoputone  to  provesome  matter;  much  used 
in  answers  to  bills   in  cliancery  :  or  it  is  that 
which  the  defendant  ph-ails  or  say*  in  bar  to 
avoid  the  plaintil'f 's  bill,  either  by  confessing 
and  avoiding,  or  by  den}ingand  traversing 
the  matei  lal  parts  thereof. 

Traverse  av  Indictment,  is  to  take 
i^sue  upon  the  chief  matter,  and  to  contradict 
or  denv  some  point  of  it.  A  traverse  must 
lie  always  made  to  the  substantial  part  of  the 
title.  NV'here  an  act  may  indifferently  be  in- 
tended to  be  at  one  day  or  another,  there  the 
«lay  is  not  traversable.  In  an  action  of  tres- 
pass generally,  the  day  is  not  material ; 
though  if  a  matter  is  done  upon  a  particular 
day,  there  it  is  material  and  traversable.  2 
Roll's  Rep.  .37. 

TRAVESTY',  or  Travesti,  a  French 
term,  derived  from  the  verb  travestir,  to  dis- 
guise oue'i  self,  or  to  a])pear  m  masquerade  : 


and  hence,  travesty  is  applied  to  the  disfigur- 
ing of  an  author,  or  the  translating  him  into  a 
style  and  manner  dili'ercnt  from  his  own,  by 
wiiich  means  it  becomes  diflicnlt  to  know 
him. 

TREACLE.     See  Sug.^r,  &.c. 

TREASON,  in  law,  is  divided  into  ■  high 
treason  and  petty  treason..  High  treason,  as 
comprized  under  the  famous  high  treason  act, 
as  it  is  called,  or  the  statute  '.2  jtli  Edw.  III., 
is  divided  into  seven  heads. 

I.  Wlieii  a  man  compasses  or  imagines  the 
deatiiofthe  king,  c]ueen,  or  the  heir  appa- 
rent, he  is  guilty  of  high  treason.  But  as  this 
compassing  or  imagining  is  an  art  of  the 
mind,  it  cannot  be  proved  unless  denicn- 
straled  by  some  overt  (or  open)  act.  To 
con-pireto  imprison  the  king,  and  to  assem- 
ble company  I<,t  the  ])urpose,  to  procure  arms 
ajid  ammunition  with  the  intent  to  kill  him, 
or  even  takiu'^  any  measures  to  put  such  de- 
signs into  execution,  as  consulting  of  the  best 
means  of  putting  him  to  death,  are  overt  or 
open  acts. 

2.  To  violate  the  quecn-con-ort,  the 
king's  eldest  daughter,  or  the  wife  of  the  heir 
apparent,  is  high  treason  ;  and  if  both  par- 
ties consent,  they  are  alike  guiltv.  Tliis  is  to 
guard  the  blood  royal  from  |)ollutioii,  so  that 
to  violate  a  queeu  or  princess  dowager  is  not 
treason. 

3.  If  a  man  levies  war  against  the  king  in 
his  realm,  he  is  guilty  of  high  treason.  I'his 
may  be  done  under  pretence  of  redressing 
grievances,  as  well  as  to  dethrone  the  king. 
An  insurrection  witli  the  avowed  design  of 
destroying  all  inclosures,  all  brothels,  Sec.  is 
likewise  treason;  though  a  tumult  to  destroy 
any  particular  inclosjre  or  brothel  wftuld 
only  amount  to  a  riot:  but  in  the  first  in- 
stance, the  universality  of  the  design  rende.-s 
it  high  tri-ason.  A  mere  conspiracy  to  level 
w-ar  is  not  treason,  unle<s  the  design  is  parti- 
cularly pointed  against  the  king,  when  it  falls 
under  the  first  head,  viz.  compassing  or  ima- 
gining his  death. 

4.  To  be  an  adherent  to  the  king's  enemies; 
in  his  realm,  or  aiiling  them  in  his  realm,  or 
elsewhere,  is  treason ;  but  this  must  be  de- 
monstrated by  some  overt  act,  as  the  giving 
them  intelligence,  sending  provisions,  surren- 
dering up  a  fortress  by  combination  with  the 
enemy,  'and  not  by  cowardice,  in  w  hich  case 
it  is  an  offence  against  the  laws  of  war,  but 
not  treason.  Giving  assistance  to  foreign  pi- 
rates or  robbers  who  invade  our  coasts  with- 
out any  open  hostilities  between  their  nation 
and  our  own,  or  any  commission  trom  any 
state  at  war  with  Great  ISrilain;  also  aid- 
ing our  ow-n  fellow-subjects  in  n'bellion  at 
home  ;  are  both  treasons ;  hut  to  relieve  a  re- 
bel fled  out  of  the  kingdom  is  not.  And  if  a 
person  through  force  or  fear  is  obliged  to  join 
the  rebels,  provided  lie  leaves  them  at  the 
tirst  safe  opportunity,  he  is  not-guilty. 

5.  Counterfeiting  the  gr'-at  or  privy  seal  is 
likewise  high  treason. 

6.  Counterfeiting  the  king's  money;  or 
bringing  falsi^  and  counterleit  money  into  the 
realm,  and  knowing  it.  to  be  false,  uttering 
it,  is  the  sixth  species  of  treason.  Counter- 
feiting it  is  of  it'elf  treason,  without  making 
payment  with  it ;  and  if  the  minters  alter  the 
leL'al  standard  of  gold  and  silver,  it  is  treason. 
As  to  importing  foreign  counterfeit  moiiey,  it 


T  R  E 

is  held  that  uttering  it  witiiout  importing  it  is 
not  within  the  jlatifte. 

7.  The  seventh  and  last  species  of  treason 
under  this  statute  is,  if  a  man  slays  the  clian- 
cellor,  treasurer,  or  the  kuig's  justices  of 
either  of  the  benches,  justices  in  eyre,  or  jus- 
tices of  assize,  and  all  other  justices  assigned 
to  hear  and  determine,  being  in  ti.eir  places 
during  tl'.eir  ofiices.  This  extends  only  to  kill- 
ing tjiem,  and  not  to  wounding  and  assault- 
ing them.  The  barons  of  the  exchequer  are 
not  specified  as  within  the  act,  but  by  the 
stat.  5  Ehz.  c.  18,  and  1  W.  and  a\I.  c.  ai, 
the  lord  keeper  or  commissioners  of  the  great 
.real  are  within  it. 


There  are  other  treasons,  not  comprized 
under  this  act,  which  may  be  divided  into 
three  heads  :  1.  Such  as  relate  to  papists.  '2. 
Such  as  relate  to  falsirSrng  the  coin  or  other 
royal  signatures.  3.  Such  as  relate  to  secur- 
ing the  protestant  succession  in  the  iiouse  of 
Hanover. 

For  the  first  see  Papists.  For  the  second 
see  C'oiN'.\GE. 

8.  By  the  Stat.  1  Amie,  s.  2,  c.  17,  if  any 
person  sliall  endeavour  to  deprive  or  hinder 
any  person  being  the  nest  in  succession  to  the 
crown,  according  to  the  limitations  of  the  act 
of  sctlleniont,  from  succeeding  to  the  crown, 
and  attempt  the  same  by  any  overt  act,  sucli 
oll'ence  shall  be  high  treason.  And  by  stat. 
6  Anne,  c.  7.  if  any  person  by  writing  or 
printing  maintains  and  alHrms  that  any  person 
has  any  right  or  title  to  the  crown  of  tliis 
realm,  otherwise?  than  according  to  the  act  of 
settlement  ;  or  tiiat  the  kings  of  .this  realm, 
with  the  authority  of  parliament,  are  nota!)le 
to  make  laws  and  statutes  to  bind  the  crown 
and  the  descent  thereof;  such  person  shall  be 
guilty  of  liigh  treason. 

The  |)unishment  for  this  crime  is  very  se- 
vere ;  that  the  criminal  shall  be  dragged  on 
the  ground  to  the  place  of  execution,  though 
a  sledce  is  now  allowed  through  humanity, 
and  be  hanged  and  cut  down  alive,  his  en- 
trails taken  out  and  burned  before  his  face, 
his  head  cut  olf,  and  his  body  quartered. 
The  punishment  for  coining  is,  however, 
more  mild. 

Treason",  }t7>.tpri-iinn  nf.  Tliere  is  Ike- 
wise  a  misprision  of  treason,  which  is  the 
concealing  the  knowledge  of  treason  without 
assenting  to  it,  1  and  2  Ph.  and  Mary,  c.  10. 
The  slat.  13  Eliz.  c.  2,  enacts,  that  those  who 
forge  foreign  coins  not  cnrnnt  in  Great  Bri- 
tain, theiralders,  abettors,'ind  procurer  \,sfiall 
be  all  guilty  of  misprision  of  treason.  The 
punishment  for  this  crime,  which  is  a  degree 
lower  than  high  treason,  is  loss  of  the  profits 
of  lands  for  life,  forfeiture  of  goods,  and  per- 
petual imprisonment. 

Treason,  pitit  (which  in  an  aggravated 
degree  of  murder),  according  to  thcstat.  G.^th 
Edw.  III.  c.  2,  may  happen  three  ways  ;  by 
a  servant  killing  his  master,  a  wife  hor  iuis- 
band,  or  an  ecclesiastical  person  his  siiperiof 
to  whom  he  owes  faith  and  obedience  •.  a 
servant  wiio  kills  his  master,  whom  he  has 
L-ft  upon  a  grudge  conceived  while  in  his  ser- 
vice ;  for  the  intention  was  formedwh  K'Jhe  re- 
lation subsisted  :  so  if  a  wife  is  separate^ 
a  mensa  &  thoro,  the  vinculuin  matrimonii* 
is  not  dissolved  ;  and  if  she  kills  her  husband 
after  the  divorce,  she  is  guilty.  And  a  cler- 
gyman owes  cantmical  obedience  to  the  bi- 
shop who  ordaiiK-d  him,  to  him.  in  whose  di* 


T  R  E 

.Cfsi?  he  is  beiK-riced,  and  also  to  lljc  mc-tro- 
pulilaii  of  such  siUii'agaii;  aiKhlierffcjrc  to  kill 
;:riv  o!  tlit'se  ij  petit  treason,  ^i  he  |)un\>h- 
iiu.'iil  is,  tor  a  mail,  to  Ix;  drawn  and  hanged; 
lor  a  woman,  it  was  to  be  drawn  and  burnt; 
but  this  barbarous  act  is  now  rept.'aled,  and 
the  punishment  made  hiniil.r  to  that  of  the 
men.  'I'h'  v,  their  aidors  and  abettors,  are 
deprived  the  benctil  of  clergy. 

TRK-^SURl',  'IROVK,  is  where  any  mo- 
ney or  coin,  i;<)ld,  silver,  plate,  or  bullion,  is 
Jiulden  in  tiie  earth,  or  other  private  place, 
the  owner  being  unknuw  n  ;  in  w  hicb  case,  the 
treasure  belongs  to  Ibe  king,  or  some  oilier 
who  claims  by  the  king's  grant,  or  by  pie- 
scription.  Brae.  Lib.  J.  Hut  if  he  that  hid 
it  is  known,  or  alterwards  found  out,  the 
owner,  and  not  the  king,  is  entitled  lu  it.  1 
Ulack.  '295.  ll  it  is  found  in  the  sea,  or  upon 
the  earth,  it  does  not  belong  to  the  king,  but 
to  the  linder,  if  no  owner  appears,     lilack. 

TREASUBI-.R,  an  officer  to  whom  tlie 
treasure  of  a  prince,  or  corporatioo,  is  com- 
mitted to  be  kept,  and  duly  disposed  of. 

The  lord  high  treasurer  of  Great  Britain,  or 
first  commissioner  of  the  tre.isury  when  in 
commission,  has  under  his  charge  and  go- 
vernment all  '.he  king's  revenue,  which  is 
kfpt  in  the  e.xi  be(|uer.  He  holds  his  place 
during  the  king's  pleasure,  being  instimted 
by  the  delivery  of  a  w  liite  stalf  to  him  :  he 
lus  the  check  of  all  the  olVuers  employed  in 
collecting  the  customs  and  other  royal  reve- 
jiues;  and  in  his  gift  and  tlisposition  are 
all  the  ollices  of  the  customs  in  the  several 
ports  of  the  kingdom  ;  escheators  in  every 
county  are  nominated  by  liim  ;  he  also  makes 
leases  of  the  lands  belonging  to  the  crown. 
This  office  is  now  always  executed  by  a  com- 
mission, vvho  are  entitled,  "  the  commis- 
sioners for  e.xecuting  the  office  of  lord  high 
tVeasurer,"  and  the  hrst  commissioner  is  com- 
monly prime  minister. 

'I'liere  is,  besides  the  lord  treasurer,  a  tiea- 
suierof  the  king's  houshold  ;  who  is  of  the 
privy  council,  and,  with  the  comptroller  ami 
steward  of  the  niarslialsea,  has  great  power. 

To  these  may  be  added  the  treasunr  of  the 
navy  ;  as  also  the  treasurer  of  the  king's  cham- 
ber, and  of  the  wardrobe  ;  and  most  corpora- 
tions throughout  the  kingdom  have  treasu- 
rers, whose  ollice  is  to  receive  their  rents, 
and  disburse  their  common  expences. 

Tlie  treasurer  of  the  county  is  an  officer 
that  keeps  the  county-stock,  in  which  ortice 
there  are  two  in  every  county  ;  who  are 
chosen  by  the  major  part  of  the  justices  oi 
the  peace  at  Easter-sessions.  They  ought  to 
have  certain  estates  in  lands,  or  to  be  worth 
150/.  in  pe.sjnal  estate  ;  and  are  to  continue 
in  their  office  only  for  a  year,  at  the  end 
whereof,  or  within  ten  days  alter  the  expira- 
tion of  the  year,  they  must  account  to  their 
successors,  under  certain  penalties.  The 
county-stoclv  which  this  officer  has  the  keep- 
ing of,  is  raised  by  rating  every  parish  annu- 
ally ;  and  the  same  is  from  lime  to  time  dis- 
posed of  to  charitable  uses,  towards  the  relief 
of  maiiiied  soldiers  and  mariners,  prisoners  in 
the  county  gaols,  paying  the  salaries  of  go- 
vernors of  houses  of  correction,  and  relieving 
poor  alms-houses,  &c. 

TREE.  See  Forest  Trees,  Pianting, 
PlANTS,  Timbee,  &c. 


T  11  E 

TREfOIL.    See  •l■KIfoI.IU^f. 

T  K  !'..M  ELJ.A,  a  genus  of  plants  of  llicttlasi 
ol  cryptoganiia,  and  natural  order  of  alga. 
It  is  a  gelatinous  nienibranous  substance  ;  the 
parts  ot  the  friictihcation  s<  ircely  visible. 
J  here  are  11  species,  of  whidi  five  are  indi- 
genous ;  the  nostoc,  lichenoides,  verrucosa, 
liemispherica,  and  purpmea.  1.  The  nostoc, 
or  jelly  rain  tremella,  is  found  in  pastures  and 
by  the  sides  of  gravel-v.alks  in  gardens  after 
rains  ;  not  uncommon  in  spring,  summer,  and 
autumn.  It  is  a  membiaiiaeetnis,  pellucid, 
and  gelatinous  substance,  without  any  visible 
root ;  of  a  yellowish  dull  green-colour ;  as- 
suming various  forms,  either  round,  angular, 
plaited  or  foUled  together  irregularly,  like  the 
intestines,  or  a  pocki-t-handkerchiel',  an  inch 
or  two,  or  more,  in  diameter:  siift  to  the 
touch  when  niof^t;  but  thin,  membranaceous, 
and  brittle,  when  dry  ;  and  of  a  black  fus- 
cous Colour.  The  aiitieiit  alchemists  called 
this  vegetable  the  flowers  of  heaven,  and 
imagined  that  from  it  th.ey  should  procure  the 
uni\ers,d  menstruum:  but  all  (heir  re>eaiches 
ended  in  <liscovering  th.at  by  distillation  it 
yielded  some  |)li!egni,  volatile  -alt,  and  einpy- 
reumalic  oil.  it  has  been  exti.'lled  in  wuuiids, 
ulcers,  &c.  but  no  regard  is  ever  paid  to  it  by 
judicious  piactitioncrs.  Dr.  Darwin  says, 
he  iias  been  well  informed  that  this  tremella 
is  a  mucilage  voided  by  herons  after  they  have 
eaten  frogs.  2.  The  lichenoides,  or  Irans- 
p;irent  tn-mella,  is  erect,  plane,  margin  curl- 
ed, lacinulated,  and  brown.  It  grows  on 
heaths  and  in  woods,  &c.  3.  A'errucosa,  or 
warty  tremella,  is  tubercular,  solid,  wrinkled, 
roundish,  and  resembling  a  blailder  ;  it  is  of  a 
blackish  yellow.  It  grows  on  stones  in  rivu- 
lets. 4.  Ileniispherica,  or  sea  tramella,  is 
scattered  among  conferv;c,  fuci,  &c.  5.  Pur- 
purea, or  purple  tremella,  is  globular,  sessile, 
solitary,  and  smooth,  it  grows  on  ditch- 
banks  about  Lon-don. 

;rREiVIOLlTE.  This  mineral  is  found 
chielly  near  .St.  (iothard,  in  Switzerland  ;  and 
takes  its  name  from  mount  Tremola,  where 
it  was  first  observed  by  .Saussure.  It  occurs 
massive  and  in  crystals.  The  primitive  form 
of  its  cr\stals  is  a  rhomboidal  prism,  whose 
sides  are  inclined  to  each  other  at  angles  of 
\'2&  52'  12"  and  53"  7'  4S".  It  usually  occurs 
in  four-sided  pri.-ms,  terminated  by  dihedral 
sunmiits  ;  and  not  unfretiucntly  the  two  acute 
edges,  or  all  the  four,  are  truncated.  Tex- 
ture radiated.  Fragments  splintery.  Spe- 
cific gravity  from  2  9  to  3.2.  Fibres  easily 
separated,  so  that  it  appears  soft,  yet  it 
scratf  lies  glass.  Phosphoresces  very  readilv 
when  struck  or  rubbed  in  the  dark.  Before 
the  blowpipe,  melts  into  a  white  scoria. 
Werner  divides  this  species  into  three  sub- 
species. 

A  specimen  of  tremolite  analysed  by  Klap- 
rotli,  contained 

65.0  silica 

38.0  lime 
0.5  magnesia 
0.5  oxi>le  of  iron 
CO  water  and  carbonic  acid. 

100.0 

A  specimen  of  this  mineral  from  the  cas- 
tle-hill of  Edinburgh,  analysed  by  Dr,  Ken- 
nedy, yielded 


T  K  £  fcl5 

5 1. .5  silita 

3'.^.0  lime 
0.5  alumina 
O.J  oxide  of  iron 
8.5  soda 
50  carbonic  acid 

98.0,  with  some  traces  of  mag- 
nesia and  muriatic  acid. 

I'ournon  lias  sliewn  (hat  the  property 
which  the  tremolite  has  of  phosphorescing 
when  rubbc/i,  is  owing  lo  the  presence  of  car- 
boiial  of  lime. 

'IRE.VIOK.     SeeMEuJciNE. 

'I'RENCHI^S,  in  a  suge,  are  ditches  made 
by  the  besiegers,  that  they  may  approach 
more  securely  to  the  place  altiicked ;  on 
which  account  llnry  are  also  called  hues  of 
approach.  '1  he  tail  of  the  trench  is  the  place 
where  it  was  begun,  and  its  head  is  the  place 
where  it  ends. 

Trenches  arc  also  made  to  guard  an  en- 
campment. 

Tlie  trenches  are  usually  opened  or  begun 
in  the  night-time,  sometimes  within  mu:^kel- 
shot,  and  sometimes  within  half  or  whole-  can- 
noii-shot  of  the  place  ;  generally  about  StiO 
fathoms.  They  are  carried  on  in  winding 
lines,  nearly  parallel  to  Ihewoiks,  so  as  not 
lo  be  in  view  ot  Ihi-  enemy,  nor  exposed  lo  the 
enemy's  shot. 

The  vrorkmen  employed  in  the  trenches 
are  always  supported  by  a  number  of  troops 
to  defend  them  against  the  sallies  of  the  be- 
sieged. The  pioneers,  and  other  workmen 
sometimes  work  on  their  knees,  and  are  usu- 
ally covered  with  mantlets  or  saucissons;  and 
the  troops  who  support  them  lie  flat  on  .their 
faces,  in  order  to  avoid  the  enemy's  shot.  On, 
the  angles  or  sides  of  the  trench,  there  are 
lodgments,  or  e|)aulements,  in  form  of  tra- 
verses, the  better  to  hinder  the  sallies  of  the 
garrison,  and  to  favour  the  advancement  of 
the  trenches,  and  to  sustain  the  workmen. 

1  he  platforms  for  the  batteries  are  made 
behind  the  trenches  ;  the  first  at  a  good  dis- 
tance, lo  be  used  only  against  the  sallies  of 
the  garriosn.  As  the  aproaches  advanci-, 
the  batteries  are  brought  nearer,  to  ruin  the 
defences  of  the  place,  and  dismount  the  ar- 
tillery of  the  besieged.  The  breach-batteries 
are  made  when  the  trenches  are  advanced, 
near  the  covert -way. 

If  there  are  two' attacks,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  have  lines  of  communication,  or  boyaus, 
between  the  two,  with  places  of  arms  at  con- 
venient distances.  The  trenches  are  6  or  7 
feet  high  with  the  parapet,  which  is  5  feet 
thick,  w  ilh  baiuiuettesfor  ihe  sold.ers  lo  mount 
upon. 

The  approaches  at  a  siege  are  generally 
carried  on  upon  the  capitals  of  the  works  at- 
tacked; becaus:  the  cajiitals  produced  are, 
of  all  other  situations  in  the  front  of  a  work, 
the  least  exposed  to  the  fin?  of  either  the  can- 
non or  musketry ;  and  are  the  least  in  the- 
line  of  fire  between  the  besieged  and  be- 
siegers'batteries.  But  if,  from  pirticnlar  cir- 
cumstances, these  or  other  advantages  do  not 
attend  the  approaches  upon  the  capitals,  they 
are  by  no  means  lo  be  preferred  to  other  po- 
sitions. 

The  trenches  of  communication,  or  zig- 
zags, are  3  feet  deep,  10  feet  wide  at  bot- 
tom, and  13  feet  at  top,  having  a  berm  of  one 
fool,  beyond  which  the  earth  is  tlirowu  U 
form  a  parapet.. 


bi6 


T  R  r, 


Tlie  iiaralli-l5  or  place":  of  ami';  of  llio 
trendies  are  3  loi't  (U'l'p,  I'Jfeel  wiile  at  bot- 
tom, and  17  or  18  feel  wide  at  fop,  luniiig  a 
banquette  of  about  3  feet  wiile,  will)  a  slope  of 
nearly  as  mutli. 

The  first  night  of  opening  the  trenches,  the 
greatest  exertions', are  made  to  talvC  advi-ji- 
tage  of  the  enemy's  ignorance  as  to  the  siile 
ofaUack;  and  thev  are  generally  carrii-d  on 
,  as  far  in  advance  as  the  lirst  parallel,  and 
even  sometimes  to  the  co:nplctioa  oi  that 
work.  The  workmen  set  out  onthisihily, 
each  with  a  fascine  of  6  :eBt,  a  pick-ax,  and  a 
shovel;  and  the  fascines  being  laid  so  as  to 
lap  one  foot  over  eacli  other,  leave  i  leet  ot 
trend;  for  each  man  to  dig. 

The  usual  method  of  directing  the  trenches 
or  zi"'-zags,isbv  observing  during  the  day  some 
Hear^object  in 'a  line  with  the  salient  parts  of 
the  work,  and  wliich  may  serve  as  a  duection 
in  tlie  night :  or  if  tlie  night  is  not  very  dark, 
the  angles  of  the  works  may  be  seen  above 
the  horizon;  but  as  both  these  methods  are 
subicct  to  uncertainty,  the  follow  ing  is  pro- 
posed to  answer  every  case :  having  laid 
down  the  plan  of  attack,  the  exact  positions 
of  the  flanked  angles  of  the  works  of  the  front 
attacked,  and  particularly  of  those  most  ex- 
tended to  the  right  and  left ;  mark  on  the 
plan  the  point  of  commencement  for  the 
irst  portions  of  zig-zag,  the  ppint  where 
it  crosses  the  capital,  and  the  point  to 
which  it  extends  on  the  other  side  of  the  capi- 
pital:  this  last  point  will  be  tlie  commence- 
ment of  the  second  brandi  :  then  mark  off 
thi-  pomt  where  this  brancli  crosses  the  capi- 
tal, and  its  extent  on  the  other  s\le ;  and  this 
will  give  the  commencement  of  the  third 
branch  ;  and  so  on  for  the  others.  Thus  pro- 
vided with  a  plan  ready  marked  off',  it  will 
be  very  easv,  even  in  the  darkest  night,  to  lay 
down  the  point*  where  the  zig-zagsare  to  cross 
the  capital,  and  the  points  to  which  tliey  are 
tj  be  produced  beyond  ihem.  The  first  pa- 
rallel is  generally  run  about  600  yards  from 
thejilace,  and  of  such  extent  as  to  embrace 
the  prolongation  of  the  faces  of  all  the  work-s 
wliich  lire  upon  the  trenches ;  and  eacli  end  has 
a  return  of  about  30  or  40  yards. 

The  second  parallel  is  constructed  upon 
tlie  same  principles,  and  of  the  same  extent, 
as  the  first,  at  the  distance  of  about  308  yards 
fiom  tiie  salient  angles  of  the  covert-way. 
'I'his  parallel  is  usually  formed  of  gabions ; 
each  workman  carrying  a  gabion,  a  fascine,  a 
shovel,  and  a  pick  ax.  After  this  the  trendies 
are  usually  carried  on  by  sap. 

The  half-parallels  are  about  140  or  IJO 
yards  from  tlie  covert-way,  and  extend  siif- 
liciently  on  each  side  to  embrace  the  pro- 
longation of  the  branches  of  a  covert-way. 

Tliu  third  parallel  must  not  bo  nearer  than 
the  foot  of  the  glacis,  or  it  will  mask  the  ri. 
cochet  batteries.  It  is  generally  made  ra- 
ther wider  than  the  other  parallels. 

Cavaliers  of  the  trenches  must  not  be  nearer 
than  ?8  yards  from  the  covert-way,  or  they 
will  ])e' liable  to  be  annoyed  by  liaud-gre- 
iKidcs. 

Tresch,  returns  of  a,  arc  (he  elbows  and 
turnings,  which  form  the  lines  of  approach, 
:nid  are  niade,  as  near  as  can  be,  parallel  to 
llu!  plate,  to  prevent  their  being  eiiti- 
latlea, 

Tre  xc  a  b»,  to  mount  the,  is  to  mount  guard 


T  11  E 

in  the  trendies,  which  is  geuerally  done  in 
the  night. 

TiiKNCHf-s,  tn  relieve  the,  is  to  relieve  the 
guard  of  the  trenches. 

Tke.vcuks,  fa  scniir  iIic,  is  to  make  a  vi- 
gorous sallv  upon  the  tuard  of  the  trenches, 
force  them"lo  give  way  and  ([uit  their  ground, 
drive  awav  tlie  workmen,  break  down  the 
parapet,  (ill  up  the  trench,  and  nail  their  can- 
non. 

Tkexches,  rniinfir,  are  trenches  made 
against  the  besi'.'gers;  which  consequently 
have  their  parapet  turned  against  thecnenn's 
approaches,  and  are  enfiladed  from  several 
parts  of  the  place,  on  purpose  to  render  them 
useless  to  the  enemy,  if  they  should  chance 
to  become  masters  of  them  ;  but  they  should 
not  be  enfiladed  or  commanded  by  any  height 
in  the  enemy's  pessessiou. 

Trenches,  to  open  llw,  is  to  break  ground 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  approaciies  to- 
wards a  besieaed  place. 

TREPANNING.     See  SuRc.ERy. 

TRKPlD.VnOX.     See  MEntciNE. 

TRESPASS,  is  any  trangressionof  thelaw, 
under  treason,  felony,  or  misprision  of  either. 
Staundf.  PI.  Cor.  38. 

Trespass  signifies  going  beyond  what  is 
lawful;  hence  It  follows  that  every  injurious 
act  is,  in  the  large  si-nse  of  this  word,  a  tres- 
pass. But  a^  many  injurious  acts  are  distin- 
guished bv  particular  names,  as  treason, 
murder,  i  ape,  and  other  names,  tlie  legal  sense 
of  the  word  trespass  is  confined  to  such  in- 
jurious acts  as  have  not  acquired  a  particular 
name.  Some  trespasses  are  not  accompa- 
nied with  any  force ;  a  trespass  of  this  sort 
is  called  a  trespass  upon  the  case :  and  the 
proper  remedy  for  the  party  injured,  is  by 
an  action  upon  the  case.  Other  trespasses 
are  accompanied  with  force,  either  actual 
or  implied.  If  a  trespass  which  was  accom- 
panied with  cither  actual  or  im|)lied  force, 
has  been  injurious  to  the  public,  the  proper 
remedy  in  every  such  case,  is  by  an  indict- 
ment, or  by  information.  And  if  a  trespass 
that  was  acccompanied  with  an  actual  force, 
has  been  injurious  only  to  one  or  more  private 
persons,  the  oll'eiider  is  in  every  such  case 
liable  to  an  indictment,  or  to  an  information ; 
for  although  the  injury  has  in  such  case  been 
only  done  to  one  or  more  private  persons, 
as  everv  trespass  accompanied  with  actual 
force  is  a  breach  of  tlie  peace,  it  is  to  be  con- 
sidered and  punished  as  an  oll'ence  against  the 
public,     j  Bac.  .\hr.  1  jO. 

A  man  is  answerable  for  not  only  kis  own 
trespass,  but  that  of  his  cattle  also.  3  Black, 
i-'li. 

And  the  law  gives  the  party  injured,  a  dou- 
ble remedy  in  this  case;  by  permitting  him 
to  distrain' the  cattle  tluis  doing  ilamage,  till 
the  owner  shall  make  him  satisfaction,  or  else 
by  leaving  him  lo  the  common  remedy  by 
action.  And  in  either  of  these  cases  of  (res- 
pass  committed  on  another's  land,  cither  by  a 
man  himself  or  his  cattle,  the  acljou  that  lies, 
is  the  action  of  trespass  with  force  and  arms  ; 
for  the  law  always  couples  the  idea  of  force 
with  that  of  intrusion  upon  the  property  of  an- 
other,    3  Black,  210. 

In  some  cases,  tre5|)ass  is  jusiifi;\ble  ;  or  ra- 
ther entry  on  another's  land  or  house  shall 
not  in  these  cases  be  accounted  trespass;  as 
if  a  man  came  there  to  demand  or  j>ay  money 


r  R  I 

there  payalile,  or  to  execute  in  a  legal   man- 
ner the  process  of  the  law.     3  Black  J\9. 

To  prevent  trilling  and  vexatious  actions  of 
tresjiass,  it  is  enacted  bv  43  \~Mx.  c.  (i.  22  anrl 
23  Car.  11.  c.  9.  and  8  &  y  \V.  c.  11.  that 
where  a  jury  who  try  an  action  of  trespass, 
give  less  damages  than  40v.  the  plaiulilf  shall 
be  allowed  no  more  costs  than  damages  ;  un- 
less the  judge  iliall  certily  on  (he  back  of  tli'' 
record,  "that  the  freehold  or  title  of  the  land 
came  chiellv  in  question.  But  if  it  shall  ap- 
)>ear  that  the  trespass  was  wilful  and  malicious, 
the  plaintiff  shall  Irave  his  full  costs.  And 
every  trespass  is  wilful,  where  the  defendant 
has  been  forewarned,  and  malicious  where 
the  intent  of  the  defendant  appears  to  be  to 
harass  or  injure  the  plaintiff.     3  Black.  370. 

TRF.SPASSEK,  denotes  a  person  that 
commits  a  trts{)ass  against  another;  in  respect 
of  whom  it  is  held,  that  though  the  law  per- 
mits a  person  to  enter  a  tavern,  and  a  landlord 
to  distrain  on  lands,  &c.  yet  if  he  abuses  this 
liberty  by  committing  any  trespass,  he  will  bo 
judge<l  a  trespasser  afj  initio. 

TRET,  in  commerce,  an  allowance  made 
for  the  waste,  or  the  dirt,  that  may  be  mixed 
with  any  commodity,  which  is  always  four 
pounds  in  every  hundred  and  four  pounds 
weight.     See  Tare. 

TKEWI.V,  a  genus  of  the  polyandria  mo- 
nogynii  class  of  plants,  having  no  corolla  be- 
sides the  cup  ;  the  fruit  is  a  turbinated,  trifiue- 
trous,  coronated,  trilocniar,  trivalvar  capsule  : 
the  seed  is  single,  convex  on  one  side,  and 
angular  on  the  other.  There  is  one  species,  a 
tree  of  the  East  Indies. 

TRIAL,  in  law,  the  examination  of  a 
cause,  civil  or  criminal,  according  to  the 
laws  of  the  land,  before  a  proper  judge: 
or,  it  is  the  manner  and  order  observed 
in  the  hearing  and  determining  of  causes. 
There  are  divers  kinds  of  trials ;  as  those 
of  matters  of  fact,  which  must  be  tried  by 
a  jury;  matters  of  law  which  are  only  tria- 
ble by  the  courts;  and  matters  of  record, 
which  are  to  be  tried  by  the  records  them- 
selves. The  most  general  rule  has  been,  that 
the  jurymen  on  a  trial  shall  Ix'  chosen  out  of 
that  tow  n  or  precinct,  &;c.  in  which  the  mat- 
ter of  fact  is  alleged,  or  the  nearest  thereto, 
for  the  better  cognizance  of  the  matter;  and 
not  to  leave  things  to  be  tried  in  foreign  coun- 
ties, wheri-  the  jury  are  strangers  to  the  whole 
matter.  AVhere  any  trial  is  for  murder,  it 
must  be  in  the  county  w  herein  the  f;ict  was 
committed  ;  but  if  the  as^aultis  in  one  county, 
and  the  person  assaulted  hap))Cnsto  die  in  an- 
other county,  the  indictment  may  be  found  by 
a  jury  of  the  county  where  the  party  died: 
and  by  special  commission,  when  a  person  is 
indicted  m  one  county  he  may  be  tried  in  an- 
other, In  all  criminal  cases  the  custom  is 
to  ask  tlie  prisoner  how  he  will  be  tried,  w  hicli 
was  formerly  a  very  significant  question, 
though  it  is  not  so  now;  because  anliently 
there  were  trials  by  conibat,  by  ordeal,  and  by 
jiirv;  and  when  the  prisoiur  answered,  By 
(jo'd  ;iiid  his  country,  it  appeared  he  made 
choice  to  be  tried'by  a  jury  ;  whichjs  thg 
only  way  now  used  for  (he  trial  of  criminals. 

The  niethod  of  proceeding  in  a  criminal  case 
is  this:  First  the  bill  of  indictment  :igainst  tho 
offender  is  pre|>iued,  and  the  prosecutor  and 
his  witnesse-i  attend  on  the  grand  jury,  ami  • 
theregive  in  their  evidence;  which  being  done,, 
tlie  grand  iiKjuest  either  inul  the  bill  ol  iiulkW 

e  •  ■ 


T  R  I 

5ii(*n!,  or  liring  il  in  igiioraimu;  aiul  if  (he 
bill  is  found,  liif  prisoner  is  IjroiiglU  lo  llie 
bar  of  the  court,  aiul  the  cicrlv  of  tilt'  ar- 
raigns t'alli[ig  liini  by  liis  name,  desires 
him  to  liold  up   liis  liand,  sayiiig,  "  'I'lion 

art   indicted  Ijy  tlie   name  of -,  for  sucli 

a  felony,  &c.  (setting  forth  the  crime  laid 
in  the  indictment).  How  sayest  llioii  ;  art 
thou  guilty  of  tliis  felony  whereof  thou 
art  indicted,  or  not  guilty?"  'I'o  wliich 
tlie  prisoner  answering,  "  Not  guilty,"  the 
clerk  says,  "  Cul|)rit,  how  wilt  lliou  be  tried?" 
whereupon  the  defendant  answers,  "  I5y  God 
and  my  counlry ;"  whicli  plea  of  Ihe  prisoner 
the  clerk  records,  and  then  the  panel  of  the 
petty-jury  is  called  over. 

After  the  jury  are  sworn,  and  the  indict- 
ment is  read  over  to  them,  and  they  are 
charged,  the  evidences  on  i)otli  tides,  for  and 
against  the  prisoner,  are  called,  sworn,  and 
examined  in  open  court;  after  which  thejurj 
bring  in  their  verdict ;  and  if  they  lind  the  pri- 
soner guilty,  their  verdict  is  recorded,  and 
the  prisoner  is  taken  from  the  bar  ;  but  if 
thev  bring  him  in  not  guilty,  the  prisoner  is 
lliscliarged.  On  the  ])risoncr  being  brought 
in  guilty,  proclamation  is  made  for  all  per- 
sons to  keep  silence,  upon  which  the  prisoner 
is  again  brought  to  the  bar,  and  the  verdict  re- 
peated: after  wliich  sentence  is  passed  on 
iiim,  and  an  order  or  warrant  is  made  for 
liis  e\ecutioii. 

The  methods  of  trial,  in  our  civil  courts, 
are  as  follows :  viz.  The  declaration  is  first 
drawn  for  tlie  plaiiitilC,  and  when  the  appear- 
ance of  the  defendant  is  entered,  it  haa  been 
usual  to  deliver  it  with  an  imparlance  to  the 
defendant's  attorney  ;  and  the  term  following, 
rule  is  to  be  given  with  the  secondary  for  the 
defi-ndant  to  plead  by  such  a  day,  or  else  the 
plaintiff  is  to  have  judgment :  and  the  defend- 
ant having  pleaded,  a  copy  of  the  issue  is 
made  bv  the  plaintiff,  and  delivered  to  the 
defendant's  attorney,  at  tie..- same  lime  giving 
him  notice  of  the  trial ;  in  order  to  which  the 
venire  facias  must  be  taken  out  and  returned 
by  the  sheril'f:  and  likewise  the  hai)eas  cor- 
pora, or  distringas,  to  bring  in  the  jury;  on 
wliicii  the  record  is  made  up,  and  the  parties 
proceed  to  trial  bv  their  counsel  and  witnesses; 
and  tlie  )urv  give  in  their  verdict,  &c.  But 
in  case  the  defendant  neglects  to  plead,  and 
suffers  it  to  go  bv  default,  on  entering  sucli 
ajudgment,  a  writ  of  inquiry  of  damages  is 
awarded  relnrnable  next  term,  notice  of  the 
execution  whereof  the  defendant's  attorney  is 
to  have  ;  and  which  being  executed,  and  the 
damages  inserted  in  a  schedule  annexed  to 
the  writ,  a  rule  is  given,  and  costs  are  taxed 
by  the  prothonotary,  ^^c. 

TllIANDRIA,  in  the  Linn»an  system  of 
botany,  a  class  of  plants,  the  third  in  order: 
comprehending  all  such  [ilants  as  have  her- 
maphrodite llowers,  with  three  stamina,  or 
male  parts,  in  each;  whence  the  name.      See 

BOT.VNY. 

TK! ANGLE,  in  geometry,  a  figure 
bounded  or  contained  by  three  lines  or  sides, 
and  which  consequently  has  three  angles, 
IVom  whence  the  ligure  takes  its  name. 

Triangles  are  either  plane,  or  spherical,  or 
curvilinear.  Plane  when  the  three  sides  of 
the  triangle  are  right  lines;  but  spherical 
when  some  or  all  oi  them  are  arcs  of  great 
circles  on  the  sphere. 

Plane  triangles  take  several  denominations, 
Vol.  II. 


T  R  r 

both  from  the  relation  of  their  angles,  and  of 
their  sid(;s,  .is  below.     See  Gkometrv. 

The  chief  properties  of  plane  triangles  are 
as  follow,  viz.  In  any  plane  triangle, 

1.  The  greatest  side  is  opposite  to  the 
greatest  angle,  and  the  least  side  to  the 
least  angle,  <Sic.  Also,  if  two  sides  are 
i;(|ual,  their  ojiposite  angles  are  equal ;  and  if 
the  triangle  is  equilateral,  or  lias  all  its  sides 
equal,  it  will  also  be  ecpiiangular,  or  iiave  all 
its  angles  eipial  to  one  another.  _'.  Any  side 
of  a  triangle  is  less  than  tlie  sum,  but  greater 
than  the  differiMice,  of  the  other  two  sides. 
3.  'ihe  sum  of  all  the  three  angles,  taken  to- 
gether, is  etpial  to  two  right  angles.  4.  If 
one  side  of  a  triangle  is  produced  out,  the 
external  angle,  made  by  ii  ami  the  adjacent 
side,  is  ccpial  to  tlie  sum  of  the  two  opposite 
internal  angles.  5.  A  line  drawn  parallel  lo 
one  side  ut  a  triangle,  cuts  the  other  two  si<les 
proporlioiially,  the  corresponding  segments 
being  proportional,  each  to  each,  and  to  the 
whole  sides ;  and  the  triangle  cut  off  is  similar 
to  the  whole  triangle. 

If  a  perpendicular  is  let  fall  from  any  an- 
gle of  a  triangle,  as  a  vertical  angle,  uiion  the 
opjrosite  side  as  a  base  ;  then,  6.  The  rectan- 
gle of  Ihe  sum  and  difference  of  the  sides,  is 
ecpial  to  twice  the  rectangle  of  the  base  and 
the  distance  of  the  perpendicular  from  the 
middle  of  the  base.  Or,  which  is  the  same 
thing  in  other  words,  7.  The  difference  of 
the  squares  of  the  sides,  is  equal  to  the  dif- 
ference of  the  squares  of  the  segments  of  the 
base.  Or,  as  the  base  is  to  the  sum  of  the 
sides,  so  is  the  dill'erence  of  the  sides  to  the 
difference  of  the  segments  of  the  base.  8. 
The  rectangle  of  the  legs  or  sides  is  eipial  to 
the  rectangle  of  the  perpendicular  and  the 
diameter  ot  the  circumscribing  circle. 

If  a  line  is  drawn  bisectinj  any  angle,  to 
the  base  or  oi)posite  side  ;  then,  9.  The  seg- 
ments of  the  base,  made  by  the  line  bisect- 
ing the  opposite  angle,  are  proportional  to  the 
sides  adj;icent  to  them.  10.  The  square  of 
the  line  bisecting  the  angle,  is  equal  to  .the  dif- 
ference between  the  rectangle  ot  the  sides  and 
the  rectangle  of  the  segments  of  the  base. 

If  a  line  is  drawn  irom  any  angle  to  tlie 
middle  of  the  opposite  side,  or  bisecting  tlie 
base,  then,  I  1.  The  sum  of  the  scpiares  of  the 
sides,  is  e(|ual  to  twice  the  sum  of  the  squares 
of  half  the  base  and  the  line  bisecting  the 
base.  li.  The  angle  made  by  the  perpendi- 
cular from  any  angle  and  the  line  drawn  from 
the  same  angle  to  the  middle  of  the  base,  is 
equal  lo  half  the  difference  of  the  angles  at 
the  base.  13.  If  through  any  point  within  a 
triangle  three  lines  are  drawn  parallel  to  the 
three  sides  of  the  triangle,  the  continual  pro- 
ducts or  solids  made  by  the  alternats  seg- 
ments of  these  lines  will  be  equal.  14.  If 
three  lines  arc  drawn  from  the  three  angles 
through  any  point  within  a  triangle,  to  the 
opposite  sides ;  the  solid  products  of  the  al- 
ternate segments  of  the  sides  are  equal,  viz. 
15.  Three  lines  drawn  from  the  three  angles  of 
a  triangle  to  bisect  theop))osite  sides,  or  to  the 
middle  of  the  opposite  sides,  do  all  intersect 
one  another  in  Ihe  same  point,  and  that  point 
is  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  triangle  ;  and  tlie 
distance  of  that  point  from  any  angle  is  equal 
to  double  the  distance  from  the  opposite  side, 
or  one  segment  of  any  of  these  lines  is  tlouble 
the  other  segment :  moreover  the  sum  of  the 
squares  of  tlte  tliree  bisectiug  line*  is  i  of  the 


1   R  I 


•""7. 


I  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  three  sides  of  (li<; 
triangle.  10.  I'liree  pcfroendic  alars  bisecting 
the  three  sides  of  a  (riaiiglc;,  all  intersect  in  one- 
point,  and  that  point  is  the  centre  of  the  cir- 
cumscribing circle-.  17.  Tlivee  lines  bisect- 
ing tliL^  three  angles  of  a  triangle,  all  intersect 
ill  one  point,  and  that  point  is  the  ceiiire  of 
the  inscribed  circle.  \H,  Three  perpendicu- 
lars drawn  from  the  three  angles  ot  a  man- 
gle ii])<)ii  the  oj)|)osite  sides,  all  intersect  in 
one  point.  I'.).  Any  tri.ingle  may  liave  a  cir- 
cle circumscribed  about  il,  or  touching  all  its 
angles,  and  a  circle  iiisi  ribcd  within  it,  or 
touching  all  its  sides.  'JO.  The  square  of  the 
side  of  aneqnilaterallriancle  is  equal  to  three 
limes  the  scpiare  of  tin-  radius  of  its  rircum- 
scribing  circle.  'Jl.  If  the  three  angles  of 
one  triangle  arc  equal  to  lliif  three  angles  of 
another  tiiaiigle,  each  to  each,  then  those  two 
triangles  are  similar,  and  their  like  sides  are 
proportional  to  one  another,  and  the  areas  of 
Ihe  two  triangles  are  to  each  other  as  the 
squares  ot  then-  like  sides.  22.  if  two  tru 
angles  have  any  tliree  parts  of  the  one  (ex- 
cept the  three  angle*)  equal  to  three  corn  9- 
ponding  parts  of  the  other,  eacli  to  each, 
those  two  triangles  are  not  only  similar,  but 
also  identical,  or  having  all  their  six  corrc-s- 
ptmding  parts  e<iual,  ami  their  areas  equal. 
li.5.  Triangles  standing  upon  the  same  base, 
and  between  the  same  parallels,  areecpial ;  ami 
triangles  upon  ecjual  bases,  and  having  equal 
altitudes,  arc  equal.  24.  Triangles  on  cijual 
bases,  are  to  one  another  as  their  altitudes, 
and  triangles  of  equal  altitudes  are  to  on<; 
another  as  their  bases;  also  equal  triangh  s 
have  llieir  bases  and  altitudes  recMprocally 
proportional.  Ub.  Any  triangle  is  erjual  to 
iKill  its  circumscribing  parallelogram  ;  or  half 
the  parallelogram  on  the  same  or  an  equal 
base,  and  of  the  same  or  ecjual  altitude. 
■:t>.  Therefore  the  area  of  any  triangle  is 
found  by  multiplying  the  base  by  tiie  alti- 
tude, and  taking  half  the  product.  'J7.  The 
area  is  also  found  thus:  Multiply  anv  two 
sides  together,  and  multiply  the  product  by 
the  sine  of  their  included  angle,  to  radius  I 
and  divided  by  2.  28.  The  area  is  also  otlier- 
wi-e  found  Itius,  when  the  three  sides  are 
given:  Add  the  three  sides  together,  and  take 
half  their  sum  ;  then  from  this  half  sum  ^ub- 
Inict  each  side  severally,  and  multiply  the 
three  remainders  and  the  half  sum  con'tinu- 
ally  together;  then  the  square  root  of  the 
last  product  will  be  the  area  of  the  triangle. 
'J'J.  In  a  right-angled  triangle,  if  a  perpendi- 
cular is  let  fall  from  the  right  angle  upon  the 
hypothenuse,  it  will  divide  it  into  two  (>llier 
triangles  similar  to  one  another,  and  to  the 
whole  triangle.  30.  In  a  right-angled  trian- 
gle, the  sciuare  of  the  liypolhenuse  is  ecjual  to 
the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two  sides;  and, 
in  general,  any  ligure  described  upon  the  hy- 
])othenuse  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  two  simiiaf 
ngurcs  described  upon  the  two  sides.  31, 
In  an  isosceles  triangle,  if  a  line  is  drawn  ft-oiu 
the  veitcx  to  any  point  in  the  base,  the 
S([uare  of  that  line,  together  with  the  rect- 
angle of  the  segments  ot  the  base,  is  ccinal  to 
the  s(juare  of  the  side.  32.  If  one  anale  of  a 
liiangh:  is  equal  to  120,  the  squareof  the 
base  will  be  equal  to  the  squares  of  both  the 
sides,  together  with  the  rectangle  of  those 
sides;  and  if  those  sides  are  etiual  to  each 
other,  then  the  square  of  the  base  will  be  eipial 
to  three  times  the  square  of  one  side,  or  equal 
to  twelve  tiines  iJie  stjuare  of  the  perpeadicu* 


eis 


T  R  I 


J^ !_ 1_   _ 

fi      '     2    "^   3  ' 


lar  from  the  angle  upon  the  base.  Z3.  In 
the  same  triangle,  viz.  having  oneangle  equal 
to  120',  the  difference  of  flie  cubes  of  the 
sides  about  that  angle,  is  eciuul  to  a  solid  con- 
tained by  the  difference  of  the  sides  and  the 
Sfjuare  of  the  base  ;  and  the  sum  of  the  cubes 
of  the  sides  is  equal  to  a  solid  contained  by  the 
sum  of  the  sides  and  the  difference  between 
the  square  of  the  base  and  twice  the  rectan- 
gle of  the  sides. 

TRIANGULAR  COMPASSES,  are  such 
as  have  three  legs  or  feet,  whereby  to  take 
oiT  any  triangle  at  once  ;  much  used  in  the 
construction  of  map?,  globes,  &c. 

TRL'VNGULAR  NUMBERS,  are  a  kind  of 
polygonal  numbers  being  the  sums  of  arithme- 
tical progressions,  which  have  1  for  the  common 
difference  of  their  terms. 

Thus,  from  these  arithmeticali  12  3  4  5  6, 
are  formed  the  triang  numb.  1  3  6  10  15  21, 
or  the  third  column  of  the  arithmetical  triajigle 
abovementioned. 

The  sure  of  any  number  n  of  the  terms  of  the 
triangular  numbers,  1,  3,  6,  10,  &c,  is  := 

«  4-  1         n  -f  2 

trliich  is  also  equal  to  the  number  of  shot  in  a 
triangular  pile  of  balls,  the  number  of  rows,  or 
the  number  in  each  side  of  the  base,  being  n. 

The  sum  of  the  reciprocals  of  the  triangular 
series,  infinitely  continued,  is  equal  to  2  ;  viz., 

i-t-f  +  i  +  To  +  rV  &c  =  2. 

For  the  rationale  and  management  of  these 
numbers,  see  Simpson's  Algebra,  sect.  15. 

TRIANGULAR  CANON,  the  tables  of 
ju-tificial  sines,  tangents,  secants,  &c. 

TRIANGULAR  QUADRANT,  is  a 
sector  furnished  with  a  loose  piece,  whereb) 
to  make  it  an  equilateral  triangle. 

The  calendar  is  graduated  thereon,  with 
the  sun's  place,  declination,  and  other  useful 
lines ;  and  by  the  help  of  a  string  and  a  plum- 
met, and  the  divisions  graduated  on  the  loose 
piece,  it  may  be  made  to  serve  for  a  qua- 
drant. 

TRr.ANTIIEMA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  dccandria  digynia.  The  calyx  is  mu- 
cronate  below  the  tip ;  no  corolla ;  stamina 
r>  or  10;  germ,  refuse;  capsule  cut  round. 
There  are  seven  species. 

TRIBULUS,  caltrops,  a  genus  of  the  de" 
candria-monogynia  class  of  plants,  the  corolla 
of  which  consists  of  five  oblong,  obtuse,  and 
patent  petals :  its  fruit  is  of  a  roundish  figure 
and  aculeated,  being  composed  of  five  cap- 
sules, gibbous  on  one  side,  and  armed  with 
llirce  or  four  points  on  the  other,  angulaled 
and  convergent ;  and  containing  numerous 
seeds,  turbinated  and  oblong.  There  are 
four  species. 

TRICEPS.    SeeANATOMv. 

TRICER.\,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
<ler  monoecia  tetrandria.  There  is  no  co- 
rolla ;  the  male  is  four-leaved ;  filaments  four, 
ovate;  female  calyx  five-leaved;  styles  co- 
nical ;  capsules  three,  honied,  three-celletl. 
There  is  one  species,  a  shrub  of  Jamaica. 

TRICIIEC'IIUS,  ■walrus,  a  genus  of  qua- 
drupeds of  the  order  bruta.  The  generic 
character  is,  fore-teetli  (in  the  full-grown 
animil)  none  eitlier  above  or  below ;  tusks 
•olilary,  in  the  upper  jaw ;  grinders  with 
vrriukleil  surfaces ;  lips  doubled;  hind  feet  at 
the  extremity  of  the  body,  uniting  into  a  f;ii. 

Th«  gCBiis  trichc^-lms  is  entirely  marine. 


T  E  r 

and  contains  but  throe  species,  beside*  varie- 
ties :  of  these  the  principal  is  the  trichechus 
rosmarus,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  sea- 
horse, or  walrus. 

1. Trichechus  rosmarus,  arcticwalrus.  This 
animal  inhabits  the  northern  seas,  and  is  prin- 
cipally found  within  the  arctic  circle.  It 
grows  to  a  very  large  size,  having  been  some- 
times seen  of  the  length  of  eighteen  feet, 
and  of  such  a  thickness  as  to  measure  twelve 
feet  round  the  middle  of  tlie  body.  The 
walrus  is  of  an  inelegant  form ;  having  asmall 
head,  short  neck,  thick  body,  and  short  legs: 
the  lips  are  very  thick,  anil  the  upper  lip  is 
indented  or  cleft  into  two  large  rouiuled  lobes: 
over  the  whole  surface  of  this  part  are  scat- 
tered numerous  semitransparent  bristles,  of  a 
yellowish  tinge,  an<l  of  such  a  thickness  as 
almost  to  equal  a  straw  in  diameter:  they 
are  about  three  inches  long,  and  are  slightly 
pointed  at  their  extremities ;  the  eyes  are 
small :  instead  of  external  ears  there  are  only 
two  small,  round  orilices;  the  skin  on  the 
whole  animal  is  thick,  and  more  or  less  wrinki: 
led  and  is  scattered  over  with  short  brownish 
hair:  on  each  foot  are  hve  toes,  all  connect- 
ed by  webs,  and  on  each  toe  is  a  small  nail: 
the  hind  feet  are  considerably  broader  than 
the  fore  feet ;  the  tail  is  extremely  short.  In 
the  upper  jaw  are  two  large  and  long  tusks, 
bending  downwards :  th.re  are  no  cutting- 
teeth  ;  but  in  each  jaw,  both  above  and  belosv, 
are  tour  roundish  grinders  with  Hat  tops :  the 
tusks  are  sometimes  upwards  of  two  feet  in 
length,  but  are  more  generally  of  about  one 
foot  long  :  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  the 
two  tusks  are  not  perfectly  e<iual  in  length. 
The  chief  resorts  of  the  walrus  are  the  seas 
about  the  northern  parts  of  America.  They 
are  found  in  the  gulph  of  St.  Laurence  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Pennant,  between  latitude  47  and 
48.  They  are  also  found  in  Davis's  Straits  and 
within  Hudson's  Bay,  lat.  62.  They  inhabit 
the  coast  of  Greenland ;  and  are  found  in 
great  numbers  about  Spitsbergen,  and  on  the 
floating  ice  inthose  parts.  'I'hey  occur  like- 
wise on  the  coasts  oi  Nova  Zenibla,  and  on 
the  headlands  stretching  towards  the  north 
pole. 

They  are  gregarious  animals,  and  are  some- 
times seen  in  vast  multitudes  on  the  masses  of 
floating  ice  so  frequent  in  the  northern  seas. 
They  are  said  to  produce  their  young  early  in 
the  spring,  an<l  rarely  bring  more  than  one 
at  a  birth:  their  foot!  consists  of  sea-plants, 
shell-iish,  &c. 

The  walrus  is  a  harmless  animal,  unless  pro- 
voked or  attacked,  in  which  case  it  becomes 
furious,  and  is  extremely  vindictive.  When 
surprised  upon  the  ice,  the  female  is  said  first 
to  provide  for  the  safety  of  the  young,  by 
Hinging  it  into  the  sea,  and  immediateiy  pre- 
cipitating itself  after  it  ;  carrying  it  to  a  se- 
cure distance,  and  then  returning,  with  great 
rage,  to  revenge  the  injury.  They  w-jll  some- 
times attempt  to  fasten  their  teeth  on  the 
boats,  with  an  intent  to  sink  them;  or  rise  in 
numbers  under  them  to  overset  them  ;  at  the 
same  time  shewing  all  the  marks  of  rage,  by 
roaring  in  a  dreadhilmanner,and  gnashing  their 
teeth  with  great  violence;  if  once  thoroughly 
irritated,  the  whole  herd  will  follow  the  boats 
till  they  lose  sight  of  th^in.  They  are 
strongly  attached  to  each  other ;  and  it  is  said 
that  a  wounded  walrus  has  been  known  to 
sink  Jo  lh«  bottom,  riee  nviddcnly  tip  again. 


T  R  I 

and  bring  with  it  multitudes  of  others,  vihkk 
have  united  in  an  attack  upon  the  boat  whence 
the  insult  ciune.    . 

The  teeth  of  the  walrus  are  used  as  ivory  ; 
but  on  this  subject  authors  seem  to  vary  con- 
siderably ;  some  representing  them  as  supe- 
rior to  common  ivory,  and  others  greatly  in- 
ferior,  and  more  subject  to  turn  yellow. 
The  animals  are  now  killed  chietly  for  the 
sake  of  the  oil;  and  it  is  said  that  a  very  strong, 
and  elastic  leather  mav  be  prepared  from  the 
skin.     See  Plate  Nat.'llist.  fig.  404. 

3.  Trichechus  dugong,  Indian  walrus.  This 
species  is  a  native  of  the  seas  about  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  and  the  Philippine  islands.  It 
does  not,  hov/ever,  Si.em  to  be  very  clearly 
known  to  naturalists.  The  grinders  diifer 
from  those  of  the  walrus,  being  broader  in  pro- 
portion :  of  these  there  are  four  on  each  sKJe 
111  the  upper  jaw,  and  three  in  the  lower.  The 
iiead  is_  said  to  be  of  a  sharper  or  nar- 
rower form.  This  species,  in  the  Philippine 
Islands,  is  said  to  be  called  by  the  name  of 
dugung. 

3.  Trichechus  borealis,  manate  or  whale- 
tailed  trichechus.  This  animal  seems  to  ap- 
proach so  nearly  to  the  cetaceous  or  whale 
tribe,  as  scarcely  to  deserve,  according  to  Mr. 
Pennant,  the  name  even  of  a  biped  ;  vvliat  are 
called  the  feet  being  little  more  than  pectoral 
fins,  which  serve  only  tor  swimming,  and  are  ne- 
ver used  to  assist  the  animal  either  in  walking 
or  landing;  for  it  never  goes  ashore,  nor  e- 
ver  attempts  to  climb  th;-  rocks  like  the  walrus 
and  tlie  seal.  It  brings  forth  in  the  water, 
and,  like  the  whale,  suckles  its  young  in  that 
element.  Like  the  whale,  it  is  also  destitute 
of  voice  ;  and  has  also  a  horizontal  tail,  which 
is  broad,  and  of  the  form  of  a  crescent,  with- 
out even  rudiments  of  hind  feet. 

So  complete  is  the  account  given  by  Mr. 
Pennant  of  this  animal,  that  we  shall  here  deli- 
ver the  most  material  parts  of  that  author's 
description,  rather  than  attempt  a  new  one. 

It  inhabits  the  seas  about  Berings  and  the 
other  Aleutian  islands,  which  intervene  be- 
tween Kamtschatka  and  America,  hut  never 
appears  off  Kamtschatka,  unless  blown  ashore 
by  a  tempest.  It  is  probably  the  same  spe- 
cies which  is  found  above  Mindana'.),  but  is 
certainly  that  which  inhabits  near  Rodiguez, 
vulgarlv  called  Diego  Reys,  an  island  to  the 
east  of  Niauritins,  or  the  Isle  of  France,  near 
which  it  is  likewise  founil.  It  is  also  probable 
that  it  extends  to  New  Holland.  They  live 
perpetually  in  the  water,  and  frequent  the 
edges  of  the  shores;  and,  in  calm  weather, 
swim  in  great  droves  near  the  mouths  of  ri- 
vers :  in  the  time  of  flood  they  come  so  near 
the  land  that  a  person  may  stroke  them  with 
his  hand;  if  hurt,  they  swim  out  to  the  sea, 
but  presently  return  again.  They  live  in  fa- 
milies, one  near  another ;  each  con--ists  of  a 
male,  a  female,  a  half-grown  young  one,  and 
a  very  small  one.  The  females  oblige  the 
young  to  swim  before  them,,  while  the  other 
old  ones  surround,  and,  in  a  manner,  guard 
them  on  all  sides.  '1  he  aflection  between  the 
male  and  female  is  very  great ;  for  if  she  is  at- 
tacked, he  will  defend'hcr  to  the  utmost ;  and 
if  she  is  killed,  will  follow  her  corpse  to  the 
very  shore,  and  swim  for  some  days  near  the 
place  it  has  been  landed  at. 

Thev  are  vastly  vcvaciou',  and  feed  not 
only  on  the  fuci  that  grow  in  the  sea,  but  such 
as  arc  tiung on  the  edges  of  the  shore.    Whin 


T  R  I 

iliry  ?re  (llk-d,  tlicy  fall  asleep  on  Uielr  backs. 
I  .■uring  tlii-ir  meals  llicy  arc  so  inlcnt  on  llit-ir 
loot],  that  an\  oiif  may  go  among  tluiiii,  an<l 
clioose  wliich  lie  likos  bc-sf.  '1  heir  back  ami 
sides  are  c;eiierally  above  water;  aiid.iniiu- 
hersot  gvilis,  Iromtime  lotimc,  perch  on  llioir 
Ijacks,  in  order  to  pick  the  insects  wliich  they 
find  upon  them. 

Thev  continue  in  the  Kamtschatkan  and 
American  seas  the  whole  year  ;  hut  in  winter 
they  are  very  lean,  so  that  one  may  count 
their  ribs.  "They  are  talvn  by  harpoons 
fastened  to  a  strong  cord  ;  and  after  they  are 
struck,  it  requires  the  forci- of  thirty  men  to 
draw  them  on  shore.  Sometimes,  when  they 
are  transfixed,  they  will  lay  hold  of  the  rocks 
with  their  pa\v>,  and  stick  so  fast  as  to  leave 
the  skin  behind  bd'on-  they  can  be  lorced  off. 
When  a  manali  is  struck,  its  companions 
swim  to  its  assistance:  some  will  atteivipt  to 
overturn  the  boat,  by  getting  under  it ; 
otliers  will  press  down  the  rope,  in  order  to 
break  it ;  and  others  will  strike  at  the  har- 
poon with  their  tails,  with  a  view  of  getting 
it  out,  ill  which  they  often  succeed,  'i  hey 
have  no  voice  ;  l)ut  make  a  noise,  by  hard 
breathing,  like  the  snorting  of  a  horse. 

They  are  of  an  enormous  size :  some  are 
twentv-eight  feet  long,  and  eight  thousand 
poinuls  weight:  but,  il  the  Mindanao  species 
is  the  smie  with  tins,  it  decreases  in  size  us  it 
advances  southward,  for  the  largest  which 
Dampier  saw  there  weighed  only  six  hundred 
pounds.  The  head,  in  proportion  to  the  bulk 
of  the  animal,  is  small,  oblong,  and  almost 
square:  the  nostrils  are  filled  with  short  bris- 
tles ;  the  gape  or  rictus  is  small ;  the  lips  are 
double  ;  near  the  junction  of  the  two  jaws  the 
mouth  is  •full  of  white  tubular  bristles,  which 
serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  lamins  in 
whales,  to  prevent  the  food  from  running 
out  with  the  water:  the  lips  are  also  full  of 
bristles,  which  serve  instead  of  teeth  to  cut 
the  strong  roots  of  sea-plants,  which,  floating 
ashore,  are  a  sign  ot  the  vicinity  of  these  aiii- 
rtials.  In  the  mouth  are  no  teeth  ;  only  two 
Hat  white  bones,  one  in  each  jaw,  one  above, 
^another  below,  with  undulated  surfaces,  which 
serve  instead  of  grinders. 

The  eyes  are  extremely  small,  not  larger 
than  th.ose  of  a  "-hecp:  instead  of  ears  are  ordy 
two  minute  orihres,  which  will  scarcely  per- 
mit a  quill  to  enter:  the  tongue  is  pointed 
■  and  small :  the  neck  thick,  and  its  junction 
with  the  head  scarcely  distinguishable ;  ami 
the  last  always  hangs  down. 

The  circumference  of  the  body  near  the 
shoulders  is  twelve  feet ;  about  the  belly  twen- 
ty; near  the  tail  only  four  feet  eight  inches: 
the  head  thirty-one  inches:  the  neck  near 
seven  feet :  and  Irom  these  measurements  may 
be  collected  thedelormity  of  the  animal.  Near 
the  slioulders  are  two  feet,  or  rather  fins,  which 
are  only  two  feet  two  inches  long,  and  have 
neither' fingers  nor  nails;  beneath  they  are 
concave,  and  covered  with  hard  hi  istles  ;  the 
tail  is  thick,  strong,  and  horizonlal,  ending  in  a 
stifT  black  tin,  and  like  the  substance  of  wiiale- 
bone,  being  much  split  on  the  fore  part  and 
slightly  forked;  but  both  ends  are  of  equal 
length'  like  the  whale. 

The  skin  is  very  thick,  hard,  and  black ; 
full  of  inequalities,  like  the  bark  of  oak ; 
so  hard  as  scarcely  to  be  cut  w  ith  an  ax, 
and  has  i;o  I. air  upon  it :  beneath  the  skin  is  a 
tkick  blubber,  which  is  said  to  taste  like  oil  of 


T  R  1 

almonds.  The  flesh  is  coarser  than  beef,  and 
will  not  soon  putrefy  :  the  young  ones  taste 
like  veal:  the  skin  is  used  for  shoes,  and  for 
covering  the  sides  of  boats.  l"he  Kiissians 
call  thisanimal  morskaia  korowa  or  sea-cjw, 
and  kapustnik  or  eater  of  herbs. 

4.Tricheclius  australis,  round-tailed  nianati. 
'I'his  species  grows  totlie  ienglhof  fourteen  or 
fifteen  feet,  and  is  found  in  the  rivers  of  Afri- 
ca;  parliculirly  in  the  river  Senegal:  the 
lips  are  li^iLk;  the  eyes  as  small  as  peas;  and 
there  are  two  very  small  orifices  in  the  place 
of  ears :  in  each  jaw  on  each  side  are  nine 
grinding  tertli,  in  all  thnty-six  :  the  neck  is 
short  and  thicker  than  the  head:  the  greatest 
llii(  kness  of  the  body  is  aliout  the  should- 
from  whence  it  gradually  tapers  to  thi;  tail, 
which  is  horizontal,  broad,  thickest  in  the 
middle,  growing  thinner  to  the  edges,  and 
quite  round.  The  feet  are  placed  at  the 
shoulders;  and  beneath  the  skin  are  bones 
for  l\\c  complete  toes,  and  externally  are  thret 
or  four  nails,  Hat  ajid  rounded:  near  the  base 
of  each  leg,  in  the  female  is  a  small  teat.  The 
flesh  of  this  animal  is  said  to  resemble  veal : 
it  is,  however,  chiefly  killed  by  the  negroes 
for  tlie  sake  of  the  blubber  or  fat. 

TRICHIURUS,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
order  apodes ;  the  generic  character  is,  head 
stretched  forwards,  w'ith  lateral  gill-covers; 
teeth  ensiforin,  semisagittate  at  the  tips  ;  gill- 
membrane  seven-rayed  ;  body  ensilorni,  com- 
pressed, with  subulate  iinless  tail. 

1.  T  richiunis  argenteus,  silver  trichiiire. 
Thislish  is  equally  distinguished  by  the  sin.gii- 
larity  of  its  shape,  and  brilliancy  of  its  colour: 
the  body  is  extremely  compressed,  of  a  great 
length,  and  gradually  tapers  as  it  approaches 
the  extremity,  till  at  length  it  terminates  in  a 
very  fine  point ;  the  whole  fish,  excejit  on  the 
fins,  is  ot  the  brightest  silver-colour  :  the  head 
is  narrow ;  the  mouth  very  w  ide,  the  lower 
jaw  longer  than  the  upper,  and  furnished  with 
dilferentlv  sized  teeth,  the  longest  of  which 
are  barbed  at  the  tips  by  a  sharp  descending 
process  or  hook  on  one  side  :  the  tongue  is 
smooth,  longish,  and  triangular:  in  the  throat 
are  two  rough  bones:  the  eyes  are  vertical, 
approximated,  and  large:  the  lateral  line  is 
of  a  gold-colour,  and,  commencing  behind 
the  gill-covers,  is  continued  to  the  tip  of  the 
tail:  the  dorsal  fin,  which  is  of  moderate 
width,  transparent,  and  of  a  yellowish  tinge, 
commences  almost  immediately  behind  the 
head,  and  runs  to  within  a  very  small 
distance  of  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  at 
which  part  it  degenerates  into  a  mere  mem- 
brane, lieing.  strongly  radiated  in  other 
parts:  the  pectoral  fins  are  rather  small,  and 
of  an  ovate  shape:  there  is,  properly  speaking, 
no  direct  vcnt-lin,  but  a  series  of  very  small 
naked  spines  or  rays,  to  the  number  of  about 
1  lU,  are  continued  t'rom  the  vent,  which  is  si- 
tuated about  the  middle  of  the  body,  to  near 
the  tip  uf  the  tail.  The  general'  length  of 
this  fish  is  from  two  to  three  feet:  it  is  said  to 
be  of  a  very  vora'-'ous  nature,  swims  with  ra- 
pidity, and  in  the  pursuit  of  its  prey  sometimes 
leaps  into  small  vessels  which  happen  to  be 
sailing  bv.  It  is  a  native  of  the  rivers  and 
larger  lakes  of  South  America;  and  is  consi- 
dered as  an  eatable  fish.  It  is  also  said  to  be 
found  in  some  parts  of  India,  and  in  China. 
See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  407. 

2.  Trichiurns  electiicus, electrical  trichiure. 
Tliis  species,  which  seems  nearly  equal  in  sixe 

»  L  3 


1-  R  I 


SIJ 


to  tlie  preceding,  dliTers  not  only  in  'lie  con- 
formation of  the  jaws,  wl,ichare  both  uf  equal 
length,  but  iiillic  for.ii  of  its  tj;eth,  wliich  are 
all  very  minute:  the  (ail  is  not  so  extremely 
slender  and  sha  p  as  in  the  former,  and  the 
colour  ol  the  w  hole  animal  is  pale  brown,  va- 
riegated with  spKli  of  ade-p-rca^l.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  Indian  seas,  and  is  said  to  posset* 
a  degree  of  electrical  power.  Th/TC  are  only 
these  two  sjiecie s. 

TRICHODA,  a  genus  of  vermes  infuforia ; 
the  generic  character  is,  a  worm  invinible,  pel- 
lucid, jiairy  or  horned.  Ample  accounts  of 
this  genus,  which  is  very  numerous,  will  be 
lounii  in  Adams's  work  on  the  Microscope. 
See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  406.  There  are 
about  sixty  species. 

TRICOCiCPHALUS,  a  pcnusof  vermes 
intestina.  The  generic  character  is,  body 
round,  elastic,  and  variously  twisted ;  head  or 
fore  nart  much  thicker,  and  furnished  with  a 
slender  exstrtiie  proboscis;  tail  or  lower  jiart 
long,  capillary,  and  tapering  to  a  fine  point. 
There  are  six  species :  T.  hominis,  see  I'latr 
Nat.  Hist.  fig.  405,  inhabits  the  uitestinesof 
sickly  children,  generally  the  ca-cum,  and  in 
considerable  numbers :  about  two  inches  long 
and  resembling  the  ascarides  in  colour.  The 
other  species  are  named  from  animals  on  which 
thi;y  live,  as  the  equi,  apri,  muris,  vulpis,  and 
lacert:c. 

TRICHILIA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der decandria  monogynia.  The  calyx  is 
mostly  five-toothed ;  petals  five ;  nectariunt 
toothed;  capsules  three-celled,  three-valved; 
seeds  berried.  There  are  12  species,  trees 
chiefly  of  the  West  Indies. 

TRTCIIOCARPUS,  a  genus  of  the  claM 
and  order  polyandria  digynia.  The  calyx  is 
four  or  five  parted ;  no  corolla ;  styles  two, 
bifid;  capsules  bristly,  four-valvcd,  many- 
seeded.  These  is  one  species,  a  tree  ot  Gui- 
ana. 

TRTCHOMANES,  agenus  of  plants  of  the 
class  cryptogamia,  and  order  filices.  Tho 
parts  of  fructification  are  solitary  ;  and  termi- 
nated by  a  stile  like  a  bristle,  on  every  edge 
of  the  leaf.  There  are  37  species;  of  which 
two  are  natives  of  Britain,  the  pixidiferuiii 
and  tuiibrigense.  1.  Pixidifcrum,  or  cup- 
trichomaijes,  has  subbipinnated  leaves,  tli« 
pinna;  being  alternate,  close-lobed  and  linear. 
It  is  found  among  stones  in  wet  grounds  in 
England.  2.  Tunbrigense,  orTunbridge  tri- 
chomanes,  has  pinnated  leaves,  the  pinnx 
beuig  oblong,  dichotonious,  decurrent,  and 
dentated.  It  is  found  in  the  fissures  of  moist 
rocks  in  Wales,  and  in  many  rocky  places  in 
Scotland. 

T1C0CCE.'E,  the  name  of  the  38th  order 
in  Liiina,-us's  Fragments  of  a  Natural  Method, 
consisting  of  plants  with  a  singje  three-cor- 
nered capsule,  having  3  cells  or  internal  di- 
visions, each  contaiuuig  a  single  seed.     See 

liOTANY. 

TUICOSANTHES,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  class  monoecia,  and  order  synge- 
nesia,  and  in  the  natural  system  ranging  under 
the  34th  order,  cucurbitaces.  There  are 
seven  species ;  only  one  of  which  is  cul- 
tivated in  the  I5ritish  gardens,  the  anguina  or 
snake-gourd,  which  is  a  native  of  China,  an 
annual,  and  of  the  cucumber  tribe. 

TRICOSTEMA,  a  genus  of  the  didy- 
namia  gymnospermia  class  of  plants,  with  a 


S20 


T  R  I 


monopelalous  vingcnt  and  falcated  flower. 
The  stamina  are  tour  extremely  long  lila- 
iiients ;  and  four  roiindisli  seeds  are  contained 
in  the  cup.     lliere  are  three  species. 

TIUDAX,  a  genus  of  the  syngenesia  poly- 
gamia  supi.Ttliia  class  of  plants,  with  a  radiated 
llower,  and  the  lesser  hermaphrodite  ones  of 
the  disc  nionopetald'us,  and  funnel-fashioned. 
'I'he  seeds  are  winged  with  down,  and  con- 
tained in  the  cup.     There  is  one  species. 

TRIENTALIS,  cliick:veed  iiiriter-girai, 
a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class  heptandria,  and 
order  monogynia,  ami  in  the  natural  systaii 
ranging  under  the  20tli  order,  rotacea-.  The 
calj'x  is  heptaphyllous ;  tlie  corolla  is  equal 
and  plane,  and  is  divided  into  seven  seg- 
ments; the  berry  is  unilocular  and  dry. 
There  is  only  one  species,  the  europsa, 
which  is  indigenous,. and  the  only  genus  of 
■  heptandria  that  is  so.  The  stalk  is  single,  live 
or  six  inches  high,  terminated  with  five,  six, 
or  seven  oval  pointed  leaves;  from  the  centre 
of  which  arise  on  long  footstalks  commonly 
two  white  starry  llowers,  each  generally  con- 
sisting of  seven  oval  and  equal  petals,  suc- 
ceeded by  a  globular  dry  berry,  covered 
with  a  thin  white  rind,  having  one  cell,  and 
containing  several  angular  seeds. 

TRIFOLIL'M,  trcf-Al  or  clover,  a  genus 
of  plants  of  the  class  diadelphia,  and  order 
»lecandria,  and  in  the  natural  system  ranging 
luider  the  3'2d  order,  papilionacea?.  Tlie 
Jlowers  are  generally  in  round  heads ;  the 
|)od  is  scarcely  longer  than  the  calyx,  uni- 
valve, not  opening,  deciduous.  The  leaves 
are  three  together.  There  are  5 1  species :  of 
which  17  are  natives  of  Britain.  AV'e  shall 
describe  some  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
these : 

1.  Officinale  or  nielilot,  has  naked  racem- 
ous  pods,  dispermous,  wrinkly,  and  acute, 
with  an  erect  stalk,  it  grows  in  corn-fields, 
and  by  the  way-sides,  but  not  common.  The 
stalk  is  erect,  lirm,  striated,  branched,  and 
two  or  three  feet  high  ;  the  leaves  ternate, 
smooth,  obtusely  oval,  and  serrated ;  the 
flowers  are  small,  yellow,  pendulous,  and 
grow  in  long  close  spikes  at  tlie  tops  of  the 
branches ;  the  pod  is  very  short,  turgid, 
transversely  wrinkled,  pendulous,  and  con- 
tains either  one  or  two  seeds.    The  plant  has 

•  a  very  peculiar  strong  scent,  and  disagree- 
able, bitter,  acrid  taste,  but  such,  however, 
as  is  not  disagreeable  to  cattle.  The  (lowers 
are  sweet-scented.  It  has  generally  been 
esteemed  emollient  and  digestive,  and  been 
used  in  fomentations  and.  cataplasms,  parti- 
<Milarly  in  the  plaster  employed  in  dressing 
blisters;  but  is  now  laid  aside,  as  its  (piality 
is  found  to  be  rather  acrid  and  irritating  tliaii 
emollient  or  resolvent.  It  communicates  a 
loathsome  flavour  to  wheat  and  other  grain, 
so  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  making  bread. 

2.  Trifoliuni  repens,  white  creeping  trefoil, 
or  Dutch  clover,  has  a  creejjing  stalk,  its 
Jlower  gathered  into  an  iimbellar  head,  and 
its  pods  tetraspermous.  It  is  very  common 
in  helds  and  pastures.  It  is  well  known  to  be 
f.Kcellent  fodder  lor  cattle  ;  and  the  leaves 
are  a  good  rustic  hygrometer,  as  they  are 
always  relaxed  and  llaccid  in  dry  weather, 
but  erect  in  moist  or  rainy. 

.3.  Trifolium  pralcn3e,purpIeor  red  clover, 
is  distinguished  by  dense  spikes,  uneciual  co- 
rullas,  by  bearded  stipulas,  ascending   stalks, 


T  R  I 

and  by  the  calyx  having  four  equal  teeth. 
The  red  clover  is  common  in  meadows  and 
pastures,  and  is  the  species  which  is  geiieially 
cultivated  as  food  for  cattl.-.  It  abounds  in 
every  part  of  Europe,  in  North  America,  and 
even  in  Siberia.  It  delights  most  in  rich, 
moist,  and  sunny  places,  yet  nourishes  in 
dry,  barren,  and'  shady  places.  See  Hus- 
bandry. 

4.  Alpestre,  long-leaved  purjde  trefoil,  or 
mountain-clover.  "The  spikes  are  dense  ;  the 
corollas  somewhat  ecpial ;  the  sti|nilas  are 
bristly  and  divergent;  the  leaflets  lanceolat- 
ed  ;  the  stalks  stiff,  straiglil,  and  very  simjile. 
It  grows  in  dry,  mounUiinous,  woody  places, 
in  Hungary,  Austria,  and  Bohemia,  ^c. ;  but 
is  not  said  to  be  a  native  of  Britain. 

5.  The  medium  has  been  confounded  with 
the  two  species  List  mentioned  ;  but  it  is  to 
be  distinguished  from  them  by  having  loose 
spikes,  corollas  somewhat  equal,  stipulas  su- 
bulate and  connivent,  and  stalks  Hexuose  and 
branched.  It  is  found  in  dry  elevated  situ- 
ations, especially  among  shrubs,  or  in  woods 
where  the  soil  is  chalky  or  clay,  in  England, 
Scotland,  Sweden,  Denmark,  &c. 

TRIGLA,  g-»)Vin?-d,  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  order  of  thoracici.  The  generic  character 
is,  head  large,  mailed,  and  marked  by  rough 
linus;  gill-covers  spiny;  gill-nieml)rai;e  seven- 
rayed;  linger-shaped  processes,  in  most  spe- 
cies, near  the  pectoral  iins. 

1.  Trigla  gurnardus,  grey  gurnard.  Length 
from  one  to  two  feet,  or  more  ;  colour  above 
deep  grey,  with  blackish  and  red  spots,  be- 
neath silvery  ;  scales  small  ;  lateral  line  very 
strongly  marked,  and  consisting  of  a  series  of 
larger,  rounded,  whitish  scales  with  a  dusky 
central  spot.  Native  of  the  European  seas, 
and  not  uncommon  about  our  own  coasts, 
feeding  on  worms,  insects,  &c. 

2.  Trigla  lyra,  piper  gurnard.  Size  nearly 
equal  to  the  former  species ;  lateral  line 
formed  of  small  scales ;  colour  bright  rose- 
red,  silvery  beneath  ;  scales  small  ;  pectoral 
fins  large,  and  slightly  tinged  with  dull  blue; 
tail  of  similar  colour  ;  the  othfir  tins  yellow- 
ish, with  red  rays.  Native  of  the  European 
seas,  and  considered  as  an  c.\cellent  hsh  lor 
the  table. 

3.  Trigla  cucnlus,  cuckow  gurnard.  An 
elegant  species.  Length  about  a  foot;  shape 
more  slender  than  in  the  preceding  kinds ; 
colour,  on  the  upper  parts,  a  beautiful  red, 
more  or  less  distinctly  marked  by  whitish 
transverse  bars,  beneath  silvery  ;  scales  ex- 
tremely small;  lateral  line  composed  of 
pointed  white  scales  edgeil  with  black;  a 
similar  row  on  each  side  the  back  ;  tins  trans- 
parent ;  the  first  dorsal  marked  on  the  edge 
l)y  a  black  spot,  the  second  tinged  near  its 
edge  with  yellow.  Native  of  the  European 
si.as,  and  esteemed  as  a  food. 

4.  Trigla  hiruudo,  sapphirine  gurnard. 
Size  equal  to  that  of  the  grey  gurnaril ;  scales 
middle-sized;  lateral  line  rough;  pectoral 
fins  very  large,  of  a  violaceous  olive,  some- 
times, according  to  Mr.  Pennant,  richly 
edged  and  spotted  with  blue.  Native  of  the 
European  seas,  occasionally  springing  out  of 
the  w.ater  to  some  distance  by  means  of  its 
large  pectoral  fins. 

5.  Trigla  volans,  flying  gurnard.  A  highly 
singular  and  beautifiil  species.  Length  about 
twelve  inghes ;  colour  criiuvju  above,  pale  or 


T  R  I 

whitish beneatli ;  licad  blunt,  and  armed  on  * 
each  side  with  two  very  strong  ami  large 
spines,  pointing  backwards;  whole  body  co- 
vered with  extremely  strong  carinatecf  and 
sharp-poiuted  scales,  so  united  as  not  to  be 
distinctly  separable;  fii^t  dorsal  fin  pale 
violet,  crossed  with  deeper  lines,  and  at  its 
origin  two  separate  rays  longer  tlianthe  rest ; 
second  dorsal  fin  pale,  with  the  rays  barred 
with  brown ;  pectoral  liiis  extremely  large, 
transparent,  of  oii  olive-green,  richly  varie(l 
with  numerous  brighl-blue  spots;  pectoral 
proces;es  siji  in  number,  and  not  separate,  as 
in  other  species,  but  united  into  the  appear- 
ance of  a  small  fin  on  each  side  the  thorax  i. 
tail  pale-violet,  with.  the.  rays  crossed  by 
dusky  spots,  and  strengthened  on  each  sine 
the  base  by  two  obliquely  tr.uisverse  bony 
ribs  or  bars.  Native  of  tiie  Mediterranean, 
jVtIantic,  and  Indian  seas,  where  it  swims  ii» 
shoals,  and  is  often  seen  llying  out  of  the 
water  to  a  considerable  distance,  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  genus  exocoejus.  'Ehere  are  in 
all  14  species. 

TRIGLOCIIIX,  agenusof  plants  of  the 
cla'ss  hexandria,  and  order  trigynia,  and  in 
the  natural  svsteni  ranging  under  the  fifth 
order,  tripetaloidse.  The  calyx  is  tri|)hyllous  ; 
the  petals  are  three  ;  there  is  no  style  ;  the 
capsule  opens  at  the  base.  There  are  three 
species,  of  which  the  palustre  and  maritimuni 
are  British. 

1 .  Palustre,  or  harrow-headed  grass,  has  art 
oblong  trilocular  capsule.  The  ^talk  is  sim- 
ple, eight  or  ten  inches  high  ;  the  lea\es  long 
and  narrow ;  the  llowers  are  greenish,  and 
grow  at  the  end  of  a  long  spike.  It  is  frequent 
in  moist  ground. 

2.  Maritimmn,  or  sea-spiked  grass,    has 
ovate  sexlocular  capsules  ;  the  stalk  is  short ; 
the  spike  long,  and  llowers  purplish.     It  is 
frequent  on   the   sea-coasts.     Linnaeus   says  ' 
that  cattle  eat  these  two  species  with  avidity. 

TRIG  ON  ELLA,  fcnugreeh-,  a  genus  of 
plants  ef  the  class  diadelphia,  and  order  de- 
candria,  and  in  the  natural  system  arranged 
under  the  32d  order,  papilionacea-.  The 
vexilluni  and  ala?  are  nearly  equal  and  patent, 
resembling  a  tripetalous  corolla.  1  here  are 
12  s|)ecies,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  f(ienunigr;ecum,  or  fenugreek,  a  native  of 
Montpelier,  in  France.  Fenugreek  is  an 
annual  plant,  which  rises  with  a  hollow, 
branching,  herbaceous  stalk,  a  foot  and  a  half 
long,  with  trifoliate  leaves,  placed  alternately, 
whose  lobes  are  oblong,  oval,  iijdented  on 
their  edges,  and  have  broad  furrowed  foot- 
stalks. Fenusjreck  seeds  have  a  strung  dis- 
agreeable smell,  and  an  unctuous  farinaceous 
taste,  accom|)anie(l  with  a  slight  bitterness. 
The  princi]).il  use  of  these  seeds  is  in  cata- 
plasms and  tomentations,  for  softening,  matu- 
rating, and  discussing  tumours  ;  and  in  emol- 
lient and  carminative  clysters.  They  are  an 
ingredient  in  the  oleum  e  nincilaginibus  of  the 
shops,  to  which  they  communicate  a  con- 
siderable share  of  their  smell,  but  this  is  not 
now  in  use. 

TIUGONIA,  a  genus  of  the  di.idelpliia 
decandria  class  and  order  of  plants.  The 
calyx  is  five-parteil ;  petals  five,  unccpial ; 
nect.  two  scales  at  the  base  of  the  genu  ; 
filaments  some  barren  ;  capsules  leguminous, 
three-cornered,  three-celled,  three-valved. 
There  are  two  specicSj  of  Guiana. 


wi:m3      Mil.  iL 


J'i''ii/f\  Jmi'deiin 


J^m/tJ  r'fr  RjrhardPIiillips  .  .Vcii  Jindt'c'  .05r*r  Shurcrriar^ 


TRIOON'OMETRV  is  tl.at  part  of  pcometry 
wliich  te.iclics  liowto  mcasiire  the  sides  and  iiii- 
gies  nf  triiiUjt'es.  Tri^^'onomotry  is  either  plane 
01- spherical,  of  c:icli  of  which  we  shall  treat  in 
order. 

Plane  Trigonometry  is  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  analojjies  i)f  plane  trlaiin-les,  and  of 
the  methods  of  dctcrmininij  their  sides  and  an- 
gles. I'or  this  purpose,  it  is  not  only  requisite 
that  the  peripheries  of  circles,  but  also  that  cer- 
tain right  lines  in  and  about  a  circle,  are  supposed 
t<>  he  divided  into  some  assigned  nuinher  of 
e<]ual  parts.  These  lines  arc  denominated  sines, 
tangents,  secants,  itc.  T)ie  sides  of  plane  tri- 
angles may  be  estimated  in  feet,  yards,  chains,  or 
by  any  other  definite  measures,'  or  by  abstract 
lunubers ;  but  the  angles  are  measured  by  the 
arcs  of  a  circle,  contained  between  the  two  legs, 
having  the  angular  point  for  its  centre. 

Every  circle  is  supposed  to  be  divided  into 
I5<7(>  equal  parts,  called  degrees ;  each  degree 
into  00  equal  part*,  called  minutes;  each  minute 
into  (jO  equal  parts,  called  seconds.  An  angle 
is  said  to  be  of  as  many  degrees,  minutes,  se- 
conds. &c.  as  are  contained  in  the  arc,  or  part 
of  the  circumference,  by  which  it  is  measured. 

A  right  angle  is  measured  by  the  fourth  part 
of  the  circiiinfercnce,  or  90^;  an  obtuse  angle 
is  greater  than  90°,  and  an  acute  angle  is  less 
than  90"^.  Degrees,  minutes,  &c.  are  marked  at 
the  to])  of  the  figures  bv  which  the  arc  is  de- 
noted. Thus  we  say  'M°  L'S'  .10",  thirty-four 
degrees,  twenty-eight  minutes,  and  fifty  seconds. 

The  difTerence  of  an  arc  from  90°,  or  a  (juad- 
rant,  is  called  its  c'jmplfmaii ;  and  its  dilTerence 
from  180",  its  iii/,p!fwci,l :  thus  in  Plate  Mlscel. 
fig.  24{i,  the  arc  Aii  is  the  complement  of  HB  : 
but  AB  is  the  supplement  of  ED. 

A  c.l'07-:/y  or  subtense,  is  a  right  line  drawn 
from  one  extremity  of  an  arc  to  the  other  : 
thus  BE  is  the  chord  or  subtense  of  the  arc 
EAE,  or  BDE. 

The  ilnr,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  risi/ji 
jhie,  of  an  arc,  is  a  right  line  drawn  from  one 
extremity  of  the  arc,  perpendicular  to  the  dia- 
meter passing  thronijh  the  other  extremity : 
thus  BE  is  the  sine  of  the  arc  AB,  or  BD. 

The  va-seif  .u/if  of  an  arc  is  the  part  of  the  dia- 
meter, intercepted  between  the  arc  and  its  sine ; 
AF  is  the  versed  sine  of  AB,  and  DF  of  the  arc 
DB.   . 

The  co-sine  of  an  arc  is  the  part  of  the  diame- 
ter intercepted  between  the  center  and  the  sine, 
and  is  equal  to  tlie  sine  of  the  complement  of 
that  arc.  Thus  CF  is  the  co-sine  of  the  arc  .\B, 
and  is  equal  to  BI,  the  sine  of  its  complement 
HB. 

The  fti'i^cfit  of  an  arc,  is  a  right  line  touching 
the  circle  in  one  extremity  of  that  arc,  con- 
tinued from  thence  to  meet  a  line  drawn  from 
the  center  through  the  other  extremity  ;  which 
line  is  CiUJed  the  j.-c.////  of  the  same  arc  ;  thus 
AG  is  the  tangent,  and  CG  the  secant  of  the 
arc  AB. 

I'he  co'tait^eitt  and  co'secant  of  an  arc,  are  the 
tangent  and  secant  of  the  complement  of  that 
arc:  thus  HK  and  CK  are  the  co-tangent  and 
co-secant  of  the  arc  AB.    . 

'i'he  line*  here  described,  belong  equally  to 
an  angle  as  to  the  arc  by  which  it  is  measured  ; 
aadj  except  the  chords  and  versed  sines,  tli^y 
are  all  common  to  two. arcs  or  angles  which  are 
the  supplements  of  each  other.       , 

So  that  if  the  sine,  tangent,  &c.  of  auv  arc  or 
angle  above  90°  are   required,    it   is   tlie   same 
-  thing  as  to  find  the  sine,  tangent,  &c.  of  its  sup- 
plement, or  what  it  wants  of  180°. 

They  are  also  called  the  natural  sines,  tan- 
gents, &c.  of  the  arcs  or  angles  to  which  they 
belong;  and  the  logarithms  of  the  numbers 
by  which  they  are  represented,  are  the  loga- 
rithmic sines,  taugeuts,  &c. 


TlUGON'OMKTny. 

And  a',  one  or  other  of  these  linto  make  a  pjri 
of  every  trigonometrical  ofjeration,  they  have 
been  calculated  to  a  given  radius,  for  every  de- 
gree, minute,  &c.  of  the  quadrant,  and  ranged 
in  tables  for  use. 

Whence,  by  the  help  of  surL  a  table,  the  sine, 
tangent,  &c.  of  any  arc  or  anjjle,  may  be  found 
bv  inspecti<m ;  and,  vice  versa,  the  arc,  or  an- 
gle, to  which  any  sine,  tangent,  &c.  belongs. 

.Upon  this  table  also,  and  the  doctrine  of  si- 
milar triangles,  depends  the  solution  of  the  se- 
veral cases  of  plane  triffononutrv,  which  may  he 
jjerformcd  either  by  the  natural  or  logarillniiic 
sines,  tangents,  &c.,  as  occasion  requires. 

But  the  logarithmic  sines,  tangents,  &c.,  are 
those  mon  commonly  used  ;  as  the  calculations, 
in  this  case,  are  all  performed  l)y%dding  and 
subtracting  only,  instead  of  multiplying  and  di- 
viding, as  is  required  by  the  natural  sines,  &c. 

The  sine,  tangent,  &c.  of  any  arc  or  angle 
being  of  the  same  maRnitude  as  the  sine,  tan- 
gent, &c.  of  its  supplement,  it  is  plain  tliat  a 
table  of  these  lines  made  for  every  dc^^ree,  mi- 
nute, &c.  of  the  quadrhnt,  or  90°, 'will  serve  for 
the  whole  circle. 

It  is  also  to  be  observed  that,  in  every  such 
table,  the  natural  sines,  tangents,  &c.  are  usuallv 
calculated  to  radius  1  ;  but  in  order  that  the  lo'- 
garlthmic  sines,  tangents,  &c.  may  be  all  posi- 
tive, thev  are  calculated  to  radius  I  OOOOOOOOnO, 
or  I  with  10  cyphers,  the  logarithm  of  which  is 
10,  so  that  the  latter  are  the  logaritlims  of  the 
former,  with  10  added  to  the  index. 

And,  as  the  natural  sines,  t.angents,  &c.  of  any 
angles  or  arcs  of  difFurent  circles,  are  propor- 
tional to  the  radii  of  those  circles,  their  values 
may  be  readily  found,  or  made  to  correspond 
to  any  radius  whatever. 

In  every  plane  triangle,  three  things  must  be 
given  to  find  the  rest ;  and  Of  these  three  one  at 
least  must  be  a  side,  because  the  .same  angles  arc 
common  to  an  infinite  numljer  of  triangles. 

It  is  also  to  be  observed,  that  all  the  varieties 
that  can  possibly  happen  in  the  solution  of  plana 
triangles,  are  comprised  under  the  Uiree  follow- 
ing cases :  viz. 

1.  When  two  of  the  three  given  things  are  a 
side  and  its  opposite  angle. 

'2.  When  two  sides  and  their  included' angle 
are  given. 

3.  When  the  three  sides  are  given. 

Each  of  which  cases  may  he  resolved,  either 
by  geometrical  construction,  by  arithmetical 
computation,  or  instrnmentally. 

In  tlic  first  of  these  methods,  the  triangle  is 
constructed,  by  laying  down  the  sides  from  a 
scale  of  e(]ual  parts,  and  the  angles  from  a  scale 
of  chords,  or  a  protractor,  and  then  measuring 
the  unknown  parts  by  the  same  scale  or  instru- 
ment from  which  the  others  were  taken. 

In  the  second  method,  having  stated  the  pro- 
portion, according  to  the  proper  rule,  multiply 
the  second  and  third  terms  tojjether,  and  divide 
the  product  by  the  first,  ?jid  the  quotient  will  be 
the  fourth  term  required,  for  the  natural  num- 
ber.*. Or,  in  working  by  logarithms,  add  the 
logarithms  of  the  second  and  third  terms  tojje- 
ih.cr,  and  from  the  sum  take  the  logarithm  of  the 
first,  and  the  number  answering  to  the  remain- 
der will  be  the  fourth  term  sought. 

In  the  third  method,  or  instrumentallv,  as 
suppose  by  the  logarithmic  lines  on  one  side  of 
the  common  two-foot  scales,  extend  the  com- 
passes from  the  first  term  to  the  second  or  third 
as  they  happen  to  be  of  the  same  kind  ;  and  that 
extent  will  reach  from  the  other  term  to  the 
fourth  term  required,  taking  both  extents  to- 
wards the  same  end  of  the  scide. 

The  second  of  these  methods,  however,  or 
tliat  ill  wiiich  tltf  ojieration  ii  perfsrmed  by  lo- 


(«2I 

g.iri;htr.»,  it  the  one  generally  emploved  ;  the 
olhcr  two  being  chiefly  of  use  as  cl;ccts  im  the 
calculations,  or,  in  certain  Kiniplc  cases,  where  a 
near  a|)j)r<ixiniale  v.dut  of  the  quaniilici  to  be 
dricrmincd  it,  thought  sudicient. 

It  may  here  also  be  further  remarked,  lliat 
when  one  or  more  loj^arithnu  are  to  be  nub- 
tractcd,  in  any  operation,  it  v/ill  be  better  to 
write  down  tl'ieir  mnp'.cminli,  or  wliat  each  lif 
them  wants  of  lOXXIJtWK)  iii.lead  of  the  loga- 
rithms themselves,  and  then  add  them  togecher, 
abating  as  many  tens  in  ihc  index  of  the  tuui  at 
there  were  logaritlims  to  be  subtracted. 

Thus,  if  the  logarithm  to  be  subtracted  is 
;l.'ly:W7.58,  it  will  be  the  same  thing  as  to  add 
its  complement  <!.rAJii7242  ;  and  if  it  is 
9.074 :)'J(i'(V),  its  complement,  or  the  number  to 
be  added,  will  be  O.W3';7  KX)  :  which  number* 
arc  readily  found  by  beginning  at  the  left  hand 
and  subtracting  each  figure  of  the  logarithm 
from  9,  except  the  last  significant  figure  on  the 
right,  which  must  be  »ubtractcd  from  10. 

If  the  index  of  the  logarithm,  whose  comple- 
ment is  to  be  taken,  is  greater  tluin  10,  write 
down  what  the  index  wants  of  19,  and  the  rest 
of  the  figures  as  before ;  and,  after  the  addition, 
subtract  yofrom  ihc  index  of  the  sum.  And  if 
the  logarithm  of  a  decimal  is  to  be  subtracted, 
add  10  to  the  index,  and  then  take  the  comple- 
ment of  the  resulting  number,  and  the  rest  of 
the  figures,  as  before. 

Thus  the  complement  of  the  logariihnt 
12.1i)07r,'.'7  is7.509yG7:i;  and  the  complement 
of  the  logarithm  of  3.5972048  is  2.4027352. 

PROPERTIES    or    PLANE     TKIANCLES,    REQUIHED 
IN   THE   PRACTICAI.  PARr  OE  THIS  3CIE.VCE. 

The  sum  of  all  the  three  angles  of  any  plane 
triangle  is  equ.d  to  two  right  angles,  or  lso°. 

The  greater  side  is  opposite  to  the  greater  an- 
gle ;  and  the  less  side  to  the  less  angle. 

The  sum  cf  any  two  sides  is  greater  thaa  the 
third  ;  and  tl  j  diircrcnce  of  any  two  sides  is  le.« 
than  the  third. 

The  triangle  is  equilateral,  isosceles,  or  sca- 
lene, according  as  its  three  angles  are  all  equal, 
or  only  two  of  them  equal,  or  all  three  une(|ual. 

The  angles  opposite  to  the  two  least  sides  are 
acute  ;  and  if  there  is  an  obtuse  angle,  it  is  op- 
posite to  the  greatest  side. 

A  perpcndicidar  drawn  from  the  opposite 
angle  to  the  longest  side  wf.l  fall  within  the  tri- 
angle ;  and  the  greater  and  less  segment  wiH  be 
next  the  greater  and  less  side. 

In  an  isosceles  trlaiiglc,a  perpendicular  drawn 
from  the  vertex  will  bisect  botli  the  base  and 
the  vertical  angle. 

In  a  right-aii^led  triangle  the  hypothenuse  is 
equal  to  the  square  root  of  the  sam  of  the 
squares  of  the  other  two  sides ;  and  either  of 
the  sides  is  equal  to  the  square  root  of  the  dif- 
ference of  the  squares  of  the  hypotiienuse  and 
tlie  otiier.side. 

Note,  also,  that  if  the  half  dilTerence  of  any 
two  quantities  is  added  to  their  half  sum,  it 
will  give  the  greater  of  those  quantities :  and, 
if  it  is  siibiracted  from  the  half  sum,  it  \vill  give 
the  less. 

Case  I.  When  two  of  the  three  given  things 
are  a  side  and  its  apposite  angle,  to  find  the  rest. 

Riji.r.  The  sides  of  any  plane  triangle  are  t<j 
each  other  as  il>e  sines  ot"  their  opposite  angles, 
and  vice  versa : — ^That  is. 

As  any  side  is  to  the-  sine  of  its  op|>osite  an- 
gle, so  is  any  other  side  to  the  sine  of  its  oppo- 
site angle. 

Or,  As  the  sine  of  any  angle  is  to  its  opposite 
side,  so  is  the  sine  of  ai>y  other  angle  to  its  op- 
po.site  side. 

Hence,  to  fijid  an  angle,  begin  the  proportion 
with  a  side  opposite  to  a  given  angle ;  and  t« 


find  a  side,  begin  with  an  angle  oppoiitc  to  a 
given  side. 

you.  when  two  sides  and  an  angle  opposite 
to  one  of  them  are  given,  to  find  the  rest,  the 
queetion  is  sometimes  ambiguous,  or  admits  of 
two  diiferent  answers. 

-  Thus,  if  the  given  angle  is  opposite  to  the 
ieast  of  the  two  given  sides,  the  angle  to  be 
found,  by  the  rule,  may  be  either  an  acute  an- 
gle or  its  supplement ;  but,  if  it  is  opposite  to 
the  greater  side,  the  required  angle  will  be 
acute. 

Example  T.  In  the  plane  triangle  ABC,  fig.  247. 
r  AC  2.35?  yards.    Required^the 

Civen/^   BC  S.SO^  other  parts. 

(_i.  B  Sb°40' 

Bv    CoXSTltUCTIO.V. 

1.  Lay  down  the  line  BC  =:  S50,  from  some 
convenient  scale  of  equal  parts. 

2.  Make  the  ^  B  =  .38°  40'  by  a  scale  of 
chords,  or  other  instrument. 

3.  With  the  centre  C,  and  radius  23C,  taken 
from  the  same  scale  of  equal  parts,  cross  BA  in 
A  or  J. 

4  Join  CA  or  C/i,  and  the  triangle  ABC,  or 
«BC,  is  the  one  required. 

,  Then,  the  angles  C  and  A,  measured  by  the 
scale  of  chords,  and  the  side  BA,  or  B.<,  by  the 
scale  of  equal  parts,  will  be  found  to  be  as  fol- 
lows, viz. 

JL  C  291=    I     A  A  G7l°    I    AB   184 
or    7Si     I      or    11 2^°    |       or  3G3 

Br  C.\i.cui.ATioN. 
As  side  AC  -  236  2.3723120 


h  to  sine  Z.  B 
So  is  side  BC 

To  sine  Z.  A    67°  54'' or  1 1  a''    6'      9.966S890 
38°  40'  38°  40' 

Sum  106°  34'  or  150°  46' 

Subtract  180°    <J        180°    O' 


7.6270880 

3S°  40' 

9.7957330 

350 

2.S4406S0 

Leaves 


73°  26'  or    29°  14'  Z.  C 

Then, 

;  Sine  i.  B  3,<!°  40' 


-     9.79573.30 


Or, 


Side  AC  23S 
Sine  Z.  C  29'  14' 

Side  AB    ,184.  17 
Sine  L  B  38°  -10' 


Side  AC     a36 
Sine  I.  C  73°  26' 


0.2042670 

-  2.3729120 

-  9.6887467 

-  2.2659257 

-  9.7957330 

0.2042670 

-  2.3729Il;0 

-  9.9815870 

-  2.5587660 


TRIGONOMETRY. 

Instkhmentally. 
In  the  first  proportion,  extLMid  the  compasses 
from  236  to  350,  upon  the  line  of  numbers,  and 
that  extent   will   reach,   upon  Jie   sines,  from 
SS|°  to  67i°,  for  the  Z.  A. 

In  the  second  nroportion,  extend  from  38j° 
to  29-J°,  or  73^°  upon  the  sines,  and  that  extent 
will  reach,  upon  the  line  of  numbers,  from  236 
to  184,  or  352,  for  the  side  AB,  or  aB. 
Example  II.     In  the  plane  triangle  ABC, 

r  AB   131  f  AC  88.045 

Given    \    BC     97  Ans.  ^  Z.  A  47°  46' 

(  A  C    90°  C  A  B  42'°  14' 

Required  the  other  parts. 
Example  111.     In  the  plane  triangle  ABC, 

f„BC  305  r   AC  237.93 

Given    J^B51°I5'       Ans.  ^   AB   185.09 
CZ.C37°21;  C^A91°24' 

Required  the  other  parts. 
Example  IV.     In  the  plane  triangle  ABC, 

r   AB   195  ^^  ^  9-°  '•'^' 

Given    \   AC  203  Ans.  <^C  42°  47' 

C./B  45°  t   CC  236.87 

Required  the  other  parti. 
Example  \.     In  the  plane  triangle  ABC, 

r  BC  .345  r  AB    174.07 

Given  \    AC  232  |      or    374.56 

C.1B   37°  20"       Ans    '  /^C    27°    4' 

"l       or    7S°  16' 

ZA  115°  35' 

Required  the  other  parts.      (_    or    64°  24^ 

Case  II.  V\^hen  two  sides  and  their  included 
angle  are  given,  to  find  the  rest. 

Rule.  As  the  sum  of  any  two  sides  of  a  plane 
triangle,  is  to  tlieir  difference,  .so  is  the  tun'^ent 
of  hall  the  sum  of  their  opposite  angles,  to  the 
tangent  of  half  their  difference. 

Then  the  half  diiferenceof  these  angles,  added 
to  their  half  sum,  gives  the  greater  angle,  and 
subtracted  from  it  gives  the  less. 

And  as  all  the  angles  are  now  known,  the 
remaining  side  may  be  found  by  Case  I. 

Note.  Instead  of  the  tangant  of  half  the  sum 
of  the  two  unknown  angles,  we  may  use  the  co- 
tangent of  half  the  given  angle,  or  the  tangent 
of  half  its  supplement,  which  are  all  equal  to 
each  other. 

Example.     In  any  plane  triangle  ABC, 

Given  ^  BC   239}}  f'=^'-  Required  the  rest. 
tZ.B  34°  46' 

By  Construction.  1.  Draw  BC  :=;  2391, 
from  a  scale  of  equal  parts. 

2.  Set  ofF  the  Z.  B  =  34°  46',  by  a  scale  of 
chords,  or  other  instrument. 

3.  Make  AB  z=:  1075,  by  the  same  scale  of 
equal  parts,  as  before. 

4.  Join  A,  C,  and  the  triangle  is  constructed. 
Then,  the  parts  being  measured,  we  shall  have 


;  Side  oB     362.0-1 

As  the  results  in  this  rule  are  determined  by 
means  of  the  sines,  which  are  always  the  same 
for  an  acute  angle  and  its  supplement,  it  is  plain 
that,  in  certain  cases,  there  may  be  two  trian- 
jrles  with  the  same  data  ;  one  acute-angled,  and 
the  other  obtuse-angled:  and,  consequently, 
when  there  is  no  restriction  or  limitation  in  the 
fjuestion,  either  of  them  may  be  taken  for  the 
one  required. 

Thus,  in  the  figure  given  above,  where  the 
least  tide  AC  is  opposite  to  the  given  acute  an- 
gle B,  it  appear*,  from  the  construction,  that 
either  ABC  or  nBC  is  the  triangle  sought.  But, 
T/heii  the  given  angle  is  right  or  obtKse,  it  will 
be  oppoiltc  to  the  greatest  side,  and  in  this  case 
there  c.in  be  no  anib',;iiity  ;  for  tlicn  neither  of 
the  other  angles  can  be  obtuse,  and  iho  geome- 
trical construction  will  accordingly  form  only 
«ne  triangle. 


Z.  A=:  123"- 
1*.>0  feet. 


Z.  C  =  22'nir,  and  side  AC  : 


By  Calculation. 


AB  4-  EC     3469 


AB  OT  BC     1319 

A  +C  „  , 

Tan.  — ^—  72°  37' 
Tan.  tf-1  50"  32' 


3.,vl02043 

6.  1597957 
3.1202448 

10.5043702 


10.0S44107 


Sum  123°    9'     Z.A 

Di(T.  22°    5'     Z.C. 

Then, 
;     Sine  /L  A  123°  9'  or  56°  51'  9.922?509 


Side  BC 
Sine  /.B 

Side  AC 


2.394 
34"  46' 


1630. 


0.0771191 
3.3791241 
9.7.560544 

3.2123276^ 


C\$.-e  III.  When  the  three  sides  are  given,  to 
find  the  angles. 

Rule.  «viake  the  longest  side  the  base,  and  let 
fall  a  perpendicular  upon  it  from  the  opposite 
angle. 

Then,  as  the  base,  or  sum  of  its  segments,  is 
to  the  sum  of  the  other  two  sides,  so  i*  the  dif- 
ference of  those  sides,  to  the  difference  of  the 
segments  of  the  base. 

And  half  tliis  difference,  being  added  to  h.aif 
the  base,  will  give  the  greater  segment ;  and, 
subtracted  from  it,  will  give  the  less. 

Then,  in  each  of  the  right-angled"  triangles, 
formed  by  the  perpendicular,  there  will  be 
known  two  sides  and  an  angle  oppoiite  to  one 
of  tliem ;  from  whence  the  othec  angles  may  be 
found,  by  Case  1. 

Example  I.     In  any  plane  triangle  ABC, 
r  AB  464  ■)         ,       „        •     J    , 

Given  \  AC  348   {  y"^''    R«q"'«d  the 

^  BC  690  S  ""S'"- 

By  Construction.  1.  Draw  BCr=690,  by 
a  scale  of  equal  parts. 

2.  With  the  centres  B,  C,  and  radii  464  and 
343,  taken  from  the  same  scale,  describe  arcs 
intersecting  each  other  in  A. 

3.  Join  AB,  AC,  and  the  triangle  is  con- 
structed. 

Then,  by  measuring  the  angles  with  a  pro- 
tractor, or  by  the  scale  of  chorda,  they  will  ba 
found  to  be  nearly  .as  follows,  viz(Z.A=:  llo'i, 
Z.B  =  27°,  and  Z.C  =  .37°i. 

By  Calculation. 

Having  let  fall  the  perpendicular  AD,  it  will  i)s 
:     BC  or  BD-f  DC  C90     -      2.8S33491 


AB4-AC 
AB  Kf.  AC 

ED   CO  DC 


7.1511509 
2.9095560 
2.0344580 


813 
116 


136.51  -     2.1351649 


690 -f  136.51 
Hence '— r=:  413.25  =  BD. 

,    690—  135.51 

And =  276.75  =  CD. 

2 

Then,  in  the  triangle  ABD,  right-angled  at  D' 

;     AB         -  464         -         2.6665180 

\     BD         -  413.25     -       2.6162129 

■•   Sine   Z.D     -       90°         -       10.0000000 


Sine  Z.BAD       62°  57'     -       9.9496949 
90°    O' 


27°    3'   Z.  B. 
And,  in  the  triangle  ACD,  right-angled  at  D, 
;     AC       .-  348         -         2.5415792 

;     DC         -  276.75     -       2.4420876 

••  Sine  Z.D      -    90°    0'    -     lO.OOOOOOO 


Sine  Z  CAD    52°  40'    - 
90°    C 


9.9005084 


Also 

And 


87°  20'  Z.  C 

62°  .W  Z.BAD 
52°  40'  Z.CAD 


Makes      1 15°  37'  Z  BAC. 

Whence  Z.  B  =  27°  3',  Z  C  =  37°  25',  and 
ZBAC=  115°  37'. 

These  three  problems  include  all  the  cases  or 
varieties  of  plane  triangles,  as  well  right-angled 
as  oblique,  that  can  possibly  happen  ;  but  ther« 
are  some  other  theorems,  for  riglit-augled  tri- 
an;;lcs,  that  are  often  more  convenient  in  prac- 
tice than  the  general  ones,  the  most  useful  of 
which  is  the  one  th.it  follows  : 

Case  IV.  In  any  right-.angled  tri.angle,  Ai 
radius  is  to  the  tangent  of  either  of  the  acute 
angles,  so  is  the  side  adjacent  to  that  angle,  ta 
the  tida  opponte  to  it ;  and  vice*  versi. 


Or,  As  rRt'.uis  is  to  t!ie  cotj.iiffent  ef  either 
of  the  p.ciite  angles,  so  is  the  side  opposite  to 
thit  angle,  to  the  siUe  adjacent  to  it ;  and  vice 
vcrsi. 

It  may  also  be  observed,  that  the  sine  of  either 
of  th«  acute  angles  of  a  right.angled  triangle, 
being  cqnnl  to  the  cosine  ol  tlie  other,  the  lat- 
It-r  may  be  used  instead  of  the  former,  when- 
ever it  renders  tlie  operation  more  simple. 

E^timpU  1.  In  any  right-angled  plane  triangle 
ABC, 

V   BC   324  7  Reciuired  the  otiier 

i  ^  B    .5:5°  -'  48"  J      parts. 

By  Construction.  Make  BC  :=  S24,  and 
^  B  :=  53°  7' ;  then  raise  the  perpendicular  CA, 
meeting  BA  in  A  ;  and  the  triangle  is  construct- 
ed ;  in  which  AB  will  be  found  to  measure  540, 
and  AC  4',i2 ;  and  ^  A,  which  is  the  comple- 
ment of  /.  B,  is  .')()'=  5;)'. 

Br  C.ii-cuL.iTio.v. 
;     Rad.  or  sine    -     90°     -         10.0000000 
:     Tan.  Z.  B        -     .M°  7' 43"  10.  l<_'4!S:i71 
;;   Side  BC  -     n'M       -         2.5105450 


Given  ■ 


•     Side  AC 


-     432 


2.6354321 


Sine  Z.  A  or  cos.  Z.  B  53°  7' 
Side  BC         -         -       .S24 
Rad.  or  sine  /.  C    -     90° 


Side  AB 
And  90°  —  53 


540 


2.7323926 


■  4S"  =  36°  52'  12"  Z.  A. 
Vv^e  shall  now  give  in  a  tabular  form,  (I)  The 
solution  of  the  cases  of  ri^ht-;tngled  plane  tri- 
angles :  and  (2)  'i'hc  solution  of  the  cases  of  ob- 
lique plane  triangles. 

7hs  Solution  of  the  Cases  of  righl^angUd  plans  Tri- 
angles, fig.  248. 


Q     Given .      Sought. 


Tlie  hy- 
pothenu. 
AC  and 
theanglcs 


The  leg 


TJie  hy- 
poth.  AC 
and  one 

leg  AB. 


The 
angles. 


Proportion. 


Asthe  radius  (or  the  sine 
of  B)  is  to  the  hyp.  AC; 
so  is  the  sine  of  A,  to  its 
opposite  side  EC. 


As,  AC  :  rad.  : ;  AB  ; 
sine  of  C  ;  whose  comple- 
ment gives  the  angle  A. 


■'^"^  'Y"       The 

P-'f^  ^^ath^r  leg 
and  one        „p 

■  AB.         ^^• 


rrhe  an- 
gles and 
(me  leg 
AB. 


The  an- 
gles and 
e  leg 
AB. 


The  two 
legs  AB 
and  BC. 


The  hy- 

pothe- 

uuse  AC. 


Let  the  angles  be  found 
bv  case  2  ;  then,  as  rad-  \ 
.\C   :  •  sine  of  A    *    BC. 


As,  sine  of  C   ;  AB  ; 
rad.  (sine  of  B) .  ;  AC. 


The 

other  leg 

BC. 


The 
angles. 


The  two  The  Jiy- 
7  legs  AB      pothe- 

and  BC.  nuse  AC Jhyp.  AC,  by  case  4. 


As,  sine  of  C  ;  AB 
sine  of  A  ;  BC. 

Or,  rad.  ;  tang,  of  A 
AB  :  BC. 


As,  AB  :  BC  : :  rad.  ; 
tang,  of  A,  whose  com- 
plement gives  the  angle 
C. 


Find  the  angles,  by  case 
6,   and    from  tiience   the 


TRIGONONrETIlT. 

The  Solution  of  the  Ca,a  of  OUique  PUne  Tricn,-le,, 
«ig.  249.  " 


Given. 


The  an- 
gles and 
one  side 
AB. 


Twosides 
AB,  BC, 
:ind  the 
ingC  op- 
posite to 
i  of  tlicm. 


Sought. 


Either  of 
the  other 
sides,8up. 
pose  BC 


Proportion. 


As,  sine  of  C  J  AB 
sine  of  A  *  BC. 


Twosicies 
AB,  BC, 
and  the 
■ing.Cop 
posite  to 
I  of  them 


Twobidc 
AB,  AC, 
and  the 
included 
angle  A. 

Twosides 
AB,  AC, 

and  the 
included 
;ing!e  A, 


All  the 
sides. 


As,  AB  ;  sine  of  C  ;; 
Tiicother'BC  ;  eine  of  A  :  wliich, 
angles   A'added  to  C,  and  ilie  sui 


and  ABC 


rheother 
side  AC 


subtracted  from  It'O  ,give5 
the  angle  ABC. 


Find  the  angle  ABC, 
by  case  2;  then,  as  sine 
of  A  :  BC:*  sine  of  ABC 

AC. 


As,  AB+AC  .-AB- 
AC *  \  tang.of  the  comp.of 
Theother^^A  ;  tang.of  an  ang.which 
angles  C'added  to  the  said  comp. 
and  ABC.  gives  the  greater  ang.  C  ; 
and  subtracted  leaves  the 
lesser  ABC. 


Theother 
side  BC. 


An  an' 
gle,   sup- 
pose 'A. 


Find  the  angles,  by  case 
'};  and  then  BC,  by  case  1. 


Let  fall  a  perpendi- 
cular BD,  opposite  the 
required  angle,  and  sup- 
pose DG  =   AD  ;    then 

AC :  Bc-fBA  ::bc  — 

B.'V  ;  CG, which  subtract- 
ed from  AC,  and  ll-.a  re- 
mainder divided  by  2, 
gives  .41) ;  whence  A  will 
be  found,  by  case  2  of 
right  angles. 


-  Spherical  Trioonometry.  Spherical  Tri- 
gonometry is  the  art  whereby,  from  three  given 
parts  of  a  spherical  triangle,  we  discover  the 
rest ;  and,  like  plane  trigonometry,  is  either 
right-angled  or  oblione-angled.  Bt;t  before  we 
give  the  analogies  for  the  solution  of  the  several 
cases  in  cit'cr,  it  will  be  proper  to  premise  the 
following  theorems  : 

Theorem  I  .In  all  right-angled  spherical  tri- 
angles, the  sign  of  the  hypothenuse  \  radius  ;; 
sine  of  a  leg  ;  sine  of  its  opposite  angle.  And 
the  sine  of  a  leg  .'radius  .•;  tangent  of  the  other 
leg  ;  tangent  of  its  opposite  angle. 

Dimon.traiian.  Let  ED..\FG  (fig.  250.)  repre- 
sent the  eighth  part  of  a  sphere,where  the  quad- 
rantal  planes  EDFG,  EDBC,  are  both  perpen- 
dicular to  the  quadramal  plane  ADFB  :  and  the 
quadra.ntal  plane  AL'GC  is  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  EDFG ;  and  the  spherical  triangle  ABC 
is  right-angled  at  B,  where  CA  is  the  hypothe- 
nuse, and  BA,  BC,  are  the  legs. 

To  the  arches  GF,  CB.draw  the  tangents  HF, 
OB,  and  the  sines  GM,  CI,  on  the  radii  DF,  DB; 
also  draw  BL  tlie  sine  oi  the  arch  AB,  and  CK 
the  sine  of  AC  :  and  then  join  IK  and  OL.  Now 
HF,  OB,  GM,  CI,  are  all  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  ADiB.  And  HD,  GK,  OL,  lie  all  in  the 
same  pUne  ADGC.  Also  FD,  IK,  BL,  lie  all  in 
the  same  plane  ADGC.  Therefore  tlie  right- 
angled  triangles  HFD,  CIK,  ODL,  having  the 
equal  angles  HDF,  CKI,  OLB,  are  similar.  And 
CK  :  DG  ::  CI  :  GM;  that  is,  as  the  sine  of 
the  hypothenuse  ;  rad.  ; ;  sine  of  a  leg  *  sine  of 


823 

in  opposite  engle.  For  GM  is  the  »Ine  of  the 
arc  GF,  win'cl.  mc.TJures  the  angle  CAB.  Also, 
LB  :  DF  : :  bo  :  FM  =  that  is,  ««  the  sine  of  a 
leg  :  radius  .•;  tanrenl  of  the  other  leg  ;  tan- 
gent  of  its  opposite  angle,     y.  k.  d. 

Hence  it  follows,  that  the  kincs  of  the  angles 
of  any  oblique  splierical  triangle  ACD  (fig.  251,) 
arc  to  one  another,  directly,  as  the  sines  of  the 
opposite  sides.  Hence  it  also  follows.thatinrighu 
angled  splmrical  trianglei,  liaving  the  same  pc-- 
pendicular,  the  sines  <,(  the  bases  wili  bo  to  earh 
other,  inversely,  as  lh6  tangents  of  the  angles  at 
the  bases.  ° 

Theorem  II.  In  any  right.anglcd  sphcricil 
triangle  ABC  (fig.  G.^.)  it  will  be,  As  radius  is 
tothc  co-siiieof  onelcg,  lo  is  the  cd-sine  of  i!;<- 
other  leg  to  the  co-.,iiie  of  tl.c  hvpoihenusc. 

Hence,  if  two  right-angled  sp'htrical  tnant':.  ■ 
ABC,  CBU,  (fig.  251,)  have  the  same  perpen- 
dicular BC,  the  co-sines  of  ihcir  hvi>ot!u-i„:,.-, 
will  be  to  each  other,  di.'-ectly,  as  the  co-smcb  ai 
their  bases. 

TiiEot<E.w  irr.  In  any  spherical  trian.'Je  :r 
will  be,  As  radius  is  to  the  sine  of  either  angle 
so  is  the  co-sine  of  the  adjacent  Ic"  ttj  the  co- 
sine of  the  opposite  angle.  " 

Hence,  in  right-angled  spherical  trianploi, 
having  the  same  perpendicular,  the  co-sines  of 
the  angles  at  the  base  will  be  to  e-ich  other,  di- 
rectly, as  the  sines  of  the  vertical  angles. 

Theorem  IV.  In  anv  right-angled  spherical 
triangle  it  will  be,  As  radius  is  to  the  co-sine  of 
the  hypothenuse,  so  is  ti.e  tangent  of  either  an- 
gle to  the  co-tangent  of  the  other  angle. 

As  the  sum  of  the  sines  of  two  unequal  arches 
19  to  their  dilFtrence,  so  is  the  tangent  of  half  - 
the  sum  of  tho^e  arches  to  the  tangent  of  half 
their  difference:  and  as  the  sum  of  the  co-sinej 
is  to  their  difference,  so  is  the  co-tangent  c.f  half 
the  sum  of  the  arches  to  the  tangent  of  half  the 
difference  of  the  same  arclies. 

Theorem  V.  In  anv  spherical  triangle  ABC 
(figs.  253  and  254),  it  will  be.  As  the  co''-tan<'-ent 
of  half  the  sum  to  half  thtir  difference,  so  i» 
the  co-tangent  of  half  the  base  to  tiic  tangent 
of  the  distance  (DF)  of  the  perpendicular  from, 
tlic  middle  of  the  base. 

Since  the  last  proportion,  by   permutation, 

1  AC  -i-  Be 

becomes  co-tang. — -' ;    co-tai;g.  AE    ;; 

tang.  -^— ?  ;  tang.  DE,  and  as  the  tangent. 

of  any  two  arches  are,  inversely,  as  their  co- 
tangents ;  It  follows,  therefore,  that  tang  AE  * 

AC  -i-  BC  AC  —   BC 

tang.  — X_  ;;  tang.  _  ^  Jf    •  .^^g.  og  . 

or,  that  the  tangent  of  half  the  base  is  to  the 
tangent  of  half  the  sum  of  the  sides,  as  the  tan- 
gent of  half  the  difference  of  the  sides  to  the. 
tangent  of  the  distance  of  the  perpendicular 
from  the  middle  of  the  base. 

TiiEORE.M  Vi.  In  any  spherical  triangle  ABC 
(fig.  253),  it  will  be.  As  the  co-tajigciit  of  half 
the  sum  of  the  angles  at  the  base  is  to  tl.e  tan- 
gent of  half  their  difference,  so  is  the  tangent 
of  half  the  vertical  angle  to  the  tangent  of  the 
angle  which  the  perpendicul.ir  CD  makes  with 
the  line  CF  bisecting  the  vertical  angle. 

The  following  propositions  and  remarks,  con- 
cerning spherical  triangles  (sefected  and  com- 
municatcd  to  Dr.  Hutton  by  the  reverend  Ke- 
vij  Maskelyne,  D.  D.  astrono'raer-royal,  F.  R.  S.), 
will  also  render  the  calculation  of  them  perpicu- 
ous,  and  free  from  ambiguitv. 

1.  A  spherical  triangle  is  equilateral,  isoscelar, 
or  scalene,  according  as  ij  has  its  three  angles 
all  equal,  or  two  of  them  equal,  or  all  three  un- 
equal ;  and  vice  versa. 

2.  The   greatest  sidt  is  always  opposite  tha. 


S24 


TRIGONOMETRY. 


T  R  I 


greatest  an<rle,  aud  the  smallest  side  opposite  the 
sniallcst  auj^le. 

.i.  Any  two  sides  taken  together  arc  greater 
than  the  third. 

4.  if  the  throe  angles  are  all  acute,  or  all  ri^ht, 
or  all  olnuse;  the  three  sides  will  he,  accord- 
in;;l)-,  all  less  than  <)y°,  or  diiial  to  yC,  or 
greater  than  SO' ;  and  vice  versa. 

5.  If  from  the  three  angles  A,  B,  C,  (li^.  'J.jfi,) 
of  a  triangle  A15C,  .as  poles,  there  arc  described, 
upon  the  surface  of  the  sphere,  tiiree  arches  of 
a  great  circle  DE,  DF,  FK,  forming  by  their  in- 
tersections a  ne-.v  spherical  tr!an;^lc  UF.l';  each 
side  of  the  new  triangle  will  be  the  supplement 
of  the  angle  at  its  pole;  and  each  angle  of  the 
5  one  triangle  will  be  t.'ie  supplement  of  the  side 
opposite  to  it  in  tlie  triangle  ABC. 


6.  In  any  triangle  ABC,  (fig.  ^r>.'>,)  or  A,!C, 
right-angled  in  A,  1st,  The  angles  at  the  hypo- 
thenuse  are  always  of  the  same  kind  as  their 
opposite  sides  ;  2dly,  'I'lie  liypofhenuse  is  less  or 
greater  than  a  quadrant,  according  as  the  sides 
including  the  right  angle  arc  of  the  same  or  dif- 
ferent kinds  ;  that  is  to  say,  according  as  these 
same  sides  arc  cither  both  acute  or  both  obtuse, 
or  as  one  is  acute  and  the  other  obtuse.  And 
vice  versa,  1st,  The  sides  including  the  right 
angle  are  always  of  the  same  kind  as  their  op- 
posite angles  :  'Jdiv,  The  sides  including  the  right 
angle  will  be  of  the  same  or  diiVerent  kinds,  ac- 
cording as  the  hypothenuse  is  less  or  more  than 
90^ :  but  one  at  least  of  them  will  be  of  i)0°,  if 
the  hypothenuse  is  so. 


The  Solution  of  the  Cases  of  rlght-.mglcd  Spherical  Triangles  (fig.  252.). 


Case. 

Given.                1             Sought. 

Solution. 

1 

'Fhe  hyp.  .A.C  and  one  '    'I'he  opposite  leg 
'angle  A               ■                 BC 

As  radius  ;  sine  hyp.  AC  ; ;  sine  A  ;  sine 
BC  (by  the  former  part  of  theor.  1.) 

2 

The  hvp.  AC  and  one  '    The  adjacent  leg 
'angle  -A.               1                AD 

As  rad"ius  I  co-sine  of  A  [I  tang.  AC  [  tang. 
AB  (by  the  latter  part  of  theor.  1.) 

■3 

I'he  hyp.  AC  and  one  i     'Fhe  other  angle 
angle  A             1                 C 

As  radius  ;  co-sine  of  .A.C'  ; ;  tang.  A  ;  co- 
tang.  C  (by  theorem  4.) 

4 

The  hvp.  AC  and  one        The  other  leg 
■  leg  AB                                 BC 

As  co-sine  AE  ;  radius  ; ;  co-sine  .-IC  ;  co- 
sine BC  ;by  theorem  2.) 

3 

'Fhe  hvp.  AC  aiid  one  ;  'Fhe  opposite  angle 
'  leg  AB               1                 C 

As  sine  AC  ;  radius  ; ;  sine  AB  I  sine  C  (by 
the  former  part  of  theorem  1.) 

e 

The  hyp.  AC  and  one  1  The  adjacent  angle 
leg  AB                               A 

As  tang.  AC  ;  tang.  AB  ; ;  radius  ;  co-sine 
A  (by  theorem  1.) 

One  leg  AB  and  the 
adjacent  angle  ^\. 


The  otl'.er  leg 
BC 


One  leg  .AB  and  the 
adjacent  angle  A 


The  opposite  angle 
C 


One  leg  AB  and  the 
adjacent  angle  .-V 


10 


One  leg  BC  and  the 
opposite  angle  A 


M 


One  leg  BC  and  the 
opposite  angle  A 


One  leg  BC  and  the 
opposite  angle  A 


■I'he  hvp. 
AC' 


'Fhe  other  leg 
AB 


'I'he  adjacent  angle 
C 


'I'he  hvp. 
AC 


Both  Icos 
.•\B  and  BC 


The  hvp. 
AC 


Both  legs 
AB  and  BC 


An  angle,  suppose 
"  .  V 


Both  angles 
A  and  C 


A  leg,  suppose 
AB 


Both  angles 
A  and  C 


'Fhe  hyp. 
AC 


As  r.adiu5  ;  sine  AB  "  tang.  A  ;  tang.  BC 
(by  theorem  4.) 


As  radius   "  sine  A  [  I  co-sine  of  AB  [  co- 
sine of  C  (by  theorem  3.) 


.^s  co-sine  of  A  I  radius  ]  I  tang.  AB  I  tang 
AC  (by  theorem  1.) 


As  tang.  A  ;  tang.  BC  ; ;  radius 
(by  theorem  4.) 


sine  AB 


As  co-sine  BC   *   radius    []    co-siue  of  A 
sine  C  (by  theorem  ;>.) 


As  sine  A  ;  sine  BC  ; ;  r.idius  ;  sine  AC  (by 
theorem  1.) 


As  radius  [  co-sine  .VB  I  ]  co-sine  BC  I  co- 
sine .\C  (by  theorem  2.) 


As  sine  AB  ;  radius  "   tang  BC  ;  tang.  A 
(by  theorem  4.) 


AS  sine  A  [  co-sine  C    "    radius   ',   co-sine 
AB  (by  theorem  3.) 


As  tang.  A  ;  co-tang.  C 
AC  (by  theorem  4.) 


radius  '  co-sine 


A'o/.-,  The  loth,  11th,  and 
data,  whether  ABC,  and  AC, 


12th  cases  arc  ambiguous;  since  it  cannot  be  determined  by  the 
ire  greater  or  less  than  90°  each. 


In  anv  spherical  triangle,  the  area,  or  surface 
inclosed  by  its  three  sides  upon  the  surface  of 
the  globe,  will  be  foinid  by  this  proportion  : 

As  8  right  angles,  or  720°, 

Are  to  the  whole  surface  of  the  sphere ; 

Or,  as  2,right  angles,  or  1«0°, 

'Fo  one  great  circle  of  the  sphere  ; 

Su  is  the  excess  of   the  S  angles  above  2  right 

a'nglcs, 
To  the  area  of  tl>c  sphcricd  tri.ingle. 


viz.,  Area  =:  aJ'  x 


1  —  1«0 


J  -  HO 
—  cJx  — ^~  ■ 

''Mi 


=  cr   X 


180 


~iGO~  '  °'^  ^'"■'^■'X  =  •■  X   '—  IHO", 


in  square  degrees,  when  the  radius  ris  estimated 
in  degrees;  for  then  the  circumference  c  is  =r 

-.mi'. 

Farther,  because  the  radius  r,  of  any  circle, 

when  estimated  in  degrees,  is  =: — - 

*  3.141.59  &c. 


Hence,  if  a  denotes  .78.';4, 

rf  ^^  diam.  of  the  globe,  and 

s  ^  sum  of  the  '3  angles  of  the  triangle; 

,,        ,  —  180  ,     ,  ,      .     , 

then  aJJ  X  ^  area  of  the  spherical 

1  »0  ' 

triangle. 

Hence  also,  if  r  denotes  the  radius  of  the 
sphere,  and  t  its  circumference  ;  then  the  area 
of  the  triangle  will  tlius  be  variously  expressed; 


=  .'>7.2f).'i7705,  the  last  rule  r  y  s  ~  180,  for 
expressing  the  area  A  of  the  spherical  triangle, 
in  square  degrees,  will  be  barely 

A  =1  .57.29.577-'>5  s  —  103i;j.24  = 
=  573W  —  lOSl.'Ji  very  nearly. 
Hence  may  be  found  the  sums  of  the  three 
angles  in  any  spherical  triangle,  having  its  area 
yl  known  ;  for  the  last  equation  give  the  sum 

.  ^  _4  +  IHO  =  — ^_  +  .80  =  -li¥_ 

r      '  57.29  &c.    '  9683 

-4-  180. 

So  that,  for  a  triangle  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  whose  three  sides  , ire  known  ;  if  it  is  but 
small,  as  of  a  few  miles  extent,  its  area  may  be 
found  from  the  known  length  of  its  sides,  con- 
sidering it  as  a  phine  triangle,  which  gives  the 
value  of  the  quantity  A  ;  and  then  the  last  rule 
above  will  give  the  value  of  *,  the  stmi  of  tiie 
three  angles  ;  which  will  serve  to  prove  whether 
those  angles  are  nearly  exact,  that  have  been 
taken  with  a  very  nice  instrument,  as  in  large 
and  extensive  measurements  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth. 

Si'iiEHic.iL  PoLYr,oN,is  a  figure  of  more  than 
three  sides,  formed  on  the  surface  of  a  globe  bv 
the  intersecting  arcs  of  great  circles. 

'Fhe  area  of  any  splierical  polygon  will  be 
found  by  the  following  proportion,  viz. 

As  8  right  angles,  or  720', 

'Fo  tlie  whole  surface  of  the  sphere ; 

Or,  as  2  right  angles,  or  180°, 

'l\}  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere  ; 

So  is  the  excess  of  all  the  angles  above  the 
product  of  180,  and  2  less  than  the  number 
of  angles. 

To  the  area  of  the  spherical  polygon. 
'Fliat  is,  putting  n  =  the  number  of  angles, 
s  =  sum  of  all  the  angles, 
d  ^  diam.  of  the  sphere, 
a  =  .78559  &c. ; 

.^,  ,.         ■'  —  ("—  '-)  1^0 

Then  A  =  oJ-  X  t^t: =  the  arci 

180 

of  the  spherical  polygon. 

Hence  other  rules  might  be  found,  similar  ts 
those  for  the  area  of  the  sjiherical  triangle. 

Hence  also,  the  sum  s  of  all  the  angles  of  any 
spherical  polygon,  is  always  less  than  1S0«,  but 
greater  than  180  («  —  2)  ;  that  is,  less  than  n 
times  2  right  angles,  but  greater  than  «  —  2 
times  2  right  angles. 

'Fhis  will  be  deemed  sufficient  on  the  subject 
as  an  introduction  to  trigonometry,  and  we  can 
with  great  satisfaction  refer  our  leaders  ftu*  far- 
ther information  ti>  Bonuyca.~tle's  "  'Frcatise  on 
Plane  and  Spherical  'Frigonometry,  with  their 
most  Uficful  Practical  .■\pplications,"  which  is  im- 
questionably  the  best  book  on  the  subject  in  the 
Fjiglish  language. 

'I'KIGI'KK.V,  a  ^eniis  of  the  pciitandria 
nioiiogynia  class  aiiu  onlor  of  plants.  'I'he 
loiolla  is  bell-shaped;  nt-ct.  short;  biu'ry 
fotir-tclli'd,  tvvo  seeds  in  each  cell.  There 
UK'  two  species,  of  no  note. 

'I'KlllIL.Vr.F.,  from  tres,  "  three,"  and 
hiUun,  "  an  external  mark  011  the  seed  ;"  tlie 
name  ol  tlie  x'3d  (lass  in  Linn;vus's  Fragments 
of  a  Natural  .Method;  cunsisiing  of  plams 


T  R  I 

w'tli  three  seeds,  whitli  are  iiiarkL'd  willi  an 
€'Nteri)al  cicatiix  or  scar,  whi^re  lliey  arc  I'ast- 
t'lii-d  within  the  fruit.     Sue  Botan  v. 

'1  U1I,1\,  a  genus  of  the  class  ai>J  order 
p,)lyandiia  monygyiiia.  Tlie  calyx  is  tlirce- 
icaved ;  corolla  tliree-petaHcd ;  berry  five- 
celled,  many  seeded.  I'here  is  one  species, 
a  shrub  of  Carlhai;ena. 

TRILLION,  111  arithmetic,  a  billion  of 
billions.* 

I  lULLIUM,  a  genus  of  the  hexandria 
trigynia  class  and  order  of  plants.  The  calyx 
is  tlirce-leaved  ;  corolla  threc-petalled  ;  berry 
three-colled.  There  are  three  species,  hardy 
perennials. 

TRIM  of  a  .iliip,  her  best  posture,  pro- 
portion of  ballast,  aiul  hanging  of  her  masts, 
&c.  for  sailing.  To  (intl  the  trim  of  a  ship, 
is  to  lindthe  best  way  of  making  hrr  sad 
swiftly,  or  how  she  will  sail  best.  This  is 
done  by  easing  of  her  ma^ts  and  shrouds ; 
some  ships  sailin;j  much  blotter  when  they  are 
slack,  than  when  they  are  taut  or  fast ;  but 
this  depends  much  upon  experience  and 
judgment,  and  the  several  trials  and  observa- 
tions wliicli  the  commander  and  other  olticers 
may  make  aboaril. 

'i^RlNC  j  A,  .siindniper,  a  genus  of  birds  be- 
longing to  the  order  of  grallx.  'Lhe  bill  is 
somewhat  tapering,  and  of  the  lengtli  of  the 
ju.ad ;  the  nostrils  are  small ;  the  toes  are 
four  in  number  and  divided,  the  hinil  toe  be- 
ing frei|uently  raided  from  the  ground.  .Ac- 
cordnig  to  Dr.  Latham,  there  are  4j  species, 
t)f  wliicii  18  are  British.  We  shall  describe 
some  of  the  most  remarkable. 

1.  X'anellus,  lapwing,  or  leuit,  is  distin- 
guished by  having  the  bill,  crown  of  thrhead, 
crest,  and  throat,  of  a  black  colour  ;  there  is 
also  a  black  line  under  each  eye  ;  the  back  iS 
of  a  purplish  green  ;  the  wings  and  tail  are 
black  and  white,  and  the  legs  red ;  the 
weight  is  eiglit  ounces,  and  the  length  lo 
inches.  It  lays  four  eggs,  making  a  slight 
nest  with  a  few  bents.  The  eggs  have  an 
olive  cast,  and  are  spotted  with  black,  Tlie 
■^oung,  as  soon  as  hatched,  run  like  chickens, 
'riie  parents  show  remarkable  solicitude  for 
them,  (lying  wiUi  great  anxiety  and  clamour 
near  them,  striking  at  either  men  or  dogs  that 
approach,  and  often  (iutteiing  along  tlit- 
groiind  like  a  wounded  bird,  to  a  considerable 
distance  from  their  nest,  to  delude  their  pur- 
suers ;  and  to  aid  the  deceit,  they  become 
more  clamorous  when  most  remote  from  it. 
The  eggs  are  held  in  great  esteem  for  their 
delicacy,  and  are  sold  by  the  London  ponl- 
terei;s  for  4or5  shillings  the  dozen.  In  winter, 
lapwings  join  in  vast  ilocks ;  but  at  that 
season   are   very  wild:    their  flesh   is   very 

food,  their  food  being  insects  and  worms. 
)uring  October  and  November,  they  are 
taken  in  the  fens  in  nets,  in  the  same  manner 
that  rnffs  are;  but  are  not  pn-served  for 
fattening,  being  killed  as  soon  as  caught, 

2.  Pugnax.  The  male  of  this  species  is 
called  rutf,  and  the  female  reeve.  The  name 
ruff  is  given  to  the  male,  because  they  are 
furnished  with  very  long  feathers,  standing 
out  in  a  remarkable  manner,  not  unlike  the 
rurt'worn  by  our  ancestors.  The  rutf  is  of  as 
many  different  colours  as  ihere  are  males ; 
but  in  general  it  is  barred  with  black  ;  the 
■weight  is  six  or  seven  ounces;  the  length  one 
foot.  The  female,  or  reeve,  has  no  rm'f ;  the 
common  colour  is  brown  ;  the  feathers  are 
edged  with  a  very   pale  colour ;  the  breast 

>OL.  II. 


T  R  I 

and  belly  white,     Its  wcif^ht  jg  about  four 
ounces.     SeePbte  Nat,  Ili,t. 

'Ijiese  birds  appear  in  tjie  fens  in  the 
earliest  spring,  and  disappear  about  .Michael- 
mas. Tlie  reeve  lays  four  i^ggs  in  a  tuft  of 
grass,  the  lirst  week  in  May,  and  sit  about  a 
month.  The  eggs  are  while,  marked  with 
large  rusty  spots.  Fowlers  avoid  in  general 
the  taking  ot  the  females;  not  only  because 
they  are  smaller  than  the  males,  but  thai  tlicy 
may  be  left  to  breed. 

S.on  after  their  arrival,  the  males  begin  to 
hill;  that  is,  lo  collect  on  some  dry  bank 
near  a  splash  of  wati-r,  in  expectation  of  the 
females  who  resort  to  them.  Kacli  male 
keeps  possession  of  a  small  piece  of  ground, 
which  it  runs  round  till  the  grass  is  worn 
(|uite  away,  and  nolhingbut  a  naked  circle  is 
left.  VV'lien  a  fem.ile  lights,  (lie  rufl'-.  imme- 
diately fall  lo  lighting.  It  i^i  a  vulgar  error, 
Inat  ruffs  must  be  fed  in  tlie  dark,  lest  they 
should  destroy  each  other  by  fighting  on  ad- 
mission of  light.  The  truth  is,  every  bird 
takes  its  stand  in  the  room  as  it  would  in  the 
open  fen.  If  another  invades  its  circle,  an 
attack  is  made,  and  a  battle  ensues.  They 
make  use  of  the  same  action  in  fighting  as  a 
cock,  place  their  bills  to  the  grouncl  and 
spread  their  ruffs.  Mr.  Pennant  says  he  has 
set  a  whole  roomful  a  fighting,  by  making 
them  move  their  stations ;  and,  after  quitting 
the  place,  by  peeping  through  a  crevice, 
seen  llicm  resume  their  circles,  and  grow 
pacific. 

When  a  fowler  discovers  one  of  those  hills, 
he  places  his  net  over  night,  w  hich  is  of  the 
same  kind  as  those  that  are  called  clap  or  d.iy 
nets  ;  only  it  is  geiifrally  single,  and  is  about 
14  yards  long  and  four  broad.  The  fowler 
resorts  to  his  stand  at  day-break,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  one,  two,  three,  or  four  hundred 
yards  from  the  nets,  according  to  the  time  of 
the  season  ;  lor  the  later  it  is,  the  shyer  the 
birds  grow.  He  then  makes  his  first  pull, 
taking  such  birds  as  he  finds  within  reacli ; 
after  "that  he  [ilaces  his  stulfed  birds  or  stales, 
to  entice  those  that  are  Continually  traversing 
the  fen,  When  tlie  stales  are  set,  seldom 
more  than  two  or  three  are  taken  at  a  time. 
A  fowler  will  take  forty  or  tifty  dozen  in  a 
season.  'I'hese  birds  are  found  in  Lincoln- 
shire, the  isle  of  Ely,  and  in  the  East  Riding 
of  York.  Tliey  visit  a  [ilace  called  Martin- 
Mere,  in  Lancashire,  the  latter  f  nd  of  March 
or  beginning  of  April ;  but  do  not  continue 
there  above  three  weeks ;  where  they  arc 
taken  in  nets,  and  fattened  for  the  table  with 
bread  and  milk,  hempseed,  and  sometimes 
boiled  wheat  ;  but  if  expedition  is  recpiired, 
sugar  is  added,  which  will  make  them  in  a 
fortnight's  time  a  lump  of  fat :  they  then 
sell  for  two  shillings  or  half  a  crown  a-piece. 
They  are  dressed  like  the  woodcock,  with 
their  intestines:  and  when  killed  at  the 
critical  time,  say  the  epicures,  are  the  most 
delicious  of  all  morsels. 

3.  Canutus,  or  knot,  has  the  forehead, 
chin,  and  lower  part  of  the  neck,  brown,  in- 
clining to  ash-colour  ;  the  back  and  scapiilars 
deep  brown,  edged  with  ash-colour ;  the  co- 
verts of  the  wings  white,  the  edges  of  the 
lower  order  deeply  so,  forming  a  w  hite  bar ; 
the  breast,  sides,  and  belly,  white,  the  two 
first  streaked  with  brown ;  the  coverts  of  the 
tail  marked  with  wliite  and  dusky  spots  al- 
ternately ;  \.he  tail  a^h-coloured,  the  outmost 
oM 


•r  R  r 


H2» 


feather  on  each  side  v  liite  ;  the  Wgfi  of  a 
blueish  grey  ;  and  the  toes,  as  a  bpecial  mark, 
divided  to  ilie  very  bottom  ;  the  weight  four 
ouncifs  and  a  hdf.  These  bird*,  when  (al- 
iened, are  preferred  by  some  to  the  rulft 
tiieinselves.  They  are  taken  in  great  num- 
bers on  the  ^'OabU  of  Lincolnshire,  in  ni't<i 
such  as  are  employed  in  taking  rulfs;  willi 
two  or  three  dozen- of  stales  of  wood  pahitcri 
like  the  bird$,  placed  within :  l4  dozens  have 
been  taken  at  once.  Their  season  is  from 
the  beginning  of  .August  lo  lliatot  November. 
Thi-y  disappear  witii  the  first  frosts.  Camden 
says,  they  derive  their  name  from  king  Ca- 
nute, Knute,  or  Knout,  a.s  lie  is  sometinuM 
called ;  probably  because  they  were  u  fa- 
vourite disli  with  thai  monarch.  \S'e  know 
that  he  kept  the  feast  of  the  pur  ficalion  of 
the  V  irgiii  Mary  with  great  |>oinp  and  mag- 
nificence at  Ely  ;  and  this  being  one  of  llm 
fen  birds,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  he  met  with  it 
there. 

4.  The  hypolc-ucos,  or  commou  sand- 
piper, except  in  pairing  lime,  is  a  solitary 
bird.  It  is  never  found  near  the  si-a,  but  fre- 
quents rivers,  lakes,  and  other  fresh  waters, 
lis  head  is  brown,  streaked  with  <low:nwar<l 
black  lines;  the  neck,  an  obscure  ash-colour; 
the  back  and  coverts  of  ihe  wings,  brown, 
mixed  with  a  glossy  green,  elegantly  marked 
with  transverse  dusky  lines;  the  breast  and 
belly  are  of  a  pure  white  ;  the  quill-leathers 
and  the  middle  feathers  of  the  tail  are  brown; 
the  legs  of  a  dull  pale  green. 

i.  The  alpina,  or  dunling  sandpiper,  is  at 
once  distinguished  from  the  others  by  the 
singularity  of  its  colours.  The  back,  head, 
and  upper  part  of  the  neck,  are  ferruginous, 
inarkecl  with  large  black  spots ;  the  lower 
part  of  the  neck  white,  maiked  with  short 
dusky  streaks  ;  the  coverts  of  the  wings  asli- 
colour ;  the  belly  white,  marked  with  large 
black  spots,  or  w  ith  a  black  crescent  pointing 
towards  the  thighs;  the  tail  is  ash-coloured; 
legs  black  ;  toes  divided  to  their  origin.  Iji 
size  it  is  superior  to  that  of  a  lark.  These 
birds  are  found  on  our  sea-coasts  ;  but  may 
be  reckoned  among  the  more  rare  kinds. 
They  lay  four  eggs  of  a  dirty  wliile  colour, 
blotched  with  brown  round  the  thicker  end, 
and  marked  with  a  few  small  sjiots  of  the  same 
ci'liiur  on  tlie  smaller  end.  They  are  com- 
mon on  the  Yorkshire  coasts,  and  esteemed  a 
great  delicacy. 

C.  Ihe  cinclus,  punre,  or  stint,  is  in  length 
seven  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  iiead  and  hind 
part  of  the  neck  arc  ash-coloured,  marked 
witli  dusky  lines  ;  a  white  stroke  divides  the 
bill  and  eyes;  the  back  is  of  a  brownish  asli- 
coluiir;  the  breast  and  belly  white;  the  co- 
verts of  the  wings  and  tail  a  dark  brown, 
edged  with  light  ash-colour  or  while ;  the 
upper  part  of  the  quill-feathers  dusky,  the 
lower  white  ;  the  legs  of  a  du^ky  green  ;  the 
toes  divided  to  their  origin.  The  bill  an  inch 
and  a  half  long,  slender  and  black ;  irides 
duskv.  These  birds  come  in  large  ilocks  on 
our  s'l'a-coasts  in  winter. 

TRIMT.ARIANS,  thoe  who  are  ortho- 
dox and  believe  in  the  trinity:  those  who 
do  not  believe  therein,  being  called  anli- 
trinilarians. 

TRINITY-HOU.se,  a  kind  of  college  at 
Deptford,  belonging  to  a  company  or  corpo- 
ration of  seamen,  who, by  the  king's  cli«ner, 
have  power  to  take  cogn'iiance  of  those  pet- 


ez6 


T  R  I 


i  jnswho  ikstroy  sea-maiks,  aiiJ  to  gft  repa- 
ration or  •iiicli  diima^i-s ;  und  to  take  care  ot 
otiiir  lliitigs  bi-loiigiiig  to  navigation.  At 
present,  ni"i;;iv  gentry  and  some  nobility  are 
*ienibers  oi  liial  community. 

The  master,  wartL-ns,  and  assistants  of  the 
trinity-house,  may  set  np  bea<(.:i>,  andmark^ 
for  the  sea,  in  such  places  near  the  coasts  or 
lorefends,  as  to  them  shall  seem  meet.  By  a 
•sfatnte-of  queen  Elizabeth,  no  steep'.e,  trees 
or  otlier  th  i!!;^  slar.dmg  as  sea-marks,  shall 
be  taken  awav  or  (■ut"d.>\vn,  upon  pain  tlial 
every  oerson  guilty  ol  ^nch  olt'ence,  shall  fur- 
leil  1110/.  and  if  the  p"r>on  otlendijig  is  not 
possessed  of  the  value,  he  shall  be  deemed 
convict  of  outlawry. 

TRtsny,  Jrahniitij  of,  a  religious  so- 
cietv  instituted  at  Home  by  M.  Philip  Nen, 
'ill  li4S.  'I'he.-e  niigious  were  appointed  to 
l:;ke  care'ot  the  pilgrims  who  came  to  visit 
tl:e  tombs  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  The 
societv  originallv  consisted  of  only  la  re- 
litrioui,  wiio  asseiiibled  on  the  lirst  JStiiuiay  of 
every  month,  in  thechtircli  oi  St.  Saviour  del 
-Carnpo,  to  hear  the  exhorlalions  ot  the 
founder;  after  whose  death  poiK-  Paul  l\  . 
gave  the  Iraternitv  the  cimrch  of  St.  Bene- 
d;ct,  near  which  tii..-y  have  since  built  a  large 
hospital,  for  tlie  reception  of  pilgrims,  'llie 
tratermly  is  one  of  Ibe  most  coukiderable  in 
Koine,  and  most  of  the  nobility  of  both  sexes 
have  been  members  of  it. 

TKINOMlAL,  or  Trinomial  ROOT,  in 
mathemathics,  is  a  root  consisting  of  three 
parts  connected  together  by  the  signs  +  or 
L-,  as  .r  +!/  + 1,  or  a  4-  b—c.  bee  Bin  o- 
MiAL  and  Root. 

,  /rRR),  in  music,  a  part  of  a  concert 
wherein  three  persons  sing;  or  more  pro- 
perly, a  BiUbical  composition  consisting  of 
three  parts.  Trios  are  the  rincst  kinds  of 
composition,  and  these  are  wiiat  please  most 
in  concerts. 

TRiOPTERIS,  a  genus  of  the  decandria 
trigynia  cl.iss  of  plants,-tlie  corolla  whereof 
consists  of  six  oval,  erectopatiilous,  equal  and 
permanent  petals,  surrounded  by  three  othere, 
smaller  than  themselves,  but  equal  to  one 
another ;  there  is  no  pericarpiuin ;  the  seeds 
are  three,  erect,  and  carinulated  at  the  back, 
each  of  them  has  externally  at  its  base  an  ula, 
and  at  its  apex  two ;  these  ala  are  what  in 
the  flowering  state  of  the  plant  appear  to  be 
pttak,  but  they  are  not  truly  such.  There 
are  two  species',  shrubs  of  tlie  West  Indies. 

TRIOSTK.UM,  a  genus  of  the  pentaiidria 
inonogyuia  class  and  order  of  plants.  '1  he 
talyx  IS  the  length  of  tiie  corolla ;  corolla 
one-pelaUed,  .-\hiiOit  equal ;  berry  three- 
celled,  unequal ;  seeds  solitary.  There  are 
three  species,  herbs  of  North  America.  The 
roots  are  said  to  be  emetic. 

TRIPLARIS,  a  genus  of  the  dioceia  dode- 
tandria  class  antl  order.  The  calyx  is  very 
large,  three  or  six-parted  ;  corolla  three-pe- 
lalled ;  nect.  three-sided.  'I'here  are  two 
upecies,  trees  of  South  America. 

TKIPLK,  or  Trii'LK  Ti.mf,  in  music,  u 
time  consisting  of  three  me.isures  in  a  bar; 
tiie  two  first  of  which  are  beaten  with  the  hand 
tr  foot  Jown,  and  the  third  marke<l  by  its  ele- 
vation. There  were  formerly  in  use  no  less 
than  six  dilfeient  triple  measures:  lir^t,  that 
•f  three  breves  in  a  bar,  denoted  by  the  li^-ure 
3 ;  fcCconUly,  thitl  ot  thtec  stiiubrev'es  in  a  bar, 


T  R  I 

the  sign  of  which  was  "^ ;  tliirdly.  that  of  three 
minims  in  a  bar,  marked  by  „ ;  fourthly, that 
of  three  ci  otcjiels  in  a  bar,  implied  by  ^ ' 
fifthly,  that  of  three  cjuaveis  in  a  bar,  sig- 
nified bv^;  and,  sixthly,  that  of  three  seini- 
ijuavers  in  a  bar,  expressed  by  jg.  But  at 
present  we  only  emplov  three  different  triiiles; 
thai  of  three  niinims,  that  of  three  crotchets 
and  that  of  three  quavers,  'i'he  reader  be- 
ing intornied  that  the  semihreve  (which  is 
now  the  longest  note  in  common  use,  and 
therefore  made  the  common  standartl  of 
reckoning\ise<|UHl  in  duration  to  two  minims, 
or  to  four  crnti  hets,  or  eight  quavers,  will 
readilv  comprehend  the  propriety  ot  amioun- 
cins  these  diflerent  measures  by  the  above 
hgnres  ;  and  will  perceive  that,  to  indicate  a 
time  of  three  minims  in  a  bar  (/.  f.  three 
halves,  or  second  parts,  of  a  semibreve),  no 
method  more  concise  or  simple  could  be 
adopted,  than  that  of  placing  at  the  beginning 

of  the  movement  the  figures  ., ;  for  a  lime 
of  three  crotchets  (z.  e.  three-fourth  parts  of 
a  semibreve),  the  figures  ^ ;  and  for  a  time 
of  tkree  quavers  (/.  e.  three-eights  of  a  semi- 
breve), 4he  figures  „. 

The  old  musicians  considered  the  triple,  or 
three-timed  measure,  as  superior  to  the 
binarv,  or  two-timed,  and  for  that  reason 
called  it  the  perfect  time. 

Triple  PROGREssros',  an  expression  in 
old  music,  implying  a  series  of  perfect  liflhs. 
A  progression  of  sounds  thus  explained  by 
theorists :  let  any  sound  be  represented  by 
unity,  or  the  number  1  ;  and  as  the  third 
part  of  a  string  has  been  found  to  produce 
the  twelfth,  or  octave  of  the  fifth  above  the 
whole  string,  a  series  of  fiitiis  may  be  repre- 
sented by  "a  triple  geometric  progression  of 
numbers,  continually  multiplied  by  3  ;  as  1 , 
3,  9,  27,  81,  243,  7l!0  ;  and  these  terms  may  | 
be  equally  supposed  to  represent  twelfths,  or 
fifths,  either  ascending  or  descending:  for 
whether  we  divide  by  3,  or  multiply  by  3, 
the  terms  will  either  way  be  in  the  proportion 
of  a  twelfth,  or  octave  to  tlie  fifth. 

TRIPLICATE  RATIO,  the  ratio  which 
cubes  bear  to  one  another. 

This  ratio  is  to  be  distinguished  from  triple 
ratio,  and  may  be  thus  conceived.  In  the 
geometrical  proportions!.',  4,  8,  16,33,  as  the 
nitio  of  the  first  term  ('?)  is  to  the  thinl  (8) 
duplicate  of  the  first  to  the  second,  or  of  tlie 
•econd  to  the  third,  so  the  ratio  of  the  first  to 
the  fourth  is  said  to  tie  triplicate  of  the  ratio 
of  the  first  to  the  second,  or  of  that  of  the 
second  to  the  third,  or  of  that  of  the  third  to 
the  fourth,  as  tn-ing  compounded  of  three 
equal  ratios.     See  Ratio. 

TRIPOLI,  a  mineral  found  sometimes  in 
an  earthy  form,  but  more  generally  indurated. 
Us  texture  iseaithy.  Specllic  gravity  1,'  to '_'.  j. 
It  absorbs  water,  feels  harsh  and  dry.  Scarce- 
ly adheres  to  the  tongue;  takes  no  polish 
from  the  nail  ;  does  not  stain  the  fingers. 
Colour  goner.iUy  pale  yellowish  grey  ;  also 
diflerent  kind- of  yellow,  brown,  and  white. 
.Vecording  to  Klaproth,  a  fpccies  of  this  mi- 
ueialconUincd 


T  R  I 

(j6.5  silica 
7.0  alumina 
2.5  oxide  of  iron 

1.5  magnesia 

1.25  lime 
19.0  air 


97.75 


TRirS.\CUM,  a  genus  of  the  Hionnrcia 
triaiidria  class  and  order  of  plants.  The  male 
calyx  ibagUime,four  llowered; corolla,  glume 
membranaceous  ;  female  calyx,  glume  per- 
forated sinuses  ;  corolla,  glume  two-valved; 
styles  two  ;  seed  one.  '1  here  are  two  spe- 
cies, grasses  of  she  West  Indies. 

TRISECTION,  or  Trissection,  the  dividing 
a  thing  into  three.  The  term  is  chiefly  used  in 
geometry,  for  the  division  of  an  angle  into  three 
equ-tl  parti.  The  trisection  of  an  angle  geome- 
trically, is  one  of  those  great  problems  whoie 
solution  has  been  so  miicli  sought  by  matliema- 
ticians  for  these  two  tlunisaml  ycar.«,  being  in 
this  respect  on  a  footing  with  the  quadrature  of 
the  circle,  and  the  dupli.'aturc  of  the  cube  angle. 

The  cubic  equ,ition  by  whicK  the  problem  of 
trisection  is  resolved,  i»  as  follows  ;  Let  c  denote 
the  chord  of  a  given  arc,  or  angle,  and  x  the 
cord  of  the  ad  part  of  the  same,  to  the  radius  1  ; 
then  is  x"  —  .'5a  =  —  c, 

by  the  resolution  of  which  cubic  equation  is 
found  the  value  of  j,  or  the  chord  of  the  'M 
part  of  the  given  arc  or  angle,  whose  chord  is 
<r;  and  the  resolution  of  this  equation,  by  Car- 
dan's rule,  gives  the  chord 


:-f  V^ 


+ 


-c+s/c'^ 


■^  + 


'/- 

^+V''- 

-4 

V 

2 

^ 

orA=y 

TRISETOUS,  in  entomology,  three- 
bristled,  applied  chiefly  to  the  tail  of  insects, 
as  in  the  ephemera. 

TRISPAST,  in  mechanics,  a  machine  witk 
three  pullies,  or  an  assemblage  of  three 
pullies  for  raising  of  great  w  eights. 

TRITICUM,  ivhifdt,  a  "enus  of  plants  of 
the  class  triandria,  and  order  digynia,  and  in 
the  natural  system  ranging  under  the  fourth 
order,  gramina.  The  calyx  is  bivalve,  soli- 
tary, and  generally  containing  three  llorets  ; 
the  corolla  is  bivalve,  one  valve  being  blunt- 
ish,  the  other  acute.  There  are  U)  species, 
the  astiyum,  summer  or  spring  wheat ;  hy- 
bernum,  winter,  Lammas,  or  common  whe-at ; 
compositum,  turginum,  or  cone  wheat ;  polo- 
nicum,  or  Polish  wheat;  spelta,  or  spelt 
wheat ;  monococcum,  or  one-grained  wlieat ; 
prostratum,  or  trailing  wiieat-grass ;  pumi- 
lum,  or  dwarf  wheat-grass:  junceum,  or  rush 
wheat-grass ;  repens,  or  couch-grass ;  tenellum, 
or  tender  wheat-grass ;  maiitimum,  or  sea 
wheat-grass ;  unilaterale,  or  spiked  sea-wheat ; 
unioloides,  or  linear-spiked  wheat-grass;  dis- 
tichum,  loliaceum,  canimun.hi'-panicum.  Of 
what  country  the  first  six  species  arc  natives, 
tanuot  now  be  derermined:  the  prostratuia 
is  a  native  of  Siberia  ;  the  junceum,  repens, 
unilaterale,  antl  maritimum,  are  natives  of 
Britain  ;  the  tenellum  is  a  native  of  Spain  ; 
and  the  unioloides  is  a  native  of  Italy.  It  may 
also  be  observed,  that  the  first  nine  are  an- 
nuak,  the  rest  are  perennials. 

Linnanis  comprehends  the  different  kinds 
of  wheat  cultivaiecl  at  present  under  six  spe- 
cies ;  but  ciiltiv.itioii  lias  produced  a  great 
many  varieties  Iroin  these. 


1.  Tnticiiin  afstlvnm,  or  sprmj-wlicat,  ha^ 
•four  rtowPrs  in  ;i  calyx,  tlirei-of  which  mostly 
bc-ar  (Traill,  The  c^ilyct-s  slanil  pretty  dis- 
tant ^rciii  cacli  other,  on  hotli  sides  a  ilat 
smooth  recrptaclir.  Tlie  h'ave^  of  tlie  calyx 
sre  lN.eel-slia[)ed,  smoolii,  and  they  terminate 
with  a  sliort  arista.  I'he  jinnies  of  the 
(lowers  are  smooth  and  bellying,  and  the 
outer  l^afof  three  of  the  illumes  in  every 
calvx  is  terminated  hy  a  loiif^  arista,  Init  the 
tliree  inner  ones  are  lieardless.  The  grain  is 
rather  lontjer  and  thinner  than  the  common 
wlieat.  It  is  supposed  Jo  he  a  native  of  some 
part  of  Tartary.  The  farmers  call  it  spring- 
wheat,  because  it  will  come  to  the  sickle  with 
the  common  wheat,  though  it  should  be  sown 
141  February  or  March.  The  varieties  of  it 
are:  triticum  a'stivum  spicaet  crana  rubenle. 
Spring  wheat,  with  a  red  spike  and  grain. 
'I'rilicum  a"«tivnm  rnbnim,  spica  alba,  lied 
spring  wheat,  with  a  wiiite  spike.  'I'riticinn 
Kilivimi,  spici  et  giana  alba.  Spring  wheat, 
with  a  white  spike  and  grain. 

'i.  Triticimi  h}bernum,  winter  or  common 
wheat,  has  aWo  four  Howers  in  a  calyx',  three 
of  which  are  mostly  productive.  The  calyces 
stand  on  each  side  a  smoolli  Hat  receptacle, 
ai  in  the  former  species,  but  they  are  not 
quite  90  far  asunder.  The  leaves  of  the 
taly.\  are  bellvLiig,  and  so  smooth  that  they 
appear  as  if  polished,  but  they  have  no  arista. 
The  glumes  of  the  flowers  too  are  smooth, 
and  the  outer  ones,  near  the  top  of  the  spike, 
are  often  tipped  with  short  aristic.  The  grain 
is  rather  plumper  than  the  former,  and  is  the 
sort  most  generally  sown  in  England;  whence 
the  name  of  common  wheat.  Us  varieties 
arc:  triticum  hybernum,  spica  et  grana  ru- 
beiite.  C-ommon  wheat,  with  a  red  spike  and 
grain.  Triticum  hybernum  rubrum,  spica 
alba.  Common  red  wheat,  with  a  white  spike. 
'I'riticum  hybernum,  spica  et  grana  alba. 
Common  wlieat,  with  a  white  spike  and 
grain. 

3.  Triticum  turgldum,  thick-spiked  or  cone- 
wheat.  It  is  easily  distinguished  from  either 
of  the  former:  for  though  it  l;as  four  flowers 
in  a  calyx,  after  the  manner  of  them,  yet  thi- 
whole  calyx  and  the  edges  of  the  glumes  are 
covered  with  soft  hairs.  The  calyces  too 
stand  thicker  on  the  receptacle,  and  make  the 
spike  appear  more  turgid.  Some  of  the 
outer  glumes  near  the  top  of  the  spike  are 
terminated  by  short  arista;,  like  those  of  tlie 
eoninion  wheat.  The  grain  is  shorter,  plump- 
er, and  more  convex  on  the  back  than  either 
of  the  former  species.  Its  varieties  are  nu- 
nierous,  and  have  various  appellations  in  dif- 
ferent counties,  owing  to  the  great  affinity  of 
Several  of  them.  Those  most  easily  to  be 
distinguished  are;  triticum  turgiiluni  coni- 
cmn  album.  White  cone  wlieat.  Triticum 
turgldum  conicum  rubrum.  Red  cone  wheal. 
Triticum  tuigidum  ari^tife^um.  liearded  cone 
wheat.  Triticum  turgldum  spica  nnilti[)Iiei. 
Cone  wheat,  with,  many  ears.  The  third  va- 
jiety  is  what  tht-  farmers  call  clog  wheat, 
square  wheat,  aid  rivels.  The  grain  ol  this 
is  remarkably  convex  on  one  side,  and  w  hen 
ripe  the  awns  generally  break  in  pieces  and 
fall  oil".  This  sort  is  very  proihictive,  but  it 
yields  an  inferior  flour  to  that  of  the  former 
two  species. 

4.  Triticum  Poloniciim,  or  Polisli  wheat, 
has  some  resemblance  to  the  turgidum,  but 
both  grain  and  spike  are  longer.  The  calyx 
♦(jntahis  only  t« o  flowers,  aiui  Uie  gUimes  aVe 


TnirrctJM. 

ftimislied  with  veiy  lung  aiist;e  ;  the  leelh  of 
the  iiiiihib  ae  lie.iidrd.  As  lliis  sort  is  sel- 
dom sown  in  Knglaiid,  there  la  no  telling  what 
varieties  it  produces, 

5.  Triticum  spelta,  spelf  oitjennan  wheal. 
At  lirst  view  this  has  a  great  resemliUnce  to 
barley,  but  it  has  no  involucrum.  The  caly\ 
IS  tnini-ated  ;  that  i<,  it  appears  as  if  the  endi 
were  snipped  oil',  audit  coi.iaiii^  four  (lowers, 
two  of  wlii(  h  an-  heiiiiaphrotlilc-,  and  the 
gliuiH'S  bearded,  but  the  intermediate  one; 
are  neuter.  Tliere  an  two  rows  of  grain  as 
in  barley,  Iiutthey  are  shaped  like  wheat.  It 
is  much  cultivated  in  I'rance,  Germany,  and 
Italy. 

().  Triticum  mono.ix-cum,  St.  Peter's  corn, 
or  one-grained  wheat,  has  three  flowers  in 
each  calyx  alternately  bearded,  and  the  iTii<l- 
dle  one  neuter.  The  spike  is  shiiiiiig,  and  has 
two  rows  of  grain  in  the  manner  of  barley. 
\V  here  it  grows  naturally  is  not  known,  but 
it  is  cultivated  in  (Jermany;  and  in  con- 
junction with  spelt  wheat  is  there  made  into 
bread,  wliich  is  coarse,  and  not  so  nourishing 
as  lliat  made  of  common  wheat.  Malt  made 
of  any  of  our  wheats  is  often  put  into  beer, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  it  will  give  a  large 
brewing  a  tine  brovvn  transparent  tincture. 

Of  the  perennial  kinds,  or  wheat  grasses, 
the  repeiis,  or  couch  grass  is  unfortunarely 
,too  well  known  to  the  gardener  and  husband- 
man ;  the  others  are  of  little  note. 

The  respectable  president  of  the  Royal 
.Society,  whose  attention  is  constantly  directed 
te  those  branches  of  kuowledge  which  are 
most  practically  useful,  has  published  some 
remarks  on  the  blight  in  corn  in  the  year  1  SO  j ; 
and  we  feel  ourselves  discharging  a  duty 
in  making  them  as  generally  known  as  our 
circulation  extends. 

He  begins  by  observing  that  tlio  blight  in 
corn  is  occasioned  by  the  growth  of  a  minute 
parasitic  fungus  or  mushroom  on  the  leaves, 
stems,  and  glumes  of  the  living  plant.  I'elice 
Fontana  published,  in  the  vear  1707,  an  ela- 
borate account  of  this  mischievous  w  eed,  with 
microscopic  ligures,  which  give  a  tolerable 
idea  of  Its  form  ;  more  modern  botanists  have 
given  figures  both  of  corn  and  of  grass  allVct- 
ed  by  it,  but  have  not  used  high  magnifying 
powers  in  their  researches. 

He  adds,  "  agriculturists  do  not  appear  to 
have  paid,  on  this  head,  sufficient  attention 
to  the  discoveries  of  their  fellow-labourers  in 
the  litld  of  nature;  for  though  scarcely  any 
l'>iu;li~li  writer  of  Hote  on  liie  subject  >jt"  rural 
economy,  has  tailed  to  state  liis  opinion  ot  the 
origin  ol  this  evil,  no  one  of  them  has  yet  at- 
tributed it  to  the  real  cause,  unless  Mr.  Kir- 
liy's  excellent  (Mpert  on  some  di-eases  of 
corn,  pul>li?lied  in  the  Taaii.sactions  of  the 
Liim'.ean  Society,  are  considered  as  agricul- 
tural essays. 

It  i<  nec-essary  to  premise,  thai  the  striped 
appearance  of  the  surlace  of  a  straw  which 
may  be  seen  with  a  coimiion  magnitying 
glass,  is  caused  by  alternate  longitudinal 
partitions  of  the  bark,  the  one  impertorate, 
and  the  other  furnished  with  oiu-  or  two  rows 
of  pores  or  mouth>,  shut  in  dry,  open  i>i  wet 
weather,  and  well  c.ilculaled  to  imbibe  lUiid 
whenever  the  straw  is  damp. 

liv   these  pores,   which  exist  also  on  the 

leaves  and  glumes!,  it  is  jiresumed  th;.t  the 

seeds  of  the  tungus  gain  admission,  and  at 

the  bottom  of  the  hollows  to  which  thev  lead, 

i  M  2 


P27 

'see  I'laV  II.  (ig  I,  ?'  fhey  germinate  and 
pu^li  tli.'ir  niimile  roots,  iio  lioiiM  (ihoii^'ti 
till'  I-  have  not  yel  bi'en  (raced';  iiito  t),«.-  n:i- 
lular  (ixtiiio  be'Otid  (he  baiU,  whire  t!'>'j 
draw  their  iMnii-.limeii(,  by  iiilerccpdiif;  llic 
sap  (hat  was  iniended  by  iia("re  (or  (iie  ir - 
triincnt  of  (he  grain  ;  (he  corn  of  course  be- 
comes shrivelled  In  proportinn  as  (lie  fui.gt 
are  more  or  less  niimero  s  nn  liic  piaiit ;  »\.<i 
as  (he  kernel  only  is  abstracted  (loin  (itp 
grain,  wliile  (he  corlicjl  pait  remains  ur.di- 
niniisiied,  the  propi)  tioii  ot  (lour  or  bran  in 
blightetl  corn,  Is  always  reduced  in  (he  tame 
degree  as  (he  corn  is  made  light.  Some  corn 
of  this  year's  crop  will  not  yield  a  stone  of 
Hour  from  a  sack  of  wheat;  and  it  is  not  iiTH 
possible  (hat  in  some  cases  the  corn  iias  been 
so  ronipletely  robbed  of  its  (lour  iiy  the  fun- 
gus, that  if  the  proprietor  should  clioose  ta 
incur  (lie  expence  of  threshing  and  grindiDg 
It,  bran  would  be  the  produce,  with  scarcely 
an  atom  of  lioiir  for  each  grain. 

Kvcry  species  of  corn,  poperly  so  called, 
is  subject  to  the  bhght ;  but  it  is  observabli: 
that  spring  corn  is  less  damaged  by  it  than 
winter,  and  rye  less  than  wheat,  probably  be- 
cause it  is  ripe  and  cut  dow  n  before  ihi;  fun- 
gus has  had  time  to  increase  in  any  large  de- 
gree. Tnll  says  (hat  "  white  cone,  or  beard- 
ed wheat,  which  hath  its  straw  like  a  rush  ruil 
of  pith,  is  less  subject  to  blight  than  Lammas 
whea(,  which  ripens  a  week  later." 

The  spring  whi'at  of  Lincolnshire  wa'? 
not  in  the  least  shrivelled  this  year,  though 
the  straw  was  in  some  degree  alVected  :  (iie 
millers  allowed  that  it  was  the  best  sample 
brought  to  market.  Harley  was  in  some 
places  considerably  spotted,  but  ys  the  whole 
of  the  stem  of  (hat  grain  is  naturally  enveloj*- 
ed  in  the  hose  or  basis  of  the  leaf,  (he  fungus 
can  in  no  case  gain  admiKance  to  (he  .straw; 
it  is,  however,  (o  be  observed  (hat  barley 
rises  from  (he  flail  lighter  this  year  than  was 
expected  from  the  appearance  of  the  crop 
when  gathered  in. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  leaf  is  fiist  in- 
fected  in  the  spring  or  early  in  the  summer, 
before  the  coru  shoots  up  into  straw,  ami  that 
the  fungus  is  then  of  an  orange  colour:  after 
the  .straw  has  become  yellow,  the  funaiis  as- 
sumes a  deep  chocolate  brown  :  each  indi- 
vidual is  so  small  that  every  i)ore  on  a  straw 
will  produce  from  'id  to  4<)  tiingi,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  plates,  and  every  o:e  of  tiiesC 
will  no  doubt  proiluce  at  least  100  seeds;  if 
then  one  of  the^e  seeds  tillows  out  into  the 
number  of  plants  that  appear  at  the  bottom 
of  a  pore  in  I'late  II.  lig.  I,  2,  how  iiical- 
ciilablv  large  must  the  increase  be  !  A  few 
dise.ised  plallt^  S(  altered  over  a  (ield  must 
verv  ^peedily  infect  a  whole  neighboiiriiood, 
for  the  seeds  of  fungi  are  not  limcli  heavier 
than  air,  as  every  one  who  has  trod  ujion  a 
ripe  putl'-ball  must  have  observed  by  seeing 
the  dust,  among  which  is  its  seed,  rise  up  and 
tloat  on  before  hiin. 

How  long  it  is  before  this  fungus  arrives 
at  pubertv,  and  scatters  its  seeds  in  the  wind, 
can  only  be  guessed  at  by  the  analogv  of 
others  ;  probably  the  period  of  a  generation 
is  short,  possibly  not  more  than  a  week  ir  a 
hot  season  :  if  sri,  how  trei]i!viitly  in  the  I;  iier 
end  ofthe  sumnuT  mii-t  'lie  air  be  leaned 
«ith  this  animated  dust,  Raiiy,  wheiiev.Ta 
senile  bree^i-,  accompanied  with  hunrulily, 
shall  give  the  sigual  to  intrude  itself  iiao  il'ie 


KS 


T  R  I 


pore;  of  tlionsands  of  acres  of  corn.  Provi- 
cieiice,  however,  caieful  of  the  creatures  it 
lias  created,  has  benevolently  provided  against 
tlie  too  extensive  nuiltiplicaiion  ofaiiy  species 
ol  being:  was  it  otherwise,  the  minute  plants 
and  aninials,  enemies  against  which  man  has 
tiu-  fewest  means  of  defence,  would  -increase 
to  an  inordin  Ue  extent :  this,  however,  can 
'.II  no  case  happen,  unless  many  predisposing 
causes  alford  thtiir  combined  assistance.  But 
for  this  wise  and  heneiieent  provision,  the 
plague  of  slugs,  the  plague  of  mice,  the 
pla^jnes  of  grubs,  wire-worms,  chaters,  and 
many  other  creatures  whose  [lower  of  mul- 
ti])lving  is  countless  as  tl'.e  saiiils  of  the  sea, 
woiiid,  long  before  this  time,  have  driven 
mankind,  and  aU  the  larger  animals,  from  the 
face  of  the  earth. 

Tliougli  all  old  persons  who  have  con- 
cerned themselves  in  agriculture.,  remember 
tlie  blight  in  corn  many  year.s,  yet  some  have 
supposed  that  of  late  years  it  has  materially 
increased  ;  this,  however,  does  not  seem  to 
beJhe  case.  Tull,  in  his  ilorschoein^  Hus- 
bandry, page  74,  tells  us,  that  tiie  year  1725 
"  was  a  year  of  blight,  the  liki-  of  w  hich  was 
i;ever  before  heard  of,  and  which  he  hopes 
may  never  liajipen  again  ;"  yet  the  average 
price  of  uih-at  in  the  year  1726,  when  the 
harvest  of  1725  was  at  market,  was  only  36s. 
4(1.  and  the  average  of  the  five  years  of  which 
k  makes  the  tirst,  37.>-.  7d.—  \79'  was  also  a 
year  of  great  blight;  the  price  of  wheat  in 
1798  was  49s.  Id.  and  the  average  ef  the  five 
years,  from  1795  to  1799,  63  v.  5d. 

The  climate  of  the  British  isles  is  not  the 
only  one  that  is  liable  to  the  blight  in  corn. 
It  happens  occasionally  lin  every  part  of  Eu- 
rope, and  probably  in  all  countries  where 
corn  is  grown.  Italy  is  very  subject  to  it, 
and  the  last  harve-t  of  Sicily  has  been  mate- 
rially hurt  by  it.  Specimens  received  from 
the  colony  of  New  Soutli  Wales,  shew  that 
considerable  mischief  was  done  to  the  wheat 
crop  there  in  the  year  1803,  by  a  parasitic 
plant,  very  similar  to  the  English  one. 

ft  lias  been  long  admitted  by  farmers, 
tiiough  scarcely  credited  by  botanists,  that 
wheat  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  barberry 
l>ush  seldom  escapes  the  blight.  The  village 
of  Hollesby  in  Norfolk,  where  barberries 
abound,  and  wheat  seldom  succeeds,  is  called 
by  the  opprobrious  appellation  of  mildew 
Rollesby.  Some  observing  men  have  of  late 
attributed  this  very  perplexing  effect  to  the 
farina  of  the  llowers  of  the  barberry,  which  is 
ill  truth  yellow,  and  resembles  in  some  de- 
gree the  appearance  of  the  rust,  or  what  is 
presumed  to  be  the  blight  in  its  early  state. 

It  is,  however,  notorious  to  all  botanical 
observers,  that  the  leaves  of  the  barberry  are 
very  subject  to  the  attack  of  a  yellow  para- 
sitic fungus,  larger,. but  otherwise  much  ru- 
senibling  the  rust  in  corn. 

Is  it  not  more  than  possible  tlrat  the  parasitic 
fungus  of  the  barberry  and  that  of  wheat,  are 
one  and  the  same  species,  and  that  the  seed 
is  transferred  from  tlie  b.irberry  to  the  corn  ? 
Misletoe,  the  parasitic  plant  with  which  we 
are  the  bestac((U,iinled,  delights  most  to  grow 
on  the  apple  and  hawthorn,  but  it  flourishes 
occasionally  on  trees  widely  differing  in  their 
nature  from  both  of  these.  In  the  Home 
Tark,  at  Windsor,  misletoe  may  be  seen  in 
abiiiulance  on  the  lime  trees  planted  there 
in  i»eniies.    If  this  conjecture  is  founded, 


T  R  I 

another  year  will  not  pass-  without  its  being 
coiihrmed  by  the  observations  of  inquisitive 
and  sagacious  farmers. 

It  would  be  presumptuou, Jo  ofl'er  any 
remedy  for  a  malady,  the  progress  of  vvhii  h 
is  so  little  understood  ;  conjectures,  however, 
founded  on  the  origin  here  assigned  to  it,  may 
be  hazarded  without  offence. 

It  is  believed  to  begin  early  in  the  spring, 
and  first  to  appear  on  the  leaves  of  wheat  in 
the  form  of  rust,  or  orange-colouretl  powder  ; 
at  this  season,  the  fungus  will,  in  all  pro- 
bability, require  as  many  v/eeks  for  its  pro- 
gress from  infancy  to  puberty,  as  it  does  days 
during  tlie  heals  of  autumn  ;  but  a  very  few 
plants  of  wheat,  thus  uifected,  are  quite  suffi- 
cient if  the  fungus  is  permitted  to  ripen  its 
seed,  to  spread  the  malady  over  a  fielil,  or 
indeed  over  a  whole  parish." 

The  chocolate-coloured  blight  is  Utile  ob- 
served till  the  corn  is  approacliing  very  near- 
ly to  ripeness  ;  it  appears  then  in  the  field  in 
spots,  which  increase  very  rapidly  hi  size, 
and  are  in  ca'm  weather  somewhat  circular, 
as  if  the  disease  took  its  origin  from  a  ceulraf 
position. 

May  it  not  happen,  then,  that  the  fungus 
is  brought  into  the  field  in  a-few  stalks  of  in- 
fc-cted  straw,  uncornipted,  among  the  mass  of 
chuig  laid  in  the  ground  at  the  time  of  sow- 
ing ?  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  th.e 
clover  lays,  on  which  no  dung  from  the  yard 
was  used,  were  as  much  infected  last  autumn 
as  the  manured  crops.  The  immense  multi- 
plication of  the  disease  in  the  last  season, 
seems,  however,  to  account  for  this  ;  as  the 
air  was  no  doubt  freLpiently  cliarged  with 
seed  for  miles  together,  and  deposited  it  in- 
discriminately on  all  sorts  of  crops. 

It  cannot,  however,  be  an  expensive  pre- 
caution to  search  diligently  in  the  spring  for 
young  plants  of  wheat  infected  with  the  dis- 
ease, and  carefully  to  extirpate  them,  as  w  ell 
us  all  grasses,  for  several  are  subject  to  this  or 
a  similar  inahuly,  which  have  the  ajipearance 
of  orange-coloured  or  of  .black  stripes  on 
Uieir  leaves,  or  on  their  straw  ;  and  if  experi- 
ence shall  prove  that  uncorrupted  straw  can 
carry  the  disease  with  it  into  the  held,  it  will 
cost  the  farmer  but  little  precaution  to  pre- 
vent any  mixture  of  fresh  straw  Irom  being 
carried  out  with  his  rotten  dung  to  the  w  lieat 
field. 

In  a  year  like  the  present,  that  offers  so 
fair  an  opportunity,  it  wiU  be  useful  to  observe 
attentively  whether  cattle  in  the  straw-vard 
tlirive  better  or  worse  on  blighted  than  on 
liealthy  straw.  That  bliglited  straw,  retain- 
ing on  it  the  fungi  that  have  robbed  the  corn 
of  its  ilour,  has  in  it  more  nutritious  matter 
than  clean  straw  which  has  yielded  a  crop  of 
plump  grain,  cannot  be  doubted  ;  the  ques- 
tion is,  whether  this  niitriment  in  the  form  of 
fungi  docs,  or  can  be  maile  to  agree  as  well 
witii  the  stomachs  of  the  animals  that  consume 
it,  as  it  would  do  in  that  of  straw  and  corn. 

It  cannot  be  improper  in  this  place  to  re- 
mark, that  although  the  seeds  of  wheat  are 
rendered,  by  the  exhausting  power  of  the 
fungus,  so  lean  and  shrivelled,  that  scarcelv 
any  llo.vcr  fit  for  the  manufacture  of  bread 
can  be  obtained  by  grinding  them,  these  very 
seeds  will,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  very  worst 
cases,  answer  the  [)urpose  of  seed-corn  as 
well  as  the  fairest  and  i)lumpest  sample  lliat 
can  be  obtained,  and,  in  some  respects,  bet- 
ter ;  for  as  a  bushel  of  much  blighted  corn 


T  II  I 

will  contain  one-third,  at  least,  more  grains  in 
number  llian  a  bushel  of  plump  corn,  three 
bushels  of  such  corn  will  go  as  tar  in  sowing 
land,  as  four  bushels  of  large  grain. 

'I  he  use  of  the  flour  of  corn  in  furthering 
the  i)roce-;s  of  vegetation,  is  to  nounsli  the 
minute  plant  from  the  time  of  its  dcvelope- 
nieiit  till  its  roots  are  ab'e  to  attract  food 
from  the  manured  earth  ;  tor  this  purpose, 
one-tciith  of  the  contents  of  a  grain  of  good 
wheat  is  i;.ure  than  sufficient.  "'J'lie  quantity 
of  flour  in  wheat  has  been  increased  by  cul"- 
ture  and  nuMiagenient,  calculated  to  improve 
its  qualilies  lor  the  benefit  of  mankind,  in  the 
same  proportion  as  tlie  pulp  of  apples  and 
pears  has  been  increased,  by  the  same  meaii«, 
above-  what  is  feiund  on  "the  wildings  and 
crabs  in  thehedgps. 

It  is  customary  to  set  aside  or  to  purchase 
for  seed-corn,  the  bolilest  and  plumpest  sam- 
ples tliat  can  be  obtained  ;  that  is,  those  (hat 
contain  the  mostfiour;  but  this  is  an  unneccs.- 
sary  waste  ol  humi'n  subsistence;  the  small- 
est grains,  such  as  a; e  si.t.d  out  before  tiie 
wlieat  is  carried  lo  market,  and  either  con- 
sumed in  tlie  farmer's  family,  or  given  to  his 
poultry,  will  be  lound  by  exjierience  to  answer 
tiie  purpose  of  pronagaiing  the  sort  whence 
they  sprung,  as  eficeiually  as  the  largest. 

Every  ear  of  wheat  is  composed  of  a  num- 
ber of  cups  placed  alternateiy  on  each  side  of 
the  straw;  the  lower  ones  contain,  according 
to  circumstances,  three  or  four  grains,  nearly 
equal  in  size,  but  to.\  ards  tne  top  of  the  eifr, 
where  the  quantity  of  nutiimtnt  is  diminished 
by  the  supply  of  tli.>se-  cups  that  are 
nearer  the  root,  the  thii  1  or  fourth  grain  in  a 
cup  is  frequently  delrauded  of  its  proportion, 
and  becomes  shrivelled  and  small.  These 
small  grains,  wliieh  are  rejected  by  the 
miller,  because  they  do  not  contain  flour 
enough  fur  his  purpose,  have,  neveriheless, 
an  ample  abundance  for  all  pur(x;ses  of  vege- 
tation, and  as  fully  partake  of  the  sap,  (or 
blood,  as  we  should  call  it  in  animals,)  of  the 
kind  which  produced  them,  as  the  fairest  and 
fullest  grain  that  can  be  obtained  from  tlie 
bottoms  of  the  lower  cui)s  by  the  wasteful 
process  of  beating  the  sheaves. 

TRITOMA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  co- 
leoptera  order,  'i'he  generic  character  is, 
antenine  ciavate,  the  club  perfoliate ;  lip 
emarginate;  anterior  feelers  hatchet-shaped; 
shells  as  long  as  the  body.  There  are  ten 
species, 

TKITON,  a  genus  of  vermes  mollusca. 
The  generic  cliavactcr  is,  body  long  ;  mouth 
with  an  involute  spiral  proboscis  ;  teiitacula, 
or  arms,  twelve,  viz.  six  on  each  side,  divided 
nearly  to  the  base,  the  end  ones  cheliferous. 
There  is  only  a  single  sp.'cies,  viz.  the  lit- 
lorcous,  which  is  found  in  Italy,  in  various 
cavities  of  submarine  rock-,  and  may  be  seen 
in  many  species  of  the  lepas,  particularly  in 
the  anaiafera. 

TRl'lU RATION.     See  Ph.armacy. 

TRIUMFETTA,  a  genus  of  the  dodecan- 
dria  monogynia  class  ol  plants,  the  corolla  of 
which  consists  of  live  linear,  erect,  obtuse 
petals,  hollowed,  and  bent  backwarels ;  the 
point  is  prominent  below  tiie  apex  ;  the  fruit 
is  a  globose  ca])sule,  every  where  surrouudeil 
with  hooked  prickles,  and  contains  four  cells; 
the  seeds  are  two,  convex  on  one  side  and 
aiigula*ou  the  other ;  but  only  one  of  the  two- 


t'>.hl,.'tt^  Ja„r  ,■;.  ,ff,.7  ^v  J{,fhUUf*^,firu/ft*  .■tf^^/lt.ui^Warj^  LfmJ^. 


I 


T  R  O 

KPth  of  each  cell  usually  ripens.  Tlu-rC 
aiv  1 1  si)0cie5,  chioily  shrubs  of  ihe  VW-st 
liidii-'^. 

;  TUIXIS,  a  genus  of  the  syngenesia  poly- 
gamin  cla-is  ami  order  of  plants.  The  corollx 
of  till"  ray  are  trilid,  seeds  hairy  at  llie  lop, 
vitliout'any  down;  rccept.  chaffy.  There 
are  three  species,  herbs  of  the  West  Indies. 

TROCIl.MC  VKUSE,  in  the  Latin  poe- 
try, a  kind  of  verse,  so  called  *)erause  tlie 
tiochees  c!iielly  prevad,  as  the  iambus  docs 
in  the  ijmbie.  '  It  generally  eolisists  of  seven 
feet  and  a  syllable  ;  the  odd  feet ,  for  the  most 
part,  consist  of  trochees,  tliough  a  tribracliys 
IS  sometimes  admitted,  e\-cepl  in  the  seventh 
foot;  these  two  feet  are  likewise  used  in  the 
other  places,  as  is  also  the  sponda-us,  dactyhis, 
and  anapKstus.  The  following  is  au  example  : 

12  3  4  5 

Solus  I  ant   re.K  |  aut    |)0  |  eta  |  non   quot  ] 
0  7         i 

annis  |  nasci  |  tur. 

TROCIIANTIiR.    See  An.^to.my. 

TROCIll':.    See  Pharma<:y. 
.  TROCIIF.li,  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  poe- 
trv,  a  foot  consisting  of  twosyllables,  the  lirst 
long  and   the  secojid  short,  as  iu  the  words 
lufisa  and  servSt. 

TROCIllLL'S,  hmnmiim-hird,  a  genus  of 
birds  belonging  to  the  order  ol  pica>.  The 
rostrum  is  subulate,  liliform,  and  longer  than 
the  hi'a;l,  the  apex  being  tubular ;  the  upper 
mau'lible  sheatlis  the  lower.  'I'he  tongue  is 
lilitorm  anil  tubulous,  the  two  threads  coa- 
Jescmg  ;  the  leet  are  slender  and  fit  lor  walk- 
ing;  llie  tad  lias  ten  feathers.  There  are  05 
s|)ecies,  none  of  which  are  natives  of  Britain. 
They  are  all  remarkable  for  tiie  beauty  of 
tlieir  colours,  and  most  of  them  for  the  small- 
ness  of  their  size,  though  some  are  eight  or 
nine  inches  in  length.  They  are  divided  into 
two  tamilies,  v'z.  those  with  crooked  bills, 
and  those  with  straight  bills.  See  Plate 
Nat.  Hist.  iig.  40S.  Of  these  we  shall  de- 
scribe the  four  folknvingspecies : 

1.  i  he  exilis,  or  little  humming-bird,  has  a 
crooked  beak,  is  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length; 
frequently  weighing  less  than  .50  grains.  'Ihe 
bill  is  black,  and  half  an  inch  in  length;  the 
bodv  greenish-brown,  with  a  red  shining,  ini- 
mitable gloss;  the  head  is  crested  with  a 
small  tuft,  green  at  boliom,  but  of  a  sparkling 
gold  colour  at  top  ;  quilis  and  tail  fine  black. 
Ii  is  a  native  of  Guiana  ;  and  the  velocity  of 
)t  in  flying  is  so  great,  that  the  eye  can 
s  arcely  keep  pace  with  its  motion. 

2.  'Ihe  moschitus,  or  ruby-necked  hum- 
ming-bu'd,  according  .to  M-.ucgrav,-,  is  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  whole  genus.  Its  len<rtli 
is  three  inches  four  lines ;  the  bill  straight, 
eiijiit  lines  long,  and  blackish  ;  the  top  of  the 
head  and  hind  part  ot  the  neck  are  as  bright 
as  a  ruby,  and  of  the  same  colour ;  the  upjier 
parts  of  the  bodv  are  brown,  with  a  faint  mix- 
ture of  green  and  gold  ;  the  throat  and  fore- 
part of  the  neck  are  the  colour  of  the  most 
bi  illiant  topaz ;  the  belly,  sides,  and  thiglis, 

1-  brown;   but  on   the  lower   part  of  the 

jUy,  on  each  side,  is  a  spot  of  white  ;  the 

tail  is  rufous  purple,  inclinnig   to  violet   at 

the    ends  ;    the    two    middle    featiiers    are 

.lortest;  tlie  legs  and  claws  blackish.     The 

■  iiale  has  only  a  da-h  of  golden  or  topaz  on 

die  breast  and  fore-part  of  the  neck;  tlie  rest 

ill  the  under  parts  are  greyish-white.     This 

4 


T  R  O 

sijocii"!  is-fonid  in  Rrasil,  C'urassnn,  Cuiana, 
and  Surinam.    See  Plate  Nat.  Mi  I.  fi;;.  4')9. 

3.  The  minimus,  .or  lea4  hunnning-bird, 
is  exceeded,  bolh  in  weight  and  dimensions, 
by  several  species  of  bees.  The  total  length 
is  one  inch  and  a  qimrier ;  and  when  killed, 
weighs  no  more,  according  to  Sir  Dans 
Sloane,  than  20  grains.  Tiie  bill  is  straight 
and  black,  three  bnes  ami  a  half  in  length  ; 
ibe  upper  pai'ls  of  (he  head  and  body  are  of  a 
greenish  gilded  brown,  in  soi'iie  lighls  appear- 
ing reddi>h ;  the  under  parts  are  greyish- 
white;  the  wings  are  violet-brown;  the  tail 
of  a  bluish-bla'k,  with  a  gloss  of  polished 
metal ;  but  the  outer  h'ather,  ex'cept  one  on 
each  side,  is  grey  from  the  middle  to  the  tip, 
and  the  outer  one  wiiollv  grey  ;  legs  and 
claws  brown.  The  female  is  less  than  the 
male  ;  the  whole  upper  side  of  a  dirty  brown, 
with  a  slight  gioss  of  green  ;  the  under  parts 
of  a  dirty-while.  These  birds  are  found  in 
v;;rious  |>arts  of  South  America  and  the  adja- 
cent islands. 

4.  Siijjerciliosus,  wdiite  shaft,  or  superci- 
lious humming-bird,  has  a  bill  twenty  lines 
long;-  the  feathers  of  the  tail  next  the  two 
long  shafts  are  also  the  longest,  and  the  la- 
teral ones  continually  decrease  to  the  two 
outermost,  which  are  the  shortest,  antl  this 
gives  the  tail  a  pyramidal  shape;  its  (inills 
have  a  goldgloss  on  a  grey  and  blackish 
ground,  with  a  whitish  edge  at  the  point,  and 
the  two  shafts  ai;e  white  through  the  w  hole 
projecting  portions  ;  all  the  u|)per  side  of  the 
back  and  head  gold-colour ;  the  wing  violet- 
brown  ;  and  the  under  side  of  the  body 
white-grey. 

Tliese  birds  subsist  on  the  nectar  or  sweet 
juice  of  dowers  :  they  frequent  those  most 
which  have  a  long  tube,  particularly  the  ini- 
paliens  noli  me  tangere,  the  mouarda  with 
crimson  iiowers,  and  those  of  the  convolvulus 
tribe.  7'hey  never  settle  on  the  flower  dur- 
ing the  action  of  extracting  the  jnicc,  but 
•lulter  continually  like  bees,  moving  their 
wings  very  ([uick,  and  making  a  hunniiing 
noise;  whence  their  name.  They  are  not 
very  shy,  <.ulfering  people  to  come  within  a 
foot  or  two  of  the.  place  where  they  are,  but 
when  approached  nearer,  fiy  off  like  an  arrow 
out  of  a  bow.  They  often  meet  and  fight  for 
the  right  to  a  flower,  and  this  all  on  the  wing. 
In  this  state  they  often  come  into  roonij 
where  the  windows  stand  open,  fight  a  little, 
and  go  out  again.  When  they  come  to  a 
llower  which  is  juiceltss,  or  on  the  point  of 
withering,  they  pluck  it  olTas  if  in  ang.-r,  bv 
which  means  the  ground  is  often  quite  cover- 
ed with  them.  When  they  fly  against  each 
other,  they  have,  besides  the  humming,  a 
sort  of  chirping  noise,  like  a  sparrow  or 
chicken.  They  do  not  feed  on  insects  or 
fruit;  nor  can  they  be  kept  long  in  cages, 
though  they  have  been  preserved  alive  for 
several  weeks  together,  by  feeding  them  witli 
water  in  which  sugar  had  been  dis^olved. 

This  bird  most  frequently  builds  in  the 
middle  of  a  branch  of  a  tree,  and  the  nest  is 
so  small  that  it  cannot  be  seen  by  a  person 
w!io  stands  on  the  ground ;  any  one  therefore 
desirous  of  seeing  it  must  get  up  to  the  branch, 
that  he  may  view  it  from  above  :  it  is  for  this 
reason  that  the  nests  are  not  more  frequently 
found.  The  nest  is  of  course  very  small, 
and  quite  round ;  the  outside,  for  the  most 
part  composed  of  green  moss,  common 
on  old  pales  and  trees ;  the  inside  of  soft 


T  R  O 


829 


down,  mostly  collected  from  fh'-  leave;  of  the 
great  mnlleni,  or  the  silk  grass  ;  but  some- 
times they  vary  the  texture,  making  use  of 
llax,  hemp,  liairs,  and  other  soft  materials ; 
they  lay  two  eggi  of  the  size  of  a  pea,  which 
are  white,  and  not  bigger  at  one  end  tiian  the 
other. 

The  above  account  of  the  manners  will  in 
general  suit  all  the  birds  of  this  genus;  for  as 
llieir  tongues  are  made  for  suction,  it  is  by 
this  method  alone  that  they  can  gain  noii- 
rislinient:  no  wonder,  therefore,  they  can 
scarcely  be  kept  alive  by  human  art.  Cap- 
tain Davies,  however,  kept  these  birds  alive 
for  four  months  by  the  tollowing  metliod  : 
lie  made  an  exact  imitation  of  some  of  the 
tubular  flowers  with  paper,  fastened  rounil  a 
tobacco-pipe,  and  painted  them  of  a  proper 
colour  ;  these  were  placed  in  the  order  of 
nature,  in  the  cage  wherein  these  little  crea- 
tures were  conlined  ;  the  bottoms  of  the  tubes 
were  filled  with  a  mixture  ot  brown  sugar  and 
water  as  often  as  emptied;  and  he  had  tiie 
pleasure  of  seeing  them  perform  every  ac- 
tion, for  they  soon  grew  famiiar,  and  tixjk 
the  nourishment  in  tlie  same  manner  as  when 
ranging  at  large,  though  close  under  his  eye. 

TROClIo'lO.  See  Cycloid. 

TROCtiUS,  a  genus  of  vermes  testacea  : 
the  generic  character  is,  animal  a  Umax  ;  shell 
univalve,  spiral,  more  or  less  conic  ;  aper- 
ture somewhat  angular  or  rounded ;  the 
ujjper  side  transverse  and  contracted  ;  pillar 
placed  oblitjuely.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  Iig. 
410.     'I'here  are  about  120  species. 

TROGON,  or  curnru/,  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  order  pica-.  The  generic  character  is, 
bill  shorter  than  the  head,  sharp-edged,  hook-, 
••d,  Ihe  inandibles  serrate,  at  the  edge;  feet 
lornied  for  climbing.  There  are  nine  spe- 
cies. They  all  inhabit  warm  countries,  are 
solitary,  and  live  in  damp  unfreciuented 
woods,  building  on  the  lower  branches  :  their 
flight  is  short,  and  they  feed  on  insects  :  body 
long ;  nostrils  covered  with  bristles ;  feet 
short,  woolly  ;  tad  very  long,  consisting  of  1 2 
feathers. 

TROLLIUS,  glohe-flo-dcr,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  plants  of  tlie  class  poly?.ndria,'and 
order  polygynia,  and  in  the  natural  system 
ranging  under  the  2fith  order,  multisiliqus. 
The  calyx  is  wanting;  there  are  about  l4 
petals ;  the  capsules  are  very  numerous, 
ovate,  and  many  seeded.  There  are  two 
species,  the  asiaticus  and  europa:us  ;  the  lat- 
ter of  which  is  a  British  plant.  The  <  uro- 
pxus,  or  E:iropean  globe-llower,  has  its  cc- 
rollets  connivent,  and  from  nine  to  sixteen 
nectaria,  of  the  length  of  the  stamina,  linear^^ 
plane,  iiicurvated,  and  perforated  at  the  in- 
side of  the  b:;se.  The  leaves  are  divided  first 
into  five  segments  down  to  the  base :  the 
segments  are  again  divided,  each  about  half- 
way, into  two  or  three  lobes,  which  are 
sharply  indented  on  the  edges.  The  stalk  is 
.1.  foot  high,  and  '  scarcely  branched  ;  the 
flower  is  yellmv,  globose,  and  spacious.  It 
grows  at  tne  foot  of  mountains,  and.  bv  the 
sides  of  rivulets.  The  country  people  in 
Sweden  strew  their  floors  and  pavements  on 
holidays  with  the  flowers,  which  have  a  plear 
sant  smell,  and  are  ornamental  in  gardens. 
The  asiaticus  is  little  dilfercnt,  except  that 
theconilla  inclines  to  orange^. 

TRONAGIC,  the  mayor  and  commoualty 
of  the  city  of  London,  aie  ordained  keepers 


aso  T  R  o 

of  th- beams  and  weiglits  for  weigliiiig  mer- 
■chaiiLs'   commodities,    witli  powei- 
porters,  &c 


witli  ])ijwer  to  assifjii 
cli-rks,  porters,  &c.  of  tin;  great  beam  and 
balance,  whicli  wdgiiing  of  goods  and  wares, 
is  caiU'd  trouage. 

TROPiEOLUM,  the  Indian  creis,  or 
niirxturtiinn,  a  genus  of  the  octandria-mono- 
gyii.a  class  of  plants,  the  tlower  of  \vh:cii  con- 
sists of  live  ro'.nidish  petals  inserted  into  tiie 
divisions  of  the  cup  ;  the  two  upper  petals 
are  sessile;  the  three  others  have  very  long 
and  barbated  ungues:  the  fruit  codm.Is  of 
three  convex  capsules,  fulcated,  and  striated 
Oil  one  side,  and  angular  on  tlie  otlier;  the 
seeds  are  three,  gibbous  on  one  side,  and  an- 
gulited  on  the  other,  but  upon  the  wluile 
somewliat  roundish,  and  striated  dcqjly. 
There  are  live  species. 

TROPE.  See  Rhetoric. 

TROPHI.S,  a  genus  of  the  dioecia  tetrandria 
class  and  order  of  plants.  Ther*  is  no  calyx 
and  no  female  corolla;  the  male  corolla  is 
four-petalled  ;  the  style  is  two-parted  ;  berry 
one-seeded.  There  is'one  species,  the  rainoom 
tree  of  Jamaica. 

TROPHY,  tropiTiim,  among  the  antienis, 
a  pile  or  heap  of  arms  of  a  vanquished  enemy, 
raided  by  the  coivjueror  in  the  most  eminent 
part  of  the  field  of  battle.  The  trophies  were 
usuallv  dedicated  to  some  of  the  gods,  espe- 
cially'Jupiter.  The  name  of  the  deity  to 
whoiii  they  were  inscribed,  was  generally 
mentioned;  as  was  that  also  of  the  conqueror. 
The  spoils  were  at  first  hung  upon  tlie  trunk 
of  a  tree  ;  but  instead  of  trees,  succeeding 
a<»es  erected  pillars  of  stone,  or  brass,  to  con- 
tinue the  memorv  of  their  victories.  To  de- 
molish a  trophy  'was  looked  upon  as  a  kind 
of  sacrilege,  because  they  were  all  consecrat- 
ed to  some  deity.  The  representation  of  a 
trophy  is  olteii  to  be  met  with  on  medals  of 
the  Roman  emperors,  struck  on  occasion  of 
Victories ;  wherein,  besides  arms  and  spoils, 
are  frequently  seen  one  or  two  captives  by 
the  ^ides  of  the  tropliy. 

TROPICS.  See  Asxronomy,  and  Geo- 

«RAPHV. 

TROVER   is  the  remedy  prescribed  by 
the  law,  where  any  person  is  in  possession  of 
the  propertv  of  an'otlier,  which  he  unlawlully 
detains.     Previous  to    commencing    of    this 
action,  a  demand  of  the  property  so  detained, 
must  be  made  in  writing  by  sone  person  pro- 
perly authorized  by  the  owner  of  the  proper- 
ty ;  and  upon   rolusal  to  restore  it,  the  law 
presumes   an   unlawful   conversion,  and  the 
party  is  eiilitk-d  to  this  action,   and  will  re- 
cove'r  damages  to  tlie  value  of  the  property 
detained.     As   trover  implies   trespass,    the 
smallest  damages  will  carry  costs.     .\  similar 
action  may  be  brouglU  for  the  unlawful  de- 
tention ot  any  property,  on  which  the  specilic 
article  so  detained  may  be  recovered  ;  but  as 
articles  detained  must  be  precisely  staled  in 
the  declaration,  and  is  atlende<l  with  some 
dilTiculty,  this  action  is  very  seldom  brought. 
TROl'T.  See  Salmo. 
TROY-WEIGHT,  one  of  tlie  most  an- 
titnt  of  the   dilV.rent  kiiuN  used  in  Britain. 
The  ounce  of  this  weight  nas  brought  from 
Grand  Cairo  in  Egypt,  about  the  tune  oi  tiie 
crusades,  into  Eunme,  and  lirst  adopted  in 
Troyes,  a   city  of  Champagne,  wlieiice  the 
name.     'The  pound  Engl  ^h  troy  contains  12 


T  R   U 

for  weigliinj  go''',  silver,  and  jewels ;  in 
some  degree  fur  compouniUiigmedxine- ;  for 
ex])eriments  in  natural  philoioiihy;  and  for 
comparing  dilfen-nt  weights  with  each  other, 
Troy-v\eicht,  Scots,  was  established  by 
James  VI.  in  tiie  year  l6i<S,  who  enacted, 
that  only  one  weight  should  be  used  in  ;-"v0t- 
land,  viz.  the  Erench  troy  stone  of  !  6  po'.inds, 
and  16  ounces  in  the  poun).  in"  pound 
contains  7()0()  grains,  andiseq;iai  to  17  oz. 
6  dr.  avoirdupois.  The  cwt.  or  UJ  lb. 
avoirdupois,  contains  only  103  lb.  2^  oz.  ot 
this  weight,  though  generally  reckoned  equal 
to  104  lb.  'This  weight  is  nearly,  if  not  ex- 
actly, the  same  as  that  of  P.'.ris  and  Amster- 
dani  ;  and  is  gciieia'ly  known  by  the  name 
of  Dutch  weight.  Though  prohibited  by  li  e 
articles  of  union,  it  is  still  used  in  weiehing 
hemp,  flav,    most  Dutch   and    Baltic 


iron. 


ounces,  or  j/fiO   grams. 
used  for  everj  purp  .se; 
10 


It   was   formerly 
and  is  still  reUinf  d 


goods,  meal,  buuliers-meat,  unuinught  pew- 
ter and  lead,   and  some  other  articles.     See 

V>' EIGHTS. 

TRUCE,  in  war,  denotes  a  suspension  of 
arms,  or  a  cessation  of  Iwstilities  between  two 
armies,  in  ord(;r  to  settle  articles  of  peace, 
burv  the  dead,  or  the  like. 

'TRUEl  LES,  in  natural  history,  a  kind  of 
subterraneous  pud-ball,  bring  a  species  of 
fungi,  wliicli  grows  under  tlie  surface  of  the 
earth.     See  Lvcoperdon'. 

TRUMPET,  the  loudest  of  all  portable 
wind  instruments,  and  consisting  of  a  folded 
tube  generallv  made  of  brass,  and  sometimes 
of  silver. 

The  antients  had  various  hislrumcu's  of  the 
trumpet  kind,  as  the  tuba,  coniua,  &c. 
Moses,  as  the  scripture  infonns  us,  made  two 
of  silver  to  be  used  by  the  priests  ;  and  Solo- 
mon, Josephus  tells  'us,  made  two  hundred 
lik  those  of  Moses,  and  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  modern  trumpet  consists  of  a  mouth- 
piece, near  an  inch  across.  Tlie  pieces  which 
conduct  the  winil  are  called  the  branches  ; 
the  parts  in  whicli  it  is  bent  the  potences ; 
and  the  canal  between  the  second  bend  and 
the  extremity  the  pavilion  ;  the  rings  where 
the  branches'  lake  asunder,  or  are  soldered 
togetlier,  the  knots,  which  are  five  in  num- 
ber, and  serve  to  cover  the  joints. 

One  particular  in  this  powerful  and  noble 
instrument  is,  that,  like  the  horn,  it  only 
commands  certain  imtes  within  its  compass. 

The  trumpet  produces,  as  natural  and  easy 
sounds,  G  above  the  bass-cliff  note,  or  fiddle 
G,  C  on  the  lirst  leilger  line  below  in  the 
treble,  E  on  the  lirst  line  of  the  stave,  G  on 
the  second  line,  C  on  the  third  space,  and  all 
the  succeeding  notes  up  to  C  in  alt,  including 
the  sharp  of  F,  the  fourth  of  the  key. 

Solo  performers  can  also  produce  R  flat 
(the  third  above  the  treble-clilT  note)  and  by 
the  aid  of  a  newly  invented  slide  many  other 
notes  which  the  common  trumpet  cannot 
sound  are  now  producctl. 

A  method  iias  latelv  been  discovered  for 
varnishing  the  inside  of  trumpets,  so  as  not  to 
iniure  the  lineness  of  the  sound,  anil  yet  to 
prevent  the  deleteiious  elfect?  occasioned  by 
drawing  in  the  oxide  of  copper  into  the  lungs. 
'Trumpet  7»«)inc,  a  kind  ot  itionochoid, 
consisting  of  three  tables,  which  form  its 
triangular  body.  It  has  a  very  narrow  neek, 
with  one  thick  string,  mountevl  on  a  bridge, 
which  is  firm  on  one  side,  and  tremulous  on 
the  other.  It  is  struck  with  a  bow  by  the 
right  hand,  while  the  thumb  of  the  hft  is 
pressed  on  the  string.    The  pecullaill^  of  it.-. 


T  R  U 

■sount?,  which  re=embU's  that  of  the  tnimpt^, 
is  proilnced  by  thetremulation  of  the  bridges. 
'Th'sinsrument,  like  that  of  the  tones  of  which 
it  imitates,  IS  confined  to  certain  notes,  and 
some  othse  are  imperfect.  ' 

'Trumpet,  harmonical,  an  instrument  that 
imitate^  the  sound  of  a  trumpet,  which  it 
re^.elllbips  in  every  thing,  excepting  that  it  is 
longer,  and  consists  ot  more  brandies;  it  is 
g<'iieraliv  called  sa'kbut. 

I'ri'MPET,  s/cdUntf,  is  a  tube  from  six  to 
fifteen  feet  long,  made  of  tin,  perfectly 
straight,  ;.iid  with  a  very  large  aperture  ;  the 
mouth-piece  being  large  enough  to  recei-e 
botii  lips. 

The  speaking-trumpet,  or  slentorophonic 
tube,  as  some  call  it,  is  used  lor  niagnifving 
sound,  pirticularlv  that  of  speech,  and  thus 
c.iusing  it  to  be  heard  at  a  great  distance, 
liow  itdoes  this  will  be  easy  to  understand 
from  the  striicture  of  it,  Hius'  illustrated  :  Let 
ACBbethe  tube,  BD  the  axis,  and  B  the 
mouth-piece  lor  conveying  the  voice  to  the 
tube.     Plate  Miscel.  fig'.  244. 

It  is  then  evident,  when  a  person  speaks 
at  H  in  the  trumpet,  the  whole  force  of  his 
voice  is  spent  upon  the  air  contained  in  the 
tube,  which  will  be  agitated  through  the 
whole  length  of  tiie  tube;  and  bv  various 
reflections  from  the  side  of  tlie  tube;  to 
the  axis,  the  air  along  the  middle  part  of 
the  tube  will  be  greatly  condensed,  and  its 
momentum  proportionably  increased,  so  that 
when  it  comes  to  agitate  the  air  at  the  orifice 
of  the  tube  AC,  its  force  will  be  as  much 
greater  than  what  it  would  have  been  without 
the  tube,  as  the  surface  of  a  sphere,  whose 
radius  is  equal  to  the  length  of  the  tube,  is 
greater  than  the  surface  of  the  segment  of 
such  a  sphere,  whose  base  is  the  orifice  of  the 
tube.     See  Sound. 


For  a  person  speaking  at  B,  without  the 
tube,  will  have  the  force  of  his  voice  spent  in 
exciting  concentric  superficies  of  air  all 
around  the  point  B ;  and  w  hen  those  super- 
fices  or  pulses  of  air  are  tiiliused  as  far  as  D 
every  way,  it  is  plain  the  force  of  tlie  voice 
will  be  dilfused  through  the  w  hole  superficies 
ofasphei*  whose  radius  is  BD  ;  but  in  the 
trumpet  it  will  be  so  confined,  that  at  its  exit 
it  will  be  only  ditTused  through  so  much  of 
that  spherical  surface  of  air,  as  corresponds 
to  the  orifice  of  the  tube.  But  since  the 
force  is  given,  its  intensity  will  be  always  in- 
versely, as  the  number  ol  particles  it  has  to 
move ;  and  therefore  in  tlie  tube  it  will  be  to 
that  without,  as  the  superficies  of  such  a 
sphere  to  the  area  of  the  large  ejid  of  the  tube 
nearly. 

To  make  this  matter  yet  plainer  by  calcu- 
lation, let  BD=:j  feet,  then  will  the  diameter 
of  the  sphere  DE=10  feel,  the  square  of 
which  is  10(1,  which,  multiplied  bv  0,78j4, 
gives  7S,.')4'(|uaie  leet  for  the  area  of  a  great 
circle  All El'C.  ,\nd,  tln'refore,  four  times 
that  area,  viz.  4x  7H,54=:.3l4,  Iti  square  feet 
in  the  superlicies  ot  the  aerial  sphere.  If  now 
the  diameter  AC  of  the  end  of  a  trumpet,  is 
one  foot,  its  area  will  be  0,7854;  but  7SS4  : 
3 14.  It) : ;  1  :  400,  therefore  the  air  at  the  dis- 
tani  e  oMU),  will  be  agitated  by  means  of  the 
trumpet,  with  a  force  400  limes  greater llian 
b\  the  bare  voice  alone.  Again,  it  is  farther 
evident  how  instruments  of  this  form  nt  ce»- 
saiily  assist  the  hearing;  for  the  weak  and  lan- 
guid pulsCs  of  the  air  being  received  by  the 


T  R  U 

larc;e  end  of  t!ie  tube,  am!  greatly  multiplii'd 
arjii  C'liideusL-tl  by  the  triMiiulou>  iiii/lioii  ol 
the  |>url4  of  tile  tiil)i-,  ami  air  agitated  !•> 
tlii'iii,  are  ooiiveyivl  to  the  ear  by  tlie  siiiail 
end,  and  strike  it  with  an  iniix'tus  as  iiuicli 
greater  tliau  they  would  have  done  uithoiit 
jt,  as  the  area  of  the  small  end  at  IS  is  less 
than  the  area  of  the  lar_:^<T  end  AC.  From 
what  has  been  said,  it  is"evidi-nt  the  effect  ol 
the  tube  in  magnifying  sound,  either  lor 
siieaking  or  hearjuf^,  di-jx'nds  ehiclly  upon 
the  length  ol  the  tube.  IJut  yet  some'advan- 
tage  may  be  derived  (roni  the  particular 
shape.  Some  very  eminent  pliilosophers 
have  proposed  the  lignre  which  is  juade  l)y 
the  revolution  of  a  parabola  about  its  axis,  as 
the  best  of  any,  wlnre  the  mouth-piece  of  the 
parabola,  and,  consecpientlv,  th.;  sonorous 
rays  will  be  rellected  parallel  ti)  the  axis  of 
the  tube.  But  this  parallel  rellection  seems 
no  way  essentia!  to  the  magnifying  of  sound  ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  appears  rather  to  hinder 
such  an  effect,  by  preventing  the  inlinne 
number  of  rellections  and  recijn  ocatiom  of 
sound  ;  in  which,  according  to  sir  Isaac 
Newton,  its augment.ition  principally  consists. 
For  all  reciprocal  motion,  in  every  return,  is 
augmented  by  its  generating  can-^e,  which  is 
here  the  tremulous  motions  of  the  parts  of 
the  tube.  In  every  repercussion,  therefore, 
from  the  sides  of  the  tube,  the  agiiatioiis  and 
pulses  of  conlined  air  must  nccossarilv  be  in- 
creased;  and  consi'ipiently  this  augmctntation 
of  the  impetus  of  the  pulses  must  be  propor- 
tional to  the  number  of  such  repercussions ; 
and  therefore,  to  the  length  of  the  tube,  and 
tosuch  a  ligure  as  is  nxist  productive  of  them. 
Wheiiceit  appears  that  the  parabolic  trumpet 
is  of  all  the  most  unlit  for  this  purpose,  in- 
stead ot  being  ih-  best. 

But  there  is  one  thing  more  which  contri- 
butes to  the  augmenting  of  these  agitations  of 
air  in  the  tube,  .aid  that  is  the  proportion 
which  the  several  portions  of  air  bear  to  each 
other,  when  divided  by  transverse  sections, 
at  very  small,  but  equal  distances,  from  one 
end  of  the  tube  to  the  other.  Thus,  let 
those  several  divisions  be  made  at  the  points 
u,  h,  c.  d,  c,  &c.  which  let  the  right  lines  ak, 
bl,  cm,  da,  &c.  be  taken  in  geo. Metrical  pro- 
portion. Then  will  the  portions  of  air  con- 
tained between  Band  n,  a  and  h,  b  and  cc,  cc 
and  d,  Sec.  be  very  nearly  in  the  same  pro- 
portion, as  being  in  the  same  ratio  with  their 
bases,  wdien  the  points  of  division  arc  indefi- 
nitely near  together. 

But  when  any  tjuantity  of  motion  is  com- 
mvmicited  to  a  series  of  elastic  bodies,  it  will 
receive  the  greatest  augmentation  when  those 
bodies  are  in  geometrical  proportion.  There- 
fore, since  the  force  of  the  voice  is  impressed, 
upon,  and  gradually  propagated  through,  a 
series  of  elastic  portions  of  air  iu  a  geome- 
trical ratio  to  each  other,  it  shall  receive  llie 
greatest  augmentation  possible. 

Now,  since  by  construction  it  is  \ia=:ub=i 
be  =  cd,  &c.  and  also  ak  :  hi :  ■  bl :  cm  '•  :  cm  : 
dn,  and  so  on  ;  theretbre,  the  points  k,  i,  m, 
11,  0,  /),  k,  r,  .1,  as  will,  in  this  case,  form  that 
curve  line  whit"!!  is  called  the  logarithmic 
curve  ;  consequently  a  trumpet,  formed  by 
the  revolution  of  this  curve  about  its  axis, 
will  augment  tlie  sound  in  a  greater  degree 
than  any  other  hgnred  tube  whatever. 

Tru.mpet,  lisU-ning  or  keurints,  is  an  in- 
strument invented  by  Joseph  I,an(hr.i,  to  as- 
sist the  hearing  of  persons  dull  ul  tiiat  faculty. 


T  fx  U 

or  to  assist  us  to  hear  pi  rsous  wiio  speak  at  a 
gnat  distance. 

Iu-.trumeiits  of  this  kind  are  formed  of 
lubes,  v^'itll  a  wide  mouth,  and  terminating 
iu  a  small  canal,  whicli  is  applied  to  the  ear. 

1  he  torni  of  these  instruments  evidently 
shews  how  they  coiiiluce  to  assist  the  hearing, 
tor  the  greater  i|uaiitity  of  tin-  weak  ami  lan- 
!;uid  piilM-s  ol  the  air  ljeinf«  n-ceived  and  col- 
lected by  the  large  end  ol  the  tube,  are  re- 
llected to  ihe  small  iiul,  where  they  are  col- 
lected and  condensed  ;  thence  entering  the 
ear  in  this  condensed  state,  they  strike  tin; 
tympanum  with  a  gi eater  force  than  they 
could  natuiall)  have  done  from  llu;  ear  alone. 

lience  it  appears  that  a  speaking-trumpet 
may  be  applied  to  the  |)urpose  of  a  hearing- 
trumpet,  l)y  turning  tlie  wide  end  towards 
.'..■  sound,  and  the  narrow  end  to  the  ear. 

Tkumi'ET-floueh.     .See  I'ignonia. 

TRUMrF.T-sHELL,  the  Knglish  name  of 
the  buccinnm  of  authors.  See  Buccmnlm. 

TBI  NCArp'.D,  in  geneial,  is  an  appel- 
lation given  to  such  things  as  have,  or  seem  to 
have,  their  points  cut  oil':  thus  wc  say,  a 
truncated  cone,  pvramid,  leaf,  &c. 

In  entomology  it  means  when  the  elytra 
(or  upper  wings)  are  shorter  than  the  abdo- 
men, and  terminated  by  a  transverse  line. 

TIU  NNIONS,  or  Trunions  ()/ rt  /wVcc 
(ij  orditiiiuc,  are  those  knobs  or  bunches  of 
tlie  gun's  metal,  which  bear  her  up  on  the 
cheeks  of  the  carriage  :  and  hence  the  trun- 
nion-ring is  the  ring  about  a  cannon,  nirxt  be- 
fore the  trunnions. 

TKLS.S  OF  FLOWERS,  is  used  by  flo- 
rists to  signify  many  flowers  growing  together 
on  the  head  of  a  stalk,  as  in  the  cowslip,  au- 
ricula, ire. 

Truss  is  also  used  for  a  sort  of  bandage  or 
ligature  made  of  steel,  or  the  like  matter, 
wherewith  to  keep  up  the  parts,  in  those  who 
have  hernias  or  ruptures.     See  Surgery. 

Trusses,  in  a  ship,  are  ropes  made  fast  to 
the  parrels  of  a  yard,  either  to  bind  the  yard 
to  the  mast  when  tlie  ship  rolls,  or  to  hale 
down  the  yards  in  a  storm,  &c. 

'1  KL'S  r,  is  a  right  to  receive  profits  of 
land,  and  to  dis'pose  of  the  land  in  equity. 
And  one  hohling  the  possession  and  disposing 
ot  it  at  his  will  and  pleasure,  arc  signs  of  trust. 
C'h.ni.  Rep.  '.li. 

A  trust  is  bill  a  new  name  given  to  an  use, 
and  invented  to  evade  the  statute  of  uses.  21 
Viu.  493. 

H'luit  is  a  declaration  oftvu^t,  and  iihcn 
a  trust  shall  be  raised.  By  stat.  29  C.  II.  c. 
3.  all  declaration  or  creation  of  trust  shall  be 
manifested  by  some  writing  sign'  d  by  the 
party,  or  by  Ins  last  will  in  writing,  or  else 
sliall  be  void.  And  by  sect.  9  of  the  same 
act,  assignments  of  trust  shall  be  in  writing, 
signed  by  the  party  assigning  the  same,  or  by 
his  last  w  ill,  or  else  shall  be  of  no  effect. 

It'/ial  .shall  be  dfo/ird  ii  trust  In/  implica- 
tioit.  By  -20  Car.  II.  all  declarations  of  trusts 
were  to  be  made  in  writing  ;  but  in  the  said 
act  there  is  a  saving  with  regard  to  trusts  re- 
sulting by  implication  of  law,  which  are  left 
on  the  footing  whereon  they  stood  before  the 
act ;  now  a  bare  dec  laration  by  parole  before 
the  act,   would  prevent  any  resulting  trust. 

2  Vem.  29-1. 

If  a  man  purchases  lands  in  another's  name, 
and  pays  the  money,  it  w  ill  be  a  trust  for  him 
111  it  paid  tlie  raoiRv,  ihoui^h  no  deed  is  iiiadi.-. 


TUG 


e?,T 


TRUSTEE,  one  who  has  an  estate,  or 
money,  put  or  truted  in  his  hands,  for  the 
use  of  another.  VS'here  two  or  more  persons 
are  appointed  trustees,  if  one  of  lln.-ni  only 
receives  all  or  the  greatest  part  of  llie  profits  of 
the  lands,  Ike.  and  is  in  arrear,  and  unable  to 
satisfy  the  person  to  whom  he  is  seised  in 
trust,  the  other,  in  that  caie,  slhid  not  be 
answerable  for  more  than  conies  to  his  hands. 

'I'L'liK,  in  general,  ))ipe,  conduit,  ore  anal ; 
a  cylinder,  hollow  withinside,  either  of  lead, 
iron,  wood,  glass,  or  otiier  matter,  tor  the  atr, 
or  some  other  lluid,  to  have'a  tree  passage  or 
conveyance  through. 

Small  silver  or  leaden  tubes  are  f  ecpienlly 
used  by  surgeons  to  draw  olf  blood,  matter, 
or  water,  from  the  diffen-nt  parts  of  the  body. 
They  are  made  of  various  sizes  and  shapes. 

Tube,  in  astronomy,  is  sometimes  used  for 
a  telescope,  or,  more  properly,  for  that  part 
into  vibicli  the  lenses  are  fitted,  and  by  which 
they  are  directed  and  used.     See  Optics. 

TL'BII'OHA,  a  genus  of  zoophyta  TliR 
generic  character  is,  animal  a  nereis ;  coral 
consisting  of  erect,  hollow,  cylindrical,  paral- 
lel aggregate  tubes.  There  are  ten  species: 
themusica  inhabits  the  American  and  Indian 
seas,  is  lixetl  to  rocks  and  other  corals;  bright 
scarlet,  consisting  of  an  assortment  of  upright 
parallel  tubes,  rising  over  each  other  by 
stages,  like  cells  of  an  honeycomb,  divideJI 
by  transverse  partitions.  The  Indians  use  it 
incases  of  strangury,  and  wounds  inllicted  by 
venomous  animals. 

TL'BUF.VBIA,  a  genus  of  zoophvta:  stem 
tubular,  simple  or  branched,  fixed  by  the 
base  :  animal  proceeding  from  the  end  of  the 
tube,  and  having  its  head  created  with  tenti- 
ciila.  There  are  26  s])ecies ;  the  maguilic'a- 
inhabits  the  West  Indies,  adhering;  to  ro(  ks_,. 
and  is  the  most  splendid  gem.-  ot  '.hem  all  r 
it  has  the  power  of  withdrawing  its  teiitacula 
within  the  tube,  and  the  tube  within  the  rock 
on  which  it  resides. 

TL'FAS,  beds  of  lime  deposited  on  vege- 
tables, which  by  their  destruction  give  great 
lightness  and  porousne-.s  to  the  mass. 

1  I'G,  in  military  affairs,  Fr.  A  TurkTsh 
term  for  tail ;  a  sort  of  standard,  called  so  by 
the  Turks.  It  consists  ofa  horse's  tail,  wliicti 
is  fixed  to  a  long  pole  or  half-pike,  by  means 
ofa  gold  button.  The  origin  ot  this  standard: 
is  curious.  It  is  said,  that  ttie  Christians  hav- 
ing given  battle  to  the  Turks,  the  latter  were 
broken,  and  in  the  midst  of  their  confusion 
lo<t  their  grand  standard.  The  'J'urkish  ge- 
neral, being  extremely  agitated  at  the  untow- 
ard circumstances  which  happened,  most 
esj)ecially  by  the  loss  of  the  great  standard, 
cut  olf  a  horse's  tail  with  his  sabre,  fixed  it  to 
a  half-pike,  and  holding  it  in  his  hand,  rode 
furiously  towards  the  nigitives,  and  exclaim- 
ed, '  Here  is  tlie  great  standar<l ;  let  those 
who  love  me,  follow  into  action.'  This  pro- 
duced the  desired  effect.  ']'he  Turks  rallied 
with  redoubled  courage,  ruslu-d  info  the 
thitkest  of  the  enemy,  and  not  only  aained 
the  victory,  but  recovered  their  standard. 
Other  writers  assert,  that  six  thousand  Turks 
having  been  taken  prisoners  during  a  general- 
engageitienl,  contrived  to  escape  from  their 
guard  or  escort,  and  afterwards  fought  so 
gallantly,  that  they  regained  another  battle  ; 
that  in  order  to  recognize  one  another,  tijey 
cut  off  a  horse's  tail,  which  they  carr  ed  as  a 
tlandard ;  lliat  wbeii  ihcy  joined  the  Otto 


833 


T  U  L 


man  army,  Ihev  still  made  use  of  llie  tug  or  | 
tail  ;  tliiit  the  ■'I'lu-ks,  in  coiiscciuenic  ot  the 
vidoi y  wiiicli  was  oblaintd  uiicler  this  new 
standard,  looked  uiion  it  as  a  hapj)y  omen  ; 
and  lliat  since  that  period  they  h.ve  always 
foiialit  under  it  as  their  banner,  and  liie  signal 
ol  iucecss.  ■ 

W'  liatever  may  liave  been  the  origin,  it  is 
certain,  that  wlim  liie  grand  signor  takes 
tlie  lield  in  person,  seven  of  these  tails  are 
always  carried  befoFC  him  ;  and  when  he  is 
in  camp,  they  are  placed  in  front  of  his 
tent. 

The  grand  visier  is  entitled  to  three  of 
these  tails. 

The  three  principal  bashaws  of  the  eni- 
j)\re;  viz.  tho-,e  of  B.iydad,  Grantl  Cairo,  and 
Breda,  have  lise  grand  signor's  permission  to 
u,-e  this  mark  ot  distinilion,  throughout  the 
whole  extent  of  their  juribdiction. 

Those  bashaws  that  are  not  visicrs  ha\'e  tiie 
privilege  of  having  two  tails. 

The  beys,  who  :u::  subordinate  to  tlie  ba- 
shaws, have  only  one. 

TULBAGIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
and  order  hexandria  monogjnia.  Tlie  corolla 
is  funnei-forni ;  net-t.  three-leaved  ;  capsule 
superior.  There  are  two  species,  bulbs  of 
the  Cape. 

TULIP.  SeeTuLiPA. 

TULIPA,  tulip,  a  germs  of  plants  of  the 
class  hexandria,  and  order  monogynia,  and  in 
the  natural  sTstera  ranging  under  the  10th 
ovder,  coroniria?.  The  corolla  is  hexapeta- 
lou»  and  camp;uuilated,  and  there  is  no  style. 
The  species  of  this  genus  are  five;  the  syl- 
veslris,  or  flalian  yellow  tulip,  a  native  of  the 
south  of  Europe  ;  the  gestieriana,  or  com- 
mon tulip,  a  native  of  the  Levant ;  the  brcy- 
niana,  or  cape  tulip,  a  native  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  the  bitlora,  and  the  suavolens. 

1.  The  sylvestris,  or  wild  European  tulip, 
has  an  obioiig  bulbous  root,  sending  tip  long 
narrow  spear-shaped  leaves ;  and  a  slcjider 
stalk,  supporting  at  top  a  small  yellow  flower, 
nodding  on  one^ide,  having  acute  pi-tals. 

2.  The  ge^neriana,  Gesner's  Turky  tulip 
of  Cappadocia,  or  common  garden  tulip,  has 
a  large,  oblong,  tunicated,  solid,  bulbous 
root,  covered  with  a  brown  skin,  sending  up 
long,  oval,  spear-shaped  leaves;  an  upright 
round  stalk,  from  half  a  foot  to  a  yard  high, 

•  and  its  top  crowned  with  a  large  bell-shaped 
erect  hexapetalous  flower,  of  almost  all  co- 
lours and  variegations  in  the  different  varie- 
ties. 

This  tulip,  and  its  vast  train  of  varieties,  is 
genendiv  cultivated  for  the  ornament  of  our 
"arden^,'  and  murli  admired  by  all  for  its 
great  variety  and  beautiful  ajjpearance ;  it 
grows  freely  in  the  open  g.ound  in  any  com- 
mon soil  of  a  garden,  and  proves  a  very  great 
decoration  to  the  beds  and  borders  of  the 
pleasure-ground  for  six  weeks  or  two  montlis 
in  spring,  by  different  plantings  of  early  and 
Ute  sorts  ;  planting  tlie  principal  part  in  au- 
tumn,and  the  rest  towards  Christmas,  and  in 
January  or  February.  'I'll'-  autumn  plantings 
will  r-ome  earliest  iiito  bloom,  and  llo'.ver  the 
strorigeit;  and  the  others  will  succeeil  them 
in  fl'iwering.  In  summer,  when  the  tiower- 
ino-  is  past,  and  the  leaves  and  stalks  assume 
a  state  of  decay,  the  bulbs  of  ihe  choicest  va- 
rieties are  generally  taken  up,  the  offsets  se- 
parated, and  the  'whole  cleaned  from  fdth  ; 
then  put  up  to  dry  till  October  or  November, 
and  planted  again'for  the  future  year's  bloom. 


T  U  L 

Of  this  species,  which  is  the  florist's  deligl  t, 
the  varieties  may  be  divided  into  two  prin- 
cipal classes,  viz.  1.  Early  or  dwarf  sjiring 
tulips  (prseoces).  2.  Late  tlowering  tall 
tulips  (serotine).  I.  Early  tulips.  The 
early  tulips  are,  among  florists,  distinguished 
by  the  appellation  of  pricoces,  (early)  lie- 
cause  thev  flower  early  in  the^spring,  fi  mouth 
or  more  before  the  others;  are  much  shorter 
stalked,  and  the  flowers  smaller,  but  in  great 
reputation  for  their  early  bloom  and  their  gay 
lively  colours,  both  of  self-colours,  and 
broken  into  flaked  variegations,  such  as  reds, 
crimson,  scarlet,  cunalions,  violets,  purples, 
yellow,  <S;c.  with  flowers  of  each,  edged 
and  flaked  with  red,  yellow,  and  white, 
in  many  diversities.  2.  Late  flowering  com- 
mon tulips.  This  clu'^s  is  denominated  late 
flowering,  and  by  the  florists  called  serotines, 
because  they  blow  later  in  the  spring,  a  month 
or  more,  than  the  pnccoces,  i.  e.  not  coijiing 
into  flower  before  ;lie  end  of  April,  May, 
and  June.  Thev  are  all  of  tall  growth,  sup- 
porting large  flowers,  and  furnish  an  almost 
endless  variety  in  tlie  vast  diversity  of  co- 
lours ;  after,  they  break  from  whole  blowers 
into  variegations  and  stripes,  exceeding  all 
others  of  the  tulip  kind  in  beauty  and  elegance 
of  flower. 

All  the  varieties  are  succeeded  by.  plenty 
of  ripe  seed  in  July  and  August,  contained 
in  an  oblong  capsule  ©f  three  cells,  having 
the  seeds  placed  on  each  otlier  in  double 
rows.  By  the  seeds  many  new  varieties 
may  be  raised,  which  however  will  not  attain 
a  flowering  state  till  they  are  seven  or  eight 
years  old ;  and  after  that  will  retjuire  two  or 
tliree  years,  or  more,  to  break  into  variega- 
tions, when  the  approved  varieties  may  be 
marked,  and  increased  by  offsets  of  the  root. 
The  colours  in  greatest  estimation  in  varie- 
gated tulips  are  the  blacks,  golden  yellows, 
purple-violets,  rose,  and  vermilion,  each  of 
which  being  variegated  various  ways  ;  and 
such  as  are  striped  with  three  different  co- 
lours distinct  and  unmixed,  witii  strong  re- 
gular streaks,  but  with  little  or  no  tinge  of 
the  breeder,  may  be  called  the  most  perfect 
tulips.  It  is  rare  to  meet  with  a  tulip  posses- 
s'uig  all  these  properties. 

As  to  the  manner  of  obtaining  this  won- 
derful varietv  of  colours  in  tulips,  it  is  often 
accomplished  bv  nature  alon?,  but  is  some- 
times assisted  and  forwarded  by  some  simple 
operations  of  art ;  sucli  as  that,  in  the  (irst 
place,  when  the  seedling  bulbs  of  the  whole 
blower  or  breeder  are  arrived  to  full  size, 
and  have  flowered  once,  to  transplant  them 
iato  beds  of  any  poor  dry  barren  soil,  in 
order  that,  by  a  defect  of  nutriment  in  the 
earth,  the  natural  luxuriance  of  the  plant 
mav  be  checked,  and  cause  a  weakness  in 
their  general  growth,  whereby  they  generally, 
in  this  weakened  or  infirm  state,  gradually 
change  and  break  out  into  variegations,  some 
the  first  year,  others  not  till  the  second  or 
third  ;  and  according  as  they  are  thus  broken 
they  should  be  planted  in  beds  of  good  earth. 
Another  method  to  assist  nature  in  elfect- 
ing  the  breaking  the  breeding  tulips  into  di- 
versified colours,  is  to  make  as  great  a  change 
as  possible  in  the  soil ;  if  they  were  this  year 
in  a  light  poor  soil,  plant  them  the  next  in  a 
rich  garden  mould,  and  another  year  in  a 
compost  of  different  earths  and  dungs ;  or 
transplant  them  from  one  jiart  of  the  garden 


TUN 

(o  another,  or  into  different  gar 'ens,  &c.  or 
from  one  country  to  another;  all  of  which 
contributes  to  assist  nature  in  producing  tlii* 
desirable  divej'sity  of  colours  and  variega- 
tions. 

The  double  tulip  is  also  a  variety  of  the 
common  tulip,  and  is  very  beautiful,  lliough 
not  in  such  estimation  among  the  florils  a^ 
the  common  single  variegated  ^orts,  not  pos- 
sessing such  a  profusion  of  variegations  in  the 
colours  and  regularity  of  stripes;  they  hoWi 
ever  exhibit  au  elegantly  ornamental  appear-: 
ance. 

Tulip  roots  are  sold  in  full  collection,  con- 
sisting of  numerous  varietie",  at  most  of  the 
nurseries  and  seedsmen,  who  both  propagate 
them  thifmselves  by  oflsets  and  beecl,  and  im- 
port vast  (iiiantities  annually  from  Holland, 
the  Dutcli  being  f;m;)us  for  raising  the  grand- 
est collections  of  liie  finest  tulips,  and  odier 
bulbous  flowers,  in  the  greatest  perfection. 

TUMOUR,  or  Tu.mor,  in  medicine  and 
surgery,  a  prelernatural  rising  or  hard  swell-, 
ing  on  any  part  of  the  body. 

TUN,  or  To-V,  originally  signifies  a  large 
vessel  or  cask  of  an  oblong  form,  biggest  in 
the  middle,  and  diminishing  towards  its  two 
ends,  girt  about  with  hoops,  and  used  for 
stowing  several  kinds  of  merchandize,  for. 
convenience  of  carriage ;  as  brandy,  oil, 
sugar,  skins,  hats,  &c.  This  word  is  also 
used  for  certain  vessels  of  extraordinary  big- 
ness, serving  to  keep  wine  for  several  years. 

Tun  is  also  a  certain  measure  for  liquids ; 
as  wine,  oil,  &c.     See  Measure. 

Tun  is  also  a  certain  weight,  whereby  the. 
burden  of  ships,  Sec.  are  estimated.  See  Ton 
and  Weight. 

TUNE,  or  Tone,  ia>music,  that  property 
of  sounds  whereby  they  come  under  the  re- 
lation of  acute  and  grave  to  one  another.  See 
Tone,  and  Sou.vd.  ■ 

Sonorous  bodies  we  find  differ  in  tune  :  L 
According  to  the  different  kinds  of  matter ; 
thus  a  wedge  of  silver  sounds  much  more 
acute  than  a  wedge  of  gold  of  Ihe  same  shape 
and  dimensions,  in  which  case  the  tones  are 
proportional  to  the  specific  gravity.  2.  Ac- 
cording to  the  different  quantities  of  the  same 
matter  in  bodies  of  the  same  figure,  a  solid 
sphere  of  brass,  one  foot  diameter,  sounds 
acuter  than  one  of  two  feet  diameter ;  in 
which  case  the  tunes  are  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  matter.  Here  Ihen  are  tlifferent 
tunes  connected  with  dilferent  specific  gra- 
vities and  (pianlities  of  matter,  as  their  im- 
mediate cause.  In  elfett,  the  measures  of 
tune  are  only  sought  in  the  relations  of  the 
motions  that  are  tiie  cause  of  sound,  which, 
are  no  way  so  discernablc  as  in  vibrations  of 
chords. 

In  the  general  we  find  that  in  two  chords, 
all  things  being   equal,   except  tension,    or,. 
tliickness,  or  length,  the  tunes  are  dilferent; 
there  must,  therefore,  be  a  dilference  in  the 
vibrations  owing  to  these  different  tensions, 
&c.  which  difference  can  only  be  in  the  ve- 
locity  of  the  courses  and  recourses  of  thev 
chords,   thi'ougii    the  siiace .    wherein   they,. 
move  to  and  again.     Now,  upon  examining 
the  proportion  of  the  velocity,  and  the  things 
just   mentioned,    wherein    it    depends,    it    is- 
tiiund,  to  a  demonstration,  that  all  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  same  chord  are  periormed  in 
ecjual  limes.     Hence,  a^  tlie  tone  of  a  sound- 
depends  on  the  nature  of  these  vibrations, 
whose  dilTcrence  we  can  conceive  no  otiur- 


T  U  M 

■«'ise  tlian  as  liaviii!»  iliflVrent  velocilies ;  and 
as  till-  >iiiall  viljnilions  ot  Ihe  same  <liorcl  arc 
perlormecl  in  eiiuiil  limes,  and  it  is  found 
true,  in  farf,  tliat  the  sound  of  any  body 
arising  from  any  individual  stroke,  tliouglj  it 
grows  gradually  weaker,  yet  continues  llie 
same  tone  from  lirst  to  last ;  it  follows, 
that  tlic  tone  is  necessarily  connected  wiili  a 
certain  i|tiantily  of  time,  in  making  every 
single  viiiralion ;  or  that  a  certain  numher 
of  vibrations,  accomplished  in  a  given  time, 
constitutes  a  certain  deterniinale  tune  ;  fir 
(he  more  frequent  those  vibrations  are,  the 
more  acute  the  tone ;  and,  the  slower  and 
fewer  they  are,  the  more  grave  the  sound, 
though  [lerformed  in  the  same  space  of  time  ; 
so  that  any  given  note  of  a  tuue  is  made  by 
one  certain  measure  of  velocity  of  vibrations, 
that  is,  such  certain  courses  and  recourses 
of  a  chord  or  string,  in  such  a  certain  space 
of  time,  constitute  a  determi?iate  tune. 

'TUNGSTEN,  a  mineral  found  in  Sweden, 
of  an  opaque  white  colour  and  great  weight, 
whence  its  name  tungsten,  or  ponderous  stone. 
This  ore  was  analysed  by  Scheelc,  who 
found  that  it  was  composed  of  lime  and  a 
peculiar  earthy-like  substance,  which  from 
its  properties  lie  called  tuugslic  aciil.  The 
basis  of  the  acid  was  found  to  contain  a  mi'- 
tal  which  was  named  timgstcn,  and  which 
was  obtained  from  llie  acid  mixed  with  char- 
coal. 

Tungsten,  called  by  some  of  the  CJerman 
chemists  scheelium,  is  of  a  greyish-while  co- 
lour, or  rather  like  that  of  iron,  and  lias  a 
good  deal  of  brilliancy. 

[t  is  one  of  the  hardest  of  the  metals  ;  for 
Vauquelin  and  Iledst  could  scarcely  make 
any  ini])ression  upon  it  with  a  lile.  It  seems 
also  to  be  brittle.  Itsspecilic  gravity  is  17  6. 
It  is  therefore  the  heaviest  of  the  metals  after 
gold  and  platinum. 

It  re(]uires  for  fusion  a  temperature  at  least 
equal  to  170°  Wedgewood.  It  seems  to  have 
the  property  of  crystallizing  on  cooling,  like 
all  the  other  metals. 

It  is  not  attracted  by  the  magnet. 

Mhen  heated  in  an  open  vessel,  it  gradu- 
ally absorbs  oxygen,  an<l  it  is  converted  into 
an  oxide.  Tiing.ten  seems  capable  of  com- 
bining with  two  different  proportions  of  oxy- 
gen, and  of  forming  two  diller.iit  oxides  ;  the 
black  and  tiie  yellow. 

The  protoxide  or  black  oxide  inav  be  ob- 
tained by  heating  the  yellow  o\i<le  for  some 
iionrs  in  a  covered  crucible.  The  peroxide 
or  yellow  oxide,  known  also  liy  the  name  of 
tungstic  acid,  is  found  native  in  wolfram, 
and  may  be  obtained  from  it  by  boiling  three 
parts  of  muriatic  acid  on  one  of  wolfram. 
The  acid  is  to  be  decanted  off  in  about  half 
Tan  hour,  and  allowed  to  settle.  A  yellow 
powder  gradually  precipitates.  'This  powder 
is  to  be  dissolved  in  ammonia,  the  solution  is 
to  be  evaporated  to  dryn.^ss,  and  the  dry 
mass  kept  for  sonic  time  in  a  red  heat-  It  is 
then  yellow'  oxide  in  a  state  of  purity.  I'liis 
oxide  has  no  taste.  It  is  insoluble  in  water, 
but  reniaiiis  long  suspended  in  that  licjuid, 
forming  a  kind  of  yellow  milk,  which  has  no 
aetion  on  vegeiable  colours.  \Vhen  heated 
111  a  p'atiiuiiii  spoon  it  becomes  dark  green  ; 
Tint  belbre  (he  blowpipe  on  charcoal  it  ac- 
l^uires  a  black  colour.  It  is  composed  of  SO 
parts  of  (uiKsten  and  20  of  oxygen.  Its  spe- 
cific aravily  is  6.12. 

1.  The  sulplmret  of  tuiigsteli  is  of  a  bluish 

Vol.  II. 


TUN 

j  black  colour,  hard,  and  capable  of  crystalliz- 
ing. I'hosphorus  is  capable  of  combining 
with  tungsten  ;  but  none  ot  the  properties  of 
the  phosphuret  have  been  ascertained. 

'The  simple  iiicombustibles  do  not  seem 
capable  ot  uniting  with  aiiigsten. 

The  Elliuyarts  alone  attempted  to  combine 
tungsten  with  other  metals,  'i'hey  mixed 
100  grains  of  the  metals  to  be  allo>ed  with 
50  grains  of  the  yellow  oxide  of  tungsten  and 
a  ([U.uitity  of  charcoal,  and  iieated  the  iiiix- 
tuie  in  a  crui able.  'The  result  of  their  ex- 
periments is  as  lollows  : 

With  gold  and  platinum  the  tungsten  did 
not  combine.  With  silver  it  formed  a  button 
of  a  whitish-brown  colour,  soineliiing  spongy, 
which  with  a  fesv  slroki.'S  of  a  hammer  ex- 
tended itself  easily,  but  on  continuing  them 
it  split  in  pieces.  'Tiiis  biitlou  weighed  145? 
grains. 

With  copper  it  gave  a  button  of  a  copper- 
isli  red,  which  approached  to  a  dark  brown, 
was  spongy,  and  pretty  ductihf,  and  weighed 
133  grains.  With  crude  or  cast  iron,  of  a 
white  quality,  it  gave  a  perfect  button,  the 
fracture  of  which  was  comjiact  and  of  a  whit- 
ish brown  colour  :  it  was  hard,  harsh,  and 
weighed  137  grains  ;  and  with  lead  it  formed 
a  button  of  a  dull  dark  brown,  with  very  little 
lustre,  spongy,  very  ductile,  and  splitting 
into  leaves  when  hammered:  it  weighed  1S!7 
grains. 

'The  button  formed  with  tin  was  of  a  lighter 
brown  than  the  last,  very  spongy,  somewhat 
ductile,  and  weighed  138  grains. 

'That  with  antimony  was  of  a  dark-brown 
colour,  shining,  something  spongy,  harsh, 
and  broke  in  pieces  easily  ;  it  weighed  108 
grains. 

That  of  bismuth  presented  a  fracture, 
which,  when  seen  in  one  light,  was  of  a  dark- 
brcwn  colour,  with  the  lustre  of  a  metal, 
and  in  another  appeared  like  earth,  without 
any  lustre;  but  in  both  cases  an  inliiiity  of 
little  holes  could  be  distinguisned  over  the 
whole  mass.  'This  button  was  pretty  hard, 
harsh,  and  weighed  6S  grains. 

With  manganese  it  gave  a  button  of  a  dark- 
bluish-browii  co!our  and  earthy  aspect-;  and 
on  examining  the  internal  part  of  it  with  a 
lens,  it  resembled  impure  dross  of  iron  ;  it 
weighed  107  giaiin. 

'I  UNGS'l  IC  ACID.  The  substance  called 
tungstic  acid  by  Scheele  and  Bergman  was 
discovered  by  Scheele  in  I'Sl.  'This  phi- 
losopher obtained  it  from  the  tungstat  of 
lime,  by  treating  it  with  nitric  aci.l  and  am- 
monia alternately.  The  acid  dissolves  the 
liine,  and  the  ammonia  combines  with  the 
tungstic  acid.  'The  animoniacal  solution, 
when  saturated  with  nitric  or  muriatic  acid,- 
deposits  a  while  powder,  which  is  the  tungstic 
acid  of  Scheele. 

"■This  powder  has  an  acid  taste,  it  reddens 
vegetable-  blues,  and  is  soluble  in  20  jiarls  of 
boiling  wa'er.  'The  De  Luyarts  have  de- 
monstrated, that  this  pretended  acid  is  a  com- 
pound of  yellow  oxide  of  tungsten,  the  alkali 
employed  to  dissolve  it,  and  the  acid  used 
to  precipitate  itr  1'hus,  when  prepared  ac- 
cording to  til"  above-described  process,  it 
is  a  compound  of  yellow  oxide,  ammonia, 
and  nitric  acid.  1'heir  conclusions  have  bi'cn 
more  lately  conlirmed  bv  the  experiments  of 
Vau(|uelin  and  llecht.  'This  substance  must 
therefore  be  erased  from  the  class  of  acids, 
and  placed  ama.ig  the  salts. 
5  N 


T  U  R 


633 


The  real  acid  of  tungsten  is  a  yellow  pow- 
der ;  the  method  of  procuring  which,  and  il« 
properties,  have  been  already  described  under 
the  denomination  of  yellow  oxide  of  tung- 
sten. It  ought  rather,  aa  Vauquelin  and 
11  edit  have  properly  remarked,  to  be  classM 
among  the  oxides  than  the  acids  ;  for  it  is  in- 
soluble in  water,  tasteless,  and  has  no  effect 
on  vegetable  blues.  It  agrees  with  the  acids 
indeed  in  the  jiroperly  of  combining  willi 
alkalies  and  earths,  and  perhaps  also  with 
some  metallic  oxides,  and  Ibrming  with  them 
salts  which  have  been  denominated  lung- 
stats;  but  several  othi  r  metallic  oxides,  those 
of  li;ad,  silver,  and  gold,  for  instance,  possess 
the  same  property.  These  oxides,  therefore, 
may  be  called  acids  with  as  much  propriety 
as  the  yellow  oxide  of  tungsten. 

The  aliinilies  of  this  oxide,  as  far  as  they 
have  been  ascertained,  are  as  follows  :■> , 
I-ime,  Soda, 

Harytes,  Ammonia, 

Stronlian,  Glncina, 

Mi'gncsia,  Aiumina, 

I'otass,  Zirconia. 

The  manner  in  which  it  was  produced  is 
evident :  tungstic  acid  is  composed  of  oxy- 
gen and  tungsten ;  the  oxygen  combined 
with  the  carbon,  and  kit  the  metal  iii  a  state 
of  purty. 

'TUNICA,  a  kind  of  waistcoat  or  under- 
garment, in  use  amongst  the  Romans.  They 
wore  it  within  doors  by  itself,  and  abroad 
under  the  gown.  The  common  people  could 
not  ali'ord  the  toga,  and  so  went  in  their 
tunics,  whence  Horace  calls  them  populus 
tunicatus.  The  several  sorts  of  the  tunic 
were  the  palmata,  the  angustidavia,  and  the 
laticlavia.  'The  iirst  was  worn  by  generals 
in  a  triumph,  and  i)erhaps  always  under  the 
toga  picta;  it  had  its  name  either  from  the 
great  breadth  of  the  clavi,  or  buttons,  equal  to 
the  palm  of  the  hand ;  or  else  from  the 
figures  of  palms  embroidered  on  it.  It  was 
by  these  three  different  sorts  of  tunics,  that 
the  three  different  orders  of  the  Roman 
people  were  distinguished  in  habit. 

'TUNNAGE.    See  Tonnage. 

'^11  NNY.     See  Scomber. 

TL'RBITTl,  or  TcRi-ErH-.ROOT.  See 
Convolvulus. 

TURBO,  the  wre.-^th,  in  zoology,  a 
genus  of  insects  belonging  to  the  order  of 
vermes  testacea.  The  animal  is  of  the  snail 
kind  ;  the  shell  consists  of  one  spiral  solid 
valve,  and  the  aperture  is  orbicular.  I'here 
arc  166  species  ;  of  which  the  most  remark- 
able are,  1.  'The  littoreus,  or  periwinkle. 
'This  is  abundant  on  most  rocks  far  above 
low-water  mark.  The  Swedish  peasants  be- 
lieve that  when  these  shells  creep  high  up  the 
rocks,  they  indicate  a  storm  from  the  south. 
1  hey  are  eaten  by  the  poor  p.ople  in  most 
parts  of  this  kingdom.  Young  lobsters  are 
said  to  take  up  their  lodging  in  the  empty 
shells  of  these  animals,  whicli  has  given  oc- 
casion to  a  notion  that  periwinkles  are 
changed  into  lobsters.  Ikit  we  appreliend 
the  n.islake  to  have  originated  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  cancer  diogenes,  or  soldier- 
crab,  which  is  a  kind  of  small  lobster  or 
shrimp,  naturally  naked,  which  takes  shelter 
in  the  cast  shells  of  harbinal'od  shell-lish.  2. 
The  clatlinis,  or  barbed  wreath,  has  a  taper 
shell  of  eight  spires,  distinguished  by  elevated 


b;;4 


T  U  R 


tlivisions,  running  from  lln"  aperture  to  the 
apex.  There  is  a  variety  pellucid,  witli  very 
tiiui  edges.  It  U  analo'gijus  to  tliat  curious 
ai:d  expensive  i\w\\,  the  wcntle-Uap.  See 
I'iale  Nat.  Hist.  ng.4ll. 

TURllOT.  See  Plei'Ronectes. 
'1  TKUl'S,  tlie  thrush,  a  genus  of  birds  be- 
longing to  tlie  order  of  pa^seres.  The  bill  is 
straight,  bending  towards  tlie  pi;int,  and 
sh:;lilly  notched  near  tlie  end  of  the  upper 
niaiKh'hle.  The  iioilrils  are  oval,  lialf  cover- 
ed V. itii  a  membrane;  tiie  corners  ot  the 
uii.-uih  are  furnished  with  a  few  slender  hairs, 
and  the  tongue  is  slightly  jagged  at  the  end. 
■'J'Uere  are  136  species,  of  which  seven  are 
Brili'.h,  the  viscivorus,  pilaris,  iliacus,  nu;si- 
cus,  roseus,  nierula,  and  torquatus. 

1.  The  viscivorus,  or  missel,  is  the  largest 
of  llie  genus.     Its  length   is  eleven  inches ; 
i<s  breadth  sixteen  and  a  half.     The  bill  is 
shorte.  and  thicter  than  that  of  other  thrushes ; 
tio.kv,  except  the  base  of  the  knver  mandible, 
wli!ch  is  vellov.'.  The  hides  are  hazel.    Head, 
back,  and  lesser  coverts  of  the  wings,  are  of 
a  deep  olive-lKown.     The  lower  part  of  the 
back  IS  tinged  with  yellow.     The  lowest  order 
of  lesser  coverts,  and  the  great  coverts,  are 
brown,  the  lirst  t-pped  with  while,   the  last 
i)0lh  tipped  and  edged  with  the  same  colour, 
'i  h^,-  inner  coverts  of  the  wings  white.     The 
tail  is  brown  ;   the  three  outermost  feathers 
J:|!ped  with  wliite.     The  checks  and  throat 
are  mottled  with  brown  and  white  ;  tiie  breast 
and   bellv  are  whitish  yellow,  marked  with 
large  spots  of  black;   "the  legs  are  yellow. 
These  birds  build  their  nests  in  bashes,_or 
on  the  side  of  some  tree,  and  lay  four  or  live 
eggs :  their  note  of  anger  or  'fear  is  very 
harsh,  between   a   chatter  and  shriek,      lis 
song,  however,  is  very  fine ;  which  it  begins 
sitting  on  the  summit  of  a  high  tree,  very 
eariv'in  the  spring,  often  with  the  new  year, 
in  blowing  showery  weath.er,   winch  makes 
the    inhabitants   of    Hauipchire  call    It   the 
.storm-cock.     It  feeds  on  insects,  holly  and 
misselcoe  berries,  which  are  the  food  of  all 
the  thrush  kind  :  in   severe  snowy  weather, 
when  there  is  a  failure  of  their  usual  diet, 
they  are  observed  to  scratch  out  of  the  banks 
of  hedges  the  root  of  arum,  or  the  cuckoo- 
pint  ;  this  is  remarkably  warm  and  pungent, 
and  a  provision  suitable  to  the  season. 

2.  The  pilaris,  or  tieldfan-,  is  in  length  ten 
inches,  in  breath  seventeen.  The  head  is 
ash-coloured  inclining  to  olive,  and  spotted 
with  black  ;  the  back  and  greater  coverts 
ot  the  wings  of  a  fine  deep  chesnut ;  the  tail 
is  black;  the  lower  parts  of  the  two  middle- 
most feathers,  and  the  interior  upper  sides 
of  the  outmost  feathers,  excepted  ;  the  first 
being  ash-coloured,  the  latter  white.  The 
le<Ts  are  black ;  the  talons  very  strong.  This 
bird  passes  the  summer  In  the  northern  parts 
of  Europe  ;  also  in  Lower  Austrw.  It  breeds 
m  the  largest  trees :  feeds  on  berries  of  all 
kinds,  and'is  very  fond  of  those  of  the  juniper, 
fieldfares  visit  our  islands  in  great  flocks 
about  Michaelmas,  and  leave  us  the  latter 
end  of  February  or  the  beginning  of  March. 
These  birds  and  the  redwings  were  the 
tnrili  of  the  Homans,  which  ttiey  fattened 
with  crumbs  of  figs  and  bread  mixed  toge- 
tncr.  Varjo  informs  us  that  they  were  l)hds 
of  passage,  coming  in  autumn,  and  departing 
in  tlie  spring.  They  must  have  been  taken 
in  great  numbers ;  for,  according  to  \'arro 
fib.  3.  c.  3.),  they  were  kepi  by  thousands 


T  U  R 

together  in  their  fattening  aviaries.  Tliey  do 
not  arrive  in  Trance  till  the  bL-gnming  of  IJe- 
cember. 

3.  The  miisinis,  or  throstle,  is  in  length 
nine  inches,  in  breadth  thirteen  and  a  hall. 
In  colour,  it  so  nearly  resembles  the  missel- 
thrush,  that  no  other  reuiu'-k  need  to  be 
adde-d,  but  that  it  is  less,  and  that  the  inner 
coverts  of  (he  winns  are  vellow.  The  throstle 

i: 


the  finest  of  our  singing  birds,  not  only  lor 
the  sweitiiess  and  variely  of  its, notes,  but 
for  the  long  continuance  of  its  harmony  ;  for 
it  obliges  us  with  its  song  lor  U'-ar  three  parts 
of  the  ^ear.  Like  the  missel-bird,  it  delivers 
itT  music  from  the  top  of  some  high  tree;  but 
to  torm  its  nest  descends  to  some  low  busli 
or  thicket:  the  nest  is  made  of  earth,  moss, 
and  straw,  and  the  inside  is  curiously  plais- 
tered  with  clay,  or  rather  clay  and  cow-dung 
mixed.  It  lays  live  or  six  'eggs,  of  a  pale 
bluish  green,  marked  with  dusky  spots. 

4.  The  iliacus,  oT  redwing,  has  a  very  near 
resemblance  to  the  throstle  ;  but  is  less  :  their 
colours  are  much  the  same  ;  only  the  sides 
under  the  wings  and  the  inner  coverts  in  this 
are  of  a  reddish  orange,  iu  the  throstle  yel- 
low ;  above  each  eye  is  a  line  of  yellowish 
white,  beginning  at  the  bill  and  passing  to- 
wards the  hind  part  of  the  head.  These  birds 
appear  in  Great  Britain  a  few  days  before  the 
fieldfare ;  they  come  in  fiocks,  and  from 
the  same  countries  as  the  latter.  With  us 
they  have  only  a  disagreeable  piping  note ; 
but'  in  Sweden,  during  the  spring,  they  sing 
very  finely,  perching  on  the  top  of  some  tree 
among  the  forests  of  maples.  They  build 
their  nests  in  hedges,  and  lay  sixblueish-green 
eggs  spotted  with  black. 

5.  The  merula,  or  blackbird  ;  when  the 
male  has  attained  its  full  age,  it  is  of  a  fine 
deep  black,  and  the  bill  of  "a  bright  yellow ; 
the  edges  of  the  eyelids  yellow.  W  hen  young, 
the  bill  is  duskv,  'and  the  plumage  of  a  rusty 
black,  so  that  they  are  not  to  be  distinguish- 
ed from  the  females;  but  at  the  age  of  one 
year  they  attain  their  proper  colour.  This 
bird  is  of  a  very  retired  and  solitary  nature, 
and  frequents  hedges  and  thickets,  in  whicii  it 
builds  earlier  than  any  other  bird  ;  the  nest  is 
formed  of  moss,  dead  grass,  fibres,  &c.  lined 
and  plaistered  with  clay,  and  that  again  co- 
vered with  hay  or  small  straw.  It  lays  four 
or  n\e  eggs  of  a  dusky  green  colour,  marked 
with  irregular  spots.  The  note  of  the  male 
is  extremely  fine,  but  too  loud  for  any  place 
except  the  woods ;  it  begins  to  sing  early  in 
the  spring,  continues  its  music  part  of  the 
summer,  desists  in  the  moulting  season,  but 
resumes  it  for  some  time  in  September  and 
the  winter  months. 

6.  The  torquatus,  or  ring-ouzel,  is  superior 
in  size  to  the  blackbird  ;  the  length  is  eleven 
inches,  breadth  seventeen.  The  bill  in  some 
is  wholly  black,  in  others  the  upper  half  is 
vellow; 'on  eacli  side  the  mouth  are  a  few 
"bristles  ;  the  head  and  whole  up|)er  part  of 
the  body  are  dusky,  edged  with  pale  brown  ; 
the  quill-feathers  and  the  tail  are  black.  The 
coverts  of  the  wings,  the  upper  part  of  the 
breast,  and  the  belly,  are  dusky,  slightly  edg- 
ed with  ash-colour.  The  middle  of  the  breast 
is  adorneil  with  a  white  crescent,  the  horns 
of  which  point  to  the  hind  part  of  the  neck. 
In  some  birds  this  is  of  a  [lure  white,  in  olheri 
of  a  dirty  hue.  In  the  females  and  in  young 
birds  tills  mark  is  wauling,  wjiich  gave  occa- 


T  u  n 

sion  to  some  naturalists  to  firm  Iv.o  'pecie 
oftheui.  'I'lie  ring-ouzel  inhabits  the  High- 
lanil  hills,  the  north  of  England,  and  tlui' 
mountains  of  Wales,  'i  hey  arc-  aUo  found  to 
breed  in  Dartmoor,  in  i^evoiishire,  and  in 
banks  on  the  sides  of  streams,  'i  he  p'aier, 
ottlieirretreatarenotkiiov.il.  In  Scotland 
and  Wales  they  breed  in  the  liills,  but  de- 
scend to  the  lower  parts  to  feed  on  tlie  berrie* 
ot  the  inountain-ash.  They  migrate  in  France 
at  tlje  latter  season  ;  and  appear  in  small 
llotks  about  Montliard  in  Burgundy,  in  Ihii 
beginning  of  October,  but  seldom  stay  above 
two  or  three  weeks. 

To  these  we  shall  add  the  description  of  the 
orpheus,  or  mocking  thrush,  which  is  a  native 
of  America.     It  is  about  the  size  of  a  thrush,, 
of  a  white  and  grey  colour,  and  a  reddish  bill. 
It  is  possessed  not  only  of  its  own   natural 
notes,  which  are  musical   and  solemn,  but  it 
can  assume  the  tone  of  every  other  animal  in 
the  wooil,  from  the  wolf  to  the  raven.     It 
seems  even  to  sjiort  Uself  in   leading  them, 
astray.     It  will  at  one  time  allure  the  lesser 
birds  with  the  call  of  their  males,  and  then 
terrify  them  when  they  come  near  with  the 
screams  of  the  eagle.     I'here  is  no  bird  iiv 
the  forest  but  it  can  nfimick ;  and  there  is 
none  that  it  has  not  at  times  deceived  by  its 
call.      But,   unlike  such   as   we   usually  see 
famed  for  mimicking  with  us,  and  who  have 
no  particular  merit  of  their  own,  tlie  mock-: 
bird  is  ever  sure  to  please  when  it  is  most  it-    ■ 
self.     At  those  times  it  usually  frequents  the 
houses  of  the  American  planters  ;  and  sitting 
all  night  on  the  chimney-top,  pours  forth  the 
sweetest  and  the  most  various  notes  of  any 
bird  whatever.     It  would   seem,  if  accounts 
are  true,   that  the  deficiency  of  most  other 
song-birds  in  that  country  is  made  up  by  this 
bird  alone.     They  often  build  their  nests  in 
the  fruit-trees  about  houses,  feed  upon  ber- 
ries and  other  fruits,  and  are  easily  rendered 
domestic.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  412. 

TURIONES,  among  herbalists,   denotes 
the  first  young  tender  shoots,  which  plant* 
annually  put  forth. 
TURKEY.    SeeMELEAGRis. 
TURMEIUC.     See  Curcuma. 
TURNAMENT,  or   Tourname.vt,    a 
martial  sport,  or  exercise,  which  the  antient 
cavaliers   used    to    perform   to   shew   their 
bravery  and  address. 

TURNERA,  a  genus  of  the  peiitandria 
trigynia  class  of  plants,  the  flower  of  which 
consists  of  five  petals  obversely  cordated,  and 
sharp-pointed  ;  the  fruit  is  an  oval,  unilocular 
capsule,  containing  a  great  many  oblong  and 
obtuse  seeds.     There  are  nine  species. 

TURNING,  the  art  of  forming  hard  bo- 
dies, as  wood,  ivory,  or  iron,  into  a  round  or 
oval  shape,  by  means  of  a  machine  called  a 
lathe.  This  ait  was  well  known  to  the  an- 
tients,  and  seems  to  have  been  carried  by 
them  to  a  very  great  degree  of  perfection  ;  at 
least,  if  we  believe  the  testimony  of  Pliny 
and  several  other  authors,  who  tell  us,  that 
those  precious  vases  enriched  with  figures  in 
half-relief,  which  still  adorn  our  cabinets, 
were  turned  on  the  lathe.     See  Lathe. 

The  art  of  turning  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance, as  it  contributes  essentially  to  the 
perfection  of  many  other  arts.  The  arclii- 
lect  uses  it  for  many  ornaments,  both  within 
aiul  without  highly  finished  houses.  The 
mathematician,  the  astronomer,  and  the  na- 
Uiral   iihilosopiier,  have   recourse  to  it,  not 


only  to  embfllish  tlieir  iiislnwnciiU,  but  also 
to  give  tliem  llie  necessary  diiiKjiisioii  and 
precision.  In  sliort,  it  is  an  art  absolulely 
necessary  to  llie  goldsmith,  tlie  watelmiakei", 
tjie^uiner,  and  the  smith. 

'1  nrning  is  pertbrmed  by  the  lathe,  ofvvliich 
there  are  various  kinds,  and  several  instru- 
ments, as  goviges,  chisels,  drills,  formers,  and 
screw-tales,  used  for  cntiing  what  is  to  be 
turned  into  its  proper  form  us  the  lallie  turns 
round.  See  Plate  .Miscel.  lig.  131;  and  Plate 
Lamp,  &c.  lig.  6,  &;c. 

'J'lie  lathe  should  be  fi.xed  in  a  i)lace  verv 
well  lighted  ;  it  sh.iulct  be  imntoveuble,  and 
neither  loo  high  nor  too  low.  'I'lu:  pu|)p(fts 
.sliouM  neither  be  so  low  as  to  oblige  the 
workman  to  stoop  in  order  to  see  his  work 
properly,  nor  so  high  that  the  little  chips, 
which  he  is  continually  driving  ofl^  shoulil 
come  into  his  eyes. 

The  piece  to  be  turned  should  be  rounded, 
(if  it  is  wood)  before  it  is  put  on  tin- lathe, 
cither  witn  a  small  li;itcliet  made  for  the  pur- 
J)fise,  or  with  a  plane,  or  with  a  file,  fixing  it 
.111  a  vice,  and  shaving  it  down  till  it  is  every 
where  almost  of  an  ecjual  thickness,  and 
h-aving  it  a  little  larger  than  it  is  intended  to 
lie  when  linished  off.  Before  putting  it  on 
the  lathe,  it  is  also  necessary  to  fmd  the 
centre  of  its  two  end  surfaces,' and  that  they 
should  be  exactly  opposite  to  each  other, 
that  when  tlie  points  of  the  pu])pets  are  aj)- 
plied  to  them,  and  the  piece  is  turned  round, 
no  side  may  belly  out  more  than  another. 
'I'o  tind  these  two  centres,  lav  the  pi(-ce  of 
wood  to  be  turned  upon  a  plank  ;  opi  n  a  pair 
of  compasses  to  almost  half  the;  thickness  of 
the  piece,  fix  one  of  the  legs  in  the  plank, 
and  let  the  point  of  the  other  touch  one  of 
the  ends  of  the  piece,  brought  into  the  same 
plane  with  the  |)laiik  on  which  the  compasses 
are  lixed.and  very  near  the  lixed  leg.  De- 
scribe four  arches  on  that  end  at  e(|ual  dis- 
tances from  each  other,  at  the  circumference 
of  the  end,  but  intersecting  om-  another  witli- 
in  ;  the  point  of  inteisection  is  the  centre  of 
the  end.  In  the  same  manner  must  the 
centre  of  the  other  end  be  found.  After 
linding  the  two  centres,  make  a  small  hole  at 
each  of  them,  into  which  insert  the  points  of 
the  puppets,  and  fix  the  piece  so  firmly  as 
not  to  be  shaken  out,  and  yet  loose^nough 
to  turn  round  without  dilliciiltv. 

The  piece  being  thus  fixed,  it  is  necessary 
in  the  next  place  to  adjust  the  cord,  by  mak- 
ing it  pass  twice  round  the  piece,  and  hi  such 
a  manner,  that  the  two  ends  of  the  cord,  both 
that  which  is  lixed  to  the  spang  an<l  to  the 
footboard,  come  off  on  the  side  on  which  the 
turner  stands,  that  the  piece  may  move 
against  the  edge  of  the  cuUing-tool"  and  be 
turned.  If  the  lathe  is  moved  by  a  wlieel, 
the  manner  of  adjusting  the  cord'needj  no 
direction. 

If  the  workman  does  not  cliuse  to  be  at 
the  trouble  to  fmd  t!ie  two  centres  of  tlie 
piece  in  the  manner  described  above,  let  him 
lay.  as  nearly  as  he  can.  tlie  centre  of  one 
end  u;)on  tlie  point  of  the  left  h md  prtppet. 
and  lh:'ii  I'-t  him  push  forward  the  li'^lit  hand 
puppet,  striking "Tt  with  a  mallet  till  its  point 
is  as  near  as  can  be  in  the  centre  of  the  olher 
end  of  the  piece  ;  and  tlu-n  lixing  the  right 
hand  puppet  by  a  gentle  blow  of  the  mallet 
OB  the  key,  U't  hiin  turn  round  the  piece  to 
see  by  the  eye  if  the  centres  lijve  been  pro- 


lURNlNG. 

perly  found.  If  any  part  of  it  bellies  nut, 
let  him  strike  that  part  g^itilly  with  the  mallet 
till  it  go<'s  propt-rly  ;  then  let  him  strike  one 
ol  the  piippi-is  pretty  smartly  to  drive  the 
])oints  into  the  pii.-(e,  and  atti'-rwards  lix  tiit- 
puppet  by  striking  the  kev.  If  the  workman 
cannot  judge  b)  the  eye  whether  the  piece  is 
turning  |)ropirly  round  its  centres  or  not,  he 
should  apply  gently  (he  point  of  an  in-.trii- 
nient  called  a  triangular  graver,  leaning  it  on 
the  rest,  and  it  will  mark  by  a  line  the  place 
w  here  the  pieci;  is  out  of  its  centre ;  and  by 
striking  upon  this  line  with  a  mallet,  the 
piece  can  ea^ily  be  placed  properly.  The 
re,!,  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  ought  to 
be  placed  upon  the  two  arms  of  the  lathe, 
and  lixed  with  screws  as  near  the  piece  as 
the  workinan  jjleases. 

The  niece  being  fixed  between  the  two 
points  of  the  puppets,  the  cord  adjusted,  and 
the  rest  lixed  as  near  the  work  "as  po-^ible 
without  touching  it  ;  the  workman  is  now  to 
take  a  gonge  of  a  proper  si/e  in  his  left  hand, 
and  hold  it  by  the  handle  a  little  inclined, 
keeping  the  back  of  the  hand  lowermost. 
With  his  right  hand,  the  back  of  whith  is  to 
be  turned  upwards,  he  is  to  grasp  it  near 
the  end  on  tiiis  side  of  the  rest;  then  lean- 
ing the  g<)uj;e  on  the  rest,  he  is  to  presi-nt 
the  edge  of  it  a  little  higher  than  the  hori/on- 
tal  diameter  of  the  piece,  so  as  to  form  a  kind 
ol  tangent  to  its  circumference  ;  then  putting 
the  right  toot  on  the  footboard,  and  tin  ning 
round  the  wheel,  antl  holding  the  gouge 
lirmly  on  the  rest,  the  piece  will  be  cut  neat- 
ly. In  the  same  manner  are  the  chisels, 
lormers,  and  other  instruments  to  be  used, 
taking  care  that  the  wood  shall  be  cut  etpiallv, 
and  that  the  instrument  shall  not  be  pushed 
improperly,  sometimes  stronger  than  at 
others;  and  taking  care  also,  tliat  the  instru- 
ment used  does  not  follow  the  work,  but  that 
it  is  kept  firmly  in  tlie  hand  without  yield- 
ing. 

The  young  turner  onght  to  endeavour  to 
acquire  tlie  management  of  the  gouge  and 
the  chisel,  which  are  the  instruments  by  far 
the  most  frequently  used,  and  the  most  ne- 
cessary in  (his  art;' by  them,  almost  eiuir.'ly, 
are  the  soft  woods  tunn'd  ;  as  for  hard 
woods  and  other  tilings,  as  box,  ebonv,  horn, 
ivory,  and  the  metals,  thev  are  hardly  ever 
turned  except  by  shaving  olK  In  that  case 
gravers  are  to  be  used«ith  square,  round,  or 
triangular  mouths.  They  should  be  held 
horizontally  while  ap])iied"  to  the  wood,  and 
not  obliquely  as  directed  for  the  gouge  and 
the  chisel. 

After  the  work  is  completelv  turned,  it  is 
next  to  be  polisheil,  and  this  cannot  be  done 
with  the  iiistruiiieiits  hitherto  mentioned.  Soft 
woods,  as  pear-tree,  hazrl,  and  maple,  ought 
to  b«  polished  wilh  shark-skin  or  Dutch 
rushes.  There  are  different  species  of  sharks; 
some  of  which  have  a  grevi^h,  oiheis  a  red- 
dish >kin.  S!iark-skin  is 'alwavs  the  better 
to  be  a  gooil  deal  ilsed  ;  at  first  it  is  too  roiiuh  ' 
for  polishing.  The  Dutch  rush  is  the  equi- 
settiin  hyemale  of  Lirm.eus,  wUicli  grows  in 
moist  places  among  mountains.  It  is  re- 
markable for  having  llinty  particles  in  the 
suhstan.  e  of  its  leaves,  which  render  it  so  use- 
ful in  j.'olishiiv.;.  It  |,;,s  a  naked,  simple, 
ami  round  stem,  about  the  thickness  of  a 
writinj-pen.  The  old,:st  plants  are  the  b.-.t. 
I^efore  using  them  they  should  be  moistened 
a  little,  otherwise  they  break  in  pieces  almost 


83S 

immediately,  and  rendu-  it  exceedingly  di - 
(icull  to  polish  Willi  Ih.eir.  They  are  par 
t'ciilarly  proper  (cr  smoothing  hard  wcoiUi 
as  box,  lignum-vila-,  ebony,  &c.  After  hav- 
ing 'leaned  up  (he  p.<-ce'  well,  it  should  b« 
rubbed  genlly  eitl  er  wilh  wax  <.r  oii>e-oil, 
then  wiped  clean  and  rubbed  wilh  its  own 
rasping^or  wilii  a  cloth  a  lillle  «oiii.  Ivoiy, 
horn,  silver,  and  brass,  are  politlied  wilh  p'  - 
jni(e->tone  finely  pounded  and  put  upon  lc;i- 
tlieror  a  linen  cloth  a  little  inoinlened  :  wilh 
this  the  piei  e  is  rubbed  as  it  turns  louiid  in 
the  lathe  ;  and  lo  pifvvnt  any  dirt  tioni  ad- 
hering to  any  part  of  it,  every  now  and  lh>  ■ 
it  is  rubbed  gently  wilh  a  small  brush  rlipl  la 
wafer.  To  polish  very  finely,  the  workmen 
make  use  of  Iripoli,  and  alterwaids  of  pclttr 
or  calx  of  fin.  lion  and  steel  are  |K)li-hi-3 
with  very  fine  jjowdcr  of  emery  ;  this  is  mix- 
ed with  oil,  and  put  between  I vTo  pieces  of 
very  tender  wood,  and  then  the  iron  is  riibhe<l 
with  il.  Tin  and  silver  arc  polijlicd  with  a 
burnisher,  and  ll.at  kind  of  red  slcne  called  in 
France  sanguine  cinne.  They  may  be  po- 
lished also  wilh  pi.tly,  pnlling  it'  dry  o« 
shainmy-skin  or  with  the  palm  <  l  the  hanil. 

To  succeed  in  turning  iron,  if  is  iiece^^arv 
to  have  a  lathe  exceedingly  oirong  in  all  iti 
parts,  and  exceedingly  well  fixed.  Tliepup- 
Jiets  should  be  short,  and  the  le^t  well  fi.xed 
very  near  the  work;  the  back  of  the  rest 
should  be  two  or  three  lines  lower  than  the 
iron  t.>  be  turned. 

The  lathe  and  other  instruments  being  pre- 
pared, it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  lenglk 
and  thickness  of  the  iron  to  be  turned  ac- 
cording lo  the  design  which  is  to  be  execct- 
e(l,  and  to  make  a  model  of  it  in  wood  a  little 
thicker  than  it  ought  to  be ;  then  one  exactly 
like  this  is  to  be  forged  of  the  best  iron  tlia't 
can  be  procured;  that  is,  it  must  not  be 
new,  but  well  prepared  and  well  beaten  with 
hammers ;  it  must  iiave  no  lla«s,  nor  cracks, 
nor  pimples.  New  iron,  which  has  not  been 
well  beaten,  often  contains  round  drops  of 
cast  i  on,  called  by  the  workmen  grainj, 
which  blunt  the  cdg'es  of  the  gougxs,  chisels,, 
and  other  instruments  used  for  cutting  ;  break 
them,  or  make  them  slide.  The  i:  on  bein^g 
forged  acco.ding  to  the  model,  it  sliou'd 
be  annealed,  that  is,  heated  led-het,  and  al- 
lowed t.)  cool  slowly  on  the  coals  till  the  fire 
goes  out  of  itself,  isome  people,  to  soften  the 
iron,  cover  it  over  witii  clay  and  allow  it  l» 
cool.  'I  he  iron  cylinder  being  thus  made, 
il  is  next  to  be  j-jt  upon  the  lathe,  finding 
the  crntres  as  fornnrly  directed,  and  boring 
a  small  hole  in  them  that  the  iron, may  not 
escape  from  the  points, 

The  points  should  be  oiled  from  time  t» 
time  to  prevent  their  being  excessively  heated 
and  spoiled  while  the  iron  is  turnni".  .V 
crotchet  U  then  lo  be  applied  to  the  iron  ti> 
be  turned  a  little  above  its  centre,  pretty 
gently,  and  by  this  means  the  ii.eqnalitii  s  of 
the  cylinder  will  be  taken  off.  ()t..er  instru- 
inents  are  then  to  be  applied  lo  nictiki  the 
iron  according  to  the  model :  and  whenever 
any  of  them  grow  hot,  they  are  to  be  plung;  <1 
into  a  bason  of  water  lying  beside  the  work- 
man.- If  the  iro'i,  alter  being  properly  turn- 
ed, is  to  be  bored  like  a  g*ui-barnl,  "one  of 
the  pup|iels  is  to  be  removed,  and  anothee 
sub^titu'.ed  in  its  place,  having  a  siiuare  hole 
through  it,  into  which  the  collar  ol  the  iroi* 
is  to  be  fixed  firmly,  so  as  not  to  shake;- 
then   borers  are  to  be  applie  1,   like   thjsc 


e3(5 

which  lod:smUhs  iisp  to  bare  keys  ;  and  be- 
ghiniii;^  with  a  Mn.iU  oiu-,  and  aCerwauls 
taking  larger  oiu's,  the  hole  is  to  be  iimde  as 
wide  ami  deej)  as  necessary  ;  great  care  mnvt 
be  taken  to  hold  the  borers  linn  to  the  re-it, 
otherwise  there  is  d.in<;er  of  nut  boring  the 
liole  straight.  The  borer  mnst  be  witlidrawn 
from  time  to  time  to  oil  it  and  to  clean 
the  hole.  Since  it  is  dillicult  to  make  a 
liole  quite  round  with  borers  alone,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  have  also  an  inslrument  a  good 
deal  smaller  than  the  hole,  one  of  the  sides 
of  which  is  sharp,  very  well  tempered,  and  a 
little  hollow  in  the  mi'ddle.  This  instrument 
bciiig  lixed  in  a  pretty  long  handle,  is  to  he 
applied  with  steadiness  to  .the  inner  surface  of 
the  hole,  and  it  will  entirely  remove  every 
inequulily  that  may  have  been  there  before 
its  application. 

For  turning  ovals,  a  lathe  of  somewhat  a 
different  construction  is  used.  The  axis  or 
spindle,  having  on  it  the  pulley  over  whicii 
the  band-cord  passes  for  turning  the  lathe,  is 
lixed  between  the  two  puppets  so  as  to  turn 
round  easily ;  one  end  of  it  passes  through 
one  of  the  puppets,  and  to  it  is  fu'mly  fixed  a 
circular  plate  of  brass,  so  that  it  turns  round 
along  with  the  spindle.  Upon  this  plate  two 
brazen  segments  of  circles  are  fastened,  the 
circumferences  of  which  correspond  to  the 
circumference  of  the  plate  ;  their  chords  are 
parallel,  and  etiually  distant  from  the  centre 
of  the  plate,  so  that"  they  leave  a  distance  be- 
tween them.  They  have  a  groove  in  each 
of  them  ;  in  these  grooves  another  plate  is 
placed,  which  e.xaclly  tills  up  the  space  be- 
tween the  two  grooves,  but  is  shorter  than 
the  diameter  of  the  larger  circular  plate  on 
which  it  is  laid.  This  plate  is  made  to  slide 
in  the  grooves.  Toils  centre  is  annexed  a 
short  spindle,  on  which  the  piece  of  wood  to 
be  turned  is  fixed.  When  the  lathe  is  set 
a  going,  the  circular  plate  moves  round,  and 
carries  the  piece  along  with  it ;  the  plate  of 
brass  on  which  the  piece  is  fixed,  being  fixed 
loosely  in  the  grooves  already  described, 
slides  down  a  little  every  time  that  the 
grooves  become  perpendicular  to  the  floor 
(and  there  are  particular  contrivances  to 
prevent  it  from  sliding  down  loo  far) ;  and 
by  these  two  motions  combined  (the  circular 
one  of  the  large  plate,  and  the  straight  one  of 
the  small),  the  circumference  of  the  piece  of 
■wood  to  be  turned  necessarily  describes  an 
oval ;  and  gouges  or  other  tools  being  ap- 
plied in  the  usual  manner,  supported  on  the 
»cst,  it  is  cut  into  an  oval  accordingly.  Tlie 
tmall  plate  may  be  inade  to  slide  either  more 
or  less  in  the  grooves;  and  by  this  contriv- 
ance the  transverse  diameter  of  the  oval,  or 
rather  ellipse,  may  be  made  longer  or  shorter 
at  pleasure.  Another,  and  still  simpler  me- 
thod if  possible,  of  turning  ovals,  is  this;  Take 
two  ovals  of  metal,  exactly  of  the  size  of  tin; 
oval  wliich  you  intend  to  make;  fix  them 
firmly  on  the  spindle  of  the  lathe,  so  as  to 
turn  'round  with  it ;  fix  between  them  the 
v.-ood  to  be  turned,  and  then  it  is  easy,  by  the 
help  of  chi.selsand  other  tools,  to  cut  it,  as 
the  lathe  goes,  into  exactly  the  figure  of  the 
external  ovals.  Or  an  oval  may  be  formed 
by  placing  the  wood,  or  whatever  is  to  re- 
ceive tliat  shape,  obliquely  on  the  lathe. 
There  are  several  other  ingenious  methods 
of  turning,  but  our  bounds  do  not  permit  us 
to  enter  upon  them.  We  shall  therelore 
•ouelude    tliis   article   with   a   number    of 


TURNING. 

receipts,    which     every    turner     oirglit     lo 
know. 

1.  The  method  of.moulding  boxes  both  of 
shell  and  horn.  In*  the  first  place,  form  a 
proper  mould,  which  must  consist  ot  two 
nieces,  viz.  of  a  circle  "about  half  an  inch 
thick,  which  should  slope  a  little  in  order  lo 
draw  out  the  moulded  sliell  the  more  easily  ; 
and  a  ring  fitted  to  the  outside  of  the  circle, 
so  that  both  together  make  the  shape  of  a 
box.  These  two  pieces  being  adjusted,  it  is 
necessary  to  round  the  shell  to  be  moulded 
of  such  a  size,  that  when  moulded,  it  will  be 
a  little  higher  than  the  ring  of  the  mould, 
that  there  may  be  no  deficiency.  'I'he  mould 
is  then  to  be 'put  into  a  jjress  on  a  plate  of 
iron,  exactly  under  the  screw  of  tlie  press ; 
put  then  tlie  shell  upon  the  circle  of  the 
mould,  so  that  its  centre  also  is  exactly  op- 
posite to  the  screw  of  the  press  :  then  take  a 
piece  of  wood  formed  into  a  truncated  cone, 
and  not  so  thick  as  the  diameter  of  the  circle 
of  the  mould,  nor  so  deep  as  the  ring  ;  then 
put  a  plate  of  iron  above  the  cone,  and  screw 
down  the  press  gently  and  cautiously  till  the 
whole  is  well  fixed  ;  then  plunge  the  whole 
into  a  cauldron  of  boiling  water  placed  above 
a  fire.  In  eight  or  ten  minutes  the  shell  or 
horn  will  begin  to  soften  ;  screw  the  press  a 
little  firmer  that  the  wooden  cone  may  sink 
into  tlie  softened  shell :  repeat  this  from  time 
to  time  till  the  cone  is  quite  sunk  in  the 
mould  ;  then  take  out  the  press  and  plunge 
it  into  cold  water.  When  it  is  cold,  take 
the  box  now  formed  out  of  the  mould,  and 
put  into  the  inside  of  it  a  new  mould  of  tin 
exactly  of  the  form  you  wish  the  inside  of  the 
box  to  be;  do  the'same  with  the  outside, 
put  it  again  into  the  press,  and  plunge  it 
into  boiling  water  ;  screw  the  press  gradually 
till  the  box  is  fashioned  as  you  desire. 

2.  Method  of  preparing  green  wood  so  that 
it  will. not  split  in  the  turning.  Having  cut 
vour  wood  into  pieces  of  a  proper  size,  put 
it  into  a  vessel  full  of  a  ley  made  with  wood 
ashes.  Boil  it  there  about  an  hour ;  then, 
taking  the  cauldron  off  the  fire,  allow  the  ley 
to  cool  ;  then  take  out  tlie  wood  and  dry  it 
in  the  shade. 

3,  Method  of  giving  an  ebony-black  to  hard 
and  fine  woods.  After  forming  the  wood 
into  the  destined  figure,  rub  it  with  aqua 
fortis  a  little  diluted.  Small  threads  of  wood 
will  rise  in  the  drying,  which  you  will  rub 
off  with  pumice-stone.  Repeat  this  process 
again,  and  then  rub  the  wood  with  the  fol- 
lowing composition :  Put  into  a  glazed 
earthen  vessel  a  pint  of  strong  vinegar,  two 
ounces  of  fine  iron-filings,  and  half  a  pound 
of  pounded  galls,  and  allow  them  to  infuse 
for  three  or  four  hours  on  hot  cinders.  At 
the  end  of  this  time  augment  the  fire,  and 
pour  into  the  vessel  four  ounces  of  coiiperas 
(suli)hat  of  iron),  and  a  chopin  of  water  hav- 
ing half  an  ounce  of  borax  and  as  much  in- 
ditio  dissolved  in  it ;  and  make  the  whole 
boll  till  a  froth  rises.  Rub  several  layers  of 
this  upon  your  wood  ;  and,  when  it  is  dry, 
polish  it  with  leather  on  which  you  have  put 
a  little  tripoli. 

4,  Method  of  giving  to  plum-tree  the  co- 
lour of  Rrazil  wood.  Slack  lime  witli  urine, 
and  bedaub  the  vvood  over  with  it  while  it  is 
hot ;  allow  it  to  di7  ;  then  take  olT  the  coat 
ofliine,  and  rub  it  with  chamais-skin  well 
oiled.  Or,  sleep  your  wood  in  water  having 
a  qu.mlity  of  alum  dissolved  in  it,  live  or 


six  hours,  kept  lukewarm  during  a  night ;  and 
when  it  is  dry,  rub  it,  as  before  directed,  with 
chamois-skin  well  oiled. 

5.  Method  of  giving  a  fine  black  colour  to 
wood.  Steep  your  wooil  for  two  or  three 
da)s  in  lukewarm  water  in  which  a  little 
alum  has  been  dissolved  ;  then  put  a  handful 
of  logwood,  cut  small,  into  a  pint  of  wateiv 
and  boil  it  down  to  less  than  hiilf  a  pint.  If 
you  then  add  a  little  indigo,  ihe  coloin- will 
be  more  beautiful.  Spread  a  layer  of  this 
liqum-  quite  hot  on  yonr  wood  with  a  pencil, 
which  will  give  it  a  violet-colour.  V,  hen  it 
is  drv,  spread  on  another  layer  ;  dry  it  again, 
and  give  it  a  third  ;  then  boil  verdegris  at 
discretion  in  its  own  vinegar,  and  spread  a 
laver  of  it  on  your  wood  ;  when  it  is  dry,  rub 
it  "with  a  brush,  and  then  with  oiled  chamois- 
skin.  This  gives  a  fine'black,  and  imitates 
perfectly  the  colour  of  ebony. 

6.  Method  of  cleaning  and  whitening  bone« 
before  using  them.  Having  taken  oli With  a, 
saw  the  useless  ends  of  the  bones,  make  a 
strong  ley  of  ashes  and  quick-lime,  and  into 
a  paillul  of  this  ley  put  four  ounces  of  alum, 
and  boil  the  bones  in  it  for  an  hour  ;  then 
take  the  vessel  containing  the  ley  olf  the  fire, 
and  let  it  cool  ;  then  take  out  the  bones  and 
dry  them  in  the  shade. 

7.  Method  of  soldering  shells.  Clean  the 
two  sides  of  the  shells  which  you  wish  to  join 
together ;  then,  having  joined  them,  wrap 
them  up  in  linen  folded  double  and  well 
nioistened  ;  then  heat  two  plates  of  iron- 
pretty  iiot,  that  they  may  keep  their  heat  for 
some"  time  ;  and  putting  your  shells  rolled  up 
between  them  under  a  press,  which  you  must 
screw  very  tight,  leave  them  there  till  the 
whole  is  cold,  anti  they  will  be  soldered.  If 
you  do  not  succeed  the  first  time,  repeat  the 
process. 

8.  Method  of  moulding  shells.  Put  six 
pints  of  water  into  a  kettle ;  add  to  it  an 
ounce  of  olive  or  other  oil ;  make  the  watec 
boil  ;  then  put  in  your  shell,  and  it  will  grow 
soft.  T.ike  it  out,  and  put  it  into  a  mould 
under  a  press,  and  it  will  lake  the  ligure  voit 
want.  I'his  must  be  done  quickly  ;  for  if 
the;  shell  cools  ever  so  little,  the  process  will 
fail.     It  will  not  require  much  pressure. 

9.  Method  of  tinging  bones  and  ivory  red. 
Boil  shavings  of  scarlet  cloth  in  water. 
\\hen  it  begins  to  boil,  throw  in  a  quarter  of 
a  pound  of  ashes  matie  from  tlie  dregs  of 
wine,  which  will  extract  the  colour :  then 
throw  in  a  little  rock  alum  to  clear  it,  and 
pass  the  water  through  a  linen  clotb.  Steep 
your  ivory  or  bone  in  aqua  fortis,  and  put  it 
into  the  water.  If  you  wish  to  leave  white 
spots,  cover  the  places  destine<l  for  them 
with  wax. 

10.  To  tinge  ivory  black.  Steep  the  ivory 
during  five  or  six  days  in  whaler  ot  galls,  with 
ashes  made  with  dried  dregs  of  wine  and 
arsenic  ;  then  give  it  two  or  three  hiyers  of 
the  same  black  with  which  plum-tree  is  black- 
ened in  order  to  imitate  ebony.  Or  dissolve 
silver  in  aqua  fortis,  and  put  into  it  a  little 
rose  water.  Rub  the  ivory  with  this,  and  al- 
low it  to  dry  in  the  sun. 

1 1 .  Method  of  hardening  wood  to  make 
pulleys.  After  finishing  the  pulley,  boil  it 
seven  or'  eight  minutes  in  ohve-oll,  and  it 
will  become  as  hard  as  copper. 

12.  To  make  Chiucse  varnish.    Take  of 


T  U  S 

gi,t'n-Iac  in  ^-ain?  four  oiiiices ;  put  i(  into  a 
strong  l)Otile  with  a  pciiiiul  of  tjood  spirit  of 
wifie,  and  add  :'.bout  tlie  Inilk  ot  a  liazL-1-nul 
of  cauipiior.  Allow  Ihcni  (o  mix  in  sinnnuT 
in  tlie  sun,  or  in  «inlfr  on  hot  enibi-rs  for 
twenty-f'iir  hours,  sliaking  llic  bottle  from 
time  to  time.  Pass  the  wliolt,'  tlnough  a  fine 
cloth,  and  tlirow  away  what  remains  upon  it. 
'J'liiMi  let  it  settle  for  twenty-four  liours,  and 
you  will  find  a  clear  part  \n  the  up])er  part 
of  the  bottle,  which  y(ju  niu.>l  separate  geiitlv 
3ii<l  put  into  auofher  vial,  and  the  remains 
will  serve  for  the  llrst  layers. 

TURNl'tRIi,  a  gate  set  up  across  a  road, 
watched  by  ;in  officer  for  the  pm'pose,  in 
order  to  slop  travellers,  waggons,  coaches, 
&c.  to  take  loll  of  them  towards  repairing  or 
keeping  the  roads  in  repair. 

Ju.stices  of  the  peace,  and  other  commis- 
sioners, are  authorised  to  appoint  surveyors 
of  the  roads,  and  collectors  of  toll.  In  case 
any  persons  shall  drive  hor>es  or  other  cattle 
through  grounds  adjoining  to  the  highways, 
thereby  to  avoid  the  tqll,  they  are  liable" to 
forfeit  \0s.  Likewise  if  any  one  assaults  a 
collector  of  the  tolls,  or  by  force  pas^es 
through  a  lurnpike-gate  without  paying,  he 
forfeits  j/.  leviable  by  justices  of  peace  ;  and 
maliciously  pulling  down  a  turnpike  is  deem- 
ed felony,  &c.  Il  is  also  enacted,  that 
20s.  shall  be  paid  for  every  hundred  that  a 
carriage  with  ils  loading  weighs  above  (iOOO 
pounds  weight,  and  that  engines  may  be  set 
up  at  turnpikes  for  weighing  such  carriages. 

TURPKNIINE.     See  Pin  us,   and  Re- 

EIKS. 

TURR.?^,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
and  order  decandria  monogynia.  The  calyx 
is  one-leafed,  bell-shaped,  live-toothed,  very 
small,  permanent.  There  are  five  species, 
shrubs  of  the  East  Indies. 

TURRlTiS,  tnxvcrmustard,  a  genus  of 
the  tetradynamia  silicpiosa  class  of  plants,  with 
a  tetiapetalous  cruciiorm  flower:  its  fruit  is 
an  extremely  long  pod,  containing  numerous 
seeds.     There  are  eight  species. 

TUSCAN  ORDER.  See  Architec- 
ture. 

TL'SSILAGO,  col's -foot,  a-  genus  of 
plants  of  the  class  syngenesia,  and  order  po- 
Ivgamia  supertlua ;  and  in  the  natural  sys- 
tem ranging  under  the  49lh  onler,  composi- 
te. The  receptacle  is  naked  ;  the  pappus 
simple;  the  scales  of  the  calyx  equal,  of  the 
same  height  as  the  disk,  and  somewhat  mem- 
branaceous. There  are  fourteen  species, 
three  of  which  are  indigenous  to  I'rifain,  the 
farfara,  hybrida,  and  petasites.  The  farfara, 
or  common  colt's-foot,  grows  plentifully  on 
the  banks  of  rivulets,  or  in  moist  and  clayey 
soils.  The  leaves  were  formerly  smoked  iii 
the  manner  of  tobacco,  and  a  sy  nip  or  decoc- 
tion of  them  and  the  flowers  stands  recom- 
mended ill  coughs  and  other  disorders  of  the 
breast  and  lungs.  It  seems  now  to  be  almnst 
entirely  rejected.  The  downy  substance  under 
the  leaves,  boiled  in  a  lixivium  with  a  little 
saltpetre,  makes  excellent  tinder.  The  pe- 
tasites, or  common  butterd^ur,  is  frequent  in 
wet  meadows,  and  by  the  sides  of  rivers.  Its 
leaves  are  the  largest  of  any  plant  in  Great 
Britain,  and  in  heavy  rains  aifbrda  seasonable 
shelter  to  poultry  and  other  small  animals. 
The  root  dug  up  in  the  spring  is  resinous  and 
aromatic. 


T  Y  C 

TIMOR,  in  the  civil  law,  is  one  chosen 
to  look  to  the  person  and  estate  of  children 
left  by  their  fal hers  anil  niolhers  in  their  mi- 
nority. A  person  nominated  tutor  i-ither  bv 
leMament,  or  by  the  lelalions  of  the  minor,  is 
lo  decline  that  oflice  if  he  has  live  children 
alive,  ifhel-.as  any  other  considerable  tutorage, 
if  he  is  undi-r  twenty-five  years  of  age.  if  he  is 
a  priest,  or  aregeiil'in  an  universily,  or  If  he 
has  any  law'-suit  with  the  minors,  iic.  T'jie 
niarriag.- of  apupil,  without  llie  consent  o!  his 
tulor,  is  invalid.  Tutors  may  do  any  thing 
for  their  pupils,  but  nothing  against  them;  and 
the  same  laws  which  put  them  under  a  neces- 
sity of  preserving  ihe  interest  of  the  minors, 
put  them  under  an  incapacity  of  hurting 
them. 

Tutor,  is  also  used  in  our  universities  for 
a  member  ()f  some  college  or  hall,  who  takes 
on  him  llie  instruction  of  some  young  students 
in  the  arts  or  faculties. 

TUTORAGE,  tutdu,  in  the  civil  law,  a 
term  equivalent  to  guardianship  in  the  com- 
mon law,  signifying  an  oftice  imposed  on  any 
one  to  take  care  of  the  elfects  of  one  or  more 
minors.     See  Guardian',  and  Tutor. 

I5y  the  Roman  law,  there  are  three  kinds  of 
tutorage;  testamentary,  which  is  appointed  by 
the  father's  testament ;  legal,  wiiich  is  given  by 
the  law  to  the  neareU  relation ;  and  dative  whicii 
is  appointed  by  the  magistrate.  But  in  all  cus- 
tomary provinces,  all  tutorages  are  dative  and 
elective  ;  and  though  the  father  has  by  testa- 
ment nominated  the  next  relation  to  hi's])upil, 
yet  is  not  that  nomination  of  any  force,  unless 
the  choice  is  confirmed  by  that' of  the  magis- 
trate, &c.  I'jy  the  Roman  law,  tutorage  ex- 
pires at  fourteen  years  of  age. 

TU'ITY.     See  Zinc. 

TWA-NIGMTSGESTE,  among  our  an- 
cestors, was  a  guest  ihat  staid  at  an  Inn  a  se- 
cond night,  for  whom  the  host  was  not  an- 
swerable lor  any  injury  done  by  him,  as  he 
was  in  case  of  a  third  night  awn  hynde. 

T\V  elf  II IXDI,  among  the  English  Sax- 
ons, was  where  every  person  was  valued  at  a 
certain  [irice;  and  if  any  injury  was  done  ei- 
ther to  a  person  or  his  goods,'  a  pecuniary 
imilct  was  imposed,  and  paid  in  satisfaction  of 
that  injury,  according  to  the  worth  and  qua- 
lity of  that  person  to  whom  it  was  done,  in 
w-hich  case  such  as  were  worth  12U0  sliiflings 
were  called  twelf-hindi ;  and  if  an  injury  was 
done  to  such  persons,  satisfaction  was  to  be 
made  accordingly. 

TWI-IIIXDI,  among  our  Saxon  ancestors, 
were  persons  valued  at '200s.  These  men  were 
of  the  lowest  degree,  and  if  such  were  killed, 
the  mulct  was  30.s.     SceTv\-ELFHisDi. 

T\\  rLlGHT.     See  Astronomy. 

TYCIIOXIC  SYSTEM  or  Hypothesis, 
an  order  or  arrangement  of  the  heavenly  bo- 
dies, of  an  intermediate  nature  betwentheCo- 
pernican  and  Ptolemaic, or  participating  alike 
of  them  both. 

This  system  had  its  name  and  original  from 
Tycho  B'rahe,  a  noblem^ui  of  Denmark  who 
lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  1  Tib  century. 
This  philosopher,  though  he  approved  of  the 
Copernican  system,  yet  could  not  reconcile 
himself  to  the  motion  of  the  earth  ;  and  being 
on  the  other  hand  convinced  the  Ptolemaic 
scheme  could  not  be  true,  he  contrived  one 
different  from  either.  In  this  the  earth  has  no 
motion  allowed  it,  but  the  annual  and  diurnal 


T  y  P 


wr 


jjlienomena  are  solv<-d  by  the  motion  of  (he 
SUM  about  tlie  earth,  as  in  the  I'toleniaic 
scheme;  and  thobc  ol  Mercurv  and  Venus  arc- 
solved  by  this  contrivance,  though  not  in  the 
same  manner,  nor  so  simply  and  natuially,  as 
in  the  C'operiiimii  system.  The  Tydioiuc  sys- 
tem then  supposed  the  earth  in  tiie  cenlrc'cf 
the  world,  thai  is,  of  the  lirinaneiit  of  sla^, 
and  also  of  llie  orbits  of  the  sun  and  moon  ; 
but  a(  tlie  same  lime  it  made  llie  sun  the  cen- 
tre of  Ihe  jilaiietary  motions,  viz.  of  Ihe  orbits- 
of  .Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter  and  .Satutn. 
I  hus  the  sun  with  all  ils  jilanets,  was  made 
lo  revolve  about  the  eaitli  once  a  year,  U) 
solve  the  phenomena  arising  from  the  annual 
motion,  aiifl  every  iwenly-tour  liours,  to  ac- 
count for  those  of  Ihediinnal  motion.  Rut 
this  hypolhesis  is  so  monstrously  absurd,  and 
contrary  lo  the  great  simpiicity  of  nature,  and,, 
in  some  respects,  even  contradictory  lo  ap- 
pearances, that  it  obtained  but  little  credit, 
and  s<ion  gave  way  to  the  Copernican  sys- 
tem. 

After  this  scheme  had  been  proposed  for 
some  time,  it  received  a  correction  by  allow- 
ing the  earlh  a  motion  about  its  axis  lo 
account  for  the  diurnal  phenomena  of  the  hea- 
vens ;  and  so  this  came  lo  be  calK.d  the  seini- 
tychonic  system.  Hut  this  was  still  voiil  of 
the  truth,  and  encumbered  willi  such  liypo- 
theses  as  Ihe  true  malhrmalician  and  the  ge- 
nuine philosopher  could  ucver  relish. 

TYLE.    S(.'e  Tile. 

TY.MPAXU.M,  or  Tympan,  in  mecha- 
nics, a  kind  of  wheel  placed  round  an  axis  or 
cylindrical  beam,  on  the  top  of  wiiich  are  two 
levers  or  lixed  slaves,  for  the  more  easy  turn- 
ing the  axK,  in  order  to  raise  a  wei'ght  re- 
quired. The  lympanum  is  much  the  same 
with  the  peritrochium,  but  that  the  cylinder 
of  the  axis  of  the  peril  rochium  isinuch  s'horter, 
and  less  than  the  cylinder  of  the  tympanum. 

Tymj-a.vum  of  a  machine,  is  also  used  for 
a  hollow  wheel,  wherein  one  or  more  people, 
or  other  animals,  walk  lo  turn  it;  such  as  that 
of  some  cranes,  calenders,  &c. 

T"\  PE,  a  copy,  image,  or  reseiiiblance  of 
some  model.  This  word  is  much  used  among 
divines,  lo  signify  a  symbol,  sign,  or  figure  of 
something  to  come. 

Type,  among  letter- founders  and  printers, 
the  same  with  letter. 

'i\'vzs  for prinline.     In   the  bu-iness  of 

cutting,  casting,  &c.  letters  for  printing,  the 
k  tter-cuttermust  be  provided  with  a  vice,  hand- 
vice,  hammers,  and  files  of  all  sorts  for  watch- 
makers'use;  as  also  gravers  and  sculpters  of 
all  sort-,  and  an  oil-stone,  &c.  suitable  and 
sizeable  lo  the  several  letters,  lo  be  cut :  a  fiat 
gage  made  of  box  to  hold  a  rod  of  steel,  or  the 
body  of  a  mould,  &c.  exactly  perpendicular 
to  the  flat  of  the  using  file :'  a  sliding-gage, 
whose  use  is  to  measure  and  set  off  dislanres 
between  the  shoulder  and  the  tooth,  and  lo 
mark  it  off  from  Ihe  end,  or  from  the  edge  of 
the  work  ;  a  face-gage,  which  isa  sipiare  notch 
cut  with  a  file  into  the  edge  of  a  thin  plate  of 
steel,  iron,  or  brass,  of  the  thickness  of  a 
piece  of  comiTion  tin,  whose  use  is  to  propor- 
tion the  face  of  each  sort  of  letter,  viz.  lon<r 
letters,  ascending  letters,  and  short  letlerr. 
So  there  must  be  three  gages,  and  the  gage  for 
the  long  letters  is  thele"^nglh  of  the  whole  bo- 
dy supposed  lo  be  divided  into  42  equal  parts. 
The  gage  for  tlie  ascending  letters  Reman  and 


838 

Italic  is  f,  or  .30  parts  of  4J,  and  33  parls  for 
tilt;  Kiiglish  lace.     'I'lu-  E;ag(;  for  iIil*  sliort  let- 


ters IS  f ,  or  IS  parts  of  42  of  the  whole  b  )dv    arc  set  up  in  a  composing  sti( 
for  the  Roman  and  Italic,  and  22  parts  for  the    nitk"  towanls  the  nght  hand 


--  pa 

English  face. 

The  Italic  and  other  standing  gages  are  to 
'measure  ths  scope  of  the  Italic'steins,  by  ap- 
p!\  ing  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  gage  to 
the  top  and  bottom  lines  of  the  letters, 
and  the  other  side  of  the  gage  to  the  stem  ; 
for  when  the  letter  complies  witii  these  three 
sides  of  that  gage,  it  has  its  true  shape. 

The  next  care  of  tlie  letter-cutter  is  to  pre- 
,paie  good  steel  punches  «ell  tempered,  and 
quite  free  from  all  veins  of  ii  on  ;  on  the  face  of 
which  he  draws  or  marks  the  exact  shape  of 
the  letter  with  pen  :ind  ink  if  the  letter  is  large, 
or  with  a  smooth,  blunted  point  of  a  needle  if 
■it  is  small ;  and  then  with  sizeable  and  proper- 
siiaped  and  pointed  gravers  and  sculpters, 
digs  or  sculps  out  the  steel  between  the  strokes 
or  marks  so  made  on  the  face  of  the  punch, 
and  leaves  the  marks  stantliug  on  the  face. 
Having  well  iliaped  tlie  inside  strokes  of  his 
.letter,  he  d-"ei)ens  the  hollo.vs  with  the  same 
tools ;  for,  if  a  letter  is  not  deep  in  proportion 
•to  its  width,  it  will,  when  used  at  press,  print 
black,  and  be  good  for  nothiag.  This  work 
is  generally  regulated  by  the  depth  of  the  coun- 
ter punch,  'llieii-he  works  the  outside  with 
proper  tiles  till  it  is  tit  for  the  matrice. 

But  before  we  proceed  to  the  sinking  and 
justifying  of  the  matrices,  we  must  provide 
a  mould  to  justify  them  by, of  wliicli  there  are 
draughts  in  Plate  Miscel.'iigs.  1*,2*.  Every 
mould  is  composed  of  an  upper  and  an  un- 
•der  part.  The  under  part  is  delineated  in 
fig.  1*.  The  upper  part  is  marked  tig.  2*. 
and  is  in  all  respects  made  like  the  under 
■{lart  excejitiug  the  stool  behind,  and  tlie 
bow  or  spring  also  behind  ;  Siu\  excepting  a 
small  roundish  wire  between  the  body  and  car- 
riage, near  the  break,  w  here  tlie  under  part  has 
a  small  rounding  groove  made  in  i!ie  Lody. 
This  wire,  or  rather -halt-wire,  in  the  upper 
part,  makes  the  nick  in  thesliank  of  the  letter, 
"rt'hen  part  of  it  is  received  into  the  groove  in 
-the  nnder  part.  These  two  parts  are  so  ex- 
actly fitted  and  gaged  into  one  another  (viz. 
the  male  gage  marked  c  in  tig.  2  *  into  the  fe- 
male marked  g  in  fig.  1  *)  that  when  the  upi)er 
part  of  the  mould  is  properly  placed  on,  and 
•in  the  undi-r  part  ot  the  mould,  both  together 
iirake  the  entire  mould,  and  may  be  slid  back- 
wards for  use  so  far,  till  th  •  edge  of  either  of 
the  bodies  on  the  middle  of  either  carriage 
comes  just  to  the  edge  of  the  female  gages  cut 
in  each  carriage:  and  they  may  be  slid  for- 
ward so  far,  till  the  bodies  on  either  carriage  i  into  tlie  pot,  and  their  fusion   promoted   by 


Ti'PE. 

tir>t  the  founder  justities  the  body,  by  casting 
about  20  proofs  or  samples  of  letters ;  which 
ng  stick,  with  all  their 
.1 ;  and  then,  by 
comparing  these  with  the  pattern  letters,  set 
up  in  the  same  manner,  he  linds  the  e.xact 
measure  of  the  body  to  be  cast.  He  also 
tries  if  the  two  sides  of  the  body  are  parallel, 
or  that  the  body  is  no  bigger  at'lhe  head  than 
at  the  foot,  by  taking  half  the  number  of  his 
proofs  and  turning  them  w it !i  their  heads  to 
the  feet  of  the  other  half;  and  if  then  the 
heads  and  the  fe^-t  are  found  exactly  even 
upon  each  other,  and  neither  to  drive  out  nor 
get  in,  the  tv.  o  sides  may  be  pronounced  pa- 
rallel. He  farther  tries  whether  the  two  sides 
of  the  thickness  of  the  letter  are  parallel,  by 
iirst  setting  his  proofs  in  the  composing  stick 
with  their  nicks  upwards  and  then  Imniug  one 
half  with  their  heads  to  the  feet  of  the  other 
half;  and  if  the  heads  and  feet  lie  exactly 
upon  each  other,  and  neither  drive  out  nor 
get  in,  the  two  sides  of  the  thickness  are  pa- 
rallel. 

The  mould  thus  justified,  the  next  business 
is  to  prepare  the  matrices.  A  matrice  is  a 
piece  of  brass  or  copper,  of  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  long,  and  of  a  thickness  in  propor- 
tion to  the  size  of  the  letter  it  is  to  contain.  In 
this  metal  is  sunk  the  face  of  the  letter  in- 
tended to  be  ca>t,  by  striking  the  letter-punch 
about  the  depth  of  an  n.  After  tins,  tlie  sides 
and  face  of  the  matrice  must  be  justiiied  and 
cleared  with  tiles,  of  all  bunchings  made  by 
sinking  the  punch. 

Every  thing  thus  prepared,  it  is  brought  to 
the  furnace;  which  is  built  of  brick  upright 
with  four  S(|uare  sides,  and  a  stone  on  the  lop, 
in  which  stone  is  a  wide  round  hole  for  the  pan 
to  stand  in.  A  foundry  of  any  consecpience 
has  several  of  these  furnaces  in  it. 

As  to  the  metal  of  which  the  types  are  to 
be  cast,  this,  in  extensive  foundries,  is  always 
prepared  in  large  tpiaiitities;  but  cast  into 
small  bars  of  about  20  pounds  weight,  to  be 
delivered  out  to  the  workmen  as  occasion  re- 
quires. In  the  letter-foundries,  which  have 
been  long  carried  on  with  the  greatest  reputa- 
tion we  are  informed,  that  a  stock  of  metal  is 
made  up  at  two  di'lerent  times  of  the  year, 
sufticient  to  serve  the  casters  at  the  furnace 
for  six  months  each  time.  For  this  purpose, 
a  large  furnace  is  built  under  a  shade,  fur- 
n!^ll(■d  with  a  wh'-el  vent,  in  order  the  more 
equally  to  heat  the  sides  of  a  strong  pot  oi 
cast  iron,  which  holds,  when  full,  1.5  luiudred- 
weight  of  the  metal.  The  lire  being  kindled 
below,  the  bars  of  lead  are  let  soltly  down 


'touch  each  other;  and  the  sliding  of  these  two 
parts  of  the  m.nild  backwards  makes  the  shank 
of  the  letter  thicker,  because  the  bodies  on 
eacli  part  stand  wider  asunder;  and  the  slid- 
ing th-m  forwards  makes  the  shank  of  tiie  let- 
•ter  thinner,  l)eeause  the  bodies  on  each  part 
ofi  he  monld  stand  closer  together.  The  parts 
■of  the  mould  are  as  follows  vij.  a.  The  car- 
riage, b.  The  body,  c.  The  m:.le  gage, 
de,  The  month  pietx'-  I,  The  register,  g, 
Tiie  female  gage.  Ii  h, 'I'he  hag  an  a  a, 
'i'iie  bottom  piate.  /;  /'  '/,  The  wood  on  which 
tlie  bottom  plate  lies,  c  c  c.  The  mouth. 
dd.  The  throat,  c  d  d,  'I'he  pallet. ./;  The 
jjick.  g  g,  The  stool,  /;  h,  The  spring  or 
tow. 
I'hcn   the  mould  must  be  justiiied:  and 


throwing  in  some  pitch  and  tallow,  which  soon 
inllame.  An  outer  chimney  which  is  built  so 
as  to  project  about  a  foot  over  the  farthest  li|) 
of  the  pot,  catches  Iiold  of  the  flame  by  a 
strong  draught,  and  makes  it  act  very  power- 
fully in  melting  lead;  whilst  it  serves  at  the 
same  time  to  cor.vey  away  all  the  fumes,  &:c. 
from  the  workmen  to  whom  this  laborious  part 
of  tlie  business  is  committed.  When  the  lead 
is  thoroughlv  melted,  a  '.\\m.'  ])iMportion  of  the 
regiilus  of  antimony  and  other  iiigreilii  iitsisput 
in,  and  some  more  tallow  is  inllamed  to  make 
the  whole  incorporate  .sooner.  The  workmen 
now  having  mixed  the  contents, of  the  pot 
very  thoroughly  by  stirring  long  with  a  large 
iron  ladle,  next  proceed  to  draw  the  metal  olf 
into  the  small  troughs  of  cast  iron,  whicli  ;u'e 


ranged  to  t!ie  number  ;>f  fourscore  upon  a 
level  platform  faced  with  stone,  built  towards 
the  right  huiul.  In  the  course  of  a  day,  15 
hundred  weight  of  metal  can  be  easily  i)re- 
pared  in  his  manner ;  and  the  operation  is 
continued  for  a-s  many  days  as  are  necessary 
to  prepare  astock  of  metal  of  all  the  various 
degrees  of  hardness.  Alter  this,  the  whole  is 
disposed  into  presses  according  to  its  quality, 
to  be  delivered  out  occasionally  to  the  work- 
men. 

The  founder  must  now  be  provided  with 
a  ladle,  which  differs  nothing  Irom  other 
iron  ladles  hut  in  its  size;  and  he  is  pro- 
vided always  with  ladles  of  several  sizes, 
which  he  uses  according  to  the  size  of  tke 
letters  he  is  to  cast.  Before  the  caster 
begins  to  cast,  he  must  kindle  his  tire  in 
the  furnace  to  melt  the  metal  in  the  pan. 
He  therefore  takes  the  pan  out  of  the  hoi-e  in 
the  stone,  and  tliere  lays  in  coals  and  kindles 
them;  and,  when  they  are  well  kindled,  he 
sets  the  pan  in  again,  and  puts  metal  into 
it  to  melt ;  if  it  is  a  small-bodied  letter  he  casts, 
or  a  thin  letter  of  great  bodies,  his  metal 
must  be  very  hot ;  nay  sometimes  red-liot,  to 
make  the  letter  come.  Then  having  chosen 
a  ladle  that  will  hold  about  so  much  as  the 
letferand  break  is,  he  lays  it  at  the  stoking- 
liolc,  wiiere  the  llame  bursts  out,  to  heat. 
Then  he  ties  a  thin  leather,  cut  with  its  nar- 
row end  against  the  face  to  the  leather-groove 
of  the  matrice,"  by  whipping  a  brown  thread 
twice  about  the  leather  groove,  and  fastening 
the  thread  with  a  knot.  Then  he  puts  both 
halves  of  the  inouki  togethi-r,  and  puts  the 
matrice  into  the  matrice-cheek;  and  places  the 
loot  of  the  matrice  on  the  stool  of  the  mouUl, 
and  the  broad  end  of  the  leather  upon  the  wood 
of  the  upper  half  of  the  mould,  but  not  tight 
up,  lest  it  might  hinder  the  foi.t  of  the  matrice 
from  sinking  close  down  upon  the  stool  in  a 
train  of  work.  Then  laying  a  little  rosin  on 
the  upper  wood  of  the  mould,  aiul  having  his 
casting-ladle  hot,  he  with  the  boiling  side  of  it 
melts  the  rosin  ;  and,  while  it  is  yet  melted, 
presses  the  broad  end  of  the  leather  hard  down 
on  the  wood,  and  so  fastens  it  to  the  wood :  j^\ 
this  is  the  preparation. 

Now  he  comes  to  casting  ;  in  the  perform- 
ance of  which,  placing  the  under  half  of  the 
mould  in  his  left  hand,  witli  the  liook  or  ha"- 
forward,  he  clutches  the  ends  of  its  wood  be- 
tween tlie  lower  part  of  the  ball  of  his  thumb 
and  his  three  hind  tingi  rs ;  then  he  lays  the 
upper  half  oi  the  mould  upon  the  under  half, 
so  that  the  male  gages  may  fall  into  the  female 
gages,  and  at  the  same  lime  the  foot  of  the  ma- 
trice places  itself  upon  the  stooj;  and,  claspiing 
his  left-hand  thumb  strong  over  the  upper  halt 
of  the  mould,  he  nimbly  catches  hold  of  the 
bow  or  spring  with  his  right-hand  fingers  at 
the  top  of  it,  and  his  thumb  under  it,  and 
plac.  s  the  point  of  it  against  the  middle  of  the 
notch  in  the  backside  of  the  matrice,  pressing 
it  as  w  ell  forwards  towards  the  mould  as  down- 
wards by  the  shoulder  of  till'  notch  close  upon 
the  stool, while  at  the  sanietimewilh  his  hind- 
er lingers,  he  draw- tlicuiukr  half  of  the  mould 
towards  he  ball  of  his  thumb,  and  thrusts  by 
the  ball  of  his  thumb  the  upper  jiart  towards 
his  fingers  that  both  the  registers  of  the 
mould  may  press  against  both  sides  of  tl;e 
matrice,  and  his  thumb  and  fingers  pre  3 
bilh  halves  of  the  mould  clos<' tog-lh'-r. 

lie  then  takes  the  liaiulle  of  his  ladle  in  his 
10 


T  Y  P 

riglit  liaml,  iiml  witli  llii-  1).;11  of  it  Rives  a 
stroke,  hvo  or  llircr,  miUvariU  upon  liii;  sin- 
fiiccot'  tlif  uu'ltcd  iiu.tal,  to  scum  or  clfar  il 
from  tlip  tilni  o^(lu^l  lluil  may  t^wiiu  il|)oii  it; 
tlitn  takes  U|)  tlif  lailU-l'iill  uf  iiuflal,  ami  liav- 
Hig  liis  iiijuUI  ill  liis  Ic'lt  luiuci.  111' a  lillli' Iwisls 
tlii'lL-ll  suK-  of  his  body  Ironi  t!ir  luriiacf,  aiul 
ln'iiigs  tiie  f^cat  ol'  lii,  laiili'  (lull  of  iiiL-lal)  to 
thumoutli  otllif  moulil,  and  twists  llit,'  iipix-r 
part  of  Ills  i'iglit  liand  towards  liiin  to  turn  tin- 
iiu'tal  into  it,  wliilc  at  tlie  same  moment  of 
time  lie  jilts  tlie  mould  in  Iiis  left  hand  tor- 
wards,  to  receive  (he  metal  with  a  strong 
shake  (as  it  is  ealleil),  n;)t  onlv  into  the  body 
of  the  mould,  but  while  the  metal  is  yet  hot 
rumiiiit>',  swiit  and  stronglv,  into  the  viTy 
face  ol  the  matnee,  to  rei  eive  its  perfect  form 
there,  as  well  as  in  the  shank. 

lie  tlien  takes  the  upper  lialf  of  (he  mould 
olV  the  under  half,  by  placing  his  right- 
hand  tliumb  on  the  end  of  (he  wood  next  hi> 
iett-hand  thumb  and  his  (wo  middle-lingers  at 
(lie  other  end  of  (he  wood  :  and  finding  the 
letter  and  break  lie  in  (he  under  iialf  of  (he 
mould  (as  most  commonly  by  reason  of  its 
weiglit  it  does),  he  throws  or  tosses  the  letter, 
break  and  all,  upon  a  sheet  of  waste  paper 
laid  for  that  purpose  on  the  bench,  just  a  little 
beyond  his  leU  ham!,  and  is  then  ready  to  cast 
another  letter  as  before:  and  also,  the  wli')le 
number  that  is  (o  be  east  wi(h  that  matrice. 
A  workman  will  ordinarily  cast  about  three 
thousand  of  these  letters  in  a  day. 

When  the  casters  at  the  furnace  have  got  a 
sufficieut  number  of  types  upon  (he  (ables,  a 
se(  of  boys  come  and  nimbly  break  away  the 
jets  from  tlieni :  the  jets  are  thrown  into  the 
pots,  and  the  types  are  carried  away  in  parcels 
tootherboys,  who  ])as5  them  swiftly  under  their 
fingers,  defended  l)y  leather,  upon  smooth  flat 
stones,  in   order  to  polish  (heir  broad-sides. 
This  is  a  very  de.xterous  operation,  and  is  a 
remarkable  instance  of  what  may  be  effected 
by  the  power  of  habit  and  long  practice  ;  for 
thes-e  boys,  in  turning   up  the  other  side  of 
tlui  type,  do  it  so  ([uickly  b\'  a  mere  touch  of 
the  lingers  of  the  left  hand,  as  not  to  require 
the  least  perceptible  intermission  in   the  mo- 
tion of  (lie  right  hand  upon  the  stone.     The 
types,  thus  finely  smootlieued  and  flattened 
on  the  broad-sides,  are  nt\t  carried  to  another 
set  of  boys,  who  sit  at  a  scjuare  table,  two  on 
each  side,  and  there  are  ranged  up  on  long 
rulers  or  sticks,  fitted  with  a  small  projection, 
to  hinder  them  from   slichng  olT  backwards. 
"When  the  sticks  are  so  tilled,  they  are  placed, 
two  and  two,  upon  a  set  of  wooden  pins  li.xed 
into  the  wail,  near  the  dresser,  sometimes  (o 
the  aiiioun(  of  a  hundred,  m  order  to  under- 
go (lie  finishing  opera(ions.     This  woikman, 
who  is  always  the  most  expert  and  skilful  in  all 
tlie  different  branches  carried  on  at  the  foun- 
dry, begins  by  taking  one  of  these  sticks,  and, 
wi(h  a  peculiar  address,  slides  the  whole  co- 
lumn of  types  off  upon  the  dressing-stick  : 


T  y  p 

this  is  made  of  wcll-s<'asoned  maliogany,  and 
luini-.lied  with  two  end-pieces  of  steel,  a  liille 
lower  than  lliebo<ly  of  the  types,  one  of  which 
is  moveable,  so  as  to  iipj)roach  the  oilier  by 
means  of  a  long  screw-i)in,iroerted  in  tlie  cikI 
of  the  stick,     'i  he  types  are  put  into  (hl^slicU 
with  (lifir  faces  next  to  the  back  or   projec- 
tion ;  and  after  ihey  are  adjusted   to  one  ano- 
ther so  as  to  stand  even,  they  arethen  bound 
up,  by  screwing  home  tiunioveableend  piece. 
It  i^  here  where  the  great  and  reipiisile  accu- 
racy of  the  moulds  comes  to  be  perceived; 
for  in  this  case  the  whole  column,   so  bound 
up,  lies  llat  and  true  upon  tlie  stick,  the  two 
extreme  types  being  (juite  parallel,  and  the 
whole  Ins  llie  appearance  of  one  solid  conti- 
nuous plate  of  metal.     The  least  inaccuracy 
in  the  exact  parallelism  of  the  individual  type, 
wlieiinuiltipiied  so  many  times,  would  render 
it  impossible  to  bind  them  up  in  this  manner, 
by  disposing  llieni  to  rise  or  spring  from  (he 
stick   l)v     the    smallest    pressure   from    the 
screw.      Now,    when   lying  so  conveniiMiily 
with  the  narrow  edg<'s  uppermost,  which  can- 
not possibly  be  smoothed  in  the  manner  before 
mentioned'by  (he  s(ones,  (he  workman  does 
this  more  efli-clually  by  scraping  the  surface 
of  the  column  wiih  a  thick-edged  but  sharp 
razor,  which  at  every  stroke  brings  on  a  very 
Uin:  smooth  skin,  like  polished  silver;  and 
thus  he  proceeds  till  in  about  half  a  minute 
he  comes  to  the  farther  end  of  the  stick.     The 
other  edges  of  the  tvpes  are  next  turned  u])- 
wards,  and  polished  in  the  same  manner.     It 
is  whilst   the  types  thus  lie  in    tiie  dressing- 
stick,  that  the  operation  of  bearding  or  barh- 
inn  is   performed,  which   is  effected   by   run- 
ning a  plane,  faced  with  ^teel,  along  the  shoul- 
der of  the  body  next  to  the  face;  w  liich  takes 
moreor  less  oll'the  corner,  as  occasion  niayre- 
(]nire.     Whilst  in  the  dressing-stick  they  are 
also  grooved,  which  is  a  very  m.iterial  ojiera- 
(ion.     In  order  (o  understand  this,  it  imi-t  be 
remembered,  that  when  the  types   are   first 
br(;ken  olVfrom  the  jets,soni(!superfluous  me- 
tal always  remains,  which  would  make  them 
bear  very   unei|ually  against  the  jjaper  whils( 
under  (he  priii(ing-press,  and  effectiuiHy  mar 
the  impression.     '1  hat  all  these  inequalities 
may,   therefore,  be   taken    away,  an<l   that 
the  bearings  of  every  type  may  be  regulated 
by  the  shoulders  imparted  to   them  all  alike 
Irom  the  mould,  the  workman  or  dresser  pro- 
ceeds in  the  following  manner:  The  types  be- 
ing screwed  up  in  the  slick  as  before  mentioned 
with  (hejet   end  ou(ermost,  and  projecting 
bevond  (he  wood  abou(  ciie-eigh(h  of  an  inch, 
(he  s(ick  is  put  into  an  open   press,  so  as   to 
present  the  jet-end  uppermost,  and  then  every 
thing  is  made  fast  by  driving  a  long   wedge, 
which  bears  upon  a  slip  of  wood,  which  lies 
c'ose  to  the  types  the  whole   length:  then  a 
plough  or  plane  is  applied,  which  is  so  con- 
structed as  to  embrace  the  projecting  part 
of  the  types  betwixt  its  long  sides,  which  are 
are  made  of  polished  iron.    When  the  plane 


T  V  P 


63.'>r 


is  thus  applied,  (he  steel  cutter  bearing  upon 
that  part  betwei.-n  the  shoulders  of  the  tvpes 
where  the  inequalities  lie,  the  dresser  dex- 
lerou?ly  glides  it  along,  and  by  this  meai.l 
ships  oil  every  irregular  part  that  comes  in 
the  way,  and  so  makes  an  uniform  groove  ll.i^ 
whole  1  ■ngth,  and  leaves  tiie  two  shoulders 
standing;  by  wliiclimeaiisevery  type  becomes 
precisely  like  to  another,  as  to  tin-  height 
against  ijaper.  'J'he  1\  pes  being  now  finished, 
the  slick  is  taken  out  of  the  press,  and  tii-i 
whole  column  iej.l,.ced  upon  tne  other  stick  ; 
and  after  the  whole  are  so  dressed,  he  pro- 
ceed.s  to  pick  out  the  bad  le.tters  previous  to 
putting  tlieni  up  into  pages  and  papers.  In 
doiiigthis  lie  takes  the  stick  into  his  leit  hand, 
and  turning  the  fa^es  near  to  the  light,  he  ex- 
amines tlieiii  carclolly  ;  and  whenever  an  im- 
perfi-ct  or  damaged  letter  occurs,  he  nimbly 
pliK  ks  it  ou(  with  a  sharp  bodkin,  which  he 
IkjUIs  in  (he  riglU  hand  for  (hat  purpose,  'lliose 
letters  which,  from  tlifir  form,  project  over 
the  body  of  the  type,  and  which  cannot  on 
this  account  be  rubbed  on  the  stones,  are 
scraped  on  the  broa(l-si(lt»bwith  a  knife  or  tile, 
and  some  of  the  >.ietal  next  (he  face  pared- 
away  with  a  pen-knife,  in  order  (o  allow  the 
type  to  come  close  to  any  Qtlier.  Tiiis  ope-- 
ration  is  called  kerning. 

The  excellence  of  i)rinting-types  consist* 
not  only  in  the  due  performance  of  all  the 
operations  above  described,  but  also  in  the- 
hardnessoi  the  metal,  form,  and  luie  propor- 
tion of  the  character,  and  in  the  exact  bear- 
ing and  rangnig  of  the  letters  in  relation  to  one 
another,     bee  Printing. 

TYPHA,  cat's-'.ail,  a  genus  of  plants  of- 
the  classs  monoecia,  and  order  triandna  ;  and 
in  the  natural  system  ranging  under  tlie  3d 
order,  calamari;e.  The  amentum  ol  the  male 
fiower  is  cylindrical;  the  calv.K  is  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable ;  there  is  no  corolla.  '1  lie  fe- 
male lias  a  cylindrical  amentum  below  the 
male  ;  the  calvx  is  composed  of  villous  hair; 
there  is  no  corolla,  and  only  one  seed  fi.xed 
on  a  capillary  papus.  'J'here  are  two  species, 
both  natives  of  Britain  ;  the  latifolia  and  aii- 
gu^tifolia.  1.  Latifolia,  great  cat's-tail,  or  reed 
mace,  is  frequent  in  ponds  and  lakes.  The 
stalk  is  six  fet  high ;  the  leaves  a  yard  long, 
hardly  an  inch  wide,  convex  on  one  side: 
the  amentum,  or  cylimlrical  club,  which  ter- 
minates the  stalk,  is  about  six  inches  long,  of 
a  dark-brown  or  fuscous  colour.  Cattle  will- 
sometimes  eat  the  leaves,  but  Schreber thinks 
them  noxious:  the  roots  have  sometimes  been 
eaten  in  sallads,  and  the  down  of  the  amen- 
tum used  to  stuff  cushions  and  mattresses. 
Linnajus  informs  us,  that  the  lea\  es  are  used 
by  the  coopers  in  Sweden  to  bind  the  hoops 
of  their  casks.  2.  .Angustifolia,  narrow-leaved  ■ 
cat's-tail,  is  found  in  pools  and  ditches,  'Ihe 
leavL-s  are  semi-cylmdrical,  and  the  male  and 
female  spikes  are  remote  and  slender. 

TYPOGRAPHY.    See  Printing. 


«iO 


'V  A  e 


y  A  c 


V  A  C 


u. 


^T  or  V,  the  twentienth  letter  oi  our  al- 
^5  pliabet.  In  numerals  V  stamMor  live; 
•and  with  a  da=h  added  at  top,  thus  V,  it  sig- 
iiilies  live  thousand.  In  abbreviations, 
amongst  the  Romans,  V.  A.  stood  for  Vete- 
ran! assignati ;  V.  15.  virobono  ;  V.  15.  A.  viri 
boni  arbitratu  ;  \'.  B.  F.  vir  l)ons?  lidei; 
\.  C.  viv  consularis;  V.  C.C.  F.  vale,  con- 
jux  charissime,  feliciter :  V.  D.  D.  voto  de- 
dicatvir;  'S'.  G.  verbi  gratia;  Vir.  Ve.  virgo 
vestalls;  VL.  videlicit;  V.N.  quinto  uona- 
rnm. 

VACATION-,  in  law,  is  the  whole  time 
betwixt  the  end  of  one  term  and  the  begin- 
ning of  anotlier. 

This  word  is  also  applied  to  the  time  from 
tlie  death  of  a  bishop,  or  other  spiritual  per- 
son, till  the  bishopric,  or  dignity,  is  supplied 
with  another. 

VACCINATION.  luoculation  with  the 
vaccine  virus,  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
against  the  infection  of  the  small  pox. 

This  subject  cannot  fail  to  "  come  home 
to  the  business  and  bosom"  of  eveiy  one  ;  for 
where  is  the  individual  of  such -slender  con- 
nection or  limiled  sympatliies,  as  to  be  indif- 
ferent to  a  (juestion  which  "  involves  the 
lives  annna-lly  of  40,000  in  Britain  alone," 
and  of  the  sain£  proportion  throughout  the 
civilized  world? 

It  would  besupernuous,  then,  to  apologize 
for  making  tlie  vaccine  controversy  a  subject 
-of  separate  and  prominent  disquisition. 

We.  shall  lirst  lay  before  our  readers  a  ge- 
•neral  history  of  tlie  circumstances  which  led 
to  the  introduction  of  tlie  new,  as  a  substi- 
tute lor  the  old,  inoculation  ;  we  shall  then 
•enumerate  the  advantages  which  vaccination 
lays  claim  to,  canvass  the  objections  which 
have  been  made  to  the  admission  of  such 
.claims,  and  conclude  by  describing  the  gene- 
ral characteristic  i  of  perfect,  an(^  marks  de- 
noting spurious,  cow-pock  infection. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  acquaint  any 
-reader  by  wliom  the  lirst  public  proposal  was 
made  respecting  the  cow-])ox  inoculation. 
Dr.  Jenner,  while  employed  in  the  practice 
of  surgery  in  a  district  of  Gloucestershire, 
Avas  surprized  to  find  that  many  individuals 
whom  he  was  called  ui)on  to  inoculate,  re- 
sisted every  attempt  to  infect  them  with  the 
smail-pox  virus.  Upon  encpiiring  into  the 
occasion  of  this  extraordinary  immunity,  lie 
learnt  that  those  in  whom  it  existed  hail'  pre- 
jriously  undergone  a  <lisease  contracted  by 
milking  cows  aflected  with  a  peculiar  erup- 
tion on  their  teats.  "  It  appeared  (says 
Dr.  Jenner)  that  this  di-ease  had  been  known 
.among  tlie  dairy-maids  from  time  iinnienio- 
.rial,  and  that  a  vague  opinion  prevailed  that 
it  was  a  preventive  of  the  smallpox.  T!iis 
.opinion  I  found  wiis  comparatively  new 
among  them  ;  for  all  the  old  farmers  declar- 
ed they  had  no  such  idea  in  tlieir  early  da)  s : 


»  circumstance  which  seemed  easily  account- 
ed for,  from  my  knowing  that  the  common 
people  were  very  rarely  inoculated  for  the 
small  pox,  till  that  practice  was  rendered  ge- 
neral bv  tlie  improved  nu-thod  introduced  by 
the  Su'ttons  ;  so  that  the  working  people  in 
the  dairies  were  seldom  put  to  the  test  ol  the 
preventive  power  of  the  cow-pox."  In  pro- 
secuting his  enquiries.  Dr.  Jenner  found  it  to 
be  an  nuanimous  opinion  among  medical  prac- 
titioners in  the  neighbourhood,  tliat  the  dis- 
ease thus  contracted  from  the  cow  was  by  no 
means  to  be  relied  on  as  a  security  against  va- 
riolous infection;  an  opinion  which  he  was  at 
lirst  concerned  to  Imd  apparently  well  found- 
ed bv  the  occurrence  ol  the  latter,  in  some 
individuals,  who  had  been,  as  was  imagined, 
subjected  to  the  former. 

Tliis  discouraging  circumstance,  although  it 
d.u-iiped  the  ardour  of  Dr.  Jenner,  didnot  oc- 
casion the  abandonment  of  his  investigation; 
and  lie  was  shortly  gralilied  m  ascertaiiiini>- 
that  the  cow  was  subject  to  several  varieties 
of  eruption  on  her  teats,  all  capable  ot  p. o- 
ducing  ulcerations  on  the  hanus  of  the  milk- 
ers, but  not  of  hisuring  against  the  infection 
of  small  pox.  'I'his  discovery  removed  the 
liieat  obstacle  to  his  interesting  research,  and 
our  experimentalist  was  the  lirst  to  distin- 
guish and  divide  the  genuine  irom  the  spuri- 
ous cow-pox.    . 

His  expectations  of  success  were  a  second 
time  impaired,  by  rinding  that  even  among 
those  who  had  been  inlected  with  the  genu- 
ine virus,  some  were  afterwards  obnoxious  to 
the  small-pax  contagion  ;  and  this  difference 
of  subsequent  siisci  ptibilitv  was  even  w  itness- 
ed  in  diiit-rent  indivirluals  who  had  received 
the  infection  from  the  same  animal. 

If  required  no  common  share  of  persever- 
ance still  to  abide  by  the  object  of  pursuit  af- 
ter this  seemingly  aimost  insurmountable  ini- 
])ediment  to  success.  Dr.  Jenner,  ho«e\er, 
was  eng.iged  in  an  undertaking  of  too  much 
magnitude  and  moment  to  abandon  it,  unless 
from  absolute  necessity,  and  he  still  per- 
sisted. 

It  occurred  tn  him  that  the  specific  proper- 
ties of  the  cou -pock  matter  might  vary  with 
its  progressive  changes  alter  secretion  ;  and 
putting  this  I  kewise  to  the  test  of  experi- 
ment, the  result  coincided  with  his  conjec- 
ture, alfording  an  ONplanation  of.this  second 
anjinaly  equally  clear  and  satisfactory  with 
tlie  former.  He  found,  by  repeated  trials, 
that  tlie  genuine  or  preventive  disease  was 
only  capable  of  being  engendered  by  th  ■ 
inaiter  irom  the  ulcer  in  its  earliest  stages ; 
that  when  from  continuance  it  hail  undergone 
ceitain  decompositions,  it  was  no  nioie  capa- 
ble of  producing  tlie  true  cow-pox  than  tlio»e 
eruptions  of  which  we  have  already  spoken. 
With  these  restrictions.  Dr.  Jenner  found  that 
the  immunity  from  the  variolous  occasioned 
bv  tlie  vaccine  iiiieclion  was  for  life  ;  at  least 


individuals  without  any  «flect  were  subjectecl 
to  the  founer  alter  tlie  lapse  of  13,  'J7,  and 
even  jO  years  from  the  latter  intection. 

During  this  very  curious  and  important  in- 
vestigation. Dr.  Jenner  was  struck  with  the 
idea  that  the  preventive  he  had  discovered  of 
sma  l-po.x  contagion  iniglit  be  jiropagated 
from  one  individual  to  anotlier  in  the  manner 
of  variolous  inoculation  ;  and  tor  this  suppo- 
sition it  does  not  seem  improper  to  notice 
that  he  had,  in  one  sense,  the  authority  of 
analogy  beyond  that  which  could  be  claimed 
by  the' lirst  ingralters  of  variola;  for  ihe  natu- 
ral vaccine  d;sti-mper  is  itself  produced  by  a 
species  of  inoculation,  which  it  is  well  known 
is  by  no  means  the  case  with  the  natural 
small  i>ox. 

We  have  stated  this  circumstance  not  froiir 
a  desire  to  prejudge  tiie  questiun  of  the  com- 
parative merits  ol  the  vaiiolous  and  vaccine 
inoculations.  It  is  the  dut_\  of  every  one,  it 
IS  oins  especially  and  olhi  ia  ly,  to  sl.ite  argu- 
ments and  facts  as  we  find  th.  m,  whether  ini- 
mical lo,  or  in  lavour  ol,  either  one  or  the 
other  practice. 

In  pursuance  of  the  plan  we  have  above 
laid  dv.wii,  we  now  proceed  to  give  as  con- 
centrated a  view  as  po-sible  ol  the  superi- 
or advantages  contended  lor  b)  the  advo- 
cates of  inoculation  lor  the  cow-jiox. 

These  we  shall  prn.cipally  extiact  from  a 
popular  work  on  vaccinia,  b}  Dr.  '1  horiilon, 
one  ot  the  most  aident  and  eliective  support- 
ers and  propagators  ol  the  new  discovery. 

1.  It  is  maintained  that  the  constitutional 
affection  wliiili  cow-pox  produces,  is  iiicom- 
pa.abl)  milder  than  thai  Horn  variolous  ino- 
culation. '1  he  piupoitioii  of  deaths  from 
inoculated  small  pox  is  stated  b)  Lr.  \\  illan 
to  be  1  in  i'jO.  "  The  zealous  .  ulivaccimsts 
have  denied  it  to  be  greater,  under  judicious 
treatment,  than  1  in  1000.'"  In  the  pre- 
sent, as  in  other  instances,  we  leave  the 
reader  lo  select  his  own  auliiority.  \\  e  have 
only  to  add,  that  we  beiieve  the  mortaiity  at 

'all  ol  the  vaccine  distemper,  in  an  innnrdiale 
or  direct  manner,  has  not  been  coiitPi-.ded 
for.  This  first  proposition,  then,  in  lavuur  of 
the  vaccine  disease,  is  scarcely  contested.  •  • 

2.  The  cow-pox  never  disiigures  the  cMin- 
tenance.  Ol  this,  likewise,  there  is  no  dis- 
pute, as  it  re.ers  to  the  distemper  inerely,- 
iiidependantly  ot  the  supposed  lonsequcnces 
of  it,  w  Inch  we  are  shortly  to  canvas. 

3.  The  cow-pox  may  be  inlroduced  into 
the  system  without  any  apprehension  o!  <  on- 
sequeiices,  under  circumslances  wliich  render 
even  the  inoculated  small  j. ox,  m  some  mea^m■e, 
dangerous,  such  as  the  periods  ol  teitl'ing,  of 
pregnancv,  and  of  advanced  age.  'i  his  pro- 
po/ilion  we  believe  lo  be  likewise  loo  well 
louiided,  and  generally  admiUed  lo  need  sub- 
stantiating b_\  examples. 

4.  'I  he  cow-pox  inoculation  does  not,  like 
thai  tithe  small  pox,  disseminale  the -disease 


as  it  is  not  infcrtlniis.  Tliis  is  a  most  malcrial 
circumstance  in  luvour  of  tlio  new  inocuUition. 
It  is  an  inuli<;putL'(l  I'lict  tliat  ihc  niortalitv  of 
small  pox  lias  increased  since  tlie  adoption  of 
tlia  artilicial  mode  of  communicating  it. 
Tliou^li  many  individuals  have  proliteil  by 
inoculation,  it  lias  destroyed  more  lives,  upon 
tlie  whole,  tlian  it  lias  preserved ;  and  lias  ag- 
gravated the  sul'lerincts  of  those  who  have  re- 
tnsed  to  employ  It,  in  a  greater  degree  than  it 
lias  relieved  those  who  have  availed  tliem- 
Belves  of  its  protection. 

5.  The  cow-pock  does  not  leave  any  bad 
humours  after  it. 

0.  "  Its  security,  as  a  prophylactic  against 
the  small  poN,  is  equal- to  the  small  pox  itself, 
either  natural  or  inoculated.''     'I'lioniton. 

Under  these  six  heads  ve  believe  that  we 
have  included  ail  the  benefits  which  are  stated 
to  liave  resulted  from  the  Jenneriaii  practice 
by  its  several  advocates;  and  we  apprehend  it 
is  only  in  the  two  last  particulars  that  any  ma- 
terial difference  of  sentiment  now  prevails. 
EVen  those  who  are  still  adVerse  to  vaccine, 
as  a  substitute  for  small  pox,  inoculation,  will 
allow  lliat  the  dispute  respecting  the  propriety 
or  impropriety  of  the  new  practice,  principal- 
ly, if  not  entirely,  hinges  upon  the  validity  or 
invalidity  of  the  two  last  ot  the  above  propo- 
sitions ;  tor  if  we  are  to  forego  the  advantages 
ofJenner's  discovery,  from  an  apprehension 
of  an  unjustifiable  interference  with  the  de- 
crees of  I'rovidencp,  we  should  not  only  be 
compelled  likewise  to  abandon  variolous  ino- 
culation, but  we  ought  no  longer  to  think  of 
arresting  the  progress  of  fever,  of  mitigating 
the  violence  of  pain,  or  of  extracting  a  cari- 
ous tooth. 

It  is  then  the  two  last  propositions  which 
demand  a  separate  and  particular  investiga- 
tion. 

First,  Does  the  cow-pock  engender  other 
diseases?  or,  in  the  phraseology  before  used, 
does  it  leave  any  humours  after  it  ? 

It  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  those  gen- 
tlemen who  have  protested  against  vaccinia 
as  introductory  of  other  diseases,  have  de- 
scribed these  aflections  to  be  principally  cu- 
taneous. Now  those  who  aver  that  this  is  an 
absolute  misrepresentation  ;  and  that  so  far 
from  being  followed  by  the  alleged  conse- 
■  quences,  the  number  of  scrophuious  and  cu- 
taneous disorders  whicli  have  followed  ujion 
the  small  pox,  naturklly  and  artilicially  in- 
troduced, are  in  a  greater  proportion  than 
those  wliich  have  happened  posterior  to 
vaccine  inoculation;  are  much  more  nu- 
merous than  the  advocates  for  the  contra- 
ry side  of  the  question. _  On  this  ground, 
then,  the  inference  froiu  evOTy  principle  of 
reasoning  would  be  drawn  by  an  impartial 
judgment  in  favour  of  vaccination.  It  will 
not,  we  hope,  by  the  antivaccinist,  be  consi- 
dered as  irregular  or  unfair,  to  appeal  on  this 
head  to  a  particular  autliority,  viz.  Dr.  W'il- 
lavi,  who,  if  he  has  no  title  to  be  considered 
as  "  the  oracle  of  the  metropolis  in  all  cuta- 
neous diseases,"  has  unqiu.-stionably  a  riglit 
-to  speak  on  this  head  "  as  one  having  autho- 
rity." 'I'his  gentleman  asserts  that  no  new 
disorders  have  been  introduced  since  the  dis- 
covery of  vapcination,  and  that  the  cutane- 
ous all'ections  which  had  been  previously  pre- 
valent har.;  in  no  measure  increased  in  viru- 
lence. But  Dr.  ^VIll.in,  it  will  pcrlia|)s  be 
uresd,  may  be  a  prejudiced,  and  therefore  an 
■-  vol..  11. 


VACCINTATION. 

incorrect,  judg.-.  Aware  of  the  possibility  of 
such  objection  to  his  statement,  this  physician 
has  not  given  the  detail  of  iiis  own  private 
practice  merely  in  order  to  authorize  his  as- 
sertion, but  has  inserted  in  hU  treatise  Dr. 
Bateman's  extract  from  the  register  of  pa- 
tients at  the  public  dispensary  in  London. 

In  the  year  1797,  before  the  publication  of 
Dr.  Jenner's  enquiry,  the  total  number  of 
diseases  was  1730;  trieiuniiberof  chronic  cu- 
taneous eruptions  was  8j.  In  1798,  total 
number  of  diseases  lGfj4;  clironic  cutaneous 
eruiilions  82.  In  1804  the  proportions  are 
li)li— 89.  In  1805,  1974— 94.  Nearly  the 
same  proportion,  our  author  adds,  may  be 
deduced  on  comparing  Dr.  Murray's,  Dr. 
Reid's,  Dr.  ^^'alkel•'s,  and  my  own  reports  on 
diseases  in  London  for  the  last  ten  years ; 
and  these,  it  may  be  added,  were  made  with- 
out any  reference  to  the  vaccine  controversy. 
Ought,  then,  the  individual  cases  brought  for- 
ward by  the  gentlemen  opposed  to  vaccina- 
tion to  outweigh,  or  even  balance,  the  con- 
trary evidence  above  adduced?  Here  again 
we  leave  the  reader  to  make  his  own  infer- 
ence. 

If  it  should  benrged  that  wehave  not  brought 
forward  the  cases  opposed  to  vaccinia,  it  is  an- 
swered, neither  have  v.e  adduced  the  more 
numerous  instances  which  make  against  the 
variolous  inoculation.  In  fact,  the  uncer- 
tainty of  medical  evidence  forbids  any  satis- 
factory conclusion  but  that  which  is  deduced 
trom  comparison  on  a  large  and  general 
scale. 

It  would  be,  however,  doing  injustice  to  Ihc 
cause  of  vaccination,  to  omit  the  following 
statements  from  Mr.  'J'rye,  surgeon  to  the 
Gloucester  infirmary:  ht.  "  A  more  healthy 
description  of  human  beings  does  not  exist, 
nor  one  more  free  from  chronic  cutaneous 
impurities,  than  that  which  sulVers  most  from 
cow-pox,  by  reason  of  their  being  Ciuploycd 
in  dairies. 

2d.  "  The  Gloucester  infirmary,  one  of 
the  largest  provincial  hospitals,  is  situated  in 
a  county  in  whicli  accidental  cow-pox  lias 
been  prevalent  from  time  iimnemoriai :  many 
hundreds  among  the  labouring  people  have 
had  the  cow-pox  since  the  establishment  of 
that  institution,  and  that  more  severely  than 
is  generally  the  case  in  artific;;-.!  vaccination  ; 
an  I  yet  not  a  single  patient  in  half  a  century 
has  applied  to  the  inlirmary  for  relief  of  any 
disease,  local  or  constitutional,  which  he  or 
she  imputed  or  pretended  to  trace  to  the 
cow-pox.  And  let  it  be  repeated  and  re- 
membered, that  the  artificial  in  no  respect  dif- 
fers from  the  accidental  cow-pox,  except  in 
being  generally  less  virulent." 

Rut  the  most  momentous  question  still  re- 
mains to.be  discussed.  Does  the  cow-pock 
afford  a  ijermanent  security  against  vaTiolous 
infection  ? 

Towards  the  decision  of  this  point  it  will  be 
fomid  of  essential  <'onsequcnce  to  revert  to 
the  two  obstacles  which  we  have  already 
stated,  as  having  presented  t'lemselves  to  Dr. 
Jemier  in  the  commencement  of  his  investi- 
gation. 

While  the  reader  retains  this  in  mind,  he 
w  ill  readily,  we  think,  perceive  the  selt-refu- 
tation  contaimd  in  the  following  remarks  of 
Dr.  Rowley  :  "No  other  questions  are  ad- 
missible in  vaccination  than,  Have  the  parties 
5  O 


641  ■ 

been  iiiOcuIatcd  Ibr  (he  cow-pox?  '^'es. 
Have  they  hiid  the  small  pox  afleiwards? 
Yes.  As  to  how,  when,  where,  whether  llic 
cow-pox  took,  was  genuine  or  spurious,  or 
any  argiimi.-nts,  however  specious,  as  pretext* 
for  doubts  or  failures,  they  arc  evasive  or  ir- 
relative to  the  question.  1  hey  may  confound 
fools,  but  not  heighten  the  credit  of  vaccina- 
tion." 

On  this  declaration  it  lias  been  forcibly  re- 
marked, that  "  it  would  be  little  les<;  al>=urd 
to  tell  ajuryina  trial  for  murder,  that  the 
only  question  was,  whether  a  pistol  had  been 
tired  or  not ;  and  that  it  w  as  of  no  consequenrr. 
to  inquire  whether  it  was  loaded  v^ith  ball, 
or  whether  the  suflcrer  had  died  of  a  pistol- 
shot." 

After  what  we  have  already  slated  respect- 
ing those  eruptions  which  hatl  been  iiidi-cri- 
minately  thought  the  same  as  the  true  vac- 
cine disease,  and  of  the  changes  which  the 
cow-pox  matter  is  itself  susceptible  of,  we 
think  our  readers  will  unite  in  opinion  with 
us,  that  the  questions  respecting  the  genuine 
or  s|)urious  cow-pox,  "  the  how,  the  when, 
and  the  where'  the  parties  were  inoculated, 
are  most  material  points  to  ascertain,  as  pre- 
liminary steps  to  decision  respecting  alleged 
failures. 

By  the  further  statement  which  will  be  givea 
in  the  sequel,  it  will  be  perceived  that  there 
are  several  circumstances  necessary  to  the 
perfection  and  absolutely  preveniive  power  of 
vaccine  inoculation,  which  it  is  by  no  meanj 
unfair  lo  suppose  were  overlooked  by,  or  un- 
known to,  the  inoculators  at  the  early  periods 
of  the  practice.  "  During  the  years  1799 
and  ISOO,  vaccine  inoculation  was  performed 
by  ten  or  twelve  thousand  persons  who  had 
never  seen  the  vaccine  i)ustuie."  (Dr.  Wil- 
laii-)  Now,  under  these  circumstances,  we 
cannot  help  agreeing  with  this  author  that  it 
is  rather  matter  of  surprise  that  the  number 
of  unsuccessful  cases  has  proved  so  compa- 
ratively small. 

Here  it  is  material  to  observe,  that  the  ma- 
jority of  those  examples  which  have  beea 
brought  forward  as  examples  of  variolous,  af- 
ter vaccine  disease,  have  been  attended  with 
so  much  irregularity,  that  they  cannot  be 
considered  as  genuine  cases  of  small  pox. 
This,  we  think,  has  been  rendered  evident  by 
the  very  able  and  dispassionate  examination 
of  Dr.  Willan  on  the  progress  and  termina- 
tion of  the  most  formidable  of  such  cases  as 
have  occurred  in  and  about  the  metropolis. 

But  let  it  be  granted  to  the  opposer  qf  vac- 
cination, that  several  instances  have  been 
presented  of  perfect  and  regular  small  pox 
subsequent  to  the  vaccine  disease,  i>qually  ge- 
nuine and  regular,  "  yet  still  the  Jcnnerian 
practice  must  maintain  its  ground  Iriiiniph- 
antly,  if  it  can  be  shewn  to  be  m  ejf'cctunl  3 
preveniive  of  small  pox  as  the  old  inoculatior. 
Now  we  think  it  has  been  demonstrated  be- 
yond the  possibility  of  contradiction,  that  the 
number  of  aiilhenticatcd  cases  of  .small  pox 
after  the  old  inoculation,  and  even  after  a  for- 
mer attack  of' the  natural  disease,  are  more 
numerous  in  proportion  ihaii  those  that  are 
alleged  with  any  ■  prob.~!bility  of  such  an 
occurrence  after  complete  vaccination." 
The  writer  of  the  article  from  which  we 
have  extracted  the  above  obervalions. 
goes  on  to  say  :  "  On  tlie  whole,  we  think 
there  are    not   fewer    than    tvventv  di'Jtintt 


eases  of  small  pox,  occurring  a  stcond  lime  in 
tlio  sume  siiljji-cl,  each  of  lliciii  aiitlK-ntkaled 
J.ir  more  toinfik-loly  llian  aiiv  om;  that  lias 
l)..-Oii  cited  by  t!>e  aiivcisariei  of  vaccination. 
We  are  pei'siiaik'c!,  iiuloed,  lliat  we  shall  be 
supported  by  cvi;ry  impartial  person  who 
makes  himself  master  of  the  whole  evidence, 
in  saying,  tlv.it  there  are  not  so  many  as  ten 
cases  of  smail  pox,  after  perfect  vaccination, 
proved  in  sucli  a  wav  as  to  be  entitled  to  any 
sort  of  attention.  ]>vow  the  medical  council, 
consisting  of  almost  all  the  geat  practition- 
ers in  London,  have  reported  that  '  nearly 
as  many  |)er5ons  have  been  already  vacci- 
nated in  this  kingdom,  as  were  ever  inocu- 
lated for  the  small  pox  since  the  first  intro- 
<iuction  of  that  practice;  so  that  if  the  two 
cases  were  exactly  upon  a  footing,  the  risk  of 
failure  seems  to  be  at  least  twice  a-i  great  in 
the  small-pOK  inoculation  as  in  that  for  the 
cow-pox.'  And  yet  who  is  tliere  in  the  pre- 
sent day  who  thinks  for  a  moment  of  alle- 
ging possible  insecurity  as  an  argument 
against  variolous  inoculation  ?  It  may  be  in- 
structive to  state  that  this  argument  was  how- 
over  used  against  the  old  at  the  time  of  its 
introduction,  and  urged  much  in  the  same 
spirit  as  it  now  is  against  the  new.  Dr.  \\'il- 
laii  and' others,  in  their  respective  treatises, 
liave  cited  many  examples  of  the  mode  in 
which  the  variolous  controversy  was  carried 
on,  a  single  one  of  which  our  limits  will  only 
permit  us  to  extract. 

"  I  fear  Ihey  may  be  accounted  physicians 
of  no  value  and  forgers  of  lies,  who  so  confi- 
dently tell  us  what  it  is  impossible  for  them 
to  know,  namely,  that  they  who  undergo 
their  experiment  (the  inoculation  for  small 
yox)  are  for  ever  therebv  secured  from  any 
future  danger  of  infection."  Page  18,  Rev. 
Mr.  Massey's  sermon  against  the  dangerous 
and  sinful  practice  of  inoculation. 

Against  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Goldson, 
that,  although  the  natural  cow-pox  may  se- 
cure from  variolous  infection,  the  inoculated 
disease  may  be  more  precarious  and  uncer- 
tain, we  think  it  of  consequence  to  notice 
in  the  first  place,  that  were  the  variolous 
and  vaccine  inoculation  to  be  judged  and 
compared  a  priori  upon  the  grc)uiid  of  ana- 
logy alone,  the  latter  would  have  the,  fair- 
est'pretensions  to  public  confidence.  The 
natural  an.i  the  inoculated  cow-pox,  we  have 
alreadvsaid,  are  ingrafted  upon  the  system  In 
iiearly'a  similar  manner;  in  the  instance  of 
variolous  infection,  this  is  not  the  case.  Fur- 
ther, the  vaccine  )natter,  whether  taken  di- 
rectly from  tiie  cow,  or  from  the  arm  of  an 
jiioenlated  person,  produces  an  affection 
which  is  not  "so  generally  dissimilar  as  the  in- 
grafted and  naturally  received  small  p.«; 
what  authority  then  have  we  for  inferring 
that  t!ie  virus  "undergoes  that  specific  chajige 
in  tiie  human  body,  whicii  the  theory  of  iNlr. 
Goldson  supposes  ?  If  then  permanence  of 
security  is  allowed  to  the  natural  (and  the 
admission  of  this,  from  a  man  of  such  ability 
and  candour  as  Mr.  Uolds:jn,  is  exceedingly 
material),  we  cannot  but  suppose  it  rei)ug- 
nant  to  every  principle  of  analogy,  to  deny 
it  to  the  inoculated  cow-pox. 

It  is  necessary  to  remark,  that  the  caser 
which  ha\'e  been  collected  and  recorded,  do 
by  no  means  serve  to  strengthen  the  suspi- 
cion of  immunity  for  a  given  tiine;  I'or  the 
utmost  irregularity  has  been  shewn,  with  re- 
spect to  the  period  of  variolous  subtcquent  to 


VACCINATION. 

vaccine  infection.  "  The  cases,"  says  Dr. 
\\'illan,  "  which  I  have  adduced  of  vario'ous 
eruption,  to;jk  place  without  any  certain 
order,  from  five  months  lo  seven  years  alter 
vaccination.  If  it  is  said  tiiat  the  preventive 
power  of  the  cow-pox  ceases  in  some  |)er- 
sons  at  the  end  of  a  month  or  two,  while  in 
others  it  lasts  sixty  or  sevei'.ty  years,  accord- 
ing to  the  varieties  of  constitution,  the  as- 
sertion is  too  vague  to  admit  of  an  answer." 

The  inoculated  small  pox,  when  first  intro- 
duced, was  limited  like  the  vaccine  ;  first  to 
two,  afterwards  to  three,  and  then  to  four 
years ;  but  experience  has  fully  established 
the  falsHy  of  these  assumptions,  and  the  most 
determined  sceptic  no  longer  talks  of  tem- 
porary immunity  from  variolous  inoculation. 

To  urge  the  argument  further  against  the 
doctrine  of  partiahmd  limited  security,  would 
be,  we  think,  supenluous;  unsupported  by 
analogy,  and  uusustained  by  fact,  it  falls  mole 
sua. 

We  now  proceed  to  extract  from  Dr. 
Willan's  treatise  the  characteri>tics  of  perfect, 
and  marks  of  spurious,  vaccination. 

"  'Wiccination,  "  says  our  author,  "  is  ac- 
counted perfect,  when  recent  lymph  has 
been  carefully  inserted  beneath  the  cuticle, 
in  a  person  free  from  any  contagious  disor- 
der; and  has  produced  a  semitransparent 
pearl-coloured  vesicle,  which,  after  the  ninth 
day,  is  surrounded  by  a  red  areola,  and  after- 
wards terminates  in  a  hard  dark-coloured  scab. 
The  form  and  structure  of  this  vehicle  are  pe- 
culiar; its  base  is  circular,  or  somewhat  oval, 
with  a  diameter  of  about  four  lines  on  the 
tenth  day.  Till  the  end  of  the  eighth  day, 
its  upper  surface  is  uneven,  being  consider- 
ably more  elevated  at  the  margin  than  about 
the  centre,  and  sometimes  indented  by  one 
or  two  concentric  furrows;  but  on  the  ninth 
or  tenth  dav,  the  surface  becomes  plane,  and 
in  a  very  few  instances,  the  central  part  is 
highest.  The  margin  is  turgid,  firm,  shining, 
and  rounded  so  as  often  to  extend  a  little 
beyond  the  line  of  the  base. 

"The  vesicle  consists  internally  of  numerous 
little  cells,  filled  with  clear  lymph,  and  com- 
municating with  each  other.  The  areola, 
which  is  formed  round  the  vesicle,  is  of  an 
intense  red  colour.  Its  diameter  differs  in 
dill'erent  persons,  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
to  two  inches,  and  it  is  usually  attended  with 
a  considerable  tumour  and  liardness  of  the 
adjoining  cellular  membrane.  Oh  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  day,  as  the  areola  de- 
clines, the  surface  of  tl*e  vesicle  becomes 
brown  in  the  centre,  and  less  clear  at  the 
margins.  The  cuticle  then  begins  (o  sepa- 
rate, and  the  fluid  in  the  cells  gradually  con- 
cretes into  a  hard  rounded  scab  of  a  reddish- 
brown  colour.  The  scab  becomes  at  length 
black,  contracted,  and  dry,  but  it  is  not  de- 
taclifid  until  after  the  twentieth  day  from  the 
inoculation.  It  leaves  a  permanent  circular 
cicatrix,  about  five  lines  in  diameter,  and  a 
lillle  depressed,  the  surface  being  marked 
with  very  minute  pits  or  indentations,  tlenot- 
ing  the  number  of  cells,  of  which  the  vesicle 
has  been  composed." 

Such  are  the  general  characteristics  of  per- 
fect vaccination.  ♦'  Imperfect  vaccination  is 
not  characterised  by  any  unitbrm  sign  or  cri- 
terion, but  exhibits  in  different  cases  very 
different  appearances,  as  pustules,  ulcer- 
ations, or  vesicles  of  an  irregular  form.     'I'he 


vaccine  pihtiile  is  coiio:d;;l ;  it  increases  ra- 
pidly from  the  second  lo  the  fiflh  or  sixlh 
day,  when  it  is  raised  on  a  hard  inflamrri 
base,  ukh  diffuse  redness  extending  bevoiid 
it  on  the  skin.  It  is  usually  broken  before 
tlie  end  of  the  sixth  day,  and  is  soon  after 
succeeded  by  an  irregular  yellowish-brown 
scab.  The  redness  disappears  in  a  day  or 
two,  and  the  tumour  gradually  subsides. 

"  Vaccination  is  imperfect"or  insuflicicut, 
1.  \\  hen  the  fluid  employed  has  lost  some 
of  its  original  properties.  2.  When  the  per- 
sons inoculated  were  soon  afterwards  affected 
with  any  contagious  fever.  3.  When  they 
are  aliected  at  the  tiine  of  inoculation,  wiiu 
some  chronic  cutaneous  disorders. 

"  1.  The  qualities  of  tlie  vaccine  fluid  arc 
nltered,  soon  afur  the  ap|)earaii!  e  of  an  in- 
flamed areola  round  the  vesicle  ;  and  the 
fluid,  although  taken  out  of  a  vesicle  in  the 
best  possible  state,  may  he  injured  bv  heat, 
exposure  to  air,  rust,  moisture,  and  other 
causes. 

"  When  scales  are  formed  over  variolous 
pustules,  and  vaccine  vesicles,  the  matter 
they  aflbrd  is  olten  acrid  and  putrescent  ; 
and  if  inoculated,  it  perhaps  neither  com- 
muiiicatea  the  vaccine  |)ock  nor  the  small 
pox,  but  produces  a  fatal  disease,  with  svmp- 
toms  similar  to  those  which  arise  from  sligiit 
wounds  received  in  dissecting  putrid  bodies. 
Should  the  pustules  remain  entire  till  the 
twentieth  day  of  eruption,  matter  taken  from 
them,  even  at  that  period,  will  sometimes 
conimunicate  the  disease  in  its  usual  form, 
thaugh  perhaps  with  considerable  virulence. 
We  are,  however,  now  assured  on  good  au- 
thority, that  matter  improperly  kept,  or  the 
thick  mitter  from  collapsed  and  scabbing 
\ariolous  ])ustules,  and  used  for  the  purpose 
of  inoculation,  does  net  always  produce  the 
sm.iU  pox,  nor  prevent  the  future  occurrence 
of  that  disea^e,  although  the  persons  inocu- 
lated may  have  had  inriammation  and  suppu- 
ration of  the  arm,  and  pains  in  the  axilla, 
with  fever  and  eruptions  on  the  ninth  or 
tenth  day.  In  like  manner,  if  the  vaccine 
fluid  employed  is  taken  at  a  late  period,  as 
from  the  twelfth  to  the  eighteenth  day,  it 
does  not  always  produce  the  genuine  cellular 
vesich.',  but  is  in  some  cases  wholly  ineiifici- 
ent,  while  in  others  it  suddenly  excites  a  pus- 
tule or  ulceration,  in  others  an  irregular 
vesicle,  and  in  others  erysipelas.  Failures 
may  have  been  occasioned  by  repeatedfr 
puni  turing  or  draining  the  vesicle,  on  two 
or  three  successive  days 

"  2.  Eruptive  fevers,  and  other  febrile  dis-  • 
eases,  interfere  with  the  progress  of  the  vac- 
cine vesicle:  The  measles,  scarlatina,  vari- 
cella, typhus,  arid  influenza,  appearing  soon 
after  vaccination,  either  render  it  ineffective, 
or  sus|)end  the  action  of  the  virus. 

"  3.  The  cutaneous  diseases  which  some- 
times impede  the  formation  of  the  genuin*  ■ 
vaccine  vesicle,  are  herpes  (including  the  ' 
shingles,  and  vesicular  ring-worm),  the  dry 
and  the  humid  tetter,  and  the  lichen;  but 
especially  the  porrigo  (or  tine.i),  comprising 
the  varieties  denominated  crusta-laclea, 
area,  achores,  and  favi,  all  of  which  are  con- 
tagious. To  these  should  perhaps  be  added 
the  itch  and  prurigo." 

"  The  right  inference,"  our  author  in  an- 
other part  of  his  treatise  observes,  "  from 
the  mistakes  or  failures,  and  from  the  nicety 
of  vaccine  ijwtulalion,  is,  that  those  only 


VAC 

sIioiiMbo  inociilators,  '.vlio  lisve  Iiatl  a  siiftk;- 
oiil  •.■diR-iitioM,  and  ulio  liave  particularly  at 
tended  to  tlie  siilyect  of  vaocination."  Dr. 
\Vi!!an  tltcu  goes  on  to  ciiforci:  tlit:  propriL-ly 
of  a  jtrirt  examination,  and  in  dubious  cases 
a  reiiioculatioii,  of  llio->i;  persons  especially 
who  were  inoculated  between  the  1st  of  Janu- 
ary, 1799,  and  the  1st  of  January,  1802. 

We  are  under  the  necessity  of  stating, 
that  iu  the  present  article  we  liave  appeal- 
ed principally  to  the  authority  of  Dr.  Wil- 
lan,  not  merely  on  account  of  the  intrin- 
sic and  universally  acknowledged  value  of 
Hich  autiiority  ;  but  because  this  gentleman, 
b/ing  neither  an  iiioculator  nor  a  partisan, 
cainiot  fail  to  be  acquitted  even  bv  those  who 
are  lea-i  disposed  to  lilierality  ot'  sentiment, 
•of  bi-ing  ill  any  measure  influenced  by  the 
motives  charged  upon  vaccinators  in  llie 
following  sentences,  which,  the  reader  will  be 
surp  ised  to  lind,  are  the  composition  of  a 
learned,  sagacious,  and  most  respectable 
physician: 

"  The  cow-i)o\  inoculators  who  have  been 
princip.iis,  reproacii  one  anutiier  as  not  hav- 
ing the  genuine  matter,  or  skilful  manage- 
ment, of  vaccination  ;  each  fays  his  brother- 
labourers  m  the  same  vineyard  are  wrong. 
If  the  small  pox  happens  a'iter  Peter's  ope- 
ration, James,  Paul,  and  John,  are  not  at  all 
surprised  ;  if  from  James,  Paul,  or  John,  dis- 
asters lijppen,  Peter  says  it  is  what  he  ex- 
pected. ICach  pretends  to  some  superior 
mystery  over  his  brother-vacciiiator.  Each 
leader  seems  to  say,  — Cojne  to  my  shop ; 
this  is  the  only  true  booth  in  the  fair:  that 
the  new  one — this  is  the  only  true  one."  (Dr. 
Hoseley.) 

It  would  be  unjust  to  conclude  without  ad- 
mitting the  only  shadow  of  justification,  wiiich 
such  language  can  claim  ;  namely,  the  equal 
and  perhaps  prior  interference  of  medical 
writers,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  question. 
We  cannot  forget  the  mode  in  which  Mr. 
Goldson's  first  candid  and  dispassionate  in- 
quiry into  the  merits  of  vaccination,  was  re- 
plied to  by  some  of  the  vaccinators.  Surely 
party  rancour  ought  at  least  to  be  excluded 
from  this  subject  of  universal  interest. 

VACCINIUM,  the  Whortle-berry, 
or  Bn.BERRV,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
octandria,  and  order  monogynia;  and  ar- 
ranged in  the  natural  system  under  the  ISth 
order,  bicornes.  I'he  calyx  is  superior ; 
the  corolla  monopctalous :  the  (llami-nts  in- 
serted into  the  receptacle;  tlie  berrv  quadri- 
locular  and  pulyspermous.  There  are  ?7 
species,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are: 
1.  The  niyrtilus,  black-whorts,  whortle-ber- 
ries,  or  bilberries,  grow  ing  in  woods  and  on 
heaths  abundantly.  Tlie  f1o\\ers  frequeiitiv 
vary,  with  live  segments  at  the  rim,  and  with 
ten  stamina.  The  berries  when  ripe  are  of  a 
blmsh-blackcolour,  but  a  sing!  liar  variety,  wilh 
white  berries,  was  discovered  bv  the  duke  of 
Athol,  growing  in  the  woods  about  mid-way 
between  his  two  seats  of  Dunkeld  and  Blair. 
The  berries  have  an  asiringent  ([uality.  In 
Arran  and  the  Western  Isles  thev  are  giren 
indiarrhaas  and  dysenteries  with  good  ert'ect. 
The  Highlanders  frequentlye.it  them  in  milk, 
which  is  a  cooi'mg  agreeable  food  ;  and  some- 
times they  make  them  into  tarts  and  jellies, 
-which  last  they  mix  with  whisky,  to  give  it 
a  relish  to  strangers.  Tliey  dye  a  violet- 
-colour ;  but  it  requires  to  be  hxed  with 
alum.     The  grouse  feed  vippn  tliem  in   the 


V  A  G 

autumn.  2.  The  ulii^inosum,  or  great  bil- 
berry-bush, is  found  m  low  moist  grounds, 
and  almost  at  the  summits  of  tlie  Highland 
mountains.  The  leaves  are  full  of  veins, 
smooth  and  glaucous,  especially  on  the  under 
side  ;  the  berrie ;  are  i-atable,  l)ut  not  so  much 
esteemed  as  the  preccdiMg  ;  as  they  are  apt, 
if  eaten  in  any  quantity,  to  give  the  hcad-acm-. 
3.  The  vitis  ida:a,  or  n-d  whortle-berries, 
frequent  in  dry  places,  in  heaths,  woods,  and 
on  mountain i.  The  berries  have  an  acid 
[  cooling  ijualitv,  useful  to  quench  the  thiist 
in  fevers.  'I'he  Swedes  are  very  fond  of 
them  made  into  the  form  of  a  rob  or  jelly, 
whicli  they  eat  with  their  meat  as  an  agree- 
able acid,  proper  to  correct  the  animal  al- 
kali. 4.  The  oxycotcus,  cranlierries,  moss- 
berries,  or  moor-berries,  frequent  on  pe:if- 
bogs.  The  stalks  are  long,  slender,  woody, 
v/eak,  and  trading;  the  leaves  are  still', 
acutely  oval,  glaucous  iindenieath,  their 
edges  turned  back,  and  growing  alternate  ; 
two  or  three  (lower-:  grow  singly  on  long  reel 
footstalks  out  ol  the  e .vircmity  of'the  branche; ; 
the  flowers  are  red,  divideddeeply  ii>.to  four 
acute  segments,  which  are  reiiexed  quite 
backwards;  the  filaments  are  downy;  the 
antliera;  ferruginous,  and  longer  than  the  fila- 
ments ;  the  berries  red,  and  about  the  size  of 
the  hawthorn-berries.  At  Long-town,  on 
the  borders  of  Cumberland,  they  are  made 
so  considerable  an  article  of  commerce,  that 
at  the  season  when  Ihey  are  ripe,  eot  le.>s 
than.  20/.  or  30/.'s  worth  are  sold  by  the 
poor  people  each  market-day  for  five  "or  six 
weeks  together,  which  are  afterwards  dispers- 
ed over  dill'erent  parts  of  the  kingdom  for 
making  the  well-known  cranberry-tarts. 

VAGINA.    See  Anatomy. 

VAGINALIS,  a  genus  of  birds  of  file 
order  gralke :  the  generic  character  i<,  bill 
strong,  thick,  conic-convex,  compressed  ; 
the  U|)per  mandible  covered  above  with  a 
moveable  horny  sheath  ;  nostrils  small, 
placed  before  the  sheath ;  tongue  above 
round,  beneath  flattened,  pointed  at  the 
tip;  face  naked,  j)a])illous ;  wings  with  an 
obtuse  excrescence  under  the  flexure ;  legs 
strong,  four-toed,  naked  a  little  above  the 
knees;  toes  rough  beneath,  claws  grooved. 
There  is  but  a  single  species,  which  inhabits 
New  Zealand  and  the  South  Sea  islands, 
from  Ij  to  18  inches  long,  and  feeding  on 
shell-fish. 

\A(j  RANTS  are  divided  into  three 
classes:  1st.  Idle  and  disorderlv  persons. 
These,  as  described  by  the  vagrant-act,  con- 
sist of  those  who  threaten  to  run  awav  and 
leave  their  wives  and  children  to  the  parish. 
^Ul  persons  returning  to  a  pari-h  whence 
they  have  been  legally  removed,  without 
bringing  a  certificate  from  the  ])arish  to  which 
thc'y  belong.  All  who,  not  having  wherewith 
to  maintain  themselves,  refuse  to  work.  Alt 
who  beg  alms  from  door  to  door,  or  in  the 
streets  and  highways.  Likewise  those  who, 
not  using  proper  means  to  get  emplovmenl, 
or  possessing  ability  to  work,  refuse  to  do  it ; 
or  spend  money  in  alehouses,  or  in  any  im- 
projier  manner;  and  by  not  employing  a 
proper  proportion  of  their  earnings  towards 
the  maintenance  of  their  families,  sufifer 
them  to  become  chargeable  to  the  parish. 
The  punishment  for  these  oflences  is  a  com- 
mitment to  the  house  of  correction,  and 
hard  labour,  for  any  definite  time  not  excecd- 
60  2 


V  A  G 


'4? 


ing  a  month  ;  the  lime  must  be  set  forth  m 
the  warrant  of  commitment,  which  must  -J  o 
sh'-vT  the  authority  of  the  person  commitiii.fi. 
I  lie  commitment  must  be  in  execution, 
that  is  to  say,  for  punishment ;  and  being  '^>, 
the  justice  must  make  a  record  of  tlie  coi.- 
viction,  and  transmit  the  same  to  the  sir- 
sions.  Any  person  may  a|)prelieii<l  an<i 
carry  such  persons  before  a  magistrate;  anl 
if  they  resist  or  escape,  they  shall  be  puni  r.- 
cd  as  rogues  and  vagabonds :  the  reward  for 
such  a|)prehensioii  is  5s.,  to  be  paid  i)y  the 
overseer  of  the  parish. 

-'.  Rogues  and  vagabonds.  No  infant 
under  the  age  of  seven  years  can  be  called  a 
rogue  and  vagabond,  but  shall  be  removed  ti» 
its  place  of  settlement,  like  other  paupers. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  those  wiio  arc 
deemed  rocues  -iikI  vagabonds:  AH  person* 
gathering  amis  under  pretended  los.<es  ;  per- 
sons going  about  as  collectors  for  prison.s  or 
hospitals ;  fl-ncers ;  bearwards ;  common 
players  not  legally  aulhorised;  minstrels; 
jugglers;  real  or  pretended  gv|)sies;  for- 
tune-tellers; any  persons  using  any  subtle 
cralt  to  imposo  upon  any  of  his  majesty's 
subjects,  or  playing  at  unlawful  games,  or 
any  who  have  riin  away  and  left  thiir  wives 
and  cliildien  a  charge  to  the  parish;  "  all 
))etly  ciiapmen  and  pedlars  i.ot  authori.<d 
by  law  ;  all  persons  not  giving  a  good  accocnt 
of  themselves;  all  beggars  pretending  to  hi; 
soldiers  or  seamen,  or  pretending  to  go  lo 
work  in  harvest;  or  illegal  dealers  in  lot- 
tery tickets  and  shares.  And  all  other  per- 
sons wandering  abroad  and  begging,  shall 
be  deemed  rogues  and  vagabonds  ;  the  re- 
ward for  apprehending  such  p(  rsons  is  10 J., 
to  be  paid  by  the  high  constable,  on  an  order 
from  the  justice.  'J  here  is  a  penally  of  10?. 
on  a  constable  who  refuses  or  neglects  t* 
apprehend  them. 

3.  Incorrigible  rogues,  are  all  end-gather- 
ers, offending  against  the  slat.  1 3  Geo. ;  whicli 
is  collecting,  buying,  receiving,  or  carrying, 
an\  ends  of  yarn,  wefts,  thrums,  short  yarn,' 
or  other  refuse  of  cloth  or  woollen  goods'. 
All  persons  apprehended  as  rogues  and 
vagabonds,  and  escaping,  or  refusing  to  go 
In  fore  a  justice,  or  refusing  to  be  con<iucted 
by  the  pass,  or  giving  a  lalse  account  of  them- 
selves on  examination,  after  vvarnin''-.  All 
rogues  or  vagabonds  escaping  from  the  liou^e 
of  correction  before  the  e\j)iration  of  tiie 
time  of  their  commitment ;  and  all  who  have 
been  punished  as  rogues  and  vagabonds,  and 
re|)eat  the  offence. 

Thereisby  17  Geo.  I!,  c.  ei,  a  privy  search 
appointed;  and  tlie  justices  or  two  ot  theiu 
four  times  a  year  at  least  meet,  and  com- 
mand the  constables  of  every  ward  or  parish 
properly  assisted,  to  make'a  general  search 
111  one  night,  and  cause  all  vagrants  that  shall 
be  found  on  such  search  to  be  brought  before 
ajiistice;  and  twojustices,  hi  case  such  person 
is  charged  as  a  vagrant,  or  on  suspicion  of 
l<lpny,niay  examine  him  ;  and  if  lie  cannot 
shew  some  lawful  way  of  getting  his  liveli- 
hood, or  procure  bail  for  ids  reappearance 
may  commit  him  for  a  certain  time  "not 
exceeding  six  days;  and  if,  after  advertis- 
iiiK  his  person,  and  any  thing  about  him  .siis- 
jKCted  to  be  stolen,  no  accusation  is  brought 
ho  shall  be  discharged  or  dealt  with  accord- 
ing to  law.  All  ro2u.s  and  vagabonds  are 
examined  upon  oath  -is  to  their  parish,  z&ti 


844 


V  A  L 


the  written  exaiiiiiiatioii  si,;iie<.l  by  them  and 
the  jusli'-i",  and  tran-mittoU  to  the  sessions. 

'1  he  pimishmeiU  is  [jublic  wliipping,  or 
conlineaient  to  tlie  house  of  correttion  till 
the  next  sessions,  or  any  less  time  ;  and  il'  at 
the  sessions  the  court  adjudge  such  person 
a  rogue  and  vagabond,  or  an  incorrigible 
rogue,  ih'jy  may  order  such  rogue  or  vaga- 
bond to  the  house  of  correct  iojv  and  hard 
labour  ibr  six  months,  or  such  incorrigible 
rogue  for  not  less  than  six  montlia  or  more 
than  two  years,  and  during  liis  confinement 
to  be  whipped  as  they  shall  tiiink  lit.  And 
if  such  rogue  or  vagabond  is  a  male  above 
12  years  old,  the  court  may,  after  his  conline- 
me'nt,  send  him  to  be  enip'oyed  in  his  ma- 
jesty's service  ;  and  if  such  incorrigible  rogue 
shall  niaki.-  his  escape,  or  oll'end  a  second 
time,  he  siiall  be  transported  for  seven  years. 
After  such  whipping  or  coiilinement,  the 
justice  may,  by  a  pass  undt-r  his  hand  (of 
which  a  duplic"ate  shall  be  filed  at  the  next 
sessions),  cause  him  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
place  of  his  last  legal  residence,  and  if  that 
cannot  be  found,  to  the  place  of  his  birth ; 
and  if  thev  are  under  fourteen  years  of  age, 
and  have  parents  living,  then  to  the  place  of 
their  abode  ;  and  the  parish  to  which  the 
vagrant  shall  be  conveyed,  shall  employ  him 
in  some  workhouse  tilllie  gets  some  employ- 
ment ;  and  if  lie  refuses  to  work,  he  shall  be 
sent  to  the  iiousfe  of  correction  and  hard  la- 
bour. 

'  Tiie  general  tenor  of  the  laws  respecting 
vagl-ants,  is  extremely  severe,  and  very 
justly  so  ;  and  it  is  the  duty  of  every  justice 
of  the  peace  to  keep  his  district  free  from 
tills  class,  as  they  are  great  burthens  to  the  pa- 
rish, and  very  difficult  to  be  removed.  For  the 
best  account  of  the  vagrant-act,  vide  Burn's 
Justice,  vol.  4,  article  Vagiant. 

VAIILIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
and  order  pentandria  digyiiia.  The  calyx 
is  five-leiived  ;  corolla  iive-petalled  ;  cap- 
sule inferior,  one-celled,  many-seeded.  There 
is  one  species,  a  herb  of  the  Cape. 

VALANTIA,  a  genus  of  [dants  in  the 
erder  monoecia,  of  the  class  polygamia,  and 
in  the  natural  system  arranged  under  the  4lst 
order,  the  asperifolis.  There  is  scarcely  any 
calyx  ;  the  corolla  is  monopetalous,  flat,  four- 
parted  ;  the  stamina  four,  wltir  small  anthe- 
rs ;  the  liermaphrodite  flowers  have  a  pis- 
tillum  with  a  large  germen,  a  bilid  style  the 
length  of  the  calyx,  and  one  ieed  ;  the  pis- 
tilla  of  the  male  flowers  are  hardly  discern- 
ible. There  are  9  species,  only  one  of  which 
is  a  native  of  Britain,  the  cruciata  ;  the  stalks 
of  which  are  sipiare,  the  whole  plant  hairy, 
the  leaves  oval  and  verticillate,  four  in  a 
whorl",  the  flowers  are  yellow,  and  grow  on 
short  peduncles  out  of  the  al;e  of  the  leaves. 
The  roots,  like  those  of  the  galium,  to  which 
it  is  nearly  related,  will  dye  red.  It  is  astrin- 
gent, and  was  once  used  as  a  vulnerary. 

VAMCNTI'NIANS,  in  church  history,  a 
sect  of  christi.'ii  heretics,  wlio  sprung  up  in 
the  second  century,  and  were  so  called  fiom 
their  leader  Valentinus.  The  valentiniins 
were  only  a  branch  of  the  gnostics,  who  rea- 
lized or  personiiied  the  Platonic  ideas  coii- 
cerningthe  Deity,  whom  they  called  I'leroma, 
or  plenitude.  Their  system  was  this:  the 
lirs-t  principle  is  Bythos,  i.  c.  depth,  which 
remained  many  ages  unknown,  having  with 
it  Ennoe,  or  thought,  and  Sige,  or  silence  ; 
from  these  sprung  the  Nous,  or  intelligence. 


V  A  L 

which  is  the  only  son,  ecjual  to,  and  alone  ca- 
pable of  com|)rehending,  the  I'-ythos ;  the 
sister  of  Kous  they  called  Alctheia,  or 
truth  ;  and  these  constituted  the  first  qua- 
ternity  of  a-ons,  which  were  the  source  and 
original  of  all  the  rest ;  for  Nous  and  Ale- 
theia  produced  the  world  and  life,  and  from 
these  two  proceeded  man  and  the  churcli. 
But  besides  thise  eigiit  principal  a'ons,  triere 
were  twenty-two  more,  the  last  of  wliicu, 
called  Sopiiia,  being  desirous  to  arrive  at  the 
knowledge  of  Bythos,  gave  herself  a  great 
deal  of  uneasiness,  which  created  in  her 
anger  and  fear,  of  which  was  born  mutter. 
But  tiie  Horos,  or  bounder,  stopped  her,  pre- 
served her  in  the  I'leioma,  and  restnre<i  her 
to  perfection.  Sophia  then  i)roduced  the 
Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  biought 
the  a;ons  to  their  last  perfection,  and  made 
every  one  of  them  contribute  their  utmost 
to  form  the  Saviour.  Her  Enthymese,  or 
thought,  dwelling  near  the  Pleroaia,  perfect- 
ed by  the  Christ,  produced  every  thing  that 
is  in  the  world,  by  its  divers  passions.  The 
Christ  sent  into  it  the  Saviour,  accompanied 
witii  angels,  who  delivered  it  from  its  pas- 
sions, without  annihilating  it ;  and  thence 
was  formed  corporeal  matter. 

VALERIANA,  a  genus  of  plants,  of  the 
cla-s  triaiidria  and  order  monogynia,  and  in 
the  natural  system  arranged  under  the  4Sth 
order,  aggregate.  There  is  hardly  any  ca- 
lyx; the  corolla  is  monopetalous,  gibbous 
at  the  base,  situated  above  the  germen; 
there  is  only  one  seed.  Tliere  are  31  species, 
only  four  of  which  are  natives  of  Britain,  the 
ollicinalis,  the  olitoria,  the  rubra,  and  the 
dioica  ;  of  these  only  the  officinalis  is  useful. 
Tire  root  of  this  plant  is  perennial;  the  stalk  is 
upright,  smooth,  channelled,  round,  branch- 
ed, and  rises  from  two  to  four  feet  in  height ; 
the  leaves  on  the  stem  are  placed  in  pairs 
upon  short  broad  sheaths  ;  they  are  compos- 
ed of  several  lance-shaped,  partially  denlated, 
veined,  smooth  pinna",  with  an  odd  one  at  the 
end,  which  is  t.'ie  lari^est ;  the  floral  leaves 
are  spear-shaped  and  |)ointed  ;  the  flowers 
are  small,  of  a  white  or  purplish  colour,  and 
terminate  the  stem  and  branches  in  large 
bunches.  It  flowers  in  June,  and  commonly 
grows  about  hedges  and  wo"ds. 

It  is  supposed  to  be  the  (fa  of  Dioscorides 
and  Galen,  by  whom  it  is  mentioned  as  an 
aromatic  and  diuretic:  it  was  first  brought 
into  estimation  in  convulsive  affections  by 
I'abius  Columna,  who  relates  that  he  cured 
himself  of  an  epilepsy  by  the  root  of  this 
plant ;  we  are  told,  however,  that  Columna 
suffered  a  relapse  of  the  disorder ;  and  no 
further  accounts  of  tiie  elTicacy  of  valerian  in 
epilepsy  followed  till  those  published  by  Do- 
miiiicus  Panarolus  fifty  years  afterwards,  in 
which  three  cases  of  its  success  are  given. 
The  advantages  said  to  be  ilerived  from 
this  root  in  epilepsy,  caused  it  to  be  tried  in 
several  other  complaints  termed  nervous, 
particularly  those  produced  by  increased  mo- 
bility and  irritability  of  the  nervous  system, 
ill  which  it  has  been  found  highly  serviceable. 
Bergius  slates  its  virtues  to  be  antispasmodic, 
diaphoretic,  emmenagogue,  diuretic,  anthel- 
mintic. The  root  in  substance  is  most  elfec- 
tual,  and  is  usually  given  in  powder  from  a 
scruple  to  a  drachm  ;  its  unpleasant  flavour 
may  be  concealed  by  a  small  addition  of 
mace.  A  tincture  of  valerian  in  proof  s|)irit 
and  in  volatile  spirit  is  ordered  in  the  Lon- 


V  A  P 

don  Phannacopaia.  Cats  are  very  fond  of 
the  siiivU  ol  this  root,  and  seem  to  be  intoxi- 
cated by  it. 

N'ALLISNERIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 

the  dictciaOiaiidria  class  of  plcnts,  with  a  mo- 
nopetalous inpaitite  flow.-r  ;  its  fruit  is  a  long, 
cyluutra-,  eou^,  and  umlocular  ciipsule,  coii- 
taiiiiiig  numerous  oval  seeds.  There  are  two 
species. 

VaLVE,  in  hydraulics,  pneumatics,  &.-c. 
is  a  kind  of  lid  or  cover  to  a  tube,  vessel,  or 
orifice,  contrived  to  open  one  way  ;  but 
which,  the  more  forcibly  it  is  pressed  the 
other  way,  the  closer  it'shuts  the  aperture, 
like  the  clapper  of  a  bellows :  so  that  it  either 
admits  the  entrance  of  a  fluid  into  the  tube, 
or  vessel,  and  prevents  its  return  ; 'or  per- 
mits It  to  escape,  and  prevents  its  re-eu- 
trance. 

Valves  are  of  great  use  in  the  air-pump, 
and  other  wind-machines ;  in  which  they  are 
usually  made  Of  pieces  of  bladder.  In  hydrau- 
lic engines,  as  the  emboli  orsuckersof  p"umps, 
they  are  mostly  of  strong  leather,  of  a  round 
figure,  and  fitted  to  sliut"the  apertures  of  the 
barrels  or  pipes.  Sometimes  they  are  made 
of  two  round  pieces  of  leather  enclosed  be- 
tween two  others  of  brass ;  having  divers 
perforations,  which  are  covered  with  another 
piece  of  brass,  moveable  u|)wards  and  down- 
wards, on  a  kind  of  axis,  which  goes  througli 
the  middle  of  them  all.  Soinetiines  thev  arc 
made  of  brass,  covered  over  with  leather,  and 
furnished  with  a  fine  spring,  which  gives  way 
upon  a  (brce  applied  against  it ;  but  upon  the 
ceasing  of  that,  returns  the  valve  over  the 
aperture.  See  Pump,  and  Hydrostatics. 
Valve,  in  anatomy,  a  thin  membraije  ap- 
plied on  several  cavities  and  vessels  of  the 
body,  to  afford  a  passage  to  certain  lunnours 
gomg  one  way,  and  prevent  their  reflux  to- 
wards the  place  whence  they  came. 

VAN,  Vant,  or 'Saunt,  a  term  derived 
Irom  the  French  avant,  or  avaunt,  •-ignifving 
before,  or  foremost  of  any  thing ;  thus'  we 
say,  the  van-guard  of  an  a;;iiy,  &c. 

Va.v,  in  sea- language,  denotes  the  fore- 
most division  of  any  naval  armament,  or  the 
part  tiiat  usually  le'ads  the  way  to  battle,  or 
advances  first  in  the  order  of  sailing. 

\'/VNiJi'.LLIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  didynamia  and  order  angiosperniia. 
The  calyx  is  cjuadrilid  ;  the  corolla  ringent ; 
tlie  two  exterior  filaments  proceed  from  the 
disc  of  the  lip  of  the  corolla ;  the  anlhene 
are  connected  ;  the  capsule  is  unilocular  and 
polyspermous.  Tiiere  are  only  two  species 
known,  the  diffusa  and  pratensis. 

N  ANE,  ill  a  ship,  &c.  a  thin  slip  of  some 
kind  of  matter,  placed  on  high  in  the  open 
air,  turning  easily  round  on  an  axis  or  spin- 
dle, and  veered  about  by  the  wind,  to  shew 
its  direction  or  course. 

\'anes,  in  mathematical  or  philosophical 
instruments,  are  sights  made  to  slide  and 
move  upon  cross-staves,  fore-staves,  cjua- 
drants,  &c. 

VANGNESIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  and  order  pentandria  monogynia.  The 
calyx  is  live-toothed  ;  corolla,  tube  globular, 
with  a  hairy  throat;  stigma  bilamellate; 
berry  inferior,  fc^ur  or  five-seeded.  There  is 
one  species,  a  tree  of  China. 

\ANILLA.     See  Epidendrum. 
N'APOUR.       See    EvAVORAXiON,  an 
Fluiijjty. 


V  A  n 

VA'^llABLE,  ill  g'-'ometry  and  analytics, 
isa  tcrisi  a|)|)lie(l  by  iiiallieiii.ii.icians  to  -fiicIi 
quantitiL's  as  are  coii^idifiTd  in  a  variable  or 
changeable  state,  either  increasing  or  de- 
creasin}».  Tluij  the  abscisses  and  ordinates 
of  ail  ellipsis,  or  other  curve  line,  are  variabh- 
quantities  ;  because  they  vary  or  change 
their  niagnitntle  together,  the  one  at  the  same 
time  with  the?  other,  liut  some  qnantities 
niav  be  variable  by  'themselves  alone,  or 
while  those  connected  with  theni  are  con- 
ttant;  as  the  abscisses  of  a  parallelogram, 
whose  ordinates  may  be  considered  as' all 
equal,  and  therefore  constant.  Also  the  di- 
ameter of  a  circle,  and  the  jjarametcr  of  a 
conic  section,  are  constant,  while  their  ab- 
scisses are  variable. 

Variable  quantities  are  usually  denoted  by 
the  last  letters  of  the  alplialn-t,  /.,  y,  x,  &c.  ; 
while  the  constant  ones  are  denoted  by  the 
leading  letters,  a,  b,  c,  &c. 

Some  authors,  instead  of  variable  and  con- 
stant qnantities,  use  the  terms  fluent  and 
stable  (juantities. 

The  indelinitely  small  quantity  by  which  a 
variable  quantity  is  continually  increased  or 
decreased  in  very  small  portions  of  time,  is 
called  the  differential,  or  increment  or  decri  - 
iiieiit.  And  the  rate  of  its  increase  or  de- 
crease at  any  point,  is  called  its  fluxion  ; 
while  the  variable  quantity  itself  is  called  the 
flneiit.  And  tlic  calculation  of  these,  Is  the 
subject  of  the  new  inethodus  dii'ferentialis, 
or  doctriii.e  of  iluNions. 

VARIANCE,  in  law,  signifies  any  alter- 
ation of  a  thing  formerly  laid  in  a  plea;  or 
where  the  declaration  in  a  cause  diffifrs  from 
the  writ,  or  from  the  deed  upon  w'hich  it  is 
grounded.     2  l^^.  Abr.  629. 

If  there  is  a  variance  between  the  decla- 
ration and  the  writ,  it  is  error,  and  the  writ 
shall  abate.  And  if  there  appears  to  be  a 
material  variance  between  the  mailer  pleaded, 
and  the  manner  of  pleading  it,  this  is  not  a 
goix!  plea ;  for  the  manni'r  and  matter  of 
pli-ading  ou^ht  to  agree  in  substance,  or 
there  will  be  no  certainty  in  it.  Cro.  Jac. 
479. 

VARIATION,  in  geography  and  navi- 
gation, is  the  deviation  of  the  magnetical 
needle,  in  the  mariner" .s  compass,  from  the 
true  north  point,  tov.'ards  eitlier  the  east  or 
west ;  or  it  is  an  arch  of  the  horizon,  inter- 
cepted between  t!ie  meridian  of  the  place  of 
observation  and  the  magnetic  meridian.     See 

M.^GNETISM. 

Vari.-vtion,  in  astronomy.  The  variation 
of  th'  mo  in,  called  by  iiuUiald  the  rellection 
of  her  light,  is  the  third  inecpiality  observed 
in  the  moon's  molijii;  by  which,  when  out 
of  the  quadratures,  her  true  place  differs  from 
her  pl^ce  twice  equated.     See  Astronomy. 

Newton  makes  the  inoon's  variation  to 
arise  partly  .'Vom  the  form  of  her  orbit,  which 
is  an  eirij)sis  ;  and  partly  from  the  iiiet|uality 
of  the  spaces  which  the  niooii  describes  in 
equal  times,  by  a  radius  drawn  to  the  earth. 

To  find  llic  grenttst  varintim.  Observe 
the  moon's  longittide  in  the  octants  ;  and  to 
the  time  of  obs-Tvation  compute  the  moon's 
place  twice  equated  ;  then  the  dirterence  be- 
tween the  computed  and  observed  piace,  is 
the  greatest  variation. 

Tycho  makes  the  greatest  variation  40' 
30" ;  and  Kepler  makes  it  j  1'  49''.  But  New- 

y 


V  A  R. 

ton  makes  the  greatest  variation,  at  a  incan 
distance  bi-lweeii  the  sun  and  the  earth,  to  be 
35'  10";  at  the  other  distances,  the  greatest 
variation  is  in  a  ral;io  compounded  of  the 
du|)licate  ratio  of  the  times  of  the  moon's  sy- 
nodical  revohilion  direetly,  and  the  lri[)lieate 
ratio  of  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth 
inversely.  And  therefore  in  the  sun's  apo- 
gee, the  greatest  variation  Is  .33'  l-'i",  and  in 
his  perigee  37'  1 1"  ;  provided  that  the  eccen- 
l/ricity  of  the  sun  is  to  the  transverse  semidi- 
ameter  of  the  orbis  magnus,  as  16  ij-  to 
1000.  Or,  taking  the  nx-an  motions  ol  the 
moon  from  the  sun,  as  they  are  stated  in  Or. 
Ilalley's  tables,  then  the  greatest  varlaii m 
at  the  mean  distance  ot  the  earth  from  the 
sun  will  be  35'  7",  in  the  apogee  of  the  sun 
33'  27",  and  In  his  perigee  3t)'  5 1". 

\ariation  qf  curvature,  in  geometry, 
is  used  for  that  lnc(|uality  or  change  which 
takes  place  In  the  curvature  of  all  curves  ex- 
cept the  circle,  by  which  their  curvature 
is  more  or  less  In  dill'erent  parts  of  them. 
And  this  variation  constitutes  the  quality  ol 
the  curvature  of  any  hne. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  makes  the  index  of  the 
Inequality,  or  variation  of  curvature,  to  be 
the  ratio  of  the  fluxion  of  the  radius  of  cur- 
vature to  the  fluxion  of  the  curve  itself:  and 
Maclaurin,  to  avoid  the  perplexity  that  ditli?- 
reiit  notions,  connected  with  the  same  terms, 
occasions  to  learners,  has  adopted  the  same 
definition  ;  but  he  suggests,  that  this  ratio 
gives  rather  the  variation  of  the  ray  of  cur- 
vature, and  that  It  might  have  been  proper 
to  have  measured  the  variation  of  curvature 
rather  by  the  ratio  of  the  flu.\ion  of  the  cur- 
vature itself  to  the  fluxion  of  the  curve;  so 
that,  the  curvature  bi-ing  inversely  as  the 
radius  of  curvature,  and  consequently  its 
duxion  as  the  fluxion  of  the  radius  itself  di- 
rectly, and  the  sipiare  of  the  radius  inversely. 
Its  variation  would  have  been  directly  as  the 
measure  of  it  according  to  Newton's  defi- 
nition, and  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
radius  of  curvature. 

According  to  this  notion,  it  would  have 
been  nieasured  by  the  angle  of  contact  con- 
tained by  t)ie  curve  and  circle  of  cm-vature, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  curvature  itself 
is  measured  by  the  angle  of  contact  contained 
by  the  curve  and  tangent.  The  reason  of 
this  remark  may  appear  from  this  example  : 
The  variation  of  curvature,  according  to 
Newton's  explication,  is  uniforin  in  the  loga- 
rithmic spiral,  the  fluxion  of  the  radius  of 
curvature  in  this  figure  being  always  in  the 
same  ratio  to  the  fluxion  of  the  curve  ;  and 
yet,  while  the  spiral  is  produced,  though  its 
curvature  decreases,  it  never  vanishes  ;  which 
must  appear  a  strange  paradox  to  those  who 
do  not  attend  to  the  import  of  sir  Isaac  New- 
ton's definition. 

The  variation  of  curvature  at  any  point  of 
a  conic  section,  is  always  as  the  tangent  of 
the  angle  contained  by  the  diameter  that 
[)asses  through  the  point  of  contact,  and  the 
perpendicular  to  the  curve  at  the  same  point; 
or  to  the  angle  formed  by  the  diaiiieter  of  the 
section,  and  of  the  circle  of  curvature.  Hence 
the  variation  of  curvature  vanishes  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  either  axis,  and  is  greatest  when 
the  acute  angle,  contained  by  the  diaineter 
passing  through  the  point  of  contact  and  the 
tangent,  is  least. 

AVhen  the  conic  s<'ction  is  a  parabola,  the 
variaUeu  is  as  the  taiigtut  of  the  angle,  coji- 


V  A  R 


845 


taincd  by  tlie  right  line  drawn  from  the  point 
of  contact  to  the  focus,  and  the  perpemlitu- 
larto  the  curve.     See  Curvaturk. 

From  sir  I^aac  Newton's  definition  may  be 
derived  prattical  rules forthe  variation  of  cur- 
vature, as  follows: 

I  Find  tlic  r.idiii»  of  curvature,  or  rather  it« 
fluxion  ;  then  divide-  this  fluxion  by  the  fluxion 
of  the  curve,  and  the  i|uotieni  will  j^ive  the  va- 
riation of  curvature;  exterminating  the  fluxion* 
when  necessary,  l)y  the  equation  of  the  curve, 
or  perhaps  by  cxiiressinR  their  ratio  by  help  of 
the  tangent,  or  ordinate,  or  subnonnal,  &.C. 

2.  Since  —-rr,  or  -    ..-  (putting  jf  =  1)  di- 

•    -<:y        -y 

notes  the  radius  of  curvature  of  any  curve  z, 
whose  absciss  is  .v,  and  ordinate  y  ,  if  the  fluxion 

of  this  is  divided  by  a,  and  i  and  z  are  exter- 
minated, the  general  value  of  the  vari.'ilion  will 


%'+.v(l+/) 


;   then,  tubsU- 


tuting  the  values  of  v,  y,  y  (found  from  the 
elation  of  the  curve)  into  this  quantity,  it  will 
give  the  variation  sought. 

E\:    Let  the  curve  be  the  parabola,  whose 
eyuation  is  ax  =y'-    Here  then  2yy  ^  ux  z=i. 


and  V  =        ;  hence   r  r= ^ 

■:       —  fl/ay       3a 


,y  —  at 


:= ,  and 


4v 


y  =  - 


--'=---    Therefore 


-3C?-l->(l-f ;')__,.   ,^; 


—  3a 


3a' 


('+^^^ 


y' 

IG/  _    Cy 


2y  tiy 

the  variation  sought. 

VARIOLiE,  the  small-pox,  in  medicine* 
Sec  Medicine,  and  Vaccination'. 

V.VRNiSH,  a  thick,  viscid,  shining  liquor, 
used  by  painters,  gilders,  and  various  other 
artificers,  to  give  a  gloss  and  hittre  to  their 
works ;  as  also  to  defend  them  from  thir 
weather,  dust,  &:c.     See  Resins. 

A  coat  of  varnish  ought  to  possess  the  fol- 
lowing properties:  1.  It  must  exclude  the 
action  of  the  air;  because  wood  and  metal.? 
are  varnished  to  defend  them  from  decay 
;md  rust.  2.  ll  must  re:-.ist  water ;  for  other- 
wise the  effect  of  the  varnish  could  not  bi? 
permanent.  3.  It  ought  not  to  alter  such 
colours  as  are  iutfiided  to  be  presen-ed  by 
this  means.  It  is  necessarj,  therefore,  that 
a  varnish  should  be  easily  extended  or  spread 
over  the  surface,  without  leaving  pores  or 
cavities,  that  it  should  not  crack  or  scale,  and 
that  It  siioukl  resist  water. 

Resins  are  the  only  bodies  that  possess 
these  jiroperties,  consequently  they  must 
form  the  basis  of  every  varnish.  For  this 
purpose,  thev  must  be  dissolved,  as  minutely 
divided  as  possible,  and  comt)ined  in  such  a 
manner,  that  the  imperfections  of  tho-cthat 
might  be  disposed  to  scale,  may  be  corrected 
by  others. 
'  Resins  may  be  dissolved  by  three  agents :. 
1.  by  fixed,  or  fat  oil;  2.  by  volatile,  or 
essential  oil  ;  3.  by  spirit  of  wine.  Accord- 
inglv  we  have  three  kinds  of  varnish  ;  fat  or 
-oily' varnish,  essential  oil  varnish,  and  spirit 
varnish. 

'I'hesc  agents  are  of  such  a  nature  as  either, 
to  dry  up  and  become  hard,  ov  to  evaporate., 
and  jiy  off,  leaving  the  resiivlixed  bdiind. 


540" 

'^'am!sbcs  slioulil  be  carefully  kept  fi-oni 
tlust,  and  in  very  clean  vessels;  lliey  slioukl 
be  laid  as  thin  and  even  as  possilile  with  a 
large  flat  brush,  taking  care  to  lay  the  strokes 
M  <)iie  way.  A  warm  room  is  bt;>t  for  var- 
nishing in,  as  cold  chills  the  varnish,  am!  pre- 
ventj  It  IVom  lying  even. 

Varnishes  are  polished  with  pumice-stone 
and  tripoli.  The  pumice-stone  mu>t  be  re- 
duced to  a  very  tine  powder,  and  put  upon  a 
piece  of  serge  moistened  with  water ;  with 
this  the  varnished  subs  ance  is  to  be  rubbed 
>'qually  and  lightly.  Tlie  tripoli  imist  also 
be  reduced  to  a  line  powder,  and  put  upon  a 
clean  woollen  cloth  moistciied  witli  olive-oil, 
Tviih  which  the  polishing  is  to  be  perliirined. 
Tlie  varnish  is  then  to  be  wiped  with  soft 
linen,  and,  wlien  quite  drv,  cleaned  with 
sl.irch,  or  Spanisli  white,  and  rubbed  with 
the  palm' of  the  hand,  or  with  a  linen  cloth. 

Fat  D/l  rarnitih.  Fixed,  or  fat  oil,  will  not 
pvaporate ;  nor  will  it  become  dry  of  itself. 
To  make  it  dry,  it  must  be  boiled  with  me- 
tallic calces  or  oxides.  Litharge  is  generally 
used  for  this  purpose.  Oil  so  prepared  :s 
caili-d  drying-oil.  To  accelerate  the  drying 
o!  oil  varnish,  oil  of  turpentine  is  added. 

Gtim-copal,  and  amber,  are  the  subatances 
principally  employed  in  nil  varnishes  ;  tlie 
copal  being  whitest,  is  useil  for  varnishing 
bglit ;  the  amber  for  dark  colours. 

ft  is  best  to  dissolve  them  before  mixing 
them  with  the  oil ;  because,  by  this  means, 
they  are  in  loss  danger  of  being  scorched, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  varnish  is  more 
beautiful.  They  should  be  melted  in  an  iron 
j)Ot  over  the  lire ;  they  are  in  a  proper  state 
tor  receivhig  the  oil  when  they  give  no  re- 
sistance to  the  iron  spatula,  and  when  they 
run  off  from  it  drop  by  drop. 

To  make  oil  varnish,  pour  four,  six,  or 
ei"ght  ounces  of  drying-oil  among  sixteen 
C'lnces  of  melted  copal,  or  amber,  by  little 
and  little,  constantly  stirring  the  ingredients 
at  the  same  time  with  the  spatula.  When 
the  oil  is  well  mixed  with  the  copal  or  amber, 
take  it  off  the  fire ;  and  when  it  is  pretty 
cool,  pour  in  si.xteen  ounces  of  the  essence 
of  Venice  turpentine.  After  the  varnish  is 
made,  it  sliould  be  passed  through  a  linen 
cloth. 

Oil  varnishes  become  thick  by  keeping; 
but  when  they  are  to  be  used,  it  is  onlv  ne- 
c.=ss.-.ry  to  pour  in  a  little  Venice-turpentine, 
and  to  put  them  a  little  on  the  fire.  Less 
tvirpentine  is  necessary  in  summer  than  in 
winter ;  too  much  oil  hinders  the  varnish 
fro.li  drying  ;  but  when  too  little  is  \ised,  it 
cracks,  and  does  not  spread  properly. 

Black  varnishes  for  cmiche.s  and  iron- 
■.^nrk.  This  varnish  is  composed  of  asphal- 
tu  n,  resin,  ami  amber,  melted  separately, 
an  1  afterwards  mixed  ;  the  oil  is  then  added, 
and  afterwards  the  turpentine,  as  directed 
ab  )ve.  'l"he  usual  proportions  are,  twelve 
ounces  of  amber,  two  of  resin,  two  of  asphal- 
tum,  six  of  oil,  and  twelve  of  turpentine. 

.7  X'nrnisli  for  rcnderinj;  silk  iiHiti-r  and 
ai.-liglit.  To  render  the  linseed-oil  drying, 
boil  it  with  two  ounces  of  sugar  of  leadj  and 
three  ounces  of  lithacge,  for  everv  pint  of 
oil,  till  the  oil  has  dissolved  them  ;  then  put 
a  pound  of  birdlime,  and  half  a  p.ut  of  the 
drying-oil,  into  a  pot  of  iron  or  copper, 
holding  about  a  gallon  ;  and  let  it  boil  gently 
•ver  a  slow  charcoal  /ire,  till  the  birdlime 


VARNISH. 

ceases  to  crackle ;  then  pour  upon  it  two 
pints  and  a  half  of  drying-oil,  and  boil  it  for 
about  an  hour  longer,  stirring  it  often  with 
an  iron  or  wooden  spatula.  As  the  varnish, 
ill  boiling,  swells  much,  the  pot  should  be 
removed  from  the  tiie,  and  replaced  when 
the  varnish  subsides.  Wiiile  it  is  boiling, 
it  should  be  occasionally  examihed,  in  order 
to  determine  whether  it  has  boiled  enougii. 
I'or  this  purpose,  take  some  of  it  upon  the 
blade  of  a  large  knife,  and  after  rubbing  the 
blade  of  another  knile  upon  it,  separate  the 
knives;  and  when,  en  their  separati'.;;,  the 
varnish  begins  to  form  thieads  between  the 
two  knives,  it  has  boiled  enough,  and  stiould 
be  removed  from  (he  fire.  \\  hen  it  isiilmo.st 
cold,  add  about  an  ecpial  quantity  of  spirit  of 
turpeiitiiie;  mix  botii  well  together,  aiid  let 
the  mass  rest  till  the  next  day  ;  then,  having 
wanned  it  a  little,  strain  and  bottle  it.  If  it 
is  too  thick,  add  spirit  of  turpentine.  This 
varnish  should  be  laid  upon  the  stuff  when 
perfectly  dry,  in  a  lukewarm  state  ;  a  tiiin 
coat  of  it  ii|)Oii  one  side,  and,  about  twelve 
hours  after,  two  other  coats  should  be  laid 
on,  one  on  each  side  ;  and  in  24  hours  the 
silk  may  be  used. 

Mr.  Blanckard's  varnish  for  air-halloons. 
Dissolve  elastic  gum  (caoutchouc,  or  Indian 
rubber),  cut  small,  in  live  times  its  weight  of 
spirit  of  turpentine,  by  keeping  them  some 
days  together;  then  boil  one  ounce  of  this 
solution  in  eiglit  ounces  of  drving  linseed-oil 
for  a  few  minutes,  and  strain  it.  Use  it 
warm. 

Essential  oil  varnish.  The  essential  var- 
nishes consist  of  a  solution  of  resin  in  oil  of 
turpentine,  or  other  essential  oil.  This  var- 
nish being  applied,  the  turpentine  evaporates, 
leaving  the  resin  behind.  They  are  com- 
monly used  for  pictures. 

Spirit  Tarnishes.  When  resins  are  dis- 
solved in  alcohol,  commonly  called  spirit  of 
wine,  the  varnish  dries  very  speedily,  but  is 
subject  to  crack.  7"his  fault  is  corrected  by 
adding  a  small  quantity  of  oil  of  turpentine, 
which  renders  it  brighter,  and  less  brittle  when 
dry. 

To  dissolve  a;iim-copal  in  spirit  nf  z:-ine. 
Dissolve  half  an  ounce  of  camphor  in  a  pint 
of  alcohol,  or  spirit  of  wine ;  put  it  into  a 
circulating  glass,  and  add  four  ounces  of 
copal  in  small  pieces  ;  set  it  in  a  sand-heat 
so  regulated,  that  the  bubbles  may  be  count- 
ed as  they  rise  from  the  bottom  ;  and  con- 
tinue the  same  heat  till  the  solution  is  com- 
pleted. 

Camphor  acts  more  powerfully  upon  copal 
than  any  other  substance.  If  copal  is  finely 
powdered,  and  a  small  quantity  of  <lry  cam- 
l-Uor  rubbed  with  it  in  the  mortar,  the  whole 
becomes  in  a  few  minutes  a  tough  coherent 
mass.  The  process  above  described  will 
dissolve  more  copal  than  the  menstruum  will 
retain  when  cold.  The  most  economical 
method  will  theiefore  be,  to  set  the  vessel 
which  contains  the  solution  bv  for  a  few  days; 
and  when  it  is  perfectly  settled,  pour  otf  the 
clear  varnish,  and  leave  the  residuum  for  a 
futuri;  operation. 

Tills  is  a  very  bright  solution  of  copal;  it 
is  an  excellent  varnish  for  pictures,  and  may 
|>erhaps  be  found  to  be  an  improvement  in 
fine  japan  works;  as  the  stoves  used  in  drying 
those  articles  may  drive  off  the  camphor  en- 
tirely, and  leave  the  copal  pure  and  colourless 
upon  the  work. 


J  varnish  for  vjainsot,  cane-chairs,  tic. 
Di'-.sclve  in  a  quart  of  spirit  of  wine,  eight 
ounces  of  gum-sandarach,  two  ounces  of  seed- 
lac,  and  four  ounces  of  resin ;  then  add  six 
ounces  of  Venice  turpentine.  If  the  varnish 
is  to  producer  red  colour,  more  of  the  lac 
and  less  of  sandarach  should  be  used,  and  a 
little  dragon's-blood  should  be  added.  This 
varnish  is  very  strong. 

A  varnish  for  toilet-bnxcs,  ca-ies,  fani, 
i;c.  Dissolve  two  ounces  of  gum-niastidi, 
and  eight  ounces  of  gum-sandarach,  in  a 
quart  of  alcohol :  then  add  four  ounces  of 
Venice-turpentine. 

A  varnish  for  violins,  and  other  musical 
instrumcals. '  I'ut  four  ounces  of  gum-sanda- 
lach,  two  ounces  of  lac,  two  ounces  of  gum- 
mastich,  an  ounce  of  gum-elemi,  into  a  quart 
of  alcohol,  and  hang  them  over  a  slow  fire 
till  they  are  dissolved  ;  then  add  two  ounces 
of  turi)entine. 

I'arnishfor  employing  vcrmilionfor paint- 
ing equipages.  Dissolve  in  a  quart  of  alco- 
hol six  ounces  of  sandarach,  three  ounces  of 
gum-lac,  and  four  ounces  of  resin;  after- 
wards add  six  ounces  of  the  cheapest  kind  of 
turpentine  ;  nii.x  it  with  a  proper  quantity  of 
vermilion  when  it  is  to  be  used. 

Seed-lac  varnish.  Take  spirit  of  wine, 
one  quart  ;  put  it  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle; 
add  to  it  eight  ounces  of  seed-lac,  that  n 
large-grained,  bright,  and  clear,  free  from 
dirt  and  sticks ;  let  it  stand  two  days,  or 
longer,  in  a  warm  place,  often  sliakaig  it. 
Strain  it  through  a  flannel  into  another  bottle, 
and  it  is  fit  for  use. 

ShAl-lac  varnish.  T.ike  one  quart  of 
spirit  of  wine,  eight  ounces  of  the  thinnest 
and  most  transparent  shell-lac,  which,  if 
melted  m  the  ttame  of  a  caa:lle,  will  draw 
out  in  tlie  longest  and  finest  hair ;  mix  and 
shake  tliese  together,  and  let  them  stand  in 
a  warm  place  tor  two  days,  and  it  is  ready 
(or  use.  This  varnisli  is  softer  than  that  which 
is  made  from  seed-lac,  and  therefore  is  not 
so  useful ;  but  may  be  mixed  with  it  for  var- 
nishing wood,  &c. 

ll'hite  varnish  for  clockfaces,  Sfc.  Take 
of  spirit  of  wine  (liighly  rectified)  one  pint, 
which  divide  into  four  parts;  then  mix  one 
part  with  half  an  ounce  of  gum-mastich,  in  a 
phial;  one  part  of  spirit,  and  half  an  ounce  of 
gum-sandarach,  m  another  phial  ;  one  part  of 
spirit,  and  half  an  ounce  of  the  whitest  parts 
of  gum-benjamin.  Then  mix  and  temper 
them  to  your  mind.  It  would  not  be  amiss 
to  add  a  little  bit  of  white  resin,  or  clear  Ve- 
nice-turpentine, in  the  mastich-bottle ;  it 
will  assist  ill  giving  a  gloss.  If  your  varnish 
proves  too  strong  and  thick,  add  spirit  of 
w-ine  only;  if  too  hard,  some  dissolved  mas- 
tich  ;  if  too  soft,  some  sand.irach  or  benjamin. 
No  other  rule  can  be  given,  unless  tlje  qua- 
lity of  the  gums  and  the  spirit  could  be  ascer- 
tained. When  you  have  brought  it  to  a 
proper  temper,  warm  the  silvered  plate  be- 
(bre  the  fire,  and  with  a  Hat  camel's-hair 
pencil,  stroke  it  all  over  until  no  white  streaks 
appear. 

\'arnish,  among  medallists,  signifies  (lie 
colours  antiipie  medals  have  acquired  in  the 
earlli. 

The  beauty  wliR-h  nature  alone  is  able  to 
give  to  medals,  and  art  has  never  yet  altain- 
eil  to  counterfeit,  enhancesthe  value  of  them; 
that  is,  the  colours,  with  which  certain  soils, 
ill  which  they  have  a  long  lime  lain,  tinjic 


V  A  U 

Iheinolal';;  soma  of  wliicli  are  biue,  almost 
^s  bea.itiUil  as  l!ic  lurquolse ;  otiiers  wiUi  iiii 
iiiiiniuble  vennilioii  colour;  others  uitli  a 
certain  shining  polish'.-d  brown,  vastly  liner 
than  lirasil  iigiive-;. 

'The  most  usual  varnish  is  a  beautiful 
green,  wiiith  han.^sto  the  finest  strokes  with- 
out e:l'acing  them,  more  accuraleiy  than  tlie 
linest  enamel  does  on  metals.  No  metal  but 
brass  is  susceptiljle  of  thi;, ;  for  the  green  rust 
that  gathers  on  silver  always  spoils  it,  and  it 
luuitbe  got  i)li' with  vinegar  or  lemon-juice. 

FaisMiers  of  medals  luive  a  lalse  or  niodL-rn 
varnish,  which  they  use  on  their  counterleits, 
to  give  them  tin-  appearance,  or  air,  of  bt-ing 
antuine.  15ut  this  may  be  di. covered  bv  its 
softness,  it  being  solter  than  the  natural  var- 
liisli,  which  is  a^  hard  as  the  metal  itself.  Some 
deposit  their  spurious  metals  in  the  earth  for 
a  considerable  tijiie,  by  which  means  they 
contract  a  sort  of  varnish,  which  may  impose 
upon  th''  less  knowing  :  others  use  sal  annno- 
liiac,  niuriat  ot  ammonia,  and  others  burnt 
paper. 

VAIUIONIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
clais  and  order  pentandria  monogynia.  The 
corolla  is  iive-cleit;  drupe  with  a  four-celled 
nut.  There  are  nine  species,  shrubs  of  the 
West  Indies. 

VASSAL,  in  old  law-books,  denotes  a  te- 
nant that  held  in  fee  of  his  lord,  to  whom  he 
vowed  hcIelUy  and  service. 

VA'I'ERI.V,  a  genus  of  the  polyandria 
monogynia  class  of  plants,  the  iiower  of  wliich 
consists  of  five  oval  and  patent  petals;  and 
its  fruit  is  a  turbinated,  coriaceous,  and  uni- 
locular capsule,  containing  a  single  oval  seed, 
"i'here  is  one  species. 

VATIC  A,  a  genus  of  the  dodecandria  mo- 
nogynia class  and  order  of  plants.  The  ca- 
lyx is  (ive-cleft;  petals  live;  anthers  15, 
sessile,  four-celled.  There  is  one  species,  a 
tree  of  China. 

A'AULT,  in  architecture,  an  arched 
roof,  so  contrived  that  the  stones  which 
form  it  sustain  each  other.  Vaults  are,  on 
many  occasions,  to  be  preferred  to  soffits  or 
ceilings,  as  they  give  a  greater  height  and 
flevatioH,  and  are  besides  more  firm  and 
durable. 

Salmasius  observes,  that  the  antients  had 
only  three  kinds  of  vaults.  The  fu'St  was  the 
fornix,  made  cradle-wise;  the  second  a  tes- 
tiido,  i.e.  tortoise-wise,  which  the  French 
call  cul  de  four,  or  oven-wise;  and  the  third 
concha,  or  trumpet-wise.  Bwt  the  moderns 
have  subdivided  these  three  sorts  into  many 
more,  to  which  they  have  given  diderent 
names,  according  to  their  figure?  and  uses  ; 
some  of  them  are  circular,  and  others  ellip- 
tical. 

Again,  the  sweeps  of  some  are  larger, 
others  less,  portions  of  a  sphere.  All  such 
as  are  above  hemisi)heres  are  called  high,  or 
surmounted  vaults;  and  all  that  are  less  tlian 
hemispheres,  are  called  low,  or  surbased 
vaults,  or  testudines. 

In  some  vaults  the  height  is  greater  than 
the  diameter;  in  others  it  is  less;  others 
again  are  quite  flat,  and  only  made  with 
h'aunses;  others  like  ovens,  or  in  the  form  of 
a  cul  de  four,  &c.  and  others  growing  %vider 
as  they  lengthen,  like  a  trumpet. 

Vaults,  muster,  are  those  that  cover  the 
principal  parts  of  buildings,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  upper  or  subordinate  vaults,  which 
4 


V  A  U 

only  cover  some  little  part,  as  a  passage  or 
gale,  Sii:.   , 

Vault,  double,  is  one  that  is  built  over 
anotiier,  to  make  the  outer  decoration  range 
with  the  inner;  or,  to  make  the  beauly  and 
decoration  of  the  inside  coii>i>lent  with  iliat 
of  tlie  out-.ide,  leaves  a  space  between  the 
concavity  of  the  one  and  llie  convexity  of 
the  olher;  instances  of  vvlucli  we  liave  In 
the  dome  of  St.  Peter ..  at  Home,  St.  Paul's 
at  London,  and  in  that  of  llie  Invalids  at 
Paris. 

Vaults  with  conipnrlnients,  are  such 
whose  sweep,  or  inner  lace,  is  i  iiric  lied  wilii 
pannels  of  sculpliire,  separated  by  |)lalbands. 
These  compartin.-nts,  which  are  ot  dillerent 
figures  according  to  the  vaults,  and  usually 
gilt  on  a  white  ground,  are  made  with  stone 
or  buck  walls,  as  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter 
at  Rome,  or  with  plaister  on  timber  vaults. 

Vaults,  l/icni-i/  (f.  A  se  nicircular  arch 
or  vault,  standing  on  two  piedroits,  or  im- 
])Osfs,  and  all  the  stones  that  compose  them, 
being  cut,  and  placed  in  such  n.anner  as  that 
their  joints  or  beds,  being  prolonged,  do  all 
meet  in  the  centre  of  the  vault  ;  it  is  evident 
that  all  the  stonjs  must  be  in  the  form  of 
wedges,  /.  c.  must  be  wider  and  bieger  at  top  ; 
by  means  of  which  they  su>tain  each  other, 
and  mutually  oppose'  the  effort  of  their 
weight,  which  determines  them  lo  tall.  ']  he 
stone  in  the  middle  of  the  vaults,  which 
stand,  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and  is 
called  1  he  key  of  (he  vault,  is  sustained  on 
each  side  b\  two  contiguous  stones,  just  as  by 
two  inclined  planes  ;  and,  consequently,  the 
effort  it  makes  to  fall  is  not  equal  "to  its 
weight.  But  still  that  effort  is  the  greater, 
as  the  inclined  planes  are  less  inclined  ;  so 
that  if  they  were  infinitely  little  inclined, 
i.e.  if  they  were  perpendicular  to  the  hori/on 
as  well  as  the  key,  it  will  tend  to  fall  with  its 
whole  weight,  and  would  actually  fall  but 
for  the  mortar.  The  second  stone,  wliich  is 
on  the  rigiitorleft  of  the  key-stone,  is  sus- 
tained by  a  third,  which,  by  virtue  of  the 
figure  ot  Ihc  vault,  is  necessarily  more  inclin- 
ed to  the  second  than  the  second  is  to  the 
first;  and  consequently  the  second,  in  the 
effort  it  makes  to  fall,  employs  a  less  i)art  of 
its  weight  than  the  Ikst.  For  the  same  rea- 
son, the  stones  from  the  key-stone  employ 
still  a  less  and  less  part  of  their  weight  to  the 
last;  which,  resting  on  a  horizontal  plane,  (;m- 
ploys  no  part  of  its  weight,  or,  which  is  the 
same  thing,  makes  no  effort  at  all,  as  bein-i 
entirely  su|)ported  by  the  impost.  Now,  in 
vaults,  a  great  jjoint  to  be  aimed  at  is,  that  all 
the  voussoirs,  or  key-stones,  make  an  equal 
effort  towaids  falling.  To  effect  this,  it  is 
\  isible,  that  as  each  (reckoning  from  the  key 
to  the  iir.po;>t)  employs  still  a  less  and  less 
part  of  its  whole  weight  ;  the  first,  for  in- 
stance, only  employing  one-half ;  the  second, 
one  third  ;  the  third,  one-fourth.  Sec.  there 
is  no  other  way  of  making  those  different 
parts  equal,  but  by  a  proportionable  augmen- 
tation of  the  whole  ;  /.  c.  the  second  stone 
must  be  heavier  than  the  first,  the  third  than 
the  second,  Sec.  to  the  last ;  which  siiould  be 
infinitely  heavier. 

M.  De  la  Hire  demonstrates  what  that 
proportion  is,  in  which  the  weight  of  the 
stones  of  a  semicircular  arch  must  be  increas- 
ed to  be  in  equilibrio,  or  to  tend  with  equal 
forces  lo  fall,  which  is  tiie  firmest  disposition 
a  vault  can. have.    The  architects  before  him 


V  E  L 


B47 


had  no  certain  rule  lo  conduct  llunvelves  by, 
but  did  all  at  random.  Reckoning  llie  de- 
grees of  the  quadrant  of  a  circle,  trom  Ihe 
key-stone  to  the  impost,  the  extremity  of 
each  stone  will  take  up  so  nii!ch  the  greater 
arch  as  it  is  faiiher  from  the  key. 

M.  De  la  Jiire's  rule  is,  to  augment  the 
weight  of  each  stone  above  that  of  the  key- 
stone, as  nmcl)  as  the  tangent  of  the  arch  of 
the  stone  exceeds  the  tangent  of  the  arch  of . 
half  the  key.  Now  the  tangent  of  the  last 
stone  of  neccssny  becomes  infinite,  and  of 
coinetjuence  its  weight  shou!d  be  so  too  ; 
but,  as  infinity  has  no  place  in  practice,  the 
rule  aniountb  to  this,  that  tin;  last  stones 
should  be  loaded  as  much  as  possible,  that 
they  may  Ihe  belter  resist  the  ellb.t  whicli 
the  vault  makes  to  separate  them;  which  is 
called  the  shoot  or  drill  of  the  vault.  Mr. 
Parent  has  since  delermined  the  curve,  or. 
figure,  which  the  cxtrados,  or  oulside  of  a 
vault,  whose  inlrados,  or  inside,  is  spherical, 
must  have,  that  all  the  stones  may  be  in. 
ecjuilibrio. 

Vault,  Iu-i/  qf,  is  a  stone  or  brick  in  the 
middle  of  the  vault,  in  form  of  a  Iruncated 
cone,  serving  lo  bind  or  fasten  all  the  rest. 

(.'BIQUIIARIANS,  in  church-history, 
a  sect  ot  heretics  who  sprung  up  in  (Germany 
about  liie  year  1 J90,  and  maintained  that  the 
body  of  Jesus  Ciirist  is  ubique,  every  where, 
or  111  every  place,  at  the  same  time.  How- 
ever, they  were  not  quite  agreed  among 
themselves  ;  some  holding,  tliat  the  body  of 
Jesus  Ciirist,  even  during  his  mortal  life.was 
every  where ;  and  others  dating  the  ubiquity 
of  his  body  from  the  time  of  nis  ascension 
only. 

Vector,  in  aslronomy,  a  line  supposed 
to  be  drawn  from  any  planet  moving  round  a 
centre,  or  the  focus  of  an  ellipsis,  to  that 
centre  or  focus. 

VEER,  a  sea-term  variously  used.    Thus. 
veering  out  a  rope,  denotes  the  letting  it  go 
by  hand,  or  letting  it  run  of  itself,     ll  is  not 
used  lor  letthig  out  any  running  rope  except' 
the  sheet. 

Xf.er.  is  also  used  in  reference  to  the  wind; 
for,  wlien  it  changes  often,  they,  say  it  veer&s 
about. 

VEGETATION.  See  Pla.sts,  pl,>;si- 
ologi/  of 

VEIN.    See  Anatomy. 

Vein,  among  miners,  is  that  space  which 
is  bounded  with  woughs,  and  contains  ore, 
spar,  cam  k,  clay,  chirr,  croil,  browniien, 
pitcher-chin,  cur,'  which  the  philosophers  call 
the  mother  of  metals,  and  sometimes  soil  of 
all  colours.  When  il  bears  ore,  it  is  called  a 
quick  vein  ;  when  no  ore,  a  dead  vein. 

VELEZI.'V,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria  di- 
gynia  class  and  order  of  plants.  The  calvx 
is  filiform,  five-t.othed  ;  corolla  five-petalled, 
small;  capsule?  one-celled  ;  seeds  numerous. 
There  is  one  species. 

VELLA,  a  genus  of  the  tefrydynamia  si-- 
liculosa  class  of  plants,  with  a  tetiapelalous 
cruciform  fiower ;  the  stamina  are  six  fila- 
ments, about  the  length  of  the  cup;  and  the 
fruit  is  a  globose,  cristated,  bilocular  pod, 
containing  a  few  rouudish  seeds.  1  liere  are 
two  species. 

VELVET,  a  rich  kind  of  stuff,  all  silk 
covered  on  the  outside  with  a  close,  short' 
fine,  soft  shag,  the  other  side  being  a  very 
strong  close  tissue.  The  nap  or  shag,  called 
also  the  velveting,  of  this  stuff,  is  formed  of 


e4S 


V  E  N 


part  of  the  threads  of  the  warp,  which  the 
vvokjnan  i>uts  on  a  long  nanow-clihnne'ed 
rult-r  or  ne>';!!e,  wliich  he  afterwards  cms,  bv 
drawing  a  sharp  steel  tool  along  the  channel 
of  tlie  needle  to  the  ends  of  tlie  warp. 

There    are   velvets  of  various  kinds,    as 

Plain,  that  is,  uniiorm  and  smooth,  without 
either  llgures  or  stripes. 

Figured  velvet,  tiiat  is,  adorned  and  worked 
with  divi'rs  figures,  though  the  ground  is  the 
same  v.itli  the  ligures;  that  is,  the  whole  sur- 
face velvcted. 

Uaniaged  or  branched  velvet,  representing 
long  stalks,  branches,  &c.  on  a  satin  ground, 
which  is  sometimes  of  the  same  colour  with 
the  velvet,  but  more  usually  of  a  dilTerent 
one.  Sometimes,  instead  of  satin,  they 
make  the  ground  of  gold  and  silver;  wlience 
the  denommations  of  velvets  with  gold  ground, 
&c. 

Shorn  velvet,  is  that  wh.erein  the  threads 
that  make  the  velveting,  have  been  ranged  in 
the  ciianneled  ruler,  but  not  cut  there. 
Striped  velvet,  is  that  wherein  there  are 
stripes  of  difl'erent  colours  running  along  the 
warp;  whether  these  stripes  are  partly  velvet 
and  partly  satin,  or  all  velveted.  Out  vel- 
vet, is  that  whereon  the  ground  is  a  kind  of 
taffety,  or  gros  de  tours,  and  the  figures  vel- 
vet. 

Velvets  are  likewise  distinguished,  with  re- 
gard to  their  different  degrees  of  strength  and 
goodness,  into  velvets  of  four  threads,  three 
threads,  two  threads,  and  a  thread  and  a  half. 
The  lirst  are  those  where  there  aie  eight  threads 
of  shag,  or  velveting,  to  each  tooth  of  the 
reed;  and  the  second  have  only  six,  and  the 
rest  four. 

In  general,  all  velvets,  both  worked  and 
cut,  shorn  and  tlowered,  are  ,to  have  their 
warp  and  shag  of  organsin,  spiui  and  twisted, 
or  thrown  in  the  mill  ;  and  their  woof  of  silk 
well  boiled,  &c. 

VENEERING,  V.\NEERING,  OrFlKEER- 

l>fG,  a  kind  of  marquetry,  or  inlaying,  where- 
by several  thin  slices  or  leaves  of  tine  wood';, 
of  dilTerent  kinds,  are  applied  and  fastened 
on  a  ground  of  some  common  wood. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  inlaying;  the  one 
which  is  the  most  common  and  more  ordinary, 
goes  no  farther  than  the  making  of  compart- 
ments of  diiferent  woods  ;.  the  otlier  requires 
much  more  art,  in  representing  flowers, 
birds,  and  similar  figures. 

Tlie  hrst  kind  is  properly  called  veneering ; 
the  latter  is  more  properly  called  marquetry. 

The  wood  used  m  veneering  is  first  sawed 
out  into  slices  or  leaves  about  a  line  in  tliitk- 
Hess ;  i.  e.  the  twelfth  part  of  an  inch.  In 
order  to  saw  them,  the  blocks  or  planks  are 
l)laced  upright,  in  a  kind  of  sawing-press. 

These  slices  are  afterwards  cut  into  narrow 
slips,  and  fashioned  divers  ways,  accordii^g 
to  the  design  proposed  ;  then  tlie  joints  hav- 
ing been  exactly  and  nicely  adjusted,  and 
the  pieces  brouglit  down  to  their  jTioper 
thickness  with  several  planes  for  the  pur- 
pose, they  are  glued  down  on  a  ground  or 
block,  wiili  good  strong  English  glui.'. 

The  pieces  bein^  thus  jointed  and  gKied, 
the  work,  If  small,  is  put  in  a  press;  if  large, 
it  is  laid  on  a  bench  covereu  with  a  board, 
and  pressed  down  with  poles  or  pieces  of 
wood,  one  end  of  which  reaches  to  the  ceil- 
ing of  the  room,  and  the  other  bears  on  the 
buaid. 


V  E  N 

When  the  glue  is  thoroughly  dry,  it  is 
taken  out  of  the  press,  and  finished  ;  first  with 
little  planes,  then  with  scrapers,  some  of  which 
reseinble  rasps,  svhich  take  off  the  dents,  &c. 
left  by  the  planes. 

After  it  lias  been  sufficiently  scraped,  they 
polish  it  with  the  skin  of  a  dog-fish,  wax,  and 
a  brush,  or  polish.er  of  shave-grass  ;  which  is 
the  last  oper.ition. 

VENIRE  EACIAS,  in  law,  a  writ  judicial 
awarded  to  the  sherjff  to  cause  a  jury  of  the 
neighbourhood  to  appear,  when  a  cause  is 
brought  to  issue,  to  try  the  same  ;  and  if  the 
jury  come  not  at  the  day  of  this  Writ,  then 
there  shall  go  a  habeas  corpora,  and  after  a 
distress,  till  they  ajjpear.     2  Haw.  2<)S. 

\'enire  facias,  is  also  the  common  process 
upon  any  presentment,  being  in  nature  of 
a  summons  i'or  the  party  to  appear;  and  this 
is  a  proper  process  to  be  first  awarded  on  an 
indictment  for  any  crime  under  the  degree 
of  treason,  or  felony,  or  maihem,  except  in 
such  cases  wherein  other  process  is  directed 
by  statute.  And  if  by  the  return  to  such 
venire,  it  appeal's  tliat  the  party  has  lands  in 
the  county,  whereby  he  may  be  distrained, 
then  a  distress  infinite  shall  be  issued  from 
time  to  time  till  he  appears  ;  but  if  the  she- 
riff returns  that  he  has  no  lands  in  his  baili- 
wick, then  upon  his  non-appearance,  a  writ 
of  capias  shall  issue  to  take  his  body.  4 
Black.  313.  . 

VENTILAGO,  a  genus  of  the  class  and 
order  of  plants  pentandria  monogynia.  The 
calyx  is  tubular ;  corolla,  scales  protecting 
the  stamen,  which  are  inserted  in  the  calyx. 
There  is  one  species,  a  shrub  of  the  East 
Indies. 

VENTILATOR,  a  machine  by  which  tlie 
noxious  ah'  of  any  close  place,  as  an  hospital, 
gaol,  ship,  chamber,  &.c.  may  be  changed 
for  fresh  air. 

The  noxious  qualities  of  bad  air  have  been 
long  known  ;  and  Dr.  Hales  and  others  have 
taken  great  pains  to  point  out  the  mischiefs 
arising  from  foul  air,  and  to  prevent  or  re- 
medy them.  That  philosopher  proposed 
an  easy  and  effectual  one,  by  tke  use  of  his 
•ventilators ;  the  account  of  which  was  read 
before  the  Royal  Society  in  May  1741.  In 
mines,  veiitilalors  may  guard  against  the 
suffocations,  and  other  terrible  accidents, 
arising  from  damps.  The  air  of  gaols  has 
often  proved  infectious ;  and  we  hud  a  fatal 
proof  of  this,  by  the  accident  that  happened 
some  vcars  since  at  the  Old  Bailey  6e»sions. 
After  tiiat,  ventilators  were  used  in  the  pri- 
sons, which  were  worked  by  a  small  windmill, 
as  that  placed  on  the  top  of  Newgate  ;  and 
the  prison  became  more  iiealthy. 

Dr.  Hales  farther  suggests,  that  venti- 
lators might  be  of  use  in  making  salt ;  for 
which  purpose  there  should  be  a  stream  of 
water  to  «©rk  them ;  or  tliey  might  be  work- 
ed by  a  whidmill,  and  the  brine  should  be  in 
Ipng  narrow  canals,  covered  wit'i  boards' of 
canvas,  about  a  foot  above  the  surface  of  the 
brine,  to  confine  the  stream  of  air,  so  as  to 
make  it  act  upon  the  surface  of  the  brine,  and 
carry  off  the  water  in  vapours.  Thus  it 
might  be  reduced  to  a  dry  salt,  with  a  saving 
of  fuel,  in  winter  and  sufnmer,  or  in  rainy 
weather,  or  any  stale  of  the  air  whatever. 
Ventilators,  he  apprehends,  might  also  serve 
for  drying  linen  hung  in  low,  long,  narrow 
galleries,  especially  in  damp  or  rainy  weather, 
and  also  in  drving  woollen  cloths  after  thev 


V  i:  M 

are  fulled  or  dyed  ;  and  in  this  case,  the  ven« 
tilators  might  be  worked  by  the  fulling  water- 
mill.  \'entilators  might  also  be  an  useful 
ajjpendage  to  malt  and  hop-kilns;  and  the 
same  author  is  farther  of  opinion,  that  a  venti- 
lation of  warm  dry  air  from  the  adjoining 
stove,  with  a  cautious  hand,  migli^  be  of  ser- 
vice to  trees  and  plants  in  green-houses ; 
where  it  is  well  known  that  air  hill  t>(  rancid 
vapours  which  perspire  from  the  plants,  is 
very  unkindly  to  them,  as  weH  as  the  va- 
pours from  human  bodies  are  to  men ;  lor 
fresh  air  is  as  necessary  to  the  healthy  state 
of  vegetables,  as  of  animals.  Ventilators 
are  also  of  excellent  use  for  drying  corn, 
hops,  and  malt.  Gimpowdcr  may  be  tho- 
roughly dried,  by  blo'.ving  air  up  through  it 
by  means  of  ventilators ;  which  is  of  great 
advantage  to  the  strength  of  it.  These  ven- 
tilators, even  the  smaller  ones,  will  also  serve 
to  purify  most  easily,  and  effectually,  the 
bad  air  of  a  ship's  well,  before  a  person  is  sent 
down  into  it,  by  blowing  air  through  a  tnnk 
reaching  near  the  boltom  of  it.  And  in  a 
similar  manner  may  stinking  water,  and  ill- 
tasted  milk,  &c.  be  sweetened,  viz.  by  pass- 
ing a  current  of  air  through  them,  from  bot- 
tom to  top,  which  will  carry  the  offensive 
particles  along  with  it. 

The  method  of  drawing  off  air  from  shijjg 
by  means  of  fire-pipes,  which  some  have  pre- 
ferred to  ventilators,  was  published  by  sir 
Robert  Moray,  in  the  Piiilos.  Trans,  for 
1C)()5.  These  are  iiietal  pipes,  about  2^ 
inches  diameter,  one  of  which  reaches  from 
the  fire-place  to  the  well  of  the  ship,  and 
thre  others  brandies  go  to  other  parts  of  the 
ship ;  the  stove-hole  and  ash-hole  being 
closed  up,  the  fire  is  supplied  with  air  throua;li 
these  pipes. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1741,  Mr. 
Triewald,  military  architect  to  the  king  of 
Sueden,  informed  the  secretary  to  the  Roval 
Society,  that  he  had  in  the  preceding  spring 
invented  a  machine  for  the  use  of  ships  of 
war,  to  draw  out  the  foul  air  from  under  their 
decks,  which  exhausted  36172  cubic  feet  of 
air  in  an  hour,  or -at  the  rate  of  21732  tnns  in 
24  hours.  In  1742  he  sent  one  of  these  to 
France,  which  was  approved  of  by  the  Aca- 
demy of  Sciences  at  Paris,  and  the  navv  of 
France  was  ordered  to  be  furnished  with  the 
like  ventilators. 

There  are  various  ways  of  ventilation,  or 
changing  the  air  of  rooms.  Mr.  Tidd  con- 
trived to  admit  fresh  air  into  a  room,  by  tak- 
ing out  the  middle  upper  sash  pane  of  glass, 
and  fixing  in  its  place  a  frame  box,  with  a 
round  hole  in  its  middic,  about  six  or  seven 
inches  diameter;  in  whi.h  hole  are  fixed, 
beliind  each  other,  a  set  of  sails  of  very  thia 
broad  copjier-plates,  which  spread  over  and 
cover  the  circular  hole,  so  as  to  make  the 
air  which  enters  the  room,  and  turning  round 
these  sails,  to  spread  round  in  thin  sheets 
sideways  ;  and  so'not  to  incommode  persons 
by  blowing  directly  upon  them,  as  it  would 
do  if  it  was  not  hindered  by  the  sails. 

This  method  however  is  very  unseemly 
and  disagreeable  in  good  rooms;  and  there- 
fore, instead  of  it,  the  late  ingenious  .Mr.  John 
Whitehurst  substituted  anoUier  ;  which  was, 
to  open  a  small  square  or  rectangular  hole 
in  the  party-wall  of  tiie  room,  in  the  upper 
part  near  the  ceiling,  at  a  corner  or  part  di-i- 
taul  from  the  fire  ;  and  belore  it  he  placed  a 


V  E  H 

lliin  \)\(^ce  of  metal  or  pastebosrd,  ice.  al- 
tachid  lo  the  wall  in  its  lower  part  just  be- 
low the  liole,  but  decliuiug  from  it  upwards, 
so  as  to  give  the  air,  that  enters  by  the  hole, 
a  direction  upwards  at-ainst  tlie  ceilini^,  along 
which  it  sweeps  and  disjjerses  ilselt' through 
the  room,  without  blowing  in  a  current 
against  any  person.  "^I'his  nietiiod  is  very  us-- 
ful  to  cure  si^uoUy  chimneys,  by  thus  adiiiit- 
ting  conveniently  fresh  air.  A  picture  pla- 
ced before  the  hole  prevents  the  sight  of  it 
from  disliguring  the  room.  This,  and  many 
other  methods  of  ventilating,  he  meant  to 
Jiave  published,  and  was  occupied  tipon, 
when  death  put  an  end  to  his  useful  labours. 
These  since  have  bi-en  publislied,  viz,  in 
1794,  4to.by  Dr.  Willan. 

VENTRlLOtiUlSM,  an  art  by  which 
certain  persons  can  so  modify  their  voice,  as 
to  make  it  appear  to  the  audience  to  proceed 
from  any  distance,  and  in  any  direction. 
Some  faint  traces  of  this  art  are  to  be  found 
in  the  writings  of  the  antients;  and  it  is  the 
opinion  of  M.  De  la  Chapelle,  who  in  the 
year  1772  published  an  ingenious  work  on  the 
subject,  that  the  responses  of  many  of  the 
oracles  were  delivered  by  persons  thus  quali- 
Jied,  to  serve  the  purposes  of  delusion.  As 
thi,'  antient  venlrilo(]uists,  when  exercising 
their  art,  seemed  generally  to  speak  fr<^m 
their  own  bellies,  the  name  by  which  they 
were  designed  was  abundantly  signilicant: 
but  it  is  with  no  great  propriety  that  modern 
performers  are  called  ventriloquists,  and  their 
art  ventriloquism,  since  tliC)'  appear  more 
frequently  to  speak  from  the  pockets  of  their 
neighbours,  or  from  the  roof  or  distant  cor- 
ners of  the  room,  than  from  their  own  mouths 
or  their  own  bellies. 

From  Hrodeau,  a  learned  critic  of  the  si» 
teehth  century,  we. have  the  following  ac- 
count of  the  feats  of  a  capital  vontriloipiist 
and  ciieat,  who  was  valet-de-cliambre  to 
IVancis  the  First.  The  fellow,  whose  name 
was  Louis  Brabant,  had  fallen  desperately  in 
lo\  e  with  a  young,  handsome,  and  rich  lieir- 
ess;  but  was  rejected  by  tlie  parents  as  an 
inisiiitable  match  for  their  daughter,  on  ac- 
coinit  of  the  lowness  of  his  circumstances. 
The  yoong  lady's  father  dying,  he  made  a 
visit  to  the  widow,  who  was  totally  ignorant 
of  his  singular  talent.  Suddenly,  on  his  lirst 
apiieLH'ance  in  open  day,  in  her  own  house, 
and  in  the  presence  of  several  persons  who 
^vere  witli  her,  she  heard  herself  accosted,  in 
a  voice  pcrfectlv  resembling  that  of  her  dead 
liusbancl,  and  which  seemed  to  proceed  from 
above,  exclaiming,  "  Give  my  daughter  in 
marriage  to  Louis  Brabant ;  he  is  a  man  of 
great  fortune,  and  of  an  excellent  character. 
I  now  endure  the  inexpressible  torments  of 
purgatorv,  for  having  refused  her  to  him.  If 
you  obey  this  admonition,  I  shall  soon  be 
delivered  from  this  place  of  torment.  You 
Mill  at  the  same  time  provide  a  worthy  hus- 
l)and  for  yom"  daughter,  and  procure  ever- 
lasting repose  to  Uie  soul  of  your  poor  hus- 
band." 

The  widow  couUl  not  for  a  moment  resist 
this  dread  summons,  which  had  not  the  most 
distant  appearance  of  proceeding  from  Louis 
Brabant ;  whose  countenance  exhibited  no 
■visible  change,  and  whose  lips  were  close  and 
motionless,  during  the  delivery  of  it.  Ac- 
cordingly, she  consented  innucdiately  to 
receive  him  for  her  son-in-law.  Louis's  fi- 
nances, however,  were  in  a  vci;y  low  situa- 

VOL.  IJ. 


V  I!  N 

(ion;  and  the  formalities  attending  tiie  mar- 
riage-contract rendered  it  necessary  tor  liim 
to  exhibit  some  show  of  riches,  and  not  to 
give  the  ghost  the  lie  direct.  He  accorflingly 
went  to  work  u|)ou  a  fresli  subject,  one  C'onui, 
an  old  anil  rich  banker  at  Lyons;  who  had 
accumulated  immense  wealth  l)y  usury  and 
extortion,  and  vt'as  known  to  b(.'  haunted  by 
remorse  of  conscience  on  account  of  tiie 
manner  in  which  he  had  acquired  it. 

Having  contracted  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  this  man,  he,  one  day  while  fliey 
were'  sitting  together  in  the  usurer's  little 
back  parlour,  artfully  turned  the  conversation 
on  religious  subjects,  on  demons  and  spec- 
tres, the  pains  of  purgatory,  and  the  torments 
of  hell.  During  an  iiiterval  of  silence  be- 
tween them,  a  voice  was  heard,  which  to  the 
astonished  banker  seemed  to  be  that  of  his 
deceased  father,  complainini,  as  in  the 
former  case,  of  his  dreadful  situation  in  pur- 
gatory, and  calling  upon  him  to  deliver 
him  instantly  thence,  by  putting  into  the 
hands  of  Louis  Brabant,  then  with  him,  a 
large  sum  for  the  redemption  of  christians 
then  in  slavery  with  the  '1  urks  ;  tJireatening 
him  at  the  same  time  with  eternal  damnation 
if  he  did  not  take  tliis  method  to  expiate  like- 
wise his  own  sins.  Tlie  reader  will  naturally 
suppose  that  Louis  Brabant  affected  a  due 
degree  of  astonishment  on  the  occasion  ;  and 
further  promoted  the  deception,  by  acknow- 
ledging liis  having  ilevoted  himself  to  the  pro- 
secution of  the  charitable  design  imputed 
to  him  by  the  ghost.  An  old  usurer  is  natu- 
rally suspicious.  Accordingly  the  wary 
banker  made  a  second  appointment  with  the 
ghost's  delegate  for  the  next  day  ;  and,  to 
render  any  design  of  imposing  upon  liiin  ut- 
terly abortive,  took  him  into  the  open  fields, 
where  not  a  house,  or  a  tree,  or  even  a  bush, 
or  a  pit,  was  in  sight,  capable  of  screening 
any  supposed  confederate.  This  extraordi- 
nary caution  excited  the  ventriloipiist  to 
exert  all  the  powers  of  his  art.  Wherever 
the  banker  conducted  him,  at  every  step  his 
ears  w  ere  saluted  on  all  sides  with  the  com- 
plaints and  groans  not  only  of  his  father,  but 
of  all  his  deceased  relations,  imploring  him 
for  the  love  of  Ciod,  and  in  the  name  of  every 
saint  in  the  calendar,  to  have  mercy  on  his 
own  soul  and  tlieirs,  by  effectually  seconding 
with  his  purse  the  intentions  of,  Ws  worthy 
companion.  Cornu  could  no  longer  resist 
the  voice  of  heaven,  and  accordingly  carried 
his  guest  liome  with  him,  and  paid  him  down 
10,000  crowns:  with  which  the  honest  ven- 
triloquist returned  to  Paris,  and  married  his 
mistress.  The  catastrophe  was  fatal.  Tlie 
secret  was  afterwards  blown,  and  reached  the 
usi.rei-'s  ears  ;  who  was  so  much  affected  by 
the  loss  of  his  money,  and  the  mortifying 
railleries  of  his  neighbours,  that  he  toolc  to 
his  bed  and  died. 

This  trick  of  Louis  Brabant  is  even  ex- 
ceeded by  an  innocent  piece  of  waggery 
played  off  not  forty  years  ago  by  another 
French  ventriloquist  on  a  whole  community. 
We  have  the  story  from  M.  De  la  Chapelle, 
who  informs  us,  that  M.  St.  Gill,  the  ventrilo- 
(|uist,  and  his  intimate  fi'iend,  returning  home 
from  a  place  whither  his  business  had  carried 
him,  sought  for  shelter  from  an  approacliing 
tlumder-Btorm  in  a  neighbouring  convent. 
Finding  the  whole  community  in  mourning, 
he  enquired  the  cause,  and  was  told  that 
oue  e*  Uicir  body  had  died  latelv,  who  was 
it 


V  E  isr 


Si§ 


the  ornament  and  deli'jht  of  tlic  whole  so-  - 
ciety.  'lo  pass  away  the  timi-,  he  walked 
into  the  church,  attended  by  some  of  the  re- 
ligious, wlio  kh'Avcd  him  the  tomb  of  tlieir 
deceased  brother,  and  spoke  feelingly  of  the 
scanty  honours  they  had  bestowed  on  hij 
memory.  Suddenly  a  voice  was  heard,  ap- 
parently pioceeding  from  the  roof  of  tliR 
quire,  lamenting  the  situation  of  the  deluiiit 
in  purgatory,  and  reproaching  the  brother- 
hood with  their  lukewarmess  and  want  of 
zeal  on  his  own  account,  'i'he  friars,  as  sooa 
as  their  astonishment  gave  thern  power  (o 
sjjeak,  consulted  together,  and  agreed  to  ac- 
quaint the  reU  of  the  community  with  this 
singular  event,  so  interesting  to  the  wiioli; 
society.  M.  St.  Gill,  who  wished  to  cany 
on  the  joke  still  farther,  di:.>umled  them  front 
taking  this  step ;  telling  them  that  thev 
woukl  be  treated  by  their  ab:-ent  brethren  as 
a  set  of  fools  anil  visionaries.  He  recom- 
mended to  them,  however,  the  immediatily 
calling  of  the  whole  community  into  the 
cli;iri:h,  where  the  ghost  of  llieir  departed 
brother  might  probably  reiterate  liis  com- 
plaints. Accordingly  all  the  friars,  novicen, 
lay-brothers,  and  even  the  domestics  of  the 
convent,  were  immediately  sunnnoned  and 
collected  together.  In  a  short  time  the  voice 
from  the  roof  renewed  its  lamentation  and 
reproaches,  and  the  whole  convent  fell  on 
their  faces,  and  vowed  a  solemn  reparation. 
As  a  lirst  step,  they  chanted  a  De  profundi? 
in  a  full  choir:  during  ttie  intervals  of  which 
the  ghost  occasionally  expressefl  the  comfort 
he  received  from  their  pious  exercises  and 
ejaculations  on  his  behalf.  When  all  was 
over,  the  prior  entered  into  a  serious  conver- 
sation with  M.  St.  Gill ;  and  on  the  strengtli 
of  what  had  just  passed,  sagaciously  inveigh- 
ed against  the  absurd  incredulity  of  mo- 
dern sceptics  and  pretended  philosophers, 
on  the  article  of  ghosts  or  apparitions.  M.- 
St. Gill  thought  it  now  high  time  to  disabuse 
the  good  fathers.  This  purpose,  however, 
he  found  it  extremely  diflicull  U)  elfect,  till  he 
had  prevailed  upon'theni  to  return  with  him 
into  the  church,  and  there  be  witnesses  oi^ 
the  manner  in  which  he  had  conducted  this 
ludicrous  deception. 

A  ventriloquist,  who  performed  feats 
somewhat  similar  to  these,  made  his  appear- 
ance in  ICdinburgh,  and  many  of  the  other 
towns  of  Great  I'ritain,  a  few  \  ears  ago.  He 
imitated  successfully  tlie  voice  of  a  squeaking 
child,  and  niade  it  appear  to  proceed  from 
whatever  place  he  chose  ;  from  the  pockets  of 
the  company ;  from  a  wooden  doll,  with  which 
he  held  many  spirited  convei-sations  ;  from  be- 
neath a  hat  or  a  wine-alass,  and  out  of  any 
person's  foot  or  hand.  Wlieu  the  voice  scent- 
ed to  come  from  beneath  a  glass  or  hat,  it 
was  dull  and  on  a  low  key,  as  sounds  con- 
fined always  are ;  and  what  evinced  his  dex- 
terity was,  that  when  the  glass  was  raised 
from  tlie  table  during  the  time  of  his  speak- 
ing, the  words  or  syllables  uttered  afterwards 
were  on  a  higher  key,  in  conseqijence,  one 
would  have  thought,  of  the  air  being  read- 
mitted to  the  sjpeakier.  Tliis  part  of  flie  ex- 
periment failecl,  liowever,  when  the  manage- 
ment of  the  glass  was  at  a  distance  committed 
to  any  of  the  company ;  but  as  the  room  was 
not  well  illuminatedjwe  are  inclined  to  at- 
tribute this  failure  to  tlie  venfrilotiiiist  iint 
being  able  to  perceive  at  what  precise  iu~tant 
of  time  the  glass  was  removed  from  the  table. 


sr>o 


V  E  N 


The  wine  artist  imitated  the  tones  of  a  scold-  | 
iiig   old   woiKan,  dijliirlied  at  ims.easonahii!  | 
bi)iirs  l)y  a  person  di'iiiamliiig  achiiissioii  into  1 
icT  hoi'isc.     M'e   havo.  heard   that,  whrii  in  1 
Ediiiinir^li,  thr  same  practitioner  astonii-hml 
a  number  of  penous  in  the  Fislimarkel,   by 
making  a  Jish  appear  to  speali,  and  give  llie 
lie  to  its  vender,  wlio  atrimied   tliat  it  uas 
fresh,  and  canght  in  the  morning. 

'1  he  editor  of  thi-^  ditlionary  heard  some 
years  ago,  in  Portugal,  a  ventrilotiuist  who 
was  at  least  equal  to  any  of  those  ahove-nien- 
tioned.  Indeed,  he  could  scaicely  have  h^^ 
lieved  the  fact  from  any  anlhniity,  had  he 
uotTieen  himself  an  ear-wilness.  The  man 
held  conversalions  with  the  iignre  of  a  child, 
which  he  carried  under  his  cloak,  with  per- 
sons apparently  out  of  the  room,  in  the  street, 
a;id  even  on  "the  roof  of  the  house.  The 
voices  were  all  varied  according  to  tlic 
character  of  the  person  with  whom  he  aU'ecl- 
ed  to  converse,  and  it  was  impossible  not  to 
believe  that  they  proceeded  from  the  quarter 
V\liere  iie  pretended  they  were  stationed. 

We  iiave  never,  we  confe-s,  found  a  satis- 
factorv  eNplanation  of  this  phenomenon.  The 
most  plausible  is  that  whicli  refers  it  to  a  cer- 
tain delicacy  of  ear  in  the  performer.     Sueir 
an  ear,  it  is  observed,  perceives  every  diftijr- 
ence  wiiich  change  of  place  produces  in  the 
same  sound ;  and  if  a  person   possessed  of 
sucli  an  ear  has  sufticient  command  over  his 
■organs  of  speech,  to  produce  by  them  asoimd 
in'  all  respects  similar  to  another  proceeding 
from  anv  distant  object,  to  the  audience  the 
sound  winch  he  utters  must  appear  to  pro- 
ceed fiom  that  object.     If  tliis  is  the  true 
theory    of  ventriloquism,  it  does  not  seem 
to     be    possible   for  the   most  expert  ven- 
triloquist to  speak  in  his  usual   tones  of  con- 
versation, and  at  the  same  time  make  the 
voice  appear  to  come  from  a  distance ;  for 
tliese  tones  must  be  supposed  familiar  to  his 
jiudience,  and  to  be  in  tlieir  minds  associated 
with  the  ideas  of  his  iigure,  place,  and  dis- 
tance.    There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt, 
tliat   if,  bv    a  peculiar  niodilicatiou   of  the 
■organs  of  speech,  a  sound  of  any  kind  can  be 
produced,  which  in  faiutness,  tone,  body,  and 
in  short  every  other  sensible  quality, perfectly 
resembles  a  sound  delivered  from  the  roof  of 
an  opposite  house,  tlie  ear  will  naturally,  with- 
out cNamination,  refer  it  to  that  situation  and 
^listance  ;  the  sound  which  the  person  hears 
being  only  a  sign,  v^liich  lie  has  from  his  in- 
Jancv  been  constantly  accustomed,  by  expe- 
rience, to  associate  with  tiie  idea  of  a  pers-m 
speaking   from   a  house-top.      If,   however, 
tills  theory  is  true,  how  comes  it  that  ven- 
triloquism is  not  more  frequently  and  suc- 
cessluily   practised  ?     Tlie  man   whom   the 
"  editor  saw  in  Portugal,  was  apparently  an 
ignorant  and   iililcj'ate  person,    and    either 
could  not,  or  would  not,  give  any  account  of 
the  principles  of  his  art. 

VENUE,  in  law,  the  neighbourhood 
whence  juries  are  to  be  summoned  for  trial 
•f  causes.  In  local  actions,  as  of  trespass 
and  ejectment,  the  venue  is  to  be  from  the 
neignbourhood  of  the  place,  where  the  lands 
in  (|uestiun  lie  ;  and  in  all  real  actions,  the 
venue  must  be  laid  in  the  county  where  the 
thing  is  for  w  hich  the  action  is  brought.  But 
in  transitory  actions,  for  injuries  that  may 
Jiavp  happened  any  where,  as  debt,  detinue, 
f  lander,  or  the  like,  the  plaintiff  may  declare 
jji  what   county   he  pleases ;  aiid  then  the 


V  E  R 

trial  must  be  in  that  county  in  which  the  de- 
claration is  laid.  Though  if  the  defendant 
will  make  aftidavit,  that  the  cause  of  action,  if 
ariv,  arose  not  in  that,  but  in  another  county, 
the  court  will  direct  a  change  of  liie  venue, 
and  oblige  the  i)lainti(if  to  declare  in  the  pro- 
per county ;  and  the  court  will  sometimes 
move  the  ventu',  from  the  proper  jurisdiction 
(especially  of  the  narrow  ;ind  fimlted  kind), 
up-m  a  suggestion  duly  supported,  that  a  iaii' 
and  inipaitial  trial  .cannol  be  had  therein. 
3  Black,  i'9-i. 

With  respect  to  criminal  cases,  it  is  ordain- 
ed by  Stat.  21  Jac.  I.  c.  4,  that  all  inlornui- 
tioiis  on  jienal  statutes,  shall  be  laid  in  the 
counties \\  here  the  oll'eiices  were  committed. 

VEM'S,  in  aslronomv,  one  of  the  inferior 
planets,  revolving  round  the  sun  in  an  orbit 
between  that  ot  Mercury  and  the  Earth.  See 
Astronomy. 

Venus,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  insects  be- 
longing to  the  order  of  vermes  tcstacea.  This 
animal  is  a  tethys  ;  the  shell  is  bivalve  ;  the 
hinge  with  three  teeth  near  each  other,  one 
placed  longitudinally  antl  bent  inwards.  There 
are  a  great  many  species,  of  which  the  mo'^t 
remarkable  is  the  mercenaria,  or  commercial, 
with  a  strong,  thick,  weighty  shell,  covered 
with  a  brown  epidermis ;  pure  w  lute  within  ; 
slightly  striated  transversely  :  circumference 
above  11  inches.  These  are  called  in  NorUi 
America  clams  ;  they  dill'er  from  otlier  spe- 
cies only  in  having  a  purple  tinge  within. 
Wampum,  or  Indian  money,  is  made  of 
them. 

Venus's  jly-trup.      See  Dion.^a  Mus- 

CIPULA. 

VEPRECUL.T,,  diminutive  from  vppres, 
"  a  briar  or  bramble  ;"  the  name  of  the  3 1  st 
order  in  Linna?us's  E'ragments  of  a  Natural 
Metliod.     See  Botany. 

VERATRl'.\i,a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
.class  polygamia,  and  order  monoecia  ;  and  in 
the  natural  system  arranged  under  the  10th 
order,  coronaria?.  There  is  no  calyx ;  the 
corolla  hai  six  petals;  there  are  six  stamina  ; 
the  hermaplirodite  flowers  have  three  pistils 
and  three  capsules.  There  are  four  species, 
none  of  which  are  natives  of  Britain.  The 
most  important  is  the  album,  or  hellebore,  the 
root  of  which  is  perennial,  about  an  inch 
thick,  externally  brown,  internally  white,  and 
beset  with  many  strong  iibres ;  the  stalk  is 
thick,  strong,  round,  upright,  hairy,  and 
usually  rises  four  feet  in  height;  the  leaves  are 
numerous,  very  large,  oval,  entire,  ribbed, 
plaited,  ttitiiout  footstalks,  of  a  yellowish 
green  colour,  and  surround  the  stem  at  its 
base :  the  flowers  are  of  a  greenish  colour,  and 
appear  from  June  to  August  in  very  long, 
and  branched,  terminal  spikes. 

It  ajipears  from  various  instances,  that 
every  part  of  the  plant  is  extremely  acrid 
and  poisonous,  as  its  leaves  and  even  seeds 
prove  deleterious  to  different  animals.  Gred- 
ing  employed  it  in  a  gre.it  luiinber  of  cases  of 
the  maniacal  and  mcl.mcholic  kind ;  the  ma- 
jority of  these,  as  might  be  expected,  derived 
no  permanent  benefit ;  several,  liowever, 
were  relieved,  and  live  completely  cured  by 
this  medicine.  It  was  the  bark  of  the  root, 
collected  in  the  spring,  which  he  gave  in 
jiowder,  beginning  with  one  grain  :  tins  dose 
was  gradually  increased  according  to  its 
elf.'cts.  With  some  patients  one  or  two 
grains  exciii-d  nausea  and  vomiting,  but  ge- 
nerally eight  grains  were  required  to  jiroduce 


V  E  R' 

this  effect,  though  in  a  few  instances  a  scrupl 
and  even  more  was  given. 

Veratrum  has  likewise  been  found  useful 
in  epilepsy, anil  other  convulsive  complaints; 
but  the  diseases  in  which  its  ellicacv  seems 
least  equivocal,  are  those  of  th.e  skin  ;  as 
scabies  and  diflerent  prurient  eruptions,  her- 
pes, morbus  pediciilosus,  lepra,  scrophula, 
S-'C.  and  in  many  of  these  it  has  been  suc- 
cessfully employed  both  internaily  and  ex- 
ternally. As  a"  poweiful  stiniulaii"t  and  irii- 
tating  medicine,  its  use  has  been  resorted  to 
only  in  desperate  cases,  and  then  it  is  firs!  ta 
be  fried  in  very  small  doses  hi  a  diluted  state, 
and  to  he  gradually  increased  according  to 
the  eirecls. 

\~ER15,  in  grammar,  a  word  serving  to 
express  what  we  afiirm  of  any  subject,  or  at- 
tribute to  it. 

VER|;aSCU-M,  a  genus  or  plants  of  the 
class  pentandria,  and  order  monogynia;  and 
in  the  natural  system  arranged  under  the 
;i8tli  order,  luridi.  The  corolla  is  rotated, 
and  rather  uiK-qual ;  the  capsule  is  inono- 
locular  aixl  bivalved.  'Jhereare  19  species, 
five  of  which  are  natives  of  Britain  : 

1.  The  thapsus,  or  great  mullein,  which 
has  a  stem  single,  simple,  erect,  covered  with 
leaves,  about  six  feet  high  ;  leaves  large, 
broad,  while,  woolly  on  both  sides,  sessile,  de- 
current ;  flowers  terminal,  in  a  long  spike, 
sessile,  yellow.  Catarrhal  coughs  and  diar- 
rliceas  are  tiie  comiilaints  for  which  it  has 
becri  internally  prescribed.  Dr.  Hume  tried 
it  in  both,  but  it  was  only  in  the  latter  disease 
that  this  ijl.mt  succeeded.  He  relates  four 
cases  in  which  a  decoction  of  verhascum  was 
given  :  and  from  which  he  concludes,  that  it 
"  is  useful  in  diminishing  or  stopping  diar- 
rhoeas of  an  old  standing,  and  often  incasing 
the  pains  of  the  intestines.  These  acquire  a 
great  degree  of  irritability  ;  and  the  ordinary 
irritating  causes,  alinient,  bile,  distension  ti-om 
air,  keep  up  a  quicker  |)eristaltic  motion. 
I'his  is  obviated  by  the  emollient  and  perhaps 
gentle  astringent  qualities  of  this  plant." 

2.  The  nigrum,  or  black  mullein,  havinc:  a 
stem  beset  with  hairs  that  are  beautifidly 
branched;  the  blossoms  yellow  with  purpla 
lips.  It  is  a  beautiful  plant,  and  the  (lowers 
are  grateful  to  bees.  Swine  eat  it;  sheep 
are  not  fond  of  it ;  cow  s,  horses,  and  goats, 
refuse  it.  The  other  Britisli  species  are  the 
lychnitis,  blattana,  and  virgatum. 

^'ERBE\A,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
of  diandria,  and  order  of  monogvnia  ;  and  in 
the  natural  system  arranged  under  the  40th 
order,  peraonata'.  The  corolla  is  funnel- 
shaped;  calyx  one  of  tlie  teeth  truncate  ; 
seeds  two  or  tour,  naked  or  very  thinly  aril- 
led;  stem  two  or  four.  There  are  23  species, 
only  one  of  which  is  a  native  of  Britain  ;  the 
officinalis,  or  common  vervain,  which  grows 
on  the  road-sides  near  towns  and  villages. 
The  leaves  have  many  jagged  clefts,  the  blos- 
soms are  pale  blue.  "It  manifests  a  slight  de- 
gree of  astringency,  and  was  formerly  much 
in  use  as  a  deobstruent,  but  is  niiw  dis- 
regarded. Mr.  Millar  says,  that  it  is  never 
found  above  acpiarter  ot  a  mile  from  a  house  ; 
M  hence  the  common  people  in  England  call 
it  simpler'sjoy,  becau  c,  uhereveril  islbund, 
it  is  a  certain  sign  of  a  house  being  near. 
Sheep  eat  it ;  cows,  liorses,  and  goals,  re- 
hise  it. 

\  ERBESINA,  a  genus  of  the  syngciicija 


V  E  R 

jBolvpiamia  snperflua  class  of  plants,  with  a 
raili:iti!d  (lower,  niailc  up  of  iierinaplirii(lite 
tiibuloso  ones  on  the  di>c,  ajicl  a  few  hinilated 
ones  on  the  verge  ;  the  seeds  are  angiilated, 
and  contained  in  the  tup.  There  are  eleven 
species. 
V1:R DECREASE,  or  Verdegris.    See 

COPFKR. 

\'erdegris  is  an  acetat  of  copper,  iisefnl 
in  the  arts  as  a  |>ignunt.  The  priiiciples  on 
vhich  it  is  formed  are  these  : 

Acetic  acid  attacks  copper  very  slowlj'  in 
open   vessels,  converts  it  into  an  oxide,  and 
dissolves  it;    hut  in  close  vessels  no  action 
tak<;s  place.     This  acid  readily  combines  with  i 
the  oxide  of  eo|)per,  and   forms  with  it  an  ! 
acetat.     This  salt  was  known  to  the  aiitirnts, 
and  various  ways  of  preparing  it  are  described  | 
bv  I'liny.     It  is  usually  obtained  by  exposing  j 
plates  of  copper  to  the  action  of  vinegar,  till  | 
tlu;y  are  converted  to  a  bluish-green  powdei-,  I 
ami  then  dissolving  this  powder  in  acetic  acid, 
and  crystallizing  it. 

Acetat  of  copper  crystallizes  in  four-sided  | 
truncated  pyramids.  It  has  a  beautiful  bluish- 
green  colour.  lis  specilic  gravity  is  1.779. 
Its  taste  is  disagreeably  metallic,  and,  like  all 
tlie  compounds  into  which  copper  enters,  it 
is  poisonous.  It  is  very  soluble  in  water ; 
alcohol  likewise  dissolves  it.  ^\  hen  exposed 
to  the  air,  it  effloresces.  By  distillation  it 
gives  out  acetic  acid.  Proust  first  remarked 
tli.ii  acetous  acid  and  acetic  acid  form  tlie 
same  salt  with  copper;  and  hence  concluded 
that  there  is  no  dilference  between  the  two 
acids.  \\'hen  sulphureted  hydrogen  gas  is 
made  to  pass  through  a  solution  of  this  salt  in 
water,  the  copper  is  deoxidized,  and  pre- 
cipitates in  the  state  of  a  blue  sidphuret,  and 
there  remains  behind  an  acid  whicli  possesses 
the  properties  of  the  acetic. 

According  to  Proust,  the  acetat  of  copper 
is  composed  of 

61  acid  and  water 
39  oxide 

100. 

When  the  verdegris  of  commerce  is  put 
Into  water,  0.50  parts  of  it  are  dissolved,  and 
there  remain  0.44  parts  in  the  state  of  a  line 
green  powder,  whi'-li  remains  long  suspended 
in  the  solution.  Mr.  Proust  has  ascertained 
that  this  powder  is  a  -^nbacetat  of  copper.  It 
is  decomposed  by  salphuric  acid,  by  potass, 
and  by  distillation.  According  to  the  ana- 
lysis of  Proust,  it  is  composed  of 

.37  acid  and  water 

t)3  oxide 

1 00. 

Thus  it  appears  from  the  expcrimenls  of 
this  philosopher,  that  the  verdegris  of  com- 
merce is  composed  of  two  different  .acetats  ot 
copjier;  the  one  soluble  in  water,  the  other 
insoluble.  It  is  much  usi-d  as  a  paint  ;  and 
crystallized  acetat  of  copper  is  a  trerjuent  in- 
gredient in  dying  compounds,  ^'erdegris  is 
forfjied  in  great  quantities  at  Montpelier.  .V 
particular  account  of  the  processes  followed 
in  that  place  has  been  published  by  Mr. 
Ci-.aptal. 

VERDEKOR,  a  judicial  officer  of  (he 
king's  forest,  chosen  by  the  king's  writ  in  the 


V  ]■   R 

full  connly-court  of  the  same  shire,  within  the 
(orest  where  he  dwells  ;  he  is  sworn  to  main- 
tain and  keep  the  assizes  of  the  forest,  and 
to  view,  receive  and  ein-ol  the  attachment*  and 
presentments,  of  all  manner  of  trespasses  of 
vert  and  venison  in  the  forest. 

AERDICT,  the  answer  of  a  jury,  made 
upon  any  cause,  civil  or  criminal,  committed 
by  the  court  to  their  examination,  and  this  is 
twofold,  general  or  special. 

A  general  verdict  is  lliat  which  is  given  of 
brouglit  into  the  court  in  like  general  terms  to 
the  general  issue;  as  in  an  action  of  disseisin, 
llie  defendant  pleads  no  wrong,  no  disseisin  ; 
then  the  i'sue  is  general,  whether  the  fact  is 
wrong  or  not ;  which  being  committed  to  the 
jury,  they  upon  consideration  of  the  evidence 
come  in  and  say,  either  for  the  plaintilT,  that 
it  is  a  wrong  antl  disseisin  ;  or  for  the  defen- 
<lant,  that  it  is  no  wrong,  no  disseisin. 

A  special  verdict,  is  when  thev  say  at  large, 
that  such  a  thing  and  such  a  thing  they  liiid 
to  be  done  by  the  defendant  or  tenant,  so  de- 
claring the  co'.irse  of  the  fact,  as  in  Uu'ir 
opinion  it  is  proved  ;  and  as  to  the  law  upon 
the  fact,  they  pray  the  judgment  ofthecouii; 
and  this  special  verdict,  if  it  contains  any 
ample  declaration  of  the  cause  from  the  be- 
ginning to  the  end,  is  also  called  a  verdict 
at  large.     Co.  Lit.  liiS. 

A  special  verdict  is  usually  found  where 
there  is  any  difljculty  or  doubt  respecting 
the  laws ;  when  the  jury  state  the  facts  as 
prove<l,  and  prav  the  advice  of  the  court 
thereon.  A  less  expensive,  and  more  speedy 
mode  howi:ver,  is  to  hud  a  verdict  generally 
finr  the  pl.iintiir,  sul)j(^ct,  nevertheless,  to  tlu' 
opinion  of  the  judge,  or  the  court  above,  on 
a  special  ca-,e  diawn  up  and  settled  by  counsel 
on  bolli  sides. 

^'  I'.Uf ;  v.  signifies  the  compass  of  the  kingN 
court,  which  bounds  the  j-.u-isdictioii  of  the 
lord  steward  of  the  household,  and  which  is 
thought  to  have  been  12  miles  round. 

The  term  verge  is  also  used  for  a  stick  or 
rod,  whereby  one  is   admitted   tenant  to   a 
copvhold  estate,  by  holding  it   in  his  hand, 
and  swearing  fealty  to  the  lord  of  the  manor. 
I      \'ER(iERS,  certain  o(licei-s  of  the  courts 
'  of  kings'-beurh   and   common-pleas,    whose 
;  busiiie.-,s  it  is  to  carry  white  wands  before  the 
judges. 
I      'riiere  are  also  vergers  of  cathedrals,  who 
I  carry  a   rod   lipped  with  silvur  before    the 
;  bishop,  dean,  &c. 

'■  MClUlTCE,alimioroblainedfrom  grapes 
I  or  apjjies,  unlit  for  wine  or  cyder ;  or  from 
\  sweet  ones,  whilst  yet  acid  and  unripe.  Its 
;  chief  use  is  in  sauces,  ragouts.  Sec.  tiiough  it 
'  is  also  an  ingredient  in  some  medicinal  com- 
positions, and  is  used  by  the  wax-chai»dlers 
to  purity  liieir  wax. 
j  VERM  ES,  the  sixth  class  of  anim.ds  in  the 
'  Linn;ean  system,  conipreMCnding  live  orders. 

See  Natural  History,  and  Zooloov. 
j       VERNIER  .SCALE,  a  scale  excellentlv  adapt- 
;  ed  for  the  graduation  of  mathematica!  instru- 
ments, thus  called  from  its  inventor  Feter  \''er- 
nier,    a  person   of   distinction   in   the  Frauche 
Cuinpte.    Vernier's  method  is  derived  from  the 
following  principle:    If  two  ec]ual  right  lines,  or 
circular  arcs.  A,  B,  are  so  divided,  tbat  tlic  num- 
ber of  eqiril  divisions  in  B   is  one  lc5s  than  the 
number  of  equal  divisions  of  A,  then  will  the 
excess  of  unc  division  of  B  above  one  division 
I  3  ¥2 


V  E  R 


Sol 


of  A,  lie  compmmdcd  of  the  rati*  of  one  of  .-i 
to  A,  and  of  one  of  B  to  B. 

For,  let  A  contain  1 1  parts,  then  one  of  A  t» 

A  IS  as  I  to  11,  or     --.  Let  B  contain  10  parts, 

then  one  of  B  to  B  is  as  I  to  10,  or    '-.     Now 


10 


,  II  Tlif>_        I 1 

■  10  X  11  ~  10  xTi  ~  io"  ^  11 


1        1 
lo"  ~  '\Y 

Or   if   B  contains  n   parts,  and  A   conuini 

"  +  I   parts ;  then 

n 

1 


— f—,   is  one  part  of  A. 


i»  one  part  of  B,  and 

And -•---•_  = 
n  n  +1 


»+  1  —  >■  __    I  1 

n  X  »  -\-l  "  "+  ' 

The  most  commodious  divisions,  and  their 
aliquot  parts,  into  which  the  degrees  on  the  cir- 
cular limb  of  an  instrument  may  be  supposed  to 
be  divided,  depend  on  the  radius  of  tliat  instru- 
ment. 

Let  R  be  the  radius  of  a  circle  in  inches:  ?nd 
a  degree  to  be  divided  into  n  parts,  each  being 

-ih  part  of  an  inch. 

Now  the  circumference  of  a  cirde,  in  parli 
of  its  diameter  -J  R  inches,  is  S,Hljyi;ti  x  -  R 
inches. 

Then   ribo^  ;  s.Hi.iOSfi  X  -'  R  ; ;   p  ; 

:5,1H.>02G 

-"sfio--^-*^'"^''"- 

Or,  0,0174.'>329  X  R  is  the  Icnjili  of  one  de- 
gree  in  inches. 

Or,  0,01 7J.-;;j-39  X  R  X  />  is  the  length  of  1% 
in/ith  parts  of  an  inch. 

But  as  every  degree  contains  n  times  such 
])arts,  therefore  n  =:  0,0174.5:ia;j  X  R  X  *. 

The  most  commodious  perceptible  division  is 
II 

-  or     _-  of  an  nich. 
o  10 

Evam^tr.  Supjvise  an  instrument  of  30  inches 
radius,  into  how  many  convenient  parts  may 
each  degree  be  divided?  how  many  of  these 
parts  are  to  go  to  the  brcadili  of  the  vernier, 
and  (o  what  parts  of  a  degree  may  an  observa- 
tion be  made  by  that  instrument  ?' 

Now,  0,0174.^  X  R  =  0/,'2m  inches,  the  length 

of  each  degree :  and  if  f  is  supposed  about  — 

S 
of  an  Inch  for  one  division  ;  then  0,.J236  X  ^ 
=  -1,188  shows  the  number  of  such  parts  in  a 
decree.  But  as  this  number  must  be  an  intcer, 
let  it  bo  4,  each  being  l.j':  and  let  the  brea'dth 
of  the  vernier  contain  31  of  those  parts,  or  7^", 
aad  be  divided  into  .'iO  parts. 


Here  n  =: 


1 

.SO 


then  —  X 


1 

3» 


=  j\;^  of  a  degree,  or  .W,  which  is  the  least 

part  of  a  degree  that  iiiitrument  can  shovTi 
1  1  'l  I 


If«: 
GO 


,  ^nd  « 


1        ,         1 
—  ;  Mien 
OK  ,"; 


X    .„:   - 


of  a  minute,  or  20". 
5  X  36 

The  following  table,  taken  as  cuamples  in  the 
instruments  coniniouly  made  from  ;i  inches  to  S 
feet  radius,  shows  the  divisions  of  tha  limli  i» 
nearest  tenths  of  inches,  so  as  to  be  an  aliijiiot 
of  (iO's  and  what  p:irts  of  a  degree  mav  be  esti-' 
mated  by  the  vernier,  it  being  divided  into  such 
equal  parts,  and  containing  »uch  dcjrees  as  tkeir 
columns  show. 


S52 


V  E  R 


Parts 

Parts 

Breadtli 

R?.d 

in 

in 

of 

Parts 

inches. 

adeg. 

vernier. 

vernier. 

observed. 

3 

1 

15 

1.54 
20i 

lof 

12| 

4'      0" 

6 

1 

20 

3       0 

•     9 

2 

20 

1      .30 

12 

o 

24 

1      15 

15 

;i 

20 

1       o 

18 

3 

30 

lOi 

0     40 

in 

4 

30 

H 

0     30 

24 

4 

36 

9i 

0     25 

so 

5 

30 

"4 

0     20 

36 

6 

30 

54 

0     20 

42 

8 

30 

■''i 

0     15 

48 

9 

40 

'^ 

0     10 

60 

10 

Sff 

St'o 

0     10 

IJ 

12 

30 

2tV 

0     10 

84 

15 

40 

2t 

0       6 

9G 

15 

60 

4^^ 

0       4 

By  altering  the  number  of  divisions,  either  in 
the  degrees  or  in  the  vernier,  or  in  both,  an  an- 
gle can  be  observed  to  a  different  degree  of  ac- 
curacy. Thus,  to  a  radius  of  30  inches,  if  a  de- 
gree is  divided  into  12  parts,  each  being  five 
minutes,  and  the  breadth  of  the  vernier  is  21 
such  parts,  or  1^",  and  divided  into  20  parts, 

111° 

then  —  X   --  =: =  15':  or  taking  the 

12  20         240  " 

breadth  of  the  vernier  2 


30  parts ;  then  — 
1 


",  and  divided  into 

1' 
360 


X  —  := ,  or  10";     or 


1 

12'  ^  50 


60",  v?here  the  breadth 


1° 

600 
♦f  the  vernier  is  44°. 

VERONICA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  diandria,  and  order  monogynia;  and  in 
tlie  natural  system  arranged  under  the  40tli 
order,  personatoe.  The  corolla  is  four-cleft, 
wheel-shaped,  with  tlie  lowest  segment  nar- 
rower ;  capsules  superior,  two-celled.  There 
are  57  species ;  15  are  natives  of  Britain,  only 
two  of  which  have  been  applied  to  any  use  : 
1.  The  officinalis,  common  male  speedwell, 
or  tiuelin,  growing  on  heaths  and  barren 
grounds.  An  infusion  is  iecommended  by 
Hotiinan  as  a  substitute  for  tea ;  but  it  is 
more  astringent  and  less  grateful.  The  herb 
■was  formerly  esteemed  in  medicine  for  va- 
rious disorders,  but  is  now  almost  totally  dis- 
used. Cows,  sheep,  goats,  and  horses,  eat  it ; 
EAine  refuse  it.  2.  The  beccabunga,  or  com- 
mon brook-lime.  This  plant  was  formerly 
considered  as  of  much  use  in  several  diseases, 
and  was  applied  externally  to  wounds  and 
ulcers :  but  if  it  has  any  peculiar  efticac)',  it 
is  to  be  derived  from  its  antiscorbutic  virtue. 

VKRSE.     See  Poetry. 

VF.KSED  sine  of  an  arch,  a.  segment  of 
the  diameter  of  a  circle,  lying  between  the 
foot  of  a  right  sine,  and  the  lower  extremity 
of  the  arch. 

VERT.     See  Heraldry. 

VKKTERR.E.    See  Anatomy. 

VKR  TKX.     See  Anatomy. 

VERTICAL  CIRCLE,  in  astroHomy,  a 
great  circle  of  the  spliere  passing  through  the 
;;i-nitli  and  nadir,  and  cutting  the  horizon 
at  right  angles:  it  is  otherwise  called  azi- 
muth. 

Vertic\i.  plantf.,  in  perspective,  is  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  geometrical  plane, 
passing  through  the  eye,  and  cuttiiiu,  the  per- 
spective plane  at  light  angles. 

VOVl  IGO,    Seu  Medicine, 


V  E  S 

VERVAIN.    SeeVERBEN'A. 

V  ESICA,  in  anatomy,  a  bladder ;  a  mem- 
branous or  skinny  part,  in  which  any  humour 
is  contained 

\  ESICAT01\V,  :ui  exteiiial  medicine, 
servmgto  raise  a  blister;  whence  also  it  is 
itself,  though  impropi  riy,  called  a  blister. 

VESPA,  ii'cisp,  a  genus  of  _iiisects  of  tlie 
order  liymenoptera.  The  generic  character 
is,  mouth  with  jaws,  without  proboscis  ;  upper 
wings  pleated;  sting  concealed  ;  eyes  lunat- 
ed ;  body  smooth. 

The  genus  vespa  is  of  great  extent,  140 
species;  and  is  remarkable,  like  that  of  apis 
or  bee,  for  the  singular  dexterity  with  which 
it  constructs  its  habitation,  which  in  many  spe-' 
cies isof considerablesize.  Thecommon  wa-p, 
or  vcspa  vulgaris,  is  known  to  everv  one.  The 
nest  of  this  species  is  a  highly  curious  struc- 
ture, and  is  prepared  beni^atli  the  surface  of 
some  dry  bank,  or  other  convenient  situation, 
lis  shape  is  that  of  an  upright  oval,  often  mea- 
suring ten  or  twelve  inches  at  least  in  dia- 
meter: it  consists  of  several  horizontal  stages 
or  stories  of  hexagonal  cells,  the  interstices 
of  each  story  being  connected  at  intervals  by 
upright  pillars  ;  and  the  exterior  surface  of 
the  nest  consists  of  a  great  many  layers  or 
pieces,  disposed  over  each  other  in  such  a 
manner  as  best  to  secure  the  interior  cavity 
from  the  effects  of  cold  and  moisture ;  the 
whole  nest,  comprizing  both  walls  and  cells, 
is  composed  of  a  substance  very  much  re- 
sembling the  coarser  kinds  of  whitish-brown 
paper,  and  consists  of  the  fibres  of  various  dry 
vegetable  substances,  agglutinated  by  a  tena- 
cious fluid  discharged  from  the  mouths  of  the 
insects  during  their  operations.  The  female 
wasps  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  cells,  one  in 
each  cell  appropriated  for  that  purpose ;  from 
these  are  hatched  the  larva;  or  maggots, 
which  bear  a  near  resemblance  to  those  of 
bees:  they  are  fed  by  the  labouring  wasps 
with  a  coarse  kind  of  honey,  and  when  ar- 
rived at  their  full  size,  close  up  their  respec- 
tive cells  with  a  tine  tissue  of  silken  filaments, 
and,  after  a  certain  period,  emerge  in  their 
complete  or  perfect  form.  Tlie  male  insect, 
like  tlie  male  bee,  is  destitute  of  a  sting. 
The  society  or  swarm  of  the  common  was]), 
consists  of  a'  vast  number  of  neutral  or  labour- 
ing insects,  a  much  smaller  number  of  males, 
and  still  fewer  females.  They  do  not,  like 
bees,  prepare  and  lay  up  a  store  of  honey  for 
winter  use ;  but  the  few  which  survive  the 
season  of  their  birth,  remain  torpid  during 
tlie  colder  nioinhs,  \\'asps  in  general  are 
both  carnivorous  and  frugivorous. 

The  hornet,  vespa  crabo  of  Linnxus,  is  a 
species  of  a  far  more  formidable  n.iture  than 
the  common  wasp,  and  is  of  considerably 
larger  size :  its  colour  is  a  tawny  yellow  with 
ferruginous  and  black  bars  and  variegations. 
The  nest  of  tliis  species  is  generally  built  inthe 
cavity  of  some  decayed  tree,  or  imiTn:diately 
beneath  its  roots ;  and  not  unfre(|uently  in 
timber-yards  and  other  similar  situations.  It 
is  of  smaller  size  than  that  of  the  wasp,  and  of 
a  somewhat  globular  form,  with  an  opening 
beneath ;  the  exterior  shell  consisting  of  more 
or  few  layers  of  the  same  strong  paper-like 
substance  with  that  prepared  by  the  wasp  : 
the  cells  are  also  of  a  similar  nature,  but 
much  fewer  in  number,  and  less  elegantly 
composed.  Tlie  hornet,  like  the  wasp,  is 
extremely  voracious,  and  preys  on  almost 
any  kind  of  fresh  aujinai  subitaiices  which  it 


V  E  S 

can  obtain,  as  well  as  honey,  fruit,  &c.  Sec. 
Its  sting  is  greatly  to  be  dreacled,  and  is  often 
productive  of  very  serious  consequences. 

A  highly  elegant  wasp's  nest  is  sometimes 
seen  during  the  summer  season,  attached 'or 
hanging  by  its  base  to  some  straw  or  other 
projecting  substance,  from  the  upper  part  of 
imfrequcnted  buildings  or  outhouses.  ft 
does  not  much  exceed  the  size  of  an  egg,  but 
is  of  a  more  globular  form,  and  consists  of  se- 
veral concentric  bells,  with  considerable  in- 
tervals between  eaf  h,  the  interior  alone  bein'j 
entire,  and  furnished  with  a  «iiall  rouuj 
orifice:  the  rest  reaching  only  about  two- 
thirds  from  the  base  of  tiie  nest.  In  the  cen- 
tre of  the  complete  or  entire  bell,  is  situated 
the  congeries  of  cells,  built  round  a  small 
central  pillar  attaclied  to  the  base:  the  cells 
are  not  very  numerous,  and  their  orifices 
look  downwards.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist,  fis, 
417. 

VESPERTILIO,  bat,  a  genus  of  mamma- 
lia, of  the  order  primates.  The  generic 
ciiaracter  is^  teeth  erect,  shat'p-pointed,  ap- 
proximated ;  hands  palmated,  with  a  mem- 
brane surrounding  the  body,  and  giving  tlie 
animal  the  power  of  flight. 

The  curious  formation  of  these  animals 
cannot  be  contemplated  withoirt admiration: 
the  bones  of  the  extremities  being  continued 
into  long  and  thin  processes,  connected  by  a 
most  delicately  formed  membrane  or  skin, 
capable,  from  its  thinness,  of  being  contracted 
at  pleasure  into  innumerable  wrinkles,  so  as 
to  lie  in  a  small  space  when  the  animal  is  at 
rest,  and  to  be  stretched  to  a  very  wide  ex- 
tent for  occasional  flight. 

Should  a  speculative  philosopher,  not 
aware  of  the  anatomical  impossibility  of  suc- 
cess, attempt,  by  means  of  light  mcahineryv 
to  exercise  the  power  of  flight,  he  could  not 
hit  on  a  more  plausible  idea  than  that  of  copy- 
ing the  structure  described.  Accordingly,  a 
celebrated  author  has  most  justly  and  judici- 
ously represented  a  sage  theorist  busied  in 
imitating,  for  this  purpose,  "  the  folding  con- 
tinirity  of  the  wing  of  a  bat." 

The  26  species  of  this  extraordinary  genus 
may  be  divided  into  the  tailed  and  the  tailless- 
bats. 

1.  Vespertilio  murinus,  the  common  bat, 
is  about  two  niches  and  a  half,  if  measured 
from  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail ;  and  th.e 
extent  of  the  wings,  when  fully  expanded,  is 
about  nine  inches.  It  is  of  a  mouse-colour, 
tinged  with  rsdtlisli ;  the  wings  and  ears  black ;. 
these  latter  are  small  and  rounded. 

2.  Vespertilio  auritus,  long-eared  bat.  This 
species,  in  its  general  appearance,  is  nearly 
similar  to  the  former,  though  rather  smaller; 
and  the  fur  has  less  of  the  reddish  tuige  ;  but 
what  immediately  distinguishes  it  as  a  specie.?, 
is  the  very  great  size  of  the  ears,  which  are 
more  tlian  an  inch  long,  and  of  a  very  con- 
siderable width  ;  they  are  slightly  rounded  at 
the  tips,  and  are  furnished  internally,  as  in 
most  otliers  of  this  genus,  with  a  kind  of  se- 
condary auricle  or  internal  flap,  so  placed  as 
to  serve  by  way  of  a  valve  or  guard  to  tlie 
auditory  passage.  Linna-us,  even  hi  the 
twx-lfth  edition  of  the  Systema  Naturx,  seems 
to  entertain  a  doubt  whether  this  species  is 
really  distinct  from  the  former,  or  merely  a 
sexual  diff'cience. 

This  and  the  former  are  the  two  most  com- 
mon s[)ecies  in  this  country ;  and  arc  those 
which  we  so  often  see  llutteiUig  about  in  the 


VESPEFiTILIO. 


CTcnirg';  of  summer  ami  autiiiiin,  frfqiiently 
titturing  a  sham  stridulous  iiole  or  sci-wun 
tliiriiig  tlieir'ilighl,  and  pursuing  tlie  various 
kinds  of  insects  on  wliicli  tliev  fi'fd,  par- 
ticularly M)ollis.  They  an;  sonietinies  taken 
by  Ihnnving  up  tlie  heads  of  burdock  whiten- 
ed vvilli  llour  ;  which  the  bats  either  niistak- 
Lig  for  some  insect,  or  casually  dashing 
against,  are  caught  by  the  liooked  prickles 
and  brought  to  (he  ground. 

The  bat  is  capable,  like  the  mouse,  of  being 
tamed  to  a  certain  degree ;  and  we  are  assured 
■  by  Mr.  While,  in  his  Natural  History  of  Sel- 
borne,  that  he  was  niucli  amused  in  the  suni- 
iiier  of  the  year  17tl6  with  the  sight  of  a  tame 
bat.  "  It  would  take  flies  out  of  a  person's 
liand.  If  you  gave  it  any  tiling  to  eat,  it 
brought  its  wings  round  before  tlie  mouth, 
hovering,  and  hiding  its  head,  in  the  manner 
of  birds  of  prey  when  they  feed.  'I'he  adroit- 
ness it  shewfd  in  shearing  olf  the  wings  of 
the  flies,  which  were  always  rejecU-'cl,  was 
worthy  of  observation,  and  pleased  me  much. 
Insects  seemed  to  be  most  acceptable,  though 
il  did  not  refuse  raw  iiesh  when  oHVred  ;  so 
that  the  notion  that  bats  go  down  chimneys 
and  gnaw  men's  bacon,  seems  no  improbable 
story.  While  I  amused  myself  with  this 
wonderful  quadruped,  I  saw  it  several  times 
confute  the  vulgar  opinion,  that  bats,  when 
down  on  a  Hat  surface,  cannot  get  on  the 
wing  again,  by  rising  with  great  ease  from  the 
lloor.  Il  ran,.  I  observed,  w  ith  more  dispatcli 
than  I  was  aware  of,  but  in  a  most  ridiculous 
and  grotesciue  manner." 

Bats  are  commonly  supposed  to  produce 
two  young  at  a  birth  wliich  they  su  kle  for  a 
considerable  time.  When  rerenlly  born  I  hey 
adhere  most  tenaciously  to  the  breast  of  the 
parent,  so  as  not  to  be  removed  without 
dil'lictilty. 

Bats  lodge  in  great  numbers  in  the  cavities 
of  old  buildings,  under  the  projections  of 
walls,  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  in  rocky  places, 
&c.  6cc.  During  winter  they  lie  torpid  in 
these  recesses,  till  the  warmth  of  the  vernal 
atmosphere  invites  them  abroad  to  make 
their  evening  excursions.  Wlieii  taken  torpid 
and  brought  into  a  warm  situation,  they  awake 
from  their  slumber,  and-  again  expand  their 
\vings.  During  this  state  of  torpidity,  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  is  not  to  be  perceived 
in  the  smaller  vessels ;  but  when  thus  awa- 
kened by  warmth,  it  again  becomes  visible 
bv  the  microscope.  This  was  first  observed 
by  Leewenhoeck,  wlio  could  perceive  no  ap- 
pearance of  circulation  in  such  as  were  taken 
in  their  torpid  state;  but  on  bringing  them 
to  the  fire,  the  circulation  soon  becanie  very 
brisik. 

Bats  are  said  to  drink  on  the  wing,  like 
swallows,  by  sipping  the  surface,  as  they  play 
over  pools  and  streams.  They  love  to  fre- 
quent waters,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  drink- 
ing, but  on  account  of  the  insects  which  are 
found  over  them  in  the  greatest  phmty.     , 

The  general  appearance  of  the  bat,  togethf;r 
-  with  its  nocturnal  liight,  must  be  confessed  to 
excite  the  idea  of  something  hideous  and  dis- 
mal ;  and  for  this  reason  the  aiitients  conse- 
crated it  to  Proser|)ine,  and  supjjosed  it  to  be 
one  of  the  inhabitants  of  her  dreary  regions  ; 
and  it  cannot  fail  to  occur  to  the  recollection 
of  every  one,  that  painters,  in  their  repre- 
sentations of  liend;  and  demons,  usually  ex- 
hibit them  with  tlie  leatliern  wings  of  the  bat. 


I  It  is  also  equally  evident,  that  llie  falniions 
harpies  of  the  antients  must  have  oiiginated 
from  a  similar  source;  |lhe  iargir  bats  of 
India  and  .Mrica,  by  a  little  poetical  exagger- 
ation of  their  manners,  answering  extremely 
well  to  tiie  general  description  of  tlio.se  mon- 
sters. 

•3.  Vespertilio  noctula,  the  noctiilc  bat,  is 
considerably  larger  than  the  former;  its  ex- 
tended wings  measuring  from  14  to  15  inches: 
the  length  trom  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail 
about  tour  inches  and  a  half.  The  nose  is 
slightly  bilobatc'd  ;  the  ears  small  and  round- 
ed ;  the  body  is  llishy  and  ])liimp ;  the 
shoulders  very  thick  and  muscular;  the  fur 
very  soft  and  glossy,  and  of  a  bright  chcsnut- 
colour.  'I'his  is  an  inhabitant  of  Britain  and 
of  France,  but  seems  not  to  have  been  par- 
ticularized as  a  distinct  species,  till  described 
by  M.  Daubenton  in  Bulfbii's  Natural  His- 
tory. It  is  said  to  be  common  in  some  parts 
of  Uussia,  sheltering  in  caverns.  It  flies  high 
in  the'air  in  search  of  food,  and  does  not  skim 
near  the  surface  like  the  smaller  bats.  It  has 
been  occasionally  found  in  great  quantities 
under  the  eaves  of  old  buildings,  and  has  ge- 
nerally a  strong  and  unpleasant  smell. 

5.  Vespertilio  ferruni  eciuinum,  horse-shoe 
bat,  with  a  horse-shoe-shaped  membrane  at 
the  tip  of  the  nose ;  ears  large,  broad  at  flu- 
base,  and  sharp-pointed,  inclining  backward ; 
no  smaller  or  internal  ear;  colour  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  hodv  deep-cinereous  ;  of 
the  lower,  whitish,  'rhere  is  said  to  be  a 
greater  and  smaller  variety ;  perhaps  the 
male  and  female.  The  greater  is  above  three 
inches  and  a  half  long  from  the  nose  to  the  tip 
of  the  tail  ;  the  extent  of  wings  above  14. 
This  species  is  found  in  France,  and,  very 
rarely,  in  Kngland.  It  is  also  said  to  be  found 
about  the  Caspian  Sea. 

5.  Vespertilio  auripendulus,  slouch-eared 
bat,  with  large  pendulous  ears,  ])ointed  at  the 
ends;  nose  obtuse;  tail  long,  included  in  a 
membrane,  and  terminated  w  ith  a  hook  ;  co- 
lour above  diiep-chesnut,  lighter  on  the  belly, 
and  cinereous  on  the  sides ;  length  three 
inches  and  four  l^nes ;  extent  of  wing  15 
inches.     Native  of  Guiana. 

6.  Vespertilio  leporinus,  Peruvian  bat. 
I.iniKEiis,  as  Mr.  Pennant  well  observes,  car- 
ried away  by  the  love  of  system,  placed  this 
species,  in  the  twelfth  edition  of  the  Systenia 
Natune,  under  a  distinct  genus,  by  tiie  name 
of  noctilio ;  stationing  it  at  a  great  distance 
from  the  rest  of  the  bats,  in  the  order  glires, 
next  to  the  squirrels.  This  he  fiid  merely  on 
account  of  its  having  only  two  cutting-teetli 
in  each  jaw.  But  succeeding  observations 
have  conspired  to  provethat  the  number  and 
disposition  of  the  teeth  differ  greatly  in  the 
dilierent  species  of  the  bats  ;  so  that  if  a  too 
rigid  regard  was  paid  to  this  particular,  se- 
veral distinct  genera  might  be  instituted  in- 
stead of  one  ;  but  the  general  characters  of 
the  bats  are  so  striking  as  to  render  this  per- 
fectly unnecessarv. 

The  Peruvian'  bat  has  a  head  something 
like  a  pug-dog ;  the  ears  large  and  straight, 
sharp  at  tlie  ends,  and  pointing  forwards ;  iwcj 
canine  teeth,  and  two  small  cutting  teeth  be- 
tween, in  each  jaw;  tail  enclosed  in  the 
membrane  which  joins  to  each  hind  leg,  and 
is  also  supported  by  two  long  cartilaginous 
ligaments  involved  in  the  membrane ;  colour 
of  the  fur  iron-grey  ;  body  equal  in  size  to  a 
middling  rat ;  extent  of  wiiig  two  feet  five 


8.^3 

Inches.  Mr.  Pennant  observes,  tliat  Mr. 
Sriircber's  figure  of  this  species  is  erroneously 
coloured,  being  represented  of  a  straw-colour. 
It  is  a  native  oh'eru.  An  extraordinary  con- 
formation, according  to  Seba,  takes  place  in 
the  logs  of  this  bat ;  the  tibia  and  fibula  being 
place<l  separately  from  each  other,  and  eacn' 
invested  by  its  own  distinct  and  hairy  skin. 
I  hese,  however,  seem  to  be  nothing  more 
than  the  twocai-lilaginous  ligaments  mention- 
ed by  Mr.  Pennant. 

The  remaining  species  (except  the  last)  are 
distinguished  by  having  no  tails. 

7.  ^'espertilionasutns,  great  serotine  baf, 
with  a  very  long,  straight,  and  strong  nose, 
sloping  down  at  the  cnrl;  ears  long,  erect, 
dilatctl  towards  the  bottom,  rounded  at  the 
end;  colour  of  the  upper  parts  a  reddish 
chcsnut ;  sides  of  a  clear  yellow ;  remainder 
of  a  dirty  white ;  length  five  inches  and 
eight  lines ;  extent  of  wings  two  feet. 

This  species  is  dcscrlbe<l  in  tlic5up])lemen- 
tal  volume  of  the  count  de  Buffon's  Natural 
History.  It  is  a  native  of  Guiana,  where  it 
is  said  to  assemble  in  meadows,  and  other 
open  places,  in  vast  numbers;  flying  in  corn- 
pany  with  goatsuckers,  and  both  together  in 
such  numbers  as  to  darken  the  air. 

8.  Vespertilio  spectrum,  spectre  bat.  This 
is  a  large  s|)ecies,  and  is  a  native  of  Soutli 
America,  where  it  is  chiefly  seen  on  palm- 
trees.  The  extent  of  wings  is  about  two  feet 
two  inches,  or  more ;  and  from  the  nose  to 
the  rump  seven  inches  and  a  half.  It  has  a 
lung  nose;  large  teeth;  long,  broad,  and 
upright  ears  ;  and  at  the  end  of  the  nose  is 
an  upright,  long,  conical  membrane,  bending 
at  the  end.  Hair  on  the  body  cinereous,  and  ■ 
pretty  long;  wings  full  of  r^nified  fibres;  the 
membrane  fxtends  from  hind  leg  to  hind  leg. 
There  is  no  tail ;  but  three  tendons  run  from 
the  rump  to  the  edge  of  the  membrane. 

Mr.  Buffon  supposes  this,  to  be  the  vam- 
pire ;  but  if  the  accounts  of  that  animal's 
extraordinary  faculty  may  be  depended  upon,  . 
we  are  still  uncertain  as  to  the  species ;  Piso 
and  others,  who  give  the  relation,  omitting 
the  particular  description'Ot  the  animal ;  and, 
indeed,  it  is  most  probable  that  the  faculty 
which  gave  rise  to  the  name  is  by  no  means 
confined  to  a  single  species,  but  rtay  be  prac- 
tised by  several  of  the  lareer  bats  in  warm 
climates.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  416. 

9.  Vespertilio  vampyrus,  vampire  bat.  Of 
this  tremendous  animal  there  are  some  va- 
rieties in  point  of  size  and  colour  ;  or  perhaps 
they  may  really  be  distinct  races  or  species, 
though  nearly  allied.  The  largest,  or  the 
giv'at  Ternate  bat,  i--,  in  general,  about  a  foot 
long,  with  an  exfent  of  wings  about  four  feet' 
but  sometimes  it  is  found  far  larger,  and  it 
has  been  said  that  specimens  have  been  seen 
of  six  feet  in  extent.  The  general  colour  of 
the  body  is  a  deep  reddish  brown  ;  brighter 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  and  shoulders, 
as  well  as  on  the  under  parts  of  the  body' 
The  nose  is  sharp  and  black ;  the  teeth  lar<»e 
and  sharp:  there  are  four  cutting-teeth  botb 
above  and  below,  and  the  canine  teeth  are 
large  and  strong ;  the  tongue  is  pointed,  and 
terminated  by  shaqj  prickles;  the  ears  are 
naked,  blackish,  and  large,  and  are  of  a  point- 
ed form.  The  wings  are  black,  or  of  the 
colour  of  those  of  the  common  bat.  The 
membrane  is  divided  behind,  quite,  to  the 
rump,  there  being  no  tail ;  the  single  claw  oa 


65^ 


V  E  S 


lie  wings  i.-i  large  and  strong,  and  tho-.e  | 
on  the  feet  extremely  so,  as  well  as  much  i 
curved.  | 

Tliis  is  the  b.it  to  wliich  Linnxus  applied  l 
'flie  title  ot' vampire,  on  the  supposition  of  its  i 
•being  the  speeies  of  whicli  so  many  extra- 
ordinarv  accounts  have  been  given  relative 
-lo  its  power  of  sucking  the  blood  both  of  men 
and  cattle.  This  it  is  supposed  to  perform 
"bv  inserting  its  aculeated  tongue  into  the 
vein  of  a  sleeping  person,  in  so  peculiar  a 
Tnanner  as  not  to  excite  pain,  famiing  at  tlie 
same  time  the  air  witli  its  wings,  by  which 
means  the  sleep  is  rendered  still  more  pro- 
found. This  is  what  appears  at  lirst  so  extra- 
onlinary  as  to  justify  a  decree  of  scepticism 
as  to  the  fact:  it  is,  however,  so  solemnly  re- 
Jated,  and  seemingly  so  well  authenticated, 
■as  to  enforce  belief  'Mr.  Condaniine  assures 
lis,  that  the  large  bats  have,  hi  certain  parts 
of  America,  destroved,  by  this  means,  aH  the 
great  cattle  introduced  there  by  the  mission- 
aries. It  is  affirmed  by  Boutins,  as  well  as 
Jsieuhofi',  that  the  bats'  of  Java  attack  those 
•\^ho  lie  with  their  feet  uncovered,  whenever 
.they  can  gain  access ;  and  Gnmilla,  who  men- 
.tious  a  greater  and  lesser  kind,  found  on  the 
"banks  of  the  Oronoqne,  declares  them  to  be 
.equally  g.i'eedy  after  human  blood.  Persons 
thus  attacked  have,  in  conseipience,  bren 
jiear  passing  from  a  sound  sleep  into  eternity. 
Jl  i«,  therefore,  very  unsafe  to  sleep  with 
■open  windows,  or  in  the  ojjen  air,  in  those 
Jegions. 

P.  Martvr,  who  wrote  soon  after  the  con- 
Ji|uest  of  South  America,  says,  that  in  the 
•istlniius  of  Darien,  tiiere  are  bats  which  suck 
-the  blood  of  men  and  cattle,  when  asleep,  to 
f  uch  a  degree  as  to  awaken,  and  even  kill 
■them. 

An  instance  is  also  related  in  colonel  Sted- 
tiian's  Travels  in  Surinam,  as  liaving  ha|)pen- 
■«d  to  himself,  which  puts  tlie  matter  be_\ond 
4J  doubt. 

Lastly,  though  it  seems  to  liave  escaped  the 
jittention  of  modern  naturalists,  the  sell-same 
faculty  has  been,  time  out  of  mind,  attributed 
TO  the  common  European  bats,  whicli  are 
said  to  bite  sleeping  persons,  and  to  suck  the 
blood  with  the  greatest  aviditv.  This  is  men- 
■tioiied  by  Aldrovandus,  who  seems  lo  relate 
it  as  a  generally-received  opinion  ;  observing, 
.at  the  same  time,  that  their  attacks  are  in- 
finitely inferior  to  the  dangerous  ones  of  the 
large  exotic  bats  in  India  and  America. 

It  remains  to  explain  the  reason  of  the 
■term  vampire,  by  whicii  the  above  large 
bpecieshas  been  distinguished. 

A  vampire  is  an  imaginary  monster,  sup- 
^iosed  to  suck  the  blooci  of  sleeping  persons. 
h  also  alludes  to  one  of  tlie  most  absurd  su- 
■pei-stitions  that  ever  entered  into  the  human 
mind.  About  the  year  17.52,  an  idea  arose 
-among  the  vulgar  in  some  parts  of  Poland  and 
Hungary,  that  certain  bodies  when  iiiterred,  ! 
)>ecarae  possessed  of  the  i)Ower  of  absorbing 
•tjlood  from  tliose  who  were  so  unfortunate  as 
to  pass  over  or  stand  near  their  graves;  it 
■was,  therefore,  supposed  nece.?sary  to  dis-inter 
•£uch  bodies  and  v.  ound  them  with  a  sword, 
by  which  means  this  pe:nicious  |)ower  was 
supposed  to  be  put  a  stop  to,  and  the  blood 
•they  had  unjustly  g.iined  was  evacuated. 
Astoni.shing  as  this  folly  may  appear,  it  is  yet 
iiinre  astonishing  that  a  great  many  Ireatises 
**ere  written  on  the  subject,  and  that  some 

10 


V  1  B 

considerable  time  elapsed  before  tl.C  super- 
stition was  complctelv  destroved. 

VESTALS,  vt:<!talcs,  among  the  antient 
Komans,  were  priestesses  of  the  goddess 
Vesla,  and  had  the  perpetual  li;"  committed 
to  their  charge.  They  were  at  first  only  four 
in  number,  but  afterwards  increased  to  six ; 
and  it  does  not  appear  that  Ihtir  number  ever 
exceeded  six,  among  whom  one  was  superior 
to  the  rest,  and  called  vestalis  maxima. 

The  vestals  were  chosen  from  six  to  fen 
years  of  age,  and  obliged  to  strict  continciicy 
tor  30  vears  ;  the  first  ten  of  which  were  em- 
ployed in  learning  the  ceremonies  of  religion, 
the  next  ten  in  the  performance  of  them,  and 
the  ten  last  in  teaching  them  to  the  younger 
vestals.  The  habit  of  tlie  vestals  consisted  of 
an  head-dress,  called  infula,  which  sat  close 
to  their  heads,  and  whence  hung  certain 
laces  called  vitla,-,  a  kind  of  surplice  made  of 
white  linen,  and  over  it  a  purple  mantle  with 
a  long  train  to  it. 

VESTIBULE,  in  architecture,  a  kind  of 
entrance  into  a  large  building  ;  being  an  open 
place  before  the  hall,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the 
staircase.  Vestibules  intended  for  magnifi- 
cence, are  usually  between  the  court  and  the 
garden. 

VESTRY,  a  place  adjoining  to  a  church, 
where  the  vestments  of  the  minister  are  kept ; 
also  a  meeting  at  such  place  where  the  minis- 
ter, churcliwarden,,  and  principal  men  of 
most  parishes,  at  this  day  make  a  parish 
vestry.  On  the  Sunday  before  a  vestry  is  to 
meet,  public  notice  ought  to  be  given,  either 
in  the  church,  or  after  divine  service  is  ended, 
or  else  at  the  chuich-door  as  the  parishioners 
come  out,  boUi  of  the  calling  of  the  said  meet- 
ing, and  also  of  the  time  and  place  of  the  as- 
sembling of  it ;  and  it  is  reasonable  then  also 
to  declare  for  what  business  the  said  meeting 
is  to  be  held,  that  none  may  be  surprized, 
but  that  all  may  have  full  time  before,  to 
consider  of  what  is  to  be  proposed  at  the  said 
meeting.    Wats.  c.  39. 

VESUMAN,    a  mineral  found   in   lava, 
especially   at  Vesuvius,    and   formerly   con- 
founded W'kh  hyacinth.     Its  colour  is  brow  n 
or   greenish.     It   is    found     in    masses,    but 
usually  crystallized  in  rectangular  eight-sided 
prisms.     The  primitive  form  of  its  crystals  is 
the-cube.     The  specific  gravity  is  from  3.39 
to  3.4.     It   scratches  glass;  the  fracture    is 
imperfectly  conchoidal.      It  causes    double 
refraction.    Before  the  blowpipe  it  melts  into 
yellowish  glass.     It  is  composed  of 
26.5  silica 
40.2  magnesia 
16.2  oxide  of  iron 
16.0  lime 

9.H.9. 

VETCH.     SeeVici.\. 

VIIjKATION,  in  mechanics,  a  regular 
reciprocal  motion  of  a  body,  as  a  penduUnn, 
&c.  which,  being  freely  sus|xMKled,  swings  or 
oscillates,  tirst  this  way,  then  that. 

\'I15R[0,  a  gemis  of  vermes  infusoria.  The 
generic  character  is,  worm  invisible  to  the 
naked  eve,  very  sim|)le,  round,  elongated. 
There  are  20  species  enumerated,  anil  found 
chiellv  in  vegetable  inulusions. 

VliiLUNUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  pentandria,  ord<'r  trigyitia,  and  in  the 
natural  system  arranged  under  the  43d  order, 
dumosa-.  The  calyx  is  (iuiiK|uepailite  and 
above;  the  corolla  divided  into  live  lachin;r; 


V  I  C 

the  fruit  a  monospermons  berry.     There  arc 
23  species,  two  ot  which  are  natives  of  Ikitain. 

1.  The  lantana,  common  viburnum,  way- 
faring, or  i)liant  mealy  tree,  having  very 
pliant  shoots  coven  d  with  a  lightish-brown 
bark ;  large  he;irl-shaped,  veined,  serrati-d 
leaves,  white  and  hoary  underneath,  and  the 
branches  terminated  by  umbels  of  white 
llowers,  succeeded  bv  bunches  of  red  benies, 
.'cc. 

2.  TheopuUis,  or  Guelder  rose,  consisting 
of  (wo  varieties,  one  with  Hat  flowers,  the 
other  globular.  The  former  grows  IS  or  20 
feet  higli, 'branching  opposite,  of  an  irregular 
growth,  and  covered  witli  a  whitish  bark  :  and 
large  lobated  or  three-lobed  leaves  on  glan- 
dulous  footstalks.  Tlie  latter  has  large  globu- 
lar umbels  of  white  flowers  at  the  (-ndsof  the 
branches  in  great  abundance.  This  tree  when 
in  bloom  exhibits  a  singularly  fine  appear- 
ance ;  the  llowers,  though  small,  are  collect- 
ed numerously  into  large  globular  umbels, 
round  like  a  ball ;  hence  it  is  sometimes 
called  snowball -tree. 

3.  The  tinus,  common  laurustinus,  or  ever- 
green viburnum.  There  are  a  great  many 
varieties.  All  the  different  species  of  vibur- 
num^ both  dei:iduous  and  evergreen  kinds, 
being  of  the  tree  kind,  are  woody  and  durable 
in  root,  stem,  and  branches.  They  may  all 
be  propagated  by  layers  ;  and  are  of  such 
hardy  temperature  as  to  grow  freely  in  the 
open  grouiul  all  the  year,  in  shrubberies,  and 
other  hardy  plantations. 

VICAR,  one  who  supplies  the  place  of 
another.  The  priest  of  every  parish  is  called 
rector,  unless  the  pranlial  tithes  are  appro- 
priated, and  then  he  is  st_\  led  vicar;  and  when 
rectories  are  appro|)iiated,  vicars  are  to  sup- 
ply the  rector's  place.  Eorthe  maintenance 
of  the  vicar,  there  was  then  set  apart  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  the  tithes,  commonly  about  a 
third  part  of  the  whole,  which  are  now  what 
are  called  the  vicarial  tithes,  the  rest  being 
reserved  to  the  use  of  the  rectors,  which  for 
the  like  reason  are  denominated  the  rectorial 
tithes. 

VICARAGE.  For  the  most  part  vicar- 
ages were  endowed  upon  appropriations  ;  but 
sometimes  vicarages  have  been  endowed 
without  any  appropriation  of  the  parsonage ; 
and  there  are  several  churches  where  the 
tithes  are  wholly  impropriated,  and  no  viiMr- 
age  endowed ;  and  there  the  imjiropriators 
are  bound  to  maintain  curates  to  perform  di- 
vine service,  &c.  The  parsons,  palron,  and 
ordinary,  may  create  a  vicarage,  and  endow 
it ;  and  in  time  of  vacancy  of  the  church, 
the  patron  and  ordinary  may  do  it ;  but  the 
ordinary  alone  cannot  create  a  vicarage,  with- 
oi  t  the  patron's  assent. 

A' ICE,  in  smithery,  and  other  arts  employ- 
ed in  metals,  is  a  mai  hine,  or  instiinnent, 
serving  to  hold  fast  any  thing  they  are  at 
work  upon,  whether  it  is  to  be  lih'd,  bent, 
rivelted,  &c.  To  (ilesiiuare  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  I  he  vice  should  be  placed  per- 
pendicular, v^illi  its cliai)s  parallel  to  the  work- 
bench. 

Vic  K,  liriixl,  is  a  small  kind  of  vice  serving 
to  hold  the  lesser  works  in,  that  rei|uire  often 
turning  about. 

Of  these  there  are  two  kinds;  tlie  broad- 
chapped  hand-vice,  whicli  is  that  conmionly 
used;   and  the  sijuarc-noscd  hand-vice,  s«i- 


V  I  L 

dom  used  but  fur  filing  small  roiinil  work. 
Sec  SMiTtrEiiY, 

Vice  is  also  a  inncliine  used  by  tlie  glaziers 
(o  tiini  or  dnnv  lead  into  (hil  rods,  willi 
grooves  on  each  sido  to  receive  tlie  edges  of 
tlie  i^lass.     See  Glazier  s  Vice. 

^'  IC  lA,  a  gemis  of  |)iains  of  the  class  dia- 
drl|)liia,  and  order  decaiidria ;  ami  in  tlie  na- 
tur.il  svstein  arranged  under  tlie  .32d  order, 
pa|iilioiiacCie.  'I'lie  stigma  is  bearded  traiis- 
vif.ii'lv  on  tlic  lower  side.  There  are  2j  spe- 
cies, seven  of  whicli  are  natives  of  Britain. 
The  most  im|)i.irtant  are  : 

1.  Tlie  saliva,  common  velcli,  or  larfi. 
The  stalks  are  round,  weak,  branc.bed,  about 
two  feet  long.  PiiiiKC  five  or  seven  pair,  a 
little  liairy,  notcbed  at  tli'-  end ;  stipnla?  deii- 
taled  ;  llowersligbt  and  dark  piii|i!e,  on  >.|iort 
pedicles,  generally  two  togellier  ;  pods  erect ; 
sreds  black.  It  is  known  to  be  an  excellent 
fodder  foi'  horses. 

2.  'I'lic  cracca,  tnfted  vctcli.  It  has  a  stem 
branched,  three  or  four  feel  long.  Leaves 
pinnated;  pimV.c  generally  10  or  12  pairs, 
fince-shaped,  downy  ;  stipnhe  entire;  (lowers 
])ur|)le,  nvinierous,  pendnloos,  in  imbricated 
spikes.  It  is  also  reckoned  an  excellent  fod- 
der for  cattle. 

3.  '1  he  faba,  or  common  garden-bean.  It 
is  a  native  of  I'-gypt.  It  is  too  well  known  to 
require  description. 

VICiNAGK.  Common  of  Ticiiwgc  is, 
\vhcre  the  inhabilants  of  two  townships,  which 
lie  contiguons,  have  usually  interccimmoned 
with  one  another,  the  beasts  of  the  one  stray- 
ing nnitnally  into  the  other's  fields  without 
aiiv  molestation  from  either,  '{"his,  indeed, 
is  only  a  permissive  right,  intended  to  excuse 
what  in  strictness  is  a  trespass  in  bylh,  and  to 
prevent  a  nudtiplicity  of  suits;  and,  there- 
fore, either  township  may  inclose  and  bar  out 
tlie  other,  though  thi  y  have  interconinioned 
time  out  of  mind.  Neither  has  any  jierson  of 
one  town  a  riglil  to  put  his  beasts  originally 
into  the  other's  common  ;  but  if  they  escape 
and  stray  there  of  themselves,  the  law  winks 
at  the  trespass.  2  Black.  3-i^.  See  Com- 
mon. 

VIEW,  in  law,  is  gcneriily  where  a  real 
action  is  brought  in  any  of  the  courts  of  re- 
cord at  Westminster,  and  it  shall  appear  to 
t+ie  court  to  be  proper  antl^u.-cessary  that  the 
jurors  should  have  a  view,  they  may  ordei 
special  writs  of  distringas,  or  habeas  corpora, 
to  issue,  commanding  the  sherilfto  have  six 
ol  the  lirst  twelve  of  the  jurors  therein  named, 
or  of  some  greater  number  of  them,  at  the 
place  in  question,  &c.  But  as  the  having  a 
view  was  not  a  matter  of  course,  though  such 
a  practice  had  prevailed,  and  had  been 
abused  to  the  purposes  of  delay,  the  court 
thought  it  their  duty  to  take  care  that  their 
ordering  a  view  should  not  obstruct  justice, 
and  prevent  the  cause  from  being  tried  ;  and 
they  resolved  not  to  order  one  any  more, 
without  a  full  exaniiuntion  into  the  propriety 
and  necessity  of  it.  For  they  were  all  clear- 
Iv  of  opinion  that  the  act  of  parliament  meant 
tliat  a  viewshouUl  not  be  grant<-d,  unless  the 
court  were  saiislied  that  it  was  proper  and 
necessary  ;  and  they  thought  it  better  that  a 
cause  should  be  tried  upon  a  view  had  by  any 
six,  or  bv  fewer  than  six,  or  even  w  itliout  any 
view,  than  be  delayed  for  any  greater  leiiglii 
of  time.     Burr.  2.56. 

VILLAIN,  or  Villein,  a  man  of  eervile 
-et  base  degree. 


V  I  N 

Of  thet!e  bondmen  or  villeins,  there  were 
two  sorts  in  England  :  one  termed  a  villain  in 
gross,  who  was  immeiliately  bound  to  the 
person  cpI  his  lord,  and  his  h'eirs  ;  the  otiier, 
villein  regardant  to  a  manor,  being  bound  to 
his  lord  as  ii  nH'nii)er  belonging  and  annexed 
to  a  manor  whereot  Ihelord  uasowniT. 

Both  villain-  regardant, and  villains  in  gross, 
were  transferable  by  deed  from  one  o«ner  to 
another.  'I'hey  conid  not  li-avy  their  lord 
without  Iiis  permission  ;  but  il  they  ran  away 
or  were  purloined  from  him,  niitdi't  be  claini- 
ed  and  recovered  by  action  like  beasts,  or 
olher  chattel-.  They  held  indeed  small  por- 
tions of  land  to  susUiiii  tlieinselvts  and  fa- 
milies; but  it  was  at  tlie  mere  will  of  the 
lord,  who  might  dispossess  thcin  whenever  he 
pleased.  A  villain  could  ac(|uire  no  property 
eilher  in  lands  or  goods  ;  but  if  he  pnrcliaseJl 
either,  the  lord  might  .enter  upon  him,  and 
seize  them  to  his  own  use.     I  Black.  9.3. 

VILL.'\UI.\,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
and  order  diuecia  peiitandria.  The  calyx 
has  live  petals  ;  the  perianth,  is  a  three-celled 
berry.^   It  seems  to  belittle  known. 

VINX'A,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  penlandria,  and  order  inonogvnia  ; 
and  in  the  natural  system  arranged  under  the 
30tli  order,  contort:?.  The  corolla  is  twist- 
ed ;  there  are  two  erect  follicles;  tin;  seeds 
are  naked.  There  are  live  species,  only  two 
of  which  are  natives  of  laitain  :  1.  Thcniajnr, 
great  periwinkle.  2.  1  he  minor,  small 
periwinkle. 

^  INCl'LUM,  in  matiiematics,  a  character 
in  form  of  a  line,  or  stroke,  drawn  over  a 
factor,  divisor,  or  divi'iend,  when  compound- 
ed oi  several  letters  or  quantities,  to  connect 
them,  and  shew  they  are  to  be  multiplied,  or 
divided,   &c.   logether   by    the  other  term. 

Tiuis  dy,  a-\-  h — c  shews  thatrf  is  to  be  mul- 
tiplii.tl  into  a  -\-  b — c. 

VINDE.MIATIUX,  or  VijonEMiATOR,  a 
fixed  star  of  the  third  magnitude  iu  the  con- 
stelialion  Virgo,  whose  latitude  is  16°  12'  34" 
north,  and  longitude  5"  37'  40"  of  Libra,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Fhiiisteed's  catalogue. 

VINE.      SeeViTis. 

VINEGAR.  See  Acid,  Chemistry, 
Acetic,  and  Acetous  Acid. 

A  inegar  was  known  many  ages  before  the 
discovery  of  any  other  acid,  those  only  ex- 
cepted which  exist  ready-formed  in  vegeta- 
bles. It  is  mentioned  by  Moses  ;  and  iiuleed 
seems  to  have  been  in  common  use  among 
the  Israelites,  and  other  Eastern  nations,  at  a 
very  early  period.  It  is  prepared  from  wine, 
from  beer,  ale,  and  otiier  similar  liquids. 
These  are  apt,  as  every  one  knows,  to  turn 
sour,  unless  they  are  kept  very  well  corked. 
Now  sour  wine  or  beet  is  precisely  the  same 
with  vinegar. 

Boerhaave  describes  the  following  method 
of  making  vinegar,  which  is  said  to  be  still 
practised  in  different  places: 

Take  two  large  oaken  vats  or  hogsheads, 
and  in  each  of  these  place  a  wooden  grate  or 
lull  die  at  the  distance  of  a  loot  from  the  bot- 
tom. Set  the  vessel  upright,  and  on  the 
grate  place  a  moderately  close  layer  of  green 
twigs  orfresh  cuttings  of  the  vine.  Then  till 
up  the  vessel  witli  the  footst.dks  of  grape-, 
commonly  calltil  the  rape,  to  the  top  of  the 
vessel,  wliicli  must  be  left  quite  open. 

Having  tluis  prepared  the  two  vessels, 
puurhito  them  tiicwmeto  be  converted  into 


V  1  N  8;5 

vinegar,  so  as  to  fill  one  of  them  quite  upj 
and  the  other  but  half-full.  Ltave  I'iem  thus 
lor  24  hours,  and  ihen  fill  up  tli.-  half-filled 
vessel  will)  lifjiior  Iroin  that  which  is  quite 
lull.  l''oiir-and-tweiity  hours  allerwards  re- 
peat the  same  operalioii;  and  thus  go  on, 
keeping  the  vesseU  alliTnatelv  lull  aird  half- 
full  during  every  24  hours  till'  the  vir.egar  ig 
made.  (.)ii  the"  m-coikI  or  third  day  there- 
will  arise,  in  Ihe  half-lilled  vcssid,  a  leniier.- 
talive  motion,  accompanied  will)  a  sensible 
litat,  which  will  gradually  increase  from  day 
to  day.  On  Ihe  contiary,  the  ferm'-nling 
motion  is  alm<  st  iinperceplible  in  the  full 
vessel ;  and  as  the  two  vessels  are  alternately 
lull  and  iiall-fnll,  the  fermenlalion  is  by  that 
means,  in  ^onic  measure,  interrupted,  and  is 
only  renewed  every  otiier  day  in  each  vcs^ 
sel. 

V^  lien  this  motion  appears  to  liavc  entirely 
ceased,  even  in  the  hwll-lilled  vessel,  il  is  a 
sign  that  the  lermentalion  is  finished  ;  and 
therefore  Ihe  vinegar  is  llieij  to  be  put  into 
casks  close-stopped,  and  kept  in  a  cool, 
place. 

All  that  is  necessary  to  convert  wine  or 
lieer  into  vinegar,  is  the  contact  of  the  exter- 
n;i'  air,  a  lem]>eralure  of  HU',  and  the  pre- 
sence of  some  substance  to  act  as  a  ferment. 

Vinegar  is  a  liquid  of  a  reddish  or  yellowish 
colour,  a  pleasant  sour  taste,  and  an  agree- 
able odour,     lis  specific  gravity  varies  fron» 
1.0133  to   1.02JI,  ami  il  ditTets  also  in  its 
other  properties  according  to  the  liiuiiil  from 
which  it  has  been  procured.     It  is  very  sub-' 
ject  to  decomposition  ;  but  Scheele  discover*  - 
ed  that  if  it  is  made  to  boil  lor  a  few  moments, . 
it  may  be  kei)t  afterwards  lor  a  long  time  • 
without  alteration.     Besides  acetic  acid  and 
water,  vinegar  contains  several  otiier  ingre- 
dients, such  as  mucilage,' tartar,  a  colotyiiig 
matter,  and  often  also  two  or  more  vegetable 
acids.     When  di-tilled  at  a  temperature  not 
exceeding  that  of  boiling  water,  till  about  two 
thirds  of  it  have  passed  over,  all  llie.se  impu- 
rities are  left  behind,  and  the  product  is  pure 
acid  diluted  with  water. 

The  acid  thus  obtained  is  a  liquid  as  trans- 
parent and  colourless  as  water,  of  a  strong 
acid  taste,  and  an  agreeable  colour,  somewhat 
different  from  that  of  vinegar.  In  this  state 
it  is  usually  called  acetous  acid,  or  distilled 
vinegar.     See  Acetous  .-Icid. 

It  may  be  preserved  without  alteration  in 
close  vessels.  When  exjiosed  to  a  moderate 
heat,  it  evaporate^  completely,  and  without 
undergoing  any  change  in  its  properties. 
When  exposed  to  the  action  of  cold,  part  of 
it  congeals.  The  frozen  portion,  wliien' con- 
sists almost  entirely  of  water,  may  be  easily 
separated  ;  and  by  this  meth.od  the  acid  may 
be  obtained  in  a  high  degree  of  concentra- 
tion. The  more  concentrated  the  acid  is,  the 
greater  is  the  cold  necessary  to  produce 
congel.ition.  Mr.  Lowitz  has  ascertained 
that  the  acid  itself,  how  much  soever  it  may 
be  concentrated,  crystallizes  or  congeals  at 
the  temperature  of  ^ — 22". 

When  acetat  of  copper,  reduced  to  povtder,  , 

is  put  into  a  retort  and  distiUtd,  there  conies 
over  a  liquid  at  first  nearly  colourless,  and 
almost  in.-ioid,  and  afterwards  a  highly  con- 
centrated acid.  The  distillation  is  to  lie  con- 
tinued till  th.;  bottom  ot  the  retort  is  red-hoL 
What  remains  in  it  then  is  only  a  powder  of 
the   colour  of  copper.     '1  he  acid    product,  . 


856 


V  I  N 


\vliicli  sliould  be  received  in  a  vessel  by  itself, 
is  tinged  giiren  by  ;i  lif  tie  copper  wliicli  passes 
aloiii,'  with  it ;  but  when  distilled  over  again 
in  i.  gentle  heat,  it  is  obtained  perfectly  co- 
loiiiless  and  transparent.  The  acid  thus  ob- 
tained is  exceedingly  pungent  and  concen- 
trated. It  was  foiinerly  distinguished  by  the 
iianies  of  radical  vinegar,  and  vinegar  of 
Venice. 

This  acid  is  transparent  and  colourless  like 
water.  It  lias  a  ])eculiar  aromatic  smell  when 
in  the  state  of  acetous  acid  ;  but  concentrated 
acetic  acid,  when  procured  in  (he  usual  wavr 
l:asan  empyreunaatic  odour,  mixed  with  th* 
natural  s.nell  of  vinegar,  owing  to  a  small 
portion  of  oil  formed  during  the  process. 

A  much  easier  method  of  obtaining  acetic 
acid  tiian  that  commonly  used  has  been  latelv 
pointed  out  by  Mr.  Badollier,  apothecary  at 
Chartres.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  distil  a 
mixture  of  et[ual  parts  of  acelat  of  lead  and 
snlpliat  of  copper  in  a  glass  retort.  The  acid 
comes  perfectly  pin-e  on  the  application  of  a 
tnoderate  heat.  , 

The  specilic  gravity  of  distilled  vinegar 
varies  from  1.007  to  1.0095;  but  radical 
vinegar  is  much  more  concentrated.  In  that 
Slate  it  is  extremely  pungent  and  acrid  ;  and 
when  it  is  applied  to  the  skin,  it  reddens  and 
corrodes  it  in  a  very  short  time.  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly volatile  ;  and  wlien  heated  in  the 
open  air,  takes  lire  so  readily,  that  one  would 
be  tempted  to  sus))ect  (lie  i)rcse:ice  of  ether 
in  it.  "it  unites  with  water  in  any  proportion ; 
and  when  concentrated,  the  mixture  evolves 
a^ood  deal  of  heat.  See  Acid,  CHEM.rsTRV, 
&c. 
"VINEYARD,  a  plantation  of  vines.   See 

VlTIS. 

Tiie  best  situation  of  a  vineyard  is  on  the 
cleclivity  of  an  hill,  h  ing  to  the  south.  For 
the  planting  of  a  vineyard,  observe  the  fol- 
lowing method  :  In  tlie  month  of  July,  while 
<he  outermost  coat  of  the  earth  is  very  dry 
and  combustible,  ploi'  ;h  up  the  sward  ;  den- 
shire, or  burn-beat  it,  according  to  art,  and  in 
January  following,  spread  the  ashes.  The 
ground  being  thus  prepared,  cut  your  trenches 
across  the  hill  from  east  to  west,  because  the 
vines  being  thus"  in  ranks,  the  rising  andsetting 
of  the  sun  will  by  that  means  pass  through  the 
intervals,  which  it  would  not  do  if  they  were 
set  in  any  other  position,  neither  would  tlie 
sun  dart  its  rays  upon  the  plants  during  the 
whole  course  of  the  day. 

Afterwards  strain  a  line,  and  dig  a  trench 
about  a  foot  deep  ;  place  your  sets  in  it,  nbout 
three  feet  distance  one  from  another ;  trim  off 
1h- superfluous  roots,  leaving  no  more  than 
three  or  four  eyes  or  buds  upon  that  which  is 
above  groinid ;  and  plant  them  near  half  a  foot 
deep,  slojping,  after  (he  manner  Ihe  quick  is 
commonly  set,  so  that  they  may  point  up  the 
Jiill.  That  done,  take  long  dung  or  straw, 
and  lay  it  on  the  trenches  in  a  convenient 
thickness  to  cover  (he  earth,  and  preserve  f  he 
roots  from  (he  dry  piercing  winds,  whicli 
would  olherwiscmuch  annoy  (hem,  and  from 
the  excessive  scorching  hea(s  in  summer  ; 
keep  them  well  hoed,  and  free  from  weeds, 
arid  water  (hem  as  occasion  serves ;  the  best 
time  to  plant  is  in  January. 

The  (irst  pruning  of  the  new-set  vine  ought 
not  to  be  till  January,  and  then  you  should 
cut  olf  all  the  shoots  as  near  as  vou  can,  spar- 
ing but  one  of  the  most  thriving,  on  whicli 
jou  are  to  leave  only  two  or  Uiree  buds,  and 

a 


V  I  0 

so  let  all  rest  (ill  May,  the  second  year  afler 
planting.  Take  care  then  from  time  (o  time 
to  il'.;slroy  the  weeds,  and  clear  the  roots  of 
all  suckers,  which  do  but  rob  and  draw  out 
the  virtue  of  your  sets.  The  same  method  is 
to  be  followed  the  third  year;  then  dig  your 
whole  vineyard,  and  lay  it  very  level,  taking 
care  in  this  operation  not  to  cuf  or  woiuid  any 
of  the  main  roots  with  your  spade.  As  for 
the  younger  roots,  it  is' not  so  material,  as 
they  will  grow  the  thicker  ;  and  this  year 
you  may  enjoy  some  of  the  fruits  of  your 
vineyard,  which,  if  answerable  to  \our  expec- 
tation, will  put  you  upon  providing  props  for 
your  vines  of  about  four  feet  loiig,  which 
must  be  placed  on  the  north  side  of  the 
plant.  In  May,  rub  ol"f  such  buds  as  yoti 
suspect  will  produce  superfluous  branches. 
When  the  prapes  are  about  the  size  of  bird- 
ing-shot,  break  oif  the  branches  with  your 
hand  at  the  second  joint  above  the  fruit,  and 
tie  the  rest  to  the  jjrop :  here  it  is  most  ad- 
visable to  break,  and  not  cut,  your  vine;  be- 
cause wounds  made  with  a  sharp  instrument 
are  not  apt  to  heal,  but  cause  tlie  plants  to 
bleed.     See  Pruning. 

The  fourth  year  you  will  be  likely  to  have 
three  or  four  shoots  to  every  plant;  and, 
therefore,  in  December,  cut  off  all  the 
branches,  except  one  of  tlie  strongest  and 
most  thriving,  which  leave  for  a  standard 
about  four  feet  high,  paring  away  the  rest 
very  close  to  the  body  of  the  mother-plant, 
which  tie  to  your  prop  till  it  is  large  enough 
to  make  a  standard  of  itself.  Neither  must 
\  ou  suffer  any  slioot  to  break  out,  but  such  as 
sprout  at  the  top,  four  feet  from  the  ground  ; 
all  which  sprouts  thelrench  usuallv  prune  off 
every  year,  and  absolutely  trust  "to  the  new 
sprouts  that  are  only  bearing  shoots. 

In  August,  when  (he  fruk  begins  to  ripen, 
break  oft'  such  shoots  as  you  lind  too  tiiick  ; 
and  if  you  perceive  any  plant  bleed,  rub 
some  ashes  on  it ;  or,  if  that  will  not  do,  sear 
it  with  a  hot  iron.  When,  upon  stirring  your 
vineyard,  it  appears  to  be  poor,  pruiie'  (he 
vines  as  before  direc(ed ;  and  spread  good 
dung,  mixed  with  lime,  over  the  wliole 
ground,  letting  it  lie  all  the  winter  to  wash 
into  the  earth,  mixing  about  ten  bushels  of 
lime  with  a  load  of  dung ;  and  if  some  ashes 
and  soot  are  likewise  thrown  on,  it  will  do 
well.  T^irn  in  this  manure  about  I'ebruary, 
with  a  slight  digging,  but  not  too  deep,  which 
should  be  done  in  a  dry  season,  and  not  in 
wet  weather,  lest  it  should  niuke  the  ground 
bind  too  much,  and  occasion  the  growth  of 
rank  weeds. 

VIOL,  a  stringed  instrument  resembling 
in  shape  and  tone  the  violin,  of  which  it  was 
(he  origin  ;  tliat  impressive  and  commanding 
instrument  being  little  more  than  an  improve- 
ment of  the  old  viol.  This  instrument  former- 
ly consisted  of  live  or  six  strings,  the  tones  of 
wliich  were  regulated  by  their  being  brouprht 
by  the  fingers  into  contact  with  the  frets  w  ith 
which  the  ni'ck  was  furnished.  The  viol  was 
for  a  long  while  in  such  high  esteem  as  to 
dispute  the  pre-eminence  with  the  harp,  espe- 
cially in  the  early  times  of  music  in  France  ; 
and,  indeed,  being  reduced  to  four  strings, 
and  stript  of  the  frets  with  which  viols  of  all 
kinds  seem  (o  have  been  furnished  till  (he  six- 
teenth century,  it  s(ill  holds  (he  first  place 
among  treble  instruments,  under  the  deno- 
mination of  violin. 
\10LA,  a  tenor  vioUu.    This  instrument 


V  I  O 

is  similar  in  its  tone  and  formation  to  (1  « 
violin ;    but    its    dimensions   are   somcwii.  ■ 
greater,  and  its  compass  a  fifth  lower  in  (! 
grea(  scale  of  sounds.     I(s  lowest  note  is  ' 
on  the  fourth  space  in  (he  bass.    The  part 
takes  in  concert  is  between  that  of  the  ba 
and  the  second  violin. 

Viola,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class  syii 
genesia,  order  monogynia ;    in  the  natin:! 
syslem  arranged  under  (he  29lh  order,  ran 
panaceae.     The  calyx  is  pentai)hyllous  ;   (i: 
corolla  live-pe(alled,  irregular,  wi(h  a  necl; 
rium   behind,   horn-shaped;    the  capsule   i, 
above  the  germen,  three-valved,  monolocuhir. 
There  are  43  species,  six  of  which  are  na(iv( 
yf  Britain.    The  most  important  of  these  an 

1.  'ihe  palustris,  marsh  violet.  Iheleavu 
are  smooth,  reniform,  two  or  three  on  each 
footstalk  ;  flowers  palebkie,  small,  inodorous. 
An  infusion  of  the  flowers  is  an  excellent  test 
of  the  presence  of  acids  and  alkalies. 

2.  'Ihe  odorata,  purple  sweet  violet,  has 
leaves  heart-shaped,  notched  ;  flowers  deep 
purple,  sinirle;  creeping  scions.  The  flowers 
of  this  plant  taken  in  the  quantity  of  a  dram 
or  two,  are  said  to  be  gently  purgative  or 
laxative,  and,  according  to  Bergius  and  some 
others,  they  possess  an  anodyne  and  pectoral 
quality.  T  here  is  a  variety  with  wJiite  flowers. 

3.  Tricolor,  pansies,  heart's-ease,  or  three 
faces  under  a  hood.  The  stems  are  diffuse, 
procumbent,  triangular ;  the  leaves  oblontr. 
cut  at  the  edges ;  stipula."  dentated ;  t|- 
flowers  purple,  yellow,  and  light  blue,  ii.- 
odorous.  This  elegant  little  plant  merits 
culture  in  every  garden,  for  the  beauty  and 
great  variety  of  its  three-coloured  flowers  ; 
and  it  will  succeed  any  where  in  the  open 
borders,  brother  compartments,  dispo-^ed  in 
patches  towards  the  front,  either  by  sov.ing 
the  seed  at  once  (o  remain,  or  bj^  pudiug  in 
young  plants.  They  will  begin  flowering 
early  in  summer,  and  will  continue  shooting 
and  flowering  in  succession  till  w  inter ;  and 
even  during  part  of  (ha(  season  in  nflid  wea» 
(her.  The  common  violet  is  propagated  by 
parting  the  roots,  sometimes  by  seed. 

VIOFjIN,  or  Fiddle,  a  well-known  string- 
ed instrument  of  brilliant  tone  and  active 
execution.  When,  or  by  what  nation,  this 
important  and  uiteresting  instrument  was 
first  invented,  is  not  at  present  known  ;  nor 
can  the  form  and  character  of  the  violin  used 
in  England  in  (he  time  of  Chaucer,  who  men- 
tions it,  be  exactly  ascertained.  There  is, 
however,  much  reason  for  supposing  that 
from  its  first  introduction  it  underwent  con- 
tinual alterations  and  improvements,  since 
even  towards  (he  end  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury its  shape  appears  (o  have  been  vague 
ami  ujidetermined.  It  has,  liowever,  long 
attai[ied  its  present  excellence,  and  formed 
(he  leading  instrument  in  concert.  The  four 
strings  of  which  it  copsists,  are  tuned  iu  fifths 
from  eac  h  other.  The  pitch  of  the  lowest 
string  is  G,  under  the  second  ledger  line  in 
the  treble  stave ;  consequently  that  of  the 
next  is  D,  under  the  first  line  of  the  stave ; 
the  pitch  of  the  next  above  that,  A  on  the  sfi'^ 
cond  spacv;  and  that  of  the  upper  string,  E 
on  the  fourth  space.  During  the  Protector- 
ship the  violin  was  in  little  esteem,  and  gave 
way  to  (he  rising  prevalence  of  the  viol ;  hut 
at  "the  Restoration,  viols  began  to  be  out 
of  fashion,  and  violins  resumed  (heir_  for- 
mer conseiiuence.  The  anticpiity  ot  this  in- 
struiueut  lias  long  been  a  subject  of  dispute 


V  I  T 

witli  tlifi  Iparncil.  It  is  gonwally  siipjKiiid, 
and  with  iinich  reason,  that  no' iiislniini-nt 
|)la_vi;J  with  the  bow  was  known  to  the  an- 
tienls. 

\'IOLONC'ELLO,  a  bass  viol,  containing 
fonrsti-ings,  tiie  lowest  of  which  is  tnned  to 
donbU;  C.  The  slriinjs  ai'f  in  fifths,  consc;- 
<]iientl_v  the  pilch  of  tliat  next  tlie  gravest  is 
G  ganiut ;  that  of  the  next,  D  on  the  third 
iiiu-  in  liie  bass ;  and  that  of  the  upper  string, 
A  on  the  fiftli  line. 

'i'he  violoncello  was  called  the  violono  till 
the  introdnction  of  the  double-bass,  which 
assumed  that  name. 

A'll'I'lH.     See  Coluber. 

N'lKCIil'A,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  pen- 
tandria  monogynia  class  and  order.  The 
calyx  is  five-notched;  corolla  funnel-fonii ; 
stigma  two-parted;  capsule  one-celled,  nian\- 
seeded.  There  are  two  species,  annuals  of 
Guiana. 

^'ll^GO,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the  signs  or 
constellations  of  the  zodiac,  and  the  sixtli  ac- 
cording to  order. 

MliCERA.     See  Anatomy. 

VISC'UM,  a  genus  of  pl.uits  of  the  class 
tlicecia,  order  tetrandria,  and  in  the  natural 
system  arranged  luider  the  48th  order,  ag- 
gregatac.  The  male  calyx  is  quadripartite ; 
the  antiierse  adhere  to  the  calyx  ;  the  female 
calyx  consists  of  four  leaves;  there  is  no 
style;  the  stigma  is  obtuse  ;  there  is  no  co- 
rolla; the  fruit  is  a  berry  with  one  seed. 
There  are  12  species,  only  one  of  whicli  is  a 
native  of  Britair),  viz.  the  album,  or  common 
Biisseltoe.  It  is  a  slirub  growing  on  the  bark 
of  several  trees.  Tlie  leaves  are  conjugate 
and  elliptical ;  tlie  stem  forked;  the  flowers 
whitish  in  tlie  al;e  ul  the  leaves.  'I'his  plant 
was  leckoned  sacred  among  the  druids. 

VISION.     See  Optics. 

VISITATION,  in  law,  an  act  of  juris- 
diction whereby  a  superior,  or  proper  oliicer, 
visits  some  corporation,  college,  church,  or 
ether  public  or  private  house,  to  see  that 
the  laws  and  regulations  thereof  are  duly  ob- 
served. 

Among  us,  visitation  is  that  oflice  per- 
formed- by  the  bishop  in  every  diocese  once 
in  three  years,  or  by  the  archdeacon  every 
year,  by  visiting  the  churclies  and  their 
rectors  throughout  the  whole  diocese,  &c. 
The  bishop's  commissary  also  holds  a  court 
of  visitation,  to  which  he  may  cite  all  church- 
wardens and  sidesmen;  and  to  whom  he  ex- 
hibits his  articles,  and  makes  inquiry  by 
them. 

VISMEA,  a  genus  of  the  dodecaiidria 
trigynia  class  and  ord(;r  of  plants.  The  calyx 
is  live-leaved,  inferior;  the  corolla  live-pe- 
talled  ;  stigmas  live ;  nect.  two  or  three- 
celled.  There  is  one  species,  a  native  of  the 
Canaries. 

VITEX,  the  chusle-tree,  a  genus  of  the 
didynamia  augiospeniiia  class  oi  plants,  with 
a  luonopetalous,  ringent,  and  bilabiated 
flower,  each  lip  of  which  is  trilid  ;  the  fruit  is 
a  (juadrilocular,  globose  berry,  containing 
four  seeds.     There  are  14  species. 

ViriS,  a  genus  of  the  class  pentandria, 
and  order  nionogvnia;  and  in  the  natural 
system  arranged  under  the  4fith  order,  pec- 
toraceie.  The  petals  cohere  at  the  top,  and 
are  withered;  the  fruit  is  a  berry  with  five 
seeds.  There  are  12  species;  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  the  viiiifera,  or  conimoi) 

Vol.  II. 


\'  I  T 

vine,  whiih  lias  naked,  lobed,  sinuateil  leaven. 
'I'here  are  a  great  many  varieties  ;  but  a  re- 
cital of  their  names  would  be  tiresome  with- 
out being  useful.  All!  he  sorts  are  propagated 
either  from  la\ers  or  cuttings  ;  the  former  of 
whidi  methods  is  greatly  practised  in  Eng- 
land, but  the  latter  IS  mucli  preferabJP. 

Ill  choosing  the  cuttings,  you  should  always 
take  such  shoots  of  the  last  year's  growth  as 
are  strong  and  well  rijieiied  ;  these  should  be 
cut  from  the  old  vine,  just  below  the  place 
where  they  were  produced,  taking  a  knot  or 
piece  of  the  two  vears'  wood  to  i-acli,  which 
shoukl  be  pruned  smooth  ;  then  you  should 
cut  off  the  ujjper  part  ol  the  shoots,  so  as  to 
leave  the  cutting  about  If)  inches  long.  When 
the  piece  or  knot  of  old  wood  is  cut  at  b'oth 
ends,  near  the  young  shoot,  the  cutting  will 
resemble  a  little  mallet;  whence  Columella 
gives  the  title  ofmalleolusto  the  vine-cuttings. 
In  making  the  cuttings  after  this  manner, 
there  can  be  but  one  taken  from  each  shoot ; 
but  most  persons  cut  them  into  lengths  of 
about  a  foot,  and  plant  them  all. 

W'iieii  tlic  cuttings  are  thus  prejiared.  if 
they  are  not  then  planti'd,  the)  :,hoidd  be 
placed  with  their  lower  jiart  in  the  !!roun<l  in 
a  dry  soil,  laying  some  litter  upon  their  upper 
parts  to  prevent  them  from  drying.  In  this 
situation  they  may  remain  till  the  beginning 
of  April  (which  is 'the  best  time  for  planting 
them)  ;  when  you  should  take  them  out,  and 
wash  them  from  the  lilth  they  have  contract- 
ed ;  and  if  you  lind  them  very  dry,  you 
should  Ic't  them  stand  uilh  their  loue'r  parts 
ill  the  water  six  or  eight  hours,  which  will  dis- 
tend their  vessels,  and  dispose  them  for  taking 
root.  If  the  ground  is  strong  and  inclined  to 
wet,  you  should  open  a  trench  where  the 
cuttings  are  to  be  planted,  which  should  be 
lilled  with  lime-rubbisli,  the  better  to  drain 
off  the  moisture  ;  then  raisi:  the  borders  with 
fresh  light  earth  about  two  feet  thick,  so  that 
it  may  he  at  least  a  foot  above  the  level  of  the 
ground  ;  then  you  slioiild  open  the  holes  at 
about  six  feet  distance  from  each  other,  put- 
ting one  good  strong  cutting  into  each  hole, 
wliicli  should  be  laid  a  little  sloping,  that  their 
tojis  may  incline  to  the  wall  ;  but  it  must  be 
put  in  so  deep,  that  the  uppermost  eye  may 
be  |i:vel  with  the  surface  ol  the  ground  ;  for 
when  any  part  of  the  cutting  is  left  above 
ground,  most  of  the  buds  attempt  to  shoot, 
so  that  the  strength  of  the  cuttings  is  divided 
to  nourish  so  many  shoot';,  which  must  con- 
sequently be  weaker  than  if  only  one  of  them 
grew;  whereas,  by  burving  the  whole  cut- 
ting in  tlie  ground,  the  sap  is  all  employed 
on  one  single  shoot,  which  consequcntlv  will 
be  much  stronger ;  besides,  the  sun  and  air 
are  apt  to  dry  that  part  of  the  cutting  which 
reir.ains  above  ground,  and  so  often  prevent 
the  buds  from  shooting. 

Having  placed  the  cutting  in  the  ground, 
fill  up  the  hole  gently,  pressing  down  the 
earth  with  your  toot  close  about  it,  and  raise 
a  little  hill  just  upon  the  top  of  the  cutting,  to 
(Over  the  upper  e_\e  quite  over,  which  will 
prevent  it  irom  drying.  Nothing  more  is 
necessary  than  to  keep  the  ground  clear  from 
weeds  until  the  cuttings  begin  to  shoot  ;  at 
which  time  you  should  look  over  them  care- 
fully, to  rub  olT  any  small  shoots,  if  such  are 
produced,  fastening  the  liist  main  shoot  to 
the  wall,  which  should  be  constantly  trained 
up,  as  it  is  extended  in  length,  to  prevent  its 
breaking  or  hanging  down.  You  must  eon- 
5  Q 


V  IT. 


857 


linue  to  look  over  these  once  in  about  three 
weeks  during  the  summer  season,  constantly 
rubbing  off  all  lateral  shoots  which  are  pro- 
duced ;  and  be  sure  to  keep  the  ground  clear 
from  V  eeds,  which,  if  sullered  to  grow,  will 
exhaust  the  goodness  of  the  soil,  and  starve 
the  cuttings.  'I"lie  Michaelmas  following,  if 
your  cuttings  have  pioduccd  strong  shoots, 
you  should  prune  llieiii  down  to  two  eyes.  In 
the  spring,  after  the  cold  w  ealher  is  past,  you 
must  gently  dig  up  tlie  borders  to  loojen'the 
earth;  but  jou  must  be  very  careful,  ii'i 
doing  this,  iiot  to  injure  the  roots  ol  your 
vines  ;  you  should  also  raise  tlie  earth  up  lo 
till.-  stems  of  the  plants,  so  as  to  cover  the  old 
wood  but  not  so  deep  as  to  cover  either  of 
the  eyes  of  the  last  year's  wood.  After  this 
they  will  require  no  farther  care  until  they, 
begin  lo  shoot ;  when  you  should  rub  off  all 
weak  dangling  shoous,  leaving  no  rnore  than 
the  two  produced  from  the  two  eyes  of  the 
last  year's  wood,  which  should  be  fastened  to 
the  wall.  From  this  time  till  the  vine's  have 
done  shooting,  you  should  look  them  over 
once  in  three  weeks  or  a  month,  to  rub  olVall 
lateral  shoots  a.s  they  are  produced,  and  to 
fasten  the  main  shoots  to  the  wall  as  they  are 
extended  in  length;  about  the  middle  or 
latter  end  of  July,  it  will  be  proper  to  nip  olf 
the  tops  of  these  two  shoots,  which  will 
strengthen  tlie  lower  eyes.  During  the  sum- 
mer season  you  must  constantly  keep  the 
ground  clear  from  weeds,  nor  should  you  per- 
mit any  sort  of  jilants  to  grow  near  the  vines, 
which  would  not  only  rob  thein  of  nourish- 
ment, but  shade  the  lower  parts  of  the  shoots, 
and  jirevent  their  ripening,  which  will  not 
only  cause  their  wood  to  be  spongy  and  luxu- 
riant, but  render  it  lessfruitlul. 

As  soon  as  the  leaves  begin  to  drop  ia 
autumn,  you  should  prune  these  young  vines 
again,  leaving  three  buds  to  each  of  the 
shoots,  provided  they  are  strong,  otherwise 
it  is  better  to  shorten  t'hem  down  to  two  eyes, 
if  they  are  good  ;  for  it  is  a  wvy  wrrjng  prac- 
tice to  leave  much  wood  upon  \oung  vines, 
or  to  leave  their  shoots  too  long,  which  great- 
ly w  eakens  the  roots  ;  then  you  should  lasten 
them  to  the  wall,  spreading  them  out  hori- 
zontal each  way,  that  there  may  be  room  to 
train  the  new  shoots  the  following  summer, 
andin  the  spring  the  bordersmuit  be  digged 
as  before. 

'llie  uses  of  the  fruit  of  the  vine  for  making 
wine,  &c.  are  w ell  known.  The  vine  was  in- 
troduced by  the  Eomans  into  Britain,  and 
appears  formerly  to  have  been  very  common. 
From  the  name  of  vine_\ard  yet  adhering  to 
the  ruinous  sites  of  our'  castles  and  monas- 
teries, there  seem  to  have  been  few  in  th« 
country  but  what  had  a  vineyard  belonging 
to  them.  The  county  ol  Gloucester  is  par- 
ticulariy  commended  by  Malmsbury,  in  the 
twelfth  century,  as  excelling  all  the  rest  ot 
the  kingdom  in  the  number  and  goodness  of 
its  vineyards.  In  the  eariier  periods  of  our 
history,  the  isle  of  Ely  was  expressly  deno- 
minated the  Isle  of  ^■ines  by  the  Normans. 
\'ineyards  are  frequently  noticed  in  the  de- 
scrmtive  accounts  of  doomsday ;  and  those 
of  England  are  even  mentioned  bv  Hede,  as 
early  as  the  commencement  of  the  eighth 
century. 

Doomsday  exhibits  to  us  a  particular  proof 
that  wine  was  made  in  England  during  the 
period  preceding  the  Conquest ;  and  after  the 
Conquest,  the  biibop  of  Ely  appears  to  have 


55S 


V  I  T 


rccpiroil  at  Uart  three  or  four  tiTis  of  w'.ne 
inminllv  as  tithes,  from  the  |)rotUice  oi  tlie 
viiioyaifls  in  his  dioi  cse,  aiul  to  h:ive  niailf 
freri'jent  reservations  in  liis  leases  of  a  cer- 
tain ijiiaiititv  oi'wiiio  for  rent.  plot  oi  land 
in  Lon;',on,"  which  now  forms  East  Smithliold 
and  some  adjoining  streets,  was  witlilieid 
from  the  religions  house  within  A'.d^ate  by 
four  s«ece-.rive  con'^tabies  of  the  Tower,  in 
the  reigns  of  Rufiis,  Menn-,  and  Ste[>hen, 
and  made  by  them  into  a  vineyard,  which 
yielded  great  einohiracnt.  In  tlie  old  ac- 
counts of  rectorial  and  vicarial  revennjes,  ami 
in  the  old  registers  of  eccl -'siastical  suits  con- 
cerning tlieni,  the  titlie  of  wine  is  an  article 
that  ti-e-.iuently  occurs  in  Kent,  l5u;Ty,  and 
other  counties.  And  the  w^nes  of  Gloucester- 
shire, Nvithin  a  century  after  tiie  Conquest, 
were  little  inferior  to  the  French  in  sweet- 
ness. Thj  beautiful  region  of  Gaul,  which 
had  not  a  single  vine  in  the  days  of  Ca;sar, 
had  numbers  so  early  as  the  time  of  Slrabo. 
The  south  of  it  was  particularly  stocked  w  ith 
tliem  ;  and  they  had  even  extended  them- 
selves into  the  interior  parts  of  the  country  ; 
but  the  grapes  of  the  latter  did  not  ripen 
kindly.  France  was  famous  for  its  vineyards 
in  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  and  even  exported 
its  wines  to  Italy.  The  whole  province  of 
Narbonne  was  then  covered  with  vines;  and 
the  wine- merchants  of  the  country  were  re- 
narkable  for  khavisli  dexterity,  tinging  it 
with  smoke,  colouring  it  (as  was  suspected) 
with  herbs  and  noxious  dyes,  and  even  adul- 
terating the  ta^te  and  appearance  with  aloes. 
And  as  our  first  vines  would  be  transplanted 
from  Gaul,  so  were  in  all  probability  those 
of  the  Allobrogijs  in  Franche-coinpt6.  These 
were  peculiarly  fitted  for  cold  countries. 
They  rijjened  even  in  tie  frosts  of  the  ad- 
vancing winter  ;  and  they  were  of  the  same 
colour,  and  s: -em  to  have  been  of  the  same 
species,  as  the  black  muscadines  of  the  pre- 
sent day,  wh'ch  have  lately^  been  tried  in  this 
island,  and  found  to  be  fittest  for  the  climate. 
These  were  pretty  certainly  brought  into 
Britain  a  little  after  the  vines  had  been  carried 
over  all  the  kingdoms  of  Gaul,  and  about  the 
middle  of  the  third  century,  when  the  nume- 
rous plantations  had  gradually  spread  over 
the  face'  of  the  latter,  and  must  naturally 
have  contributed  to  their  progress  into  the 
former. 

The  Romans,  even  nearly  to  the  days  of  Lu- 
culhis,  were  very  seUlom  able  to  regale  them- 
selves with  wine.  Very  little  was  then  raised  in 
the  compass  of  Italv  ;  and  the  foreign  wines 
were  so  dear,  that  they  were  rarely  produced  at 
an  entertainment ;  and  when  they  were,  each 
guest  was  indulged  only  with  a  single  draught. 
But  in  tlie  seventii  century  of  Rome,  as  tlieir 
conquests  augmented  the  degree  of  their 
wealth,  and  enlarged  the  sphere  of  tlndr 
luxury,  wines  became  the  object  of  particular 
attention.  Many  vaults  were  constructed, 
.  a'ld  good  stocks  of  liquor  were  deposited  in 
them  ;  and  this  naturally  gave  encouragc- 
nient  to  the  wines  of  the  country.  The 
Falernian  rose  imtnediatelyinto  great  repute  ; 
and  a  variety  of  others,  that  of  Florence 
among  tlie  rest,  succeeded  it  about  the  close 
of  the  ci-ntury;  and  the  more  westerly  parts 
of  the  fCuropean  continent  were  at  once  .sub- 
jected to  the  arms,  and  enriched  with  the 
Tines,  of  Italy.  See  Vineyard,  and  Win  12. 
VIT.MAN'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
sltiss  and  order  octandria  inonogyiiia.    The 


V  1  T 

calyx  is  four-cleft;  corolla  four  pelalk'd ; 
nect.  a  scale  of  the  base  C/f  e.,<  ii  liiament ; 
nut  semilunar,  one- eeded.  '1  here  is  one 
species,  a  tree  of  the  Ea->t  Indies. 

\ITKE(.)L'S  hianour  rf  the  eye.  See' 
Optics. 

VITRIOL,  marliul,  or  sulpkat  of  iron. 
This  salt  was  known  to  the  antitnts,  and  is 
mentioned  by  I'lmy  und.r  the  names  of  misy, 
sorv,  and  calchantuui.  In  commerce  it  is 
usiidly  denominated  green  vitrio:  or  cop- 
peras. It  is  not  prepared  by  dissolving  iron 
in  sulphuric  acid,  but  by  moistening  the  |)\- 
rites  wdiich  are  found  native  in  abundance, 
and  exposing  them  to  the  open  air.  They 
are  slov^ly  covered  with  a  crust  oi  sulphat  of 
iron,  which  is  dissolved  in  water,  and  after- 
wards obtained  in  crystals  by  evaporation. 
Sometimes  the  salt  is  found  reaily-formed, 
either  in  a  stale  of  solution  in  water,  or  mixed 
with  decaved  pyritef.  In  some  cases  it  is 
found  necessary' to  loast  the  pyrites  before 
thev  can  be  made  to  undergo  sponlaneous 
decomp05ition.  This  is  most  piohably  owing 
to  the  compact  state  of  the  pyrites  in  these 
cases,  and  tlie  absence  of  all  uncombined  iron. 
Pvrites  is  in  fact  a  supersulpluiret  of  iron. 
The  roasting  reduces  it  to  the  state  of  a  »ul- 
pliuret,  which  decomposes  very  readily. 

Sulphat  of  iron  has  a  Wne  green  colour.  Its 
crystals  are  transparent  rhomboidal  prisms, 
the  faces  of  which  are  rhombs  with  angles  of 
79°  50'  and  lbi)°  10',  inclined  to  each  other 
at  angles  of  98"  37'  and  8  1°  23'.  It  has  a 
verv  strong  styptic  taste,  and  always  reddens 
vegetable  blues,  its  specific  gravity  is  1.8399. 
It  is  soluble  in  about  two  parts  of  cold  water, 
and  in  jths  of  its  weight  of  boiling  water.  It 
is  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

Vitriol,  blue,  or  sulphat  of  copper.  Sul- 
phuric acid  does  not  attack  copper  while  cold, 
but  at  a  boiling  heat  part  of  the  acid  is  de- 
composed, the  copper  is  oxidized,  and  com- 
bines with  the  remainder  of  the  acid.  But 
recourse  is  seldom  had  to  this  process,  as  the 
sulphat  of  copper  is  found  native  abundantly, 
dissolved  in  mineral  waters  connected  with 
copper-mines.  From  the«'  waters  it  is  often 
obtained  by  evaporation ;  or  it  is  formed  by 
burning  native  sulphuret  of  copper,  or  by 
moistening  that  substance,  and  exposing  it  to 
the  air.  Bv  either  of  these  methods  the  sul- 
phur is  acidified,  and  the  sulphat  of  copper 
formed.  This  salt  appears  to  have  been 
known  to  the  antients.  In  commerce  it  is 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  blue  vitriol, 
and  sometimes  by  that  of  blue  copperas.  It 
is,  in  fact,  an  oxvsulphat.  Tliere  are  two 
varieties  of  this  salt  known,  namely,  super- 
sulphat,  and  subsulphat. 

ViTttiOL,  ziliile,  or  sulphat  of  zinc.  This 
salt,  according  to  the  best  accounts,  was  dis- 
covered at  Rammelsberg  in  (lermany  about 
the  middle  of  the  l6th  century.  Many  as- 
cribe the  invention  to  Julius  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick. Henkel  and  Newmaim  were  the  first 
chemists  who  proved  that  it  contained  zinc  ; 
and  Biandt  first  ascertained  its  composition 
completely.  It  is  generallv  formed  for  com- 
mercial purposes  from  sulpluireted  zinc  ;  or 
blende,  as  it  is  called  by  mineralogists.  This 
ore  is  roasted,  whi(  h  converts  the  sulphur 
into  an  acid ;  it  is  then  dissolved  in  water, 
and  concentrated  so  much,  that  on  cooling  it 
crystallizes  very  rapidly,  and  forms  a  mass 
not  unlike   loaf-sugar.    This  salt  is  usually 


V  I  V 

culled  white  viliiul.     It  is  ahnost  aV.vay?  eon- 
tamiiii.ti'd  with  iion,  and   oiten  with   cojjpur 
and  lejd.     Hence  the  yellovv  spots  whicli  are 
visible  on  it,  and   hence  also  the  reason  th.it 
its  solution  in  water  Ids  fall  a  dirly-browii  se- 
diment;   a  circumstance   very    much    com- 
plained of"  by  surgeons  when   they   use  that 
I  solution  in  medicine.     It  may  be  easily  puri- 
fied by   dissolving  it   in   w.jti'r,  and  putting 
I  into  the   solution  a   quantity  of  zinc-tJii.gs;. 
I  taking  care  to  agitate  it  occasionally.     '1  he 
;  zinc  precipitates   foreign   metals,  and   takes 
I  tlitir  place.     'I'he  solution  is  then  to  be  fi.ter- 
I  ed,  and  the  sulphat  of  zinc  may  be  obtained 
I  from  it  in  crystals  by  proper  evaporation. 
I      We   have    inserted   these    three    article; 
I  umler  the  vulgar  names  in   compliance  with 
,  common  prejudice.   They  are,  however,  no- 
I  ticed  under  their  proper  Leads,  und  we  trust 
'  tlie  advancement  of  cliemical  knowledge  will 
1  shortly  banish  these  barbarous  terms. 
i     VlTUS's  D.iNCE.     See  Medicine. 
I      \  IVF,KR.\.,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the 
1  order  oi  feix.     The  generic  character  is,  cut- 
;  thig-teeth  six,  sharpish  ;  canine  teeth  longer  ; 
:  tongue  in  some  smooth,  in  others  aculeated 
j  backwards;  bod  v  of  a  lengthened  form,  'i'his 
I  genus  comprehends  all    the   animals  of  the 
I  weesel  kind,  which  seem  to  be  somewhat  un- 
necessarily separated   by   Linnivus  into  two 
distinct  genera,  under  the  titles  viverra  and. 
mustela  ;  in  which  latter  genus  the  otters  are 
also   included.     In   this  particular   Mr.  Ben'- 
nant  seems  to  have  acted  more  judiciously 
than  Liiin;eus.     We  shall  therefore  follow  liis 
example,  and   unite  the  two  genera,  preserv- 
ing the  otters  distinct  under  the  term  Musr 
TELA,  which  see. 

The  general  character  of  the  weesel  tribe 
(of  which  there  are  about  31  species)  is,  a 
certain  slenderness  and  length  of  body  ;  with 
a  sharpened  visage,  short  legs,  and,  in  most 
species,  a  longish  tail  (though  in  some  few  it 
is  short). 

1.  Viverra  ichneumon.  The  ichneumon  is 
a  species  of  which  tliere  seem  to  be  two  dis- 
tinct varieties ;  one  of  which  is  a  native  of 
India,  and  the  other  of  Africa.  Eotli  agree  in 
their  general  appearance,  but  the  Egyptiant 
variety  is  considerably  larger  than  the  Indian, 
measuring  m'!)re  than  forty  inches  from  the 
nose  to  the  end  of  the  tail  ;  whereas  the  In- 
dian ichneumon  scarcely  exceeds  two-thirds 
of  this  length.  Exclusive  of  size  alone,  the 
Egyptian  ichneumon  is  distinguished  by  hav- 
ing the  tail  slightly  tufted  at  the  end,  which 
the  other  has  not;  and  from  this  circumstance' 
it  is  placed,  in  the  Gmclinian  edition  of  the 
Systema  Naturie,  as  a  distinct  species.  The 
ichneumon  is  of  a  pale  reddish-grey  colour, 
each  hair  being  mottled  with  brown  or  dusky, 
so  that  the  whole  appears  speckle<l  in  the 
manner  of  the  hair  on  some  of  the  larger 
baboons.  The  eyes  are  of  a  bright  red  or 
ilame-colciur  ;  the  ears  rounded,  and  almost 
naked  ;  the  nose  long  and  slender;  the  body 
rather  thicker  than  in  most  of  this  genus  ;  and 
the  tail  is  very  thick  at  the  base,  and  thence 
gradually  tapers  almost  to  a  point  ;  the  legs 
are  short ;  the  hair  on  the  wdiole  animal  is 
hard  and  coarse,  and  it  varies  somewhat  as  to 
the  depth  and  ca-t  of  its  colours  in  dillerent 
individuals.  In  India,  but  still  more  in  Egypt, 
the  ichneumon  has  always  been  considered 
as  one  of  the  most  useful  and  estimable  of 
animals ;  since  it  is  an  inveterate  enemy  to 
serpents,  rats,  and  other  noxious  creaturas 


wllicli  infest  lliosr  regions.  In  Tiulia  it  at- 
tacks, witli  the  gi(-atest  eagerness  and  cou- 
rage, tliat  nio^il  (Ireadliil  replili:  (lie  tobra  de 
capelli),  or  liooded  snake,  and  easily  destroys 
it.  Il  also  diligently  seeks  for  the  eggs  of 
crocodiles;  (or  Mhichreason,  as  well  as  for 
its  general  usefulness  in  destroying  all  man- 
ner of  Iroublcsome  reptiles,  it  was  held  in 
SVK  h  a  high  degree  of  veneration  bv  the  an- 
tient  Kgvplians  as  to  beregaided  in' tin:  light 
of  a  minor  deity,  one  ol  those  benevolent 
beings  proceeding  from  the  parent  of  the  uni- 
verse. Kor  the  purposes  above  specilied  it 
is  still  domesticated  by  the  Indians  and  Egyp- 
tians, in  the  same  manner  as  the  eat  iafcu- 
rope ;  and  it  has  also  the  merit  of  being 
easily  tamed,  and  of  performing  all  the  ser- 
vices of  the  cat  with  a  still  greater  degree  of 
vigourand  alacrity.  When  in  pursuit  of  prey, 
it  sometimes  springs  suddenly  upon  it  with 
the  greatest  agility  ;  and  at  other  times  will 
glide  along  the  ground  like  a  serpent,  without 
raising  its  body,  till  it  arrives  at  a  proper 
<listaiice  for  its  intended  attack.  Like  many 
other  animals  of  this  tribe,  it  is  a  most  dan- 
gerous enemy  to  several  creatures  larger 
than  itself;  ovir  which  it  gains  a  ready  vic- 
tory, by  fastening  itself  upon  them,  and  suck- 
ing their  blood.  In  a  wild  state,  it  is  said 
princijially  to  fret|uent  the  banks  of  rivers ; 
and  ill  times  of  (loud  to  ap|)roach  the  higher 
grounds  and  inhabited  places,  in  tiuest  of 
prey.  It  is  reported  to  swim  and  dive  occa- 
sionally, in  the  manner  of  the  otter,  and  to 
foiitinue  beneath  the  w  ater  for  a  great  length 
of  time. 

The  ichneumon  is  found  not  oidy  in  various 
parts  of  India,  but  in  the  In<liaii  islands,  as 
Cevluii  and  others.  It  also  occurs  in  many 
parts  of  Alri<a  besides  Egypt,  as  iu  IJarbary, 
and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  S:c.  As  it 
is  a  native  ef  warm  countries,  it  is  of  course 
greatly  injured  by  a  removal  to  the  colder 
regions  of  Europe,  and  generally  falli  a  vic- 
tim to  the  alteration  of  climate.  See  Plate 
Kat.  Hist.  fig.  41 S. 

2.  ^'ivcna  surikaKa.  The  surikate  is  dis- 
tinguished by  a  long  sharp-pointed  nose,  de- 
pressed head,  and  inflated  cheeks;  the  upper 
jaw  is  much  longer  (han  the  lower,  and  on  its 
upper  part  is  black  ;  the  eyes  are  also  sur- 
rounded by  black ;  the  ears  are  small  and 
rounded ;  the  tongue  is  oblong,  blunt,  and 
aculeate<l  backwards;  the  length  of  the  ani- 
mal, exclusive  of  the  tail,  is  about  a  foot, 
and  of  the  tail  about  eight  inches  ;  the  legs 
are  short;  tiie  claws  on  the  forefeet  much 
exceed  in  length  those  of  the  hind  feet.  The 
general  colour  of  the  surikate  is  a  deep  grey  ; 
the  tail  is  subferruginous,  tipped  with  black. 
It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
where  it  is  called  m^rer-rat.  It  feeds  on  tlcsh, 
iand  preys  on  mice,  and  other  small  animals. 
It  commonly  sits  erect,  in  the  manner  of  a 
Sipiirrel;  and  when  jileased  in.ikes  a  rattling 
noise  with  its  tail,  for  which  reason  the  Dutch 
inhabitants  of  the  t'ape  call  il  klap|;er-maus. 
Il  is  also  found  in  the  is'and  of  Java,  where  it 
is  named  surikatje  by  the  Dutch,  on  account 
of  a  peculiarly  acid  scent,  w  liich  il  is  said  to 
emit.  It  is  an  animal  of  a  capricious  dispo- 
sition when  in  a  state  of  captivity.  In  having 
only  four  toes,  il  dilfers  from  most  of  this 
tribe. 

3.  Viverra  nasua.  The  size  of  this  animal 
js  at  least  ecpial  to  that  of  a  cat.     Us  general 


VIVERRA, 

colour  is  a  cinereous  brown,  or  asli-colour, 
with  a  cast  of  reddish  ;  ihe  tail,  which  is  ol 
very  considerable  length,  is  anmilaled  with 
distinct  circles  of  black  :  its  most  remarkable 
character  is  the  long,  tlexible  snout,  some- 
what tnmcaled  at  the  end.  li^-  the  assistance 
of  this  it  turns  up  Ihe  earth,  in  (he  manner  of 
a  hog,  in  (|ucst  of  earth-worms, /Lc.  Eike  the 
polecat,  it  also  jiruys  on  the  smaller  ipiadru- 
jjeds,  birds,  t'sic.  Il  is  a  native  of  Soiidi  Ame- 
rica, and  seems  lo  ha\ebecn  fir>t  described 
by  Marcgrave  in  his  History  of  Urasil.  There 
is  a  pariicularity  sometimes  obscrv.ible  in 
(his  animal,  which  seems  worthy  of  notice, 
viz.  a  kind  of  prolongation  of  the  skin  at  the 
hack  of  the  heel  into  several  horny  proc<  s->es, 
ofaboul  aquarler  of  an  inch  in  length:  these 
in  some  specimens  are  scarcely  visible.  Tlie 
(ongue  is  maiked  on  (he  ujiper  part  wiih  se- 
veral furrows,  so  disposed  as  to  resemble  the 
fibres  of  a  leaf. 

4.  Viverra  vulpecula.  Coasse.  This  animal 
is  about  the  size  of  the  polecal,  measuring  18 
inches  from  nose  (o  (ail  ;  (he  (ail  is  long  and 
lull  of  hair :  the  whole  animal  is  of  a  deep  or 
blackish  chocolate-colour,  but  the  tail  is  some- 
times mixed  with  white.  It  is  a  native  of 
Mexico  and  many  other  parts  of  America, 
and  possesses  the  power  of  emitting,  when 
attacked  or  irritated,  such  powerhilly  oll'en- 
sive  eliiuvia,  as,  in  most  instances,  ellectually 
to  discomlit  and  repel  its  pursuers. 

5.  Viverra  striata.  Striated  weesel.  Il  has 
been  imagined,  and  not  without  a  degree  of 
probability,  that  this  animal  is  the  female  of 
viverra  vulpecula,  or  coa.'=se.  It  is  of  the 
same  size  and  general  aspect,  but  is  dis(ii;- 
guished  by  live  parallel  longitudinal  white 
stripes  on  the  back;  the  t.iil  is  very  bushy  or 
full  of  hair.  In  the  ditferent  specimens  of 
this  animal  there  is  some  slight  variation  ob- 
servable in  the  proportion  of  the  dorsal 
stripes,  as  well  as  in  the  colour  of  the  lail, 
which  is  soin;  limes  marked  with  a  pair  of 
lateral  white  bauds,  and  sometimes  almost 
entirely  while.  I(s  manners  and  horrible  va 
l)our,  when  irri(ated,  perfectly  agree  with  the 
viverra  vulpecula;  and  the  same  description 
of  this  offensive  (pialily  may  be  applied  lo 
this  and  some  other  species.  If  the  accounts 
given  of  this  odious  vapour  are  not  aggra- 
vated by  the  abhorrent  recollection  of  those 
who  have  experienced  its  etfecls,  every  other 
ill  smell  which  nature  can  produce  is  sur- 
passed by  the  overpowering  fa'lor  of  (hesc 
extiaordinaiy  ([uadrupeds.  In  consec|uence 
of  tl-.e  dreadful  emanalioii,  the  <logs  are  said 
to  reliiK|uish  their  pursuit,  and  the  men  lolly 
with  precipitation  from  the  tainted  spot  ;  but 
if  unforlunalely  llie  least  particle  of  the  fluid 
which  the  animal  commonly  discharges  at 
tills  juncture,  should  happen  to  light  on  the 
clothes  of  the  hunter,  he  becomes  a  general 
nuisance  wherever  he  appears,  and  ii  obliged 
lo  divest  himself  of  his  dress,  and  practise  all 
the  arts  of  ablution,  in  order  lo  be  restored  lo 
the  society  of  mankind. 

To  add  to  the  history  of  these  strange  cir- 
cumslanees,  it  is  allirmed  that  the  animal  is 
sometimes  tamed,  and  rendered  donu-slic;  in 
which  slate  it  is  ])retended  that  it  never  emits 
its  pestilential  vapour,  unless  greatly  dis- 
pleased or  irritated:  if  (his  is  the  case,  it 
ought  surely  lo  be  trea(ed,  as  an  eminen( 
zoologist  has  well  observed,  with  th.e  highest 
altenlioB. 

5Q2 


659 

C.  'Viverra  capcnsis.  TheCaj-'ewpesel,  iione 
of  the  l.irger  animals  of  ilie  genus,  measuring 
two  fe(  I  from  nose  lo  tail,  which  is  eight 
inches  long.  Its  colour  is  a  cinereous  grey- 
above,  and  brownish  black  below  ;  (he  two 
colours  being  separated  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  animal,  from  (lie  base  of  the 
tail,  by  a  slrip.- of  blai  k  and  while;  thecals 
are  scarcely  visible  ;  (hetail  rather  thick  ;  the 
legs  short,  and  ihe  head  large  ;  the  snout 
shorl  and  somewhat  pointed;  the  body  sei  ms 
of  a  thicker  form  than  \i  usual  in  this  genus. 

This  animal,  when  pursued,  ejects  a  fetid 
liquid,  accompanied  by  a  smell  as  iiisiifferable 
as  that  of  some  of  the  American  weesels  or 
skunks,  and  productive  of  the  same  cliPcts. 

7.  \'iverra  civella.  Civet.  The  viverra 
civctia,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the 
civel-cat,  is  a  native  of  several  parts 'of  Africa 
and  India.  The  general  length  of  ihis  animal, 
from  nose  (o  tail,  is  somcdiing  more  (han  two 
feel,  and  (he  tail  measures  fourteen  inches. 
The  ground  colour  of  the  body  is  yellowish 
ash-grey,  marked  with  large  blackish,  or 
dusky  spots,  disjjosed  in  longitudinal  row  s  on 
each  side,  and  sometimes  a  tinge  of  ferru- 
gin(/iisa])pears  intermixed  ;  ihe  liair  is  coarse, 
and  along  the  lop  of  the  back  stands  up,  so  a» 
to  form  a  sort  of  mane  ;  the  iieatl  is  of  a 
lenglhened  or  shar])isli  form,  wilh  short 
rounded  ears;  the  eyc»  are  of  a  bright  sky- 
blue  ;  the  tip  of  the  nose  bl.,ck  ;  the  sides  of 
the  face,  chin,  breast,  legs,  and  feet,  are 
black;  the  remainder  of  the  face,  and  part 
of  the  sides  of  the  neck,  arc  of  a  yellowish 
white;  from  each  ear  are  three  black  s(ri]/ej, 
(erminadng  at  the  throat  and  shoulders  ;  the 
tail  is  generally  black,  but  sometimes  is  mark- 
ed with  pale  or  w  hitish  spots  on  each  side  the 
base.  It  is  an  animal  of  a  wild  disposition, 
and  lives  in  the  usual  manner  of  others  of  this 
genus,  ])reying  on  birds,  the  smaller  ciuadru- 
peds,  iSic.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  drug  called  civet  (sometimes  erro- 
neously confounded  with  musk).  This  sub- 
stance is  a  secretion  formed  in  a  large  double 
glandular  recejdacle,  situated  at  some  liKle 
distance  benealh  the  tail,  and  which  the  ani- 
mal empties  spontaneously.  When  the 
civet-cats  are  kept  in  a  stale-  of  confinement 
(as  is  usual  w  ith  the  perfumers  at  Amsterdam 
and  other  places),  they  are  placed,  from  time 
to  lime,  in  strong  wooden  cages  or  recep- 
tacles, so  constructed  as  to  prevent  (he  crea- 
(ure  from  turning  round  and  biting  tli.:  per- 
son employed  in  collecting  the  secreted 
substance;  this  operation  is  said  to  be  gene- 
rally performed  twice  a  week,  and  is  done  by 
scraping  out  (he  civet  wi(h  a  small  spatula, 
or  spoon.  This  sufstance  is  of  a  yellowish 
colour,  and  of  the  consistence  of  an  unguent; 
of  an  extremely  strong  and  even  unpleasant 
odour  when  fresh,  so  as  sometimes  (o  cause 
eiddiness  and  head-ai  he,  but  becomes  more 
agreeable  by  keeping :  the  quantity  obtained 
each  lime  amounts  lo  about  a  dram. 

Civet,  though  an  article  in  the  more  an- 
lient  materia  medica,  and  though  stU]  e^. 
ployed  by  the  Oriental  physicians,  is  wiih  us 
chiefly  used  ui  perfumes,  'it  has  a  very  fra- 
grant smell,  and  a  subacrid  taste ;  il  unites 
readily  wilh  oils,  both  expressed  and  di  tilled; 
in  watery  or  spirituous  menstrua  it  does  not 
dissolve,  but  impregnates  the  fluids  strongly 
with  its  odour.  It  may,  however,  be  made 
to  unite  wilh,  or  be  s'oluble  in,  water,  br 
meaiisof  rubbLnj  with  mucilages. 


60O 

8.  Viverra  zibetha.  Zil)et.  This,  which 
was  figured  as  a  variety  by  (.ie-^iicr,  ami  mure 
precisL-ly  discriminated  by  Bullbii,  seems  to 
he  considered  by  modeni  naturalists  as  a 
distinct  species.  'The  zibet  is  chiirfly  found 
tn  India  and  the  Indian  islantls.  Its  genrral 
aspect  is  tlie  same  with  the  former  species, 
but  its  snout  is  somewhat  sharper,  and  its  tad 
longer.  In  short,  this  species  may  be  called 
the  Indian,  and  the  former  the  African,  civet- 
cat.  In  disposition  and  manners  they  both 
seem  to  agree  ;  -as  well  as  in  tlie  secretion  ol 
the  perfume  before  described,  which  is  col- 
lected from  both  animals  in  the  same  manner. 

9.  Viverra  genetta.  The  genet  is  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  animals  of  this  genus.  It 
is  about  the  size  of  a  very  small  cat,  but  i--  of 
a  longer  form,  wiih  a  sharp-pointed  snout, 
upright  ears,  slightly  pointed,  and  very  long 
tail.  The  colour  of  the  genet  is  commonly 
a  pale-reddish  grey,  with  a  black  or  dusky' 
line  running  along  "the  back,  where  the  hair  is 
rather  longer  than  on  the  other  parts,  and 
forms  the  appearance  of  a  very  slight  mane  ; 
a!ong  the  sides  of  the  body  run  several  rows 
of  roundish  black  spots,  which  sometimes  in- 
clin "  a  little  to  a  squarish  form  ;  the  muzzle  is 
dusky  ;  beneath  each  eye  is  a  white  spot ;  the 
cheeks,  sides  of  the  neck,  and  the  limbs,  are 
spotted  in  a  propoilionally  smaller  pattern 
t'liaii  the  body,  and  tlie  ta.fis  annulated  with 
black. 

The  genet  is  an  animal  of  a  mild  disposi- 
tion, and  easily  tamed.  la  various  V'""ts  of 
the  East,  as  well  as  at  Constantinople,  it  is 
domesticated  like  die  c.it,  and  is  said  to  be 
'equal,  or  superior,  to  tliat  animal  in  clearnig 
bouses  from  rats  or  mice.  It  is  a  cleanly 
animal,  and  has  a  slight  musky  smell.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  western  parts  ol  .\sia,  but  is  said 
likewise  to  occur  in  Spain,  anci  even  occasion- 
ally in  some  parts  of  France. 

10.  Viverra  fossa.  The  fossane  appears  to 
be  so  nearly  allied  to  the  genet,  that  it  niiuht 
almost  pass"  for  a  variety  of  that  animal  This 
animal  is  a  native  of  Madagascar,  Guinea, 
Bengal,  Cochinchina,  and  the  Philippine 
islands.  It  is  said  to  be  possessed  of  consi- 
derable fierceness,  and  to  be  with  dilhculty 
tamed.  It  destroys  poultrv  in  the  manner 
of  the  common  weescl.  \Vhen  young,  it  is 
said  to  to  be  good  tood.  Its  size  is  that  of 
the  genet.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  419. 

1!.  Viverra  caudivolvida.  Prehensile  wce- 
sel.  This  animal,  having  a  prehensile  tail,  is 
nineteen  inches  in  length  from  the  nose  to 
the  tail,  which  is  seventi  en  inches  long.  The 
nose  is  short  and  dusky;  the  eyes  small ;  the 
'  ears  short,  broad,  and  fl.ipjjing,  and  placed  at 
a  great  distance  from  each  other ;  the  head 
flat  and  broad;  the  cheeks  swellitig  out ;  the 
tongue  very  long  ;  the  legs  and  thighs  short 
and  thick,  wiUi  five  toes  to  each  foot ;  claws 
large,  slightly  hooked,  and  flesh-coloured. 
Its"  colour  y'ellow,  shaded  with  dusky.  A 
blackish  or  dusky  list  runs  down  the  back 
from  head  to  tail,  and  a  similar  one  half  way 
flown  the  belly.  This  animal  is  of  gentle 
manniTS.  active  and  playful,  and  han.;s  by 
■  its  tail  occasionally,  in  the  manner  of  the 
prehensile-tailed  monkeys.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  a  native  of  Jamaica. 

12.  Viverra  foina.  The  inartcn  is  an  ani- 
mal of  a  highly  elegant  appearance.  Its 
general  length,  from  nose  to  tail,  is  about  a 
loot  and  u  half,  and  the  tail  is  ten  inches  long. 


VIVERRA. 

The  marten  is  of  a  blackish  tawisy  colour, 
with  a  while  throat;  and  the  belly  is  of  a 
dusky  brown  ;  the  tail  is  bushy,  or  full-  of 
hair,  and  oi  a  darker  colour  than  the  other 
parts;  the  cars  arc  moderately  large  and 
rounded,  and  the  eyes  lively.  This  annual 
is  a  native  of  most  parts  of  Europe ;  iuha- 
bitnig  woods  and  lields,  and  preyaig  on  birds 
and  other  small  aninuils.  If  taken  yomig,  it 
may  be  easily  tamed,  and  even  rendered  do- 
mestic. It  breetls  in  the  hollows  of  trees, 
and  brings  forth  from  three  to  live  young. 
The  skin  is  used  as  a  fur. 

13.  Viverra  zibellina.  The  sable  is  greatly 
allied  to  the  marten  in  its  appearance,  but  has 
a  longer  or  sharper  head,  and  more  length- 
ened ears.  Its  general  colour  is  a  dei  p 
glossy  brown ;  the  hair  benig  ash-coloured 
at  the  roots  ajul  black  at  the  tips  ;  the  chin 
is  cinereous,  and  the  edges  of  the  ears  yel- 
lowy ish.  Its  size  is  ecjual  to  that  of  the  mar- 
ten ;  but,  exclusive  of  other  dift'ercnces,  a 
principal  one  consists  in  the  tail,  which  is 
much  shorter  in  proportion  than  in  the  mar- 
ten. The  sable  is  an  inliabitant  of  the  north/rn 
parts  of  Asia,  and  is  an  extremely  impurtaut 
article  in  the  fur-trade.  It  principally  lives 
in  holes  under  ground,  especially  under  the 
roots  ot  trees,  and  sometimes,  like  the  mar- 
ten, forms  its  nest  in  the  hollows  of  trees.  It 
is  an  active,  lively  animal,  preying,  in  the 
manner  of  the  marten,  on  the  smaller  quadru- 
peds, birds,  &c.  Like  the  marten,  it  is  also 
most  lively  during  the  night,  and  sleeps  nuich 
by  day.  'In  autumn  the  sable  is  said  to  eat 
cranberries,  who;  ties,  &c.  It  brings  forth 
early  in  the  spring,  and  has  from  three  to  five 
youiig  at  a  time.  Tlie  chase  of  the  sable, 
according  to  Mr.  Pennant,  was,  during  the 
more  barbarous  periods  of  the  Russian  em- 
pire, the  principal  task  of  the  unhappy  exiles 
who  were  sent  into  Siberia,  and  \s  ho,  as  well 
as  the  soldiers  sent  there,  were  obliged  to 
furnish,  within  a  given  time,  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  furs ;  but  as  Siberia  is  now  become 
more  populous,  the  sable  have  iu  a  great  mea- 
sure quitted  it,  and  have  retired  farther  to  the 
north  and  east,  into  the  desert,  forests,  and 
mountains. 

Sables  are  numbered  among  the  most  va- 
luable of  furs.  From  an  abstract  drawn  up 
by  the  late  Dr.  Forster,  fi-om  .Midler's  ac- 
<()unt  of  its  commercial  history,  it  appears 
that  the  price  varies,  from  one  to  ten  pounds 
sterling  and  above.  The  blviekest,  and  those 
which  have  the  finest  bloom  or  gloss,  are  r<'- 
puted  the  best.  The  very  best  are  said  to 
come  from  the  environs  'of  Kertchisk  and 
Yakutsk,  and  iu  this  latter  district  the  country 
about  tlie  river  Ud  sometimes  alfords  sables 
of  which  a  single  fur  is  sold  at  the  rate  of 
sixty  or  seventy  rubles,  or  twelve  or  fourteen 
pounds  sterling".  Sometimes  the  furs  of  sables 
are  fraudulently  dyed,  and  otherwise  pre- 
pared, in  ordei- to 'give  them  a  more  intense 
colour,  but  these  are  very  inferior  to  the  line 
natural  ones,  and  are  distinguishable  by  a 
kind  of  withered  or  dull  appearance  of  the 
hair  itself  when  accurately  inspected. 

The  sable  occurs  in  North  America,  as 
well  as  in  Asia  ;  the  .American  sables  are  said 
to  be  chiefly  of  a  chesnut-colour,  and  more 
glossy,  but  coarser,  than  the  Siberian  sables. 
It  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  the  sable 
varies  in  its  cast  of  colour  at  different 
seasons  and  iu  different  districts ;  instances 


liave  been  known,  though  rarely,  of  Its  being 
found  periectly  white. 

14.  \  iverra  pulorius.  The  polecat'is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  European  sptcics  of 
the  weesel  tribe.  Its  colour  is  an  extremely 
deep  blackish-brown,  with  a  tawny  cast 
slightly  intermixed;  tlie  ears  are  edged  with 
wlnte,  and  the  space  round  the  muzzle  is  also 
whitish.  The  general  length  of  this  r.uimal 
is  seventeen  inches,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 
which  measures  about  six  inches.  The  pole-  ■ 
cat  is  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  as  well 
in  some  of  the  Asiatic  regions,  as  iu  Siberia, 
where  it  is  said  to  be  gem-rally  found  with  the 
rump  of  a  whitish  or  yellowish  tinge,  sur- 
'  rounded  with  biack. 

I      The  polecat  commonly  forms  itself  a  sub- 
I  terraneous    retreat,   sometimes  beneath   the 
:  roots   of  large  trees,   and  sometieies  under 
hay-ricks,  and  in  barns.     It  preys  indiscrimi- 
j  nately  on  the   smaller  animals,  and  is  very 
!  deslriictive  to  poultry:  it  is  also,  like  the  ferret, 
a  cruel  enemy  to  rabbits,  which  it  destroys 
bv  sucking   their  blood,   instead   of  tearing 
them   immediately  in  pieces.     It  steals  into 
barns,  pigeon- hou"ses,  &c.   where  it  occasion- 
ally   mates    great    havock ;  biting  off  the 
i  heads  of  fowls  and  pigeons,  and  then  carrying 
I  them  away  to  its  retreat ;  and  sometimes  it 
'  carries    oli'  the   heads  aume.      During    the 
summer,    however,    it  principilly   frequents 
I  rabbit-warrens,  or  the  hollow  trunks  of  trees, 
.  &c.  &c.  and  prowls  about  in  quest  of  young 
birds,  rats,    li<  Id-mice,   &c.      Accordi'ng   to 
the  count  de  iSiiftini,  a  single  family  ot  pole^ 
cats  is  suflicient  to  destroy  a  whole  warren  of 
■  rabbits;  and  he  observes",  that  this  would  be 
'.  a  simple  method  ot  dimini-luug  the  number 
of  rabbits  where  they  are  too  aiiundant.     In 
Spain  the  ferret  is  sa"id  to  have  been  formeriy 
introduced  for  a  similar  purpose.     The  pole- 
cat also  preys  occasionally  on  fish,  of  which  a 
1  curious  instance  is  recorded  in  Mr.  Eewick's 
I  History  of  Quadrupeds.     During  a  severe 
I  storm,  one  of  these  animals  was  tracked  in 
I  the  snow  from  the  side  of  a  rivulet  to  its  hole, 
at  some  distance  from  it ;  as  it  was  observed 
to  have  made  frequent  trips,  and  as  other 
marks  were  seen  in  the  snow,  which  could 
not  easily  be  accounted  for,  it  was  thought  a 
matter  worthx'  of  more  diligent  r.-nquiry  ;  its 
hole  was  accordingly  examined,  liie  animal 
taken,  and  eleven  fine  eels  were  discovered 
to  be  the  fruits  of  its  nocturnal  excursions  ; 
the  unusual  marks  in  the  snow  having  been 
made  by  llie  motion  of  the  eels  while  dragged 
along  in  the  animal's  mouth.     That  the  pole- 
cat, however,  sometimes  feeds  in  this  man- 
ner, is,  in  reality,  no  new  observation ;  since 
Aldrovandus  assures  us  that  it  will  oc<  asion- 
ally  take  up  its  residence  iu  the  hollow  banks 
of  rivulets,  in  order  to  lie  in  wait  for,  and 
p'rey  upon,    fi>h.     The  polecat  is  also   de- 
lighted with  milk,  and  will  visit  the  dairy,  in 
order  to  indulge  in  this  article.     It  has  been 
known  to  attack  bee-hives  in  the  winter  sea- 
son, ancl  to  feed  on  the  honey.     The  spring 
is  the  season  ill  which  it  breeds ;  the  female 
producing  three  or  four  at  a  birth,  which  she 
is  said  to  suckle  but  a  short  time,  accustom- 
ing them   eariy  to  suck  the  blood    of  the 
animals  which  "she  brings  to  them,  as  well  as 
eggs,  &c. 

'I'he  polecat  has  been  known  to  breed  with 
the  ferret ;  and  it  is  said  to  be  n  practice  with 
warreners,  who  keep  these  animals,  to  nro- 
curc  a  mi.xcd  breed  from  time  to  time,  which 


V  1  V 

arc  yf  a  colour  bPtweon  the  forret  aiul  the 
pole.,  at,  or  of  a  tlingy  yKllowisli-bi-cnvii. 

'J  lie  polecat  is  u  sti-ongaDil  ai  live  creature, 
and  will  >\ning  w  itii  great  vigour  and  celerity 
vhen  preparing  to  atta<  k  its  prey,  or  to  es- 
cape troiii  purMiit,  at  wliicli  time  it  arclies 
its  back  considerably,  in  order  to  assist  its 
effort.  It  is  of  a  sniell  proverbially  fetid, 
being  furnislied,  like  several' otiiers  of  the 
wecst-l  tribe,  with  ci'ttain  receptacles  which 
secrete  a  tnickish  lluid  ol  a  peculiarly  strong 
and  olfeusive  odour.  The  fur,  however,  is 
beautifui,  and  tlie  skin,  when  properlv  dress- 
ed, IS  nunibi-ri-d  among  tlie  coinmercial  furs, 
and  used  tor  ti^ipets  and  other  articles  ol 
dress.  It  is  addeil  by  Aldrovandus,  that  the 
fnrritrs  endeavour  to  obtain  skins  taken  Iroin 
such  animals  as  have  be(  n  killed  duiiiig  the 
winter,  as  being  far  less  fetid  liian  those  killed 
in  the  spring  and  sunnner. 

15.  ^'iverra  lero.  Ferret.  Of  similar  man- 
ners to  the  polecat  is  the  ferret,  the  natural 
history  of  wnicli  has  been  so  well  dutaik-d  by 
the  count  de  Buffbn,  that  it  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible to  aild  any  thing  material  to  that  elegant 
author's  description.  '1  he  Icrret  in  general 
form  reseuib  es  tne  polecat,  but  is  a  smaller 
animal  ;  its  usir.d  leugih  being  about  fourteen 
inches,  exclusive  of  tlie  tail,  which  is  about 
live.  LinuA-us,  in  the  twelfth  edition  ot 
the  Sysiema  NaUirx,  seems  to  entertain  a 
doubt  whether  it  is  truly  distinct  from  the 
polecat  ;  it  is,  however,  a  native  of  Africa, 
and  not  of  Europe,  and  supports  with  dilii- 
culty  the  cold  of  an  European  winter; 
whereas  the  polecat  is  lound  not  oiily  in  the 
temperate,  but  also  in  the  colder  parts  ol  the 
European  regions  ;  to  which  may  be  added, 
tliat,  e.\cius.ve  of  its  smaller  size,  it  is  oi  a 
more  siender  shape,  and  the  snout  is  sharper 
in  prO[)ortioii  tlian  in  liie  former  animal. 
The  ferret  is  used  fSr  rabjii-huntiHg  in  pre- 
ference to  the  polecat,  b.xau^e  it  is  more 
easily  t.mied .  but  it  is  necessary  to  keep  it 
in  a  wa/ni  box,  witn  wool,  or  some  other  suh- 
stanc. ,  111  waich  it  may  imiied  itself.  It  sleeps 
almost  cohtiiiually,  unJ  wlien  aw'ake,  imnie- 
tliateiy  begins  to  search  about  for  food :  it  is 
usually  led  with  bread  and  milk ;  but  its 
favourite  food  is  the  blood  of  the  smaller 
animals  U  is  by  nature  an  enemy  to  the 
rabbit ;  and  it  is  aliirmed  by  Hulioa,  that 
whenever  a  d.-ad  rabbit  is  presented  for  the 
first  time  to  a  yowng  ferret,  he  iiies  upon  it 
in  an  instaiil,  and  bites  it  with  great  fury  ; 
but  if  it  is  alive,  he  seizes  it  by  llie  throat, 
and  sucks  its  blood.  When  let  into  the  bur- 
rows ot  rabbits,  the  ferret  is  always  muzzled, 
that  it  may  not  kill  the  rabbits  in  their  holes, 
but  only  drive  them  out,  in  order  to  be 
caught  in  the  nets.  If  the  ferret  is  put  in 
without  a  muzzle,  or  nappens  to  disengage 
hhnself  from  it,  he  is  often  lost ;  for  after 
sucking  tlie  blood  of  the  rabbit,  he  falls 
asleep,  and  cannot  be  regained,  e.xcept  some- 
times by  smoking  the  hole,  in  order  to  oblige 
him  to  come  out ;  but  as  this  is  a  practice 
which  does  not  always  succeed,  it  continues 
to  lead  a  rapacious  and  solitavy  life  in  the 
warren,  as  long-  as  the  summer  continues, 
and  perishes  by  the  cold  of  the  winter. 

We  are  told  by  Strabo  that  the  ferret  was 
brought  into  Spain  from  Africa;  and  it  is 
supposed  that  this  was  done  in  order  to  free 
that  country  from  the  vast  number  ot  rabbits 
with  which  it  was  over-run  ;  and  from  Spain 
it  was  gradually  introduced  into  other  Euro- 


V  I  V 

^lean  connlries.  Tin;  ferret  is  an  animal  of 
an  irascible  naUire,  and,  when  iuilated,  iiis 
odour,  which  is  at  all  limes  disagreeable, 
becoiiK  s  far  more  so  than  usual.  The  ge- 
neral colour  of  the  feriol  is  a  very  pale  yel- 
lowish-brown, or  cream-colour  ;  and  the  eyes 
;ue  of  a  bright  and  lively  red. 

lO.  Viveria  vulgaris.  I'liecommon  wcesel, 
is  oneoftfje  smallest  sjM-cies  in  this  iiiiinerous 
tribe  of  quadrupeds.  Its  gi'iieral  length  is 
about  seven  inches,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 
which  measures  near  two  inches  and  a  half. 
Its  colour  is  a  ))ale  reddish,  or  yellowish- 
brown,  and  beneath  it  isentirelv  white;  but 
below  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  on  each 
side,  is  a  brown  spot:  the  ears  are  small  and 
rounded,  and  the  eyes  are  i)lack.  Tliis  liiilt- 
■ininial  is  possessed  ol  a  cr>nsidoral)le  degree 
ofelegap.ee  in  its  aspjct,  and  its  iiiol ions  are 
light  and  easy;  bu'.  it  has  the  same  unplea- 
sant sniell  with  the  stoat,  and  some  other 
species.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  cavities 
under  the  roots  of  trees,  as  well  as  ol  banks 
near  rivulets,  &c.  from  which  it  occasionally 
sallies  out  in  <|iiest  of  birds,  (iuld-micif,  &c. 
It  eveli  attacks  young  rabbits,  and  other 
animals  of  far  superior  size  to  itselt  ;  but  its 
chiet  |)rey,  at  least  in  this  country,  seems  to 
be  the  lield-mouse,  of  which  it  de^troys  great 
niultilndes.  From  the  extreme  flexibility  of 
its  body,  and  its  wonderful  activity,  it  readily 
ascends  the  sides  of  walls,  and  by  this  means 
pursues  its  prey  into  the  most  distant  retire- 
ments ;  ami  is  a  frequent  inhabitant  of  barns 
and  granaries.  '1  li6  wcesel  produces  four 
or  live  young  at  a  time;  preparing  for  them 
a  bed  ol  moss,  grass,  &c.  An  instance  is 
given  by  the  count  de  Buiibn  of  a  weesel's 
ne-t  being  found  in  the  carcase  of  a  wolf, 
which  had  been  hung  up  near  a  wood ;  the 
nest  was  made  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax. 
Til"  count  de  Billion,  in  his  first  description 
of  the  wecsel,  afiirmed  that  it  was  a  perlei  tly 
untame.ible  animal  ;  but  he  afterwarils  re- 
ceived very  authentic  accounts  of  weesels 
wiiich  had  been  so  completely  famed  as  to 
exhibit  every  mark  of  attaciiment  to  their  be- 
nefactors,'and  to  be  as  lamiliar  as  a  cat  or  lap- 
dog.  An  account  of  this  kind  is  given  by 
one  of  his  correspondents  in  the  seventh  sup- 
plemental volume  of  his  Natural  History, 
which  amply  contirms  the  truth  of  this  ;  and 
among  other  curious  particulars,  it  is  observ- 
ed, that  when  asleep,  the  muscles  of  this  little 
animal  are  in  a  state  of  e.xtreme  flacciditv,  so 
tiiat  it  may  be  taken  up  by  the  head,  and 
swung  backwards  and  forwards,  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  pendulum,  several  times,  before  it 
wakes. 

17.  Viverra  emiinea.  Stoat.  This  animal 
much  resembles  the  weesel  in  its  general  ap- 
pearance, as  well  as  in  colour,  but  is  consi- 
derably larger;  the  body,  exclusive  of  the 
tail,  measuring  ten  inches,  and  the  tail  five 
and  a  half;  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  also  con- 
stantly black,  whatever  may  be  the  grada- 
tion or  cast  of  colour  on  the  body;  for  the 
stoat,  in  the  northern  regions,  becomes  milk- 
white  during  the  winter,  in  which  state  it  is 
commonly  called  the  ermine.  It  is  some- 
times found  of  this  colour  in  our  own  coun- 
try ;  and  instances  are  not  very  uncommon  in 
which  it  appears  parti-coloured,  or  white  in 
some  parts  and  brown  in  others,  tlie  ciiange 
of  colour  having  not  been  completed.  Its 
smell  is  strong  and  unpleasant.  The  stoat  is 
similar  in  its  manners  to  the  weesel,  living  in 


U  L  M 


861 


hollows  mid  T  the  roots  of  trees,  in  banks 
near  rivulets,  &c.  and  preying  on  all  maii:ier 
of  smaller  animals,  as  well  as  on  rabbits,  6cc. 
It  does  not,  iiowt-ver,  like  the  weesel,  visit 
hoiisc-s,  but  coiili.ies  itself  to  llie  (iclds.  it  is 
an  iiiliubilaiil  boh  ol  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe  and  of  Asia.  It  occurs  in  Kaints- 
chatka  and  the  K mile  isles,  ll  is  also  said 
to  be  found  in  several  parts  of  North  Ame- 
rica. 

In  Norway,  and  in  Siberia  the  skins  are  a 
great  article  of  coiiiinerce ;  most  of  the  er- 
niiins  or  white  stoat-skins  being  brouglit 
thence.  In  Liberia  tlie  stoat  is  said  to 
be  found  in  the  birch  forests,  l^i  not  in 
the  pine  forests;  and  the  skins  arc  sold  on 
the  spot,  accoriling  to  Mr.  Pennant,  at  from 
two  to  three  pounds  sterling  per  liniidied. 
The  animals  are  either  taken  in  traps  ursiiut 
with  blunt  arrows. 

18.  Vivena  maculata.  Spotted  weesel. 
This,  which  is  described  in  governor  Phil- 
lips's Voyage  to  Botany  Bay,  is  saiil  to  lie  of 
the  size  of  a  large  polecat,  measuring  18 
inches  from  nose  to  tail,  and  the  tail  nearly  as 
much;  and  the  visage  is  of  a  pointed  shape. 
The  colour  is  said  to  be  black,  marked  all 
over,  the  tail  not  excepted,  with  irre,n;!ar 
blotches  of  white  ;  the  tail  is  represented  as 
thin,  and  gradually  tapering  to  the  end  ;  the 
whiskers  very  long,  and  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  animal  such  as  to  resemole  the 
viverrine  opossum  in  most  particulars,  except 
in  the  appearance  of  the  tail. 

VIVIPAUOr.S,  in  natural  history,  an  epi- 
thet applied  lo  such  animals  as  bring  forlli 
their  young  ahve  and  perfect,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  those  that  lay  eggs,  which  are  call- 
ed oviparous  animals. 

I'LCF.K.    See  Surgery. 

ULLAGE,  in  gauging,  is  so  much  of  a 
cask,  or  other  vessel,  as  it  wants  of  being  full. 
See  Gaugi.vc. 

I'LMUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  tlie  class 
pentandria,  and  order  digvnia,  and  in  the 
natural  system  arranged  under  the  53d  or- 
der, scabridx.  The  cal\x  is  qu;n(|iielid  ; 
there  is  no  corolla.  The  fruit  is  a  dry,  com- 
pressed, membranaceous  berry.  There  are 
six  species,  two  of  which  are  natives  of  Bri- 
tain, viz.  the  campestris,  coiiiinon  elm,  and 
the  montana,  or  wvcli  elm.  All  the  sorts  of 
elm  may  be  either  propagated  by  layers  or 
suckers  taken  from  the  roots  of  the  old  trees^ 
the  latter  of  which  is  generally  practised  by 
the  nursery-gardeners  ;  but  as  these  are  often 
cut  up  with  indifferent  roots,  they  often  mis- 
carry, and  render  the  success  tloubtlul  v 
whereas  those  which  are  propagated  by  lavers 
are  in  no  hazard,  and  always  make  better 
roots,  and  come  on  faster,  than  the  olher,  and 
do  not  send  out  suckers  from  their  roots  in 
such  plenty,  for  which  reason  this  method 
should  be  more  universally  practised.  The 
elm  delights  in  a  stiff,  strong  soil.  It  is  ob- 
servable, however,  that  here  it  grows  com- 
paratively slow.  In  light  land,  especially  if 
it  is  rich,  its  growth  is  very  rapid;  but  its 
wood  is  light,  porous,  and  of  little  value,  com- 
pared with  that  which  grows  upon  strong 
land,  which  is  of  a  closer,  stronger  texture, 
and  at  the  heart  will  have  the  colour,  and  al- 
most the  heaviness  and  the  hardness,  ot  iron. 
On  such  soils  the  elm  becomes  profitable, 
and  is  one  of  the  frees  which  ought,  in  pre- 
ference to  all  others,  to  engage  the  planter's 
attention. 


862 


U  X  t 


ULXA.  See  Anatomy. 

ULVA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class  cryp- 
togamia,  anil  order  of  alg:e.  Tlie  friictitiVa- 
tlon  is  Incliiseil  in  a  (lia[)lianous  inenibrane. 
There  are  2(>  species  ol  liritish  plants.  'I'liey 
are  all  sessile,  and  without  roots,  and  grow  in 
ditches,  and  on  stones  along  the  sea-coast. 
None  of  them  are  applied  to  any  pavlirular 
'use  dilliirent  from  the  rest  of  the  alg-.e,  except 
the  unibilicalis,  which  in  Kngland  is  pickled 
with  salt,  and  preserved  in  jars,  and  after- 
wards stewed  and  eaten  with  oil  and  lemon 
juice.  This  species,  called  in  English  the 
navel  laver,  is  ihitj  orbicular,  sessile,  and  co- 
riaceous. 

UMBEI.L.E,   umbels,  among    botanists, 
■the  round  tufts  or  heads  of  certain  plants  set 

-  thick  together,  and  all  of  the  same  height. 

UM BELLI FEKOUS  PLANTS,  are  such 
as  Jiave  their  tops  branched  and  spread  out 
like  an  mnbrella,  on  each  little  subdivision 
■of  which  there  is  growing  a  small  llower;  such 
are  fennel,  dill,  &c.     See  Bota-ny. 

UMBER,  or  Umbre,  iimbrin,  among 
painters,  &c.  a  kind  of  dry  dusky-coloured 
•earth,  which,  diluted  with  water,  serves  to 
make  a  dark-brown  colour,  usually  called 
with  VIS  a  hair-colour.  It  is  called  umber, 
from  umbra,  a  shadow,  as  serving  chielly  for 
the  shading  of  objects;  or,  perhaps,  from  Um- 
bria  a  country  of  Italy,  whence  it  used  to  be 
brought. 

I'mber,  orgrayling,  in  ichthyology.  See 
Salmo. 

UNCARIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
.  end  order  pentandria  monogynia.  The  corolla 
is  salver-shaped  ;  germ,  crowned  with  a  gland; 

-  stigma  two-grooved;  peric.  two-celled,  many- 
seeded.     Thereare  two  species. 

UNCL^,  in  general,  a  Latin  term  denot- 
ing the  twelfth  part  of  any  thing,  particularly 
the  twelfth  part  of  a  pound,  called  in  English 
an  ounce  ;  or  the  twelith  part  of  a  foot,  call- 
ed an  inch.     See  ME.'!SUKE,and  Weight. 

I'NCl/E,  in  uliebia,  the  numbers  |):elixed 
before  the  letters  of  flie  members  ot  any 
power  produced  from  a  binomial,  residual,  or 
inultinuinial  root.  Thus,  in  the  fourth  power 
ofrt  +  Z),  viz.  fi'+iaVi+na'b'+iah'-t-h*,  the 
imcia;  are4,  6,  and  4,  being  the  same  with  what 
others  call  co-eilicients.     See  Algebra. 

UNDECAGGN,  is  a  polygon  of  eleven 
sides.  If  the  side  of  a  regular  imdecagon  is 
I,  its  area  will  be  9,3636.399  =  -tiX  tang,  of 
■-73_'_  degrees ;  and  therefore  if  this  number 
is  multiplied  by  the  square  of  tlie  side  of  any 
other  regular  undeiagon,  the  product  will  be 
the  area  of  that  andecagon. 

UNGUIS.  See  Anatomy. 

I'NGUL.A,  in  geometry,  is  a  part  cutoff 

-a  cylinder,  cone,  &c.  by  a  plane  passing  ob- 

liin'iely   through   tlie  ba>e,   and   part   of  the 

curve  surface,  so  called  from  its  resemblance 

to  the  (ungula)  li'jof  of  a  horse,  &c. 

UNICOHN-KISIL  See  .\1onodon. 

UN1()L.\,  a  genus  of  the  trian<lria  digy- 
Tiia  class  ot  plants,  the  corolla  whereof  con- 
sists of  a  bivalve  glume;  the  valves  are  of  a 
lanceolate-compressed  ligure,  like  those  of 
the  cup;  the  inner  valve  appears  somewhat 
higher  than  the  outer  one  ;  (lie  corolla  per- 
forms the  office  of  a  pericarpium,  inclosing 
Hie  seed,  which  is  single,  and  of  an  ovated 
oblong  ligure.     There  are  three  species. 

UNIStJN,  in  music,  that  consonance,  or 


V  O  L 

coincidence  of  sounds,  proceruing  from  aiv 
equality  in  the  numb-r  of  vibrations  made  in 
a  given'  time  by  two  sononnis  bodies ;  or  the 
union  of  two  sounds  so  directly  similar  to 
each  other  in  respect  of  gravity,  or  acutc- 
ncss,  that  the  ear  perceiving  no  dilTerence, 
rec.ives  them  as  one  and  the  smiie. 

The  antients  were  nmch  divided  in  opinion 
respecting  the  question  whetnerthe  unis.m  is 
a  consonance.  'Aristotle  speaks  in  the  nega- 
tive ;  Muris  Mcrsennus,  and  others,  declare 
in  the  allirmative.  Trie  decision  of  the  ijues- 
tion,  however,  depends  on  the  definition  we 
giveto  the  word  consonance.  If  by  a  conso- 
nance we  only  understand  two  or  more  sounds 
agreeable  to  the  ear,  the  unison  is  a  conso- 
nance ;  but  if  we  include  in  the  consonance 
sounds  of  a  different  pitch,  i.  e.  sounds  less 
or  more  acute  w  ilh  respect  to  each  other,  the 
unison,  by  its  own  delinition,  is  not  a  conso- 
nance. 

UNTSONI,  (Ital.  pin.,)  a  word  implying 
that  the  parts  in  a  score  over  which  it  is 
written,  are  in  nnison  with  each  other ;  as 
violini  uniso'ii,  the  violins  in  unison  ;  llauti 
unisoni,  the  llutcs  in  unison. 

UNITY.  See  Poetry. 

LTNON.^,  a  genus  of  the  polj-andria  poly- 
gamia  class  and  order  of  plants.  The  calyx 
is  three-leaved,  six-petals ;  berries  two  or 
three  seeded.  There  are  four  species,  trees 
of  the  East  and  West  Indies. 

UNXIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class  and 
order  syngenesia  poiygamia  superflua.  The 
calyx  is  five-leaved,  leaflets  ovate  ;  llorets  ot 
disk  and  ray  iivc,  recept.  naked.  There  is 
one  species. 

VOID  AND  voidable,  in  the  law.  Some 
things  are  aljsolutely  void,  and  others  only 
voidable.  A  thing  is  void  which  is  done 
against  law  at  the  very  time  of  doing  it,  and 
no  person  shall  be  bound  by  such  an  act  ; 
but  a  thing  is  only  voiilable  which  is  done 
by  a  person  who  ought  not  to  have  done  it, 
biit  who,  nevertheless,  cannot  avoid  it  him- 
self after  it  is  done;  though  it  may  be  by 
some  act  in  law  made  void  by  his  lieir,  &c. 
2  Lil.  Abr.  S07. 

VOLCANO,  in  natural  history,  a  bnrnhig 
mountain,  or  one  that  occasionally  vomits 
forth  lire,  flame,  ashes,  cinders,  &c.  ^■ok■a- 
noes  are  peculiar  to  no  climate,  and  have  no 
necessary  connection  with  any  other  moun- 
tains, but  seem  to  have  some  with  the  se.i, 
being  generally  in  its  neighbourliood ;  they 
freipiently  throw  out  matters  which  bi-long 
to  the  sea,  as  the  relics  of  lislies,  sea-weed, 
and  sometimes  sea-water  itself.  Sir  William 
Hamilton  observes  in  the  Phil.  'Prans.  for 
1776,  that  "  the  operations  of  Wsuvius  are 
very  capricious  and  uncertain,  except  that 
the'  smoke  increases  considerably  and  con- 
stantly when  the  sea  is  agitated,  aiid  the  wind 
blows  from  that  cpiarter.  Volcanic  moun- 
tains are  of  all  heights ;  some,  as  that  ol 
Tanna,  so  low  as  4j6  feet;  Vesuvius  is  .5(iOO 
feet  high;  and  Etna,  11000.  They  in  gener,al 
foim  loftv  spires ;  and  tlu^  volcano  itself  is 
internally  shaped  like  an  inverted  cone, 
placed  on  a  broader  basis.  Tliis  cone  is 
called  the  crater,  or  bowl,  and  through  it  the 
lava  generally  passes,  though  sometimes  it 
bursts  througli  the  sides,  and  even  proceeds 
occasionally  from  the  boltom  of  the  moun- 
tain. Sometimes  the  crater  falls  in,  and  is 
effaced ;  sometimes,  in  extinguished  volca- 


V  O  L 

nofs,  it  is  filled  with  water.  Submarine  vij- 
canoes  have  been  observed,  anil  from  thtse 
some  islands  have  derivi-d  their  origin.  Vol- 
canic lires  taking  place  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean,  wo.uld  frequently,  by  the  expansive 
force  of  the  steams  w'hii  li  art;  generated, 
elevate  (hose  parts  which  were  once  at  the 
bottom  of  the  deep,  and  oveiiiow  those  which 
were  habitable  earth.  It  is  conjectured,  that 
subterraneous  convulsions  operated  more 
powerfully  in  the  early  ages  ot  tne  world  than 
at  any  later  period  ;  and  indeed  such  an  hy- 
pothesis is  supported  by  the  most  probable 
reasoning,  since  we  may  well  conceive  that 
at  the  first  consolidation  of  the  earth,  niucU 
heterogeneous  matter  would  be  inclwdird  in 
the  different  masses,  which  might  produce 
more  frequent  fermentations  than  at  any  after 
periods,  u  hen  these  have  been,  if  we  may  so 
express  it,  purged  oif  by  frequent  eruptions, 
and  in  many  parts,  perhaps,  rectified  and 
assimilated  by  slow  and  secret  processes  iu 
the  bowels  of  the  earth.  But  history  was 
not  cultivated  till  a  very  late  period,  and  the 
most  eventful  ages  of  nature  have  [lassed  un- 
recorded. 

The  force  of  subterraneous  (ires,  or  rather 
of  the  steam  which  is  generated  by  them,  is 
so  great,  that  considerable  rocks  have  been 
projected  by  Vesuvius  to  the  distance  of 
eight  miles.  A  stone  was  once  thrown  from 
the  crater  of  that  volcano  twelve  miles,  and 
fell  upon  the  marquis  of  Latiro's  house  at 
Nola,  which  it  set  on  fire.  One  also,  which 
measured  twelve  feet  in  height  and  forty-five 
in  circumference,  was  carried,  in  1767,  by 
the  projectile  force  of  the  steam,  a  quarter  of 
a  mile-  from  the  crater.  In  an  erujition  of 
Etna,  a  stone,  fifteen  feet  long,  was  ejected 
from  'he  crat-r  t«  the  distance  of  a  mile,  ant! 
buried  Itself  eight  feet  deep  in  the  ground. 

A  volcano  broke  forth'in  Peru  in  1600,  ac- 
companied w  ith  an  earthquakr,  and  the  sand 
and  ashes  which  w  ere  ejecteil covered  the  fields 
ninetv  miles  one  way,  and  one  hundred  and 
twenty  another.  iUreadful  thunders  and 
lightning  were  heard  and  seen  for  upwards  of 
ninety  miles  round  Araqu.ipa  during  this 
eruption,  which  seemed  to  denote  some  con- 
nection between  the  electric  matter  and  these 
volcanic  fires;  and  this  fact  is  strongly  con- 
firmed by  the  very  accurate  observations  of 
sir\\"illiam  liamilion,  which  we  shall  after- 
wards have  occasion  to  notice  more  at  large. 

Ikith  the  inside  of  the  crater  and  the  base  of 
man\  volcanoes,  consist  of  lava,  either  entii-e 
or  decomposed,  nearly  as  low  as  the  level  of. 
the  sea ;  but  they  finally  rest  either  on  gra- 
nite, as  ill  Peru,  or  scliistus,  as  the  extin- 
guished volcanoes  of  Ilosse  and  Bohemia,  or 
on  limestone,  as  those  of  Silesia,  mount  \c- 
suvius,  &'c.  No  ore  is  found  in  these  moun- 
tains, except  that  of  iron,  of  which  lava  con- 
tains from  twenty  to  twenty-five  parts  in  the 
hundred,  and  some  detached  fragments  of 
the  ores  of  copper,  antimony,  and  arsenic. 
^'esuvius  ejected,  from  the  year  1 779  to 
1783,  309,6:)S,l6l  cubic  feet  of  matter  of 
different  kinds  ;  we  must  therefore  conclude 
the  seat  of  these  fires  (o  be  several  miles 
below  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  and  as  iron  makes 
from  one-fourth  to  one-fifth  of  these  rjeetions, 
we  mav  infer  that  the  internal  parts  of  the 
earth  abound  much  in  tins  metal. 

The  origin  of  tliese  subterraneous  fires  is 
not  easily  explained.     Iron-filings  mi.xed  with 


poM-tlcred  sulphur,  ami  tlie  whole  moisteneil 
witli  water  iiUo-a  iniste,  will  swell,   becoiiu- 
hot,  and  il   the  quantity  is  considerable,  will 
throw  out  a  blue  flame.     It  is  a  niixture  ol 
this  kind  which  is  ined  for  niakijig  an  arlih- 
cial  earthquake  ;   for  such  a  quantity   ot   in- 
ilaiiuiiable   gas   ij  produced  during   the   fer- 
ineiitation,  that  if  Ihe  mass  is  buried  in  the 
earth,  the  gas  will  force  a  passage  for  its  es- 
cape, and  exhibit,  on  a  small  scale,  the  phe- 
nomena of  an  earthquake.    M.Leniery  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  person  who  illustrated, 
in  this  itianner,  the  origin  of  volanic  fires  and 
earlhciuakes.     He  mixed  twenty-hve  pounds 
of  iron-filings  with  an  equal  weight  of  sulphur, 
and  having  made  them  into  a  paste,  with  the 
addition  of  water,   he  put  them  into  a  pot, 
covered  them  with  a  cloth,  ami  biu-ied  them 
a  foot  under  ground.     In  about  eight  or  nine 
iiours  time  tlie  eaiUi  swelled,  became  wann, 
and  cracked,   and   hot   sulphureous  vapours 
vere  perceived.     Now  large  beds  of  martial 
pyrites,  sulphuret  of  iron,  are  known  to  exist 
HI  dill'erent  parts  of  the  earth  ;  tlie  oidv  clifh- 
ciilty  which  attends  this  explanation  of  the 
origin  of  volcanoes,  as  well  as  of  earthquakes, 
is,  that  the  presence  of  air  is  in  geiii.-ial  ne- 
cessary for  the  production  of  actual  flame. 
Jt  is  well  known,  however,  that  sul|jliuret  of 
iron,  when,  moistened,   acipiires    heat ;    and 
if  we    suppose  it  to  have  been   in  contact 
vv'ith  black  wad  and  petroleum,  we  may  sup- 
pose the  llame  to  arise,  as  we  see  it  produced 
ty  art,  from   the  desiccation  of  the  former 
substance,  and  its  mixture  with   mineral  oil. 
Many  minerals,  wiieii  heated,  afford  oxvgen 
gas,  a  very  small  quantity  of  which  is  sul'ii- 
tient  to   produce    flame;    tliis   flame,   once 
produced,  may   be    supported    irom    other 
ores,  and  the  combustion  be  maintained  by 
the  presence  ot  bituminous  schiatiis,  bitumen, 
and  coal.     Marl,  schistus,  horn-stone,  schorl, 
vitli  a  hnther  addition  of  iron,   are  the  true 
sources  of  lava.     It  seems,  however,  after  all, 
difficult  to  conceive  that  such  extensive  and 
intense  fires  should  be  maintained  without  the 
access  of  considerable  c]uaiilities  of  air  ;  that 
fluid  may  therefore  be  possibly  supplied   bv 
a  communication    with   some  extensive  ca- 
verns, which  may  tiieir.selves  receive  it  by 
openings  at  the  distance  of  many  miles  from 
the  cratei   of  the  volcano.     It  does  not  seem 
im|)robable  that  the   volcanoes,  winch  now 
burn,  may  have  a  communication  with  the 
cavities  and  craters  of  e.xtinguished   volca- 
noes, and  thence  derive  a  supply  of  air  suffi- 
cient to  account  for  the  inflammation  of  large 
bedsof  pyrites  and  bituminous  matters.     M. 
Buffbn  supposes,   that  the  seat  of  volcanic 
tires  is  situated  but  a  very  little  way  below 
the  bed   of  the  mountauis  ;  but  it   appears 
more  probable,  that  it  is  in   general  iiianv 
miles  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  for  the 
quantity    of  matter   discharged   from    I'.tna 
alone  is  supposed,  on  a  moderate  calculation, 
to  exceed  twenty  times   the  original  bulk  of 
the  inountam,  and  tlierefore  could  not  have 
been  derived   from    itn  contents  alone,  but 
must  come  from  the  deeper  recesses  of  the 
earth; 

M.  Condamine  asserts,  that  all  the  moun- 
tains hi  the  neighbourhood  of  Naples  exliibit 
undoubted  marks  of  a  volcanic  origin.  He 
says,  he  could  trace  the  lava,  and  other  pro- 
ductions of  sul)terraneous  tire,  from  Naples 
to  the  very  gates  of  Rome,  pervading  the 
whole  soil,   sometijues  pure  and  sometimes 


VOLCANO. 

di.'Terently  rombiiied.  "  Wherever  I  see,'' 
says  he,  "  on  an  elevated  plain,  a  circular 
bason,  surrounded  with  calcined  rocks,  I  am 
not  deceived  by  the  verdure  of  the  adjacent 
fields  ;  1  can  discover,  beneath  the  snow  it- 
self, ttie  tiaces  of  an  extinguished  fire.  If 
there  is  a  breach  in  the  circle,  1  usually  find 
out,  by  following  tlie  declivity  of  Ihe  ground, 
llie  traces  of  a  rivuhl,  or  limbed  of  a  torrent, 
whicb  seems  as  if  it  was  hollowed  in  the  roik, 
and  this  rock  appears  fretpipntiv  to  be  pure 
lava.  If  the  ciirumlerence  of  the  bason  has 
no  breach,  the  rain  and  spring  waters,  which 
are  collected  there,  generally  form  a  lake  in 
the  very  mouth  ol  the  volcano."  'I'lie  Ap-, 
peniiies,  as  well  as  the  Cordilleras  of  Peru  and 
Chili,  he  supi)o-es  to  h.ive  been  a  chain  of 
volcanoes.  'Ihe  chain,  in  both  instances,  is 
interrupted,  and  many  of  the  fires  either  ex- 
lingiiished  or  smothered,  but  many  remain 
still  actually  bm-ning.  'fhis  intelligent  au- 
thor is,  however,  far  from  attributing  to  all 
mountains  the  same  origin  ;  and  adds,  that 
in  that  part  of  the  Alp-;,  which  he  travelled 
over,  he  could  observe  no  such  appearances. 

Tlie  traces  of  volcanoes  have  been  observ- 
ed Tn  Ireland  by  Mr.  Whitehurst.  'I'hough 
no  visible  crater  is  remaining  between  Port 
Kush  Strand  and  Pallycastle  eastward,  yet, 
he  observi's,  that  whole  space,  about  twenlv 
English  miles,  is  one  continued  mass  of  lava. 
The  cliff's,  he  sass,  are  truly  stupendous,  and 
bear  every  possible  mark  of  having  been  ori- 
ginally liquid  tire.  The  elevation  of  that,  at 
tlie  foot  of  which  the  Giant's  Causeway  is 
situated,  lie  piestimcs  cannot  be  less  than  iive 
or  six  hundred  feet  perpendicular  above  the 
level  of  tlie  Atlantic  ocean,  and  yet  com- 
posed entirely  of  lava  ;  the  same  appearances 
e.xleiid  towards  tlie  south  upwards  ol  twenty 
miles. 

The  most  remarkable  volcanoes  in  Europe 
are  Etna  and  ^'e^uvlus  ;  and  as  these  are  not 
too  far  distant,  we  have  the  most  accurate 
descriptions  of  them  from  travellers  of  flie 
first  talents  and  reputation. 

Etna,  which  is  the  most  striking  object  in 
Sicily,  and  indeed  one  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent productions  of  nature,  rises  from  an  im- 
mense base,  and  mounts  equally  on  all  sides 
to  its  summit.  The  ascent  on  each  side  is 
computed  at  about  thirty  miles,  and  the  cir- 
cumference of  its  base,  at  one  hundred  and 
thirty-three  ;  but  as  it  has  never  been  mea- 
sureil  with  any  great  degree  of  accuracy,  its 
climensions  are  but  imperfectly  known. 

The  whole  mountain  is  divided  into  three 
distinct  regions,  called  La  Region  Culta,  or 
Piedmontese,  the  fertile  region  ;  La  Kegiona 
Sylvosa ,  or  Nemorosa,  the  woody  region  ; 
and  La  Regiona  Deserta,  or  Scoperta,  the 
barren  region.  These  dider  as  materially 
both  in  climate  and  production  as  the  three 
zones  of  the  earth,  and  perhaps  with  equal 
jiropriety  might  have  been  styled  the  torrid, 
the  temperate,  and  the  frigid  zones 

The  hrst  region  of  Etna  surrounds  the 
base  of  the  mounlahi,  and  constitutes  the 
most  fertile  country  in  the  world  on  all 
sides  of  it,  to  the  extent  of  fourteen  or 
fifteen  miles,  where  the  woody  region  begins. 
It  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  lava,  which, 
in  time,  becomes  the  most  fertile  ot  ail  soils; 
but  the  roads,  which  are  entirely  over  old 
lavas,  now  converted  into  orchard-,  vine- 
yards, iind  corn-fields,  are  «.\ecrable.    Ihe 


603 

lavas,  wliich  form  this  region,  arise  from  a 
numi>er  of  beautiful  little  mountains,  every 
where  scattered  over  the  immense  declivities 
ot  Etna.  Tliese  are  all  either  of  a  conical  or 
liemispherical  figure,  and  are  in  general  co- 
vered with  beautiful  treen,  and  the  most 
luxurious  verdure.  The  formation  of  them 
is  owing  to  the  internal  fires  of  Etna,  which, 
raging  tor  a  vent,  at  bo  vast  distance  from  the 
great  crater,  that  it  cannot  possibly  be  <ar- 
ried  to  the  lieiglit  of  twelve  or  thirteen  thou- 
sand fcet,  whic-li  is  probably  the  height  of  the 
summit  of  Etna,  must  necessarily  be  dis- 
charged at  soii.e  other  orifice.  After  shaking 
the  mountain,  and  its  neighbourhood,  for 
some  time,  at  length  Ihe  fire  bursts  ojjeii  its 
side,  and  this  is  called  an  eruption.  At  first 
it  emits  only  a  thick  smoke  and  show  ers  of 
ashes.  These  are  followed  by  red-hot  stones, 
and  roi  ks  of  a  great  size,  which  are  thrown 
to  an  immense  iieight  in  the  air.  These 
stones,  together  with  Ihe  <|iiaiilities  of  ashes 
discharged  at  the  same  time,  form  those 
mountains,  which  cover  all  the  declixilies  of 
Etna.  The  size  of  them  is  in  p.oporlioii  lo 
the  dttralien  of  Ihe  eruption.  \Vhen  it  con- 
tinues a  considerable  lime,  it  sonietinws 
forms  an  elevation  of  one  thouvjnd  feel  in 
perpendicular  height,  which  at  its  base  i»- 
seven  or  eight  miles  in  circumference. 

After  the  formation  of  the  new  niountaiii, 
the  lava  commonly  bur,stii  out  honi  il.s  lower 
sivie,  and,  swee|)iiig  every  thing  before  it,  is 
generally  terminated  by  the  sea.  boinetimes 
It  issues  from  the  side  of  ihe  mountain,  wiih- 
out  these  atlencling  circumstances,  which  is 
commonly  the  case  with  Ihe  erujilioiis  of  \e- 
suviu-.;  in  which  the  elevation  bi  ing  so  UiUi  !i 
smaller,  the  nulled  matter  is  carried  up- into 
the  crater,  where  it  is  dislodged  without 
forming  any  new  mountain,  but  oiilv  adding 
to  the  height  of  the  old  one  ;  till  at  length  the 
lava,  risi.ig  near  the  siiminit,  bursts  the  side 
of  the  crater,  liut  Etna  being  upon  a  much  • 
larger  scale,  one  crater  is  not  sutiicieiit  to  - 
give  vent  to  such  immense  oceans  of  liquid 
lire. 

Many  striking  remains  of  the  grcatcrup-i 
tion  in  l66y  are  still  to  be  seen,  and  will  long  , 
continue  as  memorials  of  that  dreadful  event 
which  overwhelmed  Catania,  and  all  the  ad- 
jacent country.  Treun-ndous  earthquakes 
shook  the  island,  and  subti'rraneous  bellow- 
ings  Were  heard  in  the  mountai'i.  During 
some  weeks,  the  sun  ceased  to  appear,  and 
Ihe  day  seemed  changed  into  night.  Borelll, 
who  was  a.  witness  to  these  terrible  pheno- 
mena, says,  that  at  length  a  rent,  twelve 
miles  in  length,  was  opened  in  the  mountain, 
in  some  places  of  which,  when  they  threw 
down  stones,  they  could  not  liearthein  reach 
the  bottom.  Burning  rocks,  sixtv  palms  in 
length,  were  thrown  to  the  distance  of  a  mile, 
and  lesser  stones  were  carried  three  miles. 
After  tlie  most  violent  struggles,  and  a  shak- 
ing of  the  whole  island,  an  immense  torrent 
of  lava  gushed  from  the  rent,  and  sprung  ui>. 
into  the  air  to  the  height  of  si.xtv  palms, 
whence  it  poured  down  the  mouiiiain,  and 
overwhelmed  every  object  m  its  way  in  one 
promiscuous  ruin. 

'I'his  d-structive  torrent, which  burst  front 
the  side  of  Etna,  at  a  phce  called  Ricini, 
rushed  impetuously  against  the  beautiful 
mountain  t>(  .VloiUpelieri,  and  pierced  inlov 
the  ground  to  a  considerable  depth;  the» 
dividing  aud  surrounding  the  mouctain,  ;ti 
3-. 


804 

uiiitcJ  again  on  the  south  side,  and  poured 
desolation  upjn  tjic  adjacent  country.  The 
progress  of  the  torrent  was  at  lirst  at  tlie  rate 
ol'  seven  miles  a  day,  but  it  afteavards  took 
four  days  to  travel' sixteen :  wherever  it  di- 
rected 'its  course,  the  whole  appearance  ol 
nature  was  changed,  several  hills  were  form- 
ed in  places  which  were  formerly  valleys, 
and  a  large  lake  vias  so  entirely  hlled  up  by 
the  melted  mass,  as  not  to  leave  a  vestige 
remaining.  In  its  courjc  it  descended  upon 
a  vineyard,  belonging  to  a  convent  of  Je- 
suits, which  was  formed  upon  an  antient,  and 
probably  a  very  thin,  layer  of  lava,  with  a 
number  of  caverns  and  crevices  under  it. 
The  liquid  mass  entering  into  these  excava- 
tions soon  filled  them  up,  and  by  degrees 
bore  up  the  vineyard,  which  in  a  short  time, 
to  the  great  astonishment  of  the  spectators, 
began  to  move  away,  and  was  carried  by  the 
torrent  to  a  considerable  distance.  In  1770 
some  remains  of  this  vineyard  were  still  to  be 
■seen,  but  the  greater  pai't  of  it  was  entirely 
destroyed. 

After  destroying  several  convents,  church- 
es, and  villages,  this  fiery  current  directed  its 
course  to  Catania,  wliere  it  poured  impetu- 
ously over  the  ramparts,  w  hich  are  near  sixty 
feet  in  height,  and  covered  up  five  of  it's 
bastions,  with  the  intervening  curiains.  After 
laving  waste  a  great  part  of  this  beautiful 
city,  and  entirely  destroying  several  valuable 
remains  of  antiquity,  its  furtlier  progress  was 
Stopped  by  the  ocean,  o\  er  whose  banks  it 
poured  its' destructive  current.  In  its  course 
from  the  rent  in  the  moimtain,  till  its  arrival 
in  the  sea,  it  is  said  to  have  totally  destroy- 
ed the  propertv  of  near  thirty  thousand  per- 
sons. Twenty-four  years  after  the  fatal  erup- 
tion of  1669,  a  violent  earthquake,  which 
extended  along  all  the  eastern  coast,  and  de- 
stroyed in  one  hour  more  than  sixty  tliou- 
sand  persons,  overthrew  the  remaining  build- 
ings of  Catania,  and  buried  a  very  consider- 
able number  of  its  inhabitants  under  the  ruins 
of  their  houses  and  churches. 

The  celebrated  bishop  Berkeley  has  de- 
scribed an  eruption  of  mount  Vesuvius,  ol 
which  he  was  a  witness  in  the  year  1717,  and 
the  reader  will  find  his  narrative  in  the  first 
volume  of  Dr.  Goldsmith's  History  of  the 
Earth  and  Animated  Nature,  p.  94.  l!ut  the 
mast  complete  and  philosophical  account  of 
this  formidable  phenomenon,  a  volcanic  ex- 
plosion, is  that  with  which  sir  William  Ila- 
inilton  has  fiivoured  the  public,  in  describing 
the  dreadful  eruption  of  that  mountain  in 
179-1,  and  this  we  shall  endeavour  to  give,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  in  his  own  words. 

Sir  William  begins  his  narrative  with  re- 
marking that  the  freq-ueiit  slight  eruptions  of 
lava  for  some  yeais  past  had  issued  from 
near  the  summit,  and  ran  in  small  channels 
in  ditVercnt  directions  down  the  llanks  of  the 
mountain,  «iul  fron\  running  in  covered 
cliaiinels,  had  often  an  appearance  as  if  they 
came  immediately  out  ot  the  siiles  of  Vesu- 
vius, but  such  lavas  had  not  sufficient  force 
to  reach  the  cultivated  parts  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountain.  In  the  year  1779,  the  whole 
quantity  of  the  lava  in  fusion  having  been 
at  once  thrown  up  with  violence  out  of  the 
crater  of  Vesuvius,  and  a  great  part  of  it  fall- 
ing, and  cooling  on  its  cone,  added  much  to 
the  solidity  of  the  walls  of  this  huge  natural 
chimney,  and  had  nut  of  late  years  allowed 
of  n  suiicieiit  discharge  of  lava  to  culm  that 


VOLCANO. 

fermentation,  which  by  the  subterraneous 
noises  heard  at  times,  and  by  the  explosions 
of  scoria;  and  ashes,  was  known  to  exi^t  with- 
in the  bowels  of  the  volcano.  The  erup- 
tions, therefore,  of  late  years,  before  this  last, 
were  simply  from  the  lava  having  boded  over 
the  crater,  the  sides  being  sufficiently  strong 
to  confine  it,  and  oblige  it  to  rise  and  over- 
flow. The  mountain  had  b^-en  i-emarkably 
quiet  for  seven  months  before  the  late  erup- 
tion, nor  did  the  usual  vapour  issue  from  its 
crater,  but  at  times  it  emitted  small  clouds 
of  smoke  that  floated  in  the  air  in  the 
shape  of  little  trees.  It  was  remarked  by 
father  Antonio  di  Petrizzi,  a  Capuchin  friar, 
(who  printed  an  account  ol  the  late  eruptioi,,; 
from  his  convent  close  to  the  unfortunate 
town  of  Torre  del  Greco,  that  for  some  days 
preceding  this  eru[)tion,  a  thick  vapour  was 
seen  to  surround  the  mountain,  aboui  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  beneath  its  crater,  and  it  was 
observed  by  him  and  others  at  the  same  time 
that  both  the  sun  and  the  moon  had  otteii  an 
unusual  reddish  cast. 

The  water  of  the  great  fountain  at  Torre 
del  Greco  began  to  decrease  some  liays  be- 
fore the  eruption,  so  that  the  wheels  Of  a 
corn-mill,  wrought  by  that  water,  moved 
very  slowly  ;  it  was  necessary  in  all  the  other 
wells  of  the  fow-n  and  .its  neiglibourhood  to 
lengthen  the  ropes  daily,  in  order  to  reach 
the  water ;  and  some  of  the  wells  became 
quite  dry.  Although  most  of  the  inhabitants 
were  sensible  of  lliis  plienomenon,  not  one 
of  them  seems  to  have  been  sensible  of  the 
true  cause.  Eight  days  also  before  the  erup- 
tion, a  man  and  two  boys  being  m  a  vine- 
yard above  Torre  del  Greco  (and  pncisely 
on  the  spot  where  one  of  the  new  mouths 
opened,  whence  the  principal  current  of  lava 
that  destroyed  the  town  issued^,  were  much 
alarmed  by  a  sudden  puif  of  smoke  which 
issued  from  the  earth  close  to  them,  and  was 
attended  with  a  slight  explosion. 

Had  this  circumstance,  with  that  of  the 
subterraneous  noises  heard  at  Resina  for  two 
days  before  the  eruption  (with  the  additional 
one  of  the  decrease  of  water  in  the  wells), 
been  communicated  at  the  time,  it  would 
have  required  no  great  foresight  to  have 
been  certain  that  an  eruption  of  the  volcano 
was  near  at  hand,  and  (hat  its  force  was  di- 
rected particularly  towards  that  part  of  the 
mountain. 

On  the  I '2th  of  June  1794,  in  the  morning, 
there  was  a  violent  lull  of  rain,  and  soon  after 
the  inhabitants  of  Resina,  situated  directly 
over  the  antient  town  of  llerculaiieum,  were 
sensible  of  a  rumbling  subterraneous  noise, 
which  was  not  heard  at  Naples. 

From  the  month  of  January  to  the  month 
of  May,  the  atmosphere  had  been  generally 
calm,  and  tliere  was  continued  dry  weather. 
In  the  month  of  May  there  was  a  little  rain, 
but  the  weather  was  unusually  sultry,  h'or 
some  divs  preceding  the  eruption,  the  duke 
della  Torre,  a  learned  and  ingenious  noble- 
man, who  published  two  letters  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  the  eruption,  observed  by  his  electro- 
meters, that  the  atmosphere  was  charged 
with  an  excess  of  the  electric  fluid,  and  thus 
it  continued  for  several  days  during  the  erup- 
tion. 

About  eleven  o'clock  on  the  night  of  the 
12tli  of  June,  the  inliabitants  of  Naples  were 
all  sensible  of  a  violent  shock  of  an  cartii 


quake;  the  undulatftry  motion  was  evidently 
Iron)  east  to  west,  and  apijeared  to  have 
lasted  near  half  a  minute.  The  ^ky,  whicli 
had  been  quite  clear,  was  soon  alter  covered 
with  bl.ick  clouds.  The  inliabitants  ol  the 
towns  and  villages,  which  are  veiy  uunieroiis 
at  tne  fool  ol  Vesuvius,  felt  this  earthquake 
still  more  sensibly,  and  say,  that  the  shock  at 
lirst  was  from  the  bottom  U|)wards,  alter 
which  followed  tlie  undulation  from  east  to 
west.  This  earthquake  extended  all  over  the 
Campagna  Felice  ;  and  the  royal  palace  at 
Caserta,  which  is  fifteen  miles  from  Naples, 
and  one  of  the  most  magnificent  and  solid 
buildings  in  Europe  (the  walls  being  eighteen 
feet  thick),  was  shaken  in  such  a  uianner  as 
to  cause  great  alarm,  and  all  the  chamber 
bells  rang.  It  was  likewise  mucii  felt  at  I3e- 
neventum,  about  thirty  miles  from  Naples; 
and  at  Ar.aiio  in  Puglia,  which  is  at  a  much 
greater  distance  ;  both  these  towns,  indeed, 
have  been  olten  afflicted  with  earthquakes. 

On  Sunday  the  15th  of  June,  soon  after 
ten   o'clock  'at  night,  another  shock  of  an 
eartliquake  was  felt  at  Naples,  but  did  not 
appear  to  be  quite  so  violent  as  that  of  the 
ISlii;  nor  did   it  last  so  long;  at  the  same 
moment  a  fountain  of  bright  fire,  attended 
with  a  very  black  smoke  and  a  loud  report, 
was   seen  to  issue,   and  to   rise  to  a   great 
heiglit,  from  about  the  middle  of  the  cone  of 
A'esuvius.     Soon  after  another  of  tlie  same 
kind  broke  out  at  some  little  distance  lower 
down  ;  then,  as  is  supposed,  by  the  blowing 
up  of  a  covered  channel  full  of  red-fiot  lava, 
il  had  the  appearance  as  it  the  lava  had  tdkca 
its  course  directly  up  the  steep  cone  of  the 
volcano.      Fresh    fountains   succeeded    one 
another  hastily,  and  all  in  a  direct  line,  tend- 
ing, for  about,  a  mile  and  a  half,  down  to- 
wards  the   towns  of  Resina  and  Torre  del 
Greco.     Sir  William  Hamilton  could  count 
fifteen  of  them,  but  believes  there  were  others 
obscured  by  the  smoke.     It  seems  prob.ib^e, 
that  all  these   fountains  of  fire,  from   their 
being  in  such  an  e.xact  line,  proceeded  from 
one  and   the  same   long    fissure  down   the 
flanks  of  the  mountain,  and  that  the  lava  and 
other  volcanic  matter  forced  its  way  out  of 
the  widest  parts  of  the   crack,  and  formed 
there  the  little  mountains  and  ciaters  that 
will  be  described  in  their  proper  place.     It 
is  impossible  that  any  words  can  give  an  idea 
of  the  blazing  scene,  or  of  the  horrid  noises 
that  attended  this  great  operation  of  nature. 
It   was   a  mixture   of  the   loudest  thunder, 
with  incessant  reports,  like  those  fioni  a  nu- 
merous Hpavy  artillery,  accompanied  by  a 
continued  hollow   murmur,  like  that  of  the 
roaring  of  the  ocean  during  a  violent  storm; 
and,    added  to  these   was   another   blowing 
noise,  like  that  of  the  ascending  of  a  large 
flight  of  sky-rockets,  or  ratlier  like  that  which 
is   produced  by  the  action  of  the  t  normous 
bellows  on  the  furnace  of  the  Carron  iron- 
foundry  in  Scotland.      The  frequent  falling 
of  the  huge  stones  and  scoria',   wliich  were 
thrown  up  to  an  incredible  height  from  some 
of  the  new   mouths,  (one  of  which,   having 
been  since  measured  by  the   abbe  Tata,  was 
found  to  be  ten  tVet  hij>li,  and  thirty-five  in 
circumference),  contributed   undoubtedly   to 
the  concussion  of  the  earth  and  air.     As  the 
lava  did  not  appear  to  have  yet  a  siillicient 
,vent,  and  it  was  now  evident  that  the  earth- 
tpiakes  already  felt  had  been  occasioned  by 
the  air  and  fiery  matter  coui'ucd  witlun  the 


Iwwt'lii  of  fliff  mouiit.iin,   aiul  prob.ihU'  at 
1)0  sniull    cli'ptli,   coiisicU'ring   tliu  cxti'iil  of 
tluisi-  fartli(|uakfs,  sir  Williiiia  rwDiiimmil- 
cd  to  till'  conipany  that  was  with  liiiii,  who 
began  lo  lie  niucli  alarmed,  ratlur  to  go  and 
view  llie  iiiouiilaiii  at  some  greater  dislajirc, 
and  ill  llie  op  mi  air,  tlian  to  remain  in  llie 
house,  which  was  on  the  sea-side,  and  in  tlie 
j);n-tot'  Naples  which  is  nearest  and  most  ex- 
posed to  Vesuvius.     'I'liey  accor  iingly  pro- 
ceeded to  I'osilippo,   and  viewed  tlie  conlla- 
■gration,  now  lieconie  still  more  con>ideiahle, 
trom  the  sea-side  under  that  mountain  ;  but 
whether  from  the  eruption  having  increased, 
or  from  the  loud  reports  of  the  volcanic  pn- 
plosioiis  being  repi'uted  by  the  momitain  be- 
hind them,  the  noise  was  much  louder  and 
more  alarming  than  that  thev  had  heard  in 
their  lirst  pos-ition,  at  h-ast  a  mile  nearer  to 
%'esuvius.      Alter    some   time,    about    two 
o'clock  in  the  rnorning  of  the  15th,  it  was  ob- 
served that  tlie  lavas  ran  in  abundance,  freelv, 
and  with  great  velocity,  having  made  a  con- 
siilerable  progress  towards  Kesina,  the   town 
vliich  it  lirst  threatened,  and  that  the  fiery 
vapours   which   had  been  confmed  had  now 
free  vent  througli  many  parts  of  a  crack  of 
more  than  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length,  as  was 
evident  trom  the  (juantity  of  inflamed  matter 
and  blatk  smoke,  which  continued   to  issue 
from  the  new  mouths.     Our  author  therefore 
concluded   that  at    Naples   all  danger  from 
earih(]uakes,  which  had  been  his  greatest  ap- 
jirejieusion,  was  totally  removed,   and  he  re- 
turned to   his  former   station  at   ijt.   Lucia 
near  that  city. 

During  all  this  time  there  was  not  the 
smallest  a|)pearance  of  lire  or  smoke  from  the 
crater  on  the  summit  ofN'esuvius;  but  the 
black  smoke  and  ashes  issuing  continually 
from  so  many  new  mouths  or  craters,  formed 
an  enormous  and  dense  body  of  clouds  over 
the  whole  mountain,  and  began  to  give  signs 
of  being  replete  with  the  electric  tiuid,  l)y 
exhibiting  Hashes  of  that  sort  of  zig-zag 
lightning,  which  in  the  volcanic  language  of 
the  country  is  called  ferilli,  and  which  is  the 
constant  attendant  on  the  most  violent  erup- 
tions. 

Sir  William  Hamilton  proceeds  to  remark, 
that  during  a  thirty  years  residence  at 
Naples,  and  during  which  time  he  had  been 
witness  to  many  eruptions  of  Vesuvius,  iie 
never  before  saw  the  cloud  of  smoke  replete 
with  the  electric  fire,  except  in  the  two  great 
eruptions  of  17f>7,  and  in  that  of  1779.  1  he 
electric  lire,  in  the  year  1779,  which  plaved 
constantly  within  the  enormous  black  cloud 
over  the  crater  of  Vesuvius,  and  seUlom 
quitted  it,  was  exactly  similar  to  that  wliich 
is  produced,  on  a  very  small  scale,  by  the 
CiHiductor  of  an  electrical  machine  commu- 
nicating with  an  insulated  plate  of  glass, 
thinly  spread  over  with  metallic  tilings,  &c. 
when  the  electric  matter  continues  to  play 
over  it  in  zig-zag  lines  without  tiuitting  the 
surface.  He  was  not  sensible  of  any  noise 
attending  that  operation  in  1779;  whereas 
the  discharge  of  the  electrical  matter  from 
the  volcanic  clouds  during  this  eruption,  and 
particularlv  on  the  second  and  third  days, 
caused  explosions  like  those  of  the  loudest 
thunder ;  and  indeed  the  storms  raised  evi- 
dently by  the  sole  power  of  the  volcano,  re- 
sembled in  every  respect  all  other  thunder- 
storms ;  the  lightning  falling,  and  destroying 


every   thing   in 
Vol.  II. 


its  course.     The  Jiouse  of  '  had  been 


VOTXAN'O. 

the.  inanitiift  of  lli-rio  at  St.  Jiirio,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  VehiiviuB,  during  one  of  these 
volcanic  storms  was   struck  with  lightning, 
which  having  shattered  inanv  doors  and  wiii- 
dowf,  and   damaged   tin;  furniture,   left   for 
some  time  a  strong  smell  ol  sulphur  in  the 
rooms  it  i>assed  through.     Out  of  these  gi- 
gantic  volcanic  clouds,  besides  the  lightning, 
tile  author  adds,  he  had,  witli  many  others, 
both  during  this  eruption,  and  in  1779,  seen 
balls  of  fire  issue,  and  S')me  of  a  considerable 
m:iguitu<le,  which  bursting   in   the  air,  pro- 
duced nearly  the  same  clfi,-<  t  as  that  f'runi  the 
air-balloons  in  fireworks  ;  the  electric  lire,  as 
it  came  out,   having  the  appearance  of  the 
serpents  with  which  those  lirework-balloons 
are  often  tilled.     The  day  on  which   Naples 
was  ill  the  greatest  danger  from  the  volcanic 
chniils,   two    small    balls    of  lire,  joined   to- 
getlier  by  a  small   link  like  a  chain-i-hot,  fell 
close  to  his  casino  al  I'osilippo  ;   Ihiy  se])a- 
rated,  and  one  fell  in  llie  vineyard  above  the- 
house,  and  the  other  in  the  sea,  so  close  to  it 
that  he  hearil  the  splasli  in  the  water.     The 
abbe  Tata,     in   his   printed  account  of  this 
eruption,  mentions  an  enormous  ball  of  this 
kind  which  Hew  out  of  the  crater  of  S'esu- 
vius  while  he  was  standing  on  the  edge  of  it, 
and  which  burst  in  the  air  at  some  distance 
from  the  mountain,  soon  afterwhich  he  heard 
a  noise  like  the  fall  of  a  number  of  stones,  or 
of  a  heavy  shower  of  hail. 

About  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the 
l6th,  the  cr.iter  of  Vesuvius  began  to  shew 
signs  of  being  open,  by  some  black  smoke 
issuing  out  of  it  ;  and  at  day-break  another 
body  of  smoke,  tinged  with  red,  issued  from 
an  opening  near  the  crater.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  mountain,  a.'d  opposite  the  town 
of  Oltaiano,  it  became  evident  that  a  new- 
mouth  had  open.-d,  from  which  a  consider- 
able strean\  of  lava  issued,  and  ran  with 
great  velocity  through  a  wood,  which  it 
burnt ;  and  liaving  run  about  three  miles  in 
a  few  hours,  it  stopped  betore  it  arrived  at 
tlie  vineyards  and  cultivated  lands.  The 
crater,  and  all  the  conical  part  of  Vesuvius, 
were  soon  involved  in  clouds  and  darkness, 
and  remained  so  for  several  days  ;  but 
above  these  clouds,  although  of  a  great 
height,  fresh  columns  of  smoke  were  seen 
from  the  crater,  rising  furiously  still  higher, 
until  the  whole  mass  remained  in  the  usual 
form  of  a  pine-tree  ;  and  in  that  gigantic  mass 
of  heavy  clouds  the  lerilli,  or  volcanic  light- 
ning, was  frequently  visible,  even  in  tlie  duy- 
time. 

About  five  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the 
l6th,  the  lava  which  had  lirst  brcken  out 
from  the  several  new  mouths  on  the  south 
side  of  the  mountain,  had  reached  the  sea, 
and  was  running  into  it,  having  overwhelm- 
ed, burnt,  and  destroyed,  the  greatest  part  of 
Torre  del  Gr<'CO,  the  principal  stream  of 
lava  having  taken  its  course  through  tlie  very 
centre  of  the  town. 

Soon  after  the  beginning  of  this  eruption, 
ashes  fell  thick  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain, 
all  the  way  from  Portici  to  Torre  del  Greco  ; 
and  what  is  remarkable,  although  there  were 
not  at  that  time  any  clouds  in  the  air,  except 
those  of  smoke  from  the  mountain,  the  ashes 
were  wet,  and  accompanied  with  large  drops 
of  water,  w  hich  to  the  taste  were  very  salt ;  the 
road,  which  is  paved,  was  as  wet  as  if  there 


heavy  shower  of  rain. 
5  R 


'I'llgse 


665 

ashes  were  Mack  and  toaise,  likp  the  sand  of 
the  sea-shore  ;  whereas  those  which  tell  Ihere 
and  al  N.iph-s  some  days  alter,  were  of  n 
light -grey  colour,  and  as  fine  as  Spani-li 
snuff,  or  powdered  bark.  'I  hey  c-untained 
many  Baline  paiticles  ;  and  those  ashes  whicli 
lay  on  Ihc  ground,  exposed  lo  the  burning 
Hill,  had  a  coat  of  the  whitest  powder  on 
their  surface,  whicli  to  the  taste  was  ex- 
tremely salt  and  pungpiit, 

Hy  the  time  thai  the  lava  had  reached  the? 
.^ea,  between  tive  and  six  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing of  the  l()lh,  Vesuvius  was  so  completely 
involved  in  darkness,  that  the  violent  oj)era- 
tioii  of    iiatuie  which   was  going   on    tlieiit 
could  no  longer  be  dirf;eriie<r,  and  so  It  re- 
mained for  M-veral  days  ;  but  the  dreadful 
noise,  and  the  red  tinge  on  the  clouds  over 
the  top  of  the  niouiitaiii,  were  evident  signt 
of  the  activity  of  the  fire  iiiidpriu-atli.     'i'lifi 
lava  ran  but  slowly  at  'J  orre  del  Greco  after 
it  had   ri;aclitd  the  sea;  and  on  the  17th  of 
June  in  the  morning,  its  course  was  stopped  ; 
excepting  that  at  limes  a  littli?  rivulet    of  li- 
ipiid   (ire    issued    from   under  the   smoking 
scori:u  into  the  sea,   and   caused   a    hissing 
noise,  and  a  while  smoke ;  at  other  times  a 
(piantity  of  large  scoria?  were  |)u-lied  otf  the 
surface  of  the  body  of  the  lava  into  the  sea, 
discoverins  that  il  was  red-hot   under  that 
surface.     Even  to  the  latter  end  of  August 
tlie  centre  of  the  thickest  part  of  the  lava  Miat 
covered  the  town  retained  its  red  heat.     Th* 
breadth  of  tlie  lava  that  ran  into  the  sea,  and 
formed  a  new  promontory  there,  after  having 
destroye<l  the  greatest    part  of  the   town  of 
Torre  del  CJreco,  having  bei-n  exactly  mea- 
sured by  the  duke  della  Torre,  is  1204  Eng- 
lisli  feet.     Its  height  above  the  sea  is  twelve 
feet,  and  as  many  feet  under  water;  so  ihat 
its  whole  height  is  twenty-four  feet:  it  ex- 
tends into  the  sea  6'JO  feet.     The  sea-watef 
was  boiling  as  in  a  cauldron,  where  it  washed 
the  fool  ol  this  new-formed  promontory. 

The  rapid  progress  of  the  lava,  however, 
was  such,  after  it  had  altered  its  course  from 
Hisina,  which  town  il  lirst  threatened,  and 
had  joined  a  fresh  lava  that  issued  from  one 
of  the  new  mouths  in  a  vineyard,  about  a 
mile  from  the  town,  that  it  ran  like  a  torrent 
over  the  town  of  'rorre  del  Greco,  allowing 
the  un'ortunate  inhabitants  scarcely  time  to 
sa\e  their  lives.  'Iheir  goods  and  elTecls 
were  totally  abandoned ;  and  indeed  several 
of  the  inhabitants,  whose  houses  had  been 
surrounded  with  lava  while  they  remained  in 
them,  e-capeJ  from  them,  and  saved  their 
lives  the  following  day,  bv  coming  out  of  the 
tops  of  their  houses.'antt  walking  over  the 
scorii  on  the  surface  of  the  red-hot  lava. 
'1  he  lava  over  the  cathedral,  an<i  in  other 
parts  of  the  town,  i)  saiil  to  be  upwards  of 
forty  feel  in  tliickness  ;  the  general  lieight  of 
the  lava  during  its  whole  course  was  about 
tw  elve  feet,  and  in  some  parts  not  less  tbau 
a  mile,  in  breadth. 

On  Wednesday  June  18,  the  wind  having 
for  a  short  space  of  lime  cleared  away  the 
thick  cloud  froiii  the  lop  of  \esuvius,  it  was 
now  discovered  that  a  great  part  of  its  cra- 
ter, ])articularly  on  the  west  side  opposite 
Naples,  had  fallen  ;  in  which  it  jirobabiy  did 
about  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  that 
day,  as  a  violent  shock  of  an  earthquake  was 
felt  at  that  moment  at  Kesina,  and  other 
parts  at  the  foot  of  the  volcaiiOi    The  clo^isjs 


866 

of  smoke,  mixed  with  l!ie  aslies,  were  of  siicli 
a  (lcii<ity  a?  to  app'^ar  to  have  the  gnMttsl 
.diflicultv  in  forcing  tlicir  passage  ont  of  tliL- 
ho'.v  svicleiv-«;tf-n.'led  mouth  of  Vesuvius, 
which,  since  tlie  top  te'i  in,  is  desciilj.'d  as 
.not  nuich  short  of  two  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence. One  clmid  heap.-d  on  another,  and 
■succeeded  one  another  incessantly,  formed 
in  a  few  hours  such  a  gigantic  and  elevated 
column  of  the  darkest  hiie  over  the  moun- 
tain, as  seemed  to  threaten  Naples  with  im- 
mediate destruction;  liavinp;  at  one  time  been 
bent  over  the  c;ity,  Und  appearing  to  be  -.nuch 
too  massive  and  ponderous  to  remain  long 
suspended  in  the  air.  It  was,  besides,  re- 
plete witii  the  ferilli,  or  volcanic  lightning, 
-which  wjs  stronger  than  common  li;jhtning  ; 
just  as  Pliny  the  Younger  describes  it  hi  one 
«i  his  letters  to  'I'acitus,  when  he  says  '•  ful- 
goribus  ilte  et  similes  et  majores  erant." 

Vesuvius  was  at  this  time  completely  co- 
vered, as  were  all  the  old  black  lavas,  with 
a  thick  coat  of  those  fine  light-grey  ashes 
already  fallen,  which  gave  it  a  cold  and  hor- 
rid ap'pcarance  ;  and  in  comparison  of  the 
■enormous  mass  of  clouds  (which  certainly, 
however  it  may  contradict  out  idea  of  the 
■extension  of  our  atniosphere,  rose  many 
miles  above  the  mountain),  it  appeared  like 
a  moh-hill,  although  t-he  perpendicular  height 
pi  Vesuvius,  from  the  level  of  the  sea,  is 
more  than  three  thousand  :ix  hundred  feet. 
Ttie  abbe  Braccini,  as  appears  in  his  printed 
account  of  the  eru'plien  of  mount  ^■esuvius 
.in  1631,  measured  with  a  quadrant  the  ele- 
■vatioii  of  a  mass  of  clouds  of  the  same  na- 
ture, which  was  form.'d  over  Vesuvius  dur- 
ing that  great  eruption,  and  found  it  to  ex- 
ceed thirty  miles  in  height.  Dr.  Scotti,  in 
liis  printed  account  of  this  eruption,  says 
tljat  the  height  of  this  threatening  cloud 'ot 
Sihoke  and  ashes,  measured  from  Naples, 
'was  found  to  be  of  an  elevation  of  thirty  de- 
grees, 

•     The  laudable  curiosity  '  of  our  author  in- 
■♦Inced  him  to  go  upon  mount  Vesuvius,  as 
soon  as  it  was  consistent  with  any  degree  of 
-prudence,  which  was  not  until  the  30th  of 
June,  and  even  then  it  was  attended  with 
some  risk.     The  crater  of  Vesuvius,  except 
'at  short  intervals,  had  been  continually  ob- 
scured by  the  volcanic  clouds  from  the  l6tii; 
and  was  so  on  that  day,  with  frec]uent  flashes 
■of  lightning  playing  in  those  clouds,  and  at- 
tended as  usual  with  a  noise  like  thunder  ;  and  ! 
tlie  fine  ashes  were  still  falling  on  Vesuvius, 
but  still  more  on  the  mountain  of  Somma. 
Sir  Witliam  went  up  the  usual  way  by  TJt-si- 
na,  and  observed,  in   his  way  through  that 
village,  that  many  of  the  stones  of  the  pavc- 
.'  meiit  had  been  loosened,  and  were  deranged 
by  the  earthjjuakes,  particularly  by  that  of 
the  18th,  which  attended  the  falling  in  of  the 
crater  of  Hie  volcano,  and  which  had  been 
so  violent  as  to  throw  many  people  down, 
and  oblige<l  ail  the  inhabitants  of  Resina  to 
.quit  then-  houses  hastily,  to  which  they  did 
not  dare  to  return  for  two  days.    The  leaves 
of  all  the  vines  were  burnt  by  the  ashes  that 
had  fallen  on  them  ;  and  niany  of  the  vines 
tlie-nselves  wen*  Innied  under  t'ne  ashes,  and 
great  branches  of  the  trees  that  supporti-d 
them  liad  been  torn  oil'  by  their  weight.     In 
short,  nothing  but  rnin  iu>d  desolation  was 
ti)  be  seen.     The  asb's  at  the   fool  of  the 
inomitaiD  were  about  leu  or  twelve  inthe 


VOLCANO. 

thick  on  I  he  surface  of  the  er.rth  ;  but  in  pro- 
portion as  he  ascended,  their  thickness  in- 
creased to  several  feel,  not  less  than  nine  or 
ten  in  some  parts  ;  so  that  the  surface  of  the 
old  rugged  lavas',  which  before  was  almost 
impracticable,   was    now  become   a  perlecl 
plain,  over  which  he  walked  with  the  great- 
est ease,      'i'he  ashes  were  j>f  a  light-grey 
colour,  and  exceedingly  line,  so  that  by  the 
footsteps  being  marke'l  on  them  as  on  snow, 
he  learnt  that  tliree  small  parties  had  been 
up  before  hini.     He  saw  likewise  the  track  of 
a  fox,  which  appeared  to  have  been  quite  be- 
wildered, to  judge  from  the  many  turns  he 
had  made.     Even  the  traces  of  lizards  and 
otlier  little  animals,  and  of  insects,  w.-re  vi- 
sible on  these  fine  asiies.     Sir  William  and 
his  companion  ascended  to  the  spot  whence 
the  lava  of  the  15th  first  issued,  and  follow- 
ed the  course  of  it,  which  was  still  very  hot 
(although  covered  with  such  a  thick  coat  of 
ashes)  quite  down  to  the   sea  at  Torre  del 
Greco,  wliich  is   more  than   live  miles.     It 
was  not  possible  to  get  up  to  the  great  crater 
of  Vesuvius,  nor  had  any  one  yet  attempted 
it.  ,,  The  horr.d  chasms  that  existed  from  tl)e 
spot  where  the  late  eruptions  first  took  place, 
in  a  straight  line  for  near  two  mile,  towards 
the  se.i,  cannot  be  imagined.     They  fornii:-d 
valleys  more  than  two  hundred  feet  deep,  antl 
from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  wide;  and  where 
the  fountains  of  fiery  matter  issued  during 
the   eruption,     were    little    mountains   with 
deep  craters.    Ten  thousand  men,  in  as  many 
years,  could  not  make  such  an  alteration  on 
the  face  of  Vesuvius.   Except  the  exhalations 
of  sulpluu'eous    vapours,   which  broke   out 
from  diill'rent  spots  of  tlie  line  above-men- 
tioned, and   tinged   the  surface  of  the  ashes 
and  scoria:  in  those  parts  with  either  a  deep 
or  pale  yellow,  with  a  reddish  ochre-colour, 
or  a  bright  white,  and  in  some  parts  with  a 
deep  green  and  azure  blue  (so  that  the  whole 
together  had  the  effect  of  an  iris),  all  had  the 
appearance  of  a  sandy  deert.     Our  adven- 
turers then  went  on  the  top  of  seven  of  the 
most  considerable  of  the  new-formed  moun- 
tains, and  looked  into  their  craters,  which  on 
some  of  them  apjieared  to  be  little  short  of 
half  a  mile  in  circumference;  and  although 
the  exterior   perpendicular  height  of  them 
did  not  exceed  two  hundred  feet,  the  depth 
of  their  inverted  cone  within  w.as  three  times 
as  great.     It  would  not  have  been  possible 
to  have  breathed  on  these  new  mountains 
near  their  craters,  if  they  had  not  taken  the 
precaution  of  tving   a  double  handkerchief 
over  their  mouths   and   nostrils ;    and   even 
with   thai  precaution  they  could  not  resist 
long,  the  fumes  of  the  sulphureous  acid  were 
so  exceedingly  penetrating,   and  of  such   a 
sulTocating   quality.      They  found  in  one  a 
double  crater,  like  two  funnels  joined  toge- 
tlier.;  and  in  all  there  were  seme  little  smoke 
and  deposition  (if  salts  and  sulphurs,  of  the 
various  colours  above-mentioned,  as  is  com- 
monly seen  adhering  to  the  inner  walls  of 
the  principal  crater  of  Vesuvius. 

Two  or  tliree  days  after  they  had  been 
there,  one  of  the  new  mouths  into  which  they 
had  looked,  suddenly  made  a  great  explosion 
of  stones,  smoke,  and  ashes,  wnicli  would  cer- 
tainly have  proved  fatal  to  any  person  who 
might  unfortunately  have  been  present  at  the 
time  of  the  explosion.  While  they  were  on 
the  mountain,  two  whirlwinds,  exactly  lik 
dijse  that  form  ■watei'-s^  outs  at  sea,  madt' 


their  appearance;  ar.i  cne  of  them,  whicft 
was  very  near,  made  a  s5range  rushing  uoise  ; 
and  h.ivnig  taken  up  u  great  qtianlity  ot  the 
fine  aslies,  formed  liieui  into  an  elevated  spi- 
ral column,  wiiich,  with  a  wliirlhig  motion 
and  great  rapidity,  was  carried  towards  tiie 
mountain  (;1  ."ionuiia,  where  it  broke  and  was 
dispersed.  One  of  our  auilior's  servants,  ein- 
plwyed  in  collecting  of  sulphur,  or  sal  am- 
moniac, which  crystallizes  near  the  fumaroli 
as  they  are  called  (which  are  tlie  spots 
whence  the  hot  vapour  issues  out  of  the  fresh 
lavai),  found  to  his  great  surprise,  an  ex- 
ceeding cold  wind  from  a  fissure  very  near 
the  hot  fumaroli,  upon  his  leg.  In  a  vineyard 
not  in  the  same  line  with  liie  new-formed 
mountains  just  described,  but  In  a  right  line 
from  tlieiii,  at  the  distance  of  little  more  than 
a  mile  from  Torre  del  Greco,  they  found 
three  or  more  of  these  new-formecf  moun- 
tains wiih  craters,  out  of  which  the  lava 
tiowed;  and  by  uniting  with  the  streams  that 
came  from  the  higher  mouths,  and  adding 
to  their  heat  and  tUiidity,  enabled  the  whole 
current  to  make  so  rapid  a  progress  over  the 
uiifoi  tunate  town. 

In  the  town  of  Somma,  our  author  found 
four  churches  and  about  seventv  houses  with- 
out roofs,  and  full  of  ashes,     i'he  great  da- 
mage on  that  side  of  the  mountain,  by  the 
fall  of  the  ashes  and  the  torrents,  happened 
on  the  tSth,  19th,  and  20th  of  June,  and  on 
the  12th  of  July.     The   19th,  the  ashes  tell 
so  thick  at  Somma,  that  unless  a  person  kept 
In  motion,  he  was  soon  fixed  to  the  ground 
by  them.     Ihis  tall  of  ashes  was  accompa- 
nied also  with  loud  reports,  -and    frequent 
flashes  of  the  volcanic  lightning;  so  that,  sur- 
rounded by  so  many  horrors,  it  was  impos- 
sible  for  the  inhabitants  to  remain  in  the 
town,   and  they  all  tied;  the  darkness  was 
such,  although  it   was  mid-day,   that    even 
with  the  help  of  torches  it  was  scarcely  pos- 
sible to  keep  in  the  high  road.     On  the  Itjtii 
of  July,  signor  Guiseppe  Sacco  went  up  to 
the  crater ;  and,  according  to  his  account, 
which  was  printed  at  Naples,  the  crater  is 
now  of  an  irregular  oval  form,  and  as  he  sup- 
poses (not  having  been  able  to  measure  it)  of 
about  a  mile  and  a   half  in  circumference  ; 
the  inside,  as  usual,  in  the  shape  of  an  i.i- 
verted  cone,  the  inner  walls  of  which  on  the 
eastern  side  are  perpendicular ;  but  on  the 
western  side  of  the  crater,  which  is  lower, 
the  descent  was  practicable,  and  Sacco  with 
some  of  his  companions  actually  went  down 
one  hundred  and   seventy-six  palms ;  from 
which  spot  having   lowered  a  cord  with  a 
stone  lied  to  it,  they  found  the  whole  depth 
of  the  crater  to  be  about  i\ve  hundred  palms. 
Such  observations,  however,  on  the  crater  of 
Vesuvius,  are  of  little  consequence,  as  UvJi 
its  form  and  apparent  depth  are  subject  to 
great  alterations  from  day  to  day. 

On  the  "'-'d  of  July,  one  of  the  new  crater 
which  Is  the  nearest  to  the  town  of  Torre  d  . 
Greco,  threw  up  both  lire  and  smoke ;  whicii 
circuiiLstancc,  added  to  thai  of  the  lava"s  re- 
taining  its   heat  mucii   longer    than    usual, 
beeiiiei.1  to  indicate  that  there  was  .still  so:;: 
fermentation  under  that  part  of  the  volcan. 
The  lava  hi  cooling  often  cracks,  and  cans  - 
a  louil  ex[)losion,  just  as  the  ice  dpes  in  t!. 
glaciers  in  Swisserland  ;  such  repjits  wi . 
ueipiently  heard  at  this  time  at  the  Toi  i 
■    del  Greco  ;  and  u  vapour  was  o.'ten  seen  to 
*  10 


issue  from  the  bociV  of  (lie  lava,  and  laking 
lire  111  llif  air,  fall  like  those  motcors  vulgarly 
callwl  failing  stars. 

The  arclibisho])  of  Taranto,  in  a  letter  to 
Kaples,  and  dated  from  that  city  the  18th 
of  Juiii^',  observes :  "  We  are  involved  in  a 
thick  cloud  of  niinnte  volcanic  ashes,  and  we 
imagine  tlial  there  imist  be  a  gr<'at  ernption 
cither  at  mount  I'^tna  or  of  Strumboii.  'I'he 
bishop  did  not  suspect  their  having  proeeed- 
e<l  from  Vesuvius,  which  is  about  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles  from  Taranto.  Ashes 
also  fell,  during  the  late  eruplion,  at  the  very 
extremity  ofjthe  province  of  Lccce,  which 
is  still  farther  off;  and  at  Martino,  near  Ta- 
raiilo,  a  house  was  struck  and  much  damaged 
by  the  lightning  from  one  of  the  clouds,  fn 
the  accounts  of  the  great  eruption  of  Vesu- 
vius in  1631,  mention  is  made  of  the  exten- 
sive |)rogress  of  the  ashes  from  Vesuvius ;  and 
of  the  damage  done  by  (lie  ferllli,  or  volcanic 
lightning,  which  attended  them  in  tlieir 
course." 

Our  author  in  liiis  place  mentions  a  very 
extraordinary  circumstance,  which  happened 
near  Sienna,  on  the  Tuscan  slate,  about  eigh- 
teen hours  after  the  commencement  of  the 
late  eruplion  of  Vesuvius  on  the  l.'ith  of  June, 
•llhough  he  adds,  that  phenomenon  must 
iiave  no  relation  to  the  eruption;  it  was 
communicated  to  him  in  the  following  words 
by  the  earl  of  Ikistol,  bishop  of  Derry,  in  a 
letter  dated  from  .Sienna,  July  11',  1794:  "In 
the  midst  of  a  most  violent  thunder-storm, 
about  a  dozen  stones  of  various  weights  and 
dimensions  fell  at  the  feet  of  dil'fereni  people, 
meo,  women,  and  children ;  the  stones  are 
of  a  quality  not  found  in  any  part  of  the 
Siennese  territory ;  they  fell  about  eiiihteen 
hours  after  the  enormous  eruption  of  Vesu- 
vius, which  circumstance  leaves  a  choice  of 
difttcullies  in  the  solution  of  this  extraordi- 
nary phenomenon  :  either  tliese  stones  have 
been  generated  in  this  igneous  mass  of  clouds, 
which  produced  such  unusual  thunder;  or, 
which  is  equally  incredible,  they  were  thrown 
from  Ves\ivius  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two 
hundred  and  fifty  miles ;  judge  tiien  of  its 
parabola."  One  of  the  largest  stones,  when 
entire,  weighed  upwards  of  five  ponnrls. 
The  outside  of  every  stone  that  was  found, 
and  ascertained  to  have  fallen  from  the  cloud 
■  tieai-  Sienna,  was  evidently  fresh-vitriiied,  and 
black,  with  indubitable  signs  of  havini;  pass- 
ed through  an  extreme  iieat ;  wlien  broki'ii, 
the  inside  was  found  of  a  light-grey  colour 
mixed  with  black  spots,  and  some  shinini; 
particles,  supposed  to  be  pyrites.  Stones  of 
the  same  nature,  at  least  as  far  as  the  eye  can 
judge  of  them,  are  frequently  found  on 
mount  Vesuvms;and  should  similar  stones 
be  found  thi're,  with  the  same  vitrified  coat 
on  them,  the  question  would  be  <li  cided  in 
favour  of  Vesuvius  ;  unless  it  could  be  proved 
that  there  had  been,  about  the  time  of  the 
fall  of  ihese  stones  in  the  Siennese  territory, 
some  nearer  opening  of  the  earth,  attentled 
with  an  emission  of  volcanic  matter ;  which 
might  very  possibly  happen,  a-,  the  moun- 
tain of  l^adicofani,  within  fifty  miles  of 
Sienna,  is  certainly  volcanic.  'Ihe  celebrat- 
ed father  Ambrogio  Soldani,  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  university  of  Sienna,  has 
printed  there  a  dissert.ition  upon  this  extra- 
ordinary ph.  noine^ion:  and,  if  is  said,  ;ha3 
decided  that  those  stones  were'geiierited  iu 


VOLCANO. 

the  air  independanlly  of  volcanic  assistance. 
Sec  Mei  KOKic  Stonks. 

Until  after  the  7tli  of  July,  when  the  last 
cloud  broke  over  Vesuvius',  and  formed  a 
tremendous  torrent  of  mud,  whir h  took  itf 
course  across  the  great  road  betw.  en  'I'orie 
del  Greco  and  the  Torr«  <lcll'  Anuuiiziata, 
and  destroyed  many  vineyards,  the  eruption 
could  not  be  said  to  have'  finished,  althou^^h 
the  force  of  it  was  over  the  2-'d  of  June,  'i'tie 
pouer  of  altr.iction  in  mountains  is  well 
known  ;  but  whether  the  attractive  power  of 
a  volcanic  mountain  is  greater  than  that  of 
any  other  mountain,  is  a"  question.  During 
this  eruplion,  however,  it  appeared  that 
every  watery  cloud  was  evidently  attracted 
by  Vesuvius,  and  the  sudden  dissolution  of 
those  clouds  left  marks  of  their  destructive 
power  on  the  face  of  the  country  all  round 
the  basis  of  the  volcano.  After  the  moiith 
of  \'esuvius  was  enlarged,  our  author  says  he 
has  seen  a  great  cloud  passing  over  it,  which 
not  only  was  attracted,  but  even  sucked  in, 
and  disappeared  in  a  moment. 

^  After  every  violent  eruption  of  mount 
Vesuvius,  we  read  of  damage  done  by  a  me- 
philic  vapour  ;  which  proceeding  froiii  under 
the  ancient  lavas,  insinuates  itself  into  low 
places,  such  as  the  cellars  and  wells  of  the 
houses  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  volcano. 
After  the  eruption  of  171)7,  there  were  se- 
veral instance-,  as  in  this,  of  people,  going 
into  their  cellars  at  Porlici,  and  other  parts 
of  that  neighbourhood,  having  been  struck 
down  by  this  vapour,  and  who  would  have 
expired  if  they  had  not  been  hastily  re- 
moved. These  occasional  vapours,  or  mo- 
jete,  are  of  the  same  rpialily  as  that  perma- 
nent one  in  the  Grotto  del'Cane,  near  the 
lake  of  Agnano,  and  which  has  been  proved 
to  consist  chielly  of  fixed  air.  'I'he  vapours 
which,  in  the  volcanic  language  of  Naples, 
are  called  fumaroii,  are  of  another  nature, 
and  issue  from  spots  all  over  the  fresh  and 
hot  lavas  w  hile  they  are  cooling ;  they  are 
sulphureous,  and  so  suffocating,  that  often 
the  birds  which  are  fiyina  over  them  are  over- 
powered, and  fall  down  dead. 

The  interior  of  a  volcano,  that  immense 
treasury  of  devastation,  must  undoubtedly 
be  an  object  of  philo-ophical  curiosity  :  yet 
when  we  consider  the  nature  of  the  attempt ; 
th.it  the  inconqjact  state  of  the  materials,  by 
affording  no  proper  support,  may  hurry  the 
incautious  ailventurer  into  the  burning  abvss; 
that  the  mephitic  vapours  niav  produce  in- 
stantaneous suflbcatiort ;  or  that  a  sudden 
explosion  may  overwhelm  him  with  deotruc- 
ti',)n  ;  we  cannot  wonder  that  so  few  have  en- 
gaged in  an  exploit  so  replete  with  danger. 

A\'e  should  have  remained  ignorant  of  this 
state  of  this  inuuense  natural  furnace,  had  not 
the  spirit  or  temerity  of  eight  Frenchmen,  in 
the  jear  1801,  enabled  them  successliiUv  to 
explore  this  cavern  of  destruction.  The 
mouth,  or  upper  base,  of  ihe  centre  of  Ve- 
suvius, which  is  a  little  inclined  to  its  axis, 
is  represented  by  these  travellers  as  j7L'2 
feet  in  circumference.  After  walking  round 
the  aperture  of  the  volcano,  in  order  to  cluise 
(he  most  commodious  part  for  descending, 
.M.Dampiene,  a.ijutanl  commandant,  and  -VJ. 
Vickar,  a  painter,  first  descended  without 
any  accidental  the  determined  point  ;  vshen, 
however,  they  found  themselves  stopped  by 
an  excavation  of  50  feet,  which  it  was  neces'- 
5  R  2  ' 


saiy  to  pas5.  Tintling  it  imposjiblc  t)  obtain 
a  lixed  sup]>ort  on  ashes  so  mcvea  le,  and 
being  convinced  that  tlie  Inction  of  n/pei 
wouid  liave  destroyed  both  the  point  of mp- 
port  and  the  neighbouring  masses,  I  hey  re- 
solved to  return.  Some  stones  at  liie  ^anie 
moment  rolled  from  the  summit,  and  otcii- 
sioiied  a  general  agitation  as  they  passeJ ; 
Uw  giound  'hook  under  their  feel,  and  the-y 
had  scarcely  quilted  it  wlieu  it  disap[>earud 
and  fell  in. 

Alter  walking  once  more  round  the  moulTi 
of  the  crater,  ihev  discovered  ul  leiiglii  a  long 
declivitj,  smoolfi  though  steep,  which  ap- 
peared lo  conduct  to  Ihe  foLus.  When  ihi-y 
had  proceeded  half-way,  amidst  a  lorfent  of 
ashes  which  rolled  down  along  witii  tiiem, 
they  found  means  lo  fix  themselves  on  the 
edge  of  the  precipice,  twelve  feet  in  height, 
\yhich  it  was  necessary  to  pass.  Willi  one 
of  the  lazaroiii,  however,  they  plunged 
down  this  precipice  ;  and  found  fhemselvei 
on  the  brink  of  another,  which,  liowever,  not 
being  cpiite  so  high,  they  passed  wilh  more 
ease.  At  length,  amidst  sliowers  of  falling 
lava,  ashes,  and  stones,  they  reached  the 
bottom  of  the  crater. 

Tliiy  found  the  immense  furnace  still 
smoking  in  several  |)laces.  Die  bottom  of 
the  crater,  which  liom  above  appeared  l)er- 
fectly  smooth,  was  found  on  the  contrary, 
wh(  n  they  readied  it,  exceedingly  rough  aiid 
tinevi  n.  They  passed  over  lava  very  por- 
ous, in  geneiai  hard,  but  in  some  places,  and 
particularly  where  they  entered,  still  s..n, 
so  as  even  to  yield  under  their  feet.  The 
spectacle,  however,  winch  most  attracted 
them  was  the  spiracles  ;  which  either  at  the 
bottom  or  interior  sides,  sufler  the  vapours 
to  escape.  These  vapours,  however,  did 
not  appear  of  a  noxious  quality.  In  tra- 
versing the  crater  they  perceived  a  focus 
halt -covered  by  a  large  mass  of  pumice 
stone,  and  which  from  its  whole  circumfcr- 
ence  emitted  a  strong  heat.  Reaemur'ii 
thermometer,  on  the  summit  of  Vesuvius, 
stood  at  twelve  degrees  ;  in  the  crater  it  rose 
to  sixteen  ;  placed  at  one  of  the  spiracles  it 
indicated  fifty-four,  at  another  on.y  twenlv- 
two  ;  and  at  the  entrance  of  the  foci:s  itne- 
\er  rose  higher  than  twenty-two  degrees. 

The  volcanic  productions  in  flie  crater 
were  lava,  exceedingly  porous,  and  reduced 
by  the  fire  in  some  places  to  seorix.  Jt  was 
of  a  dark-brown  colour  in  general  ;  and  in 
some  places  reddish,  wilh  a  very  little  while. 
The  substances  nearest  the  spiricles  iveic 
covered  or  impregnated  wilh  sulphur,  whicli 
sometimes  was  in  a  stale  of  oxygenation. 
Some  basaltic  lava  was  also  fouinl,  but  i(t. 
a  small  quantity.  The  btirning  focus  pro- 
duced the  same  results. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  crater  there  were 
two  large  lisstires,  one  of  whiih  was  twenty 
feet  in  dei)th,  the  other  lifteeii.  '1  liey.were 
shaped  hke  an  inverted  cor.e,  and  ihe  niallvr 
with  which  they  were  covered  was  similar  to 
the  rest  of  the  surface,  but  ihejLemitted  nei- 
ther snicke  nor  heat. 

The  ascent  of  our  adventurers  waS|aTom' 
plished  with  more  d  fticulty,  Ihough  pcrh;  ps 
wilh  less  danger,  than  tile' descent.  '  It 'alau 
occunied  a  greater  space  of  time ;  for  they 
could  only  ascend  one  at  a  time  after  toii- 
sidcrable  intervals,  for  fe  r  of  burving,  under 
torients  of  du  t  and  vo  tanic  ntatt^rs,  those 
who  immediatelv  succeeiied. 


608 


V  O  W 


As  the  theory  of  volcnnops  is  by  no  mpnns 
asctrtaineil,  we  have  thoiiglit  it  better  to  pre- 
sent our  reatli-rs  wiih  farts  than  speculations, 
and  the  narrations  whicli  we  have  selected 
contain  the  most  striking  and  best  antlienti- 
cated  facts  extant  relative  to  these  terrible 
pficnomena.  On  these  future  pliilosophers 
itiay  reflect,  and  possibly  niay  ehrit  a  inoie 
satisfactory  explanation  of  them  than  any 
vhicli  has  liilherto  been  presented  to  the 
public. 

^'OLKAMERIA,  a  genus  of  the  ddy- 
naniia  angiospermia  class  of  plants,  the  co- 
rolla whereof  consists  of  a  riiigent,  single 
petal;  the  tube  is  cjlindric,  and  twice  the 
length  of  the  cup  ;  the  limb  is  divided  into 
live  plain  segments  ;  the  fruit  is  a  roundish 
bilucular  capsule ;  the  seed  is  a  single  bilo- 
Cular  nut.     There  are  eight  species. 

VOLVOX,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  ani- 
mals belonging  to  the  order  of  vermes  infu- 
soria. The  body  is  round,  simple,  and  pel- 
i:icid.  There  are  ten  species,  all  of  which 
live  in  water. 

VOLUTA,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of 
animals  belonging  to  the  class  and  order  of 
\ermes  testacea.  There  are  144  species. 
The  animals  are  of  the  slug  kind  ;  the  shell  is 
miilocular  and  spirid ;  the  apertiu'e  narrow 
and  without  a  beak  ;  the  columella  plaited. 

VOLUTE,  a  spiral  scroll,  used  in  the  Io- 
nic and  composite  capitals,  whereof  it  makes 
tiie    principal   characteristic   and  ornament. 

See  ARCHtTECTURE. 

VOMiriNG.     See^rEDICINE. 

VORTEX,  in  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  is 
a  svstem  or  collection  of  particles  of  matter 
jnoving  the  same  way,  and  round  tlie  same 
a\i5. 

VORTICEI.LA,  a  genus  of  vermes  infuso- 
ria. The  generic  character  is,  body  con- 
tractile, naked,  and  furnished  with  ciliate  ro- 
tatory organs.  There  are  nearly  sixty  spe- 
cies of  this  genus.  See  Adams  on  tlie  Mi- 
croscope. 

VOUCHER,  a  term  of  art,  when  the  te- 
nant in  a  writ  of  right  calls  another  into  the 
court  who  is  bound  to  him  to  warranty, 
and  that  is  cither  to  defend  the  right  against 
the  demandant,  or  to  yield  liim  other  lands, 
iic.  in  value,  and  extends  to  lands  or  tene- 
ments of  freehold  or  inheritance.  He  that 
Touches  is  called  voucher,  and  he  that  isvoucli- 
ed  i':  called  the  vouchee.    Sei;  Recov  ery. 

VOWEL,  in  grammar,  a  letter  which  affords 
a  complete  sound  in  itself.  In  our  language  they 
sue  six  in  number. 

The  following  views  of  the  laxity  with  which 
the  vowels  are  managed,  and  of  their  very  great 
£or.'v;TtWi'rt\^  in  OUT  language,  have  lately  been 
pven.  Their  different  sounds  are  designated  hy 
ihe  marks  rtspectively  used  in  these  words  ; 
Vowels: — an,  ably,  ant  ;  bed,  b^ ;  if,  Ingh  ; 
on,  so,  off;  us,  truth,  ms»ic,  foil. 
Diphthongs ; — ol\ ;  out. 
Consonantal: — wit ;  ^on. 

I. 


►ioundst 


Expressed    hy 


e,  (i),  ai,  au,  ia 

e,  i,  ai,  ao,  au,  ay,  ca,  (ec),  ei,  ey,  oy 

(e),  ai,  au,  (ca) 

a,  (i),  (u),  ai,  ay,  ea,  ei,  eo,  ey,  ie 

i,  y,  ay,  ea,  ee,  ei,  eo,  cy,  ia,  le 

a,  e,  o,  11,  y,  ca,  ce,  eo,  ic,  ui 

y ,  iii,  ay,  ei,  ey,  (ia),  ie,  oi;  oy,  ui,  ye,  eye 


Sounds 


U  P  u 

Eipressedby 


"l 


a,  u,  au,  (aw),  oa,  ovv 

aw,  eo,  ew,  oa,  oe,  (ui),  (oo),  ou,  ow, 

eau,  (ewe),  owe 
a,  (ao),  au,  aw,  (eo),  oa,  ou,  awe 
(e),  (i),  o,  (y),  (ea;,  oe,  oo,  ou 
o,  CO,  eu,  ew,  oe,  oo,  ou,  ow,  ue,  ui,  te'vt 
eo,  eu,  ew,  ue,  ui,  eau,  ewe,  ieu,  iew 
o,  oo,  ou 
oy,  oie 
u,  eo,  ow 


11. 

Letters  and 

Combinations. 

Expressing 

a 

{;  i,  6,  d 

e 

a,  a,  (a),  i,  (u),  » 
(i),  a,  (e),  e,  (u),  ^ 

i 

o 

i,  u,  it,  u,  IV 

11 

(e),  i,  6,  otf,  iv 

Y 

e,  1,  V,  (u)_ 

31 

a,  a,  a,  e,  i 

ao 

*•  {^l 

au 

a,  a,  a,  6,  6 

aw 

^6),  6,  6 

ay 

a,  e,  e,  i 

ea 

ii,  (a),  e,  c,  i,  (u) 

ce 

{^y^'.K 

ei 

a,  e,  e,  i 

eo 

e,  c,  1,  6,  (0),  u,  li,  m 

eu 

ii,  u 

ew 

6,  11,  u 

ey 

a,  e,  e,  i 

la 

a,  e,  (\) 

ie 

i,  e,  i,  i 

oa 

6,  6,  6 

oe 

6,  u,  u 

oi 

i.  (6) 

oo 

(6),_  u,  ii,_  iV 

ou 

6,  6,  u,  u,  ft 

ow 

6,  6,  u,  ou 

oy 

a,  i,  oi 

ue 

it,  u 

ui 

I,  i,  u, 

ye 

I 

awe 

o 

eau 

6,  n 

eew 

n 

ewe 

(6),  u 

eye 

i 

ieu 

u 

iew 

u 

oie 

oi 

owe 

b 

The  instances  included  within  parentheses  (  ) 
are  found  complete  only  with  an  r  following 
them  ;  as  i  iu  clcti,  referred  to  the  sound  of  a 
in  <uit. 

UPUPA,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  belong- 
ing to  the  order  of  pica?.  The  beak  is  arcu- 
ated, convex,  uud  sometliing  blunt ;  the 
tongue  is  obtuse,  triangular,  entire,  and  very 
short;  and  the  feet  are  titled  for  walking. 
There  are  tea  species,  one  of  which,  the 
epops,  hoopoe,  or  dung-bird,  is  frequently 
seen  in  Britain.  It  may  be  readily  distin- 
guished from  all  otlicrs  that  visit  this  isUuid 
by  its  beautihil  crest,  which  it  can  erect  or 
depress  at  pleasure.  It  is  in  length  iifteeu 
inches;  the  bill  is  black,  two  inches  and  a 
half  long,  slender,,  and  incurvated ;  the  iridcs 
are  hazel :  the  crest  consists  of  a  double  row 
of  feathers,  the  highest  about  two  inches 
long ;  the  tips  are  black,  llieir  lower  part  of  a 
pale  orange  coloxir  ;  the  neck  is  of  a  pale  red- 
dish brown,  the  breast  and  belly  white  ;  the 
lesser  coverts  of  tlw  wingi  arc  oi  ix  lijjht 


U  R  A 

brown ;  the  back,  scapulars,  and  winR', 
crossed  with  broad  bars  of  wlute  and  blacky 
the  rump  isvshite;  the  tail  consists  of  only 
ten  feathers,  white  marked  with  black,  in 
form  ot  a  crescent,  the  horns  pointing  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  feathers.  '1  he  legs  are 
short  and  black  ;  the  exterior  toe  is  closely 
united  at  the  bottom  to  the  middle  toe.  Sti.' 
I'late  Nat.  Ilist.  tig,  4l3. 

According  to  Linna'iis,  it  takes  its  name 
from  its  note,  which  has  a  sound  similar  to 
the  word;  or  it  may  be  derived  from  the 
French,  huppe,  or  "  crested:"  it  breeds  in 
hollow  trees,  and  lays  two  ash-coloured  eggs: 
it  feeds  on  insects,  which  it  picks  out  ol  or- 
dure of  all  kinds.  Dr.  Pallas  alTtrms,  that  it: 
breeds  in  preference  in  putnd  carcases ;  and 
that  lie  had  seen  the  nest  of  one  in  the  privy 
of  an  uninhabited  house,  in  the  suburbs  of 
Tzaritsyn.  Ovid  says  tiiat  Ttreus  was 
changed  into  this  bird. 

URANIA,  a  genus  of  the  hexandria  mo- 
nogynia  class  and  order  of  phmts.  There  is 
no  calyx;  the  corolla  is  two-petalled ;  nec- 
tarine two-leaved;  capsule  two-celled,  many- 
seeded.     There  is  one  si^ecies. 

URANIUM,  a  mineral  found  in  Saxony, 
partly  in  a  pure  and  partly  in  a  mixed  state. 
There  are  two  varieties  of  these  ;  the  lirst  of 
a  blackish  colour,  quite  opaque,  tolerably 
hard,  and  with  a  specilic  gravity  of  about  7.5. 
The  second  is  distinguished  by  a  finer  black 
colour,  with  here  and  there  a  reddish  cast; 
by  a  stronger  lustre,  not  unUke  that  of  pit- 
coal  ;  by  an  inferior  hardness ;  and  by  a  shade 
of  gretn,  which  tinges  its  black  colour  when 
it  is  reduced  to  powder. 

This  fossil  was  called  perfiblende  ;  and  mi- 
neralogists, misled  by  the  name,  had  taken  it 
for  an  ore  of  zinc,  till  the  celebrated  Werner, 
convinced  from  its  texture,  hardness,  and 
specilic  gravity,  that  it  was  not  a  blende, 
placed  it  among  the  ores  of  iron.  After- 
wards he  suspected  that  it  contained  tung- 
sten ;  and  this  conjecture  was  seeminsly  con- 
firmed by  the  experiments  of  some  Gemiaiv 
mineralogists,  published  in  the  Miners'  Jour- 
nal. But  Klaproth,  the  most  celebrated  ana- 
lyst in  Europe,  examined  this  ore  in  1789, 
and  found  that  it  consists  chietly  of  sulpliur 
combined  with  a  peculiar  metal,  to  which  he 
gave  the  Hame  of  uranium. 

Uranium  is  of  a  dark-grey  colour  ;  inter- 
nally it  is  somewhat  inclined  to  brown. 

Its  malleability  is  unknown.  Its  hardness 
is  about  6.  It  requires  a  stronger  heat  for  fu- 
sion than  manganese.  Indeed  Klaprotli  only 
obtained  it  in  very  small  conglutinated  me- 
tallic grains,  foi'iiiing  all  together  a  porous  and 
spongy  mass.     Its  specilic  gravity  is  G.440. 

When  exposed  for  some  time  to  a  red  heat, 
it  suffers  no  change.  By  means  of  nitric  acid, 
however,  it  may  be  converted  into  a  jellow 
powder.  This  is  the  peroxide  or  yellow  ox- 
ide of  uranium,  which  seems  to  be  composed 
of  about  5ti  parts  of  uranium  and  44  of  oxy- 
gen. This  oxide  is  found  native,  mixed  with 
the  luineral  above  described.  From  the  ex- 
periments of  Proust,  we  learn  that  this  metal 
is  capable  of  forming  only  two  oxides,  but  no 
description  of  the  protoxide  has  been  pub- 
lished ;  aiid  the  ore  is  so  scarce  that  it  i.s  not 
every  chemist  who  can  gratify  his  cmiosity  by 
au  examination  of  uranium. 

Urauium  is  capable  of  combinicg  witli  stit- 


U  R  E 

I^illiir.    The  mineral  from  whicli  Mr.  Klap 
roth  first  obUiiitd  it  is  a  native  sulphuret  of 
uraiiiiHii. 

UKANOSCOPUS,  star-gawr,  a  genus  of 
fishes  ot  tin.'  onlf-r  jiii»iilares.  'I'lic  geiR-ric 
cliarai-tcr  is,  licad  i.iri;<',  dcpressfd,  rough  ; 
Kioiilh  fiiniishi.-d  with  an  inti.Tnal  cirrns ;  gill- 
covcis  edged  by  a  ciliated  l>order ;  gill-nn;in- 
braiie  five  layeu. 

Uranoscopns  scal>er,  bearded  star-irazcr. 
Tlic  head  of  this  (isii  is  lari^e,  scpiarish,  and 
covered  by  a  strong  bony  tasc,  roughened  by 
'an  infinite  number  of  small  warts  or  jirotube'- 
rances:  each  side  of  this  case  is  tennhiated 
above  by  two  spines,  the  liindenno,t  of  which 
is  the  strongest,  and  covered  by  a  skin  :  the 
under  part  has  five  spines,  smaller  than  those 
above:  the  mouth,  which  is  wide,  0|)ens  in 
an  almost  veilical  direction:  the  tongue  is 
thick,  short,  and  roughened  with  numerous 
small  teetli ;  near  the  interior  lip  of  the 
Jower  jaw  is  a  membranaceous  process  whic 
terminates  in  a  long  cirrus  or  beard  c.\tc:nd- 
ing  to  some  distance  beyond  the  lips,  which 
are  themselves  edged  witii  smaller  ones:  the 
eyes  are  situated  very  near  each  otlier  on  the 
top  of  the  liead:  the  hotly  is  of  a  somewhat 
squarish  form  as  far  as  tlie  vent,  and  tlience 
becomes  cylindric  :  it  is  covered  with  small 
scales,  and  marked  near  the  back  by  a  lateral 
line  composed  of  small  pores  or  points  bend- 
ing from  the  neck  to  tlie  pectoral  tins  on 
each  side,  and  thence  in  a  straiglit  line  to 
the  tail :  on  the  back  are  two  fins,  of  which 
the  first  is  nnich  shorter  than  the  latter,  and 
furnished  with  stronger  spines  :  the  pectoral 
fins  are  large,  witli  soft  rays:  the  ventral  lins 
are  small;  the  tail  of  n'loderate  size,  and 
rounded  at  the  end.  The  colour  of  the  body 
is  brown,  with  a  wiiitish  or  silvery  cast  to- 
wards the  abdomen ;  the  head,  pectoral  fins, 
and  tail,  having  a  strong  ferrnginons  cast,  and 
the  first  dorsal  lin  being  marked  towards  its 
hind  part  by  a  large  black  spot. 

The  star-gazer  is  an  inliabitant  of  the  Me- 
iliterranean  and  northern  seas,  chiefly  fre- 
quenting the  shallow  parts  near  the  shores, 
where  it  lies  concealed  in  the  mnd,  with  the 
tip  of  the  head  alone  exposed:  in  this  situa- 
tion it  waves  the  beards  of  the  lips,  and  par- 
ticularly the  long  cirrus  of  the  mouth,  in  va- 
rious directions,  thus  alluring  the  smaller 
fishes  and  marine  in-ects  which  happen  to  be 
swimming  near,  and  which  mistaking  these 
organs  for  worins,  art  instantly  seized  bv 
their  conccaletl  enemy.  The  usiral  length  of 
tlHs  fish  is  alK)ut  twelve  inches.  It  is  in  no 
esteem  as  an  article  of  food,  being  generallv 
considered  as  coarse  and  of  an  ill  flaTonr: 
the  gall  was  anciently  considered  as  of  pecu- 
liar efficacy  in  external  disorders  of  the  eves. 
There  are  only  two  species,  viz.  the  scaber 
and  Japanicus. 

UREA,  the  const'lnent  and  characteristic 
matter  of  urine,  may  be  obtained  by  the  fol- 
lowing process :  Evaporate  by  a  gei.Ue  heat  a 
quantity  of  human  urine,  voided  six  or  eight 
hours  after  a  ineal,  till  it  is  reduced  to  the 
consistence  of  a  thick  svrup.  In  this  state, 
when  put  by  to  cool,  it  concrete;  into  a  crys- 
talline mass.  Pour  at  different  tnies  upon 
this  mass  four  times  its  weight  of  a'cohol,  and 
apply  a  gent'e  heat ;  a  great  part  ol  the  mass 
will  be  dissolved,  and  there  will  remain  only  a 
number  of  saline  substances.  Pour  the  alco- 
hol solution  into  a- retortj  and  distil  by  the 


U  R  E 

licttof  a  sand-bath  till  the  liquid,  after  boil- 
ing some  lime,  is  re("\jced  to  tlie  ninMstence 
of  a  lliick  syrup.  The  whole  of  the  alcohol 
is  now  separated,  and  wliat  remains  in  the  re- 
tort crystallizes  as  it  cools.  Thes-e  crystals 
consist  of  the  sul>stance  known  by  the  name 
of  urea. 

Urea,  obtained  in  this  manner,  has  the 
form  of  crystalline  plales  crossing  each  other 
in  diifi'rcnt  directions,  itscolour  is  yellowish 
white  :  it  has  a  fetid  smell,  somewhat  reseni- 
bliiig  that  of  garlic  or  arsenic;  its  taste  is 
strong  and  acrid,  resembling  that  of  animoni- 
acal  salts;  it  is  very  viscid  and  diflicull  to 
cut,  and  has  a  good  deal  of  resemblance  to 
thick  honey.  \Vhen  exposed  to  the  open 
air,  it  very  soon  attracts  moisture,  and  is  con- 
verted into  a  thick  brown  liquid.  It  is  ex- 
tremely solul)le  in  water  ;  and  during  its  so- 
lution a  considerable  degree  of  cold  is  pro- 
duced. Alcohol  dissolves  it  with  facility, 
|j  j  but  scarcely  in  so  large  a  proportion  as  wa- 
ter. The  alcohol  solution  yields  crystals 
much  more  readily  on  evaporation  than  the 
solution  in  water. 

Wlien  nitric  acid  is  dropt  into  a  concen- 
Iratixl  solution  ot  urea  in  water,  a  great  num- 
ber of  bright  pearl-coloured  crystals  are  de- 
posited, coiii|)osed  of  urea  and  nitric  acid. 
No  other  acid  produces  this  singular  effect. 
The  concentrated  solution  of  urea  in  water  is 
brown,  but  it  becomes  yellow  when  diluted 
with  a  large  quantity  of  water.  The  infusion 
of  nutgalls  gives  it  a  vellowish-brown  colour, 
but  causes  no  precipitate  ;  neither  does  the 
infusion  of  tan  produce  any  precipitate. 

AVhcn  heat  is  applied  to  urea,  it  very  soon 
melts,  swells  up,  and  evaporates  with  an  in- 
supportably  fetid  odoiy.  When  distilled, 
there  come  over  first  benzoic  acid,  then  car- 
bonat  of  ammonia  in  crystals,  some  carbu- 


U  R  E  669 

which  was  found  in  tliecrbonat  ofau.nioni^ 
existed  ready-fonned  in  the  urea  before  tiiC 
distillation. 

When  the  solution  of  urea  in  water  is  kept 
in  a  boiling  heat,  and  new  water  is  udtled  as  it 
evaporates,  the  urea  is  gradually  ilecoinjx>^- 
ed,  a  vefy  great  i;uaijtitj  of  tarbonat  of  ajii- 
nionia  is  disengaged,  and  at  the  same  tim'; 
aceUc  acid  Is  formed,  and  some  charcoal  prt- 
cipitales. 

When  a  solution  of  urea  in  water  is  left  to 
itself  for  some  tiine,  it  is  gradually  decrmipo- 
sed.  A  froth  collects  on  its  surface ;  and  Jir- 
bubbles  are  nnitted  wliich  have  a  strong  disa- 
greeable smell,  in  which  aniir.onia  and  acetic 
acid  are  distinguishable.  'I'he  liquid  contains 
a  quantity  of  acetic  acid.  The  deccmpo.i- 
tion  is  much  more  rapid  if  a  little  gelatine  is 
added  to  the  solution.  In  tliat  case  more  am- 
monia is  disengaged,  and  the  proportion  of 
acetic  acid  is  not  so  great. 

When  the  solution  nf  urea  is  mi«ed  with 
one-fourth  of  its  weight  oi  diluted  sulphuric 
acid,  no  effervescence  lakes  plai  e ;  but,  ou  ' 
the  application  of  heat,  a  (piantity  of  oil  ap- 
pears on  the  surface,  which  concretes  upon 
cooling ;  the  liquid  which  conies  over  into 
the  receiver  contains  acetic  acid,  and  a  quan- 
tity of  sulphat  of  ammoni.i  remains  in  the  re- 
tort dissolved  in  tlie^undislilled  mass.  By 
repealed  distillations, ihe  whole  of  the  urea  is 
converted  inle  acetic  acid  and  ammonia. 

When  nitric  acid  is  poured  upon  cryslal- 
lized  urea,  a  violent  effervescence  takes  place, 
the  mixture  froths,  assumes  the  form  of  a 
dark-red  liquid,  great  quantities  of  nitrous  gas, 
azotic  gas,  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  are  disen- 
gaged. When  the  effervescence  is  over, 
there  remains  only  a  concrete  white  matter, 
with  soiAe  drops  of  reddish  licpiid.  \\  lien 
heat  is  applied  to  this  residuum,  it  detonates 


reted  hydrogen  gas,  with  traces  of  prussic  '  like  nitrat  of  ammonia.  Into  a  solution  of 
acid  and  oil;  and  there  remains  behind  a  urea,  formed  by  its  attracting  moisture  from 
large  residuum,  composed  of  charcoal,  muriat  the  atmosphere,  an  equal  quantily  of  nitric 
of  ammonia,  and  muriat  of  soda.  The  distil-  acid,  of  tin;  specific  gravity  1.4t)0,  diluted 
lation  is  accompanied  with  an  almost  insup-  with  twice  its  weight  of  water,  was  added  ;  a 
portable  fetid  alliaceous  odour.  Two  hun-  gentle  effervescence  ensued :  a  very-  small 
dred  and  eighty  parts  of  urea  yield  by  distil-  heat  was  applied,  which  supported  the  effer- 
lation  '200  parts  of  carbouat  of  ammonia,  10  1  vescence  for  two  days.  There  was  disengaged 
parts  of  carbureted  hydrogen  gas,  7  parts  of  the  first  day  a  great  quantity  of  azotic  gas  and 
charcoal,  and  68  parts  of  benzoic  acid,  inuri-  carbonic  acid  gas;  tlie  second  daA',  carbonic 
at  of -soda,  and  muriat  of  anuiiouia.  These  acid  gas; and  at  last  nitrous  gas.  Atlhesame' 
three  last  ingredients  Fourcroy  and  Vauque-  time  with  the  nitrous  gas  the  smell  of  the 
lin  con.sider  as  foreign  substances,  separated  oxyprussic  acid  of  Bertholh-t  was  percepli- 
from  the  urine  by  the  alcohol  at  the  sanie    ble.     At  the  er.d  of  the  second  dav,  the  mat- 

'  ter  in  the  retort,  which  was  becom.:  thick, 
took  lire,  and  burnt  with  a  violiiUeyplo-ion. 
The  residuum  contained  traces  of  prussic  acid- 
and  ammonia.  The  receiver  contained  a  yel- 
lowisli  acid  liquor,  on  the  surface  of  vuljich 
some  drops  of  oil  swam. 

Muriatic  acid  dissolves  urea,  but  does  not 
alter  it.  Oxyniuriatic  acid  gas  is  absorbed 
Now  COO  parts  of  carbotiat  of  ammonia,  ac-  1  very  rapidly  by  a  diluted  solution  of  urea ; 
cording  to  Fourcroy  and  \auqiielin,  ai  e  com-  '  small  whitish  flakes  appear,  w  hich  soon  be- 
posed  of  S6  ammonia,  90  carbonic  acid  gas,  come  brown,  and  adh'-re  to  the  sides  of  th« 
and  C4  water.     Hence  it  follows   that  "lOO    vessel  like  a  concrete  oil.     After  a  consider- 


time  with  the  urea.     Hence  it  follows 
100  parts  of  urea,  when  distilled,  yield 

92.027  carbonat  of  ammonia 
4.6t8  carbureted  hydrogen  gas 
3.2-a  chaieoal 


tliat 


parts  of  urea  are  composed  of 

39.5-  oxygen    . 
32.5  azote 
14.7  carbon    ■ 
13.3  hydrogeu 


loo.a 
But  a  ca»  scarcely  be  doubted  that  the  water 


able  quantity  of  oxyir.uriatic-  acid  had  been- 
absorbed,  the  solution,  left  to  itself,  continued 
to  eifervesce  exceedingly  slowly,  and  to  emit 
carhon-c  acid  and  azotic  gas.  ^Vfter  this  ef- 
fervesci  nee  was  over,  the  liquid  contained 
muria;  and  carbonat  of  ammonia. 

Urea  is  dissolved  very  rtipidly  by  a  solution 
of  potass  or  soda,  and  at  the  same  time  2. 
quantity  of  ammonia  is  disengaged ;  tiis  jame 


970 


V  K  r 


siibslaiice  is  disengaged  when  urea  is  treated 
with  b:irytes,  liine,  or  even  magnesia.  Hence 
it  is  evident,  that  this  ap|K'arance  must  be  a's- 
crihed  to  liie  muriat  of  ammonia,  with  wliich 
it  is  constantly  mixed.  VV'lien  pure  solid  po- 
tass is  triturated  with  urea,  heat  is  produced, 
u  great  quantity  of  ammonia  is  disengaged, 
the  mixture  becomes  brown,  and  a  substance 
is  deposited,  having  the  appearance  of  an  em- 
pyreumatic  oil.  One  part  of  urea  and  two 
of  potass,  dissolved  in  four  times  its  weiijht  ol 
water,  when  distilled,  gives  out  a  great  quan- 
tity of  ammoniacal  water  ;  the  residuum  con- 
tains acetat  and  carbonat  of  potass. 

When  nuiriat  of  soda  is  dissolved  in  a  soUi- 
lion  of  urea  in  water,  it  is  obtained  by  evapo- 
ration, not  in  cubic  crystals,  its  usual  form, 
but  m  regular  octahedrons.  Muriat  of  am- 
monia, on  the  contrary,  which  crystallizes  na- 
turally in  octahedrons,  is  converted  into  cubes 
by  dissolving  and  crystallizing  it  in  the  solu- 
tion of  urea. 

L^REXA,  a  genus  of  the  monadelphia  po- 
lyandria  class  of  plants,  the  corolla  whereof 
consists  of  five  oblong,  obtuse,  connated  pe- 
tals, broader  than  the  apex,  and  narrower  at 
the  b.ise  ;  the  fruit  is  a  ro'ind  ecliiiiated  cap- 
sule, with  five  angles,  consisting  of  liye  cells, 
and  made  up  of  live  valves;  the  seeds  are  so- 
litary, roundisii,  and  compressed.  There  are 
eight  species. 

URETERS.     See  Anatomy. 

URETHRA.     See  Anatomy. 

URIC  ACID.  Uric  or  lithic  acid  was  disco' 
•s-ered  by  .Scheele  in  1 77(5.  [t  is  the  most  com" 
■inon  constituent  of  urinary  calculi,  and  exists 
also  in  human  urine.  That  species  of  calculus 
which  resembles  wood  in  its  colour  and  ap- 
pearance is  composed  entirely  of  this  sub- 
stance. It  was  called  at  lirst  li'thic  acid;  but 
this  name,  in  consequence  of  the  remarks 
made  by  Dr.  Pearson  on  its  impiopriety,  has 
■been  laid  aside,  and  that  of  uric  acid  substi- 
tuted in  its  place. 

Uric  acid  in  this  state  has  a  brown  colour  ; 
it  is  hard,  and  crystallized  in  small  scales.  It 
has  neither  taste  nor  smell,  is  insoluble  in  cold 
water,  but  soluble  in  3nO  parts  of  boiling  wa- 
ter. The  solution  reddens  vegetable  blues,' 
especially  the  tincture  of  turnsol.  A  great 
part  of  the  acid  precipitates  again  as  the  water 
cools.  It  combines  readily  with  alkalies  and 
eartiis;  but  the  compound  is  decomposed  by 
every  other  acid.  Muriatic  acid  has  no  ac- 
tion on  it,  ueitlier  has  sulplunic  acid  while 
cod,  iHit  whe»  assisted  by  heat  it  decomposes 
it  entirely. 

AVIien  triturated  with  potass  or  soda,  it 
forms  a  saponaceous  paste,  very  soluble  in 
water  when  there  is  an  exxess  of  alkali,  but 
sparingly  wlien  tliealkali  is  neutralized.  The 
urat  of  potass  or  of  soda  is  nearly  tasteless. 
Tne  last' is  f.nind  crystallised,  constituting 
gouty  concretions.  Ammonia  does  not  dis- 
i>olv(-  uric  acid,  but  it  coml):nes  with  it,  and 
forms  a  salt  not  more  soluble  tlian  the  pure 
acid,  and  resembling  it  in  its  exlerna!  charac- 
ters. N'-itfierdoes  uric  acid  dissolve  in  lime- 
water;  tlie  alkaline  cari.onats  have  no  actioii 
whatever  C)n  it. 

Nitric  acid  (fissolves  it  readily ;  the  solu- 
tion IS  ol  a  pink-colour,  iind  ha.s  llie  propiirty 
of  tinginj  an.m.i!  substances,  the  skin  for  in- 
stance, of  the  same  colour.  W'heii  tliis  so- 
lution h  boiledj  a  quantity  of  azotic  gau,   car- 


U  R  I 

bonic  acid  gas,  and  of  prnssic  acid,  is  disen- 
gaged. When  oxymuriatic  acid  gas  is  made 
to  pass  into  water  containing  this  acid  sus- 
]iended  in  it,  the  acid  assumes  a  gelatinous 
appearance,  then  dissolves;  carbonic  acid 
gas  is  emitted,  and  the  solution  iiHeldshy  eva- 
poration muiiat  of  anunonia,  superoxaiat  of 
ammonia,  muriatic  acid,  and  m.'.lic  acifl. 

When  uric  acid  is  distilled,  about  a  fourth 
of  the  acid  passes  over  a  little  altered,  and  is 
found  in  the  receiver  crystallized  in  plates  ;  a 
few  drops  of  tliick  oil  make  their  appearance  ; 
|-th  of  the  acid  of  concrete  carbonat  of  ammo- 
nia, some  prussiat  of  ammonia,  some  water, 
and  carbonic  acid,  pass  over ;  and  there  re- 
mains in  the  retort  charcoal,  amounting  to 
about 
tilled. 

These  facts  are  sufficient  to  shewns  that 
uric  acid  is  composed  of  carbon,  azote,  liydro- 
gen,  and  oxygen  ;  and  that  the  proportion  of 
the  two  last  ingredients  is  nmcli  smaller  than 
of  the  other  two. 

URINE.  No  animal  substance  has  at- 
tracted more  attention  than  tliis,  both  on  ac- 
count of  its  supposed  connection  with  various 
diseases,  and  on  account  of  the  singular  pro- 
ducts obtained  from  it.  In  general,  healthy 
urine  is  a  transparent  liquid  of  alight  amber-co- 
lour, an  aromatic  smell,  and  a  disagreeable  bit- 
ter taste.  Its  specilic  gravity  varies,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Cruiksliank,  from  1  .t)Oj  to  1.033. 
\\  lien  it  cools,  the  aromatic  smell  leaves  it, 
and  is  succeeded  by  another,  well  known  by 
the  name  of  urinous  smell.  This  smell  is  suc- 
ceeded in  two  or  three  days  by  another,  which 
has  a  considerable  resemblance  to  that  of  sour 
milk.  Tills  smell  gradually  disappears  in  its 
ti\rn,  and  is  succeeded  by  a  fetid  a'kaline 
odour. 

Urine  reddens  paper  stained  with  turnsole 
and  with  the  juice  of  radishes,  and  therefore 
contains  an  acid. 

if  a  solution  of  ammonia  is  poured  into 
fresh  urine,  a  white  powder  precipitates, 
which  has  tlie  properties  of  phospluitof  lime. 
The  presence  of  this  substance  in  urine  was 
first  discovered  by  Sclieele.  If  lime-water  is 
poured  into  urine,  phosphat  of  lime  precipi- 
tates in  greater  tibundaiice  than  when  ammo- 
nia is  used ;  consequently  urine  contains  phos- 
phoric acid.  'Iliuswe  see  that  the  phosphat 
o!  lime  is  kept  dissolved  in  urine  by  an  excess 
of  acid,  or  it  is  in  the  state  of  supcr-phosphat. 
Tliis  also  was  iir.^t  discovered  by  Scheele. 
This  substance  i,s  most  abundant  in  the  urine 
of  the  sick.  Bei'thollet  has  observed,  that  the 
urine  of  gouty  people  is  less  acid  than  that  of 
people  in  perfect  health.  The  average  quan- 
tity ol  phosphat  of  lime  in  healthy  urine  is, 
as  Cruikshank  has  ascertained,  about  ^i^ 
of  the  weight  of  tlie  urine. 

lithe  phosphat  of  lime  precipitated  from 
urine  is  examined,  a  little  m.ignesia  will  be 
found  mixed  with  it.  I'ouri  roy  and  Vauquer 
lin have ascertaineil  thai  this  is  owingto  alittle 
phosphat  of  magnesia  which  urine  contains, 
and  which  is  (leco.npcjsed  by  the  alkali  or 
Jinie  employed  to  precipitate  the  phosphat  of 
lime.  ■   < 

Proust  informs  usthat  carb(9iiic  acid  exists 
in  urin-,  and  that  its  separation  occasions  the 
froth  which  appears  duringlhe  evaporation  of 
urine.  Fourcroy  and  \'auquelinj  on  the  other 
hand,  cunsidei  this  acid  as;  formed  during  the 
evaporation,   by  the   (,lecomi)Osition    of   tile 


IJ  R  I 

urea,  ^l^e  observations  of  Proust  confirm 
those  which  had  been  made  by  Priestley  and 
Percival. 

Proiisthas  observed,  that  urine  kept  iniievr 
casks  d<  posits  <rtiall  crystals  which  efHoiescc 
in  the  air  and  fall  to  powder.  These  crystals' 
possess  the  jtl\i))erties  of  carbonat  of  lime". 
Hence  we  must  conclude  that  urine  contains 
carbonat  of  lime;  a  very  extraordinary  fact, 
if  we  rellect  tirat  super-pliosphat  of  lime  is  alsQ 
present. 

When  fresh  urine  cools,  it  often  lets  fall  a 
brick-colonivd  precipitate,  which  Scheele  first 
ascertained  to  be  crystals  of  uric  acid.  All 
urine  contains  tliis  acid,  even  when  no  sensible 
precipitate  appears  when  it  cools.  For  if  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  clear  and  fresh  uiine  is 
evaporated  to  -j-f-r  of  'ts  weight,  a  subtle  pow- 
der pieeipitatea  to  the  bottoni,  and  attaches 
itself  in  part  very  (irmly  to  the  vessel. 
This  part  may  be  dissolved  in  pure  alkali, 
and  precipitated  again  by  acetic  acid.  It  ex- 
hibits all  the  properties  oi  uric  acid.  The  fact 
ij,  that  the  precipitate  which  usually  falls 
when  urine  cools  consists  chiclly  of  phosphat 
of  lime  and  uric  acid.  It  may  be  dissolved  In 
diluted  iiilric  acid.  If  the  solution  is  heated  and 
evaporated  to  dryness,  it  assumes  a  tine  rose- 
cohiur  if  uiic  acid  is  present.  The  proportion 
o!  uric  acid  varies  considerably  in  urine.  It 
crystallizes  in  small  red  prisms,  partly  on  the 
surface,  if  urine  is  mixed  with  some  nitric  acid, 
and  left  exposed  to  the  air. 

During  intermittent  fevers,  and  especially 
during  diseases  of  the  liver,  a  copious  sedi- 
ment of  a  brick-red  colour  is  deposited  from 
urine.  This  sedunent  is  the  rosacic  acidcf 
Proust.  Scheele  considered  this  sediment  as 
uric  acid  mixed  with  some  phosphat  of  lime; 
and  the  same  opinion  has  been  entertained  by 
other  cheiTiists :  but  Proust  affirms  that  it  con- 
sists chiefly  of  a  different  substance,  to  which 
he  has  given  the  name  of  rosacic  acid  from  its 
colour,  mixeil  with  a  certain  proportion  of 
uric  acid  and  phosphat  of  lime.  This  rosacic 
acid,  he  informs  us,  is  distinguished  from  the 
uric  by  the  facility  with  which  it  dissolves  in 
hot  watei',  the  violet  precipitate  which  it  oc- 
casions in  nun  i.-.t  of  gold,  and  by  the  little  ten- 
dency «  hicli  it  has  to  cr_>  slallize. 

If  fresh  urine  is  evaporated  to  the  consist* 
ence  of  a  syrup,  and  muriatic  acid  is  tlien 
poured  into  it,  a  precipitate  appears  which 
possesses  tlie  propertjes  of  benzoic  acid, 
Scheele  lirst  discovered  llie  presence  of  ben- 
zoic aciil  in  urine,  lie  evaporated  it  to  dry- 
ness, separated  the  saline  part,  and  applied, 
heat  to  the  residuum.  The  benzoic  acui  was 
sublimed,  and  found  cryslallized  in  the  re- 
ceiver. Considerable  (|uantities  of  benzoic 
acid  mayitluisbe  obtained  from  the  urine  of 
hoises  and  cows,  where  it  is  much  more  a- 
bundant  tium  in  human  urine.  In  human 
urine  it  varies  from  xvir^  '°  , « p g o  of  'he 
whole.  Proust  affirms  that  the  acid  obtained 
by  Scheele's  process  is  not  the  benzoic,  but  an- 
other possessed  of  similar  properties  ;  butdif-' 
fering  in  this  circumstance,  that  nitric  acid 
decomposes  it,  whercasit  only  w  hitens  benzoic 
acid.  ..,.■. 

■  When  an  infusion  of  tan  is  dropt  into  urine, 
a  white  precipitate  appears,  having  the  pro- 
perties of  the  combination  of  tan  and  albumen, 
or  gelatine.  Urine,  therefore,  contains  albu- 
men or  gelatine.  These  substances  had  been 
isuspccied  to  be  iu  tjrine,  but  their  prcsenca 


was  first  (Icnionslralc'cl  b\  Scgwin,  who  di'co- 
\v\M  tilt  .".bovc  liiRlliuci"  of  dctecliiig  thclii. 
'I'ht'ir  (iii:\iitity  in  lu/altiiy  urine  is  vurj-  small,, 
C'riiikslniik  IouikI  tlial  tlm  pri:ci|jilatc-  ali'oril- 
C'l  l)y  Ian  in  licaJthy  urine  aiii.iuii(<'(l  to  Tj^th 
part  of  tlu'  wpii^iit  of  llw  uriiiL'.  It  ii  lo  llicsc 
suljstaiKes  tliat  the  aupearancP* of  tlie  cloud, 
as  it  is  oallt'il,  or  llie  niucilaginous  mailer, 
whii-li  is  somctinuis  deposii-ed  as  the  urine 
cools,  is  owing.  It  is  probable  tliat  fieallliy 
urine  contains  only  f!;elaline,  and  not  albumen, 
Ihuugli  the  c|uantity  is  too  small  to  admit  of 
accurate  examination;  but  in  many  diseases 
the  (|uantity  of  these  nialters  i<;  very  nuiqli  in- 
creased. J'he  urine  of  dropsical  |)eo|ile  oiflen 
contains  so  much  albumen,  tlial  it  coagulates 
not  only  on  the  addition  of  acids,  but  even  on 
the  applK-atioiiof  heat.  In  all  ca.es  of  im- 
paired digestion,  the  albuminous  and  gelati- 
nous part  of  urine  is  mucb  increa-^eil.  'I  his 
forms  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and  im- 
portant ilislinctions  between  the  urine  ol  those 
who  enjoy  good  and  bad  health. 

'  If  urine  is  evaporated  by  a  slow  fire  to  (he 
consistence  of  a  thick  syrup,  it  assumes  a  deep 
brovvn  colour,  and  exh;>les  a  letid  ammoniacal 
odour.  VV'lien  alloweil  to  cool,  it  Concretes 
into  a  mass  of  ciyslals,  composed  of  evU  the 
component  parts  of  urine,  ll  four  times  ils 
weight  oi  alcohol  is  poured  upon  this,iiiass  at 
intervals,  ami  a  slight  heat  applied,  the  greatcit 
part  of  it  is  dissolved.  'I'lie  aicoliol,  which 
has  acquired  a  brown  .colour,  is  to  be  de- 
canted oit',  and  liistilled  in  a  retort  in  asaixi- 
heat,  till  liie  mixture  has  boiled  for  some  time, 
and  acquired  the  consistence  of  a  syrup.  J5y 
this  time  the  whole  of  the  alcohol  has  passed 
off;  and  the  matter,  on  cooling,  crystallizes  in 
quadrangular  plates  w'hich  intersect  each  other. 
Q'his  substance  is  urea,  which  composes  -^^ 
of  the  urine,  provided  the  watery  part  is  ex- 
cluded. :  To  this  substance  the  taste  and 
smell  V)f  urine  are  owing.  It  is  a  substance 
which  characterizes  urine,  and  constitutes  it 
what  it  is,  and  to  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
very  singular  phenomena  of  urine  is  to  be  as- 
cribed.    (See  Urea.) 

It  may  be  detected  by  evaporating  urine  to 
the  consistence  of  a  syrup,  and  pouring  into 
it  coni-eiitrated  nitric  acid.  Immediately  a 
great  number  of  white  shining  crystals  appear 
in  the  form  of  plates  very  much  resembling 
crystallized  boracic  acid.  These  chrystals  are 
urea  combined  with  nitric  acid. 

The  quantity  of  urea  varies  exceeduigly  in 
different  urines.  In  the  urine  voided  soon 
after  a  meal,  very  little  of  it  is  to  be  found, 
and  scarcely  any  at  all  in  that  which  hysterical 
■patients  void  during  a  paroxysm. 

.  '  According  to  I'ourcroy  and  Vauquelin,  the 
colour  of  urine  depends  upon  the  urea:  the 
greater  the  pi\iportion  of  urea,  the  deeper  the 
colour.  Ikit  Proust  has  detected  a  resinous 
matter  in  urine  similar  to  the  resin  of  bile,; 
and  to  this  substance  he  ascribes  the  colour 
of  urine.  If  urine,  evaporated  to  the  consist- 
ence of  an  extract,  is  mi.xed  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  distilled,  this  resin,  he  informs  us, 
.separates  during  the  distillation.  What  is 
lirst  obtained  is  soft,  but  the  last  portions  are 
in  the  state  of  a  dry  powder.  The  consisl- 
.ence  and  colour  of  this  resin  resem!)le  castor: 
it  is  very  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  precipitated 
from  its  solution  by  water:  but  it  is  also  so- 
luble in  water ;  and,  according  to  Proust,  is 


uniNE. 

the  resin  of  bile,  somcvc lut   modiljtd  by  it.^ 
passage  llirough  the  mhiary  organs. 

If  urine  is  slowly  evajjoraled  to  the  consist - 
cnce  ol  a  syrup,  a  number  of  crystals  mal.fc 
their  appearance  on  ilssurlace:  these  posso.i 
the  properties  of  muriat  of  soda.  L'rinc 
therelore  contains  miiriat  of  soda,  (lis  well 
known  that  muriatof  sooacry-slalli/esincubes; 
but  when  obtained  from  urine  it  ha .  the  form  of 
octahedrons.  This  singular  niodilication  of 
its  form  is  owing  to  the  action  of  urea.  It  has 
beey  long  known  tli.t  urine  saturated  wilii 
niunat  ol  soda  deposits  that  salt  in  regular 
octahedrons. 

The  saline  residuum  whic  ii  remains  after 
the  separation  oliirea  from  cryslallized  urine 
by  means  of  alcohol  has  been  loi.g  known 
under  tlie  names  of  fusible  salt  of  urine  and 
microcosmic  salt.  Various  methods  of  ob- 
taining it  tiave  been  given  by  clicmists  ;  from 
ljoe:liaave,  who  llr-jl  published  a  process,  to 
Koi.ielle  aiul  Chaulnes,  who  gave  the  nn-- 
thodjust  menlioned.  If  the  saline  mass  is 
dissolved  in  a  suliicient  quantity  of  hot  wat'-r, 
and  idlowed  to  crystallize  sprjiitaneously  in  a 
close  vessid,  two  sets  of  crystals  are  gradually 
deposited.  The  lowermost  set  has  the  ligure 
of  flat  rhomboidal  prisms;  the  uppermosi,  on 
the  contrary,  has  the  form  of  rectangular  ta- 
bles. '  These  two  may  be  easily  separated  by 
c.vposiiig  tliem  for  some  time  to  a  dry  atmo- 
«phcle.  The  rectangular  tables eliloresce and 
fait  to  powder,  but  the  rhomboidal  prisms  re- 
main unaltered. 

When  these  salts  are  examined,  th.ey  are 
found  to  have  the  properties  of  phosp'hats. 
'I'lie  rhomboidal  prisms  consist  of  phosphat 
of  ammonia  united  to  a  liitle  phosphat  ol 
soda;  the  rectangular  tables,  on  the  contrary, 
are  phosphat  of  soda  united  to  a  small  quantity 
of  phosphat  of  ammonia.  Urine,  then,  con- 
tains phosphat  of  soda  anil  phosjihat  of  am- 
monia. 

AVhen  urine  is  cautiously  evaporated,  afew 
cubic  crvslals  are  often  deposited  among  the 
othersalis;  these  crystals  hayc-the  properties  of 
muriat  of  auimoni.'i.  Xov;  the  usual  form  of  the 
cryitals  of  muriatbf  ammonia  is  the  octahe- 
dron. The  change  of  it'sforrh  in  urine  is  pro- 
duced also  by  urea.  This  salt  is  obtained  in 
greater  abundance  when  the  crystals  of  urea 
obtained"  from  the  alcohol  solution  are  dis- 
tilled.    ,  .... 

When  urine  is  boiled  in  a  silver  bason  it 
blackens  the  bason  ;  and  if  llie  quantity  of 
urine  is  large,  small  crusts  df'sulphuret  of  sil- 
ver may  be  detached.  Hence  we  see  that 
urine  contains  sulphur.  This  sulphur  exhales 
along  with  the  carbonic  acid  when  the  urine 
putrelies ;  tor  .the  fumes  which  separate  from 
urine  in  that  state  blacken  paper  stained  with 
acetat  of  lead. 

Urine,  the.o,  contains  the  following  sub- 
stances : 

1.  Water, 

2.  Phosphoric  acid, 

3.  Phosphat  of  lime, 
4-  Phospiiat  of  magnesia, 
5.  Carbonic  aeid, 
€.  Carbonat  of  lime, 

7.  Uric  acid, 

8.  Rosacic  acid, 

9.  P)enzoic  acid, 
10.  Gelatine  and  albumen, 
U.  Urea, 


12.  Resin, 

13.  jMunat  of 'nf!a, 

14.  Phosphat  of  soda, 

Id.   I'hn-pliat  of  aiiimonia. 
If).  Muriat  ui  aininoiiia, 
17.  Sulphur, 

These  are  the  only  substances  which  are 
constantly  found  in  healthj  urine  ;  but  it  con- 
tains also  occasionally  other  siibslunces.  \'erv 
olteii  inuriat  ol  potu^s  may  be  dislinguisliecl 
among  the  <r\slal-.  wli;cli  Form  during  its  eva- 
poration, i'liu  prfM.nce  ol  ibis  salt  may  al- 
ways bedetecieilby  dropping  cautiously  some 
tartaric  acid  into  urine,  ll  it  coiilains'muriat 
ol  potass,  Iheie  will  precipitate  a  lillle  tartar, 
which  may  easily  be  recognized  by  its  pro- 
peities. 

Urine  sometimes  also  contains  sulphat  of 
soda,  and  even  sulphat  of  lime.  I  lie  |)re- 
sencc  of  these  salts  may  be  ascertained  by 
pouring  into  urine  a  solution  of  muriat  of  ba- 
rytes ;  a  copious  white  precipitate  a()pcars, 
consi  ting  of  thebarytescon^bioed  wiiii  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  with  sulphuric  acid  if  any  is 
present,  'i'liis  precipitate  must  be  treated 
will)  a  suliicient  qnantily  of  muriatic  acid. 
The  phosphat  of  barytes  is  dissolved,  but  Ihe 
sulphat  ol  baryves  remains  unaltered, 

No  substance  putrefies  sooner,  or  exhales 
a  more  detestable  odour  during  its  spontane- 
ous decomposition,  than  urine;  but  there  is 
a  very  great  difference  in  this  respet  t  in  dif- 
ferent urines.  In  some,  putielaclioi)  takes 
place  almost  instantaneously  as  soon  as  it  is 
voided  ;.  in  others,  scarcely  any  change  ap- 
pears tor  a  number  of  day.s.  Fourcroy  and 
XaiKpielin  have  ascertained' tl.at  this  ditVereiice 
depends  on  the  quantity  of  uclatiiie  and  albu- 
men which  urine  contains.  When  there  is  very 
^lltle  of  these  substances  present,  urine  ip- 
mains  long  unchanged ;  on  tiie  contrary,  the 
greater  the  quantity  of  gelatine  or  albumen, 
the  sooner  does  putrefaction  cominence.  The 
putrefaction  of  urine,  therefore,  is  in  some 
degree  the  test  of  the  health  of  the  persoa 
who  has  voided  it :  for  a  su|)erabuiidance  of 
gelatine  in  urine  always  indiyales  some  defect 
in  the  power  of  digestion. 

The  rapiti  putrefaction  of  urine,  then,  is 
owing  to  the  action  of  gelatine  on  urea.  We 
have  seen  already  the  facility  with  which  that 
singular  substance  is  dcconipoied  ;  ar.tl  that 
the  new  products  into  which  it  is  changed  are, 
ammonia,  carbonic  acid,  and  acetic  acid.  Ac- 
cordingly,the  putrefaction  of  urine  is  announ- 
ced by  an  ammoniacal  smell.  .Mucilaginous 
flakes  are  deposited,  consisting  of  part  of  the 
gelatinous  matter.  The  phosphoric  acid  is 
saturated  with  ammonia;  and  tlie  phosplnt  of 
lime,  in  consequence,  is  precipitated.  Am- 
monia combines  with  the  phosphat  of  mag-, 
nesia ;  and  forms  with  it  a  triple  salt,  which 
crystallizes  upon  the  sides  of  the  vessel  in  the 
form  of  wliite  crystals,  compo.sed  of  six- 
sided  prism.5,  tenninated  by  si.x-.sided  py- 
ramids. Tlie  uric  and  benzoic  acids  are 
saturated  with  ammonia ;  the  acetic  acid,  and 
the  carbonic  acid,  which  are  the  products  of 
the  decomposition  of  the  urea,  are  also  satu- 
rated withammonia ;  and  notwitiistanding  the 
quantity  which  exhales,  the  production  of 
this  substance  is  so  abundaiit,  that  there  is  a 
quantity  of  unsaturaled  aikali  in  the  liquid. 
Putrefied  urine,  therefore,  contains  chielly  the 
follow  ing  substances,  most  of  which  are  the 
products.of  putrefaction: 


•72  V  Tx  I 

Ammonia, 

<';;rboiiat  of  ammonia, 

I'uosphat  lit  ammonia, 

Pliospliat  of  magiiiisiii  and  ammonia, 

VrM  ofammonia, 

Acetat  of  ammonia, 

B^Mzoat  of  ammonia, 

Mil  rial  of  soda, 

Muriat  ofammonia ; 

besides  the  precipitated  gelatine,  and  phosphat 
of  lime. 

Tlie  distillation  of  urine  produces  alinoit 
the  same  changes  :  for  tiie  heat  of  boiling  wa- 
ter is  snrticicnt  to  decompose  urea,  and  to 
convert  it  into  ammonia,  carl.onic,  and  acelic 
acids.  Accordingly,  when  urine  is  di^tilled, 
there  come  over  water,  containin5;  ammonia 
dissolved  in  it,  and  carbonat  of  ammonia  in 
crystals  ;  the  acids  contained  in  urine  are  sa- 
turated with  ammonia,  and  the  gelatine  and 
phosphat  of  linve  precipitL-le. 

Such  are  the  properties  of  human  urine  in 
a  state  of  health  :  but  this  excretion  is  singu- 
\arly  modified  by  disease  ;  and  the  changes  to 
which  it  is  liable  have  attracted  the  attention 
of  phvsidans  in  all  ages,  because  they  serve 
in  some  measure  to  indicate  the  state  of  the 
patient  and  the  progress  of  the^  disease  inider 
which  he  labours.  The  following  are  the  most 
•remarkable  of  these  changes  that  have  been 
observed-. 

1.  In  inflammatory  diseases  t^ie  urine  is  of 
a  red  colour,  and  peculiarly  acrid  ;  it  depo- 
sits no  sedinieirt  on  standing,  hut  with  oxyinu- 

■  riat  of  mercury  it  yields  a  copious  pretipitate. 

2.  During  jaundice  the  urine  has  an  orange- 
yellow  colour,  and  conimuniL-ates  the  same 
tint  to  linen.  Muriatic  acid  renders  this 
urine  green,  and  thus  detects  the  presence  of  a 
little  bile. 

3.  About  tlie  end  of  inflammatory  diseases 
the  urine  becomes  abundant,  and  deposits  a 
copious  pink-coloured  sediment,  composed  of 
rosatic  acid,  a  little  phospliat  of  lime,  and 
uric  acid. 

4.  Duringliysterical  paro.xysms,  the  urine 
usually  flows  abundantly.  It  is  limpid  and  co- 
lourless, containing  much  salt,  but  scarcely  any 
urea  or  gelatine. 

5.  Mr.  Berthollet  observed  that  the  urine  of 
gouty  persons  contains  usually  much  less  phos- 
phoric acid  than  healthy  urine.  But  during  a 
gouty  paroxysm  it  contains  much  more  plios- 
phoric  acid  than  usual  ;  though  not  more 
than  constantly  exists  in  healthy  urine. 

6.  In  general  dropsy,  the  urine  is  loaded 
with  albumen,  and  becomes  milky,  or  oven 
coagulates,  when  heated,  or  at  least  when  acids 
are  mixed  with  it.  In  dropsy  from  diseased 
liver,  no  albumen  is  prest-nt,  the  urine  isscantv, 
high-coloured,  and  deposits  the  pink-coloured 
sediment. 

7.  In  dyspepsia,  the  urine  always  yields  a 
copious  precipitate  with  tan,  and  putrefies  ra- 
pidly. 

8.  The  urine  of  rickety  patients  is  said  to 
be  loaded  with  phosphat  of  lime,  or,  accord- 
ing to  others,  with  oxalat  of  lime. 

9.  In  diabetes,  the  urine  is  sweet -tasted  and 
-often  loadi  d  with  saccharine  matter.  In  one 
-case,  the  urine  emitted  daily  by   a  diabetic 

patient,  according  to  the  'exi)erinients  of 
Cruikshank,  contained  29  ounces  of  sugar. 

The  urine  of  other  animaU  differs  consi- 
ik-ubjy  from  thai  of  man.    For  the  analyses 


U  R  I 

of  the  urine  of  nuadrupods  hitlierlo  made,  we 
are  chielly  indebted  to  Koiielle  junior.  The 
fallowing  fatts  have  been  ascertained  by  that 
chemist,  and  by  the  late  experiments  of  I'our- 
ci'oy  and  \'aiK)Uclin  : 

I.  The  urine  of  the  horse  has  a  peculiar 
odour  ;  after  exercise  it  is  emitted  thick  and 
milky  ;  at  other  times  it  is  transparent,  but  be- 
comes muddy  soon  after  its  emission.  AVhen 
exposed  to  the  air,  its  surlace becomes  covered 
witii  a  crust  of  carboniit  of  lime.  It  gives  a 
green  colour  to  syrup  of  violets,  and  has  the 
consistence  of  mucilage.  The  following  are 
its  constituents  as  estimated  by  Fourcroy  and 
V'auquelin  from  their  experiments : 

Carbonat  of  lime  .  .  0.01 1 
Carbonat  of  soda  .  .  0.009 
Renzoat  of  soda  .  .  0.024 
Muriat  of  potass  .     .     .  0.009 

Urea 0.007 

Water  and  mucilage     .    0.9-iO 


l.OOi} 


From  the  late  experiments  of  Mr.  Gicse, 
we  learn  that  the  quantity  of  benzoat  of  soda 
varies  considerably  in  the  urine  of  horses.  In 
some  specimens  lie  found  it  in  abundance, 
and  easily  precipitated  by  muriatic  acid.  In 
otherstliere  was  little  or  none.  He  could  de- 
tect no  benzoic  acid  in  the  food  of  horses. 
Hence  he  considers  it  as  formed  within  the 
animal,  and  he  thinks  lliat  it  appears  only  in 
cases  of  disease. 

II.  The  urine  of  the  cow  has  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  that  of  the  horse  ;  it  has  nearly 
the  same  odour,  and  the  same  mucilaginous 
consistence  It  tinges  syrup  of  violets  green, 
and  de|Xisits  a  gelatinous  matter.  On  stand- 
ing, small  crystals  are  f<jrme<l  on  its  surface. 
It  contains,  according  to  Uouelle, 

1 .  Carbonat  of  potass,       4.  Benzoic  acid, 

2.  Sulphat  of  potass,  5.   Urea. 

3.  Muriat  of  Potass, 

in.  The  urine  of  the  camel  was  also  exa- 
mined by  Rouelle.  Its  odour  resembles  tliat  of 
the  urine  of  thecow  ;  its  colour  is  that  of  beer  ; 
it  is  not  mucilaginous,  and  does  not  deposit 
carbonat  of  lime.  It  gives  a  green  colour  to 
syru|)  of  violets,  and  etfervesces  with  acids 
like  the  urine  of  the  horse  and  cow.  Rouelle 
obtained  from  it, 

1 .  Carbonat  of  potass, 

2.  Sulphat  of  potass, 

3.  Muriat  of  potass, 

4.  Urea. 

rV'.  The  urine  of  the  rabbit  has  been  lately 
analysed  by  Vauquelin.  When  exjiosed  to 
the  air,  it  becomes  niilkv,  and  deposits  car- 
bonat of  lime.  It  gives  a  green  colour  to  sy- 
rup of  violets,  and  effervesces  with  acids. 
That  chemist  detected  in  it  the  following  sub- 
stances : 

1.  Carbonat  of limej 

2.  Carbonat  of  magnesia, 

3.  Carbonat  of  |)Otass, 

4.  Sulphat  of  potass, 

5.  Sulphat  of  lime, 

6.  Muriat  of  potass, 

7.  Urea, 

8.  fJelatini', 

9.  Sulphur. 

V.  Vauquelin  has  .also  made  some  expe- 
riments Oil  llie  urine  of  the  guinea-pig,  from 


U  R  S 

which  it  appears  that  it  resembles  the  urine  f,f 
the  other  quadrupeds.  It  deposits  cai  bonat  of 
lime,  gives  .i  green  colour  to  syrup  of  violets, 
and  contains  carbonat  ami  muriat  of  polasi, 
but  no  piiosplial  nor  uric  acid. 

'1  hus  it  apjiears  tlial  the  urine  of  the  grami- 
nivorous quadrupeds  agrees  with  llie  human  in 
containing  urea,  but  diflt;rs  from  it  materially 
ill  being  Jeslilute  of  phos^jhoric  acid,  pho^- 
pliats,  and  uric  acid.  Whether  the  urine  of 
carnivorous  quadrupeds  contains  these  last 
substances  has  not  been  ascertained,  but  it  is 
probable  that  it  does. 

L'RSA,  the  bear,  in  astronomy,  a  name 
common  to  two  constellations  of  the  northi  rn 
hemisphere,  near  the  pole,  distinguished  bv 
major  and  minor.  The  ursa  major,  or  the 
great  bear,  according  to  Ptolemy's  catalogue, 
consists  of  thirty-live  stars:  according  to  I'y- 
cho's,  of  ti(ty-six  :  but  in  the  Britannic  cata- 
logue we  have  two  hundred  and  iifteen. 

The  ursa  minor,  or  little  bear  called  also 
Charles's  wain,  and  by  the  Greeks  cynosura, 
by  its  neighbourhood  to  the  north  pole,  gives 
the  denomination  «fxT®.,  bear,  thereto.  Pto- 
lemy and  T^cho  make  it  to  consist  of  eight; 
stars,  but  I'lamsteed  of  fourteen. 

URSUS,6fn?',  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the 
order  fera; :  the  generic  character  is,  front 
teeth  six  both  above  and  below  :  the  two  la- 
teral ones  of  the  lower  jaw  longer  than  the  rest, 
and  tobed;  with  smaller  or  secondary  teeth 
at  their  internal  bases;  canine  teetli  solitary; 
grinders  live  or  six  on  each  side,  the  first  ap- 
proximated to  the  canine  teeth  ;  tongue 
smooth;  snout  prominent;  eyes  furnished 
with  a  nictitating  membrane.  There  are  ten 
species. 

1.  Ursusarctos.  The  common  bear,  with 
some  variation  as  to  size  and  colour,  is  a  na- 
tive of  almost  all  the  northern  parts  of  Europe 
and  A-iia,  and  is  even  said  to  be  found  in  some 
ot  the  Indian  islands,  as  Ceylon,  &.-c.  It  in- 
habits woods  and  unfrequented  places,  and 
feeds  chiefly  on  roots,  fruits,  and  other  vege- 
table substances,  but  occiisionally  preys  on 
animals.  In  the  Alpine  regions  the  bear  is 
brown ;  in  some  other  parts  of  Europe,  black  ; 
and  in  some  parts  uf  Norway  has  been  seen  of 
a  grey  colour,  and  even  perleclly  white : 
this  latter  change  of  colour  sometimes  takes 
place,  as  is  well  known,  in  several  other 
animals,  and  most  frequently  in  such  as  are 
naturallv  black  or  of  very  dark  colours.  The 
brown,  the  black,  the  grey,  and  the  white  land- 
bears  are,  therefore,  to  be  considered  as  of 
the  same  species  :  yet  it  is  observed  that  the 
brow  n  and  black  varieties  dilfer  somewhat  in 
their  manner  of  life;  the  black  contining  itself 
almost  entirely  to  vegetable  food;  the  brown, 
on  the  contrary,  frequently  attacking  and  prey- 
ing upon  other  animals,  and  destroying  lambs, 
kids,  and  even  sometimes  cattle,  and  sucking 
the  blood  in  the  manner  of  the  cat  and  weesel 
tribes.  Linna-usadds,  th.it  the  bear  has  a  way 
of  blowing  up  his  prey,  and  of  hiding  or  bury- 
ing a  part  of  it.  Bears  .ire  reported  to  lie 
particularly  fond  of  honey,  in  search  of  which 
they  will  climb  trees,  in  order  to  get  at  the 
nests  of  wild  bees;  for  the  bear,  notwithstand- 
ing his  awkward  form,  is  expert  in  climbing, 
and  sometimes  takes  up  his  residence  in  the 
hollow  of  a  very  large  tree.  The  bear  will 
also  catch  and  devour  tish,  occasionally  fre- 
quenting the  banks  of  rivers  for  that  purpose. 
Tlic  bear  passes  a  coiisidejable  part  of  th« 


winter  in  a  j(a(e  of  repose  and  abstiiipnce  ; 

<-mi;i-giiig  only  al  (listniit  intervals  CroMi  his 
lien,  and  ai;ain  <iinc-caling  liinisclfin  his  re- 
treat till  till.'  a|>|)ro,ich  ot  tiie  vernal  season. 
Till' fenialps  an-  haid  to  (.-ontinue  in  tliis  state 
niiuh  lon;;erllian  tlio  males,  and  it  is  dnrin^ 
tills  period  that  they  bring  I'orlli  their  yonng, 
which  are  toiiinionly  Ino  ni  inmiber.  'I'lii-se 
the  antipiils  imagined  to  he  nearly  shapeless 
masses,  gradually  licked  and  fashioned  into 
regular  ioini  by  llie  parent ;  an  opinion  Jiow 
Riilficiently  explodi^d.  The  young,  however, 
though  not  shapeless,  have  ;:'dill'erent  aspect 
from  the  grown. animal ;  the  snout  being  much 
sharper,  and  their  colour  yellouish:  they 
are  said  to  bo  blind  for  nearly  the  space  of  a 
inont.h. 

2.  Ursus  Aincricanus,  American  bear. 
This,  which  is  now  considered  as  a  distinct 
species,  and  not  to  be  confounded  witli  the 
black  bear  of  Europe,  has  along,  pointed  nose, 
and  narrow  "forehead  :  the  cheeUs  and  throat 
of  a  ytUowish-brown  colour;  the  hair  en  tlie 
whole  body  and  limbs  of  a  glossy  black. 
Smoother  and  shorter  than  that  of  the  Kuri> 
pcan  kind.  It  is  also  said  to  be,  in  general, 
smaller  than  the  Europoaji  bear,  though  in- 
stances have  been  known  in  which  its  size,  at 
least,  eipialled  the  European,  since  Mr.  Har- 
Iram  assures  us,  that  a  bear  was  killed  in  Flo- 
fida  wliich  weighed  four  liundred  pounds. 

This  animal  inhabits  all  the  norlliern  part* 
of  America,  migrating  occasionally  from  the 
iiortlierii  to  ihe  luoro  southerly  parts  in  (piest 
of  food,  which  is  said  to  be  entirely  vegetable ; 
and  it  is  even  aflirmcd,  that,  wlien  pressed 
by  extreme  want,  they  will  still  neglect  all  ani- 
mal food  wh.iMiever  thty  can  obtain  a  supply 
of  roots  and  grain.  They,  however,  some- 
times de.stroy  lish,  and  particularly  herrings, 
when  these  lish  happen  to  come  up  into  the 
creeks  in  shoals  They  are  said  to  continue 
in  their  winter  retreats,  eitlier  in  dens  be- 
neath the  snow  under  ground,  or  in  the  hol- 
lows of  old  trees,  for  the  space  of  five  or  six 
weeks  without  food. 

3.  Ursus  marilimus,  polar  bear.  This  is 
a  far  larger  species  than  the  common  bear, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  sometimes  found 
of  the  length  of  twelve  feet.  Tlie  head  and 
nock  are  of  a  more  lengthened  form  tlian  in 
the  common  bear,  and  the  body  itself  is  longer 
in  proportion.  The  whole  animal  is  white, 
except  the  tip  of  the  nose  and  the  claws, 
wliich  are  jet-black:  the  ears  are  small 
and  rounded;  the  eyes  small;  the  teeth  of 
extraordinary  magnitude :  the  hair  is  of  a 
great  length,  and  the  limbs  are  extremely 
large  and  strong.  Sec  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  hg. 
415.  It  seems  confined  ^o  the  very  coldest 
parts  of  the  globe  ;  being  found  witjiin  80  de- 
grees of  north  latitude,  as  far  as  any  naviga- 
tors have  yet  penetrated.  The  shores  of  Hud- 
son's-bay,  Greenland,  and  Spitsbergen,  are 
its  principal  places  of  residence ;  but  it  is 
said  to  have  been  accidentally  carried  on  float- 
ing ice  as  far  south  as  Newfoundland.  This 
species  seems  to  have  been  often  confounded 
by  author;  with  the  white  variety  of  the  com- 
mon bear,  which  is  occasionally  found  in  the 
northern  regions. 

The  polar  bear  is  an  ajiimal  of  tremendous 
strength  and  fierceness.  Harentz,  in  his  voy- 
age in  search  of  a  north-east  p.issage  to  China, 
tad  proofs  of  the  ferocity  of  these  animals,  in 
^lie  island  of  Nova  Zeiubia,  where  they  at- 

Voi.  II. 


URSUl 

lacked  his  seamen,  seizing  tliem  in  llifir 
mouihs,  carryin;^  them  oil  with  the  utmost 
ease,  an<l  devouring  ihem  in  the  •-ight  of  tiieir 
comrades.  It  is  said  that  they  will  attack  and 
attempt  to  boar<l  armed  vessels,  at  a  great 
distance  troni  sliore;and  have  sometimC)  been 
with  much  difiicully  repelled.  'I'heir  usual 
food  consists  of  seals,  fish,  and  the  carciusesof 
whales;  but,  when  on  land,  they  prey  on  deer, 
and  other  animals,  as  iiares,  young  birds,  &c. 
they  also  eat  various  kinds  of  berries  which 
they  hajipen  to  find.  They  are  said  to  bo 
frecpiently  seen  in  Greenland  In  great  droves, 
allured  by  the  scent  of  the  flesh  of  seals :  and 
will  sometimes  surround  the  habitations  of 
the  natives,  and  attempt  to  break  in  ;  and  it  is 
added,  that  the  most  successful  method  of  re- 
pelling them  is  by  the  smell  of  burnt  feathers, 
riicy  Krow  extremely  fat,  a  hundred  pounds 
of  fat  having  been  takenlrom  a  single-  bi:ast. 
The  llesh  is  said  to  be  coarse,  but  the  skin  is 
valued  for  coverings  of  various  kinds,  and  tlie 
Greenlandors  often  wear  it  as  a  clothing. 
The  split  tendons  are  said  to  form  an  excel- 
lent thread.  During  tliesununer  they  reside 
chiefly  on  the  ice-islands,  and  pass  frennenlly 
from  one  to  another ;  being  extremely  expert 
swimmers.  They  have  been  seen  on  these 
ice-islands  at  the  distance  of  more  tlian  eighty 
miles  from  land,  preying  and  feeding  as  they 
float  along.  I'hey  "lodge  in  dens,  formed  in 
the  vast  masses  of  ice,  which  are  jjiled  in  a 
stupendous  manner,  leaving  great  cavirns 
beneath ;  herethey  breed,  and  biingone  or  two 
youngat  a  time,  and  sometimes,  but  very  rare- 
ly, three.  The  alfcction  between  parent  and 
young  is  so  great,  that  they  wilt  sooner  die 
than  desert  each  other.  They  follow  lliejr 
dams  a  verv  long  time,  and  grow  to  a  large 
size  before  tliey  (|uittheni. 

During  winter  they  retire,  and  bed  them- 
selves deep  beneath  the  snow,  or  else  be- 
neath the  fixed  ice  of  some  eminence,  where 
they  pass  in  a  state  of  torpidity  the  long  ami 
dismal  arctic  night,  appearing  only  witii  the 
return  of  the  sun. 

The  skins  of  the  polar  bear,  says  Mr.  Pen- 
nant, were  formerly  offered  by  the  hunters 
in  the  arctic  regions  to  the  high  altars  of  ca- 
thedrals and  other  churches,  for  the  priest 
to  stand  on  during  the  celebration  of  mass  in 
winter. 

4.  Ursus  gulo,  glutton.  This  animal  is  a 
native  of  the  most  northern  parts  of  Europe 
ami  Asia,  occurring  in  Sweden,  Norsvay, 
Lapland,  and  Siberia,  as  well  as  in  some  of 
the  Alpine  regions,  and  in  the  forests  of  Po- 
land and  Courland.  It  is  also  found  in  the 
northern  parts  of  America,  behig  not  un- 
common about  Hudson's-bav. 

The  glutton  is  considerably  larger  than  a 
badger,  measuring  about  a  yard  from  nose  to 
tail,  and  the  tail  about  a  foot ;  but  it  seems  to 
vary  iri  size,  and  is  often  less  than  this.  The 
muzzle,  as  far  as  beyond  the  eyes,  is  black- 
ish brown,  and  covered  with  hard  shining 
hair :  over  the  forehead,  down  the  sides  of 
the  head,  between  the  eyes  and  ears,  runs  a 
whilisli  or  ash-coloured  band  or  fillet:  the 
top  of  the  head  and  whole  length  of  the 
back  are  black-brown,  the  colour  witlenijig 
somewhat  over  the  sides  as  it  passes  on,  and 
again  lessening  or  contracting  towards  the 
tail.  In  the  American  variety  a  whitish  or 
ash-coloured  band  or  border  runs  along  the 
body,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ferruginous 
one  in  the  European  kind. 
3  i 


The  glutton,  a>i  it?  il.tme  imports,  has  the 
character  of  a  very  voivicions  animal,  prey- 
ing indiscriniinatcl'yb  itli  on  fresh  prey  and 
carrion.  One  of  wjiicli  was  kept  at  Dresden 
would  eat  thirteen  pounds  of  llesh  in  a  dav, 
without  being  satlsfii  d.  It  attacks  deer,  birJs, 
field-mice,  itc.  and  even  sometimes  the 
larger  cattle;  and  it  is  said  to  sit  on  the 
branches  of  trees,  and  suddenly  to  spring 
down  on  such  animals  as  happen  to  pass  be- 
neatl) ;  tearing  lliem,  and  sucking  the  blood, 
till  they  fall  down  throngli  laiiitness,  when  it 
begins  to  devour  the  s])oil.  In  winter  it  seeks 
out  and  catches  ptarmigans  under  the  snow. 
What  it  cannot  devour  at  once,  it  is  said  to 
hide  under  ground,  or  in  the  cavity  ol  some 
tree.  It  is  said  to  1)0  an  animal  of  unconi' 
nion  fierceness  and  strength  ;  and  will  some- 
times dispute  Ihe  prey  both  with  the  well  and 
bear.  It  is  also  extremely  fetid.  -It  breeds 
once  a  year,  and  brings. from  two  to  four 
young  at  a  litter.  The  fur  is  much  used  for 
mulf's,  linings,  kc.  Those  skins  are  said  to 
be  preferred  which  have  least  of  the  ferrugi- 
nous tinge,  and  lor  this  reason  the  Siberian  va- 
riety, which  is  blacker  than  the  rest,  is  most 
esteemed.  The  ursus  luscus,  or  wolverene, 
appears  to  be  a  variety  of  this  animal. 

J.  Ursus  lotor,  the  raccoon,  is  a  native  of 
the  new  world,  and  is  principally  an  inhabit- 
ant  of  the  northern  parts  ot  that  continent. 
It  is  also  found  in  some  of  the  West  Indian 
islands.  Its  colour  is  grey  ;  the  lace  white  ; 
die  eyes  each  imbedded  in  a  large  patch  of 
black,  which  forms  a  kind  of  band  across  t)i« 
forehead,  and  is  crossed  by  a  dusky  strip* 
running  down  the  nose.  Tlie  visage  is 
shaped  like  that  of  a  fox,  the  forehead  being 
broad  and  the  snout  sharp;  the  eyes  are 
large  and  greenish  :  the  ears  short  and  slight- 
ly rounded ;  and  the  upper  jaw  is  longer 
than  the  lower:  tile  tail,  which  is  covered 
with  bushy  hair,  tapers  to  the  end,  and  is  an- 
nulatcd  with  several  black  bars:  the  body  j» 
broad,  the  back  arched,  the  limbs  rather 
short,  and  the  fore  legs  shorter  than  the 
hinder  ;  the  animal  is  covered  with  thick  and 
long  hair,  which  has  a  somewhat  upright 
growth:  the  feet  are  dusky,  and  have  live 
toes  with  very  sharp  claws.  The  colour  of 
the  raccoon  is  generally  a  dark  grey.  The 
length  of  the  animal  is  two  feet  from  nose  to 
tail,  and  tlie  tail  about  one  foot.  See  Plate 
Nat.  Hist.  fig.  414.  The  food  of  the  rac- 
coon, in  its  wild  state,  consists  chiefly  of 
maize,  which  it  eats  while  the  ears  are  "ten- 
der, as  well  as  sugar-canes,  various  sorts  of 
fruit,  as  apples,  chesnuts,  &c.  It  is  also  sup- 
posed to  devour  birds  and  their  eggs,  and  is, 
therefore,  considered  as  an  enemy  to  poul- 
try. It  chiefly  feeds  by  night,  and  by  d.iy 
keeps  in  its  hole,  except  in  dull  weather.  In 
winter,  and  in  very  bad  weather,  it  kei-jis  al- 
together within,  and  is  popularly  believed  to 
live  like  the  bear,  by  sucking  its  paws.  Tjio 
raccoon,  however,  is  an  active  and  sprightly 
animal  wlien  taken  into  a  state  of  domestica- 
tion. It  has  a  kind  of  oblifpie  gait  in  walk- 
ing, can  leap  and  climb  with  great  ease,  and 
is  verv  fre<iueiitly  seen  on  trees.  It  is  easily 
tamed,  and  is  freeiuontly  kept  in  houses  by 
tlie  Americans,  anil  will  live  on  bread,  milk, 
hsh,  eggs,  &c.  It  is  particularly  delighted 
with  sweets  of  every  kind,  and  has  as  great  a 
dislike  to  acids.  In  eating,  it  commonly  sits 
on  its  hind  legs,  and  uses  its  fore  feet  la  the 
manner  of  hands.    It  has  a  way  of  dipping 


er-i 


u  R  T 


all  manner  of  dry  food  thnt  is  given  il  into 
valor  b,.-foro  it  eats  il ;  as  wcil  as  of  rolling  it 
between  its  paus  ior  some  lime.  Wlien  it 
kills  birds,  it  proceeds  exactly  in  the  manner 
of  a  polecat ;  lirst  bitmg  oil'  the  head,  and 
then  Slicking  ont  the  blood.  It  drinks  but 
lilile,  and  is  a  very  cleanly  animal.  It  is  ex- 
tremely expert  in  opening  oysters,  on  v.  hich, 
as  well  as  on  crabs  and  various  other  kinds  ot 
sheli-ri,li,  it  frtquently  feeds  in  its  wild  state. 
It  is,  when  tamed,  extremely  active  and  play- 
^  I'ul ;  but  is  of  a  capricious  ilisposition,  and  not 
easily  reconciled  when  offended.  \\  heii  an- 
gry, its  voice  is  like  a  hoarse  bark,  and  at 
«ther  times  soft  and  sharp.  In  its  wild  state 
it  generally  inhabits  the  hollows  of  trees  ;  but 
in  a  domes'lic  state  shews  no  particular  incli- 
nation lor  warmth;  nor  is  it  observed  to  be 
desirous  of  l_\  mg  ou  straw,  or  Jiny  other  sub- 
stance, in  preference  to  the  bare  ground.  It 
sleeps  from  about  midnight  to  noon,  at  which 
time  it  comes  out  for  food  and  exercise.  Ac- 
cording to  Linna;us,  the  raccoon  has  a  won- 
derhil  antipathy  to  hogs'  bristles,  and  is  much 
disturbed  at  the  sight  of  a  brush.  It  pro- 
duces from  two  to  three  young  at  a  birth: 
this  commonly  takes  place  in  the  month  of 
May.  I'he  fur  oi  the  raccoon  is  used  by  the 
hatters,  and  is  considered  as  next  in  merit  for 
this  purpose  to  that  of  the  beaver. 

6.  Ursus  meles,  the  badger,  is  an  inhabit- 
ant of  all  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  Its  usual  length  is  about  two  feet  from 
the  nose  to  the  tail,  which  measures  six 
inclies.  It  is  an  animal  of  very  clumsy  make, 
being  thick-necked  and  thick-bodied,  with 
very  short  legs.  It  commonly  resides  in  a 
hole  or  den  under  ground,  out  of  which  it 
emerges  by  night  in  quest  of  food ;  feeding 
chiefiy  on  roots  and  fruits;  but  it  will  also  de- 
vour trogs,  worms,  &c.  The  badger  is  of  an 
uniform  grey  colour  on  tlie  upper  parts  ;  and 
the  throat,  breast,  belly,  and  legs,  are  black: 
the  face  is  white,  and  along  each  side  of  the 
head  runs  a  long  and  somewhat  triangular  or 
pyramidal  band  of  black,  including  the  eyes 
arid  ears;  the  eyes  are  small,  and  the  ears 
short  and  rounded :  the  claws  on  the  fore 
feet  are  very  long  and  straight,  and  it  is  prin- 
cipally from  this  circumstance  that  Mr.  Pen- 
nant ranks  it  under  a  separate  genus,  instead 
of  including  it  under  that  of  ursus,  or  bear. 
Authors  have  sometimes  made  a  distinction 
between  what  they  call  the  sow  badger  and 
the  dog  badger;  but  this  is  supposed  to  be 
perfectly  untenable,  and  if  there  is  any  per- 
ceptible variation,  is  probably  no  other  tlian 
a  mere  sexual  differtiiire.  'I'he  hair  of  the 
bailgcr,  bolh  on  the  body,  limbs,  and  tail,  is 
very  thick;  and  the  teeth,  legs,  and  claws, 
are  very  strong;  so  that  he  makes  a  very  vi- 
gorous defence  when  attacked.  Wlien  taken 
\oung,  the  badger  may  be  easily  lamed,  and 
generally  prefers  raw  (lesh  to  every  other 
iojd  in  a  stale  of  captivity.  It  is  a  very 
cleanly  animal,  and  is  observed  to  keep  its 
subterraneous  mansion  extremely  neat.  The 
female  produces  about  three  or  four  young : 
this  happens  in  summer;  and,  according  to 
the  count  de  Buffon,  the  parent  seizes  on 
voung  rabbits,  which  she  drags  out  of  their 
burro-.rs,  birds,  eggs,  snakes,  and  many  other 
animals,  in  order  to  feed  her  yonnsj.  Like 
th(!  bear,  this  animal  is  also  fond  ot  honey, 
and  will  attack  hives  in  order  to  obtain  it. 
The  badger  sleeps  a  great  deal,  especially 
(hiring  wmter,  wlien  he  imitated  the  practice 


U  R  T 

of  t!ie  boar,  confining  himself  to  his  den  in  a  ) 
state  of  semi-torpidity.  j 

7.  Ursus   labradorius,    American  badger. 

In  its  general  appearance  this  e.\lremely 
resembli  s  the  common  badger,  and  might  al- 
most pass  for  a  variety  only  :  it  is,  however, 
somewhat  smaller,  and  the  black  bands  on  the 
tace  are  much  narrower  and  .do  nut  include 
the  eyes,  but  connucnce  behind  them,  and 
rnn  along  the  top  of  the  nock  :  the  ears  are 
surrounued  wiih  bku  k:  the  npper  parts  of  the 
body  are  nearly  of  the  same  colour  as  in  the 
com'inon  badger,  but  rather  paler,  and  with  a 
slight  yellowish  cast ;  and  the  breast  and  bi-lly 
are  of  a  light  ash-colour,  instead  of  black:  the 
legs  are  of  a  dusky  brow  n  :  the  claws  are  at 
least  as  long  and  strong  as  in  the  European 
badger,  if  not  more  so.  This  species  is  ra- 
ther scarce  in  America.-  It  is  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  lludson\-bay,  and  in  Terra 
di  Librador,  and  as  Mr.  Pennant  suspects,  as 
low  as  Pennsylvania,  where  it  is  called  the 
ground-hog. 

URTICA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
mona-cia,  and  order  tetrandria;  and  in  the  na- 
liiral  system  classed  under  the  53d  order, 
s^-abridi.  The  male  tiower  has  a  calyx  ol 
four  leaves;  no  corolla;  a  nectarium  minute, 
central,  urn-fashioned.  The  female  a  bivalve 
calyx  ;  and  a  single,  oval,  glossy  seed.  There 
are  :>9  species,  three  of  which  are  British 
plants  :  1.  "The  pilulifera,  Roman  nettle,  has 
a  stalk  branclied,  two  or  three  feet  high. 
Leaves  opposite,  oval,  serrated,  stinging. 
Fruit  globose.  2.  The  iirens,  less  stinging 
nettle,  has  a  stem  afoot  high.  Leaves  round- 
ish, deeply  serrated,  opposite.  The  stings 
are  very  curious  microscopic  objects:  they 
consist  of  an  exceedingly  hne-pointed,  taper- 
ing, hollow  substance,  with  a  perforation  at 
tlie  point,  and  a  bag  at  the  base.  When  the 
spring  is  pressed  upon,  it  readily  perforates 
the  skin,  and  at  the  same  time  forces  up  some 
of  the  acrimonious  liquor  contained  in  the 
bag  into  the  wound.  3.  The  d  oica,  com- 
mon nettle,  has  a  square  firm  stem,  three  or 
four  feet  high.  Leaves  heart-shaped,  long- 
pointed,  serrated,  beset  with  stings.  Flowers 
in  long  catkins.  The  aculei,  or  stings  of  the 
nettle,  have  a  small  bladder  at  their  base  full 
of  a  burning  corrosive  fuiuor :  when  touch- 
ed, they  excite  a  blister,  attended  with  a  vio- 
lent itching  pain,  though  the  sting  does  not 
appear  to  be  tubular,  or  perforated  at  the 
top,  nor  any  visible  liquor  to  be  infused  into 
the  puncture  made  by  it  in  the  tiesh.  It 
seems  certain,  however,  that  some  of  this  li- 
quor is  insinuated  into  the  wound,  though  in- 
visibly, since  the  stings  of  the  dried  plant  ex- 
cite no  pain. 

Kettle-tops  in  the  spring  are  often  boiled 
and  eaten  by  the  common  people  instead  of 
cabbage-greens.  In  Arran,  and  other  islands, 
a  rennet  is  made  of  a  strong  decoction  of  net- 
tles :  a  quart  of  salt  is  put  to  three  pints  of  the 
decoction,  and  bottled  up  f  :r  use.  A  com- 
mon spoonful  of  this  liquor  will  coagulate  a 
large  bowl  of  milk  very  readily  and  agreea- 
bly. The  stalks  of  nettles  are  so  like  in  qua- 
lity to  111  nip,  that  in  some  parts  of  Europe 
and  Siberia  they  have  been  manufactured  into 
cloth,  and  paper  has  been  made  of  tliein. 
The  whole  plant,  particularly  the  root,  is  es- 
teemed to  be  diuretic,  and  has  been  recom- 
mended in  the  jaundice  and  nephritic  com- 
, plaints.     The  roots  boiled  will  dye  yarn  of  a 


U  S  U 

yellow  coliair.  The  larv»,  or  caterpillar?,  of 
many  species  of  biitterilies,  feed  on  the  green 
plant;  and  sheep  and  oxen  will  readily  eat 
it  dried. 

I'SAGE,  in  law,  differs  from  custom  and 
prescription:  no  man  may  claim  a  rent,  com- 
mon, or  other  inheritance,  by  usage,  though 
he  may  by  prescription.     B.  Co.  tij. 

USANCE,  in  commerce.  See  Inter- 
est. 

L'SE,  is  a  trust  and  conlidc-nce  reposed  in 
another  who  is  tenant  ot  the  land,  that  he 
shall  dispose  of  the  land  according  to  the  in- 
tention ot  cesluy  iiue  use,  or  him  to  whose  use 
it  was  granted,  and  suffer  him  to  take  Ihe  pro- 
fits.    U  Black.  328. 

By  slat.  27  H.  ^■|II.  c.  10,  commonly 
called  the  statute  of  uses,  or  the  statute  for 
transferring  uses  into  possession,  the  cestuy 
que  use  is  considered  as  the  real  owner  of  the 
estate  ;  v\  hereby  it  is  enacted  that,  when  any 
person  is  seized  of  lands  to  the  use  of  ano- 
ther, the  person  intitled  to  the  use  in  fee  sim- 
ple, fee-tail,  for  life  or  years,  or  otlierwise^ 
shall  stand  and  be  seized  or  possessed  of  the 
land,  in  the  hke  e!itate,  as  he  has  of  the  use, 
trust,  or  confidence ;  and  thereby  the  act 
makes  cestuy  que  u-.e  comph  te  owner  botk 
at  law  and  in  equity.     2  Black.  302. 

USES,  .fupcrstitious.    See  Mortmain. 

Uses  and  customs  of  the  sea,  are  certain 
maxims  or  rules  w  hich  form  the  basis  of  the 
maritime  jurisprudence,  by  which  the  policy 
of  navigation,  and  the  commerce  of  the  seaj 
are  regulated. 

These  uses  and  customs  consist  of  three 
kinds  of  regulations:  the  first  called  the  laws 
or  judgments  of  Oleron  ;  the  second,  regula- 
tions made  by  Ike  merchants  of  Wisbuy,  a 
city  in  the  island  of  Gothland,  in  the  Baltic, 
antiently  much  fametl  for  commerce ;  and 
the  third,  a  set  of  regulations  made  at  Lubec, 
by  the  deputies  of  the  Ilanse  towns. 

USQUEBAUGH,  a  strong  compound  h- 
quor,  chielly  taken  by  way  of  tlram. 

There  are  several  different  methods  of 
making  this  liquor  ;  but  the  following  is  es- 
teemeil  one  of  the  best :  To  two  gallons  of 
brandy,  or  other  spirit,  put  a  pound  of  Spa- 
nish licpiorice,  half  a  pound  of  raisins  of  the 
sun,  four  ounces  of  currants,  and  three  of 
sliced  dates  ;  the  tops  of  balm,  mint,  savoury, 
thyme,  and  the  tops  iJt'  the  fiowers  of  rose- 
mary, of  each  two  onnces ;  cinnamon  and 
mace,  well  bruised,  nutmegs,  aniseeds,  and 
coriander-seeds,  bruised  likewise,  of  each  four 
ounces ;  citron,  or  lemon  and  orange  peel, 
scraped,  of  each  an  ounce  :  let  all  these  infuse 
forty-eight  hours  i  >  a  warm  place,  often  shak- 
ing them  together:  then  let  them  stand  in  a 
cool  place  for  a  week  :  after  which  the  clear 
liquor  is  to  be  decanted  off,  and  to  it  are  to  be 
put  an  eijual  quantity  of  neat  white  port,  and 
a  gallon  of  canary ;  after  which  it  is  to  be 
sweetenedwlth  a  sufficient  quantity  of  doublc- 
relined  sugar. 

USTERIA,  a  genius  of  plants  of  the  class 
and  order  monandria  monogynia.  The  ca- 
lyx is  four-toothed;  corolla  funnel-form,  four- 
toothed  ;  capsule  one-celled,  two-seeded. 
There  is  one  species,  a  shrub  of  North  Gui- 
nea. 

USl^RY,  in  a  strict  sense,  is  a  contract 
upon  the  loan  of  money,  to  give  the  lender  a 
certain  profit  for  the  iiie  of  it,  upon  all  events; 


U  T  E 

wlietlipr  tlip  borrower  iiwile  any  a(1vanla<;e  of 
it,  or  (111.-  lo[i(lcr  siilfori','!  any  prcjiulicf  for 
want  of  it,  or  wlictluM'  il  sliall  Ijl-  repaid  on 
the  appoiiili'd  tiim;  or  not;  and  in  a  large 
souse,  il  seems,  tluit  all  uiuUie  advantages, 
taken  l)y  a  lender  against  a  borrower,  came 
under  tlie  notion  of  usury.     Haw.  i!45. 

Tliestatnte  12  Anne,  c.  16,  enacts  tliat  no 
person,  upon  any  contract  wliicli  shall  be 
made,  shall  take  for  loan  of  any  money, 
wares,  &c.  above  the  value  of  5/.  for  the  for- 
bearance of  100/.  for  a  year;  and  all  bonds 
and  assurances  for  the  payment  of  any  money 
to  be  lent  npon  usury,  s\herciipon  or  where- 
by there  shall  be  reserved  or  taken  above  five 
pounds  in  the  hundred,  shall  be  void ;  and 
every  person  wlio  shall  receive,  bv  means  of 
anv  corrupt  bargain,  loan,  exchange,  shift,  or 
interest,  of  any  wares  or  other  things,  or  bv 
anv  deceitful  way,  for  forbearing  or  giving 
(lav  of  payment  for  one  vear,  for  their  money 
or  other  things,  above  51.  for  100/.  for  a  year, 
&c.  shall  forfeit  treble  the  value  of  the  moneys 
or  otiier  things  lent. 

But  if  a  contract,  which  carries  interest,  is 
made  in  a  foreign  country,  our  courts  will  di- 
rect the  payment  of  interest  according  to  the 
law  of  that  country  in  which  the  contract  was 
made.  Tiius  Irish,  American,  Turkish,  and 
Indian  interest,  have  been  allowed  in  our 
courts,  to  the  amount  each  of  12/.  per  cent. 
For  the  moderation  or  exorbitance  of  interest 
depends  upon  local  circumstances  ;  and  the 
refusal  to  enforce  such  contracts  would  put  a 
stop  to  all  foreign  trade.     -'  Black.  463. 

In  an  action  brought  for  usury,  the  statute 
made  against  it  inust  be  pleaded ;  and  in 
pleading  an  usurious  contract  as  a  bar  to  an 
action,  the  whole  matter  is  to  be  set  forth 
specially,  because  it  lies  within  tlie  party's 
own  privitv  ;  yet  on  an  information  on  the 
statute  for  making  such  contract,  it  is  suffici- 
ent to  mention  tlie  corrupt  bargain  generally, 
because  matters  of  this  kind  are  su|)posed  to 
be  privily  transacted ;  and  such  information 
niav  be  brought  by  a  stranger.  1  Hawk. 
1'.  C.  248.  Likewise  upon  an  information  on 
the  statute  against  usury,  he  that  borrows  the 
money  may  be  a  witness,  after  he  has  paid 
the  same. 

UTENSILS,  in  a  military  sense,  are  ne- 
cessaries due  to  every  soldier,  and  to  be  fur- 
nished by  his  host  where  he  is  in  quarters, 
viz.  bed  with  sheets,  a  pot,  a  glass  or  cup  to 
drink  out  of,  a  dish,  a  place  at  the  fire,  and  a 
candle. 

L'TENsiLS,  ."^'C.  directed  to  be  provided 
for  the  use  of  regimental  iiospitals  : 

In  page  If),  of  the  Regulations  for  tlie 
Sick,  it  is  stated,  that  each  hospital  ought  to 
be  furnislied  with  a  slipper-bath,  or  bathing- 
tub,  two  water-buckets,  one  do/.en  of  Osna- 
biirgh  towels,  one  dozen  of  flannel  cloths, 
half  a  dozen  of  large  sponges,  combs,  razors, 
and  soap  ;  two  large  kettles,  capable  of  mik- 
ing  soup  for  30  men,  two  large  tea-kettles, 
two  large  tea-pots,  two  saucepans,  40  tin 
cans  of  one  pint  each,  40  s|)00ns,  one  dozen 
of  knives  and  forks,  two  close-stools,  two 
bed-pans,  and  two  urinals. 

A  ie:;iment  consisting  of  1000  men,  and 
provided  with  tnree  medical  persons,  ought  to 
be  furnishe.l  witli  liospilal  necessaries  and 
Uten-^ils  for  at  least  4o  patients.  It  should  be 
provided  with  40  cotton  night-caps;  40  sets  of 


V  U  L 

bedding,  in  the  proportion  of  four  for  every 
hundred  men;  each  sr-t  consisting  of  one  pail- 
lasse, one  straw  niattrass,  one  bolster,  liiree 
sheets,  two  blankets,  and  one  rug. 

For  regiments  of  smaller  number,  (he 
(luaiitity  or  hospital  necessaries  will  of  course 
be  proportionally  reduced. 

Utf.nsii  s,  biilari/.  The  following  list  of 
bakery  utensils,  biding  the  proportion  requi- 
site for  an  army  of  30,01)0  men,  has  been  ex- 
tracted from  tin-  British  Commissarv,  to 
which  Useful  treatise  we  refer  the  mflitary 
reader  for  a  specific  description  of  field  ovens, 
&c.  and  lield  baki;ry,  page  16,  &c. 

12  double  iron  oven-,  1  1  feet  long,  O  feet 
diameter,  and  3  feet  high;  28  troughs  and 
llieir  co\eis,  10  feet  long,  .j  feet  wide,  and  3 
feet  deep,  to  knead  the  dougli. 

12  large  canvas  tents  (iiaving  double  co- 
verings), 32  feel  long,  and  24  feet  wide,  to 
make  the  bread  in. 

4  ditto,  t<j  cool  and  deposit  the  bread  in. 

2  ditto,  to  deposit  llie  meal  and  empty 
sacks  in. 

2000  boards,  8  feet  long,  and  1 1  fool  w  ide, 
to  carry  the  bread  to  the  oven,  and  back 
when  baked  ;  24  small  scales  to  weigh  the 
dougli,  with  weights  from  half  an  ounce  to 
61b.  ;  24  small  laivips  for  night  work ;  24 
small  hatchets ;  24  scrapers,  to  s;rape  the 
dough  frim  the  troughs;  12  copper  kettles, 
containing  each  from  ten  to  twelve  ])ails  of 
water;  12  trevets  for  ditto;  12  barrels  with 
handles,  to  carry  water,  containing  each  from 
6  to  7  pails. 

12  pails,  to  draw  water;  24  yokes  and 
hooks,  to  carry  the  barrels  by  hand  ;  24  iron 
peles,  to  shove  and  draw  the  bread  from  the 
ovens;  24  iron  jjitcliforks,  to  turn  an<l  move 
the  firewood  and  coals  in  the  ovens ;  24  spare 
handles,  14  feet  long,  for  the  peles  and  |)itch- 
forks;  24  rakes,  with  handles  of  the  same 
length,  to  clear  away  the  coals  and  cinders 
from  the  ovens  ;  4  large  scales,  to  weigh  the 
sacks  and  barrels  of  meal,  and  capable  of 
weighing  oOOlb. ;  4  triangles  for  the  said 
scales  ;  to  each  must  be  added  5001b.  of 
weights,  3  of  lOOlb.  each,  2  of  50lb.  each, 
and  downwards  to  half  a  pound. 

UTEItUS.     See  Anatomy. 

UTLAGATO  capiendo  quando  utl(ia:nlur 
in  tiiin  cimiiUitu  tt  postiu  fui^it  in  iilium.  A 
writ  for  the  taking  of  an  outlawed  person  in 
one  county,  who  afterwards  (lies  into  another. 

UTRICl' LARIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  (liandria,  and  order  monogynia  ;  and  in 
the  natural  system  arranged  under  the  24tli 
order,  corydales.  'Jhe  calyx  is  ringent,  witli 
a  nectarium  resembling  a  spur;  the  corolla 
diphyllous  and  equal  ;  the  capsule  unilocu- 
lar. There  are  13  sp"cies,  two  of  which  are 
natives  of  Britaiii.  'I'hey  have  been  applied 
to  no  particular  use. 

1'\'A1U.V,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
and  order  polyandria  pulygamia.  The  calv.x 
is  three-leaved  ;  petals  six  ;  berries  nume- 
rous, pendulous,  four-seeded.  Th -re  are 
eleven  species,  shrubs  and  trees  of  the  Ea^l 
Indies. 

VITLTUR,  a  genus  of  birds  belonging  to 

the  order  of  accipitres.   The  beak  is  straight, 

and  crooked  at  the  point ;  the   head  has  no 

feathers,  on  the  fore  part  there  being  oulv 

5  S  2 


V  L-  L  85^5 

naked  ^kin,  and  the  tongue  is  generally  bifid. 
'1  here  an:  twenty-one  speciei.  llic  most 
remarkable  arc, 

1 .  (j  ryplius,  the  condor,  which  is  not  only 
(he  largest  of  (his  genus,  but  perhaps  of  all 
vi'iiicli  areableto  lly.  'I  he  accounts  of  autliors 
in  regard  to  the  strength  of  this  bird,  and  its 
extent  of  wing,  are  various.  From  nine  to 
eighteen  feet  from  the  tip  of  one  wing  to  that  of 
the  other  has  been  mentioned  ;  and  one  gives 
it  strength  suflicient  to  carry  olf  slu  ep,  ami 
boys  ol  ten  years  old  ;  while  another  venture} 
to  aliirm,  that  it  can  lift  an  elephant  from  the 
ground  high  enough  to  kill  it  by  (he  fall !  Tlie 
account,  iiowever,  given  in  Cook's  Voyage,  is 
very  nearly,  if  not  precisely,  the  truth,  which 
states  the  extent  ot  wing  at  about  II  feet.  The 
bill  is  strong,  moderately  hooked,  and  blunt 
at  the  tip,  which  is  while,  the  rest  of  it  being 
of  a  dusky  colour.  On  the  top  of  the  head 
runs  a  kind  of  carunculaled  substance,  stand- 
ing up  like  the  comb  of  a  cock.  The  head 
and  neck  are  slightly  covered  with  brown 
down,  in  some  parts  nearlv  bare,  and  here* 
and  there  a  carunculatecf  part,  as  in  the 
neck  of  a  turkey.  The  lower  part  of  the  neck 
is  surrounded  with  a  rutf  of  a  pure  white  and 
hairy  kind  of  feathers.  The  upper  parts  of 
tlie  body,  wing,  and  garl,  are  black,  except 
that  the  middle  wing-coverts  have  whitish 
ends,  and  the  greater  coverts  half  black  halt 
w  liite.  'Hie  nine  or  ten  tirst  quills  are  black  ; 
the  rest  white,  with  the  lips  only  black;  and 
when  the  wings  are  closed,  producing  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  bird  Iiaving  the  back  white. 
The  under  parts  of  the  body  are  rather  slight  ly 
covered  with  feathers  ;  but  those  of  the  thighj 
are  pretty  long.  The  legs  are  Stout  and  brown; 
claws  black  and  blunt. 

Thesi-  birds  are  said  to  make  their  nests 
among  the  inaccessible  rocks,  and  to  lay  two 
white  erjgs,  larger  than  those  of  a  turkey  ;  are 
very  destructive  to  sheep,  and  will  in  troops 
often  attempt  calves;  in  whidi  case,  some  of 
them  first  pick  out  the  eyes,  whilst  others  at- 
tack the  ))Oor  animal  on  all  sides,'anil  soon 
tear  him  to  pieces.  This  gives  rise  to  the  fol- 
lowing stratagem,  used  by  the  pea-ants  of 
Chili:  One  of  them  wraps  himself  up  in  the 
hide  of  a  fresh-killed  sheep  or  ox,  and  lies  still 
on  the  ground  ;  the  condor,  supposing  it  to  be 
lawful  prey,  flies  down  to  secure  it,  when  the 
person  concealed  lays  hold  of  the  legs  of  the 
bird,  his  hands  being  well  covered  w  ith  gloves ; 
and  immediately  his  comrades,  who  are  con- 
cealed at  a  distance,  run  in,  and  assi^t  to  se- 
cure the  depredator,  by  filling  od  liini  witk 
sticks  till  tliey  have  killed  him. 

2.  Tiie  percnopterus,  or  Egyptian  vulture. 
The  appearance  of  this  bird  is  as  horrid  as  can 
well  be  imagined,  viz.  the  face  is  naked  and 
V,  rinkJed  ;  the  eyes  arc  large  and  black  ;  the 
beak  black  and  hooked ;  the  talons  large,  and 
extending  ready  for  prey ;  and  the  whole  body 
polluted  with  lilth :  these  are  qualities  enough 
to  make  the  beholder  shudder  with  horror, 
Xotw  ilhstanding  this,  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt 
cannot  be  thankful  enough  to  Providence  tor 
this  bird.  All  the  ))laces  round  Cain  are 
tilled  with  the  dead  bodies  of  asses  and  camels  ; 
and  thousands  of  these  birds  fiv  about,  and 
divour  the  carcases  before  they  putrifv  and 
till  the  air  with  noxious  exhalations  Tlie  in- 
habitants of  Egypt,  and  after  them  Mai  let  in 
his  Description  of  Egypt, say ,thal  they  yeaily 
follow  the  caravan  to'  Mecca,  and  devour  the 


>:« 


V  u  t 


UUh  of  tlic  <<!aiight(;reil  beasts, and  the  carcases 
of  llie  camelswliicli  die  oil  the  journey.  They 
<lo  not  (ly  high,  nor  are  they  afraid  of  men. 
Jf  one  is  killed,  all  the  vest  surround  him  in 
tiie  same  manner  as  do  the  Royston  crows ; 
they  do  not  quit  the  places  they  frequent, 
though  frightened  by  the  explosion  of  a  gun, 
but  immediately  return  thither. 

3.  The  aera,  or  carrion  vulture,  according 
ti)  Latham,  is  about  tlie  size  of  a  turkey, 
tiio'jgh  it  varies  in  size  in  different  parts.  The 
Mil  is  white  ;  the  end  black  ;  irides  bluish  saf- 
froi>colour.  The  liead,  and  part  of  the  neck, 
are  bare  of  feathers  ;  and  of  a  red,  or  rather 
rufoui  colour.  The  sides  of  the  head  warted, 
jiot  unlike  that  of  a  turkey.  The  whole 
plumage  is   brown-black,   with  a  purjjle  and 

•  green  gloss  in  different  reflections ;  but  in 
some  birds,  especially  young  ones,  greatly 
verging  to  dirty-brown.  T  he  feathers  of 
tilt  quills  and  tail  aie  blacker  than  the  rest 
of  the  body.  The  legs  are  flesh-colour  ;  the 
claws  black. 

4.  The  Sagittarius,  or  secretary,  is  a  most 
singular  species,  being  particularly  remark- 
able from  the  great  length  of  its  legs  ;  which 
at  first  siglit  would  induce  one  to  think  it  be- 
longed to  the  gralla;,  or  waders  ;  but  the  cha- 
racters of  the  vulture  are  so  strongly  marked, 
as  to  leave  no  doubt  to  which  class  it  belongs. 
The  bird,  when  standing  erect,  is  full  tliree  feet 


V  u  t 

from  the  top  of  the  head  to  the  ground.  The 
bill  is  black,  sharp,  and  crooked,  like  that  of 
an  eagle;  the  head,  neck,  breast,  and  upper 
parts  of  the  body,  are  of  a  bluish  aih-colour  : 
the  legs  are  very  long,  stouter  than  those  of  a 
heron,  and  of  a  brown  colour;  claws  shortish, 
but  crooked,  not  very  sharp,  and  of  a  black 
colour  ;  from  tlie  hind-head  sp-ings  a  number 
of  long  feathers,  which  hang  loose  behinil 
like  a  pendant  crest ;  these  feathers  arise 
by  pairs,  and  are  longer  as  they  are  lower 
down  on  the  neck ;  this  crest  the  bird 
can  erect  or  depress  at  pleasure  ;  it  is  of  a 
dark  colour,  almost  black ;  the  vebs  are 
equal  on  both  sides,  and  rather  curled;  and 
the  feathers,  when  erected,  somewhat  in- 
cline towards  the  neck  ;  the  two  middle  fea- 
thers of  the  tail  are  twice  as  long  as  any  of  tlic 
rest.  This  singular  species  inhabits  the  internal 
|)art5  of  Africa,  and  is  frequently  seen  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  also  met  with  in 
tlie  Philippine  islands. 

As  to  the  manners  of  this  bird,  it  is  on  all 
hands  allowed  that  it  principally  feeds  on  rats, 
lizards,  snakes,  and  the  like  ;  and  that  it  will 
become  familiar  :  whence  Sonnerat  is  of  opi- 
nion that  it  might  be  made  useful  in  some  of 
our  colonies,  if  encouraged,  towards  the  de- 
struction of  those  pests.  They  call  it  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  stangeat'er,  i.  e.  snake- 
eater.     A  great  peculiarity  belongs  to  it,  pcr- 


U  V  0 

haps  observed  in  noolher;  w  Inch  i.-.,  the  fjcully 
of  striking  forwards  with  its  legs,  never  ba<  k- 
wards.  Dr.  Solander  saw  one  of  these  birds 
take  up  a  snake,  small  tortoise,  or  such-like,  iii 
its  claws  ;  when  dashing  it  thence  against  the 
ground  with  great  violence,  if  the  victim  was 
not  killed  at  first,  it  repeated  the  operation 
till  the  end  was  answered;  after  which  it  ate 
it  up  quietly.  Dr.  J.  K.  I'orster  mentioiicd  a 
further  circumstance,  which  he  says  was  sup- 
posed to  be  peculiar  to  this  bird;  that  shouUl 
It  by  any  accident  break  the  leg,  the  bone 
would  never  unite  again. 

The  Editor  of  this  work  saw  a  secretary 
some  years  ago  at  Exeter-c.xchange.  The  dex- 
terity with  which  it  struck  eels,  &c.  with  its 
hard  heel  w  as  surprising.  How  far  it  might 
have  been  tutored  to  this  e.xercise  is  impos- 
sible to  say. 

5.  The  papa,  or  king  vulture,  inhabits  South 
America  ;  is  the  size  of  a  hen  turkey  :  feeds 
on  serpents,  lizards,  frogs,  rats  and  carrion  ; 
flies  high.     See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig.  420. 

VULVA.     See  Anatomy. 

IVUI^A.     SeeANATo.Mv. 

UVULARIA,  a  genus  of  tlie  hexandria 
monogynia  class  of  plants,  the  flower  of  w  hich 
consists  of  six  very  long  lanceolated  petals ; 
and  its  fruit  an  ovate-ohlong  trilocular  capsule, 
containing  several  roundish  and  compressed 
seeds,    rfhere  are  six  species. 


w. 


\V  A  F 

W^     01-  w,  is  the  twenty-first  letter  of  our 

*'  )  alphabet. 
•  WACHENDORFLV,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  triandria,  and  order  monogynia ;  and 
arranged  in  Linna'us's  natural  method  of 
classilication  under  the  6th  order,  ensals. 
The  corolla  is  hexapetalous,  unequal,  and  si- 
tuated below  the  gevmen ;  the  capsule  trilo- 
tular  and  superior.  There  are  live  species, 
none  of  which  are  natives  of  .firitain. 

WACKEN,  a  mineral  that  occurs  in  mass ; 
sometimes  it  forms  strata,  but  more  frequently 
it  runs  in  veins.  Colour  dark  greenish-grey, 
■♦^hich  often  passes  to  mountain-green,  or 
blackish-green.  Specilic  gravity  from  2.6  to 
■"2.9.  Easily  melts  before  the  blowpipe. 
'Liable  to  spontaneous  decomposition. 

WAD,  or  Waddikg,  in  gunnery,  a  stop- 
ple of  paper,  hay,  straw,  old  roi)e-yarn,  or 
tow,  rolled  firmly  up  like  a  ball,  or  a  short 
cylinder,  and  forced  into  a  gun  upon  the 
powder  to  keep  it  close  in  the  chamber  ;  or 
|)ut  up  closeto  the  shot,  to  keep  it  from  rolling 
out,  as  well  as,  accorain<j  to  some,  to  pre- 
vent the  inflamed  powder  from  dilating  round 
the  sides  of  the  ball,  by  its  windage,  as  it 
passes  along  the  chace,  which  it  was  thought 
would  much  diminish  the  effort  of  the  powder. 
.IJnl,   from  the   accurate  experiments  lately 

Hiadc  at  Woolwich,  it  has  not  been  found  to 
jiaye  any  such  effect. 

WAt'EUS  or  Sealinc-Waff.rs,  ajc  made 


"WAG 

thus:  Take  very  fine  flour,  mix  it  with  '.^hite 
of  eggs,  isinglass,  and  a  little  yeast;  mingle 
the  materials; beat  them  w-ell  together; spread, 
the  batter  being  made  thin  with  guiu-\v;iter, 
oil  even  tin  plates,  and  dry  them  m  a  stove  ; 
then  cut  them  out  for  use. 

You  may  make  them  of  what  colours  vou 
please,  by  tinging  the  paste  with  brazil  or  ver- 
milion for  red  ;  indigo  or  verditer,  &c.  for 
blue  ;  saffron,  tumeric,  or  gambooge,  &c.  for 
yellow. 

WAGER  OF  LAW,  is  a  particular  mode 
of  proceeding,  whereby  in  an  action  of  <lebt 
brought  upon  a  simple  contract  between 
the  parties,  without  any  deed  or  record,  the 
defendant  may  discharge  himself  b)'  swearing 
in  court  in  the  presence  of  compurgators, 
tiiat  he  owes  tlie  plaintiff  nothing,  in  manner 
and  form  as  be  has  declared,  and  liis  compur- 
gators swear  that  they  believe  what  he  says  is 
true.  And  this  waging  his  law,  is  some- 
times called  making  his  law.  5  l!ac:  Abr. 
42S. - 

It  being  at  length  considered,  that  this 
waging  of  law  offered  too  great  a  temptation 
to  perjury,  by  degrees  new  remedies  were 
devised,  and  new  forms  of  action  introduced, 
wherein  no  defendant  is  at  libertv  to  wage  his 
law. 

Instead  of  an  action  of  debt  iqion  a  simple 
contract,  an  action  is  now  brought  for  the 
breach  of  a  promise,  or  assumpsit ;  wliercin 


W  A  G 

tliougii  the  specilic  ilebt  cannot  be  recovered, 
yet  damages  may,  equivalent  to  the  specific 
debt ;  and  this  b:ring  an  action  of  trespass,  no 
law  can  be  waged  therein.  So  instead  of  aa 
action  of  detinue  to  recover  the  verv  tiling 
detained,  an  action  of  trespass  upon  the  case, 
in  trover  and  conversion,  is  usually  brought, 
wherein  though  the  specific  thing  cannot  be 
had,  yet  the  defendant  shall  j^ay  damages  for 
the  conversion  equal  to  the  value  thereof: 
and  for  this  trespass  also  no  wager  of  law  is  al- 
lowed. In  the  place  of  actions  of  account,  a 
bill  in  equity  is  usually  filed,  wherein,  though 
the  defendant  answers  upon  liis  oath,  vet 
such  oatli  is  not  conclusive  to  the  plaintiff',  but 
lie  may  prove  every  article,  by  other  evi- 
dence, in  contradiction  to  what  the  defend- 
ant has  sworn.  So  that  wager  of  law  is  now 
quite  out  of  use,  being  avoided  by  the  mode 
of  bringing  the  action,  but  still  is"  not  out  of 
force.  And  therefore  when  a  new  statute 
inllicts  a  penally,  and  gives  an  action  of  debt, 
it  is  usual  to  add  that  no  wagur  of  law  w  ill  be 
allowed. 

WAGERS.  In  general  a  wager  may  be 
considered  as  legal,  if  it  is  not  an  incitement 
to  a  breach  of  the  jieace,  or  to  immorality  j 
or  if  it  does  not  affect  the  feelings  or  interest  of 
a  third  person,  or  expose  liim  io  ridicule:  or 
if  it  is  not  against  sound  policy.  ;,'  Durnf, 
&  East,  (ilO.  See  I.nsvkance.  ' 

WA(iES,  what  is  agreed  upon  by  a  mas- 
ter to  be  paid  to  a  servant,  or  any  other  per- 


W  A  L 

son  that  lie  hires  to  ilo  liis  business  for  liini. 
2  Lil.  Aljr.  677.     See   Mastsr  and   Slr.- 

Ij  VANT. 

WAGTAIL,  ill  oinitliology.    See  Mota- 

CILLA. 

WAIFS,  are  good*;  wljicli  are  stolen  and 
waved  by  a  felon  in  liis  lli^lit  frem  tliose  wlio 
purine  liini,  wliicli  are  (orCeileil ;  and  lliough 
vaif  is  generally  spoken  of  gootis  stolen,  yi;t 
if  a  man  is  pursued  witli  line  and  cry  as  a 
felon,  and  he  tlees  and  leaves  his  own  goods, 
these  will  be  forfeited  as  goods  stolen  ;  but 
they  are  properly  fugitive's  goods,  and  not 
forfeited  till  it  is  found  before  the  coroner,  or 
otherwise  of  record,  tliat  he  lied  for  the  felony. 
2  Haw.  4jO.     See  Estrays. 

WAINAGE.  The  reasonableness  of  fines 
or  amercements  having  been  regulated  by 
Magna  Charta,  tliat  no  person  shall  iiave  a 
.larger  amercement  imposed  u))on  him  llian  his 
circumstances  or  personal  estate  will  bear,  it 
is  added,  saving  to  the  frediolder  his  contene- 
nient  or  land  ;  to  tlie  trader  his  mercliandize  ; 
and  to  the  countryman  his  wainage,  or  team 
and  instruments  of  husbandry.     4  Black.  379. 

WAIVER,  in  law,  signilies  the  passing  by  of 
a  thing,  or  a  refusal  to  aece])t  it ;  sometimes  it 
is  applied  to  an  estate,  or  something  conveyed 
to  a  man,  and  sometimes  to  plea,  8cc.  And 
a  waiver  or  disagreement  as  to  goods  and 
chattels,  in  case  of  a  gift,  will  be  effectual. 
Lil.  710.^ 

WAKE  of  a  ship,  is  the  smooth  water 
astern  when  she  is  under  sail:  (his  shews  the 
way  she  has  gone  in  the  sea,  whereby  the  ma- 
riners judge  what  way  she  makes.  For  if  the 
wake  is  right  astern,  they  conclude  she 
makes  her  way  forwards;  but  if  the  wake  is 
to  leeward  a  point  or  tw  o,  then  they  conclude 
she  falls  to  the  leeward  of  her  course.  AVhen 
one  ship,  giving  chase  to  another,  is  got  as 
far  into  the  wind  as  she,  and  sails  directly 
after  her,  they  say  she  has  got  into  her  wak<". 
A  ship  is  said  to  stay  to  the  weather  of  her 
w  ake,  when  in  her  staying  she  is  so  cpiicj:, 
that  she  does  not  fall  to  leeward  upon  a  tack  ; 
but  that  when  she  is  tacked,  lier  wake  is  to 
the  leeward ;  and  it  is  a  sign  she  feels  her 
helm  very  well,  and  is  quick  of  steerage. 

WALE,  or  Wales,  in  a  sliip,  thoseoufer- 
most  timbers  in  a  sliip's  side  on  which  the 
sailors  set  tlieir  feet  in  climbing  up.  Thev 
are  reckoned  from  the  water,  and  are  called 
]ier  hrst,  second,  and  third  wale,  or  bend.  See 
Ship. 

WALES.  By  stat.  27  H.  VIII.  c.  26,  and 
other  subsequent  statutes,  the  dominion  of 
^Vales  shall  be  incorporated  with,  and  be  part 
of,  the  realm  of  England  ;  and  all  persons 
born  in  Wales  shall  enjoy  all  liberties  and 
)jrivilei;es  as  the  subjects  in  England  do. 
And  tlie  lands  in  Wales  shall  be  inheritable 
after  the  English  tenure,  and  not  after  any 
Welsh  laws  or  customs.  And  the  proceed- 
ings in  all  the  law-courts  shall  be  in  the  Eng- 
lish tongue.  A  session  is  also  to  be  held 
twice  a  \ear  in  every  county,  by  judges  ap- 
pointed by  the  king,  to  be  called  the  great 
sessions  of  the  several  counties  in  Wales ;  in 
which  all  pleas  of  real  and  personal  actions 
shall  be  held,  ivith  the  same  form  of  process, 
find  in  as  ample  manner,  as  in  the  court  of 
common-pleas  at  Westminster;  and  writs  of 
error  shall  lie  from  judgments  therein  to  the 
court  of  king's-bench  at  Westminster.  But 
the  ordinary  original  writs,  or  process  of  the 
king's  courts  at  Westminster,  do  not  run  into 


WAR 

the  principality  of  Wales,  though  process  of 
e.xecution  does,  as  also  all  prerogative  writs, 
as  wriis  of  certiorari,  <|uo  minus,  mandamus, 
and  the  like.  3  iilack.  77. 

Murders  and  felonies  in  any  part  of  Wales 
may  be  tried  in  the  next  adjoining  English 
county;  the  judges  of  assize  having  a  concur- 
rent jurisdiction  throughout  all  \Vales,  with 
the  justices  of  the  graiul  sessions.  Str.  '>b3. 

All  local  matters  arising  in  Wales,  triable 
in  the  king's-bench,  arc  by  the  common  law 
to  be  tried  by  a  jury  relumed  from  the  ne.\t 
adjoining  county  in' England.  Burr,  fi39. 

No  sheriff  or  oflicer  in  Wales  shall,  upon 
any  process  out  «f  the  courts  at  Westminster, 
hold  any  person  to  special  bail,  miless  the 
cause  ol  action  is  twenty  pounds  or  upwards. 
I  1  and  12W.  c.  <J. 

^\■ALI\.  See  Gardening. 

^\'ALKElilA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
and  order  pentaudria  monogvnia.  The  ealvx 
is  live-parted,  inferior;  corolla  five-pclall- 
ed  ;  drupes  live,  one-seeded  ;  nuts  reihl'orm. 
There  is  one  species,  a  tree  of  the  East 
Indies. 

WALL,  in  gardening.  Of  all  materials  for 
building  walls  tor  fruit-trees,  brick  is  the  bi-st, 
it  being  not  only  the  handsomest,  but  the 
warmest  andkin("lest  for  the  ripening  of  fruit  ; 
and  allijrding  the  best  conveniency  for  nail- 
ing, as  smaller  nails  will  serve  in  brick  than 
will  in  stonewalls,  wlure  the  joints  are  larger; 
and  if  the  walls  are  caped  with  free-stone, 
and  stone  pilasters  or  columns  at  proper  dis- 
tances, to  separate"  the  trees,  and  break  off 
the  force  of  the  winds;  they  are  very  iieau- 
tihd,  and  the  most  prolitable  walls"  of  any 
others.  In  some  parts  of  I".ngland  there  are 
walls  built  both  of  brick  and  stone,  w  liicli  are 
found  very  commodious.  The  bricks  of  some 
places  are  not  of  themselves  substantial 
enough  for  walls  ;  and  therefore  some  per- 
sons, that  they  might  have  walls  both  sub- 
stantial and  wholesome,  have  built  these 
double,  the  outside  being  of  stone,  and  the 
inside  of  brick  ;  but  there  mn-^t  be  great  care 
taken  to  bond  the  bricks  well  into  the  stone, 
otherwise  they  are  very  apt  to  separate  one 
from  the  other,  especially  when  frost  comes 
after  much  wet. 

There  liave  been  several  trials  made  of 
walls  built  in  different  forms ;  some  of  them 
having  been  built  semicircular ;  others  in 
angles  of  various  sizes  ;  and  projecting  more 
towards  the  norlli,  to  screen  off  the  cold 
\\  inds  ;  but  there  lias  not  as  yet  been  any 
method  which  has  succeeded  near  so  well  as 
that  of  making  the  walls  straight,  arid  building 
them  upright.  Where  persons  are  willing 
to  be  at  tiie  expence  in  the  building  of  their 
walls  subslantiid,  they  will  find  it  answer 
much  better  than  those  which  are  slightlv 
built,  not  only  in  duration,  but  in  warmth; 
therefore  a  wall  two  bricks  thick  will  be 
found  to  answer  better  than  that  of  one 
brick  and  a  half  Tl-.e  best  aspect  for  ripen- 
ing iruit  is  south,  with  a  point  to  the  east; 
and  the  next  best  due  south.  It  is  a  great 
inijjrovement  to  have  a  trellis  of  wood  against 
the  wall,  to  train  the  trees  to,  as  it  prevents 
the  wall  being  spoiled  by  nails,  &c. 

W  ALLEN  I  A,  a  gemisof  plants  of  the  class 
and  order  tetrandria  monogynia.  The  calyx 
!■<  fotu-cleft;  corolla  tubular,  four-cleft  ;  berry 
one-seeded,  lliere  is  one  species,  a  tree  of 
the  West  Indies. 
WALRUS.  SeeTaicHEcus, 


W  A  11 


S77 


WALNTT-TREE,  SeeJvciANs. 

Wi\  jyiili;UI.\,  a  genus  of  the  monadel- 
pliia  nentandria  class  of  plants,  the  flower  of 
which  consists  of  live  petals,  verticallv  <or(I- 
ated  and  patent ;  the  fruit  is  an  unflocular 
biv.dvc  capsule,  vertically  ovated ;  and  the 
seed  is  single,  obtuse,  and  broadest  at  the 
top.  There  are  six  species. 

WAXMANNIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  octandria,  order  monogynia,  and  ar- 
ranged in  the  natural  classihcat'ion  with  those 
plants  the  order  of  which  is  doubtful.  The 
calyx  is  four-leaved,  the  corolla  has  four  pe- 
tals, and  the  capsule  is  bilocular  and  biros- 
trated.  'Jhere  are  four  species,  none  of 
which  are  natives  of  Britain. 

WAPENTAKE,  from  the  .Saxon,  the 
same  with  what  we  call  a  hundred,  ai<d  more 
especially  used  in  the  northern  couiilie-)  be- 
yond the  river  Trent.  There  have  been 
several  conjectures  as  to  the  original  of  the 
word,  one  of  which  is,  that  antiently  musters 
w  ere  made  of  the  armour  and  weaijons  of  the 
inhabitants  of  every  hundred  ;  and  from  those 
that  could  not  linif  sutllcieiit  pledges  of  their 
good  behaviour,  their  weajions  were  taken 
away,  and  given  to  others ;  whence  it  is  said 
this  word  is  derived.   See  IUindred. 

A\AU.  The  too  frequent  recurrence  of 
this  great  and  detestable  calamity,  niifortu- 
natet)'  renders  a  definition  of  llic  word  unne- 
cessary. If  we  were  called  upon  to  define  it, 
we  should  say,  it  is  the  wanton  destruction, 
the  cold-blooded  slaughter,  of  the  lumiaii 
race:  we  should  call  it  an  accumulation  of 
every  sin  that  degrades  and  vililies  mankind  : 
we  sliould  mark  it  as  a  practice  that  diffuses 
misery  and  perpetuates  vice  :  we  should  say, 
that  if  there  is  a  burlesque  upon  tlie  boasted 
reason  of  man  it  is  this  ;-when  millions  meet 
to  murder  each  other  for  a  quarrel  in  which, 
in  general,  they  hare  not  individually  the 
smallest  interest.    The  poet  who  wrote, 

"  One  murder  makes  a  villain,  millions  a 
hero,"  &c. 

deserves  a  statue  of  gold;  and  the  writer  of 
that  verse  may  lift  his  head  in  the  proudest 
assembly,  and  avow  his  principles  in  the  face 
of  the  world. 

The  best  and  most  respectable  of  the 
Christian  sects  have  disclaimed  war  as  incon- 
sistent with  their  Christian  calling  and  ])ro- 
fession.  There  may  however  exist  cases 
where  war  is  self-defence  ;  and  if  ever  it  is 
such,  it  is  when  an  iinprincii)led  tyrant, 
at  the  head  of  a  discljjhned  banditti,  endea- 
vours to  reduce  the  civilized  world  under 
one  sy.item  of  general  despotism,  and  to 
jilunder  the  property  of  unoli'ending  nations 
and  individuals,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
highw  ayman,  who  by  the  laws  of  every  well 
regulated  community,  is  for  such  an  oifence 
destined  to  the  rope.  We  leave  onr  readers 
to  make  the  application  to  the  jiresent  cir- 
cumstances ot  Eurojie,  and  we  think  they 
cannot  long  be  at  a  loss. 

In  this  view,  as  a  me.-ins  of  defence,  and  as 
useful  to  the  understanding  of  history,  and 
not  as  giving  our  sanction  to  an  irrational  arid 
anlichristiaji  practice,  we  insert  the  follow  ing 
arlicle. 

War,  art  of.  As  war,  on  the  one  hand,  in 
respect  to  its  effects,  is  intimately  connected 
with  the  propriety  and  independance  of  na- 
tions; so,  on  the  other,  it  requires  infinite 
skill,  combination,  and  maiageniedt,  when 


(oiisidored  as  an  ail.  Tls  principlet,  founded 
on  (he  sciences  themselves,  are  lixid  ..nd  cer- 
taui :  but  these  branch  out  into  such  a  pro- 
digious variety  of  ramilic^tions,  that  men  of 
extraordinary  taienls  and  genius  only  have 
been  able  to  excel  in  it. 

As   two  dililiirent  elements  constitute  the 
"theatre  ol  its  operations,  war  is  naturally  <li- 
■\'ided  into  naval  and  military  arrangements. 
Of  naval  i\:iirfurr. 

The  art  of  arranging  squadrons  or  fleets  in 
order  of  battle,  and  regulating  their  move- 
ments in  such  a  manner  as  may  be  deemed 
best  calculated  for  attacking,  defending,  or 
retreating,  to  the. greatest  possible  advantage, 
is  termed  naval  tactics. 

The  antients  seem  to  ha^Te  excelled  rather 
in  land,  than  in  sea  engagements.  On  re- 
curring to  the  history  of  remote  periods,  we 
are  perpetually  reminded  of  the  state  of  sa- 
vage nations  at  the  present  day  ;  the  canoes 
indeed  oi  the  Iroquois  would  have  availed 
■but  little,  yet  the  war-boats  of  Otaheite  might 
not  then  have  appeared  contemptible. 

The  Mediterr.mean  was  the  early  scene  of 
aiaval  exploits  ;  and  galleys  were  the  vessels 
originally  used  in  engagements.  These  were 
propelled  by  the  force  of  oars  ;  and  the  coni- 
batanls  being  made  to  ap])roach,  and  some- 
times to  board  each  otiu-r  by  means  of  flying 
bridges,  a  battle  at  sea  dillered  but  little  from 
a  battle  on  land.  But  in  progress  of  time,  a 
superiority  was  attempted  to  be  obtained  by 
means  of  skill  and  management.  'J'lie  prows 
were  armed  with  bra/^en  spikes,  or  tridents, 
which  were'  so  contrived  asto  pierce  the  ene- 
my's vessels  under  water,  and  by  letting  in 
•the  sea,  expose  them  to  the  danger  of  sinking. 
'J'urrets  were  also  erected  betweei:  the  poop 
and  the  forecastle,  for  the  purpose  of  over- 
looking the  foe,  and  annoying  him  bv  means 
of  darts  and  slings.  In  process  of  tiiiie,  other 
improvements  ti.ok  place,  which  we  shall  here 
endfeavour  Uielly  to  enumerate. 

1.  The  dolphin,  which  was  a  huge  and 
massive  piece  of  lead,  formed  into  the  shape 
•of  the  tish  trom  wliich  it  had  derived  its  name. 
This  being  perfectly  suspended  by  blocks 
and  rO|)es  from  the  mast-head  or  \ard-arm, 
was  allowed  to  d.op,  whenever  aii  opportu- 
nity presented  itself;  and  penetrating  through 
the  bottom  of  a  vessel  slightly  constructed, 
it  of  course,  by  its  own  speciticgravilv,  made 
a  passage  for  the  entering  waves;  and  thus 
•sometimes  renUeied  even  a  retreat  impos- 
sible. 

S.  Another  engine  in  use,  consisted  of  a 
scythe  of  iron,  li.ved  at  the  top  of  a  long  pole; 
.and  was  employed  for  the  purpose  of  cutting 
asunder  the  slings  of  tlie  sail-yards,  so  as  to 
Incommode  during  action,  and  prevent  escape 
•cither  then  or  afterwards. 

3.  Spears,  or  maces,  of  an  extraordinary 
length,  Were  constructed  so  as  to  aunov  at  a 
considerable  <listance;  and  thus,  altliougli 
stationary,  to  serve  tlie  purpose  of  a  missile 
weapon. 

4.  'I'he  naval  battertjig-ram,  mentioned  by 
Vegelius,  consisted  of  a  kjiig  beam,  armed 
with  a  head  of  iron  ;  and  being  suspended  to 
the  niain-inast,  was  employed  to  ;;ood  elVect 
against  the  sides  of  \.\k  gallrv  ■. 

5.  A  gra|)pling-irun,  which  seized  hold  of 
any  part  of  the  opposing  vessel,  and  f.icili- 
lated  the  boardnig  other. 

(J.  The  last,  and  most  fonnidabh'  of  all 
their   macliines,  was  the  balista ;   by  which 


WAR. 

large  stones  could  be  thrown  *o  a  great  dis- 
tance, witli  a  considerabh'  degree  of  certainty, 
and  the  most  terrible  effects. 

Having  thus  mentioned  the  engines  made 
use  of  by  the  antients  during  naval  comnbals, 
we  next  come  to  the  disposition  of  their 
fleets.  It  was  then,  as  now,  considered  a 
great  advantage  to  obtain  tlie  weather-gage  ; 
and  it  was  at  the  same  time  endeavoured  to 
contrive  so  as  to  have  the  sun  behind  them- 
selves, while  it  shone  directly  in  the  faces  of 
their  enemies.  Instead  of  mananvring  by 
means  of  their  sails,  these  were  always  low-: 
ered  previously  to  action;  and  the  prows 
being  presented  to  the  enemy,  they  advanced 
against  each  otiier  by  force  of  oars,  and 
amidst  the  sound  of  trumpets.  After  expend- 
ins;  their  arrrows  and  javelins,  iccourse  was 
at  length  had  to  the  sword,  so  that  courage 
alone  decided  the  combat. 

The  code  of  signals,  like  tlie  syiiiboi  by 
which  they  were  regulated,  was  simple  in  the 
extreme.  It  consisted  sometimes  of  a  gilded 
shieltl,  and  sometimes  of  a  red  garment,  or 
banner.  During  the  elevation  of  this,  the 
battle  continued  ;  its  depression  denoted  de- 
feat ;  and  by  its  inclination  either  to  one  side 
or  the  other,  an  attack  or  retreat  «  as  pointed 
out. 

In  respect  to  the  line  of  battle,  the  Iialf- 
moon  was  generally  the  favourite  |x>sitioJi. 
During  one  memorable  sea-fight,  the  galleys 
of  the  Romans  v.ere  ranged  so  asto  represent 
a  wedge  in  fiont,  while  the  Carthaginians 
drew  up  their  fleet  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
form  a  rectangle  on  two  sides  of  a  square,  for 
the  purpose  of  annoying  and  inclosing  the 
flank  of  the  enemy  ;  the  former  was  the  figure 
best  calculated  lor  attack,  the  latter  for  de- 
fence. 

Notwithstanding  the  boasted  greatness  of 
the  Roman  people,  yet  uhcn  this  country 
was  invaded  by  Cesar,  they  appear  to  have 
obtained  but  little  eminence  in  respect  to 
naval  alliiirs.  A  fleet  on  that  occasion  was 
not  brought  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber, 
ami  the  vessels  built  in  Gaul  exhibited  no- 
thing formidable  or  ingenious  either  in  their 
management  or  construction.  '1  hey  must 
have  been  small  and  contemptible,  in  point 
of  size,  for  they  were  drawn  up  on  the  beach, 
near  to  where  the  town  of  Deal  now  stands, 
and  fortified  like  the  camp,  by  means  of  a 
ditch  and  rampart. 

On  the  departure  of  these  invaders,  who, 
as  usual,  at  once  con(|uered  and  civilized  the 
barbarous  tribes  among  whom  they  settled, 
the  situation  of  the  Rritons  must  have  been 
truly  distressing.  Reduced  perhaps  to  the 
coracles,  or  boats  made  of  skins  stretched  on 
osiers,  they  were  able  to  derive  little  or  no 
benefit  from  the  ocean  that  surrounded  them. 
On  the  neighbouring  continent,  hawever,  the 
boats  had  made  a  greater  progress,  or  at  least 
left  a  deeper  impression  ;  for,  doubtless,  the 
keels  of  the  Saxons  must  have  appi-ared 
formidable  to  men  whose  vessels  were  ribbed 
with  twigs. 

The  wars  with  the  Danes  rendered  some 
attention  to  maritime  artairs  necessarv;  and 
Alt'red  is  re|)iesented  as  having  encouraged 
and  einplo\ed  foreign  artificers  and  mariners, 
by  means  of  whom  he  eonstructnl  vessels  of 
a  superior  size.  Witii  these  he  scoured  the 
coasts,  which  were  then  infested  by  pirates, 
freebooters,  and  «;ncniies  of  all  sorts:  and  this 


princf  appears  to  liave  rescued  liis  subjects 
Irom  the  incursions  of  pirates. 

At  length  the  de|)redjt:oiis  of  the  northern 
states  became  fonnjdable.  !•  rom  being  oe:- 
casional  visitors,  for  the  sake  ol  plunder,  the 
Danes,  and  other  nations  boruering  on  the 
Bailie,  began  to  think  of  settling  m  Britain, 
and  in  consequence  ol  their  power  and  num- 
bers, they  were  linally  enabled  to  place  one 
of  their  o\wi  sovereigns  on  the  throne.  After 
this,  either  by  land  or  sia,  all  conttntioii 
necessarily  ceased. 

Wihiam  the  Norman  obtained  the  crown 
bv  the  gross  mismanagement  of  Harold,  in 
respect  to  both  naval  and  military  ali'airs : 
for  on  one  hand  he  had  <letached  his  squadron 
to  the  northern  parts  oi  llie  kingdom,  instead 
of  keeping  it  on  the  southern  shore  to  op- 
pose the  enemy  ;  while  on  tlie  other  he  put 
his  whole  stake  to  hazard  on  a  single  battle. 
The  fleet  conducted  b_\  the  Conqueror  to  the 
coast  of  Sussex,  (Sept.  28,  lOtio)  consisted  of 
no  less  than  three  hundred  vessels  ;  but  thev 
appear  to  have  been  cunlemplible  in  point  of 
si/e,  and  to  have  been  but  ill  calculated  to 
cope  witli  an  enemy. 

A  long  interval  succeeded  before  any  great 
progress,  in  respect  to  m.intinie  ailairs,  oc- 
curred ;  and  the  crusades,  the  wars  between 
the  kings  and  the  baions,  the  acquisition  of 
Ireland,  and  the  incorporation  of  Wales,  all 
took  place  before  the  loundalion  of  a  national 
navy  was  laid.  But  commerce,  the  true 
nursery  of  sailors  and  of  a  fleet,  began  to  be 
attended  to ;  trade  was  no  longer  carried  on 
solely  by  foreigners ;  while  the  wool  of  Eng- 
land, alter  being  woven  and  spun  where  it 
had  grown,  was  exported  to  distant  countries, 
and  brought  back  profitable  returns.  The 
ships  of  tlie  cinque-ports  now  became  formi- 
dable ;  they  were  regularly  lent  out,  wlien 
retpiircd,  to  the  kings  of  England  ;  and  assist- 
ed not  only  in  tlieir  wars,  but  in  the  convey- 
ance of  their  troops  to  the  continent. 

In  1217,  Hubert  de  Burgh,  governor  of 
Dover-castle,  after  obtaining  the  weather- 
gage,  defeated  the  French,  in  tlie  first  sea- 
light  that  ever  took  place  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  them. 

It  was  not  until  the  time  of  Edward  I.  how- 
ever, that  any  great  exertions  seem  to  have 
taken  place,  'i'hat  prince  fitted  out  three 
scpiadrons  at  the  same  time. 

in  1340,  the  English  fleet  appears  to  have 
been  drawn  up  in  two  distinct  lines,  the 
larger  ships  being  placed  in  the  front,  and  the 
smalli.r  in  the  rear,  whence  they  were  enabled 
to  send  flesh  supplies  of  men,  or  otlierwi';e 
grant  their  assistance,  as  occasion  might 
serve.  In  this  battlr,  which  toiJk  place  on 
the  coast  of  Flanders,  the  French  lost  two 
hundred  and  thirty  ships,  and  had  two  of 
their  admirals  slain.  During  the  contest  for 
the  crown  of  France,  the  arms  of  England 
were  eminently  triumphant  both  by  sea  and 
land;  but  the  wars  between  the  rival  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster  so  completely  occu- 
pied the  hands  and  the  hearts  of  the  nation, 
as  to  prevent  any  attention  to  foreign  af- 
fairs.. 

At  length  Hen.A'II.  awise  and  able  ]irince, 
began  to  build  ships   of  w  ar,  oiif"  of  which 
I  cost  him  upwards  ot  14000^    His  son,  Henry 
I  \  111.    uotwithstauding    those    odious   vices 
I  which  rendered  his  memory  odious,  seems  to 
have  conceived  a  just  notion  of  the  true  in- 
terests of  tlic  natioi),  in  respect  to  iiiaritiine 


affaii's.  lie  accordiiiglv  intitutecl  tlie  navy- 
oflii-C,  a|)i)i)int('<l  conimissiom-i's,  <;oihIi-iic1i'<I 
,  several  large  slii|).-.,^in(l  laid  the  Ibiirulaticjii  ol 
tliat  naval  power,  whicli,  in  the  time  ot  liis 
<laiiglitcr,  preserved  tlie  iiidcpciKlaine,  and 
added  not  a  little  to  the  glory,  of  England. 

Nor  were  the  French  at  this  period  iiial- 
teiitiee  to  their  navy.  iJiirini;  an  engai'e- 
jiient  with  the  English  in  the  Channel,  their 
(leeL  appears  to  have  assumed  a  regular  and 
systematical  arrangement.  Il:  consisted  of 
three  divisions,  that  in  tlie  centre  being  com- 
posed of  thirty-six  ships,  and  the  van  and 
rear  of  thirty  each.  'I  he  galleys,  which  liad 
come  from  the  Mediterranean,  were  consi- 
d<;red  hi  the  same  point  of  view  as  frigates 
are  at  the  present  day^  and  never  entered  the 
line  of  battle. 

Meanwhile,  tin-  introduction  of  gunpowder 
had  created  an  entire  change  in  the  weapons 
of  war;  and  at  this  day  the  sword  ami  tin- 
boarding-pike  are  perliaps  the  only  ones  that 
have  been  used  in  connnon,  both  bv  the  an- 
tients  and  moderns.  The  Spaniards,  who 
had  become  a  great  maritime  narion,  are 
sai<l  to  have  been  the  first  who  had  recourse 
to  cajinon,  during  a  sea-hght  with  the  English 
and  their  allies,  olf  Kochelle,  in  IMJ  :  yet  it 
has  been  asserted,  that  this  instrument  of  de- 
struction was  actually  recurred  to  by  our 
ancestors  in  1350.  'I'he  same  people  soon 
after  threatened  an  invasion,  by  means  of  an 
armada,  which,  whether  we  consider  the  size 
of  the  vessels,  or  tlie  manner  in  which  they 
were  manned  and  ei]uipped,  must  be  consi- 
dered as  truly  formidable.  They  entered 
the  Channel  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  the 
honis  of  which  i-xtended  to  a  prodigious  dis- 
tance, and  were  assuredly  more  than  a  mati:h 
for  any  force  that  could  be  brought  to  op- 
pose them.  But  lord  Howard  of  Kitingham, 
assisted  by  Drake,  Hawkins,  and  Frobisher, 
(all  of  whom,  but  himself  alone,  had  been 
bred  in  the  merchant-service),  so  managed  an 
inferior  squadron,  as  to  obtain  a  complete 
victory. 

A  competent  idea  may  be  formed  of  the 
fleet  of  England  in  those  days,  by  observing, 
that  on  the  demise  of  Elizabeth,  it  consisted 
of  forty  small  ships  only,  of  which  number 
four  did  not  exceed  forty  guns,  and  but  two 
of  these  were  of  the  burthen  of  a  thous.md 
tons ;  twen'.y-three  others  were  below  live 
hundred  ;  ol  the  rest,  some  did  not  exceed 
fifty,  and  some  not  even  twenty,  while  the 
whole  number  of  guns  amounted  to  no  more 
than  774. 

But  the  long  and  bloody  contest  that  after- 
wards took  place  with  Holland  for  naval 
superiority,  finally  fixed  the  character  of  the 
English  nation,  in  respect  to  maritime  affairs. 
During  three  dreadful  wars,  there  were  no 
less  than  nineteen  general  engagements,  in 
one  of  which  the  right  was  renewed  for  three 
days  in  succession,  in  another  for  two  days, 
and  in  a  third  for  one;  making  in  all  no  less 
than  twenty-five  days  of  general  actions. 
What  is  still  more  extraordinary,  De  Wilt 
.  on  one  side,  and  Mpnk  and  Blake  on  the 
other,  were  landsmen,  yet  tht^y  all  fought 
with  unrivalled  skill  and  intrepidity.  The 
last  of  these  was  the  first  who  ever  brought 
ships  of  war  to  oppose  castles. 

At  die  death  of  Charles  H.  the  royal  navy 
amounted  in  all  to  1 13  sail.  James  II.  while 
A  subject,  had  couuuauded  a  Heet,  and  insti- 


WAR. 

fitted,  or  rather  improved  and  enlar(;ed,  the 
system  of  signals.  At  his  abdication,  Eng- 
land possessed  173  vessels  ()f  dnierent  de- 
seri])lions.  During  the  time  of  William  and 
-Mary,  these  were  increased  to  2j(j;  but  their 
success  was  not  prop«rl  ionable  to  the  public 
expectation.  In  the  nign  of  Ainie,  liovevor, 
the  naval  j)Ower  of  I'rance  received  a  deadly 
blow  at  \  igo,  having  lost  no  less  than  seven- 
teen ships  of  war. 

On  the  accession  of  the  house  of  I5rnns- 
wick,  the  lleet  increased  rapidiv  ;  and  during 
llie  present  reign,  it  has  obtai'ied  an  unex- 
ampled degrei;  of  prosperity:  for  towards  the 
middle  of  the  year  ISOfi,  it  consisted  of  132 
sail  of  the  line',  17  lortv-lour  and  liity  gun 
shi|)S,  rcjf)  frigates,  Hl(j  s'loops,  &c.  and  UA'J 
gmi-brigs,  forming  a  total  ot  753  in  commis- 
sion. 

Alter  these  observations  on  the  rise  ami 
progress  of  the  British  navy,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  make  some  remarks  on  the  manner  in 
wliich  it  is  conducted  during  action.  As  the 
skill  and  bravery  of  our  seamen  have  always 
been  eminent  by  comparison  in  close  engage- 
ments between  single  ships,  it  necessarily 
follows,  tliat  the  adoption  of  any  system 
which  would  place  Heels  precisely  in  the 
same  condition,  could  not  fail  to  be  attended 
with  the  most  beneficial  advantages.  It  was 
a  long  while,  however,  before  this  could  be 
elfect.rd  ;  for  the  opposite  squadrons  being 
usually  dis|)osecl  in  right  hues  parallel  to  each 
other,  every  ship  keeping  close  hauled  ujion 
a  wind  on  the  same  tack,  it  necessarily  fol- 
lowed, that  the  action  in  general,  provided 
equal  numbers  were  broirghi  into  contact, 
could  neither  be  long  nor  decisive.  Thus  it 
frequently  happened,  that  nothing  decisive 
occurred,  not  so  much  as  a  single  ship  being 
lost  or  won  on  either  side. 

A  great  and  sudden  change  was  however 
efiected.  This  occurred  on  the  IJth  of  April 
1782;  when  admiral  sir  George  Bridges  Rod- 
ney, instead  of  following  the  old  system, 
pierced  the  French  line,  formed  by  the  count 
DeGrasse,  and  gained  a  comph-te  victor\ . 
The  same  occurred  under  lord  Howe,  June 
1,  1794. 

A  similar  principle,  viz.  "  the  directing  the 
greater  part  of  the  force  of  a  lleet  against  a 
few  ships,"  was  put  in  practice  by  sir  John 
Jervis  now  earl  Si.  ^■incent,  on  the  13th  of 
February,  1797. 

At  the  battle  of  the  Nile  admiral  sir  Ho- 
ratio, aftei'wards  loid  viscount.  Nelson,  con- 
trived to  ilouble  down  on  the  eneniv,  and 
place  part  of  Iheir  lleet  between  two'fires  : 
«  hiie  during  tliat  of  Trat'algar  he  advanced 
in  two  lines,  and  elfected  a  di>jiinction  with 
similar  effect,  but  by  different  means.  The 
princi])le,  indeed,  was  cxacllv  the  same  in  all; 
that  of  bringing  fieels  into  the  same  position 
as  single  ships,  so  that  the  sailprs  might  be 
enabled  to  fight  hand  to  hand,  with  the  addi- 
tional advantage,  that  the  many  would  thus 
be  enabled  to  attack  the  few. 

It  has  already  been  observed,  that  some  of 
our  gallant  naval  commanders,  during  the 
civil  wars,  had  been  bred  in  the  army;  and 
it  is  not  a  little  remarkable,  that  the  great 
change  which  has  taken  place  of  late  years, 
in  respecl  to  the  management  of  fleets,  ap- 
pears to  have  originated  with  a  landsman, 
who,  according  to  his  own  account,  iiad  at- 
tained ten  years  of  age,  before  he  had  ever  I 


srg- 

seen  a  ship.  Tlie  gentleman  to  whom  w<r 
iKjw  allude  is  Mr.  Clerk,  of  Eldm,  author  of 
an  "  Essay  on  Naval  1  actics,  Systematical 
and  Historical,  in  lour  parts."  Tiie  first  edi- 
tion ot  the  fii-st  pan  appeared  in  1790.  and  the 
seconri  edition  In  1»04;  and  as  this  is  the 
oidy  treatise  of  t!ie  kind  in  our  language,  we 
sliail  here  lake  some  notice  of  it. 

During  the  Amerif'an  war,  the  action  be- 
lueeii  admiral  Keijjjel  an<l  liie  French  lleet^ 
on  the  27ih  of  July,  177«,  engaged  Mr. 
Clerk's  particular  attention.  The  idea  of  the 
line  ot  battle  svas  in  some  parts  novel,  as  it 
was  an  attack  from  the  leeward ;  and  he  re- 
marked, with  surprise,  that  in  the  course  of 
the  two  long  trials  which  followed  lliLs  inde- 
cisive light,  as  well  as  that  of  admiral  Mat- 
thews, ill  1744,  and  of  admiral  Byng,  in  17j6, 
not  a  single  hint  escaped,  "  lliat  it  was  pos- 
sible any  thing  defective  could  be  attributed 
to  the  system  of  the  attack  itself,  or  that  any 
kind  of  improvement  should  be  attempted  ;" 
such  as  the  scheme  since  put  in  practice, 
'•  the  culling  the  enemy's  line  asunder;  tint 
directing  the  greater  part  of  the  lorcc  of  a- 
lleet  against  a  lew  ships,  either  in  the  van  or 
the  rear,  or  even  making  a  prize  of  the  .slower- 
sailing  or  crippled  ships  of  the  enemy." 

During  the  engagement  of  admir.d  IJyroij 
oll'the  island  of  Grenada,  on  July  (j,  1779^ 
the  attack,  like  (hose  made  by  Mattln-ws  and 
Byng,  was  from  the  windward ;  and  from- 
a  consideration  of  all  these  cases,  Mr.  Clerk 
became  induced  to  think,  that  the  want  of 
success  was  not  to  be  attributed  either  lo  any 
abatement  in  the  spirit  of  the  seamen,  or  any 
delect  in  the  shipping,  or  sailing  of  the  fleeu, 
but  solely  lo  the  unskilful  manner  in  whiclL 
the  general  attacks  were  conducted. 

Impressed  with  these  ideas,  he  mentioned 
his  suspicions,  in  January  17S0,  to  a  friend  of 
sir  George  Rodney,  to  whom  he  at  the  same 
time  communicaled  his  theories  of  atlack 
fiom  both  windwaril  and  leeward,  and  ex- 
plained his  doclrhie  of  cutting  the  enemy'* 
line.  The  proprltly  of  the-.e  plans  was  not 
fully  exemplified  however,  until  two  years 
alter,  (April  12.  1782;)  when  a  victors,  far- 
more  decisive  and  im)iortant  than  any  which 
had  been  gained  by  our  fieets  duiing  the  last 
century,  was  obtained  ;  for,  on  lliia  occasion, 
the  attack  was  from  the  leeward,  which  the 
author  considers  as  more  rare,  ingenious, 
and  effectual,  than  an  attack  from  the  wind- 
ward ;  in  addition  lo  which,  the  enemy's  line 
was  at  the  same  lime  cut  in  two. 

In  the  Essay  on  Naval  Tactics,  the  impro- 
priety of  a  single  ship  lo  windward  bearing 
down  directly  on  an  enemy  to  leeward,  is 
pointed  out  by  a  diagram,  accompanied  with 
a  denionslration  :  we  are  then  presented  witlt 
a  comparative  estimate  of  the  elfect  of  shot 
directed  against  the  rigging  of  a  ship,  with 
lis  result  when  employed  against  the  hull. 
Ill  respect  to  Heels,  an  atlack  Irbm  the  wind- 
ward is  supposed  lo  be  attended  with  a  disad- 
vantage in  the  ratio  of  twenty  to  one,  as  the 
fire  ol  the  whole  line  to  leeward  can  be  ap- 
plied, on  such  an  occasion,  against  the  van  of 
ihc  assailants ;  a  mancruvre  which  the 
French  were  well  acquainted  with,  and  put 
constantly  in  practice,  until  the  new  aiode  oT 
combat  was  introduced. 
These  positions  are  illustrated  by, 
1.  Admiral  Matthews's  engagement  wilk- 
the  combined  fieets  of  France  and  ^pain,  off 
Toulon,  February  M,.  1744. 


880 

2.  Admii-al  Byn£?'s  action  with  tlie  Freucli 
fleet  oil' Minorca,  Slay  ~0,  1756. 

3.  Admiral  Keppei's  off  Usliant,  July  27, 
1771 

4.  Admiral  Byron's  off  Grenada,  July  6, 

1779. 

5.  Admiral  Harrington's,  at  St.  Lucia. 

6.  Sir  George  Bridges  Rodney's,  otf  Capes 
Finisterre  and  St.  Vincent. 

7.  , oflf   tlie 

Pearl  Rock,  Martinico,  April  17,  1780. 

8_ •  to  wind- 
ward of  Martinico,  May  15,  1780. 
9. near  tlie 


WAR. 


same  place,  Mav  1!),  1780. 

10.  Admiral '  Arbutlmot'o,  olT  the  Clie- 
Sapeak,  Marcli  16,  1781. 

1 1 .  Sir  Samuel  Hood's,  off  Fort  Royal, 
Martinico,  April  29,  17S1. 

12  Admiral  Parker's,  off  the  Dogger- 
bank,  August  5,  1781. 

13.  Commodore  Johnstone's,  at  Port 
Prava,  in  the  island  of  St.  Julian. 

14.  Admiral  Greaves's,  oft'the  Chesapeak, 
September  5,  ITS  I. 

I'rom  the  particulars  of  this  catalogue, 
Mr.  Clerk  deduces,  as  a  general  principle, 
thai  "  where  the  British  fleets  being  to  wind- 
ward, have  endeavoured,  by  extending  tlieir 
line  of  bailie,  to  stop,  take,  or  destroy,  the 
whole  of  the  ships  of  the  enemy's  line  to 
Irewanl,  they  have  )>een  disabled  before 
they  could  reach  a  situation  whence  they 
could  annov  the  enemy;  and,  on  the  other 
Iiand,  the  "French  pursuing  the  British,  in 
disorder,  unsupported,  and  disabled,  have 
made  sail ;  and  after  throwing  in  tlie  whole 
lire  upon  the  van  of  the  British  fleet,  ship  by 
sliiii,  as  passing  in  succession,  have  formed  a 
line  to  leeward,  so  as  to  be  prepared  in  case 
another  attack  could  be  made." 

He  concludes  by  observing,  "  that  the 
most  artful  management  of  sails,  the  closest 
■approximation,  or  the  most  spirited  canno- 
nade, will  avail  notliing,  under  such  circum- 
stances; and  that  it  is  in  vain  to  hope,  that 
ever  any  thing  material  can  be  etVectcd 
;igainst  an  enemy's  fleet  keeping  to  \yind- 
ward,  passing  on  contrary  tacks,  and  desirous 
to  go  off,  unless  his  line  of  battle  can  be  cut 
in  twani,  or  some  such  other  step  can  be  de- 
^■ised  as  has  already  been  described." 

Mr.  Clerk,  after  this,  proposes  certain  new 
modes,  and  points  out  their  advantages : 

1.  The  attack  from  the  windward  upon  the 
rear  of  the  enemy. 

2.  On  the  enemy's  three  sternmost  ships. 
lie  considers  both  of  these  as  far  prek-rable 

to  the  attempt  of  getting  up  with  the  ene- 
my's van,  with  the  view  to  carry  the  whole 
lle'et;  and  thinks  that  we  ought  ratlier  to  con- 
tent ourselves  with  the  certainty  of  cutting 
off  a  few  of  tlieir  dullest-sailing  vessels. 

In  Part  H.  we  are  presented  with  tliree 
cases  of  an  attack:  the  1st  when  made  by 
the  headmost  ships  of  a  squadron  on  the  van 
of  a  retreating  enemy  ;  the  2d  on  or  near 
the  centre  ;  and  the  3rd  upon  the  van,  or 
any  w  here  ahead  of  the  centre. 

Afte.'  due  investigation,  Mr.  Clerk  is  of 
opinion,  that  the  attack  from  the  leeward 
quarter  can  be  executed  with  the  greatest 
•number  of  advantages,  particularly  as  the 
crippled  ships  remain  under  the  protection 
of  tlieir  friends ;  whereas,  on  the  contrary, 
tliQse  appertaining  to  u  Uect  to  wiiidtturd, 


will  fall  immediately  into  the  power  of  their 
enemies. 

The  battles  which  have  taken  place  since 
the  publication  of  this  work,  seem  fully  to 
justify  all  the  positions  laid  down  by  this  au- 
thor, whose  merits  are  acknowledged,  and 
who,  we  are  informed,  has  received  encou- 
ragement and  protection  of  the  highest  kind. 

Of  military  arrangements. 

Tlie  art  of  arranging  armies  in  order  of 
battle,  and  of  regulating  their  movements  in 
such  a  manner,  as  may  be  deemed  most  pro- 
per for  attacking,  defending,  or  retreating, 
to  the  greatest  possible  advantage,  ii  termed 
military  tactics.  It  has  been  generally  re- 
cognised, and  is  at  length  received  as  an 
axiom,  that  there  is  no  branch  of  human 
knowledge  more  dillicult  than  that  of  which 
we  are  now  about  to  treat;  and  both  antients 
arid  moderns  have  been  so  well  convinced  of 
this  fact,  that  it  has  been  regularly  taught  in 
public  schools,  erected  expressly  for  that 
purpose. 

Iwo  celebrated  nations,  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans,  were  particularly  anxious  to 
attain  perfection  in  the  science  of  war;  and 
this  accounts,  in  some  measure,  for  their  ex- 
traordinary success,  when  combating  against 
enemies  who,  content  with  a  blind  obedience 
to  a  custom,  placed  their  chief  confidence, 
not  in  the  discipline,  but  in  the  multitude  of 
their  combatants.  They,  on  the  contrary, 
were  conscious  that  the  strength  of  armies 
consists  principally  in  the  art  with  which  they 
are  managed,  and  the  principles  by  which 
tliey  are  regulated;  that  multitudes  are  often 
more  embarrassing  than  useful  ;  and  that  a 
small  body  of  troops,  well  regulated,  and 
ably  directed,  is  capable  of  overcoming  a 
large  one,  defuieiit  in  respect  to  those  ad- 
vantages. Tlicnce  too  they  deduced  a  theory 
relative  to  the  disposition  of  tlieir  soldiers, 
the  order  of  battle,  the  manner  of  encamping, 
the  best  and  most  regular  mode  of  marching, 
of  forming,  and  of  acting,  in  such  a  way,  as 
to  oppose  the  strong  to  the  weak,  while  they 
at  the  same  time  anticipated  all  the  strata- 
gems, and  prevented  all  the  deceptions,  of 
the  enemy.  On  the  other  hand,  they  did 
not  forget  to  regulate  the  different  species  of 
arms,  to  attain  address  in  managing;  and 
to  adopt  the  most  advantageous  method  of 
using  them,  whether  offensively  or  defen- 
sively. 

War,  accordingly,  was  regarded  as  an  art, 
of  which  it  was  necessary  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  tlie  principles  anterior  to  the 
practice.  It  is  but  little  wonder,  therefore, 
that  so  many  great  men  were  produced,  and 
such  wondeiuil  effects  ensured  ;  more  espe- 
cially in  Greece,  where  infinite  pains  were 
taken  to  attain  a  perfect  system.  The  Ro- 
mans too  directed  their  attention  to  military 
affairs  ;  and  the  order  of  the  legion  was  sup- 
posed on  the  w  hole  to  be  superior  to  that  of 
the  phalanx.  Vegetius,  indeed,  after  exam  iii- 
iiig  its  formation,  exclaims,  that  none  but  a 
God  could  have  contrived  such  a  powerful  aiul 
admirable  assemblage. 

That  wonderful  nation  too,  laying  preju- 
dice aside,  at  once  examined,  studied,  and 
adopted,  those  practices  in  which  they  were 
excelled  by  their  enemies.  A  defeat  was 
never  lost  on  them;  for  after  every  reverse, 
they  obtained  an  increase  of  their  military 
knowledge.    Thus  the  sharp-cdgod  weapons 


of  the  Gauls,  and  the  elcpiiants  of  Pvrrl.i.i, 
never  surprised  them  hut  once;  and  tlicv  h.ni 
no  sooner  become  aciiuainted  with  the' Spa- 
nish sword,  than  they  immediately  abaniiou 
eir  own.     At  the  same  time,  they  did  not 


I 

omit  to  emjiloy  Nunhdian  horses,  Cj 
arclieis,  shngers  from  the  Balearic  islaiiu-, 
and  ships  belonging  to  Rhodes.  In  line,  no 
people  ever  exhibited  so  much  prudence  in 
their  preparations  for  a  campaign,  or  carried 
on  hostilities  with  such  extraordinary  auda- 
city. We  are  the  less  inclined  to  wonder, 
therefore,  at  'the  observation  of  Josephus, 
who  remarks,  "that  war  with  them  was  a 
med.tdtion,  and  peace  an  exercise." 

We  accordingly  find  that  they  abound  with 
great  commanders  ;  and  what  is  still  more 
ex'raordinary,  that  many  of  these  command- 
ers proved  victorious  without  the  beiielit 
of  experience,  ijcipio,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
seven,  knew  how  to  re|)air  the  faults  cora- 
mitted  by  his  father  ami  liis  uncle,  in  con- 
sequence of  previous  study.  A\'hen  Lucul- 
lus  marched  into  Asia  for  the  purpose  of  at- 
tacking Mitliridates,  he  instructed  himself,  ac- 
cording to  Cicero,  by  reading  Xenophon, 
and  the  best  authors;  while  at  a  later  period 
Narses,  who  had  never  before  commanded, 
nor  even  served,  replaced  Belisarius,  over- 
came Totila,  and  successfully  concluded  the 
struggle  with  the  Goths. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  war  is  to  be 
regulated  according  to  certain  rules  and  prin- 
ciples; and  that  on  the  knowledge  and  ap- 
plication of  these,  depends  the  fate  of  a  cam- 
paign, and  perhaps  ot  a  nation.  It  necessa- 
rily follows,  that  a  general  ought  to  possess 
extraordinary  talents  and  attainments.  Ac- 
cording to  a  celebrated  author,  "  some  qua- 
lities should  be  born  with,  and  others  acquired 
by,  him."  In  addition  to  these,  he  should 
also  possess  a  cpiick  eye,  so  as  to  enable  him 
to  judge  of  an  advantageous  posUion  for  his 
troops,  decide  on  a  uiantEUvre  to  be  made 
or  to  be  avoided,  of  a  country  suitable  or 
unsuitable  to  his  army;  and,  above  all,  of  a 
field  of  battle  whence  he  can  derive  the 
greatest  number  of  possible  advantages  at 
the  least  possible  risk  or  inconvenience. 

He  should  at  the  same  time  exhibit  a  sound 
and  solid  judgment  ;  for  the  choice  of  officers 
to  be  employed  on  any  particular  exigency, 
depends  in  a  great  measure  upon  him,  and 
therefore  the  best  dispositions  woukl  prove 
fruitless  if  not  ably  seconded.  As  his  orders 
too  cannot,  from  the  nature  of  things,  be 
precise,  it  is  expected  therefore  of  those  who 
command  under  him,  to  know  how  to  take 
advantage  of  a  wrong  movement  on  the  part 
of  the  enemy,  to  commence  an  attack  them- 
selves, or  only  to  sustain  the  troops  engaged, 
and  to  vary  their  conduct  according  to  the 
varying  nature  of  circumstances. 

But  these  qualities  in  the  chief  without 
subordination  on  the  part  of  those  who  are 
subject  to  his  command  would  be  of  little 
avail,  if  order  and  (li,--cipline  were  not  duly 
observed.  Without  these,  the  most  nume- 
rous and  best -composed  army  would  spon  be- 
come little  ij"tter  than  a  horde  of  Tartars, 
who,  being  united  only  bv  the  hope  of  booty, 
separate  as  soon  as  that  motive  ceases  to 
operate.  Great  art  is  necessary,  however, 
ill  enforcing  discipline,  and  a  happy  mean 
ought  to  be  adopted.  I'oo  much  severity 
disgusts  tlie  soldier,   and  not  iinfrcquently 


proiluccs  miifinics ;  loo  iiiurli  iiululgenco  on 
tlie  otiier  liaiid  sinks  him  into  indoUMici,-,  and 
ifuiuces  liim  to  ni-glcct  hisdiity;  licentious- 
ness makes  good  order  appear  hurtliensonie  ; 
■Avitii  his  respect  lor,  lie  ;ilso  lo;es  all  his  eonli- 
dence  in,  his  sn))erior  ol'lk-er,  so  that  the  most 
fatal  results  are  at  length  unavoidable. 

Besides  the  above  qualities,  which  arc  so 
essential,  and  even  necessary,  in  a  command- 
er, a  general  who  would  aspin?  to  tlie  title  of 
a  hero,  ought  to  unite  in  hinisilf,  not  only 
all  niilitury,  but  all  civil  and  political  excel- 
lence. It  is  by  a  knowledge  of  the  laws,  cus- 
toms, constitutions,  produce,  and  nattu-e  of 
diflerent  states,  that  he  is  to  regulate  his  ope- 
rations, and  make  war  with  success.  No- 
thing will  escape  him,  because  every  thing  is 
essential  to  his  projects ;  the  genius  of  the 
country  points  out  tiie  manner  of  iiis  marches 
and  his  movements,  and  the  knowledge  of 
the  inhabitants  will  lead  him  to  anticipate 
whatever  may  be  expected  on  their  part. 
One  nation  is  vehement,  (iery,  and  formi- 
tlable,  at  the  first  onset ;  anoilier  is  not  so 
ha-sty,  but  possesses  more  perseverance ; 
with  the  former,  a  single  instant  determines 
success  ;  with  the  latter,  the  action  is  not  so 
ra))id,  but  the  event  is  less  doubtful. 

In  former  times,  the  art  of  war  was  differ- 
ent from  what  it  is  at  present,  although  tlie 
grand  principles  are  still  the  same.  After  the 
(larls,  javelins,  and  arrows,  had  been  ex))end- 
ed,  the  combat  took  place  between  oppo- 
nents who  engaged  hand  to  hand;  and  as  they 
advanced  in  deep  order,  with  a  view  of  over- 
coming all  opposition  by  means  of  the  im- 
petus, the  action  was  generally  long  and 
bloody.  Some  of  the  plans  of  battle  were 
exactly  the  same  then  as  now  ;  and  it  is  not 
■a  little  remarkable,  that  Cx-sar,  at  Pharsalia, 
tlrew  up  his  troops  according  to  the  oblique 
order,  while  Epaminondas  at  Leuctra  adopt- 
ed that  figure  which,  on  account  of  its  par- 
ticular form,  is  called  an  echellon  attack. 

In  the  middle  ages,  war  appears  to  have 
degenerated  into  a  system  of  marauding, 
being  carried  on  nearly  in  the  same  manner 
as  among  the  Mahrattas  at  the  present  day. 
The  troops,  if  troops  they  might  be  termed, 
were  mounted  on  horseback;  and  the  men 
at  arms,  as  they  were  called,  being  cased  in 
■armour,  placed  their  glory  in  standing  erect 
in  their  stirrups,  so  as  to  resist  the  siiock  of 
an  adversary.  At  length,  during  the  cru- 
sades, a  more  regular  system  began  to  pre- 
vail; and  the  cliristians  on  the  plains  of  Pales- 
tine, met  with  a  master  in  the  art  of  war, 
in  the  person  of  Saladin. 

At  the  battle  of  Hastings,  the  Norman 
cross-bows  appear  to  have  galled  and  even  t« 
have  surprised  the  English,  whose  ranks  were 
close,  and  whose  line  could  not  be  pierced. 
On  perceiving  this,  William  had  recourse  to 
stratagem,  and  conquered  by  pretending  to 
fiv,  for  he  knew  that  regular  oi\ler  could  not 
I)'e  preserved  in  a  pursuit,  and  he  was  thus 
enabled  to  overcome  an  enemy  which  had 
been  thrown  into  disorder. 

At  Cressy,  the  English  army  was  formed 
in  a  masterly  manner,  havin;  been  posted  to 
great  advantage  on  a  gentle  ascMit,  near  the 
village  of  that  name,  and  drawn  up  so  as  to 
form  three  lines  expressly  according  to  the 
mode  prevalent  at  the  jjresent  day  ;  while 
Edward  III.  was  stationed  with  the  reserve, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  see  and  to  succour  his 
troops,  if  occasion  should  require.    Tlie  long 

Vol.  II. 


WAR. 

bows  of  the  English,  at  this  inemoraWe  con- 
tlict,  seem  to  have  exhibited  a  marked  sn- 
l)eriorily  over  the  cross-bows  of  the;  Geuo- 
cse,  w  ho  had  been  many  years  considered  as 
the  best  light  I  loops  In  'Europe.  Since  that 
period,  the  English,  more  e-pecially  wlien 
ojiposed  hand  to  hand  with  the  "French, 
have  unilornily  maintained  their  superioritv 
ni  the  lield,  whenever  equal  numbers  were 
eiigaged.  We  accordingly  liiid,  that  whether 
with  infantry  or  cavalry,  the  pike,  the  screw- 
ed bayonet,  or  sword, 'have  in  turn,  while  ill 
their  hands,  been  managed  to  advantage. 

'1  he  inlroduction  of  gunpowder  lias  made 
a  great  change  in  the  art,  without  altering, 
however,  any  of  its  grand  principle*,  which 
were  exactly  the  same  at  lh<-  batth  s  of  Caii- 
nx  and  ot  Austerlil/.  This  invention,  how- 
ever, has  made  modern  wars  infinitely  more 
expensive,  and  modern  armies  far  more  dilli- 
tult,  in  respect  to  their  nianagemenl.  An 
immense  cjuantity  of  baggage,  ammunition, 
and  artillery,  has  now  become  necessary, 
while  (he  specific  number  rather  than  the  in- 
dividual excellence  of  the  soldiers,  is  attended 
to.  As  much  depends  in  the  new  system, 
on  the  regular  supply  of  provisions,  for  men 
and  horses,  a  plan  of  the  campaign  is  formed 
beforehand,  loitr.'sses  are  considered  as  so 
many  fundamental  points,  and  the  magazines 
being  filled  under  their  protection,  they  are 
termed  the  base  whence  the  lines  of  operation 
are  to  be  traced.  It  is  thus,  that  strong 
places  serve  eciually  to  protect  retreats,  and 
to  favour  attacks. 

In  ancient  times,  it  was  usual  to  assault 
the  enemy  in  front,  but  it  is  now  customary 
to  act  on  the  (tank  and  the  rear,  to  cut  olV con- 
voys, and  by  annihilating  hi,  supplies,  to  de- 
stroy the  resources  on  which  he  depends. 
It  is  usual,  therefore,  instead  of  assuming  a 
position  directly  in  front,  to  occupy  a  camp 
either  to  the  riglit  or  left  ;  for  the  centre, 
which  is  the  strongest  part  of  the  line,  is  thus 
happily  eluded,  while  on  the  contrary,  the 
wings,  which  are  necessarily  the  weakest  por- 
tion, thus  became  exposedi  to  insult. 

Notwithstanding  gunpowder  is  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  lirst  used  at  the  battle  of 
Cressy,  where  two  field-pieces  are  said  to 
have  been  employed,  yet  it  was  not  until  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.  that  towns  began  to  be 
fortified  according  to  the  modern  inanner. 
^'auban,  under  the  auspices  of  that  nionarch, 
rendered  sieges  long  and  expensive.  During 
the  war  of  the  succession,  iSIariborough  and 
Eugene  perceived  the  necessity  of  obtaining 
possession  of  the  fortresses  on  their  Hanks 
before  they  thought  of  advancing,  while 
Charles  XII.  carried  on  warlike  a  knight- 
errant,  rather  than  a  great  general ;  for  al- 
though the  passage  of  the  Dwina,  the  battle 
of  Narva,  and  the  actions  in  Poland  displav- 
ed  the  talents  of  a  master,  yet  his  march  into 
the  Ukraine,  at  the  solicitation  of  a  Cossack 
chief,  and  his  brilliant  but  delusive  career, 
considered  as  one  great  whole,  savour  more 
of  the  adventurer  than  the  liero. 

It  was  about  this  period,  tiiat,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  frequency  of  sieges,  the  pike 
began  to  be  entirely  laid  aside,  and  the  bayo- 
net adopted.  The  prince  de  Dessau  soon 
after  introduced  three  important  changes,  to 
two  of  which  the  Prussians  were  indebted  tor 
the  battle  of  Molvit2.  The  first  of  these, 
the  iron  ramrod,  by  accelerating,  tended  not 
a  little  to  reader  the  fire  of  musquetry  more 


881 

fatal,  and  thus  served  to  exempt  it  from  the 
contempt  in  which  it  was  held  by  the  cheva- 
lier I'olard  and  marshal  .Saxe.  'The  second 
was  the  equal  step,  which  enabled  (In-  whole 
line  to  advance  in  regular  time,  and  thus  pro- 
duced one  grand  and  uniform  movement. 
The  third,  was  the  change  effected  in  the 
order  of  battle,  which  was  altered  to  consist 
of  three  instead  ol  lour  lines. 

It  wax  on  these  foundations  that  Fn  deric 
II.  erected  a  grand  sii|)erslru<tuie.  It  was 
he  who,  hi  addition  to  the  practice  of  these 
improvements,  introduced  celerity  into  the 
motions  of  the  infantry,  and  eirectetl  an  en- 
lire  change  in  the  cliarge  of  the  cavalrv  ; 
before  his  lime  the  S(|uadrons  ne\er  adva'n- 
ced  with  a  quicker  pace  than  a  trot,  and  had 
recourse  to  tire-arms  iinlead  of  the  sabre. 
At  the  action  of  Sorr,  his  majesty  was  saved 
from  distruction  by  the  conduct  of  his  hor^e; 
and  he  is  supposed  to  have  gained  the  battle 
of  I'riedburg  by  the  able  disposition  of  iiis 
infantry,  on  which  occa'ion,  he,  for  the  first 
liine,  (leveloped  the.systemof  the  oblique  line. 

'1  he  dispute  that  arose  out  of  the  succes- 
sion of  IJavaria  was  too  short  to  pioduce  any 
grand  changes,  although  the  king  of  Prussia 
and  prince  Henry  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
emperor  Josejih  and  marshal  Laudolm  on  the 
other,  were  in  the  field.  The  war  was  con- 
fined entirely  to  mana-uvres,  to  inarches,  and 
countermarches,  and  ended  without  a  battle. 

'I  he  American  contest  produci'd  a  grand 
change  in  military  tactics,  the  introduction 
of  the  tiralleurs  or  ritle-mcn.  It  is  re- 
markable for  the  singular  circumslance  of  the 
Knglisli  gaining  every  general  action,  with- 
out being  able  to  achieve  a  permanent  con- 
quest. But  no  sooner  did  the  war  arising 
out  of  the  I'rench  revolution  take  place,  than 
great  and  important  changes  were  produced. 
At  the  battle  of  Jemappe,  Dumourier  intro- 
duced  an  innnense  number  of  heavy  cannon, 
and  a  flying  artillery  was  soon  after  brought 
into  the  lield  by  his  countrymen,  which  pro- 
duced wonderful  effects,  and  has  been  since 
imitated  by  every  neighbouring  nation.  Pi- 
chegru  and  Moreau,  in  Holland,  Germany, 
and  Flanders,  distinguished  themselves  by 
the  (juickness  of  their  evolutions,  and  the 
successful  manner  in  which  they  usually 
terminated  their  campaigns.  Buonaparte,  bv 
the  rapidity  of  his  movements,  and  the  en- 
thusiasm with  which  he  inspired  the  soldiers 
under  him,  performed  wonders  in  Italv  and 
(Jermany.  To  Dessaix,  however,  he'  was 
greatly  indebted  for  the  victory  at  Marengo, 
and  he  gained  the  battle  of  Au'sterlitz,  partly 
by  becoming  the  assailant  instead  of -acting 
on  the  defensive,  partly  by  the  suddenness  of 
his  attack,  and  partly'  by  jii,  icing  between 
the  ill-connected  columns  of  the  allied  army 
the  nioveinents  of  which  were  neither  uniform 
nor  simultaneous. 

After  all,  although  war  as  a  science  has  <rf 
late  years  been  certainly  carrietl  to  a  great 
degree  of  perfection,  yet  it  lias  varied  but 
little  in  its  principles;  on  tlie  contrary 
the  maximum  of  the  art  seems  now  to  be' 
to  bring  troops  to  attack  with  the  bayonet^ 
in  the  same  inanner  as  they  were  accustom- 
ed to  do  with  the  pike  son'ie  centuries  ago' 
and  the  English  by  their  conduct  in  I'laiidere' 
Egypt,  and  Calabria  have  proved,  that  hand 
to  hand  they  still  preserve  their  antient  rcpu- 
tation,  and  now  as  of  old,  are  uuequallcd  at  a 
charge. 


-1182 

Meanwhile,  military  seminaries  for  ttip 
"in^triKtioii  of  tiiose  destined  to  become  otifi- 
ccrs  Ir.vebeen  establislied,  al-k- masters  liave 
feecii  also  provided,  and  the  arts  and  sciences 
connected  v.iih  war,  are  now  publicly  taught. 
By  tiie  insttiilion  of  tiie  volunteers,  llie  ge- 
nius of  the  nation  ha^  been  al-.o  of  late  years 
directed  in  an  eminent  degree  to  mili- 
tary aflairs  ;  and  it  seems  now  to  be  eilablish- 
t;d  as  a  principle,  that  an  army  has  become  to 
the  lu!!  as  necessary  as  a  fieet,  for  the  defence 
of  our  own  islands,  as  well  as  the  annoyance 
of  the  dominions  of  onr  enemies. 

Before  we  conclude  this  subject,  it  may  be 
necessan-  to  enumerate  a  few  of  the  general 
principle's,  laid  down  by  those  who  have 
treated  of  the  art  i  f  modern  w  arfare ;  ob- 
serving at  the  same  time,  that  they  apply 
rather  to  a  contment  than  an  isiand. 

1.  It  is  necessary  to  have  magazines  for 
the  siipply  of  an  army,  and  fortresses  lor  the 
prote<  (ion  of  these  supplies. 

2.  There  should  be  a  range  of  fortresses 
on  the  same  line,  to  serve  as  a  ba^e  for  future 
operations. 

3.  To  undertake  with  snfety  an  offensive 
operation  ag.iinst  the  enemy,  it  is  necessary 
that  -the  two  fortresses  at  the  extremities  of 
th  s  line,  should  be  separate  at  such  a  distance 
from  each  osher,  that  liie  two  lines  of  ope- 
ration proceeding  fr  >m  them  may  meet  at 
the  given  object,  and  form  an  angle  of  at  least 
DO  degrees. 

4.  it  is  easier  to  stop  the  progress  of  an 
enemy  by  occupying  a  frontier  on  his  flank, 
than  in  his,  front. 

5.  The  best  wav  of  opposing  an  offensive 
♦peration,  is  to  actol'fensively. 

0.  The  subsistence  of  the'  enemy's  army, 
rather  than  the  army  itself,  ougiit  to  be  the 
chief  object  agaiust'which  operations  are  to 
be  directed. 

7.  It  is  always  possible  to  avoid  a  combat, 
bv  preventing  the  enemy  from  approaching 
too  near. 

8.  A  general  ought  never  to  wait  an  at- 
tack, but  to  put  himself  in  movement  to  act 
offensively,  even  if  in  possession  of  a  strong 
position. 

9.  An  enemy  can  never  be  drawn  up  so 
as  to  prevent  his  flank  from  being  turned. 

iO.  The  front  opposed  to  the  en?my 
ought  to  extend  beyond,  so  as  to  envelope 
him,  and  he  may  be  enveloped  by  an  in- 
ferior number,  provided  it  is  posted  on  his 
flanks. 

11.  The  infantry  ought  to  be  constantly 
supported  by  the  cavalry,  and  the  best  way 
of  achieving  this,  is  to  draw  up  the  latter  in 
the  rear. 

12.  A  column  is  the  best  defensive  figure 
that  can  be  assumed  against  cavalry. 

WAKS.  The  fol'iiwing  are  the  most  re- 
markable wars  in  which  this  country  has  been 
•ngaged,  since  the 

War  with  Scotland,  lOfiS; 

.„  .,,     (ditto,  1113. 

Peace  with    |  France,  11 1 3. 

War  with  France,  1 1 1(>. 
.,     (ditto,  1118. 

Peace  with   J  Scotland,  1139. 

War  with  France,  llfil. 

Peace  with  ditto,  1186. 

V^ar  agninwilii  FrancT,  with  success,  ll9-i- 

Veace  witii  ditto,  1'195. 

f  renewed,  121.5— (jnded,  1'216. 

Civil  \var  -|  with  France,  1224-endedy  15i3 1. 
(  rju2— ended,  12G7. 


WAITS, 

-—       .  .,  Cwith  France,  1294. 
^^'■'^''■"  I  with  Scotland,  1296. 
„  Cwith  France,  1299. 

^""^^    (with  Scotland,  1323. 

/  again  with  Scotland,  1327. 
,,,     )  ended,  1328. 
^     '   )  again  with  Scotland,  1333. 

(with  France,  1339. 
Peace  with  France,  May  8,  1360. 

r  with  Fiance,  1368.  / 

War  ■?  civil,  1400. 

(with  Scotland,  1400. 
Peace  with  France,  May  31,  1420. 


War 


(  with  France,  1420. 
■I  civil,  bi 


-,  uiv.i,  between  York  and  Lancas- 

I      ter,  1452. 
Peace  with  France,  October  1471. 
^^^^.j  civil,  1486 


ith  France,  Oct.  6,  1 492. 

(with  ditto,  Nov.  3,  1492. 

I  with  Scotland,  1502. 

„-      »  with  France,  Feb.  4,  1512. 
U  ar  ' 


Peace 

,(witl 
(with  Scotland,  1513. 
Peace  with  France,  Aug.  7,  1514. 
,.,        .,,     (ditto,  1522. 
AVarwith    J  ^,oi,^,„,^  1322. 


V  France,  1527. 
(  Scotland,  1542. 
War  with  Scotland  directly  after. 
Peace  with  France  and  Scotland,  June  7, 
1546. 

(Scotland,  1547. 
(  France,  1549. 
Peace  with  both,  March  6,  1550. 


1557. 


Peace  with 


War  with 


(civil,  1553. 
War  <  with  France,  .Ume  7, 

(with  Scotland,  1557. 
„  ...     (  France,  April  3,  1559. 

Peace  with    |  Scotland,  1500. 


"War 

Peace 


{  with  France  J  ,^ 


>62. 
.64. 


(with  Prance,  Feb.  (5,  1778. 
War  -J  with  Spain,  April  17,  1780. 
t  with  Holland,  1780. 
(-  France,     ^ 
iSoain,        ( J, 


Peace  will' 


!'•''"'  ,     V  Sept.  3,  17S3. 

.  ioliaiid,    i      ' 

America,   ) 


.,-        ...    (Scotland,  1570. 

^^'^^"■'iM  Spain,  1588. 

Peace  with  ditto,  Aug.  18,  1604. 

117        -.1    (Spain,  1(5?4. 
Warwiar>p'^,,^^,_  1(327. 

Peace  with  Spain  and  France,  April  14, 
1629. 

,.,      (civil,  1642. 

^^^'"  (with  the  Dutch,  1651. 

Peace  with  ditto,  April  5,  1654. 

War  with  Spain,  1655. 

Peace  with  Spain,  Sept.  10,  I66O. 

1,-        -ii    (  France,  Jan.  26,  1666. 

^^^'•"■'t''(Denmik,Oct.  19,  1665. 

Peace  with  the  Frencli,  Danes,  and  Dutch, 
An?.  24,  1607. 

Peace  with  Spain,  Feb.  13,  I668. 

M'ar  with  the  Algeiines,  Sept.  6,  1669. 

Peace  with  ditto,  Nov.  19,  1671. 

War  with  the  Dutch,  March,  1672. 

Peace  with  ditto,  Feb.  28,  1674. 

War  with  France,  May  7,  1689. 

Peace,  general,  of  Rhy"swick,Sep.  20, 1697. 

War  with  France,  May  4,  1702. 

Peace  of  Utrecht,  March  13,  1713. 

War  with  Spain,  Dec.  1718. 

Peace  with  ditto,  1721. 

ix'        -.1     S  Spain,  1739. 

War  with    {,4,„,,,M.arch31,  17.i4. 

11'        -n    (  France,  1756. 
War  with  i .      ■      i       /i    i-.-,o 
(  Spam,  Jan.  4,   l/02. 

Peace  with  France  and  Spain,  Feb.  10, 
1763. 

War  wth  the  Carlbbs  of  St.  Vincent  in 
1773. 

Yv     (civil,  in  America,  comBiciiced  Jul, 

^^•*'  t     14,1774. 


^\'ar  with  France  by  tin  English,  Prus- 
sians, Austnans,  and  oilier  German  powers, 
in  1793. 

Peace  between  Prussia  and  the  French 
Republic,  1795. 

Peace  beiween  Spain  and  the  French  Be- 
public,  1795. 

Peace  between  the  French  and  the  Sar- 
dinians in  1796. 

Peace  between  the  French  and  the  Austri- 
ans  in  1797. 

\\  ar  between  the  British  and  Tippoo  Saib 
in  India,  in  179'. 

W^ir  with  the  French  Republic  by  the 
Austrians,   Russians,  Neapolitans,  &c.  1798. 

War  will]  the  Turivs,  and  the  invasion  of 
Egypt,  in  1 798. 

Peace  between  the  French  and  the  Rus- 
sians in  1799. 

Peace  between  the  French  and  Austrians 
in  1800. 

Preliminaries  of  peace  commenced  between 
the  French  and  the  Ottoman  empire  inconse- 
quence of  the  reduction  of  Egypt  by  the 
British  forces  in  1801. 

Preliminaries  of  peace  between  France  and 
GreatBrhain,  &c.  ISOl. 

I'eace  between  France  and  England,  1802. 

^Var  with  France,  1803. 

Wars,  different  kinds  of.  There  are  foiir 
different  kinds  of  war,  each  of  which  is  to  be 
conducted  ditferently  the  one  from  the  other, 
viz.  the  oifensive  ;  the  defensive;  that  be- 
tween equal  powers  ;  and  the  auxiliary,  which 
is  carried  on  out  of  our  own  territories  to 
succour  a  prince  or  ally,  or  to  assist  a  weaker 
whom  a  more  powerful  prince  has  attacked. 

Offensive  war  must  he  long  meditated  on 
in  private  before  it  is  openly  entered  upon; 
when  the  success  will  depend  upon  two  es- 
sential points  ;  that  the  piaii  shall  be  justly 
formed,  and  the  enterprise  conducted  with 
order.  It  should  be  well  and  maturely  con- 
sidered and  digested,  and  with  tiie  greatest 
secrecy  ;  lest,  however  able  the  prince  or  his 
council  may  be,  some  of  t!ie  precautions  ne- 
cessary to  be  taken,  should  be  discovered. 
These  precautions  are  infinite  both  at  home 
and  abroad. 

Abroad,  they  consist  in  alliances,  and  se- 
curity not  to  be  disturbed  in  the  meditated 
expedition,  foreign  levies,  and  the  buying  up 
of  warlike  ammunition,  as  well  to  increase 
your  ow  n  stores  as  to  prevent  the  enemy  from 
getting  them. 

The  precautions  at  home,  consist  in  pro- 
viding for  the  security  of  oi:r  distant  frontiers, 
levying  new  troops,  or  aii,_,menting  the  eld 
ones,  with  as  little  noise  as  possible  ;  furnish- 
ing your  magazines  wilh  ammunition  ;  con- 
structing carriages  for  arlillery  and  provi- 
sions ;  buying  up  horses,  which  should  he 
done  as  much  as  possible  among  your  neigh- 
bours ;  both  to  prevent  their  furnishing  the 
enemy,  and  to  preserve  jour  own  tor  the 
cavalry  and  the  particular  equipages  of  the 
oflicers. 

Defensive  war  may  be  divided  into  three 
kinds.  It  is  either  a  war  sustained  by  a  prince, 
who  is  suddenly  attatkod  by  aBotber  superior 


"WAR 

to  Iiini  in  troops  ami  in  means ;  or  a  prince 
Diakt-s  Lliis  son  of  war  by  choice  on  one  siil'- 
of  his  irontiers,  wliilc  lie  carries  on  olicnsive 
war  elsewluMe  ;  or  it  is  a  war  become  tlelen- 
sive  by  tlie  loss  of  a  bailie. 

A  ileteiiiive  war  whicli  a  prince  altaclied 
by  a  superior  enemy  sustains,  depends  en- 
tirely Oil  tlie  capacity  of  bis  general.  His 
particular  application  slunild  lie,  to  cliQOse 
advanlagcons  camps  to  stop  tiic  enemy, 
witliout  however  being  obliged  to  light  him; 
to  nuilliply  small  advantages ;  to  harass  and 
perplex  the  enemy  in  his  foraging  parties, 
and  to  olilige  them  to  do  it  vvitli  gruat  es- 
corts;  to  attack  their  convoys;  to  render  the 
passages  of  rivers  or  dehles  as  diiTicnlt  to 
them  as  possible ;  to  force  thein  to  keep  to- 
gether ;  if  they  want  lo  attack  a  town,  to 
throw  in  succours  before  it  is  invested;  in 
sliort,  in  the  beginning  his  chief  aim  should 
be,  to  acfjuire  the  enemy's  respect  by  his 
vigilance  and  activity,  and  by  forcing  him  to 
be  circumspect  in  his  marches  and  manner 
of  encampment,  to  gain  time  liimself,  and 
make  the  enemy  lose  it.  An  able  general, 
carefully  pursuing  these  maxims,  will  give 
courage  to  his  soldiers,  and  to  the  inhabilunts 
of  the  country  ;  lie  gives  time  to  his  prince 
to  take  proper  precautions  to  resist  tlie 
enemy  who  attacks  liim  ;  and  thus  changes 
tlie  nature  of  this  vexatious  kind  of  warfare. 

'I'he  management  of  a  defensive  war  re- 
quires more  military  judgment  than  that  of 
au  offensive  one. 

A  war  between  equal  powers,  is  that  in 
which  tlie  neighbouring  jirinces  take  no  part, 
so  long  as  the  belligerent  parties  obtain  no 
great  advantage,  the  one  over  the  other. 
This  sort  of  war  never  shuuld  last  long  it  yon 
want  to  reap  any  advantages  from  it.  As  to 
its  rules,  they  are  entirely  conformable  to 
those  already  gi\en  ;  but  we  may  look  on  it 
as  u  certain  maxim  in  this  sort  of  war,  that 
the  general  who  is  the  most  active  and  pene- 
trating, will  ever  in  the  end  prevail  over 
him,  who  possesses  these  qualities  in  a  less 
degree ;  because,  by  his  activity  and  pene- 
tration, he  will  multiply  small  advantages, 
till  at  last  tiiey  procure  him  adecisive  superi- 
ority. A  general  who  is  continua'ly  atte.i- 
t'lve  to  procure  hims.elf  small  advantages, 
ever  obtains  his  end,  which  is  to  ruin  the 
enemy's  army ;  in  which  case  he  ciianges  the 
nature  of  the  war,  and  makes  it  offensive  ; 
•wliich  should  ever  be  the  chief  object  of  his 
prince. 

Aiixiliar)!  war,  is  that  in  which  a  prince 
succours  his  neighbours,  either  iiu  conse- 
quence of  aliiancei  or  engagements  enti'red 
into  with  them,  or  sometimes  to  prevent 
their  falling  under  the  power  of  an  ambitious 
prince. 

If  it  is  in  virtue  of  treaties,  he  o'oserves 
them  religiously,  in  furnishing  the  number 
of  troops  prescribed^  and  even  offering  to 
augment  his  cpMtu  if  re'inired;  or  in  making 
a  diversion  by  attacking  the  common  enemy, 
or  his  air.es. 

If  it  is  to  prevent  a  neighbouring  prince 
from  being  crushed  by  a  power,  who  after 
this  conquest  may  become  dangerous  to 
yourself,  there  are  several  measures  to  be 
taken  for  your  own  particular  interest.  One 
of  the  chief  is,  to  exact  from  those  you  sue 
cour,  the  possession  of  some  place  in  security, 
lest  they  make  their  peace  withoiU  your 
knowledge,  or  to  your  prejudice. 


w  A  n 

riie  general,  therefore,  who  is  cliosim  for 
(he  conmiaiid  of  this  auxiliary  corp,,  should 
have  wisdom,  penetration,  and  foresight  ; 
wisdom,  to  j)reserve  a  proper  discipline  in 
his  corps,  that  the  allied  prince  may  have  no 
cause  lo  complain  of  him  ;  forusigiit  and  pe- 
netration, to  prevent  his  trojps  sulfering  for 
want  of  subsistence,  or  being  exposed  to  the 
perils  of  war,  but  in  pro|)ortion  to  their  num- 
bers with  those  of  the  allied  prince  ;  and  (i- 
nally,  that  notliing  shall  pass  without  his 
knowledge,  which  may  be  prejudicial  to  liis 
master. 

Wak,  council  nf,  is  an  assembly  of  great 
officers,  called  by  a  general,  or  commander, 
lo  delibirate  with  him  on  enterprises  and  at- 
tempts to  be  made.  On  some  occasions, 
council  of  war  is  also  understood  of  an  assem- 
bly of  ollicers,  sitting  in  judgment  on  delin- 
quent soldiers,    deserters,  coward   officers, 

&.C. 

V\'ARD,  in  law-books,  a  word  of  divers 
significations  ;  thus,  a  ward  in  London,  is  a 
part  of  the  city  committed  to  the  special 
charge  of  one  of  the  aldermen  of  the  city. 
There  are  twenty-six  wards  in  l^ondon, 
which  are  as  hundreds,  and  the  parishes 
thereof  as  towns.  A  forest  is  also  divid- 
ed into  wards,  and  so  are  most  of  our  hos- 
pital-.. 

WARDf^N,  one  who  has  the  charge  or 
keeping  of  any  person,  or  thing,  by  office. 
Such  is  tile  warden  of  the  Fleet,  the  keeper 
of  the  I'ieet- prison  ;  who  has  the  charge 
of  the  prisoners  there,  especially  such  as  are 
committed  from  tiie  court  of  chancery  for 
contempt. 

Warden,  in  un  university,  is  the  head  of  a 
college,  answering  lo  what  in  other  colleges  j 
we  call  the  master.  \\'arden,  or  lord-warden 
of  the  cinque-ports,  is  the  governor  of  th-.-se 
noted  havens,  who  has  the  authority  of  an 
admiral,  and  sends  out  writs  in  his  own 
name.  Warden  of  the  mint,  is  an  officer 
whose  business  it  is  to  receive  the  gold  and 
silver  bullion  brought  by  the  merchants  to 
pay  them  for  it,  and  oversee  the  other  ofli- 
cers.  He  is  called  keeper  of  the  exchange 
and  mint. 

Warden,  church.  See  Church-war- 
dens. 

WARDMOTE,  in  Ijondon,  is  a  court  so 
called  which  is  kept  in  every  ward  of  the  city, 
answering  to  the  curiata  comitia  in  antient 
Koine. 

W.VRDS,  was  a  court  first  erected  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VllI,  and  atterwards  aug- 
mented by  him  with  the  issue  of  liveries  ; 
wbenoe  it  was  slyled  the  court  of  wards  and 
liveries,  but  dissolved  by  12  Car.  11. 

W.'VRDSMIP.  In  our  antient  customs, 
when  the  tenant  died,  and  his  heir  was  under 
tlie  age  of  twenty-one  being  a  male,  or  fom- 
tcen  being  a  female,  the  lord  was  entitled  to 
the  wardship  of  the'heir,  and  was  called  tlie 
guardian  in  chivalry.  'Ihis  wardship  con- 
sisted in  having  the  custody  ol  the  body  and 
lands  of  such  heir,  without  any  account  of  the 
profits,  till  the  age  of  twenly-one  in  males, 
and  fourteen  (which  was  afterwards  advanced 
to  sixteen)  in  temales.  W>\-  the  law  supposed 
the  heir  male  unable  to  perjorm  knight's 
service  till  twenty-one;  but  as  for  the  female, 
she  was  supposed  capable  at  fourteen  lo 
marry,  and  then  her  husband  might  perform 
the  oVnce,  2  Black.  67.  This  privilege  of 
6  1'  2 


WAR 


883 


the  lord's  was  abolished  under  the  Common- 
wealth, and  llie  aiiolition  conlirmed  by  (.tat- 
{2i.:.\\.c.U. 

WAKNING-WHEKL,  in  a  clock,  in  the 
third  or  fourth,  ai-cordiiig  to  it»  distance  from 
the  lirst  wheel.     See  Clock-work. 

WAK  I',  in  the  nianufactuie .,  is  the  thread*, 
whether  of  silk,  wool,  linen,  hemp,  S.<:.  that 
arc  extended  lengthwise  on  the  weaver's 
loom  ;  and  across  which  the  workman  by 
means  of  his  shuttle  passes  the  threads  of  the 
woof,  to  form  a  cloth,  ribband,  fustian,  or 
other  stuff. 

I'or  a  woollen  slnlf  to  have  the  necessary 
■qualities,  it  is  required  that  the  threads  of  tha 
warp  should  be  ol  the  same  kind  of  wool,  and 
of  the  same  fineness,  thronglimit ;  (hat  ihey 
are  sized  with  i''lander»  or  jiarchment-size, 
well  prepared  ;  an<l  thai  they  should  l)e  in 
suffii  lent  number  with  regard  to  the  breadth 
of  the  stulf  to  be  wrought. 

To  warp  a  ship  is  to  shift  her  from  one 
place  to  another,  w  hen  the  wind  and  lide  w  ill 
permit  it  without  danger. 

W  ARRANT,  a  pra-cipe  under  hand  and 
seal  to  some  olllcer,  to  bring  any  offender 
before  the  person  granting  it;  and  warraut* 
of  conimitmenl  are  issued  by  the  privy  coun- 
cil, a  secretary  of  stale,  or  justice  ol  the 
peace,  &c.  where  there  has  b.ren  a  private 
information,  or  a  witness  had  deposed  against 
an  ofl<;nder.     ^^■oo.i's  Inst.  6l4. 

Any  one  under  the  degree  of  nobility  may 
be  arrested  for  a  misdemeanour,  or  any  tiling 
done  against  the  peace  of  the  kingdom,  by 
warrant  from  a  justice  of  the  peace;  but  if 
the  person  is  a  peer  of  the  realm,  he  must  b« 
apprehended  for  a  breach  of  the  peace  by 
warrant  out  of  15.  R.   Dalt.  Just.  '26i. 

A  constable  ought  not  to  execute  a  jus- 
tice's warrant,  where  the  warrant  is  unlawful, 
or  the  justice  has  no  jurisdiction;  if  he  does 
he  may  be  punished.     Plowd,  394. 

I^ut  if  any  person  abuses  it,  by  throwing  it 
in  the  dirt,  &:c.  or  refuses  to  execute  a  lawful 
warrant,  it  is  a  contempt  of  the  king's  pro- 
cess, for  which  the  ofiender  may  be  indicted 
and  fined.     Cromjit.  149. 

A  general  warrant  to  apprehend  all  per- 
sons suspected,  without  naming  or  particu- 
larly de^cribing  any  person  in  ^pecial,  is  il- 
legal and  void  for  its  uncertainly ;  for  it  ii 
the  duty  of  tlie  magistrate,  and  ought  not  to 
be  left  to  the  officer,  lo  judge  of  the  ground 
of  the  snspiiion.  .Also  a  warrant  lo  appre- 
hend all  persons  guilty  of  such  a  crime,  i^  no 
legal  warrant ;  for  the  jioint  upon  wliiih  its 
authority  rests,  is  a  fact  to  be  decided  on  a 
subsequent  trial;  namely,  whether  the  per- 
son apprehended  thereupon  is  guilty  or  not 
guilty.     4Black. 'igi. 

A  warrant  may  be  lawfully  granted  by  any 
justice  for  treason,  felony,  or  priemunire,  or 
anv  other  olfence  against  the  peace  ;  znd  if 
seems  clear,  that  wh.-re  a  statute  gives  any 
one  justice  a  jurisdiction  over  anv  cifence,' 
or  a  power  to  require  any  person  to  do  a' 
certain  thing  ordained  by  such  a  >tatnte.  it 
impliediv  gives  a  power  lo  every  such  justiccr 
to  make  out  a  warrant  to  bring  before  hiin  any 
one  accused  of  such  ollence,  or  compi-lled  lo' 
do  any  thing  ordained  by  such  statute  ;  for 
it  cannot  but  be  intended,  that  a  statute 
which  gives  a  person  jurisciiction  over  an  of- 
fence, means  also  to  give  him  the  power  in- 
cident to  all  courts,  of  compelling  the  party 
to  come  before  him.    2  Haw.  84. 


884 


W  A  R 


But  in  cases  where  the  king  is  not  a  party, 
or  wliL-re  no  coqioral  punishment  is  api)oiiil- 
ed,  as  in  cases  for  servants'  wages  and  tlie 
like,  it  seems  that  a  summons  is  tlie  more 
proper  process;  and  for  default  of  appear- 
ance, tlie  justice  may  proceed ;  and  so  in- 
deed it  is  often  directed  by  special  statutes. 

A  warrant  from  any  of  the  justices  of  the 
court  of  king's  bench  extends  over  all  tlie 
kingdom,  and  is  tested  or  dated  England ; 
but  a  warrant  of  a  justice  of  peace  in  one 
county,  niu-t  be  backed,  that  is,  signed,  by  a 
justice  of  another  county,  before  it  can  be 
executed  there.  And  a  warrant  for  appre- 
hending an  English  or  a  .Scotch  offender, 
may  be  indorsed  in  the  opposite  kingdom, 
and  the  oliender  carried  back  to  that  part  of 
ihe  united  kingdom  in  which  the  offence  was 
committed.     4  Black.  291. 

Warrant  of  attorney,  is  an  aulliority  and 
power  given  by  a  client  to  his  attorney,  to 
appear  and  plead  for  him  ;  or  to  sulfer  judg- 
ment to  'pass  against  liim  by  confessing  the 
action,  by  nil  dicit,  non  sum'informatus,  S:c. 
^Vnd  although  a'warrant  of  attorney  given  by 
a  man  in  ctistody  to  confess  a  judgment,  no 
'.ittoruey  being  present,  is  void  as  to  the 
entry  of  judgment;  yet  it. may  be  a  good 
waiTant  to  appear  and  tile  common  bail.  2 
Lit.  Abr.  6^9. 

WARRANTIA  CHARI'/E,  a  writ  that 
lies  where  a  man  is  enfeofled  of  lands  witli 
warranty,  and  tlien  lie  is  sued  or  impleaded. 
And  if  the  feoffee  is  impleaded  in  assize,  or 
'ither  action,  in  wiiich  he  cannot  voucli  or 
•  ■all  to  warranty,  he  shall  have  tjiis  writ 
against  the  feolfer,  or  his  heirs,  to  compel 
them  to  warrant  the  land  to  him  ;  and  if  the 
f.uid  is  recovered  from  him,  he  shall  recover 
i:srauch  lands  in  value  against  the  warrantor, 
J^c.  ;  but  the  warrantia  chartx  ought  to  be 
brought  by  the  feotfee,  depending  the  first 
writ  against  him,  or  he  has  lost  his  advan- 
tage.  "F.  N.B.  134. 

■W^ARRANTIA  DIEI,  a  writ  lying  in 
cases  where  a  man,  having  a  day  assigned 
personally  to  appear  in  court  to  any  action 
wherein  lie  is  sued,  is  in  the  mean  time  em- 
ployed in  the  king's  service,  so  that  he  can- 
not come  at  the  day  assigned.  This  writ  is 
directed  to  tiie  jur,uces  to  this  end,  that  they 
neither  take  nor  record  him  in  default  for  that 
<iay. 

WARRANTY,  a  promise  or  covenant  by 
deed,  made  by  the  bargainor,  for  himself  and 
his  heirs,  to  warrant  or  secure  the  bargainee 
and  his  heirs  against  all  men,  for  the  enjoving 
any  thing  agreed  on  between  them. 

Warranty  is  either  real  or  personal  ;  real, 
\vlien  it  is  annexed  to  lands  or  tenements 
granted  for  life,  &c.  And  this  is  either  in 
«ieed,  as  by  the  word  warrantizo  expressly  ; 
or  in  law ,  as  by  the  word  dedi,  or  some  other 
amplification.  Personal,  which  either  re- 
spects the  property  of  the  thing  sold,  or  the 
<juality  of  it.     Cowel. 

Warranties  in  their  more  general  divisions 
are  of  two  kinds  ;  iirst,  a  warranty  in  deed, 
u;:  an  express  warranty,  which  is  when  a  tine, 
or  feoffment  in  fee,  or  a  lease  for  life,  is  made 
by  deed,  which  has  an  express  clause  of  wai- 
lunty  contained  in  it ;  as  when  a  conusor, 
feoffor,  or  lessor,  covenants  to  warrant  the 
land  to  the  conusee,  feoffee,  or  lessee ;  se- 
randly,  a  warrant  in  law,  or  an  implied  war- 
aarity,  which  is,  when  it  is  not  expressed  by 


W  A  S 

the  parly,  but  tacitly  made  and  implied  by 
the  law.      1  Inst.  36j. 

A  warranty  in  <leed  is  either  lineal  or  col- 
lateral. A  lineal  warranty  is  a  covenant  real, 
annexed  to  the  land  by  liim,  who  either  was 
owner  of  or  might  have  inlierited  the  land, 
and  from  whom  his  heir  lineal  or  collateral, 
might  possibly  have  claimed  tnc  land  as  heir 
from  him  that  made  the  warranty.  A  col- 
lateral warranty  is  made  by  him  that  had  no 
right,  or  possibility  of  right,  to  the  land,  and 
is  collateral  to  the  title  of  the  land.  1  Inst. 
370. 

WARREN,  is  a  franchise  or  place  privi- 
leged, by  prescription  or  grant  fVom  the  king, 
for  the  keeping  of  beasts  and  fowls  of  the 
warren;  which  are  coneys,  partridges,  phea- 
sants, and  some  add  quails,  woodcocks,  and 
water-fowl.      1  Inst.  233. 

These  were  looked  upon  as  royal  game, 
and  the  franchise  of  free  warren  was  invented 
to  protect  them,  bv  giving  the  grantee  a  sole 
and  exclusive  power  of  killing  such  game,  so 
far  as  his  warren  extended,  on  condition  of 
his  prevenfuig  other  persons  ;  for,  by  the 
common  law,  no  man,  not  even  a  lord  of  a 
manor,  could  justify  killing  game  on  another 
man's  soil,  unless  he  had  the  Uberty  of  free 
warren.     2  Black.  39. 

Warrkn,  rabbit.  In  setting  up  a  warren, 
great  caution  is  to  be  used  for  the  hxing  upon 
a  proper  place,  and  a  right  situation.  It 
should  always  be  upon  a  small  ascent,  and 
exposed  to  the  east  or  the  south.  The  soil 
that  is  most  suitatile,  is  that  which  is  sandy; 
for  when  the  soil  is  claj  ey  or  tough,  the  rab- 
bits find  greater  difficulty  in  making  their 
burrows,  and  never  do  it  so  well ;  and  if  the 
soil  is  boggy  or  moorish,  there  would  be  very 
little  advantage  from  tlie  warren,  for  wet  is 
very  destructive  of  these  animals. 

All  due  precautions  must  be  taken,  that 
the  warren  may  be  so  contrived,  that  the  rab- 
bits may  habituate  themselves  to  it  with  ease. 
Many  would  have  it  that  warrens  should  be 
enclosed  with  walls  ;  but  this  a  very  expen- 
sive method,  and  seems  not  necessary  or  ad- 
visable ;  for  we   find  but  very  few  that  are 
so,  and  tliose  do  not  succeed  at  all  the  better 
for  it. 
WART.    See  Surgery. 
WASH,  among  distillers,  the  fermentable  1 
liquor  used  by  the  malt-distillers.     See  Dis-  ' 

TILLATION. 

WASHING,  in  desis,n.     See  W"ater- 

COLOURS. 

WASP.     SeeVESPA. 

AVASTE,  is  the  committing  any  spoil  or 
destruction  in  huuses,  lands,  &c.  by  tenants, 
to  the  damage  ot  liie  heir,  or  of  him  in  re- 
ver>ioii  or  remainder;  whereupon  the  writ  or 
action  of  waste,  is  brought  for  the  recovery 
of  the  thing  waited,  and  damages  for  the  waste 
done.     5  B^c.  Abr.  439. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  waste,  voluntary 
or  actual,  and  negligent  or  permis.sive.  Vo- 
luntary waste  may  be  done  by  pulling  down 
or  prostrating  houses,  or  cutting  down  timber 
trees;  negligent  waste  may  be,  by  sulfering 
a  hou>e  to  be  uncovered,  by  which  tlie  spars 
or  rafters,  planches,  or  other  timber  of  the 
house,  are  rotten. ,    1  List.  53. 

A  writ  of  waste,  to  punish  the  offence  after 
it  has  b.  en  coimnilted,  is  an  action  partly 
founded  u]>iin  the  common  law,  and  partly 
upon  the  statute  ol  (Jloiiccsler  ;  and  may  be 
brought  by  him  that  has  the  immediate  estate 


WAT 

of  inheritance  in  reversion  or  remainder, 
against  the  tenant  for  life,  tenant  in  dower, 
tenant  bv  the  courtesy,  or  tenant  for  years, 
3  Black."227. 

This  action  of  waste  is  a  mixed  action  ; 
partly  real,  so  far  as  it  recovers  land,  anil 
partly  personal,  so  far  as  it  recovers  damages  ■. 
for  it  is  brought  for  both  those  purposes ;  and 
if  the  waste  is  proved,  the  plaintiff  shall  re- 
cover the  thingor  place  wasted,  and  also 
treble  damages  l>y  the  said  statute,  (j  Ed.  1. 
c.  5. 

The  writ  of  waste,  calls  upon  the-  tenant  to 
appear  and  shew  cause  why  he  lias  committed 
waste  and  destruction  in  the  place  named,  to 
the  dishersion  of  the  piaintilf.  And  if  the  dc-- 
fendant  makes  default,  or  does  not  appear  at 
the  day  assigned  him,  then  the  sheriff  is  to 
take  with  him  a  jury  of  twelve  men,  and  go  in 
person  to  the  place  alleged  to  be  wasted,  and 
there  enquire  of  the  waste  done,  and  the  da- 
mages ;  and  make  a  return  or  report  of  the 
same  to  the  court,  upon  which  report  the 
judgment  is  founded.     3  Black.  22S. 

AVaste  nf  the  forest,  is  properly  where  a 
man  cuts  down  his  own  woods  within  the 
forest,  without  licence  of  the  king  or  lord- 
chief  justice  in  eyre. 

V/aste  is  also  taken  for  those  lands  which 
sre  not  in  any  man's  occupation,  but  lie  com- 
mon. 

They  seem  to  be  so  called,  because  the 
lord  cannot  make  such  profit  of  them  as  of 
his  other  lands,  by  reason  "of  Ihe  use  others 
have  thereof,  for  passing  to  and  fro.  Upon 
this  none  may  build,  cut  down  trees,  dig,  X:c. 
without  the  lord's  licence. 

W.'VrCH,  in  the  art  of  war,  a  number  of 
men  posted  at  any  passage,  or  a  company  of 
the  guards  who  go  on  the  patrole.  At  sea, 
the  term  watch  denotes  a  measure  or  space  of 
ffiui  hours,  because  half  the  ship's  company 
watch  and  do  duly  in  their  turns,  so  long  at  a 
time;  and  they  are  termed  starboard  watch, 
and  larboard  watch. 

Watch  an-d  wa^d.  Watching  is  pro- 
perly intended  in  the  liipjit,  and  warding  for 
the  day  time.     Dait.  104. 

Persons  aggrieved  by  assessments  for  watch 
and  ward,  may  appeal  to  the  mavor.  11  G. 
1.  c.  18. 

AV'atch  is  also  used  for  a  small  portable 
movement  or  machine  for  the  measuring  of 
lime,  having  its  motion  regulated  by  a  spiral 
spring. 

Watches,  strictly  taken,  are  all  such  move- 
m.ents  as  shew  the  parts  of  time;  as  clocks 
are  such  as  publish  it,  by  striking  on  a  bell, 
&c.  But,  commonly,  the  name  watch  is  ap- 
propriated to  such  as  are  carried  ni  the  pocket, 
and  clock  to  the  large  movements,  whelher 
they  strike  or  not.     See  Clock. 

The  several  inenjbers  of  tiie  watch  part 
are:  1.  The  balance,  consisting  of  the  run, 
which  is  its  circular  part;  and  the  verge, 
which  is  its  spindle,  to  which  belong  the  two 
jiallets  or  le\ers  that  play  in  the  teeth  of  the 
c,-own-wheel.  2.  The  potcnce,  or  poltance, 
which  is  the  strong  slud  in  pciket-waUlies, 
wJicreon  the  lower  pivot  of  the  verge  plays, 
and  in  the  middle  of  which  one  pivpt  of  the 
balance-wheel  plays  ;  the  bottom  of  the  po- 
tence  is  called  the  foot,  the  middle  part  die 
nose,  and  the  upper  piirt  the  shoulder.  3.  The 
cock,  which  is  the  piece  covering  the  bar 
lance.  4.  Ihe  regulator,  or peiitlulum-spring. 


wliicli  is  the  small  sprint;  in  new  pockct- 
■watclies,  uiuloiiuMlli  tlit-  Iwlami'.  y.  'I'lic 
peiululum,  whose  parts  are  the  vrrge,  paUcts, 
cocks,  aiut  the  bob.  6.  The  wliecls,  which 
are  the  crown-wheel  in  pocket-pieces,  and 
swinn-wlieel  in  pendnliiin^,  serving  to  drive 
the  balance  or  pendiihnn.  7.  The  contrate- 
wheel,  which  is  that  next  the  crown-wheel, 
&c.  and  whose  teeth  and  hoop  lie  contrary 
to  those  of  other  wheels,  whence  the  name. 
8.  The  great  or  first  wheel,  which  is  that  the 
(usee,  &c.  immediately  drives ;  alter  which 
are  the  second  wheel,  third  wheel,  Src.  9. 
Lastly,  between  the  IVame  and  dial-plate,  is 
the  pinion  of  report,  which  is  that  lixed  on  the 
arbor  of  the  great  wheel,  and  serves  to  drive 
the  dial-wheel,  as  that  serves  to  carry  the 
hand. 

Spring  or  pendulum  watches  are  pretty 
iTinch  upon  the  same  principle  with  pendulum 
clocks,  whi-nce  their  denomination.  If  a 
penilulum  describing  litlle  arches  of  a  circle 
makes  vibrations  of  unecpial  lengths  in  eipial 
times,  it  is  because  it  describes  llie  greater 
with  a  greater  velocity.  For  the  same  rea- 
son a  spring  put  in  motion,  and  making  great- 
er or  less  vibrations,  as  it  is  more  or  less  stiff, 
and  as  it  has  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  mo- 
tion given  it,  performs  them  nearly  in  eepial 
tijnes.  Hence,  as  the  vibrations  of  tlie  pen- 
dulum had  been  applied  to  large  clocks,  to 
rectify  the  inequality  of  their  motions,  so  to 
correct  the  linequal  nwtions  of  the  balance 
of  watches,  a  spring  is  added,  by  the  isochron- 
ism  of  whose  vibrations  tlic  correction  is  to  be 
elfectetl. 

The  spring  is  usually  wound  into  a  spiral, 
that,  in  the  little  compass  allotted  it,  itmay  be 
as  long  as  possible,  and  may  have  strength 
enough  not  to  be  mastered  aiul  dragged  about 
by  the  inequalities  of  the  balance  it  is  to  re- 
gulate. The  vibrations  of  tlie  two  parts,  viz. 
the  spring  and  balance,  should  be  of  some 
length,  only  so  adjusted  as  that  the  spring, 
being  more  regular  in  the  length  of  its  vibra- 
tions than  the  balance,  may  on  occasion  com- 
municate its  regularity  tiiereto. 

The  invention  of  spring  or  pocket  watches 
is  owing  to  the  artists  of  the  present  age.  It 
is  true,  've  find  mention  made  of  a  watcli  pre- 
sented to  Charles  V.  in  the  history  of  that 
prince ;  but  lliis  in  all  probability  was  no 
more  than  a  kind  of  clock  to  be  set  on  a 
table,  some  resemblance  whereof  we  have  still 
remaining  in  the  antient  pieces  made  before 
the  year  1670. 

In  eflect,  it  is  between  Dr.  Hooke  and 
Mr.  Hiivgens,  that  the  glory  of  this  excel- 
lent invention  lies,  but  to  which  of  them  it 
properly  belongs,  is  greatly  disputed  ;  the 
English  ascribing  it  to  the  former,  and  the 
French,  Dutch,  ~&c.  to  the  latter.  Mr.  Der- 
liam,  in  his  Artiticial  Clock-maker,  says  plain- 
ly that  Dr.  liooke  was  the  inventor  ;  and 
adds,  that  he  contrived  various  ways  of  regu- 
lation. One  way  was  with  a  loadstone. 
Another  -with  a  tender  straight  spring,  one 
end  whereof  played  backwards  and  forwards 
with  the  balance,  so  that  the  balance  was  t(j 
the  spring  as  the  bob  to  a  pi  nduUim,  and  the 
spring  as  the  rod  of  it.  A  third  method 
was  with  two  balances,  of  which  there  were 
divers  sorts,  some  having  a  spiral  spring  to 
the  balance  for  a  regulator,  and  others  with- 
out, liut  the  way  that  prevailed  and  con- 
tinues in  modcj]  was  witli  one  balauce,  and 


WATCH. 

one  spring  rtmning  romid  the  upper  part  of 
the  verge  ;  though  this  has  a  disadvantage 
which  those  of  two  springs,  &e.  were  tree 
from,  in  that  a  sudilen  jerk  or  confused 
shake  will  alter  its  vibrations,  and  put  it  in  an 
iMiusual  hurry. 

V\e  sliall  conclude  this  article  with  an  ac- 
count ol  the  mechanism  of  a  common  pocket- 
watch. 

The  Plate  Watch-work,  explains  I  he  con- 
struction of  a  connnon  p^icket-watch.  '1  he 
moving  power  is  a  sjjiral  steel  spring  (lig.  3), 
whicli  is  coiled  up  close  by  a  toof  u^ed  for 
thi,'  purpose,  and  put  into  a  brass  box  (lig.  2) 
called  the  bar. el:  the  spring  has  a  hook  at 
its  outer  end  which  is  put  through  a  hole  in 
the  side  of  the  barrel  ami  riveted;  the  inner 
end  has  an  oblong  opening  cut  through  it,  to 
receive  a  hook  upon  the  barrel  arbor  (lig.  (i); 
this  arbor  goes  turough  the  bottom  of  the 
barrel,  and  is  scpiare  to  hold  a  worm-wheel 
(/,  (lig.  5)  which  is  turned  round  by  a  worm 
6;  the  ends  of  the  arbor  project  below  this, 
and  it  is  pivoted  into  the  lower  pl.ile  A  (lig. 
8)  of  the  watch  :  the  top  of  the  barrel  has  a 
cover  put  over  it,  through  which  the  pivot  of 
the  arbor  projects,  and  works  in  a  socket  in 
the  upper  plate  D. 

The  barrel  thus  mounted  has  a  steel  ciiain 
a,  (ligs.  1  and  S)  hookeil  to  its  upper  end, 
and  coiled  round  it  ;  the  other  end  of  this 
chain  is  hooked  to  the  lower  part  of  the  fusee 
F  (ligs.  1  and  S).  It  is  evident  that  when 
the  (uAi:^:  is  turned  by  the  watch-key,  it  will 
wind  the  chain  off  the' barrel  on  itself;  and  as 
one  end  of  the  spriiig  is  fastened  to  tlie  barrel, 
and  the  other  is  hooked  to  the  arbor  (wliicli 
i:.  prevented  from  turning  by  the  worm-wheel 
beneath),  the- spring  will  be  coiled  up  into  a 
smaller  coin[)ass  tlian  it  was  before,  and  by 
its  re-action  will,  wlien  the  watch-key  is  lakeii 
off,  turn  the  fusee  and  keep  the  watch  going. 
The  fusee  has  a  spiral  groove  cut  round  it,  as 
shewn  in  fig.  4,  in  which  the  cliaiii  lies:  this 
groove  is  cut  by  an  engine,  so  that  the  chain 
shall  pull  from  the  smaller  part  of  the  fusee, 
when  the  spring  is  woun-.l  up,  and  act  with 
its  greatest  to. CO  ;  and  gradually  increases  in 
size  as  the  spring  unwimls  and  acts  with  less 
power,  so  that  the  effect  iipnii  the  great  w  heel 
e  (ligs.  1,  8,  and  7)  may  be  always  the  same, 
and  cause  the  watch  to  go  with  regularity; 
and  this  elTect  can  be  at  any  time  increa.sed'or 
diminished  by  turning  the  worm  b,  (fig.  5) 
\\liich  coils  the  spring  up  closer,  and  Causes  it 
to  act  with  greater  force,  or  vice  versa. 

The  fusee  ffig.  4)  has  a  ratchet  wheel, 
at  its  lower  end,  \vhi<h  takes  into  a  click  fixed 
in  a  hollow  cut  in  the  great  wheel  (fig.  7),  in 
order  that  when  the  w:itch  is  winding'nj),  the 
fiisee  may  slip  round  w-ithoiit  the  great  wheel; 
and  that  when  the  spring  draws  "it  round  in 
the  other  direction,  it  may  move  the  gre;it 
wheel  with  it,  and  the  other  wheels  of  the 
watch.  The  great  wheel  c,  has  43  teeth  on 
its  circumference,  which  lake  into  and  turn  a 
pinion  of  12  teeth,  fixed  on  the  same  arbor 
with  the  centre  wheel _g,  and  fig.  9,  which  has 
5-i  teeth  to  turn  a  pinion  of  six  leaves  on  the 
arbor  of  the  third  wheel  /i,  and  fig.  10  ;  the 
third  wheel  has  4S  teeth,  and  turns  a  pinion  of 
six  on  the  arbor  of  the  coiitrate  wheel  i,  and 
fig.  1 1,  which  has  48  teeth  cut  parallel  to  its 
axis,  by  which  it  turns  a  pinion  of  six  leaves, 
fixed  to  the  balance-wheel  k,  fig.  8,  12,  and 
14.  The  pivots  of  t!ie  arbor  of  thi*  wheel 
turn,  one  in  a  frame  F,  (fig.  8,  aud  fig.  15) 


685 

called  the  pottaiicc,  fixed  to  the  upper  plate; 
and  the  olh'-r  ir.  a  small  piece  fixed  to  the 
upper  part,  called  the  counter-pottance,  so 
that  when  the  two  plates  are  put  together,  the 
balance-wheel  pinion  may  work  into  the 
teeth  of  the  contrale  weel.  The  balance 
v/lieel  has  15  teetli,  by  which  it  im))el-.  (he 
balance  /,  (figs.  8  and  10,  and  fig.  1.3);  the 
arbor  of  the  balance,  which  is  called  the 
verge,  has  two  pallets  projecting  from  it  near- 
ly at  right  angles  to  each  other;  these  are 
acted  upon  by  the  balance  wheel,  as  shewn  in 
fig.  I  i,  where  the  lower  pallet  is  supposed  lo 
be  in  contact  with  one  of  the  teeth  oftl»: 
balance  wheel,  which,  as  it  turns  round, 
pushes  the  pallet  round  and  the  balance  with 
it,  till  the  balance  has  made  about  a  (piarter 
of  a  turn  :  the  tooth  of  the  balance  wheel  then 
slips  off  and  escapes;  in  this  position  the 
watch  would  run  down  if  it  were  not  for  the 
upper  pallet  at  that  instant  taking  another 
tooth  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  balance 
wheel,  which,  as  it  moves  in  a  contrary  di- 
rection, pushes  the  balance  back  again,  till 
the  tooth  escapes  the  pallet ;  the  lower  pallet- 
then  engages  the  wheel  as  before.  15iit  for 
tlie  better  regulation  of  the  time,  the  balance 
has  a  very  line  spring  m  (fig.  l6),  called  the  ■ 
pendulum  spring,  with  the  inner  end  fi.xed  to 
the  verge  just  beneath  the  balance,  and  the 
outer  end  pinned  to  a  stud  fixed  to  the  top 
of  the  upper  plate  of  the  watch,  so  that  the 
balance  will  rest  only  in  one  position,  and  if 
it  is  moved  either  way  by  t!ie  balance  wheel, 
the  spring  will  have  a  tendency  to  bring  it  to 
the  same  position  again.  W  hen  the  lower 
IJallet,  for  instance,  has  just  liberated  a  tooth 
of  the  balance  w  heel,  the  pendulum  spring  is 
strained,  and  returns  the  balance  to  its  point 
of  rest  instantaneously,  the  balance  '.vheel 
following  tlie  upper  pallet  by  the  action  of  the 
main  spring;  and  when  the  balance  wheel 
comes  to  push  the  balance  beyond  its  i«>int 
of  rest  the  other  way,  it  moves  slowly,  be- 
cause it  has  the  elasticity  of  the  pendulum 
spring  to  overcome. 

It  IS  evident  that  by  strengthening  or  weak- 
ening this  spring,  the  velocity  of  the  balance 
can  be  regulated,  which  is  done  by  a  con- 
trivance shewn  in  fig.  If),  and  the  under  side 
of  it  in  fig.  17.  It  is  a  plate  of  brass  screwed 
to  the  top  of  the  upper  plate,  close  under  the 
balance ;  and  at  one  place  it  is  hollowed  out 
to  receive  a  wheel  n,  of  20  teeth,  which  turns 
a  segment  of  a  wheel  ]>,  called  the  curb, 
which  moves  round  in  a  circular  groove:  it 
has  a  projecting  leaf  q,  with  a  notch  in  it  to 
receive  the  pendulum  spring;  so  that  by  turn- 
ing the  wheel  w  ith  a  key  put  on  a  stpiare  |)art 
of  its  arbor,  the  spring  is  lengthened  or  short- 
ened, so  as  to  give  it  a  ditVerent  power,  and 
make  the  balance  vibrate  quicker  or  slower  ; 
the  arbor  of  the  wheel  ii,  has  a  dial  r,  (fig.  16) 
upon  it,  with  divisions  to  set  it  by.  The  upper 
pivot  of  the  verge  runs  in  a  cock  screwed  to 
the  upper  plate,  as  shewn  in  fig.  8,  which 
covers  the  balance  and  protects  it  from  vio- 
lence ;  and  the  lower  pivot  works  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pottancc  ;  the  socket  for  the  pivot 
of  the  balance  wlieel  is  made  in  a  small  piece 
of  brass,  w  hich  slides  in  a  groove  made  in 
the  pottance,  as  shewn  in  fig.  15,  so  that  by 
drawing  the  slide  in  or  out,  the  teeth  of  the 
balance  wheel  shall  just  clear  one  pallet  be- 
fore it  takes  the  other. 

The  watch  is  so  adjusted  by  the  penduluai 
spring,  that  tlie  balance  shall  vibrate  jo  as  to 


•ess 


WAT 

ceritvc  wheel  round  once  in  an  hour: 


the  spindle  of  tliis  projert^  lliroiigh  the  lower 
plate  (lig.  8),  and  has  a  tube  utleil  on  it, 
which  is  sii'jare  at  the  top,  and  carries  the 
minute  hand ;  the  other  end  of  this  tube  has 
a  pinion  of  12  teelh  on  it,  which  turns  the 
minute  wheel  s,  (ligs.  8  and  1 8)  of  48,  and  its 
pinion  of  16,  which  moves  the  honr-wheel  t, 
of  48  teeth :  tiie  spindh*  of  tliis  is  a  tube 
which  is  put  over  the  tube  of  the  minute 
hand,  and  has  the  hour  hand  fixed  on  it  to  ni- 
■dicate  the  time  upon  the  dial-plate. 

Watch,  striktns:,  one  which,  besides  the 
common  watch-work  for  measuring  tmie, 
has  a  clock  part  for  striking  the  hours,  so  that, 
properly  speaking,  they  are  pocket-clocks. 
See  Clock. 

Watch,  rep"aliiig,  one  tliat  by  only  pull- 
ing a  siring,  pushing  in  a  pin,  &c.  repeals 
tlie  hour,  quarter,  or  mimite,  at  any  time  ot 
tlie  day  or  night. 

Watches  made  bv  artificers  are  to  have 
the  makers'  names,  under  the  penalty  of  20/. 
aand  lOVr.  III.  c.28. 

WATCHING.  See  Medicine. 
WATER  was  universally  considered  as  a 
simule  elementary  substance,  till  the  chemists 
of  the  present  age  proved,  by  e.\periments, 
the  substance  of  whicli  has  been  stated  ni  a 
preceding  article  (see  Chemistry),  that  it 
IS  in  reality  a  compound  body.  Its  prin- 
ciples have  been  ascertained  both  by  com- 
position and  decomposition  ;  and  one  hun- 
tlred  parts  of  water  are  found  to  consist  of 
eighty-rive  parts  of  osyiien,  and  fifteen  of  hy- 
<irogen,  with  a  certain'portion  ol  caloric. 

This  very  useful  and  necessary  fluid  pre- 
sents itself  to  our  notice  in  tlirce  distinct 
forms,  namely,  in  its  liquid  state,  in  the  state 
of  vapour  or  steam,  and,  lastly,  in  its  fi-ozen 
state.  See  Freezing,  EvaporAtio.v, 
Steam,  &C. 

Water,  when  fluid,  is  not  in  its  most  simple 
state;  for  its  liuidity  depends  on  a  certain 
Quantity  of  caloric,' which  enters  into  com- 
bination with  it,  and  insinuating  itself  be- 
tween the  particles  of  the  water,  renders 
them  capable  of  moving  in  all  directions. 

We  are  supplied  with  water  either  from 
the  atmosphere,  whence  it  descends  in  the 
form  of  rain,  bail,  or  snow,  or  from  the  eartli, 
which  sends  it  fortb  in  springs  and  rivulets. 
In  the  former  case,  the  watery  exiialations 
<lrawii  from  the  sea,  and  llie  surface  ot  the 
earth  by  the  sun's  heat,  form  clouds,  whose 
particles  being  afterwards  coiulen-^ed,  fall 
hack  aaain  in  showers.  In  the  latter,  the 
water  wliich  falls  uii  the  tops  of  mountains, 
and  other  lofty  situations,  penetrates  the 
oarth,  and,  after  passing  downwards,  breaks 
forth  at  some  iissurt;  or  aperture  at  a  distance 
from  its  source. 

Water,  common.  GooA  water  is  as 
transparent  as  crystal, and  entirely  colourless. 
It  lias  no  smell,  and  scarcely  any  tasle ;  and 
in  general  the  lighter  it  is,  so  much  the  bet- 
ter, [f  we  compare  the  ditrerent  w  aters  wliich 
are  used  forthe  common  puqioses  of  life  with 
each  other,  and  judge  of  them  by  the  above 
Standard,  we  shall  find  them  to  differ  con- 
siderably from  each  other,  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  their  situation.  '1  hese  wa- 
ters may  be  reduced  under  four  heads,  name- 
1t,  1 .  Kain  water ;  -2.  Spring  and  river  water ; 
i.  Well  water;   4.  Lake  water. 


W  AT 

1.  Rain  water,  unless  wlu-n  near  a  town, 
or  when  collected  at  the  commencement  ol 
llie  rain,  possesses  the  properties  of  good  wa- 
ter in  perieclion,  and  is  as  free  from  foreign 
ingredients  as  anv  native  water  whatever. 
'1  he  substances  whiih  it  holds  in  solution  are 
air,  carbonic  acid,  carbonat  of  Ume,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Bergman,  it  yields  some  traces  of 
nitric  acid,  and  a  little  nuiriat  of  lime.  The 
C|uanti'y  of  air  in  good  water  does  not  exceed 
J^th  of  the  bulk.  One  hundred  cubic  inches 
ot  water  contain  generally  about  one  cubic 
inch  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  It  is  to  the  j)re- 
seuce  of  these  two  elastic  fluids  that  water 
owes  its  taste,  and  many  of  the  good  etfects 
which  it  produces  on  annuals  and  vegetables. 
Hence  the  vapidness  of  newly-boiled  water 
from  which  these  gases  are  expelled.  Snow 
water,  when  newly  melted,  is  also  destitute  of 
gaseous  bodies.  Hence  the  reason  that  tish 
cannot  live  in  it,  as  Carradori  has  ascertain- 
ed. Hassenfratz,  indeed,  has  endeavoured 
to  prove,  that  snow  water  holds  oxygen  gas 
in  solution;  but  in  all  probability  the  water 
whicli  he  examined  had  absorbed  air  from  tlie 
atmosphere. 

The  quantity  of  muriat  of  lime  contained 
in  rain  water  must  be  exceedingly  minute ; 
as  Morveau  has  ascertained  tliat  rain  water 
may  be  rendered  sufficiently  pure  for  che- 
mical purposes  by  dropping  into  it  a  little 
barytic  water,  and  then  exposing  it  for  some 
time  to  the  atmosphere,  and  allowing  the 
precipitate  formed  to  deposit.  Accordmg  to 
that  very  accurate  philosopher,  the  rain  water 
which  drops  from  the  roofs  of  iioiHes,  after  it 
has  rained  for  some  time,  contains  only  a 
little  sulphat  of  lime,  which  it  has  dissolvecl  as 
it  trickled  over  the  slates. 

2.  The  water  of  springs  is  nothing  else  than 
rain  water,  which,  gradually  filtring  through 
the  earth,  collects  at  the  bottom  of  declivities, 
and  makes  its  way  to  the  surface.  It  is  there- 
fore equally  pure  with  rain  water,  provided  it 
does  not  meet  with  some  soluble  body  or 
other  in  its  passage  through  tlie  soil.  But  as 
this  is  almost  always  the  case,  we  generally 
find,  even  in  the  purest  spring  water,  a  little 
carbonat  of  lime  and  common  s.ilt,  besides 
the  usual  proportion  of  air  and  carbonic  acid 
gas.  Sometimes  also  it  contains  muriat  of 
lime  or  a  little  carbonat  of  soda.  Bergman 
found  the  springs  abrnit  Upsal,  which  are 
reckoned  exceedingly  pure,  to  contain  the 
following  foreign  bodies : 

1.  Oxygen  g  is,  5.  Common  salt, 

2.  Carbonic  acid,         Ci.  Sulphat  of  potass, 

3.  Carbonat  of  lime,    7.  Carbonat  of  soda, 

4.  Silica,  8.  Muriat  of  lime. 
The  whole  of  these  ingredients  amounted 

at  an  average  to  0.00004  parts;  and  the  pro- 
portion of  each  of  the  solid  bodies  was  as  fol- 
lows : 

Carbonat  of  lime  5.0     Muii.it  of  lime     0.5 
Common  salt        3.0     Sulphalof  potass  0.25 
Silica     -  -     0.5     Carbonat  of  soda  0.25 

l\iver  waters  may  he  considered  as  merely 
1  collection  of  spring  and  rain  water,  and 
therefore  arc  usually  possessed  of  a  degree  of 
purity  at  least  equal  to  these,  ludeed,  when 
their  motion  is  lapid,  and  their  bed  siliceous 
sand,  tliev  are  generally  purer  than  spring 
water;  depositing  during  their  motion  evcrv 
thing  whicli  was  merely  mechanically  sus- 
pended, and  retaining  nothing  more  than  the 
usual  proportion  of  an"  and  carbonic  acid  gas, 
10 


V/  A  T 

and  a  very  minute  quantity  of  carbonated 
lime  and  common  salt.  When  their  bed  iv 
clayey,  they  are  usually  opal-colouied,  in 
conseiiuence  of  the  particles  of  clay  which 
they  hold  in  suspension.  ' 

3.  By  well  water  is  meant  the  wafer  which 
is  obtained  by  digging  deep  pits,  which  is  not 
in  suflicient  i|iiaiitity  to  overflow  tiie  mouth 
of  the  well,  but  which  may  be  obtained  in 
abundance  b\  pumping.  It  is  essentially  the 
same  with  spring  -'ater,  being  derived  from 
the  very  same  source  ;  but  it  is  iifore  liable 
to  be  impregnated  with  foreign  bodies  from 
the  soil,  in  consequence  of  its  stagnation  or 
slow  filtration.  Hence  the  reason  that  well 
water  is  oiten  of  that  kind  which  is  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  hard  water,  because 
it  does  not  dissolve  soap,  and  cannot  be  used 
for  dressing  several  kinds  of  food.  These 
properties  are  owing  to  the  great  proportion 
of  earthy  salts  which  it  holds  in  solution. 
The  most  common  of  these  salts  is  sulphat  of 
lime.  These  earthy  salts  have  the  property 
of  decomposing  common  soap :  their  acid 
unites  with  the  alkali  of  tlie  soap,  while  the 
eartliy  basis  forms  with  the  oil  a  soap  not 
.soluble  ill  water,  which  envelopes  the  soap 
and  gives  it  a  greasy  feel.  These  waters 
may  be  in  general  cured  by  dropping  into 
them  an  alkaline  carbonat,  Mr.  Sennebier 
has  shewn  that  well  water  usually  contains  a 
greater  propo:  tion  of  carbonic  acid  gas  than 
spring  or  river  water. 

4.  The  water  of  lakes  is  merely  a  collec- 
tion of  rain  water,  spring  water,  and  river 
yvater,  and  of  course  contains  precisely  the 
same  heterogeneous  salts  :  but  it  is  seldom 
so  transparent  as  river  water,  being  usually 
contaminated  with  the  remains  of  an;mL.i  ,'j\-X 
vegetable  bodies  which  have  undergone  pu- 
trefaction in.  it.  For  as  lake  water  is  often 
nearly  stagnant,  it  does  not  oppose  the  pu- 
trel.iction  of  tliese  bodies,  but  rather  pro- 
motes it ;  whereas  in  river  water,  whicli  is 
constantly  in  motion,  no  putrefaction  takes 
place.  Hence  the  reason  of  the  slimy  ap- 
pearance and  the  brownish  colour  which 
often  distinguish  lake  water. 

Marsh  water  contains  a  still  greater  pro- 
portion of  animal  and  vegetable  remains  than 
lake  water,  because  it  is  altogether  stagnant. 
Moss  water  is  strongly  impregnated  with 
those  vegetable  bodies  which  constitute 
mosses,  and  usually  also  contains  iron. 

Waters,  mineral.  All  waters  w-hicli  are 
distinguished  from  common  water  by  a  pe- 
culiar smell,  taste,  colour,  &c.  and  which  in 
consequence  of  these  properties  cannot  be 
applied  to  the  purposes  of  domestic  economy, 
h..ve  been  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of 
mineral  waters.  Tliese  occur  more  or  less 
frequently  in  different  parts  of  tiie  earth,  con- 
stituting wells,  springs,  or  fountains  ;  some- 
times of  the  temperature  of  the  soil  (lirougli 
which  they  pass,  sometimes  warm,  and  "in 
some  cases  even  at  the  boiling  temperature. 
Many  of  these  mineral  springs  attracted  the 
attention  of  mankind  in  the  earliest  ages,  and 
were  resorted  to  by  those  who  laboured  under 
iliseases,  and  eniployed  by  them  either  ex- 
ternally or  infernally  as  a  medicine.  But  it 
was  not  till  towards  the  end  of  the  17tli  cen- 
tury thai  any  att.  nipt  was  made  to  detect  the 
ingredients  of  whuii  these  waters  were  com- 
posed, or  to  discover  the  substances  to  whicU 
they  owed  their  proixTlies. 


VI 


.y/fj   r-ilf^^/z-U^^Mly 


,y^/f/i/ /////.*    /{////// ;  ;/  //t//i 


rCf^,./r 


J^O'/uia^a    raJt^UJ 


tye^/eno'  Atnia^ea/ 


I  f/.M-tat/i/  //y 


3H9 


t  yr-f-e//'   ///fJ'<'''J 


.3.'y4 


:  'e^^/6'  A'y/t 


Pn'ntrdtbr  Rirhant  Hiillip"  .  .\>«-  Hridi^f  SUrel,  Blad/rinrji 


TliK  s'.ibstances  liiflierto  found  in  mineral 
waters  amount  to  about  3S,  and  may  be  re- 
cUiced  mider  the  four  Ibllowiiu^lnads':  ).  Air 
and  its  component  parts,  oxy;;on  and  azotic 
gas.  2.  Acids.  3.  Alkalies"  ai;d  eartlis.  4. 
Salts. 

1.  I.  Air  is  contained  in  by  far  the  greater 
number  ol'  mineral  waters :  its  pionordon  doe^ 
not  exceed    l-28tli  of  llie  bu.k  of  tlie  wuler. 

2.  Oxygen  gas  was  li,st  detected  in  waters 
by  Sclicele.  Its  <|iiantity  is  nsiiallv  incon- 
siderable; and  it  is  incompatible  with  the 
presence  of  siilpliureted  hydrogen  gas  or  iron. 

3.  Azotic  e;as  was  hrst 'delected  in  Hnxton 
water  by  t)r.  Pearson.  Aftei-wards  it  was 
discovered  in  Harrowgate  water^  by  Dr. 
Garnet,  and  in  those  of  Leniington  Priors  by 
^Jr.  Lambe. 

•  II.  The  only  acids  liithertofoi|nd  in  watery 
except  in  combination  with  a  Ijase,  are  the 
four  loUownifj :  carbonic,  sulphurous,  bo- 
racic,  and  sulpluireted  hydrogen  gas.  I.  Car- 
bonic acid  was  lirst  discovered  in  Pyrmont 
water  by  Dr.  Ikownrigg.  It  is  the'  most 
common  ingredient  in  mineral  waters,  100 
cubic  inches  of  the  walir  gen(;rally  contain- 
ing from  six  to  40  cubic  inches  of  this  acid 
■gas.  According  to  Westrum,  100  cubic  Indies 
of  Pyrmont  water  contain  187  cubic  inches  of 
itj  or  almost  double  its  own  bulk.  2.  Sul- 
phurous acid  lias  been  observed  in  several  of 
the  hot  mineral  waters  in  Italy,  which  ar'-  in 
tlie  neiglibourliood  of  volcanoes.  3  'I'iie 
boracic  acid  has  also  been  observed  in  some 
Jakes  in  Italy.  4.  Sulphureted  hy'rogen  gas 
constitutes  the  most  con>|)i<  tious  ingredient 
in  those  waters  which  are  distinguished  by  tlie 
name  of  hepatic  or  sul|jliuri'ous. 

III.  The  only  alkali  which  has  been  ob- 
served in  mineral  waters,  uncombined,  is 
soda ;  and  the  only  earthv  bodies  are  silica 
and  lime.  1.  Dr.  Black  detected  soda  in  the 
liot  minerals  of  Geyzerand  Rykum  in  Ice- 
land ;  but  in  most  other  cases  the  soda  is 
combined  with  carbonic  acid.  2.  Silica  was 
first  observed  in  waters  by  Bergman.  It  was 
afterwards  detected  in  those  oi  Geyzer  and 
Rykum  by  Dr.  Black,  and  in  those  of  Carls- 
bad by  Kalproth.     Hassenfratz  observed  it 

•  ■tn  the  waters  of  Pougues,  and  Brez6  in  those 
of  Pu.  it  has  been  found  also  in  many  other 
mineral  waters.  3.  Lime  is  said  to  have 
been  lonnd  uncombined  in  some  mineral  wa- 
ters ;  but  this  has  not  been  proved  in  a  satis- 
factory manner. 

IV.  The  only  salts  hitherto  found  in  mi- 
neral waters,  are  the  following  sulphals, 
Jlitrats,  niuriats,  carbonats,  and  liydro^ul- 
phurets: 

1 .  Sulphat  of  soda 

2.  ..     .     .     .  ammonia 

3 lime 

4 magnesia 

5 alumina 

6 iron 

7 CQpper 

8.  Nitrat   of  potass 
9 lime 

10 magnesia 

11.  Muriat  of  poiass 

12 soda 

]13 ammonia 

14 barytes 

15 lime 

16 magnesia 

17 alumina 

1.3 manganese 


WATFR. 

19.  Carbonatof  potas* 

20 soda 

21 aimnonia 

22 lime 

23 m  ignesia 

24 alumina 

2.'> iron 

26.  llydrosulpluiret  of  lime 

27 potass 

28.  And  liki'ivise  borax. 
Of  these  genera  the  carbonats  and  muriats 
occur  by  far  nio.t  connuoiily,  and  the  nitrats 
most  rarely. 

1.  Sulphat  of  soda  is  not  uncommon,  espe- 
cially in  those  mineral  waters  which  are  <lis- 
linguished  by  the  epilnel  saline.  2.  Sulphat 
of  ammonia  is  louml  in  mineral  waters  near 
volcanoes.  3.  Suiplial  of  lime  is  exceeding- 
ly common  in  water.  Its  |>resence  seems  to 
h;-.ve  been  liist  detected  ,by  Dr.  Lister  in 
1682.  4.  Sulphat  of  magnesia  is  almost  con- 
stantly an  ingredient  in  those  mineral  waters 
which  have  ptirgative  properties.  It  was  de- 
tected in  Epsom  waters  in  1610,  and  in  1096 
Dr.  Grew  published  a  treatise  on  it.  5.  Alum 
is  sometimes  found  in  minei'al  waters,  but  it 
is  exceedingly  rare.  6.  Sulphat  of  iron  oc- 
curs sometimes  in  volcani<'  mineral  waters, 
and  has  even  been  observed  in  other  places. 
Hut  sulphat  of  copper  is  only  found  in  tjie 
waters  which  issue  from  .copper  mines.  7. 
Nitre  has  been  found  in  some  springs  in 
Ilnngary  ;  but  it  is  exceerling  y  uncommon. 
8.  Nitrat  of  lime  was  lirst  detected  in  water 
by  Dr.  Home  of  Edinburgh,  in  1756.  It  is 
said  to  occur  in  some  springs  in  the  sandy  de- 
serts of  Arabia.  9.  Nitrat  of  magnesia  is 
said  to   have  been   found  in  some  springs. 

10.  Muviat  of  potass  is  uncommon;  but  it 
has  lately  been  discovered  in  the  mineral 
springs  of  Uhleaborg  in   Sweden,  by  Julin. 

1 1.  Muriat  of  soda  is  so  exceedingly  common 
in  mineral  waters,  that  hardly  a  single  sp;ing 
has  been  analysed  without  delecting  some  of 
it.  Muriat  of  ammonia  is  uncommon  ;  but  it 
luus  been  Ibuiid  in  some  mineral  springs  in 
Italy,  and  ill  Siberia.  13.  Muriat  of  bar \tes 
is  still  more  uncommon  ;  but  its  [)resence  in 
mineral  waters  has  been  announced  by  Berg- 
man. 14.  Muriats  of  lime  and  magnesia  are 
common  ingredients.  15.  Muriat  of  alumina 
has  been  observed  in  waters  by  Dr.  Wither- 
ing ;  but  it  is  very  unconnnon.  16.  Muriat 
of  manganese  w  as  mentioned  by  Bergman  as 
sometimes  occurr'uig  in  mineral  waters.  It 
has  lately  been  <let;  cted  by  Lambe  in  the 
waters  of  Lemington  Priors,  but  in  an  ex- 
tremely limited  proportion.  17.  The  pre- 
sence of  carbonat  of  potass  in  mineral  waters 
has  been  mentioned  by  several  chemists  :  if  it 
doe;  occur,  it  must  be  in  a  very  small  pro- 
portion.    IS.  But  carbonat  of  soda  is,  per- 

.  haps,  the  most  common  ingredient  of  these 
liquids,  if  we  except  connnon  salt  and  car- 
bonat of  liine.  19.  Carbonat  of  ammonia  has 
been  discovered  in  waters ;  but  it  is  uncom- 
mon. 20.  Carbonat  of  lime  is  found  in  al- 
most all  waters,  and  is  usually  held  in  solu- 
tion by  an  excess  of  acid.  It  appears  from 
the  dillerent  experiments  of  chemists,  as 
stated  by  Mr.  Kirwan,  and  especially  from 
liiose  of  BerthoUet,  that  water  saturated  with 
carbonic  acid  is  capable  of  liolding  in  solution 
0.002  of  carbonat  of  liine.  Now  water  satu- 
r.iled  with  carbonic  acid  at  the  temperature 
■l  50',  contains  very  nearly  0.002  of  its  weight 
of  carbonic  acid.    Hence  it  follows  that  car- 


bonic  acid,  when  prcirnfm  sucfi  quantity  as 
to  saturate  water,  is  capable  of  holding  its 
own  weight  of  carbonat  of  lime  in  solution. 
Thus  we  see  that  IdOO  parts  by  weight  of 
water,  w heir  il  O/Ulain,  two  parts  of  carbonic 
acid,  is  capable  of  d.ssoUnig  two  parts  of 
carbonat  ol  lime.  When  the  proportion  ot 
waler  is  increased,  It  U  capable  ol  holding  (lie- 
carbonat  of  lime  in  xolution,  even  when  tiiQ 
proportion  of  carbonic  acid  united  willi  It  is- 
diniihislteci.  Tlu'.<>  24,(iOU  pails  of  v^atel'  are 
cap.iblc  of  holding  two  paru  oi  caiboiiztof 
lime  in  solution,  even  wlum  lliey  contaiu  only 
one  part  of  carbonic  acid.  '1  lie  gieat<-r  the 
prciijorlion  of  water,  the  sinidl(;r  a  jiroportiou 
of  carbmiic  acid  is  ueci-ssary  to  keep  the  lime 
in  solution  ;  and  when  the  wati  r  is  incKased 
to  a  certain  proportion,  no  sensible  cxresg  of 
carbonic  acid  is  necessary.  It  ought  to  be- 
remarked  also,  that  water,  lu»w  small  a  quan- 
tity soever  of  carb.>nic  acid  it  conlains,  i>  ca- 
pable of  holding  carbonat  of  lime  in  sululion, 
provided  the  weight  of  the  carbonic  acid 
present  excrcfU  that  of  the  lime.  These  ob- 
servations ••ppiy  e(|ually  to  the  other  earthy 
carbonats  held  in  solution  by  mineral  waters. 
21.  Carbonat  of  magnesia  is  aKo  very  com- 
mon in  mineral  waters,  and  is  almost  always 
accompanied  by  carbonat  of  lime.  22.  Car- 
bonat of  alumina  is  said  to  have  been  found 
in  waters  ;  but  its  presence  has  not  been  pro- 
perly ascertained.  23.  Hut  carbonat  of  iron 
IS  by  no  means  uncommon  ;  inrleed  it  forma- 
the  most  remarkable  ingredient  lu  those  wa- 
ters which  are  distinguished  by  the  epithet  of 
chalybeate.  24.  '1  lie  hydrosulphurets  ot 
lime  and  of  soda  have  been  fre<)ue)itly  tietect- 
ed  in  those  waters  which  are  called  sulphure- 
ous or  hepatic.  25.  Borax  exists  in  some- 
lakes  in  Persia  and  Thibet ;  but  tlie  nature- 
of  these  watei-s  has  not  been  ascertained. 

Besides  these  substances,  certain  vcgetable- 
and  animal  matters  have  been  occasionally 
observed  in  mineral  waters.  But  in  most:, 
cases  these  are  rather  to  be  considered  in  the 
light  of  accidental  mixtures  ihao  of  reaU 
component  parts  of  the  waters  in  which  they 
occur. 

From  the  above  enumeration,  we  are  en- 
abled to  form  a  pretty  accurate  ide-a  of  the 
substances  which  occur  in  mineral  waters r 
but  this  is  by  no  means  sullicient  to  make  us^ 
acquainted  with  these  liquids.  No  mineral 
water  connins  all  of  these  substances.  Sel- 
dom are  there  more  than  live  or  six  of  thein 
present  t.)getlier,  and  hartlly  ever  do  they 
exceed  the  number  of  eight  or  ten.  T  he 
proportion  loo  in  which  they  enter  into  mi- 
neral waters  is  generally  small,  and  in  many 
cases  extremely  so.  Now  in  order  to  under- 
stand the  nature  of  mineral  warirs,  it  is- 
necessary  to  know  the  substances  which  mostt 
usually  associate  together,  and  the  propor- 
tion in  which  they  connnonly  associate.  In 
the  greater  part  of  mineral  waters  there  is- 
usually  some  substance  present  wiiich,  from, 
its  greater  proportion  or  its  greater  activity,, 
stamps,  in  a  manner,  the  character  of  the 
water,  and  gives  it  those  properties  by  which, 
it  is  most  readily  distinguished,  ']  his  sub- 
stance of  course  claims  the  greatest  altention ; 
while  the  other  bodies  which  enler  in  a 
sm.iller  proportion  may  vary  or  even  be  ab- 
sent allogeiher,  without  producing  any  sen- 
sible change  in  the  nature  of  the  water.  This- 
circumstance  enables  us  to  divide  mineraU 
waters  into  classes,  distinguished  by  the  p»- 


86S 

culiarsubsUnce  which  predominate;  in  eacli. 
Accordingly  they  have  been  divided  into  four 
classes,  namely: 

1.  Acidulous,  3.  Hepatic, 

2.  Chalybeate,  4.  Saline. 

1.  The  acidulous  waters  contain  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  carbonic  acid.  They 
are  easilv  distinguished  by  their  acid  taste, 
and  by  I'heir  sparkling  like  champaign  wine 
vhen  poured  iiito  a  glass.  They  contain 
almost  constantly  some  common  salt,  and  in 
general  also  a  greater  or  smaller  proportion 
of  the  earthy  carboiiafs. 

2.  The  chalybeate  waters  contain  a  portion 
cf  iron,  and  are  easily  distinguished  by  the 
property  which  they  have  of  striking  a  black 
with  thi-  tincture  of  nutgalls.  The  iron  is 
usually  held  in  solution  by  carbonic  acid.  It 
very  often  happens  that  this  acid  is  in  ex- 
cess ;  in  which  case  the  waters  are  not  only 
chalybeate  but  acidulous.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  waters  of  Spa  and  Pyrmout.  In 
fame  instances  the  iron  is  in  the  state  of  a 
Sulpliat ;  but  this  is  uncommon,   \\attrs  con- 

'taining  the  sulphat  of  iron   may  be  readily 
distinguished   by  the    property   wliich  they 


WA.TERS. 

liave  of  continuing  to  strike  a  black  with 
tijicture  of  nutgalls  even  after  being  boiled 
ajid  liltred;  whereas  boiling  decomposes  the 
'carbonat  of  iron,  and  causes  its  base  to  pre- 
ci])itate. 

3.  I'he  hepatic  or  sulphureous  waters  are 
those  which  contain  sulphureled  hydrogen 
gas.  These  waters  are  easily  distinguished 
by  (he  odour  of  sulphuretcd  hydrogen  gas 
«'liicli  they  exhale,  and  by  the  property 
which  they  have  of  blackening  silver  and 
lead.  The  nature  of  the  waters  belon^jing  to 
this  class  long  puzzled  chemista.  Though 
they  often  deposit  sulphur  spontaneously,  yet 
no  'sulphur  could  be  artihcially  separated 
from  them.  The  secret  was-  at  last  discover- 
ed by  Bergman.  These  waters  are  of  two 
kinds":  in  ilie  lirst  the  sulphureted  hydrogen 
is  uncombined  ;  in  the  second  it  is  united  to 
lime  or  an  alkali.  They  are  frequently  also 
unpregnated  with  carbonic  acid,  and  usually 
contain  some  mnriats  or  sulphats. 

4.  Saline  waters  are  those  which  contain 
only  salts  in  solution,  without  iron  or  car- 
bonic acid  in  excess.    They  may  be  dislui- 


guished  into  four  ditiTerent  orders.  The  wa- 
ters belonging  to  the  lust  order  contain  salts 
whose  base  is  lime,  an<l  generally  either  tbe 
carbonat  or  the  sulphat.  They  are  known  Ijy 
the  name  of  hard  waters,  and  have  but  a 
slight  disagreeable  taste.  The  waters  be- 
longing to  the  second  order  arc  tliose  in 
winch  common  salt  predominates.  They  are 
readily  recognized  by  their  salt  taste,  and 
like  sea  water  usually  contain  some  mag- 
nesian  and  calcareous  salts.  The  waters  of 
tlie  third  order  contain  sulphat  of  magnesia. 
They  have  a  bitter  taste  and  are  pvn-gative. 
Finally,  the  waters  of  the  fourth  order  an; 
alkaline,  containing  carbonat  ot  soda.  'I'hev 
are  easUy  distinguished  by  the  property 
which  they  have  of  tinging  vegetable  blues 
green. 

The  following  table  exhibits  a  synopti- 
cal view  of  the  component  parts  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  mineral  waters  as  an- 
alysed by  different  chemists.  See  Dr. 
Saunders's  Treatise  on  the  Chemical  History 
ajid  Medical  Powers  of  the  most  celebratecl 
Mineral  Waters. 


Seltzer    -     - 
Spa     -     .     . 
Pyrmont 
Aix  la  Chap. 
Medvi     -    - 
Carlsbad 
Lem.  Priors 
Pouges    -    - 
Enghien  -    - 
Lu      -    -    - 
Geyzer    -     - 
Uhleaborg    - 
Teplisz    -     - 
KJlburn  -    - 
Bristol      -     - 
Tunbridge    - 
Cheltenham 
Harrogate    - 
MolTat     -    - 


V/.iter. 


oxy- 
gen. 


8949 

8933 

8950 

89-iO 

8933 

25320 

5816 

9216 

92160 

36S64 

10000 

42250 

22540 

138240 

103643 

103643 

103643 

I03G43 

103643 


Gases.    Cubic  Indies. 


Carbo-  ISulph. 
nic  acid.  hvdr. 


.35 


1.4 


13. 068 

— 

9.8 

— 

19.6 

— 

— 

13.06 

6.53 

8,71 

50. 

— 

.J 



1G.7 

8.5 

70.0 

5. 

2. 

0. 

84. 
30. 
10.6 
30-368 


1. 


19. 
10. 


Azo. 
tic. 


Carbonats  of 


Soda.    Lime.  M;g  Iron. 


4. 
15. 


4. 


1.85 
15.25 
38.5 
10.4 

0.95 
13.25 


4, 
5. 

12. 

12. 
21. 
10. 

1. 

16. 

2. 

13. 


85 


98 


18.5 


35 


5.5 


0.9: 
0.1- 

,75 


1.2 

32.5 


Muri.-it3  of 


Soda.    Lime. 


32. 
430. 


5. 

Gl 

6 

4. 
0. 

615. 
.3. 


0.11 


9.25 


28.5 
.6 


13. 


Ma? 


11.5 
8.0 


12.  S 
7.25 
2 .  25 
25. 
91. 


Pot- 
ass. 


Sulphats  of 


Soda. 


66.75 
15.2 


1.46 


28.2 
11.25 


Lime.   Mag 


8.38 


11.2 

33 . 3 
14.03 

0.8 

13.0 
11.75 
1.25 
40. 


15.8 


91.0 


10., 


Silica. 


0,23 
5.4 
1,7 
15,1 


Alu- 
mina, 


0,35 


0,48 


Re- 
sin. 


,6 


It 

mch. 

3^- 

grams 

3-^ 

do. 

9 

do. 

8 

J  do. 

4- 

do. 

One  pint  of  the  Bath  water  contains  Caccord- 
ir.g  to  the  laborious  and  dehcate  analysis  of 
Mr,  Phillips), 

Carbonic  acid        » 

Muriat  of  soda 

Sulphat  of  soda 

Sulphat  of  lime 

Carbonat  of  lime  >■ 

Silica     -        -        - 

Oxide  of  iron  -        •  f  T  do. 

Waters,  the  vifthod  of  analysinu:.  The 
analysis  of  waters,  or  tin;  art  of  ascertainiiig 
the  'dil'ferent  substances  which  they  hold  in 
solution,  and  of  determining  the  proportion 
of  these  substances,  is  one  of  the  most  dilh- 
cult  things  in  chemistry.  The  difiiculty 
arises,  not  only  from  the  diversity  of  the  ho- 
llies which  occur  in  waters,  but  from  the 
very  minute  cpiantities  of  some  of  the  ingre- 
dients. 'I'hough  many  attempts  had  been 
made  to  analyse  particular  waters,  and  seve- 
ral ot  these  were  remarkably  well  conducted, 
no  general  mode  of  analysis  was  known  till 
IJergman  published  his  Treatise  on  Mineral 
Waters  in  1778.  This  admirable  tract  car- 
ried the  subject  all  at  once  lo  a  very  liigh 


degree  of  perfection.  The  Bergmannian 
method  has  been  followed  by  succeeding  che- 
mists, to  whom  we  are  indebted  not  only  for 
a  great  number  of  very  accurate  analyses  of 
mineral  waters,  but  likewise  for  several  im- 
provements in  the  mode  of  conducting  the 
analysis.  Mr.  Kirwan  has  in  1799  published 
an  essay  on  the  general  analysis  of  watiMs,  no 
less  valuable  than  that  of  Bergman  ;  contain- 
ing all  that  has  hitherto  been  done  on  the 
subject,  and  enriched  by  the  numerous  ex- 
periments of  Mr.  Kirwan  himsell',  which  are 
equally  important  and  well  conducted.  Mr. 
Kirwan  has  given  a  new  method  of  analysis, 
which  will  probably  be  adopted  hereafter; 
not  only  because  it'is  shorter  and  e.asier  tlian 
the  Bergmannian,  but  because  it  is  suscepti- 
ble of  a  greaier  degree  of  accuracy. 

Tlie  analysis  of  waters  resolves  itself  into 
two  different  brandies:  l.The  method  of 
ascertaining  all  the  dillerent  bodies  contained 
in  the  water  which  we  are  examining.  2. 
The  method  of  determining  the  exact  pro- 
portion of  each  of  these  ingredients. 

Tlie  different  bodies  which  are  dissolved 
and  combined  in  water,  are  discovered  by 


tlie  addition  of  certain  substances  to  the  wa- 
ter which  is  subjected  to  examination.  The 
conseiiuence  of  the  addition  is  some  change 
in  the  appearance  of  the  water;  and  this 
change  indicates  the  presence  or  the  absence 
of  the  bodies  suspected.  The  substances 
thus  employed  are  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  tests,  and  are  the  instruments  bv  means 
of  which  the  analysis  of  water  is  accomplish- 
ed. 'J'hey  were  lirst  introduced  into  che- 
mistry by  Boyle,  and  were  gradually  in- 
creased by  succeeding  chemists  ;  but  Berg- 
man was  the  first  who  ascertained  with  pre- 
cision the  degree  of  confidence  which  can  be 
placed  in  the  dilferent  tests.  They  still  con- 
tinued rather  uncertain  and  precarious,  till 
Mr.  Kirwan  shewed  how  they  might  be  com- 
bined and  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
give  certain  and  precise  indications  whether 
or  not  any  particular  substance  constitutes  a 
component  part  of  water.  Let  us  consiiler 
by  what  means  the  presence  or  the  absence 
of  all  the  dilferent  substances  which  occur  in 
waters  may  be  ascertained. 

I.  The  gase<nis  bodies  contained  in  water 
are  obtained  by  boiling  it  in  a  retort  luted  t» 


a  pneuiTiiitic  apparyitus.  Tlie  melhod  of  se- 
pai-at'iii;  and  examining  thes«  (Jilicrent  bodies 
shall  be  described  hereafter. 

II.  'I'be  presence  of  carbonic  acid,  not 
combineil  witli  a  base,  or  cnnibiiii;d  in  excess, 
may  be  detected  by  the  following  te.its  :  I. 
Lime-water  occasions  a  precipitate  soluble 
with  effervescence  in  niunalic  acitl.  'J.  Tin' 
infusion  of  litnins  is  reddened  ;  but  the  rid 
colonr  gradually  disappears,  ,nnd  may  be 
again  restored  by  thi'addition  of  more  of  the 
mineral  water.  3.  When  boiled  it  loses  the 
property  of  reddening  the  iitfnsion  of  litmus. 

HI.  '('he  mineral  acids  when  present,  wn- 
conibined  in  water,  give  the  infusion  of  lit- 
unis  a  permanent  red,  even  tbougli  the  water 
has  been  boiled.  I'ergman  has  shewn  that 
paper,  stainc<l  with  litmus,  is  reddened  when 
dipt  into  water  containing  1-J5J1  wf  sulphuric 
acid. 

IV.  Water  containing  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen gas  is  distinguished  by  tlu;  f  jUowing  prb- 
pt;rties :  1 .  It  exhales  the  peculiar  odour  of 
sulphureted  hydrogen  gas.  2.  It  reddens  the 
infusion  of  litmus  fugaciotisly.  3.  It  blackens 
paper  dipt  into  a  solution  of  lead,  and  preci- 
pitates the  nitrat  of  silver  black  or  brown. 

V.  Alkalies,  and  alkaline  and  earthy  car- 
bonats,  are  distijiguished  by  the  following 
tests:  1.  The  infusion  of  turmeric,  or  paper 
ituined  with  turmeric,  is  rendered  brown  by 
alkalies,  or  reddish-brown  if  the  (pianiify  is 
minute.  This  change  is  produced  when  the 
tpda  in  water  amounts  only  to  l-2.;i7lh  part. 
S.  Taper  stained  with  Uracil  wood,  or  the  in- 
fusion of  Brazil  wood,  is  rendered  blue  ;  but 
this  change  is  produced  also  by  tlie  alkaline 
and  earthy  carbonats.  Bergman  ascertained 
that  water  containing  l-y9-l.>lli  part  of  car- 
bonat  of  soda  renders  paper  stained  with 
Brazil  wood  blue.  3.  Litmus  paper  redden- 
ed by  vinegar  is  restored  to  its  original  blue 
colour.  This  change  is  produced  by  the  al- 
kaline and  earthy  carbonats  also.  4.  When 
these  changes  are  fugacious,  we  may  con- 
I  hide  that  the  alkali  is  ammonia. 

VI.  Fixed  alkalies  exist  in  water  which  oc- 
casions a  precipitate  with  muriat  of  magnesia 
after  being  boiled.  Vol.itile  alkali  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  smell,  or  it  may  b(!  ob- 
tained in  tlie  receiver  by  distiUing  a  portion 
of  the  water  gently,  and  then  it  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  above  tests. 

VII.  Earthy  and  metallic  carbonats  are 
precipitated  by  lioiling  the  water  containing 
them  ;  except  carbonat  of  jiiagnesia,  wliich 
is  only  precipitated  imperfect ly. 

Vlil.  Iron  is  discovered  by  the  following 
■tests  :  1.  The  addition  of  tincture  of  nulgilis 
gives  water  containing  iron  a  purple  or  black 
colour.  Tills  test  hidicates  the  presence  of 
a  very  minute  portion  of  iron.  i\  the  tinc- 
ture has  no  effect  upon  the  water  after  boiling, 
though  it  colours  it  before,  the  iron  is  in  the^ 
state  of  a  carbonat.  The  following  observa- 
tions of  Westrum  on  the  colours  which  iron 
gives  to  nutgalls,  as  modilied  by  other  bodies, 
deserve  attention  : 

A  violet  indicates  an  c^lkaline  carbonat  or 
earthy  salt. 

Dark  purple  indicates  other  alkaline  salts. 

Purplish  red  indicates  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen gas.  I 

W  hitish  and  then  black  indicates  sulphat  of 
Jirae. 

'2.  The  Prussian  alkali  occasions  a  blue 
precipitate  in  water  containins  iron.     If  an 

Vol.  II. 


WATERS. 

alkali  i<  present,  the  blue  precipitate  docs 
not  appear  nitlas  the  alkali  is  saturated  with 
an  acid. 

IX.  Sulphuric  acid  exists  in  waters  whitli 
form  a  precipitate  with  the  following  saline 
solutions  : 

1.  iVluriat,  nitrat,  or  acelat  of  baryfes 

2.  -        -        -        -  fitrontian 

3.  ...        -  liini! 

4.  Nitrat  or  acetat  of  le.id. 

Of  these  the  most  powerful  by  far  is  inmiat 
of  barytes,  which  is  capable  of  di  teding  llie 
j)resence  of  sulphuric  acid  uncoinhined,  when 
It  does  not  exceed  the  niillionth.part  of  the 
water.  Acetat  of  lea-.l  is  next  in  point  of 
power.  The  muriats  are  more  powerful  than 
the  nitrats.  The  calcareous  salts  are  least 
powerful.  All  these  tests  are  capable  of  in- 
dicating a  much  smaller  proportion  of  un- 
combined  sulpluiric  acid  than  when  it  is  com- 
bined v.ith  a  base.  'I'o  render  muriat  of 
barytes  a  certain  test  of  sulphuric  acid,  the 
following  precautions  must  be  observed :  1. 
The  muriat  imist  be  diluted.  2.  The  alkalies, 
or  alkaline  carbunats,  if  the  water  contains 
any,  must  be  previously  saturated  with  mu- 
riatic acid.  3.  The  precipitate  innst  be  in- 
soluble in  muriatic  acid.  4.  If  boracic  acid 
is  suspected,  muriat  of  strontian  must  be  tried, 
which  is  not  jirecipitated  by  boracic  acid.  u. 
The  liydrosiilphurets  precipitate  bar) tic  so- 
lutions, but  their  presence  is  easily  discover- 
ed by  the  smell. 

X.  Muriatic  acid  is  detected  by  nitrat  of 
silver,  which  occasions  a  vvliite  precipitate,  or 
a  cloud  in  water  containing  an  exceedingly 
minute  portion  of  this  acid.  To  render  this 
test  certain,  the  following  precautions  are  ne- 
cessary :  1.  The  alkalies  or  carbonats  must 
be  previously  saturated  with  nitric  acid.  2. 
Sulphuric  acid,  if  any  should  be  present,  must 
be  previously  removed  by  means  of  nitrat  of 
barytes.  3.  The  precipitate  must  be  inso- 
luble in  nitric  acid. 

XI.  Boracic  acid  is  detected  by  means  of 
acetat  of  lead,  with  which  it  forms  a  precipi- 
tate insoluble  in  acetic  acid.  But  to  render 
this  test  certain,  tlie  alkalies  and  earths  must 
be  iireviously  saturated  with  acetic  acid,  and 
the  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids  removed  by 
means  of  acetat  of  strontian  and  acetat  of 
silver. 

XII.  Barytes  is  detected  by  the  insoluble 
white  precijiitate  which  it  forms  with  diluted 
sulphuric  acid. 

XIII.  Lime  is  detected  by  means  of  oxalic 
acid,  which  occasions  a  white  precipitate  in 
water  containuig  a  very  minute  proportion 
of  this  earth.  To  render  this  test  decisive, 
the  following  precautions  are  necessary:  1. 
The  mineral  acids,  if  any  should  be  present, 
must  be  previously  saturated  with  an  alkali. 

2.  BarUes,  if  any' is  present,  must  be  previ- 
ouslv  removed   by  means  of  sulphuric  acid. 

3.  Oxalic  acid  precipitates  magnesia  but  very 
slowly,  whereas  it  precipitates  lime  in- 
stantly. 

XIV.  Magnesia  and  alumina.  The  pre- 
sence of  these  earths  is  ascertained  by  the 
following  tests  :  1.  Pure  ammonia  precipitates 
them  both,  and  no  other  earth,  provided  the 
carbonic  acid  has  been  previously  separated 
by  a  mineral  -alkali  and  boiling.  2.  Lime- 
water  precipitates  only  these  two  earths,  pro- 
vided the  carbonic  acid  is  previously  remov- 
ed, aiul  the  sulphuric  acid  also,  by  means  of 
nitrat  of  barvtes. 

5  If 


m. 

The  afumina  may  be  «rparatetl  from  the 
magneria  after  both  ha»e  been-  precijlitaied 
together,  either  by  l)oiiing  tin:  precipitate  In 
pure  potass,  which  dissolve-*  the  alumina  and 
leaves  the  magneKia  ;  or  the  pre'-ipiialc  may 

be  dissolved  in  inuri.i'' '      r-rijiitated  by 

an  alkaline  carbonat,  ■  teniperaiure 

of  one  hundred  di'gri-!  .,  n  expost-d  l» 

llu;  .-lotion  of  diluted  niuii.ilic  acid,  which 
dissolve,  the  magnesia  without  loiicl.ing  the 
alumina. 

XV.  Silica  may  l>e  ascertained  by  evapor- 
ating a  ])ortioii'of  the  water  to  dryness,  anil 
redissolviiig  llie  precipitate  iinnuriatic  acid. 
The  silica  remains  behiuil  undiseolrcd. 

Such  is  the  method  of  iletecling  the  diirer- 
ent  subslances  ujniinoiily  iMund  hi  waters. 
Bill  as  these  dilleieiit  substances  arc  almost 
always  combined  to;;ether,  so  as  lo  constilutxs 
particular  salts,  it  is  /lot  suHicient  to  know 
in  general  what  tlie  substances  are  wlii>:ii  arc 
found  ill  the  water  we  are  examiiiiiig ;  w 
must  know  also  in  what  manner  they  are 
combined.  Thus  it  is  not  suflicient  to  iuwvi 
that  lime  forms  an  ingredient  in  a  particular 
water,  we  must  know  also  the  acid  with  whicit 
it  is  united.  Mr.  Kirwan  first  pointed  out 
how  to  accomplish  this  dilViciilt  task  by 
means  of  tests.  Let  us  take  a  short  view  of 
his  method.  '. 

1.  To  ascertain  the  presence  of  the  diHer- 
ent  sulphals. 

The  sulphals  wliich  occur'  in  water  arc 
seven ;  but  one  of  these,  namely,  sulphat  of 
copper,  is  so  unconiinon,  that  it  may  be  ex- 
cluded altogether.  The' same  remark  applied 
to  sulphat  of  ammonia.  It  is  almost  unne- 
cessary to  obsen-e,  that  no  sulphat  need  be 
looked  for  unless  both  its  acid  and  base  have 
been  previously  detected  in  the  water. 

I.  bulphat  of  soda  may  be  detected  by  the 
following  method  :  Free  the  water  to  be  ex- 
amined of  all  earthy  sulphals  by  evaporating 
it  to  one-iiaif,  and  adduig  lime-water  as  long 
as  any  precipitate  appears.     By  this'  means 
the  earths  will  be  all  precipitated  except  lime, 
and  the  only  remaining  earthy  sulphat  will 
be  sulphat  of  lime,  which  will  be  separalf^d 
by  evaporating  the  licjuid  till  it  becom  ■ 
centrated,  and  then  drojjping  into  \f 
alcohol,  and  after   filtration   ad 
oxalic  acid. 

With  the  water  thus  purified, 
of  lime.     If  a  precipitate  ap[,e  . 
mediately  or  on  the  additicni  ot 
hoi,  it  is  a  proof  that  si  Iphat  oi 
sotia  is  present ;   which  of  the  i 
determiiied  by  mixing  soiue  of  I 
water  with   acetat  of  barytes.     ^^ 
barytes   precipitates.      Filtre  and  c.  .ipe-  i.-; 
to  dryness.     Digest  the  resi' iuum  in  a.cuh  )l. 
It  will  dissolve  the  alka'ine  acelat.     Evap-jr- 
rate  to  dryness,  and  the  dry  salt  will  deli- 
quesce' if  It  is  acetat  of  potass,  but  efllorcscc 
if  it  is  acetat  of  soda. 

2.  Sulphat  of  lime  may  be  detected  by  eva- 
porating the  water  suspected  to  contain  ii  to 
a  few  ounces.  A  precijiitate  appears,  which, 
if  it  is  sulphat  of  lime,  is  soluble  in  jUO  paitt 
of  water  ;  and  the  solution  alTords  a  preci- 
pitate with  the  muriat  of  barytes,  oxalic  acid, 
carbonat  of  magnesia,  and  with  alcohol. 

3.  Alum  may  be  detected  by  mixuig  car- 
bonat of  lime  with  the  water  suspecte<l  to 
contain  it.  If  a  precipitate  appears  jt  indi- 
cateii  tke  presuiige  ot  alum,  or  at  leatt  of  su  1 


Sf30 

])li;U  ci!  alumiiiii ;  provide  1  the  walev  contains 
JK)  niiiriat  of  bar\tfs  or  iiietuUic  sulplials. 
1  he  lirst  of  these  salts  is  incompatible  wilh 
aliini.  The  secojul  may  be  removed  l)y  the 
alk.iline  priissiats.  \Vlien  a  precipitate  is 
produced  in  water  by  miuiat  of  lime,  car- 
bonat  of  lime,  and  nuiriat  of  magnesia,  we 
may  conclude  thai  it  contains  alum,  or  siil- 
J)l-iat  of  alinnina, 

4.  ynlphat  of  magnesia  may  be  detected 
hy  means  of  livdrosulphuret  of  stronlian, 
u'hich  occasions  an  immediate  precipitate 
"ith  'diis  salt  and  wilh  no  other ;  provided 
the  water  is  previouslv  deprived  of  aUnn,  if 
any  should  be  present',  by  means  of  cavbonat 
of  lime  ;  and  provided  also  that  it  contains  no 
^mconibiiied  acid,  uijir  even  carbonic  acid. 

a.  Jiiilpl'.at  of  iron  is  precipitated  from  wa- 
ter by  alcohol,  and  then  it  may  be  oily  re- 
cognised by  its  ])roperlies. 

I L  To  ascertain  the  presence  of  tiie  dililer- 
ent  nmriats. 

'i'lie  nnlriats  found  in  waters  amount  to 
eiglil  or  nine,  if  mnriat  of  iron  is  included. 
'J'he  most  common  by  far  is  nmriat  of  soda. 

1.  Mnriat  of  soda  and  of  potass  may  be 
detected  by  the  following  method:  Separate 
the  sulphi.ric  acid  by  alcohol  and  nitrat  of 
barytes.  Decompose  the  earthy  nitrats  and 
inmiats  by  adding  sulphuric  acid.  Expel 
the  cNcess  of  muriatic  and  nitric  acids  by 
heat.  Separate  the  sulphals  thus  formed  ijy 
alcohol  and  barvtes-waler.  The  water  tiius 
purllied  can  contain  nothing  but  alkaline  nl- 
tr^-ts  and  muriats.  If  it  forms  a  precipitate 
v.ith  acetal  of  silver,  we  may  conclude  that 
it  contains  mnriat  of  soda  or  of  pota-^s. 
ascertain  which,  evaporate  tlie  licpiid  thu 
precipitated  to  dryness  ;  dissolve  the  acetat 
in  alcohol.  Evaporate  to  dryness.  The  salt 
will  deli(iuesce  if  it  is  acetat  of  potass,  but 
«i1!oresce  if  it  is  acetat  of  potass. 

2.  Muriat  of  barvtes  may  be  detected  by 
sulphuric  acid,  as  it  is  tl>e  only  barytic  salt 
hitiierto  found  in  waters. 

3.  Muriat  of  linie  may  be  detected  by  the 
follow  ing  metliod  :  Free  tlie  water  of  sulphat 
of  lime  and  other  sidpliats,  by  evaporating  it 
to  a  few  ounces,  mixing  it  witli  spirit  of  wine, 
i.nd  addincc  last  of  all  nitrat  of  barvtes  as  long 


WATERS. 

precipitate,  and  if  sulphuric  acid  and  evapor- 
ation, together  with  the  addition  of  a  little  al- 
cohul,  occasion  no  precipitate,  the  solution 
contains  only  muriat  of  magnesia.     If  these 
tests  give  precipitates,  we  must  separate  the 
lime  which  is  present  by  sulphuric  acid  and 
spirit  of  v.ine,  and  distil  off  the  acid  witli 
wliich  it  was  combined.     Then  the  magnesia 
is  to  be  separated  bv  the  oxalic  acid  an<l  al- 
cohol ;  and  the  acid  with  wliicli  it  was  united 
is  to  be  distilled  off.     If  the  h(iuid  in  the  re- 
tori  gives  a  precipitate  wilh  nitrat  of  silver, 
the  water  contains  muriat  of  magnesia. 
I      5.   Muriat  of  alumina  may  be  discovered 
by  saturating  the  water,  if  it  contains  an  ex- 
cess ot  alkali,  wilh  nitric  acid,  and  separating 
!  the  sulphuric  acid    by   means  of   nitrat   of 
barytes.     If  the  iKjuid  tlius  purllied  gives  a 
j  j)rt(;ipitate  with  carbonat  of  lime,  it  contains 
1  muriat  of  alumina,     'ihe  muriat  of  iron  or  of 
'  manganese,  if  any  is  present,  is  also  decom- 
I  posed,  and  the  iron  precipitated  by  this  salt. 
The  precipitate  may  be  dissolved  in  muriatic 
acid,  and  the  alumina,  iron,  and  manganese, 
if  they  are  present,  may  be  afterwards  se- 
parated. 
!      III.  To  ascertain  the  presence  of  the  dif- 
'  ferent  nitrats.     The  nitrats  but  seldom  occur 
!  in  waters ;  when  they  do  they  may  be  detect- 
I  ed  bv  the  following  rules  : 
]      1.   Alkaline  nitrats  may   be  detected  by 
freeing  the  water  examined  from  sulphuric 
acid  by  means  of  acetat  of  barytes,  and  iroai 
I  nnu'latic  acid  by  acetat  of  silver.     Evaporate 
I  tlie  liltred    liquid,   and  treat  tlie  dry   mass 
!  with  alcohol  ;  \vh:it  the  alcohol   leaves  can 
"    consist  only  of  the  alkaline  nitrats  and  acetat 
of  lime.     Dissolve  it  in  water.     If  carbonat 
of  magnesia  occasions  a  precipitate,  lime  is 
present.     Separate  the  lime  by  means  of  car- 
bonat of  magnesia.     Filtre  and  evaporate  to 
dryness,  and  treat  the  dried  mass  with  alco- 
hol.    The  alcohol  now  leaves  only  the  alka- 
line nitiMts,  whicli  may  lie  easily  recognised, 
and  distinguished   by   their   respective  pro- 
perties. 

2.  Nitrat  of  lime.  To  detect  this  salt,  con- 
centrate the  water,  and  mix  with  it  alcohol 
to  separate  the  sulpliats.  Eiltre  and  distil  off 
the  alcoiiol  ;  then  separate  the  muriatic  acid 


2.    Sulphat   of 
lime. 


3.  Alum. 


Sulphat 
ina.irnesia. 


of' 


5.  Sulphat  of  iron. 

G.  Muriat  of  ba- 
rytes. 

7.  Muriat  of  lime. 


Alkaline  sniphats, 
mat  of  magn 
mina, 
lats,  except  of  lim'e. 


at  of  magnesia  and 

mina. 


as  any  precipitate   appears.     Filtre   off  the  |  bv  acetat  of  silver.     Filtre,  evaporate  to  dry- 

*ater,   evaporate  to  dryness,   treat  the  dry       '  ' 

iiiajs  with  alcohol.  Evaporate  tlie  alcohol  to 
dryness,  and  dissolve  the  residuum  in  water. 
If  this  solution  gives  a  precipitate  with  acetat 
of  silver  and  oxalic  acid,  it  may  contain 
muriat  of  lime.  It  must  contain  it  in  that 
ease,  if,  after  being  treated  with  carbonat  of 
lime,  it  gives  no  precipitate  viith  ammonia. 
It  it  does,  separate  the  lime  by  means  of  ox; 


noss,  and  dissolve  tlie  residuum  in  alcohol. 
Evaporate  to  dryness,  and  dissolve  the  dry 
mass  in  water.  If  this  solution  indirales  the 
|)resence  of  lime  by  the  usual  tests,  the  water 
contained  nitrat  of  lime. 

3.  To  detect  nitrat  of  magnesia,  the  wafer 
is  to  be  freed  from  sulphals  and  muriats  ex- 
actly as  described  in  the  last  paraffra))li.  The 
litiuld  thus  puritied  is  to  be  evaporated  to 


lie  acid,  Jiltre  and  distil  wilh  a  gentle  heat.  ;  dryness,  and  the  residuum  treated  with  alco 

Ifthe  liipiid  in  the  receiver  gives  a  preci|)i-     -    -      — 

latf  wilh  nitrat  of  silver,   muriat  of  lime  ex- 
isteil  in  I  le  water. 

4.  Muriat  of  mtgnesia  may  be  detected  by 
separating  all  the  sulphuric  acid  by  means  of 
nitrat  of  barvtes.  Filtre,  evap<irate  to  dry- 
ness, and  treat  the  dry  mass  with  alcohol. 
Evaporate  the  alcohol  solution  to  dryness, 
an  I  dissolve  thi;  residuum  in  water.  The 
uiuriat  of  magnesia,  if  the  water  contain  d 
any,  will  be  Ipnnd  in  lliis  solution.  Let  us 
suppose  tliat,  by  the  tests  formerly  described, 
the  presence  of  muriatic  acid  and  of  mag- 
nesia in  tills  solution  has  been  ascertained. 
la  tlul  case,  if  carbonat  of  lime  affords  no 


hoi.  The  alcohol  solution  is  to  be  evaporat- 
ed to  dryness,  and  the  dry  mass  dissolved  in 
water.  'I'o  this  solution  potass  is  to  be  added 
as  long  as  any  precipitate  appears.  The  so- 
lution, filtred,  and  again  evaporated  to  dry- 
ness, is  to  be  treated  with  alcohol.  If  it 
leaves  a  residuum  consisting  of  nitre  (the 
only  residuinii  which  it  can  leave),  tlie  water 
contained  nitrat  of  magnesia. 

Such  are  tlw  inetiiods  by  whicli  the  pre- 
sence of  the  dilli?rent  saline  contents  of  wa^ 
lers  may  be  ascertaiiKfcl.  The  labour  of  ana- 
lysis may  be  cousid  rably  shortened,  by  ob- 
serving that  the  following  salts  are  incom- 
p.itiblc  with  each  oilier,  and  cannot  exist  to- 


gether in  water  except  in  yery      n  i  itc  jr 

portions : 

S..lts.  Incompatible  with 

(  Nilrals  of  lime  and  mag- 

1.  Fixed  alkaline  5      nesia, 

sulphals.        "j  .Muriats  of  lime  and  inag- 

'      nesia. 

C  Alkalies, 

■'  C'arbcmat  of  magnesia, 

(^  Mnriat  of  barytes. 

'  Alkalies, 

Muriat  of  barytes, 

Nitrat,  muriat,  carbonat  of 

lime, 

Carbonat  of  magnesia. 

Alkalies, 

Muriat  of  barvtes. 

^Nitrat    and   muriat    of 

(.     lime. 

f  Alkalies, 

;  Muriat  of  barytes, 

'  Eartliy  carbonats. 

(  Sulphals, 

•j  Alkaline  carbonats, 

t  Farth.y  carbonats. 

i  Sulpliats,  except  of  lime,^ 

s  Alkaline  carbonats, 

L  Carbonat  of  magnesia. 

S. Muriat  of  nwg-  (  Alkaline  carbonats, 

nesia.  ^Alkaline  caviJonats, 

i  Alkaline 

r,  X'-.     .    r  I-  ;  Carbonat 

9.  Nitrat  of  lime  -<        , 

)      aluir--- 

(Sulph; 
Besides  the  substances  above  described, 
there  is  sometimes  found  in  water  a  quantity 
of  bitumen  combined  with  alkali,  and  in  the 
state  of  soap.  In  such  waters  acids  occasion 
a  coagulation  ;  and  the  coagulum  collected 
on  a  lillre  discovers  its  bituminous  nature  by 
its  combustibility. 

AVater  also  sometimes  contains  extractive 
matter ;  the  presence  of  which  may  be  ile- 
tected  by  means  of  nitral  of  silver.  1"he  wa- 
ter suspected  to  contain  it  must  be  freed  from 
sulphuric  and  nitric  acid  by  means  of  nitrat 
of  lead.  After  this,  it  it  gives  a  brown  pre- 
cipitate with  nitrat  of  silver,  we  may  coi»- 
clude  that  extractive  matter  is  present. 

The  proportion  of  saline  ingredients,  held 
in  solution  by   any  w.iter,  may  be  in  some 
measure  estimated  from  its  specilic  gravity. 
The  lighter  a  water  is,  the  less  saline  matter 
docs  it  contain  ;  and,  on  llie  other  hand,  the 
heavier  it  is,  the  greater  is  the  proportion  of 
saline  contents.     Mr.  Kirwan  has  pointed  out 
a  very  ingenious  method  of  estimating  the 
saline  contents  of  a  mineral  water  whose  spe- 
cific   gravity   is  known  ;   so  that  the  error 
does  not  exceed  one  or  two  parts  in  the  hun- 
dred'.    The  method  is  this :  Subtract  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  pure  water  from  the  speciuc 
gravity  of  {he  mineial  water  examined  (both 
expressed  in  wli<;le  iinmbers),  and  mullii)ly 
the  remainilcr  by   1.4.     The  proiluct  is  the 
saline  (ontenls,  in  a  quantity  ot  the  water  de- 
noted by  the  number  employed  to  indicate 
the  siiecilie  gravity  of  distilled  water.     Thus 
let  the    water  be  of   the    specilic-  gravity 
1.07Q,  or  in   whole  numbers    1079.      Then. 
the    specilic    gravity     of    distilled     water 
vtill  be   1000.     And   107!)—  10  ;0  4-1.4=; 
M0.6=saliiie  contents  in  1000  part^oflhcwa- 
ter  in  question;   and  consequently  11.00  in 
100  parts  of  the  same  water.     This  formula 
will  oilen  be  of  coi>siderable  use,  as  it  serves 
as  a  kind  of  standard  to  which  \('c  m.iy  com- 


parffmir  aiialysii.  The  saline  contents  iiuli- 
(■;iti'<l  by  it  are  siippose-l  to  Ik-  IV(  (•<]  from 
tiii'ir  w.'.ter  of  crystullizutioii ;  in  wliicli  sUle 
only  llH!y  oiiglit  to  bi;  coii-ii<li.Me<l,  as  Mi-. 
Kirwaii  lias  vt-ry  proijcrly  observed,  wIhmi 
we  speak  of  tlie  saline  contents  of  a  mineral 
V  ater. 

Iluvina;  by  Ibis  foaiuila  ascertained  prelly 
nearly  tlie  proportion  of  saline  contents  iji 
tlie  water  examined,  and  having  by  (he  tests 
described  in  the  last  section,  determined  the 
particular  snbstances  which  exist  in  it,  let  us 
now  proceed  to  asceitain  the  proportion  of 
each  of  these  ingredient?. 

I.  The  different  aerial  Ikiids  ought  to  be  first 
separateil  and  estimated.  For  this  pnrpose  a 
retort  on^ht  to  be  tilled  two-thirds  with  the 
water,  and  connected  with  a  jar  full  of  mer- 
cury, standing  over  a  mercurial  trough.  I  ,el 
tlie'water  be  made  to  boil  for  a  iiirarter  of  an 
hour.  The  aerial  lUiids  will  pass  over  into 
the  jar.  NVhen  the  apparatus  is  cool,  the 
(|uantitv  of  air  e.\pelled  from  the  water  may 
be  di-lermiued  either  by  bringing  the  mer- 
rnrv  within  and  without  the  jar  to  a  level  ;  or 
if  that  camiot  be  done,  by  n^lucing  the  air 
to  the  proper  density.  The  air  of  the  retort 
ought  to  be  carefully  subtracted,  and  the 
jar  must  be  divided  into  cubic  inches  and 
tenths. 

The  only  gaseous  bodies' in  water  arc  com- 
mon air,  oxygen  gas,  azotic  gas,  carbonic 
acid,  sulplunetcd  hydrogen  gas,  and  sulphur- 
ous acid.  The  last  two  never  exist  in  watm- 
together.  The  presence  of  cither  of  Iheni 
must  be  ascertained  previously  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  proper  tests,  ff  sulpliureted 
hydrogen  gas  is  present,  it  will  be  nnxed  with 
the  air  contained  in  the  glass  jar,  and  must 
be  separated  before  air  is  examined.  I'or  this 
purpose,  the  jar  must  be  carried  into  a  tub 
of  warm  water,  and  nitric  aci<l  introduced, 
which  will  absorb  tlie  sulpliureted  hydrogen. 
The  residuum  is  then  to  be  again  put  into  a 
mercurial  jar  and  examined. 

If  the  water  contains  sulphurous  acid,  tliis 
previous  step  is  not  necessary.  Introduce 
into  tlie  air  a  solution  of  pure  |)otass,  aiul 
agitate  tlie  whole  gently.  The  carbonic 
acid  and  sulpliurous  acid  gas  will  be  absorb- 
ed, and  leave  the  other  gases.  Kslimate  the 
bulk  of  this  residuum  ;  this,  subtracted  from 
the  bulk  of  the  whole,  will  give  the  bulk  of 
the  carbonic  acid  and  sulphurous  acids  ab- 
sorbed. 

Evaporate  the  potass  slowly  nearly  to  dry- 
ness, and  leave  it  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 
Sulphat  of  potass  will  be  formed,  which  may 
be  separated  by  dissolving  the  carbonat  of 
potass  by  means  of  diluted  muriatic  acid  and- 
(iltring  the  solution.  One  hundred  grains 
of  sulphat  of  potass  indicate  thirty  grains  of 
sulphurous  acid,  or  42.72  cubic  inches  of  that 
■acid  in  the  state  of  gas.  The  bulk  of  sulplui- 
rous  acid  gas  ascertained  bv  this  metliod, 
subtracted  from  the  bulk  of  the  gas  absorbed 
bv  the  potass,  gives  the  bulk  of  the  carbonic 
acid  "as.  Now  one  hundred  cubic  inches  of 
carbonic  aeid,  at  the  temperature  of  (iO",  and 
barometer  at  30  inches,  weigh  4n..3<)3  grains. 
Hence  it  is  easy  to  ascertain  its  weight. 

The  air  which  remains  after  the  separation 
of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  is  to  be  examined 
bv  the  different  eudiometrical  methods. 

"When   a   water  contains  sulphureted  hy- 
(Lrogeu  gas,  the  bulk  of  this  gas  is  to  be  as- 


WATERS, 

certaincd  in  the  following  manner:  Fill 
three-fourths  of  a  jar  with  the  water  to 
be  examined,  and  invert  it  in  a  water 
trough,  and  introduce  a  little  nitrous  gas. 
Tills  gas,  mixing  with  tin;  air  in  the  up- 
per part  of  tiie  jar,  will  form  nitrons  acid, 
whicli  will  render  the  water  turbid,  by  de- 
composing the  sulpliureted  hydrogen  and 
precipitating  sulphur.  Continue  to  add  ni- 
trous gas  at  intervals  as  long  as  red  fumes  ap- 
pear, (hen  turn  up  the  jar  and  blow  out  the 
air.  If  the  hepatic  smell  continues,  reprat 
this  process.  I'lie  sulphur  precipitated  indi- 
cates the  proportion  of  hepalic  gas  in  the 
water ;  one  grain  of  sulphur  indicating  tlie 
presence  of  3.3.3  cubic  inches  of  that  gas. 

II.  After  having  estimated  the  gaseous 
bodies,  the  next  step  is  to  ascertain  the  pro- 
|)i)rlions  of  the  earthy  carbonats.  For  this 
[jurpose  it  is  necessary  to  deprive  the  wal';r 
of  its  sulplicreted  liydrogen,  if  it  contains 
any.  Tliis  may  be  done,  either  by  exposing 
it  to  the  air  for  a  considerable  time,  or  by 
treating  it  with  litharge.  A  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  the  water  thus  purified  (if  necessary) 
is  to  be  boiled  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and 
fillred  when  cool.  The  earthy  carbonats 
remain  on  the  liltre. 

The  precipitate  thus  obtained  may  be  car- 
bonat of  lime,  of  magnesia,  of  iron,  of  alu- 
mina, or  even  sulphat  of  lime.  Let  us  sup- 
pose all  of  these  substances  to  be  present  to- 
gether. Treat  the  mixture  with  diluted  mu- 
riatic acid,  which  will  dissolve  the  whole  ex- 
cept the  alumina  and  sulphat  of  lime.  Dry 
this  residuum  in  a  red  lieat,  and  note  the 
weight.  Then  boil  it  in  carbonat  of  soda  ; 
saturate  the  soda  with  muriatic  acid,  and  boil 
the  mixture  for  half  an  hour.  Carbon.it  of 
liine  and  alumina  precipitate.  Dry  this  pre- 
cipitate, and  treat  it  with  acetic  acid.  The 
lime  win  be  dissolved  and  the  alumina  will 
remain.  Dry  it  and  weigh  it.  Its  weight 
subtracted  from  the  original  weight  gives  the 
proportion  of  sulphat  of  lime. 

The  muriatic  solution  contains  lime,  mag- 
nesia, and  iron.  Add  aminonia  as  long  as  a 
reddi-h  precipitate  appears.  The  iron  awd 
part  of  the  magnesia  are  thus  separated;  Dry 
the  precipitate,  and  expose  it  to  the  air  for 
some  time  in  a  heat  of  iJOO" ;  then  treat  it 
with  acetic  acid  to  dissolve  the  magnesia, 
which  solution  is  to  be  added  to  the  muriatic 
solution.  ^I'lie  iron  is  to  be  redissolved  in 
muriatic  acid,  precipitate<l  by  an  alkaline  car- 
bonat, dried,  and  weighed. 

Add  sulphuric  acirl  to  the  muriatic  solu- 
tion as  long  as  any  jirecipitate  appears ;  then 
heat  the  solution  and  concentrate.  Heat  the 
sulphat  of  lime  thus  obtained  to  redness,  and 
weigh  it.  One  hundred  grains  of  it  are  equi- 
valent to  70  of  carbonat  of  lime  dried.  Pre- 
cipitate the  magnesia  by  means  of  carbonat  o( 
soda.  Dry  it  and  weigh  it.  15ut  as  part  re- 
mains in  solution,  evaporate  to  dryness,  and 
wash  tln^  ris'duum  with  a  suiiicient  quantity 
of  distilled  water  to  dissolve  the  murial  of 
soda  and  the  sulphat  of  lime,  if  any  should 
be  still  present.  What  remains  behind  is 
carbonat  of  magnesia.  Weigh  it,  and  acid  its 
w-eight  to  the  former.  The  sulphat  of  lime, 
if  any,  must  also  be  separated  and  weighed. 

III.  Let  us  now  consider  the  method  of  as- 
certaining the  proportion  of  mineral  acids  or 
alkalies,  if  any  should  be  present  uncmnbin- 
ed.   "Ihe  acids  which  mav  be  present,  (omit- 


ling  the  (rs'ieous)  arc  the  sulphuric,  muriatic 
ami  boratic. 

1.   'I'lie   proportion  of  sulphiiric    acid   it 
easily  determined.     Saturate  it  with  barytes 
water,  and  ignite  the  piecipi'i'-      '><  •-  •  •  •  - 
drcil  grains  of  sulphat  of  b  m 
indicate  23..'>  of  real  siilphi.: 

3.  Saturate  the  muriatic  acid  witii  b 
water,  and  then  picciict.ite  llie  bar' 
sulphuric  acid.  One  Imndrcd  pari, 
ignited  precipitate  are  equivalent  to  '^i 
of  real  muriatic  acid, 

3.  Precipitate  the  boracir,  acid  by  incans  of 
acetat  of  lead.     Decompose  the  li  /'    iJ 

by  boiling  it  hi  siilpiiuric  acid.     I  <■ 

dryness.     Dissolve  the  boracic  ..■  .  , 
hoi,  and  eva|«>rate  the  M>lutiuii;  tiie  .■ 
behind  may  be  weighed. 

■I.  To  estimate  the  jiroporlion  nf  alkaline 
carbonat  present  in  a  water  containing  it,  >a- 
lurale  it  uitli  sulpliuric  acid,  and  note  the 
weight  of  real  acid  necessary.  Now  100 
grains  of  real  sulphuric  acid  saturate  121.4t 
potass,  and  78.32  soda. 

ly.  Let  us  now  consider  the  method  of 
ascertaining  the  proportion  of  the  diirepuit 
sulpliats.  I'hcse  an;  six  in  number  ;  the  al- 
kaline sulphats,  and  those  of  lime,  alumina, 
magnesia,  andiron. 

1.  Tiie  alkaline  sulphats  may  be  estiinutc<4 
by  precipitating  their  acid  by  means  of  nilrat 
of  baryles,  having  previously  freed  the  water 
of  all  other  sulphats.  For  170  grains  of  ig- 
nited  sulphat  of  barytes  indicati;  100  grains 
of  dried  sulphat  of  soda  ;  while  130.36  grains 
of  sulphat  of  barytes  indicate  100  of  dry  sul- 
phat of  |)otass. 

2.  .Sulphat  of  lime  is  easily  estimated  by 
evajioraliiig  the  liquid  containing  it  to  a  few 
ounces  (having  previously  saturated  the 
earthy  caibonats  with  nitric  acid),  and  pre 
cipitating  the  su!|)h;'.t'  of  linn;  by  means  of 
weak  alcohol.  It  may  be  (hen  dried  and 
weighed. 

3.  The  quantity  of  alum  may  be  estimated 
by  precipitating  tlie  alumina  by  carbonat  of 
lime  or  of  magnesia  (if  no  lime  is  present  in 
the  li([uid).  Twelve  grains  of  the  alumina 
heated  to  incandescence  indicate  one  hundrrd 
of  crystallized  alum,  or  forlvuinc  of  the  dried 
salt. 

4.  Sulphat  of  magnesia  may  be  estimated, 
provif'etl  no  other  sulphat  is  present,  by  pre- 
cipitating the  acid  by  means  of  a  barvlic 
salt,  as  100  parts  of  jgliited  sulpl.at  ot  ba- 
rytes indicate  j2.ll  of  suljihal  ol  magnesia. 
If  sulphat  of  lime,  and  Jio  oliier  sulpnal  ac- 
comjianying  it,  this  last  may  be  deconipor-ed, 
and  the  lime  precipitated  by  carbonat  ot  n;ag- 
nesia.  The  weight  of  the  lime  thus  obtained 
enables  us  to  ascertain  the  quantity  ot  sulpli;it 
of  lime  contained  in  (he  water.  '1  he  whole 
sulphuric  acid  is  then  to  be  precipitated  by 
barytes.  This  gives  the  quantity  ot  sulphuric 
acid;  and  subtracting  the  portion  which  be- 
longs to  the  sulphat  of  lime,'  there-  remains 
that  which  was  combined  with  the  inagne>i.i. 
from  which  the  sulphat  of  magnc-ia  may  be 
easily  estimated. 

If  suliihat  of  soda  is  present,  no  carthv 
nilrat  or  miiriat  can  exist,  '1  hen  lore,  if  no 
other  earthy  sulphat  is  prescul,  the  magnesia 
may  be  precipitated  by  soda,  dried,  ar  i 
weighed  ;  36.()S  grains  of  wliicii  indicate  liO 
grains  of  dried  sulphat  of  niagin-sia.  Tne 
same  process  'succeeds  whcii  suipi'Dt  of  liniL" 
accompanies  the>e  two  sulpliats ;  only  ui  tliat 


BVQ 


W  A  T 


ease  iTie  precipitate,  whicTi  consists  both 
of  liirm  and  magnesia,  is  to  be  dissolved 
in  sulphuric  acid,  evaporated  to  .dryness, 
and  is  to  be  treated  witli  twice  its  weight 
of  cold  water;  whicli  dissolves  the  sul- 
phat  of  magnesia,  ;uid  leaves  the  other 
salt.  Let  the  sulpluit  of  magnesia  be  eva- 
porated to  dryness,  exposed  to  a  heat  of  400^ 
and  weighed."  The  same  process  succeeds 
if  alum  is  present  instead  of  sulphat  of  lime. 
The  precipitate  in  that  ca^e,  previously 
dried,  is  to  be  treated  with  acetic  acid,  which 
dissolves  the  magnesia  and  leaves  the  alumi- 
na. The  magnesia  may  be  again  precipi- 
tated, dried,  and  weighed.  If  sulphal  ol  iron 
is  prtisent,  it  may  be  separated  by  exposing 
the  water  to  the  air  for  some  days,  and  inix- 
ing  with  it  a  portion  of  alumina.  Botli  the 
oxide  of  iron  and  the  sulphat  of  alumina  thus 
formed,  precipitate  in  the  state  of  an  inso- 
luble powder.  Tlie  sulphat  of  magnesia  may 
then  be  estimated  by  the  rules  above  ex- 
plained. 

.  5.  Sulphat  of  iron  may  be  estimated  by 
precipitating  the  iron  by  means  of  prussic 
alkali,  having  previously  determined  the 
weight  of  the  precipitate  produced  by  the 
prussiat  in  a  solution  of  a  given  weight  of  sul- 
phat of  iron  in  water.  If  mnriat  of  iron  is 
also  present,  which  is  a  very  rare  case,  it 
maybe  separated  by  evaporating  the  water 
to  dryness,  treating  the  residuum  with  alco- 
hol, which  dissolves  the  muriat,  an.d  leaves 
the  sulphat.  Or  the  sulphat  may  be  esti- 
mated with  great  precision  by  the  rules  laid 
tli>wn  by  Mr.  Kirwan. 

V.  Let  us  now  consider  the  method  of  es- 
timating the  quantity  of  the  different  muriats 
■which  may  exist  in  waters. 

If  muriat  of  potass  or  of  soda,  without  any 
other  salt,  exists  in  the  water,  we  have  only  to 
decompose  them  by  nitrat  of  silver,  and  dry 
t;>e  precipitate  ;  for  2 1 7.65  of  muriat  of  silver 
hidicate  one  hundred  of  muriat  of  potass,  and 
two  hundred  and  thirty-five  of  muriat  of  silver 
indicate  one  hundred  of  common  salt. 

The  same  process  is  to  be  followed  if  the 
alkaline  carbonats  are  present ;  only  these 
carbonats  must  be  previously  saturated  with 
sulphuric  acid,-  and  we  nnist  precipitate  the 
muriatic  acid  by  means  of  sulphat  of  silver 
instead  of  nitrat.  The  presence  of  sulphat 
of  soda  does  not  injure  the  success  of  this 
process. 

If  muriat  of  ammonia  accompanies  either 
of  the  Iked  alkaline  sulphats  without  the 
presence  of  any  other  salt,  decompose  the 
sal  animoniac  "by  baryte^-waier,  expel  the 
.ammonia  l)y  boiling,  precipitatethe  barytesby 
'diluted sulphuric  acid,  and  saturate  the  muri- 
atic acid  with  soda.  The  sul|)hat  of  barytes 
thus  precipitated  iiuiicales  the  ([uantity  of 
muriat  of  ammonia;  one  hundred  grains  of 
siilpluir  indicating  49.09  grains  of  tliat  salt. 
If  sulphats  Sre  present  in  the  solution,  they 
ought  to  be  previously  separated. 

If  common  salt  is  accompanied  by  muriat 
of  lime,  muriat  of  magnesia,  muriat  of  alu- 
mina, or  muriat  ol  iron,  or  by  all  of  tliese  to- 
gether without  any  other  s;|lts,  the  earths 
may  be  precipitated  by  barytes-water,  and 
redissolved  in  muriatic  acid.  They  are  then 
to  be  separated  from  each  other  by  the  rules 
formerly  laid  down  ;  and  their  weight  being 
di.-tenniiicd  indicates  the  cpiantity  of  every 
jjrticular  earthy  muriat   contained  in  the 


\V  A  T 

water.  For  fifty  grains  of  lime  indicate  one 
hundred  of  dn'i  d  muriat  of  lime  ;  thirty 
grains  of  magnesia  indicate  one  hundred  of 
the  muriat  ol  the  earth  ;  and  21.8  grains  of 
alumina  indicate  one  hundred  of  the  muriat 
of  alumina.  The  baryti-s  is  to  be  separated 
from  the  solution  by  sulphuric  acid,  and  the 
muriatic  acid  expelled  by  heat,'  or  saturated 
with  soda;  the  common  salt  may  then  be 
ascertained  by  evaporation,  subtracting  in  the 
last  case  the  proportion  of  common  saU  indi- 
cated by  the  known  quantity  of  nuiriatic  acid 
from  which  the  earths  had  been  separated. 

When  sulphats  and  muriats  exist  together, 
thev  ought  to  be  separated  either  by  pre- 
cipitating the  sulphats  by  means  of  alcohol, 
or  by  evaporating  the  whole  to  dryness,  and 
dissolving  the  earthy  nuiriats  in  alcohol. 
The  salts  thus  separated  may  be  estimated  by 
the  rules  already  laid  down. 

Wiien  alkaline  .md  earthy  muriats  and 
sulphat  of  lime  occur  together,  this  last  salt  is 
to  be  decomposed  by  means  of  muriat  of 
barytes.  The  precipita'te  ascertains  the  weight 
of  sulphat  of  hme  contained  in  the  water. 
The  estimation  is  then  to  be  conducted  as 
when  nothing  but  muriats  are  present  ;  only 
from  the  muriat  of  lime  tluit  pro|»rtion  of 
muriat  must  be  deducted  which  is  known  to 
have  been  formed  by  the  intusion  of  the  mu- 
riat of  barytes. 

When  muriats  of  soda,  magnesia,  and  alu- 
mina, are  present  together  with  sulphats  of 
lime  and  magnesia,  the  water  to  be  examined 
ought  to  be  divided  into  two  equal  portions. 
To  tlie  one  portion  add  carbonat  of  mag- 
nesia till  the  whole  of  the  lime  and  alumina 
is  precipitated.  Ascertain  the  <|uantity  of 
lime  which  gives  the  proportion  of  sulphat  of 
lime.  Precipitate  the  sulphuric  acid  by  mu- 
riat of  barytes.  This  gives  the  quantity  con- 
tained in  t'he  sulphat  of  magnesia  and  sulphat 
of  lime  ;  subtracting  this  last  portion,  we  have 
the  quantity  of  sulphat  of  magnesia. 

From  the  second  portion  of  water  precipi- 
tate all  the  magnesia  and  alumina  by  means 
of  lime-water.  The  weight  of  these  earths 
enables  us  to  ascertain  ihe  weight  of  mu- 
riat of  magnesia  and  of  alumina  contain- 
ed in  the  water,  «ubtracting  tliat  part  of  the 
magnesia  which  existed  in  the  state  of  sul- 
phat, as  indicated  by  the  examiriution  of  the 
first  portion  of  water.  After  th.is  estimation 
precipitate  the  sulphuric  acid  by  barvtes 
water,  and  the  lime  by  carbonic  acid.  The 
liquid  evaporated  to  dryness  Leaves  the  com- 
mon salt. 

VI.  It  now  only  remains  to  explain  the 
method  of  ascertaining  the  proportion  of  the 
nitrats  which  may-^exist  in  waters. 

1.  When  nitre  accompanies  sulphats  and 
muriat!  without  any  other  nitrat,  the  sulphats 
are  to  be  decomposed  by  acelat  of  barytes, 
and  the  muriats  by  acetat  of  silver.  The 
water  after  filtration,  is  to  be  evaporated  to 
drviK-ss,  and  the  residuum  treated  with  alco- 
hol, which  dissolves  the  acetats,  and  leaves 
the  nitre  ;'  the '  quantity  of  which  may  be 
oasily  esLiiiiated.  If  an  alkali  is  present,  it 
ought  to  be  previously  saturated  with  sulphur- 
ic or  muriatic  acid. 

2.  If  nitre,  conmionsalt,  nitrat  oflinie,  and 
muriat  of  lime  or  of  magnesia,  are  present 
together,  the  watc-r  ought  to  be  evaporated  to 
dryncis,  ajid  the  dry  ilj(iss  treated  with  alcu- 


W  A  T 

hoi,  which  t:',k'''s  np  the  earthy  salt  s.     From 
the  residuum,  redissolved  in  water,  tlie  nitre 
mily  be  separated,  as  estimated  as  in  the  last 
case.     The  alcohol  solution  is  to  be  evapor- 
ated to  drvness,  and  the  residuum  redissolved 
m  wat^r.  Let  us  suppose  it  to  contain  muri.,t 
of'magncsia,   nitrat  of  lime,   and   muriat  of 
lime.    Precipitate  the  muriatic  acid  by  nitrat 
of  silver,  which  giv(fS  J.he  proportion  of  muriar. 
of  magnesia    and    of  lime.       Separate    Ihe 
magr.esia  by  means  of  carbonat  ol  lime,  and 
note  its  quantity.     Tiiis  gives  us  the  ([uantity 
of  nuiriat  of  magnesia.     Ami  subtracting  (he 
muriatic  acid  contained  in  that  salt  from  the 
whole   acid  indicated  by  the  precipitate  of 
silver,  we  have  the  proportion  of  muriat  of 
lime.   Lastly,  saturate  the  lime  added  to  pre- 
cipitate the  magnesia  with  nitric  acid.     'Ihen 
precipitate  the  whole  of  the  lime  by  sulphuric    - 
acid  ;  and  subtn.cting  !rom  tiie  whole  of  the 
sulphat  thus  tornu-d  that  portion  fo.med  by 
the  carbonat  of  lime  aih'ed,  and  by  the  lime 
contained  in  the  muriat,  (lie  resiiUiuni  gives 
Us  the  hme  contained  m  the  origin,;'  nitrat  ; 
and  35  grains  of  lime  lorm  100  of  dry  nitiat 
of  lime. 
Water-sea.     See  Sea. 
WATER-COLOURS.  Painting  in  water- 
colours,  is   an    art  cajjable  of  alfbrding  the 
highest  delight  to  the  eye,  since  no  mode  of 
representation  can  di^)lay  the  appearances 
of  nature  with  greater  splendour.     It  is  an 
art  which  has  of  late   been  carried   forward 
witli  u:-iprecedented  success,  and  may  be  said 
at  present  to  be  the  most  perfect  species  of 
design  or  painting,    which     is   in    practice 
amongst  our  artists.     To  this  the  facility  of 
the  materials  employed  in  it,  contributes  in 
no  small  degree.     It  is  not  attended  with  the 
embarrassments  to  which  oil-painting,  or  most 
other  kinds  of  painting,  are  liable,   but  pro- 
ceeds by  ready  and   uninterrupted  progress 
to  the  completion  of  its  task. 

Ths  preliminary  parts  of  study  requisite 
for  the  voung  student  in  thq  attainment  of 
this  art,"  have  been  treated  at  large  under  the 
article  of  drawing.  See  Drawing.  We 
can  recommend  no  more  advantageous  me- 
thod for  his  larther  progress,  than  the  care- 
fully studying  and  copying  the  various  works 
of  c".\celle"nce  by  the  hands  of  the  best  mas- 
ters, until  he  shall  be  able  to  follow,  if  not  to 
rival  them,  in  the  imitation  of  nature.  We 
shall  now  endeavour  to  furnish  him  with  the 
best  means  fer  this  purpose,  by  describing  the 
colours  wliich  are  employed  in  washhig,  and 
by  giving  the  most  approved  directions  for 
preparing  and  using  them. 

The  materials  and  implements  necessary 
for  the;  practice  of  water-colours  (or  washing, 
as  it  is  sometimes  callwl)  are, — gum-colours, 
of  which  we  shall  treat  hereafter  more  par- 
ticularly ;  cainels'-hair  pencils,  fitches,  a  pal- 
lette,  and  penknife. 

The  general  or  simple  colours,  and  the 
various  species  of  each,  lit  for  paintmg  in 
water-colours,  are  as  follow: 


Whites. 

Ceruse 

Constant  white 
White  lead 
Spanish  white 
I'iakc  while 
Spodimn 


Browns. 
Spanish  brown 
Spanish  liquorice 
Umber 
Bistre 

Burnt  Terra  de  Sien- 
na 
Unburnt  ditto 


Btacls.  ^  Jieds. 

Burnt  cht-rry-stones     Native  ciuiiabar 
lv()i_v-l)lack  13unU  oclue 

Kealiiiq's  black  Li<liaii  red 

Luiiil)-blatk  Knl  lead 

Grfcns.  Minium 

Grcfii  bice  Lake 

Grcoii  vtrditer  ^'erlnilioll 

(Jrajs-greeii  Cniuiie 

fja|:-"ictMi  'H'c'd  ink 

VcidigrisiMlislilled        Inilian  lake 

niues.  Ydl:njs. 

Sanders  bliiii  Knglisii  ocbre 

'l"orre-blue  Gall-stont* 

Blue  veiditer  GaJiiboge 

Indigo  Masticot 

],ilnius  Oclire  de  luce 

Snialt  Oipiniunt 

Prussian  blue  Roman  ochre 

I>iglit  ditto  Dutcb  [(ink 

I'Uraniarine  SatiVon- water 

Ultramarine  aslies         King's  yellow 
Blue  bice  Gold  y'ello-.v 

French  berries. 
Direciiom  for    preparing  tlic  J'olloiuing 

iiiiglc  colours. 
Whites.  The  best  while  for  painting  in 
water-colours  is  flake-white;  some  recom- 
mend  a  white  made  of  pearl  and  oyster-shells, 
brought  to  an  impalpable  powder,  called  a 
pearl-white,  which  will  mix  well  with  any  co- 
lour. If  you  use  white  lead,  clarify  il  with 
white-wine  vinegar  ;  after  the  while  is  settled, 
pour  off  the  vinegar,  and  wash  it  with  water 
thus  :  ■  Put  the  powder  into  a  glass  of  water, 
stir  it,  and  presently  pour  the  water  off;  while 
it  is  white,  into  another  clean  glass  ;  when  it  is 
settled,  pour  off  the  water,  and  you  will  have 
an  excellent  white  ;  to  which  add  as  much 
gum  as  is  necessary,  to  give  it  a  gloss. 

It  has  been  often  noticed,  that  white  lead 
will  turn  black,  if  mixed  with  water  that  conies 
from  iion  or  clay;  so  that,  in  the  spare  of  a 
month  or  two,  yon  may  perceive  it;  and  it 
will  also  change  any  colour  with  which  it  is 
mixed. 

Some  tlicrefore  recommend  tlie  powder 
ofegg-shells,  of  the  brightest  and  whitest  sort, 
well  ground  with  gum-water,  to  (he  st.ite  of 
an  iniijalpable  powder,  to  wjich  they  add  one- 
tweiili,  th  part  of  white  sug'ar-candy  ;  others 
esteem  it  most  when  clarilied  in  spirit  of 
wme,  and  then  use  it  with  gum-water. 

It  has  been  found,  by  repeated  experience, 
that  this  egg-shell  powder  is  extremely  ser- 
viceable as  a  white,  in  water-colours;  and 
that  this,  and  the  oyster-sliell  jjowder,  recti- 
fied and  well  bruised,  will  make  an  excellent 
mixture  with  other  colours,  to  keep  them 
from  changing. 

A  tine  white,  for  water-colours,  may  be 
made  by  dissolving  filings  of  silver,  or  silver- 
leaf,  in  aqua-fortis,  evaporating  the  afqua- 
fortis  till  it  appears  like  crystal  in  the  bottom 
of  the  glass;  decant  the  other  part  of  the 
aqua-fortis,  and  wash  the  silver  four  or  five 
times  in  pure  water,  till  it  is  entirely  cleaned 
from  the  aqua-fortis,  drying  it  for  use.  It 
must  be  used  with  the  waters  of  gum  and 
\^    sugar-candy. 

A  good  wliite  for  water-colours,  proper  for 
miniature,  is  made  thus:  Take  a  pound  of  the 
slireddings  of  g'ove-lealher,  an<l  ^teep  iheni 
in  water ;  boil  them  with  twelve  quarts  of 
water,  till  it  wastes  to,  two  ;  strain  it  through 
a  liiien  cloth,  into  a  weli-glazed  eartlieii  pan ; 


WATER-COLOURS. 

this  ill  railed  glue  or  size,  and  propiT  to  wc 
with  colo;ns  in  caiidh'-liglit  pieces;  to  know 
if  this  is  strong  enough,  try  if  il  is  stiff,  and 
lirm  un:ler  your  Ijajiti. 

The  glue  being  melted,  reduce  some  while 
chalk  to  a  powder,  and  while  it  is  hoi,  add 
such  a  quantity  of  the  chalk  as  will  bring  it 
to  the  consistency  ol  a  paste,  letting  it  sleep 
for  a  quarter  of  an  hour;  stir  it  with  a  brush 
made  of  hog's  bristles. 

In  order  to.  make  this  white  brighter,  add 
more  glue.  I5e  careful  to  observe  th.U  every 
layer  is  dry,  before  yon  p'lt  on  anothei'. 
If  you  work  upon  wooif,  yon  must  put  on  a 
dozen  ;  but  six  or  seven  are  suflicieiit  if  your 
paper  is  thick.  Alterwards  dip  a  soft  brush 
in  sonn;  water,  drahiingit  with  your  lingers  ; 
rub  the  work  v.  itii  il,  in  or<ler  to  make  it  the  1 
smoulii'r.  Wln-n  your  brush  is  full  of  white, 
you  must  wash  it  again  ;  and  also  change  the 
water  when  it  is  loo  white.  Or  you  may  use 
a  wet  linen  rag,  instead  of  a  brush. 

Yi. lions.  Ill  some  objects  tliere  may  be 
seen  a  shining,  like  that  of  gold,  through  co- 
lours of  red,  blue,  or  green,  such^as  some 
sorts  of  flies  or  beetles,  and  the  canlharides. 
Thi.>  gold  or  transparency  may  be  well  imi- 
tated by  laying  some  leaf-gold  on  the  shaded 
side  of  the  drawing,  giving  a  little  to  the  light 
side.  To  lay  on  the  gold-leaf,  press  it 
smooth  and  close  w  ilh  cotton,  after  you  have 
wash'-d  it  with  strong  gum-water;  but  care 
must  be  taken,  that  in  laying  on  the  gum, 
you  do  not  exceed  the  limits  through  which 
you  would  have  the  gold  appear.  In  this 
case,  the  gold  is  only  to  shine  through  the 
transparent  colour,  which  is  to  be  laid  over 
it. 

As  leaf-gold  will  not  receive  wafer-coTours 
regularly,  it  is  necessary  to  be  provided  with 
water  of  ox-gall,  and  with  this  licpior  to 
stroke  over  the  gold-leaf;  by  which  it  will 
receive  any  colour  you  are  desirous  of  laying 
over  it,  and  will  also  retain  it. 

in  some  manuscripts  there  may  be  seen 
gold  letters,  which  seem  to  rise  above  the 
surface  of  the  paper.  The  composition 
which  raises  them,  is  made  of  vermilion  and 
the  whileof  an  egg,  beaten  to  the  consistence 
of  an  oil,  and  fixed  to  the  paper  with  gum-ara- 
bic; on  this  figurative  letter,  wash  some 
strong  gum-water,  w  ith  a  camel's-hair  pencil ; 
lay  on  the  gold-leaf  close  with  some  cotton; 
and  when  dry,  rub  it  again  \Tith  cotton,  and 
burnish  it  with  a  dog's  tooth,  and  it  will  ap- 
pear as  if  it  w  as  cast  in  gold. 

There  is  also  another  way  of  working  in 
gold,  which  is  perfomed  by  shell-gold  (but  then 
it  must  be  pure,  and  not  that  brought  from 
Germany,  wliich  turns  green  in  a  few  days). 
Cover  the  shady  parts  with  vermilion,  before 
you  use  this  gold,  and  when  you  have  recti- 
fied it  with  spirit  of  wine,  lay  it  on ;  wlien 
dry,  burnish  it  as  before  directed. 

In  laying  on  this  gold,  it  is  best  to  leave 
the  lights  without  it,  as  it  will  appear  to  a 
much  greater  advantage  than  if  all  the  objects 
were  covered  ;  but,  provided  the  w  hole 
performance  should  chance  to  be  covered, 
the  best  way  of  setting  it  olf,  is  to  trace  over 
the  shady  parts  with  gall-stone,  or  the  yellow 
made  of  French  berries,  (of  which  we  shall 
treat  hereafter),  heightened  with  minium. 

Of  yellaius  in  general.  Gamboge  is,  be- 
yond doubt,  one  of  the  mellowest  colours  na- 
ture has  produced  ;  it  is  of  so  mild  a  tempe- 
rature, that  when  it  is  touched  with  any  fluid. 


it  instantly  dis3ol\.r<  ;  so  that,  ront-eqiiently, 
it  wauls  iicilher  j^unimiii"  nor  grindii-g  ;  il  "/■< 
productive  of  a  variety  of  the  mo-l  agreeabli- 
and  pleasant  yellow  ti»l«,  that  f;M,cv  i.r  ait 
<ouli|  ever  iinac^ine;  il  will  gei;erally  shade 
its<'lf,  lliough  sometimes  il  le.jiiircs  help. 

Gall-stone  is  u  very  rich  deep  ye!!- w, 
lending  towards  .t  brown;  it  iso.cen'.  '. 
n-eful  in  manv  cases,  needs  but  -little  f....i.- 
miu^  or  griiufing,  \vork»  fiee,  but  will  not 
slia<le  itself. 

Mr,  Boyle  Say«,  if  you  mt  the  roots  of 
berln Tries,  and  put  Iheiii  into  a  stronp  li}> 
iviuin,  made  of  nairl-ashes  and  vater,  m  'i 
iheiii  will  proceed  a  very  agreeable  jell, /.v. 
This  experiment  iia- often  ite^n  mailc,  and 
as  often  allended  with  mccess. 

lie  al-o  gives  an  acC'.uiit  of  aiiotlier  fine 
transparent  yellow,  bv  boiling  the  root  of  a 
mulberry -tree,  well  c]eaiis(;d,  in  the  foregoing 
lixivium. 

'^'ellow  ochre  makes  a  very  good  pale  yel- 
low :  and,  being  ground  with  guiii-watrr, 
will  prove  extremely  uselul. 

Another  verv  useful  yellow,  is  made  by 
infusing  the  pftml  celandine  in  clear  water, 
gently  pressing  it,  adding  to  the  liquor  some 
alum-water,  letting  il  boil.« 

The  virtue  of  liie  yellow  extracted  from 
French  berries  is  so  well  known,  that  we  need 
only  give  the  directions  for  preparing  it  :  In 
a  quart  of  the  preceding  lixivium,  boil  two 
ounces  of  French  berries,  till  the  iKpior  is  of 
a  fine  yellow  ;  strain  it  from  the  yellow  ber- 
ries, and  when  cold  il  is  fit  for  use.  To  ihe 
berries  put  a  pint  of  the  same  lixivium,  and 
boil  it  till  the  liquor  is  as  strong  as  gall- 
stones; with  which  you  may  shade  any  yel- 
lows ;  this  you  may  boil  lill  it  comes  to  a 
brown,  and  will,  with  the  addition  of  a  little 
ox-i;all,  serve  to  shade  the  gold-li-af. 

"^'ou  may  likewise  make  a  yellow,  by  in- 
fusing salTion  in  pure  water.  When  lliis  is 
steeped  in  rectilicd  spirit  of  wine,  there  is 
nothing  higher;  but  il  is  very  apt  to  fly,  un- 
less it  is  high-gummed. 

A  good  yellow,  for  the  illumination  of 
prints,  may  be  extracted  from  the  roots  of 
ginger;  which  make  a  good  green,  when 
mixed  with  transparent  verdigrise. 

1  hose  yellows  called  Fnglish  and  Dutch 
])inks,  are  made  with  French  berries,  ground 
to  a  line  powtler,  and  then  boiled. 

King's  yellov  ,  a  f.ne  body-colour,  ismurli 
used  in  heightening  the  och're  for  gold  lace. 
Sec. 

Orange  colour.  This  colour  is  made  of  a 
mixture  of  vermilion  and  gamboge,  the 
latter  mo.-t  predomhiaiit,  in  which  you  have 
a  serviceable  colour  in  painting  lilies,  and  all 
other  orange-coloured  flowers.  (Jrpiment  is 
likewise  a  pleasing  colour. 
Itcdi. 

lied-Urid,  or  minium,  is  a  strong  heavy 
colour.  Mr.  Boyle  lias  given  us  the  follow- 
ing directions  for  preparing  it :  Put  four 
ounces  in  a  glass,  to  a  quart  of  rain-water, 
and  «hen  it  has  been  thoroughly  stirred,  pour 
off  the  water;  and  by  a  frequent  repctiticu 
of  this,  there  will  remain  at  the  bottom  cf 
the  glass  a  beautiful  red,  when  dry,  which  is 
to  be  u.ied  with  gum-water.  When  the  co- 
lour has  been  thus  prepared,  you  must  not 
expect  above  twenty  grains  to  remain  out  of 
four  ounces. 

Carmine  affords  the  brightest  and  mo-;t 
perfect  crimson,  and  is  the  most  beautiful  of 


594 

« 
ali  ie;ls ;  for  with  llih  colour  aiiJ  I;\l;i'  you 
may  iiiaivc  llu;  sluules  as  stro:!'^  as  vmi  ijle.isc. 
Tiiis  col-.)ur  sliouUi  ii-.ivcr  l)e  imrcliasLvl  but 
by  clay-liglu ;  for  if  not  g  loil,  it  will  but 
spoil  your  work. 

L;ikc'  i-iu  fine  traiKpareiil  colour,  not  niiii-h 
inferior  to  carmine  ;  but  in  painting  witli 
c;irniiiieon  that  i)art  of  the  print  on  which  tin- 
light  ii  supposed  to  strike,  lay  on  the  lirst 
•tint  as  Hg!it  as  possible,  working  it  stronger  a; 
<ii  grows  darker,  and  toucli  it  in  the  darker 
•pavus  with  lake. 

Lake  mav  be  bought  at  nio>t  colour-shops, 
ready  prepared  for  w  ater-colours  ;  but  if  you 
are  desirous  of  making  it  yourself,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  adliere  to  the.  followinj;  directions: 
Having  prejiared  a  lixivium,  made  with  the 
■ashes  of  vine-twigs,  to  three  pints  of  it  add 
a  pound  of  the,  best  ground  brazil  wood ; 
boil  it  till  half  the  lixivium  is  evaporated; 
■strain  cf  off;  boil  it  again  with  the  addition 
of  four  ounces  of  fresh  brazil  wood,  two 
ounces  of  cochineal,  half  an  ounce  of  terra 
inarita,  and  a  pint  of  fair  water;  let  it  evapo- 
rate as  before;  add  lialf  an  ounce  of  burnt 
alnni  (reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder), 
a  quarter  of  a  drachm  of  arsenic ;  dissolve 
them  in  it,  by  stirring  it  with  a  stick;  when 
■settled,  strain  it.  To  cive  this  a  body, 
reduce  two  ctittle-tish  bones  to  a  powder, 
and  putting  it  in,  let  it  dry  leisurely.  Grind 
■it  in  a  quantity  of  fair  water,  in  which  you 
-may  let  it  steep  ;  strain  it  through  a  cloth, 
ami  niaking.it  into  a  few  cakes,  set  it  by  tor 
■use,-after  drying  it  on  a  piece  of  marbh-. 

"If  you  would  have  this  lake  redder,  add 
-•some  of  the  juice  of  a  lemon  ;  and  to  m.ike 
it  ilee])er,  add  oil  of  tartar. 

Aiiother  lake :  Boil  the  shreds  of  super- 
fine .sCarlet  cloth  in  a  lye  made  of  tlie  ashes  of 
burnt  tartar;  when  sufliciently  boiled,  aild 
some  cochineal,  powdered  niastich,  and 
Torlie  alum  ;  boil  this  .igain  ;  while  it  is  (]uite 
hot,  strain  it  through  a  bag  several  limes. 
Till'  first  time,  the  baij  nuist  be  strained  from 
top  to  bottom,  and  the  remainiiig  gross  mat- 
ter being  taken  ^it,  let  the  bag  be  well 
washed  ;  after  thi^i  strain  the  liquor  through 
the  bag  again,  and  yo'.i  will  find  a  paste  re- 
mainiiig on  the  sides, -which  divide  inlo  small 
■cakes,  aiul  set  by  for  use. 

Another  lake  :  Steep  four  ounces  of  the 
'best  brazil  wood  in  a  pint  and  a  half  of  the 
linest  distilled  vinegar,  for  three  weeks  at 
least,  though  the  longer  it  remains  the  bettor 
it  is ;  seethe  the  whole  in  balneum  mariic,  till 
it  boils  up  three  or  four  limes  ;  let  it  settle 
for  a  day  or  two  ;  put  it  to  an  ounce  of  pow- 
dered alum,  and  into  a  clean  pan  with  the 
licpior  ;  lot  it  remain  for  twenty-four  hours  ; 
heat  the  composition,  andslir  it  lid  ills  cold; 
when  It  lias  stood  about  twelve  hours,  strain 
it,  and  adil  two  cultle-fisli  bones,  prepared  as 
before. 

A  liquid  colour  of  a  very  good  crimson, 
is  mide  as  follows :  In  twelve  ounces  of  pale 
stale  beer,  boil  one  ounce  of  ground  brazil 
wood,  till  the  colour  is  as  strong  as  you  de 
sire;  strain  it  through  a  linen  cloth,  and  bot- 
tle it  up  lor  use.  If  you  want  to  bring  this 
Colour  to  a  body,  take  some  dried  ox-blood, 
rednceJ  to  a  pjwder,  and  mix  it  with  the  co- 
lour. 

We  have  the  follo'>viiig  directions  from  Mr. 
IJovIe,  for  extracting  a  fine  crimson  from  the 
3»iaryljearing  spinach,  which,  being  pressed. 


WATER-COLOURS. 

afford;  a  very  agreeable  juice  ;  to  which  add 
a  fourlh  part  of  alum  ;  boil  it,  a  id  when  cold 
it  is  lit  for  use. 

Or  vou  may  e.-;tvact  a  very  beautiful  red 
from  tiie  red  beet-root,  baked  with  a  little 
strong  vinegar  and  alum :  when  cold  it  is  lit 
!or  use. 

Anoth';.-r  way  to  make  a -crimson:  I'ul 
twenty  or  more  grains  of  bruised  cochineal 
into  a  gallipot,  with  as  many  drops  of  the  lye 
of  tartar  as  will  make  it  give  forth  its  colour  ; 
add  to  this  mixture  about  half  a  spoonfnl  ol 
water,  or  more,  and  you  will  have  a  very 
agreeable  purple ;  reducing  some  alum  to  a 
verv  line  powder,  put  il  to  the  purple  liquor, 
and'  vou  will  have  a  beautiful  crimson  ;  strain 
it  through  a  line  cloth  ;  use  it  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible: for  though  this  is  a  colour  which,  if  soon 
used,  looks  extremely  well,  yet  by  long 
standing  it  is  subject  to  decay. 

Indian  lake  is  far  sni)eiior  to  any  other  of 
the  kind,  for  the  deep*  shade  of  reds  of  all 
kinds,  and  works  as  frfe  as  gamboge.  The 
best  is  brought  from  China,  in  pots,  and  has 
the  appearance  of  raspbtiry-iam,  but  very 
bitter  to  the  taste  :  it  requires  no  gum. 

Purples.  Take  eight  ounces  of  logwood, 
a  pint  of  rain  water,  and  an  ounce  of  alum  ; 
inl'use  it  well  over  a  slow  fire,  in  a  well  glazed 
pan  or  pipkin,  for  about  twenty-four  hours  ; 
add  a  (piarter  of  an  ounce  of  gum-arabic, 
let  it  stand  for  a  week:  strain  it  through  a 
piece  of  hue  cloth.  Keep  it  close,  or  it  '-vill 
mould. 

Or  yo'i  may  make  a  reihU^r  purple,  by  add- 
ing to  one  ounce  of  the  above,  four  ounces 
of" brazil  wood,  and  a  pint  of  stale  beer,  boil- 
ing it  till  the  licjuor  is  as  strong  as  you  desire. 
It'iiiay  be  made  darker,  by  adding  more  log- 
wood. 

The  richest  pur^ile  is  made  by  blending 
carmine  and  Prussian  blue,  or  indigo,  to  w  hat 
sliade  you  please. 

Blurs.  I'ltramarine  is  the  best  and  bright- 
est blue.  Prepare  it  by  heating  six  ounces 
of  the  lapis  lazuli  liU'it  is  red;  cool  it  in 
strong  vinegar;  grind  it  with  a  stone  and 
mnller  to  an" impalpable  powder;  then  make 
a  composition  of  bces'-wax,  resin,  lin«eed- 
oil,  and  turpentine,  of  each  three  onnces  ; 
incorporate  the  whole  together  over  a  slow_ 
lire,  till  it  is  near  boiling;  pour  them  into  a 
pan  well  glazed.  This  is  called  the  pasie  of 
ultramarine.  The  lapis  lazuli  being  prepar- 
ed, add  to  it  an  ec|ual  <|uantity  of  the  pastil, 
or  paste ;  mix  them  together  thoroughly, 
and  let  them  remain  twelve  hours.  To  ex- 
tract the  ultrauKirine  from  the  paste,  pours 
clear  water  upon  it;  on  pressing  the  (nisle 
witli  vour  hands,  the  ultramarine  will  co:iie 
out  fiir  its  reception,  place  a  glass  lumbler 
under  your  hand  ;  let  it  settle  in  this  water  till 
the  ultrauiarine  sinks  to  the  bottom. 

If  the  colour  seems  foul,  cleanse  it  thus  : 
Dissolve  some  tartar  in  water;  add  as  much 
of  it  to  the  ultramarine  as  will  cover  it ;  let 
it  stand  twelve  hourj;  wash  it  in  warm  waler, 
and  you  will  have  your  colour  well  clarified 
and  perfectly  clean.  Let  your  ultramarine 
be  of  a  high  colour,  and  w  ell  ground. 

Xext  to  ultramarhie  in  beauty,  is  Prussian 
blue ;  but  it  does  not  grind  kindly  widi 
water,  on  account  of  its  oily  substance. 

lihie  bice  is  a  colour  of  a  very  good  body, 
and  (lows  very  agreeably  in  I  he  pencil  ;  wash 
it  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  for  ultrama- 
rine. 

01 


I5iuc  verdiler  i*  a  very  bright  pleasant  blu* 
of  a  good  bofly,  and  works  well  when  ground 
with  gum-waier.  It  is  a  little  inclinable  to, 
and  makes  a  very  good  green,  when  ground 
with  gamboge,  or  French  berries.  '11ns  blue 
is  mostly  used  for  a  sky,  or  a  garment. 

Sanders  blue. is  exirenu-ly  serviceable  in 
the  shading  of  ultrainarine,  where  no  very 
dark  shades  appear;,  when  thty  do,  you  may 
add  a  little  indigo  to  it. 

Li'nuis  is  ;i  very  agreeable  bhe.  To 
prepare  it,  take  u  quart  of  small  beer  wort, 
111  which  boil  twa  ounces  of  litmus,  till  thr 
colour  is  as  strong  as  you  require  ;  pour  tlie 
liquor  into  a  glazed  [)ipkjn,  and  it  will  soon 
c'ongeal.     See  Archil. 

Indigo  is  the  darkest  blue,  is  a  soft  free 
colour,  and  runs  very  warm  in  the  pencil  ; 
it  requires  to  be  well  waslied  and  ground  ; 
and  may  be  made  darker  or  lighter/  by  the 
addition  of  more  or  less  gum-water.  "Care 
is  re()uired  in  using  this  colour  ;  for,  as  we 
before  hinted,  its  running  so  free  may  be  a 
means  of  deceiving  the  student,  and  pro^e 
too  dark  for  his  purpose. 

Mr.  B«i\le  h.-is  given  us  the  following  di- 
rections for  nuking  a  very  fine  colour  of  the 
blue  leaves  of  rue  ;  by  pre'ssing,  bruising,  and 
infusing  both  leaves  and  j.iice  in  pure  water, 
for  a  lortnight,  washing  them  every  dav, 
incorporating  tliem  and  the  water  till  they 
become  a  pulp,  letting  Iheni  dry  gradually. 
These  will  produce  an  excellent  blue  ior 
shading,  wliich  runs  free  in  the  pencil  ;  put 
it  into  the  po'.vder  of  gum-arabic,  which  will 
be  a  means  of  making  it  keep  ;  add  of  the 
gum  as  you  would  have  it  more  or  le^s  still" 
in  working. 

A  line  transparent  blue  (from  the  preced- 
ing author),  equal  to  a  tint  of  ultramarine: 
The  (lower  from  wliich  this  blue  is  extracte<l, 
is  the  ceiitauria  cyanus,  or  blue  cornbottle, 
possessed  of  two  blues,  the  outer  leaves  being 
light,  and  the  inner  dark  ;  the  latter  is  held  in 
preference ;  pick  both  from  the  buttons  and 
cases  in  which  they  grow,  the  same  day  thev 
were  gathered.     Having  prepared  a<|iianlitV 
of  the  middle  leaves,  press  out  as  much  juice 
as  possible;  with  the  addition  of  a  little  alum, 
you    will  be   possessed   of    a  fine,   durable, 
transparent  blue,  little  inferior  to  ultramarine. 
The  procuring  of  the  (lowers,  and  the  pres- 
sure of  the  juice,  should  be   done  with  all 
possible  expedition,   lest  the  (lowers  should 
lose  their  perfection.     It  has  been  thought  by 
some,  if  the  leaves  of  these  fiowers  were  cur- 
ed as  those  of  saffron,  there  would  proceed 
from  them  a  much  greater  quantity  of  colour, 
from  which  might  be  pres^^cd  more   tincture 
than  when  (Vcsh  (roni  the  field.     In  curing  of 
each  it  would  appear,  that  each  lime  the  cake 
was  turned,  the  (lowers  would  be  darker,  till 
they  become  a  dark  blue.     Great  care  is  re- 
quired in  this  operation,  Ihat  the  fire  is  kept 
very  constant  and  gentle,  that  the  (lowers 
may  not  be  scorched,  which  will  bean  incon- 
testable way  of  bringing  the  flowers  to  per- 
fection.    Therelore,  to  put  this  operation  in 
execution,  a  kiln  must  be  procured,  as  fi'r 
curing  saliion,  the  (op  of  which  is  to  be  co- 
vered with   hair-cloth;  u[)on  this  lay  several 
sheets  of  pa  ler ;  aferwards  a  parcel  of  the 
inner   leaves  of    the   (lowers,  two   or  three 
inches  thick,  ])ressing  them  close,  and  sprin- 
kling (hem  with  gum-water  ;    after  which,  i 
small  charcoal  fire  must  be  made  in  the  kiln. 


■so  as  to  coinmiiniLTit<'  tin'  lieat  to  tin-  top. 
CovcM-  tlio  cuke  with  a  fi.'W  sliccts  ol'  pa^jiT, 
«juJ  a  board,  with  a  small  weight  upon  it ; 
alter  a  lew  niimites,  the  cake  is  to  be  turned  ; 
when  it  ii  plated,  lake  oil' the  upper  p:iper, 
sprinkle  tlie  eake  again  with  gnni-wiili  r,  lay 
on  the  l)onrd  a  weight  as  before  for  a  few  mi- 
nutes ;  and  so  repeat  the  turning  and  sprin- 
kling several  times,  till  tlietake  is  united,  and 
of  the  tliitkness  of  a  e;iki-  of  sallron. 

Blacks.  The  pro[]er  blacks  for  wat<'r-co- 
lours  are  as  follow  : 

Ivory-black,  which  is  prepared  in  the  f.jl- 
lo'.vhig  manner:  Let  the  ivqry-black  be  tho- 
roughly ground,  and  there  will  naturally  pm- 
ceed  from  it  a  liquor  of  an  oily  substance  ; 
mix  as  much  of  it  as  will  make  it  work  freely 
in  the  pencil.  Il  has  a  tine  gloss,  and  is  ex- 
tremely serviceable  in  painting  of  shining 
objects. 

'I'here  is  another  very  agreeable  and  useful 
black,  called  Heating's  black,  which  may  be 
had  at  most  colour-shops  ready-prepared. 

Indian  ink  is  a  very  good"  black,  and  of 
great  service,  as  it  may  be  laid  on  t. ■  anv 
shade,  and  will  always  shade  itself;  on  whi.  ii 
account  it  is  oflen  used  for  drawings. 

Greeiis.  Sap-gieen  is  a  colour  extrcnie'.v 
serviceable,  and  the  b.'st  green  for  water-co- 
lours our  age  affords,  being  of  a  gummy  sub- 
stance, and  diluting  easily  in  water.  It  pro- 
duces an  endless  variety  of  tints,  ajid  has  the 
advantage  of  shading  itself.  In  purchasing 
thii  colour,  remember  to  observe  that  it 
looks  very  black  and  blight. 

A  sea  or  artificial  green,  is  made  by  mix- 
ing indigo  and  sap-green,  which  may  be  made 
darker  or  lighter  by  adding  more  or  less 
indigo  ;  it  is  a  very  (ferviceahle  coloui-j  easily 
v/or.ted,  aud  productive  of  many  lints.  This 
colour,  as  well  a4  sap-green,  shades  itself. 
The  indigo  must  be  well  ground  before  you 
mix  it. 

Another  is  made  with  indigo  and  gamboge, 
well  ground  together,  extremely  useful  in 
jiainling  of  trees,  grass,  vegetables.  Sec.  With 
the  addition  of  sa|)-green,  it  is  very  service- 
able inliowers,  andshading  in  of  garments. 

A  transparent  green  is  lUtule  by  mixing 
rerdigrise  and  yellow  to  various  tints,  by 
leaving  either  predominant. 

Jifo^ini.  Burnt  and  unburnt  terra  de  Si- 
enna, are  the  warmest  brown  for  front  grouiKl>, 
dead  leaves,  &c.  work  very  free,  and  are  of 
geiKTol  use. 

Bistre  is  a  good  and  serviceable  colour. 
The  best  sort  is  very  bright  and  close  ;  as  it 
;is  a  colour  diliicult  to  work  of  itself,  mix  a 
l-ittle  Spani^h  liquorice  with  it,  that  will  mel- 
■  low  ai'd  take  olf  its  harshness.  It  must  be 
well  ground;  and  the  higher  it  is  gummed, 
the  better  for  use. 

Spanish  liquorice  is  allowed,  by  the  best 

masters,  to  be  productive  of  a  great  variety  of 

.'  bro*n  tints,   of-  a  very  agreeable  colour  ;  il 

will  not  shade  itself,  but  works  as  tree  as  any 

gum-colours  by  diluting  it  in  fair  water. 

.\  brown  mixture  is  made  by  incor|)orating 
•sap-green  and  carmine,  uhich  is  of  an  extra- 
ordinary sott  nature  ;  it  is  a  colour  extremely 
•serviceable  iu  painting  flowers  in  water  co- 
lours. 

Another,  by  blending  vermilion  and  bistre 

■thoiocighly;  the   bistre   must   be  I'Xtreiiiely 

well   ground  before  you  nicorjiorale  it  with 

the  venmlion,  and  it  will  produce  a  very  good 

itowii. 


water-colours: 

Direclion^  far  prc^mriiiir  lite fvUoviing  mixed 

cdIouix. 
yJsli  ol'Hir.     Cer  ise,  Keating's  black,  and 

white,  shaded  w  ih  cherry-slone  bla-  k. 
Butj.    Lake  and  (lake  while,  shaded  with  car- 
iiiiiie;   bistre  and  vermilion,  shaded  with 
black. 
Changeuhle  silk.      Me.A  lead  and  mastieot- 
wiiter,  shaded  with  sap-green  and  verdi- 
grise. 
JinlluT.     Lakeland   yellow,   shaded    with 

lake  and  I'russian  blue. 
Climd  vnloitv.     Light  masticot,  or  lake  and 

while,  shaded  with  blue  Verditer. 
yliiollitr.     C'oiislaiil  while   and  Indian  ink, 

a  little  vermilion. 
Anolhrr.     White,  with  a  little  lake  and  bine 
verditer,  makes  a  very  agreeable;  cloud-co- 
lour, for  that  part  next  the  hori/on. 
Crimton.     Lake  and  white,  with  a  little  ver- 
milion, shaded  with  laki;  and  carmine. 
Fliiiiif   coluiii:      \'ermllioii    and    orpiinent, 

heightened  with  wiiitc. 
Anotlitr.     (Janiboge,   shaded   with  minium 

and  n;d-lead. 
Ftesk  colour.     Ceruse,  red  lead,  and  lake, 
for    a    swarthy    complexion,   and   yellow- 
ochre. 
Ailotlicr.     Constant  white  and   a  little  car- 
mine, shaded  willi  Spanish  liquorice,  wash- 
ed with  carmine. 
I'lencli  green.     Light  pink  and  Dutch  bice, 

shaded  with  green  i)ink, 
Glasaiirei/.     Ceruse,  with   a   little   blue  of 

any  kind. 
J/dir  colour.     Masticot,   ochre,  umber,  cc- 

ftise,  and  cherry-slone  black. 
Leud  colour.     Indigo  and  white. 
Liglit  blue.     Blue    bice,    heiglitened    with 

(lake  white. 
AnolUcr.     Blue  verditer,  and  white  of  any 

sort,  well  ground.. 
Light  green     Pink,  smait,  and  white. 
/liwtlier.     Blue  verditer  and  gamboge. 
Aiiotlter.     Gamboge  and   verdigrise.     The 
chief  use  of  this  green  is  to  lay  the  ground- 
colours for  trees,  fields,  &c. 
Lion  luu-ni/.     Red  lead,  and  masticot,  shad- 
ed with  umber. 
MurriU/.     Lake  and  v\liite  lead. 
Orange.     Red  lead    and    a   little  masticot, 

shaded  with  gall-stone  and  lake. 
Orange  ttiivwi.    Lake,  light  pink,  a  little  mas- 
ticot, shaded  with  gallstoneand  lake; 
Pearl  colour.     Carmine,  a  little  white,  shad- 
ed w  ilh  lake. 
I'ojyinjaii  green.     Green  and   masticot  ;  or 
pink  anda  1. tile  indigo,  shaded  with  imligo. 
I'nrplc     Indigo,  Spanish  brown,  and  while  ; 
or  blue  bice,  red  and  white  lead  ;   or  blue 
bice  and  lake. 
lius.'it.     Cherry-stone  black  and  white. 
Scarlet.     Red  lead  and  lake,  with  or  v.'ithout 

vermilion. 
Sea  green.     Bice,   pink,  and  white,  shaded 

with  pink. 
Ski/  colour.     Light  masticot  and  white,  for" 
the  lowest  and  lightest  parts;  second,  red 
ink  and  while;  third,  blue  bice  and  white; 
tourtli,  blue  bice  alone.     Tiiese  are  all  to 
be  softened  into  one  another  at  the  edges, 
so  as  not  to  i^jpear  harsh. 
Sk//  colour  for  drupcri/.     Blue  bice  and  ce- 
ruse, or  ultramarine  and  whae,  shaded  with 
indigo. 
Strtm   colour.   ,  Masticot  and  a   very  litlle 
lake,  shaded  with  Dulcli  pink.    • 


8fjT 

n  de'  colour.  Tn  ligo,  wliite,  and  lake  ;  or 
Jine  Dulcl.  bice  and  Lke,  ^l)aded  with  iii- 
d  go  ;  or  Minus,  «  iialt,.aiid  bice,  the  jailer 
mo-.l  piedomiiiant 

U'aUr.  Blue  an  I  ■/.eM<-,  shaded  with  blue, 
and  heightened  wii.i  white. 

.'hiolli.r.  i;iti.-  v  ■rdlgnsc,  shaded  with  in- 
digo, and  lieight.  neU  with  white. 

Di reel ioiii  for  wing  the  colours. 

Your  pencils  must  be-last  in  the  citiilN,  and 
sharp-pointed  (alter  y'lii  Inve  drawn  tlu-ni 
Ihioiigh  your  inoutli),  not  apt  to  part  in  the 
middle. 

Before  vou  begin,  htve  all  your  colours 
ready,  and  a  palleile  fir  the  co'nveniency  of 
mixing  them;  a  paper  to  lay  under  vour 
hand,  as  well  as  to  Irv  your  colours  upon  ;'al<o 
a  large  brush,  called  a  fitch,  to  wipe  M'  the 
dusl  from  them. 

Being  preparetl  according  to  the  foregoing 
methfKl,  pnx-eed  in  your  painting;  whieii  il  a 
laiid)(.'.pe,  lay  on  liritdead  colours  freely  all 
over  \our  piece,  leaving  no  part  cik  over'ed. 

1  laving  laid  your  dead  coloiirj,  begin  next 
with  the  lighter  parts,  as  the  sky,  suii-beami, 
&c. ;  then  the  yellowish  beams,' with  masticot 
and  white;  next  the  blm  ness  of  the  sk\„ 
«lth  blue  verditer  alone;  for  purjile  cloutfi,' 
mix  only  lake  and  white,  making  vour  co- 
lours deeper  aj  they  go  upwards  from  ll',« 
horizon,  except  in  feinpesluoiis  skys.  Tlie 
lops  of  distant  mountains  must  be  worked  so 
faint,  that  they  may  seem  to  lose  iheinselveii 
in  the  air. 

Bring  your  colours  forward  as  your  dis- 
tance tU'creases :  painting  y«ur  lir>t  groui.d. 
next  the  horizon,  downwards,  of  a  lilinh  fi<-a- 
green;  and  as  you  advance  fnward,  of  a 
darker  green,  till  you  come  to  the  fore-ground 
itself;  which,  as  it  is  the  darkest  part  of  all, 
with  dark  green,  worked  in  smh  a  manner  as 
to  give  the  appearance  of  shnibberv,  &.c. 

in  painting  trees,  having  first  laid  a  ver- 
digrisi-  green  iiira  dead  colour,  proceed  with 
working  it  so  as  to  give  a  leafy  appearance. 
Bring  some  of  your  leaves  forvvard  v  ilh  mas- 
ticot and  while;  for  the  trunk,  work  the 
brown  with  sap-green  ;  if  you  should  intro- 
duce oak-trees,  lay  on  sonie  touches  to  ex- 
press leaves  of  ivy"  twined  aboulit. 

-.•VUdisfinct  objects  arc  tube  made  imper- 
fect, as  th^y  appear  to  the  eye. 

Ill  painting  llesli,  the  following  are  the  best 
directions  for  prejiaring  your  work  so  as 
attcrwarcls  niore  readily  To  pro<luce  the  eflecls 
of  colours  seen  in  nature: 

Take  llake-white  and  a  little  lake,  blend 
them  together,  and  with  that  lav  the  ground- 
colour ;  then  shade  with  red-iichrc,  cherry- 
slone  black,  and  a  little  lake,  mixed  together, 
touching  the  lips,  cheeks,  &c.  with  a  tint  of. 
■,,!iteii  the  flesh  with  white 
and 
are 


carmine,  nnd  heighten  the  flesh  with 

a  liule  carmine.     Remember  that  you 
nerer  to   heighten  il  with  pure  wliile, 
which  will  always  give  it  a  cold  appearance. . 

The  peculiar  management  of  tints  in  the 
representation  of  other  various  kinds  of  ob- 
jects, such  as  ani.iia:s,  (lowers,  fruits,  &c.  will, 
require  some  attention  from  the  student,  hut- 
is  uonecessary  to  be  given  here  in  detaii,  as 
practice  will  soon  instruct  hira  in .  all  that  is 
re  piisite  on  this  head. 

It  may  be  recommended  to  the  student  in 
general,  whatever  is  the  subject  of  his  draw- 
ing, not  to  limsh  any  one  part  first,  but  to 
work  up  every  part  gradually  alike,  until  he 


fci:j5 


W  AT 


finis  nafhing  wanting  to  compU'te  (lie  wlioU*.- 
\*  lieievt-r  he  lays  on  slroiig  tiiiclies,  he 
nnist  be  careful  in  those  places  to  bring  ii;> 
his  work  loan  equal  rouniliiesS  and  sticng'.i), 
temptring  and  swectenina;  the  colours  with  a 
,  sharper  pencil  than  tlii  fir>t,  tiiat  no  lumps  or 
har>h  edges  may  be  left,  but  that  tlie  shadows 
may  all  lie  dispersed,  soft  and  smooth,  and 
gliding  gently  into  one  another. 

The  occasional  roughness  of  your  work 
need  not  dijcourage  )  ou :  for  it  is  easily 
softened  by  degrees, 'vith  other  tints  and 
shadows  ;  observing  only  to  sweeten,  mellow, 
and  lieighten  them,  according  as  the  light 
frappens  to  lail. 

A  method  has  been  lately  discovered  of 

combining  the  eflects  of  water-colours  with 

.    those  of  crayon  painting,  by  means  of  wax 

crayons.     It  is  an   ingenious   and   i)Ieasing 

mode  of  practice.     See  \\'a.\  Cravons, 

yarious  receipts  for  the  use  of  those  ivho 
paint  in  isnler-coloiirs. 
I'oil  two  ounces  of  the  best  and  clearest 
glue,  with  one  pint  of  clear  water,  and  half  an 
ounce  of  the  finest  roche-aluni,  till  dissolved. 
This  is  a  very  serviceable  licpior,  with  which 
von  may  temper  those  colovn's  int.'uded  for 
skv,  as  it  will  prevent  them  from  cracking. 

In  make  (I  solu'inn  rfgam.  Dissolve  an 
ounce  of  the  best  while  gum-arabic,  and  half 
an  ounce  of  double  relined  sugar,  in  a  quart 
of  spring  water;  strain  it  through  a  piece  of 
muslin,  then  bottle  it  otl'foruie,  keeping  it 
free  from  dust. 

Jnritlcer  iiitthnd.  Take  the  whitest  sort  of 
gum-arabic,  brui.se  and  tie  it  in  a  piece  of 
woollen  cloth,  steep  it  in  spring  water  till 
dissolved.  If  too  stiif,  which  is  known  by  the 
shining  of  the  colours,  add  more  water  ;  if  loo 
weak,  more  gum.  With  this  water  you  may 
temper  most  of  your  colour.-,  using  such  a 
qnantitv  of  it,  that  the  colours,  when  dry, 
being  touched,  will  come  clF. 

To  keep  the  Jlies  from' your  H'oai.    Having 
prejjared  your  gum-water  according  to  either  i 
of  tiie  preceding   directions,  add  a  little  co-  I 
locjuintida,  which,  if  your  performance  sl.ould 
be  exposed,  will  keep  it  from  being  damaged 
by  the  flies. 

To  prepare  uluin-isatcr.  Take  four  ounces 
of  roche-alum,  and  a  pint  of  pure  spring  wa- 
ter ;  boil  it  till  the  alum  is  thoroughly  dis- 
solved ;  liltre  it  through  blotting.papi;r,  and 
it  is  tit  for  use. 

Refore  vou  lay  on  the  colours,  take  some  of 
this  water  hot,  and  with  a  sponge  wet  the 
back  of  the  paper,  w  hich,  if  not  good,  must 
be  wetted  thive  or  four  times.  This  will  not 
only  prevent  the  sinking  of  the  colours,  but 
will  also  keep  them  from  fading,  and  give  an 
adihtional  beauty  and  lustre.  Kemem.ber 
tiiat  the  paper  must  be  dried  each  time  be> 
fore  you  wi-t  it  again. 

To  make  lime-water.  Put  some  unslacked 
dime  in  a  well-glazed  pan  ;  cover  it  w  ilh  pure 
water  one  inch  above  the  lime;  let  it  remain 
Jo  for  one  day,  then  strain  off  the  water,  and 
keep  it  for  use.  By  tlie  means  of  this  water, 
you  may  change  sap-green  into  blue. 

To  nuike  a  lixivium  of  peurl-mhcs.     Steep 
half  an  ounce  of  pearl-ashes  in  clear  wafer  for 
one  day ;  strain  off  the  water  as  clean  as  pos- 
sible; this  infusion  will  prove  extremely  ser- 
-  viceable  in  many  colours,  particularly  brazil 
■  wood,  to  which   it  wiH  jjivij  an  additional 
djeauty  and  lustre.  j 


\Y   A  T 

To  r:cmcr decayed cnhtir:;.  TakedouWe- 
di-lillfd  rosemary-water,  or  pure  essence  of 
rosemary,  and  with  a  lew  drops  tem^jer  your 
coloiu-s,  which,  however  dead  or  iuded,  w  ill 
reover  their  primitive  brilliancy.  This  es- 
sence win  prevent  the  bu!>ble5  which  are 
troublesome  hi  grinding  white  and  umber. 

To  pnpare  a  liquid gnl.l  for  !■,  lliim-paini- 
ins..f(ins,  .S  c.  Having  procured  some  of  the 
linl's't  leaf  gold,  grind  it  with  strong  gum-wa- 
ter, adding  more  gum-waicr  as  you  see  re- 
fiuisite;  when  thoroughly  ground,  temper  it 
with  a  small  quantity  of  mercury  .sublimate, 
bii;ding  it  in  the  shell  witli  a  little  dissolved 
gum;  >pread  it  equally  over  the  sliell,  and 
use  it  with  fair  water  only. 

A  liquid  silver,  for  the  same  use.  The 
manner  of  making  this  is  the  same  as  that  ol 
licpiid  gold,  only  remembering  to  temper  it 
with  glaire  of  eggs,  and  not  water. 

To  make  the  glaire  of  eggs.  Beat  the 
whites  with  a  spoon  till  tl-.ey  rise  in  a  foam  ; 
let  them  stand  12  hours,  and  tliey  will  be 
clarified  into  good  glaire. 

To  recover  liquid  silver  that  has  contract- 
ed rust.  If  your  silver  becomes  rusty,  cover 
that  part  of  the  performance  with  the  juice  of 
garlic,  which  will  recovei' it  eliectually. 

T(i  make  a  single  ground  to  lay  silver  or 
gold  upon.  Take  th.e  new  shreds  of  parch- 
ment (they  being  preferable  to  glove-leather), 
boil  Ihem  in  a  (piart  of  spring-water  till  con- 
sumed to  a  pint ;  strain  the  size  from  the 
shreds,  and  put  it  into  a  well-glazed  pan  ;  use 
it  before  it  is  cold.  Be  careful,  wh-in  you 
lay  on  ^our  silver  or  gold,  that  your  size  is 
not  too  moist,  nor  too  dry,  for  in  either  case 
you  will  be  in  danger  of  impairing  your  per- 
formance. 

The  method  of  making  size  for  candle- 
light pieces,  hasalreadv  been  described. 

WATER  COURSE.  A-water  course 
does  not  begin  by  prescription,  nor  assent, 
but  begips  e.xjnre  natura:,  having  this  course 
naturally ;  and  cannot  be  diverted.  3  Bulst. 
340. 

WATERMEN.  In  London  the  lord 
mayor  ■and  court  of  aldermen  have  much 
power  in  governing  the  company  of  water- 
men, and  appointing  the  fares  for  plying  on 
the  river  Thames;  and  justices  for  iVIiddle- 
sex,  and  other  adjoining  counties,  have  also 
jjower  to  hear  and  determine  offences,  &c. 
See  10  G.  II.  c.  31. 

WjVTER-SPOUT,  an  extraordinary  aque- 
ous meteor,  most  frequently  observed,  at  sea. 
It  is  a  truly  formidable  phenomenon,  and  is 
indeed  capable  of  causing  great  ravages.  It 
commonly  begins  by  a  cloud,  which  appears 
VLTv  small,  and  which  mariners  call  the 
squall;  which  augmer.ts  in  a  little  time  into  an 
enormous  cloud  of  a  cylindrical  I'orm,  or  that 
of  a  reversed  cone,  an<l  produces  a  nois<'  like 
an  agitated  sea,  sometimes  emitting  thunder 
and  lightning,  and  also  large  quantities  of  rain 
or  hail,  suliicicnt  to  inundate  large  vessels, 
overset  trees  and  houses,  aiul  every  tiling 
which  opposes  its  violent  impetuosity. 

These  water-S|)ouls  are  more  frequent  al 
sea  ihan  by  land  ;  and  sailors  are  so  convinced 
of  their  dangerous  consequences,  that  when 
they  perceive  their  approach,  they  frequenlly 
endeavour  to  break  thi-in  by  firing  a  cannon 
before  they  approach  loo  near  the  ship.  They 
have  also  been  known  ^to  commit  great 
devastations  by  land :  though,  where  there 
11 


W  AT 

Is-no  water  nesr,  tliey  gcjicrally'  assume  \\:r 
harmle^s  form  of  a  whirlwind!  'Jo  cnabf- 
the  reader  to  understand  their  nature,  we 
shall  pivlace  the  dillerent  theories  by  a  short 
description  of  one  of  tiiese  wonderful  appear- 
ances, as  given  by  the  celebrated  M.  Tourni- 
lort  in  his  Voyage  to  die  Levant : 

"Ihe  tir»t  ot  these,"  says  this  traveller, 
"  that  we  saw,  was  about  a  nuisket-bhot  from 
our  ship.      '1  here  we  perceived   the   water 
began   to    boil,    and   to  rise  about    a   foot 
above  its  level.     "^Ihe  water  was  agitated  and 
wliitish;  and  above  its  surface  there  seemed 
to  stand  a  smoke,  such  as  might  be  imagined 
to  come  fro;n  wet  straw  belore  it  begins  to 
blaze.     Jt  madeasort  of  a  munnuringsound, 
like  that  of  a  torrent  heard  at  aiiistance,  mix- 
ed,  at  llie  same  time,  with  a  hissing  noiic, 
like  that  of  a  serpent:  shortly  alter  we  per- 
ceived a  column  of  this  smoke  rise  up  to  the 
clouds,  at  the  same  time  whiriing  about  with 
great  rapidity.     It  appeared  to  be  as  thick  as 
one's  finger  ;  and  the  former  sound  still  con- 
tinued.    When  this  disappeared,  after  last- 
ing '.jr  about  eight  minutes,  upon  turning  to 
the  opposite  quarter  of  the  sky,  we  perceived 
another,  which  began  in  the  manner  of  ll-.e 
former ;  presently  a(l(;r  a  third  appeared   in 
the  west;  and  instantly  beside  it  btiU  another 
arose.     The  most  distant  of  these  three  could 
I  npt  be  above  a  musket-shot  from  the  sliip. 
They  all  continued   like  so  many  heaps  oi 
wet  straw  set  on  fire,  tiiat  continued  to  smoke, 
and  to  make  the  same  noise  as  before.     \\ C 
soon  after  perceived  each,  with  its  respective 
canal,  mounting  U|)  in  the  clouds;  and  spread- 
ing,  where   it   touched  the  cloud,   like  the 
mouth  of  a  trumpet  ;  making  a  figure,  to  ex- 
press it  intelligibly,  as  if  the  tail  of  an  animal 
was  pulled  at  one   end  by  a  weight.     These 
canals  were  of  a  whitish  colour,  and  so  tinged, 
as  I  suppose,  by  the  water  which  was  contain- 
ed in  them;  for,   previous  to  this,  they  were 
apparently  empty,  and  of  the  colour  oi  trans- 
parent glass.     'I  "hese  canals  were  not  straight, 
but  bent  in  some  parts,  and  far  from  being 
perpendicular,  but  rising  in  their  clouds  wilii 
a  very  inclined  ascent.     But  what  is  very  par- 
ticular, the  cloud  to  w  hich  one  of  them  was 
pointed  happening  to  be  driven  by  the  w-ind, 
the  spout  stiii  continued  to  follow  its  motion, 
without  being  broken ;  and  passin_g  behind 
one  of  the  others,  the  spouts  crossed  ea(Ji 
other,  in  the  form  of  a  St.  Andrew's  cross. 
In  the  beginning  tliey  were  all  about  as  tliii  k 
as  one's  finger,  except  at  the  top,  w  liere  lliev 
were  broader,  and  two  of  there  disappeared'; 
hut  shortly  after  the  last  of  the  three  increas- 
ed considerably,  and  its  canijl,  which  was  at 
first  so  small,  soon  became  as  thick  as  a  man's 
arm,  then  as  his  leg,  and  at  last  thicker  than 
Ills  wiiole  body.     We  saw  distinctly,  through 
■this  transparent  body,  tlie  water,  which  rose 
up  with  a  kind  of  spiral  motion;  and  it  some- 
limes  diminished  a  little  of  its  tlucknesij,  and 
again  resumed  the  same;  sometimes  widen- 
ing at  top,  and  sometimes  at  bottom;  exactly 
resembling  a  gut  filled  with  watijr,  pressed 
wilh  tlic  fingers,  to  make  the  lluid  rise  or  fall; 
and  I  am  well  convinced  that  this  alteration 
in  the  spout  w-as  caused  by  thi^wind,  whieli 
pressed  the  cloud,  and  compelled  it  to  give 
up  its  contents.     After  some  time  its  bulk 
was  so  diminished  as  to  be  no  thicker  than  a 
man's  arm  again,  and  thus  swelling  and  dimi- 
nishing, it  at  hist  became  very  small,     in  the 
eiidj  1  observed  the  sea  which  was  raisjJ 


W  A  T 

about  it  to  resunu;  its  levi-1  by  tlijgrnes,  and 
till-  einl  oniio  taii.il  i.hatioi'cliL-U  it  lo  bL-cosiu' 
as  siiKill  as  it  il  liad  beei,  tied  round  witli  a 
cord:  and  tin?  conlimied  till  llic  light,  strik- 
ing liironsfli  the  cloti:l,  took  away  the  view. 
I  still,  however,  contimipd  to  look,  expec-t- 
ing  tiiat  lis  parts  would  join*^^ani,  iis  I  had 
bfiore  sicn  in  one  oi  tlie  olhi  r^,  in  wnich  the 
spout  was  more  th  in  once  broken  and  vet 
a.;ain  came  togiM,,er;  bui  I  was  disappointed, 
for  tlie  spout  appeau-d  no  more." 

Whirlwinds  and  water-spoiits  arc  by  the 
niajoviiy  of  philosophers  ivterred  to  the  same 
origin,  and   some   have  endeavoured   to  ac- 
count lor  them  on  eleelrxal  principles.  They 
ohse  ve    that   the    olllu  nt   matter  proceeds 
from  a  body  actually  eleclrilied  towards  one 
which  is  no',  so;  an<l  tlv^  alHueiil  inatti-r  pro- 
ceeds from  a  body  not  elect!  ilied  toward-;  une 
which  is  actually  so.     These  two  currents  oc- 
ca>ioii  two  motions  analogous  to  the  electri- 
cal attraction  and  r  [julsioH.     If  the  current 
of  the  eliluent  m  ittcr  is  more  i)Owerful  than  I 
the  affluent  matter,  which  in  this  case  is  com-  | 
posed  of  panicles  exhaled  liom  the  earth,  the  ; 
particles  of  vapours  wliicli  i.ompo.e  tiie  cloud  ' 
are   attracted   by   this   etllucnt   mailer,   and 
form  the  cylindrical  column,  called  the  de- 
scending water-spoul ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  the 
;i(iiuent   matter   is  the  strongest,  il  attracts  a 
suilk-ienl   tjuantily   of  aciueous    particles   lo 
form  gradually  into  a  cloud,  and  this  is  com- 
liionly  termed  the  ascending  watcr-spont.     It 
is  fartiier  observed  oc  water-spouts,  that  the 
convergence  of  winds,   and  their  conse(|Uent 
wliiiling  motion,  was  a  principal  cause  in  pro- 
<luri,ig  that  elfecl;  but  there  aie  apijearances 
wlvrh  can  hardly  be\olved  by  supposing  that 
to  be  the  only  cau-ie.    They  often  vanish,  and 
presently  appear  again   in  the  same   place  : 
^vlliti^h  or  yeilowidi   llames  have  sometimes 
been  seen  moving  with  piodig!;)US  swiltncss 
about  them,  and  whirluinds  are  observed  lo 
electrifv  the  apparatus  very  strongly.     The 
time   of  their  appearance  is  generally  those 
months  wbicli  are  peculiarly  ^uliject  to  thun- 
<ler-storms;  and  they  are  commonly  preceded, 
accompanied,  or  followetl,  by  lightning,  the 
previous  state  of  the  air  being  alike  in  both 
cases.       And   the    long-established    custom 
vhich  the  sailors  have   of  presenting  sharp 
swords  to  disperse  them,  is  no  inconsiderable 
circumstance  in  favour  of  the  supposition  of 
their  being  electrical   phenomena.     Periiaps 
the  ascending  motion  of  the  air,  by  wliich  tiie 
vhirling  is   produced,    may  be  the  current 
known  to  issue  iroiii  eleclrilied  points,  as  the 
forin  of  the  protulx-rance  in  the  sea  is  sonie- 
what  pointed,    and  the   eleclrilied   drop  of 
water   may  alford   considerable  light  in  ex- 
plaining this  appaaraiice. 

A  different  theory  is,  however,  adopted  by 
other  respectable  philosophers  ;  and  it  is  pos- 
sible after  all,  thai  there  may  really  be  two 
kinds  of  water-spouts,  the  one  the  elfect  of 
tlie  electrical  attraction,  as  digested  above, 
.  and  the  other  caused  by  a  vacuum,  or  ex- 
treme and  sudden  rarelaclion  of  the  air. 

It  is  well  known  that  even  a  common  fire 
produces  a  kind  of  circulation  of  the  air  in  a 
ro  )m,  but  in  a  dillerent  form.  It  is  therefore 
not  <lillicult  to  conceive,  that  when  any  part 
of  the  column  of  air  upon  the  surface  of  the 
ear;h  or  water  is  suddenly  rarelied,  either  by 
electricity  or  any  other  cauvc,  a  vacuum,  at 
least  eoinparativelv  to  the  rest  of  tlie  air,  will 

Vol.  I!. 


W  A  T 

immediately  take  place,  and  the  circumam- 
bient air  milling  in  at  once  from  every  ipiur- 
lerto  fill  the  void,  aconllict  of  winds  eiiaiies, 
and  consetpiently  a  circular  motion,  by  wliich 
light  bodies  will  be  taken  up  and  turned 
round  with  considerable  velocity;  this  violent 
rushing  of  the  air  on  ail  sides  into  the  vacuum 
then  forms  what  is  commonly  called  at  land  a 
whirlwind. 

\\'heii  this  vacuum  takes  place  at  sea,  from 
the  nature  of  lluids,  the  watirr  \vill  rise  to  a 
certain  height  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, as  in  a  cuminon  pump  ;  but  as  the  va- 
cuum is  not  quite  perf-cl,  the  water  will  Im- 
divided  into  drops;  and  as  these  vacuums  are 
generally  caused  by  heat,  it  will  be  rarelied 
when  il  reaches  tiie  upper  regions  of  the  at- 
mosphere, and  assume  the  appearance  of  a 
cloud. 

Mr.  Oliver,  wliose  theory  we  liave  adopted 
with  little  variation,  illu-.lratos  the  phenoniC- 
non  by  a  very  easy  experiment.  In  a  sfill 
paper  card  he  made  a  hole  just  large  enough 
to  insert  a  goose  (piill ;  after  cutting  the  cpiill 
oil"  scpiare  at  both  ends,  he  lid  1  the  card  wpon 
the  mouth  of  Jt  wine  glass,  tilled  with  water 
to  within  a  filth  or  sixth  pait  of  an  inch  from 
the  lower  orili<-e  of  the  ^piiir,  then  applying 
his  mouth  to  the  upper  part,  he  drew  the  air 
out  of  the  quill,  and  in  one  draught  of  his 
breath  drew  in  about  a  spoonful  of  water;  and 
this  he  was  able  to  ri-peat,  lire  quill  remain- 
ing as  before.  The  water,  he  adds,  diil  not 
ascend  to  his  mouth  in  a  stream,  as  it  would 
have  done  hail  the  quill  reached  the  water, 
but  broken,  and  confusedly  mixed  with  the 
air  which  ascended  w  ith  it.  The  usual  phe- 
nomena of  water-spouts  are  exactly  agree- 
abh-  lo  this  theory.  They  appear  at  a  dis- 
tance like  an  inverted  cone,  or  the  ))oint  of  a 
sword,  which  is  owing  to  the  water  rising  in 
large  drops  at  the  first,  and  being  expanded 
as  it  ascends ;  and  a  cloud  is  generally  sus- 
pended over  the  body  of  the  pheuonienon. 
'1  iie  water  which  is  taken  up  is  undoubtedly 
salt  at  the  first,  but  by  the  rarefaction  in  the 
suiieiior  regions,  it  undergoes  a  kind  of  naiu- 
ral  distillation,  and  loses  all  the  heavy  saline 
particles  with  which  it  was  charged.  Water- 
spouts have  been  observed  at  land,  of  w  hich 
two  very  remarkable  in?lances  arc  re<  orded 
in  tlie  Philosophical  Transactions.  Other 
phenomena  have  been  remarked,  whicii  can 
be  explained  upon  these  principles  only.  Ac- 
counts have  been  given  of  red  and  yellow 
rain,  of  frogs  and  tadpoles,  and  even  ot  small 
lishes;  having  been  rained  upon  the  tops  of 
houses.  The  redand  yellow  rain  w  as  probably 
composed  of  the  b!o--soins  of  vegetables,  or  of 
insects,  taken  up  by  oneof  iheseaeria!  lubes; 
and  the  frogs  and  lishes  were  probably  part  of 
the  contents  of  some  pond,  in  which  the  wa- 
ter-spout originated,  or  over  w  hich  it  might 
have  pas'jcd  in  its  perambulation. 

The  point  or  cone  of  the  water-spout  is  ge- 
nerally oblique,  depending  on  the  force  and 
direction  of  the  wind  which  drives  it  along. 

Dr.  Perkins,  of  Boston,  is  divposed  to 
adoi)t  a  dillerent  theory  ol  water-sponts.  Capt. 
Meiling  informed  him,  that  in  a  voy.ige  troni 
the  West  Indian  islands  to  lioston,  a  water- 
spout came  across  the  stern  ot  tl.e  vessel 
w  here  he  then  was,  a  flood  of  water  fell  Ujjon 
him  with  such  violence  as. almost  to  beat  him 
down,  and  the  spout  immediately  jiassid  olf 
with  a  roaring  noise  into  the  sea.  The  water 
5  X 


\V  A  X 


SOT 


from  the  sponl  was  perfectly  fresh.  >fariner» 
ill  general  aliirni  llial  water  descends  Irom 
the  clouds  through  the  walerT-poirt  into  (In; 
sea,  and  hence  it  is  inferred  that  a  \\\.i.-i- 
wind  cannot  he  the  cause  of  a  waler->|Knil, 
nor  call  b.^li  of  il)c»e  pheiiomcua  proceed 
Iroi.i  the  same  cause. 

N\'ATF.it-wo!(Ks,  ill  g.iieral,  denote  all 
iiianm  r  of  inactiiiies  moved  by,  or  employed 
in  rals'iig  or  sustaining  water  ;' ill  wlmli  seii«r 
water-mill- of  all  kinds,  sluices,  aqneilud?,  4c. 
may  be  talUid  water-works.  See  Mat, 
&:c. 

W.\TSON[.-\,  a  genus  of  (ho  class  and  or- 
der triaiulria  monogynia.  Till- calyx  is  nix- 
parted  ;  sligma.i  three,  bifid  ;  capsules  trian- 
gular. There  are  six  species,  bulbs  of  the 
Cape. 

WAVlvD.    SceWAVKv. 

\\  AX.  'I'he  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  of 
many  trees  is  covered  with  a  varliidi,  whirli 
may  be  separated  and  obtained  in  a  stale  of 
purity,  and  is  found  to  po>sessall  the  proper- 
ties of  bees'-wax  :  lien<  v.  il  is  justly  iiifened 
that  wax  is  a  vegetable  produi  t,  and  thai  the 
bees  extract  it  unaltered  Irani  the  leaves  of 
trees  and  other  vegetable  substances  that 
contain  it.  .Several  plants  contain  wax  in 
such  abundance  as  to  make  it  worth  while  ti 
extract  it  from  them.  \\'e  shall  now  consider 
the  properties  of  bees'-wax. 

Wax,  when  pure,  is  of  a  whitish  colour :  it 
is  destitute  of  taste,  and  has  scarcely  any 
smell.  15(,es'-wax  indeed  has  a  pretty 'strong 
i;romatic  smell;  but  this  seems  chielly  owii-fj 
to  some  substance  with  whicli  it  is'mbiLed; 
lor  it  disappears  almost  completely  by  ex- 
))o;ing  the  wax,  drawn  out  into  thin  ritjand':, 
lor  some  lime  to  the  atmosphere.  By  this 
process,  which  is  called  bleaching,  thevellowr 
colour  of  the  wax  disappears,  and  it  become* 
very  white.  Bleached  wax  is  not  «lTecle<i 
by  the  air.     Its  specitic  gravity  is  0.9600. 

Wax  is  insoluble  in  water;  nor  are  its  pro- 
perties altered  though  kept  under  that  li- 
quid. 

AVhen  heat  is  applied  to  wax  it  becomes 
soft;  and  at  the  temperature  of  142",  if  un- 
bleached, or  of  1550' if  bleached,  it  melts  into 
j  a  colourless  transparent  fluid,  which  concretes 
I  again,  and  resumes  its  former  appearance  as 
I  the  temperature  diminishes.     It  the  heat  is 
I  still  I'arther  increased,  the  wax  boils  and  eva- 
j  porates:  and   if  a  red  heat  is  applied  lothe 
vapour,  it  takes  fire  and  burns  v.itii  a    bright 
flame.     It  is  this  property  which  reiiderswax 
so  useful  for  making  candles. 

Wax  is  scarcelv  acted  on  by  alcohol  when 
cold,  but  boiling  alcohol  dissolves  a  portion 
of  it.  This  was  lirst  observed  bv  Dr.  Pearson, 
and  has  been  since  verilied  by  Dr.  lioatock. 
Rather  more  than  20  parts  ot  alcohol  are  ne- 
cessary to  dissolve  one  part  of  wax  ;  and  as 
the  solution  cools  the  greater  |)art  of  the  w  ax 
precipitates,  and  the  remainder  is  throw  n  dow  a 
by  water. 

Ether  has  but  little  action  on  wax   while 
cold;  but  when  assisted  by  heat,  it  lakes  up 
i  about-^V  of  its  weight  of  it,  and  lets  the  great- 
est part  precipitate  on  cooling. 

\\aN  combines  readily  with  fixed  oils  whea 
assisted  by  heat,  and  forms  with  them  a'  suti- 
stance  of  greater  or  less  consistency  according 
to   the  quaiitity  of  oil.     'iftis  comjioiitioBj. 


wliith  is  known  by  tlic  name  of  cerate,   is 

much  employed  by  siirgeoiisi. 

Tlie  volatile  oils  also  dissolve  it  wlieii  heat- 
ed. This  is  well  known,  at  leaBt,  to  be  tlie  case 
vith  oil  of  turpentine.  A  part  of  the  wax 
precipitates  usaally  as  the  solution  cools,  but 
of  a  much  softer  consistence  tlian  usual,  and 
tlierefore  containing  oil. 

Tlie  fixed  alkalies  combine  with  it,  and 
form  a  compound  which  possesses  all  the  pro- 
perties of  common  soap.  When  boiled  with 
a  solution  of  fixed  alkalies  in  water,  the  liquid 
becomes  tuibid,  and  alter  some  time  the  soap 
separates  and  swims  on  the  surface.  It  is 
precipitated  from  the  alkali  by  acids  in  the 
state  ot  flakes,  wiiich  are  th:'  wax  very  little 
altered  in  its  pioperties.  Punic  wax,  which 
the antients employed  in  painting  in  encaustic, 
is  a  soap  comjiosed  of  CO  parts  of  wax  ami 
oneofsoda.  Its  composition  was  ascertained 
by  Mr.  Lorgna. 

When  boiled  with  liquid  ammonia,  it  forms 
a  kind  of  spapy  emulsion.  As  the  mixture 
cools,  tlie  greatest  part  of  the  compound  rises 
to  the  surface  in  the  state  of  white  flakes. 
This  soap  is  scarcely  soluble  in  water. 

The  acids  have  but  little  action  on  w  ax ; 
even  oxymuriatic  acid,  which  acts  so  viu- 
Jeutly  on  most  bodies,  produces  no  other 
change  on  it  than  that  of  rendering  it  white. 
This  property  which  wax  possesses,  of  resist- 
ing the  action  of  acids,  renders  it  very  useful 
as  a  1  ute,  to  confine  acids  properly  in  vessels, 
or  to  prevent  them  from  injuring  a  common 
fork. 

Mr.  Lavoisier,  bv  means  of  the  apparatus 
which  he  employed  in  the  analysis  ot  alcohol 
and  oils,  contrived  to  burn  wax  in  oxygen  gas. 
The  quantity  of  wax  consumed  was  '21.9 
grains.  Tlie  oxygen  gas  employed  in  consum- 
ing that  (juantity  amounted  to  06. jj  grains. 
Consequently  the  substances  consumed 
amounted  to  S8.4j  grains.  After  the  com- 
bustion, there  were  found  in  the  glass  vessel 
6?.5S  grains  of  carbonic  acid,  and  a  quantity 
of  wi.ter  which  was  supposed  to  amount 
to  i.'j.S7  grains.  These  were  the  only  pro- 
ducts. 

Now  62.58  grains  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
eon  tain 

■14.5G  of  oxygen,  and  18.0?  of  carbon;  and 
25.87  grains  of 
water  contain 

21.99  of  oxygen,  and    3. 88  of  hydrogen 


m.. 


21.90 


Consequently  SI. 9  parts  of  wax  are  com- 
posed of  IS. 02 of  carbon  and  .3.88  o/ hydro- 
gen.    And  100  parts  of  wax  are  cumposed 


•1 


fj2.28  carbon 
l?.'-?  hydrogen 


100.00 


But  this  analysis  can  only  be  considered  as 
an  approximation  to  the  truth  ;  the  quantitv 
ol  water  being  only  estimated,  and  that  of 
the  gas  being  liable  to  uncertainty.  There 
can  be  no  doubt,  from  the  litttle  action  of 
acids  on  wax,  that  it  contains  oxygen  as  an 
ingredient.  We  must  therefore  consider  it 
a.">  a  triple  compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen ;   but  llie  proportions   are   un- 

tllOWB. 


WAX. 

If  wax  is  distilled  with  a  heat  greater  than 
212",  there  comes  over  a  little  water,  some 
acid,  a  little  very  fluid  and  odorous  oil:  the 
oil,  as  the  distillation  advances,  becomes 
thicker  and  thicker,  till  at  last  it  is  of  the 
consistency  of  butter,  and  for. this  reason  has 
been  called  butter  of  wax.  Titers  remains 
in  the  retort  a  small  quantitv  Of  coal,  which 
is  not  easily  reduced  to  aslies.  When  the 
bulterofwaxisrepeatedly  distilled,  it  becomes 
very  fluid,  and  assumes  the  properties  of  vo- 
latile oil. 

Wax  possesses  all  the  essential  properties 
of  fixed  oil.  We  must  therefore  consider  it 
as  a  fixed  oil  rendered  concrete.  Now  that 
species  of  fixed  oils,  distinguished  by  the  epi- 
thet fat,  have  the  |)ropsrty  of  becoming  con- 
crete, and  assuming  the  appearance  ot  wax 
when  eXpnsetl  long  to  the  air ,  in  consequence, 
it  is  supposed,  of  the  absorption  of  oxygen. 
Hence  probably  the  dilfeience  between  wax 
and  fixed  oils  consists  in  the  oxygen  which  it 
contains  as  a  component  part.  The  wax  at 
its  first  formation  was  in  all  probability  in  the 
state  of  a  fixed  oil;  but  by  the  absorption  of 
oxygen  it  gradually  concreted  into  wax. 
Wax,  then,  may  be  considered  as  a  fixed  oil 
saturated  with  oxygen. 

It  is  natural  to  sujipose,  if  this  theory  is  just, 
that  fixed  oil  will  occur  in  plants  in  various 
states  of  hardness:  and  this  accordingly  is 
the  case.  Sometimes  it  is  of  the  consistency 
of  butter,  and  this  is  denominated  a  butter  ; 
thus  we  have  the  butter  of  cacao,  the  butter 
of  coco,  the  butter  of  galam.  Sometimes  it 
is  of  a  greater  consistency,  and  then  is  deno- 
minated tallow;  thus  we  have  the  lallow  of 
the  croton,  extracted  by  boiling  water  from 
the  fruit  of  the  crotoii  sebifera.  When  its 
consistency  is  as  great  as  possible,  it  then 
takes  the  appellation  of  wax.  Thus  we  have 
the  myrtle  wax  of  .\nierica  extracted  from 
the  berries  of  tlie  myrica  cerifera,  and  the 
pela  oftlie  Chinese.  The  species  of  wax,  then, 
which  exist  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  may 
possibly  be  as  numerous  as  the  fixed  oils. 
Let  us  take  a  view  of  some  of  the  most  re- 
markable. 

Bees'-wax  is  the  species  whose  properties 
have  been  described  m  the  former  part  of  this 
aiticle.  It  is  supposcil  that  the  bees  collect 
it  from  plants  ;  but  it  has  been  very  well  as- 
certained, that  in  many  cases  at  least  they 
nianutacture  it  from  honey,  and  even  from 
sugar:  for  bees  confined  and  fed  solely  upon 
these  substances  produce  wax.  Its  consist- 
enry  is  said  to  be  less  when  the  bees  are  con- 
fined to  sugar  than  when  they  are  allowed 
lioney. 

The  myrtle  wax  of  North  .America  is  ob- 
tained from  the  myrica  cerifera.  We  are  in- 
debted to  Dr.  IJostock  and  Mr.  Cadet  for  a 
\ery  exact  account  of  its  properties  and  ex- 
traction. The  myrica  cerifera  is  a  shrub 
which  grows  abundantly  in  Louisiana  and 
other  parts  of  North  America.  It  produces 
a  berry  about  the  size  of  a  pepper-corn. 
A  very  fertile  shrub  yields  nearly  seven 
pounds,  'i'he  berries  are  picked  off,  thrown 
into  a  kettle,  and  covered  with  water  to  the 
depth  of  about  half  a  foot.  The  kettle  is  then 
boiled,  and  the  berries  stirred  and  squeezed 
against  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  The  wax 
wiiirh  they  contain  is  melted  out  and  swims 
on  the  surface.  It  is  skimmed  off,  passed 
through  a  cloth,  dried,  mclttd  again,  and  cast 


into  caUo«.  rrnni  the  observations  of  Cadd 
we  learn  that  the  wax  forms  the  outer  cover- 
ing of  the  berries.  The  wax  thus  obtaiiu-d  is 
of  a  pale  green  colour.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  1.0130.  It  melts  at  the  temperature  of 
109'';  when  strongly  heated  it  burns  with  a 
w  hite  flame,  produces  little  snioki',  and  during 
the  combustion  emits  an  agreeable  aromatic 
odour.  Water  does  not  act  Uf  on  it.  Alcohol, 
when  liot,  dissolves  /(jth' of  its  weight  but 
lets  most  of  it  fall  agiinon  cooling. 

Wax  Cr.vyons.  The  art  of  painting  in 
wax  crayons  is  a  late  discovery,  and  when 
skiltuUy  practised,  is  capable  of  producing  the 
most  pleasing  eflect.  It  i<,  however,  rather 
to  be  considered  as  an  adjunct  to  the  art  of 
water-colours,  than  as  a  distinct  branch  of  tlu- 
art  of  design  or  painting,  as  will  a|)pear  from 
the  nature  of  the  materials  enq)loyed  in  it. 
Instead  of  the  substances  used  in  conjinution 
with  the  respective  colours,  to  form  the  body 
of  common  crayons,  such  as  plaister  of  Paris, 
pipe-clay,  calcined  ai.^baster,  &c.  all  the  co- 
lours used  on  this  new  mode  of  painting  are 
to  be  incorporated  with  wax.  '1  his  mixture 
gives-  them  the  sujierior  advantage  of  being 
particularly  calculated  for  the  execution  ci 
minute  works  in  crayons,  as  they  are  not  liable 
to  moulder  away,  or  to  be  rubbed  off  from 
the  paper;  b:it  works  thus  executed  require 
tlie  assistance  of  various  washes  in  water-  o- 
lours  to  improve  and  perfect  their  effect,  as, 
from  the  nature  of  wax,  the  frequent  work- 
ings over  of  these  crayons  would  produce  an 
excessive  smoothness',  or  glassiness,  which 
would  prevent  the  colours  from  attaching  or 
taking  proper  hold  of  the  surface  of  the  work 
in  the  heighf.-nings  and  last  finishings,  and 
would  disappoint  the  artist  in  his  endeavours 
to  produce  the  greatest  requisite  strength  of 
effect. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  therefore,  that  water- 
colours  are  to  be  used  in  beginning  your  pic- 
ture, and  in  finishing  it.  When  the'  crayons 
are  judiciously  worked  overthe  water-colours, 
they  will  produce  the  appearance  of  an  ele- 
gantly finished  stipjiled  engraving,  coloured 
111  the  plate;  the  grain  of  the  paper  catching 
the  crayons  in  dots,  (when  gradually  laid  oa 
with  a  light  itand)  in  a  wonderfully  pleasing 
manner. 

We  shall  comprize  the  instructions  reciuisile 
for  the  student's  practice  under  the  following 
heads,  namely : 

1 .  The  kind  of  wax  to  be  used  in  making 
tiie  crayons ; 

".  The  colours  fit  to  be  incorporated  witii 
if, 

3.  -The  choice  of  proper  paper  ; 

4.  Tiie  method  of  using  thecraybns. 

//'c/.r.  The  wax  proper  to  be  used  in  mak- 
ing crayons,  must  be  bleached  bees'-w-ax, 
entirely  free  from  adulteration.  It  must  like- 
wise be  of  the  hardest  kind,  of  which  the  Rus- 
sian wax  is  the  best,  although  in  colour  not 
quite  so  fine  as  either  the  .American  or'Lng- 
lisli  wax  ;  but  its  hardness  gives  a  firmness  to 
the  crayons,  and  prevents  a  greasiness  w  hich 
softer  wax  would  create. 

Colours.  The  colours  proper  for  mixing 
into  crayons,  are  the  Ibllowing,  viz.  tor  yel- 
lows, king's  yellow  or  jellow  oker;  for  bliies, 
Antwerp  or  Prussian  ;  for  reds,  carmine,  lake, 
and  Chinese  vwmilion ;  for  browns,  umber 
burnt   and  unburnt;  for  blacks,  lampblack 


as 


\V  A  X 

only.  As  to  compound  tints,  thffy  are  to  be 
lirodiiCL-d  l)_v  a  jiulicious  niaiiaginin-nt  of  tljc 
vatcT-coloui-sovcr  llie  crayons  ;  anil  llus  ritle 
\vilhrcsi)ect  to  the  colour?  proiicr  to  be  used 
for  crayons,  is  to  be  particularly  observed  : 
tlial  none  are  fit  for  the  purpose,  but  sucli  as, 
in  tlieirdry  unmixed  state,  will  mark  on  ])aper 
pretty  freely :  for  the  reader  may  e  .  ily  judge, 
that  the  tenacity  of  the  wax  would  conipletelv 
prevent  any  iuird  colour  from  working  Iha't 
was  incorporated  with  it. 

Ilavin;;  procured  the  kiiid  of  wax  already 
iiie.iitioned,  you   are   to  have  a  nice   g'aze<l 
white  pipkin,  perfectly  clean  antl  free  from  any 
greasy  particles;  and  having  previously  ground 
your  colours  on  a  llai;  with  your  nuiller,  per- 
Jeclly  line,  in  fair  water,   a'nd  dried,  put  a 
small  (luantity  of  wax  into  the  pipkin,  which 
you  are  to  place  over  a  verv  slow  tire;  when 
the  wax  is  entirely  dissolved' by  the  gentle  heat 
(for  if  it  bubbles  it   is    spoiled),    gradually 
sprinkle  in   your  colour,  stirring  it   with  an 
ivory  pencil'-handle,  until   you '  find   it   per- 
fectly  mixed;  at  the  same  time   observing 
that  you  do  not  overload  the  wax  with  colour, 
as  it  will  make  the  crayons  too  brittle ;  nor 
are   you   to  put  in   too  little  colour,  as  it 
makes   them   f.iint  and   work  greasy;  so  a 
medium  is  to  be  observed,  to  ascertain  which 
l)racticc  only  will  conduce.     Tliere  are  some 
colours,  sucii  as  vermilijn,  which,  if  tliey  re- 
ceive too   great  a    heat,   turn  black;     and 
tliat   must  be  very  cautiously  observed,   as 
vermilion,  in  this  kind  of  painting,  is  a  high- 
ly   useful  colour:    as   is   also  lamp-black,    a 
harder    kind  of   crayon    from    which    is    to 
be   made  by  mixing  some  of  it,  in  its  r.iw 
blate,  with  strong  glue,  letting  it  harden,  and 
then  burning  it  in  a  crucible  (as  directed  in 
calcining     colours  for   miniature    painting) ; 
then  pulverizing  it  on  your  liag,  and   miNin"- 
it  with  your  wax,  as  before  mentioned.     This 
kind  of  black  crayon  is  most  excellent  for  giv- 
ing sharp   touches  in  dark  parls,  as  it  is  also 
for  making  sketches  to  refresh  the  memory  : 
is  much  superior  to  Italian  chalk,  as   nothing 
will  cause  it  to  rub  or  spoil,  it  remainintr 
immoveable  as  writing-ink,  anil  workin 
tremelypleasant. 

Paper.  The  paper  fit  to  be  \ised  in  wax- 
crayon  painting,  must  be  of  the  woven  orvel- 
liuii  kind;  but  as  of  this  there  are  several 
sorts,  it  is  necessary  to  mention,  that  it  must 
be  of  a  middling  lineiies^,  for  if  loo  coarse,  the 
grain  will  catch  the  crayons  in  dots  so  remote 
from  each  other,  as  to  make  your  work  look 
unpleasant ;  and  if  the  paper  Ts  too  fine  itwill 
not  catch  the  crayons  as  it  ought,  but  clog 
your  painting  without  producing  any  ef- 
fect. The  only  rule  therefore  for  choosing 
your  paper  is  to  go  to  the  stationer's,  and 
taking  a  small  bit  of  soft  black  crayon,  by 
gently  rubbing  the  crayon  on  a  few  sheets 
of  Uilterent  kinds  of  wovin  paper,  you  will 
become  a  judge  of  what  is  the  best  "for  your 
purpose,  at  a  triding  expeuce.  Ilaving'])^- 
eured  this  necessary  article'  to  your'  satis- 
faction, you  then  proceed  to  work. 

Mtllwd.  The  desk  you  are  to  work  on 
must  be  m\ich  larger  than  the  one  mentioned 
for  miniature'  paiiiting,  (see  MiNfATtrRE 
PAiNrrxG.^  this  kind  of  work  being  ofieu  used 
for  larger  sizes  than  that  style  of  painting  is 

Having  your  sitter  placed  in  the  saiiie  man- 
ner as  pouited  out  in  the  article  on  Miniature 
Painting,  with  a  soft  piece  of  ciiartoal  sketck 


W  A  V 

fahitly  tlie  distances  and  forms  of  the  features: 
then  tondi  them  in  more  strongly  with  your 
crimson  or  black  crayon,  still  alterifjg  until 
you  are  perfectly  certain  you  have  a  correct 
outline,  which  in  this   kind  of  painting  is  ab- 
solutely necessary;  for  it  in  _\onr  lair  drawing 
you  conmiil  an  error  in  your  outline,  you  ne- 
ver can  alter  it,  thecrajons  being  in  llieir  na- 
ture so  adhesive,  that  nolliing  will  remove 
them.     Having,  on  your   tirst   sheet,  made 
your  onthne  correct,  rub  the  back  of  the  face 
part  with  crimson   crayon,  the  hair  pari  with 
a  suitable-coloured  on"e,  and  the  drapery,  if 
while,  with  black  ;  then  laving  the  paper  on 
a  fair  sheet  go  over  the  lines  of  your   sketch 
with  a  tracer,  when  you  will  transfer,  in  a  very 
neat  manner,  your  outline  ready  to  colour  in. 
>  ou  are  then  to  mark  in   thi*  features  of  your 
sitter  more  strongly  with  cray»n  or  water- 
colour,   and  a  fine   pencil;  eier  observing, 
when  you  use  it,  to  work  over  with  a  suitable - 
coloured  crayon,  as  it  is  that  which  will  givu 
it  the  beautiful  dotted  appearance  so  much  to 
be  admired. 

Having  marked  in  the  features  sufficiently 
strong  to  put  the  likeness  out  of  danger  of 
being  spoiled,  makea  wash  of  yellow  oker  en- 
tirely over  the  fleshy  parts,  deepening  its  tint 
according  to  your  sutiject:  wash-in  the  colour 
of  the  eye-,  lips,  hair,  &c.  ail  which  being 
dry,  work  with  your  dilferent-coloured  cray- 
ons on  the  parts,  until  you  produce  the  elfects 
recpiired  ;  lining  up  any  interstices  of  the 
crayons  with  dots  ot  water-colours  and  a  fine 
pencil.  As  to  the  tint  for  your  linen  shades, 
the  black  crayon  will  produce  that  in  every 
degree,  the  paper  answering  for  the  liglits  of 
any-coloured  tirapery ;  fi^r  then  you  are  to 
wash-in  and  shadow'  it  with  the  crayons. 
Your  paper  is  to  be  perfectly  dry,  otherwise 
the  work  will  appear  glazy;  but  "even  should 
that  br  the  case,  hold  it  before  the  are,  and 
the  shining  appearance  will  instantly  va- 
nish. 

With  respect  to  your  back  grounds,  as  this 
style  of  painting  is  intended  to  be  light  and 
sketchy,  sky  and  biuk  grounds  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred; to  manage  which,  the  best  way  is  to 
stump  them  in  with  dry  colour,  to  whatever 
tint  you  find  pleasing,  which, will  give  a  pro- 
per value  to  the  appearances  of  your  wax 
crayons.  \  our  drawing,  either  of  portrait 
or  landscape,  being  finished,  have  readv  a 
large  flat  board,  on  which  you  are  to  stretch  a 
sheet  ot  royal  paper;  and  having  pasted  the 
back  of  )our  drawing  with  some  liour  paste 
mixed  witii  isinglass,  lay  it  on  the  royal  paper, 
and  carefully  ))ress  it  in  all  directions  with  a 
solt  toivel  or  handkerchief,  when  yourwork  is 
completed. 

W  A"^'.  A  way  may  be  by  prescription,  as 
if  the  owners  and  occupiers"  of  such  a  farm 
have  immemorially  used  to  cross  another's 
ground ;  for  this  immemorial  usage  supplies 
an  original  grant.  A  right  of  way  may  also 
arise  by  act  and  operation  of  law;  for  if  a 
man  grants  to  anothera  piece  of  grounil  in  the 
middle  of  iiis  litfld,  he  at  the  same  time  taciiiv 
gives  him  a  way  to  come  at  it,  for  where  th 


^^•  A  y 


^■■9 


to  be  under  way;  when  that  motion  incrfases, 
she  is  said  to  liave  fresh  way  through  the  w  a- 
ttr;  when  siie  goes  apace,  iliey  say  she  has  a 
good  way  ;  and  tli<;  account  of  lier  rate  of 
sailing  by  the  log,  ll,<-y  CidI,  keeping  an  ac- 
count olh<  r  \\A\.  Andbeiaine  mo»t  jjilpt 
are  apt  to  fall  a  little  to  the  lecrtard  of  their 
liue  couLsr,  ii  ii  customary,  in  caiiling  up 
the  log-board,  to  allow  foiiielhing  for  lurl.e- 
war.l  way,  or  lee  \iay.  Hence  also  a  ship  lis 
said  (o  hive  head-wav,  ami  stern-way 

WA'i  GHJ  KS,  ,»■  Waits.  Tl.i,  noun 
formerly  signilied  liatitboyH;  and,  wliicli  it 
r'-inarkal)!o,  has  no  singular  number.  From 
the  instruments  its  signiiicalion  v,a»,  alter  a 
time,  traii,ferred  to  tlie  nerloriners  tiiem- 
selves;  whobeing  in  (he  habii  of  parading  lh« 
streets  by  nighl  with  their  music,  occasioned 
the  name  to  bt;  applied  generallv  to  all  niu- 
sicianswlio  followed  a  .similar  praciiie.  Ilem  e 
those  persons  who  annually,  at  the  api<ro;,(  h 
ot  Christmas,  salute  lu  with  their  nocU,ri):.l 
concerts,  were,  and  arc  to  tliis  dav,  called 
wayght<:s. 

\VAYW[SKR,an  instrument  for  meas'ir- 
ing  the  road,  or  distance  travelled ;  called  al.-i. 
l'KiiAMiivi.ATOK,  and  Pedo.meter.  See 
those  two  articles. 

Mr.  Lovell  Ivlgworth  communicated  t*- 
the  Society  of  .\rl$,  &c.  an  account  of  a  way- 
wiser  of  his  invention;  for  which  he  obtained 
a  silver  medal.  This  machine  consists  of  a 
nave,  formed  of  two  round  flat  jiiccPs  of  wood. 
one  inch  thick  and  eight  inches  in  d:amet«f! 
!n  each  of  the  pieces  there  are  cut  eleven 
grooves,  J  of  an  inch  wide,  and^ilecp;  and 
when  the  two  pieces  are  si  rewed  together, 
they  enclose  eleven  spokes,  forming  a  wheel 
of  spokes,  without  a  rim:  the  circumference 
of  the  wheel  is  exactly  one  pole;  and  the  in- 
strument may  be  eas'ily  taken  to  nieces,  and 
put  up  in  a  small  compass.  On  e"acli  of  the 
spnkra  there  is  driven  a  ferule,  to  prevent 
them  from  wearing  out ;  and  in  the  centre  of 
the  nave,  there  is  a  scjuare  hole  to  receive 
an  axle.  Into  this  hole  is  inserted  an  iron 
or  brass  rod,  which  has  the  thread  of  a 
very  fine  screw  worked  upon  it  from  one  end 
to  the  other;  upon  this  screw  hangs  a  nut 
which,  as  the  rod  turns  round  with  the  wheel, 
advances  towards  the  nave  of  the  wheel  or 
recedes  from  it.  The  nut  does  this,  because 
it  is  prevented  from  turning  round  with  the 
axle,  by  having  its  centre  of  gravity  placed  at 
some  dist:incc  below  the  rod,  so  as  always  to 
hang  perpendicularly  like  a  i)lummet.  Two 
sides  of  this  screw  are  filed  away  iiat,  and  have 


figures  engraved  upon  them,  to  shew  by  the 
l)rogressive  motion  of  the  nut,  how  many 
circumvolutions  of  the  wheel  and  its  axle  liave 
been  made:  on  one  side  the  divisions  of  miles 
and  furlongs  are  in  a  direct  order,  and  on  the 
other  side  the  same  divisions  are  placed. in  a 
ret  rognide  order. 

If  tlie  person  who  uses  this  machine  places 

it   at    his  right-hand  side,   holding  the  axle 

loosely  in   his   hands,  and  walks  forward,  the 

wheel  will  revolve,  and  the  nut  advance  from 

!  tbe  extremity  of  the  roil  towards  the  nave  of 

law  gives  any  thing  to  any  person,  it  gives  I  the  wheel.    'When  two  miles  have  been  raea- 


implied  whatever  is  necessary  for  enjoying  the 
same-,     y  Hlnck.  35. 

\V  AY  oj  a  ship,  is  sometimes  used  for  her 
wake  or  track.  But  more  commonly  the 
term  is  understood  of  the  course  or  progress 
wliich  she  makes  on  the  water  under  sail: 
thus  wlicu  she  begins  her  motiou,  slic  is  said 
5X2 


sured,  it  will  have  come  close  to  the  wheel. 
But  to  continue  this  measurement,  nothi'ng 
mire  is  necessary  than  to  place  tl  e  whei-l  at 
the  left  hand  of  the  operator  ;  and  the  nutwill, 
as  ho  continues  the  course,  recede  from  the 
axletree,  till  another  space  of  two  miles  is 
ineaswed. 


1)00 


\v  F  r 


It  appears  froMi  Uif  constrarlion  of  tWima- 
cliiiicUialil  opi-nles  lik-.'  ciiciilar  com  pusses 


and   does  nol,  like  the  roiimioii  wIil'i-I  u;i\- 
vvi>er,  measure  the  surface  of  every  sloi-.y  and 
molehill,  ">:c.  but  passes  over  niwt  of  tiie  ob- 
Sucles  it  meets  with,  and  measures  the  chords 
MiU,  instead  of  the  arts  of  any   curved  sur- 
faces upon  which  it  rolls. 
WEASEL.    See  \'iterra. 
UEATflER.  See  Meteroio^jy. 
Wk  ATKER-GLASSES,  are  instruments  con- 
trived  to  indicate  the  suite  or  dl^po^ition  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  the  various  alterations  ui 
the  weather :  such  are  barometers,  thermo- 
meters, liy,c;rometers,  &c. 

WEii-VERS.  The  wages  of  journeymen 
*-i;avers  in  London  are  to  bn  settle;!  by  the 
lord  mayor,  recorder,  and  alderm.i'n.  Mas- 
ters giving  more  wages  tiian  is  appointed,  to 
forfeit  5u/.  and  journeymen  demandins;,  or 
combining  to  demand  more,  to  torieil  M)s.  or 
be  imprisoned  three  months. 

WEAVING-LOOM.  See  Loom. 
WEP/,  a  tissue,  or  texture,  formed  of 
thread-;  interwoven  with  each  oilier;  some 
whereof  are  extended  in  length,  and  called 
the  warp;  and  others  drawn  jicross,  and 
called  the  woof.     See  Warp,  &c. 

Web,  spidtr's,  or  cob-vch.    See  Aranea. 
WEBERA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
-•and  order  pentandria  monogynia.     It  is  con- 
torted; berry  inferior,  two-celled;  cells  one- 
seeded  :  stigma  clab-sh::i;ed;  calyx  tive  cleft. 
There  are  turee  species,  shrubs  of  the  East 
Indies. 
WEEVER.  SeeTpACHiN'us. 
WE'iGELTA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
and    order     pentandria    monogynia.      The 
«aJiVX    is   live-leaved  ;    corolla  'l"i;nnel-form  ; 
style  from  the  base  to  the  germ  ;  stigma  pel- 
tate ;    seed    one.      Tliere  are    two    species, 
shrubs  of  Japan. 

WEIGH,  Way,  or  Wey,  li'^c",  a  weight 
of  cheese,  wool,  &c.  containing  L';".ti  pounds 
avoirdupoise.  Of  corn,  the  weigh  contains 
forty  bushels;  of  barley  or  malt  six  ipiarters. 
In  some  places,  as  Esse.-c,  the  weigh  of  cheese 
is  300  pounds. 

WEIGHT,  gravit<j,  in  physics,  a  quality 
in  natural  bodies  whereby  they  tend  down- 
wards, towards  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Or 
weight  may  be  detined  in  a  less  limited  man- 
■ner  to  be  a  power  inherent  in  all  bodies 
whereby  they  tend  to  some  common  point, 
tailed  the  centre  of  gravity  ;  and  that  with  a 
ereater  or  less  velocity,  as  they  are  more  or 
less  dense,  or  as  the  medium  they  pass 
through  is  more  or  less  rare. 

In  the  common  nse  of  language,  weight 
and  gravity  are  Considered  as  one  and  the 
same'thing.  Some  authors,  iiowcver,  make 
a  difference  between  them,  and  hold  gravity 
only  to  express  .a  nisus,  or  endeavour  to  de- 
scend, but  weight  an  actual  descent.  But 
there  is  room  for  a  b«tter  distinction.  In  ef- 
fect, one  may  conceive  gravity  to  be  tlie  qua- 
lity as  inherent  in  the  body;  and  weight  the 
same  quality,  cNerting  itself  cither  against  an 
©bstacle,  or  otherv/iso.  Hence,  weight  may 
be  distinguished,  like  gravity,  into  absolute 
and  speciFic.     See  GaAvnv. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  demonstrates,  that  the 
weights  of  all  bodies,  at  equal  distances  from 


WEI 

tlic  centre  of  the  earth,  are  proportionable 
to   the  (piaiitities  of   matter  each   contain^ 


Whence'it  tollowi,  th;it  the  weights  of  bodies 
have  not  any  dependanee  on  their  forms  or 
textures,  and  that  all  spaces  are  not  equally 
full  of  matter.  Hence  also  it  follows,  th:  t 
the  weight  of  the  same  body  is  dii'i'erenl  on 
tiiesurlaceof  diltVrenl  parts  of  the  earth,  as 
its  figure  is  not  a  sphere,  but  a  spheroid. 

Weight,  pnnihis,  in  mechanics,  is  any 
fhing.to  be  raised,  sustainOvl,  or  moveil  by  a 
machine,  or  any  thing  that  in  any  manner 
resists  lite  motion  to  be  produced. 

Weight,  in  commerce,  denotes  a  body  of 
a  known  weight,  appointed  to  be  put  in  the 
balance  against  other  bodies,  whose  weight 
is  required. 

The  security  of  commerce  depending,  in 
good  measure,  on  the  justness  of  weights, 
which  are  nsually  of  lead,  iron,  or  brass, 
most  nations  have'  taken  care  to  prevent  the 
faUilication  of  them,  by  stamping  or  marking 
them  by  proper  crtlieers,  after  being  adjusletl 
by  some  original  standard.  Thus  in  Eiii^land, 
tlie  standard  of  weights  is  kept  in  the  exche- 
quer, by  a  particular  oflicer,  called  the  clerk 
of  the  riiarket. 

Weights  and  Measures,  regulation  iif. 
This  is  a  branch  of  the  king's  prerogative. 
For  the  public  convenience,  these  oimht  to 
be  universally  the  same  thrmighout  the  na- 
tion, the  belter  to  reduce  the  prices  of  articles 
to  equivalent  values.  But  as  weight  and 
measure  are  things  in  their  nature  arbitrary 
and  uncertain,  it  is  necessary  that  they  are 
reduced  to  some  fi.sed  rule  or  standard,  it 
is  however,  impossible  to  hx  such  a  standard 
bv  anv  written  law  or  oral  proclamation  ;  as 
no  person  can,  by  words  only,  give  to  another 
an  adeq'iate  idea_  of  a  pound  weight,  or  foot 
rule.  It  is  therefore  expedient  to  have  re- 
course to  some  visible,  palpable,  material 
standard,  by  forming  a  comparison  with  which 
all  weights  and  measures  may  be  reduced  to 
one  uniform  size.  Such  a  standard  was  an- 
tiently  kept  at  Winchester;  and  we  iind  in 
the  laws  of  king  Edgar,  near  a  century  before 
the  Conquest,  an  injunction  that  that  measure 
should  be  observed  througluiut  the  realm. 

Most  nations  have  regulated  the  standard 
of  measures  of  length  from  some  parts  of  the 
human  body;  as  tiie  p.din,  the  hand,  the 
span,  the  foot,  the  cubit,  the  ell  (ulna  or  arm), 
the  pace,  and  die  fathom.  But  as  these  are 
of  did'erent  dimensions  in  men  of  ditlerent 
proportions,  antient  historians  inform  us,  that 
a  new  standard  of  length  was  fixed  by  our 
king  Henry  the  Fust;  who  commanded  that 
Ihe'ulna,  or  antient  ell,  which  answers  to  the 
modern  yard,  should  be  made  of  the  exact 
length  of  fiis  own  arm. 

A  standard  of  long  measure  being  once 
gained,  all  others  are  easily  derived  from  it; 
those  cf  gr-eater  leli"th  by  multiplying  that 
origiual  standard,  those  of  less  by  dividiiig 
it.  Thus,  by  the  statute  called  compositiu 
ulnarum  et  perticarum,  5^  yards  make  a 
perch ;  and  the  yard  is  subdivided  into  three 
feet,  and  each  foot  into  twelve  inches,  which 
inches  will  be  each  of  the  length  of  three 
barleycorns.  But  s-ome,  on  the  contrary, 
derive  all  measures  by  composition,  from  the 
barleycorn. 

Superficial  measures  arc  derived  by  squar- 


W  E  I 

hig  those  of  length :  and  measures  of  capacity 

by  cubing  them. 

The  standard  nf  weights  was  oriufnally 
taken  from  grains  or  corns  of  wheat,  whence 
our  lowest  denomination  of  weights  is  still 
called  a  grain;  thirty-two  of  which  are' di- 
rected, by  the  statute  called  compositio  men- 
surarum,  lo  compo:.e  a  pennyweight,  twenty 
of  w  h.ch  make  an  ounce,  and  twelve  ounces'a 
[lound,  &c. 

Under  king  Richard  the  First  it  was  ordain- 
ed, that  there  should  be  only  one  weight  and 
one  measure  throughout  the  nation;  and  that 
the  custody  of  the  assize  or  standard  of 
weights  and  measures,  should  be  committed 
to  certain  persons  in  every  city  and  borough; 
from  whence  the  antient  oliice  of  the  king's 
uluager  seems  to  have  been  derived.  '1  hese 
original  standards  were  called  poiidus  regis, 
and  mensura  domini  regis,  and  are  directed 
by  a  variety  of  subiequent  statutes  lobe  kept 
in  the  exchequer  chamber,  by  an  oflicer 
called  the  clerk  of  the  market,  except  the 
wine  gallon,  which  is  coimiiitted  to  Uie  city 
of  London,  and  kept  in  Guildhall. 

The  Scottish  standards  are  distributed 
among  the  oldest  boroughs.  The  elward  i» 
kept  at  Edinburgh,  the  pint  at  Stirling,  the 
pound  at  Lanark,  and  the  lirlot  at  Linlith- 
gow. 

The  two  principal  weights  established  in 
Great  Brit.iiu,  are  troy  weight  and  avoirdu- 
pois weight,  as  before  mentioned.  Under 
the  head  of  die  former  it  may  farther  be 
added,  that  a  carat  is  a  weight  of  four  grains  ; 
but  when  the  term  is  applied  to  gold,  it  de- 
notes tiie  degree  of  fineness.  Any  quantity 
of  gold  is  supposed  divided  into  tw  enty-four 
parts.  If  the  whole  mass  is  pure  gold,  it  is 
s:,id  to  be  twenty-four  carats  line  ;  if  there  are 
twenty-three  pints  of  pure  gold,  and  one 
part  of  alloy  or  base  metal,  it  is  said  to  be 
twenty-three  carats  line,  and  so  on. 

Pure  gold  is  too  soft  to  be  used  for  coin. 
Tlie  standard  coin  ot  this  kingdom  is  22  ca- 
rats fine.  A  pound  of  standard  gold  is  coined 
into  44^  guineas,  and  therefore  every  guinea 
should  weigh  o  d«  ts.  91^  grains. 

A  pound  of  silver  for  coin  contains  11  oz. 
2  dwts.  pure  silver,  and  18  dwts.  alloy;  and 
standard  silver  plate  11  ounces  pure  silver, 
with  one  ounce  alloy.  A  pound  of  standard 
silver  is  coined  into  62  shillings,  and  there- 
fore the  weight  of  a  shilling  should  be  3  dwts. 
204-?-  grains. 


Weights  may  be  distinguished  into  antienC 
and  modern,  foreign  and  domestic. 

Weights,  An!hnt.  1.  Those  of  the  antienC 
Jews,  reduced  to  the  English  troy  weights,  will 
stand  as  in  the  following  table  : 


Shekel 


to 

tiOOO 


.          .           - 

lb. 
-       00 

oz.  dwt.  gr. 
OO    09    6i^ 

ManeH 

.      02 

0.3     OG     lOf. 

50  iTalcnt 

-     113 

10     01      10?. 

2.  Grecian  and  Roman  weights,  reduced  to 
English  troy  weight,  will  stand  as  iu  the  lt>iIovi> 
ing  table; 


C  "1-     fi  ""In  "I-    "I,.  «>    c.>  v,K  ,|^  ^y. 

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The  Roman  ounce  is  tlie  £nglish  avolrdunoia 
ounce,  wliich  tlicy  divided  into  seven  denarii,  as 
•well  as  ciglit  draclims  ;  and  since  they  reckoned 
their  denarius  eqnal  tn  th;  Auic  drachm,  this 
will  make  the  Attic  weights  one-eijjhtli  heavier 
than  the  correspondinj^  Roman  wei,^hts. 

Vi^ s.lGllT'^yMr/dcrn E:iropc/:n.  1.  Englisll  weights: 
By  the  twenty-seventh  ch^ptfT  of  Magna  Cliarta, 
the  weights  all  over  England  are  to  be  the  same; 
but  for  difTcrent  commodities,  there  are  two  dif- 
ferent sorts,  viz.  Troy  weight  and  avoirdupois 
weight.  The  origin  from  which  they  are  both 
raised,  is  a  grain  of  weight  "gathered  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  oar. 

In  troy  weight,  twenty-four  of  these  grains 
make  a  pennyweight  sterling  ;  twenty  penny- 
weights make  one  otmce  ;  and  twelve  ounces 
one  pound. 

By  this  weight  we  weigh  gold ,  silver,  jewels, 
]grains,  and  liquors.  The  apothecaries  also  use 
the  troy  pound,  ounce,  and  grain  ;  hut  they 
differ  from  the  rest  in  the  intermediate  divisions. 
They  divide  the  ounce  into  eight  drachms  ;  the 
drachm  into  three  scruples,  .and  the  scruple  into 
twenty  grains. 

In  avoirdupois  weight,  the  pound  contains 
sixteen  ounces,  but  the  ounce  is  less  by  near 
one-twelfth  than  the  troy  ounce;  this  latter  con- 
taining 490  grains,  and  (he  former  only  -j-lS, 
The  ounce  contains  16  drachms:  80  ounces 
avoirdupois  are  only  equal  to  7:i  ounces  troy; 
and  IT  pounds  troy  equal  to  14  pounds  avoir- 
dupois. 

By  avoirdupois  weight  are  weighed  mercur\', 
and  grocery  wares,  base  metals,  wool,  tallow, 
hemp,  drugs,  bread,  &c. 

Table  of  Troy  Weight  as  used  by  the 
Goldsmiths 
Grains. 


24 


480 
5TfiO 


Pennyweight. 
20    Ounce. 
240  I  I2!Poand. 


Grains 

20 

Scru 

60 

3 

480 

24 

5760 

288 

Apothecaries, 


Drachm. 


8  Ounce. 
96  I  12  Pound, 


T.-iblc  of  Avoirdupois  Weight. 


Scru  pi 

.'i    Dram. 


24 

i    43008 
'860I(;o 


8    Ounce. 


128 


I4:i,'56 
28(;720 


16 


I7U2 


Pound. 


112|QuintaI,orliundrcd 
22401  20'Ton. 


Mr  Ecrguson  gives  the  following  comparison 
between  troy  and  avoirdupois  weight. 

17j  troy  pounds  arc  equal   to  144  avoirdupois 

jiouuds. 
17j  troy  ounces  are  equal  to  192  avoirdupois 
ounces. 
I   troy  pound  contains  5760  grains. 
I   avoirdupois  pound  conraius  7000  grains. 
1   avoirdupois  ounce  contains  4:t7i  g^Mm. 
I   avoirdupois  dram  coti(aiii>-  27.31375 grains. 
1  troy    pound    contains   13  oz.    2.651428576 

draii-4  avoirdupois. 
1  avoirdupois  lb.   contains  1  lb.  2oz.  11  dwts. 

16gr.  troy. 
Therefore   the  avoirdupois  lb.  u  to  the  lb. 
troy  as  175  to   144,  and  the  avoirdupoiseoz.  is 
to  the  troy  oz.  as  437^  is  to  480 

The  moneycrs,  jewellers,  &c.  have  a  particular 
class  of  weights  for  gold  and  precious  stones, 
viz.  <arut  and  grain  ;  and  foi  silver,  the  frnn^- 
7mg/jl  and^rn;';;.  The  moueyers  have  also  a  pe- 
culiar subdivision  of  the  trov  grain  ;  thus,  di- 
viding 

the  grain  into  20  m'tes, 
the    mite    into   24  droits, 
the  droit    into  20  pcriots, 
the  periot  into  24  blanks. 
The  dealers  in  wool  have  likewise  a  partiai- 
lar  set  of  weights ;  viz.  the  s^a,  lu/igb,  toil,  ,!oiir, 
,andr/!>o<r;  the  proportions  of  which  are  as  be- 
low ;  viz. 

the  sack  containing    2    weighs, 
the  weigh     .     .     .     6i  tods, 
the  tod     -     -     .     .     a"  stones, 
the  stone       .     -     .     2    cloves, 
the  clove      -    -     -    7    pounds. 
Also  1 2  sacks  make  a  last,  or  4368  pounds. 

larther, 
5Gib.  of  old  hay,  or  601b.  new  hay,  make  a 

truss. 
40  lb.  of  straw  make  a  truss. 
36  trusses  make  a  load,  of  hay  or  straw. 
14  lb.  make  a  stone. 
5  lb.  of  glass  a  stone. 
Other  nations  have  also  certain  weights  pecu- 
liar to  themselves:  th.us,  Spain  has  its  arrobas, 
containing  25  Spanish  pounds  or  one-fourth  of 
the  common  quintal :  its  quintal  macho,  con- 
taining l.iO  pounds,  or  onc-li;..If  common   quin- 
tal, or  €  arrobas:  its  adarme.  containing  one- 
sixticnth  of  its  ounce.     And  for  gold,  it  has  its 
castillan,  or  one-hundredth  of  a  pound;  and  its 
tomin,  containing  12  grains,  or  one-eighth  of  a 
castillan.     The  same  are  in  use  in  the  Spanish 
West  Indies. 

Portugal  has  its  arroba,  containing  .32  Lisbon 
arratals,  or  pounds:  Savary  also  mentions  its 
faratcUe,  containing  2  Lisbon  pounds  ;  and  its 
rottolis,  containing  about  12  pounds  And  for 
gold,  its  chego,  containing  four  carats.  The 
same  are  used  in  the  Portuguese  iiast  Indies. 

Italy,  and  particularly  Venice,  have  their 
migliiiro,  cont.aining  four  mirrcs ;  the  mirre 
containing  30  Venice  pounds  :  the  saggio,  con- 
taining a  sixth  part  of  an  ounce.  Genoa  has  five 
kinds  of  weights,  viz.  large  weights,  whereby  all 
merchandizes  are  weighed  at  the  custom-house  ; 
cash  weights  for  piastres,  and  other  specie  ;  the 
cantara,  or  quintal,  for  the  coarsest  con.modi- 
ties  ;  the  large  balance  for  raw  silks,  and  the 
small  balance  for  the  fine  commodities.  Sicily 
Ua»  its  rottolo,  32  and  a  half  pounds  of  Metsifla. 


mi 

» 

Germany,  nanderi,  Holland,  the  Hanre 
towns,  .Sweden,  beiimark,  V  land,  he.  have 
their  schippondi,  which  at  Antwerp  ..nd  H<ir,>. 
burgh.  IB  :;X'  pi'iinili ;  at  Lubeck,  ..2tj  ,^nd  at 
Coningsberg,  : "jiouikH.  In  Swcder.,t;,c6cluV 
pondt  for  copper  is  220  pound-, ;  and  she  hcIm,,. 
ponili  for  provisions  ICO  pounds,  /.i  UIga  ai.d 
P.evcl,  the  scliinpundt  in  400  pound* ;  at  Dant- 
zic,  340  pounds;  in  Norw:iy,  300  pounds:  at 
Amsterdam,  300  ;  containing  20  lytpoodls,  each 
weighing  15  pounds. 

In  Muscovv,  they  weigh  rhcir  large  conimo- 
dities  by  the  berchcrocl,  or  berkewin,  coi.t.iiji. 
ing  400  of  their  jiound*  '1  l,ev  have  alw  the 
poet,  or  pocde,  cont:iiuing  40  puutidi,  or  one- 
tenth  of  the  bcrchcroct. 

In  order  to  slievv  the  proportion  of  die  several 
weights  used  throughout  liuroijc,  tvc  ili.-dl  add 
A  rcdiiclion  of  ihem  to  one  standard,  vi».  th* 
London  and  Amsterdam  pound. 

I.  Proporiionof  the  weights  of  the  principal 
places  of  Kuropc. 

The  100 II..  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
laud,  are  equal  ttr 
lb.  oz. 
91     8  of  Amsterdam,  Paris,  &c. 

8  of  Antwerp  or  trabant. 
0  of  Rouen,  the  viscounty  weight. 

0  of  Lyons,  the  city  weight. 

9  of  Rochclle. 
107  II  of  Toulouse  and  tipper  I  angucdoc, 
113     O  of  Mar-eillcs  or  I'tovcnc*. 

7  of  (iencva 

5  of  Hamburgh. 

7  of  Francfort,  &(r. 

1  of  Lciptick,  &c. 
4  of  Genoa, 

132  11   of  Le'horn, 
\r,.i  11  of  Milan. 
152     0  of  \  enicc. 
154  10  of  Naples. 

97     0  of  Seville,  Cadii 
104   13  of  Portugal. 

96    5  of  Liege, 


96 

88 

lOC 

90 


81 
93 
89 
96 
137 


&c. 


112 


of  Russia. 


107  -,}-f  of  Sv.-ed«i». 
89     \  of  Deiraiark. 
2.  Proportion  of  the  weights  of  ific  chief  cir 
ties  in  Europe,  to  those  of  Amaerdam. 
100  pounds  of  Amsterdam  are  equal  to 


Ih. 

108  of  Alicant. 
105  of  Antwerp 
120  of  Archangel,  or  3 

poedes. 
105  of  Arschot. 
120  of  Avignon. 
98  of  Basil  in  Switzer- 
land. 
100  of  Bayonne   in 

France. 
IGS  of  Bergamo. 
97  of  Bergen-op-zom. 
95:J  of  Bergen  in  Nor. 


lb. 

113^  of  Dantzic. 
100  of  Dort. 
97  of  Dublin. 
S7  of  Edinburgh. 
143  of  Florence. 
9S  Francfort  OB  the 
Maine. 
105  of  G  ..unt. 
89  of  Geneva. 
163  of  Genoa,  cash- 
weight. 
1.  102  of  Hamburgh. 
-  106  of  I.evden. 


way. 
Ill  of  Bern. 
100  of  Besan9on. 
100  of  Bilboa. 
105  of  Bois  le  due, 
151   of  Bologna. 
100  of  BourdeauT. 

104  of  BourgenBrcsse 
103  of  Bremen. 

125  of  I^reslaw, 

105  of  Bruges. 
105  of  l:russelsi 
105  of  Cadiz. 
105  of  Cologne. 
125  of  Coningsbcrg. 
\0~k  of  Copenhagen. 

87  rottos  of  Constanti- 
nople, 


105  of  Leipsic. 

105  i  of  Liege. 
114  of  Lisle. 
143  of  Leghorn. 

106  \  of  Lisbon. 

109  of  London,   aroi"r» 
dupois  weight. 

105  of  Lovaine. 

105  of  Lubec. 

141  ^  of  Lucca,  fight 
weight. 

116  of  Lyons,  city  do. 

114  of  Madrid. 

105  of  Marlines. 

123  i  of  Marseilles. 

154  of  Messina,    lighf 
\vcic:!it 

16S  of  ftiiJas. 


tjCi 
lb. 


120  of  Montpelicr.  _ 
125  bercheroctsbf  Mus- 
covy. 
100  of  Names. 
lOi;  of  Nancy. 
ICT  of  Naples. 
DS  of  Nuremberg. 
100  of  Paris. 
lI2|of  Revel. 
'109  of  Riga. 
100  of  Rochelle. 
1-K  of  Rome. 
100  of  Rotterdam. 


00  of  Rouen,  viicoUH- 

ty  weight. 
100  of  St.  Malo. 
loo'of  St.  .Seb.istian 
158^  of  Snragossa, 
I  Of;  of  Seville. 
114  of  Smyrna. 
110  of  Stetin. 
til   of  Tholouse    and 

Upper  Languedoc. 
151  of  'i'urin. 
loS  i  of  Valencia. 
182  of  Venice,  small 
vveiglu. 

We  shall  now  notice  the  correspondence  be- 
tween Etiolisii  weights  and  some  modern  weights 
in  France  and  other  countries  : 

Ekglish  Weights. 
Troy  Weight. 

Ji.          oc.       drm^.    szruples.     graii:s.  ^ranittils. 

1  =  12  =  96  =  28.-!  =  5TU0  =  :i72.96 

1   =;     8  =     21            4S0  =  ai.OS 

1   =        3  =       60  =:  3.SS.5 

1   =        20  =;  1 .  395 

1   =;  0.06475 


lb. 


WEIGHTS, 

■■JVCIO  English  troy  grains,  and  is  equal  to  702  »v 
Paris  grains. 

The  English  avoirdupois  pound  of  16  ounces 
contains  7000  Englisii  troy  grains,  and  is  equal 
to  8538  Paris  grains. 

To  reduce  Paris  grains  to  English"} 

troy  grains,  divide  by         -     - 
To  reduce  English  troy  grains  to 

Paris  grains,  multiply  by  -     - 
To  reduce  Paris  ounces  to  English 

troy,  divide  by       - 
To  reduce  English  troy  ounces  to 

Paris,  multijily  by  "         "    ) 

Or  the  conversion  may  be  made  by  means  of 
the  following  tables : 

I.    To  reduce  French  to  Englrsh  Tro-^  IVeight, 
The  Paris  pound  =  7561  T 

Tlie  ounce  r=    472. . 5625 f    English 

The  gros  :=      59.0703^ troy  grains. 

The  grain  :=  .8204  j 

II.   To  reduce  English  troy  to  Paris  •weight. 

1 


1.2189 


1 .015734 


Avoirdupois  Weight. 

IL  9Z.  drms.  grains.  griimmei. 

1  16     =     256     =  7000  =  453.25 

1     =       16     =     437.5       =     28.32 

1  27.975  =       1.81 

GEHM.IN. 

71  lbs.  or  grs.  English  troy,  :=  74  lbs.  or  grs.  Ger- 
man apothecaries'  weight. 

1  oz.  Nuremberg,  medic,  weight,  ::=  7  dr.  2  sc. 
9  grains  English. 

!  mark  Cologne,  =  7  oz.  2  dwt.  4  gr.  English 
troy. 

DcTCH. 

1  lb.  Dutch,  =  1  lb.  3  oz.  16  dwt.  7  gr.  English 
troy. 
787|lbs.  Dutch,  =  1038  lbs.  English  troy. 

Swedish  Weights,  used  by  Bergman  and  Scheele. 

The  Swedish  pound,  which  is  divided  like  the 
English  apothecary,  or  troy,  pound,  weighs 
6556  grains  troy. 

The  kanne  ©f  pure  water,  according  to  Berg- 
man, weighs  42250  Swedish  grains,  and  occupies 
100  Swedish  cubical  inches.  Hence  the  kanne 
of  pure  water  weighs  48088.71 9444  English  troy 
grains,  or  is  equal  to  189.9413  English  cubic 
inches;  and  the  Swedish  longitudinal  inch  is 
e/|ual  to  1.23S435  English  longitudinal  inches. 

From  these  data,  the  following  rules  are  de- 
duced: 

1.  To  reduce  Swedish  longitudinal  inches  to 
English,  multiply  by  1.2384,  or  divide  by  O.S0747. 

2.  To  reduce  .Swedish  to  English  cubical 
inches,  multiply  by  1.9,  or  divide  by  0.5265. 

3.  To  redxce  the  Swedish  pound,  ounce,  dram, 
scruple,  or  grain,  to  the  corresponding  English 
troy  denomination,  multiply  by  1.J332,  or  di- 
vide by  8.786. 

4.  X"o  reduce  the  Swedish  kannes  to  English 
wine  pints,  multiply  bv  .1520207,  or  divide  by 
6.5780-4. 

,5.  The  lod,  a  weight  sometimes  used  by  Berg- 
man, is  the  32d  part  of  the  .Swedish  pound  ; 
"I'herefore,  to  reduce  it  to  the  English  troy 
pound, multiply  by  .03557, or  divide  by  2S.11.56. 

Correspondence  of  English  JVeights  tvith  those  used  in 
France  before  the  Revolution. 

Th«  Paris  pound,  poids  de  marc  of  Charle- 
magne, contams  9216  Paris  grains  ;  it  is  divided 
into  16  ounces,  each  ounce  into  8  gros,  and  each 
gros  into  72  grains.  It  is  equal  to  7561  English 
trov  grains. 

The  Englisli  troy  pound  of  12  ounces  contains 


The  English  troy  pound  of  7  _  _ „, 
12  ounces         -         -         ^  ~   '"" 

The  troy  ounce  -         -     z= 

The  dram  of  60  grains       -     rr; 

The  pennyweight,    or  de-7  

nier,  of  24  grains        -      J 

The  scruple  of  20  grains  -     = 

The  grain  -        -        -     = 

III.   To  reduce  English  ai'oirdupois  to  Paris  •u.-eig^'t. 
The  avoirdupois  pound  of  ' 

1(5  ounces,  or  7000  troy  ^  =:  8.53S.  f   M 

grains         -         -         - 
The  ounce    -        -        -      ■  z=    S', 

Table,  sheii^ing  the  Comparison  betiveen  French  and 
English  Grains.    {Poid  de  Jifarc.) 


585.0893 
73.1354 

29.2541 

24.3784 
1.21S9 


It 

8.53S.  (    M 

533 .  6250  J  (2 


French  grs. : 

=  Eng.  grs. 

Eng.grs. -: 

French  grs. 

1 

0.K'J03 

1 

1.2189 

2 

1.64.17 

2 

2.4378 

3 

2.4611 

3 

3.6563 

4 

3.2815 

4 

4.8757 

5 

4.1019 

5 

6.0947 

6 

4.9223 

6 

7.3136 

7 

5.V427 

7 

8.5325 

8 

6.5631 

8 

9.7515 

9 

7.3835 

9 

10.9704 
"12.179 

10 

8.203 

10 

20 

16.407 

20 

24.378 

SO 

24.611 

30 

.36.. 568 

40 

32.815 

40 

48.757 

50 

41.019 

50 

60.947 

60 

49.223 

60 

73.136 

70 

57.427 

70 

35.325 

80 

65.631 

80 

97.515 

90 

73.8.35 

90 

109.704 

100 

82.03 

1(X) 

121.89 

2i10 

164.07 

2{X) 

243.78 

300 

246.11 

300 

365.68 

400 

328.15 

400 

487.57 

500 

410.19 

500 

609.47 

600 

492.23 

600 

731.36 

700 

574.27 

700 

853.25 

800 

,  656.31 

800 

975.15 

900 

738.35 

900 

1097.04 

1000 

820.3 

1000 

1218.9 

'2000 

'    1640.7 

2000 

24.37.8 

3000 

2461.1 

.3000 

3656.8 

4000 

3281.5 

4000 

4875.7 

5000 

4101.9 

5000 

6094.7 

6000 

4922.3 

COCO 

7313.6 

7000 

5742.7 

7000 

8.5.32.5 

8000 

6563.1 

8(KX) 

9751.5 

9000 

7383.5 

9000 

10970.4 

10,000 

£203.0 

10,000 

12189.0 

Keiv  French  Wiighti,  {cahulntcd  hy  Dr.  DuHian,jun) 
English  grains. 
.0154 
.1544 
1.5444      Avoirdupois. 
15.4440         lb.     oz.    dr^ 
154.4402  =     0,0     5.63 
1514.4023-=     O     3     8.i 


Milligramme 

Centigramme 

Decigramme 

Oramme 

Decagramme 

Hecatogramme  ■=: 


Kilogramme        ==    15444.0234  =235 
Myriogramme   =  154440.2344  =  22     1     2 

Wrights  tiscd  in  the  s^viral  parts  of 
.4Hi(t,  the  East  Indies,  Chiiia,  Persia,  &c.  Jii 
Turkev,  atSmvrnii,  &;c.  the)  use  tliebatmar, 
or  battcmant,  containing  si.\  occos,  the  occo 
weighing  three  pounds  fjur-liftlis  English. 
'I'hey  have  another  batman  much  less,  con- 
sisting, as  the  former,  of  six  occos;  but  the 
occo  only  containing  lifteen  ounces  English  ; 
44  occos  of  the  first  kini!  make  the  Turkish 
((iiintal.  At  Cairo,  Ale.xandrctta,  Aleppo, 
and  Alexandria,  tlicy  use  the  rotto,  rotton,  or 
rotloli;  at  Cairo,  and  other  parts  of  Egypt,  it  :s 
144  drachms,  being  somewbat  over  an  Eng- 
lish pound.  At  Aleppo  there  are  three  sorts 
of  lottos ;  the  first  '20  drachms,  making 
about  seven  poniuls  English,  and  serving  to 
weigh  cottons,  galls,  ami  other  large  commo- 
dities; the  second  is  t)24  drachms,  used  tor 
all  silks  but  white  ones,  which  are  weighed 
by  the  thud  rotto  of  700  drachms.  At  Seyda 
the  rotto  is  (500  drachms. 

The  other  ports  of  the  Levant,  not  named 
here,  use  some  of  these  weights,  particularly 
the  occo,  or  oc(|ua,  the  rottoli,  and  rotto. 

The  Chinese  weights  are  the  piece,  for 
large  commodities;  it  is  divided  into  100 
catis,  or  cattis,  though  some  say  into  125; 
the  cati  into  1(3  taels,  or  tales,  each  tale  equi- 
valent to  Ij  of  an  ounce  English,  or  the 
weight  of  one  rial  and -JL,  anil  containing  12 
mas,  or  masses,  and  each  mas  10  condrins. 
So  that  the  Chinese  piece  amounts  to  137 
pounds  English  avoirdupois,  and  the  cadi  to 
1  pound  S  ounces.  The  picol  for  silk  con- 
tains 66  catis  and  f  :  the  bahar,  bakaire,  or 
barr,  contains  300  catis. 

Toiiquin  lias  also  the  same  weights,  mea- 
sures, &c.  as  China.  Japan  has  only  one 
weight,  viz.  the  cati,  which,  however,  is  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  China,  as  containing  20 
taels.  At  Sural,  Agra,  and  throughout  the 
stales  of  the  Great  Mogul,  they  use  the  man, 
or  iiiaund,  whereol  they  have  two  kinds,  the 
king's  man,  or  king's  weight,  and  the  man 
simply  ;  the  lirst  used  for  the  v  eighiiig  of 
common  provision-,  containing  40  seers,  or 
seres,  and  each  seer  a  just  Paris  pound,  'j'he 
common  man,  used  in  the  weighing  of  mer- 
chandise, consists  likewise  of  4o  seers,  but 
each  seer  is  only  estimated  at  12  Paris  ounces, 
or  -J  of  the  other  seer. 

The  man  may  be  looked  on  as  tlie  common 
weight  of  the  East  Indies,  though  under  some 
dili'erence  of  name,  or  rather  of  pronunciation, 
it  being  called  mao  at  Cambaya,  and  inothei- 
places  mein,  and  maun.  The  seer  is  pro- 
perly the  Indian  pound,  and  of  universal  use; 
the  like  ni'iy  be  said  of  tlie  bahar,  tael,  ami 
catti  above-mentioned. 

The  weights  of  Siaiii  are  the  piece  con- 
taining two  shans,  or  cattis  ;  but  the  Siamese 
caitiisonly  halt  the  Japanese,  the  latter  con- 
t.iiniiig  '20  taels  ;  ami  the  former  onlv  10; 
thotigli  some  make  the  Chinese  catti  only  16 
taels,  and  the  Siamese  8.  The  tael  contains 
4  baats  or  ticals,  each  about  a  Paris  ounce  ; 
the  liaat  4  sclings,  or  iiiayons ;  the  may  on  2 


W  E  I 

fouaiigs;   tlie  foiiatig  4  payps;    the  piiye  2 
tlaiiis;  the  snmpayc  liail'a  louaiig. 

It  is  to  be  oljsiTvi-d,  thai  those  are  the 
Iiaiiu's  of  their  coins  as  wi-ll  as  weights  ;  silver 
ami  gold  being  eoiiiiiiodities  llieie  sold,  as 
other  things,  by  their  ueiglus. 

Ill  the  isle  olJava,  anil  partitiilarly  at  Ibn- 
taiii,  they  use  (he  gantan,  whuh  aiiioiiiils  (o 
near  three  ]Jtit(  li  pounds.  In  (joleonda,  al 
\isapour,  and  (roa,  they  have  the  fnratelle 
containing  1  pound  14  biUKes  Enfjlish ;  the 
iiiaiigalisor  niangelin  (or  weighing  diamonds 
and  precious  stones,  weigliing  at  Goa  j  grains, 
al  Goleonda,  &e.  5i  grains.  'I'hey  liave  also 
the  lotolo  containing  14^  (anices  Kngli^ll; 
the  nietritol  containing  the  si.\lh  part  ol  an 
ounc-e  ;  the  wall  (or  piasters  and  ducats,  con- 
tainnig  the  73d|)arl  ot  a  rial. 

In  Persia  they  use  two  kinds  of  batman^  or 
nians.theone  called  cahi  or  chvrav,  which  is 
llie.kiiig's  weight;  and  ihe  other'balnian  of 
'J'auiis.  The  nrst  we!ij;hs  13  pounds  10  oz. 
English  ;  tlic  second  (i^  pounds,  Its  divi- 
sions are  the  rate!,  or  a  ICith  ;  the  derheni, 
or  draelmi.  which  is  the  dOUi  ;  the  iiieschaJ, 
which  IS  h.ilf  the  derheni  ;  liie  dung,  which 
is  the  61I1  pari  of  the  nieschal,  being  equiva- 
lent to  six  carat-arains  ;  and,  lastly,  the  grain, 
which  is  the  fburih  jiart  ot  tiie  dung,  rney 
have  aUotlie  vakie,  which  e.\ceeds  a  little  our 
ounce;  tliL- sah-clieray,  eipial  to  the  U'Oih 
part  of  the  defheni;  and  the  toman,  used  10 
veigh  out  large  ])aynients  of  mynev  witliout 
telling;  its  weight  is  that  of  iO  abassis. 

African  and  American  weights.  W'e  have 
little  to  say  as  to  the  weights  of  America;  the 
several  Kuroi)eaii  colonies  there  making  use 
of  the  Weights  of  the  states  or  l^ingdoms  of 
Europe  they  belong  to.  For,  as  to  the  aroue 
of  Peru,  which  weiglis  27  pounds,  il  is  evi- 
dently ;io  other  than  the  .Spanish  arroba,  with 
a  little  diliereiice  in  llie  iianie. 

As  to  the  weights  of  Africa,  there  are  few 
places  that  have  any,  except  Egypt,  and  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  -Mediterranean, 
w.'iose  weights  liave  been  already  enumerated 
aiuoiig  those  of  the  ports  of  the  Levant.  'I'he 
idand  oT  Madagascar  indeed  has  weights, 
but  none  that  exceed  the  drachm,  nor  are 
tliey  used  for  any  thing  but  gold  and  silver. 

Weights  r(;/rf  Measures.  Tliestandard 
of  measures  was  originally  kept  at  Winches- 
ter, whicii  measure  was  by  the  law  of  king 
Edgar,  o'-dained  to  he  observed  through  the 
kingdom. 

By.  Stat.  35  G.  11 F.  c.  102,  the  justices  in 
quarter-sessions  in  every  county,  are  reipiiri'd 
to  apjjoint  persons  to  examine  the  wei!i;hts 
and  balances  within  their  re>pective  jurisdic- 
tions. 'Ihese  inspectors  may  seize  and  exa- 
mine weights  in  sliops,  &:c.  and  seize  false 
weights  and  balances,  and  tiie  offender,  being 
convicted  before  one  justice,  shall  be  lined 
from  5s.  to  20f.  Persons  obstructing  t.tie  in- 
spectors to  forfeit  from  5s.  to  40y.  inspect- 
ors to  be  recompensed  out  of  llie  county- 
rate.  Standaivl  weights  to  be  purchased  by 
tlie  sessions  out  of  the  county-rate,  and  p:i)- 
duced  toal!  persons  paying  for  the  production 
therft'f.  Informations  to  be  within'oiie  month. 

Universal  standard  for  xvcighis  and  mca- 
swes.  Philosophers,  from  their  habits  of  ge- 
neralizing, have  often  made  speculations  for 
forming  a  general  standard  for  weights  and 
Sieasures  through  the  wliole  world.  These 
kiive  been  devised  chiefly  of  a  pliilosophical 


W  P,  I 

nature,  as  be<(  adapted  to  gniversalilv.  Aflcf 
Ihe  invent  ion  ol  pendidinii  clocks,  jt'drsi  oc- 
curred ihiil  iJie  length  of  a  pendulum  \",:cli 
should  vibrate  seconds',  would  be  proper  to 
he  made  a  universal  standard  for  length; 
Mheihoril  should  be  called  a  yanl,  or  any 
thing  else.  lUil  il  was  found  that  il  would  be 
difllciiJt  in  pradice,  to  measure  and  deler- 
iiiiiie  llic  true  length  of  sucli  a  pendulum, 
that  is,  Ihedislame  bi  twei  n  the  point  ol  sus- 
pension and  the  point  of  oscillation.  Another 
cause  ot  inaccuracy  was  allerwards  iJisco- 
vered,  when  it  was  fuimd  thai  the  seconds 
pendulum  was  of  dilierent  lengths  in  all  the 
dilierent  laliludes,  owing  to  the  spheroiilal 
ligu.e  of  the  earth;  which  cau»es  lljal  all 
places  in  ilillerent  laliludes  are  at  dilferenl 
distances  from  the  ceiiln;,  and  consec|uenlly 
the  pendiilunis  are  acted  upon  by  dilferen't 
forces  of  gravity,  and  Iherelore  require  lobe 
of  dilierent  leiigllis.  In  the  latilnde  of  Jxrn- 
don  this  is  fotiiid  to  be  59^  inches. 

1  he  Society  ot  Aitsol  London,  among  their 
many  laudable  patiiolic  endeavoi.rs,  ollered 
a  handsome  premium  for  the  discovery  of  a 
proper  standard  for  weights  and  measures. 
1  Ins  l)ionghllhem  many  trivoious  expedients, 
as  well  as  one  whicli  was  an  improvement  on 
the  method  of  ihe  pendulum,  by  Mr.  llallon. 
'Jhis  consisteilin  measuring  tlie  dilTerence  of 
the  lengths  of  two  pendulums  of  different 
times  ot  vibration,  which  could  be  performed 
more  easily  and  accurately  than  that  of  the 
length  of  one  single  pendulum.  This  method 
«as  j)ut  ill  practice,  and  lullv  explained  and 
illustrated,  by  the  late  .\lr.'  Whitehnrst,  in 
his  attempt  to  ascertain  an  universal  standard 
of  weights  and  measures.  IJut  still  the  same 
kind  of  inaccuracy  of  measurement,  &c.  ob- 
tains in  this  way,  as  in  the  single  pendulum, 
though  ill  a  smaller  degree. 

Another  meihod  that  has  been  pro|X)Sed 
for  tliis  purpose  is  the  space  that  a  heavy  body 
tails  freely  through  in  one  second  of  time. 
But  this  is  an  experiment  more  ditFicult  than 
the  former  to  be  made  with  accuracy,  on 
which  account  different  jiersons  will  all  make 
the  space  fallen  to  be  of  dilierent  quantities, 
whicli  would  give  as  many  dilierent  stand- 
ards of  length.  Add  to  Ikis,  that  the  sphe- 
roidal form  of  the  earth  liere  again  introduces 
a  diversity  in  the  space,  owing  to  the  dilierent 
distances  from  the  centre,  and  the  coiise- 
i|iient  diversity  in  the  force  of  gravity  by 
which  the  body  falls.  This  space  has  been 
found  to  be  193  inches,  or  l6Jj.  feet,  in  the 
latitude  of  London;  but  it  will  be  a  dilferent 
quantity  in  other  latitudes. 

Many  other  inferior  expedients  have  also 
been  jiroposed  for  ihe  purpose  of  universal 
measures  and  weights  ;  but  there  is  another 
which  now  has  the  best  prospect  of  success, 
and  is  at  present  under  particular  experi- 
ments, by  the  philosophers  both  of  this  and 
the  French  nation.  ^I'his  method  is  by  the 
measure  of  the  degrees  of  latitude,  which 
would  give  a  large  quautiiy,  and  admit  of 
more  accurate  measure,  by  subdivision,  than 
what  could  be  obtained  i)y  beginning  from  a 
small  quantity,  or  measure,  and  thence  to 
proceed  increasing  by  multiples.  This  mea- 
sure might  be  taken  either  from  the  extent 
of  the  whole  ci^npass  of  the  earth,  or  of  all 
the  300  degrees,  or  a  medium  degree  among 
them  all,  or  from  the  measure  of  a  degree  in 
the  medium  latitude  of  45  degrees.  It  will 
also  be  most  convcnieat  to  make  the,  subdL- 


W   It   J» 


Cf,Z 


visions  of  this  mraiurr,  when  IouikI,  to  pro- 
ceed dccinially,  or  conlinnally  by  lOlhs. 

'ihe  universal  standard  for  length>  being 
once  I  h'uliliilieil,  Hiokc  of  wtightii,  if.  woulS 
la'.ily  follow.  For  iuitance:  a  vo-el,  of  cer- 
tain dimenbioiis,  be  ng  fdh-d  wiih  di»ii||cii 
water,  or  some  other  liom(igenr(,u»  uialliT, 
(he  weight  of  that  may  be  considered  ai  a 
standard  (or  weights, 

VV  F.I  iN  M  i:.\  N I  A,  a  genus  of  plants  of  tlia 
class  and  order  oclandria  digynia.  'I'lie  calyx 
is  four-leaved;  corolla  lour-petalled;  caps, 
two-celled,  two-beakeil.  'I  lir-re  are  six  »pc- 
cies,  trees  ol  llie  so.itliein  climates. 

\NELD1NG  IIL.AT,  in  himllierj-,  a  de- 
gree of  hc-at  given  to  iron,  &c.  suflnienl  !• 
make  an)  Uo  bars  or  pieces  of  iron  unite  by 
a  few  strokes  of  the  hammer,  and  form  oua 
piece.     See  Irov. 

WIlN.  Si-e  .Si'KOEP.v. 

WF.S  j  UINGIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  llie 
didynamia  gyinno^permia  class  and  order. 
Ihe  calyx  is  half  live-clitl,  live-sided;  co- 
rolla reversed  ;  four  segments,  longest  erect, 
cloven;  slam,  distant,  Iwo  shorter  aborliw. 
There  is  one  species,  a  shrub  ef  New  boutk 
Wales. 

WMAI.i:,    See  BAr.;EN-A. 

WIIKAT.     See   '1  riticu.m,  and   Iluf- 

BAN'URY. 

\VHK.\T-KVR.       See  MoTAClLLA. 

AS' II  ELL,  in  mechanics,  a  simple  machine, 
consisting  ol  a  round  piece  of  wood,  metal,, 
or  other  matter,  whicli  revolves  on  an  axis. 
The  wheel  is  one  of  the  principal  mechanic 
powers ;  it  has  place  in  most  engines ;  ia 
ellect,  il  is  of  an  assemblage  of  wheels  lliat 
most  of  our  engines  ace  composed.  See 
Mechanics. 

\\  HEELS, (j,rcoflc/i^.f,  carts,  zi-ntrgons,  SfC. 
With  respect  to  wheels  of  carnages,  the  fol-- 
lowing  particulars  are  collected  from  the  ex- 
neriments  and  observations  of  Desaguliers, 
Beighton,  Camus,  Ferguson,  Jacob,  &c. 

1.  The  use  of  wheels  in  carriages  is  two- 
fold, viz.  that  of  d.niinishing  or  more  easily- 
overcoming  the  resistance  or  friction  from 
the  carnage;  and  that  of  more  ea>ilv  over- 
coming obstacles  in  the  road.  In  the  first 
case,  the  friction  on  the  ground  is  transferred 
in  some  degree  from  the  outer  surface  of  the 
wheel  to  its  nave  and  axle  ;  and  in  the  latter,, 
they  serve  easily  (o  raise  the  carriage  over 
obstacles  and  asperities  met  with  en  the 
roads.  In  both  these  cases,  the  height  of  the 
wheel  is  of  material  consideration,  as  the 
spokes  act  as  levers,  the  top  of  an  obstacle 
being  the  fulcrum,  their  length  enables  Uie 
carriage  more  easily  t"  mrmount  them  ;  and 
the  greater  proportion  of  the  wheel  to  the 
axle  serves  more  ca.>=ily  to  dimiiiish  or  to 
overcome  tlie  friction  ol  the  axle. 

2.  'Ihe  wheels  should  be  exactly  round; 
and  the  fellies  al  right  angles  to  the  naves, 
according  to  the  inclination  of  the  spokeS. 

3.  It  IS  the  general  opinion,  that  the  S|)okts 
should  be  somewhat  inclined  lu  the  naves,  so 
that  the  wheels  may  be  dishing  or  concave- 
Indeed  if  the  wheels  were  always  to  roll  upon 
smooth  and  level  ground,  it  would  be  best  to- 
make  the  spokes  perpendicular  to  the  naves, 
or  to  the  axles  ;  because  they  would  then 
bear  the  weight  of  the  load  perpendiailarlv. 
But  because  the  groui-.d  is  coiiinionly  uneven, 
one  wheel  often  falls  into  a  cavity  or  rue, 
when  the  other  does  not,  and  then  it  liears 
much  more  of  the  w  eight  th«n  th«  other  dott^ 


904 


\V  H  E 


in  which  casR  it  is  liioiight  be;t  for  the  wheel 
to  be  (iislied,  because  tin;  spokes  become 
peipendicuiar  in  the  nit,  and  therefore  have 
the  greatest  stri-nglli  wlien  the  nbli'iuity  of 
the  road  throus  most  of  tlie  weight  upon 
t.ieni;  whilst  those  on  the  liigh  ground  liave 
less  weight  to  bear,  and  therefore  need  not 
be  at  then-  full  strength. 

4.  The  axles  of  the  wheels  should  be  quite 
■straight,  and  per|<enilicuhir  to  the  shafts,  or 
to  the  pole.  \\'hen  the  axles  are  straight, 
the  rims  of  the  wheels  will  be  parallel  to  each 
other,  in  which  case  they  will  move  the 
pasieif,  bfcause  thev  will  be  at  liberty  to  pro- 
ceed straight  forwards.  But  in  the  usual  way 
of  practice,  the  ends  of  the  axles  are  bent 
downwards,  which  always  keeps  the  sidi-s  of 
th(.'  wheels  that  are  m-xt  tiie  ground  nearer  to 
one  another  than  their  upper  sides  are  ;  and 
this  not  onlv  makes  the  wheels  drag  sideways 
astriey  go  along,  and  gives  the  load  a  nuuli 
greatfr  power  of  crushing  them  than  when 
they  are  parallel  to  each  other,  but  also  en- 
tlangers  the  ov(>rturning  the  carriage  when  a 
wheel  tails  into  a  hole  or  rut,  or  when  the 
carriage  goes  on  a  road  that  has  one  side 
lower  than  the  other,  as  along  the  side  of  a 
hill.  ■ 

c.  Large  wheels  are  found  more  advan- 
tageous for  rolling  than  small  oiu-s,  both  with 
rcgan!  to  their  power  as  a  longer  lever,  aii-l 
to  the  degree  ol  friction,  and  to  the  advantage 
in  getting  over  hole*,  rubs,  and  stones,  S:c. 
If  we  consider  wheels  with  rt-gard  to  the  fric- 
tion upon  their  axles,  it  is  evident  that  small 
wheels,  bv  turning  oltmer  round,  and  swifier 
about  the  axles,  than  large  ones,  must  have 
more  friction.  Again,  if  we  consider  wheels 
as  thev  sink  into  holes  or  soft  earth,  the  large 
wheels,  by  sinking  less,  must  be  more  easily 
drawn  out  of  them,  as  well  as  over  stones  and 
obstacles,  from  their  greater  length  of  lever 
or  spokes. 

It  is  a  lact,  however,  that  the  draught  ought 
not  to  be  h.orizontal,  but  rather  inclined:  be- 
cause in  the  horizontal  draught  the  collar 
presses  against  tlie  chest  of  the  horse,  instead 
of  bearing  on  his  shonkU-rs,  as  in  an  inclined 
draught ;  and  because  in  this  latter  circum- 
stance the  wheels  pass  more  easily  over  ob- 
stacli-s  than  when  the  draught  is  horizontal. 
Henee  it  appear.^,  that  wheels  are  the  more 
advantageous  as  they  are  larger,  provided 
they  are  not  so  high  as  to  make  the  draught 
horizontal:  and  when  tiicy  are  very  large 
also,  thev  become  too  heavy;  or  it  they  are 
made  light,  their  strength  is  proportionably 
ilimiuished,  and  the  length  of  tiie  spokes 
renders  .them  more  liable  to  break  ;  besides, 
horses  apphe.l  to  such  wheels  would  not  be 
capable  of  everting  their  utmost  sirength, 
for  the  rea-'oiis  already  assigin  .1,  small  wheels 
occasioning  the  horses  to  draw  upwards. 

6.  Carr'ajes  with  four  wheels,  as  waggons 
or  coaches,  arc  much  more  advantageous 
than  carriages  with  two  wheels,  as  carts  and 
chaises  ;  for  svilii  two  w  heels  it  is  plain  the 
ti'.ler-horsc  carries  part  of  the  weighi,  in  one 
wav  or  other;  in  going  down  hiil,  the  weignt 
bears  upon  the  llor^e  ;  and  in  going  up  hill, 
tiie  weight  falls  the  other  wuv,  ami  lih-  the 
horse,  which  is  still  worse.  l5esi.les,  as  the 
wheels  sink  into  the  holes  in  thp  roads,  some- 
times ou  one  side,  sometimes  on  the  other, 
the  bliafts  ,lr,ke  against  the  tilU'i's  sides, 
which  de.trovs  man;,  hore.;:  moreover  « hen 
oas  of  Ihc  wheels  siulis  into  s.  hole  or  nit,  liaif 


W  H  I 

the  weight  falls  that  way,  which  endangers 
the  overturning  of  the  carriage. 

'/'.  It  would  be  much  more  advantageous  to 
make  the  four  wheels  of  a  coach  or  waggon 
nearly  of  a  height,  than  to  make  the  fore- 
wheels  of  only  half  the  diameter  of  the  hind- 
wlieels,  as  is  u'^ed  in  manv  places.  '1  ne  fore- 
wheels  ha\e  commonly  been  made  of  a  less 
size  than  the  hind  ones,  both  on  account  of 
turning  short,  and  to  avoid  cutting  the  braces. 
Crane-necks  have  also  been  invented  for 
turning  yet  shorter;  and  the  fore-wheels  have 
been  lowered,  so  as  to  go  qiiite  under  the  bend 
of  the  crane-neck. 

\Vhen  a  horse  draws  hard,  it  is  observed 
that  he  bends  forward,  and  brings  his  breast 
near  the  ground,  and  then  if  the  wheels  are 
high,  he  is  pulling  the  carriage  against  the 
ground.  A  liorse  tackled  in  a  waggon  will 
draw  two  or  three  ton,  because  the  point  or 
line  of  traction  is  below  his  breast,  by  the 
lou'iiesi  of  the  wheels.  It  is  also  common  to 
see,  when  one  horse  is  drawing  a  heavy  load, 
especially  up  hil!,  his  fore-feet  will  rise  from 
the  ground;  in  which  case  it  is  usual  to  add 
a  weight  on  his  back,  to  keep  his  fore-part 
down,  by  a  person  mounting  on  his  back  or 
slioulders,  wiiich  will  enable  him  to  draw  that 
load  which  he' could  not  move  before.  The 
greatest  stress,  or  main  business  of  drawing, 
IS  to  overcome  obstacles ;  for  on  level  plains 
the  diav\ing  is  but  little,  and  then  tiie  horse's 
back  need  be  pressed  but  with  a  small  weight. 

8.  '1  he  utility  of  broatl  wheels,  in  amend- 
i:ig  and  pre^erving  the  roads,  has  been  so 
gen-rally  believed,  as  to  have  occasi'iivd  the 
hgisiature  to  enforce  their  use.  At  the  same 
lime,  tlie  proprietors  and  drivers  of  carriages 
seem  to  be  coiivineed  by  experience,  that  a 
narrow-wheeled  carriage  is  more  easily  and 
speedily  drawn  by  the  same  number  of 
horses,  than  a  broad-wheelerl  one  of  the  same 
burthen  ;  probably  because  they  are  much 
ligliter,  and  liave  less  friction  'ui  tlie  axle; 
and  the  owners  of  broad-wheeled  waggons 
contrive  in  general  to  make  them  as  desitriic- 
tive  to  roads  as  narrow-wheeled  ones,  bv 
making  the  rim  of  the  wheel  of  unequal  dia- 
meters, and  the  waggon  consequently  to  go 
generally  on  a  sliarp  and  narrow  edge.' 

ViHtF.L-AsiMAi.s,  hnicliinniis,  a.  genus  of 
animalrules  which  have  an  apixiratiis  of  arms 
for  taking  their  prey.  This  a))paralus  has 
been  supposed,  by  microscopical  writers,  to 
be  a  kind  of  wheels  ;  and  thev  tiience  named 
the  creatures  that  are  jiosscssed  of  it,  wheel- 
animals. 

WfllRLPOOL,  an  eddy,  vortex,  or 
gulpli,  wiiere  the  water  is  continually  turning 
round.  These  in  rivers  are  very  common, 
(rom  various  accidents,  and  are  usually  very 
trivial,  and  of  little  consequence.  In  the  sea 
they  are  more  rare,  but  more  dangerous. 
Sibbald  has  related  the  eliects  of  a  very  re- 
markable marine  whirlpool  among  the  Or- 
ciides,  whicli  would  prove  verv  danirerous  to 
strangers,  though  it  is  of  no  consequence  to 
the  pcoole  who  are  used  to  it.  This  is  not 
hxed  to  any  particular  place,  but  appears  in 
various  parts  of  the  limits  of  the  sea  among 
those  inlands.  Wherever  it  ajipears,  it  is  verv 
Uirious;  andboul',  &c.  would  inevitably  be 
drawn  in  and  ^>i  r\ih  with  it;  but  the  pi.ople 
who  navigate  theiii  are  prepared  for  it,  and 
a'ways  carry  an  empty  vessel,  a  log  of  wood, 
<■.  large  bundle  ol' straw,  or  some  such  thing, 
in  tile  boat  with  them  ;  as  soon  as  they  per- 
S 


•\V  H  I 

ceive  the  whirlpool,  they  toss  this  wiliiin  \\i 
vortex,  kee[)ing  themselves  out;  this  sub- 
stance, whatever  it  may  be,  is  immediately 
received  into  the  centre,  and  carried  under 
water;  and  as  soon  as  this  is  done,  tlie  sur- 
face of  the  place  where  the  whirlpool  was  be- 
comes smooth,  and  they  row  over  it  witli 
safety;  and  in  about  an  hour  they  see  the 
vortex  begin  again  in  soiinr  other  place,  usu- 
ally at  about  a  mile  distance  from  the  last. 

VWllKLVtTND.  This  phenomenon  is 
well  deluied  by  its  name.  Its  nature  may  be 
illustrated  by  lecurring  to  the  same  kind  of 
motion  in  a  denser  Huid.  V/hen  v.ater  is 
flowing  through  an  aperture  in  the  bottom  of 
a  vessel,  we  may  observe  tiiai  the  meeting  of 
the  currents  wiiich  proceed  from  all  sides  to- 
wards the  opniing,  gives  rise  at  length  to  a 
circular  motion  just  over  it;  at  first  conlincd 
to  a  sn-all  space,  but  spreading  bv  degrees, 
until  it  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  sur- 
rounding water.  At  this  time,  the  centrifugal 
ieiee  becoming  greater  every  instant,  the 
water  absolutely  quits  the  central  space,  leav- 
I  111^  a  hole  through  it,  ^vhich,  together  with 
tiie  whirling  motion,  continues  during  tlie  re- 
luaming  time  of  the  di.-charge.  -Kow,  as  the 
water  tiescends  by  its  gravity,  and  the  other 
effect  depends  on  a  lateral  inijulse,  given  by 
the  most  powerful  of  the  confluent  streams, 
so  the  heated  air,  over  some  particular  tract, 
asc'ending  by  tlie  lateral  pressure  of  surround- 
ing colder  and  heavier  air,  may  at  any  time 
give  rise  to  a  whirlwind  of  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent and  force,  according  to  tiie  quantity  of 
air  required  to  be  thus  transmitted  to  a  higher 
station,  in  order  that  the  equilibrium  of  the 
atmosphere  may  be  restored.  Tliere  is  want- 
ed for  this  purpose  only  a  sudden  impulse 
from  some  quaiter,  sufficient  to  disturb  tlie 
uniform  motioiv  of  the  ascending  stream. 
The  effects  of  whirlwinds  are  sometimes  tre- 
mendous; not  only  large  quantities  of  hay, 
and  other  light  bodies,  but  even  the  limbs  "of 
trees,  the  roofs  of  houses,  and  other  pon- 
derous matters,  having  been  lifted  up  and 
carried  olf  by  them.  Their  effects  are  no 
where  more  conspicuous  than  in  the  vast 
pillars  ol  sand,  so  much  dreaded  by  travellers, 
which  they  raise  from  th.;  moveable  surface  of 
the  deserts  in  the  East,  and  of  which  we  have 
a  good  account  in  Bruce's  Tr;;vels.  Dr. 
Franklin,  in  whom  sagacity  of  observation 
was  eminently  united  with  the  power  of 
sinqjle  and  plain  description,  has  left  us  the 
following  account  of  a  iwoderate  whirlwind, 
of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness  close  at  hand. 
"  Being  in  iVIaryland  (says  the  doctor) 
riding  witti  colonel  Parker,  and  some  other 
gintlemen,  to  liis  couutry-seat,  we  saw  in 
the  vale  below  us  a  small  whirlwind,  be- 
■giniiing  in  the  road,  and  shewing  itself 
by  the  dust  it  raised  and  conlaincd:  it  ap- 
peared in  the  form  of  a  sugar-loaf,  spinning 
on  its  point,  moving  up  the  liill  towards 
us,  enlarging  as  it  came  forward.  AVhen  it 
passed  by  us.  its  smaller  part,  near  the 
ground,  appeared  no  bigger  than  a  common 
barrel,  but  widenin  ■  upwards,  it  seemed  at 
40  or  jO  feet  higii,  !o  be  20  or  30  feet  in  dia- 
meter. The  rest  of  th;  eot-ipany  stood  look- 
ing after  it,  but  my  curiosity  being  stronger, 
I  followed  il,  riding  close  by  its  side,  and  ob- 
served it  licking  iiji,  in  its  progress,  all  the 
dust  that  was  under  its  smaller  part.  As  it 
is  a  common  opinion,  that  a  shot  fired  throiisili 
a  water-spout  will  break  it,  1  tried  to  break 


^^■  H  r 

this  little  whirhviiul,  by  striking  my  wliip 
rrc-qiienily  tliroiigli  it,  but  without  any  e/Ic-ct. 
Soon  after  it  (|iiittecl  tlie-road,  and  took  into 
the  woods,  grouin;;  every  moiiu-nt  larger  and 
stronger,  raising,  instead  ot  dust,  Die  old  dry 
leaves,  with  whicli  tlie  ground  was  liiick-eo- 
■vered,  and  making  a  great  noise  with  tliein 
and  the  branches  of  irccs,  bending  some  tall 
trees  round  in  a  circle  swiftly,  and  vei  y  sur- 
prisingly; though  the  progressive  niol'ion  of 
the  wliirl  was  not  so  swi;t,  but  tluit  a  man  on 
foot  might  have  ke;>t  pace  witliit;  but  the 
circular  motion  was  amazingly  rapi<l.  By 
the  leaves  it  was  now  filled  witli,  1  could 
plainly  perceive  that  the  current  uf  air  they 
were  ilriven  by,  moved  upwards  in  a  spiral 
line  ;  and  when  I  saw  the  passing  whirl  con- 
tinue entire  after  leaving  tlie  trunks  and  bo- 
dies of  large  trees  which  it  had  enveloped,  I 
iw  longer  wondered  that  my  whip  had  no 
•Mfect  on  it  in  its  smaller  state.  I  accompa- 
nied it  about  i  of  a  mile,  till  some  limbs  of 
dead  trees,  broken  off  by  the  whirl.  Hying 
about,  falling  near  me,  made  me  more  ap- 
prehensive of  danger;  and  then  1  stopped, 
looking  at  the  top  of  it,  as  it  went  on,  wliich 
was  visible,  by  means  of  the  leaves  contained 
in  it,  for  a  verj-  great  height  above  the  trees, 
/.lany  of  the  leaves,  as  lliey  got  loose  from 
the  upper  and  widest  part,  were  scattered  in 
the  wind  ;  but  so  great  was  tlieir  height  in 
the  air,  that  they  appeared  no  bigger  than 
llies.  My  son,  who  by  this  time  w^as  come 
up  with  me,  followed  'the  whirlwind  till  it 
li-ft  tlie  woods,  and  crossed  an  old  tobacco 
field,  where,  liiidiug  neither  dust  nor  leaves  to 
take  up,  it  gradually  became  invisible  below, 
as  it  went  away  over  that  field.  The  course 
of  the  general  wind  then  blowing  was  along 
with  us  as  we  travelled;  and  tlie  ))rogressive 
motion  of  the  whirlwind  was  in  a  direction 
nearly  opposite,  though  it  did  not  keep  a 
straight  line;  nor  was  its  progressive  motion 
iinifurni,  it  making  little  sallies  as  it  went  on 
either  side,  proceeding  sometimes  faster  and 
sometimes  slowej-,  and  seeming  sometimes, 
for  a  few  seconds,  stationary ;  then  starting 
forwards  jiretty  fast  again.  When  we'  re- 
joined the  company  again,  they  were  admir- 
ing the  vast  height  uf  the  leaves  now  brought 
by  the  common  wind  over  our  heads.  These 
leaves  atcompanied  us  as  we  travelled,  some 
falling  now  and  then  round  about  us,  and 
some  not  reaching  the  ground  till  we  had 
gone  near  three  miles  from  the  plate  where 
We  saw  the  whirlwind  bcjiii. 

\VfIISl'EKlNG-PL.\CES  depend  upon 
this  principle ;  If  the  vibrations  of  the  tre- 
mulous body  are  propagated  through  a  long 
tube,  they  will  be  coniinually  re\erberated 
from  the  sides  of  the  tube  into  its  axis,  and  bv 
that  means  prevented  from  spreading,  till 
they  get  out  of  it;  whereby  they  will  be  ex- 
ceedingly increased,  and  tlie  sound  rendered 
much  louder  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  See 
Sound. 

Hence  it  is,  tliat  sound  is  conveved  from 
one  side  of  a  wliispering-gi'llery  to  the  oppo- 
site one,  without  being  perceived  by  those 
who  stand  in  the  midale.  The  form  of  a 
whispering-gallery  is  that  of  a  segment  of  a 
sphere,  or  a  similar  aiclied  ligure. 

WIIIST,  a  well-known  game  at  cards, 
which  rei^ulres  great  attention  and  silence  ; 
lience  the  name.  This  game  i<  )jlaved  by 
four  persons,  will)  cut  for  i)artiieis  ;  liie  t«o 
bighest  and  the  two  lowest  are  t-ogetlier,  anil 
■\'0L.  II.  ^  ' 


\V  I  L 

the  partners  sit  oppoeitc  lo  eacb  oilier;  tlie 
person  who  cuts  the  lowest  card  is  to  deal 
/irst,  giving  one  at  a  time  to  rrich  person,  till 
he  co/iies  to  the  last  card,  which  is  turned  up 
for  tlie  truni|>,  and  remains  on  the  table  till 
each  person  has  played  a  card.  The  person 
on  the  left-hand  sitle  of  the  dealer  plays  lirst, 
and  whoever  wins  tiie  trick  is  to  play  again, 
thus  going  on  till  the  cards  are  played  out. 
The  ace,  King,  ipieen,  and  knave,  of  trumps, 
are  called  honours ;  in  case  any  three  of 
these  honours  have  been  pUiyed  lietween,  or 
by  either  of  the  two  partners,  tlu-y  reckon  for 
two  points  towards  the  game;  and  if  the  four 
honours  have  been  plajcd  between  or  by 
either  of  t!ie  (wo  partners,  they  reckon  for 
lour  points  towards  tiie  game,  the  game  con- 
sisting of  ten  points.  'I'he  honours  are  reck- 
oned after  the  tricks ;  all  above  six  tricks 
reckoning  also  towards  the  game. 

In  Iloyle's  Games  may  be  seen  the  general 
rules  for  playing  whist,  which  arc  too  long  for 
insertion  here. 

WriniNG.  SeeGADUs. 

WICKLIITTS'IS,  or   Wickuffites,  a 

religious  sect  which  sprung  up  in  Kngland  in 
the  reign  of  Kdwarillll.  and  look  ita  name  1 
from  John  Wickliff,  doctor  and  professor  of 
divinity  in  the  university  of  0.v.ford,  who 
maintained  that  the  substance  of  the  sacra- 
mental bread  and  wine  remained  uiialteiH.'d 
after  consecration  ;  and  opposed  the  doclriiiir 
of  purgatory,  indulgences,  auricular  confes- 
sion, the  invocation  of  saints,  and  the  worshlj) 
of  imagi'!.  He  nuiintained  that  children  may 
be  saved  without  being  baptised  ;  that  priests 
may  administer  coniimiatioii ;  that  there 
ought  to  be  onlv  two  orders  in  the  church, 
that  of  priests,  and  that  of  deacons.  He 
made  an  English  version  of  the  Bible,  and 
composed  two  volumes,  called  Alcthia,  that 
is,  'I  ruth,  from  which  John  Husse  learned 
most  of  his  doctrines.  In  short,  to  this  re- 
former we  owe  the  lirst  hint  of  the  reforma- 
tion which  was  cll'ected  about  two  hundred 
years  after. 

WIDOW,  a  woman  who  has  lost  her  hus- 
band by  death.  In  London,  and  throughout 
the  province  of  York,  the  widow  of  a  free- 
man, is  bv  custom  entitled  to  her  apparel, 
and  the  furniture  of  the  bed-chamber,  tailed 
the  widow's  chamber. 

WIFE.  Alter  marriage,  all  the  will  of  the 
wife,  in  judgment  of  law,  is  subject  to  the  will 
ot  the  husband,  and  it  is  commouly  said  a  feme 
covert  has  no  will.  See  Husbanii  and  Wife. 

WILDERNESS,  in  gardening,  a  kind  of 
grove  ol  l.trgp  trees,  in  a  spacious  garden,  in 
which  the  walks  are  commonlv  made  eitiier 
to  intersect  each  other  in  angles,  or  have  the 
appearance  of  meanders  and  labyrinths. 

Wildernesses,  says  Mr.  Miller,  should  al- 
ways be  proportioned  to  the  extent  of  the 
gardens  in  whicti  they  are  made ;  for  it  is 
very  ridiculous  to  see  a  large  wilderness 
planted  with  tall  trees  in  a  small  spot  of 
ground  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  nothing  can 
be  more  absurd,  than  to  see  little  |)allry 
squares,  or  quarters  of  wilderness-v.ork,  in  a 
magniticent  large  garden.  As  to  the  situa- 
tion ot  wildernesses,  they  should  never  be 
placed  too  near  the  habitation,  nor  so  as  to 
obstruct  any  distant  prospect  of  the  country, 
there  being  nothing  so  agreeable  as  an  ilnron- 
tincd  pros[)ect ;  but  where,  troni  the  situa- 
tion ul  the  place,  the  sight  i;  confmed  within 
5  Y  ■ 


W  I  L 


9(75 


(he  liniitiof  the  garden,  or  Uicre  is  any  thing 
unsighllv  to  be  cciiicealed,  nothing  can  ta 
agreiabfy  l(  rmiiiatc  the  prosijcet  as  a  beau- 
tilul  scene  of  the  various  Kinds  of  trees  judi- 
ciously platiled;  and  if  it  is  so  contrived,  that 
the  termination  is  planted  circularly,  w  tli 
the  concave  lov.Erds  the  sight,  it  will  have  a 
much  better  elferl,  than  if  it  emls  in  stiaiglit 
linifsoT  aiigli-s.  'J  he  plants  should  always  be 
adapted  to  tlic  size  of  the  plantation  ;  for  it  in 
vi  ly  absurd  for  tall  trees  to  be  planted  in  (he 
small  squares  of  a  little  garden  ;  and  in  largt 
designs  small  shrubs  will  have  a  mean  a]*- 
pearanee. 

As  lo  (he  walks,  those  (hat  liavo  the  appear- 
ance of  nii'andi-rs,  where  the  eye  r-annot  dis- 
cover more  than  twenty  or  tliiily  vardi  in 
length,  are  gi.'ncrally  preferable  to  afl  otliei'-, 
anti  fh'se  should  imw  and  then  lead  into  an 
open  circular  piece  of  gra's ;  in  the  centre  of 
which  may  be  placed  either  an  obelisk,  statue, 
or  fountain  ;  and,  if  in  the  middle  of  Ihewil- 
deniess  there  is  contrived  a  large  opening,  in 
the  t.eiitrc  of  which  may  !)<•  eie<-(ed  a  dome 
or  banqueting-house,  surrounded  with  a  ercm 
jilot  of  grass,  it  will  be  a  considerable  addition 
lo  the  beauty  of  the  whole.  I'rom  the  side« 
of  the  walks  and  openings,  the  trees  should 
rise  gradually  one  above  another  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  (inaners,  where  should  alwajs  he 
planted  the  largest-growing  trci-s,  so  that  the 
lieads  of  all  the  trees  may  appear  lo  view, 
wiiilfi  their  stems  will  be  hid  from  the  sight. 
Thus  those  parts  which  are  planted  with 
deciduous  trees,  roses,  honey-suckles  spi- 
raas,  and  other  kinds  of  low-tlowcring  shrubs, 
may  be  planted  next  the  walks  and  openings, 
and  at  their  feet,  near  the  sides  of  tne 
w;;lks,  witli  primroses,  violets,  dalTodil»,  &c. 
not  in  a  straight  line,  but  so  as  to  appear 
accidental,  as  in  a  natural  wood.  Behind  the 
lirst  row  of  shmbs  should  be  planted  syringas, 
hibisrus,  mezireons,  and  other  flowering 
shrubs  of  a  middle  growth ;  and  these  may 
be  backed  with  many  other  sorts  of  trees, 
rising  gradually  to  the  middle  of  the  quarters. 

The  part  p'anted  with  evergreens  may  be 
disposed  in  tiie  following  manner,  viz.  In  the 
lirst  line  next  the  great  walks,  may  be  placed 
the  laurustinus,  boxes,  spurge-laurel,  ju- 
niper, savin,  and  other  dwart  evergreens. 
Behind  these  may  be  placed  laurels,  hollies, 
arbutuses,  and  otlier  evergreens  of  a  larger 
growth.  Next  to  these  may  be  plajited 
alaternuses,  phyllireas,  yews,  cypresses,  Vir- 
ginian cedars,  and  other  trees  of  the  same 
growth  ;  behind  these  may  be  planlvd  Nor- 
way and  silver  Its,  the  true  pine,  and  other 
sorts  of  the  fir  growth ;  and  in  the  middle 
should  be  planted  t'colcli  pines,  piijaster,  and 
otlier  of  the  larger-growing  evergreens, 
which  will  afford  a  most  delightful  prospect, 
if  the  different  shades  of  the  greens  are  cu- 
riou'ily  intermixed. 

But  beside  the  grand  walks  and  openings, 
there  should  be  some  smaller  walks  through 
the  middle  of  the  quarters,  where  piTsoi.s 
miy  retire  for.  privacv;  and  by  the  sides  of 
those  private  walks  may  a' so  be  scattered 
som"  wood  (lowers  and  plants,  which,  if  urt- 
ullv  planted,  will  have  a  very  eoo;l  elTect. 

fn  the  general  dejigii  fur  these  wilder- 
nesses, there  should  not  be  a  studied  and  st'Sf 
I  orrespondency  between  the  several  parts ; 
lor  the  greater  diversity  there  is  in  the  distri- 
bution ofthe»e,  the  more  pleasure  tliev  \i  ill 
artiird. 


906 


W  I  L 


AMLL  AND  TESTAMENT,  in  law. 
Every  pci>on  caiiat)le  of  binding  liiiiisdf  by 
contract,  U  capable  of  making  a  will. 

Also  a  male  infant  of  the  age  of  14  years 
and  upwards,  and  female  of  1-'  years  and  up- 
wards, are  capable  of  making  a  will  respecting 
personal  estates  only. 

But  a  married  woman  cannot  make  a  will 
unless  a  power  is  reserved  in  a  marriage  set- 
tlement ;  but  wherever  personal  property, 
however,  is  given  to  a  married  woman  for  lier 
sole  and  separate  use,  she  may  dispose  of  it 
by  will. 

If  a  feme  sole  makes  her  will,  and  after- 
wards marries,  such  marriage  is  a  legal  revo- 
c:ition  of  the  will. 

Wills  are  of  two  kinds,  written  and  verbal ; 
tho  former  are  most  usual  and  secure. 

It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  a  will 
)-hould  be  witriPssed ;  and  a  testament  of 
riiattles,  written  in  the  testator's  own  hand, 
tliougii  it  should  have  neither  the  testator's 
Jiame  nor  seal  to  it,  nor  witnesses  present  at 
his  publication,  will  be  good,  provided  suffi- 
cient proof  can  be  had  that  it  is  his  hand-w  rit- 
ing.  Gilb.  200. 

liy  stat.  29  Car.  II.  c.  3,  all  devises  of 
iands,  and  tenements,  shall  not  only  be  in 
writing,  but  sliall  also  be  signed  by  the  party 
so  devi-ing  the  same,  or  by  some  other  per- 
son in  his  presence,  and  by  his  e.\press  direc- 
lipn,  and  shall  be  witnessed  and  subscribed 
iii  the  presence  of  the  person  devising,  by 
three  of  four  credible  witnesses,  or  else  the 
<levise  will  be  entirely  void,  and  tlie  land  will 
<lescend  to  the  heir  at  law. 

A  will,  even  if  made  beyond  sea,  beq'ieath- 
ing  land  in  England,  must  be  attested  bv 
three  witnesses.  2  Pere  Wms.  293. 

A  will,  however,  devising  copyhold  land, 
.does  not  require  to  be  witnessed:  it  is  sufli- 
«:ient  to  declare  the  uses  of  a  surrender  of 
^uch  copyhold  land  made  to  the  use  of  the 
will.  The  party  to  whom  the  land  is  given 
becomes  entitled  to  it  by  means  of  the  sur- 
render, and  not  by  the  will.     2  Atk.  37. 

.\  codicil  is  a  supplement  to  a  will,  or  an 
addition  made  by  the  person  making  the 
same,  anne.\ed  to,  and  to  be  taken  as  part  of, 
tiip  will  itself,  being  for  its  explanation  or  al- 
teration, to  add  something  to,  or  take  some- 
thing from,  the  former  disposition,  and  which 
inay  also  be  either  written  or  verbal,  under 
the  same  restrictions  as  regard  wills. 

If  two  wills  are  found,  and  it  does  not  ap- 
pear which  was  the  former  or  latter,  both  will 
be  void  ;  but  if  two  codicils  are  found,  and  it 
<;amiot  be  ascertained  whicli  was  the  first,  but 
the  same  tiling  is  devised  to  two  persons,  both 
ought  to  divide ;  but  where  either  wills  or 
«oti:ciIs  have  dates,  the  latter  is  considered 
as  valid,  and  revokes  the  former.  See  Ad- 
:mi!^/strator,  Executor,  and  Legacy. 

Wij.;l  V,  ITU  A  WISP,  or  Jack  vjith  a  Uiit- 
■ihorn.  See  Meteor. 

WILLICHIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  and  order  triaiidria  monogynia.  I'he 
calyx  is  four-cleft ;  corolla  ditto ;  capsule 
two-celled,  many-seeded.  There  is  one  spe- 
';ies,  an  annual  of  Mexico. 

WlLL'JGflBEIA,  agenusof  plants  ofthe 
pcntandriamonogvnia  class  and  order.  It  is 
contorted ;  corolla  salver-shaped  ;  stigma 
Jieaded  ;  fruit  one  or  two  celled,  belry  or 
pumpkin.  There  are  two  species,  trees  of 
(.j'li.'.na. 


W  I  N 

WIND,  a  sensible  current  in  the  atmo- 
sphere. The  motions  of  the  atmosphere  are 
subject,  in  a  certain  degree,  to  the  same  laws 
as  those  of  denser  lluids.  If  we  remove  a 
portion  (it  the  water  in  a  large  reservoir,  we 
see  the  surrounding  water  !li>w  in  to  restore 
the  ecinilibrium.  If  we  unpel,  in  any  direc- 
tion, a  certain  portion,  an  equal  ((uantity 
moves  in  a  contrary  direction  from  the  same 
( ause.  If  a  portion,  bein;^  rarilied  by  heat, 
(H'  condensed  by  cold,  ascends  or  descends, 
a  counter-current  in  another  part  is  the  ne- 
cessary and  visible  result.  It  is  thus  in  the 
atmosphere.  No  wind  can  blow  without  a 
counter-current  in  an  opposite  direction  ;  or 
arise  witliout  a  prcviois  destruction  of  the 
equilibrium,  the  general  causes  of  which  are  : 
1.  The  ascent  of  the  air  over  certain  tracts, 
heated  by  the  sun.  2.  Evaporation  causing 
an  actual  increase  in  the  volume  of  the  at- 
mospliere.  3.  Kain,  &:r.  causing  an  actual 
decrease  in  volume  by  the  destruction  ofthe 
vapour.  Currents  thus  produced  may  be 
|)ermanent  and  general,  extending  over  a 
large  portion  of  the  globe; periodical  as  in  the 
Indian  ocean  ;  or  variable,  and  as  it  were  oc- 
casional, or  at  least  uncertain,  as  the  winds  in 
temperate  climates. 

General  or  permanent  winds  blow  always 
nearly  in  the  same  direction.  In  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans,  under  the  equator,  the 
wind  is  almost  always  easterly  ;  it  blows,  in- 
deed, in  this  direction,  on  both  sides  of  the 
etjuator  to  the  latitude  of  28'\  More  to  the 
northward  of  the  eipiator,  the  wind  generally 
blows  betw  een  the  north  and  east ;  and  the 
farther  north  we  proceed,  we  lind  the  wind  to 
blow  to  a  more  northern  direction  ;  more  to 
the  southward  of  the  et[uator  it  blows  be- 
tween the  south  and  cast ;  and  the  farther  to 
the  south,  the  more  it  comes  in  that  direction. 
Between  the  parallels  of  28'  and  40"  south 
lat.  in  that  tract  w  hich  extends  from  30'^  west 
to  100^  east  longitude  trom  London,  the  wind 
is  variable,  but  it  most  frequently  blows  from 
between  the  N.  W.  and  S.  W.  so  that  the 
outward-bound  East  India  ships  generally  run 
down  their  easting  on  the  parallel  of  36° 
south. 

Navigators  have  given  the  appellation  of 
trade-winds  to  these  general  winds. 

Periodical  -xinds.  Those  winds,  which 
blow  in  a  certain  direction  for  a  time,  and  at 
certain  stated  seasons  change  and  blow  for  an 
equal  space  of  time  from  the  opposite  jjoint  of 
the  compass,  are  called  monsoons.  During 
the  months  of  April,  May,  June,  July,  .Au- 
gust, and  September,  the  wind  blows  from 
soutlnvard  ovijrthe  whole  length  ofthe  Indian 
ocean,  viz.  between  the  parallels  of  2X"  N. 
and  '2%'  S.  lat.  and  between  the  eastern  coast 
of  Africa  and  the  meridian  which  passes 
through  the  western  part  of  Japan  ;  but  in 
the  other  months,  October,  November,  De- 
cember, January,  February,  and  March,  the 
winds  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  Indian 
ocean  shift  round,  and  blosv  directly  contrary 
to  the  course  they  held  in  the  lormer  six 
months.  For  some  dajs  before  and  alter  the 
change,  there  are  calms,  variable  winds,  and 
tremendous  storms,  with  thunder,  ^^c. 

Philosophers  differ  in  their  opinions  re- 
specting the  cause  of  these  periodical  winds; 
but  a  n^ore  probable  theory  of  the  general 
trade-winds  is,  that  they  are  occasioned  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun  in  the  regions  about  the 
equator,  where  the  air  is  heated  to  a  greater 


W  I  N 

degree,  and  consequently  rarefied  more,  than 
in  the  more  northern  parts  of  llie  ulobe. 
From  this  expansion  of  the  air  in  these  tro- 
pical regions,  the  denser  air,  in  higher  lati- 
tudes, rushes  violently  towards  the  c<[uafor 
from  both  sides  oi"  the  globe,  liy  this  cou- 
ilux  ofthe  denser  air,  without  any  other  cir- 
cumstances intervening,  a  <lircct  U(;!iherly 
wind  would  be  produced  in  the  northern 
tropic,  and  a  suuthern  one  in  the  other  tropic  ; 
but  as  tlie  earth's  diurnal  motion  varies  the 
direc  t  influence  of  the  sun  over  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  and  as  by  that  motion  this  inilu- 
ence  is  communicated  Irom  east  to  west,  an 
easterly  wind  would  be  pioduccd  if  this  in- 
lluence  alone  prevailed.  On  account  of  the 
co-operation  of  these  two  causes  at  the  same 
time,  the  trade-winds  blow  naturally  from  the 
N.  IC.  on  the  north,  and  from  the  S.  E.  on  the 
south  ofthe  Line,  througf.out  the  whole  year; 
but  as  the  sun  approaches  nearer  the  tropic 
of  Cancer  in  our  summer  season,  the  point 
towards  which  these  winds  are  directed  will 
not  be  invariably  the  same,  but  thev  will  in- 
( line  more  towards  the  north  in  that  season, 
and  more  towards  the  south  in  our  winter. 

The  land  and  sea  breezes  in  the  tro|)ica\ 
climates  may  be  considered  as  partial  inter- 
ruptions of  the  general  trade-winds;  and  the 
cause  of  these  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  ex- 
plain. From  water  being  a  better  conductor 
of  heat  than  earth,  the  water  is  always  of  a 
more  even  temperature.  During  the  day, 
therefore,  the  land  becomes  considerably 
heated,  the  air  rarefied,  and  consecpientlv  in 
i  the  afternoon  a  breeze  sets  in  from  the  "sea, 
which  is  less  heated  at  that  time  than  the 
land.  On  the  other  hand,  during  the  night 
the  earth  loses  its  surplus  heat,  while  the  sea 
continues  more  even  in  its  temperature,  "^to- 
wards morning,  therefore,  a  breeze  regularly 
proceeds  from  the  land  towards  the  ocean, 
where  the  air  is  warmer,  and  consequently 
more  rarefied,  than  on  shore. 

The  cause  of  the  monsoons  is  not  so  well 
understood  as  that  ofthe  general  trade-winds, 
but  what  has  been  just  remarked,  suggests,  at 
least,  a  probable  liieory  on  the  subject.  It  is 
well  known,  that  at  the  equator  the  changes 
of  heat  and  cold  are  occasioned  by  the  di- 
urnal motion  of  the  earth,  and  that  the  dif- 
ference between  the  heat  of  the  day  and  the 
night  is  almost  all  that  is  perceived  in  those 
tropical  regions;  whereas  in  the  polar  re- 
gions the  great  vicissitudes  of  heat  and  cold 
are  occasioned  by  the  annual  motion  ofthe 
globe,  wliich  produces  the  sensible  changes 
of  winter  and  summer;  consequently,  if  the 
heat  of  the  sun  was  the  only  cause  ol  llie  va- 
riation of  the  winds,  the  changes,  it  any,  that 
would  be  produced  by  those  means  in  equa- 
torial regions,  ought  to  be  diurnal  only,  but 
tlie  changes  about  the  pole  should  be 'expe- 
rienced only  once  in  six  months.  As  tlie 
ell'ects  arising  trom  the  heat  of  the  sun  upon 
tlieairnuiat  be  greater  at  the  equator  tliau 
at  the  poles,  the  changes  of  the  wind  arising 
from  the  expansion  of  the  air  by  the  sun's 
rays  must  be  more  steady  in  equatorial  tiian 
in  polar  regions.  The  incontrovertible  evi- 
dence of  navigators  ])roves  this  truth,  that 
winds  are  more  variable  towards  the  poles, 
and  more  constant  tow  arils  the  equator.  But 
in  summer,  the  continual  he.it,  even  in  high 
latitudes,  comes  to  be  sensibly  felt,  aiid  pro- 
duces changes  on  tlie  wind,  which  are  dis- 
^  tinctly  percfplibie.    Jn  our  own  cold  region. 


the  effrcls  of  llic  sun  on  (lie  wind  are  felt 
(luring  tlu>  smnnier  nionllis;  for  wliiU;  llu- 
wealliL-r  in  Uiat  season  of  llic  yi-ar  is  line,  (jut 
wind  generally  becomes  stronger  as  the  time 
of  the  (lay  arlvances,  anil  dies  away  loivards 
the  evening,  and  assumes  that  pleasing  sere- 
nity so  delightful  to  our  feelings.  Such  are 
llie  diurnal  changes  of  the  wind  in  norlliern 
climates.  'I'lie  annual  revolution  of  the  sun 
produces  still  more  sensible  effects.  'I'lie 
])revalence  of  the  western  winds  during  sum- 
mer we  may  atlrilnile  to  this  cause,  whicli  is 
still  more  perceptible  in  I'Vance  and  Spain; 
because  the  continrnt  of  land  to  the  eastward, 
being  heated  more  than  the  waters  of  the 
y\tlanti(;  ocean,  the  air  is  drawn,  during  that 
season,  towards  the  cast,  and  consequently 
produces  a  western  wind. 

But  these  elfects  are  much  more  percep- 
tible in  countries  near  the  tropics  than  with 
us.  I'or  when  the  sun  approaches  the  tropic 
of  Cancer,  the  soil  of  Persia,  Bengal,  China, 
and  the  adjoining  countries,  becomes  so 
much  more  heated  than  the  sea  to  the  south- 
ward  of  those  countries,  that  the  current  of 
(he  general  trade-wind  is  interrupted,  so  as 
to  blow,  at  that  season,  from  the  south  to  the 
north,  contrary  to  what  It  would  do  if  no  land 
was  there.  But  as  the  high  mountains  of 
Africa,  during  all  the  year,  arc  extremely 
cold,  the  low  countries  of  Fndia,  to  the  east- 
ward of  it,  becninr  hotter  than  Africa  in  sum- 
mer, and  the  air  is  naturally  drawn  thence  to 
the  eastward.  From  the  same  cause  it  fol- 
lows, that  the  trade-wintl  in  the  Indian  ocean, 
from  April  till  October,  blows  in  a  north-east 
direction,  contrary  to  that  of  tlie  general 
trade-wind  in  open  seas  in  the  same  latitudi'  ; 
hutwhi-n  the  sun  retires  towards  the  tropic 
of  Capricorn,  tliese  northern  parts  become 
cooler,  and  the  general  trade-wind  assumes  its 
natural  d'u'ection. 

Having  given  the  most  obvious  causes  of 
the  periodical  monsoons  in  the  Indian  seas, 
it  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  no  monsoon 
takes  place  to  the  southward  of  th<>  ei]uator, 
except  in  that  part  of  the  ocean  adjoining  to 
Kew  lloUaiKl.  There  the  same  causes  con- 
cur to  produce  a  monsoon  as  in  the  northern 
tropic,  and  similar  appearances  lake  place. 
I'Vom  October  till  April  the  monsoon  sets  in 
from  the  N.  \V.  to  S.  ]■',.  opposite  to  tlie  ge- 
neral course  of  the  trade-wind  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Line  ;  and  here  also  the  general 
trade-wind  resumes  its  usual  course  during 
the  other  months,  which  constitute  the  winter 
season  in  these  regions.  It  may  not  be  im- 
proper to  conclude  this  account  of  the  tro- 
pical winds,  by  enumerating  some  of  the 
principal  inllections  of  the  monsoon?. 

Between  the  months  of  April  and  October 
the  winds  blow  constantly  from  W.  S  \V.  in 
all  that  part  of  the  Indian  ocean  which  lies 
between  Madagascar  and  cajje  C'omoiin, 
and  in  the  contrary  direction  from  October 
lill  April,  with  some  small  variation  in  dif- 
ferent places ;  but  in  the  bay  of  Bengal  these 
winds  are  neither  so  strong  nor  so  constant 
as  in  the  Indian  ocean.  It  must  also  be  re- 
marked, that  the  S.  \\'.  winds  in  those  seas 
are  m  jre  southerly  on  the  .African  side,  and 
more  westerlv  on  the  side  of  India ;  but  these 
variations  are  not  so  great  as  to  be  repug- 
nant to  the  general  theory.  'Jhe  catise  of 
this  variation  is,  as  w-as  before  intimated,  that 
ilie  mountainous  lands  of  Africa  are  colder 
than  the  llatter  regions  of  Arabia  and  India; 


WINDS. 

coincqufiilly  the  wind  naturally  blows  from 
tlnsi'  c(jld  mountains,  in  the  sunimi'r  season, 
towards  the  warmer  lands  of  .isia,  which  oc- 
casions those  inlle'tions  of  the  wind  to  the 
eastward  during  thi:  summer  nionllis.  'I'he 
|)cniiHula  of  India,  lying  so  much  farther  to 
the  south  than  the  kingdom^  of  Arabia  an<l 
I'lr-iia,  adds  greatly  to  this  etii-ct ;  because  the 
wind  naturally  draws  towards  them,  and  pro- 
duces that  easterly  variation  of  the  monsoon 
which  takes  place  in  this  part  of  the  ocean, 
while  the  sandy  deserts  of  Arabia  draw  the 
winds  more  directly  northward,  near  the 
African  coast.  A  similar  chain  of  reasoning 
will  serve  to  explain  any  other  inllections  or 
variations  that  may  occur  in  the  perusal  of 
books  of  travels,  &c. 

W'iNns,  vuriahlc.  In  the  temperate 
zones  the  direction  of  the  winds  is  by  no 
means  so  regular  as  between  the  troiiics. 
Even  in  the  same  degree  of  latitude  we  lind 
them  often  blowing  in  dill'erent  directions  at 
the  same  lime;  while  tlieir  changes  are  fri'- 
(piently  so  sudden  and  so  capricious,  that  to 
account  for  them  has  hitherto  been  found 
impossible.  When  winds  are  violent,  and 
continue  long,  they  generally  extend  over  a 
large  tract  of  country  ;  and  this  is  niore  cer- 
tainly the  case  when  they  blow  from  the 
north  or  east  than  from  any  other  points.  By 
the  multiplication  and  comparison  of  me- 
teorological tables,  some  regular  connection 
between  the  changes  of  the  atmosphere  in  dif- 
ferent places  may  in  time  be  observed,  wliich 
will  at  last  lead  to  a  satisfactory  theory  of  the 
winds.  It  is  from  such  tables  chielly,  that 
the  following  facts  have  been  collected: 

In  ^'il■ginia,  the  prevailing  winds  are  be- 
tween the  soutli-west,  west,  north,  and  nortli- 
wcst ;  the  most  frequent  is  the  south-west, 
which  blows  more  constantly  in  June,  July, 
and  August,  than  at  any  other  season.  The 
north-west  winds  blow  most  constantly  in 
November,  January,  and  February.  .'\t  Ips- 
wich, in  New  England,  the  prevailing  winds 
are  also  between  the  south-west,  west,  north, 
and  north-east ;  the  most  frequent  is  the 
north-west.  But  at  Cambridge,  in  the  same 
province,  the  most  fre(]uent  wind  is  the  south- 
east. The  predominant  winds  at  New  York 
are  the  north  and  west ;  and  in  Nova  Scotia 
north-west  winds  blow  for  three-fourths  of  the 
year.  l"he  same  w  ind  blows  most  frequently 
at  Montreal  in  Canada;  but  at  (Jueliec  the 
wind  generally  follows  tlie  direction  of  the 
river  St.  Lawrence,  blowing  either  liom  tlic 
north-east  or  south-west.  At  Hudson's-ljay 
westerly  winds  blow  for  three-fourths  of  the 
year;  the  north-west  wind  occasions  the 
greatest  cold,  but  the  north  and  north-east 
are  the  vehicles  of  snow. 

It  appears  from  tliese  facts,  tliat  westerly 
winds  are  most  fre(|uent  over  tlie  whole 
eastern  coast  of  North  America;  that  in  the 
southern  provinces,  south-west  winds  predo- 
minate ;  and  that  the  north-west  become 
gradually  more  frequent  as  we  approach  the 
frigid  zone. 

In  Egypt,  during  part  of  May,  and  during 
June,  July,  August,  and  Septciiilier,  tlie 
wind  blows  almost  constantly  from  the  north, 
varying  sometimes  in  June  ty  the  west,  and  in 
July  to  the  west  and  the  east;  during  part  of 
September,  and  in  October  and  November, 
the  winds  are  variable,  but  blow  more  re- 
gularly from  the  cast  than  any  other  quarter.; 
j  Y  2 


907 

in  December,  January,  ami  T'ebruarv,  they 
blow  from  the  north,  north-west,  and  wi-vt ; 
towards  the  end  of  I  1  bruary  tli<:y  change  lo 
tliesuntli,  in  which  <|Viarter  ihey  coutiiliie  till 
near  the  end  of  Man  h ;  dining  the  h^t  days  ■ 
in  March  and  in  April,  they  bio*  (roin  the 
south-east,  south,  :uid  south-wCil,  iiiid  at  Libt 
from  the  east;  and  in  tiiii;  direction  they 
cfmtitiue  during  a  part  of  May. 

In  the  Nfediterrancan  the  wind  blows  nearly 
three-fouitlis  of  the  year  from  the  north  ; 
about  tin:  eipiino.ves  there  is  always  an  east- 
erly wind  in  that  sea,  which  is  generally  nion; 
constant  in  spring  than  in  autumn.  Thix- 
observations  do  not  apply  (o  the  giil  ot 
Gibraltar,  where  there  art  seldom  any  winds 
except  the  east  and  the  west.  At  liaslia,  in 
the  island  of  Corsica,  the  prevailing  wind  i« 
the  soulh-west. 

In  Syria  the  north  wind  blows  from  the  au- 
tumnal equinox  to  November ;  during  De- 
cember, January,  and  February,  the  winds 
blow  from  the  west  and  south-west ;  in  March 
they  blow  from  the  south,  in  May  from  the 
east,  and  in  June  from  (he  north.  I  10111  this 
month  to  the  autumnal  ei|uinox,  the  wind 
changes  gradually  as  the  sun  a))proai.hes  the 
eipialor;  (iisl  to  the  east,  then  to  the  South, 
and  lastly  to  the  west.  At  Bagdad,  the  mo-l 
frequent  winds  are  the  south-west  and  north- 
west ;  at  Pekin,  the  norlh  and  the  south  ;  at 
Kamtschalka,  on  the  north-east  coast  of  Asia, 
the  prevailing  winds  blow  from  the  west. 

In  Italy,  the  prevailing  winds  dilfer  con- 
siderably according  to  tlie  situation  of  the 
places  where  the  observations  have  been 
made  :  at  Home  and  I'adua,  they  are  north- 
eriy,  at  Milan  easterly.  -Ml  that  we  have 
been  able  to  learn  concerning  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal is,  that  on  the  west  coast  of  these 
counlries,  the  west  is  by  far  the  most  com- 
mon wind,  particularly  in  summer;  and  that 
at  Madrid  the  win'l  isiiorlh-east  for  the  great- 
est part  of  the  summer,  blowing  almost  con- 
stantly from  the  Pyrenean  mountains.  A'. 
Berne  in  Switzerland,  the  prevailing  winds 
are  the  north  and  west;  at  St.  Gothard,  the 
north-east ;  at  Lausanne,  the  iiortli-west  and 
south-west. 

Father  Cotte  has  given  us  the  result  of  ob- 
servations made  at  8*5  dilterent  places  of 
France;  from  which  it  appears,  tliat  along 
the  whole  south  coast  of  that  kingdom  the 
wind  blows  most  fn-epiently  from  the  north, 
north-west  and  north-east ;  on  the  wi!st  coast, 
from  the  west,  south-west,  and  north-west; 
and  on  the  north  coast  from  the  south-west. 
That  in  the  interior  ])arts  of  France,  the  south- 
wi'st  witul  blows  most  frequently  in  18  places; 
the  west  wind  in  14;  the  north  in  IJ ;  the 
south  in  6 ;  the  north-east  in  4 ;  the  south- 
east in  2 ;  the  east  and  north-we=t  cac  h  of 
thein  one.  On  the  west  coast  of  the  Nether- 
lands, as  far  as  Kotlerdam,  the  prevailing 
winds  are  probably  the  south-west,  at  least 
this  is  the  case  at  Dunkirk  and  Hotterdam. 
It  is  probable  also,  that  along  the  rest  of  this 
coast,  irom  the  Hague  to  Hamburgh,  the 
prevailing  winds  are  the  north-west,  at  least 
these  winds  are  most  frequent  at  the  Hapue 
and  at  Franeker.  The  iirevailing  wind  at 
Delft  is  the  south-east ;  and  at  Breda,  the 
north  and  the  east. 

In  Germany,  the  east  wind  is  most  frecpient 
at  Gottingen,  Munich,  'Weissemburgh,  Dus- 
seldorf,  Saganuin,  Erford,   and  at  Buda  in 


908 

Hungary;  the  son'h-rast  at  ?iagae  and 
WirUbiiVg;  tlio  north-east  at  T<alftbo;i ;  aiul 
the  west  at  Manlieiia  and  Rcrliii. 

From  an  avei'agc  often  years  oftheregiister 
kept  by  offler  of  the  Royal  Society,  it  ap- 
pears that  at  I^Diidou  the  winds  blow  in  the 
tolloivin!'  order: 


WINDS. 


Winds.  Days. 

South-west  112 

Noilh-ea^t  58 

Nortli-west  50 

West  53 


Winds.  Days. 

South-east  32 

Kast  2o 

Poulh  18 

North  16 


It  appears,  from  the  same  register,  that  the 
south-west  wind  blows  at  a,n  avcn'.ge  more 
tretjuentlv  than  any  other  wind  during  every 
month  ot'  the  year,  and  that  it  blows  longest 
in  July  and  August;  that  tise  north-east 
blows  most  constantly  during  January,  March, 
April,  Mav,  and  June,  and  most  seldom  <Ui- 
ring  February,  July,  .September,  and  De- 
cember ;  and  that  the  north-west  wind  blows 
oftenerfrom  November  to  March,  and  more 
seldom  during  September  and  (>ct.>ber  than 
any  other  moiith.s.  The  south-west  wiuils  are 
also  most  frequent  at  Bristol,  and  ne\t  to 
them  arc  the  north-east. 

The  following  table  of  the  winds  at  Lan- 
caster has  been  drawn  up  from  a  register  kqit 
for  seven  yeai"s  at  that  place  : 

Winds.  Days.        Whids.      Days. 

South-west  92         South-east       3j 

North-east  C7        North  30 

South  51         North-west    2(5 

Vfest  41  East  17 

Tiie  following  table  is  an  abstract  of  nine 
years  observations  made  at  Dumfries  by  Mr. 
Copland: 

Winds.  Days.  Winds.      Days. 

South                    82i  North  3(ii 

West                   69  North-west     25^ 

East                     63  South-east       2S| 

Soiith-west          aOi  North-east      14^ 

The  following  table  is  an  abstract  of  seven 
years  observations  made  by  Dr.  Meek  at 
C'ambuslang,  near  Glasgow : 

Winds.  Days.         Winds.     Days. 

"South-west         174        North-east      104 
Nortli-west  40        South-east        47 

It  appears,  from  the  register  from  which 
this  table  was  extracted,  that  the  north-east 
wind  blows  much  more  frequently  in  April, 
IMay,  and  June,  and  tlie  south-west  in  July, 
August,  and  September,  th;m  at  any  other 
period.  Tlie  south-west  is  by  far  the  most 
frequent  wind  all  over  Scotland,  especially  on 
the  west  coast.  At  Saltcoats,  in  Ayrshire,  for 
instance,  it  blows  three-fourths  of  the  year; 
and  along  the  whole  coast  of  Murray,  on  the 
north-e.ist  side  of  Scotland,  it  blows  for  two- 
thirds  of  the  year.  f/.ist  winds  are  connnon 
overall  Great  Britain  during  Apiil  and  May  ; 
but  their  intiuencc  is  felt  most  severely  on  the 
eastern  coast. 

The  following  table  e.xhibits  a  view  of  the 
number  of  days  <luring  which  the  westerly 
and  easterly  winds  blow  in  a  year  at  difterent 
parts  of  the  island.  Under  the  term  westerly 
are  included  the  north-west,  west,  south-west, 
and  south ;  the  term  easterly  is  taken  in  llie 
same  latitude. 

3 


Years  of 

Wind. 

Oljserv. 

Pl.ices. 

We'lerly- 

E.isterly 

10 

London 

■2:'.S 

l.<;2 

7 

Lancaster     - 

'2\U 

149 

51 

Liverpoul     - 

i;io 

175 

9 

DuiutVIcs 

'227.  r, 

i;>7.5 

10 

Branxholni,  54  miles 
sniith-wcst  of  Ber- 

wick    -     -       - 

232 

MS 

7 

Canihiislang  -     - 

214 

J51 

8 

Hawkhill,ncarF.din- 

hiirf;ii     -     _     - 

229.5 

135.5 

Mu.in 

2:30.3 

144.7 

In  Ireland,  the  south-west  and  west,  are  the 
.grand  trade-winds,  blowing  most  in  sunumT, 
autunni,  and  wifller,  and  least  in  spring.  Tlie 
north-east  blows  most  in  spring,  and  nearly 
double  to  what  it  does  in  autumn  and  winter. 
Tlie  south-east  and  north-west  are  nearly 
etjual,  and  are  most  frequent  after  the  south- 
west and  west. 

At  Copenhagen  the  prevailing  winds  are 
the  east  and  south-east;  at  Stockholm,  tlie 
west  and  north.  In  Russia,  from  an  averaae 
of  a  register  of  16  years,  the  winds  blow  from 
November  to  April  in  the  following  order: 

W.  N.W.  E.  S.W.  S.  N.E.  N.  S.E. 
Days  43      20      23     22     20     19     14     12 
And  during  the  other  si.K  months, 

W.  N.W.  E.  S.W.  S.  N.E.  N.  S.E. 
Days  27     27      19      24     22     15     32     IS 

The  west  wind  blows  during  the  whole 
year  72  days  ;  the  north-west  58  ;  the  south- 
west and  north  46  days  each.  During  sum- 
mer it  is  calm  for  41  days,  and  during  winter 
for  21.  In  Norway,  tlie  most  frequent  winds 
are  the  south,  the  south-west,  and  south-east. 
The  wind  at  Bergen  is  seldom  directly  west, 
but  gener;>!lv  south-west,  or  south-east  ;  a 
north-west,  and  especially  a  north-east  wind, 
are  but  little  known  there. 

From  the  whole  of  these  facts,  it  appears 
th.^t  the  most  freqvient  winds  on  the  south 
coasts  of  Europe  are  the  nortl;,  the  north-east, 
and  north-west ;  and  oii  the  western  coast, 
the  south-west:  that  in  the  interior  parts 
which  lie  most  contiguous  to  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  south-west  winds  are  also  most  fre- 
quent; but  that  easterly  winds  prevail  in  Ger- 
many. Westerly  winds  are  also  most  fre- 
quent on  the  north-east  coast  of  Asia. 

It  is  probable  that  the  winds  are  more  con- 
stant in  the  south  temp  rate  zone,  which  is  in 
a  great  measure  covered  with  water,  than  in 
the  north  temperate  zone,  where  their  direc- 
tion must  be  frequently  interrupted  and  alter- 
ed by  mountains  and  other  causes. 

M.  De  la  Caille,  who  was  sent  thither  by 
the  French  king  to  make  astronomical  ob- 
servations, inforHis  us,  that  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  the  main  winds  are  the  south- 
east and  north-west;  that  other  winds  seldom 
last  longer  than  a  few  years;  and  that  the 
east  and  north-east  winds  blow  very  seldom. 
The  south-east  wind  blows  in  most  months  of 
the  year,  but  chiefly  from  October  to  April ; 
the  north-west  prevails  during  the  other  six 
months,  bringing  along  with  it  rain,  and  leni- 
pesls,  aud  hurricanes.    Between  the  C.ipe  of 


Good  Hope  and  New  Holland,  l!;e  w  ii.d..  are 
coi))inonly  westerly,  and  blow  in  the  follc*- 
ing  order  :  norlft-west,  south-west,  west, 
north. 

In  the  Great  South  Sea,  from  latitude  30' 
to  40''  south,  the  south-east  trade-wind  blows 
most  frequently,  especial'y  when  tin-  suii  ap- 
proaches the  tropic  of  Capricorn  ;  the  w  ijid 
next  to  it  in  frequency  is  tlie  north-wi'st,  and 
next  to  that  is  the  soulh-riesi.  From  scut h 
latitude  4o'  to  50',  the  prevailing  wind  is-  ihc- 
north-west,  and  next  the  south-west.  F'roia 
50°  to  60°,  the  most  frequent  wind  is  also  the 
north-west,  and  next  to  it  is  thewe.-t. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  trade-winds  some- 
times extend  farther  into  the  south  temperate 
zone  than  their  usual  limits,  particularly  du- 
ring sununcr;  that  beyond  their  inlluence 
the  winds  are  connnofily  westerly,  and  that 
they  blow  in  the  following  order:  north-west, 
south  west,  west. 

Such  is  the  present  state  of  the  history  of 
the  direction  of  the  winds.  In  the  torrid 
zone  they  blow  constantly  from  the  north- 
east on  the  north  side  of  the  e((uator,  anil' 
from  the  south-ea>t  on  the  south  side  of  it.  In 
they  north  temperate  zone  tliey  blow  most 
frequently  from  the  south-west ;  in  the  south 
temperate  zone  from  the  north-west,  chan- 
ging, however,  Irequently  to  all  points  of  the 
compass;  and  in  the  north  temperate  zone 
blowing,  particularly  during  spring,  from  the 
north-east. 

As  to  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  its  varia- 
tions are  almost  infinite ;  from  the  gentlest 
breeze,  to  the  hurricane  which  tears  up  treey 
and  blows  down  houses.  It  has  been  re- 
marked, that  our  most  violent  winds  take 
place  when  neither  the  heat  nor  the  cold  is 
greatest ;  that  violent  winils  generally  extend 
over  a  great  tract  of  country,  and  that  they 
are  accompanied  by  sudden  and  great  falls  ni 
the  mercur}-  of  the  barometer.  'I  he  reason 
appears  to  be,  that  violent  winds  succeed  the 
precipitation  in  rain  of  a  large  quantity  of  va- 
|)our,  which  i)reviously  constituted  a  part  of 
the  bulk  of  the  atmosphere;  and  this  pre- 
cipitation cannot  take  place  w  hen  the  general 
temperature  approaches  to  either  extreme. 
The  wind  is  sometimes  very  violent  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  earth,  while  it  is  quite  calm  at 
its  surface.  On  one  occasion  Liinardi  went 
at  the  rate  of  70  miles  an  hour  in  his  balloon, 
though  it  was  quite  calm  at  Edinburgh  when 
he  ascended,  and  continued  so  during  his 
whole  voyage.  The  same  thing  happened 
lately  to  Garncrin  and  his  companion  in  their 
aerostatic  voyage  to  Colchester.  This  asain 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  motions  of  dens« 
tliiids,  which  are  always  impeded  in  the  parts 
contiguous  to  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  ves- 
sels;  and  the  same  thing  happens  in  tide-rivers, 
where  the  boatman,  when  he  wishes  to  pro- 
cei-d  with  the  tide,  commits  himself  to  the 
middle  of  the  stream:  but  when  he  has  to 
strive  against  it,  he  keeps  close  to  the  shore. 
It  is,  therefore,  not  the  upper  parts  of  the 
atmosphere  which  are  accelerated,  but  the 
lower  ar<-  retarded  by  friction  against  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth. 

The  following  table,  drawn  up  by  Mr. 
Smeaton,  will  give  the  reader  a  prettv  precise 
idea  of  the  velocity  of  the  wind  in  dtlfcrgit 
circumstances : 


W  I  N 


Miles 

Perpendicular    Force    on  one 

per 

Teet  per 

square  Foot,  in  Avoirdupois 

Hour 

.Second. 

Pounds  and  Parts, 

1 

:i 

1.47 

a.r« 

.OOH'y  Hardly  pcrcei)tible 
.02oC  Just  perccptibe 

.ouy 

•1 
5 

7 .  .'n 

|,,;J;-  Gently  pleasant 

JO 
LI 

M.G7 
22. 

i'I'q-'-  Pleasani,  brislc 

29.. 'H 
.'Jfi.GT 

1.9(;8?  ,,      ,   .  , 

30 
3.'> 

41.01 
51.31 

4. -1297  ...    ,       .    , 
g,^_,^^  High  wind 

40 

45 

GB.Ol 

9.9'irA  ^"y  '"K"  "■""' 

50 

7;%. '55 
88.02 

12..JO0    Storm  or  tempest 
17.715     Great  storm 

80 

117.36 

.i  1.490     Hurricane 

1  Hurricane,    that   tears 

.  100 

14G.7 

li).200>-      up  trees,  and  carries 
J      I)\iildiui^  bef.jrc  it. 

WINDMILI.,  a  kind  of  mill,  Un-  internal 
purts  of  which  are  much  tlie  same  with  those 
of  a  waler-mill;  from  wiiicli.  however,  il  dif- 
fers in  being  moved  by  the  uiipiilse  of  the 
wind  upon  its  vanes,  or  sails,  wh!c:!i  are  to  be 
considered  as  a  wheel  on  the  axh;. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  windmills.  We 
shall  content  ourselves  with  di'scribing  the 
horizontal  windmill,  the  conslriictioii  of  which 
is  not  so  generally  known  as  that  ot  the  others. 
Date  Windmill,  represents  an  horizontal 
windmill  erected  about  50  years  ago  at  a 
distillery  near  Uattersea,  for  grinding;  nr.ilt 
and  corn.  AA  (lig.  I)  is  the  main  slmlt, 
whicli  turns  on  a  gudgeon  working  in  a  socket 
supported  by  soi:d  masonry  :  tins  shall  has 
Several  wheels,  as  B15,  attached  to  its  iipixr 
part,  as  shewn  in  fig.  2,  for  carrying  a  great 
jiuniber  of  float-boards  DD,  sinidar  to  a  wa- 
ter-wheel, excejit  being  a  little  conical.  This 
wheel  is  inclosed  in  a  frame  KK,  composed  of 
several  circular  rings,  connected  by  upright 
timbers,  and  strengthened  by  transverse 
braces,  and  which  has  timbers  across  the  top 
to  support  the  ujiper  gudgeon  of  the  sh.ift  AA. 
Within  the  fr.ime  EE,  are  a  great  number  of 
boards  extending  from  top  to  bottom,  as 
shewn  .It  FF  :  the  boards  turn  on  a  centre  at 
the  edge  nearest  the  wheel,  so  that  they  can 
be  set  open,  as  in  lig. '.',  or  be  shut  up  so  as  to 
touch  one  another,  and  to  allow  no  air  to  pass 
between  tliem. 

When  tlie  hoards  FF  are  set,  as  in  fig.  2, 
it  will  be  evident,  from  inspecting  the  ligure, 
that  let  the  wind  blow  in  any  direetion,  it  will 
always  enter  the  building  on  one  side,  the 
other  being  in  such  a  position  that  the  wind 
cannot  enter,  and  striking  on  the  lloalsof  the 
wheel  will  tm-n  it  round.  The  quantity  of 
wind  which  stnkei  the  wheel  can  be  regulateii 
by  cloiing  or  opening  the  boards,  FF,  all  at 
once,  which  is  done  by  a  contrivance,  shewn 
in  fig.  3.  HI  I  represents  a  plan  of  a  part  of 
the  circular  sill  at  the  bottom  of  the  frame 
EE,  (figs.  1  and  2) ;  FF  are  the  wind-boards, 
wliich  move  on  a  centre  at  the  edge  /;  the 
boards  have  levers,  GG,  nailed  to  their  lower 
ends,  bv  which  they  can  be  turned  about  on 
the  centre;  II  are  rods,  joined  to  the  levers 
GG,  the  other  ends  of  which  are  jointed  to  a 
circular  ring,  of  which  KK  is  a  segment:  this 
ring  rests  npou  rollers  fi.xed  in  the  lloor  be- 
neath the  sails. 

■     When  this  ring  is  turned  round  one  wav, 
the  rods  II  push  the  ends  of  the  levers  GO, 


W  I  K 

ind  c1o=.e  up  tlje  boards;  on  the  contrary, 
.iliii(  it  is  turned  the  other  way,  it  oi>efis 
them. 

The  ring  K  has  at  one  part  of  its  under 
>i(le  a  tlioi  t  cast  iron  segnirni  with  cogs,  w  hi(  h 
work  in  a  ])inioiv,  moving  on  centres  lixed  to 
the  lloor.  The  axis  ofthi^  pinion  goes  through 
the  mill  and  into  the  o|)eii  air,  aftd  is  con- 
nected by  ropes  will)  a  handle  below  tiie 
gionnd-lioor  ot  tlie  null. 

When  the  miller  turui  this  handle,  It  also 
1 1. Ills  the  ring  K  (lig.  Z),  and,  as  bi-fore  de- 
scribed, opens  or  closes  the  boards  FF,  and 
regulates  the  mill's  velocity. 

The  main  shall,  AA,  has  a  lirge  cog-wheci, 
<),  iixed  upon  it,  vdiicli  turns  two  (rimdlesoii 
the  shafts,  LM,  on  which  the  wheels  NN  are 
also  ll.\:ed  :  each  of  these  wheels  turns  three 
pinions  (only  one  of  which  is  represented^ 
on  the  axis  of  the  mill-stones,  which  are  ar- 
ranged round  the  wheels  NN,  at  |)roper  in- 
tervals, like  those  describixl  under  liie  article 
Flour-mill.  TlieshaflLliasabevi  1-d  wheel 
at  its  upper  end,  which  turns  another,  m,  on 
the  sh.ifl  n  ;  which  lias  riggers,  as  P,  fixed  on 
it,  and  by  means  of  straps  tuins  the  boiling- 
mills;  for  a  description  ol  wliich  see  Flour- 
mill. 

With  regard  to  the  common  windmills,  we 
must  observe  that  a  patent  has  lat>dy  been 
tak<'n  out  by  Mr.  Sutton,  for  a  peculiar  con- 
struction of  the  sails.  For  a  full  accoiuit  of 
these,  we  can  with  pleasure  refer  to  a  work 
entitled  "  A  .Sketch  of  llie  Properties  and  .Ad- 
vantages of  Sutton's  Patent  Gra\itileJ  Sails 
forWhulmills,"  by  VV.  S.  Uelieden. 

WlND-S.ilLS,  in  a  ship,  are  madeof  tlie 
common  sail-cloth,  andaie  usually  between 
25  and  30  feet  long,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  shij),  and  are  of  the  form  ol  acone  <  nding 
obtusely  :  when  they  are  made  use  of,  they 
are  hoisted  by  ropes  to  about  two  thirds  or 
more  of  their  heiglit,  with  their  basis  dis- 
tended circularly  i)y  hoops,  and  their  apex 
hanging  downwards  in  the  hatchways  of  the 
ship;  above  each  of  these,  one  of  the  common 
sails  is  so  disposed,  that  the  greatest  part  of 
the  air  rushing  against  it  is  directed  into  the 
wind-sail,  anil  conveyed,  as  through  a  funnel, 
into  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  of  the  ship. 

WiND-rACKLF.-BLocKs,  ill  a  ship,  are 
the  main  double  blocks,  which,  being  made 
fast  to  the  end  of  a  small  cable,  serve  for 
hoisting  goods  into  the  ship,  &c. 

7b  Wi.vi),  or  Wknd,  a  ship,  signifies  to 
bring  her  head  about,  llow  winds  or  wends  a 
ship.'  is  a  question  asked  by  mariners  con- 
cerning a  ship  under  sail ;  sigiiifyiiig  as  much 
as,  upon  what  point  of  the  compass  does  she 
r.e  with  her  head? 

Windward,  in  the  sea  language,  denotes 
any  tiling  towards  that  point  from  which  the 
wind  blows  in  respect  of  a  ship  :  thus  wind- 
ward tide  is  the  tide  which  runs  against  the 
wind. 

J/irge  Wind.  In  the  sea  language,  to  sail 
with  a  large  wind,  is  the  same  as  with  a  fair 
wind. 

WIND.AGE  nfa  gun,  morlnr,nr  Iiozuif- 
zer.  The  dit'ference  between  the  diameter  of 
the  bore,  and  the  diameter  of  theehot  or  shell. 
In  England,  the  diameter  of  the  shot  is  sup- 
posed to  be  divided  into  20  equal  parts,  and 
the  diameter  of  the  bore  into  21  of  those  parts. 
The  French  divide  the  shot  into  C6,  and  the 
bore  into  27.  The  Prussians  divide  the  shot 
into  24,  and  the  bore  into  25.    The  DuWh 


W  I  N 


SO?' 


nearly  the  same  as  the  Knglish.  The  general 
windage  of  shells  in  Eni^land  is  a  quarter  gf 
an  inch,  let  lliem  be  large  or  small,  which  ';» 
contrary  to  all  reason.  It  is  evident,  that  the 
le  s  wiiid.ige  a  sluH  or  shell  has,  the  lartlii.r 
and  truer  it  will  go;  and  having  le'n  room  i<». 
bounce  from  side  to  side,  the  gun  will  not  be 
kjjoiledso  soon. 

h  is  true  that  v.)n)e  artillery-ofTicers  «ay, 
that  the  windage  of  a  gun  alioiild  be  equal  to 
th- thickness  of  the  laclh-;  because,  when  it 
has  been  liraderl  for  a  while,  the  shot  will  not 
come  out  without  being  loosened  iherebv.  in 
order  to  unload  it;  and  when  this  ranno'l  be 
done,  it  must  be  fired  away,  and  so  lost ;  but 
the  most  advantageous  windage  would  be  in 
dividing  the  shot  in  2.'i-  eiiual  iiaris,  and  the 
bore  into  25,  on  account  of  tiie  convenient 
scale  it  affords,  not  only  to  con-triict  gunj 
by,  but  also  their  carria/jcs.  Hence,  agree- 
able to  this  plan,  tiie  wimbge  o(  a  9-pouiidiT 
will  b"  .106  of  an  inch,  cotiseqiiently  a  suffi- 
cient  thickness  for  a  ladle;  and  those  of  a 
higher  calibre  become  still  thicker  in  propor- 
tion ;  but  suppose  this  thickness  is  not  enoiig'j, 
the  loss  of  a  shot  is  a  mere  trifle,  in  respect 
to  the  advant..ge  otherwise  gained. 
\V  IN ! ;| NG  STAIRS.  .See  Stajrs. 
W  I.N' I  )L ASS,  or  VVi.vulacf.,  a  machine- 
used  to  raise  large  weights,  as  guns,  slulies, 
anchor*,  &c.    See  Mechanics. 

WiNDtASS,  in  a  ship,  is  an  instrument,  in- 
sinall  sliips  placed  upon  the  deck,  just  aliatt 
the  foremast.     It  is  made  of  a  piece  of  timber 
six  or  eight  feet  square,  in  form  of  an  a>.le- 
tree,  whose  length  is  placed  horizontally  iqion 
two  pieces  of  wood  at  the  ends,  and  iiixjn 
which  it  is  Uiined  about  by  the  help  of  hand- 
spikes put  into  holes  made  for  that  purpose. 
This  instrument  serves  for  weigliing  anchor?, 
or  iioisliiig  of  any   weight  in   or  out  of  tl«; 
siiip,  and  will  purchase  much  more  than  any 
capstan,  and  that  witliout  any  danger  to  those 
who  heave;   for  if  in  heaving  rhc  windlass 
about,  any  of  the  handspikes  should  hnppen 
to  break,  the  w  indlas<  would  pall  of  itself. 
WINDOW.     See  Architectvre. 
WINE.     It  is  known  that  no  svibstance?, . 
except  such   as  contain  the  saccharine  prin- 
ciple, are  susceptible  of  the  vinous  fermen- 
tation ;  and  that  in  order  to  be  sirsceptible  of 
it,   these  saccharine  substances  mu«t  alwavs 
contain  a  certain  portion  of  extractive  mat- 
ter ;  for  Lavosier  has    proved,  that  Sf^trar 
alone  cannot  ferment,  he  having  always  been 
obliged  to  add  to  it  a  quantity  of  yeast  in 
order  to  make  it  undergo  this  change. 

The  principles  of  whicJi  yeast  consists  arc 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  azote.  'ITie 
process  ol  fermentation  decoin])Oses  them, 
and  gives  rise  to  new  products,  namely  : 

\\  ater,  carbonic  acid,  alcohol,  acttoiisacid, 
saccharine  residuum,  and  a  residuum  of  the 
yeast. 

The  effects  of  the  vinous  fermentation 
consist,  therefore,  in  separating  the  sugar, 
which  is  an  oxide,  into  two  parts ;  in  oxyge- 
nating the  one,  at  the  expence  of  the  other, 
to  form  carbonic  acid  ;  in  disoxygenating  the 
other  in  favour  of  the  tirst,  to  form  a  com- 
bustible substance  termed  alcohol ;  so  that 
was  it  possible  to  combine  these  two  slib- 
stances,  the  alcohol  and  the  carbonic  acid, 
one  might  reprixhice  stigar.  It  is  necessary 
to  remark,  that  the  hydrogen  and  carbon  do. 
not  exist  in  the  state  of  oil  in  alcoliol,  being 
combined  with  a  portion  of  oxygen,  wai A  ■ 


910 

remlors  them  miscible  willi  water.  Tiiese  | 
three  principles,  therefore,  tlie  oxygen,  the 
hytliogcn,  and  the  carbon,  are  here  in  a  kind 
of  ecjnililiriuni ;  and,  in  fact,  by  causing  them 
to  pass  through  a  red-hot  tube  ot  glass  or 
porcelain,  we  ma\'  re-combine  them  two  and 
two  together,  and  the  product  will  be  water, 
hvdrogen,  carbonic  acid,  and  carbon. 

lire  analysis  of  wine  commences  in  the 
cask,  after  which  it  successively  deposits  tar- 
ter, lees,  and  its  colouring  principle,  till  at 
length  hardly  any  thing  remains  besides  al- 
cohol and  a  small  quantity  of  extractive  mat- 
ter, dissolved  in  a  proportion  of  water  more 
or  less  abundant.  But  this  accurate  analysis, 
wliich  exhibits  to  us  the  principles  of  wines  in 
their  separate  states,  throws  very  little  light 
upon  their  real  natm-e,  a  deficiency  which  we 
shall  endeavour  to  supply  by  a  more  rigorous 
method  of  investigation. 

.  We  shall  distinguish  in  all  wines  an  acid, 
alcohol,  tartar,  an  extractive  matter,  aroma, 
and  a  colouring  principle ;  the  wliole  being 
diluted  or  dissolved  in  a  smaller  or  larger  pro- 
portion of  water. 

1.  The  acid.  An  acid  exists  in  all  wines: 
and  we  have  never  met  witli  any  in  whicii  we 
could  not  discover  some  traces  of  its  pre- 
sence. The  sweetest,  as  well  as  the  most 
watery  wines,  imi)art  a  red  tinge  tq  blue  pa- 
per that  is  kept  for  some  time  innnersed  in 
them  ;  but  all  wines  are  not  acid  in  the  same 
degree.  Of  some  wines,  a  natural  acidity  is 
the  principal  characteristic  ;  those  produced 
from  grapes  not  perfectly  ripe,  or  that  grow 
in  moist  climates,  are  of  this  kind;  whilst  such 
as  are  the  jjroduct  of  the  fermentation  of 
grapes  that  have  attained  complete  maturity 
and  sweetness,  contain  but  a  very  small  quan- 
tity of  acid.  The  proportion  of  acid  appears, 
therefore,  to  be  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the 
saccharine  principle,  and  consequently  of  the 
alcohol,  which  is  produced  by  the  decom- 
position of  the  sugar. 

Tills  acid  exists  in  great  abundance  in  ver- 
juice ;  it  is  also  found  in  mu.->t,  though  in  less 
quantity.  All  fermented  liquors,  such  as 
cvder,  perry,  beer,  and  fermented  farinaceous 
substances,  contain  this  acid  in  like  mann.cr. 
It  is  even  found  in  melasses.  Indeed,  it  is 
only  for  the  purpose  of  completely  saturating 
it,  that  1  me,  ashes,  and  other  earthy  or  alka- 
line bases,  are  used  in  refining  sugar ;  other- 
wise the  i).eseiice  of  the  acid  woukHmpede 
the  cryslall  zation  of  this  salt. 

If  w"e  concentrate  wine  by  distillation,  the 
extract  which  remains  is  in  general  of  a  sour 
pungent  tasle.  ^Vater,  or  even  alcohol,  pour- 
ed upon  this  extract,  will  be  sufficient  to  dis- 
solve and  raise  the  acid.  This  acid  has  a 
slightly  empyreuinatic  smell,  leaves  a  bitter- 
ish tast(j  in  the  moutfi,  &;c. 

This  acid,  well  iiltratetl  and  left  to  stand  in 
a  flask,  deposits  a  considerable  ([uantily  of 
extractive  matter;  it  afterwards  becomes 
covered  with  mould,  and  seems  to  approach 
to  the  nature  of  the  acetous  acid ;  by  dis- 
tillation it  may  be  purified  of  a  great  iiuantity 
of  the  extractive  matter,  after  which  it  be- 
tonii:s  les<  liable  to  be  decomposed  by  the 
putrefactive  fermentation. 

This  acid  precipitates  the  carbonic  acid  in 
its  conibinations ;  it  dlvsolves  most  of  the 
metallic  oxides  with  facility  ;  forms  insoluble 
«alls  w.th  lead,  silver,  and  mercury  ;  and  se- 
parates Ihtf  incUls  iioiu  ail  their  solutions  by 
acKk>. 


WINE.- 

This  acid  forms  also  an  insoluble  salt  with 
lime.  When  we  mix  a  large  quantity  of 
lime-water  ftith  wine,  the  acid  is  precipitated 
from  it,  and  carries  with  it  the  whole  of  the 
colouring  principle. 

This  acid,  therefore,  is  of  the  nature  of  the 
malic  acid  ;  it  is  always  mixed  with  a  small 
proportion  of  nitric  acid  ;  for,  if  it  is  digested 
upon  the  oxide  of  lead,  besides  the  insoluble 
precipitate  that  is  formed,  a  citrate  is  always 
produced  which  can  be  demonstrated  by  the 
known  methods. 

This  malic  acid  disappears  when  the  wine 
is  converted  into  vinegar;  it  no  more  exists 
in  well-prepared  vinegar  than  it  does  in  the 
acetous  acid.  This  transformation  of  the 
malic  acid  into  acetous  acid,  affords  a  natural 
ex;ilanation  why  wine  that  has  begun  to  sour 
cannot  be  employed  in  the  preparation  of  the 
acetite  of  lead;  in  this  case  an  insoluble  pre- 
cipitate is  produced. 

The  existence,  in  diflerent  proportions,  of 
the  malic  acid  in  wine,  enables  us  to  account 
for  a  phenomenon  of  the  utmost  importance, 
relative  to  the  distillation  of  wines,  and  the 
properties  of  the  vhious  spirits  which  result 
irom   this   process.     Every  one   knows,  nut 
only  that  all  wines  do  not  yield   the  same 
proportion  of  spirit,  but  likewise  that  the  dis- 
tilled spirits  produced  from  different  kinds  of 
wine  dilfer  very  widi_-ly  from  c.icli  other  in 
their  quantities.     It  is  also  well   known  that 
beer, cyder,  perry,  and  fermented  farinaceous 
substances,  yield  but  a  small  quantity  of  spirit, 
and  that  always  of  a  bad  quality.     Careful 
and  repeated  distillations  may  indeed  correct 
these  faults  to  a  certain  degree,  but  tiiey  can 
never   take  them  away  altogether.     These 
constant  results,  from  a  long  course  of  expe- 
rience, have   been  attributed  to  the  super- 
abundance of  the  extractive  matter  contained 
in  these  weak  spirituous  liquors ;   the  com- 
bustion of  a   portion  of  this   matter,  by  dis- 
tillation, seemed  to  be  the    immediate  con- 
sequence, and  the  acrid  empyreumatic  taste 
its  natural  effect.     But,  upon  a  more  accurate 
investigation  of  this  phenomenon,  it  is  found 
that,  besides  the  causes  dependant  upon  the 
superabundance  of  the  extractive  principle, 
another  ought  to  be  attended  to,  namely,  the 
presenci-  af  the  malic  acid  in  almost  all  these 
cases. 

Those  wines  wliich  contain  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  malic  acid,  alTord  the  worst-con- 
ditioned spirit.  It  appears  even  that  the 
quantity  of  alcohol  is  less  in  proportion  as  that 
of  the  acid  is  more  considerable.  If  we  se- 
p  ir;ite  this  acid  by  means  of  lime-water,  lime, 
chalk,  or  some  fixed  alkali,  we  can  only  draw 
olt'  a  very  small  quantity  of  alcohol  by  dis- 
tillation ;  and,  in  every  case,  the  spirit  ac- 
quires a  disagreeable  fiery  taste,  whicli  does 
not  tend  to  meliorate  its  quality. 

The  difference  of  the  spirits  obtained  by 
distillation  from  dil'lerent  wines,  depends, 
therefore,  principally  ujjon  the  different  pro- 
portions in  which  these  wines  contain  malic 
acid ;  but  no  process  has  becni  hitherto  dis- 
covered by  which  we  can  with  certainty  de- 
stroy the  bad  eflects  which  the  admixture  of 
ihTs  acid  with  vinous  spirits  produces. 

T  his  acidjwhicli  ue  find  in  the  grape  at  the 
period  of  its  growth,  and  whicli  docs  not  dis- 
appear in  wines  till  they  have  completely  de- 
generated into  vinegar,  ought  in  preference 
to  be  dtnomiiialeii  tiie  vinous  acid ;  however. 


.for  the  sake  of  avoiding  innovation,  we  shall 
retain  the  usual  term  of  malic  acid. 

2.  Alcohol.  Alcohol  forms  the  true  cha- 
racteristic of  wine.  It  is  the  prodiK  t  ol  the 
decomposition  of  sugar ;  and  its  quantity  is 
always  proportionate  to  that  of  the  sug:u'  that 
has  been  decomposed. 

Alcohol  abounds  more  in  some  wines  than 
it  does  in  others  ;  those  of  hot  climates  con- 
lain  a  large  quantity  of  it,  whilst  those  ot  cold 
climates  contain  scarcely  any.  Kipe  and  sweet 
grapes  produce  it  in  abundance ;  but  the 
wines  made  of  g'npes  that  are  unripe,  watery, 
and  sour,  yield  very  little. 

Some  wines  produced  in  the  southern  parts 
of  our  hemisphere,  yield  alcohol  in  the  ])ro- 
portion  of  one-third  of  their  quantity  ;  whilst 
many  of  those  manutactured  in  more  northern 
latitudes  contain  nut  more  than  one-fitteemh. 
It  is  the  proportion  of  alcohol  contained  in. 
them  that  renders  wines  more  or  less  gene- 
rous ;  and  upon  the  same  circumstance  de- 
pends their  diqjosition  or  resistance  to  the 
acetous  fermentation.  The  less  a  wine  con- 
tains of  alcohol,  the  more  easily  it  turns  sour  ; 
the  proportion  of  extractive  matter  contained 
in  it  beina;  supposed  the  same  in  both  cases. 

The  richer  in  spirit  a  wine  is,  the  less  it 
csntains  of  malic  acid  ;  and  this  is  the  reason 
why  the  best  wines,  in  general,  furnish  the 
best  brandies  ;  as  thev  are  then  exempt  from 
the  presence  of  this  acid,  which  gives  them  a 
disagreeable  flavour. 

It  is  by  distillation  that  we  extract  from 
wines  the  whole  of  the  alcohol  they  contain. 

When  wines  are  distilled,  the  operation  i» 
carried  on  till  the  liquor  which  passes  o\er  is 
no  longer  infiammable. 

Wines  furnish  more  or  less  brandy  in  pro- 
portion to  their  dill'erent  degrees  of  spiritu- 
osity.  A  very  generous  w  iiie  furnishes  about 
a  third  of  its  weight :  the  mean  proportion  of 
the  brandy,  furnished  by  the  wines  of  the 
southern  provinces  of  France,  is  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  whole  ;  some  even  yield  as  much 
as  one-third. 

Old  whies  yield  better  brandy  than  new 
ones,  but  m  less  quantity,  particularly  when 
the  decomposition  of  the  saccharine  principle 
has  been  completed  before  they  are  subjected 
to  the  process  of  distillation. 

That  which  remains  in  the  boiler,  after 
the  brandy  has  been  extracted,  is  called 
vinasse;  and  is  a  confused  mixture  of  tartar, 
the  colouring  principle,  lees,  ice.  This  re- 
siiluum  is  generally  thrown  away  as  useless : 
nevertheless,  after  drying  it  in  the  air,  or  by 
means  of  a  stove,  a  tolerably  pure  alkali  may 
be  extracted  from  it  by  combustion. 

In  some  distilleries  the  vinasse  is  suffered 
to  turn  sour,  in  order  afterwards  to  dislil,  and 
extract  the  small  quantity  of  vinegar  that  has 
been  formed  in  it. 

Brandy  is  the  more  spirituous  in  proportion 
as  it  is  mixed  with  a  smaller  proportion  of 
water ;  and  as  it  is  of  importance  in  com- 
merce, that  we  should  be  able  easily  to  as- 
certain the  degrees  of  spinluosity,  attention 
has  long  been  paid  to  the  means  by  which 
this  may  be  perlunned. 

The  distiller  judges  of  the  sijirituosity  of 
brandy  by  the  number,  the  magnitiule,  and 
the  permauency,  of  the  bubbles  whiih  form 
tliemselves  upon  agitating  the  licpior.  With 
this  view  it  is  jioured  from  one  vessel  into 
another,  or  siitrercd  to  fall  from  a  certain  ' 
height,  or,  w  bich  is  the  more  general  practice, 


^/'itrcJ ///».>   /r/rrc/' 


ti>a 


^y^/cAiyuAn/iu/^>  A <•?/// //^,i 


/W6 


ry/c^/^ij' 


Je^^///ii  /ii///a.) 


J////"!/ 


4<?-» 


Je/iAcr  J^Aic/m) 


/h;//c<//n/-RicliarJ  Phflljps   Xni  Brijp, Slml.Hl^rkAiart. 


Seatk  renlp. 


it  is  inclosed  in  an  ol)Ionf;  flask,  so  as  fo  fill 
about  two-thjrds  <)f  tiie  \'.h>)U;  and  viol.Milly 
agitated,  llie  moiiHi  of  the  flask  lioinf;  kcjU 
figlitly  closfd  liy  the  prt-ssnix-  ol  tin;  lliunib. 
This  last  apparatus  is  called  the  .sound. 

The  test  by  conibuslion,  in  the  manner  it 
is  usually  practised,  is  very  faulty.  The  re- 
guUUiim'ot  the  year  17,'U  directs  to  put  gun- 
powder into  a  boiler,  and,  after  coverini^  it 
with  the  li(|nid,  to  apply  lire  to  it.  The  brandy 
1^  supposed  to  be  of  good  tpialily  if  it  sets  fire 
to  the  powder,  and  bad  in  the  contrary  event. 
15ul  the  same  ([uantity  of  liciuor  eitlier  does, 
or  doer>  not,  set  fire  to"  gunpowder,  according 
to  the  proportion  in  which  it  is  employed:  a 
small  proportion  always  does  it,  and  a  large 
one  never;  for,  in  the  latter  case,  the  water 
contained  in  the  li(|uid  is  sufficient  to  wet  the 
powder,  and  prevent  its  taking  fire. 

Salt  of  tartar  (carbonat  of  potass)  is  also 
employed  as  a  test  for  brandy.  This  alkali 
is  soluble  in  water,  but  not  in  alcohol  ;  so  that 
upon  dissolving  it  in  brandy,  the  alcohol 
swims  at  the  top  of  the  solution. 

The  defective  nature  of  these  processes 
has  rendered  it  necesslry  to  have  recourse 
to  means  capable  of  determining  the  spiritu- 
osily  of  a  liipior  by  ascertaining  its  specific 
gravity. 

A  drop  of  oil  poured  upon  alcohol  fixes  it- 
self upon  the  surface,  or  falls  to  the  bottom, 
according  to  the  degree  of  spirituosity  which 
the  rupior  possesses.  This  method  has  been 
adopted  and  proposed  by  the  Spanish  go- 
vernment in  the  year  1770;  but  it  is  subject 
to  inaccuracy,  as  the  elfect  depends  upon  the 
height  from  which  it  falls,  the  weight  of  the 
oil,  the  size  of  the  drop,  the  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  dimensions  of  the  ves- 
sel, &c.     . 

In  the  year  1772,  this  important  subject 
was  resumed  by  two  able  philosophers,  name- 
ly, Borie  and  IVoujet  ile  C'ette,  who  intro- 
cluced  in  Languedoc,  an  hydrometer,  to  which 
thev  adapted  a  thermometer,  the  dillerent  de- 
grees of  which  constantly  indicate  the  cor- 
rections requisite  to  be  made  m  the  gradua- 
tion of  the  hydrometer,  on  account  of  the 
very  variable  "temperature  of  the  atmosphere. 
Hy  the  aid  of  this  hydrometer,  one  may 
not  only  ascertain  the  degree  of  spirituosity, 
but  also  bring  the  brandy  to  any  degree  that 
is  thought  proper.  For  tills  purpose  dilTerent 
'weights  are  used,  the  heaviest  of  which  is 
marked  Holland-proof,  and  the  highest  3 — 7; 
so  tiiat  if  we  see,  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
stalk  of  the  areometer,  Holland-proof,  and 
plunge  the  instrnme.it  into  a  liquor  J — 7,  it 
sinks  much  too  deep  ;  but  we  may  raise  it 
again  to  the  level  of  Hoiland-proof,  by  adding 
four-sevenths  of  water. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  we  have  the  weiglit 
'3 — 7,  and  plunge  the  areometer  into  a  li<[Uor 
Holland-proof,  it  will  rise  in  the  liquor  above 
■this  last  term,  to  which  it  may  easily  be  re- 
duL'cd  by  adding  alcohol  of  a  higher  degree  of 
spirituosity. 

When  brandies  are  to  be  distilled  for  the 
purpose  of  extracting  (heir  alcohol,  the  com- 
pound bath  is  usually  employed.  '^I'he  heat 
is  then  more  gentle  and  equal,  and  the  pro- 
duct of  the  distillation  of  a  better  quality. 
This  is  what,  is  called  spirit  of  wine  in  com- 
merce. 

3.  The  tartar.  Tartar  exists  in  verjuice, 
as  also  ill  must ;  it  contributes  to  facilitate 


WINE. 

tlie  formation  of  alcohol,  as  we  have  already 
ob-,erve(l,  acrording  to  the  experiments  ol 
Houillon.  When  lellat  rest  in  cask-,  it  depo- 
sits itself  upon  the  side.s,  forming  a  crust, 
more  or  less  thick,  with  crystals  of  ii regular 
forms.  Some  time  before  the  vintage,  when 
the  casks  are  to  be  got  ready  for  receiving  the 
new  wine,  they  are  staved,  "and  the  tartar  de- 
tached from  them,  in  order  to  be  employed 
in  the  difhrent  uses  of  comincice. 

Tartar  is  not  lurnished  in  etjual  quantity  by 
all  wines;  the  red  wines  \ield  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  it  than  the  vvhite:  those  of  the 
deepest  colour  and  thickest  consistence  ge- 
r.erally  jield  the  most. 

Its  tiolour  likewise  varies  veiy  much  ;  and 
it  is  distingui-.h(  d  into  white  and  red  tartar, 
according  to  the  colour  of  the  wines  from 
which  it  has  been  deposited. 

This  salt  has  little  solubility  in  cold  water, 
but  considerably  more  in  bofling  water.  It 
scarcely  dissolves  at  all  in  the  mouth,  and  it 
resists  the  |)ressure  of  the  teeth. 

Il  is  deprived  of  ils  colouring  principle  by 
a  simple  process,  and  it  is  then'termed  cream 
of  tartar.  I'or  this  purpose  it  is  dissolved  in 
boiling  water,  and  as  soon  as  the  solution  is 
saturated,  il  is  put  into  earthen  pans  to  cool. 
In  cooling,  it  dejiosits  a  layer  of  crystals, 
which  are  already  very  nearly  deprived  of 
their  colour.  These  crystals  are  again  dis- 
solved in  boiling  water,  and  the  solution  nfix- 
ed,  inthejjropoition  of  four  or  iU'e  parts  to  a 
hundreil,  with  a  sandy  argillaceous  earth, 
wdiich  is  dug  at  Murveil,  near  Montpellier. 
This  mixture  is  evaporated  till  a  pellicle 
forms  upon  it,;  in  cooling  it  deposits  white 
crystals,  which,  after  being  exposed  for  some 
days  to  the  air,  upon  canvas,  ac(|uire  that 
whiteness  by  which  cream  of  tartar  is  dis- 
tinguished. The  original  water  is  preserved 
in  Older  to  beem])Ioyed  in  new  solutions. 

Tartar  is  purified  also  by  calcination.  By 
this  operation  its  acid  is  decomposed  and  de- 
stroyed, so  that  nothing  remains  besides  the 
alkali  and  the  carbon.  Tlie  alkali  is  dissolved 
in  water;  and  by  filtrating  and  evaporating 
the  solution,  we" obtain  the  salt  well  known 
in  pharmacy  by  the  name  of  salt  of  tartar,  or 
carbonat  of  potass. 

Tartar  lurnishes  not  more  than  about  a 
fourth  i)art  of  its  weight  of  alkali. 

d.  The  extractive  principle.  The  ex- 
tractive principle  abounds  in  must,  where  it 
appears  to  be  dissolved  by  the  aid  of  the 
sugar:  but  when  the  saccharine  principle  is 
decomposed  by  means  of  fermentation,  the 
quantity  of  extractive  mutter  sensibly  dimi- 
nishes; a  part  ol  it  deposits  itself  in  a  fibrous 
form;  and  this  deposit,  which  principally  con- 
stitutes the  lees,  is  the  more  considerable  in 
proportion  as  the  fermentation  is  more  gentle, 
and  the  alcohol  more  abundant.  This  deposit 
is  always  mixed  with  a  considerable  quantity 
of  tartar. 

There  always  exists  in  wine  a  proportion  of 
extractive  matter  in  a  state  of  dissolution, 
which  may  be  separated  from  it  by  means  of 
evaporation.  It  abounds  more  in  new  wines 
than  in  old  ones ;  and  the  older  the  wine 
grows,  the  more  completely  is  it  freed  from 
the  extractive  principle. 

The  lees,  after  being  well  pressed,  are 
dried  in  the  sand,  or  in  stoves,  and  then 
burnt,  in  order  to  extract  that  species  of  al- 
kali known  in  commerce  by  the  name  of 
pearl-ashes.    The  residuum,  after  the  coni- 


911 

biistion,  is  a  porous  mass,  of  a  greenish-grey 
colour,  and  lornis  about  a  thirtieth  part  o'f 
the  whole  quantity  ol  ices  tliat  have  been 
burnt. 

5.  Tluurnnta.  All  natural  wines  have  an 
odour  niore  or  less  agreeable  to  the  smell. 
.Some  of  them  owe  theii  reputation  in  a  great 
mi:asiire  to  the  perfume  wliicli  they  exhale. 
This  is  the  case  with  Uurgiindy.  '1  liis  per- 
fume is  lost  by  too  violent  a  'fermentation, 
and  becomes  stronger  by  age.  It  seldom  ex- 
ists in  very  spirituous  wines,  eitlier  because  it 
is  concealed  by  the  strong  siiiell  of  the  al- 
cohol, or  because  it  has  been  destroyed  or 
dissipated  by  the  violent  fermentation  that 
was  requisite  to  developethe  spirit. 

This  aroma  does  not  appear  to  be  capable 
of  bi  ing  e.Ntracled  anil  communicaled  at 
pleasure  to  other  substances.  Even  heat 
seems  to  destroy  it;  tor,  excepting  the  first 
liquid  that  passes  over  in  distillation,  which 
still  retains  something  of  the  odour  peculiar  to 
the  wine,  the  brandy  which  follows  after  has 
only  those  projierties  that  essentially  belong 
to  it. 

6.  The  colouring  principle.  The  colour- 
ing principle  of  wine  belongs  to  the  skin  of 
the  grape;  for  when  the  must  is  suffered  to 
ferment  without  it,  the  wine  is  white.  This 
colouring  principle  does  not  dissolve  till  the 
alcohol  is  developed  ;  it  is  only  then  that  the 
wine  ac<(uires  its  colour,  which  is  deeper  in 
proportion  to  the  violence  of  the  feniien- 
tatiou. 

A  portion  of  the  colouring  principle  de- 
posits itself  in  the  cask,  together  with  the 
tartar  and  the  lees ;  and,  as  the  wine  grows 
old,  it  is  not  uiifii  cpient  to  see  it  entirely  lose 
its  colour:  the  colouring  principle  then  de- 
posits itself  in  pellicles  on  the  sides  or  bottom 
of  the  cask,  and  is  seen  Hoating  in  the  liquid 
in  the  form  of  films,  which  injure  its  trans- 
parency. 

If  we  expose  bottles  filled  with  wine  to  tlie 
rays  of  the  sun,  a  few  days  are  sufficient  to 
precipitate  the  colouring  principle  in  large 
pell.cles;  the  wine  losing  neither  its  per- 
fume nor  its  strength. 

By  adding  a  large  (juanlity  of  lime-water 
to  wines,  we  precipitate  their  colouring  prin- 
ciple. In  this  case  the  lime  combines  with 
the  malic  acid,  and  forms  a  salt  which  ap- 
pears in  light  flakes  in  the  liquid.  These 
Hakes  gradually  sink  to  the  bottom,  carrying 
with  Ihein  the  whole  of  the  colouring  prin- 
ciple. The  deposit  is  black  or  white,  ac- 
cording to  the  colour  of  the  wine  on  which 
we  operate.  It  frequently  happens,  that  a 
wine  is  still  susceptible  of  a  new  precipitation, 
although  it  had  been  completely  discoloured 
by  the  first  deposit,  which  proves  that  the 
colouring  principle  has  a  very  strong  aflinity 
with  the  malateof  lime.  This  coloured  prc'- 
cipitate  is  not  soluble  either  in  cold  or  in  hot 
water. .  Alcohol  has  scarcely  any  elVect  upon 
it,  excepting  that  it  acquires  a  slight  brownish 
tinge.  The  nitric  acid  dissolves  the  colour- 
ing principle  of  this  precipitate. 

When  wine  is  reduced  to  the  state  of  ex- 
tract, alcohol  poured  ui)on  it  acquires  a  deep 
tiiige,  in  the  same  manner  as  water  does, 
though  not  in  an  equal  degree.  But,  besides 
the  colouring  principle  which  then  dissolves 
itst-lf,  there  is  also  a  saccharine  extractive 
principle  present,  which  facilitates  the  so« 
iution. 


I 


gt3 


W  T  N 


•The  colouring  piintiple,  therefore,  does 
not  appear  to  be  ot  a  resinous  nature  ;  it  ex- 
Ijjbits  all  tlie  ciiaracter.i  tliat  belong  to  a  very 
junnerous  class  of  vegetable  products,  whicli 
qnproacii  to  llie  nature  of  the  kes  of  wine, 
though  without  possessing  all  its  properties. 
The  greater  number  of  colouring  principles 
are  of  this  kind:  tliey  are  soluble  by  the 
acid  of  extractive  ma'tter,  *ind,  upon  disen- 
gaging the.n  from  this  agent,  tliey  iix  them- 
selves in  a  solid  form. 

WiN-E-spisiT,  a  term  used  by  our  distil- 
lers, and  whicli  may  seem  to  mean  th.e  same 
thing  with  the  phrase  of  spirit  of  wine;  but 
tl;ey  are  taken  in  very  different  senses  iu  the 
trade. 

-Spirit  of  wine  is  the  name  given  to  the 
common  malt  spirit,  when  reduced  to  an  al- 
cohol, or  totally  inllanimable  state;  but  the 
phrase  wine-spirit  is  used  to  express  a  very 
clean  and  line  spirit,  of  the  ordinary  proof 
strength,  and  made  in  England  from  wines  of 
foreign  growth. 

Tlie  way  of  producing  it  is  by  simple  dis- 
fiilation,  and  it  is  never  rectified  any  higher 
than  commen  bubble-proof.  The  several 
vines  of  different  natures  yield  very  different 
proportions  of  spirit;  but,  in  general,  the 
strongest  vield  one-fourih,  the  weakest  in 
spirits  one-eighth  part  of  proof-spirit ;  that  is, 
tiiev  contain  from  a  si.xtecnth  to  an  eighth 
part  of  tlieir  quantity  of  i)ure  alcohol. 

■VVIXNOWIXG-MACIIINES.  Machines 
of  this  sort  are  in  pretty  general  use,  wher-e 
tljrashing-ir.ills,  to  which' they  may  be  attach- 
ed, are  not  erected:  they  are  made -on  dif- 
ferent principles  according  to  particular  cir- 
rumstancos.  Those  contrived  by  Mr.  Cor, 
of  Leicester,  on  Mr.  Wiulow's  plan,  are  good 
impleuieiits,  and  will  dress  grain  with  much 
dispatch.  And  there  are  others  which  are 
employed  in  the  nortliern  districts,  which  are 
made  by  Uodgers,  that  are  also  upon  good 
and  convenient  principles ;  as  well  as  many 
more  in  diftiL-rent  places  wiiich  hav,  great 
merit  in  tlieir  construction,  and  do  their  work 
■well  and  expeditiously.  Tiiey  are  made  of 
different  prices,  from  three  to  live  or  six 
pounds,  and  will  last  many  years  when  the 
riaterials  of  which  they  arc  formed  are  of  a 
■j)roper  kind. 

WINTEI?  A,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
polyandria,  and  order  pentagynia  ;  and  in  the 
natural  system  arranged  under  the  I'Jth  or- 
der, holoracei'.  The  calyx  is  threc-lobed  ; 
there  are  six  or  twelve  petals ;  there  is  no 
style ;  the  fruit  is  a  berry,  which  is  club- 
shaped  as  well  as  the  germon.  There  are 
three  species,  the  aromatica,  granadensis,  and 
axillaris. 

Wintera  aromatica,  is  one  of  the  largest 
.forest-trees  upon  Terr»  del  Fuego :  it  often 
rises  to  the  height  of  ;"iO  feet.  Its  outward 
.bark  is  on  the  trunk  grey  and  very  little 
wrinkled,  on  the  branches  quite  smooth  and 
green.  The  branches  do  not  spread  horizon- 
tally, but  are  ber.t  u|)warils,  and  form  an  ele- 
gant head  of  an  oval  3hai>e.  The  leaves  come 
-out  without  ordrr,  of  an  oval  elliptic  shape, 
quite  entire,  obtu<c,  fl:i(„,.smooth,  sliinhig,  of 
a  thick  leathery  substance,  evergreen,  on  the 
upper  side  of  a  lively  deep-green  colour,  and 
of  a  pale  biuish  colour  umlerntalh,  without 
.any  nerves,  and  their  veins  scarcely  visible  ; 
Ihey  are  somewlut  narrower  near  the  foot- 
;Stalks,   and    th'rrc    their  margins  are   bent 


W  I  R 

do^Tn^Tard3.  In  general,  thc'caves  ari^  from 
three  to  four  inches  long,  and  between  one 
ami  two  broad;  they  have  very  short  foot- 
stalks, seldom  half  an  inch  long,  which  are 
smooth,  concave  on  the  upper  side,  an<l  con- 
vex underne;ith.  From  the  scpp  of  the  old 
footstail^s  tlie  branches  are  often  tubercu- 
lated. 

WIRE,  a  piece  of  metardrawn  through 
the  hole  of  an  iron  iato  a  thread  of  a  fme- 
ness  answerable  to  the  hole  it  passed  tJirough. 

Wires  are  frequently  drawn  so  line  as  to  be 
wrought  <vlong  with  other  threa-ls  of  silk, 
wool,  flax,  &c. 

The  metals  most  commonly  drawn  into 
wire,  are  gold,  silvtr,  copper,  and  iron. 

Gold  wire  is  made  of  cylindrical  ingots  of 
silver,  covered  over  with  a  skin  of  gold,  and 
thus  drawn  successively  through  a  vast  num- 
ber of  holes,  each  smaller  and  smaller;  till  at 
last  it  is  brought  to  a  fineness  exceeding  that 
of  a  hair.  That  admirable  ductility  which 
makes  one  of  the  distuiguisiiing  characters  of 
gold,  is  no  where  more  conspicuous  than  in 
this  gilt  wire.  A  cylinder  of  4S  ounces  of 
silver,  covered  with  a  coat  of  gold,  only 
weighing  one  ounce,  as  Dr.  Halley  informs 
us,  is  usually  drawn  iiito  a  wire,  two  yards  of 
whicli  weigh  noniore  than  one  grain:  whence 
98  yards  of  the  wire  weigh  no  more  than  49 
grains,  and  one  single  grain  of  gold  covers 
the  98  yards  ;  so  tlial  the  ten-thousandth  part 
of  a  grain  is  above  one-eighth  of  an  uich 
long. 

Silver  wire  is  the  same  with  gold  wire,  ex- 
cept that  the  latter  is  gilt,  or  covered  with 
gold,  and  tlie  other  is  not. 

'I'here  are  also  counterfeit  gold  and  silver 
wires  ;  the  lirst  made  of  a  cylinder  of  copper, 
silvered  over,  and  then  covered  with  gold: 
and  the  second  of  a  like  cylinder  of  coppci-, 
silvered  over,  and  drawn  through  the  iron, 
after  the  same  manner  as  gold  and  silver 
wire. 

Brass  wire  is  drawn  after  the  same  manner 
as  the  former.  Of  this  there  are  divers  sizes, 
suited  to  the  dillerent  kinds  of  works.  The 
hnestis  used  for  the  strings  of  musical  instru- 
ments, as  harpsichords,  &c. 

The  pin-makers  likewise  use  vast  quantities 
of  brass  wire,  to  make  their  pins  of. 

Iron  wire  is  drawn  of  various  sizes,  from 
h;ilf  an  inch  to  one-tenth  of  an  inch  diameter, 
and  evc-n  smaller. 

The  lirst  iron  that  runs  from  the  stone 
when  melting,  being  the  softest  and  toughest, 
is  preserved  to  make  wire  of.  Iron  wire  is 
made  from  bars  of  iron,  called  esleom-irou, 
which  are  first  drawn  out  to  a  greater  length, 
and  to  about  the  thickness  of  the  little  finger, 
at  a  furnace,  with  a  hammer  gently  moved  bv 
water.  These  thinner  pieces  are  bored 
round,  and  put  into  a  furnace  to  anneal  for 
12  hours.  A  pretty  strong  fire  is  used  for 
this  operation.  After  this  they  are  laid  under 
wat<'r  for  three  or  four  months,  the  longer  the 
belter;  then  they  are  delivered  to  the  work- 
men, called  rippers,  w  ho  draw  them  into  wire 
Ihiongh  two  or  three  holes.  .After  this  the\ 
anneal  them  again  for  six  hours,  and  water 
thein  a  secontl  lime  for  about  a  week,  and 
they  are  then  delivered  again  to  the  rippers, 
who  draw  them  into  wire  of  the  thickness  of  a 
larg«'  packthread.  'I'hey  are  then  annealed  a 
third  time,  and  then  watered  for  a  week 
longer,  and  deli\ered  to  the  small  wire- 
draw el's,  called  overhousc-men. 


W  I  T  - 

tn  the  mill  where  this  work  is  performed* 

there  are  several  barrels  hooped  with  iron, 
which  have  two  hooks  on  their  tipper  sides, 
on  each  of  which  hang  two  links,  which  stand 
across,  ami  are  fastened  to  the  two  ends  of  tlie 
tongs  which  catdi  hold  ol  the  wire,  and  draw 
it  thro  ugh  the  hole.  The  axis  on  which  the 
barrel  moves  does  not  run  through  the  centre, 
but  is  placed  on  one  side,  wliich  is  that  on 
which  the  hooks  are  .placed ;  and  under- 
neath there  is  fastened  to  the  barrel  a  spoke  of 
wood,  which  they  call  a  swingle,  which  is 
drawn  back  a  good  way  by  the  cogs  in  the 
axis  of  the  wheel,  and  draws  back  the  barrel, 
which  falls  to  again  by  its  own  w  eight.  'l"he 
tongs  hanging  on  the  hooks  of  the  barrel,  arfe 
by  the  workmen  fastened  to  the  end-of  the 
wire,  and  by  the  force  of  the  wheel,  the  hooks 
being  pulled  back,  draw  the  wire  through  the 
holes.  The  plate  in  which  the  holes  are,  is 
iron  on  the  outside,  and  steel  on  the  inside  ; 
and  t!ie  wire  is  anointed  with  train-oil,  to 
make  it  run  the  easier. 

Wire  nf  Lnplcnd.  The  inhabitants  of 
Lapland  have  a  sort  of  shining  slender  sub- 
stance in  use  among  them  on  several  occ;t- 
sions,  which  is  much  of  tlie  thickness  and 
appearance  of  our  silver  wire,  and  is  there- 
tore  called,  by  those  «ho  do  not  examine  its 
structure  or  substance,  Lapland  wire.  It  is 
made  of  the  sinews  of  the  rein-deer,  whicii 
being  carefully  separated  in  the  eating,  are, 
by  the  women,  alter  soaking  it  iu  water,  and 
beating,  spun  into  a  sort  of  thread,  of  ad- 
mirable fineness  and  strength,  when  wrought 
to  the  smallest  filaments  but  when  larger,  is 
very  strong,  and  fit  forthe  purposes  of  strength 
and  force.  Tiieir  wire,  ai  it  is  called,  is  made 
of  the  finest  of  these  threads,  covered  with 
tin.  The  women  do  this  business ;  and  the 
way  they  take  is  to  melt  a  piece  of  tin,  and 
placing  at  the  edge  of  it  a  liorn  with  a  hole 
through  it,  they  draw  lliese  sinewy  threads, 
covered  with  the  tin,  through  tlie  hole,  which 
prevents  their  coming  out  too  thick  covered. 
This  drawing  is  performed  with  their  teeth; 
and  there  is  a  small  piece  of  bone  placed  at 
tin;  top  of  the  hole,  where  tlie  wire  is  made 
flat,  so  that  we  always  find  it  rounded  on  all 
sidea  but  one,  where  it  is  fiat. 

Tliis  wire  they  use  in  embroidering  their 
clothes,  as  we  do  gold  and  silver  ;  they  often 
sell  it  to  strangers,  under  the  notion  of  its  hav- 
ina  certain  magical  virtues. 

'WirCIICRAIT.  By9G.  II.  c.  5,  no 
prosecution  shall  be  commenced  or  carried 
on  against  any  person  for  witchcraft,  sorcery, 
enchantment,  or  conjuration,  or  lor  charging 
another  with  any  such  offence. 

But  if  any  t)er-cn  shall  pretend  toe-xercise 
or  use  any  .k1  of  witclicraft,  sorcery,  en- 
chantment, or  coiijuratii  or  undertake  to 
tell  fortunes ;  or  preteiu.  fi  n  his  skill  or 
knowledge  in  any  occult  or  crafty  science,  to 
discover  where,  and  in  what  manner,  any 
goods  supposed  to  have  been  stolen  or  lost, 
may  be  found  ;  he  shall  be  imprisoned  for  a 
year,  and  once  in  every  quarter  of  mat  year 
stand  openly  on  the  pillory  for  an  hour  ;  and 
further  shall  be  bound  to  good  bdiavioiir  as 
the  comt  shall  award. 

WITENA-MOT,  or  \Vites.vcemot, 
among  our  Saxon  ancestors,  was  a  term  «  hi.h 
literally  signified  the  assembly  of  the  wise 
men,  and  was  applied  to  the  great  council  of 
the  nation,  of  latter  days  called  thcpailia- 
mcnt. 


W  O  L 

AVlYlIF.RINGIA,  af^onusof  pla;iU  ohht 
'jbss  ami  orilci"  Idrandria  niortogyiiici.  The 
cowlla  is  siil)-canip.H]ulaU' ;  cilvN  viry  small, 
four-tdolluxl ;  penandiiimi  two-celled.  There 
is  out;  species,  a  hcrl)  olJioulli  Aincrlca. 

WrrZi'lMA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  and  order  triandria  monog^nia.  The 
corolla  is  one-petalled  ;  stigma  cmarginat*; ; 
capsule  superior,  i'liere  is  one  species,  a 
lierb  of  tin-  Cap". 

WIIHEUNAM,  in  law,  a  writ  thatJies 
where  a  distress  is  driven  out  of  the  countj', 
and  the  sherilf  cannot  make  deliverance  to 
the  party  distrained  ;  in  that  case  this  writ  is 
directed  to  the  sheritT,  commanding  him  to 
take  as  many  of  the  beasts,  or  goods,  of  the 
party  into  his  keeping,  till  he  make  deliver- 
ance of  the  lirst  distress. 

\Vi  I N  KSy,  one  who  is  sworn  to  give  evi- 
dence in  a  cause. 

If  a  man  is  sul>pasnacd  as  a  witness  upon  a 
trial,  he  must  appear  m  court  on  pain  of  1 00/. 
to  be  forfeited  to  (he  king,  and  10/.  together 
with  damages  equivalent  to  the  loss  sustained 
by  the  want  of  hi-;  evidence  to  the  parly  ag- 
'grieved.     .^  Black.  Com.  369. 

But  witnesses  ought  to  have  a  reasonable 
tiinc,  that  their  attendance  upon  the  court 
may  be  of  as  little  prejudice  to  themselves  as 
possible;  and  tlie  court  of  kingV-bencli  held, 
that  notii  e  at  two  in  the  aficriioon  to  attend 
the  sitting  Uiat  evening  at  West  minster  w. Is 
loo  short  a  time.     Sir.  jin. 

AVhere  a  witness  cannot  be  present  at  a  i 
trial,  he  may,  l>y  consent  of  the  plaintiff  and  j 
tlefentlant,  or  by  rule  of  court,  be  examined  ! 
opon  interrogatories  at  the  judge's  chambers. 

No  witness  is  bound  to  appear  to  give  evi- 
dence in  a  cause  unless  his  reason^ible  expeiice 
is  tenclcred  him,  and  if  he  appears  till  siuh 
charge  is  actually  i)aid,  him,  except  he  botli 
resides  and  is  summoned  to  give  evidence 
within  the  bills  ot  murtalitv. 

WOAD, ill  botany.     See  Is.iTis,  and  Ix- 

lllGO. 

WOLF.     See  Cants. 

WOLK-IjOLES,  ill  the  defence  of  places, 
are  round  holes,  generally  about  two  or  three 
feel  in  diameter  at  the  top,  one  at  bottom, 
and  tv.'o  and  a  half  deep,  chig  in  the  front  of 
any  work.  Sometimes  a  sharp-pointed  slake 
or  iwo  are  fixed  at  the  bottom,  and  covered 
with  very  thin  planks,  and  green  sods;  con- 
se.|ueiitly  the  enemy,  on  advancing,  fall  in, 
and  arc  put  into  confiision. 

WOLFRAM,  an  ore  of  tungsten,  is  found 
in  dilVereut  parts  of  Cermaiiv,  in  Sweden,  Bri- 
tain, France,  and  Spain;  and  almost  con- 
stantly accompanied  bv  ores  of  tin.  It  oc- 
curs both  massive  and  crvstallized.  'Ili:: 
primitive  form  of  its  crystnli^V"c/>rdiiig  to  the 
oliservatinns  of  Mr.  I lauy,  is  "ir  rectangular 
narellelopiped,  w.'-fM'e  length  is  R.Cifi,  w'liose 
breadlhis  five,  #?d  ti^ickness4..53.  Ills  not 
common,  however,  to  find  crvstals  of  this  per- 
fect foiau  in  many  cases:  the  angles,  and  some- 
times the  edges,  of  the  crystal  are  wanting; 
©■.ving,  as  Mr.  Hauy  has  sliewn,  to  the  super- 
position of  plates,  whose  edgps  or  angles  de- 
crease according  to  a  certain  law. 

Colour  brown  or  brownish  black.  Streak 
reddish  brown.  Powder  stains  paper  with 
the  same  c;.!our.  'IVxture  4*)liated.  F,asilv 
separate.!  into  plales  by  percussion.  Specific 
gravity  from  7.  to  7..'..  Modeivti-ly  electric 
Jjy  co.u  lumication.  Not  magnetic.  Iiifusj- 
kie  b\  the  bljwp'pe.     F'oiMis '.^iLk  ',oa\"a 

Vol.  U.  '--■■■ 


WOO 

greenish  globule,  and  wilh  microcosmlc  salt  a 
transparent  globule  of  a  deep  red. 

The  Bpecimeii  of  this  ore,  e.^amined  by 
Messrs.  d'l'.lhuyaris,  was  composed  of 

f)i  oxide  of  tungslen 

S'2  oxide  of  manganese 

13  oxide  of  iron 

100. 
Another  specimen  from  Tuy-les-Mincs  in 
France,  analysed  by  \'au<iuel"in  and  Ilecht, 
contained 

07.00  oxide  of  tungsten 
18.00  black  oxide  of  iron 
6.25  black  oxide  of  manganese 
1..50  silica 
7.2,5  oxide  of  the  iron  and  manganese 

LOO.OO 

WO.MEX.  By  the  20  G.  U.  c.  33,  no  suit 
shall  be  had  in  any  ecclesiastical  court,  to 
compel  a  celebration  of  marriage  in  facie  cc- 
clesi.i',  by  reason  of  any  contract  of  matrimony 
whatsoever,  whf  Iher  per  verba  de  prxseiiti,  or 
per  verba  de  tuturo :  and  the  marriage  of 
any  person  under  the  age  of  twenty-one, 
without  the  consent  of  parenti  or  guardians, 
shall  be  null  and  void. 

By  2ii  II.  V(.  c.  9  peeresses  shall  be  Iried 
as  peers  for  lreas<m  or  felony. 

And  by  slut.  3  W.  c.  9,  a  woman  being 
convicted  of  an  offence,  for  which  a  man  may 
have  his  clergy,  shall  suffer  the  same  punish- 
nient  that  a  man  should  sulicr,  who  lias  the 
benefit  of  his  clergv  allowed  ;  that  is,  shall  be 
burnt  in  tlie  hand,  and  further  kept  in  prison 
as  the  court  shall  think  fit,  not  exceeding  one 
year. 

But  she  shall  be  only  once  intillcd  to  the 
benefit  of  the  said  statute. 

wool.),  a  solid  substance,  whereof  the 
trunks  and  branches  of  trees  consist.  See  the 
articles  Tree,  Tuukk,  Branch,  Under- 
V.OOD,  Pi..\.N'Ts,  physiology  of,  Timber, 
<Scc. 

'I'lic  wood  lies  immediately  under  the 
bark,  and  forms  by  far  the  greale.il  part 
of  the  trunk  and  large  branches  of  trees.  It 
coihists  of  concentric  layers,  the  number  of 
which  increases  with  the  age  of  the  part. 
ICach  of  Uicse  layers,  as  Mr.  Duhamel  ascer- 
tained, may  be  separated  into  several  thinner 
layers,  and  these  are  composed  chielly  of  lon- 
giludinal  fibres.  Hence  the  reason  that  wood 
may  be  much  more  easily  split  asunder  than 
cut  across. 

The  wood,  when  v.e  inspect  it  wilh  atten- 
tion, is  not,  tlirough  its  whole  exent,  I  In 'same; 
the  pail  of  it  iiixt  the  l)ark  is  much  softer  and 
whiter,  and  more  juicy  than  the  rest,  and  has 
for  that  reason  obiained  a  particular  name : 
it  has  been  called  llic  alburnum  or  aiibier. 
I'he  periect  wooil  is  browner,  and  harvler, 
and  denser,  than  the  alburnum,  and  the  layers 
increase  in  density  the  nearer  they  are  to  the 
centre.  Sir  Julm  Hill  gave  to  th.c  innermost 
layer  of  wood  the  name  of  corona  ;  or  rather 
he  gave  this  name  to  a  thin  zone  which,  ac- 
cording to  him,  lies  between  the  wood  and 
the  pith. 

Mortimer  observes  that  all  kinds,  of  wood 
are  to  be  preserved  from  iusecis  and  from 
many  other  viccasions  of  decay,  by  oi'v  sub- 
stances, particularly  the  essen'tial  oils  of  ve- 
getables." Oil  of  spike  is  excellent;  and  oil 
of  juniper,  turpentine,  or  any  other  of  this 
kind,  will  serve  the  purpose;  these  will  pi\-- 
5  Z 


W  0  o 


013 


scTve  fables,  in ;tiunicnts,  Uc.  from  being 
eaten  to  piecc;s  by  these  vermin  ;  and  linsei^di- 
oil  will  serve,  in  many  ca^es,  to  the  same  pur- 
pose; probably  nut-oil  will  do  aUo,  and  this 
IS  a  sweeter  oil,  aiid  a  belief  varnish  for 
wood. 

Some  of  the  ^^'(;st  Indian  trees  aflbrd  a  sort, 
of  timber  wiiicli,  if  it  would  answer  in  point  of 
size,  would  have  great  advantages  over  any 
of  the  European  wood  in  ship-building  for  I  he 
merchant->ervice,  no  worm  ever  touching 
this  limber.  The  acajou,  or  tree  which  pro- 
duces the  cashew-nul,  is  of  this  kind;  and 
there  is  a  tn.-e  of  Jamaica,  known  by  the  name 
of  the  while  wood,  which  has  exactly  llu' 
same  properly  ;  and  so  have  many  otiier  of 
their  trees. 

To  Season  wood  expeditiously  for  sea-ser- 
vice, Mr.  Boyle  obser\es,  tliat  it  has  been 
Usual  to  bake  it  in  ovens. 

The  art  cjf  moulding  wood  is  mentioned 
by  .Mr.  Boyle  as  a  desicieralum  in  the  art  of 
carving.  He  says,  he  had  been  credibly  in- 
formed of  its  having  been  practised  at  the 
Hague;  and  suspects  llial  it  might  have  been 
performed  by  some  menstruum  that  softens 
the  wood,  and  afterwards  allows  it  to  harden 
again,  in  the  m.anner  that  tortoise-shell  Li 
moulded:  or  perliaps  by  reducing  the  wood 
into  a  powder,  and  then  uniting  it  into  a  mass 
w  ith  strons;  but  thin  glue.  And  he  adds,  tliat, 
having  mixed  saw-dust  with  a  line  glue  made 
of  isinglass,  slightly  straining  out  what  was 
superlleous  through  a  piece  of  li;ii-n,  the  re- 
mainder, formed  into  a  ball,  and  dried,  be- 
came so  hard  as  to  rebound  when  tiirowA 
against  the  floor. 

The  people  who  work  much  in  wood,  and 
about  small  works,  find  a  very  surprising 
dill'erence  in  it,  according  to  the  different  sea- 
sons at  which  the  tree  was  cut  down  ;  and  this 
not  regularly  the  same  in  regard  to  all  species, 
but  diifeient  in  regard  to  each.  The  button- 
mould  makers  lincf  tliat  the  wootlofthe  pear- 
tree,  cm  in  summer,  works  toughest;  holly, 
oti  the  contrary,  works  toughest  when  cut 
in  winter;  box  Is  mellowest  when  it  has  been 
cut  in  summer,  but  hardest  when  cut  about 
Easter;  hawthorn  works  mellow  whtni  cut 
about  October,  and  the  service  is  always 
tough  if  cut  in  summer. 

WocjD  Stainin'g. 
To  slain  ziond  i/clloxf.  Take  any  white 
wood,  and  brush  it  over  several  times  v.it!t 
the  tinctureof  turmeric  root,  made  by  putting 
an  ounce  of  turmeric,  ground  to  powder,  to  a 
pint  of  spirit,  and  after  they  have  stood  for 
some  days,  straining  oil"  the  tincture.  If  the 
yellow  colour  is  desired  to  have  a  reddish 
cast,  a  little  dragon's  blood  must  be  add- 
ed. 

A  cheaper,  but  less  strong  and  bright  yellow 
is,  by  the  tincture  of  French  berries  made  boil- 
ing-hot. 

Wood  may  also  be  stained  yellow  by  mean? 
of  aqua  fortis,  which  will  sometimes  produce  a 
very  beautiful  yellow  colour,  but  at  other 
times  a  browner.  Care  mu>t  be  taken, 
however,  that  the  acjua  fortis  is  not  too 
strong;  otherwise  a  blackish  colour  will  be  the 
result. 

To  stain  z.ood  red.  For  a  bright  red  stain 
for  wood,  make  a  stro"g  infu-ion  of  Brazil 
wood  in  stale  urine,  or  water  impregnated 
w  ill)  pearl-ashes,  in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce; 
to  a  gallon ;  to  a  gallon  of  either  of  whicii, 
ih«  prOpcrtivB  of  Brazil  wood  wu^t  l*e  ^ 


0M 


W  O  O 


poiiiul,  which  being  put  to  them,  tiiey  must 
stand  together  for  two  or  tiiree  days,  olten 
stirring  die  mixture.  Witli  tliis  infusion 
strained,  and  made  boiling-hot,  bnwli  over 
the  wood  to  be  stained  till  it  appears  strongly 
coloured  ;  then,  while  yet  wet,  brush  it  over 
with  alum-water  made  in  the  proportion  of 
two  ounces  of  alum  to  a  (juart  of  water. 

For  a  less  bright  red  dissolve  an  ounce  of 
dragon's  blood  in  a  pint  of  spirit  of  wine,  and 
brush  over  the  wood  with  the  tincture  till  the 
stain  appe^irs  to  be  as  strong  as  is  desired  ; 
but  this  IS,  in  factj  rather  lacquering  than  stain- 

j"g- 

For  a  pink  or  rose  red,  add  to  a  gallon  of 

the  above  infusion  of  IJrazil  wood  two  adili- 
tional  ounces  of  the  pearl-ashes,  and  use  it  as 
was  before  directed :  but  it  is  necessary,  in 
this  ca,se,  to  brush  the  wood  over  with  alum- 
vater.  By  increasing  the  proportion  of  pearl- 
ashes,  the  red  may  be  rendered  yet  paler: 
bit  it  is  proper,  when  more  tiiau  this  quantity 
is  added,  to  make  the  aluni-waler  stronger. 

To  stain  viood  blue.  Wood  may  be  stained 
blue  by  means  either  of  copper  or  indigo. 

The  method  of  stauiing  blue  with  copper 
is  as  follows:  Make  a  solution  of  copper  in 
acpiit  fortis,  and  brush  it  while  hot  several 
times  over  the  wood ;  then  make  a  solution  of 
pearl-ashes-in  the  proportion  of  two  ounces 
to  a  pint  of  water,  and  brusii  it  hot  over  the 
wood  stained  with  the  solution  of  copper,  till 
it  is  of  a  perfectly  blue  colour. 

To  stain  wood  green.  Dissolve  verdigrise 
in  vinegar,  or  crystals  of  verdigrise  in  water, 
and  with  the  hot  solution  brush  over  the  wood 
till  it  is  duly  stained. 

To  stain  wood  purple.  Rrusli  the  wood 
to  be  stained  several  times  with  a  strong  de- 
coction of  logwood  and  Brazil,  made  in  the 
proportion  of  one  pound  of  the  logwood,  and 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  the  Brazil,  to  a  gallon 
of  water,  and  boiled  for  an  hoiu-  or  inore. 
When  the  wood  has  been  bru^h.-d  ovcl-  till 
there  is  a  sufficient  body  of  colour,  let  it  dry, 
and  then  be  slightly  passed  over  by  a  solution 
of  one  drachn\  of  pearl-ashes  in  a  iiuart  of  wa- 
ter. This  solution  must  be  carefully  used,  as 
it  will  gra^dnally  change  the  colour  from  a 
brown  red,  which  it  will  be  originally  found 
to  be,  to  a  dark  blue  purple,  and  therefore 
its  effect  must  be  restrained  to  the  due  point 
for  producing  tiie  colour  desired. 

To  stain  viood  a  mtiliogany  colour.  The 
substances  used  for  staining  mahogany  colour 
are  madder,  Brazil  wood,  and  logwood:  each 
of  which  produces  reddish  brown  stains,  and 
they  must  be. mixed  together  in  such  propor- 
tions as  will  produce  the  tint  recjuired. 

Tn  stain  tvooA  I/lark.  Brush  the  wood  se- 
veral times  over  with  a  hot  decoction  of  log- 
wood. Then  having  prepared  an  infusion  of 
galls  by  putting  a  qvrarter  of  a  pound  of  pow- 
dered galls  to  two  cpiarts  of  water,  and  set- 
ting them  in  the  sunshine,  or  any  other  gentle 
heat,  for  three  or  four  days,  brush  the  wood 
ovcrthree  or  four  times  with  it,  and  it  will  be 
of  a  beautiful  black.  It  may  be  polished  with 
a  liard  brush  and  shoeinaker^'  black  wax. 

Woon,  fossile  ■■  whole  trees,  or  parts  of 
them,  are  very  frequently  found  buried  in  the 
t-artli,  and  that  in  diiferent  strata;  sometimes 
in  stone,  but  more  usually  in  earth,  but  some- 
times in  small  pieces  loose  among  gravel.  See 
Petrifaction. 

WOODCOCK.    See  the  article  Scolo- 

TAX. 

II 


\v  o  o 

Woodcock-shell,  in  natural  history, 
the  variegated  yellowish  purpura,  with  tuber- 
cles, and  a  long  beak;  and  the  thorny  woo<l- 
cock-shell  is  the  yellow  long-beaked  purpura, 
with  long  and  crooked  spines. 

WOODLOUSF.     See  Oniscvs. 

W  OODl'FCKFR.     See  I'icl's. 

WOOF,  among  manufacturers,  the  threads 
which  the  weavers  sh..ot  across  with  an  iu4ru- 
ment  called  the  shuttle.  The  woof  is  of  dif- 
ferent matter,  according  to  the  piece  to  be 
wrought.  In  lalfely,  both  woof  and  warp  are 
silk.  In  mohairs,  "the  woof  is  usually  wool, 
and  the  warp  silk.  In  satins,  tlie  warp  is 
frequently  flax,  and  the  woof  silk. 

^VOOL,  a  kind  of  long,-  soft,  curly  hair 
(see  the  article  Hair),  which  covers  the 
skin  of  several  of  the  ruminating  animals,  but 
which  is  particularly  cut  or  shorn  from  that  of 
the  sheep,  is  in  such  universal  use,  that  we 
should  ttiink  it  must  be  one  of  those  animal 
substances  most  accurately  known;  it  is, 
however,  within  a  tew  years,  that  chemists 
have  occupied  themselves  with  CAaiuiniiig  it. 
Formerly,  they  contented  themselves  with 
considenug  it  as  diffusing  a  disagreeable 
smell  when  it  was  burned,  and  as  yielding 
much  oil  and  carbonat  of  ammonia,  by  dis- 
tillation. It  had  been  remarked  in  common 
life,  that  it  did  not  inflame  without  great  dif- 
ficulty, and  that  it  exhaled  a  very  fetid  thick 
smoke,  instead  of  taking  a  bright  flame.  Fi- 
nally, it  was  known,  that  the  caustic  alkalies 
easily  corroded  it,  and  that  it  quickly  received, 
and  forcibly  retained,  the  colouring  matters 
that  were  imprinted  upon  it,  so  that  it  deserv- 
ed the  first  rank  amongst  the  ^ub?tances  to  be 
dyed.  The  extremely  numerous  uses,  to 
which  it  has  been  appropriated  in  a  number 
of  arts  from  time  immemorial,  had  brought 
all  its  useful  properties  to  light ;  but  chemis- 
try had  considered  it  only  under  its  most-ge- 
neral relation  with  all  the  animal  matters, 
without  ascertaining  any  thing  specific  in  it. 
Berthollel  began  to  occupy  hmiself  particu- 
larly with  it  in  17S-1  and  17S5.  lie  has 
shewn  that  the  caustic  alkaline  leys  dissolve 
it  entirely,  and  that  the  aciils  precipitate  it 
from  this  solution ;  in  this  combination,  he 
has  sought  the  mode  of  action  which  the  alka- 
lies exert  upon  animal  substances,  and  he  has 
particularly  availed  himself  of  it,  for  explain- 
ing the  very  remarkable  energy  which  exists 
between  these  two  matters.  In  this  manner 
he  has  especially  accounted  for  the  action  of 
the  lapis  causticus,  upon  the  bodies  of  ani- 
mals. He  has,  moreover,  shown  that  the 
coal  of  woal  was  difficult  to  be  burned,  like 
that  of  all  the  animal  compounds ;  that  wool, 
treated  by  the  nitric  acid,  afforded  azotic  gas, 
and  oxalic  acid,  with  a  fatty  matter.  Chap- 
tal,  applying  this  solution  of  wool  in  the  alka- 
lies, to  the  processes  of  the  manufacture  of 
cloth,  has  represented  it  as  a  soap  of  great 
utility  for  these  manufactures,  ami  very  well 
adapfed  for  being  substituted  instead  of  that 
which  is  fabricated  with  vegetable  oil.  W'ool 
has,  moreover,  been  considered  as  a  very  bad 
conductor  of  caloric  ;  and  upon  this  principle 
it  has  been  exidained,  how,  by  retaining  that 
which  exhales  from  our  bodies,  it  forms  the 
warmest  clothing,  the  best  adapted  for  mode- 
rating   the    seventy  of   the    winters.      See 

hAIR. 

Tlie  facts  contained  in  the  aiticle  to  which 
wo  refer,  will  explain  all  the  phenomena,  and 
all  the  pvopurties  which  wool  presents,  in  the 


WOO 

frequent  and  advantageous  uses  to  which  it  i« 
constantly  a|)plied.  The  warmth  which  it  af- 
fords as  clothing  or  covi-ring,  its  impenetra- 
bility by  water,  its  hne  colouration,  the  dura- 
bility and  solidity  of  its  dyes,  its  destruction 
by  the  alkalies,  ihe  facility  with  which  grease 
and  oils  penetrate  it,  the  extension  of  the 
spots  which  are  formed  upon  it,  even  ihe  use 
wliich  it  ha>,  and  the  functions  which  it  per- 
forms upon  the  bodies  of  those  ai:imals  wliich 
are  covered  with  it,  and  from  which  we  take 
it  in  order  to  clothe  on rStlves;  the  adlu-reiit 
and  fetid  oil ;  the  exudation  with  which  it  is 
impregnated  upon  the  bodies  of  sheep ;  the 
maimer  in  which  it  defends  them  against  (he 
rain  and  the  water,  which  are  so  hurtl'ul  to 
them;  its  slow  combustion;  the  yellowness 
and  loss  of  tenacity  that  are  produced  in  it  by 
long  exposure  to  the  air:  in  a  word,  all  that 
ajjpertains  to  its  characters,  its  formation,  its 
us  •,  its  so  various  properties,  its  destruction, 
becomes  clear  and  easily  conceivable  by  the 
distinct  determination  of  its  nature,  and  of  its 
composition. 

Wool,  either  in  a  raw  or  manufactured 
state,  has  always  been  tlie  principal  of  the 
staple  articles  of  this  country.  The  price  of 
wool  was  in  very  early  tinn  s  much  higher  in 
proportion  to  the  wages  of  labour,  the  rent  of 
land,  and  the  price  of  butcher's  meat,  than  at 
present.  It  was  before  the  time  of  Edward 
III.  always  exported  raw,  the  art  of  working 
it  into  cloth  and  dyeing  being  so  imperfectly 
known,  that  no  persons  above  the  degree  of 
working  people  could  go  dressed  in  cloth  of 
English  manufacture. 

The  first  steps  taken  to  encourage  the 
manufacture  of  woollen  cloths  was  by  Edward 
the  Thirtl,  who  procured  some  good  workmen 
from  the  Netlierlands  by  means  of  protection 
and  encouragement.  The  value  of  wool  was 
con»idered  as  so  essentially  solid,  that  taxes 
were  voted  in  that  commodity,  reckoning  by 
the  number  of  sacks  ;  and  in  proportion  to 
the  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life  and  value 
of  silver,  wool  was  at  least  three  times  dearer 
then  than  it  is  now.  The  manufacturing  of 
cloth  being  once  introduced  iiito  the  country, 
the  policy  of  preventing  the  exportation  of 
the  raw  material  was  soon  evident ;  and  tlie 
first  act,  was  that  of  II.  IV.  c  2.,  by  which 
the  exportation  of  sheep,  lambs,  or  rams,  is 
forbidden  under  very  heavy  penalties. 

By  Stat.  2S.  Geo"  111.  all  former  statutes 
respecting  the  exportation  of  wool  and  sheep 
are  repealed,  and  numerous  restrictions  are 
consolidated  in  that  statute. 

By  this  act,  if  any  person  shall  send  or  re- 
ceive any  sheep  on  board  any  vessel,  to  be 
carried  out  of  the  kingdom,  such  vessel  shall 
be  forfeited,  and  the  person  so  olTending  shall 
forfeit  31.  tor  every  sheep,  and  sulTer  solitary 
imprisonment  for  three  months.  But  wether 
sheep,  by  a  licence  from  the  collector  of  the 
customs,  may  be  taken  on  board  for  the  use  of 
the  ship's  company ;  and  every  person  w  ho 
shall  export  any  wool,  or  woollen  articles 
slightly  made  up,  so  as  easily  to  be  reduced 
again  to  wool,  or  any  fuller's  earth  or  tobac- 
co-pipe clay,  and  every  carrier,  ship-owner^ 
conmiander,  mariner,  or  other  person,  who 
shall  knowingly  assist  in  exporting,  or  at- 
tempting to  export,  these  articles,  shall  forfeit 
three  shillings  for  every  pound  weight,  or  the 
sum  of  .'lO/.  in  the  whole,  at  the  election  of 
iUc  ])rosecutor,  aiul  ^luill  also  suffer  solitary 
impriboiuucnl  for  three  months.    But  wool 


W  O  R 

may  be  carried  coastwise  upon  being diilvon- 
tirreil,  and  swiirity  hiring  given  according  to 
tiiL-  liireclioo';  of  I'lic  slaliiic,  to  Ihc  onici-r  of 
tin-  port  wiii'nce  tlie  samf  sliall  bo  conveyed; 
and  llie  owners  of  »lieep  within  five  miles  of 
the  sea,  and  ten  miles  in  Kent:  and  Sussex, 
cannot  remove  the  wool,  uitliont  givinf^  no- 
tice to  the  ol'licer  of  the  nearest  port,  as  di- 
rected by  the  statute. 

Woollen  Cloth,  interment  in.  Viy  30 
G.  II.  c.  J.  (an  act  which  is  required  to  be  gi- 
ven in  charge  at  the  assizes  and  sessions,  and 
to  be  read  four  times  publicly  each  year  in  the 
church  by  every  parson),  no  corpse  of  any 
person  (except  of  those  w  ho  die  of  tiie  plague) 
shall  be  buried  in  any  sliirt,  shift,  sheet,  or 
shroud,  or  any  thing  made  or  mingled  with 
hax,  hemp,  silk,  hair,  gold,  or  siiver,  or  in 
any  stuff  or  thing  not  made  of  sheep's  wool 
only  ;  or  be  put  into  any  coflin  lined  or  faced 
witli  any  sort  of  clothier-stulf,  or  anv  other 
thing,  made  of  any  other  material  lliansheep's 
wool  only,  under  penalty  of  5/.  to  1)C  recover- 
ed by  distress  and  sale  of  the  goods  and  chat- 
tels of  the  party  deceaserl. 

Wool-combers.  15y  3j  G.  III.  c.  124, 
all  those  who  have  served  an  apprejiticeship 
to  the  trade  of  a  wool-comber,  or  w  ho  are  by 
law  entitled  to  exercise  the  same,  and  also 
their  wives  and  children,  may  set  up  and  ex- 
ercise such  tratle,  or  any  otlier  trade  or  busi- 
ness they  are  apt  and  able  for,  in  any  town  or 
■  ))Iace  within  this  kiiiudom,  without'anv  mo- 
jcstation  ;  nor  siiall  they  be  renioveabla  from 
i>udi  place  bv  the  poor  laws. 

WORD,  ni  a  military  sense,  sipfnifies  sig- 
nal, token,  ortler;  as  watch-word.  Sec. 

The  WoRO,      >  is  a    peculiar   word   that 

/AV;/rA  Word,  5  serves  for  a  token  and 
mark  of  distinction,  given  out  in  tlie  orders  of 
the  day  in  times  of  peace,  but  in  war  erery 
e\-ening  in  the  held,  by  the  general  who  com- 
mands, antl  in  garrison  b\'  the  governor,  or 
otiier  olilicer  conunanding  in  cliief,  to  prevent 
surprise,  and  hinder  an  enejiiy,  or  any  trea- 
cherous person,  from  passing  backwards  and 
forwards.  This  watch-word  is  generally 
called  the  parole,  and  to  it  is  added  the  coun- 
tersign. The  first  is  known  to  all  officers  and 
non-commissioned  olHcers,  the  latter  only  to 
the  sentinels.  The  officers  that  go  the  rounds, 
or  patroles,  exchange  the  word  with  the  offi- 
cers on  duty  ;  nor  must  the  sentinels  let  anv 
one  pass  who  has  not  got  the  countersign, 

Words  nf  cnmmand,  certain  terms  which 
have  been  adopted  for  the  exercise  and  move- 
ment of  military  bodies,  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  each  particular  service.  Words  of 
command  are  classed  under  two  principal 
heads,  and  consist  of  those  which  are  given  liy 
tlie  chief  or  commander  of  a  brigade,  batta- 
lion, or  division,  and  of  those  which  are  utter- 
ed by  the  subordinate  leaders  of  troops,  &c. 
WORD,  in  lan5;uage,  an  articulate  sound,  re- 
presenting sr)n\e  idct  or  conception  of  the  mind. 
TJie  copiousness  of  the  English  lang;uage  is 
proved  by  the  following  enumeration  of  the 
words  in  Johnson's  Dictionary: 
Articles  .  -  .  .  s 

Nouns  substantive  -  -  .     90409 

Adjectives  ....      9053 

Pronouns  -  -  -  -  41 

"active  -        -        S-I45"j 

;r  -         -         2 1-25  | 

passive         -         -  11 

defective  (or  imperfect)    5  | 
auxiliary      -         -  1  ! 

_inipersonal  -  sj 


yS'  II  R 


W  U  « 


f)l.> 


Verbs  - 


7880 


Verbal  nniin 

Participles 

„     ,.  •    •  1     Cadjectivcs 
Participial    i      ' 

Adverbs      -        -        . 
— — —  In  ly      • 
Prepositions 
Coiijiiiictioni 
Interjccilons 


49(7  7 
2096  J 


Total 


1 

.IS 

vi; 

.! 
2,502 

1!> 
68 

-     40301 


It  must  be  remarked,  liowevcr,  that  in  thia 
list  many  of  the  compound  words  are  not 
reckoned ;  tiiat  the  participles  are  those  only 
having  no  verbs  to  which  tlv.y  may  be  referred, 
a%  ticlovcd \  that  thouj;l>  so  few  verbtil  and  par- 
ticipial nouns  are  stated  by  Johnson,  yet  every 
active  verb  may  supply  one  of  the  former  de- 
scription, and  every  verb  one  of  the  latter  ;  and 
that  both  these  (verbal  and  participial  nouns) 
seem  to  be  merely-  dilFerent  applications  of  a 
true  gerund. 

WOKDS,  which  may  be  taken  or  inter- 
preted by  law  in  a  general  or  common  sense, 
ought  not  to  receive  a  strained  or  unusual 
construction :  and  ambiguous  words  are  to  be 
construed  so  a.s  to  make  them  stand  with  law 
and  e(]uitv,  and  not  to  be  wrested  to  do  wrong. 
2  i.ill.  71"!.     See  l6Vin.Abr. 

Words,  Defam.^tory,  are  in  some 
cases  indictable,  as  calling  a  justice  of  the 
peace  a  rogue ;  and  in  others  actionable,  as 
to  say  such  an  attorney  is  a  rogue. 

AVORKING  IN  HAUVEST.  A  person 
may  go  abroad  to  work  in  harvest,  carrying 
with  him  a  certificate  from  the  minister,  and 
one  churchv/arden  or  overseer,  that  he  has  a 
dwelling-house  or  place,  in  which  he  inha- 
bits, and  h.is  left  wife  and  children,  or  some 
of  them,  (here  (or  otherwise  as  his  condition 
shall  require),  and  declaring  him  an  inhabi- 
tant there.  A  jjcrsun  carrying  such  certifi- 
cate with  him,  shall  not  be  ai)prehended  un- 
der the  Stat.  17  G.  II.  c.  5.  commonly  called 
the  vagrant  act. 

WORMS.  See  Vermes,  and  Medi- 
cine. 

WORMWOOD.    See  Artemisia. 
WOUND.    See  Surgery.  i 

WRECK,  such  goods  as  after  a  shipwreck 
are  cast  upon  t!ie  land  by  the  sea,  and  left 
there  within  some  county,  for  they  are  not 
wrecks  so  long  as  they  remain  at  sea,  being 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  admiralty. 

Various  statutes  have  been  made  relative  to 
wreck,  wliich  was  formerly  a  perquisite  be- 
longing to  the  king,  or  by  special  grant  to  the 
lord  of  the  manor  ;  it  is  now,  how  ever,  held, 
that  if  proof  can  be  made  of  the  property  of 
any  of  the  goods  or  lading  which  come  to 
shore,  thej-  shall  not  be  forfeited  as  wreck. 

IJy  the  3  Ed.  c.  4,  the  sherid'of  the  county 
shall  be  bound  to  keep  the  goods  a  year  and  a 
day;  that  if  any  man  can  prove  a  property  in 
lliem,  eitiier  in  his  own  right,  or  by  right  of 
representation,  they  shall  be  restored  to  him 
without  delay. 

By  Stat.  26.  G.  II.  c.  19.  plundering  any 
vessel  eitherin  distress  or  wreck,  and  whether 
any  living  creature  is  on  board  or  not,  orpre- 
veiUing  the  escape  of  any  person  that  endea- 
vours to  save  his  life,  or  putting  out  false  lights 
to  bring  any  vessel  into  danger,  are  all  de- 
clared to  be  capital  felonier,  and  bv  tlussta- 
b  ZZ 


lulc,  pilfering  any  goods  cast  ashore  js  de- 
clared to  be  petty  larcenv. 

WKEN.    Sec  MoTACiLLA. 

A\'KI.:jT.    See  Anato.my. 

WRIT,  is  the  king's  precept,  by  which 
any  thing  is  commanded  lunching  a  suit  or  r.c- 
liou;  as  the  dideiidant  or  len,ini  to  be  sum- 
nioHed,  a  distress  to  be  taken,  a  disseisin  to 
be  redressed,  SiC.  And  these  writs  arc  di- 
versly  divided;  some  in  respect  of  their  or- 
der, or  manner  of  granting,  are  termed  ori- 
ginal, and  some  judicial. 

Original  writs,  are  those  that  arc  sent  out 
for  the  snmmoniiig  ol  the  defendant  in  a 
personal,  or  the  tenant  in  a  real  action,  be- 
fore the  suit  begins,  or  rather  to  begin  liic 
suit. 

The  judicial  writs  are  those  wliicli  are 
sent  out  by  order  of  the  court  where  the 
cause:  tiepends,  upon  occasion  after  the  iuit 
is  begun. 

Original  writs  are  issued  out  in  the  court  of 
chancery,  for  the  summoning  a  defendant  to 
apj)ear,  and  are  granted  before  the  suit  is  be- 
gun, to  begin  the  same:  and  judicial  writs 
Issue  out  of  the  court  where  the  original  is  re- 
turned, after  the  suit  began,  'i'he  original 
bear  date  in  the  name  of  the  king;  but  the 
judicial  writs  bear  teste  in  the  name  of  the 
chief  justice. 

Writ  of  Assistance,  issues  out  of  the 
exchequer,  to  authorize  any  jierson  to  take  a 
constable,  or  other  public  olficer,  to  seize 
goods  or  merchandize  prohibited  and  uncus- 
tometl. 

It  is  also  a  writ  issuing  out  of  (he  chance- 
ry to  give  a  po  session. 

Writ  of  iNavntY  of  Damages,  a  judi- 
cial writ  that  issues  out  to  the  sheriff,  upon  a 
judgment  by  default,  in  action  of  the  case, 
covenant,  trespass,  trover.  Sec.  commanding 
him  to  summon  a  jury  to  inquire  what  da- 
mages the  plaintilf  has  sustained  occasione 
prainissiorum  ;  and  when  this  is  returned  with 
the  inquisition,  the  rule  for  judgment  is  given 
upon  it:  and  if  nothing  is  said  to  the  con- 
trary,judgment  is  thereupon  entered.  2  Lill. 
Abr.  7:.'l. 

A  writ  of  inquiry  of  damages,  is  a  mere  in- 
quest of  office,  to  inform  the  conscience  of 
tile  court ;  who,  if  they  please,  may  themselves 
assess  the  damages.  A.nd  it  is  accordingly 
the  practice,  in  actions  upon  promissory  notei 
and  bills  of  exchange,  instead  of  executing  a 
writ  of  inquiry,  to  apply  to  the  court  for  a 
rule  to  shew  cause,  why  it  should  not  be  re- 
ferred to  the  master  to  see  what  is  due,  &c.' 
which  rule  is  made  absolute  unless  good 
cause  is  shew  11  to  the  contrary. 

WRITER  nfthe  taVias,  an  ofllcer  of  the 
excliequer,  being  clerk  to  the  auditor  of  tlis 
receipt,  who  writes  upon  the  tallies,  the  whole 
letters  of  the  teller's  bill. 

WULFERIUA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  and  order  diandria  monosynia.  The 
corolla  is  tubular,  ringcnt,  with  the  upper  lip 
short:  calyx  five-))arted;  capsules  two-cell- 
ed, foiir-valved.  There  is  one  species,  a 
herb  ot  Carinthia. 

Wl  RMIiEA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  and  order  hexandria  trigynia.  The 
corolla  is  six-parted,  with  an  hexangular  tube; 
filaments  inserted  into  the  throat.  Tlierc 
are  three  species,  herbs  of  the  Cape. 


fite 


¥  A  R 


Y  A  E 


y  A  R 


V  nr  X,  the  twenty-second  letter  of  our 
-^^)  dlphabcL.  Iiiiuimi-rals  it  exijrcsses  10, 
wiuiici;  ill  old  Tlu:n;in  inaniisLi'ijHi  il  is  meii 
for  dt-niiriii> ;  and  as  siicli  seems  to  be  made 
of  two  V"s  plitud  one  over  the  oilier.  Wlieji 
a  <Iash  is  added  over  it,  tlius  X,  it  sigiiines 
ten  tiiousaiul. 

aANTIIF,,  a  genus  of  plants  of  tbe  class 
an-!  order  dioecia  svngeneiia.  I'he  Howers 
are  dioL'cious ;  the  calyx  live-parted;  corolla 
5-6  petalled.  There  are  two  species,  shrubs 
of  Guiana. 

X.WrHFU.M,  a  genus  of  plaiits  of  the 
class  nioncccia,  order  penlandria,  and  arran- 
ged in  tlieiKitnral  classilidilion  under tlie49i:li 
order,  conipositx'.  The  male  ttuwers  are 
composite,  coniinoii  calyx  imbricated;  co- 
rolliila:  monopetalous,  tubular,  qiiimpieiid. 
1-emale :  calyx  iiivolucrum  of  two  leaves, 
containing  two  fiowers  ;  corolla  0;  drupa 
dry,  prickly ;  nucleus  bilocuiar.  There  are 
five  species,  only  one  of  wlucli  is  a  native  of 
Britain,  the  strumarium  or  less  burdock.  Tht 
stem  of  this  plant  is  a  foot  and  a  half  high, 
thick,  often  spotted ;  leaves  heart-shaped, 
lobed,  on  long  footstalics.  Flowers,  male 
and  female,  many  together,  in  the  akc  of  the 
leaves.  The  Waves  are  bitter  and  astringent. 
A  decoction  of  the  whole  plant  affords  a 
showv  yellow  colour,  but  it  is  better  if  only 
the  flo.vers  art  used.  Horses  and  goats  e.it 
it :  cows,  siieep,  and  swine,  refuse  it. 

XANTHIORZA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  t!ie 
class  and  order  pentandria  poly  gamia.  There 
is  no  calyx  ;  the  petals  live  ;  nectarines  live, 
pedicelle'd  ;  capsules  live,  one-seeded.  Tliere 
is  one  species,  a  shrub  of  North  Ameru-a. 

XANTHOXYLUM,  the  tooth-ache  tree, 
a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class  and  order  dioscia 
pentaiulria.  Tlie  calyx  is  live-parted ;  no 
«oroUa ;  fern.  pist.  five;  capsules  live,  one- 
seeded.  There  is  one  species,  a  tree  of  Ja- 
Aiaica. 

XERANTHEML'M,  a  genus  of  the  syn- 
genesia  polyganiia  superllua  class  of  plants ; 
the  compound  (lower  of  which  isuneipial,  and 
consists  of  many  tubulous  hermaphrodite 
llosrules  placed  on  the  disc,  and  also  a  few 
temale  tubulated  ones  on  the  verge ;  the  seeds 
are  oT)!ong,  coronated,  and  contained  in  the 
««p.    There  are  twenty-seven  species. 


X. 

XIMENIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  chss 
and  order  pentandrianionogyiiia.  -The  caivx 
is  a  periaiithium,  composed  of  three  small, 
rordated,  and  deciduous  leaves;  the  corolla 
is  formed  of  four  petals,  of  a  campanulaled 
li»ure,  divided  at  the  edge  into  three  erect, 
oblong,  obtuse  segments ;  the  germeii  is 
smali,  and  of  a  suboval  iTgure  ;  the  fruit  is  an 
oval  drupe,  containing  one  cell;  the  seed  is 
oval,  unilocular,  and  siiiooth.  There  are 
three  species,  trees  of  the  West  Indies. 

XIPHIAS,  in  zoology,  the  sword-fish,  a 
genus  of  (ishes  belonging  to  the  order  of 
apodes.  The  upper  jaw  terminates  in  a  long 
sword-shaped  rostrum,  from  which  it  is  called 
the  sword-lish :  there  are  no  teeth  in  the 
mouth  ;  the  gill  membrsne  has  eight  rays  ; 
and  the  body  is  somewhat  cylindrical.  Tliere 
is  but  one  species,  viz.  the  glad  us,  found  in 
tlie  European  ocean.  This  lish  sometimes 
fre<iuents  our  coasts,  but  is  much  more  com- 
mon in  the  Mediterranean  sea,  e-jiecially  in 
the  part  that  separates  Italy  from  Sicily, 
which  has  be>n  long  celebrated  for  it  r  the 
promontory  Pelorus,  now  Capo  di  Faro,  was 
a  place  noted  for  the  resort  of  the  xiphias, 
and  possiblv  the  station  of  the  speculatores, 
or  the  persons  who  watched  and  gave  notice 
of  the  approach  of  the  fish. 

The  antient  metliod  of  taking  them  is  par- 
ticularly described  by  Stralio,  and  agrees  ex- 
actly with  that  practised  by  the  modems. 
A  man  ascends  one  ot  the  clifls  that  overhang 
the  sea  :  as  soon  as  he  spies  the  fish,  he  gives 
notice,  either  by  his  voice  or  by  signs,  of  the 
course  it  takes.  Another,  that  is  stationed  in 
a  boat,  climbs  up  the  mast,  and  on  seeing  the 
sword-fish,  directs  the  rowers  towards  it.  A? 
soon  as  he  thinks  they  are  got  within  reach, 
he  descends,  and  taking  a  spear  in  his  hand, 
strikes  it  into  the  fish  ;  which,  after  wearying 
itself  with  its  agitation,  is  seized  and  drawn 
into  the  boat.  It  is  much  esteemed  by  the 
Sicilians,  who  buy  it  up  eagerly,  and  at  its 
first  coming  into  season,  give  about  six-pence 
English  per  pound.  The  season  lasts  from 
,Mav  till  August.  The  antients  used  to  cut 
this  lish  into  pieces  and  salt  it ;  whence  it  was 
called TomusThurianus,  froniThurii,  a  town 
ill  tiie  bay  of  Tarentum,  where  it  was  taken 
and  cured. 


Tlie  sword-fish  is  said  to  be  very  voracicMtir; 

and  that  it  is  a  great  enemy  to  the"tiinny,  who 
(according  to  Belon)  are  as  nuich  terrified  at 
It  as  sheep  are  at  the  sight  of  a  wolf.  It  is  a 
great  enemy  to  the  whales,  and  frequentlv" 
destroys  them. 

XIPHIDIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  (he 
class  and  order  triaiidria  monogynia.  'Ihu 
corolla  is  six-petalled,  equal  ;  capsules  supe- 
rior, three-celled,  inairy-seeded.  There  is 
one  species,  a  herb  of  the  West  Indies. 

XYLO-ALOES,  or  Aloe-wood,  in  phar- 
macy.    See  ExcoECARiA. 

XYLOCARPUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  and  order  octandna  iiionogvnia.  The 
calyx  is  four-toothed  ;  the  corolla  four-pe- 
talled  ;  nectarium  eight-cleft;  filaments  in- 
serted in  nect.  ;  drupe  four  or  five-grooved  ; 
nuts  eight  or  ten.  Thei-e  is  one  species,  a 
tree  of  the  East  Indies. 

XYLOMELl'M,  a  gemis  of  plants  of  the 
class  and  order  tetrandria  moiioguiia.  The 
anient,  is  with  a  simple  stale;  petals  four, 
staminiferous;  stigma  club-shaped,  obtuse. 
There  is  one  species,  of  no  note. 

XYLOPiIYLT^\,.a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  and  order  pentandria  trigynia.  The 
calyx  is  live-parted,  coloured;  coroha  none; 
one  stigma,  jagged;  capsule  three- celled  ; 
seeds  tv.o.  I'here  are  seven  species,  shrubs 
of  tlie\^'est  Indies. 

XYLOPI.V,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class- 
and  order  polyamJria  i>olygynia.  The  calyx 
is  three-leaved  ;  petals  six ;  capsule  one  or 
two  seeded,  four-cornered,  two-valved ; 
seeds  arilled.  Tliere  are  three  species,  trees 
of  the  West  Indies. 

X  YLOSM  A,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  cla^'; 
and  order  dioscia  polyandria  The  cab,  x  is 
four  or  five  parted;  corolla  none;  male 
stamina  twenty  to  fifty  ;  female  st_\  le  scarce- 
ly any  ;  stigma  trifid  ;  berry  dry  ;  seeds  two, 
tliree-sided.     There  are  two  species. 

XYRIS,  a  genus  of  tlie  triandria  irmnogv- 
nia  cl-ass  of  plants,  the  flower  of  «  hich  consis'ts- 
of  three  plain,  patent,  large,  crenited  petals, 
with  narrow  ungues,  of  the  length  of  the  cup. 
The  fruit  is  a  roundish,  trilocular,  trivakular 
capsule,  within  the  cup,  with  a  great  number 
of  very  small  seeds.  There  are  tbree  spi;- 
cics. 


I 


Y. 


XT  the  twenty-third  letter  of  our  alpliabet. 
?  Y  is  a  numeral,  signifying  1.50,  or  ac- 
cording to  Baronius,  \h9;  and  with  a  dash 
at  top,  as'Y,  it  signified  150,000. 

YACHT.  This  word  is  taken  from  the 
Dutch.  It  is  a  small  ship  with  one  deck,  car- 
rying four,  eight,  or  twelve  guns,  and  thirty 
or  forty  men.  Y'achts,  in  general,  arc-  from 
thirty  to  160  tons;  contrived  and  adorned 
both  wllhinside  and  without,  for  carrying 
state,  jiassengers.  They  answer  the  purposes 
of  business  as  well  as  pleasure,  being  remark- 
ably good  sailers. 

YARD.     See  Me.'Vsure. 

Ya.-.ds  nfa  ship,  are  tliosc  long  pieces  of 


limber  which  are  made  a  little  tapering  at 
each  end,  and  are  fitted  each  athwart  its  pro- 
per mast,  with  the  sails  made  fast  to  theiii,  so 
as  to  be  hoisted  up,  or  lowered  down,  as  occa- 
sion serves.  They  have  their  names  from  the 
masts  to  which  they  be-long.  As  for  the 
length  of  the  main-yard,  it  is  usually  live- 
sixths  ef  the  length  of  the  keel,  or  six-sevenths 
of  the  length  of  the  main-mast,  'i'heir  thick- 
ness is  commonly  three  tjuarlers  of  an  in<  h 
for  every  yard  in  length.  The  length  of  the 
main-top-yard  is  two-liflhs  of  the  main-yard  ; 
and  the  fore-yard  four-fifths  of  it.  The  sprit- 
i-ail-yaril,  and  cross-jack-yard,  arc  half  the 
mizen-yard  ;  and  the  thickness  of  the  iiiizin- 
yard  and  spritsail-yard  is  half  an  incji  for 


every  yard  in  length.  All  small  yards  are 
half  the  great  yards  from  cleat  to  cleat.  M'hen 
a  yard  is  down  a  portlast,  it  gives  the  length 
of  all  toi>-sail-sliei.'ts,  lifts,  ties,  and  bunt- 
lines,  as  also  of  the  leech-lines  and  halliards, 
measuring  from  the  hounds  to  the  deck  :  and 
when  it  is  hoisted,  it  gives  the  length  of  clew- 
liui-s,  clew-garnets,  braces,  tackles,  sheets, 
and  bow-lines. 

Ihere  are  several  sea-terms  relating  to  the 
management  of  the  yards;  as,  square  the 
yards  ;  ihat  is,  see  that  they  hang  right  across 
the  sliip,  and  no  yard-arm  traversed  more 
than  another:  top  the  yards,  that  is,  nKik« 
them  stand  even.  To  lop  the  main  and  fore- 
yards,  the  tlcw-liyes  are  the  niost  proper; 


Y  A  R 

but  wlien  tho  top-sails  are  stowed,  then  flie 
t-op-sail-sluH-ts  will  toj)  tlu-iii. 

Vakd-arm  is  lliiil  halt  ol  llu;  yur.l  that  is 
on  citluT  side  oUIk  inast,  when  it  lies  athwart 
till'  sln|). 

YAUN,  wool  or  flax  spun  into  thread, 
of  which  tiiey  weave  cloth. 

y-MW  is  ordered  after  llie  following  manner: 
AfU  r  it  has  heen  npini  upon  spindles,  spoi)1s, 
or  the  ji.ve,  they  reel  it  upon  reels,  whicli  are 
liardly  ti'.o  feet  m  length,  and  have  but  tv  o 
contrary  cross-hars,  benig  the  best,  and  the 
lodst  liable  to  ravelling.  In  reelinp;  of  line 
yarn,  the  better  to  keep  it  from  ravelling,  yon 
must,  as  it  is  reeled,  wilh  a  tye-band  ol  big 
twist,  divide  the  slipping  orskain  into  several 
leys,  allowini!;  to  every  ley  eighty  threads, 
and  twenty  leys  to  every  slipping,  ii  tiie  yarn 
is  very  iine;  otherwise  less  fit  l)oth  kinds. 
'J"he  yarn  being  spun,  reeled,  and  in  the  siip- 
pings,  the  next  thing  is  to  scour  il.  In  order 
to  fetch  out  tiie  spots,  it  should  be  laid  in  luke- 
warm water  lor  three  or  four  clays,  each  clay 
shifting  It  once,  wringing  it  o'.il,  and  laving  it 
ill  another  water  of  the  same  nature :  then 
carry  it  to  a  well  or  brook,  and  rinse  it  till 
uollung  comes  from  it  but  pure  clean  water: 
-that  done,  take  a  bucking-tub,  and  cover  tiie 
bottom  with  very  line  asiien  ashes;  and  then 
iiaving  opened  and  spread  the  s'ippuigs,  lay 
them  on  those  ashes,  and  put  more  ashes 
above,  and  lay  in  more  sli))pings,  covering 
them  with  ashes  as  before  ;  and  thus  lay  one 
upon  another,  till  all  the  yarn  is  i)ut  in :  af- 
terwards cover  up  the  uppermost  )arn  with  a 
bucking  cloth,  and,  in  pioportion  to  the  size 
of  the  tub,  lay  in  it  a  peek  or  two  more  of 
ashes:  this  cUnie,  pour  upon  tlie  uppermost 
cloth  a  great  deal  ot  warm  water,  till  the  tub 
can  receive  no  nn^re,  and  let  it  stand  so  all 
night.  Next  morning  you  are  to  set  a  kettle 
of  clean  water  on  the  (ire  ;  and  when  it  is 
warm,  pull  out  the  spiggot  of  the  bucking 
tub,  to  let  the  water  run  out  of  it,  into  ano- 
ther clean  vessel;  as  the  bucking  tub  wastes, 
till  it  up  again  with  the  warm  water  on  the 
fire:  and  as  tlie  water  on  the  lire  w^aste,-,  so 
likewise  till  th:it  np  with  the  lye  (hat  comes 
from  tlie  bucking-tub;  ever  ob.M-rving  to 
make  the  \yc  hotter  and  ho'ter,  ti;l  it  boils: 
llien  you  must,  as  before,  ])ly  it  « ith  the  boil- 
ing lye  at  least  four  hour.,  together,  which  is 
called  the  driving  of  a  buck  of  yarn. 

All  this  being  done,  for  the  whitening  of  it, 
you  must  take  o'J'  the  bucking  chit'i ;  tlien 
putting  the  yarn  with  the  lye-ashes  into  large 
tubs,  wilh  your  hands  labour  the  yarn,  ashes, 
and  lye,  pretty  Well  together  ;  afterwards  car- 
ry it  to  a  well,  or  river,  and  rinse  it  clean; 
then  hang  it  upon  pales  in  the  air  all  day,  and 
ia  the  evening  take  the  slippings  down,  and 
lay  them  in  water  all  night ;  the  next  day  hang 
them  up  again,  and  throw  water  upon  them 
as  they  dry,  observing  to  turn  that  side  outer- 
most which  whitens  slowest.  Alter  having 
done  this  for  a  week  together,  put  all  the  yarn 
again  into  a  bucking-tub,  witliout  ashes,  co- 
vering it  as  before  with  a  burking  cloth  ;  lay 
thereon  good  store  of  fresh  ashes,  and  drive 
that  buck,  as  before,  with  very  strong  boiling 
lye,  for  half  a  day,  or  more  ;  then  take  it  out, 
and  rinse  it,  hanging  it  up,  as  before,  in  the 
day-time,  to  dry,  and  laying  it  in  water  at 
night,  another  week :  lastly,  wash  it  over  in 
fair  water,  and  so  drv  it  np.  Your  yarn  be- 
ing thus  scoured  and  whitened,  wind  it  up 
into- round  balls  of  a  moderuie  size. 


-       YEA 

YEAT?,  in  the  full  extent  of  the  word,  is  a 

system  or  cycle  of  several  months,  usually 
12.  Others  deliiie  year,  in  the  geneial,  a 
period  or  space  of  time,  measured  out  by  the 
revolution  of  some  celestial  body  in  its  orbit. 
Thus,  the  time  in  which  the  lixed  stars  make 
a  revolution,  is  called  the  great  year;  and 
the  liniifs  in  which  Jupiter,  .'5atiirn,  the  bun. 
Moon,  &c.  complete  their  courses,  and  reUiru 
to  the  same  lioint  of  the  zodiac,  are  respec- 
tively called  the  years  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn, 
and  the  solar  and  lunar  years,  &c. 

As  year  denoted  originally  a  revolution, 
and  was  not  limited  to  that  ot  the  Sun  ;  ac- 
cordingly we  nnd  by  the  oldest  acrounts, 
that  people  have,  at  different  limes,  expiessecl 
other  revolutions  by  it,  parliciilarly  that  of 
the  Moon;  ami  conse<]u(  utly  thai  the  years 
of  some  accounts,  are  to  be  rec-koned  only 
months,  and  sometimes  periods  of:.',  or  3,  or 
4  mouths.  This  will  help  us  greatly  in  un- 
derstanding the  accoiiiits  that  certain  nations 
give  of  their  own  antititiilv,  and  peihaj):j  of 
the  age  of  men.  We  read  cxpre.isiy,  in  seve- 
ral of  the  old  Greek  writers,  thai  "the  Kgyp- 
tian  >ear,  at  one  jjeriod,  was  only  a  month  ; 
and  we  are  farther  told  that  at  other  periods  it 
was  three  months,  or  four  months  ;  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  children  of  Israel  follow  d 
the  Kgppli  in  account  of  tlieir  years.  '1  he 
r.g)plians  talked,  almost  2000  years  ago,  of 
having  accounts  of  events  4s,000  years  dis- 
tance. A  great  deal  must  be  allowed  !•>  fal- 
lacv,  on  the  above  account ;  but  beside  ihis, 
the  Kgyptiins  liad,  in  the  time  of  the  Greeks, 
the  same  ambition  which  the  Chinese  liave  at 
present;  and  wanted  to  pass  themselves  upon 
that  people,  as  these  do  upon  us,  for  the  old- 
est inhabitants  of  the  earth.  Tliey  had  re- 
course also  to  the  same  means;  and  botli  the 
present  and  the  early  impostors  have  pre- 
tended to  antient  observations  of  tiie  heavenly 
bodies,  and  .recounted  eclipses  in  particular, 
to  vouch  for  the  truth  of  their  accounts. 
Since  the  time  in  which  the  solar  year,  or 
period  of  the  earth's  revolution  round  the 
sun,  has  been  received,  we  may  account  witii 
certainty ;  but  for  those  remote  ages,  in 
whicli  we  do  not  know  with  certainty  what  is 
meant  by  the  term  year,  it  is  impossible  to 
form  any -conjecture  of  the  duration  of  time 
in  the  accounts.  The  Babylonians  pretend 
to  an  anticiuity  of  the  same  romantic  kind  ; 
they  talk  of  47,000  years  in  which  they  had 
kept  observations ;  but  we  may  judge  of 
these  as  of  the  others,  ;md  of  the  observations 
as  of  the  years.  'I'lie  Egyptians  speak  of  the 
stars  having  four  times  altered  their  courses 
in  that  period  which  they  claim  for  their  his- 
tory, and  that  the  Sun  set  twice  in  the  esst. 
They  were  not  such  i).'rfect  astronomers;  but, 
after  a  roundabout  voyage,  they  might  pei- 
haps  mistake  the  east  for  the  v.est  when  they- 
came  in. 

Year,  or  snlar  t/ear,  properly,  and  by 
way  of  eminence  so  called,  is  the  space  of 
time  in  which  the  snn  moves  through  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  ecliptic.  This,  by  the 
obser\ations  of  the  best  modern  astronomers, 
contains  3t)j  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  48 
seconds  ;  the cjuantity  assumed  by  the  authors 
of-  the  Gregorian  calendar  is  365  days,  5 
hours.  49  minutes.  But  in  .the civil  orpopu- 
lar  account,  this  year  contains  only  365  days ; 
except  every   fourth    year,  which    contains 

3er>. 
The  vicissitude  of  seaaons  seems  to  liave 


TE  A. 


9l> 


(jivcn  occasion  to  the  first  insfitulion  of  the 
year.  Man,  naturally  curious  to  know  the 
cause  of  that  diversity,  soon  found  it  was  tliu 
pro.ximity  and  distance  of  the  sun  ;  and  there- 
lore  pave  the  name  year  to  the  space  ol  time 
hi  which  that  luminary  peiformed  his  whole 
course,  by  returning  to  the  same  point  ol  Ins 
orbit.  According  lo  the  accuracy  in  their 
observations,  the  \car  of  some  nations  was 
more  perlect  than  that  of  others,  but  none  ot 
them  <|uite  exact,  nor  whose  parts  did  nr>t 
shift  Willi  regard  to  the  parts  of  the  sun's 
course. 

Accordlnr;  ti>  Herodotus,  it  ',^9  !!»*•  Egyp- 
tians who  hist  toiiiied  the  year,  making  it  lo 
contain  3b0  clays,  vvhich  tliey  subdivided  iiito- 
\'2  months,  ol  30  days  each.     Mercury  Tris- 
megislus  added  live  days  more  to  the  account. 
And  on  this  fooling  il  is  said  that  Thales  in- 
stiuited  the  year  among  the  C>ri-cks ;  thiugli- 
ihat  form  of  the  )  t-ar  did  not  hold  thrcnighout 
all  Greece.     Also,  the  Jewish,  Syrian,  K'- 
nian,  Persian,   Ethiopic,   Arabic,   fic.   year'-v 
were  all  diflerc  nt.     in  fact,  considering  rtie 
imperfect  state  of  astronomy   In  those  ages, 
it  is  HO  wonder   that  dilferent  people  slioulfi 
disagree  in  the  calculition  of  the  sun's  couise. 
We  are  even  assured,  that  the  Eg)  ptiaii  year 
itself  was  at  lirst  very  dilferent  from  thai  now- 
lepreicnted. 

1  he  solar  year  is  either  astronomical  or» 
civil. 

'J'he  asliononiiciil  solar  year,  is  that  whicfc. 
is  d'-teniiiiifed  piecisely  by  astronomical  ob^ 
servalious  ;  and  is  ot  two  kinds,  tropical,  and.- 
sidereal  or  astral. 

Tropical,  or  natural-  year,  is  the  time  the- 
<:un  uikes  in  passing  through  the  zodiac  \. 
wliich,  as  before  observed,  is  3i)j  days,  5- 
hours,  43  minutes,  48  seconds  ;  or  365  days,. 
5  houi-s,  49  minutes.  I'his  is  the  only  proper 
or  natural  \ear,  because  it  always  keeps  the 
same  seasons  to  tlie  same  months. 

Sidere;tl  or  astral  year,  is  the  space  of  timtr 
the  sun  takes  in  passing  from  any  fixed  star,, 
till  his  return  to  it  again.  This  consists  of 
3o5  days,  6  hours,  y  mimites,  17  seconds  r 
being  20  minutes,  29  seconds,  longer  than  the^ 
true  solar  year. 

l^uiiar  year,  is  tlie  spare  of  twelve  lunar 
months.  Hence,  from  the  two  kinds  ol  sy- 
nodical  lunar  months,  there  arise  two  kinds' 
of  lunar  years;  tlie  one  astroiiomicalj  the- 
other  civil; 

Lunar  astronomical  year,  consists  trf  twelve- 
lunar  synodtcal  months  ;  and  therefore  con- 
tains 354  days,  8  hours,  26  minutes,  38  se- 
conds, and  is  therefor-e  10  days,  21  hours,. 
0  minutes,  10  seconds,  shorter  tiiaii  the  solan 
year  ;  a  difference  which  is  tiie  loiuidation  of 
the  epact. 

Liinarscivil  year,  is  either  commoii  or  em- 
bolismic. 

The  common  lunar  year  consists  of  twelve 
lunar  civil  months,  and  therefore  contains. 
3j4.:ays.     And 

Tlie'embolisinic-  or  interciiury  lunar  year,. 
consists  of  13  lunar  civil  mouths,  and  there- 
fore contains  334  days. 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  years  and^ 
months,  with  regard  to  astronomical  princi- ■ 
pies,  upon    which   the  division  is    founded. 
By  this,  the  various  form;  of  civil  years  th-at . 
have  formerly  obtained,  or  tiiat  do  still  ob- 
I  tain,  in  different  nations,  are  to  be  examined.- 
I      Civil  year,  is  that  form  of  year  which  cvtry 
natio.T-has  contrived  or  adopted,  lor  coinp'Oi— 


, 


iiig  iheir  time  by.  Or  tiie  civil  is  flie  tropical 
yoar,  considered  as  on!)'  consisting  of  ;i  cer- 
tain mimi)er  of  wliole  days  ;  llie  odd  liours 
and  miniile-i  being  set  aside,  to  render  tlie 
computation  of  time,  in  the  common  occa- 
sions of  life,  more  easy.  As  tlic  trojjical  ye.ir 
is3tJ5  days,  5  liuurs,  49  miiHJles,  or  almost 
363  days,  6  hours,  which  is  365  days  and  a 
i|uarter ;  therefore  if  the  civil  year  is  made 
365  days,  every  fourtli  year  it  must  be  366 
davs,  to  keep  nearly  to  the  course  of  the  sun. 
And  hence  the  civil  year  is  either  common  or 
bissextile.     'I'he 

Common  civil  year,  is  that  consisting  of 
365  davs  ;  having  seven  montlis  of  th.irty-one 
days  each,  four  of  thirty  days,  and  one  of 
twenty-eiglit  days ;  as  indicated  by  the  fol- 
lowing well-known  memorial  verses : 

Thirty  days  hath  September, 
April,  Juiu-,  and  Xovenibcr  ; 
February  twenty-eight  alone. 
And  all  the  rest  have  thirty-one. 

Bissextile  or  leap-year,  consists  of  366 
'  davs,  having  one  day  extraordinary,  called 
the  intercalary,  or  bissextile  day,  which  takes 
place  every  'fourtli  year.  This  additional 
day  to  every  tburlh  year,  was  tirst  introdu- 
CC-cl  bv  Julius  Cisar ;'  wlio,  to  make  the  civil 
years  keep  pace  with  the  tropical  ones,  con- 
trived that  the  six  hours  «liich  the  latter  ex- 
ceeded the  former,  should  make  one  day  in 
four  years,  and  be  added  be'.wecn  the  24th 
and  93(1  of  February,  which  was  tlieir  sixth 
of  the  calends  of  ^larch  ;  and  as  they  then 
counted  this  day  twice  over,  or  had  bis  sexto 
calendas,  hence  the  year  itself  came  to  be 
called  bis  sextus,  and  bissextile. 

Among  us,  however,  the  intercalary  day 
is  not  introduced  by  counting  the  23d  of 
February  twice  over,  but  by  adding  a  day  at 
the  end  of  tliat  month,  which  therefore  in  that 
year  contains  129  days. 

Tlie  civil  or  legal  year,  in  England,  for- 
merly con'imeuceel  on  the  day  of  the  annun- 
ciation, or  25th  of  March;  thougli  the  his- 
torical year  began  on  the  day  of  the  Circum- 
cision, or  1st  of  .lanuary  ;  on  which  day  the 
German  and  Italian  year  also  begins.  Tlie 
part  of  (he  year  between  these  two  terms 
was  usu.iUy  expressed  both  ways  ;  as  1745-6, 
or  1741..  Cut  by  the  act  for  altering  the 
style,  the  civil  year  now  commences  with  the 
Isl  of  January. 

Antient  Roman  year.  This  was  the  lunar 
year,  which,  as  first  settled  by  Romulus,  con- 
tained only  ten  monllis,  of  unequal  numbers 
of  days,  iii  the  following  order :  viz. 

March  31,  April  30,  May  31,  June  30, 
Quinlilis  31,  Sevtilis  30,  September  30,  Oc- 
tober 3 1 ,  November  30,  JDecember  30,  in  all 
304  days ;  which  came  short  of  the  true  lunar 
vear  by  50  days,  and  of  the  solar  by  61  days. 
lionce'the  beginning  of  Romulus's  year  was 
vague,  and  unlixed  to  any  precise  season  ; 
to  remove  which  inconvenience,  that  prince 
ordered  so  many  days  to  be  added  yearly  as 
would  make  the  state  of  the  heavens  corre- 
spond to  the  lirst  month,  without  calling  them 
by  the  name  of  any  month. 

Nunta  Pompilius  corrected  this  irregular 
constitution  of  the  year,  composing  two  new 
months,  January  and  February,  of  the  6ays 
that  were  usetl  to  be  added  io  the  former 
year.  Thus  Xum.i's  year  consistir;!  of  twelve 
inoiilhs,  of  dillL-reiit  days,  us  follow  ;  vij. 


YEAH. 

Januars'  29;  February  28  ;  March  31;  | 
April  ■     29;  Mav  31;  June  29; 

Quintilis  31  ;  S-.-.viilis  29;,  September  C9 ;  1 
October   31;  November29;  December  29; 

in  all  355  days ;  therefore  exceeding  the  quan- 
litv  of  a  lunar  civil  year  by  one  d.»v;  that  of 
a  Icmar  astronomical  year  by  15  iiours,  1 1 
minutes,  22  seconds  ;  but  falling  short  of  the 
common  solar  year  by  10  days;  so  that  its 
beginning  was  still  vague  and  unfixed. 

Numa,  however,  desiring  to  have  it  begin 
at  the  winter  solstice,  orclered  22  days  to 
be  intercalated  in  February  every  2d  year, 
23  every  4th,  22  every  6th,  and  23  every  8Vh 
year. 

But  this  rule  failing  to  keep  matters  even, 
recourse  was  luul  to  a  new  way  of  interca- 
lating ;  and  instead  of  23  days  every  8th 
year,  only  15  were  to  be  added.  Tlie  care  of 
the  whole  was  committed  to  the  jionlifex 
niaxini'.is;  who,  however,  neglecting  the 
trust,  let  tilings  run  to  great  confusion.  And 
thus  the  Roman  year  stood  till  Julius  Ca-'sar 
reformed  it. 

Julian  Year.  This  is  in  eiTect  a  solar  year, 
commonly  containing  365  days ;  though 
every  4th  year,  called  bissextile,  it  contains 
366.  The  months  of  tiie  Julian  year,  with 
tiie  number  of  tlieir  days,  stood  thus: 
January  31;  February  2S ;  March  31; 
April       30;  May  31;  June  30; 

July  31;  August  31;  September  30  ; 
October  31;  November  30;  December  31. 
But  every  bissextile  year  had  a  day  added  in 
February,  making  it  "then  to  contain  29  days. 

The  mean  quantity  therefore  of  the  Julian 
year  is  365^  days,  or  365  days,  6  liours;  ex- 
ceeding the  true  solar  year  by  somewhat 
more  than  1 1  minutes ;  an  excess  which 
amounts  to  a  whole  day  in  almost  131  years. 
Uence  the  times  of  the  equinoxes  go  back- 
wartl,  and  fall  earlier  by  one  day  in  about 
130  or  131  years.  And  thus  the  Roman 
year  stood,  till  it  was  farther  corrected  by 
pope  Gregory. 

For  settling  this  year,  Julius  C;esar  brouglit 
over  from  Egypt,  Sosigenes,  a  celebrated 
mathematician  ;  who,  to  supply  tlie  defect  of 
67  davs,  which  had  been  lost  through  the 
neglect  of  the  priests,  and  to  bring  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  to  the  winter  solstice,  made 
one  year  to  consist  of  15  months,  or  445 
days ;  on  which  account  that  year  used  to 
be  called  annus  confusionis,  or  the  year  of 
confusion. 

Gregorian  Year.  This  is  the  Julian  year 
corrected  by  this  rule,  viz.  that  instead  of 
every  secular  or  lOOlh  year  being  a  bissextile, 
as  it  would  be  in  the  former  way,  in  the  new 
way  three  of  them  are  common  years,  and 
only  A\e  4th  is  bissextile. 

The  error  of  1 1  minutes  in  tlie  Julian  year, 
by  continual  repetition,  had  accumulated  to 
an  error  of  13  days  from  the  time  when  Ca;- 
sar  made  his  correction  ;  by  which  means 
the  equinoxes  were  greatly  disturbed.  In 
the  vear  1582,  the  ecpiinoxes  were  fallen 
back  1 0  days,  and  the  lull  moons  four  days, 
more  backward  liuin  they  were  in  the  time 
oftheNicene  couikmI,  which  was  in  the  year 
325  ;  viz.  the  former  from  the  20th  of  March 
tot  he  lOtli,  and  the  latter  from  the  5th  to  the 
Isl  of  .Vpril.  To  remedy  this  incn-asing  ir- 
regularity, pope  (jregory  the  13th,  in  the 
year  1562,  called  togelhei-  the  chief  astrono- 


mers of  his  time,  and  concerted  (his  correc- 
tion, throwing  out  the  10  days  abovenien- 
tioned.  lie  exchanged  the  lunar  cycle  fnr 
th.it  of  the  epacts,  and  made  the  4th  of  Oc- 
tober of  that  year  to  be  the  1 5th ;  by  that 
means  restoring  the  vernal  equino.x  to  the 
2 1st  of  March.  It  was  also  provided,  by 
the  omission  of  three  intercalary  days  in  400 
years,  to  make  the  civil  year  keep  pace  nearly 
with  the  solar  year,  for  the  time  to  come. 
■  In  the  year  1700,  the  error  of  10  days  was 
grown  to  11;  upon  wliich,  the  protestant 
slates  of  Germany,  to  prevent  faither  con-' 
fusion,  adopted  the  Gregorian  correctien. 
.'Vnd  the.  same  was  acce])ted  al^o  in  England 
in. the  year  1752,  when  II  days  were  tlnown 
out  after  the  2d  of  September  that  year,  by 
accounting  the  3d  to  be  the  l4th  day  of  the 
month  ;  calling  this  the  new  style,  and  the 
former  the  old  style.  And  the  Gregorian,  or 
new  si  vie,  is  now  in  like  manner  used  in  most 
countries  of  Europe. 

Yet  this  last  correction  is  still  not  quite 
perfect ;  for  as  it  has  been  shewn  that  in  four 
centuries,  the  Julian  year  gains  3  days,  2 
hours,  40  minutes ;  and  as  it  is  only  the  three 
days  that  are  kept  out  of  the  Gregorian  year, 
there  is  still  an  excess  of  2  hours  40  minutes 
in  four  centuries,  wliich  amounts  to  a  whole 
day  in  36  centuries,  or  in  3600  years.  See 
Calendar,  &c. 

Egyptian  Year,  called  also  the  year  of  Xa- 
bonassar,  on  account  of  the  epoch  of  Xabo- 
nassar,  is  the  solar  year  of  365  days,  divided 
into  1 2  montlis,  of  30  days  each,  beside  5  in- 
tercalary davs,  added  at  the  end.  The  order 
and  names  of  these  months  are  as  follow : 

1.  Thoth  ;  2.  Paophi ;  3.  Athyr; 

4.  Chojac  ;  S.'i'ybi;   ,  6.  Mecheir; 

7.  Phamenoth;     8.  Pharmuthi ;  9-Pachoii; 
10.  Pauni;  lI.Epiphi;       12.  Mesori. 

As  the  Egyptian  year,  by  neglecting  the  6 
hours,  in  every  4  years  loses  a  whole  day  of 
the  Julian  year,  its  beginning  runs  through 
avery  part  of  the  Julian  year  in  the  space  of 
14C0  years  ;  after  which,  they  meet  again  ; 
for  which  reason  it  is  called  the  erratic  year. 
And  because  this  return  to  the  same  day  of 
the  Julian  year,  is  performed  in  the  space 
of  1460  Julian  years,  this  circle  is  called  tht? 
Sol  hie  period. 

This  year  was  applied  by  the  Egyptians  to 
civil  uses,  till  Anthony  and  Cleopatra  were 
defeated  ;  but  the  mathematicians  and  astro- 
nomers used  it  till  the  time  of  Ptolomy,  who 
made  use  of  it  in  his  Almagest  ;  so  that  the 
knowledge  of  it  is  of  gnat  use  in  astronomy, 
for  comparing  the  antient  observations  with 
the  modern. 

The  antient  Egyptians,  we  are  told  by  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus,  measursd  their  years  by  the 
course  of  the  moon.  At  lirst  they  were  only 
one  moiitii,  then  3,  then  4,  like  that  of  the 
Arcadians  ;  ami  then  6,  like  that  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Acarnania.  Those  authors  add,  that 
it  is  on  this  account  that  they  reckon  such  a 
vast  number  of  years  from  the  beginning  of 
the  world;  aixlihat  in  the  history  of  tlieir 
kings,  we  meet  with  some  who  lived  1000 
or  1200  years.  By  such  means  many  ac- 
count for  the  great  ages  of  the  antient  patri- 
archs ;  expounding  the  gradual  decrease  in 
their  ages,  by  the  successive  increase  of  the 
number  of  months  in  their  years. 

Upon  the  ICgyptians  being  subdued  by  the 
Romans,    they    received  the    Julian    yeai:. 


TEA 

though  witli  sonii?  alteration  ;  for  Ihcv  ftill 
retained  their  antient  months,  with  the  live 
additional  days  ;  and  every  foMith  year  they 
intcrcahilecl  another  day,  for  the  6  honrs,  at 
the  end  ot  tlie  year,  or  between  the  28tli  and 
29th  of  Angnst.  Also,  the  bei^inniii^  of  tlieir 
year,  or  tiie  lirst  day  of  the  month  'I'holh, 
answered  to  the  29th  of  Angusl  of  the  Julian 
year,  or  to  the  30th  if  it  happened  to  be  leap- 
year. 

'I'lie  antient  Greek  year,  was  a  liniar  year, 
consistin;;  of  12  months,  which  at  liist  had 
each  30  days,  then  alternately  29  and  30 
days,  computed  from  the  lirst  appearance  of 
the  new  moon ;  with  the  acUiilion  of  an  em- 
bolisniic  montli  of  3D  days,  every  3d,  5lh, 
8th,  nth,  14th,  I6lh,  and  -igth  year  of  a 
cycle  of  19  years  ;  in  order  to  keep  the  new 
and  full  moons  to  the  same  terms  or  seasons 
of  the  year. 

Their  year  commenced  with  that  new 
moon  which  was  nearest  to  the  summer  sol- 
stice. And  the  order  of  the  months,  witli 
the  number  of  their  days,  were  as  follow  :  I. 
E)eaTo/«,€ai«v,  of  29  tlays  ;  2.  Mr,Ta7£iT>'i&j  30  ; 
3-  Bo*iSfo/A(wv  29',  4.  MadjCMtxTnfiwv  30;  5. 
ny«i's^"i>;v  29 ;  6.  HocrEiStwy  30  ;  7.  T«^^Xi«y 
29  ;-    S,  Av9tj-nfis)y  30  ;      9.   E>.«jrfoXiuy  U'J  ; 

10.  Mi!»u;^ii>iy  30:  II.  Oxft^-nUm  ;  12.  £xipo- 
f  ojiiwy  30.  i5ut  many  of  the  Greek  nations 
had  other  names  for  their  months. 

The  ancient  Jewish  year  is  a  lunar  year, 
usually  consisting  of  1 1  months,  containing 
alternately  30  and  29  days.  Anil  it  was 
made  to  agree  with  the  solar  year,  by  addins^ 

11,  and  somethnes  12  days,  at  the  end  of  the 
year,  or  by  an  emboUsmic  month.  'I'he  order 
and  quantities  of  the  months  were  as  follow ; 

I.  Nisan  or  Abib,  30  days  ;  2.  Jiar  or  Zius, 
20 ;  3.  Siban  or  Siev.-.n  30  ;  4.  Thamuz  or 
Tamuz29;  5.  Ab  30 ;  0.  Klul  29  ;  7.  Tisri 
or  Ethauiiii  30  ;  8.  Marchesvam  or  Bui  29; 
9.  Cislei;3U;  10.  Tebeth  29  ;  11.  Sabat  or 
Schebeth  30;  12.  Adar  30,  in  the  embo- 
Irsmic  year,  but  29  in  the  common  year. 
Ts'ote,  in  the  defective  year,  Cisleu  was  only 
29  days ;  and  in  the  redundant  year,  Mar- 
chesvam was  30. 

The  vnodern  Jewish  year  is  hkewise  lunar, 
consisting  of  12  months  in  common  years,  but 
of  13  in  embolismic  \ears  ;  which,  in  a  cycle 
of  19  years,  are  the  3d,  6th,  8th,  Uth,  l4th, 
17th,  and  19th.  Its  beginning  is  fixed  to  the 
new  moon  next  after  the  autumnal  equinox. 
The  names-  and  order  of  the  months,  with 
the  number  of  tlie  days,  areas  follow:  I. 
Tisri  30 days  ;  2.  Marchesvam  29;  3.  Cisleu 
30;  4.  Tebeth  29;  5.  Schebeth  30;  6. 
Adar  29 ;  7.  Veadar,  in  the  embolismic  year, 
30;  8.  Nisan  30;  9.  liar  29;   10.  Sivan  30; 

II.  Thamuz  29;  12.  Ab,  30;  13.  Elul 
29. 

The  Syrian  year,  is  a  solar  one,  having  its 
beginning  fixed  to  the  beginning  of  October 
in  the  Julian  year  ;  from  which  it  only  differs 
in,the  names  of  the  months,  the  quantities 
being  the  same,  as  follow:  1.  Tishrin,  an- 
swering to  our  October,  and  containing  31 
days;  2.  Latter  Tishrin,  c.mitaining,  like 
November,  30  da^s ;  3.  Canun  31:4.  Lat- 
ter Canun  31  ;  5.  Shabat  28,  or  29  in  a  lea|) 
year;  6.  Adar  31  ;  7.  Nisan  30;  8.  Aiyar 
31  ;  9.  liaziram  30;  10.  Thamuz  31  ;  11. 
Ab3l;  12.  Elul  30. 

The  Persian  year,  is  a  solar  one,  of  365 
days,  consisting  of  12  :nonths  of  30  days 
saoh,  with  5  intercalary  days  added  at  the 


YEA 

end.  The  months  are  as  follow:  1.  Asrudia 
meh ;  2.  Ardihascht  meh ;  3.  Cardi  meh  ; 
4.  Thir  null  ;  f).  Merded  meh  ;  6.  Schaba- 
rir  meh;  7.  Mehar  meh;  8.  Aben  meh; 
9.  Adar  meh;  10.  i)i  meh;  11.  Behen 
meh  ;  12.  Assircr  meh.  'I'his  year  is  the 
same  as  the  I'^gyptian  Nabona-^sarean,  and  is 
called  the  Yesdegerdic  year,  to  distinguish  it 
from  ihe  fixed  i-olar  year,  called  the  Gelal^an 
year,  whicli  the  Persians  began  to  use  in  the 
year  lu79,  and  which  was  formed  by  an  in- 
tercalation, made  six  or  seven  times  in  four 
years,  and  then  once  every  jth  year. 

The  Arabic,  .Mahometan,  and  Turkish 
year,  called  also  the  year  of  the  Ilegira,  is  a 
iunar  year,  equal  to  354'(lays,  8  hours,  48 
minutes,  and  consists  of  12  months,  contain- 
ing alternately  30  and  29  days :  although 
sometimes  it  contains  13  months  ;  the  names 
&c.  being  as  follow:  1.  Muharrani  of  30 
days ;  2.  Saphar  29  v  3.  Habia  30  ;  4.  Lat- 
ter liabia  29;  5.  Jomada  30;  6.  Latter 
Jomada  29  ;  7.  Rajab  30  ;  8.  Shaaban  29  ; 
9.  Ramadan  30;  10.  Sliawal29;  11.  J)ul- 
kaadah  30;  12.  l)ulheggi.i  29,  but  in  the 
embolismic  year  30.  An  mtercaUvry  day  is 
added  every  2d,  5th,  7th,  10th,  1.3lh,  lilh, 
iSth,  2Ist,  24th,  26th,  29lli,  in  a  cycle  of  29 
years.  'I'he  months  comincjice  with  the  lirst 
appearance  of  the  new  moons  after  the  con- 
junctions. 

Eihiopic  year,  is  a  solar  year  perfectly 
agreeing  with  the  Actiac,  except  in  the  names 
of  the  months,  which  are :  1.  Mascaram;  2. 
Tykympt;  3.  liylar;  4.  Tyshas  ;  5.  Tyr; 
O.'Jacatil;  7.  'Magabit ;  8.  Mija/.ia ;  9. 
Ginbat ;  10.  Syne;  1 1.  Ilamel ;  12.  Hahase. 
Intercalary  days  5.  It  commences  with  the 
fig\ptian  year,  on  the  29th  of  August  of  tlie 
Julian  year. 

YESDEGERDIC  Year.  See  Persian 
Ye.^r. 

Year  and  day,  is  a  time  that  determines 
a  right  in  many  cases  ;  and  in  some  works  an 
usurpation,  and  in  others  a  prescription  ;  as 
in  case  of  an  estray,  if  the  owner,  procla- 
mation being  made,  challenges  it  not  within 
the  time,  it  is  forfeited. 

So  is  the  year  and  day  given  in  case 
of  appeal ;  in  case  of  descent  alter  entry 
or  claim,  if  no  claim  upon  a  fine  or  writ  of 
right  at  the  common  law  :  so  of  a  villain  re- 
maining in  ancient  demesne  ;  of  a  man  sore 
bruised  or  wounded  ;  of  protections  ;  essoins 
in  respect  of  the  king's  service ;  of  a  wreck  ; 
and  divers  other  cases.  Co.  6.  Rep.  I'ol. 
107. 

Yearbooks,  reports  in  a  regular  series, 
from  Ed.  II.  inclusive,  to  the  lime  of  Henry 
VIII.,  which  were  taken  by  the  prothonotaries 
of  the  court,  at:  the  expence  of  the  crown, 
and  published  annually. 

Year  day  and  waste,  is  a  part  of  the 
king's  prerogative  whereby  he  challenges 
the  profits  of  their  lands  and  tenements  for  a 
year  and  a  day,  that  are  attainted  of  petty 
treason  or  felony  ;  whoever  is  lord  of  the 
manor  where  the  lands  or  tenements  belong  ; 
and  not  only  so,  but  in  the  end  may  waste 
the  tenements,  destroy  the  houses,  root  up 
the  woods,  garden,  and  pasture,  and  plough 
up  the  meadows,  except  the  lord  of  the  fee 
agrees  with  him  for  redemption  of  such 
waste,  afterward  restoring  it  to  the  lord  of 
the  fee.     Staundf.  Prxrog.  c.  16. 

YEARS,  estate  for.  Tenant  for  term  of 
years,  is  where  a  miin  lets  lands  or  tenements 


Y  E  O 


JII9 


to  another,  for  a  certain  term  of  years  agreed 
upon  between  the  lessor  and  lessee  ;  and 
when  the  lessee  enters  by  force  of  the  lease, 
then  he  is  tenant  for  term  of  years.  Litt. 
Sect.  58. 

If  tenements  are  let  to  a  man  for  the  teriH 
of  half  a  year,  or  for  a  ipiarltf  of  a  year,  or 
any  less  lime  ;  this  lessee  is  re-pccled  as  te- 
nant for  years,  and  is  styled  so  in  some  legal 
proceedings;  a  year  being  the  shortest  term, 
which  the  law  m  lliis  case  takes  notice  of. 
Litt.  Sect.  67. 

Gem  rally,  every  estate  which  must  expire  at 
a  period  certain  and  i)refixed,  by  whalerer 
wordscreated,  isan  Cilate  for  years ;  and  theri:- 
fore  this  estate  is  (re(piently  called  a  term  ; 
because  its  duration  or  continuance,  is  boimd- 
ed,  limited,  and  determined.  2  Black.  143. 

I'or  every  such  estate  must  have  a  certain 
beginning,  and  certain  end.  If  no  day  of 
commencement  is  named  in  the  creation  of 
this  estate,  it  begins  from  the  making,  or  de- 
livery of  the  lease.  A  lease  for  so  many 
years  as  such  an  one  shall  live,  is  void  from 
the  beginning ;  for  it  is  neither  certain,  nor 
can  it  ever  be  reduced  to  a  certainty,  during 
the  continuance  of  the  lease.     Id. 

And  111  ■  same  doclrine  holds,  if  a  person 
makes  a  lease  of  his  glebe  for  so  many  years 
as  he  shall  continue  parson  of  such  a  church, 
for  this  is  still  more  uncertain.  But  a  lease 
for  twenty  or  more  years,  if  the  parson  shall 
so  long  live,  or  if  he  shall  so  long  continue 
parson,  is  good  ;  for  there  is  a  certain  perioil 
lixed,  beyond  which  it  cannot  la^t,  though 
it  may  determine  sooner,  on  the  parson's 
death,"  or  his  ceasing  to  b«  parson  there,  'i 
Black.  143. 

An  estate  for  years,  though  ever  so  many, 
is  inferior  to  an  estate  for  lite.  Eor  an  estate 
for  life,  though  it  should  be  only  for  the  life 
of  another  person,  is  a  freehold  ;  but  an  es- 
tate, though  for  a  thousand  years,  is  only  a 
chattel,  and  reckoned  part  of  the  personal 
estate.     Id. 

Hence  it  follows,  that  a  lease  for  years  may 
be  made  to  commence  in  futuro,  though  a 
lease  for  life  cannot.  As  if  1  grant  lands  to 
one  from  Michaelmas  next  for  twenty  years, 
this  is  good;  but  to  Iiold  from  Michaelmas 
next  for  the  term  of  his  natural  life,  is  void. 
Id. 

For  no  estate  of  freehold  can  commence  ia 
futuro,  because  it  cannot  be  created  at  com- 
mon law  without  livery  of  seisin,  or  corporal 
possession  of  the  land  ;  and  corporal  posses- 
sion cannot  be  given  of  an  estate  now,  which 
is  not  to  cominincc  now,  but  hereafter.  And 
because  no  livery  of  seisin  is  necessary  for  a 
lease  for  years,  such  a  lessee  is  not  said  to  be 
seized,  or  to  have  true  legal  seisin  of  the 
lands.  Nor  indeed  does  the  bare  lease,  vest 
any  estate  in  the  lessee,  but  only  gives  him  a 
right  of  entry  on  the  tenement,  which  right  is 
called  his  interest  in  the  tcrnj  ;  but  when  he 
has  actually  so  entered,  and  thereby  accept- 
ed the  grant,  the  estate  is  then  and  not  before 
vested  in  him  ;  and  he  is  possessed,  not  pro- 
perly of  the  land,  but  of  the  term  of  years, 
the  possession  or  seisin  of  the  land  remaining 
still  in  him  who  has  the  freehold.     2  Black. 

YELLOW.     See  Dyeing.       <- 

Yellow-hammer.    See  Emberiza. 

Y'EOMAN,  is  defined  to  be  one  that  has 
fee  land  of  40j.  a-year;  who  was  thereby 
iiuretofore  qualified  to  serve  oa  juries,  and 


J)20  "Z 

■can  yet  vote  forkiiigliU  of  the  slilre,  and  do 
any  other  act  where  the  luw  reqiiiros  one 
tliiXt  is  probiis  et  Icgalis  homo.  Below  jeo- 
men  are  ranketl  tradesmen,  artilicei-s,  and 
labourers.     2  lust.  60S. 

Yeomav  of  the  guard,  one  belonging  to 
a  sort  of  loot  guards,  wlio  attend  at  tne  pa- 
Lice.  The  yeomen  were  uniformly  re(|uired 
to  be  six  feet  liigh.  'I'hey  are  in  number  100 
on  constant  duty,  and  70  off  duty.  The  one 
half  caiTv  arquebuses,  and  the  other  pertui- 
sans.  Their  attendance  is  conlined  to  the 
■sovereign's  person,  Ijothat  home  andal)road. 
They  are  clad  atlei  llie  manner  of  king 
llenVy  Vm. 

The  vedinen  of  the  guards  were  anciently 
£50  men  of  tlie  ne\t  rank,  under  gentry. 
This  corps  was  tirst  instituted  by  king  f  Jenry 
VII.  anno  14d6. 

YES T,  Yeast,  or  B.\rm,  a  head  or  scum, 
rising  upyn  beer  or  ale,  while  working  or  fer- 
-JientJng  in  the  vat.  See  Feu.mknt.^vtion. 
YIlW,  See  Tax  us. 
Yoke,  in  agricultiue,  a  frame  of  wood, 
fitted  over  the  necks  o:  o.x.en,  whereby  they 
are  couplei!  together,  and  harnessed  to  the 
j)!ough.     See  Plough. 

It  consists  of  several  parts  :  as  the  yoke, 
properly  so  called,  which  is  a  thick  piece  of 
wood,  lying  over  the  neck;  the  bow,  which 
■compasses  the  neck  about ;  the  stitchings 
and  wrealhings,  which  hold  the  bow  fast  m 
the  yoke  ;  and  the  yoke-ring  and  ox-chain. 

The  Roman-;  made  the  enemies  they  sub- 
dued, pass  under  the  yoke,  which  they  called 
ftibj'.iffum  miltere,  that  is,  tliey  made  them 
^ass  under  a  sort  of  furca;  pat  balares,  or  gal- 
lows,  consisting  of  a  pike  or  other  weapon, 
laid  across  two  others,  planted  upright  in  the 
ground. 

YORK.  In  the  county  of  York,  only  one 
pannel  of  48  jurors  shall  he  returned  to  serve 
on  the  grand  jury  at  the  assizes  ;  and  at  the 
-t^uarter-sessions  not  above  40,  either  upon  the 
jrrand  jurv  or  other  service  there.  7  and  8 
W.  III.  c's:. 

vAnd  no  person  having  150?.  a  year,  shall 
be  summoned  to  the  se>isions,  btil  only  per- 
sons less  liable  to  bear  the  expenceof  attend- 
ing at  the  assizes.      1  Anne,  c. -13. 

By  Stat.  4VV.  III.  c.  2.  the  inhabitants  of 
-tlie  province  of  ^  ork,  have  power  to  'lispose 
of  tiieir  personal  e4ale  by  will ;  which  U'fore 
•thev  hail  not,  furth-T  than  the  testator's  o.vn 
proportional>le  part,  called  the  dead  man's  or 
ilealh's  part.  For  if  the  testator  had  a  wife, 
and  a  child,  or  children,  the  wife  shouUl  have 
•one  ihird,  tue  child  or  children  another  third, 
and  the  remaining  third  v.as  all  that  the  tes- 
tator had  to  dispose  of.  If  he  had  a  wife  and 
wioclnld,  then  she  -should  have  one  moiety, 
an<l  the  other  moiety  remained  to  him  to 
<U-(rj)Ose  of  by  his  testament ;  so  if  he  left  a 


Z  A  M  . 

child  or  children,  and  no  wife.  But  if  he 
had  ni'illier  wife  or  child,  he  migirt  di-pose 
of  the  whole.  In  case  of  intestacy,  the  same 
proportions  continue  to  the  wife  and  cliildren 
to  this  dav  ;  but  the  dead  man's  part  shall  be 
di>tribvited  according  to  tiie  stat.  "2  and  '23 
Car.  n.  c.  10.  commonly  called. the  statute 
of  distributions. 

.  YiTlUA.  Sometime  before  I78P,  Captain 
Arhenius  discovered  in  the  nuarry  of  Ytlerby 
in  Sweden-,  a  peculiar  mineral  dilferent  from 
all  those  described  by  mineralogists.  Its  co- 
lour is  greenish-iilack,  and  its  Iractnre  like 
that  of  glass.  It  is  ni;:giieti(:,  and  generallv 
too  hard  to  be  scratched  by  a  knife.  It  is 
opaque,  except  in  small  pieces,  vhen  it 
transmits  some  yellow  ravs.  Its  specilic 
gravity  is  4.237.  Piofcssor'Gadolin  analysed 
Ihi;  mineral  in  1794,  and  found  it  to  contain 
a  new  earth  ;  but  though  his  analysis  was 
published  in  the  Stockholm  Transactions  for 
17y4,  and  in  Crell's  Ann.ils  for  179!j,  it  was 
some  time  before  it  drew  the  attention  of 
chemical  mineralogists.  The  conclusions  of 
Gadolin  were  confirmed  by  Ekebergin  1707, 
who  gave  to  the  new  earth  the  name  of 
yttria.  They  were  still  fartlier  conlirmed 
and  extended  bv  V-auquelin  in  1800,  and  like- 
wise by  Klaproih  about  the  same  time;  and 
Ekeberg  has  published  a  new  dissertation  on 
the  subject  in  the  Swedish  Transactions  for 
I  302.  We  may  theref'jre  consider  the  peculiar 
nature  of  yttria  as  sulliciently  established. 

Hitherto  rttrii!  his  been  tciin  I  only  in  llie 
black  mineral  first  analysed  by  Gadolin,  and 
hence  called  gadolinile,  in  which  it  is  com- 
bined with  black  oxide  of  iron  and  the  earth 
called  silica;  and  in  vttrotantalite,  which 
from  the  description  of  Ekeberg  is  a  com- 
pound of  tantalium  and  yttiia.  Both  these 
minerals  occur  onlv  in  the  quarry  of  Ytterby. 
From  the  lirst,  wliich  is  the  most  common, 
tlie  earth  may  be  procured  by  treating  the 
mineral  reduced  to  powder  with  a  mixture  of 
nitric  and  muriatic  acids,  till  it  is  completely 
decomposed  ;  then  liltring  the  solution,  pre- 
viously evaporated  nearly  to  tiryness,  and 
then  diluting  it  with  water.  By  this  process 
the  silica  is  left  behind.  The  liquid  wliicli 
passes  through  the  liltre  is  to  be  evaporated 
to  dryness,  and  the  residue  heated  to  redness 
for  a  considerable  time  in  a  close  vessel,  and 
then  redissalved  in  water  and  liltred.  A\'hat 
passes  through  the  liltre  is  colourless  ;  wlien 
treated  with  ammonia,  pure  yttria  f.ills. 

Yitria,  thus  procured,  has  the  appearance 
of  a  fine  white  powder,  and  has  neither  taste 
nor  smell-  It  is  not  melted  by  the  applica- 
tion of  heat.  It  has  no  action  on  vegetable 
blues.  It  is  much  heavier  tlian  any  of  the 
other  earths ;  its  specific  gravity  according 
to  Ekeberg,  being  no  less  than  4.842. 


Z  A  N 

It  is  insoluble  in  water  ;  yet  it  Is  capable  6f 
retaining  a  great  i)roportion  of  thai  li<|uid,  as 
is  the  case  with  alumina.  Klaproth  ascer- 
tained, that  one  hundred  parts  of  yttria  pre- 
cij)itated  from  muriatic  acid  by  ammonia, 
and  dried  in  a  low  temperature,  lose  thirty- 
one  paits,  or  almost  a  third  of  their  weight, 
when  healed  to  redness  in  a  crucible.  Now 
this  last  consists  of  pure  water  alone. 

It  is  not  soluble  in  pure  alkalies ;  but  it 
dissolves  readily  in  carbonat  of  ammonia, 
and  in  all  the  other  alkaline  carbonats.  It 
combines  with  acids,  and  forms  wi'h  them 
salts  which  have  a  sweet  taste,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  certain  degree  of  austerity. 
Some  of  these  salts  have  a  red  colour.  "VV 
tria  is  the  only  earthy  body  known  wliicli 
has  the  property  of  lorming  coloured  salt* 
with  acids. 

Yttria  is  not  altered  by  light,  nor  is  it  like- 
ly that  it  combines  with 'oxygen.  From  the 
e."pcriments  of  Klaproth,  it  does  not  appear 
(o  combine  readily  with  sulphur;  nor  is  it 
likely  that  it  unites  with  any  of  the  other 
simple  combnstibies. 

We  may  take  it  tor  granted  that  it  is  not 
alTectcd  bv  azote;  but  it  combines  with  nui- 
riatic  acid,  and  forms  a  sail  not  capable  of 
crystallizing.  Its  anion  on  the  metals  and 
metallic  oxides  is  unknown. 

\T'niOrANT.\LITE,  a  mineral  found 
in  tin-  same  place  with  gadolinite.  It  is  in 
small  kidney-form  masses  of  the  size  of  3, 
hazel-nut.  Fracture  granular,  iron-grey, 
and  of  a  metallic  lustre.  Hardness  incon- 
siderable. May  be  scratched  with  a  knife, 
and  gives  a  grey-coloured  powder.  Not 
magnetic.  Specific  gravity  5.1.30.  It  is 
composed  of  the  oxides  of  tantalium  and 
iron  united  to  jttria. 

WCCAyJdam's  needle,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  thi-  class  hexandria  and  order  monogynia. 
The  corolla  is  cainpanulate  and  patent,  ther* 
is  no  stvie,  the  capsule  is  trilocular.  There 
are  four  specie^,  none  of  which  are  natives  of 
Rritain.  All  of  tbcra  are  exceedingly  curious' 
in  their  growth,  and  are  therefore  much  cul- 
tivated in  gardens.  The  Indians  make  a  kind 
of  In-ead  from  the  roots  of  this  jjlant. 

Y  UNX,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  birds  of  ths 
order  pica;.  The  bill  is  short,  roundish,  znA 
pointed;  the  nostrils  concave  and  naked  ;  (he 
tongtie  verv  long  and  cyllndric;  there  arc 
two  fore  and  two  hind  claws.  Tliere  is  only 
one  species,  the  torquilla,  wry-neck,  which 
is  a  native  of  Europe,  Asia,  ami  Africa,  and 
is  often  seen  in  Britain.  It  is  ash-coloured 
above,  with  light  black  and  brown  strokes ; 
beneath  light-brown,  with  black  spots  ;  tail 
ash-colour,  with  fonr  black  bars;  weight  1 
oz  ;  irides  hazel ;  length  seven  inches ;  iu> 
grates. 


z. 


Zthe  twenty-fourth  and  last  letter  of  our 
7  alphabet. 

In  al)i)reviations  this  letter  formerly  stood 
as  a  mark  for  several  sorts  of  weights  ;  some- 
times it  signified  an  ounce  and  a  half,  and 
\ery  frequently  it  stood  for  iialf  an  ounce; 
sometime-  for  the  eighth  part  of  an  otince,  or 
■J.  dram  troy  weight;  and  it  has  in  earlier 
times  been  used  ij  express  the  third  part  ol. 


an  ounce,  or  eight  scruples.  7J7.  wei'e  used 
by  some  of  the  antient  physicians  to  express 
myrrh,  and  at  present  they  are  often  used  to 
signifv  zinziber,  or  ginger. 

Z.-VFFUl'.,  is  theoxyde  of  cobalt,  emploved 
for  paintu!'^  p^)ttcry-ware  and  cx)l)all  of  a  blue 
colour.     See  Cobalt. 

ZA.MIA,  a  genus  of  the  natural  order  of 
palimu.    The  anient,  is  shobilc-shaped,  scales 


with  pollen  underneath  ;  fein.  aim-nl.  shobile- 
shapcd  with  scales  at  each  margin  ;  berry  so- 
litarv.     There  are  live  species. 

/AXMCHEI.I.IA,  horned  pond-weed, 
a  genus  of  the  mona'c.ia  numandria  class  of 
plant*,  the  male  llowi.  r  of  w  Inch  consists  only 
of  a  single  stamen  ;  it  has  neither  caly-y  nor 
corolla.  In  the  female  flower  the  <al.  x  it 
composed  of  a  single  leaf;  there  is  no  e»- 


.^<^rt£si/  ^na^/ut^ 


S^i^' 


/tw/ft/AT  J<iclifii-(H'lrillii»», *\>"  Hntftir  Strrtt Utttkih'arf . 


llMth  fnjff 


Z  E  O 

rolla  ;  ths  (jermiiia  arc  about  fom';  the  spc(l9, 
wliici)  iire  oli'.oiig  and  aiuiiiinati.-!!  on  l>olli 
fcides,  art"  as  many.     'I'liere  is  one-  sjx-cii'S. 

ZANON I  A,  the  name  of  a  gomis  of  plants 
of  tlie  order  dia;i.'ia,  e nd  cla«s  |)f  ntaiidna.  Tlie 
cli.iraLtL'rs  are  tlicse :  it  produces  separate 
male  and  leni  d;;  (lowers  ;  in  the  male  llower 
tlie  cup  is  a  perianlliiiim,  CoJiiposed  ot  tlnee 
leaves  of  an  o\'al  figure,  exjKiiiding  every 
way,  and  shorter  tliaji  tlie  (lower  ;  the  llower 
is  nionopetaloiis,  but  divided  Into  live  seg- 
ments, and  has  an  open  montli ;  the  segmejus 
arc  jagged,  and  are  eijual  in  si.!e,  and  bend 
bifkwards ;  the  stamina  arc  five  filailieiUs  of 
the  length  of  the  cup,  standing  open  at  their 
end,  and  terminated  by  simple  npites ;  tlie 
female  tlow<'rs  grow  on  separate  plants,  and 
have  the  cup  and  flower  the  same  as  in  the 
male,  only  that  the  cup  stands  upon  the  ger- 
men  of  the  pistil  ;  this  germen  is  oblong,  and 
Irom  it  are  pro[)agatcd  tin-ee  rellex  conic 
st\les  ;  the  stigmata  are  bi(id  and  curled  ;  the 
fruit  is  a  long  and  very  large  bt:rry,  truncated 
at  tl'.e  end,  and  very  small  a1  the  base  ;  it 
contains  three  cidls,  and  has  a  curled  suture 
near  the  apex  ;  the  seeds  are  two,  they  are  of 
an  ob'ong  figure  and  flat,  'i'heru  is  one 
species,  the  indica. 

"ZKA,  Incliun -orn,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  inona;cia,  order  triandria.  The 
male  llowers  arc  placed  on  distinct  sjiikes  ; 
tlie  calyx  is  a  biilorous,  beardless  glume; 
the  corolla  is  a  beardless  glume  ;  the  iemale 
calyx  is  a  bivalve  glume,  as  is  Uie  corolla. 
There  is  one  filiform,  pendiijous  style ;  the 
seeds  are  solitary  and  buried  iu  an  oblong 
receptacle.  There  is  onlv  species,  the  Mays, 
or  maize.  The  Indians  in  NewjjlMigland,  and 
many  other  parts  of  America,  had  no  other 
vegetable  but  maize  or  Indian  corn  for  mak- 
ing their  bread.  They  call  it  weachin ;  and 
in  the  United  State.s  of  America  there  is 
much  of  the  bread  of  the  country  made  of 
this  grain,  not  of  the  European  corn.  In 
Italy,  Germany,  Spain  and  Portugal,  maize 
constitutes  a  great  part  of  the  food  of  tlie  poor 
inhabitants. 

The  ear  of  the  maize  vields  a  much  greater 
f^iiantity  of  grain  than  any  of  our  corn-ears. 
Tliere  are  commnnly  about  eight  rows  of 
grain  in  tlie  ear,  olten  more,  if  the  ground  is 
good.  Each  of  tiiese  rows  contains  at  least 
thirty  grams,  and  each  of  these  gives  much 
more  flour  than  a  grain  of  any  of  our  corn. 
1'he  grains  are  usually  either  white  or  yel- 
lowish ;  but  sometimes  they  are  red,  blueish, 
greenish,  or  oiive-coloured,  and  sometimes 
striped  and  variegated.  This  sort  of  grain, 
though  so  essentiailv  necessary  to  the  natives 
of  the  place,  is  yet  liable  to  many  acci<lciUs. 
It  does  not  ripen  till  the  enil  of  September  ; 
so  that  the  rains  often  fall  lieavy  upon  it  while 
en  the  stalk,  and  birds  in  general  peck  it 
when  it  is  soft  and  unripe.  Nature  has,  to 
defend  it  from  those  accidents,  covered  it 
with  a  thick  husk,  w  hich  keeps  off  slight  rains 
very  well  ;  but  the  birds,  if  not  frightened 
away,  often  eat  through  it,  and  devour  a 
freat  quantity  of  tlie  grain. 

ZEliUA.     See  Equus. 

ZENITH,  in  astronomy,  the  vertical 
point ;  or  a  point  in  the  heavens  directly 
over  our  hearls. 

ZEOLITE.  This  stone  was  first  describ- 
ed by  Cronstedt  in  the  Stockhchn  Transac- 
tions for  1756.  It  is  sometimes  found  amor- 
phous and  crvstalli^ced.     The  prmiitive  form 

Vol.  II. 


Z  I  N 

of  iti<  crystal  is  a  re'langular  prism,  whose 
b.ises  are  sijuares.  Tlie  most  con.mon  va- 
riety is  a  long  four-sided  prism,  terminated 
by  fow  four-sided  p\rami(ls.   , 

Its  texture  is  striated  or  fibrous.  Its  luUre 
is  silky.  Ke'racls  double.  Absorbs  water. 
Specific  gravity  'J,OS,3,'5.  Colour  white,  often 
w.lh  a  sh  ide  of  red  or  yellow.  When  heale<l 
it  becomes  electric  like  the  tourmaline.  Be- 
fore the  blow-pipe  it  fiotlis,  emits  a  phos- 
phorescent light,  and  melts  into  a  white  semi- 
transparent  enamel,  too  soft  to  cut  glass,  and 
soluble  in  acids.  In  acids  it  dissolves  slowly 
and  partially  without  effirvescence ;  and  at 
last,  unless  the  ((uantity  of  li([nid  is  too  great, 
it  is  converted  into  a  jelly.  A  specimen  of 
zeolite,  analysed  by  Vauipielin,  contained 

5.5.00  silica 
27.00  alumina 
9.46  Ume 
10.00  water 


z  r  N 


9*t 


99.46. 


ZEUS,  in  ichthyology,  a  genus  of  fishes 
of  the  order  of  thoraci'ci.  The  head  is 
conipre>sed  and  declines,  the  upper  lip  being 
vaulted  over  by  a  transverse  mendirane ; 
(he  tongue  is  subulated ;  there  are  s:ven 
rays  in  the  gill-membrane;  and  the  body 
is  compressed.  The  spfcies  are  eight; 
of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  faber  or 
doroe.  It  is  of  a  hideous  form  ;  its  body  is 
oval,  and  gwatiy  compressed  on  the  sides  ; 
the  head  large;  the  snout  vastly  projecting  ; 
the  motith  very  wide;  the  teeth  very  small ; 
the  eyes  great,  the  irides  yellow  ;  the  lateral 
line  oddly  distorted,  sinking  at  each  end,  and 
rising  near  the  back  in  the  middle  ;  beneath 
it  on  each  side  is  a  round  black  spot.  The 
tail  is  round  at  the  end,  and  consists  of  fif- 
teen yellow  rays.  The  colour  of  the  sides  is 
olive,  varied  with  light  blue  and  wh'te,  and 
while  living  is  very  resplendent,  anil  as  if 
gilt ;  for  which  reason  it  is  called  Ihi'  doree. 
The  largest  fish  we  have  heard  of  weighed 
twelve  pounds.  See  Plate  Nat.  Hist.  fig. 
421. 

ZlEllIA,  a  genusof  plants  of  the  class  and 
order  tetrandria  monogvnia.  Tiie  cal.  is 
four-p.-.rtcd  ;  petals  four;  styles  simple;  caps, 
four ;  seeds  arilled.  1  here  is  one  spcdcs,  not 
deserving  notice. 

ZINC.  The  antients  were  acipiainted 
with  a  mineral  to  which  they  give  the  name 
of  cadmia,  from  Cadmus,  who  first  taught 
the  Greeks  to  use  it.  They  knew  that  when 
melted  with  copper  it  formed  bniss  ;  and  that 
when  burnt,  a  white  spongy  kind  of  ashes 
was  volatilized,  which  they  used  in  medicine. 
This  mineral  contained  a  good  deal  of  zinc  ; 
and  yet  there  is  no  |)roof  remaining  that  the 
antients  were  accpiainted  with  that  metal. 
Tiie  word  zinc  first  occurs  in  the  writings 
Paracelsus,  wlio  died  in  lj4l.  He  informs 
us  very  gravely,  that  it  is  a  metal,  and  not 
a  metal,  and  that  it  consists  chiefly  of  the 
iLshes  of  copper.  This  metal  has  also  been 
called  speller. 

Z'lic  has  never  been  found  in  Europe  in  a 
state  of  purity,  and  it  was  long  before  a 
method  was  discovered  of  extracting  it  from 
its  ore.  Henkel  pointed  out  one  in  1721; 
Vm\  Swab  obtained  it  bv  distillation  in  1742; 
irid  .\largraf  pnolislied  a  process  in  the  Ber- 
lin Memoirs  in  1746. 

Zinc  is  of  a  brilliant  white  colour,  with  a 
6  A 


!  fhade  of  blur,  and  is  composed  of  a  niimher 
'  of  thill  plates  adhering  log'Hher.  Wjiesi  lliii 
;  metal  is  rubbed  lor  some  time  betweii  tho 
I  lingers,  they  acquiie  a  peculiar  taste,  and 
,  emit  a  very  perceptible  smell.  Its  hardness 
is  six  and  a  half.  VVh-n  rul.b6d  upon  the 
fingers  it  tinges  them  ofa  black  colour.  Its 
;  specific  gravity,  alter  it  lias  been  ineltpd,  in 
i  6.861  ;  after  it  has  been  coinnres-ed  7.1908  j 

so  tiiat  its  density  js  iiicieasett  I  -20lh. 
I  Th's  metal  forms  in  a  manner  the  limit 
between  the  brittle  and  the  maJleable  metals, 
j  Its  malttabilily  is  by  no  means  to  be  coiA- 
pared  with  that  of  some  of  iIik  metals;  yet 
'  It  is  not  brittle,  like  others.  VVlien  struck 
with  a  hammer,  it  does  not  break,  but  yields 
and  becomes  somewhat  flatter;  and  by  a 
cautions  and  etpial  jiressure,  it  may  be  redu- 
ced to  pretty  thin  plat«-s,  which  arc  -.upplp  and 
elastic,  but  cannot  be  folded  without  breal- 
ing.  This  propeity  of  zinc  was  first  ascer- 
t  iinr-d  by  .Mr.  Sage.  When  heated  to  about 
4(J(/',  it  becomes  so  brittle,  that  it  may  be 
reduced  to  powder  in  a  mortar. 

It  is  not  ductile.    Its  tenacity  has  not  beea 
ascertained.     \\  hen  hialed  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  about  700^,  it  melts;  and  if  the  heat 
is  increased,  it  evaporates,  and  may  be  easily 
distilled  over  in  close  vessels.     When  allowcfl 
to  cool  slowly,  it  crystallizes  in  small  bundle* 
of  quadrangular  jirisins,  disposed   in  all  di- 
:  rections.      If  they  are  exposed   to  the  air 
while  hot,  they  assume  a  blue  cliongeable  co- 
lour. 
'      When  cxposeil  to  the  air,  its  lustre  is  soon 
tarnished,  but  it. scarcely  undergoes  any  other 
cliange.     When  kept  under  water  its  suifae 
soon  becomes  black,  the  water  is  slowly  de- 
composed, hydrogen  gas  is  emitted,  and  the 
i  oxvgen  combines  with   the  metal.      If  the 
;  I'.eat  is  increased,  the  decomposition  goes  on 
I  more  rapidly ;  and  if  the  steam  of  water  is 
made  to  pass  over  zinc  at  a  vi  ry  high  tein- 
!  iierature,   it  is  decomposed  so  r.ipidly,  that 
I  very  violent  detonations  take  place. 
I      VVhen  zinc  is  kept  melted  in  5n  open  ves- 
1  sel,  its  surface  is  soon  covered  with  a  grey- 
]  coloured  pellicle,  in  consequence  of  its  coni- 
I  bination  with  oxygen.     When  this  pellicle  is 
'  removed,  another  soon  succeeds  it  ;  and  in 
1  this  manner  may  the  who'e  of  the  zinc  be 
i  oxidated.     When  these  pellicles  are  heated 
and   agitated   in  an  open  vessel,  they  soon 
assume  the  form  of  a  grey  powder,  often  hav- 
I  ing  a  shade  of  \  ellow.     '1  he  powder  has  been 
1  called  the  grey  oxide  of  zinc.     When  zinc 
is  raised  to  a  very  strong  red  heat  in  an  open 
vesv-el,  it  takes  fiiv,  and  burns  with  a  brilliant 
white  flame,  and  at  the  same  time  emits  a 
vast  quantity  of  very  light  white  Hakes  Thes« 
are  merely  an  oxide  of  zinc.    This  oxide  was 
well   known    to   the  antients.      Dioscorides 
d'iscribes  the  method  of  preparing  it.     The 
antients  called  it  ponipholyx  ;   the  early  che- 
mists save  it  the  name  of  nibil  album,  lana 
pliilosophica,  and  fiowcrs  of  zinc.     Dioscori- 
des compares  it  to  wool. 

Two  dillerent  oxides  of  zinc  are  at  present 
known. 

The  peroxide,  or  white  oxide  of  zinc,  is 
the  oxide  usually  formed  in  the  different  pro- 
cesses to  which-the  metal  is  subjected.  We 
are  indebted  to  Mr.  Proust  for  an  e.xact  ana- 
lysis of  this  oxide  and  its  combinations.  It 
is' composed  of  eighty  parts  of  zinc  and 
twenty  of  oxvgen.  It'  may  be  formed  not  . 
only  by  burning  ziiic,  but  also  by  dissolyiMtf 


9^ 


Z  I  N 


it  in  diluted  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid,  and 
precipitating  it  by  potass.  'I'iiis  oxide  is  used 
as  a  paint ;  but  its  colour  must  be  perfectly 
wliite.  When  zinc  h.ippens  to  contain  a.  little 
iron,  which  is  often  the  case  with  the  zinc  of 
commerce,  the  oxide  obtained  has  a  tinge  ol 
-vellow,  because  it  is  mixed  with  a  little  yel- 
low oxide  of  iron. 

The  protoxide,  or  zinc  combined  with  a 
minimum  of  oxvg^^n,  is  obtained  by  exposing 
the  peroxide  to  a  strong  heat  in  an  eaithen- 
ware  retort  or  covered  crucible.  From  the 
experiments  of  Desormes  and  Clement,  it 
appears  that  bv  this  process  zinc  loses  a  por- 
tion of  its  oxygen,  and  assumes  a  yellow  co- 
lour. According  to  the  analysis  of  these  che- 
mists, the  protoxide  of  zinc  is  composed  of 
eighty-eight  parts  of  zinc  and  twelve  parts  of 
oxygen.  Tlie  reduction  of  the  oxides  of  zinc 
is  an  operation  of  difhjulty,  in  consequence 
of  the  strong  affinity  which  exists  between 
zinc  and  oxygen.  It  must  be  mixed  witli 
charcoal,  and  exposed  to  a  strong  heat  in 
vessels  which  screen  it  from  the  contact  of 
tlie  external  air. 

Most  of  the  simple  combustibles  combine 
with  zinc. 

Hydrogen  gas  dissolves  a  little  of  it  in  cer- 
tain situations.  It  is  usual  to  procLire  hydro- 
gen gas  by  dissolving  zinc  in  <likited  sul- 
j)lmric  acid.  The  gas  thus  obtained  is  as  pure 
as  any  which  can  be  procured.  It  carries 
along  with  it  however  a  little  zinc  in  solution  ; 
but  it  deposits  it  again  upon  the  sides  of  the 
g!assjars,  and  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
over  which  it  stands.  This  gas,  if  we  believe 
ih>'  French  chemists,  contains  often  a  little 
carbureted  hydrogen  gas ;  a  prouf  that  zinc 
frequently  contains  carbon.  \\  hen  this  metal 
is  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid,  it  deposits  a 
i)lack  insoluble  powder,  which  the  French 
chemists  found  to  be  carburet  of  iron.  It  is 
liucertain  whether  it  is  carburet,  or  carbon 
combined  with  zinc,  which  gives  occasion  to 
the  production  of  the  carbureted  hydrogen 
i;as. 

It  is  believed  at  present  that  sulphur  docs 
j;ot  combine  with  zinc  in  the  metallic  state  ; 
because  no  attempt  to  form  the  combination 
artilicially  has  succeeded.  Sulphur  unites 
with  the  oxide  of  zinc  when  melted  along 
with  it  in  a  crucible.  This  was  lirst  disco- 
vered by  Dehne  in  1781.  The  exiieriment 
was  afterwards  repeated  by  Moiveau.  The 
sulphureted  oxide  of  zinc  is  of  a  dark-brown 
colour,  and  brittle.  It  exists  native  in  graat 
abundance,  and  is  known  by  the  name  oi 
blende.  Mr.  Proust,  however,  has  announceil 
it  as  his  opinion,  that  blende  is  a  sulphuret  of 
zinc,  or  a  compound  of  sulphur  and  zinc  in 
the  metallic  state. 

Zinc  may  be  combined  with  phosphorus, 
by  dropping  small  bits  of  phosphorus  into  it 
v.iiile  in  a  state  of  fusion.  Pelletier,  to  whom 
we  are  indebted  for  the  experiment,  added 
also  a  little  resin,  to  prevent  the  oxid.ition 
t>(  the  zinc.  Phosphuret  of  zinc  is  of  a  wliite 
colour,  and  metallic  spieniiour,  but  resemble^ 
lead  more  than  zinc.  It  4s  somewhat  malle- 
able. VVhen  hammered  or  hied,  it  emits  the 
odour  of  phosphorus.  When  exposed  to  a 
strong  h''at,  it  burns  like  zinc. 

Pliospliorus  combines  also  witli  the  oxide 
of  zinc ;  a  compound  which  Margraf  had  ob- 
tained (hiring  his  experiments  on  phosphoru-i. 
When  tv/clve  parts  of  oxide  of  zinc,  twelve 
p^ti  of  phosphoric  glass,  and  two  parts  of 


Z  I  N 

charcoal-powder,  are  distilled  in  an  e.irtlieii- 
ware  retort,  and  a  strong  heat  applied,  a 
metallic  substance  sublimes  of  a  silver-white 
colour,  which  when  broken  has  a  vitreous  ap- 
pearance. This,  according  to  Pelletier,  is 
phosphureted  oxide  of  zinc.  When  luated 
by  the  blowpipe,  the  phosphorus  burns,  and 
leaves  behind  a  glass,  transparent  while  in 
fusion,  but  opaque  after  cooling. 

Piiosphureted  oxide  of  zinc  is  obtained  also 
when  two  poi'ts  of  zinc  and  one  part  of  phos- 
phorus are  distilled  in  an  e;irthei\  retort. 
The  products  are,  1.  Zinc;  2.  Oxide  of  zinc; 
3.  A  red  sublimate,  which  is  phonphureted 
oxide  of  ziuc;  4.  Xeedleform  crystals  of  me- 
tallic brilliancy,  and  a  blueish  colour.  These 
also  Pelletier  considers  as  piiosphureted  oxide 
of  ziuc. 

Zinc  does  not  combine  with  azote.  Mu- 
riatic acid  readily  converts  it  into  an  oxide. 

Zinc  combines  with  almost  all  the  raetalSj 
and  some  of  its  alloys  are  of  great  import- 
ance. 

It  may  be  united  to  gold  in  any  proportion 
by  fusion.  The  alloy  is  the  whiter  and  th? 
more  brittle,  the  greater  quantity  of  ziac  it 
contains.  An  alloy,  consisting  of  equal  parts 
of  these  metals,  is  very  hard  and  white,  re- 
ceives a  tine  polish,  and  does  not  tarnish 
readily.  It  has  therefore  been  proposed  by 
Mr.  Malouin  as  very  proper  for  the  specula 
of  telescopes.  One  part  of  zinc  is  said  to  de- 
stroy the  ductility  ol  100  parts  of  gold. 

Platinum  combines  very  readily  with  zinc. 
The  alloy  is  brittle,  [iretty  hard,  very  fusible, 
of  a  blueish-white  colour,  and  not  9o  clear  as 
that  of  zinc. 

The  alloy  of  silver  and  zinc  is  easily  pro- 
duced by  fusion.  It  is  brittle,  and  has  not 
been  applied  to  any  use. 

Zinc  may  be  combined  with  mercury, 
either  by  triturating  the  two  metals  together, 
or  by  dropping  mercurv  into  melted  zinc. 
This  amalgam  is  solid.  It  crvstalllzes  when 
melted,  and  cooled  slowly  into  lamellated 
hexagonal  figures,  with  cavities  between 
them.  They  are  composed  of  one  part  of 
zinc  and  two  and  a  half  of  mercury.  It  is 
used  to  rub  on  electrical  machines,  in  order 
to  excite  electricity. 

Zinc  combines  readily  with  copper,  and 
forms  one  of  the  most  useful  of  all  the  metal- 
lic allovs.  The  metals  are  usually  combined 
together  by  stratifying  plates  of  copper  and 
a  native  oxide  of  zinc  combined  with  carbonic 
acid,  called  calamine,  and  applying  heat. 
When  the  zinc  does  not  exceeil  a  fourth 
part  of  the  co|)per,  the  alloy  is  known  by  the 
name  of  brass.  It  is  of  a  beautiful  yellow 
colour,  more  fusible  than  copper,  and  not  so 
apt  to  tarnish.  It  is  malleable,  and  so  duc- 
tile that  it  may  be  drawn  out  i.ito  wire.  Its 
density  is  irrealer  th.m  the  iii-.:n.  It  ought 
to  be  by  calculation  7.6296,  but  it  actually  is 
S..3958  ;  so  that  its  density  is  increased  by 
about  l-lOtli.  Wlien  the  alloy  contains  three 
parts  of  zinc  and  four  of  copper,  it  as-^umes  a 
colour  nearly  the  same  with  gold,  but  it  is  jiot 
so  malle.ible  as  brass.  It  is  then  called 
pinchbeck,  prince's  metal,  or  prince  Rupert's 
metal.  Brass  was  known,  and  verv  much 
valued,  by  the  aulients.  They  used  an  ore 
of  zinc  to  form  it,  which  they  called  cadmia. 
Dr.  Watson  has  proved  that  it  was  to  brass 
that  they  gave  the  name  of  orichalcuin. 
Their  as  ivascopper,  or  r.Ulier  bronze. 

It  is  veiy  dillicult  to  form  an  alloy  of  iron 


Z  I  R 

and  zinc.  Wallerius  has  shewn  that  iron  is 
capable  of  combining  with  a  small  portion  of 
zinc  ;  and  Malouin  has  shewn  tiiat  zinc  may 
be  used  instead  of  tin  to  cover  iron  plates,  a 
proof  that  there  is  an  affinity  between  the 
two  metals. 

Tin  and  zinc  may  be  easily  combined  by 
fusion.  The  alloy  is  much  iiarder  than  zinc, 
and  scarcely  less  ductile.  This  alNjy  is  often 
the  principal  ingredient  in  the  compound  call- 
ed pewter. 

The  alloy  of  lead  and  zinc  has  been  exa- 
mined by  '>\'allerius,  Gelert,  Muschenbroeck, 
and  fJmelin.  This  last  chemist  succeeded  in 
forming  the  alloy  by  fusion.  Hl'  put  some 
suet  into  the  mixture,  and  covered  the  cruci- 
ble in  order  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  the 
zinc.  When  the  zinc  exceeded  the  le-ad  very 
much,  the  alloy  was  malleable,  and  much 
harder  than  lead.  A  mixture  of  two  parts  of 
zinc  and  one  of  lead  formed  an  alloy  more 
ductile  and  harder  than  the  last.  A  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  zinc  and  lead,  formed  an 
alloy  differing  little  in  ductility  and  colour 
from  lead  ;  but  it  was  harder  and  more  sus- 
ceptible of  polish,  and  much  more  sonorous. 
\\  lien  the  mixture  contained  a  smaller  <iuan- 
tity  of  zinc,  it  still  approxched  nearer  the 
ductility  and  colour  of  lead  ;  but  it  continued 
harder,  more  sonoroin,  and  susceptible  of 
polish,  till  the  proportions  approached  to  1 
of  zinc  and  16  of  lead,  when  the  alloy  dillered 
from  the  last  metal  only  in  being  somewhat 
harder. 

ZINNIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class  syii- 
genesia,  order  poiygamia  supertlua;  and  in 
the  natural  system  arranged  under  the  -tQO.i 
oixler,  composita.  The  receptacle  is  palea- 
ceous, the  pappus  consists  of  two  erect  awns, 
the  calyx  is  ovato-cylindrical  and  imbricated; 
the  rays  consist  of  five  persisting  entire  florets. 
There  are  5  species,  none  of  them  natives  of 
Britain. 

ZIRCON.  This  >tone  is  brought  from 
Ceylon,  and  found  also  in  France  and  Spain, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  commonly 
crystallized.  The  primitive  form  of  its  crys- 
tals is  an  octahedron,  composed  of  two  four- 
sided  pyramids  applied  base  to  ba^e,  whose 
sides  are  isosceles  triangles.  ']  he  inclination 
of  the  sides  of  the  same  pyramid  to  each  other 
is  124'  I'i';  the  inclination  of  the  sides  of  one 
pyramid  to  those  of  another  82;'  50'.-  Tl.;'  so- 
lid angle  at  the  apex  is  73°  44'.  The  varieties 
of  the  crystalline  forms  of  zircon  amount  to 
seven.  In  some  cases  tliere  is  a  four-sided 
prism  interposed  between  the  pyramids  of  the 
primitive  form;  sometimes  all  the  angles  of 
liiis  prism  are  wanting,  and  two  small  trian- 
gular faces  in  place  of  each;  sometimes  the 
crystals  are  dodecahedrons,  composed  of  a  flat 
four-sided  prism  with  hexagonal  faces,  termi- 
nated by  foui'-sided  summits  with  rhomboidal 
faces ;  sometimes  the  edges  of  this  prism, 
sometimes  thecdges  where  the  prism  and  sum- 
mit join,  and  sometimes  both  together,  are 
wanting,  and  we  hiid  small  faces  in  their  place. 
I'oran  accurate  description  and  figure  of  thes« 
varieties,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Ih.uy. 

The  texture  of  zircon  is  foliated.  Frac- 
ture imperfectly  conchoidal.  Causes  a  very 
great  double  refraction.  Sptcihc  gravity 
from  4.615  to  4.383.  Colours  various,  com- 
monly reddish  or  yellowish;  sonn  limes  ills 
limpid,  liefore  the  blowpipe  it  loses  its  co- 
lour, but  not  its  traiisparcncy.     With  bora.x 


Z  O  N 

it  melts  into  a  transparent  glass.    Tiifiisiblc 
with  fixed  alkali  and  niicrocosmic  salt. 

1.  The  variety  lorinciiy  called  livacinlli  is 
of  a  yellowish-red  colour,  mixed  with  blown. 
Its  surface  is  siiiootli.  Its  lustre  3.  itstrans- 
pareiirv  3  to  4. 

~.  1  he  variety  formerly  called  jargon  of 
Ceylon  is  either  p;rey,  urecnish,  yellowish 
brown,  reddish  brown,  or  violet.  It  has  lit- 
tle exlenial  lustre.  It  Is  sometimes  nearly 
ojjaque. 

'1  ne  first  variety,  according  to  the  analysis 
»f  V'anquelin,  is  composed  of 
04.5  zirconia 
32.0  silica 
2.0  oxide  of  iron 

98.5 
ZI7..\NIA,  a  genu;  of  plant:!  of  the  class 
!noiia=cia,  ordrr  liexandria;  and  in  the  natu- 
lal  system  arranged  under  the  4th  order, 
eramina.  There  is  n(»  male  calyx;  the  co- 
rolla is  a  bivalved  beardless  glume,  inter- 
mixed with  the  female  llowers  ;  there  is  no 
lemale  calyx  ;  the  corolla  is  an  univalved, 
ciicullaled,  and  aristated  glume;  the  style  is 
bipartite,  and  there  is  one  seed  covered  with 
flie  plaited  corolla.  Tli<;re  are  2  species; 
the  acjualira  and  terrestris,  none  of  which 
«re  nalives  of  Britain. 

ZODIAC,  See  Astronomy. 
ZODIACAIj  light,  a  bricshtness  sometimes 
observed  in  the  zodiac,  resembling  that  of  the 
galaxy,  or  milky  way.  It  appears  at  certain 
seasons,  viz.  towards  the  end  of  v  inter  and  in 
spring  after  sun-set,  or  before  his  rising  in  au- 
tumn and  beginning  of  winter,  resembling  tlie 
form  of  a  pyramid,  lying  lengthways  with  its 
exis  along  the  zodiac,  its  base  being  placed 
obliquely  with  respect  to  the  horizon.  This 
phenomenon  was  liist  described  and  named 
by  the  elder  Cassini,  in  lt)83.  It  was  alter- 
wards  observed  by  Fatio,  in  1684,  16S5,  and 
l(iS6;  also  by  Kirch  and  Einimart,  in  1688, 
Wm,  1691,  l"693,and  1694. 

ZOEGA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  class 
Gvngenesia,  and  order  polygamia  frustranea. 
Tlie  receptacle  is  bristly;  the  pappus  seta- 
ceous ;  the  torullula;  of  the  radius  ligulated  ; 
the  calyx  imbricated.  There  is  one  species, 
the  leptaurea. 

ZONE,  in  geography  and  astronomy,  a 
division  of  the  terraqueous  globe,  with  respect 
to  the  different  degree  of  heal  found  in  the 
difterent  parts. 

A  zone  is  the  fifth  part  of  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  contained  between  two  parallels. 

The  zones  arc  denominated  torrid,  frigid 
and  temperate. 

The  torrid  zoir."  is  a  hand  surrounding  the 
terraqueous  globe,  and  terminated  by  the 
two  tropics.  Its  breadth  is  46 '  5S'.  The  equa- 
tor, running  through  the  middle  of  it,  divides 
it  into  two  equal  parts,  each  containing  23° 
-W.  T  he  antients  imagined  the  torrid  zone 
uninhabitable. 

The  temperate  zones  are  two  bands,  en- 
vironing the  globe,  and  contained  between 
the  tropics  and  the  polar  circles  :  tiie  breadth 
of  ( ach  is  43°  2'. 

The  frigid  zones  are  segments  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  terminated,  one  by  the  an- 
tarctic, and  the  other  bv  the  arctic  circle. 
Tlie  breadth  of  each  is  46°  58'. 

ZONITIS,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
coleo|)tera.  The  generic  character  is,  an- 
tenna; testaceous;  feelers  four,  filiform;  jaw 


ZOO 

entire,  longer  than  the  feelers;  lip  emarginate. 

There  are  eight  species. 

ZOOLO(;Y,  is  that  part  of  natural  his- 
tory which  relates  to  animals. 

In  order  to  abridge  the  study  of  zoology, 
many  methods  of  reducing  aiiiuials  to  class<?s, 
genera,  and  species,  have  been  iiiTtntcd:  but 
as  that  of  I.inna-us  is  iindoubteiily  the  best, 
the  most  extensive,  and  the  most  generally 
adopted,  we  shall  give  a  brief  accoiiiiL  of 
it. 

Linni'us  divides  the  whole  animal  kingdom 
into  six  classes.  The  characters  of  these  six 
classes  are  taken  from  the  internal  structure 
of  animals,  in  the  following  manner: 

Class  1.  Afanimah'a,  includes  all  animals 
that  suckle  llieir  young.  The  characters  of 
this  class  are  these;  The  heart  has  two  ven- 
tricles and  two  auricles;  the  blood  is  red  and 
warm  ;  and  the  animals  belonging  to  it  are 
ifivii)aious. 

Class  l\.  Jfe.f,  or  birds.  The  characters 
arc  the  s;ime  with  those  of  class  1.  excepting 
that  the  animals  belonging  to  it  are  ovipa- 
rou;. 

-'Claas  III.  Amphibia,  or  .amphiljions  ani- 
mals. The  heart  lias  but  one  ventricle  and 
one  auricle  ;  the  blood  is  red  and  cold  ;  and 
the  animals  belonging  to  tliis  class  have  the 
command  of  their  lungs,  so  that  the  intervals 
between  inspiration  and  cxspiration  are  in 
some  measure  voluntary. 

Class  IV.  Pisces,  or  fishes.     The  heart 
has  the  same  structure,  and  the  blood  the  same 
qualities,  with  those  of  the  amphibi.-'. ;  but  tlie 
j  animals  belonging  to  this  class  are  easilv  dis- 
I  tinguished  (roni  the  amphibia,  by  having  no 
'  such  voluntary  command  of  their  lungs,  and 
I  by  liaving  external  branchiae  or  gills. 
I      Class  V.  Insrctn,  or  insects.     The  heart 
has  one  ventricle,  but  no  auricle;  the   blood 
is  cold  and  white;  and  the  animals  are  fur- 
nished with  antennas  or  feelers.     See  Insect. 
Class  yi.     rermes,  or  worms.     The  cha- 
racters are  the  same  with   those  of  class  V. 
only  the  animals  have  no  antennre,  and  are 
furnished  with  tent.icula. 

'Ihe  first  class.  Mammalia,  is  subdivided 
into  seven  orders;  the  characters  which  are 
taken  from  the  number,  structure,  and  situa- 
tion of  the  teeth. 

Order  I.  The  primates  have  four  incisores. 
or  fore  teeth,  in  each  jciw,  and  one  dog-tooth, 
N.  B.  Ry  one  dog-tooth,  Linn;Eus  means  one 
on  each  side  of  the  fore-teeth  in  both  jaws. 
This  order  includes  four  genera,  viz.  homo, 
simia,  lemur,  vespertilio. 

Order  11.  The  brutahave  no  fore-teeth 
in  either  jaw.  Tliis  order  includes  seven  ge- 
nera, viz.  rhinoceros,  elcphas,  Iriclieclius, 
bradypus,  myrmecophaga,  maiiis,  dasypus. 

Order  III.  'I'he  fera;  ha\e,  for  the  most 
part,  six  conical  fore-teeth  in  each  jaw.  This 
order  includes  ten  genera,  vi/.  phoca,  canis, 
felis,  viverra,  mustela,  ursus,  ilidelphis,  talpa, 
sorex,  erinaceus. 

Order  IV.  The  glires  have  two  fore-teeth 
in  each  jaw,  and  no  dog-teeth.  This  order 
includes  ten  genera,  viz.  hystrix,  lepus,  castor, 
mils,  sciurus,  myoxus,  cavia,  avotoinys,  dy- 
pus,  hyrox. 

Order  V.  Tlie  pecora  have  no  fore-teeth 
in  the  upper  jaw,  but  six  or  eight  in  the  under 
jaw.  This  order  includes  eight  genera,  viz. 
camelus,  moschus,  girafia,  cervus,  antilope, 
caj)ra,  ovis,  bos. 
Order  ^'I.  The  bellux  have  obtuse  fore- 
6  A  -i 


ZOO 


92S 


teeth  in  each  jaw.  This  order  includes 
four  genera,  viz.  equus,  hippopotamus,  bus, 
tapir. 

Order  VII.  The  cete,  orwhale  kind,  have 
no  uniform  character  in  their  teeth,  being 
vei\  diderent  in  the  dilTerent  genera ;  but  ar? 
sudiciently  distinguished  from  the  other  or- 
ders of  mannnalia,  by  living  in  the  ocean, 
liaving  pectoral  fins,  and  a  fistula  or  spiracuhiin 
upon  the  head.  This  order  includes  four  ge- 
nera, viz.  monodon,  baiaena,  physeter,  dclphi- 
nus. 

The  generic  characters  of  the  mammaliit 
are,  like  those  of  the  orders,  almost  entirely 
taken  from  the  teeth,  excepting  the  ve.sjjer- 
tilio,  which,  bciidesthc  character  of  the  order 
derived  from  the  teeth,  has  this  farther  mark, 
that  there  is  a  membrane  attached  to  the  feet 
and  fides,  by  means  of  which  the  creature  is 
enabled  to  tly :  the  liystri.x,  whose  body  is 
covered  with  slyrp  spines:  and  the  whole 
order  of  pecora,  wliose  genera,  besides  the 
characters  taken  from  the  teeth,  are  distin- 
guislied  into  those  which  have  horns,  those 
which  have  no  horns,  and  by  peculiarities  in 
the  horns  themselves. 

The  specific  characters  are  very  various, 
being  taken  from  any  part  of  the  body  whicU 
possesses  a  peculiar  uniiorm  mark  ot  distinc- 
tion. As  examples  of  these  characters  are  to 
be  found  under  the  proper  name  of  each  ge- 
nus, it  is  unnecessary  to  say  any  thing  further- 
concerning  them  in  this  place. 

'i  he  second  class,  A-ms,  is  subdivided  into 
six  orders;  the  characters  of  which  are  taken 
chielly  from  the  structure  of  the  bill. 

Order  I.  The  accipitres  have  a  hooked  bill, 
the  superior  mandibule,  near  the  base,  being- 
extended  on  each  side  beyond  the  inferior ; 
and  in  some  it  is  armed  with  teeth.  This  or- 
der includes  four  species,  viz.  vultur,  falco, 
strix,  lanius. 

Order  II.  The  pics  have  a  convex,  com- 
pressed bill,  resembling  a  knife.  This  order 
contains  23  genera,  viz.  trochilus,  certhia, 
upupa,  glaucopis,  bnphaga,  sitta,  oriolus,  co- 
racias,  gracula,  corvus,  par.;disea,  ramphastos, 
trogon,  psittacus,  crotophaga,  picus,  yunx, 
cuculus,  bucco,  boceros,  alcedo,  merops,  to* 
dus. 

Order  III.  The  anseres  have  a  smooth  bill, 
broadest  at  the  i)ouit,  covered  w  ith  a  smoollt 
skin,  and  furnished  with  teeth:  the  tongue  is 
fleshy ;  and  the  toes  are  palmated  or  webbed. 
This  order  includes  13  genera,  viz.  anas,  mer- 
gus,  phaeton,  plotus,  rhyncops,  diomedea,  ap- 
tenodyta,  aica,  procellaria,  pelecanus,  larus, 
sterna,  colymbus. 

Order  IV'.  The  gralisc  have  a  somewhat  cy- 
lindrical bill:  the  tail  is  short,  and  the  thighs 
are  naked.  This  order  contains  20genera,  viz. 
phocnicopterus,  platalea,  palamedea,  mycte- 
ria,  tantalus,  ardea,  corrira,  recurvirostra, 
scolopax,tringa,  fulica,  parra,  rallus,  vaginalis, 
psophia,  cancroma,  scopus,  glareola,  hsmato» 
pus,  cliaradrius. 

Order  \'.  The  gallina;  have  a  convex  bill  ; 
the  superior  mandible  is  vaulted  over  the  in* 
ferior:  the  nostrils  are  half  covered  with  a 
convex  cartilaginous  membrane:  and  ti.efeet 
are  divided,  but  connected,  at  the  inmost' 
joint.  This  order  contains  10  genera,  viz. 
struthio,  didus,  pavo,  mcleagris,  penelope, 
crax,  phasianus,  numida,  tetrao. 

Order  VI.  The  passeres  have  a  conical 
sharp  pointed  bill ;  and  the  nostrils  are  oval, 
wide,  and  naked.    Tliis  order  contains  17  go 


624 


ZOO 


rcni,  viz.  lo\ia,  coliiis,  frin^illa,  pbytotoma, 
ember-izH,  cuprimMlgus,  liiniiido,  pipru,  tur- 
diH,  anipcli-^,  lanagra,  nuicicapa,  parus,  mo- 
tacilla,  alaiula,  sturmis,  coluiiiba. 

The  generic  characters  of  tliis  class  are 
taken  from  |)eciiharities  in  the  bill,  the  nostrils, 
the  tongue,  the  feet,  the  feathers,  the  face, 
the  fignre  of  the  body,  &c. 

Tlie  characters  wliich  serve  to  distinguish 
the  species  are  very  various:  for  example, 
the  colour  of  the  i)ar'ticu'iar  feathers  or  parts 
of  feathers;  crests  ot  feathers  on  the  head,  dis- 
posed m  different  manners;  the  colour  of  the 
cere  or  wax;  the  colour  of  the  feet;  the 
shape  and  length  of  the  tail;  the  number,  si- 
tnatioK,  {vc.  of  tlie  toes;  the  colour  and  figure 
of  tlie  bill,  &;c. 

The  third  class,  Ampldbiu,  is  divided  into 
two  orders. 

Order  I.  The  reptiles  have  four  feet,  and 
breathe  by  the  mouth.  Tliis  order  contains 
four  genera,  viz.  testiido,  draco,  lacerta, 
rana. 

Order  IF.  The  serpentes  have  no  legs,  and 
breathe  by  the  moutl'..  This  order  contains 
six  genera,  viz.  crotalus,  boa,  coluber,  an- 
guis,  amphisba-na,  ca;cilia. 

The  generic  characters  of  this  class  are 
taken  from  the  general  figure  of  the  body ; 
from  their  having  tails  or  no  tails;  being  co- 
vered with  a  shell ;  having  teeth  or  no  teeth 
in  the  moutli ;  being  furnished  with  kings; 
having  covered  or  nuked  bodies ;  from  the 
number,  situation,  and  figure  of  the  scuta  and 
scales  ;  from  the  numbi;r  and  situation  of  the 
spiracula  ;  from  the  situation  of  the  mouth, 
&c. 

The  specific  characters  are  so  veiy  various, 
♦hatitwouklbe  superiiuoustocniimerate  them. 

The  fourth  class,  Piscfx,  is  subdivided  into 
six  orders,  the  characters  of  whicli  are  taken 
from  the  situation  of  the  belly  fins. 

Order  I.  The  apodes  have  no  belly  fins. 
This  order  contains  eight  genera,  viz.  mu- 
rsna,  gymnotus,  trichiurus,  aiiarchichas,  am- 
modyles,  opliydium,  stromatcus,  xiphias, 
stenioptyx,  leptocephahis. 

Order'  II.  The  jiigulares  have  the  belly 
fins  placed  before  the  pectoral  tins.  'I'his  or- 
der hicludes  live  genera,  viz.  callionymus, 
uranoscopus,  Irachinus,  gadus,  blenuius,  kur- 
tus. 

Order  HI.  The  ttoracici  have  the  belly 
fins  |)laced  under  the  pectoral  fin:,.  Tiiis  or- 
•ler  comprehends  nineteen  genera,  viz.  cepo- 
te,  echeneis,  coryphacna,  gobius,  cottus,  scor- 
phana,  zeus,  pleuronecles,  cbstodon,  sjtarus, 
scarus,  labrus,  scia-na,  ))erca,  gasterosteus, 
scomber,  centrogaster,  muUus,  trigla. 

Order  IV.  Theabdominales  have  the  belly 
fins  placed  behind  the  pectoral  fins.  This  oi- 
lier contains  sixteen  genera,  viz.  cobitis, 
amia,  silurus,  teutliis,  loricaria,  salnio,  fistu- 
laria,  esox,  elojjs,  argentina,  atherina,  mugil, 
•vocai'tus,  polynemus,  clupea,  cyprinus. 

Order  V.  'I'he  branchiostegi  have  the  gills 
tlcstitute  of  ixjny  rays.  Tins  order  contains 
♦  en  genera,  viz.  rnarmyriia,  ostracion,  tetro- 
«l)ji,  diodon,  syngnalhus,  pegasus,  cenlriscus, 
balistes,  cytlopter'.s,  lophiiis. 

Order  VI.  The  chondroplerygii  have  car- 
tikigiiious  gills.  Ti)is  order  coiuains  live  ge- 
nera, viz.  accipeiiser,  cbiaiaira,  s.i^iialuf,  raia, 
ptruniy  zoii. 


ZOO 

The  generic  characters  of  this  class  are 
taken  from  peculiarities  in  the  head,  the 
mouth,  the  teeth,  tiie  nostrils,  the  rays  in  the 
membrane  of  the  gills,  the  eyes,  the  general 
ligure  of  the  body,  the  figure  of  the  tail,  the 
situation  of  the  spiracula,  &c. 

The  specilic  characten  are  taken  from  pe- 
culiarities in  all  the  parts  above  enumerated, 
and  many  others. 

The  fifth  elass,  Insccla,  is  subdivided  into 
seven  orders,  the  characters  of  vhich  are 
taken  from  the  wings.  See  the  article  In- 
sect. 

Order  I.  The  coleoptera  have  four  wiiig.«, 
the  two  superior  ones  being  crustaceous,-  and 
furnished  with  a  straiglit  suture.  This  order 
compndiends  forty-seven  genera,  viz.  scara- 
baeus,  lucanus,  dermestes,  melyris,  byrrhus, 
silpha,  triloma,  liydrophilus,  hister,  pausus, 
boslrichus,  anlhrenus,  nitidula,  coccinella, 
cuiculio,  brenlus,  attelabus,  erodius,  staphy- 
linus,  scaurus,  zygia,  meloe,  tenebrio,  cassi- 
da,  opatrum,  mordella,  chrysoraela,  horia, 
apahis,  manticora,  pimelia,  gyrinus,  cucujus, 
cryptocephalus,  bruchus,  ptinus,  hispa,  bu- 
prestis,  necydalis,  lampyris,  cantliaris,  notox- 
us,  elater,  calopus,  alurnu;,  carabus,  Jylta, 
scrropalpus,  cerambyx,  leptura,  rhinomacer, 
zonitis,  cicindela,  djticiis,  fodicula. 

Order  II.  The  hemiptera  have  four  "ingif, 
the  two  superior  ones  being  seivicrustaceous 
and  incumbent,  i.  e.  the  interior  edges  lie 
above  one  another.  This  order  includes 
fourteen  genera,  viz.  blatta,  pneumoia,  man- 
tis, gryllu.s,  fulgora,  cicada,  not(;iiecta,  nepa, 
ciinex,  inacrocephalus,  aphis,  chermes,  coc- 
cus, thrips. 

Order  III.  The  le|iido|)tera  have  four 
wings,  all  of  them  imbricated  witli  scales. 
This  order  contains  three  genera,  viz.  papilio, 
sphinx,  phala;na. 

Order  IV  .  The  neuroptera  have  four  wings, 
interwoven  with  veins,  like  a  piece  of  net- 
work, and  no  st'uig  in  the  anus.  This  order 
includes  seven  genera,  viz.  libella,  ephemera, 
hemerobius,  myiinelion,  phryganea,  paiiorpa, 
rophidia. 

Order  \.  The  hymenqptera  have  the  same 
characters  witii  the  former,  only  the  anus  is 
armed  with  a  sting.  But  this  mark  is  pecu- 
liar lo  the  females  and  neuters;  for  the  males 
have  no  sting.  This  order  comprehends  fif- 
teen genera,  viz.  cyeips,  leiitredu,  sirex,  ich- 
neumon, sphex,  scolia,  tliynnus,  leucospis, 
tii>l)ia,  chalcis,  chrysis,  vespa,  apis,  formica, 
n>utiila. 

Order  VI.  Tiie  diplera  have  two  wings, 
and  two  clavated  hallercs  or  balances  behind 
each  whig.  Tiiis  onier  contains  twelve  gene- 
ra, viz.  diopsis,  tipiila,  musca,  fabanus,  em- 
pis,  conops,  oestrus,  asilus,  stomo.xys,  culex, 
bonibyliiis,  hippobosca. 

Order  \il.  The  aptera  iiave  no  wings. 
This  order  contains  filteen  species,  viz.  le- 
|iisma,  podura,  termes,  pediculus,  pulex, 
acarus,  hydrachna,  aranea,  phalangiuni,  .scor- 
pio,  cancer,  moiioculu's,  oniscuSj-scolojieiidia, 
juhis. 

The  sixth  class.  Vermes,  is  diviiUd  into 
five  orders. 

Order  I.  The  intestina  are  the  most  simple 
animals,  being  perfectly  naked,  and  without 
limbs  of  ;»By  kind.  This  order  contains 
twenty- one  genera,  viz.  ascaris,  triclioct-pha- 


ISf'Y  Or 

lus,  undnaria,  tilaria,  scolex,  ligula,  lingnafir- 
la,  stiongylus,  echinorhyiichus,  hieniea,  cui- 
cullanus,  caryophylisus,  fasciola,  ta'iiia,  fuiia, 
myxine,  gordius,  iiirudo,  lumbiicus,  sipuncu- 
lus,  planariat 

Oriier  11.  The  mollusca  are  likewise  sim- 
ple naked  aniin»ls,  without  ar.y  shell  ;  but  they 
are  brachiated,  or  furnished  with  a  kind  <rf 
limbs.  This  order  comprehends  thirty-one 
genera,  viz.  actinia,  clava,  maiumana, 'pc;di- 
cellaria,  ascidia,  salpa,  dagvsa,  pleiulratliea^ 
limax,  aplasia,  doris,  teth_\s,  holothuria,  tere- 
bella,  triton,  sepia,  cli-j,  lobaria,  lerna-a,  stvL- 
laa,  glaucus,  aliprodita,  ampliitrite,  spio,  ne- 
reis, nais,  physbophora,  medusa,  lucernar;a, 
asferias,  echinus. 

Order  III.  The  lestacea  have  the  same  cha- 
racters with  those  of  oidcr  11.  but  are  covered 
witli  a  shell.  This  order  includes  36  genwa, 
vif .  chiton,  lepas,  pholas,  mya,  solen,  lellina, 
caidium,  mactra,  donax,  venus,  spoudylus, 
cliania,  area,  o>trea,  anoniia,  niytilus,  puma, 
argonaula,  nautilus,  conus,  cypisa,  bulla,  vo- 
luta,  buccinum,  strombus,  nuirex,  trochus, 
turbo,  helix, iierita,  haliotis, patella,  dentalium, 
serpula,  teredo,  sabella. 

Order  IV.  The  zoophyla,  are  compound 
animals,  furnished  with  a  kmd  of  fiowers,  and 
having  a  vegetating  root  and  stem.  This  or- 
der contains  15  genera,  viz  tubipora,  madrer 
pora,  millepora,  cellopora,  isis,  anlipathos,. 
gorgonia,  alcyonium,  spongia,  flustra,  tubula- 
ria,  corraliiia,  sertularia,  pennatuU,  hydra. 

Order  \ .  The  infusoria  consists  of  vei-y 
small  simple  animals.  'J'his  order  contains 
1  ">  genera,  viz.  brachionus,  vorticella,  trichoda, 
cercaua,  l8ucO|)e:'a,  gonium,  tolpoda,  Para- 
mecium, cyclidium,  bursaria,  vibrio,,  enchelis^ 
baciilaria,  volvox,  monas. 

For  more  particular  information  concerning: 
the  several  branches  and  subjects  of  zoology, 
tiie  reader  may  consult  the  various  articlesabove 
referred  to,  and  he  will  lindmost  of  the  genera 
described  in  their  order  in  the  alphabet. 

ZOOPHYTE,  in  natural  history,  the  4tli 
order  of  the  class  of  vermes.     See  i^ooLOGY. 

ZOSTERA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  clasj 
gyuandria,  order  polyandiia;  and  in  the  na- 
tural system  arranged  under  the  second  order,. 
piperit;u.  The  spatlix  is  linear,  and  fertile 
only  on  one  side  ;  there  is  no. calyx  nor  co-- 
roila;  the  stamina  are  ahcrOiW;'  the  seeds 
solitary  and  alternate.    There  is  one  species.. 

Z\\  INGEHA,  a  genus  of  the  class  and  or- 
der of  plants  decandria  monogynia.  The  ca- 
l)X  is  five-parted;  petals  five  ;  capsules  five. 
'1  here  is  one  species,  the  amasa,  rescmbiiug; 
cpiassia,  a  shrub  of  Guiana. 

ZYG.TNA.     See  SauALUS. 

'Zj\  GIA,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order  co- 
leoptera. The  generic  character  is,  antennai 
moniliiorm:  feelers  etpiai,  lilifnrm :  hp  elon- 
gated, membranaceous:  jaw  oue-tootlic<l. 

ZYGOPin  LLUM,  bean-caper,  a  genus 
of  plants  of  the  class  of  decaiiiria  and  order 
monogynia,  and  in  thenatural  system  arranged, 
under  liie  I4lli  order,  gruinaks.  The  calyx 
is  live-leaved;  petals  five;  iiectarium  ten- 
leaved,  covering  the  genu;  capsules  Wvtt- 
lelled.  There  are  l4 species,  partly  shrubby 
and  partly  herbaceous  plants,  all  natives  of 
warm  climates,  though  some  of  them  are 
hardy  enough  to  endure  the  open  air  in  this 
country. 


IKDEX 


INDEX    TO    THE    TREATISES 

IN  THE  SECOND  VOLUME. 

•,*  The  letters  «,  l,  c,  refer  to  the  columus — a  to  the  first  column  ;  I  to  the  second  column ;  c  to  the  third  column. 


INFAKCy. 

Air  and  ctercise,  remarks  on,  14  /<. 

Bathing  of  infants,  remarks  OB,  1;)  c. 

B'-i^'els,  distii'der  in,  18  i/. 

Clothing  of  infants,  remarks  en,  13  a,  b,  c. 

Croup,  remarks  on  tliis  disorder,  18f. 

Diet  of  inf.uits,  1 1  c. 

Diseases  of  infi'ncv,  15  a. 

Mesenteric  atrophy  remarks  on,  15ij;  can- 
sumptions,  15  i. 

Nurseries,  remarks  on^   13  h. 

Purgatives,  the  practice  of  administering  tlicni 
to  new-horn  children,  injudicious,  12  i. 

Ricket"!,  remSi'-.s  un,  18  .j.. 

Suckling,  importance  of  this  being  done  by  the 
motlier,  12  n. 

Teething,  affections  occasioned  by,  18  b. 

Temperature  of  infants,  12  c. 

■Washing  of  infants,  remarks  on,  13r. 

Water  in  the  head,  remarks  on  this  disease,  Ific; 
chronic  intenal,  ih.\  chronic  external,  17  n; 
acute  hydrocephalus,  ib. 

Weaning,  time  of,   1 2  i. 

Worms,  remarks  on,  17  cv 

INSTRUMENTS,  MATHEMATICAL. 

Compasses,  plain,  23  (  ;  drawing,  il. ;  propor- 
tional, 27  .1. 

Gunter's  lines,  2G  .;. 

Line  of  chords,  to  construct,  25/<;  of  rhumlis, 
ib.%  of  sines,  ib. ;  of  fangents,  :b. ;  of  secants, 
ib. ;  of  half-tangents,  ib. ;  of  longitude,  2.j  c  ; 
of  latitude,  ib. ;  of  hours,  ib. ;  of  incUnations 
of  meridians,  ib. 

Lines  of  equal  jiarts,  21  b. 

Parallel  ruler,  24  ,.■. 

Pen  and  pencil,  drawing,  24  a. 

Protractor,  24  a. 

Scale,  plain,  24  b. 

Sector,"  25  c  to  26  f. 

MAGNETISM 

Attraction  and  repulsion,  magnetic,  accounfof, 

94  a. 

Compass,  mariner's,  construction  of  96  c ;  azi- 
muth, 97  a. 

Compass-needleSjbest  methods  of  communicating 
magnetism  to  them,  96  a,  i>. 

Deviation  of  the  magnet  from  the  true  meri- 
dian, 95  a. 

Dip  of  the  needle,  95  a. 

Dipping-needle,  construction  and  use  of,  97  it, 

95  i. 

Directive  property  of  the  magnet,  first  disco- 
very of,  93  c. 

Experiments  to  illustrate  the  magnetic  theory, 
97  4. 

Horse-shoe  magnet,  and  Its  properties, described, 

96  <7. 

Inclination,  magnetic,  95  a. 

Instruments,  inagnetlcal ;  construction  and  use 

of  the  principaJ,  96  c 
Iron,  methods  of  making  it  magnetical,  S5  c. 
M.ignet,  description  of,  93  b. 
Needles,  ma;:i-netic,  construction  and  use  of,  96  c. 
Polarity  of  the  magnet,  account  of,  94  c. 
Poles  of  the  magnet,  described,  93  c. 
Properties,  characteristic,  of  the  magnet,  93  c. 
Steel,  its  dilFerencc  in  receiving  magnetism,  very 

great,  96  t. 


MATERIA  MEDICA. 

Antacids,  1 15  c. 

Anthelmintics,  116  a. 

Antispasmodics,  l\\  n,  i. 

Aromatics,  111  c  to  112  i^ 

Astringents,  112 />;  vegetable,  11.;  mineral,  c. 

Cathartics,  1 13  b. 

Ccflee  considered  as  a  drink,  109  c. 

Delinition  of  the  materia  medica,  107  c. 

Demulcents,  1 16  i. 

Diaphoretics,  Hi  b,  c. 

Dietetics,  107  c. 

Diluents  and  emollients,  116  4 

Diuretics,  114./;  saline,  i;  vegetable, /i. ;  from 
the  animal  kingdom,  ih. 

Dressing  victuals,  remarks  on  the  ililTi-'rent  me- 
thods of,  108  c. 

Dnnk,  remarks  on,  109  .i. 

Emetics,  112i;  from   the  veget.ible   kingdom, 

11 3  (J ;  from  the  mineral  khvj;dom,  ib. 
Emmenagogues,  113  <: ;  from  the  class  of  tonics, 

1 14  rt  ;  of  antispasmodics,  ib. ;  of  cathartics,  ib. 
Epispastics  and  rubefacients,  1 15  b. 
Errhines,  11.5  a. 

1  scharotics,  116<z. 

Expectorants,  114  f,  115  a. 

Food,  anim.al,  remarks  on,  108  «;  vegetable,  4. 

Laxatives,  1 13  c.  ^ 

I.ithonU'iptics,  115  c. 

Medicuvis,  109  c  ;  classification  of,  1 10  a. 

Milk  and  its  products,  remarks  on,  108  b. 

Natcotics,  enumeration  of,  II0  4  to  111  a. 

Organic  life,  priiiciples  of,  107  c- 

Purgatives,  113  h. 

Refrigerants,  115  b. 

Sialagogucs,  1 15  <;. 

Tea  considered  as  a  drink,  109  c. 

Tonics,  \\\b\  from  the  mineral  kingdom,  ih. ; 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  c. 

Water,  rcmaiks  on  the  different  kinds  of,  as 
articles  of  drink,  109  a  ;  spring,  v.-ell,  river, 
lake,  and  rain  water,  b\  snow  and  hail  wa- 
ter, c. 

MECHANICS. 

Balance,  principles  and  theory  of  the,  124  c  \ 
circursstances  to  be  .attended  to,  in  order  to 
h.avc  it  as  perfect  as  possible,  ib. 

Capstan,  principles  of,  125  b. 

Compound  machines  considered,  127  b. 

Cranes,  principles  of,  V2S  c. 

Horses,  important  points  of  attention  in  the  ap- 
plication of  them  as  moving  powers  in  ma- 
chinery, 127  c,  128  a. 

Inclined  pUuie,  principles  of,  126  ^ 

Lever  described,  12S4;  different  sorts  of,  and 
illustrations  of  these:  the  first  kind,  ib.\  the 
second  kind,  c     tine  hammer-lever,  124  <7. 

Meclianics,  definition  and  vast  importance  of 
this  science,  123  n. 

Men  and  horses  \  of  the  application  of,  as  mov- 
ing powers  in  machinery,  &c.  127  c. 

Powers,  mechanical,  defined,  123  a ;  enumer- 
ated, b. 

Pulley,  dilTerent  kinds  of,  and  principles  and 
operation  of  each,  126^. 

Screw,  principles  of,  126c;  illustration  of  its 
eflect,  127  a. 

Stt el-yard,  principles  of,  125  a. 

Wedge,  principles  of,  126  4. 


Wheel  and  axle,  principles  and  operation  of, 
125((  to  126  a 

Wheels  and  ;)inions,  ratio  of  their  respective  ve- 
locities illustrated,  127  c. 

MtDALS. 
Eriti^h  coins,  early,  130  i  ;   those  of  the  .Saxoit 

heptarchy,  ib.  ■   since  the  Conquest,  ib. ;  first 

gold  coinage,  e\  copper,  131  a. 
Coinage,  question  of  the  origin  of,  12fic. 
Coins  and  medals,  the  knowledge  of,  probably 

first  introduced  into  this  country  from  Italy, 

1  2.S  /,. 
Definition  of  the  term  medali  128  I. 
Greek  coins,  list  and  value  of,  128  c;  silver,  /'/.; 

copper,  129  a  ;  gold,  ib. 
Legends  on  the  Greek  and  Roman  coins,  130  u. 
Medallions,  ancient,  1:!0  a. 
Portraits  o»  ancient  coins,  129  c     of  tlie  king» 

and   queens  of  Macedbn,  Sicily,  <S:c.  ib.:  of 

Roman  emperors,   ibid ;   of  kings  on   Greclt. 

coins,  ibid. 
Reverses  of  Medals  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, 130  a. 
Roman  coins,  list  and  value  of,  129  a  ;  brass,  li.j; 

silver,  b ;  gold,  c. 
Study  of  med.ils,  its  antiqnity,  128  b. 
Utility  of  medals  in  the  sciences,  128  b. 

RIEDICINE. 

Adynamiic;    their  genera,  symptoms,  and  mc— 
tnods  of  cure,  147  a  to  c. 

Blood,  discharges  of .  their  genera,  symptoms,, 
and  metliods  of  cure,  144  a  to  145  a. 

Boerhaave,  the  founder  of  the  humoral  patho.^ 
logy,  1324, 

Cachexies,  class  of,  1.52  a. 

Classification  of  diseases,  1 33  b. 

Cold  aftusion  i.i  fever,  136*  to  137  a. 

Cold  air,  use  of,  in  fever,  1 37  b. 

Coniata  ;  their  genera,  symptoms,  and  method>^ 
of  cure,  146  A  to  147  a. 

Critical  days  ih  fever,  139  b. 

Darwin,  Dr.,  his  theorj',  nad  objections  to  itj- 
13.;  J,  4,  135  c. 

Definition  of  medicine,  .131  a. 

Diseases,  classification  of,  133  4' 

Dropsy  ;  its  genefa,  and  methods  of  cure,  153  ii- 
to  154  b. 

Empirics  and  Dogmatists,  sects  of,'  131  b. 

Epicurean  philosophy  introduced  iritolhe  sdiooU 
of  medicine,  131  c. 

Eruptions;  tlicir  geircra,  synrptoms,  species,  and' 
I       metlxjds  of  cure,  143  <i  to  144  a. 

Fever,  delinition  of,  134  a;  phenomena  of,  ib.%' 
species,  4 ;    Cullen's  genera,  c\    its   exciting 
cjiiscs, /'4. ;  proximate  cause,  135  a     theory  of 
Dr.  Cullen  respecting  fever,  and  objections  to- 
this,  4;  of  Dr.  Darv.in,  and   objections,  ib.\ 
trcainciit  in,  136  a  ;  of  cold  and  tepid  afFu- 
sion  and  alihuion,  c\)ld  water  internally,  and' 
cold  air,  in,  h\  other  refrigerants,  137c;  of. 
the  use  of  animalfood,  138  a  :  sudorifics,  4 ; 
purgatives  and  emetics,  c--.  unfavourable  signs 
in  fever,  139  <i ;  critical  days,  4;  recapitula- 
ticm  of  the  treatment  of  fever,  139  4;  treat-- 
meut  of  continued  fever  during  the  first  threa 
or  four  days,  ;'4. ;  after  the  fifth  or  sixth  day^ 
ib. ;  treatment  of  intermittent  fever,  ib. 
Fever-houses  considered,  139  c  to  140  ^r 
Galen,  his  doctrines,  131c. 


, 


92(5 

Harvey,  his  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the 

blood,  1:32  a. 
Hippocrates,  his  character,  131  b. 
History  of  medicine,  131  /'. 
Hoffman,  his  theory,  132  i. 
Impetigines ;  their  genera,  and  methods  of  cure, 

154  i  to  15j  <;. 
InfiammatioHs,    nature   of,   HO/j;    sthenic  and 

asthenic,  ib.     termination  of,  c  ;  species  of,  ib  ; 

indication  of  its  decline,  lb. ;  treatment,  141  i/; 

genera  of,  their  symptoms,  species,  and  me- 
thods of  cure,  141  b  to  143  <i. 
Intermittent   fevers,  question  of  the  causes  of, 

135  u;  treatment  of,  139  A. 
Marcores;  their  genera,  and  metltods  of  cure, 

152  a. 
Nervous  diseases,  class  of,  145  c. 
Nosology,  or  the  classification  of  diseases,  re- 

marks'on,  132  c  ;  table  of  classilication,  133  i. 
Paracelsus,  his  doctrines,  132  a. 
Profluvia;  their  genera,  symptoms,  and  methods 

of  cure,  145  ii  to  c. 
PyrexiiE,  class  of,  134  a. 
Refrigerants,  use  of,  in  fever,  137  c. 
Spasms,  their  genera,  symptoms,  and  methods  of 

cure,  147  <: ;  in   the'animal   functions,  148  .J, 

149  c  ;  in  the  vital  functions,  149  a. 
Swellings,  general;  their  genera,  and  methods 

of  cure,"l52  c;  fatty  swellings,  ib  ;  windy 
swellings,  153 /i;  watery  swellings,  iV'.;  of  so- 
lid parts,  154  b. 

Tepid  ablution  in  fever,  137  a. 

Vesania: ;   their  genera,  and  methods  of  cure, 

150  b  to  152  a. 

"VVright,  Dr  ,  his  narrative  respecting  the  treat- 
ment of  some  cases  of  fever  by  ablution  with 
cold  water,  133  b. 

METEOROI.OCY. 

August  generally  the  warmest  month  in  lati- 
tudes below  48  degrees,  173  j. 

Barometer,  its  range  in  ditVerent  parts  of  the 
world,  and  in  different  seasons,  170i7  ;  theory 
of  Mr.  Kirwan  on  thif  subject,  171a. 

Blue  colour  of  the  sky,  its  cause,  175_.r. 

Clrro-cumulus,7  intermediate    modiiications  of 

Cirro-stratus,    J  cloud,  described.  177  a,  b. 

Cirrus,  a  simple  modification  of  cloud,  described, 
176  .-. 

Clouds,  laws  of  their  formation,  176  a  ;  systema- 
tic classification  of  them,  i. 

Congelation,  mean  height  of  the  term  of,  in  dif- 
ferent latitudes,  173  a,  b,  c. 

Cumulo-stratus,  7  compound  modifications 

Cumulo-cirro-stratus,5  of  cloud, described,  177<-. 
'Cumulus,  a  simple  modification  of  cloud,  de- 
scribed, 176  c. 

Dew,  its  formation,  175  a. 

Electricity  of  the  atmosphere  considered,  1 74  i,  r. 

January  the  coldest  month  in  every  latitude, 
173  a. 

Julv  the  warmest  month  in  all  latitudes  above 
4M  degrees,  173  «*. 

Nimbus,  a  compound  modification  of  cloud,  de- 
scribed, 177  t:. 

I'acific  Ocean,  anomaly  respecting  its  tempera- 
ture. 174  a. 

Kain;  calculations  and  statements  respecting  the 
mean  annual  quantity  of,  in  dilTerent  situa- 
tions, 175  a  to  c ;  phenomena  of,  with  respect 
to  the  clouds,  178  b,  c. 

Rain-cloud  defined,  176  b. 

Snow,  formation  of,  175  c. 

SiratuB,  a  simple  modification  of  cloud,  de- 
scribed, 177  a. 

Temperature  of  the  air,  causes  of  its  perpetual 
variation,  171c;  examination  into  the  nature 
of  its  two  diminisl-.iiig  progressions,  li. ;  tables 
of  mean  aiinuil  and  monthly  temperatures, 
172;  to  as'-ortain  the  temperature  at  any 
height  above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  173  c. 

Weather,  principles  of  studying  the  prognostics 
of,  169*. 

Winds,  probable  hypoihcsis  of  the  laws  of  tlieir 


INDEX  TO  THE  TREATISES. 

motion,  169  i  ;  actual  observations  respecting 
their  velocity,  c. 

MIDWIFERY. 

Abortion  considered,  181  b. 

Cesarian  operation  considered,  184  a  to  c. 

Diseases  of  pregnancy,  It^O  b. 

Embryotomy,  directions  respecting,  183.?. 

Extra-uterine  conceptions,  180  i. 

Floodings  considered,  1814. 

Forceps,  application  of,  183  4,  c. 

Instruments,  of  the  mode  of  delivery  by,  183  b. 

Labours,  natural,  18i  r,  ISJ  a  ;  difficult,  182  b  to 
1S3  4;  preternatural,  l.s4f  ;  complex,  1S5  c. 

Lying-in  female,  management  of,  186  b. 

Monsters,  case  of,  considered,  180  b,  186  a. 

Plates,  explanation  of,  1S6<-  to  187  c. 

Plurality  of  children,  cases  of,  considered,  185  c. 

Spurious  pregnancy,  ISO  a. 

Superfetation  considered,  ISO  4. 

Uterus,  changes  which  impregnation  produces 
in  the  uterine  system,  179  c  ;  contents  of  the 
uterus  in  advanced  pregnancy,  179  c;  pro- 
gressive increase  of  the  uterine  organs,  180  a  ; 
uterine  hemorrhage,  186  a. 

MINERALOGY. 

Antimony,  genus  and  species  c>f,  214  a. 

Arsenic,  genus  and -species  of,  215  a. 

Baryte,  genus  and  species  of,  209  a. 

Bismuth,  genus  and  species  of,  213  i. 

Bituminous  genus,  210  b. 

Calc,  genus  and  species  of,  207  c  to  209  a. 

Chrome,  genus  and  species  of,  215  c,  216  a. 

Classes  of'minerals,  200  ,:. 

Clay,  genus  and  species  of,  205  b  to  207  a. 

Cobalt,  genus  and  species  of,  214  b. 

Cohesion  of  particles ;  degrees  of,  as  a  specific 
external  character  of  minerals,  201  a. 

Colour  ;  divisions  of,  as  a  specific  external  cha- 
racter of  minerals,  201  a. 

Copper,  genus  and  species  of,  211  c  to  212  4. 

Diamond,  genus  of,  202  a. 

Flint,  genus  and  species  of,  202  4  to  205  4. 

Fluid  minerals,  characters  of,  202  a. 

Fos,>il  salts,  class  and  species  of,  209  b  to  210  a. 

Fossils,  earthy,  class  of,  202  a ;  inflammable, 
210  a;  metallic,  210  c. 

Friable  minerals,  characters  of,  202  a. 

Gold,  genus  and  species  of,  210  c,  211a. 

Graphite  genus,  210  4. 

Iron,  genus  and  species  of,  £12  4  to  213  <?, 

Lead,  genus  and  species  of,  213  a  to  c. 

Manganese,  genus  and  species  of,  214  c. 

Mcnachine,  genus  and  species  of,  215  4. 

Molybdena,  genus  and  species  of,  214  c. 

Nickel,  genus  and  species  of,  214  c. 

Platina  genus,  210c. 

Resin  genus,  210  4. 

Sclieele,  genus  and  species  of,  215  a. 

Silver,  genus  and  species  of,  211a  to  c. 

Solid  minerals,  characters  of,  301  a  to  c. 

Strontian,  genus  and  species  of,  209  a. 

Sulphur,  genus  and  species  of,  210  a. 

.Sylvan,  genus  and  species  of,  215  c. 

I^ilc,  genus  and  species  of,  207  a  to  c. 

Tin,  genus  and  species  of,  213  c. 

Uran,  genus  and  species  of,  215  4. 

Zinc,  genus  and  species  of,   213  c. 

Zircon,  genus  and  species  of,  202  a,  I. 

NAVIGATION. 

Angles  which  every  point  of  the  compass  makes 
\\ith  the  meridian,  table  of,  256  4,  c. 

Chart  (Mercator's),  problems  in  constructing, 
263  a  to  264  a. 

Currents,  observations  respecting,  and  how  to 
make  proper  allowances  for  them,  265  c. 

Journal  at  sea,  the  method  of  keeping  and  cor- 
recting, 266  a  to  267  a. 

Log-book,  form  of,  267  a. 

Log-line  and  Compass,  explanations  and  icstf  uc- 
tions  respecting,  264  4  to  265  c. 

Mcrcator's  sailing,  260  c. 

Middle-latitude  sailing,  259  i. 


Oblique  sailing,  264  t. 
Parallel  sailing,  258  b. 
Plane-sailing,  256  a. 
Traverse.table,  258  a. 

OPTICS. 
Camera  obscura,  principles  and  explanation  of. 

307  a. 
Catoptrics,  297  c  to  300  a. 
Chromatics,  307  i  to  309  c. 
Colours,  doctrine  of,  .307  4  to  309  c. 
Definitions  and  principles,  293  c  to  294  I: 
Dioptrics,  300  a  to  302  c. 
History  of  discoveries,  294  b. 
Inflection  of  light,  311  e  to  312  4. 
Instruments,  optical.  304  c  to  307  4. 
Light,  of  the  nature  of,  296  c;  remarkable  phe- 
nomena of,  explained,  309  c  to  311  c. 
Magic  lantern,  principles  and  explanation  of, 

SU7  a. 
Microscopes,  principles  and  explanation  of,  304  c; 

the  single,  ib.\  the  double  or  compound,  305  «; 

the  solar,  305  4. 
Newton,  his  discoveries,  295  c ;  extract  from  his 

Optics,  303  a. 
Rainbow,  phenomenon  of,  explained,  309  c  to 

310  c. 
Reflection  of  light,  297  c  to  300  a. 
Refraction  of  light,  300  a  to  302  c. 
Telescope,  principles  and  explanation  of,  305  4; 

the  dioptric,  ib. ;  the  reflecting,  306  4 ;  Hers- 

chel's,  307  a. 
Vision,  nature  and  phenomena  of,  302  c  to  304  c. 

ORES. 

Analysis  of  ores,  314  a  :— of  Antimony,  316 i  : 
— of  Arsenic,   316  c: — of   Bismuth,  ib.: — of 

Chromium,  317c: of  Cobalt,   317a: of 

Copper,  315  a: — of  Gold,  314  a: — of  Iron, 
315  4 ; — of  Lead,  3 1 5  c :  — of  Manganese,  317a: 
— of  Mercury, 315  ai^if  Molybdenum,  317 4: 
—of  Nickel,  316  4:— of  Platinum,  314  a:— of 
Silver,  314  4  :— of  Tellurium,  316  c  : — of  Tin, 
315c: — of  Titanium,  317  4: — of  Tungsten,  i4.: 
—of  Uranium,  /4. :— of  Zinc,  316  4. 

Orders  of  ores,  313  c. 

PAINTING. 

Back-grounds,  instructions  for  painting,  336 #. 

Chiaro-scuro,  328  4. 

Classes,  different,  of  painting,  329  c. 

Colouring,  in  what  it  consists,  327  a  ;  instruC" 
tions  respecting,  327  c. 

Composition,  in  what  it  consists,  327  a ;  instruc« 
tions  respecting,  328  c. 

Distemper,  method  of  painting  in,  331  c. 

Draperies,  instructions  for  painting,  333  c  ;— 
white  satin,  334  a  ;  blue  satin,  4  ;  velvet,  c ; 
colours,  scarlet  and  crimson,  335  a  ,  pink,  ib.; 
yellow,  4  ;  green,  ib. ;  changeable  colours,  i4.; 
black,  c,  linen,  ib. 

Elydoric  painting,  342  a. 

Flesh,  instructions  for  painting,  332  a  ;  colours 
from  which  the  tints  are  made,  ib. ;  principal 
tints,  4  ;  process,  c  : — first  stage,  or  dead-co- 
louring, ib. : — second-painting,  or  second  stage, 
333  4  , — third-painting,  or  finishing,  c. 

Fresco,  method  of  painting  in,  330  r,  331  a. 

History  of  painting,  :142  c;  rise,  progress,  and 
decline,  of  the  art  among  the  ancients,  ;4. ; 
Roman  art,  343  c  ;  methods  of  painting,  and 
colours,  employed  by  the  ancients,  :i44  a;  rise 
and  progress  of  the  art  among  the  moderns, 
345  a; — in  Italy,  ib.;  at  Venice,  c  ;  in  Loni- 
bardy,  ib.\  in  Germany,  346  4;  in  Hullajid 
and  Flanders,  c  ;  in  France,  347  a;  iji  Spain, 
4  ;  in  Russi.a,  America,  and  England,  ib, ;  Eng- 
lish school,  348  a. 

Invention,  in  what  it  consists,  327  a  ;  requisites 
in,  329  a. 

Landscapes,  instructions  for  painting,  336  c ; 
the  process,  ib.  — first-painting,  or  dead-co- 
louring, ib.  ; — the  sky,  337  a  ; — second- paint- 
ing, i4.; — third  and  last  painting,  c. 

Minuture,   337  c ;   colours  used  in,  aud  llic^' 


qualities,  ^S8  « ;  griiullnp  tlic  colours,  and 
preparing  llieni  for  tho  pallet,  <■;  liair-pcn- 
cils;  maimer  of  choo^inj;  tliem,  &c,  'M'J  "  ; 
ivory;  method  of  clioosing,  lileaching,  and 
preparing;,  i  ;  mixing  compound  lints  for  the 
face,  c\  colours  proper  for  men's  tlraperics, 
niO  a  ;  painting  the  face,  i  ;  general  observa- 
tions, f. 

Modes  and  materials  of  painting,  330  c. 

Mosaic,  3-11  n  ;  in  marble  and  precious  stones,  i ; 
process  of  mosaic  paintinj,,  /i. ;  manner  of 
performing  mosaic  work  of  gypsum,  c. 

Oil-painting,  331  c. 

Portraiture,  3i.'y  <r  to  330  i. 

Study,  reijuisite  course  and  methods  of,  327  I, 

PHARMACY. 

Alcohol,  preparation  of,  400  i. 

Analysis  of  medicinal  articles,  392  ^» 

Antimony.  See  Opium. 

Cataplasms,  409  a. 

Cerates,  407  6. 

Conserves,  394  c. 

Decoctions,  39G  <7. 

Distilled  waters,  .399  c ;  spirits,  400  a. 

Doses  of  medicine,  table  of  gradations  in,  409  i. 

Drying  of  herbs  and  flowers,  394  6. 

Electuaries,  iOfii. 

Emidsions,  39j  i. 

Extracts,  399  li. 

Infusions,  39,5  S. 

Juices,  395  a. 

l^iniments,  407  i. 

Oils,  fixed,  395  i;  volatilf,  Or  essential,  400^. 

Oily  preparations,  400  c. 

Ointments  407  0. 

Operations,  pharmaceutical,  .'591  a  to  392  a. 

Opium,  antimony,  and  ipiicksilver  ;  table  shew- 
ing the  quantity  of  each  of  these  articles,  in 
the  different  compound  medicines  of  the  Edin- 
burgh ai.d  l.ondon  Pharmacopoeias,  409  a. 

Pills,  406'  c. 

Plasters,  408  i. 

Powders,  40j  c. 

Preparations  and  compositions  of  medicines, 
394  a. 

Quicksilver.    See  Opium. 

Sails,  and  saline  preparations,  400  c. 

Simple  medicines,  preparation  of  some,  394  a,  i. 

Svrups,  3S!G  (-. 

Tinctures,  397  .-. 

Troches,  or  lozenges,  407  a. 

Vinegars,  397  c. 

Wines,  397  6. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

Absorption  considered,  425  a. 

Ages,  temperaments,  varieties  in  the  human  spe- 
cies, &c.  considered,  430  f. 

Arteries,  of  the  action  of,  426  a. 

Blood  (the),  considered,  426  c 

Circnlation  (the),  considered,  425  c ;  demon- 
strated, 426  c. 

Digestion  considered,  425  a. 

Dreaming  considered,  429  a. 

Functions  of  life,  plan  of  a  new  classification  of, 
424. 

Generation,  function  of,  considered,  429  c. 

Habit,  of  the  power  and  influence  of,  429  a. 

Heart,  of  the  action  of,  425  c. 

Hermaphrodlsm,  430  a. 

Indivisibility  the  essential  character  of  a  living 
organized  body,  421  a. 

Nerves,  of  the  action  of,  428  c. 

Nutrition,  function  of,  427  ti. 

Organic,  how  distinguished  from  inorganic  be- 
ing, 421  a,  6. 

Puberty,  state  of,  430  c. 

Secretion,  process  of,  426  e. 

Sensations  considered,  428  a. 

Sensibility,  irritability,  and  the  vital  principle, 
considered,  421  L 

Seies,  the  differences  of,  considered,  429  c. 
Singing,  stammering,  &c.  considered,  429  t. 


INDEX  TO  THE  TREATISES. 

Sleep,  &c.  considered,  428  c. 

.Smell,  the  sense  of,  considered,  428  a. 

Speech,  the  faculty  of,  considered,  429  i. 

Taste    7 

T()uch  C  '''"  ^^"^'"^  °f'  considered,  428  i. 

Veins,  of  the  action  of,  42G  i. 
Virility,  state  of,  431  a. 
Voice  (the),  considered,  429  i. 

PLANT.S,  PHYSIOLOGY  OF. 

Bark,  the,  its  nature  and  functions,  443  a. 

Cuticle,  the,  protecting  the  true  bark,  4-12  f. 

Extractive  principle,  4  19  i. 

riower,  it*  parts,  and  their  functions,  444  a. 

rluids  of  plants,  4  15  a. 

Fruit,  the,  described,  414  i. 

Functions  of  plants,  446'  ,i.' 

Leaves,  tlulr  functions,  441a. 

Light,  sensibility  of  plants  to,  447  a. 

Parts  of  vegetables,  distinct  iu  their  nature  and 

functions,  442  c. 
Pith,   the,  considered,  443  e. 
Root,  its  functions,  443  c. 
Seed,  considered,  444  i. 
Sexual  system  considered,  4  17  i. 
Stem  or  trunk,  its  parts  and   their   functions, 

442^. 
Vegetable  substances,  449  a. 
Water  the  principal  nourishment  of  vegetables, 

448  a. 
Wood,  the,  its  nature  and  functions,  443  a. 

PNEUMATICS. 

Air,  particulars  in  which  it  differs  from  all  other 
fluids,  455  c. 

Air-gun  described,  and  its  principle  explained, 
460  i. 

Air-pump,  description  of,  456  a  ;  attentions  ne- 
cessary in  making  experiments  with,  459  c, 
4C0a;  American,  described,  4G0  c,  4G1  c  ;  re- 
marks on  the  respective  merits  and  imperfec- 
tions of  these  instruments,  462  a,  i. 

Elasticity  of  air,  457  a. 

Miscellaneous  experiments,  457  c. 

Pressure  of  tlie  air  upon  the  body  of  a  middle- 
sized  man,  457  //. 

Prince,  Mr.,  his  air-pump  described,  4GJ  c. 

Rarity  of  the  air  at  <liirerent  heights  above  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  457  6. 

Suction,  the  idea  of,  disproved,  456  f. 

Vacuum,  the  Torricellian,  4.56  c. 

Weight  of  air  demonstrated,  456  a. 

POETRY. 
Ancient  poetry  considered,  4G3  i. 
Arabian  poetry,  character  of,  463  t. 
Blank  verse  considered,  4t-Ui  i. 
Classical  poetry  considered,  464  a. 
Classification,  poetical,  467  b. 
Comedy,  origin  oi^  464  c. 
Definiti<»n  of  poctrv,  463  a. 
Di'scription,  poetical,  470  6  to  471  a. 
Didactic  poetr)',  468  t. 
Dramatic  poetry,  469  a- 
Elegiac  poetry,  467  c. 
English  versification  considered,  465  h. 
Epic  poetry,  468  c. 

Grecian  poetry  considered,  464  a  to  f. 
Hebrew  poetry,  character  of  463  byc. 
Homer,  character  of  his  poetry,  464  b. 
Imagery,  a  prose  passage  rich  in,  463  b. 
Lyric  poetry,  468  a. 
Metre  of  poetry,  evidently  borrowed  from  the 

simple  melodies  of  music,  463  a. 
Metrical  harmony, and  poetical  emotion,  469  c. 
Modern  jjoetry,  origin  of,  465  a. 
Ode,  construction  of,  46  1  b. 
Pastoral  poetry,  467  b. 
Reman  poetry  considered,  4G4  ,',  465  a, 
Satirical  poetry,  468  b. 
Song  considered,  468  a. 
Tr.igedy,  origin  of,  464  e* 
Troubadours,  465  a. 


927 

RHETORIC. 
Amplification  considered,  579  b. 
Antithesis,  .WI  a. 
Apostrophe,  581  a. 
Arguments,  disposal  of,  579  a. 
Arrangement  or  order,  the  most  important  point 

in  every  composition,  577  c ;  execution  of  this, 

578  b. 
Beauty  of  style,  582  a. 
Climax,  580  c. 

Definition  of  rhetoric,  577  e. 
Digression  considered,  579  a. 
Harmony  of  style,  5H\  c. 
Hii.tory,   method  of  writing,  578  i;    its  effect, 

57y  b  ;   civil  history,  583  a. 
Hyperbole,  580  c. 
Inversion,  581  a. 
Irony,  5H0  c. 
Metaphor,  580  b,  582  a. 
Metonymy,  580  b. 
Perspicuity  of  style,  580  a. 
Prosopopeia,  581  b. 
Purity  of  style,  579  c. 
Style,  579  c  j    the  various  kinds   of,   specified, 

5S2  b. 
Sublimity  of  style,  581  c. 
Transitions  considered,  579  b. 
Unity  of  design  and  action  considered,  578  a. 
Vigour  or  energy  of  style,  580  b. 

SCULFfURE. 
Ancient  art  of  sculpture,  G33  b. 
Definition  of  sculpture,  630  >. 
English  sculpture,  640  a,  i. 
French  sculpture,  639  c. 
Grecian  sculpture,  635  a  ;   causes  of  its  erceU 

lence,  G36  a ;  its  cliaracter,  636  b ;  its  decline, 

637  b. 
History  of  sculpture,  633  b. 
Italian  sculpture,  modern,  6.89  a  to  c. 
Model,  use  of  the,  6.32  b. 
A'lodern  art  of  sculpture,  638  c. 
Modes  of  process,  different,  in  sculpture,  631  f. 
Oriental  sculpture,  aacient,  633  c  to  634  c. 
Powers  of  sculpture,  631  a. 
Roman  sculpture,  ancient,  638  a  to  f. 
Stone  and  marble,  sculpture  in,  632  c. 
Study,  methods  of,  6S1  a. 
Wood,  sculpture  in,  632  b. 

SHlP-BUILDlNG. 
Construction,  of  ships,  660  i. 
Dimensions  considered,  65S  b,  c. 
Guns,  to  make  a  ship  carry  hers  well  out  of  the 

water,  658  b. 
Masts,  661  b. 
Pitching  hard,   to   make    a   ship   go  smoothly 

through  the  water  without,  658  b. 
Plane,  art  of  delineating  ships  on,  656  c. 
Plane  of  elevation  of  a  sixty-gun  ship  described, 

659  a ;  plane  of  projection,  659  b ;  horizontal 

plane,  659  c. 
Sail,  to  make  a  ship  carry  a  good' one,  658  b. 
Steer,  to  make  a  ship,  well,  658  b. 
Stowing  and  trimming  of  ships,  importance  of  " 

doing  this  iudiciouJy,  661  a. 
Wind,  to  make  a  ship  keep  a  good  one,  658  b, 

SURGERY. 
Abdomen,  wounds  in,  738  c. 
Amputation  considered,  734  Cy.  735  a,  742  T>. 
Aneurisms,  739  a;  diagnostic  marks  of,  i ;  causes, 

ibH. ;  treatment,  c. 
Arteriotomy,  748  a. 
Belly,  wounds  of,  734  a  to  c. 
Blood-letting,  7-17  c ;  topical  bleeding,  748  a. 
B«nes,  diseases  of,  747  b,  c. 
Breast  and  lungs,  wounds  of,  734  a. 
Bronchotomy,  750  a. 
Cancer  considered,  746  a  ;  its  causes  and  pecu»  - 

liarities,  >/-.  ;  treatment,  ib. ;  operation,  ib. 
Chest,  wounds  m  the  cavity  of,  738  b. 
Contused  and  lacerated  \YOunds,  736  a, 
Corus,  747  b. 


92« 

Deafncsi,  750  it. 

Eyes,  diseases  of,  74f«  l;  cataract,  r;  cf  condi- 
in"-,  il>iJ\  operation  of  eitracting  the  lens, 
71'.i  <i ;  fistnl^  lachrymali'i,  t. 
Fistula  in  pcrina:Oj  "53  a  ;  in  ano,  ib. 
Fractures  considered,  140  a  ;  of  the  upper  ex- 
tremities, 7-1 1  a ;  of  tiie  clavicle,  ribs,  sternum, 
and  spine, /i. ;  compound  fractures,  ^. 

Gnn-shot  wounds  c(jnsideredv  7^'i  ii  to  737  L 

Head,  wounds  or  injuries  of,  7^3  a. 

Hcrni.x,  750  b  ,  operations  tor  inguinal  or  scro- 
tal, 7j1  a. 

History  of  surgery,  733  t,  c. 

Kvdrocele,  &c.  751  a  to  c, 

incontinence  of  urine,  752  .-. 

Indolent  tumour  coiisidcred,  7-17  a^ 

Inllammation,  its  characters  and  varieties,  74-1  c 
to  745  c. 

Issues,  748  b. 

ttch,  747  a  \  treatment  of,  il. 

Lumbar  or  psoas  abscess,  its  symptoms,  745  c  ; 
causes  and  seat,  ib  ;  treatnaenr,  74fi  'u 

Luxations,  741  i;  of  the  upper  extremities,  r; 
of  the  OS  humeri,  ih. ;  of  the  inferior  extremi- 
ties, 742  a  ;  of  the  spine,  coccyx,  ribs,  and  cla- 
vicle, /' ;  of  the  bones  of  die  head  and  face,  ib. 

Marks  on  infants,  747  b. 

Paracentesis  of  the  thorax,  750  b  \  of  the  abdo- 
men, ik. 

plates,  explanation  of,  753  b. 

Polypi,  747  /'. 

Ranula,  750  <;. 

Ring-worm,  746  f  ;  treatment,  747 ir. 

Scald  head,  747  a  ;  treatment,  ib. 

Stone  in  the  bladder,  751  c:,  operation  for  £)c- 
tracting,  75'J  a  to  c. 

Tubular  or  penetrating  wounds,  737  b. 

Teeth,  diseases  of,  749  <r;  extraction  of,  ib. 

Tonsils  and  uvula,  enlarged,  750  n. 

Trepanning  considered,  743  b  ;  the  ©peratiou, 
I  744  b.  , 

Ulcer  considered,  745  a. 

Venereal  aflection,  746  b  ;  syniptoms  of  gonor- 
rhoea, ih.;  treatment,  ib.;  symptoms  of  sy- 
philis, t;  treatment,  ii. 

Venesection,  747  c. 

Warts,  747 /•. 

White  swelling  considered,  745  c;  its  sy^nptoms 
ib. ;  causes,  ih.  :  treatment,  ib. 

Wousds,  their  kind  and  degree,  733  c ;  treat- 


WDr.X  TO  TI!R  TRF.ATISF.S. 

tnent  cf,  7;!1  c  to  "M  /■  \  nicdlcul  rhniiagcmcnt 
of  paiiciUs  under,  737  « to  733  b. 
Wry  neck,  750  b. 

SURVEXINO. 

Chain,  use  and  application  of  the,  755«  to  757 i. 

Circle,  to  find  the  area  of,  754  cj  circular  ring, 
755  a  \  segment  of  a  circle,  or  other  curvili- 
near figure,  ib, 

Fllipse,  to  find  the  area  of,  735  a. 

Parallelogram,  rectangled ;  to  find  the  area  of, 

754  b.         "•; 

Plane  table,  u^e  and  tipplication  of,  757^. 
Plottir.g,  directions  for,  and  example,  75?!  c. 
pohiron  reg:^:iar  ;  to  find  the  area  of,  754  c. 
Rhombus,  or  fhomboTd ;   to  find  the  area  of, 

754  i.  '.  ■       ' 

Square,  to  find  the  area  of,  754  b.  ' 
Tlieodolite,  use  and  applicatic-n  of,  7'>7  c. 
Trapezium,  and  trapezoid,  to  find  the  area  of, 

754  <:. 
Triangle,  to  find  the  area  of,  754  4. 


TRIGONOMETRY. 
Definitions  in  plane  trigonometry,  S21  a. 
Plane  trigonometry,  8-1  a  •  cases  in,  c  to  823  b. 
Properties  of  plane  triangles,  S'Jl  c. 
SpI.erical  trigonometry,  S'J3  b  ;  theorems  in,  ib\d,_ 

and  f  ;  propositions  and  remarks  concernino; 

spherical  triangles,  c    to  llnd  the  area  of  a 

spherical  polygon,  824  c. 

WAR. 

Art  of  war,  S77  c. 

Breaking  the  enemy's   line,  in  naval  combats, 

first  introduced    by  admiral  Rodney,  879  /',  c; 

this  manoeuvre  absolutely  essential,  for  pro- 
ducing any  decisive  result,  880  a. 
Britons,  ancient ;  state  of  naval  warfare  among, 

87,S  b. 
Echellon,  the  figure  of,  adopted  by  Epaminon- 

das  at  Leuctra,  S81  a. 
Engines  used  in  ancient  naval  combats,  S;S  a. 
General,  talents  and  attainments  necessary  to, 

SSOi,  881  ,j. 
Gunpowder;  entire  change  which  its  invention 

iutrodjccd   into  naval   warfare,  879  a  ;  intt> 

military  tactics,  881  b. 
Line  of  battle,  ancient  naval,  878  b. 
Military  tactics  of  the  ancients,  SS9  /■ ;  in  the 

middle  .ages,  381  a  ;  of  modern  times,  b. 


Nature,  dMcitablc  of  war,  87T  e, 

tiaval  warfare,  878  a. 

Navy,  British;  earliest   state,  and  progretl  oft 

.  ;-i78  b  to  87;;  b.    ' 

Principles,  general,  in  modern  wjirfare,  882  a. 
■SigiLils  used  in  ancient  naval  combats,  878  b. 

WATER. 

.\cicl9,  kinds  and  proportions  of,  contained  iit 
mineral  waters,  827  a;  method  of  ascertain- 
ing tlie  proportions  of  mineral  acids  uncom- 
bined  in  waters,  891  /■. 
Acidulous  mineral  waters,  composition  of,  888  a, 
Air,  kinds  Mtd  proportions  of,  contained  in  mi- 
neral v.-iteis,  887  a ;  methods  of  detecting  the 
proportions  of  aerial  fluids  in  water,  891  a. 
Alkali  contained  i:i  mineral  waters,  887  u;.  me- 
thod of  .ascertaining  the  proportion  of  alka- 
line carbonat  present  in  waters,  891  c. 

Bath  water,  analysis  of,  888  a. 
Chiilybeate  waters,  composition  of,  888  a. 

Common  water,  its  properties  and  kinds,  88G  a. 

Earths  contained  in  mineral  water--,  887  a ;  me- 
thods of  detecting  tlie  proportions  of  earthy 
carbonats  in  water,  891  b. 

Fluidity  not  the  most  simple  state  of  water, 
886  a. 

Hepitic,  or  sulphureous  waters,  composition  of, 
868  b. 

Lake-water,  nature  of,  886  c. 

iMarsh-v/ater,  iiaiure  of,  886  c. 

Mineral  v/aters,  8^6  c,  887  c  ;  table  of  the  com- 
ponent parts  (•!  many  mineral  waters,  888  ; 
method  of  analysing  them,  8S8  a ;  methods  of 
detecting  their  prc£ence  in  waters,  890  u  ;  of 
ascertaining  their  proportions,  892  a. 

Nitrats,  methods  of  detecting  their  presence  in 
waters,  890  b  j  of  ascertaining  their  propor- 
tions, 892  b. 

Rain-water,  nature  of,  886  4. 

River-water,  nature  of,  886  b. 

Saline  waters,  composition  of,  888  b. 

Salts  contained  in  mineral  waters,  887  a. 

.Spring- water,  nature  of,  88^  b. 

Substances  occurring  in  mineral  waters,  meant 
of  detecting  them  all,  8S8  c  to  889  <:. 

Sulphats,  methods  of  detecting  their  presence  in 
waters,  889  c;  of  ascertaining  their  propor- 
tions, 89J  £. 

Well-wstcr;  nat»rc  of,  886  c. 


FINIS. 


T.  GiUet,  Primer,  Wild-court,  LIhcoIh's-Iiui  HiclUt. 


LIST 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


The  Binder  is  requested  to  jdacc  the  Plates  in  the folhxviug  order: — 


PLATE 

Lxxir. 

LXXUl. 

LXX1\. 

I.XXV. 

T.XXVI. 

LXXVII. 

LXXMII. 

LXXIX. 

LXXX. 

LXXXI.— [1. 

LXXXKl. 

LXXMV. 

LXXXV. 

Lxxxvi— vir. 

I.XXXVIlf. 

LXXXIX.— xc. 

XCI. 

XCII. 

XCIII. 

XCIV. 

xcv. 

XCVI. 
XOIl. 

xcviir. 

XCIX. 

c; 

CI. 

en. 
cm. 

CIV. 

cv. 


TO 

FACE 

PLATE 

Miscellanies  (Fig.  111—137) 

Page 

UQ 

CVI. 

Iiisliiimcnts,  Mutlu'niatical 

US 

evil. 

Nat   Hist.  (Fig.  227—237) 

44 

CNlll. 

Lamp  and  Latiie    

5'i 

CIX. 

Level                       

64 

ex. 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fi(T.  233—251) 

CO 

CXI. 

Mi^ce■l.  (Fig.  138— 1 .55) 

82 

CXII. 

Lock  and  Loom    



88 

CXIII. 

Magnetism              

OS 

CXIV. 

Ma])s  .                   

.  . . 

I(i4 

C  XV. 

Mechanics              

lys 

CXVI. 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fig.  232—264) 

158 

CXVH. 

Meteorology           

17S 

cx\in. 

iMidwilery                

Mill-work               

ISS 

ex  IX. 

196 

CXX. 

Mineralogy             

216 

CXXI. 

Nat.  Hist. '(Fig.  265—278) 

234 

CXXH. 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fig.  279— 291) 

ii-iH 

CXXIII. 

266 

CXX  IV. 

Miscel.  (Fig.  156—177) 

270 

exxv. 

284 

CXXVI. 

Optics  (Plate  L)     

3l)2 

CXXVII.— IX. 

Optics  (Plate  II.) 

.306 

exxx— I 

Optics  (Plate  HI.) 

312 

ex  XX 11. 

Organ                      

318 

CXXXIII. 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fia.  293-304) 

320 

CXXXIV. 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fig. 305— 315) 

' 

354 

CXX  XV. 

Paper-MiU              

356 

CXXXVI. 

Pedometer ■ 

376 

CXXXVII. 

Pers))ective  ■        •   

3S2 

CXXXVIU. 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fig.  316—329) 

390 

TO 

FACE 

Na(.  Hi4.  (Fig.  330—341) 

Page 

438 

Perambulator,  &c. 

440 

442 

Pneumatics                     ' 

460 

Pneumatics            

462 

Presses                    — — 

496 

Miscel.  (Fig.  179—195) 

49K 

Projectiles,  &c.      

506 

Pump      — '■ — 

524 

(Jnadrants               — — 

538 

Hille,  &c.                

602 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fig.  342—354) 

626 

Ships                        

656 

Ships                        

660 

Siiipbiiilding           

662 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fig.  355— 366) 

674 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fig.  367—373) 

704 

Statuary                   

710 

Stenography           

714 

Saw  and  Sugar-mill 

7JS 

Miscel.  (lig.  196—225) 

728 

Surgery                   

754 

Surveying                

758 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fig.  379^384) 

760 

M'atch-woi-k           

7S4 

Windmill                

820 

Miscel.  (Fig.  226—253) 

828 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fig.  385  -396) 

886 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fig.  397—407) 

910 

Nat.  Hist.  (Fig.  408—421) 

921- 

E  n  n  A  T  A. 

Vol..  I.  Page    15,  col.  2,  under  Action,  line  28  from  the  top, /or  against  )Y'tt(Z  by. 
19,  col.  3,  under  Adoxia,Joc  Adoxia  raid  Ado.xa. 
23,  col.  3,  under  Ather,  Hue  3  from  the  bottom, /or  rarefied  rtnd  rectified. 

47,  col.  3,  under  Alehouses,  line  S  from  tlie  top, _;or  40f.  read  20/.  and  dele  the  rest  of  the  sentcnr?^. 

48,  col.  1,  under  Alexandrian  MS.  line  23  from  the  head  of  the  ailicle,Jor  Dr.  Warde  read  Dr.  Woide.. 

Vol.  n.  Page    87,  coU  2,_  under  Lord's  Dav,  line  14  from  the  head  of  the  article. ybr  20/.  rrad  20j. 
225,  col.  3,  under  Mortmain,  line  2  trom  the  bottom,  for  debt  read  death. 
243,  col.  3,  Milder  Musk,  lines  9  and  10  from  the  top,yor  into  a  kind  read  in  a  gland. 
255,  col.  3,  under  Natural  Phdosoph),  hue  7  from  the  head  of  the  article,^or  compounded  rcnJ  confounded. 

Ditto,  ^        ditto,  line  2  from  the  bottom  of  ditto,      Jor  a-iononiy  rcui/ astronomy. 

2S0,  col   2,  under  Nvinpha-,  third  article  in  the  column, _/<)r  Nymphx  read  N\mphaa. 
827,  line  1,  (/c/c  See  Plate  H.  has.  1  and  2. 
Ditto,  line  19  from  bottom,  rf./,' Plate  II.  ligs.  1  and  2.  ^ 


\*L.  II. 


6  B 


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ANIMAL  BIOGRAPHY,  on,  ANECDOTES  and  CURIOUS 
FACTS,  relative  to  the  Manners,  Habits,  and  Economy,  of  the  WHOLE 
ANIMAL  CREATION,  collected  from  works  of  Authority  in  »H 
Languages,  from  expensive  bosks  of  Natural  History,  from  Voyages 
and  Travtlo,  and  fnmi  every  authentic  Source.  The  whole  classed  and 
arranged  according  to  the  .system  of  Linnxus.  A  new  Edition,  consi- 
derably extended  and  improved,  in  Three  large  Volumes,  8vo.,  price 
II.  10s.  in  boards. 

.By  the  Rev.  W.  BINGLEY, 
Fellow  of  the  Linnatan  Society,  and  late  of  St.  Peter's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


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